bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Relations Between Driving Behavior, Physical Activity, and Weight Status Among Canadian Adults
Authors: Swanson Kenda C. , McCormack Gavin R.
Published: August 2016

Background:

Evidence regarding the relative contributions of physical activity (PA) and driving behavior on weight status is limited. This study examined the associations between driving and PA behavior and weight status among Canadian adults.

Methods:

A random cross-section of Calgarian adults (n = 1026) completed a telephone-interview and a self-administered questionnaire. Weekly physical activity time, daily driving time, BMI, motor vehicle access, and demographic characteristics were captured. Logistic regression was used to estimate associations between driving minutes (0−209, 219−419, 420−839, 840−1679, and ≥ 1680 min/week), motor vehicle access, sufficient PA (210 min/week of moderate-intensity PA or 90 min/week of vigorous-intensity PA), and the likelihood of being 1) overweight/obese vs. healthy weight and 2) obese only vs. healthy/ overweight.

Results:

Compared with driving ≤ 209 min/week, driving 840 to 1679 min/week significantly (P < .05) increased the likelihood of being overweight/obese (OR 2.08). Insufficient PA was positively associated with being overweight/obese (OR 1.43). Each hour/week of driving was associated with a 1.6% reduction in the odds of achieving sufficient PA. A 3-fold increase (OR 3.73) in the likelihood of overweight was found among insufficiently active individuals who drove 210 to 419 min/week compared with sufficiently active individuals who drove ≤ 209 min/week.

Conclusion:

Interventions that decrease driving time and increase PA participation may be important for reducing weight among Canadian adults.
The Contribution of Recess to Children’s School-Day Physical Activity
Authors: Erwin Heather , Abel Mark , Beighle Aaron , Noland Melody P. , Worley Brooke , Riggs Richard
Published: August 2016

Background:

Recess is an important component of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program, providing approximately 1268 and 914 steps for boys and girls, respectively, within a 15-minute time period. The purpose of this study was to determine the contribution of unstructured recess on children’s school-day physical activity levels and to examine if recess and school-day physical activity levels varied by BMI, gender, and grade level.

Methods:

One-hundred sixty third- to fifth-grade students from 2 elementary schools wore pedometers during 4 recess periods.

Results:

Recess accounted for 17% to 44% of school-day step counts. There was a significant main effect for grade level, but not for BMI or gender, on the percentage of school-day steps accumulated during recess.

Conclusions:

A 15-minute recess makes a valuable contribution to children’s school-day physical activity, especially for the least active children. More research is warranted to determine environmental influences on children’s recess physical activity.
Physical Activity and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Among Native Hawaiians, Japanese Americans, and Caucasians: The Multiethnic Cohort
Authors: Steinbrecher Astrid , Erber Eva , Grandinetti Andrew , Nigg Claudio , Kolonel Laurence N. , Maskarinec Gertraud
Published: August 2016

Background:

Physical inactivity is an established risk factor for diabetes; however, little is known about this association across ethnic groups with different diabetes risk. Therefore, we evaluated the association between physical activity and diabetes and potential effect modification by ethnicity in the Hawaii component of the Multiethnic Cohort.

Methods:

Participants, aged 45 to 75 years, were enrolled by completing a questionnaire on demographics, diet, and self-reported weekly hours of strenuous sports, vigorous work, and moderate activity. Among the 74,913 participants (39% Caucasian, 14% Native Hawaiian, 47% Japanese American), 8561 incident diabetes cases were identified by self-report, a medication questionnaire, and through health plan linkages. Cox regression was applied to estimate hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) while adjusting for known confounders.

Results:

Engaging in strenuous sports was inversely related to diabetes risk with HRs (4+ hours/week vs. never) of 0.67 (95%CI: 0.57–0.79) in women and 0.80 (95%CI: 0.72–0.88) in men. In stratified analyses, the inverse association was consistent across ethnic groups. The inverse association of vigorous work with diabetes was limited to men, while beneficial effects of moderate activity were observed only in Caucasians.

Conclusions:

These findings support a role of high-intensity physical activity and ethnic-specific guidelines in diabetes prevention.
Perceived Facilitators, Barriers, and Changes in a Randomized Exercise Trial for Obese Youth: A Qualitative Inquiry
Authors: Peeters Corien , Marchand Hannah , Tulloch Heather , Sigal Ron J. , Goldfield Gary S. , Hadjiyannakis Stasia , Kenny Glen P.
Published: August 2016

Background:

Purpose was to examine experiences of obese youth aged 14 to 18 years during their participation in the Healthy Eating, Aerobic, and Resistance Exercise in Youth (HEARTY) randomized controlled exercise trial.

Methods:

A longitudinal qualitative approach was used to investigate youths’ experiences across time points in the trial: 3-weeks (run-in phase; n = 44, 52% males), 3-months (midpoint; n = 25), and 6-months (end of intervention; n = 24). Participants completed telephone interviews on perceived exercise facilitators, barriers, outcomes, and program preferences. Responses were subject to content analyses and are reported as frequencies.

