bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Fourth Century and the Beginning of the Vulgate
Authors: Houghton H.A.G.
Published: March 2016

The Latin translation of the New Testament spread widely in the fourth century, and was revised in numerous different times and places. Bilingual Greek–Latin manuscripts enabled users to compare the two traditions. In Africa, the Donatists were responsible for developments in exegesis and creating an early edition featuring chapter headings. A significant number of commentaries on the Pauline Epistles were produced in Italy. Towards the end of the century, Jerome revised an existing Latin version of the Gospels. The rest of the New Testament was revised on similar principles by an unknown scholar who was probably part of the Pelagian community in Rome. This revised text later became known as the Vulgate.
Competing Texts: The Fifth to the Seventh Centuries
Authors: Houghton H.A.G.
Published: March 2016

Old Latin texts of the New Testament continued to be copied across Europe in the centuries after Jerome’s revision, from north Africa and Spain to Ireland. Earlier readings were reintroduced into the revised versions, resulting in ‘mixed text’ manuscripts. Some of the most striking extant copies are the north Italian gospel codices with purple parchment and silver or gold ink. Among the most significant biblical scholars in this period were Cassiodorus in Italy and, in Spain, Isidore of Seville and his contemporaries. The Latin tradition influenced the translation of the Bible into Gothic by Ulfilas. Alongside continuous-text manuscripts of the Gospels or Pauline Epistles, single volumes (pandects) or multiple-volume editions containing the entire Bible emerged during this period, as did lectionaries providing the passages read in the liturgy and the Latin gospel harmony in Codex Fuldensis.
The Text of the Early Latin New Testament
Authors: Houghton H.A.G.
Published: March 2016

This chapter treats the five constituent parts of the New Testament in sequence: the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Pauline Epistles, the Catholic Epistles, and Revelation (Apocalypse). Details are provided of the principal Old Latin manuscripts and the major commentaries, with a short summary of the textual history of each writing and the paratextual material which became attached to it. Passages of particular significance are discussed, including the ending of Mark, the last chapters of Romans and the Johannine Comma (1 John 5:7–8). There are also details of interpolations in Old Latin tradition, including the Cambridge pericope (Luke 6:4) and several characteristic of insular gospel books.
Catalogue of Latin New Testament Manuscripts
Authors: Houghton H.A.G.
Published: March 2016

The Catalogue describes all manuscripts which appear in the three principal editions of the Latin New Testament: the Vetus Latina edition (VL 1–96 and other selected manuscripts), the ‘Stuttgart Vulgate’, and the ‘Oxford Vulgate’. Each of the 174 entries follows a standard format, with details of the current holding institution, the manuscript’s contents, its size and format, other matters of interest, and bibliographical references. Information is also given about facsimiles and, where available, links are provided to complete sets of digital images posted online by the holding institution. Because of the overlap between witness sigla used in the Oxford and Stuttgart Vulgates, a composite siglum has been developed to permit these to be easily distinguished.
Verbal Periphrasis in Ancient Greek
Authors: Bentein Klaas
Published: March 2016

This book deals with the use and development of ‘periphrastic’ constructions in Ancient Greek (VIII bc–VIII ad), focusing on constructions with the verbs ‘to be’ (εἰμί) and ‘to have’ (ἔχω), as in ἦν διδάσκων ‘he was teaching’ or ἔχω θαυμάσας ‘I have wondered’. While Ancient Greek is commonly considered a ‘synthetic’ language, already at the earliest stages we find traces of such multi-word periphrastic constructions, comparable to those occurring in the Modern European languages. The book consists of five chapters. The first two chapters are theoretically oriented. In the first chapter, a number of theoretical concepts are introduced, such as the motivation for periphrasis, genre and register, aspect, and grammaticalization (theory). In the second chapter, the concepts of ‘verbal’ and ‘adjectival’ periphrasis are discussed, as well as their interrelationship. It is argued that in both cases, prototype-theory can offer an innovative perspective. In the second part of the book, the diachrony of periphrastic constructions with εἰμί and ἔχω is investigated from a qualitative and a quantitative point of view. This is done with respect to three functional domains: those of perfect aspect (§3), imperfective aspect (§4), and perfective aspect (§5). It is argued that ‘transitivity’ plays a key role to our understanding of the development of periphrastic constructions: not only are the constructions themselves acquiring an increasingly transitive profile, but also periphrasis more generally.
Perfect Aspect
Authors: Bentein Klaas
Published: March 2016

