bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Infrastructure and Health
Authors: Lai Ka Man
Published: November 2020

Infrastructure is designed to bestow benefits onto societies, but if we look at it from a different perspective, this is not always the case; infrastructure can sometimes create public controversy and even endanger human health. This chapter highlights a number of controversies and other issues related to infrastructure and health. A main aim is to stimulate debate on urban complexity, urban development, and infrastructure inequality in order to promote public understanding. Infrastructure such as water and sanitation, roads, power supply, and buildings are critical parts of the vital skeletal framework necessary for the function and operation of societies. At present, moreover, with over half the world’s population (3.4 billion) living in cities, urban infrastructure plays a key role in support of the health and livelihoods of city dwellers (World Health Organization 2010). According to the World Health Organization (1948), “Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” We begin with an overview of three particular issues and links between infrastructure and health. The section “Urban Health” highlights how the controversy of urbanization gives rise to significant public health challenges in rapidly expanding informal settlements around the world. “Infrastructure as Threat” provides various infrastructure examples that can pose dangers to communities and in some cases arguably outweigh the benefits of the infrastructure. “Aging Infrastructure and New Hazards” discusses the constant change and evolution of infrastructure forms and functions. As infrastructure ages, some of it is forgotten and can thereby introduce new hazards to human life. After setting out the problems, we further explore the “Reasons Behind the Infrastructure Controversies” in our attempt to understand and learn from the difficulties arising out of these controversies and set the stage for better decision making on infrastructure policy and healthier infrastructure for the future. We explore the issue of “Infrastructure Complexity and Connectivity” and use water systems as an example to highlight the lessons to be learned from previous experience. In emerging countries, rapid “Urban Development” accelerates the infrastructure building process and thereby deepens our reliance on infrastructure.
Politics in a Bottle: BPA, Children’s Health, and the Fight for Toxics Reform
Authors: Roberts Jody A.
Published: November 2020

The nationwide legal uprising against the chemical bisphenol A (more popularly known as BPA) began in Minnesota in 2009 when the state legislature there voted to ban the substance from children’s products—including sippy cups and baby bottles. Grassroots activism aimed at insti­tuting local and state-level legislation banning BPA in children’s products has since escalated as new players in the world of toxics activism have emerged with demands to remove the controversial chemical from products designed for use by children. Frustrated with inaction at the federal level following scores of health studies, a slew of ambiguous regulatory reviews, and staunch efforts by lobby organizations, these new groups have taken their fight about BPA and health to states, counties, cities, and local municipalities. As of this writing, eleven U.S. states now have legislation banning or restricting the use of BPA in products for kids. These actions in the United States followed actions taken by Canada to first identify BPA as a minimal health hazard to children (in 2008) and then to later officially recognized BPA as toxic (in 2010), a declaration that requires government action. Indeed, all of this action at the state level is having the intended effect: The federal Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced in July of 2012 that BPA could no longer be used in baby bottles and children’s drinking cups. But that pronouncement has done little to quell the debate. As the president of the National Research Center for Women and Families noted about the July 2012 decision: “[The FDA is] instituting a ban that is already in effect voluntarily.” The sentiment is congruent with the statements made by the American Chemistry Council (the nation’s largest lobby group for the chemical industry) following the announcement. According to the statement, the American Chemistry Council requested that the FDA take action because of the patchwork of legislation taking shape at the state level and that had already encouraged most manufacturers to simply stop using BPA in these products (Tavernise 2012).
Biological Invasions: Impacts, Management, and Controversies
Authors: Simberloff Daniel
Published: November 2020

A biological invasion occurs when a species introduced deliberately or inadvertently by humans establishes a population far from its native home, maintains itself without human assistance, and spreads beyond the point of introduction (Richardson et al. 2000). Some definitions (e.g., President Clinton’s Executive Order 13112 of 1999) require that the spreading species have a harmful impact, but this is not a part of biologists’ definition. The rare occasions on which a species arrives on its own and spreads in a distant location—such as the African cattle egret reaching the New World—do not qualify as invasions. Although some invasions (e.g., ship rats on Mediterranean islands) occurred thousands of years ago (Ruffino and Vidal 2010), the major surge began with the European discovery and colonization of the New World, which initiated the widespread intercontinental movement of animals, plants, and humans known as the Columbian Exchange. Early explorers and colonists observed European plants in North America by the 17th century, and by the 19th century biogeographers routinely classified species as native, introduced, or of unknown origin (Chew and Hamilton 2010), but few concerned themselves with impacts of introduced species. A remarkable 1958 book for a lay audience by English ecologist Charles Elton, The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants, described many invasion impacts. It is often cited as having founded the modern field of invasion biology (see Elton 2000). In fact, it was ahead of its time and had little effect. Rather, a project in the mid-1980s of the international Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment engaged hundreds of scientists in an attempt to understand why only certain invasions led to impacts and how to minimize these (Simberloff 2010a). These efforts led to the rapid growth of a distinct science, invasion biology, and today thousands of researchers annually publish hundreds of papers on invasions. Invasions are idiosyncratic, and the routes to some impacts are so tortuous that one would never have predicted them.
Bio-inspired Synthesis of Oxide Nanostructures
Authors: Bunker Bruce C. , Casey William H.
Published: November 2020

