bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Epistemology and Metaphysics of Socrates
Authors: Matthews Gareth B.
Published: September 2009

Epistemology and metaphysics as described by Socrates is the crux of this article. Socrates here is all set to assess the wisdom of the candidates. He goes about arguing as to who is wiser and the various aspects of wisdom. He also elaborates on wisdom as a virtue. The article further harps on the idea of what counts as knowledge and also highlights the differences between Socratic Ignorance and Complete Ignorance.
TheTimaeuson the Principles of Cosmology
Authors: Johansen Thomas K.
Published: September 2009

Understanding of principles forms the basis of mastering Greek Philosophy. This article focuses on the idea of Principled Knowledge. Plato, too, seems to hold that grasping a body of knowledge requires a grasp of its principles. One example is the Republic where Socrates explains the image of the line. He has divided the line into two sections, the intelligible and the perceptible. The Timaeus, like the Republic, emphasizes the need for us to grasp the proper principle of our disciplines of study. The major principles enlisted in the Timaeus are as follows: Being is that which is graspable by intelligence with an account (logos); becoming is that which is graspable by opinion (doxa) with unreasoning (alogos) perception. Everything that comes into being has a cause (aition). When a craftsman uses an eternal model, his product is necessarily fine (kalon); if he uses a generated one, the product is not fine. The article further elaborates upon the standards of the cosmological argument and the most proper principle of coming into being which Socrates argues is the prelude.
The Sciences and Epistemology
Authors: Goldman Alvin I.
Published: September 2009

This article finds that epistemology cannot be subsumed under or identified with a science. Epistemology and the sciences should remain distinct yet cooperative. This article presents several examples that illustrate the relevance of science to epistemology. For example, classical epistemology was heavily concerned with the sources of knowledge, where “sources” refers to the kinds of psychological faculties responsible for knowledge. Drawing from work in psychology, this article proposes that science can shed light on epistemic achievements by contributing to the understanding of the nature and extent of human cognitive endowments. It suggests, in addition, that psychology can also contribute to understanding of the sources of knowledge. Finally, it argues that some specific projects in epistemology can receive important contributions from psychology, economics, and sociology.
Theories of Justification
Authors: Fumerton Richard
Published: September 2009

The task of explaining and evaluating theories of justification is daunting. There are not only a host of different theories of justification, there are also radical differences among epistemologists concerning how they understand what it is to offer such a theory. This article offers an overview of several prominent positions on the nature of justification. It begins by isolating epistemic justification from nonepistemic justification. It also distinguishes between “having justification for a belief” and “having a justified belief,” arguing that the former is conceptually more fundamental. It then addresses the possibility that justification is a normative matter, suggesting that this possibility has little to offer a concept of epistemic justification. It also critically examines more specific attempts to capture the structure and content of epistemic justification. These include traditional foundationalism and variants thereof, externalist versions of foundationalism; contextualism; coherentism; and “mixed” theories which combine aspects of coherentism and foundationalism.
Mind and Knowledge
Authors: Heil John
Published: September 2009

This article notes that the knowledge of the world depends on the nature as knowers. Many people, philosophers included, assume realism about the world toward which one's beliefs are directed: that is, that the world is as it is independently of how one might take it to be. It is unclear how one could convincingly establish, in a noncircular manner, that the world is as one thinks it is. This suggests skepticism, and, according to this article, realism and skepticism go hand in hand. This article discusses the implications of such a view, particularly as they concern knowledge people seemingly have of their own states of mind. It considers the view that to calibrate oneself as knower one should proceed from resources “immediately available to the mind” to conclusions about the external world. It examines two other possibilities: an externalist view of mental content and an internalist approach to content.
Molecules, Systems, and Behavior: Another View of Memory Consolidation
Authors: Bechtel William
Published: September 2009

This article examines the behavioural aspects and the molecular and cellular processes in the brain associated with memory consolidation. It suggests that ruthless reduction and mechanistic reduction are both reductionist in that they recognize the importance of seeking knowledge of brain processes at different levels of organization to understand cognitive function. They are also united in standing opposed to the attempts to divorce psychology and cognitive science from being constrained by our rapidly growing knowledge of brain processes and they both agree that information about molecular and cellular processes is also of potentially great relevance to understanding memory consolidation.
Enactivism's Vision: Neurocognitive Basis or Neurocognitively Baseless?
Authors: Wallis Charles , Wright Wayne
Published: September 2009

