bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Condition and growth and Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in relation to food supply
Authors: Lindström Erik
Published: August 2009

Fat deposits of463 Red fox vixens shot during autumn‐winter were monitored throughout a four‐year cycle of vole abundance (1975‐79) in south‐central Sweden. The growth ofjuveniles during the same period was indexed by lower jaw length during winter. The reproduction of foxes in the study area was correlated with vole abundance. Fat deposits built up during autumn and were depleted during winter. Subadults had consistently smaller fat deposits than adults. There was no positive correlation between vole abundance and mean fat deposits in autumn or degree of depletion during winter. The mean amount of fat deposited during autumn was correlated with the frequency ofoccurrence offruit and berries in fox stomachs. The degree of depletion of fat deposits during winter was correlated with mean snow depth. It is hypothesized that the availability of fruit and berries (a major source of carbohydrates in the diet of foxes) determines the amount of fat reserves built up during autumn, whereas the energy requirement of moving in deep snow determines the degree of depletion during winter. Juvenile growth was correlated with vole abundance but growth later in life seemed to compensate for this variation.
Artificial insemination in the Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleaca)
Authors: Moore H. D. M. , Bush M. , Celma M. , Garcia A‐L. , Hartman T. D. , Hearn J. P. , Hodges J. K. , Jones D. M. , Knight J. A. , Monsalve L. , Wildt D. E.
Published: August 2009

Artificial insemination was carried out on three adult captive Giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). Oestrus in these animals was detected by behavioural observations and by the rise in urinary oestrogen metabolites. Semen was collected from a mature male by electroejaculation. Changes in the quality of semen and the size of the testes indicated a seasonal fluctuation in sperm production. Spermatozoa were capable of penetrating zona‐free hamster oocytes and remained viable for up to five days at 15–20°C in a modified Tyrode's medium. After freezing and thawing in a cryopreserving diluent, approximately 50% of spermatozoa recovered progressive motility and displayed a similar velocity to spermatozoa prior to freezing. Unusual protrusions of the acrosome of the panda spermatozoon were noted.

Following insemination, one female conceived and gave birth, after a gestation of 159 days, to two cubs, one of which subsequently died. Another female exhibited a rise in circulating progesterone but pregnancy was not confirmed.
The relationships of cartilaginous fishes: an immunological study of serum transferrins of holocephalans and elasmobranchs
Authors: Burch S. J. , Lawson R. , Davies D. H.
Published: August 2009

Serum transferrins from two holocephalan, five elasmobranch and three teleost species have been compared using quantitative microcomplement fixation. Calculated immunological distances emphasize the close relationship between the holocephalans and elasmobranchs and strongly support the view that they should be considered as part of a natural assemblage which is widely separated from the teleosts.

If the Holocephali and elasmobranchs have been separate since the beginning of the Carboniferous, this implies that transferrin has evolved at a rate approximating to 0‐15‐0‐26 immunological units per million years involving some 9–15% substitution of amino acids. These values are extremely low and indicate that holocephalan and elasmobranch transferrins have evolved some 2–3–7 times more slowly than those known from any other group of vertebrates.
The phosphate‐rich cover on the eggshells of grebes (Aves: Podicipitiformes)
Authors: Board R. G. , Perrott H. R. , Love G. , Scott V. D.
Published: August 2009

Spheres of a nut‐like morphology–a “kernel” formed from spherules contained in a “shell” of globular sub‐units–were a unique feature of the cover on the eggshells of six species of the order Podicipitiformes: Red‐necked grebe (Podiceps grisegend), Great crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus), Little grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis), Black‐necked grebe (Podiceps nigrkollis), Slavonian grebe (Podiceps auritus) and Pied‐billed grebe (Podilymbus podiceps). The spheres did not give a pattern with X‐ray diffraction; the innermost ones were embedded in the dense crystalline layer on the outer surface of the calcitic portion of the shell. Electron‐probe microanalysis revealed that the cover of spheres contained principally oxygen, calcium, phosphorus and sulphur and infra‐red analysis demonstrated the presence of phosphate. The outer surface of the stratum of spheres was bounded by a thin, fissured layer of amorphous material.

These observations raise questions about the ionic environment obtaining in the shell gland towards the end of shell formation and the adaptive significance of the cover on the eggshells of members of the Podicipitiformes.
Histochemistry of the tongue epithelium in four mammals with respect to keratinization
Authors: Cane A. K. , Spearman R. I. C.
Published: August 2009

The tongue epithelium was examined in the laboratory rat, guinea pig, rabbit and Domestic cat, using light microscopical, histological fluorescent and histochemical methods. The distributions of the enzymes, acid and alkaline phosphatase were examined. Protein‐bound phospholipid and calcium were investigated, together with thiol sulphydryl groups and cysteine disulphide bonds of proteins. A variety of different types of keratinization were shown in the various species, as well as in the same species in different regions of the tongue. The most strongly keratinized structures were the filiform and conical papillae which varied widely from species to species. Those of the rat dorsum were similar to papillae described previously in the House mouse and have strongly keratinized spines. The guinea pig showed some differences but also had keratinized spines. In contrast the rabbit papillae did not have spines but the horny layer over the posterior sides was hardened instead to form pointed edges. Human filiform papillae are similar to the rabbit without spines but the horny layer is less strongly keratinized. In the Domestic cat the conical papillae were also without spines but the horny layer on the anterior and posterior surface was hardened to form claw‐like structures.
Body component growth and composition of the magpie Pica pica
Authors: Tatner Paul
Published: August 2009

Magpie nestling growth is documented as increments in body mass, tarsus length, and tenth primary length. A sample of 41 nestlings and eight adults was used to provide comparative data on changes in water content, lean dry mass, and fat content for 14 body components.

