bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion: Deliverance from Insecurity
Authors: O’Neill Philip D
Published: November 2023

As long as we have lived with the certainty of catastrophic risk from weapons of mass destruction, we have also grappled with the uncertainty of trying to control them to some extent by agreement or otherwise. The prospect of continuing to do so in perpetuity without their further use is belied by past experience. Shared recognition of this simple truth impels many nations toward WMD disarmament. Today the prospects for accelerated movement in that direction are increasing. With the advent of undeterrable risk from terrorist use, and the questionable stability of rogue nations armed with WMD, there is a renewed effort by the international community to bind itself to irreversible elimination of these weapons. The regimes by which nations will do so continue to take shape. Step-by-step arrangements to shift military doctrine, reshape arsenals, and demonstrate appropriate transparency, will also serve to reinvigorate efforts at the bilateral and multilateral levels.
Love and Ambition: Gender, Memory, and Stories from Brazilian Coffee Plantation Families
Authors: Piscitelli Adriana
Published: November 2023

My intention here is to discuss how changes and continuities in the transmission of memory relate to gender. My interest in this question arose from interviewing three successive generations of men and women in Brazilian coffee plantation families. When they told me their life stories, invariably intermingling personal stories and family traditions, I observed particularly striking differences between the recollections of the men and women of the two older generations and those of the youngest generation. The array of contrasts reveals how gender influences the themes, structure, shape, and expressive styles that form life narratives, and how the changes in the transmission of memories between the generations are related to shifts in the different life experiences of men and women. When I first started my interviewing for the anthropological research on which this article is based, gendered memory was not my main concern. My focus was on the strategies of social reproduction followed in successive generations in two kinship groups of wealthy Brazilian coffee planters.
Remembrance, Romance, and Nation Memories of Wartime Australia
Authors: Darian-Smith Kate
Published: November 2023

More so than any other events in the twentieth century, the experiences of war-articulated as the foundation myths of nation-have influenced the discourses of masculinity and femininity in Australian society. I War is a gendered and gendering activity, separating the roles of male combatants and female civilians, and spatially dividing the sexes between the military and home fronts. The impact of militarization ‘ritually marks the gender of all members of a society’ in ideological, political, and economic terms, while simultaneously it reformulates the relationship between the individual and the state at a historical moment of crisis. In Australia during the Second World ,war, the distinction between the public and private spheres, and the actions of the individual as opposed to those of the citizen, were increasingly blurred by a state rhetoric of patriotism dictating, above all, loyalty to the nation. Such allegiance was enforced by the emergence of a ‘politics of remembrance’ which derived its power from the symbolic mobilization of national and gendered memories, and manipulated these in attempts to control the social and sexualized behaviours of men and women.
Women In Local Prisons 1850-1877
Authors: Zedner Lucia
Published: November 2023

The histories of penal reform examined in the previous chapter tend to focus on national ‘model’ institutions for men, failing to take account of the wider translation of theory into policies and practices in the mass of local prisons. However, during the second half of the nineteenth century around 98 per cent of women sentenced by the courts to custody were committed to local prisons. This chapter looks at local prisons after midcentury and up to their nationalization in 1877, and seeks to reveal the extent of their diversity and divergence from the theoretical model of reform. Local prisons were under the jurisdiction of local magistrates and managed by boards of Visiting Justices. Their regime, size, and standards of accommodation varied enormously according to local conditions, the attitudes of local magistracy, and the number and nature of the inmates.
The Age of Atonement
Authors: Hilton Boyd
Published: November 2023

This book examines the mentality of the upper and middle classes during the first half of the nineteenth century. It was an age obsessed by the idea of catastrophes; by wars, famines, pestilences, revolutions, floods, volcanoes, and - especially - the great commercial upheavals which periodically threatened to topple the world's first capitalist system. Thanks to the dominant evangelical ethos of the day, such sufferings seemed to be part of God's plan, and governments took a harsh attitude toward social underdogs, whether bankrupts or paupers, in order not to interfere with the dispensations of providence. Free Trade was adopted, not as the agent of growth it was later seen to be, but in order to restrain an economy which seemed to be racing out of control. In the 1850s and 1860s, however, a different attitude to social problems developed along with evolutionary approaches to the physical and animal worlds and a new understanding of God, who came to be regarded less as an Arnoldian headmaster and more like Santa Claus. At the centre of this ideology, and throwing light upon it, was a new way of understanding the Atonement.
Poverty and Passionate Flesh
Authors: Hilton Boyd
Published: November 2023

