bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Seymour Mark
Published: May 2020

Opening with an instruction issued just days after the Fadda trial by Italy’s Minister of Justice about ‘emotional management’ of legal spaces, the book’s conclusion reinforces the notion of courts of law as emergent emotional arenas in Liberal Italy. Although the court is the most concrete of emotional arenas to be explored by this book, the conclusion returns to the ways in which documents brought together by the prosecution’s investigation provided the historiographical means to extend the notion outward to less exceptional elements of life, love, and death in 1870s Italy. These rich sources not only shone light on unfamiliar aspects of Italian social history, they illuminated historical processes of emotional encounter, negotiation, navigation, experiment, management, and evolution, within a range of distinctive social spaces, mostly real, but some imagined or virtual. A brief epilogue summarizes what is known of the fates of the three accused in the trial for Giovanni Fadda’s murder.
Introduction
Authors: Colón-Ríos Joel
Published: May 2020

This chapter introduces the topic of the book. It provides some initial examples of the roles constituent power has played in justifying or limiting political action. It also examines the two main ways in which constituent power has been understood by constitutional theorists: as an extra-legal constitution-making force that always escapes constitutionalization (i.e. original constituent power), and as a substantively unlimited constitution-making authority (i.e. derived constituent power) that can be expressed through a constitution’s amendment rule. It then summarizes the content of each of the subsequent chapters.
The Juridical People
Authors: Colón-Ríos Joel
Published: May 2020

This chapter argues that to the extent that a constituent assembly is not a sovereignty entity but a means for the exercise of constituent power, it can be subject to substantive limits arising from a constituent mandate. Part I of the chapter examines the place of the imperative mandate in contemporary constitutional change. Part II analyses the extent to which ‘the people’, understood as a juridical entity, could be said to engage in constituent action through an electoral exercise. It examines whether, during an episode of constitutional change, the electorate necessarily acts as a state organ (a view exemplified in the work of a number of constitutional theories as well as in some judicial decisions). In answering that question in the negative, the chapter develops a distinction between constitutional and constituent referendums. Part III explores the process that led to the convocation of the Venezuelan Constituent Assembly of 1999. In that process, the court recognized the electorate’s right to convene an extraordinary constitution-making body through a referendum that took place outside of the established amendment rule. However, the constituent mandate contained in the referendum’s question was transgressed by the assembly, which assumed sovereign authority. The courts, relying on the theory of constituent power, later sanctioned that transgression.
Introduction
Authors: deGuzman Margaret M.
Published: May 2020

This book examines the role that the concept of gravity plays in determining the legitimacy of international criminal law. The Introduction sets forth the book’s central arguments that: (1) the international criminal law regime relies heavily on the concept of gravity to justify its existence and many of its decisions; (2) the concept is undertheorized and ambiguous; (3) the regime’s reliance on the concept undermines its legitimacy; (4) gravity should be reconceptualized as a function of the regime’s values and goals; and (5) the regime’s focus should be on global community values and goals, rather than on those of the national communities most directly affected by the crimes it addresses.
Introduction
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe
Published: May 2020

Chapter 1 introduces various essential ideas on second-order phase transitions and the theoretical challenges that accompany them. Furthermore, it focuses on important issues, for example, correlation length, correlation functions, scaling laws and behaviour, energy minimization, entropy maximization, dimensionality of space and order parameters and critical exponents, etc. It introduces and also devotes a short discussion to the Ising model and its most significant developments during the years of its study, as well as a short background about Ising himself. The chapter also contains two appendices that summarize all relevant results of ensembles of classical statistical mechanics and quantum statistical mechanics.
One-dimensional Systems
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe
Published: May 2020

Chapter 2 discusses one-dimensional statistical models, for example, the Ising model and its generalizations (Potts model, systems with O(n) or Zn-symmetry, etc.). It discusses several methods of solution and covers the recursive method, the transfer matrix approach, and series expansion techniques. General properties of these methods, which are valid on higher-dimensional lattices, are also covered. The contents of this chapter are quite simple and pedagogical but extremely useful for understanding the following sections of the book. One of the appendices at the end of the chapter is devoted to a famous problem of topology, i.e. the four-colour problem, and its relation with the two-dimensional Potts model.
Transfer Matrix of the Two-dimensional Ising Model
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe
Published: May 2020

This chapter deals with the exact solution of the two-dimensional Ising model as it is achieved through the transfer matrix formalism. It discusses the crucial role played by the commutative properties of the transfer matrices, which lead to a functional equation for their eigenvalues. The exact free energy of the Ising model and its critical point can be identified by means of the lowest eigenvalue. The chapter covers Baxter's approach, the Yang–Baxter equation and its relation to the Boltzmann weights, the R-matrix, and discusses activity away from the critical point, the six-vertex model, as well as functional equations and symmetries.
Quantum Field Theory
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe
Published: May 2020

