bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Empire Fit for God’s Kingdom
Authors: Hart D. G.
Published: July 2021

Chapter 10 examines Franklin’s experience in London during Pennsylvania’s charter crisis of the 1750s, which positioned him to be the chief negotiator in London for American interests during the run up to the War for Independence. His politics were by no means simple since he admired the British constitution, the monarchy, and the British Empire. But the treatment he received in London turned him into a patriot and brought him home to assist the Continental Congress. Still, Franklin’s partiality to the British and his own desires to extend American influence westward made him congenial to Protestants who began to cooperate more consistently during the war and then after established ecumenical and missionary organizations to bring civilization to the American frontier.
Conclusion: The American Creed
Authors: Hart D. G.
Published: July 2021

The Conclusion sums up how, after Franklin’s death, his reputation rested on contemporaries and then historians and other writers. He had limited appeal to prominent Protestants even as business leaders and pastors later embraced Franklin’s understanding of religion in relation to the way to wealth. Historians recognized his remarkable career even while granting other American statesmen, no more devout than Franklin, were more profound than the Founder in their interpretations of divine providence. Franklin did not produce a set of reflections on the tragic aspects of human existence the way that other notable Americans did with the help of Protestant teaching. But he was no less a Protestant culturally than these other figures.
Creating Myth, Asserting Dynasty
Authors: Watanabe-O'Kelly Helen
Published: July 2021

The series of new nineteenth-century emperors analysed in this book begins in 1804 with two figures who exemplify two contrasting methods of projecting imperial power. One of them, Napoleon Bonaparte, concentrated his efforts on inventing a tradition and on creating a myth and a huge panoply of power to compensate for the fact that he was a parvenu. The other, Franz I of Austria, formerly Franz II, Holy Roman Emperor, quietly asserted his ancient lineage and reminded his people of his dynastic claim to imperial glory. This chapter analyses Napoleon I’s coronations as emperor of the French and as king of Italy and Franz I’s creation of Franzensburg, a dynastic monument open to the public.
Performing Emperorship
Authors: Watanabe-O'Kelly Helen
Published: July 2021

To be an emperor was a performance, which kept the emperor in power as long as it fulfilled a need in his subjects. The imperial court and its courtiers were the essential background for this performance. Coronation robes had to be invented and court dress designed and minutely regulated in order to mark gradations in rank among courtiers and officials. An extensive system of medals, honours, and decorations was used in all territories to reward those close to the crown and bind them to the emperor. In India, the viceregal court had to represent the might and magnificence of a distant empress and ensure the loyalty of the Indian princes who ruled a third of India.
Harnessing Religion to the Imperial Cause
Authors: Watanabe-O'Kelly Helen
Published: July 2021

Religion plays a central role in any monarchical system, for it is God Himself who is considered the fount of monarchical power. Imperial regimes, like monarchical ones, used religion to legitimate as well as to project their power. This chapter discusses Franz Joseph of Austria’s Catholic piety and how Napoleon I instrumentalized religion and clashed with the pope. It analyses the Feast of the Saint-Napoleon, which Napoleon III used to project his power, and the Hohenzollerns’ presentation of themselves as the defenders of Protestantism. The renovation of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, a huge programme of church building in the Prussian lands, and Wilhelm II’s three most prestigious church projects are discussed in detail.
Creating the Imperial City
Authors: Watanabe-O'Kelly Helen
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the creation of imperial cities: Paris was remodelled by Napoleon III, the layout of Vienna was altered in the era of Franz Joseph, and Berlin was expanded under Wilhelm I and Wilhelm II from a Prussian into an imperial capital. In each case this meant creating broad boulevards, green spaces, and impressive buildings, but also providing clean water, efficient sewage systems, street lighting, and local transport. Monuments celebrating victories and generals were also part of the urban design. London only built a ceremonial avenue in the twentieth century. Maximilian had great plans for Mexico City based on what he had seen in Paris, Vienna, and Brussels, while Pedro II built Petrópolis, a summer residence in the hills above Rio de Janeiro.
Inventing Empire in Twentieth-Century India and Britain
Authors: Watanabe-O'Kelly Helen
Published: July 2021

It was in the twentieth century, during the reign of Queen Victoria’s three successors, the King-Emperors Edward VII, George V, and George VI, that the concept of imperial India, Britain’s most important colony, was invented and promoted by means of architecture, ceremonial, and a new capital city. This chapter discusses the Victoria Memorial Hall, the Gateway of India, the building of New Delhi and the 1903 Durbar. George V’s Coronation Durbar of 1911 was accompanied in London by the Festival of Empire, the Pageant of London, and the Masque Imperial. Between the wars, the British Empire Exhibition and the Pageant of Empire of 1924 were designed to convince the British of the imperial project.
Ending and Remembering
Authors: Watanabe-O'Kelly Helen
Published: July 2021

