bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Toward a global ban on landmines
Authors: Parlow Anita
Published: January 2010

The use of arms, projectiles, or material calculated to cause unnecessary suffering, and more especially of poisoned weapons (chemical and biological weapons), was banned under the conceptual framework of both the 1907 Hague Convention (IV) and the 1925 Geneva Protocol. In the discussions leading to a ban on the use of chemical weapons, diplomats from around the world referred to their use as “barbaric and dishonourable” because of their effect on soldiers or the likely indiscriminate impact on civilians. It is a universal achievement that it is now impossible to conceive of a world that does not show concern for civilians caught up in war. As international attention to the protection of civilians in internal armed conflicts grows, it is accompanied by renewed debate regarding regulation of warring parties' conduct through humanitarian and human rights law.
The 125th Anniversary of the International Review of the Red Cross — A Faithful Record — III. The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement: Solidarity and unity
Authors: Meurant Jacques
Published: January 2010

Activities to protect and assist the victims of armed conflict and the development and implementation of international humanitarian law have been important topics for the Review since it first appeared. This is only natural, bearing in mind the mandate of the ICRC, of which the Review is the official publication.
Synopsis IX: Respect for the human being in the Geneva Conventions
Authors: de Preux Jean
Published: January 2010

The persons protected by the Geneva Conventions must be accorded respect in the first place because they are human beings. But they also are entitled to a certain degree of respect in their capacity as individuals, soldiers, nationals of a foreign State and, to a certain extent, as combatants.
Editorship of the Review — Jacques Meurant retires
Authors: Sommaruga Cornelio
Published: January 2010

At the end of 1995, the International Committee of the Red Cross bade farewell to Jacques Meurant, editor-in-chief of the International Review of the Red Cross since 1986. At the end of a career spanning more than thirty years in the service of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, including ten years in charge of the Review, Mr Meurant is leaving for a well-deserved retirement.
International Medical Law — New Trends
Authors: Patrnogic Jovica
Published: January 2010

If the subject covered by medical law must be stated, it is easy to say that it is the practice of medicine. This, the work of the doctor, should be defined by the jurist. The doctor in the first place is he who cures. It is an axiom that the purpose of medicine is to protect and preserve human life as far as possible. Confronted daily by the suffering and death of his neighbours, the doctor, nolens volens, finds himself as a privileged technician at the centre of a problem which it would be illusory to ignore.
Protection by Action
Authors: Hocké Jean-Pierre
Published: January 2010

The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was set up in 1951 with the main function of providing protection for refugees. This mandate corresponded to the task immediately confronting it, that of solving the refugee problem affecting Europe in the aftermath of the Second World War.
The Red Cross in the USSR and the World: History and Prospects
Authors: Venedictov Dmitry D.
Published: January 2010

Public attention is being focused worldwide on the 125th anniversary of the International Red Cross, a milestone in the evolution of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.

When celebrating an anniversary, it is customary to look back into the past for a clearer understanding and appraisal of the present, and to gain insight into the future. This is particularly important as regards the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, which is one of the most significant manifestations of humanism, symbolizing the recognition that society must uphold human dignity as the supreme universal value, and the desire to avert or relieve human suffering and safeguard human life and health.
The contribution of army medical officers to the emergence of humanitarian law
Authors: Guillermand Jean
Published: January 2010

The part played by army medical officers in the beginnings of the humanitarian movement that led to the foundation of the Red Cross 125 years ago is all too often unrecognized. Until the foundation of societies for the relief of the wounded brought their names into the limelight, their writings were hardly known outside their small professional circle, although they had taken part in international exchanges that were in themselves remarkable. Their position was made all the more difficult by their feeling bound to protest at the shortcomings of a service of which they were active members, but in whose decisions they had no voice.
Written and customary provisions relating to the conduct of hostilities and treatment of victims of armed conflicts in ancient India
Authors: Penna L. R.
Published: January 2010

Two thousand years before Grotius, Rachel, or Ayala recalled Europe to humanitarianism, ancient Indians had a body of rules for governing the relations between the States of the sub-continent in the event of armed conflicts. According to Professor A. L. Basham:

“…in no other part of the ancient world were the relations of man and man, and of man and the state, so fair and humane… No other ancient law-giver proclaimed such noble ideals of fair play in battle as did Manu. In all her history of warfare Hindu India has few tales to tell of cities put to the sword or of the massacre of non-combatants. The ghastly sadism of the Kings of Assyria, who flayed their captives alive, is completely without parallel in ancient India. There was sporadic cruelty and oppression no doubt, but in comparison with conditions in other cultures, it was mild. To us the most striking feature of ancient Indian civilization is its humanity.”
Protection of the red cross and red crescent emblems and the repression of misuse
Authors: Slim Habib
Published: January 2010

