bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The State and Geographic Process: A Critical Review
Authors: Dear M , Clark G
Published: October 2006

This paper provides a critical review of a long-neglected issue in geography: The role of the state in geographic processes. Five major interpretations of this role are discussed, with emphasis on their interrelationships and analytical implications: the state as supplier of public goods and services; as facilitator and regulator of the economy; as social engineer; as arbiter; and as agent of some ruling elite. This overview clarifies the question of what the state actually is, and emphasizes the significance of three crucial research issues: the legitimation and fiscal crises of the state; the role of the local state; and comparative analysis of the state in socialist systems.
A Note on Planning Theory
Authors: Harris B
Published: October 2006

A recent article by Scott and Roweis (1977) on planning theory is discussed and criticized. It is suggested that the article is a useful commentary on social theory but not on planning theory. It begs the essential questions regarding the intrinsic difficulties which are encountered in actual planning and the ways in which the planning process and procedures should be organized to carry out planning tasks in various environments. An alternative view is suggested which is not incompatible with the authors' view of society.
Target Rotation and Normative Policy Analysis in Urban Ecology
Authors: Perle E D
Published: October 2006

Factor analytic methodology in geography and planning has been limited to system description. The conventional approach of searching for an underlying vector basis is germane for exploratory type research, but it is not directly applicable for normative purposes. Target rotation provides an analytical matrix-comparison methodology particularly useful in extending the utility of urban system findings from descriptive ecological studies to normative ones. An empirical example of this approach is provided, based upon 1970 census data of the Detroit SMSA. An empirical factor-loading matrix is presented, a target matrix of desirable performance standards is hypothesized, and the observed loadings are rotated upon the target loadings. Observed system performance is then directly compared with desired performance, indicating the direction and magnitude of convergence/divergence. Finally, policy implications of these empirical findings are suggested.
Sensitivity to Distance and Choice of Destinations
Authors: O'Sullivan P , Ralston B
Published: October 2006

A model of destination choice is derived from verifiable assumptions about people's perception of distance. It is postulated that differences between destinations at varying distances are only perceptible when they exceed some tolerance level. Under reasonable assumptions on the distribution of this level among the population, this leads to a sigmoid market share or choice function. The model can be estimated from observations of actual trip making, with no a priori specification of the probability density of the tolerance level.
Equilibrium Values and Dynamics of Attractiveness Terms in Production-Constrained Spatial-Interaction Models
Authors: Harris B , Wilson A G
Published: October 2006

A number of mechanisms are explored for modelling equilibrium values of attractiveness terms in production-constrained spatial-interaction models. They include revenue and facility-size balancing, a differential-equation representation of profit maximisation, and mathematical-programming formulations. The different methods turn out to be closely related but offer different and complementary insights. Some dynamic properties of such equilibrium points are explored, including the identification of circumstances which generate discrete changes for smooth changes in parameters. A number of possible algorithms for calculating the points are described.
Transitivity, Spatially Separable Utility Functions, and United States Migration Streams, 1935–1970
Authors: Smith T R , Clayton C
Published: October 2006

The predictions of spatial-interaction models applied to migration systems may be viewed as the outcome of expected-utility maximization in which the average beliefs and preferences at a given origin are spatially separable. This theory indicates that a test of the spatial separability of the utilities may be performed by examining the degree of transitivity in probabilities and gross flows that is predicted by the spatial-interaction models. United States migration data for four periods between 1935 and 1970 were examined for transitivity at three spatial scales of resolution. These flows all exhibited significantly high degrees of transitivity, although for no period or scale of resolution were migration flows completely without some statistically significant intransitivities in either the probabilities or gross flows. The regions involved in intransitivities varied greatly from period to period, and only weak evidence indicated lower degrees of intransitivity for local aggregates of regions. The hypothesis of spatially separable utilities must be rejected for the migration data examined. Theoretical discussion indicates that several causes may lead to intransitivities, which in turn lead to problems in applying spatial-interaction models to migration data.
The Intraurban Ecology of Primary Medical Care: Patterns of Accessibility and Their Policy Implications
Authors: Knox P L
Published: October 2006

Patterns of intraurban accessibility to primary medical care in four major Scottish cities are examined in the context of existing public policy and against the background of intraurban patterns of community well-being. Certain regularities are observed in the spatial ecology of family doctors' surgeries, and the notion of an ‘inverse care law’ is discussed. A modified interaction model is introduced and used to analyse local accessibility to primary care facilities. Results indicate that disparities in accessibility tend to compound many other patterns of socioeconomic disadvantage. The formulation of public policies concerned with medical deprivation and area deprivation is discussed in the light of these results.
Model Migration Schedules and Their Applications
Authors: Rogers A , Raquillet R , Castro L J
Published: October 2006

