bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Physiological consequences of migration and of changing life-styles
Authors: Wessen Albert F , Hooper Antony , Huntsman Judith , Prior Ian A M , Salmond Clare E
Published: November 2023

Migration from one community to another often entails drastic changes in fact, for the individual it is likely to be one of life’s major changes. At the very least, migrants must learn to relate to new places and people, and even if their daily activities change minimally, adaptation must take place on many levelsbiological, psychological, sociological, and, perhaps, spiritual. Migration, therefore, is epidemiologically relevant (Wessen 1971). The greater the differences between one’s old and new settings, both as to status and as to what is expected of one, the more difficult the adjustment is likely to be, and the greater the possibility of dissonance and stress. And the fewer the resourcesof relatives and friends, of knowledge, and of material goodswhich the migrant brings from place of origin to destination, the more vulnerable and unaided he or she will be in coping with the new life-style and the new set of expectations.
Epilogue: migration and health in a small society
Authors: Wessen Albert F , Hooper Antony , Huntsman Judith , Prior Ian A M , Salmond Clare E
Published: November 2023

Long-term studies, by their nature, tend to carry the theoretical baggage of the time when they were formulated; yet they rarely conform to initial expectations because historical situations do not develop exactly as predicted, and unforeseen factors inevitably intervene. The advantage of the Tokelau Island Migrant Study is just this: we have been able both to document unpredicted changes and to take account of them in our analyses. Thus the thrust of the study has been both modified and amplified during its twenty- year history. Its data are unique, both in terms of the documentation of the health status of an entire small population over almost a generation and of the correlative research on the ethnography and social history of the society within which that population had lived in relative isolation for so many generations. At this point, what conclusions can be drawn from these parallel studies?
Proprioception as a link between body space and extra-personal space
Authors: Roll Jean Pierre , Roll R Égine , Velay Jean-Luc
Published: November 2023

In order to perform actions successfully, it is necessary to interrelate two spaces, both of which are known to the subject: these have been classically termed body space and extra-personal space. The key to adapting action to goals lies in the specificity of the nervous processes responsible for coding and then representing each of these two spaces. But over and above this processing, it is the mechanisms dealing with the integration of these two spaces into a single entity encompassing both the subject and his environment that are worth elucidating. We are far from having a complete picture of the nervous mechanisms underlying the specific coding of each of these spaces, but the biggest gap in our knowledge probably concerns how a common reference system for body and external space is built up(Gurfinkel et al. 1988; Paillard 1988 and Chapter 10, this volume; Roll et al. 1990).
Motor and representational framing of space
Authors: Paillard Jacques
Published: November 2023

The intention here is to focus on some motor-oriented approaches to the spatial functions of the brain and to see how far they contribute to our understanding of the way in which the internal metric of spatial information is neurally encoded.
Basic genetics
Authors: Nicholas F W
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides a review of basic genetics. It concentrates on the general principles that apply to normal, healthy animals. The exceptions to these principles are often the basis of genetic diseases, which are discussed in subsequent chapters.
Chromosomal aberrations
Authors: Nicholas F W
Published: November 2023

From time to time, mistakes occur in mitosis, in meiosis, or in fertilization, and sometimes these mistakes give rise to aberrant karyotypes. The aim of this chapter is to describe these aberrations, and to discuss the role they play in determining abnormalities in animals.
Pharmacogenetics
Authors: Nicholas F W
Published: November 2023

Given the vast array of different biochemical pathways that are involved in reactions to drugs, there are obviously many genes which affect drug metabol ism. The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of current knowledge of the genetic control of drug metabolism.
Introduction
Authors: May Robert M , Southwood T R E
Published: November 2023

Earlier ecological studies, both empirical and theoretical, tended to see populations of plants and animals as living in a homogeneous world. While this represented a sensible first step, it is becoming increasingly clear that many—and possibly most—species inhabit environments that are patchy in space and variable in time. The various chapters in this book show how such spatial patchiness and temporal variability can have important effects at every level of ecological organization, from the life histories and behaviour of individuals, through the dynamics of populations, to the structure and function of communities of interacting plants and animals.
The response of plants to patchy environments
Authors: Sutherland W J
Published: November 2023

Many species of plant, such as strawberries, bracken, elms, and 22 per cent of the British Flora (Table 3.1) grow by means of clonal growth so that the plant gradually spreads over the ground. Stoloniferous and rhizomatous species are particularly frequent in wet habitats (Table 3.1) perhaps because the open mud exposed during the summer is suitable for rapid colonization. The pattern of the spread is analogous to the search path of a foraging animal (Grime 1979). Just as an animal moves to exploit fresh resources a plant grows to use unexploited nutrients, water or light. However, unlike most animals, plants often leave a record of their pattern of movement.
Sex determination and sex ratios in patchy environments
Authors: Swingland I R , Adams J , Greenwood P J
Published: November 2023

