bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introducing the Six Good Neighborhoods Communities
Authors: Shanks Trina R.
Published: July 2017

Abstract: Each Good Neighborhoods community is unique. This chapter introduces each of the six neighborhoods in the order in which Skillman launched the community planning process: Southwest Detroit, Chadsey Condon, Brightmoor, Osborn, Cody Rouge, and Northend Central. After a short description of each neighborhood and its early history, basic facts that describe population demographics, economic indicators, housing and crime are presented. A summary of community assets based on profiles generated by the UMSSW/TAC and others offers a glimpse of each neighborhood and the strengths it brings to the Good Neighborhoods process. Child poverty in all communities is about double the 2010 national average of 22 percent, but there is variation in racial composition, educational attainment, employment, vacancies, crime, and home ownership. Some communities can trace their histories to early villages. Some have strong local institutions. However, they all could benefit from planning and focused investment.
Building and Maintaining Community Capacity
Authors: Shanks Trina R. , Hollingsworth Leslie , Miller Patricia L.
Published: July 2017

Abstract: This chapter focuses on the work the UMSSW/TAC did to support development of neighborhood organizations, especially smaller nonprofits (NPOs) that did not have large budgets. This entailed a variety of strategies including workshops, a leadership academy designed specifically for NPOs, individual and small group consultations, coaching, and personnel resources including placing graduate student interns and VISTA volunteers. The chapter also summarizes initial recommendations for systems development to create a coordinated system of care in each neighborhood, with a focus on youth development programming for those between the ages of 0 and 18. It ends by describing the youth development strategy that the Skillman Foundation ultimately pursued, as well as efforts to support the alignment of youth programming across the domains of youth development, youth employment, and career-themed education.
Place-Making
Authors: Bogdanović Jelena
Published: July 2017

Byzantine architectural design was deeply human-oriented, which resulted in a peculiar version of place-making whereby the canopy, despite its generic design, within the church space articulated singular place identity. Being most closely related to human presence and experience, canopies also effectively promoted spirituality, salvific messages, and a variety of Christian religious beliefs. Several case studies exemplify the contextualized use and experience of canopied installations, all the while highlighting how both individually and culturally constructed meanings were variously related to each other. The analysis highlights the third-century Dura Europos baptismal canopy, canopies preserved in situ on the island of Paros and in Kalabaka, Greece, and an early Christian canopy from the Middle East in the Royal Ontario Museum. The reconstruction of the multiple canopies and their placement in Constantinopolitan Hagia Sophia—which set the standards for Byzantine religious architecture—reveals the heretofore understudied, multifocal topography of the Byzantine church.
Conclusion
Authors: Bogdanović Jelena
Published: July 2017

The conclusion summarizes the major findings that reveal the canopy as a spatial and symbolic unit of sacred space. The creation and framing of sacred space in Byzantine-rite churches was achieved by the means of a canopy on multiple levels and scales. By featuring canopies as essential architectural and ontological constructs in the Byzantine church, the study calls for wider discussions about the additive and modular design processes in the Byzantine domain and beyond. The book claims that such a design was based on a canopy as a spatial unit and diagrammatic architectural parti. It emphasizes the fine merging of the total design of Byzantine churches within canopies, inclusive of their form and associated values. Canopies uncover the diagrammatic reasoning behind their tectonics and creation, which in turn alter how we perceived the aesthetics, spirituality, and meaning of Byzantine churches, as evidenced in Byzantine reasoning about space and the frame.
Introduction
Authors: Muller Hannah Weiss
Published: July 2017

The Introduction situates this study historiographically and synthesizes an array of literature relating to the Age of Revolution and to subjecthood and citizenship more generally. It first identifies the historical inaccuracies that result from the recurrent opposition of subject and citizen and from the tendency to view subjects as inferior precursors to citizens. It then explains how identifying as British subjects lay at the heart of individuals’ relationships to one another, to their sovereign, and to the empire. The introduction clarifies the book’s focus on the three decades after the Seven Years’ War and offers an overview of each chapter’s goals and arguments.
Real and Pretended Subjects
Authors: Muller Hannah Weiss
Published: July 2017

Chapter 3 focuses on the geopolitically strategic Mediterranean colonies of Gibraltar and Minorca. After its capture by France seven years earlier, Minorca reverted to being a British colony in 1763. Both Minorca and Gibraltar continually raised crucial issues about which of its diverse inhabitants could be counted as British subjects. A need for labor meant that most administrators wished to extend the protections of subjecthood to numerous individuals. In turn, a range of inhabitants began to employ the language of subjecthood to assert claims to various protections. Protective passes and redemption from captivity gradually became the assumed and particular privileges of those who could prove themselves to be British subjects. As economic protections were gradually associated with British subject status in the Mediterranean territories, administrators played a crucial role in shaping the boundaries of subjecthood.
His Britannick Majesty’s New Subjects
Authors: Muller Hannah Weiss
Published: July 2017

