bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Leisure
Authors: Scraton Sheila , Watson Becky
Published: September 2017

Leisure has traditionally been associated with work, as compensation from daily routines or residual time when other commitments have taken place. Since the 1970s leisure has been studied within its social context. Pluralist, Marxist, and feminist understandings of leisure have increasingly been replaced by analyses of leisure as a key site of cultural consumption. Leisure research has developed from large‐scale national surveys of participation to more micro, individualized accounts of leisure experience. Current research explores the increasingly complex and permeable boundaries between work and leisure, for example, through the concepts of serious leisure and volunteering. Leisure spaces are important sites of cultural consumption with current research emphasizing the body, empowerment and the construction of identity through leisure. There are areas of leisure that remain under‐researched including race, ethnicities and whiteness; masculinities; class; globalization and migration.
Leisure, Aging and
Authors: Hendricks Jon
Published: September 2017

Leisure and well‐being are closely entwined throughout life. Whether defined as free time or volitional activity, the significance of leisure is that it provides opportunities wherein the quest for meaning is self‐absorbing and yields subjectively salutary results. Given changes in the character of work, certainty of careers, timing of retirement, and improvements in health, it is reasonable to assert that leisure will occupy an important place in the aging process.
Leisure, Popular Culture and
Authors: Stebbins Robert A.
Published: September 2017

Mukerji and Schudson (1991: 3) define popular culture as a widely shared set of beliefs and practices that people use to organize certain objects, these objects also being part of that culture. This intentionally general definition (formulated to avoid terminological haggling) encompasses folk beliefs, practices, and objects generated in political and commercial centers. It also includes the handful of elite cultural forms that have, by curious quirk of fate, managed to become popular.
Leisure, Popular Culture and
Authors: Stebbins Roberta.
Published: September 2017

Mukerji and Schudson (1991: 3) define popular culture as a widely shared set of beliefs and practices that people use to organize certain objects, these objects also being part of that culture. This intentionally general definition (formulated to avoid terminological haggling) encompasses folk beliefs, practices, and objects generated in political and commercial centers. It also includes the handful of elite cultural forms that have, by a curious quirk of fate, managed to become popular.
Lesbian Feminism
Authors: Shapiro Eve
Published: September 2017

Lesbian feminism is a political and philosophical strand of feminism that emerged in the US, Canada, and Britain in the 1970s. It holds as central tenets that heterosexuality is the seat of patriarchal power; lesbianism is a political choice and not an essential identity; and lesbians occupy a unique and empowered position vis‐à‐vis sexism and patriarchy because they do not rely on men for emotional, financial, or sexual attention and support. Lesbian feminist ideas, writings, and activism informed and guided both feminist and lesbian movements throughout the 1970s and into the 1980s, and have continued to shape academic theorizing and political organizing to this day. As lesbian feminism evolved, several ideological variations emerged including cultural feminism and separatist feminism.
Lesbianism
Authors: Wilton Tamsin
Published: September 2017

Although it is generally accepted that “lesbianism” refers to sexual contact between women, this is by no means an adequate definition. Indeed, it is not possible to provide such a definition. The complexities of the political economy of sexuality mean that the word is subject to continual contestation among many diverse interest groups, to the extent that there is not even agreement that sexual contact – or even desire – is necessarily definitional.
Levittown
Authors: Pardee Jessica W.
Published: September 2017

As the single largest housing development ever undertaken in US history, Levittown is the standard model for American suburban housing. Using assembly‐line production techniques, Abraham Levitt and sons revolutionized the housing industry. While the Levitts built housing across the nation prior to World War II, Levittown, NY took mass production to a new level. Built on 4,000 acres of potato fields, the site included 17,400 single‐family homes, as well as several swimming pools, baseball diamonds, playgrounds, and green spaces. Additionally, the Levitts were able to produce houses for almost $1,000 less than their competitors, while securing a $1,500 profit on each home. It is this transformation of the housing production process that makes Levittown so sociologically important.
Lewin, Kurt (1890–1947)
Authors: Youngreen Reef
Published: September 2017

Kurt Lewin is recognized by many as the founder of modern social psychology because of his foundational contributions in making connections between psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics. By adapting and applying the gestalt perspective to personality theory and social dynamics and translating these ideas into social experience involving people, Lewin's field theory powerfully translated these ideas to new domains.
Life Course
Authors: Zinn Jens
Published: September 2017

The term life course refers to the idea that the course of one's life is not just determined by a natural process of aging but is mainly shaped by social institutions and sociocultural values as well as by decisions and unexpected events. Thus the life course consists of life stages (e.g., childhood, youth, adulthood), status passages or transitions (e.g., from youth to adulthood, from student to professional), and life events (e.g., marriage, job loss, illness). Formal institutions such as the law and the welfare state ascribe rights and duties by age and formal status, and when, for example, to start a family and how to divide labor within the household are also structured by sociocultural norms and habits.
Life Course and Family
Authors: Phillipson Chris
Published: September 2017

