bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Great Britain and the Post-War German Currency Reform
Authors: Turner Ian
Published: June 2009

British policy towards Germany during the period of occupation aimed at preventing a resurgence of German military might in the future, whilst ensuring stable economic conditions in the short term. By mid 1946, however, the scale of the economic problems confronting the occupying powers in Germany had already manifested itself in the reduction of food rations and the consequent falling off in the output of Ruhr coal. The fragile economy was to suffer an even greater setback during the cruel winter of 1946/7. The immediate restoration of economic activity became imperative, not least because the dollar cost of sustaining the British Zone with imported grain weighed heavily on the British exchequer.
Moral Government: J. S. Mill on Ireland
Authors: Zastoupil Lynn
Published: June 2009

Despite the stature of J. S. Mill as a political philosopher and the growth of interest in Irish history, the literature on Mill's writings on Ireland is sparse. Aside from passing comments in some of the major works on Mill, the issue has been addressed by only three recent scholars who, for the most part, have not dealt directly with the relationship between Mill's political theory and his published materials on Ireland. R. D. C. Black has concentrated on economic considerations, arguing that Mill broke ranks with most of the English economists of his time because he believed that Irish conditions were different from those of England and hence that radical land reforms were necessary for economic development in Ireland. E. D. Steele has challenged this position, claiming that Mill was not so radical about Irish matters in his early years, that Mill hedged significantly on governmental interference with landed property until the rise of Fenianism in the 1860s, and that, even then, Mill's reforming zeal was guided by his concerns for saving the Union and upholding the empire. R. N. Lebow has argued that Mill's writings reflect the tensions in his own thought and in Victorian England concerning individual rights and social concerns, suggesting that Mill resolved the problem only late in his life, by deciding that the interests of society (in this case, the issue of land reform for the benefit of Irish tenants) overrode the individual property rights of the Irish landlords.
A Concern for Understanding: A Case of Locke's Precepts and Practice
Authors: Mulligan Lotte , Richards Judith , Graham John K.
Published: June 2009

Like many of his contemporaries, John Locke was concerned with the problems inherent in both the communication and the recovery of an author's meaning. Language and its proper use was of the utmost significance for him. He was in no doubt that God had granted language to man to act as ‘the great Instrument, and common Tye of Society’, but though God-given, language as man had used it had not proved an unmitigated blessing:

he that shall well consider the Errors and Obscurity, the Mistakes and Confusion, that is spread in the World by an ill use of Words, will find some reason to doubt, whether Language, as it has been employ'd, has contributed more to the improvement or hindrance of Knowledge amongst Mankind.
Jacobitism and Country Principles in the Reign of William III
Authors: Monod Paul
Published: June 2009

Ours is the age of the Jacobite restoration – not in dynastic terms, but in historical scholarship. Parliamentary Jacobitism in the period after 1710 has particularly attracted recent attention. While disagreement persists among historians as to the extent and seriousness of tory involvement with the Jacobite cause, few would deny that the issue is significant. By contrast, the influence of Jacobitism on politics under William III has been almost entirely neglected. Beyond the shadowy conspiracies that have long fascinated researchers, little is known of the role of Jacobite sentiment in the political life of England between 1688 and 1702. Not much has been added to Keith Feiling's sixty-year old assessment of the Jacobites as ‘that right wing of Toryism, in which the whole pre-Revolutionary sentiment survived’.
‘Less Abused than I had Reason to Expect’: The Reception of The Wealth of Nations in Britain, 1776–90
Authors: Teichgraeber Richard F.
Published: June 2009

When Adam Smith set out to re-shape the dominant economic policies and assumptions of his time, he knew success in pressing for ‘free trade’ would depend on his ability to imprint his views on the minds of contemporary statesmen and legislators. But he was never confident that this operation might take place during his lifetime. In the Wealth of Nations, he declared that to expect freedom of trade to be accepted entirely in Great Britain was ‘as absurd as to expect that an Oceana or Utopia should ever be established in it’, and this was by no means an offhand remark. Much of the massive book was coloured by Smith's awareness that liberal economic doctrines, whatever their considerable intellectual merits, ran far ahead of actual political and social attitudes in eighteenth-century Europe. In the first half of the nineteenth century, a variety of political and economic developments of course refuted Smith's view that ‘free trade’ was an unattainable ideal. But the historical verification of his economic thinking was a slow, difficult, and limited process.
Labour, Society and the Drink Question in Britain, 1918–1939
Authors: Jones Stephen G.
Published: June 2009

