bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
EVALUATION OF TRIBOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SEALS RUNNING IN CONTACT WITH VEGETABLE OIL
Authors: SZCZYPIŃSKI-SALA Wojciech , LUBAS Janusz
Published: January 2018

The article describes the results of the measurement to evaluate the operation characteristic of o-ring seals in case of the operation with vegetable oils. The measurements were made on the model of a sealing node in hydraulic cylinder, where the round cross section seal cooperated with the piston rod. The changes of the friction force during rod movement resulting from the friction between the seal and the rod were analysed. The tests were carried out with two vegetable oils mostly used in industry: rape oil and soybean oil. The products based on vegetable oils can be an alternative to products made on the basis of petroleum. However, vegetable oils are characterized by other properties than mineral oils. The physical and chemical properties of vegetable oils depend on the composition of the fatty acid mixture. The observation of the influence of the occurrence of oxidative gelation on friction force was also conducted. In case of vegetable oils, oxypolymerization tendencies of these fluids are a very significant factor, which can influence the characteristics of friction nodes operation.
THE EFFECT OF RUNNING IN AN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD ON HUMAN JOINT AND SKIN LUBRICATION IN THE METABOLIC PROCESS
Authors: WIERZCHOLSKI Krzysztof , MISZCZAK Andrzej
Published: January 2018

This paper presents an experimental and theoretical implementation of the influence of the run-walk treatment in the presence of an electro-magnetic field on energy burn increments in the human body, its metabolism, and finally on the decrements of the human body weight. The experimental research presented in this paper was performed using the following devices: a magnetic induction field produced by a new Polish MT-24 Apparatus, a new German Magcell Arthro magneto electronic device, and a Segmental Body Composition Analyzer Tanita MC 780MA. The author's experience was gained in German research institutes, and practical results were confirmed after measurements and information from students and patients. Up to now, theoretical solutions have not been considered. The theoretical and numerical model presented was implemented by using the Mathcad 15 Professional Program. The main conclusion obtained in this paper can be formulated in the following sentence: The run-walk training implemented by an electro-magnetic magnetic field using tight sportswear leads to the increments of the dynamic viscosity of synovial fluid, changes the internal energy contained in the human body, increases the muscle weight, and the percentage of water in the human body; therefore, it accelerates the slimming process connected with the body weight decrements.
Rekindling Hong Kong’s Magic
Authors: Wong Yue Chim Richard
Published: January 2018

Hong Kong’s divisive and fragmented political landscape provides the ideal condition for the proliferation of regulatory control. When the pressure on our government to spend more on housing, health care, and education is even greater than that in Singapore, and the Basic Law disallows deficit financing, then raising the regulatory burden is the only political solution available. Unfortunately, this will have far more damaging consequences on the economy. What is to be done? Can Hong Kong steer a path that allows it to fund the rising demand for public expenditures while promoting economic growth, so that the additional spending is economically affordable and politically feasible? That question will be addressed in this volume.
Social Welfare Policy and an Income Subsidy Scheme
Authors: Wong Yue Chim Richard
Published: January 2018

When nearly a quarter of GDP is redistributed through a rag bag of measures, one should expect poverty to have been considerably alleviated in these societies, if not totally eliminated. But this has not been the case. Income inequality in the West has not improved and, in fact, has worsened in recent decades. Sociologists, economists, and political scientists agree that an underclass exists in Western societies. For decades, this was believed to affect mostly “minorities,” but recent evidence shows that many in the mainstream middle class are descending into the underclass. The ability of income redistribution in alleviating poverty has its limits. Poverty alleviation has to be tackled through another front – economic growth.
Human Capital, Poverty, Inequality, and Intergenerational Mobility
Authors: Wong Yue Chim Richard
Published: January 2018

The idea that economic development can help alleviate poverty is at the heart of the belief that growth is the best cure for poverty. But it can only work if governments of developing economies support economic opening and reforms that unleash market forces and embrace globalization.
Upward Mobility in the United States and Hong Kong
Authors: Wong Yue Chim Richard
Published: January 2018

It is reasonable to surmise that the dramatic improvement in upward mobility for lower-income families between 1986 and 1996 was a temporary phenomenon – a con-sequence of less competition for school places and, especially, university places. This period is now behind us. The significance of such an unusual period of opportunity is that we have to reinterpret the earlier finding by Professor Chou Kee-lee. A more plausible interpretation of upward mobility in Hong Kong is that it improved dramatically for the cohort born in 1946-56 and remained stable afterwards. The cohort that was born in 1961-71 lucked out as upward mobility received a huge boost due to middle class emigration in the lead up to 1997. Since then upward mobility in Hong Kong has returned to the same stable level.
Growing up in Hong Kong before and after 1980
Authors: Wong Yue Chim Richard
Published: January 2018

