bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Changes in Commuting Distances of Dutch Households
Authors: Rouwendal Jan , Rietveld Piet
Published: October 2006

This paper is concerned with the analysis of commuting distances. The development of commuting distances has become a subject of political concern because of the large flows of traffic involved which are concentrated in a few hours each day and cause considerable congestion problems as well as environmental damage. The economic theory of search will be proposed as a theoretical background which motivates the modelling of commuting distance distributions. For the empirical analysis, a sub-sample is used of respondents of the Housing Demand Survey of 1985, approached again in 1988. Commuting distances are discussed in relation to household characteristics such as the number of persons, the presence of a spouse or partner and her/his employment status. The apparent rapid increase in commuting distances is due in large part to changes in the employment situation. People who change job will often commute over a longer distance after the change occurs. Changes in housing situation are more or less neutral in their effect on the average commuting distances.
Pathology of Immunodeficient Mice With Naturally Occurring Murine Norovirus Infection
Authors: Ward Jerrold M. , Wobus Christiane E. , Thackray Larissa B. , Erexson Cindy R. , Faucette Larry J. , Belliot Gaël , Barron Elyssa L. , Sosnovtsev Stanislav V. , Green Kim Y.
Published: October 2006

Murine norovirus (MNV) was recently discovered in Rag2−/−/ Stat1−/− mice in a U.S. medical research facility. Presently, little is known concerning the epidemiology and natural history of this virus. We studied the pathology of naturally occurring MNV infection in 28 immunodeficient mice of several different genotypes ( Rag1−/−/ IFNγ R−/−, OT1 Rag1−/−/ IFNγ R−/−, OT2 Rag1−/−/ IFNγ R−/−, Rag1−/−/ Stat1−/−, and Rag2−/−) that were maintained in two U.S. research facilities. The mice were selected for study because sentinel mice housed in their holding rooms had been identified as positive for MNV-specific antibodies during routine screening for infectious agents. Our data indicate that in certain lines of immunodeficient mice, MNV can establish a disseminated infection that is characteristically associated with inflammation in multiple tissues, including liver (hepatitis), lung (focal interstitial pneumonia) and the peritoneal and pleural cavities. In addition, MNV can establish an asymptomatic infection in the mesenteric lymph nodes of Rag2−/− mice. Further studies are needed to determine whether MNV presents a confounding variable in immunological, toxicological and pathological studies in mice naturally infected with MNV.

[The supplemental data referenced in this paper is not printed in this issue of Toxicologic Pathology. It is available as a downloadable file in the online edition of Toxicologic Pathology, 34(6). In order to access the full article online, you must have either an individual subscription or a member subscription accessed through www.toxpath.org .]
Third Party Characteristics, Territory and the Mediation of Militarized Interstate Disputes
Authors: Frazier Derrick V.
Published: October 2006

In an effort to contribute to our knowledge of managing territorial disputes, I demonstrate the effects of territory on third party initiated mediation. My findings suggest that previous arguments regarding territorial disputes and mediation are too simplistic. Explaining the effects of territory without consideration of third party characteristics and interaction terms leads to a completely different set of conclusions about the nature of territorial disputes than when these two sets of variables are considered. An analysis of the two different empirical models suggests strong linkages between third party interests and territorial disputes compared to disputes over other issues.
A Terminal Crisis? Examining the Breakdown of the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Dispute Resolution Process
Authors: Pratt Martin
Published: October 2006

This case study examines the breakdown of the dispute resolution process that was intended to lay the foundations for a reconciliation between Eritrea and Ethiopia following their bitter border war of 1998 to 2000. The paper identifies general lessons for future third party settlements. In particular, the Eritrea-Ethiopia case suggests that factors such as the scope of the third party's mandate, the composition of ad hoc panels, and the transparency and duration of the panel's activities might affect the ultimate success of territorial dispute resolution.
Boundaries and Conflict in the Mano River Region of West Africa
Authors: Silberfein Marilyn , Conteh Al-Hassan
Published: October 2006

The porous and contestable features of African boundaries are two interacting themes that are closely linked to the emergence and spread of conflict in Africa in the last decade. This study uses the Mano River Region—Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, and Ivory Coast—to illustrate how border issues contribute to the perpetuation of insecurity. Border evolution is traced from precolonial to colonial to the postindependence period to include the details of how the countries of the Mano River Region attained their current dimensions. The focus then shifts to the current decade, when violence in one country stimulated a similar phenomenon in a neighboring state until the entire region was enveloped. Several facets of porous borders facilitated this pattern to include the flow of weapons, the movement of former combatants, and the transnational exploitation of resources. Contestable borders have not been as much of a factor in stimulating conflict, but, given the current political and economic malaise in Africa, the potential certainly exists for more challenges to extant boundaries. If porous borders come under tighter national control, a goal in many African countries, then it is likely that more boundary locations will be contested.
Spatial and temporal dependencies of cross-orientation suppression in human vision
Authors: Meese Tim S , Holmes David J
Published: October 2006

