bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Advances in global MHD mode stabilization research on NSTX
Authors: Sabbagh S.A. , Berkery J.W. , Bell R.E. , Bialek J.M. , Gerhardt S.P. , Menard J.E. , Betti R. , Gates D.A. , Hu B. , Katsuro-Hopkins O.N. , LeBlanc B.P. , Levinton F.M. , Manickam J. , Tritz K. , Yuh H.
Published: January 2010

Stabilizing modes that limit plasma beta and reduce their deleterious effect on plasma rotation are key goals for the efficient operation of a fusion reactor. Passive stabilization and active control of global kink/ballooning modes and resistive wall modes (RWMs) have been demonstrated on NSTX and research is now advancing towards understanding the stabilization physics and reliably maintaining the high beta plasma for confident extrapolation to ITER and a fusion component test facility based on the spherical torus. Active n = 1 control experiments with an expanded sensor set, combined with low levels of n = 3 field phased to reduce error fields, reduced resonant field amplification and maintained plasma rotation, exceeded normalized beta = 6 and produced record discharge durations limited by magnet system constraints. Details of the observed RWM dynamics during active control show the mode being converted to a rotating kink that stabilizes or saturates and may lead to tearing modes. Discharges with rotation reduced by n = 3 magnetic braking suffer beta collapse at normalized beta = 4.2 approaching the no-wall limit, while normalized beta greater than 5.5 has been reached in these plasmas with n = 1 active control, in agreement with the single-mode RWM theory. Advanced state-space control algorithms proposed for RWM control in ITER theoretically yield significant stabilization improvements. Values of relative phase between the measured n = 1 mode and the applied correction field that experimentally produce stability/instability agree with RWM control modelling. Experimental mode destabilization occurs over a large range of plasma rotation, challenging the notion of a simple scalar critical rotation speed defining marginal stability. Stability calculations including kinetic modifications to the ideal MHD theory are applied to marginally stable experimental equilibria. Plasma rotation and collisionality variations are examined in the calculations. Intermediate rotation levels are less stable, consistent with experimental observations. Trapped ion resonances play a key role in this result. Recent experiments have demonstrated magnetic braking by non-resonant n = 2 fields. The observed rotation damping profile is broader than found for n = 3 fields. Increased ion temperature in the region of maximum braking torque increases the observed rate of rotation damping, consistent with the theory of neoclassical toroidal viscosity at low collisionality.
Chapter 13 Downtown
Authors: Salzman Eric , Desi Thomas
Published: January 2010

This chapter outlines the history of the off-Broadway theater in New York going back to the experimental music theater projects of the 1930s and the extended run of the Blitzstein version of the Weill/Brecht 3-Penny Opera in the '60s, along with the inheritance of the various experimental theater companies such as the Living Theater, the Open Theater, the Performance Group, Quog Music Theater, and the Music Theater Group. Non-traditional theaters and other performance venues have developed new theatrical forms that tend strongly towards the condition of music theater. Other downtown developments include the growth of dance theater and the proliferation of what came to be known as performance art (or just “performance”), in lofts, galleries, church basements, and specialized venues, in Manhattan and, afterwards, in Brooklyn and other parts of the country, notably California.
Chapter 19 Toward a Theory of the New Music Theater
Authors: Salzman Eric , Desi Thomas
Published: January 2010

Music theater may be a process or a product. Works are rarely static and the process begins from the first development of the piece and continues through its performance history. Beyond the text is the meta-text, which may be defined as interpretation. The intentionality of a performance may be more important than even the libretto or the score in understanding the work or the performance. The axis of interpretation, improvisation, and co-creation differs for every music-theater project and brings into question issues of authorship between collaborators. Works are usually created with the image of an ideal audience in mind. There is almost always an auteur, not necessarily the composer, who is the central voice. The score, not the libretto, is traditionally the essential or idealized underlying text, but in many contemporary works it loses its authority. Timing or musical dramaturgy may exercise control over the mise en scène, but other elements may be equally important.
The Chicago World’s Fair of 1893
Authors: Carter Marva Griffin
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by discussing the designation of “Colored American Day” on August 25, 1893. It then explains that this day was designated in order to combat the exclusionary climate during the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, wherein almost all black Americans were excluded in the planning and execution of the fair’s exhibitions. Ida B. Wells and other African-Americans urged blacks to boycott the fair for they feared the event might provide whites with ammunition to mock the race. It discusses that “Colored American Day” was observed in a dignified manner and the appearance and demeanor of the participants brought honor to the race. This chapter adds that the event demonstrated that acculturation was the avenue to greater acceptance into the larger social order. The emergence of ragtime and The Creole Show was a cultural innovation, an important first step toward the development of the black musical comedies.
The National Conservatory and Beginning of Musical Career
Authors: Carter Marva Griffin
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by discussing the founding and development of the National Conservatory of Music in Manhattan by Jeannette Meyer-Thurber. It then talks about how the foundress attracted the Bohemian composer Antonín Dvořák as musical director. It also discusses Will Cook’s experiences as a student in that institution. It examines some of Cook’s musical composition such as “We’re Marching On”, “That’ll Be Alright Baby”, and “Love is the Tend’rest of Themes”. It adds that Will Cook began a compositional career and later discovered a new love—musical theater.
A Composer’s Legacy
Authors: Carter Marva Griffin
Published: January 2010