Hong Kong’s public housing estates are transforming into areas of growing poverty, with more divorced households. They are increasingly weak neighborhoods for motivating children to higher aspirations. There are doubts about the wisdom of continuing the development of more public rental housing units to solve our shortage of housing units. A far better solution is to build subsidized homes for ownership so that families have a stake to stay together and work for a better future. By keeping families together, more children will be prevented from falling into a state of disadvantage that will be detrimental to their future upward social mobility. Why foster and concentrate the poor and the divorced in publicly subsidized ghettos? Poor children deserve a better deal. A city of homeowners is also less politically divided.
Divorce and Dynamic Poverty
Authors: Wong Yue Chim Richard
Published: January 2018

The public rental housing program had an in-built incentive that provided encouragement for unhappy couples to divorce. The high and rising divorce rate in Hong Kong is therefore both a cause and an effect of higher housing prices and rents. It distorts the measured inequality in household incomes. These economic and social changes were magnified through a public rental housing program that at best failed to protect the relative and absolute wealth position of families without property and at worst created perverse incentives that increased the divorce rate among the poor. The present day public housing program is reproducing poverty across generations against a background of sustained rising private property prices.
Finding $3.336 Trillion in Housing Capital
Authors: Wong Yue Chim Richard
Published: January 2018

If the restriction on selling TPS and HOS units on the open market were removed or the unpaid land premiums substantially lowered, then an active market would appear. They would then become an important source of new housing capital. Such privatization of public rental units and deregulation of sale restrictions on ownership units would substantially enhance the market value of government housing.
Tackling Long-Term Budget Deficits in an Aging Society
Authors: Wong Yue Chim Richard
Published: January 2018

The aging of Hong Kong’s population is a rapidly approaching, multifaceted challenge that will be around for many decades to come. Unfortunately, the public sees this problem solely as one of poverty and social security. The social welfare lobby has successfully branded aging as a poverty issue that requires welfare support. Politicians and their allied social advocates and lobbyists often use old age poverty as the raison d’être to support the introduction of a universal old age social pension, which confuses aging with poverty.
The Value of Not Working and Long Working Hours
Authors: Wong Yue Chim Richard
Published: January 2018

Research studies on the disincentive effects of generous welfare programs are few and should be undertaken. Today society is poised to expand these programs further amidst concerns of rising poverty and a widening income and wealth gap. This should be undertaken with caution to avoid creating even stronger incentives for individuals, especially young workers, to withdraw from the labor force.
The Challenge of Poverty, Near-Poverty, and Inequality in 21st-Century Hong Kong
Authors: Wong Yue Chim Richard
Published: January 2018

The essays in this volume show that poverty, near-poverty, and inequality are multi- faceted conditions. They have coalesced into a growing economic and social condition in Hong Kong, which is also developing into a difficult political problem. The origins can be traced to the effects of economic globalization and China’s opening in the 1980s. It then grew during the late 1990s and worsened in the early 21st century. Many rich cities in the world have experienced similar phenomena. First, a small fraction of the population is in poverty; some may even be destitute. Second, the middle class begins sinking as growing numbers of its members become less able to afford a comfortable life in the manner they are used to. Third, income inequality and inequality in the ownership of wealth rise, especially as a result of escalating property prices. Unlike in other places, in Hong Kong these conditions are developing at a faster pace and with greater severity.
Tackling Inequality in the 21st Century
Authors: Wong Yue Chim Richard
Published: January 2018

Inequality in the 21st century is not only about alleviating poverty among the low- income classes but also about preventing the middle-income classes from sinking into near-poverty. It is about investing in people to make them more productive and in possession of both hard and soft skills, and attracting overseas talent. It is about lowering regulatory restrictions to increase the supply of land, housing, and buildings to prevent the worsening of division in society. It is about investing in medical and health care so that elderly people can live with dignity in old age. It is about providing income support for those without means, especially in old age. Rising economic inequality has begun to polarize politics. Most of it has manifested as a demand for democracy and frustration with “one country, two systems.” More people, especially the young, are losing hope; some are disaffected, and some are angry. At the center of this unhappiness is a complex interrelated set of issues that are simply different sources of rising economic inequality. There is a strong sense of injustice because the political system has failed to address the problem for a very long time.
Selecting the Correct Word
Authors: Hart Steve
Published: January 2018

This chapter presents words that are commonly confused, including forms of the same root word. It also explores prefixes by first defining them and then explaining how the sentence structure can change when negative ones are applied.
Regions and Countries
Authors: Hart Steve
Published: January 2018

This chapter offers instruction on how to refer to countries and regions and how to recognize the differences between the noun and the adjective forms. It also addresses generic and specific sentences, the order of adjectives in a sentence with a country reference, and the capitalization of these terms.
Numbers and Percentages
Authors: Hart Steve
Published: January 2018

This chapter focuses on numbers and percentages and covers the issues of format, use, and suitability of terms. It also addresses the differences between cardinal and ordinal numbers and how to express fractions correctly.
From Online BL Fandom to the CCTV Spring Festival Gala
Authors: Zhou Shuyan
Published: January 2018

