bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Adult Sexual Assault: Overview of Research
Authors: Sorenson Susan B. , White Jacquelyn W.
Published: April 2010

Models of sexual assault and rape have progressed from psychopathology models of perpetration and victimization to current sociocultural views. Sociocultural models focus on the factors that influence the likelihood that the label of rape will be applied and the behavior dealt with accordingly. The papers in this journal issue call for explicit attention to the historical, political, and sociocultural factors associated with the likelihood of coercive sexual incidents (including characteristics of the assailant and the victim). In addition to placing the occurrence of rape in an historical and sociocultural framework, the authors present research findings and theoretical formulations to further the understanding of rape.
A Feminist Redefinition of Rape and Sexual Assault: Historical Foundations and Change
Authors: Donat Patricia L. N. , D'Emilio John
Published: April 2010

The meanings of sexual assault and women's sexuality have changed significantly since the colonial period. At that time, women were valued for their sexual purity and were viewed as the center of the family. Sexual intercourse was acceptable only within marriage for the purpose of procreation. If a woman engaged in sex outside of marriage, even against her will, she was considered a “fallen” woman and was often blamed for her own victimization. With the feminist movement of the 1960s, rape was reconceptualized as a mechanism for maintaining male control and domination, a violent means of inducing fear in women and reinforcing their subordination to men. This reconceptualization has made a clear difference in the way our culture defines and understands sexual assault, but much still needs to change.
Definitions of Rape: Scientific and Political Implications
Authors: Muehlenhard Charlene L. , Powch Irene G. , Phelps Joi L. , Giusti Laura M.
Published: April 2010

Definitions set the parameters of research and influence the results and conclusions. It is thus crucial that researchers critically examine definitions and terms, particularly in fields that use popular terms likely to be influenced by the unacknowledged biases and political concerns of the dominant group. The study of sexual assault is such a field, and therefore this article examines researchers' definitions of sexual assault, rape, and related terms. Definitions vary along several dimensions, including (a) the sexual behaviors specified, (b) the criteria for establishing nonconsent, (c) the individuals specified, and (d) the perspective specified—that is, who decides whether sexual assault has occurred. For each dimension, the article discusses implications for researchers' results and conclusions, underlying assumptions, and political ramifications.
Research Methods: How They Shape Views of Sexual Violence
Authors: White Jacquelyn W. , Farmer Richard
Published: April 2010

This article distinguishes among the various research strategies available to the sexual aggression researcher and notes the limited domains of explanation inherent in each approach. Runkel and McGrath's (1972) circumplex typology is adapted as an organizing framework to clarify the relationships among the various research approaches. Examples of each type of research are given from the sexual aggression literature. Specific research strategies are examined in light of their ability to illuminate the possible and probable importance of a relationship between variables. Also discussed is the influential effect that a researcher's assumptions about the nature of sexual assault has on the choice of a research question and a research methodology to investigate that question. A multiple‐strategies approach is recommended for the study of sexual assault.
The Under detection of Rape: Methodological Choices Influence Incidence Estimates
Authors: Koss Mary P.
Published: April 2010

This paper discusses the extent of rape in the U.S. today, including a critical analysis of federal and independent sources of incidence data. Rape incidence estimates derived from the National Crime Survey (NCS) are flawed because of measurement methods that undermine full disclosure of victimization. Conclusions include (a) the incidence of rape is much higher than federal statistics suggest, but data are insufficient to resolve whether an epidemic is underway, (b) acquaintance rape is far more common than documented in crime surveys, and (c) improvement in rape detection is promised by the proposed revisions in the NCS.
The Sociocultural Context of African American and White American Women's Rape
Authors: Wyatt Gail Elizabeth
Published: April 2010

This paper examines historical factors related to African American women's rape and their disclosure patterns. It compares similarities and differences in incidents of attempted or completed rape in a community sample of 55 African American and White women. The possibility that African American women may not perceive themselves as rape victims or their experiences as meeting the criteria of “real rape” has implications for the disclosure of incidents, as well as the initial and lasting effects of sexual victimization. Researchers are urged to include ethnicity as a factor contributing to women's self‐perceptions as rape survivors.
A Sociocultural View of Sexual Assault: From Discrepancy to Diversity
Authors: White Jacquelyn W. , Sorenson Susan B.
Published: April 2010

Previous analyses of the cultural context of sexual assault have focused on social and demographic correlates of rape, or associations between the acceptance of rape myths and sociocultural beliefs and attitudes. Papers in this journal issue extend this perspective to definitions of rape and characteristics of the research enterprise. They also examine the association between specific sociocultural influences on the reporting of sexual assault, victims' experiences of and reactions to sexual assault, and perpetrator motives, as well as society's responses as reflected in the media and the judicial system. It is concluded that systematic analysis of sociocultural factors allows discrepancies in definitions, methods, results, and interpretations to be reconceptualized as diversity which is orderly and can be understood.
Myths of Nature: Culture and the Social Construction of Risk
Authors: Dake Karl
Published: April 2010

