bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
State‐Contingent Bank Regulation
Authors: Nagarajan S. , Sealey C. W.
Published: January 2015

It is well known that government‐sponsored deposit insurance creates incentives for bank shareholders to shift risk to the insurer (moral hazard) and/or may attract only high‐risk banks to the system (adverse selection).
Transaction Costs
Authors: P. Ogden Joseph
Published: January 2015

The buyers and sellers of virtually any asset incur costs in attempting to trade the asset in a public domain.
Apprenticeships
Authors: Lewis Paul
Published: January 2015

This article outlines the nature of apprenticeships and considers two broad theoretical perspectives on apprenticeship training, namely those provided by the economic theory of human capital (under both perfect and imperfect competition) and by HRM.
Disability Discrimination—The Legal Context
Authors: Lockwood Graeme
Published: January 2015

This article outlines the law relating to disability discrimination in the United Kingdom. It makes reference to some key legal provisions, and where appropriate, also makes reference to the law in the United States.
Ethnic Discrimination
Authors: Budjanovcanin Alexandra
Published: January 2015

Discrimination can take many forms, and is experienced differently by various groups in the workplace. Historically, racial and ethnic minorities have suffered from unequal treatment at work, manifested in wage inequalities, slow advancement, and exclusion from training opportunities, among others. Data from multiple countries, both in Europe and beyond (including United States and Canada), suggest that this is a global problem. Although traditionally legislation has sought to address these inequalities, there has been a shift in recent years (1990s onwards) to a more proactive “diversity management” approach to combating ethnic and racial discrimination in organizations. This approach focuses on the competitive advantage, that can be gained by embracing diversity in the workplace and promoting equality.
Evaluation of Training
Authors: Guest David E.
Published: January 2015

The aim of training evaluation is to determine whether the training has met its aims. It may be formative or summative. Formative evaluation provides feedback during training to aid learning. Summative evaluation occurs after the training and can address reactions, learning, changes in attitudes and behavior, and impact on individual and organizational performance. The feasibility of all stages of systematic evaluation is a function of the nature and complexity of the training. It is therefore more difficult for management development or organizational development (
OD
) than for routine skills training.
Executive Search Agencies
Authors: Faulconbridge James R. , Hall Sarah J. E. , Beaverstock Jonathan V.
Published: January 2015

Executive search agencies now play a central role in elite labor markets. This article traces the rise of the industry in the 20th century and the globalization of key agencies. The role of executive search agencies in the identification, selection, and recruitment of executives is described, and the techniques developed by search firms are outlined. The article concludes by considering how the role of executive search agencies in elite labor recruitment has become institutionalized, with the use of agencies now seen as best practice by the world's leading corporations.
Health and Safety
Authors: Turner Nick , Dueck Paul M.
Published: January 2015

Do human resource management (
HRM
) practices affect occupational health and safety? We first describe the prevalence of workplace injuries as an indicator of occupational health and safety in the United States, and then describe existing research on the relationship between HRM systems (e.g., “high‐performance work systems”) and occupational safety. This research helps to affirm evidence that some of the same mechanisms that encourage high organizational performance also have a beneficial relationship with occupational health and safety. We then focus on two particular
HRM
practices, namely, autonomous work design and relative compensation, detailing evidence of their effects on occupational health and safety at the individual and organizational levels of analysis.
Human Resource Management and Performance
Authors: Peccei Riccardo , Voorde Karina Van De
Published: January 2015

Research dealing with the relationship between human resource management (HRM) and performance has been highly dynamic and has evolved over time, both theoretically and empirically. We provide a selective overview of relevant theory and research in the area as it has developed over the past 20 years. We first review the empirical evidence concerning the association between HRM and performance. We then examine key conceptual and theoretical developments in the area focusing, in particular, on core issues having to do with the nature of both HRM and performance, major potential mediators and moderators of the HRM‐performance relationship, and the growth of multilevel approaches in the area. We conclude by highlighting important avenues for future research.
Job Design
Authors: Parker Sharon K.
Published: January 2015

Job design concerns the content and organization of tasks and activities into jobs and roles, and includes individual‐ and group‐level characteristics such as autonomy, variety, significance, and demands. The way that jobs are designed can have a significant impact on employee job attitudes and behaviors. Early theories relevant to job enrichment and autonomous work groups have been expanded to keep pace with wider social and technological developments that have affected the nature of work. For example, more attention is now being given to social and relational aspects of work, as well as how employees influence and craft their own job designs.
Labor Turnover
Authors: Burch Tyler C. , Lee Thomas W. , Mitchell Terence R.
Published: January 2015