A certain State-recognized civilian hospital employed two kinds of doctors who appeared on its staff lists: full-time doctors, and part-time doctors used to reinforce its medical team during an armed conflict with a neighbouring country. Some weeks later the country was occupied by the enemy. Two part-time doctors on their way home in a private car marked with a red cross for protective purposes were stopped by a police patrol, which seized the car and confiscated the doctors' identifying armlets. This was done on the grounds that improper use was being made of the Red Cross emblem as a protective device, contrary to Articles 24, 25, 26 and 44 of the First Geneva Convention of 12 August 1949 for the amelioration of the condition of the wounded and sick in armed forces in the field, and Articles 20 and 21 of the Fourth Geneva Convention of 12 August 1949 relative to the protection of civilian persons in time of war.
Protecting the emblems in peacetime: The experiences of the British Red Cross Society
Authors: Meyer Michael A.
Published: January 2010

The special significance of the red cross and red crescent emblems as internationally agreed symbols of protection and neutrality in armed conflict will be diluted if these emblems, or signs closely resembling them, are used randomly or for diffuse purposes in time of peace. In countries like the United Kingdom which for the most part have been spared armed conflict for the past 40 years, the red cross emblem has frequently become closely identified with first aid and with general health or medical care, its primary and unique meaning during armed conflict often being forgotten or unknown. For this reason it is perhaps particularly important for National Societies in such countries to help the authorities monitor unauthorised uses or misuses of the emblems, and the role of National Societies in this respect has been recognised under the 1986 International Statutes of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (Article 3 [2] thereof). In addition, dissemination activities can help to enhance understanding of the purpose of the emblems. This short article will discuss practical aspects of the monitoring role of the British Red Cross Society.
Applying the Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross and Red Crescent: a subject for continued thought
Authors: The Review
Published: January 2010

The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross and Red Crescent are the cornerstone of the doctrine of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. The Movement's mission and its activities are built on the Principles, which are binding on all its components in all circumstances. The members of the Movement are under the obligation to spread understanding and knowledge of the Principles, the better to ensure respect for them.
Impartiality and Neutrality in Humanitarian Law and Practice
Authors: Kalshoven Frits
Published: January 2010

On 27 June 1986, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) gave judgment in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua. The case, involving Nicaragua against the United States of America, is remarkable in many respects, and so is the judgment. I should like to single out two special features: it deals with a situation of armed conflict, and it mentions the Red Cross.
Introduction—On the Fundamental Principles of the Movement and International Humanitarian Law
Authors: The Review
Published: January 2010

In its November-December 1989 issue the International Review of the Red Cross inaugurated a series of articles on the Fundamental Principles of the Movement. By inviting eminent theoreticians and active members of the National Societies and the League to give their views, and by publishing planned ICRC studies on the subject, the Review intends to contribute to the broad reflection which the Movement has been carrying out for the past three years and to the collection of treatises and case studies on various means of implementing the Principles.
The Fundamental Principles are vital to the unity of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
Authors: Hantos János
Published: January 2010

The historical importance of the principles and ideals that influence human activities can be measured by their expansion, their impact and their duration.

It is humanity's instinct for self-preservation that has made the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement what it is—a vital force that has for decades played a decisive part in enriching human values; after 125 years of life it has lost none of its attraction, its influence is widespread and its membership steadily growing. Unquestionably its influence extends throughout the world, even though its development is beset with difficulties.
Voluntary service: a pastime or a profession
Authors: Walter Ricardo Cotte W.
Published: January 2010

Today, as in a dream, I look back on my life as a volunteer, on what I have learned and what it has taught me about the world. At once I am reminded of what the Red Cross meant to me as a child and young person, and what it now means to me as an adult, after twenty years' personal and professional experience. My experience as a volunteer has led me to a post in which I am both a professional and an individual working as a volunteer (National First-aid Director of the Colombian Red Cross Society). The following thoughts arise from that experience.
International humanitarian law lies between the Islamic concept and positive international law
Authors: El-Dakkak Said
Published: January 2010

The starting point of the present study is the clash between the warrior instinct inherent in human nature and Islamic law, the realistic character of which is unanimously acknowledged.