The historiography of leisure has made considerable advances since the pioneering years of the early 1970s. Research into Victorian leisure has shown that some of the ruling elite attempted to fashion the life-style of working people in order to create a disciplined and reliable labour force which suited the needs of a maturing industrial and urban society, although it must be added that sections of the British public remained immune to attempts at moral reform and improvement. Professional labour leaders were also eager to control and regulate the amusements of the poor. According to trade union bosses like John Doherty, only a sober, industrious and thrifty working class could hope to achieve progressive reforms and some form of political and economic emancipation: workers who were intemperate would apparently stifle the opportunities and aspirations of the emerging Labour movement. Nowhere is this more true than in the Labour leadership's perception of and policy towards working-class drinking.
The Geopolitical Origins of the Central African Federation: Britain, Rhodesia and South Africa, 1948–1953
Authors: Hyam Ronald
Published: June 2009

The Central African Federation (1953–63) was the most controversial large-scale imperial exercise in constructive state-building ever undertaken by the British government. It appears now as a quite extraordinary mistake, an aberration of history (‘like the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem’), a deviation from the inevitable historical trend of decolonization. Paradoxically, one of its principal architects, Andrew Cohen (head of the African department of the colonial office) is also credited with having set the course for planned African decolonization as a whole. There have already been several attempts to explain how an error so interesting and surprising, so large and portentous, came to be made. No one, however, has yet presented an analysis based on British government archives, and the authoritative evidence that they alone can provide.
Edwardian Labour Unrest and Coalfield Militancy, 1890–1914
Authors: Church Roy
Published: June 2009

For many years a consensus among historians of the Edwardian age drew a contrast between the essentially stable, liberal society of the late Victorian years, when discussion, compromise and orderly behaviour were the norm, and an Edwardian society in which tacit conventions governing the conduct of those involved in social and political movements began to be rejected – by Pankhurst feminists, Ulster Unionists, trade union militants and syndicalists. This period of crisis was so described in 1935 by Edward Dangerfield in theThe strange death of liberal England, a brilliantly evocative title which, despite the lack of precision contained in the argument presented in his book, exercised an enduring influence on subsequent interpretations of British social and political history before 1914. G. D. H. Cole and Raymond Postgate reinforced this interpretation of a society in crisis, and not until Dr Henry Pelling'sPolitics and society in late Victorian Britainappeared in 1968 was the notion firmly rejected. There he denied that the convergence of the Irish conflict over home rule, the violence of the militant suffragettes, and unprecedented labour unrest signified either connexions or a common fundamental cause. The re-printing of Dangerfield's book in 1980 (and Pelling's in 1979) has been followed by renewed interest in these competitive hypotheses, and has led historians to re-examine the Edwardian age.
I. Noble Patronage in the Elizabethan Church
Authors: Claire Cross M.
Published: June 2009

Elizabeth made the decision that the English Church should again be Protestant, but the particular form of Protestantism to be adopted by the Church was not entirely in the power of the Queen, or even the Bishops to decide. A result of the dissolution of the monasteries and the sale of a large part of monastic lands by the Crown was that a greatly increased amount of patronage became vested in lay hands. The Church's theological inclination could be determined by the type of men presented by lay patrons to livings throughout the length and breadth of the country. One particular group amongst the Elizabethan nobility, the Earls of Leicester, Warwick, Huntingdon and Bedford, exercised a very remarkable influence upon the emergent Church of England. This study of the patronage of one member of the group, the third Earl of Huntingdon, illustrates how militant Protestantism could be injected into the Church.
4. Political Patronage at the Treasury, 1870–1912
Authors: Hanham H. J.
Published: June 2009

It is surprising that while there is a considerable literature dealing with the reform of the civil service from the time of Burke to the setting up of the Civil Service Commission in 1855, very little attention has been paid to the final stages of reform following the introduction of open competition in 1870. Yet it was in this period that patronage ceased to be of importance and the modern civil service developed. The Order in Council of 4 June 1870 which made open competition the normal method of entry to the civil service enormously reduced the scope of patronage, but it did not kill it immediately. Right up to the First World War remnants of the old system lingered in most departments, although by then a lavish system of honours and subsidies from the party funds had displaced the most objectionable forms of political patronage. The purpose of this article is to give some indication
VIII. The Establishment of the Cabinet Secretariat
Authors: Naylor John F.
Published: June 2009

In the aftermadi of replacing Asquith as Prime Minister in December 1916, David Lloyd George forged a greater change in the style of administration than in the content of the British Government's actions. Not until the spring of 1918 was he able to secure the replacement of the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, ‘Wully’ Robertson, and even at that time he dared not move against the all-too-entrenched commander of the British Expeditionary Force, Sir Douglas Haig; meanwhile, die war of deadly attrition persisted in France and Flanders.
Sir Joseph Yorke, Dutch Politics and the Origins of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
Authors: Scott H. M.
Published: June 2009

At the very end of December 1780 Britain formally broke off diplomatic relations with the Dutch Republic. The war which followed – the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War of 1780–84 – abruptly ended more than a century of friendship and alliance between the two states. It also proved to be a turning point in the Republic's domestic history: the shattering defeats inflicted by the superior British navy powerfully assisted the development of the Patriot movement, which was to break the mould of Dutch politics during the 1780s.
Naval Hagiography and the Victorian Hero
Authors: Hamilton C. I.
Published: June 2009