We have seen how Malthus’s Essay on Population impressed Dr James Currie of Liverpool. A bizarre anecdote in one of Currie’s letters to his son shows just how horribly Malthus could impact on sensitive minds, nurtured during the rationalist optimism of the Enlightenment. It concerns a man of liberal education, whose mind had been deranged by Utopian beliefs in ‘the improvement of the human race, and the perfectibility of man’, and who was referred to Currie for treatment.
Quakers and the University: The Aberdeen Debate of 1675
Authors: DesBrisay Gordon
Published: November 2023

On a Wednesday afternoon in April of 1675, ‘some hundreds’ of the ten thousand or so people living in and about Aberdeen left their work or their studies to attend a formal theological debate between three postgraduate divinity students from Marischal College and two local Quakers. Although early modern Scots had an unusually high tolerance for theological discourse, what attracted and held the crowd’s attention was not the content of the debate so much as the event itself—and I wish to maintain and extend that emphasis. Those in attendance that day witnessed a remarkable spectacle: a learned theological disputation in which rhetorical flourishes were punctuated by gunshots, and the air grew thick with stinging invective and flying manure. But the carnivalesque elements should not distract us from the genuine significance of the proceedings. The debate needs to be understood on at least three levels: as a local event that offers rare insights into the culture of early modern Aberdeen; as an important skirmish in a much wider Quaker campaign to redefine and redirect their movement; and as a reminder of the role played by the university in early modern society.
Conference Reports
Authors: Spatz Nancy
Published: November 2023

The Comite International du Vocabulaire des Institutions et de la Communication Intellectuelles au Moyen Age (CIVICIMA), under the guidance of Olga Weijers, has for some years organized a series of biennial conferences on aspects of the vocabulary of medieval education, scholarship, and the institutions that underpinned them. Previous events have dealt with ‘Terminologie de la vie intellectuelle’, ‘Vocabulaire du livre et de 1’ecriture’, and ‘Vocabulaire des ecoles et des methodes d’enseignement’. This fourth conference was the first to take as its scope a specific aspect of the institutional world, and for that matter one which was not primarily within the framework of intellectual history.
The Art of the Soluble: Science and Scientists at Durham*
Authors: Baker R A
Published: November 2023

The beginnings of the two periods with which this paper is concerned are almost one hundred years apart. Science teaching began at the University of Durham in 1833 and, although successful for a time, was followed by a long period of inactivity before being re-established in 1924. The College of Physical Science, later to be known as Armstrong College and part of the University of Durham, began at Newcastle in 1871. In the early nineteenth century, science, referred to as Natural Philosophy, was a discursive subject, individual, occasional, and largely of amateur status. There were few scientific journals, and very little science teaching in schools. In London, University College and King’s College, together with a number of other institutions which later formed the University of London, pioneered the teaching of science and engineering. University College was founded in 1826 and when it opened in 1828 had Professors of Chemistry, Physics, and Botany. King’s College, founded in 1829, opened in 1831 and also taught science from the beginning. The Royal College of Chemistry, one of the early forerunners of Imperial College, began teaching in 1845. At Oxford in the 1830s, attendance at chemistry and experimental philosophy lectures had declined and ‘Oxford was lost to science for a number of years’. At Cambridge, although a strong emphasis was placed on mathematical studies, the ‘Senior Wrangler being held in the very highest esteem’ , scientific studies were a neglected part of the curriculum. In Scotland, however, science was already well established and popular and the contribution of the Scottish universities at this time was of fundamental importance. Both Glasgow and Edinburgh trained several notable chemists in the early nineteenth century.
The Secrecy of Suicide
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

Henry of Le Dale’s suicide would have caused a momentary stir in his priory and village, a stir ending probably in an unmarked grave. I have addressed the question why anyone should wish to revive his memory, and that of others who died as he did. But another question follows, not why, but how, his memory can be revived. How can a historian set about rediscovering medieval people who killed themselves? It is always wise to start any journey of discovery by assessing obstacles. The obstacles here have in the past derived from one circumstance, the intrinsically elusive character of the suicidal act. The person who commits it usually wishes to hide while he does it. Those who discover it usually wish not to publicize it afterwards, and the subject as a whole has commonly been taboo. There are perfectly good reasons for all these inhibitions. But they make the historian’s task harder, not least, in our case, that preliminary part of the task that consists in showing that the obstacle obtains in our particular field. How do you set about proving that something was there, but that there was a conspiracy of silence about it? All kinds of historical fantasy would be possible if that were not proved first. This chapter will therefore address that question in respect of medieval suicide.
The Reticence of Chronicles
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

