bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The European Union and the Bureaucratic Mode of Production
Authors: Page Edward C.
Published: October 2003

How does the EU bureaucracy differ in nature from the bureaucracies of its member states? The purpose of this chapter is to put forward an argument that the differences between member‐state bureaucracies and the EU bureaucracy lie in the mode of production of administrative outputs. The first part sets out the nature of this mode of production, contrasting the co‐ordinate mode of production in the EU with the primarily hierarchical mode of production of most member states. The second part looks at the consequences of the co‐ordinate mode of production: a level and efficacy of regulation that would be inconceivable under a hierarchical mode of production. The concluding part examines the limits of a co‐ordinate mode of production: the legitimacy of the EU is especially closely linked to the ability of its bureaucracy to manage its programmes, and the co‐ordinate mode of production is particularly weak in this respect.
Image and Illusion in the Design of the EMU
Authors: Forder James
Published: October 2003

The success of the European Monetary Union programme is closely connected to the viability of the European Central Bank, and thence to the inordinate extent to which the design of the ECB was modelled on that of Germany's Bundesbank. The key question is whether that design is up to the task envisaged for it; and if not, what consequences may ensue.
Interacting States
Authors: Jobert Bruno
Published: October 2003

The purpose of this chapter is to trace the passage from earlier assumptions about the withdrawal of the state to the complex processes for reordering the public domain that characterize the EU today. To this end, it argues for a structural approach to public regulation. It rejects the argument of systematic erosion of the state function and, in its place, puts forward that of the emergence of a state that is not so much sovereign as open to negotiation, working within an international system where credible economic norms are produced within a polycentric continental entity.
Breaking Open Black Boxes: The Implications for Sociological Theory of European Integration
Authors: Crouch Colin
Published: October 2003

Sociological analysis has not made a significant contribution to the study of European integration, compared to political science or economics. This chapter examines the reasons for the discipline's neglect of integration processes, which is attributable largely to its failure to question some of its own assumptions about units of analysis, particularly with respect to the emergence of a European class structure.
The Evolution of Economic Policy‐Making in the European Union
Authors: Hall Peter A.
Published: October 2003

The course of European integration since the Second World War has raised important challenges for analysts of economic policy‐making. This chapter examines its impact on three analytical frameworks associated with distinctive eras of economic policy‐making in Europe: the era of competitive modernization, the era of distributive conflict, and the era of globalization. In respect of each era, the analysis addresses four general questions. First, how are the principal economic challenges facing the European nations defined? Second, what does good economic policy‐making entail? Third, what are the institutional conditions associated with successful policy‐making? Fourth, what kind of categories or comparisons among nations does each analytical framework emphasize?
In Lieu of a Conclusion
Authors: Menon Anand
Published: October 2003

This chapter reflects on the comments which the book's co‐editor, the late Vincent Wright, might have made on the arguments advanced by the contributors, had he lived to read their final drafts. Vincent relished ‘the joys of complexity’ and would have approved of the variety of ways in which the contributors recognized the complexities of the national policy‐making processes which have underpinned the European integration process.
Regulating Europe: The Political Economy of Market‐Building
Authors: Egan Michelle P.
Published: October 2003

Provides the central theoretical and analytical framework of the book. It includes an extensive review of the regulatory literature, which largely casts the European Union as analogous to a ‘regulatory state’ since it engages in widespread social and economic regulation to promote economic integration. Different theories of regulation—interest group, public interest, and public choice—are examined in order to understand current developments in European political economy. Although most accounts of regulation, often cited in the American context, have highlighted the impact of industry influence or ‘regulatory capture’, such a static view of the public–private relationship diverts attention away from other types of organizational relations. Private organizations assuming governmental functions are well known in Europe, whether it is self‐regulation, corporatism, or private interest government. Applying insights from both the European and American literature, this chapter highlights the importance of understanding the origins, practice, and consequences of regulation for broader issues of democratic governance, legitimacy, and accountability.
Removing Barriers to Trade: Empirical Evidence
Authors: Egan Michelle P.
Published: October 2003

Focuses on the costs of market fragmentation in Europe. It reviews the economic impact of removing barriers to trade as a result of divergent national standards, testing, and certification requirements. Ranked by business as the most important barrier to trade, these domestic regulations can prevent firms from engaging in cross‐border competition and hinder market access. Like other forms of trade protection, such non‐tariff barriers impact the importing country through higher domestic prices, higher cost margins and productive inefficiencies. This chapter also highlights the impact of trade barriers on firm strategies, and provides some empirical evidence of the benefits expected to accrue from market integration.
Harmonization: The Slow Strategy Forward
Authors: Egan Michelle P.
Published: October 2003