The word hero cannot be defined simply. According to time and speaker, it can imply anything from the bravery of a moment to the courage and statesmanship of a lifetime. We do not enjoy the distinction in English which La Bruyère drew in French: to him un héros was a young, dauntless and venturesome man, one like Alexander; but against him had to be set the truly great man, the grand homme, the one with judgement, foresight, experience and considerable ability - a man like Caesar. As we shall see, hero can be used to describe both kinds of men. But if it has no very specific meaning, it is an important word for any study of the Victorian era - an era that for our purposes is taken to cover the years from the 1830s to the outbreak of the First World War. For the Victorians loved a hero, and the word often came to their lips. Carlyle, whose Heroes and hero-worship was first published in 1841, thought that a nation's whole history could be told in terms of its heroes, and he and Kingsley and Froude, to name three of the important literary figures of the age, regarded heroes as being vital to any society. They thought it particularly important that the new burgeoning industrial society should have heroes of its own, and that these should act as beacons and as examples. As Froude said in Representative men (1850), ‘the only education worth anything is the education of character, and we cannot educate a character unless we have some notion of what we would form’.
The culture of reconciliation: community and the settlement of economic disputes in early modern England
Authors: Muldrew Craig
Published: June 2009

The period from 1550 to 1640 saw a tremendous rise in the amount of litigation initiated in England. Although the pattern of this great expansion is known, its social meaning is not yet clear. Litigation has, paradoxically, been interpreted as both the barometer of a breakdown in social relations, or alternatively as a functional means of dispute settlement. Here this problem will be addressed by placing the initiation of litigation within the context of the social practices and events which led to disputes, and also by looking at how contemporaries reacted to, and interpreted these events, both publicly and privately. Most litigation arose out of economic disputes concerning credit and contracts, and this was a result of the growth of marketing in the period. Such disputes were seen as threatening to the social order, and were something which contemporaries took very seriously. The primary means of dealing with disputes was to attempt to initiate a community negotiated Christian reconciliation between the disputing parties in order to maintain social peace and concord. But as the market grew more complex, and disputes became more difficult to resolve, increasingly the authority of the law had to be invoked. This in turn led to the development of a more pessimistic language of social relations which stressed that any form of positive sociability could only be maintained under an institutional umbrella created by the threat of authority. As a result, community relations and reconciliation, although still defined in terms of Christian love and charity, came to be seen as more functional than normative because of the massive interjection of the civil law into day to day life.
Imperial backwater or strategic outpost? The British takeover of Vicky Madagascar, 1942
Authors: Thomas Martin
Published: June 2009

Between June 1940 and September 1942 the French colony of Madagascar was a part of the Vichy French empire and a life-line for supplies to French Indo-China. Governor Paul Annet's island administration assumed a critical importance to Britain and South Africa after the fall of Singapore in February 1942. Conscious of the precedent of Vichy's two-fold capitulation to Japanese demands upon Indo-China in August 1940 and July 1941, both the British and the American governments feared that Annet might follow suit, conceding to Japan the use of Madagascar's principal ports and air bases. This threat led to the invasion of Madagascar by British empire forces. The attack began in May 1942 and was completed by October. Much to General Charles de Gaulle's lasting annoyance, the Free French movement played no part in these operations, although the British installed a Free French administration at Tananarive in December. This article examines the Madagascar invasion in the light of this exclusion of the Free French. It measures the strategic importance of the island against the political damage caused to Anglo-Free French relations by the British rebuttal of de Gaulle. It is argued that the British government utilized the Madagascar takeover as a means to keep the French national committee in check, disregarding Free French proposals as a result. Albeit temporary, this generated political confusion within Madagascar itself.
Codebreaking in World Wars I and II: the major successes and failures, their causes and their effects
Authors: Kahn David
Published: June 2009

The story of signals intelligence begins in the days of the pharaohs. A letter records the intention of a foreigner to determine the meaning of fires raised by the Egyptians. (No one knows if he succeeded.) Several centuries later, in 207 B.C., the Romans intercepted a letter from Hasdrubal to his brother Hannibal, further south in Italy. It enabled the Romans to concentrate their forces at the Metaurus River to defeat the Carthaginians. This was the only battle in Edward S. Creasy'sThe fifteen decisive battles of the world: from Marathon to Waterloothat depended upon intelligence for its victory.
Imperialism in Decline? Tendencies in British Imperial policy between the wars
Authors: Darwin John
Published: June 2009

