bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Great Depression: Can It Happen Again?
Authors: Wallis John
Published: October 2023

Could the Great Depression happen again? American economic historians have been asked this question perhaps more often than any other, and never more frequently than in the months following the Crash of 1987. The traditional answer has been a strongly qualified no-that we learned our lessons in the 1930s and those old mistakes will not be repeated, as long as policymakers keep their wits about them; that the ability of the economy to resist depression was strengthened during the New Deal, and that these reforms have prevented runaway depressions since 1933. Are these reforms really enough to prevent another Great Depression? Have the policymakers really learned their history lesson? The events of October and November 1987 leave considerable room for doubt.
Are Government GiveawaysReally Free?
Authors: Anderson Terry L , Hill Peter J
Published: October 2023

Imagine what would happen if the U.S. Treasury announced that on some future date it would give $100 bills to the first 1,000 people to enter the Treasury building. It is doubtful that the 1,000 people who received the money would be individuals who happened to wander into the building that day only to be completely surprised by their windfall. More likely, people would line up outside the Treasury to get the $100 bills. If they each believed a few knew of the bonanza, they might try to show up just a few minutes before the doors opened. If there was general knowledge of the free money, however, competition from other potential entrants would likely force people toward earlier arrival times. In the limit, each individual would be willing to forgo $100 worth of time and comfort to secure the prize.
Should We Reregulatethe Banks?
Authors: Sylla Richard
Published: October 2023

The financial crises of the 1970s and 1980s-the failures of banks and savings and loan (S&L) associations, the stock market crashes, the junk bond defaults, the collapses of securities firms, and the scandals associated with these events-have revived one of the oldest debates in American history. Should financial institutions, the holders and guardians of most of our money and savings, be regulated in order to assure that our assets are safely managed? Or are such regulations themselves a threat to the safe management of assets? These questions were certainly asked long ago, and on more than one occasion, but the answers given in earlier eras invariably led to reactions in the opposite direction at a later time. Hence, from first to last, our financial history has been marked by cycles of regulation and deregulation.
The Securities Exchange Commission: Where From, Where To?
Authors: Phillips Susan M , Zecher J Richard
Published: October 2023

Although the creation of the Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) is often attributed to the stock market crash of 1929, its establishment more properly should be seen as a response to the increased support for a regulatory program that promised to protect investors from manipulation and fraud. Over the years, SEC regulations have been modified only as a political response to economically influential groups rather than on economic grounds. Keeping this principle in mind, it is possible to predict the direction of future stock-market reforms with some degree of probability.
Does Science Shape Economic Progress-Or Is It the Other Way Around?
Authors: Rosenberg Nathan
Published: October 2023

It is widely believed that an industrial civilization, such as late twentieth-century America, depends upon scientific research for its continued economic success. Although there is no reason to doubt the long-term validity of this belief, it is often associated with a striking unawareness of the considerable extent to which new technologies can emerge without the assistance of recently acquired scientific knowledge. Indeed, to think of the lines of causation as running exclusively from new scientific findings to improved economic performance is highly selective and incomplete, and can lead to incorrect conclusions for the making of public policy.
The Origin of the Sherman Act
Authors: Stigler George J
Published: October 2023

If consensus were proof, there would be little uncertainty about the origin of the Sherman Act. A depressed agricultural sector still in 1890 a major part of the American economy-was casting about for sources of its economic troubles. One source was found in the deflation of the 1879-93 period and in the gold standard which brought it about. But monopolies-especially railroads for the farmer and the flourishing industrial trusts for everyone-were equally popular targets of complaints.
Legislative Intent and the Policy of the Sherman Act
Authors: Bork Robert h.
Published: October 2023

Despite the obvious importance of the question to a statute as vaguely phrased as the Sherman Act, the federal courts in all the years since 1890 have never arrived at a definitive statement of the values or policies which control the law’s application and evolution. The question of values, therefore, remains central to controversy about this basic law and its interpretation. More than one factor bears upon the answer to the question.
Wealth Transfers as the Original and Primary Concern of Antitrust: The Efficiency Interpretation Challenged
Authors: Lande Robert h.
Published: October 2023

The prevailing view is that Congress intended the antitrust laws only to increase economic efficiency. Others, however, contend that Congress was largely motivated by a number of social, moral, and political concerns. This Article presents a third view, one suggested by the antitrust laws’ legislative histories. This Article will argue that Congress passed the antitrust laws to further economic objectives, but primarily objectives of a distributive rather than of an efficiency nature.
The Land Scape of History
Authors: Gaddis John Lewis
Published: October 2023

