bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Early language
Authors: Heine Bernd , Kuteva Tania
Published: November 2023

The goal that we want to achieve in this book is a fairly ambitious one: Considering that there are 4,000–6,000 languages spoken in the world, exhibiting a wealth of contrasting structures and socio-cultural environments, reconstructing all this diversity back to one earlier form of language is a task that is near to impossible. The reason we are nevertheless tackling this task is that we are restricting analysis to one specie methodology and to a limited spectrum of phenomena. The procedure adopted in the preceding chapters was to concentrate on grammaticalization in reconstructing some properties that are hypothesized to have characterized language at an earlier stage of human evolution. In the present chapter we will recapitulate the main Windings presented and deal with the questions that we listed in Chapter 1 (example (1)). While discussion in the preceding chapters was concerned with observations made within the framework of grammaticalization theory, in this chapter we will also look at findings made by other authors using alternative approaches and/ or drawing on wider ranges of relevant phenomena.
ConsciousnessƖ௦ and Essential Embodiment I: The Basics
Authors: Hanna Robert , Maiese Michelle
Published: November 2023

Let us begin at the beginning—with consciousnessƖ௦. According to our view, every creature with a consciousnessƖ௦ is an essentially embodied mind. In turn, an essentially embodied mind is a minded animal, or more precisely, a conscious, intentional, motile, suitably neurobiologically complex, egocentrically-centered and spatially oriented, thermodynamically irreversible living organism. I have a consciousnessƖ௦. You have a consciousnessƖ௦. Your newborn baby, your cat, your dog, your horse, the mouse in your yard, the squirrel in the tree in the park, and the rational human animals living in the house next door all have consciousnessƖ௦. You have conscious feelings. They have conscious feelings. You spontaneously move your own living body because of your feelings, and by means of those feelings, and you thereby express those feelings. And they do so too, because of their feelings, and by means of their feelings, and in some way or another that is expressive of those feelings. We perceive this, and affectively respond with some further bodily movements of our own. To the extent that we are all doing this, we are all empathically mirroring each other. Indeed, there is even a specialized neuronal system set up within us for empathic mirroring, cƖ௦sely associated with learning natural languages.
Essentially Embodied Agency III: Emotive Causation
Authors: Hanna Robert , Maiese Michelle
Published: November 2023

The Essential Embodiment Thesis emerged from Chapters 1 and 2, in which we argued from neurophenomenological premises that conscious, intentional mindsƖ௦ are necessarily and completely neurobiologically embodied. In Chapters 3 and 4 we argued that the pre-reflectively conscious intentional activity of effortless (as opposed to effortful, self-conscious or self-reflective, deliberative) trying, together with its active guidance of body movements, is the mental cause of all basic intentional action, and that this fact adequately explains the difference between actions (the things we intentionally do) and unintentional body movements (mere bodily events, or the things that just happen to us). If so, then I act intentionally if and only if I move my own living body by pre-reflectively conscious effortless trying and its active guidance.
The Metaphysics of Agency II: And How to Solve It
Authors: Hanna Robert , Maiese Michelle
Published: November 2023

The only possible ways to reject this line of thought would be to claim either that the principle of the Causal Closure of the Physical or CCP rules out organismic living events as physical events that efficaciously cause other physical events, or that the Causal Exclusion Problems show that organismic life is epiphenomenal. And neither of these options seems in any way philosophically viable, even for the most hardnosed materialist. Although we fully agree with Kim’s critiques of Dualism (whether Sub-stance Dualism, or Property-Dualism-Without-Substance-Dualism) and Non-Reductive Materialism, we also think that he unfairly stacks the deck in favor of solutions based on Reductive Materialism. He does this by adopting a certain interpretation of the highly plausible principle CCP, which says that only physical events can nomologically sufficiently cause physical events. Kim’s interpretation is also the standard interpretation. The standard interpretation of CCP assumes that the fundamental physical properties of the natural world necessarily exclude intrinsic connections with fundamental mental properties.
The Metaphysics of Agency III: Where the Action Is
Authors: Hanna Robert , Maiese Michelle
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we complete our argument for the Essential Embodiment Theory of the mind–body relation, mental causation, and intentional action. In a wordbite, what we want to demonstrate is that essentially  embodied minds are where the action is. In Section 8.1, we argue that the mental–physical property fusion relation at the basis of essentially embodied minds is best understood, in a neo-Aristotelian way, as a hylomorphic—i.e., a matter/form or stuffing/structure—relation of joint constitution, according to which a conscious, intentional mindƖ௦ is the irreducible and truly global intrinsic structure of a suitably neurobiologically complex living animal body. Now the Latin word for ‘mind’ or ‘soul’ is anima, and this beautifully captures the sense in which a conscious, intentional mindƖ௦ is that which animates a suitably neurobiologically complex living organismic body. To animate something in this sense is to channel its natural forces and causal powers by providing its otherwise unstable dynamic processes and disparate moving parts with an inherently dominating organization or pattern.
The ‘Soldiers’, the ‘Priests’, and the ‘Hospitals for Contagious Diseases’: the Producers of Archaeological Matter-realities
Authors: Hamilakis Yannis
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides a brief background to the main structures and agents that are responsible for archaeological production in Greece. It is not, however, a neutral, encyclopaedic presentation, but rather a selective and critical discussion. Its aims are not to provide a full and comprehensive presentation of the status, the workings, and the problems of these structures and agents, but rather to re-examine them in the light of the main focus of this book, that is their entanglement with national imagination, offering at the same time a glimpse into their inner workings, rationale, and culture. The main institutional structures and sites of production of archaeological matter-realities in Greece are the State Archaeological Service, the Athens Archaeological Society, the universities, the foreign archaeo logical schools and institutes, and the museums and private collections; overlaying all this is the legal framework on antiquities.
Nostalgia for the Whole: the Parthenon (or Elgin) Marbles
Authors: Hamilakis Yannis
Published: November 2023