Western cultures are engaged in a highly contentious debate involving the identification, assessment, and management of risks to the environment and to public health and safety. Daily claims of new dangers in the food, air, and water we consume, the chemicals, energy, and substances we use, and the products, processes, and artifacts that support us are exacerbating public fears regarding environmental and health hazards. Most research on the perception and communication of risk has focused on possible harms, largely ignoring the cultural contexts in which hazards are framed and debated, and in which risk taking and risk perception occur. This article argues that, while individuals perceive risks and have concerns, it is culture that provides socially constructed myths about nature—systems of belief that are reshaped and internalized by persons, becoming part of their worldview and influencing their interpretation of natural phenomena.
Predicting Homeowners' Mitigation Responses to Radon Test Data
Authors: Weinstein Neil D. , Sandman Peter M.
Published: April 2010

Radon gas can accumulate indoors to levels that present a serious lung cancer risk. Six data sets were examined to discover what homeowners do to cope with this hazard after they have tested for radon. The best predictors of mitigation intentions proved to be global appraisals of threat plus the radon levels themselves. Translating these intentions into action, however, seemed to reflect situational obstacles rather than beliefs about radon risk, beliefs about radon mitigation, or demographic variables. Survey respondents had difficulty understanding the amount of risk posed by radon in their homes, and it appears that the observed correspondence between radon levels and mitigation responses was due almost entirely to the existence of a government‐established action guideline.
Characterizing Mental Models of Hazardous Processes: A Methodology and an Application to Radon
Authors: Bostrom Ann , Fischhoff Baruch , Morgan M. Granger
Published: April 2010

Lay people's ability to respond to an environmental hazard is determined, in part, by their understanding of the physical, chemical, and biological processes that govern its creation and control. A general methodology is offered here for studying that understanding. It attempts to characterize people's mental models of a hazard—i.e., the sets of principles from which they generate predictions about its behavior. The organizing device for this methodology is a network representation of expert knowledge about the hazard, emphasizing concepts relevant to risk management. This methodology is illustrated here with a set of interviews about the risks of radon. The results have implications for measuring, predicting, and aiding the public's understanding of environmental hazards.
Attribution of Responsibility and Individual and Collective Coping with Environmental Threats
Authors: Hallman William K. , Wandersman Abraham
Published: April 2010

This article summarizes many of the sources of stress that often accompany environmental threats, examines both individual and collective strategies for coping with environmental threats and the efficacy of these strategies, and discusses some of the problems with measuring coping strategies and with gauging their success. It describes collective coping strategies within the framework of social and institutional networks, and it considers why grass‐roots citizen groups are often formed as a coping strategy and what needs these organizations seem to fulfill. It presents some empirical research on individual and collective coping strategies derived from an investigation that examined residents' coping strategies in response to living near a large hazardous waste landfill. Finally, it addresses some of the social and policy implications of the ways that people cope with environmental hazards.
Variability in the Framing of Risk Issues
Authors: Vaughan Elaine , Seifert Marianne
Published: April 2010

Decision making about environmental and public health risks has become a frequent source of social conflict in society, often resulting in major obstacles to effective risk management and disruptions in the policy process. Individuals vary not only in policy preferences and responses to environmental hazards, but also in underlying belief and value systems that influence several aspects of the environmental decision‐making process. In particular, variability in the framing of risk issues can exacerbate conflict, leading to differences in which perspectives are judged legitimate or valid, what solutions are seen as reasonable, and what type of information is seen as useful or relevant. In many controversies, groups have differed systematically in framing risk issues: as scientific or economic vs. fairness and equity questions, in terms of what at‐risk population is highlighted, and in focusing primarily on potential gain or loss as the result of a decision.
The Role of Animals in Human Society
Authors: Plous S.
Published: April 2010

Although it is virtually impossible to live in American society without relying on animals to some extent, psychologists have been slow to study the role animals play in human society. The present articles are intended to redress this lack of coverage and to stimulate future research in this area. Three general topics are examined: human‐animal relations, the debate over animal rights and animal research, and issues pertaining to companion animals. Despite the diversity of these topics, several recurring themes are apparent: the tension between animals as property and animals as individuals in their own right, the existence of a hierarchy of privilege among species (with primates and companion animals occupying the most privileged positions), and the fact that society is changing with respect to how it views animals.
Animals and the Scope of Justice
Authors: Opotow Susan
Published: April 2010