What is history, and why should we study it? Is there such a thing as historical truth? Is history a science? One of the most accomplished historians at work today, John Lewis Gaddis, answers these and other questions in this short, witty, and humane book. The Landscape of History provides a searching look at the historian’s craft, as well as a strong argument for why a historical consciousness should matter to us today. Written in the tradition of Marc Bloch and E. H. Carr, The Landscape of History is at once an engaging introduction to the historical method for beginners, a powerful reaffirmation of it for practitioners, a startling challenge to social scientists, and an effective skewering of postmodernist claims that we can’t know anything at all about the past. It will be essential reading for anyone who reads, writes, teaches, or cares about history.
‘‘The Stronger and the Better Jews’’: Jewish Theological Responses to Political Messianism in the Weimar Republic
Authors: Mendes-Flohr Paul
Published: October 2023

In the midst of the Bavarian revolution of 1918-1919, a group of students at the University of Munich organized a study circle to di’scuss the urgent social and political questions of the day. To distinguish themselves from the right-wing Corpstudenten, they fancied themselves to be a Freistudentenschaft, and met weekly in a local bookshop.1 In January 1919, they were addressed by Max Weber, who was soon to assume a professorship at the university. 2 In a room packed to overflowing (apparently an auditorium rather than the usual meeting place at the bookshop), Weber spoke to the enthralled students about the moral tasks and sociological boundaries of scholarship in the modem world. This lecture, delivered freely and without a pause, was recorded by a stenographer and later published under the title “Science as a Vocation.” Two months later, Weber once again addressed the students on a parallel theme, “Politics as a Vocation. “ In these now-famous lectures, the sociologist offered, in striking contrast to the heated rhetoric of the day, a cold analysis of what he regarded to be the misconceived idealism of the youths then ruling the streets of Munich.
Ethics in Nursing
Authors: Benjamin Martin , Curtis Joy
Published: October 2023

Written by a nurse and a philosopher, Ethics in Nursing blends the concrete detail of recurring problems in nursing practice with the perspectives, methods, and resources of philosophical ethics. It stresses the aspects of the nurse's role and relations with others --physicians, patients, administrators, other nurses -- that give ethical problems in nursing their special focus. Among the issues addressed are deception, parentalism, confidentiality, conscientious refusal, nurse autonomy, compromise, and personal responsibility for institutional and public policy. This third edition has been enlarged with new cases and case discussions related to AIDS and an additional chapter on the expanding scope of nursing ethics as it addresses issues related to scarce resources, cost containment, justice, and the possibilities of health care rationing.
Civic Humanism and Scientific Scholarship at Leiden
Authors: Grafton Anthony
Published: October 2023

In 1619 that intrepid traveler James Howell visited Leiden to see the university. He was not impressed. True, he appreciated the faculty, with its many scholars of European reputation. “Apollo,” he admitted, “hath a strong influence here.” But he found the buildings laughable by comparison with the great stone colleges that had transformed Oxford since the mid-sixteenth century: “Here are no Colleges at all, God-wot . . . nor scarce the face of an University.” And he found the climate and situation no laughing matter: “The Heaven here has always some Cloud in his Countenance, and from this grossness and spissitude of Air proceeds the slow nature of the Inhabitants.”1 Thirty years before, Fynes Moryson had been more impressed by the lectures, but he too had criticized the “ruinous College” where the estates of Holland maintained poor scholars and public plays and festivals “poorely” represented the Spanish siege that preceded the founding of the university. Twenty years later, John Evelyn found even more to say against the “college and schools, which are nothing extraordinary,” and the so-called “mag-nificus Professor” who accepted a fee of one rix-dollar for taking Evelyn’s oath and entering him as a student of the university.
Giap’s First Offensive Campaign 1950
Authors: Davidson Phillip B
Published: October 2023

As the year 1950 dawned, Giap was ready with a hundred-page plan to win the war. In this analysis, Giap foresaw the war as one of three phases. Phase I (now complete) included the initial retreat and avoidance of decisive combat by the Vietminh. In the second phase, the Chinese Communists would equip and train the Vietminh, permitting them to eliminate the northern border posts one by one. This was the current phase, and to Giap it was the critical one. The real race, as Giap saw things in early 1950, was between the aid furnished to the Vietminh by the Chinese Communists and the American assistance now beginning to flow to the French. In early 1950, Giap believed that the Chinese were winning this race, and he wanted to seize the advantage before the French received massive American materiel help. Phase III, as Giap saw it, would consist of a Vietminh general counteroffensive to be launched sometime in the future to destroy the French forces in Indochina or to drive them from the country.
Giap’s General Counteroffensive ,January 1951–May 1952
Authors: Davidson Phillip B
Published: October 2023

