bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
MAMÁ QUIERO MI CEVICHE: LA INTEGRACIÓN ALIMENTARIA DE LAS MADRES PERUANAS EN SANTIAGO DE CHILE
Authors: Castillo Lobos Lucía , Contreras Valeria Carla
Published: May 2024

INTRODUCCIÓN: Las prácticas de alimentación de las madres migrantes son influenciadas por la cultura materna, la existencia de redes de apoyo, el nivel socioeconómico, la disponibilidad de alimentos propios de su país, la relación con los sistemas sanitarios y la disposición para integrar las practicas culinarias de las sociedades de destino. OBJETIVO: Analizar la conformación de las prácticas de alimentación desplegadas por las madres peruanas que crían a sus hijos e hijas en Santiago de Chile. METODOLOGÍA: Cualitativa, exploratoria e interpretativa según los supuestos del interaccionismo simbólico. Grupo de estudio conformado por 11 madres migrantes peruanas seleccionadas por muestreo teórico intencionado cuyos relatos fueron analizados temáticamente a la luz de la teoría de Madeleine Leininger. RESULTADOS: Se ha teorizado en torno a la configuración de las prácticas de alimentación de los hijos e hijas de madres migrantes peruanas en Chile a través de las siguientes categorías, a saber; entre resistencias e integración culinaria y la valoración de la atención sanitaria en Chile. DISCUSIÓN: En las prácticas de alimentación de sus hijos e hijas, las madres migrantes peruanas entrevistadas, imbrican sus propios saberes, los provenientes de la aceptación de las prácticas chilenas de alimentación infantil y los aprehendidos desde la cotidiana negociación con un sistema de salud chileno, frente al cual manifiestan ambivalentes valoraciones de su pertinencia cultural y social. CONCLUSIONES: Desde los supuestos teóricos de Leininger, las prácticas de alimentación de los hijos e hijas de las madres entrevistadas, se conforman desde el despliegue de estrategias de resistencia materna para mantener sus acervos identitarios como expresión de su propio emic, y también, desde la integración de las prácticas culinarias chilenas, que dan cuenta de un cotidiano diálogo de saberes para erigir a la alimentación de sus hijos e hijas como un instrumento de integración social estructural, a partir del sistema educacional, productivo y de salud. Esta expresión de dialogía, se contrapone con el lugar que ocupan los saberes técnicos del sistema de salud chileno, que en la práctica adquieren la forma de un etic hegemónico y etnocentrista, pese a la declaración de un enfoque intercultural en los principios que sustentan el modelo de salud imperante en el nivel primario de atención del sistema público de salud chileno.
Comparison of Periodontal Status between Koraga Tribes and Malavettuvan Tribes in Kasargod District of Kerala: A Cross-sectional Study
Authors: Raghu Pooja , Shankar Shrinidhi M , Gururaj Soumya B , Chidambar Chethana K , Bushan Kala S , Prabhudev Chaitra M
Published: May 2024

Introduction: The lack of a healthcare system is one of the serious problems among the Koragas. The Koraga tribal community in the Kasargod district has a community health center in the area, but it lacks advanced medical and dental facilities, making it difficult for them to seek treatment in the few private hospitals in the area due to their economic backwardness. The Malavettuvan tribes are distributed only in the ghat areas of the Kasaragod District of Kerala. Their major occupation is agriculture, and they are educationally, economically, and socially backward. Aim: To compare the periodontal status of the Koraga and Malavettuvan tribes of the Kasargod district. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted among randomly selected 304 participants from both Koraga and Malavettuvan tribes aged 35-55 years. Clinical parameters such as the oral hygiene index, Community Periodontal Index (CPI), and loss of attachment were measured. A questionnaire was used to assess the oral hygiene habits, lifestyle, and other habits of the populations. Statistical analysis was carried out using the Mann-Whitney U-test. Results: The results of the present study showed a significant difference in the oral hygiene index (Median OHI of Koraga-0.40, Malavettuvan-1.20 respectively, p-value <0.001) and CPI (Median CPI of Koraga-0.60, Malavettuvan-1.50, respectively, p-value <0.001) between both groups, while there was no difference in the loss of attachment (p-value-0.991). The majority of the Koragas and Malavettuvans used toothbrush and toothpaste as cleaning aids (70.06% and 78.28%, respectively). Smokeless tobacco was prevalent among Koragas compared to Malavettuvans (36.18% and 29.60%, respectively), while cigarette smoking was more common among Malavettuvans (50.98% and 42.10% for Koragas and Malavettuvans, respectively). Conclusion: Even though the Koragas and Malavettuvans do not routinely seek dental care and have a primitive lifestyle with less formal education, a lower level of periodontal disease was observed among both groups. There is a need to promote more healthcare programs that emphasise oral health among these populations.
Evaluation of Quality of Life of Parents and Growth Parameters of their Infants with Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate before and after Primary Surgery: An Observational Study
Authors: Saha Nupur , Zahir Shabnam , Chatterjee Siddhartha , Santra Arnab , Das Mainak
Published: May 2024