A well-known property of orientation-tuned neurons in the visual cortex is that they are suppressed by the superposition of an orthogonal mask. This phenomenon has been explained in terms of physiological constraints (synaptic depression), engineering solutions for components with poor dynamic range (contrast normalization) and fundamental coding strategies for natural images (redundancy reduction). A common but often tacit assumption is that the suppressive process is equally potent at different spatial and temporal scales of analysis. To determine whether it is so, we measured psychophysical cross-orientation masking (XOM) functions for flickering horizontal Gabor stimuli over wide ranges of spatio-temporal frequency and contrast. We found that orthogonal masks raised contrast detection thresholds substantially at low spatial frequencies and high temporal frequencies (high speeds), and that small and unexpected levels of facilitation were evident elsewhere. The data were well fit by a functional model of contrast gain control, where (i) the weight of suppression increased with the ratio of temporal to spatial frequency and (ii) the weight of facilitatory modulation was the same for all conditions, but outcompeted by suppression at higher contrasts. These results (i) provide new constraints for models of primary visual cortex, (ii) associate XOM and facilitation with the transient magno- and sustained parvostreams, respectively, and (iii) reconcile earlier conflicting psychophysical reports on XOM.
Characterization of the genes encoding the 3-carboxy-cis,cis-muconate-lactonizing enzymes from the 4-sulfocatechol degradative pathways of Hydrogenophaga intermedia S1 and Agrobacterium radiobacter S2
Authors: Halak Sad , Basta Tamara , Bürger Sibylle , Contzen Matthias , Stolz Andreas
Published: October 2006

Hydrogenophaga intermediastrain S1 andAgrobacterium radiobacterstrain S2 form a mixed bacterial culture which degrades sulfanilate (4-aminobenzenesulfonate) by a novel variation of theβ-ketoadipate pathway via 4-sulfocatechol and 3-sulfomuconate. It was previously proposed that the further metabolism of 3-sulfomuconate is catalysed by modified 3-carboxy-cis,cis-muconate-lactonizing enzymes (CMLEs) and that these ‘type 2’ enzymes were different from the conventional CMLEs (‘type 1’) from the protocatechuate pathway in their ability to convert 3-sulfomuconate in addition to 3-carboxy-cis,cis-muconate. In the present study the genes for two CMLEs (pcaB2S1andpcaB2S2) were cloned fromH. intermediaS1 andA. radiobacterS2, respectively. In both strains, these genes were located close to the previously identified genes encoding the 4-sulfocatechol-converting enzymes. The gene products ofpcaB2S1andpcaB2S2were therefore tentatively identified as type 2 enzymes involved in the metabolism of 3-sulfomuconate. The genes were functionally expressed and the gene products were shown to convert 3-carboxy-cis,cis-muconate and 3-sulfomuconate. 4-Carboxymethylene-4-sulfo-but-2-en-olide (4-sulfomuconolactone) was identified by HPLC-MS as the product, which was enzymically formed from 3-sulfomuconate. His-tagged variants of both CMLEs were purified and compared with the CMLE from the protocatechuate pathway ofPseudomonas putidaPRS2000 for the conversion of 3-carboxy-cis,cis-muconate and 3-sulfomuconate. The CMLEs from the 4-sulfocatechol pathway converted 3-sulfomuconate with considerably higher activities than 3-carboxy-cis,cis-muconate. Also the CMLE fromP. putidaconverted 3-sulfomuconate, but this enzyme demonstrated a clear preference for 3-carboxy-cis,cis-muconate as substrate. Thus it was demonstrated that in the 4-sulfocatechol pathway, distinct CMLEs are formed, which are specifically adapted for the preferred conversion of sulfonated substrates.
Multiple biosynthetic and uptake systems mediate siderophore-dependent iron acquisition in Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) and Streptomyces ambofaciens ATCC 23877
Authors: Barona-Gómez Francisco , Lautru Sylvie , Francou Francois-Xavier , Leblond Pierre , Pernodet Jean-Luc , Challis Gregory L.
Published: October 2006

Siderophore-mediated iron acquisition has been well studied in many bacterial pathogens because it contributes to virulence. In contrast, siderophore-mediated iron acquisition by saprophytic bacteria has received relatively little attention. The independent identification of thedesandcchgene clusters that direct production of thetris-hydroxamate ferric iron-chelators desferrioxamine E and coelichelin, respectively, which could potentially act as siderophores in the saprophyteStreptomyces coelicolorA3(2), has recently been reported. Here it is shown that thedescluster also directs production of desferrioxamine B inS. coelicolorand that very similardesandcchclusters direct production of desferrioxamines E and B, and coelichelin, respectively, inStreptomyces ambofaciens ATCC 23877. Sequence analyses of thedesandcchclusters suggest that components of ferric-siderophore uptake systems are also encoded within each cluster. The construction and analysis of a series of mutants ofS. coelicolorlacking just biosynthetic genes or both the biosynthetic and siderophore uptake genes from thedesandcchclusters demonstrated that coelichelin and desferrioxamines E and B all function as siderophores in this organism and that at least one of these metabolites is required for growth under defined conditions even in the presence of significant quantities of ferric iron. These experiments also demonstrated that a third siderophore uptake system must be present inS. coelicolor, in addition to the two encoded within thecchanddesclusters, which show selectivity for coelichelin and desferrioxamine E, respectively. The ability of theS. coelicolormutants to utilize a range of exogenous xenosiderophores for iron acquisition was also examined, showing that the third siderophore-iron transport system has broad specificity fortris-hydroxamate-containing siderophores. Together, these results define a complex system of multiple biosynthetic and uptake pathways for siderophore-mediated iron acquisition inS. coelicolorandS. ambofaciens.
Multiple gene genealogical analyses reveal both common and distinct population genetic patterns among replicons in the nitrogen-fixing bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti
Authors: Sun Sheng , Guo Hong , Xu Jianping
Published: October 2006