This paper considers and contrasts two alternative approaches for capturing the regularities exhibited by age patterns in observed migration rates. The mortality approach is considered first and it is shown how such an approach may be used to infer migration flows from two consecutive place-of-residence-by-place-of-birth census age distributions. The fertility approach is considered next, and techniques for graduating migration age profiles are described. The advantages and disadvantages of both approaches are then briefly assessed.
The Spatial Reproductive Value and the Spatial Momentum of Zero Population Growth
Authors: Rogers A , Willekens F
Published: October 2006

This paper develops the concept of spatial reproductive value and illustrates how such a notion may be used to trace out quantitatively the geographical impacts of a sudden reduction in fertility to bare replacement level. Such a reduction does not immediately produce zero population growth in populations that previously experienced high birthrates. The built-in momentum for continued growth and its spatial dimension may be assessed with the aid of spatial reproductive values.
Job-Search Perspectives on Migration Behaviour
Authors: Miron J R
Published: October 2006

Although considerable empirical work has been undertaken to estimate interregional migration models, there has not been a corresponding attempt to construct more rigorous theoretical models. For over a decade, Sjaastad's (1962) basic analysis has been unsurpassed. The more recent paper by David (1974), however, attempts to lay a firm microeconomic and risk-analytic foundation for migration models by using concepts arising from job-search theory. His analysis is still quite limited in its perspective on migration, and the present paper attempts to derive a more satisfactory theoretical view of migration. In particular, the various aspects of job-search theory as it has been applied to macroeconomic theory are reviewed and the relevance of these to migration behaviour are assessed. The paper emphasizes (1) differences between search models concerned with wage dispersion and those concerned with job finding, (2) the information possessed by job seekers about different labour markets, (3) alternative search strategies including voluntary job quitting and the migration of unemployed job seekers, and (4) different measures of job-finding probabilities. Although several theoretical models are presented, the main purpose of the paper is to provide a systematic overview of the issues in model design in this important new area of migration research.
Calibrating Urban Residential Models 1: Procedures and Strategies
Authors: Putman S H , Ducca F W
Published: October 2006

Calibration of urban residential models has long been an area of confusion and apprehension for prospective model users. With the evolution of entropy-maximizing model formulations there has been new progress made toward resolving the calibration problem. Most of this progress has assumed the availability of spatial-interaction data (the Tij matrix). Many situations arise where singly constrained models are to be calibrated, for example, residential- or retail-location models, in the absence of this data. This paper describes a method which has been successfully used for calibrating urban residential models of such a type.
Developer Decisionmaking in the Residential Land Acquisition Process: A Generalised Model Based on the Sydney Experience
Authors: Harmer J A , Webb D J
Published: October 2006

The residential developer has been the predominant agent in the structural growth of Australian metropolitan areas in the past fifteen years. This paper attempts to place developer decisionmaking into a perspective through which it is possible to make deductions about the pattern of residential growth from a knowledge of individual behaviour.

From a series of interviews with a sample of developers engaged in residential subdivision on the fringe of metropolitan Sydney, a model is developed that structures the way in which investment and location considerations interact in relation to institutional and economic constraints at various stages of decisionmaking in the land acquisition process. The implications of the model are that developer behaviour is a reaction to the constraints imposed by the various government and institutional regulations and that his particular location preferences are conditioned by these. These constraints have spatial implications because the behavioural processes underlying the developer's reaction to them provide important insights into the changing spatial form of the city.
A Regional Analysis of the Dependency between Registered Unemployment and the Stocks and Flows of Notified Vacancies
Authors: Hyman G , Palmer D J
Published: October 2006

This paper presents the results of a time-series analysis of short-term changes in the conditions prevailing in regional labour markets. A set of alternative indicators of changes in these conditions are evaluated for each of the standard regions by use of quarterly data for a period that includes the rapid changes in the economy associated with the ‘Barber Boom’. Leading indicators of changes in labour demand are contrasted with lagging indicators and the findings for different regions compared. The results of the analysis show that in general the numbers of vacant jobs and the rates at which the jobs are being filled provide leading indicators of changes in the region's level of unemployment and of changes in the duration of unemployment in the region, and that there is no feedback from unemployment to change the demand for labour in the region. In consequence it would be justified to claim that changes in regional unemployment and its duration are caused by changes in the demand for labour in the region.
The Problems of Measuring Power in Europe
Authors: Laver M
Published: October 2006

