bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Buckling of Laminated Plates with Holes
Authors: Lin Chien-Chang , Kuo Ching-Suong
Published: March 2007

This paper deals with buckling analysis of rectangular composite laminates with circular holes under inplane static loadings. The first-order shear deformation theory and the variational energy method are employed in mathematical formulation, and the nine-node Lagrangian finite element method is used for finding critical loads. The effects on critical load by hole size, plate thickness ratio, material modulus ratio, ply lamination geometry, loading types, and boundary conditions are investigated. Numerical solutions are shown in graphical form where some comparisons are made with those of given litera tures.
Noninteractive Macroscopic Reliability Model for Whisker-Reinforced Ceramic Composites
Authors: Duffy Stephen F. , Arnold Steven M.
Published: March 2007

Considerable research is underway in the field of material science focusing on incorporating silicon carbide whiskers into silicon nitride and alumina matrices. These composites show the requisite thermal stability and thermal shock resistance necessary for use as components in advanced gas turbines and heat exchangers. This paper presents a macroscopic noninteractive reliability model for whisker-reinforced ceramic composites. The theory is multiaxial and is applicable to composites that can be characterized as transversely isotropic. Enough processing data exists to suggest this idealization encom passes a significantly large class of fabricated components. A qualitative assessment of the model is made by presenting reliability surfaces in several different stress spaces and for different values of model parameters.
Evaluation of Testing Techniques for the losipescu Shear Test for Advanced Composite Materials
Authors: Lee S. , Munro M.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of the study was to explore and subsequently establish ex perimental techniques for the losipescu shear test method for advanced composite materials. For the preparation of notches in the Iosipescu specimens it was found that con ventional machine cutting tools could be used provided that the base of the notch was in spected for micro-damage. The occurrence of a pure shear strain field in the test section was evaluated by separately monitoring the readings from the tension and compression strain gauges. Grinding of the four loading surfaces of the original University of Wyoming test fixture was required to eliminate in-plane or out-of-plane bending or twisting of the specimen. A state of pure shear strain (as defined by equal readings from the tension and compression gauges) can be produced in 90 degree but not 0 degree original Iosipescu specimens when tested in the original University of Wyoming fixture (when the loading surfaces were ground smooth and parallel). In terms of analysis of the results for the 90 degree specimens for IM6/1806, IM6/F584 and IM6/5245C material systems, the deter mination of the in-plane shear modulus by the tangent method had lower scatter than by initial modulus or secant methods.
Static Compression Failure of Carbon Fibre T800/924C Composite Plate with a Single Hole
Authors: Soutis C. , Fleck N.A.
Published: March 2007

This paper describes an experimental and theoretical study of the compres sive failure of carbon/epoxy, T800/924C, composite laminates.

Static tests were carried out to investigate the mechanics of uniaxial compressive failure in multidirectional unnotched [(±45/02)3] s plates. Fibre microbuckling in the 0° plies is the critical damage mode which causes fracture of the composite plate.

A series of experiments was also carried out to determine the failure in compressively loaded [(±45/0 2)3] s laminates with circular holes. X-ray radiography and scanning elec tron microscopy were used to observe damage initiation and propagation. Failure is initi ated as matrix cracking. With increasing load fibre microbuckling, surrounded by delami nation, occurs at the edges of the hole at locations of high in-plane compressive stress. When damage reached a critical state the laminate failed catastrophically.

Finally, a theoretical model is presented for predicting the static strength of notched laminates. Theoretical predictions are compared with experimental data for specimens containing circular holes of different sizes. Agreement of theory with test data is ac ceptable.
Characterization of the Creep Compliances J22 and J66 of Orthotropic Composites with PEEK and Epoxy Matrices Using the Nonlinear Viscoelastic Response of the Neat Resins
Authors: Horoschenkoff A.
Published: March 2007

The tensile creep behavior of two resins used as matrices in high- performance carbon-fiber-reinforced composites was characterized by using Schapery's nonlinear viscoelastic constitutive equation. The investigation was performed on Poly etheretherketone (PEEK) and a toughened epoxy resin.

Two equations from the micromechanics of composites were modified by involving nonlinear viscoelastic matrix behavior. These modified equations were used to predict the nonlinear creep compliances J22 and J66 of carbon-fiber-reinforced composites having the investigated matrices.

The prediction was verified by creep tests on laminates with fiber orientation [904]s and [±454]s.

It was found that the modified equations allow good prediction of the creep compliances J22 and J66. The maximum difference between predicted and measured creep strain is less than 12%.
Micromechanics Prediction of the Shear Strength of Carbon Fiber/Epoxy Matrix Composites: The Influence of the Matrix and Interface Strengths
Authors: King T.R. , Blackketter D.M. , Walrath D.E. , Adams D.F.
Published: March 2007

Presently there is great interest in understanding and improving the bond ing between the fibers and matrix in high performance composite materials. Indeed, the fiber-matrix adhesion in many recently-developed systems is poor. To improve bonding, various fiber surface treatments have been developed. These treatments are often evaluated by measuring their effect on a composite property sensitive to the interfacial bond strength (e.g., the composite shear strength). Such methods are, however, inferential, and do not provide a direct measure of the strength of the interfacial bond.

