bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF CENTRAL ANATOLIA.
Authors: Wadley N. J. P.
Published: April 2008

.1. The habitats of the Central Anatolian plateau are described.

2. A list of the birds seen during the years 1943 to 1946 is supplemented by the results of a small collection.

3. The habitat relations ofOenanthespp. andParusspp. respectively are described.

4. Ranges ofEmberizas.tschusii, Calandrella b. hermonemisand C. r.aharoniiare extended and 14 species are recorded from Central Anatolia for the first time.

5. Spring arrival dates for passage and breeding migrants, and also arrival and departure dates for winter visitors, are tabulated.

REFERENCES

Bird, C. G. (1937). ‘The birds of Southern Asia Minor from Mersin to the Euphrates.’ Ibis 14 (1): 65–85.
THE BIRDS OF THE MALTESE ISLANDS.
Authors: Gibb John
Published: April 2008

1. Observations on Malta were made from August 1941 until July 1945.

2. The typical species breeding in the major inland and coastal habitats are described.

3. Only 18 species breed regularly in the islands. The number of breeding species on Malta is much less than in equivalent habitats in Sicily. The ecological niche occupied by a single species is often wider on Malta than that occupied by the same species in Sicily.

4. The status of some breeding species has recently changed; the history of these changes, and some field‐notes on other breeding species, are given.

5. The number of birds present did not suggest that Malta receives any concentrated stream of passage migrants. Diurnal migration was seen only during exceptional weather.

6. Many passage migrants were seen only, or in much greater abundance, in spring than in autumn. Few species were seen exclusively on autumn passage.

7. Some passage migrants have recently changed status, and there are some new records of rare species.
ON THE BIRDS OF ERITREA
Authors: Smith By K. D.
Published: April 2008

The geography, habitats and bird‐communities of Eritrea are described on the basis of observations during six years' residence.
RAPTOR MIGRATION IN THE SUEZ AREA: Autumn 1949‐Spring 1950.
Authors: Simmons K. E. L.
Published: April 2008

Notes are given on the raptor migration in the Suez area in the autumn of 1949 and spring of 1950, together with some records of the presence of birds‐of‐prey in the Great Bitter Lake area in the same periods. Interesting observations are: that the birds do at times make water‐crossings over the Gulf of Suez and the Bitter Lake; and that in autumn some raptor parties, which have crossed over from Sinai some miles south of Suez, take an initial course north along the Ataka Mountains.
INTERSPECIFIC TERRITORIALISM
Authors: Simmons K. E. L.
Published: April 2008

1. The term “interspecific territorialism” is defined.

2. Examples are given of interspecific territorialism between (a) members of the chat genus Oenanthe (leucopyga, lugens, monacha, oenanthe, and pleschanka) ; (b) oenanthids and a female Monticola solitarius; and (c) the shrikes Lanius collurio and L. nubicus.

3. An encounter between a Robin Erithacus rubecula and a pair of Stonechats. Saxicola torquata is described.

4. It is contended that common outline and mannerisms are more important than common plumage characters in stimulating these interspecific reactions.

5. Interspecific territorialism is apparently one of the means evolved to eliminate the effect of competition between closely allied species with a similar ecology.
SOME RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN AFRICAN, ORIENTAL, AND PALAEARCTIC GENERA AND SPECIES, WITH A REVIEW OF THE GENUS MONTICOLA.
Authors: Meinertzhagen Col. R.
Published: April 2008

An attempt is made to broaden the bases of genera and species occurring in the Palaearctic Region by lifting taxonomy out of the narrow rut of regional ornithology.

Examples are given of wide distributional gaps among certain palaearctic forms and of a closer relationship between Ethiopian and palaearctic genera and species than is generally admitted. These examples are by no means exhaustive but are in the nature of samples.

A more detailed note is given on the distribution, taxonomy and habits (including food‐habits and inter‐specific intolerance) of the genus Monticola, which exemplifies wide distributional gaps; and hypotheses are suggested to explain these gaps.
NECTARINIA JOHNSTONI: A REVISION OF THE SPECIES, TOGETHER WITH DATA ON PLUMAGES, MOULTS AND HABITS.
Authors: Williams John G.
Published: April 2008

1. An extensive series of Nectarinia johnstoni and details of material existing in the main British and American Museums have been brought together, and the status of the various geographical races revised.

2. Three races of Nectarinia johnstoni are recognizable: N. j. johnstoni Shelley (syn. N. j. idius Mearns); N.j. salvadorii Shelley; and N. j. dartmouthi O.‐Grant. The distinguishing characters and distribution of these three races are set out.

3. Hitherto unrecorded immature and eclipse plumages are described.

4. The general habits, food, voice and display are described.

5. The breeding habits of the three races are recorded under the headings “nesting seasons”, “nesting sites”, “description of nests” and “description of eggs”.
THE WRENS OF FAIR ISLE
Authors: Williamson Kenneth
Published: April 2008

A new race of wren, Troglodytes t. fridariensis, is described from Fair Isle in North Britain.

The plumage of the upper parts of the wrens in the north‐east Atlantic area shows three lines of divergence from the typical race: (a) hebridensis‐setlandicus, (b) fridariensis‐hirtensis, and (c) borealis‐islandicus.