The concept of the life course refers to the social processes shaping individuals' journey through life, in particular their interaction with major institutions associated with the family, work, education, and leisure. The life course perspective distinguishes between
trajectories
on the one side and
transitions
on the other. The former refer to the sequence of roles experienced over the life span; the latter to the changes consequent upon events such as divorce, children leaving home, and the birth of grandchildren.
Log‐Linear Models
Authors: Rice Janet C.
Published: September 2017

Log‐linear modeling is a data analysis technique used to explore relationships among categorical variables. Log‐linear models express the logarithms of the expected cell frequencies from a multiway contingency table as a linear combination of the variables and their interactions. The simplest models yield a test equivalent to the chi square test of independence, but the technique allows exploration of relationships among more than two variables. Since log‐linear models are additive with respect to the logarithm of the cell frequencies, they easily generate estimates of odds ratios.
Logocentrism
Authors: Fincher Warren
Published: September 2017

Logocentrism refers to the tendency in western civilization to privilege the linguistic signifier (a spoken or written word) over the signified (the thing to which the word refers). Though coined in the 1920s by the German philosopher Ludwig Klages, the continued importance of the term resides in Derrida's critique of the philosophical tendency in western civilization to be logocentric. Derrida asserts that western discourses generally tend to impose hierarchies of power by defining certain concepts against necessarily subordinated alternatives. Extending this critique to logocentrism, Derrida notes the tendency in western philosophy and semiotics to value the signifier as opposed to the thing it signifies in what he calls a “metaphysics of presence.”
Lombroso, Cesare (1835–1909)
Authors: McShane Marilyn D. , Williams Frank P.
Published: September 2017

Cesare Lombroso is considered one of the fathers of positivist criminology. His work on the traits and characteristics of offenders typifies the scientific analysis of the individual criminal in an attempt to determine the causes of crime. Although there is little support for his assumptions today, his work is valued not only as a precursor to criminal anthropology but also as an early demonstration of the use of scientific measures in theory building.
Lone‐Parent Families
Authors: Rowlingson Karen
Published: September 2017

The growth of lone parenthood is a trend common to many advanced industrial countries. In 1990 Britain had one of the highest rates of lone parenthood in Europe (with 19 percent of families with children being lone‐parent families) along with Sweden (19 percent), Norway (19 percent), and Denmark (18 percent). The European countries with some of the lowest levels included Greece (5 percent), Ireland (9 percent), Italy (7 percent), Portugal (6 percent), and Spain (5 percent). This division suggests some combination of North/South, rich/poor, Protestant/Catholic factors at work. Countries that are generally rich, Protestant, and North European have much higher rates of lone parenthood than those that are mainly poor, Southern, and Catholic, though Britain cuts across this division as it has comparatively high rates of poverty but is Northern and Protestant. Culture and religion therefore seem important factors when seeking to explain variations in rates of lone parenthood. If we look outside of Europe but remain within the developed world, Japan had a very low rate of lone parenthood (4 percent) in the early 1990s, Australia had a slightly lower rate than Britain (15 percent), and the US had by far the highest rate (25 percent).
Longevity, Social Aspects (the Oldest Old)
Authors: Bernard Miriam
Published: September 2017

Longevity is defined as the maximum life span attainable by the species and is measured by the age of the oldest living individual. Although there is evidence that people have lived well into late old age for many hundreds of years, a Frenchwoman, Madame Jeanne Calment, made history when she died at the age of 122 in August 1997. Other definitions of longevity refer to it as “uncommonly long duration of life,” but what was once uncommon is now increasingly common. Today the World Health Organization calculates that there are approximately 600 million people aged 60 and over around the world. By 2025 this total is expected to double and, by 2050, there will be 2 billion people of this age. Historically, these changes are very recent and are a product of the twentieth century. As a result, many countries are now experiencing “rectangularization” as declining fertility and mortality (notably infant mortality) rates change their population structures from a pyramidal shape (many children at the bottom and fewer old people at the top) to a more even distribution across age groups. By the middle of the twenty‐first century, demographers predict that there will be more people aged 60 years and older than children under the age of 15 years.
Luhmann, Niklas (1927–1998)
Authors: Rogowski Ralf
Published: September 2017

Niklas Luhmann's social systems theory offers a new universal theory for the discipline of sociology that is rapidly gaining the status of the leading account of modern society in the social sciences and beyond. It views society as an autopoietic system of communications that is functionally differentiated into a number of self‐reproducing function systems. HisSocial Systems(1984, translated into English 1995), his eight volumes on the theory of society, and his various studies devoted to core sociological topics, including trust, power, risk, media, intimacy and love, and the ecological discourse, provide a challenging new account of the nature of modern world society.
Lukács, Georg (1885–1971)
Authors: Aronowitz Stanley
Published: September 2017