By early December 1950, Giap closed his units in around the Tonkin Delta and began the immense job of establishing the logistic bases for his upcoming offensive. At first, he considered mounting a quick attack on the Delta, and boasted that he would put Ho back in Hanoi by the end of December.1 His probe of the French defenses north of Hanoi, however, brought him a stiff rebuff. French firmness, plus his own difficulties with logistic and troop movements, convinced Giap that he could not pull off a quick and easy victory, so he revised his timetable and settled back to complete his preparations.
An Indecent Interval 1973–1974
Authors: Davidson Phillip B
Published: October 2023

The signing of the 1973 Paris Agreement ended Indochina War II and initiated Indochina War III. The agreement provided for a cease-fire in place, a provision which left a large North Vietnamese force in South Vietnam. It established two control commissions to oversee the cease fire and the execution of the agreement’s military provisions, but since both commissions operated on the principle of unanimity, they were powerless. The agreement set up a National Council of Concord and National Conciliation to plan and supervise elections, but this never functioned. The agreement did recognize the Provisional Revolutionary Government (PRG), a Communist satellite of North Vietnam, as a legitimate government competing with the Thieu regime in South Vietnam.
Why We Lost the War
Authors: Davidson Phillip B
Published: October 2023

In my introduction I stated that I wrote this book in an attempt to learn how the most powerful nation in the world won every battle in Vietnam, but lost the war. Now, some eleven years later, I know the answer-at least, to my own satisfaction. But to be candid, I submit this answer with considerable misgiving. Indochina War II was a complex war, the most unusual one we Americans ever fought. It was a war critically influenced by events far removed from the battlefield, not only in space, but in discernible connection. Above all, it was a war waged in a critical, but indeterminate manner, in the uncharted depths of the American psyche and in the obscurity of our national soul.
The Consequences of Reform in Mental Health Law
Authors: Appelbaum Paul S
Published: October 2023

During periods of cataclysmic change, emotional reactions make objective evaluation all but impossible. Minor perturbations seem to have immense impact, and transitory phenomena are mistaken for permanent alterations. People who speak the loudest or the most provocatively are often mistaken as those most able to shape the course of events. Attempts to predict the future tend to begin with the most dramatic changes to date and to extrapolate upward. Factors that may slow or reverse the tide of reform routinely are ignored.
Multidimensional Pricing
Authors: Wilson Robert
Published: October 2023

Previous chapters study the design of a tariff for a single product when each customer chooses only the number of units to purchase. This and subsequent chapters show how the methods used for a single product are applied to more elaborate problems of tariff design. This chapter begins with the simplest case in which a single product is supplied with several quality attributes chosen by the customer. The illustrations in §2 demonstrate that some firms differentiate their products in terms of quality dimensions that affect customers’ valuations of usage. In addition, firms often differentiate conditions of delivery, such as the time or place of use and the reliability or speed of delivery. These options allow a customer to assign some combination of quality attributes to each unit and pay a corresponding price for the combination selected. A key aspect is that the options are flexible, in the sense that a customer can select different quality attributes for different units of the same generic product.
The Future of Southern History
Authors: Woodward C Vann
Published: October 2023

The Closest The Historian Can Legitimately Get to making pronouncements about the future is the recent past, and the closer the recent past gets to the present, the more insecure the historian feels in whatever he has to say about it. His instinct is to withdraw from the present, which is the brink of the future, and put distance between himself and the brink to gain the se­curity he likes to call “perspective.” The trouble with the future from the historian’s point of view is that it has not happened yet. Whatever glimpses beyond the brink I shall venture here will be afforded from a point well back from the edge.
Why the Southern Renaissance?
Authors: Woodward C Vann
Published: October 2023

Why The Southern Renaissance ever occurred is still something of a mystery. All that is attempted here is an analysis of some explanations that have been offered by others and a few additional speculations. Before turning to the critical why, how­ever, it is necessary to determine just what it is we are talking about. In the first place, we are stuck with a misnomer in the very word “renaissance.” For neither in its literal sense nor in its classic historical usage is this French word really applicable to what happened in the South.
History in Robert Penn Warren’s Fiction
Authors: Woodward C Vann
Published: October 2023

One Of The Appeals Robert Penn Warren has for historians is that it is he who has repeatedly taken the initiative, come for­ward to exchange views, and in his own work often addressed historical themes, problems, and theories and done so with sym­pathy, understanding, and originality. He has never written fic­tional history or what is commonly called “historical fiction,” but both his fiction and poetry are permeated with sensitivity, respect, and awareness for historical dimensions of human experi­ence.
A Short History of American History
Authors: Woodward C Vann
Published: October 2023

American History Was First Written By Explorers and the earliest settlers. They wrote in the old tradition or were in­spired by it, as were historians of the next three centuries and more. It was essentially a literary tradition, that of an avocation or a “calling,” and its practitioners were as individual and auton­omous as poets or playwrights. They might think of themselves as learned or wise but not as scientists or professionals. They took pride in their prose and in the clarity and drama of their narrative and descriptive writing, and most of it was narrative.
Folklore
Authors: Bauman Richard
Published: October 2023

