bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Attitudes of Nurses, Dietitians, and Physicians Toward Diabetes
Authors: Anderson Robert M. , Donnelly Michael B. , Dedrick Robertf. , Gressard Clarice P.
Published: March 2007

This paper describes the attitudes of physicians, nurses, and dietitians toward diabetes. The study involves 1,608 diabetes attitude surveys that were completed by both diabetes specialists and nonspecialists. The study found that overall the attitudes of diabetes specialists were consistently more positive than those of nonspecialists. Also, the study found that the diabetes- related attitudes ofnurses and dietitians were consistently more positive than the attitudes of physicians. The respondents were most positive in their support of the need for special training to treat diabetes, the team approach to diabetes care, and the relationship between glycemic control and the subsequent development of complications. The support for patient autonomy in the treatment of diabetes and for the seriousness of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) was less strong although still favorable.
Postprandial Glycemic Response to Orange Juice and Nondiet Cola: Is There a Difference?
Authors: Sullivan Marilynj. , Scott Robertl.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of unsweetened fruit juice and regular, decaffeinated soda on postprandial serum glucose levels in individuals with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) when these liquids are ingested separately as part ofmixed meals. Eighteen individuals with NIDDM consumed three test breakfasts calculated using the diabetic exchange meal-planning system. Foods were identical in each ofth e breakfasts except for foods in the fruit exchange. Carbohydrate- equivalent amounts offresh orange slices, unsweetened orange juice, and regular, decaffeinated Coke were consumed in breakfasts 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Serum glucose samples were drawn at fasting and 1, 2, and 3 hours postprandially. No difference wasfound in the postprandial serum glucose response when Coke versus orange juice was consumed in the breakfast. These findings question the appropriateness of using unsweetened fruit juices in routine meal planningfor individuals with NIDDM.
Attitudes and Beliefs About Exercise Among Persons With Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes
Authors: Swift Carrie S. , Armstrong Jill E. , Beerman Kathya. , Campbell R. Keith , Pond-Smith Dorothy
Published: March 2007

This study examined attitudes and beliefs about exercise among 83 persons with non-insulin-dependent diabetes who had completed outpatient diabetes counseling. An adaptation of the Health Belief Model, labeled the Exercise Behavior Model, guided perceptual measures. Fifty-two percent of the subjects were exercising 3 or more days per week. Those with a greater length of time since diabetes counseling were more likely to be currently exercising. Positive and negative attitudes toward exercise characterized the group; however, only negative attitudes were related to exercise. Both exercisers and nonexercisers perceived barriers to exercise. Other people, chance happenings, physical discomfort, and perceptions of fitness, weight, and appearance played a role in whether the subjects exercised. The results indicate that providing assistance in identifying support for exercise and overcoming perceived barriers to exercise may increase compliance to this important aspect of the diabetes regimen.
Diabetes in Urban African Americans. V. Use of Discussion Groups to Identify Barriers to Dietary Therapy Among Low-Income Individuals With Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
Authors: El-Kebbi Imad M. , Bacha Gael A. , Ziemer David C. , Musey Victoria C. , Gallina Daniel L. , Dunbar Virginia , Phillips Lawrence S.
Published: March 2007

Dietary therapy remains an integral part of diabetes management. The study objective was to identify potential barriers to dietary adherence among low-income, urban black patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Forty-five patients participated in discussion group interviews that consisted of open-ended questions. Four- problem areas were identified: habitual, economic, social, and conceptual. Most patients felt that the recommended meal plans were lacking in taste, and the cost of low-fat and sugar-free items was perceived as a major drawback. Lack of family support and family pressure to use fat-containing food seasoning were frequent problems. Participants had trouble following the food exchange system and analyzing food labels. Feedback suggested that dietary strategies may need to be revised to provide appropriate menus, identify low-cost foods, involve patients' families, and teach patients how to make healthy food choices. The discussion group approach was quick, simple, and could be easily translated to other settings.
Social Psychology, Criminal Justice, and the Principle of Discretion: A Selective Review
Authors: Shaver Kelly G. , Gilbert Marcia A. , Williams Marylie C.
Published: March 2007

This paper argues that the legal principle of discretion forms an excellent basis for the participation of social psychology in the criminal justice system. Social and psychological factors that enter into arrest, investigation, selective enforcement, plea- bargaining, criminal sentences, and prison operation are reviewed. The bibliography includes 15 case citations and 132 references.
Diffusion of Responsibility and Restaurant Tipping: Cheaper by the Bunch
Authors: Freeman Stephen , Walker Marcus R. , Borden Richard , Latané Bibb
Published: March 2007