5 December 1997; a cloudy, typically Welsh, early morning. I am one of two passengers in the only taxi-van around, rolling through the Welsh hills towards London. Why am I doing this? The pretext/excuse is that I am going to participate in a demonstration organized by societies of Greek students outside the British Museum, to demonstrate for the return of the Parthenon marbles to Greece. A bus-load of Greek students—some my own students—left the campus very early that morning to participate in the event. I am not among them, I am not going for the same reason, although I did sign (with some scepticism) the petition when a couple of students knocked on my office door a few days ago.
The Nation in Ruins? Conclusions
Authors: Hamilakis Yannis
Published: November 2023

It is not possible to appraise Greek Culture as a whole, through a computer screen. Nevertheless, being aware of the force and the potentialities of new technologies, we tried to squeeze in this program the millennia of artistry, the centuries of outstanding art, the achievements of the human spirit, the routes on which the western civilization strode in order to reach its current form. We tried to give you only a fraction of this great adventure that it is called Greek Culture, from antiquity up to our days . . . The name we gave our server is ‘ODYSSEUS’ because we believe that he, the greatest of all voyagers, is the most representative Greek of all. He is also the character most apt to lead our steps to the fascinating quest you just start.
Innovation and Archaism
Authors: Faraone Christopher A
Published: November 2023

In addition to re-performing and improvising upon the archaic repertoire, Greeks continued to compose original elegiac poetry down to the beginning of the fourth century, just as new epic poems were still being composed, even while the rhapsodes performed and to stanzaic design—at least among the amateur performers in private symposia—seems to decline. Unfortunately not much survives of the original elegiac compositions of the classical age. Among the recently discovered fragments of Simonides’ elegies, for example, a short section of his long narrative poem on the battle of Plataea tantalizingly suggests some knowledge of the elegiac stanza, but in the end it is too damaged to provide any hard evidence.
Practising Deception: Spring Wheat and Midwife Toads
Authors: Harré Rom
Published: November 2023

This book is about the many ways that scientists, honest and dishonest, have made use of equipment at least part of which has been drawn from a living source. Though this chapter is about scientific fraud, a key part of the material needed for dishonest endeavours is just as much drawn from the living world as that put to use in honest research projects. There are very few examples of deliberate fraud in the history of experimental science. Temptations are subtle and resistance to them not so difficult. However, sometimes the attraction of dishonesty proves too strong.
Prologue When Climate Changed the Course of History
Authors: Finlayson Clive
Published: November 2023

CONTRARY to popular belief, history does not repeat itself. The story of our planet was not predetermined, there was no air of inevitability to it, and the story of life does not speak to us of a linear progression from primitive to sophisticate. Instead, its shape has been carved out by the accumulation and loss of information, genetic and cultural, creating the illusion of relentless progress. This history is full of cases in which chance events radically altered the world and changed its course. Had these random proceedings not happened in the time and place in which they did, I would certainly not be writing these lines today nor would you be reading them. This book is about one of countless stories of life on Earth; it is of particular concern to us, not because it was in any way extraordinary but because it involved our own species. The world is full of successful living beings some of which have persisted, barely changed, for millions of years. They have been the lucky ones because the way that they adapted to their present inadvertently made them successful in their futures. We might arrogantly think of ourselves as members of the exclusive survivors’ club but, in reality, we are mere novices in comparison to some of the tough designs out there. Even they are the exception though, most species having gone out of business at one time or another during the course of the Earth’s haphazard history. As circumstances have changed— continents moved, mountains grew, seas receded, ice caps expanded, climate dithered—most species went extinct and new ones captured a slice of the market. Among the new ones were several kinds of human. The Neanderthals were one of them and they became a highly successful people who managed to live in the increasingly inhospitable world of Europe and Asia for over 300 thousand years, a lot longer than the period that covers our own time on this planet. One day the Neanderthals shared the fate of millions of other life forms and died out. This book is the story of the Neanderthals, how they came to be so successful and how they eventually vanished. How was it that an intelligent and triumphant kind of human could become so vulnerable to external forces that it went extinct? But this is also the story of our own kind, a parallel dynasty of humans that shared parts of the planet with the Neanderthals for a while.
Africa in Europe— A Mediterranean Serengeti
Authors: Finlayson Clive
Published: November 2023

