bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Community Interpreting
Authors: Pöllabauer Sonja
Published: December 2012

Community interpreting (CI) refers to interpreting in public service institutions and differs from other types of interpreting in a number of aspects (e.g., mode of delivery, interaction situation, level of formality/orality present, level of interpreter involvement, status and roles of the participants, level of professionalization, and power asymmetries) (Hale, 2007, p. 31). Compared to conference interpreting, which has achieved the highest level of professionalization within the interpreting world since the 1950s (Pöchhacker, 2004, p. 29), CI is sometimes described as “the poor relation” (Mason, 2001, p. i), a phrase which reflects the status CI has had in the interpreting community until recently. In spite of its low prestige, CI can be said to be one of the most common and oldest types of interpreting (Roberts, 2002, p. 157). Through the centuries, interpreters have had to bridge communication barriers between speakers of different languages and cultures. In interpreting studies (IS), CI has long been neglected. Throughout the 1990s it has gradually become an accepted field of research (Pöchhacker, 2004, pp. 28–9). With respect to practice and training though, its professionalization and acceptance among practitioners, clients, and the public still varies, with a high level of service provision in only a few pioneer countries and the majority of countries lagging behind. This entry will provide an overview of different aspects of CI, the state of training and CI research. It attempts to address both spoken and signed language (SL) interpreting, specifically highlighting aspects in which SL, which enjoys a higher degree of professionalization, differs from spoken‐language interpreting.
Conceptualizing and Researching “New Literacies”
Authors: Lankshear Colin , Knobel Michele , Curran Caitlin
Published: December 2012

References to “new literacies” have become increasingly common as use of digital technologies has grown within everyday routines, reflecting a growing sense that “literacy” can no longer be presumed to refer simply to interactions with conventional texts.
Conference Interpreting
Authors: Kalina Sylvia
Published: December 2012

Conference interpreting (CI) is the mediation, from a source language (SL) into a target language (TL), of speeches, presentations, and spontaneous comments by delegates and participants at international conferences where people do not speak the same language.
Conversation Analysis and Classroom Interaction
Authors: Seedhouse Paul
Published: December 2012

This entry discusses how conversation analysis (CA) has been employed to investigate interaction which occurs in second/foreign‐language (L2) classrooms.
Conversation Analysis and Education
Authors: Koole Tom
Published: December 2012

Conversation analysis (CA) has been concerned with education from an interest in how educational practices are accomplished by participants as situated activities.
Conversation Analysis and Identity in Interaction
Authors: Antaki Charles
Published: December 2012

The perspective of conversation analysis (CA) on identities can be described as social constructionist and non‐essentialist.
Conversation Analysis and Meetings
Authors: Asmuß Birte
Published: December 2012

Meetings have traditionally been dealt with as preplanned, ordered organizational events, in line with Schwartzman's definition of a meeting as “a communicative event involving three or more people who agree to assemble for a purpose ostensibly related to the functioning of an organization or a group” (1989, p. 7). As a response to this rather functionalistic view, an increased focus on interaction in meetings has developed in recent years. Cooren (2007) sees a move from the “interpretive turn” in the 1980s and the “discursive turn” in the 1990s toward the “interactional turn” (p. xii). The “interactional turn” is characterized by the increasing focus on studying and understanding the details of complex workplace interactions, and is methodologically mainly based on conversation analysis (CA).
Conversation Analysis and Transcription and Data
Authors: Wagner Johannes
Published: December 2012

Media subtitles provide transcriptions of the spoken word.
Conversation Analysis and Second Language Acquisition:CA‐SLA
Authors: Pekarek Doehler Simona
Published: December 2012

Conversation analytic research on second language acquisition (CA‐SLA) has emerged relatively late in the history of both CA and SLA. This is largely due to the historic development and the analytic focus of the two fields of research. On the one hand, ethnomethodological CA originated as a critical approach to society concerned with the local production of social order; it was not designed to address issues of learning or development. On the other hand, SLA research has traditionally been focused on the learner's internal cognitive processing of linguistic forms; it has paid only limited attention to the social‐contextual dimensions of the learning of a second language (L2) (but see Hatch's, 1978, early statement). Yet, since the 1990s, the SLA scientific landscape has undergone a notable shift toward more socially, socioculturally, and sociocognitively oriented approaches, involving an increased awareness of the contingent, contextual, adaptive, and hence nonlinear nature of learning. CA research has played a major role in this development. In a much‐quoted programmatic statement, Firth and Wagner (1997) have outlined the basic principles of what was later to become CA‐SLA, calling for a “significantly enhanced awareness of the contextual and interactional dimensions of language use” (p. 286). Their argument has triggered a critical debate between cognitive and socially oriented SLA researchers (seeModern Language Journal, 1997,81[3], 2007,91[5]), and has provided major impulses for CLA‐SLA research ever since.
Conversational Implicature
Authors: Haugh Michael
Published: December 2012