Sinorhizobium melilotiis a Gram-negative alpha-proteobacterium that can form symbiotic relationships with alfalfa and fix atmospheric nitrogen. The complete genome of a laboratory strain, Rm1021, was published in 2001, and the genome of this strain is arranged in three replicons: a chromosome of 3.65 million base pairs (Mb), and two megaplasmids, pSymA (1.35 Mb) and pSymB (1.68 Mb). However, the potential difference in genetic variation among the three replicons in natural strains remains poorly understood. In this study, a total of 16 gene fragments were sequenced, four from pSymA and six each from the chromosome and pSymB, for 49 naturalS. melilotistrains. The analyses identified significant differences in divergence among genes, with the mean Hasegawa–Kishino–Yano–1985 (HKY85) distance ranging from 0.00157 to 0.04109 between pairs of strains. Overall, genes on pSymA showed the highest mean HKY85 distance, followed by those on pSymB and the chromosome. Although evidence for recombination was found, the authors' population genetic analyses revealed overall significant linkage disequilibria among genes within both pSymA and the chromosome. However, genes on pSymB were in overall linkage equilibrium, consistent with frequent recombination among genes on this replicon. Furthermore, the genealogical comparisons among the three replicons identified significant incongruence, indicating reassortment among the three replicons in natural populations. The results suggest both shared and distinct patterns of molecular evolution among the three replicons in the genomes of natural strains ofS. meliloti.
Quality of requests for serum digoxin concentrations: experience from an Australian Regional Health Service
Authors: Ellington Chris , Grgurinovich Nick , Miners John O. , Mangoni Arduino A.
Published: October 2006

What is already known about this subject

• Therapeutic drug monitoring of serum digoxin concentrations (SDC) is considered useful in enhancing the therapeutic benefits of digoxin and minimizing the incidence of adverse drug reactions.

• The quality of requests for SDC has been reported to be generally unsatisfactory. However, studies have focused on few information parameters.

• A better knowledge of these issues might be useful to target appropriate areas of weakness within heathcare systems.

What this study adds

• The poor quality of the information in SDC requests involves a wide range of codes from the contact details of the requester to the time interval between the last dose of digoxin and blood sampling.

• Misuse of the therapeutic drug monitoring service is common across different specialties and healthcare settings.

Aims

To assess the quality of the information provided with serum digoxin concentration (SDC) requests received by a therapeutic drug monitoring service in a regional health service.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective audit of a consecutive series of 685 SDC requests during a 7‐month period. Information regarding (i) contact details, (ii) reasons for request, (iii) dose, (iv) route of administration, (v) concurrent therapy, (vi) treatment duration and (vii) time interval between the last dose and sampling was reviewed and coded as appropriate or inappropriate/missing. Data were analysed according to the origin of request, i.e. from different specialties/wards (emergency department and critical care, cardiology and coronary care unit, medicine and aged care, surgery, and general/private practice) and healthcare settings (teaching hospital, geriatric hospital and general/private practice).

Results

The quality of SDC requests was generally poor across different specialties and healthcare settings. The information provided for the coded parameters was appropriate only in 19.1% (i), 6.4% (ii), 54.7% (iii), 45.8% (iv), 12.8% (v), 32.9% (vi) and 47.1% (vii) of cases. No SDC request was complete in all the information codes. SDC requests from general/private practice lacked more often details regarding the dose (information provided in 46.7% of requests, P = 0.007 vs. other specialties; P = 0.02 vs. other settings) and the route of administration (20.0%, P < 0.001 vs. other specialties and vs. other settings). SDC requests from the emergency department and critical care unit lacked more often details regarding the treatment duration (22.6%, P < 0.001 vs. other specialties) and the time interval between the last dose and blood sampling (40.1%, P = 0.01 vs. other specialties).

