bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Patients’ preferences for receiving clinical information and participating in decision-making in Iran
Authors: Asghari F , Mirzazadeh A , Fotouhi A
Published: April 2008

Introduction:

This study, the first of its kind in Iran, was to assess Iranian patients’ preferences for receiving information and participating in decision-making and to evaluate their satisfaction with how medical information is given to them and with their participation in decision-making at present.

Method and materials:

299 of 312 eligible patients admitted to general internal medicine or surgery wards from May to December 2006 were interviewed according to a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire contained questions about patients’ preferences regarding four domains of information and their participation in decision-making. Patients’ responses were measured on a visual analogue scale graded from 1 to 10.

Results:

The mean (SD) score for desire to receive information was 8.88 out of 10 (1.5) and for participation in medical decision-making was 7.75 out of 10 (3). The desire to receive information was greater in women than men (9.0 (1.5) vs 7.8 (1.4), p = 0.025). It was also correlated with their education (r = 0.2, p = 0.001) and their estimation of the severity of their own disease (r = 0.13, p = 0.027). The score for preference to participate in decision-making was higher in women than in men (7.95 (2.8) and 7.0 (3.2), respectively; β = 0.8, p = 0.022) and was negatively correlated with education (r = −0.14, p = 0.015).

Discussion:

This study shows that Iranian patients are highly interested in receiving information about their condition and participating in clinical decision-making. No predictive variable for such attitudes was found; therefore, the only way for the physician to recognise patients’ desire is to ask them explicitly.
Interprofessional ethics rounds concerning dialysis patients: staff’s ethical reflections before and after rounds
Authors: Svantesson M , Anderzén-Carlsson A , Thorsén H , Kallenberg K , Ahlström G
Published: April 2008

Objective:

To evaluate whether ethics rounds stimulated ethical reflection.

Methods:

Philosopher-ethicist-led interprofessional team ethics rounds concerning dialysis patient care problems were applied at three Swedish hospitals. The philosophers were instructed to stimulate ethical reflection and promote mutual understanding between professions but not to offer solutions. Questionnaires directly before and after rounds were answered by 194 respondents. The analyses were primarily content analysis with Boyd’s framework but were also statistical in nature.

Findings:

Seventy-six per cent of the respondents reported a moderate to high rating regarding new insights on ethical problem identification, but the ethics rounds did not seem to stimulate the ethical reflection that the respondents had expected (p<0.001). Dominant new insights did not seem to fit into traditional normative ethics but were instead interpreted as hermeneutic ethics. This was illustrated in the extended perspective on the patient and increased awareness of relations to other professions. Regarding insights into how to solve ethical problems, the request for further interprofessional dialogue dominated both before and after rounds.

Conclusion:

The findings show the need for interprofessional reflective ethical practice but a balance between ethical reflection and problem solving is suggested if known patients are discussed. Further research is needed to explore the most effective leadership for reflective ethical practice.
In situ estimation of the coefficient of consolidation in clays
Authors: Kabir Mohammed G. , Lutenegger Alan J.
Published: April 2008

An investigation was conducted to demonstrate the applicability of cylindrical piezocone and flat piezoblade tests for providing reliable estimates of the coefficient of consolidation in clays. Coefficients of consolidation were calculated from piezocone dissipation tests for different degrees of consolidation using theoretical time factors to provide a comparison with laboratory oedometer tests. Three techniques were developed to calculate the coefficient of consolidation from piezoblade dissipation tests. Results from in situ pore pressure dissipation tests were compared with laboratory oedometer tests performed on undisturbed samples oriented in both the vertical and horizontal directions, to provide reference values of cv and ch. The results of investigations conducted at several clay sites are presented. Key words: in situ tests, piezocone, piezoblade, coefficient of consolidation, oedometer test, clays.
Gas pressure in unsaturated offshore soils
Authors: Wheeler S. J. , Sham W. K. , Thomas S. D.
Published: April 2008

Direct measurement of gas pressure within unsaturated offshore soils is very difficult because the gas occurs in the form of large, discrete bubbles. However, consideration of the soil structure and analysis of a continuum model for the soil suggest two independent sets of limits for the gas bubble pressure. Surface tension effects limit the difference between gas pressure and pore-water pressure, while cavity expansion and contraction considerations limit the difference between gas pressure and mean total stress. If the gas pressure lies within these limits, it should remain almost unaffected by changes to the total stress or pore-water pressure. These suggestions are supported by results from an oedometer test on a reconstituted soil sample containing large bubbles of methane gas. Key words: bubbles, cavity expansion, gas, oedometer tests, offshore geotechnics, pore pressure, surface tension, unsaturated.
A reassessment of transport mechanisms of some rock avalanches in the Mackenzie Mountains, Yukon and Northwest Territories, Canada
Authors: Kaiser P. K. , Simmons J. V.
Published: April 2008