The lessons of the last chapter have their intrinsic value. They also have an external, practical consequence in shaping the following investigation, in two ways. On one hand they determine how the documents are best approached, since, if suicide really was innately secret, its faint documentary appearances must be read with that in mind. On the other, if suicide really was so private, its privacy will tend to atomize the history that emerges, and challenges the historian to gather it into intelligible form. Each consideration is important enough, at the outset, to deserve a word more of explanation.
Portraits from English Courts I
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

After chronicles, then, judicial records form a second potential tool for a historian’s necromancy, and it is time to start using it. The choice of English records as a point of departure is not just a question of starting from home. In approaching any subject it is usually best to start with a general view and focus on the detail later, and English judicial records allow us to do this. This is because of numbers. Nearly 400 cases of medieval suicide survive in English court records, far more than from the French or any other monarchy. Their ensemble offers, besides any snatched portraits of this or that individual iam morientis nondum viventis, a synoptic panorama of the fields in which suicide could occur.
Portraits from Courts in the Empire
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

The previous four chapters have rehearsed accounts of suicide culled from the judicial records of England and France. Reflecting the conditions that gave rise to them, the records of each monarchy cast their light in different configurations, the English excelling in quantity, the French, at their best, in vividness. There is no reason to think that the truth behind these records differed generically from one country to another, as the records do; rather the opposite. But it is enough now to recognize that, in examining the two groups of record, we are using two cameras, made by different craftsmen and on different principles, recording comparable scenery.
Man, Woman, and Child
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

Medieval chronicles only mentioned suicide, exceptional circumstances apart, in proportion as the chronicle lost its character, and took on that of two other types of historical source, respectively legal and religious. Legal sources formed the next category after chronicles to be combed for traces of suicide. It is now time to turn to the third. I called this one ‘religious’ sources, and it consists mainly of stories with a miraculous element. The reader can share Dante’s relief. As a rule, judicial records were about dead people, miraculous literature about living. Miracles told, in general; of people who had had grim experiences but had survived, and whose exploits were publicized so that others could be saved that way too. So stories with unhappy endings are now the exception. There are still a few, but death and disaster are not the focus of this literature. They form instead distinct zones round its edge, so that their victims, while serving as warnings, are denied the kind of psychological elaboration which, applied to the survivors, is the primary contribution of the genre. The next three chapters, but for that exception, will therefore be happier than the last, the waters still rough and with a few casualties, but the sea less cruel.
The Improbable Empire
Authors: Fernández-Armesto Felipe
Published: November 2023

The paradox of Spain recalls Dr Johnson’s dog, who surprises you so much by walking on hind legs that you do not expect him to do it well. Similarly, no one should expect a poor and naturally ill-endowed corner of the world to make a good job of conquering so much of the rest of it; nor of inaugurating, in the same period of dramatic expansion in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, an era at home of extraordinary artistic creativity and social peace, so lustrous that it has always been known, by almost universal acclaim, as ‘Spain’s Golden Age’.
Tokugawa Japan, 1600-1745
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

apan is a late-comer in the history of government. Its history as a state only really begins with the Taika reforms of AD 645. Even so, it is of but mited interest to the historian of government until 1600, theyear when the warlord Ieyasu Tokugawa defeated all his baronial rivals in the great Battle of Sekigahara. Up to that point Japan’s constitutional history had been a premature attempt at imperial centralization a la T’ang, followed by a progressive and cumulative morcelization of authority and power, an inter minable Wars of the Roses fought by armoured knights of rival houses: what Milton would have called the wars of the kites and the crows. The constitutional significance of the early Imperial (Nara and Heian) period is that it explains the nature of the subsequent feudal anarchy, which in turn is significant in that the Tokugawa Shogunate was (originally at any rate) little else but anarchy institutionalized.
The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, c.1566
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

(The year 1453, when the Turks took Constantinople, conventionally marks the close of medieval and the beginning of modern European history and, just as that date straddles the medieval and the modern, so did the institutions of the Ottoman Empire. The date is a reminder that this reached its peak a good century or more before Tokugawa Japan and Ch’ing China. As the last two chapters have indicated, the heyday of the Tokugawa regime lay c.1710 and that of Ch’ing China around, perhaps, 1750; but by either of these two dates the classical and highly effective institutions of the Ottoman Empire had disappeared, its central government had lost grip over its local officials, and its territorial expansion had not only been halted but turned back.
The Two Traditions: Absolute versus Parliamentary Monarchy
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

