bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The perceived causal structure of poverty: A network analysis approach
Authors: Heaven Patrick C. L.
Published: June 2011

The results of two studies that sought to determine the perceived causal structure of poverty are reported. Respondents were left‐and right‐wing political party supporters in Australia. Following Lunt (e.g. 1988, 1991), causal structure was uncovered using network analysis. It was noted that the spatial structure in the two studies was similar, although different networks for left‐and right‐wing voters resulted. Results showed that respondents tended to perceive different causes of poverty as being distal, yet agreed as to the proximal causes. It was also noted that the processes by which causes were perceived to be proximal varied from group to group. The advantages of the network approach as opposed to the more traditional taxonomic method are discussed.
In‐group prototypicality and persuasion: Determinants of heuristic and systematic message processing
Authors: van Knippenberg Daan , Lossie Nathalie , Wilke Henk
Published: June 2011

Self‐categorization theory (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher & Wetherell, 1987) proposes that identification with a social group will elicit a tendency to conform to in‐group norms. Following this proposition, we argue that the extent to which persuasive in‐group communication is perceived to reflect in‐group norms, that is, is prototypical, will affect attitudes. Attitudes are predicted to be more affected by exposure to prototypical messages. Moreover, it is argued that prototypicality might both instigate systematic message processing and function as a heuristic cue. Whether systematic processing will occur was hypothesized to be dependent on the availability of cues enabling heuristic processing. A study was designed in which subjects were exposed to a persuasive message from either a prototypical or an non‐prototypical in‐group source. In half of the conditions, subjects were informed about the opinion of the source before message exposure (which would enable heuristic processing). Quality of the message (i.e. strong vs. weak arguments) and position advocated by the message were experimentally varied. It was predicted that prototypicality would elicit conformity to in‐group norms, but that it would only instigate systematic processing when subjects had no foreknowledge about the source opinion. Results supported these predictions
Value—attitude‐behaviour relations: The moderating role of attitude functions
Authors: Maio Gregory R. , Olson James M.
Published: June 2011

A direct measure of attitude function was used to examine the moderating role of attitude functions in value‐attitude‐behaviour relations. Subjects learned about a (fictitious) dance to support the construction of an enclosed on‐campus smoking area. We measured subjects' attitudes towards the dance, the functions of their attitudes and a behaviour relevant to their attitude toward the dance. Results revealed that subjects with value‐expressive attitudes exhibited significant relations between value importance and their attitudes or behaviour, whereas subjects with utilitarian attitudes did not. These findings illustrate that the direct measure of attitude functions can be used to predict the strength of value‐attitude‐behaviour relations.
Language use in the context of congruent and incongruent in‐group behaviours
Authors: Rubini Monica , Semin Gün R.
Published: June 2011

A study is reported that examined language use in the explanations group members give for behaviours that are congruent or incongruent with in‐group membership. It is shown that when people explain ‘congruent behaviours’ they use abstract terms (adjectives) that allow generalization beyond the immediate behaviour in question. In contrast, when they explain ‘incongruent behaviours’ by in‐group members they do not use abstract terms, thus particularizing such behaviours. Additionally, it was shown that the choice of abstract positive terms in the case of congruent behaviours is used to enhance in‐group identity, rather than resorting to derogation of in‐group incongruent behaviours. The implications of these findings in the mediation of in‐group‐serving biases are discussed.
The illusion of control and optimism about health: On being less at risk but no more in control than others
Authors: Harris Peter , Middleton Wendy
Published: June 2011

If unrealistic optimism is simply a manifestation of the illusion of control (McKenna, 1993), differences in estimates of the likelihood of events for the self and others (comparative optimism) should have concomitant differences in perceived capacity to control these events. This possibility was tested in the domain of health, along with Perloff & Fetzer's (1986) risk‐factor version of this downward comparison hypothesis and the hitherto neglected possibility that unrealistic optimism is an artifact of the comparative procedures employed in studies to date. It was found that likelihood judgements for a range of illnesses tended to be significantly lower when made by subjects providing self‐ratings than when made by those providing judgements for the ‘typical’ student and, to a lesser extent, those making judgements for a friend's friend, but not by those doing so for an acquaintance. This comparative optimism was associated with equivalent differences in perceptions of these targets on a selection of relevant risk factors, but not in ratings of their capacity to control these outcomes (for which there was consensus across targets). The data are thus consistent with the risk‐factor version of the hypothesis rather than the control version or the artifact explanation. The theoretical implications of these findings are addressed along with their consequences for health promotion.
The time interval in the intention‐behaviour relationship: Meta‐analysis
Authors: Randall Donna M. , Wolff James A.
Published: June 2011