Changes in the composition of various components implicate water index (water content/ lean dry mass) as an indicator of tissue and nestling maturity. Lipid index (fat content/lean dry mass) for the whole body exhibited a sustained linear increase during the first two‐thirds of the nestling period. About 80% of nestling body fat was located in the skin, body shell, and alimentary canal.

The state of development of particular components appeared to be related to the current functional requirements of the nestling. Thus the food processing components assumed an early significance, while the development of insulative and locomotory components was somewhat curtailed by comparison.
Aspiratory respiration in Arapaima gigas (Teleostei, Osteoglossomorpha): A reappraisal
Authors: Greenwood P. H. , Liem Karel F.
Published: August 2009

Recently it has been hypothesized that the osteoglossoid fish Arapaima gigas is unique amongst air‐breathing bony fishes in that it ventilates its respiratory swimbladder by aspiration. Aspiration, it was suggested, is effected by a diaphragm‐like septum lying below the swimbladder, and activated through lateral movement of the ribs.

By using both high‐speed X‐ray and light cinematography this hypothesis can be refuted. Furthermore, dissection shows that the presumed anatomical basis for aspiration stems from a misinterpretation of the usual retroperitoneal position of the swimbladder, and that the ribs are capable of only a very restricted lateral movement. Arapaima gigas, like other bony fishes with a respiratory swimbladder, ventilates that organ by means of a buccopharyngeal pump.

The principal afferent vascular supply to the swimbladder is, however, unusual since it stems from the caudal vein via the renal‐portal system. This and other aspects of swimbladder structure and anatomy may throw further light on the interrelationships of osteoglossoid fishes.
Breeding biology and population dynamics of giant petrels Macronectes at South Georgia (Aves: Procellariiformes)
Authors: Hunter S.
Published: August 2009

The breeding biology and population dynamics of the two species of giant petrels, Macronectes halli and M. giganteus, were studied at Bird Island, South Georgia during 1978–81. The mean laying date of M. halli was in early October, five to six weeks ahead of M. giganteus. In both species males take the larger share (c. 54%) of incubation. The eggs of the two species are of the same size but in M. halli the egg formed a significantly higher proportion of the female body weight. On hatching M. giganteus chicks are 5% heavier than M. halli chicks but there are no sexual differences in weight. Brooding and guarding in M. halli is 11 days longer than in M giganteus and males undertake 60–68% of the duties during this time. Males of both species take five to six days longer to fledge than females and M. halli chicks have a seven to nine day shorter fledging period. The sex ratio amongst chicks is 1: 1.

Chick growth (weight, culmen length and wing length) is summarized. Males reach higher peak and fledging weights than females in both species and have significantly larger bills through most of the fledging period. The increase in wing length was similar in both sexes until near the end of the fledging period. Adult M. halli tend to be shorter‐winged, larger‐billed and lighter in weight than M. giganteus at Bird Island.

Chick mortality was on average c. 10% higher in M. giganteus than in M. halli leading to a lower overall breeding success in the former. Whilst the breeding population of M. giganteus seems to have stayed relatively stable M. halli has increased in numbers over the last 20 years. However 26‐9‐57–5% of birds colour‐ringed in 1978 did not breed in the subsequent two breeding seasons. Mean annual survival of breeding adults was c. 0–90. Breeding commenced between age 6 and 9 years with males possibly starting earlier than females. The increased population of M. halli and the better survival of their chicks is attributed to the considerable increase in breeding Antarctic fur seals Arctocephalus gazella which provide an abundance of carrion for M. halli nestlings during the first 30 days after hatching.
Emergence of the mature trematode Bunodera luciopercae from infected fish under different light conditions
Authors: Iyeshko E. P. , Kaufman B. Z.
Published: August 2009

The elimination dynamics of the sexually mature trematode Bunodera luciopercae, a specific parasite of the perch Perca fluviatilis L. was studied using three photoperiods (L: D; L: L; D:D). Permanent illumination induced the helminth to leave fish. The diurnal rhythm of elimination is not pronounced. High values were recorded both in the morning and in the evening. A 40‐h elimination rhythm revealed for B. luciopercae is due to certain features of its life cycle.
Changes in the numbers of foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Scotland
Authors: Hewson Raymond
Published: August 2009

More foxes were killed in Scotland from 1971 to 1978 than in the previous decade, but in some parts the rate of increase was not being maintained. Fluctuations in the numbers of foxes killed were associated with big changes in the numbers of Field voles.
Spicule form in calcareous sponges (Porifera: Calcarea). The principle of uniplanar curvature
Authors: Jones W. Clifford
Published: August 2009

