bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Null Hypothesis Significance‐Testing Debate
Authors: Thompson Bruce
Published: January 2015

The steps in the logic of null hypothesis statistical testing are enumerated. The history of the logic is briefly summarized. The two competing schools of thought with respect to statistical testing (Neyman–Pearson vs. Fisher) are summarized. The three primary criticisms of statistical significance testing that emerged, especially during the 1990s, are specified. Today, social scientists increasingly place less emphasis on
p
values and more emphasis on effect sizes, the precisions of statistical estimates, and the replicability of sample results.
Risk Assessment/Violence Prediction, Juvenile Offenders
Authors: Witt Katrina , Perrault Rachael , Singh Jay P.
Published: January 2015

Violencerisk assessment in juveniles refers to the attempt to predict the likelihood of future violence in minors. Risk assessments are commonly conducted within the juvenile justice system to predict reoffending risk and to inform custody, diversion, sentencing, release, and treatment decisions. Thus, the findings of the risk assessment process can have serious consequences for the individual offender as well as public safety. Historically, instruments used for the assessment of violence risk in juveniles have been actuarial in nature, focusing on the prediction of risk with little attention directed to individualized risk management. More recently, however, structured professional judgment instruments have been developed, focusing on risk management rather than risk prediction. Regardless of their approach, juvenile risk assessment instruments, in contrast to their adult counterparts, place a greater emphasis on protective factors and the management of violence risk.
Solution‐Focused Therapy
Authors: Corcoran Jacqueline
Published: January 2015

In solution‐focused therapy (SFT) it is assumed that clients possess the necessary strengths and capacities to solve their own problems. Thus, in collaboration with their clients, SFT practitioners aim to identify clients' strengths and amplify them so that clients can apply these “solutions” to their problems. To this end, practitioners assist clients in eliciting “exceptions,” or times when the problem is either not a problem or is lessened in terms of its duration, severity, frequency, or intensity. Further details of SFT, including the phases of its helping process and its research basis, are provided in the entry.
C
ohen,
J
acob (1923–98)
Authors: Shrout Patrick E.
Published: January 2015

Jacob Cohen (1923–98) was a clinical psychologist and a statistician who made contributions to methodology relevant to clinical psychology. This entry describes his contributions to the study of rater reliability, the scientific planning of study design through power analysis, and the practice of reporting statistical results using facts about effect size and confidence intervals around parameter estimates.
Risk Assessment/Violence Prediction, Juvenile Sexual Offenders
Authors: Fanniff Amanda M. , Cates Sarah A.
Published: January 2015

Mental health professionals are called upon to evaluate risk in juveniles adjudicated for sexual offenses (JSOs) to inform a variety of decisions (e.g., level of care, inclusion on public registries). Evaluators conducting such evaluations face significant challenges given the limited predictive validity evidence currently available regarding measures for assessingJSOs' sexual recidivism risk. The instruments studied most frequently with the strongest evidence to date are the Juvenile Sex Offender Assessment Protocol‐IIand the Estimate of Risk of Adolescent Sexual Offense Recidivism. Evaluators may choose to use such instruments to structure their evaluations and ensure the consideration of empirically supported risk factors, but should acknowledge their limitations. Additionally, evaluators should focus on short‐term risk and the ongoing development of juveniles, emphasize the low base rates of sexual recidivism and demonstrated effectiveness of treatment in this population, and identify the conditions under which risk would likely be effectively mitigated.
Amnestic Disorders
Authors: Kessels Roy P. C. , Savage Greg
Published: January 2015

Amnestic disorders may involve deficits in the encoding or storage of information in memory, or in retrieval of information from memory. Etiologies vary and include traumatic brain injury, neurodegenerative disease, and psychiatric illness. Different forms of amnesia can be distinguished: anterograde amnesia affects memory for the present, and retrograde amnesia affects memory for the past. Different memory systems may also be affected (working memory, episodic memory or semantic memory). This entry discusses hippocampal amnesia, amnesia caused by Alzheimer's disease (including mild cognitive impairment), memory dysfunction caused by vascular cognitive impairment, Korsakoff's syndrome, posttraumatic amnesia, transient global amnesia, transient epileptic amnesia, and psychogenic amnesia.
Psychiatric Hospitalization
Authors: Dickerson Faith B. , Sharfstein Steven S.
Published: January 2015

Psychiatric hospitalization typically happens in order to stabilize and ensure the safety of persons in psychological crisis. Hospital stays tend to be short (averaging 9–11 days) and tend to occur on specialty units of private psychiatric hospitals or psychiatric units of general hospitals. Over the past 60 years, deinstitutionalization policies have drastically reduced the number of beds in public hospital settings without an adequate increase in community psychiatric services. Managed care practices have also led to a reduction in available hospital beds. Nevertheless, psychiatric hospitalization remains an essential part of the mental health‐care continuum. By expanding health‐care coverage, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act will increase demand for hospital psychiatric care, and it remains unclear exactly how this demand will be met. Today's consumer movement and greater emphasis on mental health recovery will also likely shape the future of hospital psychiatry.
Child Maltreatment and Dependency
Authors: Hunt Elizabeth
Published: January 2015