Results:

Participants joined the trial initially to lose weight, but focused more on fitness over time. Exercise behavior was influenced by a sense of achieving results, and by family and peers (ie, supportive comments, transportation). At 6-months, the most commonly perceived changes were improved fitness (50%) and appearance (46%). Suggested changes to the HEARTY trial included initial guidance by a trainer, and more varied and group-based activity.

Conclusions:

Exercise facilitators, barriers and perceived changes in an exercise trial are reported. Access to a gym, initial direction by a trainer, variety, and group-based activities were reported as desired components of an exercise intervention. Findings also point to the importance of involving family and peer supports.
The Association of Natural Elements With Physical Activity Intensity During Trail Use by Older Adults
Authors: Price Anna Elizabeth , Reed Julian A. , Long Savannah , Maslow Andrea L. , Hooker Steven P.
Published: August 2016

Background:

Public health efforts to promote trail use among older adults could be an effective strategy for increasing physical activity among older adults. However, research is needed to better understand factors that influence older adults’ use of trails.

Purpose:

To examine the association between variations in natural elements (ie, season, weather, temperature) and older adults’ overall trail use and physical activity intensity during trail use.

Methods:

A rail-trail in South Carolina was systematically evaluated (2006–2009) using The System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities.

Results:

The majority (74.2%) of the 1053 older trail users observed were walking; 25.9% were observed in vigorous activity. Older adults were most often observed using the trail in the spring (40.1%), sunny weather (76.8%), and moderate temperatures (56.2%). Significant differences in activity type by natural element variables were identified.

Conclusions:

When promoting trail use among older adults, natural elements should be considered.
Comparison of Home and Away-From-Home Physical Activity Using Accelerometers and Cellular Network–Based Tracking Devices
Authors: Ramulu Pradeep Y. , Chan Emilie S. , Loyd Tara L. , Ferrucci Luigi , Friedman David S.
Published: August 2016

Background:

Measuring physical at home and away from home is essential for assessing health and well-being, and could help design interventions to increase physical activity. Here, we describe how physical activity at home and away from home can be quantified by combining information from cellular network–based tracking devices and accelerometers.

Methods:

Thirty-five working adults wore a cellular network–based tracking device and an accelerometer for 6 consecutive days and logged their travel away from home. Performance of the tracking device was determined using the travel log for reference. Tracking device and accelerometer data were merged to compare physical activity at home and away from home.

Results:

The tracking device detected 98.6% of all away-from-home excursions, accurately measured time away from home and demonstrated few prolonged signal drop-out periods. Most physical activity took place away from home on weekdays, but not on weekends. Subjects were more physically active per unit of time while away from home, particularly on weekends.

Conclusions:

Cellular network–based tracking devices represent an alternative to global positioning systems for tracking location, and provide information easily integrated with accelerometers to determine where physical activity takes place. Promoting greater time spent away from home may increase physical activity.
Effects of Resistance Training and Dietary Changes on Physical Function and Body Composition in Overweight and Obese Older Adults
Authors: Straight Chad R. , Dorfman Leah R. , Cottell Kathryn E. , Krol Julie M. , Lofgren Ingrid E. , Delmonico Matthew J.
Published: August 2016

Background:

Community-based interventions that incorporate resistance training (RT) and dietary changes have not been extensively studied in overweight and obese older adults. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of a community-based RT and dietary intervention on physical function and body composition in overweight and obese older adults.

Methods:

Ninety-five overweight and obese (BMI = 33.4 ± 4.0 kg/m2) older adults aged 55–80 years completed an 8-week RT and dietary intervention at 4 Rhode Island senior centers. Participants performed RT twice-weekly using resistance tubing, dumbbells, and ankle weights. Participants also attended 1 weekly dietary counseling session on a modified Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension diet. Outcome measurements included anthropometrics, body composition, and physical function.

Results:

There were small changes in body mass (–1.0 ± 1.8 kg, P < .001), waist circumference (–5.2 ± 3.8 cm, P < .001), and percent body fat (–0.5 ± 1.4%, P < .001). In addition, significant improvements were observed in knee extensor torque (+7.9 ± 19.1 N-m, P < .001), handgrip strength (+1.2 ± 2.5 kg, P < .001), and 8-foot up-and-go test time (–0.56 ± 0.89 s, P < .001).

Conclusion:

Community-based RT and dietary modifications can improve body composition, muscle strength, and physical function in overweight and obese older adults. Future investigations should determine if this intervention is effective for long-term changes.
Control Group Improvements in Physical Activity Intervention Trials and Possible Explanatory Factors: A Systematic Review
Authors: Waters Lauren , Reeves Marina , Fjeldsoe Brianna , Eakin Elizabeth
Published: August 2016

Background:

Several recent physical activity intervention trials have reported physical activity improvements in control group participants. Explanations have been proposed, but not systematically investigated.