The amount tipped by 396 groups of restaurant diners was a function of the number of people eating together as well as the size of the bill. One-third of the variability in tipping was explained by the norm that tip should equal 15% of bill. In addition, consistent with a new theory of division of responsibility, variation around this norm was an inverse power function of group size, specifically, 18%/N'22.
A Test of the Social Facilitation Theories of Cottrell and Zajonc in a Coaction Situation
Authors: VanTuinen Mark , McNeel Steven P.
Published: March 2007

Zajonc' theory that the presence of a coactor is suffi cient to facilitate a dominant response was compared with Cot rell's theory that facilitation does not occur unless coactors compete. During 150 baseline trials 80 males individually predic ted the occurrence of two stimuli on a PDP-12 computer screen. For 150 test trials subjects were divided among alone-noncompetition, alone-competition, dyad-noncompetition, and dyad-competition con ditions. In addition, an alone-incentive group was paid 1c per correct prediction in order to assess the effects of drive on the dominant prediction. The results supported Cottrell: only the alone-incentive and dyad-competition groups showed facilitation of the dominant prediction from baseline to test session.
The Interpersonal Consequences of Self-Disclosure and Internal Attributions for Successl
Authors: Stephan Walter G. , Lucker G. William , Aronson Elliot
Published: March 2007

Two experiments were conducted to examine the effects of an actor's internal attributions for success on observers' sub sequent treatment of the actor. The actor self-disclosed inform ation of moderate intimacy to some observers, but not to others. In both experiments it was found that when the actor attributed his success to ability he was treated less favorably when he was perceived to be friendly because he had self-disclosed, than when he was regarded neutrally because there had been no opportunity for him to self-disclose. In the first experiment, but not in the second, it was found that when the actor attributed his success to effort, he was treated more favorably when he had self-disclosed than when he had not.
Nauturalistic Studies of Self-Disclosure
Authors: Rubin Zick
Published: March 2007

Three naturalistic experimental approaches to studying self-disclosure between strangers are presented. Their advantages and liabilities, both methodological and ethical, are discussed.
Why Is Tipping "Cheaper by the Bunch": Diffusion or Just Deserts?
Authors: Elman Donald
Published: March 2007

It was concluded in a recently-published study that the percentage amount of a restaurant tip decreases as the number of persons at a table increases,because of diffusion of responsibility. The validity of this explanation is questioned. Theoretical and methodological alternatives are suggested.
Social Psychology, Science, and History: So What?
Authors: Brewster Smith M.
Published: March 2007

Reacting to papers in a symposium stimulated by an exchange between Gergen (1973), who argued that social psychology is primarily an historical inquiry, and Schlenker (1974), who defended the traditional scientific view of the discipline, the present paper seeks to refocus attention on pragmatic issues facing the discipline. The pursuit of traditional physical science models in social psychology has not worked well, but social psychology has been much more successful in demonstration studies that result in sensitization to variables and relationships. Social psychology has taken a narrow view of science, and neglected significant opportunities that bring it closer to history. The conception of social psychology as history is developed as liberating, not prescriptive, for research in social psychology.
Critical History and Social Psychology's "Crisis"
Authors: Baumgardner Steve R.
Published: March 2007

Current uncertainties among social psychologists concerning the present status and future directions of their field are examined in terms of recent developments in the history and philosophy of science. Examination of the perspective social psychologists share toward the history of their field, as illustrated through a brief case study from social psychology's past, suggests that we have not come to grips with the complexity of our current crisis. Critical historical analysis provides a seldom-used perspective for examining our present dilemmas.
Social Psychology and the Study of Sexual Behavior
Authors: Byrne Donn
Published: March 2007

Past research on sexual behavior may be viewed as a progressive evolution from less taboo concerns (animal behavior, studies of primitive cultures, and abnormality) to the succession of "shocks" that attended the extension of sexual knowledge to the normal, contemporary human sphere with Freud, Kinsey, and Masters and Johnson. Social psychologists were attracted to this area by the revolutionary societal changes in attitudinal permissiveness and in actual behavior, by the research initiated by the Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, and by a pressing applied interest in solving the problems of unwanted and unneeded conception. Sex research is of special value to our field because it has built-in experimental impact, its technology includes the direct nonverbal assessment of a motivational-emotional state, and it is of obvious relevance to innumerable real- life issues. Upon examination, many of the traditional principles and research paradigms of social-personality psychologists may be perceived as being directly relevant to an understanding of sexuality. A tentative model of a social psychological approach to this research domain (the Sexual Behavior Sequence) is presented. Finally, the interdisciplinary and international aspects of sex research are noted.
Attribute Generality and the Inference Process in Impression Formation
Authors: Wegner Daniel M. , Buldain Roger W.
Published: March 2007