Aline of cork oak trees was silhouetted against a pastel sky as the sun rose as a red ball over the low and distant horizon. Patches of orange water glistened against a dark background of sedge and rush. The nocturnal chorus of frogs sang their encore and went to sleep before the first hungry kites took to the wing in search of breakfast. Raucous calls from within the oaks signalled another day in ‘la Pajarera’, as the huge heronry was known in these parts. The tones became harsh as the lifting sun shone brightly across the marsh. Serenely sitting on the highest branch of the highest tree was the lord of this scene— the Spanish imperial eagle. This is how I recall the wilds of the National Park of Doñana in south-western Spain. The Victorian naturalist Abel Chapman fittingly described this remote corner as a piece of Africa in Europe. But why am I describing this Garden of Eden at all in a book that is about our evolution and that of our The scene that I describe could have easily been seen by a Neanderthal 30 thousand years ago. This is not a romantic extravagance of my imagination. It is statement based on solid evidence excavated over a period of seventeen years in the caves of the Rock of Gibraltar. It was here that the last Neanderthals on the planet survived for at least 2 thousand years later than anywhere else.
Forever Opportunists
Authors: Finlayson Clive
Published: November 2023

THE spreading out of a Central Asian population into Europe around 30 thousand years ago was only part of a wider picture. There is no reason to suppose that such an expansion followed a single direction. After all this was not a concerted drive or migration, like the raids of Genghis Khan and his Mongol hordes would be many millennia later, but a demographic collared dove-style expansion. We have seen the driving force behind the expansion and the human response is what biologists would call ecological release: a population adapts to a new, untapped, environment and spreads rapidly in the absence of competitors. There are many such examples of animals that have been introduced into foreign lands by people, often with hugely negative effects on the local endemic fauna. The rapid expansion, practically reaching France from the steppe within a millennium, may have been the result of a simple increase in birth rate and decrease in mortality as a result of improved resources. The catalyst of the rapid expansion may have had to do with the new way of life of the plains people. In the previous chapter we touched upon the village or camp site as an information centre, allowing different groups of hunters to exchange data about where the herds were located. The eﬃciency of hunters on the open plains would have been seriously compromised if all the individuals of the group—old, young, pregnant women, weak individuals—went along. Such movement of entire kin groups might have been possible in other environments where territories were smaller, and it was probably the way the Neanderthals moved about.
Old Gods, New Homes
Authors: Erskine Andrew
Published: November 2023

The Second Punic war introduced two new gods into Rome, Venus Erycina from Sicily and the Magna Mater from Asia Minor.1 Both came on the recommendation of the Sibylline books, both were mountain goddesses who found homes on the hills of Rome, and both are something of a puzzle. Viewed from one angle these cults appear to have no Trojan character at all, but from another angle the Trojan content is all too obvious. Livy who provides the fullest, and apparently most reliable, account of the introductions of these two goddesses has nothing whatsoever to say about Troy or Trojan ancestry in either case. Yet, other presentations of these cults, for instance by poets such as Ovid or Vergil, Jay considerable stress on it. Various explanations can be put forward for this striking contrast: Livy knew, but did not think it relevant; Troy was more appropriate to poetry than to prose; the Trojan character was a later accretion on a Troyless episode, perhaps even a product of Augustan ideology. There may be truth in all these but in themse1ves they seem rather inadequate. The answer should be sought again in the relationship between Rome and the outside world. Although certain patterns will be found to recur, it is useful to look at each goddess separately.
Nudity and Divine Symbols
Authors: Hallett Christopher H
Published: November 2023

The portraits of women in the guise of goddesses (Pls. 123–4) actually return us to a controversial issue which we have skirted a number of times already, but which now needs to be squarely faced. In the last chapter we attempted to explain why it was that Romans chose to have themselves represented in heroic costume (nude and carrying weapons). But a question of equal importance still remains to be asked. What did it mean when nude portraits were furnished—not with weapons— but with divine attributes (as in Pls. 96 and 99)? Once again the question can only be approached by drawing on, and taking account of, a wide array of different kinds of evidence. And in this case, before we can even begin our discussion, we must first address two widespread modern misconceptions: misconceptions about the general significance of nudity in Roman art, and the use of divine attributesin Hellenistic and Roman portraiture.
Introduction
Authors: Little Wood Roland
Published: November 2023

