bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Administering rural development: Have goals outreached organizational capacity?
Authors: Wunsch James S.
Published: July 2007

In a comparative analysis of 15 rural development projects the author finds five problem areas in their administration: project economics; design and location of infrastructure; design of project technical outputs (‘software’); support services; and maintenance and management of infrastructure. All but one of the projects reviewed were severely hampered by one or more of these problems. The author suggests that these problem areas are caused by three general patterns: disjunction between project designers and managers' working models of reality and reality in the field; goal conflict among diverse agencies involved; and the simple technical complexity of the rural development task. The author concludes by noting these three patterns are found throughout developed countries as well as the less developed, but may have more severe consequences in the less developed because of the absence of organizational and social redundancy to catch, correct and circumvent these perhaps unavoidable features of centraliy administered, complex projects. Fewer, but more organizationally enriched, projects may do more for rural development than the current pattern where many donors each design many projects, overwhelming at times the organizational capacity of less developed countries.
The practice and effect of development planning in Bangladesh
Authors: Hasnath Syed Abu
Published: July 2007

Development planning in Bangladesh has not been conspicuously successful. Neverthless it is essential for the nation to continue to plan its economy. Bangladesh's plans must be explored within the context of the economic and sociopolitical constraints that are placed upon the plan and its implementation. The First Five Year Plan (FFYP) was prepared within the framework of a socialist economy but not implemented accordingly. The attitude of the government was a major factor in the eventual distortion of this plan. The mobilization of national resources and their allocation, land reforms, subsidy measures, and industrial policies pursued by the government appeared to protect group interests rather than following recommendations of the plan. A bitter triangular relationship emerged among the politicians, the bureaucrats and the planners. This can explain why the implementation of the plan fell short of what was minimally expected. Subsequent plans, unlike the FFYP which placed high priority on social sectors, have been formulated in favour of the more productive sectors of agriculture and manufacturing. The outcome has been a modest increase in economic growth, but inequality and poverty have tended to perpetuate themselves. To achieve growth with social equality, planning in Bangladesh appears to need strong public commitment and bureaucratic support, the absence of which may prove to make national development planning ineffective, if not counterproductive.
Improving the project identification process in agricultural development
Authors: Smith Peter
Published: July 2007

Many development initiatives fail because of the way the basic concepts of development relating to the stimulation of agricultural production are generated. The problem with the conventional approach to project identification is that it fails to take into account key decision‐makers (local farmers and other interested groups) and to address the problem of rationality. The accurate identification of farmers' constraints is crucial to the design of projects if these are to have the desired results. Problems resulting from the current approach to project identification are illustrated by the group farming projects in Uganda, and tubewell projects in Bangladesh. The activities of the typical project cycle are unfavourably compared with a decision paradigm, and are related to professional bias, semantic confusion and ‘groupthink’. Nine workable prescriptions are offered.
The ‘new’ policy approach to housing: A review of the literature
Authors: Nientied Peter , Linden Jan Van Der
Published: July 2007

A new convention of ‘self‐help housing’ has become established over the past 20 years. However, a close examination of the literature shows that this approach is not widely implemented, but remains largely at the level of showcase projects; moreover the lowest income groups are usually not the principal beneficiaries of sites‐and‐service schemes. The literature gives evidence of powerful political, administrative and economic interests against the large‐scale legal delivery of sites‐and‐services, and in favour of the continued dependence of the poor on illegal access.
Civil service policies in Indonesia: An obstacle to decentralization?
Authors: King Dwight Y.
Published: July 2007

Decentralization of a substantial portion of development activity under Indonesia's New Order has been attempted in the context of centralizing civil service reforms. This analysis, based on field observation in two areas distant from the ‘bureaucratic centre’ of Java, South Sulawesi and East Nusa Tenggara in early 1986, shows some ways in which the structure of the civil service and recent policies governing it have handicapped regional governments in their attempts to develop an apparatus capable of managing decentralization. For example, the structure often leads local officials to prefer rank over technical qualifications in appointments to managerial positions. The analysis also shows how they cope and attempt to maintain their legal prerogatives vis‐à‐vis the central government. In conclusion policy recommendations are offered that would help to achieve a better balance between the New Order's concerns for centralization and decentralization.
Manpower planning and development in an organization
Authors: Fyfe John
Published: July 2007

Manpower planning has in the past relied too much on the forecasting of manpower requirements in an organization or a society. It should be more concerned with gaining a better understanding of people, and how to develop and match their skills to what organizations or societies require. Employees should be involved in the formulation of manpower policy objectives. Manpower planning involves a ‘stocktaking’ of the workforce and its skills; forecasting the future demand and supply of skills; and diagnostic approach so that adjustments can be made to meet organizational and/or country objectives. The essence of the diagnostic approach is in the understanding of the reasons for any imbalance between the supply of and demand for manpower.
Disbursement, decentralization and development: Lessons from the first rural health services project in Papua New Guinea
Authors: Thomason Jane A.
Published: July 2007