This research focused on the role of general attributes (those used by an observer to characterize many persons) in the at tribute inference process. Descriptions of eight acquaintances ob tained from 66 subjects were coded such that the generality of each attribute employed by a subject could be determined. Each subject made inferences based on his selected general and specific attri butes, and then rated the original and inferred attributes on a set of bipolar adjective scales. It was found that inferences based on a general attribute were more similar in meaning to the original at tribute than were inferences based on a specific attribute. Impli cations of this finding for a reconceptualization of the impression formation process were discussed.
The Effects of Status Similarity and Expectation of Reciprocation upon Altruistic Behavior
Authors: Romer Daniel , Bontemps Michael , Flynn Michael , McGuire Thomas , Gruder Charles L.
Published: March 2007

The "wrong-number technique" for eliciting aid was used to test the hypothesis that similarity between benefactor and re cipient only increases helping when future reciprocation and inter action is likely. When helping is altruistic, reciprocity is not expected and dissimilarity need not inhibit helping. The results supported the hypothesis. Implications of altruistic as opposed to reciprocated helping were discussed.
Social Psychology As History or Science: An Addendum
Authors: Gottlieb Avi
Published: March 2007

The present paper attempts to reassess the "social psychology as science or history" debate insti gated by Gergen (1973). It is argued that although Gergen is correct in asserting the transhistorical variability of social psychological phenomena, the implication is that social contextual variables should be incorporated into our theoretical framework, rather than that we should engage in an historical endeavor.
Effect of Number of Options on Recall of Information Supporting Different Decision Strategies
Authors: Mills Judson , Meltzer Richard , Clark Margaret
Published: March 2007

The tendency to use an optinizing decision strategy (try to choose the best option) was hypothesized to be stronger when there is a small number of options and the tendency to use a satisficing strate gy (try to choose a good option) to be stronger when there is a large number of options. The tendency to think about aspects of the options on which the chosen option is the best was hypothesized to be stronger when an optimizing strategy was used and the tendency to think about aspects on which the chosen option is satisfactory to be stronger when a satisficing strategy was used. From these hypotheses it was predicted that recall of information about aspects on which the chosen option was the best but not good will be greater following a choice from a small number of options and recall of information about aspects on which the chosen option was good but not the best will be greater following a choice from a large number of options. An experiment confirmed these predictions.
On the Endogenous-Exogenous Partition in Attribution Theory
Authors: Zuckerman Miron
Published: March 2007

Kruglanski proposed replacing the internal-external partition in attribution theory with a distinction between endogen ous and exogenous attributions (analogous to the distinction between means and ends). His proposal is criticized on the following grounds: (a) the discussion of the traditional internal-external partition misrepresents much of the theory and research concern ing this partition; (b) due to a lack of specific criteria it is sometimes difficult to apply or test the endogenous-exogenous model; (c) the distinction between endogenous and exogenous attri butions is in part a restatement of Jones and Davis' correspondence model; (d) methodological problems undermine his application of the endogenous-exogenous model to studies on intrinsic motiva tion.
Sex Differences in the Social Perception of Rape Victims
Authors: Selby James W. , Calhoun Lawrence G. , Brock Thomas A.
Published: March 2007

Two investigations were conducted to examine sex differ ences in the way rape victims are perceived. In the first study, 25 statements pertaining to rape were administered to a group of 111 female and 70 male undergraduates. Factor analysis of item ratings identified two factors: perceived causality and perceived severity of consequences. Comparisons of the items loading on each of the two factors revealed consistent sex differences in per ceived causality and no significant differences in perceived sev erity of consequences. In the second study, a role-played video tape interview between a presumed rape victim and a police officer was shown to 23 male and 24 female undergraduates. Subjects rated the victim on a series of scales thematically similar to the state ments used in the first study. Sex differences, consistent with the first study were found, with males viewing the victim as play ing a greater causal role in the rape episode than females.
Confounding of Causal Attribution and Trait Consistency in Research on Determinants of Trait Inference Patterns
Authors: Snodgrass Stephen R.
Published: March 2007

Evaluative and descriptive consistency have been proposed as principles accounting for trait inference patterns (Schneider, 1973). This study raises the possibility of a confounding in earlier research of these two principles and another plausible but previously unrecognized trait inference principle, causal attribution. Subjects rated 96 pairs of personality traits (derived fron Peabody, 1967) for probability of cooc currence and probability of causal relationship. These trait pairs were divided into four categories: evaluatively consistent--deseriptively con sistent, evaluatively consistent--descriptively inconsistent, evalua tively inconsistent--descriptively consistent, and evaluatively incon sistent--descriptively inconsistent. In an analysis of variance using evaluative and descriptive consistency as independent variables and prob ability of causal relationship as dependent variable, both types of con sistency were related significantly to probability of causal relation ship. In addition, correlations between probability of causal relation ship and probability of cooccurrence indicate that causal attribution might have accounted for trait inference patterns previously explained in terms of trait consistency.
Dialectical Perspectives on Empirical Research
Authors: Cvetkavich George
Published: March 2007

