bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Aircraft Pilot and Operator Interfaces
Authors: Cummings Mary L. , Zacharias Greg L.
Published: December 2010

The shift from mechanical/pneumatic instruments and dedicated mechanical controls/linkages to glass cockpit displays and “fly‐by‐wire” controls has not only transformed the appearance of the modern‐day cockpit, but with the growth of on‐board computational power, the role of the pilot has changed from one of directly controlling the aircraft to one of system management and automation supervision. This move towards human supervisory control means that computer‐mediated displays (primarily visual and auditory) and associated controls are the conduit through which pilots “manage” the aircraft and its subsystems. Thus operator interface design is critical for safe and efficient operation. This chapter provides a brief history of human‐cockpit interface evolution, outlines design variables, principles, and guidelines for effective interface design, and concludes with a discussion of the parallels and differences between conventional manned aircraft interfaces and unmanned aerial vehicle operator ground control stations.
Space Human Factors and Operator Interfaces
Authors: Henshaw Carl Glen , Roberts Brian John
Published: December 2010

Human factors, also known as human factors engineering or ergonomics, is the branch of engineering that deals with understanding and improving how humans and mechanical, electronic, and software systems interact. Areas of space exploration in which human factors engineering is important include design of human/machine interfaces, including flight control stations and robotic operator interfaces; design of astronaut tools and spacesuits; design and evaluation of operator training regimens; and design and evaluation of human/robotic teams, including team member roles, interactions, and capabilities.
Hydraulic Power Generation and Distribution
Authors: Seabridge Allan
Published: December 2010

Many of the systems of an aircraft need to translate small command signals into large demands for power to move surfaces and mechanisms. This chapter will describe the way in which hydraulic power generation and distribution systems are designed for various types of aircraft to suit different power demands. A description will be given of typical hydraulic circuits and components and the way in which the circuits are separated to preserve the integrity of the systems using the power. The impact of technology will also be described.
Gas Turbine Fuel Control Systems
Authors: Langton Roy
Published: December 2010

Presented is an overview of aircraft gas turbine fuel system technology covering control methods for speed governing, acceleration & deceleration limiting, compressor geometry control and thrust/power management. Examples of fuel control implementation concepts are described as they have evolved over the past 60 years to the modern FADEC (full authority digital electronic control) based control system which is the standard for most of today's aircraft gas turbine propulsion systems Fuel pumping and metering designs are described which are required to provide ancillary functions such as oil system cooling, high fuel pressure sourcing for servo actuation and manifold draining and recovery. Finally a brief description of engine performance monitoring and diagnostics is presented showing how the trend towards on‐condition maintenance is being supported by new diagnostic equipment and methods.
Integration and Complexity
Authors: Seabridge Allan
Published: December 2010

The modern aircraft is a tightly integrated set of subsystems in which functions may be distributed throughout the system network. This not only has led to significant advantages in performance, but also has led to a complexity of systems in which it is becoming difficult to visualize the behavior of systems under both normal and failure conditions. This has ramifications for system qualification and for fault finding especially for in‐flight failures. This chapter will describe how this situation has arisen, give some examples of complexity, and will pose some ideas on how best to deal with the situation.
Weapons Integration
Authors: Rigby Keith A.
Published: December 2010

One of the key differences between civilian and military aircraft is that many military aircraft have the ability to carry and release weapons. The tools required to integrate weapons on to an aircraft demand a multi‐disciplinary set of skills. This chapter outlines the various aspects of weapons integration primarily from the viewpoint of systems integration. The chapter considers a range of weapon types including simple ballistic bombs, air‐to‐air missiles, and modern “smart” weapons, and examines the preparation to employment sequence for each and identifies important considerations for integration. Weapons integration also draws on other avionics skills such as navigation, displays, human interface, etc that are covered in detail in other chapters. This chapter also discusses Stores Management System architecture, weapon interfacing standards and future systems.
Choice and Sizing of Engines for Aircraft
Authors: Jackson Anthony J.B.
Published: December 2010

The key issues involved in the choice of engine for aircraft projects are discussed. Although the focus is mainly on subsonic transport aircraft, a few comments are included regarding supersonic military aircraft.

The most important issues affecting engine choice and sizing are the number of engines per aircraft and the aircraft mission – its range, speed, maximum operating altitude, take‐off field length, payload, and consequent all‐up weight. Aircraft, and their missions, vary greatly, from small helicopters to large long‐range airliners. Safety is paramount in all cases.

Important engine characteristics include the engine thrust, the type of engine, the engine fuel consumption, and its weight, diameter, life, and initial and maintenance costs. Other factors include the operating environment, the air and power off‐takes for aircraft services, stealth, customer perception, and maintenance arrangements.

