bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sinners Who Would Fast unto Death
Authors: Rubin Julius H
Published: November 2023

During the half-century preceding the Civil War, the era of grand revivals known as the Second Great Awakening coincided with the building of the modern asylum for the mentally ill. The published asylum reports and official patient census, and the unpublished patient casebooks reveal that “religious excitement” was considered an important “supposed cause” of insanity. A review of 9,433 admissions to four Eastern asylums in 1860 uncovered that 740 patients, or 7.8 percent, were diagnosed as suffering from “religious insanity.” A survey of seventeen asylums operating in 1860 found that 6.1 percent of the patients manifested religious insanity.1 Focusing upon one asylum, the Hartford Retreat in Connecticut, for its first twenty years of operation from 1824–1843, we find that 22 percent of all patients admitted, or 293 out of 1,324, were diagnosed as belonging to the category of religious insanity.2 These patients included insane missionaries and ministers, Millerites, and believers who succumbed to mental alienation during Methodist revivals, the New Measure revivalism of Charles Grandison Finney, and others.
The Passing Away of Religious Melancholy?
Authors: Rubin Julius H
Published: November 2023

By his own account, Henry Adams, the elder statesman, historian, and Boston Brahmin, haunted the Chicago Exposition of 1900, “aching to absorb knowledge, and helpless to find it.”1 Adams did indeed find the illumination that he sought in the great hall of dynamos among the behemoth generators whose motors whirled at blinding cadences, producing the enduring spiritual icon of the newborn century—the symbol of infinite power. Adams stood transfixed before the machines. “He began to feel the forty-foot dynamos as a moral force, much as the early Christians felt the cross.”2 The icon of the dynamo represented modernism—the transformation of American civilization founded upon a new faith in the secular ideas of progress, social Darwinism, and a science and technology that would master and control nature. The scientific mastery of nature extended to the rationalization of the human body and the control of sexuality and other human desires.
Patristic and Medieval Developments
Authors: Avery Dulles S J
Published: November 2023

In surveying the patristic period it seems best to select authors who have made significant contributions to the theology of faith and whose works on the subject still constitute valuable points of reference.’1 Specialized studies may be consulted by those who wish to pursue sections of the history in greater depth.
Nineteenth Century
Authors: Avery Dulles S J
Published: November 2023

Protestant Philosophical Theologians

The early nineteenth century, in Germany as elsewhere, was marked by a lively romantic revival typified by literary figures such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803), Friedrich Schlegel (1772–1829), and Friedrich Hölderlin (1770–1843). The philosopher Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819), while sharing Kant’s views on the limited range of knowledge (Verstand), exalted the faculty of the higher reason (Vernunft), which he regarded as capable of attaining the divine in an intuitive manner. Faith for him was the inner illumination of the higher reason, an achievement of the heart (Gemüt) rather than of the speculative reason.1
The Grounding of Faith
Authors: Avery Dulles S J
Published: November 2023

Once faith is understood as a firm assent and trustful commitment to God as he reveals himself, it must be asked how the believer is warranted in accepting a given content as the word of God. How is it ascertained that the authority of God lies behind the Christian message?
Development of Faith
Authors: Avery Dulles S J
Published: November 2023

Now that the nature, grounds, and properties of faith have been investigated, it will be in order to discuss the history of faith in the life of the individual. In the present chapter we shall consider whether infants can have faith, how faith arises in adults, how it grows, or diminishes, or is lost.
Meaning and Method
Authors: Olivelle Patrick
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of this study I want to deal explicitly and in some detail with the problems of meaning and method-the meaning of the term āśrama and of the āśrama system and the proper ways to study it-because serious and pervasive methodological errors have impaired most previous scholarly works on the history of the āśrama system. Failure to understand the meaning of the āśrama system within the tradition of Brāhmanical theology’ and institutions and to evaluate properly the earliest available data are at the root of most problems in modem scholarship on the āśramas. They have led to the mishandling of evidence and inevitably to wrong conclusions.
Images and Symbols of Dharma
Authors: Glucklich Ariel
Published: November 2023

A most revealing fact about the Indian religious imagination is that the literature that tells Hindus how to live in the world calls itself a literature of remembrance-Smrti. For what has been forgotten-or intentionally blotted out-are the facts and the insights to make such a life meaningful. When Manu Prajapati first composed a dharma book that encompassed all topics ranging from creation to penances, it contained one hundred thousand slokas. But Narada then abridged this compendium to twelve thousand slokas, and again to four thousand due to the shortening of human life and attention span in the later aeons (yugas).
Dermatology and Cosmology
Authors: Glucklich Ariel
Published: November 2023