The transport mechanism of some rock avalanches of the Mackenzie Mountains in the Yukon and Northwest Territories of Canada is reassessed on the basis of evidence collected during fieldwork and by comparison with results from numerical simulations of the debris flow mechanism. A new hypothesis of glaciation-related transport is advanced as an alternate explanation of apparently very mobile rock avalanches with anomalous travel distances. By the example of the Avalanche Lake slide, it is demonstrated that the debris was most likely not deposited on the current topography but on valley glacier ice at an elevation of about 400–500 m above the valley bottom. This conclusion is supported by field evidence, an empirical runup relationship, and the results from numerical flow simulations. A qualitative interpretation of other debris deposits suggests that several events in the Mackenzie Mountains can be interpreted in the same manner. Key words: rock avalanches, rock slides, debris transport, debris flow modelling, Mackenzie Mountains, Northwest Territories.
Convergence aspect of limit equilibrium methods for slopes
Authors: Chowdhury R. N. , Zhang S.
Published: April 2008

This note is concerned with the multiplicity of solutions for the factor of safety that may be obtained on the basis of the method of slices. Discontinuities in the function for the factor of safety are discussed and the reasons for false convergence in any iterative solution process are explored, with particular reference to the well-known Bishop simplified method (circular slip surfaces) and Janbu simplified or generalized method (slip surfaces of arbitrary shape). The note emphasizes that both the solution method and the method of searching for the critical slip surface must be considered in assessing the potential for numerical difficulties and false convergence. Direct search methods for optimization (e.g., the simplex reflection method) appear to be superior to the grid search or repeated trial methods in this respect. To avoid false convergence, the initially assumed value of factor of safety F0 should be greater than β1(=−tan α1 tan [Formula: see text]) where α1 and [Formula: see text] are respectively the base inclination and internal friction angle of the first slice near the toe of a slope, the slice with the largest negative reverse inclination. A value of F0 = 1 + β1, is recommended on the basis of experience. If there is no slice with a negative slope for any of the slip surfaces generated in the automatic, search process, then any positive value of F0 will lead to true convergence for F. It is necessary to emphasize that no slip surface needs to be rejected for computational reasons except for Sarma's methods and similarly no artificial changes need to be made to the value of [Formula: see text] except for Sarma's methods. Key words: slope stability, convergence, limit equilibrium, analysis, optimization, slip surfaces, geological discontinuity, simplex reflection technique.
Evaluation of two wild types of Pleurotus ostreatus (MCC07 and MCC20) isolated from nature for their ability to decolorize Benazol Black ZN textile dye in comparison to some commercial types of white rot fungi: Pleurotus ostreatus, Pleurotus djamor, and Pleurotus citrinopileatus
Authors: Kalmış Erbil , Azbar Nuri , Kalyoncu Fatih
Published: April 2008

Biological decolorization of Benazol Black ZN, a reactive azo-type textile dyestuff, was comparatively studied using 3 different commercial-type white rot fungi strains ( Pleurotus ostreatus , Pleurotus cornucopiae var. citrinopileatus, Pleurotus djamor , and 2 wild types of P. ostreatus (MCC07 and MCC20) isolated from the nature. The initial dye concentrations in the medium were 500 and 1000 mg·L–1. All the organisms studied decolorized Benazol Black ZN to varying degrees. At low dye concentration, both commercial and wild type of P. ostreatus resulted in the best decolorization, conversely, wild-type P. ostreatus (MCC07) was found to be much more robust against increasing dye concentration and provided the best decolorization efficiency at high dye concentration.
Sample Disturbance and BS 5930
Authors: Clayton C. R. I.
Published: April 2008

This paper was presented as the introduction to discussion on Session 5 on Sample Disturbance. The mechanisms of sample disturbance, which have been well understood for many years, are reviewed. Following this, the material presented by BS 5930:1981 is critically examined.
Soil Descriptions—Quo Vadis?
Authors: Child G. H.
Published: April 2008

This paper comments on the status of soil description to BS 5930 in ground investigation contracts, gives a brief historical review of the development of modern soil description and deals with problems created by the British Soil Classification System. Proposals are made for working with the current Code and recommendations for the form of a future redraft are given.
Water in Site Investigation
Authors: Penman A. D. M.
Published: April 2008

It is water that makes the difference between a dried-out clay as hard as a brick, and mud. The dry fields of summer can become a quagmire for construction work.

Examples are given of rapid deterioration of chalk when allowance had not been made for the effect of a known high water table when excavation went below it and the effect of water on loose backfill at an opencast site. Houses had been built before the water level rose in the old pit and were damaged by the resulting settlements.