Born in Budapest of a prominent banking family, Georg Lukács was among the most influential, if not always the most beloved, Marxist philosophers and social theorists of the twentieth century. His book of essays
History and Class Consciousness
(1971:
HCC
) ranks as a major contribution to Marxism, albeit of a distinctly unorthodox kind. And, adopting some of Weber's key concepts, especially the notion of the ideal type, he made huge contributions to the sociology of literature. An outstanding scholar of Kant, Hegel, and Marx, as well as the nineteenth and twentieth‐century realist novels of Balzac, Scott, Dickens, Mann, and Solzhenitsyn, he was, at the same time, one of the twentieth century's outstanding public intellectuals. He served as a minister of culture and education in two different Hungarian communist governments – that of the short‐lived revolutionary regime of 1919 and the reform government of Imre Nagy in 1956. He was a leading figure in German and Hungarian intellectual life after the publication of his first book,
Soul and Form
(1974), when he was 26 years old and his widely read
Theory of the Novel
(1973), which earned him a European‐wide reputation in the years prior to World War I.
Latino Youth
Authors: Burgos Giovani
Published: September 2017

The terms “Latino” and “Hispanic” are often used interchangeably by the news media, in academia, and by business, schools, hospitals, and government agencies to describe individuals of Spanish and/or Latin American descent who live in the United States. Throughout the twentieth century, groups included under these
panethnic
terms are reflective of highly contested political nomenclature (Rodríguez 2009) and do not reflect underlying biological or genetic roots that differentiate the different ethnic groups. In the US Census, Latino individuals can self‐identify as both an ethnic group (e.g., Mexican, Cuban, Puerto Rican) and a racial group (e.g., Black, White, Asian). Thus, it is possible for an individual to identify as a Mexican‐Asian American, or a Black Puerto Rican. Because the terms Latino and Hispanic are so widely treated as the same, they are similarly used interchangeably here.
Lorde, Audre
Authors: Lindsay Keisha
Published: September 2017

Audre Lorde (1934–92), a self‐described “black, feminist, lesbian, poet warrior mother,” was born in Harlem to immigrant parents from the Caribbean. After graduating from Manhattan's Hunter High School in 1954, Lorde enrolled as an exchange student at the National University of Mexico. She later described her stay in Mexico as a period of “affirmation” during which she embraced her identity as a lesbian and a poet (De Veaux 2004). Lorde received an undergraduate degree in English from Hunter College in 1959 and a Master's degree in Library Studies from Columbia University in 1961. In 1980 she co‐founded Kitchen Table Press, the first US based publisher for women of color. Lorde was a professor of English at John Jay College and Hunter College until her death from breast cancer.
McLuhan, Marshall (1911–1980)
Authors: Genosko Gary
Published: September 2017

Herbert Marshall McLuhan was born in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada in 1911. He spent his formative years up to his undergraduate and master's level studies in English literature at the University of Manitoba (1929–34) in the prairie city of Winnipeg. McLuhan earned his doctorate in English literature from Cambridge in 1942, writing a dissertation on Thomas Nashe. He taught briefly at the University of Wisconsin (1936–7) and for a longer stint at the University of St. Louis (1937–44) before returning to Canada to teach at Assumption College in Windsor, Ontario (1944–6). He joined St. Michael's College in the University of Toronto in 1946 and spent his entire career there, with the exception of one year as the Schweitzer Chair in the Humanities at Fordham University in New York (1967–8). He died at home in Toronto on New Year's Eve, 1980.
Madness
Authors: Weinstein Raymond M.
Published: September 2017

Madness is a layman's term for what psychiatrists and medical professionals call mental illness or psychiatric disorder. A mad person is characterized by psychopathology of one kind or another: a disordered mind, irrational or unintelligible behavior, extreme mood swings, disturbed emotions, bouts of anxiety, or a dysfunctional personality. Madness and mental illness are terms that are both distinct from “insanity,” which is a legal concept. If a mentally disturbed individual comes before a court of law, the concern is whether he or she is insane (i.e., knew right from wrong, poses a danger to self or others, and/or is responsible for his or her actions).
Male Rape
Authors: Rumney Philip N.S.
Published: September 2017

The phrase male rape denotes serious sexual assaults in which the victim is male. Male rape is defined in many legal codes as nonconsensual sexual intercourse, including acts of anal and oral sex, usually with another male, though it is also sometimes defined so as to include nonconsensual intercourse with a woman. There is evidence of the specific recognition of male rape within legal codes dating back to the eighteenth century. The historical evidence on the incidence of male sexual victimization is limited, though there are some records of male sexual coercion in Europe and elsewhere since the time of the Roman Empire (Jones 2000).
Malinowski, Bronislaw K.(1884–1942)
Authors: Weiler Bernd
Published: September 2017