The inter-war years are a nomansland in the history of British decolonization. Conventional as it is to see the first World War as a great watershed in British imperial history, separating the era of strength and success from the age of decline and dissolution, it remains difficult to show conclusively that the disintegration of the imperial system had become inevitable before the second World War. Yet historians have felt instinctively that after 1918 much of the crude self-confidence had drained out of British imperialism. The age when Curzon could proclaim heroically that ‘efficiency of administration is in my view a synonym for the contentment of the governed’; when Cromer could lecture the khedive of Egypt like a schoolboy; or when Milner could set out to demolish everything that preserved a separate identity to the Afrikaners, appears in striking contrast to the post-war era when statesmen spoke the language of trusts and mandates, genuflected before the image of self-determination and claimed that self-government was the ultimate purpose of colonial rule. But for all the piety of its new principles, post-war imperial policy seemed strangely reluctant to liberate Britain's dependencies or hold out firm promises of independence; and the imperial government periodically repressed its recalcitrant subjects with a vigour and efficiency that would have impressed Lord Kitchener.
The Factory Politics of Lancashire in the Later Nineteenth Century
Authors: Joyce Patrick
Published: June 2009

John Morley, a son of Blackburn, wrote of the Lancashire of the 1860s; ‘as a rule in the cotton districts where the trade relations between master and man have been … established on a satisfactory basis, the man, in the truly feudal spirit, takes part with his master, and wears his political colour. This current of things … “esprit de corps” interesting the employed in the triumph of this mill over that, is not likely to change immediately nor for a long while to come’.
Parliament in the Sixteenth Century: Functions and Fortunes
Authors: Elton G. R.
Published: June 2009

Even though so much has so often been done, the study of parliament remains active, not least so for the sixteenth century. A fresh look at the present state of the question seems appropriate on this occasion when we are assembled to commemorate Sir John Neale, the foremost historian of the Tudor House of Commons. It is now nearly twenty years since Neale completed his life's work, and those twenty years have not been without further study and thought, sometimes assisted by the discovery of new evidence. No one, we may be sure, would have been better pleased than today's honorand to find that what so fully engaged his interest and his labours should continue to attract his successors – to know that he had not closed a book but opened a window.
Golden age to separate spheres? A review of the categories and chronology of English women's history
Authors: Vickery Amanda
Published: June 2009

Two very powerful stories structure the history of the changing roles of English women. The tale of the nineteenth-century separation of the spheres of public power and private domesticity relates principally to the experience of middle-class women. The other story, emerging from early modern scholarship, recounts the social and economic marginalization of propertied women and the degradation of working women as a consequence of capitalism. Both narratives echo each other in important ways, although strangely the capacity of women's history to repeat itself is rarely openly discussed. This paper critically reviews the two historiographies in order to open debate on the basic categories and chronologies we employ in discussing the experience, power and identity of women in past time.
Methods of Determining the Numbers of Bacteria in Milk
Authors: Mattick A. T. R.
Published: June 2009

One fact emerges from a consideration of the literature upon the methods at present in use for determining the bacteriological content of milk, viz. no one method is capable of giving exact information as to the numbers of living bacteria present.

The plate count has been shown to be subject to a number of limitations to its accuracy, but it is possible that these are much more the result of failure to appreciate the importance and effect of observing the protocols of a standard technique, than of insurmountable causes of error inherent in the method. Any one laboratory should be able to return results which are comparable from sample to sample, but as has been shown, it is unlikely that results will agree between laboratory and laboratory unless the most rigid precautions to secure uniformity are enforced. This latter fact does not seem to be of very great importance, since the most that can be expected is that results shall reflect the condition of the milk at the time of examination. These will be governed by the previous history of the milk. Figures have been given which show (p. 120) that, if milk is properly produced and handled, the bacterial content will be, even 24 hours or more after milking, within the range where the plate count as a method of computation is more reliable than any other known method.

From the point of view of keeping quality and value for some manufacturing purposes, milk is either good or bad, and the obvious inaccuracy of the plate or any other method is a matter of small importance when the bacterial content has once exceeded 500,000 per 1 c.c.

Nevertheless there is no sort of justification for attempting to separate milk into classes, which are not broad enough to include the variations which have been repeatedly shown, although not always on sound lines, to occur in the figures. It may be possible so to separate milk of very low bacterial content, but it is not possible to do so when the bacterial content exceeds, say, 200,000 per 1 c.c. It must always be remembered that the colonies appearing on agar plates arise from groups as well as from individual bacteria.

In view of the fact that keeping quality, the basis on which the consumer judges milk, depends upon the kinds as well as upon the numbers of bacteria, it appears wise to supplement bacterial examinations with determinations of keeping quality, and, in view of their special significance, of organisms of the coliform group.

It seems that, although the methods of Breed and Frost are excellent for rapidly classifying milk into broad grades, their accuracy is necessarily diminished by their very nature, in that the results obtained are dependent upon computation to a greater extent than the plate method and, although it is possible to secure good results, the time consumed in getting these is as great, if not indeed greater, than by the plate method.