The implications of dialectics for two aspects of social psychological research are considered. (a) Possible changes in methods and designs, and (b) The rationale for doing research. The emancipatory characteristics of the dialectical perspective should reduce mystification of the relationship between theory and practical problems. It is concluded that the development of a systematic dialectical social psychology depends on two related occurrences: the development of new models of community/research interaction and a new definition of social psychology.
Inter-Inventory Predictability and Content Overlap of the 16 PF and the CPI
Authors: Campbell John B. , Chun Ki-Taek
Published: March 2007

Each scale on the 16 PF and the CPI was pre dicted from the scales on the other inventory using both standard and stepwise multiple regression (N = 241 undergraduates). The discrepancy between the predictabilities obtained by these two methods was minimal. The cross-validational shrinkage of the stepwise regression predictabilities, when ex amined by both the conventional and the McNemar methods, was quite small. The mean predictability was .63 for the 16 PF and .64 for the CPI. Four 16 PF and five CPI scales were "highly predictable," while four 16 PF and three CPI scales were essen tially non-predictable. Seven scales from each in ventory appeared to have counterparts in the other inventory. Thus, despite major differences in philos ophy and strategy of construction, the overall pre dictability remained the same whether the 16 PF scales were predicted from the CPI scales or vice versa. Furthermore, the pattern of predictabilities suggested a substantial overlap between the 16 PF "Adjustment vs. Anxiety" and CPI "Adjustment" factors, and between the 16 PF "Introversion vs. Extroversion" and CPI "Extroversion" factors.
The CES-D Scale
Authors: Radloff Lenore Sawyer
Published: March 2007

The CES-D scale is a short self-report scale designed to measure depressive symptomatology in the general population. The items of the scale are symptoms associated with depression which have been used in previously validated longer scales. The new scale was tested in household interview surveys and in psychiatric settings. It was found to have very high internal consistency and adequate test- retest repeatability. Validity was established by pat terns of correlations with other self-report measures, by correlations with clinical ratings of depression, and by relationships with other variables which support its construct validity. Reliability, validity, and factor structure were similar across a wide variety of demographic characteristics in the general population samples tested. The scale should be a useful tool for epidemiologic studies of de pression.
Scoring Field Dependence: A Methodological Analysis of Five Rod-and-Frame Scoring Systems
Authors: McGarvey Bill , Maruyama Geoffrey , Miller Norman
Published: March 2007

The most consistently used scoring system for the rod-and-frame task has been the total (or average) number of degrees in error from the true vertical, regardless of the initial or final directions of the rod and frame. Since a logical case can be made for at least four alternative scoring systems, a thorough comparison of all five systems seemed appropriate. Comparisons consisted of: (1) an inter nal consistency/reliability analysis, with split-half and test-retest reliabilities and a multitrait-multi- method matrix analysis of each scoring system, chair, frame, and man position; (2) a repeated mea ures ANOVA, with ethnic group, sex, and grade as between factors and chair, frame, and man posi tions as within factors; and (3) correlations of each scoring system with a selected set of external cri teria. Results suggest strong support for use of the natural logarithm of the sum of absolute errors as the preferred scoring system, that concern with the confounding of field dependence and the E effect is largely unwarranted, and that all but one of the scoring systems perform adequately.
Test-Free Person Measurement with the Rasch Simple Logistic Model
Authors: Tinsley Howard E. A. , Dawis René V.
Published: March 2007

This research investigated the use of the Rasch simple logistic model in obtaining test-free ability estimates. Two tests each of word, picture, symbol, and number analogies were administered to college and high school students. Differences between scores on each pair of tests were analyzed to deter mine whether the ability estimates were independ ent of the tests employed. The results indicate that raw-score ability estimates are influenced by the difficulty of the items used in measurement but that Rasch ability estimates are relatively independ ent of the difficulty of these items. The need is dis cussed for additional research in which an indi vidualized item-presentation procedure is used with the Rasch model.
Applicability of the Rasch Model with Varying Item Discriminations
Authors: Dinero Thomas E. , Haertel Edward
Published: March 2007

Among the varieties of logistic models, those at tributed to Birnbaum (involving the parameters of item discrimination, item difficulty, and person ability) and Rasch (involving only item difficulty and person ability) have received attention. The present research simulated the responses of 75 subjects responding to 30 items under the Birn baum model and then attempted a fit to the data using the Rasch model. When item discriminations varied from a variance of .05 to .25 within distribu tions of different form (uniform, normal, and posi tively skewed), the poorest overall fit appeared within the uniform distribution. For each distribu tion there was only a slight increase in the lack of fit as the variances increased.
Errors of Measurement and Standard Setting in Mastery Testing
Authors: Kane Michael , Wilson Jennifer
Published: March 2007

