bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Feminist Criminology
Authors: van Gundy Alana
Published: August 2019

Feminist criminology is a form of critical criminology that has been expanding the power of traditional criminological theory and its application to females since the 1970s. The field of criminology has been advanced by feminist criminologists and their call to include components of gender or the intersectionality of gender and race within the framework of traditional criminological theory. These components argue for the importance of considering the status, experiences, and social positioning of females and have resulted in four primary viewpoints of feminist criminology: liberal feminist theory, Marxist, radical, and socialist theory, postmodernist theory, and intersectionality theory. Inclusion of the gender‐specific components that have emerged from having gender at the center of criminological inquiry have evinced the need for gender‐specific treatment, prison experiences, and programming.
Fergusonv.City of Charleston
Authors: Hemmens Craig
Published: August 2019

This case limits the ability of police officers and doctors to conduct warrantless, nonconsensual searches of pregnant women on the grounds that such searches violate the Fourth Amendment right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures.
Media Portrayals of Women in Criminal Justice
Authors: Rodenhizer Kara Anne E. , MacPherson Ashley R.
Published: August 2019

The popularity of crime‐based television and film reflects the public's interest in crime and criminal justice processes. However, research has documented that fictional media often has real‐world implications, including shaping viewers' attitudes and perceptions of the role of women in crime and criminal justice processes. There has been a growing recognition among scholars that fictional portrayals of women as victims, offenders, and professionals in the criminal justice system tend to be inaccurate, exaggerated, and stereotypical in nature. Female victims are depicted with character flaws, encouraging the audience to blame them for their experiences of victimization; while female offenders' proclivity for violence is often exaggerated and motivated by female desires. Even in the role of a criminal justice professional, women are characterized by traditionally feminine traits (e.g., nurturing, flirtatious) and are often viewed as less competent than their male counterparts.
Fitzgerald
v.
Barnstable School Committee
Authors: Cintron Myrna
Published: August 2019

This case involved claims of peer‐on‐peer harassment. The parents of a minor girl claimed that the school's governing body violated Title IX, the Equal Protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and state law. Two of these claims are sustained at the state court level. The US Supreme Court reviewed the Title IX claim and ruled that students can file claims alleging sexual harassment under both Title IX and equal protection claims under Section 1983.
Forced Migration
Authors: Kakar Suman
Published: August 2019

Forced migration refers to the movement of people from their home region to another (within or outside of their home country) in situations where there exists an element of force or coercion. These elements of force or coercion may include threats to people's lives and livelihoods emanating from natural or human‐made causes. People may be forced to leave their homes in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights, or natural and human‐made disasters. Generally, forced migration is the movement of people from their home region to another region that is perceived to be safer.
Gender and Hate Crimes
Authors: Kakar Suman
Published: August 2019

The ubiquitous nature of violence concomitant with a disproportionate number of physical and sexual offenses committed against females indicate that
gender
is a “risk factor.” The majority of the crimes are committed against females just because they are females. When crimes committed against individuals and property are motivated by no other reason other than their gender – then those crimes fall under the category of hate crimes.
Gender Disparity in Sentencing
Authors: Carmichael Jason T. , Pereira Colby
Published: August 2019

A vast amount of scholarly literature has assessed the possibility that criminal sanctions administered in the United States are not simply a function of legal factors such as the severity of the offense or prior criminal involvement. Much of this scholarship has attempted to ascertain the extent to which extralegal factors such as ethnicity, class background, or gender influence the sentencing of criminal offenders. While some inconsistencies in the findings remain and methodological deficiencies plague some of the studies in this area, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that the US criminal justice system considers legally irrelevant factors when determining the severity of criminal sanctions. In particular, gender differences have been widely reported. Studies examining criminal sentencing outcomes routinely report that women are treated less severely then men convicted of similar crimes. While many scholars explain such gender bias in criminal sentencing as evidence of patriarchy within the justice system, others suggest the bias may be attributable to family responsibilities rather than gender.
Gendered Pathways into Crime
Authors: Campie Patricia , Penkoff Cathleen
Published: August 2019

Gendered pathways into crime involve consideration of the ways in which females become involved in offending behaviors, risk factors for involvement, and how systems have responded to provide more effective services and supports for justice involved women and girls. Chronic, or persistent, involvement in crime among women and girls has been described according to typologies of risk from long‐term exposure to extreme child maltreatment or neglect, sexual victimization, drug use, and economic marginalization; whereas, limited or short‐term involvement in crime may spring from experiencing more isolated exposure to risk arising from homelessness, domestic violence, or antisocial peer relationships. Preventing justice involvement requires a better understanding of ways to identify and measure these gendered pathways early on and providing secondary prevention responses after justice contact occurs, in order to provide evidence‐based treatment and supports to prevent future offending.
Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting
Authors: Berg Rigmor C.
Published: August 2019

