bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Workshop as a Microcosm: Workshops and Factories in Urban Settlements
Authors: Hodgkinson Anna   K.
Published: November 2020

The previous chapters used object data to detect distribution patterns in the artefactual evidence of a series of industries in order to identify areas of high activity and new workshops. Furthermore, they discussed the locations and physical relationships between workshops and other industrial areas in order to understand their role in the settlement’s infrastructure. By contrast, this chapter presents and discusses two case-studies from Amarna and Gurob to describe the various features often found inside a workshop or factory, showcasing the functionality and organization of specialized, high-temperature workshops, and associated firing structures in an urban environment. The case-studies include the glass, faience, metal, and pottery workshop O45.1 in the Main City North Amarna, excavated by Paul Nicholson and team in the 1990s. At Gurob, an industrial area was published by Brunton and Engelbach in 1927, which was partly re-excavated by the author and named IA1. The results of this excavation, together with the finds corpus, are compared to those from O45.1, as kilns and pottery production areas were found. Site O45.1 is located at the extreme north-western end of the Main City North, towards the southern edge of the Central City, south of the Small Aten Temple, and directly to the south of the modern water tower at Amarna. The excavated site, which measures 325m², has yielded much artefactual as well as structural evidence of glass processing, including glassmaking, faience production, and metal-working. It lies in the vicinity of the area examined by Petrie in the 1890s and described by him as an area of moulds, but during the work at O45.1 no traces were found of this area having previously been excavated. Many of Petrie’s finds relating to the glass-industry also came from the palace waste heaps, only a very small number coming from the palace itself. The largest portion of evidence was not contexted, as it had been found and brought to Petrie by local children from sites around Amarna. Thus, site O45.1 is not the only possible location of Petrie’s glass manufactories. The workshop is surrounded by a series of mud-brick walls forming an open courtyard, a common phenomenon in New Kingdom Egypt.
Ruined by the Thirst for Urban Prosperity: Contemporary Archaeology of City Water Systems
Authors: Beisaw April M.
Published: November 2020

City residents expect pressurized water to flow from kitchen, bath, and laundry room taps. Access to clean water is a contemporary human necessity, but is it a human right? City water is not free—creating and maintaining urban water systems is a complex engineering process that requires political power; land and labour are necessary to obtain and store water, operate pumping stations, maintain plants for filtration and wastewater treatment, and build out the subsurface pipe network. After initial construction costs have been paid, the efficiency of an entire water system dictates the costs of residential flow. Some cities, like Detroit, have an adjacent freshwater source, in this case the Detroit River, whose water can be pumped, treated, and distributed to residents rather efficiently. Other cities, like New York, have to acquire water from distant sources. Built on an island surrounded by salt water, New York City had to wield significant political power to construct new water sources and transport water from up to 125 miles away. Access to this water allowed the urban development of Manhattan Island while selectively destroying rural communities. New York City began building reservoirs in 1776; today there are nineteen reservoirs and three controlled lakes that hold 550 billion gallons of water. Official statistics on the rural communities sacrificed for this water are only available for the six reservoirs put into service between 1915 and 1955: the Ashokan (1915), Kensico (1915), Schoharie (1926), Roundout (1950), Neversink (1954), and Pepacton (1955) reservoirs. Their construction submerged a total of seventeen villages, and displaced 4,464 living from their land and 8,093 from their graves (BWS 1950: 35, 76). Those whose lands were not taken were left to reconstruct their lives without their long-time neighbours, the fertile valleys they lived in, and the roads, railroads, and unobstructed water ways that once tied communities together and facilitated economic activity. Some residents were unable to adjust and abandoned their lands. A city land acquisition programme is currently purchasing up to an additional 355,000 acres in their watersheds. The goal is to meet pollution control requirements set by the Environmental Protection Agency.
Topics in finance and risk management
Authors: Fehr Hans , Kindermann Fabian
Published: November 2020

This chapter introduces basic concepts of modern finance theory and demonstrates how to apply them in complex real-world problems. Financial deals and investment decisions are typically determined under uncertainty.Therefore, although this chapter is self-contained, we have to expect some theoretical background in individual decisionmaking and optimal investment under uncertainty. We organize our discussion into four central sections. The starting point is a portfolio choice problem, where an investor has to choose between different assets with specific risk and return characteristics. We then move on to some option pricing applications. We first derive analytical formulas and then evaluate numerical procedures for pricing European and American options as well as more exotic option products. The third section elaborates on credit risk measurement and management using a corporate bond portfolio as example. In the last section we discuss mortality risk and the optimal portfolio structure of a life insurance company. This section provides different numerical approaches to find an optimal portfolio structure with many risky assets. It begins with simple measures of risk and return of a single asset and then develops decision rules to choose optimal portfolios that maximize expected utility of wealth in worlds without and with riskless borrowing and lending opportunities. The purpose of this section is to optimize a portfolio of equity shares and a risk-free investment opportunity. The investor faces the most basic two-period investment choice problem: He buys assets in the first period and these assets pay off in the next period. The problem of the investor is to choose from i = 1, . . . ,N risky assets which may be shares, bonds, real estate, etc. The gross return of each asset i is denoted by rit = qit/qit−1 − 1, where qit−1 is the first-period market price and qit − qit−1 the second-period payoff.
Cardiovascular Medicine
Authors: Vogel Dominik
Published: November 2020