Chapter 4 examines subjecthood in the Atlantic world, focusing on the colonies of Grenada and Quebec, officially ceded by France under the Treaty of Paris. Although economic protections were certainly of interest to settlers in these territories, it was debates over the political and legal rights of the white French Catholic inhabitants that dominated political life in both colonies throughout the 1760s and 1770s. These struggles demonstrate that the privileges associated with British subject status in the Atlantic often differed dramatically from those in the British Isles and were shaped by demographic, economic, and political imperatives. Chapter 4 emphasizes the struggles of individuals who actively negotiated their political and legal rights, particularly the ways in which “new subjects,” who were predominantly French Catholic, and “old subjects,” who identified as British-born and Protestant, used petitions.
Choral Monuments
Authors: Shrock Dennis
Published: July 2017

This book provides extensive and in-depth material about eleven epoch-making choral masterworks that span the history of Western culture from the Renaissance to the modern era. Included are Missa Pange lingua (Josquin Desprez); Missa Papae Marcelli (G. P. da Palestrina); B Minor Mass (J. S. Bach); Messiah (G. F. Handel); The Creation (Joseph Haydn); Symphony no. 9 (Ludwig van Beethoven); St. Paul (Felix Mendelssohn); Ein deutsches Requiem (Johannes Brahms); Messa da Requiem (Giuseppe Verdi); Mass (Igor Stravinsky); and War Requiem (Benjamin Britten). The works are presented in separate chapters, with each chapter divided into three basic sections—history, analysis, and performance practice. Discussions of history include biographical information about composers related to the work at hand, historical perspectives, and text sources. Analyses are focused on formal and musical structures, salient compositional techniques, and elements of music particular to the work being discussed, including parody and motivic organization. The discussion of performance practices includes primary source quotations about a wide range of topics, from performing forces, tempo, and phrasing of each work to specific issues such as tactus, text underlay, musica ficta, metric accentuation, rhythmic alteration, recitative, fermatas, and ornamentation. Musical examples and primary source quotes illuminate the material.
Giuseppe Verdi – Messa da Requiem
Authors: Shrock Dennis
Published: July 2017

Historical discussion in this chapter focuses on the reasons Verdi composed a Requiem (first for the death of Gioachino Rossini and then for the death of the poet Allesandro Manzoni), followed by factors of composition, performance, and text. Musical discussion focuses on motives and structures that provide unity to the work and that give it aesthetic substance. Performance practice concerns address important revisions to the score, articulation markings that are particular to Verdi and that give the Requiem a unique expressiveness, tempo concerns, vocal and instrumental forces, and the performance of the Requiem with vocal forces on one side of the stage and orchestral forces on the other.
Golden Robe or Rubbish Robe? Interpretations of the Transmitted Robe in Tokugawa Period Zen Buddhist Thought
Authors: Riggs Diane E.
Published: July 2017

This chapter investigates the long scriptural tradition and heated Edo period debates about the legendary Buddhist robe made of golden thread. It considers fourth-century CE Chinese Buddhist texts that describe Mahāprajāpatī donating a golden robe to the sangha, and medieval Chan texts that describe Buddha transmitting a golden robe to his disciple Mahākā
śyapa to then transmit to the future Buddha Maitreya. It finally considers the Japanese textual tradition and argues that Tainin Myōryū’s (1705–1786) pioneering study of robes as they appear in the ancient vinaya texts needs to be weighed against Kazen Sosan’s (active c. 1760) apologist rationale for promoting institutional prominence through lavish textiles.
Zen Sells Zen Things
Authors: Levine Gregory P. A.
Published: July 2017

This chapter explores Japanese Zen material culture and materialism in a contemporary American monastic context. It examines the adaptation of mainstream business operations by The Monastery Store at Zen Mountain Monastery, established by John Daido Loori near Woodstock, New York, in 1980. It provides a visual and critical analysis of The Monastery Store’s mail-order catalogue, website, and brick-and-mortar facility on the monastery grounds, and it contrasts “retail Zen” (i.e., the mass marketing of vaguely Zen-like articles by multinational distribution chains for maximum profit) and “Zen retail” (i.e., the selective sale of sustainably sourced Zen items by nonprofit Zen monasteries to support adherents’ practice). In so doing, this analysis contributes to our understanding of Buddhist economics, practice, ethics, and other Zen matters.
Conclusion
Authors: Leunissen Mariska
Published: July 2017