This article aims to clarify the central commitment and the claimed advantages of enactivism, a theoretical approach for understanding the mind. The analysis reveals that there is no compelling reason to embrace either the enactivists' aim of completely revolutionizing vision science or their understanding of the character of that new vision science. There are also numerous serious empirical and conceptual problems for even the more modest enactivism. This article discusses enactivist responses to empirical evidence cited as posing difficulties for enactivism and considers areas of neuroscience deemed highly relevant but that remain unconsidered by enactivism.
The Emerging Theory of Motivation
Authors: Landreth Anthony
Published: September 2009

This article attempts to elate aspects of our commonsense understanding of motivation to an emerging, mechanistic account of motivation in neuroscience. It identifies various points in the neural process where motivational control will have an opportunity to play a role. It suggests that these points of influence occur in the early stages of planning a course of action by sequencing a set of subgoals, at the stage of action selection when the type of instrumental action to be performed is chosen and at the stage of online action correction when adjustments are made in the midst of performance. The article argues that it is possible to advance the understanding of motivational states by modeling them on reinforcement learning principles.
The Case for Animal Emotions: Modeling Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Authors: Sufka Kenneth , Weldon Morgan , Allen Colin
Published: September 2009

This article focuses on the modeling of neuropsychiatric disorders in the case of animal emotions. It examines critically the evidence that philosophers have used to justify the claim that some nonhuman animals experience emotions similar to those of humans, such as pain and suffering. It provides an alternative strategy to making similar claims in a manner that avoids the possible confusion present in the existing pain literature. It also discusses evidence of animal emotions from human pain and suffering and describes the chick anxiety-depression continuum model.
Neuro‐Eudaimonics or Buddhists Lead Neuroscientists to the Seat of Happiness
Authors: Flanagan Owen
Published: September 2009

This article examines the neurobiological aspects of eudaimonics, the naturalistic inquiry into the constituents, and the causes of happiness. It comments on the evidence for the claim that there is a connection between Buddhism and happiness. It suggests that a promising program of eudaimonics would require an accurate description of the multiplicity of theory and tradition-specific conceptions that offer true happiness.
Logicism Reconsidered
Authors: Rayo Agustín
Published: September 2009

This article is divided into four sections. The first two identify different logicist theses, and show that their truth-values can be established given minimal assumptions. The third section sets forth a notion of “content-recarving” as a possible constraint on logicist theses. The fourth section—which is largely independent from the rest of the article—is a discussion of “neologicism.”
Mathematics—Application and Applicability
Authors: Steiner Mark
Published: September 2009

To an unappreciated degree, the history of Western philosophy is the history of attempts to understand why mathematics is applicable to Nature, despite apparently good reasons to believe that it should not be. A cursory look at the great books of philosophy bears this out. Plato's Republic invokes the theory of “participation” to explain why, for instance, geometry is applicable to ballistics and the practice of war, despite the Theory of Forms, which places mathematical entities in a different (higher) realm of being than that of empirical Nature. This argument is part of Plato's general claim that theoretical learning, in the end, is more useful than “practical” pursuits. John Stuart Mill's account of the applicability of mathematics to nature is unique: it is the only one of the major Western philosophies which denies the major premise upon which all other accounts are based. Mill simply asserts that mathematics itself is empirical, so there is no problem to begin with.
Higher‐order Logic
Authors: Shapiro Stewart
Published: September 2009

The philosophical literature contains numerous claims on behalf of and numerous claims against higher-order logic. Virtually all of the issues apply to second-order logic (vis-à-vis first-order logic), so this article focuses on that. It develops the syntax of second-order languages and present typical deductive systems and model-theoretic semantics for them. This will help to explain the role of higher-order logic in the philosophy of mathematics. It is assumed that the reader has at least a passing familiarity with the theory and metatheory of first-order logic.
Religious Language
Authors: Alston William P.
Published: September 2009

Many philosophers and theologians have protested against the concentration of philosophers on religious statements to the neglect of other religious uses of language. Their complaint can be briefly summed up as follows. The heart of religion is found in talk to God in prayer, worship, and liturgy. Talk about God is a secondary phenomenon that gets its religious significance by its dependence on the former. The valid concerns of philosophers with statements about God can be pursued while recognizing their connections with the rest of religion. Instead of speaking of predicates of religious statements, one could speak of religious concepts. Because predicates express concepts, problems about the meaning of the former are translatable into problems about the content of the latter.
Science and Religion in the New Religions
Authors: Rothstein Mikael
Published: September 2009