Good and bad patches of habitat encountered over a lifetime are likely to affect the reproductive output and survival of any plant or animal. Sometimes these patches will affect the relative success of males and females in different ways.
Genetic heterogeneity
Authors: Anderson Roy M , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 8, we mentioned that the apparent decrease in the force of infection at older ages, seen in so many of the data, could in part by caused by genetic heterogeneity in response to infection. The importance of this issue was seen in Chapter 9, where we found that estimates of the level of herd immunity required for eradication of infection depend significantly on the degree to which intrinsic transmissibility really does decline among older age groups. Although there has been, in recent years, a growing amount of work on age-related, social, and other heterogeneities in host populations, the possibility of genetic heterogeneity continues to be neglected in most epidemiological studies involving microparasites. This is understandable, because there is not much concrete evidence on which to base such studies.
Spatial and other kinds of heterogeneity
Authors: Anderson Roy M , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

The main aim of this chapter is to consider how the design of immunization programmes can be affected when a population is distributed non-uniformly in space in such a way that the rates of transmission of an infectious disease are significantly higher in some places than in others.
The basic model: dynamics
Authors: Anderson Roy M , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

The preceding chapter focused on equilibrium results and (where possible) compared prediction with observations on the assumption that the parasite population under study was at its stable endemic state within a host community of constant size and stable age distribution. These assumptions can be relaxed in order to consider what happens when the parasite population is perturbed from its steady state by control intervention or environmental change. We examine four topics of practical interest, namely, the decay in parasite abundance following the cessation of transmission, reinfection following drug treatment, the dynamic consequences of repeated mass chemotherapy, and temporal changes induced by targeted or selective chemotherapy.
Nutritional interactions between hosts and parasites
Authors: Crompton D W T
Published: November 2023

The late C. P. Read considered the nutritional relationship between the host and parasite to be the hallmark of parasitism, and stated that nutrition is the primary consideration in the ecology of those organisms which use other living systems as habitat and food (Read 1950, 1968; see also Chapter 2 by Cheng, this volume). Nutrition, like parasitism, is difficult to define succinctly. A practical approach is to view nutrition as the process of furnishing the cells of the body with that portion of the external chemical environment needed for the optimum functioning of the metabolic reactions involved in growth, development, production, reproduction, and maintenance (Scott et al. 1976). In parasitism, there must be a phase in the life history when all the nutrients are obtained either directly from the host’s food and digestion products or, more commonly, from assimilated food substances obtained from the host’s tissues and metabolites.
Calcium Ions in Nerve Cell Function
Authors: Kostyuk Platon G
Published: November 2023

In this book, Professor Kostyuk reviews the progress that has been made in recent years in understanding the mechanisms by which calcium ions regulate nerve cell function. He covers all aspects of the topic, from the interaction of calcium ions with the external surface of the plasma membrane, to the function of transient changes in cytoplasmic calcium concentration. A major part of the book is devoted to a discussion of the different types of receptor- and voltage-operated calcium channels, and the basis of their selectivity, gating, inactivation, and pharmacological modulation. Professor kostyuk then describes the development of calcium conductance during ontogenesis, before discussing the fate of calcium ions in the cell. He assesses the contribution made by the release of calcium from internal stores to cytoplasmic calcium transients, and analyses mechanisms by which this release may be controlled. The first book in the Oxford Neuroscience Series, Calcium Ions in Nerve Cell Function meets the need for a comprehensive book drawing together the enormous body of research on this important topic. It has been written with a wide audience of neuroscientists in mind: it will be indispensable to specialists in the field, but will also provide an accessible review for non-specialists.
Korsakoffs psychosis: a neuropsychological and positron emission tomography study of two cases
Authors: Perani D , Kartsounis L D , Costello A
Published: November 2023

Wernicke’s encephalopathy and Korsakoffs psychosis are indistinguishable pathologically but can be clearly defined from a clinical point of view (Victor et al. 1971). Wernicke’s disease is a neurological disorder of acute onset, characterized by nystagmus, gaze palsies, ataxia of gait, and a global confusional state, occurring all together or in various combinations. By contrast, Korsakoff’s psychosis refers to an abnormal mental state in an otherwise alert and responsive patient, characterized by a severely affected memory and learning with relative sparing of other cognitive functions.
The lessons of history
Authors: Winsor Mary Pickard
Published: November 2023

Biologists sometimes refer to their own history as though lessons can be drawn from it, but they should be aware that statements about the past can have histories of their own. Julian Huxley’s claim that evolution had little effect on systematics is a case in point. His source was J. S. L. Gilmour, and one of Gilmour’s key sources was F. A. Bather, who was reporting in 1927 what he recalled of the late 1880s. Each of these three men put a different interpretation upon this bit of history, in accordance with their different beliefs about the proper relationship between classification and evolution. Unpublished letters show some of the personal dynamics behind Bather’s recollection. F. Wachsmuth and C. Springer had chosen to avoid phylogenetic speculation, at a time when Bather was enthusiastic about it. A. Agassiz had constructed a mathematical argument against the possibility of building probable trees, an argument Bather rejected. Bather’s biased testimony was transformed by Gilmour and Huxley into historical fact.
Extinctions in Mediterranean areas
Authors: Greuter Werner
Published: November 2023