Huge numbers of lives were lost in all the imperial wars, and millions of Indians died, not just fighting for the British, but in famines under British rule. Napoleon I and III, Wilhelm II, and Karl I were forced to abdicate after military defeat and Agustín and Maximilian of Mexico were executed. Pedro II of Brazil and George VI of India relinquished their thrones for other reasons. The chapter discusses how imperial cities bear witness today to the regimes that have gone and discusses what statuary and monuments in Paris, in Petrópolis, in Koblenz, and in India tell us about how vanished emperors are remembered.
Affects
Authors: Riccardi Mattia
Published: July 2021

This chapter is concerned with affects. It argues that Nietzsche conceives of affects as having a distinct phenomenology, a somatic dimension consisting in their immediate effect on the motor system, and a (positively or negatively) valenced representational content. After discussing the nature of affects, the chapter turns to consider the work of Chris Fowles and Peter Poellner on this subject. It registers its agreement with the reading of Nietzsche’s view on affects recently put forward by Fowles, albeit with a minor modification. However, it argues that the alternative account proposed by Poellner fails to capture Nietzsche’s own position. Finally, it offers a preliminary sketch of how, according to Nietzsche, drives and affects are supposed to work together.
The Surface Revealed
Authors: Riccardi Mattia
Published: July 2021

This chapter works out some of the key features of the notion of consciousness usually discussed by Nietzsche (most notably, in aphorism 354 of The Gay Science). Given such features (which include reflexivity, dependence on language and communication, and higher-order nature), it is argued that this notion of consciousness corresponds to reflective consciousness, i.e. the capacity for verbally articulated thought, the emergence of which is ultimately explained as a by-product of linguistic communication. The chapter shows how Nietzsche’s picture of reflective consciousness develops from Daybreak to Gay Science. Finally, it explores the link that Nietzsche draws between the emergence of consciousness and that of mind-reading capacities.
Reciprocity in Chinese Traditions
Authors: Barbalet Jack
Published: July 2021

Chapter 3 explores the possibility of locating principles underlying guanxi in classical Chinese traditions. First, the basis and nature of ‘reciprocity’ in Chinese culture is examined through analysis of the notions of bao and shu, and also renqing. It is shown that the concept of bao, drawn from different literary and institutional settings, is not source to a singular notion of reciprocity. It is also shown that the concept of shu relates to cognitive, affective, and imaginative practices, of role-taking, rather than to the more concrete enactments of exchange. The concept of renqing, widely regarded as both derived from the Confucian tradition and centrally important for guanxi, is shown to relate to everyday practices about which Confucius was uninterested, and which do not require traditional sanction. In positive terms, the chapter clears the ground in order to establish a distinctive account of the secular and self-generating practices of guanxi.
Trust in Guanxi
Authors: Barbalet Jack
Published: July 2021

Trust is widely considered a core element of guanxi. What are less frequently appreciated, though, are the culturally distinctive differences regarding the notion of trust in English-language and Chinese-language accounts, and the consequences of these differences for analysis of guanxi. In English, the default notion of trust is trustfulness, whereas in Chinese it is trustworthiness. This latter notion introduces an element of public assessment in the meaning of the term, with significant consequences for the Chinese notion of trust, which the chapter goes on to explore. The relevance of trust for networks, including guanxi networks, and the significance of influence and information in network ties and their relations with trust are considerations which run through the chapter. It is shown that, while social solidarity may arise through trust, this is an inadequate basis on which to explain guanxi solidarity.
Guanxi, Three Forms or One
Authors: Barbalet Jack
Published: July 2021

A consensus holds that guanxi has three forms—family, friendship and acquaintance guanxi—distinguished by the strength of obligation. It is also assumed that through fictive kinship, friendship and family guanxi may merge. The chapter shows that kinship obligations and guanxi obligations are fundamentally dissimilar, thus the notion of family guanxi is redundant, and that pseudo-family ties do not provide access to kin relations but affirm the distinction between family and friendship ties. Because guanxi is cultivated by its participants, friendship guanxi and acquaintance guanxi are not distinct forms but rather different stages of guanxi formation. In considering the sources of these confusions the chapter goes on to discuss problems arising from employment of common-language terms in sociological analysis, untested assumptions concerning Chinese culture, and methodological commitments which privilege latent structures of strong ties. It is shown that the strength of guanxi ties, strategically pursued by participants, fluctuate through agentic practices.
The 1641 Rebellion and Ireland’s Contested Pasts
Authors: Canny Nicholas
Published: July 2021