Introduction: Cleft Lip (CL) and Cleft Palate (CP) are associated with several complications that have a significant negative impact on the Quality of Life (QoL) of affected children and caregivers. Compared to their healthy counterparts, children with these conditions experience feeding difficulties, cosmetic abnormalities, and, most importantly, diminished physical and cognitive growth, especially during the first year of their lives. Aim: To evaluate the growth parameters in CL and/or CP infants and the QoL of parents with a CL and/or CP child before and after primary surgery. Materials and Methods: For this observational study, data was collected longitudinally from the same set of Cleft lip and cleft palate (CL/CP)/CL&CP infants and their parents before and after the primary surgery. The study was conducted at the Department of Paediatric and Preventive Dentistry, Guru Nanak Institute of Dental Sciences and Research, West Bengal, ABMSS Kolkata Comprehensive Cleft Care Centre, West Bengal, and IMA Vaccination Centre Barasat, West Bengal, India, from December 2020 to May 2022. In this study, 66 children and 64 parents were included in each study and control group. Growth parameters {weight, length, Head Circumference (HC)} were measured using a weight analogue machine, infantometer, and HC measuring tape, and compared with those of healthy infants. The QoL of parents with CL and/or CP infants was quantified using a questionnaire form of “Revised Impact on Family Scale (RIOFS)” filled out by parents before and after six months of primary surgery and compared with the QoL of same-age healthy infants. The responses to the RIOFS questionnaire were scored according to recommended guidelines. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Statistics 23.0 was used for data analysis. Results: Among the study groups, statistically significant differences in mean height, weight, and HC were observed between the groups of all infants with CL, CP, and CL with CP before and after the primary surgery (p<0.001). The QoL of parents from the study group improved post-surgery. The difference in mean RIOFS score between study Group-3 and study Group-4 after the primary surgery was statistically significant (p<0.001). Conclusion: The growth of CL and/or CP infants and the QoL of their caregivers are compromised compared to healthy infants. After primary surgery, the growth of CL and/or CP infants and the QoL of their parents partially improved.
Heavy Metal Stress Management through Phytoremediation to Mitigate Climate Change Impacts: An Overview
Authors: Maitry Abhishek , Patil Gunjan , Dubey Preety , Ramesh .
Published: May 2024

Plant stresses are the conditions that adversely affect the growth, development, or productivity of plants/trees and can be caused by various physical, chemical, and biological factors. However, stress caused by the influence of heavy metals has a notable adverse effect on plant growth and productivity. These heavy metal contaminations are responsible for the harmful effects on biotic (plants and associated organisms) and the abiotic (soil, water, and air) environment. If not properly managed, mining activities are considered to be the prime source of heavy metal contamination in the surrounding environment. Phytoremediation may effectively remediate a wide range of heavy metal contaminants in different environments and hence offers an effective, carbon-neutral, and ecologically beneficial method for the removal of hazardous heavy metal contaminants. Phytoremediation enhances the growth and development of plants and nourishes the environment resulting in the ill effects of climate extremes in disturbed areas and hence mitigating the impacts of climate change. Phytoremediation has been widely studied for the remediation of heavy metal stress but it hasn't yet achieved commercial viability in degraded ecosystems of India where it is required the most. Through this review article, we tried to minimize this gap by reviewing some important phytoremediation studies in India which successfully reduced the negative impacts of heavy metals in different degraded ecosystems.
Rainfall-runoff Modelling Using MIKE11 NAM Model for Ravishankar Sagar Catchment, Chhattisgarh, India
Authors: Dhruw Gunja , Agrawal Narendra , Jaiswal Rahul Kumar
Published: May 2024

Estimating rainfall-runoff within a catchment is inherently intricate and crucial for water resource planning via hydrological evaluations. The study focuses on utilizing the MIKE 11 NAM model to simulate rainfall-runoff dynamics within the Ravishankar Sagar Reservoir catchment in the Chhattisgarh state. In order to ensure accurate estimation, data on stream flows from 2004 to 2015 was used for calibration, and from 2016 to 2020 was used for validation. The MIKE 11 NAM model accurately predicted daily runoff and adequately reproduced the hydrological response of the Ravishankar Sagar watershed to rainfall. The calibrated model outputs were good to employ in the water resources management model, specifically for MIKE BASIN. During calibration, the optimal values of the nine NAM model parameters were determined and subsequently employed in the simulation. The reliability of the MIKE 11 NAM model was assessed for the study area using the Coefficient of Determination (R2) and the Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency Index (EI). The sensitivity analysis helped to determine the most important model parameters. R2 values of 0.730 and 0.704 were obtained from the model's calibration and validation, respectively. With an Efficiency Index of 81%, the model demonstrated its efficiency and ability to forecast runoff for Ravishankar Sagar Reservoir over an extended period. This study helps to manage the water resource and to improve the reservoir operation policy for the reservoir.
Impact of Drip Irrigation on Crop Growth, Yield, Water Productivity, and Weed Dynamics: A Review
Authors: Banik Biswajyoti , Korav Santosh , Guin Aritra , Unjia Denil
Published: May 2024