Despite considerable variation in extent of genital tissue removed, instruments used, age at which it is performed, and terminology of the practice, all forms of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) involve removal or other injury of the external female genitalia for cultural or other nontherapeutic reasons. FGM/C is primarily practiced on young girls on the African continent, despite widespread legislation and global campaigns to stop the practice. The main propositions are that the practice violates human rights principles and has important health impacts for the girls and women affected. The health consequences range from immediate pain, bleeding, and urine retention to recurring urinary tract infections, bacterial vaginosis, complications during delivery, and attenuation of sexual functioning. A corresponding need for management and reparatory interventions for FGM/C exists. This demand has prompted specialization units for women with FGM/C.
Genovese, Kitty, and Bystander Laws
Authors: Roth Kelly Sue
Published: August 2019

This entry discusses the 1964 sexual assault and murder of Catherine “Kitty” Genovese. Early media reports indicate 39 individuals witnessed the attack of Kitty and did not assist. These early reports were found to be inaccurate. Despite this, several positive innovations resulted from the case, including the creation of a 911 emergency system, bystander laws, Good Samaritan laws, and Neighborhood Watch organizations.
Girls and Gangs
Authors: Piper Doshie , Guerrero Georgen
Published: August 2019

Estimates of the extent of female participation in gangs vary depending on the research focus and goal and population sizes of the respective areas being studied. The age of female gang members ranges from 13 to 30 years old. On average, girl gang members are between 15 and 18 years old. They tend to come from impoverished backgrounds and dysfunctional families and have a history of physical and sexual abuse. Dropping out of school, low academic achievement, and involvement in drugs and alcohol are also typical of girls who join gangs.
Girls and Prostitution
Authors: Anderson Valerie R. , Feeney Hannah
Published: August 2019

The sexual exploitation of child and adolescent girls via prostitution is common practice across the United States. The sociohistorical context, prevalence, pathways, and impact of the prostitution of girls are reviewed. A summary of the recent paradigm shift from prosecuting prostituted girls as delinquents to protecting girls as victims of domestic minor sex trafficking is included. Current research efforts and directions for future research are also discussed.
Girls in theJuvenileJustice System
Authors: Peck Jennifer H.
Published: August 2019

Descriptive and empirical research surrounding the presence of girls in the juvenile justice system has found that, in general, females compared to males are underrepresented in the juvenile court and juvenile correctional settings compared to their representation in the general US population. Gender disparities in the treatment of girls have been evident throughout the literature concerning arrest decisions and various stages of the juvenile justice system (e.g., intake, pre‐adjudication detention, adjudication, and judicial disposition). The availability of treatment, service needs, and overall resources focus more on mental health and emotional issues for female juvenile offenders, while males are more likely to receive vocational and skills training.
Gypsies and Travelers
Authors: Foley Anne
Published: August 2019

Gypsies and Travelers are often portrayed in negative terms within public discourse, where they are perceived as “lawless” transgressors of society values. Yet, Gypsy and Traveler communities adhere to strict moral codes, with women playing an important role in the maintenance of these. Importantly, while the full extent of the problem is unknown, women are vulnerable to high levels of victimization by people outside their community. However, as a consequence of the difficult relationship between Gypsies and Travelers and the police such incidents more often than not remain unreported, which means justice is not served, which in turn compounds the vulnerability of this already socially excluded community.
Halfway Homes and Female Offenders
Authors: Cournoyer Erin L.
Published: August 2019

Halfway homes for female offenders are transitional facilities in the community that function as a “halfway out” or “halfway into” the correctional system. Halfway homes for female offenders emerged in the 1860s through private nonprofit and religiously oriented volunteer organizations. Halfway homes vary in the populations they serve, agencies that administer them, size, goals, and types of programming provided. Contemporary halfway homes for women seek to address the unique needs of justice‐involved women, often through the development of gender‐responsive or gender‐specific programming.
Hate Crimes against theLGBTQCommunity
Authors: Gerstenfeld Phyllis B.
Published: August 2019

Hate crimes are criminal acts motivated by the victim's perceived group affiliation. Most US states and many countries have enacted hate‐crime laws within the past few decades, but these laws often do not include offenses committed against members of the LGBTQ community, even though members of this community are disproportionately likely to suffer from threats and violence. Furthermore, hate crimes against LGBTQ people are rarely reported and even more rarely result in convictions. But victims of these crimes may suffer more ill effects than victims of other crimes, and victimization may contribute to psychological harms.
Hiring and Retention of Female Police Officers
Authors: Russo Charles W.
Published: August 2019

