bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Time‐resolved
K
err‐effect and Spin Dynamics in Itinerant Ferromagnets
Authors: Koopmans Bert
Published: December 2007

The availability of femtosecond pulsed‐laser sources in combination with the development of time‐resolved and sensitive magneto‐optical schemes, have paved the way toward the exploration of the dynamics of spin systems at ultimate time scales. This chapter focuses on the exploration of subpicosecond processes in itinerant ferromagnet systems, which after a decade of research has now become an exciting and mature field of research. Both the potential and limitations of the experimental techniques, mostly concentrating on all‐optical approaches, and the subtle relation with processes being probed are being explained. The main part, though, is devoted to a review of experimental efforts and the physical insight that has emerged for the complementary spin‐dependent processes being investigated: populational dynamics (including state‐filling effects such as dichroic bleaching and direct transfer of angular momentum from the laser field), loss of magnetic order after laser heating, laser‐induced modification of anisotropy (including dynamics of exchange‐coupled systems)–triggering precessional phenomena, and the very recently discovered possibility to generate magnetic order at ultrafast timescales by driving metamagnetic phase transitions.
Spin‐polarized Photoelectron Spectroscopy as a Probe of Magnetic Systems
Authors: Johnson Peter David , Güntherodt Gernot
Published: December 2007

Spin‐polarized photoelectron spectroscopy has developed into a versatile tool for the study of surface and thin‐film magnetism. In this chapter, we examine the methodology of the technique and its recent application to a number of different problems. We first examine the photoemission process itself followed by a detailed review of spin‐polarization measurement techniques and the related experimental requirements. We review studies of spin‐polarized surface states, interface states, and quantum‐well states followed by studies of the technologically important oxide systems including half‐metallic transition‐metal oxides, ferromagnet/oxide interfaces and the antiferromagnetic cuprates that exhibit high
T
c
Superconductivity. We also discuss the application of high‐resolution photoemission with spin resolving capabilities to the study of spin‐dependent self‐energizing effects.
Magnetostrictive Materials and Magnetic Shape Memory Materials
Authors: O'Handley Robert C.
Published: December 2007

The coupling between the state of magnetization and the shape of a magnetic material is an interesting field, rich in basic science and opportunities for technical applications. Key experimental observations of conventional, anisotropic magnetostriction (the anisotropic strain tensor that rotates with the direction of magnetization in a free magnetic sample) are explained and the theoretical models of magnetostriction and related effects (e.g., the ΔEeffect and stress‐induced anisotropy) are described. A new effect, quite distinct from anisotropic magnetostriction, is the large magnetic‐field‐induced strain observed in certain magnetic shape memory alloys. While these materials do exhibit conventional anisotropic magnetostrictive strain (of the order of 10−4), their 6–10% field‐induced strain is due to twin boundary motion, which may or may not occur under magnetization rotation depending on the extent to which the twin boundaries are pinned on defects.
Advanced Soft Magnetic Materials for Power Applications
Authors: Moses Anthony J.
Published: December 2007

This article begins by introducing the importance of electrical steels in their application as electrical machine cores. Nonoriented, grain‐oriented, and high‐silicon steels comprise over 97% of the world's production of soft magnetic materials. The origin, controlling factors, and methods of optimizing their most important magnetic parameter, the core loss, are discussed. The effect of magnetizing frequency, flux density, mechanical stress, temperature, and flux distortion is shown. Magnetostriction is a further factor of importance in many devices, so this is briefly discussed. There is a growing interest in predicting the losses of electrical steels, so the need for better understanding of magnetization processes to build accurate models which will cater to the more stringent specifications of modern industry are discussed, and new approaches are reviewed. Powder composite materials are finding niche applications in power devices, so their magnetic properties are compared with those of the traditional lamination steels. The paper does not cover magnetically soft ferrites or iron–cobalt alloys which are used in specialized power magnetic applications.
Application of Magnetic Particles in Medicine and Biology
Authors: Andrä Wilfried , Häfeli Urs , Hergt Rudolf , Misri Ripen
Published: December 2007

Magnetic particles (MPs) have proved to be valuable tools for manipulation of cells or biomolecules, for transportation of chemical substances or transfer of energy to defined target sites in biological systems, and for clinical diagnostics and therapeutics—bothin vitroas well asin vivo. MPs receive their magnetic properties and responsiveness to magnetic fields most often from the proven biocompatible iron oxides magnetite (Fe3O4) and maghemite (γ‐Fe2O3). The small size of MPs allows them to pass through capillary vessels during blood circulation. In nanoparticulate form or under the influence of strong magnetic fields, some MPs can even extravasate through capillary walls into surrounding tissue and reach many of the cells in the human body. Magnetically assisted delivery of chemo‐ or radiotherapeutics to as well as the generation of heat (hyperthermia) at defined target sites in the body can thus be achieved for treatment purposes, such as tumor therapy. Furthermore, MPs can serve as site‐ and function‐specific contrast agents and thus enhance the diagnostic potential of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). On the biotechnological side, magnetic labeling of cells and biomolecules with MPs followed by magnetic separation has been utilized for the isolation and analysis of nucleic acids and specific cells, for protein purification, for the detection of pathogenic bacteria and viruses, and for gene transfection.
Theory of Spin Hall Effects in Semiconductors
Authors: Engel Hans‐Andreas , Rashba Emmanuel I. , Halperin Bertrand I.
Published: December 2007