The global water scenario indicates efficient water management practices are required to sustain agricultural productivity. The scarcity of groundwater resources is a global issue that is caused by increasing global population and climate change in the form of global warming. To alleviate the issue, the major water-consuming area implemented drip irrigation projects. It is recognized for its water-saving potential and gained prominence in crop cultivation. This study aimed to investigate the effect of drip irrigation on the growth, yield, water productivity, and weed dynamics of various crops. Results revealed that wheat under drip irrigation exhibited enhanced growth parameters, including increased plant height, leaf area index, and dry matter accumulation attributed to optimized soil moisture content. Drip irrigation significantly improved yield and yield attributes compared to traditional irrigation methods. Importantly, drip irrigation increased water productivity while reducing water use per unit of production. These findings highlight the potential of drip irrigation to reduce water shortages and increase crop output in the current global water context.
Effect of Storage Conditions on the Physicochemical and Processing Qualities of Different Potato Genotypes Grown in Eastern Uganda
Authors: S.J. Tibesigwa, , A. Kaaya, , A. Atukwase, , A. Wasukira, , L.W Kwaka, , M.L Parker,
Published: May 2024

The favourable environment in Eastern Uganda enables the growth of potato (Solanum tuberosum). However, it’s limited by lack of improved genotypes and inappropriate storage facilities. To address this, new potato genotypes including four CIP clones and four varieties from other regions were introduced by development partners. They also constructed ambient storage structures in Kapchorwa Municipality (1,800 m), Bennet (2,300 m), and Mbale City (1,200 m). This study was therefore designed to investigate the effectiveness of the ambient stores in maintaining the quality of the potato genotypes. During the study, the mean storage temperature ranged from 15.42oC in Bennet to 22.80oC in Mbale while the mean relative humidity ranged from 84.73% in Bennet to 79.58% in Mbale. The results showed significant (P< 0.05) differences due to variety. Storage duration and conditions led to a significant (P< 0.05) decline in the desired physiochemical characteristics and processing qualities of the stored potato genotypes. Potato genotype Victoria had the highest level of reducing sugars (0.08%) and least acceptable chip colour while Rwangume had the lowest reducing sugars (0.05%) and a more acceptable chip colour. In general, altitude and potato genotype influenced changes in the physicochemical and processing qualities of the potato genotypes during storage.
Integrated Nutrient Management in Muskmelon: A Comprehensive Field Study
Authors: Dekhane Swapnil , Kumar Narendra , Pisal R. R.
Published: May 2024

The present study aims to describe the effects of integrated nutrient management (INM) on Madhumita variety of muskmelon cultivation in terms of plant growth, fruit yield, and quality. The experiment has been carried out in the crop field located in the North Konkan region of Maharashtra, India. This case study involved seven different treatments (T1 to T7), each with varying nutrient application regimes. Certain observational data, such as vine length, number of leaves per plant, leaf length, days to 50% flowering, number of fruits per plant, fruit length, fruit width, fruit weight, and fruit yield, were recorded for three replications over the course of the experiment.
The results of statistical analysis revealed significant differences, with specific treatments demonstrating T6, which included Vermicompost at 5 tons/ha, 75% of the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF), and 1% NOVEL prime organic liquid nutrient, consistently outperformed the other treatments groups. The findings highlight the utility of integrated nutrient management. It helps in understanding and optimizing the application of nutrients to boost crop productivity and promote sustainability.
Effect of Educational Intervention on Pubertal Changes among Adolescent School Girls in the Rural Areas of Varanasi District, Uttar Pradesh, India
Authors: Nagar Shipra , Anshu . , Mathur Anjali
Published: May 2024

Aim: The aim is to study the understanding on pubertal changes among adolescent school girls using educational intervention.
Methodology: This is a cross-sectional study among adolescent girls aged 12-18 years in the rural areas of Varanasi district. It was conducted among 240 adolescent school girls across 5 selected villages following consent and assent in Varanasi district in Uttar Pradesh over a period of two years. A self-structured questionnaire was administered to the sample subjects. Awareness creation was done using individual information dissemination over the period of 3 months. Data was collected into excel sheet and analysis done using paired t test.
Results: Respondents showed lack of knowledge regarding meaning of menstruation, male and female reproductive organs, growth of primary and secondary sex characteristics during adolescence and external and internal changes in body during adolescence. Significant differences were seen in awareness regarding aspects of pubertal changes during adolescence among respondents due to intervention among respondents of experimental group.
Conclusion: Educational intervention through information dissemination in the schools is an effective way in improving their developmental phase.
Morphological and Cultural Characterization of Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc on Chickpea and Its Management Using Combined Fungicide Molecules
Authors: Divyashree . , Manjula C. P. , Anandakumar Jayashree , Punith G. , Anusree K. , Harish J. , R Lakshmeesha
Published: May 2024