Child maltreatment cases can be fairly complex because of the mixture of interests among the different parties involved and the difficult decisions often made in these contexts, such as termination of parental rights. Psychologists can play an important role in the handling of maltreatment cases in dependency court by performing evaluations to assist legal decision makers in making informed decisions about the child's best interests to ensure his or her protection. The dependency system seeks to protect children from harmful situations associated with inadequate parenting and provide placement and necessary services to ensure the child's wellbeing.
Immaturity and Incompetence
Authors: Fanniff Amanda M. , Smith Kristen L.
Published: January 2015

The majority of U.S. jurisdictions have recognized that juveniles must be competent to proceed with the adjudicative process, but whether they may be found incompetent due to immaturity remains controversial. Research on juveniles' trial‐related abilities as well as the child and adolescent development literature suggest reasons for concern that some youth may have significant deficits in legal capacities due to developmental factors; however, few jurisdictions have formally recognized that juveniles may be incompetent due to immaturity alone. Research has begun to investigate the cognitive, emotive, and psychosocial skills that may underlie the well‐established relationship between age and competence, with initial evidence suggesting that cognitive and psychosocial development may mediate this relationship. Additional research is necessary to identify the specific skills that may be insufficiently developed to support competency in young defendants. This research will clarify the relevance of immaturity and inform remediation and accommodation strategies to enable immature youth to participate effectively as defendants.
Glasser, William (1925–2013)
Authors: Parish Thomas S. , Wubbolding Robert E.
Published: January 2015

William Glasser (1925–2013) founded reality therapy, a cognitive behavioral system that includes a usable strategy applicable to clients who demonstrate minor or major issues. Originating in a correctional institution and a mental hospital, its applications now include use in schools, business, management and supervision, and most interpersonal relationships. Its theoretical basis is choice theory, formerly known as control theory or control system theory, which posits that human behavior is the result of a current effort to satisfy five genetic needs: survival or self‐preservation, love and belonging, power or inner control, freedom or independence, and fun or enjoyment. Most behaviors are chosen or at least partially chosen. When implementing the theory and practice, the helper assists clients in examining their choices, evaluating them, and making plans for more effective need satisfaction.
Case Conceptualization
Authors: John Samantha , Segal Daniel L.
Published: January 2015

The case conceptualization (sometimes called acase formulation) is the clinician's collective understanding of the client's problems as viewed through a particular theoretical orientation; as defined by the biological, psychological, and social contexts of the client; and as supported by a body of research and practice that links a set of co‐occurring symptoms to a diagnosis and, ultimately, a treatment plan. A strong case conceptualization is guided by the utilization of a theoretical orientation that provides a framework for the clinician from which to condense and synthesize multiple pieces of information into a coherent and well‐developed narrative. This narrative aims to identify not only the precipitating cause(s) of the client's problems, but also the forces at work, both internal and external to the client, that serve to maintain the problems. Formal research on case conceptualization is in the nascent stage.
Therapist Effects
Authors: Lutz Wolfgang , Barkham Michael
Published: January 2015

In clinical psychology and psychotherapy research there has recently been a renewed focus on therapist effects, although the contribution of the therapist has long been of interest within the field. Therapist effects can be defined as the systematic effects of therapists on patient outcomes beyond the treatment modality or therapeutic technique applied. As such they are comparable to differences between humans in other professions (e.g., teachers). Ignoring the variability of outcomes among therapists, if it exists, inflates the treatment effect because differences between treatments are then due, in part, to the variability among therapists. In this entry the assumptions and historical background of therapist effects as well as methodological considerations and the extent of the effect on treatment length and outcomes are discussed.
Boulder Conference (1949)
Authors: Johnson Nicole L. , Baker David B.
Published: January 2015

Attempts to organize professional psychology began in the early twentieth century and came to fruition with the convening of the Boulder Conference on Graduate Education in Clinical Psychology in 1949. The conference answered the long‐standing call for a standardized training model for professional psychology. Many forces influenced the decision to hold the Boulder Conference, most notably the needs for a mental health workforce made evident by the events of World War
II
. The scientist–practitioner model is arguably the most influential result of the Boulder Conference. More than 60 years later, this model remains the dominant form of training in professional psychology.
Schizophreniform Disorder
Authors: Kline Emily , Reeves Gloria , Schiffman Jason
Published: January 2015