Many agencies today are finding it increasingly difficult to attract, hire, and retain law enforcement officers. In response to this difficulty, agencies across the United States are changing how the profession is marketed to potential applicants. Agencies are actively seeking qualified applicants to fill the rosters by taking proactive steps to make law enforcement more appealing than it has been to women.
History of Rape
Authors: Doude Sara Buck
Published: August 2019

This entry addresses the history of rape from the beginnings of legal code to the second wave of the feminist movement. The evolution of rape has changed considerably over time. Women have gone from being property or chattels to having autonomy. This legal evolution of perceptions of women had a dramatic impact on rape law.
Homophobia
Authors: Morris Max
Published: August 2019

The mistreatment of sexual minorities has been a feature of criminal justice systems around the world throughout the twentieth century. The culturally produced hatred of homosexuals, known as homophobia, was used to discriminate against not only lesbian, gay, and bisexual people, but gender nonconforming heterosexuals as well. In the United States, this discrimination was often justified by media representations and research literature made available to prison administrators, which framed same‐sex relationships as pathological, immoral, and damaging to the institutional order. Early gay liberation movements sought to challenge such homophobic attitudes in solidarity with prisoners up until the HIV/AIDS epidemic of the 1980s. Intersectional scholarship has also drawn attention to the problems experienced by transgender women and women of color in the prison system and how this continues to be reinforced by homophobia.
Honor Killings
Authors: Stenger Madeline , Jones Lynn C.
Published: August 2019

Honor killings are homicides committed by perpetrators attempting to restore or defend what they perceive to be “damaged” family honor. The UN Population Fund estimates that 5,000 women are victims of this crime annually. Victim actions perceived by perpetrators as “justifying” honor killings include, but are not limited to, interacting with males outside of the family, reporting incidents of domestic abuse, refusing to enter into a forced marriage, seeking divorce, and participating in premarital sexual activity. Rape victims may even be seen as “causing” their own violence. Honor killings are intricately linked to patriarchal beliefs and assumptions which may be supported by religious or cultural norms. In communities prone to honor‐based violence, limited legal protections and inadequate access to information often render women vulnerable.
Human Trafficking for Sex
Authors: Kosloski Anna E. , Schall Erin
Published: August 2019

The international Palermo Protocol (2000) was adopted and ushered in an international emphasis on understanding the exploitation of individuals through forced labor and commercialized sex. By referencing current scholarly literature, this entry provides an overview of sex trafficking, including its prevalence, the recruitment tactics of perpetrators, and responses to sex trafficking.
Immigration Status and Female Victimization
Authors: Alatorre Francisco J. , Chilton Leslie Ann
Published: August 2019

Mexican undocumented immigrant women in the United States survive in a very hostile environment every day, exposing them to sociopolitical and personal factors that could put them at risk of becoming victims due to their immigration status. This might result in detention, incarceration, deportation, health issues, emotional stress, and traumas. This entry considers some of the challenges facing undocumented immigrant women in the United States, specifically in Arizona. Based on qualitative analysis of real‐life experiences, the entry helps draw a picture of the increasingly complex problems of undocumented immigration, particularly those facing undocumented Hispanic women.
Incest
Authors: Carter J. W.
Published: August 2019

Incest is often considered a universal taboo; however, the manner in which incest is defined and operationalized differs across societies. Despite the presence of the incest taboo, violations of that taboo are not as rare as once thought. Incest can take many different forms and include many different relationship permutations. Many problematic aftereffects are associated with incest, including mental and physical effects. Three forms of incest are discussed herein: father–daughter incest, peer incest, and grandfather–grandchild incest.
Infanticide, Neonaticide, and Gender
Authors: Milne Emma , Brennan Karen
Published: August 2019

Children are most likely to be killed by their parents. Infants aged under one are at particular risk of becoming victims of homicide. Men rarely commit neonaticide, but are more likely to kill older children and often within the context of fatal child abuse. Women's motivations for killing are often within the context of mental illness or altruistic reasons. Women are less likely to be convicted of murder than men and receive noncustodial sentences more readily than fathers who kill their children. It is often argued that women who kill their infants are pathologized, and perceived to be either mad or bad, ignoring the socioeconomic reasons for their acts of filicide. Legal treatment of women who kill infants can be inconsistent and, in some instances, unsympathetic, particularly in jurisdictions that do not have specific infanticide legislation that allows for leniency, such as the United States of America.
Global Perspectives on Backlash Against Women
Authors: Cherukuri Suvarna
Published: August 2019