Speakers are often assumed to mean more than the literal sense of the words that they have spoken. For example, if I am in a café with a friend who is eating some cake with her coffee, and I comment that the cake looks really nice, my friend might respond by offering me some of her cake. By making this offer, my friend has shown that she thinks I was implying that I would like to try some of her cake. Since I did not actually say I wanted to try her cake, I could deny that I meant to imply this, either directly by saying something like “Oh, I didn't mean I want to try it” or indirectly by saying something like “Oh, I'm not hungry at the moment.” However, unless I make some sort of denial, then, what has been implied, in part due to my friend's response, is that I would like to try her cake. In lay terms this is considered ahintorimplicationthat has arisen from what I have just said.
Corpora and Literature
Authors: McIntyre Dan
Published: December 2012

The use of corpora to analyze literary texts is a methodological approach most commonly taken within the field of stylistics.
Corpora in the Language‐Teaching Classroom
Authors: Tribble Christopher
Published: December 2012

From the earliest days of language corpus development, corpus researchers have advocated the use of corpus resources in language education, and made significant claims for the impact that language corpora will have in the language classroom:
Corpora:
C
hinese‐Language
Authors: Cheng Winnie
Published: December 2012

Chinese corpus linguistics has made rapid developments over the last decade in the areas of corpus building, exploration in information technology, and publicly available corpus resources, and has introduced various practical applications, primarily in education and research.
Corpora: Multimodal
Authors: Adolphs Svenja
Published: December 2012

Natural language collected and stored in multimillion‐word corpora forms the basis of inquiry in a diverse range of disciplines. Advances in the field of corpus linguistics over the past two decades have contributed to pioneering research in many areas of communication studies and language description. However, while the analysis of large‐scale text corpora can provide insights into language patterning, and can help establish linguistic profiles of particular social contexts, it is limited to the textual dimension of communication. Yet, communication processes are multimodal in nature, and there is now an increasing body of research concerned with the development and analysis of corpora that enable the user to study the speech and gestures of the participants in social interaction, and ways in which the verbal and nonverbal are inextricably linked. The impetus towards multimodal corpora recognizes that natural language is an embodied phenomenon and that a deeper understanding of the relationship between talk and bodily actions—particular gestures—is required if we are to develop a more coherent understanding of the collaborative organization of communication (see also Saferstein, 2004).
Corpus Analysis of Key Words
Authors: Rayson Paul
Published: December 2012

If you look up “key word” in a dictionary you will find that it has various senses, but the relevant sense here is a word that has importance or significance especially to describe the contents of a document.
Corpus Analysis of Literary Texts
Authors: Mahlberg Michaela
Published: December 2012

Corpus stylistics brings together approaches from corpus linguistics and literary stylistics.
Corpus Analysis of Written English for Academic Purposes
Authors: Coxhead Averil
Published: December 2012

Corpus‐based research and English for academic purposes (EAP) have a close relationship. In his editorial for a special issue on EAP and corpora in the
Journal of English for Academic Purposes
Thompson (2007, p. 285) explains this connection: “Corpora, at one level, are sources of evidence about language use, and permit a wide range of analyses of how language is used in different registers, contexts, and by different users.” The term EAP covers a wide range of second or other language teaching and learning, including preparation for university studies, support courses for undergraduate second language learners already enrolled in university, and preparation for postgraduate studies to doctoral level. In this entry, we look at how corpus analysis of written texts provides evidence of language in use for EAP and informs dictionary design, materials development, testing, and curriculum design.
Correlational Research in Language Assessment
Authors: Hudson Thom
Published: December 2012

Researchers in language assessment are frequently interested in determining the relations between two or more variables. One of the most fundamental statistics for indicating the strength of relations between two variables is the correlation coefficient,
r
. The correlation coefficient is also one of the foundations for many other analytic procedures in applied linguistics and the behavioral sciences. It estimates the linear association between two variables, and provides a numerical value between ‐1.0 and +1.0 to represent that relationship. A correlation of near zero implies no relationship whereas values near +1.0 or ‐1.0 imply strong positive and negative relationships, respectively.
Cotterill, Janet
Authors: Perkins Ria
Published: December 2012

Dr Janet Cotterill is a British linguist, born 1968, with specializations in a range of linguistics including forensic linguistics, systemic functional linguistics, discourse analysis, and language and gender.
Critical Ethnography
Authors: Talmy Steven
Published: December 2012

Critical ethnography in applied linguistics is an explicitly political approach to the empirical investigation of local occasions of language learning and use, and their connections to issues of race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexuality, identity, and language politics.
Critical Pedagogy
Authors: Guilherme Manuela
Published: December 2012

Critical pedagogy is a movement that originated in the interdisciplinary field of education, which has nonetheless expanded into other disciplinary fields, and, therefore, it postulates an interdisciplinary approach regardless of which discipline it is applied to.
Critical Period
Authors: Hyltenstam Kenneth
Published: December 2012