Conclusions

The quality of the information in SDC requests is poor across different specialties and healthcare settings. Educational strategies to ensure the appropriate use of this service are urgently needed.
Identification of trans‐acting siRNAs in moss and an RNA‐dependent RNA polymerase required for their biogenesis
Authors: Talmor‐Neiman Mali , Stav Ran , Klipcan Liron , Buxdorf Kobi , Baulcombe David C. , Arazi Tzahi
Published: October 2006

Trans‐acting small interfering RNAs (tasiRNAs) are a class of higher‐plant endogenous siRNAs that, like miRNAs, direct the cleavage of non‐identical transcripts. tasiRNAs derive from non‐coding transcripts (TAS) that are converted into dsRNA by a RNA‐dependent RNA polymerase (RDR6), following their initial miRNA‐guided cleavage. The dsRNA is then processed by a dicer‐like enzyme 4 into phased 21‐nucleotide siRNAs. To date, tasiRNAs have been identified only in Arabidopsis, and their identity and function in other land plants are unknown. Here, a set of endogenous small RNAs that correspond in a phased manner to a non‐coding transcript (contig13502) were identified in the moss Pyscomitrella patens. Northern analysis suggests that contig13502‐derived small RNAs are expressed in the juvenile gametophyte. In addition, miR390‐guided cleavage of contig13502 at two sites flanking the small RNAs cluster was validated by 5′ RACE. These cleavages are predicted to provide defined termini for the production of phased siRNAs. To elucidate the biogenesis of identified siRNAs, we cloned and generated knock‐out mutants for an RDR6 moss homologue (PpRDR6). These mutants exhibited an accelerated transition from juvenile to mature gametophyte. In addition, RNA blots demonstrated that they lacked contig13502‐derived siRNAs, suggesting that PpRDR6 is required for siRNA biogenesis. A target gene, which showed homology to an AP2/EREBP transcription factor, for one phased siRNA, was validated, corroborating its identity as a trans‐acting siRNA. Taken together, our data indicate that contig13502 is a novel TAS locus and suggest a role for derived tasiRNAs in the regulation of gene expression in moss.
Evaluation of the diethylcarbamazine patch to evaluate onchocerciasis endemicity in Central Africa
Authors: Ozoh Gladys , Boussinesq Michel , Bissek Anne‐Cécile Zoung‐Kanyi , Kobangue Léon , Kombila Maryvonne , Mbina Jean‐Romain Mourou , Enyong Peter , Noma Mounkaïla , Sékétéli Azodoga , Fobi Grace
Published: October 2006

Objective  As part of a baseline data collection for assessing the impact of the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control, to evaluate the diethylcarbamazine (DEC) patch test in determining the endemicity of onchocerciasis.

Method  A total of 226 untreated children aged 3–5, living in four selected endemic foci, in Cameroon, Gabon and Central African Republic, were tested. Observed graded skin reactions to the patch were analysed and compared with the prevalence of onchocercal nodules and reactive skin disease in the corresponding community.

Results  The proportion of children who tested positive ranged from 25.0% to 77.1%. The values were closely correlated with the prevalence of nodules, i.e. the level of endemicity for onchocerciasis.

Conclusion  The DEC patch test, which has been so far used only in West African foci of onchocerciasis, can also constitute a valuable tool to evaluate the levels of endemicity of onchocerciasis in Central Africa, and to follow‐up the intensity of transmission of Onchocerca volvulus.
Safety and immunogenicity of the RTS,S/AS02A candidate malaria vaccine in children aged 1–4 in Mozambique
Authors: Macete E. , Aponte J. J. , Guinovart C. , Sacarlal J. , Ofori‐Anyinam O. , Mandomando I. , Espasa M. , Bevilacqua C. , Leach A. , Dubois M. C. , Heppner D. G. , Tello L. , Milman J. , Cohen J. , Dubovsky F. , Tornieporth N. , Thompson R. , Alonso P. L.
Published: October 2006

Background  The development of a malaria vaccine remains a public health priority for sub‐Saharan Africa. RTS,S/AS02A candidate malaria vaccine has been shown to be safe and immunogenic in previous studies in adults and staggered dose‐escalation studies in children in The Gambia. However, genetic features and the intensity of malaria transmission may modify the safety and immune response of a vaccine.

Objective  We carried out a phase I, double‐blind randomized controlled trial in 60 children aged 1–4 in Mozambique to evaluate the safety, reactogenicity and immunogenicity of the paediatric vaccine dose (fixed 25 μg RTS,S in 0.25 ml) of RTS,S/AS02A, prior to undertaking a planned larger phase IIb proof‐of‐concept of efficacy study in the same population.

Method  Children were randomized to receive either RTS,S/AS02A or Engerix‐B® vaccine. Monitoring of safety and reactogenicity included detailed clinical and laboratory analyses and assessment of adverse events (AEs).

Results  The RTS,S/AS02A was found to be safe and well tolerated. Serious adverse events were balanced between both groups and none was related to vaccination. The frequency of adverse events reported with RTS, S/AS02A was comparable to previous studies in children. Grade 3 AEs were infrequent (one case of pain, one of fever in each group and some swelling greater than 20 mm in diameter), transient and resolved without sequelae. RTS,S/AS02A was highly immunogenic for anti‐circumsporozoite protein antibody response and induced a strong anti‐hepatitis‐B surface antigen response.
Prioritizing health problems in women in developing countries: comparing the financial burden of reproductive tract infections, anaemia and depressive disorders in a community survey in India
Authors: Patel Vikram , Chisholm Daniel , Kirkwood Betty R. , Mabey David
Published: October 2006

Objectives  To compare the health care and opportunity costs of three common health problems [depressive disorders, reproductive tract infections (RTIs) and anaemia] affecting women and their associated risks of catastrophic health expenditure (defined a priori as out‐of‐pocket expenditure on health care exceeding 10% of the total monthly household income).