The Mediterranean area is known as a region of high floristic diversity. When one delimits the area, as was done for the purposes of the Med-Checklist (Greuter et al. 1984-9), to include all countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea plus Portugal, Bulgaria, the Crimea, and Jordan, its wild flora of c. 24 000 species comes close to one-tenth of the quarter million known vascular plant species of the globe (Greuter 1991). Jointly, the five areas of the world with a Mediterranean-type climate (the Mediterranean proper, California, central Chile, the Cape region, and south-western Australia) ‘total some 70 000 or more species and represent a major part of the higher plant diversity of the world, exceeding the combined floras of tropical Africa and Asia’ (Heywood 1993).
Population and birth control: an Anglican perspective
Authors: Harries Richard
Published: November 2023

The Rt. Revd Richard Harries, Bishop of Oxford, was ordained in 1963 after Cambridge, theological college in Oxford, and a period in the Royal Corps of Signals. He served as a Curate in Hampstead until 1969 when he was appointed to a lectureship at Wells Theological College. In 1972 he became Vicar of All Saints, Fulham, and began to establish his considerable reputation as a broadcaster with his contributions to ‘Prayer for the Day’ on the BBC’s Today programme. He left Fulham in 1981 to take up a new appointment as Dean of King’s College, London. In 1987 he was appointed Bishop of Oxford.
The contributions of field research in the Gambia to the study of human adaptability
Authors: Huss-Ashmore Rebecca , Ulijaszek Stanley J
Published: November 2023

It is one of the ironies of human adaptability research in Africa that some of the most interesting work has been carried out by investigators whose primary interest was not in human adaptation. The contributions that nutritionists, ecologists, and economists have made to human biology in African agricultural and pastoral societies have been considerable, nowhere more so than in the extensive programme of research undertaken in the Gambia since 1945. The Gambian research programme is interesting in the present context for three reasons. First, a massive volume of research has been carried out in this one very small country, encompassing child growth, nutrition, and infectious disease, as well as maternal health and nutrition and the energy costs of pregnancy, lactation, and agricultural work. Second, none of the researchers were anthro pologists or human biologists with a primary interest in human adaptability. Third, despite this, and despite the applied nature of the work, many of the questions investigated were framed as problems in adaptation.
Long-term monogamy in a river specialist-the Blue Duck
Authors: Williams Murray , Mckinney Frank
Published: November 2023

The mallard-sized Blue Duck Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos, endemic to New Zealand, is found mostly on rivers of steep gradient, a distinctive and linear habitat subjected to brief and dramatic changes in flow at any time of year. Adult ducks live year-round as pairs confined to exclusive 0.5-1.5 km territories along the river bed. Only territory-holders attempt breeding. Pairs keep close company at all times, males regularly patrol the territory boundaries, and territory (and mate) ownership are subjected to frequent challenges. Field and laboratory studies have yielded no evidence of mate infidelity nor of any breeding relationship other than strict monogamy (Triggs et al. 1991; Williams 1991). Males and females both care for the ducklings until fledging, that parental care consisting primarily of vigilance’by the male and close guarding of the ducklings by the female. Both sexes are highly philopatric and birds resident in one catchment are effectively separate from those adjacent.
Mate fidelity and divorce in monogamous birds
Authors: Ens Bruno J , choudhury, sharmila , Black jeffrey m.
Published: November 2023

In contrast to most other phyla in the animal kingdom, the majority of bird species form a monogamous pair bond during the breeding season (Lack 1968). To be called a pair bond, the association between male and female should last considerably longer than the time needed for copulation, but the bond may be broken as soon as the female has finished laying eggs, as happens in several species of ducks. At the other extreme are some geese and swans, where male and female are close together every day and night of the year, even during migrations over thousands of kilometres. When we speak of monogamous, we mean socially monogamous, not sexually monogamous, since it has become clear that the first does not necessarily imply the latter (see Gowaty Chapter 2; Birkhead and M0ller Chapter 18). Especially in songbirds, extra-pair paternity seems common (Birkhead and Moller 1992).
The Nile Basin: Lessons from the Past
Authors: Abdel Mageed Yahia
Published: November 2023

Emile Lodwig, the famous German historian-geographer, made the for.. lowing remarks on the Nile when he visited Egypt and the Sudan in 1937: ‘Every time I have written the history of man there hovered before my mind’s eye the image of a river, but only once have I beheld in a river the image of man and his fate.’
Associated techniques
Authors: Cotton Richard G H
Published: November 2023