Regarding the question of politics and play in Chinese Internet culture, this chapter re-examines particular effects of netizens’ carnival practices, as well as the complex interactions and contradictions among cyberculture, the official culture, and consumerism in China, by centering on a specific case of “Looking for Leehom” (zhao Lihong) and its related media discourses in 2012 and 2013. The case serves as an influential online carnival, starting from an online Boy’s Love fandom of those who participated in the fantasy matchmaking of two male celebrities. Further, it raises large questions about resistance, complicity, and negotiation among different cultures and media, particularly considering that online carnival was appropriated by a performance on the CCTV Spring Festival Gala in 2013 and then commented on by newspapers and magazines. The chapter inspects how the pleasure of Boy’s Love fantasy has been transferred, censored, and re-enabled between cyberculture and offline societies. By rethinking Bakhtin’s interpretation of carnival, the chapter concludes by exploring the cultural and social implications of “Looking for Leehom” and the potential power of the netizens’ fantasy.
The knowledge acquisition for innovation beyond the contract a case study in the information technology industry
Authors: Malachias Celso dos Santos , Serio Luiz Carlos Di , Oliveira Jaime de Souza
Published: January 2018

The aim of this case-study based research is to discuss how a large IT multinational company envisioning external tacit knowledge, product of parties interaction in an IT strategic outsourcing, as a source of innovation generation, beyond the explicit knowledge inherent to the contract, through constructs such as knowledge exchange, spillover, externality and absorptive capacity. Therefore, the objective in this exploratory research is to analyze the knowledge exchange and acquisition above the formal information forecasted in the contract between the parties. In order to reach this goal, it was used a qualitative methodology with interviews and open-ended questions, in the company sales department. As a methodology section annex was shown a Table with main constructs, authors and papers. Also it was presented in the Annex a Topic Outline as a way to operationalize the main theoretical concepts and propositions converting them into practical elements and as a guideline for development of the open-ended questions utilized in the interviews. As initial findings we could see that the company sales area is able to acquire additional knowledge beyond the contract with their clients and apply it internally and other clients, resulting as an outcome of process innovation, potentially due to knowledge spillover, externality and knowledge database change, as component of the absorptive capacity. It was captured some company formal mechanisms to stimulate the client facing area to acquire and reuse the knowledge. On the other hand, sometimes the knowledge sharing is individual initiative.
Universidade sustentável: análise internacional sobre a temática na literatura científica
Authors: Santa Stephane Louise Boca , Pfitscher Elisete Dahmer
Published: January 2018

Há necessidade de a gestão universitária repensar e reconsiderar o propósito por trás de sua existência. Pois, universidades não avaliadas somente com base no seu potencial para oferecer educação de qualidade, e sim, outros fatores e critérios, incluindo o seu compromisso com o processo da sociedade. Diversas universidades estão buscando adaptar-se ao conceito de sustentabilidade, gerando pesquisas referentes ao tema e visando a prática tanto na rotina, quanto nos edifícios, e no meio onde estão inseridas. Algumas universidades já estão em busca de certificações ambientais. Com base neste contexto, esta pesquisa tem como objetivo analisar as características das universidades sustentáveis, com base na literatura internacional. Assim, a pesquisa irá contribuir com as universidades que buscam adaptar-se visando à sustentabilidade. A metodologia quanto aos objetivos é descritiva. No que se refere aos procedimentos técnicos, é bibliográfico. E quanto à abordagem do problema qualitativa. Na trajetória metodológica têm-se uma busca estruturada por artigos publicados, levando em consideração a sua relevância, através da ferramenta Proknow-C. Utilizou-se o resultado desta busca para o referencial teórico e para a análise das características sobre universidades sustentáveis, através da análise de conteúdo. Conclui-se que os itens com maior frequência de citação para uma universidade considerar-se sustentável são, principalmente, os aspectos educacionais sobre sustentabilidade (currículo, educação e pesquisa), com 6%. Outro aspecto relevante refere-se ao ambiente e a interação com o mesmo (paisagem, planejamento do solo e edifícios sustentáveis), também com 6%. Quanto às ferramentas de gestão, dos dez artigos analisados, 70% citam a auditoria, tanto de sustentabilidade, quanto financeiro e de atividades; 50% citam a necessidade de um sistema de gestão ambiental; e 30% citam que tornar-se uma universidade sustentável é um processo de melhoria contínua.
Embracing heterogeneity: Building the Tree of Life and the future of phylogenomics
Authors: Bravo Gustavo A , Antonelli Alexandre , Bacon Christine D , Bartoszek Krzysztof , Blom Mozes , Huynh Stella , Jones Graham , Knowles Lacey , Lamichhaney Sangeet , Marcussen Thomas , Morlon Hélèn , Nahkleh Luay , Oxelman Bengt , Pfeil Bernard , Schliep Alexander , Wahlberg Niklas , Werneck Fernanda , Wiedenhoeft John , Willows-Munro Sandi , Edwards Scott V
Published: January 2018