The tendency of the Fair Isle stock towards the greyer mantle plumage of St. Kilda birds may be due to similar environmental conditions, or to “Sewell‐Wright effect” in small, isolated communities.

The importance of the 25‐mile sea‐barrier separating Shetland from Fair Isle wrens is emphasized.
SOME ASPECTS OF THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE JAY GARRULUS GLANDARIUS.
Authors: Goodwin Derek
Published: April 2008

.1. Observations were made on wild and captive Jays, chiefly from June 1946 until October 1950, in and near London.

2. An account is given of the various posturings and call‐notes and the circumstances under which they are used. Vocal mimicry and “song” are discussed and the copied sounds used by a captive pair are listed, together with the stimuli eliciting them and their emotional implications.

3. Some aspects of the breeding cycle are described and discussed, particularly with reference to the spring gatherings, the behaviour of the nestlings and parental care. It is suggested that the primary function of the spring gatherings is to facilitate the meeting of single birds ready to pair.

4. Reactions to enemies are discussed, together with the behaviour of captive birds towards stuffed owls and hawks and a live Tawny Owl. Innate recognition of owls as enemies seems to be weak and subject to individual variation. Black corvids appear to be instinctively recognized as potential nest‐enemies and are liable to be attacked on coming into the nest area.

4. Dominance and intra‐specific aggressive behaviour are described. Among captive birds males normally dominate females, but the female of a pair that have bred for three years running is regularly dominant over the male while she is incubating or brooding young.

5. Feeding behaviour and feeding techniques are noted. Acorns probably form the largest single item in the diet of adult birds. Much time is spent burying acorns, and at least on some occasions the hiding place is remembered. The reactions of captive birds to various warningly coloured insects are described.

6. The behaviour of two incubating female Jays points strongly to the conclusion that where Jays are abundant the high percentage of nesting losses may be due to their robbing nests of their own species.

7. The anting of captive Jays is described. Unlike other birds, they do not, when anting, appear to hold ants in the bill or to place them with the bill amongst the plumage.

8. The play of Jays, like that of ducks and pigeons, consists of “emotion‐dissociated fleeing reactions”, which suggest an accipitrine hawk, probably the Goshawk, as a major predator in natural conditions.
ON THE HOUR OF LAYING AND HATCHING OF BLRDS‘ EGGS.
Authors: Skutch Alexander F.
Published: April 2008

Observations on the hour of the day when the eggs are laid are presented for about 40 species of Central American birds; observations on the hour of hatching for about 14 species.

 In a single locality each species has its own time for laying. There are also well marked family trends, to which, however, exceptions are found. Tanagers, finches (with one decided exception), wood warblers, honeycreepers, wrens, and hummingbirds usually lay early, from before to soon after sunrise. Turdus grayi lays considerably later. American flycatchers lay consistently later than the tanagers, finches, etc., often waiting until the second half of the forenoon. Manacus aurantiacus and two species of Crotophaga lay around midday; the goatsucker Nyctidromus albicollis rather late in the afternoon.

 Birds which lay about sunrise show less variation in the hour of laying than those which lay later in the day.

 Among birds which lay sets of two, some deposit both at about the same hour, so that the interval between layings is about 24 hours (e.g. tanagers and very small finches). Others lay the second egg later in the morning than the first, so that the interval is 25 or 26 hours (e.g. the larger finches Arremonops and Saltator). Tioris olivacm which has sets of two or three, and Troglodytes musculus whose set is three or four, both lay their eggs at intervals of approximately 24 hours.

 The hour of hatching, for a given species or in a single nest, is more variable than the hour of laying.

 With flycatchers of the genus Myiozetetes, eggs hatch during the (late ?) night and forenoon, scarcely ever in the afternoon. Apparently there is a diurnal rhythm in the birdling's efforts to break through and escape from the shell.

 With the tanager Ramphocelus passerinii, eggs hatch predominantly in the forenoon, not infrequently in the afternoon, rarely during the night. Here the predominance of hatching in the forenoon may be caused by constancy in the hour of laying and in the length of the incubation period when this is not retarded.

 Among passerine birds, there seems to be a well marked tendency for eggs to hatch in the afternoon far less frequently than would be expected if the distribution of this event were random through the 24 hours of the day. But apparent exceptions are noted.
BIRDS ON PALMA AND GOMERA (CANARY ISLANDS).
Authors: Cullen J. M. , Guiton P. E. , Horridge G. A. , Peirson J.
Published: April 2008

During the summer of 1949 separate expeditions visited the islands of Palma and Gomera in the Canary Islands.

 A survey of the birds was made, mainly of the Passerine species, to determine in which habitats they were found.

 The distributions of some of these species is discussed and, so far as possible, accounted for.

 Of 12 species common to Palma and Britain, five had calls which differed distinctly, while three, Fringilla coelebs, Parus caeruleus and Phyllosropus collybita, were strikingly different.

 A systematic list for the two islands is presented.
A RINGING STATION IN EGYPT
Authors: Brownlow H. G.
Published: April 2008

Trapping and ringing of non–resident birds in Egypt in 1949 and 1950 are recorded and details of re–trapping after migration and of one foreign recovery are given.
GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION IN MALAYSIAN BIRDS.
Authors: Longhurst. A. R.
Published: April 2008

The Malaysian area under consideration consists of the four provinces of Borneo, Java, Sumatra and Southern Malaya.