Focuses on early efforts in the 1960s and 1970s by the European Community to address trade barriers through the harmonization of national regulatory policies and practices. The push for harmonization of national policies in Europe was driven by the understanding that, without regulatory intervention at the regional level, there would be no single market and that trade conflicts would escalate. This chapter illustrates the tremendous difficulties that this (old approach) policy of harmonization encountered, despite a strong legal basis in the treaty to eliminate disparities in national regulatory systems. Since this policy reflected a regulatory mismatch, as the instruments chosen were ill‐suited to dealing with the problem, the chapter concludes by focusing on how political and economic constraints forced the EU to undertake regulatory reform to achieve a better match between its policy objective and outcomes.
The Intersection of Law and Markets
Authors: Egan Michelle P.
Published: October 2003

Focuses on the role of European case law in fostering an integrated market. Through a series of landmark cases, including Cassis De Dijon, Dassonville, and Keck, the European Court of Justice has supported trade and commerce in determining whether national legislation is protectionist or serves a legitimate function in promoting health, safety, and other public policy objectives. Analogies with the US are also discussed, particularly in promoting interstate commerce by addressing trade discrimination, and in developing legal principles to balance sovereign state powers with the need for integrated markets. The central argument is that a common framework of market rules has been pursued within a setting of well‐defined legal and judicial mechanisms, which have also provided mechanisms of enforcement and compliance with treaty goals. Of central importance is that legal reasoning shifted the focus of market integration from harmonization to mutual recognition as a key trade strategy to integrate markets. The role of law has been critical in sustaining a market economy, and case law shapes both states and markets, determining the constitutional limits to state intervention in markets and the level of government at which regulation is most appropriate and legitimate through legal mechanisms of non‐discrimination, balancing standards, and proportionality.
Regulatory Reform Strategies and the Single Market Programme
Authors: Egan Michelle P.
Published: October 2003

Provides a detailed assessment of the single market ‘1992’ programme and the renewed efforts by the European Union in the 1980s to address barriers to trade. The chapter covers the political and institutional reforms undertaken to relaunch European market integration, and the new regulatory strategies that involve states and firms in a complex ‘new approach’ to address the discriminatory effects of national regulations and standards. These efforts at regulatory reforms enable the European Union to delegate certain responsibilities to the private sector and shift from a ‘statist’ to a more market‐oriented policy style. Through the new approach and a related ‘global approach’ to testing and certification, the European Union has blurred the boundaries between the public and private sector in decision‐making and promoted new modes of governance by increasing competition among rules.
Setting European Standards: Politics, Rules, and Norms
Authors: Egan Michelle P.
Published: October 2003

Provides a detailed overview of the setting of European standards, focusing on the histories, organizational structures, and operating environments of the private standards‐setting bodies that have been given an increased role in negotiating rules for the single market. An analysis of these bodies (CEN, CENELEC, and ETSI) provides an important assessment of the new institutional framework created to govern markets. Given the importance of this new approach, this chapter provides an in‐depth insight into the reorganization of responsibilities and roles of the various public and private actors in managing regulatory policy in the single market. The standards‐setting process is complex, and the organizational culture and operating norms of the standards bodies are reviewed to illustrate the dynamics of cooperation and the cooperation required to reach a coordinated solution. Dealing with collective action problems due to differing interests and regulatory traditions, the chapter demonstrates the importance of problem solving, alliance formation, and strategic bargaining as well as the role of mutual trust, credibility, and reputation in achieving some form of agreement on European standards.
Market Management: Assessing and Evaluating the Standards Process
Authors: Egan Michelle P.
Published: October 2003

Focuses on the shortcomings of the new approach to market integration, and the reform efforts to make the single market a finished reality. Highlighting both recent EU proposals for further regulatory reform and industry reactions to them, the chapter provides key insights into the complex and contested nature of market integration. The chapter focuses on the challenges governing the market, not only in terms of legislative and institutional design but also its implementation and evaluation. The problems that remain indicate that the effectiveness and efficiency of the regulatory strategy to address trade barriers, by using both the public and private sector to set down the rules for market access, has undermined the completion of the single market. Market management and regulatory reform have increased in importance in an effort to address the political commitment to the single market, and growing concerns about the efficiency and efficacy of the efforts to reconcile regulation and free trade among divergent national economies.
Strategic Firms in an Integrated Market
Authors: Egan Michelle P.
Published: October 2003

