bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Elections in Soviet Russia
Authors: Teper Lazare
Published: May 2006

The representativeness of the Soviet system of government can best be ascertained, not through abstract inquiry into constitutional provisions, but by means of an analysis of the electorate and of the elected. Only in this way can the contentions of Soviet apologists and theoreticians be given an adequate test of reality. Simultaneously, such data should disclose a number of sociological and psychological implications. A recent publication of the Central Electoral Commission of the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the U.S.S.R. gives a comprehensive view of the electorate and of the elected in the elections of Soviets held in the year 1931.
Constitutional Law in 1933–34
Authors: Cushman Robert E.
Published: May 2006

Following the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment, the state of Ohio authorized by statute the creation of a state liquor monopoly, purchased $4,500,000 worth of liquor, and perfected plans for the retailing of it through 187 stores owned and managed by the state. In Ohio v. Helvering, the state sought an injunction to restrain the commissioner of internal revenue from collecting from the state the customary federal excise taxes upon the sale of intoxicating liquors. It alleged the immunity of the state and its instrumentalities from federal taxation and further claimed that the federal taxing statutes were not intended by Congress to apply to the states. The court, speaking through Mr. Justice Sutherland, upheld the collection of the tax, reaffirming the doctrine laid down in 1905 in the South Carolina Dispensary Case. The immunity from federal taxation enjoyed by the states extends only to those agencies and functions which are governmental in character and not to those which are proprietary. “When a state enters the market place seeking customers, it divests itself of its quasi-sovereignty pro tanto, and takes on the character of a trader, so far, at least, as the taxing power of the federal government is concerned.” The Court rejected as “altogether fanciful” the argument that the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment and its later repeal had so altered the status of the liquor traffic that its conduct by the state has become an exercise of the state's police power, and hence a governmental operation immune from federal taxation.
National Parties and Local Politics
Authors: Ellis Ellen Deborah
Published: May 2006

It is curious that the question with which, of all others, every participant in local politics finds himself most persistently confronted—and it is a truism that by far the greatest part of our political lives are concerned with local affairs—should be given so little. attention in treatises on American government. I refer to the problem of the relation between national political parties and state and local politics.

The problem presents itself under two aspects, in one sense separate, though in reality closely interwoven with each other. There is first the anomaly that local issues seem so far removed from the platforms of the organizations, the national parties, through which the often perplexed and embarrassed voter must express himself in the performance of his ordinary electoral duties in the state or the locality; and there is, secondly, the question faced by every would-be reformer of local government, as to whether the desired reforms can best be brought about through the national party organizations or through separate locally organized groups.
The Rôle of the Senate in Treaty-Making: A Survey of Four Decades
Authors: Fleming Denna Frank
Published: May 2006

The action of the United States Senate upon the large majority of treaties laid before it has been comparatively perfunctory and without important result. Four-fifths of all the treaties submitted to the Senate have been approved by it without any change whatever. Twenty-one per cent have been altered in the Senate, for the most part by changes of words or clauses that later passed the scrutiny of both the President and the foreign powers concerned. Of the 152 treaties amended by the Senate, only one-fifth have been changed so seriously as to compromise or destroy the international agreement proposed. Likewise, the failure of 62 treaties to be approved by the Senate in any form has had serious consequences in not more than a fifth of the situations resulting.

Moreover, while all kinds of treaties have incurred the Senate's displeasure, it has consistently emasculated only one type, i.e., those for the pacific settlement of disputes. It is upon the Senate's action on this class of treaties that opinion as to the usefulness of its rôle in treaty-making must divide. To those who believe that a policy of national isolation can and should be maintained, the record of the Senate is not disturbing; it is highly praiseworthy.
Aggressive Behavior by Clients Toward Public Relief Administrators: A Configurative Analysis
Authors: Almond Gabriel , Lasswell Harold D.
Published: May 2006

This study of aggressive behavior by clients on public relief in Chicago in 1932–33 is intended to be relevant to two supplementary kinds of political theory. In so far as relations are found between economic changes and political activity, the findings bear upon the theory of political equilibrium, which seeks to state the general conditions under which political changes occur. In so far as relations are found which bear upon the diffusion of specific political symbols and practices, the results are pertinent to theories of political development, which emphasize the time-bound aspects of political change.
Development of National Administration in the United States, 1932–35
Authors: Shumate Roger V.
Published: May 2006