No map has been used more widely to chart the terrains of the human imagination than the human body. Consequently, the study of the human body as a symbolic and paradigmatic locus of meaning has been shared by a variety of disciplines. The body has been used to decipher sacred architecture and technology in the study of religion. Corporeal and social homologies have been instrumental in deciphering primitive forms of classification in anthropology and sociology. Mary Douglas has even attempted to demonstrate empirically the direct correlation between body image and social cohesiveness. In contrast to this deter-minism, historians of religion have emphasized the importance of Puru a-like symbolic representations of the social and cosmic organism. And, of course, at the root of the disciplines that study religious phenomena stand the early works of Frazer and Tylor on magic. The concepts of sympathetic and contagious magic are directly related to the experiential primacy of the body in the formulation of causal categories. In light of all this, primarily the lasting significance of theories of magic, it is surprising how little interest has focused on the human skin. I suspect this may be due to the fact that the rather literal, and often derogatory, early theories of magic were later replaced by the conceptual tools of analogy and homology.
Passage to Marriage-The Dharma Agent
Authors: Glucklich Ariel
Published: November 2023

When Yudhi µiira and his brothers left the city of Elephants through the auspicious northern gate called Vardhamana, they set off for their forest exile. The dharmaraja’s last concern before entering the forest was sending back his Brahmin followers, whom he feared he would not be able to feed properly when he himself became a mere food gatherer. The forest in that episode posed the ultimate dilemma for a man stripped of his status but determined to obey the injunctions of royalty. But inevitably, reluctantly, even Yudhi thira succumbed to the forest’s reality and agreed to let the Brahmins scavenge.
Together Bound
Authors: Kirkpatrick Frank G
Published: November 2023

Challenging the assumption that the concept of divine action is necessarily paradoxical, on the grounds that God is radically transcendent of finitude, or can perform only a master act of creating and sustaining the universe, Frank Kirkpatrick defends as philosophically credible the Christian conviction that God is a personal Agent who also acts in particular historical moments to further the divine intention of fostering universal community. Kirkpatrick claims that God and the world are distinct realities “together bound” in a mutual relationship of reciprocal historical action. In this relationship, God both acts upon and responds to human beings in specific moments in their history. The implications of this claim for understanding the biblical narrative, the problem of evil, cosmological theories, and the realism of Christian community are pursued.
Dualism
Authors: Kirkpatrick Frank G
Published: November 2023

While monism has a form which is intentionally theistic, dualism by and large intends to be theistic in all its forms. Dualism is the logical model of reality in which God is affirmed as the ultimate reality upon which all other, nondivine beings depend, but which is Itself distinguished from them in a basic, qualitatively different, ontological way. Dualism does not try to escape from distinction or differentiation, at least in the first instance. It accepts it as the very condition necessary for affirming the superiority and absolute ness of God over against a temporal, finite, and limited world of creatures. Ultimately, however, dualism tends toward monism to the extent that it recognizes that differentiation of creature from Creator suggests ontological limits on the latter.
The Cave and the Sky: Stone age Europe
Authors: Kostof Spiro , Castillo Greg , Tobias Richard
Published: November 2023

Human beings, in their own distinctive form, have been inhabiting the earth for more than one million years. For most of that time they were unaware of architecture, if by that term we want to understand the ambitious creation of an environment separate from the natural order. But if, as we suggested, architecture describes simply the act of making places for ritual use, it was one of the earliest human needs.
Absolutism and Bourgeoisie: European Architecture, 1600-1750
Authors: Kostof Spiro , Castillo Greg , Tobias Richard
Published: November 2023

Europe in the 1600s was a divided continent. Protestant and Catholic forces clashed at every stage of social intercourse and on the battlefield. Although the strength of antipapism lay in the north, the demarcation line was not neatly drawn. Poland, for example, remained staunchly Catholic. In France the Edict of Nantes (1598), which allowed the Huguenots the free exercise of their faith and granted a state subsidy for their troops and pastors, had the effect of creating two legitimate religions side by side. England vacillated all through the century; the German principalities and autonomous Swiss cantons were variously Catholic, Lutheran, or Calvinist.
Victorian Environments
Authors: Kostof Spiro , Castillo Greg , Tobias Richard
Published: November 2023

An American of means visiting England after the Civil War would have had his choice of excellent new luxury hotels to stay in. The largest in London would have been the just completed Midland Grand at St. Pancras Station, the main northern entrance into the city. (Fig. 25.1) Of the crop that served the immensely fashionable seaside resorts, perhaps the best known was the Grand in Scarborough, Yorkshire, perched prominently on a wedge-shaped cliffside lot above the North Sea.
Occidentalism, A Theory of Counter-Discourse in Post-Mao China
Authors: Chen Xiaomei
Published: November 2023

abstract

Xiaomei Chen offers an insightful account of the unremittingly favourable depiction of Western culture and its negative characterization of Chinese culture in post-Mao China from 1978-1988. Chen examines the cultural and political interrelations between the East and West from a vantage point more complex than that accommodated by most current theories of Western imperialism and colonialism. Going beyond Edward Said’s construction in Orientalism of cross-cultural appropriations as a defining facet of Western imperialism, Chen argues that the appropriation of Western discourse--what she calls “Occidentalism”--can have a politically and ideologically liberating effect on contemporary non-Western culture. Using China as a focus of her analysis, Chen examines a variety of cultural media, from Shakespearean drama, to Western modernist poetry, to contemporary Chinese television. She thus places sinology in the general context of Western theoretical discourses, such as Eurocentrism, postcolonialism, nationalism, modernism, feminism, and literary hermeneutics, showing that it has a vital role to play in the study of Orient and Occident and their now unavoidable symbiotic relationship. Occidentalism presents a new model of comparative literary and cultural studies that re-envisions cross-cultural appropriation.
Wilder, Mei Lanfang, and Huang Zuolin A ‘‘Suggestive Theater:,:, Revisited
Authors: Chen Xiaomei
Published: November 2023