Collar rot stands as a significant affliction of chickpea, attributed to the pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii. The current research investigated the morphological and cultural diversity among 10 isolates of S. rolfsii collected from major chickpea cultivation regions of Karnataka  by assessing their growth rate, colony color and appearance, and features of Sclerotium including color, arrangement, and maturity days of Sclerotia were recored on two different media. The isolates BSR 2, BSR 5, BRS 9 and BSR 10 exhibited notably rapid growth on both Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) and Corn meal Agar (CMA). Overall, the growth of these isolates appeared denser, indicating more substantial mycelial formation on PDA compared to CMA. These findings underscore the existence of variability among the isolates. In vitro evaluation of fungicides for the management of collar rot was evaluated using new combi fungicides. Among those Carbendazim 12% + Mancozeb 63% (0.15%), Hexaconazole 4% WP + Zineb 68%, Carboxin 37.5% + Thiram 37.5 %, Tricyclazole18 % + Mancozeb 62% WP, Captan 70% + Hexaconazole 5% WP at 0.05 per cent concentration showed cent per cent inhibition. Hence, these combi fungicides have been proven effective in suppressing the pathogen, making them valuable tools for implementing successful disease management strategies during the initial stages of crop growth.
Dijital Hak ve Sorumluluklar Ölçeği Geliştirme Çalışması
Authors: Yıldırım Sevgi , Keser Hafize
Published: May 2024

Bu çalışmanın amacı, ortaokul öğrencilerinin dijital haklarını kullanma durumları ile dijital sorumluluklarına uyma durumlarını belirlemeye yönelik bir ölçek geliştirmektir. Araştırma İç Anadolu Bölgesi’nde büyükşehir statüsünde bir ilde öğrenim görmekte olan 760 ortaokul öğrencisinin katılımı ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Veri toplama süreci 2019-2020 eğitim öğretim yılında gerçekleştirilmiştir. Verilerin analizinde SPSS programından yararlanılmıştır. Yapılan açımlayıcı faktör analizi sonucu, ölçeğin dijital haklar bölümünün 3 faktör ve 18 madde, dijital sorumluluklar bölümünün ise 4 faktör ve 19 maddeden oluştuğu belirlenmiştir. 3 ve 4 faktörden oluşan bu yapılar doğrulayıcı faktör analizi ile doğrulanmıştır. Cronbach Alpha iç tutarlılık katsayısı Dijital Haklar ölçeğinin tamamı için .88, Dijital Sorumluluklar ölçeğinin tamamı için ise .92 bulunmuştur. Dijital haklar ölçeğinin alt faktör değerleri sırasıyla; .86, .78 ve .75 olarak, Dijital Sorumluluklar ölçeğinin alt faktör değerleri ise sırasıyla; .88, .87, .74 ve .69 olarak hesaplanmıştır. Çalışma sonucunda ortaokul öğrencilerinin dijital haklarını kullanma ve dijital sorumluluklarına uyma durumlarını belirlemek üzere kullanılabilecek güvenilir ve geçerli bir ölçek geliştirilmiştir.
Dictyostelium: Cell Sorting and Patterning
Authors: Weijer Cornelis J , Williams Jeffrey G
Published: December 2009

Multicellular development of the social amoebaDictyostelium discoideumresults from the chemotactic aggregation of single cells to form a fruiting body consisting of a stalk supporting a spore mass. The interplay of two extracellular signalling molecules, cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) and the chlorinated hexaphenone DIF‐1 (differentiation‐inducing factor 1), directs cellular differentiation, and cAMP is also the chemo‐attractant that orchestrates all of morphogenesis. Although this is a relatively unusual mode of pattern formation, most of the fundamental processes that typify development in higher organism are on display, and the genetic accessibility of the organism makes it a very powerful and relevant model system. It has proven particularly valuable for understanding the basic mechanism of chemotaxis and the role that chemotaxis can play in the morphogenesis of a multicellular structure.

Key concepts:

Dictyosteliumcells aggregate by chemotaxis in response to propagating cAMP waves.

cAMP waves propagate through cAMP relay, the ability of the cells to detect a small cAMP signal, synthesis and secrete cAMP in response and thus pass the cAMP signal on to their neighbours.

Adaptation of the relay response ensures unidirectional wave propagation away from the centre.

Chemotactic cell movement involves detection of a cAMP gradient across the length of the cell, resulting in a polarization of actin–myosin cytoskeletal dynamics and movement up the gradient.

Multicellular morphogenesis, the arrangement of tissue in space and time, is controlled by the interplay of cAMP wave propagation and chemotaxis during all stages of development.

Dictyosteliumdevelopment is separated from cell division but a cell's fate can be biased by its cell cycle position when development starts.

Prespore cells are formed in response to cAMP signalling.

Differentiation of prestalk cells is induced by a small organic molecule, DIF, which is secreted by the prespore cells. This induction forms part of a feedback loop that controls the prestalk–prespore ratio.

The tip‐organizer cells are a subset of the prestalk cells that differentiation in response to a high local cAMP concentation.

Dictyosteliumpattern formation occurs by the sorting out of differentiated cell types.
Phagocytosis: Enhancement
Authors: Peiser Leanne , Gordon Siamon
Published: December 2009

Phagocytosis is the process of engulfment of particles by phagocytic cells, such as macrophages and neutrophils. The ingestion of pathogens, tissue debris or apoptotic cells by these cells may be enhanced by coating the particle with host molecules called opsonins, which allow the recognition and subsequent ingestion of the particles by phagocytic receptors. There are numerous opsonins, including complement‐derived proteins such as iC3b and immunoglobulin G, which are recognized by specialized receptors including complement receptor type 3 and FcγR. The failure of efficient uptake of particles and apoptotic cell debris can have deleterious effects on the host such as leading to the spread of infection and the generation of autoimmune conditions, such as systemic lupus erythematosus.

