bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Whistlers
Authors: Sonwalkar Vikas S.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

The Whistler Phenomenon

Wave Propagation in a Cold Magnetoplasma

Propagation Through the Ionosphere

Propagation Through the Magnetosphere

Whistler–Lightning Correlations

Effects of Whistlers on the Geospace Environment

Concluding Remarks
Noise and Interference Modeling
Authors: Orsak Geoffrey C.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Statistical Descriptions of Noise

Noise Models

Non‐Gaussian Models

Conclusions
Fuzzy Model Fundamentals
Authors: Russo Fabrizio
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Fuzziness and Uncertainty

Fuzzy Sets

Arithmetic of Fuzzy Numbers

Fuzzy Relations

Fuzzy Aggregation Connectives

Linguistic Variables and Fuzzy Systems

Parameterized Membership Functions
Fuzzy Systems
Authors: Buckley James J. , Siler William , Feuring Thomas
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Knowledge Acquisition

Uncertainty Representation

Rule‐Based Reasoning

Optimization

Validation and Implementation

Hardware

Software
Fuzzy Control
Authors: Palm Rainer
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Fuzzy Control Techniques

The Fuzzy Controller as a Nonlinear Transfer Element

Heuristic Control and Model‐Based Control

Cell Mapping

Supervisory Control

Adaptive Control
Fuzzy Pattern Recognition
Authors: Bezdek James C. , Kuncheva Ludmila
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Pattern Recognition: Data, Label Vectors, and Measures of Similarity

Fuzzy Cluster Analysis

Fuzzy Classifier Design

Feature Analysis

Remarks on Applications of Fuzzy Pattern Recognition
Fuzzy Image Processing and Recognition
Authors: Pal Sankar K.
Published: September 2005

This article describes various fuzzy set theoretic tools and explores their effectiveness in representing/describing various uncertainties that might occur in an image recognition system and the ways these uncertainties can be managed in making a decision. Some examples of uncertainties that often develop in the process of recognizing a pattern are given in the next section. The Image Ambiguity and Uncertainty Measures Section provides a definition of image and describes various fuzzy set theoretic tools for measuring information on grayness ambiguity and spatial ambiguity in an image. Concepts of bound functions and spect sets charactering the flexible in membership functions are discussed in Their applications to formulate some low level vision operations (e.g., enhancement, segmentation, skeleton extraction, and edge detection), whose outputs are crucial and responsible for the overall performance of a vision system, are then presented. Some real‐life applications (e.g., motion frame analysis, character recognition, remote sensing image analysis, content‐based image retrieval, and brain MR image segmentation) of these methodologies and tools are then described. Finally, conclusions and discussion are provided.

Introduction

Uncertainties in a Recognition System and Relevance of Fuzzy Set Theory

Image Ambiguity and Uncertainty Measures

Grayness Ambiguity Measures

Flexibility in Membership Functions

Some Examples of Fuzzy Image Processing Operations

Some Applications

Conclusions and Discussion

Acknowledgment
Fuzzy Neural Nets
Authors: Pedrycz Witold
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Neurocomputing in Fuzzy Set Technology

A Linguistic Interpretation of Computing With Neural Networks

Fuzzy Neural Computing Structures

Fuzzy Neurocomputing—an Architectural Fusion of Fuzzy and Neural Network Technology

Conclusions
Fuzzy Information Retrieval and Databases
Authors: Petry Frederick E.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Fuzzy Databases

Fuzzy Information Retrieval

Future Directions
Fuzzy Statistics
Authors: Kruse Rudolf , Gebhardt Jörg , Gil María Angeles
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Why Develop Fuzzy Statistics?

Fuzzy Statistics Based on Fuzzy Perceptions or Reports of Existing Numerical Data

Fuzzy Statistics Based on Existing Fuzzy‐Valued Data

Other Studies on Fuzzy Statistics

Some Examples of Fuzzy Statistics

Additional Remarks
Electromagnetic Subsurface Remote Sensing
Authors: Chen S. Y. , Chew W. C.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

BoreholeEMMethods

Ground Penetrating Radar

Magnetotelluric Methods

Airborne Electromagnetic Methods
Geophysical Signal and Image Processing
Authors: Simaan Marwan A.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Seismic Data Generation and Acquisition

Seismic Wave Propagation

Determination of Seismic Propagation Velocity

Stacking and Velocity Analysis

Seismic Deconvolution

Conclusion
Remote Sensing Geometric Corrections
Authors: Moreno Jose F.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Spatial Resolution

General Parametric Approach for Image Geocoding

Polynomial Approximations

Automatic Registration Techniques

The Need of Ground Control Points for Accurate Registration

Cartographic Projections

The Problem of Topographic Distortions

Resampling

Calibration and Removal of Technical Anomalies

Spatial Mosaicking

Multitemporal Compositing

Operational Processing and Data Volume Considerations
Microwave Remote Sensing
Authors: Moore Richard K.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Radiometers

Radar Scattering

Radar Scatterometers

Radar Altimeters

Ground‐Penetrating Radars

Imaging Radars

Real‐Aperture Radars

Synthetic‐Aperture Radars
Microwave Propagation and Scattering for Remote Sensing
Authors: Fung Adrian K.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Basic Terms in Scattering and Transmission

Radiative Transfer Formulation

Scattering from Soil Surfaces

Scattering from a Vegetated Area

Scattering from Snow‐Covered Ground
Remote Sensing by Radar
Authors: van Zyl Jakob J. , Kim Yunjin
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Radar Principles