Owing to the organizational disruption and associated high costs incurred when workers leave an organization, both scholars and practitioners alike have sought to better understand labor turnover (i.e., the cessation of an individual's membership in an organization). The following review represents a summary of how organizational scholarship has advanced on the subject. In this we provide a comprehensive definition of labor turnover, followed by a discussion of both traditional, linear models as well as alternative, unfolding models of voluntary turnover. We also address newer theories on the factors that govern the employees' ease of movement from the organization, specifically highlighting theories on job embeddedness and the cybernetic process of job searching. Finally, we review the key forces that influence an employee's motivation to leave the organization.
Management Development
Authors: Beatty Richard W.
Published: January 2015

In the private sector, especially in the United States, concepts of management development continue to change rapidly.
Organizational Exit
Authors: Guest David E.
Published: January 2015

Organizational exit occurs for a number of reasons. Some may be largely out of the control of the organization such as voluntary labor turnover and retirement. Some may be more influenced by organizational decisions including involuntary turnover/dismissals and redundancy. Organizational exit should be viewed as the final stage in an HR process and should be recognized as influenced by preceding processes such as selection. Excessive unplanned exit can become a problem for organizations. To avoid this, organizations should undertake flexible workforce planning, should insure that their grievance, discipline, and redundancy procedures are carefully thought out and adhered to and should consider providing support as appropriate to staff who are leaving.
Employment Pensions
Authors: Sutcliffe Charles
Published: January 2015

There are three main types of pension ‐ state pensions, employment pensions, and private pensions. Employment pensions are usually either defined benefit or defined contribution schemes. Pensions are a form of remuneration and can be used to attract, retain and motivate employees. Defined benefit schemes can also be used to encourage employees to retire and to attract higher quality employees. In addition, defined benefit schemes allow the employer to effectively bond the workforce not to take industrial action.
Presenteeism
Authors: Johns Gary
Published: January 2015

Presenteeism is attending work even though one is ill. As such, it represents a state between sickness absenteeism and healthy, full work engagement. Scholars in human resources, organizational behavior, and occupational health have generally been interested in determining the factors that precipitate the act of presenteeism, while those in occupational medicine have mainly been interested in documenting the association between various medical conditions and consequent productivity loss incurred due to attending when ill. Universally, this productivity loss, in the aggregate, is said to be greater than that due to absenteeism. Research suggests that the following variables motivate presenteeism: heavy job demands, lack of backup, draconian absence management policies, job and financial insecurity, perceived job significance, teamwork requirements, workplace cultures that extol attendance, and personal beliefs that absence is illegitimate behavior. Although many medical conditions have been associated with reported productivity loss, the most prominent correlates include allergy, arthritis, depression, migraine, and musculoskeletal and respiratory problems.
Team‐Working
Authors: Guest David E.
Published: January 2015

Teams are groups that work together to produce a wide variety of goods and services. They have distinctive characteristics including undertaking complete tasks, possessing workers with a variety of skills, member interdependence, autonomy, and accountability. The evidence suggests that well‐constituted teams have a positive impact on outcomes but that there is a wide diversity of team performance. The more effective teams possess the core characteristics, are appropriately staffed and have good team processes.
HR
challenges include designing team structures and processes and selecting, training, and rewarding team members to ensure team effectiveness.
Labor Unions
Authors: Gall Gregor
Published: January 2015

Labor unions are the quintessential collective means by which workers in the capitalist employment relationship seek to represent their interests. Although labor unions act in the political arena and are often allied to particular political parties, the fundamental basis of their influence and presence is to be found within the workplace. Yet labor unions have in most countries experienced profound decline in recent decades, so whether they can continue to provide this historical role remains open to question.
Work‐Life Balance
Authors: Kossek Ellen Ernst , Groggins Ashley
Published: January 2015

Owing to the increase in importance in work‐life balance (WLB), this article reviews the primary theories and areas of debate surrounding the WLB literature. In addition, relevant employee and organizational issues are discussed to highlight areas of concern regarding future research.
Grievance Procedure
Authors: Holley William H.
Published: January 2015

Grievance procedures are mechanisms created by unions and management to resolve disputes over interpretation and application of provisions of the collective bargaining agreement during the life of that agreement without a strike or lockout.
Human Resource Information Systems
Authors: Boudreau John W.
Published: January 2015

Human resource information systems (HRIS) are systematic procedures for collecting, storing, maintaining, retrieving, and validating data needed by an organization about its human resources, personnel activities, and organization unit characteristics (Milkovich and Boudreau,