This paper compares alternative methods of measuring power in European institutions. On the one hand there is the index used by Johnston in recent articles in this Journal; on the other there is an index more typically used by political scientists. Problems of interpreting and applying each index are discussed. The conclusion is that the Shapley–Shubik power index, used by political scientists, is easier to interpret in terms of the dynamics of bargaining. The Johnston index (which is certainly easier to calculate) might function as an ad hoc empirical measure, but needs therefore to be tested.
On the Measurement of Power: Some Reactions to Laver
Authors: Johnston R J
Published: October 2006

Laver claims that the power index used in earlier papers by Johnston is unrealistic and that the Shapley–Shubik index is superior. These claims are investigated in the light of the nature of coalition formation in non-party-government situations.
Calibrating Urban Residential Models 2: Empirical Results
Authors: Putman S H , Ducca F W
Published: October 2006

In part 1 of this paper (Putman and Ducca, 1978) we described a method for calibrating urban residential models in the absence of trip-interchange data (that is, the ‘trip matrix’). In part 2 we describe the empirical results of applying this method to a number of different urban areas. The results obtained are quite consistent both with theoretical expectations and from one area to another.
Monetary Evaluation of Nuisance from Road-Traffic Noise: An Exploratory Study
Authors: Langdon F J
Published: October 2006

In the course of a large-scale survey of noise nuisance due to road traffic, carried out in the Greater London area and already extensively reported, respondents were invited to evaluate the worth of peace and quiet in monetary terms. The data was submitted to multiple regression analysis and estimates related to noise level and traffic composition were obtained. It was found that at lower levels of nuisance, household income and related variables were major determinants of monetary estimates and played a greater part than noise or traffic variables. The results appear to be comparable with estimates derived by economists from the study of depreciation of house prices as a consequence of noise. The general significance of the findings is discussed and suggestions for further study are made.
A Model of Zoning for a Metropolis
Authors: Kim T J
Published: October 2006

With the ever-increasing number of communities adopting zoning, it became evident that there was a need to develop a systematic procedure for formulating an efficient zoning policy. This paper presents a model which leads to an optimal zoning policy, developed so as to achieve Pareto optimality. The model is applied to a hypothetical city with a population of one million. The results of a numerical analysis were used as a basis for formulating a zoning map which ensures efficient resource allocation.
A Performance Test of the Biproportional Adjustment of Input—Output Coefficients
Authors: Hinojosa R C
Published: October 2006

By use of input–output tables for three different years, the accuracy of the biproportional adjustment of input–output coefficients through time is investigated by comparing estimated and observed matrices. Major and minor input–output coefficients are distinguished. The contribution to the overall deviation by each coefficient category is found to be different. Relative errors are smaller for the major coefficients. The results suggest that the biproportional-adjustment technique provides a reasonable estimate of the more significant coefficients of an input–output matrix.
Changes in Corporate Control in the British Urban System, 1972–1977
Authors: Goddard J B , Smith I J
Published: October 2006

Analysis of changes in the locations of the headquarters of the leading thousand companies in the UK, both at the regional and urban levels, reveals evidence of increasing centralization of control in the Southeast. The main elements of change are analysed to assess their relative significance in the process.
A Design Model for Allocating Interrelated Land-Use Activities in Discrete Space
Authors: Arad Ruth W , Berechman J
Published: October 2006

A fundamental problem confronting architects and land-use planners is allocating interrelated activities to sites in order to achieve a set of predetermined goals. In some planning situations, such as the design of new towns, all activities can be initially manipulated under very few constraints, and a large number of alternative plans are possible. The generation and selection of the ‘best’ plan is further complicated when we consider the interrelationships between the locational activities. This paper proposes a multistage planning approach capable of producing and selecting ‘best’ allocation plans. The structural features of the model are discussed and an optimization procedure is presented. The latter combines the exchange-elements allocation technique with the Newton-penalty-function optimization method. The model's proficiency as a planning tool is examined by use of data drawn from a real-world case study.
A Formulation of the Pareto Distribution
Authors: Sahal D
Published: October 2006

A wide class of biological, demographic, economic, linguistic, and sociological phenomena have been observed to obey the Pareto distribution. This study is addressed to the question of why the observed distribution is what it is. A new formulation of the Pareto distribution is presented. The formulation accounts for the shape, slope, stability, and ubiquity of the Pareto distribution. The theory is further developed and illustrated, and its implications are discussed.
States of Urban Spatial Structure
Authors: Thrall G I
Published: October 2006

A spatial-equilibrium model of a local public economy is developed in four settings. Each setting is distinguished by two factors: whether the city is ‘open’ or ‘closed’, and the method used to determine the urban fringe. The four settings are contrasted by use of a numerical illustration.
A Biparametric Approach to Spatial Autocorrelation
Authors: Brandsma A S , Ketellapper R H
Published: October 2006