Chapter 7 covers the main reasons for adopting the methods of quantum field theory (QFT) to study the critical phenomena. It presents both the canonical quantization and the path integral formulation of the field theories as well as the analysis of the perturbation theory. The chapter also covers transfer matrix formalism and the Euclidean aspects of QFT, the field theory of the Ising model, Feynman diagrams, correlation functions in coordinate space, the Minkowski space and the Legendre transformation and vertex functions. Everything in this chapter will be needed sooner or later, since it highlights most of the relevant aspects of quantum field theory.
Symbolic Management beyond the Firm Level
Authors: Westphal James , Park Sun Hyun
Published: May 2020

We describe forms of symbolic management that cross organizational boundaries, including symbolic management by firm leaders about the leadership, strategy, and governance of particular other firms, and symbolic management by and for larger groups of leaders and their firms. We suggest how such “symbolic management support” not only has a significant impact on how constituents evaluate particular firms and their leaders, but over an extended period of time it has had a deeper influence on the normative assumptions of journalists and analysts about leadership and governance, contributing to a historical shift in the institutional logics of governance. Finally, we reveal how firm leaders have engaged in symbolic management about the social structure of corporate leadership elite as a community and how these communications have contributed to a growing decoupling between the social structure of corporate leadership as it appears to constituents, and the actual social networks of firm leaders.
Social Network Ties and Symbolic Management
Authors: Westphal James , Park Sun Hyun
Published: May 2020

In this chapter we examine social network ties among firm leaders as a key determinant of symbolic management. After reviewing extant theory about the role of board interlock ties in symbolic management, we explain how other kinds of ties between firm leaders facilitate various forms of symbolic action and decoupling, including (1) director ties between informal groups of firm leaders, (2) social exchange ties between leaders, (3) personal friendship ties between leaders, and (4) mutual ties to management consultants. In suggesting how network ties facilitate decoupling, we also reveal a separation between appearances and reality with respect to the social structure of corporate leadership, wherein corporate stakeholders tend to underestimate the prevalence of social connections among firm leaders, and the resulting frequency of leader communication, cooperation, and collusion.
Social Influence Processes in Leader–Stakeholder Relations
Authors: Westphal James , Park Sun Hyun
Published: May 2020

In this chapter we describe common social influence processes in relations between firm leaders and external stakeholders, with particular attention to ingratiation, favor rendering, and negative reciprocity, which our research suggests are the most impactful micro-level influence processes in leader–constituent relations. We contend that the inconspicuous nature of these processes complements the more public forms of symbolic action described in Part I. They maintain the appearance of objective evaluation and control by financial market actors, while protecting managerial discretion over firm strategy and governance, thus supporting the ceremonial inspection and evaluation that makes symbolic decoupling possible, and preserving the dominance of corporate elites.
The Social Psychological Dynamics of Symbolic Management
Authors: Westphal James , Park Sun Hyun
Published: May 2020

While previous chapters described dyad-level and group-level behavioral processes of symbolic management, in this chapter we examine processes of symbolic management at a more micro-level of analysis. We describe a kind of self-regulated cognition in which managers and directors reflect on personal and social characteristics held in common with colleagues, and avoid thoughts about attributes not shared, prior to interaction. We explain how such cognitions increase the efficiency and efficacy of social influence behavior toward powerful colleagues within the firm, security analysts, and powerful institutional investors. We further describe how managers engage in self-regulated cognition about firm strategy and governance prior to social influence opportunities with security analysts and institutional investors, and how such cognitions enhance the efficacy of impression management. We also reveal important side benefits of self-regulated cognition, including reduced symptoms of burnout in top executives, and reduced interpersonal conflict in diverse top management teams.
Niuean
Authors: Massam Diane
Published: May 2020

This book presents a detailed descriptive and theoretical examination of predicate-argument structure in Niuean, a Polynesian language within the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian family, spoken mainly on the Pacific island of Niue and in New Zealand. Niuean has VSO word order and an ergative case-marking system, both of which raise questions for a subject-predicate view of sentence structure. Working within a broadly Minimalist framework, this volume develops an analysis in which syntactic arguments are not merged locally to their thematic sources, but instead are merged high, above an inverted extended predicate which serves syntactically as the Niuean verb, later undergoing movement into the left periphery of the clause. The thematically lowest argument merges as an absolutive inner subject, with higher arguments merging as applicatives. The proposal relates Niuean word order and ergativity to its isolating morphology, by equating the absence of inflection with the absence of IP in Niuean, which impacts many aspects of its grammar. As well as developing a novel analysis of clause and argument structure, word order, ergative case, and theta role assignment, the volume argues for an expanded understanding of subjecthood. Throughout the volume, many other topics are also treated, such as noun incorporation, word formation, the parallel internal structure of predicates and arguments, null arguments, displacement typology, the role of determiners, and the structure of the left periphery.
The arguments
Authors: Massam Diane
Published: May 2020