A method is presented to estimate the influence of the matrix and the interfacial bond strength itself on the composite shear strength for a given fiber/matrix composite. Analyti cal prediction of these effects has been achieved using a finite element micromechanics model. Numerical results generated using this model have been shown to compare well with experimental data, which suggests that the micromechanics approach to predicting constituent and interface effects on the composite shear strength is a potentially valuable tool.
A Constitutive Formulation for Anisotropic Materials Suitable for Wave Propagation Computer Programs
Authors: O'Donoghue Padraic E. , Anderson Charles E. , Friesenhahn Gerald J. , Parr Charles H.
Published: March 2007

The constitutive relationships for an anisotropic material are established for shock wave propagation computer programs, commonly referred to as hydrocodes. In this paper, stresses are formulated in terms of strains for two specific two-dimensional cases: orthotropic behavior in plane strain problems; and transversely isotropic behavior in axisymmetric problems. Additionally, the procedure for separating material nonlinear compressibility effects (equation of state) from strength effects is formulated which per mits the consistent calculation of stresses in the elastic regime, and allows the mean stress and pressure to be defined in accordance with their scalar interpretation. Further, this pro cedure permits the computation of inelastic response by scaling of deviatoric stresses, so the equivalent stress resides on a yield or failure surface, without changing the pressure. In conjunction with this constitutive development, a parallel experimental program was designed and conducted to explosively load fiberglass/epoxy panels in plane strain. This loading induced different levels of damage in the panels such as matrix splitting and delamination between plies. Numerical simulations, using the composite material model, were performed to understand the sequence of the observed failure.
Failure Strength and Damage Mechanisms of E-Glass/Epoxy Laminates under In-Plane Biaxial Compressive Deformation
Authors: Jerry Zhiqi Wang  , Socie Darrell F.
Published: March 2007

A strength and failure mechanism study of E-glass/epoxy laminates sub jected to uniaxial and in-plane biaxial compression loadings is presented. Specimen con figuration was found to have a large influence on the damage mechanism and resulting strength of the laminates. Standard compression test specimens with a gage section of 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) fail in a shear damage or a kink band mode. In large 125 mm (5 in.) square biaxial specimens, significant delamination not observed in the small specimens reduces the failure strength by 20-35%. The biaxial compressive failure envelope for E-glass/ epoxy is adequately described by a maximum stress or a maximum strain criteria that con siders the different failure modes. Estimates of the failure envelope based on small com pression test specimens where the failure mode is a shear or a kink band overestimates the strength of the large square biaxial test specimens that delaminate at a lower stress.
The Effects of Pressure on Water Transport in Polymers
Authors: Tucker Wayne C. , Lee Sang-Baek , Rockett Tom
Published: March 2007

Effect of pressure on the water absorption of general purpose unsaturated polyester and vinyl ester resins was studied. The water absorption curves of polymers were determined at 25.5°C, 100% relative humidity, and 1 atm. Polymers were immersed into 28.5°C water at 1 atm and 1500 psi, respectively. The weight percent changes were observed after 144 hours. The data of 1 atm and 1500 psi matched with the weight changes of the sorption curves. The experiment indicated that no effect of pressure on water ab sorption of polyester and vinyl ester resins was found in this pressure range.
Damage Development in a Short Fiber Reinforced Composite
Authors: Hour Kai-Youarn , Sehitoglu Huseyin
Published: March 2007

The important issue of finding a relationship between a macroscopic damage variable and the process of damage accumulation within a material is addressed in this article. Monotonic and cyclic deformation behavior has been studied in a randomly distributed glass reinforced polyester matrix composite. The composite material is called sheet molding compound, abbreviated as SMC, with a short glass fiber weight of 30%. The damage evolution in this planar isotropic material is studied by continuously monitor ing axial, lateral, and specimen thickness strain components on the specimen. Based on these measurements, the damage volumetric strain was calculated that increased continu ously with cycles in load-controlled experiments. However, in the strain-controlled experi ments, where tensile stresses decayed rapidly with cycles, the corresponding damage volumetric strain reached a saturation level. Microscopic observations revealed that cracks grew along the matrix/fiber interfaces as well as the matrix/filler interfaces. Many of these cracks are normal to the specimen thickness direction. This observation is consistent with the increasing specimen thickness strain measured in the experiments.
Tensile Properties of Carbon Fiber Triaxial Woven Fabric Composites
Authors: Fujita Akihiro , Hamada Hiroyuki , Maekawa Zenichiro
Published: March 2007