Methods:

A systematic review of physical activity intervention trials was conducted to investigate the frequency of meaningful improvements in physical activity among control group participants (increase of ≥ 60 minutes [4 MET·hours] of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity per week, or a 10% increase in the proportion of participants meeting physical activity recommendations), and possible explanatory factors. Explanatory factors include aspects of behavioral measurement, participant characteristics, and control group treatment.

Results:

Eight (28%) of 29 studies reviewed reported meaningful improvements in control group physical activity, most of which were of similar magnitude to improvements observed in the intervention group. A number of factors were related to meaningful control group improvements in physical activity, including the number of assessments, mode of measurement administration, screening to exclude active participants, and preexisting health status.

Conclusions:

Control group improvement in physical activity intervention trials is not uncommon and may be associated with behavioral measurement and participant characteristics. Associations observed in this review should be evaluated empirically in future research. Such studies may inform minimal contact approaches to physical activity promotion.
Assessment of Wearable Global Positioning System Units for Physical Activity Research
Authors: Wieters Kathleen Meghan , Kim Jun-Hyun , Lee Chanam
Published: August 2016

Background:

Responding to the growing interest in the environmental influences on physical activity, and the concerns about the limitations of self-report data, this study evaluates Global Positioning System (GPS) units for measuring outdoor physical activity.

Methods:

Four GPS models were selected to test their accuracy related to adherence to an actual route walked, variations based on position of unit on user’s body, and variations against a known geodetic point. A qualitative assessment was performed using the following criteria: a) battery life, b) memory capacity, c) initial satellite signal acquisition time, d) ease of data transfer to other programs, e) wearability, f) ease of operation, g) suitability for specific study populations, and h) price.

Results and Conclusions:

The Garmin Forerunner provided the most accurate data for data points collected along a known route. Comparisons based on different body placement of units showed some variations. GlobalSat reported battery life of 24 hours, compared with 9–15 hours for the other units. The static test using ANOVA showed that the Garmin Foretrex’s data points compared with a geodetic point was significantly more accurate than the other 3 models. GPS units appear promising as a tool to capture objective data on outdoor physical activities.
Feasibility of Using Global Positioning Systems (GPS) With Diverse Urban Adults: Before and After Data on Perceived Acceptability, Barriers, and Ease of Use
Authors: Zenk Shannon N. , Schulz Amy J. , Odoms-Young Angela M. , Wilbur JoEllen , Matthews Stephen , Gamboa Cindy , Wegrzyn Lani R. , Hobson Susan , Stokes Carmen
Published: August 2016

Background:

Global positioning systems (GPS) have emerged as a research tool to better understand environmental influences on physical activity. This study examined the feasibility of using GPS in terms of perceived acceptability, barriers, and ease of use in a racially/ethnically diverse sample of lower socioeconomic position (SEP).

Methods:

Data were from 2 pilot studies involving a total of 170 African American, Hispanic, and White urban adults with a mean (standard deviation) age of 47.8 (±13.1) years. Participants wore a GPS for up to 7 days. They answered questions about GPS acceptability, barriers (wear-related concerns), and ease of use before and after wearing the GPS.

Results:

We found high ratings of GPS acceptability and ease of use and low levels of wear-related concerns, which were maintained after data collection. While most were comfortable with their movements being tracked, older participants (P < .05) and African Americans (P < .05) reported lower comfort levels. Participants who were younger, with higher education, and low incomes were more likely to indicate that the GPS made the study more interesting (P < .05). Participants described technical and wear-related problems, but few concerns related to safety, loss, or appearance.

Conclusions:

Use of GPS was feasible in this racially/ethnically diverse, lower SEP sample.
Perceived Environmental Physical Activity Correlates Among Asian Pacific Islander Americans
Authors: Bungum Timothy J. , Landers Merrill , Azzarelli Maria , Moonie Sheniz
Published: August 2016

Background:

Little is known about correlates of physical activity of Asian and Asian-Pacific Islander Americans (AAPI). Knowledge of these correlates could be useful in promoting physical activity. Purpose: to identify demographic and environmental correlates of physical activity among AAPI.

Methods:

Participants resided in the Las Vegas, Nevada area, and completed a 52-item telephone administered questionnaire that assessed physical activity behavior, environmental supports for physical activity and demographic factors. Environmental factors included the presence of neighborhood sidewalks, park availability, and nearby grocery stores were combined to create the variable “environmental physical activity supports” (EPAS). Neighborhood crime, pleasantness of the neighborhood for walking, and the presence of loose dogs combined to form “neighborhood safety.” Logistic regression was used to identify predictors of physical activity. Potential predictors included age, gender, BMI, employment, educational attainment, neighborhood safety, and EPAS.