In spatial econometric models, autocorrelation among error terms is usually incorporated by means of the so-called contiguity matrix W, determining the interdependence between the spatial observations on the dependent variable. In this paper, the analysis is generalized by introducing two contiguity matrices, related to two autocorrelation parameters. This may be useful when dealing with variables representing flows between regions, where both the origin and the destination regions have a different impact on the autocorrelation scheme. It is shown analytically and illustrated empirically that the presence of such autocorrelation can be tested with the likelihood-ratio test, whereas the parameters can be estimated by the maximum-likelihood approach.
An Operational Approach to Welfare Considerations in Applied Public-Facility-Location Models
Authors: Bigman D , ReVelle C
Published: October 2006

The paper discusses several criteria by which locational alternatives for public facilities should be evaluated, and suggests metrics for quantifying these criteria in terms of the decision variables of the models that are often used in applied public-facility-location problems. Subsequently, multiobjective programming is considered as an important tool in locational analysis, and several applications of vector optimization techniques in that context are demonstrated.
Estimation of Attractivities from Interactions
Authors: Tobler W R
Published: October 2006

Net geographical interactions are assumed to be related to differences in attractivity, reduced by spatial separation. It is demonstrated that only the differences of the marginals of the interaction table are required to calculate the geographical attractivities thus defined. Variants of this potential model are confronted with a 48 × 48 table of interstate migration estimates for the United States.
A Nearest-Neighbor Spatial-Association Measure for the Analysis of Firm Interdependence
Authors: Lee Y
Published: October 2006

Retail locational factors and strategies have been a focus of research among geographers, location analysts, marketing analysts, and regional scientists. Well known in the literature are the cumulative-attraction and interceptor-retail-location strategies. To analyze these strategies or forces of firm interdependence, one approach taken has been to describe the spatial pattern of the firms by certain probability models and the nearest-neighbor statistics. However, when studying the spatial association between retail firms from two different chains or between two different types of firms, the familiar Clark and Evans nearest-neighbor statistic no longer applies. What is needed is a method that is capable of measuring the spatial association between two distributions of points. More specifically, the method should determine whether the spatial association between two groups of points is one of aggregation, independence, or avoidance, as a result of the location strategy employed. The nearest-neighbor method developed in this paper for such a task is a modification of that of Clark and Evans. The probability distribution, the mean, and the variance of the nearest-neighbor statistic are derived, and several empirical analyses of the retail-location strategies among convenience-food stores are provided.
Residential Segregation, Marriage, and the Evolution of the Stratification System: A Case Study in Christchurch, New Zealand
Authors: Morgan B S
Published: October 2006

It is commonly supposed that residential segregation influences the evolution of the stratification system in modern societies in part through its influence on marriage patterns. The impact of the contextual position of the bride's parents in the social environment of the local neighbourhood on her choice of spouse is tested for intraurban marriages in Christchurch in 1971. It is demonstrated that the residential location of parents affects the chances of their daughter making a ‘good’ marriage, but only to a minimal degree. The bride's social mobility is a far more important influence. The impact of the residential environment appears to be greater in the case of high-status and low-status parents. It is difficult to sort out the effect of neighbourhood socialisation from the circumscribing influence of social networks, but the former facet appears to be important.
The Impact of Transit Investment on Housing Values: A Simulation Experiment
Authors: Anas A
Published: October 2006

This paper uses a joint-choice logit model of travel demand and residential location to simulate the impact of urban rapid-transit investment on housing values within a radial corridor. The model developed is a clean break with the traditional urban economic theory. Instead the heterogeneous nature of travel and location decisions is recognized and the logit model, consistent with stochastic utility maximization, is employed. Simulation experiments reveal that the aggregate increase in property values caused by transit's impact on work trips is highly sensitive to the aggregate number of vacancies within the corridor. Under reasonable assumptions, transit investment tends to lower central-city property values, to increase central-city vacancies, and to raise suburban property values. It tends to help the poor move further away from the center and penetrate the inner suburbs. Depending on several influences, aggregate property values can increase or decrease and the change can often be statistically insignificant. Calculations show that an equitable taxation (and compensation) of property-value changes may raise a small to modest proportion of a transit system's construction cost. Several considerations suggest that even these modest estimates might be optimistic. These results help develop an improved perspective on ‘value-capture policy’ which has not, up to now, benefited from quantitative analysis. Major extensions of the model are briefly considered.
Regional and Structural Factors in Farm-Size Variation: A Manitoba Elucidation
Authors: Todd D
Published: October 2006

