bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Good Things Worth Sharing?
Authors: McIvor Méadhbh
Published: May 2021

This concluding chapter addresses the following themes: evangelism in the public sphere, emergent trends in Christian activism, and the changing place of Christianity in English law. It highlights the almost paradoxical situation in which English evangelical Protestants feel themselves to live: one in which Christianity is valued as an aspect of heritage, but rejected as a living faith. Those looking to protect England's Christian heritage are, in part, responding to social and demographic changes beyond their control: increasing ethnic, cultural, and religious diversity; decreasing adherence to traditional forms of authority, whether religious, political, social, or generational; value pluralism; and other challenges to Protestant hegemony. These shifts all impact the place of majority religion in contemporary England. Yet, by stressing the particularly religious nature of the words, beliefs, and actions for which they seek protection, Christian activists also contribute to these changes. Pursuing their claims under religious freedom legislation works to confirm that these are niche interests set apart from the everyday, thus invoking a secular distinction between the 'religious' and other spheres of life.
Foundations
Authors: Wetherell Sam
Published: May 2021

This book is a history of twentieth-century Britain told through the rise, fall, and reinvention of six different types of urban space: the industrial estate, shopping precinct, council estate, private flats, shopping mall, and suburban office park. The book shows how these spaces transformed Britain's politics, economy, and society, helping forge a mid-century developmental state and shaping the rise of neoliberalism after 1980. From the mid-twentieth-century, spectacular new types of urban space were created in order to help remake Britain's economy and society. Government-financed industrial estates laid down infrastructure to entice footloose capitalists to move to depressed regions of the country. Shopping precincts allowed politicians to plan precisely for postwar consumer demand. Public housing modernized domestic life and attempted to create new communities out of erstwhile strangers. In the latter part of the twentieth-century many of these spaces were privatized and reimagined as their developmental aims were abandoned. Industrial estates became suburban business parks. State-owned shopping precincts became private shopping malls. The council estate was securitized and enclosed. New types of urban space were imported from American suburbia, and planners and politicians became increasingly skeptical that the built environment could remake society. With the mid-century built environment becoming obsolete, British neoliberalism emerged in tense negotiation with the awkward remains of built spaces that had to be navigated and remade. The book highlights how some of the major transformations of twentieth-century British history were forged in the everyday spaces where people lived, worked, and shopped.
Introduction
Authors: Wetherell Sam
Published: May 2021

The introductory chapter discusses the history of twentieth-century Britain told through the transformation of its built environment. It narrates a story about the rise of a developmental social infrastructure, and its privatization, demolition, and rearticulation under a new neoliberal consensus. The chapter reveals the types of subjects and visions of society that emerged alongside these transformations as well as the new relationships between Britain and the wider world that they entailed. It does so by charting the emergence and spread of six different types of urban space: the industrial estate, the shopping precinct, the council estate, the private housing estate, the shopping mall and the business park. Although the chapter opens in the skies above London, it draws up a similar index of almost every British town or city at the millennium using the six urban forms whose histories the book charts. Ultimately, the chapter outlines the fascinating histories of each of these spaces — hopefully showing the historical fragility and downright weirdness of places that have come to feel mundane and familiar to so many of us.
The Shopping Precinct
Authors: Wetherell Sam
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses the emergence of the shopping precinct as a distinct urban form in the mid-twentieth century and how it would come to reshape Britain's urban environment. Britons often use the words “shopping precinct,” “shopping center,” and “shopping mall” interchangeably. These terms are used to refer to the hundreds of comprehensively planned developments housing multiple different shops that punctuate British towns and cities in a way that is both banal and familia. The chapter dispenses with the term “shopping center,” and preserves an important distinction between the “shopping precinct” and “shopping mall.” It presents a historical argument about the development of British spaces over the twentieth century. The chapter focuses on the example of Gibson's precinct in Coventry — one of the first and arguably most extravagant of the wave of the postwar shopping precinct. Ultimately, the chapter dwells on the strange historical conditions surrounding the birth of the American shopping mall.
The Private Housing Estate
Authors: Wetherell Sam
Published: May 2021

This chapter looks at what became of the council estate as the sizable class of people renting their homes from local councils ebbed away. It explains the relative endurance of the council estate and the way that it marked the outer limit of Britain's emerging property-owning democracy. The chapter also follows the career of Alice Coleman, an urban planner who critiqued council estates along these lines and in doing so caught the attention of the Thatcher government, winning funding in the 1980s to redesign many large estates. Ultimately, the chapter highlights the privatization in the context of housing and the birth of a new urban form in Britain: the private housing estate. Private housing estate refers to any large residential building or group of residential buildings that are owned by the same private developer, planned as a totality, and to which access is available only to residents. It explores the growth of these developments in East and South London in the 1980s along with the records of private residents' associations to see the new ways in which “communities” were imagined to exist in such spaces.
Conclusion
Authors: Wetherell Sam
Published: May 2021