Intention‐behaviour models specify as a boundary condition that the intention‐behaviour relationship should be measured over a short period of delay. However, a measure of intention that exists just prior to performance of the behaviour has limited feasibility and practical utility. Using meta‐analysis, the present study explores the relationship between time and the intention‐behaviour (I‐B) correlation in Fishbein and Ajzen's intention‐behaviour models. Self‐reported behaviours, how intention is measured, and type of behaviour are explored as moderators to this relationship. The average I‐B correlation coefficient remains strong over a prediction interval of as long as 15 years. The I‐B correlation is significantly influenced by the use of self‐report measures of behaviour over time and type of behaviour; however, it is not influenced by how intention is measured.
Values, national identification and favouritism towards the in‐group
Authors: Feather N. T.
Published: June 2011

This study investigated the value correlates of in‐group favouritism at the national level using a sample of 281 university undergraduates in Adelaide, South Australia. It was hypothesized that positive relations between in‐group favouritism and national identification would be stronger among subjects with strong collectivist values than among those for whom collectivist values were less important. Subjects completed a Cultural Cringe Scale designed to measure subjects' evaluation of Australia's products and achievements compared with those of comparable overseas countries, the Schwartz Value Survey, and measures of national identity and identification with Australia. The Cultural Cringe Scale was scored in the direction of in‐group bias towards Australia. Results showed that in‐group bias was positively correlated with national identification and that this correlation was stronger for subjects who assigned high importance to values concerned with conformity and security and low importance to hedonistic values. Results therefore supported the hypothesis for some value types and they also implied the need to consider collectivist and individualistic values separately in regard to their possible moderating effects on relations between in‐group bias and identification with the group or collectivity.
Social categorization, focus of attention and judgements of group opinions
Authors: van Knippenberg Daan , van Knippenberg Ad
Published: June 2011

Social categorization was hypothesized to affect memory for attitude statements from social groups in such a way that recall would be better for arguments congruent with prior expectations about source group opinions. As a consequence, perceptions of group opinions based on this biased recall of arguments (memory‐based judgements) were expected to be more expectancy‐congruent than judgements of group opinions that were formed during argument exposure (on‐line judgements). To test these predictions, two experiments were conducted in which subjects were exposed to an equal number of supporting and opposing arguments concerning entrance exams. In Expt 1 it was suggested that the arguments originated from a group which subjects expected to be opposed to entrance exams, whereas in Expt 2 in half of the conditions it was suggested that the arguments originated from a group which subjects expected to be supporting entrance exams. Before argument exposure, subjects received processing instructions (judgemental focus) that would either prevent subjects from forming on‐line judgements of group opinions or induce them to form such on‐line opinion judgements. In addition to the manipulation of judgemental focus, the delay between argument exposure and judgement assessment was varied for exploratory purposes. Results showed that argument recall was affected by both prior expectations and own attitudes, although the former effect was moderated by the induced judgemental focus. As predicted, group opinion judgements were more expectancy‐congruent when they could be assumed to be memory‐based than when they were reached on‐line. Implications for the study of social group perceptions and stereotypes are discussed.
Skin cancer attitudes: A cross‐national comparison
Authors: Eiser J. Richard , Eiser Christine , Sani Fabio , Sell Lucia , Casas Rosa Maria
Published: June 2011

A questionnaire concerning attitudes towards skin cancer, sun exposure and general environmental issues was administered to 132 holiday‐makers on a beach in south‐west England and (in translation) to 142 visitors to another beach in north‐west Italy. Following the Janis & Mann (1977) classification of strategies for coping with decision conflicts, subscales were derived measuring tendencies to ‘avoid’ thinking about environmental issues, to ‘bolster’ prior attitudes (by playing down the seriousness of the risk of skin cancer while attending to the pleasures of sunbathing), and to be ‘vigilant’ concerning risk information and the need for specific protective behaviour (e.g. sunscreen use). The British scored higher than the Italians, and women higher than men, on vigilance, but there were no gender or nationality differences on the other subscales considered as a whole. Responses were also related to the covariates of age and self‐reported vulnerability to sunburn. Those who showed less concern with environmental issues also tended to play down the risks of skin cancer and be less vigilant with regard to self‐protection. It is suggested that health promotion should address both cultural norms concerning exposure to the sun and people's intuitive notions about their relative personal vulnerability.
Extending the theory of planned behaviour: The role of personal norm
Authors: Parker Dianne , Manstead Antony S. R. , Stradling Stephen G.
Published: June 2011

