bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Saussure and structural phonology
Authors: Joseph John E.
Published: May 2022

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) had a shaping impact on modern phonology with two books. The Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européenes (Memoir on the Primitive System of Vowels in the Indo-European Languages; 1879) was hastily composed in a compressed and jejune style that has always limited its readership. The Cours de linguistique générale (Course in General Linguistics; 1916) was produced posthumously, and has found a vast audience. While faithful to his teaching, it retains certain paradoxes he would have wanted to resolve, and is silent on matters he would likely have filled in. In addition, he published some twenty articles, several of which had an impact with regard to specific issues. This chapter traces the itinerary of Saussure’s phonological thinking from his earliest work to his final lectures. It then discusses certain widespread misunderstandings of his work, and surveys its heritage in modern linguistics.
Boas—Sapir—Bloomfield
Authors: Silverstein Michael
Published: May 2022

Countering evolutionary and racist notions that languages of so-called primitive peoples lacked determinate sounds, just as they were held to lack expectable categories of morphosyntax, Boas demonstrated that every language has a phonetic (i.e., phonological) system of categories of sound that serves as the apperceptional grid for the production and reception of language. Sapir elaborated the ‘psychological reality’ of a structured system of ‘true points of the phonetic pattern’ on the basis of a distributional analysis of a combinatoric grammar of sound, contrasting such an abstraction from the minutiae of token phonetic variations in measurable articulation. Bloomfield, conceptualizing phonological segments as bundles (Boolean combinations) of ‘distinctive features’, systematized and codified the synchronic phonological perspective of distributionalism, re-thinking Neogrammarian doctrine in its terms. In all their descriptive work, these theorists worked across the gradient boundaries of what later—among their students and successors—became the problematic and controversial distinction between ‘phonemic’ and ‘morphophonemic’.
Historical notes on constraint-and-repair approaches
Authors: Calabrese Andrea
Published: May 2022

A phonological process can be accounted for not only in terms of a rule that simultaneously identifies a configuration to be changed and prescribes what to do to it, but also by means of a negative constraint that states that a certain configuration is illicit but does not prescribe how to fix or remove it. A further operation—a repair—is used to do that. The second approach is inherently more complex since other possible repairs need to be excluded. Starting from the mid-1980s there was a general feeling among phonologists that such complexity was needed in phonological analysis, if not always, at least in the account of certain processes. I will investigate the theoretical and empirical motivations that led to the development of constraint-and-repair approaches in the works of Singh, Paradis, and Calabrese, and their collaborators, and also discuss the differences and commonalities these approaches have with Optimality Theory.
More than seventy years of probabilistic phonology
Authors: Pierrehumbert Janet B.
Published: May 2022

The idea that phonology is probabilistic goes back to Pāṇini, and the classic distinction between accidental and systematic gaps in the lexicon is implicitly probabilistic. This idea took on new vigour just over seventy years ago with Shannon’s work on information theory. It is now supported by a wide variety of studies concerning all levels of representation in the theory of sound structure. Models that use probabilities have had striking successes in capturing how people learn the sound patterns of their language from experience, and deploy their knowledge productively and adaptively. However, people’s patterns in production often deviate systematically from the statistical patterns in the input they receive. Cognitive biases, propensities for regularity and structure, and social influences on attention and memory, all play important roles.
Phonological theory and computational modelling
Authors: Chandlee Jane , Jardine Adam
Published: May 2022

The computational modelling of phonology is almost as old as generative phonology itself. Johnson (1972) and Kaplan & Kaye (1981, 1994) showed that SPE rules can be modelled with finite-state machines, after which finite-state modelling became the bedrock of computational phonology, eventually informing computational autosegmental phonology (e.g., Kornai 1991, 1995) and Optimality Theory (e.g., Ellison 1994). More recently, computational modelling has informed phonological theory, following two strands of research: stochastic learning from corpus data and gradient acceptability judgements (e.g., Hayes & Wilson 2008; Albright 2009), and the study of the computational nature of phonological patterns (e.g., Heinz 2007). One can expect that the role computational modelling plays in the explanation of phonological cognition and learning will only increase.
Learnability in phonology
Authors: Heinz Jeffrey , Rawski Jonathan
Published: May 2022

This chapter examines the brief but vibrant history of learnability in phonology. We trace the question of learnability back to the foundational crises in mathematics and computer science, through the synthesis of these fields with linguistics, and onwards to the foundational problems of language, and phonological, learning. We observe this history is mostly one-sided, with many ideas from learning imported to phonology, but rarely the converse. We review some of the most significant interactions between formal learnability and phonology, topics such as the necessity of structured hypothesis spaces, the credit/blame/hidden structure problem, and the subset principle. We finish by discussing several overarching tensions pervading this field: the role of mathematical descriptions versus computational simulations of learning, typological versus learnability concerns in grammar design, and debates on the psychological reality of phonological grammars. As a field, we should not fear rapid change or the many flowering prospects.
Prologue
Authors: Considine John
Published: May 2022