The 1641 rebellion elicited three distinct historical narratives. The first, put most cogently by John Temple, held that the government had engaged on a reform programme to benefit both natives and newcomers, until the Irish, guided by their priests, attempted to massacre the entire Protestant population, and would have succeeded but for providential intervention. Old English authors countered by acknowledging that the Gaelic Irish had attacked the settlers, but only because they had been treated unjustly by officials. They denied that a massacre had ensued, and argued that the Old English themselves had resorted to arms only to defend their patrimonies and their king from Puritan enemies in both Britain and Ireland. The third response, formulated in vernacular verse, detailed the mistreatment of Gaelic lords, explained how they had been forced to defend themselves, lamented the destruction that ensued when Cromwell invaded, and left their redemption to Providence.
Enlightenment Historians of Ireland and their Critics
Authors: Canny Nicholas
Published: July 2021

Elite Catholics, who accepted Hanoverian rulers as legitimate, believed that Enlightenment historiography would show the Penal Laws to be unreasonable, and would necessitate a re-definition of the Irish political nation. When Hume, whom these elite members esteemed, endorsed Temple’s interpretation of the 1641 rebellion, they commissioned a philosophical history for Ireland to be written by Thomas Leland, a Protestant divine. Leland failed to meet the expectations of his sponsors by concluding, after a close study of early modern events, that a single Irish political nation would exist only when Catholics renounced allegiance to the Pope. Failure to reach political consensus was largely irrelevant because popular histories showed that concessions to elite Catholics would not have assuaged popular discontent. Moreover, urban radicals, notably Mathew Carey, contended that Enlightenment thinking suggested that a multi-denominational Irish nation could be imagined only in the context of an independent Irish Republic.
Re-Imagining Ireland’s Early Modern Past during the Later Nineteenth Century
Authors: Canny Nicholas
Published: July 2021

The Great Famine provided a stimulus to the writing of history, not least because it eroded the credibility both of British rule in Ireland, and of Irish landowners. The new interpretations can be characterized as follows. The authors of a Catholic narrative wanted the Catholic nation that had emerged from suffering to be treated as an equal with the English and Scottish nations within a shared British monarchy. Militant nationalist historians cherished memories of Catholic sufferings in the hope that these would foment popular ‘disaffection’ and further revolutionary action. Moderate Unionist historians acknowledged the unjust treatment of the Irish in the past and detailed this to encourage the present government to promote reform that would elicit loyalty. Hard-line Unionist historians also faulted past British rule. Their concern, however, was that governments had not stuck rigidly to stern measures that would have produced stability. They believed that stability might still be achieved if the present government avoided conciliation.
Singing Rats and Sonar Bats
Authors: Stevens Martin
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines how animals have evolved a wide range of hearing organs to detect features of sound, some responding more to changes in intensity, others more to changes in pressure. Ears have evolved numerous times independently and they can occur in a range of structures and body locations. Hearing has numerous functions. For many animals, it is vital for detecting threats, such as an approaching predator. Hearing is also critical to a variety of other activities, from communicating territory ownership and trying to attract a mate, to detecting prey items in the undergrowth, and even sometimes in navigation. Of all animals, the group that must surely have the most remarkable and sophisticated hearing is the bats. Many bat species can echolocate using sounds that they produce themselves. The chapter also looks at the auditory system of owls and how rodents produce ultrasonic calls, called ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs).
Stars of the Tactile World
Authors: Stevens Martin
Published: July 2021

This chapter addresses the supreme level of refinement found in many animals for analysing tactile and pressure information. It begins by looking at the sensory organ of the star-nosed mole. The mole’s star-shaped organ is used purely for collecting tactile information. The chapter then considers the Eimer’s organs which cover every appendage that comprises the nose, some of which are used for initial prey detection, while others are for identification. Owing to the number of Eimer’s organs, their tiny size, and the way that the sensory cells respond to patterns of stimulation across parts of each individual Eimer’s organ, the mole obtains exquisite detail on texture, almost to a microscopic level. The chapter also discusses the highly refined tactile sense of spiders, looking at how they rely on vibrations transmitted through the ground, the silk web strands, or the surface waves and air for prey detection and capture. Spiders are equipped with a variety of sensors to detect mechanical information, including fine hairs sensitive to wind movement and touch, and special organs called slit sensilla around the joints of legs that measure physical forces acting on the exoskeleton. Finally, the chapter studies the nature and function of integumentary sense organs or ISOs in both crocodiles and alligators. The heavily built bodies of crocodiles and alligators belie a high sensitivity, being able to detect the slightest changes in touch and pressure.
International Law, the ECHR, and the EU
Authors: Wouters Jan , Ovádek Michal
Published: July 2021