This study assesses the sufficiency of Ajzen's (1985) theory of planned behaviour in predicting intentions to commit each of three driving violations involving poor lane discipline: cutting across traffic to leave a motorway; weaving in and out of two lanes of slow‐moving traffic; and overtaking on the inside. Behavioural intention was predicted reasonably well by the three main constructs of the theory of planned behaviour. However, the addition of measures of anticipated regret and moral norm substantially improved prediction in each case, suggesting that personal normative influence is an important factor in shaping intentions to perform behaviours that are antisocial or socially controversial. The development of a belief‐based measure of perceived behavioural control is also considered.
Blood donation and Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour: An examination of perceived behavioural control
Authors: Giles Melanie , Cairns Ed
Published: June 2011

In spite of the success achieved by the theory of reasoned action, researchers continue to suggest that new components should be added to the original model. Indeed, Ajzen has himself acknowledged that some behaviours may be subject to control problems and thus proposed the theory of planned behaviour to handle behaviours of this kind. This study set out to explore the predictive superiority of the revised theory of planned behaviour by focusing on blood donation, a behavioural domain in which volitional control was thought to be incomplete. It was also the intention to explore the extent to which the belief‐based measure of attitude exists as a multidimensional construct. An Ajzen & Fishbein type questionnaire was administered to 141 undergraduate students. Multiple regression analyses provided strong support for the theory of planned behaviour, suggesting that perception of control has an important impact on a person's behavioural motivation. Also, some support for a multidimensional representation of the belief‐based measure of attitude was provided.
Influence of level of identification with a group and physiological arousal on perceived intergroup complexity
Authors: Wann Daniel L. , Branscombe Nyla R.
Published: June 2011

Influence of group identification and physiological arousal on perceived intergroup complexity and intergroup evaluations were investigated. Group identification was examined because persons with differing levels of identification differ in the degree to which they possess stereotypes about groups while physiological arousal was investigated because of its known ability to limit cognitive capacity and potentially encourage the use of stereotypes. Specifically, increases in incidental arousal resulting from exercise were expected to result in increased stereotype use, reflected in differential intergroup complexity. This effect was expected only for those high in identification with the in‐group, for whom stereotypes were available. The results supported the predictions. In terms of group evaluations, an in‐group favouritism effect was found, although it was only exhibited by those high in identification. Arousal level did not significantly influence evaluation of groups. Thus, incidental arousal can decrease complexity, without simultaneously increasing negativity. Discussion focuses on the differences between the current method and those employed in past research.
Determinants of perceived consistency: The relationship between group entitativity and the meaningfulness of categories
Authors: McGarty Craig , Haslam S. Alexander , Hutchinson Karen J. , Grace Diana M.
Published: June 2011

The concept of entitativity was developed by Campbell (1958) to refer to the extent to which a group is perceived as a coherent whole or entity. This concept is relevant to research in both social perception (e.g. the categorization effects approach to the study of social stereotyping) and social influence (e.g. the consistency attributed to minority groups in theories of minority influence). On the basis of previous research, four variables were expected to play a role in group entitativity judgements. These were intra‐group variability, group size, diversity (or variety) and extremity. In two empirical studies it was found that entitativity decreased as variability and diversity increased and that it increased with group size. These effects and interactions between group size and extremity, size and diversity, and variability and extremity are consistent with the idea that entitativity is a function of how meaningful a stimulus pattern is. This is in turn (in part) a function of how unlikely the pattern is.
Faking moral judgement on the Defining Issues Test
Authors: Barnett Robert , Evens Jean , Rest James
Published: June 2011

In research by Emler, Renwick & Malone (1983), elevated moral judgement scores obtained under altered test conditions were interpreted as evidence that moral reasoning and political attitudes are essentially the same and that self‐presentational strategies explain many differences in moral judgement that have previously been attributed to cognitive development. In the present study, politically liberal, moderate and conservative subjects completed the Defining Issues Test (DIT) of moral judgement, once from their own perspective and once from the perspective of a liberal/radical. The DIT was modified to include additional anti‐establishment (A) items. Results indicated that subjects responding from the liberal/radical perspective strongly endorsed A items, and consequently decreased their principled moral judgement scores below their normal levels. Such findings contradict the conclusions of Emler et al. and offer an interpretation less antagonistic to cognitive developmental points of view.
Affective responses to social comparison: A study among disabled individuals
Authors: Ybema Jan F. , Buunk Bram P.
Published: June 2011