The scholarly discussion on the notion of a critical period (CP) for language acquisition dates back to the 1950s and 1960s, when first Wilder Penfield and Lamar Roberts (1959) and later Eric Lenneberg (1967) suggested that differences in the outcomes of child and adult second language acquisition most likely had a biological basis.
Critical Race Theory and Qualitative Research
Authors: Kubota Ryuko
Published: December 2012

Critical race theory (CRT) developed in the scholarly field of legal studies in the United States, and was later introduced to the fields of education and applied linguistics. It is built on the recognition that racism is endemic to American society. CRT foregrounds race‐based critiques exposing—through counter‐storytelling that challenges majoritarian narratives favoring White privilege—the injuries of racism experienced by people of color with the aim of eradicating racism and other social injustice. It challenges the normalcy of White Eurocentrism in various facets of everyday life, while acknowledging the dynamic and diverse nature of the experiences of racially subordinated groups. As such, CRT problematizes and rejects a modernist pursuit of the monolithic objective truth that explains human experiences and social practices through a lens of Whiteness. CRT is philosophically compatible with critical intellectual approaches such as postmodernism, poststructuralism, critical pedagogies, and critical multicultural education.
Critical Theory and Literacy
Authors: Comber Barbara
Published: December 2012

Critical theory is typically referred to in the singular, but the term refers to multiple theories coming from different disciplinary traditions, which compete with each other for dominance and engage in debates about their relative explanatory power.
Crosslinguistic Differences in Grammar
Authors: Hasselgård Hilde
Published: December 2012

In his much‐cited workLinguistics Across CulturesLado (1957/1971) gives advice on how to compare linguistic and cultural systems, mainly with the aim of improving language teaching.
Crosslinguistic Influence and Multilingualism
Authors: Jarvis Scott
Published: December 2012

Crosslinguistic influenceis the often preferred term for a phenomenon more commonly known astransfer, which is the influence of one language on another, as witnessed in the language use (both comprehension and production) and other language‐related behavior (e.g., categorization, gesturing, similarity and typicality judgments, reaction times) of both individuals and discourse communities. The former term is often preferred because it more naturally refers to a wider variety of crosslinguistic effects—including the overuse, underuse, and avoidance of language forms, functions, and structures in one language due to the influence of another language, as well as crosslinguistic effects at the level of conceptualization and mental processing—whereas the latter term is often interpreted as the literal transfer of a form, structure, or meaning from a person's knowledge of one language to their use of another (Kellerman & Sharwood Smith, 1986). Nevertheless, the two terms are often used interchangeably to cover the same range of meanings, and this convention will be followed here as well.Interferenceis another term that has frequently been used to refer to this phenomenon, but its use is naturally limited to the negative effects of crosslinguistic influence, which may represent only a minority portion of the ways in which one language affects another. For convenience, in this entry, crosslinguistic influence as a general phenomenon will be referred to interchangeably asCLI, CLI effects, andtransfer.
Cultural Approaches to Translation
Authors: Katan David
Published: December 2012

There are numerous cultural approaches to translation, given the numerous definitions of both “culture” and “translation.” We might say that both culture and translation revolve around difference. We notice culture as difference, and we require translation when difference significantly affects communication. The approaches may then be divided according to how difference between self and other should be managed in translation. In the first case, “translating from cultures,” differences should beexplained. In the second, “translating for cultures,” differences should either bereduced(domestication) orhighlighted(foreignization). The final approach, “translating between cultures,” gauges the likely tolerance for difference and attempts to mediate orreconciledifferences, creating an interspace.
Cultural Capital
Authors: Harrison Gai
Published: December 2012

The idea of “capital” commonly conjures up images of money or property, or alternatively a form of wealth that can be invested to grow more wealth.
Cultural Linguistics
Authors: Sharifian Farzad
Published: December 2012

In the broadest sense of the term, “cultural linguistics” refers to the subbranch of linguistics that explores the relationship between language and culture.
Cultural Studies
Authors: Sernhede Ove
Published: December 2012

Today, research on and theoretical studies in the field of “culture” are amongst the most expansive areas in the social sciences and the humanities.
Culture
Authors: Risager Karen
Published: December 2012

References to “culture” have become more and more prominent in applied linguistics, especially since the 1980s. The term has typically been used in order to highlight the (supposed) intimate relationship between language and culture in a number of disciplines such as intercultural pragmatics, intercultural communication, and intercultural learning as part of foreign and second language learning.
Cut Scores on Language Tests
Authors: Brown James Dean
Published: December 2012

A frequent question raised by test developers and users is what the cut scores should be for deciding who passes and who fails a new test.
Cyberpragmatics
Authors: Yus Francisco
Published: December 2012

“Cyberpragmatics” was coined by Yus (2001, 2010a) as an attempt to study Internet‐mediated communication (IMC) from a cognitive pragmatics point of view and, more specifically, from the theoretical framework ofrelevance theory(Sperber & Wilson, 1995), although other theoretical approaches were also addressed when appropriate.
Dumas, Bethany K.
Authors: Sousa‐Silva Rui
Published: December 2012

