bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Some Aspects of Working-class Consciousness in Oldham, 1830–1842
Authors: Sykes R. A.
Published: June 2009

John Foster's book,Class struggle and the industrial revolution, with its central focus upon ‘the development and decline of a revolutionary class consciousness’ in Oldham in the second quarter of the nineteenth century, has aroused considerable controversy amongst historians. Indeed most recently Foster's picture of intense, often violent class conflict has been directly challenged by Dr Gadian. He has contended that ‘class collaboration, rather than class war’ was the key to the radical success in the town. On the basis of comparative figures on the size of the workforce in the factories of the various Lancashire towns, he has criticized Foster's emphasis upon the concentration of economic power in the hands of a relatively small number of capitalist families. Moreover he has even claimed that ‘the prevalence of small-scale industry in Oldham did much to enable masters and men to ‘harmonize and unite in some common remedy’, as was possible in Birmingham’.
The Struggle for London in the Second Civil War
Authors: Gentles Ian
Published: June 2009

According to a familiar interpretation, London was parliamentarian in the English Revolution, and was instrumental in the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the English republic which endured for eleven years. London was the arsenal, the treasure–house and the recruiting ground for the revolutionary cause; it was the Paris of the English Revolution. In this article I shall argue that from early 1646 – a year after the formation of the New Model Army – London was deeply divided between those who wanted the terms agreed by the Houses to be imposed on Charles rather than negotiated with him, and those who wanted a speedy end to the war, a mutually agreed peace, the disbandment of the army and the imposition of religious uniformity. By 1647 the rulers of London were dominated by an implacable hatred of the revolutionary army, and bent their efforts to restoring Charles to his throne. In this policy they enjoyed the warm support of a majority of the City's population, who repeatedly demonstrated their anti-revolutionary convictions. in both word and deed. The army's political support in London was drawn mainly from the artisan and tradesman classes (many of them non-citizens), and from the suburbs. To a large extent it was the assiduous efforts of one man – Philip Skippon, major-general of the New Model infantry – which kept London in the parliamentary camp during the second civil war.
Ancient Mythology and Revolutionary Ideology in Ireland, 1878–1916
Authors: Williams Martin
Published: June 2009

Perhaps some justification is needed for yet another study on the literary background of the Easter 1916 Rising. Certainly the ‘high’ literature, represented by such writers as Yeats, AE, Synge and the three insurrection poet-fighters (Pearse, MacDonagh and Plunkett) has already been extensively analysed by a number of scholars. However, it is usually forgotten that numerous ‘popular’ authors were also writing in the forty years before 1916; authors who might be expected, if only by virtue of their numbers, to command a considerable readership. Names such as Joseph Campbell, Ethna Carberry, Nora Hopper, Seumas MacManus, Alice Milligan and Seumas O’Sullivan are unknown today except in occasional references by literary critics, yet these writers produced a great deal of verse on national topics, and were close to the general public and its preoccupations. Their work deserves the attention of historians; for only by identifying common ground between the ‘high’ and the ‘low’ literature can one explore with any confidence the complex relationship between that literature as a whole and Irish society during this period. This I hope to do in the following pages.
The Chinese Critical Tradition
Authors: Kwan-San Hsu
Published: June 2009

It is really deplorable that until quite recently there still existed in Western academic circles a number of serious misunderstandings about Chinese historiography, particularly the Chinese theory and practice of historical method and critical techniques. Many well-known academic figures still do not know, or refuse to face the fact, that the Chinese tradition of pursuing an objective knowledge of history can be dated back as far as the first century and that the quality of critical scholarship had reached a level equal, either in terms of textual criticism or higher criticism, to any found in the West up to the beginning of the nineteenth. To cite a few examples of Western ignorance. An American sinologist specializing in Chinese traditional historiography firmly asserts that ‘the Chinese are not a whit behind Western scholarship in the exacting domain of textual or preparatory criticism’, but ‘in the field of historical criticism... Chinese historians of the old school did not evolve those principles which are now regarded in East and West alike as an indispensable part of scientific historical method’, although ‘since the seventh century, a few bold, independent spirits have evolved the elements of historical criticism’.1 Another sinologist holds nearly the same position by stating that ‘what was missing’ in traditional Chinese historiography until the sixteenth century was a ‘systematic method’ of criticism, while recognizing that ‘there was an almost continuous line of doubters’ from the early eighth century onwards, and that under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) attempts were ‘made to bring all the doubts together into one publication’and so to lay‘ the basis for organized study’, an active role being played by ‘ancillary studies of all’ including philology in the development of the Chinese textual criticism of history.2 The most bigoted and dogmatic verdict passed on Chinese historiography which I have ever read in the Western literature is Professor J. H. Plumb's assertion that Chinese historians ‘never attempted, let alone succeeded, in treating history as objective understanding’, and that ‘Chinese scholars were using historical materials for the same purposes in the early twentieth century as in the T'ang and Han dynasties’. Professor Plumb's bias is further reflected in the affirmation, which was added after his reading of Professor E. G. Pulleyblank's remarkable essayChinese historical criticism: Liu Chih-chi and Ssu-ma Kuang,3 that ‘I would maintain that the Chinese were concerned solely with creating an educative past - subtle, highly detailed, accurate in commission, but not history’4.
The British Way in Warfare Revisited
Authors: Strachan Hew
Published: June 2009

