bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Non-Market Valuation: Experimental Methods
Authors: Alfnes Frode , Rickertsen Kyrre
Published: February 2013

This article describes and compares the different incentive-compatible valuation mechanisms used to evaluate food attributes. It then discusses the relationships between laboratory and field experiments. Valuation mechanisms can be implemented in different ways. It examines the effects of differences in the implementation and suggests procedural refinements of the valuation mechanisms. It assesses the validity of laboratory results outside the laboratory. Some empirical results that illustrate the usefulness of experimental markets are briefly discussed. The mechanisms discussed provide incentives for the participants to make bids that are consistent with their willingness to pay. However, several anomalies have been reported in laboratory experiments. This article briefly discusses some of these results and provides some plausible explanations for this lack of internal validity. It concludes with suggestions for a “best practice” implementation of valuation experiments in food economics and marketing.
Food Security Policy in Developing Countries
Authors: Abdulai Awudu , Kuhlgatz Christian
Published: February 2013

This article reviews the concept of food security and the various approaches developing countries have used to promote food security in their countries. The discussion therefore involves both direct and indirect policy interventions that are used to ensure food security in developing countries. It presents a simple microeconomic model of food security that explains individuals' demand for food ingredients as well as the different channels through which they become food-insecure. It examines the food security policies of developing countries as they relate to the theoretical model. It discusses food market intervention policies and focuses on the indirect food security measures normally employed to attain a sustainable social and economic environment over the long term. This article shows the efforts several policy analysts have put into research to examine policy options and their impacts on food security.
Policy Evaluation and Benefit-Cost Analysis
Authors: Cash Sean B.
Published: February 2013

Benefit-cost analysis (BCA) is an attempt to evaluate the wisdom of a proposal through quantified reasoning. This article explains the measurement tools available to the analyst for estimation of welfare effects of food policies. It gives a detailed description of the conceptual framework behind these measurements. The methods and practice of economic analysis of food safety policies are nicely described in and many of the legal, policy, and economic aspects of ensuring a safe food supply are discussed. The article summarizes briefly the underlying conceptual framework of BCA, and then discusses the regulatory practice of policy evaluation of food consumption policies. It briefly highlights two recent examples of BCAs conducted for US food policies and illustrates the potential for other food education interventions.
Geographically Differentiated Products
Authors: Herrmann Roland , Teuber Ramona
Published: February 2013

This article summarizes and surveys the economics of geographically differentiated products. It presents the rationale for regulation and the economic implications of regulation on geographical indications (GI) are elaborated by the use of various theoretical approaches. The article defines the concepts of geographically differentiated products and geographical indications and outlines briefly the different legal regulations in force. Thereafter, the economic rationale for establishing and protecting GIs as well as the different paradigms prevailing in the European Union and the United States are presented. Moreover, this article analyzes economic impacts of protecting and promoting GIs. It reviews and synthesizes the available empirical evidence on consumers' willingness to pay (WTP) for origin labels and the economic rationale of GIs. The analyses comprises a large number of different approaches and case studies reflecting the array of research questions arising out of geographically differentiated products.
Language Policy in the United States
Authors: Tiersma Peter M.
Published: February 2013

The United States is often called a nation of immigrants. The earliest migrants were the Native Americans or Indians. Starting in the early 1600s, European immigrants began to arrive on the east coast, mostly from England and other parts of northern Europe. Spaniards explored and colonized the southwest of what is now the United States, and somewhat later, Russian traders were active in Alaska and the Pacific coast. Today, English is heavily dominant in almost all of the United States, but it was not always so. Even now, there are substantial linguistic minorities throughout the country. This article, which examines language policy in the United States, provides a background on Native American languages, European languages in early America, and immigration in America during World War I. It also looks at the movement to make English the official language of the United States, focusing on Arizona's law and resulting litigation and the Kritz case in Alaska. The article concludes by considering governmental services to non-English speakers in the areas of medical care and social services, elections, and education.
Legal Rights of Linguistic Minorities in the European Union
Authors: Gorter Durk , Cenoz Jasone
Published: February 2013

Many linguistic minorities in Europe are vulnerable or severely endangered and in need of protection. Although there are still many weaknesses, there is a trend in Europe towards the improvement of minority rights. Inside the European Union (EU), Spain and the United Kingdom have taken the lead in devolving central power to minority-dominated regions. The Treaty of Lisbon, adopted in 2009, introduced for the first time the word ‘minorities’ in EU-primary law. Although its impact remains to be seen, it has the potential to improve the protection of European minority languages. This article focuses on the legal rights of linguistic minorities in the EU. It looks at some major international human rights instruments, such as the European Convention on Human Rights (1950) of the Council of Europe (COE) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) of the United Nations. The article then examines EU language policy and linguistic rights, and concludes with an outlook for the future.
The Language of Crime
Authors: Tiersma Peter M. , Solan Lawrence M.
Published: February 2013

