bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cardiac Markers: Centralized or Decentralized Testing?
Authors: Plebani M. , Zaninotto M.
Published: October 2004

Testing for the diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction and other diseases included in the spectrum of the “acute coronary syndrome” is rapidly changing from the traditional enzymatic assays to mass measurement of more specific and sensitive markers (cardiac troponins, CK-MB and myoglobin). Several questions have arisen since the introduction of these new markers into the clinical setting: the choice of strategies for optimizing the utilization of biochemical assays combining different (early and specific) markers, a rationale for sampling specimens and the identification of clinically useful turnaround times. In particular, for achieving the last goal, attention has been directed toward near-patient testing for cardiac markers in addition to, or as a replacement for, traditional diagnostic methodologies. While qualitative methods for measuring cardiac markers at the bedside have some limitations which compromise their clinical usefulness, new quantitative devices offer a real alternative to decentralized testing. Regulatory and quality management issues related to near-patient testing, as well as the performance of recently introduced devices for a decentralized measurement of cardiac markers are reviewed.
EC4 European Syllabus for Post-Graduate Training in Clinical Chemistry. Version 2 – 1999
Authors: Bousquet B. , Brombacher P. J. , Zérah S. , Beastall G. H. , Blaton V. , Charret J. , Gurr E. , Halpern M. , Jansen R. T. , Kenny D. , Kohse K. P. , Köller U. , Lund E. , McMurray J. , Opp M. , Parviainen M. , Pazzagli M. , Queraltó J. M. , Sotiropoulou G. , Sanders G. T.
Published: October 2004

In modern medicine the undeniable value and indispensability of scientific investigations are now universally recognized both for diagnostic purposes and monitoring of disease and in basic epidemiology. The direct treatment of patients is an undeniable task of doctors in medicine. Progress in laboratory science is largely the result of contributions by scientists with an adequate education and specialisation in the field, i.e. by clinical chemists. Clinical laboratory science has developed on a broad front throughout the European Community, resulting in significant differences in what constitutes a national clinical chemistry service in each state. Clinical chemistry is the medical discipline devoted to obtain, explore and employ chemical knowledge and chemical methods of investigation, in order to procure knowledge about normal and abnormal chemical processes in man. These processes are studied on a general level, in order to get insight into human health and disease, and on a patient-specific level for diagnostic or monitoring purposes. The delimitation of clinical chemistry varies from country to country, since there is no sharp boundary to haematology, immunology, molecular biology and microbiology. One of the main tasks of the clinical chemist is direction and supervision of a laboratory department in a hospital or health service (public or private), where his role involves bridging the gap between rapidly developing laboratory science and technology and the growing knowledge on characteristics of disease. He must possess fundamental biochemical knowledge and have the ability to use this knowledge most appropriately as applied to clinical requirements, i.e. diagnosis of disease and planning and monitoring of therapy. Apart from providing a competent laboratory service, the clinical chemist must be able to function as a consultant to his clinical colleagues and liaise with them in the interpretation of laboratory results. His advice and professional consultation have at least three aspects, i.e. choosing the most appropriate laboratory investigation in a certain case, ensuring that the analyses are performed in the best possible way and correctly reported and, finally, providing information and (most important) interpretation on the significance and consequences of the laboratory data obtained. As the results of laboratory investigations and the consultation of the clinical chemist have a direct and important influence on the treatment of the patient, it is to the benefit of the public that the profession of the clinical chemist is duly regulated.
FDA Drug Approval Summaries: Pemetrexed (Alimta®)
Authors: Hazarika Maitreyee , White Robert M. , Johnson John R. , Pazdur Richard
Published: October 2004

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to:

Explain the mechanism of action of a recently approved new cancer drug, pemetrexed. Describe the adverse-event profile of pemetrexed and a novel approach for toxicity reduction. Discuss the rationale for the FDA approval of pemetrexed.

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The purpose of this report is to summarize information on pemetrexed (LY231514; MTA; Alimta®; Eli Lilly and Company; Indianapolis, IN), a drug recently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The review of the efficacy and safety of pemetrexed is summarized below. Pemetrexed is a pyrrolopyrimidine antifolate. It inhibits thymidylate synthase, glycinamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase, and dihydrofolate reductase. In a single, randomized, single-blind, multicenter phase III trial, the efficacy and safety of pemetrexed combined with cisplatin (Platinol®; Bristol-Myers Squibb; Princeton, NJ) were compared with those of single-agent cisplatin in 448 patients with malignant pleural mesothelioma. Two hundred twenty-six patients were randomized to receive pemetrexed and cisplatin, while 222 patients were randomized to receive cisplatin alone. The primary study end point was survival. Median survival times were 12.1 months for the pemetrexed plus cisplatin treated arm and 9.3 months for the cisplatin alone arm. Pemetrexed causes myelosuppression. The most common adverse events were neutropenia, fatigue, leukopenia, nausea, dyspnea, and vomiting.