In the last fifteen years military history in Britain has gained considerably in respectability, both in the country at large and in academic circles specifically. But it still has problems of identity. On the one hand, military history can at last find itself judged as part of ‘total history’. But, on the other, its origins as the staple fodder of nineteenth-century military academies have bequeathed it a strong didactic flavour which has proved hard to shed. Military history and strategic theory do not yet stand in the same relationship to each other as, say, political history and political theory. Perhaps because in Britain there is still too little independent informed analysis of defence, military history can be employed in a dual role. The ‘lessons of history’ are stronger here than in any other area. However impeccable the motives of military historians, their work is too often used as a prescription for the future rather than as a study of the past.
The Foreign Office and British Propaganda during the First World War
Authors: Taylor Philip M.
Published: June 2009

In July 1918 it was the considered opinion of Lord Northcliffe that propaganda and diplomacy were incompatible. When, only five months earlier, Northcliffe had accepted Lloyd George's invitation to take charge of the newly created department of enemy propaganda, his appointment, coupled with that of Lord Beaverbrook as Britain's first minister of information, had held out the promise of a new phase in the efficiency and co-ordination of Britain's conduct of official propaganda in foreign countries. It was then, in February 1918, that the Foreign Office had finally been forced to relinquish its control over such work. However, the creation of the two new departments had produced an intolerable situation. After three years of inter-departmental rivalry and squabbling over the conduct of propaganda overseas, Whitehall closed ranks on Beaverbrook and Northcliffe and united behind the Foreign Office in opposition to any further transference of related duties into their hands. Now, after five months of continued obstruction, Northcliffe expressed the view that:

As a people we do not understand propaganda ways…Propaganda is advertising and diplomacy is no more likely to understand advertising than advertising is likely to understand diplomacy.
22. Methods of Estimation of Salt in Cheese
Authors: McDowall F. H. , Whelan L. A.
Published: June 2009

Consideration has been given to the various methods available for the estimation of salt in cheese. The following three methods have been found to give concordant results, and to permit accurate estimation of known added quantities of chloride.

(1) Careful ashing with small amounts of potassium nitrate, after addition of some dilute caustic soda, and subsequent titration of chloride according to the method of Volhard.

(2) Solution of the cheese in caustic soda, precipitation of the proteins by nitric acid, and titration (accordmg to Volhard) of chloride in an aliquot portion of the filtrate (van der Burg's method, with some modifications introduced by the authors).

(3) Titration by the Volhard method after destruction of the proteins by hot nitric acid in the presence of excess silver nitrate.

Methods (2) and (3) have been found suitable for routine analysis of cheese.
25. The Mineral Constituents and Citric Acid Content of Milk
Authors: Allen L. A.
Published: June 2009

Though the mineral constituents normally represent less than 1 per cent, of cow's milk their importance in many dairying problems is well realised. For example, the calcium-magnesium-phosphate-citrate balance is a most important factor in connection with coagulation by heat and in the alcohol test, even minute alterations in the balance producing a very marked effect.
27. The Autoxidation of Butterfat: I. Factors Influencing the Reaction
Authors: Briggs Lindsay Heathcote
Published: June 2009

The influence of a number of factors on the autoxidation of butterfat has been studied. Metallic catalysts have been found to exert a great effect in hastening the reaction, their intensity being in the following decreasing order: sodium vanadate, copper lactate, iron lactate, nickel sulphate. Zinc lactate has a slight retarding action.

Ultra-violet light, hydrogen peroxide and fat peroxides have a strong prooxidative effect and to a less extent lactic acid. Curd exerts an antioxygenic effect, while humidity, glycerol, triolein, lactose, iodine, potassium iodide and the effect of pasteurisation have little or no influence.

The author wishes to thank the Auckland University College Council and Sir James Gunson for a Sir James Gunson Scholarship during the tenure of which this research was undertaken, Dr F. H. McDowall for his helpful interest in the work, and the Dairy Research Institute (N.Z.) for permission to work in their laboratories.
35. The Chemical Constitution of the Proteins
Authors: Plimmer R. H. A.
Published: June 2009

The nitrogenous substances or albuminoids, of which animal tissues for the most part consist, and which are also found in the seeds, leaves and other parts of plants, were originally believed to be composed of one and the same organic substance called protein by Mulder about a century ago (from πρωτɛύω “I am the first”).
38. The Inactivation of Lipase in Dairy Products by Traces of Heavy Metal Salts
Authors: Davies William Lewis
Published: June 2009

Traces of heavy metals in amounts up to 25 parts per million have the property of inhibiting the action of lipase in butter from unpasteurised sweet cream in varying degrees depending on the concentration of the metal and on the metal itself. Copper was the most potent metal of those studied, iron, nickel, cobalt, manganese, and chromium being less active, while tin and aluminium had no effect.