The conclusion brings together the results from the book and shows that for Aristotle, the process of habituation is long and arduous, and that nature can hinder one’s chances of developing virtue in the full, moral sense. The process of habituation is compared to craft-production and the process of perfection, and the lawgivers are compared to producers who use men with the best natural character traits as their materials for building the best possible (or most virtuous and happy) city. Finally, the conclusion lays out the path from natural character to moral virtue in chronological order, starting with conception and Aristotle’s theory of eugenics and ending with the unified disposition of the soul that includes both virtue of character and practical wisdom. It also briefly discusses why women and natural slaves cannot achieve full virtue and happiness according to Aristotle.
Introduction to Universals in Modern Philosophy
Authors: Di Bella Stefano , Schmaltz Tad M.
Published: July 2017

The different problems related to the topic of universals were central to the philosophical agenda from antiquity and especially during the medieval era, but they lost this centrality and seemed virtually to disappear during the early modern period. During this period, for instance, there was widespread hostility toward the essentialist hylomorphic framework in terms of which the issue of universals had been debated in the scholastic literature. Nonetheless, what occurred in the early modern period was more a transformation than a disappearance of this issue. This chapter introduces the history of the concept of universals and outlines the contents of the chapters in this volume.
Spinoza on Universals
Authors: Newlands Samuel
Published: July 2017

Like many prominent early moderns, Spinoza espouses a brand of nominalism about “abstractions and universals,” and he frequently warns against confusing universals with real things. While many of his conclusions about the status and origins of universals were increasingly common in the seventeenth century, Spinoza insists that the consequences of falsely reifying universals reach farther than his contemporaries recognized. Spinoza also tries to integrate his criticisms of reified universals into distinctive tenets of his own metaphysics, epistemology, psychology, and even ethics. At the same time, however, Spinoza employs universal-like categories in very reifying-sounding ways, raising concerns about whether Spinoza fully abides by his own admonitions. This too is part of an increasingly common pattern in early modern discussions of universals: reject mind-independent universals in one domain while appearing to tacitly accept them in others.
Platonism and Conceptualism among the Cartesians
Authors: Schmaltz Tad M.
Published: July 2017

This chapter considers how certain tensions in Descartes’s account of eternal truths and immutable essences are reflected in later debates among his followers. The dialectic involves three different accounts of such truths and essences. The first is a form of Platonism in Malebranche that saves the eternity and immutability of the essences and truths by grounding them in God’s uncreated ideas. The second Cartesian view is a form of conceptualism in Arnauld that grounds our knowledge of truths concerning essences in our own ideas. Arnauld embraced the consequence of this view that these truths lack the sort of eternality and immutability that truths possess in the divine intellect. The third is the view in Regis—which he took to be required by Descartes’s doctrine of the creation of eternal truths—that eternal truths concerning the created world are grounded in eternal and immutable features of that world.
Locke’s Essay and Leibniz’s Nouveaux Essais
Authors: Bolton Martha Brandt
Published: July 2017

This chapter traces competing theories of universal natures found in Locke’s Essay and Leibniz’s Nouveaux Essais. Locke maintains that kinds must be defined more or less as we see fit, because nature does not exhibit a reasonably precise or fully determinate division of things and there are no eternal archetypes. His theory of kinds is homocentric. It cedes no authority or priority to general truths or ideas over particular ones. By contrast, Leibniz argues that similarity relations are objective eternal essences of kinds. Their reality consists in being possible entities known by God. Concepts are formed by human minds in virtue of innate tendencies to construct sensible representations of essences. He maintains that knowledge of general principles is prior to knowledge of their particular instances. Leibniz considers dimensions (space, time) to be sort of universals with reality like that of essences. For Locke, ideas of space and time are constructed from particular ideas of spatial and temporal qualities.
Algorithms, Agents, and Ontologies
Authors: Kockelman Paul
Published: July 2017

This chapter details the inner workings of spam filters, algorithmic devices that separate desirable messages from undesirable messages. It argues that such filters are a particularly important kind of sieve insofar as they readily exhibit key features of sieving devices in general, and algorithmic sieving in particular. More broadly, it describes the relation between ontology (assumptions that drive interpretations) and inference (interpretations that alter assumptions) as it plays out in the classification and transformation of identities, types, or kinds. Focusing on the unstable processes whereby identifying algorithms, identified types, and evasive transformations are dynamically coupled over time, it also theorizes various kinds of ontological inertia and highlights various kinds of algorithmic ineffability. Finally, it shows how similar issues underlie a much wider range of processes, such as the Turing Test, Bayesian reasoning, and machine learning more generally.
Implications
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

The second chapter presents ten implications of the analysis of meaningfulness suggested in the first chapter. One of these implications is that the degree of meaning in life is not a given that we just have to learn to live with; it can often be changed. Another is that if we want to make an insufficiently meaningful life more meaningful, we should look for what is valuable and try to enhance it in our lives. A third is that it is wrong that if what is meaningful to us changes from time to time our lives are not meaningful. It is also argued that we can lead meaningful lives without being unique.
Anticipations of Nonperfectionism
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