Most crimes require the defendant to have committed a certain type of wrongful act (often referred to as the actus reus) while having a particular mental state (mens rea). Many wrongful acts involve physical violence, such as assault and battery, rape, or homicide. It is not unusual, however, for wrongful acts to be committed by speech or writing. Language crimes are all about illegal speech acts. As the name suggests, speech acts involve using language to perform certain types of actions. This article examines wrongful acts committed by speech, focusing on a number of crimes that are perpetrated primarily by means of language. Some speech acts are performatives. Just saying it is to do it. Speech acts, including illegal ones, can also be accomplished indirectly. The article considers the crime of solicitation and cites some examples, along with conspiracy, bribery, threatening, and perjury.
Discourse in the us Courtroom
Authors: Stygall Gail
Published: February 2013

Sometimes ordinary people just do not understand the meaning of the language that they hear in courtrooms. This is problematic because courts are places of great power: a person's liberty can be restricted, or their life taken or property lost. Legal discourse is largely based on written texts that are invisible to laypeople in contact with the legal community. In a trial, however, a layperson's discourse becomes prominent. For the attorneys, the structure of the prototypical legal event – the trial – is second nature. Yet trials' language and procedures are opaque to ordinary people. Because the language itself can be difficult, the operation of power can be masked. The need for laypeople to understand the language in trials is a part of the legitimacy of law in the United States. This article reviews research focused on US courtrooms and how discourse operates in that particular setting. It examines trial chronology: pleas and pleadings; jury selection or voir dire; opening statement; questioning and narrative in the evidence portion; and closing arguments.
Using Linguistics in Trademark Cases
Authors: Shuy Roger W.
Published: February 2013

Lawyers' training, concepts, and content cause them to think about and deal with categories such as trademarks, product liability, contracts, wills, copyrights, defamation, bribery, murder, and other types of cases that they learnt in law school. It is safe to say that they are not dealing with or even thinking about the linguistic categories of syntax, phonology, semantics, speech acts, discourse analysis, or dialects in the same way linguists think about and use them. One of the current useful applications of linguistics to law is in trademark disputes, where the legal issues offer a good fit for linguistic tools. The ongoing efforts of The International Trademark Association show hopeful signs that lawyers are making steady progress towards standardizing trademark law and procedures throughout the world, making this a fruitful area for international applications of linguistics. This article examines lawyers' perspectives on trademarks and discusses different trademark categories such as generic marks, descriptive marks, and suggestive marks. It also discusses the use of phonetics, grammar, semantics, and graphemics to resolve trademark disputes.
Detecting Plagiarism
Authors: Woolls David
Published: February 2013

Plagiarism refers to the act of copying from a written or published source, fully or partially, without attribution to that source. The need to avoid it is written into the regulations for the presentation of academic work at all universities, as well as at many colleges and schools. Subject to doctrines such as fair use, nobody can copy all or part of the work that is so protected without first obtaining permission to do so from the copyright holder. This does not necessarily have to be paid for, but it must be obtained. Detection is an investigation of a set of texts for the presence of apparent plagiarism. Automated detection provides the material for the assembly of a case. To locate any sequence when comparing documents, all systems need some sort of indexing methodology. This article, which discusses plagiarism and how it is detected, focuses on the use of computers in automated and electronic detection, and also considers digital fingerprints and matching with words, along with practical detection.
Comparative Constitutional Law: A Contested Domain
Authors: Bogdandy Armin von
Published: February 2013

This article presents an analysis of comparative constitutional law. This study compares some elements of the development of constitutional scholarship in Europe. The emerging European constitutional scholarship as a form of comparative constitutional law scholarship cannot be understood without looking at the traditions of scholarship at the level of national constitutional law. In the continent, the decisive form of scholarship can be described as one of doctrinal constructivism. Doctrinal constructivism represents a singular combination of theory and practice, and stresses the practical importance of constitutional scholarship in many European countries.
B. Comparative Constitutional Analysis in United States Adjudication and Scholarship
Authors: Rosenfeld Michel
Published: February 2013

This article presents an analysis of comparative constitutional law. This study deals with United States adjudication and scholarship. It discusses the current American controversy over citations to foreign legal authorities in US constitutional adjudications. It assesses the implications of the use and study of comparative constitutionalism in the context of current American conceptions of constitutional adjudication and scholarship.
Constitutions and the Public/Private Divide
Authors: Michelman Frank I.
Published: February 2013