While these lectures draw in part on my clinical work as a psychiatrist with patients from religious movements in the West, they are primarily based on earlier anthropological fieldwork with a new African Caribbean religion in Trinidad (which has provided the first detailed day-to-day account of the genesis of a new religious cosmology) and more recently with ethical transformations in the older Caribbean cults (shango, vodu), and among the ultra-Orthodox Jewish Hasidim. There is a close relationship between the explanations of misfortune (which are hardly arbitrary), reconciliation, and restitution in the historical-and other-religions and in therapeutics. I think that cosmological and redemptive assumptions exist in any type of healing, whether physical or psychological. Spiritual and healing conceptualizations interpenetrate in a number of surprising ways, and I examine the religious turn in systems of therapeutics as well as the appearance of healing practices within social institutions which are more generally regarded as religious.
In Defence of Euhemerus
Authors: Little Wood Roland
Published: November 2023

The I was,, the Haitian gods who possess their initiates in vodu, comprise a number of different families. The benign and nurturant rada spirits came to Haiti from Dahomey with the slaves who served them; the kongo spirits from further east, again during the slave trade. Many of the characteristics of these deities can still be identified in their African cognates in their personality, sentiments, and physical comportment, ritual paraphernalia, and so on. One group of gods however, called creole, or petro, appeared only during the period of Caribbean slavery: in this pantheon we find French mermaids and sea captains, bibulous peasants and such historical figures as Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the first emperor of independent Haiti, and more recently Fran9ois (Papa Doc) Duvalier, the physician who ruled Haiti from 1957 until his death in 1971.
Satan and the Computer: The Euro-American Revival of Spirit Possession
Authors: wood Roland Little
Published: November 2023

In this lecture, I shall consider how a near-supernatural cosmology is generated out of radical personal experience in something many commentators have compared to the witch-finding hunts of early modern Europe, and, in its personal manifestation, to the anthropologists’ spirit mediumship. And in this I would suggest we have something approaching a ‘natural model’ for the phenomena I have been considering..
Editor’s Introduction
Authors: Haas Frans De , Mansfeld Jaap
Published: November 2023

The first book of Aristotle’s De generatione et corruptione is a difficult text which deals with a number of key notions in Aristotle’s physics, and does so at a high level of abstraction. These characteristics may serve to explain the choice of the Symposiasts for GC I: it is indispensable because it deals with key notions of Aristotle’s physics in a way they are not dealt with anywhere else in the Aristotelian corpus. Moreover, because it is notoriously difficult, there is room for improvement on existing scholarship.
Conclusions
Authors: Cavanagh Matt
Published: November 2023

This is not the kind of concluding chapter that exhaustively recapitulates what has gone before. Readers who feel the need for recapitulation would be better served by returning to the arguments themselves. As for those who have picked up the book and turned straight to this point hoping for a summary of the main conclusions, they will be disappointed. But if there is a single message coming out of the book as a whole, it is that things are often more complicated than they first appear, and that any view which lends itself to simple summary is likely to be wrong. Indeed, theories such as equality or meritocracy, which purport to explain everything with a single idea, are not only wrong but also unhelpful: their influence makes us assume that even if they are wrong, the right answer will have the same basic shape. Whereas in fact, among the loose confederation of ideas that travel under the heading of’ equality of opportunity’, those that turn out to be worth defending-non-discrimination, and the idea that everyone should have some control over their lives are not complete theories in themselves, nor do they obviously fit together to create a complete theory.
Deletio nata atque mortua
Authors: Merchant Jason
Published: November 2023

This chapter reviews representative accounts of extant approaches to sluicing, and shows that each of them fails to deal either with the apparent island- insensitivity of sluicing or with the form-identity facts documented in Chapter 3.

This chapter uncovers a richer set of data than the more schematic data presented in the last chapter, and sets the stage for addressing a range of analytic questions that will be taken up in detail in the next chapter.