Real Aperture Radar

Synthetic Aperture Radar

Advanced SAR Techniques

Nonimaging Radars
Oceanic Remote Sensing
Authors: Emery William J.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Visible Wavelengths

Sensing Ocean Color

Imaging Sea Ice and Ice Motion

The Thermal Infrared

Estimating Sea Surface Temperature

Split Window Methods

Global Maps and Data Availability

Relationship to Ocean Currents. SST Motion

Skin SST Versus Bulk SST and Heat Exchange

Presently Available Sensors and Future Plans

Filtering out Clouds

Various Methods and their Accuracies

Passive Microwave

Wind Speed

Atmospheric Water Vapor

Rainfall

Merging the Passive Microwave with the Optical Data

Active Microwave

Radar Altimeters

Scatterometer Winds

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
Microwave Remote Sensing Theory
Authors: Tsang Leung , Li Qin
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Basics of Microwave Remote Sensing

Volume Scattering and Surface Scattering Approaches

Monte‐Carlo Simulations of Wave Scattering From Dense Media and Rough Surfaces
Visible and Infrared Remote Sensing
Authors: Emery William J.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Development of Meteorological Satellites

The
AVHRR

Data Ingest, Processing, and Distribution

NOAA
's Comprehensive Large Array‐data Stewardship System (
CLASS
)

National Polar‐orbiting Operational Satellite System (
NPOESS
)

NASA
's MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (
MODIS
)

The Geostationary Observing Environmental Satellite (
GOES
)

Development of Earth Resources Technology Satellites

The French Spot Satellites
AC Motor Protection
Authors: Love Daniel J.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Major Studies
Automation and Control Equipment
Authors: Eren H. , Fung C. C.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Digital Automation and Control Equipment

Process Modeling

Process Controllers

Power Converters

Motion Controllers

Speed Control

Adaptive Controllers

Machine Tools

Fuzzy Logic Controllers

Neural Network Based Controllers
Building Wiring
Authors: von Pattay Walter P.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

The Objective of Cabling

Cabling Characteristics

Specification of a Generic Cabling

Verification of Cabling Performance

Standardization

Abbreviations
Cement Industry
Authors: Bentzen‐Bilkvist Ib
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Cement Process, Equipment, and Design Criteria

Cement Shipping

Power Distribution

Electric Drives

Control

Regulations to Burn Hazardous Waste Derived Fuels (
HWDF
s)

Environmental Regulations
Electrolytic Cell Safety
Authors: Pace David A.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

General Description of Electrolytic Cell Process

Description of the Electrical Safety Hazards

Safeguarding Personnel

Summary and Conclusion

Areas for Future Study
Harmonics and Power Phenomena
Authors: Czarnecki Leszek S.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Power Theory of Systems with Nonsinusoidal Voltages and Currents

Fourier Series

Properties of Harmonics'CRMSVaues

Harmonics in Linear Circuits with LumpedRLCParameters

Harmonics of Symmetrical Three‐Phase Quantities

Instanteneous Power in Single‐Phase Circuits

Active Power in Single‐Phase Circuits

Apparent Power in Single‐Phase Circuits

Budeanu's Reactive and Distortion Powers

Current's Physical Components Power Theory of Linear, Time‐Variant Loads

Current's Physical Components and Powers of Single‐Phase Harmonic Generating Loads

Three‐Phase Systems — Doubts with Respect to Apparent Power Definitions

Currents' Physical Components of Three‐Phase, Linear, Time‐Invariant (LTI) Loads

Currents' Physical Components and Powers of Three‐Phase Harmonic Generating Loads

Instantaneous Reactive Power p‐q Theory

Advanced Topics That Have Not Been Discussed
Industrial Heating
Authors: Erickson C. James
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Fundamentals

Resistance Heating

Induction Heating

Electric ARC Heating

Plasma Heating

Dielectric Heating

Joule Heating

Pipeline Heating

Thermal Insulation

Heating Controls

Safety and Electrical Heating
Mining
Authors: Novak Thomas
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

History of Mine Electrical Systems

Mine Power Systems

Surface Substation

Longwall Power Equipment
Petroleum Industry
Authors: Hamer Paul S.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Classified Areas

Personnel Safety

Motor Drives and Electrical Surge Protection

Cogeneration and Load Shedding Systems
Paper Industry, System Identification and Modeling
Authors: Musavi Mohamad T. , Fern Alan , Coughlin Dan R.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Background

Network Implementations

Networks Used for this Study

Experimental Results

Conclusion
Textile and Fiber Industry
Authors: Stebbins Wayne L.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Process Description

Electric‐System Loads

Power Distribution Systems

Electric Metering

Power Quality Issues in the Textile and Fiber Industry
Variable Speed Drives
Authors: Wang Fei , Wang Zhenyuan
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

VSD Composition

Power Electronic Devices in VSDs

VSD Applications

Classification of VSDs

VSD Performance Indexes

DC Drives

AC Drives

VSD Control

VSD Evaluation and Application Issues

Future Trends for VSDs
Mechatronics
Authors: Cheok Ka C.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Examples of Mechatronics Systems

The Mechatronics Challenge

Scope of this Article

Foundation for Mechatronics

Process and Techniques for Designing and Analyzing Mechatronic Systems

Illustration of Design and Analysis Process

Evaluation
Computer Integrated Manufacturing
Authors: Habayeb A. R.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Manufacturing Technology