The present study examined the effects of social comparison among 112 individuals receiving payments under the Disablement Insurance Act. A part of a fictitious interview with another disabled person was presented to the subjects. This interview contained upward or downward social comparison information about either the problem severity or coping success of a target. In line with the predictions, the results indicated that upward comparison generated more positive affect than downward comparison only for subjects high in perceived control. Downward comparison generated more negative affect than upward comparison, regardless of perceived control. The nature of the comparison dimension (problem severity versus coping success) did not result in differences in positive or negative affect. Furthermore, subjects high in control identified more strongly with the upward target than with the downward target, especially when the comparison dimension was coping success. Some evidence was found that the effect of perceived control on the positive affective consequences of upward comparison was mediated by identification with the upward target.
Context effects in the measurement of attitudes: A comparison of the consistency and framing explanations
Authors: Gaskell George D. , Wright Daniel B. , O'Muircheartaigh Colm
Published: June 2011

This paper investigates two competing social psychological explanations of a question order (context) effect in surveys. Using the topic of the public's understanding of science, the effect of answering knowledge questions on reported interest in science is measured using a split ballot field experiment in a national survey. The consistency explanation predicts that answering prior knowledge questions will increase reported interest for people who do well on these quizzes, but will decrease reported interest in science for those who do badly. Alternatively, the framing explanation attributes the effect to the content of the quizzes, rather than respondents' performance. This content influences how respondents understand what ‘interest in science' means. Here it is predicted that difficult quizzes will lead to lower reported interest regardless of performance. Our findings support the framing explanation. The implications for questionnaire design are discussed.
Power, gender stereotypes and perceptions of heterosexual couples
Authors: Smoreda Zbigniew
Published: June 2011

This paper examines the relation between power attributed to members of heterosexual couples and the perception of their personalities in terms of gender stereotyped traits. Three‐hundred and fifty adult, native French subjects (women and men) participated in the study. They attributed daily family tasks and decisions to the target persons; then, they described them on the Bem Sex‐Role Inventory. The results indicated strong correlations between observers' representations of power distribution in the couple and the gender related personality descriptions of the couple. The attribution of ‘instrumental’ traits increased (and ‘expressive’ traits decreased) according to the degree of power assigned to the target person of either sex. On the ‘instrumentality’ dimension, accentuation of perceptions of people in gender role inconsistent positions was also observed. The simultaneous influences of general gender stereotypes and specific relations between the gender roles in dyads on the perception of individuals are discussed. It is proposed that social relations of dominance provide a model for the construction of gender stereotypes and their contextual applications.
Change in stereotypic perceptions of familiar and unfamiliar groups: The pervasiveness of the subtyping model
Authors: Hantzi Alexandra
Published: June 2011

The present study examined change in stereotypic perceptions of occupational groups, using a 2 (pattern of presented stereotype inconsistent information: concentrated in a few members vs. dispersed across all members) X 2 (perceived group variability: homogeneous vs. heterogeneous) X 2 (familiarity with the group: familiar vs. unfamiliar) design, following the procedure used by Hewstone, Johnston & Aird (1992). There was no support for the ‘conversion’ model. Stereotype change was generally greater in dispersed than in concentrated conditions, while subtyping was stronger in concentrated than in dispersed conditions. There was limited evidence that familiarity might moderate the effects of pattern of disconfirming information and perceived group variability. Stereotype change was mediated by perceived typicality of disconfirming instances. Results were interpreted in terms of a prototype version of the subtyping model (cf. Hewstone, 1994; Johnston & Hewstone, 1992).
Social influence and the verifiability of the issue under discussion: Attitudinal versus objective items
Authors: Maass Anne , Volpato Chiara , Mucchi‐Faina Angelica
Published: June 2011

Two experiments are reported comparing majority and minority influence on attitudinal (opinion) vs. objective (knowledge) tasks. The hypothesis that minority influence would decline on objective items was tested by exposing subjects either to a minority or majority influence source; the question under discussion was either objective (‘from which country does Italy import most of its raw oil?’) or attitudinal (‘from which country should Italy import most of its raw oil?’). Experiment 1 showed that, compared to a no‐influence control group, majorities exerted a reliable influence on both objective and attitudinal issues whereas minorities were persuasive only on attitudinal issues. Experiment 2 indicated that this was true only for subjects who were uncertain of their own position, while minorities were unable to convince highly certain subjects regardless of type of task. Implications of these findings for the comparison of conformity and minority influence research are discussed.
Distinctiveness across topics in minority and majority influence: An attributional analysis and preliminary data
Authors: Bohner Gerd , Erb Hans‐Peter , Reinhard Marc‐André , Frank Elisabeth
Published: June 2011