This chapter focuses on the relationship between international law, the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), and the EU. International law features with respect to the EU both as an object of the EU's internal fundamental rights regime and as a source of human rights obligations. Whereas the latter reflects the original conception of international human rights law, the former is capable of generating unease due to the scope for contravening the principle of supremacy of international law. Moreover, although the ECHR can, in principle, be regarded as international law, it is of special importance to the legal order of the EU and its Member States, in addition to representing the most developed regional regime of human rights protection in the world. The specific character of the EU as neither a typical international (intergovernmental) organization nor a state often complicates the relationship with international law further. Nonetheless, Article 3(5) TEU requires the EU to contribute, in its international relations, ‘to the protection of human rights as well as the strict observance and the development of international law, including the respect for the principles of the United Nations Charter’. The chapter then looks at other Council of Europe instruments and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN CRPD).
Fundamental Rights in EU Competition Enforcement
Authors: Wouters Jan , Ovádek Michal
Published: July 2021

This chapter assesses the role of fundamental rights in EU competition enforcement. EU competition policy comprises a number of limbs, each with its own peculiarities and rules but together contributing to the objective of protecting (relatively) undistorted competition in the Union's internal market. The key reason why EU competition policy is an interesting and important case study from the point of view of fundamental rights application is enforcement. Unlike in other areas, the EU, in particular the European Commission, wields considerable powers when it comes to the protection of undistorted competition in the internal market. Although the extent of the enforcement powers and their potential impact on fundamental rights differs between the various aspects of competition policy, the field as a whole embodies supranational authority as almost none other. This is so despite the fact that in enforcing competition law the Commission cooperates closely with national competition authorities (NCAs) as part of the European Competition Network (ECN) and that the majority of decisions applying EU antitrust rules are taken by the NCAs.
Equality and Non-discrimination Law in the EU
Authors: Wouters Jan , Ovádek Michal
Published: July 2021

This chapter addresses equality and non-discrimination, which are explicitly acknowledged as foundational values in the EU context in Article 2 TEU. Similarly, the right to non-discrimination enjoys wide recognition in international human rights law. In the EU, non-discrimination had a specific role to play from the outset of European integration. Despite being founded without explicit reference to human rights, the original Treaty of Rome nonetheless prohibited discrimination on the basis of nationality (now Article 18 TFEU), as well as discrimination regarding pay between men and women (now Article 157 TFEU). Today, the scope of non-discrimination was enlarged, paving the way for Directives on racial equality and non-discrimination in the field of employment on the grounds of religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation. Moreover, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) identified the principle of equality as a general principle of EU law.
Human Rights in EU Migration Laws and Policies
Authors: Wouters Jan , Ovádek Michal
Published: July 2021

This chapter analyses the tools used as part of EU migration policy and argues that these are very much focused on control which has negative implications for the human rights of migrants. The EU's current status as a major international player in migration governance has become only possible after the development of the relevant competences on migration and asylum. The original Treaty of Rome included no provisions on migration other than those ushering in the free movement of workers among EU Member States. Today, the free movement of EU Member State nationals has been incorporated into the notion of EU citizenship which does not create a new and separate bond of nationality between the EU and the citizen, but refers to a collection of rights, duties, and political participation stemming from EU law. While the notion of migration covers both immigration and emigration, the chapter focuses on the laws and policies regulating immigration into the EU and briefly touches upon third country nationals' (TCNs) rights of residence and movement within the EU.
Human Rights in EU Trade Policy
Authors: Wouters Jan , Ovádek Michal
Published: July 2021

This chapter explores the role of human rights in EU trade policy. Ever since the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009, the EU has made the promotion of human rights an integral part of its trade relations with third countries. It has done so by requiring all external trade, cooperation, partnership, and association agreements, including unilateral preference regimes, to incorporate a variety of human rights commitments. After briefly sketching the general nexus between human rights and trade, the chapter outlines the gradual integration of human rights priorities into EU trade policy. It then provides a critical analysis of the various ways in which these commitments and strategic priorities have been operationalised through unilateral preference regimes as well as through regional and bilateral trade agreements, and includes an early assessment of the Union's use of sustainability impact assessments for trade negotiations. Finally, the chapter offers some critical remarks on the EU's promotion of human rights in trade.
Human Rights in EU Development Policy
Authors: Wouters Jan , Ovádek Michal
Published: July 2021

