bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
In situ hybridization: key concepts and applications
Authors: Warford Anthony , Volpi Emanuela
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores
in situ
hybridization (ISH), a method that relies on base pair complementarity to enable specific localization of nucleic acids in cellular pathology samples. It is an integrated experimental approach which combines cell-by-cell microscopic visualization with high-resolution analysis of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Today, ISH is widely employed in both diagnostics and research. In the pathology setting, it can be successfully applied as an adjunctive, powerful diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive tool to detect a variety of specific DNA changes within tissue sections and inform ‘personalized’ therapeutic approaches. In research applications, ISH presently complements high-throughput microarray analysis outputs by providing evidence of dysregulation of gene expression, at mRNA and microRNA level, on an individual cell basis.
Cytology of urine
Authors: Shambayati Behdad
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers the cytological examination of a urine specimen as a simple and inexpensive method of assessing patients who present with haematuria or blood in urine. It clarifies that haematuria is a common presentation for a variety of non-malignant conditions, which can cause the cytological yield for cancer to be low. It also emphasizes that the cytological evaluation of urine is useful for follow-up of patients who have been treated for urothelial carcinoma. The chapter highlights the use of urinary cytology as a screening test for individuals who are at higher risk of developing urothelial cancer, such as workers exposed to carcinogens or those working in the rubber industry. It elaborates how iatrogenic changes can affect cell presentation, warning cytologists to adjust their diagnostic criteria to avoid a false positive diagnosis.
Fine needle aspiration cytology
Authors: Shambayati Behdad
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes fine needle aspiration cytology (FNA), which allows the sampling of various solid tissues in the body with the aid of a fine needle. It considers FNA as a safe diagnostic procedure wherein significant complications are rare, distinguishing it as cost effective, acceptable to patients, and suitable for rapid and accurate diagnosis. It also points out that FNA is not a replacement for surgical histopathology or core biopsy as there are times where cytology cannot give a definitive answer and histological assessment is required. The chapter details the on-site assessment of FNA sample adequacy by a cytopathologist or trained biomedical scientist, which provides the optimal approach for obtaining adequate material for immediate investigation, ancillary testing, and eventual accurate diagnosis. It explains how deep lesions can be sampled with FNA with the aid of ultrasound or CT imaging for guidance.
Basic semen analysis
Authors: Blackman Stephen , Shambayati Behdad
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the anatomical basis of semen production and explores the range of analytical tests that provide data for clinical diagnosis. These include investigations following vasectomy procedures and a number of tests that are designed to look into infertility issues. There exists a range of tests which come under the umbrella of semen analysis that utilize skills ranging from microscopy to immunology and include aspects of haematology, biochemistry, microbiology, and cytology. The chapter looks into the process of spermatozoa production. It also discusses the composition of semen and the function of its various components. It then goes on to describe the range of laboratory tests that can be applied to a semen sample. It looks at how test results relate to the normal ranges. Finally, it considers factors that can lead to sub-optimal results.
Primary Production Processes
Authors: Kaiser Michel J. , Attrill Martin J. , Jennings Simon , Thomas David N. , Barnes David K. A. , Brierley Andrew S. , Graham Nicholas A. J. , Hiddink Jan Geert , Howell Kerry L. , Kaartokallio Hermanni
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces the major factors that control primary production and how to measure it. Primary production is the starting point of all life in marine systems. Primary producers in the oceans span many orders of magnitude. Production is measured using bottled incubations or, increasingly, from space, using (satellite-borne) ocean colour sensors that detect photosynthetic pigments in surface waters. The conversion of inorganic carbon into biomass, its subsequent sinking to the seabed, and sequestration over thousands of years are fundamental to an understanding of the ocean as a potential sink for increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide. About 55% of the total carbon captured on Earth through the process of photosynthesis and production of biomass takes place in marine systems.
Secondary Production: The Macrobiota
Authors: Kaiser Michel J. , Attrill Martin J. , Jennings Simon , Thomas David N. , Barnes David K. A. , Brierley Andrew S. , Graham Nicholas A. J. , Hiddink Jan Geert , Howell Kerry L. , Kaartokallio Hermanni
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces techniques used to measure secondary production and the major factors that control it. Secondary production is the production of biomass by heterotrophic organisms and is measured as the increase in biomass over time. In food webs, secondary production can be defined as the total amount of biomass that becomes available to be consumed by the next trophic level. Secondary production of a population depends on the growth and mortality rates of the population and is tightly linked to the life history of organisms. As a result, the production-to-biomass ratio of small organisms is generally higher than that of larger organisms. Human activities, such as fisheries and eutrophication, impact on secondary production and are illustrated using contemporary examples.