A study of the shapes of secondary sagittal tri‐ and quadri‐radiate spicules of the calcareous sponge Leuconia fistulosa has revealed that the paired rays appear kinked, with straight sections in between the kinks, when the spicules are viewed along the optic axis of the constituent calcite. The secondary sagittal spicules thus conform with monaxons and with per‐regular and primary sagittal tri‐ and quadri‐radiates, in general, in that whenever a ray is curved, the curvature is always in a single plane that includes the optic axis. The kinks are not necessarily distributed in symmetrical fashion along the paired rays. A mechanism is proposed whereby uniplanar curvature could be achieved.
Nest construction, fighting, and larval behaviour in a geotrupine dung beetle, Ceratophyus hoffmannseggi (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)
Authors: Klemperer* H.G.
Published: August 2009

The female beetleCeratophyus hoffmanseggiburies dung, with the assistance of a male, to form a series of underground brood masses. An egg is laid in the soil near each mass. Beetles of either sex resist intruders in the entrance to their burrows by a head‐to‐head pushing contest, without injury to either opponent. The larva feeds within the brood mass forming an elongated cavity. This chamber is lined with a tube built from larval excrement. The larva does not immediately repair holes made in this tube, and can neither isolate itself from another larva introduced into the same chamber, nor maintain a closed chamber when it is placed in a free‐standing brood ball.

A pair of beetles worked together to make a series of horizontal brood masses by packing dung into underground chambers. An egg was laid in the soil just beyond the tip of each mass. Resident beetles used their horns to resist intruders of either sex. During head‐to‐head pushing contests in the nest entrance‐tunnel, a stable position was adopted where the horns of each opponent thrust harmlessly against the pronotum of the other. The larva prevented collapse of its chamber by building a rigid tube from accurately positioned faecal pellets. Defects in the larval chamber released no obvious repair behaviour and the larva was, therefore, not able to survive in a free‐standing brood ball or in the presence of another larva in the same chamber.

It is a pleasure to thank Sr J. de Ferrer (8 Av. F. Franco, Algeciras) for his help and advice.
Early vertebrate evolution: pharyngeal structure and the origin of gnathostomes
Authors: Mallatt Jon
Published: August 2009

Some authors have claimed that pharyngeal morphology supports the classical division of vertebrates into Gnathostomata and Agnatha. Assuming the branchial arches of jawed and jawless fish to be homologous, and noting that the arches lie on opposite sides of the gills (internal vs. external), these authors necessarily concluded that the gills evolved independently in the two groups (ectobranchiates, endobranchiates). A gill‐less common vertebrate ancestor must have been very simple and ancient (early Cambrian or older). The present paper challenges this scheme by arguing that the gills of lampreys and gnathostome fish are too structurally similar to have been independently derived. Rather, the branchial arches in the two groups are non‐homologous, for they differ in location, not only with respect to the gills, but also with respect to other major organs (ventral aorta, thyroid, visceral musculature). It is concluded that the common ancestors of gnathostomes and lampreys were not simple animals, but fish with fully developed gills that could have existed well after the Cambrian period. Constructing a gnathostome‐like pharynx requires only the addition of internal branchial arches to an agnathan pharynx (larval lamprey). It is widely held that vertebrates initially fed on microscopic particles; if so, the mere addition of larger, zooplankton‐sized items to the pre‐gnathostome diet would have provided selection for protectively re‐enforcing the medial margins of the gills with internal arches.

Contrary to one widely held view, pharyngeal morphology does not separate jawless vertebrates (lampreys) from gnathostome fish. Despite differences in branchial arch location, gills of lampreys and gnathostomes are fundamentally alike. Phylogenetic considerations might take a fruitful new direction by asking how the branchial arches came to differ in the two groups.

Thanks are extended to Quentin Bone, Philippe Janvier, R. P. S. Jefferies, Malcolm Jollie, Ken Kardong, Colin Patterson, Barbara Stahl, Keith Thomson and Richard Wassersug for discussion of the ideas in this paper, and to Barbara Comstock and Sue Rose for typing the manuscript.
Effects of male courtship and gonadal steroids on pair formation, egg‐laying, and serum LH in Canvasback ducks (Aythya valisineria)
Authors: Bluhm Cynthia K. , Phillips R. E. , Burke W. H. , Gupta G. N.
Published: August 2009