This chapter provides several descriptions of Will Cook as a composer, as cited by his peers. It then shows how Will demonstrated his originality through his musical compositions. This chapter also evaluates Cook’s songwriting style and practices by going through some of his masterpieces.
Watchdogs of the Sea: Bantay Dagat
Authors: Goldoftas Barbara
Published: January 2010

The Philippines depends on its coastal coral reef fisheries as a critical source of livelihood and seafood for both export and domestic consumption. By the mid-1990s, these fisheries had been over-exploited by both large-scale commercial and small-scale subsistence fishermen. Nearly all the coastal fisheries had been over-fished, and three-fourths of the coral reefs were being eroded. This chapter profiles Apo Island, one of the oldest marine protected areas in the country; the scientific research on marine conservation and coastal resource management that led to its creation; and the challenges that the community has faced in maintaining its no-take zone. The chapter also describes the USAID-funded Coastal Resource Management Project and its work building local government capacity to manage coastal resources at a larger scale, using Malalag Bay, Mindanao, as an example.
Why Do You Want to Know: Bakit?
Authors: Goldoftas Barbara
Published: January 2010

Until the 1990s, the province of Palawan was the final ecological frontier in the Philippines. Its relatively intact natural resources and unusually rich biodiversity made it the focus of attempts to create a model for sustainable development, particularly through the development of ecotourism. In the memorable coastal town El Nido in the 1990s, local officials were unable to get the political support they needed to provide strict enforcement of the marine protected area. Eventually, corruption and the influence of powerful economic and political interests determined the direction that ecotourism developed. This chapter looks at the political and economic roles of the sex industry in the Philippines. It also analyzes the benefits and drawbacks of ecotourism as a development strategy.
The Making of "The Rape of Nanking"
Authors: Yoshida Takashi
Published: January 2010

On December 13, 1937, the Japanese army attacked and captured the Chinese capital city of Nanjing, planting the rising-sun flag atop the city's outer walls. What occurred in the ensuing weeks and months has been the source of a tempestuous debate ever since. The book examines how views of the Nanjing Massacre have evolved in history writing and public memory in Japan, China, and the United States. For these nations, the question of how to treat the legacy of Nanjing — whether to deplore it, sanitize it, or even ignore it — has aroused passions revolving around ethics, nationality, and historical identity. The study traces the evolving, and often conflicting, understandings of the Nanjing Massacre, revealing how changing social and political environments have influenced the debate. This study suggests that, from the 1970s on, the dispute over Nanjing has become more lively, more globalized, and immeasurably more intense, due in part to Japanese revisionist history and a renewed emphasis on patriotic education in China. While today it is easy to assume that the Nanjing Massacre has always been viewed as an emblem of Japan's wartime aggression in China, the image of the “Rape of Nanking” is a much more recent icon in public consciousness. The book analyzes the process by which the Nanjing Massacre has become an international symbol and provides a fair and respectful treatment of the politically charged and controversial debate over its history.
Conclusion
Authors: Yoshida Takashi
Published: January 2010

This concluding chapter argues that the lengthy dispute over the Nanjing Massacre has brought both benefits and detriments to the discipline of history. While Nanjing has finally become a recognized symbol of the horrors of war and the human capacity for evil, the public memory of Nanjing has been occasionally tainted with overtones of nationalism and ethnocentrism.
The Transparent Performer
Authors: Haynes Bruce
Published: January 2010

Whatever is done to their music, the original composers will be affected. Original repertoire is all in the public domain now. This chapter argues that far from being “faithful” to a composer's intentions, people are in fact merely stealing ideas from them, and doing it selectively. But obviously, to get the most value out of this theft, it is necessary to be conscious of the composer's wishes. This will give the music the best chance of being understandable. The wishes of the listener, in this case, coincide with those of the composers. This chapter discusses fidelity to the composer, Werktreue (work-fidelity) as the musical analogue of religious fundamentalism, the Urtext imperative and text fetishism, untouchability, the Romantic invention of the interpretive conductor, and the maestro-rehearsal.
Original Ears
Authors: Haynes Bruce
Published: January 2010