A number of studies have estimated the dependabil ity of domain-referenced mastery tests for a fixed cut off score. Other studies have estimated the dependa bility of judgments about the cutoff score. Each of these two types of dependability introduces error. Brennan and Lockwood (1980) analyzed the two kinds of errors together but assumed that the two sources of error were uncorrelated. This paper extends that analy sis of the total error in estimates of the difference be tween the domain score and the cutoff score to allow for covariance between the two types of error.
Correcting for Range Restriction When the Population Variance is Unknown
Authors: Alexander Ralph A. , Alliger George M. , Hanges Paul J.
Published: March 2007

Correction of correlations diminished by range re striction is a commonly suggested psychometric tech nique. Such corrections may be appropriate in applied settings, such as educational or personnel selection, or in more theoretical applications, such as meta-analy sis. However, an important limitation on the practice of range restriction corrections exists—an estimate of the unrestricted population variance is required. This article outlines and examines the accuracy of a method for estimating the unrestricted variance of a variable from the restricted sample itself. This method is based on the observation that it is possible to table a func tion of the truncated normal distribution that will al low the extent or point of truncation to be estimated (Cohen, 1959). The correlation of the truncated varia ble with other variables may then be corrected by standard restriction of range formulas. The method also allows for correction of the mean of the restricted variable.
Agreement Between Retrospective Accounts of Substance Use and Earlier Reported Substance Use
Authors: Collins Linda M. , Graham John W. , Hansen William B. , Johnson C. Anderson
Published: March 2007

This present study examined agreement between retrospective accounts of substance use and earlier re ported substance use in a high school age sample. Three issues were addressed: (1) extent of overall agreement; (2) evidence for the presence of a response-shift bias; and (3) extent to which current use biases recall of substance use. Subjects were 415 high school students who took part in a smoking prevention program. At the last measurement, which took place 2½ years after the pretest, the students were asked to recall pretest use of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana, and use one year earlier. Results showed an overall tendency for students to recall less use of uncontrolled substances than had been previously reported. For the one controlled substance included in the questionnaire, marijuana, current nonusers tended to recall less use than they had reported at the time, whereas current users tended to recall more use than had been re ported. The present study found no evidence for a response-shift bias. It is suggested that the explicitly worded anchors on the response scales helped prevent such a bias. Finally, the results suggest that current use biases recall of past use to a substantial extent, and that this bias affects recall of alcohol use most se verely.
Graphical Analysis of Item Response Theory Residuals
Authors: Ludlow Larry H.
Published: March 2007

A graphical comparison of empirical versus simu lated residual variation is presented as one way to as sess the goodness of fit of an item response theory model. The two forms of residual variation were gen erated through the separate calibration of empirical data and data "tailored" to fit the model, given the empirical parameter estimates. A variety of techniques illustrate the utility of using tailored residuals as a specific baseline against which empirical residuals may be understood.
The Use of Item Statistics in the Calibration of an Item Bank
Authors: de Gruijter Dato N. M.
Published: March 2007

An IRT analysis based on p (proportion correct) and r (item-test correlation) is proposed for a group of tests having items in common. The procedure is a generalization of a procedure proposed by De Gruijter and Mooijaart (1983) which is related to procedures for the factor analysis of dichotomous data. The pro cedure results in IRT item parameters using data from examinee groups with subsets of common items; it is, therefore, particularly appropriate for calibrating items for use in small-scale item banks. Simulated data are used to illustrate the procedure.
A Comparison of the Information Provided by Essay, Multiple-Choice, and Free-Response Writing Tests
Authors: Ackerman Terry A. , Smith Philip L.
Published: March 2007

This study investigated the similarity of information that is provided by direct and indirect methods of writing assessment. The skills required by each of these techniques provide a framework for a cognitive model of writing skills from which these procedures can be compared. It is suggested that practitioners in terested in reliably measuring all aspects of the pro posed writing process continuum, as characterized by this cognitive model, use both indirect and direct methods. Index terms: Confirmatory factor analy sis, Essay tests, Free-response tests, Multiple-choice tests, Writing assessment, Writing processes.
The Constraining of Parameters in Restricted Factor Analysis
Authors: Hattie John , Fraser Colin
Published: March 2007

In restricted factor analysis each of the elements in the matrices (of factor loadings, factor correlations, and unique variances and covariances) can be fixed, free to be estimated, or constrained. In this paper it is argued that the common practice of constraining some parameters at 0 often is not psychologically meaning ful. Alternative procedures for constraining parameters are presented and illustrated using data based on the Luria model. Index terms: Constrained parame ters, Factor analysis, Factor correlations, Factor loadings, Factor uniqueness.
Unidimensionality Versus Statistical Accuracy: A Note on Beiar's Method for Detecting Dimensionality of Achievement Tests
Authors: Liou Michelle
Published: March 2007