 The vegetation of the provinces varies considerably, Java being mainly agricultural, Borneo forested, and the others rather intermediate in character.

 The climate also varies, Java being less humid, having less rainfall and more sunshine than the others.

 The birds of these four provinces show variations in colour which can probably be correlated with the factors enumerated in (2) and (3) above. The greatest differences occur between Bornean and Javanese forms—the latter being lighter in colour, having longer wings and tails, and lower wing/tail ratios than the former.
ON THE GENUS PTERNISTIS.
Authors: White. C. M. N.
Published: April 2008

The Bare‐throated Francolins formerly placed in the genus Ptermistis are considered to be members of the genus Francolinus (little adjustment of nomenclature is needed). Their relationship to Francolinus in environment is considered. The systematics of F. afer are discussed and attention is drawn to the genetic features of its hybrid populations.
A STUDY OF THE BLACK CROW CORVUS CAPENSIS.
Authors: Skead. C. J.
Published: April 2008

The habits of the Black Crow in Eastern Cape Province are described. Resident pairs are strongly territorial, but roving flocks feed over wide areas.

 Main breeding season is from August to November.

 Incubation period about 18 days, both parents sharing incubation.

 Nestling period about 38 days, both parents feeding young.

 Diet is very varied, e.g. vegetable matter, including seeds, fruits and bulbs; insect matter, especially dung‐beetles; vertebrates, such as amphibia and small chickens. Indigestible matter is regurgitated in pellets.
ON THE BIRDS COLLECTED BY PIERRE POIVRE IN CANTON, MANILA, INDIA AND hlADAGASCAR (1751–1756).
Authors: Stresemann Erwin
Published: April 2008

Perusal of Brisson's ‘Ornithologie’, Pierre Poivre's autobiography and this traveller's publications induced the writer to concern himself with the type localities of Brisson's new Oriental birds. Those accepted by previous authors proved to be wrong in a number of cases. On the strength of the actual type localities the current names of some well‐known birds will have to be changed. The following names are affected: —

Eurystomus orientalis (L.), Eclectus pectoralis (St. Müller), Saxicola borbonensis W. Sclater, Lalage nigra (Forster), Ducula aenea (L.), Cinnyris asiatica (Latham), Pelargopsis capemis (L.) and Psittacula krameri echo (Newton).
NOTES ON THE TAXONOMY OF THE CLAPPER LARKS OF SOUTH AFRICA.
Authors: Macdonald. J. D.
Published: April 2008

A case is made out for grouping the various forms of clapper lark in southern Africa, other than those included in the species Mirafra rufocinnumomea (olim fischeri), as a single polytypic species, Mirafra apiata Vieillot. Many of the described forms are listed as geographical races. The conclusions reached can only be regarded as a very early stage in the understanding of variation in this rather little‐known and highly variable species.
A SECOND JOURNEY TO THE MOROCCAN SAHARA (IN 1952) AND OVER THE GREAT ATLAS.
Authors: David  , Bannerman Jane
Published: April 2008

The first part of the journey described covers the whole of the western seaboard of Morocco from Tangier to within 75 km. of the Oued Draa. The High Atlas was crossed from south to north by another pass from that used in 1951, and a visit paid later to the cedar forests of the Middle Atlas.

The marshes south of Cap Blanc were visited and the birds seen are described.

Bald Ibises were discovered in the area of Cap Cantin where there are imposing sea‐cliffs, the bird‐life of which is listed.

Mogador island was visited and thirteen species identified.

The Argan forests south of Mogador yielded 32 species of birds.

The estuary of the Oued Sous was explored on four occasions. Its character has changed much since Lynes' visit in 1925. A Desert Warbler was identified which Lynes noted as absent. Bald Ibises were again seen.

The Oued Massa was visited and a Marmora's Warbler seen here among other species.

The bird‐life of Goulimine and surrounding deserts is described for the first time. At least 50 species were identified. Five species of chats were found here and early dates of breeding of Oe. moesta and Oe. deserti are recorded. Considerable extension of range is claimed for the Black Chat Oe. leucura and the White‐crowned Black Chat Oe. leucopyga, the latter some hundreds of kilometres westwards.

A breeding ground of Seebohm's Wheatear Oenanthe seebohmi on a high plateau of the Middle Atlas was visited.

A rare lark resembling Chersophilus duponti but strikingly pale was seen at 6100 ft. in the Middle Atlas.

Dates when passage migrants were seen are noted throughout the text.
MIGRATION OF BIRDS OBSERVED IN N.W. GERMANY 1942.
Authors: Buxton E. J. M.
Published: April 2008

Observations on the spring migration of geese, Lapwings, Swifts, Skylarks, hirundines, White Wagtails, Starlings and Chaffinches were made in 1942 from EL prisoner‐of‐war camp in Westphalia. Most of the passage was between east and north‐east, but bad weather on 9 March caused a temporary reverse movement of Skylarks to the south‐west. Nearly 7000 Skylarks passed to the east and north‐east on the peak day, 14 March.
VISIBLE MIGRATION THROUGH THE PYRENEES: AN AUTUMN RECONNAISSANCE.
Authors: Lack David and Elizabeth
Published: April 2008

Our present findings are preliminary.