The geography of farm-size variation has tended to overlook the relationships between physical size and agricultural productivity. This paper remedies that deficiency by explicitly considering the mechanisms promoting viability across the spectrum of farm-size gradation. Aspects of internal and external economies of scale, interfarm competition, local comparative advantage, and spatial separation are incorporated in a conceptual framework developed for a Canadian Prairie setting (Manitoba). In addition, social and cultural influences on the farm-size determinants are monitored. An equation system is established consisting of three structural equations, one each for large farms, medium-size farms, and small farms, and is calibrated by using two-stage least-squares regression. Results indicate that regional factors tend to overshadow the indices of economies of scale, but that efficiency considerations vary according to the size of farm.
Deconcentration without a ‘Clean Break’
Authors: Gordon P
Published: October 2006

This report reviews recent papers which argue that urbanization trends in the US show a reversal of past patterns. The review suggests that a reversal is not obvious and may simply appear as a result of a statistical artifact: urbanization which has spilled over metropolitan boundaries may simply be more of the same outward growth but would show up as a metropolitan-to-nonmetropolitan growth shift. A new data file for eighteen other developed countries is examined. These data are suitable for computations of various versions of the Hoover index of population concentration. Such calculations suggest that the eighteen countries examined are experiencing more traditional urban outward expansion. This adds to scepticism of the reversal or ‘clean break’ hypothesis.
A Longitudinal Study of Metropolitan Density Patterns in a Developing Country: Puerto Rico, 1899–1970
Authors: Vaughan Suzanne , Schwirian K P
Published: October 2006

One approach to the study of the growth and development of human settlements is through the analysis of changing residential patterns. The focus of this paper is upon the changing density patterns for Puerto Rico's three principal metropolitan areas from 1899–1970. The data show that San Juan's long-run residential deconcentration is consistent with the pattern usually displayed by cities in developed societies. The increasing congestion and stable concentration of Ponce and Mayaguez are consistent with the pattern found in cities in developing societies. Differences among the metropolitan areas are discussed in terms of the trajectory of Puerto Rico's economic development.
The Effects of Central Redevelopment Schemes on Inner-City Manufacturing Industry, with Special Reference to Glasgow
Authors: Bull P J
Published: October 2006

With reference principally to published evidence, the view expressed in the West Central Scotland Plan (1974) that urban redevelopment has not adversely affected manufacturing industry in central Glasgow is contested.
On Procrustean Rotations and the Monitoring of Policies for Residential Patterns: A Note
Authors: Johnston R J
Published: October 2006

Hypothetical data are used to illustrate an earlier contention that factor analysis, and in particular Procrustean (or target) rotation, is inappropriate as a means of monitoring progress towards policy goals for urban residential patterns.
Comments on the Urban Spatial-Interaction Model Based on the Intervening-Opportunities Principle
Authors: Chudzyńska Irena , Słodkowski Z
Published: October 2006

A mathematical model of urban spatial interaction based on the intervening-opportunities principle is discussed and its equilibria are studied. It is shown that, under natural assumptions, the number of equilibria is finite, and a mathematical criterion for distinguishing the equilibrium corresponding to reality is given.
Economic and Fiscal Impacts of Metropolitan Decentralization: The Southern California Case
Authors: Richardson H W , Gordon P
Published: October 2006

This paper employs a matrix version of the Lowry model to generate spatially disaggregated employment and population impacts. The model is used to study the effects of the decentralization of basic employment in the Los Angeles metropolitan region from its central core to a suburban location in Orange County. Advantage is taken of the fact that the study region comprises a large number of separate fiscal jurisdictions, and so the model is extended to measure the fiscal impacts of the derived population and employment changes associated with this decentralization. It is shown that net impacts hide significant gross expansions and declines that occur at the geographically disaggregated level. The relocation of a given number of basic jobs from Los Angeles to peripheral Orange County has a marked impact on jobs, population, and public expenditures in individual cities, depending on their relative proximity to the sources of basic-employment change. Although the relationship between the central city and the suburbs is highly competitive, the central city may gain from spatial-multiplier impacts if the suburbs (especially close-in suburbs) attract jobs from outside the region.
Energy Costs, the Transport Network, and Urban Form
Authors: Dendrinos D S
Published: October 2006

The paper examines, through comparative statics, the impact on urban form of changes in the price of energy used for transportation. Two specific models are analyzed within a framework of long-run equilibrium: Model 1 involves households that supply an institutionally fixed number of labor hours, and their choice of residential location is affected by energy costs as the only out-of-pocket transportation cost for the journey to work; and model 2 deals with households that trade off travel time for work time and thus incur a time cost equal to the forgone income from production.