Islam, in fact, cannot tolerate excessive displays of this instinct, which, as Professor Muhammad Taha Badawi points out, is the strongest of all the impulses to which man is inclined. Inseparably linked to all the factors inciting man to make war, and itself at times unleashing war, the warrior instinct, in any case, arouses violence and becomes a reflex action in anyone subjected to the danger of death.
The Red Cross, the Red Crescent and Communication
Authors: The Review
Published: January 2010

There is something extremely paradoxical about the modern world. Different societies have become increasingly interdependent, the solutions to the problems facing them impossible to separate, yet at the same time the diversity of those societies is very marked, whether it stems from their growing disparity in terms of development or from the desire of individuals and communities to affirm their identity. As the twentieth century draws to a close, the challenge is to lay the foundations of the true spirit of human fellowship required to reduce disparities and inequality while respecting differences and identities.
A global Red Cross and Red Crescent identity
Authors: Mercier Michèle , Reid George
Published: January 2010

In 1987 the Council of Delegates, recognizing the “solidarity of image” which exists between the various components of the Movement worldwide, invited the ICRC and the League to explore with National Societies “new and more systematic ways of promoting, whenever circumstances allow, public awareness of the Movement as a whole rather than its individual parts”.
2. Communication and community services: Malawi Red Cross Society: Communication to promote community services
Authors: Paliani Grace
Published: January 2010

The topic “Communication to promote community services” sounds simple, but it is vital because it points to the contribution that any health-oriented institution should make towards the general success of its undertakings.

On closer examination it will be seen that one basic communication task, which, however, involves a number of sub-tasks all geared towards achieving the same objectives, is the promotion of community services through publicity.
5. The Red Cross, the Red Crescent and the media: Bulgarian Red Cross: The Red Cross and the media: mutually beneficial relationship
Authors: Gospodinov Encho
Published: January 2010

Friday 5 May 1989, 9.00 a.m. Three days before Bulgaria and the whole world were to mark World Red Cross Day, the Head of the International Relations Department of the Bulgarian Red Cross, Alexander Marinov, and the journalist writing this article, were at the Radio Sofia studio where one of the most popular radio programmes, “Good Morning”, was being broadcast. We were taking part in a live broadcast in which, in the course of two hours, we would have to describe the activities of such an incredible humanitarian organization as the Red Cross. The audience was cross-examining us. The girls at the telephones could hardly manage to write down all the questions.
The International Committee of the Red Cross and humanitarian assistance: A policy analysis
Authors: Forsythe David P.
Published: January 2010

In today's armed conflicts and complex emergencies more civilians suffer than combatants. After the Cold War one could identify a zone of turmoil in which civilian suffering was acute. But one could also identify a zone of stability from which operated a complicated system of humanitarian assistance designed to respond to civilian suffering. Media coverage emphasized the suffering, but never before in world history had such a kaleidoscope of humanitarian actors tried to provide emergency relief during armed conflicts and complex emergencies. Inevitably calls were heard for better organization and coordination, and in 1991–92 the United Nations created a Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA).
New access rules open the archives of the International Committee of the Red Cross to historical research and to the general public
Authors: Pitteloud Jean-François
Published: January 2010

In July 1995 the ICRC's Executive Board asked the Archives Division and the Directorate for International Law and Policy to draw up new rules governing access to ICRC archives. On 17 January 1996 the ICRC Assembly adopted the text submitted by them and instructed the Archives Division to organize a consultation system for the institution's public archives.
Public Advocacy — Why the Red Cross and Red Crescent should look before it leaps
Authors: Meyer Michael A.
Published: January 2010

The role of public advocate on humanitarian issues appears to be a growing one for components of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. Before the specific matter of public advocacy can be addressed, however, it is important first to consider—or even, perhaps, reconsider—the statutory or constitutional position of the Red Cross and Red Crescent.
Teaching young people to respect human dignity: Contribution of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
Authors: Baeriswyl Édith
Published: January 2010

Young people are the focus of special interest in studies on the humanitarian, social and political situation throughout the world. As “victims”, their plight attracts particular attention on account of their vulnerability, which is recognized in all cultures everywhere—albeit with considerable variation in views as to the age of reaching adulthood. If they belong to “deviant” groups such as street children, criminals, children outside the school system or child soldiers, they are treated as victims, permanent outcasts or a threat, depending on where they are and what they do. Lastly, those who belong to a “controlled” group, in other words those enjoying a normal social and/or school life, are subject to demands which are all the greater given their elders' own disarray in face of the accelerated pace of change at the turn of the century, and the adults' desire to prepare the rising generation to cope with an uncertain future.
For whom do humanitarian organizations speak? A few thoughts about dissemination
Authors: Chopard Jean-Luc , Lusser Vincent
Published: January 2010