The prologue sets out the importance of dictionaries in the culture of the early modern British Isles; explains that this book is the first volume of a trilogy covering the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries; and explains the extent of the subject matter of the book and of the trilogy. There are four key points: the book includes all dictionaries made or read by speakers of the English language or the Scots language; it includes wordlists of every size, from glossaries to large free-standing dictionaries; it attends to traditions of lexicography rather than fetishizing originality; and it is concerned with the history of reading dictionaries as well as the history of making dictionaries.
The first printed dictionaries of English, French, and Latin
Authors: Considine John
Published: May 2022

Chapter 2 turns from manuscripts to the first printed dictionaries: incunables and post-incunables. These include the short English-language wordlists associated with the ‘Boke of St Albans’; the first bilingual French and English wordlist, which may have been the work of William Caxton, and its successors by Giles Du Wes and others; some short early lists of legal terms and of Greek and Arabic words; the early printed editions of the Promptorium parvulorum and of a Latin dictionary with English glosses called the Ortus vocabulorum (with remarks on their circulation and their eventual obsolescence); some small schoolbooks in wordlist form; and some medical texts with lexicographical elements, notably herbals.
Polyglot dictionaries
Authors: Considine John
Published: May 2022

Chapter 5 gives an account of the polyglot, or multilingual, dictionaries of the sixteenth century which included English. In all of these, English-language equivalents were added to existing dictionaries in continental European traditions. They might have subject-ordered macrostructure, like the Sex linguarum dictionarius of 1537, or alphabetical macrostructure, like the Colloques ou dialogues avec un dictionaire en six langues of 1576; they might include dialogues or phrasebook material. Their headwords might be Latin, and one of them, the Nomenclator of Hadrianus Junius, included some interesting post-classical Latin. A polyglot tradition based on the Dictionarium of Calepino matched English words with equivalents in ten other ancient and modern languages.
Bilingual dictionaries of vernacular languages in the 1540s and 1550s
Authors: Considine John
Published: May 2022

Chapter 6 turns to the first bilingual dictionaries of English and vernacular languages other than French. The first of these was William Salesbury’s Dictionary in Englyshe and Welshe of 1547, the only Welsh dictionary to be printed in the sixteenth century, though others were made and remained in manuscript. It was followed by the work of another Welshman, William Thomas’s Italian dictionary of 1550, and by a couple of short Spanish wordlists produced after the marriage of the queen of England to the heir to the kingdom of Spain. Short wordlists in languages such as Breton and Romani were also produced, as was a very short list of words in languages of the New World including Taino.
Latin dictionaries of the 1550s
Authors: Considine John
Published: May 2022

Chapter 7 discusses the Latin dictionaries, all smaller than the Bibliotheca Eliotae, and all meant as schoolbooks or (in at least one case) undergraduate textbooks, which followed in the wake of that large work. One of these, Jean Véron’s Latin–English–French Dictionariolum puerorum of 1552, was closely based on a dictionary by Robert Estienne; a second, Richard Howlet’s alphabetized English–Latin Abcedarium of the same year, was based on the English wordlist of Palsgrave and the Latin of the Bibliotheca Eliotae; a third, John Withals’s subject-ordered English–Latin Shorte dictionarie of 1553, is based on a continental European school dictionary. Another compilation of the 1550s, an English–Latin work by John Barrett, was not published until 1574, but the first stage of its making is discussed here.
Elizabethan dictionaries of vernacular languages before Florio
Authors: Considine John
Published: May 2022

Chapter 9 returns to the subject of wordlists of vernacular languages. It gives an account of some short practical wordlists of French, printed in the 1560s, and some shorter wordlists of Irish which remained in manuscript, before turning to more substantial dictionaries of French (Lucas Harrison’s of 1571, revised by Claudius Hollyband in 1580 and 1593); of Spanish (there was a burst of productivity in 1590 and 1591); and of Russian (Mark Ridley’s unpublished work of the 1590s, including the first serious attempt at a bidirectional dictionary of any language with English). It ends with an account of shorter wordlists of languages of North America, West Africa, the Arctic, South East Asia, the Caribbean, and Madagascar.
Dictionaries of Latin and Greek from 1581 to 1600
Authors: Considine John
Published: May 2022

Chapter 11 completes the story of the Latin dictionaries of sixteenth-century England, and adds that of the Greek dictionaries produced in the 1580s and 1590s, with particular attention to the publishing history of these dictionaries. It begins with the Greek–Latin Lexicon Graecolatinum of Edward Grant; the Latin–Greek–English edition of Guillaume Morel’s Verborum Latinorum commentarii produced by Abraham Fleming; two smaller dictionaries with revisions by Fleming; and John Higgins’s Latin–English version of Hadrianus Junius’ subject-ordered polyglot Nomenclator. Next come the first major dictionaries produced in close association with the universities, Thomas Thomas’s Latin–English Dictionarium (Cambridge) and John Rider’s English–Latin Bibliotheca scholastica (Oxford). These were resented by the London book trade, leading to what might be called the first of the dictionary wars of the English-speaking world. The chapter ends with the first Latin–Scots dictionary, by Andrew Duncan, and the eccentric little dictionaries of Simon Sturtevant.
Wordlists with Hebrew, Arabic, and Armenian
Authors: Considine John
Published: May 2022