Bronislaw K. Malinowski and Alfred R. Radcliffe‐Brown are generally regarded as the “founding fathers” of British social anthropology. Born in Cracow, then part of the Austrian province of Galicia, Malinowski studied natural sciences, mathematics, and later psychology and philosophy at the Jagiellonian University where his father had been an eminent professor of Slavonic philology and folklore. In his formative years the main intellectual influence on Malinowski, apart from his father's linguistic and ethnographic interests, appears to have been a combination of the philosophical current of “second positivism” – in his doctoral dissertation Malinowski analyzed the idea of “the economy of thought” in the epistemological works of Mach and Avenarius – and the neo‐romantic movement of Polish cultural modernism (Ellen et al. 1990; Young 2004: 3–127). After graduating in 1908, Malinowski went to Leipzig, where he studied with Wundt, the founder of the so‐called
Völkerpsychologie
, and with the economic historian Bücher. In 1910 he moved to England, enrolled at the London School of Economics (LSE), and immersed himself in anthropology. Apart from his teachers at LSE (Seligman and Westermarck), Malinowski developed his ideas in critical response to and through ecletic use of the works of Frazer, Rivers, Durkheim, and Freud, among others. During World War I, despite being an enemy alien in Australia, Malinowski was allowed to carry out fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands, located northeast of New Guinea. The results of this research were published in the book
Argonauts of the Western Pacific
(1922), which contained a detailed analysis of the intertribal exchange system known as
Kula
and which established Malinowski's international fame as an anthropologist. His ethnography of the Trobriand Islands was later complemented by
The Sexual Life of Savages in North‐Western Melanesia
(1929) and
Coral Gardens and Their Magic
(1935). Upon his return to England he became a reader and in 1927 a full professor of anthropology at LSE, also playing a major role in the International Institute of African Languages and Cultures. A charismatic personality and highly gifted in promoting and popularizing the cause of anthropology, Malinowski recruited a remarkable international body of talented young scientists for his famous seminars at LSE (e.g., Firth, Evans‐Pritchard, Mair, Richards, Fortes, Nadel, Hofstra, Powdermaker, Kuper), many of whom went on to hold important posts in and outside the British Commonwealth. Malinowski spent the last years of his life at Yale University, where he died in 1942.
Malthus, Thomas Robert (1766–1834)
Authors: Weeks John R.
Published: September 2017

Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834) is unquestionably the most influential writer in history on the topic of population. This was generally unintentional on his part because he was trained in Jesus College at Cambridge University in England with the early ambition of becoming a clergyman. Technically, Malthus took his degree in mathematics, but his biographers have made it clear that he aspired to be, and became, a parish priest in the Church of England (Nickerson, 1975; Petersen, 1979). After graduation from Cambridge he divided his time between his duties as curate in a small parish church in Albury, south of London, near his family's home, and Cambridge, where he'd been elected a Fellow, and it was during this period that he wrote the first edition of the book that has immortalized him:
Essay on the Principle of Population as it affects the future improvement of society; With remarks on the speculations of Mr. Godwin, M. Condorcet, and other writers
. Malthus (who went by Robert, which is why his first and middle names are usually provided) was by nature a shy man and he had a perceptible speech impediment (which limited the scope of his ambitions in the Church of England) and he published the book anonymously in 1798. However, the book's success forced him to acknowledge authorship, and he subsequently revised and expanded the book through several published editions.
Managed Care
Authors: Scheid Teresa L.
Published: September 2017

Managed care refers to processes or techniques used by, or on behalf of, purchasers of health care that seek to control or influence the quality, accessibility, utilization, and costs of health care. Managed care emerged in the United States in the 1960s as a response to rising health care costs, and consists of different types of organizational practices to make health care more efficient and effective. Most other industrial countries have also responded to rising health care costs by managing care. Managed care emphasizes cost containment, performance assessment, and measurable outcomes and subjects the treatment actions of health care providers to external review. Treatment decisions are evaluated in light of measurable client‐level outcomes; consequently, managed care has resulted in a greater emphasis on accountability. The issue is whether accountability is accessed in terms of cost savings (efficiency) or enhanced care (effectiveness). In the United States, managed care often involves a greater concern with cost savings than with enhanced quality or access.
Management Theory
Authors: Chanlat Jean‐François
Published: September 2017

From the beginning of the nineteenth century until today, the industrialized world has witnessed unparalleled socioeconomic development. At the same time, the phenomenon of historical capitalism has been the object of numerous publications. Writers as diverse as classical and neoclassical economists, Marx, and foundational thinkers in sociology were all obsessed by the socioeconomic dynamic related to this movement. In sociology an attempt to explain the emergence of capitalism was the central core of Weber's intellectual work. If, according to Weber, capitalism is singularized by private firms in a market economy, another important characteristic is the appearance of management thinking and of a new social agent: the manager.
Management, Workers' Participation in
Authors: Strauss George
Published: September 2017