On February 4, 2004, pemetrexed was approved by the FDA in combination with cisplatin for the treatment of patients with malignant pleural mesothelioma whose disease is unresectable or who are otherwise not candidates for curative surgery. The recommended dose of pemetrexed is 500 mg/m2 administered as an i.v. infusion over 10 minutes on day 1 of each 21-day cycle together with cisplatin at a dose of 75 mg/m2 infused over 2 hours beginning 30 minutes after the pemetrexed infusion. Patients must receive oral folic acid and vitamin B12 injections prior to the start of therapy and continue these during therapy to reduce severe toxicities. Patients should also receive corticosteroids with chemotherapy to reduce the risk of skin rashes. Approval was based on superior survival as a clinical benefit.
Superiority of Letrozole to Tamoxifen in the First-Line Treatment of Advanced Breast Cancer: Evidence from Metastatic Subgroups and a Test of Functional Ability
Authors: Mouridsen H. , Sun Y. , Gershanovich M. , Perez-Carrion R. , Becquart D. , Chaudri-Ross H.A. , Lang R.
Published: October 2004

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to:

Identify which advanced breast cancer patients in the three subsets studied (with nonvisceral metastases, with visceral metastases without liver involvement, and with liver metastases) responded most favorably to first-line therapy. Describe the limitations of first-line treatment in the three subsets of patients with advanced breast cancer. Explain how KPS assessment correlates with overall survival in patients with advanced breast cancer with different sites of metastatic lesions.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 hour of AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com

Purpose. The letrozole study 025 is a large (n = 907), international, double-blind, randomized, phase III trial in postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer. This subanalysis compares the efficacies of letrozole and tamoxifen as first-line therapy in postmenopausual women with advanced breast cancer according to site of metastatic lesions and Karnofsky Performance Status (KPS).

Materials and Methods. Nine hundred seven patients with advanced breast cancer were randomly assigned to once-daily oral letrozole (2.5 mg; Femara®; Novartis Pharma AG; Basel, Switzerland) or tamoxifen (20 mg; Tamofen®; Leiras OY; Turku, Finland). Time to progression (TTP) was estimated using the Kaplan-Meier product-limit method. Treatments were compared by Cox proportional hazards regression models.

Results. Letrozole treatment significantly prolonged TTP in all subsets of patients: those with nonvisceral metastases, those with visceral metastases without liver involvement, and those with liver metastases. The reduction in risk of progression ranged from 25%, for patients with nonvisceral metastases, to 36%, for patients with liver metastases. The distributions of baseline KPS scores for both treatment groups were similar (57% had KPS scores ≥90). Time to worsening of 20 points or more in KPS score was significantly longer with letrozole than with tamoxifen, but modest numbers of patients experienced such deterioration (letrozole, 20%, tamoxifen, 22%, in patients without visceral metastases; 23%–24% in patients with liver metastases; and letrozole, 14%, tamoxifen, 30%, in patients with visceral metastases without liver involvement).

Conclusion. These data demonstrate the consistent superiority of letrozole over tamoxifen and support the use of letrozole as a new standard of endocrine therapy in postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer.
Efficacy of First-Line Letrozole Versus Tamoxifen as a Function of Age in Postmenopausal Women with Advanced Breast Cancer
Authors: Mouridsen H. , Chaudri-Ross H.A.
Published: October 2004

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to:

Identify those patients in both age groups who responded most favorably to first-line therapy with letrozole. Describe the advantages of first-line treatment with letrozole in older patients with advanced breast cancer. Discuss the role of first-line therapy with letrozole in the management of advanced breast cancer.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 hour of AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com

Purpose. To compare the efficacy, in regard to time to progression (TTP) and objective response rate (ORR), of letrozole (Femara®; Novartis Pharma AG; Basel Switzerland), an oral aromatase inhibitor, with that of tamoxifen (Tamofen®; Leiras OY; Turku, Finland) as first-line therapy in younger (<70 years) and older (≥70 years) postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer.

Materials and Methods. Nine hundred seven patients with advanced breast cancer were randomly assigned to receive 2.5 mg letrozole (n = 453) or 20 mg tamoxifen (n = 454) once daily in a double-blind, multicenter, international trial. Among the prospectively planned analyses were analyses of TTP and ORR by age (<70 and ≥70 years). The results of these prospectively planned analyses are reported here.

Results. Letrozole was as effective in older postmenopausal women (≥70 years of age) as it was in younger postmenopausal women (<70 years of age). The overall ORR in the older subgroup was significantly higher in patients treated with letrozole (38%) than in patients treated with tamoxifen (18%). In the younger subgroup of postmenopausal patients, the ORRs were not significantly different (letrozole, 26%; tamoxifen, 22%). TTP was significantly longer for letrozole than for tamoxifen in both age groups (younger: letrozole median TTP, 8.8 months; tamoxifen, 6.0 months; older: letrozole median TTP, 12.2 months; tamoxifen, 5.8 months). Although age was independently prognostic of TTP, there was no significant effect of age on ORR in the presence of other factors.