The contemporary global backlash against women has a dual structure of articulation. There is an over(t)‐articulation of the trend toward gender parity in social, political, and economic life and a simultaneous strengthening of subterranean forces of resistance and hostility against this trend. A proper understanding of the gender backlash should both identify the shortfalls in the over‐articulated parity trends, and also the hidden markers of hostility and resistance to them. Research shows that modern forms of war and conflict have taken an aggravated toll on women, children, and minority groups. The prevalence of intimate partner violence, the resistance to reproductive rights, asymmetries in the gender gap, anti‐women political discourse, and the phenomenon of “gendertrolling” are some other manifestations of the global backlash against women.
Intimate Partner Violence in Rural Communities
Authors: Basham Sherah L.
Published: August 2019

Rural communities present environments and situations specific to their location that may hinder victims of intimate partner violence from seeking or receiving assistance in escaping abusive relationships. Rural areas are often underserved in the prevention of and resources for intimate partner violence. Compared to urban and mixed environments, rural contexts possess unique structural challenges and may require specific divergent policy interventions.
Intimate Partner Violence Prevention Initiatives
Authors: Garase Maria L. , Bair Shannon
Published: August 2019

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious problem that has lasting and harmful effects on individuals, families, and communities. Preventative IPV programs are models and policies created with evidence‐based research to determine the most effective ways to stop domestic violence from occurring or from continuing. The programs range from early intervention strategies targeted at adolescents, to programs for intervening during an ongoing cycle of domestic violence, and to police and first‐responder interventions. Research continues to focus on finding the most effective methods for each stage of potential intervention.
Jégado, Hélène
Authors: Olma Tayte
Published: August 2019

Hélène Jégado was a French domestic servant who is believed to have poisoned and killed over 30 people. From 1833 to 1841 she worked in several homes in nearby towns as a cook where she accessed food to lace with arsenic and poison her victims. Although she always maintained her innocence throughout the years, Jégado was found guilty in 1852 and sentenced to death‐by‐guillotine.
Kagan, Justice Elena
Authors: Urby Heriberto
Published: August 2019

After a pleasant upbringing and happy home life in a middle‐class Jewish family who challenged her to greatness, Justice Elena Kagan tackled the rigors of law school, law practice, university and law school teaching and administration, and, now, her place on the high court – the US Supreme Court – with class, intelligence, and integrity. She is one of the most respected members of her profession, as she earned this distinction through her intellect, great decision making, and steady judicial restraint on most controversial issues of our day. No doubt, Justice Elena Kagan will continue to impact the court and the American nation in profound ways that will make the country and its people feel safer, happier.
Knox, Amanda
Authors: Callahan Kelli
Published: August 2019

This entry provides a background on Amanda Knox, a former American college exchange student living in Italy when in 2007, she and her then boyfriend, Raffaele Sollecito, were arrested for the murder of Knox's flatmate, Meredith Kercher. After a prolonged legal battle, both in the Italian justice system and the international court of public opinion, both individuals were acquitted of the crime. Knox returned to the United States and subsequently became an author and advocate for the wrongfully accused.
Latina/Hispanic Female Offenders
Authors: Lopez Vera
Published: August 2019

This entry applies the gendered pathways to offending perspective to examine issues related to Latina girls' and women's involvement in the juvenile and criminal justice systems. Issues addressed include status offenses, drug use, and immigration. Research, policy, and practice recommendations are provided.
LGBTQ Offenders and Imprisonment
Authors: Nazaretian Zavin
Published: August 2019

LGBTQ offenders are an at‐risk group while they are imprisoned. They suffer from higher levels of victimization, higher levels of mental health problems, and often do not have their LGBTQ‐related medical issues acknowledged. The role of disproportionate contact with the police is also analyzed as a factor leading to overrepresentation of LGBTQ people in correctional settings.
LGBTQ Offenders in Juvenile Justice
Authors: Nazaretian Zavin
Published: August 2019

This entry examines the inequality LGBTQ youth face when dealing with the juvenile justice system. Major issues faced by LGBTQ youth include overrepresentation in the system, above‐average rates of physical and sexual abuse, and above‐average rates of physical and mental health problems. Additionally, issues regarding the protection of LGBTQ youth while in custody are discussed.
LGBTQ, Criminal Offending, and Victimization
Authors: Conover‐Williams Meredith , Teal Janae
Published: August 2019

Members of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) communities are well documented as experiencing disproportionately high levels of victimization. Less explored are the experiences of LGBTQ individuals as offenders. Understanding both the victimization and offending of LGBTQ individuals is an important area of research, as there are strong connections between victimization and offending. This entry explores research on the victimization of LGBTQ individuals, and the growing scholarship on their offending. Ideally, understanding the connections between LGBTQ victimization and offending will offer sites of intervention, to prevent offending, or promote desistance from offending for sexual and gender minority individuals.
Life‐Course Theories of Female Offending
Authors: BergstrØm Henriette
Published: August 2019