Schizophreniform disorder represents a psychiatric illness similar to schizophrenia but with specified duration of 1–6 months. Schizophreniform disorder can describe a past episode of psychosis that resolved within 6 months, or a current episode of recent onset. Schizophreniform disorder is generally categorized within the class of schizophrenia spectrum disorders, sometimes referred to as “nonaffective psychoses.”DSM‐5provides a list of clinical features associated with good prognosis for individuals with schizophreniform disorder; however, more evidence is needed to support the predictive value of these prognostic features.
R
ogers,
C
arl
R
. (1902–87)
Authors: Demanchick Stephen P. , Kirschenbaum Howard
Published: January 2015

Carl Ransom Rogers (1902–87) was one of the most influential American psychotherapists and psychologists of the twentieth century. Born on January 8, 1902 in Oak Park, Illinois, Rogers was most noted for his development of the client‐centered, or person‐centered, approach to counseling and psychotherapy, and his pioneering efforts in recording complete cases of psychotherapy for teaching and research purposes. Rogers popularized the concept of the core conditions of the psychotherapeutic relationship for positive psychotherapeutic change: empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness. He held faculty appointments in Ohio, Chicago, and Wisconsin before moving to La Jolla, California, where he died on February 4, 1987 at age 85. Rogers earned the American Psychological Association's Distinguished Scientific Research Award and the Distinguished Professional Contribution Award, and was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize for his work with intergroup and international conflict resolution.
Behavioral Medicine/Health Psychology
Authors: Kaholokula Joseph Keawe'aimoku , Haynes Stephen N.
Published: January 2015

Health psychology and behavioral medicine are interdisciplinary fields devoted to developing and integrating the biomedical, behavioral, psychological, and social sciences and approaches to better understand health and illness, and to applying these sciences and approaches to prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation. They have a wide range of research and clinical foci and applications across an array of health‐related behavior problems and goals across multiple contexts and settings. Behavioral and psychophysiological assessments and treatments, as well as multimethod, multimodal, and multisource assessments, are emphasized. Their conceptual and scientific foundation is based on the biopsychosocial model, behavior change theories, and personality constructs. Their historical and philosophical foundation predates psychology as a distinct discipline. Developing areas in the field include sociocultural applicability, translational research, health disparities, new and emerging technologies in providing health care, accessibility of health psychology to the public, and the public health needs of less developed countries.
Reliability
Authors: Hogan Thomas P.
Published: January 2015

Reliability refers to consistency and stability in a measurement. Sources contributing to unreliability include temporary fluctuations in personal conditions, minor differences in administrative circumstances, scoring variations when human judgment enters the process, and nonessential differences in content. Most formulations of reliability use the concepts of true score, observed score, and error. Methods of obtaining a reliability coefficient include test–retest, interrater, alternate form, and several indices of internal consistency, especially coefficient alpha, and the item response theory‐based precision of measurement index. Each of these methods captures only one source of unreliability. Several methods have been proposed to capture more than one source of unreliability, especially generalizability theory. The standard error of measurement translates a reliability coefficient into a metric that allows for creation of a confidence band. Reliability relates to validity through the correction for attenuation. Most sources identify a reliability coefficient of at least .90 as high.
Sign versus Symptom
Authors: Kraft Nikki H. , Keeley Jared W.
Published: January 2015

In clinical psychology, the boundary between sign and symptom can be difficult to distinguish. Signs are observable indications of a disorder, whereas symptoms are self‐report of the physical or psychological effects of a disorder. The
DSM
is comprised of criteria that represent experiences that either the client, or someone close to the client, reports to a clinician. Potential problems associated with relying on client self‐reporting include gender and culture differences, denial, and lack of insight. In addition, a clinician's ability to recognize the signs of psychopathology often determines whether or not a correct diagnosis is made. Potential biasing factors for clinician observation of signs include selective attention, top‐down processing, overshadowing, misattribution of behaviors, and lack of diagnostic knowledge. Most psychological tests are self‐report measures; however, some assessment tools may also involve direct observation.
Enlightenment, The
Authors: Brysbaert Marc
Published: January 2015

The term
Enlightenment
is used to refer to intellectual and social developments in the eighteenth century. The underlying force was an increasing belief in the scientific approach to attaining knowledge, as opposed to the medieval reliance on religion and tradition. The more successful science became, the more intellectuals began to see the scientific method as a way to organize society. With respect to clinical psychology, the Enlightenment was characterized by a new approach to mental illness and the treatment of the mentally ill, who became seen as ailing patients in need of help in specialized institutions.
Internal Consistency Approach to Test Construction
Authors: English Taylor , Keeley Jared W.
Published: January 2015