Animals share our physical world, but the moral rules, values, and concerns about fairness that apply to those within our scope of justice rarely apply to animals. This paper reports an experiment that investigated the effect of three variables hypothesized to modify subjects' inclusion of animals in their scope of justice: (1) the animal's similarity to people, (2) the animal's utility to people, and (3) the severity of conflict between people and the animal. Three hundred and sixty‐three high school students read materials that led them to perceive an animal, the Bombardier beetle(Brachinus),as similar or dissimilar to people and as beneficial or harmful. Subjects then read a low‐conflict scenario and a high‐conflict scenario, each followed by dependent measures. The findings indicated that subjects' scope of justice was modified by the perceived utility of the animal and by conflict severity. Surprisingly, perceived similarity in the high‐conflict scenario decreased subjects' scope of justice. The paper discusses the implications of these findings for theory and for environmental conservation.
Veterinary Medical Ethics: A Focus of Conflicting Interests
Authors: Tannenbaum Jerrold
Published: April 2010

Because the veterinary profession serves both animals and people, it occupies a unique position in current discussions of animal welfare and animal rights. Veterinarians are confronted daily by the central ethical fact underlying all human‐animal interaction: animals as well as humans often have legitimate interests and moral claims that flow from these interests. This article explores some of the ways in which veterinarians must face the difficult task of balancing animal and human interests. I argue that the resolution of many ethical issues facing veterinarians will require consideration of fundamental questions regarding the value of animal life, careful analysis of key concepts that are applied to animals, and empirical investigations of animals and people who interact with them.
Companion Animals: In Sickness and in Health
Authors: Siegel Judith M.
Published: April 2010

The literature on animals as human companions is divided into studies of naturally occurring pet ownership and studies in which pets have been introduced as some form of intervention. Research on naturally occurring pet ownership has yielded mixed results, although there is a tendency for studies that are stronger methodologically to show some mental or physical health advantage to ownership. The evaluation of interventions has not yet progressed beyond clinical impressions. Thus, the potential of such interventions has not been adequately assessed. I discuss human‐animal relations in terms of attachment and stress reduction, using data from my research to illustrate the stress reduction perspective.
Why Complain?
Authors: Crosby Faye J.
Published: April 2010

This article, which champions complaining, consists of three parts. The first section defines and justifies the concept of complaint. Complaining, as opposed to protesting, encourages action even from those who are vulnerable and helps complainers see their adversaries as complex human beings rather than as inhuman creatures. The second section of the article offers, by way of example, a data‐based complaint about the bifurcation of well‐being in America over the last 20 years. The final section speculates about four ways to keep complaints healthy and effective: remembering that our complaints are only a first step toward action; that our complaints are not unique; that our complaints need not, and indeed, probably cannot, be solved by ourselves alone; and that our complaints are but one part of our lives.
Cultural Lag, Economic Scarcity, and the Technological Quagmire of “Infant Doe”
Authors: Evans Daryl
Published: April 2010

The University of Kansas The major purpose of this article is to explore the substantial disparity between access to resources provided at birth to a child with spina bifida—a so‐called Baby Doe—and later access to resources needed to sustain that child throughout the life course. The author's organizing principle is the allocative paradoxes created by the clash of technology, scarcity, and demography. The study is based on an eight‐year inquiry into the way life‐saving medical decisions are made about children with spina bifida. This work focuses on the qualitative aspects of that inquiry. There is a societal need to debate health care rationing, to do much more systematic technology assessment, and to develop a much more consistently rational system of health care delivery.
Health Policy in a New Key: Setting Democratic Priorities
Authors: Jennings Bruce
Published: April 2010

Health policy in the United States is entering an era in which explicitly value‐based allocation decisions require direct attention. Policies concerning access to care, financing, and utilization management will necessarily have redistributive effects. For these policies to command social legitimacy and political support, some consensus will have to emerge around the values and ideals justifying these policies. This article addresses the problems of conceptual clarification and democratic process raised by the prospect of an explicitly value‐based allocation policy. It offers a conceptual matrix distinguishing the scope of the issue of allocation in health care. Drawing on the activities of community health decisions projects in several states, it also offers suggestions about building a participatory and educational process at the grassroots level that might lead to a democratic consensus suitable for guiding policy choices.
Gender and Close Relationships: An Introduction
Authors: Winstead Barbara A. , Derlega Valerian J.
Published: April 2010