Conclusion. The data show that letrozole, 2.5 mg once daily, is as effective in older, postmenopausal women as it is in younger postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer. In addition, letrozole was more effective than tamoxifen in both younger and older patients.
What Is the Role of Ovarian Ablation in the Management of Primary and Metastatic Breast Cancer Today?
Authors: Prowell Tatiana M. , Davidson Nancy E.
Published: October 2004

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to:

Discuss the pros and cons of various methods of ovarian ablation, including oophorectomy, radiation therapy, and luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) analogues. Recall the frequency of chemotherapy-related amenorrhea with commonly used regimens in adjuvant breast cancer treatment. Discuss the evidence supporting the use of ovarian ablation in premenopausal women with early-stage breast cancer. Discuss the evidence supporting the use of ovarian ablation in premenopausal women with locally advanced and metastatic breast cancer.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 hour of AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com

Ovarian ablation has been used for more than a century in the treatment of breast cancer. Methods of irreversible ovarian ablation include surgical oophorectomy and ovarian irradiation. Potentially reversible castration can be accomplished medically using luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) analogues. In addition, cytotoxic chemotherapy unpredictably produces amenorrhea and primary ovarian failure in 10%–95% of premenopausal women as a function of patient age, cumulative dose, and the specific agents used. In the metastatic setting, ovarian ablation and tamoxifen monotherapies produce comparable outcomes and may be more effective when used together. While many early adjuvant trials of ovarian ablation were methodologically flawed, a more recent meta-analysis by the Early Breast Cancer Trialists’ Collaborative Group of 12 properly designed randomized trials found significantly greater disease-free and overall survival rates for women under the age of 50, regardless of nodal status, receiving ovarian ablation as a single adjuvant therapy. Several important issues regarding the role of ovarian ablation in the treatment of breast cancer remain unresolved. Data suggest that ovarian ablation followed by some years of tamoxifen produces similar results to those seen with adjuvant chemotherapy in women with hormone-receptor positive breast cancer; however, the value of combining these modalities is still unclear. Other areas of ongoing investigation include the appropriate duration of therapy with LHRH analogues in the adjuvant setting, the long-term sequelae of ovarian suppression among young breast cancer survivors, and refinement of the population most likely to benefit from ovarian ablation or suppression.
Carboplatin in Combination Therapy for Metastatic Breast Cancer
Authors: Perez Edith A.
Published: October 2004

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to:

Describe the single-agent activity of carboplatin for metastatic breast cancer. Discuss the results of phase II trials of taxanes with platinum agents for breast cancer. Explain the hypothesis for the preclinical interaction between trastuzumab and platinum agents.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 hour of AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com

Background. Anthracycline-based regimens have a limited role in patients with metastatic breast cancer due to cumulative cardiotoxicity and their common use in adjuvant chemotherapy. New nonanthracycline regimens are, therefore, needed for metastatic disease. Single-agent carboplatin is active in patients with previously untreated metastatic breast cancer, producing response rates of 20%–35%. Preclinical studies have demonstrated synergistic antitumor efficacy of carboplatin and trastuzumab in HER2+ models.

Methods. Phase II and III clinical trial data of combination therapy with carboplatin (Paraplatin®; Bristol-Myers Squibb; Princeton, NJ), a taxane, and/or trastuzumab (Herceptin®; Genentech, Inc.; South San Francisco, CA) in metastatic breast cancer were identified from multiple sources, including: A) clinical trial data published in peer-reviewed journals within the last 5 years; B) preliminary clinical trial data from abstracts recently presented at national meetings; and C) phase III protocols currently evaluating carboplatin-based combination regimens.

Results. In several phase II studies, combination carboplatin and paclitaxel (Taxol®; Bristol-Myers Squibb) therapy was active and reasonably well tolerated in the first-line treatment of metastatic breast cancer, producing objective response rates of 53%–62%—substantially higher rates than those seen in other phase II trials of either drug alone. Similar phase II data for carboplatin with docetaxel (Taxotere®; Aventis; Bridgewater, NJ) have been reported, and recent phase III data suggest that adding carboplatin to a paclitaxel/trastuzumab regimen produces superior efficacy than paclitaxel/trastuzumab alone for patients with HER2+ metastatic disease. Drug scheduling plays an important role in the therapeutic ratio of this combination treatment.