This chapter deals with periphrases formed in the domain of perfect aspect. This mainly concerns εἰμί with the perfect participle (as in ἦν τετελευτηκώς ‘he was dead’). Previous research has claimed that the construction remained stative throughout its entire history, but a more complex scenario is argued for. It is shown that already in the Classical period the construction came to be used with an anterior aspectual function (as in ἀκηκοότες ἦσαν ‘they had heard’), similarly to the synthetic perfect. This is a development which can be understood in terms of transitivization, that is, the construction being used in more transitive contexts. However, in the Post-Classical period, εἰμί with the perfect participle underwent a functional specialization as a resultative perfect periphrasis, due to the appearance of a new construction: εἰμί with the aorist participle (as in εἰμί ποιήσας ‘I have done’). Aside from these two constructions, attention is drawn to various innovative perfect constructions, whose existence has been completely overlooked in most previous accounts.
Imperfective Aspect
Authors: Bentein Klaas
Published: March 2016

This chapter is concerned with periphrasis in the domain of imperfective aspect, εἰμί with the present participle in particular. It is argued that this construction was mainly used with a stative function in the Classical period (as in πρέπον ἐστί ‘it is fitting’). Evidence shows, however, that even in the Classical period the construction could be used with a progressive function (as in δρῶν ἦν ‘he was doing’), and it is argued that in this case too, one can speak of transitivization. Language contact with the Semitic languages provided a stimulus for the full development of progressive εἰμί with the present participle in Post-Classical times, first with a durative progressive function (as in ἦσαν γεωργοῦντες τὴν γὴν ἔτη τρία ‘they cultivated the land for three years’), and afterwards with a focalized progressive function (as in ὅτε ἦν γράφων τάδ’ εἶπεν ‘when I was writing, he said the following’). While it is true that the progressive construction mainly occurs in hagiographical texts, for which the Septuagint and especially the New Testament provided a linguistic model, it is argued that the construction was not used exclusively in imitation of these model texts.
Conclusion to Verbal Periphrasis in Ancient Greek
Authors: Bentein Klaas
Published: March 2016

In the final chapter, the main findings of the book are summarized. From a synchronic point of view, it is stressed that ‘verbal periphrasis’ is best considered a prototypically organized notion, and that a binary opposition with ‘adjectival periphrasis’ cannot be upheld. Diachronically, attention is drawn to the value of cross-linguistically attested ‘grammaticalization paths’ for the analysis of major periphrastic constructions such as εἰμί with the perfect or the present participle. It is stressed that the notion of ‘transitivity’ provides additional insight in the diachronic development of these constructions. The book is concluded by a number of observations that can be of interest from a more general, linguistic point of view, such as (a) proposed adaptations concerning the above-mentioned grammaticalization paths, (b) the importance of a ‘socio-historical’ perspective, and (c) the need of studying periphrastic constructions in their language-internal and language-external context.
Watauinaiwa
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

This chapter focuses on the connections between primitive rock art and the spiritual world. It asks: When, where, and how did this investing of the physical world with a spiritual dimension first begin? Might it have some connection with the peculiar and distinctive development of human curiosity that ultimately gives rise to science? It describes the association of ‘vision quests’ with North American rock art and of ‘trance dances’ with Southern African rock art. It considers the difficulty of playing ‘ethnographic snap’, i.e., finding apparent similarities between cultures separated by huge geographical or temporal distances. It argues that, despite the perils of ‘ethnographic snap’, the parallels between the discoveries of anthropologists and the discovery of Palaeolithic paintings and sculptures make it hard to escape the conclusion that this kind of awareness goes back deep into prehistory.
Horizons of Curiosity
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

This chapter deals with the notion of curiosity. It argues that curiosity at some level is as old as life itself. All living things at a minimal level investigate their surroundings by bumping into (or being bumped into) by whatever is near them. For creatures with nervous systems things are more complex. They actively explore their environment by prodding, poking, and mapping their surroundings with whatever means are available to them. The chapter then discusses the development of the cathedral of mind; the origins of what Darwin calls ‘the moral sense’; the capacity of chimpanzees to wage something like sustained warfare against members of their own species; and humans’ capacity for neurological integration, which propelled Homo sapiens into a new kind of cognitive world.
The House of Wisdom
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

This chapter focusses on how the Muslim conquest of Egypt at around ad 642 effected a profound cultural transformation and set the stage for a novel and radically international phase in the struggle to integrate different ways of thinking. Topics discussed include how the Arab caliphs’ encounters with the ideas of the ancient civilizations they now ruled paralleled Muhammad’s own encounters with Judaism and Christianity over a century earlier; the openness of the ruling families of the Abbasid Empire of Baghdad to influences from all parts of the globe; the Sassanian empire of Persia’ houses of wisdom, which served as repositories for documents; and Qu’ranic instructions that provided Muslims with a specific motivation for astronomical study.
The Dream of Aristotle
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