This chapter argues for high argument merge (HiAM), whereby all arguments are merged above the complex predicate, associated with their theta-sources within the predicate by means of a composed theta-grid at the level of vP. The lowest referential thematic argument merges in specifier of PredP, which derives ergativity. PredP can be selected by one or two applicative heads, saturating an agent and an instrument role. Theta roles introduced within the predicate can be referential or non-referential. Referential roles must be saturated by a syntactic argument, but non-referential roles remain in vP and are satisfied through an operation of restrict, which explains noun incorporation, the distribution of null and overt arguments, and fluctuations in case-marking. All types of arguments in Niuean are discussed, including internal, external, applicative, middle, indirect, and sentential arguments. The chapter concludes with a discussion of argument sharing, and raising, arguing for an ECM analysis.
Remunerated Exceptions
Authors: Karapapa Stavroula
Published: May 2020

Under EU copyright, certain permitted uses are subject to the requirement that the rightsholders shall be fairly compensated. These ‘permitted-but-paid’ uses include private copying, reprography, and the reproduction of broadcasts that are made by social institutions pursuing non-commercial purposes. A number of questions arise with regard to the concept of fair compensation as a condition for the application of said exceptions, some of which have been discussed in the Court of Justice. Still, uncertainty remains regarding the way in which the requirement of fair compensation has been implemented by the various Member States, the notoriously vague and variably interpreted concept of harm on which fair compensation is premised, and the impact of compensation on the legal nature of uses. This has an impact on how the relevant remunerated exceptions are understood in terms of their legal nature: are they statutory licenses, legitimate entitlements of the rightsholders to compensation, or fully fledged rights of the users who have actually paid for their entitlement to a specific permitted use? Answers to questions like this one are becoming more pressing in the online context where the concept of harm could take unprecedented dimensions, especially with regard to private copying.
External Defences
Authors: Karapapa Stavroula
Published: May 2020

Some defences are available on grounds that are extraneous to copyright and are based either on other bodies of law, such as competition law or e-commerce protection, or on general legal principles. These include, for instance, defences available to Internet service providers for infringements carried out by their users, including defences for hosting, caching, and ‘mere conduit’. Others are available on the grounds of competition law, such as refusal to license or abuse of dominant position, which could have a legal basis of application—inter alia—in certain mass digital activities of online services. Other available defences fall under general legal principles that can be invoked in cases where copyright exceptions do not cover an activity for which there is a principle-based justification for the particular conduct. Such a justification could be the public interest or the doctrine of the ‘abuse of right’. There are also a number of uses that can be permitted on grounds of benign infringement on the basis of the ‘innocuous use’ doctrine. Unlike other defences to copyright, these defensive rules represent instances where copyright may be subject to limitations as a result of its encounter with other legal orders. Such instances have either not been institutionalized within copyright law, such as speech entitlements or public policy privileges, or may have been partially included within it while offering principle-based explanations for acts of copyright infringement on the basis of legal grounds found in other areas of law or broader legal principles. These defences are an essential component to the understanding of the scope of permissible copyright use on the Internet as they can be extremely relevant in cases which involve online services and business models, such as hosting services, and online content use more broadly.
Nomic Essentialism
Authors: Sider Theodore
Published: May 2020

According to nomic (or causal, or dispositional) essentialists, the identity of a property is tied up with its nomic role, the role it plays in the laws of nature. Modally speaking this is straightforward: a property could not have obeyed different laws. But postmodally it is unclear what it means, since it is hard to see how to state the fundamental facts without mentioning particular properties. Various ideas are considered and criticized, such as that facts about property instantiations, or property existence, or property identity, are grounded in facts about laws; and that the laws are essential to properties. The latter, it is argued, is insufficiently metaphysically specific to count as an improvement on the modal formulation.
Freedom as Productivity in Schelling’s Philosophy of Nature
Authors: Fisher Naomi
Published: May 2020