The acidity produced was accompanied by fat-peroxide formation in amount varying directly with the acidity. This was attributable to the free oleic acid formed.

The depression of lipase activity by the various metals varied directly with their catalytic power in inducing fat oxidation later, and it is suggested that destruction of lipase was catalysed by the traces of heavy metals according to their varying powers of activating oxygen. Lipase as a compound naturally associated with fats might thus be looked on as a natural “antioxygen.”
87. Factors Affecting the Solubility of Milk Powders. III. Some Physico-chemical Properties of Concentrated Solutions of Milk Solids
Authors: Howat George R. , Wright Norman C.
Published: June 2009

1. The effect of increasing concentrations of milk solids on the degree of ionisation of electrolytes cannot be measured by determinations of electrical conductivity, owing to the influence of viscosity on ionic mobility.

2. An approximately linear relationship exists between concentration of milk solids and the freezing-point depression. Above a certain concentration (equivalent to 34 g. milk solids per 100 g. of water), however, the solutions are saturated with respect to lactose, and any increase in freezing-point depression beyond this point is limited to that due to the other osmotically active constituents of milk.

3. There is no evidence of the existence of “bound” water in solution of milk solids up to concentrations equivalent to 65 g. milk solids per 100 g. water.

4. An approximately linear relationship exists between concentration of milk solids and hydrogen-ion concentration, increase in the concentration of milk solids resulting in a markedly increased acidity.

5. The applications of these results to the heat coagulation of evaporated and dried milks are briefly discussed.
95. A Study of the Titratable Acidity of Milk. II. The “Buffer Curves” of Milk
Authors: Wiley W. J.
Published: June 2009

The previous section of this study in which the titration curves of various milk constituents were discussed approximately denned their influence on the titration. Some of the conclusions arrived at are amplified and more clearly defined when the buffer index of the curves is considered.
109. Studies on the Chemistry of Cheddar Cheese Making. III. The Conversion of Lactose into Lactic Acid by Starter Cultures
Authors: McDowall F. H. , Dolby R. M.
Published: June 2009

1. Determinations of acidity, lactose and lactic acid were made at various stages during the souring of milk by starter cultures, both with and without the addition of a neutralising agent.

2. Throughout the fermentation, the increase in acidity of the milk was accounted for quantitatively by the amount of lactic acid produced.

3. In some instances in the early stages of the fermentation a considerable quantity of the lactose appeared to be converted to substances other than lactic acid.

4. Over the whole fermentation the amount of by-products produced from the lactose was small.
110. The Influence of High Environmental Temperature on the Secretion and Composition of Milk. A Preliminary Note
Authors: Bartlett S.
Published: June 2009

It is a well-established fact that during the summer months, particularly July and August, the chemical quality of milk tends to be poor. The samephenomenon has been reported in Germany (i) and in the United States of America(2, 3). The individual factor or factors responsible have not been thoroughly established, although the work of Ragsdale and Turner (4) andHays (5) shows clearly that the fat content of milk tends to be reduced as the environmental temperature increases. The extent of the summer depression in milk quality in this country is much greater during hot dry summers. Cranfield(6) and Golding et al. (7) found exceptionally poor-quality milk during the summers of 1929 and 1933 respectively. In both these years most cows were subjected to a higher temperature than usual and also to a variety of other unusual factors such as the changes in nutrition occasioned by dried-up pastures. The work reported here was planned in order to throw some light on the influence of temperature, and whether it may be considered solely responsible for low-quality summer milk or whether other factors such as nutritional ones may be partially responsible.
134. The Titration of Milk and Whey as a Means of estimating the Colloidal Calcium Phosphate of Milk
Authors: Ling Edgar Roberts
Published: June 2009

1. The titration method for the estimation of colloidal tricalcium phosphate in milk was found to agree closely with the determination of total colloidal inorganic P2O5.

2. The method was used to study the solution of tricalcium phosphate in milks of rising acidities.

3. Close agreement was obtained between the actual increase in total P2O5 in the wheys of souring samples and that calculated from the disappearance of tricalcium phosphate as found by the titration method.

4. The discrepancy between the actual increase in whey calcium in such cases and that calculated from the titration figures was attributed to the solution of calcium from the calcium salt of caseinogen. From figures so obtained it would appear that colloidal calcium phosphate dissolves with greater ease in milk than the calcium of the protein salt.

5. A linear relationship was found to exist between the ordinary titration value of milk and the three other values used in this estimation, and also between the curd acidity and milk acidity.