Conclusions. Incorporation of carboplatin as a standard agent in first-line treatment of metastatic breast cancer has support from several recent studies. Preliminary results of combination carboplatin/taxane therapy with trastuzumab in metastatic disease are encouraging, and other carboplatin combinations are also being investigated in other phase II and III trials in patients selected based on the HER2 status of their cancer. Results are eagerly awaited.
Dynamic Magnetic Resonance Perfusion Imaging of Brain Tumors
Authors: Covarrubias Diego J. , Rosen Bruce R. , Lev Michael H.
Published: October 2004

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to:

Understand the rationale and validity of using MR perfusion techniques for selecting the optimal biopsy site for brain neoplasms. Understand the rationale and validity of using MR perfusion techniques to differentiate tumor recurrence from radiation necrosis. Understand the technical difficulties and limitations of this technique in the setting of high-grade neoplasms with severe blood-brain barrier breakdown, as well as the multiple methods available to address this problem.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 hour of AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com

In this paper, we review the technique of contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance (MR) perfusion imaging of brain neoplasms, with an emphasis on its clinical applications and utility. We start with a discussion of MR perfusion techniques available today and their relative merits and shortcomings. Next, the ability of MR perfusion to provide a preoperative assessment of tumor histology is examined. We also discuss the role of MR perfusion in helping guide tumor biopsy, and its advantages over more conventional methods. We will scrutinize the use of MR perfusion for assessing true lesion extent, in contrast to conventional MR imaging and other MR techniques. We will discuss the role of MR perfusion in differentiating treatment effects, such as radiation necrosis, from tumor recurrence. Finally, the future potential applications of this technology in the setting of novel antiangiogenic therapies for brain tumors will be addressed.
Practical Aspects of Weekly Docetaxel Administration Schedules
Authors: Hainsworth John D.
Published: October 2004

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to:

Describe the efficacy of weekly docetaxel in various solid tumors, particularly in comparison with docetaxel administered every 3 weeks. List the common treatment-related toxicities of weekly docetaxel. Effectively manage the common toxicities related to weekly docetaxel.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 hour of AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com

Docetaxel (Taxotere®; Aventis Pharmaceuticals Inc.; Bridgewater, NJ) is a highly effective chemotherapeutic agent with proven efficacy in a number of solid tumors. However, myelosuppression can be a substantial concern when docetaxel is administered every 3 weeks. Myelosuppression can be particularly problematic in older patients and those being treated with palliative intent. Weekly dosing of docetaxel has been investigated in an effort to reduce toxicity and has been identified as a safe and effective regimen in clinical trials. Weekly docetaxel is generally administered at doses ranging from 30–40 mg/m2/week for 6 of 8 weeks or for 3 of 4 weeks. With weekly dosing, though efficacy is comparable, myelosuppression is substantially less, and the overall tolerability profile is better than with every-3-week dosing. Fatigue is a common toxicity associated with weekly docetaxel; other adverse effects that are seen in a minority of patients include hyperlacrimation, nail toxicity, and alopecia. These side effects are dose related and can generally be managed through dose reductions or alterations in the weekly schedule. Because of the favorable tolerability profile, weekly docetaxel is under investigation in combination with other chemotherapeutic agents and with novel targeted agents in a variety of tumor types. The results of these ongoing studies will further define the place of weekly docetaxel in cancer therapy.
Hypersensitivity Reactions to Oxaliplatin and the Application of a Desensitization Protocol
Authors: Gammon David , Bhargava Pankaj , McCormick Michael J.
Published: October 2004

Oxaliplatin (Eloxatin®; Sanofi-Synthelabo Inc.; New York, NY) is a third-generation platinum agent indicated for the treatment of colorectal cancer. Severe hypersensitivity reactions to oxaliplatin rarely occur; however, they do represent a threat to the small number of patients that are occasionally affected. We developed a desensitization protocol and successfully applied it to a patient with severe, grade 3, hypersensitivity to oxaliplatin. For patients who have mild sensitivity to oxaliplatin, slowing the run rate down and giving an antihistamine and/or a steroid usually suffice. Desensitization will help to provide the small number of patients who experience severe hypersensitivity reactions with the ability to further receive an effective therapy for their colorectal cancer. The desensitization protocol is described in detail.
Superior Sulcus Tumors: A Mini-Review
Authors: Archie Victor C. , Thomas Charles R.
Published: October 2004

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to:

Describe the diagnostic work-up for superior sulcus (Pancoast) tumors of the lung. List the major prognostic factors pertaining to outcome in patients with superior sulcus (Pancoast) tumors. Discuss the recent (SWOG 94-16) and current (SWOG-0220) intergroup trials for superior sulcus (Pancoast) tumors.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 hour of AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com

The management and outcome for superior sulcus tumors have remained unchanged for 40 years. The rarity of these tumors has led to varying treatment techniques spanning decades, from which no solid conclusions can be drawn. Recent advances in combined-modality therapy have offered the first inkling that a paradigm shift is on the horizon. Here, we review the history and new advances in treating this challenging pulmonary neoplasm.
Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer in the Elderly
Authors: Makrantonakis Paris D. , Galani Eleni , Harper Peter G.
Published: October 2004

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to:

Describe the difference between chronologic and biologic age in patients with NSCLC. Discuss how clinical trials establish biologic rather than chronologic age in patients with NSCLC. Explain the effectiveness of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy in geriatric patients with NSCLC.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 hour of AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com