The field of cardiovascular medicine is an inexhaustible source for clinical trials (→ OHCM 10th edition:). The most feasible way of keeping up to date is referring to guidelines. In addition to those made avail­able by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) provides very useful Clinical Practice Guidelines that are accessible via: https://www.escardio.org/ Guidelines/Clinical-Practice-Guidelines. If you don’t manage to read the full text of each of the provided guide­lines, you might find the ‘summary cards’ useful that you can download for free using the same link.
Rheumatology
Authors: Sinharay Ricky
Published: November 2020

This specialty has been described by the British Society of Rheumatology as the ‘branch of medicine that deals with the investigation, diagnosis, and management of patients with arthritis and other musculoskeletal conditions’. These include inflammatory arthritis, autoimmune disorders, vascultides, soft tissue disorders, spinal problems, and metabolic bone disease. Simplifying the assessment and approaching the patient in a logical manner, using history taking and examination, make it possible to narrow your differential: ● Is there any pain? ● How many joints are affected? ● Which joints? ● Is there swelling? ● Is there erythema? ● Is there loss of function? ● How is their gait? ● Is there any morning stiffness? ● Is there systemic upset? ● Are there extra- articular symptoms? ● Are there any related diseases? ● What is the patient’s drug history? Diseases that one comes across in the specialty of rheumatology vary between being ubiquitous (rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis) to the vanishingly rare (scleroderma), and affect over 10 million adults and 12 000 children. As such, it is easy to feel out of one’s comfort zone when discussing the possible causes of a patient’s joint pain during a consultation. It is, however, a core skill for the budding physician to be able to assess and diagnose potential septic joints, flares of rheumatoid arthritis, and other autoimmune conditions. These conditions are often multi- system in nature, and it is crucial to recognize other organ involve­ment such as the kidneys or lungs, or indeed extra- articular signs in the generally unwell patient that may point one in the correct diagnostic direction. There is significant morbidity from these conditions, with disability and loss of working days a problem, and it is important for the junior doctor to be aware of yellow and red flag symptoms. The impact on the ageing population also needs to be recognized, and involving the multidisciplinary team of physiotherapists and occupational therapists is essential. Although debilitating, joint problems are also often treatable. Treatment of rheumatological conditions invariably involves the use of systemic corticosteroids as first- line treatment, but this is now an exciting field itself with various biologic disease- modifying anti- rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) in use and in development, owing to a better understanding of the mechanisms driving these conditions.
What are the Symptoms of Schizophrenia?
Authors: Glatt Stephen J. , Faraone Stephen V. , Tsuang Ming T.
Published: November 2020

Schizophrenia symptoms fall into two categories: positive and negative symp­toms. Positive symptoms are behaviours or experiences outside the normal range of human activities. Hearing voices is a good example. Negative symp­toms are behaviours that are removed from the normal range. A reduced ex­perience of pleasure is a good example. Positive symptoms are prominent during the ‘active’ phase of the illness, when an affected individual is most disturbed and disruptive. The active phase is the phase that will more often lead to the individual’s referral for care. This is often because the affected individual will be doing or saying things that upset or disturb people around them, or at least get their attention and draw concern. For example, an individual with delusions might complain to her spouse that she is being followed by aliens and demandthat he help her find a way to stop them. Negative symptoms are most visible during the ‘prodromal’ and ‘residual’ phases of the illness. The prodromal phase comes before the first active phase (so actually occurs before a diagnosis of schizophrenia is ever made), and a residual phase follows each active phase.This class of symptoms most often includes delusions and auditory, visual, or other sensory hallucinations. Positive symptoms can be divided into percep­tual (i.e., affecting perception, or the ability to become aware of some stimulus through the senses), cognitive (i.e., impacting ways of thinking), emotional, or motor (physical) signs. Because these symptoms are so easy to recognize, even to the untrained eye, they make up a large part of the layperson’s general view of schizophrenia.Auditory hallucinations are the most common perceptual problems seen in schizophrenia. Many times, these hallucinations take the form of a voice, some­times making a running commentary on the individual’s thoughts or behaviours. Sometimes they take the form of several voices, each talking with the other. Some individuals with schizophrenia have visual, olfactory (i.e., affecting the sense of smell), or gustatory (i.e., affecting taste) hallucinations, but these are rare. Somatic hallucinations may also occur, in which the altered perception centres at or on the body’s organs.
Is Schizophrenia A Neurodevelopmental Disorder?
Authors: Glatt Stephen J. , Faraone Stephen V. , Tsuang Ming T.
Published: November 2020