ome historians consider that the latter half of the seventeenth, rather than the sixteenth, century is the seedbed of the ‘modern state’. This is to confuse the generation of the state as such with the perfection of its forms. Since by now nearly all Europe’s states were monarchies-of the republics only the Netherlands and Venice were of much international significance-it is with the former that this chapter is concerned. By 1715 monarchy had bifurcated into two forms-unlimited or limited-which, in European parlance are called absolute and parliamentary monarchy. Nearly all were of the former kind. Of these France was regarded as the archetype. The second, the parliamentary category, included Poland and (for a time) Sweden, and a small number of the German states; but its archetype was England.
The Transplantation of the European State-Models, 1500-1715
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

background: Atlantic Europe had discovered a completely new and vast continent and by conquest and colonization was replicating itself there. Adam Smith exclaimed: The discovery of America and that of a passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, are the two freatest and most important events recorded in the history of mankind .. : As it stands, this statement is not true; alter it to refer to the history of government and it becomes so.
Risk, Threat, And Security Institutions
Authors: Wallander Celeste A , Keohane Robert 0.
Published: November 2023

The post-cold war world presents challenges for both policy and theory in international relations. One important challenge to international relations theory is the anomaly of NATO’s continuity after the cold war. Inspired by the Soviet threat, created under American leadership, designed to bolster the security of its members against the Soviet Union by aggregating defence capabilities, NATO ought to be either collapsing or withering away: dying with a bang or a whimper. Indeed, since the end of the cold war theorists working in the realist tradition have clearly and forcefully predicted NATO’s demise, if not in ‘days’ then in ‘years’.
Alliances As Instruments Of Intra-Allied Control
Authors: Gelpi Christopher
Published: November 2023

Although realist theories of international relations have frequently denied that international institutions have any independent influence on state behaviour, one set of security institutions that realist scholars have paid attention to is alliances.1 The theoretical core of this literature asserts that alliances form as a response to external threats or imbalances of power.2 That is, alliances are believed to influence the behaviour of states outside the alliance. This framework for understanding the causes and effects of alli ances has become known as the ‘capability aggregation model’. Institu tionalist theories, on the other hand, have tended to focus on the influence of institutions on the behaviour of the members themselves.3 As a result, institutionalists have often overlooked the most significant institutions which address security issues: alliances. To some extent this volume rep resents an effort to redress this imbalance.
Shaping the Nation
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

The Black Death, the Peasants' Revolt, the Hundred Years War, the War of the Roses... A succession of dramatic social and political events reshaped England in the period 1360 to 1461. In his lucid and penetrating account of this formative period, Gerald Harriss draws on the research of the last thirty years to illuminate late medieval society at its peak, from the triumphalism of Edward III in 1360 to the collapse of Lancastrian rule. The political narrative centres on the deposition of Richard II in 1399 and the establishment of the House of Lancaster, which was in turn overthrown in the Wars of the Roses. Abroad, Henry V's heroic victory at Agincourt in 1415 led to the English conquest of northern France, lasting until 1450. Both produced long term consequences: the first shaped the English constitution up to the Stuart civil war, while the second generated lasting hostility between England and France, and a residual wariness of military intervention in Europe. Equally significant changes occurred in English society. The Black Death produced a crisis in agrarian structures, marked by the Peasants' Revolt in 1381 and the end of serfdom. In landed society distinctive grades of knights, esquires and gentlemen emerged, linked to the nobility in a web of patronage and service, with an ethos of 'good lordship' and fidelity. While the nobility were the king's immediate counsellors, the gentry reflected the concerns of the community of the realm in parliament. An increasingly well-educated and articulate class, they served as MPs and JPs and staffed the growing legal profession. The greater merchants controlled the wool trade, the source of England's wealth, and distributed commodities through a network of towns and markets. The marked individualism of this society, memorably depicted in The Canterbury Tales, was accompanied by a growing sense of national identity, expressed in the use of standard London English. A spate of church building in perpendicular, a distinctive national style, was matched on the one hand by the intensity of Catholic devotion and on the other hand by the proto-Protestantism of John Wyclif and the Lollards. THE NEW OXFORD HISTORY OF ENGLAND The aim of the New Oxford History of England is to give an account of the development of the country over time. It is hard to treat that development as just the history which unfolds within the precise boundaries of England, and a mistake to suggest that this implies a neglect of the histories of the Scots, Irish, and Welsh. Yet the institutional core of the story which runs from Anglo-Saxon times to our own is the story of a state-structure built round the English monarchy and its effective successor, the Crown in Parliament. While the emphasis of individual volumes in the series will vary, the ultimate outcome is intended to be a set of standard and authoritative histories, embodying the scholarship of a generation.
The Gentry
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