Growth of Administrative Services. Any one returning to Washington after an absence of several years must be struck at once by the physical changes which have taken place in the political nerve center of the nation. These changes are largely the result of the erection of new government buildings and the clearing away of old structures to make way for others yet to come. In May, 1932, the Washington telephone directory listed 663 office telephones under the heading “United States Government.” In June, 1935, it listed 892, or a gain of nearly 35 per cent for the three-year period. This expansion of physical equipment may be said to symbolize the growth of the administrative organization of the national government. One sees on every hand new departmental edifices, and whole buildings now occupied by bureaus or commissions which were formerly tucked away in departmental buildings, or by new independent agencies which were non-existent until a year or two ago.
Direct Primary Legislation in 1934–35
Authors: Overacker Louise
Published: May 2006

Although few important changes have been made in the laws regulating primary elections during the last two years, some of those which have been made are novel and may foreshadow interesting future developments.

The year immediately preceding a presidential campaign usually brings some changes in the presidential primaries, and 1935 was no exception. North Dakota has repealed its presidential primary provisions, and in Oregon repeal was voted by the legislature but defeated at a referendum vote. Hereafter, delegates to the national nominating conventions in North Dakota are to be chosen by a state convention meeting at a time and place fixed by the party state central committee. The Oregon law, which was defeated, provided for the choice of delegates at large by the state central committee and of district delegates by district nominating committeemen.
The Ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment
Authors: Brown Everett S.
Published: May 2006

All proposals of amendments to the Constitution of the United States under Article V have been made only by Congress and, with the exception of the Twentyfirst Amendment, the mode of ratification has been “by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states.” The Twenty-first Amendment alone was ratified by conventions in three-fourths of the states.

The enrolled joint resolution proposing the Twenty-first Amendment was delivered on February 20, 1933, to Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson. On February 21, he sent identic letters to the governors of the forty-eight states, enclosing with each letter a certified copy of the joint resolution, and requesting that the resolution be submitted to a state convention and that a certified copy of the action taken be communicated to the secretary of state.
Constitutional Law in 1931–32: The Constitutional Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States in the October Term, 1931
Authors: Cushman Robert E.
Published: May 2006

In its decision in United States v. Smith, the Supreme Court has given final victory to President Hoover in his bitter fight with the Senate in January, 1931, over his appointments to the Federal Power Commission. On December 3, 1930, the President sent to the Senate Smith's nomination to the Federal Power Commission. On Saturday, December 20, 1930, the Senate advised and consented to the appointment and ordered the resolution of confirmation sent to the President. The Senate thereupon adjourned to Monday, January 5, 1931. On Monday, December 22, 1930, the President received the notification that the appointment had been confirmed and on the same day issued Smith's commission. Smith immediately took the oath of office and entered upon his duties. While the record of the Court does not disclose this fact, it will be recalled that one of the very first “duties” entered upon by Smith and his colleagues was the summary dismissal of two subordinates of the Commission generally admitted to have been active in the protection of the public against the aggressions of the so-called power interests. Accordingly, when the Senate convened on January 5, 1931, a majority of its members very much wished to recall the confirmation of Smith's appointment.
Jeffersonian Democracy: a Dual Tradition
Authors: Wiltse Charles M.
Published: May 2006

From the great mass of Jefferson's writings, letters, and public utterances, it is possible to select isolated fragments in justification of almost any course one chooses to pursue; and the history of his forty years in the service of his country offers almost as various a pattern. Taking his career and his writings as a whole, however, and piecing together from both the broad outlines of a political philosophy, one is struck by what appears to be a dual emphasis: two diverging streams of thought, which seem at first glance to be incompatible, and which have rendered the great democrat vulnerable to the charge of inconsistency so often repeated in his own day as in ours. One of these emphases, and that most apt to be quoted by campaign orators, is on individualism; but the direction and purpose of the other is socialistic.

Both in the abstract system of the philosopher and in the concrete events of the world of action, time has a way of reconciling apparent contradictions. Historical perspective will do much to reveal unsuspected unities, and the point of view from which the inquiry is approached will do the rest.
Second Session of the Seventy-second Congress, December 5, 1932, to March 4, 1933
Authors: Herring E. Pendleton
Published: May 2006