In his works on the philosophy of nature, Schelling often attributes freedom not just to human beings, but also to nature and to organisms. I give an account of Schelling’s notion of productivity as unifying these attributions of freedom, and I explain how freedom as productivity differs in human beings, organisms, and nature as a whole. Human beings are consciously productive; organisms and nature are unconsciously productive. The unconscious productivity of non-human organisms is in harmony with the lawfulness of nature as a whole, while human freedom conflicts with nature’s lawful kind of freedom. However, since Schelling regards human freedom as building upon natural freedom, human beings can, through certain activities, experience a repose from this conflict between our freedom and the laws of nature.
The Personal, Evil, and the Possibility of Philosophy in Schelling’s Freiheitsschrift
Authors: Velkley Richard
Published: May 2020

Schelling’s Philosophical Investigations into the Essence of Human Freedom (Freiheitsschrift) is a reflection on the essence of the personal and its intrinsic connection to the possibility of philosophy, with which it establishes “the first clear concept of personality”. In accord with the idea of personality the essay stresses the dialogic mode of inquiry which it opposes to the will to system. The latter, as the will to an absolute ground independent of the personal, reveals itself as unable to account for the dialogic movement of thought that is without end, as thinking never fully captures itself in concepts. This reflection frames the essay’s account of God or the One, whose original self-diremption as a personal being (whereby it grounds evil) assures the permanence of dialogic philosophizing.
Losing Sight of the Forest for the ψ‎
Authors: Bokulich Alisa
Published: May 2020

Traditionally \1 is used to stand for both the mathematical wavefunction (the representation) and the quantum state (thing in the world). This elision has been elevated to a metaphysical thesis by advocates of wavefunction realism. The aim of Chapter 10 is to challenge the hegemony of the wavefunction by calling attention to a littleknown formulation of quantum theory that does not make use of the wavefunction in representing the quantum state. This approach, called Lagrangian quantum hydrodynamics (LQH), is a full alternative formulation, not an approximation scheme. A consideration of alternative formalisms is essential for any realist project that attempts to read the ontology of a theory off the mathematical formalism. The chapter shows that LQH falsifies the claim that one must represent the many-body quantum state as living in 3n-dimensional configuration space. When exploring quantum realism, regaining sight of the proverbial forest of quantum representations beyond the \1 is just the beginning.
Completing Clock B
Authors: Frodsham & Co. Charles
Published: May 2020

Charles Frodsham & Co. completed the work on Clock B that finalised its aesthetic and enabled it to run effectively in a sealed case with minimal human interaction for very long periods. This chapter documents their work on the clock and discusses their choices for implementing modern materials, such as Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) as bushing for gold pivots in the grasshopper escapement. It presents the reasoning for changing Burgess’s original method of driving the clock, which is found on Clock A (also known as the Gurney Clock). Instead of using a weight on a Huygens endless chain with motorised rewind, the team elected to use an unobtrusive weighted arm with electrical rewind to drive the clock.
Disease can shape marine ecosystems
Authors: Morton Joseph P. , Silliman Brian R. , Lafferty Kevin D.
Published: May 2020

This chapter reviews how marine ecosystems respond to parasites. Evidence from several marine ecosystems shows that parasites can wield control over ecosystem structure, function, and dynamics by regulating host density and phenotype. Like predators, parasites can generate or modify trophic cascades, regulate important foundational species and ecosystem engineers, and mediate species coexistence by affecting competitive outcomes. Sometimes the parasites have clear positive impacts within ecosystems, such as increasing species diversity or maintaining ecosystem stability. Other times, parasites may have destabilizing effects that signal an ecosystem out of balance. But it is now clear that some (but not all) parasites can have strong and, at times, predictable effects, and should thus be incorporated into food web and ecosystem models
Invasions can drive marine disease dynamics
Authors: Lohan Katrina M. Pagenkopp , Ruiz Gregory M. , Torchin Mark E.
Published: May 2020

Over half the world’s human population lives near the coast, with diverse impacts on the structure and function of coastal ecosystems, including the introduction of parasites that result from shipborne trade, aquaculture, and other human-aided dispersal. The scale of these activities has accelerated through time, expanding the potential for new introductions and subsequent impacts in coastal systems. However, the extent, dynamics, and impacts of marine parasite invasions are relatively unexplored compared to free-living organisms. This chapter (1) advances a framework to consider which parasites are most likely to invade, specifically considering diverse life-history traits, (2) reviews the current baseline knowledge for transfer mechanisms and the history of marine invasions, and (3) considers the ecological and evolutionary implications of parasite invasion. While recent advances have aided our understanding of the intersection of disease and invasion ecology, a closer look at the smallest disease-causing organisms will open new avenues for understanding the full scope of parasite invasions and their role in emerging diseases.
Disease in fisheries and aquaculture
Authors: Behringer Donald C. , Wood Chelsea L. , Krkošek Martin , Bushek David
Published: May 2020