The potential of attribution theory to explain social influence processes is discussed. It is suggested that distinctiveness across topics may be an important determinant of influence by affecting both attributions to a position's external validity and the positivity of attributions to the source. In a laboratory experiment, university students read about a communicator who expressed a moderately counter‐attitudinal position for which consensus in the reference population was said to be low (implying minority status) or high (implying majority status). In addition, information about high or low distinctiveness across topics and high or low consistency over time was provided. Open‐ended attributions and judgements about the communicator and the target issue were assessed. It was predicted and found that high (vs. low) distinctiveness led to more frequent topic attributions, more positive person attributions and greater liking of the communicator. In addition, female (but not male) subjects reported higher ratings of persuasiveness and attitudes closer to the advocated position when distinctiveness was high rather than low. These preliminary results suggest that social influence research may benefit from studying effects of a source's distinctiveness across topics in addition to its behavioural consistency.
Dissent and the search for information
Authors: Nemeth Charlan , Rogers John
Published: June 2011

Extending the theorizing of Nemeth (1986, 1995), the present study investigated the hypothesis that minority dissent would stimulate a search for more information and that this search would be relatively unbiased. People should search for information on all sides of the issue. By contrast, it was predicted that majority dissent would stimulate less overall desire for further information and, importantly, any information search would be relatively biased. In direct contrast to predictions for ‘selective exposure’ it was hypothesized that individuals exposed to majority dissent would bias their search in favour of the majority position. The evidence generally confirmed these propositions, especially under conditions of ‘high relevance.’ The importance of information search and its implications for the quality of group decision making are explored.
Differential processing and attitude change following majority versus minority arguments
Authors: De Dreu Carsten K. W. , De Vries Nanne K.
Published: June 2011

This experiment tested the general hypothesis that majority influence induces convergent processing, which stimulates attitude change on focal issues, whereas minority influence sometimes produces divergent processing, which might stimulate change on related attitudes. Results of a numerical support (majority vs. minority) by outcome involvement (high vs. low) experiment with attitude change and cognitive activity as dependent variables yielded partial support for these predictions. Majority arguments caused more attitude change on the focal issue than minority arguments, especially under high outcome involvement; no effects, however, were found for attitudes towards related issues. Consistent with expectations also was the result that, especially under high outcome involvement, cognitive activity predicted attitude change on the focal issue in the case of majority support, but generalization to related issues in the case of minority support for persuasive arguments. Results are interpreted as consistent with the general conclusion (a) that majority support is more effective than minority support in eliciting attitude change on focal issues, (b) that both majority and minority support elicit cognitive activity, which predicts attitude change on focal issues in the case of majority support, but generalization in the case of minority support and (c) that these processes are especially strong when there is motivation to engage in systematic processing of persuasive arguments.
Minority influence and argument generation
Authors: Martin Robin
Published: June 2011

The theories of Moscovici (1980) and Nemeth (1986) concerning the cognitive processes underlying minority influence are examined in an argument generation paradigm. While Moscovici (1980) argues that minority influence increases the generation of arguments for and against the minority position, Nemeth (1986) proposes that minorities induce divergent thinking which leads to the generation of a wider range of arguments which are more original. In the first study, subjects read a minority text and then generated arguments concerning the minority issue within a specified time. The second study was similar to the first and included a condition where minority influence followed partial sensory deprivation (being placed in a dark, soundproof room for 45 minutes) which was predicted to decrease cognitive effort. Contrary to Moscovici, in neither study was there evidence that a minority led to more arguments being generated compared to a control condition (no influence). However, in one study, a minority led to more arguments being generated in the minority than in the majority direction. However, as predicted by Nemeth, in both studies a minority resulted in a wider range of arguments being generated than those proposed in the minority's message and these were rated by independent judges as being more original. Finally, as predicted, partial sensory deprivation led to a narrower range of arguments which were focused more upon issues raised in the minority text.
Cognitive responses to minority‐ or majority‐based communications: Factors that underlie minority influence
Authors: Alvaro Eusebio M. , Crano William D.
Published: June 2011

This study is concerned with reactions aroused when a person encounters a pro‐ or counter‐attitudinal message presented by a source of majority, in‐group/minority or out‐group/minority status. It is proposed that these reactions may help explain the pattern of delayed, indirect, attitude change observed in instances of minority influence, and the direct and immediate changes often found in majority influence. Employing a standard attitude change design, the research demonstrates that participants exposed to a communication attributed to a minority in‐group are more prone than those exposed to either a majority or out‐group minority to approbate the source's message, elaborate and recall the message's contents, and approbate the communication source. The manner in which this pattern of responses explicates common findings in the minority influence literature is discussed.
Majority and minority influence, task representation and inductive reasoning
Authors: Butera Fabrizio , Mugny Gabriel , Legrenzi Paolo , Pérez Juan A.
Published: June 2011