Key concepts:

Efficient removal of particulate matter by phagocytic cells requires direct recognition of the particle by the cell along with indirect binding via host‐derived molecules known as opsonins.

Enhanced phagocytic uptake of pathogens and dying cells is mediated by a number of overlapping opsonins and phagocytic receptors.

Ingested particles are recognized by a number of different receptors which may cooperate with each other to modulate their function/activity.

Though multiple receptors can mediate phagocytosis, there are subtle differences in their signalling and cell biology that can result in different cellular outcomes downstream of uptake.

Defects in the removal of both pathogens and apoptotic cells can lead to increased susceptibility to infection and autoimmune diseases.
Entrez and Forward Database Searching
Authors: Lewitter Fran
Published: December 2009

Entrez is a text‐based search system that provides integrated access to multiple databases of interest to the molecular biology community. It was developed by and is available through a website (
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery
) at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). This tool provides the ability to query one or multiple databases. The interface also allows both simple and advanced searching. For example, one can enter one or a few terms in a search box to initiate a simple search, or, one can limit search terms to particular fields or use a controlled vocabulary. In addition, results include links to related entries and other relevant information that match the search criteria. The output can be saved to a local computer for further processing. There are also advanced tools – web‐based or programming tools – some discussed later.

Key concepts:

Entrez provides access to many different biologically oriented databases.

To restrict your search use features of Limits or Preview/Index.

Use ‘Batch Entrez’ to download lists of identifiers.

There are specific search options available for each database.

Help text specific to each database is available on its homepage.

Register for a My NCBI account so that you can define and store preferences and save search results.

There are several ways to download data retrieved from an Entrez search to a local computer.

The History feature is helpful to combine previous searches.
History of Molecular Biology
Authors: Morange Michel
Published: December 2009

Despite the huge place molecular biology has acquired in biological research, it remains difficult to provide a definition of it. Is molecular biology a scientific discipline, or a new vision of organisms? When did it emerge? Is molecular biology still alive, or has this discipline died, and been replaced by new disciplines such as systems and synthetic biology? Were molecular biologists too reductionist?

Three successive steps can be distinguished in the history of molecular biology: the 1930s, with the development of new technologies aimed at describing the structure of macromolecules, and an effort to ‘naturalize life’; a relatively short period (1940–1965) in which the main results were obtained; and the huge accumulation of molecular data that has modified biology since this time. Despite the fact that molecular explanations have in part reached their limits, I consider that molecular biology has succeeded in ‘naturalizing life’.

Key concepts:

Reductionism, to naturalize a phenomenon, systems biology, synthetic biology, mechanistic explanations, relations between molecular and evolutionary biology.
History of Comparative Anatomy
Authors: Cosans Christopher E , Frampton Michael
Published: December 2009

Comparative anatomy was first developed by Greek natural philosophers and physicians. It has had a rich interplay with Western culture since that time until the present. Our understanding of how the anatomy of plants and animals varies reflects the view we have of nature and the world. Comparative anatomy can be traced back to the ancient Greeks who made scattered anatomical observations. Aristotle, the student of Plato, made the first systematic dissections. Researchers made more detailed anatomical observations throughout antiquity, while thinkers of the Middle Ages incorporated anatomical ideas within a deeply religious culture. The Renaissance began around 1400 as an interest in early texts, including those on comparative anatomy, increased. The knowledge from ancient texts, fed by the advent of printing, led to the Scientific Revolution. Since the turn of the nineteenth century, much discussion of comparative anatomy has focused on the theory of evolution.

Key Concepts

Animal: A major kind of life form that has been distinguished from plants by virtue of possessing a sensorimotor system that gives it an ability to move around.

Antiquity: In classical western European history, the time period from about 800bctoad450 when the oldest approaches to thought emerged and the oldest texts, mostly in Greek and Latin, were written.

Classification: The procedure of comparing different living things and assigning them to abstract groups such as species and genera according to specific anatomical or behavioural criteria.

Dissection: The procedure of intentionally cutting open a dead plant or animal in order to discern how its parts are interconnected and organized.

Evolution: The process by which one species changes into other species during long periods of time.

History: The process by which the ideas, beliefs, language, cultural practices and institutions of a people change over time, often in response to events, social interactions and technological inventions.

Middle Ages: The historical period from aboutad450 to 1400 which saw the rise and dominance of Christian religion and culture within the boundaries of the classical Roman Empire.

Nature: Those aspects of the world and the cosmos that exist independent of human institutions and technological contrivances, including such things as the developmental processes of plants and animal and the way bodies are.