This chapter argues that in the late-twentieth century, Britain became a postdevelopmental state — a neoliberal political formation characterized by a constant, unresolved negotiation between old and new that played out across its built environment. It assesses the tensions felt, particularly in the last third of the twentieth century, when Britain's developmental state was in retreat. The chapter also outlines how the urban forms were reimagined and remade from the 1970s and how industrial estates became suburban business parks, central shopping precincts became private shopping malls, and council estates were privatized, hollowed out, and in some cases transformed into securitized compounds like Enterprise Lane. Ultimately, it elaborates a variety of new types of urban space that were seized on by industrialists, urban planners, politicians, and technocrats to form the foundations of a new economy and a new society in the mid-twentieth century.
The Rebellion of the Daughters
Authors: Manekin Rachel
Published: May 2021

This book investigates the flight of young Jewish women from their Orthodox, mostly Hasidic, homes in Western Galicia (now Poland) in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In extreme cases, hundreds of these women sought refuge in a Kraków convent, where many converted to Catholicism. Those who stayed home often remained Jewish in name only. The book reconstructs the stories of three Jewish women runaways and reveals their struggles and innermost convictions. Unlike Orthodox Jewish boys, who attended “cheders,” traditional schools where only Jewish subjects were taught, Orthodox Jewish girls were sent to Polish primary schools. When the time came for them to marry, many young women rebelled against the marriages arranged by their parents, with some wishing to pursue secondary and university education. After World War I, the crisis of the rebellious daughters in Kraków spurred the introduction of formal religious education for young Orthodox Jewish women in Poland, which later developed into a worldwide educational movement. The book chronicles the belated Orthodox response and argues that these educational innovations not only kept Orthodox Jewish women within the fold but also foreclosed their opportunities for higher education. Exploring the estrangement of young Jewish women from traditional Judaism in Habsburg Galicia at the turn of the twentieth century, the book brings to light a forgotten yet significant episode in Eastern European history.
Arnold Diffusion for Smooth Systems of Two and a Half Degrees of Freedom
Authors: Kaloshin Vadim , Zhang Ke
Published: May 2021

Arnold diffusion, which concerns the appearance of chaos in classical mechanics, is one of the most important problems in the fields of dynamical systems and mathematical physics. Since it was discovered by Vladimir Arnold in 1963, it has attracted the efforts of some of the most prominent researchers in mathematics. The question is whether a typical perturbation of a particular system will result in chaotic or unstable dynamical phenomena. This book provides the first complete proof of Arnold diffusion, demonstrating that that there is topological instability for typical perturbations of five-dimensional integrable systems (two and a half degrees of freedom). This proof realizes a plan John Mather announced in 2003 but was unable to complete before his death. The book follows Mather's strategy but emphasizes a more Hamiltonian approach, tying together normal forms theory, hyperbolic theory, Mather theory, and weak KAM theory. Offering a complete, clean, and modern explanation of the steps involved in the proof, and a clear account of background material, the book is designed to be accessible to students as well as researchers. The result is a critical contribution to mathematical physics and dynamical systems, especially Hamiltonian systems.
Normal Forms and Cohomology Classes at Single Resonances
Authors: Vadim Kaloshin , Ke Zhang
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses the single-resonance non-degeneracy conditions and normal forms. It then formulates Theorem 3.3, which covers the forcing equivalence in the single-resonance regime. The classical partial averaging theory indicates that after a coordinate change, the system has the normal form away from punctures. In order to state the normal form, one needs an anisotropic norm adapted to the perturbative nature of the system. The chapter also uses the idea of Lochak to cover the action space with double resonances. A double resonance corresponds to a periodic orbit of the unperturbed system. Finally, the chapter looks at a lemma which is an easy consequence of the Dirichlet theorem.
Weak KAM Theory and Forcing Equivalence
Authors: Vadim Kaloshin , Ke Zhang
Published: May 2021