The paper shows that in model 1 higher gasoline prices do result in less aggregate demand for gasoline and in less suburbanization of the residential activity. In model 2 higher energy prices do not necessarily result in either less suburbanization or less aggregate demand for gasoline.
On Urban and Regional Systems in Lagged Correlation Analyses
Authors: Johnston R J
Published: October 2006

Several studies of unemployment have correlated local against national trends, using lead–lag relationships to identify the temporal coherence between the two. This introduces problems because the local trend contributes to the national trend. Simulations on hypothetical data suggest that the frequency distributions for expected lead–lag coefficients are closely related in their shapes both to the absolute size of the town and to its relative size within the system being studied; for the largest town, the results are highly predictable.
The Planning Monitor: An Accountability Theory of Plan Evaluation
Authors: Calkins H W
Published: October 2006

This paper presents the concepts of a planning monitor as a basis for evaluating the effectiveness of plans and the planning process. The concepts of the planning monitor present a structure for preparing an urban or regional plan. There are two separate components of the planning monitor: (1) a set of rational planning procedures; and (2) a supporting information system. The paper argues that planning, in its present form, does not use information effectively. It is not that information is ignored but rather that planning has adapted to an environment where there is a lack of adequate information and has therefore developed procedures which allow it to function without information. It is even conceivable that these procedures may have evolved to the point where they not only do not require information but in fact cannot utilize the information even if it is provided. The discussion encompasses plan preparation and the information systems necessary to make a planning monitor work. A planning monitor would provide information that is needed for modification of a plan and for the evaluation of planning as an effective means of controlling development. When fully operational a planning monitor would introduce accountability into the planning process through the evaluation of plan implementation actions. This evaluation is based on a structure for relating goals and objectives to specific program and policy actions. Finally a planning process is proposed which encompasses monitoring and plan evaluation.
Biplots of 1959–1961 United States Metropolitan Mortality
Authors: Slater P B
Published: October 2006

National and international public-health bodies compile detailed age—race—sex-specific mortality data for a variety of geographic areas. Epidemiologists make extensive use of this information—but often in a piecemeal, summary fashion—to investigate questions of disease etiology. Exploratory data-analytical methods can be applied to these highly disaggregated mortality tables in their entireties to reveal broad patterns of the interrelationships between cause, place, and time of death, and age, race, and sex. One effective procedure for uncovering this multitude of potentially significant interaction effects is the biplotting of the deviations from various row-and-column independence models of the mortality tables. Biplots of two 201 × 56 tables are presented. These tables give the number of 1959–1961 deaths from 55 causes plus the number of survivors in 201 standard metropolitan statistical areas (SMSAs) of male whites aged 65–74 and of female whites aged 65–74. It is clear from the results that SMSAs that attract relatively large numbers of retirees have distinctive mortality characteristics of an advantageous nature. Metropolitan variations in mortality from intestinal neoplasms are highlighted in the biplots. Strong indications that cause-of-death classification procedures are not geographically uniform appear.
Energy and Transport: Strategies for Energy Conservation in Urban Passenger Transport
Authors: Schou Kirsten
Published: October 2006

Before proceeding to explore potential strategies for energy conservation in urban passenger transport, this paper presents some evidence on energy efficiencies of various transport modes and on travel behaviour under energy constraints. Knowledge of the relative energy efficiencies of different modes of transport is evidently necessary for analysing and developing policies for fuel conservation. Although the automobile does appear to be significantly more energy-intensive than public transport modes, this does not automatically indicate that a policy to attract people to public transport would lead to the maximum possible fuel savings. Available evidence on travel behaviour under energy constraints indicates that the elasticity of travel demand is very small. Increasing prices, within the range expected, are not likely to result in satisfactory fuel savings, and it is therefore necessary to consider alternative strategies.

The strategies to be considered here may be outlined as follows: (1) improving fuel efficiency of automobiles by modifying driving habits, reducing speeds, improving traffic flows, and keeping vehicles properly maintained; (2) increasing efficiency of automobile travel by promoting higher occupancies; (3) attracting car travellers to public transport; (4) shifting to smaller, more fuel-efficient vehicles, changing vehicle and engine designs such as to improve the inherent fuel efficiency of the automobile; (5) technological change: new propulsion systems, alternative fuels, and rapid personal transport; (6) reducing travel needs by changing land-use patterns and improving communications. These strategies are discussed in turn and, given the available information about travel patterns and behaviour, an attempt is made to assess their likely impact. Clearly those strategies should be selected which offer the maximum potential fuel savings and which can be introduced with minimum sacrifice.
The Stochastic Disturbance Specification and its Implications for Log-Linear Regression
Authors: Haworth J M , Vincent P J
Published: October 2006