The existence of medium and small landlords between the baronage and peasantry with distinctive economic, military, and social functions can be traced for at least two centuries prior to this period. But it was in the century following the Black Death that they acquired a role in the polity which they were to retain as long as land remained the basis of wealth and power. Moreover, within the broad category of middling landowners there emerged a graded hierarchy of status which substantially accorded with wealth and which entitled and obliged men to undertake military or magisterial functions. Title, wealth, and function conferred social esteem and bred a class with recognizable social and political attitudes, making the emergence of the ‘gentry’ arguably the most momentous development of this period; one which not only illuminates the economy, culture, and polity of late medieval England but distinguishes it from its continental neighbours.
Luigi LuzzattL 1876. The Centenary of the Publication of Adam Smith’s Work
Authors: Klemm Silvia
Published: November 2023

The societies of political economy of London, Paris, and Brussels have recently celebrated the centenary of the publication of the work by Adam Smith, recalling the attention of thinkers to meditate on the immortal volume. In the Middle Ages, the ideas of Aristotle were known through the commentary of Averroes, and when the scholars could read in the original manuscript the high philosophies of the Stagirite, a beam of new light penetrated into their intellects, which were obscured by the empty and arid entelechies, and the living word of the master freed them from the slavery of the commentators.
Aspect and Predication
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona
Published: November 2023

This book investigates the systematic correspondences between syntactic structure and semantic interpretation in the domain of predicate-argument relationships. It takes as its starting point the striking effects of nominal argument interpretation on aspectual semantics, pursuing the intuition that these effects are not quirky or exceptional, but are in fact the most visible reflexes of a more pervasive and systematic interaction between the aspectual event structure of a predicate and its arguments. The Scottish Gaelic language is the empirical base of the investigation, as it exhibits a set of predicational structures which interact in a highly visible way with its aspectual system. The book provides a detailed working out of a semantic system of argument classification which moves away from lexically-driven thematic roles in the traditional sense and towards a more constrained, syntactically motivated, set of primitives.
Introduction
Authors: Walker Donald E , Zampolli Antonio , Calzolari ,Nicoletta
Published: November 2023

This volume developed out of a Workshop entitled ‘Automating the Lexicon: Research and Practice in a Multilingual Environment’ that was held in Marina di Grosseto, Italy, 19-23 May 1986. The Workshop ‘was organized in response to a dramatic increase in interest in the lexicon during the early 1980s that was expressed by people and organizations representing a spectrum of activities across many dimensions. However, it is not appropriate to consider the contents as just another workshop proceedings. Instead, the papers have provided a baseline and a reference point for further research and development on problems associated with the lexicon. In addition, from the papers and the discussions a set of recommendations has emerged that has actually served to organize research in the field, further co-operation, and maximize the effectiveness of individual and group efforts.
Constructing Lexicon-Grammars
Authors: Gross Maurice
Published: November 2023

We present the state of construction of a lexicon-grammar of French, and, at the same time, principles applicable to other languages. The system which has been constructed can be considered as a specific linguistic theory systematically applied to a linguistic material that has a significant coverage.

The theory of lexicon-grammar is founded on the following axiom: The linguistic unit of meaning is the elementary sentence.
A Methodology for the Construction of a Terminology Dictionary
Authors: Nagao Makoto
Published: November 2023

Dictionaries and encyclopedias represent rich sources of knowledge. The dictionary records the meanings and usages of the words of the language; the encyclopedia describes the varieties of concepts and objects in the real world. Thus, dictionary and encyclopedia together may be thought of as condensed stores of knowledge that humankind has accumulated throughout its history. However, the problem is to make accessible this vast body of knowledge, to devise appropriate methods of retrieval so that this rich resource may be exploited to the full. Access to the information in today’s print dictionaries is available only via the alphabetical list of entry words, so that, for instance, a person wishing to discover which biblical quotations exist within the text of a given dictionary cannot immediately call up this data, because of the constraints of the printed book. It is of course a simple task when the dictionary text is structured and available in electronic form.
F
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

The general term is die Tatsache. Das Faktum or der/das Fakt are exact, but more learned, syns.Wir milssen den Tatsachen ins Auge sehen, face up to the facts. Die Tatsache bleibt bestehen, the fact remains. Das ist ein interessantes Faktum. Diese Erscheinung (phenomenon) ist ein unbestrittener historischer/naturwissenschaftlicher Fakt.
H
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

Habit refers to someone’s customary manner of acting. In reference to individuals custom also denotes a settled practice or long established way of behaving. It was Tony’s custom to get up early and go for a walk before breakfast. Custom is neutral or pos., whereas habit often implies that the practice is hard to give up, and it alone is used with bad .
Alternations i/e and u/o in South Dravidian
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