In 1983 the Department of Health in Papua New Guinea decentralized the control of health services to provincial governments. In the same year a major rural health development project commenced in six of the nineteen provinces. Conflict arose between the centralized control required by the project and the decentralized health system. This article reviews the experience of the project implementators in trying to reconcile the philosophy and reality of decentralization with the centralized project design. Lessons point to the need for closer collaboration with beneficiaries during project design, formal clarification of responsibilities of national and provincial governments in implementation, institutional strengthening as a project input and the development of mechanisms for review and change during the course of implementation.
Cost‐utility assessment: Planning with local decisionmakers in developing countries
Authors: Spear Sherilynn F. , Bruegge Ellen Vor Der , Hamilton Charles B.
Published: July 2007

In the past decade countries and donor agencies have endorsed health policies which (1) give a very broad definition of health, (2) see the pursuit of health as part of the development process, and (3) emphasize the local community's and local decision‐maker's participation in the planning of health projects. Despite these broad principles, health delivery systems in developing countries have access to a very limited set of resources. Health planners are faced with the dilemma of creating cost‐effective programmes while recognizing the need to take into account the broad definition of health and the importance of local participation in planning. This dilemma has led to a division between those planners who put greater emphasis on the use of cost analysis techniques in which the decision‐making process rests more with professional planners (often outside consultants) vs those who emphasize greater local control of the decision‐making process. The purpose of this paper is to present a study in which two alternative approaches to cost utility analysis were used. Consideration was given both to the actual cost analysis strategy and to the integration of the cost variable into the total decision‐making process. Finally, major emphasis was placed on including local decision‐makers in the planning process and providing them with feasible and understandable decision‐making tools.
Credit and the rural poor: The changing policy environment in Bangladesh
Authors: Allister McGregor J.
Published: July 2007

This paper reviews the changing policy environment as regards credit for development in rural Bangladesh. The experiences of a range of both successful and failed formal credit interventions in rural areas are employed to reflect upon the adequacy of the currently dominant analytical approach, (Rural Financial Markets) to credit for development. The importance for the rural poor of the quality of access to credit is stressed and the political economy of access is examined. Nevertheless, the ‘Rural Financial Market’ analysis has directed recent credit policy shifts in Bangladesh, and the paper moves on to consider the implications of this for development organisations/projects seeking to work with the formal banking system. A typology of the forms of relationship between projects and the banking system is introduced and a case study of proposals for a line of credit for a production and employment generation programme is presented. This case study seeks to explore the possibilities of restructuring the access situation with respect to formal credit given the current policy environment. The paper concludes by raising some of the broader consequences of the policy changes for the rural development strategies in Bangladesh.
Democratic decentralization or political consolidation: The case of local government reform in Karnataka
Authors: Slater Richard , Watson John
Published: July 2007

In 1987 the Indian State of Karnataka implemented panchayat reform legislation. The ideological orientation of the Janata Government's reforms is considered, together with the question of whether stronger local government in India increases the state's autonomy within the federation. The Karnataka reforms are expected to be significantly different from the reforms enacted in other states. Participation by marginalized groups may assist the Janata party in incorporating them into its network of patronage. Local level planning has been made more effective. The legislation gives the zilla parishad control over the line departments of the State Government. Administrative power is likely to experience increased local political direction. However the financial independence of the zilla parishad is by no means assured. The final outcome will also depend upon the attitude towards the reform of the Congress Party, anxious about its power base in the Karnataka countryside.
Exploring normative commitment with Nigerian extension workers
Authors: Munene J. C. , Dul R. D.
Published: July 2007

This paper explores normative commitment using a sample of 60 agricultural extension workers in a voluntary rural development programme. Organizational commitment is related to participation, standardization, and coordination in order to examine their relative influence on the visit effort of extension agents. Age, education, salary, tenure, position, and participation did not have any influence on normative commitment, whereas standardization negatively influenced it. Commitment, along with red tape, influenced visit efforts. Two major conclusions emerge. The first is that traditional personal and role‐related antecedents of commitment may be related to instrumental but not to normative commitment. The second is that normative commitment can predict behaviour outcomes in public organizations.
Policy reform and rural development assistance in Tanzania
Authors: Kleemeier L.
Published: July 2007