Coral Reefs
Authors: Kaiser Michel J. , Attrill Martin J. , Jennings Simon , Thomas David N. , Barnes David K. A. , Brierley Andrew S. , Graham Nicholas A. J. , Hiddink Jan Geert , Howell Kerry L. , Kaartokallio Hermanni
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores coral reefs. Coral reefs support some of the most diverse and productive communities in the marine environment. Living corals are animals that create limestone formations that may be thousands of kilometres long and hundreds of metres deep. Species' diversity on reefs can equal that in rainforests, but reefs are generally more accessible and easier to observe. The dynamics of reef organisms are complex, supporting high diversity and carbonate growth potential. For millions of people in the tropics, reefs are the main source of food, building materials, and income. However, as the chapter shows, coral reefs around the world are increasingly under threat from changes in climate, sedimentation, fishing, and pollution. Current reef research is thus focused on how to best manage reefs for their long-term survival.
Climate Change
Authors: Kaiser Michel J. , Attrill Martin J. , Jennings Simon , Thomas David N. , Barnes David K. A. , Brierley Andrew S. , Graham Nicholas A. J. , Hiddink Jan Geert , Howell Kerry L. , Kaartokallio Hermanni
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the mechanisms that have resulted in climate change and looks at the evidence for this change, with a focus on the oceans. This is then followed by examples of how the marine environment has responded to these changes. In particular, the chapter focuses on the impacts of temperature change, ocean acidification, and sea-level rise. It also looks at how natural climatic cycles can both show much about the likely future impact of increasing temperatures and exacerbate the impacts of longer-term warming. However, the main purpose of the chapter is to provide the evidence of what is known about climate change and its impact on the marine environment rather than predicting what may happen in the future.
Ecological Surveying and Monitoring
Authors: Goodenough Anne E. , Hart Adam G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the importance of the monitoring process in applied ecology. First, it differentiates types of surveying and monitoring that would be used under the parameters of habitats, species, interactions and ecosystem services, and environmental parameters that influence ecology. Moreover, the chapter considers using direct, indirect, remote, secondary, and primary data for monitoring. It explicates the monitoring of habitats and species as well and uses the Common Standards Monitoring as an example. It lists the main types of monitoring and their main considerations: baseline surveying, spatial surveying, temporal monitoring, compliance monitoring, and mitigation monitoring. The chapter suggests that there is a correlation between monitoring and management. It cites an interview with applied ecologist Elizabeth Pimley.
Ecological Impact Assessment
Authors: Goodenough Anne E. , Hart Adam G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains ecological management in line with enhancement, mitigation, and compensation strategies to maintain ecology. It first discusses Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), wherein an evaluation is conducted with regard to the impacts of proposed human development. The chapter then looks at the EIA value of habitat, species, site, individual organism, and ecosystem. It clarifies that Ecological Impact Assessment (EcIA) and EIA can be either granted, withheld, or denied. Moreover, the chapter expounds on the likely impacts of development, which always includes construction and operational states. However, it lists the impact of development alongside its possible solutions, such as mitigation and compensation. The chapter includes an interview with applied ecologist Lorna Roberts.
Experimental methods in CW EPR
Authors: Chechik Victor , Carter Emma , Murphy Damien
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the fundamental basis of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy involving the observation of electron spin transitions in the presence of a magnetic field. It discusses the continuous wave (CW) technique, wherein a continuous source of microwave (MW) radiation of fixed frequency is applied to the sample mounted in a cavity or resonator to induce spin transitions. It also shows the detection of the absorbed MW energy, which is a function of the magnetic field resulting in the observed EPR signal. The chapter focuses on the essential hardware components required to perform a CW EPR experiment, including the microwave bridge, the resonant cavity, the external magnet, and the console. It looks at different functions of hardware components and explains how to optimize the EPR signal through judicious selection of the instrumental parameters.
Isotropic EPR spectra of organic radicals
Authors: Chechik Victor , Carter Emma , Murphy Damien
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains how to build splitting diagrams, measure hyperfine constant values and simulate the spectra, and what structural information can be obtained from these data. It discusses strategies for the generation and detection of short-lived organic radicals. It also recounts the anisotropic interaction that averages out to zero for rapidly tumbling radicals, such as small organic radicals in low viscosity solvents. The chapter describes the commonly used microwave frequencies, wherein the energy of the hyperfine interaction for organic radicals which is much smaller than the energy of the electron Zeeman interaction. It highlights the hyperfine interaction with several equivalent nuclei which is considered in the same way as the interaction with nonequivalent nuclei.