Molecular biology forms the foundation for molecular genetics and thus most of the techniques routinely used in molecular genetics laboratories are well known, as are protocol publications (e.g. Sambrook et al. 1989; Ausubel et al. 1994). In this situation it barely seems necessary to include a discussion on this topic. However, it seems appropriate to cover some of the most recent developments in areas which are most intimately involved with mutation detection.
Behavioural defence
Authors: Hart Benjamin L
Published: November 2023

Most animals live in environments that are, at times, teeming with parasites. Yet they survive, and even thrive, in such environments, to some degree because natural selection has enhanced behavioural defences against fitness-compromising parasites. Behavioural defences against parasites are complementary to the immune system (Wakelin and Apanius, Chapter 3) and other physiological mechanisms of resistance, and may be viewed as a first line of defence (Nelson et al. 1975).
Conclusion: evolution of host-parasite interactions
Authors: Moore Janice , Clayton Dale H
Published: November 2023

The eminent parasitologist Clark Read enjoyed talking about hookworms, not because he had an unnatural fondness for the blood-sucking worms, but because, to him, they illustrated a central concept in host-parasite evolution. Exposure to fifty hookworms has considerably different consequences for an internationally recognized athlete and a malnourished infant. The disparity is one between mild irritation on the one hand and severe illness or risk of death on the other. The hookworms may be the same, but the hookworm-human interaction is vastly different (Read, C. P. 1970).
Choice of species
Authors: Savill Peter , Evans Julian , Auclair Daniel , Falck Jan
Published: November 2023

What species should I plant? This question leads to one of the most important of all decisions in plantation forestry because of the long cycles involved. An incorrect choice can result in poor health or growth, and even the loss of a crop. During the decades between planting and harvesting the requirements of the trees must be well matched to the chosen site. It is foolish to take risks with trees that may sometimes be justifiable with annual crops. The stresses imposed by droughts, gales, frosts, and fires, some of which will inevitably occur over a plantation rotation of 50 or more years, could lead to serious disease or pest outbreaks or even death. The species selected for planting should therefore be those whose requirements throughout life are likely to be satisfied by the site and climate in question. They must also fulfil the objectives of the planting scheme.
Weed control and cleaning
Authors: Savill Peter , Evans Julian , Auclair Daniel , Falck Jan
Published: November 2023

During the early stages of establishment of a tree crop, whether it originates from a plantation or from natural regeneration, the high availability of light, water, and nutrients can lead to an explosive development of herbaceous or woody vegetation. A plant is usually regarded as a weed if it grows where it is not wanted and is a positive nuisance in some way. However, some plants can have beneficial effects on the desired tree crop. Management of forest vegetation consists of selecting plants which are considered as favourable and eliminating those considered undesirable (Gama et al. 1987).
Plantations on disturbed land
Authors: Savill Peter , Evans Julian , Auclair Daniel , Falck Jan
Published: November 2023

A consequence of many mining and other industrial activities is the formation of disturbed land, often consisting of structureless material largely devoid of topsoil and subsoil (e.g. Fig. 14.1). Much of this land is ‘derelict’ and is defined as ‘land so damaged by industrial or other development that it is incapable of beneficial use without treatment’ (Wickens et al. 1995). Many such sites, epitomized by the colliery spoil heap in industrialized regions, are frequently ugly, may erode seriously, and become an environmental hazard. Quite apart from the loss of productive potential of the ground which has been spoilt, these other factors make rapid restoration an important priority. Experience has shown that the cost of restoring much of this kind of derelict land to agriculture is prohibitively expensive. Thus restoration, which used to be viewed as no more than the land being of an acceptable shape and appearing green, was frequently ‘solved’ by planting trees.
From Individual Behaviour to Population Ecology
Authors: Sutherland William J
Published: November 2023

Population dynamics and animal behaviour are two subjects that have developed almost independently, despite widespread acceptance of the idea that they must have been related. The major objective of this book is to demonstrate how aspects of the population ecology of vertebrates, such as population size, migration systems, and the response of populations to ecological change, can be directly and realistically related to behaviour. Building on the strong theoretical foundation that now underpins behavioural ecology, the author suggests how to extrapolate from behavioural interactions to population-level phenomena, and explains the reasoning behind his approaches. Each chapter presents a combination of theory and empirical examples, and a chapter on modelling techniques is included. This book will be stimulating and useful to students and researchers in behaviour, population ecology, and conservation biology.
Extinctions in the early history of the Metazoa
Authors: Hallam A , Wignall P B
Published: November 2023

Although this book is, for obvious reasons, concerned essentially with the fate of Phanerozoic organisms, claims have been made for mass extinction of Vendian faunas immediately prior to the explosive Cambrian radiation, and these must be addressed. It will therefore be necessary initially to say something about correlation of strata across the Proterozoic-Cambrian boundary, a subject of considerable contention for many years. Important episodes of mass extinction also took place towards the end of the Early Cambrian, and a succession of extinctions among the dominant trilobite fauna in the Late Cambrian will also be considered.
Locus control regions
Authors: Grosveld Frank , Fraser Peter
Published: November 2023