Focuses on the impact of market integration upon corporate policies and strategies, an issue that has not been adequately addressed in the single market literature. Companies must adjust their strategies in response to regulatory changes, and the perceived impact of efforts to promote European standardization is analysed through survey research. The chapter concludes that a number of problems remain in addressing trade barriers and improving market access in Europe, but these problems are not always regulatory issues but instead reflect market behaviour and industry practice. The policies undertaken by the European Union have also impacted companies beyond the boundaries of the single market, and thus third country efforts have focused on ensuring non‐discrimination for companies outside Europe. Corporate responses—particularly from American firms—to changes in the European business and regulatory environment have resulted in increased efforts to seek greater access, promote their influence, and avoid extensive adaptation. The European single market and its emerging regulatory regime are clearly shaping firm policies, perceptions, and strategies at the national, regional, and international level.
Conclusion: Governance and Market‐Building
Authors: Egan Michelle P.
Published: October 2003

The conclusion summarizes the difficulties of achieving some form of accommodation between the interests of government, business, and society in constructing a single integrated market. The politics of market building is often a contentious process about the best ways to reconcile regulation and free trade. This involves not only the allocation of authority between different levels of government but also an acknowledgement that the corporate strategies are a major determinant of the nature and direction of European market integration. Using private actors for public purposes, the EU has delegated certain regulatory functions to European standards bodies as a substitute for direct government action. Comparisons with the construction of the American single market reveal a counterpart in the European Union, as both legal and regulatory intervention have been crucial in removing persistent obstacles to trade, and institutional arrangements have involved the strategic use of the private sector to integrate ‘uncommon’ markets.
Institutional Engineering and Transition to Democracy
Authors: von Beyme Klaus
Published: October 2003

Begins by pointing out that the concept of institutional engineering was not invented for the latest wave of transitions from dictatorship to democracy, but rather created for evaluating a democratic country at a time when it was in crisis. In Eastern Europe, a peculiar constellation of old and new elites led the way through the process of compromise between old and new forces and old and new institutions. Voters’ increased fickleness and a weaker party system left more room for manoeuver to institutional engineers. This chapter describes and analyses four models of institutional engineering: constitutional engineering; semi‐presidential systems; electoral laws; and decision‐making by plebiscite. These models are then compared with the paths of transition of selected Eastern European countries and contrasted with countries from Western Europe.
Constitutions and Constitution‐Building: A Comparative Perspective
Authors: Elgie Robert , Zielonka Jan
Published: October 2003

Examines the nature of constitutions and the constitution‐building process, focusing on some of the most important choices that constitution builders face. The chapter is divided into four main sections. The first section explores the complex relationship between democracy and constitutionalism. The second section identifies two major constitutional types and considers whether or not constitution builders should adopt a codified constitution. The third section addresses a timetable for constitution‐building and the execution of political power, including the limits imposed on democratically elected parliaments and referenda as a legitimizing strategy. The fourth section discusses the product of constitution‐building and the responsibilities of the framers.
Constitutional Design and Problems of Implementation in Southern and Eastern Europe
Authors: Morlino Leonardo
Published: October 2003

In this chapter, Leonardo Morlino presents an analytical framework for studying the implementation of constitutional norms. The aim of the first section is to isolate the guiding concepts for analysing constitutional design and its implementation. The second section explores the main aspects of constitutional design and the problems related to implementation in Southern Europe. The third section presents the constitutional designs of selected Eastern European countries and identifies certain implementation problems they faced. Some tentative conclusions are drawn from the empirical evidence presented in the first two sections with reference to the patterns of constitutional design implementation.
Estonia: Positive and Negative Institutional Engineering
Authors: Pettai Vello
Published: October 2003

Outlines Estonia's path to a new constitution along with an assessment of the new institutions in place since 1992. Because of constant political conflict, Pettai argues that the constitution‐making process was essential for creating the basis for conflict resolution and democratic consolidation. The chapter describes how Estonian leaders grappled with important aspects of their new democracy, including fundamental rights and duties, social welfare rights, judicial and constitutional review, the relationship between the president and the parliament, local government, minorities, and non‐citizens. Special attention is paid to the presidentialism versus parliamentarism debate. The author argues that institutional engineering enabled Estonia's leaders to secure its statehood and contributed to its economic development, European integration, and social progress.
Rebuilding Democracy in Latvia: Overcoming a Dual Legacy
Authors: Sprudzs Adolf
Published: October 2003