The great game of politics was played throughout this session. The players, holding poor hands and distracted by thoughts of the new deal that was to come, faced a difficult situation. The presence of 158 members retired by the voters in the November elections gave a cast of uncertainty and unreality to the assembly. Deducting the six vacancies in the House, 219 Democrats confronted 209 Republicans, and in the Senate the count stood 48 Republicans to 47 Democrats. The Farmer-Laborites had one spokesman in each chamber. Here was a Congress, divided in control, weakened by the presence of repudiated representatives, and under the discredited leadership of a defeated president, but nevertheless faced with perplexing problems of national and world import arising in a highly critical period. The necessities of the time called for cooperative planning and swift, united action, but the exigencies of politics suggested procrastination and obstruction. And the latter considerations prevailed.
The French Public Service and the Economic Crisis
Authors: Sharp Walter R.
Published: May 2006

In spite of the effort to “conserve the past,” there were signs by the end of 1932 that the French body politic was undergoing more than passing tension and strain. By that time the impact of economic depression, slow in reaching France, had, in popular parlance, reached “crisis” proportions; and while crisis is a label which Frenchmen are prone to accord promiscuously to each and every change of ministries, it was gradually coming to connote something analogous in seriousness to the monetary disturbances which culminated in the near-collapse of 1925–26.
Constitutional Revision in Poland
Authors: Zurcher Arnold J.
Published: May 2006

Following a day of parliamentary skirmishing during which the behavior of the majority sometimes recalled the parliamentary tactics of the illustrious American Speaker of the House of Representatives, Mr. Thomas B. Reed, the Polish Sejm, on January 26, adopted an entirely new constitution for Poland. The bill providing for this action had been introduced in the Sejm by Marshal Pilsudski's parliamentary allies, the government bloc, toward the end of 1933, but they had consistently failed to secure a majority of two-thirds demanded for amendments by the existing constitution. On the 26th, however, opposition deputies, in protest against the threats of the government bloc to alter the usual procedure as well as against the bloc's attempt to dragoon them into acceptance of the bill, withdrew in a body.
Constitutional Changes in Estonia
Authors: Roucek Joseph S.
Published: May 2006

The Estonian constitution of 1920, which was valid until January 24, 1934, was characterized by the lack of an independent head of the state and by the supremacy of the legislature over the other branches of government. Proving unworkable, it was superseded by the constitution of 1933, which, backed by the Estonian Nazis, was adopted by the popular referendum of October 14–16 of that year.
Reflections on the “World Revolution” of 1940
Authors: Brooks Robert C.
Published: May 2006

So controversial is the subject of thai address–“Reflections on the ‘World Revolution’ of 1940”–that a few words of justification in in order. You may be assured that it was not chosen without considerable thought and trepidation. To begin with, I made a study of the addresses of my thirty-four predecessors, as presented in the pages of the American Political Science Review. Without exception, these papers impressed me as wise, scholarly, finely stated, and cogently argued. Occasionally they were lightened by the lambent play of humor. On the other hand, several of them wen decidedly dry–a quality lees refreshing in discourses than in wines. Many of my predecessors dealt penetratingly and profoundly with topics taken from the fields of specialisation wherein they were masters, often the greatest of American masters. Others discussed broadly and philosophically the nature of political science, its relations to the social sciences in general, or the problems encountered in teaching this science.

Of course so brief a summary cannot do justice to the almost infinite variety of materials presented by past presidents of our Association. There was, however, one type of subject which as a rule they avoided—that of contemporary, controversial political affairs. Even during the years of the First World War and immediately thereafter, this proved to be the case with only one or two exceptions. No doubt the motive which prompted most of my predecessors to avoid issues of the day was a sound one.
State Constitutional Law in 1935–36
Authors: Grant J. A. C.
Published: May 2006

There is a kernel of truth in Chief Justice Hughes' remark that “we are under a Constitution, but the Constitution is what the judges say it is.” To realize its full significance, “constitution” must be written in the plural. We have forty-nine courts of last resort, each interpreting the fundamental law of its own jurisdiction. The essential similarity of our state constitutions, and of our state bills of rights to that of the national constitution, together with the tendency of common law courts to follow each other's decisions, lend an element of stability to American state constitutional law that otherwise would be lacking. At the same time, even within so short a period as a year, the interplay of personalities may be seen moulding new doctrines in particular jurisdictions, which doctrines take on added significance because of the realization that they may, in time, serve as a basis for redirecting the course of constitutional development in other jurisdictions as well.
Campaign Finance in the Presidential Election of 1940
Authors: Overacker Louise
Published: May 2006

Important changes in the regulations governing receipts and expenditures of party committees, enacted in the summer of 1940, make a study of the financing of the presidential election of that year particularly interesting and significant. “Hatch Act II,” designed primarily to extend to certain state and local employees limitations upon political activities already imposed upon federal office-holders by “Hatch Act I,” introduced a number of radical changes in the rules governing the collection of campaign funds.
Political Liberty Today: is it Being Restricted or Enlarged by Economic Regulation?
Authors: Smith T. V.
Published: May 2006

The liberty of any given citizen is inhibited by four great enemies. The first enemy is outer—the inhibition of the liberty of one by the liberty of others. The other three are inner enemies—illness, poverty, ignorance. The outer enemy is commonplace to political scientists. And so it is this inner triumvirate against freedom which I wish first and mainly to discuss. Worst of the three is ignorance.