6. Average figures are given for the tricalcium phosphate content of the samples studied and for the various titration factors.
158. The nutritive value of raw and pasteurized milk for mice
Authors: Wilson G. S. , Maier Irene
Published: June 2009

1. Experiments were carried out during the years 1931–5 in which mice on a basal diet of raw milk and white-flour biscuit were compared with mice on a similar diet except that the raw milk was replaced by commercially holderpasteurized (145–150° F. for 30 min.) milk belonging to the same batch. Each group of mice comprised in aggregate about 1100 animals, which were usually 4–6 weeks old at the commencement of observation. For reasons given on p. 206 no attempt was made to standardize the volume of milk consumed by the individual mice. Except in the preliminary experiments, when the milk was given in excess, the amount supplied was regulated more or less in accordance with the requirements of the average animal.
176. The Determination of the nitrogen distribution in milk
Authors: Rowland Samuel J.
Published: June 2009

Details are given of a semi-micro Kjeldahl method for the determination of the total, casein, albumiij, globulin, proteose-peptone, and non-protein nitrogen of milk. The method is accurate, rapid, and particularly suitable for the determination of the smaller nitrogen fractions.

The various nitrogen fractions are separated by the improved procedures described in the preceding paper.
177. The protein distribution in normal and abnormal milk
Authors: Rowland Samuel J.
Published: June 2009

The N distribution in terms of casein, albumin, globulin, proteose-peptone, and non-protein N is given for a number of samples of normal milk, of milk from cows with mastitis, and of milk persistently low in solids-not-fat content. Improved methods of determination have been used.

The average N distribution in normal milk is as follows: casein N 78·5, albumin N 9·2, globulin N 3·3, proteose-peptone N 4·0 and non-protein N 5·0% of the total N. The casein N figure is the least variable, ranging from 77·3 to 80·7. On this basis, normal milk contains, as an average: casein 2·63, albumin 0·31, globulin 0·11, and proteose-peptone substances 0·13%. The total protein content is 3·18%, and the casein: albumin: proteose-peptone: globulin ratios are 23·8: 2·8: 1·2: 1·0.

The milk from cows with clinical mastitis is low in solids-not-fat content, and characterized by a decreased content of casein and an increased content of albumin, globulin, and proteose-peptone substances, particularly of globulin.

The milk samples of low solids-not-fat content were of normal appearance and reaction, and produced by apparently healthy cows known to have yielded milk of low solids-not-fat content for some time. The samples were examined by strict bacteriological methods for the presence of mastitis streptococci, and formed two distinct groups: (1) samples from cows with subclinical mastitis, having the protein distribution of the mastitis samples described above, the cause of the low solids-not-fat being pathological; and (2) samples from uninfected cows, having the protein distribution of normal milk, the cause of the low solids-not-fat being physiological. The two groups of low solids-not-fat cases are discussed, and the conclusion drawn that subclinical mastitis may account for a large proportion of these widespread and puzzling cases.

Many cases of mild subclinical mastitis cannot be detected by the simple chemical tests which will reveal pronounced infection, and satisfactory bacteriological tests, when available, demand much skill and time. For the detection of milk from cows with subclinical mastitis, and for the differentiation of milk samples with pathological and physiological low solids-not-fat, the solids-not-fat, the figure is suggested, and the advantage of this “casein number” is illustrated.
180. Alcohol-glycerol rennet preparations in cheese-making
Authors: Davis J. G.
Published: June 2009

1. Although chemical analysis, bacteriological analysis and graders' reports failed to distinguish the alcohol-glycerol rennet cheese from the brine rennet cheese, the marked qualities in body and texture during making of the alcohol-glycerol rennet curd, and the sterility or low count of the alcoholglycerol extract warrant further trials under practical conditions.

2. Where brine rennet may be suspected as the cause of bacterial faults, the alcohol-glycerol rennet could well be used in its place.

3. Alcohol-glycerolrennets have superior keeping-qualities to brine rennets.
192. Volatile acids of cheese. I. Retentive power of cheese and its constituents
Authors: Hiscox E. E. , Harrison J.
Published: June 2009

1. Direct steam distillation of cheese does not give a true figure for the volatile acids present in cheese.

2. The fat portion of a cheese has a retarding effect on the distillation of higher volatile fatty acids, although it is possible that a complete recovery of the acid may be effected from the fat if the distillation were to be continued for a sufficiently long period.

3. Cheese protein is capable of a permanent retention of a part of some of the acids present, it being impossible to extract these portions by continued distillation.

4. If direct steam distillation of a cheese is to be carried out the results seem to indicate that by collecting only “twice the original volume” a more accurate picture is gained of the distribution of the acids present in the cheese than would be obtained by distilling to “5 times original volume”, since the retention factor of the protein becomes more significant after “twice the volume” (Fig. 2).
204. The methylene blue reduction test and the keeping quality of milk
Authors: Chalmers C. H.
Published: June 2009

The keeping quality of milk is a factor which is of considerable importance from the commercial aspect, yet the relationship which exists between the keeping quality and the bacteriological standards as laid down in the Milk Special Designations Order, 1936, has not been fully explored. Wilson compared the keeping quality at 17·5°C. of samples of mixed morning and evening milk with the reduction times at different temperatures and found, in each case, a relatively poor correlation. Since the samples consisted of mixed morning and evening milk it is not possible to state the age of the milk when the tests were commenced. Much of the Tuberculin Tested milk sold in the Provinces is bottled on the farm, and consequently the milk produced in the morning is bottled separately from that produced in the evening.
228. Oxidation of the fat of butter during cold storage
Authors: Wiley W. J.
Published: June 2009

The oxidation of the fat of butter during cold storage has been studied by measuring the fat-aldehyde value of the fat. A direct relationship was found between this value and the grade after storage.