Engine fuel consumption per unit of thrust is shown to be of high importance to subsonic transport aircraft design because the weight of fuel consumed is often a significant fraction of the aircraft take‐off weight. This and the engine weight affect the aircraft design and therefore its drag; this in turn affects aircraft thrust requirements and therefore engine size. Choice of turbofan design parameters such as bypass ratio, are discussed.
Basic Principles – Thrust, Drag and Induced Forces
Authors: Rickman Stephen
Published: December 2010

In any aircraft design it is necessary to be able to accurately predict the performance and handling of the vehicle long before the prototype reaches flight test. This also infers that the assessment of overall forces and moments must be accurate even though it will be derived from a range of sources. This section introduces force and moment accounting frameworks, explaining industry standard practices used on combat aircraft designs. It also outlines some of the special considerations that need to be made for civil transport, propeller powered, and STOVL vehicles.
Basic Principles – Gas Turbine Compatibility – Intake Aerodynamic Aspects
Authors: Bissinger Norbert C. , Breuer Thomas
Published: December 2010

Engine/intake compatibility covers the mutual dependencies between the aircraft intake and the gas turbine. Flow physical effects in both the intake and/or the gas turbine can reduce stability margins of the propulsion system dramatically, possibly resulting in unstable performance or engine flameout. Besides exhibiting optimal performance it is of utmost importance that stable propulsion operation in the whole flight envelope of a jet aircraft is ensured. In this chapter, the sources of possible intake flow distortions will be described. The state of the art for the quantification of intake flow distortion by the use of distortion parameters is presented together with possible methods for measuring the data for the calculation of these parameters. Existing experience and current research efforts with the aim of reducing flow distortion in intakes are highlighted.
Propulsion Integration: Supersonic Transport Aircraft
Authors: Sóbester András
Published: December 2010

The integration of the propulsion system is one of the most important aspects of the design of a supersonic aircraft, as it has a strong influence on performance, safety, and reliability. Here we examine some of the propulsion integration issues specific to transport aircraft cruising at Mach numbers between 1 and 2.5, a performance bracket that includes Concorde, the only commercial passenger transport ever to have entered regular airline service. Most of the chapter is centered on the fundamental design decisions related to the design of the general layout of the propulsion system and to the conceptual design of the air intake system. The latter merits particular attention as the wide range of freestream velocities encountered by the intakes during a typical mission demand a robust, usually variable geometry, closely integrated with the design of the rest of the airframe. We devote a section to a more detailed analysis of Concorde's propulsion system and we also touch on some of the computational engineering aspects of modern propulsion integration design.
VSTOLIntegration
Authors: Curtis Peter
Published: December 2010

Vertical and/or short takeoff and landing (VSTOL) aircraft have a number of unique propulsion integration challenges ranging from the design of engine inlets that have to work at optimum efficiency from zero forward speed up to the maximum design speed of the aircraft; the control of the aircraft at speeds too low for aerodynamic control effectiveness; aerodynamic suckdown in powered lift flight; and, not least, the issue of controlling the propulsive jets once they hit the ground. This article gives some background to each of these issues and illustrates how designers have tackled the problems they pose in a range of different aircraft.
Surrogate‐Based Optimization
Authors: Keane Andy
Published: December 2010

Surrogate‐based optimization stems from the problem of trying to use numerical optimization schemes where the objective function or constraint computer codes (models) involved have very long run times. Essentially, the approach is to sample the full analysis codes for judicious combinations of design variables and then to use the resulting answers to build curve fits that can act as surrogates for the full codes during subsequent optimization processes. Provided a suitably accurate fit can be obtained, such an approach turns out to be extremely powerful and is in routine use in many aerospace design offices. It can also make use of data coming from physical experiments or even full‐scale tests. The basic process of surrogate‐based optimization is thus one of sampling the full problem, often in parallel, selecting and applying a suitable curve‐fitting process, followed by search over the resulting curve fits to find improved design points. These can then be used directly or alternatively, and by again using the full design codes, the curve fits can be iteratively improved until some convergence criterion is met. In passing, it is worth noting that surrogate models are often also referred to as meta‐models or response surface models (RSMs) – here the term surrogate is used exclusively.
Composite Laminate Optimization with Discrete Variables
Authors: Gürdal Zafer , IJsselmuiden Samuel , van Campen Julien
Published: December 2010