Countries at peace have a hard time understanding wars. That is why humanitarian organizations are so often asked to comment on and explain hostilities to the outside world. At a time when humanitarian operations are being carried out ever closer to the actual fighting, media coverage of the fighting—largely aimed at a far-away audience, at the West—is growing on television screens around the world. In order to stand out against the competition, to be visible to donors, to raise funds or to denounce atrocities, humanitarian organizations are increasingly joining the race for air time, and their survival may depend on how they place. Yet because they speak continually for and to the West and because they appear time and again on television, it is on the basis of this media image—which has the effect of underscoring their allegiance to the Western world—that the warring parties end up forming an opinion about these organizations' activities. The rejection being suffered ever more frequently by humanitarian organizations in the field is very likely strengthened, and sometimes even caused, by such jockeying for media exposure; for that exposure enhances the perception that they belong to an ideological camp whose political, economic and cultural interests are one of the issues at stake in today's major conflicts.
The International Institute of Humanitarian Law (San Remo) and its international military courses on the law of armed conflict
Authors: Blais Giorgio
Published: January 2010

There are few institutions in the world which are able to assemble officers from all the countries of the globe, who wear their own uniforms and live and work together for two weeks. One of these is the International Institute of Humanitarian Law in San Remo, Italy.

This non-governmental organization was set up in 1970 for the purpose of promoting the dissemination and development of international humanitarian law. The choice of the Italian seaside resort of San Remo was not accidental. It was there that Alfred Nobel spent the last years of his life, and he left all his property to the humanitarian cause. The villa he occupied until his death became the headquarters of the International Institute of Humanitarian Law.
Comments on Protocol I
Authors: Dinstein Yoram
Published: January 2010

Protocol I additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 is a product of the mid-1970s. It reflects the then-prevailingZeitgeist: the confrontational mentality of the Cold War; the defiance of the West by a suddenly assertive and temporarily united “Third World”; the tendencies on the part of an entrenched majority in international organizations and forums to show no tolerance for the dissenting voices of a large and influential minority; and the cynical sacrifice of good sense (and good law) on the altar of political expediency.
Growth of expertise as a result of treaty-making
Authors: Fleck Dieter
Published: January 2010

The 1977 Protocols additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, adopted after a complex process of preparatory work and negotiations in various fora, have not been formally applicable in many armed conflicts. Yet it would not be appropriate to say that they have not stood the test of reality. One of the most important effects of these instruments on State practice has been to generate a large number of experts on the subject in all regions of the world, sharing knowledge on the interpretation of relevant rules and facing the challenge of their implementation.
Applicability of international humanitarian law to United Nations peace-keeping forces
Authors: Palwankar Umesh
Published: January 2010

In recent years, and especially in 1992, the number of United Nations peace-keeping operations has increased at an unprecedented rate. Thirteen such operations were carried out between 1945 and 1987, whereas fourteen have been initiated since 1987. In 1992 alone, three new operations were started — in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Somalia — and 1993 brought another, in Mozambique. The number of United Nations personnel deployed in the field quadrupled during 1992 to more than 50,000 persons, with a total budget of some $2,500 million at the end of the year.
Recognition of the Red Cross Society of Western Samoa
Authors: Hay Alexandre
Published: January 2010

We have the honour to inform you that the International Committee of the Red Cross, on 30 August 1984, officially recognized the Red Cross Society of Western Samoa.

Founded in 1952 as an overseas branch of the New Zealand Red Cross Society and independent since 1 January 1983, the Western Samoa Red Cross Society officially applied for recognition by the International Committee of the Red Cross on 21 June 1984. Its request was supported by various documents, including a copy of the most recent report on its activities, the text of its Statutes and a copy of the “Memorandum of Understanding” of 3 November 1983, by which the Government of Western Samoa recognizes it as a voluntary aid society auxiliary to the public authorities.
Recognition of the Barbados Red Cross Society
Authors: Hay Alexandre
Published: January 2010

We have the honour of informing you that the International Committee of the Red Cross, on 30 August 1984, officially recognized the Barbados Red Cross Society.

Founded on 17 February 1960 as a branch of the British Red Cross, and independent since 31 July 1969, the Society applied for recognition by the International Committee on 16 June 1984. In support of its request it sent various documents, including several reports on its activities, the text of its Statutes and a copy of the “Barbados Red Cross Society Act, 1969”, wherein the Government of Barbados recognizes it as a voluntary aid society auxiliary to the public authorities.
Recognition of the Red Crescent Society of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen
Authors: Hay Alexandre
Published: January 2010

We have the honour to inform you that on 30 August 1984 the International Committee of the Red Cross officially recognized the Red Crescent Society of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen.