Bethany K. Dumas (1937‐ ) is a prominent figure in current applied linguistics and, in particular, in forensic linguistics. Her long career and her wide‐ranging research interests range from literature, qualitative and quantitative research methodology and discourse analysis to rhetoric, legal discourse, and language and the law. She has published widely on language variation, discourse analysis, and forensic linguistics/language in the judicial process, with a focus on jury instructions and product warnings.
Dynamics of Multilingualism
Authors: Jessner Ulrike
Published: December 2012

Although multilingualism is not a new phenomenon in human society, it seems that in the age of globalization there is a growing interest in research into the phenomenon of multilingualism. Research curiosity in multilingualism both as an individual (in the European academic discourse often referred to as “plurilingualism”) and as a social phenomenon has grown immensely over the last decades and, in this connection, scholars have started to develop more adequate theoretical frameworks oriented toward a multilingual norm. Although it has become widely known that language development in multilinguals changes over time and can include processes of language attrition or reactivation, numerous scholars interested in language acquisition still base their work on linear, static, and monolingual models of language development.
Early Bilingual Education
Authors: Hickey Tina
Published: December 2012

“Early bilingual education” refers to a number of models of early years education offered to children aged between two and about five or six years. It operates at the critical nexus between home and school, offering children an opportunity to acquire a second language or to enrich their home language. Preschool education has long been recognized as promoting children's social and intellectual development, and in many countries children are also offered the opportunity to attend preschools where the medium of instruction is another language such as a heritage language, a nondominant local language, or a dominant language of another country. The models used vary, reflecting the different needs of multilingual countries as well as provision for migrant populations. This topic overlaps withimmersion education, which tends to be defined as immersion education beginning in kindergarten and progressing through primary school.
Economic Analysis of Language Policy and Planning
Authors: Grin François
Published: December 2012

The economic analysis of language policy and planning (LPP) offers a systematic approach to the selection, design, and evaluation (whether
ex ante
or
ex post
) of LPP measures.
Edwards,Viv
Authors: Newcombe Lynda Pritchard
Published: December 2012

Professor Viv Edwards was born in 1950 in the Rhondda Valley. Bilingualism has been an issue at both professional and personal levels throughout her life, having grown up in Wales and with the recent extension of her family to include new Polish members.
Ellis, Nick
Authors: Rebuschat Patrick
Published: December 2012

Nick Ellis (1953– ) is a British psychologist who is best known for his influential research and publications on the cognitive aspects underlying second language (L2) acquisition and processing.
Ellis, Rod
Authors: Erlam Rosemary
Published: December 2012

Many readers will be familiar with Rod Ellis (1944– ) as the author of a number of books in the area of second language acquisition, some of which they may well have on their bookshelves.
Emic and Etic in Qualitative Research
Authors: Markee Numa
Published: December 2012

The origins of the emic/etic distinction in linguistics are to be found in Pike (1967), who distinguished between
phonemic
and phonetic accounts of the sounds of language.
Empowerment and Bilingual Education
Authors: Cummins Jim
Published: December 2012

In educational discourse, the termempowermenthas been used predominantly in the context of discussions of equity and social justice.
English Across South Asia
Authors: Rahman Tariq
Published: December 2012

The British East India Company, founded in 1599, introduced English in India in the elitist domains of power—government, administration, judiciary, military, education, commerce, and the media—between the 18th and the 19th centuries.
English for Academic Purposes
Authors: Flowerdew Lynne
Published: December 2012

First, it is necessary to examine how the field of English for academic purposes (EAP) positions itself within the wider field of ESP (English for specific purposes).
English in Higher Education in the Postcolonial World
Authors: Kirkpatrick Andy
Published: December 2012

The internationalization of higher education has seen an exponential increase in the use of English in higher education throughout the world, both as a medium of instruction and assessment, and as the language of scholarship.
English in the Nigerian Novel
Authors: Bamiro Edmund
Published: December 2012

The Nigerian English novel (NEN) represents creative writing by English‐speaking Nigerian bilinguals who use English to re‐create typical Nigerian sociolinguistic, cultural, and emotional contexts.
Erickson, Frederick
Authors: Tovares Alla V.
Published: December 2012

Frederick D. Erickson is George F. Kneller Professor of Anthropology of Education at the Graduate School of Education and Information Studies and an affiliated professor in the Department of Applied Linguistics at the University of California, Los Angeles. Erickson's work has made significant contributions to the theory and methodology of applied linguistics, especially in the areas of ethnography, discourse analysis, and sociolinguistics. Erickson has explored face‐to‐face interaction in institutional and familial settings and has an impressive research and publication record. Through the lens of microethnography, Erickson has advanced conceptualizations of listenership as a type of active engagement in interaction and has worked extensively on the musicality of speech. He pioneered multimodal discourse analysis, linked analysis of talk with social theory, and fostered interdisciplinary research and practice.
Explicit Knowledge and Grammar Explanation in Second Language Instruction
Authors: Erlam Rosemary
Published: December 2012