This article begins with a broad-brush survey of the doctrinal play of public/private in constitutional law. It then turns to the question of a public/private ‘ghost’ presiding from behind the scenes over all the public/private coding we meet on stage — shaping it, guiding it, imbuing it with point and purpose: some master spirit, then, whose sundry outcroppings in institutional design and doctrinal construction could be expected both to vary and to converge in interestingly describable and classifiable ways across instances of the legal forms and practices labelled as ‘constitutional’.
Secession and Self-Determination
Authors: Mancini Susanna
Published: February 2013

This article adopts a comprehensive approach to secession, one that encompasses both its revolutionary and its institutionally conservative dimension. Secession can be viewed as one among other means of political separation within a multinational state, a ‘possibility’ inscribed within a state's political and constitutional discourse, without necessarily connoting the establishment of a new state. In this light, the analysis of secession logically fits within the broader discussion relating to minority rights and citizenship in multinational societies. The article is organized as follows. Section II briefly outlines the principal theories that justify secession. Section III analyzes the evolution of secession in international law and in international practice, as a corollary of the right of all peoples to self-determination. Finally, Section IV turns to the relationship between secession and constitutionalism and asks whether the constitutionalization of the right to secede can, in particular context, be regarded as a constructive response to secessionist challenges and what its implications are for constitutional law.
Internal Ordering in the Unitary State
Authors: Bartole Sergio
Published: February 2013

This article begins by considering the different meanings of the word ‘state’. It then discusses the unitary state and the nation; the organization of the state's territory; the organization of the central executive branches of the state, the droit administratif and the advent of the Sozialer Rechtstaat; and the hierarchical structure of the executive.
Ensuring Constitutional Efficacy
Authors: Kokott Juliane , Kaspar Martin
Published: February 2013

This article shows several key instruments on how to ensure that a constitution's rights and rules are being respected and guaranteed effectively. It discusses constitutional courts versus parliamentary sovereignty; non-judicial methods and constitutional efficacy; and judicial review and constitutional efficacy. In guaranteeing the effectiveness of a constitution, important constitutional principles, such as the supremacy of parliament, may sometimes have to be limited. Furthermore, the effective application of constitutional norms can (or maybe even needs to) reduce the efficiency of political systems, especially in federal or supranational systems. All in all, there can be no general conclusion on which instruments are better suited to guard the constitution's efficacy. The result varies from country to country depending on many factors, such as political culture, the constitution's length and precision, or even contradictory rights and principles within a constitution, to name but a few.
Judicial Independence as a Constitutional Virtue
Authors: Macdonald Roderick A. , Kong Hoi L.
Published: February 2013

This article presents a comparative approach to judicial independence grounded in three interrelated claims: that judicial independence is a particular kind of normative concept that is best understood through a particular normative theory; that this concept is made effective through institutional design choices; and that the socio-political features of specific contexts will dictate which design choices are normatively appropriate or politically possible. The article is organized as follows. Section II elaborate upon the first of these claims, arguing that judicial independence is both an essentially contested concept and a solution concept. Section III develops the second and third of these central claims. It presents frameworks for analyzing the design choices that polities make when implementing and sustaining institutions and procedures that are meant to support judicial independence.
Freedom of Expression
Authors: Barendt Eric
Published: February 2013

This article begins with a discussion of the constitutional significance of free expression. It then discusses constitutional freedom of expression clauses; interpreting freedom of expression clauses; balancing freedom of expression and other interests; and freedom of expression and the media.
Equality
Authors: Baer Susanne
Published: February 2013

This article first discusses key equality guarantees in law today. It then focuses on different understandings of the right to equality: as either a principle or an individually enforceable claim (the status); as an ‘empty idea’, a rationality test, or a ‘substantive’ right (the content); as a right of individuals or for groups (who bears the right?). It next examines equality as categorically distinctly structured as opposed to or as similar to other liberty interests (the test); as a general entitlement or as a specific guarantee to address particular inequalities, either separate or intersecting (the inequalities); and as general or specific regarding the application in distinct areas of life (the reach). Finally, the article addresses the often crucial question of whether equality as a fundamental right is directed exclusively against the state, or whether it may also have binding effects on other actors.
Citizenship
Authors: Shachar Ayelet
Published: February 2013