Results:

263 respondents completed the survey. With the exception of living near a grocery store, respondents reported residing in neighborhoods that are generally supportive of physical activity. However, EPAS was the sole significant predictor of physical activity behavior (OR = 1.52, CI = 1.06–2.17). Age and educational attainment unexpectedly failed to predict physical activity.

Conclusions:

Supportive physical activity environments associate with physical activity behavior among AAPI.
Step-Defined Physical Activity and Cardiovascular Risk Among Middle-Aged Japanese: The National Health and Nutrition Survey of Japan 2006
Authors: Inoue Shigeru , Ohya Yumiko , Tudor-Locke Catrine , Yoshiike Nobuo , Shimomitsu Teruichi
Published: August 2016

Background:

Pedometers are becoming widely accepted for physical activity measurement. To use step data effectively, an index which categorizes steps/day by < 5000, ≥ 5000, ≥ 7500, ≥ 10,000, and ≥ 12,500 steps/day has been previously proposed. However, evidence is insufficient to validate this index compared with health outcomes. This study examined the association of steps/day categories with cardiovascular (CVD) risk.

Methods:

Cross-sectional data from the National Health and Nutrition Survey of Japan 2006, including 1166 men and 1453 women aged 40–64 years, were analyzed to calculate odds ratios (OR) for having CVD risk including overweight/obesity, blood pressure, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, hemoglobin A1c, and clustered risk factors by steps/day categories.

Results:

Among men, inverse gradient associations between steps/day categories and CVD risk (overweight/obesity, blood pressure, HbA1c, and clustered risk factors) were observed. Among women, those taking ≥ 5000 steps/day had substantially lower risk of overweight/obesity and high blood pressure compared with those taking < 5000 steps/day. However, additional decreases of OR by taking more steps were modest among women.

Conclusions:

CVD risk was generally lower with higher steps/day categories. Given the limitations of cross-sectional design, further studies, especially using longitudinal designs, are needed to precisely calibrate the association between steps/day and CVD risk.
Peak Stepping Cadence in Free-Living Adults: 2005–2006 NHANES
Authors: Tudor-Locke Catrine , Brashear Meghan M. , Katzmarzyk Peter T. , Johnson William D.
Published: August 2016

Background:

Analysis of the 2005–2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) accelerometer data provides the descriptive epidemiology of peak 30-minute cadence (defined as the average steps/min recorded for the 30 highest, but not necessarily consecutive, minutes in a day) and peak 1-minute cadence (defined as the steps/min recorded for the highest single minute in a day) by sex, age, and body mass index (BMI).

Methods:

Minute-by-minute step data were rank ordered each day to identify the peak 30-minute and 1-minute cadences for 3522 adults (20+ years of age) with complete sex, age, and BMI data and at least 1 valid day (ie, 10/24 hours of accelerometer wear) of accelerometer data. Peak values were averaged across days within participants by sex, age, and BMI-defined categories.

Results:

U.S. adults average a peak 30-minute cadence of 71.1 (men: 73.7, women: 69.6, P < .0001) steps/min and a peak 1-minute cadence of 100.7 (men: 100.9, women: 100.5, P = .54) steps/min. Both peak cadence indicators displayed significant and consistent declines with age and increasing levels of obesity.

Conclusions:

Peak cadence indicators capture the highest intensity execution of naturally occurring ambulatory activity. Future examination of their relationship with health parameters using cross-sectional, longitudinal, and intervention designs is warranted.
Goal Setting in Sport: Clarifying Recent Anomalies
Authors: Hall Howard K. , Byrne Anthony T.J.
Published: August 2016

Recent empirical evidence (Weinberg, Bruya, & Jackson, 1985) has brought into question whether the positive beneficial effects of goal setting found in organizational settings are directly generalizable to the domain of sport. This investigation attempted to determine whether increased control over powerful extraneous variables influencing motivation would enable goal-setting effects to be observed in sport settings, and second, it examined the utility of either flexible subject-set subgoals or rigid experimenter subgoals as adjuncts to long-term goals. Forty-three males and 11 females were randomly assigned by class to one of four experimental conditions. Following baseline trial under do best instructions, subjects performed three trials on an endurance task under their assigned experimental conditions. A 4 × 3 (Goal Group × Trials) ANCOVA with repeated measures on the last factor and baseline performance as the covariate indicated that groups holding subgoals performed significantly better than those with do best instructions, whereas performance for those with only long-term goals approached significance. These findings clearly demonstrate a need to further understand the process of goal setting if it is to be successfully applied as an intervention technique to enhance motivation and sport performance.
Application of Imagery Theory to Sport Psychology: Some Preliminary Findings
Authors: Hecker Jeffrey E. , Kaczor Linda M.
Published: August 2016