Explicit knowledge is knowledge that a learner has
about
a language and that he or she is conscious of and able to report in some way (Ellis, 2008).
Formal Models of Bilingual Speech Production
Authors: Hermans Daan
Published: December 2012

How do bilinguals manage to produce words in the language in which they intend to speak? This is a puzzling question that has occupied many researchers working in the field of bilingual word production.
Frame Analysis
Authors: Kim Youn‐Kyung
Published: December 2012

The concept of “frame” is a useful tool to explicate how people interpret and at the same time construct their interactions coherently in specific interactional situations.
Gass, Susan M.
Authors: Polio Charlene
Published: December 2012

Susan M. Gass (1943– ), born in Boston, Massachusetts, is a university distinguished professor in the department of linguistics, and Germanic, Slavic, Asian, and African languages at Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan.
Gesture Analysis in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Gullberg Marianne
Published: December 2012

Gestures—or bodily “actions that have the feature of manifest deliberate expressiveness” (Kendon, 2004, p. 15)—are an integral part of how we communicate.
Gibbons, John
Authors: Powell Richard
Published: December 2012

John Gibbons (1946– ) is a major contributor to the fields of bilingualism and forensic linguistics. He is now semiretired in Australia, but his London roots still remain clearly detectable in his accent.
Grammar of English as a Lingua Franca
Authors: Björkman Beyza
Published: December 2012

English today has reached global dimensions no other language has come near before. It is used in a very large number of domains and is spoken by millions of people for various purposes.
Greenbaum,Sidney
Authors: Mair Christian
Published: December 2012

Sidney Greenbaum (1929–96) was born in London on December 31, 1929, a member of East London's orthodox Jewish community.
Guilherme, Manuela
Authors: Phipps Alison
Published: December 2012

Manuela Guilherme's contribution to applied linguistics is in the field of intercultural education and intercultural communication.
Hatch, Evelyn
Authors: Farhady Hossein
Published: December 2012

Evelyn Hatch (b. 1929) is Professor Emerita at UCLA Department of TESL/Applied Linguistics. She began her studies at UCLA in the 1960s, completing, in fairly rapid succession, a BA in political science, an MA in linguistics, and a PhD in education. This broad academic background reflects Hatch's diverse interests in her career in applied linguistics. In addition to being an exceptional teacher, Hatch has been a leader in several areas, especially in second language acquisition, research methods, and discourse analysis. Although it is truly difficult to do justice in writing about her services to the profession, the following touches the tip of the iceberg.
Heller, Monica
Authors: Moyer Melissa , McLaughlin Mireille
Published: December 2012

Monica Heller was born in Montreal, Canada and was trained in Linguistics and Anthropology at University of California, Berkeley where she received her PhD.
Hymes, Dell
Authors: Scollon Suzie Wong
Published: December 2012

Dell Hathaway Hymes (1927–2009) was a linguistic anthropologist most widely known for developing, with John Gumperz, the study of the ethnography of communication with the mnemonic S‐P‐E‐A‐K‐I‐N‐G (Gumperz & Hymes, 1972), discussed below. To educators he is best known for the concept “communicative competence.” He was one of very few to serve as president of the American Anthropological Association, the American Sociological Association, the Linguistic Society of America, and the American Folklore Society. He founded the journal
Language in Society
in 1972 and edited it for two decades. Hymes is known primarily for advocating the study of language as a social phenomenon, the study of linguistic relativity or relations between language and culture, and the problem of equality of linguistic resources.
Immigrant Discourse
Authors: De Fina Anna , Baynham Mike
Published: December 2012

Before introducing the topic of this entry, it needs to be clarifi ed that the term discourse is employed here to refer to language in use as organized and culturally shaped ways of talking embedded in concrete social practices (see Gee, 1996, p. 131, on this point).
Indigenous Languages in the 21st Century
Authors: McCarty Teresa L.
Published: December 2012

The world's 370 million Indigenous people represent 4% of the global population but speak 60 to 75% (4,000–5,000) of its languages (UNESCO, 2005).
Inhibition and Control in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Green David W.
Published: December 2012

Acquiring a second language (L2) is a dynamic process.
Inner Speech in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: de Guerrero María C. M.
Published: December 2012

Though commonly associated with talking to oneself in silence, inner speech is a much more encompassing and consequential phenomenon than internal self‐talk. Inner speech is a socially derived mechanism that makes possible verbal (symbolic) thought. Lev Vygotsky (1986), who may be considered to date the foremost proponent of a theory of inner speech, maintained that to understand verbal thought it was necessary to trace the development of inner speech to its ontogenetic precursors. Working within a socio‐cultural‐historical approach to cognition, Vygotsky (1986) saw the genesis of inner speech as the development of the capacity to “think words” (p. 230) silently. Children, Vygotsky claimed, start using language in a purely social fashion to communicate with others. However, through the process of internalization of sociocultural experience, at about school age children begin to use social speech to mediate mental functions. In this process, speech ceases to be merely social; it acquires psychological status; it becomes intellectual speech for the self.
Institutional Ethnography
Authors: Gebhard Meg
Published: December 2012