Triaxial woven fabrics are attractive for industrial applications as a rein forcement of composite materials. In this article, tensile properties and fracture behaviors of carbon fiber triaxial woven fabric composites were discussed by comparing with biaxial woven fabric composites. Moreover, the effect of weave structure on the tensile properties of the triaxial woven fabric composites was investigated. Triaxial woven fabric composites were isotropic in modulus, and anisotropic in strength. Tensile properties of basic woven fabric composites were superior compared to the Bi-Plain and biaxial woven fabric com posites. The fracture mechanisms of triaxial woven fabric composites varied with fiber ori entation. This was observed from experimental data of AE (acoustic emission) mea surement and numerical analysis.
The Effects of Moisture upon the Optimal Temperature Path of the Viscoelastic Symmetric Composite Laminates after Post Cure
Authors: Chen R.S. , Tu C.Y. , Tsai H.S.
Published: March 2007

Inheriting previous studies on the optimal cool-down path of the compos ite laminate, this article incorporates the consideration of a new element-humidity-to analyze the residual stresses which develop in a composite material laminate after termi nation of cool down due to further exposure to humid environment.
A Model of Embedded Fiber Optic Fabry-Perot Temperature and Strain Sensors
Authors: Kim Ki-Soo , Kollár László , Springer George S.
Published: March 2007

A model was developed for embedded intrinsic and extrinsic Fabry-Perot fiber optic sensors. This model relates the strains and the temperature changes in the material surrounding the sensor to the reflected light intensity. The model consists of three parts. Submodel I relates the temperature and the strains in the material to the temperature and the strains inside the sensor. Submodel 2 relates the temperature and the strains inside the sensor to the change in sensor length and to the changes in the optical properties of the sensor. Submodel 3 relates the changes in sensor length and optical properties to the changes in the intensity of the reflected light.

On the basis of the model, a computer code SENSOR1 was written which can be used to calculate the reflected light intensity for specified strains and temperature changes inside the material. The model and the code were verified by measuring changes in the light in tensity of an intrinsic Fabry-Perot sensor embedded in a graphite-epoxy composite plate subjected to loads varying with time. The changes in light intensities were measured and were also calculated by the code. The measured and calculated light intensities were found to be in good agreement.
Bearing Strength and Damage Progress for PAN-Based and Pitch-Based Carbon Fiber Composites
Authors: Maikuma Hironori , Kubomura Kenji
Published: March 2007

Two bearing strengths are characterized for four PAN-based and four pitch-based carbon fiber composites of [0°/±45°/90°]3s laminate. It is found that full bearing strength is developed when the edge distance ratio, e/D, is equal to or greater than 3.0 and the side distance ratio, w/D, is equal to or greater than 4.0. Bearing strength in creases with an increase in the fiber strain to failure, and also with the longitudinal com pressive strength of the unidirectional composites. No correlation is evident between the tensile strength of fiber and the bearing strengths. The first peak load in the load versus pin displacement curve is recommended for calculating the bearing strength.
Iconic Communication of Values among Americanand Polish Students
Authors: Rorer Brett A. , Ziller Robert C.
Published: March 2007

Many of the major value surveys are forced-choice questionnaires based on the theoretical assumption that values are variable only in the ranking patterns of universal components. In order to test the assumption of universalism across two diverse cultures, a free-response method was employed in which Polish and American college freshmen took photographs of preferred objects in their everyday environment. The resultant value orientations reveal a behavioral component of values in everyday life. The Polish subjects depicted a narrower range of orientations, and institutional as opposed to private orientations. The results were interpreted in terms of the more limited range of alternatives of choice afforded by the Polish environment relative to that of the American subjects, and an orientation toward values associated with enduring aspects of Polish life within a culture marked by instability.
Perceptual Structuring Of Dyadic Interactions
Authors: Sinha Jai B.P. , Verma Jyoti
Published: March 2007

This study examines the hypotheses that (1) Indians, compared to Americans, tend to structure interpersonal relations hierarchically, and (b) they are more global in their perception of task, self, and others. Discussing and Completing a socially relevant situational scale were 22 American and 40 Indian dyads of non-friends. Afterwards, they completed a questionnaire that measured their perceptions of each other and of the task interactions. The results showed that Indians reported making more differential contributions and influence efforts than Americans, who reported having more of a mutual influence as well as resistance to influence from others. Indians were more global in their perception of self and others. Americans reported a more interconnected perception of task interactions. The authors discuss implications for the psychological differentiation hypothesis.
Does Cognitive Style Account for Cultural Differences in Scholastic Achievement?
Authors: Clark Lesley A. , Halford Graeme S.
Published: March 2007