Term coined in 1846 by the British antiquarian William John Thoms, apparently a translation of the German term Volks kunde, introduced in 1787. Thoms’s “good Saxon compound, Folklore” has achieved wide currency in the world’s languages (including prominently Romance and Slavic languages), though sometimes in conjunction or competition with more local coin ages. Thoms defined folklore essentially by enumerating some of its forms: “The manners, customs, observances, superstitions, ballads, proverbs, etc., of the olden time.” Folklore names both the traditional cultural forms and the discipline devoted to their study, though in recent years the term folkloristics has gained increasing currency for the latter. The concept of folklore emerged in the late eighteenth century as part of a unified vision of language, CULTURE, literature, and ideology in the service of romantic nationalism. For Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803), the German philosopher whose romantic conception of das Volk and folk tradition in forms all subsequent understandings of folklore, the possession of a common language was the touchstone of a people’s distinctiveness, the source that gave rise to and sustained their sense of themselves as a separate, unique, social entity; language embodied the character, the inner being, of a Volk.
Dance
Authors: Kaeppler Adrienne L
Published: October 2023

A complex form of communication that combines the visual, kinesthetic, and aesthetic aspects of human movement with (usually) the aural dimension of musical sounds and sometimes poetry. Dance is created out of culturally understood symbols within social and religious contexts, and it conveys information and meaning as Ritual, ceremony, and entertainment. For dance to communicate, its audience must understand the cultural conventions that deal with human movement in time and space. Many definitions of dance have been proposed, but none has focused on its communicative aspects. With few exceptions writers simply assert without further elaboration that dance communicates, or else they focus on the narrative or mimetic potential of dance movement. From such assertions one can conclude only that the rigorous formulation and investigation of the communicative aspects of dance are still in their infancy.
Ritual
Authors: Rappaport Roy A
Published: October 2023

May be defined as the Performance of more or less invariant sequences of formal acts and utterances not encoded by the performers. Many would argue that ritual is not simply one of many modes of communication available to humans but the one that has made other sorts of human communication possible, particularly those resting on language. Although popular understanding tends to associate ritual with the concerns or practice of religion, a fundamental aspect of the definition offered here is that it does not stipulate ritual’s subject matter. Ritual is understood to be a form or structure, that is, a number of features or characteristics in a more or less fixed relationship to one another. Events conforming to this definition occur outside religious contexts. Psychiatrists, for instance, have used the terms ritual and ceremony to refer both to the pathological behavior of obsessive-compulsives and to the healthy but stereotyped interactions between parents and children. In fact, usage does not have to be confined to the human species. Ethologists use the term to designate stereotypic dis plays through which members of a very large number of species communicate with their conspecifics (for example, the courtship rituals of great-crested grebes or fiddler crabs).
A Guide to NIH Grant Programs
Authors: Schwartz Samuel M , Friedman Mischa E
Published: October 2023

Each year thousands of biomedical and behavioural researchers submit grant applications to the United States Public Health Service (USPHS) for support of their research or research training activities. The majority of these applications are submitted to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). By describing the inner workings of the NIH extramural programs and providing practical information about grant programs and processes, this authoritative work is designed to help investigators gain a more favourable edge in obtaining support for their research proposals. It offers practical insights into a broad spectrum of the basic and clinical research interests of the 21 NIH research granting components, and identifies the various mechanisms of support. Descriptions, guidance, and advice are also provided on specific areas such as how to prepare a grant application; the peer review system, the procedures leading to award decisions, the responsibilities of the NIH staff in managing the review and referral of applications, and managing grant programs. Other extramural policies and procedures are covered such as the appeals system, animal welfare, the privacy act, and research involving human subjects. Legislation, funding, and the NIH budget are also discussed. Written by two former senior-level managers at the National Institutes of Health and current consultants to several USPHS agencies, A Guide to NIH Grant Programs is a valuable reference source for members of the biomedical and behavioural research community.
Introduction
Authors: Schwartz Samuel M , Friedman Mischa E
Published: October 2023

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the premier biomedical research organization in the world. It serves as the U.S. government’s lead agency in the war on human disease. It carries out its mission of providing leadership and research direction to biomedical research programs through its clinics, in-house laboratory research, and extramural programs. In doing so, NIH is the largest supporter of biomedical research in the country. Of its total budget of over $8 billion in fiscal year (FY) 1991, over 80 percent was allocated for the support of extramural grants and contracts. These are awarded to thousands of institutions and scientists around the world, but mostly in the United States.
Extramural Support Mechanisms
Authors: Schwartz Samuel M , Friedman Mischa E
Published: October 2023