Spin Hall effects are a collection of phenomena, resulting from spin‐orbit coupling, in which an electrical current flowing through a sample can lead to spin transport in a perpendicular direction and spin accumulation at lateral boundaries. These effects, which do not require an applied magnetic field, can originate in a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic spin‐orbit coupling mechanisms and depend on geometry, dimension, impurity scattering, and carrier density of the system—making the analysis of these effects a diverse field of research. In this chapter, we give an overview of the theoretical background of the spin Hall effects and summarize some of the most important results. First, we explain effective spin‐orbit Hamiltonians, how they arise from band structure, and how they can be understood from symmetry considerations; including intrinsic coupling due to bulk inversion or structure asymmetry or due to strain, and extrinsic coupling due to impurities. This leads to different mechanisms of spin transport: spin precession, skew scattering, and side jump. Then we present the kinetic (Boltzmann) equations, which describe the spin‐dependent distribution function of charge carriers, and the diffusion equation for spin‐polarization density. Next, we define the notion of spin currents and discuss their relation to spin polarization. Finally, we explain the electrically induced spin effects; namely, spin polarization and currents in bulk and near boundaries (the focus of most current theoretical research efforts), and spin injection, as well as effects in mesoscopic systems and in edge states.
Spin Angular Momentum Transfer in Magnetoresistive Nanojunctions
Authors: Sun Jonathan Z.
Published: December 2007

High current density spin‐polarized transport in current‐perpendicular nanomagnetic junctions reveals an interaction between the spin‐polarized current and the nanomagnet electrodes. This interaction causes a current‐induced magnetic excitation in the ferromagnetic electrodes, leading either to persistent magnetic precession or to a complete magnetic reversal, under a dc current bias. This article gives a brief review of the basic understanding of this so‐called spin‐transfer phenomenon, including the basic mechanism, its early theoretical prediction and experimental discovery, and the significance of this interaction for applications in modern electronics. This review uses a framework of phenomenological analyses, bridging experimental observations and first‐principle‐based theoretical work.
Tunneling Magnetoresistance in Semiconductors
Authors: Ohya Shinobu , Tanaka Masaaki
Published: December 2007

We overview the studies on tunneling magnetoresistance (TMR) in monocrystalline semiconductor‐based magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs). Emphasis is placed on spin‐polarized tunneling in GaMnAs‐based heterostructure MTJs with a single barrier and double barriers grown by molecular‐beam epitaxy. Additionally, recently observed new phenomena related to spin‐polarized tunneling are also described.
Electrode Potentials
Authors: Petrii Oleg A. , Tsirlina Galina A.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introductory Remarks

External and Internal Potentials

Electromotive Force (emf) and Gibbs Energy of Reaction

Diffusion Potential Drop

Classification of Electrodes

Membrane Electrodes

Standard Potentials

Specific Features of Certain Reference Electrodes

Values of Redox Potentials

Potential Windows

Experimental Techniques

Effects of Ion Pairing

Absolute Electrode Potential

The Role of Electric Double Layers

Conclusion
Electrochemical Double Layers: Liquid–Liquid Interfaces
Authors: Volkov Alexander G. , Markin Vladislav S.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Polarizable and Nonpolarizable Liquid Interfaces

Verwey–Niessen Model

The Electrocapillary Equation

Zero‐Charge Potentials

Specific Adsorption at Liquid–Liquid Interfaces

Adsorption Isotherm

Image Forces

Modified Poisson–Boltzmann (
MPB
) Model
Polyelectrolytes in Solution and at Surfaces
Authors: Netz Roland R. , Andelman David
Published: December 2007

This chapter deals with charged polymers (polyelectrolytes) in solution and at surfaces. The behavior of polyelectrolytes (PEs) is markedly different from that of neutral polymers. In bulk solutions, that is, disregarding the surface effect, there are two unique features to charged polymers: first, owing to the presence of long‐ranged electrostatic repulsion between charged monomers, the polymer conformations are much more extended, giving rise to a very small overlap concentration and high solution viscosity. Second, the presence of a large number of counterions increases the osmotic pressure of PE solutions, making such polymers water soluble as this is of great importance to many applications. At surfaces, the same interplay between monomer–monomer repulsion and counterion degrees of freedom leads to a number of special properties. In particular, the adsorption behavior depends on both the concentration of polymers and the added salt in the bulk. We first describe the adsorption behavior of single PE molecules and discuss the necessary conditions to obtain an adsorbed layer and characterize its width. Depending on the stiffness of the PE, the layer can be flat and compressed or coiled and extended. We then proceed and discuss the adsorption of PEs from semidilute solutions. Mean‐field theory profiles of PE adsorption are calculated as a function of surface charge density (or surface potential), the amount of salt in the system, and the charge fraction on the chains. The phenomenon of charge inversion is reviewed and its relevance to the formation of multilayers is explained. The review ends with a short overview of the behavior of grafted PEs.
The Current–Potential Relationship
Authors: Calvo Ernesto J.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Scope

Introduction

Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Cells

TheButler–Volmer Equation

Theory of Electron Transfer

Ion‐Transfer Reactions

Multiple Electron Transfer

Stoichiometric Number

Mass Transport at Electrodes

Electrochemical Reaction Order

Double‐Layer Effects on the Current–potential Relationship

Adsorption and Electrocatalysis

Mixed Potential

Electrocrystallization

Acknowledgments
Electrocatalysis
Authors: Herrero Enrique , Feliu Juan M. , Aldaz Antonio
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction: Concept of Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalyst

Electronic Effects in Electrocatalysis

Specific Interaction and Transfer Rates

Adsorption and Electrocatalysis

Surface Structure Effects

Role of the Surface Symmetry in Electrocatalysis

Chiral Surfaces

Surface Composition Effects

Changes in the Electronic Properties of the Metal

Ensemble Effects

Bifunctional Catalysts

Modeling of the Catalytic Effects
Electrochemical Nucleation and Growth
Authors: Scharifker Benjamin R. , Mostany Jorge
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Phase Formation on Electrodes

Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Phase Formation

Electrochemical Nucleation Kinetics

The Classical Nucleation Model

Nucleation on Electrode Surfaces

Microscopic Approach to Phase Formation: The Atomistic Model

Experimental Studies of Electrochemical Phase Formation

Three‐dimensional Nucleation

Two‐dimensional Electrocrystallization

Spatial Distribution of Nuclei

Experimental Examples
Spectroelectrochemistry: In
s
itu
UV
‐visible Spectroscopy
Authors: Crayston Joe A.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction and Principles

Introductory Remarks

Theory and Techniques: Steady State Measurement

Cell Transmission for a Simple Electron Transfer Reaction: Determination of
E
and
n

Effect of Follow‐up Reactions in
OTTLE
Cells

Theory and Techniques: Kinetic Measurements

Chronoabsorptometry

Instrumentation for Chronoabsorptometry

Slow Heterogeneous Kinetics

Effect of Follow‐up Reactions

Derivative Cyclic Voltabsorptometry (
DCVA
)

Galvanostatic Conditions

Adsorption

Cell Geometries, Design, Techniques, and Instrumentation

General Considerations

Transmission under Thin‐layer Conditions:
OTTLEs
and Flow‐cells

Variations on and Alternatives to the Basic
OTTLE
Design

OTTLE
Cells Intended for Both
UV
‐visible and
FTIR
Use

OTTLE
Cell Electrochemical and Spectroscopic Response

Semi‐infinite Cells: Optically Transparent Electrodes (
OTEs
)

Reflection from Electrodes and Liquid–Liquid Interfaces

Glancing Incidence Reflection, Near‐parallel or Parallel Reflection, and Diffraction

Liquid–Liquid Interface and Attenuated Total Reflection

Long Optical Path‐length Thin‐layer Cell (
LOPTLC
)

Forced Convection,
RDE
and Channel Flow

UV
‐vis Combined with Other Spectroscopic Techniques

Applications

Solution Studies of Inorganic Species

Solution Studies of Organic Species

Molten Salts Spectroelectrochemistry

Studies of Species of Biological Interest

Inorganic Thin Films and Modified Electrodes

Conducting Polymers and Oligomer Models

Conclusions
Fundamentals of Corrosion
Authors: Frankel Gerald S. , Landolt Dieter
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Fundamentals of Corrosion Electrochemistry

Corrosion Reactions

Electrolytes

Electrode Potential and Structure of the Interface
Thermodynamics of Electrolytic Corrosion
Authors: Frankel Gerald S. , Landolt Dieter
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Reactions

Example 1

Example 2

Example 3

N
ernst Equation

Example 3

Cathodic Reactions in Corrosion

P
ourbaix Diagrams

P
ourbaix Diagram for Water

P
ourbaix Diagram for Metals

Example:
P
ourbaix Diagram for
Fe

Comments on
P
ourbaix Diagrams

Thermodynamics of High Temperature Corrosion
Hydrogen Ingress during Corrosion
Authors: Pound Bruce
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Hydrogen Evolution

General Mechanisms

Reaction Kinetics

Hydrogen Absorption

Mechanisms

Promoters of Hydrogen Entry

Inhibitors of Hydrogen Entry

Solubility of Hydrogen

Hydrogen Diffusion

Diffusion Kinetics

Hydrogen Trapping

Hydrogen Antitrapping

Methods to Study Trapping

Electrochemical Techniques

Permeation Techniques

Potentiostatic Charging

Galvanostatic Charging

Time‐dependent Entry Kinetics

Effect of Trapping

Pulse Techniques

Potentiostatic Pulse

Galvanostatic Pulse

Triangular Pulse

Potentiometric Techniques

Alternating Current Technique

Surface Effects of the Metal and Films

Diffusion Control

Experimental Issues

Selected Metals

Palladium

Iron and Steel

Nickel

Hydrogen Degradation

Classification

Hydrogen Trapping

Theories

Internal Pressure

Surface Energy

Decohesion

Slip Softening

Hydrogen‐related Phase Changes

Alloys

Steels

Stainless Steels

Nickel Alloys

Titanium Alloys
Atmospheric Corrosion
Authors: Leygraf Christofer
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

The Different Stages of Atmospheric Corrosion

Initial Stages

Surface Hydroxylation

Adsorption and Absorption of Water

Electrochemical Reactions

Intermediate Stages

Gas Deposition

Change in Liquid Layer Chemistry

Proton‐ and Ligand‐induced Metal Dissolution

Ion Pairing

Photosensitivity

Nucleation of Corrosion Products

Final Stages

Coalescence of Corrosion Products

Dry‐wet‐dry Cycling

Aging and Thickening of Corrosion Products

Atmospheric Corrodents

Introduction

Gases

Ozone

Nitrogen Dioxide

Ammonia

Hydrogen Sulfide

Sulfur Dioxide

Hydrogen Chloride

Organic Acids

Particles

Corrodent‐metal Susceptibilities

Laboratory Tests

Introduction

Design Considerations

Exposure Chamber

Sample Preparation

Relative Humidity, Temperature, and Exposure Time

Corrodents and Their Delivery

Simulation Considerations

Standardized Accelerated Tests

Important Laboratory Test

Field Tests

Introduction

Outdoor Exposures

Time‐of‐wetness

The
ISO
Classification System

Corrosion Rates

Effect of Rain Sheltering

Acid Deposition

Indoor Exposures

Standardized Field Tests

Important Applications
Corrosion Protection by Organic Coatings
Authors: Grundmeier Guido , Simões Alda
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