Infectious marine diseases have profound impacts on fisheries and aquaculture through their effects on growth, fecundity, mortality, and marketability. Economic losses have motivated research to minimize the negative impacts of disease on these industries. However, this relationship is reciprocal, as fishing and aquaculture can shape disease transmission. The effects of fisheries and aquaculture on disease are scale dependent, with different outcomes at the population, metapopulation, community, and ecosystem levels. Management approaches are limited in fisheries, and intense in aquaculture, sometimes with undesirable impacts on wild species. Management needs can be particularly intense in hatcheries, where stocks are sensitive and kept at high densities. Increased interest in microbiome–disease interactions are opening up new opportunities to manage marine diseases in aquaculture. Solutions for marine diseases in fisheries and aquaculture may ultimately improve human health by reducing exposure to pathogens and increasing nutrient quality, but could negatively impact human health through exposure to antibiotics and other chemicals used to treat parasites.
Responsibilities
Authors: Lavan Rosie
Published: May 2020

Rooted in the poetry and prose of the late 1980s and early 1990s, and drawing heavily on unpublished material, this final chapter, Chapter 5, finds Seamus Heaney in another university setting, this time in Oxford. Taking its cue from Heaney’s own interest, in The Redress of Poetry, in the question of responsibility, it examines the complex intersections of the imagination with the challenges of contemporary society and the burden of history. It brings Heaney into dialogue with figures as diverse as Coleridge, Conor Cruise O’Brien, and Raymond Williams, and it charts the development of two key poems, ‘The Diviner’ and ‘Markings’, in order to illuminate his various expressions of the fraught but necessary interactions between the private artist and their social world.
Self-making and Nonbodiliness
Authors: Coope Ursula
Published: May 2020

This chapter explains (i) the possibility of strict self-causing, (ii) the claim that what makes itself (or moves itself) must be nonbodily, (iii) the connection between self-causing and self-intellection. For the Neoplatonists, something that makes itself must do so by unifying itself. But how could anything explain its own unity? A self-unifier would need both to be a source of unity (for itself) and also to be such as to stand in need of being unified (by itself). But it might seem that these two properties are incompatible. In response, Proclus argues that an entity that unifies itself must make itself at once both unified and complex. The parts it unifies into a whole cannot be parts that would exist independently of its self-unifying activity. The chapter explains Proclus’s argument that a self-unifier cannot have bodily parts, and Plotinus’s argument that self-intellection is a kind of self-unifying activity.
Rational Assent and Self-determination to the Better or the Worse
Authors: Coope Ursula
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses three philosophers in the Damascian tradition: Damascius himself, Simplicius in his Commentary on Epictetus’s Handbook, and Ps-Simplicius in his Commentary on Aristotle’s De Anima. These philosophers develop the idea that the rational soul engages in a kind of activity that is strictly self-reflexive, but that can be either right or wrong. This is an activity by which the soul makes itself either better or worse. Ps-Simplicius spells out the nature of this activity in his account of the operation of rational faculties. This account makes it possible to explain what is distinctive about the rational capacity for assent. Because it is exercised self-reflexively, this capacity can be reason-responsive: one can assent (and revise one’s assent) on the basis of reasons. The chapter argues that the fact that human beings are capable of this kind of reason-responsiveness helps to explain why they are responsible for their actions.
Conclusion
Authors: Coope Ursula
Published: May 2020

A major theme in this book has been the distinction between questions about freedom and questions about responsibility. For the Neoplatonists, to be free is to be wholly in control of oneself and wholly as one wishes to be. As everything wishes for the good, only something that is perfectly good is wholly as it wishes to be and hence only something that is perfectly good is wholly free. In ...
Conceptual Baggage of Empirical Research
Authors: Möllers Christoph
Published: May 2020

This chapter argues that when philosophical theories of normativity miss the mark concerning the social practice of normativity, they thereby miss a side of the normative that is empirically accessible and can be recognized and described in time and space. In order to substantiate this claim, four models are examined so as to explicate how they relate to the question of social norms' empirical recognizability. The first concerns the rationalization of the normative through generalizability, as drawn from Kantian philosophy. Next, the chapter covers a model drawn from David Hume concerning the empiricization of the normative. Power, or the absorption of the normative, is next discussed. Finally, the chapter studies moral realism.
Interlude I: False Juxtapositions for the Description of Norms
Authors: Möllers Christoph
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines pairs of conceptual alternatives in order to develop a notion of what marks a normative practice. These are alternatives between which many theories of normativity implicitly or explicitly take sides. This chapter is concerned with a critique of the notion that norms could appropriately be described by reference to these alternatives or juxtapositions. This form of critique is necessary because in many theories of normativity one of these alternatives is presented as the exclusive explanatory option. Because the deficit of this approach does not simply lie in the quality of the explanatory option presented, but already in discussing questions of normativity within such a framework of alternatives. That is because these alternative pairs are assumed to conceptually mislead in their exclusivity. As distinctions, these alternatives have a limited descriptive capacity; as exclusive, counter-positional alternative pairs, they lead to lamentably narrow notions of social normativity.
The Possibility of Norms
Authors: Möllers Christoph
Published: May 2020