Building the Tree of Life (ToL) is a major challenge of modern biology, requiring major advances in cyberinfrastructure, data collection, theory, and more. Here, we argue that phylogenomics stands to benefit by embracing the many heterogeneous genomic signals emerging from the first decade of large-scale phylogenetic analysis spawned by High-throughput sequencing (HTS). Such signals include those most commonly encountered in phylogenomic datasets, such as incomplete lineage sorting, but also those reticulate processes emerging with greater frequency, such as recombination and introgression. We suggest that methods of data acquisition and the types of markers used in phylogenomics will remain restricted until a posteriori methods of marker choice are made possible with routine whole-genome sequencing of taxa of interest. We discuss limitations and potential extensions of a major model supporting innovation in phylogenomics today, the multispecies coalescent model. Macroevolutionary models that use phylogenies, such as character mapping, often ignore the heterogeneity on which building phylogenies increasingly rely, and suggest that assimilating such heterogeneity is an important goal moving forward. Finally, we argue that an integrative cyberinfrastructure linking all steps of the process of building the ToL, from specimen acquisition in the field to publication and tracking of phylogenomic data, as well as a culture that values contributors to each step, are essential for progress.
Antifundamentalism in Modern America
Authors: Watt David Harrington
Published: January 2018

This book provides a pathbreaking account of the role that the fear of fundamentalism has played—and continues to play—in American culture. Fundamentalism has never been a neutral category of analysis, and the book scrutinizes the various political purposes that the concept has been made to serve. In 1920, the conservative Baptist writer Curtis Lee Laws coined the word “fundamentalists.” The book examines the antifundamentalist polemics of Harry Emerson Fosdick, Talcott Parsons, Stanley Kramer, and Richard Hofstadter, which convinced many Americans that religious fundamentalists were almost by definition backward, intolerant, and anti-intellectual and that fundamentalism was a dangerous form of religion that had no legitimate place in the modern world. For almost fifty years, the concept of fundamentalism was linked almost exclusively to Protestant Christians. The overthrow of the Shah of Iran and the establishment of an Islamic republic led to a more elastic understanding of the nature of fundamentalism. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Americans became accustomed to using fundamentalism as a way of talking about Muslims, Jews, Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhists, as well as Christians. Many Americans came to see Protestant fundamentalism as an expression of a larger phenomenon that was wreaking havoc all over the world. This book provides an overview of the way that the fear of fundamentalism has shaped American culture, and it will lead readers to rethink their understanding of what fundamentalism is and what it does.
Critical Environmental Education
Authors: Stevenson Robert B. , Wals Arjen E. J. , Heimlich Joe E. , Field Ellen
Published: January 2018

This chapter considers an alternative socially critical perspective on environmental education, the emphasis of which is on the influence of cultural norms and structural features of society on people's environmental actions and the need for participatory approaches that engage citizens in creating and determining appropriate actions to realize their own vision of a sustainable urban environment. It describes emerging learning spaces, also known as “ecologies of learning,” that engage young and old urban citizens in participatory collaborative activities such as community gardening, critical place-based education in urban schools, and social media environmental interest networks. After providing a brief history of environmental education, the chapter discusses communicating information about and solving environmental problems. It then examines critical thinking about issues of quality of life and human-nature interrelationships before concluding with an overview of how to develop capacity for integrating environmentally, socially, and economically sustainable development.
Organized Labor and Casino Politics in Toronto
Authors: Tufts Steven
Published: January 2018

This chapter examines labor's role in a public battle over the siting of a casino in Toronto, which played out among different levels of government, real estate developers, casino corporations, and anti-casino community groups. While labor support for a new downtown casino was contingent and fragmented, it remains a fact that significant unions were strongly behind development, and even public sector unions that opposed it in the later stages of the debate had some contradictory interests. When capital and the state consider divisive development proposals, there is greater opportunity for actors such as labor and community groups to be deciding factors. Yet such opportunities to shape municipal politics and development still require discipline and solid strategy. It is not only the loss of casino and construction jobs for some unions that is relevant here, but also the failure of local organized labor to exercise power in a decisive manner at a moment when the opportunity presented itself.
Conclusion
Authors: MacDonald Ian Thomas
Published: January 2018

This concluding chapter presents three key findings that emerged from the variations of labor's urban strategies. First, unions are more likely to achieve union goals in profit-led sectors, but these narrower strategies are found to conflict with the broader class strategies that are associated with labor renewal. Second, unions are more likely to favor broader class strategies in sectors that are not profit-led. In these cases, unions are capable of reconciling union and social goals. Outcomes are, however, less impressive in these cases. Third, regardless of sector, urban labor strategies are more likely to succeed when the nature of urban space is taken into consideration by labor campaigners in designing or adapting strategy to the local context.
Shaken Authority
Authors: Sorace Christian P.
Published: January 2018