On the southwest corner of France round St. Jean de Luz four migratory streams were found: (i) Blue Tits and Tree Sparrows travelling west, (ii) Chaffinches travelling S.W. by W., (iii) cardueline finches, some Chaffinches, Motacillidae, Wood Pigeons and Cranes travelling S.S.W., and (iv) Skylarks and Motacillidae, also grey geese, arriving from the Bay of Biscay and continuing inland south.

The birds in the above groups (iii) and (iv) were seen crossing the low mountaiiis of the Basses Pyrenees in large numbers. With a cross wind the small passerincs selected the windward slopes, presumably because of the updraught.

Kaptors, pigeons, hirundines, finches and Motacillidae were seen migrating through the high mountains of the central Pyrenees. In certain conditions all these groups (as well as three orders of insects) could be found migrating through the Port de Gavarnie at 7500 feet.

In the high mountains, hirundines (nearly all of which were Swallows) flea high on a broad front with a following wind, when they ignored the contours, somewhat lower with a cross wind, when they selected the windward slopes, and very low with a head wind, or in rain, or in the early morning and late evening, when they followed the valleys.

Finches and Motacillidae likewise migrated well above the floor of the vallejs except in bad weather or in the early morning. Most passed through the Port de Gavarnie in the middle hours of the day, not (as on the coast) in the early morning.

Other published records also indicate that small passerine birds regularly cross the European mountain ranges on their migration.
REMARKS ON THE ASIATIC HAWK‐EAGLES OF THE GENUS SPIZAËTUS
Authors: Amadon Dean
Published: April 2008

The Asiatic species of the genus Spizaëtus are reviewed. A new subspecies, S. nams stresemanni, is described from Nias Island.

There is evidence, as yet inconclusive, that three species replace one another geographically on the West Sumatran Islands, only one species occurring on any one island.
OBSERVATIONS ON VOICE AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE RED‐LEGGED PARTRIDGE ALECTORIS RUFA.
Authors: Goodwin. Derek
Published: April 2008

This paper deals with observations made on captive and wild Red‐legged Partridges. The more detailed work has been with captive or semi‐captive birds. Most of the wild birds watched were in Kent or Middlesex.

 The call‐notes and their functions are described. The species has many distinct notes, evidently correlated with different emotional moods. As with other birds, intermediate notes may be given as the caller's mood changes.

 The common display, in which the conspicuous markings of flanks, face and neck are presented, is primarily threatening. It is shown when the impulse to attack is inhibited by fear or sexual feeling. Feeding movements are also shown under conditions of inhibited aggressiveness.

 The male selects the nest‐site and makes the nest, attracting the female's attention to it with a special call. He makes a second nest when the first is full of eggs. The male of a captive pair started to incubate the eggs in the first nest on he day following that on which the female began to incubate those in the second neat. Much circumstantial evidence suggests that this behaviour occurs commonly in the wild state. The behaviour of male and female when tending chicks or incubating was identical.The male showed no ‘masculine” traits of voice or gait in this period. In the wild, broods are normally attended by only one parent.

 Parental care is described. Any object swooping towards the chicks releases an aggressive response in the parent. Birds of prey in flight are recognised innately. The parent reacts instantly to the distress cheeping of a lost chick, answering its cries and hastening towards it.

 On first leaving the nest the chick pecks at every object it notices that is small and contrasts with its background. A chick that finds a supply of food utters notes that attract its companions, but one that finds a single large food‐morsel flees with it away from the others. Young birds cluster together for warmth when the parent is no longer willing to brood them.

 Dust‐bathing and sun‐bathing are much practised. Initially the dusting appears to be evoked by tactile stimuli, but in experienced birds the initial stimulus may be visual.

 The “comfort” movements are similar to those of the domestic fbv.1. Deliberate anointing of the plumage with oil from the preen‐gland is frequent, especially at the moment rain begins to fall.

 Escaping behaviour and fear responses are described. The bird's play movements consist of emotion‐dissociated fleeing movements which suggest that I raptors are important predators under natural conditions.
A SECOND CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF THE BRITISH CAMEROONS
Authors: Serle William
Published: April 2008

A collection of 2000 skins made in southern British Cameroons during twenty‐six months there from 1949 to 1951 is described. The range of many species is extended.

Field notes are given on forms whose habits were previously unknown or little known and the nidification of several is described for the first time.

Sarothrura pulchra batesi and Gymnobucco calvus major are regarded as invalid.

Malaconotus perspicillatus is regarded as a synonym of Malaconotus monteiri.

Geographical variation in colour in Francolinus squamatus in West Africa is described.

The nestling or chicks of the following are described:‐Sarothrura elegans reichenovi, Turacus macrorynchus verreauxi, Phyllastrephus poensis, Hirundo nigrita, Heterhyphantes m. melanogaster, and Sitagra monacha.

The immature dress of the following is described:‐Micropus batesi, Phyllastrephus poensis, Dyaphorophyia concreta kumbaensis, Turdus n. nigrilorum, Alcthe poliothorax, Seicercus herberti camerunensis, Chalcomitra ursulae and Anthreptes seimundi minor.
EGG‐LAYING, INCUBATION AND HATCHING OF THE COMMON GULL (LARUS CANUS).
Authors: Barth Edvard K.
Published: April 2008

Eggs in 3‐egg clutches are identified as a, b and c, those in 2‐egg clutches as a and b.