).
Interim Management
Authors: Bach Stephen
Published: January 2015

Interims are temporary appointments at senior management level, that take on a specific role or change management project for a limited time period. Employers use interim managers when they are seeking to address a short‐term problem without taking on a long term employment obligation. Individuals become interims for a variety of reasons, but are keen to stress that it is not a “stop‐gap” move in between permanent work but is a conscious career choice, albeit sometimes precipitated by redundancy or dissatisfaction with corporate life. Interims emphasize that being an interim requires different skills from permanent employees, requiring rapid acclimatization to a new workplace. Interims highlight the challenge and variety of their work and the ability to avoid corporate politics by being in an organization for a time‐limited period. The main downside of the role relates to unpredictable earnings and insecurity and the stress this can engender. Despite the financial crises, as the industry continues to mature, interim management is establishing itself as an integral component of HR resourcing rather than a passing fad.
International Compensation
Authors: Stedham Yvonne
Published: January 2015

International compensation refers to all forms of financial returns and tangible benefits that employees of an international organization receive from their employer in exchange for providing their labor and commitment.
Job Sharing
Authors: Nollen Stanley
Published: January 2015

Job sharing is a version of Part‐Time Work whereby two part‐time (usually half‐time) employees share one regular full‐time job (
see
PART‐TIME WORK SCHEDULE
).
Personality Tests
Authors: Mount Michael K.
Published: January 2015

Personality tests can be classified into two types: personality inventories and projective tests.
Training
Authors: Goldstein Irwin L.
Published: January 2015

Training is concerned with the systematic design of learning in organizations. It typically involves a needs assessment, the actual training, and development and evaluation of the outcomes. Methods of training vary greatly from traditional classroom methods to use of advanced technologies. It may occur on‐ or off‐the‐job. Understanding of the psychology of learning and of learners and appreciation of the context for learning can facilitate effective training. Provision of sufficient resources is also essential to ensure successful training outcomes.
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (
BARS
)
Authors: Bernardin H. John
Published: January 2015

Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) are graphic performance rating scales with behavioral anchors defining points along the scale for each dimension. Direct comparisons to behavioral observation scales (BOS) found, raters preferred the BOS format. Ratings of relative frequency result in higher levels of reliability in ratings.
Collective Bargaining
Authors: Delaney John T.
Published: January 2015

Collective bargaining is a process through which unionized employees and their employers meet and confer to jointly determine the terms and conditions of employment. The subjects and nature of bargaining are set by national and local laws, which generate different outcomes for public and private employees and across local and national borders. Collective bargaining has a political aspect, especially for public employees, and unions devote considerable efforts to support friendly politicians and legislation. Although the political aspect of collective bargaining has always been controversial, it has received much less attention than the outcomes of labor‐management negotiations. In general, workers covered by bargaining typically receive higher wages and better benefits than similar non‐covered workers. Because collective bargaining reduces income inequality, it is likely to receive much attention over the next decade.
Job Insecurity and Employability
Authors: Witte Hans De , Cuyper Nele De
Published: January 2015

We define (perceived) job insecurity and (perceived) employability, and detail their antecedents and consequences. Antecedents concern variables at the macro, meso, and micro level. Health and well being and employee attitudes and behaviors are potential consequences. We then discuss explanations for the relationship between job insecurity/employability and the outcome. Finally, the relationship between job insecurity and employability is looked at from different perspectives, including mediation (employability → job insecurity → outcome) and moderation (employability buffers the effects associated with job insecurity).
Realistic Job Previews
Authors: Earnest David R.
Published: January 2015

Realistic job previews (
RJP
s) are used to present realistic and accurate information to applicants concerning open positions. The primary purpose of RJPs has been to reduce employee turnover through the reduction of discrepancies between applicant expectations and employee experiences and the presentation of accurate perception generating information related to applicant fit. Over 50 years of research upholds a modest consentient effect of RJPs on the reduction of employee turnover.
Retraining
Authors: Feldman Daniel C.
Published: January 2015

Retraining refers to teaching individuals the knowledge, skills, and abilities, which will be necessary for them to obtain jobs in new occupations or organizations.
Sexual Orientation
Authors: Paetzold Ramona L.
Published: January 2015

Sexual orientation is generally viewed as including homosexuality and bisexuality, and is not specifically protected under federal antidiscrimination laws. Some states and/or cities and counties do protect individuals from discrimination by private employers on the basis of sexual orientation, however.
Adaptation
Authors: Hinds Pamela
Published: January 2015