Work
Authors: Atkins Peter , Paula Julio de , Smith David
Published: September 2023

This chapter evaluates the concept of work. Energy is central to almost every explanation in chemistry, and is defined in terms of work. The chapter begins by defining systems and surroundings. In thermodynamics, a system is the part of the world in which there is a special interest, while the surroundings are where observations are made. Because many chemical reactions produce gas, one very important type of work in chemistry is expansion work, the work done when a system expands against an opposing pressure. Maximum work is done when the external pressure is only infinitesimally less than the pressure of the gas in the system. In effect, the two pressures must be adjusted continuously to be the same at all stages of the expansion. This balance of pressures on either side of a moveable wall is called a state of mechanical equilibrium. The chapter then looks at reversible expansion.
Heat
Authors: Atkins Peter , Paula Julio de , Smith David
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on heat, which, together with work, plays a central role in the formulation of thermodynamics. ‘Heating’ is the process of transferring energy as a result of a temperature difference between the system and its surroundings. It may occur by conduction, when the system is in direct thermal contact with the surroundings, or by radiation, when energy is transmitted as electromagnetic radiation. Walls that permit heating as a mode of transfer of energy are called diathermic, while walls that do not permit heating even though there is a difference in temperature are called adiabatic. The chapter then differentiates between an exothermic process and an endothermic process, before considering heat capacity, calorimetry, and heat influx during expansion.
Electrochemical cells
Authors: Atkins Peter , Paula Julio de , Smith David
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses electrochemical cells. The transfer of electrons is the core concept of electrochemistry, and the resulting reactions can be expressed in terms of the reaction Gibbs energy interpreted as a potential difference generated by an electrochemical cell. An electrochemical cell consists of two electronic conductors in electrical contact with an electrolyte, which may be a solution, a liquid, or a solid. The electronic conductor and its electrolyte constitute an electrode. The chapter then differentiates between a galvanic cell and an electrolytic cell, before looking at how a redox reaction is expressed as the difference of two reduction half-reactions. A cathode is the site of reduction, while an anode is the site of oxidation. The chapter also defines the cell potential and considers the Nernst equation.
Integrated rate laws
Authors: Atkins Peter , Paula Julio de , Smith David
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on how the composition of a reaction mixture can be predicted by integrating a rate law. An integrated rate law is an expression that gives the concentration of a species as a function of the time. They are called integrated rate laws because a rate law is a differential equation, and solving such an equation involves the mathematical technique of integration. Integrated rate laws have two principal uses. One is to predict the concentration of a species at any time after the start of the reaction. Another is to help find the rate constant and order of the reaction. The chapter then looks at the integrated rate laws for a variety of simple reaction types, including zeroth-order reactions, first-order reactions, and second-order reactions. It also considers the concept of half-life.
Molecular orbital theory: polyatomic molecules
Authors: Atkins Peter , Paula Julio de , Smith David
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on molecules that are polyatomic, which are important because of their electronic structure. It reviews an early approach to the electronic structure of planar conjugated polyenes called the Hückel method. It also introduces severe approximations which are now used widely to predict molecular structure, physical properties, and chemical reactivity. The chapter highlights molecular orbitals that can be expressed as linear combinations of all the atomic orbitals of the appropriate symmetry. It examines bonds in polyatomic molecules which are built in the same way as in diatomic molecules but are also different as atomic orbitals are used to construct the molecular orbitals.
Electric properties of molecules
Authors: Atkins Peter , Paula Julio de , Smith David
Published: September 2023

This chapter investigates molecular interactions that can be traced to various aspects of the electron distributions in the interacting species and the shapes of molecules. It provides an account of the electric properties of individual molecules, including their electric dipole moments and polarizabilities. It also shows how electric properties of molecules reflect the degree to which the nuclei of atoms exert control over the electrons in a molecule, either by causing electrons to accumulate in particular regions or by permitting them to respond more or less strongly to applied electric fields. The chapter talks about the nuclei of atoms which exert control over the electrons in a molecule, cause electrons to accumulate in particular regions, or permit them to respond to external fields. It highlights the distribution of electric charge in molecules and the response of their electron distribution to electric fields.
The partition function
Authors: Atkins Peter , Paula Julio de , Smith David
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the concept of a partition function introduced by the Boltzmann distribution, which is the central mathematical concept of the treatment of statistical thermodynamics. It focuses on how to interpret the partition function and how to calculate it in a number of simple cases. It also deduces that a molecular partition function is the thermodynamic version of a wavefunction and contains all the thermodynamic information about a system. The chapter discusses how the connection between molecular properties that have been calculated or derived from spectroscopy and thermodynamic properties depends on a partition function. It demonstrates how a partition function is calculated by drawing on calculated or spectroscopically derived structural information about molecules.