With the help of the work so far done in comparative Dravidian studies, it is possible to reconstruct the following phonemes for Proto-Dravidian: Since all short vowels contrast with long vowels, we set up a phoneme of length, marked .All consonants except those of the alveolar and the retroflex series occur initially, and every consonant except *fl occurs finally in a word. A non-morphemic (the so-called enunciative) /u/ occurs regularly after a final stop and optionally after a final sonorant (any consonant that is not a stop).
Dravidian Nasals in Brahui
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

Of these, the identification of Group 5 Br. dīr vs. other languages nīr first occurs in Caldwell (1913: 634), and that of Groups 1, 4, 5, and 6 occurs in the etymological comments on Brahui vocabulary given by Bray himself (1934, v.s.vv.).
Regularity of Sound Change through Lexical Diffusion: A Study of s > h > Ø in Gondi Dialects
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

Gondi is a Dravidian language spoken by 2.2 million speakers (Census of India, 1981) in the mountains and forests of four adjacent states in central India. Gondi is a chain of several dialects, some of which, at distant points, are perhaps not mutually intelligible.
The Principies-and-Parameters Approach: A Comparative Syntax of English and Japanese
Authors: Fukui Naoki
Published: November 2023

Since around 1960, constant efforts have been made in the theory of generative grammar to factor out certain general principles that govern rule application in the grammars of particular languages, attributing them to the initial state of the language faculty, i.e. Universal Grammar (UG), thereby allowing the rules of the language to remain in the simplest form. The extracted general principles gradually eliminated the need for rules of particular languages entirely, deducing the effects of the apparent rules in the sense that the interaction of these invariant principles yields the phenomena of particular languages which the rules were constructed to describe. Around 1980, work along these lines converged to form a conception of the nature of language called the 'principles-and-parameters' theory in which the biologically determined mental organ UG is conceived as the set of principles each of which is associated with an open parameter whose value is to be set by experience (cf. Chomsky 1981a, b).
Orientation
Authors: Dixon R M W
Published: November 2023

This book provides a fresh look at parts of the grammar of English. It pays particular attention to meaning, considering the different sorts of meanings words have, and showing how the varying grammatical behaviours of words are a consequence of their meaning differences.

My ‘meaning orientation’ stance is a little novel. In addition, some of the topics discussed here (especially in Chapters IO and II) are scarcely mentioned in regular grammars of English. It could be said that the present book takes off from the point where most other grammars end.
Secondary verb types
Authors: Dixon R M W
Published: November 2023

None of the Secondary-A verbs have any independent semantic roles. Basically, they modify the meaning of a following verb, sharing its roles and syntactic relations.

Many tens of thousands of words have been written about the English modals. Only some of the main points of their grammatical and semantic behaviour are indicated here.
What sells slowly, but wears well?
Authors: Dixon R M W
Published: November 2023

We have said, several times, that the semantic role which is most likely to be relevant for the success of an activity is placed in syntactic subject relation; this is Mary in Mary sells sports cars, Mary cut the veal with the new knife, Mary poured the custard (onto the pie) with the new jug. If an adverb like quickly, easily, properly or well is added to these sentences it will be taken to describe the way in which the subject performed the activity—Mary certainly sells sports cars quickly, Mary cut the veal easily with the new knife, Mary didn’t pour the custard properly (onto the pie) with the new jug (but spilt some on the cloth).
She gave him a look, they both had a laugh and then took a stroll.
Authors: Dixon R M W
Published: November 2023

Parallel to Mary walked in the garden we can say Mary had a walk in the garden. Here the verb have substitutes for walk, and takes tense inflection. The original verb base walk now functions as head of an NP which follows have, with the singular indefinite article a. The locational phrase in the garden is carried over unaltered. These two sentences, Mary walked in the garden and Mary had a walk in the garden, have a similar meaning; there is, however, a definite and predictable semantic difference, which we discuss in §II.3.
Relabelling
Authors: Whitman John
Published: November 2023

Minimalist approaches to diachronic syntax have focused primarily on phenomena that can be accounted for in terms of changes in feature strength, such as innovation or loss of verb movement. Roberts (1997) shows how the same basic approach extends to changes in phrasal constituent order (concretely, the shift from OV to VO order in English) within the antisymmetry framework of Kayne (1994), where head-final constituent order across languages is transformationally derived. A transformational account of word-order variation across languages as well as within languages makes it possible to account for a large portion of the phenomena that have traditionally attracted the attention of historical syntacticians in terms of a single mechanism: presence or absence of a feature forcing a particular movement operation.
Policewomen in the USA
Authors: Heidensohn Frances
Published: November 2023