Because of the directional stiffness and strength properties of fiber reinforced layers, creating laminates with multiple layers with different orientation angles makes the design of a laminated composite material a unique optimization problem. The primary design variables of a composite laminate optimization problem are the number of layers of a given unidirectional lamina (which determines the total laminate thickness), and through‐the‐thickness distribution of the orientation angles (the stacking sequence). Both design variables are discrete in nature and require discrete optimization algorithms. Moreover, the stacking sequence design allows us to change material stiffness values in two mutually perpendicular directions as design variables, allowing the designer to “optimize the material” properties. In addition to the unique nature of the design variables, composite laminates display rather specific stiffness coupling properties that enable designers to achieve structural response characteristics that are also unique. As such, new avenues can be created for design optimization. In this chapter, after a brief review of the derivation of the mechanical response of a laminate and discussion of various stiffness coupling terms, and their relation to the stacking sequence design, the algorithmic nature of the design variables along with different types of design optimization algorithms for specific composite optimization problems will be presented. Sample laminate optimization problems that are commonly used as benchmark problems, demonstrating structural design with in‐plane stiffness matrix, bending stiffness matrix, and coupled in‐plane and bending matrix terms, are presented. More complex optimization problems, which include design optimization of multiple connected laminate regions with different stacking sequences, along with designs requiring more rigorous numerical analysis tools are discussed.
Fluid Machinery Optimization
Authors: Kim Kwang‐Yong
Published: December 2010

Current trend of design optimization is introduced for turbomachinery that is a major part of fluid machinery. Turbomachines are elementary components in a variety of engineering systems including aircraft engines, gas and steam turbines, etc. Design optimization of turbomachinery became more practical due to development of optimization and performance analysis techniques as well as the high‐speed computers. Performance analysis using three‐dimensional Reynolds‐averaged Navier–Stokes analysis also became popular. However, turbulence modeling is still a key issue in the analysis. Especially, as for the design of rotor or stator blades, optimization of blade stacking line modifying sweep, lean, and skew based on the three‐dimensional analysis greatly improved the performance of the blade in the last decade. Parametric modeling of turbomachinery shapes has been performed usually based on Bezier or B‐spline curves. A variety of optimization methods, gradient‐based or statistical, have been developed. Among them, surrogate modeling approaches are being widely used in multidisciplinary design optimization of turbomachinery due to their easy implementation and affordable computing time.
Airborne Network Security and Information Assurance
Authors: Meserole Jere S. , Stephens Robert W. , Comitz Paul H.
Published: December 2010

The global air traffic system relies on the ability to communicate reliably. Currently air traffic controllers and pilots verbally resolve potential conflicts, and emerging data links are expected to enable pilots and flight management systems maintain accurate real‐time traffic, weather, and navigation data. Such network‐enabled operations are intended to maximize capacity, safety, and efficiency, along with agility, security, and economy. A central question is how to ensure communicated information is persistently available, correct, and secure. This chapter describe the current air traffic management infrastructure as well as anticipated upgrades to a secure network‐centric information management system that will enable air and ground entities to more efficiently communicate. Such a standardized data link is intended to improve data security, assurance, and throughput for traditional airspace operations as well as for emerging unmanned surveillance platforms.
Aircraft Safety Certification
Authors: Salvano Daniel P.
Published: December 2010

The first heavier‐than‐air flight occurred in December 1903 and began aviation as we know it today. For more than 20 years after the Wright brothers flight access to aviation was unencumbered by the need for licenses. There were no national standards for aircraft design, maintenance, or operation, nor standards for pilot qualifications. It was not until passage of the Air Commerce Act of 1926, which created the Aeronautic Branch within the Department of Commerce, that civil aviation was regulated. Today, in the United States the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has the statutory responsibility to promote aviation safety. This is done by prescribing and administering compliance with safety standards governing the design, production quality, and airworthiness of civil aeronautical products. The FAA has developed an infrastructure of procedural and technical Federal Aviation Regulations, Advisory Circulars, and Directives to support their safety certification program. The certification program includes the aviation products type design, production and quality control system, and the airworthiness of each individual aircraft. The FAA monitors the aviation product throughout its life cycle under the auspices of its continued operational safety program.
Integrated Resilient Aircraft Control
Authors: Krishnakumar Kalmanje , Nguyen Nhan , Kaneshige John
Published: December 2010

Stability, maneuverability, and safe landing in the presence of adverse conditions need an integrated approach for addressing various flight control aspects of resilient aircraft control. Adverse events include loss of control caused by environmental factors, actuator and sensor faults or failures, and expand toward more complicated damage conditions. In this chapter, the application focus of the technologies presented is for current and next generation subsonic civil transports. However, a majority of the challenges addressed by these technologies are general in nature, and therefore, the solutions will apply to a large class of aviation vehicles. The chapter first defines the flight control architecture that integrates various aspects of flight and propulsion control and a discussion on the technical challenges associated with resilient aircraft control are presented. The flight control technologies specifically addressed for resiliency include inner‐loop adaptive control, integrated flight and propulsion control, and outer‐loop intelligent guidance and planning.
Separation Assurance in High‐Density Airspace
Authors: Hoffman Jonathan , DeVivo Richard , Mayo John J.
Published: December 2010