The information in NMR spectra
Authors: Atkins Peter , Paula Julio de , Smith David
Published: September 2023

This chapter analyzes the energy of a magnetic nucleus that depends on its electronic environment and the presence of magnetic nuclei in its vicinity. It covers concepts that lead to an understanding of how molecular structure affects the appearance of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra. It also demonstrates how the appearance of a spectrum correlates with molecular structure in order to understand the principles underlying the analysis of NMR spectra. The chapter describes nuclear spins that interact with the local magnetic field or the field in their immediate vicinity. It discusses the spin–spin coupling in molecules in solution that can be explained in terms of the polarization mechanism in which the interaction is transmitted through the bonds.
Electron paramagnetic resonance
Authors: Atkins Peter , Paula Julio de , Smith David
Published: September 2023

This chapter cites the experimental techniques for electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy that resemble those used in the early days of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). It highlights the information obtained from EPR spectroscopy, which is used to investigate species with unpaired electrons. It also includes a brief survey of the applications of EPR to the study of organic radicals. The chapter talks about how EPR can be used to characterize the structures of materials and biological systems that contain species bearing unpaired electrons. It describes the features of the electron paramagnetic resonance spectrum of a radical that arise from the ability of the applied magnetic field to induce local electron currents and from the magnetic interaction between the unpaired electron and nuclei with spin.
Resource section
Authors: Atkins Peter , Paula Julio de , Smith David
Published: September 2023

Common integrals

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Physical Chemistry
Authors: Elliott Joanne , Page Elizabeth
Published: September 2023

Workbook in Physical Chemistry opens with a chapter on the fundamentals of this field. It then looks at thermodynamics before covering chemical equilibrium. After that, there follows a chapter on phase equilibrium. Towards the end there is a chapter which covers reaction kinetics. The final chapter looks at electrochemistry.
Chemical equilibrium
Authors: Elliott Joanne , Page Elizabeth
Published: September 2023

This chapter analyses the reaction that ensues when reactants are mixed until equilibrium is established. It defines the term 'dynamic equilibrium', which refers to the fact that once equilibrium has been established, both forward and backward reactions continue at the same rate. It also talks about the presence of both reactants and products. Here, there is no further tendency for the mixture to undergo net change. The chapter cites the reaction between hydrogen and iodine to produce hydrogen iodide as an example. The chapter highlights how the equilibrium process may be investigated by setting up a reaction mixture of hydrogen and iodine in a sealed vessel, allowing it to come to equilibrium. It examines the ratio of reactants to products found at equilibrium. This is determined by the equilibrium constant for the reaction.
Reaction kinetics
Authors: Elliott Joanne , Page Elizabeth
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the rate of a chemical reaction in which the reactants are converted into products and are monitored by measuring the change of concentration of a reactant or product with time. It looks at the instantaneous rate, which refers to the rate of appearance of products and disappearance of reactants that changes during the course of the reaction. It also explains how to obtain the average rate of reaction by measuring how long it takes for one of the reactants to be completely converted into products. The chapter looks at the rate of reaction at any point during the reaction process, which is given by the gradient of the tangent to the curve. It includes the initial rates method for determining rate equations, which takes a series of reactions with different initial concentrations of a reactant.
Reactions of unsaturated compounds
Authors: Cook Michael , Cranwell Philippa
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses reactions of unsaturated compounds, focusing on electrophilic addition. In general, electrophilic addition reactions occur between an electrophile and an alkene, though other groups possessing π-bonds may also react in this way. Electrophilic addition results in the π-bond breaking with the formation of two new σ bonds, with the electrophile 'adding' to the alkene to form a new, larger, molecule. The chapter shows an example electrophilic addition in which hydrogen bromide 'adds' to an alkene π-bond. Common reagents which undergo electrophilic addition to alkenes are hydrogen halides, alcohols, and water. Acid catalysts are often used which act as an electrophile, reacting with the alkene in the first instance to form a carbocation, which is then attacked by a nucleophile.
Clinical Use of Blood Components
Authors: Mohabir Lionel
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the function of blood in vivo and the body's response to anaemia and bleeding. It begins with an understanding of the basic circulatory physiology and the structure and function of the components of blood. The chapter then offers an overview of the coagulation cascade, plasma fractionation, and recombinant technology. It describes the different blood components available and their appropriate and inappropriate use based on best practice national guidelines. Next, the chapter looks at the benefits of transfusion therapy and the alternatives available to using allogeneic blood. It then analyses how good communication, standards, audit, and review of product use will aid appropriate use of blood components. The chapter also presents national initiatives designed to facilitate the appropriate use of blood.