Model specification is a crucial factor in regression. We show that in log-linear models, although the estimated relationship represents the conditional expectation of ln Y, the antilogarithm does not give the conditional expectation of Y. This has important implications in spatial analysis.
Regional Economic Change and Regional Spatial Structure: Some Interrelationships
Authors: Parr J B
Published: October 2006

This paper explores some of the possible links that exist between regional economic change and regional spatial structure. The nature and significance of these links are discussed and three familiar examples from regional planning are used to illustrate the argument. These examples involve the regional reorganisation of service provision, the emergence of a depressed-area problem, and the trend toward metropolitan decentralisation (regional deconcentration). In each case the public-policy implications are briefly outlined. Consideration is then given to frameworks which can deal with the interrelatedness of regional economic change and regional spatial structure. Two broad frameworks are discussed. One involves an integration of regional economic analysis and location theory, and the other is concerned with approaches in which the two elements of economic change and spatial structure are interwoven.
Some Comments on the Stevens Linear and Quadratic Programming Versions of von Thünen's Theory of Agricultural Land Usage
Authors: Macmillan W D
Published: October 2006

This paper examines the Stevens linear and quadratic programming formulations of von Thünen's analysis of agricultural land usage (Stevens, 1968). The first section contains a description of the Walras—Wald version of general economic equilibrium, plus a working definition of the expressions: general equilibrium sketch, paticularised general equilibrium sketch, and partial equilibrium sketch. [The author's distinction between a sketch and a model is explained in Macmillan (1978).] In section 2, von Thünen's assumptions, Stevens's (first) revised version of those assumptions, and Stevens's linear programming model are described. In section 3, the relationship between the Stevens linear programming model and the Walras—Wald model is examined. The fourth section contains a description of Stevens's approach to the relaxation of von Thünen's assumption of infinite demand elasticity, and a comparison of that approach with the so-called partial equilibrium approach to the same problem. It is claimed that this comparison is of some general, methodological interest. Section 5 contains the paper's conclusions.
Allocation of the UK Rate Support Grant by Use of the Methods of Optimal Control
Authors: Bennett R J , Tan K C
Published: October 2006

There have been a number of recent criticisms of the methods used to allocate the local authority Rate Support Grant in the UK. A new approach to grant allocation is proposed in this paper, which is based upon mathematical control theory. This method overcomes many criticisms of grant allocation: It allows the explicit identification of grant-allocation goals; it permits the consistent inclusion of constraints; it allows optimal allocation over longer time horizons; and it can incorporate uncertainty in the measurement of local needs and costs. The method is, however, consistent with existing methods of grant allocation and can be implemented within the constraints of existing information bases.
An Introduction to Generalised Functional Form and Random Coefficients in Transport Modelling
Authors: Johnson L W
Published: October 2006

There are two developments in statistical methodology which have been examined extensively in the econometrics and statistics literature but have not been applied to a great extent in transportation research. These are the use of generalised functional form in regression problems, and random-coefficient techniques.

The purposes of this paper are to present a brief survey of these areas, to examine the uses of these techniques on transport-related topics, and to suggest further applications of the procedures to transport. The exposition of these areas includes more intuitive than technical derivation, in order to make the paper as accessible as possible.
The Future of Large Towns
Authors: Klaassen L H , Paelinck J H P
Published: October 2006

A number of important facts about the growth and decline of European cities, classified according to their sizes, are presented. They are interpreted in terms of population, households, and occupancy rates. In terms of these variables, two dynamic models are presented, the properties of which are discussed in terms of some strategic parameters.
Accessibility, Efficiency, and Spatial Organization
Authors: Domański R
Published: October 2006

The author makes the hypothesis that higher spatial equity does not always mean lower economic efficiency. An attempt is made to check this hypothesis by working out four alternative spatial organizations—described as egalitarian, centralistic, moderate, and moderately concentrated—and evaluating them from the viewpoint of spatial equity and economic efficiency. Spatial accessibility and costs are used as measures to represent spatial equity and economic efficiency. Under certain assumptions concerning concentration of settlement and investments, scale economies, and the transportation system, the centralistic alternative turns out to be not only cheaper but also more advantageous in respect of spatial accessibility than the egalitarian alternative. This means that under certain conditions and within certain limits the relation between concentration and spatial accessibility may be positive rather than negative. In other words, with these conditions and limits it is possible to obtain scale economies and to improve spatial accessibility simultaneously. Hence higher spatial equity may be accompanied by greater economic efficiency.
Theory of the Diffusion of Price Inflation in an Imperfect Market Similar to Housing, Having Delayed Arbitrage
Authors: Vinod H D
Published: October 2006