Tanzania for a long time refused to reform its economic policies along the lines recommended by the World Bank and IMF. Eventually the foreign exchange crisis forced the government to make the changes advocated by its own pragmatic economists and the Western donor community. The reforms were necessary, but not a panacea for all the problems which had plagued rural development programmes over the past decade. Three big problems still face basic‐needs programmes: the government administration has very little capacity to manage or back up programmes; neither the national nor district governments can afford them; and rural residents have not compensated for either of these deficiencies through their own participation and contributions. This article looks at two basic‐needs programmes in the rural water supply sector to illustrate how these long‐standing problems continue to affect implementation. Both programmes are funded and implemented by donors. The conclusion is that donors have not been sufficiently self‐conscious and innovative in grappling with the more intractable problems facing rural programme assistance in Tanzania.
Local government involvement in national development planning; guidelines for project selection based upon Nigeria's Fourth Plan experience
Authors: Koehn Peter
Published: July 2007

This article is concerned with effective local government participation at the project selection stage in the development planning process. The context for analysis is Nigeria's first experience with local involvement in national planning. A novel evaluation scheme is elaborated and applied in assessing the proposals submitted by two local governments, Kaduna and Bauchi, for inclusion in the Fourth National Development Plan. The findings reveal serious distortions in both local development plans and demonstrate the utility of employing an uncomplicated multidimensional impact analysis scheme in the evaluation and selection of project proposals.
Chinese decision‐making: A case study of how the Hexian Paper Pulp Project was accepted for possible inclusion in China's seventh Five‐Year Plan
Authors: Stewart Sally , Choi Yeung Yun
Published: July 2007

Foreign firms working in the People's Republic of China (PRC) are usually aware that the earlier they can discover what projects have been approved the easier it is for them to become involved. Very little, however, seems to have been written about the actual process by which projects are in fact decided upon and resources allocated. This case study examines the steps by which a proposal for a pulp mill moved in the space of less than two years from its originator in a remote county to the agenda of the Sixth National People's Congress in Beijing. The dramatic opening up of the PRC to outside influences is clearly demonstrated by the fact that a foreign banker, a Hong Kong entrepreneur and an overseas consultant all played important roles in establishing the feasibility of the project at the early stages. The involvement of various official bodies, including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Beijing, in the decision process is traced and the way in which personal links and informal methods of communication helped the proposal to get bureaucratic approval very quickly is shown.
Development administration in the small developing state: A review
Authors: Schahczenski Jeffery J.
Published: July 2007

Authors of recent case studies of the political and administrative practices of small developing states continue to disagree about the consequences of ‘smallness’ in promoting development. This paper reviews these arguments and attempts to clarify the issues surrounding the factor of state size and its impact on the relationship between politics and administration. The most important difficulty with providing any resolution to these arguments is the continued lack of comparative studies of administrative problems and potentials in small developing states.
Team Management and Development in Montserrat and Anguilla
Authors: Kersell J. E.
Published: July 2007

The British constitutional and political traditions of the Crown Colonies of Montserrat and Anguilla have been modified by their unique histories, particularly in a common commitment to team management. Some senior public servants in Montserrat are reluctant to acknowledge the virtues of a team approach, but their more junior colleagues have been given training in team techniques which has laid a firm foundation for team work and collective management. Professional effectiveness and job satisfaction have increased. The principles of team management are reciprocity, disposition for agreement, fairness, honesty, mutual trust and confidentiality. However the reluctant leadership of some Permanent Secretaries produces frustration and problems of morale. The Permanent Secretary level is the last to be impregnated with the team administration philosophy in Anguilla, too. But team management is recognized as necessary for building consensus and for the smooth running of a small public service. Subordinates employing team techniques have been assessed by their superiors as more successful in staff‐management relations, policymaking and productivity than traditional, hierarchical managers. Team techniques have been carried over into a number of small businesses on the island. This phenomenon is unique among the United Kingdom's West Indian colonies. The problems of team management include time and accountability.
Function‐oriented and functionally indirect expansion as bureaucratic responses to modernization: Yhe case of the Royal Hong Kong police
Authors: Ng‐Quinn Michael
Published: July 2007

Using the Hong Kong police as an empirical case, this paper explains how a public bureaucracy attempts to respond to the pressures of modernization through two types of expansion, one direct, the other indirect. In this case, functionally indirect expansion is represented by an overconcentration of control through excessive hierarchic layers and by an incommensurate relationship between ranks and functions. Function‐oriented expansion‐ aside from regular bureaucratic expansion in size that corresponds to increased functions and tasks resulting from population growth and modernization‐also takes the forms of inspection, professionalization, and externalization. Functionally indirect expansion may be potentially beneficial but also wasteful. To the extent that social prosperity, which renders bureaucratic waste affordable and tolerable, may not last forever, the rationalization of functionally indirect expansion and the promotion of function‐oriented expansion are in order.
Effect of ABS grafting degree and compatibilization on the properties of PBT/ABS blends
Authors: Sun Shulin , Tan Zhiyong , Zhou Chao , Zhang Mingyao , Zhang Huixuan
Published: July 2007