System Engineering in Manufacturing

System Architecture and Design of CIM

System Integration

Integration of Factory Information

Metrics: Measures of Effectiveness
Computerized Monitoring
Authors: Keyvan Shahla , Song Xiaolong , Kelly Mark
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Artificial Neural Networks

An Example of Computerized Monitoring System for Diagnosis

Fuzzy Logic

Future of Computerized Monitoring and Inspection

Resources and Vendor Information
Lighting Control
Authors: El‐Hamamsy S. A. , Kheraluwala M. H.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Discharge Lamp Ballasts

Electronic Ballasts for Discharge Lamps

Future Advances in Lighting Electronics

Conclusions
Manufacturing Processes
Authors: Narayanan Mysore
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Unconventional or Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes

Automated Manufacturing Processes
Postal Services
Authors: Shridhar M. , Houle Gilles
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Machine Recognition of Handwritten Addresses

Address Interpretation System—An Overview

Taxonomy

Concurrent Segmentation‐Recognition of Word Images

Recognition Algorithm

Word‐Matching Algorithm

Performance Evaluation—Case Studies

Conclusion
Safety Systems
Authors: Obiozor Clarence N.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Electrical Safety

Hazards

Accidents

Advanced Manufacturing Technology

Motor‐Operated Valves

Regulations and Safety Standards
ISDN
Authors: Becerra‐Fernandez Irma , Wunnava Subbarao V.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

What is ISDN?

Fundamentals of ISDN Technology

Interface

Connecting to ISDN

ISDN As a Network Controller

The Power of Packet Switching

ISDN Equipment

ISDN As the Only Line or As a Second Line

Workgroup Connectivity

Network Security Concepts
Acoustic Wave Interferometers
Authors: Batra N. K. , Delsanto P. P. , Romano A. , Scalerandi M.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Direct Acoustic Interferometric Techniques

Indirect Acoustic Interferometric Techniques

Quadrature Detector Systems

Other Interferometric Techniques
Altimeters
Authors: Eren Halit , Roocke Paul
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Barometric Altimeters

Radar (Radio) Altimetry

Laser Altimeters

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Remote Sensing

Surface Height Measurement and Height Accuracy
Balances
Authors: Winkler L. I.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Instrumentation

Microbalances and Vacuum Microbalances
Dynamometers
Authors: Berme Necip , Morr Douglas R.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Power Measurement

Force and Torque Measurement
Goniometers
Authors: Hosgood B. , Piironen J. , Andreoli G. , Koechler C. , Sandmeier St.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Historical Background

Application Fields

Advanced Material Science

Astronomy

Remote Sensing

Examples of Goniometers Used in Remote Sensing

Conclusions
Hydrometers
Authors: Petrak Dieter
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Stage Measuring Instruments

Discharge Measuring Instruments
Instruments
Authors: Eren Halit
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Design, Testing, and the Use of Instruments

Instrument Response and Drift

Measurement Errors and Error Control Systems

Standards and Reference Materials

Calibration, Calibration Conditions, and the Linear Calibration Model

Analog and Digital Instruments

Control of Instruments

Industrial Measuring Instruments
Logic Analyzers
Authors: Silva Girão Pedro M. B. , Cruz Serra António M. , Geirinhas Ramos Helena M.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Fundamentals Aspects of a Logic Analyzer

Logic‐Analyzer Operation

Logic‐Analyzer Applications: State of the Art And Future Trends

Specifications of Logic Analyzers
Loss‐Angle Measurement
Authors: Krupka Jerzy , Geyer Richard G.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Electromagnetic Characteristics of Materials

Permittivity and Dielectric‐Loss‐Angle Measurements
Manometers
Authors: Mascomani R. , Viswanathan M.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Liquid Manometers

Barometers

McLeod Gauge

Factors Influencing Liquid Manometers

Manometric Liquids

Manometric Measurments on Oscillating Fluids
pH Measurement and Control
Authors: Ylén Jean‐Peter , Jutila Pentti
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

General Properties of Liquids

Permeable Glass Electrode

Reference Electrode

Combined Electrode Construction

Measurement Of the pH

Practical pH Measurement

pH Modeling

pH Control Applications
Pulse Height Analyzers
Authors: McQuaid James H. , Lavietes Anthony D. , Ruhter Wayne D. , Paulus Thomas J.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Pulse Processing with the PHA

Principles of Operation

Acknowledgement
Radiotelemetry
Authors: Tsou Haiping , Cheung Kar‐Ming
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Communication Link‐Budget Analysis

Data Compression

Forward Error‐Correction Coding

Interaction Between Data Compression and Error Control in a Communication System

Modulation and Demodulation

Synchronization

Symbol SNR Degradation

Bit‐Error Performance (Uncoded System) and Telemetry System Loss

Advanced Topics
Scintillation Counters
Authors: Lenzen Manfred , Braoudakis George
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

History of Instruments

Applications

Structure of a Counting System

Scintillator Materials

Processes in Scintillators

Performance Characteristics

Detector Types and Accessories

Present State of Technology and Outlook
Tachometers
Authors: Neves Mário Ventim
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Tachogenerators

The Drag‐Cup Tachometers

Fly‐Ball Tachometers

Inductive Pulses Tachometers

Hall Effect Pulse Tachometers

Optical Pulse Tachometers

Other Pulse Tachometers

Stroboscopes

Frequency Measurement

Gyrometers
THERMOPILES
Authors: Tadigadapa Srinivas
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Basic of Thermoelectricity