There is yet another way in which Gao Xingjian’s Wildman, his most “Chinese” play, can be viewed as essentially “Western,” for it seems to stand under the undeniable “influence”-as that term is used in the most conventional sense-of one of the most important plays of the twentieth-century theater in the West, Thornton Wilder’s Our Town, an “Oriental” play itself according to its own Occidental reception. Here we see an important fact about the formalistic features in contemporary Chinese theater-it is inevitably conditioned by various Chinese receptions of Occidental dramatic traditions and practises. Both the formal and thematic parallels between Wildman and Our Town are indeed striking. Just as Our Town opens with a stage manager placing a table and several chairs here and there on an empty stage to remind the audience that they are about to watch a play, not an illusionary “reallife” story, at the beginning of Wildman, the ecologist likewise explains to the audience that the play’s action is not limited to the stage itself; it occurs everywhere in the theater, including the audience’s seats. Furthermore, the play is divided into three “chapters,” not three “acts,” since there will be no curtain in his show.
On Heidegger and Life with Others
Authors: Marsh Charles
Published: November 2023

Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Martin Heidegger led remarkably different lives. On 27 May 1933 Heidegger became rector of the University of Freiburg, eager to encourage pedagogical reforms consistent with the ideals of National Socialism. Less than a month earlier, at the end of April, Bonhoeffer had issued his first public defense of the Jews and condemnation of the Aryan Clause in his address “The Church and the Jewish Question,” followed in August by the “Bethel Confession.”
The Overabundant I
Authors: Marsh Charles
Published: November 2023

I’m sitting alone upstairs. Everything is quiet in this building; a few birds are singing outside, and I can even hear the cuckoo in the distance. I find these long, warm summer evenings, which I’m living through here for the second time, rather trying. I long to be outside, and if I were not “reasonable,” I might do something foolish. I wonder whether we have become too reasonable. When you’ve deliberately suppressed every desire for so long, it may have one of two bad results: either it bums you up inside, or it all gets so bottled up that one day there is a terrific explosion. It is, of course, conceivable that one may become completely selfless, and I know better than anyone else that that hasn’t happened to me. Perhaps you will say that one oughtn’t to suppress one’s desires, and I expect you would be right. But look, this evening for example I couldn’t dare to give really full rein to my imagination and picture myself and Maria at your house, sitting in the garden by the water and talking together into the night etc. etc. That is simply self-torture, and gives one physical pain. So I take refuge in thinking, in writing letters, in delighting in your good fortune, and curb my desires as a measure of self-protection. However paradoxical it may sound, it would be more selfless if I didn’t need to be so afraid of my desires, and could give them free rein—but that is very difficult.1
“To Make Real the Bond Between Us All”: Quaker Conciliation During the Nigerian Civil War
Authors: Sampson Cynthia
Published: November 2023

Although independence came peacefully to Nigeria in 1964, the British left a young state that was deeply divided along regional, ethnic, and religious lines. The predominantly Muslim and politically dominant North was outranked economically by the Eastern and Western regions, where Christianity and traditional religions prevailed. A flawed constitution and electoral corruption produced an explosive mix in the First Republic, until two military coups, six months apart, brought the military to power in 1966. With tensions still rising, pogroms against Easterners living in the North sent the survivors fleeing back home. Within months Eastern secessionism reached a fever pitch, and the young nation was plunged into a brutal civil war.
Transition From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe: The Role of Religious Actors
Authors: Kraybill Ron
Published: November 2023

As African states, one by one, broke free from the shackles of colonialism, black Rhodesia’s quest for self-rule encountered an entrenched white establishment. Ian Smith, the stubborn and resourceful leader of the heavily outnumbered whites, unilaterally declared Rhodesia independent of Britain in 1965, effectively tightening the grip of white control. Sanctions by Britain and the United Nations followed, while internally a guerrilla campaign was waged against the government by competing African nationalist factions. The struggle left the nation with a war-ravaged infrastructure, a fragmented opposition, and little hope for a peaceful solution.
Implications for the Foreign Policy Community
Authors: Burnett Stanton
Published: November 2023

The United States had some stake, and some role, in a few of the cases in this book. Washington’s connection with part of South Africa’s recent history is discussed later in this chapter. The United States, by its advocacy of European regional groupings-some including North America, some not-helped institutionalize Franco-German reconciliation. And, as leader of the West during the Cold War, the United States offered a secondary pole of attraction (after West Germany and Western Europe) for East Germans thirsting for change.
Joyce’s Attitudes Toward History: Rome, 1906-7
Authors: Spoo Robert
Published: November 2023