The articles in this JSI issue focus on how gender, gender role identity, and attitudes toward gender roles may affect the nature of relationships and how relationships may affect an individual's gender (including, behaviors, attitudes, and self‐perceptions). Though the focus is mainly on heterosexual relationships and U.S. samples, research on lesbian/gay and parent‐child relationships as well as same‐sex friendships and relationships in different cultures are examined. Meanings of commonly used terms in research on gender are clarified and we summarize each article briefly. General themes that emerge from the articles are discussed.
Masculinity Ideology: Its Impact on Adolescent Males' Heterosexual Relationships
Authors: Pleck Joseph H. , Sonenstein Freya L. , Ku Leighton C.
Published: April 2010

This paper calls attention to the impact of masculinity ideology, an aspect of gender‐related attitudes, on adolescent males' heterosexual relationships. Previous approaches to the male gender role and close relationships, and attitudes toward the male gender role (the operationalization of masculinity ideology), are briefly reviewed. Data from the 1988 National Survey of Adolescent Males are reported. With sociodemographic and personal background factors controlled, males who hold traditional attitudes toward masculinity indicate having more sexual partners in the last year, a less intimate relationship at last intercourse with the current partner, and greater belief that relationships between women and men are adversarial—characteristics suggesting less intimacy in their heterosexual relationships. They also report less consistent use of condoms, specific attitudes about condoms associated with low condom use, less belief in male responsibility to prevent pregnancy, and greater belief that pregnancy validates masculinity. These associations persist when more global gender role attitudes are controlled. Traditional masculinity ideology is thus associated with characteristics suggesting limitations in the quality of adolescent males' close heterosexual relationships, and increased risk of unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, including AIDS.
Sex Role Attitudes in Dating and Marriage: A 15‐Year Follow‐Up of the Boston Couples Study
Authors: Peplau Letitia Anne , Hill Charles T. , Rubin Zick
Published: April 2010

This longitudinal research investigated the personal and relationship correlates of sex role attitudes first during college and then 15 years later. The original sample of 231 college‐age dating couples was studied intensively in 1972–1974, and individual participants were recontacted in 1986–1987. Results provide evidence for the reliability and validity of the 10‐item Sex‐Role Traditionalism Scale. In college, significant links were found between sex role attitudes and dating relationships, including patterns of self‐disclosure, power, and cohabition, but not relationship satisfaction. Fifteen years later, sex role attitudes assessed while in college were largely unrelated to general patterns of marriage, childbearing, and employment for either sex, but did predict women's educational attainment and the long‐term outcome of the college romances.
Men and Women Dealing with Conflict in Heterosexual Relationships
Authors: Markman Howard J. , Silvern Louise , Clements Mari , Kraft‐Hanak Shelley
Published: April 2010

Marital therapists and researchers have suggested a tendency toward Pursuit by women and Withdrawal by men as an important gender‐linked pattern of dealing with marital conflict. The relationships of gender and sex role orientation to behavior in intimate heterosexual relationships were examined in two studies of nondistressed couples. In Study 1, 29 couples were examined longitudinally before and after marriage using an observational and self‐report design. No gender differences in Problem Solving, Intimacy, or Conflict behaviors were observed premaritally, but communication variables seemed in general to be more important for men's satisfaction than for women's. In Study 2, 324 undergraduates were examined cross‐sectionally. In this self‐report study, stereotypical gender differences, particularly for Withdrawal, were observed. We conclude that gender differences, such as the Pursuit/Withdrawal cycle, are a function of gender roles and marital distress rather than gender per se.
The Allocation of Household Labor in Gay, Lesbian, and Heterosexual Married Couples
Authors: Kurdek Lawrence A.
Published: April 2010

This study compared how gay, lesbian, and heterosexual married couples (ns = 95, 61, and 145, respectively) allocated household labor. Partners in each couple lived together without children. Compared to both married and gay couples, lesbian couples tended to share tasks. Compared to lesbian couples, gay couples and married couples were likely to have one or the other partner perform the tasks; in married couples, this was most likely the wife. Compared to married couples, gay couples and lesbian couples were likely to split tasks so that each partner performed an equal number of different tasks. The relation between the extent to which household tasks were performed and personal power, gender role orientation, relationship satisfaction, and psychological symptoms generally varied by partner and type of couple. It is concluded that although gender is a powerful determinant of how household labor gets allocated in heterosexual married couples, no single variable carries as much weight with gay or lesbian couples.
Gender in Close Relationships: Public Policy vs. Personal Prerogative
Authors: Worell Judith
Published: April 2010