The chapter traces the nonperfectionist streak in philosophy, religion, literature, and the visual arts, and explores further what nonperfectionism is. Nonperfectionism is identified in, among others, the Christian religious notion of supererogation, William Carlos Williams’s poetry, Hemingway’s, Hesse’s, and Tolstoy’s prose, Impressionist art, and Ingmar Bergman’s and Wim Wenders’s films. The discussion clarifies that while nonperfectionists, like perfectionists, look up to ideals and try to attain them, unlike perfectionists, they can still thrive when those ideals are not attained. Moreover, rejecting perfectionism does not mean that we should have no standards at all, that anything goes, or that people cannot have meaningless lives.
Death and Annihilation I
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

Does death render our lives meaningless? This chapter responds to arguments that, it claims, fail to show that life can be meaningful despite our mortality, while the next chapter presents an argument that succeeds at showing this. This chapter considers the following arguments, among others: that most people would not, in fact, want immortality; that death is necessary for life to have meaning; Lucretius’s assertion that it is inconsistent to feel angry that we will cease to exist after we die but not feel angry that we did not exist before we were born; and Epicurus’s claim that death never injures us because when we are alive, we are not dead, so death does not harm us, and when we are dead, we do not exist, so again death does not harm us.
Skepticism and Relativism
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

Skepticism may be argued to show that all our views about meaning in life are unreliable and, hence, that we cannot take our lives to be meaningful. The chapter turns to fallibilism to address this concern. Relativism, too, is sometimes claimed to undermine the meaning of life since it is irrational, excludes real value, allows an “anything goes” mentality, and empties the notion of meaning of its content. The chapter demonstrates that even if we assume that relativism holds, which is in no way clear, it does not exclude meaning in life. The relativism-objectivism debate is less consequential for issues relating to the meaning of life than it at first appears.
Human Evil
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

Some hold life to be meaningless because humanity is so evil. The chapter challenges several arguments that conclude that evil is highly pervasive, such as the argument from history; the argument from the significant failings of great people; the argument from psychological egoism, which claims that everything we do is ultimately based on the egoistic urge to increase the ratio of pleasant to unpleasant feelings we experience; and the argument from human malleability. The chapter suggests that there are many good people in the world. Moreover, even if most people were as evil as some arguments portray them, we could still lead meaningful lives.
Recognizing
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

Some find their lives insufficiently meaningful because they do not sense the meaning already present in their lives. They accept that some things are meaningful only in an alienated, theoretical manner that leaves them empty. Terming the overcoming of this numbness or alienation recognizing, this chapter explains why we often fail to recognize meaning and suggests ways of resensitizing ourselves to it. Among other ways, the chapter discusses taking up consciously an attitude of appreciation and valuing. It emphasizes that one can recognize the value of not only what happens in the present, but also of what happened in the past. Recognizing is a powerful, but an underappreciated and underemployed, way of increasing meaning in life.
Conclusion II
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

This chapter continues the discussion of general issues related to the meaning of life. The book has argued that to see life as meaningless is to see it as lacking a sufficient number of aspects of sufficient value. But many people describe the meaninglessness of their lives differently, mentioning existential guilt, anxiety, and despair. Others portray their meaningless lives as a joke, a lie, or an unfulfilled promise. The chapter argues that the analysis of meaninglessness presented in the book explains rather than conflicts with the ways in which people actually describe their feeling of meaninglessness. The chapter also stresses the importance of investing effort and work in enhancing meaning in life and, lastly, reviews the most crucial of the practical guidelines this book offers.
Skepticism and Transcendence
Authors: Norris Andrew
Published: July 2017

This chapter addresses Cavell’s understanding skepticism, demonstrating that Cavell neither affirms the correctness of the skeptic’s claims nor refutes them, but provides a critique of epistemology. Skepticism is an expression of our deep discomfort with our finitude, our resistance to accepting the world and acknowledging those with whom we share it. And it is a particularly pure example of a more general attempt to speak without accepting responsibility for the conditions that make speech intelligible—an attempt to disown the criteria of our language, to speak without speaking to someone, to speak without being someone who needs or wants to speak, and who wants and needs to be addressed. This chapter draws heavily upon Wittgenstein and Heidegger in its account of this aspect of Cavell’s work, as other commentators have as well and upon Thompson Clarke, as they have not.
Neoliberalism and Market-Disciplining Policy in the Koizumi Reform in Japan
Authors: Teranishi Juro
Published: July 2017