 Egg‐laying can take place at all times of the day, but at least 50% of b, c and bs are laid between 1200 and 1700 hours.

 The average time between the laying of a and b, 46 hours, differs significantly from the 53 hours between a´ and b´ but not from the 47 hours between b and c.

 The average time between the hatching of eggs a and b was four hours, between b and c 17 hours and between a´ and b´ six hours.

 Out of 77 nests, eggs hatched out of the order in which they were laid as follows: a‐c‐b in four, b‐a‐c in nine, b‐c‐a in three, c‐a‐b in two, b´‐a´ in four, a´ and b´ at the same time in two.

 Incubation usually began when the last egg had been laid, and lasted on the average for 25 d. 22 h. (extremes 24 d. 1 h. and 28 d. 4 h.). Eggs a and b have a significantly shorter incubation period than c, but a´ and b´ does not differ significantly.

 On the average, egg b was laid 46 hours after a and hatched four hours after it, c was laid 47 hours after b and hatched 17 hours after it; b‘ was laid 53 hours after a’, after which 24 hours of “casual brooding” occurred, and b‘ hatched six hours after a’. Since “casual brooding” can postpone the beginning of actual incubation, consequent hatching of b‘ can be postponed until at least 291/2 days after it is laid.

 If nests got wet for long periods they cooled, so that much rain will probably lengthen the incubation period.

 In several nests the temperature was recorded continuously with instruments. Examples are given of the relation of nest temperatures to egg‐laying and the early brooding period. During the incubation period the highest recorded nest‐temperature (at the top of the eggs) was 43° C.

 The embryo does not appear to develop at normal speed below 30° C., which is seldom reached before the last egg in the clutch has been laid.
INFLUENCE OF AGE ON SIZE OF EGGS IN YELLOW‐EYED PENGUINS.
Authors: Richdale L. E.
Published: April 2008

Between 1936–37 and 1953–54 inclusive, 892 eggs laid by Yellow‐eyed Penguins Megadyptes antipodes between the ages of 2 and 17 years, and 61 eggs of older birds, were studied in relation to age of female.

 The two eggs of the clutch of the Yellow‐eyed Penguin tend to be the same size, but they are statistically different in the five Eudyptes species for which data are available.

 The Yellow‐eyed Penguins may be divided into three groups according to age and size of eggs. (1) Immature penguins up to four to five years of age, (2) fully mature penguins from five years to around 13 or 14, and (3) aged penguins from 13 or 14 years to 19 + years, the oldest in my records. Two‐year‐olds produce significantly lighter and narrower eggs than older birds. Length is not significantly different but is very variable. Three‐year‐olds lay heavier and wider eggs than two‐year‐olds, but not so heavy nor so wide as four‐year‐olds. Penguins over 13 lay eggs that are lighter and more irregular in length, but some individuals still produce wide eggs.

 In the Royal Albatross Diomedea epomophora sanfordi age influences the size of the egg as it does in the Yellow‐eyed Penguin and some other birds.
FIELD OBSERVATIONS FROM THE COLONY OF HONG KONG.
Authors: Dove R. S. , Goodhart H. J.
Published: April 2008

The list includes 40 species not hitherto recorded for the Colony (making the present total 289 species). Several species have evidently become scarce or have ceased to breed locally in recent years.
A FORTNIGHT IN SOUTH TURKEY
Authors: Hollom P. A. D.
Published: April 2008

The paper lists (with field‐notes) the species identified in the course of two weeks in May 1951 in the neighbourhood of Mersin and the Taurus mountains, South Turkey. Considerable migration was taking place through the area.
LAND‐AND SEA‐BIRD MIGRATION IN NORTH‐WEST SPAIN, AUTUMN 1954
Authors: Snow D. W. , Owen D. F. , Moreau R. E.
Published: April 2008

Between 28 September and 31 October 1954 a visit was paid to N.W. Spain to study the autumn migration and also to collect local information about migrants. Much of the coast between the mouth of the Miño and Santander was visited.

We saw arrivals from the north (from across the Bay of Biscay), particularly Meadow Pipits, at Tapia, Ribadesella and Pendueles, but found very little evidence of arrivals in the extreme N.W. corner.

Along the north coast we saw a spectacular westward coasting movement, chiefly Chaffinches and Meadow Pipits, and a similar, but smaller, movement southwards down the west coast.

According to local information several species, especially Woodcock, Lapwings, thrushes and Starlings, are known chiefly as hard‐weather visitors rather than regular autumn migrants.

Sea‐bird movements westwards along the north coast were impressive, especially Scoters, Lesser Black‐backed Gulls and Gannets.
THE CONCEPT OF TERRITORY IN THE PARTRIDGE PERDIX P. PERDIX.
Authors: Blank T. H. , Ash. J. S.
Published: April 2008

Partridge territory (as defined) is of two types—covey territory (late summer and early winter) and pair territory (late winter and early summer).

The only defended part of their territory is a restricted area surrounding the birds, which moves with them throughout their range, but is most extensive and tends most to coincide with the range of the pair in late March and throughout April.

Unmated cock Partridges, show no territorial behaviour. If a mated cock Partridge loses its mate territorial behaviour ceases within a few days unless another mate is secured.