It was found that acidity, starter organisms, salt and low-pasteurization temperatures each favour the oxidation. Neither diacetyl nor acetoin influence the oxidation.

The results indicate the presence in ripened pasteurized cream and in unripened raw cream of a fat-oxidizing enzyme which is most active at low pH values (about 5) and high salt concentrations.
284. The effects of additions of dried skim milk and dried whey on the baking quality and nutritive properties of white bread
Authors: Henry K. M. , Houston J. , Kon S. K. , Powell J. , Carter R. H. , Halton P.
Published: June 2009

Experiments were carried out to study the effects on the quality and nutritive value of bread of the addition to white flour of roller-dried skim milk and roller-dried whey. Both samples were typical commercial products.

Additions of 2% of the dried milk could be made without any marked effect on loaf quality or on flavour. The addition of 4% or more definitely lowered the quality of the bread, the volume being smaller and the crumb more rubbery. As the content of milk was increased above 2% the flavour of the bread became increasingly distinctive and departed from the normal neutral flavour of water bread.

Up to 5% of dried whey could be added to the flour without any marked deterioration in the crumb of the bread, although with one flour this quantity decreased the volume by 16%. At this level, however, the whey imparted a distinct cheesy flavour to the bread.

Attention is drawn to the fact that the effects produced by the addition of dried milk or whey to bread can only be considered in relation to the particular sample used, since other workers have found that modifications in the method of manufacture considerably alter the value of the product as far as its use in bread is concerned. For this reason improved types of dried milk or whey might well lead to their greater use by the baking industry.
305. The excretion of borate by the dairy cow
Authors: Owen E. C.
Published: June 2009

1. Two Ayrshire cows in mid-lactation were fed for over 40 days on production rations containing from 16 to 20 g. of added borax.

2. The daily excretion of borate during the experimental feeding period was 13–16 g. in the urine, 5–7 g. in the faeces, and 0·3–0·6 g. in the milk, compared with figures of 1·5, 1·0 and 0·1 g. for the control period. There was no detectable retention of borate in the body, and the levels of borate excretion rapidly returned to normal after cessation of the experimental feeding.

3. No adverse effects were observed as a result of the borate feeding. The live weights of the animals remained normal, and there was no diuretic effect. The milk yield was also well maintained. The borate content of the milk increased from the normal level of 0·7 to over 3·0 p.p.m.

4. Attention is drawn to the risk of using farmyard manure which has been made from the excreta of animals fed on boronated rations.
354. The application of fat-acidity determination to a study of lipolytic flavour defects in cheddar cheese
Authors: Hlynka I. , Hood E. G.
Published: June 2009

1. A simple method of determining the acid degree of cheese fat has been described.

2. An average value of fat acidity on a series of thirty-eight samples of experimental Canadian first-grade Cheddar cheese, covering a period of about a year, has been eatablished at 1·0 ml. N/10 NaOH per 10 g. for cheese 2–4 weeks old.

3. An average acid degree for four experimental cheese from pasteurized milk was found to be 0·6.

4. A high acid degree was obtained on cheese fat made from milk in which lipase action was induced by vigorous agitation; the longer the period of agitation the higher was the acid degree. Extensive lipolysis took place at some stage before the cheese was removed from the press. Subsequent increase in acid degree was slight.

5. Fat acidities on a series of commercial Cheddar cheese, selected so as to include a high proportion of cheese degraded for unclean and rancid flavour, ranged from 1·2 to 4·6 with two exceptionally high values of 24·8 and 26·5. The incidence of undergrade cheese increased as the acid degree increased. All cheese with an acid degree of 2·8 or higher were below first grade on flavour.

6. Cheese made from milk, in which acid was developed by the addition of a small amount of starter the night before and which was partly homogenized, showed a high acid degree although the flavour was quite good—often first grade. Similar cheese, but with 3% starter added in the morning, showed only slightly higher fat acidity and scored lower for flavour. These findings cannot be explained as a simple inhibition of the action of milk lipase by acid development.
374. The identity of streptococci from starter and of streptococci, suitable for use as starter, isolated from sour milk
Authors: Nichols Agnes A. , Hoyle Margery
Published: June 2009

1. 277 strains of lactic streptococci isolated from commercial starters and 72 ‘wild’ strains from souring milk, suitable for cheesemaking, have been identified. All the starter strains examined were Str. cremoris and those (with two possible exceptions) from sour milk were Str. lactis.