Urban and rural Aboriginal- and Anglo-Australian children were tested for reading and mathematics achievement, for nonverbal psychometric test intelligence, and for three cognitive styles: reflection-impulsivity, field dependence-independence, and style of conceptualization. Previously observed cultural and location differences in school achievement were replicated. It was found that both psychometric test intelligence and cognitive style account for significant proportions of the variance shared by environment (cultural and location) and scholastic achievement. However, it was also found that psychometric intelligence was clearly a more powerful predictor of the effects of culture and location on school achievement than was cognitive style. Furthermore, psychometric intelligence is just as compatible with a difference (as opposed to deficit) model of cultural effects as is style.
Moral Development in Rural and Urban Korea
Authors: Park Jong Young , Johnson Ronald C.
Published: March 2007

Rest's Defining Issues Test (DIT) was administered to Korean male and female sixth-, eighth-, and eleventh-grade students, as well as college undergraduate students. Half of the subjects came from rural and the other half from urban backgrounds. These Korean subjects showed the same general develop-mental trends as did American subjects reported on by Rest in 1976. Age differences in stages of moral development appeared to be greater in the American than in the Korean sample. Among the Korean subjects, females, persons reared in urban areas, and older subjects showed significantly more responses demonstrating principled morality than did males, persons reared in rural areas, or younger persons. Few interactions of sex, age/grade level, or rural/urban upbringing were significant.
Psychometric Properties of Elliott'S Measure of Pacifism
Authors: L.Heaven Patrick C. , Rejab Devi , Bester C. L.
Published: March 2007

This study reports the psychometric properties of Elliott's pacifism scales among Afrikaners and Indians in South Africa. Both the reliability and intercorrelations of each were found to be generally poor and future users of the scales are warned against the possible effects of meaningless acquiescence as well as meaningless relationships between unbalanced scales.
Role Perceptions of Hispanic Young Adults
Authors: Triandis Harry C. , Marin Gerardo , Hui C. Harry , Lisansky Judith , Ottati Victor
Published: March 2007

Three studies explored the role perceptions of samples of Hispanic Navy recruits. Three different methods were used: (1) role differentials, in which a role, such as son-mother; and behaviors, such as "tells secrets to," were presented to subjects who estimated the frequency of the behavior on a ten-point scale ranging from never to always; (2) behavior differentials, in which stimuli, such as father, and behaviors that the subjects themselves engage in were presented to subjects who indicated whether they would engage in such behaviors, and (3) attribute ratings in which the subjects were presented with a stimulus person and were asked to indicate the probability of certain attributes being characteristic of the stimulus (e.g., fathers are tough). There was some convergence across methods. The total pattern of results across studies suggested that subjects from the U.S. general population experience a push out of the family, a pull toward the family, and a pull toward work roles, the total sum of these forces favoring work roles. Hispanics, on the other hand, experience essentially no push out of the family, a strong pull toward the family, and perceive work roles with considerable ambivalence.
The Self-Serving Bias in Attributions as a Coping Strategy
Authors: Kashima Yoshihisa , Triandis Harry C.
Published: March 2007

The present study suggests that American students tend to use an individual coping strategy (i.e., self-serving attributions) more than Japanese students do in dealing with success and failure experiences. However, this tendency was observed only on the ability-related dimensions of attention and memory. The patterns of attributions seem to suggest that on the other dimensions, the subjects' causal inferences about their task performance are relatively reason-able rather than self-serving. One possible interpretation of this finding is that different cultural groups have different ways of coping with such inherently ambiguous issues as a person's ability; but in the face of obvious situational information, their judgments converge, although they leave some differences due to cultural preferences.
Maternal and Infant Behavior in Japan and America
Authors: Otaki Midori , Durreit Mary Ellen , Richards Phyllis , Nyquist Linda , Pennebaker James W.
Published: March 2007

Maternal and infant behaviors were compared for 30 American and 52 Japanese mother-infant dyads from middle-class homes in Japan and America. The major differences in caretaker behavior were (1) the Japanese mother spent more time being with or in the presence of her baby than the American mother, and (2) the American mother was more active in positioning the body of the infant. Infant behaviors between the two cultures were strikingly similar. Significant differences were found in sucking behavior, with the American babies displaying more than the Japanese babies. Across cultures male babies were awake more and received more rocking. Several culture-by-sex interactions were found. Japanese males displayed significantly higher unhappy vocal and total vocal behavior than Japanese females, but the American males displayed significantly lower total vocal behavior than the American females. Comparisons were made with findings from a study conducted in 1969. The findings highlight the importance of cultural context in investigating early behaviors.
The Repression of Dissent
Authors: Moore Will H.
Published: March 2007