Separation assurance is the service provided by air traffic control that keeps aircraft apart from one another, from obstacles on the ground, and from airspace where they must not fly. High‐density airspace, where the number of aircraft is high enough that active effort is required to maintain safe separations, provides the greatest challenge to those responsible for separation assurance. This chapter describes the problem of maintaining air traffic safety, shows the role of separation assurance within it, and enumerates the possible dimensions of separation. The utility of the various kinds of separation, the limitations on the use of each, and the implications of each on system efficiency are described. The chapter concludes with a description of how upcoming changes to the technology of air traffic control are likely to affect the job of separation assurance.
Space Shuttle System and Flight Mechanics
Authors: Walter Ulrich
Published: December 2010

This article is intended to give a technical overview of the Space Shuttle system with its three main elements orbiter vehicle, solid rocket boosters and external tank; its ascent phases and profiles; and about the reentry phases of the Shuttle orbiter. It will not deal with Shuttle orbital flight, Shuttle missions or operations. The focus will be on the main elements of the orbiter vehicle: its structure, propulsion systems, thermal protection system, avionic and communication system. Since the Challenger catastrophe many improvements have been made on the Shuttle system, which is summarized in a dedicated section.

For the Shuttle ascent, first the ascent principles are presented, followed by the flight description of the ascent phases (thrust phase and coasting phase). Also, a more detailed description of the possible abort types (intact abort versus contingency abort) and abort modes (RTLS, TAL, AOA, ATO) are given. Thereafter, the equilibrium gliding as the basic principle behind reentry is discussed. It is described how, after the deorbit burn, the equilibrium glide is established during the blackout phase and the final aerodynamic flight phase until landing. Finally, the lessons learned section summarizes the experience from the Shuttle system for future space transportation systems.
Radiative Forcing and Climate Change
Authors: Shine Keith P.
Published: December 2010

Aviation causes climate change as a result of its emissions of CO
2
, oxides of nitrogen, aerosols, and water vapor. A simple method of quantifying the climate impact of past emissions is radiative forcing. The radiative forcing due to changes in CO
2
is best characterized, but there are formidable difficulties in estimating the non‐CO
2
forcings – this is particularly the case for possible aviation‐induced changes in cloudiness (AIC). A recent assessment gave best estimates of the 2005 total radiative forcing due to aviation as 55 m Wm
−2
without the effect of AIC and 78 mW m
−2
with AIC. The aviation CO
2
radiative forcing represents about 1.6% of the total CO
2
forcing from all human activities. It is estimated that, including the non‐CO
2
effects, aviation contributes between 1.3 and 14% of the total radiative forcing due to all human activities. Alternative methods for comparing the future impact of present‐day aviation emissions are presented – the perception of the relative importance of the non‐CO
2
emissions, relative to CO
2
, depends considerably on the chosen method and the parameters chosen within those methods.
Aviation and Global Atmosphere in the 21st Century: Possible Mitigations
Authors: Dessens Olivier
Published: December 2010

In the twenty‐first century a gap is growing between the growth rate of petroleum production and demand. With recent advances in climate change science and atmospheric chemistry, the environmental needs will need to be addressed by the aircraft industry. Alternative fuels such as bio‐derived fuels and synthetic fuels are considered in this study for their potential to replace or supplement conventional jet fuels. Synthetic fuel made from coal, natural gas, or other hydrocarbon feedstock and biofuel shows significant promise as a fuel that could be easily integrated into present and future aircraft with little or no modification to current aircraft designs. Hydrogen fuel has much potential but presently appears to be better suited for use in ground transportation as it presents the airplane designers with safety, logistical, and performance challenges. New types of aircraft, such as supersonic and blended wing body, are also envisaged. Blended wings body shows a reduction in fuel consumption that will reduce its impact on the climate while all supersonic configurations prove to be more damaging than their subsonic counterparts. Studies have shown that regulation, by including aviation in carbon pricing scheme, seems to have few direct effects on aviation emissions as it is predicted the airline industry would be able to by rights to emit from other sectors within the scheme.
Introduction to Propulsion Integration
Authors: Curtis Peter
Published: December 2010

This chapter introduces the concepts dealt with in more detail throughout Volume 8.5. It acts as a primer and lead‐in to those chapters.
Flight Control for Guided Weapons
Authors: Silson Peter M.G. , Stacey Barry A.
Published: December 2010