Soil fabric can make the overall field permeability much greater than that obtained from tests on small samples and completely upset predictions of quantities of water and number of wells required for ground water lowering.

Out of balance water pressures caused by allowing the water level in a borehole to be much below the ground water level can lead to low SPT
N
values and disturbed samples. The result could be unnecessary expense on the new works.

False results may be obtained if excessive pressures are used in making field permeability tests such as the Lugeon test. On the other hand, hydraulic fracture tests can be used to obtain an assessment of total stress conditions in the ground.
Contractual Matters
Authors: Hughes F. H.
Published: April 2008

BS 5930 has set the scene for technical standards but it is necessary in addition to have a sound specification, contract conditions, bill of quantities and a day-work schedule, which together cover the necessary activities. These matters are discussed and an introduction given to the "ICE" Conditions of Contract for Ground Investigation which contains some new definitions.
Static Electric Cone Penetration Testing in Shallow Water
Authors: Adam C. H.
Published: April 2008

This paper describes the methods available to perform static electric cone penetration tests (CPT's) in shallow waters. It refers to both the coastal environment and inland waterways up to a water depth of around 25 to 30 m.

Whilst the benefits of the speed of CPT's over water are reduced, compared with testing on land, the technique is still much quicker than conventional boring and sampling methods and offers significant cost savings. One of the other main advantages is the quality and accuracy of the information obtained particularly in submerged fine grained granular soils.

There are a number of techniques which can be used to perform CPT's in shallow waters. These include detached CPT rigs mounted on small jack-up barges, fixed platforms and floating barges and seabed ballast block systems. The most suitable technique depends on a number of factors including water depth, site exposure, tidal conditions and seabed soil conditions.

The cone design, testing methods and interpretation of CPT data are discussed briefly. Particular reference is made to recent developments in the use of the piezocone and other sensors.
The Use of Small Scale Trial Compactions for Earthwork Design
Authors: Cox D. W. , Dawson A. R.
Published: April 2008

The paper describes an on-site method of assessing the suitability of soil for use in earthworks.

The method consists of a miniature compaction trial on material excavated and recompacted into a trial pit using a narrow trench roller.

The application and utility of the method is discussed and a comparison is made with laboratory based suitability assessments.
Techniques for Site Investigation Using Trial Pits
Authors: Cox D. W. , Dawson A. R. , Hall J. W.
Published: April 2008

Current site investigation is predominantly based on routine
sampling in exploratory boreholes, with transport and testing
of samples at a distant laboratory. A number of specialised
in
situ
techniques and tests have grown around the initial
premise of using boreholes.

The paper describes the development of parallel
alternative techniques using test pits for trials and tests which
the writers' have used in practice. The British Standard,
BS 5930, briefly describes test pits but in general is related to
current practice using boreholes. It is hoped that the paper
will supplement the present Standard in this area.

The
in situ
test techniques described are for dynamic and
static penetration tests. The miniaturised trials model
foundation pressure, compressibility, permeability and
compaction.

Relatively new techniques for pit plate bearing tests and
penetrometers mounted on an excavator bucket, which
utilise the excavator as a site robot, are presented.
Notes on the Correlation of Cone Penetration Test Results in Weak Chalk at Norwich, Norfolk
Authors: Erwig H. , Pattinson J. I.
Published: April 2008

A site investigation has been carried out at Norwich, Norfolk consisting of deep boreholes and static electric cone penetration tests. Notes are given on the methods of investigation and on tentative classification of the weak chalk in this area together with the measured parameters of cone end resistance and standard penetration test ‘
N
’ values.
The Limitations and Interpretation of the “Angle of Repose” in Terms of Soil Mechanics: a Useful Parameter?
Authors: Francis S. C.
Published: April 2008

Previous workers including Terzaghi (1943), Skempton (1945) and Lambe & Whitman (1979) have suggested that an “angle of repose” of a granular soil is approximately equal to
ϕ
′

cv

. Unfortunately a variety of definitions of different angles of repose exist, with up to six different angles having been identified. To minimise further confusion, it is recommended that the term should either be avoided or standardised.

Following an evaluation of the variability of repose slopes, the findings of a detailed study of the relationship between this parameter and
ϕ
′

cv

for a variety of artificial and natural soils is presented,
ϕ
′

cv

measurements were made using both 60 mm and 100 mm shearboxes under wet and dry conditions at low confining stresses, and repose measurements were made both in air and under water. Overall, correlation between the two angles was good, with some of the scatter in results being attributable to identifiable soil particle characteristics.