A substantial array of extramural support mechanisms is available covering every stage of the research career spectrum. An overview is provided in this chapter and a brief summary of the various mechanisms included in Appendix 2, along with FY 1991 success rates and average costs per award. There are three major categories of awards, detailed below. Research grants, the largest category, includes awards for a variety of research projects and research training activities. The important features of a grant are: The idea for the research or training project is initiated by the investigator and not by the NIH. In the case of Requests for Applications (RFAs), the NIH identifies the general objective of the solicitation and depends on the creative talent of the principal investigator (Pl) to provide the approaches and meth odology.
The Referral System
Authors: Schwartz Samuel M , Friedman Mischa E
Published: October 2023

The policy of the NIH requires that grant applications, with few exception’s; be received centrally by DRG. The grant decision process begins in the Referral Office. This office’s responsibility for the receipt, processing, and referral of grant applications extends beyond NIH in that other PHS organizations with grant pro grams, such as the ADAMHA utilize these services.
The Peer Review System
Authors: Schwartz Samuel M , Friedman Mischa E
Published: October 2023

The peer review system is an administrative creation first utilized by the NIH over forty years ago. It has enabled the NIH to recruit large numbers of prominent, primarily nonfederal scientists from institutions of higher learning, hospitals, re search foundations, and industry within the United States and neighboring countries. This impressive array of expertise is used by the agency to evaluate the scientific merit of grant and contract proposals. It represents a unique partnership between the NIH and the biomedical research community. The scientific expertise contributed by the nation’s biomedical researchers would be impossible for the NIH to duplicate with its own staff. On the other hand, the NIH represents an ideal rallying point for the research community for advocating strong, continuing support for biomedical research.
National Advisory Councils
Authors: Schwartz Samuel M , Friedman Mischa E
Published: October 2023

Historically, national advisory councils were the first on the peer review scene. In 1937, Congress created the National Cancer Institute (NCI), along with an advisory council, and authorized the support of research and research training. With the passage of the Public Health Service Act in 1944, the NCI became part of NIH and a National Advisory Health Council was directed to provide support for other areas of biomedical research. After World War Il, the NIH inherited a variety of research activities supported by other agencies. The National Advisory Health Council felt the need for scientific assistance in the review of grant applications. In 1946, NIH created the Office of Research Grants, which eventually became the DRG of today, and twenty-one study sections to help the National Advisory Health Council carry out its mandate to make grant awards. This briefly is how it all began and may help to place in perspective the origin of national advisory councils, study sections, and other similar scientific review groups.
The Early Cherokee–Carolina Trade, 1700–1730
Authors: Hatley Tom
Published: October 2023

THE first colonists who came to the Cherokee villages were clearer about their entrepreneurial ambitions than their ultimate destinations. The Cherokee towns were stop-over points along the way west or north, wherever the fuzzy maps of the interior led these questing and often anonymous individuals or officials. Only after the 1690s did the deerskin trade begin to expand dramatically along the rivers which drained the east face of the Cherokee Mountains, bringing the tribe face to face, on an irregular basis, with Carolinians. The distance from the Lower Towns to Charlestown was a serious obstacle to sustained encounter. There is no indication, however, that the tribal villages were uncomfortable in those early years with their isolation, or that they sought rapprochement or even regular contact with the colonists, then barely occupying the fringe of the Atlantic coast. Instead, the early pattern of middleman trading persisted in which broker tribes, often situated at the fall line, buffered the Cherokees from direct contact—whether with the Spanish in the first years of trade, or their eighteenth-century competitors, the English.
The Last Game
Authors: Echevarria Roberto González
Published: October 2023

Dawn was cool and bright in Havana on Tuesday, February 25, 1947. A brisk wind whipped away the high clouds remaining from yesterday’s rains as a golden glow began to unveil the skyline of the city. Newspaper vendors broke the silence with their cries, and bottles clinked on sidewalks and in doorways as milkmen completed their rounds. The rumble of buses and the clanging of streetcars were just beginning. Soon, as if driven by a sudden migratory urge, thousands would board them, joining others on foot and in cars. The thousands would head to the Gran Stadium de la Habana, the new baseball park built not far from downtown, to the south. The most dramatic ending in the nearly seventy-year history of the Cuban League was about to take place that afternoon, in a contest that-no one knew it then-would be the most important baseball game yet played on the island, perhaps the last of such portent.
The Russians are Coming! The Russians are Coming!, Pageantry and Patriotism in Cold-War America
Authors: Fried Richard M
Published: October 2023