The new Society officially applied for recognition by the International Committee of the Red Cross on 28 May 1984. Its request was supported by various documents, including a copy of its most recent report on its activities, the text of its Statutes and an authenticated copy of the ministerial decree of 21 February 1984 certifying that the Government had recognized the Red Crescent Society as a voluntary aid society auxiliary to the public authorities and as the only Red Crescent Society of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen.
Foreword by the President of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
Authors: Kama Laïty
Published: January 2010

The decision to devote an issue of the International Review of the Red Cross to a series of articles on the two ad hoc International Criminal Tribunals set up by the United Nations to prosecute persons responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law in the former Yugoslavia and in Rwanda reflects the increasing importance of these courts both for the general public and for legal experts.
The experience of the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda
Authors: Tavernier Paul
Published: January 2010

The ancient dream of international criminal jurisdiction is gradually becoming a reality. Article 227 of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles provided that German Emperor Wilhelm II should be tried by an international court to answer charges of “flagrant offences against international morality and the sacred authority of treaties”. But since the Netherlands refused to give up the accused, the trial never took place, and Wilhelm II died in exile in Holland in 1941. Articles 228 and 229 of the Treaty providing for the prosecution of war criminals were applied in a disappointing way in the Leipzig trial. The Nuremberg and Tokyo trials after the Second World War undeniably represented progress towards the creation of a body with truly international criminal jurisdiction, but they were greatly influenced by their origins and in effect applied the law and justice of the victors rather than those of the universal community of States.
A tremendous challenge for the International Criminal Tribunals: reconciling the requirements of international humanitarian law with those of fair trial
Authors: La Rosa Anne-Marie
Published: January 2010

The two International Criminal Tribunals set up by the United Nations Security Council in 19931 and 19942 are in the process of demonstrating that international repression of serious violations of international humanitarian law is no longer a purely theoretical concept. A total of 21 persons charged with or suspected of committing such breaches have been transferred to the seat of the Arusha Tribunal, and two judgments sentencing the defendants to prison terms have been handed down by the Hague Tribunal. The two Tribunals are competent to hear cases against persons allegedly responsible for serious violations of humanitarian law, but in so doing they are also required, under their respective Statutes, to ensure that the internationally recognized rules relating to the rights of the accused are fully respected at all stages of the proceedings. Article 20 of the Statute of the Tribunal for Rwanda and Article 21 of that of the Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, modelled on Article 14 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, enumerate in detail the rights that must be accorded to every accused person.
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
Authors: Aptel Cécile
Published: January 2010

The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda was created on 8 November 1994 by the United Nations Security Council, of which it is a subsidiary body. Its task is to help restore and maintain peace and bring about national reconciliation by trying persons allegedly responsible for acts of genocide and other grave breaches of international humanitarian law committed in Rwanda and Rwandan citizens suspected of committing such acts and violations in the territory of neighbouring States between 1 January and 31 December 1994.
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: bringing the killers to book
Authors: Peter Chris Maina
Published: January 2010

In the spring of 1994 more than 500,000 people were killed in Rwanda in one of the worst cases of genocide in history. The slaughter began on 6 April 1994, only a few hours after the plane bringing the Presidents of Rwanda and Burundi back from peace negotiations in Tanzania was shot down as it approached Kigali Airport.
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Are all issues addressed? How does it compare to South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission? Nos. 316–321
Authors: Erasmus Gerhard , Fourie Nadine
Published: January 2010

The response of the international community to the massacres and genocide in Rwanda was at times “reluctant” and “inadequate”. This can partly be explained by the amount of human and material resources that would have been required to restore peace and address the more fundamental issues of the failure of the State itself. The Rwandan experience does, however, also raise serious questions about the adequacy of international and regional structures responsible for maintaining and restoring peace.
Recognition of the Kuwait Red Crescent Society
Authors: Gonard Samuel A.
Published: January 2010

We have the honour to inform you that the International Committee of the Red Cross on 6th June 1968 officially recognized the Kuwait Red Crescent Society.
Means of identification for protected medical transports
Authors: Cauderay Gérald C.
Published: January 2010

The Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 provide that medical personnel and equipment shall in general be identified by the distinctive emblem of the red cross or red crescent. The Second Geneva Convention, applicable to the victims of conflict at sea, specifies that the exterior surfaces of hospital ships and smaller craft used for medical purposes shall be white and recommends that the parties to the conflict use “the most modern methods” to facilitate identification of medical transports at sea (Art. 43). It is also recommended that medical aircraft should be clearly marked with both the distinctive emblem and their national colours on their lower, upper and lateral surfaces. They should moreover be provided with “any other markings or means of identification” agreed upon between the belligerents from the outbreak or during the course of hostilities (First Convention, Art. 36, and Second Convention, Art. 39).
The principle of superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering:From the Declaration of St. Petersburg of 1868 to Additional Protocol 1 of 1977
Authors: Meyrowitz Henri
Published: January 2010