Pure liberty would consist simply in doing what one wants to do. Illness is enemy to this ideal not merely because illness weakens wants, but also because it aborts the very formation of virile wants. Poverty is enemy not only because it stunts the growth of healthy wants, but because it circumvents efficacy of efforts to fulfill any and all wants. Ignorance, however, is worst of the three, not only because it fortifies the other enemies, inner and outer, but because it also converts such regulation of elemental wants as is made inevitable by civilization into the psychological poison of aggression and thereby estops fructifying sublimation of the crasser forms of freedom.
The Trade Agreement Act in Court and in Congress
Authors: Larkin John Day
Published: May 2006

“Practically every volume of the United States Statutes contains one or more acts or joint resolutions of Congress authorizing action by the President in respect of subjects affecting foreign relations, which either leave the exercise of the power to his unrestricted judgment, or provide a standard far more general than that which has always been considered requisite with regard to domestic affairs.” Thus did Mr. Justice Sutherland summarize the legal precedents for the President's actions in imposing an embargo on arms shipments to certain belligerent countries in South America, after Congress had delegated to him discretionary authority in such matters. This is more than a succinct historical summary. It is the first case in which the dicta of the Court has made clear that sharp line of distinction between the Chief Executive's discretionary powers in foreign affairs and those in internal matters.
Organic Tendencies in Medieval Political Thought
Authors: Lewis Ewart
Published: May 2006

The purpose of this paper is a re-examination of the thesis set forth by Otto von Gierke: that in medieval political theory there were certain organic tendencies which, because the jurists failed to develop the concept of the real personality of the group, ultimately gave way to an atomistic construction of the state. The paper is not concerned with the actual structure of medieval society, nor with the legal concepts of jurists, but with the theoretical doctrines of the publicists which Gierke interprets in that section of Das deutsche Genossenschaftsrecht which, in Maitland's translation, has become a classic for students of political theory. It is my contention that, while his treatment of subordinate issues of medieval political theory is often masterly, Gierke's main theses in regard to the medieval concepts of the nature of the group, the relation of officers to the group, and the relation of groups to one another are fundamentally inaccurate.
Organization of the Executive Branch of the National Government of the United States: Changes between June 1 and July 15, 1938
Authors: Schmeckebier L. F.
Published: May 2006

As in previous lists, mention is here confined generally to units specifically authorized by law or established by the President by executive order under general authority vested in him. Changes in units created by heads of departments or independent establishments are excluded unless of major importance.

Air Commerce Bureau, Department of Commerce. Duties transferred to Civil Aëronautics Authority by Civil Aëronautics Act of 1938 (Public Act No. 706, 75th Congress), approved June 23, 1938.

Air Mail Bureau, Interstate Commerce Commission. Duties transferred to Civil Aëronautics Authority by Civil Aëronautics Act of 1938 (Public Act No. 706, 75th Congress), approved June 23, 1938.
State Constitutional Law in 1937–38
Authors: Grant J. A. C.
Published: May 2006

Constitutional Amendment. The Pennsylvania constitution provides: “Any amendment … may be proposed in [either house]; and if the same shall be agreed to by a majority of the members elected to each … the Secretary of the Commonwealth shall cause the same to be published three months before the next general election, in at least two newspapers in every county in which such newspapers shall be published; and if, in the General Assembly next afterwards chosen, such proposed amendment shall be agreed to … the Secretary of the Commonwealth shall cause the same again to be published in the manner aforesaid; and … submitted to the qualified electors. …” Herman Tausig, suing as a taxpayer, sought to prevent a popular vote on a number of proposed amendments undertaking, among other things, to repeal provisions thought to forbid the levying of graduated income and inheritance taxes and the appropriation of money for old age pensions. In holding that the action was not premature, the court stated: “The law of this state prohibits inquiry into the validity of the steps preliminary to the adoption of an amendment after it has received the approval of the people.” Reversing, or at least qualifying, certain earlier rulings discussed in the opinion, it demanded strict compliance with the procedure set out above, but ruled: “The framers did not intend the Secretary of the Commonwealth should be responsible for the actual publication; he has no means of accomplishing this. Nor will the submission of a proposed amendment be frustrated by the neglect or refusal of one or more newspapers to publish within the specified time. … All the section commands is that the secretary transmit the advertisements of the proposed amendment to the proper newspapers within sufficient time to enable them to be published … three months or more in advance of the election.”
Organization of the Executive Branch of the National Government of the United States: Changes between December 1, 1937, and May 31, 1938
Authors: Schmeckebier L. F.
Published: May 2006