This chapter studies the role of human rights in EU development policy. The place of human rights in development policy was solidified at the constitutional level with the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, which made the promotion of human rights in all EU external action a legal obligation. As a result, different institutional mechanisms, thematic guidelines, and dedicated instruments and strategies have been put in place to consolidate a comprehensive operational framework aimed at ensuring that EU development programs advance human rights worldwide coherently and consistently. EU development policy is a shared competence, which means that both the EU and its Member States are entitled to act within this domain, as long as national actions do not undermine EU laws and positions. The sharing of competences, however, makes it more difficult for the EU to live up to the commitment of coherent and consistent promotion of human rights. In any case, substantial amount of coordination between the EU and the Member States is required in order to deliver coherence in development policy. However, the role of the EU as a normative leader in development cooperation remains subject to a multitude of long-standing criticisms and various evaluations of EU human rights policy point to a series of mixed results and missed opportunities.
Female and Male Mate Choice:
Authors: Schlupp Ingo
Published: July 2021

Females choose mating partners for three main reasons: direct benefits, indirect benefits, and compatibility, either genetic or social. In this chapter I am not trying to look at all angles of mate choice, but to give a short overview of female choice to provide a basis for a comparison with male choice. This will highlight what studies are needed to reach a more complete picture of sexual selection. I would summarize the chapter like this: it’s the ecology, stupid.
What Males Choose: Differences in Female Quality
Authors: Schlupp Ingo
Published: July 2021

In female choice, differences in male quality are very important. Males display to females to provide information often via costly ornaments. Females also differ in quality, but what they display to males is less clear. Also, how males evaluate differences in female quality is not well understood. From the literature on male mate choice one might conclude that female fecundity is the most important feature a female can display to a choosy male, but I argue that there must be many more features of females that are important in male mate choice, maybe even indirect benefits.
Male Investment and Male Choice
Authors: Schlupp Ingo
Published: July 2021

In this short chapter I revisit the role that male investment might play in the evolution of male mate choice. Simply put, one might expect with more male investment into reproduction, they may be more selective about with whom they mate. If the male investment is larger than the female investment sex roles are expected to flip. This is, however, not common. But even if males almost never invest as much or more than females, in many species they do invest somewhat, or even heavily. Should this lead to choosiness in males? I will provide a few examples where choosiness may be linked to investment in males.
Ornaments in Females
Authors: Schlupp Ingo
Published: July 2021

In this chapter I want to explore the role of ornamental traits in females. They pose a bit of a conundrum, as they are not really predicted to exist—at least until recently. From a simple sexual selection point of view, female ornaments should be selected against by males because inconspicuous females suffer less predation and are more likely to care for their offspring successfully. Yet, countless species show ornaments in females. Are they adaptations of some kind or just the side effect of a genetic correlation? And what information do female ornaments convey to males?
Female–Female Competition
Authors: Schlupp Ingo
Published: July 2021

There is no disagreement that males compete over access to reproductive opportunities. This competition can be covert or take the form of physical fights, which are easily observed in many species. Males take considerable risks when they fight, presumably because the price—access to reproduction—is so high. But what about females? They also often compete for males, but in less risky ways. They also seem to compete less directly for individual males, but more indirectly for resources that males can provide. Nonetheless, female competition is more important in shaping sexual selection than previously thought.
Synthesis and Outlook
Authors: Schlupp Ingo
Published: July 2021

In this final chapter I want to briefly recap what I presented in the previous chapters and provide a few ideas on what might be done in the future to move the field forward. All three factors I discussed as relevant in male mate choice—male investment in reproduction, sex ratios, and variability in partner quality—are still emerging fields in sexual selection research and need more theoretical and empirical work. I suggest that variability in female quality is more important and more complex than currently known. The same is true for sex ratios. On the other hand, I suggest that sheer investment in gametes may be a little less important than currently assumed. Most importantly we need to explore the interactions of these three pathways to male mate choice. Female competition and also female ornamentation are still somewhat enigmatic and both topics are likely to grow in importance for our understanding of sexual selection. I think considering male and female choice together, as well as female and male competition will ultimately provide a more complete picture of Darwinian sexual selection.
Introduction
Authors: Wilcox Vanda
Published: July 2021

Italy’s First World War is usually remembered and studied as a national conflict from 1915 to 1918. Instead, this book proposes an imperial framework to examine Italian aims, policies, and actions from 1911 to 1923. In particular, it traces four key strands through this period: Italy’s imperial and colonial aims in its wars against the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary; combat operations within its colonies; the global war effort including Italian emigrants around the world; and the Italian racial and colonial mentalities which underpinned these war efforts. After summarizing the key historiographical debates, particularly over liberal and fascist foreign policy and imperialism, this chapter outlines the structure and organization of the book.
Post-war Settlements in the Adriatic and the Balkans
Authors: Wilcox Vanda
Published: July 2021