The inescapable presence of Rome’s past has overwhelmed many sensitive visitors to that city. In 1873 Henry James wrote of the excavations around the Forum: “[I]t ‘says’ more things to you than you can repeat to sec the past, the ancient world, as you stand there, bodily turned up with the spade and transformed from an immaterial, inaccessible fact of time into a matter of soils and surfaccs.”1 For Sigmund Freud, Rome’s overdetermined history was an object of tear and desire. Although he had longed to visit Rome for years, it was not until he had done extensive excavation work on his own psychic history and published the findings in The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) that he began to be free ofa strange inhibition that had placed the Eternal City under a sort of phobic ban. He finally went to Rome in 1901 and considered his visit a “high point” of his life; he was particularly moved by ancient and Renaissance Rome and stood fascinated before the Moses of Michelangelo.2 More than a century earlier Edward Gibbon had recorded his reactions to Rome’s imposing historical strata: My conversation was with the dead rather than the living, and the whole college of Cardinals was of less value in my eyes than the transfiguration of Raphael, the Apollo of the Vatican, or the massy greatness of the Coliseum.
Fabricated Ghosts: A Metahistorical Reading of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
Authors: Spoo Robert
Published: November 2023

Joyce had the inspiration for a short story called “Ulysses” in Rome in 1906 but was unable to get “any forrader than the title,” as he explained to his brother (Letters 11209). After returning to Trieste, he finished “The Dead,” another story he had conceived in Rome, in September 1907, and quickly set about rewriting the sprawling manuscript of Stephen Hero in the condensed five-chapter format he was to call A Portrait of the Artist asa Young Man. After many frustrations and interruptions he finished the novel in 1913-14.1 “Ulysses,” and the experiences in Trieste and Rome that had prepared Joyce for writing it, had to be set aside while the long-gestating bildungsroman struggled toward completion, a work whose content, though not its form, had taken conceptual shape by 1904. While writing Ulysses, Joyce told his friend Frank Budgen that he was losing interest in Stephen Dedalus because the young man, in contrast to the protean Leopold Bloom and the expanding text of Ulysses itself, had acquired a shape that could not be changed.2 But Stephen may have begun to be a burden to Joyce almost as early as 1904, when he embarked on his autobiographi­cal novel; ousting all other creative and historical possibilities, Stephen became part ofJ oyce ‘s personal nightmare of history, a juvenile alter ego persisting as a negative afterimage, a goad to writing that was also a clog on experimental impulse.
“Aeolus, ” Rhetoric, and History
Authors: Spoo Robert
Published: November 2023

“Try as we may, we cannot, as we write history, escape our purposiveness.” So wrote Lionel Trilling in “The Sense of the Past” (1942), and his words form an appropriate starting point for a discussion of the “Aeolus” episode of Ulysses. “Nor, indeed,” he went on to say, “should we try to escape, for purpose and meaning are the same thing.”1 This bold equating of signification with the will to power, truth with telos, neatly summarizes many recent debates over the meaning of meaning in historical accounts. No longer regarded as transparent and innocent, as a wholly adequate and impartial witness to the past “wie es eigentlich gewesen ist,” historical discourse has come to be seen as a contested locus of meaning; the hard data of history, the seemingly irrefragable chronicle of the past, must be filtered through the rarefying and rationalizing medium of words with their rage for order. As the preceding chapters have argued in their several ways, history and story are inseparable, both in histories and in stories. The past has a shape because the present is full of purpose. Our desires prepare the rhetorical molds into which history is poured.
The Language of Literary History: “Oxen of the Sun ” “Circe,” and Beyond
Authors: Spoo Robert
Published: November 2023

The “Parable of the Plums” marks a turning point in Stephen Dedalus’s struggle with personal and artistic passivity. As ofJune 1904 he is still the author of a capful oflight odes, but his extemporized performance at the end of “Aeolus,” a small act, trivial in itself, shows that he has ability in the abstract, as Marlow says of Lord Jim, possibilities that his aesthetic posturing and agenbite ofinwit have not yet succeeded in ousting. But the Parable represents something more than Stephen’s potential; it also reveals the capacity of narrative to contest, through parabolic indirection, received stories about history, to resist historical emplotments by engineering, as it were, a counterplot. Stephen’s little tale of two Dublin crones signals an advance from thematic protest against the nightmare of history-the method he chooses with Mr. Deasy-to symbolic resistance to that nightmare. There is a profound logic to this development: since history becomes nightmarish when it is coopted for certain kinds of representation, when it is processed by texts that threaten or preclude individual freedom, it is only right that the individual respond with texts that embody openness and pos­sibility. In this respect as in others Stephen’s Parable is his most “Joycean” effort to date, for it begins to do what Ulysses does on a much larger scale: defeat the “big words” of unhappy-making ideologies by transposing them into parody, by staging closed historical discourses in the open-air theater of an ironic, aleatory text.
Environmental Injuries
Authors: Dewees Don , Duff David , Trebilcock Michael
Published: November 2023