Blends of PBT/ABS and PBT/ABS compatibilized with styrene‐acrylonitrile‐glycidyl methacrylate (SAG) copolymer were prepared by melt blending method. Grafting degree (GD) of ABS influences the morphology and mechanical properties of PBT/ABS blends. ABS can disperse in PBT matrix uniformly and PBT/ABS blends fracture in ductile mode when ABS grafting degree is more than 44.8%, otherwise, agglomeration takes place and PBT/ABS blends fracture in brittle way. On the other hand, the grafting degree of ABS has no obvious influence on the morphology of PBT/ABS blends and PBT/ABS blends fracture in ductile mode when SAG is incorporated since the compatibilization effect. However, PBT/SAG/ABS blends display much lower impact strength values comparing with PBT/ABS when the blends fracture in ductile way. Side reactions in PBT/SAG/ABS blends were analyzed and which were the main reason for the decrease of impact strength of PBT blends. Tensile tests show that the tensile strength and tensile modulus of PBT blends decrease with the increase of ABS grafting degree due to the higher effective volume. PBT/SAG/ABS blends display much higher tensile properties than PBT/ABS blends since the compatibilization effect. POLYM. COMPOS., 28:484–492, 2007. © 2007 Society of Plastics Engineers
Knowledges about herbal products among subjects on warfarin therapy and patient–physician relationship: a pilot study
Authors: Cuzzolin Laura , Francini‐Pesenti Francesco , Zaffani Silvana , Brocadello Filippo , Pengo Vittorio , Bassi Antonella , Benoni Giuseppina
Published: July 2007

Purpose

The purpose of our study was to analyse behaviours and patient–physician relationship about phytotherapy among a sample of Italian patients on warfarin therapy for atrial fibrillation.

Methods

During a 4‐month study period, interviews of patients on warfarin therapy, followed regularly in the medical laboratories to monitor INR values, were conducted on the basis of a pre‐structured 25‐item questionnaire.

Results

Among a study population of 294 patients, 69 subjects reported to have been taking one or more phytotherapic products in the last year in combination with warfarin. Users were mostly in the age group >50 years and had a low level of education. Five out of 69 patients reported side effects, while 16/69 referred an unstable INR value. The majority of our subjects considered phytotherapy useful and without risks.

Conclusions

The present survey highlights the potential risk of confidence with the ‘natural world’, the lack of discussion on this argument among health care providers and patients on warfarin therapy and the need to monitor strictly the INR value. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Preparation, characterization, and chiral recognition of optically active polymers containing pendent chiral units via reversible addition‐fragmentation chain transfer polymerization
Authors: Wang Jian , Zhu Xiulin , Cheng Zhenping , Zhang Zhengbiao , Zhu Jian
Published: July 2007

Optically active polymers bearing chiral units at the side chain were prepared via reversible addition‐fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization in the presence of 2,2′‐azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN)/benzyl dithiobenzoate (BDB), using a synthesized 6‐O‐p‐vinylbenzyl‐1,2:3,4‐Di‐O‐isopropylidene‐D‐galactopyranose (VBPG) as the monomer. The experimental results suggested that the polymerization of the monomer proceeded in a living fashion, providing chiral group polymers with narrow molecular weight distributions. The optically active nature of the obtained poly (6‐O‐p‐vinylbenzyl‐1,2:3,4‐Di‐O‐isopropylidene‐D‐galactopyranose) (PVBPG) was studied by investigating the dependence of specific rotation on the molecular weight of PVBPG and the concentration of PVBPG in tetrahydrofuran (THF). The results showed the specific rotation of PVBPG increased greatly with the decrease of the concentration of the PVBPG homopolymer. In addition, the effect of block copolymers of PVBPG on the optically active nature was also investigated by preparing a series of diblock copolymers of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)‐b‐PVBPG, polystyrene (PS)‐b‐PVBPG, and poly(methyl acrylate) (PMA)‐b‐PVBPG. It was found that both the homopolymer and the diblock copolymers possessed specific rotations. Finally, the ability of chiral recognition of the PVBPG homopolymer was investigated via an enantiomer‐selective adsorption experiment. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 45: 3788–3797, 2007
Microwave assisted hydroxyalkylamidation of poly(ethylene‐co‐acrylic acid) and formation of grafted poly(ϵ‐caprolactone) side chains
Authors: Sinnwell Sebastian , Ritter Helmut
Published: July 2007