Bioinformational theory has been proposed by Lang (1979a), who suggests that mental images can be understood as products of the brain's information processing capacity. Imagery involves activation of a network of propositionally coded information stored in long-term memory. Propositions concerning physiological and behavioral responses provide a prototype for overt behavior. Processing of response information is associated with somatovisceral arousal. The theory has implications for imagery rehearsal in sport psychology and can account for a variety of findings in the mental practice literature. Hypotheses drawn from bioinformational theory were tested. College athletes imagined four scenes during which their heart rates were recorded. Subjects tended to show increases in heart rate when imagining scenes with which they had personal experience and which would involve cardiovascular activation if experienced in real life. Nonsignificant heart rate changes were found when the scene involved activation but was one with which subjects did not have personal experience.
Competitive and Cooperative Physical Fitness Training Programs for Girls: Effects on Physical Fitness and Multidimensional Self-Concepts
Authors: Marsh Herbert W. , Peart Naida D.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present investigation was to examine the differential effects of a competitive and a cooperative fitness program for high school girls on physical fitness and on multidimensional self-concepts. Consistent with the content specificity of self-concept, physical fitness was significantly correlated with self-concept of physical ability (r=.45) but not with any of the other 10 self-concept scales (all r<.ll). Both the competitive and cooperative programs significantly enhanced physical fitness compared to a randomly assigned control group; but the cooperative program also enhanced physical ability self-concept and, to a lesser extent, physical appearance self-concept whereas the competitive program lowered them. The intervention had no significant effects on the other self-concept scales. The results of the study demonstrate the benefits of cooperatively oriented physical fitness programs for girls and the content specificity of multiple dimensions of self-concept.
Toward a Model of Exercise Motivation
Authors: Dzewaltowski David A.
Published: August 2016

This study compared the ability of Bandura's social cognitive theory and Fish-bein and Ajzen's theory of reasoned action to predict exercise behavior. The theories' constructs were assessed and then the exercise behaviors of 328 individuals were recorded for the following 7 weeks. A path analysis indicated that the theory of reasoned action model fit the data, but explained only 5 % of the exercise behavior variance. Two social cognitive theory variables, self-efficacy and self-evaluated dissatisfaction, significantly predicted exercise behavior. Also, a multiplicative function of self-evaluated dissatisfaction and outcome expectations increased the amount of predicted exercise behavior variance to 16%. Thus, individuals who were confident they could adhere to an exercise program and were satisfied with their standing on probable outcomes from participation (e.g., present body weight) exercised more days per week. A commonality analysis indicated that the theory of reasoned action did not account for any unique variance in exercise behavior over the social cognitive theory constructs. In sum, social cognitive theory was more effective than the theory of reasoned action in predicting exercise behavior.
Shrinking Jocks: Derogation of Athletes Who Consult a Sport Psychologist
Authors: Linder Darwyn E. , Pillow David R. , Re»© Raymond R.
Published: August 2016

Two experiments tested the hypothesis that athletes who consult a sport psychologist to improve performance are derogated by the public compared to athletes who attempt to resolve the same issues by working with their coaches. In the first experiment a college quarterback was reported to have worked with either his coaches or a sport psychologist on improving his consistency. The primary dependent variable was how strongly subjects would recommend drafting the player in question. There was a significant main effect for the coach versus sport psychologist variable, no main effect for the type of problem, and no interaction effect. A set of 10 bipolar scales were analyzed to explore the attributions associated with the draft rating. The second experiment investigated whether the negative halo effect would occur in other sports and apply to players in peripheral as well as central positions. The results indicated that the negative halo effect occurred for a basketball guard on the draft rating but not for a center, a pitcher, or an outfielder. However, a MANOVA of the 10 scales revealed a main effect for the consultant variable. The results of the two experiments were discussed in relation to theories of deviance and stigmatization.
Effectiveness of a Global Learning Strategy Practiced in Different Contexts on Primary and Transfer Self-Paced Motor Tasks
Authors: Singer Robert N. , DeFrancesco Charmaine , Randal Lynda E.
Published: August 2016

(Singer, 1986) on achievement in laboratory and simulated self-paced sport tasks were investigated. Forty undergraduates were randomly stratified according to gender into four treatment groups: (a) a strategy group that initially practiced the strategy while learning the laboratory task (SL), (b) a laboratory control group that began the experiment by learning the task without the strategy (CL), (c) a strategy group that initially applied the strategy to the learning of an applied sport task (SA), and (d) a control group that initially learned the sport task without the strategy (CA). Following the completion of 48 trials with the primary task, all groups performed 50 trials on a transfer task. ANOVAs indicated that both strategy groups performed significantly better than their respective control groups in the primary tasks. Results of the transfer task indicated that the SA group performed at the same level as the SL group but outperformed both control groups. It was concluded that the strategy facilitates achievement in laboratory as well as applied self-paced tasks.
A Season-Long Investigation of Fun in Youth Sports
Authors: Wankel Leonard M. , Sefton Judy M.
Published: August 2016