This article demonstrates how religion is propagated through a scientistic strategy or discourse, and how religion, not science, is in control. Scientistic religious groups, however, are not “paradoxical”—what they have accomplished is simply an expanded usage of a traditional religious strategy. Traditional religions are able to interpret any event, place, individual, object, or subject according to religious standards. Within the fabric of any given religion, everything in the world can be understood and measured along specific mythological or ritual paths. Scientistic religions have simply added the phenomenon of science to this capacity. By embracing science, which is basically a secular discourse, a number of new religions have overcome one of the paradoxes of the modern world, that is, the parallel existence of two mutually incongruous epistemological systems—science and religion.
Millennialism
Authors: Landes Richard
Published: September 2009

Literally, millennialism refers to the belief, expressed in the book of Revelation, that Christ will establish a one-thousand-year reign of the saints on earth before the Last Judgment. More broadly defined, millennialists expect a time of super-natural peace and abundance here on earth. This article surveys millenarian movements and outlines a typology for classifying such groups. The author sets his analysis of contemporary movements in the context of a broader analysis of historically prior movements and movements that have arisen in the so-called third world in response to the intrusion of colonial powers. The article concludes with a suggested agenda for future research.
The Mythic Dimensions of New Religious Movements
Authors: Tumminia Diana G. , Kirkpatrick R. George
Published: September 2009

This article argues that, despite the significant body of theoretical work that has been carried out by anthropologists and others, the mythological dimension of new religions has been largely ignored. Using Unarius Society, feminist witchcraft, and the Movement of Spiritual Inner Awareness as examples, it suggests that new religious movement myths are not fixed, but, rather, change in response to the ongoing process of reality construction taking place within such movements.
Women in New Religious Movements
Authors: Palmer Susan J.
Published: September 2009

Observers have often noted that new religious movements (NRMs) sometimes experiment with gender roles. The position of women in certain new religions has also been a focus of concern for critics. This article develops a typology of NRM sexual identity and points out that the actual arrangements within different new religions are often quite complex. To illustrate this complexity, it examines women's roles in the Osho Rajneesh group and in the Raelian movement.
The Rule of Law and Courts in Democratizing Regimes
Authors: Chavez Rebecca Bill
Published: September 2009

The rule of law is a broad concept that encompasses many areas including judicial autonomy, access to justice, human rights, and property rights. It entails the equality of all citizens under the law and predictability in the application of rules and regulations. The past decade has witnessed a growing recognition by political scientists that an independent judiciary can bolster both political and economic development. As nations struggle to consolidate democracy, we have witnessed a surge of promising new scholarship on the conditions under which the rule of law emerges and endures. Judicial independence and the rule of law constitute important bulwarks against the erosion of democratic institutions. According to the separation of powers approach, the rule of law becomes possible when no single actor or group of actors has sufficient power to dominate. In addition, the burgeoning literature on the construction of the rule of law includes impressive scholarship on the key role of non-state actors, particularly of civil society and the international community.
Civil Law and Common Law: Toward Convergence?
Authors: Mattei Ugo , Pes Luca G.
Published: September 2009

Convergence between the common law and the civil law tradition is a well-established topic of the academic discipline known as comparative law. In order to analyze analogies and differences between the common law and the civil law systems, comparative lawyers have developed a number of tools, among which convergence is quite an important one. Perhaps the best way to explore the issue of convergence between civil law and common law is thus that of observing a few classic loci oppositionis between the two families of legal systems. This article first presents a definition of convergence, offering examples of the various meanings that convergence has been given in comparative legal literature in different contexts. It then offers some illustration of both current and classic debates, in comparative legal literature, on the convergence of common law and civil law. The first part of the article unveils deterministic logic as one of the constitutive elements of the notion of convergence.
Constitutionalism
Authors: Whittington Keith E.
Published: September 2009