A new mathematical theory of the diffusion of price inflation over time, in an imperfect market similar to the residential housing market, is developed. The underlying economic force is the imperfect arbitrage operating with time delays upon ‘close’ substitutes for related products arranged according to an idealized index of desirability (for example, distance from a city center). The analysis is based on a second-order partial differential equation with appropriate initial and boundary conditions. The model is illustrated with three-dimensional plots for the price of housing at the city center and at various distances from the city center at specified time lags.
A Review and Comparative Analysis of Retail Grocery Price Variations
Authors: Parker A J
Published: October 2006

Retail grocery price variations in Dublin are examined with a view to confirming that systematic structural and locational variations exist at different time periods. The relevance of the price component to central-place theory, consumer shopping behaviour, and low-income consumers is briefly indicated prior to a detailed review of previous price-variation studies. Two surveys in Dublin indicate temporal consistency in certain hypotheses for different ranges of products, and more detailed analyses indicate the importance of organisational structure in accounting for retail price variations. A stepwise multiple-regression analysis is developed to determine the best predictors of price variations. The data are also examined to determine whether low-income consumers pay significantly more for their groceries than the more affluent and mobile socioeconomic groups.
Regional Modelling and Structural Stability
Authors: Puu T
Published: October 2006

This paper uses the concept of structural stability for dynamic systems to find out which flow patterns for goods, and hence which location patterns, are structurally stable, that is, qualitatively unaffected by perturbations caused by partial relocations of economic activity. The model used is the Beckmann continuous-space market model, generalized to a production economy and interdependent labour and goods markets. The basic stable flow pattern is quadratic, with one node surrounded by four saddles and one saddle surrounded by four nodes as the basic graph.
Paired-Comparison Experiments and Logit Models: A Review and Illustration of Some Recent Developments
Authors: Wrigley N
Published: October 2006

Paired-comparison procedures have considerable potential in many areas of geographical research, but in recent years geographers have used them in a rather unimaginative way, confining their use almost exclusively to the initial stages of multidimensional scaling experiments. This paper reviews and illustrates some new procedures for treating paired-comparison data, which link the method of paired comparisons into the rapidly developing unified approach to the analysis of categorical data. The paper concentrates specifically on a weighted-least-squares logit-model approach, and on how to fit such models by use of a readily available computer program, GENCAT.
On the Numerical Measurement of Accessibility
Authors: Weibull J W
Published: October 2006

The aim of this paper is to clarify the validity of a fairly broad range of numerical indicators of accessibility. To this purpose a measurement-theoretic framework is presented, where accessibility is considered as a property of configurations of opportunities for spatial interaction. Within this framework a few established indicators of accessibility are discussed and notions of separable, additive, and maxitive indicators are introduced. An analysis is given of the validity of numerical indicators in general and of separable, additive, and maxitive indicators in particular.
An Analysis of the Effects of Information Revision on the Outcome of Housing-Market Search, with Special Reference to the Influence of Realty Agents
Authors: Smith T R , Mertz F
Published: October 2006

The paper examines a model of sequential search and information revision in a housing-market context and relates the outcome of search to the sequence of vacancies observed. The model implies the existence of a critical frontier that separates acceptable from nonacceptable vacancies in the price–quality plane characterizing housing vacancies. The searcher's beliefs concerning the distribution of vacancies change as vacancies are viewed, resulting in shifts in the frontier. In the present case, increases in perceived mean market price or price–quality covariance shift the frontier downwards, whereas increases in perceived mean market quality and in price and quality variances shift the frontier upwards. The observation of a single vacancy causes the frontier to shift downwards if and only if the vacancy is contained in a set of vacancies lying below the frontier. The set is characterized by finite upper and lower limits on the quality of the vacancy for any given price, and contains a line of maximally effective vacancies. The greatest downward shifts in the frontier result from the observation of vacancies with relatively extreme prices. Similar results hold if several vacancies are viewed. The revision of beliefs appears to reduce average search time when vacancies are generated at random. By ordering a given set of vacancies in a nonrandom manner, an agent may significantly affect the search time, the price and quality of the vacancy purchased, and the utility level of the vacancy purchased under conditions of information revision. The showing of relatively extreme vacancies may induce shorter search times as well as higher purchase prices than would otherwise hold for a given buyer, although the particular set of vacancies chosen to be shown by an agent, and the sequencing of the vacancies, depends on the goals of the agent.