Some people like copies of paintings or musical instruments to have the “look of age,” a vintage value. They would prefer, for example, a new “Baroque” violin with an artificial patina of age over its varnish. Given a choice, in other words, they prefer to see “old” things look like they look now (that is, old) rather than how they looked then (which would have been new). The appearance of age is not what makes an instrument, a performance, or a score authentic, but rather the style. This chapter discusses the vintage nature of music compared with style, modern music called Seconda Pratica, past examples of authenticity movements, difference between an art fake and a Period concert, how historical musicology differs from Historically Inspired Performance (HIP) movement, Romantic audience compared with Baroque audience, and Period musicians in Victorian outfits.
The Musical Playground
Authors: Marsh Kathryn
Published: January 2010

This book provides an account of the musical play of school-aged children. Based on fifteen years of ethnomusicological field research in urban and rural school playgrounds around the globe, this book provides unique insights into children's musical playground activities across social, cultural, and national contexts. The book examines sung and chanted games, singing and dance routines associated with popular music and sports chants, and more improvised and spontaneous chants, taunts, and rhythmic movements. The book introduces playgrounds in Australia, Norway, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Korea, offering an important study of how children transmit, maintain, and transform the games of the playground.
Investigating Musical Play
Authors: Marsh Kathryn
Published: January 2010

This chapter deals with philosophical issues as well as ethics and pragmatics related to research on the musical play of children in school playgrounds. One issue concerns the understanding that children's culture, while drawing upon adult society, has its own integrity. It is necessary to view the material collected within the subculture of children in terms of the attributes that are important to them, rather than the qualities that adults perceive as “useful”. This chapter describes the development of a reflexive field methodology used in this book to collect and document, as accurately as possible, the practices associated with children's musical play within a wide range of schools over a period of nearly fifteen years. As a result, considerable insight has been gained with respect to the teaching and learning, generation, variation, and transmission processes used by children in these schools in relation to the forms of musical play that are an integral part of their culture.
Variations on a Theme
Authors: Marsh Kathryn
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines creative strategies and forms of variation employed by children in terms of their musical play in school playgrounds through a detailed musical analysis of one singing game genre, “Sar macka dora”. What is remarkable about Sar macka dora is the high level of textual variability between performances of the game and its definition by the performers in terms of movement characteristics rather than text. Another unique characteristic of this genre is its mode of oral transmission; unlike many other game genres, Sar macka dora is transmitted both by children in the playground and by teachers in the classroom. The interrelatedness of text, movement, melody, and rhythm is evident in game performances in all locations, as is children's willingness to innovate and to draw on influences both within and external to the playground for material with which to generate new play ideas.
Interpretation
Authors: Owen Barbara
Published: January 2010

This chapter argues that although Brahms was familiar with the organ music of other composers and is known to have dabbled in organ playing sufficiently in his youth to know how to write for the instrument, it is impossible to connect him directly with any particular instrument beyond the anonymous little music store organ he occasionally practiced on in Hamburg and possibly the organs in St. Michael's Church and St. Peter's Church in that city. Thus, a somewhat wider range of organs that Brahms is known or believed to have heard during his lifetime must be considered. These include, during his early career, the two Hamburg organs and very possibly some in Düsseldorf churches.
12 Slavery and Union
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM
Published: January 2010

Polk's purpose in securing the speedy annexation of Texas had been to expand plantation slavery into that vast domain. But this was not his aim in provoking war with Mexico; instead, Polk's principal purpose was continentalist — to expand the American empire — an aim he shared with many Northerners. Nevertheless, the Mexican War was as dangerous to the American Union as if slavery expansion had been the president's purpose. This was because Polk believed that the federal government must recognize Southern rights to extend slavery at least south of the Missouri Compromise line, even if it should prove impracticable to establish slavery very vigorously anywhere in the arid Southwest. Polk felt slavery could not be secure in the Southern states unless the right to take slaves into some of those territories were to receive federal recognition.
Rudolf Von Ems And The Art Of Authorial Self-Reference
Authors: Coxon Sebastian
Published: January 2010

This chapter analyses the texts of Rudolf von Ems and his significance for the period 1220-90. Rudolf occupies a special position in the first half of the 13th century by virtue of the extent to which he instils the vernacular narrative with a Latinate sense of written literature. As Rudolf made the transition from the continuous narrative structure of his first texts — where the main body of the narrative is simply bracketed by a prologue and an epilogue — to the arrangement of his later works in ‘books’, each with their own prologue and epilogue, the opportunities for addressing the theme of authorship in any one narrative came to be increased greatly. Consequently, Rudolf 's authorial self-reference is often truly multifaceted: incorporating acrostics, a wide range of authorial roles, and statements from a variety of perspectives. Rudolf may owe a number of these devices to his ‘classical’ predecessors Hartmann, Wolfram, and Gottfried, but the ways in which he combines them are his own.
Patronage, Co-Operation, And Artistic Self-Assurance: Aspects Of Authorship In The Narrative Works Of Konrad Von Würzburg
Authors: Coxon Sebastian
Published: January 2010