2. Since the strains from each source were so similar, the information obtained did not help in the selection of the strains, within each group, most suitable for starter.

3. It is suggested that three differential tests are sufficient to distinguish Str. lactis and Str. cremoris and to identify them when isolating strains suitable for starter.
380. The effect on the biological value of bread nitrogen of additions of dried skim milk and of soya flour
Authors: Henry K. M. , Kon S. K.
Published: June 2009

1. Breads were made from flour of 85% extraction alone or supplemented with either 6% dry skim milk or 5·56% full-fat soya flour or 3% milk and 2·78% soya flour.

2. The biological values of the proteins of the breads, determined on rats by the balancesheet method, at an 8% level of protein intake, were respectively 56·7, 59·3, 62·6 and 61·9, and the true digestibilities 91·9, 90·6, 90·9 and 90·8.

3. The soya-flour protein exerted a supplementary effect on the proteins of the plain and of the milk bread. The possible reasons for this supplementary relationship are discussed.

4. Milk proteins had no such supplementary effect on the bread proteins.

Our thanks are due to Dr P. Halton of the Cereals Research Station for the preparation of the breads and to Mr G. Cooper for help with the nitrogen analysis.
385. Growth requirements of lactic streptococci. Differences within the group
Authors: Hunter G. J. E.
Published: June 2009

A variety of lactic streptococcus which is unusual in its growth requirements is described. The culture grows on an agar medium (based on B.D.H. peptone) only under conditions of semi-anaerobiosis. It will grow on the surface, however, if the medium is altered in certain respects, for example: (a) if the B.D.H. peptone is replaced by tryptone, the only peptone which appears to stimulate rapid aerobic growth of the organism; or (b) the lactose in the medium is replaced by glucose; or (c) the pH of the medium is reduced.

Different metabolic mechanisms appear to be involved according to the composition of the medium.

The culture is more sensitive to changes in milk composition than are other strains of lactic streptococci.
436. The estimation of citric acid in dairy products
Authors: Babad J. , Shtrikman N.
Published: June 2009

A rapid method for the colorimetric analysis of micro quantities, of citric acid beginning at concentrations of 0·01% of citric acid in milk and in dairy products has been described. The analysis is based on the yellow colour which develops upon reacting citric acid with pyridine in a solution of acetic anhydride, as applied by Saffran & Denstedt for the estimation of citric acid in blood. The accuracy of the method in the ranges normally used in the estimation of citric acid in milk is approximately ±3%. Examples of determinations in milk and dairy products are given.
554. Titration curves of whey constituents
Authors: Boulet M. , Rose Dyson
Published: June 2009

Titration curves of calcium-containing and calcium-free solutions resembling milk serum indicated that precipitation of calcium from such solutions was greatly impeded by citrate. In the absence of citrate, precipitation of tricalcium phosphate was complete at pH 6·0, but, in solutions containing citrate, precipitation of tricalcium phosphate occurred gradually throughout the titration and was not complete at pH 10.

In some solutions precipitation of calcium phosphate ceased at about pH 9·7, even though the base added had been insufficient to neutralize tertiary hydrogen equivalent to the known calcium content. Precipitation of dicalcium phosphate must therefore have occurred.

The observed stability of calcium in these solutions was much greater than that predicted from the accepted solubility and dissociation constants. It is therefore concluded that detailed studies of these constants, and of the factors controlling precipitation of dior tricalcium phosphate, are needed.
569. A comparison of the diagnostic value of the total and differential cell counts of bovine milk
Authors: Blackburn P. S. , Laing Constance M. , Malcolm D. F.
Published: June 2009

Total and differential cell counts were obtained for 1710 samples of milk taken from cows in which the stage of lactation was known. A bacteriological examination of the samples was also made. The total and differential cell counts considered together showed no marked advantage over the total cell count alone in the diagnosis of mastitis, except in milk of late lactation.
577. The chemical composition of the colostrum and milk of the sow
Authors: Perrin Dawn R.
Published: June 2009

1. Detailed analyses for the major constituents of the colostrum and milk of four sows are reported. In all cases the initial colostrum is characterized by a very high protein, and a low lactose and fat content. As with the colostrum of other species, the transition to milk occurs progressively during the course of about 4–7 days.

2. Analyses for mineral constituents, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and chloride are reported on a range of samples covering the whole lactation of two sows. In contrast to the ash of the colostrum of most other species, the ash of the colostrum of the sow is lower than that of normal milk, and as lactation is established there is a rise in the total ash content, and in its main constituents, calcium and phosphorus.
595. The steam stripping of taints from liquids: III. Batch stripping with particular reference to equilibrium values from batch data
Authors: Scott J. K.
Published: June 2009

Methods are given for calculating the degree of taint removal from systems in which steam is bubbled through the liquid, and systems in which the liquid is boiled. The reverse procedure of obtaining equilibrium curve data from results of batch experiments is also shown. Examples are given for experimental values for removal of diacetyl and acetoin from solution by boiling.
597. Microscopic appearance of fat on the milk surface as affected by mechanical disturbance of the surface
Authors: King N.
Published: June 2009

The freshly formed surface of milk or cream obtained by overflowing in a double funnel is nearly free from microscopically visible fat.