Methods  Cross‐sectional survey of 2494 women who consented to participate, from a randomly selected sample of 3000 women aged 18–50, living in the catchment area of a primary health centre in Goa, India. Depressive disorders were diagnosed with the Revised Clinical Interview Schedule; anaemia on the basis of a fingerprick sample of blood using the Haemocue system; and RTI using PCR, culture and microscopy with vaginal or urine specimens. Economic consequences were measured using the Costs of Illness Schedule and the WHO Disability Assessment Schedule. Health provision costs were calculated using previously derived unit costs for services for the main types of health care provider.

Results  Catastrophic health expenditure, defined a priori as >10% of total household income spent out of pocket on health in the previous month, was reported by 138 women (5.5%; CI: 4.7–6.5%); they were more likely to report economic difficulties, such as having gone hungry in the past 3 months because of lack of money (OR 1.99, CI 1.1–3.6, P = 0.02). Only depressive disorder was associated with significantly higher health care costs, lost time costs and risk of catastrophic health expenditure (OR 2.66, CI 1.6–4.4, P < 0.001, after adjustment for possible sociodemographic confounders and other physical health problems). There was a linear association between the psychological morbidity score (arranged into quintile groups) and the risk of catastrophic health expenditure (adjusted).

Conclusions  If economic arguments were considered a key driver for global health policy, then depressive disorder should be considered a major health priority for women in developing countries.
Delivery of insecticide‐treated net services through employer and community‐based approaches in Kenya
Authors: Wacira Daniel G. , Hill Jenny , McCall P. J. , Kroeger Axel
Published: October 2006

Background and objectives  Many approaches have been used to deliver insecticide‐treated nets (ITNs) to African communities in different settings. Between 1992 and 2002, the African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF), Kenya, used two ITN delivery models: the employer‐based approach and the community‐based approach. These two approaches have never been compared in order to inform their potential for future ITN delivery. We aimed to (1) compare the extent of ITN ownership, use and retreatment coverage in different population groups in the employer and community‐based models and (2) identify options for improving people's acceptance and use of treatment/retreatment services.

Methods  Qualitative and quantitative methods for data collection and analysis. A total of 2095 household heads were interviewed in the quantitative study, while purposively selected groups and key informants participated in the qualitative study.

Results  Net coverage (both treated and untreated nets) and retreatment rates with insecticides were significantly higher at employer‐based sites (54.3%) than at community‐based sites (35.0%). Bed net ownership has increased significantly since the start of AMREF interventions in 1998 in employer‐based sites (from 27% to 61.1%); in community‐based sites, it has either decreased (urban area, from 29.0% to 16.5%) or increased (rural area, from 17.0% to 49.1%). Retreatment rates in all sites were negatively influenced by the lack of information, cash and availability of insecticides. Satisfaction with the form of payment and services delivered was higher in employer‐based sites. This was attributed to employers providing credit for the purchase of nets and retreatment kits and the employers’ medical teams giving information on malaria and making follow‐up visits on workers who fell ill.

Conclusions  Employer‐based delivery of ITNs was more successful than community‐based delivery in attaining both high coverage with ITNs and higher rates of net retreatment. Methods used for the retreatment of nets, forms of payment and communication strategies should be convenient to communities. Organized community groups may continue to play an important role in remote rural areas.
Immunohistochemical properties of ocular adenomas, adenocarcinomas and medulloepitheliomas
Authors: Klosterman E. , Colitz C. M. H. , Chandler H. L. , Kusewitt D. F. , Saville W. J. A. , Dubielzig R. R.
Published: October 2006

Ocular medulloepitheliomas, adenomas and adenocarcinomas share a common phenotype and originate from the optic cup neuroectoderm. This can make it very difficult to differentiate between these tumors histopathologically. Therefore, this study focused on identifying a combination of immunologic markers that might be used in the diagnosis of these tumors. These markers included AE1/AE3, CK7, CK20, and telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT). Routine immunohistochemical staining was performed on 27 whole globes diagnosed with one of these tumors. The tumors that immunostained for TERT showed increasing immunoreactivity as the tumor types increased in aggressiveness. None of the tumor types were immunopositive for CK7. CK20 immunostaining was found in the adenomas but not in the adenocarcinomas or medulloepitheliomas. AE1/AE3 expression was present more consistently in the adenocarcinomas and less frequently in the adenomas. AE1/AE3 expression was present in only one of six medulloepitheliomas. Furthermore, CK20 and TERT showed inverse expression patterns, i.e. TERT increased in expression and CK20 decreased in expression with increasing aggressiveness. These results may be important diagnostic and prognostic indicators for these tumors.
A Longitudinal Study of Belief and Desire State Discourse During Mother–Child Play and Later False Belief Understanding
Authors: Symons Douglas K. , Fossum Kristin‐Lee M. , Collins T.B. Kate
Published: October 2006