This chapter describes weak Kolmogorov-Arnold-Moser (KAM) theory and forcing relation. One change from the standard presentation is that one needs to modify the definition of Tonelli Hamiltonians to allow different periods in the t component. The chapter points out an alternative definition of the alpha function, namely, one can replace the class of minimal measures with the class of closed measures. It then considers a dual setting which corresponds to forward dynamic. It also looks at elementary solutions, static classes, and Peierls barrier. In many parts of the proof, the chapter studies the hyperbolic property of a minimizing orbit, for which the concept of Green bundles is very useful.
Generic properties of mechanical systems on the two-torus
Authors: Vadim Kaloshin , Ke Zhang
Published: May 2021

This chapter focuses on proving generic properties of the minimizing orbits of the slow mechanical system. It first proves Theorem 4.5 concerning non-critical but bounded energy, before proving Proposition 4.6 concerning the very high energy. The chapter then proves Proposition 4.7 concerning the critical energy. The proof of Theorem 4.5 consists of three steps. The first proves a Kupka-Smale-like theorem about non-degeneracy of periodic orbits. The second shows that a non-degenerate locally minimal orbit is always hyperbolic. The third finishes the proof by proving the finite local families obtained from the second step are “in general position,” and therefore there are at most two global minimizers for each energy.
Derivation of the slow mechanical system
Authors: Vadim Kaloshin , Ke Zhang
Published: May 2021

This chapter proves various normal form results and formulates the coordinate changes that are used to derive the slow system at the double resonance. The discussions here apply to arbitrary degrees of freedom. The results also apply to the proof of the main theorem by restricting to the case n = 2. First, the chapter reduces the system near an n-resonance to a normal form. After that, it performs a coordinate change on the extended phase space, and an energy reduction to reveal the slow system. The chapter then describes a resonant normal form, before explaining the affine coordinate change and the rescaling, revealing the slow system. Finally, it discusses variational properties of these coordinate changes.
A Course in Microeconomic Theory
Authors: Kreps David M.
Published: May 2021

This book is a text in microeconomics that is both challenging and “user-friendly.” The work is designed for the first-year graduate microeconomic theory course and is accessible to advanced undergraduates as well. Placing unusual emphasis on modern noncooperative game theory, it provides the student and instructor with a unified treatment of modern microeconomic theory — one that stresses the behavior of the individual actor (consumer or firm) in various institutional settings. The author has taken special pains to explore the fundamental assumptions of the theories and techniques studied, pointing out both strengths and weaknesses. The book begins with an exposition of the standard models of choice and the market, with extra attention paid to choice under uncertainty and dynamic choice. General and partial equilibrium approaches are blended, so that the student sees these approaches as points along a continuum. The work then turns to more modern developments. Readers are introduced to noncooperative game theory and shown how to model games and determine solution concepts. Models with incomplete information, the folk theorem and reputation, and bilateral bargaining are covered in depth, followed by exploration of information economics. A closing discussion concerns firms as organizations and gives readers a taste of transaction-cost economics.
Dynamic choice
Authors: Kreps David M.
Published: May 2021

This chapter investigates the issue of dynamic choice. Many important choices made in economic contexts are made through time. The consumer takes some action today, knowing that subsequent choices will be required tomorrow and the day following and so on. And today's choice has impact on either how the consumer views later choices or what choices will later be available or both. This can be referred to as a situation of dynamic choice. The chapter discusses how economists model the process of dynamic choice. In microeconomics, the issue of dynamic choice is usually dealt with by reducing dynamic choice to the static choice of an optimal dynamic strategy which is then carried out. The chapter examines this standard approach before considering a pair of alternatives.
Monopoly
Authors: Kreps David M.
Published: May 2021

This chapter describes the theory of monopoly. In a monopoly market, there are many buyers and a single vendor of a good. The single vendor is called the monopoly. Buyers are assumed to be price takers, and their demand as a function of price is given, as in the case of perfect competition, by an aggregate demand function. One reason one might find a monopoly industry is because, while other companies can enter this industry, the monopoly acts in a way that forestalls potential competitors. If substitute products are produced and sold, they restrain the monopoly's market power by flattening and shifting-in the monopoly's demand curve. The idea of substitutes for a monopoly product comes up in another context — that of multigood monopolies. The chapter then looks at nonlinear pricing.
The revelation principle and mechanism design
Authors: Kreps David M.
Published: May 2021

This chapter evaluates a more general attack on optimal contract and mechanism design stressing cases of adverse selection, which makes use of the revelation principle. One should be clear about the uses to which the revelation principle is put. It can be thought of as a statement about how actually to implement contracts. But it may be better to use it with greater circumspection as a tool of analysis for finding the limits of what outcomes can be implemented, without reference to how best to implement a particular outcome. In some contexts of direct revelation, there will be situations ex post where the party in the role of the government knows that it can obtain further gains from trade from one or more of the parties who participated. Meanwhile, in many applications of the revelation principle, the party in the role of mechanism designer must be able to commit credibly to no subsequent (re)negotiation once it learns the types of the parties with which it is dealing.
Yeshiva Days
Authors: Boyarin Jonathan
Published: May 2021