The Composition of Corrosion Protecting Organic Coatings

Binder

Pigments

Anticorrosive Pigments

Fillers and Additives

Solvents

Transport Phenomena in Organic Coatings

Transport of Oxygen

Transport of Water and Ions

Adhesion of Organic Coatings

Introduction to the Mechanisms of Protection and Degradation

Mechanisms of Protection

Blistering

Corrosion Initiation

Cathodic Delamination

Anodic Undermining

Application of Electrochemical Methods for the Characterization of the Protective Properties of Organic Coatings on Metals

Monitoring of the Open Circuit Potential

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

Basic Analysis

Equivalent Circuits

Relevant Parameters

Electrochemical Noise

Scanning Reference Electrode Techniques

The Application of the Scanning Kelvin Probe

System Metal–Polymer–Humid Air

System Metal–Oxide–Polymer–Humid Air

System Metal–Metal Oxide–Electrolyte–Polymer–Humid Air

Sample Preparation for
SKP
Measurements

Corrosion Mechanisms of Polymer‐coated Metals

Corrosion of Polymer‐coated Iron

Introduction

Cathodic Delamination on Polymer‐coated Iron

Degradation of the Interface by the Oxygen Reduction Process

Corrosion of Polymer‐coated Zinc and Galvanized Steel

Cathodic Delamination on Polymer‐coated Zinc

Cathodic Protection in the Case of Polymer‐coated Galvanized Steel

FFC
on Polymer‐coated Iron, Aluminum, and Magnesium

Introduction to
FFC

Initiation of
FFC

Propagation of Filaments

Transport of Oxygen

Electrochemical and Auxiliary Measurements of
FFC

Influence of Surface Treatments and Compositions of Organic Coatings on the Corrosion Kinetics

Conversion Coatings

Adhesion Promoters and Interfacial Thin Films

Influence of Pigments in Paints

Intrinsically Conducting Polymers

Overall Conclusions
Molten Salt‐induced Corrosion of Metals (Hot Corrosion)
Authors: Spiegel Michael
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Chemistry of Deep Salt Melts

Sulfates

Solubility of Gases

Anodic and Cathodic Reactions

Molten Carbonates

Solubility of Gases

Anodic and Cathodic Reactions

Solubility of Oxides

Solubility of Oxides in Sulfate Melts

Solubility Plots

Basic Dissolution

Acidic Dissolution

Synergistic Solubility

Solubility of Oxides in Carbonate Melts

Corrosion Mechanisms in Sulfate Melts

Oxide Fluxing/Precipitation: The Rapp–Goto Model

Acidic Fluxing

Corrosion Mechanisms in Carbonate Melts

Methods of Investigation

Polarization Studies

Impedance Spectroscopy

Other Methods

Exposure Tests

Thermogravimetric Experiments

Applications

Gas Turbines

Waste Incineration

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
The Electrolytic Production of Aluminum
Authors: Evans James William , Ziegler Donald Paul
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

The Economic Significance of Aluminum

The Production of Aluminum

The Hall–Héroult Cell

The Electrochemistry of the Hall–Héroult Cell

The Electrolyte

The Thermodynamics and Electrode Kinetics of Hall–Héroult Cells

Anode Effects and Gas Emissions

Gas Bubbles in Hall–Héroult Cells

Mathematical and Physical Modeling of Hall–Héroult Cells

Steady‐state Models for Fields, Flows, and the Interface

Models for Cell Instability

Other Computational Models

Physical Models

Novel Electrodes for Hall–Héroult Cells

Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgment
Fundamentals of Semiconductor Electrochemistry and Photoelectrochemistry
Authors: Krishnan Rajeshwar
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction and Scope

Electron Energy Levels in Semiconductors and Energy Band Model

The Semiconductor–Electrolyte Interface at Equilibrium

The Equilibration Process

The Depletion Layer

Mapping of the Semiconductor Band‐edge Positions Relative to Solution Redox Levels

Surface States and Other Complications

Charge Transfer Processes in the Dark

Current‐potential Behavior

Dark Processes Mediated by Surface States or by Space Charge Layer Recombination

Rate‐limiting Steps in Charge Transfer Processes in the Dark

Light Absorption by the Semiconductor Electrode and Carrier Collection

Light Absorption and Carrier Generation

Carrier Collection

Photocurrent‐potential Behavior

Dynamics of Photoinduced Charge Transfer

Hot Carrier Transfer

Multielectron Photoprocesses

Nanocrystalline Semiconductor Films and Size Quantization

Introductory Remarks

The Nanocrystalline Film–Electrolyte Interface and Charge Storage Behavior in the Dark

Photoexcitation and Carrier Collection: Steady State Behavior

Photoexcitation and Carrier Collection: Dynamic Behavior

Size Quantization

Chemically Modified Semiconductor–Electrolyte Interfaces

Single Crystals

Nanocrystalline Semiconductor Films and Composites

Types of Photoelectrochemical Devices

Conclusion

Acknowledgments
Grafting Molecular Properties onto Semiconductor Surfaces
Authors: Cohen Rami , Ashkenasy Gonen , Shanzer Abraham , Cahen David
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Surface Electronic Properties

Requirements of Molecular Surface Treatments

Strategies to Control Surface Electronic Properties

Controlling the Band‐bending (Vs) and Surface Recombination Velocity (SRV)