4. I Ross (1969): Deletion and the Problem of Islands

Ross (1969) proposes a simple deletion account, where deletion of the sentential part of an embedded question is licensed by phrase-marker identity with a preceding sentence. The particular formulation he gives will not concern us (even at the time, Ross recognized its shortcomings), but rather its overall approach, translated into our current understanding of PF-deletion.
Deletio redux
Authors: Merchant Jason
Published: November 2023

We are now in a position of apparent contradiction: how can the form- identity effects be reconciled with the island-insensitivity? In this chapter, I will propose a two-pronged approach to this conundrum: some islands are indeed PF-phenonema, with the deviancy repaired by PF-deletion, while other cases of apparent insensitivity to islands are illusory on closer inspection. At the core of my analysis rest two ideas: first, that the condition on identity that deletion is sensitive to is a fundamentally semantic one, not a structural one, as proposed in Chapter 1, and second, that ellipsis in sluicing is the result of PF-deletion. This combination of semantic conditions with deletion will strike some as odd: generally, the proponents of deletion have been identified with those who claim that the conditions on deletion are indeed structural, while the semantic theories of conditioning have tended to leave the syntactic side underinvestigated. But there is no inherent incompatibility in the claim that I am making here. Rather, it simply states that while ellipsis sites contain syntactic structure (unpronounced due to PF-operations of deletion, triggered by the E feature of Chapter 2), the fact that they are ellipsis sites is due to semantic considerations (ideally also implemented by means of E, as proposed in Chapter
Forty Years of Amazonian Anthropology: The Contribution of Peter Rivière
Authors: Rival Laura , Whitehead Neil
Published: November 2023

Amazonian anthropology has always, from the time of the first European encroachments into the Americas, been a highly contested intellectual field. The ‘new’ world that was encountered in intellect and imagination by the first Europeans provoked fundamental debates about the nature of humanity—whether it was the formal disputation of Las Casas and Sepúlveda in Seville as to the intellectual capacities and spiritual origins of the peoples of America, or Jean de Lery and Antoine Thevet disputing the meaning of the Christian Eucharist within Protestant and Catholic liturgical tradition by reference to the anthropophagic rituals of the Tupinamba.
The Composition of Mbengokre (Kayapó) Households in Central Brazil
Authors: Lea Vanessa , Paulo Sao
Published: November 2023

Rivi ère (1984) in his synthesis of the social structure of the Guianas uses Central Brazil as a kind of interlocutor with which to reflect on the contrast between these two areas. His analysis of the significance of houses in the Guianas (199Sb) provides a striking contrast with my portrayal of Mebengokre houses in Central Brazil (Lea 1995), helping to highlight the wealth of social and cultural diversity which is gradually being appreciated in the ethnographies of lowland South America.
The Hierarchy Bias and the Equality Bias: Epistemological Considerations on the Analysis of Gender
Authors: Lorrain Claire
Published: November 2023

It has been argued that some analyses of Amazonian gender politics involve a hierarchy bias stemming from Western political philosophy (McCallum 1994; Overing 1986b: 138, 142; 1989b: 160; 1989a: 97). Interpretations of symbolic violence in myths and rituals as the pure and simple expression of ‘male dominance’ or a ‘battle of the sexes’ (Bamberger 1974; Gregor 1985; Nadelson 1981) would seem a clear example of such a bias (McCallum 1994), given that Amazonian gender symbolism has complex, multi-layered meanings which are clearly not reducible to any simple interpretation (S. Hugh-Jones 1996b: 8; Jackson 1992; Lorrain 1994, 1997, 2000; McCallum 1994).
Origins
Authors: Gentilcore David
Published: November 2023

In our times their number and variety have grown like weeds, so that in every city, in every town, in every square, one sees nothing but charlatans and mountebanks. Before the word ciarlatano had become common currency in Italy, and before it occurred to anyone to license them, an itinerant herbalist had a notary formalize his business relationship with a ballad-singer. Notarized contracts were already a common way of sealing and recording business agreements in Italy. Giovanni di Giovanni, of Valencia, identified himself as a ‘herbalist and seller of a powder against worms in children ’.
Commercial Exchanges and Therapeutic Encounters
Authors: Gentilcore David
Published: November 2023

In February 1620 the Paduan Dionigio Alberti was in Rome, selling his Seme di ricino preparato (castor-bean preparation) from Piazza Navona. This was a powerful purgative. Such was the considered potency of this form of treatment, according to Galenic principles, that Alberti was able to claim its efficacy for a wide variety of ailments: ‘chill pains’ (rheums), dropsy, worms, colic, stomach ache, pains in the joints, ear ache, head ache, vertigo and other ‘defects of the head’, and scab.
Print
Authors: Gentilcore David
Published: November 2023

In making use of the forms of communication available to them, Italian charlatans relied just as much on writing and print as on performance, mixing literacy with orality, like the society around them. Italian society was intensely legalistic, so it comes as no surprise that an itinerant herbalist might have a notary draw up a formal contract between him and the ballad-singer accompanying him, as we saw in Chapter 3. Accompanying this was the spread of literature and its penetration into everyday life from the beginning in the fifteenth century. By the sixteenth, a limited ability to read and write may have been attained by a majority of the male urban working population.
Action: Awareness, Ownership, and Knowledge
Authors: Peacocke Christopher
Published: November 2023