Key concepts in chemistry
Authors: Pocock Gillian , Richards Christopher D. , Richards David A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the basic structure of atoms and molecules and explains how molecules are bound together. Examples include covalent and ionic bonds. The chapter presents a brief account of the chemistry necessary to understand the metabolic reactions of the body. All matter is composed of chemical elements, which are substances that cannot be broken down into simpler materials by chemical means. The chapter provides information which helps the reader to understand what is meant by an element and a compound, to differentiate between atoms and molecules, to understand molecular structures, and to calculate the concentration of a substance in solution. It discusses key properties of solutions such as ionization, pH, and osmosis.
The autonomic nervous system
Authors: Pocock Gillian , Richards Christopher D. , Richards David A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter deals with the autonomic nervous system (ANS). This regulates the operation of the internal organs and supports the activity of the body as a whole. The autonomic nervous system is not a separate nervous system but is the efferent pathway that links those areas within the brain concerned with the regulation of the internal environment to specific effectors such as blood vessels, the heart, and the gut. The chapter points out that the ANS does not pass directly to the effector organs, but rather they synapse in autonomic ganglia, which are located outside the CNS. The chapter looks at fibres. These project from the CNS to the autonomic ganglia. The latter are called preganglionic fibres, and those that connect the ganglia to their target organs are called postganglionic fibres. The sensory nerves of the internal organs are known as visceral afferents.
General principles of sensory physiology
Authors: Pocock Gillian , Richards Christopher D. , Richards David A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores how people can smell the air, taste food, feel the earth under their feet, hear, and see what is around them. These all require some means of converting the physical and chemical properties of the environment into nerve impulses. Once a change in the environment is identified, the central nervous system (CNS) can determine the appropriate response and initiate the required course of action. The chapter reviews the process by which specific properties of the environment become encoded as nerve impulses called sensory transduction, which is carried out by specialized structures called sensory receptors. The chapter discusses the general principles that are involved in forming sensations. These sensations are a normal part of life. Different sensory receptors are specialized to respond to particular environmental factors.
Nutrition and the regulation of food intake
Authors: Pocock Gillian , Richards Christopher D. , Richards David A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter talks about diet, which is the selection of foods eaten by an individual. It explains what a nutrient is, which is any substance that is absorbed into the bloodstream from the diet and utilized to promote the various functions of the body. Nutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, mineral salts, and water. These are essential to health and a balanced diet contains appropriate amounts of each nutrient. The chapter notes a key function of diet, which is to provide the source of energy for cell metabolism. The chapter finally looks at the nutritional requirements of the body as a whole.
The physiology of bone and the control of growth
Authors: Pocock Gillian , Richards Christopher D. , Richards David A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews how biological tissues are made up of cells. It explains how life begins as a single cell, the fertilized egg, from which all the diverse cell types of the body arise within a few weeks. It mentions differentiated cells that maintain their specialized character and pass it on to their progeny through the process of mitosis. Overall growth of the body involves an increase in size and weight of the body tissues with the deposition of additional protein. The chapter highlights the development that occurs through a series of coordinated qualitative changes that affect the complexity and function of body tissues. Growth and development are complex processes that are influenced a number of different factors, both genetic and environmental.
Circadian rhythms and biological clocks
Authors: Zupanc Günther K. H.
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses questions about how rhythms in animal behaviors and physiological activities are generated. It first looks at some of the major behavioral characteristics of rhythmic patterns occurring daily and finds out how the observations made during these studies have led to the concept of biological clocks. The discussion touches on the discipline of chronobiology, which examines biological rhythm. The chapter also explores the molecular structure of these clocks and discusses how the individual clock components integrate to produce an oscillatory output. Lastly, the chapter summarizes what is known about the localization of biological clocks at a systems level.
Drug Design and Development
Authors: Rostron Chris
Published: September 2023

Drug Design and Development outlines the processes involved in the design and development of new drugs and emphasizes the significance of these processes to the practice of pharmacy. It is composed of five parts. Part 1 considers drug targets and includes receptors and signal transduction, enzymes, nucleic acids, and protein synthesis. Part 2 examines the origins of drug molecules. It discusses sources of lead compounds, drug synthesis, computer-aided drug design, combinatorial chemistry, high-throughput screening, and biotechnology and biopharmaceuticals. Part 3 considers the biological aspects of drug development including drug metabolism, pharmacogenetics, pharmacogenomics, and toxicity testing. Part 4 looks at preformulation studies. The last part covers clinical research.