Controlling the Electron Affinity, χ

Controlling the Work Function, Φ

Strategy for Molecule Selection

Organic and Inorganic Molecular Surface Treatments

Inorganic Surface Treatments

Organic Surface Treatments

Correlation of Molecular Parameter with Changes in the Surface Electron Affinity

Correlation of Molecular Parameters with Changes in the Band‐Bending

Examples of Molecular Control over Optoelectronic Devices

Acknowledgments
Dye‐Sensitized Regenerative Solar Cells
Authors: McEvoy Augustin J. , Grätzel Michael
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Overview

Device Concepts

Photography and Photoelectrochemistry

Sensitization of Powders and Rough Surfaces

Substrate Development and Fabrication

Dye Sensitization in Heterojunctions

Commercial Prospects

Conclusion

Acknowledgments
Photoelectrochemical Etching
Authors: Minoura Hideki , Sugiura Takashi
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Surface‐tailoring of Semiconductor

Cd
X
(
X
 = 
S
,
Se
)

TiO
2

Analyses of Grain Boundaries

Conclusion and Prospect
Standard Potentials
Authors: Inzelt György
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Thermodynamic Basis of the Standard, Formal, and Equilibrium Potentials

The Problem of the Initial and Final States

Standard States and Activities

Electrolytes, Mean Activity

Electrochemical Potential, Galvani Potential Difference

Calculation offrom Calorimetric Data andfrom Electrochemical Measurements

The Dependence of the Potential of Cell Reaction on the Composition

Determination of the Standard Electrode Potential () from Electrochemical Measurements

Determination offrom Thermodynamic Data

The Formal Potential ()

The Determination ofby Cyclic Voltammetry
Electrochemistry of Polycyanometalates
Authors: Scholz Fritz , Kahlert Heike
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

The Structure of Polycyanometalates

The Electrochemistry of Polycyanometalates

General Features

Correlations between the Structures ofPCMsand the Thermodynamics of their Electrochemical Reactions

Special Features

Metal Hexacyanoferrates

Hexacyanocobaltates, Hexacyanomanganates, Hexacyanochromates, Hexacyanoruthenates

Octacyanomolybdates, Octacyanotungstates

Pentacyanonitrosyl Metalates

Preparation of Electrodes Modified by Polycyanometalates and their Applications

Preparation of Polycyanometalate Modified Electrodes

Applications ofPCMModified Electrodes
Electrochemical Reactions of Carbon Dioxide
Authors: DuBois Daniel L.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

CO
2
Binding

Modes of
CO
2
Binding

Thermodynamics and Kinetics of
CO
2
Binding to Substrates

Electrochemical
CO
2
Reduction

One‐electron Reduction to Oxalate

Two‐electron Reduction to Carbon Monoxide

Two‐electron Reduction of
CO
2
to Formate/formic Acid

Two‐electron Reductions of
CO
2
Involving Formation of a CC Bond

Four‐electron Reductions of
CO
2

Six‐electron Reduction to Methanol

Eight‐ and Twelve‐electron Reductions of
CO
2
to Methane and Ethylene

Sequential Two‐electron Reductions of
CO
2
Catalyzed by Enzymes

Acknowledgment
Electrochemistry of Copper
Authors: Rorabacher David B. , Schroeder Ronald R.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Oxidation States of Copper

Reference Standards for Potential Values in Nonaqueous Solvent Studies

Methods Used for Potential Measurements

Potentials Involving Solvated Copper Species

Electrochemical Considerations for Copper(
II
/
I
) Complexes Involving Multidentate Ligands

Trends in Potentials of Copper(
II
/
I
) Complexes with Multidentate Ligands

Dependence of Copper(
II
/
I
) Potentials on Ligand Properties

Correlation of Potentials to Copper(
II
) Complex Stability Constants

Mechanistic Aspects of Copper(
II
/
I
) Electron Transfer

Ligand Conformational Change

Complex Dissociation/Formation

Interconversion of Ternary and Binary Complexes

Interconversion of 1:2 and 1:1 Complexes

Dimeric/Monomeric Species

Other Phenomena Affecting Electrochemical Behavior

Ligand Oxidation or Reduction

Electroplating of Copper

Biological Copper Systems

Other Copper(
II
/
I
) Systems

Unidentate Ligand Complexes

Hydroxide Complexes

Halide Complexes

Cyanide and Thiocyanate Complexes

Ammonia Complexes

Complexes with Acetate and Other Common Brønsted Bases

Noncomplexing Buffer Systems

Binuclear Complexes

Copper(
III
/
II
) Systems
Conducting Polymers
Authors: Heinze Jürgen
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Mechanism of Electrochemical Polymerization

Reactions in Solution

Solid‐state Processes

Redox Processes in Conducting Polymers

Applications
Voltammetry of Proteins
Authors: Armstrong Fraser A.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Electrodes for Proteins

Voltammetric Methods

Protein Sample Contained in Solution

Protein Sample Confined to Electrode

General

Case Studies

Observing Active Sites

Iron‐sulfur Clusters

Flavins

Highly Oxidizing Intermediates:
Fe
(
IV
)O

Resolving Complex Reactions

Coupled and Gated Electron Transfer

Catalysis

Conclusion
Single Cell Electrochemistry
Authors: Cooper Jonathan M. , Jung Sung‐Kwon
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Advantages of Microelectrodes in Single Cell Studies

Fabrication of Planar Microelectrodes Using Photolithography

Functional Three‐dimensional Micromachined Electrochemical Devices

Advantages of Using Three‐dimensional Microstructures

Biosensors, Microfluidics, Microarrays, and Lab‐on‐a‐Chip

Self‐referencing Microelectrodes

Ion‐selective Microelectrodes

Self‐referencing Amperometric Microelectrodes

Scanning Probe Microscopy and Single Cell Measurement

Semiconductor Devices for Biological Sensing

Corroborative Measurements for Single Cell Electrochemistry

Future Prospects
Electrochemistry ofNAD(P)+/NAD(P)H
Authors: Gorton Lo , Domínguez Elena
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