Constitutionalism is the constraining of government in order to better effectuate the fundamental principles of the political regime. It can be argued that, in a sense (often associated with Aristotle), every country has a constitution. That is, every country has a governmental framework which can be described and categorized. Alternatively, constitutions might be identified specifically with a written document that formalizes the framework of government. Constitutionalism has often been associated specifically with liberalism, with the protection of individual rights against the state. For liberals emerging from the New Deal and World War II, attitudes toward judicial review diverged into two broad camps. For the first camp, the New Deal was about democracy and institutional authority within a democracy. For the second, it was about substantive values and gaining control over the levers of power, including the power of judicial review. This article reviews three kinds of constitutionalism: normative constitutionalism, conceptual constitutionalism, and empirical constitutionalism.
The Racial Subject in Legal Theory
Authors: Foster Sheila R. , Lenhardt Robin
Published: September 2009

Neither the subject of race, nor its racialized subjects, played a significant role in legal scholarship for most of the last century. It was not until relatively recently that legal scholars began seriously to engage matters of race and the experiences of people of color in the United States. This article examines the ways in which scholars have addressed the problem of race in legal theory. In offering this critical overview, it hopes to provide context for ongoing debates about the persistence of racial inequality in American society, to underscore the limitations of earlier theories about race and racial discrimination, and, ultimately, to highlight the promise of engagement with “traditional” legal theories for understanding the nature of racial subordination. First, the article explores legal discourse on race in the years preceding the groundbreaking U.S. Supreme Court decision, Brown v. Board of Education. It then charts the emergence of Critical Race Theory (CRT) before concluding with a discussion of fruitful areas of future study regarding the place of race in American law.
Judicial Independence
Authors: Cross Frank
Published: September 2009

Few cows are more sacred than judicial independence, yet the concept of an independent judiciary is more commonly apotheosized than analyzed. This article explains how the concept of judicial independence is much more complicated and ambiguous than it is often regarded. After reviewing and explicating the literature on judicial independence, it analyzes the meaning of judicial independence and then considers the degree to which the judiciary is independent, focusing on the federal judiciary of the United States. Independence plays an important role in a system of governance, but it is reasonably compromised to some degree by concerns for judicial accountability. In the United States, federal judges are essentially, but imperfectly, independent. The article proceeds to consider the sources of judicial independence. Although constitutional protections may have some value, the root of independence may derive from the interests of other political institutions. Finally, it considers the implications of judicial selection and retention, with a focus on the U.S. states, which provide a convenient testing ground.
Understanding Regime Change: Public Opinion, Legitimacy, and Legal Consciousness
Authors: Barclay Scott , Silbey Susan S.
Published: September 2009

By their willingness to revise existing constitutional definitions, courts help political institutions pursue popular policies. The idea of court-assisted regime change resonated within political science because it appeared consistent with contemporary policy controversies. In cases such as desegregation and interracial marriage, the Supreme Court of the United States appeared to be creating openings for state and local, as well as federal, agencies to incorporate popular demands for change. The requirement necessary for constitutional courts to accomplish regime change was clear: a population sufficiently aware of the role of a constitutional court to permit such a court to review and legitimate changes in rules required for new policies. This article argues that contemporary research on legal consciousness offers a means to explain the role of courts in facilitating and legitimating regime changes that keep government policy consonant, to variable degrees, with transformations in material conditions and popular sentiment. It discusses the mechanism of change and the mechanism of legitimation and presents a classic account of the role of the Supreme Court in American politics.
The Analysis of Courts in the Economic Analysis of Law
Authors: Kornhauser Lewis A.
Published: September 2009

Many analyses of courts within the economic analysis of law are indistinguishable from those produced by positive political theorists; they consider how judges control, exploit, or resolve conflicts of interest among judges. This article considers three contributions by economic analysts of law outside this common, positive, political theoretic model but which still exploit the tools of rational-choice theory. These contributions either integrate appellate decisio -making within a more comprehensive model of litigant and trial behavior; assume that judges constitute a team with shared preferences; or assume that judges decide cases rather than announce or implement policies. These three elements yield a substantively different understanding of courts than the standard model of positive political theory (PPT). The assumption of shared preferences explicitly rejects the principal-agent model that is standard in PPT. The integration of appellate decision making with other aspects of the disputing process and the shift from policies to cases are consistent with, but potentially transformative of, the standard principal-agent models of adjudication.
Stress and Coping
Authors: O'Driscoll Michael P. , Brough Paula A. , Kalliath Thomas J.
Published: September 2009