Laws of Thermocouple Circuits

Thermopiles and Temperature Sensors

Other Applications of Thermopiles
Ultraviolet Detectors
Authors: Huston Alan L. , Justus Brian L.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Semiconductor Ultraviolet Photodetectors

Photoemissive Ultraviolet Photodetectors
Viscometers
Authors: Basker V. R. , Martyny David W. , Fricke Arthur L. , Crisalle Oscar D.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Major Types of Viscometers

Important Issues in Viscosity Measurement and Control
Weighing
Authors: Armitage David R. , Knott Andy J.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Mass and Weight

A Brief History of Weighing and Mass Standards

Gravity and Density

Weighing in Air—The Buoyancy Effect and the Conventional Value

Weighing Methods and Equipment

Force

Force Measurement Systems

Force Transducers

Applications

Quality Assurance of Force and Mass Measurements
Intermodulation Measurements
Authors: Abuelma'atti Muhammad Taher
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Simple Intermodulation Theory

Spectral Regrowth

Simple Transient Intermodulation Theory

Volterra‐Series and Harmonic Balance Analysis

Passive Intermodulation (PIM)

Alias‐Intermodulation Distortion

Intermodulation Characterization

Intermodulation Measurement
Accelerometers
Authors: Eren Halit
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Types of Accelerometers

Calibrations and Sensitivity

Applications

Signal Conditioning
Acoustic Variables Measurement
Authors: Serbyn M. Roman
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Measurable Attributes of Sound

Descriptive Parameters and Functions

Data Acquisition, Validation, and Analysis

Electromagnetic‐Acoustical Analogies
Capacitance Measurement
Authors: Eren Halit
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Characteristics of Capacitors

Capacitive Reactance

Standard Capacitors

Integrated Circuit Capacitors

Capacitive Measurements

Cavity Resonators

Capacitance Measurements

Accuracy and Signal Processing

Selection, Reliability, Accuracy, and Standards of Capacitors
Gyroscopes
Authors: Barshan Billur
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

History

Applications

Future Trends
Frequency Standards, Characterization
Authors: Ferre‐Pikal Eva S. , Walls Fred L.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Accuracy

Stability

Conversion Between Time‐Domain Measures and Frequency‐Domain Measures

Confidence Intervals For σ2y(τ) and Mod σ2y(τ)
Instrument Transformers
Authors: Betts Peter J.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Transformer Ratio

Use of INstrument Transformers

Voltage Transformer Construction

Capacitive Voltage Transformers

Inductive Voltage Dividers

Current Transformer Construction

Transformer Error

Definitions

Transformer Class

Equivalent Circuit of an Instrument Transformer

Terminal Marking Convention

Calibration of Instrument Transformers

Automatic Instrument Transformer Testing Sets

Applying Corrections for Instrument Transformers

Uncertainties in the Errors of Instrument Transformers

Voltage Transformers Connected Phase‐to‐Phase

Calibration of Three‐Phase Voltage Transformers

Absolute Calibration of Instrument Transformers

Compensated Instrument Transformers

Other Special Designs of Instrument Transformers
Compasses
Authors: Bilger H. R.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Position and Direction on Earth, Compasses and Gyros

Direction Finding in The Earth’S Magnetic Field, Error Sources, and Gyro Operation

More Detailed Analysis of The Earth’S Magnetic Field, Coordinate Systems, and New Developments
Pyrometers
Authors: Stein Alex
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Fundamentals of Pyrometry

Practical Designs

Fiber‐Optic Systems

New Developments

Appendix A. Blackbody Conditions in Furnaces

Appendix B. Out‐OF‐Focus Targets
Ohmmeters
Authors: Wobschall Darold C. , Chung D. D. L.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are
Temperature Sensors
Authors: Zakrzewski Jan
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Temperature as a Physical Quantity

International Temperature Scale of 90

The General Principles of Temperature Measurements

Resistance Sensors

Semiconductor Sensors

The Measurement of Sensor Resistance

Resistive Sensors for Low Temperature Ranges

Thermocouple Sensors

Quartz Temperature Sensors

Radiation Thermometry

Errors and Uncertainties
Mass Spectrometers
Authors: Wollnik Hermann
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Applications of Mass Spectrometry

Fundamentals of Mass Spectrometry

Mass Analyzers

Ion Sources

Conclusion
Volt–Ampere Meters
Authors: Silva Girão Pedro M. B. , Cruz Serra António M. , Geirinhas Ramos Helena M.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Types of Volt‐AMPERE Meters

Analog Multiplication Power Meter

Digital Power Meter

General Considerations
Electromagnetic Field Measurement
Authors: Kanda Motohisa
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Electric Field Sensors

Magnetic Field Sensors

An Electromagnetic Field Sensor for Simultaneous Electric and Magnetic Field Measurements

Photonic Electromagnetic Field Sensors

Electromagnetic Field Standards

Future Directions
Magnetic Sensors
Authors: Eren Halit
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Inductive Sensors

Eddy Current Sensors

Transformative Sensors

Mos Magnetic Field Sensors

Magnetometers

Magnetoresistive Sensors

Hall‐Effect Sensors

Magneto‐Optical Sensors

Magnetic thin Films

Amorphous Magnetic Materials

Shielding and Sensitivity to Electromagnetic Interference
Hall Effect Transducers
Authors: Baert Daniël H. J.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Hall Effect