Nature is capable of building magnificently intricate and detailed structures out of otherwise boring materials such as calcium carbonate and silica. Anyone who has taken their children to see dinosaurs at a Natural History museum or visited natural wonders such as the Petrified Forest in Arizona are familiar with the natural process called fossilization by which the tissues of dead organisms are eventually replicated by objects of stone. Most living organisms (including humans) are critically dependent on more deliberate and controlled biomineralization phenomena that lead to the production of all hard tissues, including our teeth and bones, seashells and diatom skeletons, egg shells, and the magnetic nanoparticles that provide homing devices from bacteria to birds. All these processes are nothing more than specific examples of highly controlled nucleation and growth phenomena such as those described in generic terms in Chapter 7. At a molecular level, these processes are controlled by the same reaction mechanisms involving oxide surfaces, which were outlined in Chapter 6. However, biomineralization is orders of magnitude more sophisticated than standard nucleation and growth processes. The unique features of biomineralization involve the interplay between organic biomolecules and the nucleation and growth of inorganic phases such as oxides. This interplay is of critical importance in both biology and emerging nanotechnologies, providing specific examples that illustrate many of the concepts of oxide chemistry introduced in Chapters 5 through 7. In this chapter, we highlight the key concepts of biomineralization and provide examples of how researchers can now produce complex nanostructured oxides via biomimetic nucleation and growth strategies that replicate some of the key features used to make hard tissues in living systems. These strategies include the use of (1) molecular complexation and compartmentalization to control supersaturation levels, (2) specific ligands and surface structures to mediate nucleation phenomena, (3) hierarchical self-assembled organic architectures as templates for oxide formation, (4) functionalization to stimulate desired heterogeneous nucleation and growth processes on those templates, and (5) organic surfactants to manipulate both crystal-phase preferences and growth habits.
Glass Dissolution and Leaching
Authors: Bunker Bruce C. , Casey William H.
Published: November 2020

Oxide glasses represent some of the most important and prevalent materials that we encounter in our daily lives. The glass industry in the United States produces more than 75,000 glass products, with annual production estimated to be around 20,000,000 t. Roughly 50% of this production is for glass containers for food, beverages, and other liquids. Everyone relies on transparent glass windows for their homes, cars, and even their cell phones. Fiberglass provides insulation for our homes and businesses. We rely on glass for many optical systems, ranging from eyeglasses to microscope lenses to optical fiber communications. Glass is also an optically pleasing material found in many works of art, including stained glass windows. Glass even plays a role in energy transport and storage, being an important electrical insulator used in devices ranging from transformers to batteries. Glass compositions need to be optimized for specific applications, with important parameters being melting properties, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, strength, dielectric properties, and, of course, optical properties. In most of these applications, glass objects encounter water, either to perform their basic functions or as a result of long-term environmental exposure. This means the chemical properties of many glasses also need to be optimized. Fortunately, borosilicate glasses, which represent the most widely used technological glass compositions, tend to exhibit a high level of resistance to aqueous attack. Understanding the kinetics and mechanisms of glass dissolution is critically important to the nuclear power and defense industries, which involves how to dispose of nuclear wastes safely. These wastes can be exceedingly complex, and contain almost every element found in the Periodic Table. The challenge is to incorporate these wastes into solids that encapsulate radionuclides safely for millions of years. Glass is an attractive option as a waste form because glass melts can accommodate almost all the constituents found in nuclear wastes. However, the deployment of glass waste forms requires the ability to predict the stability of the waste out to exceedingly long times based on science-based glass-dissolution models.
Farming Facts
Authors: Kemmerer Lisa
Published: November 2020