This chapter begins with a brief account of Caliph al-Ma’mun’s encounter with Aristotle in a dream, which explains why books on philosophy and other ancient sciences became plentiful in Baghdad. The discussions then turn to the development of a specialized vocabulary as Arabic became the medium for philosophical and theological debate; al-Kindī, an extraordinary polymath who wrote the first Arabic philosophical text On First Philosophy; Avicenna (born around ad 980), who compiled the multivolume al-Qanun fi’l-tibb—The Canon of Medicine—which systematized all the medical knowledge of the time and remained a standard textbook for the next 700 years; and ibn al-Haytham’s Kitab al-Manazir—The Book of Optics—where he combined the geometrical tradition of Euclid, the medical tradition of Galen, and Aristotle’s idea that light travelled into the eye (the theory of ‘intromission’).
Al-Ghazali’s Pilgrimage
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

This chapter describes Abū Hāmid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazālī, head of the Nizamiyyah College in Baghdad. In 1095 he resigned his teaching posts and set out on a pilgrimage, a quest for religious certainty, during which he vowed never again to serve the political authorities or teach in state-sponsored schools. The year before he published his Tahâfut al-falâsifa—The Incoherence of the Philosophers—in which he analyses a series of philosophical doctrines. The chapter also tells the story of Abd al-Rahman, a member of the Umayyad family who survived the coup that brought the Abbasids to power in ad 750. He escaped to Spain where he succeeded in making himself emir and established his capital in the city of Cordoba.
A Tale of Two Cities
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

This chapter begins with a brief account of the loss of Greek literature in the Christian West, which can be traced back to a bitter winter in AD 406 when the Rhine froze and German tribes poured across the river into the territories of the Roman Empire. The discussions then turn to the establishment of universities across Europe in the thirteenth century, which enjoyed a measure of independence from both church and state; the tensions that arose between scholars and residents of the towns where universities were located; Robert Grosseteste, who became Bishop of Lincoln and published some 120 works, ranging from French poetry to theology, science, and estate management; and Thomas Aquinas’ arrival in Paris in around 1245 and his project of integrating Aristotle’s philosophy with Christian teaching.
The Universal Law
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

This chapter describes events that followed Roger Bacon’s death in 1294. His successors in both Oxford and Paris began developing various ways of using the idea of a mathematically universal law to understand the physical world. In Oxford this was particularly associated with a series of fellows at Merton College. These include Thomas Bradwardine, who devised a mathematical formula to establish the relationship between the force applied to an object, the resistance to its motion, and the velocity that results; and Merton logician William of Heytesbury, who developed a formula stating that ‘a moving body will travel in an equal period of time a distance exactly equal to that which it would travel if it were moving continuously at its mean speed’. These mathematical approaches to physics were soon echoed in Paris where they were combined with an idea of motion that contradicted the traditional theory of Aristotle.
A New Era
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

On a spring evening in 1676 boats began to arrive at the steps of the Dorset Garden Theatre, bringing a fashionable audience to a performance of Thomas Shadwell’s new comedy, The Virtuoso. Embedded within the comic goings on of this new play was a satirical commentary on an emerging way of thinking, which was poised to revolutionize intellectual life. This chapter focusses on the meaning of ‘virtuoso’ and its evolution into a term applied to a group of people who were dedicated to investigating natural phenomena. Their apparently obsessive preoccupation was the target of Shadwell’s play. The English virtuosi linked their novel philosophy to a radical new approach to the Scriptures epitomized by the so-called ‘Geneva Bible’.
The Experimental Philosophy
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

This chapter focusses on the new Reformation in Europe, which involved the physical removal of all imagery from churches. These actions were not merely justified as obedience to the Second Commandment, but were also seen as mirroring the radical new way of reading Scripture advocated by Luther. His growing conviction that the Scriptures should be understood ‘in their simplest meaning as far as possible’ and his insistence the literal meaning was ‘the highest, best, strongest’ involved a rejection of the long tradition of more imaginative allegorical approaches. This approach was echoed by other Reformation leaders, who not only extended his preference for simplicity from the reading of Scripture to visible symbolic forms of worship, but helped it to extend into new ways of looking at the natural world.
The Oxonian Sparkles
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

This chapter first describes the Oxford club which later metamorphosed into the Royal Society. The club was founded by a young Puritan clergyman named John Wilkins, who in 1648 was made Warden of Wadham College. A year after his appointment, Wilkins founded ‘an experimentall philosophicall clubbe’ which met weekly in his rooms. The chapter also discusses how the acceptance or rejection of Aristotle’s principle that ‘nature abhors a vacuum’ became a means of showing how a well-designed experiment could solve a philosophical dispute; the experiments of Robert Boyle; the Royal Society’s commissioning of clergyman Thomas Sprat to write a history of its origin and purpose; and the deployment of the study of nature as a means of marginalizing religious concerns.
The Literary Inquest
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