Institutional ethnography (IE) is a method of inquiry that describes institutional situations in detail and analyzes how people's actions and interpretations make these situations recognizable as particular kinds of institutional contexts (Smith, 2005).
Integration of Language and Content Learning
Authors: Mohan Bernard
Published: December 2012

Mothers and caretakers help their children to learn language and learn about the world simultaneously. How can teachers similarly integrate language and content learning?
Intelligibility
Authors: Munro Murray J.
Published: December 2012

Intelligibility is an aspect of speech with far‐reaching consequences for human communication.
Intercultural Competence
Authors: Byram Michael
Published: December 2012

“Intercultural competence” has become a sufficiently established phrase to justify the publication of a handbook (Deardorff, 2009). “Intercultural” as a term in language teaching emerged in the 1980s as a development of the concept of “communicative competence,” which was by then widely agreed to be the aim of foreign‐language teaching and learning (Byram, 1997, p. 3).
Intercultural Discourse
Authors: Scollon Suzie Wong
Published: December 2012

Guy has ordered a goose for the Thanksgiving dinner we agreed to share. He and Cecilia enjoyed a roast goose at our home some years ago and he had asked for and followed our recipe with great success. He sends an e‐mail asking whether I can eat mashed potatoes and gravy. I reply that since we never served that with goose, which was roasted Cantonese style, it would never occur to me. To which he replied that he had been filling in the menu according to his North American habits and assumptions.
Intercultural Learning
Authors: Hu Adelheid
Published: December 2012

Along with the important objective of communicative competence in foreign‐language learning, intercultural learning has been emphasized, especially since the 1980s, as a main objective of foreign and second language pedagogy (Bredella & Christ, 1995; Hu & Byram, 2009a).
Interviews in Qualitative Research
Authors: Roulston Kathryn
Published: December 2012

Interviews are social interactions in which researchers ask questions of people for the purpose of collecting data for social research.
Kasper, Gabriele
Authors: Burch Alfred Rue
Published: December 2012

Gabriele Kasper (1948‐ ) is a professor of second language studies at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa. She is a noted scholar in the field of interlanguage pragmatics, and has been cited as a major figure in the ongoing shift from cognitivist/rationalist perspectives in second language acquisition (SLA) to more socially grounded approaches.
Kučera, Henry
Authors: Meyer Charles F.
Published: December 2012

Henry Kučera is recognized for doing some of the earliest work on computers and language in the late 1950s.
Assessment and Testing: Overview
Authors: Chapelle Carol A. , Plakans Lia
Published: December 2012

Language assessment and testing intersects almost all language‐related issues that applied linguists study. These intersections take place at the level of ideas, but typically also in many of the everyday practices in language teaching, certification, and gate keeping, where language tests are used.
Language Assessment in Program Evaluation
Authors: Davis Larry
Published: December 2012

Program evaluation techniques are of increasing interest to language programs hoping to address pressures stemming from the current climate of accountability, and also contribute to a variety of other important purposes such as demonstrating program worth or satisfying the mandates of accrediting bodies.
Language Assessment Literacy
Authors: Inbar‐Lourie Ofra
Published: December 2012

Language assessment literacy forms the knowledge base needed to conduct language assessment procedures, that is, to design, administer, interpret, utilize, and report language assessment data for different purposes. The term is derived from the genericassessment literacyconcept which refers to the knowledge and skills required for performing assessment‐related actions (Stiggins, 1991; Webb, 2002). Language assessment literacy encompasses not only familiarity with tools and procedures for evaluating students' language abilities, but additional components, particularly the ability to render apt feedback so as to effectively direct learners toward setting and reaching future learning targets. Furthermore, assessment literate professionals are also aware of the ethical aspects involved in the assessment process and of the possible ramifications of putting assessment‐based decisions into practice, hence consequential validity (Messick, 1989).
Language Awareness
Authors: Cots Josep M.
Published: December 2012

Since the early 1990s, “language awareness” has been a prominent notion in applied linguistics and, more specifically, in the field of language education.
Language Evolution: Pidgins and Creoles
Authors: Devonish Hubert
Published: December 2012

Language evolution is the focus of the field of historical linguistics.
Language Ideology in a Language Classroom
Authors: Tollefson James W. , Yamagami Mai
Published: December 2012

This entry examines ideologies of language in language classrooms. The study of ideology seeks to uncover the hidden world of students and teachers to shed light on the fundamental forces that shape and give meaning to their actions and interactions.
Language Policy and Multilingualism
Authors: Schiffman Harold
Published: December 2012

Language policy as a field of inquiry, rather than as a human activity, dates from the mid‐point of the 20th century, when researchers of various sorts began to study the effects of language planning, which had gone on long before scholars turned their attention to it.
Language, Culture, and Context
Authors: Kramsch Claire
Published: December 2012