The interface of research on gender in close relationships with applications to social issues is considered within the context of the dialectic between public policy and private transactions. The distinctions between public and private are discussed in terms of three dimensions proposed by Benn and Gaus (1983): access, agents, and interest. Each of these dimensions may play a role in determining how interpretations of public and private translate across particular issues. The principle of interest is expanded to demonstrate how close relationship research and public policy may be reciprocally influenced. Conceptualizations of gender will also influence choice of policy interventions with respect to transactions within close relationships. Three concepts of gender are defined, and are applied to specific contexts in which social policy implications can be drawn. It is suggested that in research on close relationships as well as in relevant applications to social policy, public and personal values may influence both the scientific effort and its applications to social action.
Continuing the Tradition of Research on War: The Persian Gulf War
Authors: Lehman Darrin R.
Published: April 2010

The Persian Gulf War provided a unique opportunity for social scientists to pursue a wide range of important psychological issues. The present set of papers focuses on two such issues: coping with the stress of war and war‐related attitudes and thought. The articles on stress and coping frame such processes either in individual, familial, or societal terms. They underscore the importance of studying secondary victimization and expanding our conceptualization of those affected by collective stressors, such as war. The papers on war‐related attitudes and thought address key psychological underpinnings, by examining the shifting of attitudes over time and integrative complexity of war‐related thought. Empirical research on war is quite challenging, yet it is also highly informative with respect to basic psychological processes.
Reassessing War Stress: Exposure and the Persian Gulf War
Authors: Wolfe Jessica , Brown Pamela J. , Kelley John M.
Published: April 2010

Research has shown a clear association between war‐zone exposure and psychological readjustment in soldiers. Newer findings suggest that certain event and person characteristics are especially influential in this process. The present article has the following goals: (a) to review existing parameters in the traditional measurement of war‐zone exposure, (b) to consider conceptual and methodological limitations in these approaches, (c) to present empirical data from a cohort of Persian Gulf War veterans that support the utility of a broader conceptualization of war trauma, and (d) to examine how gender may be differentially associated with some dimensions of war‐zone stress and psychological outcome following deployment. Data suggest that identifying diverse dimensions of war‐zone stress may enhance efforts to understand veterans' initial and long‐range wartime recovery.
War‐Zone Trauma and Stress‐Related Symptoms in Operation Desert Shield/Storm (ODS) Returnees
Authors: Sutker Patricia B. , Uddo Madeline , Brailey Kevin , Allain Albert N.
Published: April 2010

A growing literature suggests that human beings are often negatively impacted by participation in military combat, but there have been few attempts to document the psychological effects of war stress in the masses of troops deployed to action. We chose to study the relationship of Operation Desert Shield/Storm (ODS) participation and symptoms of psychological distress in a comparison of 215 Army National Guard and Army Reserve troops who were activated to service in the Persian Gulf and returned to the States without seeking mental health treatment services and 60 troops from these same units who were activated but not deployed overseas. Negative psychological outcomes were measured within four to ten months from homecoming in three domains: negative mood states, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and physical health complaints. Results indicated that as war‐zone stress exposure increased, the frequency and severity of psychological symptoms were enhanced, providing correlational evidence of the adverse impact of war stress, at least among a subset of ODS returnees. As many as 16–24% of war zone exposed troops exhibited levels of distress symptomatology sufficiently exaggerated to suggest the presence of mental disorders, specifically clinical depression and PTSD. Psychological symptoms were less frequently reported among troops classified in the lower war‐zone stress exposure subset and those activated but not deployed to the Persian Gulf.
The Media and the Foundations of Presidential Support: George Bush and the Persian Gulf Conflict
Authors: Krosnick Jon A. , Brannon Laura A.
Published: April 2010

When the United States began its overt military conflict with Iraq in January 1991, the American news media focused attention powerfully and seemingly unceasingly on the Gulf crisis for a period of almost three months. Through analysis of data collected in a panel survey conducted before and after the war, we found that paralleling this surge in media coverage were significant alterations in the ingredients of Americans' assessments of George Bush's job performance. After the war, these assessments were based much more on citizens' beliefs about his effectiveness in managing the conflict, and much less on their confidence in his handling of other foreign relations matters or the domestic economy. We found as well that these shifts were regulated by citizens' levels of political knowledge, exposure to political news, and interest in the war. Greater shifts were associated with higher levels of knowledge and lower levels of exposure and interest. These findings challenge traditional views of these dimensions of political involvement and support an alternative view derived from contemporary psychological theories of information processing.
Integrative Complexity in Reasoning About the Persian Gulf War and the Accountability to Skeptical Audience Hypothesis
Authors: Mandel David R. , Axelrod Lawrence J. , Lehman Darrin R.
Published: April 2010