The population is aging both in developing and developed countries. What is clear is that currently over 50% of all patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) are 65 years of age or older. When deciding a treatment strategy, the biological rather than the chronological age should be carefully assessed, and treatment should only be modified or withheld for very good reason. This applies equally to surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. Fortunately, recently published studies have focused on the issue and have provided strong evidence of improved progression-free survival, overall survival, and quality of life in elderly patients with appropriately treated NSCLC.
Management of Bleeding in Patients with Advanced Cancer
Authors: Pereira Jose , Phan Tien
Published: October 2004

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to:

List at least four local hemostatic agents and dressings for controlling localized bleeding in a patient with cancer. List at least four systemic therapies for controlling bleeding in a patient with advanced cancer. Describe a decision-making process related to managing bleeding in an end-of-life cancer patient.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 hour of AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com

Bleeding occurs in up to 10% of patients with advanced cancer. It can present in many different ways. This article provides a qualitative review of treatment options available to manage visible bleeding. Local modalities, such as hemostatic agents and dressings, radiotherapy, endoscopic ligation and coagulation, and transcutaneous arterial embolization, are reviewed in the context of advanced cancer, as are systemic treatments such as vitamin K, vasopressin/desmopressin, octreotide/somatostatin, antifibrinolytic agents (tranexamic acid and aminocaproic acid), and blood products. Considerations at the end of life are described.
Adjuvant Analgesics in Cancer Pain Management
Authors: Lussier David , Huskey Angela G. , Portenoy Russell K.
Published: October 2004

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to:

Identify the indications of adjuvant analgesics in the treatment of cancer pain. Select an appropriate adjuvant analgesic for the treatment of pain in a specific cancer patient. Know the dosing recommendations, side effects, and drug interactions of the most common adjuvant analgesics.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 hour of AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com

Adjuvant analgesics are defined as drugs with a primary indication other than pain that have analgesic properties in some painful conditions. The group includes numerous drugs in diverse classes. Although the widespread use of these drugs as first-line agents in chronic nonmalignant pain syndromes suggests that the term “adjuvant” is a misnomer, they usually are combined with a less-than-satisfactory opioid regimen when administered for cancer pain. Some adjuvant analgesics are useful in several painful conditions and are described as multipurpose adjuvant analgesics (antidepressants, corticosteroids, α2-adrenergic agonists, neuroleptics), whereas others are specific for neuropathic pain (anticonvulsants, local anesthetics, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists), bone pain (calcitonin, bisphosphonates, radiopharmaceuticals), musculoskeletal pain (muscle relaxants), or pain from bowel obstruction (octreotide, anticholinergics). This article reviews the evidence supporting the use of each class of adjuvant analgesic for the treatment of pain in cancer patients and provides a comprehensive outline of dosing recommendations, side effects, and drug interactions.
The Molecular Perspective: Cyclins
Authors: Goodsell David S.
Published: October 2004

Learning Objective

After completing this course, the reader will be able to:

Describe the role of cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases in cancer.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 hour of AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com
Energy Management
Authors: Rossiter Alan
Published: October 2004

Chemical production uses ∼25% of industrial energy in the United States, and effective energy management is essential to profitability. In many chemical plants, the most significant factor in minimizing energy costs is the use of cogeneration to provide both heat and power at a high overall efficiency. However, there are many other components of effective energy management.

Steam provides the integrating energy medium in most chemical plants. Two significant components in steam systems are steam turbines, for which maximizing efficiency is the primary goal, and steam traps, for which the goal is high reliability. The other major utility system is electrical, and its main consumers are typically pumps and compressors.

Many of the unit operations in chemical plants consume large amounts of energy. This is especially true of distillation, evaporation and drying, and care must be taken in the design and operation of the equipment to ensure the highest practical energy efficiency. However, there is generally a tradeoff between capital and energy costs, and this influences equipment choices.

Many chemical companies are actively pursuing energy efficiency programs to improve their facilities. The scope of these activities varies from company to company, but typically includes some or all of the following: follow best practices in operations and maintenance; invest in processes and infrastructure to reduce energy costs; implement systems to sustain progress.
Flavor Characterization
Authors: Reineccius Gany , Vickers Zeta M.
Published: October 2004

Flavor is a human response to the various chemical stimuli provided by a food. Flavor an important property of a food in determining liking. Thus, its characterization from a human standpoint is critical to the food industry. Issues of human liking, preference, differences, etc are assessed using established scientific protocols. There is a compelling desire to instrumentally, or chemically, characterize the flavor of a food as well. This provides a better understanding of the stimuli involved in perception. This article presents a discussion of approaches for the sensory and instrumental characterization of food flavor.
Foams
Authors: Saint-Jalmes Arnaud , Durian Douglas J. , Weitz David A.
Published: October 2004