This chapter begins with a brief description of how a small group, on 20 May 1857, gathered at the rooms of the Royal Asiatic Society in New Burlington Street to determine the results of a dramatic experiment. The group was tasked with comparing the contents of four sealed packets sent by William Henry Fox Talbot, German scholar Dr Julius Oppert, Irish clergyman Dr Edward Hincks, and imperial soldier Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson. The discussions then turn to the efforts of Henry Rawlinson and Edward Hincks to decipher Assyrian and Babylonian cuneiform. These texts represent a wealth of information and interest for biblical studies. However, their translations remain uncertain given the rivalry and perpetual disagreements between Hincks, Rawlinson, and other scholars in the field.
Science in a Time of Cholera
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

This chapter describes the Oxford cholera epidemic in the summer of 1854 and the role of Henry Acland. When he took up the post of anatomy lecturer in 1845, Acland found that the university’s science studies were almost extinct and sought to remedy the situation by proposing the building of a fully equipped centre exclusively devoted to the sciences. His proposal, however, fell on deaf ears. Undaunted he wrote ‘hundreds and thousands of letters’, and in 1849 a new proposal was launched. Opinion in the university was sharply divided; the crucial vote for the new scheme was due to be taken on 11 December 1854. By then Acland had been appointed as consulting physician to the Board of Health and found himself in charge of the city’s attempts to combat the cholera outbreak. In the end, the vote was 68 to 64 in favour of building the Oxford Museum.
A Visit to the Museum
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

In late June 1860 the British Association for the Advancement of Science held its third meeting in Oxford. Acland was the local secretary of the association and arranged for all the events to be held at the still-unfurnished University Museum. On the afternoon of June 30, Dr Draper was scheduled to deliver his paper and it was understood that the Bishop of Oxford would also speak. This was first time that On the Origin of Species had been debated in a public forum and interest was intense. This chapter details the events that occurred before, during, and after the meeting, which included a dispute between the Bishop and T. H. Huxley, a strong supporter of Darwin.
Experiments of Thought
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

This chapter focusses on James Clerk Maxwell, who at age 14 produced a scientific paper that was read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. A few years later it was followed up by a second paper, ‘On the Equilibrium of Elastic Solids’, resulting from an experiment where he shone a beam of polarized light into a twisted cylinder of gelatin. The then 18-year-old Maxwell discovered that as the light shone through the stressed jelly, the strain patterns became visible to the naked eye, and had thereby invented a technique widely used by engineers until it was eventually superseded by computer modelling. While Maxwell never achieved the kind of celebrity accorded to Newton or Darwin, his achievements were not lost on his successors. Twentieth-century physicists have described Maxwell as among ‘the most penetrating intellects of all time’.
The Unity of Nature
Authors: Wagner Roger , Briggs Andrew
Published: March 2016

This chapter describes James Clerk Maxwell’s work on electricity and magnetism, which was influenced by Michael Faraday’s research on electricity. Maxwell attempted ‘to state the mathematical methods by which he believed that electrical phenomena can best be comprehended and reduced to calculation’. He did so by developing a remarkable analogy between electric and magnetic force, and the flow of an imaginary weightless and incompressible fluid. Maxwell derived mathematical formulae for the action of Faraday’s ‘lines of force’, which merged them into a single ‘flux’ across what he described as a ‘field’ (an idea that became a crucial concept in twentieth-century physics).
Particle Physics in the LHC Era
Authors: Barr Giles , Devenish Robin , Walczak Roman , Weidberg Tony
Published: March 2016

This book gives a modern introduction to particle physics. The main mathematical tools required for the rest of the book are developed in Chapter 2. A quantitative introduction to accelerator physics is presented in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 covers detector physics, with an emphasis on fundamental physical principles. Chapter 5 covers the static quark model, with applications to light mesons and baryons as well as heavier states containing charm and beauty quarks. Chapter 6 introduces relativistic quantum mechanics and uses spinors to relate Lorentz invariance to the Dirac equation. Chapter 7 covers the basics of the electroweak theory based on broken SU(2) × U(1) symmetry. Chapter 8 reviews some of the key experiments that led to the development of the electroweak theory. Chapter 9 explains the importance of deep inelastic scattering data for providing direct evidence for the existence of quarks. It also gives a brief introduction to quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Chapter 10 considers flavour oscillations in the quark sector and then discusses the evidence for CP violation. Chapter 11 examines the theory of neutrino oscillations as well as the evidence for these oscillations. Chapter 12 gives an elementary introduction to the Higgs mechanism as well as a careful explanation of the experimental evidence for the existence of a Higgs boson. Chapter 13 looks at LHC physics and explains how searches for Beyond the Standard Model Physics are performed. It concludes with a discussion of the evidence for dark matter and dark energy.
Introduction
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T.
Published: March 2016