Given earlier polling reports, it was predicted that (a) a majority of Canadian subjects would support the U.S. military intervention in the Persian Gulf crisis and (b) following Tetlock's (1983) accountability‐to‐skeptical‐audience hypothesis, these subjects would display lower levels of integrative complexity in reasoning about the causes of the Gulf War than subjects who indicated opposition to the U.S. action. As expected, a significantly greater proportion of subjects (70%) indicated support for the U.S. action, and these subjects did in fact have significantly lower integrative complexity levels than subjects who indicated opposition to the U.S. action. Relations between attitudes toward U.S. military involvement, confidence in attributions about the primary cause of the war, and internality‐externality of attributions about either Saddam Hussein, George Bush, Iraq, or the U.S. were also explored. Implications for theory and for future research are discussed.
The Bases of Power: Origins and Recent Developments
Authors: Raven Bertram H.
Published: April 2010

The history and background of the analysis of the basis of power is examined, beginning with its origins in the works of Kurt Lewin and his followers at the Research Center for Group Dynamics, particularly the early research by John R. P. French. The original French and Raven (1959) bases of power model posited six bases of power: reward, coercion, legitimate, expert, referent, and informational (or persuasion; Raven, 1965), Since then, as the result of considerable research, the model has gone through significant developments. A more comprehensive model is presented here that reviews the following: various motivations of the influencing agent; an assessment of available power bases in terms of potential effectiveness, time perspective, personal preferences, values and norms; consideration of other strategies such as manipulation; utilization of various preparatory and stage‐setting devices to strengthen one's power resources; implementation of the power strategies; assessment of effectiveness of influence attempt and its positive and/or negative aftereffects; use of various ameliorative devices; and review, reconsideration, and another round of influence strategies. The overall model is examined in terms of its applicability to various settings including hospital infection control, patient compliance with physicians' recommendations, confrontations between political figures, children's influence on their peers, conflict resolution and negotiation, as well as supervisor/subordinate relationships.
Person‐Environment Fit Theory: Some History, Recent Developments, and Future Directions
Authors: Caplan Robert D. , Van Harrison R.
Published: April 2010

In honor of John R. P. French, Jr., recipient of the 1992 Kurt Lewin Award, this article traces French's contribution to the development of person‐environment (PE)fit theory. The text examines recent extensions of PE fit theory. Extensions include the introduction of response surfaces to examine the homogeneity of effects of PE fit on indicators of mental health across all levels of P or of E and research examining the antecedents of PE fit. The Lewinian tradition of applying theory to the study of social issues is followed to suggest areas for future research.
Human Values and Social Issues: An Introduction
Authors: Mayton Daniel M. , Ball‐Rokeach Sandra J. , Loges William E.
Published: April 2010

Values are an important and unique construct in social psychological research. In many ways they offer insight into human belief and behavior that other concepts, particularly attitudes, cannot provide. Milton Rokeach is remembered as a pioneer in the study of human belief and behavior, particularly in the study of values. In this essay we review the essential insights that Rokeach offered and the ways that those insights have been applied in the study of social issues such as racism, political behavior, social justice, and social change. We also briefly introduce the articles in this collection.
Choosing Equality: The Correspondence Between Attitudes About Race and the Value of Equality
Authors: Ball‐Rokeach Sandra J. , Loges William E.
Published: April 2010

In the last 25 years Americans have changed many of the beliefs they hold about racial equality. Schuman, Steeh, and Bobo (1985) have noted that Americans seem to have become increasingly supportive of racial integration during the 1970s and early 1980s, but that their support of specific policies to bring about integration has been ambiguous. Rokeach and Ball‐Rokeach (1988) have observed that the priority that Americans assign to equality as a terminal value fell throughout the 1970s. We argue that to more fully understand beliefs about race that seem paradoxical it is important to understand the way that beliefs are conceptualized and measured. This is especially true if one wishes to use attitudes or values as indicators of future behavior. We conclude that the concept of values developed by Rokeach (1973) offers a better basis for gauging public sentiment toward social policies and toward day‐to‐day living in an integrated society.
The Rhetorical Use of Values to Justify Social and Intergroup Attitudes
Authors: Kristiansen Connie M. , Zanna Mark P.
Published: April 2010

In this article we review research relevant to Rokeach's (1973) suggestion that, by appealing to socially shared conceptions of what is good, people may use values to ego defensively rationalize or justify their attitudes. In line with this value justification hypothesis, research suggests that, although attitudes may originally stem from the relative importance that people ascribe to various values, once formed, attitudes may well produce self‐serving biases that affect both the values that people deem relevant to an issue and the complexity or open‐mindedness of their reasoning about an issue. In addition, just as people may appeal to values to justify their attitudes toward social issues such as nuclear weaponry or abortion, data suggest that people may exaggerate perceptions of intergroup value differences in an effort to rationalize prejudicial intergroup attitudes and justify discrimination. Aspects of the ego defensive use of values that merit elaboration and have yet to be addressed, as well as the more general implications of a functional approach to the study of values, are discussed.
Beyond Rokeach's Equality‐Freedom Model: Two‐Dimensional Values in a One‐Dimensional World
Authors: Braithwaite Valerie
Published: April 2010