Guided weapons are increasingly being used on a modern battlefield to engage targets more accurately, at longer ranges, and with greater hit probability. Prosecution of agile and evasive targets operating over an increasing flight envelope requires high performance from the missiles, which in turn leads to increasing demands on the design of the onboard control system (commonly called the missile autopilot). This chapter gives an introduction to the broad subject of the flight control of guided missiles. It covers the need for flight control, missile control strategies and methods, the concept and role of the missile autopilots, mathematical modeling of missile airframe dynamics, and the design of closed loop autopilots. Although short, it introduces the reader to many practical aspects of design of missile autopilots and directs him toward more detailed references should he wish to study the subject in more depth.
A Modular, High‐Fidelity Tool to Model the Utility of Fractionated Space Systems
Authors: Maciuca Dragos B. , Chow Jonathan K. , Siddiqi Afreen , de Weck Olivier L. , Alban Santiago , Dewell Larry D. , Howell Adam S. , Lieb Joseph M. , Mottinger Benjamin P. , Pandya Julie , Simon Michael J. , Yang Paul P. , Zimdars Andrew L. , Saeed Salma I. , Ramirez Jaime , Saenz‐Otero Alvar , Miller David W. , Hubbard G. Scott
Published: December 2010

A value‐centric system design tool has been developed as part of the DARPA F6 (future fast, flexible, fractionated, free‐flying spacecraft united by information eXchange) Phase 1 architecture studies. This system value modeling (SVM) tool supports F6 Program goals by aiding value‐centric systems engineering decision‐making in the areas of architecture design, technology inclusion, and risk mitigation approaches. SVM evaluates the net present value utility, variance, cost, and revenue of the candidate fractionated architectures as applied to a design reference mission using a combination of two methods: generalized information network analysis (GINA) and time‐expanded decision networks (TDN). The tool is designed to be modular to allow for piece‐wise improvement of model fidelity, and covers all aspects of the fractionated system's design, development, deployment, and operation over time. The net present value of the utility is calculated as the difference between the discounted monetized the value of the operational system and the discounted programmatic costs involved to design, build, launch, and operate it. Risk is identified through the variance of the net present values of utility found in the results of Monte Carlo simulations that test the architectures against various programmatic uncertainties such as late payload delivery and on‐orbit failures. The tool is applied to an architecture study for a low earth orbit (LEO) weather monitoring system and compared against the traditional monolithic spacecraft architecture. The study identified several fractionated architectures that delivered higher utility over time compared to the monolith, along with several technologies, operational strategies, and fractionation rules of thumb that enhance fractionation's ability to deliver superior utility.
System Reconfigurability
Authors: Siddiqi Afreen
Published: December 2010

Reconfigurable systems can repeatedly achieve distinct configurations and achieve different functional capabilities. The configuration changes allow the system to carry out different roles, evolve in capability, and survive through environmental disturbances or internal failures. System reconfigurability has been of focus in computing, communications, robotics, unmanned aircraft, and spacecraft architectures. The design of these systems has mostly been based on software accessibility, modularity, and distributed (instead of monolithic) architectures. It is expected that future design trajectories in reconfigurable systems will increasingly be on the path of self‐reconfigurability in which the systems will have greater autonomy for reconfigurations.
Aircraft Maintenance Engineering
Authors: Ghobbar Adel A.
Published: December 2010

The airframe maintenance cost, taking into account nondestructive inspections, safety, and the repair and replacement of crack components, has a high priority in the practical fleet management of airplanes. In technical terms, the service lifetime of an aircraft can be extended for a long period by performing inspections, repairs, and making feasible replacements with appropriate frequency. However, maintenance costs tend to increase and prolonging aircraft life can become uneconomic, as can the management of older fleets. A repairable or maintained system is a system that, after failing to perform one or more of its functions satisfactorily, can be restored to fully satisfactory performance by any method, other than replacement of the entire system. Effective and efficient maintenance management is essential not only for production systems but also for large‐scale service systems, such as air and surface transport systems. These repairable systems are subject to aging mechanisms such as wear, fatigue, creep, and stress corrosion. Inspection and diagnostic activities are integral components of an effective maintenance strategy in an attempt to ensure system safety, reliability, and availability.
Value‐Driven Design and Operational Value
Authors: Curran R.
Published: December 2010