In 1970 public concern regarding the harm caused by air and water pollution reached a climax, which was reflected in the first Earth Day celebrations and in the passage of environmental protection legislation by the U.S. Congress and by other legislatures across North America. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was created from existing federal agencies and given a new and ambitious mandate. There was good reason for this concern: urban smog was an unpleasant and unhealthy accompaniment to the advent of summer in a growing number of cities, Lake Erie was dying, the Cuyahoga River had caught fire, and there was increasing evidence that air pollution could cause respiratory illness and even death. Later in the 1970s new concerns arose over pollution caused by toxic substances, and by 1980 the hazards of abandoned toxic waste disposal sites had been revealed at Love Canal. Environmental pollution may cause as many as 10,000 excess cancer deaths each year,.and the harm caused by air and water pollution may be valued at many tens of billions of dollars per year..These concerns gave rise to extensive government regulation of pollution discharge and to litigation over damage caused by that pollution. Indeed, alarm arising from certain types of environmental liability became so great that by the 1980s insurance for environmental liability had all but disappeared. This chapter will examine the role tort law has played in controlling pollution, compensating victims, and fulfilling the goals of corrective justice. We will also examine the role played by government regulation and by some nonregulatory policies that may have affected pollution discharge.
The Mother Town
Authors: Neville Gwen Kennedy
Published: November 2023

Horses with riders trailed by foot processionals, silver bands and pipe bands, furling medieval banners, lavish costumes, and singers and actors--the "Common Riding" is an elaborate, little-studied ritual phenomenon of the border towns of Scotland. In this vividly written and insightful analysis, Gwen Kennedy Neville uses this civic ceremony as a window for glimpsing the process of ritual, symbol, and experience in the development of the concept of "the town" in Western culture. Based on extensive fieldwork in the town of Selkirk, The Mother Town looks at the Common Riding in detail, uncovering pre-Reformation symbolism and pageantry--often medieval and Catholic--in a region that has been Protestant for over four hundred years. Neville shows how the ceremony is a model of the way civic ritual serves to construct a system of towns which gives rise to the modern world. Further, she contends that these civic rituals create a ceremonial setting in which the contradictions between tradition and modernity can be temporarily resolved and where past and present live side by side. Neville offers a provocative and illuminating study of how the ritual of Common Riding makes a dramatic statement about local strife, communal independence, and Protestantism in the towns of the Scottish Borders.
The Canonical Foundation
Authors: Kraemer David
Published: November 2023

The rabbis did not come to the question of human suffering, or to any other question, without prejudice. Their religion was one that, at all of its stages, claimed a profound continuity with the religion of the Hebrew Bible.1 But this claim was often belied by the reality, and it is clear that rabbinic Judaism differed in significant details from the tradition recorded in the Bible. Consequently, understanding rabbinic Judaism is often a matter of appreciating continuity and difference, that is, the ways in which rabbinic Judaism is continuous with its biblical foundation and those in which it is different. For the rabbis, even at the earliest stages of their history, the Bible was already a well-defined whole.2 This is not to say that there were not some final details to be determined; it is quite likely that the precise status of certain books of what came to be known as the Writings (Hebrew: ketubim) was still in doubt in early rabbinic Judaism.3 But the Torah and Prophets had long before been canonized, and so when the rabbis returned to scripture for authoritative opinions they had no significant questions concerning the shape and scope of the canon which bound them. As canon, the Bible was not merely a collection of discrete books; it was one complete book, divinely inspirep, some sections more authoritative (the Torah) and some apparently less so (books other than the Torah). Moreover, being divine and therefore eternal, the Bible was not limited by its history-it was not read contextually. It spoke now and forever, as a work that weighed in all of its details, and it demanded of the rabbis as of other Jews that they make sense of its immense diversity and richness.4 This was the Bible upon which the rabbis built.
Early Rabbinic Responses: The Tosefta
Authors: Kraemer David
Published: November 2023

The next document to emerge from the rabbinic community, in logical and apparently chronological sequence, is the Tosefta, a commentary on and expansion of the Mishnah.1 The precise dating of this work ( as well as of the halakhic midrashim) is notoriously difficult to establish.2 On the one side, the Tosefta is clearly later than the Mishnah. On the other, many Toseftan traditions are quoted in the Yerushalmi ( c. 400) and some are also quoted in the halakhic midrashim. If, therefore, these midrashim are dated to the late third or early fourth century ( as I shall argue in the next chapter), then the Tosefta would seem to have taken shape in the mid-to late third century-slightly later, perhaps, than tractate Avot.
Summary and Conclusions
Authors: Kraemer David
Published: November 2023