The research we have discussed suggests that schizophrenia occurs when ab­normal genes and environmental risk factors combine to cause brain dys­function. In the past two decades, several researchers— notably Drs Daniel Weinberger, Larry Seidman, and Patricia Goldman- Rakic— have concluded that schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental brain disorder. This suggests that schizophrenia emerges because of the way the brain is built early in life. To understand this concept, consider brain disorders that do not have a neurodevelopmental origin but instead, come about because of the way the brain breaks down after it is developed. We call these disorders neurodegenerative be­cause the causes of the disease attack and degrade a normal brain. The senility of old age, which doctors call dementia, is a common example. When some people age, their brain is degraded by events such as many strokes or the rav­ages of Alzheimer’s disease. After a few years, a person who once functioned normally can no longer do simple tasks. Other examples are acquired brain syndromes, which occur after an injury to the head, and disorders due to the in­gestion of toxic substances (e.g., drugs, lead paint). In each of these cases, some external agent has acted on a normal brain to make it abnormal. In neurodevelopmental disorders, the brain does not develop (i.e., grow) prop­erly. In other words, it was never really normal to begin with. We know that genes contain the ‘blueprint’ for building the brain. For schizophrenia, this blueprint contains errors so that the brain is not ‘built’ correctly. Dr Patricia Goldman- Rakic suggested that certain brain cells in individuals with schizophrenia do not ‘migrate’ correctly during development. That is, normal brain development re­quires that cells locate themselves in the right spot and connect to one another in specific patterns. In schizophrenia, it may be that some cells are in the wrong place, some do not make necessary connections, and others make connections that should not be made. It is as if the blueprint for a home told the electrician to put the light switch for the kitchen in the living room.
Tomb Robberies at the End of the New Kingdom
Authors: Gasperini Valentina
Published: November 2020

At the end of the 19th century W.M.F. Petrie excavated a series of assemblages at the New Kingdom Fayum site of Gurob. These deposits, known in the Egyptological literature as 'Burnt Groups', were composed by several and varied materials (mainly Egyptian and imported pottery, faience, stone and wood vessels, jewellery), all deliberately burnt and buried in the harem palace area of the settlement. Since their discovery these deposits have been considered peculiar and unparalleled. Many scholars were challenged by them and different theories were formulated to explain these enigmatic 'Burnt Groups'. The materials excavated from these assemblages are now curated at several Museum collections across England: Ashmolean Museum, British Museum, Manchester Museum, and Petrie Museum. For the first time since their discovery, this book presents these materials all together. Gasperini has studied and visually analysed all the items. This research sheds new light on the chronology of deposition of these assemblages, additionally a new interpretation of their nature, primary deposition, and function is presented in the conclusive chapter. The current study also gives new information on the abandonment of the Gurob settlement and adds new social perspective on a crucial phase of the ancient Egyptian history: the transition between the late New Kingdom and the early Third Intermediate Period. Beside the traditional archaeological sources, literary evidence ('The Great Tomb Robberies Papyri') is taken into account to formulate a new theory on the deposition of these assemblages.
Bad Data
Authors: Smith Gary
Published: November 2020

When I first started teaching economics in 1971, my wife’s grandfather (“Popsie”) knew that my Ph.D. thesis used Yale’s big computer to estimate an extremely complicated economic model. Popsie had bought and sold stocks successfully for decades. He even had his own desk at his broker’s office where he could trade gossip and stocks. Nonetheless, he wanted advice from a 21-year-old kid who had no money and had never bought a single share of stock in his life—me—because I worked with computers. “Ask the computer what it thinks of Schlumberger.” “Ask the computer what it thinks of GE.” This naive belief that computers are infallible has been around ever since the first computer was invented more than 100 years ago by Charles Babbage. While a teenager, the great French mathematician Blaise Pascal built a mechanical calculator called the Arithmetique to help his father, a French tax collector. The Arithmetique was a box with visible dials connected to gears hidden inside the box. Each dial had ten digits labeled 0 through 9.When the dial for the 1s column moved from 9 to 0, the dial for the 10s column moved up 1 notch; when the dial for the 10s column moved from9 to 0, the dial for the 100s column moved up 1 notch; and so on. The Aritmatique could do addition and subtraction, but the dials had to be turned by hand. Babbage realized that he could convert complex formulas into simple addition-and-subtraction calculations and automate the calculations, so that a mechanical computer would do the calculations perfectly every time, thereby eliminating human error. Babbage’s first design was called the Difference Engine, a steam powered behemoth made of brass and iron that was 8 feet tall, weighed 15 tons, had 25,000 parts. The Difference Engine could make calculations up to 20 decimals long and it could print formatted tables of results. After a decade tinkering with the design, Babbage began working on plans for a more powerful calculator he called the Analytical Engine. This design had more than 50,000 components, used perforated cards to input instructions and data, and could store up to one thousand 50-digit numbers.
Beat the Market I
Authors: Smith Gary
Published: November 2020