Language in its relationship to the culture that it represents and the context in which it is used has been researched in fields as varied as functional linguistics, linguistic anthropology, cognitive linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and the sociology of language.
Legal Interpreting
Authors: Hertog Erik
Published: December 2012

A “legal interpreter” is a trained, qualified professional providing interpreting to those involved in whatever capacity—be it as defendant, refugee, victim, witness, etc.—in a legal system whose language they do not speak.
Lemke, Jay
Authors: Hong Joanne Jung‐Wook
Published: December 2012

Jay Lemke, as a social semiotician, has been recognized as a significant and gifted researcher in linguistics, literacy, and science education.
Lexical Collocations
Authors: Barfield Andy
Published: December 2012

In general terms, lexical collocations are multiword units, consisting of two or more words that constitute a whole unit of meaning and which particular discourse communities repeatedly use in spoken and written communication.
Lexical Semantics
Authors: Paradis Carita
Published: December 2012

Lexical semantics is an academic discipline concerned with the meaning of words.
Lexical Transfer and First Language Effects
Authors: Zeeland Hilde Van
Published: December 2012

The influence of the first language (L1) in second language (L2) acquisition has long since been acknowledged.
Lexicogrammar
Authors: Sardinha Tony Berber
Published: December 2012

Lexicogrammar (or lexico‐grammar) is a level of linguistic structure where lexis, or vocabulary, and grammar, or syntax, combine into one. At this level, words and grammatical structures are not seen as independent, but rather mutually dependent, with one level interfacing with the other. The idea that lexis and grammar are interrelated has been treated in a number of linguistic theories and approaches, more or less explicitly. This entry will focus on systemic functional linguistics (SFL) and corpus linguistics (CL), because these two theoretical‐methodological frameworks have close ties to applied linguistics, and in both of them lexicogrammar plays a central role.
Traditional Approaches to Monolingual Lexicography
Authors: Klein Thomas
Published: December 2012

Lexicography is properly the practice of writing dictionaries, and more generally of compiling and recording information about the lexicon of a language and presenting it effectively to native or non‐native speakers and learners of the language.
Lexicography Across Languages
Authors: Tono Yukio
Published: December 2012

Most lexicographical theory and practice is based on the analysis of a first language (L1), but lexicography can be extended to the realm of “across languages,” and is then called bilingual or multilingual lexicography.
Limits of Language Revival
Authors: Zuckermann Ghil'ad
Published: December 2012

What is language revival? In the narrow sense, which is used in this entry, it means the attempt to reclaim a language that is no longer spoken as a mother tongue, for example, Hebrew and Kaurna, the latter being an Aboriginal language in Adelaide, South Australia.
Linguistic Approaches to Translation
Authors: Kenny Dorothy
Published: December 2012

This entry is concerned with how linguistic theory has been applied in translation studies.
Linguistic Landscape
Authors: Gorter Durk
Published: December 2012

Linguistic landscape research is an emerging field of applied linguistics.
Literacy and Bilingualism
Authors: Matoush Marylou , Fu Danling
Published: December 2012

Historically, “literacy” has referred to the ability to read and write on the part of an individual. A person who can read and write just enough to function in society is termed “functionally literate.” One who possesses the knowledge and inclination necessary to use reading and writing for an array of communicative purposes is deemed to be fully literate. However, when “literacy” is associated with “bilingualism,” its meaning, from a sociocultural– linguistic perspective, encompasses language acquisition, second language learning, bilingualism, biliteracy and bilingual education.
Literacy in Multilingual Classrooms
Authors: García Ofelia , Flores Nelson
Published: December 2012

When one hears the word literacy, the first image that usually comes to mind is of a child learning how to read and write.
Long, Michael H.
Authors: Ortega Lourdes
Published: December 2012

Michael H. Long, among the most important figures in the field of second language acquisition (SLA), is best known as the originator of the interaction hypothesis in the 1980s and the focus‐on‐form principle of second language (L2) instruction in the early 1990s. Over 30 years, his ideas have been deeply influential in the development and consolidation of these and other research programs in SLA, including work on task‐based language teaching, critical periods and fossilization, and research methods and epistemologies in SLA.
Materials for Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Upton Thomas A.
Published: December 2012

Tomlinson (1998) defines language learning materials as “anything which is used by teachers or learners to facilitate the learning of a language” (p. 2).
Metadiscourse
Authors: Ädel Annelie
Published: December 2012

Language enables people to refer to themselves and to their interlocutors explicitly, not only as experiencers in the world (as in examples 1–2 below), but also as communicators (examples 3–4). In addition, they may use language to comment not only on the topic under discussion (examples 5–6), but also on the very situation of communicating (examples 7–8).
Mother‐Tongue‐Medium Education
Authors: Skutnabb‐kangas Tove
Published: December 2012