The nucleosome is the basic repeat structure of chromatin and individual nucleosomes are joined by a short region of linker DNA. Histone H1 associates with the linker DNA at the border of the nucleosomc. In the presence of HJ the nucleosomes are compacted to form the 30 nm fibre visible in the electron microscope (Thoma et al. 1977). Non-histone proteins are thought to organize the 30 nm fibre into higher order structures. When depleted of histones, metaphase chromosomes show loops of DNA attached to a central protein scaffold (Laemmli et al. 1977). Chromatin, therefore, appears to be organized into discrete domains where each domain is a 30—100 kb loop attached at their base to a nuclear scaffold (Gasser and Laemmli 1987). One of the major proteins attached to the scaffold is topoisomerase II (Gasser and Laemmli 1987), which suggests that torsional stress induced during transcription or replication may be released at the base of the loops.
Homology-dependent gene silencing in transgenic plants and related phenomena in other eukaryotes
Authors: Matzke Marjori A , Matzke Antonius J M
Published: November 2023

Higher eukaryotic genomes contain substantial amounts of repetitive DNA. What limitations, if any, are placed on the quantity and distribution of repetitive sequences and do these parameters in tum influence gene expression? Some contend that non-genie repeated DNA sequences, which constitute ca. 30 per cent of mammalian genomes and 15—90 per cent of flowering plant genomes, are mostly non-functional ‘junk’ (John and Miklos 1988), while others suggest that they have essential structural and/or regulatory roles (Davidson and Britten 1979; Smyth 1991; see Chapter 13). In plants large disparities in DNA content arise primarily from differences in the repetitive fraction, as reflected in recent findings showing that even though DNA amounts can vary greatly in closely related species, gene composition and gene order remain relatively constant (synteny). This is particularly striking in the cereals (Moore et al. 1993). For example, the genetic linkage maps of rice and wheat are remarkably conserved, even though they differ 30-fold in DNA content (Kurata et al. 1994). These findings have prompted the remark that ‘rice is wheat without the repeats’ (G. Moore, quoted in Cherfas 1994). Noteworthy synteny has also been observed in related mammals (O’Brien and Graves 1991). Despite arguments to the contrary (John and Miklos 1988), it is difficult to abandon the notion that at least some of this repetitive DNA, particularly those sequences that are species specific, contributes to the differential regulation of a ‘generic’ protein-coding genome.
Ecological factors influencing the colony cycle of Polistes wasps
Authors: Yamane Sôichi
Published: November 2023

The genus Polistes is a large cosmopolitan group of the subfamily Polistinae comprising over 200 known species (Reeve 1991; Carpenter this volume). The species have adapted to a wide range of environments from tropical to cold temperate climates. Wasps of this genus build uncovered, single-combed nests which are suspended by a narrow petiole. The nests are small with generally fewer than 250 cells (Reeve 1991). The social biology of this group is one of the major lines of sociobiological research in insects.
Homing in paper-wasps
Authors: Ugolini Alberto , Cannicci Stefano
Published: November 2023

In flying hymenopterans, the majority of studies have concerned observations or experiments held within the insects’ known territory, or their home range (internal homing), and most of this research has focused on the problem of nest location and identification on return from foraging flights (immediate orientation) (see Wehner 1981).
Behavioural screening and the evolution of polygyny in paper-wasps
Authors: Gervet Jacques , Charlotte Anstett Marie , Kjellberg Finn
Published: November 2023

How altruistic characters, i.e. characters costly to the individual and benefiting another could evolve was a neglected problem until thirty years ago when Hamilton (1964a, b) introduced the inclusive fitness idea. A gene, present in an individual, can increase in frequency in the next generation if it induces its bearer to help other individuals bearing the same gene. The transposition of this idea at the level of individuals (whose behaviour can be observed) led to the inclusive fitness concept for individuals: in the reproductive output of an individual should be included its own offspring but also the increase it may cause in production of offspring by other, related, individuals, thereby increasing transmission of genes identical to its own. The application of inclusive fitness to a number of situations has greatly enhanced our understanding of species’ natural history.
Wasp societies as microcosms for the study of development and evolution
Authors: Jane Mary , Eberhard West
Published: November 2023

Many discussions of insect social evolution begin with 'Darwin's Dilemma'-the question of sterile castes raised by Charles Darwin (1859, pp. 203-4) in his chapter on 'problems' for the theory of natural selection.
The early evolution of the Bivalvia
Authors: Cope John C W
Published: November 2023