Back when scam artists sent snail-mail instead of e-mail, I received a letter that began “Dear friend,” a clear sign it was from someone trying to sell me something. Nonetheless, I read a bit more and saw this line highlighted in yellow: “IMAGINE turning $1,000 into $34,500 in less than one year!” Real friends don’t highlight their sentences, but I pushed on, thinking I might share this BS with my students. Sure enough, it was a con. The letter said that “no special background or education” was needed and that, “It’s an investment you can make with spare cash that you might ordinarily spend on lottery tickets or the race track.”Now I wasn’t sure that I wanted to share this letter, lest my students wonder where this company had gotten my name. I don’t buy lottery tickets or bet on horses. What had I done that made this company think I was a sucker? The letter claimed that, instead of wasting my money on lottery tickets and horse races, I could get rich buying low-priced stocks. For example, the price of LKA International had jumped from 2 cents a share to 69 cents a share in a few months, which would have turned $1,000 into $34,500. All I had to do was pay $39 for a special report that would give me access to “the carefully guarded territory of a few shrewd ‘inner circle’ investors.” The entire premise is ridiculous. If someone really knew how to turn $1,000 into $34,500, they would be doing it, instead of selling special reports for $39. Yet, we repeatedly fall for such scams because we are hard-wired to think that the world is governed by regular laws that we can discover and exploit. Stock prices cannot be random. There must be underlying patterns, like night and day, winter and summer. Our gullibility is aided and abetted by our greed—by the notion that it is easier to make money by buying and selling stocks than by being a butcher, baker, or candlestick maker. The inconvenient truth is that zigs and zags in stock prices are mostly random, yet transitory patterns can be found in random numbers. If we look for them, we will find them and be fooled by them.
Oral and maxillofacial surgery
Authors: Longridge Nicholas , Clarke Pete , Aftab Raheel , Ali Tariq
Published: November 2020

Oral and facial surgery has been practised in some form for millennia. Hippocrates himself has described reducing jaw dislocations, and Sushtra was performing reconstructive local facial flaps in India as early as sixth century BC. The modern practice of oral and maxillofacial surgery (OMFS) can be traced back to the battlefields of northern Europe in the early twentieth century. Industrialized warfare produced horrific facial injuries that were treated by frontline oral surgeons, and so the specialty of OMFS, as a crossover between medicine and dentistry, developed. It became evi­dent that both medical and dental education was necessary in order to manage increasingly complex facial surgery that was being undertaken. It can be argued that OMFS has evolved to be a truly general surgical specialty, manipulating the hard and soft tissues of the head and neck and having the skills to operate on neurovascular, glandular, and airway struc­tures. There is variable exposure to OMFS during dental undergraduate education and scarce exposure during medical undergraduate training. Opportunities for postgraduate training in OMFS for dentists who are not entertaining a career in the discipline are also limited. Knowledge of the scope of OMFS practice is a bare minimum for any practising dentist, as this can inform the limits of their individual competency, as well as ensure a safe transfer of care for their patients. The questions in this section are there to target the most commonly tested and encountered aspects of OMFS for most junior dentists, focusing on oral surgery, oral pathology, management of the medically compromised patient, and trauma of the facial skeleton. OMFS is an enormously satisfying endeavour and is recommended to all junior dentists. It can form a granite-like foundation of skills upon which to build a career in clinical dentistry. Key topics include: ● Trauma ● Oral surgery and exodontia ● Oral pathology ● Orthognathic surgery ● Temporomandibular joint surgery ● Cleft lip/ palate repair ● Craniofacial surgery ● Salivary disease ● Head and neck oncology and microvascular reconstruction ● Skin cancer ● Facial aesthetics.
Therapeutics and medical emergencies
Authors: Longridge Nicholas , Clarke Pete , Aftab Raheel , Ali Tariq
Published: November 2020