Emphasizes the difficult process of constitutional engineering in Latvia. The author argues that these difficulties stem from two historical legacies: the inter‐war independence period and the Soviet occupation. The quick re‐adoption of the 1922 Latvian constitution after the country's leaders declared independence from the USSR, paradoxically exacerbated the process of institutional engineering and ultimately slowed the pace of democratic consolidation. The chapter indicates several important gaps in the inter‐war constitution, e.g. the absence of basic rights or the provisions for local government administration. Despite the difficulties presented by the 1922 Constitution, the author argues that the high legitimacy achieved through its re‐adoption kept Latvia on the democracy‐building track. Finally, several positive and negative lessons learned from the Latvian transition period are presented.
Institutional Engineering in Lithuania: Stability through Compromise
Authors: Gelazis Nida
Published: October 2003

Describes the process of adopting a new constitution in post‐communist Lithuania. The reasoning behind the quick adoption of a constitution was the urgent need to create links to Western constitutional traditions, to legitimize the country's independence from the USSR, and to distinguish Lithuania from other Soviet satellite states. The Constitution was intended to contribute to the perception of Lithuania as an independent state in the international community, in the hope of securing itself from possible re‐annexation to the Soviet Union. Furthermore, the chapter points out that despite its quick adoption, the constitution includes important safeguards for democracy, such as the balance of powers and basic rights.
Bulgaria: The (Ir)Relevance of Post‐communist Constitutionalism
Authors: Ganev Venelin I.
Published: October 2003

Argues that institutional engineering in Bulgaria reflects the enduring legacies of communism, such as inability to solve social problems or to improve the level of economic prosperity. Using Bulgaria as an example, the author delineates the limits of constitutionalism as a tool in the process of democratic consolidation. The chapter views institutional engineering in Bulgaria as a multifaceted social project and suggests a more subtle analysis of the peculiar ways in which a post‐communist context tolerates both elite constraints and elite irresponsibility, the institutionalization of governance, and the endurance of corruption.
Constitutionalism as a Vehicle for Democratic Consolidation in Romania
Authors: Weber Renate
Published: October 2003

Describes how constitutionalism contributed to the democratic consolidation in post‐communist Romania. The author emphasizes the fact that Romania could hardly be described as having a constitutional tradition, since none of the previous regimes developed a tradition of observing their constitutions. Therefore, it may seem questionable whether the post‐communist constitution could have a significant impact on democratic consolidation in Romania. Nevertheless, in 1990, the constitutionalization process was the main focus of the new political elite. This chapter describes what kind of political reforms have been adopted in order to improve the constitution and avoid problems resulting from its ambiguity. It shows how the weaknesses of the current Constitution have paradoxically played an important role in bolstering Romanian civil society. The author prescribes several constitutional amendments that could transform the Romanian Constitution into a viable basis for democracy in the country.
Ukraine: Tormented Constitution‐Making
Authors: Wolczuk Kataryna
Published: October 2003

Describes Ukraine's protracted and discontinued constitution‐making process. Wolczuk explains that the Ukrainian leaders’ initial decision to preserve the Constitution was due to the broad range of contentious issues, going far beyond institutional choices and involving issues of nationhood and territorial integrity. The sheer range of contested issues and the degree of disagreement account for the ad hoc manner in which the final institutional choices were constitutionalized. The chapter analyses the impact of the new constitution on the function of the political system. The result was that institutional rivalry between the parliament and the president continued. Thus, while the passage of the 1996 constitution was a pivotal state‐building document, it failed to bring about political stability.
Power Imbalance and Institutional Interests in Russian Constitutional Engineering
Authors: Gadzhiev Gadis
Published: October 2003

Describes Russia as an incomplete democracy, in which a compromise regarding constitutional engineering was never reached and important decisions regarding power‐sharing were postponed, ultimately leading to the institutionalization of a super‐presidential regime created through brute force. The chapter emphasizes that Russia was the only post‐communist country that experienced a military intervention after democratic elections had taken place. The first part of the chapter focuses on how the process of amending the 1978 Russian Constitution deteriorated into a power struggle between the parliament and the president and describes the institutional structure that resulted from this contentious process. Finally, the chapter demonstrates how the Russian Constitution, which set clear rules for the institutional game but without respect for the division of power principle, has contributed to state weakness. It is emphasized that by concentrating power in the presidency, the executive has become overburdened and the state ineffective.
Constitutionalism in Belarus: A False Start
Authors: Lukashuk Alexander
Published: October 2003