As in previous lists, mention is here confined generally to units specifically authorized by law or established by the President by executive order under general authority vested in him. Changes in units created by heads of departments or independent establishments are excluded unless of major importance.

Advisory Committee for Federal Crop Insurance Corporation. Authorized by the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, Public Act No. 430, 75th Congress, approved February 16, 1938.
The War and the English Constitution
Authors: Chase Eugene P.
Published: May 2006

The Constitutional Atmosphere. In examining the effect of the present war on the English constitution, we are obliged to consider that constitution in its own context. Whether for good or ill, there is no international standard of practice, nor any universally accepted philosophical dogma, by which one may estimate its qualities. One cannot usefully apply to the English constitution the test of conformance to the ideals of Plato or Aristotle (or even of Thrasymachus the Sophist), or of Marx or Pareto, or even of Hamilton or Jefferson. It is profitless to wonder how well the English institutions of today might suit contemporary France, let us say, or contemporary America; nor is it relevant for either me or you to say “I like” or “I don't like.” The historical context of the English constitution is Locke and 1688, Disraeli and Gladstone, Asquith and 1911, Baldwin and 1926.
The Relations of Political Scientists with Public Officials: Report of a Committee to the American Political Science Association
Authors: Harris Joseph P. , Bane Frank , Egger Rowland A. , Grant J. A. C. , Herring Pendleton , Jump W. A. , Smith Harold D. , Thomas Elbert D. , White Leonard D.
Published: May 2006

In the summer of 1939, President Charles G. Haines set up this committee and instructed it to study broadly the contribution which political scientists are making to government, their relations with public officials, and how these relations might be made closer and more effective. The problem assigned to the committee is one of great importance to the future of political science. The challenge to political scientists to make an effective contribution to the improvement of government processes and institutions was never so real and so great as it is today. The preservation of democratic institutions, in the long run, will depend in large measure upon scientific study and research, and intelligent, imaginative, and constructive consideration of governmental problems. If political scientists are not making their full contribution to the development and improvement of government—and we believe they are not—it is time to stop and take stock, and to set about purposefully to attune political science to the needs of modern society. We are not unmindful of the very great contribution which all social sciences may make, but we believe that the responsibility of the political scientist is especially great.
County and Township Government in 1938
Authors: Snider Clyde F.
Published: May 2006

Developments in rural local government during 1938, although including occasional innovations, consisted chiefly in the continuation and extension of trends previously discernible. Although most state legislatures were not in session, several of those which met gave an unusual amount of attention to problems of local government. Especially in evidence were efforts to place local finances upon a sound basis, but there were also noteworthy measures designed to adjust local areas to present needs and to revitalize the internal machinery of local government. In reviewing the events of the year, a topical arrangement similar to that used in previous summaries will be followed.
How the United States “Led the League” in 1931
Authors: Wallace Benjamin B.
Published: May 2006

Many times we have been told that the United States led the League in dealing with the Manchurian Affair of 1931. The statement is essentially false, but contains an element of truth in that the League did defer to the United States. It recognized that it could accomplish nothing in the Far East without American support and played for that support, but without getting it at the critical points. The United States Government did not lead—rather it deliberately chose to follow; it refused coöperation with the proposed first effort of the League; it supported, if it did not lead, the abandonment of the immediate issue represented by the Resolution of December 10 and the appointment of the Lytton Commission; and its leadership was clear only in the final substantive surrender represented by the Non-Recognition Policy.
Personal Attention in Politics
Authors: Salter John T.
Published: May 2006

Why do some American citizens fail to vote in any election? Why do others limit their voting to contests in which a president is chosen? And of those who vote, why do a controlling number sometimes support candidate B instead of A? Candidate A may be of unquestioned honesty, superior brains, and broader and more significant experience. Any election provides examples of this sort of thing, and any reader can cite other illustrations from his own observation of recent or not so recent elections.
What is the Trouble with International Law?
Authors: Wild Payson S.
Published: May 2006