Firstly, do no harm. This is held as the first law of clinical practice when considering any intervention to improve the health of our patients. This may at times be a difficult proposition, especially when the approach to treating a condition is fraught with risks and can carry the danger of adverse and unwanted side effects. Prescribing therapeutics is the time perhaps when this maxim should be most at the forefront of a clinician’s mind, as therapeutic interven­tions may not cause any immediately discernible danger or harm in the same way as operative interventions. It is therefore important for the prescriber to understand the relevant pharmacodynamics (the effects of the agent on the body) and pharmacokinetics (the effects of the body on the agent). To add a further layer of complexity, the reader should understand that pharmacological sciences are possibly the fastest evolving part of medicine. It would be a fair bet to say that, within the course of the reader’s undergraduate education, entire new classes of therapeutics will have emerged and established perceptions of other agents would have significantly changed. Practically speaking, this does not mean that it is necessary to mem­orize the nuances of all therapeutic agents (although you should have a good grasp of those you prescribe regularly); rather it is more important that a clinician understands how to recognize potential dangers and then be resourceful enough to mitigate against them, given the best know­ledge available at the time. Access to an up- to-date formulary and the will to use it are the surest way to navigate any prescribing pitfalls. ‘We don’t rise to the occasion, we fall to the most basic level of our training’. Thankfully, medical emergencies occur infrequently in the general practice setting. It is the rarity of such events that often leads to anxieties when dealing with them. This reaction is amplified by the caregiver’s nat­ural instinct to do something immediately, but often not knowing exactly what to do because the diagnosis is not immediately clear. The ABCDE approach, as advocated by the Resuscitation Council, is a safe and methodical way to approach any emergency. ABCDE is not only a hierarchy of importance for systems critical to life, but it also acts as an aide- memoire to undertake examinations and interventions when necessary. Most importantly, it buys time whilst the diagnosis is found or declares itself, without adversely affecting the outcome by inaction. Key topics include: ● Common drugs for common medical conditions ● Drug interactions ● Oral side effects of medications ● Basic life support ● Medical emergencies in dentistry (including the Resuscitation Council UK guidelines) ● ABCDE approach.
Shadow Sites
Authors: Hauser Kitty
Published: November 2020

In mid-twentieth-century Britain, an archaeological vision of the British landscape reassured and enchanted a number of writers, artists, photographers, and film-makers. From John Piper, Eric Ravilious and Shell guide books, to photographs of bomb damage, aerial archaeology, and The Wizard of Oz, Kitty Hauser delves into these evocative interpretations and looks at how they affected the way the landscape was seen.
Conclusion
Authors: Hauser Kitty
Published: November 2020

The photographic image, with its umbilical attachment to the moment in which it was taken, may seem an unlikely vehicle for the archaeological imagination. The startling presence of the past has surely most often been revealed to poets, writers, and artists through ancient artefacts (Seamus Heaney’s preserved bog-people, Keats’s Grecian urn) or through contemplation of ruined empires or geological vistas (Shelley’s Ozymandias, Ruskin’s Alps). Photographs of such things might inspire the same feelings, it could be argued, but only by virtue of certain kinds of subject-matter, which photography is of course uniquely well equipped to record in full detail. I do not think this is quite true, however: photography is not simply a transparent vehicle. What I have set out to demonstrate is that the medium of photography can be shown to be itself uniquely well equipped to facilitate a particular version of the archaeological imagination as manifested in a particular time and place: Britain around the 1930s and 1940s. Anxieties over the despoliation of the British landscape between the wars manifested themselves partly as fears that modernity was in danger of obliterating all traces of the past in the countryside and towns. Images of ‘Beautiful Britain’ asserted the continuing existence of a landscape in which it was increasingly hard to believe, in the face of a simultaneous proliferation of images documenting ribbon development, arterial roads, and unchecked building. But there was an alternative to these two poles of representation, one which attempted to resolve an acknowledgement of modernity with a desire for a landscape in which the past was discernible. To exercise an archaeological imagination in this context was to perceive the presence of the past despite the evident incursions of modernity. It was to believe in the immanence of history, the essential indestructibility of what has been, and to believe in this regardless, in some cases, of appearances. Not only were the remains of history perceived to be still there; they were understood— with some thrill—to have been there all along without us realizing it. Such a sensibility, I have argued, is therefore essentially a redemptive one. For in the face of the disintegration of the remains of the past, and the destruction wrought by modernity and war, the archaeological imagination refuses to acknowledge, quite, the loss of anything.
The Pre-Palaeolithic of East Anglia
Authors: O'Connor Anne
Published: November 2020