Adaptation refers to the adjustments that organizations or workers make as they collaborate globally. Adaptation is necessary for global work because processes and practices vary between cultural contexts (e.g., Behfar, Kern, and Brett, 2006). As people strive to work together across cultural boundaries, some adaptation is often required to reduce reliance on practices that are inappropriate or ineffective in a given location or that are incompatible across locations. The process of adaptation involves sensemaking and experimentation, but whether it does and should result in convergence of practices across locations is unclear.
Capital Structure
Authors: Doppegieter Jan
Published: January 2015

Capital structure primarily refers to the use and scope of debt and equity capital to finance a firm's assets. Decisions on capital structure represent a key aspect of a firm's financial policy. The reliance on debt financing (financial leverage) may bring higher returns on equity, but also resembles higher financial risk that will result, ultimately, in higher capital costs.
Capitalism
Authors: MacKenzie Douglas W.
Published: January 2015

Free market capitalism has worked well. Crony capitalism is not so great.
Closed Economy
Authors: Thai Mai
Published: January 2015

This article provides the definition of a closed economy and explains its characteristics, reasons for its existence, as well as usefulness of closed economy analysis.
Competition
Authors: Bridoux Flore
Published: January 2015

Competition traditionally refers to the actions that firms take in a product market to outperform rivals in attracting customers and generating revenues. Yet, competition extends beyond product markets to other arenas such as factor markets, where firms compete for resources, and the political arena, where firms compete for legitimacy and favorable regulation. In addition, some firms meet the same rivals across multiple markets, which affect their competitive behavior in any particular market. Competition is thus best seen as a dynamic process in which firms can take actions in multiple competitive arenas simultaneously to gain temporary competitive advantages, which will dissipate as rivals respond.
Conservation of Resources Theory
Authors: Ng Thomas
Published: January 2015

The author provides a brief overview of the key tenets of the conservation of resources theory, which has been used to understand employee experiences of psychological distress.
International Management Control
Authors: Beamish Paul W. , Farah Bassam E.
Published: January 2015

International management control (IMC) refers to a set of
control mechanisms
that an international business engages in to
direct
,
monitor
,
evaluate
,
regulate
, and
integrate
its international trade and/or global
activities
to achieve its desired purpose(s). IMC mechanisms can be classified into three types: regulative, financial, and normative. International businesses following different internationalization strategies – such as international, multinational, global, and transnational strategies – use different sets of control mechanisms to integrate their activities.
Cross‐Cultural Training
Authors: Gluesing Julia C.
Published: January 2015

Cross‐cultural training is of interest to scholars and practitioners alike in this age of rapid globalization of business. While there is considerable research on the effectiveness of cross‐cultural training and the performance of expatriate managers, this research has had mixed results because of methodological flaws and the lack of a unifying theory. The increasing cross‐cultural interaction in the workplace, not only among expatriates but also among domestic employees, especially multicultural distributed teams, means that research of cross‐cultural training effectiveness, both qualitative and quantitative, is more important than ever.
Cultural Relativism
Authors: Gluesing Julia C.
Published: January 2015

Cultural relativism is a philosophy, epistemology, and methodological concept that originated in anthropology in the early twentieth century. Cultural relativists take the position that each culture must be judged on its own terms according to its own framework and that culture mediates understanding and experiences of the world.
Economies of Scope
Authors: Athanasiou Emmanuel
Published: January 2015

Economies of scope appear when average variable cost varies according to the proportions of the level of different products produced jointly by a firm. This concept is useful in determining the scope of a firm's economic activity, for example, in how many markets and at what level of activity should it engage in.
Ethics
Authors: Cappellini Benedetta
Published: January 2015

This article provides a discussion of ethics as a general normative enquiry regarding good or bad actions. After discussing the differences between ethics and moral, it gives an overview of the main ethical theories. Teleological and deontological theories are presented. They are followed by the most recent ethical theories such as postmodern ethics theories, feminist theories, and ethical theories based on procedures.
First Mover Advantage
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya , Channon Derek F.
Published: January 2015

First mover advantage is derived from a firm's ability to gain early entry into a new market. Significant payoffs exist when barriers to entry are created. In the early days of the PC industry, Microsoft created high barriers to entry by collaborating with Intel. Today, Microsoft still holds a dominant position with 90% market share of the PC operating system market. Lockheed Martin's early technological and partnership advantage with Russian aerospace companies allowed it to secure a leadership position in the global market for commercial space launches, servicing the satellite industry. The timing of strategic moves into international markets may be critical for success as a result of the positive advantages accruing to first movers. The set of advantages to be gained are costs advantages, preemption of geographic space, technological advantages, differentiation advantages, and political advantages. For first mover advantage, to materialize, it is necessary to create high barriers for competitors to enter the market, be the first to introduce new systems and to, exploit first mover advantage to achieve customer loyalty. There is no first mover advantage where there are low or zero barriers to entry by competitors. Indeed, it may involve much greater risk than being an early follower.
Foreign Exchange
Authors: O'Connell John
Published: January 2015