The microwave assisted amidation of poly(ethylene‐co‐acrylic acid) (PEAA) with 2‐(2‐aminoethoxy)ethanol was performed to yield a hydroxy functionalized poly(ethylene) based copolymer (PEAAOH) in a single step. PEAAOH was used as a polyinitiator for the ring‐opening polymerization of ε‐caprolactone. The obtained graft copolymers were studied via 1H NMR spectroscopy, gel permeation chromatography, differential scanning calorimetry, polarized optical microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. Microscopy methods show a crystallization behavior of banded spherulites. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 45: 3659–3667, 2007
Theoretical modeling of the relationship between Young's modulus and formulation variables for segmented polyurethanes
Authors: Ginzburg Valeriy V. , Bicerano Jozef , Christenson Christopher P. , Schrock Alan K. , Patashinski Alexander Z.
Published: July 2007

We describe a new modeling approach to prediction of Young's modulus of segmented polyurethanes. This approach combines micromechanical models with thermodynamic considerations based on the theory of block copolymers. The resulting model predicts both the equilibrium morphology and the “ideal” Young's modulus of a segmented polyurethane polymer as a function of its formulation (hard segment chemical structure, hard segment weight fraction, soft segment equivalent weight) and temperature. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 45: 2123–2135, 2007
Methods and limitations of assessing the hermeticity of semiconductor component encapsulations
Authors: Merrett R. P.
Published: July 2007

Hermeticity testing is a standard part of the process control and procurement procedures for semiconductor components. The various test methods are reviewed and particular emphasis placed on their limitations. It is shown that, although the commonly used tests are incapable of detecting all of the leaks which pose a reliability hazard, these tests can be used to identify batches in which an unacceptably large fraction of the packages are likely to have such leaks.
Estimation of weibull reliability from few life tests
Authors: Erto Pasquale , Guida Maurizio
Published: July 2007

The 2–parameter Weibull model can be re–parameterized in terms of shape parameter and a prefixed age for which a reliability estimation is required. Using the uniform and beta priors, some new point and lower bound reliability estimators were derived. These estimators appear to be very suitable to meet the needs of fast and cheap reliability evaluation during production. Their characteristics were studied by means of a Monte Carlo simulation and were compared with those of the maximum likelihood estimators.
A failure analysis methodology for revealing esd damage to integrated circuits
Authors: Taylor R. G. , Woodhouse J. , Feasey P. R.
Published: July 2007

A range of chemical and physical techniques is required in order to identify the failure sites and failure machanisms of ICs subjected to ESD transients. The damage features of ESD failures from the field are shown to be similar to those produced by simulated human‐body‐model testing. A curve tracer technique can be used to predict the location of an ESD failure site in the input or output circuit of an IC. Junction shorts induced by ESD transients form as a result of a combination of heating at the site of second breakdown, together with the heat generated by the discharge current in the discharge path. The ESD sensitivity of a given input or output circuit is dependent on the spacing between the input contact window. and the contact window of the nearest diffusion‐to‐Vss metallization.
The reliability engineer looks at stress screening
Authors: Tustin Wayne
Published: July 2007

Stress screening (as a final step in the manufacture of electronics) adds brief intervals of severe broadband vibration to temperature shock. The goal is to precipitate as hard defects any latent manufacturing defects. Applying such stressing to subassemblies and assemblies is much faster and much more effective than the more familiar ‘burn‐in’ or temperature shock alone.
Reliability analysis of fault tolerant memory arrays
Authors: Nachlas Joel A.
Published: July 2007

A model is developed to represent computer memory module reliability as a function of memory array reliability under a fault tolerant design. The fault tolerance feature of the array actually results from a revision in the use of the array so that with respect to some failure modes, the array becomes a K out of N rather than a series system.

The model is used to determine array reliability under fault tolerance. The ratio of module reliability under fault tolerance to that without this feature is used as a measure of the benefits of revising array use. A key feature of the analysis is the fact that not all faults can be tolerated.

The elemental memory devices examined conform to a decreasing Weibull hazard model. Consequently, evaluation of the general model for the K out of N system realized must be done numerically. However, for the special case in which K=N‐1, a closed form expression for the performance measure is obtained. This special case occurs for the application of interest and it is shown that the performance measure always exceeds one and depends directly upon the proportion of faults that can be tolerated.

Thus the value of fault tolerance is shown to depend upon the extent to which the array will tolerate faults. This provides a basis for deciding whether or not fault tolerance should be implemented.
A general model for age acceleration during thermal cycling
Authors: Nachlas Joel A.
Published: July 2007

Conventional practice in evaluating the effect of elevated temperature upon electronic devices in either accelerated testing or stress screening is the use of the Arrhenius reaction rate equation. This equation fails to represent several key aspects of the stress. A general model that includes the reaction rate effects during heating and cooling, the mechanical effects of heating and cooling, and non‐constant activation energies is provided here. The model is based upon a general representation of a thermal cycle.