According to the textbooks of publicists, and according to the formal rules of international law, Ethiopia possessed certain well defined rights, and as a state was legally equal to all other states. Her position in the world, legally considered,was secure, buttressed as it was by a formidable array of rights such as “existence” and “self-defense.” Yet when it came to discussing the fate of Ethiopia, students of international affairs did not run to their law books, but focussed their attention upon happenings in Rome, Paris, London, and possibly Geneva. China, too, is a state, endowed with a legal right to exist on equal terms in what is euphemistically called the “family of nations.” But Far Eastern events are determined and shaped but little by legal rules; rather it is the policies of Japan and the other Great Powers which actually condition the flow of events and govern the future of China. Situations such as these are by no means exceptional, and lead many to the conclusion that they make for “a world without an effective system of public international law, in which force is the determining factor between nations [and in which] only Great Powers, by reason of their disproportionate strength, can invest their national policies with real international importance.”
Trends in English Local Government, 1944
Authors: Weidner Edward W.
Published: May 2006

Many accusations are being made in England at the present time that an over-centralized bureaucracy is stifling local government. The Government's plans for local government in the postwar period tend, it is said, to abolish local self-government.

If any such trends are discernible, an examination of local-government developments in 1944 ought to reveal them, since that year was one of profound change for English local government. Nearly every service administered by local government was in some way affected. Some services were enlarged, others reduced. New services were added, old ones dropped. Central-local relations in the performance of these functions were in nearly every case altered. Even the relations between different units of local government were modified.

In the pages that follow, an attempt is made to summarize some of the most important changes made in 1944 in the services performed by local units and to indicate some of the trends which are manifest when the changes are viewed as a whole.
The Restoration of Civil and Political Rights by Presidential Pardon
Authors: Brown Everett S.
Published: May 2006

Although much has been written on the general subject of the President's pardoning power, there is still considerable confusion concerning the use of that power for the restoration of civil and political rights to persons who have been deprived of them as a punishment for crime. Particular questions frequently raised are: What rights are lost? How are they lost? How may they be restored? That the issue is a live one is supported by the fact that in the year 1938 no fewer than 203 pardons were granted by the President to restore civil rights.

The confusion on the subject is due in large measure to the complexities of our federal form of government. This was clearly noted by Attorney-General Caleb Cushing in his opinion of July 9, 1856, in the case of Oliver Robbins of Sackett's Harbor, New York. Robbins was convicted in 1851, in the Circuit Court of the United States for the Northern District of New York, of an offense against federal law, and was sentenced to imprisonment in the penitentiary of New York. In 1852, he received from President Fillmore a general pardon.
The War Department in World War II
Authors: Millett John D.
Published: May 2006

Organization is customarily considered a means to an end. The purposes to be realized are of first importance, while administrative structure is a lesser consideration. Thus organization is supposed to describe the division of work already decided upon and the assignment of authority in performing a given task. Only technicians and a few students who find some queer fascination in detail need give particular attention to organizational matters.

However widely held, any such attitude about organization ignores several fundamentals. For one thing, conception of purpose and organization are too closely interrelated to say that one precedes the other. Indeed, in any large enterprise the objectives to be accomplished usually represent the composite views of different component parts. Sometimes conflicting purposes have been fairly well resolved at the center of an agency, and oftentimes they are permitted to flourish without much check, let alone guidance. Frequently you must know the individual elements in order to understand the whole. Finally, organization vitally affects the ambitions, reputations, and fortunes of many individual persons. It is often the battleground which reflects much more far-reaching beliefs than strictly technical concerns about the most efficient method for performing a job.
Freedom of Public Meeting in England Since 1914
Authors: Hitchner Dell G.
Published: May 2006