Chapter 12 turns to the learned languages of the Mediterranean world and eastern Christianity. The first of these was produced by William Patten in 1570, in the course of his decipherment of an Armenian manuscript. Patten also produced a guide to Hebrew words in the English translation of the Bible, including many proper names. Another wordlist of biblical proper names was presented as one of the ‘concordances’ issued with an important English translation of the Bible, and a short Hebrew dictionary was published as part of John Udall’s Key of the holy tongue in 1593. The continental European book trade brought other Hebrew dictionaries to the British Isles. The Arabic dictionary of William Bedwell remained in manuscript.
The dictionaries of Florio and Minsheu
Authors: Considine John
Published: May 2022

Chapter 13 concludes the story of the sixteenth-century dictionaries of English with other vernacular languages, by turning to two large and important works. The first, the Italian–English Worlde of wordes of John Florio, is notable for its amplitude, for its excellent English prose style, and for the ambitious reading programme which underpinned it. It is discussed together with smaller wordlists by Florio. The second dictionary discussed here, John Minsheu’s Spanish–English dictionary, is on a similar scale to Florio’s, and also reflects original reading in literary sources. Both were influential on later lexicography in the British Isles and, in Minsheu’s case, further afield.
Lists of old words
Authors: Considine John
Published: May 2022

Chapter 15 turns to the beginnings of English historical lexicography, in the form of wordlists of older varieties of English: what we would call Old English and Middle English, though this periodization was not used in the sixteenth century. Wordlists which included Old English were made from the middle of the century onwards, notably by the antiquary Laurence Nowell (in marginalia in a copy of Howlet’s Abcedarium, and in a free-standing wordlist notable for its interest in contemporary regionalisms) and John Joscelyn. Wordlists from Anglo-Saxon England also circulated. None of these were printed. Most of the wordlists which included later Middle English were produced in the 1580s and 1590s. Two of the most important registered Chaucerian vocabulary, mixed in one case with other archaisms.
Lists of hard words, and of words in general use
Authors: Considine John
Published: May 2022

Chapter 16 begins with the first lists of ‘hard words’, the non-technical vocabulary of formal or literary language. These often supported the reading of biblical and other Christian texts by people who were not highly educated, including women readers. It then turns to the first general wordlists produced for learners, particularly the long list printed without glosses in Richard Mulcaster’s First Part of the Elementarie, and, glossed and shortened, in Edmund Coote’s English Schoole-Maister, which would become the basis for the hard-word dictionary tradition of the seventeenth century. It concludes with general wordlists for special purposes: two which were imagined but never completed (one in the service of spelling reform and one in the service of poetic composition), and two which were printed (one as an appendix to a grammar and one as part of a treatise on secret writing).
Illiterate Inmates
Authors: Crone Rosalind
Published: May 2022

This book tells the story of the emergence, at the turn of the nineteenth century, of a powerful idea—the provision of education in prisons for those accused and convicted of crime—and its execution over the century that followed. Using evidence from both local and convict prisons, the book shows how education became part of the modern penal regime. While the curriculum largely reflected that of mainstream elementary schools, the delivery of education, shaped by the penal environment, created an entirely different educational experience. At the same time, philosophies of imprisonment which prioritised punishment and deterrence over reformation undermined any socially reconstructive ambitions. Thus the period between 1800 and 1899 witnessed the rise and fall of the prison school in England.
Education and the Changing Penal Regime
Authors: Crone Rosalind
Published: May 2022

Chapter 6 continues to explore the consequences of penal reform for the provision of education in prisons in the mid-Victorian period. It focuses, in particular, on the delivery of education in prisons. Although the use of separation for reformatory purposes was largely discredited after 1850, a new generation of penal reformers was attracted to its painful properties. In order to limit association in prisons even further, penal reformers insisted on the implementation of cellular instruction: one-to-one tuition delivered by teachers to prisoners in their cells. This transformed the experience of learning and heralded another significant divergence from mainstream elementary education. It also had a dramatic impact on the time that prisoners spent ‘at school’. Renewed emphasis on the performance of hard labour gave rise to new pressures to schedule instruction in the evening. The new network of convict prisons established to facilitate sentences of penal servitude encouraged the professionalisation of teachers in that sector. In local prisons, the persistent use of prison warders as teachers prevented the achievement of better working conditions and professionalisation for prison schoolmasters and schoolmistresses.
The Attempt to Rebalance
Authors: Crone Rosalind
Published: May 2022