This article considers research in the field of stress and coping via a focus on three specific areas: theoretical models of stress and coping and of work-related stressors in particular; the assessment of strain in work contexts; and coping strategies and coping measurement. It introduces and reviews the current research in each of these three areas and briefly identifies the emerging directions for consideration by stress and coping researchers. While the popularity of stress research has waxed and waned over the decades, the occurrence of major events (wars, technology, globalization) combined with advances in theoretical explanations (e.g., the transactional stress process, psychological burnout) have ensured that the relationship between individual experiences and subsequent health, adaptation, and performance remains a pertinent topic of enquiry.
Strategic Studies
Authors: Ayson Robert
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the complicated relationship between strategic studies and international relations, and that part of the latter discipline known as security studies. It argues that strategic studies deserves to stand alongside international relations as a direct subfield of political science. First, strategy is not so much a subset of security as its interactive partner. Students of strategy focus on the responses of states and other actors to the international security environment: If security is the condition, strategy is the reaction. Strategic action in turn affects the security conditions faced by other actors; again security is the condition, but strategy can also be the cause. It can be the independent variable. The use of force often has a major bearing on the security conditions faced by other actors (and by the user of the force themselves). There is at the very least an interactive relationship between strategic studies and security studies.
International Law
Authors: Byers Michael
Published: September 2009

International law has received relatively little attention from scholars of international relations. And, despite the intrinsic relationship between politics and law, scholars of international law have devoted relatively little attention to international politics. A rapprochement is slowly taking place, but is far from complete. This article traces the history of theorizing at the border between international law and international relations in a chronological manner. It concludes by suggesting that one particular area — international lawmaking — offers rich territory for new analysis.
International Relations Theory from a Former Hegemon
Authors: Little Richard
Published: September 2009

This article assesses whether the status — past and present — of the former European great powers, and more specifically Britain, has had any impact on how theorists in these countries approach the study of international relations. Relatively little thought has been given to this topic. In part, this is because of the widespread acceptance of the positivist assumption that the aim of the social sciences is to develop a view of reality, independent of time and space — a ‘view from nowhere’, as Thomas Nagel (1986) puts it. But it is also because of the widespread belief that the American academy occupies a hegemonic position in the discipline, thereby undermining the potential for international relations theory to develop autonomously outside the United States. The article challenges both of these assumptions. First, it accepts the postpositivist argument that we have no alternative but to adopt a ‘view from somewhere’, and as a result our analysis necessarily embraces a subjective dimension. Secondly, it questions the hegemonic thesis and argues that, even if we only focus on Britain, it immediately becomes apparent that there have been autonomous developments in British international relations theory that relate specifically to the rise and fall of Britain as a great power.
The Concept of Power and the (Un)discipline of International Relations
Authors: Mattern Janice Bially
Published: September 2009

Where there is politics there is power. It is no surprise, hence, that the concept of power is fundamental to the study of world politics. Power, or, more exactly, the particular way in which it is conceived at any given time, has been a significant constitutive force defining the discipline of international relations. As an ‘essentially contested concept’ whose meaning has broadened substantially over the years, the developments in conceptual thinking about power have progressively demanded acceptance of new empirical focuses, research methods, and normative logics into the lexicon of what counts as international relations. Contestation over the concept of power, thus, has helped broaden the discipline. And yet, if a broad discipline is desirable for the ‘engaged pluralism’ it facilitates, such benefits seem to have escaped international relations. In fact, international relations scholars have responded to the breadth of the discipline by narrowing both their views on power and their empirical, methodological, and normative schemas. The unfortunate result is that international relations is less a discipline than a collection of insular research communities; it is an (un)discipline. If international relations is to amount to more than a cacophony of disconnected views on world politics, these niches need to communicate.
Public Management, Democracy, and Politics
Authors: Deleon Linda
Published: September 2009

Contemporary public management includes initiatives that pursue reforms. Reforms centered on producing more and better public services include those that aim to tighten and streamline the management of public bureaucracies, those that increase competition in order to offer citizens more choices, and those that center on increasing citizen participation in political and administrative processes. Other reforms attempt to empower workers in the hope of making them more creative and productive. Superficially, it may seem paradoxical that each vision of how to improve public management claims that it preserves and enhances democracy and improves governmental effectiveness. This article discusses three very different answers to the question of how public management can be both effective and democratic. Next, the research literature on several mechanisms for making public management more democratic is reviewed. And finally, a separate discussion briefly treats the question of how to make the internal workings of public organizations more democratic.
Public Accountability
Authors: Bovens Mark
Published: September 2009