This current entry presents the main life‐course findings and theories relevant to female offending across the life course. The entry discusses whether Moffitt's developmental taxonomy can be applied to females and to what degree, as well as discussing the utility of Silverthorn and Frick's delayed‐onset pathway. The potential utility of other prominent life‐course theories such as the integrated cognitive antisocial personality (ICAP) theory and age‐graded theory of informal social control are also discussed. Finally, recent findings from the Pittsburgh Girls Study are reviewed and implications for further theory development is discussed.
MacKinnon, Catharine, A.
Authors: Behounek Elaina
Published: August 2019

MacKinnon is an accomplished scholar whose focus is sexual equality. Her research has had a significant impact in the areas of law, women's rights, and sexual violence. MacKinnon has focused much energy on redefining the legal categories of pornography and sexual harassment. MacKinnon's research has led to a more nuanced definition of sexual harassment to include quid pro quo and hostile work environment, expanding the possibilities for women to report harassment and have safer conditions in the workplace while defining both as violations against sex discrimination laws.
Manutchehri, Soraya
Authors: Bruckenstein Rebecca Paige
Published: August 2019

In 1985, a 35‐year‐old woman, Soraya Manutchehri, was stoned to death for being found guilty of alleged adultery in Kupayeh, Iran. This event was further documented in the realm of pop culture with a 1990 book by Freidoune Sahebjam and the film
The Stoning of Soraya M
. Death by stoning is a slow and painful punishment that enables a group to participate in a killing where no person can be identified by the victim. The story of Soraya is one of many and the exact events are hidden by the mystery of time and location.
Marital Rape Laws
Authors: Snow Natalie M. , Radatz Dana L.
Published: August 2019

Rooted in English common law, marital rape exemption laws prohibited husbands from being prosecuted for committing rape against their wives within the United States. This practice continued throughout the United States for centuries, as marital rape was largely ignored by society. However, in the 1960s and 1970s, the second wave of the women's movement brought national attention to the issue of violence against women, and marital exemption laws were cast in the spotlight. As a result of this attention, states slowly began to revise their laws and proscribe marital rape. By 1993, marital rape was proscribed within all 50 states.
Masculinity Theory and Female Offending
Authors: Conover‐Williams Meredith , Schwartz Jennifer
Published: August 2019

Crime has been gendered a “masculine” behavior, associated with men, but masculinity has also been used to explain female offending. Early crime theories blamed biological and psychological defects in female offenders, causing them to be less than a woman. Later theories identified feminism as causing women to act more like men. More recent explorations of masculinity and female offending explore how women may “do” masculinity in the performance of crime, but fall short of acknowledging a female masculinity, reinforcing an essentialist binary between men and women.
Media and Female Victimization
Authors: Garcia Venessa
Published: August 2019

Media coverage of female victimization has centered on sexual assault, intimate partner violence, abductions, and murder. Female victimization is placed within the idea of womanhood. Female victims who behave within the realm of womanhood tend to be viewed as innocent victims. Those who do not are blamed for their victimizations. Research has examined how these social constructions unfold within the different media types and how they have changed over time.
Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment
Authors: Buerger Michael E.
Published: August 2019

The 1980–1983 Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment demonstrated that arresting abusers for misdemeanor‐level violence led to significantly reduced violent incidents in the future, compared to “advise” or “separate” police responses. The results prompted an almost unprecedented six‐city replication effort. Some of the replication results supported the MDVE findings, while others did not.
Miscegenation
Authors: Wallenstein Peter
Published: August 2019

“Miscegenation,” a term that came to prominence during the Civil War replacing “amalgamation,” refers to sex or marriage between someone defined as “White” and anyone else, especially anyone defined as Black. Such marriages were banned by most American states for extended periods and in 17 states remained a matter of criminal law as late as 1967.
Montreal Massacre
Authors: Riley Donna
Published: August 2019

On December 6, 1989, a man entered an engineering classroom at the University of Montreal, separated the women from the men, and opened fire on the women, yelling, “You're women, you're going to be engineers. You're all a bunch of fucking feminists. I hate feminists!” Fourteen women were killed and another 10 women and 4 men were injured. The shooter then killed himself, leaving a suicide note that laid out a clear misogynist motive for his actions. The massacre occurred in the broader context of a backlash against feminist campaigns targeting campus rape culture and women's underrepresentation in engineering, galvanizing university response to sexist traditions in engineering schools. The massacre also elicited a national response, including the White Ribbon Campaign highlighting men's role in ending violence against women, the National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence against Women, and stricter gun control regulations across Canada.
Mothers Against Drunk Driving (
MADD
)
Authors: Griffin O. Hayden
Published: August 2019