Tony Marcel’s chapter ‘The Sense of Agency: Ownership and Awareness of Action’ is a rich and original contribution to our philosophical and psychological understanding of awareness of action. Even experienced enthusiasts are likely to find Tony’s chapter to be very closely packed with ideas and proposals. So it will help to structure the discussion if we extract some of its main theses here: 1. There is a way of being aware of one’s own actions that is distinct from, and can exist in the absence of, both one’s own observation and proprioception of those actions. This special way of being aware of one’s own actions is naturally described as being aware of them ‘from the inside’, and it involves in normal cases a species of first-person awareness that one is doing something.
What is Justice?
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

What is justice? It cannot be captured in a simple formula like ‘the rendering to each person of what is his’. That traditional definition from Roman law gives the principle of justice for settling disputes in civil law, but it does not cover the justice of criminal law or claims made in the name of justice outside the sphere of law. The idea of justice has complex ramifications. Yet it would not be true to say that it lacks a unity binding its different elements together. The meaning of justice is pretty well captured in a more familiar term, ‘fairness’, which is not at all obscure and is readily grasped even by yow1g children. ‘Justice’ and ‘fairness’ are not in fact synonyms, and in Chapter 21 I examine the differences between them; nevertheless they are very close to each other, so that it is usually possible to substitute one for the other without serious change of meaning.
Justice in the Bible
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

It is often said that the ethics of the Old Testament concentrate upon justice while those of the New concentrate on love. This way of describing the difference between the two Testaments can be misleading to people who do not know that the two great commandments of the Christian Gospels, to love God and to love our neighbour, are quotations from the Pentateuch. The Old Testament in fact refers far more frequently to love than to justice. Still, it is true that the concept of justice has a prominence in the social ethics ofthe Old Testament which is not apparent in the New. I hope that this makes it reasonable to confine my discussion of justice in the Bible to passages from the Old Testament.
Plato’s Republic
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

The full title of Plato’s Republic is ‘Politeia(Governance) or On Justice’. The main subject matter is indeed governance, the establishment of governed order in society—though in the course of the book Plato relates that topic to all other branches of philosophy or theory— but a central issue in the main subject is justice. The book begins with justice and ends with justice.
David Hume
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

Hume set out his ethical theory in Book III ofA Treatise of Human Nature,published in 1740, and then restated it less elaborately inAn Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals,first published in 1751. His account of justice has a vital role in his ethical theory, and his ethical theory as a whole is the most important example of empiricist moral philosophy. One would therefore expect his discussion of justice to make a signal contribution to elucidating the concept. In fact, however, it fails to do so. This is because Hume’s idea of justice is curiously narrow. It is largely confined to the rights of property and the obligation of promises. (In theTreatise,Hume treats the keeping of promises as an obligation closely allied to justice rather than included in it. In theEnquiry,however, he says that promise keeping ‘is itself one of the most considerable parts of justice’.) On these two matters Hume does indeed advance understanding with the kind of subtle thought and novel outlook that we find in his theory of knowledge. But although property rights are a major segment of the subject matter of justice and cover more than one might clunk at first sight, they certainly do not take up the whole ofit. And wlule the obligations and rights of promises and contracts form a network essential to social life, they are not normally thought of as part of the concept of justice. It is of course true that the rights of contract, like those of property, are protected by the civil law and so come under the aegis of the system of legal justice; but that does not make them part of the concept of justice proper.
Hume’s Critics: Kames and Reid
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

Hume’s view of justice was criticized by three other notable Scottish philosophers, all of whom nevertheless recognized his pre-eminence as a thinker. Lord Karnes and Thomas Reid both attacked Hume’s thesis that justice is artificial. Adam Smith said nothing about that but criticized the view that justice depends on utility, clearly having Hume in mind but without naming him.

Henry Home, Lord Karnes, a kinsman of Hume, reached distinction as a judge and jurist, and some reputation as a moral philosopher. HisEssays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion,first published in 1751 with a revised second edition in 1758, include a chapter (Essay II, ch. 7) on justice and injustice, designed to refute Hume’s view in theTreatisethat justice is an artificial virtue. Surprisingly for a judge, Karnes begins by defining justice almost as narrowly as Hume: ‘Justice is that virtue which guards property, and gives authority to covenants.’ But perhaps this is simply because his purpose in that chapter is to criticize Hume and so he can confine himself to those aspects of justice discussed by Hume. Earlier references to justiceen passantin chapter 3 suggest the wider, though vaguer, view that justice is ‘abstaining from injury’.
Adam Smith
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

Adam Smith’s thoughts on the actual concept of justice are given in his book on moral philosophy,The Theory of Moral Sentiments,first published in1759. The main discussion comes in Part II, which is concerned with the notions of merit and demerit, reward and punishment. Smith relates justice to desert and pays special attention to criminal justice. There is also a brief review of the different senses of the term ‘justice’ in the last part of the book (VI in editions 1 – 5, VII in edition 6). The sixth edition, published in 1790, contains a substantial new Part VI on the character of virtue. There Smith specifies four cardinal virtues, one of them being justice, on which he adds just a little to what he had written before.
J. S. Mill
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