Observation of the repose slope during measurement gave a preliminary insight into avalanching mechanisms, which are more problematic than was expected. An explanation of repose slope behaviour is then proposed, which also provides an explanation of the similarity in slope angles of subaerial and subaqueous sand dunes. Practical implications of the correlation are then discussed.
The Use of Tracer Techniques to Assess Groundwater Flows in Site Investigations
Authors: Siddle H. J. , Jones D. B. , Warren C. D.
Published: April 2008

Procedures of site investigation included in BS 5930:1981 concentrate on obtaining information on ground conditions near proposed structures. Groundwater flow paths, however, are often influenced by hydrogeological conditions well beyond the area and tracer tests have been found a useful addition to investigations.

Different types of groundwater tracers are described and their uses in establishing groundwater flow paths and other hydrogeological characteristics of some regimes are outlined. Precautions are always necessary when using tracers, however, and these are especially stringent with radioactive tracers. The paper shows how groundwater tracers were employed in investigations of landslips, waste disposal studies and other investigations with which the authors have been involved.

The paper concludes that the specification of standard procedures for tracer tests is probably not appropriate but reference to the techniques available would be useful in promoting their application.
A New Procedure for Determination of Point Load Strength in Site Investigation
Authors: Turk N. , Dearman W. R.
Published: April 2008

As a result of developments over the last twenty years, the point load test has become a cheap and practical method for field and laboratory determination of rock strength.

Since point load strength is size dependent, the test results are generally corrected to a standard thickness of 50 mm by using empirical correction charts and the median
I
(50) value is given as the point load strength. This may be used to estimate other rock properties.

As the failure of specimens is in the tensile mode and strength is size dependent, the point load test results are well accounted for by the Weibull theory. When mean point load strength values are plotted against corresponding specimen sizes on a log-log scale, a linear relation with a negative slope is obtained. The slope of the best fit line gives the reciprocal of the Weibull modulus (
m
).
I
(50) is found from the intercept with the 50 mm thickness line. Similarly
I
(
s
) values for any thickness can be determined.

If rock cores of single size are tested, the “
m
” modulus is estimated first from the Weibull distribution plot of the point load strengths. A strength-size relation is thus established from which
I
(50) can be determined.

These methods are simple to apply and do not require a correction chart.
Classification by Texture and Plasticity
Authors: Smart P.
Published: April 2008

The concept of a well-blended soil leads to a logical textural classification for gravel-sand-fines. The concept of coordinates along and perpendicular to the A-line in the (IP-WL)-chart, clarifies the classification of fine-grained soils.
Investigation of Weak Sandstones
Authors: Dobereiner L. , de Freitas M. H.
Published: April 2008

It is proposed that coverage of the class of material described in BS 5930 as weak rock, is in need of improvement.

Results from research into the behaviour of weak sandstone (0.5-20 MPa uniaxial compressive strength) are presented to illustrate this need. The strength, deformability, and propagation of compressional waves are reported for weak sandstones and recommendations presented for describing these materials and for testing their strength and deformability. Problems associated with the measurement of compressional wave velocity are also considered.

An index test for assessing the strength of weak sandstone (the index of vacuum saturated moisture content) is described and presented.
Protective works and geological conservation
Authors: McKirdy A. P.
Published: April 2008

Britain’s rich heritage of internationally important geological sites is well known to engineers and geologists alike, but from time to time, the undertaking of protective works on unstable slopes or cliffs designated as Sites of Special Scientific Interest bring conservationists and engineers into conflict.

Many classic geological localities occur along the coastline of Britain, such as the Jurassic sequences of Dorset, the glacial and interglacial sediments of the North Norfolk Coast and the stratotypes of the Hampshire Basin. Unfortunately, many of these coastlines are inherently unstable, suffering rates of erosion of up to 2–3 m per annum. Where such cliffs occur in close proximity to areas of habitation or recreation, there is strong local pressure to find an engineered solution to the problem of coastal erosion. Traditionally, such schemes involve the construction of concrete sea walls, cliff grading and cliff drainage, leading in some instances to the obliteration of any geological interest which may formerly have existed.

The Nature Conservancy Council has a direct responsibility to monitor developments which may have an effect on all SSSIs and is automatically consulted in the event of an application being made by an individual or local authority to undertake coast protection works. It must be said that only a small proportion of the total number of applications made are considered to be damaging to the network of SSSIs and in those instances, an attempt is made to negotiate a compromise which allows for the coast to be protected from further erosion, whilst safeguarding the scientific interest. Case histories are given to illustrate the range of problems which are posed by engineering works and the way in which apparent conflict of interests may be resolved.
The application of airborne remote sensing to the detection of solution features in limestone
Authors: Edmonds C. N. , Kennie T. J. M. , Rosenbaum M. S.
Published: April 2008