Introduction
Authors: Rostron Chris
Published: September 2023

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the various aspects of drug design and development. The design and development of a new drug involves a wide range of scientific disciplines such as biochemistry, enzymology, medicinal chemistry, proteomics, and toxicology. It is usual to divide the entire process of drug design and drug development into what are known as the discovery phase and the development phase. While there has been a tendency to regard these two phases as occurring consecutively, they almost always overlap. Parts 1, 2, and 3 of this book essentially represent the discovery phase and Parts 4 and 5 deal with the development phase.
Other Drug Targets
Authors: Rostron Chris
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on other biomolecules which act as drug targets such as lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins other than those dealt with in the previous chapters. The majority of drugs which target lipids do so by interfering with the lipid structure of cell membranes, either human or bacterial. They do so in a variety of ways, although all disrupt the cell membrane in some respect. Meanwhile, in addition to antibacterial and antiviral activity, drugs which target these carbohydrate molecules may also be of use in cancer and autoimmune diseases, which often show changes in cell surface recognition carbohydrates. The chapter then considers non-enzymatic proteins as drug targets.
Solid State Characteristics
Authors: Rostron Chris
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the investigation of the solid-state properties of a potential new drug. These solid-state properties are important with respect to the development of a suitable dosage form. The physical form of the potential drug substance will affect the dissolution rate, bioavailability, and production processes. The drug molecule may exist in several solid-states, including a crystalline state, a polymorphic state, as pseudopolymorphs, or an amorphous state. Each of these states exhibits different characteristics which can have a significant effect on solubility, bioavailability, and production processing. The investigation of the characteristics of the solid-state of the potential drug is also important, as the size, shape and surface area of the particles can influence the dissolution rate and physical stability of a formulation. Of less importance in choosing a suitable drug candidate, but very important from the point of view of developing a suitable product, are the powder flow properties.
Environmental Chemistry
Authors: VanLoon Gary W. , Duffy Stephen J.
Published: September 2023

Environmental Chemistry describes the chemical principles which underpin the natural processes occurring within and between the air, water, and soil, and explores how they are impacted by humans. It is subdivided into three parts that focus on the chemical composition of the three key environmental systems. Part A looks at the Earth's atmosphere and consists of a number of chapters which consider stratospheric chemistry (ozone), tropospheric chemistry (smog and precipitation), atmospheric aerosols, the chemistry of urban and indoor atmospheres, and the chemistry of the global climate. Part B focuses on the hydrosphere and includes examinations of gases in water, organic matter in water, metals and semi-metals in the hydrosphere, microbiological processes, and water pollution. The final part looks at the terrestrial environment and covers soil properties, solid wastes, toxic organic chemicals, and the future Earth.
Tropospheric chemistry—smog
Authors: VanLoon Gary W. , Duffy Stephen J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter features the events and chemical processes that lead to the formation of smog. It defines what smog is before identifying the different types of smog and the chemical compounds and climatic conditions that lead to their formation. It also analyses the chemistry of photochemical smog production and introduces the hydroxyl radical as the species central to the process. The chapter outlines the key reaction sequence for oxidation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). It explores the emission concerns connected with different types of internal combustion engines, fuel types and additives, catalytic converters, and control of specific pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, VOCs, nitrogen oxides, and ozone.
Chemistry of urban and indoor atmospheres
Authors: VanLoon Gary W. , Duffy Stephen J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the air in surroundings where everyone lives and breathes and the concerns that should be considered as we continue to work and engage in recreational activities. It describes the principal atmospheric pollutants in the urban environments where most people spend the majority of their time. It also reviews the fundamental factors that affect indoor air quality and discusses some common indoor air contaminants. The chapter investigates the air quality in major urban areas around the world, revealing serious problems in some cities that are a direct consequence of the use of energy in all its traditional and modern applications. It highlights the combustion of fossil fuels in motor vehicles, in space heating and cooling, in power generation and industrial processes, and the incineration of waste materials as major contributors to atmospheric pollution.
Environmental chemistry of colloids and surfaces
Authors: VanLoon Gary W. , Duffy Stephen J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter deals with the chemistry of colloids and surfaces and considers the crucial role that the interface between the solid and aqueous environments plays in the dispersion of species in aquatic systems. It reviews the size and surface properties of solid particles and introduces two adsorption isotherm relations, Langmuir and Freundlich. It also analyses aqueous phosphate chemistry and its environmental consequences and outlines the distribution constants Kd, KOM, and KOW, their environmental relevance, and the terms relating to bioconcentration. The chapter investigates the types of colloidal material in the natural environment, emphasizing clay minerals. This category of minerals consists of aluminosilicate minerals that are produced by physicochemical weathering of primary minerals of terrestrial origin and have been carried to the hydrosphere as eroded material.