The Koizumi administration employed a policy to capitalize on the ambivalent feelings of the Japanese populace about globalization. Instead of emphasizing market-disciplining effects, his drastic deregulation policy was justified as an anti-development-oriented policy, which prevailed as a global standard. Because of the long-standing economic depression in Japan, resistance to globalism was weak, and his policy gained ardent public support. Since the developmental view of Japan lacked solid ground, however, the neoliberal reform doctrine based on the Washington Consensus was by and large rootless. Although Japan recovered, owing to the export boom, it is hard to find any definite evidence of a growth effect of the Koizumi reform.
National versus Supranational Collective Goods
Authors: Masini Fabio
Published: July 2017

The recent and growing literature concerning the birth and history of neoliberalism stresses the importance of supranational economic governance and institutions for the neoliberal project. Sometimes this international order is allegedly supposed to be based on a federal structure. The crucial point is that the division of power and competences among different layers of government may be instrumental to decreasing the room for maneuver in the provision of collective goods, basically the core of the welfare state. This is the approach to supranational federalism that has proved successful in the last few decades, defeating the more heterogeneous and pluralistic attitude toward the trade-off between national and supranational public goods of its origins. The aim of this chapter is to enquire into the evolution of neoliberal thought as concerns the use of different layers of government as an instrument to provide relevant public goods for citizens’ welfare.
Electoral Transparency, Accountability, and Integrity
Authors: Norris Pippa
Published: July 2017

This concluding chapter looks at the links connecting transparency, accountability, and compliance. In particular, it considers an ideal model of electoral accountability. Yet it is unclear whether dissatisfaction with the conduct of elections translates into voting preferences at the ballot box, and there are many conditions under which this ideal model fails, even in democratic states. To illuminate, the chapter compares some selected case studies, including Watergate in the United States, the Fujimori scandal and the Peruvian general election in 2000, and the Recruit scandal and Japanese elections in 1993. Finally, it assesses the more general lessons arising from contributions to this book, considers the broader consequences of the transparency-accountability-compliance nexus for understanding processes of electoral integrity and malpractice, and identifies some of the key policy implications that follow from the analysis.
Brain Basics from a Computational Perspective
Authors: Butz Martin V. , Kutter Esther F.
Published: July 2017

This chapter provides a crude overview of current knowledge in neuroscience about the human nervous system and its functionality. The distinction between the peripheral and central nervous systems is introduced. Next, brain anatomy is introduced, as well as nerve cells and the information processing principles that unfold in biological neural networks. Moreover, brain modules are covered, including their interconnected communication. With modularizations and wiring systematicities in mind, functional and structural systematicities are surveyed, including neural homunculi, cortical columnar structures, and the six-layered structure of the cerebral cortex. Finally, different available brain imaging techniques are contrasted. In conclusion, evidence is surveyed that suggests that the brain can be viewed as a highly modularized predictive processing system, which maintains internal activity and produces internal structures for the purpose of maintaining bodily needs in approximate homeostasis.
Punishing the Parlements
Authors: Swann Julian
Published: July 2017

The power to disgrace was not limited to individuals and it formed an essential part of the king’s strategy for managing the great corporations of the realm. The episcopate, cities, and provincial estates were all examples of institutions or corps that felt the effects of royal displeasure, but nothing better illustrated the phenomenon than the treatment of the parlements. This chapter explains the structure of judicial politics under the Bourbon monarchy, and looks at the many ways in which the king could use imprisonment, the internal exile or transfers of individuals or groups of magistrates from one city to another, disciplinary edicts, and many other often subtle techniques to impose his authority. It also considers the limitations of disgrace, how it could sometimes rebound to the disadvantage of the crown and the obstacles to the settlement of political crises resulting from the act of disgrace.
‘The secret of knowing how to be bored’
Authors: Swann Julian
Published: July 2017

This chapter explores the daily realities of life in disgrace. Starting with the example of prisoners of state, it considers the experience of life in the Bastille or other state prisons before turning to the fate of those sent into internal exile. Life in exile was for some an ordeal, for others an adventure and the chapter examines the range of unwritten conventions governing the conduct of a disgracié. Amongst the obstacles to be faced were travel to unknown locations, the need to find accommodation and establish social contacts with the local population, to deal with pressing family affairs and to fight off boredom without appearing to show disrespect to a monarch they had already displeased. For many, exile was brief and not especially unpleasant, but it should not be dismissed too easily. Victims of what was termed ‘profound disgrace’ could suffer grievously as their lives were turned upside down.
‘The cry of the people is the voice of God’
Authors: Swann Julian
Published: July 2017

Disgrace was in many ways synonymous with the court and the lives and careers of ministers and courtiers. Yet it should not be seen as separate from the French population as a whole. This chapter uses examples of individual or corporate disgrace to explore how the wider public interacted with high politics, looking at the role of, amongst others, caricature, ballads, jokes, placards, and engravings as well as riots and popular rituals as expressions of opinion on the affairs of the day. Despite its pretensions to absolute authority, the crown was sensitive to public opinion and it too was anxious to present its version of events in what was a much livelier and vibrant political culture than the theoreticians of absolute monarchy might lead us to believe.
From Disgrace to Despotism
Authors: Swann Julian
Published: July 2017