There is considerable interest in the role of mental state language in theory of mind development. This study examines cognitive and desire state discourse of 43 mothers during play interactions with their two‐year‐old children and theory of mind as indicated by a battery of false belief tasks around the age of five. Desire state comments of mothers during free play which were appropriate to the conversational context were significantly related to children's later theory of mind, and this relation was independent of other confounding variables, including a home‐based measure of maternal sensitivity, and socio‐economic status, and an estimate of child language. The child's desire state language was concurrently related to the mother's desire state language used appropriately, and the child's cognitive state language was related to the mother's appropriate cognitive state language. Although cognitive state language was not predictive of later theory of mind, this may be because this kind of language plays a later role in theory of mind development.
Contextual Variation in Stereotype Content: An Investigation of Children's Central Tendency and Group Variability Judgements
Authors: Bennett Mark , Sani Fabio
Published: October 2006

Drawing upon self‐categorization theory, we predicted that the content of children's stereotypes concerning the gender ingroup would be contextually variable. Two studies are reported, each looking at five‐, seven‐, and 10‐year‐old children's stereotypes of the gender in‐group in two different contexts. Study 1 examined judgements of the perceived central tendency of the in‐group on specified dimensions. Study 2 addressed judgements of perceived variability within the gender in‐group on the same dimensions. Overall multivariate analysis of the data indicated that central tendency judgements were influenced by the context in which a group is considered, but that group variability judgements were not. Individual‐level analyses showed that the most typical pattern of response over the two conditions, in both Studies 1 and 2, was for children to provide consistent rather than varying judgements. However, in Study 1 (but not Study 2), among those children who changed their judgements, the nature of change was precisely as predicted by self‐categorization theory.
On Trying to Save the Simple View
Authors: NADELHOFFER THOMAS
Published: October 2006

Abstract: According to the analysis of intentional action that Michael Bratman has dubbed the ‘Simple View’, intending toxis necessary for intentionallyx‐ing. Despite the plausibility of this view, there is gathering empirical evidence that when people are presented with cases involving moral considerations, they are much more likely to judge that the action (or side effect) in question was brought about intentionally than they are to judge that the agent intended to do it. This suggests that at least as far as the ordinary concept of intentional action is concerned, an agent need not intend toxin order toxintentionally.
Income mobility among the elderly in Sweden during the 1990s
Authors: Zaidi Asghar , Gustafsson Björn
Published: October 2006

Using a large panel dataset, this article investigates the degree of, and explanatory factors for, income mobility amongst the elderly in Sweden during the 1990s. It contributes to literature on welfare indicators for the older population as it supplements the welfare picture of the income adequacy with insights into income certainty during old age. Our methodological approach is to work with the administrative register data for Sweden, and this allows us to use a reliable record of incomes for a large sample of the elderly. Results for Sweden‐born and foreign‐born elderly persons are analysed separately and compared with corresponding groups of people of working age. Not surprisingly, nearly all of our results indicate that the income of the older population is more stable than that of the working age population, and upward income mobility is not as usual among the elderly as among other groups. The multivariate regression analyses identify several explanatory factors affecting those elderly who experienced income mobility. Most importantly, the death of a spouse increases the probability of downward income mobility, particularly amongst women. These and other findings of this research point to triggers of income poverty in old age that should be taken into account in policies concerned with the level and indexation of retirement income of future pensioners.
Privatising social housing in Taiwan
Authors: Li William D.H.
Published: October 2006

This article first reviews how the concept of privatisation has been referred to in the current restructuring of the social housing system, especially in the case of the UK. The term ‘privatisation’ is then examined in greater detail and its wider meaning is discussed. By using the network approach, privatisation in relation to housing can be understood in terms of the changing combinations of agents involved in providing social housing, which gives rise to the commodified impact on the distribution of social housing. By using the privatisation process of social housing in Taiwan as an example, three distinct combinations in terms of providing social housing are identified. With an increasing number of social housing units being provided by the marketised social housing model where private agents control the process of providing social housing, along with more market rules being involved in the provision and the partial removal of means tests in relation to the distribution of social housing, the privatisation of social housing development in Taiwan is having a major impact on equity.
Betwixt and between the market and the state: Israeli students’ welfare attitudes in comparative perspective
Authors: Sabbagh Clara , Powell Lawrence Alfred , Vanhuysse Pieter
Published: October 2006

Analysing comparable samples of students from the Cross‐Cultural Variations in Distributive Justice Perception (CVDJP) project, we explore the multidimensionality of attitudes towards the welfare state in Israel compared with countries from liberal and social‐democratic welfare regimes (the USA, Canada‐Ontario, Sweden, Norway and The Netherlands). We derive six different attitudinal dimensions that constitute two distinct sets of opposing welfare ideological frames. The first set, market‐based ideology, entails three coexisting criteria: individualism, internal attribution of inequality, and work ethic. The second set, welfare‐statist ideology, entails three additional coexisting criteria: egalitarian redistribution, external attribution of inequality, and broad scope of welfare. Along with structural similarities, we find considerable variation in levels of aggregate attitudes across the different types of welfare regimes. Israeli respondents stand out because of their strongly ambivalent welfare attitudes. While scoring higher than respondents from the liberal regimes on market‐based measures, they paradoxically record similarly high scores (comparable to social‐democratic regimes) on state‐based measures. On one criterion – attribution of inequality to external causes – Israeli respondents even score higher than respondents from both liberal and social‐democratic regimes. We consider potential explanations for this ambivalence and suggest possible directions for further research.
Explaining the formation of minimal coalitions: Anti‐system parties and anti‐pact rules
Authors: GEYS BENNY , HEYNDELS BRUNO , VERMEIR JAN
Published: October 2006