There is considerable overlap of covey and even pair territory, although in the latter this is much reduced during the pre‐nesting period in Perdix. Territory distribution is closely associated with the available food supply.

Proximity tolerance between coveys and between pairs appears to depend on the relative dominance of the cocks concerned.
THE LACK OF TERRITORY IN THE REDSHANK TRINGA TOTANUS.
Authors: Hale W. G.
Published: April 2008

Whilst individual (colour‐ringed) Redshanks showed a preference for certain feeding areas, they did not defend them. They showed no preference for any areas during display and the location of ground displays was determined by the location of the female.

During hatching and fledging of chicks an area was defended against potential predators, but not against other Redshanks.

A territory was not required for the location of the mate, which was done by calling.
ON THE FUNCTIONS OF TERRITORY IN GULLS.
Authors: Tinbergen N.
Published: April 2008

Bearing in mind that, in the absence of experimental proof of the functions suggested, my conclusions are tentative, I have tabulated them as follows. The relative importance of each function is expressed in a crude classification, ranging from O=no function to 3=important function.
TERRITORY IN THE PIED FLYCATCHER MUSCICAPA HYPOLEUCA
Authors: Haartman Lars von
Published: April 2008

The male Pied Flycatcher does not show definite territorial behaviour before finding a suitable nesting‐hole. In species with unspecialized nesting biology, territory is chosen before nest‐site.

The restricted number of nesting‐holes is in most areas the main factor limiting population density in the Pied Flycatcher. As the number of nest‐boxes in an area was multiplied, the percentage of returning birds ringed as young rose, whereas that of old individuals did not rise. It is concluded that competition for nesting‐places forces a certain number of young birds to emigrate. As the effect is relatively slight, it is concluded that most individuals emigrate for other reasons.

Aggressive display and courtship are briefly described.

Since overcrowding is mostly effectively prevented by the restricted number of nesting‐holes, the Pied Flycatcher does not need large territories. As the male's courtship includes a repeated nest‐demonstration, his absence from the vicinity of the nest‐site would be unfavourable. Hence, the territory is small, the male principally defending the nesting‐hole. The Pied Flycatcher's home is his castle.

Most male Pied Flycatchers are polyterritorial. The distance between territories held by one male in the same season amounted at most to 2–3 km.

Polygamy is briefly described. The pre‐requisite of the male's polygamy is in most cases polyterritoriality.
TERRITORY IN THE MEADOWLARKS, GENUS STURNELLA.
Authors: Lanyon Wesley E.
Published: April 2008

A recent study of the comparative ethology and ecology of the morphologically similar meadowlarks of the American grasslands permitted (1) a comparison of territorial behaviour and (2) an analysis of the interspecific aspect of territorialism.

Both species were found to be territorial in that the males spaced themselves on selected units of grassland, within which they mated, gathered food, and reared young, and which they defended against intruding meadowlarks. No differences were noted between the two species with regard to the establishment, size, or maintenance of territories.

Species outside of the genus were normally tolerated within meadowlark territories. But territorial defence and display between males of the two species of meadlowarks was as frequent and intense as intraspecific display, resulting in the complete segregation of their territories. Interspecific territorialism may contribute to the continued independence of these species on a common breeding ground.
TERRITORY AND INDIVIDUAL DISTANCE IN THE CHAFFINCH FRINGILLA COELEBS
Authors: Marler P.
Published: April 2008

Male and female Chaffinches defend two types of area, territory, and “individual distance.” Territories are held mainly in the breeding season and are defended from birds of the same sex. The mean size of seventeen territories was 6,700 sq. m. The smallest, in open marginal habitats, were defended more fiercely than larger ones. The territory does not provide much food for young or adults, except perhaps in times of emergency. It may help in concealment from predators.

Individual distance is a small measurable area around the bird carried wherever it goes. Throughout the year intruders within it are rarely tolerated. Both colours and behaviour affect how close an intruder may come. Individual‐distance behaviour is probably most important in competition for food in winter, but it is significant in other contexts. It is developmentally related to territorialism, and may be an evolutionary precursor of the passerine territory.
A METHOD FOR DESCRIBING AND COMPARING AVIAN HABITATS.
Authors: Emlen John T.
Published: April 2008

Detailed studies of ecological distribution and habitat specificity require objective, quantitative data which are rarely available in the reference system customarily used for designating habitat relations.

A scheme of habitat description was developed and tested in a variety of situations in Africa and North America based on the selection of a set of measurable features or dimensions, each of which was graduated for quantitative or qualitative evaluation. A procedure for recording measurements in the field is described. Examples are presented showing how quantitative habitat data may be applied in erecting vegetation formulae of various degrees of refinement, in making semi‐pictorial habitat diagrams, and in analyzing subtle differences in habitat selection by different species or populations.
FURTHER NOTES ON THE BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE SWIFT APUS APUS
Authors: Lack David
Published: April 2008

The period when Swifts have young in the nest probably corresponds, in general, with the season when their food is most abundant.

The start of the clutch may be held up by bad weather, which influences laying five days later.

The eggs are usually laid at 2‐day intervals, a 3‐day interval being commoner in cold than warm weather.

The proportion of clutches consisting of three rather than two eggs is highest at the start of the breeding season and progressively declines. It is also, and independently, reduced by cold weather.