On the 100th anniversary of the Declaration of St. Petersburg, theInternational Review of the Red Crossdevoted to this important first document of the law of war an article examining the relation between the notion of the “legitimate object” of war as defined in the Declaration and the means of warfare used, whose lawfulness was declared to be limited by their conformance to that legitimate object and by their necessity. Since 1868 the law of international armed conflicts has been supplemented by Protocol I additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, which enlarged on the central point of the Preamble to the Declaration of 1868 — i.e. the concept of “maux superflus” (“superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering”); although it was not formulated as such until 1899 in Article 23e) of the Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, it may, as we shall demonstrate, be traced back to the Declaration's Preamble. Protocol I broadened the concept's scope of application to include methods of warfare, but it also and above all introduced a new rule of considerable import by narrowing the definition of military objectives that may lawfully be attacked.
The historical foundations of humanitarian action
Authors: Guillermand Jean
Published: January 2010

In addition to the religious motivation, another equally old tradition can be said to have played a part in the emergence of the Red Cross Movement. This involved the perception, by the sole means of human intelligence, of an ideal concept of goodness separate from, and in some cases even opposed to, the consideration of a person's immediate interests.
Universal acceptance of international humanitarian law —Promotional activities of the ICRC
Authors: Gasser Hans-Peter
Published: January 2010

In its Final Declaration of 1 September 1993, the International Conference for the Protection of War Victimsinter aliaurged all States to make every effort to:

“Consider or reconsider, in order to enhance the universal character of international humanitarian law, becoming party or confirming their succession, where appropriate, to the relevant treaties concluded since the adoption of the 1949 Geneva Conventions, in particular:

—the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts of 8 June 1977 (Protocol I);

—the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts of 8 June 1977 (Protocol II);

—the 1980 Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons and its three Protocols;

—The 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict”.
The United Nations and the homecoming of displaced populations
Authors: Allen Tim
Published: January 2010

According to UNHCR figures, in 1970 there were 2.5 million refugees in the world. In 1980, the figure was 11 million. By the early 1990s, the alarming spread of civil wars was prompting an average of 10,000 people a day to flee across an international border. In 1993, the estimated number of refugees had risen to 18.2 million. In addition there were at least 24 million people who been forcibly displaced within their own countries (UNHCR, 1993:1). In 1994, the situation has deteriorated further, particularly in Africa. In the past few weeks, well over a million refugees have fled the fighting in Rwanda.
Vulnerable communities among asylum-seekers
Authors: Lopes D. A.
Published: January 2010

The Malaysian Red Crescent Society (MRCS) has provided all facilities for the care and maintenance of Vietnamese Boat People (VBP) since the first landing on 4 May 1975 of 47 VBP, on a small island off the northeast coast of the Malay Peninsula. Since then, over a continuous period of 19 years more than 250,000 VBP have landed in Malaysia and all of them except about 6,500 have either been resettled in third countries or have been repatriated to Viet Nam. The remaining 6,500 are housed in two camps, located at Sungai Besi and Cheras, each a few kilometres outside the city of Kuala Lumpur.
Communicable diseases, health systems and humanitarian aid in Africa
Authors: Degrémont Antoine
Published: January 2010

What is the present situation, what are the lessons to be learned and what strategies should be adopted in the field of communicable diseases? These are the issues now facing us, some 15 years past two milestones in the evolution of health care: the Alma Ata Declaration on primary health care and the discovery of the last case of smallpox worldwide. The present article will attempt to address these issues, on the basis of the experience of the Swiss Tropical Institute in Africa.
The Vienna Convention of 1969 on the Law of Treaties and Humanitarian Law
Authors: Daniel José
Published: January 2010

The Conference on the Law of Treaties held at Vienna in 1968 and 1969, like the other important United Nations conferences on the codification of international law (Geneva Conferences on the Law of the Sea of 1958 and 1960, Vienna Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse and Immunities of 1961 and Vienna Conference on Consular Relations of 1963), formulated and adopted a Convention on the basis of a draft which was the collective work of the International Law Commission (ILC) of the United Nations, carried out under the guidance of a Special Rapporteur.