The effects of social stimuli on the reproductive physiology of female birds have been widely studied. This study examined the endocrine and behavioural responses of female Canvasbacks (Aythya valisineria) to changes in the behavioural and endocrine states of the male, as signalled by his courtship displays. Male Canvasbacks exposed to female conspecifics exhibited a variety of courtship displays which increased significantly with testosterone administration. However, the testosterone‐increased courtship displays of males did not increase female receptivity or serum LH, or stimulate reproductive development or egg‐laying in unpaired females placed with them. Females confined in cubicles within a pen that held breeding pairs and a free‐swimming flock had higher serum LH levels and laid more eggs than did females in cubicles in another pen without breeding pairs or a free‐swimming flock. This suggests that social factors, such as vocalizations from a flock and breeding pairs, may increase serum LH and egg‐laying in unpaired females. Oestradiol implants in female Canvasbacks did not elevate receptivity to courting drakes, nor did they stimulate pair formation, nesting activity, or egg‐laying behaviour. Testosterone implants in drakes and oestradiol implants in females decreased serum LH in each group. These results show that increasing the amount of courtship is not adequate to stimulate pairing behaviour or increases in reproductive hormones. Thus, our results suggest that female receptivity to male courtship may be a key determinant of pair formation and consequent synchronization of the behaviour patterns between members of a pair of wild birds. Our results may further suggest a dissociation between effects of courtship and pair formation in wild Canvasbacks.
An investigation of the population ecology of syntopic shrews inhabiting water‐cress beds
Authors: Churchfield Sara
Published: August 2009

The population ecology of the shrews Neomys fodiens, Sorex araneus and S. minutus living syntopically in an area of commercial water‐cress beds was investigated by live‐trapping over a two‐year period. The shrew population comprised 52% 5. araneus, 31%N. fodiens and 17%S. minutus. Sorex araneus was the most numerous species in all seasons. Peak numbers of shrews occurred in summer with low numbers in the ensuing winter. Input of new individuals was high, especially of N. fodiens which exceeded 60% in most months. Survival in the study area never exceeded 8 months in N. fodiens and 11 months in S. araneus. Both species suffered approximately 50% mortality and emigration in the first two months of life. Apart from a few, more nomadic, shrews, N. fodiens and S. araneus seemed quite sedentary during trapping periods, moving a mean distance of 13.7 m and 17.2 m between successive captures, respectively. The relatively low numbers of recaptures of N. fodiens at successive trapping periods indicated nomadic behaviour. Both species were more active during darkness than during daylight, and were more active in spring and summer than in winter. High turnover of the shrew population was attributed to mortality and emigration. Emigration was possibly encouraged by competition for space, particularly for nesting sites.
A study of oesophageal structure in a nematode, Aphelenchoides blastophthorus (Aphelenchida), using computer graphics reconstruction from serial thin sections
Authors: Shepherd Audrey M. , Perkins W. J. , Green R. J. , Clark Sybil A.
Published: August 2009

It can be difficult to visualize the shape and disposition of components in biological material from serial sections. They can be reconstructed by tracing outlines from sections onto an acetate sheet and stacking the sheets, but this method provides only a static model in which the elements cannot be manipulated or accurately measured. A more versatile method uses an interactive computer program. Data are entered via a digitizing tablet and the model may be displayed in any desired orientation and with any combination of elements presented. In this two‐part paper we describe this technique and explain how it was used to elucidate the cellular composition of part of the feeding apparatus of a plant‐infesting nematode. The oesophageal metacorpus of Aphelenchoides blastophthorus was found to consist of 43 cell bodies: 24 muscle, six epithelial and 13 nerve cells. The wide biological applicability of the technique is discussed and, in particular, its use in studying taxonomy and phylogeny of nematodes.
Development of the head and pectoral skeleton of Polypterus with a note on scales (Pisces: Actinopterygii)
Authors: Jollie M.
Published: August 2009

Comparative study of the bony head and pectoral girdle skeletons of fishes requires the establishment of sound and acceptable homologies. In this paper, the bony elements seen in a number of species of Polypterus (and Erpeloichlhys) are described in terms of several developmental stages and the mature condition. Variations in these bones are considered in a developmental sense. As a part of the problem of bone development, a summary account of lateral‐line development is included.

A number of particular problems of homology are discussed in some detail. The most radical differences of view involve the endocranial bones. The ideas of Patterson (1975) are examined and an alternative interpretation offered. The main bone in the posterolateral angle of the endo‐cranium is viewed as the pterotic‐epiotic. The epiotic of the teleost is seen not as the homologue of the epioccipital of the pholidophorid but a part of the so‐called “pterotic” of those fishes. Other endocranial problems appear to be of a similar (interpretative) nature. The suspensorium of Polypterus is peculiar in lacking a symplectic and an interhyal. The branchial skeleton is quite like that of a “palaeoniscoid”. The pectoral girdle presents a number of problems such as the form of the posttemporal, the lack of a sensory canal on the supracleithrum and the lack of an interclavicle.

The subject matter of this paper, and other papers by this author on the development of bones in fishes, lead to several developmental concepts. These are summarized in 18 statements. A table (Table II) summarizes some of the anatomical information useful in taxonomy in terms of being derived, primitive or unique.
Responses of small mammals to Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) odour
Authors: Dickman C. R. , Doncaster C. P.
Published: August 2009