This article describes a substitution model of states' responses to dissident behavior and a statistical test of some sequential hypotheses that are derived from the model. It is motivated by an interest in understanding the sequential response of states to dissident activity. That is, if dissidents protest, what will the state do next? Similarly, if dissidents are cooperative, what will the state do next? The author argues that the answer to both of these questions depends on the interaction of the state's most recent behavior (i.e., repression or accommodation) and the dissident's response. The model produces the hypothesis that states substitute repression for accommodation, and vice versa, in response to dissident protest. Statistical analysis of evidence from Peru and Sri Lanka, 1955 to 1991, suggests that the model captures well the sequential responses of the Peruvian and Sri Lankan governments to dissident behavior during that period.
Localized Ethnic Conflict and Genocide
Authors: Bhavnani Ravi , Backer David
Published: March 2007

Building on Fearon and Laitin, who concede in-group policing could be exploited for genocidal purposes instead of moderating interethnic hostilities, the authors seek to explain variation in the scale of ethnic conflict, using data from Rwanda and Burundi. Their computational model assumes individuals vary in their propensity to engage in violence, form independent beliefs about others, and react to public messages about current levels of ethnic aggression. In addition, the dominant ethnic group is subject to genocidal norms—defectors who fail to participate in ethnic violence face sanctions. Their results demonstrate that (1) the scale of violence varies considerably across episodes; (2) interethnic conflicts are not structurally deterministic but rather reflect endogenous interactions; (3) interethnic trust influences patterns of conflict—communities exhibiting high degrees of trust generally experience intense violence that subsides rapidly, in contrast to the persistent, moderate violence characteristic of less trusting communities; and (4) stronger genocidal norms exacerbate ethnic violence.
Degrees of Difficulty
Authors: Astorino-Courtois Allison , Trusty Brittani
Published: March 2007

This article examines the effects of Israeli policy shifts on Syrian decision making regarding resolution of their conflict. An analytic framework developed by Maoz is used to reconstruct the structure of the Syrian decision problems in light of the positions of the Rabin, Peres, and Netanyahu governments. Mintz and Geva's poliheuristic decision model is applied to evaluate the relationship between the “difficulty” of the decision task, the process, and the outcome. Results indicate that the impact of the Netanyahu government's hard-line policy was to increase the difficulty of a Syrian strategy choice to resolve the conflict, the bargaining position of the Peres government had the same effect, and the Rabin government's moderately hard line allowed the greatest opportunity for agreement.
When Does Aerial Bombing Work?
Authors: Horowitz Michael , Reiter Dan
Published: March 2007

Coercion through air power has been and continues to be an important tool of foreign policy. Multivariate probit analysis is used to test three hypotheses on all instances of air power coercion from 1917 to 1999: (1) air power coercion attempts are more likely to work if they exploit military rather than civilian vulnerabilities, (2) the regime type of the target affects the chances of success, and (3) success is less likely if the attacker demands that the target change its leadership. Results show that coercion is more likely to work if the target's military vulnerability is higher, but higher levels of civilian vulnerability have no effect on the chances of coercion success; that target regime type has no effect; and that success is less likely when the attacker demands the target change its leadership.
Retributive Responses
Authors: Güth Werner , Kliemt Hartmut , Ockenfels Axel
Published: March 2007

Retributive responses play a role in human behavior. Are they triggered primarily by supposed intentions or by observed consequences of actions? Experimental studies were conducted of retributive responses in situations in which the individual actor may inflict harmful consequences without intending to and intend harmful consequences without inflicting them. Results indicate that retributive responses are more strongly influenced by observed consequences than ascribed intentions. However, individual retributive motivations seem to be overshadowed by concerns that are nonretributive altogether, in that they focus on end-state distributions independently of who brought them about.
Attracting Trouble
Authors: Gelpi Christopher , Grieco Joseph M.
Published: March 2007

Otherwise powerful, formidable democracies are tempting targets for international violence because they have leaders who, on average, have been in office for shorter periods of time than leaders of autocracies. Domestic incentives may make resistance more costly than offering concessions for inexperienced leaders of both democratic and authoritarian states. Over time, however, resistance may become domestically less costly, causing experienced leaders to be more likely to prefer resistance. Anticipating this response, potential challengers may be more likely to target inexperienced leaders. Because democracies generally have high rates of leadership turnover, they are tempting targets for international violence. Statistical analysis of crisis initiation between 1918 and 1992 confirms the perception that democracies are more likely to be targets of militarized challenges. Results are also consistent with the proposition that the relatively short tenure in office served by democratic leaders helps to account for the observed pattern of democratic attraction of foreign challenges.
Between-Group Communication and Conflict Resolution in Assurance and Chicken Games
Authors: Bornstein Gary , Gilula Zohar
Published: March 2007