Workers' participation in management (WPM), also known as organizational democracy, is a broad concept which covers a wide variety of institutional arrangements. Definitions abound, many ideologically loaded. At the minimum it is a process which allows employees to exert some influence over their work and the conditions under which they work.
Manifest Destiny
Authors: Chua Peter
Published: September 2017

Manifest destiny refers to a belief and a sustained racial and imperialist project that the Christian God ordained United States settlers and land speculators to occupy the entire North American continent and claim territorial, political, and economic sovereignty over its people and resources. Articulations of this belief and project were prevalent yet widely contested in the nineteenth century; they persist into the twenty‐first century.
Manifest Destiny
Authors: Chua Peter
Published: September 2017

Manifest destiny refers to a racial ideology and imperialist project that the Christian God ordained US settlers and land speculators to occupy the entire North American continent and claim territorial, political, and economic sovereignty over its people and resources. Articulations of this ideology and project were prevalent yet widely contested in the nineteenth century. Uncritical propagation of the “manifest destiny” concept remains pervasive in national and state curriculum standards and history textbooks and circulates in the popular media and the national collective memory.
Marital Power/Resource Theory
Authors: Allan Graham
Published: September 2017

Questions about inequalities in marriage and the distribution of power within the relationship have long been a concern within family sociology. In particular, ideas about historic shifts in the dominance of husbands/fathers within families have vied with feminist‐inspired views of the continuing significance of patriarchal control in both public and private spheres. The former perspective was captured well in Burgess's (Burgess & Locke 1945) influential idea of a shift from “marriage as an institution” to “marriage as a relationship,” with some seeing the growth of “companionate” marriage as a sure indicator that marriage would increasingly become a relationship of equality (Clark 1991). (See Young & Willmott 1973 for a particularly optimistic analysis.) Others, however, argued that marriage continued to be a structurally unequal relationship as a consequence of both the differential opportunities open to men and women, especially in the workplace, and the continuation of a highly gendered division of labor within the home (see, e.g., Delphy & Leonard 1992).
Markets
Authors: Zafirovski Milan
Published: September 2017

Markets are a fundamental category of economic science often described as “market economics” (Schumpeter 1954a: 12). Economists place the analysis of markets at the “heart of economics” (Mises 1960: 3; Wieser 1956: 3) and view the evolution of economic theory as the history of their attempt to explain the “workings of an economy based on market transactions” (Blaug 1985: 6). As sociologists also note, a “central problem area” of conventional economic theory is the “structure of markets” (Parsons & Smelser 1965: 143). This emphasis often reaches the point of what critics from economic science and sociology alike call “market fundamentalism” (Stiglitz 2002) or “absolutization” of markets (Barber 1995) within orthodox economics.
Markets
Authors: Zafirovski Milan
Published: September 2017

Markets are a fundamental category of economic science often described as “market economics” (Schumpeter, 1954a: 12). Economists place the analysis of markets at the “heart of economics” (Mises, 1960: 3; Wieser, 1956: 3) and view the evolution of economic theory as the history of their attempt to explain the “workings of an economy based on market transactions” (Blaug, 1985: 6). As sociologists also note, a “central problem area” of conventional economic theory is the “structure of markets” (Parsons and Smelser, 1965: 143). This emphasis often reaches the point of what critics from economic science and sociology alike call “market fundamentalism” (Stiglitz, 2002) or “absolutization” of markets (Barber, 1995) within orthodox economics.
Marriage, Sex, and Childbirth
Authors: Allan Graham
Published: September 2017

As with ideas of community, public perceptions of family life highlight the extent to which change has been occurring. Usually the emphasis is on the “decline” of family values and family solidarities in comparison to some past, more stable and wholesome period. In most cases, these perceived changes are significantly exaggerated, with the past being idealized in a quite uncritical fashion. Under more rigorous examination, family relationships in the past can be recognized as somewhat less rosy than popular imagination usually supposes (Gillis 1997). However, there is one sphere of family life in which there has undoubtedly been real – and significant – change occurring. This concerns the patterning of partnership and household formation and dissolution, and more specifically the relationships between marriage, sex, and childbirth. Importantly, these changes have been occurring, albeit at different speeds, across a wide range of economically advanced societies especially in Europe and North America.
Marshall, Thomas Humphrey (1893–1981)
Authors: Barbalet Jack
Published: September 2017

Born in London, Tom Marshall was the fourth of six children in a prosperous and cultured middle‐class family. His father was a successful architect, and his great‐grandfather made a fortune in industry. He was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, where he read history. In 1914 he went to Germany to learn German and spent the next four years as a civilian prisoner of war at Ruhleben, near Berlin. Marshall described his period of imprisonment as “the most powerful formative experience” of his life up to that time. It was his first contact with working men, as the Ruhleben camp's inmates included merchant seamen and fishermen. Although Marshall's profession of sociology was a decade away, he wrote that from this time there was “a growing sociological curiosity about what was happening in me and around me.”
Marshall, Thomas Humphrey (1893–1981)
Authors: Barbalet Jack
Published: September 2017