Renaissance: The historical period in Western civilization that succeeds the Middle Ages and precedes the Scientific Revolution of the seventeenth century, in which there is an intense desire to retrieve ancient Greco‐Roman knowledge and learning, which was accelerated by printing, the publication of books and the influx of Greek scholars after Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Empire inad

Scientific change: The process by which scientific accounts are modified as investigators consider new texts, ideas, observations and experimental methods.
Medical Genetics in Britain: Laying the Foundation (1940s–1960s)
Authors: Zallen Doris T
Published: December 2009

Medical genetics refers to the use of genetic information in the healthcare setting. This includes research efforts to understand the genetic basis of human illness. It also includes clinical services that use genetic knowledge to provide an assessment of risk for the occurrence of gene‐based disorders, determine an individual's actual genetic status, select treatments and develop programmes of disease prevention. In Britain, medical genetics as an area of specialty arose out of the activities begun in three separate settings during the period from mid‐1940s through the 1960s: the Clinical Genetics Research Unit at the Institute of Child Health in London, the Paediatric Research Unit at Guy's Hospital in London and the Nuffield Unit of Medical Genetics at the University of Liverpool Medical School. The research and clinical commitments of these separate units and the strong links connecting them provided the foundation on which present‐day medical genetics is built.

Key concepts:

Medical genetics, as an area of speciality, emerged late in the twentieth century in Britain largely through the efforts of physicians who, for the most part, had no formal training in genetics but who recognized its importance.

Activities undertaken at three separate medical units, each emphasizing different aspects of genetics (pedigree analysis, cytogenetics and genetic variation associated with common disorders), formed the foundation on which medical genetics, as an entity, developed.

Medical genetics was able to grow and establish itself more widely because of the many different types of close interactions among the members of the three founding groups and the support received from existing medical institutions.
Genetic Counselling
Authors: Walker Ann P
Published: December 2009

Genetic counselling has evolved and matured along with the science of medical genetics. Understanding the genetic basis of thousands of diseases and our growing ability to diagnose many of them – not just in the clinic but also prenatally and even at the time of conception – has made genetic counselling increasingly complex. Graduate degree programmes in genetic counselling were developed in response to the fact that such counselling requires knowledge of medical genetics, specific counselling skills and awareness of the psychosocial and ethical dimensions of hereditary disease. Such training now exists in 17 countries. Genetic counselling entails analysing family medical histories to assess the chance of inherited disease; explaining, coordinating and interpreting genetic tests; providing information about the condition's features, treatment and inheritance; helping people make decisions about reproductive and treatment options and guiding and supporting them as they deal with the impact of the condition or risk on their life.

Key concepts:

Genetic counselling is the process of helping people understand and adapt to the medical, psychosocial and familial aspects of hereditary disease.

Genetic counsellors interpret family medical histories and use this and other information to assess the chance of a hereditary disease occurring or recurring.

Genetic counsellors educate clients, medical professionals and the public about inheritance, testing, management and prevention of genetic disease.

Modern genetic counselling is nondirective and seeks to help individuals and families in making personal health and reproductive decisions that are consonant with their goals and ethical beliefs.

Genetic counsellors are allied health professionals who have graduate education in medical genetics and the psychosocial and ethical aspects of genetic disease, as well as specialized training in counselling.

There are now genetic counselling training programmes in 17 countries across 4 continents.

Genetic counsellors work not only in a variety of clinical settings, but also in public health and policy; diagnostic laboratories; research; biotech, pharmaceutical and Internet companies and advocacy and other not‐for‐profit genetics groups.
Genetic Futures and the Media
Authors: Jensen Eric
Published: December 2009

Today, public debate over genetic futures takes place within a new societal context. There is a greater emphasis from policymakers on promoting engagement between sciences and publics, and mass media play a key role in this shifting relationship. Media representations of genetic futures are often subject to both positive and negative hype. This tendency towards ‘genohype’ results from the economic imperative of journalistic and entertainment media production. Moreover, symbolic representations from science fiction continue to influence mainstream news coverage of genetics, present and future. The ways in which media representations of genetic futures influence audiences are only partially known; however, it is clear that there is a complex negotiation between existing attitudes, knowledge and values and the messages communicated about genetic futures by both factual and fictional media.

Key Concepts:

Media coverage of genetic futures takes place within a new context for sciences–society relations.

The conventional ‘fact/fiction’ division cannot be consistently upheld in media representations of genetic futures, given the considerable traffic of symbols and ideas across this divide.

The production of media representations of genetic futures relies on information subsidies including press releases, news conferences and other methods of communicating institutionally preferred public relations information directly to the media.

Media can raise the salience of particular issues or aspects of the implications of genetic research, but they cannot consistently or straightforwardly change the opinions that publics hold.
History of Scientific Agriculture: Animals
Authors: Paul Thompson R
Published: December 2009

Domestication of farm animals begins 10 000 years ago. From a wide array of wild animals, only a small number were and, for specifiable reasons, could be domesticated. Trait selection and breeding has been the principal mechanism of animal improvement until the late twentieth century. An understanding of the genetic mechanisms and environmental factors in that process was a twentieth‐century triumph, which enhanced dramatically agricultural animal science. Drawing on physiological, behaviour, genetic, evolutionary and ecological knowledge, sophisticated mathematical models and high speed computing were employed to enhance significantly selection and breeding efforts. Late twentieth‐century agricultural biology began to employ techniques of molecular genetic manipulation (transgenic animals), initially using farm animals as bioreactors. Improvements in cloning, pro‐nuclear injection and use of stem cells can be expected to dominate research and development in twenty‐first‐century animal agriculture.