Internal consistency reliability refers to the degree to which separate items on a test or scale relate to each other. All things being equal, tests with higher internal consistency more accurately measure the intended construct of the test developers. The most face valid way to measure internal consistency is to split the test into two equal halves and compare the reliability of each, known as split‐half reliability. The three most commonly used statistical tests for measuring internal consistency are the Spearman–Brown, the Kuder–Richardson 20, and Cronbach's alpha formulas. Cronbach's alpha is the most frequently used because it calculates all possible split half values of the test. Using statistical programs, test developers can also measure changes in Cronbach's alpha if questions were to either be added or removed. This method enables test developers to create a psychometrically sound test without including unnecessary test items.
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: Hedges Larry V. , Citkowicz Martyna
Published: January 2015

Meta‐analysis is a set of tools for combining statistical estimates from research studies. It provides ways to synthesize results from the summary statistics of the studies, and allows tests of significance for those combined results. The analyses are conducted in order to describe a pattern of results on a given topic. Such syntheses have become essential because of the increasing amount of accumulated research literature in psychology and other empirical sciences. Meta‐analysis allows for the organization of this literature. This entry explains some of the main concepts and basic computations for conducting a meta‐analysis. It provides a working example of how the computations are completed and includes numerous references to sources available for further analyses.
Suicide
Authors: Ribeiro Jessica D. , Silva Caroline , Hagan Christopher R. , Joiner Thomas E.
Published: January 2015

Suicide is a pressing public health concern. The scope and urgency of the problem is clearly reflected in the significant morbidity and mortality attributable to suicidal behavior. Each year, suicide claims the lives of nearly 1 million people worldwide, a figure that is substantially outnumbered by nonfatal attempts, which independently confer risk of significant injury and distress. In addition to those who engage in suicidal behavior, countless individuals suffer from suicidal thoughts. The objective of this entry is to provide a brief and yet broad overview of suicide including its prevalence, associated risk and protective factors, proposed theoretical perspectives, and intervention and prevention efforts. We close with a discussion of several viable areas for future research indicated based on the current state of the field.
Clinical Utility
Authors: DeLao Chafen S. , Keeley Jared W.
Published: January 2015

Recent revisions to the
DSM
and
ICD
have focused heavily on increasing clinical utility. Broadly speaking, clinical utility refers to the extent to which a classification system assists mental health professionals communicate effectively and efficiently, develop clinical pictures, diagnose, prognosticate, and treat psychiatric disorders. This entry describes the five principal components of clinical utility, and discusses them in light of their current implications.
Religion and Psychotherapy
Authors: Tan Siang‐Yang
Published: January 2015

Religion and psychotherapy have historically been viewed as antagonistic to each other. More recently, however, the integration of religion and psychotherapy has become a significant development in clinical practice. Religion can be defined as a search for significance in ways that are related to the sacred, with spirituality as a search for the sacred. Religion is a crucial aspect of human diversity, and therefore may be addressed in psychotherapy. This can be done covertly in implicit integration, or overtly in explicit integration, which includes dealing with religious or spiritual issues in therapy, and using spiritual resources such as prayer, Scripture or sacred texts, referrals to religious groups, and other religious practices. Empirical support for the efficacy or effectiveness of religious and spiritual therapies has grown considerably. However, further research is needed and such therapies should be conducted in an ethically responsible, clinically sensitive, and professionally competent way.
Psychotherapy Integration
Authors: Ziv‐Beiman Sharon , Shahar Golan
Published: January 2015

Psychotherapy integration is an intellectual/professional movement within the mental health field whose aim is to transcend the various “large psychotherapy schools” (e.g., cognitive behavioral, psychodynamic, experiential, family systems) by encouraging the exploration of integrative forms of treatment. In this entry, an illustrative clinical example and review of relevant aspects of the field are presented, including a brief history of the field, currently available models, the prevalence of integrative practice, research findings, multicultural dimensions, training, and future challenges.
Extreme Groups Designs
Authors: Preacher Kristopher J.
Published: January 2015

An extreme groups design is one in which a researcher samples cases from the extremes of the distribution of an independent variable
X
and then examines the relationship between
X
and another variable
Y
. Extreme groups designs can lead to significant cost savings in data collection while preserving or enhancing statistical power for detecting relationships. However, methodologists have noted several limitations associated with this method that often go unrecognized, including artificially inflated effect size and compromised reliability. In addition, use of such designs often requires the researcher to make additional assumptions about the variables and how they are related. Use of extreme groups designs should be employed only after careful consideration of their advantages and disadvantages.
Hypothetico‐Deductive Model
Authors: Grove William M. , Menton William H.
Published: January 2015

This entry discusses the hypothetico‐deductive model, a formalized theory‐testing method purported to describe the scientific process. After describing the basic model, the entry outlines certain elaborations of the model proposed by contemporary philosophers of science in order to improve its truth‐likeness. The entry concludes with a consideration of the Quine–Duhem thesis, which points out that a hypothesis is never tested in isolation, but rather within the context of a network of embedded assumptions.
Conditional Probabilities
Authors: Handel Richard W.
Published: January 2015