Two types of intergroup conflicts modeled as team games, a game of assurance where the groups' incentive to compete is purely fear and a game of chicken where the groups' incentive to compete is purely greed, are examined. The games involved competition between two 3-person groups. The players discussed the game with other in-group members, then met with the members of the out-group for a between-group discussion, and finally had a within-group discussion before deciding individually whether to contribute to their group's collective effort vis-à-vis the out-group. Results show that all groups playing the assurance game achieved the collectively efficient outcome of zero contribution, whereas groups playing the chicken game maintained a highly inefficient contribution rate of 78%. Communication between groups is highly effective in bringing about a peaceful resolution if the conflict is motivated by fear and useless if the conflict is motivated by greed.
Economic Models of Arms Races
Authors: Brubaker Earl R.
Published: March 2007

Some problems with the current models of arms races are pointed out, and some extensions and reformulations are proposed. Models of strategic exchange serve as building blocks for a more comprehensive variety that attempt to explain decisions about the division of national wealth into civilian and military components. The models take as given essential technological and preferential parameters and derive implied patterns of choice. The source and implications of discontinuity in the function relating postattack stocks of military wealth and the plausibility and results of successive strikes by a single adversary are examined. Bench marks for purely military preference patterns are established and then are modified to account for the desirability of civilian wealth. Portrayal of preferences via reaction curves is developed, and solutions to the problems of their internal and external inconsistency are proposed. Major problems remain, but economic concepts and principles can contribute at least to the statement of the vital issue of arms races.
Cooperative Behavior in Dyads
Authors: Garner Katherine , Deutsch Morton
Published: March 2007

It was hypothesized that cooperative behavior would decrease over time in an interaction between cooperatively oriented and competitively oriented persons. Pairs of male undergraduates, in which one S was induced to assume a competitive orientation and the other a cooperative one, played thirty trials of a Prisoner's Dilemma game. Three experimental conditions were created by varying the nature of the information each S received about his partner's orientation. A decrease in the amount of cooperative behavior was found only when Ss believed that their (dissimilarly motivated) partner had the same orientation as themselves. When subjects had veridical information about their partner's dissimilar orientation, there was a significant increase in the amount of cooperative behavior over time for both pair members. When Ss had no mformation about their partner's goal orientation, cooperative behavior remained stable over time. The data were discussed in terms of the active versus passive role taken by subjects in transforming interpersonal situations which they confront.
Expansion of Exchange
Authors: Matthews Byron A. , Shimoff Eliot
Published: March 2007

Three experiments employed procedures which allowed trust levels to be continuously monitored during ongoing two-party exchange. Level of trust was behaviorally defined by degree of "expansion" of exchange-that is, by how far ahead in earnings one party put the other. Higher levels of trust were increasingly risky because they resulted in proportionately greater earnings reductions when the other person was untrustworthy (failed to reciprocate). Consistent with Blau's (1964, 1968) theoretical descriptions of the development of trust and expanded exchange, trust levels increased gradually in most pairs, even in a procedure (Alternation Cost) which made low trust levels costly. Two manipulations (Time Uncertainty and Exchange Uncertainty) which made it uncertain whether the other person would be able to reciprocate produced dramatic decreases in trust. A third manipulation (Temptation), which made it uncertain whether the other person would choose to reciprocate, had similar effects. The combination of a reduced likelihood of reciprocation and Alternation Cost produced intermediate reductions in trust levels in some pairs and a cessation of exchange in others.
Conflict in an Israeli Collective Community
Authors: Reisman Bernard
Published: March 2007

This article deals with social conflict in a moshav (an Israeli collective community) settled mainly by American immigrants. A model of the causes of social conflict is used to analyze the dynamics of the case. An underlying schism among the members of the community, reflecting differential identification with American and Israeli values, was exacerbated by dissonant structural conditions. Two Israeli organizations responsible for helping new collective communities intervened and favored one of the factions in the conflict. Their bias neutralized the possibility of a conciliating role either by the members unaffiliated with the conflicting factions or by a private social agency which tried to mediate the conflict. The author was involved as a consultant in the attempted mediation.
Temptation and the Maintenance of Trust
Authors: Matthews Byron A. , Kordonski William M. , Shimoff Eliot
Published: March 2007

Levels of trust, defined by how far ahead in earnings each dyad member risked putting the other, were continuously monitored during two-party exchange. Two experiments investigated whether a bilateral punishment capability would enable trust to be maintained when a strong incentive to be untrustworthy (temptation) was introduced. In Experiment I (total subtraction), both persons were provided with a “start over” button that could set the other person's session earnings to zero. In Experiment II (partial subtraction), the start over button was replaced by a “subtraction” button that subtracted ten points from the other's earnings. All pairs had previously demonstrated either unwillingness to trust or untrustworthy behavior during temptation. Experiment I found that the availability of the total substraction option allowed trust to be maintained in four of six pairs. In Experiment II, partial subtraction had similar effects for three of six pairs. A bilateral punishment capacity may thus facilitate the maintenance of trust under conditions that otherwise produce distrust and exploitation.
Preventing Systemic War
Authors: Midlarsky Manus I.
Published: March 2007