In the introduction to the last chapter I outlined some of the aspects of the research which I undertook in the USA. The main difference there was that it was possible to have both group interviews/discussion and individual ones. As some of the dialogue I quote later shows, the women were often particularly effective in interviewing each other. Sometimes they disagreed. More importantly, they both developed ideas and themes and, especially, encouraged each other. I have published a report on my survey of Equal Opportunities in the USA which highlighted a key feature of US as compared with British policing: optimism. Almost everywhere I went, there was a great deal of confidence about women’s role in policing (Heidensohn 1989b). This was true even where figures of recruitment were fairly modest, as in New York City Police Department where the proportion of female sworn personnel is similar to that in London, but with fewer in senior positions.
The Logic of the Law
Authors: Lobban Michael
Published: November 2023

The Commentaries were widely praised as the first systematic view of English law. However, when lawyers praised the work, they admired it more as an introduction to the law for students and gentlemen than as a complete and accurate statement of the law. The Commentaries were indeed widely perceived as being ‘one of the best books for the student to take for his foundation’, and for that reason, Blackstone’s method was lauded: but professionals were less convjnced by the work’s status as a guide for lawyers. In a sense, what made the Commentaries attractive to the gentlemanly reader made them unattractive to the profession. For what was important in law to the generation of lawyers after Blackstone looking at his work were those very particularistic parts of the common law which Blackstone had found to undermine his natural law deductivism. Practitioners ignored or rejected the notion that the law was a set of rational rules which could be set out in a systematic way from the law of nature.
Introduction
Authors: Ando Nisuke
Published: November 2023

The theme of the present book is an evaluation, from the standpoint of international law, of some of the Allied, particularly the US, treatment of Japanese private property during the occupation of Japan subsequent to the cessation of the hostilities of the Second World War. The expression ‘the US treatment’ is preferred, because the Allied occupation of Japan was, in substance, a US undertaking. During the nearly seven years of occupation, the USA, as the occupant, took various occupation measures, mainly for the purpose of demilitarizing and democratizing the political, economic, and social system of the defeated state; and some of these measures caused extensive damage to the private property of a number of Japanese. To what extent a military occupant of enemy territory may interfere with the private property of the enemy civilians therein is a long standing problem in international law, and the present book is a contribution to the study of this general problem.
The Disappointment-Preventing Principle and Substantive Justice
Authors: Kelly P J
Published: November 2023

In two recent revisionary accounts of Bentham’s political morality it has been acknowledged that he used the ‘disappointment-preventing principle’ as a principle of distributive justice. The view that this principle provides all that Bentham intended by a theory of justice is supported in the following passage where he wrote:

Civil more expressively termed distributive justice assumes and makes reference to the distribution made or proposed to be made of the several external objects of value, the several objects of general desire, the several objects corresponding to the several quarters in which as above security is capable of being wounded.
The Determination of the Money of Account (continuation): Subsequent Uncertainty
Authors: Mann F A
Published: November 2023

THE money of account, though originally clearly defined, may during the life of a legal relationship become uncertain.

This happens where a new monetary system emerges, usually as the result of changes of territorial sovereignty, and it therefore becomes doubtful whether the money of account of a particular obligation remains the same or is changed into the money of account of the successor State. Thus after the cession or annexation of territories the new sovereign introduces a new currency, but money issued by the former sovereign circulates and suddenly becomes foreign money; similarly, debts or sums provided for in statutes {such as fines or dues) are expressed in terms of the former sovereign’s currency.
The Institution of Legal Proceedings and its Effect upon Foreign Money Obligations
Authors: Mann F A
Published: November 2023

PURSUING the rough scheme which has been adopted· for the logical development of the law Of foreign money obligations, we find that after determining the money of account, i.e. the substance and thereafter the quantum of the obligation, and the money of payment (fixing the mode of payment), there must now follow a discussion of the question whether and how, if payment must be enforced by action, legal proceedings affect the structure of foreign money obligations.
Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas
Authors: Gordley James
Published: November 2023

Greek philosophy and Roman law contributed in different ways to the synthesis the late scholastics achieved in the sixteenth century. Roman law provided a wealth of legal detail and also gave the late scholastics an agenda. They wished to solve the problems the Romans addressed by applying larger philosophical ideas. They took the ideas themselves, however, from the philosophy of Aristotle as it had been interpreted by Thomas Aquinas.
The Nineteenth-Century Reformulation
Authors: Gordley James
Published: November 2023