Cheap meat, dairy, and eggs are an illusion—we pay for each with depleted forests, polluted freshwater, soil degradation, and climate change. Diet is the most critical decision we make with regard to our environmental footprint—and what we eat is a choice that most of us make every day, several times a day. Dietary choice contributes powerfully to greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) and water pollution. Animal agriculture is responsible for an unnerving quantity of greenhouse gas emissions. Eating animal products—yogurt, ice cream, bacon, chicken salad, beef stroganoff, or cheese omelets—greatly increases an individual’s contribution to carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions. Collectively, dietary choice contributes to a classic “tragedy of the commons.” Much of the atmosphere’s carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by the earth’s oceans and plants, but a large proportion lingers in the atmosphere—unable to be absorbed by plants or oceans (“Effects”). Plants are not harmed by this process, but the current overabundance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes acidification of the earth’s oceans. As a result of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions, the “acidity of the world’s ocean may increase by around 170% by the end of the century,” altering ocean ecosystems, and likely creating an ocean environment that is inhospitable for many life forms (“Expert Assessment”). Burning petroleum also leads to wars that devastate human communities and annihilate landscapes and wildlife—including endangered species and their vital habitats. Additionally, our consumption of petroleum is linked with oil spills that ravage landscapes, shorelines, and ocean habitat. Oil pipelines run through remote, fragile areas—every oil tanker represents not just the possibility but the probability of an oil spill. As reserves diminish, our quest for fossil fuels is increasingly environmentally devastating: Canada’s vast reserves of tar sands oil—though extracted, transported, and burned only with enormous costs to the environment—are next in line for extraction. Consuming animal products creates ten times more fossil fuel emission per calorie than does consuming plant foods directly (Oppenlander 18). (This is the most remarkable given that plant foods are not generally as calorically dense as animal foods.) Ranching is the greatest GHGE offender.
Confirmation Bias
Authors: Gorman Sara E. , Gorman Jack M.
Published: November 2020

One of America’s greatest scientists summarized confirmation bias well when he quipped, “I wouldn’t have seen it if I didn’t believe it.”That scientist was the great Hall of Famer and New York Yankee baseball player Yogi Berra. How do we know Yogi Berra said that? One of us once heard someone say that he did, and it sounds like the kind of thing that has been attributed to him. Of course, there are those who say that Yogi didn’t say many of the things attributed to him and that there are actually perfectly logical explanations for some of the seemingly nonsensical statements he allegedly did utter. But we don’t care about any of that. We love the line, it makes our point well, and we are going to stick to the Yogi attribu¬tion no matter what kind of disconfirming evidence crops up. As Yogi might have said, “When you come to a piece of evidence that doesn’t agree with what you already believe, tear it to shreds and then ignore it.” Confirmation bias refers to our tendency to attend only to information that agrees with what we already think is true. Notice that we did not simply say that this bias involves ignoring evidence that is incompatible with our beliefs but rather that it is an active process in which we selectively pay attention to those things that confirm our hypotheses. Confirmation bias is responsible for not only a great deal of denial of scientific evidence but also the actual generation and maintenance of incorrect scientific information. That is, scientists, doctors, and public health experts are as prone as anyone else is to “seeing what we believe,” making it especially difficult to help people sort out what is true science from the mistakes and outright fabrications. As we will see, confirmation bias is strongly rooted in primitive needs and emotion and therefore not amenable to correction merely by reciting facts. Although confirmation bias is irrational in the sense that it does not take into consideration evidence, it is still frequently adaptive and even necessary.
On becoming a student mental health nurse
Authors: Clarke Victoria , Byrne Frances
Published: November 2020

This chapter is all about helping you to understand what mental health nursing is. To this end, we will consider what you must know and do when you first meet people with mental health problems. We will introduce a personal account from a mental health service user early in the chapter in order to help you begin to understand what working with people with mental health problems is like and what service users want from mental health nurses. In an effort to help you become familiar with what mental health nursing is, we will explore the following issues: what is a profession; what is nursing; what beliefs and values inform nursing; why is it important for mental health nurses to be self-aware; and what do mental health nurses need to know? In the final part of this chapter we explore the nature of boundaries in professional relationships and the implications of this for practice as a mental health nurse. Before you read any further we would encourage you to recognize that mental health service users are, quite rightly, the real experts in their care and needs. It is vitally important that you listen and really attend to what they are saying to you. We have asked a service user, Deborah Living, to represent for you some of the important issues that she would like mental health nurses to be aware of, and Deborah is going to tell you part of her own life story. I consider myself to be a survivor…not just a survivor of mental health difficulties but also a survivor of mental health services. I feel I am a survivor because I have reclaimed my life after more than ten years of mental health diagnoses and treatments: diagnoses from clinical depression to cyclothymia (described as a ‘milder’ form of manic depression); antidepressants and mood stabilisers from prozac to lithium; and interventions from counselling to psychiatry, through ECT to being an inpatient. It took me over a decade and a 12-month stay in a residential therapeutic community to stop the ‘revolving door’ approach within the mental health service, whereby I would gain short-term stability only to relapse yet again.
Mental health nursing in the community
Authors: Walsh Andrew , Taylor Victoria
Published: November 2020