In this article, an equilibrium theory of conflict behavior is developed in which there exists a balance or equilibrium in the number of disputes begun and ended in a given time period. Significant interdependence as the result of diffusion, reinforcement, or a common source of conflict behavior leads to departures from the equilibrium model that, in turn, are associated with the onset of systemic, or global, war. Using a set of serious international disputes occurring in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the nineteenth century is found to fit the equilibrium model, but the period approaching World War I does not, when all disputes involving both major and minor powers are considered. Disputes involving only major powers constitute a stable system in both the nineteenth century and pre-World War I period. Implications for crisis management and conflict resolution are developed through the use of disjoint sets that effectively separate the different kinds of disputes, which together could lead to global war.
Arms Exports for Oil Imports?
Authors: Snider Lewis W.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the indirect effects of the amount of money the major Western arms-exporting nations spend on imported oil on increases in the dollar volume of arms exports. In other words, are the United States, Britain, France, West Germany, and Italy using arms exports to offset the cost of imported oil? The effects of the dollar volume of oil imports on the dollar volume of arms exports are hypothesized to be mediated through the negative impact that oil imports have on the terms of trade and the positive impact they have on unemployment. These hypotheses are supported by the results of the data analysis. For most of the European countries, arms exports also show a significant increase in response to the declining share of central government expenditures allocated to defense, declining terms of trade, and to increases in rates of unemployment. The results apply to increases in the absolute levels of arms exports. Declining terms of trade and unemployment do not have a strong causal impact on arms exports as a percentage of total exports. The latter is responsive only to changes in the defense budget's share of central government expenditures. Thus alleged “arms-for-oil” deals of the middle and late 1970s are too superficial an explanation of European and American arms sales after the 1973 oil crisis.
Perceptual Illusions and Military Realities
Authors: Plous S.
Published: March 2007

Past research on game theory has used the Prisoner's Dilemma as a model of the nuclear arms race between the superpowers. According to such a model, the United States and the Soviet Union are always better off individually by arming, but if both superpowers arm, the outcome is lower in utility than if both countries disarm. Using survey data from the United States Senate and surrogate Soviet political elites, supplemented by a review of American and Soviet political declarations, the present study suggests that the nuclear arms race may be best characterized as a “perceptual dilemma.” Rather than sharing the same matrix of perceived utilities—as in a Prisoner's Dilemma—players locked in a perceptual dilemma hold discrepant perceptions of the payoff matrix, and neither perception corresponds to true outcome utilities. The present article concludes with a brief discussion of the major political and methodological implications arising from the new model.
Issue Linkage and the Evolution of International Cooperation
Authors: McGinnis Michael D.
Published: March 2007

This article extends Axelrod's results concerning the evolution of cooperation to situations in which a pair of individuals is simultaneously engaged in several continuing interactions, all of the Prisoners' Dilemma type. It is shown formally that in such a PD multisupergame, players may adopt strategies that create linkages across time and games, thus opening up new opportunities for cooperative outcomes in games for which cooperation would not be rational if considered in isolation. However, such linkage-based cooperation is often very brittle, in that attempts to include or delete issues may shatter the existing basis of cooperation. Numerical examples are given to demonstrate the wide variety of possible cooperative equilibria and the sensitivity of these equilibria to small changes in the payoffs of each game. Some implications for the evolution of arms control and other international regimes are discussed.
Rent Seeking, Military Participation, and Economic Performance in LDCs
Authors: Weede Erich
Published: March 2007

Rent seeking is an attempt to distort prices in order to achieve a contrived transfer. Where rent seeking is on the rampage, there is a serious distortion of incentives. Investing resources in distributional struggles and political conflict looks rewarding, whereas increasing or improving output looks less attractive. Moreover, price distortions interfere with an efficient allocation of resources. That is why we should expect rent seeking and resulting price distortions to be negatively correlated with economic growth. Because there is no reason to assume that the less-privileged strata are likely to win distributional struggles, rent seeking does not contribute to the equalization of the size distribution of income. Ironically, serious international rivalries and threats to national security may result in better economic performance. Foreign threats often produce large armies and high military participation ratios. Because the military teaches discipline and some other useful skills, it does contribute to human capital formation and ultimately to economic growth. As mass armies affect the balance of power between social classes for the benefit of the less-privileged ones, high military participation ratios contribute to income equalization. These propositions have been tested and supported by cross-national regression analysis of data for the 1970s and 31 LDCs.
Normative and Instrumental Functions of Equity Criteria in Individual Choices of the Input-Payoff Distribution Pattern
Authors: Surażska Wiesława
Published: March 2007