Describes the failure of the constitution‐drafting process to contribute to democratic consolidation in Belarus. Today, Belarus is considered the worst authoritarian regime in Eastern Europe. The chapter characterizes the Constitution of Belarus as an occasionally used tool for manipulation by the country's autocratic president. While the president considers the Constitution he drafted to be the sole foundation of law in the country, the democratic opposition considers it illegal and illegitimate. Nevertheless, as the focal point of the struggle between President Lukashenka and the democratic opposition, the significance of the Constitution remains strong. The chapter emphasizes how certain choices and omissions in the constitution‐drafting process laid the foundation for the current undemocratic regime. The chapter indicates reasons behind the failure of constitutionalism in Belarus, such as a weak national identity, the absence of economic reforms during the first five years of independence, the state monopoly of the electronic media, and Russia's strong economic and political support of the Belarus's authoritarian leader.
The Czech Republic: From the Burden of the Old Federal Constitution to the Constitutional Horse Trading Among Political Parties
Authors: Kopecký Petr
Published: October 2003

Describes the transition of the Czech Republic from the federal Constitution of Czechoslovakia to the adoption of a new Constitution of the Czech Republic. The Czech Constitution is widely accepted to be a solid foundation for the country's democratic political system. The chapter focuses on the impact of historical legacies and shows how the nature of bargaining becomes more predictable when the domestic political actors involved in constitution‐drafting provide a stable set of opinions and motivations from which a compromise can be forged. In order to demonstrate this point, the chapter is divided into three parts. The first examines the key elements of the constitution‐making process in the Czechoslovak Federation between 1989 and 1992. It explains the crucial constitutional decisions made during Roundtable Talks and how this particular legacy, combined with the volatile nature of transition politics, resulted in Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce. The second part concentrates on the process of drafting the new Constitution of the Czech Republic at the end of 1992. Finally, Kopecky discusses the effects of the Constitution on the democratic Czech Republic.
Slovakia: From the Ambiguous Constitution to the Dominance of Informal Rules
Authors: Malová Darina
Published: October 2003

Describes the reasons behind the hastily drafted Constitution of Slovakia and explains why it proved insufficient to provide guidance to political leaders and to foster the consolidation of democracy. The main argument of this chapter is that the preponderance of informal rules has impeded the institutionalization of formal rules and undermined the constitutional government. The chapter focuses on the factors that have contributed to the dominance of informal rules and pushed actors to turn to unconstitutional alternatives. Slovakia's institutional developments are explored in four parts. The first part reviews institutional traditions and the constitution‐making process. The second part examines the electoral system and its impact on the party system and the composition of political power. The third part examines the substance of the Constitution, particularly, the unclear articles regarding the separation of powers, which have led to institutional conflicts. The last section analyses the durability of the constitution and attempts made by political actors to balance power through institutional engineering.
Slovenia: From Elite Consensus to Democratic Consolidation
Authors: Cerar Milo
Published: October 2003

Describes how the Slovenian transition from communism to democratic consolidation influenced the institutional engineering in Slovenia. Since there was no real tradition of statehood or experience with state‐building in Slovenia, the establishment of a new constitutional structure after its break from Yugoslavia was immensely important both as a foundation for the new political and economic system and as the country's calling card for entry into the international community. The chapter indicates the positive and negative aspects of institutional engineering in Slovenia. Although Slovenian political elites arrived at a consensus on almost all of the pressing issues involved in democracy‐ and state‐building quickly, the result of the quick adoption of the Constitution left important issues unresolved, and ultimately hampered the legislative process. Despite the political turbulence that continues to dominate Slovene politics, democratic consolidation in Slovenia can be regarded as largely achieved.
Hungary's Pliable Constitution
Authors: Szikinger Istvan
Published: October 2003

Describes the process of institutional engineering and the consequences of the absence of a new constitution in Hungary. As a result of the amendments passed by the outgoing communist parliament following the decisions made at the Roundtable Talks, Hungary has a formally old but substantively new constitution. This evolutionary approach has been warped by the formation of a parliamentary super‐majority that can easily amend the Constitution further in order to suit its political goals. The chapter points out the shortcomings of the Hungarian Constitution, such as the lack of protection from majority tyranny and no real progress in the field of human rights protection. The chapter also emphasizes problems in the political environment in Hungary and how it affects the chances for success in adopting a formally new Constitution. Political parties in Hungary are unable to integrate, or even to convey and express the legitimate interests of non‐partisan organizations, movements, and groups.
Legitimacy: The Price of a Delayed Constitution in Poland
Authors: Wyrzykowski Mirosław
Published: October 2003