In this chapter you are introduced to two fictional characters, Paul and Molly, who need help with very different problems and who are intended to represent the wide range of emotional difficulties encountered by people referred to community mental health teams. Paul is a young man of Afro- Caribbean descent who has become isolated and withdrawn over a period of time. Paul’s family are concerned and upset about his deterioration and he has been referred to community mental health services by his family doctor. Molly is a young woman who has been leading quite a stressful life; although successful in material terms, she has been experiencing anxiety and panic. This chapter demonstrates how practising community mental health nurses (CMHNs) might work with Paul and Molly in the process of assessing, planning, implementing, and evaluating the care planned alongside emerging mental health issues. The first person we meet in this chapter is Paul, a young man who is referred to the community mental health team following concerns raised by his family about his changed behaviour. As well as being concerned for Paul’s welfare, this section also prompts us to consider how we might work alongside his family, in this case, his mother Charmaine and his sister Caroline Paul is 21 years old. He lives with his parents, Joshua and Charmaine, and his 18-year-old sister, Caroline. Both Paul’s parents came to the UK in 1971 from Barbados and they try to go back ‘home’ once a year to stay in touch with their extended family. They have lived in a three-bedroom house in Birmingham for the past 15 years. Joshua is 55 years old, a tool setter at an engineering factory, and Charmaine works part-time as a care assistant at a local nursing home. Caroline is currently doing A-levels and hopes to go to university. Joshua and Charmaine regularly attend at a Christian church, and are very proud of both their children, but would like them to be a little more respectful and attend the church more regularly.
On becoming a qualifi ed mental health nurse
Authors: Clarke Victoria , Playford Linda
Published: November 2020

In this chapter we will consider the knowledge, skills, and attitudes expected of you as a newly qualified mental health nurse, before discussing how to apply for a job and develop your career. To help you consider this we have tried to include contributions from people who have a range of backgrounds and perspectives, who all contribute to mental health services, including a student about to qualify, a modern matron, a clinical manager, a director of nursing, a professor, and service users. To set the scene, our first personal contribution is from Julie Cresswell, a third year student nurse at the Birmingham City University and the Royal College of Nursing’s Student Nurse of the Year 2007. We asked Julie a series of questions that we hoped would help you in preparing to become a qualified nurse; these are her answers and thoughts about the future of mental health nursing and her career. In preparation for qualifying, I am now reflecting upon the experience, knowledge base, and skills that I have developed during my training, along with the transferable skills that I already had before I embarked upon this career. As mental health nursing students, we will all have followed a similar academic course equipping us with a certain level of theory and practical skills. However, what makes us individual is how we intend to use what we have learned throughout our lives and the philosophy that underpins our work. I began this course with the belief that psychiatric nursing was grounded in science. I now feel that while science can hypothesize about the causes of mental illness, understanding and accepting a client’s life experience is central to supporting them in times of mental distress. As I progress through my career, my approach may develop or change direction but for the moment, I feel that it will be vital to be able to communicate my own perspective to future employers. Developing your own approach to mental health nursing, along with an audit of what you can offer an employer in terms of practical skills, knowledge, and experience, establishes your own ‘unique selling point’ in a competitive jobs market.
Why Cooperate?
Authors: Sherratt Thomas N. , Wilkinson David M.
Published: November 2020

An altruistic act is one in which an individual incurs a cost that results in a benefit to others. Giving money or time to those less fortunate than ourselves is one example, as is giving up one’s seat on a bus. At first, one might consider such behaviour hopelessly naive in a world in which natural selection seemingly rewards selfishness in the competitive struggle for existence. As the saying goes, ‘nice guys finish last’. Yet examples of apparent altruism are commonplace. Meerkats will spend hours in the baking sun keeping lookout for predators that might attack their colony mates. Vampire bats will regurgitate blood to feed their starving roost fellows, while baboons will take the time and effort to groom other baboons. Some individuals, such as honeybee workers, forego their own reproduction to help their queen and will even die in her defence. The common gut bacterium Escherichia coli commits suicide when it is infected by a bacteriophage, thereby protecting its clones from being infected. If helping incurs a cost, then surely an individual that accepts a cooperative act yet gives nothing in return would do better than cooperators? What, then, allows these cases of apparent altruism to persist? In his last presidential address to the Royal Society of London in November 2005, Robert M. May argued, ‘The most important unanswered question in evolutionary biology, and more generally in the social sciences, is how cooperative behaviour evolved and can be maintained’. In this chapter, we document a number of examples of cooperation in the natural world and ask how it is maintained despite the obvious evolutionary pressure to ‘cheat’. We will see that, while it is tempting to see societies as some form of higher organism, to fully understand cooperation, it helps to take a more reductionist view of the world, frequently a gene-centred perspective. Indeed, thinking about altruism has led to one of the greatest triumphs of the ‘selfish gene’ approach, namely the theory of kin selection. Ultimately, as the quote from Mandeville indicates, we will see that cooperation frequently arises simply out of pure self-interest—it just so happens that individuals (or, more precisely, genes) in the business of helping themselves sometimes help others.
Perspectives of a Sentimental Journey: V. Gordon Childe in Australia 1917–1921 (1981)
Authors: Allen Jim
Published: November 2020