Once the general model is constructed, it is shown to accommodate as special cases, acceleration when one or more of the features is assumed absent. An example illustrates this point. Then several uses for the model beyond the computation of the acceleration factor are discussed. It is suggested that the general model can be used to support test design and equipment selection decisions. The model therefore provides a more realistic portrayal of the effects of a thermal cycle and increased decision flexibility in defining thermal stress regimens.
Reliability of a dynamic random access memory (dram)
Authors: Hale P. W.
Published: July 2007

The occurrence of electronic failures during high temperature stress testing, and their recovery at ambient, represents one of the most difficult problems of reliability assessment. This paper examines one such failure on a dynamic random access memory (DRAM) module and gives an analysis of its nature. In addition, a suggestion as to how to assess the impact of such failures in the field situation is given and its specific application to this problem used to make a field reliability prediction.
Integrated circuits for submarine communication systems, their design and development
Authors: Tew A. J.
Published: July 2007

Digital optical systems represent the current advance in submarine communications. Modern system designs require rapid evaluation of new components without relaxation of the stringent reliability requirements demanded for submarine applications. This article describes the development of integrated circuits (ICs) for submarine use. It goes on to show the design methodology, and discusses some limitations and the demanding reliability assurance aspects. The current IC designs are being used in both long‐haul and short‐haul links. The technology discussed is providing a major role in the future development of high‐capacity optical submarine systems.
Using statistical control charts for software quality control
Authors: Gardiner John S. , Montgomery Douglas C.
Published: July 2007

This paper describes the use of Shewhart U charts for controlling software quality while the software is under development. A parallel between the software development process and a complex manufacturing process is developed. This allows the use of statistical control charts to monitor the software development process.

The general approach is to let observed defect data represent a sample of the true but unknown state of the entire software project. Software quality data so obtained can be used to derive a meaningful statistical interpretation of the state of the development project. Based upon this interpretation management can take action to improve the overall software quality while in the development stages.
A note on the average run length of cumulative sum control charts for count data
Authors: Gardiner John S. , Friedman David J. , Montgomery Douglas C.
Published: July 2007

This note presents preliminary results on the average run length (ARL) of a Cumulative Sum Control Chart (CUSUM) used to monitor defects or counts, when the count distribution is Neyman Type‐A. The ARL for this distribution is contrasted to the more customary Poisson model for counts or defects. We show that the ARL curve of a Neyman Type‐A CUSUM always lies below the ARL curve of a Poisson CUSUM.
A rapid technique for assessing the moisture ingress susceptibility of plastic‐encapsulated integrated circuits
Authors: Chwastek E. J. , Shaw R. N.
Published: July 2007

The equipment and associated methodology of a new technique for checking the susceptibility of plastic‐encapsulated ICs to moisture ingress is presented. The basis of the new technique is to immerse unbiased ICs in a salt solution and to subject them to high temperatures (in the range 120°C to 175°C) and to high pressures (2 to 9 atmospheres). At the highest temperature, results can be obtained within a few hours, although a 20 h test at 165°C is suggested as a screen for components. The test is extremely simple to carry out and a testing facility can be quickly established. Using CMOS components from five different vendors, good agreement has been obtained between the results from the new test and the results from a biased 85°C/85 percent RH test.
Estimation and test for the parameters of the arrhenius model
Authors: Hartler Gisela
Published: July 2007

Estimation and test procedures are given for the parameters of the Arrhenius model. The assumed failure distribution is of exponential or Weibull type with fixed and temperature independent shape parameter. The approach is based on failure terminated experiments on at least two different tempera‐ture levels with pre‐assigned and equal number of failures for each temperature level. Estimation consists of two steps, modified maximum likelihood estimation followed by ordinary least squares regression. Statistical tests are defined on acceptance regions given in the particular parameter space by circles or ellipses depending only on the experimental design.
Height‐keeping reliability of aircraft at high altitude
Authors: Cannell W. P.
Published: July 2007

Increasing congestion in high altitude air routes has led to an expectation of large financial benefits from a reduction in separation standards, which will enable more aircraft to fly closer to their optimal altitude. The safety of reduced separation depends mainly on the reliability of aircraft height‐keeping, which is itself the product of a number of different airframe, instrument and pilot‐related errors. This is the subject of an international programme of studies under way in Europe, Japan and the United States. A review of studies being carried out in Europe is presented, indicating some of the problems encountered.
A mechanical decapsulation technique for epoxide‐packaged semiconductor components
Authors: Chwastek E. J. , Holland I. A.
Published: July 2007

A novel mechanical technique for decapsulating plastic semiconductor components has been developed. The technique is extremely easy to use, has a high success rate, and is superior in all respects to previously‐described mechanical techniques which give inconsistent results. A significant advantage over alternative chemical techniques is that corrosion products on the die surface are retained.