The attacks of Warren and Haward had dominated the realms of flint-fracture research, and the defensive forays of Moir and Lankester had not strengthened the cause of the pre-palaeoliths as much as they might have hoped. But Lankester was grooming Moir in another approach: how to promote the pre-palaeoliths as respectable archaeological specimens. He advised, ‘You can always state what are the accepted views & pros & cons put forward by geologists as to relative ages of deposits. But you yourself are & must be more & more, an expert & critic of the worked flints themselves.’ Moir and Lankester would identify distinct groups and types in their motley assortment of pre-palaeoliths. They would reconstruct lengthy industrial sequences, degenerating back to the Kent eoliths on the one hand and progressing to the river-drift palaeoliths on the other. Similar approaches had characterized earlier attempts to order the tools of the river drifts and caves (see Chapters 3 and 4), but Moir and Lankester were not simply aiming to understand how their industry fitted into a broader Stone-Age sequence. The existence of diVerent tool types and evolutionary stages within the Pre- Palaeolithic provided them with another opportunity to convince their critics that these flints were as reputable as any of their Palaeolithic descendants, and could be classified according to similar principles. This chapter addresses these archaeological reconstructions and then turns to the style and tone of this work. Presentation could merit as much attention as content; but though Lankester took care to select arenas that would enhance the respectability of his stones, he was often irritated by the reaction of the audience, and Moir could become enraged. For these two believers in the pre-palaeoliths, the scientific ideals of disinterested objectivity sat uneasily alongside the belligerent outbursts that punctuated their practice. For the historian, their unusual forthrightness offers a vivid glimpse of the social tactics behind Stone-Age research.
Marine and coastal environments
Authors: Horning Ned , Robinson Julie A. , Sterling Eleanor J. , Turner Woody , Spector Sacha
Published: November 2020

New remote sensing challenges arise from the addition of the water column to the remote sensing signal. At the same time, new opportunities for use of remotely sensed data are possible in the marine environment. Marine environments can have organisms in such great abundance that they are readily monitored using remote sensing. From measuring ocean productivity, to harmful algal blooms (HABs), to fisheries management, remote sensing is a key component of many efforts to manage and conserve marine ecosystems. For example, the small giant clam, Tridacna maxima, is endangered in some areas of the Pacific, and because of commercial harvest pressure is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES, meaning they are not yet threatened by extinction but could become so if their trade is not tightly regulated). Andréfouët et al. (2005a) used field observations and remotely sensed data to study the productivity of the clam fishery in tiny (22.2 km2, including a 9.9 km2 lagoon) Fangatau Atoll (Eastern Tuamotu, French Polynesia). The fishery was under pressure due to the large (4 ton per year) export of clams to Tahiti. Remotely sensed data included a mosaic of aerial photographs (1.5 m resolution), a digital photograph taken from the International Space Station (red, green, blue, 5.6 m resolution), and Landsat TM imagery (30 m resolution). The authors classified each image of key lagoon habitats, using maximum likelihood supervised classification, with each image classified independently. They estimated the population size for the entire lagoon by multiplying the mean clam density in each habitat (from field data) by the total area of each habitat (in the maps made from the remotely sensed data). Amazingly, an estimated 23.65 ± 5.33 million clams (mean ± 95 percent confidence interval) inhabited the 4.05 km2 area of suitable habitat in the lagoon. The high spatial resolution data (1.5 m aerial and 5.6 m astronaut photography data) both gave equivalent estimates of the biomass with good estimates of accuracy, but the Landsat 30 m data overestimated the population.
Atmosphere and climate
Authors: Horning Ned , Robinson Julie A. , Sterling Eleanor J. , Turner Woody , Spector Sacha
Published: November 2020

There is a compelling need for environmental managers to consider atmospheric and climatic impacts upon the systems they manage. Pounds et al. (2006) linked dramatic losses of frog species in the neotropical genus Atelopus to regional climate effects on the temperature and relative humidity of highland forests. They related frog disappearances to tropical air temperatures, finding that ~80 percent of the missing species were lost after relatively warm years. The strength of association between warm years and disappearing frogs was independent of elevation, latitude, or range size. Such an association of extinctions with warmer years leads to a paradox: the believed cause of death of the Atelopine frogs is chytridiomycosis due to outbreaks of the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, but Batrachochytrium becomes more pathogenic at lower rather than higher temperatures. Pounds et al. posited a resolution to this paradox by coupling higher temperatures to increased evaporation rates resulting in more water vapor in the atmosphere. Higher atmospheric water vapor drives increased cloud cover over Monteverde and other sites where scientists observed disappearances. In this case, more clouds led to cooler days, because they reflected more solar radiation, but also to warmer nights as they decreased heat loss to the atmosphere. The net result was that the range of daily maximum and minimum temperatures was not only less but less in a way that favored chytrid fungi (which grow best at 17–25 °C). Preventing it from getting too hot by day or too cold at night, the increased clouds during warmer years kept the temperature “just right” for Batrachochytrium to infect frogs. Conservation biologists recognize the significant impact that regional shifts in climate may have on populations of conservation concern (Hannah et al. 2005). However, much of the remote sensing work on the atmosphere and climate addresses global-scale phenomena, such as general circulation models (GCMs) of the atmosphere. Moving from these global scales to scales more appropriate to conservation work continues to be a significant challenge.
The Semi-Market and Semi-Subsistence Household: The Evidence and Test of Smallholder Behavior
Authors: Vance Colin
Published: November 2020