This article highlights the trials and tribulations of citizenship in a world of increasing mobility and diversity. The discussion is divided into three parts. Section I provides a concise overview of citizenship's multiple meanings and interpretations. Section II constitutes the bulk of the discussion. It begins by exploring questions of membership acquisition and transfer, which legally determine ‘who belongs’ within the boundaries of a given political community, either by birth or naturalization. It then assesses three recent developments: the growing recognition of dual nationality; the revival of debates about involuntary citizenship revocation; and the ‘cultural turn’ in citizenship discourse, which often makes inclusion in the body politic more difficult for those deemed ‘too different’ from the majority community. Section III charts the major challenges and opportunities facing citizenship in the twenty-first century.
Socio-Economic Rights
Authors: Davis D. M.
Published: February 2013

This article has two primary objectives: to interrogate objections to social and economic rights and, secondly, to examine the extent to which these objections have given rise to different forms of judicial and constitutional responses to social and economic rights in comparative national jurisdictions. It suggests that when courts have compelled the legislature or the executive to justify a policy choice in terms of an articulated conception the meaning of a social and economic right, a process of deliberation flows therefrom which cannot be discounted. It leads to more accountable government, it provides a voice for litigants who would otherwise be silenced, and, in a number of cases, results in the provision of a basic minimum of goods and services to those who otherwise would have been left out in the proverbial cold.
The Constitutionalization of Abortion
Authors: Siegel Reva B.
Published: February 2013

This article analyzes constitutional decisions concerning abortion in the United States and Germany, their evolution over time, and their influence across jurisdictions. But rather than assume the existence of constitutional law on abortion, it asks how abortion was constitutionalized. The article proceeds in three sections. Section I briefly considers developments in the 1960s and 1970s, a time when reformers of many kinds persuaded legislatures around the world to liberalize access to abortion; when a mobilizing feminist movement first claimed that repeal of abortion restrictions was required as a matter of justice for women; when those who sought to preserve abortion's criminalization began to mobilize against change in the name of a ‘right to life’; and when courts in five nations first issued judgments explaining what forms of abortion regulation their respective constitutions required or allowed. Section II examines key constitutional decisions in the United States and Germany which together illustrate differences and similarities in the logic of constitutionalization. Section III looks to the logic of constitutional law today, considering how several dominant frameworks address the woman question.
Immodest Claims and Modest Contributions: Sexual Orientation in Comparative Constitutional Law
Authors: Yoshino Kenji , Kavey Michael
Published: February 2013

This article contends that the modest contributions of comparative law acquire enhanced force when the claims made by constitutional interpreters are themselves immodest. In the context of sexual orientation, constitutional arguments often assume a categorical, ‘always/everywhere’ tenor that exposes them to contestation on comparative grounds. It develops this claim by focusing on three issues: bans on lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals from military service; the criminalization of same-sex sexual conduct; and relationship recognition for same-sex couples. The analysis uses US constitutional law as the primary point of departure.
Group Rights in Comparative Constitutional Law: Culture, Economics, or Political Power?
Authors: Choudhry Sujit
Published: February 2013

This article sketches an alternative picture of group rights and the political sociology that underlies them. It yields not only a different picture of group rights, but reframes the precise character of the conflict between individual and group rights, which is the precursor to normative analysis. A careful examination of constitutional practice reveals that: group rights are a response to political mobilization not only on issues of cultural survival, but around the unequal distribution of economic resources and opportunities, the unequal enjoyment of public services, and unequal access to political power; group rights are claimed by a broad variety of groups, including territorially dispersed minorities and groups that may constitute a majority in the state; in addition to rights to self-government or autonomy, group rights relate to political power, and are designed to ensure representation and participation in common institutions, take a broad variety of forms, arise in a variety of institutional contexts (electoral system design, political party regulation, legislative voting rules, the structure of political executive, courts), are usually not held and exercised by groups acting as a corporate entity, and are best understood as mechanisms to incorporating a group perspective into collective decision-making; and these group rights produce a variety of conflicts with the individual rights of group members and non-members that are materially different from the kinds of rights violations that the political theorists' constitutional image of group rights would suggest.
Affirmative Action
Authors: Sabbagh Daniel
Published: February 2013

This article begins with a discussion of the constitutionalization of affirmative action and its side effects. It examines the legal underpinnings of affirmative action in two relatively well-endowed developing countries and former British colonies — Malaysia and South Africa — where the disadvantaged groups that receive the benefits of affirmative action are numerical majorities from the start. It also considers the case of India, where the disadvantaged groups targeted for affirmative action initially are numerical minorities. The discussion then turns to the non-constitutionalization of affirmative action and its side effects. In countries where affirmative action has not been constitutionalized and where the beneficiaries (women excepted) are minority groups, the legal validity of a program of this kind will depend upon whether it meets a set of formal requirements. The most important of those is arguably that the outcome of the decisional process by which scarce goods are being allocated should not be exclusively determined by group membership. The soft, gender-focused, ‘discrimination-blocking’ EU affirmative action model and the (exceptional) US affirmative action regime are examined.
Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights and the Constitutional Systems of Europe
Authors: Spielmann Dean
Published: February 2013