When this surface is disturbed, either by repeated touching with a platinum ring or by allowing air bubbles to burst there, the fat globules and clumps are brought on to the surface, appearing there as such, or being stretched to lenses, or being spread as patches.

The amount of fat brought onto the surface increases with the extent of disturbance, viz. the number of touches with a platinum ring or the number of air bubbles burst, and with the fat percentage of cream.

Ageing of milk or cream slightly promotes the transfer of fat globules onto the surface.

At 30° C. the bursting of about 10–15 air bubbles is enough to cover the milk surface in the overflow outfit with an almost continuous fat blanket, while at 20° C. the globules and clumps occur separately.

The fat globules rendered hydrophobic by mechanical treatment of the milk surface, as well as the fat patches on the surface, are likely to be accessible to the action of lipase. This may explain the agitation activation of lipolysis in raw milk during certain stages in machine milking and during transportation.
614. Variations in the chemical composition of milk with particular reference to the solids-not-fat: II. The effect of heredity
Authors: Robertson Alan , Waite R. , White J. C. D.
Published: June 2009

1. A statistical analysis has been made of lactation records from 500 dam-daughter pairs of the Ayrshire breed. Measurements were taken of milk yield, fat, S.N.F., crude protein, casein and lactose.

2. A correction was made for the age of the cow. This contributed a substantial fraction of the total variation for milk yield, S.N.F. and lactose contents. Month of calving had a trivial effect on the lactation average for the characters when compared with the individual variation between cows.

3. After correction for age, the variation between lactations was highest for fat content (standard deviation 0·35%) and slightly less for S.N.F. (0·26%).

4. The heritability was estimated by the dam-daughter correlation within herds. Values in the neighbourhood of 0·5 were obtained for S.N.F., crude protein, casein and ‘ash’ (determined by difference), about 0·35 for fat and lactose, 0·25 for milk yield and 0·13 for non-casein nitrogen.

5. The phenotypic correlations between yield and lactose were positive for both dam and daughter groups. The correlations between yield and the other constituents were more negative in the daughter group than in the dam group. The correlation between yield and S.N.F. was, in fact, positive in the latter. The correlation between fat and S.N.F. averaged 0·36, being derived mainly from the correlation between fat and casein (0·43), though that with lactose was also positive (0·13).

6. The variation in S.N.F. was mostly determined by that in casein (r=0·85). There was a positive correlation between lactose and casein (0·24), and a negative one between lactose and non-casein nitrogen (–0·41). Lactose was negatively correlated with ‘ash’ (–0·31). ‘Ash’ was positively correlated with non-casein nitrogen (0·23)

7. There were positive and significant genetic correlations between casein and both fat and lactose, and that between the last two was almost significant.

8. No significant genetic correlations were found between yield and the chemical constituents, although figures of practical importance may exist which did not reach significance in an experiment of this size.

9. The practical significance of these results is discussed. It is concluded that selection for yield alone is not likely to cause any great decline in S.N.F. content of the milk, and that this could probably be held in check by paying some attention to the fat content of the milk.
662. The comparative efficiency of some methods of estimating the live weight of dairy cows
Authors: Burt A. W. A.
Published: June 2009

1. Data from 133 Dairy Shorthorn cows in three herds have been used in a study of various methods of estimating live weight from body measurements based on logarithmic relationships and indices of body volume.

2. Regression equations are presented relating live weight to several combinations of chest girth, paunch girth, length of body and age.

3. The most satisfactory estimate of weight from a single body measurement was given by the regression of log live weight upon log chest girth.

4. Appreciable increases in the efficiency of estimation were obtained by including log paunch girth or log length of body as second variates in the regression, and a further increase by including them together.

5. Indices of body volume using chest girth and length of body, or chest girth, paunch girth and length of body gave good estimates of live weight, and there was very little difference in efficiency of estimation from that when the three measurements were used in a logarithmic regression.

6. The effects of the addition of age to regressions involving chest girth, paunch girth and length of body were slight but statistically significant.

7. The most satisfactory practical method of estimation using the three body measurements is given by the equation

Live weight (lb.)=0·000935LB(CG2+PG2+ PG.CG)+57 (all measurements in inches).

8. Comparison of fiducial limits showed that these covered a range 4–5 times as great for live weights estimated from chest girth than for live weights determined directly, and that the inclusion of length of body and paunch girth reduced this range by 25–30%.
664. The effect of thyrotropin on milk yield and heart rate of the goat
Authors: Owen E. C. , Darroch R. A.
Published: June 2009

1. The effects of thyrotropin on milk yields and heart rates of goats were compared with the effects of growth hormone.

2. As expected, the milk yields from the goats which received growth hormone were markedly increased.

3. Thyrotropin caused increases of heart rate in two goats in one of which a large increase of milk yield was also produced.
668. The influence of cream rising upon the activity of bacteria in heat-treated milk
Authors: Wright R. C. , Tramer J.
Published: June 2009

1. Criticism is directed towards the method of assessing cheese-starter activities, whereby pasteurized milk (vat milk) is inoculated with starter and its activity judged by the acidity developed after 6 hr. at 30° C.