All the young are normally raised in broods of one every year, in broods of two except in very wet summers, in broods of three only in fine summers.

In wet as compared with fine summers, nestling periods are longer, nestling weights are lower and the wings grow more slowly.

Brood‐size has a negligible influence on the nestling period, nestling weight and wing‐length in fine summers, but a marked influence in wet summers.
DISTRACTION DISPLAY AND THE HUMAN PREDATOR.
Authors: Armstrong Edward A.
Published: April 2008

Evidence concerning the size of human populations and man's mentality in the past shows that human influence on the evolution of distraction display cannot have been appreciable. This is supported by ethological evidence.

Threat elements, modified by retreat behaviour, are conspicuous in distraction display. Boldness, not tameness, is involved. Threat display is regarded as consisting mainly of “checked” attack movements.

Distraction displays have been perfected through the elimination of inadequate performers by predators other than man. The limited number of relevant predators in high northern latitudes as compared with tropical forest has resulted in more specialized displays by birds breeding in the Arctic.

Birds often attack ungulates rather than injury‐simulate to them. This is apparently an adaptation evolved to deter wild herbivores. In its evolution, as well as its performance, distraction display may be due to conflict between defence and retreat motivations.

Non‐human predators possess discriminative abilities sufficient to account for the elaboration of distraction displays.
FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE JAY GARRULUS GLANDARIUS
Authors: Goodwin Derek
Published: April 2008

The paper deals with the behaviour of captive and wild Garrulus glandarius.

The Jay erects its plumage when cold or in conflict situations and depresses it when hot or when activated solely by the escape drive.

Juvenile Jays often rest or sleep in contact. Adults never do and always show appeasing or aggressive behaviour when they closely approach one another.

The flight‐intention movements are described and discussed. When mobbing a predator the Jay shows intention‐movements of both fleeing and attacking.

Threat behaviour is variable. The more the plumage is erected the stronger are the conflicting drives of escape and aggression. The defensive‐threat display seems primarily concerned with defence of nest or young.

The lateral display is self‐assertive and may be either threatening or sexual in context. It is considered to be derived mainly from sexual movements.

The submissive display may be sexual or appeasing. It perhaps derived from such “simple” trembling as Homo and Columba show in situations where their escape drives are thwarted.

Food‐begging is normal in juveniles and breeding females. Apparently correlated with a mood of dependence, it may be shown by non‐breeding females and adult males. It is not primarily sexual and may inhibit sexual behaviour in the partner.

Nesting behaviour is described. Only sticks, roots, fibres and wires are used as material. Both sexes build.

The incubating female leaves the nest if its supports are jarred. At approach of man wild Jays cower in the nest, tame ones show the defensive‐threat display. The reasons for this difference are discussed.

The male feeds the sitting female. He shows great caution when coming to the nest. When both parents feed the young together (as they usually do) each tries to snatch any visible food from the nestling's mouth when the other withdraws its bill. Eggshells are eaten when the young hatch. Females sometimes eat their own eggs or young, probably from hypertrophy or perversion of the nest‐cleaning behaviour. Addled eggs are left in the nest for some time after the young hatch. There is no egg‐retrieving instinct. Some Jays removed white and bright blue dummy eggs from their nests, others accepted them. A female that had never seen young before at once accepted a half‐grown young Jay placed in her nest. Her mate showed fear of it at first but soon adopted it.

Vocal mimicry is often linked with the subjective mood. Jays mobbing a man at their nest imitate alarm notes of other species and the calls of predators. Jays may utter the call of another species at sight of it.

Tameness and reaction to handling are discussed. Jays reared by one or two people often show much fear of strangers when adult. Those which have been in contact with many different people when young do not.
THE INCUBATION PATTERNS OF BIRDS.
Authors: Skutch Alexander F.
Published: April 2008

A classification of the known methods of incubation of the birds of the world, on the basis of the division of labour between the sexes and the apportionment of time on the eggs, shows that practically every feasible pattern has been adopted by one species or another.

A review of the evidence suggests that incubation by both sexes was the primitive method among birds.

Among passerines, there appears to be little correlation between incubation by the male and his possession of a brood‐patch. Some males which regularly incubate lack it, whereas others which fail to incubate develop it.

There is also poor correlation between the form of the nest (whether open or covered), the coloration of the two sexes, and their participation in incubation.

Participation of the sexes is not generally correlated with the environment. The non‐incubation by the female Emperor Penguin and the sharing of incubation by the male Gould's Hummingbird, seem to be instances of response to rigorous climates.

Except possibly in migratory birds whose breeding season is short, incubation by the male seems compatible with efficient territorial defence. Some males and even females sing loudly from the nest, apparently without betraying it to predators.

When the sex‐ratio is strongly unbalanced, the failure of the less numerous sex to incubate makes it possible for a larger proportion of the adults to reproduce. But in a number of species in which polygamy or polyandry occurs, the sex‐ratio is not known to be unbalanced.

Many modifications in the incubation pattern, especially those involving the participation of the sexes, appear to be non‐adaptive, and to persist because they do not decrease reproductive efficiency.
THE TAXONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION IN NON‐BREEDING PLUMAGE IN AEGITHINA TIPHIA AND A. NIGROLUTEA.
Authors: Hall B. P.
Published: April 2008

Variation in non‐breeding dress of A. tiphia is described in detail for the first time

 Variation in other characters is discussed briefly

 The taxonomic importance of variation in non‐breeding dress of A. tiphia is discussed in relation to the status of A. nigrolutea.