By the early 1890s, confidence in Edmund Du Cane’s uniform and retributionist system of imprisonment had begun to wane. There were conflicts between Du Cane and Home Office officials and politicians, some of whom were influenced by humanitarianism and Philosophical Idealism. In 1895 the Gladstone Committee acknowledged the cruelty and inhumanity that had come to characterise the late-nineteenth-century penal regime and called for more attention to reformatory technologies in prisons, including education and training. A new prison education committee (the Mitford Committee) was established to investigate whether scholarly instruction should be offered in prisons and under what terms. The recommendations of the Mitford Committee, based on evidence from prison officers, teachers, educational experts and prisoners, were modest and reinforced existing modes of delivery. In response, the Prison Commissioners, now led by a new chairman, Sir Evelyn Ruggles-Brise, implemented a new scheme for education in local and convict prisons which differed little in its essentials from that imposed in 1880.
A Featural Typology of Bantu Agreement
Authors: van der Wal Jenneke
Published: May 2022

The Bantu languages are in some sense remarkably uniform (subject, verb, order (SVO) basic word order, noun classes, verbal morphology), but this extensive language family also show a wealth of morphosyntactic variation. Two core areas in which such variation is attested are subject and object agreement. The book explores the variation in Bantu subject and object marking on the basis of data from 75 Bantu languages, discovering striking patterns (the Relation between Asymmetry and Non-Doubling Object Marking (RANDOM), and the Asymmetry Wants Single Object Marking (AWSOM) correlation), and providing a novel syntactic analysis. This analysis takes into account not just phi agreement, but also nominal licensing and information structure. A Person feature, associated with animacy, definiteness, or givenness, is shown to be responsible for differential object agreement, while at the same time accounting for doubling vs. non-doubling object marking—a hybrid solution to an age-old debate in Bantu comparative morphosyntax. It is furthermore proposed that low functional heads can Case-license flexibly downwards or upwards, depending on the relative topicality of the two arguments involved. This accounts for the properties of symmetric object marking in ditransitives (for Appl), and subject inversion constructions (for v). By keeping Agree constant and systematically determining which featural parameters are responsible for the attested variation, the proposed analysis argues for an emergentist view of features and parameters (following Biberauer 2018, 2019), and against both Strong Uniformity and Strong Modularity.
Features in agreement and licensing
Authors: van der Wal Jenneke
Published: May 2022

Chapter 5 brings the analyses in the previous chapters together, showing relations between parameter settings. The chapter first discusses ϕ features on heads in the clause, showing an implicational relation Appl > v > T, but ϕ on C is independent. This can be captured in a parameter hierarchy motivated by general learning biases. Second, the salience features [Person] and [Topic] are shown to reveal and explain two correlations between featural parameters: the RANDOM (the Relation between Asymmetry and Non-Doubling Object Marking) and the AWSOM (Asymmetry Wants Single Object Marking). These too can be understood from the perspective of acquiring emergent features. It is argued that the featural approach is conceptually more attractive than Strong Uniformity and Strong Modularity.
Introduction and Outline of Process
Authors: O'Dea Geoff
Published: May 2022

Part A of the Book covers creditor schemes of arrangement under Part 26 of the Companies Act 2006 (UK schemes), restructuring plans under Part 26A of the Companies Act 2006 (inserted by the Corporate Insolvency and Governance Act 2020 (CIGA)), and schemes of arrangement under the Irish Companies Act 2014 (Irish schemes). It is divided into 8 chapters: 1. Introduction and outlined of process; 2. Jurisdiction and types of companies that may propose UK schemes, restructuring plans and Irish schemes; 3. Meaning of key legal terms and concepts for UK schemes, restructuring plans and Irish Schemes; 4. Meaning of key legal terms and concepts applicable only to restructuring plans; 5. Court hearings, creditor meetings and disclosure requirements; 6. Major types of creditor schemes; 7. Practice and procedure; and 8. Tax considerations for creditor schemes. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to UK schemes, restructuring plans and Irish schemes, their uses, prevalence and limitations. There is a comparison of CVA’s, UK schemes of arrangement, UK restructuring plans and Irish schemes of arrangement in a table format. The chapter summarizes the Practice Statement on UK schemes and restructuring plans issued in June 2020.
Court Hearings, Creditor or Member Meetings, and Disclosure Requirements
Authors: O'Dea Geoff
Published: May 2022

This chapter sets out some of the key practical points relating to the process of implementing a scheme of arrangement (in the UK) under Part 26 of the Companies Act 2006, a restructuring plan under Part 26A of the Companies Act 2006, and a scheme of arrangement under Part 9, Chapter 1 of the Irish Companies Act 2014.
Major Types of Creditor Schemes
Authors: O'Dea Geoff
Published: May 2022

This chapter outlines the major types of schemes of arrangement for English and Irish companies, namely minorities schemes, secured debt transfer schemes, and unsecured debt transfer schemes. In this chapter, the major types of schemes are described together with commentary as to when to use each type of scheme. The chapter sets out a practical restructuring example to demonstrate how the various scheme types might work in practice. The chapter also considers the use of schemes in liquidation and examines the court’s jurisdiction to sanction. Finally, schemes proposed by insurance companies are examined with reference to the relevant case law.
The Loan Market Association Form of Intercreditor Agreement Distressed Disposals Regime
Authors: O'Dea Geoff
Published: May 2022