Classification of the Bivalvia has proved contentious for well over a century, and new classifications at high taxonomic level are still produced regularly. But in a group of organisms, represented today by tens of thousands of species and with an excellent fossil record, why should taxonomy at higher levels cause such problems? The answer is readily available. On the one hand, zoologists have traditionally used structures of the soft parts, in particular the gill grade (e.g. Fischer, 1880-87; Pelseneer, 1889, 1891, 1906, 1911; Ridewood, 1903), the degree of fusion of the mantle margins (Linnaeus, 1758; Cuvier, 1797), or condition of the foot (Gray, 1821; Lankester, 1883), but also stomach type (Purchon, 1958, 1959), or labial palp development (Stasek, 1963), to draw up their higher level taxa. On the other hand, palaeontologists, deprived of knowledge of these structures, save in fossil forms closely related to extant taxa, have used characters of the shell such as dentition (e.g. Dall, 1889; Neumayr, 1883; Bernard, 1898), or shell structures which can indicate soft part anatomy such as muscle scars (e.g. Phillippi, 1853; Zittel, 1881-85) or ligament type, together with phylogenetic links indicated by the fossil record (e.g. Neumayr, 1891; Douville, 1913).
Evolutionary processes
Authors: Majerus Michael E N
Published: November 2023

Our Earth is 4.5 billion years old. Latest evidence suggests that life developed on Earth at least 3.8 billion years ago. By the passage of hereditary material, from parent to progeny, generation upon generation, and as a result of changes in and mixing of this material, there are now thought to be over 30000000 species sharing the planet with us. They range from single-celled microbes to blue whales and giant redwoods.
Melanism in the Lepidoptera
Authors: Majerus Michael E N
Published: November 2023

The prominence given in biological texts to industrial melanism, and the case of the peppered moth in particular, has tended to eclipse the fact that the majority of British Lepidoptera that now have melanic forms, already had melanic forms prior to the industrial revolution. This must include dark forms which are distributed in and around industrial areas and far beyond in the direction of the prevailing smoke-drift. In some widely distributed species this frequently leads to dines. It is found in cryptic night-flying Heterocera only. Inheritance of melanic forms is usually dominant, less frequently multifactorial or polygenic; more rarely the character has no dominance. In Britain it is recessive in a few instances only.
New phylogenies: an introductory look at the coalescent
Authors: Harding Rosalind M
Published: November 2023

It must be a reasonable assumption that anyone interested in this book will be well acquainted with phylogenies, though not necessarily with population genetics. A special kind of phylogeny that has recently come to prominence is a gene tree, which is a phylogeny constructed from DNA sequences, and of particular interest are gene trees not for sets of different taxa, but for samples of individuals from an interbreeding population. The coalescent is a population genetic model for the neutral evolution of gene trees (Griffiths 1980; Kingman 1982a,b; Tavaré 1984; Donnelly and Tavaré 1995), also known as gene genealogies (Tajima 1983; Hudson 1990) or allelic genealogies (Takahata 1993). This model is both powerful and efficient and has the following advantages. First, the coalescent is more powerful than diffusion theory formulations based on effective population size for modelling a range of demographic histories, such as those defining variable, expanding, and subdivided population size. Secondly, coalescent models can be used to simulate, and estimate from, gene trees, which provide information for stronger inferences on demographic history than summarizing statistics of DNA sequence data. Thirdly, the coalescent is more efficient than branching processes for simulating a wide variety of conditions in both mutation and demography.
A microevolutionary link between phylogenies and comparative data
Authors: Martins Emilia P , Hansen Thomas F
Published: November 2023

Usually, interspecific or ‘comparative’ data are expected to be similar to one another because the species from which the data are measured have been evolving together for some period of evolutionary time (for example Felsenstein 1985; Harvey and Pagel 1991). We term this similarity due to common ancestry the ‘phylogenetic correlation’, referring also to an expected relationship between interspecific trait variation and the phylogeny along which the measured species evolved. In this chapter we discuss how the extent and pattern of phylogenetic correlation depends not only on the phylogeny of the species but also on the microevolutionary processes underlying genetic and phenotypic change. As microevolution can differ among characters or among clades of organisms, explicit determination of the microevolutionary processes underlying the assumptions and statistical models of any phylogenetic method can be one of the most difficult, yet important, aspects of conducting interspecific analyses. An awareness of these underlying processes can also provide us with an exciting new set of opportunities for the use of phylogenies in inferring microevolutionary process from comparative data.
How he Environment Helps to Build the Brain
Authors: Damasio Antonio R
Published: November 2023