Foam is a nonequilibrium dispersion of gas bubbles in a relatively smaller volume of liquid containing surface‐active molecules. Foams that are relatively stable can be thought of as a form of condensed matter both solid‐like in being able to resist shear elastically, and liquid‐like in being able to flow and deform into arbitrary shapes. In this article, the extent to which the macroscopic stability and rheology of liquid‐based foams can be understood in terms of the underlying structure and dynamics of the constituent gas bubbles and liquid films, and their ultimate origin in terms of the physical chemistry of surface‐active molecules preferentially adsorbed at the gas–liquid interfaces are reviewed. Existing measurement techniques and survey applications in which custom foams play an important role are also discussed.
Industrial Hygiene
Authors: Lynch Jeremiah
Published: October 2004

Industrial hygiene is defined as the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control of those environmental factors or stresses arising in or from the workplace that may cause sickness, impaired health or well‐being, or significant discomfort and inefficiency among workers or among the citizens of the community. The practice of industrial hygiene starts with an awareness of the hazardous nature of chemical, physical, and biological agents, and of the processes that give rise to opportunities for people to be exposed to these agents. The skill of industrial hygienists includes this recognition ability, the skill to make and interpret complex measurements of conditions, and the ability to identify risk reduction measures that may range from changes in work practices to modifications of the physical plant. All of this is performed in continuous interactions with workers, management, regulatory agencies, the public, and other professionals such as physicians and safety professionals. The techniques of industrial hygiene undergo continuous improvement resulting from the work of the practitioners and from research in toxicology, epidemiology, risk assessment, analytical chemistry, engineering, and other disciplines.
Electrochemical Processing, Organic
Authors: Fry Albert J.
Published: October 2004

The technology for electroorganic synthesis is surveyed. Cell design and electrode materials, including the use of diaphragms in certain cases, are discussed, as are cell current distribution and mass‐transport phenomena. Features influencing good product specificity with certain cell designs are presented, together with a sampling of commercially available cells. Cost analysis for electroorganic synthesis is reviewed. A number of electroorganic processes that have been commercialized or carried out at pilot‐plant scale are presented.
Growth Regulators, Plant
Authors: Cutler Horace G. , Cutler Stephen J.
Published: October 2004

The arrival of new plant growth regulators on the market in the early 1990s, especially synthetic ones, is in a static state. Many growth regulators continue to be used experimentally, but the transition to approved usage is being delayed for several reasons. On the financial side, a number of mergers, buy‐outs, and other dispositions of chemical companies has led to a decrease in the number of commercial compounds available. Moreover, the cost of registration has prompted some producers to withdraw chemicals from the market. Some older plant growth regulators have undergone several trade name changes, adding confusion to the field.

The ideal plant growth regulator should leave no harmful persistent residue in a finished product or crop and the paradigm compounds are ones that have high specific activity, are target specific, and are environmentally biodegradable. The most acceptable growth regulators appear to be those compounds that already occur in nature and elicit certain desirable responses in economic crops.
Steel
Authors: Paxton Harry
Published: October 2004

Paxton, Harry (Carnegie Mellon University). Steel is the generic name for a group of ferrous metals composed principally of iron, but containing some carbon and generally other elements as well. These iron–carbon alloys are the most plentiful and useful of the metallic materials, whether for infrastructure construction, consumer goods from automobiles to cutlery, or spacecraft. Durability and versatility are evidenced by the wide range of physical and mechanical properties. The manufacture of the two allotropes of steels is presented, including the electric furnace and the oxygen steelmaking process. Raw materials and addition agents, casting, plastic working, and metallography and heat treatment are described. The iron–iron–carbide phase diagram is discussed, as are the various types of alloy steels, including stainless steels. Property‐composition relationships are summarized briefly.
Composite Materials
Authors: Chung Deborah D. L.
Published: October 2004

Composite materials are defined as artificial combinations of two or more materials. The development of advanced composites is outlined. Composites are classified according to the geometry as fibrous, laminated, and particulate. They are also classified according to the matrix material as polymer–matrix, cement–matrix, metal–matrix, carbon–matrix, and ceramic–matrix. Composite materials with different matrices are compared in terms of their science and applications, including structural and functional applications. Polymer–matrix materials, which are dominant, are classified as thermosetting or thermoplastic, and common examples of each type are discussed. The processing, structure, properties (mechanical, thermal, etc) and their interrelationships are covered. Methods of fabricating composites are reviewed, with emphasis on composites with continuous fibers. Theories of reinforcement are introduced for unidirectional laminated composites.
Stochastic modeling for inventory and production planning in the paper industry
Authors: Yin K. Karen , Yin G. George , Liu Hu
Published: October 2004