This paper describes the responses of three species of rodents (Apodemus sylvaticus, Microtus agrestis and Clethrionomys glareolus) and a shrew (Sore.x araneus) to traps tainted with the faecal odour of a predator, the Red fox. The rodents generally avoided traps bearing fox odour, but readily entered traps marked with rodent odour, whereas shrews entered all traps equally. Among the rodents, avoidance of fox odour was strongest in male A. sylvaticus and C. glareolus and least in M. agrestis and female A. sylvaticus. Fox droppings were found principally along paths and in open habitats where, of the rodents mentioned, they were most likely to be encountered by A. sylvaticus. It was suggested that avoidance of fox faecal and urinary odours in this species, especially by the active males, would reduce the time spent in areas frequented by foxes, and hence reduce the chance of encountering the predator itself. In contrast, M. agresis would seldom encounter fox droppings in its sub‐surface runways, so avoidance of fox faecal odour would do little to reduce its chance of encountering the predator. Avoidance by the rodents of the faecal odour of badger, a predator not present in the study areas, was only slightly less marked than their avoidance of fox faecal odour. It was postulated that similar chemicals eliciting avoidance in rodents may commonly occur in the faeces and urine of carnivores.
The effect of animal design on jumping performance
Authors: Gabriel Julie M.
Published: August 2009

Previous workers have shown that the jumping performance of small animals is limited by power requirements, while that of large animals is limited by energy requirements. This is confirmed here, and the theory is extended to include animals that store energy, prior to a jump. Factors affecting jump range for animals of different sizes are discussed. For animals that store energy, a power amplification factor may be calculated, if the animal's range, mass and leg length are known. Alternatively, range may be predicted for an animal of known design. Animals that show a marked increase in jump range with an increase in body size are probably energy storers.

The range of large jumping animals will be limited by their ability to produce energy. In order to jump further, a large animal would need to give over a greater proportion of its body mass to jumping muscle. Small animals will be limited by their ability to produce power, but this problem can be overcome by increasing the relative length of the jumping legs or by introducing an energy storage system. Animals showing increased range with increased body size probably use energy storage systems.

My thanks are due to Dr H. C. Bennet‐Clark and Dr J. F. lles for supervision of this work, to Professor T. R. E. Southwood for accommodation in the Dept of Zoology, Oxford, and to the SERC for financial support.
Morphometric integration in the rat (Rattus sp.) scapula
Authors: Leamy Larry , Atchley William R.
Published: August 2009

Morphometric integration was analysed in 19 anatomical measures taken on the scapula and humerus in a population of 519 rats. As hypothesized, genetic integration was the highest, the average phenotypic genetic, and environmental correlations being 0·53, 0·67 and 0·42, and the index of integration 0·56, 0·69 and 0·48. Phenotypic and genetic correlation matrices were most similar (correlation =+0.79), genetic and environmental matrices least similar (correlation =+0.49). The first unrotated vector produced from principal components analysis explained a high percentage of the total variation (from 50% in the environmental to 70% in the genetic solution), and was highly heritable in all cases. Rotated vectors defined two length, one width, and one height grouping in the phenotypic solution, these being explained largely in terms of muscle assemblages. The four vectors produced in the genetic solution were similar to those from the phenotypic ones, but were more functionally interpretable. The five vectors produced from the environmental correlations paralleled those from the phenotypic correlations with regard to the length, but not the width measures. The general concordance among appropriate vectors from all three solutions was reasonably high. Twelve of the 13 vectors, as well as several hypothetical ones. exhibited moderate to high heritabilities.
The feeding ecology of a selective browser, the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi)
Authors: Pellew Robin A.
Published: August 2009

A herbivore can manipulate certain factors of its feeding behaviour in order to achieve the metabolic requirements for reproduction. These factors include the choice of habitat in which to feed, the selection criteria for choosing food items, and the time allocated to feeding or devoted to other energy‐consuming activities. The manipulation of these behavioural factors by giraffe in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania is analysed in relation to the seasonal changes in the quantity and quality of the food resource.

The pattern of habitat choice demonstrates seasonal movements by giraffe across the drainage catena in response to differences in the rates of browse production between woodland types.

Giraffe show a positive inter‐specific selection for the minor food items with a low available biomass, and utilize the dominant species in approximate proportion to their availability. Plant part selection is shown for the flushing shoots with very high protein contents.

Selection criteria include a significant selection for phosphorus, and in the dry season a selection for high energy material by breeding females. With the high nutritional qualities of the diets, negative criteria such as secondary chemical compounds are important. Patterns of browse selection are correlated with inter‐specific seasonal changes in plant phenology.

Giraffe devote more time to foraging as the biomass and quality of the food declines in the dry season. Energy is conserved by minimizing energy‐consuming activities at the most demanding times of day.
Breeding biology and population dynamics of Ringed ploversCharadrius hiaticulain Britain and Greenland: nest‐predation as a possible factor limiting distribution and timing of breeding
Authors: Pienkowski Michael W.
Published: August 2009

The nesting of Ringed plovers was investigated in 1974 at Mestersvig, north‐east Greenland, and in 1974–76 at Lindisfarne, north‐east England. Difficulties in the use of Nest Record Cards for this species (to obtain information from more sites) are discussed. Territory sizes tended to be smaller, and more feeding took place within territories, at Lindisfarne than at Mestersvig. Clutch sizes were similar in different areas. Incubation (mean period about 25 days) was shared fairly equally by the two sexes. Longer incubation shifts at Mestersvig and some areas at Lindisfarne than at other Lindisfarne sites were associated with greater distances between nests and feeding areas. Most egg losses were probably due to predation, and were fewer in the Arctic than in Britain, where nesting success varied greatly in different areas and years, and in relation to timing within a season. Up to five nestings per pair per year were made at Lindisfarne, but only one at Mestersvig.