Clinicians and researchers in psychology and medicine often incorporate test data to make binary classifications. For example, a physician may use a blood test to assist in ruling‐in or ruling‐out a medical disorder. This entry provides basic examples illustrating the statistical concept of conditional probability, and shows how conditional probabilities are applied to arrive at the statistical indices sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive power, and negative predictive power. These indices are commonly used to evaluate the practical utility of test data in achieving accurate classifications. Multiple numerical examples demonstrate how to calculate and interpret these indices.
M
orey,
L
eslie (b. 1956)
Authors: Blevins Christy A. , Blashfield Roger K.
Published: January 2015

Leslie C. Morey (b. 1956) is a clinical psychologist best known for his contributions to the field of psychopathology and assessment, including development of the Personality Assessment Inventory (
PAI
), a widely used self‐report inventory of psychopathology and personality traits.
Stability of Behavior, Implications for Research
Authors: Hill Patrick L. , Allemand Mathias , Roberts Brent W.
Published: January 2015

Questions of stability and change are at the forefront of clinical, personality, and developmental psychology. In the current entry, five different types of stability are defined (mean‐level, rank‐order, stability of variance, structural stability, and individual differences in stability), with examples regarding how and why researchers would address each form. Following this, mechanisms that promote stability are discussed, with a focus on why individuals become more stable later in life.
Narrative Therapy
Authors: Vromans Lyn , Schweitzer Robert D
Published: January 2015

Humans have a fundamental capacity to make sense of their experience through language. Drawing upon emerging epistemologies that privilege story and dialog, narrative therapy is an evolving approach that has significantly impacted the way we think about the meaning‐making potential of therapy. Key components of this approach include the development of a therapeutic relationship, eliciting and deconstructing problem stories, incorporating alternative and preferred stories of identity, and embracing and living such stories. It is respectful of different cultural understandings of well‐being and healing, and the importance of witnessing and community is acknowledged, extending individual therapeutic practice into often disenfranchised community contexts internationally.
M
eehl,
P
aul
E
. (1920–2003)
Authors: Grove William M. , Menton William H.
Published: January 2015

Paul Everett Meehl (1920–2003) was an American psychologist and philosopher of science. Though perhaps best known for his work on the controversial problem of clinical versus statistical prediction, Meehl is recognized to have contributed to many domains related to clinical practice and research. He wrote extensively on the difficulties associated with the testing and corroboration of theories in the “soft” sciences, and spoke against the use of statistical significance testing as a method of theory verification. Meehl was also among the first to propose a hereditary theory of schizophrenia, and, in order to provide a way to test for this theory, he pioneered a family of statistical methods known as taxometrics.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Authors: Roche Michael J. , Pincus Aaron L.
Published: January 2015

This entry reviews how narcissistic personality disorder (
NPD
) came to be included and revised through the various iterations of the

DSM

. Features of
NPD
; its prevalence, stability, and comorbidity with other disorders; and its discriminant validity are summarized. These features are impacted by the narrow focus on narcissistic grandiosity in the

DSM

NPD
diagnostic criteria, which lack content reflecting narcissistic vulnerability. Low prevalence rates and a modest body of clinical research first led to a proposed deletion of
NPD
in the initial

DSM
‐5

proposal, followed by a revised
NPD
description in a revised
NPD
proposal that mentioned both grandiose and vulnerable themes. The personality disorder proposal was rejected, and the

DSM‐IV

PD
taxonomy was retained in

DSM
‐5

. The consequence of this rejection was that the
PD
section is the only one not to reflect
any
of the last two decades of scientific advancements since the

DSM

was updated previously in 1994. As such, this entry provides a review of narcissism as it is currently diagnosed (exactly as in

DSM‐IV

) and a discussion on future directions to improve the validity and clinical utility of
NPD
.
Placebo Controls in Psychotherapy Research
Authors: Lohr Jeffrey M. , Adams Thomas G.
Published: January 2015

The concept of placebo and its effects have a long history in physical medicine. In clinical psychology, the concept has been extended to aid in the distinction between the medium of treatment delivery and the effect of treatment content. In medical treatment procedures the demarcation of medium and content is fairly distinct but in psychosocial treatment procedures the demarcation is not. The nonspecific aspects of the treatment medium and the specific aspects of the treatment content require the identification of the incidental and the characteristic features in order to empirically test treatment efficacy. Treatments with characteristic features are intentionally applied to specific disorders. Empirical tests of specific treatments for specific disorders will provide for greater treatment efficacy and provide justification for their dissemination.
Mindfulness/Meditation
Authors: Morgan Lucas P. K. , Roemer Lizabeth
Published: January 2015