A simulation investigated use of the difficulty pa rameter (Bejar, 1980) to evaluate item unidimensional ity. Artificial tests were designed to be nonequivalent in both length and dimensionality. Simulated item re sponses to the tests were analyzed with the LOGIST computer program. Two indices were calculated: the slope of the principal axis between the content-area- based item difficulty estimates and corresponding to tal-test-based estimates, and the correlation between the two sets of estimates. Results show that the mag nitude of the correlation coefficient provides no infor mation about dimensionality of a set of test items. The slope of the principal axis, on the other hand, is sensi tive to multidimensionality in the data as well as test length. The size of the slope adequately detects the di mensionality of items for relatively long tests. Index terms: equating, item difficulty parameters, item re sponse theory, unidimensionality.
The Item Log-Likelihood Surface for Two- and Three-Parameter Item Characteristic Curve Models
Authors: Baker Frank B.
Published: March 2007

This article investigated the form of item log-likeli hood surface under two- and three-parameter logistic models. Graphs of the log-likelihood surfaces for items under two-parameter and three-parameter (with a fixed value of c) models were very similar, but were characterized by the presence of a ridge. These graphs suggest that the task of finding the maximum of the surface should be roughly equivalent under these two models when c is fixed in the three-parameter model. For two items, the item log-likelihood surface was plotted for several values of c to obtain the contour line of the maxima. For an item whose value of Lord's b — 2/ a index was less than the criterion value, the contour line was relatively flat. The item having an index value above the criterion value had a contour line with a very sharp peak. Thus, under a three-pa rameter model, finding the maximum of the item log- likelihood is more difficult when the criterion for Lord's index is not met. These results confirm that the LOGIST program procedures used to locate the maxi mum of the likelihood function are consistent with the form of the item log-likelihood surface. Index terms: estimation, item parameter; likelihood surfaces; LOGIST procedures; log-likelihood; maximum likelihood estimation.
On the Construct Validity of Multiple- Choice Items for Reading Comprehension
Authors: van den Bergh Huub
Published: March 2007

In this study 590 third-grade students took one of four reading comprehension tests with either multiple- choice items or open-ended items. Each also took 32 tests indicating 16 semantic Structure-of-Intellect (si) abilities. Four conditions or groups were distinguished on the basis of the reading comprehension tests. The four 33 x 33 correlation matrices were analyzed si multaneously with a four-group LISREL model. The 16 intellectual abilities explained approximately 62% of the variance in true reading comprehension scores. None of the SI abilities proved to be differentially re lated to item type. Therefore, it was concluded that item type for reading comprehension is congeneric with respect to the SI abilities measured. Index terms: construct validity, item format, free response, reading comprehension, Structure-of-Intellect model.
A Constrained PARAFAC Method for Positive Manifold Data
Authors: Krijnen Wim P. , Ten Berge Jos M. F.
Published: March 2007

A set of non-negatively correlated variables, referred to as positive manifold data, display a peculiar pattern of loadings in principal compo nents analysis (PCA). If a small set of principal components is rotated to a simple structure, the variables correlate positively with all components, thus displaying positive manifold. However, this phenomenon is critically dependent on the freedom of rotation, as is evident from the unrotated loadings. That is, although the first principal component is without contrast (which means that all variables correlate either positively or negatively with the first component), subsequent components have mixtures of positive and negative loadings— which means that positive manifold is absent. PARAFAC is a generalization of PCA that has unique components, which means that rotations are not allowed. This paper examines how PARAFAC behaves when applied to positive manifold data. It is shown that PARAFAC does not always produce positive manifold solutions. For cases in which PARAFAC does not produce a positive manifold solution, a constrained PARAFAC method is offered that restores positive manifold by introducing non- negativity constraints. Thus, noncontrast PARAFAC components can be found that explain only a negligible amount of variance less than the PARAFAC components. These noncontrast com ponents cannot be degenerate and cannot be par tiallv unique in the traditional sense.
Social Accounts for Urban-Centered Regions
Authors: Fox Karl A. , Ghosh Syamal K.
Published: March 2007

Social accounts are important for tracing the complex interactions of social and economic phenomena within a unified frame work. The concepts of central place theory and the ecological psychology of Roger Barker jointly offer a means for constructing social accounts based on time people spend in behavior settings within Functional Eco nomic Areas. Barker's concept of behavior setting genotypes translates readily into standard categories in the economic censuses and other pub lished data systems, as is demonstrated here by linking Barker's data on private enterprise genotypes to the selected business functions used by Borchert and Adams to classify trade centers into hierarchical levels.
The Dissemination of Policy Research to Policymakers
Authors: BARDACH EUGENE
Published: March 2007