Quantum Hall Effect

Applications of the Classical Hall Effect
Level Meters
Authors: Betta Giovanni , Pietrosanto Antonio
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Applied Acoustics: Basic Principles

Instruments For Sound‐Level Measurements

Sound Intensity Analyzing System

Microphones

Meter Calibration
Battery Testers
Authors: Baert Daniël H. J.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Battery Models

Purpose of Battery Tests

Battery or Cell Tests

Interpretation of the Measurements and Tests

Conclusions

Related Encyclopedia titles
Ammeters
Authors: Roy S. C. Dutta
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

The Permanent Magnet Moving‐Coil (
PMMC
) Instrument: a DC Ammeter

DC/AC Ammeters

Alternating Current Ammeters

Electronic Ammeters

Hall Effect Ammeters

Ammeters for Large Alternating Currents

Current Standard
Thermocouples
Authors: McDowell Mark
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

History of Thermocouples

Theory of Thermocouples

Thermocouple Junctions

Calibration of Thermocouples

Thermocouple Applications
Density Measurement
Authors: Eren Halit
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Density and Density Measurement of Solids

Density and Density Measurement of Liquids

Density and Density Measurement of Gases

Magnetic and Vibrational Methods

Weight/Weighing System/Mass Measurement Methods

Reference Methods

Radioactive Methods

Optical Methods

Falling‐Slug Method
Torquemeters
Authors: Falkner Anthony H.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

The Measurement of Shaft Torque

Static Torque Measurement

Principles of Operation

Current Developments
Piezoresistive Devices
Authors: Fiorillo Antonino S.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Basic Theory

Conductive Rubbers

Metal Strain Gauges

Thick‐Film Strain Gauges

Thin‐Film Strain Gauges

Semiconductor Strain Gauges

Types of Piezoresistive Devices
Velocimeters
Authors: Gander Robert E.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Physical Principles of Direct Velocity Measurement

Physical Principles of Indirect Measurements

Practical Considerations

Linear Electromagnetic Induction Velocimeters

Electromagnetic Flow Meters

Tachometers

Velocity Measurement Using Ultrasound

Microwave Velocimetry

Optical Velocimetry
Electrometers
Authors: Gard Michael F.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Applications

Advanced Topics
Voltmeters
Authors: Asumadu Johnson A.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Analog Voltmeters

Digital Voltmeters
Gravimeters
Authors: Gleason David M.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Absolute Gravity Measurements

Relative Gravity Measurements

Research and Development Areas
Chemical Sensors
Authors: Pedersen Henrik , Muguruma Hitoshi , DeLa Cruz Ernesto
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Ideal Chemical Sensors

General Features of Chemical Sensors

Sensor Types
Power Measurement
Authors: Bucci Giovanni , Landi Carmine , De Capua Claudio
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Definition of the Measured Quantities

General Methods and Instrumentation
Q‐Meters
Authors: Helfrick Albert
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Measuring
Q

The Q‐meter
Clocks in Telecommunications
Authors: Bregni Stefano
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Clock Signals and Their Timing Relationships

Network Synchronization Strategies

Characterization and Modeling of Clocks

Technology of Clocks

Clocks in Digital Telecommunications Networks
Radiometry
Authors: Glover Ian A.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Electromagnetic Radiation

Definitions of Radiometric Quantities

Blackbody Radiation and Emissivity

Applications
Instrumentation Amplifiers
Authors: Bowers Derek F.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Background

Definition

The Basic Instrumentation Amplifier

Gain Error

Common‐Mode Rejection Ratio

Advantages of the Basic Instrumentation Amplifier

Shortcomings of the Basic Instrumentation Amplifier

The Classic Three‐Op‐Amp Instrumentation Amplifier

Reference Input

Sense Input

Input and Output Referred Errors

The Two‐Op‐Amp Instrumentation Amplifier

An Alternative Approach Using Three Op‐Amps

Venturing Beyond Op‐Amp Design Techniques

Current‐Feedback Techniques

Active Feedback

Conceptual Active‐Feedback Instrumentation Amplifiers

Precision Active‐Feedback Instrumentation Amplifiers

Glossary of Frequently Encountered Terms
Q‐Factor Measurement
Authors: Luiten Andre
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Definitions

General Sources of Errors inQMeasurement

Traditional Methods ofQMeasurement

Modern Measurement Techniques

Acknowledgement
Electric Distortion Measurement
Authors: Girão Pedro M. B. Silva , Serra António M. Cruz , Ramos Helena M. Geirinhas
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Distortionless System

Distortion Taxonomy and Terminology

Signal Distortion Measurement

Systems Distortion Measurement
Time Measurement
Authors: Kostamovaara Juha , Räisänen‐Ruotsalainen Elvi , Määttä Kari
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Performance Parameters in Time‐Interval Measurement

Counting Method

Increasing Precision and Accuracy

Characteristics of the Interpolation Method
Automatic Test Equipment
Authors: Liguori Fred
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Early History of Automatic Test Equipment

Maintenance Versus Manufacturing Testing

Basic Principles of Automatic Test Equipment

Comparison of Manual and Automatic Testing

Control Subsystem

Stimulus Subsystem

Measurement Subsystem

Switching Subsystem

System Software Subsystem

Machine Instructions

Operating System and Run Time Executive

Translators

Compilers

Self‐Test

Self‐Test Hierarchy

Turn‐On Tests

Autocheck

System Diagnostic and Calibration Tests

Subsystem Test Library

Building‐Brick Test Library

User Libraries

The Test Program

Test Program Set Design and Production

Test Design

Establishing Test Limits

Test Program Set Production

Interface Device Design and Fabrication

Test Program Instructions

Validation
Multimeters
Authors: Melhorn Christopher J.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