This chapter starts with a few words about the reader’s expected prior knowledge of subatomic physics and quantum mechanics. It is made clear that while relativistic quantum mechanics is introduced and used, the use of relativistic quantum field theory or Lagrangian methods is avoided, apart from a few sections in the chapter on the Higgs mechanism. Natural units are defined, with energies measured in multiples of electron volts (eV). Particles (leptons and quarks) are introduced, with hadrons as composite particles of qqˉ (meson) or qqq (baryon) states. The fundamental forces of the strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions are introduced, followed by the idea of electroweak unification. The importance of symmetry and the use of group theory are summarized. The chapter ends with an outline of the book’s structure and how it may be read, depending on the prior knowledge or needs of the reader.
Accelerators
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T.
Published: March 2016

This chapter gives an introduction to accelerator physics, concentrating on synchrotrons. Accelerating cavities for standing and travelling radiofrequency (RF) waves, the synchronicity requirement, and the beam bunch structure are explained, as well as the energy loss due to synchrotron radiation. The beam emittance and the amplitude β function are introduced to describe the ensemble of beam trajectories. Dipole and quadrupole magnets, which act as the most important elements of so-called beam optics, are described. The LHC superconducting dipole magnets are described in some detail as an example. Colliders and fixed-target accelerators are then compared in terms of the centre-of-mass energy and the luminosity. As an important example, antiproton–proton colliders, including the use of stochastic cooling, are described and the chapter concludes with the outlook for accelerator developments in future decades.
Particle detectors
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T.
Published: March 2016

This chapter starts with an overview of collider detectors before describing interactions of particles with matter, which provides a physics foundation for the design of particle detectors. Ionization, multiple scattering, transition and Čerenkov radiation by charged particles, as well as bremsstrahlung and nuclear interactions of high-energy hadrons, are described. This is followed by an explanation of how energy loss in matter leads to signal generation, such as by moving charges in electric fields and light emission in scintillators. Detectors for photons, detectors for reconstruction of tracks of charged particles (with the use of magnets), such as wire chambers and silicon detectors, and electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters to measure energies of particles and jets of particles are described and their use for particle identification explained. The chapter concludes with an explanation of the role of triggers and two examples of detector systems: the ATLAS and CMS detectors at the LHC.
Dynamic quarks
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T.
Published: March 2016

In this chapter, the Rutherford scattering formula is derived using quantum mechanics. The kinematics of the quark–parton model (QPM) are described. The differential cross section for neutrino and antineutrino scattering on electrons is derived. This is generalized to give the QPM prediction for the cross section for scattering on nuclei. The key experiments supporting this model are reviewed with emphasis on the importance of scaling. Indirect and direct evidence for gluons is described. An elementary introduction to quantum chromodynamics (QCD) is given. The concept of running coupling constants is introduced in the context of QED and QCD. The concept of asymptotic freedom is used to explain the success of the QPM. Scaling violations are explained in terms of QCD, and a description is given of how the data can be used to determine the gluon distribution function. Finally, the QPM is generalized to the case of hadron–hadron scattering.
Oscillations and CP violation in meson systems
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T.
Published: March 2016

This chapter covers the diverse physical effects that have been measured in meson systems over the past half-century, including the surprising discovery of CP violation and its subsequent study. Flavour oscillations and regeneration are described for the kaon system, which is used to formulate the mathematical description of the combined mixing and decay of the meson states. The observation of neutral meson mixing, which has now been achieved in all four of the known neutral meson systems, is described using box diagrams. The chapter then extensively discusses the phenomenon of CP violation, how it was discovered, the conditions under which it manifests itself in experimentally accessible situations, and how the Kobayashi–Maskawa formalism incorporates it into the standard model. The different origins of CP violation are considered, including mixing and direct CP violation. CP violation studies from LHCb and B-factories are reviewed. CP violation is related to the unitarity triangle.
Neutrino oscillations
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T.
Published: March 2016

This chapter presents a derivation of the neutrino oscillation probability and discusses why this gives the correct result despite some dubious assumptions being made. The upper limits on neutrino masses are reviewed. The evidence for muon neutrino oscillations from atmospheric neutrinos is described, as well as the confirmation from a long-baseline neutrino experiment. The evidence for electron neutrino oscillations is reviewed, with emphasis on evidence independent of the solar model. Laboratory confirmation using antineutrinos from nuclear reactors is also described. The discrepancy between the solar neutrino results and the simple vacuum oscillation model is reviewed. The Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein (MSW) effect is outlined and shown to provide an explanation. Measurements of the third mixing angle θ13 are described. Finally, the possibility of CP violation in the neutrino sector is reviewed and there is a discussion of how this might account for the observed matter–antimatter asymmetry in the Universe.
The Higgs boson
Authors: Barr G. , Devenish R. , Walczak R. , Weidberg T.
Published: March 2016