Professor Colin Blakemore, PhD, ScD, FRS, studied medicine at the University of Cambridge and completed his PhD in Physiological Optics at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1968. After teaching at Cambridge for eleven years, he was appointed Waynflete Professor of Physiology at the University of Oxford in 1979 and has held the post ever since. Professor Blakemore is also Director of both the Medical Research Council and the McDonnell-Pew Centres for Cognitive Neuroscience in Oxford and is President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science for 1997-98. During 1995-96 he was Regents’ Visiting Professor at the University of California, Davis. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1992 and has been the recipient of numerous prizes and medals from medical and scientific institutions throughout the world. Professor Blakemore is a frequent broadcaster on radio (he delivered the BBC’s Reith Lectures in 1976) and television; he presented a 13-part television series on the mind and brain, The Mind Machine, in 1988. In addition to his many academic publications, he has written several books on the brain for the general public, including Mechanics of the Mind, for which he was awarded the Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science, and The Mind Machine. He is one of Britain’s most influential communicators of science.
Toxins in the Environment and Human Brain Disease
Authors: Marsden David
Published: November 2023

Professor David Marsden, DSc, FRCP, FRS, is Professor of Clinical Neurology and Director of the MRC Human Movement and Balance Unit at the National Hospitals for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Queen Square in London, where he began his career in 1968 as Senior House Physician after qualifying at St Thomas’s Hospital. In 1972 he was appointed Professor of Neurology at King’s College Hospital, a post which he held for fifteen years. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1983 and has served on its Council. He is the author of numerous publications on human movement disorders and motor physiology, fields in which he is among the world’s leading experts.The brain is the basis of the mind. The ability to walk on two legs, freeing the hands for the manipulation of tools, to articulate so as to produce speech, which allows structured communication, and to introspect and so communicate our thoughts are remarkable human attributes. All depend upon the exquisite function of the human brain, which we can see operating in life.
The information available from NMR
Authors: Gadian David G
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we describe the type of information that NMR can provide about living systems, concentrating on its role in the study of tissue bio-chemistry and physiology. If we consider the division of NMR into MRI and MRS, the chapter can be divided into two parts - the information available from the water signal, and the information available from everything else. What is perhaps surprising is how useful the water signal is proving to be, not just for distinguishing different structures within the body, but also for probing normal and abnormal physiology.
Physiological magnetic resonance imaging
Authors: Gadian David G
Published: November 2023

The most widespread use of magnetic resonance is in diagnostic radiology; it is the imaging method of choice for examination of disorders of the central nervous system, and is increasingly used for the investigation of diseases in other organ systems (Stark and Bradley 1992; Edelman and Warach 1993). The technique provides excellent contrast and spatial resolution (Fig. 4.1), particularly for the limbs and head, which are least susceptible to motion artefacts. Developments in instrumentation, pulse sequences, and contrast enhancement are generating continued improvements in the diagnostic capability of MRI, and there is every reason to believe that there will be many further improvements in the coming years.
Condensation
Authors: Collie John G , Eng F R S F , John R , Phil Thome D
Published: November 2023

Condensation is defined as the removal of heat from a system in such a manner that vapour is converted into liquid. This may happen when vapour is cooled sufficiently below the saturation temperature to induce the nucleation of droplets. Such nucleation may occur homogeneously within the vapour or heterogeneously on entrained particulate matter, for example, within the low-pressure stages of a large steam turbine (Gardner 1963-64). Heterogeneous nucleation may also occur on the walls of the system, particularly if these are cooled as in the case of a surface condenser. In this latter case there are two forms of heterogeneous condensation, drop-wise and film-wise, corresponding to the analogous cases in evaporation, of nucleate boiling and film boiling. Film-wise condensation occurs on a cooled surface which is easily wetted.
Properties of MBPC Algorithms
Authors: De Nicolao G , Scattolini R
Published: November 2023

This paper deals with the stability properties of predictive control with terminal constraints on the output and input variables. Specifically, in predictive control with terminal constraints on the controlled variable is forced to match a reference value over a given intraval at the end of the pred1ct1on horizon, while the control variable is allowed to have a restricted number of projected control variations. Both the classical receding horizon approach, where only the first projected control increment _is applied, and the so-called intervalwise receding horizon strategy, where a number of future control increments are effectively applied, are considered. A preliminary investigation of the robustness properties of receding horizon control is performed by exploiting its strict relations with infinite horizon Linear Quadratic control.
Modelling and Robustness
Authors: Karny M , Halouskova A
Published: November 2023

Probabilistic interpretation of identification results is very helpful in systematic preliminary analysis of the expected closed loop behaviour. This admits to tune para.meters determining control law applied in on-line phase. The essence of the methodology is outlined in the paper and key theoretical as well as implementation aspects are discussed. The approach is independent of the particular model and/or design methodology. Its feasible application has been, however, elaborated for the Gaussian controlled autoregressive-regressive models (ARX) and designs which lead to linear control laws.
Lagrange multipliers, penalty factors, and basis transformation
Authors: Mohr G A
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapter energy-based finite elements were discussed, paying most attention to the displacement method as this appears to have become dominant in solids mechanics applications. Moreover stress-type elements can be obtained more directly by applying the Galerkin method directly to the governing differential equations (as is done in Section 17.6) whilst the main incentive for the use of hybrid and mixed elements is to increase interelement stress and/or displacement continuity and this can be accomplished more generally, in any physical application, with the use of the techniques to be discussed in this chapter. Indeed the penalty factor and Lagrange multiplier techniques form a linear minimization problem which is a special case of the use of such techniques in non-linear optimization. The latter ar<: further discussed in Chapter 22 where many other useful relationships and applications to the finite element method are to be found.
lsoparametric mapping and its applications
Authors: Mohr G A
Published: November 2023