Adam Smith perceived that the concept of justice raises a difficulty for a utilitarian theory of ethics. The difficulty was recognized and tackled by leading utilitarians of the nineteenth century, but not by the initial standard-bearer of the doctrine, Jeremy Bentham. His various accounts of utilitarianism as a theory say little about the concept of justice.An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation(1789) refers briefly to justice in a footnote about the notion of ‘the votaries of religion’ that the dictates of justice ‘modify’ (meaning ‘oppose’, says Bentham) the dictates of benevolence. He dismisses this notion as a fiction and simply declares that the dictates of justice are a part of the dictates of benevolence, ‘which, on certain occasions, are applied to certain subjects’. Deontology(composed 1814 – 19) is more explicit. Its first reference to justice recalls the note in thePrincipleswith similar brevity but less vagueness: ‘Considered as exercised w1der particular circumstances, beneficence assumes the name of “justice’’. … “Justice” is the name given to beneficence, in so far as the exercise of it is regarded as matter of obligation.’ This statement is taken up in a subsequent short section that is specifically about justice but does not add much of substance. There Bentham distinguishes the legal and the moral senses of the term and then repeats his view that justice is ‘but a modification of benevolence’ connected with obligation: ‘the dictates of justice may have place in respect of any act in so far as it is considered as being the subject of obligation.’
ChaïM Perelman
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

The most substantial and the most important of Chaïm Perelman’s writings on justice is a long essay,De la justice,first published in 1945. It is a powerful piece of work which has had a wide influence, and for these reasons it calls for critical examination even though Perelman himself might have thought that some aspects of it were superseded by his later publications. For example, the English translation that appeared in 1963 w1der the title ‘Concerning Justice’ includes a footnote implying that Perelman had modified his view that values are ‘logically arbitrary’. The footnote says that, since writing those remarks about values in the essay on justice, ‘the author has tried to present, through his theory of argumentation, a way of reasoning about values’, indicating that his later theory of argumentation (developed particularly in a book calledTraité de Pargumentation: La Nouvelle Rhétorique)qualifies the earlier bare statement that values are arbitrary. I shall take account of this in what I have to say. Even in the original form of the essay on justice there is a clear link with Perelman’s views on logic and rhetoric, for his distinction between formal and concrete justice illustrates the difference that he saw between the reasoning of formal logic and the kind of debate that goes on in the area of rhetoric. He uses the term ‘rhetoric’ in the wide sense given to it by Aristotle, meaning not just the devices of persuasive language but the general character of reasoning, other than that of formal logic, which is used to support a case.
Robert Nozick
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

Robert Nozick’s theory of justice is to be found in his bookAnarchy, State and Utopia, the main purpose of which is to advocate a minimal state in the spirit of John Locke, that is to say, a state whose functions are confined to the protection of rights. Nozick therefore opposes the idea of a welfare state that expands its functions into redistributing income and wealth so as to provide for the needs of citizens who cannot easily provide for themselves. He devotes a large part of his book to the concept of distributive justice because that is commonly taken to be the ground for the welfare state.
Brian Barry
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

When Jolm Rawls’sTheory of Justiceappeared, Brian Barry was its most resolute critic. While others wrote articles or reviews concentrating on two or three main issues, Barry wrote a sizeable book,The Liberal TheoryofJustice,that went through the whole of Rawls’s work with a fine toothcomb. Yet, although his comments were largely critical, he also paid tribute to the value and importance of Rawls’s novel treatment of the topic of justice. Since that time Barry has been thinking hard about the subject for himself and has been engaged in recent years upon a large-scaleTreatise on Social Justice.In it he repeats his praise of Rawls, if anything more warmly than before, and thinks of himself as following in Rawls’s footsteps’ because he accepts the idea that the content of justice is what would receive the agreement of all participants in a hypothetical contract.
The Developing Role of Justice
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

The history of concepts of justice helps us to see how the role of justice has developed. I have said that justice has both a conservative and a reforming role. Sidgwick described the latter as giving effect to an ideal conception of justice. The historical survey shows that the ideal conception is not static: it engenders some addition in the light of experience, perhaps as part of a more general development of ethical thought. The conservative role, too, develops, not merely in accepting changes from reformative justice but also in clarifying its original task. Let me begin with that.