When the authority of Aristotle collapsed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the law of contract lost its philosophical foundations. Nevertheless, as we have seen, for a long time doctrine changed very little. Systematic and general reformulation did not come until the nineteenth century, when the Aristotelian origins of contract doctrine were long forgotten and Aristotelian philosophy itself was barely intelligible.
Asia
Authors: Muntarbhorn Vitit
Published: November 2023

As I A is a region of vast proportions and marked contrasts. It is the largest continent on the globe, with some two-thirds of the world’s population. Its multitude of races, languages, and cultures indicates the difficulties of attempting generalizations. Its heterogeneity militates against the search for a comprehensive approach towards the refugee problem within the region. Little is known of the magnitude of migrations in Asia before the nineteenth century, especially as statistical record-keeping is a recent innovation in the area. In terms of massive flows of people, in the nineteenth century there was continuous migration of several million Chinese to various parts of South-East Asia.2 Several million Indians emigrated to areas now known as Burma, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia, as ec.onomic migrants.3 Before the Second World War there was also an exodus of Indians to East Africa, South Africa, and the West Indies-’the New World’-in search of employment. However, as recipient countries became more restrictive towards immigration, migration declined.
Indonesia
Authors: Muntarbhorn Vitit
Published: November 2023

Indonesia, a former Dutch colony, became independent in 1949. In 1990 the population was approximately 150 million. Because of the geographical features of the country-hundreds of islands, huge expanse of waters, and ethnic groups-state policy is based upon certain principles known as ‘Pancasila’: belief in one God; just and civilized humanity; unity of Indonesia; sovereignty of the people led by the wisdom of deliberations among representatives; and social justice for the people of Indonesia.1 ‘Pancasila’ posits a liberal attitude towards the ethnic groups living in the country, while guaranteeing state cohesion. Complementary to this, the oft¬ used term ‘unity in diversity’ explains the state structure of centralized government and ethnic diversity.2 The policy adopted towards refugees is founded partly upon ‘Pancasila’, in particular the principle of ‘just and civilized humanity’. However, the application of state policy is not without difficulties.
Methods of Settlement of Disputes: The Basic Framework
Authors: Collier John , Lowe Vaughan
Published: November 2023

One of the purposes of the United Nations, set out in article 1(1) of the Charter is ‘to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace’. Among the principles in accordance with which the Organization and its members are to act in pursuit of such purpose are that all members are to ‘refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations’ (article 2(4)), and that they ‘shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered’ (article 2(3)).
V
Authors: Toth A G
Published: November 2023

An agreement made between parties operating, at least for the purposes of the agreement, at different levels in the supply chain. Examples are distribution agreements, for example between producer and wholesaler, or wholesaler and retailer, or supply agreements, between the producer of a raw material or component and a manufacturer who purchases it for incorporation into his product. Intellectual and industrial property licences are also vertical agreements. Competition law treats most vertical agreements more generously than horizontal agreements, because economic theory predicts that restrictions agreed between non-competing firms will frequently be pro-competitive or neutral, whereas horizontal agreements, made between competing firms, are more likely to be damaging to competition. Like all agreements, a vertical agreement only infringes Art. 81 EC if it has an appreciable effect on trade between Member States (see further under Agreement of minor importance, Effect on trade between Member States) and restricts competition (see further under Restriction of competition). If it includes fixed or minimum resale prices or an absolute export ban (‘hard core’ restrictions), it will almost certainly be unenforceable and may attract fines. In the absence of hard core restrictions, and if the relevant market share does not exceed 30%, automatic exemption may be available (see further under Block exemption). Where the market share is over 30% its legality depends on the nature of the restrictive clauses it contains and their effects on the relevant market, and it can benefit from exemption only if the restrictions in the agreement can be justified in terms of economic efficiency (see further under Exemption).
Strategic Information Systems: Some Organization Design Considerations
Authors: Ives Blake , Vitale Michael
Published: November 2023

Strategic information systems (SIS) is one in a string of miracle cures offered up by the information systems community to an increasingly wary audience of senior managers and directors. SIS is one of the alphabetic elixirs of information technology alongside DBMS, DSS, EIS, and AL Unlike the others, which focused primarily on internal efficiency, the SIS cure is usually targeted specifically at a firm’s products, customers, distribution channels, or suppliers. Information technology (IT), we were told in 1984, can be used to erect barriers to entry, lock in customers and suppliers, produce new products and new distribution channels, and in some cases, restructure an industry (McFarlan 1984). Some SIS success stories (American Airlines, Merrill Lynch, and American Hospital Supply) became well known and frequently told, occasionally in versions that include ‘benefits’ that have not always been carefully documented. After a period of initial euphoria, practitioners and academicians alike then began to question the validity of the SIS concept.