The timing of breeding is discussed, and it is concluded that the date of start of egg‐laying in north‐east Greenland is determined by the timing of snow clearance, while that at Lindisfarne is related to the decreasing probability of egg‐predation later in the season. Because of the high nest losses, the production of young at many temperate sites, including parts of Lindisfarne, was probably inadequate for the population to be self‐supporting. The reasons for the large seasonal, annual and geographical differences are discussed. It is concluded that increasing predation probably determines the southern nesting limits of Ringed plovers, but that this limit may be modified by varying degrees of different types of natural and artificial protection, and extent of habitat suitable for egg camouflage. Increased human usage of nesting beaches probably has an adverse effect on nesting success, but because of the complexity of the number of inter‐related factors affecting the latter, without field experiments it is difficult to predict how this could best be offset by protection measures.
Scent marking strategies in hyaenas (Mammalia)
Authors: Gorman M. L. , Mills M. G. L.
Published: August 2009

Brown hyaenas scent mark by making latrines and depositing onto grass stalks two distinct secretions produced in their anal pouch. The latter behaviour is called pasting. Pastings are found spaced throughout a territory but mainly in the interior where the hyaenas spend most of their time. Latrines are clumped near to, but not along, the border. Computer analyses show that intruders encounter scent marks very soon after entering a territory. Comparison with other species indicates that the length of border to be marked by each individual in a group is the important factor in determining whether they mark throughout the territory or just along the border.
Influences of adult age and experience, nest location, clutch size and laying sequence on the breeding success of the Great skua Catharacta skua
Authors: Furness R. W.
Published: August 2009

In 881 nesting attempts by Great skuas on Foula during 1975 and 1976, 1.24 chicks were fledged per pair. Addled eggs and egg predation were the main causes of losses. Eggs rolled out of the nest were not retrieved. Almost all chicks which hatched also fledged. Young or inexperienced breeders were almost as successful as older or experienced pairs. Birds producing single egg clutches and addled eggs usually also showed low aggression and held small territories. Egg predation was greatest at high nest density, when food availability was low, and when adult aggression score was low. High density nesting seems to have been imposed by the limited size of the island and prolonged population increase.
The vocalization of the Harbour seal pup (Phoca vitulina) and its role in the maintenance of contact with the mother*
Authors: Renouf Deane
Published: August 2009

The Harbour seal pup is predisposed to follow its mother's movements which helps to ensure that the pair stays together. The mother monitors her pup's following and it is argued in this paper that she does so primarily by listening to the frequent, individually characteristic vocalization of her pup. This call can be produced in air and water simultaneously and as such could serve as a precise location mechanism.
Food niche separation between four sympatric Namib Desert carnivores
Authors: Bothma J. Du P. , Nel J. A. J. , Macdonald A.
Published: August 2009

The diet of four sympatric carnivore species was established by analyzing scats collected during 1978‐1980, a period of increasing drought in the Namib Desert. Termites were especially important in the diet of Aardwolves and Bat‐eared foxes and the food spectrum was not broadened in response to increased aridity. Black‐backed jackals utilized a wide range of prey items, especially rodents and lagomorphs, while the Cape fox largely depended on murid rodents, but also took lagomorphs and insects. Separation in use of space and times of activity between the four species also occurred.
Behavioural, anatomical and chemical aspects of scent marking amongst Capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) (Rodentia: Caviomorpha)
Authors: Macdonald D. W. , Krantz K. , Aplin R. T.
Published: August 2009

Observations of Capybaras, Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, in the Venezuelan savannah during the dry season show that the sexes differ in the structure and size of their scent glands and in the way they deploy odours. Males have a greatly enlarged nose gland or morrillo, from which they smear copious secretion on vegetation. They also have detachable, secretion‐coated hairs within their large anal pockets. Vegetation marked by the morrillo may also be marked by dragging the anal pockets across it, and by urination. The morrillos of females resemble those of males, but are poorly developed and infrequently used. The anal pockets of females are highly developed, and differ externally from those of males in having a more ampulla‐like shape and in lacking detachable hairs (osmetrichia). During the dry season, scent marks of all types made by members of both sexes seem to be deployed throughout the Capybaras home range. At this time, males mark more frequently than females, and larger animals have larger, more active morrillos and anal glands than smaller ones, and probably use them more often. The histology of both glands is described: both are composed of sebaceous tissue. The detachable hairs of males were examined through scanning electron microscopy and found to be coated in regular layers of a largely crystaline deposit. The structure of the hairs may be adapted to retain secretion. The chemistry of the secretion of male morrillos and female anal pockets was investigated. The two secretions are different, although both contain lipids including sterols and/or terpenes, and both contain amines and amino acids. The same compounds were generally represented in the secretion of the same gland from different individuals, but in different quantities and proportions, hence suggesting that individual recognition is possible on the basis of a “chemical fingerprint”. The most volatile substance from the male morrillo was a hydrocarbon C30 H50, whereas the bulk of the secretion is a complex mixture of esters.
Scaling in tensile “skeletons”: scale dependent length of the Achilles tendon in mammals
Authors: Peterson J. A. , Benson J. A. , Morin J. G. , Mcfall‐Ngai M. J.
Published: August 2009