Public accountability is the hallmark of modern democratic governance. Democracy remains a paper procedure if those in power cannot be held accountable in public for their acts and omissions, for their decisions, their policies, and their expenditures. Public accountability, as an institution, therefore, is the complement of public management. As a concept, however, “public accountability” is rather elusive. It is one of those evocative political words that can be used to patch up a rambling argument, to evoke an image of trustworthiness, fidelity, and justice, or to hold critics at bay. Historically, the concept of accountability is closely related to accounting. In fact, it literally comes from bookkeeping. Nowadays, accountability has moved far beyond its bookkeeping origins and has become a symbol for good governance, both in the public and in the private sector.
Innovation and Information Technology in the MNE
Authors: Cantwell John
Published: September 2009

This article focuses on the roles innovation and information technology play in the multinational enterprise. In recent years there has been a steady expansion in the literature that relates the internationalization of production to the development and transfer of technology by multinational enterprises (MNEs). It is a literature that can be dated back at least to John Dunning's (1958) seminal study of the impact of US MNEs upon UK technology and productivity, and Ray Vernon's (1966) development of the product cycle model (PCM) as an explanation of the technological dynamism associated with the growth of US foreign direct investment (FDI) in Europe in the 1950s and 1960s.
Contemporary Research Trends in International Marketing
Authors: Kotabe Masaaki , Jiang Crystal X.
Published: September 2009

International business research is probably more influenced by various forces of the economic and political climates than its domestic (or generic) counterpart. The emergence of new market economies in Eastern Europe, China, India, and Brazil, the consolidation of the European Union, as well as a decade of economic stagnation and recent resurgence in Japan's economy has given global competition greater significance. This article looks at research in international marketing to see if the discipline has overcome the deficiencies outlined in the previous studies. It examines the state of the art in international marketing research, with particular emphasis on conceptual frameworks and theory development. Its primary focus is on studies published since the year 2000 because the first decade of the twenty-first century has been characterized by changes in virtually all aspects of businesses and personal life.
China and International Business
Authors: Child John
Published: September 2009

This article discusses China's growing role in international business. It begins by describing developments in the country's inward and outward foreign direct investment (FDI) and the forms adopted for such investment. China is both a host environment and active player in the international economy which has become both hugely significant, and which poses new challenges for international business analysis. It continues by considering the kind of environment that China presents for international business, one in which the state continues to be closely involved. The last section turns to the implications China has for international business analysis, concerning the role of national institutions, the strategies available to foreign investing firms for coping with environmental complexity, and issues posed by its patterns of outward FDI.
Comparative International Business Research Methods
Authors: Collinson Simon C. , Pettigrew Andrew M.
Published: September 2009

The comparative method lies at the heart of social science research. In the field of international business it is national and regional diversity, the differences between places that influence business activities and management behaviour, that matter. This diversity demands adaptability in individuals and organizations, in response to cultural, social, political, institutional, environmental, economic, industrial, and market variety. This article examines the problems of comparative international research (CIR) in business and management studies. The literature on CIR methods over the past thirty years, whilst stressing the importance of robust methodologies, has been particularly critical of the widespread failure of researchers to avoid the pitfalls of poorly constructed cross-national comparisons.
Modeling the Influence of Personality on Individuals at Work: A Review and Research Agenda
Authors: Johnson Jeff W. , Hezlett Sarah A.
Published: September 2009

The purpose of this article is to review research relevant to understanding the processes through which personality influences work outcomes. It first provides an overview of personality constructs prominent in the literature on personality at work. Next, the article reviews recent research on personality measurement, including: issues associated with different measurement methods; and how the level of measurement and alternative personality taxonomies influence relationships between personality and work outcomes. It summarizes models describing the processes underlying observed correlations between personality traits and both attitudes and performance. The article then presents an integrated model of the relationship between personality and performance that pulls together aspects of each model reviewed. This model highlights the mediating role attitudes play in the path from personality to performance. The article closes with a research agenda suggested by the integrated model.
A Personality Approach to Entrepreneurship
Authors: Rauch Andreas , Frese Michael
Published: September 2009