Abstract.  Recent theoretical arguments hold that the institutional setting of a political system influences coalition formation. Empirical analyses that confront these hypotheses have, however, been slow to emerge. We provide a first test of the relation between coalition formation and one element within this institutional setting: the existence of commitments not to join forces with certain ‘pariah’ parties (i.e., anti‐pact rules). Specifically, we study the effect of the ‘cordon sanitaire’ around the Flemish extreme right‐wing party Vlaams Blok over the period from 1976 to 2000. The results show that the refusal to coalesce with Vlaams Blok significantly affects the probability that ‘minimal winning’, ‘minimal number’ and ‘minimal size’ coalitions are formed.
Mitogenomics and phylogenomics reveal priapulid worms as extant models of the ancestral Ecdysozoan
Authors: Webster Bonnie L. , Copley Richard R. , Jenner Ronald A. , Mackenzie‐Dodds Jacqueline A. , Bourlat Sarah J. , Rota‐Stabelli Omar , Littlewood D. T. J. , Telford Maximilian J.
Published: October 2006

SUMMARY
Research into arthropod evolution is hampered by the derived nature and rapid evolution of the best‐studied out‐group: the nematodes. We consider priapulids as an alternative out‐group. Priapulids are a small phylum of bottom‐dwelling marine worms; their tubular body with spiny proboscis or introvert has changed little over 520 million years and recognizable priapulids are common among exceptionally preserved Cambrian fossils. Using the complete mitochondrial genome and 42 nuclear genes from Priapulus caudatus, we show that priapulids are slowly evolving ecdysozoans; almost all these priapulid genes have evolved more slowly than nematode orthologs and the priapulid mitochondrial gene order may be unchanged since the Cambrian. Considering their primitive bodyplan and embryology and the great conservation of both nuclear and mitochondrial genomes, priapulids may deserve the popular epithet of “living fossil.” Their study is likely to yield significant new insights into the early evolution of the Ecdysozoa and the origins of the arthropods and their kin as well as aiding inference of the morphology of ancestral Ecdysozoa and Bilateria and their genomes.
Muscle development in dendrobranchiate shrimp, with comparison with Artemia
Authors: Kiernan Daniel A. , Hertzler Philip L.
Published: October 2006

SUMMARY
The muscle pattern of malacostracan and entomostracan crustacean nauplius larvae was compared using fluorescent phallotoxins. In the dendrobranchiate malacostracan Sicyonia ingentis, F‐actin staining was first detected in limb setae at 12 h, likely within sensory nerves. Staining of F‐actin was detected in the trunk at 15 h and grew into the naupliar limbs. Sarcomeres were detected at 19 h, identifying the structures as extrinsic limb muscles. The extrinsic limb muscles enlarged but retained their general pattern during the later nauplius stages. Longitudinal trunk muscles and circumferential visceral muscle (VM) developed in the post‐naupliar region during nauplius instars 4 and 5, at the time when the gut also formed. In the anostracan branchiopod Artemia salina, the newly hatched nauplius contained an extensive system of extrinsic and intrinsic limb muscles. The gut was almost complete at hatching, along with its associated circumferential VM. Muscles similar in position and structure could be identified in nauplii from the two taxa, but different anatomical origins of extrinsic muscles were evident. Whether the naupliar limb muscles are homologous in malacostracans and branchiopods remains an open question. The strong musculature of the dendrobranchiate naupliar limbs correlates with the use of all three pairs of limbs for swimming.
The Psychobiology of Maltreatment in Childhood
Authors: Watts‐English Tiffany , Fortson Beverly L. , Gibler Nicole , Hooper Stephen R. , De Bellis Michael D.
Published: October 2006

The varied maladaptive behavioral, social, medical, and psychiatric outcomes associated with maltreatment in childhood have been extensively documented in the extant empirical literature. In this review, we examine the adverse impact of the stress associated with child maltreatment on the regulation of the neurobiological stress systems, alterations in brain maturation, and neuropsychological outcomes in the developing child. Further, we provide a detailed discussion of the pathway between the psychobiological consequences of trauma and subsequent cognitive, language, and academic deficits that often have a deleterious impact on global functioning. We review neuroimaging techniques and the empirical results of studies utilizing such techniques to examine brain maturation in maltreated children and individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder. We address the practice, research, and policy implications of the psychobiological sequelae of child maltreatment and offer future directions for research.
From Post‐Mortem to Preventive Medicine: Next Steps for Research on Child Witnesses
Authors: Lyon Thomas D. , Saywitz Karen J.
Published: October 2006