An examination of the distressed disposals regime under the Loan Market Association form of intercreditor agreement. In particular, this chapter considers key definitions and provisions used in the Loan Market Association distressed disposals regime. The chapter contains analysis of key conditions to be complied with in the context of a distressed disposal including cash versus non-cash consideration, what ‘cash’ means, the security waterfall and fair market price and valuation. Common conditions to release that may be negotiated into the intercreditor document are examined. Remedies for breach are also considered, including possible action junior creditors may take to stop a distressed disposal from occurring.
Pensions
Authors: O'Dea Geoff
Published: May 2022

This chapter considers the powers of the Pensions Regulator under the Pensions Act 2004 and the Pension Schemes Act 2021 in relation to pension schemes in deficit. The chapter summarizes the Pensions Regulator’s moral hazard powers and the criteria to be satisfied for the issuance of a contribution notice and/or a financial support direction. The chapter sets out the new powers granted to the Pensions Regulator under the Pension Schemes Act 2021 and the extent of the new criminal and civil penalties. The chapter also considers the extension of the notifiable events and likely effect of this on restructurings and corporate transactions. The chapter sets out the key provisions of the Pensions Regulator’s draft guidance on its approach to investigating and prosecuting the new criminal offences. Also, the chapter considers the position of the Pensions Regulator and the Pension Protection Fund following the proposal of a restructuring plan.
English VP ellipsis in unusual subject configurations
Authors: Griffiths James , den Dikken Marcel
Published: May 2022

This chapter presents new data in support of the proposal that, in order to formally license English VP ellipsis, a functional head T must receive a value for its inflection (INFL) specification and have a valued Tense (Tns) feature. Put in different terms, it is argued that, to license VP ellipsis, T must enter into a Spec–Head agreement relationship with the phrase in its specifier and must be in a c-command relationship with a local v head that has a [tense] value. This is therefore a revival and extension of the ‘Spec–Head agreement’ analyses first entertained by Saito and Murasugi (1990) and Lobeck (1995). Novel support for this analysis comes from the behaviour of VP ellipsis in copular clauses in which the occupant of Spec,TP is not a standard referential DP, but an expletive or predicate (proform). Concerning the timing of ellipsis, the chapter provides decisive evidence against ‘derivational-timing’ approaches to VP/do ellipsis in English.
Grammatical silences from syntax to morphology
Authors: Saab Andrés
Published: May 2022

This chapter focuses on the mechanics of ellipsis at the syntax–morphology interface. It is proposed that ellipsis bleeds Vocabulary Insertion at PF by deleting the variables that trigger late insertion of phonological material at PF. Phrasal copies are also assumed to be subject to ellipsis in this sense and are shown to interact with ellipsis: phrasal traces are irrelevant when it comes to calculating identity within a given E-site. As for heads, it is proposed that they are subject to ellipsis at PF under identity and morphological locality. Among other important asymmetries between head and phrasal copies, this derives the lexical identity requirement in certain V-stranding VP-ellipsis languages (Goldberg 2005). The broad picture that arises is a model of the timing of ellipsis that covers not only surface anaphora, but other types of grammatical silences, as well.
Fragments and left-edge ellipsis
Authors: Weir Andrew
Published: May 2022

This chapter provides a unified treatment of fragment ellipsis and left-edge ellipsis in English. Both processes are argued to be cases of ellipsis at the syntax–prosody interface, very late in the derivation. A formalization is given in terms of an optimality-theoretic approach to the syntax-prosody interface. Left-edge ellipsis is motivated by a constraint favoring Strong Starts to prosodic constituents, while fragment ellipsis occurs because of the conflicting requirements of different constraints on linearization of focused constituents. In both cases, the optionality of ellipsis is captured by variable re-ranking of the (ellipsis-disfavouring) Max constraint with respect to the markedness constraints which favour ellipsis. On this view, although syntactic processes (in particular LF-movement of foci) feed fragment ellipsis, there is no syntactic licensing of fragment ellipsis as such. The chapter also discusses the role of Recoverability in constraining the interpretation of these elided structures and ensuring that ellipses are not over-generated.
Medieval Russian Sophiology
Authors: Kriza Ágnes
Published: May 2022

The Commentary on the Novgorod Sophia icon appears as a part of a fixed set of ten texts in its early, fifteenth-century manuscripts. This chapter analyses these satellite texts around the commentary which reveal the multi-layered sophiological meaning of the Wisdom icon. Sophia is the symbol of the Hagia Sophia Church; wisdom is a personification of the true faith, and, most importantly, Sophia is the allegorical image of Christ’s body, which is the Church, whose bridegroom and head is Christ, the Wisdom of God. This chapter concludes that the Sophia commentary, together with its satellite texts, combines the ecclesiological and sophiological themes in an innovative way which is termed as ‘sophiological synthesis’.
Sophia in the Womb of the Virgin
Authors: Kriza Ágnes
Published: May 2022