Canonical rabbinic teachings relating to the problem of suffering are first found in the Mishnah. The Mishnah, as already observed by Neusner,1 overwhelmingly neglects the imperfections of history, preferring to picture a world controlled and stabilized by Torah-a world more perfect. Thus the Mishnah has little direct to say on matters of suffering, and what it does say supports the dominant biblical explanation according to which suffering is punishment for sin. Suffering, in this view, is not evidence of imperfection but, on the contrary, evidence of the perfection of God’s justice in this world. Accordingly, teachings which relate to divine justice also speak unapologetically about reward and punishment and even imagine-in archaic biblical fashion-that such reward or punishment may be imparted in this world. The world-to-come is available, in the Mishnah’s system, to supply a corrective when present reality offers troublesome testimony, but this by now traditional view is not deemed essential in all Mishnaic discussions. Even more literal applications of ancient biblical promises are sup ported.
The Rise of a Goddess in Our Time
Authors: Motz Lotte
Published: November 2023

A religious phenomenon has emerged in our time that is especially vital among feminists in England and the United States. A figure, designated as the Goddess, has been extolled in numerous books that describe her form and function (and the manner of her worship, as it had existed in ancient times), and that also proclaim her return. The Goddess has been instrumental to the creation of study groups, to circles and communities of a new cult, and she has also given rise to questions among those who remained within the frame of their traditional religions. No structural dogma has as yet evolved, but there is a general consensus concerning the nature of the Goddess that amounts to an unofficial theology.
The Lady of the Manor: Latvia
Authors: Motz Lotte
Published: November 2023

An important female deity designated as Mother Sun appears in Latvian tradition. Another highly placed divinity bears the name Mother Laima; and a multitude of lesser spirits holds the title. This chapter traces the outlines of these goddess figures to determine whether they are related to a great maternal divinity. The Latvians speak an Indo-European language that belongs, with Lithuanian and Prussian (now extinct), to the so-called Baltic language group. Politically, Latvia is classed together with Estonia and Lithuania as a Baltic state, all three, until recently, under Soviet domination. They are situated along the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea, whose waters had originated in the melting ice of the Quaternary period.
The Mountain Mother: Anatolia
Authors: Motz Lotte
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter we noted the rise of a new humanism, a belief that through the application of their skills and rationality people could order and arrange their environment. Yet the voices of an older faith were never completely silenced. Men still felt their helplessness in the face of overwhelming forces; mortals still longed to break the limitations of their physical existence by merging with the superhuman and to achieve in trance and ecstasy the experience of a fuller life. The voices of the earlier belief are clearly heard in the traditions of Cybele. Cybele, also named the Great Mother, Mother of the Gods, Phrygian Goddess, and Mountain Mother, was adored throughout the world in the last millennium preceding the triumph of Christianity. Her cult extended from Asia Minor to Italy and Greece, to the Balkans, the Danube, and the Rhine, and the shrill music of her priests resounded through the towns and harbors of northern Africa. She was praised as the All-Mother and All-Creator who heals the sicknesses of beasts and men, and she became the last bastion of pagan faith in the rising tide of Christian religion. The first recording of her name appears in an inscription on a Phrygian stone monument of possibly the seventh century B.C.E., and an oration to Cybele was composed by the emperor Justinian in 363 c.E. Surely we meet in her the most impressive of maternal divinities, and we shall examine the elements that went into the making of the goddess.
Ramon Llull’s Art of Arts
Authors: Johnston Mark D
Published: November 2023

Llull’s Vita tells us how his original vow to serve God involved a vehement desire to compose the “best book in the world against the errors of the infidels.” A subsequent inspiration, which the Vita attributes to divine revelation, transformed that simple goal into a much more ambitious project, the Great Universal Art of Finding Truth (par. 6, 14). Llull devoted the rest of his career to perfecting the methods of this idiosyncratic symbolico-dialectical system of argument. He recorded the phases of its development in several redactions of the Great Art itself, as well as in scores of other works applying its system to specialized topics of inquiry. A complete account of this massive project remains unwritten. The following summary offers a necessarily simplified explanation, designed chiefly to help my readers understand how the methods of the Great Art inform Llull’s accounts of the arts of eloquence.

Ramon Llull’s Great Universal Art of Finding Truth synthesizes a vast range of techniques for private meditation, scriptural exegesis, and apologetic argument into a single system for “discovering” how all knowledge and being reveals divine truth. The general method of this system is comparison or analogy. The Great Art is “universal” and “finds truth” only in so far as it is capable of likening anything known to the Divine Word, which Llull regards as the exemplar of all wisdom.
Invention
Authors: Johnston Mark D
Published: November 2023

Ramon Llull’s zeal for leading the mind to truth causes him to treat most aspects of communication first as epistemological or psychological processes and second as linguistic or rhetorical functions. His Great Universal Art of Finding Truth primarily provides a method of discovering or evaluating ideas rather than of generating discursive arguments. This preeminently heuristic purpose ensures that invention is the division of Ciceronian rhetoric that Llull’s Great Art most completely replaces. The Ars compendiosa inveniendi veritatem, Llull’s first full version of his system (composed between 1274 and 1283), treats invention not as discovery of words or reasonings, but as manipulation of concepts through symbolic letters arranged in charts and tables. The Art demostrativa of 1283 even notes the traditional division of dialectic into invention and judgment, but treats these sheerly as cognitive practices (4.2.5.62). Nonetheless, insofar as Llull’s system treats mental and oral discourse as homologous, it serves the invention of arguments for discursive presentation. The Great Art not only leads the mind to find absolute truth, it helps the mind to defend that truth. Hence, it should hardly surprise us that Llull invariably offers his own system as a method for generating copious material to expound in secular and sacred eloquence. Occasionally he does recommend inventional devices from the contemporary arts of language, but these come almost exclusively from the ars praedicandi.
Virtue in Speaking
Authors: Johnston Mark D
Published: November 2023