Suppose that, despite certain appearances, significant policy research results did in fact reach most of those practitioners who could and would make use of them, and in a relatively timely way. What processes might produce this result? Some conjectures are offered, along with certain political and policy implications.
Quixotic Communication
Authors: LEE ALLEN S.
Published: March 2007

When social science knowledge is passed from the frame of reference of social scientist to the frame of reference of the problem-solving professional, a transformation in meaning of the knowledge occurs. The specific instance this article investigates involves the attempt to communicate social science knowledge, in the form of expert witness testimony, between a social scientist on the one hand, and the different attorneys and presiding examiner on the other, in the setting of an administrative hearing. To explain the transformation in meaning that is observed to take place, the article applies Schutz's analysis of Don Quixote: How a social scientist and an attorney attempt to communicate is no different from how Don Quixote and Sancho Panza attempt to communicate. Actions that can be taken to prevent Quixotic communication are recommended, and implications for the utilization of social science knowledge in other applied settings are examined.
The Economics of Technological Change Filtered through a Social Knowledge System Framework
Authors: FELLER IRWIN
Published: March 2007

The social knowledge system (Holzner et al., this volume) offers perspectives not found in most economic approaches to science and technology. Although little of the content of the social knowledge system is found in mainstream neoclassical microeconomics, the social knowledge system has closer intellectual ties to the emerging economics of institutional innovation, including the growing emphasis on university-industry-government partnerships in the performance of various knowledge functions. The knowledge systems accounting scheme augments the way economists working in different traditions conceptualize and describe processes of R&D, helping both to enlarge the scope and relevance of conventional science indicators and to create new indicators, which may account for such impact-mediating structures as university-industry-government partnerships.
Experimentation and Knowledge
Authors: MASON RICHARD O.
Published: March 2007

Two primary attributes of knowledge producing activities are identified: tightness of control and richness of reality. These attributes are taken generally to be in opposition to one another at the same level of knowledge. Hence, ultimately researchers must make a trade-off between them. The more of one or both of these attributes a knowledge-producing activity yields, however, the more knowledge a project generates. This leads to the concept of iso-episteme curves—curves of equal units of knowledge that reflect the trade-offs made between reality and control. The results of any experiment can be plotted on an iso-episteme curve and then used to address issues such as improving research methodologies, setting publication policies, and increasing knowledge by means of programs of research.
An Exploratory Tool for Predicting Adoption Decisions
Authors: DEARING JAMES W. , MEYER GARY
Published: March 2007

Three new concepts in innovation diffusion are presented and demonstrated: (1) the attribute matrix, a description of both innovator perceptions and portrayals, as well as the perceptions of potential adopters about the identified characteristics of an innovation; (2) the innovation profile, a composite description of innovators' perceptions and communications about their innovations, and the perception of potential adopters about the innovations; and (3) the potential for adoption rating, or PAR score, a single number representing the likelihood that any one innovation will be adopted.
Knowledge Use Versus Capability Development
Authors: SLAPPENDEL CAROL
Published: March 2007

A comparative case analysis focusing on the use of a specialist knowledge base (ergonomics) in the product design and development function of six New Zealand organizations found that a considerable portion of the ergonomics knowledge used was internally generated. As a result of this finding, the conceptual emphasis of the study shifted away from a focus on the use of externally generated information to an examination of the processes by which an ergonomics capability emerged and developed within each organization. The definition of capability used in the study embraces both theoretical knowledge and practical knowledge.
I. The United Kingdom
Authors: Simpson I.S.
Published: March 2007

The evolution of information science in response to the demand for scientific information is discussed as a back ground to the development of part-time and full-time courses in the United Kingdom to provide a formal education for information scientists. The work of the Institute of Informa tion Scientists in evaluating courses and maintaining a high standard of entry to the profession is also treated.
Informed decision making
Authors: Dare Gillian
Published: March 2007

This paper provides a general discussion of the types of information relevant to the manager, with some comment on the nature of the decision making that can be based on these. A select bibliography of management information sources is included.
The future impact of telecommunications on information science
Authors: Isotta N.E.C.
Published: March 2007

A brief review is first made of present telecommunication methods as used in today's information systems. Limitations are outlined and explained. An ideal system as it might be conceived now is postulated, compared with present technol ogy and with what will probably be available within the next ten years. Increasing role of satellite communications is emphasised. It is suggested that one of today's obstacles to worldwide systems, i.e. acceptance of standards, will no longer remain a problem, and the multistandard systems will be common. All speeds up to 9.6 Kbit/s will be used in some wideband transmission at 1 to 2 Mbit/s will not be unusual.