This chapter is a revised version of a seminar paper given in the Australian National University in 1978, at the time when I was preparing the Childe entry for The Australian Dictionary of Biography (Allen 1979). Ann Turner, a Melbourne historian, was at the same time researching in the Australian Archives Office among First World War censorship reports compiled by the Australian Department of Defence, and had encountered a number of letters written to and by Childe, which she passed on to me. I am indebted to her for the time and trouble she took on my account. These letters are valuable for a number of reasons. They assist in reconstructing Childe’s movements and activities in Australia for the four years before he returned to Britain; they shed light on Childe’s relationship with other members of his family, and his alienation from them; they provide important insights into the Australian society of the period, with the generally left-wing contents more than balanced by the appended censorial minutes; more specifically they offer an intimate view of Childe’s political ideology and personality as a young man. Lacking these sources I had previously proposed (Allen 1967) that Childe’s Australian experience had directly influenced his later archaeological contributions. This chapter attempts to develop this theme further. The decision to write this paper has been triggered by the recent Antiquity editorial (March 1980) that reproduced a Childe letter that removes the last doubt that Childe took his own life. It is clear from this editorial that there is wide interest in Childe, his works, and their inspiration. As well, however, Childe reiterates in this letter the dissatisfaction with Australian society that he expressed elsewhere shortly before his death: ‘I like Australian society much less than European without believing I can do anything to better it; for I have lost faith with all my old ideals.’ I contend that this loss of faith can be traced to his Australian experiences between 1917 and 1921. In ‘Retrospect’, Childe’s apologia pro vita sua published in Antiquity in 1958, in the year following his death, Childe dismissed his return to Australia some forty years earlier in a single phrase as a ‘sentimental excursion into Australian politics’.
Uses of the Past: Archaeology in the Service of the State (1987)
Authors: Fowler Don D.
Published: November 2020

Nation states, or partisans thereof, control and allocate symbolic resources as one means of legitimizing power and authority, and in pursuit of their perceived nationalistic goals and ideologies. A major symbolic resource is the past. In this chapter I review three cases in which the past and, in particular, relevant archaeological resources were ‘used’ for such purposes, and I refer to several other well-known instances. The three cases discussed are Mexico from c.AD 900 to the present, Britain from c.AD 1500 to the present, and the People’s Republic of China since 1949. The implications of such uses in relation to archaeological theories and interpretations are discussed. In The Uses of the Past, Herbert Müller (1952) sought for ‘certainty of meaning’ in an analysis of the development of Western civilization. The only certainty he found was that the past has many uses. This chapter is concerned with some specific uses of the past: (1) how nation state rulers and bureaucrats have manipulated the past for nationalist purposes, both ideological and chauvinistic, and to legitimize their authority and power; (2) how nation states have used archaeological sites, artefacts, and theories for such purposes; (3) how these uses of the past relate to more general questions about the intellectual and socio-political contexts in which archaeology is conducted. The importance to the state of using or manipulating its past is neatly delineated in two great dystopian novels, George Orwell’s (1949) Nineteen Eighty-Four, and Aldous Huxley’s (1932) Brave New World. In the former, the Ministry of Truth totally revamps the past as needed to justify and lend ‘truth’ to the immediate requirements, actions, and policies of the state. In the latter, the past is blotted out. As the Resident World Controller for Western Europe, Mustafa Mond tells the Savage, ‘we haven’t any use for old things here’ (Huxley 1932: 200). In both cases, control and manipulation of the past or its complete denial is critical to state ideology and purposes.
Excavating Women: Towards an Engendered History of Archaeology (1998)
Authors: Díaz-Andreu Margarita , Stig Sørensen Marie Louise
Published: November 2020