At a time when Americans dedicate their national holidays to barbecues, sporting events, and driving madly on crowded interstate highways to vacation homes and theme parks, it may be difficult to remember an era when patriotic observance was a matter of high seriousness and legislated pageantry. But now the memory is restored in fascinating detail by Richard M. Fried in the eye-opening The Russians Are Coming! After summarizing such patriotic developments as the sanctification of the American flag and the wide--and occasionally coercive--acceptance of the Pledge of Allegiance, Fried describes how the Ad Council, the American Heritage Foundation, and other organizations created "campaigns to sell America to the Americans" through carefully constructed "rededication" celebrations like "Know Your America" Weeks, Freedom Weeks, and traveling exhibitions such as the Freedom Train, which in the late 1940s brought original copies of seminal American documents directly to cities and towns across the country. He vividly recreates the spectacle of clashing New York City parades involving thousands of participants, as celebrants of the newly-created Loyalty Day marched in opposition to pro-Communist May Day demonstrations just blocks away. Most startling, though, is Fried's account of how Mosinee, Wisconsin was "invaded" by Communists in a staged media event sponsored by the American Legion. Citizens allowed themselves to be searched at random while local officials acted the part of Stalinists, and the town restaurants were required to serve only potato soup and black bread. Meticulously researched and colourfully told, The Russians Are Coming! recreates an absorbing--and revealing--dimension of American history.
The Cultural Consequences of Americanism
Authors: Nolan Mary
Published: October 2023

For many Weimar observers, Americanism and Fordism symbolized much more than a stunningly efficient, modern system of production; they repre, sented a world view, a way of life, and a set of gender relations organized around the primacy of economics and consumption and the devaluation of high culture.1 They embodied a spirit of pragmatism and materialism, an acceptance of-indeed, a desire for-uniformity, and a thoroughly ratio, nal, unromantic attitude toward production, work, and the factory as well as reproduction, leisure, and the home. The majority of Americans seemed to approach their lives in the same way that a minority of German artists and intellectuals in the N_eue Sachlich eit movement analyzed modern soci­ ety. They soberly accepted industrialization, urbanization and mass culture, eschewing angry protest or utopian fantasies. To most German commenta, tors, the American political system was irrelevant to American economic success and thus was not discussed at length; however, American culture, gender, and everyday life were not ignored. Economists, journalists, engi, neers, and social workers debated whether economic modernity in its American guise inherently required or inevitably produced not only new products and styles of consumption but also new men and women.
Winners and Losers
Authors: Nolan Mary
Published: October 2023

Foreign observers recognized that Germany had implemented the doctrines of rationalization more extensively than any other European country, and they lavished relatively uncritical praise on the results.1 The Englishman Meakin even insisted that “what has been accomplished in Germany will be attempted in every country where similar industrial problems have to be faced.”2 By decade’s end such positive sentiments found few echoes in Germany, for the paradoxical results of the productivist strategies pursued by industrialists, engineers, and the RKW greatly intensified the contro, versies surrounding rationalization. Debate primarily centered on the closely intertwined issues of prices, costs, wages, and profits, for capital and labor had each made different assumptions about when and how much each of these variables should rise or fall. Industry anticipated that rationalization would lower costs, which would translate into somewhat lower prices and higher profits. This, in tum, would fund further rationalization and lower costs and prices yet again. At some point late in the process, wages would be raised. The trade unions wanted to start the cycle with higher wages, which were to spur rational, ization that would lower costs and prices, enabling still higher wages as well as greater profits. Throughout the 1920s, capital and labor disagreed on what was actually happening to costs, prices, wages, and profits and what was possible-economically and politically. These debates also involved three related concerns: how rationalization affected working conditions; how it altered the composition of the labor force; and whether it created structural unemployment.
Post-War Legal Thought 1945-1960
Authors: Horwitz Morton J
Published: October 2023

Post-World War II legal thought was shaped by three broad sets of influences. First were the varying reactions to the unsettling legacy of Legal Realism that encountered the persistent pressure of professional orthodoxy to restore a sharp distinction between law and politics. Second were the varying interpretations of and reactions to the horrors of fascism, Nazism, and Stalinism. The emergence of totalitarianism abroad not only revived broad interest in the meaning of the rule of law; it also rekindled thought about the relationship between democratic political culture and legal theory. An even more specific result of the rise of totalitarianism was the astonishing spread of McCarthyism, a form of anti-Communist authoritarianism that came to represent not only a major domestic political response to the cold war but also a powerful catalyst to political repression in post-war culture. Finally, post-war legal thought was powerfully shaped by efforts to square the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education 1 (1954) with the half-century-old, post-Lochner, Progressive commitment to judicial restraint.
The Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law
Authors: Blumberg Phillip I
Published: October 2023