History of Meter Movements

Digital Multimeters—Electronic Meters

Safety

Acknowledgments
Hygrometers
Authors: Matko Vojko
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Types

Mechanical Hygrometers

Wet‐ and Dry‐Bulb Hygrometers

Adsorption‐Type Hygrometers

Hygrometers Based on Adsorption of Ceramic

Dew‐Point Hygrometer

Impedance‐Type Hygrometers

Piezoelectric Hygrometers

Electrolytic Hygrometers

Optical Fiber Hygrometers

Calibration

Long‐Term Stability
Electric Current Measurement
Authors: Srinivasan K.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Classical Measurement Methods

Current Transducers

Current Measurements in Special Situations
Pressure Sensors
Authors: Wioeniewski Roland
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Fundamental Definitions

Primary Pressure Measurements

General Characteristics of Pressure Sensors

Diaphragm Pressure‐Sensing Elements

Bourdon‐Tube Sensing Elements

Straight‐Tube Sensing Elements

Strain‐Gauge Pressure Sensors

Resistance Pressure Sensors

Capacitive Pressure Sensor

Inductive Pressure Sensors

Reluctive Pressure Sensors

Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors

Potentiometric Pressure Sensors

Semiconductor Devices as Silicon Pressure Gauges

Actual Market Information
Strain Sensors
Authors: Rajanna K. , Nayak M. M.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Origin of Strain Gauges

Concept of Stress and Strain

Basic Operating Principle of the Strain Gauge

Strain Sensitivity/Gauge Factor

Features of an Ideal Strain Gauge

General Classes of Strain Gauges

Strain Sensitivity Dependence

Use of the Wheatstone Bridge

Thin Film Technology for Strain Gauges and Strain Gauge Based Sensor Development

Physical Vapor Deposition

Bias Sputtering

Chemical Methods

Methods to Determine the Gauge Factor of Strain Gauges

Application of Strain Gauges in Other Measuring Systems

Pressure Transducer

Load Cells

Appendix 1. A Chronology of the Major Milestones in the History of Strain Gauge Development
Microwave Measurement Instrumentation
Authors: Aditya Sheel , Arokiaswami Alphones
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Microwave Radiometry

Microwave Spectroscopy

Measurement of Permittivity and Permeability

Time‐Domain Measurements

Sweep Frequency Measurement of Scattering Parameters

Six‐Port Reflectometer

Power Measurement
Magnetic Field Measurement
Authors: Aykan Aydin , Stecher Manfred
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Relevance of Electromagnetic Field Measurements

Quantities and Units of Magnetic Fields

Range of Magnetic Field Levels to be Considered for Measurement

Equipment for Magnetic Field Measurements

Magnetic‐Field‐Strength Measurement Methods

Calibration of a Circular Loop Antenna

Calculation of Standard Near‐Zone Magnetic Fields

Electrical Properties of Circular Loops

Determination Of The Antenna Factor
Attenuation Measurement
Authors: Hilty Kurt
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Attenuation

Attenuator

Measurement of Attenuation

Errors and Uncertainties in Attenuation Measurements
Watthour Meters
Authors: Domijan Alexander
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

The Development of Revenue Metering

Mathematical Definitions Used for the Measurement of Power

Component Features and Operating Principles

The Future of Metering

Acknowledgments
Recorders
Authors: Blair Jerome J.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Analog‐to‐Digital Conversion in Modern Recorders

Important Recorder Characteristics

Recorder Configurations

Recorder Error Measures

Gain and Offset Errors

Other Recorder Quality Attributes

Recorder Application Comments

Future Directions
Reflectometers, Time‐Domain
Authors: Rusek Andrew
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Time‐domain reflectometry
(TDR) is one of the most useful methods of analyzing signal integrity in transmission media. This includes conventional “hardwired” devices such as cables, microstrip transmission lines, and other transmission paths found in radiofrequency, microwave, and high‐speed digital circuits and systems. This article describes the basic concepts of the TDR technique as well as associated with a related technique:
time‐domain transmission
(TDT). Through the course of this article, conventional TDR signal measurements related to various transmission‐line loads are demonstrated and discussed. In addition, a
differential
TDR
system is presented. Finally, TDR/TDT test results illustrating reflections due to parasitic effects, as well as
normalization techniques
in modern TDR systems, are described.