Foreign exchange is the currency of one country located in a second country.
Geographic Distance
Authors: Ragozzino Roberto
Published: January 2015

Geographic distance plays an important role in international management. It is tempting to assume that the importance of distance has diminished over time, as the phenomenon of globalization and the advancements in technology and communication have brought countries together. However, scholarly work has shown that geographic distance remains a very relevant factor that affects the way in which firms grow across borders.
Hall'S High and Low Context
Authors: McNett Jeanne M.
Published: January 2015

Hall uses reliance on context to describe communication patterns and their differences across cultures.
Human Resource Management
Authors: Verburg Robert M.
Published: January 2015

Human resource management (
HRM
) is about all those activities associated with the management of people in firms. The aim of this article is to provide an overview of the
HRM
approach. This is done by showing the central role for top and line management and by showing how
HRM
can help fulfill business objectives. On the basis of the three main phases of employment management (the entry, performance, and exit of employees), some current challenges of managing people in an international context are highlighted.
Integration
Authors: Junni Paulina , Sarala Riikka , Vaara Eero
Published: January 2015

The aim of this article is to provide an overview of M&A integration. We describe what M&A integration entails, and discuss two important dimensions of this process, namely, operational and cultural integration. We also provide an overview of different integration styles related to these two dimensions, and discuss the dynamics of the M&A integration process.
Internalization
Authors: Athanassiou Nicholas
Published: January 2015

Internalization theory explains the internationalization decisions of multinational firms. Combined with other principles, internationalization theory can be used to predict a range of aspects of multinational company (MNC) activity behavior, including foreign direct investment decisions, international joint venture behavior, and management, national market entry decisions, and entrepreneurial activities across borders. Internalization theory is also behind the “make or buy” decisions also referred to as backward integration or resource seeking behavior across borders. Similarly, the mode of entry in new national markets (internal or arms length) can be explained as the result of forward integration behavior.
The Language of Global Management
Authors: Neeley Tsedal B.
Published: January 2015

Over the last two decades, organizations seeking global expansion have been mandating an English lingua franca, or common language to facilitate global collaboration regardless of the country location of their headquarters. This article explains why stipulating a lingua franca for employees has replaced the exclusive use of language brokers. In the era of a business lingua franca, nevertheless, gives rise to the phenomenon of native and nonnative speakers. While a lingua franca can unify a nationally and linguistically diverse workforce, nascent research reveals challenging dynamics among speakers of various levels of lingua franca fluency. In‐depth studies at the micro‐, macro‐, and meso‐levels can shed important light on this nascent field of research.
The Liability of Foreignness
Authors: Nachum Lilach
Published: January 2015

The term “liability of foreignness” (
LOF
) describes the costs that firms operating outside their home countries experience above those incurred by local firms.
Map, Bridge, Integrate Model (MBI)
Authors: McNett Jeanne M.
Published: January 2015

Map, bridge, integrate (MBI) model offers a way to recognize and analyze cultural differences. Ignoring cultural differences may be easier in the short term, but may well create problems over time.
Market
Authors: Kuznetsova Olga
Published: January 2015

The article introduces the notion of the market, and explains the working of the market mechanism and the market economy.
Multinational Corporations (
MNC
s) and Enterprises (
MNE
s)
Authors: Mayrhofer Ulrike , Prange Christiane
Published: January 2015

This article focuses on key characteristics of multinational companies (MNCs) in a global business environment. After the definition of the MNC, the authors present an overview of the geographic origin of MNCs and trends concerning foreign direct investments (FDI). They analyze location strategies followed by MNCs and explain the growing importance of MNCs from emerging economies. Several theoretical perspectives contribute to a better understanding of MNCs: industrial organization theory, transaction cost theory, organizational capability theory, contingency theory, business network theory, and institutionalization theory. A typology of different conceptualizations (heterarchical, transnational, and metanational companies) emphasizes their heterogeneous and changing character. Recent trends highlight the increasing fragmentation of the value‐chain and the development of “global factories.”
Negotiation
Authors: Beersma Bianca , Ten Velden Femke S.
Published: January 2015