We have thus been witnessing since 1958 the interesting process of the reduction into treaty law of a substantial part of the customary international law of peace; if this period is compared with the centuries that went before, the transformation of unwritten rules into written law which has thus taken place appears remarkably fast. This codification of public international law has of course served to clarify pre-existing rules but it has at the same time made it possible to bring these rules up to date so as to meet better the new requirements of the community of States—the society which is governed by that law and which has undergone significant changes in the last few decades.
Human Rights and Refugees (I)
Authors: Weis Paul
Published: January 2010

Wherever the United Nations Charter refers to promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms, it refers to human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion. Within a State one distinguishes normally between nationals and aliens. But among the aliens there is a particular group—the refugees—whose position in traditional customary international law is especially precarious. This is due to the fact that in classic international law nationality is considered as the link between the individual and international law. In later editions of Oppenheim's leading textbook on International Law it is called the principal link.
Why Nursing is Different
Authors: Badouaille M. L.
Published: January 2010

Before trying to show what this difference is, we must firstly locate the nursing profession among all those other professions that together work to improve health. The very fact that the nurse falls within this category of professions means that she shares a number of characteristics with those working in other fields, e.g. she is devoted to the service of others, she is concerned about the individuality of each person, she has the power to intervene in the physical, psychological or social life of the person in her care, etc. Similarly, we must ignore certain characteristics concerning the particularly low economic status of the nurse, the fact that this profession is an almost exclusively feminine domain and that it commands a rather modest social position.
Health in the 1980's
Authors: J. V.
Published: January 2010

Some months ago the Henry Dunant Institute, in co-operation with Messrs Sandoz S.A., undertook an enquiry into Health and Medicine in the 1980's in the developed countries. Following the Delphi method, it has so far given some interesting results.

From the replies of sixty-three experts in eighteen countries to two successive questionnaires, it is apparent, in the first place, that the concept of health will extend over the next two decades to cover social and mental conditions which are not at present considered health problems.
Nursing Problems - The Nurse-Patient Relationship
Authors: Raine S.
Published: January 2010

The word “relationship” has for some time now become, in the nursing profession at least, one of those terms which, due to its indiscriminate use, has lost any specific meaning and has come to be just another colourless expression endowed with whatever meaning the user may choose to give it. It may be bandied about as a weapon or as a form of justification, and the emotional content with which it is loaded simply helps to aggravate mutual misunderstanding and to stress ideological differences.
The ICRC's humanitarian policy and operational activities
Authors: The Review
Published: January 2010

The current war in the Middle East shows the extent to which the world is now beset by disruption and uncertainty. The humanitarian work of the ICRC is obviously seriously affected by this situation. Being particularly sensitive – both by its nature and because of its mandate – to the state of international affairs, the ICRC is having to cope not only with the immediate effects of an international conflict but also with the implications in humanitarian terms of internal conflicts and disturbances which continue to prevail in many regions and which equally require the constant presence of delegates from our institution.
From words to action
Authors: Sandoz Yves
Published: January 2010

Eight hundred and fifteen delegates from 160 States, 39 Ministers, 20 Deputy Ministers and 12 Secretaries of State, the United Nations Secretary-General, the High Commissioner for Refugees and the Under Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs, the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement represented by the Presidents of the ICRC and the Federation and the Chairman of the Standing Commission, and all the major governmental and non-governmental organizations active in the sphere of armed conflict the Swiss government succeeded within the space of a few months in arranging for all these to come together in Geneva for a three-day meeting to discuss the protection of war victims and adopt a substantive declaration on the issue. The International Conference for the Protection of War Victims was undeniably a success.
50th Anniversary of the ITS: International Tracing Service: 50 years of service to humanity
Authors: Biedermann Charles-Claude
Published: January 2010

Though half a century old this year, the International Tracing Service has lost none of its relevance. In its 50 years of service to humanity, it has clarified the fate and whereabouts of thousands of people, reunited separated families and helped — to the extent that such a thing is possible — to make good the wrong done to those persecuted by the Nazis.
Protection of Civilian Populations Against the Dangers of Indiscriminate Warfare
Authors: Gonard Samuel A.
Published: January 2010

We have the honour of enclosing the text of a memorandum dated May 19, 1967, addressed by the International Committee of the Red Cross to the Governments of States parties to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and to the IVth Convention of The Hague of 1907, concerning the laws and customs of war on land. This memorandum bears on the protection of civilian populations against the dangers of indiscriminate warfare and, in particular, on the implementation of Resolution XXVIII of the XXth International Conference of the Red Cross.
The Red Cross Contribution to Peace
Authors: Modoux Alain
Published: January 2010