This book examines the political mechanisms at work in the aftermath of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake and the broader ideological energies that drove them. The book takes Chinese Communist Party ideas and discourse as central to how that organization formulates policies, defines legitimacy, and exerts its power. It argues that the Communist Party has never abandoned its conviction that discourse can shape the world and the people who inhabit it. It demonstrates how the Communist Party's planning apparatus continues to play a crucial role in engineering the Chinese economy and market construction, especially in the countryside. It takes a distinctive and original interpretive approach to understanding Chinese politics, and demonstrates how Communist Party discourse and ideology influenced the official decisions and responses to the Sichuan earthquake. The book provides a clear view of the lived outcomes of Communist Party plans, rationalities, and discourses in the earthquake zone. The three case studies presented each demonstrates a different type of reconstruction and model of development: urban–rural integration, tourism, and ecological civilization. The book emphasizes the need for a grounded literacy in the political concepts, discourses, and vocabularies of the Communist Party itself.
Challenges to Amish Settlement
Authors: Johnson-Weiner Karen
Published: January 2018

This chapter talks about how not all the Amish who have come to New York have been successful in their attempt to settle there. At least six Amish settlements in New York State alone have become extinct since 1950, namely the settlements in Sinclairville (Chautauqua County, 1950–1960); Clyde (Wayne County, 1979–1999); Newport (Herkimer County, 1979–2003); Dundee (Yates County, 1981–1988); Albion (Orleans County, 1986–1996); and Poland (Herkimer County, 2002–2007). Amish settlements are, for the most part, individual enterprises, undertaken by families acting in concert rather than by groups organized in advance. Ultimately, the success and failure of a settlement is due to circumstances that are peculiar to the group.
Challenging the Non-Amish Neighbors
Authors: Johnson-Weiner Karen
Published: January 2018

This chapter describes how, although the majority of Amish settlers have been successful, integration into local life has not always been easy. To this day, many persist in believing (wrongly) that the Amish do not pay taxes. This perception that the Amish take from the local economy without giving back is not shared by all; however, as the Amish settle in a region, they soon become economically integrated. Whether it is by donating to auctions to support volunteer fire departments, working with dairy cooperatives, or operating roadside vegetable stands and selling storage barns to their neighbors, the Amish quickly become involved in maintaining the area's economic health. Nevertheless, because of the many myths, half-truths, and imaginative fictions about the Amish, first encounters can be puzzling.
The Future of New York’s Amish
Authors: Johnson-Weiner Karen
Published: January 2018

This chapter reviews the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Wisconsin v. Yoder et al. and argues that it not only empowered Amish communities, but also encouraged Amish diversity by making it easier for them to operate their own one-room schoolhouses. As Ordnungs have changed, permitting a greater range of occupations, so too have the behaviors that characterize Amish life. And as Amish communities become more diverse, they will challenge secular authority in different ways. This is certainly true in New York State, where nearly two centuries after the first Amish arrived, New York Amish church communities continue to grow in both size and number. However, there is reason to believe that the State's Amish population will not continue to expand, challenging both Amish and non-Amish residents to accept new neighbors who look and act differently.
Hell and Its Rivals
Authors: Bernstein Alan E.
Published: January 2018

The idea of punishment after death—whereby the souls of the wicked are consigned to hell—emerged out of beliefs found across the Mediterranean, from ancient Egypt to Zoroastrian Persia, and became fundamental to the Abrahamic religions. Once hell achieved doctrinal expression in the New Testament, the Talmud, and the Qur’ān, thinkers began to question hell’s eternity, and to consider possible alternatives—hell’s rivals. Some imagined outright escape, others periodic but temporary relief within the torments. One option, including Purgatory and, in the Eastern Orthodox tradition, the Middle State, was to consider the punishments to be temporary and purifying. Despite these moral and theological hesitations, the idea of hell has remained a historical and theological force until the present. This book examines an array of sources from within and beyond the three Abrahamic faiths—including theology, chronicles, legal charters, edifying tales, and narratives of near-death experiences—to analyze the origins and evolution of belief in hell. Key social institutions, including slavery, capital punishment, and monarchy, also affected the afterlife beliefs of Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Reflection on hell encouraged a stigmatization of “the other” that in turn emphasized the differences between these religions. Yet, despite these rivalries, each community proclaimed eternal punishment and answered related challenges to it in similar terms. For all that divided them, they agreed on the need for—and fact of—hell.
Electrical pulse stimulation induces GLUT4 translocation in a Rac‐Akt‐dependent manner in C2C12 myotubes
Authors: Hu Fang , Li Nana , Li Zhu , Zhang Chang , Yue Yingying , Liu Qian , Chen Liming , Bilan Philip J. , Niu Wenyan
Published: January 2018