 Recognition of its importance necessitates the recognition of two new races and requires some revision to die definitions of ranges and characters of others.
MORTALITY AND KILL AMONGST BRITISH‐RINGED TEAL ANAS CRECCA.
Authors: Boyd Hugh
Published: April 2008

11,500 Teal were ringed in England and Wales between 1945 and June 1955. Most were caught in traps at Abberton Reservoir, Essex, or in duck decoys in Pembrokeshire and Northamptonshire. Cage traps seem to select older birds, rather than those in their first year of life, and males rather than females. Duck decoys show no sex bias, and no clear selectivity by age in late autumn and winter, when most British ringing has been done

 The mean annual survival rate of male Teal ringed in Britain 1949–1955 is 0±507±0·019 and that of females 0·430±0·021. Survival in the year following the first September of life may be rather less

 Teal of both sexes ringed in Pembrokeshire in 1934–1938 had an annual survival‐rate of 0·357±0·020, compared with 0·511±0·040 for birds ringed there in 1945–1948 and 0·350±0·029 for those ringed there in 1949–1953. In the later years of the 1939–1945 War, from 1941 onwards, the survival rate rose to 0·606±0·043

 Reported causes of death of ringed Teal suggest that nearly all deaths are due to man, particularly in the months September to March. These reports exaggerate the proportion due to man, and the magnitude of winter losses, because losses due to man are nearly ten times as likely to be reported as those from other causes. The true proportion of losses attributable to man is probably about three‐fifths for males and one‐half for females. Losses from September to March account for about two‐thirds of the annual total for males and rather more than a half of the female casualties

 Losses in the summer are inversely proportional to those in the preceding winter: an unusually heavy winter kill is offset by a reduction in summer casualties, which include many “natural deaths”.
PASSERINE MIGRATION IN SOUTH SCANDINAVIA IN THE AUTUMN OF 1954.
Authors: Nisbet I. C. T.
Published: April 2008

An analysis is made of records of passerine bird migration at certain “bird observatories” in the North Sea‐Baltic area in September 1954. Some 1955 records are also used

 Bird‐observatory records are thought to be only a rough sample of migration over a wider area, and suggestions for improvement in sampling are put forward

 Extending the work of other writers, the view is adopted that the initiation of migration is controlled principally by an internal rhythm, but that external factors break up the migration into short phases. Because of the variations in the environment the effect of these factors defies detailed analysis

 The 1954 and 1955 records show a fairly simple relation between the initiation of migration and the clearance of depressions. Day‐migrants (but not night‐migrants) avoided migrating in stable anticyclonic weather

 Each species of day‐migrant was concentrated markedly into a relatively narrow “channel” across the area. This canalization appears to be achieved by means of accurate navigation

 Three very different movements of nocturnal migrants are analysed. It is thought that “drift‐” migration plays an important part in the movements of night‐migrants through Scandinavia

 The reactions of day‐migrants to topography appear to protect the birds against unfavourable weather, and to stabilize their somewhat unreliable powers of orientation. There is no evidence that night‐migrants navigate accurately at night, and they appear instead to derive the maximum benefit from meteorological factors. In either case the uncertainty of the birds' movements contrasts with the ultimate accuracy with which they migrate

 A theory of navigation is proposed.
THE BEHAVIOUR, BREEDING, AND FOOD‐ECOLOGY OF THE SNOWY OWL NYCTEA SCANDIACA.
Authors: Watson Adam
Published: April 2008

During summer 1953, I studied Snowy Owls in Cumberland Peninsula, Baffin Island

 The wide range of call‐notes given by breeding owls is described

 Small passerines usually took little notice of the owls, though mobbing was common in July. The male owl usually chased other predators from his territory, which was exclusive of other Snowy Owls

 Some were shy of man, but others aggressive when disturbed at the nest, and males struck fiercely when they had young. Both sexes often did distraction display and displacement coition. Displacement feeding and hunting were also seen

 Threat and food‐begging, and the behaviour of the young in the nest, are described. The male brought all food to the female and young till about three weeks after the first young hatched, when the female also began to hunt

 The owls were confined to wet lowland areas where lemmings were abundant. Their density and breeding capacity were closely correlated with lemming density. Territories varied in size from a half to three or four square miles. One male was bigamous and five monogamous

 Nests were in prominent positions, and alternative sites used in previous years were found nearby

 Egg‐laying started in the third week of May as in most of the range. Mean clutch size was eight eggs

 The eggs hatched at different dates, resulting in a spread in development of the young. Most young left the nest in their fourth week; they began to fly short distances just after, but not well till about 60 days old, when they also began to hunt

 Proportionate changes in weight of the young were greatest in the first few days. On the whole they grew faster than young of various other predator species. Later‐hatched young tended to grow slower than earlier‐hatched young. All young that hatched also fledged, including 15 young in the one territory held by the bigamous male

 Each young ate an average of about two full‐grown lemmings a day while in the nest. Adults ate three to five each in a day, and in the London Zoo about 180 gm. each per day. An estimate was made of the proportion of the lemming population taken by the owls

 The relation of changes in lemming population to predation by owls is discussed