Born in London, Tom Marshall was the fourth of six children in a prosperous and cultured middle‐class family. His father was a successful architect, and his great‐grandfather made a fortune in industry. He was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, where he read history. In 1914 he went to Germany to learn the language and spent the next four years as a civilian prisoner of war at Ruhleben, near Berlin. Marshall (1973) described his period of imprisonment as “the most powerful formative experience” of his life up to that time. It was his first contact with working men, as the Ruhleben camp's inmates included merchant seamen and fishermen. Although Marshall's profession of sociology was a decade away he wrote that from this time there was “a growing sociological curiosity about what was happening in me and around me.”
Martyrdom
Authors: Pace Enzo
Published: September 2017

If we use Durkheim's classic division of suicides into egoistic, altruistic, and anomic (
Le Suicide
, 1897), martyrdom is an altruistic suicide. According to Durkheim, those who consciously sacrifice their lives for a supreme ideal (religious, political, or moral) demonstrate not only a profound faith in the ideal, but also strong commitment to a group (be it micro or macro). In the martyr's hierarchy of values, the individual's life counts for less than the supreme and universal ideal he believes in (the Fatherland, the Nation, God, Religion). The
ego
places itself (i.e., the individual's whole life) under the
alter
, showing how far faith and trust enable the individual to transcend himself, to overcome the instinctive fear of violent death and to prove his supreme coherence with an ideal. Group solidarity pushes him to sacrifice his own life in an altered state of consciousness, a sort of mystical experience that allows him to go beyond human fears and anxieties. The heroic dimension of martyrdom means precisely the lucid awareness that, by acting in a particular way, death is a certainty. Martyrdom is a trial for the individual and for the group he belongs to. So the psychic system of a martyr tends to reduce the social complexity he lives in according to a terrifyingly basic binary code, life/death (with the resulting give life/take life), which he believes is the fundamental moral code of every pure militant. After his death, he becomes the emblem of the group. This is why the martyr's body is so important in the social representation of the altruistic suicide: the members of the group are able to strengthen their conviction by exalting the blood of the martyr and worshipping his body. By commemorating his sacrifice, they transform the narrative of martyrdom into a narration of the cohesive strength of the group itself.
Maruyama Masao (1914–1996)
Authors: Seifert Wolfgang
Published: September 2017

Maruyama Masao, historian of Japanese political thought and political scientist, was the son of the prominent political journalist Maruyama Kanji, who worked for the
Ôsaka Asahi
and
Ôsaka Mainichi
newspapers. After graduating from the First Higher School in Tokyo in 1934 he studied the history of western political thought at the Law Faculty of Tokyo Imperial University. In 1937 he became a graduate assistant, and in 1940 assistant professor at the same faculty. In the meantime he was persuaded by his teacher Nanbara Shigeru to delve into the texts of the Japanese tradition. Before he was drafted into the army in 1944 and posted to Pyongyang and later to Hiroshima, he had written three treatises on the development of political thought in premodern Japan for the academic
Kokka gakkai zasshi
(Journal of the Society of State Science). Appointed professor in 1950, he held the Chair in History of Political Thought of East Asia at Tokyo University. Compiled from the treatises mentioned above,
Studies in the Intellectual History of Tokugawa Japan
was published in 1952. When his essay “Theory and Psychology of Ultra‐Nationalism” appeared in May 1946 in the opinion journal
Sekai
, it created a sensation. Maruyama decoded the emperor system (
tennôsei
) in an unprecedented way by focusing on the “magic power” its main ideas exerted on the thought and behavior of the Japanese. In 1956–7 he compiled this and several other scholarly works and essays on contemporary Japanese politics in
Thought and Behavior in Modern Japanese Politics
. In those years he frequently stated his opinions on major controversies of post‐war Japanese politics. His
Japanese Thought
became a bestseller in 1961 and serves as a point of reference for ongoing debates on the intellectual development of modern Japan to date. In 1961–2 Maruyama delivered lectures as a visiting professor at Harvard and Oxford universities. Shortly after the student movement had reached its climax, he had to abandon lecturing for health reasons some years prior to retirement. In 1972 his analysis in “Ancient Substrata of Japanese Historical Consciousness” attracted attention, since it seemed to be a “return to Japan.” In spring 1975 he once more left to lecture at Oxford and later at Princeton. He again immersed himself in the work of the Meiji enlightenment thinker Fukuzawa Yukichi (1834–1901) and published as his final major book a profound commentary of Fukuzawa's
Outline of a Theory of Civilization
. Another major project, “Seitô to itan” (orthodoxy and heresy), remained unfinished. In addition to his specialized field, his profound knowledge of western political philosophy and music (especially the operas of Richard Wagner) was well known. Maruyama was appointed a member of the Japan Academy. He died on 15 August 1996 in Tokyo.
Maruyama, Masao (1914–1996)
Authors: Seifert Wolfgang
Published: September 2017