Gender archaeology has by now become a relatively well-established research topic within archaeology. Recent years have seen the publication of a number of edited volumes, a rapidly expanding number of papers, and even a few journals and newsletters dedicated to this subject. It is, therefore, very surprising that in this literature the historiographic analysis of women archaeologists has played only a minor part. Likewise they are hardly acknowledged in the ‘folk’ histories of the discipline (Lucy and Hill 1994: 2). The need to understand the disciplinary integration of women, to appreciate the varying socio-political contexts of their work, to reveal the unique tension between their roles as women and their academic lives, has become obvious and is strongly felt in many areas of the discipline. The insights yielded by such analysis will have significance at many levels and will be of paramount importance for the intellectual history of archaeology. In particular, such insights will necessitate a much-needed revision of disciplinary history by revealing its mechanisms of selecting and forgetting, and will play an important role in the analysis of archaeology’s knowledge claims. Histories of archaeology have broadly accepted, and spread, a perception of archaeology as being male-centred, both intellectually and in practice. These accounts, written by male archaeologists such as Glyn Daniel (1975), Alain Schnapp (1993), and Bruce Trigger (1989), are inevitably androcentric in their conceptualization and reconstruction of the disciplinary past. Their versions have, however, recently begun to be contested, as concern with critical historiography has grown, and a few explicit historiographical accounts of women archaeologists have appeared. So far, with regard to the role of women, the most extensive contributions are the edited volumes by Claassen (1994) and du Cros and Smith (1993). While providing an important beginning, these publications show that there is still a long way to go. In particular they demonstrate a gap in research coverage, as no investigation of the contribution of women outside the USA and Australia exists.
A History of Archaeology in Brazil (2001).
Authors: Funari Pedro Paulo A.
Published: November 2020

The history of archaeology in Brazil has been divided into phases following different criteria. Most authors consider that archaeology should have its own disciplinary history, not tied to the overall political history of the country. A. Prous (1992) identified five periods and A. Mendonça de Souza (1991) followed the same disciplinary history approach, but proposed only four periods. The history of archaeology in Brazil should not, however, be considered independent from Brazilian history. Because the development of archaeology’s practice, theory, and methodology depends directly on the socio-political conditions in a given country, it is possible to relate the social practice of archaeology and political changes. As with any intellectual endeavour, archaeological activities are the result of social conditions and relations prevailing in different periods. Thus we can say that archaeology in Brazil went through seven phases: the colonial period (1500–1822); the Brazilian empire (1822–89); the early republic (1889–1920s); the formative period (1920–49); the inception of university research (1950–64); the military period, and the constitution of an archaeological establishment (1964–85); and current trends, democratic and pluralist archaeology (1985 onwards). There are few references in colonial sources to archaeological sites, although F. Cardim (1925) notes that shell mounds were identified in Brazil by their Tupi name sambaquis as early as 1583, and F. Coelho’s soldiers, as early as 1598, mention rock inscriptions (Prous 1992: 5). However, travellers and writers such as Y. d’Euvreux (1985), G. Soares (1944), G. Carvajal (1942), A. Thevet (1944) and H. Staden (1930), among others, described native inhabitants and their culture, furnishing a lot of data on Indian material culture. Thanks to these sources, it is possible to study native settlements while taking into full account the historic evidence relating to the following areas: the East Amazon basin area, Porro 1992; Taylor 1992; Erikson 1992; Wright 1992; the North Amazon region, Farage and Santilli 1992; Menéndez 1992; Amoroso 1992; the South Amazon area, Perrone-Moisés 1992; Franchetto 1992; Lopes da Silva 1992; the north-east, Paraíso 1992; Dantas, Sampaio, and Carvalho 1992; the south-west, Carvalho 1992; the south, Monteiro 1992; Kern 1982; the entire country, Fausto 1992.
Introduction to clinical skills in children’s nursing
Authors: Coyne Imelda , Neill Freda
Published: November 2020

This book aims to provide nursing students with information about a broad range of clinical skills that they may use while nursing children. In recognition of the challenges in the healthcare setting, there is now greater emphasis on ensuring that nurses are prepared adequately to deliver safe and competent care, and that nurses are equipped with both the knowledge and practical skills to enable them to perform procedures safely and sensitively for children. This text aims to take account of these issues and serve as an essential resource for nurses and nursing students. Changing trends such as the move away from hospital care, shorter hospital stays, increased use of day surgery and outpatient care, parents undertaking procedures in the home supported by community care teams, and development of primary care services, present challenges to contemporary children’s nursing practice. Technological advances also mean that children now undergo more intensive technical procedures and complex treatment protocols, and the nurse has to be equipped with a diverse range of clinical skills. In this book we try to provide a comprehensive guide by addressing the following themes and challenges: In addition to the fundamental physical clinical skills that are required of a nurse, attention is also drawn to the important psychosocial aspects of skill delivery throughout this book. In particular skills of communication and family centred care are presented as overarching themes. This emphasis is consistent with changing trends in children’s nursing, whereby shorter hospital stays, and increased acuity of children, means that there is now less time to develop a relationship with the child and family, less time to build rapport and trust, which could ultimately impact negatively on the hospital experience for that family. Building relationships, developing trust, and family centred care are pivotal to the success of modern children’s nursing. In an attempt to negate the potential for adverse aspects of hospitalization, increasingly families are encouraged to remain with their child during their hospital stay. This presents a unique challenge for nursing students, who may find themselves daunted by the fact that they are caring for not one child, but both the child and family.
The sea as a dynamic and hybrid landscape
Authors: Van de Noort Robert
Published: November 2020