This chapter starts with a simple introduction to gauge invariance and spontaneous symmetry breaking. An elementary introduction to Lagrangians in classical and quantum mechanics is given. A simplified description of the Higgs mechanism for electroweak symmetry breaking is presented in terms of Lagrangians. The experimental evidence for the observation of the Higgs boson is described in the two-photon, ZZ*, and WW* channels. There is an emphasis on understanding the Standard Model backgrounds and the required detector performance. The statistical techniques used to assess the significance of the results are described. The measurements used to determine the spin–parity of the Higgs boson are reviewed. The evidence for the Higgs boson decay to fermions is described using the two-tau decay mode. The outlook for future studies to determine if this Higgs boson is compatible with the Standard Model Higgs boson is discussed.
Party Competition and News Coverage of European Parliament Elections
Authors: Hanretty Chris , Banducci Susan
Published: March 2016

While the attention paid by the news media to European Parliamentary elections has increased, the chapter asks whether the nature of news coverage has changed. In particular, as coverage has increased (which may be viewed as a good development), have there been unintended consequences resulting in the nature of coverage. The chapter asks whether EP election coverage follows a general secular trend of increasing personalization and focus on strategy rather than policy. The chapter's analysis suggests that the political system can explain variation across time and space in election coverage. If hard‐news coverage and substantive policy coverage are beneficial for the political process, then its findings suggest that, in particular, close elections and polarized party systems may have beneficial effects. Where there are pro‐EU governments, the outlets in these systems tend to produce more hard news that is beneficial to voters but also increase horse‐race news, which may be an unintended consequence.
European Elections, Euroscepticism, and Support for Anti‐European Union Parties
Authors: van der Brug Wouter
Published: March 2016

The chapter tests the idea that European elections might fuel Euroscepticism by providing a regular forum for those who oppose European unification to spread their message. This chapter first explores the strength of the relationships between citizens’ attitudes towards Europe, their support for anti‐EU parties (both measured through surveys), and the positions on Europe of the party they support (measured by combining survey material and content analyses of party manifestos). These three turn out to be strongly related. However, there is no evidence that these relationships become stronger over time or stronger as a result of the increased politicization around European elections. So, the analyses in this chapter have not provided support for this idea, but they have not rejected it either.
Choose Actionable Problems that Address Civic, Business, and Global Priorities
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: March 2016

Contributing to research by solving contemporary civic problems, often with business partners, has an attractive dual-use or twin-win appeal for many researchers. Dealing with real-world problems and global priorities may improve research products and raise their impact. Having interested collaborators is a great stimulus for producing high quality, since someone cares about the research results and might put them to work promptly to improve products or services. During problem selection, researchers and teams make decisions about what they will work on for months or years. Those who develop a stable internal gyroscope to steer their research are likely to reach their goals.
Test Ideas and Prototypes with Realistic Interventions
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: March 2016

Taking on ambitious decade-long projects that address substantial civic, business, and global priorities requires large teams of diverse researchers. It also requires wisely chosen research strategies that start small with proof of concept studies and then employ scaling up (increased volume) and scaling out (increased diversity) to ensure validity and generalizability of the applied and basic research goals. Successful strategies include progressive investment of effort and resources in (1) agile processes for iterative prototype refinement as theories and practical guidelines are refined (2) big data analysis for pattern detection and predictive models, (3) case study reports to seek causal clarity through qualitative data analysis, and (4) visual analytics for exploration, discovery, and innovation.
Recommendations for Action
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: March 2016

Since this book values theory and practice, it seems reasonable to sum up with a theory of how the research ecosystem functions and practical recommendations for change agents. Inspired by Kurt Lewin’s belief that in order to understand something, one must try and change it, this chapters makes the book’s theory of how the research ecosystem functions explicit. This theory is then used to generate practical recommendations for policy change, which are hoped will feed back into a refined theory.
Change Is Hard, but Possible
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: March 2016

The first step in making substantial change is to understand the status quo and then to offer a clear path forward to an attainable destination. In most established communities, devotion to tradition is strong, so gaining consensus for change is difficult; but dialog is a healthy process for refining ideas and gaining buy-in to make change. Reorienting the research community to these new principles and getting them to integrate new ways of thinking is a continuing challenge.
Long-range Order, Symmetry Breaking, and Order Parameter
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro
Published: March 2016

This chapter introduces the fundamental concepts of off-diagonal long-range order, breaking of gauge symmetry, and order parameter, which underlie the concept of Bose–Einstein condensation. The consequences for the momentum distribution and the possibility of separating a classical term in the Bose field operator associated with the condensate, from a non-condensed component, accounting for thermal and quantum fluctuations, are discussed. The macroscopic classical term provides a natural definition of the complex order parameter, characterized by a modulus and a phase.
Weakly Interacting Bose Gas
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro
Published: March 2016