Airborne remote sensing techniques have been developed for the detection of collapse and subsidence features in chalk and other limestone rocks. The detection of such features in the early stages of an engineering project is of crucial importance if serious geotechnical problems to building construction and public safety are to be avoided. Particular attention is paid to the potential of airborne multispectral scanner (MSS) and thermal infrared (IR) data as a means of detection. Background information is also provided concerning a project to obtain multitemporal thermal IR data over two test sites on the Cretaceous Chalk outcrop of southern England.
Identification of former shallow coal mining from aerial photographs: an example from West Yorkshire
Authors: Giles J. R. A.
Published: April 2008

Systematic, large-scale, aerial photography is now available for many areas of the exposed coalfields. In West Yorkshire 1:10000 or 1:10 560 scale cover is generally available, supplemented by 1:5000 and 1:3000 cover in more limited areas. Examination of aerial photographs, in conjunction with detailed geological mapping, has identified characteristic ground patterns associated with the existence of former shallow workings. These patterns are interpreted in terms of changes of style of mining with increasing depth.

The presence of shallow mine workings is a major constraint on planning in areas of exposed coalfield. The examination of large scale aerial photographs offers a rapid reconnaissance method of identifying such workings.
Monitoring of geotechnical processes by close range photogrammetry
Authors: Kennie T. J. M. , McKay W. M.
Published: April 2008

The role of close range photogrammetry (CRP) in engineering geology is described, the relative advantages and limitations of the technique being outlined. A comprehensive literature review reports on the use of CRP for
in situ
monitoring of earth and rockfill dams, retaining walls, rockfaces and landslides, channel and gully erosion and, also, laboratory based experiments. The historical development of analytical CRP and the types of project where such a technique would be appropriate are subsequently discussed. Two case histories illustrating the use of analytical CRP for monitoring a series of eroded slopes in southern England are reported. The paper also examines the benefits which occur when digital photogrammetric data of this type are integrated with suitable ground modelling software.
Environmental geology maps of Bath and the surrounding area for engineers and planners
Authors: Forster A. , Hobbs P. R. N. , Wyatt R. J. , Entwisle D. C.
Published: April 2008

In March 1984 the British Geological Survey commenced an environmental geological study of parts of west Wiltshire and south east Avon for the Department of the Environment. The objective of this study was to collect the available geological data relevant to the area, and to present them as a series of thematic maps accompanied by a descriptive report and a database/archive of the data used.

The output is intended to be used by land-use planners. It is designed simultaneously to be understandable by people not trained in geology and yet to contain detailed information required by specialists concerned with the environment and its development. The 14 maps which were produced describe themes which include solid lithostratigraphy, drift deposits, the inferred distribution of Great Oolite Freestone, the inferred distribution of fuller’s earth, groundwater, ground conditions in relation to groundwater, geotechnical properties of bedrock and superficial deposits, landslipped and cambered strata, distribution of slope angle, and mining.

Although the task was primarily a desk study, it was found necessary to carry out a small amount of field survey to re-interpret the foundered strata to the north-west of Bath. This re-survey has been presented in a style consistent with the mapping of the rest of the study area. A fifteenth map showing the result of the re-interpretation of the foundered strata was produced as a supplement to the main report.

This paper describes the methods and the results of this study and comments on the implications of the technique for land-use planning.
Planning and development control in an area susceptible to landslides
Authors: Siddle H. J. , Payne H. R. , Flynn M. J.
Published: April 2008

There is an increasing desire amongst those concerned in the planning process for the availability of adequate information on potential geological constraints to development. The potential for landsliding is a hazard of relevance to many areas of the United Kingdom, including South Wales, where the Department of the Environment and the Welsh Office have sponsored a research project to produce a methodology for the preparation of ‘Landslip Potential Planning Maps’. This paper describes the methodologies used to reduce hazards through planning in various parts of the world and outlines the proposed implementation of the pilot scheme in the Rhondda Valleys.
Land evaluation and site assessment (hazard and risk)
Authors: Fookes P. G.
Published: April 2008

Most natural hazards can be dealt with be measures involving avoidance or prevention, the causes of such hazards being relatively well understood so that identification and prediction (admittedly not in absolute terms) can be made. Nonetheless in many parts of the world, the response to natural hazards by means of risk evaluation and consequent land use planning is lacking. Many methods are available to evaluate the risk which potential hazards present. The results can be used to produce hazard-risk maps. It could be another generation or two before there is enough user generated feedback to help establish a model for mapmakers to follow.
Physical hazard and risk assessment in Jamaica, West Indies
Authors: O'Hara M.
Published: April 2008

Jamaica is prone to both earthquakes and hurricanes. The cities of Port Royal and Kingston respectively were destroyed by earthquakes in 1692 and 1907, whilst the island lies within the Caribbean hurricane belt with recent devastation being caused by a tropical depression in 1979 and Hurricane Allen in 1981.