Isoparametric elements are defined as elements for which the equations required to define the element shape are identical to those used to define the displacement fields within the element. Comparing eqns (6.1) and (5.54) the constant strain triangle is thus an isoparametric element as the number of parameters needed to define the element shape (six: x1,y1,x2,y2,x3,y3) equals the number of parameters used to define the displacement field within the element (again, six: u1, v1, u2, v2, u3, v3). Further, the parameters correspond in type so that, for example, the six-freedom constant moment element described in Section .
Optimization techniques and applications
Authors: Mohr G A
Published: November 2023

The majority of the problems encountered in preceding chapters were linear whilst relatively economical solutions can be obtained for most of the nonlinear problems encountered, except perhaps when time dependency is also included, resulting in a ‘twice iterative’ situation. One of the most beneficial applications of the finite element method, however, is to the optimization of engineering systems and much remains to be done in this area. This chapter briefly outlines some optimization fundamentals, the classical Michell ‘constant strain’ principle, applications of linear programming in matrix structural analysis, non-linear optimization techniques, and finally summarizes some applications of optimization techniques in the finite element method.
Engineering Applications
Authors: Zhong Zhi-Hua
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapters some contact-impact problems successfully solved with the finite element method have been presented. To demonstrate further the great capability of the finite element procedure to solve complicated contact-impact problems, this whole chapter is devoted to the discussion of applications of finite element procedures to engineering contact-impact problems.
What Is An Ultrasonic Motor?
Authors: Sashida Toshiiku , Kenjo Takashi
Published: November 2023

We shall first define the ultrasonic motor, then discuss some of the earlier researches which preceded the invention by Sashida. An ultrasonic motor is a type of actuator that uses mechanical vibrations in the ultrasonic range as its drive source. Human ears are capable of detecting sound waves from 50 Hz to 20 kHz. This is called the audible frequency range. Ultrasonic waves are sound waves or mechanical vibrations with frequencies above 20kHz. The use of ultrasonic waves is a direct outcome of using piezoelectric ceramics, which expand or contract in accordance with an applied electric field, as the vibrational source. In the ultrasonic motor, a voltage is applied to the piezoelectric ceramic element to generate alternating expansions and contractions, either in the ceramic body itself or in an attached metal piece. This will be discussed in Chapter 3. The magnitude of these oscillations is extremely small, of the order of 1 μm. In order to obtain a higher gain, the resonance effect of the ceramics in the ultrasonic range is utilized.
Non-Uniform Free Stream
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

In most wind-tunnels and water channels a uniform low-turbulence free stream is produced in order to obtain reliable measurements. Such a uniform free stream, however, is not at all common in many engineering applications. For example, the wind is an atmospheric boundary layer and has ashear velocity profile. Other non-uniform velocity profiles may be found in tides and currents. Hence, all cylindrical structures submerged in winds, tides or currents are always exposed to a non-uniform free stream.
Compressible Flow
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

When the magnitude of the free stream velocity is negligible in comparison with the speed of sound the ensuing flow is termedincompressible. It has been shown in Chapters 1-7 that a governing similarity parameter for the incompressible and disturbance-free flow is the Reynolds number,Re.
Z
Authors: Perrot Pierre
Published: November 2023

Zeotrope—From the Greek (i-:w, to boil, and rpon11, evolution. Antonym of azeotrope, introduced by Swiytoslawski in 1945 to describe a solution whose boiling temperature, under constant pressure, evolves between an initial boiling point and a final boiling point. By extension, a mixture is called zeotropic when it is possible to separate its constituents by distillation. As a consequence, the temperature composition diagram does not show a composition corresponding to an extremum on the dew-point curve or on the boiling curve.
Aspect ratio
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

We should recognize that both experimentalists and theoreticians have shared until recently the comfortable dream-world of two-dimensionality and that the vast majority of the reported measurements on flow around cylinders contained an unknown dose of bias and distortion via two-dimensional interpretations. Marc V. Morkovin (1964R).
Two cylinders
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

Two parallel circular cylinders placed close to each other have been employed in many areas of engineering, such as in aeronautical engineering (twin struts to support biplane wings), in hydronautical engineering (periscope and its guide), in space engineering (twin booster rockets), in civil engineering (twin chimney stacks and jetties), in offshore engineering (platform structural members), in electrical engineering (transmission lines), in chemical engineering (pipe racks), etc. However, despite the wide-spread applications, systematic investigations of flow around two cylinders started rather late in comparison with investigations into a single cylinder.