This chapter develops a two-part concept of norms: norms consist of a possibility and a marking that affirms the realization of said possibility. It introduces a model or a distinction, stemming from the theory of intentionality, as a rudimentary concept of normativity. This distinction is of pertinent interest for the question because of what it captures and what it leaves out. The model offers an inclusive and wieldy notion of the normative. The chapter builds upon the model with further questions, all of which have their own justification. From here, the chapter is concerned with developing the conceptual precondition of the concept of social normativity itself.
The Reality of Norms
Authors: Möllers Christoph
Published: May 2020

This chapter considers three areas in laying the foundations for normativity: formalization, authorization, and written fixation. Formalization here is defined as the techniques by which a normative order defines its own elements and thereby makes them distinguishable from each other, and from elements of other orders. The chapter then takes a look at how the practice of the normative often relies on the metaphor of the source. From there, the chapter looks into the relationship between informality and formality of norm authorization. Finally, the chapter describes how the written word is one of the important techniques through which norms are portrayed and formalized.
The Meaning and Function of Social Norms
Authors: Möllers Christoph
Published: May 2020

This chapter argues that a social norm affirms the realization of a possibility. This notion does without a justificatory element because the concept is supposed to be used to describe, not evaluate, social practice. The concept does without a criterion of success, a measure for a norm being established. Finally, the concept does without the threat of sanctions. Every norm carries with it a specific sanction. Norms create a tension with reality, which they seek to bring into harmony with themselves. The more successful a norm is in terms of being in accord with the course of events, the less obvious it becomes what noticeably distinguishes the norm from this very course of events. This is why normative orders deploy numerous instruments for securing their own distinguishability. It is only in this distinguishability from reality that norms find their achievement, thereby fulfilling a number of different functions. But, as this chapter shows, social norms are just as irreducible to a certain function as appropriate descriptions are.
Research Perspectives
Authors: Möllers Christoph
Published: May 2020

This chapter offers some research perspectives. In the realm of empirics, it discusses a twofold level of observation and examines the description of forms as a point of departure. It also looks at the observation of social norms. Next, this chapter turns to norms beyond functional differentiation and autonomy. Here, it considers Luhmann's model of the pure norm. It comments on the inevitable hybrid character of social norms as well. In addition to these remarks, the chapter turns toward the challenge of historicism and the project of a comparison of theories, after which it discusses two perspectives on normativity succeeding—over-normativization and under-normativization.
Ontic Structuralism and Fundamentality
Authors: Morganti Matteo
Published: May 2020

Ontic structural realism (OSR) is the view that (i) in spite of the discontinuities that characterise the historical development of science, we can be realist about something, i.e., the concrete counterpart of certain theoretical structures that remain preserved across theory-change; and (ii) such structure is all there is in the actual world, at least at the fundamental level. It is thus a thesis about the fundamental—one whereby relations, not objects, are the basic building blocks of reality. However, there are in fact several dimensions to the structuralism-fundamentality link, and many alternative ways of cashing out the idea that reality is fundamentally structural. Arguably, these require a more systematic and detailed assessment than acknowledged in the literature so far. The chapter provides such an assessment based on considerations coming from both physics and analytic metaphysics, and concludes by pointing to a hitherto quite neglected theoretical option.
Privileged-Perspective Realism in the Quantum Multiverse
Authors: Berenstain Nora
Published: May 2020

Privileged-perspective realism (PPR) is a version of metaphysical realism that takes certain irreducibly perspectival facts to be partly constitutive of reality. PPR asserts that there is a single metaphysically privileged standpoint from which these perspectival facts obtain. This chapter discusses several views that fall under the category of privileged-perspective realism. These include presentism, which is PPR about tensed facts, and non-multiverse interpretations of quantum mechanics, which the chapter argues, constitute PPR about world-indexed facts. Using the framework of the bird perspective and the frog perspective, it argues that PPR views are motivated by the assumption that the frog perspective is metaphysically primary. The chapter considers case studies of metaphysical interpretations of special relativity and quantum mechanics in order to demonstrate that such motivations for PPR are non-naturalistic. It considers psychological factors that motivate the appeal of PPR views and offers naturalistic explanations of why we should not expect them to lead to good metaphysics of science.
What Entanglement Might Be Telling Us: Space, Quantum Mechanics, and Bohm’s Fish Tank
Authors: Ismael Jenann
Published: May 2020