Ramon Llull’s accounts of the arts of language display an intriguing attempt to assert a new medieval Christian understanding of the ancient ideal of uniting eloquence and wisdom. Llull’s zeal for retracing the arts to theology encourages him to follow the traditional perspective established since the earliest patristic apologists. Augustine’s De doctrina christiana comprehensively defines this view: the first three books substitute Christian truth for pagan philosophy as wisdom, while the fourth book recommends adapting traditional skills of rhetoric to Christian evangelism as eloquence. Nonetheless, Llull never recognizes the union of eloquence and wisdom as a fundamental spiritual or intellectual good, probably because he lacks the training in the arts curriculum that would have familiarized him with the auctores—es pecially the famous opening paragraphs of Cicero’s De inventione—that expound this ideal. Indeed, he never seems to recognize that his own insistence on virtue in speaking might share some of the same goals as the Scholastic curricula that he so often denounces. As I explained in chapter 1, his antiacademic arguments usually lament the neglect of Christian truth in the schools. Therefore Llull’s plan for uniting eloquence and wisdom is to rectify all uses of language by reestablishing their moral finality. In short, he seeks to moralize secular and sacred eloquence alike as verbal exercises of virtue.
Cynicism or realism?
Authors: Cappella Joseph N , Jamieson Kathleen Hall
Published: November 2023

“[C]ynicism is epidemic right now;” wrote nationally syndicated columnist David Broder in the Washington Post in early July 1994. “It saps people’s confidence in politics and public officials, and it erodes both the standing and the standards of journalism. If the assumption is that nothing is on the level, nothing is what it seems, then citizenship becomes a game for fools and there is no point in trying to stay informed:” A July 1994 Washington Post–ABC News Poll seemed to justify Broder’s concern. It found that

This poll was consistent with nineteen earlier ones done in the past half-decade during the tenure of three Congresses and two presidents. In these, “the average scores for Congress have been 33 percent approval and 62 percent disapproval.” The July 1994 poll showed 34 percent approval and 61 percent disapproval.
Designing The Studies
Authors: Cappella Joseph N , Jamieson Kathleen Hall
Published: November 2023

Although the bridge between the two is commonly asserted in communication scholarship, one cannot divide effects from the simple analysis of media content. Determining the effect of certain forms of news, for example, requires a controlled experiment. Controlled experiments are one of the only ways to establish causality. In this chapter, we describe a series of experiments conducted in 1993 and 1994 to understand the effects of various news frames on the public’s learning, cynicism, and attitudes. Here we explain the design, procedures, sample, and the news segments employed.

The research was concerned with two types of news: news about a political campaign, specifically the race for mayor of Philadelphia in 1991, and news about public policy, specifically the health care reform debate of 1993–1994. Early in our broader study of the health care reform debate we had concluded through content analysis that the norms of coverage of campaigns and governance increasingly had come to resemble one another, with each dominated by a focus on strategy and conflict.
Rousseau’s Legacy
Authors: Porter Dennis
Published: November 2023

Rousseau’s Legacy is an original and ambitious work of literary scholarship that focuses on the emergence with Rousseau of a new and influential paradigm of the writer who brings together revolutionary sociopolitical critique and ‘confessionalism’. Combining a wide-ranging knowledge of contemporary theory with an informed interest in sociopolitical context and cultural history, the author goes on to explore the persistent importance of the Rousseauist paradigm through the close reading of works by a number of major French writers from Stendahl to Duras, Althusser, and Foucault.
Separating Sex from Pregnancy
Authors: McDonagh Eileen L
Published: November 2023

It is common to depict men as impregnating women, and thus to equate sex with pregnancy. But because pregnancy is the condition in a woman’s body caused by a fertilized ovum, there are actually two relationships involved in reproduction: a sexual relationship between a man and a woman and a pregnancy relationship between a fetus and a woman. Whereas a man can cause a woman to engage in a sexual relationship with him, a man cannot cause a woman’s body to change from a nonpregnant to a pregnant condition; the only entity that can do that is a fertilized ovum when it implants itself in a woman’s uterus. Thus, although a man and a woman can have a sexual relationship, they cannot, reproductively speaking, have a pregnancy relationship. Concomitantly, although a fetus and a woman can have a pregnancy relationship, they cannot have a sexual relationship. And to state the obvious, a fetus and a man can have neither a sexual nor a pregnancy relationship.
De Uitiis Capitalibus
Authors:   Regan
Published: November 2023