Understanding household farming behavior among smallholders is an essential element of land-change studies inasmuch as a considerable portion of the world is dominated by land-users of this kind. Smallholders (peasants in some literature) are especially important within the tropical forests of Mexico, and the southern Yucatán peninsular region is no exception. This region, as elsewhere in the tropics, is characterized by underdeveloped markets and the consequent partial engagement of frontier farmers as market participants. Sparse exchange opportunities resulting from remoteness, low population density, and poorly developed infrastructure constrain these farmers to maintain a strong focus on consumption production, especially in terms of staple foods. Indeed, until the late 1960s, households in the region were totally subsistence-based and had virtually no experience with the agricultural market. Today, smallholder farmers retain consumption production, though a growing proportion also produce crops for sale. While this dual position in the market and in subsistence is an increasingly prevalent feature of smallholder farmers throughout the developing world, studies of deforestation commonly ascribe to them a wholly commercial orientation by employing profit-maximizing theoretical structures as a basis for econometrically modeling their land-use decisions (e.g. Chomitz and Gray 1996; Cropper, Griffiths, and Mani 1999; Cropper, Puri, and Griffiths 2001; Nelson, Harris, and Stone 2001; Nelson and Hellerstein 1997; Panayotou and Sungsuwan 1994; Pfaff 1999). In essence, the assertion of profit-maximization rests on the assumption that agents are fully engaged in markets, from which it follows that production, being strictly a function of farm technology and exogenously given input and output prices, is entirely independent of consumption and labor supply (Barnum and Squire 1979). This chapter explores the implications of relaxing the perfect-markets assumption for the modeling of semi-subsistence and commercial land-use decisions. By introducing variables measuring the consumption side of the colonist household, evidence is presented to suggest that, consistent with mixed or hybrid production themes (e.g. Singh, Squire, and Strauss 1986; Turner and Brush 1987), farmers operating in a context of thin product and/or labor markets do not exhibit behavior corresponding to that of a commercially oriented profit-maximizing farm.
Capital Bondage
Authors: Harvey David
Published: November 2020

The survival of capitalism for so long in the face of multiple crises and reorganizations accompanied by dire predictions, from both the left and the right, of its imminent demise, is a mystery that requires illumination. Lefebvre, for one, thought he had found the key in his celebrated comment that capitalism survives through the production of space, but he unfortunately failed to explain exactly how or why this might be the case. Certainly both Lenin and Luxemburg, though for quite different reasons and utilizing quite different forms of argument, considered that imperialism—a certain form of production and utilization of the global space—was the answer to the riddle, though in both cases this solution was finite and therefore replete with its own terminal contradictions. It was in this context that, in a series of publications beginning more than twenty years ago, I proposed a theory of a ‘spatial fix’ (more accurately a spatio-temporal fix) to the crisis-prone inner contradictions of capital accumulation. The central point of this argument concerned a chronic tendency within capitalism, theoretically derived out of a reformulation of Marx’s theory of the tendency for the profit rate to fall, to produce crises of overaccumulation. Such crises are typically registered as surpluses of capital (in commodity, money, or productive capacity forms) and surpluses of labour power side by side, without there apparently being any means to bring them together profitably to accomplish socially useful tasks. The most obvious case of this was the world-wide slump of the 1930s when capacity utilization was at an all-time low, surplus commodities could not be sold, and unemployment was at an all-time high. The effect was to devalue and in some cases even destroy the surpluses of capital and to reduce the surpluses of labour power to a miserable state. Since it is the lack of profitable opportunities that lies at the heart of the difficulty, the key economic (as opposed to social and political) problem lies with capital. If devaluation is to be avoided, then profitable ways must be found to absorb the capital surpluses. Geographical expansion and spatial reorganization provide one such option.
An Epoch of New Dynasties
Authors: Hinton David A.
Published: November 2020