The Geological Survey of Jamaica has been actively involved in land use planning for many years. The recent contributions are briefly reviewed, particularly with respect to natural hazards such as landslips and flooding. The problems of preparing risk assessment maps from a weak data base are discussed. Preliminary Earthquake and Tropical Cyclone hazard maps which were prepared for the Office of Disaster Preparedness and Mitigation are presented as examples of the approach taken. The method, of necessity, was based on largely subjective assessments of ground materials and levels of risk. The preliminary maps were intended to provide general guidelines for planning and development and to prepare the way for further studies. The preparation of detailed engineering design guides was regarded as the logical development of this work and, to illustrate this, some initial results of a subsequent hydrological study of flood flow characteristics and flood prediction techniques are presented.
Planning constraints and their influence on quarrying of the Magnesian Limestone
Authors: Clark A. R. , Morey A. J. , Gilbert S. T. , Bacciarelli R. E.
Published: April 2008

The Magnesian Limestone deposits of north-east and central England represent a natural resource of national importance which has been extensively quarried over the centuries for a wide range of end uses, particularly construction materials and industrial minerals. The development of mineral extraction along the outcrop has been determined by a number of factors such as the presence of mineral reserves, material quality, market end use, product demand and also constraints placed upon quarrying as a result of both physical limitations and planning controls. It has been necessary for planning authorities to exert greater control over quarry operations along the outcrop not only to preserve the environment but also to safeguard natural resources including mineral reserves, from undue sterilization. This paper discusses the various planning policies and procedures identified, at both national and county levels and illustrates their effect on quarry development with reference to a case study area within County Durham, at the northern end of the outcrop.
The statutory controls over waste disposal and the role of the engineering geologist
Authors: Harris R. C. , Skinner A. C.
Published: April 2008

A number of factors have combined in recent years to increase the threat of pollution to water resources from waste disposal operations. A decided shift towards containment sites has meant an increased role for engineering geologists and civil engineers in specifying conditions, selecting materials and monitoring site works. The paper highlights the areas where adequate engineering input to landfill design is necessary and discusses the grey area between planning and pollution control legislation. It also addresses the problem of ineffective monitoring and suggests changes to protect the interests of the water authorities. Examples are given of situations where acceptable solutions have been achieved.
Geotechnical design for a controlled tip in Hong Kong
Authors: Powell G. E. , Irfan T. Y.
Published: April 2008

As a result of the rapid expansion of the population of Hong Kong, and a chronic shortage of land close to, or within, urban areas, sites for the controlled disposal of refuse often involve major earthworks on steep slopes and encroachment of the tip site into the sea. The particular project described will infill a complete valley of approximately 20 ha with an average height of 80 m of refuse fill. The front of the tip will be up to 200 m from the existing shore and is supported by a permanent seawall. Filling over marine sediments wil be necessary.
Waste disposal and engineering geology in the creation of the Liverpool International Garden Festival site
Authors: Raybould J. G. , Potter A. F. , Crowther J. , Matan E.
Published: April 2008

The site of the 1984 International Garden Festival in south Liverpool originated when part of an eroding foreshore of the Mersey estuary was reclaimed by the deposition of 6 million tonnes of domestic waste behind a 10 m high retaining wall. The scheme began in 1957, and was an extension to an even older reclamation project which produced the Otterspool Promenade Gardens. Development of the 40 ha Festival site, following completion of tipping, involved a substantial amount of re-contouring of the waste materials to produce a more interesting landscape, including several water features. Associated engineering works were required to maintain the cleanliness of surface water, control the emission of methane and permit the construction of buildings over refuse. The scheme is an example of the way in which the least sophisticated method of waste disposal can, with appropriate engineering, produce environmental benefits in terms of both coastal protection and land reclamation. Other examples, though less ambitious, demonstrate that this is not an isolated case.
The selection and handling of soil materials for restoration of land to agriculture in the UK
Authors: Reeve M. J.
Published: April 2008

A greater awareness of the problems of land restoration to agriculture, and the additional powers of the 1981 Minerals Act, is resulting in a more scientific approach to land restoration. After considering the specifications required for an agricultural soil, sources of soil-forming material are considered. The importance is stressed of an investigation of surface soil resources prior to restoration, and preferably prior to excavation. By using the plastic limit as a threshold above which earthmoving should not proceed, soil damage can be reduced, but delays to site operations can be considerable. The adverse physical problems of restored soils and methods used to alleviate them are discussed.
Land quality and site restoration: a case study from north Essex
Authors: Williams A. G. , Tomalin C. , Corker S. P.
Published: April 2008