This chapter analyses the works of Konrad von Würzburg. His massive oeuvre encompasses love and gnomic lyric poetry, as well as a eulogy of the Virgin Mary, three legends, two romances, a retelling of the story of the Trojan War, and a substantial body of shorter narratives. Konrad's works show that practices of authorial self-presentation did not develop in a linear and straightforward way in the course of the 13th century, not even at the heart of literary tradition. In chronological terms, his activity as a poet follows on almost seamlessly from Rudolf von Ems's, and together these authors represent the two most important points on the axis of ‘postclassical’ narrative literature. Yet Konrad's presentation of authorship bears little or no relation to Rudolf 's.
The Collapse of the Venetian Republic and the Experience of Foreign Domination
Authors: LAVEN DAVID
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the reasons for the fall of the longest-lived republic in history. It stresses that the key was not the decadence or weakness of Venice, but unbridled Napoleonic aggression. It looks at the nature of both Austrian rule from 1798 to 1806, and French control from 1806 to 1813/1814. In particular, it emphasises the deep discontent of Venetians with French domination.
Religious Women in the Conversion Period c.Ad 400–600
Authors: Harrington Christina
Published: January 2010

The ideal starting point of a study of religious women in early medieval Ireland is the native society into which Christianity obtruded: the pagan religion, the status of women, and the roles of female religious professionals. Against such a background, the following can be more fully appreciated: the powers religious women enjoyed, the strictures they had to follow, the way secular society regarded them, and how their nunneries were treated. This procedure, which has been extremely valuable in the study of early Christianity in the late antique world and in Germanic areas, is well-nigh impossible for Ireland because the sources are so limited. This chapter discusses Saint Patrick's encouragement of women to contravene social authority and his views on virgins, women in the monastic vocation in the 5th and 6th centuries, the issues of permanence and lapses among women, participation of religious virgins in missionary activities, and widows and deaconesses.
The Virgin Consort in Hagiography
Authors: Harrington Christina
Published: January 2010

If the Irish attitudes were increasingly mixed on the subject of men and women sharing space in the religious life, this ambivalence is nowhere clearer than in one new and most extraordinary type of narrative. It both epitomises the issues and reveals the underlying common lines of thinking and rationalisation. The Irish consort stories have perplexed historians for nearly a hundred years, and the discussions have so far produced no plausible explanation. In 1968, Roger Reynolds suggested that it was likely for female consorts to live with holy men in early medieval Ireland. According to Reynolds, Celtic syneisactism represented one of the most primitive aspects of Christianity to survive in medieval Western Europe. This chapter discusses cohabitation between female consorts and holy men in early medieval Ireland, the crackdown on nicolaitism, and clerical marriage.
Islamic case law and the logic of consequence
Authors: ROSEN LAWRENCE
Published: January 2010

This chapter argues that if one looks at actual cases rather than legal treatises, a very different view of Islamic law emerges. The stress is not on antecedent concepts, but consequential actions. This is consistent both with the legal style and the social relationships within which the law is active.
Local justice: A day in an alternative court
Authors: ROSEN LAWRENCE
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes the operation of a small court set up by the state alongside the regular courts to hear less major cases. The example of this one court is placed in context and shown to be both successful and flawed in the eyes of the public because of the ways in which it takes evidence and assumes features about human relationships.
Islamic concepts of justice and injustice
Authors: ROSEN LAWRENCE
Published: January 2010

The emphasis on justice in Islam is not on equality but on equivalence. Thus, men and women, children and adults, various ethnic groups, etc. are to be treated in ways that are true to their nature rather than identically. The central importance of justice, rather than rights or entitlements, is explored in the Islamic context.
Are the Oslo Accords Treaties?
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines whether the Oslo Accords are binding as traditional treaties. It argues that the Oslo Accords are probably not treaties under traditional treaty law, as embodied in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. This counter-intuitive conclusion says something about the narrow scope of the Vienna Convention and, more generally, about the formalism that pervades international law.
Limits on Palestinian Self-Government
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter asks whether the Palestinian Authority (PA) is complying with the limits on Palestinian self-government imposed by the Accords. It argues that the PA appears to have exceeded some of the Accords' restrictions on Palestinian self-government. The size of the Palestinian police force exceeds that permitted by the Interim Agreement, though it remains to be seen whether Israel will vigorously object to this development, which might help the PA abide by its obligation to maintain a ‘strong’ police force. The PA also appears to have exceeded the geographic and functional limits on its governmental activity, in particular at Orient House in East Jerusalem.
Quasiclassical Method for Layered Superconductors
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