Constitutional courts have made a fundamental contribution in clarifying the domestic binding force of the European Convention on Human Rights, in spite of the divergences as to its status in domestic law. This article examines the status of the Convention in domestic legal systems, which remains a question of constitutional law; and the status and implementation of the judgments of the European Court of Human Rights. It looks at four domestic systems, selected for their particular relevance. Three of them have a written constitution (Germany, France, and Belgium) and the fourth, the United Kingdom, has a human rights ‘catalogue’ (the Human Rights Act 1998) comparable to a constitution.
Islam and the Constitutional Order
Authors: Mallat Chibli
Published: February 2013

Amidst a planet-wide array of crises, three are central: the AfPak arc, which includes Pakistan, Afghanistan, India (and the surrounding countries in Central Asia as well as Iran); the Iranian Revolution (which, in addition to Pakistan and Afghanistan, impacts directly on Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States, and the so-called Shii crescent, comprising Iraq, Syria under the Alawis, a small Shi'i sect, and Lebanon); and Israel, with its own crisis radiating across the Middle East and beyond. In all these arcs of crisis, Islam as religion-civilization is vying to define an alternative constitutional order. In this complex framework of three persistent arcs of crisis, the fracture occasioned in the constitutional ordering of the world can be approached through a dual prism. One is international: depending on where the analyst positions herself, the matter is of an Islamic universal call for domination, or one of self-defence. The other is internal, and challenges the constitutional order within the nation-state in its Westphalian characteristics as best summarized by Max Weber: the state's exclusive right to use force over a given territory. Both international and national perspectives dovetail significantly in the modern world of constitutionalism. This article provides international perspectives on Islam and the constitutional order, and then offers an appreciation of Islam within a primarily domestic constitutional set-up.
Grammaticalization as analogically driven change?
Authors: Fischer Olga
Published: February 2013

This article analyses a number of questions that are related to the nature of grammaticalisation in order to determine if it is an analogically driven change. It examines the relation between the synchronic speaker-listener and the essentially diachronic nature of grammaticalization and investigates the causes of grammaticalisation and language change in general. It also explores the nature of analogy further in order to find out how far grammaticalisation can be understood as an instance of analogically driven change. The findings suggest that grammaticalisation as a process only exists on the language-output level and this is not something intrinsic to the process on the speaker-listener level.
Grammaticalization and functional linguistics
Authors: Harder Peter , Boye Kasper
Published: February 2013

This article evaluates the relation between grammaticalisation and functional linguistics. It outlines a theory that is usage-based and functional, which assumes that structure arises out of regularities in usage, selected and systematized through invisible-hand type feedback mechanisms. It argues that the so-called non-naïve functionalists need to provide an account of what they take to be the structural characteristics that functional elements have to take on in order to fall within the purview of grammaticalisation.
Grammaticalization and linguistic complexity
Authors: Dahl Östen
Published: February 2013

This article analyses the relation between grammaticalisation and linguistic complexity. It suggests that this relation between complexity and grammaticalisation is not a straight-forward one, partly because both notions can be understood in several different ways. It addresses the questions of whether cross-linguistic comparisons between languages makes sense and whether differences in complexity between languages exist. It also clarifies the notion of complexity and discusses the complexity of the meaning-form relation.
Grammaticalization and explanation
Authors: Mithun Marianne
Published: February 2013

This article examines the relevance of grammaticalisation for explaining the kinds of structures which occur in languages and why. It focuses on the Navajo language, a language notorious for theoretical puzzles. The analysis reveals that though similarities between syntactic and morphological structure have been observed in many languages, the resemblances are not evidence that the two are the same. The result also suggests that while the relations between semantic scope and particular morpheme orders are certainly observable cross-linguistically, this does not mean that speakers order their morphemes online by scope.
Grammaticalization and semantic maps
Authors: Narrog Heiko , van der Auwera Johan
Published: February 2013