This paper describes the new technique and shows examples of new and corroded components that have been successfully decapsulated.
Worst case product performance verification with electromagnetic interference test applications
Authors: Breyfogle Forrest W. , Davis Jim H.
Published: July 2007

When many variables are prevalent, it is difficult systematically to identify the optimum configuration for product certification. This need can occur in areas such as testing performance of closed‐loop servo systems and testing products for electromagnetic interference (EMI). This paper proposes a test strategy to identify a 'determined worst case expected' product configuration and a criterion for pass/fail. The process was developed originally for EMI test applications; however, it can also be useful for other product performance specifications.
The effect of pretinning on the strength of a chip carrier solder joint
Authors: Ohlsson Susanne
Published: July 2007

Pretinning of gold‐plated components is often done to avoid the formation of brittle Au/Sn intermetallic compounds, which may lower the mechanical strength of the joints. In this investigation the reliability of 32LCCs surface mounted on alumina boards is tested in internal and external temperature cycling, as well as in shear tests, and the effect of pretinning is studied. One thousand times of temperature cycling between −55 and +125°C and 2000 h of power cycling with an upper joint temperature of +75°C did not cause any electrical opens.

Shear tests made after a 168 h heat treatment at +125°C and 1000 temperature cycles showed that forces of approximately 1000 N were required to break the chip carrier joints. The microstructure of Sn62/Pb36/Ag2 solder joints containing gold was examined and the existing phases were identified using electron diffraction X‐ray analysis. The joints fail at the Au/Sn intermetallics at the chip carrier metallization or at the Cu/Sn compounds formed at the substrate thick film/solder interface. No deterioration of the overall joint strength due to Au/Sn intermetallics was seen, when the gold content in the joints was approximately 4 weight per cent.
Subsurface burnout mechanisms in gallium arsenide (GAAS) electronic devices
Authors: Anderson W. T. , Morgan D. V. , Buot F. A. , Christou A.
Published: July 2007

This paper reviews the present knowledge on subsurface burnout mechanisms in Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) electronic devices. The results of the work should assist in the creation of more reliable devices with greater radiation hardness.
Reliability and failure patterns arising from fatigue
Authors: Carter A. D. S.
Published: July 2007

This paper examines the cause of ‘knees’ or ‘freaks’ in the life‐failure patterns resulting from some fatigue processes. A theory is developed which takes into account the extra fatigue damage associated with the non‐elastic behaviour of the material. It appears to account for the knee and agrees well qualitatively with test results, though quantitative comparisons are not possible because the stochastic data required for the calculation are not available. It is shown that ‘S’‐shaped curves sometimes experienced at higher loading roughness are also due to the same mechanism. The theory suggests that the undesirable features of the failure patterns, whose origin has not hitherto been fully investigated, can be eliminated by a design which is intrinsically reliable with respect to the elastic limit (or with respect to the yield strength if a small loss of reliability is acceptable). Because the knees or freaks appear to be a consequence of the fatigue process and arise with conventionally distributed mechanical properties it is suggested that this design action would be more effective than eliminating the items by quality control.
Reliability assessment of dispenser‐type thermionic cathodes
Authors: Stevenson John L. , Aagesen Svend M. , Lotthammer Rolf , Kornfeld Günter
Published: July 2007

An extensive analysis has been performed of life test results obtained in the long‐term (15,000 h) operation of both tungsten matrix and tungsten‐osmium matrix dispenser cathodes. Sensitive indications of potential life capability for these cathodes are shown to be available via systematic interpretation of temperature‐limited emission characteristics over time. These characteristics follow Arrhenius law temperature dependencies, with activation energies either identical with or closely similar to those determined separately for active material dispensation from these cathodes. Optimum temperature settings are determined, for each cathode type, at which projected life is maximized. Only modestly accelerated constant stress and step‐stress results yield credible reliability projections at these optimum operational temperatures. Furthermore, there remains some uncertainty concerning the application of a (time)½ dependence to all data generated in testing of the tungsten‐osmium, mixed metal matrix cathodes. Nevertheless, it is demonstrated that such cathodes can have mean lifetimes of at least 12 years, and may reach 20 years of serviceable life, sustaining only minor levels of degradation.
Reliability problems in state‐of‐the‐art GaAs devices and circuits
Authors: Christou A.
Published: July 2007

A review of the reliability status of GaAs discrete devices and integrated circuits is given. In the present survey of new devices and circuits it is shown that a significant number of reliability problems continue to persist.
Logistics support analysis or computer‐aided gold digging
Authors: Johansson P.‐O. , Wååk Olof
Published: July 2007

For a number of years the Swedish State Railways (SJ) has been involved in life cycle cost (LCC) acquisitions.1 The best known example is the recent acquisition of rapid trains. Logistics support analysis (LSA) is a natural supporting activity and a number of analyses have also been performed on existing material. This kind of analysis was previously done only to a minor extent. Therefore it is not surprising that the potential for cost‐effective improvements has been very large — in fact larger than expected.