The quasiclassical scheme is generalized for layered superconductors. The Ginzburg–Landau theory for layered superconductors known as the Lawrence–Doniach model and the expression for supercurrent are derived. Coherence lengths along and perpendicular to the layers as well as the magnetic field penetration lengths for magnetic field parallel and perpendicular to the layers are defined. The upper critical field is calculated for the field direction parallel to the layers. The interaction of vortices with the underlying crystalline structure (intrinsic pinning) is discussed.
Quasiclassical Method for Nonstationary Phenomena
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

This chapter applies the quasiclassical approximation to nonstationary problems in the theory of superconductivity. The Eliashberg equations for the quasiclassical Keldysh Green functions are derived. Normalization of the Green functions in nonequilibrium situation is found. The Keldysh function is expressed in terms of a two-component generalized distribution function. The diffusive limit in nonstationary superconductivity is described. An example of stimulated superconductivity due to microwave irradiation is considered: the order parameter becomes enhanced as a result of a depletion of nonequilibrium distribution of excitations in the energy range of the superconducting gap.
Gauge Theory of Spin Glasses
Authors: Nishimori Hidetoshi
Published: January 2010

Studying how reliable the predictions of the mean-field theory are in realistic finite-dimensional systems presents an important problem. It is, in general, very difficult to investigate two- and three-dimensional systems by analytical methods, and current studies in this field are predominantly by numerical methods. This chapter presents a unique type of argument — the gauge theory — which uses the symmetry of the system to derive a number of rigorous or exact results. The gauge theory does not directly answer the problem of the existence of the spin glass phase in finite dimensions. Nevertheless, it places strong constraints on the possible structure of the phase diagram. Also, the gauge theory is found to be closely related to the Bayesian method frequently encountered in information processing problems to be discussed in subsequent chapters.
Theories of Molecular Reaction Dynamics
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y.
Published: January 2010

This book deals with a central topic at the interface of chemistry and physics — the understanding of how the transformation of matter takes place at the atomic level. Building on the laws of physics, the book focuses on the theoretical framework for predicting the outcome of chemical reactions. The style is highly systematic with attention to basic concepts and clarity of presentation. Molecular reaction dynamics is about the detailed atomic-level description of chemical reactions. Based on quantum mechanics and statistical mechanics or, as an approximation, classical mechanics, the dynamics of uni- and bi-molecular elementary reactions are described. The first part of the book is on gas-phase dynamics and it features a detailed presentation of reaction cross-sections and their relation to a quasi-classical as well as a quantum mechanical description of the reaction dynamics on a potential energy surface. Direct approaches to the calculation of the rate constant that bypasses the detailed state-to-state reaction cross-sections are presented, including transition-state theory, which plays an important role in practice. The second part gives a comprehensive discussion of basic theories of reaction dynamics in condensed phases, including Kramers and Grote–Hynes theory for dynamical solvent effects. Examples and end-of-chapter problems are included in order to illustrate the theory and its connection to chemical problems. The book has nine appendices with useful details, e.g. on statistical mechanics including the Boltzmann distribution, quantum mechanics, stochastic dynamics and various coordinate transformations including normal-mode and Jacobi coordinates.
From microscopic to macroscopic descriptions
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses bimolecular reactions from both a microscopic and macroscopic point of view. The outcome of an isolated reactive scattering event can be specified in terms of an intrinsic fundamental quantity, the reaction cross-section that can be measured in a molecular beam experiment. It depends on the quantum states of the molecules as well as the relative velocity of reactants and products. The relation between the cross-section and the macroscopic rate constant is derived. The rate constant is a weighted average of the product between the relative speed of the reactants and the reaction cross-section. The chapter concludes with the special case of thermal equilibrium, where the velocity distributions for the molecules are the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. The expression for the rate constant at temperature T is reduced to a one-dimensional integral over the relative speed of the reactants.
Static solvent effects, transition-state theory
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses static solvent effects on the rate constant for chemical reactions in solution. It starts with a brief discussion of the thermodynamic formulation of transition-state theory. The static equilibrium structure of the solvent will modify the potential energy surface for the chemical reaction. This effect is analyzed within the framework of transition-state theory. The rate constant is expressed in terms of the potential of mean force at the activated complex. Various definitions of this potential and their relations to n-particle- and pair-distribution functions are considered. The potential of mean force may, for example, be defined such that the gradient of the potential gives the average force on an atom in the activated complex, Boltzmann averaged over all configurations of the solvent. It concludes with a discussion of a relation between the rate constants in the gas phase and in solution.
The Sequence of Tenses in Archaic Latin
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO
Published: January 2010