This article examines the relevance of semantic maps for grammaticalisation studies. It explains that semantic maps are a way to visualize regular relationships between two or more meanings or grammatical functions of one and the same linguistic form. It describes the two types of semantic maps and provides an example of a semantic map for conjunction and related function. It also speculates on the future possibilities of semantic maps for grammaticalisation research.
The gradual coalescence into ‘words’ in grammaticalization
Authors: Haspelmath Martin
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the gradual coalescence into words, one aspect of grammaticalisation that is still considered important even though it no longer occupies centre stage in grammaticalisation research. The article explains that the coalescence of function words with nearby content words is a widespread phenomenon in languages, and it is often assumed that most affixes ultimately have their origin in fused function words. It also discusses what kinds of elements coalesce in grammaticalisation.
Grammaticalization and discourse
Authors: Waltereit Richard
Published: February 2013

This article examines the diachronic relation between grammaticalisation and discourse. It highlights a research which stressed the importance of patterns of argumentation in discourse for the emergence of grammar over time. It discusses discourse strategies resulting in language change and suggests that grammaticalisation is the unintended outcome of those strategies that have scope over a proposition. It also contends that discourse markers are the outcome of those strategies that relate to the coordination of the construction of discourse.
The grammaticalization of adpositions and case marking
Authors: König Christa
Published: February 2013

This article examines the grammaticalisation of case marking and adpositions. The findings reveal that there is synchronic evidence for determining relative degrees of grammaticalization and that the behaviour of case synchronically is shaped by features the language has developed in other areas such as definiteness, topic, focus, or means of case coding. It explains that definiteness shapes case or case systems on various levels, either being the source for grammaticalisation, a restriction, or an indicator of the first or final stage of grammaticalisation.
The grammaticalization of definite articles
Authors: De Mulder Walter , Carlier Anne
Published: February 2013

This article explores the grammaticalisation of the grammar category of definite articles. It explains that the grammaticalisation process that leads to the development of articles which exhibits cross-linguistic regularities. In most cases, the definite article originates from a weakened demonstrative, while the indefinite article derives from the unity numeral ‘one’. This article also discusses the morphosyntactic role of noun marker or noun phrase marker in the grammaticalisation of definite articles.
The grammaticalization of complex predicates
Authors: Brinton Laurel J.
Published: February 2013

This article examines the grammaticalisation of the so-called complex predicates. It explains that a complex predicate is a construction consisting of a light verb, an article, and a deverbal noun. It analyses the history of complex predicates in the English language and attempts to determine what construction types are encompassed by the designation complex predicate. The article concludes that complex predicates must be understood as encompassing at least two construction types, one arising through grammaticalisation and the other through lexicalisation.
The grammaticalization of quotatives
Authors: Deutscher Guy
Published: February 2013

This article deals with the grammaticalisation of direct speech constructions, particularly the emergence of quotative particles introducing direct speech. It discusses speech introducing clauses (SIC) and quotative marks and considers the further development of quotative markers into other grammatical functions. It describes the typology of the internal structure of SIC and argues that what determines the process of grammaticalisation is not the internal structure of the clause, but its use as a SIC.
The Grammaticalization of final particles
Authors: Thompson Sandra A. , Suzuki Ryoko
Published: February 2013

This article discusses issues relevant to the grammaticalisation of final particles. It considers several attested pathways by which final particles arise, bringing data from case studies in Japanese and English. This analysis focuses on contemporary synchronic data rather than historical data and on the crucial interactional and prosodic factors involved in the emergence of final particles. It discusses the factors that must be taken into consideration in our endeavour to understand the grammaticisation of these fascinating and highly interactional forms.
Grammaticalization in African languages
Authors: Heine Bernd
Published: February 2013

This article aims to provide an overview of grammatical developments or grammaticalisation in African languages. It shows that grammaticalisation theory not only offers a means of reconstructing earlier states in the history of African languages but can also be of use for explaining structural characteristics of these languages. The results indicate that a number of African languages have a distinction between an inclusive and exclusive first person plural in their system of personal pronouns, which can be explained as being the result of the grammaticalisation of a noun for persons or people.
Grammaticalization in Germanic languages
Authors: Hilpert Martin
Published: February 2013

This article examines the history of grammaticalisation in Germanic languages. It provides Germanic examples of degrammaticalisation and explains that all Germanic languages have grammaticalised a set of auxiliary verbs. A common grammaticalisation path in Germanic is the development of discourse markers out of conjunctions. This article also provides a synchronic comparison of grammaticalised forms across the Germanic languages.
Grammaticalization from Latin to Romance
Authors: Ledgeway Adam
Published: February 2013