Fifty-five girls and 67 boys (ages 7-15 yrs) from five ringette and six hockey teams completed pregame and postgame questionnaires at 12 games of their youth sport schedule. Multiple-regression analyses were performed to identify the best predictors of the reported fun level experienced in each of the 12 games. Variables entered into the regression equations included the following: age and sex; pre- and postgame measures of state anxiety and affect, activation, and motivation mood states; pregame measures of choice, how well one expected to play, and confidence that one's team would win; and post-game measures of game outcome, level of challenge in the game, how much was at stake, and how well one played. Postgame positive affect, how well one played, and challenge were consistently the best predictors of fun. When the postgame mood state measures were deleted, game outcome also became an important predictor. The results are interpreted as indicating that fun in youth sports is a positive mood state largely determined by one's perception of personal achievement and the matching of one's skills against a realistic challenge. The results are interpreted as being consistent with the theoretical perspectives of Csikszentmihalyi (1975) and Nicholls (1984a).
Appraisal Variable/Affect Relationships in Youth Sport: A Test of Weiner's Attributional Model
Authors: Robinson Dave W. , Howe Bruce L.
Published: August 2016

The purposes of this study were to (a) determine the nature and extent of appraisal variable/affect relationships in a youth sport achievement setting, (b) assess gender differences in these relationships, and (c) evaluate the applicability of Werner's (1985) attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion to the domain of youth sport. After participating in a 6-week competitive team sport program, subjects (N=746) were measured on (a) perceived performance, (b) causal attributions and dimensionality, and (c) general, self-related, and other-related affective reactions to performance outcome. Canonical correlation and regression analyses revealed significant appraisal variable/affect relationships, which were similar across the gender groups. Weiner's model received partial support but there were inconsistencies in terms of the model's overall fit. The need for a more elaborate sport-specific model of the antecedents of affect (vis-à-vis Vallerand, 1987) is stressed, and recommendations for future research are briefly outlined.
Cardiac Deceleration of Elite and Beginning Golfers During Putting
Authors: Boutcher Stephen H. , Zinsser Nathaniel W.
Published: August 2016

Cardiac, respiratory, and behavioral patterns of elite (n = 15) and beginning (n = 15) golfers were monitored before and during the performance of six 4-ft and six 12-ft putts. In contrast to elite golfers, beginning golfers failed to demonstrate consistent behavioral preputt routines (e.g., number of practice swings, glances at hole). Elite golfers, compared to beginning golfers, exhibited significantly better putting performance at the 12-ft distance. Both elite and beginning golfers showed significantly decelerated heart rate during the 4- and 12-ft putts. Within four cardiac cycles before striking the ball, the interbeat interval significantly lengthened, indicating a decrease in heart rate. For the 12-ft putt, however, elite golfers in comparison to beginners recorded significantly slower heart rates for the interbeat intervals immediately before, during, and after ball strike.
Psyching Up for a Muscular Endurance Task: Effects of Image Content on Performance and Mood State
Authors: Lee Christina
Published: August 2016

There is a shortage of evidence regarding exactly how mental imagery works to enhance performance. This study sought to determine whether it is the imagining of the task that is crucial or simply the positive aspects of a mental image. In the first experiment, 52 male students used task relevant imagery, task irrelevant imagery, or a distraction control procedure before performing an analogue task. Those in the task relevant condition showed significantly greater improvements over baseline. The second experiment involved 142 male students and included assessment of mood state following psyching up. Again the task relevant group showed significantly greater improvements, which were not related to mood states. These findings suggest that the specific content of mental imagery is crucial in determining its effect on performance. The effect does not appear to depend on alterations of mood state and may operate through cognitive preparation.
The Effects of an Imagery Rehearsal, Relaxation, and Self-Talk Package on Basketball Game Performance
Authors: Kendall Gail , Hrycaiko Dennis , Martin Garry L. , Kendall Tom
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the effects of an imagery rehearsal, relaxation, and self-talk package on the performance of a specific defensive basketball skill during competition. Subjects were four female intercollegiate basketball players. A single-subject multiple-baseline-across-individuals design was employed to evaluate the intervention package. The intervention was clearly effective in enhancing a basketball skill during games, and social validity measures were very positive. The need for further research in this area is discussed.
Threat Perception in Competitive Trait Anxiety: The Endangerment of Important Goals
Authors: Lewthwaite Rebecca
Published: August 2016