Questio est de uitiis capitalibus. Et primo queritur de numero uitiorum capitalium, quot et que sint. Et uidetur quod sint septem. Dicit enim Gregorius XXXI Moralium “Septem sunt principalia uitia, scilicet inanis gloria, inuidia, ira, tristitia, auaritia, uentris ingluuies, luxuria”. —Set contra. Capitalia uitia uidentur dici ex quibus alia oriuntur. Set omnia uitia oriuntur ex uno uitio uel duobus: dicitur enim I ad Tim. VI “Radix omnium malorum cupiditas” et Eccli. X dicitur “Initium omnis peccati superbia”. Ergo non sunt septem uitia capitalia.
The World of Thought in Chu Hsi’s Time
Authors: Ching Julia
Published: November 2023

In opening a book, we place ourselves at a gateway. In Chinese, an introduction to any subject is usually called “entering the gate,” or “entering the door” Uu-men). The gate leads symbolically to wisdom and sageliness. The two parent trigrams, Ch’ien and K’una, with their undivided yang and divided yin lines, usually represent the mysteries that are beyond the door. For Chou Tun-yi (Zhou Dunyi, ror 7-73), the mysteries are with him in his own room, with the opening and closing of the door. Chou Tun-yi sees the door as sometimes closed and sometimes open. Favoring the natural, he does not insist that wisdom is to be found with the opening of the door but claims that it is there in the opening and closing. Here, of course, one may add that “opening and closing” can also serve as a metaphor for breathing and, by extension, to being at one with the universe.
Spiritual Beings (Kuei-shen)
Authors: Ching Julia
Published: November 2023

The attractions of nature drew Chu to reflections on the creative mind of Heaven and Earth and, associated with this, to questions about spiritual beings. In this context, I shall deal with Chu’s views on the existence of a supreme being and of beings like ghosts and spirits. I shall also explain Chu’s interpretation of the natural universe—of Heaven and Earth and how they came to be. While Chu treats the subject of ghosts and spirits before that of a supreme deity, I shall proceed from discussion of Heaven to ghosts and spirits, in order to give more systematic order to the chapter. My discussion of Heaven in this chapter should be read while keeping in mind my discussion of the Great Ultimate in chapter 2.
The Last Real Man in America: From Natty Bumppo to Batman
Authors: Leverenz David
Published: November 2023

In the summer of 1989, one of the glossiest men’s magazines appeared with a picture of Sean Connery on the cover. Dressed in a creamy ivory tuxedo, standing with arms folded against a beige background, visible only to the waist, he embodied elegance, sensuality, and virility. The caption proclaimed him “The Last Real Man in America.” Why should the Last Real Man in America be a British actor? The taunting ambiguity implies that no American can claim true manliness anymore; to see it at all is to see it vanishing. Only a working-class Scotsman who secured his international image as James Bond, an Englishman equally skilled in civility and violence, can temporarily import virility to American shores. Yet the pleasurable visual framing of his face as white on white on beige seems curiously reassuring. Connery represents the last, best hope, the master of everything not quite seen, dark, and below the belt. He can protect a civilized, yet effete Us from a barbaric though enviably violent Them. The July cover of Gentleman’s Quarterly slipped from my mind until late August, when I was standing in a checkout line at a Florida supermarket and noticed the September cover of Celebrity Plus, a decidedly downscale fan magazine. This cover featured Harrison Ford in a woodsy setting, with a yellow blurb announcing, “Rare Interview! The ‘Last’ Real Man.”‘ Faced with such a flagrant intertextual rip-off, I began wondering: in what other country could variations on that come-on sell magazines? To ask the question exposes the strange mixture of bravado, anxiety, and nostalgia in the motif. Male readers in more traditionally patriarchal cultures might well feel insulted. Why did I feel a bit wistful, even teased? The motif has a beleaguered quality to it, as if urban, yuppie, corporate, feminist America had become intrinsically emasculating.
African-American Antimodernism and the American Sixties
Authors: Hall James C
Published: November 2023

Imagine, if you can, the morning of Monday, September 16, 1963. You are ready to work. Your typewriter is at the ready. You have coffee, maybe cigarettes. No distractions. But there is still an edginess, the pressure to produce, the commitment that words on paper entails. So you delay and retrieve the newspaper at your door. The New York Times headline: “Birmingham Bomb Kills 4 Negro Girls in Church; Riots Flare; 2 Boys Slain.” Continue working? Four children—Denise McNair, age 11, and Carole Robertson, Addie Mae Collins, Cynthia Wesley, each age 14—killedjust prior to a worship service at the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama. Later that day, James Robinson, age 16, is shot in the back by police trying to break up rock throwing between white and black teenagers. And, finally, Virgil Ware, age 13, is shot by a white teenager (an Eagle Scout) who had spent the afternoon at a white supremacist rally. Five hundred National Guardsmen and three hundred state troopers had taken control of the streets. Six black children slain, killed by men, by representatives of the state, by other children. Continue working? Prior to the explosion, the girls killed at the church had heard the completion of Ella Demand’s Sunday School lesson, “The Love That Forgives.” That same day, President Kennedy had stated in an address that “a new national awareness of discriminatory practices against Negroes was bringing progress toward the goal of equal opportunity.”2