Describes the constitution‐making process in Poland. The main feature of this process was the ability to reach a compromise in a conflict‐prone political setting. The chapter analyses major stages of the process of democratic consolidation and the constitutionalization, and examines issues such as legitimacy, balance of power, and the role of the state. The first significant breakthrough in the process was the interim constitution of 1992. The chapter emphasizes its importance in the process of institutional engineering despite its numerous shortcomings. The chapter also points out that the adoption of the Polish Constitution by referendum did not resolve the debate on legitimacy. Finally, it shows that despite the contentious adoption of the Constitution, it has had a stabilizing effect on Polish democracy. Overall, the Polish Constitution is described as a constitution of compromise and of political pragmatism.
Conclusions: On the Relevance of Institutions and the Centrality of Constitutions in Post‐Communist Transitions
Authors: Sadurski Wojciech
Published: October 2003

The concluding chapter concentrates on the importance of institutions in the democratic consolidation of post‐communist Eastern Europe. The chapter is divided into four parts that address issues concerning the importance of institutions in this process. The first section describes the ways in which institutions can affect political life by changing the pattern of incentives for particular behaviour by political actors. The second part shows how constitutions influence national identity by defining state citizenship. The third section refers to the activity of constitution‐making and how this process has taken place in Eastern Europe. The fourth part discusses how constitutions in Eastern Europe are transforming the way political demands, claims, and arguments are made by political actors.
Northern Ireland: Consociation or Social Transformation?*
Authors: Taylor Rupert
Published: October 2003

Taylor delivers a sustained critique of the consociational institutions in Northern Ireland's Agreement from an integrationist (social transformationist) perspective. He argues that a stable peace requires the rejection of the top‐down approach taken in the Agreement and, instead, the construction from the bottom‐up of a common society through integrated schools, residences, and workplaces, and through the organization of groups in civil society that are dedicated to eroding ethno‐national divisions. He favours a ‘non‐sectarian democratic society in a united ‘New Ireland’.
Comparative Political Science and the British–Irish Agreement
Authors: O'Leary Brendan
Published: October 2003

The chapter defends the Northern Ireland Agreement's consociational institutions. It notes that the Agreement also contains federal and confederal institutions covering all of Ireland and linking Ireland with Britain, and argues that both the internal and external dimensions were necessary parts of a durable settlement given the identities and aspirations of nationalists and unionists. The chapter stresses, in contrast to positions taken by Arend Lijphart and Donald Horowitz, the advantages of the particular proportional electoral system used in Northern Ireland. It also points to the dangers that Britain's tradition of parliamentary sovereignty poses to stable agreements between Britain and Ireland. Northern Ireland, the author argues, could and should have become a federacy as well as having consociational governance.
The Northern Ireland Agreement: Clear Consociational, and Risky
Authors: Horowitz Donald L.
Published: October 2003

Horowitz's chapter is critical of the consociational aspects of Northern Ireland's Agreement. It views the ‘grand coalition’ executive at the heart of the Agreement as unwieldy because it includes the extremes, particularly Sinn Fein. The chapter describes the commitments contained in the Agreement as maximalists, and argues that these commitments will rebound, when they are not delivered, to the advantage of militants. Horowitz prefers, for Northern Ireland and elsewhere, what he calls an ‘incentives’ approach. The likeliest and most stable coalition resulting from this is one that includes moderates and excludes militants.
Unsung Heroes? The Role of Peace and Conflict Resolution Organizations in the Northern Ireland Conflict
Authors: Cochrane Feargal
Published: October 2003

Addresses the integrationist complaint that academics focus too much on political elites and not enough on civil society. Cochrane gives a comprehensive analysis of the role that peace and conflict resolution organizations have played in Northern Ireland. He shows, in a conclusion that is at odds with integrationist thinking, that many of these organizations are as divided as political elites along national lines, and are committed to a solution that accommodates both communities rather than to one that transcends one. The chapter is a useful reminder that one can want peace without wanting a merger of identities.
From Conflict to Agreement in Northern Ireland: Lessons from Europe
Authors: Alcock Antony
Published: October 2003