The Achilles tendon of a diverse group of mammals ranging from the mouse (12g) to the rhinoceros (1300kg) scales so that the tendon length varies as tendon diameter.0‐931±0.069 (r=0.983). Tendon length scales as (body mass)0‐342±0.028, and tendon diameter scales as (body mass)0‐361±0.029. If tendon stress and strain are scale independent, the capacity of the tendon to store elastic strain energy remains proportion to body mass. If tendon stress and strain increase with body mass, energy storage may scale somewhat higher. The scaling of the Achilles tendon is consistent with its role in storing strain energy and different from that of a variety of other tensile skeletal elements which exhibit scale independent length dimensions.
Carbohydrate‐containing endothelial cells lining the bulbus arteriosus of teleosts and the conus arteriosus of elasmobranchs (Pisces)
Authors: Benjamin M. , Norman D. , Scarborough D. , Santer R. M.
Published: August 2009

The study is a survey of the shape and carbohydrate histochemistry of the endothelial cells lining the conus arteriosus of 10 species of elasmobranchs and the bulbus arteriosus of 80 species of teleosts. Intensely PAS‐positive cells that were often tall, were found in many teleosts and were typical of phylogenetically advanced species. They were not seen in any elasmobranch. Most of the teleosts with strongly PAS‐positive cells were marine fish or euryhaline animals that were caught in freshwater. Beyond this, it is difficult to generalize on their life‐style or habitat, for they included small fish, large fish, fast swimmers, bottom‐living forms, deep‐water fish, littoral species and Antarctic “bloodless” forms. It is likely that the PAS‐positivity of the endothelial cells can be attributed to the moderately‐dense granules revealed by E.M., but as yet the significance of these is unclear.
Observations on the burrows and burrowing behaviour of Calocaris macandreae (Crustacea: Decapoda: Thalassinoidea)
Authors: Nash R. D. M. , Chapman C. J. , Atkinson R. J. A. , Morgan P. J.
Published: August 2009

A description of the burrows of Calocaris macandreae has been compiled from three field studies on the west coast of Scotland. The burrow tunnel configuration is a diagnostic feature of this species. Typically, the burrow complex contains at least one three entrance system to the surface and is developed on two levels (a primary level at 98—187 mm below the sediment surface and a secondary level at 140—215 mm). All the tunnel junctions within a burrow complex are tripartite. Development in the secondary level produces circular tunnels. In all three study areas the density of Calocaris was low in comparison with results from deeper water. The burrowing behaviour is described and a preliminary study of oxygen tension within the occupied burrow showed little oxygen loss between primary level tunnels and the overlying water.
Is there external digestion by Octopus?
Authors: Nixon Marion
Published: August 2009

A crab which has been captured and paralysed by an octopus but retrieved 1 1/2 min later cannot at first be pulled apart by the experimenter: 27 min later it can be dismembered easily. This demonstrates that there is external digestion when Octopus vulgaris feeds upon crabs. However, it is strictly limited at this stage to the arthrodial membrane and the musculo‐skeletal attachment mechanisms as the exoskeleton separates at the joints allowing the muscles to be drawn out of the appendages. And yet, two hours after capture, pieces of crab meat are still recognizable in the octopus's stomach.

The process of paralysing and cleaning a crab was noticeably slowed after the surgical removal of the radula, salivary papilla or the lateral buccal palps.
Reproduction and growth in three species of West African fruit bats
Authors: Thomas D. W. , Marshall A. G.
Published: August 2009

This study outlines the reproduction periods of the African fruit bats Epomops buettikoferi, Epomophorus garnbianus, and Micropteropus pusillus at two West African savanna sites: a wet southern Guinea savanna and a drier southern Sudanese savanna. At both sites the two annual birth periods were timed such that both lactation by only one weaning period coincided with the rainy season peaks in fruit availability. On this basis we propose that lactation rather than weaning was the important determinant of the timing of reproduction. There was no evidence of cycling of testes size in males corresponding with the seasonal mating periods. E. buettikoferi and M. pusillus females mated at six months and gave birth at the age of 12 months. Males of the two species reached puberty by 11 months and seven months, respectively. Growth rates did not differ between cohorts growing through the wet and dry season and E. buettikoferi and M. pusillus grew at rates of 276 mg/day and 116 mg/day, respectively.
The statocysts of cranchiid squids (Cephalopoda)
Authors: Young J. Z.
Published: August 2009

The statocysts of Cranchiidae are unlike those of all other squids. They are very varied: at one extreme is Bathothauma with a very large sac unique in having no internal interruptions. Conversely Egea has more of these anticristae than any other cephalopod. They are arranged in patterns that are different from those of other squids and they are sometimes very long and thin. The anticristae are large and numerous in the cranchiids that are perhaps more rapid swimmers and more active in hunting their prey, for example Mesonychoteuthis, Megalocranchia, Egea or Taonius. However, in the moderately large cranchiids Teuthowenia and Galiteuthis the statocyst cavities are little interruped by anticristae.