Mindfulness describes both a type of nonjudgmental present‐focused awareness and a set of practices aimed at developing this awareness that have received increased attention in medical and mental health fields in recent decades. This entry reviews definitions and measurement of mindfulness, discusses mindfulness as a learned skill, a dispositional quality, and describes common formal and informal mindfulness practices. Mindfulness‐based behavioral and psychotherapeutic interventions, including mindfulness‐based stress reduction, have been applied to diverse clinical presenting problems and have shown reductions in anxiety and depression symptoms, along with a number of other potential psychological, behavioral, and interpersonal benefits. Mechanisms explaining how the salutary effects of mindfulness come about are not well understood, but may include increased “reperceiving” or “decentering”—seeing one's internal experiences as temporary phenomena distinct from the self. Research on mindfulness with children, adolescents, and nondominant populations and underserved communities (i.e., racial/ethnic and sexual minorities) is lacking and further research is needed.
Binge‐Eating Disorder
Authors: Cassin Stephanie E. , David Lauren A.
Published: January 2015

Binge‐eating disorder (
BED
) is characterized by recurrent binge‐eating episodes without the presence of the excessive weight control behaviors that are seen in bulimia nervosa.
BED
can have a chronic course, and it is associated with medical and psychiatric comorbidities. Psychological treatments are effective in improving binge eating and ameliorating associated symptoms. This entry presents an overview of the diagnosis and prevalence of
BED
, as well as the risk and maintenance factors for the disorder. Common comorbidities and recommended treatment approaches are discussed.
Child and Adolescent Psychotherapies
Authors: André Marie‐Christine , Garcia Jadig , Coyne Lisa W.
Published: January 2015

Like adults, children and adolescents may also suffer from mental health difficulties. Over the years, a variety of psychotherapeutic techniques and methods have been used to help children and adolescents who are experiencing emotional and behavioral difficulties. This entry provides an overview of the most common interventions used with children and adolescents who are experiencing a wide range of psychological problems, including but not limited to depression, anxiety, autism spectrum disorders, and other behavioral problems. A basic overview of cognitive behavioral therapy, acceptance and mindfulness‐based therapies, social skills intervention, behavioral therapy, play therapy, family‐focused therapies, interpersonal psychotherapy, and psychopharmacological therapy for children and adolescents is included in this entry.
Guardianship
Authors: Drogin Eric Y. , Barrett Curtis L.
Published: January 2015

Guardianship is a legal process that accommodates society's need to substitute its judgment for that of persons who cannot care for themselves. It differs from other living wills, powers of attorney, and advance directives because it is only applied when persons lack sufficient insight and judgment to assign their care to a responsible third party. Rights affected by guardianship include those related to determining where one will live, determining how one will spend one's money, making out a will, driving, voting, and others. Clinical psychologists evaluate the need for guardianship with a combination of interviews, traditional cognitive and personality testing, specialized forensic testing, and collateral inquiry.
Intraclass Correlation Coefficients
Authors: Xu Joy H. , Shrout Patrick E.
Published: January 2015

Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) have many uses in psychology and related disciplines. They are often used to assess reliability, to deduce heritability, and to quantify similarity in group‐randomized trials. Different estimates of ICCs are appropriate depending on the particular study in question and the interpretation of ICC estimates in different contexts vary as well. This entry discusses the appropriate use of three basic forms of ICCs for rater reliability and one additional form that is equivalent to Cronbach's alpha. Examples of calculations and interpretations of these ICCs are given in the context of reliability and extended to multilevel group analyses, and population genetics studies.
Bereavement/Grief Interventions
Authors: Silverman Phyllis R. , Rubin Simon Shimshon
Published: January 2015

Bereavement is a universal life cycle experience. It involves a process of transition accompanied by strong emotions. Intervention begins with the mourners' support system and their community. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), Eric Lindemann (1900–74), John Bowlby (1907–90), and Elizabeth Kubler‐Ross (1926–2004) were influential figures in the field. Thecontinuing bondsparadigm underscores ongoing emotional connections to persons who have died. Loss initiates disruption in biopsychosocial functioning, but it is also intimately rooted in the relationship to the deceased. The thoughts and feelings, as well as the relationship to the deceased and the story of the death, are very important in the bereavement response and outcome. The two track model of bereavement and the dual process model of coping with loss reflect this perspective. Bereavement is also a catalyst for meaning making, personal growth, and life revision. Although most bereaved are resilient, maladaptive variants of the grief response are estimated at 15–20%. The diagnosis of grief‐related difficulty is controversial. Clinical interventions are effective for complications of grief, but their value for unselected populations is unproven. Mutual and self‐help programs are an important component of assistance for the bereaved.
Third‐Party Information
Authors: Hunt Elizabeth , Kimonis Eva R.
Published: January 2015