Negotiation, the communication between parties with perceived divergent interests aimed at reaching agreement, is used across many contexts to resolve social conflict. Often, negotiations involve multiple issues, such that parties can form integrative agreements that yield higher joint utility than a 50–50 compromise or a victory‐for‐one solution. However, in order to reach these agreements, parties need to choose the most optimal negotiation strategy, something they often fail to do. This is due to (i) information processing barriers and (ii) barriers related to social motivation. We discuss the effects of these barriers and how they can be overcome. Finally, we discuss current trends and future directions in negotiation research, focusing specifically on effects of emotions, multiparty contexts, and culture.
Political Economy
Authors: Sobel Andrew C.
Published: January 2015

Political economy includes macro political economic approaches, which examine associations between political activities and substantive performance of economies, and micro political economic approaches, which focus on the processes and factors that influence and constrain the choices of individual political actors. Macro approaches probe how government actions affect the state of the economy, or how the state of the economy affects government actions. Micro approaches seek to understand the choices of individuals, which interact and aggregate to produce social, economic, and political outcomes. Micro approaches to political economy attempt to discover the causal foundations of actions in political arenas, to investigate, and construct the microfoundations of macro outcomes. Three assumptions underpin micro political economy approaches. First, we live in a world of scarce resources. Second, political actors seek to survive. Third, decision makers act as if they are rational.
Property Rights
Authors: McGee Robert W.
Published: January 2015

The modern theory of property rights was expounded by John Locke (1690). Locke held that individuals own their bodies and the fruits of their labor. Any act that prevents individuals from using their bodies or the fruits of their labor (other justly acquired property) constitutes a violation of property rights, with limited exceptions. In modern times, governments have become the main violators of property rights. The present entry provides examples of property rights violations.
Protectionism
Authors: O'Connell John
Published: January 2015

A government practicing protectionist actions is attempting to protect local markets and industry from foreign competition.
Regiocentrism
Authors: O'Connell John
Published: January 2015

An organization that chooses its management personnel from within a selected region of the world practices regiocentrism.
Repatriation of Profits
Authors: Singh Satyendra
Published: January 2015

Profit repatriation is the ability of a firm to send foreign‐earned profits or financial assets back to the firm's home country in hard currency such as
US
$, Euro, and Pound, after meeting host nation's tax obligations. Profit repatriation has both pros and cons. Proponents argue that it encourages foreign direct investments (FDIs) and thus leading to higher quality of life through employment and income, whereas opponents argue that profit repatriation boosts another country's economy, and thus boosting their local demand. Therefore, different countries impose different restrictions for profit repatriation. The article explains the five methods for repatriation of profits: financing structure, parallel loans, reinvoicing centers, royalty payments, and transfer pricing.
Securities And Exchange Commission (
SEC
)
Authors: Laskin Alexander V.
Published: January 2015

The United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is a government agency focused on protecting investors, maintaining capital markets, and facilitating capital formation. Starting in early 1930s, the SEC has been the key organization overseeing federal securities law compliance and bringing enforcement actions against violators. The SEC is headed by five commissioners appointed by the US President. Its 3500 employees are organized into 5 divisions and 19 offices as well as 11 regional offices. Bearing part of the blame for the recent stock market crashes, the SEC is now in the process of upgrading its structure, functions, and key operations.
Social Categorization
Authors: Klaus Nicola , Sackmann Sonja
Published: January 2015

The term “social categorization” refers to the systematic classification of other people in order to achieve orientation within an individual's social reality. Others are categorized with regard to certain characteristics they share with various social groups, such as ethnicity, gender, and so on. Depending on the nature of judgments made on the basis of social categorization, there are positive and negative implications for working in diverse teams.
Sustainability
Authors: Taylor Sully , Marshall Scott
Published: January 2015

Sustainability has emerged as one of the most important, if not the most important, influences on the way business is conducted in the twenty‐first century.
The Transnational Corporation as a Provider of Public Goods
Authors: Jones Marc T.
Published: January 2015

This article addresses the political economy of the transnational corporation (TNC) in an age of globalization. Specifically, the institutional logic of the corporate form as manifested in the TNC is examined in terms of the magnitude of private versus pubic goods that are generated by “normal” TNC activities; that is, the extent to which TNCs are “takers” from or “givers” to the commons. Our understanding of the meaning of “corporate citizenship” as applied to TNCs largely turns on this question, which has major implications for how effectively this institution can fill the “black hole” left by a receding state and play a leading role in the provision of various public goods and citizenship rights.
Trust
Authors: Ravlin Elizabeth C. , Ward Anna‐Katherine
Published: January 2015