Microbiological processes
Authors: VanLoon Gary W. , Duffy Stephen J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights the role that microorganisms play in facilitating environmental processes. It considers their role in organic matter degradation processes in terms of their energy relationships. It discusses the important environmental cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur and looks at the classification systems and properties of microorganisms. It also clarifies that abiotic reactions occur through purely physical or chemical means that can take place in a completely sterile environment while biotic reactions have a biological component. The chapter points out that the biological component of biotic reactions typically involves microorganisms. Biota classified as microorganisms are often very small, with dimensions frequently in the micrometre size range. The chapter highlights that microorganisms, despite their small size, play an essential role in facilitating many chemical reactions that occur in the natural environment, such as the process through which ammonium ion is converted to nitrate in water or soil.
The terrestrial environment
Authors: VanLoon Gary W. , Duffy Stephen J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the terrestrial environment or the land portion of the Earth, including the inorganic and organic materials from which soil is formed. It discusses the physical and chemical soil formation processes and the significant nature of soil as a complex three-phase system. It also highlights the important ecosystem services provided by soil in general and specifically its role in carbon sequestration in forests. The chapter describes the composition of the terrestrial environment, which includes rocks and soil and the living matter associated with these. It points out that rocks and soil together are referred to as the lithosphere, which is considered the compartment of the environment.
Soil properties
Authors: VanLoon Gary W. , Duffy Stephen J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the properties of soils, especially those properties that relate to their environmental significance. It investigates the fundamental physical and chemical properties of soils and the concept of soil profiles. It also examines three specific profiles: Spodosol, Alfisol, and Vertisol and looks at issues related to soil chemistry perturbed by human activities. The chapter recognizes the importance of soil for the sustenance of human and other living communities on the Earth, noting that soils are the fundamental resource supporting agriculture and forestry and contribute to the aesthetics of a green planet. It explains that soils act as a medium and filter for the collection and movement of water. Since they support plant growth, soils furthermore act as a major determinant of atmospheric composition and shape the Earth’s climate, which renders them critical for sustaining life as we know it.
Conclusions
Authors: Harvey Jeremy
Published: September 2023

This concluding chapter describes how computational methods are used in a wide variety of ways to provide a better understanding of chemical phenomena. Computers are more and more powerful, new and more accurate approximations are being developed, and algorithms are becoming increasingly efficient, so that overall it is now easier than ever before to perform calculations that provide accurate models of experimental systems in all areas of chemistry. These developments are expected to continue in coming years, making this an anticipated golden age for computational chemistry. The chapter then considers some general aspects that should be borne in mind when designing a computational study. Careful design of a project requires that the aims be well defined, and the uncertainties well understood.
Instrumental Analysis
Authors: Clugston Michael , Stewart Malcolm , Birembaut Fabrice
Published: September 2023

This chapter expounds on the types of instrumental analysis used in chemical laboratories, especially those working with organic compounds. It also notes the fragmentation patterns that characterize a molecule. Mass spectrometry is utilized to search for a compound's molecular formula, while infrared spectroscopy involves the absorption of radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum's infrared region. The energy absorbed makes the bonds vibrate more energetically. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy calculates nuclei's protons and neutrons that possess nuclear spins. The chapter also explains the process of spin-spin splitting or coupling in the NMR spectra as it depends on the number of adjacent protons.
States of Matter
Authors: Clugston Michael , Stewart Malcolm , Birembaut Fabrice
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains the states of matter. It notes how a dipole exists if a positive charge is separated from a negative charge by a distance. The bond's polarity and the shape of the molecule are needed to figure out whether polyatomic molecules have a dipole moment. The molecule's polarizability is in proportion with the induced dipole moment. The chapter also notes that intermolecular forces are forces between molecules that can be classified as dipole-dipole forces, dispersion forces, or hydrogen bonding. The chapter also looks at particles and definitions of solids, liquids, and gases. Finally, it lists the four main types of crystalline solids: simple molecular, giant covalent, ionic, and metallic.
Chemical Equilibrium
Authors: Clugston Michael , Stewart Malcolm , Birembaut Fabrice
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces equilibria and equilibrium constants. Equilibrium is recorded when the rate of the forward reaction equates to the rate of the backwards reaction. When equilibrium has been reached, the concentrations of all the substances remain constant. The thermodynamic equilibrium constant is devised when the standard Gibbs energy change is in line with the natural logarithm of the equilibrium constant. The chapter lists the equilibrium calculations mostly used in universities. Le Chatelier's principle refers to the small conditions changes subjected at a system in equilibrium as the equilibrium tends to shift to minimize the effect of the change.