We propose five directions for future child witness research, inspired by recognition of the day‐to‐day realities of the legal system and the opportunities of psychology to react proactively to challenges child witnesses face. These directions include (1) the refinement of developmentally sensitive questioning aids that increase completeness without increasing suggestibility, (2) the development of approaches to non‐disclosure and recantation, including understanding of the reasons underlying non‐disclosure and the potential for building rapport and increasing trust, (3) the construction of interventions that meet mental health needs of child‐victim witnesses without creating false memories or tainting testimony, (4) a focus on details of children's narratives that are often lacking, including temporal information and emotional reactions, and (5) expanding our attention beyond child sexual abuse allegations in criminal court and considering the many contexts in which child witnesses are questioned, including areas in which preferences rather than memories are elicited.
From Racial Inequality to Social Justice: The Legacy of Brown v. Board and Lessons from South Africa
Authors: Jones James M.
Published: October 2006

This article addresses the question of why racial inequality persists in the United States after over four centuries, while South Africa has extricated itself from racial Apartheid and launched a vigorous campaign for racial justice that appears to exceed the will and capacity of the United States. It discusses the legacy of the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision and its role in reducing racial inequality and fueling both defense of and attacks on racial segregation. Social justice, it is argued, is a point of view that depends on the interpretative schemas and personal positions of its advocates for its definition. Several psychological and social‐structural mechanisms are presented and their roles in continuing racial inequality are proposed. Key provisions of the new South African Constitution and the Truth and Reconciliation process for adjudicating atrocities of Apartheid argue for the critical role of forgiveness and the cultural concept of Ubuntu. A brief discussion of current research in the United States suggests some ways in which this principle promises to reduce intergroup conflict and racial inequality.
Measuring State TANF Policy Variations and Change After Reform*
Authors: De Jong Gordon F. , Graefe Deborah Roempke , Irving Shelley K. , Pierre Tanja St.
Published: October 2006

Objectives. Our objectives are to describe the policies adopted after PRWORA, which vary across states, to test for common underlying policy concepts, demonstrating how these policies are interrelated, and to examine whether policy stringency diffused to neighboring states results in greater policy stringency across all states over time. We convert textual TANF welfare guidelines into empirically derived policy dimensions and use the derived quantitative scores to describe variation and change in welfare policy dimensions across status during the 1996–2003 post‐welfare‐reform period.

Methods. Utilizing the Urban Institute's Welfare Rules Database, we apply a factor analytic methodology to 78 unique state policy guidelines that were coded on a lenient‐to‐stringent continuum. Regression analyses, employing spatial contiguity weighting, are used to describe policy diffusion.

Results. The results identified 15 underlying first‐order post‐welfare‐reform policy dimensions, which for scientific parsimony were further reduced to three second‐order underlying dimensions representing rules governing eligibility: eligibility requirements for groups, behavioral responsibilities for maintaining eligibility, and eligibility time limits and exemptions. Analysis of the quantitative scores showed that by 2003 states had become more lenient regarding eligibility criteria for groups but decidedly more stringent regarding behavioral guidelines for maintaining eligibility and eligibility time limits and exemptions. Spatial clustering is not found globally but is significant for some states at the local level. Spatial diffusion is apparent only for behavioral rules.

Conclusions. Our results suggest that TANF policy variations across states go beyond payment levels to include salient eligibility rules. The patterns of variability in change scores across states do not support a pervasive “race to the bottom” conclusion.
The Pomp of Power: Black Mayoralties in Urban America*
Authors: Marschall Melissa J. , Ruhil Anirudh V. S.
Published: October 2006

Objectives. Although urban scholarship has come to better understand the dynamics of black political incorporation in the United States, to date scant empirical attention has been paid to an important element of minority representation in local politics—the rise of black mayors. The present study addresses this gap in the extant literature.

Methods. We analyze incidences of black mayoralties by fitting standard pooled and random effects probit models to a panel of 309 cities observed between 1971 and 2000.

Results. Although cities' racial profiles are strongly associated with the incidence of black mayoralties, black representation on city council, black educational attainment, and reformed governments increase the odds of black mayoral emergence. On the other hand, southern location continues to depress the rise of black mayoralties, as do partisan elections, particularly in cities where no racial group constitutes a majority.

Conclusions. Although our results partially confirm extant research on the diffusion of black mayoralties in American urban politics, they also call into question conventional wisdom. Our study emphasizes the need for more large‐N studies of minority representation in urban politics and provides suggestions for how the independent effects of black mayors on municipal policy outcomes might subsequently be analyzed empirically.
The Obese Smoker's Wage Penalty*
Authors: Baum Charles L. , Ford William F. , Hopper Jeffrey D.
Published: October 2006

Objective. Smoking and obesity are associated with significant wage penalties when considered separately. We assess the combined effects of those behaviors.

Methods. We estimate the effects of smoking and obesity on wages using multivariate regression analysis with 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth data.

Results. The raw data indicate that obese smokers experience large earnings penalties. However, these penalties are not found to be interactive or directly causal for most of the demographic subgroups we examine. One exception is the wage penalty associated with obesity for females, which remains significant throughout the analysis.

Conclusions. In the absence of a demonstrable direct causal effect of those behaviors on wages, associated individual‐specific socioeconomic factors appear to be the driving forces behind the obese smoker wage penalty. Not included, but potentially significant, are the effects of employer and customer discrimination against obese smokers and the possible labor policy implications of such discrimination.