In Aeschylus’Oresteiawe twice hear the maxim ‘What you do shall be done to you’. First the Chorus in theAgamemnonreport it as ‘enduring so long as Zeus reigns’, and then the Chorus in theChoephoroesay it is told as ‘an old, old tale’. Is it to be taken as a statement of fact or as a norm/ Are we to understand that being treated as we have acted is what happens as the way of the world, or that it is what ought to happen as a moral imperative? The first report, referring to the reign of Zeus, suggests that it is a norm, a divine commandment, though this can be a way of expressing what we now mean by a (scientific) ‘law of nature’.
Counting the Victims and Identifying the Killers
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

The most keenly debated question, indeed the central issue, in the highly politicized controversy that has raged for over twenty years on the events of October 17, relates to the precise number of Algerians who were killed at the hands of the police. Although numerous historians and commentators have debated this issue, including the official Mandelkern Report (1998) and the Géronimi Report (1999), the two key opponents in the ‘numbers battle’ are Jean-Luc Einaudi and Jean-Paul Brunet. Einaudi can be described as a ‘maximalist’ in the sense that he has included in his most recent list of 325 dead and disappeared those he describes as ‘very likely’ victims of police violence, almost every possible instance of violent death recorded during the two months of September and October, including cases where there is little evidence of police involvement.
Contesting Colonial Repression, 1945–1961
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

How can we account for the weaknesses of metropolitan French civil society during the process of routinization of state repression against Algerians from 1945 to September 1961, and how should we measure the impact of the campaigning against repression that did occur? While attempting to answer these questions, this chapter also assesses the discourses and modes of intervention of the various French solidarity groups and the values and motives their activists advanced. These themes are studied within a series of evolving relations: between the radical anti-colonial left, wider anti-war groups, and the mainstream parties of the left; between the radical anti-colonial left and French public opinion; between the mainstream parties of the left and the FLN. This thematic analysis is articulated within two key developments: the impact of the voting of the Special Powers Act in March 1956, and the evolving late-war dynamic that emerged from September 1960 onwards.
‘Underground’ Memories, (1962–1979)
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

Just as genuine public disbelief hindered the attempts by some French witnesses of the violence during 17–20 October to garner more support to denounce the abuses, so many people in France reacted with relative incredulity when, in the 1980s and 1990s, the October events regained public visibility. They discovered the virtual public silence that had masked these events over two decades, from the early 1960s to 1980. This chapter examines this period, following the few traces available to the historian, and argues that post-colonial power relations greatly limited the social and political ‘space’ for Algerians’ memories of 17 October in France and Algeria. It analyses the content and contours of such resilient memories that often relate to the attitude Algerians held toward independent Algeria as well as France.
The Physician
Authors: Brockliss L V B
Published: November 2023

In France, as in other countries in the eighteenth century, medical practitioners were divided into two groups: the legitimate and the illegitimate. The latter consisted of a bevy of wise women, charlatans, Lady Bountiful, and priests, who practised medicine with no medical qualifications and usually little formal knowledge. The former was qualified practitioners who had received formal institutionalized instruction in medicine and/or served an apprenticeship and had had their knowledge and skill validated by an appropriate body. As elsewhere too, legitimate practitioners were divided into three theoretically distinctive groups: physicians, who gave consultations on internal maladies; surgeons, who policed external diseases and carried out surgical operations, often under a physician’s instructions; and apothecaries, who supplied the drugs that physicians and to a lesser extent surgeons prescribed. Traditionally, the physicians were deemed to be the surgeons ‘ and apothecaries ‘ superior. As normally they alone had received a university medical education, supposedly they alone understood the real cause of disease and were equipped to suggest its cure. Surgeons and apothecaries, whose training historically took the form of a formal apprenticeship, were merely mechanical operatives. Although the boundary between legitimate and illegitimate practitioners was porous, it was always meaningful. In eighteenth-century England unqualified medical practice was never formally outlawed; in France empirical healers were theoretically beyond the law.
The Antiquarian
Authors: Brockliss L V B
Published: November 2023

A visitor or patient who entered Calvet 2019;s house in the Rue Pugelle would have immediately realized that its owner was a collector of antiquities. The municipality’s dignitaries who came to make an inventory of Calvet’s posses-sions in August 1810 had no sooner crossed the threshold into the vestibule than they encountered ‘two large marble statues, one representing an angel [actually an unknown goddess], the other Hercules, five large stones bearing inscriptions, a large mosaic fragment, and a piece of marble ‘. Further colossal pieces of classical bric-a-brac-urns, busts, and statues-were found in the downstairs salon, while choicer pieces were on display in the first-floor rooms. The upstairs salon (where, presumably, Calvet did most of his entertaining) was filled with bronze statuary and sepulchral lamps decoratively arranged on table tops. The adjoining cabinet d” ‘ etudes was an Aladdin’s cave of statues, busts, utensils, lamps, bottles, and glass, which greeted the visitor from tables, cupboards, and row upon row of shelves surrounding the walls.