The rejection of the Italian demand for Fiume led to much anger in Italy; interventionist poet Gabriele D’Annunzio spoke of a ‘mutilated victory’. Capitalizing on nationalist fury he independently led a small group to seize the city directly, creating serious tensions with Yugoslavia. Italian military occupations in neighbouring areas of Dalmatia sought to lay foundations for Italian possession but were unpopular with locals; Italian forces showed signs of growing radical nationalism. By the end of 1920 Italy had been forced to renounce most of its claims and D’Annunzio was forced out of Fiume. Further south in Albania Italy hoped to create a long-lasting protectorate building on its wartime occupation, but here too its colonial approach was unpopular and by August 1920 it had to admit its failure.
Africa and the Eastern Mediterranean After the War
Authors: Wilcox Vanda
Published: July 2021

Italy joined the Allies in sending troops to occupy the defeated Ottoman Empire; a detachment went to Constantinople while a larger Expeditionary Force, commanded from the Dodecanese islands, moved into Antalya and the surrounding region where Italy hoped to create a lasting Eastern Mediterranean sphere of influence or even perhaps a League of Nations Mandate. Ultimately, the Treaty of Sèvres was a disappointment, offering no guarantees in Asia Minor; since Italy was both unwilling and unable to fight against Atatürk’s forces to secure its goals in Turkey, it was forced to withdraw altogether by 1923, though it kept hold of the Dodecanese. In Libya, having lost functional control of the interior, Italy had few options but to concede considerable power to Sanussiya brotherhood and others. It also granted local constitutions in 1919, creating a new form of colonial citizenship there. Far from expanding it, the war had left Italy’s empire weakened.
Active European Union Influence
Authors: Lenz Tobias
Published: July 2021

This chapter traces the European Union’s active influence on the establishment of the Tribunal of the Southern African Development Community in 2005—a carbon copy of the European Court of Justice. The Tribunal’s creation is an inferentially powerful case to study active EU influence because it constitutes a least likely case from the perspective of existing explanations of dispute settlement design. Through a detailed process tracing exercise that reconstructs the collective preferences and institutional strategies of national governments and the process of international bargaining, it shows how the European Union, through its threat to withdraw funding from SADC, induced the creation of the SADC Tribunal. In the absence of EU influence, the chapter concludes, the Tribunal would not have been established; active EU influence made a counterfactual difference to SADC’s institutionalization.
Chinese Antitrust Exceptionalism
Authors: Zhang Angela Huyue
Published: July 2021

This introductory chapter provides an overview of Chinese antitrust exceptionalism and how it poses challenges to the existing global antitrust policy. Among the world's greatest economic powers, China brings up the rear in adopting modern antitrust law. Despite being a relatively new antitrust regime, China has not hesitated to impose harsh antitrust remedies on offshore merger transactions and intervene in business practices aggressively, departing from the usual approach of Western antitrust authorities. However, China is not only exceptional as an antitrust regulator but also as a target of antitrust regulation. In addition to being the second largest recipient of foreign direct investment (FDI) and a principle importer, China is the world’s largest exporter and one of the leading outward investors. In recent years, the swift expansion of Chinese state-owned enterprises (SOEs) into Europe has raised eyebrows of antitrust regulators. Moreover, Chinese manufacturers, coordinated by government-sponsored trade associations, have had to grapple with successive private lawsuits and hefty fines for operating export cartels in the United States.
Bureaucratic Politics behind the Rise of Antitrust
Authors: Zhang Angela Huyue
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the bureaucratic politics behind the rise of Chinese antitrust regulation. Chinese antitrust agencies are seldom subject to judicial scrutiny, and as a result, have monopolized the administrative enforcement of the Anti-Monopoly Law (AML). The severe sanctions that can be imposed under the AML give high-powered incentives to both government enforcers who want to expand their policy control and businesses who wish to use the law strategically to sabotage rivals. Moreover, the three former Chinese antitrust agencies were not assembled from scratch but were pre-existing departments within large central ministries. Naturally, the bureaucratic mission, culture, and structure of each of these agencies had shaped their enforcement agendas. Much of the discussion revolves around the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), as the agency stood out as the most aggressive institution among the three former agencies. Its rich record of enforcement also allows one to assess the link between these institutional factors and the pattern of enforcement. In 2018, the three agencies were merged into a single bureau under a newly created central ministry. The chapter then elaborates on the continuing challenges faced by this new agency, including the bureaucratic hierarchy, the power fragmentation, and the regional inertia.
Regulatory Hostage-taking and Shaming
Authors: Zhang Angela Huyue
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines the myth behind the paucity of appeals against antitrust agencies in China. The primary reason holding businesses back from defying Chinese antitrust authorities is not necessarily the perceived low probability of success in a Chinese court but rather the high transaction costs associated with such an appeal. Chinese antitrust authorities possess wide discretion over enforcement and can proactively apply it to entire firms to settle the cases. Firms operating in China, whether foreign or domestic, are likely to continue to interact with these agencies and their host ministries in the future. Businesses therefore avoid taking an aggressive and adversarial approach for fear of future retribution. In addition, Chinese government agencies are adept at using media strategies during enforcement. In several high-profile cases, the antitrust bureau at the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) deftly mobilized public sentiments through the state media, strategically shaming to prevent defiance of their orders, and relentlessly suppressing experts from voicing opinions that might threaten the legitimacy of its measures. In so doing, the NDRC was able to overcome its capacity and bureaucratic constraints, thereby quickly cementing its reputation as an astute and forceful regulator.
Weaponizing Antitrust During the Sino-US Tech War
Authors: Zhang Angela Huyue
Published: July 2021