While a number of single‐interest lobbying groups have been successful; within criminal justice, Mothers Against Drunk Driving has arguably been the most impactful. Founded in 1980, the group was led by Candy Lightner, who had witnessed the death of her daughter caused by a drunk driver. While many other groups had worked to raise awareness about the harms of alcohol, none were quite as successful. The vast exposure helped to increase awareness; which in turn, effected change – states enacted restrictions on drinking and driving, and many of those states who already had laws in place created even stricter regulations on alcohol. However, success is not without failure, and MADD exemplifies the limitations of a lobbying group. The founding and development of MADD are discussed, followed by an examination of its impact on American society.
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth
Authors: Wang Shun‐Yung K.
Published: August 2019

The excellent data quality of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY97) reveals many aspects of American youth born in the early 1980s. In the context of this encyclopedia, this entry emphasizes gender and crime, in addition to American youth employment, as the primary strength of NLSY97. Consistent with numerous prior empirical findings, female American youths report a significantly lower level of criminality than their male counterparts. Based on the self‐report information, employability – in terms of number of jobs and their duration – increases with educational level among female American youths but not males. American female youths also tend to take more career‐oriented occupational positions than male youths do.
O'Connor, Sandra Day
Authors: Hassett Matthew R.
Published: August 2019

Appointed as the first female justice to ever serve on the United States Supreme Court, Sandra Day O'Connor has cemented an important place in the history of the American judicial system. Overcoming gender discrimination, Justice O'Connor has not only gifted the country with her own service, but she has paved the way for future female Supreme Court justices and women everywhere. Her career transcends time in that the judiciary has become more evolved and diverse due to her accomplishments.
Offending, Gender, Race, and Ethnicity
Authors: Jackson Robin D. , Motley Shantaé M.
Published: August 2019

According to criminological research, gender and race are substantiated correlates of criminal offending. Also, official crime data indicates that gender as well as racial differences exist in rates of offending. In an effort to better understand the role of gender and race in offending, criminological scholars should examine the intersection of race, gender, and crime. However, gender and race are commonly addressed separately and treated as demographic variables rather than as socially constructed characteristics that have an impact on crime and delinquency. Additionally, early explanations of crime focused on biological and structural forces rather than considering the influence that the intersection of race and gender have on female offending. Recognizing the importance of the impact of individual social status and experiences on criminal behavior, an increasing number of feminist scholars have included the intersection of race and gender in criminological research.
One Child Policy in China
Authors: Shen Anqi
Published: August 2019

This topic provides a comprehensive and balanced account of China's family planning policy, known as the “one‐child policy,” which was implemented in 1979. It discusses the contextual background of the policy, the general rules under it, the implementation, resistance, and enforcement. It also notes various criticisms over the policy and its impact on China's social structure and social practices, including several unintended outcomes. The one‐child policy has now been abolished. From January 1, 2016, any married couples in China shall be allowed to have two children. However, the implications of this policy shift remain unclear.
Orders of Protection
Authors: Bejinariu Alexa , Troshynski Emily I.
Published: August 2019

Women seeking legal assistance to end domestic violence and/or intimate partner violence have increasingly sought out civil protection orders. In fact, each year, approximately one million protection orders are issued in the United States. These legal orders restrict the access of one individual (usually a male abuser) to another individual (typically a female victim). Since these orders are issued via the civil court system, this gives a victim legal protection without utilizing the criminal court system. However, if the order is violated, the abuser could be criminally charged.
Pardons for Women Who Kill
Authors: DioGuardi Sherri
Published: August 2019

Female killers get pardoned at higher rates than male murderers. Some scholars have attributed this gender difference to the chivalry hypothesis; others have cited qualitative distinctions between killings committed by men and women. Murders committed by males tend to be more aggravated; murders committed by females tend to involve more mitigating factors. One reason why pardons are issued more frequently for women may be due to the justification defense of the battered women syndrome.
Patriarchy and Female Crime
Authors: Kalunta‐Crumpton Anita
Published: August 2019

Over the past four decades, the study of female crime, from a feminist perspective, has produced a variety of branches with differences in theoretical leanings. Despite the variations, there is a collective recognition in the feminist literature that women are subordinated in a society that is structured on the tenets of patriarchy. As shown in this entry, this viewpoint was relevant to the development of feminist criminology and has significantly shaped subsequent feminist interests in the causes of and responses to female offending.
Pedophilia
Authors: Winton Mark A.
Published: August 2019

Pedophilia, now referred to as pedophilic disorder, is a mental disorder characterized by an adult having a primary sexual orientation or preference for prepubescent children. This entry begins with a brief historical review of pedophilia. Next, the criticisms of the diagnosis, risk factors, and measurement tools are presented. Finally, technological exploitation, sex offender typologies, and treatment effectiveness are discussed.
Pretrial Diversion and Gender
Authors: Schlesinger Traci
Published: August 2019