This article supports a two‐value model of political ideology, similar to that proposed by Rokeach (1973), through the validation of two value orientation scales, international harmony and equality and national strength and order. Drawing on data from five samples, these value orientations are shown to be independent, robust, and predictably related to other value constructs, social attitudes, voting behavior, and political activism. The two‐dimensional model is reconciled with the ubiquitous left‐right attitudinal continuum through differentiating between the psychological world of ideas and the political world of action. Political institutions have traditionally imposed a trade‐off mentality on decision‐making behavior, and the left‐right dichotomy is a useful heuristic for making trade‐offs when other options are not apparent. This paper argues that individuals adopt a framework that is different from that imposed by political institutions. Their framework allows both security conscious and protective values to be held alongside humanitarian and sharing values, and their liberalism‐conservatism can be predicted by the degree to which one value orientation outweighs the other. The middle ground on liberalism‐conservatism, therefore, is not the sole domain of the politically naive or disinterested: It is also the domain of those with balanced yet strong social value commitments who may experience lack of engagement with left‐right political discourse.
The Role of Values in Predicting Fairness Judgments and Support of Affirmative Action
Authors: Peterson Randall S.
Published: April 2010

Affirmative action is one of the most controversial current public policies—public support has never reached a majority of the electorate for most versions of affirmative action. Many people oppose affirmative action on the grounds that it violates norms of procedural fairness and meritocracy, in spite of the fact that they also support egalitarian values consistent with it. This article explores this apparent paradox by testing reactions to affirmative action in college admissions by comparing three models positing differing roles for values in ideological reasoning: (1) a central role for values—Tetlock's (1986) value pluralism model, (2) a secondary role for values—Lind's (1992) fairness heuristic hypothesis, and (3) no role for values—affective explanations (i.e., Jackman, 1978). Results support the fairness heuristic hypothesis—subjective assessments of fairness play a mediating role between personal values and support for affirmative action. These results indicate that values play a significant role in determining support for affirmative action. To more fully understand how people reason about affirmative action, however, values research must be yoked with justice research.
Value Underpinnings of Antinuclear Political Activism: A Cross‐National Study
Authors: Mayton Daniel M. , Furnham Adrian
Published: April 2010

The purpose of this paper is to assess the relationships between selected value types and peace activist behavior in several countries. The participants in this study were college students from Idaho and California in the U.S., from London, England, and from Osaka, Japan; adults from the general population in the Pacific Northwest of the U.S.; and physician‐activists from New Zealand. Each respondent completed a written questionnaire, which included the Rokeach Value Survey—Form G and the Werner‐Roy Peace Activism Scale. A significant relationship was found between the universalism value type and pro‐freeze activist behaviors across several of the participant groups.
Human Values and Their Relation to Justice
Authors: Feather N. T.
Published: April 2010

This article describes studies that relate justice‐related behavior and experience to the content of human values. The studies are concerned with moral judgment, belief in a just world, distributive justice in the context of allocation decisions, and the nature of deservingness. In each case the focus is on associations between particular values or value types and an aspect of justice. A theoretical analysis of deservingness is presented that takes account of perceived responsibility and the conjunction of positively (or negatively) valued actions and positively (or negatively) valued outcomes. The subjective values (or valences) assigned to the actions and outcomes are assumed to be related to a person's underlying system of values. It is argued that research on justice has tended to ignore the values held by individuals, groups, and cultures, and that this deficiency should be remedied in future research.
Inducing Change in Values, Attitudes, and Behaviors: Belief System Theory and the Method of Value Self‐Confrontation
Authors: Grube Joel W. , Mayton Daniel M. , Ball‐Rokeach Sandra J.
Published: April 2010

This paper summarizes some of the major principles of belief system theory and describes the method of value self‐confrontation. An example of how value self‐confrontation can be used to modify environmental values is provided. The research on value self‐confrontation is reviewed and critically evaluated. Although there is support for belief system theory and for the efficacy of value self‐confrontation as a means of inducing long‐term change in important values, attitudes, and behaviors, a number of important questions remain unanswered. In particular, the psychological mechanisms underlying change in values, attitudes, and behaviors after value self‐confrontation require clarification and further study.
Dual‐Processing in Value Self‐Confrontation: The Role of Need for Cognition
Authors: Waller James E.
Published: April 2010