The reductase test, although it has a large sphere of usefulness as a factory method, will not give accurate information as to the numbers of bacteria in milk.
19. The Influence of other Bacteria on the Production of Acid by Lactic Streptococci in Milk
Authors: Cox G. A. , Whitehead H. R.
Published: June 2009

Four organisms commonly found in contaminated milk (B. coli, B. subtilis, a staphylococcus, and B. faecalis alkaligenes) were grown in milk in association with lactic streptococci, and the acidity produced in a given time was determined. B. subtilis appeared to stimulate the production of acid. B. coli caused a decrease in acid production in some experiments, and an increase in others. The staphylococcus had a slight stimulative effect. B. faecalis alkaligenes had only a slight effect which was barely beyond experimental error. There was no indication that any of the organisms are responsible for the cessation of acidity production which sometimes occurs in milk during cheese manufacture. However, the results were not conclusive in this connection, since the experimental conditions did not simulate those obtaining in a cheese vat.
Part III. The Basis of Control
Authors: Hiscox E. R. , Christian M. I.
Published: June 2009

In the foregoing parts it is indicated that great difficulty may be experienced in the control of the spoilage of commercial sterilised milk which results from the development of spore-bearing bacteria.

A detailed study of the actual sources of contamination is now being made, but in the meantime it may be pointed out that many of these bacteria are typical members of the soil flora. They may therefore enter the milk from the dust either at the farm or the factory. The greater the care with which the milk is handled from the time of milking until the end of the heating process, and the greater the efficiency of the cleaning and sterilisation of the plant and the empty bottles, the less will be the danger of spoilage arising from the use of infected milk. During the course of the investigations recorded it has been necessary to carry out numerous control experiments. The milk used has been Grade A (T.T.) milk and the utensils with which it came into contact and the empty bottles into which it was poured were clean and sterile. There has never been the least difficulty in obtaining a sterile, fresh-smelling and sweet-tasting product after heating at 100°C. (212°F.) for 30 minutes and storing at 22°C. (72°F.).
40. Heredity and Milking Function: The Inheritance of Milk and Butterfat in Red Poll Cattle
Authors: Hewitt A. C. T.
Published: June 2009

This study is a continuation of the investigations of Prof. Agar, Professor of Zoology, University of Melbourne, entitled “Heredity and milking function,” which appeared in the Journal of Agriculture of Victoria in January, 1926; and it deals with the inheritance of milk, butterfat percentage, and butterfat in the Victoria Stud of Red Poll Cattle owned by the Department of Agriculture of Victoria, at the State Research Farm, Werribee. The milk and butterfat records used in these investigations are the 273 day records performed under the regulations governing the Victorian Government Pure-bred Herd Test, published annually, and included in the successive volumes of the Red Poll Herd Book of Australia. They cover the period since the establishment of the Government Herd Test—1912–13 to 1929–30.
43. Normal Growth of Dairy Cattle
Authors: Bartlett Stephen , Jameson Joan Lyster
Published: June 2009

1. Normal curves of growth for dairy Shorthorn cattle from birth to 5 years of age are presented. These include height at withers, length of body, depth of chest and live weight.

2. The expression of growth by the “Relative growth rate” method is discussed and illustrated. The method is particularly suitable for expressing the growth of calves under 6 months of age.
47. The Errors Involved in Certain Methods of Estimating the Lactation Yield of Milk and Butterfat
Authors: Houston John , Hale Robert. W.
Published: June 2009

An analysis of the data collected at the Agricultural Research Institute for Northern Ireland, Hillsborough, County Down, was undertaken to find if the system of milk recording practised in Northern Ireland is satisfactory.

The standard deviations of the errors in the calculated milk yields, on a weekly and 2-weekly basis, of 24 cows were found. It is shown that weekly weighings give results which approximate closely to the true milk yield.

By basing the calculated butterfat yields on tests made at intervals of from 1 to 8 weeks, the standard deviations of the errors in the calculated butterfat percentages for each interval, as well as the maxmium errors, were found. It is shown that as the interval between the tests is lengthened, the errors increase. With tests made at intervals of 6 weeks, most of the errors in the calculated butterfat percentages will be less than 8-5 per cent., but in some cases the calculated butterfat percentage may differ from the true butterfat percentage by over 12 per cent.

In order to ensure that the errors in calculated butterfat percentages do not exceed 10 per cent., the interval between butterfat tests should not exceed 1 month.
55. The Distribution of Salt in Cheddar Cheese
Authors: McDowall F. H. , Whelan L. A.
Published: June 2009

1. Figures are presented which show that there is a very appreciable variation in the salt and moisture contents of small plug samples taken from different cheeses from the one vat.

2. The fact that a cheese plug has to be ground to a paste before good duplicate results for salt content can be obtained is a further illustration of the variation in salt content within a single cheese, and of the slowness of diffusion of salt in Cheddar cheese.