Pretrial diversion is a process that allows individuals to avoid formal court processing and adjudication as long as they complete (generally) a community‐based program with set requirements. These programs vary widely along myriad measures, including who can refer individuals facing criminalization to the programs, the risk levels of the individuals the program serves, and the services the program provides, as well as the context and implementation of the programs. This entry provides a brief overview of what we know in terms, first, of raced–gendered disparities in juvenile justice and criminal legal officials' odds of granting diversion and, second, of how girls and women's participation in diversion programs impacts their odds of being arrested in the years following the intervention. The entry ends with a review of what we know about how diversion programs that address gendered violence influence both those who committed the violence and the survivors of those acts.
Prostitution Diversion Programs
Authors: Shdaimah Corey S.
Published: August 2019

Prostitution diversion programs (PDPs) have grown out of the perception that existing criminal justice responses to the exchange of sex for money are ineffective or unfairly punish people for behaviors they prefer to avoid. While PDPs are firmly nested within criminal justice systems and do not alter the legal status of prostitution, they seek to combine penal and therapeutic approaches to bring about long‐term desistance from prostitution. PDPs vary across jurisdictions with regard to whom they target, what criminal consequences participants are diverted from, and their content. These programs present both opportunities and challenges for criminal justice systems and program participants. While there is some initial evidence of cost savings, program completion, and program satisfaction, the programs have little ability to address larger structural forces that contribute to engagement in prostitution. PDPs will evolve with changes to existing legal responses to prostitution and as they are further evaluated.
R
oe
v.
W
ade
Authors: Gloyd Elizabeth
Published: August 2019

Roe v. Wade
(1973) is a controversial court decision that legalized abortion in the first trimester for women. The ruling in
Roe v. Wade
(1973) had more positive implications for women than strictly reproductive rights. It led to the rise of feminism as it is seen today. Women are able to continue educational aspirations and career goals because of their right to terminate a pregnancy of an unwanted child. In addition, women are also able to enter the workforce at a higher rate than pre‐
Roe
, giving them the potential to be treated equally to their male counterparts.
Self‐Defense and Women Who Kill
Authors: Lasky Nicole V.
Published: August 2019

Self‐defense is a legal justification frequently invoked by women who have killed their intimate partners. Considering that the context of female homicide, both in terms of female homicide victims and female‐perpetrated homicide, is most likely one of domestic violence, women's argument of self‐defense is sensible. Nonetheless, the claim of self‐defense has been criticized, especially in relation to recent highly publicized trials.
Sentencing Disparity for Women Who Kill
Authors: Dioguardi Sherri
Published: August 2019

Sentencing disparity exists for female killers, and it is not explained by murder type or offender history, nor is the gender disparity proportional to female homicide arrests. Chivalry, paternalism, and patriarchy have been offered as explanations. The sentencing disparity for women who kill may be risk‐based because, as a group, female killers have been found to be less predatory and more responsive to rehabilitation than male killers.
Sex Crimes
Authors: Shaw Callie
Published: August 2019

Women have historically been viewed as incapable of committing sex crimes because of their femininity. Very few individuals envision a female offender when they consider a sex crime. Female offenders, as a result, are often excluded in criminological research. Recent findings, however, reveal that girls and women do commit sex crimes, including forcible rape, statutory rape, and child molestation, among other sex offenses. Societal preconceptions continue to perpetuate the myth that women are incapable of such crimes. This is the type of thinking that directed researchers who first studied female sex offenders to wrongly assume all girls and women who committed sex crimes were victims, rather than perpetrators. This entry provides an overview of recent research findings regarding sex crimes committed by girls and women.
Sex Work
Authors: De Vries Ieke , Farrell Amy
Published: August 2019

Sex work has existed throughout history but moral approaches and legal policies have changed across time. Four moral frames – of prohibitionists, abolitionists, regulationists, and legalizationists – have informed our understanding of sex work and shaped prostitution policy across different contexts. Over the last three decades, sex work has increasingly been discussed in relation to sex trafficking, and various prostitution policies have been rearticulated as antitrafficking measures.
Sexual Assault Laws
Authors: Keener Steven
Published: August 2019

Sexual assault is a complex crime that lawmakers have attempted to address through legislation. The complexities of this type of crime begin with first defining it and identifying the scope of behaviors that are classified as sexual assault. Laws have been enacted at both the federal and state levels that attempt to prevent sexual assaults from occurring, improve reporting options for victims, improve the subsequent investigation and adjudication process, provide important support services to victims, and deal with a range of other issues.
Social Learning Theory and Female Offending
Authors: Hume Wendelin
Published: August 2019