One hundred and fifty‐five participants had to solve a set of 2–4–6 like reasoning problems (Wason, 1960), in which they were told which hypothesis a majority (or a minority) proposed, as well as which example was used for the test. In a 2 × 2 design, participants were also told that the problems allowed either one single correct answer or several possible answers. Results show that, when the source is a majority and the problem allows one single answer, most participants adopt the source's hypothesis and use confirmatory testing. On the contrary, it is when the source is a minority and the problem allows several answers that most participants give alternative hypotheses and use disconfirmation.
Division of labour in the social construction of argument
Authors: Mapstone E. R.
Published: June 2011

This paper examines how ideological assumptions about the meanings of naturally occurring social arguments lead to different outcomes for women and for men. Three main themes in the ideology of argument are outlined: as rational means of ascertaining the truth, as adversarial confrontation and as rhetoric. Gender roles provide society a way to deal with the conflict between argument and the ideology of affiliation. The division of labour assigns rational truth seeking to men and to women the task of nurturance: this has permitted men to take over argument in all its positive aspects and to attribute to women the negative aspects of argument as damaging confrontation or as unfair rhetoric.
Perceived antecedents of emotional reactions in inter‐ethnic relations
Authors: Dijker Anton J. , Koomen Willem , van den Heuvel Henriëtte , Frijda Nico H.
Published: June 2011

It is argued that the aspects of intergroup relations that potentially can arouse emotions in the perceiver are likely to become central and motivationally relevant elements of group stereotypes. Asking participants to report on the perceived antecedents of their emotional reactions to in‐group and out‐group members should therefore be an especially useful method to reveal the content of stereotypes. Native Dutch participants reported both the frequencies with which different emotions were felt in different intergroup relations and the perceived causes of these emotions. Analysis of self‐reported antecedents of emotional reactions revealed that (a) despite a general in‐group favour‐ability bias, both the in‐group and the two out‐groups employed arouse different kinds of negative and positive emotions; and (b) differences in emotional reactions to the two out‐groups are related to salient differences in perceived antecedents between these groups. Theoretical and practical implications of the present emphasis on the cognitive foundation of emotion in intergroup relations are discussed.
Relevance, discourse and the ‘hot’ stable core social representations—A structural analysis of word associations
Authors: Wagner Wolfgang , Valencia José , Elejabarrieta Fran
Published: June 2011

This paper presents an investigation of the structure of word associations dependent on the context in which they are assessed. Respondents from Spain and Nicaragua produced free associations about war and peace. Word associations about each of the two stimulus words were produced either spontaneously or within the context of a distracting priming condition in contrast to the association task. The semantic space for each stimulus word (war, peace) is analysed to find substructures of words which remain stable across contexts. These substructures or stable cores are taken to indicate a well‐structured social representation as opposed to a loosely organized knowledge domain. Such cores were found for associations about war in both countries, but for peace in the Nicaraguan sample only. This finding is interpreted as a consequence of public discourse and symbolic coping with relevant or threatening objects or phenomena. Stable cores were found to consist primarily of ‘hot’ words, i.e. words which are proximal to an individual's experience. More intellectual and distant (‘cold’) words did not enter the stable core. Results are discussed in terms of the central core theory of social representations and of numerical consensus being an insufficient criterion for social representations.
Goal orientations and conceptions of the nature of sport ability in children: A social cognitive approach
Authors: Sarrazin Philippe , Biddle Stuart , Famose Jean Pierre , Cury Francois , Fox Kenneth , Durand Marc
Published: June 2011

Contemporary research in the social psychology of sport has used Nicholls' (1984, 1989) social cognitive theory of goal orientations and motivation in order to gain a better understanding of cognitive, affective and behavioural aspects of sport participation. Success can be defined in at least two different ways that lead to two major goal orientations (task/mastery and social comparison), but little is known about why or how such goals may develop, although preliminary research in education links goals to conceptions about the nature of academic ability (i.e. intelligence). Using a similar notion, we studied conceptions of athletic ability by assessing children's representations of sport ability. Two studies were conducted with children and youth in England and France. Initial findings suggested that the methods adopted by Dweck & Leggett (1988) in education, while showing some links between goals and beliefs, are not wholly applicable to sport. In using a more comprehensive measure of sport ability conceptions, we observed clear relationships between a social comparison goal and a conception of athletic ability as a ‘gift’ and being ‘general’, and between a task mastery goal and the conception of athletic ability as being incremental and determined by learning. We develop and discuss the meaning of the causal links that unite goals and ability conceptions, as well as the likely impact of such conceptions on motivation.
A methodological note on the application of the generalized grid technique in the measurement of perceived intercultural distance
Authors: Puddifoot John E.
Published: June 2011