3. The extent of diffusion of salt into unsalted Cheddar cheese has been measured in two different experiments. The results show that diffusion is very much slower than in Limburger cheese, probably owing to differences in moisture content and texture

4. It is well known that salt has an inhibiting action on the growth of bacteria in cheese. With variation in salt content from place to place in a cheese it is therefore to be expected that local variation will be met in the bacterial content. This may explain in part at any rate, the difficulties encountered in obtaining concordant results for estimations of number of bacteria in cheese.
76. Variations in the Solids-not-Fat Content of Milk. I and II
Authors: Bartlett S.
Published: June 2009

1. The solids content of fat-free milk shows little variation throughout the milking process, i.e. first and last drawn milk are of similar concentration.

2. Curves are presented showing the normal variation in the solids content of fat-free milk throughout a lactation period. These curves are influenced by the age of the cow and by pregnancy.
114. The Rate of Milking by Machine
Authors: Foot A. S.
Published: June 2009

1. With the cows and machines tested there was a great range in the duration of milking, the coefficient of correlation between yield and duration of milking being 0·429.

2. With some individual cows the correlation between yield and duration was high, and lines representing the regression of the duration of milking relative to the amount of milk drawn have been constructed.

3. Average composite curves representing the rate of milking at various stages during the complete operation have also been set out for varying yield groups. The main conclusions to be drawn from these curves are:

(a) With some cows the rate of flow was noticeably checked about –1 min. after milking commenced. This check was of temporary duration.

(b) Maximum rate of flow in all yield groups was reached about 2 min. after milking commenced.

(c) A very much more rapid rate of flow was recorded with high yields than with low yields.

(d) The decrease in rate of flow near the end of milking was rapid, especially with high yields.
115. Factors affecting Milk and Butterfat Secretion. I. Varlations in Fat Weight, Fat Percentage, and the Amount of Fat in the Milk Required to make a Given Weight of Butter
Authors: Whetham Elizabeth O. , Hammond John
Published: June 2009

1. The ratio of the weight of fat in the milk required to make 1 lb. of butter has been taken to indicate the size of the fat globule in the milk, and so the type of “ cream line ” produced.

2. The Dairy Show records have been analysed from this standpoint, and variations in the above ratio studied together with variations in milk yield, fat yield and fat percentage. The effects considered are those between breeds and within breeds, the latter including milk yield, period of lactation and ageof cow.

3. With a constant milk yield the fat percentage does vary between breeds, but not to the same extent as it does when no account is taken of the differences in average yield of the different breeds; the same applies tothe fat: butter ratio, i.e. size of fat globule. The effect of equal increases of milk yield on the butter:fat ratio is much greater between breeds than it is within any one breed.

4. It is suggested that the size of the fat globule is determined by two factors: (a) the rate of butterfat formation by the cell, which varies with breed and stage of lactation, and (b) the rate of milk secretion which affects the size of the globules by the rate at which they are washed out from the cell.
Diacetyl in Cold-Stored Butters
Authors: Barnicoat C. R.
Published: June 2009

1. Acetyl methyl carbinol and diacetyl are present in New Zealand butters made from slightly ripened cream.

2. Most of the carbinol + diacetyl found in such butters would appear to have been added with the starter to the cream, rather than developed during the customary mild ripening process.

3. Little change in the natural carbinol + diacetyl content of butter occurs during cold storage at 14—17° F. for more than 6 months.

4. Larger amounts of diacetyl (4 p.p.m.) added to butters made from cream with and without the use of starter, show considerable losses after several months' cold storage. The losses are of the same order, but, with the butters, made with starter, part of the diacetyl has merely been reduced toits precursor (carbinol) form.
123. The Effect of Variations in Feeding on Dairy Cows Yielding Milk of Poor Quality
Authors: Stewart Alice Watson , Tocher James Fowler
Published: June 2009

Four cows, all giving milk low in solids-not-fat, were used for the experiment:

1. The change from winter rations to pasture produced a decided increase in the solids-not-fat percentage and milk yield.

2. Well-balanced rations fed to the cows during two lactations showed a small rise in the milk yield and solids-not-fat during the second lactation, but did not increase the solids-not-fat to above the 8·50 per cent, limit.

3. Feeding a high protein ration of albuminoid ratio 1:2·76 produced no change in milk yield or casein, decreased the solids-not-fat and lactose, and increased the total milk nitrogen and albumin and globulin nitrogen.

4. Feeding a high carbohydrate ration of albuminoid ratio 1:9·90 did not affect milk yield, fat or ash, but decreased slightly the solids-not-fat.
131. A Study of the Bacterial Flora of Foremilk and of Rennet Extract, with Special Reference to Acid-Proteolytic Types
Authors: Knowles N. R.
Published: June 2009

A survey has been made of the flora of foremilk and rennet extract with special reference to acid-proteolytic types. In both instances, acid-proteolytic cocci were isolated of the type Staphylococcus sp., Micrococcus caseolyticus, M. freudenreichii, Streptococcus liquefadens. Older rennet samples were found to be more productive of proteolytic cocci than either the fresh rennet or the foremilk. Many of the isolated cultures from rennet and from the foremilk failed to show any obvious peptonisation in milk, but yet were capable of liquefying gelatin. These strains may aid in the final breakdown of splitprotein products in a medium such as ripening cheese. The isolated acidproteolytic types were capable of considerable casein degradation in milk. In conclusion, it appears that the foremilk and rennet extract contribute a number of acid-proteolytic organisms to cheese, and that these types may aid in the ripening process.
140. The Nutritive Value of Raw and Pasteurized Milk for Calves. The Assimilation and Retention of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Calcium
Authors: Blackwood Janet H. , Morris Samuel , Wright Norman C.
Published: June 2009

1. A study has been made of the assimilation and retention of nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium by calves fed on raw and pasteurized milks. Sixteen calves were used in the experiments.