Problem formulations and solution procedures of production planning and inventory management for manufacturing systems under uncertainties is discussed. Markov decision processes and controlled Markovian dynamic systems are used in the models. Considering an inventory problem in discrete time and formulating it by a finite‐state Markov chain lead to a Markov decision process model. Using the policy‐improvement algorithm yields the optimal inventory policy. In controlled dynamic system modeling, the random demand and capacity processes involved in planning are described by two finite‐state continuous‐time Markov chains. Such an approach enables us to embed the randomness in the differential equations of the system. The optimal production rates that minimize an expected cost are obtained by numerically solving the corresponding Hamilton–Jacobi–Bellman (HJB) equations. To overcome the so‐called curse of dimensionality, frequently encountered in computation, we resort to a hierarchical approach. Illustrative examples using data collected from a large paper manufacturer are provided. © 2004 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 50: 2877–2890, 2004
Singular points of reactive distillation systems
Authors: Qi Zhiwen , Flockerzi Dietrich , Sundmacher Kai
Published: October 2004

For the conceptual design of countercurrently operated reactive distillation columns, fast methods are needed to estimate potential top and bottom products. The possible column bottom product composition can be determined from the stable singular points of a batch reactive reboiler. In a similar manner the top product composition can be obtained from the stable singular points of a batch reactive condenser. Geometrically, the singular points of both batch processes are located on a common potential singular point surface (PSPS) whose trajectory depends on the reaction stoichiometry and the phase equilibria. At the singular points, the PSPS intersects a reaction kinetic surface that is dependent on the reaction rate expression and the phase equilibrium of a reference component. Based on the singularity analysis, a single‐feed reactive distillation column can be designed. Several hypothetical and real reaction systems are analyzed to illustrate the singularity analysis and the design procedure. © 2004 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 50: 2866–2876, 2004
Optimal design of batch‐storage network with financial transactions and cash flows
Authors: Yi Gyeongbeom , Reklaitis Gintaras V.
Published: October 2004

An integrated analysis of production and financing decisions is presented. A model is constructed in which a cash storage unit is installed to manage the cash flows associated with production activities, such as raw material procurement, process operating setup, inventory holding costs and finished product sales. Temporary financial investments are allowed to increase profit. The production plant is modeled by the batch‐storage network model with recycle streams. The objective function of the optimization is minimizing the opportunity costs of annualized capital investment and cash/material inventory minus the benefit to stockholders. The major constraints of the optimization are that the material and cash storage units must not be depleted. A production and inventory analysis formulation, the periodic square wave (PSW) model, provides useful expressions for the upper/lower bounds and average levels of the cash and material inventory holdups. The expressions for the Kuhn‐Tucker conditions of the optimization problem are reduced to a subproblem and analytical lot sizing equations. This subproblem is then decomposed into two separable concave minimization network flow problems whose solutions yield the average material and cash flow rates through the networks. The production and financial transaction lot sizes and startup times can be determined by analytical expressions after the average flow rates are already known. It is shown that, when financial factors are taken into consideration, the optimal production lot and storage sizes are smaller than is the case when such factors are not considered. An illustrative example is presented to demonstrate the potential of this approach. © 2004 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 50: 2849–2865, 2004
Cover Picture: Molecular Gyroscopes: {Fe(CO)3} and {Fe(CO)2(NO)}+ Rotators Encased in Three‐Spoke Stators; Facile Assembly by Alkene Metatheses (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 41/2004)
Authors: Shima Takanori , Hampel Frank , Gladysz J. A.
Published: October 2004

Three‐fold alkene metatheses are used to access the family of molecular gyroscopes shown in the cover picture. As described by J. A. Gladysz and co‐workers in their Communication on page 5537 ff. the gyroscopes consist of a phosphorus–iron–phosphorus axis, an {Fe(CO)3} or {Fe(CO)2(NO)}+ “rotator”, and three (CH2)n “spokes” that connect the phosphorus termini. These are believed to be the first systems that rigorously duplicate the connectivity and symmetry of toy gyroscopes (shown in the background).
Rhodnius prolixus Malpighian tubule's aquaporin expression is modulated by 5‐hydroxytryptamine
Authors: Martini Sabrina V. , Goldenberg Regina C. , Fortes Fabio S.A. , Campos‐De‐Carvalho Antônio C. , Falkenstein Dóris , Morales Marcelo M.
Published: October 2004

The purpose of the present study was to detect the presence of an aquaporin‐like water channel, a member of the major intrinsic protein (MIP) family, in the Malpighian tubule (MT) of the hematophagous insect Rhodnius prolixus, which excrete a large bulk of fluid after a massive blood meal, and its possible regulation by 5‐hydroxytryptamine (5‐HT). Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) and Southern blots of cDNA was obtained from adult R. prolixus MT poly (A)+ RNA. Employing degenerate primers corresponding to the NPA (amino acid sequence motifs repeats Asn‐Pro‐Ala) highly conserved domain of amino acids sequences of all members of the MIP gene family, we were able to identify a 365‐base pair PCR product. The R. prolixus MT mRNA expression of this water transporter is increased in the animal after blood meal and in tubules treated with 5‐hydroxytryptamine or cAMP. The up‐regulated expression of MT MIP mRNA after a blood meal is probably due to the action of 5‐hydroxytryptamine via a cyclic AMP dependent pathway. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 57:133–141, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Diversity of G proteins in Lepidopteran cell lines: Partial sequences of six G protein alpha subunits
Authors: Knight Peter J.K. , Grigliatti Thomas A.
Published: October 2004