Relationships between goal related threat appraisal and competitive trait anxiety were examined in a field study with 102 9- to 15-year-old male soccer players. Questionnaires assessed (a) the frequency and intensity of somatic and cognitive symptoms of competitive trait anxiety, (b) the personal importance of various goals in youth sports, (c) children's perceptions of the extent to which these goals were endangered through sport participation, and (d) self-esteem. Correlational analyses indicated significant but weak relationships between a summary appraisal of threat to important goals and the frequency of somatic and cognitive competitive trait anxiety symptoms, and a stronger relationship between summary threat and competitive trait anxiety intensity. Greater perceived threat to effort/mastery and competitive achievement goals was reported by boys with higher, rather than lower, competitive trait anxiety. Within the sample, however, a cluster analysis revealed considerable individual variation in the degree of threat perceived with respect to each of four identified goals.
Repression of Anxiety and its Effects on Psychophysiological Responses to Stimuli in Competitive Gymnasts
Authors: Tremayne Patsy , Barry Robert J.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated cardiac and electrodermal responses in competitive gymnasts differing in levels of trait anxiety and repression. The research strategy was to seek differences in tonic and phasic physiological measures that occurred in association with differences in state and/or trait anxiety levels, and then to investigate whether similar differences were associated with differences in levels of repression. Two task conditions were employed: A resting baseline session was counterbalanced with an imagery session in which subjects were requested to image their current team routine in real time. For half of each session, subjects were instructed to either count (relevant) stimuli or ignore (irrelevant) stimuli. The results established a number of psychophysiological differences between groups differing on state and trait anxiety. Similar differences as a result of repression were not obtained, raising questions about the validity of the construct of “repression” in this context. There were some small effects, however, suggesting that repression may affect components of attentional processing in different situations.
The Impact of Group Size in an Exercise Setting
Authors: Carron Albert V. , Brawley Lawrence R. , Widmeyer W. Neil
Published: August 2016

Two independent studies were conducted to examine the impact of group size in an exercise setting. In the first, archival data from 47 exercise classes varying in size from 5 to 46 members were used to examine the relationship between group size and behavior. Attention and retention were high in small and large exercise classes and specific social psychologocal correlates of group size including the participants’ perceptions of conspicuousness, quality and quantity of interactions with their leader, their opportunities for social interaction with other members, the level of crowding and density, and satisfaction. Trend analyses showed a curvilinear relationship between exercise class size and participants’ perceptions of the opportunities available for social interaction and feelings of crowding and density. Both the small and large classes were perceived more favorably than the medium classes. The relationships between class size and perceptions of the instructor as well as the level of satisfaction experienced were linear—positive perceptions decreased systematically as class size increased.
Personal and Situational Influences on Adherence to Mental Skills Training
Authors: Bull Stephen J.
Published: August 2016

Adherence to mental-skills training has received little empirical investigation despite the recent growth and development in applied sport psychology services. The present study was designed to identity personal and situational variables influencing adherence to a mental training program. Volunteer athletes (N=34) were given a 4-week educational program before being left to train on their own for an experimental period of 8 weeks. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three treatment intervention conditions (control, written reminders, and group meetings) designed to influence adherence behavior. Results demonstrated the influence of self-motivation in predicting mental-training adherence, but the interventions had no significant effect. Adherence levels were generally low but variable between athletes. Interviews with the athletes indicated the need for individualization of training programs, and problems of time constraints were identified as being influential in the adherence process. Comparable athletes (N—18) who chose not to volunteer for the mental training program were psychometrically tested and demonstrated lower sport motivation than the volunteer athletes but greater skill in concentration.
A Comparison of Competitive-Orientation Measures
Authors: Gill Diane L. , Kelley Betty C. , Martin Jeffrey J. , Caruso Christina M.
Published: August 2016

We compared two sport-specific measures of competitive orientation, the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ; Gill & Deeter, 1988) and the Competitive Orientation Inventory (COI; Vealey, 1986), and an alternative 4-item version of the COL Male and female athletes and nonathletes at two small colleges completed questionnaire packets. Competitive-orientation scores were similar to those reported in previous research. The 4-item measure correlated with the COI, and neither of those measures correlated with the SOQ. As in previous studies, males scored higher than females on SOQ competitiveness and win orientation, and athletes scored higher than nonathletes on all SOQ scores. Our results suggest that the SOQ and COI do not assess the same competitive-orientation constructs. The SOQ assesses sport-specific achievement orientation; the COI assesses the relative importance of performance versus outcome. Our 4-item measure is comparable and provides a reasonable substitute for the more complex COI.
Gender Differences In Self-Confidence in Physical Activity: A Meta-Analysis of Recent Studies
Authors: Lirgg Cathy D.
Published: August 2016