The conditions of the statocysts are found to correspond well with the cladistic analyses of relationship within the family performed by N.A. and R.S. Voss, except for those of Teuthowenia and Galiteuthis which stand apart, having relatively uninterrupted cavities. Other genera showing this condition are mostly small animals and form a group of presumably neotenous forms as suggested by N. Voss. It is discussed whether these may be the more primitive genera in the group. Possibly the Cranchiidae arose as neotenous buoyant squids with a peculiar mantle cavity and coelom and uninterrupted statocysts. Later genera exploited these characters and when they became more active swimmers they developed anticristae with an original pattern, allowing monitoring of more rapid turns.
Interspecific spawning between Common frogs (Rana temporaria) and Common toads (Bufo bufo)
Authors: Reading C. J.
Published: August 2009

The interaction between Common frogs (Rana temporaria) and Common toads (Bufo bufo) during the breeding season was studied at a small pond on Portland, Dorset. Although the frogs started and finished spawning earlier than the toads there was a period during which interspecific spawning between female toads and male frogs took place. This appears to have resulted from reduced male toad activity caused by the cold breeding season given that spatial, temporal and behavioural species separation did not occur.
Quantitative estimation of islet tissue of pancreas in adult Grey kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus)
Authors: Edwin Nalini
Published: August 2009

Six Grey kangaroos, both male and female, were shot and weighed. The pancreas was isolated, weighed and samples fixed in Bouin's solution. Using a linear scanning technique (Carpenter & Lazarow, 1962) the mean islet tissue mass was estimated in head, neck, body and tail regions. A uniform distribution was found in all regions. The relationship between pancreas weight and body weight and islet mass in relation to body weight were calculated. Sections stained with aldehyde‐fuchsin (Gomori, 1950), Mallory's phosphotungstic acid haemotoxylin and modified Davenport's technique (Epple, 1967) were prepared. Using a Wild‐M501 semiautomatic sampling microscope and a Weibel graticule (Weibel et al., 1966) the percentage volume of β cells, α cells and δ cells were estimated respectively in the head, neck, body and tail regions of the six samples. The α cells or glucagon‐producing cells were the most predominant as these macropodid marsupials are well adapted to dealing with hypoglycemic conditions. They were uniformly distributed in all regions.
Reliability and validity of the assessment of neurological soft‐signs in children with and without attention‐deficit–hyperactivity disorder
Authors: GUSTAFSSON PEIK , SVEDIN CARL GÖRAN , ERICSSON INGEGERD , LINDÉN CHRISTIAN , KARLSSON MAGNUS K , THERNLUND GUNILLA
Published: August 2009

Aim  To study the value and reliability of an examination of neurological soft‐signs, often used in Sweden, in the assessment of children with attention‐deficit–hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), by examining children with and without ADHD, as diagnosed by an experienced clinician using the DSM‐III‐R.

Method  We have examined interrater reliability (26 males, nine females; age range 5y 6mo–11y), internal consistency (94 males, 43 females; age range 5y 6mo–11y), test–retest reliability (12 males, eight females; age range 6–9y), and validity (79 males, 33 females; age range 5y 6mo–9y).

Results  The sum of the scores for the items on the examination had good interrater reliability (intraclass correlation [ICC] 0.95) and acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha 0.76). The test–retest study also showed good reliability (ICC 0.91). There were modest associations between the examination and the assessment of motor function made by the physical education teacher (ICC 0.37) as well as from the parents’ description (ICC 0.39). The examination of neurological soft‐signs had a sensitivity of 0.80 and a specificity of 0.76 in predicting motor problems as evaluated by the physical education teacher.

Interpretation  The reliability and validity of this examination seem to be good and can be recommended for clinical practice and research.
A characterization of peanut consumption in four countries: results from focus groups and their implications for peanut allergy prevalence
Authors: Sora Beatriz , Boulay Annabelle , Sala Roser , Houghton Julie , Gancheva Vyara , Strada Anna , Schlegel‐Zawadzka Malzorgata , Rowe Gene
Published: August 2009

Rates of peanut allergy in the Western world have increased over the last 30 years, although it is unclear why. While eating behaviours are likely to be connected to allergy prevalence, the precise relevant factors are uncertain. This study aimed to investigate dietary differences and changes in dietary habits in peanut consumption (in apparent and hidden forms) in four different countries (Bulgaria, Poland, Spain, UK), specifically chosen because of their different ‘peanut experiences’. Focus groups revealed a common perception that dietary habits have become less healthy, with more consumption of processed foods and an increase in snacking. In addition, ethnic cuisine was perceived to have had an important impact on European eating habits, while participants identified an increase in consumption of more ‘exotic’ forms of peanuts and their products. These findings point to an increase in exposure to peanuts, particularly in hidden forms, that superficially parallels increased prevalence rates. However, it was also clear that participants lacked knowledge about the composition of food and non‐food products. The dietary trends identified here thus warrant further quantitative investigation, particularly in the context of differential national patterns of allergy prevalence – data on which is currently being gathered within the EC‐funded EuroPrevall project.