Traditional corporation law formulated centuries ago by an agricultural society fails to deal effectively with modern society in which business is being predominantly conducted by affiliated corporations doing business around the world. Rejecting the traditional law that would treat each affiliated company as a separate and distinct legal entity unrelated to the group of which it is an integral part, American law, and to a lesser extent European law, is responding with new decisional and statutory law focusing on the enterprise rather than on its constituent parts. The application of legal controls to multinational enterprises has a further major dimension. National law regulating world business inevitably leads to serious international controversies over the boundaries of national jurisdiction and regulation. Multinationals challenge not only national law but the world legal order as well. This volume comprehensively reviews the newer system of enterprise law being developed by the legal systems of the world to deal with the modern corporations and its implications for international law and foreign relations law. It concludes with the very first discussion of the jurisprudential implications of this major legal development.
Scientific Issues in Biomedical Research with Children
Authors: Kauffman Ralph E
Published: October 2023

The dynamic process of growth, differentiation, and maturation is what sets children apart from adults. In addition to overall growth, dramatic changes in body proportions, composition, and physiology take place during childhood. Growth and development are particularly rapid during the first two years of life. Major organ systems differentiate, grow, and mature. Body weight typically doubles by five to six months of age, and triples by the first birthday. Body length increases by 50 percent during the first year. Body surface area doubles by one year of age. During the first eighteen months of life, the child becomes ambulatory, develops socialization, and learns verbal language.
The New York City Draft Riots
Authors: Bernstein Iver
Published: October 2023

For five days in July 1863, at the height of the Civil War, New York City was under siege. Angry rioters burned draft offices, closed factories, destroyed railroad tracks and telegraph lines, and hunted policemen and soldiers. Before long, the rioters turned their murderous wrath against the black community. In the end, at least 105 people were killed, making the draft riots the most violent insurrection in American history. In this vividly written book, Iver Bernstein tells the compelling story of the New York City draft riots. He details how what began as a demonstration against the first federal draft soon expanded into a sweeping assault against the local institutions and personnel of Abraham Lincoln’s Republican Party as well as a grotesque race riot. Bernstein identifies participants, dynamics, causes and consequences, and demonstrates that the “winners” and “losers” of the July 1863 crisis were anything but clear, even after five regiments rushed north from Gettysburg restored order. In a tour de force of historical detection, Bernstein shows that to evaluate the significance of the riots we must enter the minds and experiences of a cast of characters—Irish and German immigrant workers, Wall Street businessmen who frantically debated whether to declare martial law, nervous politicians in Washington and at City Hall. Along the way, he offers new perspectives on a wide range of topics: Civil War society and politics, patterns of race, ethnic and class relations, the rise of organized labor, styles of leadership, philanthropy and reform, strains of individualism, and the rise of machine politics in Boss Tweed’s Tammany regime. An in-depth study of one of the most troubling and least understood crises in American history, The New York City Draft Riots is the first book to reveal the broader political and historical context—the complex of social, cultural and political relations—that made the bloody events of July 1863 possible.
Production Frontiers and Productive Efficiency
Authors: Lovell C A Knox
Published: October 2023

When discussing the performance of production units, it is common to describe them as being more or less “efficient,” or more or less “productive.” In this chapter1 I discuss the relationship between these two concepts, and I consider some hypotheses concerning the determinants of producer performance as measured by efficiency and productivity. I then tum to an analysis of some of the techniques that have been developed for measuring efficiency and productivity. Since these techniques are discussed in detail in the next three chapters, and illustrated in subsequent chapters, my analysis of them is brief and nontechnical. It focuses on the differences among the techniques, and on their relative strengths and weaknesses.
The Mathematical Programming Approach To Efficiency Analysis
Authors: Ali Agha Iqbal , Seiford Lawrence M
Published: October 2023

In his classic paper, M. J. Farrell (1957) argues that the measurement of productive efficiency is of theoretical and practical importance; a satisfactory efficiency measure allows both empirical testing of theoretical arguments and economic planning to im­ prove the productivity of particular industries. Farrell ‘s approach, largely inspired by Koopmans (1951), was based on a production possibility set consisting of the conical hull of input-output vectors. This framework was generalized to multiple outputs and reformulated as a mathematical programming problem by Charnes, Cooper, and Rhodes (1978, 1979, 1981) thus initiating the mathematical programming approach to efficiency measurement known as data envelopment analysis (DEA).
Efficiency And Productivity
Authors: Grosskopf S
Published: October 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of productivity measurement. This overview is selective: productivity measurement has a long history, much of which is not touched on here. Instead, the focus here is on relatively recent developments; especially those dealing with the measurement of total factor productivity and the relationship between productivity and efficiency. The goal is to sketch the empirical options with special emphasis on those which explicitly include consideration of efficiency. By worrying about efficiency as a component of productivity I obviously have a particular definition of productivity in mind. Although many consider productivity growth and technical progress as synonymous, I belong to a small but growing group who distinguish the two concepts. I define productivity growth as the net change in output due to change in efficiency and technical change, where the former is understood to be the change in how far an observation is from the frontier of technology and the latter is understood to be shifts in the production frontier.
A Production Frontier Model With Flexible Temporal Variation In Technical Efficiency
Authors: Lee Young Hoon , Schmidt Peter
Published: October 2023