Third‐party information (TPI) is defined as a type of collateral source that is not obtained directly from the individual being evaluated. It serves an essential role in forensic mental health assessment for three primary reasons: greater need for accuracy, issues with response style, and the greater scrutiny that the evaluator's conclusions may receive. TPI may be obtained through interviews with personal and professional collateral informants or through reviews of various forms of written documentation. TPI may be used to help detect response styles and malingering, making it vital to evaluation of the validity of the examinees self‐report and to ensure that an accurate opinion has been formed and communicated to the courts.
Avoidant Personality Disorder
Authors: Alden Lynn E. , Fung Klint
Published: January 2015

Avoidant personality disorder (
AvPD
) is a prevalent, moderately stable, dysfunctional pattern of personality traits marked by social inhibition, chronic feelings of inadequacy, and fear of negative evaluation.
AvPD
is associated with substantial social, financial, and educational impairment, as well as lowered quality of life. Topics of current research interest include the clinical course of the disorder; its relationship to other psychiatric disorders, most notably social anxiety disorder and schizophrenia; and the effectiveness of psychological and pharmacological treatment regimens in modifying its harmful effects.
Wallin,J.E.Wallace (1876–1969)
Authors: Farreras Ingrid G.
Published: January 2015

J. E. Wallace Wallin (1876–1969) was a pioneer in the fields of clinical psychology, special education, and mental hygiene. During the second decade of the twentieth century Wallin proposed the first training models for clinical psychology by specifying the ideal personal qualities as well as academic background and practical work that would be necessary to become expert mental examiners of children with developmental disabilities, the prime occupation of clinical psychologists of the time. Wallin also paved the way for the establishment of the first professional organization to represent clinical psychologists: the American Association of Clinical Psychologists. Wallin believed strongly that public schools should provide education for developmentally disabled children. Through his affiliation with more than 25 institutions of higher education and as director of eight psychoeducational clinics, and as the author of over 30 books and 350 articles, Wallin staunchly advocated for programs, policies, and regulations that ensured that developmentally disabled children received this education.
Prevalence and Incidence
Authors: Nadorff Michael R. , Chaney Leland , Samuel Winer E.
Published: January 2015

Prevalence is an epidemiological statistic used for determining how common a disorder is in a particular population at a certain point in time. It is often presented as a percentage of the population, but may also be presented as the number of cases out of 10,000 individuals, or 100,000 for rare disorders. Incidence is a similar metric, but examines only the new cases of a disorder over a certain period of time (often a year). Since incidence only includes new cases, as opposed to prevalence, which accounts for all cases, the incidence for a disorder should never exceed its prevalence. Incidence is useful for determining how quickly new cases of a disorder are being identified, something that is often not apparent from prevalence data alone.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Instruments
Authors: Tarescavage Anthony M. , Ben‐Porath Yossef S.
Published: January 2015

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), developed by Starke Hathaway (1903–87) and J. CharnleyMcKinley(1891–1950), was published in 1943 to assist with the differential diagnosis of psychiatric disorders. Since its initial release, the inventory has undergone two major revisions, and it has been the subject of continual empirical research published in thousands of books, book chapters, and journal articles. The first revision, completed in 1989, focused on updating the test norms and produced theMMPI‐2. An effort to modernize theMMPIscales began in the early 1990s and culminated in 2008 with publication of theMMPI‐2 Restructured Form (MMPI‐2‐RF). In this entry, the development and evolution of theMMPIinstruments are described first, followed by information regarding administration, scoring, and interpretation of the current version of the inventory. Finally, research that supports use of theMMPI‐2‐RFin various settings is described briefly.
Behavior Therapies
Authors: Shikatani (née Gee) Bethany , Fracalanza Katie , Antony Martin M.
Published: January 2015

Behavior therapy is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on changing problematic behaviors through the use of techniques based on learning principles. It includes a wide range of strategies, including relaxation‐based techniques, operant conditioning–based strategies, and exposure‐based strategies, among many others. Behavioral techniques are often combined with other treatment strategies, such as with cognitive therapy techniques, in order to most effectively treat psychological difficulties. A thorough behavioral assessment is an important first step before implementing behavioral strategies, and traditional behavioral therapists often conduct a functional analysis of the problem behavior in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of it. This entry discusses the general principles of behavior therapy, provides a brief historical overview, and describes a variety of approaches, including functional analysis, operant conditioning–based strategies, behavioral activation, applied relaxation, and social skills training.
Clinical Supervision
Authors: Falender Carol A. , Shafranske Edward P.
Published: January 2015