The work of Japanese historian of political thought and political scientist Maruyama Masao (1914–1996) – at the same time deemed to be one of Japan's outstanding social philosophers of the twentieth century – continues to be debated. After his death around a hundred volumes on Maruyama's work were published, in sociology and social philosophy, but equally in political science and in history of ideas; and the number of translations of his work, into western languages and also into other Asian languages, is growing. Maruyama's works continue to inspire sociologists and social scientists, even if he was not a sociologist himself. His essays offer important stimuli to comparative research, not only in contemporary history, but also in political sociology and research of political culture, even though the historical sources he used are more readily available today.
Marxism and Sociology
Authors: Steinmetz George
Published: September 2017

The twentieth century challenged some of Marxism's central theoretical concepts and empirical expectations. Contrary to the anticipation of capitalism's immanent downfall, capitalist societies reconfigured themselves repeatedly, overcoming economic and political crises and redirecting popular dissatisfaction toward less threatening aims. The links between people's social class locations and their political practices and subjectivities were weak or extremely variable across time and place (Burawoy & Wright 2000). During the 1930s and 1940s workers in some European countries were just as likely to support fascism as socialism. And finally, the self‐designated socialist and communist societies turned out to be politically repressive and economically stagnant. Most of them collapsed under the weight of their internal weaknesses and oppositional movements. Although some Marxists continue to describe contemporary society as
late
capitalism (Fredric Jameson, Ernst Mandel), most agree with Theodor Adorno's early prognosis that capitalism's futures may not be socialist at all, nor even preferable to present‐day conditions.
Mass Media and Socialization
Authors: Muzzatti Stephen L.
Published: September 2017

Socialization is a lifelong process through which people learn the patterns of their culture, including behavioral expectations, values, and “truths.” This process is facilitated by a host of groups and institutions such as the family unit, the educational system, peer groups, and the mass media. Debates in sociology and related social sciences over the relative importance and impact of these agents on individual behavior have raged for decades with little resolution. However, the mass media's increasing ubiquity and ever divergent forms leave little question as to their pervasiveness. While they are a more recently developed agent of socialization, the mass media strongly influence public opinion and our worldview. By imparting both approved and fugitive knowledges, media narratives shape the way we see ourselves and the world around us.
Mass Production
Authors: Bögenhold Dieter
Published: September 2017

Mass production was practiced in medieval times in places such as Venice, where pre‐manufactured ships were produced along assembly lines. However, mass production is mostly concerned and identified with the rise of modern capitalism starting after the Industrial Revolution. In a narrow understanding, mass production is an industrial technique to organize the production of large amounts of consumer goods on production lines. The most popular entrepreneur who introduced industrial mass production was Henry Ford with his famous Ford Model T in the early twentieth century. The idea of mass production is the realization of economies of scale. Very high rates of production permit very inexpensive products for large consumer markets.
Mass Production
Authors: Bögenhold Dieter
Published: September 2017

Mass production was practiced in medieval times in places such as Venice, where premanufactured ships were produced along assembly lines. However, mass production is mostly concerned and identified with the rise of modern capitalism, starting after the Industrial Revolution. In a narrow understanding, mass production is an industrial technique to organize the production of large amounts of consumer goods on production lines. The entrepreneur who introduced industrial mass production was Henry Ford with his famous Ford Model T in the early twentieth century. The idea of mass production is the realization of economies of scale. Very high rates of production permit inexpensive products for large consumer markets.
Materialist Feminisms
Authors: Isvan Nilufer
Published: September 2017

Materialist feminism is the outcome of engagements with the Marxist tradition. A materialist feminist research program is one that places special emphasis on the material conditions underlying gender inequality. Scholars within this tradition may vary in their definition of the line of demarcation and conceptual relationships between material and ideological spheres, but most would agree that the organization of production is central to material reality. Although all feminist scholars acknowledge the importance of women's economic status, materialist feminist approaches are distinguished by the centrality and causal precedence ascribed to material forces over ideational ones in explaining women's oppression.
Math, Science, and Technology Education
Authors: Suter Larry E.
Published: September 2017

The study of educational practices in mathematics, science, and technology considers the social, psychological, economic, and political forces that affect career choice and cognitive understanding of those subject areas. The field involves the development of theories and methods that explore how students learn complex topics in the sciences and engineering. Many products of research in technology apply theories and methods of psychology, education, political science, engineering, and all sciences as well as of sociology. The subject areas of mathematics, science, and technology are considered priority areas for study because the knowledge can affect economic production and invention. Moreover, these subjects are the domain of school learning rather than home learning in all countries.
Mead, George Herbert (1863–1931)
Authors: Athens Lonnie
Published: September 2017