Disgrace was the exercise of the sovereign will, usually independent of the regular judicial process, and it could be justified on the basis of both divine right and the ancient maxim that the king was the fount of all justice. Yet despite the emergence of a new model of disgrace in the seventeenth century, obedience did not necessarily mean acceptance. This chapter examines the progress of a parallel critique of the practice of disgrace founded on the law. From their inception, lettres de cachet were denounced as arbitrary, even despotic, and these ideas developed into a much broader critique of arbitrary punishment driven by judges and many victims of disgrace that by the reign of Louis XVI would lead to calls for their abolition. As this chapter demonstrates, the campaign for a French version of habeas corpus would sap the ideological justification of disgrace and prepare the ground for Revolution.
Idol of the Nation
Authors: Swann Julian
Published: July 2017

Absolute monarchy as practiced since the time of Louis XIV involved the king acting as his own first minister, the royal master directing ministerial servants whose office was to be treated almost as vocation. Louis XV had struggled to fulfil that role, but he had nevertheless maintained at least the appearance of deciding ministerial destinies. Under Louis XVI existing fissures would break open, and increasingly independent-minded ministers, sceptical about the intellectual foundations of absolute monarchy and inspired by ideas from across the channel, developed a habit of resigning on principle, putting public opinion, the nation or their own interests before their obligation to serve the king. By taking a close look at ministerial disgrace, notably through the careers of Necker and Calonne, this chapter discusses the breakdown of a model of Bourbon government that would do much to bring about the collapse of the king’s authority in 1789.
Goldoni in Paris
Authors: Goodman Jessica
Published: July 2017

The thirty years Carlo Goldoni spent in Paris hold an ambiguous place in his career. The preface to his autobiography explicitly draws attention to France as the site of his authorial glory, but elsewhere he dismisses his work for the Parisian Comédie-Italienne as a failure, and this view has come to dominate modern readings of his French experience. This study sets out to explore this apparent contradiction. By reading Goldoni’s own contemporary and subsequent accounts through the lens of his context as a dramatic author in 1760s Paris, this book sheds new light on both his experience and critical reactions to that experience. A key part of this contextualization is an examination of contemporary Comédie-Italienne archives, resulting in the most comprehensive existing account of this oft-neglected theatre and its authorial relations in the period. When material and artistic conditions at the Comédie-Italienne thwarted the self-fashioning strategies Goldoni had developed in Italy, he turned his attention to other areas of French life; notably the court and the Comédie-Française. Yet despite relative success in this regard, his career as an eclectic homme de lettres was lost in translation to posterity. In his French Mémoires, he constructed the claim of Parisian glory according to an outdated understanding of what it meant to succeed in the French literary field, focusing predominantly on the power of Comédie-Française success. Ultimately, this construction was a failure: in modern France, Goldoni is remembered as a famous foreigner, not the consecrated French littérateur he believed he had become.
Being an Author in Eighteenth-Century Theatre
Authors: Goodman Jessica
Published: July 2017

This chapter narrows the contextual focus to concentrate on the role of dramatic authorship within the broader cultural field. First, it examines how authors traditionally shaped their careers in Parisian theatre, and outlines the different types of financial and symbolic reward that were offered by the Comédie-Italienne and the Comédie-Française in the 1760s. Then, it reconstructs the career trajectories of some of Goldoni’s contemporaries, including Marmontel, Sedaine, and Riccoboni, examining how their involvement in theatrical and non-theatrical enterprises contributed to their social and financial position by earning them money and/or cultural capital in high or low circles. This analysis suggests that the Comédie-Italienne provided a more commercial alternative to its French counterpart, but also reveals the extent to which literary consecration of dramatic authors was enacted outside of the theatres altogether.
Goldoni’s Dilemma
Authors: Goodman Jessica
Published: July 2017

This chapter considers how, in his two years at the Comédie-Italienne, Goldoni attempted to control his image and assert his authority in a new, problematic context of collective authorship and normative anonymity. It employs the few remaining traces of canevas Goldoni wrote for the Comédie-Italienne—anonymous manuscripts, summaries in contemporary journals, and adaptations for the Italian stage—along with texts written before his arrival in Paris to explore the techniques he developed in the moment for creating and maintaining a good name. The first of these is the creation of a proto-directorial role to control how his work was conveyed to theatre audiences, and the second is the use of the written press to construct an image in print where direct publication was not possible.
Counting Americans
Authors: Schor Paul
Published: July 2017