Latin verbs have three stems: the present stem for simultaneous events; the perfect stem for anterior ones; and the supine stem, which can be used to form periphrastic subjunctives expressing posteriority. From each stem two tenses can be formed. If the main clause verb has present or future meaning and if the subordinate clause is semantically highly dependent on the main clause, the verb in the subordinate clause will be in the present, perfect, or simple periphrastic subjunctive, depending on whether the action is simultaneous with, anterior to, or posterior to the main clause event. If the main clause verb has past meaning, there is backshift of tenses in the subordinate clause, which can now contain the pluperfect, imperfect, or past periphrastic subjunctive. The rules are essentially the same in the early and the classical periods, but the periphrastic subjunctives are still comparatively rare in Plautus and Terence.
The Sigmatic Subjunctive in Archaic Latin
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO
Published: January 2010

The sigmatic subjunctive (type faxim ‘I may do’) always has non-past meaning. However, its distribution patterns differ from those of the present subjunctive. While the present subjunctive is not subject to any restrictions, the sigmatic subjunctive is virtually absent in commands and ut-clauses, but unusually frequent in prohibitions and subordinate nē-clauses. The sigmatic subjunctive belongs to an elevated register.
The Sigmatic Infinitives
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO
Published: January 2010

Most of the sigmatic infinitives (type impetrāssere ‘to achieve’) occur in accusative and infinitive constructions with future time reference. Since in this constellation they could be replaced not only by future infinitives, but also by present infinitives, their precise meaning remains unclear. There is one instance of a sigmatic infinitive after the modal verb posse (‘to be able to’). While the sigmatic infinitive could only be replaced by a present tense infinitive here, the conclusion cannot be that all sigmatic infinitives are inherently present-tense infinitives; the token, clearly employed to mark a higher register, could be a ‘false archaism’.
Extra-Paradigmatic Forms in Classical and Later Latin
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO
Published: January 2010

The extra-paradigmatic forms were already undergoing a restriction process in the early period. Yet some of them continued to be used throughout the classical era and later. The forms that survived better were either those which were relatively frequent in early literature or those whose morphology was not overly opaque. Typically, archaic forms became restricted to certain contexts or collocations. Occasionally we find ‘false archaisms’, that is, usages of essentially dead forms in ways that were not possible in the pre-classical period.
Scale-invariance
Authors: Caldarelli Guido
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents an overview of self-similar phenomena in nature and why they are so important and how this applies to complex networks.
Quantum Probability
Authors: Breuer Heinz-Peter , Petruccione Francesco
Published: January 2010

This chapter develops the fundamental notions and concepts of the probabilistic and statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics. It begins with a brief review of the mathematical structure given by a Hilbert space of state vectors and an algebra of observables represented by selfadjoint operators. Special emphasis is laid on the connection between the spectral representation of a selfadjoint operator and a corresponding random variable that describes the possible measurement outcomes. The chapter further introduces the concepts of a composite quantum system, of the reduced density matrix, and of entangled quantum states. A section on quantum entropies is included, as well as the mathematical formulation of the generalized theory of quantum measurements in terms of completely positive quantum operations and effects.
Quantum Master Equations
Authors: Breuer Heinz-Peter , Petruccione Francesco
Published: January 2010

This chapter introduces the fundamentals of the description of the quantum dynamics of open systems in terms of quantum master equations, together with its most important applications. Special emphasis is laid on the theory of completely positive quantum dynamical semigroups, which leads to the concept of a quantum Markov process. It discusses the relaxation to equilibrium and the multi-time structure of quantum Markov processes, as well as their irreversible nature which is characterized by an appropriate entropy functional. Microscopic derivations for various quantum master equations are presented, such as the quantum optical master equation and the master equation for quantum Brownian motion. As a further application, the master equation describing continuous measurements is derived and used to study the quantum Zeno effect. The chapter also contains a treatment of non-linear, mean field quantum master equations together with applications to laser theory and super-radiance.
Applications to Quantum Optical Systems
Authors: Breuer Heinz-Peter , Petruccione Francesco
Published: January 2010