A renewed interest in the concept of perceived ‘social distance’ has recently occurred in relation to intercultural perception. The research reported here examines the utility of the generalized grid technique in measuring intercultural distance in a sample of English adolescents. The methodology described offers some advantages in ease of administration and comprehension by participants and a form of analysis that allows for the representation and examination of patterns of response of numerous individuals collectively.
‘The Crowd’ century: Reconciling practical success with theoretical failure
Authors: Reicher Stephen
Published: June 2011

On the centenary of the publication in English of Le Bon's The Crowd, this paper examines its legacy. On the one hand, many recent theorists point to the flaws of Le Bon's crowd psychology which are centred on an abstraction of crowds from their social and ideological context. On the other hand, many leaders claim to have based their techniques of mass manipulation on his ideas. How come, if Le Bon's ideas are so flawed, they were so useful? The paper tries to resolve this apparent paradox by examining the crowd rhetoric of Le Bon's most notorious followers, Mussolini and Hitler. It is argued that, far from simply using assertion and repetition to sway a mindless mass, both leaders rooted their rhetoric in a particular construction of social categories through which the audience was defined and by reference to which actions were legitimated. However, they also obscured this ideological basis so as to render it inevitable and unchallengeable. It is therefore concluded that the very weakness of Le Bonian theory is what renders it a useful rhetorical resource. This makes it all the more important to study how social categories are constructed both in order to understand mass political rhetoric and also to undermine future authoritarian practices.
Value priorities and social desirability: Much substance, some style
Authors: Schwartz Shalom H. , Verkasalo Markku , Antonovsky Avishai , Sagiv Lilach
Published: June 2011

Associations of value priorities with socially desirable responding (SD) might be due to a stylistic bias that distorts self‐reported value ratings or to a substantive relationship between valued goals and needs. We hypothesize that, as a stylistic bias, SD would increase (a) the importance people attribute to values in general and (b) lead people to match own value ratings to those of importance in their social environment. As a substantive variable, SD would correlate positively with value types that emphasize social harmony (conformity, security, benevolence, tradition) and negatively with value types that challenge social conventions and harmony (hedonism, stimulation, self‐direction, achievement, power). In separate studies, 207 Israeli adults and 131 Finnish social work students completed the Marlow—Crowne SD scale and a value survey. Both studies supported the substantive hypotheses. There was weak evidence for the first stylistic hypothesis, but none for the second.
Towards a European identity? Interactions between the national and European social identities manifested by university students in Britain and Italy
Authors: Cinnirella Marco
Published: June 2011

This paper focuses on a questionnaire study of national and European identities in the UK and Italy, as manifested by university students. British respondents often perceive European integration as a threat to British identity. Evidence for a sense of European identity amongst British respondents is minimal: this is reflected in significantly higher levels of national than European identity amongst British respondents, and use of discursive strategies emphasizing the perceived threat to national identity posed by European integration. British and European identity measures are negatively correlated. In contrast, for the Italian respondents, overall European identity is significantly stronger than Italian national identity on quantitative measures. Italian Euro‐identity is significantly stronger than British Euro‐identity on quantitative measures, and is positively correlated with measures of Italian identity. These observations are interpreted within the broad framework provided by Moscovici's theory of social representations (Moscovici, 1984) and Tajfel's social identity theory (Tajfel, 1974).
Minority juridic decision making
Authors: Rector Neil A. , Bagby R. Michael
Published: June 2011

Experimental social psychologists interested in the examination of racial prejudice and discrimination in simulated legal studies have focused exclusively on the perceptions and subsequent legal judgments of White majority members. This experiment examined the prevalence of discriminatory bias in Black Canadian mock jurors' (N = 82) legal decision making. In a simulated videotaped rape trial, defendant and victim race (Black or White), and the impact of the legal standard (present/absent) were manipulated to create a crossed factorial design. The results indicated that in verdict decisions minority participants demonstrated positive in‐group bias with the defendant being found guilty more frequently when the victim was Black. While the presence of the legal standard was sufficient to reduce the perceived culpability of the defendant it failed to reduce the impact of non‐evidentiary bias with victim race prevailing as the overall best predictor of verdict irrespective of the legal standard. Discriminatory ratings observed in verdict decision were not maintained in sentence recommendations, however. The study highlights the nature of minority decision making in this important applied social context.
Do beliefs about aggressive feelings and actions predict reported levels of aggression?
Authors: Archer John , Haigh Anadelle M.
Published: June 2011