2. It has been found that certain starters are slow when subjected to this laboratory test, owing to the fact that they are agglutinated in such milk and consequently carried up into the cream layer, thus producing a lower acidity in the milk.

3. Whilst such starters show higher activity in homogenized or autoclaved milk, it is suggested that starter activity tests should be carried out in the presence of agar in order to prevent cream rising and thus simulate conditions in the cheese vat. Agar is preferred to rennet for this purpose.

4. It is emphasized that such apparently slow starters are not slow when used in the cheese vat.

5. Evidence is given that keeping-quality tests on pasteurized and homogenized milks involving storage of the milk are also affected by the same factors, which may result in homogenized milk having a poorer keeping quality than pasteurized milk.
670. Further studies of the effect of processing on some vitamins of the B complex in milk
Authors: Chapman Helen R. , Ford J. E. , Kon S. K. , Thompson S. Y. , Rowland S. J. , Crossley E. L. , Rothwell J.
Published: June 2009

1. Pasteurized, sterilized, U.H.T. treated, U.H.T. treated-sterilized, evaporated, sweetened condensed, roller- and spray-dried milks were prepared simultaneously from one bulk of raw whole milk.

2. The preparation of any of these products entailed little or no apparent loss of riboflavin, pantothenic acid, nicotinic acid, vitamin B6or biotin.

3. Thiamine was destroyed in amounts ranging from less than 10% to 40–50%, increasing with the severity of the heat treatment.

4. Prolonged high temperature used in the sterilization of evaporated milk and of in-bottle sterilized milk caused nearly complete loss of vitamin B12.

5. The new process of sterilization by the U.H.T. treatment alone when it was not followed by the, so far necessary, in-bottle sterilization caused little more loss of the vitamins measured than did H.T.S.T. pasteurization.
694. Observations on the cell count and solids-not-fat content of cows' milk
Authors: McKenzie D. A. , Booker Elizabeth M. K. , Moore W.
Published: June 2009

Tests over a 2-year period of milk from an Ayrshire herd showed that there was a greater incidence of low S.N.F. samples from milk with a high cell count compared with samples from that of a low cell count.

While a wide variation in S.N.F. was found at any particular cell count level, there was a broad correlation between cell count and S.N.F., the average S.N.F. for cows in the same lactation being lower for those animals with high cell counts in the milk.

It is suggested that a cell count > 100,000/ml. in bulk milk should be regarded as significant.

Bacteriological examination of the high cell count samples showed that in a large proportion of cases no typical mastitis-producing organism could be isolated.

The authors wish to thank their colleagues in the Bacteriology, Chemistry and Veterinary Investigation Departments for assistance in this work.
709. The calorific value of milk of different species
Authors: Perrin Dawn R.
Published: June 2009

The gross energy content of the milk of the cow, sow, ewe, goat and of human milk has been determined by bomb calorimeter, and compared with results obtained using conversion factors and chemical analysis.

Correction for non-protein nitrogen content led to values agreeing within 0·5–1·0% for the milk of all species. For human colostrum other factors may be involved, and a closer estimate of gross energy value of human milk was obtained by treating all nitrogenous constituents as being protein.
711. Some factors affecting turbimetric methods for the determination of fat in milk
Authors: Goulden J. D. S.
Published: June 2009

A method for the determination of the fat content of milk from measurements of the turbidities of diluted milk suspensions in the near infra-red region has been shown to provide greater accuracy than the alkali-addition method in the visible region. Variations in results due to breeds of cows and lactation times have been studied, and excluding early lactation samples, the maximum deviation within a given breed was found to correspond to ±0·2% in the fat concentration.
728. Lactobacilli in the air of creameries
Authors: Perry K. D. , sharpe M. Elisabeth , Mattick A. T. R.
Published: June 2009

Lactobacilli occur in large numbers in cheese (1), even when the milk used for cheesemaking has been pasteurized (2) and therefore contains very few or no lactobacilli. The lactobacilli in cheese must enter during cheese-making, and a potential source of these organisms is the air of the creamery. Olson & Hammer (3), although not concerned directly with lactobacilli, showed that the numbers of bacteria in the air of dairy plants fluctuated with weather conditions. Naylor & Sharpe(4) found lactobacilli in the air of the Experimental Dairy at the National Institute for Research in Dairying: some strains were identical with others isolated from cheese, but there was frequently no correlation in type of lactobacilli from the air with those from cheese. Thus, ‘cheese types’ were found in the air some months before or after the cheese was made, which seemed to indicate contamination of the air from sources within the dairy. To obtain further information regarding the lactobacillus flora of the air the following investigation was made.