Introduction

Time‐Domain Reflectometry Principles

Examples of
TDR
/
TDT
Tests and
TDR
/
TDT
Applications
Bridge Instruments
Authors: Nicolas Jacques
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Bridge Networks

Dc Bridge Instruments

Ac Bridge Instruments

Acknowledgments
Frequency Stability
Authors: Tsuchida Hidemi
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Background and Definition

Frequency Domain

Time Domain

Translations Between Measures (Frequency Domain to Time Domain)

Translations Between Measures (Time Domain to Frequency Domain)

Oscillator Noise Model

Modified Allan Variance

Example of the Allan Variance

Other Measures of Frequency Stability
Power Meters
Authors: Legowski Stanislaw F.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

DC Power Meters

AC Power Meters used in Electric Power Applications

Mechanical Power Meters

Power Meters for High Frequency (HF) Electronic Systems
Measurement of Frequency, Phase Noise and Amplitude Noise
Authors: Walls Fred L. , Ferre‐Pikal Eva S.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Basic Concepts and Definitions

Measurement Systems

Carrier Suppression Measurement Systems
Electric Noise Measurement
Authors: Tobar Michael E.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Mathematical Representations of Noise

Definitions

Nyquist’S Theorem

Equivalent Current and Voltage Noise Generators

Types of Noise

Noise Figure and Temperature of a Device Under Test

Noise Figure and Temperature of Cascaded Stages

Noise Figure and Temperature of Lossy Transmission Line

Two‐Noise Source Method

Effects of Mismatch

Noise Sources

International Comparison of Thermal Noise Temperature Measurements

On‐Wafer Noise Measurements

Interferometric Noise Measurements

Acknowledgments
Oscilloscopes
Authors: Rusek Andrew
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Analog Scopes

Sampling Scopes

Digital Scopes

Technical Parameters and Limitations

Oscilloscope Probes

Oscilloscope Measurements

Programmability of Oscilloscopes
Wavelength Meter
Authors: Guy Martin , Latrasse Christine , Villeneuve Bernard , Têtu Michel , Tremblay Pierre
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Basic Information

Basic Electromagnetic Wave Theory and Useful Wavelength‐Measurement Definitions

Spectrometer‐Based Wavelength Meters

Interferometer‐Based Wavelength Meters

Applications and Advanced Topics

Conclusion
Pyroelectric Devices
Authors: Tuli Suneet
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Photon Detectors and Thermal Detectors

Pyroelectric Detector—Theory

Pyroelectric Detector—Materials and Fabrication

Applications and the Future
Current Transformers
Authors: Carsten Bruce W.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

High‐Frequency Current Transformers

Pulse Current Transformers

DC + AC Current Transformers

Precision DC Current Transformers

Air‐Cored Current Transformers (Rogowski Coils)
Eddy Current Nondestructive Evaluation
Authors: Udpa Satish S. , Udpa Lalita
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Mathematical Model

Eddy Current Techniques

Forward Problem Modeling

Eddy Current Inverse Problem

Model‐Based Methods

Signal‐Classification Methods

Pulsed Eddy Current Signal Processing
Current Shunts
Authors: Carsten Bruce W.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Current Shunt Development

Dc Current Shunt Design Considerations

DC Current Shunt Construction

High‐Frequency AC Current Shunt Design
Thin Film Analyzers
Authors: Kaufman Irving
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Optical Methods of Analysis

Structure

Material Analysis

Macroscopic Films
Ellipsometry, Variable Angle Spectroscopic
Authors: Woollam John A.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Basic Concepts: How do Ellipsometers Work?

Instrumentation

Applications

Future Directions of Spectroscopic Ellipsometry
Microscope Image Processing and Analysis
Authors: Robinson J. Paul , Turek John
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Microscopy

Electron Microscopy

Confocal Microscopy

Image Analysis

Medical Applications

Hardware
Holographic Storage
Authors: Lee Tzuo‐Chang , Trisnadi Jahja
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Purpose and Methodology

Principles of Thick Holograms

Storage Density Limits

Read Transfer Rate

Trade‐Off Between The Storage Density and The Transfer Rate
Image Color Analysis
Authors: Kang Henry R.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Basics of Image Color Analysis

Color Description and Formulation

Human Visual Responses

Color Appearance Model

Color Mixing Models

Circular Dot Overlap Model

Device‐Independent Color Imaging
Image Enhancement
Authors: Acton Scott T. , Wei Dong , Bovik Alan C.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Image Enhancement Techniques

Applications and Extensions
Image Processing
Authors: Singh Harpreet , Hamzeh Y. , Bhama S. , Talahmeh S. , Anneberg L. , Gerhart G. , Meitzler T. , Kaur D.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Background

Image Restoration

Image Enhancement

Object Recognition

Wavelets

Image Coding

Neural Networks

Image Fusion

Fuzzy Logic and Neuro‐Fuzzy Approach to Image Fusion

Major Problems in Video Image Fusion
Image Reconstruction
Authors: Rangayyan Rangaraj M. , Kantzas Apostolos
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Projection Data Collection Methods

Image Reconstruction Techniques

Examples of Reconstructed Images

Display of ct Images

Industrial Applications

Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments
Image Texture
Authors: Manjunath B. S. , Chellappa R.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Texture Classification and Segmentation

Gray Level Image Statistics and CO‐Occurrence Matrices

Random Field Models

Spatial Filtering

Rotation Invariant Texture Classification

Applications

Acknowledgments
Camera Calibration For Image Processing
Authors: Chatterjee Chanchal , Roychowdhury Vwani P.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Camera Calibration Model

Linear Methods of Noncoplanar Camera Calibration

Nonlinear Methods of Noncoplanar Camera Calibration

Robust Methods of Noncoplanar Camera Calibration

Coplanar Camera Calibration

Experimental Results

Concluding Remarks
Cryptography
Authors: Desmedt Yvo G.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Fundamentals

Tools

Algorithms Based on Number Theory and Algebra

Conclusion

Reading List
Algebraic Coding Theory
Authors: KlØve Tor Helleseth Torleiv
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Linear Codes