The apparent lack of self-confidence in physical activity by females compared to males has been a recent concern of some researchers in sport psychology. Lenney (1977) suggested that females would be less confident than males when the task was male oriented or when the situation was competitive. This meta-analysis was conducted to examine the magnitude of gender differences in self-confidence in physical activity according to Lenney's assertions. An overall nonhomogeneous effect size of 0.40 favoring males was found. Although masculine tasks produced a larger effect-size difference than neutral tasks, it was also not homogeneous. Only one study employed a feminine task, resulting in a large effect size favoring females. However, the results of a regression analysis, which found that sex-type of task contributed to gender differences in self-confidence, did support Lenney's contention. Whether or not the task took place in a competitive situation did not differentially affect the magnitude of the gender differences. Age of subject and type of confidence measure employed are also discussed as possible variables contributing to gender differences in self-confidence.
Group Cohesion and Adherence in Exercise Classes
Authors: Spink Kevin S. , Carron Albert V.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the relationship of group cohesion to adherence in women participating in exercise classes. Two measures of adherence were examined: absenteeism and lateness. Results from a stepwise discriminant analysis conducted on the absenteeism data revealed that the two absenteeism groups could be differentiated on the basis of their endorsement of individual attractions to the group-task (ATG-T) and -social (ATG-S), with individuals who were absent less reporting greater ATG-T and ATG-S than those who were absent more. The results of a stepwise discriminant analysis conducted on the lateness variable revealed that ATG-T significantly differentiated between the two groups. Individuals who were late less scored higher on ATG-T than did those who were late more often. These findings provide support for the suggestion that selected aspects of group cohesion play a role in the adherence behavior of female exercise participants.
Predicting Vigorous Physical Activity of Corporate Employees: Comparing the Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior
Authors: Kimiecik Jay
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present study was to compare the utility of the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior in predicting the exercise intentions and behavior of corporate employees. Corporate employees (/7=332) who completed two questionnaires served as subjects. The first questionnaire assessed intentions, subjective norm, attitude, and perceived control with respect to participating in regular, vigorous physical activity. Participants also completed a follow-up questionnaire 4 weeks later that assessed self-reported frequency of vigorous physical activity during those 4 weeks. Hierarchical-regression analyses indicated that perceived behavioral control (the critical variable in the theory of planned behavior) accounted for a significant portion of the variance in intentions and self-reported exercise behavior, above that accounted for by reasoned action. These results lend support to Ajzen's theory of planned behavior, which suggests that individuals' perceptions of control are most important when attempting behaviors that are not completely under volitional control.
The Factorial Validity of the TAIS Attentional-Style Subscales
Authors: Ford Stephen K. , Summers Jeffery J.
Published: August 2016

The factorial validity of the attentional-style subscales of the Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) have recently been questioned, although the evidence is only indirect. This study aimed to examine, directly, the factorial validity of these scales and to cross-validate the results. Two samples of 210 first-year psychology students responded to the 52 items comprising the attention-related subscales of the TAIS. A multidimensional confirmatory factor analysis (MCFA) was conducted on the interitem covariance matrix to test the measurement model underlying the six subscales. The MCFA results failed to support the model. Furthermore, internal consistency coefficients and item-total coefficients also supported the view that many of the subscales have insufficient factorial validity. Of the 52 items, 44% correlated better with at least one subscale other than their own, which indicates poor discriminant validity. Analysis of item content reveals some explanation for the poor discriminant validity. All results were cross-validated with the second sample.
An Introduction to the Sport Commitment Model
Authors: Scanlan Tara K. , Carpenter Paul J. , Simons Jeffery P. , Schmidt Greg W. , Keeler Bruce
Published: August 2016

This article introduces a sport-specific theoretical model of commitment. Sport commitment is defined as a psychological state representing the desire or resolve to continue sport participation. The Sport Commitment Model proposes that sport commitment is determined by sport enjoyment, involvement alternatives, personal investments, social constraints, and involvement opportunities. Greater sport enjoyment, personal investments, social constraints, involvement opportunities, and less attractive involvement alternatives are predicted to lead to higher levels of sport commitment. Constitutive definitions were established for each of the model's components, and questionnaire items were developed. Results from the first empirical test of the model conducted with girls (n = 95) and boys (n = 83) participating in a Little League program showed that the questionnaire items formed reliable scales. Correlational analyses demonstrated that several predictors were related to sport commitment as hypothesized. Stepwise regression findings revealed that sport enjoyment and personal investments were the dominant predictors of commitment for this sample. Together, these two model components accounted for 58% of the sport commitment variance.
The Sport Commitment Model: Measurement Development for the Youth-Sport Domain
Authors: Scanlan Tara K. , Carpenter Paul J. , Simons Jeffery P. , Schmidt Greg W. , Keeler Bruce
Published: August 2016

This article presents our progress in developing a set of survey measures to assess constructs of the Sport Commitment Model in the youth-sport domain. Initial item development was accomplished through extensive literature reviews and the expert evaluations of research professionals, teachers, and young athletes. The items were then examined empirically with three separate samples numbering 140, 178, and 1342 athletes, respectively. For the first two samples, items formed reliable scales for each of the model constructs and separated into distinct factors largely as hypothesized. For the third sample, structural-equation modeling was employed and results supported the measurement of four constructs, with the other two constructs held from the measurement model because of item limitations. Overall, results of the three samples indicate reliable measures that can be used in tests of the Sport Commitment Model across samples of youth-sport athletes representing diversity in age, gender, and ethnicity.