In the Novgorod Sophia icon, the Theotokos who holds in her hands Christ in an aureole provides a clue to the sophiological meaning of the icon. Two case studies on the sixth- or seventh-century manuscript illuminations in the Syriac Bible of Paris and in the Armenian Echmiadzin Gospels explore the historical roots and meaning of this type of Marian iconography which is usually called Nikopoios. The focal point of this chapter is the eleventh-century Nikopoios fresco in the apse of the Saint Sophia church at Ohrid, the central image of an elaborate church decoration programme conveying an intertwined sophiological-eucharistic-ecclesiological meaning. The Nikopoios, as a symbol of Byzantine imperial Orthodoxy, promotes the doctrine of the hypostatic union of the two, human and divine, natures in Christ who incarnated in the deified human womb of the Mother of God. The iconographical investigations of the ‘Image’ part conclude that the Novgorod Sophia image was created simultaneously with the Sophia commentary in the first half of the fifteenth century in Novgorod and the prototype of this iconography was undoubtedly connected with the Novgorod Sophia Cathedral.
Leaven and Byzantine Marian Iconography
Authors: Kriza Ágnes
Published: May 2022

By focusing on the central figure of Orthodox sanctuary decorations, the image of the Mother of God, this chapter examines the Marian aspects of the azymes controversy. It studies a new version of the Nikopoios image, the Blachernitissa or Znamenie which appeared in the eleventh century, showing the Mother of God in orans with hovering medallion of Christ over her chest. This study links the transformation of the Nikopoios with the Byzantine anti-Latin polemics against unleavened bread. The Eucharistic importance of the Blachernitissa is also indicated by the fact that it occurs in the liturgical vessel called panagiarion, used in the rite of the elevation of Panagia (bread dedicated to the Mother of God). By integrating either the Nikopoios or the Blachernitissa/Znamenie, the Novgorod Sophia enshrined the Eucharistic, anti-azymite content of these two types of Marian images. A sixteenth-century version of the Novgorod Sophia iconography, combining the image of the winged Wisdom with the representation of the Elevation of the Panagia, provides a visual confirmation of this assumption.
Conclusions
Authors: Kriza Ágnes
Published: May 2022

The Conclusions summarize the findings about the meaning, place, time, and historical context of the creation of the Novgorod Sophia image. By arguing that the Wisdom image, together with its commentary, was an intertwined visual-textual response to the Union of Florence, this study asserts the significance of the Russian rejection of the ecclesiastical union for the history of medieval Russian painting. It also calls for further investigations and wider discussions about anti-Latin visual polemics by arguing that the problem of allegory in late medieval Russian iconography and, in particular, that of the allegorical representations of God are inseparable from the visual expressions of those theological doctrines that were the focal points of the conflict with the Latins.
The Usual Suspects
Authors: Taylor Emmeline
Published: May 2022

Chapter 7, ‘Rewards’, focuses on the self-expressed motivations of armed robbery, and crime more broadly. The ‘usual suspects’ of fast cash and the interrelation with drugs are expounded in this chapter. Some fantasized about a lavish lifestyle—staying in hotels, driving flash cars, impressing women, frequenting casinos, and generally throwing money around with abandon—whereas others were servicing an expensive drug addiction. Irrespective of how much money was gained from a robbery or what it was spent on, there was one thing they all had in common: the proceeds would be spent almost immediately, thus quickly necessitating the next crime.
Tory-Socialists
Authors: Brodie Marc
Published: May 2022

The views of Labour ‘Tory-socialist’ politicians in this period, such as opposition to interference of the state with the ‘pleasures’ of the working class, have been said to represent attitudes within their poor constituencies. But the views of many of these politicians have been misrepresented. They in fact often desired government action to deal with problems—and the personal failings of others—in their communities, and so in this way aligned with the views of many of the poor we saw in earlier chapters. The ballots of union members on ‘half-time’ education in northern textile areas have also been said to show how workers resisted state intervention. But these votes need to be read in the context of the divisions within these trades and areas—between the better-off and the unskilled, and between men and women. The evidence they provide is much more complex than usually thought.
Harmonization and Integration in Africa: The Case of Competition Law and Policy
Authors: Dawar Kamala , Lipimile George
Published: May 2022

This chapter examines the process of harmonization of competition law and policy in Africa in the context of economic integration under the AU through its adoption of the Agreement Establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area. The chapter undertakes a comparative examination of the various stages of development of competition laws and authorities across Africa. It identifies the role of AU institutions and law in harmonizing competition principles across overlapping memberships of the different Regional Economic Communities, as well as the diversity among the domestic competition frameworks which have already been developed on the African continent. The chapter concludes by assessing the various options and recommendations for harmonizing competition policy and integrating competition law in the context of the African Continental Free Trade Agreement under the aegis of the AU.
Subjectivizing and Objectivizing the Legal Techniques for Establishing the Relationship among International Legal Norms
Authors: Yip Ka Lok
Published: May 2022