NAD(P)+/NAD(P) in Living Systems

Formal Potential of theNAD+/NADHRedox Couple

Focus and Scope of the Chapter

Direct Electrochemical Oxidation ofNAD(P)H

General Observations

Effect of Adsorption

Mechanism and Kinetics

Homogeneous Oxidation ofNAD(P)Hby Oxidizing Redox Compounds

One‐electron No‐proton Acceptors

Two‐electron‐proton Acceptors

o‐quinones andp‐quinones

Aromatic Diimines

Electrocatalytic Oxidation ofNAD(P)Hat Mediator‐modified Electrodes

General Remarks ofCMEs

o‐Quinones and Phenylenediimine Derivatives

Other Mediating Functionalities and Metal‐coated Electrodes

CatalyticNADHOxidation atCMEsBased on Polymers

Mechanistic and Kinetic Aspects

CMEsBased onNADH‐oxidizing Enzymes

Amperometric Biosensors Based onNAD(P)‐dependent Dehydrogenase Enzymes

Direct Electrochemical Reduction ofNAD(P)+

General Observations

Adsorption Phenomena

Mechanism and Kinetics

Electrocatalytic Reduction ofNAD(P)+

Nonenzymatic Electroreduction ofNAD(P)+

Enzymatic Electroreduction ofNAD(P)+

Acknowledgment
Electrochemical Measurements of Nitric Oxide in Biological Systems
Authors: Malinski Tadeusz
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

The Role of Nitric Oxide in Biological Systems

NORelease in Biological Systems

NOas a Regulator of the Cardiovascular System

NOin the Nervous System

NOas a Part of the Immune System

Pathology ofNORelease

Electrochemical Methods forNODetection

Electrochemical Oxidation ofNO

Preparation of Porphyrinic Sensor

Operation Modes

Clark Probe forNODetection

Measurement ofNOin Biological Systems

Measurement ofNOin a Single Cell

In vitro Measurement ofNOin Tissue

In vivo Measurements ofNOin the Kidney

In vivo Measurements ofNOin the Beating Heart

Measurement ofNOin the Brain

In vitro Measurement with Clark Probe

In vivo Measurement with Porphyrinic Sensor

Measurements ofNOin Human Beings
Surface Modification of Chalcogenide Electrodes
Authors: Ganzorig Chimed , Fujihira Masamichi
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Surface Treatment of Substrate Chalcogenide Electrodes

Adsorption of Acids to Chalcogenides

Adsorption of Organic Sulfur Compounds

Surface Modification

Dialkyl Chalcogenide Compounds

Thiols

Dithiols, Disulfides, and Other Sulfur Compounds

Characterization and Applications

Acknowledgments
Preparation of Self‐assembled Monolayers (SAMs) onAuandAg
Authors: Akiba Uichi , Fujihira Masamichi
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Molecular Self‐assembly at Surfaces

Historical Background onSAMs

Preparation Techniques of Substrates Used for FormingSAMs

Gold as a Substrate Material

Preparation Method of a Flat Gold Surface on Mica

Gold Substrate on Silicon Wafer

Template‐stripping Technique as Another Route for Preparation of Flat Gold Substrates

Single Crystal Bead of Gold

Single Crystal Cut of Gold

Other Substrates of Interest

Preparation Techniques of Alkanethiol‐basedSAMson Gold

Preparation from Solution Phase

Electrode Potential Control ofSAMDeposition

SAMDeposition from Aqueous Micellar Solution

Preparation from Liquid and Supercritical Carbon Dioxide

Preparation from the Gas Phase

Structural Characterization and Chemical Properties ofSAMs

Structure of Alkanethiol‐basedSAMson Gold

Close‐packed Structure ofSAMson Gold (111) Surface

Superlattice Structure ofSAMson Gold (111)

SAMSurface Structure

Characterization of Defects bySTM

Structural Variation in the Backbone Unit ofSAMs

Chemistry and Energetics of the Formation of Alkanethiol‐basedSAMson Gold

Overall Reaction and Energetics of Chemical Adsorption at the Gold/Thiol Interface

Chemisorption Energetics for Gold/Organosulfurs Interfaces

Stabilization ofSAMStructure due to Alkane Chain–Chain Interaction within the Densely Packed Monolayers

Structural Effects onSAMFormation and Stability

Growth Mechanisms ofSAMs

General Profiles forSAMFormation Process

Growth Studies from the Gas Phase

Growth Studies from Solution Phase

Further Techniques for Investigating the Growth ofSAMson Gold

PatternedSAMs

Two Approaches for Fabricating PatternedSAMs: the Top‐down Method and the Bottom‐up Method

Spontaneous Phase Separation

Scanning Probe Lithography UsingSAMs

Dip‐pen Nanolithography

Microcontact Printing by Use of Organosulfur Inks

Photolithography for Fabricating PatternedSAMs

Nanotransfer Printing of Patterned Gold Thin Films

Other Methods

Advanced Modification Technique ofSAMs

Protecting Groups for Unstable Organic Thiols

Modification Technique ofSAMsof Dithiols

RigidSAMs

BCOand AdamantaneSAMs

CholesterolSAM

AromaticSAMs

π‐ConjugatedSAMs

Chemistry onSAMs

Click Reaction onSAMs

Electrochemistry on Thiol‐basedSAMsModified at Electrodes

Bio‐SAMs

Concluding Remarks
Photoelectrochemical Properties of Electrodes Modified with Self‐assembled Monolayers (
SAMs
) of Various Alkylthiol Derivatives
Authors: Kondo Toshihiro , Uosaki Kohei
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Photo‐induced Electron Transfer at
SAM
‐modified Electrodes