This article provides an overview of grammatical developments or grammaticalisation in Latin and Romance languages. The historical sources of these languages reveal an unparalleled wealth of diachronic, diatopic, and diastratic variation, in short a fertile testing ground for assessing and shaping new ideas and perspectives about language change, structure, and variation in grammaticalization. This article explains that the Romance sentence provides dedicated grammaticalised positions for the verb, its arguments, and any accompanying adjuncts.
Grammaticalization in Slavic languages
Authors: Wiemer Björn
Published: February 2013

This article examines the grammaticalisation developments in Slavic languages. The functions of the past tenses lost in northern Slavic are only partially covered by the younger opposition of perfective and imperfective aspect. The only new classes of morphemes that arose in some sub-areas of Slavic are the definite and the indefinite article, both with preliminary, not-yet-grammaticalised stages in some more Slavic varieties. In sum, in Slavic grammaticalization, phenomena have occurred predominantly in the realm of verbal categories; only very few phenomena are related to the noun phrase.
Introduction
Authors: Bosworth R. J. B.
Published: February 2013

Of all political concepts of relatively recent times, fascism, along with the name of the Nazi chief, Adolf Hitler, elicits the most automatically negative reaction in most minds. Its mention at once conjures images of marching automatons, extreme violence, war, and genocide. The fascists, along with Hitler, it is widely assumed, were virtuously beaten in the Second World War, when liberals, democrats and socialists, capitalists and communists, came together, at least from 1941, to resist, to produce, to conquer, and to save humankind. Even though it is now more than sixty years since Hitler and his Italian ally, Benito Mussolini, died at the end of the Second World War, the history of fascism, it seems, retains contemporary menace.
The Ideological Origins of Fascism before 1914
Authors: Passmore Kevin
Published: February 2013

Benito Mussolini saw fascism as a novel phenomenon, constructed from existing materials that were transformed in the process, as were the men and women who made the new movement. It emerged from the specific context of world war and social and political upheaval. Nonetheless, Mussolini exaggerates. This article explores different political ideologies that consider fascism as a ‘political religion’; reason and unreason; nationalism; the socialist origins of fascism; and liberalism.
Squadrism
Authors: Franzinelli Mimmo
Published: February 2013

Squadrism characterized fascism in a decisive manner, furnishing it with a special impulse in its struggle against its political adversaries from its first beginnings until its taking of power. The roots of the squadrists were nourished by the war experience, especially so-called arditismo, the spirit that had driven young men who had fought as volunteers in assault units. The initial brigade or manipolo of squadrists was founded in Milan in the winter of 1918–19 by ex-arditi officer Ferruccio Vecchi, attracting men who were finding it difficult to resume civilian life. Bound to the charismatic figure of Benito Mussolini, the brigade acted as a bodyguard for the managing editor of the paper Il popolo d'Italia, with special fervour in defending the value of the war and in deprecating socialist pacifism. Among the movement's most significant figures was Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, who led attacks against what he called ‘pro-Bolshevik’ rallies.
Culture and Intellectuals
Authors: Bonsaver Guido
Published: February 2013

The relationship between Italy's intellectuals and fascism is a most controversial issue, which has generated waves of differing views and many forms of polemic. Once the dictatorship and the war were over, Italians had to rebuild their identity and relearn the principles of freedom of speech and tolerant cohabitation of different cultures. This article tackles the central issues related to fascism and culture while trying to add a sense of chronological development over the twenty years of dictatorship. The 1990s witnessed a resurgence of interest in Italy's fascist past, not all of it free from political reverberations. It could be said that, if the early post-war years saw a process of excessive marginalization of the nation's fascist past, in recent times the prominent presence of a former neo-fascist party within the coalition of three Berlusconi governments has caused a momentum towards a more lenient revision of those years.
Fascism and Catholicism
Authors: Pollard J. F.
Published: February 2013

The first fascist movement to come to power, Italian fascism, did so in a country that was 99 per cent Catholic and the seat of the papacy, and ‘clerical fascist’ movements came to power in another two overwhelmingly Catholic countries, the first Slovak Republic and the Croatian Independent State. Fascist movements and regimes in other European countries also entered into relations with the Roman Catholic Church, and in broader terms, many Catholics, individually and collectively, were closely involved with fascist movements and regimes in the inter-war years. This article analyses the complex relationships between fascism, the institutional church, and Catholics more generally. It examines the initial attitudes of fascist movements to Catholicism/the Catholic Church, the encounter between fascism and Catholicism, and the interests and common enemies that brought them together in this encounter.
Women in Mussolini's Italy, 1922–1945
Authors: Willson Perry
Published: February 2013