The basic methodology for a Value‐Driven Design (VDD) approach within life‐cycle‐oriented context is presented:Definition,Analysis,Evaluation,andImprovement. This chapter concludes that VDD presents a deeper conceptual quality over the traditional Systems Engineering approach, and offers a step improvement, in that VDD optimizes toward an optimal solution rather than finding one that fits into a broad box of potential solutions that are all equally good. And secondly, it is shown that VDD focuses MDO on the need to actually maximize value rather than losing site of the original goal due to the infinite complexity in deepening the analysis of independent variables, over and above the main issue of predicting and influencing the dependant variable that is identified through the objective value function. However, in terms of VDD delivering true operational value potential, the most important insight highlighted relates to the establishment of three clear principles that include: (1) the Differential Value Principle, (2) the Additive Value Principle, and (3) the Subjective Value Principle. These three Value Principles are proposed in order to help in the formulation of Value Models that truly capture the nature of value analysis and VDD. A case study is presented to demonstrate the application of the VDD approach in terms of an aircraft manufacturers' profit.
Challenges and Opportunities in the Next Two Decades of Aerospace Engineering
Authors: Dahm Werner J.A. , Allen Ned , Razouk Rami R. , Shyy Wei
Published: December 2010

Over the next two decades, aerospace engineers face a remarkable set of new challenges involving applications of technology in airborne and spaceborne systems to meet demands that society is placing on this field. At the same time, aerospace engineering will see an equally remarkable set of exciting opportunities for providing entirely new systems and capabilities to society that most today cannot yet envision. Throughout its history, this field has undergone a continuing series of such transformations, each enabled by major technology advances that have often involved an extraordinarily close coupling of military and commercial developments. This chapter presents a summary of some of the key challenges and opportunities in aerospace engineering over the next two decades. As the field continues to evolve during this time to meet these challenges and develop these opportunities, it will continue its history of using technologically‐rooted advances to transform our society in ways that have, over time, consistently served to inspire the most innovative minds of successive generations.
Human Space – Space Tourism
Authors: Whitesides Loretta H.
Published: December 2010

This article discusses the very early days of space “tourism,” the initial X Prize efforts to accelerate private suborbital spaceflight development and where that effort is now, the people who have paid to fly on the Russia Soyuz vehicle to the International Space Station, and the companies working to expand opportunities for the general public to experience space (both suborbital and orbital). There is also a discussion of potential training experiences, space activities, and medical and technical challenges of space tourism as well as the locations of current and possible future spaceports. Lastly it touches on what it would take to create a suborbital point to point transportation system that would enable people to travel to any point on the globe in less than 90 minutes.
Fundamental Physics in Space
Authors: Everitt C. W. Francis , Mester John C.
Published: December 2010

Space has brought opportunities for an impressively wide range of new experiments in fundamental physics, and done so in an unexpected variety of ways. Important results have already been obtained in gravitational physics, particle physics, and condensed matter physics. Another arena where much can be expected is laser cooling and atomic physics, especially the area of Bose–Einstein condensation. From the engineering view, one of the most remarkable features of this field is the range of new technologies it has developed: large scale cryogenics, new gyroscopes, new star trackers, new kinds of thermometer, advanced attitude and translational control systems, new metrology and quartz manufacturing techniques, ultra‐low magnetic field systems, advanced particle detectors, and proportional thrusters, many with applications far beyond the missions for which they were originally conceived. Particularly interesting from a management and educational view has been the intense required collaboration between engineers and physicists and the successful connections established between space agencies, universities, and aerospace industry.
The Effect of the Space Environment on Spacecraft Technologies
Authors: Tribble Alan C.
Published: December 2010

The operational environment imposes design constraints on any system, whether it is a ground, air, or space system. This chapter will examine the effect of the space environment upon spacecraft systems. In particular, we will examine the various interactions that spacecraft systems may be susceptible to, and will discuss the mitigation techniques that spacecraft designers must take to ensure successful on orbit operation. These environmental interactions are categorized as:

vacuum environment effects – solar ultraviolet radiation damage; molecular contamination; and particulate contamination;

neutral environment effects – aerodynamic drag and erosion of surface materials by atomic oxygen;

plasma environment effects – spacecraft charging, which may in turn give rise to arc discharging (e.g., electrostatic discharge or dielectric breakdown) or biasing of electrical instruments;

radiation environment effects – total dose effects such as solar array power loss, and single event effects such as corruption of data in memory devices, and

micrometeoroid/orbital debris effects – hypervelocity impact damage, such as erosion of surface materials and possibly penetration of/damage to underlying subsystems.
Space Environment Interactions
Authors: Mazur Joseph E.
Published: December 2010

Space systems operate in an environment in which effects and descriptions are unusual compared to those of weather in the Earth's atmosphere. It continues to be a challenge to engineer systems to survive and perform in the space environment, given the developments in spacecraft materials, electronics, and new mission concepts.
Space Responsiveness
Authors: Dubos Gregory F. , Saleh Joseph H.
Published: December 2010

Customers' needs are dynamic and evolve in response to unfolding environmental uncertainties. The ability of a company or an industry to address these changing needs in a timely and cost‐effective manner is indicative of its responsiveness. In the space industry, a systemic discrepancy exists between the time constants associated with the change of customers' needs, and the response time of the industry in delivering on‐orbit solutions to these needs. There are important penalties associated with such delays, and space responsiveness, or “Responsive Space” as it has come to be known, is recognized as a strategic imperative in military and commercial competitive environments.