Since the last glacial maximum, some 22,000 years ago, the North Sea basin has undergone many transformational changes. Largely covered by ice at the beginning of the period, it became successively an arctic-like tundra, a ‘park-like’ landscape of extended grassland with shrubs and trees, a tundra again, and a plain with light woodland cover that was submerged eventually by the expanding North Sea (Coles 1998: 69–75). As the North Sea rose, over the last 5,000 years, to within a few metres of its current level, the interior of the sea did not alter significantly apart from changes in tidal patterns and depth. But on the periphery of the North Sea basin, the slighter sea-level changes added to the effects of marine and alluvial sedimentation and erosion and produced, regionally, periods of marine transgression—when the influence of the sea moved landwards—and marine regression, resulting in the opposite effect. The North Sea, throughout its history, has been the dynamic landscape par excellence. The history of research into the North Sea basin goes back to the 19th century, and will be discussed further below, but it was Bryony Coles’ article ‘Doggerland: a speculative survey’ (1998), which first raised the profile of the Late-glacial and early Holocene archaeology of the North Sea and inspired many of the current research activities, especially those relating to the southern North Sea basin. The renewed interest in the Mesolithic and Neolithic archaeology of the North Sea has made some significant advances, and holds the promise of even greater returns once the high-resolution reconstructions of the North Sea Plain are integrated with the archaeological finds. A series of publications has recently presented new archaeological sites. New finds from trawler fishing along the various banks in the North Sea, and from the margins (e.g. Flemming 2004; Waddington and Pedersen 2007), as well as the use of SCUBA technology (e.g. in Fisher 1995), will be discussed below. This chapter offers brief overviews of the history of North Sea research, the creation of the North Sea, and the archaeological evidence of human activity in the period from about 10,000 to 2000 cal bc.
The cultural biographies of boats
Authors: Van de Noort Robert
Published: November 2020

Up to this point, boats and ships have been treated largely as functional objects. The characteristics of these objects enabled people to engage with the sea in many different ways (see chapter 7), while for those who travelled on these craft particular socio-political processes have been observed (see chapter 8). However, the contextualized study of boats suggests that alongside functional properties, craft also had attributed meanings, as implied for example by the deliberate deposition of the Hjortspring boat in a bog on the island of Als, or by the use of boats in burials at Sutton Hoo, Gokstad, Oseberg and at many other locations around the North Sea. The symbolic significance of ships and boats was the focal point of the 1994 conference ‘The Ship as Symbol in Scandinavian Prehistory and Middle Ages’, which is recognized as a significant departure from existing debates in maritime archaeology. The ideas in this chapter are to an extent developed from the papers in the published proceedings (Crumlin-Pedersen and Thye 1995). The 1994 conference brought together a range of researchers who considered the other-than-functional and other-than-technical aspects of Scandinavian maritime archaeology. Symbols are understood to be semantically opaque representations producing semiotic systems in society (cf. Kobyliński 1995: 10–1). The use of the ship as a symbol is unsurprising. Much of the early maritime archaeology of Scandinavia is known to us not from wrecks that sank to the sea bed during storms, but from boat burials, and other deliberate depositions of boats in non-maritime contexts such as bogs, as well as from the carved and etched boat images on rocks and bronzes. The contexts of the boats imply that these carried meanings beyond their operational use, functioning therefore as signs and acting as symbols. The role of boats in the Sagas has advanced the notion that ships in the Viking period were more than simply craft to cross the sea with. Kobyliński (ibid. 15) makes the point that the extensive use of boats and ships as symbols in Scandinavia is linked to beliefs that the world of the dead is across the water, be that hell across the Gjoll River or Valhalla across the Thund River.
Stardust
Authors: Zalasiewicz Jan
Published: November 2020