There is by now a fairly ample historiography on the role of women in fascist Italy. It is, however, still somewhat uneven. This article looks at some of these topics, such as the demographic campaign, the mobilization of women into the Fascist Party, and women's experience during the Second World War. The recent wave of interest in some of the more neglected topics is very positive, since a due attention to gender can shed much light on the fascist experience in Italy. The fascist regime paid a good deal of attention to gender and the role of women in its ideology, propaganda, and legislation. The roots of much of this can be traced to the Italian experience in the First World War. The fascists' pervasive emphasis on militaristic values owed a great deal to wounded masculine (as well as national) pride after the rout of the Italian troops at Caporetto.
Fascism and War
Authors: Rodogno Davide
Published: February 2013

This article explores Benito Mussolini's view on fascism and war. War had an essential place in Mussolini's worldview, even before he came to power in 1922. After this, Mussolini showed some realism and opportunism in domestic and foreign policy, but he was first and foremost driven by an ultranationalist, racist, militarist, and Social Darwinist worldview which rested on the fundamental assumption that life is a struggle and war the father of all things. Mussolini believed the twentieth century to be the century of Italy. He failed to assemble his ideas into an all-embracing intellectual system; however, he possessed a sufficiently articulated and coherent worldview, the essence of which was that the nation would be made through war and territorial expansion. Racism was the most radical part of the fascist project to transform Italians into a warrior race.
Race
Authors: Gordon Robert S. C.
Published: February 2013

Whereas Hitler's Germany was centrally structured around a racial or racist ideology, a form of ‘Aryan’ anti-Semitism, Mussolini and the Italy of the ventennio were only marginally and latterly interested in questions of race, and then only for contingent or tactical reasons to do with Italy's political alignment with Nazi Germany. If the former was a ‘racial state’, the latter – even as it pursued, at times, an aggressive politics of race – was not. This article compares fascist Italy and Nazi Germany on questions of race in the light of such new insights and emphases, offering a snapshot of current thinking about the role of race in the ideology, historical reality, and ‘essential nature’ of fascism. It looks at the two regimes in parallel, in a sequence moving from origins, to legislation and action once in power, to the extremes of racial violence both reached in their final years.
Austria
Authors: Peniston-Bird Corinna
Published: February 2013

In the twenty-year lifespan of the First Republic, there were three contenders for the label of fascist: the Austrian Nazi Party, the Heimwehr, and the Corporate State. In Austria, one is not comparing like with like, however: the Heimwehr and the Austrian Nazis constituted movements that existed from the outset of the new republic, the Nazis with origins reaching back to the turn of the century. The Corporate State, on the other hand, was a short-lived regime that incorporated and reacted to (and against) these movements. One can best compare the opening phases of fascism in the case of the Heimwehr and the Nazis: the Heimwehr only accrued partial power, and was ultimately incorporated into the Corporate State, and the ultimate Nazi victory in 1938 was ambiguous given that it was under German party leadership.
Britain and its Empire
Authors: Pugh Martin
Published: February 2013

Traditionally, fascism in Britain has been seen in fairly narrow terms as a phenomenon of the 1930s associated with Sir Oswald Mosley and the British Union of Fascists (BUF). This approach to the subject made it easy to account for the fortunes of fascism as a movement essentially marginal to British society and thus of limited significance. The Union Movement that Mosley founded in 1948 campaigned for imperial control of Africa, a united Europe, and an end to coloured immigration. But this did not amount to a full fascist programme; the movement found itself caught halfway between the conventional parties and the racist fringe. More extreme elements soon spawned a range of new groups including the National Party, the National Workers Movement, and Chesterton's League of Empire Loyalists, which proved to be influential as a training ground for a new generation of leaders of the far right.
Memory and Representations of Fascism in Germany and Italy
Authors: Stoltzfus Nathan , Bosworth R. J. B.
Published: February 2013

Following the Second World War, countries around Europe crafted narratives claiming that they had virtuously resisted fascism. Italy, France, and Austria, as well as Germany, had to establish new political systems repudiating fascism, yet building on societies that had collaborated with or supported Nazi–fascist rule. The course of this drastic transformation of individual and social perspectives produced a mix of selective forgetting and remembering. Memories of resistance were expanded into national narratives. Germany, with its greater degree of guilt, was subjected to international scrutiny that permitted it a lesser degree of denial compared with other pro-Nazi nations. A toll of ‘premature deaths’ of around a million makes Mussolini's regime scarcely the equal of Hitler's or Stalin's in the sad history of twentieth-century political killing, and its murder of Italians, as distinct from peoples under its imperial rule, was far less than that of the Francoists in Spain.