This chapter seeks to uncover both the subjective and objective dimensions of the legal techniques of lex specialis and systemic integration in a critique on certain of their uses to establish the relationship among different legal norms on the use of force against individuals in war. The chapter is divided into three substantive sections. The first section examines the justifications for and limits to the use of lex specialis and systemic integration by drawing on doctrines and jurisprudence from different areas of public international law. The second section critiques certain uses of lex specialis to establish the relationship among different legal norms on the use of force against individuals in war, while the third section does the same with respect to systemic integration.
Ontologizing the Laws on the Use of Force against Individuals in War
Authors: Yip Ka Lok
Published: May 2022

This chapter interrogates the ontology of the social world of war and its connection with the law on the use of force against individuals in war. It proceeds in three substantive sections. The first section goes back to the basics in social theories and explores social ontology through the lens of the agent-structure problem, that is, the study of the whole and the parts that make up the reality of society. The second section traces the ontological presuppositions of the different laws on the use of force against individuals in war and connects them to distinct levels of social ontology. The third section illustrates how the reconciliatory logic in law, as fulfilled by the convergence between LOAC and IHRL through the misuse of legal techniques, misaligns with these distinct levels of social ontology, turning convergence into conflation.
Leo Hurwicz
Authors: Banerjee Samiran
Published: May 2022

This chapter provides a biography of Leonid Hurwicz. Hurwicz was born on August 21, 1917 in Moscow, Russia, at a time of historical tumult, in-between the February revolution that overthrew the Romanov dynasty and the October revolution that ushered in the Soviet Union. From 1934–38, he attended the University of Warsaw, earning an L.L.M. (Magister Utriusque Iuris), a Master of Laws degree in both civil and canon law. This was to be the only degree that Hurwicz officially earned in his life. He also studied at the University of Chicago and Harvard, and taught mathematics and other courses in the electronics program of the U.S. Army Signal Corps at the Illinois Institute of Technology in 1941. During 1948, he was on the staff of the research division of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe in Geneva. Outside of his academic career, Hurwicz was a lifelong Democrat.
Leonid Hurwicz
Authors: Arrow Kenneth J.
Published: May 2022

This chapter offers a eulogy for Leonid Hurwicz, who was a transforming figure in modern economic theory. His early theory has found more resonance today among some game theorists, under the name of “algorithmic game theory.” In 1972, Hurwicz restated the problem of choice in decentralized systems. He added the important condition of incentive compatibility to the criteria for a suitable allocation system with decentralized information. He also emphasized the game-theoretic formulation, now as a matter of design. Important as Hurwicz’s work on allocation mechanisms was, it was far from exhausting his contributions to economics. The chapter is augmented by a postscript, a tribute from 1977 when Hurwicz was elected a Distinguished Fellow of the American Economic Association.
A Twenty-One-Year Collaboration
Authors: Maskin Eric
Published: May 2022

This chapter discusses the author’s experience with Leonid Hurwicz. When the author was a math major at Harvard, he came across Hurwicz’s work on mechanism design. It was the early 70s, and mechanism design was just getting started and still on the periphery of economics. Nevertheless, the author saw the precision and power of Hurwicz’s mechanism design, and how it could be used to answer some of the big questions of the economic world: What does decentralization mean? When does a free market perform better than a planned one? Which economic system uses information most efficiently? Hurwicz was even able to show in a now famous theorem that in a 2-person economy it is impossible to implement an efficient, individually rational allocation in dominant strategies. The chapter then looks at how the author met and got to work with Hurwicz.
Some Reminiscences of Leo and His Work on Informational Requirements
Authors: Marschak Thomas
Published: May 2022

This chapter examines Leonid Hurwicz’s work on informational requirements. The question that Hurwicz asks in his work on informational requirements for decentralized resource allocation mechanisms is this: what is the smallest message space M that allows us to realize G? In a more modest form of this question we ask: what is a lower bound to the size of the message space among all the G-realizing mechanisms? The chapter then looks at Hurwicz’s discovery of “cross-fertilization” and space-filling curves. It also considers his work on mechanisms with finite message spaces, and how he became the heart and soul of the Decentralization Conference.
Family and Faction
Authors: Najemy John M.
Published: May 2022