As the focus in management increasingly turns toward the importance of relationships, trust has become a key topic for both researchers and practitioners. Antecedents of trust, such as trust propensity, ability, benevolence, integrity, and trustworthiness, have been examined in an effort to better understand how trust is created, and important outcomes of trust, such as task performance, citizenship behaviors, and risk taking, have been identified. In a globalized business environment, the role of these trust‐related factors in the establishment of cross‐cultural relationships may well be the foundation for success in international management; however, research in the global context is still in the early stages of development. Differences across cultures in how relationships are formed and perceived influence the trust building process within cultural contexts and between culturally different individuals.
Logistics Management
Authors: Eroglu Cuneyt , Croxton Keely L.
Published: January 2015

Logistics management refers to the management of product flows across a firm's supply chain in order to meet customer requirements. More formally, logistics management is defined as “that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective, forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers' requirements” (
cscmp.org
). In simpler terms, the goal of logistics is to have the right product, at the right time, in the right place, at the right cost, and in the right condition.
Work‐Life Issues
Authors: Caligiuri Paula
Published: January 2015

This short article defines work‐life balance and describes the key issues internationally affecting employees' work‐life balance or work‐life harmony. The key practices organizations are using to help their employees balance the demands of work and personal life are also offered. The practices for helping employees and their families during international assignments which require relocation to another country (or expatriate assignments), a particularly stressful activity, are also listed.
Venture Capital
Authors: Hilb Michael
Published: January 2015

Venture capital (
VC
) is a form of institutionalized investment in start‐up companies that cannot tap into traditional capital markets owing to their risk profile. The modern
VC
industry has grown into a global capital class that invested $41.5 billion in 2012. In common with most other modern capital market concepts,
VC
was shaped in the United States and subsequently adopted globally. In line with overall economic trends, the
VC
markets in the emerging nations have outgrown many of the more developed markets in recent years, with China expected to become the second largest
VC
market, following the United States.
E‐Government
Authors: Harfouche Antoine , Robbin Alice
Published: January 2015

This article offers the definitions of e‐government, defines e‐services for citizens, provides examples of e‐government projects, describes various metrics employed to assess e‐government readiness, and discusses findings that demand (use) has not matched the supply of e‐government services because of three digital divides of access, skills, and acceptance (motivation).
End‐User Computing
Authors: Barker Sandra , Adam Mahmood M.
Published: January 2015

End‐user computing includes the use, development, modification, enhancement, and control of applications used within the workplace. The classification of end‐users allows managers to come up with and place into place the strategies for the effective management of the end‐users. Research continues in this field from both academic and professional viewpoints.
Computer‐Supported Cooperative Work
Authors: Dennis Alan R. , McNamara Kelly
Published: January 2015

Computer‐supported cooperative work (CSCW) is the use of information and communication technologies to support groups working together on shared tasks. Different tools provide features that fall into three general categories: communication support (helping group members communicate), information processing (organizing and evaluating information), and appropriation support (supporting how tools are adopted and used). For many tools, there is a significant learning curve before the tool can be used effectively; so studies that have examined the first‐time use of CSCW by novice users often have concluded that they take longer to use and lead to dissatisfied users. However, studies that have examined ongoing use or first‐time use that has been supported by detailed training or an experienced facilitator have found tools to reduce the time taken to reach decisions, increase user satisfaction, and increase the quantity and quality of ideas generated. Simple CSCW tools that offer communication support, such as email, IM, and Skype, have been widely adopted, because the benefits of using these tools are clear and compelling. More sophisticated tools have not been widely adopted, perhaps because their learning curve poses a barrier, and it is not clear how they offer more benefits than the simple tools.
Database Design
Authors: McDonald David
Published: January 2015

The explosion in the quantity and availability data is making knowledge of database systems important most organizations. Data is now viewed as a strategic asset, one that helps a business sustain a competitive advantage. This article defines some fundamental concepts in the use of data and database management systems (
DBMS
s). Initially, a brief historical perspective is presented, which then segues into today's most popular design methodologies, the relational model, and the object‐oriented model. The article concludes by showing how fast data has grown exponentially and how managers need to consider data a vital asset of the organization.
Electronic Messaging
Authors: Ransbotham Sam
Published: January 2015

One important way that information technology affects everyone is through electronic messaging. In the years since its inception, electronic messaging has changed the way people live and work. Rapid, inexpensive communication has been a key benefit of the overall information technology transformation. While initial messaging options were basic, recent explosive growth has led to a many forms of messaging with a large variety of attributes.
Enterprise Architectures
Authors: Khoshafian Setrag
Published: January 2015