By telling how the US census classified and divided Americans by race and origin from the founding of the United States to World War II, this book shows how public statistics have been used to create an unequal representation of the nation. From the beginning, the census was a political undertaking, torn between the conflicting demands of the state, political actors, social scientists, businesses, and interest groups. Through the extensive archives of the Bureau of the Census, it traces the interactions that led to the adoption or rejection of changes in the ways different Americans were classified, as well as the changing meaning of seemingly stable categories over time. Census workers and directors by necessity constantly interpreted official categories in the field and in the offices. The difficulties they encountered, the mobilization and resistance of actors, the negotiations with the census, all tell a social history of the relation of the state to the population. Focusing in detail on slaves and their descendants, on racialized groups, and on immigrants, as well as on the troubled imposition of US racial categories upon the population of newly acquired territories, the book demonstrates that census-taking in the United States has been at its core a political undertaking shaped by racial ideologies that reflect its violent history of colonization, enslavement, segregation, and discrimination.
The Creation of the Federal Census by the Constitution of the United States
Authors: Schor Paul
Published: July 2017

This chapter discusses the creation of the federal census. The US census was created to put into operation the system of checks and balances. It attributed to each state through apportionment, a number of representatives in proportion to its population as well as a level of tax contribution, while the Three-Fifths Compromise required that slaves be counted as less than free people. The first US census took place in 1790, framed by a law passed by Congress, the First Census Act. This law inaugurated a tradition that continued up to the census of 1930: the list, the order, and the text of the questions on the schedules followed the text of the law, which meant that Congress played a central role in the preparation of the census. It added to the distinction of status (free or slave) a distinction of color to distinguish free blacks from whites.
Whether to Name or Count Slaves
Authors: Schor Paul
Published: July 2017

This chapter considers developments leading up to the census of 1850, heralded as the “first scientific census” of the United States. It made a clean break with its predecessors and solidified the influence of the reformer statisticians who found in it a way to make up for the catastrophic census of 1840. The most important change was the shift from the familial level for collection of information to individual data: a whole line of the principal schedule was devoted to each member of a family. The other great innovation was the division of the census into six separate schedules: free inhabitants; slaves; mortality (information on persons who had died during the past year); agriculture; manufactures; and social statistics (taxes; numbers of schools, of newspapers, of churches; criminality; and libraries within the district). Enumerating slaves led to intense political debates in Congress in the context of the sectional crisis.
Color, Race, and Origin of Slaves and Free Persons
Authors: Schor Paul
Published: July 2017

This chapter focuses on the racial classification of slaves and free persons in the 1850 and 1860 censuses. The categories that were adopted and the procedures put into place in the field by 1850 defined the statistical population of black slaves, divided into two groups of different size, blacks and mulattoes. That there were two possible colors for slaves—black and mulatto—while there was no provision for “white” had two lasting implications for the American statistical apparatus and, more generally, for the definition of racial groups in American society: black individuals could be divided into two groups, and only two groups. Whatever the definition adopted for those who visibly were the product of a mixing between blacks and whites, called miscegenation, all such individuals remained within the confines of the black population, and they in no way occupied an intermediary position between the two races.
Color and Status of Slaves
Authors: Schor Paul
Published: July 2017

This chapter discusses how the definition of race varied over time and place and remained uncertain in cases judged by the courts in the antebellum era. In the 1850s, a claim of whiteness was an argument that could be made in court to obtain liberty, since a white person could not be a slave. Legal status did not rest on the same forms of proof as the census, but the two perspectives overlapped. Comparing the procedures for determining the legal status of slaves with the procedure adopted by the census for assigning the color of individuals shows the profound ambiguity of the latter. The language used by the legislators in 1850 and retained until the end of the century was clearly that of the scientific rules then in favor, based on the parts of black blood and of genealogy. However, in practice individuals were judged by their appearance rather than genealogy.
From Statistics by Country of Birth to the System of National Origins
Authors: Schor Paul
Published: July 2017

This chapter discusses changes in the categories of ethnicity and immigration in the US census. From the beginning of the twentieth century to the 1930s, statistics on immigration and ethnicity took first place in schedules, published reports, and public policy. Not only did census figures establish immigration quotas, but census statisticians, with their methods and their culture, constructed the mechanism for exclusion by national origin. However, after 1928 there was a retreat from measuring ethnicity, which became evident in the 1930 and 1940 censuses by a marked lack of interest in questions of place of birth, mother tongue, and degree of assimilation. The history of the categories that made it possible to measure ethnicity is a complex one, involving three main groups of actors: advocates of immigration restriction, representatives of immigrant populations, and Census Bureau statisticians, with each group attempting to respond to contradictory demands and to defend their own interests.
Women as Census Workers and as Relays in the Field
Authors: Schor Paul
Published: July 2017