This chapter demonstrates the close interdependence between the regulatory moves of the United States and those of China. Against the backdrop of the bitter Sino-US tech war, it applies game theory analysis of cooperation and conflict to examine the role of antitrust in China’s tit-for-tat strategy against the aggressive US sanctions. The US executive branch has wide discretion in prosecuting foreign businesses and individuals and has strategically used such legal discretion as an instrument of trade and foreign policy against China. China has retaliated in kind by invoking a number of regulatory measures. In particular, the Chinese antitrust authority has flexed its muscles by holding up large mergers between foreign multinationals, amending its antitrust law to allow for high monetary fines and potential criminal liabilities, and threatening to impose heavy sanctions on firms that boycott or refuse to supply key components to Chinese technology companies. As a result, the line between national security and antitrust policy, once belonging to separate spheres, has become increasingly blurred amid growing Sino-US tensions. However, similar to other countries that have applied countermeasures against US sanctions law, China faces significant economic constraints in weaponizing its antitrust law against US businesses.
Introduction
Authors: Vannier Marion
Published: July 2021

The introductory chapter lays out the puzzle surrounding life without the possibility of parole (LWOP). LWOP holds a unique place in the landscape of extreme forms of punishment. It stands at the intersection between the death penalty and long-term imprisonment. While recognized as being particularly cruel since at least Beccaria, relatively few empirical studies have focused on LWOP’S extreme severity. Despite growing awareness and evidence of LWOP’S cruelty, the punishment has become a rather ordinary practice in the American sentencing toolkit. The expansion and proliferation of LWOP in America stands in sharp contrast with the rest of the world where the punishment is deemed reprehensible. LWOP’S growth in the United States is particularly remarkable for the apparent dispassion with which the American public and various penal state actors have embraced and accepted such a practice. Other than prisoners-led organizations, like The Other Death Penalty Project, there are very few strong and vocal activist groups campaigning against the punishment. By contrast, strong and vocal groups have campaigned against prison overcrowding and death sentences. While sharing features with both imprisonment and the death penalty, LWOP’S extreme severity has not triggered similar attention and reaction. Instead, the punishment has even been actively promoted by a number of criminal justice actors including those who traditionally challenge degrading and inhumane treatments. This book investigates how, using the development of LWOP in the Californian death penalty context as an example, extreme forms of imprisonment can become normalized.
Campaigning for LWOP
Authors: Vannier Marion
Published: July 2021

Chapter 2 explores the broader political sphere and focuses on the strategies developed by two of the most vocal organizations involved in the Savings Accountability and Full Enforcement (SAFE) Campaign of 2012 in California (hereinafter SAFE Campaign): The ‘American Civil Liberties Union of Northern California’ (ACLU-NC) and ‘Death Penalty Focus’ (DPF). This chapter of the book combines an analysis of pamphlets, flyers, and public discourses, with a narrative informed by interviews with some of the Campaign’s most vocal activists. The politics of abolition in the public sphere are characterized by a progressive instrumentalization of LWOP’s severity that is shaped by penal populist paradigm shifts and heightened fiscal concerns.
Settling and Pleading for LWOP
Authors: Vannier Marion
Published: July 2021

In courtrooms, defence attorneys, too, rely on LWOP to avoid a death sentence for their client. In examining sentencing pathways, Chapter 3 finds that very little space is given to prosecutors, lawyers, and judges and jurors to discuss or debate, evaluate, and review the severity of LWOP. In part, this has to do with how the sentencing mechanisms—such as plea bargaining, mandatory application, and proportionality review—detach the offender, in particular his or her level of culpability, from the punishment. This chapter triangulates textual analysis of criminal and sentencing laws in California and interviews with prosecutors and defence lawyers. It also relies on a small statistical component of data on LWOP and death sentences collected from two district attorney’s offices (Alameda and Los Angeles).
Prisoners’ Experiences of LWOP
Authors: Vannier Marion
Published: July 2021