The Red Cross was born over a hundred years ago on the field of battle. Aid to the wounded was the first mission it undertook. From the outset it thus restricted the scope of its ambition. By its desire to achieve that objective before anything else, the International Committee of the Red Cross acted with wisdom. So long as its work had not attained a certain degree of importance, so long as it was not universally recognized, the Committee decided its mission should be kept within certain limits and not get out of hand. The International Committee certainly had no desire thereby to justify war as a necessary evil. Its aim was essentially to combat war by limiting the distress it caused, for although its supreme objective was to ensure peace in the world, the Red Cross could not itself, with the forces at its command, have any illusions that it could stem the tide of war. It therefore endeavoured first and foremost to attenuate its harmful effects. As Louis Appia, one of the Red Cross founders, said, “Let us declare aloud our keen regret, our grief, at not being able to do more; let us protest against the great collective iniquity known as war, which is but one of the forms of evil in the world”.
Knowledge of the Geneva Conventions
Authors: de Preux Jean
Published: January 2010

It is foolish for anyone to seek to be wise in isolation.

In a world which is said to be given over increasingly to violence, ambition and strife—and to all that flows therefrom—we ask ourselves “What is the Red Cross?”

Should we visualize the Geneva Conventions as some verdant island-sanctuary that is preserved in the way that natural riches or cultural assets are preserved? One is put in mind of show-cases in which precious curios are displayed, with a “Do not touch” sign.
Memorandum concerning the Dissemination in Latin America of Knowledge on the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949
Authors: Naville Marcel A.
Published: January 2010

Following the conflict which broke out on 14 July 1969 between Honduras and El Salvador, the delegates of the International Committee of the Red Cross successfully intervened to arrange repatriation of prisoners of war and interned civilians detained by each of the Parties to the conflict. These operations were completed on 6 October 1969 when the last Honduran civilians detained in El Salvador were repatriated.
Before, during, and after the crisis
Authors: The Review
Published: January 2010

The importance of promoting knowledge of international humanitarian law has been recognized since its beginnings. Dissemination was made an obligation for States by the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977.
Dissemination of the humanitarian rules and cooperation with National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies for the purpose of prevention
Authors: Chopard Jean-Luc
Published: January 2010

When it was founded, the ICRC, recognizing the unpredictable and inescapable nature of war, hoped that it would be able to alleviate the most harmful effects of war by providing protection and assistance and raising awareness1 of international humanitarian law and the need to respect it. Thus all the activities undertaken by the institution are rooted in the reality of war — the degree of medical assistance and relief, for example, depends on the number of victims, while protection for prisoners is specifically given to “persons detained because of the situation”. Similarly, the ICRC's Central Tracing Agency forwards family messages when normal communication channels are severed, traces people who have gone missing because of the conflict, and reunites family members separated by the events. The only ICRC activities that are not exclusively a response to needs resulting from war are the dissemination of knowledge of humanitarian law and principles, and cooperation with the National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.
From prevention to rehabilitation — Action before, during and after the crisis — The experience of the ICRC in retrospect
Authors: Grunewald François
Published: January 2010

The international community recently realized that certain types of emergency assistance could have negative effects on the still to come development phases. In that context, a theme has been brought under the limelight: the “emergency-development continuum”, underlying the need to design the activities in time of crisis taking into account the following stages.
The 125th anniversary of the International Review of the Red Cross — A Faithful Record — II. Victories of the Law
Authors: Meurant Jacques
Published: January 2010

The first issue of the Bulletin international des Sociétés de secours aux militaires blessés (October 1969) contains an appeal by the International Committee for ratification of the Articles of 1868 additional to the 1864 Geneva Convention. It is addressed to the Central Committees of the Relief Societies, with the request that they approach their respective governments on the matter. By the same token, the Committee proposed as recommended reading the work by Gustave Moynier, Etude sur la Convention de Genève, which was described as a guide for use by army officers and doctors to give them a better understanding of the provisions of the 1864 Convention, “to refute the objections of its detractors and, by demonstrating that this instrument represents a victory for civilization, to turn them into zealous supporters”. In the second issue of the Bulletin (January 1870), the Committee asked the Central Committees to what extent States had promulgated penal or other legislation and military ordinances or regulations relating to the stipulations of the Geneva Convention or action by relief societies.
The arrival of Bourbaki's army at Les Verrières: The internment of the First French Army in Switzerland on 1 February 1871
Authors: Bugnion François
Published: January 2010

“The army is ready; not a gaiter button is lacking”, declared Marshal Leboeuf, Napoleon III's Minister of War, when the funds needed for mobilization were being voted.