Current planning legislation precludes mineral development on high quality land unless it can be restored to its original quality. High quality land is defined as Grades 1,2 and 3a in the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) Agricultural Land Classification Scheme. The criteria depend on the physical attributes of the land. However, the MAFF system is not directly appropriate to restored sites due to the unnatural attributes of restored soils. In particular, soil structure is an important element of land quality which is disrupted during the soil handling process but which is not assessed in the current MAFF system. Measurement of soil physical characteristics, including a method for structural quality, is suggested as providing an improved assessment of land quality upon which the success of site restoration may be judged. An example is given of how the structural classification was tested on a site in north Essex enabling a comparison of different restoration methods to be made. The paper concludes that, as a result of more rigorously defined agricultural land quality classes for disturbed land, together with recent developments in restoration techniques, there could be a wider release of high quality land for gravel extraction.
Environmental impact assessment: the background and the potential for the geologist
Authors: Wiltshire S. E. , Cowley J. , Doornkamp J. C.
Published: April 2008

The environmental impact assessment (EIA) process in Britain has been stimulated by the EEC Directive of June 1985 which makes it mandatory for Member States to have appropriate legislation in place by June 1988. The history of planning in Britain has been to include environmental concerns in the normal planning process, and the Directive may do little to change what already happens. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that anyone applying for planning consent, including, for example, a mineral operator, can assist his case by including an EIA with his proposal. In certain circumstances such an EIA is greatly enhanced by an input from a geologist.
The geology of the Nottingham region: A review of some engineering and environmental aspects
Authors: Firman R. J. , Lovell M. A.
Published: April 2008

Of the several comprehensive geological reviews of the East Midlands, none makes more than a passing reference to the engineering or environmental geology. This paper is thus the first to attempt such a review, although only a brief appraisal is possible here.

Earth tremors causing minor structural damage have occurred in the Nottingham region, although more damaging ground movements have usually resulted from natural subsidence, reactivation of Pleistocene landslips or collapse of old mines for lead ore and gangue minerals, limestone, coal and gypsum. More controlled and predictable subsidence is characteristic of modern coal mining although anomalous subsidence does still occur, as do slope failures in the numerous cuttings, quarries, and opencast workings for road metal, limestone, fluorspar, calcite, barytes, coal and gypsum. Mining, and to a lesser extent quarrying, has had profound effects on the underground movement of water, particularly in the Peak District where the water table has been permanently lowered as a result of centuries of lead mining. A similar lowering of the water table, now reversed, resulted from over pumping of the Sherwood Sandstones. The management, including recharge and pollution control, of this aquifer is of major importance to Nottingham.

The wide range of foundation conditions reflects the range of rock types and problems vary from avoiding costly excavations for the M1 in hard Pre-Cambrian rocks to bridging the Trent over unconsolidated sands, gravels and peats. The extent of periglacial weathering is crucial in determining the foundation characteristics of Namurian, Westphalian, Mercia Mudstones and Jurassic strata and, as demonstrated by case histories, cannot be neglected in other formations.

Throughout the region there are conflicting interests arising from exploitation of resources in areas of considerable amenity value. Satisfactory solutions have been found for some of these problems, for example, with the nature reserves and Water Sports Centre developed from gravel workings, but others, such as the proposals for disposing of nuclear waste, have attracted much attention, but though temporarily postponed, remain unsolved.
Surface movements caused by tunnelling in two-layer soil
Authors: Selby A.R.
Published: April 2008

Empirical equations suitably defining surface movements caused by tunnelling in uniform soils are now well-established. Settlements transverse to the tunnel line are usually and conveniently described by a normal probability equation in terms of ground loss, V(m3/m) and of distance to the point of inflection, i (m). Vis dominantly a function of tunnelling method, and i has been expressed explicitly as a function of depth, but dependent upon whether the soil type is granular or cohesive.

Little attention, however, has been given to the estimation of ground movements caused by tunnelling through a granular soil overlain by a cohesive stratum, and vice versa. The problem is addressed both by a simple extension to the expressions leading to the normal distribution settlement profile and the consequent transverse inward movements, and also by a linear elastic finite element model.

Two well-documented case histories are assessed by the two methods of analysis and both give acceptable estimates of ground movement.
Ground movements resulting from urban tunnelling: predictions and effects
Authors: Rankin W. J.
Published: April 2008

The paper provides practical guidance for estimating the effects of ‘soft ground’ tunnelling in urban areas upon existing structures and services. Various empirical approaches to the definition of the surface settlement zone are summarized and the assessment of the magnitude and distribution of surface movements is compared with case history data. A tentative risk classification related to settlement and maximum slope criteria is proposed, which will allow rapid optimization of route adjustments and thereby identification of those buildings particularly at risk and requiring a more detailed assessment.
Ground movements and deflections of an anchored sheet pile wall in granular soil
Authors: Symons I. F. , Little J. A. , Carder D. R.
Published: April 2008

For road construction and improvement schemes in urban areas, the restricted space available has led to an increase in the use of earth retaining structures. The effect of ground movements caused by the retaining wall construction, on adjacent roads, buildings and buried services, is frequently a prime concern in design. The complexity of the construction sequence and the effect of soil-structure interaction generally precludes accurate predictions of ground movement, although an assessment of their upper and lower bounds can be obtained from previous field measurements.