The aim of this work was to sample the diversity of G protein α subunits in lepidopteran insect cell lines. Here we report the amplification by degenerate PCR of partial sequences representing six G protein α subunits from three different lepidopteran insect cell lines. Sequence comparisons with known G protein α subunits indicate that the Sf9, Ld and High Five™ cell lines each contain (at least) one Gαq‐like and one Gαi‐like Gα subunit. All six PCR products are unique at the nucleotide level, but the translation products of the three Gα q‐like partial clones (Sf9‐Gα 1, Ld‐Gα 1, and Hi5‐Gα 1) are identical, as are the translation products of the three Gα i‐like partial clones (Sf9‐Gα 2, Ld‐Gα 2, and Hi5‐Gα 2). Both the Gαq‐like and Gαi‐like translation products are identical to known Gα subunits from other Lepidoptera, are highly similar (88–98%) to Gα subunits from other invertebrates including mosquitoes, fruit flies, lobsters, crabs, and snails, and are also highly similar (88–90%) to known mammalian Gα subunits. Identification of G protein α subunits in lepidopteran cell lines will assist in host cell line selection when insect cell lines are used for the pharmacological analysis of human GPCRs. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 57:142–150, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Comparative larvicidal toxicities of three ecdysone agonists on the mosquitoes Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus, and Anopheles gambiae
Authors: Beckage Nancy E. , Marion Ken M. , Walton William E. , Wirth Margaret C. , Tan Frances F.
Published: October 2004

Ecdysone agonists are hormonally active insect growth regulators that disrupt development of pest insects and have potential for development as insecticides. Their effects have been particularly well‐studied in Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, but significantly less is known about their effects on dipterans, particularly aquatic species. The potency of three ecdysone agonists on larvae of 3 mosquito species, Aedes aegypti, Anopheles gambiae, and Culex quinquefasciatus, was examined. Anopheles gambiae was the most susceptible species and Ae. aegypti was the most resistant species to the effects of the three compounds tested. Potency, in descending order, was RH‐2485 > RH‐5992 > RH‐5849. Dose‐response relationships were determined for the three agonists; RH‐2485 was found to be the most effective endocrine disruptor against all three species. The observed biological effects of these compounds were similar to those reported for other insects, and mosquitoes initiated molting and apolysis but did not complete a molt. In some cases, mosquito larvae synthesized a new cuticle that appeared to be normally sclerotized but the larvae failed to ecdyse and shed the exuvium. These compounds may prove to be valuable insect growth regulators for control of mosquitoes to decrease the frequency of pathogen transmission to humans. Prospects for using these compounds to control mosquitoes in the field are discussed, along with possible impacts on non‐target arthropods in mosquito habitats. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 57:111–122, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Gamma‐ray burst optical follow ups with robotic telescopes
Authors: Andersen M. I. , Pedersen H.
Published: October 2004

Gamma‐ray bursts (GRBs) are the most energetic phenomenon in the universe, emitting their energy throughout the electromagnetic spectrum. Due to their initial brightness and highly transient nature, they are ideally suited for rapid followup observations with robotic telescopes. From the sample of 30 GRBs with known redshift and detected optical afterglow, it is found that the 8 robotic detections are obtained at brighter apparent magnitudes. The U‐band luminosity function (LF) in the restframe at 1 day for this sample of 30 GRBs is derived and found to be broad (–19 < U < –25). For high‐zGRBs, the faint end of the LF is undetected, implying that dark bursts are at least partly explained by a broad LF. For the robotically detected afterglows the LF and redshift distribution is indistinguishable from the full sample. The implication is that also rapid response robotic facilities have to be moderately large to probe the intrinsic GRB afterglow LF. (© 2004 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Unsolved problems in observational astronomy. II. Focus on rapid response – mining the sky with “thinking” telescopes
Authors: Vestrand W. T. , Theiler J. , Wozniak P. R.
Published: October 2004

The existence of rapidly slewing robotic telescopes and fast alert distribution via the Internet is revolutionizing our capability to study the physics of fast astrophysical transients. But the salient challenge that optical time domain surveys must conquer is mining the torrent of data to recognize important transients in a scene full of normal variations. Humans simply do not have the attention span, memory, or reaction time required to recognize fast transients and rapidly respond. Autonomous robotic instrumentation with the ability to extract pertinent information from the data stream in real time will therefore be essential for recognizing transients and commanding rapid follow‐up observations while the ephemeral behavior is still present. Here we discuss how the development and integration of three technologies: (1) robotic telescope networks; (2) machine learning; and (3) advanced database technology, can enable the construction of smart robotic telescopes, which we loosely call “thinking” telescopes, capable of mining the sky in real time. (© 2004 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)