This chapter develops the mean-field Bogoliubov theory of the weakly interacting Bose–Einstein condensed gas. Results for the ground state energy, momentum distribution, and excitation spectrum are discussed. Emphasis is given to the behaviour of the sound velocity and its relationship with the s-wave scattering length. Special focus is given to the infrared divergent behaviour of the momentum distribution as well as to its behaviour at high momenta. The concept of healing length is introduced. The quantum and thermal depletion of the condensate fraction are explicitly derived. Beyond-mean effects in the equation of state, accounted for by the Lee–Yang–Huang expansion, are also discussed.
Nonuniform Bose Gases at Zero Temperature
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro
Published: March 2016

This chapter develops the theory of weakly interacting nonuniform Bose gases at zero temperature. Interaction effects are accounted for by a single coupling constant fixed by the value of the s-wave scattering length. The nonlinear Gross–Pitaevskii equation is derived in both the stationary and time-dependent cases. The irrotational nature of the flow and the crucial role played by the chemical potential are highlighted. The classical nature of the equation is emphasized and the analogy with the Maxwell equations of classical electrodynamics is pointed out. The stationary solutions of the Gross–Pitaevskii equation, corresponding to quantized vortex lines, vortex rings, and solitons, are discussed. The time-dependent solutions corresponding to small-amplitude oscillations are derived and the corresponding dispersion relation is shown to coincide with the predictions of Bogoliubov theory for uniform media. The Thomas–Fermi limit is also discussed.
Atomic Gases: Collisions and Trapping
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro
Published: March 2016

This chapter provides a summary of some relevant interatomic collisional properties at low energy. Low-energy collisions allow for a fundamental understanding of the role of interactions in dilute gases and are determined by the s-wave scattering length. This is the basic interaction parameter that permits us to describe an important variety of many-body properties of dilute Bose–Einstein condensed gases, as well as of superfluid Fermi gases. This interaction parameter also allows us to describe the formation of bound pairs of atoms in the presence of a Feshbach resonance. A special section is devoted to the study of collisional effects in two dimensions. The second part of the chapter illustrates typical schemes for magnetic and optical trapping currently employed to confine neutral atoms.
The Ideal Bose Gas in the Harmonic Trap
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro
Published: March 2016

This chapter describes the main properties of the ideal Bose gas confined by a harmonic potential. It calculates the temperature dependence of the condensate density and identify the value of the critical temperature in terms of the oscillator frequency and the number of atoms. This identification provides an important temperature scale for experiments with ultracold atomic gases. The chapter also discusses the behaviour of the expanding cloud after the release of the trap and how the anisotropy of the gas evolves in time, reflecting the initial anisotropy of the momentum distribution. It finally discusses the possibility of getting Bose–Einstein condensation through adiabatic transformations, working with non-harmonic trapping potentials or with mixtures of two atomic species trapped by different harmonic potentials.
Dynamics of a Trapped Condensate
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro
Published: March 2016

This chapter provides a general discussion of the dynamic behaviour characterizing a harmonically trapped interacting Bose gas. Explicit results for the frequencies of the collective oscillations were derived by using the hydrodynamic theory of superfluids. Both surface and oscillation of compressional nature are considered and a direct comparison is presented with available experimental results. Sum rules are used to characterize the behaviour of the oscillations. Finite-size as well as beyond-mean-field effects are considered. A special discussion is devoted to the study of large-amplitude oscillations and of the expansion of the gas. The anisotropic expansion predicted by hydrodynamic theory is discussed in a systematic way. An important part of the chapter concerns the study of the dynamic structure factor and its determination in experiments based on two-photon Bragg spectroscopy. Finally, the competition between single-particle and collective modes in the excitation spectrum of a harmonically trapped BEC is discussed.
Superfluidity and Rotation of a Trapped Bose Gas
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro
Published: March 2016

This chapter is devoted to discussing some key superfluid properties exhibited by dilute Bose gases confined in external traps. Key issues concern the behaviour of the critical velocity and the applicability of Landau’s criterion for superfluidity, the moment of inertia and its quenching caused by the irrotationality of the superfluid motion, the scissors mode, and the expansion of a rotating superfluid cloud. Rotational effects at high angular velocities, with the appearance of quantized vortices and vortex lattices, are also considered. The chapter also discusses the consequences for vortices on the collective oscillations of the trapped gas, the stability and the precession of vortex lines, and the nature of the superfluid flow in toroidal traps.
Interacting Fermi Gases and the BCS–BEC Crossover
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro
Published: March 2016

This is the first of a series of chapters devoted to interacting Fermi gases, with special focus here on the effects of superfluidity. It starts with a brief discussion of the ideal Fermi gas and then focuses on the properties of dilute interacting Fermi gases. Topics include the weakly repulsive Fermi gas; the gas of composite bosons; the BCS limit of a weakly interacting Fermi gas; the strongly interacting, but still dilute, unitary Fermi gas where the scattering length is much larger than the average interatomic distance; the BCS–BEC crossover; and the Bogoliubov–de Gennes approach. A discussion of the main physical quantities predicted by mean-field theory and by quantum Monte Carlo simulations, including, in particular, the equation of state, the momentum distribution, and the condensation of pairs, is also presented.
Fermi Gas in the Harmonic Trap
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro
Published: March 2016