This chapter deals with a presentation of continuous measurement theory on the basis of the microscopic equations of quantum electrodynamics. The emphasis lies on the derivation of the quantum operations and the corresponding stochastic processes for various detection schemes directly from the Hamiltonian, which describes the interaction of the matter degrees of freedom with the quantized electromagnetic field. The chapter treats many examples and applications to atomic physics and quantum optics, such as dark state resonances and laser cooling of atoms. This example illustrates the interplay between incoherent processes and quantum interference effects which leads to the emergence of Lévy-type distributions for the atomic waiting time. Finally, dissipative phenomena in the dynamics of open quantum systems in strong driving fields are studied, for which appropriate master equations and stochastic wave function methods can be derived by employing a representation in terms of Floquet states.
Measurements in Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
Authors: Breuer Heinz-Peter , Petruccione Francesco
Published: January 2010

This chapter develops the theory of measurements in relativistic quantum mechanics. The presentation is based on the idea to consider the state of a relativistic quantum system as a functional on the set of space-like hypersurfaces in Minkowski space. This idea leads to a manifest covariant time-evolution equation, known as Schwinger–Tomonaga equation, and allows a relativistic formulation of the projection postulate of quantum measurement theory. This postulate is used to study a number of applications to local and non-local measurements, to the erasing of local information, and to the restrictions on the measurability of non-local quantities imposed by the causality principle. The relativistic projection postulate further enables the discussion of many important problems from a unified perspective, such as EPR-type experiments, measurements of Bell state operators, exchange measurements, and quantum teleportation.
Open Quantum Electrodynamics
Authors: Breuer Heinz-Peter , Petruccione Francesco
Published: January 2010

In quantum electrodynamics, the matter degrees of freedom are coupled to the radiation field through a local, gauge-invariant interaction density. Due to the linear structure of this coupling, the problem of constructing a complete formal representation of the reduced matter dynamics can be solved exactly if the electromagnetic radiation field is initially in a Gaussian state. This chapter combines field theoretical methods with superoperator and influence functional techniques to derive an exact, relativistic representation for the reduced density matrix of the matter degrees of freedom which completely describes the influence of the electromagnetic radiation field on the matter dynamics. Several applications are treated, such as the suppression of the quantum coherence of charged particles caused by the emission of bremsstrahlung and the decoherence of many-particle states.
The Plain Man's Pathways to Heaven
Authors: Haigh Christopher
Published: January 2010

What did ordinary people believe in post-Reformation England, and what did they do about it? This book looks at religious belief and practice through the eyes of five sorts of people: godly Protestant ministers, zealous Protestant laypeople, the ignorant, those who complained about the burdens of religion, and the Catholics. Based on 600 court and visitation books from three national and twelve local archives, it cites what people had to say about themselves, their religion, and the religions of others. How did people behave in church? What did they think of church rituals? What did they do on Sundays? What did they think of people of other faiths? How did they get along together, and what sort of issues produced tensions between them? What did parishioners think of their priests and what did the clergy think of their people? Was everyone seriously religious, or did some people mock or doubt religion? If these questions have been tackled before, it has usually been by way of claims about what the common people believed in books written by members of the educated ranks about their contemporaries. In contrast, by going directly to other sources of evidence such court records and parish complaints, this book illuminates what ordinary people actually said and did.
Philagathus: Godly Living
Authors: HAIGH CHRISTOPHER
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on godly living. Theologus advises those who wish to follow Christ to ‘Keep company with the godly, and avoid the society of the wicked’. This was the conventional counsel of godly preachers. The godly knew how to distinguish between ‘us’ and ‘them’. Those who took communion with Master Luddington in 1585 were ‘rotten members and rotten sheep’, thought William Leyden of Hempsted, Essex, and in 1587 Robert Hamon of Bobbingworth declared that Master Glascock ‘is a blind guide, and all that follow him shall go to the devil’.
Antilegon: Scoffing at the Sacred
Authors: HAIGH CHRISTOPHER
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on parishioners' mocking of the clergy. It shows that making fun of the ministry was easy — and a good laugh. Any of the functions of the clergy could be mocked, including their claims to authority, learning, rectitude, and status.
The Papist: Outside the Church, Inside the Community
Authors: HAIGH CHRISTOPHER
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on papists. ‘Church papists’ went to church to avoid trouble: they usually kept their heads down, and their opinions to themselves. Catholics who stayed away from church — the recusants (or ‘refusers’) — denied the legitimacy and authority of the Church of England, and so rarely bothered to appear before its courts. When recusants were indicted at quarter sessions or assizes, certified absence was enough to convict them, and their reasons hardly mattered. So historians have found it difficult to write about grass-roots Catholic opinion — what ordinary Catholics thought of their own religion and of the religion of Protestants.
Early Solutions: Timber Deck Bridges and Causeways
Authors: HARRISON DAVID
Published: January 2010