Chapter 4 sheds light on the punishment’s extreme severity. It is commonly assumed that LWOP differs from traditional death sentences because it preserves prisoners’ lives. Drawing on the 299 letters written by men and women serving LWOP in California, this chapter reveals other meanings of death, complicating conventional categorizations of punishments. Prisoners’ testimonies point to the certainty of dying behind bars as well as to the concomitant impossibility to quantify the time left to serve. Death also takes on a more embodied dimension, provoked by ageing and diseased bodies, as well as through the removal of parenthood and parenting. Death under LWOP is characterized by an indifference for prisoners’ human capacity to change.
Introduction
Authors: Howard-Johnston James
Published: July 2021

It was not a war to end all wars. It was not a war to destroy or truncate the Roman Empire in the east. The Persian aim at the outset was not even regime change, merely restoration of an ousted regime. But the fighting went on and on. There was a steady escalation in its scope and intensity with the passing years. After a decade of conflict, foreboding came upon contemporaries. The saints were plainly withdrawing their favour from mankind. God was turning his face from the present generation. The world and all things in it were being troubled because of man’s sinfulness, and those few who strove to squeeze out desire, ambition, envy, and other human feelings from their lives should withdraw and pray for a softening of God’s anger. For one distant observer, far to the south of the Fertile Crescent, where the two belligerent great powers were engaged in combat, the war presaged the end of time. The last days were at hand, when the earth would shake and the seas boil, when the sky would be torn apart and the stars scattered, when men would come face to face with the creator and manager of all things....
Khusro’s War of Revenge
Authors: Howard-Johnston James
Published: July 2021

The circumstances leading to war are enumerated—(1) gathering crises in the Balkans, Italy, and Armenia, and (2) Persian dissatisfaction with the current line of the frontier in the west. The November 602 coup of Phocas and execution of the Emperor Maurice, who had restored Khusro II to the Sasanian throne in 591, provided Khusro with a perfect pretext for going to war. The focus is then on Persian strategy. The main offensive thrusts alternated between the Mesopotamian and Armenian theatres of war in a first phase (603–5) which saw the outer defences of the Roman Empire breached. After a year’s pause, the offensive was renewed on a larger scale, simultaneous pushes being made in both theatres of war from 607, which brought Persian armies to the inner line of Roman defence on the Euphrates in 610.
The Heraclian Revolution
Authors: Howard-Johnston James
Published: July 2021

The initial impetus behind the revolutionary movement which brought Phocas down in October 610 is located in North Africa. In the name of the Senate, Heraclius and his father, the governor, built up support among the Berbers and wooed disaffected elements in Egypt and its western approaches (608), preparing the way for the stage-managed takeover of Alexandria (spring 609). Demonstrations of opposition to Phocas elsewhere in the Levant were brutally suppressed by Bonosus, who, with a small, swift-moving force, then tried and failed to drive the rebels from Egypt (609). Meanwhile, Heraclius was promoting disaffection from his base on Cyprus, before, in 610, leading the rebel fleet against Constantinople, gaining the formal support of the Senate, and capturing the city. The Phocas regime’s vulnerability is partly explicable by its commitment to the Persian war. There were no significant troop withdrawals from either of the fronts.
Khusro’s Fateful Decision
Authors: Howard-Johnston James
Published: July 2021

The first decisive moment in the war came in winter 615–16, when Khusro rejected a grovelling plea for peace made by the Senate, based on terms discussed by Heraclius and Shahen at a summit meeting on the Bosporus in 615. This was tantamount to a decision to liquidate the Roman Empire, which made sense in the context of the threat posed by the Turkish khaganate in the east. The following five years saw the Persians take over Palestine (616), raid Asia Minor (617), and conquer Egypt (619). In Palestine they reintroduced controls on Jewish immigration into Jerusalem and designated the Ghassan their chief clients among the neighbouring Arab tribes.
Heraclius’ First Counteroffensive
Authors: Howard-Johnston James
Published: July 2021

The second decisive moment of the war came in 624, when Heraclius sent off a diplomatic mission to the khagan of the Turks in central Asia and himself led a small, hardened expeditionary force deep into Transcaucasia and beyond. Speed of movement and surprise played key parts in the series of victories he won over pursuing armies in 625, after disrupting Khusro’s mobilization and sacking the fire temple of Adur Gushnasp at modern Takht-I Sulaiman in 624. The Romans benefited in several ways from this first counteroffensive: (1) the troops gained in confidence with each success; (2) serious damage was done to Persian resources by widespread raiding; (3) volunteers were raised from the Christian peoples of Transcaucasia; and (4) the Turks agreed to come into the war on the Roman side. After learning this from Turkish emissaries in Albania late in 625, Heraclius set off on the long march home.