The Wessex kings’ conquest of the whole of England during the first half of the tenth century created conditions that led to a nation-state being recognizable by the end of the eleventh. In Scotland this was a much longer process, and Wales remained fragmented. The differences between them are mirrored by coinage; increasingly regulated and systematic in England, but not even produced in Scotland or Wales. The nation-state remained focused upon kings, however, elevating their status but exposing society to the haphazard behaviour and ambitions of an individual. They might still be seen as leading their ‘people’, English, Norman or whomsoever, but in reality they depended upon the support of a military elite and legitimization by the Church, rather than upon an efficient bureaucracy, let alone upon popular acceptance. Physical expression of royal supremacy was provided by increasingly elaborate inauguration rituals, and by crown-wearing ceremonies held on major feast-days at Gloucester, Winchester, and elsewhere, when the king represented his elevation by displaying himself with his emblems of power. A crown had been used as an image on coins by King Athelstan in the 930s, though his immediate successors stuck mainly to the traditional diadem. Ethelred (978–1016) added a staff, symbolizing a king’s pastoral duties to his people, and was occasionally shown wearing a round cap, usually taken to represent a helmet based on Roman coin images rather than on contemporary armour. The ‘hand of Providence’ on the reverse of some of his coins implied God’s blessing on an anointed king (cf. Col. pl. F.2). Cnut (1016–35) began his reign with a coin showing him crowned, as though to emphasize that his usurpation of power was legitimized by God through his coronation; the crown was a new type, an open circle surmounted by gold lilies. He followed it with a coin that has him wearing a tall, pointed helmet, this time a form that was in contemporary use. The lily-circlet crown had already been shown in a manuscript picture being worn by King Edgar in c.966, and a domed version was drawn being brought down from Heaven to crown Cnut in a painting that commemorates his donation of a gold cross to the New Minster at Winchester.
Introduction
Authors: Trottier Julie
Published: November 2020

The need for interdisciplinary research on water is now widely acknowledged. Successful flood management, solutions to water scarcity, and adequate sanitation cannot be achieved otherwise. International organizations and national research councils have been promoting interdisciplinary research on water management and water development for several years. Yet, interdisciplinary research efforts generally fail, whether they are directed at water or at any other subject. Understanding the stumbling blocks that prevented successful inter-disciplinarity in the past is therefore important. This is a preliminary step to the construction of interdisciplinary methodologies that will allow water issues to be investigated successfully. A first stumbling-block arises from the issue of the definitions offered by the various disciplines. What is perceived as an objective problem by an engineer or a natural scientist is often described as a transient social construction by a sociologist or a geographer. Consequently the natural scientist often tends to focus on finding solutions to problems whereas the sociologist wants to move away from impact-oriented modes of understanding. This difference in issue definition often leads researchers to consider each other's pursuits as irrelevant, a phenomenon that constitutes an important obstacle in the quest for inter-disciplinarity. How can we build an interdisciplinary theoretical framework together when people are not asking the same questions? Many an interdisciplinary endeavour has shattered at this point and turned into a multidisciplinary project, harbouring parallel researches that defined issues and framed problems differently and each could not possibly feed the other. If we are successfully to take up the challenge of inter-disciplinarity we must start with an understanding of the various definitions and the perceptions of problems generated by the paradigms prevalent in every discipline. This volume of Linacre Lectures allows us to embark on such a path. Every contributor offers an analysis of a water issue as it emerges from his or her own disciplinary framework. This allows us to understand how issues appear differently within these disciplines. Identifying which issues are deemed to be independent and which dependent variables in each discipline allows us to begin a dialogue that can lead to the development of a truly interdisciplinary research framework.
Water Laws for Water Security in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Burchi Stefano
Published: November 2020

Concern for the long-term sustainability of water resources development and use has gained definitive prominence on the agenda of the world community at the Second World Water Forum and Ministerial Conference held at The Hague in March 2000. The concept and goal of water security were loosely articulated there, by reference to ‘key challenges’, namely, meeting basic needs; securing the food supply; protecting ecosystems; sharing water resources; managing risks; valuing water; and governing water wisely. Governance, in particular, attracted attention and debate at the International Freshwater Conference held in Bonn, in December 2001, preparatory to the United Nations World Summit for Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002) and to the Third World Water Forum (Kyoto, 2003). Governance has also attracted the attention of the water ministers of African countries meeting in Abuja, Nigeria, in April 2002, and it has been echoed in the ensuing Abuja Ministerial Declaration on Water committing African countries to put in place ‘arrangements for the governance of water affairs at all levels’. It is readily apparent that water security, and the governance issues which that concept and goal trigger in train, will be the mainstay of much contemporary international and domestic discourse about water resources. However, the authoritative pronouncements recalled earlier invariably fail to pin down with accuracy the concepts of ‘water security’, and of ‘good governance’ in relation to water. The ‘Recommendations for Action’ issued from the Bonn Freshwater Conference articulate seventeen priority actions in the field of water-related governance at the domestic and the international levels, which, in effect, help substantiate that elusive concept and translate it into measurable goals. Implicitly, action, in particular, at the domestic level is underpinned by legislation for the management and development of water resources, setting out a web of rights and obligations for the resource users, for government, and the members of civil society. This chapter will focus on such legislation, and, in particular, on the requirements for a supportive legal framework for the ‘priority actions’ recommended by the Bonn conference. A comparative state-of-the-art review and analysis of the contemporary legal framework for the management of water resources will first be made, and salient features and main trends highlighted.