Redox Reactions
Authors: Clugston Michael , Stewart Malcolm , Birembaut Fabrice
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks into redox reactions: oxidation, and reduction. Oxidation refers to the loss of electrons, while reduction refers to the gain of electrons. The oxidation number of an element is the number of electrons that need to be added to the element needed to make a neutral atom. Thus, oxidation numbers should change during redox reactions. Half-equations help focus the attention on a single element to showcase the breakdown of an equation of a redox reaction. Most of the complicated half-equation calculations involve acid as a source of hydrogen ions. Finally, the chapter notes the Nernst equation which allows quantitative prediction on what happens when concentrations differ from the standard value.
Spontaneous Change, Entropy, and Gibbs Energy
Authors: Clugston Michael , Stewart Malcolm , Birembaut Fabrice
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the concepts of spontaneous change, entropy, and Gibbs energy. Whilst spontaneous changes have a natural tendency to occur, the Gibbs energy equation cannot be used to predict the reaction rate. Entropy is a measure of the dispersal of energy. The criterion for spontaneous change is mostly based on the Second Law of thermodynamics. Gibbs energy, additionally, is the combination of enthalpy and entropy together to form a single physical quantity. An Ellingham diagram includes graphs showing the Gibbs energy change of formation for various metal oxides as a function of temperature. Finally, the chapter looks into the possibilities of negligible entropy changes or enthalpy changes in the systems.
Group 2
Authors: Clugston Michael , Stewart Malcolm , Birembaut Fabrice
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the group for alkaline earth metals, also referred to as Group 2 or Group II. The elements in Group 2 are all metals with low electronegativities. Beryllium and radium are the focus across the chapter as they have been less researched due to their toxic compounds or radioactive elements. The physical properties of the Group 2 elements include the increasing atomic radius and ionic radius and decreasing ionization energy and sulfate solubility. Group 2 showcases increasing reactivity with water, acids, and hydroxide solubility. The chapter also looks into the insolubility of barium sulfate and its test for the sulfate ion.
Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Authors: Clugston Michael , Stewart Malcolm , Birembaut Fabrice
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces organic chemistry. This type of chemistry involves the study of compounds formed by carbon. The chapter highlights how living organisms are mainly composed of carbon compounds. Structural formula shows exactly which atoms are bonded together. A homologous series is a collection of molecules with the same functional group differing only in the number of carbon atoms present. The chapter discusses the IUPAC nomenclature for the alkane molecules. It also examines the major classes of isomers: structural isomers and stereoisomers. Organic reactions are classified as either radicals, nucleophiles, or electrophiles. The functional group level of a particular carbon atom establishes the number of bonds to the atom that is more electronegative than carbon.
Hydrocarbons: Alkanes
Authors: Clugston Michael , Stewart Malcolm , Birembaut Fabrice
Published: September 2023

This chapter tackles the concept of alkanes, a type of hydrocarbon. It defines a hydrocarbon as containing hydrogen and carbon only. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. Crude oil is an example of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, most of which are alkanes. Fractional distillation allows for the separation of the mixture and relies on the different fractions with varying boiling points. The chapter explores the mechanism for radical chain reaction and photochemical halogenation which occur through the reaction of an alkane with a halogen. Finally, the combustion of alkanes is considered to be the most significant reaction commercially since it is also a radical chain reaction.
Hydrocarbons: Arenes
Authors: Clugston Michael , Stewart Malcolm , Birembaut Fabrice
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses arenes, a type of hydrocarbon. Benzene is known to be the archetypal arene as it features the original Kekulé structure with alternating double and single bonds. The electrophilic substitution reactions of benzene go in line with the high electron density above and below the benzene ring. Nitration is a particularly vital reaction undergone by benzene. This involves a nitrating mixture of concentrated nitric acid and sulfuric acid. Additionally, the electrophilic substitution of Friedel–Crafts acylation involves reagents of acyl chloride and aluminium chloride , the latter which acts as a Lewis acid. On the other hand, the electrophilic substitution of halogenation pertains to how benzene needs a catalyst for halogenation.
Introduction
Authors: Hosey Geoff , Melfi Vicky , Pankhurst Sheila
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides a brief introduction to the rest of the chapters in this book, ranging between animal management and animals’ experience in a zoo environment. It investigates the concept of the zoo and provides the definitions and features of zoos as given by the UK government legislation and the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums’ 1993 World Zoo Conservation Strategy. The chapter adds how the book uses information gained from accredited zoos and aquariums. It notes that most empirical studies about zoo animals are published in a small number of peer-reviewed journals. It also discusses the usage of scientific names and abbreviations throughout the text.