This chapter discusses the role of women in the history of the US census. Beginning with the 1920 census, and with women gaining the right to vote that same year, the Census Bureau began devoting considerable effort to women in two distinct directions: first, by making housewives a focus of attention as the interviewees of census workers and the repository of their husbands’ information; and second, more discreetly, by recruiting a growing number of women as census workers and supervisors. Women who worked in the Census Bureau in Washington served several purposes: demonstrating to all that the agency was a great modern enterprise, but also, and more specifically, attracting more applicants. As was the case for African Americans, the information furnished on the activity of women in the Census Bureau—photographs in particular—reveals sex segregation in jobs at the very heart of the agency.
Epilogue
Authors: Schor Paul
Published: July 2017

This chapter reviews developments from 1940 to 2000. Among these is the increased awareness of the census. On the one hand, the Census Bureau itself published for every census an administrative history (called Procedural History) of the census; on the other hand, sociology and political science adopted the goal and, since the 1960s, have focused considerable attention on categories of race and ethnicity, especially the so-called “ethnoracial pentagon”—the five major categories defined by the federal administration as those which government agencies should utilize. In 1980, the creation of an “Ancestry” category reflected the evolution toward more open questions, giving more room for the perceptions that people had of themselves. The 2000 census, after long negotiations, approved the recognition of multiracial families by offering, for the first time, the possibility of checking off more than one race on the schedule.
Conclusion
Authors: Schor Paul
Published: July 2017

This concluding chapter summarizes key themes and presents some final thoughts. It argues that while this study takes up the last half-century only marginally, it should be read as an implicit comparison with the present, since reflection on racial and ethnic categories is so much a historical focus of today. In showing that a certain number of attributes of modernity can be traced back through archival evidence, this study tried at once to historicize the categories of today and show the contribution of an approach that, if it takes concepts as the main object of analysis, assumes empiricism as its principle, staying as close as possible to the past meaning of the concepts, when they were clear as well as when they were muddled. It argues in favor of a longue durée approach. It concludes that this history of categories is specifically American.
PLACNETw: a web-based tool for plasmid reconstruction from bacterial genomes
Authors: Vielva Luis , de Toro María , Lanza Val F , de la Cruz Fernando
Published: July 2017

PLACNET is a graph-based tool for reconstruction of plasmids from next generation sequence pair-end datasets. PLACNET graphs contain two types of nodes (assembled contigs and reference genomes) and two types of edges (scaffold links and homology to references). Manual pruning of the graphs is a necessary requirement in PLACNET, but this is difficult for users without solid bioinformatic background. PLACNETw, a webtool based on PLACNET, provides an interactive graphic interface, automates BLAST searches, and extracts the relevant information for decision making. It allows a user with domain expertise to visualize the scaffold graphs and related information of contigs as well as reference sequences, so that the pruning operations can be done interactively from a personal computer without the need for additional tools. After successful pruning, each plasmid becomes a separate connected component subgraph. The resulting data are automatically downloaded by the user.

Availability and implementation

PLACNETw is freely available at https://castillo.dicom.unican.es/upload/.

Supplementary information

A tutorial video and several solved examples are available at https://castillo.dicom.unican.es/placnetw_video/ and https://castillo.dicom.unican.es/examples/.
Pelagic habitat: exploring the concept of good environmental status
Authors: Dickey-Collas Mark , McQuatters-Gollop Abigail , Bresnan Eileen , Kraberg Alexandra C , Manderson John P , Nash Richard D M , Otto Saskia A , Sell Anne F , Tweddle Jacqueline F , Trenkel Verena M
Published: July 2017

Marine environmental legislation is increasingly expressing a need to consider the quality of pelagic habitats. This paper uses the European Union marine strategy framework to explore the concept of good environmental status (GES) of pelagic habitat with the aim to build a wider understanding of the issue. Pelagic ecosystems have static, persistent and ephemeral features, with manageable human activities primarily impacting the persistent features. The paper explores defining the meaning of “good”, setting boundaries to assess pelagic habitat and the challenges of considering habitat biodiversity in a moving medium. It concludes that for pelagic habitats to be in GES and able to provide goods and services to humans, three conditions should be met: (i) all species present under current environmental conditions should be able to find the pelagic habitats essential to close their life cycles; (ii) biogeochemical regulation is maintained at normal levels; (iii) critical physical dynamics and movements of biota and water masses at multiple scales are not obstructed. Reference points for acceptable levels of each condition and how these may change over time in line with prevailing oceanographic conditions, should be discussed by knowledge brokers, managers and stakeholders. Managers should think about a habitat hydrography rather than a habitat geography. Setting the bounds of the habitats requires a consideration of dimension, scale and gradients. It is likely that to deal with the challenges caused by a dynamic environment and the relevance of differing spatial and temporal scales, we will need to integrate multidisciplinary empirical data sets with spatial and temporal models to assess and monitor progress towards, or displacement from GES of the pelagic habitat.