This paper describes the pattern of ground movements and deflections of an anchored sheet pile wall forming part of the temporary works for the A1(M) Improvement Scheme at Hatfield, Hertfordshire. This scheme involved the construction of an 1150 m long cut and cover tunnel together with a 350 m length of retained cutting for the tunnel approach. The ground conditions over the tunnel depth consisted of glaciofluvial sands and gravels (Westmill Upper Gravel) overlying a lodgement till deposit (Ware Till). Approximately 2 km of anchored sheet pile walls were used on the scheme to retain the ground during construction of the permanent works. A section of the temporary sheet pile wall was extensively instrumented and observations made both during its construction and over the ten month period when the wall was in service. Measurements of ground movement and wall deflection formed part of a wider research study at the site designed to investigate the behaviour of the sheet pile wall and of the prestressed ground anchors.
Model studies of soil deformations over a moving basement
Authors: Stone K. J. L. , Wood D. M.
Published: April 2008

Centrifuge and single gravity model tests have been performed to study the deformations that occur in a layer of soil as a result of vertical movements of an underlying stiff basement which produce discontinuities of slope but not of displacement. The modes of deformation that have been observed are relevant to the ground movements that occur in areas of deep subsidence caused by extraction of minerals or hydrocarbons.

Plane soil models were tested on the centrifuge at 100 gravities in a strong box having a perspex window through which deformations of the soil could be observed while in flight. Single gravity tests have also been performed in which the same boundary movements were imposed. Results are reported from tests on layers of dense sand of two different gradings, and of soft clay. The clay was prepared in such a way that it was as nearly as possible normally consolidated throughout its depth.

In all cases some faulting of the soil occurred when the underlying basement was lowered — even though the basement did not contain a displacement discontinuity. In soft clay, normal faults extended from the ground surface at a steep angle behind the break in slope. In sand models, internal ruptures formed but these did not break through to the ground surface. The different patterns can be linked with the different strength and dilatancy characteristics of the two types of soil.
Collapse mechanisms of shallow coal-mine workings from field measurements
Authors: Garrard G. F. G. , Taylor R. K.
Published: April 2008

Simple stereo-photographic techniques were employed to look in detail at over 150 shallow (<75 m) collapsed old workings exposed in the high walls of 18 opencast coal sites across the country. Sixty variables, including collapse dimensions and various ratios, were defined to characterize the workings and the resulting data analyzed statistically. To the authors’s knowledge this is the first such investigation of its size undertaken. The data obtained have been compared with existing theories and design recommendations and used to develop new empirical relationships. The study shows that at shallow depths the crushing of coal pillars is rare and that bulking and arching, considered to be complementary mechanisms, are the normal limiting factors on the height of collapse. The collapse height of the working was found to be proportional to the span width, and where span widths are known or can be estimated a relationship of collapse height = 2.68 x span width is suggested. This relationship encompasses all but one observed collapse structure. The existing established relationship, based on bulking theory, of collapse height = 10 x seam thickness is shown to be valid and encompasses all observed collapse structures.
Roof-fall observations at Castlefields Mine, Dudley
Authors: Richards J. A. , Miller A.
Published: April 2008

The progressive collapse of old limestone mines has led to problems of general subsidence and crownhole formation in parts of the West Midlands. Infilling the voids inhibits the collapse of old workings, and a trial was undertaken at Castlefields Mine, Dudley, to assess the suitability of locally available colliery spoil, mixed with water to form a rock paste, as an infill material. As part of the site investigation programme prior to the infilling trial, information was obtained on the rate and size of roof collapses in the mine. Existing roof-fall debris piles were covered with netting and inspected at intervals over the 12-month period preceding the infill. Information on roof-falls was pertinent to the design and construction of the underground barrier which was to seal off the proposed infill area from the rest of the mine. The information was also required for the design of a network of transducers intended to monitor the microseismicity associated with rock failure and roof-falls in the mine.

Rates of collapse were higher than expected, with an estimated total weight of approximately twenty-six tonnes. The absence of freshly exposed surfaces indicated that little fracturing was taking place. This led to a shift in emphasis in the microseismic monitoring programme, from the detection of high frequency fracture propagation to that of the impact of roof-falls on the mine floor. The observed distribution of roof-falls, which conformed with the jointing pattern in the mine, resulted in a change of plan for the position and make-up of the infill barrier. Identification of particularly unstable areas was also of considerable value with regard to the safety of personnel within the mine during the engineering operations associated with the infill trial.