There are pressures that are coming from a number of quarters in quantum cosmology to view space or space-time as an emergent structure. But in recent years in the foundations of standard, non-relativistic quantum mechanics, interpretations have emerged that treat space as emergent. My primary purpose is (i) to make explicit the considerations stemming from quantum mechanics alone, that are pushing in the direction of viewing space (or space-time) as an emergent structure, and (ii)to clarify exactly what it means to say that space is emergent in the sense that this chapter is interested inhere. Itdoes that by presenting some simple low-dimensional models that reproduce central features of quantum phenomena, and analyzing the examples with attention to the difference between two different kinds of explanation: one in which the correlations emerge from a more fundamental (and not ultimately spatial) description and one in which correlations are explained by influences that pass through the space in which the correlated events are situated.
Radical Structural Essentialism for the Spacetime Substantivalist
Authors: Bigaj Tomasz
Published: May 2020

Spacetime substantivalists insist that spatiotemporal points are fundamental entities and thus are ontologically independent from the physical objects occupying these points.This chapter argues that the best metaphysical option for the substantivalist is to adopt a radical version of structural essentialism, according to which participation in a certain relational structure is both a necessary and sufficient condition of identity for the elements characterized by this structure.It comparesthe author’sproposed variant of essentialism with some alternative conceptions, such as Tim Maudlin’s metric essentialism and David Glick’s Minimal Structural Essentialism. It discusses how the author’sRadical Structural Essentialism deals with the challenge of the hole argument as well as some less well-known challenges, such as the problem of contingent counterfactuals regarding the material contents of spacetime, and the ‘mole’ argument. Later the chapter explains why the structure consisting of the metric tensor is a genuinely relational structure, and itdefend the claim that in order to preserve the identity of its elements the actual structure may be merely embeddable in (and not necessarily isomorphic with) an alternative structure.
Welfare States in the Middle East and North Africa: Puzzles and Answers
Authors: Eibl Ferdinand
Published: May 2020

Chapter 1 sets out the main empirical puzzles of the book, which are (i) the early divergence of welfare trajectories in the region and (ii) their long persistence over time. Drawing on literature from authoritarianism studies and political economy, it lays out the theoretical argument explaining this empirical pattern by developing a novel analytical framework focused on elite incentives at the moment of regime formation and geostrategic constraints limiting their abilities to provide welfare. It also outlines the author’s explanation for the persistence of social policies over time and broadly describes the three types of welfare regime in the region. It sbows the limitations of existing theories in explaining this divergence and bigbligbts the book’s contribution to the literature. The theoretical argument is stated in general terms and sbould thus be of relevance to political economy and authoritarianism scholars more broadly. The chapter ends with an outline of the chapters to come.
Welfare Efforts in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Eibl Ferdinand
Published: May 2020

This chapter provides an analytical overview of welfare provision in labour· abundant MENA regimes. Organized in sections by country and covering the period from regime formation until the late 2000s, the chapter pays particular attention to spending levels and the accessibility of social policies, and maps the eigbt regimes onto the three different pathways of welfare provision outlined in Chapter I. It draws on a combination of historical reports and statistics, available secondary accounts, and a novel dataset on social expenditures developed from archival material of the International Monetary Fund (IMF). It also diversifies the picture by examining policies of education, health, and social protection separately. The chapter lays important groundwork for further analyses and gives a more complete sense of social policy regimes beyond the social spending figures presented in Chapter I.
Online Revolution
Authors: Jemielniak Dariusz
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses three major changes resulting from the emerging communication technologies. It addresses the new forms of shaping relations online. Friendships, intimacy, the rise of weak ties, as well as an increased fluidity of relations are discussed. Next, the chapter addresses the demise of expert knowledge. Starting with McDonaldization of higher education and the rise of anti-intellectual sentiments, the chapter addresses the new trends in democratizing knowledge. While recognizing highly positive aspects of the turn, such as citizen science, Wikipedia, or free/open source movement, it also addresses the darker and more troubling processes, such as anti-scientific sentiments, pseudotheories, and the takeover of knowledge production and distribution by quacks. Finally, the chapter focuses on sharing economy. By problematizing the “sharing” premise, as well as by showing the impact of the ongoing change reaching far beyond economy itself, the chapter introduces the notion of collaborative society, as better covering the social change we witness.
Final Remarks
Authors: Jemielniak Dariusz
Published: May 2020