Stochastic frontier models originated with Aigner, Lovell, and Schmidt (1977) and Meeusen and van den Broeck (1977). These models were intended for cross-sectional applications, and they rested on strong assumptions about the errors. Statistical noise was assumed to be normally distributed, while technical inefficiency was assumed to be distributed according to a specific one-sided distribution, such as exponential or half-normal. Furthermore, statistical noise and technical inefficiency were assumed to be independent of each other and of the explanatory variables (inputs). This line of research has been continued, with an emphasis on alternative distributional as­ sumptions for technical inefficiency. For examples, see Stevenson (1980) and Greene (1990). Surveys are given by Schmidt (1986), Lovell and Schmidt (1988), and Bauer (1990), and by Greene in Section 2.4 of this book. It is now well understood that the basic parameters (regression coefficients) of the model can be estimated under weaker assumptions, but the separation of technical inefficiency from statistical noise [as in Jondrow, Lovell, Materov, and Schmidt (1982)] intrinsically requires strong distributional assumptions.
Technical Efficiency In New Jersey School Districts
Authors: McCarty Therese A , Yaisawarng Suthathip
Published: October 2023

Expenditure per pupil in U.S. public schools has risen dramatically in recent years. Between l 960 and 1983, expenditure per pupil for current services rose by 135 percent in real terms [Hanushek (1986, p. 1146)]. At the same time, achievement levels, as measured by test scores, have not risen proportionally, suggesting that resources are not being allocated to schools or utilized by them as productively as possible. Recent concern about the achievement of U.S. students and concern about the size of public budgets underline the importance of using resources allocated to public education effectively. This chapter explores one possible source of inefficiency in the operation of public schools, namely, productive or technical inefficiency.
Technical Efficiency In Veterans Administration Hospitals
Authors: Burgess James F , Wilson Paul W
Published: October 2023

Local units of central government operations are subject to frequent changes in regimes of control. In many cases, new regimes are intended to induce greater efficiency in the local units; typically, however, evaluation of policy initiatives after the fact is not done systematically. One method for such efficiency evaluation is the mathematical programming approach described in Chapter 2. In particular, the efficiency of the network of federally operated veterans hospitals in the United States is evaluated over a short panel while the regime of control for setting the budgets of local units was changing. The presence of multiple outputs and the lack of good information on input prices are aspects of the hospital industry in general that make nonparametric approaches fruitful, as in Sherman (1984), Grosskopf and Valdmanis (1987), and Sexton et al. (1989). Specific theoretical problems addressed here include a method for assessing the significance of changes in average efficiency over time and a method for assessing the relative strength of outliers.
Efficiency and competition in o.e.c.d. Financial services
Authors: Fecher Fabienne , Pestieau Pierre
Published: October 2023

It seems widely accepted today that productivity growth in banking and insurance services, herein called financial services, is very low, if not negative. In a recent paper on the U.S. insurance industry, Baumol (1991) has argued that this is by no means attributable to managerial slack or “other form of misbehavior,” but to what he calls the cost disease.2 The cost disease plagues many other service industries, such as education, artistic performance, and police protection; it affects activities which are inherently resistant to technical change.
Efficiency and productivity growth in u. S. Banking
Authors: Bauer Paul W , Berger, Allen N , Humphrey David B
Published: October 2023

Until recently, bank cost studies focused almost exclusively on scale and product mix (scope) economies. While this has been useful, a potentially more important dimension of bank cost economies appears to be differences in efficiency. Recent studies have estimated inefficiencies of 20 percent or more of costs, even for banks of similar scale and product mix. These inefficiencies appear to dominate scale and product mix effects, which usually average 5 percent or less. Our purposes in this chapter are twofold. First, we apply two methods of ef­ ficiency measurement that have been employed in extant efficiency literature and contrast the results across methodologies. Specifically, we compare the stochastic econometric frontier approach, first proposed by Aigner, Lovell, and Schmidt (1977), Meeusen and van den Broeck (1977), and Battese and Corra (1977), with the thick frontier approach of Berger and Humphrey (1991, 1992a). These methods are applied to a panel data set of 683 U.S. banks with over $100 million in assets in states that allow branch banking that were continuously in existence during 1977 to 1988. As these banks account for two-thirds of total banking assets, and all U.S. states allow some form of branching as of August 1991, our results may be considered reasonably representative of the industry as a whole.