In Study 1, a 40‐item questionnaire measuring instrumental and expressive beliefs about aggression, along a five‐point scale, was developed. It was based on a 20‐item questionnaire (Campbell, Muncer & Coyle, 1992) where the two alternatives were forced choices for each item. In the present study the two sets of beliefs were only moderately correlated (—.35), and their separation into 20‐item scales showed a clearer factor structure than combining all 40 items. Men showed higher instrumental scores whereas women showed higher expressive scores: factor analysis revealed one major factor in each case on which items showing the highest sex differences were concentrated. In Study 2 the questionnaire was used on another sample to assess the association between these beliefs and self‐reported physical and verbal aggression, and anger. Instrumental beliefs were found to be highly correlated with physical aggression, and to a lesser extent verbal aggression. In this study, sex differences were similar to Study 1, but were complicated by the finding of stronger instrumental beliefs at younger ages for both sexes. In both studies, when filling out the questionnaire, women were equally likely to think of an aggressive episode with a same‐sex opponent as with an opposite‐sex partner whereas men nearly always thought of an aggressive episode with a same‐sex opponent. However, neither instrumental nor expressive scores were affected by whether female respondents were thinking of a partner or same‐sex other.
Interpreting in‐group‐favouring allocations in the minimal group paradigm
Authors: Platow Michael J. , Harley Keryn , Hunter John A. , Hanning Peter , Shave Roger , O'Connell Aaron
Published: June 2011

Within social identity theory, in‐group‐favouring allocations in the minimal group paradigm are interpreted as strivings to differentiate positively one's in‐group from an out‐group (Tajfel & Turner, 1986). An alternative interpretation, derived from equity theory (Adams, 1965), suggests that in‐group‐favouring allocations represent the perceived worth of one's in‐group relative to an out‐group (Bruins, Platow & Ng, 1995). We evaluated predictions based on these two interpretations in two studies. In Study 1 (N = 73), relative in‐group and out‐group worth were directly manipulated. A main effect for out‐group worth obtained, with participants making in‐group‐favouring allocations when the out‐group had high but not low worth. In Study 2 (N = 42), participants were categorized into conditions based on median splits of their a priori reported levels of perceived in‐group worth and personal self‐esteem. In‐group‐favouring allocations were made by participants with high personal self‐esteem and low perceived in‐group worth, and low personal self‐esteem and high perceived in‐group worth. Overall, the data from these two studies are more consistent with a social identity analysis than the relative in‐group worth hypothesis. Implications for social identity and equity theoretical interpretations of minimal intergroup allocations are discussed.
Sex differences in aggression: Does social representation mediate form of aggression?
Authors: Campbell Anne , Sapochnik Manuela , Muncer Steven
Published: June 2011

In contrast to the usual pattern of higher male aggression, girls have been shown to exceed boys on frequency measures of indirect aggression. Women also tend to view aggression in terms of an expressive social representation whereby it is seen to result from loss of self‐control, in contrast to men who tend to describe it as an instrumental act aimed at exerting control over others. Sixteen items measuring different forms of aggressive behaviour were given to 105 undergraduates together with Expagg, a psychometric measure of social representation of aggression. Factor analysis of the aggression items revealed three scales: direct (verbal and physical), indirect instrumental and indirect expressive aggression. The only aggression scale showing a significant sex difference was indirect expressive aggression on which women scored higher than men. There was also a significant sex difference on Expagg with women showing a more expressive representation of aggression. However the point biserial correlation between sex and indirect expressive aggression was not diminished when expressive representation of aggression was partialled out. It is argued that indirect expressive aggression (involving bitching and avoiding) fails to show a relationship with social representation because it lacks the formal requirements of intentional harm and consequently is not an act of ‘aggression’.
Situational cues as moderators of the frame–outcome relationship
Authors: Olekalns Mara
Published: June 2011

Two experiments tested how situational cues moderated the frame‐outcome relationship. In Experiment 1 (E1), three moderating variables were examined: pay‐off structure, partner's frame, and instruction set. A fourth moderator variable, no‐settlement alternative, was introduced in Experiment 2 (E2). Results from both experiments showed that when issues were distributive, loss‐framed negotiators were advantaged when partners were gain‐framed; this advantage was increased by cooperative instructions. When issues were integrative, loss‐framed negotiator behaviour was stable across experiments. Their performance was markedly worse under highly contentious conditions: when individualistic instructions combined with either a loss‐framed partner (E1) or a high no‐settlement alternative (E2). Gain‐framed negotiator performance was more variable. Cooperative conditions (gain‐framed partner, cooperative instructions) resulted in poor outcomes in E1; similar conditions (cooperative instructions, low no‐settlement alternative) led to high outcomes in E2. Across all conditions, some of the variation in outcomes could be attributed to differences in concession rates; additional variation was attributed to differences in expectations about a fair outcome.