By the end of the first year period, the hardware in use for the various component elements of the total system will have fundamentally changed and improved almost beyond recognition. A new leap-frogging process will follow in the techniques of transmission. Satellite systems will be in wide- scale use and optical fibre technology will already be replac ing standard transmission lines on a fairly large scale. By the year 2001, obsolescence of most of today's transmission equipment will have ensured almost total replacement, and noise problems will virtually have disappeared. Newspapers will also probably disappear at the same time, and contrary to Orwell's 1984 predictions, the era of the total information society will be in full swing.
Document clustering using an inverted file approach
Authors: Willett Peter
Published: March 2007

An automatic document clustering procedure is described which does not require the use of an inter-document similar ity matrix and which is independent of the order in which the documents are processed. The procedure makes use of an initial set of clusters which is derived from certain of the terms in the indexing vocabulary used to characterise the documents in the file. The retrieval effectiveness obtained using the clustered file is compared with that obtained from serial searching and from use of the single-linkage clustering method.
A few practical remarks on the user-friendliness of online systems
Authors: Stibic V.
Published: March 2007

A list of general properties of a user-friendly online sys tem is presented. Unfortunately, the requirements of experi enced users on the one hand, and of the beginners or inci dental users on the other hand, are contradictory. Synonymous commands, less strictly formalized input data transformed to standardized formats by intelligent input programs, explicit as well as implicit input data, free choice between default or user's own parameters and procedures or macrocommands, can make any system more friendly even for heterogeneous user population. Similarly, flexibility of output (e.g. elo quent natural-language messages for non-experienced users and concise coded and abbreviated output for experts) im proves acceptance of the system by all users. Examples of flexible, free forms of commands, input and output data are given.
The foundations of information science
Authors: Brookes Bertram C.
Published: March 2007

The arguments of Parts I-III are applied to two main issues: (a) the separation of the physical and mental compo nents of information phenomena, illustrated by a discussion of the ageing of periodicals, (b) the role of the Bradford Law and ranking techniques as a means of exploiting all the infor mation inherent in the raw data. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of a proposed new kind of data-base in which objective information is structured into objective knowledge.
DOMESTIC: a minicomputer based information storage and retrieval system
Authors: Omer Y. , Kuflic M. , Kozarinsky M. , Branse J. , Harmon L. , Keren C.
Published: March 2007

DOMESTIC (Development of Minicomputers in an Envi ronment of Scientific and Technological Information Cen ters) is a joint Israeli-German project for the application of minicomputers in information storage and retrieval.

The DOMESTIC software package includes functions for online creation and updating of inhouse databases; assimila tion of external databases; setting up, running and reformu lating online database searches; viewing search results; printing the output in selected formats; and various tasks associated with the acquisition, cataloging and circulation phases of information-center activities.

At present (June 1980) the DOMESTIC database management system and the information-retrieval functions have been programmed and development is underway on the functions for online input, database maintenance, the print generator and library management.
Standardization as a factor in information transfer
Authors: French E.J.
Published: March 2007

"Standardization: an activity giving solutions for repet itive application to problems essentially in the spheres of science, technology and economics, aimed at the optimum degree of order in a given context. Generally the activity consists of the processes of formulating, issuing and implementing standards." [ 1 ]

Standardization seeks to avoid repetitive solutions of the same problem and to aid simplification, communication, economy, safety and health, consumer protection and the elimination of trade barriers. The standard as a document has much in common with the technical regulation and shares certain features with patents and legislation.

Users need information about standards in order to apply them, or as a basis for new standards or because they are affected by their results. Together these groups of user represent, directly or indirectly, the whole community.

Standardization takes place at national, regional and inter national levels. The organizational structure is complex, differ ing from country to country. ISO is the specialized inter national agency for standardization with a coordinating role. ISO has a member in each of 87 countries and liaisons with 300 other international organizations. International Stand ards result from the work of 163 ISO technical committees.

ISONET links national and international standards information centres to make information on standards and technical regulations universally available. GATT is encourag ing similar measures. International and foreign standards are readily available for reference or purchase in most countries. Many documentary and institutional aids exist for informa tion about, or related to standards.

Special standards for terminology, documentation, data processing and some others are of particular interest since they aid the processing of information.
SDI software package on a minicomputer
Authors: Chen S. , Omer Y. , Sered I. , Branse J.
Published: March 2007

Since 1970, the Israeli National Center of Scientific and Technological Information (COSTI) has provided a com puterized SDI service to academic, research, industrial and governmental users in Israel. The system's uniqueness is that it is run on a minicomputer (a PDP 11/70).

Six databases are offered as of March 1981: Chemical Abstracts Search, COMPENDEX, INSPEC, Science Citation Index Search, AGRIS and U.S. Government Reports An nouncements. Biological Abstracts (BIOSIS) will be added soon. Current editions of the database tapes are run against personal profiles in order to retrieve items of interest to individual clients.

This paper surveys the process of executing SDI at COSTI, focusing on search-profile construction and update techniques and on the SDI production process.