2. No significant differences were found between the two types of milk.

3. An examination of the percentage retentions of nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium indicates that milk is relatively deficient in calcium and to a less extent in phosphorus when used as the sole food for calves. The N/Ca balance can be improved by including pasture grass or hay in the ration.
141. A Pigment-producing Organism (Pseudomonassp.) Isolated From Discoloured Butter
Authors: Hiscox E. R.
Published: June 2009

An organism, isolated from discoloured areas in butter and capable of reproducing the colour in artificial culture, is described.

A brown colour, which may probably be attributed to the action of ammonia produced by this organism, diffused through the medium.

A blue-black insoluble pigment, produced only at low temperatures, was concentrated in and around the bacterial cells. The nature of the source of nitrogen influenced the development of this pigment, proteose appearing to be inhibitory.

NaCl in moderate concentration was usually necessary for growth.
145. Discoloration and Corrosion in Canned Cream
Authors: Jackson C. J. , Howat G. R. , Hoar T. P.
Published: June 2009

Several defects in canned cream after some months' storage have been classified: (1) “purpling” of the can, due to a film of tin sulphide, (2) pitting of the can, associated with (3) formation of black patches and of black specks in the body of the cream, consisting of ferrous sulphide, stannous oxide or both.

“Purpling” is produced by excessive time and temperature of sterilization, owing to the liberation of active sulphur compounds which attack the tin. Addition of sodium bicarbonate up to 5 g. per gallon has, if anything, a slightly beneficial effect.
167. Discoloration and corrosion in canned cream. Part II
Authors: Jackson C. J. , Howat G. R. , Hoar T. P.
Published: June 2009

A Preliminary investigation of certain defects and the results of the short time storage of experimentally processed batches of cream have been reported in a previous communication(1). The results of further storage of these batches and of additional batches utilizing different stabilizing agents are now presented. It is thought that a complete picture of the corrosion phenomena and the main factors influencing them have now been obtained.
169. A statistical inquiry into the inheritance of milk yield in three herds of dairy Shorthorn cattle
Authors: Smith A. D. Buchanan
Published: June 2009

The paper embodies an examination of the possibility of sex-linked genes affecting the transmission of milk yield. To reduce environmental effect the study was restricted to three herds of the English Dairy Shorthorn breed, and each herd was considered as a unit. Fisher's Squared Difference method was used.

The lumped results confirm previous work to the effect that the paternal grandsire has a lesser effect than the maternal grandsire. In this respect the figures for one herd did not agree with the other two.

The largest herd (which showed this difference) was divided into two sections, high and low yielders. These sections did not show any difference in the relative effect of the two grandsires. The implications of this are discussed, and it is tentatively suggested that if sex-linkage operates it has a considerable effect of some 250 gallons on an average yield of 600 gallons.
172. The effect of commercial sterilization on the nutritive value of milk. IIb. A note on the effect of the method of feeding dried skimmed milk on the biological value of its proteins
Authors: Henry K. M. , Ikin E. W. , Kon S. K.
Published: June 2009

1. In experiments in which the biological value of the proteins was measured spray dried skimmed milk was fed separately from or mixed with a basal “nitrogen free” diet.

2. At a 6·9% level of protein (N x 6·38) intake the first method of feeding yielded a biological value of 87·2, the second of 90·3. The difference was not statistically significant (odds of 9: 1 against chance factors).

3. The findings do not account for the low biological value reported by us previously for the proteins of raw liquid milk.
179. Annatto as a cheese colour
Authors: Carrie M. S.
Published: June 2009

Standardization of annatto in aqueous solution has been shown to be unsound, and it has been recommended that standardization be carried out on the basis of the depth of colour produced in cheese itself.

A paper colour standard resembling the German butter standard has been suggested for cheese, the same standard being suitable for the evaluation of annatto solutions for cheese-making.
182. Variations in the protein content of milk during lactation
Authors: Azarme E.
Published: June 2009

1. It was planned to study the variations of the protein content of milk during the lactation period.

2. The total protein nitrogen and the casein nitrogen were determined by approved methods in about 380 weekly samples of milk taken from twentyseven individual cows of different breeds and at different stages of lactation, from February to July 1937. The albumin+globulin nitrogen was calculated in each case by difference.