Photo‐induced Electron Transfer at Electrodes Modified with
SAM
‐covered Nanocluster Layers

Electron Transfer Controlled by Photoisomerization at
SAM
‐modified Electrodes

Application of Luminescence from
SAM
‐modified Electrodes

Concluding Remarks
Modification of Silicon Wafer Surfaces with Small Organic Moieties
Authors: Yamada Taro
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Handling ofSiSpecimens for Adsorbate Preparation and Surface Analysis

Summary of the Latest Researches

Adsorption of Terminal Olefins onH:Si(111)

Grignard Reaction on HalogenatedSi(111)

Grignard Reagents andH:Si(111)
L
angmuir–
B
lodgett (
LB
) Films on Electrodes
Authors: Sakomura Masaru , Fujihira Masamichi
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Photoelectrochemistry

History of the Langmuir–Blodgett (
LB
) Film

Basic Principles of Surface and Film

Surface Tension

Surface Activity

Gibbs and Insoluble Monolayers

Surface Pressure

Surface Pressure—area (π − 

A

) Isotherm

Preparation Methods for
LB
Films

Molecules and Subphase

LB
Deposition

Equipment for
LB
Deposition

LB
Assemblies Designed for Photoelectric Devices

Energy Transfer in Monolayer Organization

Layer‐by‐layer Assemblies of Electron Acceptor and Dye Molecules

Acceptor/Sensitizer/Donor Multilayer Systems

LB
Assemblies of Synthetic Molecular Photodiodes

A
–
S
–
D
Triad Monolayer Systems

Alternate Multilayered Systems for Scanning Maxwell Stress Microscopy

A
–
S
–
D
Triad Monolayer and Second Donor Bilayer Alternate Systems

LB
Assemblies for Simulations of Key Aspects in Natural Photosynthesis
Langmuir–Blodgett (
LB
) Films on Electrodes (
B
) Electrochemistry
Authors: Nakanishi Takashi , Nakashima Naotoshi
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Electrochemistry of
LB
Films of “Molecular Wires” and Phthalocyanines

Langmuir Monolayer of Fullerenes at the Air–Water Interface

Electrochemistry of
LB
Films of Fullerenes on Electrodes

Carbon Nanotube
LB
Films

Conclusions
Synthesis of Layered Polyelectrolyte Films
Authors: Bruening Merlin , Rusling James
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Film Structure

Electrodes Modified with Layered Polyelectrolytes

Electroactive Layered Polyelectrolyte Films

Direct Voltammetry Using Layered Protein‐polyion Films

Electrode‐driven Enzyme‐like Catalysis

Acknowledgments
Electrochemical Scanning Tunneling Microscopy
Authors: Itaya Kingo
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Experimental Aspects

Principle of Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

Principle of Electrochemical Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

Preparation of Well‐defined Electrode Surfaces

Flame‐annealing and Quenching Method

UHV
‐electrochemical (
EC
) Methods

Iodine‐
CO
Replacement Technique

Electrochemical Etching Method

Structure of Specifically Adsorbed Anions

Iodine Adlayers

Sulfate/bisulfate on
Au
(111),
Pt
(111),
Rh
(111),
Ir
(111),
Pd
(111), and
Cu
(111)

Adsorption of Simple Aromatic Molecules

Benzene on
Rh
(111) in
HF

Other Molecules

Conclusion

Acknowledgment
Atomic Force Microscopy
Authors: Fujihira Masamichi
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are
Organic Electrocatalysis
Authors: Kuwana Theodore , Osa Tetsuo , Kashiwagi Yoshitomo
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are
Development and pilot test of hearing conservation training for construction workers
Authors: Neitzel Richard , Meischke Hendrika , Daniell William E. , Trabeau Maggie , Somers Sebrina , Seixas Noah S.
Published: December 2007

Background

Hearing conservation efforts in construction frequently rely on use of hearing protection devices (HPDs): however, training on HPDs is often not provided, and usage rates remain low. In this study, a hearing conservation training program was developed and pilot tested.

Methods

A theoretical model was selected as the basis for the program, and program contents and delivery methods were selected to optimize the effectiveness and flexibility of the training. Two evaluation measures were selected to assess training‐related changes in self‐reported HPD use. The first was a validated method using concurrent work‐shift noise dosimetry, and the second was a survey concerning workers beliefs and attitudes towards HPDs and HPD use.

Results

The training program was pilot tested on a single construction site. Complete assessment data were available for 23 workers. The percent of time when hearing protection was used during noise levels above 85 dBA nearly doubled post‐training, and the change was statistically significant.