To refute the maxim silent leges inter arma is one of the modern challenges to a democracy at war. It is usually recognized that when a state is at war many of the rights of personal liberty normally enjoyed by its citizens must be limited to prevent interference with the prosecution of hostilities. In international conflicts having an ideological basis, such limitations, if too severe, produce a somewhat embarrassing dilemma for a democratic state. The requirements of total war may necessitate at home some of the very objectionable features of government which are to be overthrown elsewhere; yet to be too lenient with dissident groups can well be disastrous. At all events, the government hesitates so to act as to invite its citizens to ask: “To what purpose is a war in defense of democracy if it begins by ending the very liberties which a people are asked to defend against external aggression?” Nevertheless, war conditions are not alone responsible for altered conceptions of personal rights. Internal developments in peace-time may also create a need for changes in such rules; the law cannot remain constant when the conditions upon which it is based are being transformed. Within a twenty-five-year period in English history, two major wars, as well as a series of domestic emergencies, have produced conditions sufficiently serious to arouse substantial sentiment favoring restrictions on civil liberties. At the same time, however, other equally determined groups, whose position is strengthened by the increased popularity of democratic ideals, have sought to combat such restrictions. The events of the period examined show the nature and the result of this conflict.
County and Township Government in 1944
Authors: Snider Clyde F.
Published: May 2006

Developments in rural local government during 1944 included little that was wholly novel. Few state legislatures were in regular session, and those which met gave rather less attention than usual to local governmental problems. Nevertheless, several significant statutes and constitutional amendments became effective, and the convention which framed a new constitution for Missouri took numerous steps toward the modernization of local government in that state. In addition, particular local units in various states took action under preëxisting legal authority to improve their governmental forms or practices. As is usually the case, some proposals in the direction of betterment were defeated.

I. Areas

A type of governmental area which is becoming increasingly popular is that for providing rural fire protection. Kentucky, in 1944, authorized the establishment of fire protection districts upon petition by fifty-one per cent of the registered voters of the territory proposed to be included. Like some other laws of its kind, the Kentucky statute provides that the governing boards of such districts may either operate fire departments or contract for receiving fire protection from municipalities or other fire protection districts.

The number of soil conservation districts continued to grow rapidly. As of December 15, 1944, 1,203 such districts, including approximately 3,107,451 farms, had been established in the 45 states having soil conservation district laws. Only the three New England states of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire were without legislation authorizing the organization of districts of this nature.
Policy Formulation and the Administrative Process
Authors: Marx Fritz Morstein
Published: May 2006

It is no mere coincidence that greater reliance on government for social stewardship in a decade of economic stress has been accompanied by a reconsideration of public personnel problems. Foremost in the new orientation of thought is a deeper appreciation of administrative leadership within the civil service. As a result, considerable emphasis is being placed upon the demand for “upward extension” of the merit principle. In reality, the term “extension” appears to be a misnomer. If the leading staff positions in the administrative hierarchy are to be filled on a basis of competency and permanency, far-reaching questions of recruitment, promotion, and general grouping present themselves which can be answered only in relation to a revised conception of the entire service.
V. Systematizing Congressional Control
Authors: La Follette Robert M.
Published: May 2006

Ours is a government of “checks and balances.” It is the traditional concept which Montesquieu propounded in saying: “There can be no liberty where the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or body of magistrates.” One of the knottiest problems in the science of democratic government is that of reducing this basic theory of separated powers to a workable and efficient system. It requires the establishment of a proper balance, and devices of coördination that facilitate action but do not disturb the balance of powers. It also requires formal methods of procedure.
The Legal Nature of War Crimes and the Problem of Superior Command
Authors: Berger Jacob
Published: May 2006

One of the most crucial and controversial questions in the field of international criminal justice is that of whether “superior command” is a good defense in a war-crime trial. The answer is of cardinal importance, since trials of war criminals may prove entirely useless if accused persons are permitted simply to pass on the responsibility for their acts to their superiors. The line would lead straight to the omnipotent leader, who might choose to escape prosecution altogether by putting an end to his life. Opinions of writers on the subject are divided, and so are court decisions, war manuals, and legislative provisions. While the American and British war manuals, backed by Oppenheim's authority, recognize “superior command” as a full defense, Anglo-American practice, expressed in numerous decisions and supported by many authorities, refuses to ascribe to it any exculpating effect. Some theories recognize “superior command” as a defense to a limited extent only, dependent upon whether the subordinate actually knew, or had reasonable grounds for knowing, that a given command contemplated a punishable, or at least an illegal, action.

What has not been tried up to now, and what seems a worth-while undertaking, is to analyze the general conception of war crimes and to try to reach a solution of the indicated problem out of a clearer understanding of that conception.
I. The Charter Adopted at San Francisco
Authors: Eagleton Clyde
Published: May 2006

The Charter of the United Nations, signed at San Francisco on June 26, 1945, was the culmination of long and wide preparation. It is to be doubted whether any international instrument, or perhaps any human document, had ever before undergone such wide popular scrutiny, such intensive expert study, and such democratic procedure of adoption. It seems to be accepted, too, that in no country were preparatory studies undertaken upon so large a scale as in the United States.