Key Concepts

The early evolution of animal domestication.

Human and agricultural animal coevolution.

Mechanisms of speciation.

Quantitative genetics aspect of farm animal improvement.

Critical variables in trait farm animal trait selection.

Importance of multiple trait selection.

Animals as pharmaceutical and materials bioreactors.

Challenges and promises of cloning, pro‐nuclear injection and stem cell use in animal agriculture.
Density Dependence and Independence
Authors: Hixon Mark A , Johnson Darren W
Published: December 2009

Density dependence occurs when the population growth rate, or constituent gain rates (e.g. birth and immigration) or loss rates (death and emigration), vary causally with population size or density (
N
). When these parameters do not vary with
N
, they are density‐independent. Direct density dependence, where the population growth rate or gain rates vary as a negative function of
N
, or the loss rates vary as a positive function of
N
, is necessary but not always sufficient for population regulation. The opposite patterns, inverse density dependence or the Allee effect, may push endangered populations towards extinction. Direct density dependence is caused by competition, and at times, predation. It is detected observationally by analysis of abundance time‐series; however, experimental field manipulations provide the most rigorous analytical methods for both detecting and understanding underlying mechanisms. Future directions include expanded and more detailed mechanistic field data integrated with more sophisticated population models.

Key concepts:

Direct density dependence occurs when the population growth rate varies as a causative inverse function of population size or density.

Inverse density dependence – the Allee effect – may occur in a small population, driving it extinct.

Direct density dependence is necessary but not always sufficient for a population to be regulated and may occur simultaneously with density independence.

The ecological mechanisms of density dependence are competition, and in some circumstances, predation (including parasitism and disease).

Density dependence is most commonly tested by examining the relationship between the population growth rate (or individual demographic rates) and population density, either observationally or experimentally.

Understanding density dependence and regulation within the context of a metapopulation – a population of local populations linked by occasional dispersal – faces major empirical challenges.

Recommended future research on density dependence includes detailed, mechanistic field observations and experiments, as well as modelling of complex dynamics in complex systems, such as metapopulations.
Cornification of the Skin:
A
Non‐apoptotic Cell Death Mechanism
Authors: Candi E , Knight RA , Melino G
Published: December 2009

The most important function of the epidermis is to form a barrier against the environment by means of several layers of terminally differentiated, dead keratinocytes, the cornified envelope (CE). CEs consist of keratins enclosed within an insoluble amalgam of proteins and lipids. Transglutaminase enzymes catalyse the formation of characteristic crosslinks between structural proteins to form the protein part of the CE. Another form of cell death, that is, apoptosis, which has a completely different molecular mechanism and physiological significance, also occurs in the skin. Defects of apoptosis are related to the development of cancer, whereas CE abnormalities are associated with barrier abnormalities and ichthyosis.

Key concepts:

Keratinocyte apoptosis (occurring in basal layer) is an active and rapid, energy‐dependent, gene‐directed biochemical pathway of defensive cell death that does not require de novo protein synthesis and preserves plasma membrane.

Cornification, the keratinocyte differentiation programme (occurring in upper layer), is a slow, coordinated process in space and time, which allows the formation of a layer of dead cells (corneocytes) to create a physical barrier for the skin.

The stratum corneum is composed of tightly attached corneocytes with mostly keratin intermediate filaments (KIFs) embedded into a filaggrin matrix.

The structural proteins of the CE, including involucrin, loricrin, trichohyalin and the class of
small proline‐rich proteins
(SPRs), constitute about 7–10% of the mass of the epidermis. These structural proteins together with lipids (ceramides) form the complete barrier.

Transglutaminase are Ca
2+
‐dependent enzymes that catalyse the formation of
N
ε
‐(γ‐glutamyl)lysine bonds between CE structural proteins to confer the characteristic resistance and insolubility to the skin.

The junctions responsible for intercellular adhesion and for cohesion of the stratum corneum of the epidermis are of two types: (1) the adherence junctions (connecting the actin cytoskeleton of neighbouring cells) and (2) desmosomes (connecting the keratin filament cytoskeleton of adjacent cells).

Proteases are involved in at least three processes in skin differentiation. First, certain cornified envelope precursors require proteolytic processing before cornified envelope formation occurs. Second, the loss of nuclei and mitochondria requires proteolytic processing. Third, desquamation requires proteolysis of the corneodesmosomes.
Positive Selection and Alternative Splicing in Humans
Authors: Gelfand Mikhail S , Ramensky Vasily E
Published: December 2009

Alternative splicing is an important mechanism of generating protein diversity and accelerated genome evolution. The mode of the selection acting in constitutive, major alternative and minor alternative regions of human genes is different. Whereas constitutive and major alternative regions tend to evolve under negative (stabilizing) selection, alternatively spliced exons from minor isoforms experience lower selective pressure at the amino acid level accompanied by weak selection against synonymous sequence variation. The McDonald–Kreitman test uses the nucleotide variation for a gene or a set of genes between and within species to detect the positive Darwinian selection in the presence of negative selection. The results of the test suggest that alternatively spliced exons are also subject to positive selection, with up to 27% of amino acids fixed by positive selection.