The aim of this article is to review the personality approach on the basis of the theoretical framework, which assumes that the effects of a person's traits on his or her entrepreneurial behavior are mediated by specific traits and motivations, and moderated by environmental conditions. The article relies to a considerable extent on meta-analytical evidence. It argues that although the personality approach to entrepreneurship may help in explaining entrepreneurial behavior, it should be supplemented by sound and theoretically justified developments of modern personality psychology. The article also argues that it is essential to include a process view: Prime candidates for mediating processes are characteristics which are more proximal to the actions and the behavior of entrepreneurs. Although an individual's personality consists of stable trait components as well as of less stable ones, a personality approach also needs to consider the process dynamics of personality constructs.
Validity of Selection Procedures
Authors: Schmitt Neal , Fandre Jessica
Published: September 2009

This article addresses two major issues: How psychologists conceptualize the validity of the procedures they develop and use to select employees; and what reasonable estimates of the validity of those procedures are. Changes in the way one conceptualizes validity are obvious in the American Psychological Association Guidelines, the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Principles, as well as recent textbook treatments of validity. At the same time that these changes in the ideas about measure validity have occurred, the use of meta-analysis has radically changed the discipline's thinking regarding the magnitude of the validity and utility of selection procedures, as well as their generalizability. Procedures developed to assess the extent of validity generalization have prompted a focus on true validity.
The Challenge of Remote Working
Authors: Hislop Donald , Axtell Carolyn , Daniels Kevin
Published: September 2009

Remote working has many synonyms—such as teleworking, telecommuting, or virtual working. It is often considered to be enabled by advanced information and communications technologies which allow the electronic transfer of information, so that workers can communicate and coordinate tasks in multiple locations and asynchronously. It is the purpose of this article to explore the nature, consequences, and management of remote working. The article starts by examining the incidence of remote working, the major aspects of remote work, and why this form of working is attractive. It then moves on to explore workers' experience of remote work. The article also examines issues in the coordination of remote teams and communication between remote workers. The final section examines the management of remote workers.
Motivation and Job Design in the New World of Work
Authors: Fried Yitzhak , Levi Ariel S. , Laurence Gregory
Published: September 2009

The area of job design has generated substantial theoretical and empirical interest in the twentieth century as a key contributor to individual motivation and performance at work. A key conclusion from the job design literature is the need to take into account the changing contingencies in the work environment, in order to more fully understand the effect of job design in this changing environment. Although job design has been shown to have an important effect on employee motivation, attitudes, and behavior, the rapid and dramatic changes in the work environment during the latter decades of the twentieth century raise a timely question about the role of job design in the twenty-first century, which this article discusses.
A Measurement‐Theoretic Account of Propositional Attitudes
Authors: Matthews Robert J.
Published: September 2009

The chief virtue of a measurement-theoretic account of the attitudes, besides getting right the semantic nature of attitude predicates, is precisely that, as Davidson suggests, it enables one to embrace the very plausible relational conception of attitude attributions without thereby having to embrace the much more dubious relational conception of the attitudes themselves. To be a non-relationalist about the attitudes one does not, as Quine, Fodor, and others have assumed, have to be a non-relationalist about attitude predicates. It is entirely possible that propositional attitudes are monadic properties of their possessors, even though they are predicated of individuals by means of relational predicates.
Technology and Innovation
Authors: Graham Margaret B. W.
Published: September 2009

The business history of technology and innovation has come a long way from the days when economists had to be persuaded that firms had a role to play, and when the main debate focused on whether small firms or large firms were the true innovators. Organizational networks leading to successful innovation have usually contained both large and small enterprises exchanging mutually valuable information and expertise. It has become all too clear that innovation thrives on variety and open circulation of information, and that access to appropriate knowledge networks has been far more important than physical conditions or even access to boardrooms and executive offices. International comparisons are no longer pursued to explain leads and lags, but to point to different possible models for success, and our limited literature on innovation failures suggests that there is a lot more digging to be done.
The Management of Labor and Human Resource
Authors: Gospel Howard
Published: September 2009

This article defines the management of labor to cover three broad interconnected areas: work relations, employment relations, and industrial relations. Throughout the article, the emphasis is on major patterns in these three areas as they have developed, especially in large private-sector firms, over a long period of time from the early nineteenth century onwards. The article provides a broad overview of the contexts within which labor has been managed, including the market, technological, political, and business contexts. It also presents broad “stages” in the history of labor management, taking examples from leading sectors of the economy. However, throughout the article, the aim is to stress continuities over time between stages, the coexistence of systems at any one point in time, and how older sectors also adapt over time.
Citizens and Political Behavior
Authors: Dalton Russell J. , Klingemann Hans‐Dieter
Published: September 2009