Compares Northern Ireland with a number of other divided societies in Europe, including South Tyrol, Cyprus, and the Hungarian regions of Romania, Slovakia, and Serbia. It argues that states are unlikely to accommodate minorities if their ethnic kin in neighbouring states pursue irredentist claims. An agreement became acceptable to Northern Ireland's unionists only when the Irish republic removed its constitutional claim to Northern Ireland. Alcock also argues that unionists were able to accept the all‐Ireland institutions in Northern Ireland's Agreement in the context of similar developments in other parts of the European Union. The chapter is an example of ‘linkage’ politics, i.e. it stresses links between exogenous factors and internal politics.
Northern Ireland and the Basque Country
Authors: Keating Michael
Published: October 2003

Compares Northern Ireland with Western Europe's other hot spot, the Basque Country. It links both regions with the process of European integration. Keating's view is that, as this promotes a move away from the traditional notion of single identities and sovereign nation‐states towards more complex multiple identities and forms of shared sovereignty; it offers a potential way out of both conflicts.
Making the Transition from Hegemonic Regime to Power‐Sharing: Northern Ireland and Canada in Historical Perspective
Authors: Noel S. J. R.
Published: October 2003

Compares Northern Ireland with prosperous and peaceful Canada. It shows that Canada's relative tranquillity was not inevitable but owes much to the development of consociational practices by its English and French Canadian elites. Noel argues that if consociationalism is to work in Northern Ireland, its elites must also embrace a consociational bargain, a desire to compromise. He sees limited evidence of this, and is sceptical of the Agreement's prospects. The chapter is a useful reminder that it is possible to support consociationalism normatively, while recognizing that it remains a difficult system to operate, particularly in sites of profound polarization.
Northern Ireland and Island Status
Authors: Guelke Adrian
Published: October 2003

Compares Northern Ireland with Cyprus, Puerto Rico, Corsica, East Timor, and Sri Lanka. Guelke argues that the fact that Northern Ireland is a partitioned part of an island helps explain why the international community tends to favour a united Ireland. This is because there is an international norm that islands, as natural units, should be under one jurisdiction. International support for the Agreement can be explained, according to Guelke, by its inclusion of all‐island political institutions. Any attempt to weaken these will result in reduced international support.
Taking the Gun out of Politics: Conflict Transformation in Northern Ireland and Lebanon
Authors: Schulze Kirsten E.
Published: October 2003

Concerns the issue of what is to be done with paramilitaries and their weapons in post‐settlement scenarios. It argues that Lebanon has lessons in this matter that are relevant for Northern Ireland. Schulze argues that the key to progress is a process that is inclusive of all groups, including the representatives of paramilitary organizations.
Northern Ireland and South Africa: ‘Hope and History at a Crossroads’
Authors: O'Malley Padraig
Published: October 2003

Compares Northern Ireland's peace process with the transition to democracy in South Africa. The chapter details the ways in which Northern Ireland's political elites learnt from South Africa's negotiations, and argues that they have more to learn. It squarely rejects the claim of Irish republican militants that their position is analogous to that of South Africa's African National Congress.
The Possibility of Metaphysics
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: October 2003

Begins with a defence of realist metaphysics against its many enemies. Metaphysics, it is argued, is an autonomous and indispensable intellectual discipline whose distinctive task is to chart the domain of real possibilities—a task which requires us to identify both the basic ontological categories into which all possible beings are divisible and the characteristic relations of ontological dependency in which beings of various ontological categories necessarily stand to one another. Central parts of this task are carried out in the rest of the book, which focuses especially on the key notions of substance, identity, and time. The unity of the concrete world as one world existing in time ultimately depends, it is argued, upon the existence of fundamental substances, which persist primitively through processes of qualitative change. And even abstract necessary beings, such as the objects of mathematics, ultimately depend for their existence, it is claimed, upon there being a concrete spatiotemporal world of enduring substances.
The Possibility of Metaphysics
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: October 2003

A positive answer to Kant's famous question, ‘How is metaphysics possible?’, is given—one that represents metaphysics as being an autonomous and indispensable intellectual discipline whose task is to chart the domain of real possibilities. The notions of ‘real’ or ‘metaphysical’ possibility and necessity are defended and distinguished from those of various other species of modality, such as physical, logical, and conceptual possibility or necessity. The enemies of metaphysics, from relativists to those who seek to subordinate metaphysics to empirical science, epistemology, or the philosophy of language, are argued to hold positions that are either incoherent or self‐defeating.
Objects and Identity
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: October 2003