Rokeach (1973) developed the method of value self‐confrontation (VSC) in an attempt to change people's behavior by changing the value hierarchy underlying that behavior. The present research examined the role of need for cognition, defined by Cacioppo, Petty, and Kao (1984) as an individual's tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive endeavors, in the VSC process. Two studies demonstrated that the VSC procedure was equally effective for college‐age participants, regardless of their level of need for cognition. The second study suggested that the equivalent value change was mediated by differential routes of processing. Specifically, low need for cognition participants reported a significantly greater reliance on normative information (indicative of peripheral processing) while participants high in the need for cognition reported significantly greater expenditure of cognitive effort (indicative of central route processing). Practical implications of these findings for individual and social applications of VSC and future research directions are discussed.
Constructive Conflict Management and Social Problems: An Introduction
Authors: Boardman Susan K. , Horowitz Sandra V.
Published: April 2010

The goals of this special issue on constructive conflict management are (1) to highlight the feasibility of using constructive conflict management to deal with conflicts arising as a consequence of interpersonal or intergroup diversity; (2) to promote understanding of how to manage conflict more constructively through the presentation of theoretical pieces, case histories, and empirical studies; and (3) to identify the conflict areas most urgently requiring research and policy attention. A brief background of social conflict research and a summary of each article is provided.
Generic Principles for Resolving Intergroup Conflict
Authors: Fisher Ronald J.
Published: April 2010

Destructive intergroup conflict saps resources, perpetuates injustice, and wreaks horrendous costs on individuals and societies. Generic principles are developed for analyzing, confronting, and resolving intergroup conflict by drawing on theoretical, empirical, and practical work in applied social science. The principles are compatible with humanistic values and planned social change and are illustrated with reference to three case studies of intergroup conflict. Principles of analysis specify the areas of exploration and the nature of communication required to effectively understand destructive intergroup conflict. Principles of confrontation indicate the qualities of intergroup interaction and the nature of the problem‐solving and negotiating processes necessary to successfully address the conflict. Principles of resolution enumerate the requirements and outcomes necessary for intergroup conflict to be transformed to a mutually acceptable state that is self‐supporting and self‐correcting.
An Intervention Model of Constructive Conflict Resolution and Cooperative Learning
Authors: Zhang Quanwu
Published: April 2010

An intervention model of constructive conflict resolution (CCR) and cooperative learning (CL) was implemented and tested on three campuses of an urban alternative high school. Campus A received training only in CCR, Campus B received training in both CCR and CL, and Campus C received training only in CL. The model posited that interpersonal relations mediated the effects of CCR and CL on social‐psychological and educational outcomes. The findings indicate that improvements in CCR increased social support and decreased victimization for the students. These changes in a student's interpersonal relations led to higher self‐esteem, more positive attitudes toward life, less depression or anxiety, and enhanced internal locus of control, which in turn contributed to greater academic achievement.
Constructive Conflict in the Schools
Authors: Johnson David W. , Johnson Roger T.
Published: April 2010

All children, adolescents, and young adults need to learn how to manage conflicts constructively. There are three steps in doing so. The first is establishing a cooperative context, primarily through the use of cooperative learning. The second is to create intellectual conflicts through the use of structured academic controversies. Controversy results in increased student achievement, critical thinking, higher level reasoning, intrinsic motivation to learn, and a number of other important educational outcomes. The third is to establish a peer mediation program in which students try to negotiate integrative agreements to their conflicts of interests and, if negotiations fail, to seek the help of a peer mediator. All students should be taught how to negotiate and how to mediate and the role of mediator should be rotated throughout the classroom and school so that all students gain mediating experience. The theory and research underlying these steps is reviewed.
Cultural Perspectives on International Negotiations
Authors: Kimmel Paul R.
Published: April 2010

The traditional Western diplomatic approach to international negotiation is compared with an intercultural approach. The implicit assumptions underlying the universal “culture” of diplomacy and the American values in which these assumptions are grounded are discussed. Individual levels of cultural awareness including cultural chauvinism, ethnocentrism, tolerance, minimization, and cultural understanding are described, and their influence on the interpersonal processes of international negotiation are illustrated through a consideration of the Iraq/U.S. diplomatic meetings in Geneva in 1991. Finally, the potential of the intercultural approach is discussed.
… Personal is Political is Personal is Political …
Authors: Tobach Ethel
Published: April 2010

Kurt Lewin's integration of psychological theory and research practice is seen as a tradition living in feminist theory and practice today. Three narratives, drawn from (a) the feminist academy, (b) the history of ethology and contemporary sociobiology, and (c) the life of T. C. Schneirla, demonstrate the concept of “… personal is political is personal….” The feminist concept and practice of consciousness raising and the theoretical slogan “personal is political” make fundamental contributions to active psychology and societal activity. The narratives also remind us that realistic commitment to the integration of theory and practice through political action may be personally risky.