This chapter deals with Fermi gases confined in harmonic traps. After offering a reminder of the properties of the harmonically trapped ideal Fermi gas, the chapter focuses on the effect of interactions, employing the local density approximation to calculate the density profiles and the momentum along the BCS–BEC crossover and comparing theoretical predictions with experiments.
Dynamics and Superfluidity of Fermi Gases
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro
Published: March 2016

This chapter is devoted to discussing relevant dynamical and superfluid phenomena exhibited by interacting Fermi gases at low temperatures, with special focus on the strongly interacting Fermi gas at unitarity. The chapter discusses the predictions of hydrodynamic theory concerning the propagation of sound, the collective oscillations and the expansion of the gas after release of the trap. The Landau criterion for superfluidity and the behaviour of the dynamic structure factor are discussed. It also provides some considerations on the radiofrequency transitions as a method to observe pair-breaking transitions and to measure the pairing gap. The chapter discusses the behaviour of two-fluid hydrodynamics and the propagation of second sound as a tool to measure the superfluid density of interacting Fermi gases. It finally provides a brief summary of the rotational properties of the superfluid Fermi gas, like the quenching of the moment of inertia and the occurrence of quantized vortices.
Quantum Gases in Optical Lattices
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro
Published: March 2016

This chapter discusses some features exhibited by quantum gases in the presence of periodic optical potentials (optical lattices). The behaviour of the single-particle excitation spectrum exhibiting the typical Bloch band structure is briefly summarized. The equilibrium properties of a Bose–Einstein condensate and of the ideal Fermi gas are discussed, with special focus on the behaviour of the momentum distribution. It also considers the effects of localization in one-dimensional quasiperiodic potentials and the nature of Bloch oscillations. The chapter discusses the structure of the elementary excitations in an optical potential, including the motion of the centre of mass in the presence of an additional harmonic potential. Finally, the chapter mentions the problem of quantum fluctuations, and it introduces the physics of the Bose–Hubbard and Fermi–Hubbard models, whose systematic investigation lies outside the scope of this book.
Quantum Gases in Pancake and Two-dimensional Regimes
Authors: Pitaevskii Lev , Stringari Sandro
Published: March 2016

This chapter addresses the question of quantum gases in two dimensions. It investigates both the pancake and the deep two-dimensional regimes. In the former case the gas is locally three-dimensional along the axial direction. In contrast, in the deep two-dimensional regime the axial motion is frozen. The chapter investigates the new physical phenomena exhibited by these two-dimensional quantum gases exploring the behaviour of the equation of state and of the collective oscillations. It discusses the behaviour of a fast-rotating Bose gas in two-dimensions, and the structure of vortex lines during the transition between the two-dimensional Thomas–Fermi and the lowest Landau level regimes. In the deep two-dimensional regime quantum gases exhibit novel and important phenomena at finite temperatures, due to the absence of long-range order and the emergence of the Berezinskii–Kosterlitz–Thouless transition. The peculiar behaviour of the BCS–BEC transition in deeply two-dimensional Fermi gases is also discussed.
Identifying Gossip
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: March 2016

Tracing the meaning of the term from its origins in Old English, to its current incarnation in social media, this chapter explores the ways in which gossip is understood to work, and how it becomes powerful within a community. A number of scholarly analyses of gossip are examined, using anthropological examples; recent theories in evolutionary psychology and neuroscience are also explored. More than just a process of information management, or of creating social cohesion, recent work suggests that gossip offers a method of making and sharing cultural meanings.
Genres of Gossip
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: March 2016

Building on the previous chapter’s analysis of gossip as a social process, this chapter examines the language and locations of gossip in the ancient society of Athens. It sets the stage for the three chapters that follow, in which the presence of gossip can be traced in different kinds of ancient discourse. This chapter explores the ancient vocabulary of gossip, which offers insights into ancient perceptions of gossip; it draws attention to the places where gossip would circulate; and finally it looks at the ways in which gossip and gender were understood to be interrelated.
Gossip…In Public
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: March 2016

This chapter is the first of three case studies examining different genres of gossip, and the role and pathways of gossip in and through ancient Athenian society. This case study looks at ‘public’ forms of gossip, that is, the allegations or accusations produced by one speaker against another in forensic rhetoric. Focusing particularly on the distinction between gossip and slander (or diabole), it examines the relationship between gossip and oratory, and the ways in which the two genres coincide and overlap within and beyond the Athenian law courts.