Despite being a philosopher, George H. Mead became a titan in sociology. He was reared in a white, Protestant, middle‐class family. Although not from a wealthy family, he did come from a culturally privileged background. His mother taught at prestigious New England preparatory schools and at Oberlin College. While later serving as president of Mount Holyoke, she oversaw its transition from a women's seminary to a general college. His father, a former pastor, held a special chair in Oberlin College's theological seminary for more than a decade. After graduating from Oberlin College in 1883 with an AB degree, Mead worked as a secondary school teacher, tutor, and surveyor. Unable to find satisfying work, Mead enrolled in 1887 at Harvard University, where he was most influenced by the romantic idealist Josiah Royce. After earning his MA in philosophy at Harvard in 1888, he went to Germany to obtain his PhD – enroling first at the University of Leipzig and later at the University of Berlin. Although Mead never finished his doctorate, he did study with several famous German scholars: Wundt, Ebbinghaus, and Dilthey.
Measuring Crime
Authors: Chilton Roland
Published: September 2017

All crime measures begin as attempts to count either incidents considered criminal or the people involved in such incidents. These basic counts may be combined, summarized, or modified in complex ways, but they are at the heart of all attempts to measure crime. Such counts can be generated by police departments or other public agencies or they can be created by anyone willing to design and use a questionnaire or interview schedule. Police measures include counts of offenses coming to their attention and counts of offenders based either on statements of victims and witnesses or direct police observation. Some police measures are counts of arrests or counts of the types of persons arrested. Other official agency measures are counts of prosecutions, convictions, persons in prison, or those under some kind of supervision imposed as a result of conviction for criminal conduct.
Media and Consumer Culture
Authors: Kellner Douglas
Published: September 2017

“Media and consumer culture” is the transdisciplinary category used to describe and understand the mediated experience of individuals and groups within consumer capitalist societies who are influenced and informed by a variety of different mediums. This entry presents a variety of discourses on the media and consumer society ranging from the critical theory of the Frankfurt School to British cultural studies to French theories including Roland Barthes, Henri Lefebvre, Guy Debord, Jean Baudrillard, and their contemporaries who develop novel analyses of the emerging forms of society and culture. The entry then engages the theorizing of media and consumer culture which stresses its proliferating global character and the rapid movement of signs and cultural symbols through multinational corporate channels.
Media and Diaspora
Authors: Sinclair John
Published: September 2017

Since the late 1980s, the concept of diaspora has become ever more widely used to describe the movement of people away from their land of origin, such as migrants, exiles, refugees, expatriates, and “guestworkers.” Literally, a diaspora is a dispersal of people from one country into many, such as the Jewish Diaspora of antiquity, or in modern times, the flow of people out of China and India and into the rest of the world. Strictly speaking, a diaspora is distinct from ordinary migration in that members of a diaspora are linked not only back to their compatriots in their land of origin, but also laterally, with each other, across the borders of however many countries they have moved into. In practice, the term is more often used in a loose way to refer to population movements across borders and “transnational communities” in general, but especially where cultural barriers also have to be crossed, and people are living in marginal situations within a dominant culture.
Media and Diaspora
Authors: Sinclair John
Published: September 2017

Since the late 1980s, the concept of diaspora has become ever more widely used to describe the movement of people away from their land of origin, such as migrants, exiles, refugees, expatriates, and “guestworkers.” Literally, a diaspora is a dispersal of people from one country into many, such as the Jewish Diaspora of antiquity, or, in modern times, the flow of people out of China and India and into the rest of the world. Strictly speaking, a diaspora is distinct from ordinary migration in that members of a diaspora are linked not only back to their compatriots in their land of origin, but also laterally, with each other, across the borders of however many countries they have moved into. In practice, the term is more often used in a loose way to refer to population movements across borders and “transnational communities” in general, but especially where cultural barriers also have to be crossed, and people are living in marginal situations within an alien dominant culture. It is not just the flows of people that are of interest here, but the flows of media services and content that go along with them, both of which are part of what we mean by “globalization.” Diasporic movement is both a cause and an effect of globalization, and this generates different classes of diasporic peoples (Cohen, 2008). For example, while the expatriate capitalist groupings known as the “Overseas Chinese” and the “NRIs” (Nonresident Indians) control substantial global investments, many other ordinary Chinese and Indians work in foreign countries as laborers. Correspondingly, there is a wide range of diasporic media in use. At one level, there are international subscription television services which relatively wealthy subscribers can enjoy in comfort, while more grassroots people in diasporic movement can carry DVDs in their luggage, or rent them from the local “ethnic” grocery store. The advent of the Internet, and particularly social media platforms like Facebook, has greatly facilitated diasporic communication, enabling families and friends in different countries to send each other their news and photos, while organized groups can maintain websites.