Human rights lawyer Fernand de Varennes (see also 1996) writes on the back cover ofMultilingual Education for Social Justice: Globalising the Local(Mohanty, Panda, Phillipson, & Skutnabb‐Kangas, 2009), that the book “addresses directly a still surprisingly controversial topic: the indisputable value of education in one's own language.
Multilingual Education in Europe
Authors: Darquennes Jeroen
Published: December 2012

Inspired by Garcia (2009, p. 9), the term “multilingual education” is used in this entry to refer to education using more than one language as a medium of instruction in whatever combination.
Multilingualism in Legal Contexts
Authors: Arzoz Xabier
Published: December 2012

Law is the most linguistic of social institutions. It cannot exist outside language: It is drafted, approved, proclaimed, administered, interpreted, and repealed through acts of language.
Multilingualism and Minority Languages
Authors: Williams Colin H.
Published: December 2012

The interaction between hegemonic state languages and autochthonous or allochthonous minority languages is a fascinating, sometimes tragic, relationship, interpreted here from a sociopolitical and policy‐related perspective.
Multiliteracies in Education
Authors: Kalintzis Mary , Cope Bill
Published: December 2012

The termmultiliteraciesrefers to two major aspects of communication and representation today.
Multimodal Corpus‐Based Approaches
Authors: Bateman John A.
Published: December 2012

Nowadays there is a considerable awareness of the necessity of studying language and language usein association withaccompanying modes of communication.
Multimodal Text Analysis
Authors: O'Halloran Kay L. , Smith Bradley A.
Published: December 2012

Multimodal text analysis has become a crucial part of research, teaching, and practice for a wide range of academic and practical disciplines.
Multimodality and Comic Books
Authors: Sanz María Jesús Pinar
Published: December 2012

In recent decades there has been an increasing interest in the way several semiotic modes relate to each other and how their combination within a sociocultural domain results in a semiotic product or event (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006; Kress, 2010).
Multimodality and Disability
Authors: Zidjaly Najma Al
Published: December 2012

Multimodality is an analytical framework created to examine complex discourses that draw upon or consist of various visual and textual modes; the framework, according to Iedema (2003), gained ground recently due to the salience of multimodal texts brought about mainly by the advent of new media technologies and a recent turn in linguistics toward viewing communication as multimodal.
Multimodality and Film
Authors: Bateman John A.
Published: December 2012

Film is an obvious candidate for consideration as a multimodal artifact.
Multimodality and Software
Authors: Van Leeuwen Theo , Djonov Emilia
Published: December 2012

In its broadest sense, the term “software“ contrasts to “hardware“ and applies to any computer features that cannot be physically manipulated. This includes features invisible to the average computer user such as algorithms, text files written by programmers in source code, and their translations into computer‐executable, binary, code.
Narrative Development in Second Language Acquisition: Oral and Written
Authors: Salaberri M. Sagrario
Published: December 2012

Narrative can be defined as the representation of a series of episodes or events that form the basis of a story; in Labov's words (1972, p. 359), it is “one method of recapitulating past experience by matching a verbal sequence of clauses to the sequence of events which (it is inferred) actually occurred.”
Nativism
Authors: Davies Alan
Published: December 2012

The first sense has seen long service in the USA (Michaels, 1995; Higham, 1988) as frequent waves of immigrants were made to feel unwelcome by those (often themselves recent immigrants) who regarded only themselves as truly native.
Natural Language Processing and Language Learning
Authors: Meurers Detmar
Published: December 2012

As a relatively young field of research and development that began with work on crypt‐analysis and machine translation around 50 years ago, natural language processing (NLP) is concerned with the automated processing of human language.
Neurobiology and Motivation in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Mates Andrea W.
Published: December 2012

Motivation has long been seen as a critical variable in second language acquisition (SLA) in that it keeps a learner working on the long and difficult task of mastering a second language.
Varieties of English in Nigeria
Authors: Salami Oladipo
Published: December 2012

Although opinions diverge as to whether or not there is a Nigerian English, it is generally agreed that it is possible to do a broad characterization of varieties of English in Nigeria. Jibril (1982), Awonusi (1986, 1988), Jowitt (1991), Bamiro (1994), Igboanusi (2002), and others have demonstrated also that Nigerian English is variable and that its variability is socially motivated.
O
'
H
alloran,
K
ay
L
.
Authors: O'Toole Michael
Published: December 2012

Associate professor Kay O'Halloran (1958– ) is the founding director of the Multimodal Analysis Laboratory of the Interactive and Digital Media Institute (IDMI) at the National University of Singapore (NUS), where she has been a member of the Department of English Language and Literature since 1998.
O
ller,
J
ohn
W
.,
J
r.
Authors: Ginther April
Published: December 2012

The work of John Oller (1943– ) in the 1970s and 1980s contributed greatly to the emergence and recognition of language testing as a discipline within the field of applied linguistics.
Orthography
Authors: Snider Keith L.
Published: December 2012

The term
orthography
refers to the set of symbols
and the conventions governing their use
that members of a language community employ when they communicate in their language through the medium of writing.