Key concepts

Alternative splicing is an important mechanism of generating protein diversity and accelerated genome evolution.

Alternatively spliced regions are often evolutionarily young.

There is a difference in the selection mode in constitutive, major alternative, and minor alternative regions of human genes.

Constitutive and major alternative regions evolve under negative (stabilizing) selection.

Up to 27% of positions in minor alternative regions may be experiencing positive selection.
Mutation Rate of Non‐
Cp
G
DNA
Authors: Furano Anthony V , Walser Jean‐Claude
Published: December 2009

Base substitutions (mutations) change the informational content of
deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA). Therefore, understanding the determinants of the base mutation rate is a fundamental problem in biology. Biochemically, mutations are a function of the fidelity of DNA replication, damage and repair. Each can be affected by nucleotide composition and context. However, various downstream factors determine the ultimate survival of these mutations in a population, including natural selection and chance (genetic drift). The result in mammals is two dramatically different mutation rates. The C of most CpG dinucleotides mutates approximately 10‐ to 50‐fold faster than Cs in other contexts or any other nucleotide (i.e. in non‐CpG sites). But, the non‐CpG mutation rate also varies between different genomic regions. Here we address the difference between CpG and non‐CpG mutation rates and the factors that are correlated with the variance in non‐CpG rates. A predominant one is CpG content.

Key concepts:

Evolutionary processes determine the extent to which the base substitutions (mutations), which result from biochemical errors inherent in the processes that replicate and maintain the integrity of the genome, contribute to the mutation rate experienced by a population.

These biochemical mutations are a function of the fidelity of DNA replication, the efficiency with which replication errors and DNA damage are repaired and whether DNA repair processes themselves produce errors in undamaged DNA.
Evolution of Nuclear Receptor Pseudogenes
Authors: Fairbanks Daniel J
Published: December 2009

Nuclear receptors (NRs) are transcription factors with
deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA)‐binding and ligand‐receptor domains. When activated by ligands, they bind to the regulatory regions of target genes to regulate transcription. NR genes comprise relatively large gene families derived from a single metazoan parent gene through evolutionary duplication and divergence, which often produces duplication (unprocessed) pseudogenes. However, no NR duplication pseudogenes have been found in genomes examined to date. A small number of NR retropseudogenes (processed pseudogenes), and a single unitary pseudogene have been identified in the annotated human, chimpanzee, mouse and rat genomes. The unitary pseudogene (

ψ
FXR
β

) is exclusive to catarrhines and arose via mutational inactivation of the

FXR
β

gene, which is an active gene in murids. The human‐specific

ψ
ERR
α+

pseudogene arose through duplication of a DNA segment containing the

ψ
ERR
α

–retropseudogene and is an example of a duplication retropseudogene. The murid

ψ
Rev‐erb
β

and

ψ
LRH1

pseudogenes are examples semiprocessed retropseudogenes.

Key concepts

There are relatively few nuclear receptor pseudogenes in vertebrate genomes.

Identified nuclear receptor genes consist of retropseudogenes and a single unitary pseudogene.
P53 and Cell Death
Authors: Wolyniec Kamil , Haupt Sue , Haupt Ygal
Published: December 2009

The p53 transcription factor emerges not only as the most important tumour suppressor, but also as an intriguing scientific puzzle characterized by immense functional complexity. P53‐mediated apoptosis is a well‐established tumour suppression mechanism forming a critical barrier to tumourigenesis. Intense research into the mechanism of p53‐induced apoptosis revealed an involvement of p53 in the extrinsic and intrinsic cell death pathways, reactive oxygen species signalling and antisurvival responses. Notably, p53 exerts its effects by various direct and indirect mechanisms engaging transcriptional activation or repression of target genes as well as transcriptional independent modes of action. Importantly, more than 20 years of intense research has paved the way for a rational design of selective anticancer therapies aimed at restoration of p53 functionality in cancer cells.

Key concepts:

Apoptosis (programmed cell death) is a fundamental cellular process during development, maintenance of tissue homeostasis, and in cellular response to stress.

P53 function is compromised in most cancer cases either by direct mutations (50%) or by indirect mechanisms

P53 is a transcriptional factor that binds to specific target DNA sequences to either transcriptionally activate or repress genes.

P53 activates multiple apoptotic signalling pathways (extrinsic and intrinsic) thereby promoting an efficient apoptotic response.

The majority of pro‐apoptotic activities of p53 are mediated through the induction of specific apoptotic target genes, e.g.Bax,PumaandNoxa.

P53 also contributes in the mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization due to its relocalization to mitochondra and interaction with Bcl‐2‐family members.

Harnessing p53 for cancer therapy is a promising strategy to combat cancer by reactivating pro‐apoptotic function in neoplastic cells.