An enterprise architecture (EA) is a
blueprint
of the enterprise capturing business, application, information, and infrastructure models and their relationships. An
EA
associates the strategies and business objectives of the enterprise to systems and technology platforms.
EAs
attempt to modernize legacy systems and govern change through complex organizations. Service oriented enterprises (SOEs) leveraging business process management suites (BPMS), especially, are an important milestone in the evolution and execution of EAs. SOE allow organizations to achieve continuous adaptation through dynamic yet controlled performance driven methodologies.
Expert Systems
Authors: Das Amit
Published: January 2015

Expert systems mimic the problem‐solving activity of human experts in specialized domains by capturing and representing expert knowledge. Expert systems include a knowledge base, an inference engine that derives conclusions from the knowledge, and a user interface. Knowledge may be stored as if‐then rules, orusing other formalisms such as frames and predicate logic. Uncertain knowledge may be represented using certainty factors, Bayesian networks, Dempster‐Shafer belief functions, or fuzzy sets. Methods of knowledge acquisition include interviewing, analysis of past records of expert decisions, and observation of experts engaged in their natural activity.

An expert system shell is a commercially available programming environment that allows the entry of domain knowledge in the form of rules. Expert system shells enable end‐user computing, where skilled professionals, such as engineers and scientists, can encode their own knowledge into software. Expert systems are widely used in businesses to perform tasks ranging from diagnosis of manufacturing processes to credit approval by credit card companies.
Human–Computer Interaction (HCI): Interactivity, Immersion, and Invisibility as New Extensions
Authors: Prestopnik Nathan , Zhang Ping
Published: January 2015

Human–computer interaction (HCI) or human factors studies in management information systems (MIS) are concerned with the ways humans interact with information, technologies, and tasks, especially in business, managerial, organizational, and cultural contexts. HCI studies in MIS have a long history, started as early as the MIS field itself. These studies are necessarily broad, encompassing aspects of psychology, social psychology, sociology, management, organizational studies, computer science, information technology, software engineering, design, and creative arts, among others. This encyclopedia entry explores how new technological advances are spawning brand new use contexts that are highly interesting to HCI scholars, and examines how some familiar use contexts may be reimagined in light of ongoing technological advances in HCI. It is organized around three interaction paradigms: interactivity, immersion, and invisibility, each topic introduced with a fictional scenario, followed by a short discussion on selected HCI issues, technologies, and possibilities.
Information Systems Security
Authors: Warkentin Merrill
Published: January 2015

Given the strategic dependence on information and information technology by individuals, workgroups (teams), organizations, industries, nations, and society overall, it is imperative that the integrity of that information is maintained in all three states – during transmission, during storage, and during processing. Information (and information systems) security management is the process of ensuring the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information whenever and wherever it is transmitted, stored, and processed (sometimes called the “CIA Triad”). While perfect security is desirable, it is unfortunately unattainable. There are numerous active and passive threats to the security of information, as well as responses to these threats that must be adopted by individuals, teams, and organizations. Various technical and behavioral controls are used to counter these threats, but this article will focus on the behavioral controls.

Threats characteristics and threat examples are discussed below, as are the responses to such threats. Research findings support the importance of both internal and external threats, with internal threats demonstrating the greatest negative impact in most cases. Factors that contribute to individual compliance with security policies will be discussed, along with some discussion of the intentional violation of security protocols and policies by malicious individuals.
Interorganizational Systems
Authors: Plomp Marijn G.A.
Published: January 2015

Interorganizational systems (
IOS
) are information systems that cross the boundaries of a single organization. These systems support collaboration between two or more organizations, leading to advantages such as increased efficiency and/or effectiveness. Many different types of IOS exist, varying in purpose and scope. IOS have been studied as early as the mid sixties of the previous century, but the field can still be considered as active and relevant. Challenges for the future lie in dealing with the complexity of IOS and incorporating the views from theories such as multilevel theory, interorganizational relationships, and chain‐computerization.
IT
Professionals and the
IT
Profession
Authors: Ang Soon , Joseph Damien , Slaughter Sandra A.
Published: January 2015

The context for
IT
work is changing. New technologies, the trend toward global delivery of
IT
products and services, the increasing use of social media for work, and the gamification of work have widened job roles in the
IT
profession. This article expands the traditional list of
IT
job roles (e.g., chief information officer and systems analyst) by identifying emerging
IT
job roles (e.g., social media specialist and 3D modeler) directly influenced by the changing context of work. Present
IT
job roles require
IT
professionals to acquire and develop critical skills in addition to the
IT
technical and softer skills. These additional skills include cultural competencies and creativity.
IT
professionals are also expected to polyspecialize in two or more related and mutually reinforcing domains. We conclude this article by discussing the implications arising from the evolving
IT
work context on the jobs, careers and compensation of
IT
professionals.