Muscle contraction increases skeletal muscle glucose uptake, but the underlying mechanisms are not fully elucidated. While important for insulin‐stimulated glucose uptake, the role of Akt in contraction‐stimulated muscle glucose uptake is controversial. In our study, C2C12 skeletal muscle myotubes were contracted by electrical pulse stimulation (EPS). We found that EPS leads to Akt phosphorylation on sites S473 and T308 in a time‐dependent manner. The Akt inhibitor MK2206 partly reduces EPS‐stimulated GLUT4 translocation without affecting EPS‐stimulated AMPK phosphorylation. EPS activates Rac1 GTP‐binding, and EPS‐stimulated GLUT4 translocation is partly inhibited by Rac1 inhibitor II and siRac1. Interestingly, both Rac1 inhibitor II and siRac1 inhibit EPS‐stimulated Akt phosphorylation on sites S473 and T308. Our findings implicate a Rac1‐Akt signaling pathway in EPS‐stimulated GLUT4 translocation in C2C12 myotubes.
Seasonal and Interannual Variability in the Barrier Layer of the Bay of Bengal
Authors: Kumari Anshu , Kumar S. Prasanna , Chakraborty Arun
Published: January 2018

An objectively analyzed monthly gridded ocean analysis derived from a combination of satellite and in situ observations is used to describe the seasonal and interannual variability in the barrier layer thickness (BLT) over the maximum variance region in the BLT of the Bay of Bengal (BoB) for the period from 1993 to 2012. The northern BoB acquires a maximum variance in the BLT where a large river discharge flux was observed. The BLT showed strong seasonal variability with minima during April–May and maxima during December–February. An investigation of the variability in the BLT showed large amplitude at annual and semiannual time scales. The relationship between the BLT and the Indian Ocean dipole mode (IOD) reveals that the BLT maximum is relatively high in the negative IOD years when compared to the positive IOD years. A significant relation between the BLT and IOD is inferred with the IOD leading the BLT by 3 months and lagging by 1 month. We show that the 1 month lag in the northern BoB is mainly associated with coastally trapped Kelvin waves that radiate Rossby waves and control the BLT. However, further investigation is required regarding the temporal lead of the IOD with the BLT in the northern BoB.
The Effects of Deep Convection on Regional Temperature Structure in the Tropical Upper Troposphere and Lower Stratosphere
Authors: Johnston Benjamin R. , Xie Feiqin , Liu Chuntao
Published: January 2018

Understanding the impact of deep convection on the thermodynamic structure of the tropical upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UTLS) is vital because convection and temperatures play an important role in regulating stratospheric water vapor through direct convective injection and in enhancing the presence of thin cirrus clouds, both of which play a significant role in the climate. This study quantifies the UTLS vertical temperature structure changes near deep convection over the Pacific Warm Pool and the Tropical Atlantic Continental and Oceanic region. The deep convection observed from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission satellite are collocated with high vertical resolution temperature profiles from the COSMIC GPS Radio Occultation satellites along with ERA‐Interim reanalysis from 2007 to 2011. COSMIC and ERA‐Interim observe warm temperature anomalies (0.2 to 0.8 K) within 10–14 km, then transitioning to a layer of cool anomalies (−0.4 to −1.5 K) within 14–17 km. Above the cold‐point tropopause, warm anomalies (<1 K) are observed for oceanic convection, whereas cool anomalies are displayed for land convection within 17–20 km. The amplitude of temperature anomalies increases for deeper convection, marked by higher 20 dBZ radar echo top heights or colder infrared cloud top temperatures. COSMIC also observes enhanced UTLS diurnal temperature variations of about 0.2–0.3 K in both regions near deep convection. ERA‐Interim shows generally good agreement with COSMIC on the UTLS temperature anomalies near deep convection but displays larger differences above the tropopause, especially near land convection.
Impact of Precipitating Ice Hydrometeors on Longwave Radiative Effect Estimated by a Global Cloud‐System Resolving Model
Authors: Chen Ying‐Wen , Seiki Tatsuya , Kodama Chihiro , Satoh Masaki , Noda Akira T.
Published: January 2018

Satellite observation and general circulation model (GCM) studies suggest that precipitating ice makes nonnegligible contributions to the radiation balance of the Earth. However, in most GCMs, precipitating ice is diagnosed and its radiative effects are not taken into account. Here we examine the longwave radiative impact of precipitating ice using a global nonhydrostatic atmospheric model with a double‐moment cloud microphysics scheme. An off‐line radiation model is employed to determine cloud radiative effects according to the amount and altitude of each type of ice hydrometeor. Results show that the snow radiative effect reaches 2 W m−2 in the tropics, which is about half the value estimated by previous studies. This effect is strongly dependent on the vertical separation of ice categories and is partially generated by differences in terminal velocities, which are not represented in GCMs with diagnostic precipitating ice. Results from sensitivity experiments that artificially change the categories and altitudes of precipitating ice show that the simulated longwave heating profile and longwave radiation field are sensitive to the treatment of precipitating ice in models. This study emphasizes the importance of incorporating appropriate treatments for the radiative effects of precipitating ice in cloud and radiation schemes in GCMs in order to capture the cloud radiative effects of upper level clouds.
A fundamental study on the earthquake response reduction of base‐isolated foundation backfilled using an improved compound geomaterial
Authors: Miyamoto Yuji , Shimamura Atsushi , Fujii Satoru , Hoshizawa Fumiko , Kashiwa Hisatoshi
Published: January 2018