This chapter includes the final remarks about conducting digital social studies. It summarizes the book briefly and encourages to start own independent projects. This monograph has presented the variety of approaches and tools to conduct social research of and through the online world. It explained why the Internet ought to be the subject of sociological studies, and why even traditional social sciences projects ought to include elements of online research. It identified three trends that are strictly connected with the development of communication technology and networks (online transformation of interpersonal relations, crisis of expert knowledge, and the sharing economy). It indicated their importance in many areas, and the need for deep and recurring social science analyses due to the high changeability of the phenomena. It then described the main quantitative approaches, focusing on those that do not require long-term specialist training. It highlighted those qualitative methods that may be used to interpret quantitative research and be a starting point for qualitative analysis. It outlined the possibilities of doing online cultural studies—studying products of Internet culture as a valid method of doing social sciences. Finally, it outlined the ethical considerations that every author of a digital study ought to consider.
The Italian Approach to Colonialism
Authors: Scovazzi Tullio
Published: May 2020

The Italian colonial experience, which started late 1869 (and, officially, 1882) is a betrayal of the principle of nationality that constituted the very foundation of the new Italian State (1861). Mancini developed the theory of nationality as the foundation of international law in a public lecture made in 1851. What could hardly be expected is that the same Mancini, who became minister of foreign affairs after the Italian unification, was among the promoters of the Italian colonialist policy along the coast of the Red Sea. He stated that international law did not apply to the territories inhabited by wild tribes and colonialized by civilized nations, that colonies were intended as the preferable destination for the growing flow of Italian emigrants and that colonial campaigns were a training opportunity for the Italian army that would otherwise remain idle in barracks. The historic defeat of Adwa (1896) showed how opportunistic was the Italian concept of nationality.
The Influence of Italian International Law Scholars on the Crafting of the 1948 Constitution
Authors: Virzo Roberto
Published: May 2020

The Italian Constitution is infused with a strong internationalist spirit. This is due to the influence of a number of Italian international law scholars of the time, who provided an important contribution to the conception and drafting of the most internationally oriented provisions in the Constitution. In order to illustrate the debate that brought international law aspects into the constitution-making process, and both the influence exercised by contemporary scholars and the role played by the elected members of the Constituent Assembly in finally settling such issues, it is crucial to examine the debates raised within the Forti Commission as well as during the activities of the Constituent Assembly. This analysis will permit us to appreciate not only the international law scholars’ contribution to framing the constitutional provisions that incorporate ‘international precepts’, but also the specialist expertise of many members of the Constituent Assembly, and their common internationalist approach.
Judicial Review of Economic (and Monetary) Policy: The National Courts
Authors: Markakis Menelaos
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines the jurisprudence of national courts on crisis-related measures. The material presented in this chapter will be divided into two parts. First, this chapter will examine some of the most important judgments delivered by courts in lender states during the Euro crisis, the emphasis being on the jurisprudence of the German Federal Constitutional Court. These cases primarily focus on the effects of financial assistance mechanisms and revised EU fiscal governance rules on the principle of democracy, parliamentary prerogatives, and national budgetary powers. A further strand of case law focuses on the measures adopted by the European Central Bank. Second, this chapter will look at review by national courts in borrower states, the principal focus being on social challenges brought by austerity-hit litigants in Greece. The comparative analysis sheds light on the different types of challenge facing courts in borrower and lender states, as well as the different starting points and the subtle differences in the reasoning provided by courts in their judgments. As regards borrower states in particular, the twin challenge is to examine to what extent litigants had any success in challenging in national courts the bailout conditions; and the extent to which arguments about civil or socio-economic rights had purchase at national level. The chapter further looks at review by national courts in other jurisdictions, as well as review by supranational and international courts or bodies. Last, it puts forward a number of ideas on fundamental rights adjudication in times of economic crisis.
Recommendations
Authors: Markakis Menelaos
Published: May 2020

This chapter draws together the implications of the Euro crisis for the EU and its Member States and critically evaluates the shortcomings of the Treaty schema in terms of transparency and accountability. The discussion begins with the measures intended to ‘complete’ and ‘deepen’ the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). It sets out the author’s own view regarding the key reforms that would be necessary, albeit one that is informed by the proposals made by the EU institutions. These include a reform of the EU fiscal rules; the provision of technical assistance to Member States implementing structural reforms; establishing a Euro area stabilization function; completing the Banking Union and making progress towards a Capital Markets Union; and strengthening the role of EU financial watchdogs. This chapter further puts forward a number of concrete proposals on how to bolster transparency and accountability in the area of EMU, the dividing line being between those proposals that could be implemented without a Treaty amendment and those reforms that would require a Treaty revision. It further addresses separately accountability (and transparency) in the Banking Union, as well as the role of EU courts in the EMU.