Some Bounds on Codes

Galois Fields

Cyclic Codes

BCH Codes

Automorphisms

The Weight Distribution of a Code

The Binary Golay Code

Decoding

Reed–Solomon Codes

Nonlinear Codes from Codes over
Z
4
Information Theory
Authors: Varshney Pramod K.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Communication System Model

Entropy

Source Coding

Mutual Information

Relative Entropy

Channel Capacity

Channel Coding Theorem

Differential Entropy

Capacity of Gaussian Channels

Rate Distortion Theory

Acknowledgment
Information Theory of Modulation Codes and Waveforms
Authors: Georghiades Costas N.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Analog Modulation

Digital Modulation
Maximum Likelihood Imaging
Authors: Schulz Timothy J.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Scalar Fields and Coherence

Incoherent Imaging

Coherent Imaging
Estimation Theory
Authors: Juditsky Anatoli
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Basic Concepts

Asymptotic Behavior of Estimators

Methods of Producing Estimators

Nonparametric Estimation

Model Selection
Signal Detection Theory
Authors: Hughes Brian L.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Basic Principles

Detection of Known Signals in Noise

Detection of Signals with Unknown Parameters

Detection of Random Signals

Advanced Topics

Further Reading
Information Theory of Radar and Sonar Waveforms
Authors: Bell Mark R.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Matched Filter Processing

The Ambiguity Function

Radar Waveform Design

Current and Future Directions
Database Design
Authors: Saake Gunter , Conrad Stefan , Schmitt Ingo
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Traditional Database Design

Database Integration and Interoperation

Integration Process

Conclusion
Distributed Databases
Authors: Breitbart Y. , Korth H. F. , Silberschatz A. , Sudarshan S.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Taxonomy of Distributed Database Systems

Distributed Database Architecture

Data Allocation

Distributed Query Processing

Distributed Transaction Processing

Distributed Concurrency Control

Distributed Commit Protocols

Replication of Data

Alternative Models of Distributed Transaction Processing

Conclusions
Temporal Databases
Authors: Tsotras Vassilis J. , Wang X. Sean
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

The Time Domain

Temporal Data Models

Temporal Database Design

Temporal Query Processing

Temporal Issues in Real‐Time and Active Databases

Conclusions
Database Mining
Authors: Cercone Nick , Hamilton Howard
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

What is Database Mining?

Introducing the Database Mining Process: Dblearn

Data Warehouses and Olap

Database Mining in Greater Detail

Some Advanced Operations and Advanced Database Mining Systems

Selection of Commercially Available Database Mining Systems

What to Expect in the Future

Acknowledgments

Glossary
Very Large Databases
Authors: Garofalakis Minos N. , Miller Renée J.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Application‐Oriented Database Management Systems

Multimedia Database Management Systems
Deductive Databases
Authors: Minker Jack
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Background

Historical Background of Deductive Databases

Datalog and Extended Datalog Deductive Databases

Extended Disjunctive Deductive Database SemanticsDatalog¬disj,ext

Implementations of Deductive Databases

Summary and References
Data Structures and Algorithms
Authors: Pardalos Panos M. , Rajasekaran Sanguthevar
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Data Structures

Algorithms for Some Basic Problems

Sorting

Selection

Randomized Algorithms

Parallel Computing

Bibliographic Notes

Acknowledgments
Relational Databases
Authors: Laurent Dominique
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Theoretical Background of Relational Databases

Data Dependencies

Database Updates

Relational Database Systems and SQL
Parallel Database Management Systems
Authors: Hua Kien A.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Parallel Database Server Architectures

Data Partitioning Techniques

Parallel Execution

Load Balancing

Future Directions and Research Problems
Data Analysis
Authors: Chen Arbee L. P. , Wu Yi‐Hung
Published: September 2005

In this article, we describe the concepts and techniques of data analysis. Two categories, supervised data analysis and unsupervised data analysis, are presented according to different initial conditions and resultant uses. Two methods for data analysis are then described and illustrated with examples, which are based on probability theory and fuzzy‐set theory, respectively. Following the introduction of fundamental data analysis methods, the method for Internet data analysis is presented. Further discussions on advanced techniques for Internet data analysis are then provided, which are based on rough‐set theory. Finally, we bring this article to a conclusion with the research trends highlighted.

Data Analysis Methods

Data Analysis on Internet Data

Improvement of the Data Analysis Methods
Machine learning
Authors: Honavar Vasant
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Learning Defined

Learning Categorized

Acknowledgment
Knowledge Management
Authors: Zarri Gian Piero
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

The Two Main Classes of Knowledge Representation (and Processing) Systems

The Biologically Inspired Approach

The Symbolic Approach

Frame Systems and Knowledge Engineering Software Environments

Knowledge Management: Some Practical Aspects
Expert Systems
Authors: Pomykalski James J. , Truszkowski Walter F. , Brown Donald E.
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Expert Systems: A Definition

History of Expert Systems

Major Application Areas

Books/Journals/Conferences

Structure of Expert Systems

Expert System Kernel Architecture

An Expert System Architecture

Development

Current Applications

The Future for Expert Systems

Summary and Conclusions
Searching
Authors: Spyratos Nicolas , Tzitzikas Yannis
Published: September 2005

The sections in this article are

Outline

Searching a Sequence of Records

Searching a Sequence of Characters

Searching in Graphs

Searching in Tables

Searching in Semistructured Data

Searching in Metric Spaces (Multimedia)

Searching in Documents (Information Retrieval)

Searching in the Web