This article examines the debates on political behaviour that are most visible in scholarly literature. These debates can be found throughout this book. The debates on mass belief systems and communication are first examined, followed by modernization and democratization of political culture. Political participation and the importance of public opinion are also considered.
Clash of Values across Civilizations
Authors: Inoguchi Takashi
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the clash of values across civilizations and presents some illustrative examples of how key value dimensions compare across global regions. Seven substantive topics are discussed in this article, namely: happiness, the basic value configuration of the world, the role of government, globalization and confidence in democratic institutions, social capital, regional identity, and religiosity.
How Previous Ideas Affect Later Ideas
Authors: Crawford Neta C.
Published: September 2009

This article analyses how ideas of the past can affect or influence later ideas. It explains that previous ideas may affect later ideas in at least four ways: as the content of formal arguments, as the background discourse, as the organizing principle of institutions and social structures, and through their association with feelings. In its most direct form, previous ideas become the premises of human reasoning either by syllogism or analogy. This article also discusses the relevant issues of trusteeship, and the consideration of transitional administration as trusteeship or colonialism.
Introduction
Authors: Harvey Susan Ashbrook , Hunter David G.
Published: September 2009

The section divisions in this Handbook offer broad ways of organizing early Christian studies. After Part I, Part II considers types of evidence crucial for establishing early Christian history. Part III looks at specific religious identities that have long been the foils against which the meaning of the term ‘Christian’ took shape. Part IV examines the huge geographical expanse of early Christianity. Part V draws out fundamental social structures and ecclesiastical authorities by which ancient Christians organized their lives, whether institutionally, politically, or domestically. Part VI looks at the array of literary forms by which Christians articulated their concerns, identities, interests, debates, memories, practices, and teachings. Part VII considers those expressions through their implementation as activities both collective and individual. Part VIII takes up perennially vibrant areas of theological discussion that have been much affected by the scholarly shifts charted in the Handbook as a whole.
Economic versus Sociological Approaches to Organization Theory
Authors: Swedberg Richard
Published: September 2009

Organization theory has displayed a remarkable creativity during its roughly 100 years of existence. But even if organization theory is interdisciplinary, it remains a stubborn fact that most research on organizations is carried out within distinct disciplines and according to disciplinary traditions. This article presents the concept of organizational economics. The main focus of this article is on transaction cost analysis, agency analysis, and also the evolutionary, game theoretical and property rights perspectives. This is followed by a presentation of the way that firms have been studied in economic sociology, and here the article discusses the Weberian heritage in organizational sociology, the focus on firms in this type of sociology and the role that culture and meaning plays in it. Finally, this article concludes with a brief discussion of the antagonism between organizational economics and the sociology of organizations, and how this antagonism perhaps can be overcome.
New Times, Fresh Challenges: Reflections on the Past and the Future of Organization Theory
Authors: Tsoukas Haridimos
Published: September 2009

As one would expect of all social scientific fields, organization theory (OT) bears the marks of its birth. In the imagery of mainstream OT, organizations are places of ‘imperative control’, that is cohesive and enduring totalities that resist change, have a dominant culture and a hierarchical power structure that ensures conformity and control so that certain behavioural regularities are more probable to occur than others. Following such imagery, the key phenomena of interest have been the following: how power and cognitive structures, having the attributes of being independent and logically prior to individual actors and of relative inflexibility, result in ‘de-randomizing’ the voluntary actions of agents so that individual human behaviour becomes organizational behaviour; and how the hierarchy of power and knowledge, empirically manifested in organizational structure, is related to certain key variables for organizational performance.
Inter‐organizational Relationships, Chains, and Networks: A Supply Perspective
Authors: Johnsen Thomas E. , Lamming Richard C. , Harland Christine M.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses inter-organizational relationships (IORs) in the wider context of chains and networks of organizations. It distinguishes between IORs, chains, and networks and subsets of those, perceived through different disciplinary lenses. Different lenses lead researchers to operate at different units of analysis within relationships, chains, and networks. For example, a sociological focus gives rise to researchers observing social connections. An economic focus leads to observations of economic exchanges between organizations conceptualized as economic entities. A strategic management focus leads the researcher to observe strategic configurations and positions. These different units of analysis represent different types of relationship, chain, and network and require different methodologies, methods, and techniques to research them. In particular, this article uses an operations and supply lens to observe supply relationships, chains, and networks.