This chapter provides a review and synthesis of the literature on responsive space. A conceptual framework is provided for thinking about and addressing issues of space responsiveness. Also discussed are tools for identifying and prioritizing responsiveness‐improvement efforts. Finally, the levers of responsiveness, or means for improving space responsiveness are presented including spacecraft design and operational levers, launch levers, and “soft” levers of responsiveness (e.g., acquisition policies).
Hypersonic Missions and Vehicle Configurations
Authors: Lewis Mark J.
Published: December 2010

Hypersonic vehicles, operating at Mach numbers in excess of approximately five times the speed of sound, will play a role in a variety of current and future military and civilian missions. Hypersonic applications include both blunt‐body reentry craft and high‐lift, low drag forms. Vehicles in this second category fall into four basic applications: weapons, aircraft, reentry systems, and various types of access‐to‐space vehicles. Each of these applications has the fundamental attribute of sustained high‐speed flight in the atmosphere, with requirements for efficient aerodynamic performance. Such hypersonic vehicles are best designed as highly efficient lifting bodies that can minimize drag while surviving the extreme heating rates associated with high‐velocity flight. If the vehicle is to be powered by an airbreathing engine, full coupling of the external aerodynamic configuration with the engine flowpath will be required, and this puts significant constraints on the design and performance of the resulting platform.
Commercial Propulsion Engines Emissions
Authors: Mongia Hukam C.
Published: December 2010

The US aviation's landing‐takeoff emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOC) and fine particulate matter less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5) are 0.44, 0.66, 0.48, and 0.15, respectively, all expressed as percentages of the United States' total annual emissions rate. These numbers may be compared to the on road vehicles' emissions contributions of 26 %, 59 % and 36 %, respectively for CO, NOx, VOC, and 22 % from road dust. Propulsion engines emissions technology evolution since the middle to late 1970s is summarized and shows that both the low emission and rich‐quench lean combustion (LEC/RQL) technologies produce similar levels of reduction. NOxemissions of LEC/RQL have been reduced by more than 50 % since the middle and late 1970s Gen‐1 engines. The average emissions of these engines was 28 % below the Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP) CAEP‐1 regulatory standard, whereas the LEC/RQL are only 12 % below the most recent CAEP‐6 standard, indicating that the NOxstringencies have kept pace with the best available technology. Hydrocarbons (HC), CO, and smoke emissions have come down by factors of 30, 4, and 2, respectively from the Gen‐1 engines. The propulsion engines' manufacturers continue to develop innovative technologies for further reducing NOxemissions by a factor of 2.
Integration of Lean Enterprise System, Total Quality Management and Six Sigma
Authors: Bozdogan Kirkor
Published: December 2010

The lean enterprise system, total quality management, six sigma, theory of constraints, agile manufacturing, and business process reengineering have been introduced as universally applicable best methods to improve the performance of enterprise operations through continuous process improvement and systemic planned enterprise change. Generally speaking, they represent practice‐based, rather than theory‐grounded, methods with common roots in manufacturing. Most of the literature on them is descriptive and prescriptive, aimed largely at a practitioner audience. Despite certain differences among them, they potentially complement each other in important ways. The lean enterprise system, total quality management and six sigma, in particular, are tightly interconnected as highly complementary approaches and can be brought together to define a first‐approximation “core” integrated management system, with the lean enterprise system serving as the central organizing framework. Specific elements of the other approaches can be selectively incorporated into the “core” enterprise system to enrich its effectiveness. Concrete theoretical and computational developments in the future through an interdisciplinary research agenda centered on the design and development of networked enterprises as complex adaptive socio‐technical systems, as well as the creation of a readily accessible observatory of evidence‐based management practices, would represent important steps forward.
Aircraft Design and Qualification for Resilience to Lightning
Authors: Jones Chris
Published: December 2010