This chapter looks at timber deck bridges and causeways built by the Romans in England during the medieval period. Remains of timber bridges of the type depicted on Trajan's column were found at Aldwincle, Northamptonshire, across the Nene. It measured about twenty-five metres long, and the largest timbers were roughly five metres in length and between 0.4 and 0.5 metres in section. Trestles or piles supported horizontal girders, and on this structure the cross planking of the timber deck was laid. This supported a metalled road which was possibly laid on sand, matting, or clay, rather than directly onto the planks. Causeways were constructed across marshy land. On the Somerset levels, a well-made structure was found with vertical piles and wooden sleepers. Another causeway at Strood, near Rochester in Kent, consisted of layers of flints, chalk, pebble-gravel, and Kentish Rag, which rested on piles and a framework of timber ‘cells’.
Conclusions: Bridges, Transport, and Pre-industrial Society
Authors: HARRISON DAVID
Published: January 2010

This book has traced the history of bridges and other river crossings in England over the last 2,000 years. It began with the impressive programme of construction undertaken by the Romans. The remnants of a few of their finest structures can still be seen. The history of bridges has very important implications for our understanding of transport and, more generally, of society in pre-industrial England. It provided insights into many subjects: the road system, the amount of traffic using it, the extent of internal trade, the development of the economy, and even the nature of the state. It has also highlighted the problems caused by historians' specialisation in relatively narrow periods, giving insights on how to overcome the drawback that most works on road transport and internal trade in pre-industrial England have encountered.
Uncertain Future
Authors: Hinton James
Published: January 2010

In 1945 most WVS members expected the organization to close down, and when it did not do so, they left. At the same time the national leadership of the established women's organizations which had provided much of the local leadership for the WVS since 1938 pressed the Attlee government to put an end to Lady Reading's fiefdom which they regarded as an alien, state-subsidised wartime growth, offensive to principles both of democracy and of voluntarism. How did the WVS survive? This chapter examines attitudes among the WVS membership at the end of the war, and the strategy of ‘mission creep’ employed by Lady Reading to make WVS indispensable to Whitehall by finding new work for tired hands. Her success in persuading the surviving members, many of them Tories, to collaborate with the Labour Government's management of austerity — notably in food education and fuel economy — testifies to the continuing appeal of non-partisanship among middle-class social leaders.
Introduction
Authors: AVGOULEAS EMILIOS
Published: January 2010

The history of financial markets is full of epic gains and colossal catastrophes that leave devastating financial hardship behind. Market abuse is one of the main causes of such market anomalies and of large-scale frauds. This book examines the mechanics of insider dealing and market manipulation and the rationales underlying their regulation. The book uses traditional legal analysis in the discussion of legal and regulatory rules dealing with market abuse. At the same time, it employs some of the assumptions of economic analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of market abuse regulations in the United Kingdom and the rest of the European Union (EU). The advent of the new European Community regulation for financial markets enables the researcher to deal with the EU regime for market abuse in a unitary fashion without engaging in a detailed study of applicable rules in each Member State.
The Regulation of Market Abuse
Authors: AVGOULEAS EMILIOS
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the rationales for the regulation (prohibition) of insider dealing and market manipulation and the regulatory tools used to achieve this objective. In this context, the discussion is concentrated on the welfare effects of two sets of legal and regulatory rules that protect the integrity of the marketplace and deter or punish market abuse. The first set mainly comprises mandatory disclosure and market transparency rules, while the second set comprises the so-called market conduct rules, which regulate market manipulation and insider dealing. Market conduct rules extend over a continuum that encompasses, on the one hand, exchange trading rules, and on the other, criminal and regulatory prohibitions of insider dealing and market manipulation, with rules that govern the integrity of financial promotions and the proper management or the avoidance of conflicts of interest by investment intermediaries.
The Prohibition and Punishment of Market Abuse in the UK
Authors: AVGOULEAS EMILIOS
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the legal and regulatory framework dealing with market abuse in the UK. The UK’s market abuse regime has a dual nature and is based both on criminal law and regulatory prohibitions, which overlap to a considerable degree. The regulatory regime dealing with market abuse was introduced by the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 (FSMA 2000), which provided for a regulatory offence of market abuse. FSMA 2000 came into effect on December 1, 2001; the FSMA 2000 market abuse regime was substantially remodelled in July 2005 following the adoption of the Treasury’s Market Abuse and Investment Recommendation (Media) Regulations and attendant changes to the FSA’s Handbook, which implemented in the UK the EC Market Abuse Directive and its Level 2 Implementing Measures. This reform has left largely unchanged the UK’s criminal regime for insider dealing and market manipulation, based respectively on Part V of the Criminal Justice Act 1993 and section 397 of FSMA 2000.