What is a pebble? It is a wave-smoothed piece of rock, and a complex mineral framework, and a tiny part of a beach, and a capsule of history too. All these guises have their own stories, and these we shall come to. But from yet another viewpoint the pebble is a collection of atoms of different kinds—of many, many atoms—and that might be the best way to start. Considering it at this level, it is a little like taking the equivalent of a large sack of mixed sweets and separating them out into their different types. How big a sack, though? Or, to put it another way, how many atoms in our pebble? There is a simple formula for estimating the number of atoms in a piece of anything. The basic idea was first glimpsed by Amadeo Avogadro, Count of Quereta and Cerreto in Piedmont, now Italy: scholar, savant and teacher (though his teaching was briefly interrupted because of his revolutionary and republican leanings—a little impolitic when the king lives nearby). Avogadro was interested in how the particles (atoms, molecules) in matter are related to the volume and mass of that matter. Years later, his early studies were refined by other scientists and the upshot, a century or so later, came to be called Avogadro’s constant. Thus, in what is called the mole of any element there are a little over 600,000 million million million—or, to put it more briefly, 623—atoms. A mole here is not a small furry burrowing quadruped, or a minor skin blemish, but the atomic weight of any element expressed in grams. For oxygen a mole would therefore be 16 grams, as 16 is its atomic weight, an oxygen atom having a total of 16 protons and neutrons in its nucleus. The kitchen scales tell us that our pebble weighs some 50 grams. About half of it is made up of oxygen, and much of the rest is silicon (atomic weight 28) and aluminium (atomic weight 27) with a scattering of other elements, most somewhat heavier. A judiciously averaged atomic weight might therefore reasonably be something like 25.
Research design
Authors: Carr James , Chadwick David
Published: November 2020

From the outset, it’s worth highlighting that since the inception of the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), specialist units now exist to promote good quality medical research by assisting in its design. In England, NIHR Research Design Services (RDS) have been commissioned in eight strategic health authority (SHA) regions, whilst the original Research and Development Support Units (RDSUs) in the other two SHA regions (North West and East Midlands) will continue to provide a similar service. The main purpose of these units is to help researchers develop and design high-quality research proposals for competitions for applied health or social care research. They have been developed with a focus on NHS based researchers applying to the NIHR Research for Patient Benefit Programme, however they also provide advice on other funding schemes. They are also supposed to off er access to a range of expertise in research design, including advice on research synthesis, study design and methodology (quantitative and qualitative), statistics, and economics, and to refer to other sources of expert advice on the applied health and social care research system. In summary these services should be a first port of call for most NHS-based researchers looking to develop a clinical research proposal into a substantial grant application. As many of the regional RDSs have only recently become operational, it is difficult to provide much information on how each RDS works. The general principle, however, is that these services should provide telephone, email, and face-to-face advice to researchers looking to develop a proposal. Many RDSs will provide face-to-face advice in hospitals across their region, or in other sites which should not be too far from where NHS staff are working. These services, which are free of charge, are provided by a variety of individuals with experience of NHS research, statistics, or health economics, some of whom will be active researchers who have been successful with grant applications. A telephone contact number or email address for each RDS can be obtained via the web link: http://www.nihrccf.org.uk/site/programmes/rds/default. cfm . Furthermore each RDS has a website which can be accessed via this link.
Ethics
Authors: Weir Alan , Macdougall Kate
Published: November 2020

Ethics, as a whole, aim to create a framework upon which complex issues can be thought about and discussed in a reasoned manner. Medical ethics take these reasoned frameworks and apply them to problems that arise within healthcare, often focusing on the doctor–patient relationship. Medical research ethics are very closely related to medical ethics, but look at issues from the researcher–participant perspective. Medical research ethics have come to the fore in the past century with the regulation of medical research, which has focused on safeguarding research participants. The central concern has been to ensure that the interests of society and the researcher do not override the interests of the participant. Prior to the Second World War there was no internationally accepted code of conduct for research involving human subjects. The appalling experimentation carried out by some Nazi doctors led, in 1947, to the publication of the Nuremberg Code. This document outlined ten points that defined legitimate medical research, including voluntary consent and scientific validity. The following year these principles were tied to the Declaration of Geneva. This declaration was a statement of the physician’s ethical duty as a clinician, and has been amended several times since, the latest being in 2006. This declaration was intended as a revision of the Hippocratic oath into a formulation of morals that could be comprehended in the modern world. Following these first steps to create an ethical code for medical researchers came the document that is held to be the authority and basis of medical research ethics. In 1964 the 18th World Medical Association (WMA) General Assembly, held in Helsinki, developed and accepted the Declaration of Helsinki. The document is a statement of ethical principles governing medical research involving human subjects, including research on identifiable human material and data. It deals with the rights and protections of research participants, clearly making the distinction between participants and patients. This is not a legally binding document in international law but draws its authority from the degree to which it has been codified in, or has influenced, national or regional legislation and regulations.