3. The statistical analysis of the figures was made by the methods of “factorial arrangement” and by “pairing”, and also by the estimation of the 95% probability range of the mean of the figures available for each week of lactation.

4. It was found that the percentage of total protein nitrogen decreases very significantly from the beginning until the 4th week of lactation, and then rises slowly until the end of lactation, the rise being more pronounced to wards the end. The same was true for casein nitrogen and for albumin+globulin nitrogen, but with the latter only the decrease at the beginning and the rise at the end were sharp. The rise for the rest of the lactation curve, although it did exist, was very slow.

5. The lactation curves for the yield of total protein nitrogen, casein nitrogen and albumin + globulin nitrogen were practically parallel with the lactation curve for the yield of milk.

6. The correlations between the yield of milk and the percentages of total protein nitrogen, casein nitrogen and albumin + globulin nitrogen are studied and the correlation tables with all details are given for each. It is noteworthy that the regression lines are not linear and that with a poor milker an increase of 1 lb. in yield of milk corresponds to a relatively high decrease in the percentage of protein nitrogen, whereas with a high milker this decrease is relatively much smaller.

7. The correlations between the yield of milk and the yield of total protein nitrogen, casein nitrogen and albumin + globulin nitrogen are examined and the correlation tables are given. It is shown that there is a close correlation between the yield of milk and its protein content, from which the conclusion is drawn that a very low protein food does not decrease the percentage of protein in milk as one might expect, but decreases the yield of milk and increases the percentage of protein in milk. On the other hand, an increase of adequate protein in the ration may raise the yield of milk if it is not at its maximum level.

8. It is emphasized that the above conclusions are drawn from a study carried out on a group of cows, and may not be strictly applicable to individual cows.
200. The colorimetric determination of pH in milk and whey by means of the “Wulff” pH tester
Authors: Aschaffenburg E.
Published: June 2009

It has been repeatedly pointed out(1, 2, 3) that the properties of cheese during the different stages of its manufacture should be correlated with the hydrogenion concentration rather than with the titratable acidity. Little systematic work has, however, so far been carried out in this direction, except for a study of the relationship between pH and titratable acidity in Cheddar cheese by Brown & Price(4). In planning work on similar lines, it was realized that the potentiometric methods of determining pH require expensive equipment and skilled attention, so that a supplementary colorimetric method, if sufficiently accurate to indicate the major changes in pH, should appeal more strongly to the practical cheesemaker on account of its cheapness and simplicity and the ease with which the outfit can be transported.
201. The solubility of Cheddar cheese curd in sodium chloride solutions
Authors: McDowall F. H. , Whelan L. A.
Published: June 2009

Measurements are reported of the solubility, in water and in sodium chloride solution of different concentrations, of the protein of cheese at various times after manufacture. The solubility in 3–10 % sodium chloride solutions reached approximately 100% within 7 days after manufacture of the cheese, both for normal and high rennet cheese, and remained at that value throughout the life of the cheese (8 months). Since the proteins of cheese are thus shown to be equally soluble in sodium chloride solutions corresponding in concentration to those encountered in the whole range of commercial cheese(1), the effect of salt concentration on cheese quality is not to be attributed to a variation in the solubility of the protein in the brine.
209. Studies in mastitis. I. The routine diagnosis of mastitis
Authors: Davis J. G. , McClemont J. , Rogers H. J.
Published: June 2009

In recent years the attention of those interested in all aspects of the dairy industry has been focused upon the subject of mastitis, particularly the chronic streptococcal type. On account of the wide distribution of this disease and its adverse effect upon milk and milk products, it has become urgently necessary for the producer, distributor and manufacturer to be able to recognize mastitis in the cow and its effect upon the milk. It is, therefore, desirable that all those interested in dairying should be as fully informed upon the subject as possible. Many simple tests for the detection of mastitis have been described and are in common use, although so many papers have been published showing their limitations that it is surprising that workers should continue to use them(1, 2, 3, 9). Opportunity has been afforded to the writers to make an extensive examination and comparison of such, tests, with the main object of finding out if any simple test, or combination of simple tests, is really satisfactory for the diagnosis of chronic streptococcal mastitis. The enormous literature upon mastitis (much of it uncritical and, therefore, of little use) makes an adequate summary impossible, even if it were desirable in a paper of this nature, but reference may be made to a useful summary by Munch-Petersen (1).
210. Studies in mastitis. II. A comparison of methods for the detection of subclinical mastitis
Authors: Davis J. G. , McClemont J.
Published: June 2009

Many tests have been used for the detection of subclinical mastitis and these have been enumerated by Munch-Petersen(1) and Rosell(2). In view of the continued recommendation and use of these tests in many countries it was felt desirable to make a careful assessment of their value.
217. The white particles in mature Cheddar cheese
Authors: McDowall F. H. , McDowell A. K. R.
Published: June 2009

The white specks appearing in mature Cheddar cheese have been shown by analysis to be calcium lactate.