Clinical supervision is the primary means of transmitting the psychology profession to future generations and may be considered a distinct professional competency in its own right. Although the development of supervisee clinical competence constitutes the primary focus, the supervisor's first obligation is to ensure client welfare. Essential components of effective clinical supervision are described. This entry also discusses the transformation to a competency‐based framework for clinical supervision that is based on standards of accountability and processes to evaluate clinical and supervisory competencies. Specific knowledge, skills, attitudes/values that constitute the clinical competency of supervision are identified and provide the focus of evaluation and training. Formative feedback is regularly given throughout the course of supervision based on live or video session review, enhancing the training process. Future developments are also described.
Prototypes and Exemplars
Authors: Farshid Arash , Goodman Adam M. , Daniel Thomas A. , Thompkins Andrea M. , Katz Jeffrey S.
Published: January 2015

The ability to categorize stimuli is a vital and adaptive process for humans. The cognitive and biological processes that underlie categorization, however, remain unclear. The structure of this entry follows a historical progression of the literature exploring different approaches to categorization as they pertain to exemplars and prototypes. The entry concludes with a discussion of present and future directions and the implications for categorization in psychiatric classification.
Single‐Case Experimental Designs
Authors: Kratochwill Thomas R. , Mission Paige , Hagermoser Elizabeth
Published: January 2015

Single‐case design research has gained recognition as a credible scientific methodology across a variety of fields of study. Uniquely suited to support research on topics related to rare disorders or in instances where access to large sample sizes is unfeasible, single‐case designs have served to advance evidence‐based practices and assessment technologies. In applied settings single‐case designs provide opportunities for practitioners and researchers to be involved in advancing both the practice and research enterprise. Frequently used to examine issues in the areas of special education and applied behavior analysis, single‐case research has the potential to widely advance the field of clinical psychology. The What Works Clearinghouse of the Institute for Education Sciences has recently developed design standards and evidence criteria that can more specifically guide single‐case design research. In this chapter we review the major classes of single‐case design research (i.e.,
ABAB
, alternating treatment design, multiple baseline design) and provide specific examples of the application of this quantitative methodology. Future directions and implications are discussed.
Adolescent Development
Authors: Tang Selina , Modecki Kathryn L.
Published: January 2015

Researchers and mental health professionals have struggled to explicate how adolescents' development shapes their decision‐making capacities across different contexts. Judicial decision makers have been reluctant to accept developmental research findings, which suggest that adolescents can be considered both mature (e.g., older adolescents are capable of making informed medical choices) and immature (e.g., youth are influenced by psychosocial factors in antisocial circumstances) across contexts that do not readily align with Supreme Court leanings. For example, research shows that adolescents are likely to face risky choices in which psychosocial maturity unduly affects their decision process. Other research suggests that younger adolescents demonstrate decreased adjudicative competencies relative to older individuals. Less research has focused on adolescent decision making in medical contexts, but there is a growing body of evidence to support the idea of different decision capacities across contexts. However, further research on adolescence competencies across decision domains is sorely needed.
F
reeman,
W
alter
J
. (1895–1972)
Authors: Collins Brianne M.
Published: January 2015

Walter Jackson Freeman (1895–1972) pioneered and promoted the use of prefrontal and transorbital lobotomies in the United States. Trained as a neurologist and neuropathologist, Freeman partnered with a neurosurgeon, James Watts, to perform the first North American prefrontal lobotomy in 1936. Freeman later introduced the transorbital lobotomy in 1946. Along with proselytizing the treatment both nationally and internationally, he assisted with and conducted thousands of lobotomies over nearly four decades. Freeman advocated on behalf of lobotomies until his death in 1972. He did so despite increasing criticism, antipsychiatric sentiment, and the rise of pharmacotherapy.
H
empel,
C
arl (1905–97)
Authors: O'Donohue William , Cirlugea Olga
Published: January 2015

Carl Hempel (1905–97) was a twentieth‐century philosopher of science who was initially associated with logical positivism but went on to do important work on scientific explanation, induction, and the structure of scientific theories, particularly regarding problems of how theoretical terms relate to observational terms. Hempel claimed that there were two kinds of scientific explanations because there were two kinds of scientific laws. Deductive nomological explanations contain at least one universal law and have the form of a deductive argument with the
explanandum
in the conclusion. Inductive statistic explanations involve a probabilistic law but also take the form of a deductive argument with the
explanandum
in the conclusion.
Forensic Testing
Authors: Dawson Casey J. , Jacquin Kristine M.
Published: January 2015

Clinical psychologists with additional training and education in forensic settings may be employed by an attorney or appointed by the court to conduct a forensic evaluation utilizing various psychological tests. Forensic testing is a specific aspect of forensic psychology that provides an evidence‐based method for addressing psycholegal questions in a variety of legal domains, including criminal, civil, and family law settings. An understanding of the strengths, limits, and applications of forensic testing requires knowledge of the unique characteristics of forensic evaluations, standards of practice in the field, and a nuanced awareness of the relevant laws and ethics.