This paper will report from three different investigations, each of which illustrates various types of improvements in the existing logistics support system. These three investigations are

Spares holding of pantographs

A pantograph is the item that connects the electric driven locomotive with the power line.

Analysis of the automatic train control (ATC) system

Logistics support analysis of traction engines.

The major conclusions from the studies are twofold:

This type of analysis is very profitable, and the present availability of computer support in fact makes it even more so.

There are a number of practical and organizational problems linked to the introduction of such analyses. SJ is not unique in having these kinds of problems.
Safety first — profits last?
Authors: Butler Basil
Published: July 2007

Mr Basil Butler, Managing Director of the British Petroleum Company plc, recently addressed a meeting of the British Institute of Management on the subject of safety and how it relates to profits. In our view, it was an excellent speech which deserves a wider audience and should be of particular interest to practising quality and reliability engineers.

The Editors are indebted to Mr Butler and to BP for permission to publish the address in full.
User control of electronic component reliability in spacecraft applications
Authors: Gorton H. Clay
Published: July 2007

This paper elucidates the role of the electronic component engineer in ensuring the reliability of electronic components for high reliability spacecraft applications. The reliability of electronic components is categorized in three areas of responsibility, attributable to the component manufacturer, the user and a shared responsibility between the two. The broad scope of the component engineer's responsibility extends from circuit design to system operation. Co‐operation with circuit design engineers for proper part application is emphasized, and the requirements for understanding the effects of environmental stresses on device material properties is treated. The importance of a close working relationship between the component engineer and the part supplier is also emphasized.
A computer system for the analysis of integrated circuit reliability
Authors: Mauri P.
Published: July 2007

The formulation of total reliability assessment of integrated circuits involves an increasing amount of knowledge and data and hence it requires increasing computerized assistance. To perform this an information system has been designed and implemented. Following engineering practice, the key features of the system are (a) the collection of different types of data, e.g. electrical parameter measurements and qualitative description of the mode and the mechanism of failure and (b) the implementation of procedures coming from methods often applied, e.g. statistical or new approaches, such as formalization of cause—effect chains as studied for artificial intelligence applications. The system architecture has been designed so as to allow direct user maintenance, and hence a quick updating of reliability knowledge and information. Furthermore its modularity eases the implementation of new procedures. Computer support improves the quality of data analysis and allows for the application of new methods and models.
A time‐series approach to discrete real‐time process quality control
Authors: Yourstone Steven A. , Montgomery Douglas C.
Published: July 2007

Statistical process control methods are usually applied in an environment when periodic sampling and rational subgrouping of process output is appropriate. The resulting summary statistics can be graphically displayed and analysed using either traditional Shewhart control charts or other charts such as those based on the cumulative sum. This article presents an alternative approach, based on time series analysis of all the real‐time process data. The time series approach is employed because the sequence of process observations may not be statistically independent. The autocorrelative structure in the data may be captured using an ARIMA model, and the residuals from this model are shown to be an effective input signal for a variety of statistical process control procedures.
On a linearized model and adaptive controller implementation for manipulator motion
Authors: Guo T. H. , Koivo A. J.
Published: July 2007

The detailed model for the motion of a manipulator system is linearized along a specific path. An on‐line parameter estimation algorithm based on the least‐squares criterion is used to determine the parameter values along the path at the operating instances. Based on the estimated parameter values, a self‐tuning adaptive controller is designed by minimizing a chosen performance criterion. Simulation results as well as experimental results are presented to demonstrate the approach. Certain aspects of the implementation are discussed.
Appropriate lengths between phalanges of multijointed fingers for stable grasping
Authors: Okada Tokuji , Kanade Takeo
Published: July 2007

An appropriate arrangement of finger joints is very important since the stability of grasping an object greatly depends on that arrangement. Multijointed fingers can grasp an object with many points of contact each of which is pressed against the object as if wrapping up that object. The amount of the wrapped up area and the form of the finger when an object is grasped are therefore important factors for determining the stability of grasping. We propose the wrapping factor to be used for the evaluation of the stability of grasping by using these factors. We consider 28 models for the finger having three joints, and perform a simulation of their ability to grasp various shapes stably. Based on the simulation results, an appropriate arrangement of lengths between phalanges for a multijointed finger is presented.