Florence was the republic Machiavelli knew best. Chapter 6 investigates his representation in the Florentine Histories of the elite class in the republic’s first century (1250–1350), in which only the elite families punitively designated as magnates by popular governments are called “nobles” or “grandi.” Other elite families he calls “popolani nobili” or “potenti.” All elite families built factions that originated in the family and attracted partigiani. Antagonisms between factions (Guelfs vs. Ghibellines, Black Guelfs vs. White Guelfs) divided the city, engulfing it in violence. Machiavelli makes Corso Donati the emblematic figure of the magnates’ recklessness, vainglory, and self-destructiveness. To rein in magnate “arrogance” and “insolence,” the non-elite popolo, organized in guilds, legislated the Ordinances of Justice (1293), which the magnates tried repeatedly to overturn, culminating in failed insurrections in 1340 and 1343. Most readings of Machiavelli’s famous comparison of Rome and Florence (Histories 3.1) miss the observation that, whereas Rome went from equality to “great inequality,” Florence went from inequality to “mirabile” equality, making it suitable for republican government. Machiavelli critiques the pathology of elite factionalism in the speech in 3.5. Attempts by the popolo to restrain the factions of the non-magnate Albizzi and Ricci provoked elite Guelfs to launch a campaign of accusations of Ghibellinism, which in turn sparked resistance from guildsmen and workers. In the speech by an anonymous worker (3.13) Machiavelli shows understanding of the workers’ grievances, while denouncing some of their actions. He represents the elite’s reprimand in the speech by Luigi Guicciardini (3.11).
International Criminal Jurisdiction
Authors: Gallant Kenneth S.
Published: May 2022

As crime across borders grows, so does the importance of national authority to define acts of outsiders as criminal and to prosecute those who commit those acts; the importance of international authority to define crimes against the international community grows as well. The principles and rules constraining states and the international community in making and enforcing law comprise the international law of criminal jurisdiction. This is the first book in English since World War II systematically to address what this law is, how it is made from national and international sources, what its weaknesses are, and what might be done to address them. It is also the first book systematically to treat the jurisdictional statutes of all legal systems, including civil law, common law, Islamic law, and never-colonized Asian states as sources of the international law of criminal jurisdiction.
The Standard Model of Criminal Jurisdiction Introduction and General Issues
Authors: Gallant Kenneth S.
Published: May 2022

This chapter introduces the model of jurisdiction over crime with transnational elements which has become standard in the past century and a half. It embodies five principles which a state may generally use to justify making and applying criminal law for persons and prosecuting those who allegedly violate the law: territoriality, nationality of actor (“active personality”), protective jurisdiction (protecting state interests), passive personality (nationality of victim), and universality. These principles developed in their modern forms largely in civil law and common law countries, but today they are also implemented in Islamic law countries and a number of Asian countries which were never fully colonized by Western powers. They are for the most part the customary international law of criminal jurisdiction as well, though there are some who dispute that claim. Some of the general issues concerning this model addressed in this chapter include: the historical and intellectual roots of the model; the near-identity of legislative and adjudicative criminal jurisdiction, because each state uses only its own crime definitions in its courts; primary versus subsidiary jurisdiction; and others. The chapter concludes with a framing of the main questions concerning whose law we must obey.
The Protective Principle
Authors: Gallant Kenneth S.
Published: May 2022

The protective principle of criminal jurisdiction allows states to prohibit and prosecute certain crimes committed wholly outside their territories by persons who are not their nationals. Traditionally, these were crimes against the security of the state, such as espionage, or against its money or credit, such as counterfeiting. By now, other crimes against the government functions or property of the state are subject to protective jurisdiction as well. This chapter addresses the various ways states implement the protective principle in their national laws, and the ways it is addressed in multilateral treaties. Many see this form of jurisdiction as completely based in self-protection of the criminalizing state, rather than in the moral blameworthiness of what the actor has done. Thus it is subject to political considerations more than those of individual justice. The dangers of protective jurisdiction arise from states’ efforts to expand the sorts of crimes which may be prosecuted pursuant to it. Some have attempted to criminalize outside speech or associational activities protesting their governmental actions. Others have attempted to define all interests of the state, whatever they are, to be subject to protective jurisdiction. If generally accepted, this would create a vaguely defined set of extremely broad powers to criminalize acts of outsiders.
Challenges to the Standard Model
Authors: Gallant Kenneth S.
Published: May 2022

This chapter discusses critiques of and alternatives to the standard model of criminal jurisdiction that have been raised by scholars and states. The first part deals with claims that the five major principles of jurisdiction do not create a customary international law of criminal jurisdiction, principally because they fail to meet the requirements for identifying customary international law. The second part addresses proposed alternatives to the five principle standard model that have been proposed as statements of the customary international law of jurisdiction.
Jurisdiction, Individual Choice, and the Principle of Guilt (Schuldprinzip)
Authors: Gallant Kenneth S.
Published: May 2022

The principle of guilt is a German criminal law doctrine with analogues in many legal systems around the world. A person cannot be guilty of a crime, and thus legitimately incur punishment, unless the person had a choice whether or not to commit the crime, and voluntarily committed an act or omission which was against the law. This chapter argues the following: jurisdictional law should be established so that law applies only where a person violating the law would meet the requirements of this principle of guilt. That is, jurisdiction should not exist over acts, allegedly against the law of a given state, where the accused had no real choice whether or not to obey that law. A person deprived of the opportunity to choose if, at the time of the charged act, there was no reason for the person to know that the law in question could or would be applicable to the person.
Conclusion
Authors: Gallant Kenneth S.
Published: May 2022

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