This article examines how utility and equity criteria interact to account for individual choices between alternative combinations of inputs and payoffs in a group. Two kinds of utility criteria are assumed: One is purely individualistic (self-interest) and the other includes consequences of one's choice for other members of a group (cooperation, competition). Three criteria of equity and justice are taken into account: equality of payoffs, the right payoff (according to contribution), and relative equity. An experiment was designed to make a subject choose from each pair of a set of 16 alternative distributions of two levels of inputs and payoffs for himself and a partner who was unknown to him. The subjects' choices turned out to be basically consistent, the number of circular triads being much below chance expectation. The utilitarian criteria were more commonly applied than the egalitarian ones, with predominance of self-interest and cooperation. However, 68% of the subjects used a mixture of rules similar to maximin, whereby both the Rawlsian claim of distributive justice and the Pareto-optimal demands were partly satisfied. The criteria of equity and justice operated the impersonal, normative way only up to a certain level of the subjects' losses. They were also used interchangeably to justify the subjects' own gains and to prevent their partners from gaining more than they did.
Optimal Retaliation for Optimal Cooperation
Authors: Mueller Ulrich
Published: March 2007

There has been a growing number of theoretical as well as experimental investigations on the emergence of evolutionarily stable cooperative strategies in the iterated Prisoner's Dilemma game. From a methodological viewpoint, investigations of this sort suffer so far from two shortcomings. The phenomenon of noise, that is, any deviation from the assumption of perfect information among the players, has been given only unsystematic consideration, if any. Furthermore, only insufficient notice has been taken of a recent major development within game theory, dynamical population games, which allow the analysis of games with an infinite number of players in a much more concise and compact way than before. The model presented in this article allows us to study the interactions among conditionally cooperative strategies—reactive strategies—in iterated Prisoner's Dilemma population games in noisy environments with this powerful new analytical tool. The main results are:

Under noise, the best strategy to establish cooperation in a world of noncooperators is GRIM, the strategy that begins with a cooperative move, but never cooperates again, once a defection occurs; the best strategy to maintain already established cooperation, however, is a more or less restrained version of TIT-FOR-TAT (how much restrained depends on the necessary safety margin against an eventual reinvasion of noncooperators); cooperating with unconditional cooperators—ALL COOPERATE—destroys the social order.
Relational Exchange Norms, Perceptions of Unfairness, and Retained Hostility in Commercial Litigation
Authors: Kaufmann Patrick J. , Stern Louis W.
Published: March 2007

Relational Exchange Theory suggests that the norms that govern commercial exchange behavior in discrete transactions are markedly different from those in relational exchange. When parties to commercial exchange become involved in a manifest conflict episode, it might be expected that the types of norms that govern their relationship will affect their characterization of each other's conflict behavior. This article proposes a model of conflict in commercial exchange relationships. The model focuses on how the prevailing exchange norms of solidarity, role integrity, and mutuality impact a party's perception of unfair treatment, and how causal attributions mediate those effects. The perception of unfairness is then linked to the level of hostility that is retained after the conflict episode ostensibly has been terminated. Several hypotheses are tested using a sample of firms engaged in contract litigation. The norm of solidarity and its interaction with the causal attribution measure are found to be significantly related to the level of perceived unfairness. Perceived unfairness is also significantly related to retained hostility.
Changes in Integrative Complexity Prior to Surprise Attacks
Authors: Suedfeld Peter , Bluck Susan
Published: March 2007

Previous archival analyses of governmental communications show a decrease in integrative complexity prior to the outbreak of war between nations. No such decrease is found when a conflict is resolved through peaceful negotiation. Integrative complexity is a structural measure, based on the source's recognition of alternative perspectives and several dimensions (differentiation), and the combination of these perspectives and dimensions in synthesized solutions (integration). The current study, using documents from nine international crises in the twentieth century that culminated in a surprise attack, found that the attackers showed a decline in complexity between three months and two to four weeks before the attack. The attacked nations increased in complexity between two to four weeks and one week, dropping to approximately the same level as the attacker on and immediately after the day of the attack. A drop in the integrative complexity of the communications issued by an opposing government thus may be one predictor of imminent strategic surprise.
The Dilemma of Prisoners
Authors: Grossman Peter Z.
Published: March 2007

Stalin's Great Terror was one of history's most massive political purges. In its form, the Terror resembled a one-shot, n-person prisoner's dilemma game. Although the Terror could not have been sustained if prisoners cooperated, most prisoners defected against one another, as the model would predict. Yet the record of the Terror also demonstrated that in a mass purge there exists a wider strategy set than that of the prisoner's dilemma game. Using an illustrative case and a generalized model of purges, it is shown that if prisoners implicate their interrogators and play what is called a “transformation” strategy, they raise the cost to the authority of conducting the purge. In fact, the authority has no consistent best response to the transformation, and the purge should not be sustainable for long thereafter. The Great Terror was apparently limited by employment of this transformation. Limitations on the formation and use of such a strategy are also considered.