The chapter covers the direct effects of lightning which are considered to be the structural damaging effects of arc attachment. In addition, the issue of the threat of fuel explosion in tanks is covered which is of particular concern in nonmetallic airframes (e.g., carbon fiber composite (CFC)). The phenomena of “lightning” attachment to aircraft is explained and quantified in terms of the waveforms of attached current which can possibly arise at different parts of the aircraft, known as zones. The way in which an aircraft shape can be divided into zones is described. A Lightning protection assessment is described based on the “zoning diagram” for the aircraft. A set of questions about the electrical behavior of the structural components is given which leads to the assessment outcome. A range of protection techniques are described to lead from the assessment to a reasonable protection philosophy, although the point is made that the rapid growth of computational techniques has led to the enabling of resilient designs for the complex situation of mixed materials (including metals, CFC, glass fiber etc.). Finally, testing for direct effects resilience in both structural components and fuel tank components is covered. This leads naturally to a conclusion covering the “lightning” aspects of certification.
Adhesion Selectivity Using Rippled Surfaces
Authors: Vajpayee Shilpi , Khare Krishnacharya , Yang Shu , Hui Chung‐Yuen , Jagota Anand
Published: December 2010

Highly selective adhesion can be achieved between surfaces by patterning them with ripples. Materials with such surfaces are fabricated by successive molding of an elastomer, poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS), against a master with a surface rippled by instability of a residually stressed surface thin film. Adhesion of interfaces between both complementary and non‐complementary rippled surfaces was measured. Complementary surfaces showed significantly enhanced interfacial adhesion with increasing ripple amplitude. In contrast, interfaces with mismatched amplitudes had nearly negligible adhesion. Rate‐dependence of adhesion in these surfaces was also studied. For complementary surfaces with low amplitudes we found a multiplicative coupling between the structure and rate enhancement of adhesion. A quantitative model developed for adhesion between complementary surfaces explains these observations.
Multiple myeloma: 2011 update on diagnosis, risk‐stratification, and management
Authors: Rajkumar S. Vincent
Published: December 2010

Disease overview:

Multiple myeloma is malignant plasma‐cell disorder that accounts for ∼∼10% of all hematologic malignancies.

Diagnosis:

The diagnosis requires (1) 10% or more clonal plasma cells on bone marrow examination or a biopsy‐proven plasmacytoma plus (2) evidence of end‐organ damage felt to be related to the underlying plasma cell disorder.

Risk stratification:

Patients with 17p deletion, t(4;14), t(14;16), t(14;20), and karyotypic deletion 13 or hypodiploidy are considered to have high‐risk myeloma. All others are considered to have standard‐risk disease.

Risk‐adapted therapy:

Standard‐risk patients are treated with nonalkylator‐based therapy such as lenalidomide plus low‐dose dexamethasone (Rd) followed by autologous stem‐cell transplantation (ASCT). If patients are tolerating the induction regimen treatment well, an alternative strategy is to continue initial therapy after stem‐cell collection, reserving ASCT for first relapse. High‐risk patients are treated with a bortezomib‐based induction followed by ASCT and then bortezomib‐based maintenance. Patients not eligible for ASCT can be treated with Rd for standard risk disease or a bortezomib‐based regimen if high‐risk features are present. To reduce toxicity, when using bortezomib, the once‐weekly dose is preferred; similarly, when using dexamethasone, the low‐dose approach (40 mg once a week) is preferred, unless there is a need for rapid disease control.

Management of refractory disease:

Patients with indolent relapse can be treated first with lenalidomide, bortezomib, or alkylators plus low‐dose corticosteroids. Patients with more aggressive relapse often require therapy with a combination of multiple active agents. The most promising new agents in development are pomalidomide and carfilizomib. Am. J. Hematol. 86:57–65, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Mitochondrial polymorphisms associated with differential longevity do not impact lifetime‐reproductive success
Authors: Castrì Loredana , Madrigal Lorena , Melendez‐Obando Mauricio , Villegas‐Palma Ramon , Barrantes Ramiro , Raventos Henriette , Pereira Reynaldo , Luiselli Donata , Pettener Davide
Published: December 2010

Objective

To determine if individuals who carry mitochondrial markers which have been previously shown to affect longevity also have differential lifetime reproductive success (LRS).

Methods

We extracted the mtDNA from living subjects residing in Atenas, Costa Rica. Since mtDNA does not recombine, and its probability of mutation is low, we assume that all maternal ancestors of the living subjects have the same mtDNA. We reconstructed the maternal genealogy of the living subjects, so that we have information on the LRS and longevity of the maternal ancestors of the living subjects. We compared the LRS of women who carried the 5178A marker in haplogroup D (associated with decreased longevity) and who carried the 150T polymorphism (associated with increased longevity) with the LRS of controls born in the same half century time period from 1750 to 1939.

Results

We found that the LRS of neither group of women with a longevity‐associated polymorphism (LAP) differed from the LRS of controls, even if these women differed significantly from the controls in their longevity.

Conclusions

Although LAPS significantly affect longevity, such differential longevity does not result in differential lifetime reproductive success. From an evolutionary perspective, these longevity‐associated polymorphisms do not affect the carriers' Darwinian fitness. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.