Social learning theory is relatively popular and is in part a psychological learning theory which was developed primarily by Ronald Akers. Social learning theory assumes that both deviant and conforming behavior are a result of the learning process that takes place through interactions in various social structures. Social learning takes place through a process of discovering what actions and behaviors are rewarded and what actions or behaviors are punished. While typically, most men lead nonviolent and noncriminal offending lives, we do see higher rates of crime among men than women. At the same time there are some women who were emotionally neglected, humiliated, or abused as children and they are more likely than their nonabused counterparts to learn violence from these social interactions and become violent and possibly criminal themselves. Thus, there is a disproportionate impact on lower class, minority, females than on other women and girls.
Social Learning Theory of Victimization
Authors: Gover Angela R. , Wells Katyie S.
Published: August 2019

Ronald Akers's social learning theory (SLT) is empirically supported as an explanation for the commission of criminal behavior and has recently garnered support for the explanation of several types of criminal victimization. While emphasizing the critical importance of direct experience and/or observance of violence, SLT mechanisms indicate that these experiences heighten the likelihood of perpetration and victimization from consequentially violent behaviors. Specifically, many of the tenets of SLT have been applied to instances of dating violence, interpersonal violence, childhood maltreatment, and stalking. In examining relational victimization through the lens of SLT, research suggests that those who engage in modeling behaviors, differential association, differential reinforcement, and who adopt favorable definitions are more inclined to become victims of criminal activities.
Socioeconomic Status and Offending
Authors: Reitzel John David
Published: August 2019

Socioeconomic status is a composite measure of an individual, household, or community's social and economic position relative to others in society. Often used interchangeably with social class and social stratification, socioeconomic status is a significant determinant in the quality of people's lives and is a key predictor in research on criminal offending.
Socioeconomic Status and Victimization
Authors: Park Jihye
Published: August 2019

Four major feminist theories – liberal, radical, Marxist, and socialist – have been applied to understand the role of women's status and risk of their victimization in gendered crimes. This entry will introduce these four feminist hypotheses and empirical measurements of women's socioeconomic status. In closing, suggestions for future research will be presented.
Stalking Laws
Authors: Huberman Stephanie M.
Published: August 2019

After a series of stalking‐related murders that included the killing of actress Rebecca Schaeffer in the late 1980s, California was the first state to establish an antistalking law. It took only a few years after the passage of the first legislation for all 50 states and the District of Columbia to introduce similar stalking laws. The National Institute of Justice was called on by Congress to study the ongoing issue of stalking and develop an act that would prevent stalking crimes in the United States. The Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) was created to overcome several challenges that the criminal justice system encountered when civil protection orders, or restraining orders, were the only resource available to stalking victims.
Sterilization
Authors: Gibson Camille
Published: August 2019

Sterilization in the United States and in some other countries has been utilized in both voluntary and forced manners to control reproduction as a matter of societal and health policy, as a privilege more than a right. The approach has reflected eugenic‐type thinking about persons who are fit in society versus those deemed to be unfit, such as persons of color, those who are poor, and recent immigrant groups. In the United States, sterilization was promoted for the last group, to reduce a perceived possible burden of their offspring on society. Alternatively, medical sterilization procedures were difficult to access by those deemed to be fit in society; this group was encouraged to reproduce. The unfit however, were targeted for sterilization and subject to such procedures in many cases without their informed consent.
S
tewart,
M
artha
Authors: Sitren Alicia H.
Published: August 2019

Martha Stewart is an American icon, television personality, and a savvy businesswoman who created a corporate empire, titled Martha Stewart Living. She is most notably known as an idealized homemaker with displays of domestic perfection. In 2002, her model image was tarnished when she was accused of insider trading linked to the ImClone scandal. After her high‐profile trial in 2004, she was found guilty of felony charges of conspiracy, obstruction of justice, and making false statements to investigators. Stewart served five months in a federal prison followed by five months of house arrest. Once she completed her sentence in 2005, Stewart launched a highly publicized comeback and returned her company to profitability shortly thereafter.
Victimization, Gender, Race, and Ethnicity
Authors: Madero‐Hernandez Arelys
Published: August 2019

Research has long documented the existence of disparities in the rates of criminal victimization by gender, race, and ethnicity. Despite year‐to‐year fluctuations, unique distributions by type of crime, and a historical trend of decline in victimization in the United States since the early 1990s, the general pattern is one where males are more likely than females to experience victimization, with some exceptions for specific crimes. Also, Blacks are the most likely to experience victimization, followed by Hispanics and Whites. These patterns are demonstrated in a variety of data sources, including victim surveys, official crime statistics, and mortality statistics.