This study addresses the development of a seismic‐isolated foundation embedded with improved soil to reduce the response of a superstructure. The material properties of the new improved composite soil are investigated by performing laboratory tests. Subsequently, the response behaviors of test model structures are discussed considering various contact conditions at the bottom of the foundation and different improved backfill soils around the foundation by conducting shaking table tests. Furthermore, the results of the analysis are obtained using a three‐dimensional nonlinear finite element method to clarify the effect of contact conditions at the bottom of the foundation and that of the improved compound soil on the seismic response of a building. Based on these results, an effective method to reduce the response of a building is to decrease the frictional resistance of the foundation bottom in order to reduce the input motion and make it non‐resonant. In addition, the response can be reduced by absorbing the seismic vibration energy in the improved composite soil embedded around the foundation. Furthermore, it is expected that the improved composite soil along with its toughness will result in the suppression of the excessive deformation of the foundation due to the effect of embedding.
Messenger
RNA
in Prokaryotes
Authors: Kushner Sidney R
Published: January 2018

Messenger ribonucleic acids (mRNAs) are molecules that represent the intermediate step in the conversion of genetic information carried in a cell's DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) into functional proteins. They are synthesised by the enzyme RNA polymerase, which recognises specific sequences in the DNA (promoters) to initiate the process called transcription. Downstream sequences, called terminators, provide the signals for transcription to stop. Structural features of mRNAs, such as the presence of a good ribosome‐binding site (RBS) and appropriate spacing between the RBS and the translation start codon, control how effectively the information they contain is translated into functional proteins and play a role in the stability of the mRNAs. The steady‐state level of each mRNA, which is determined by the rate of its synthesis versus the rate of its decay, helps regulate how much protein is synthesised from each mRNA. mRNA decay in bacteria is carried out by a series of nucleases that can initiate the degradation of the RNA molecule by cleaving at internal sites or by removing one nucleotide at a time from either the 5′ or 3′ terminus.

Key Concepts

RNA is distinguished from DNA by the presence of ribose instead of deoxyribose and uracil instead of thymine.

Messenger RNAs are required for converting the genetic information in the DNA into functional proteins.

More than one protein can be encoded in a single mRNA.

In bacteria, mRNAs must have a ribosome‐binding site (RBS) that is properly space upstream from the translation start site.

Secondary and tertiary structures of an mRNA can affect both its stability and functionality.

The physical location of an mRNA within a cell will affect its stability.

Riboswitches help control the expression of a large number of genes.

The translation and stability of many mRNAs is regulated by small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs).

mRNAs are degraded by a variety of pathways that utilise many different ribonucleases.

For many mRNAs decay is carried out by multiprotein complexes in both Gram‐negative and Gram‐positive bacteria.

Polyadenylation of mRNAs, particularly in Gram‐negative bacteria, stimulate their degradation.
Mutagenesis: Site‐Directed
Authors: Walquist Mari J , El‐Gewely M Raafat
Published: January 2018

Site‐directed mutagenesis (SDM) aims to introduce precise alterations in any coding or noncoding deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence, usuallyin vitro. These modifications could be as small as a nucleotide or several hundred; in one site or in multisite in the same DNA sequence. Recently, these alterations have been also developedin vivo. SDM success depends on how changes are introduced and mutant selection is done. DNA sequence analysis must be made to verify change(s) before any biochemical or biological experiments are done. Recent methods for SDM and most used commercial kits are discussed. A list of companies offering SDM service is included. The authors have also listed software used for mutagenic oligonucleotide primer‐design. These techniques are revolutionising our understanding of the genetic and molecular mechanisms, protein structure–function relationship, protein–protein interaction and binding sites in any biological system. In addition to the academic benefits of SDM, SDM techniques have impacted biotechnology and the applied field such as engineering new enzymes, drug development, optimisation of heterologous gene expression and secretion. In recent years, technologies employingin vivogene as well genome modifications (editing) has been significantly improved. CRISPR/Cas9 system for genome editing has already been used in different systems.

Key Concepts

A selection system to distinguish and select the molecules with the desired site‐directed mutations from the rest of the molecules has to be planned.

DNA sequence analysis to verify the presence of the desired alteration with no other changes in the rest of the molecules is essential component of the technique.