Explores the fundamental metaphysical notions of an object and of identity, and the intimate way in which they are related. The central ontological distinction between concrete objects and abstract objects is brought to the fore, and is explained in terms of the distinction between existence in time and timeless existence. The notion of a criterion of identity, introduced by Frege, is explicated and its application is illustrated in the course of a discussion of the nature of cardinal numbers and their use in counting.
Identity and Unity
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: October 2003

The relationship between the notion of an object and the notion of unity is discussed. It is argued that we should acknowledge the possible existence of entities belonging to certain ontological categories whose members lack either the determinate identity or the determinate unity—and hence countability—that are characteristic of objects properly so‐called. Such categories, it is suggested, are needed, amongst other things, to make sense of some of the theoretical entities postulated by modern quantum physics. In this connection, a famous argument by Gareth Evans against ‘vague’ identity is countered.
Persistence and Substance
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: October 2003

Argues that the very existence of time—and, more particularly, the temporal unity of the world as one world in time—is dependent upon the existence of concrete individual substances persisting through time, with the consequence that persisting substances cannot coherently be conceived to be mere sequences or aggregates of successively existing entities, their supposed ‘temporal parts’. An argument due to David Lewis being in favour of the latter view, appealing to the so‐called problem of intrinsic change, is criticized for failing to recognize a solution to this problem, which distinguishes between temporal and atemporal modes of property exemplification.
Substance and Dependence
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: October 2003

Presents and defends a rigorous definition of substance, by drawing on the notion of existential or ontological dependency. Various different species of ontological dependency are identified, including most importantly, the key relation of identity dependence. By appealing to a number of different species of dependency, an account is developed of the fundamental ontological relationships between substances and entities belonging to various other important ontological categories, such as events and properties.
Primitive Substances
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: October 2003

Argues that certain fundamental kinds of substance—which might appropriately be called primitive substances—must exist in order to provide the ultimate existential grounding of all concrete existence. Such substances are argued to be distinctive in that their persistence or identity through time must itself be primitive or ungrounded. But it is acknowledged that actually identifying such substances, as opposed to arguing in a general way for the necessity of their existence, is no easy matter.
Categories and Kinds
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: October 2003

The account of the ontological categories begun earlier in the book is completed and it is explained why and how such categories, which have an a priori status, must be distinguished from the empirically discoverable natural kinds into which objects—and, more particularly, naturally occurring individual substances—are divisible. By focusing on the problem of substantial change and associated questions concerning the persistence‐conditions of different kinds of object, the indispensable role that a system of ontological categories has in enabling us to understand the fundamental structure of reality is illustrated, thereby providing further and indeed conclusive evidence of the indispensability and autonomy of metaphysics as an intellectual discipline.
Matter and Form
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: October 2003

Here, attention is drawn to the Aristotelian distinction between matter and form, a version of which is defended in providing an account of the nature of composite substances. It is argued that a composite substance cannot be identified with the mereological sum of its component parts, nor with a bundle of compresent ‘tropes’ or property instances. A ‘four‐category ontology’, inspired by Aristotle, is defended, according to which four fundamental and mutually irreducible categories of entity need to be acknowledged: substantial particulars, non‐substantial particulars (or ‘modes’), substantial universals, and non‐substantial universals.
Abstract Entities
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: October 2003

A return is made in this chapter to the subject of abstract entities. A number of different senses are distinguished in which an entity may be said to be ‘abstract’ and the nature and existence of certain important varieties of abstract entities are discussed, including universals, sets, and numbers. Natural numbers, it is argued, are not to be identified with sets but rather with kinds of sets: that is to say, we should think of numbers as universals which have as their particular instances, sets of appropriate cardinality.
Facts and the World
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: October 2003

In this chapter, consideration is given to the nature of facts or states of affairs. Some philosophers who acknowledge the existence of such entities treat them as abstract entities, while others think of them as being the ultimate building blocks of the concrete world, as the relata of causal relations, and as the truth‐makers of contingent truths. Difficulties with the latter view are identified, but a modest ontological role for facts is preserved, whereby they may be seen as ‘ways things are’ rather than as items that are the fundamental constituents of reality.
The Puzzle of Existence
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: October 2003

Deals with one of the deepest of all metaphysical problems, the question of why there should be anything at all—that is to say, why there should be a world of concrete objects existing in space and time. After querying another recent approach to this question favoured by Peter van Inwagen, an answer is offered which appeals to the distinction between concrete and abstract entities and proposes that, while some of the latter (such as numbers) but none of the former are necessary beings, abstract entities can exist only in a possible world that is populated by at least some concrete entities.