At the Dumbarton Oaks conversations, each of the four states there represented offered the results of its studies in a plan submitted for consideration; and these, as the result of previous comparison of views, varied little in their fundamentals. The United States plan had been submitted to the three other Governments on July 18, 1944. Since it was in constitutional form and in more detail, it became the basis of further development, although all four plans were thoroughly discussed and parts of all were included in the final Proposals.
A Political Scientist Looks at Military Government in the European Theater of Operations
Authors: Zink Harold
Published: May 2006

The political scientist found various aspects of World War II of professional interest. Perhaps there were no fields as intimately related to political science as radar and atomic energy in the case of the physical sciences, though such agencies as the War Production Board, the Office of Price Administration, and the Office of Civilian Defense presented many problems of vital concern. Of the strictly military programs, it is probable that none involved so many aspects of political science as military government. Military government programs of some elaborateness were drafted for North Africa, Sicily and Italy, the Pacific Islands, Japan, Korea, and Germany and the countries which had been occupied by Germany. The military government activities in the European Theater of Operations surpassed all others in scope in that they involved both combat and post-hostility operations of great magnitude, necessitated dealings with both conquered and liberated peoples, required the establishment of a system of government from the bottom up through the state level in Germany, and were participated in by all four of the major Allied Powers. The European Theater of Operations also saw the widest use of officers who had been assigned on the basis of their specialist knowledge of various aspects of military-government activities. It may therefore be of some interest to the political science profession to comment on the general record of military government in the ETO.
The Leadership of the United States in the Postwar World
Authors: Berdahl Clarence A.
Published: May 2006

It is now more than one hundred years since the substance of the Connally Resolution was first adopted by a legislative body in the United States; it is almost fifty years since the United States, at the Hague Conferences, took the lead in pressing for an international court with much more power than the Court we have since failed to join; it is about thirty-five years since Congress itself, by a unanimous vote in both houses, adopted a resolution urging that the United States Navy be combined with other navies into an international police force for the preservation of peace; it is not quite thirty years ago that the political parties, without any of the present hullabaloo on the point, and at a time when the United States was not itself at war, achieved such a unity of position in their stand for effective American participation in world order as to make debate between them on that issue virtually nil; and it is not quite thirty years ago that the man soon to become the Republican leader in the Senate joined from the same platform with the Democratic President in an appeal for a League of Nations, and a League with force, both economic and military, at its command.
The Direction of Supply Activities in the War Department; An Administrative Survey, I
Authors: Millett John D.
Published: May 2006

Integration and coördination are terms that have long been used to describe the objectives of administrative reorganization. Thus coupled, the two words have appeared to represent mutually compatible goals. And most efforts at reform of local, state, and even federal, administration have embodied elements of both integration and coördination.

A somewhat different note was struck in the report of the President's Committee on Administrative Management transmitted to Congress in January, 1937. Here the emphasis was upon an improvement of the staff organization of the Presidency, rather than upon any large-scale effort to re-group and consolidate existing administrative agencies. Accordingly, it would not be unfair to say that coördination, even more than integration, was the objective of the proposals submitted by the President's Committee.
The Growth of the American Political Science Review, 1926–1949
Authors: Zink Harold
Published: May 2006

It is a traditional practice for individuals and institutions to celebrate anniversaries, particularly such landmarks as the half century and centennial years. Perhaps more significant in the case of professional journals are the periods ending distinguished editorships. This article deals with the growth of the American Political Science Review under the editorship of Frederick A. Ogg covering the period 1926–1949.

The Ogg editorship of the Review is perhaps not the longest to be found in the annals of American academic journals, but, extending as it did over a period of twenty-four years, it is nevertheless impressive from the standpoint of any measuring stick based on time. As far as the Review itself is concerned, the Ogg editorship easily establishes a record. W. W. Willoughby, the first editor, served approximately ten years and John A. Fairlie, his successor in the editor's chair, completed nine years of service.

But while the duration of an editorship is not without significance, other aspects are perhaps even more important. If a few editors of journals in other professional fields may have equalled or even exceeded the Ogg editorship in point of time, it is to be doubted whether any has made more of an impact, or has devoted himself more generously to his work. Professor Ogg used his editorial pencil vigorously in connection with the articles both long and short; in addition, he prepared the news and notes, assigned the book reviews, read the printer's proof, and solicited advertisements from various publishers.