All site‐directed alterations requiring site‐directed mutagenesis technique are done at the DNA level.

Engineered site‐directed mutations are heritable modifications.

Modifications done at the protein levels are not heritable.

The results of these alterations are reflected in the encoded amino acids sequence of the proteins or in any targeted binding site in the DNA sequence.

Several simplified techniques are now available.

Selection of the altered DNA molecules from the pool of nonmodified parent molecules is essential.

DNA sequence to verify the DNA change is a fundamental part of the technique.

Biological and biochemical ramifications because of SDM are usually the purpose that SDM is done in the first place.

In addition to thein vitromodification of genes,in vivomethods for gene and whole genome modifications are being developed. In such methods, no transformation of the modified DNA is transformed back to cells, but the tools to bring the changes have to.
Transplantation
Authors: Smith Peter L
Published: January 2018

Transplantation had long been considered before becoming a common practice in the twentieth century. Today, with ever‐increasing knowledge of graft rejection by the immune system, a number of different cells, tissues or organs can be successfully transplanted with effective immunosuppressive therapy to prevent the recipient immune system from targeting and destroying the transplant. Nevertheless, the adverse side effects of immunosuppressive therapy and the limited availability of transplantable organs necessitie the development of other therapies as bridging therapies for transplantation, to support organ function or offer a viable alternative to transplantation.

Key Concepts

Organ transplantation is a successful therapy for end‐stage organ failure.

Genetic differences between the donor and recipient result in graft rejection by the recipient's immune system.

Most transplantation requires immunosuppressive therapy.

Immunosuppressive therapy is limited by serious side effects.

The shortage of organs for transplantation requires the development of alternative therapies to treat organ failure.
Plant Programmed Cell Death
Authors: Conway T John , McCabe Paul F
Published: January 2018

Programmed cell death (PCD) is a fundamental biological process in plant cells. Indeed, all multicellular organisms need a cellular death process to be able to regulate cell numbers, to direct developmental processes, defend themselves against pathogens or to eliminate unwanted or damaged cells. In plants, PCD is governed by genetic signals and environmental cues and operates from the embryogenic beginning of a plants' life to the final whole plant death processes. The study of PCD is an expanding discipline in plant sciences as an understanding of the core regulatory processes involved in plant PCD may facilitate breeding programmes that modify the timing or intensity of PCD events. The ability to breed for a more efficient PCD may have a profound impact on our capacity to support crop species and maintain yields, in rapidly changing environments. This article reviews the methods used to study PCD in plants and outlines our current understanding of PCD regulation.

Key Concepts

Programmed cell death (PCD) is a fundamental process in plants. It is involved in defence, development and response to stress.

Regulation of PCD is genetic with a significant role played by environmental stimuli.

Plant programmed cell death has many similarities to animal apoptosis – chromatin and nDNA fragmentation, cell shrinkage, contraction of the cytoplasm, mitochondrial swelling and release of mitochondrial‐based proteins.

Plants have unique cellular components – cell walls, chloroplasts and a large central vacuole – which play roles in plant PCD.

Retraction of the protoplast during PCD results in a distinctive morphology that can be used as a quantifiable reporter of PCD.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a role in the induction, signalling and execution of plant PCD. Fine tuning of ROS governs PCD responses to stress.

A cells' sensitivity to triggering PCD is impacted by previous stress experience, age and prevailing environmental conditions.
Vaccinia Virus Expression System
Authors: Hall Yper , Carroll Miles W
Published: January 2018

Replication‐competent Vaccinia virus was used as the vaccine in the campaign to eradicate smallpox. After the disease was eradicated, recombinant Vaccinia viruses were created that were capable of expressing foreign genes. This made Vaccinia‐based systems available for mammalian cell expression of recombinant protein, an advantage of which, similar to other mammalian expression systems, is authentic posttranslational modification. Generation of recombinant Vaccinia also provided an opportunity for developing Vaccinia‐based vaccines for use against nonpoxvirus diseases. In this respect, recombinant Vaccinia virus and recombinant versions of an attenuated derivative, Modified Vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) have been extensively studied. Today, there are recombinant Vaccinia viruses expressing foreign antigens in phases I–III clinical trials relating to viral, bacterial, parasitic and cancer‐related diseases, and a licensed veterinary vaccine.

Key Concepts

Smallpox was eradicated following a vaccination campaign in which live Vaccinia virus was used as the vaccine.

Foreign genes can be inserted into the Vaccinia virus genome to create recombinant Vaccinia virus strains.

The Vaccinia virus expression system allows for mammalian cell expression of recombinant protein, an advantage of which is authentic posttranslational modification.

Recombinant Vaccinia can deliver vaccine antigens and evoke potent cell‐mediated and humoral responses specific to the inserted gene.

Vaccination with recombinant organisms can confer protection against viral, bacterial, parasitic and cancer‐related diseases.