Conclusions

Pre‐ and post‐training data from participating workers demonstrated that HPD use can be increased significantly with basic model‐based training, even in industries with complex noise exposures such as construction. Am. J. Ind. Med. 51:120–129, 2008. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Association of olfactory dysfunction with risk for future Parkinson's disease
Authors: Ross G. Webster , Petrovitch Helen , Abbott Robert D. , Tanner Caroline M. , Popper Jordan , Masaki Kamal , Launer Lenore , White Lon R.
Published: December 2007

Objective

Although olfactory dysfunction is commonly associated with Parkinson's disease (PD), it is not known whether such dysfunction can predate the onset of clinical PD in a community‐based population. This study examines the association of olfactory dysfunction with future development of PD in Honolulu‐Asia Aging Study cohort members

Methods

Olfaction was assessed from 1991 to 1996 in 2,267 men in the Honolulu‐Asia Aging Study aged 71 to 95 years who were free of clinical PD and dementia at the time of olfaction testing. Participants were followed for up to 8 years for incident PD

Results

In the course of follow‐up, 35 men were diagnosed with PD (24.6/10,000 person‐years). The average age at the time of diagnosis was 82.9 ± 3.8 (range, 76–93) years, and the average time to a diagnosis was 4.0 ± 1.9 (range, 1–8) years. During the first 4 years of follow‐up, age‐adjusted incidence of PD declined from 54.5/10,000 person‐years in the lowest quartile of odor identification to 26.6, 8.2, and 8.4/10,000 person‐years in the second, third, and fourth quartiles, respectively (p< 0.001 for trend). After adjustment for age and other potential confounders, the odds ratios for PD in the lowest quartile was 5.2 (95% confidence interval, 1.5–25.6) compared with the top two quartiles. This relation was not evident beyond 4 years of follow‐up

Interpretation

Impaired olfaction can predate clinical PD in men by at least 4 years and may be a useful screening tool to detect those at high risk for development of PD in later life. Ann Neurol 2007
Long‐term course and mutational spectrum of spatacsin‐linked spastic paraplegia
Authors: Hehr Ute , Bauer Peter , Winner Beate , Schule Rebecca , Olmez Akguen , Koehler Wolfgang , Uyanik Goekhan , Engel Anna , Lenz Daniela , Seibel Andrea , Hehr Andreas , Ploetz Sonja , Gamez Josep , Rolfs Arndt , Weis Joachim , Ringer Thomas M. , Bonin Michael , Schuierer Gerhard , Marienhagen Joerg , Bogdahn Ulrich , Weber Bernhard H. F. , Topaloglu Haluk , Schols Ludger , Riess Olaf , Winkler Juergen
Published: December 2007

Objective

Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) comprise a heterogeneous group of neurodegenerative disorders resulting in progressive spasticity of the lower limbs. One form of autosomal recessive hereditary spastic paraplegia (ARHSP) with thin corpus callosum (TCC) was linked to chromosomal region 15q13‐21 (SPG11) and associated with mutations in the spatacsin gene. We assessed the long‐term course and the mutational spectrum of spatacsin‐associated ARHSP with TCC.

Methods

Neurological examination, cerebral magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 18fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (PET), nerve biopsy, linkage and mutation analysis are presented.

Results

Spastic paraplegia in patients with spatacsin mutations (n = 20) developed during the second decade of life. The Spastic Paraplegia Rating Scale (SPRS) showed severely compromised walking between the second and third decades of life (mean SPRS score, >30). Impaired cognitive function was associated with severe atrophy of the frontoparietal cortex, TCC, and bilateral periventricular white matter lesions. Progressive cortical and thalamic hypometabolism in the 18fluorodeoxyglucose PET was observed. Sural nerve biopsy showed a loss of unmyelinated nerve fibers and accumulation of intraaxonal pleomorphic membranous material. Mutational analysis of spatacsin demonstrated six novel and one previously reported frameshift mutation and two novel nonsense mutations. Furthermore, we report the first two splice mutations to be associated with SPG11.

Interpretation

We demonstrate that not only frameshift and nonsense mutations but also splice mutations result in SPG11. Mutations are distributed throughout the spatacsin gene and emerge as major cause for ARHSP with TCC associated with severe motor and cognitive impairment. The clinical phenotype and the ultrastructural analysis suggest a disturbed axonal transport of long projecting neurons. Ann Neurol 2007
Determination of twin‐screw extruder operational conditions for the preparation of thermoplastic vulcanizates on the basis of batch‐mixer results
Authors: Goharpey F. , Foudazi R. , Nazockdast H. , Katbab A. A.
Published: December 2007

In this study, we attempted to prepare a thermoplastic vulcanizate in a twin‐screw extruder by determining the screw configuration on the basis of batch‐mixer results. In this regard, two sets of information were used: (1) the time length, power consumption, and filling factor of different stages of the reactive blending process in the internal mixer and (2) the mean residence time and power consumption of the twin‐screw extruder. Morphological features of the samples taken from the melt‐mixing and dynamic vulcanization zones of the extruder with the selected screw configuration were found to be comparable with corresponding samples taken from an internal mixer reported in our previous study. The rheological and mechanical properties could provide valuable information to support the reliability of this study. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008
Collection, use, and protection of population‐based birth defects surveillance data in the united states
Authors: Mai Cara T. , Law David J. , Mason Craig A. , McDowell Bradley D. , Meyer Robert E. , Musa Debra
Published: December 2007

Birth defects surveillance systems collect population‐based birth defects data from multiple sources to track trends in prevalence, identify risk factors, refer affected families to services, and evaluate prevention efforts. Strong state and federal public health and legal mandates are in place to govern the collection and use of these data. Despite the prima facie appeal of “opt‐in” and similar strategies to those who view data collection as a threat to privacy, the use of these strategies in lieu of population‐based surveillance can severely limit the ability of public health agencies to accurately access the health status of a group within a defined geographical area. With the need for population‐based data central to their mission, birth defects programs around the country take their data stewardship role seriously, recognizing both moral and legal obligations to protect the data by employing numerous safeguards. Birth defects surveillance systems are shaped by the needs of the community they are designed to serve, with the goal of preventing birth defects or alleviating the burdens associated with them. Birth Defects Research (Part A) 79:811–814, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.