New York City's Lower East Side has witnessed a severe decline in its Jewish population in recent decades, yet every morning in the big room of the city's oldest yeshiva, students still gather to study the Talmud beneath the great arched windows facing out onto East Broadway. This book is the author's uniquely personal account of the year he spent as both student and observer at Mesivtha Tifereth Jerusalem, and a poignant chronicle of a side of Jewish life that outsiders rarely see. The author explores the yeshiva's relationship with the neighborhood, the city, and Jewish and American culture more broadly, and brings vividly to life its routines, rituals, and rhythms. The author describes the compelling and often colorful personalities he encounters each day, and introduces readers to the Rosh Yeshiva, or Rebbi, the moral and intellectual head of the yeshiva. The author reflects on the tantalizing meanings of “study for its own sake” in the intellectually vibrant world of traditional rabbinic learning, and records his fellow students' responses to his negotiation of the daily complexities of yeshiva life while he also conducts anthropological fieldwork. This book is the story of a place on the Lower East Side with its own distinctive heritage and character, a meditation on the enduring power of Jewish tradition and learning, and a record of a different way of engaging with time and otherness.
Introduction
Authors: Boyarin Jonathan
Published: May 2021

This introductory chapter studies the rabbinic texts among other adult male Jews who are members of the kollel (full-time adult study corps) at Mesivtha Tifereth Jerusalem (MTJ). It introduces the author's first, and very brief, personal encounter with the Rosh Yeshiva — the man who for decades has been the moral, administrative, legal, and scholarly address of last resort at MTJ. The chapter also takes a look at the introduction of Rabbi Simcha Goldman, a regular at MTJ who spends much of his time giving noncredit Talmud classes at various colleges and universities in the New York area. Goldman mission seems to be introducing bright young men with less background to the beauties of Torah — a profound mix of human freedom, discipline, and responsibility. The chapter mentions one of the authors' study partners, Nasanel, which plays a huge role in the book especially in the entire beis medresh (the “house of study,” or study hall). Ultimately, it explores the author's journey in crafting the book and explains the yeshiva's Mashgiach.
The Neighborhood, the City, and Beyond
Authors: Boyarin Jonathan
Published: May 2021

The chapter presents a short biography and the shiur of the Rosh Yeshiva. It introduces the people who came to the Lower East Side, and the people who were born in the area, which created a network of institutions that has been gradually dwindling for decades. The chapter also tackles how Nasanel wound up at Mesivtha Tifereth Jerusalem (MTJ). Unlike some larger yeshivas, especially perhaps those in Israel, there do not seem to be any formal recruiting efforts at MTJ. Other than those who are from the neighborhood, people find their way to MTJ either because of the Rosh Yeshiva's reputation as a leading authority on Orthodox Jewish law, or because, like Nasanel, they have somehow gotten the sense that the place will be right for them. The chapter then takes a look at the lives of Yisroel Ruven in the Lower East Side, Asher Stoler, Rabbi Canto, both regular at the beis medresh, and the Orthodox Jewish community. Ultimately, it illustrates a neighborhood where the Jewish population has been declining for roughly a century, and where buildings to house Jewish institutions have been progressively emptied out.
The Meaning of Leshma
Authors: Boyarin Jonathan
Published: May 2021

This chapter reflects on the term leshma and what the word means. During the author's time at the yeshiva, the term has thus become a way to gather together and ponder on a range of moments that display the productive and agonizing tension between goal-oriented behavior and actions that are devoted to their own moment. The chapter suggests that the focus on leshma was fostered by a passage of Talmud, which the author happened to encounter just a couple of weeks into his kollel year. It explains that the notion of leshma — in the “larger” sense of studying or doing anything for its own sake, and not as a means to an end — also echoes the threatened and perhaps vanishing understanding of a “liberal education” as worthwhile in its own right. Ultimately, the chapter shares a set of anecdotes and musings that the word continues to evoke, and perhaps that will serve better than any definition could.
Learning and the Time of the Dream
Authors: Boyarin Jonathan
Published: May 2021

This chapter assesses the dreams that the author experienced. It narrates the first dream in which the author seemed to wish to merge young Orthodox American boys today, not only with those Jewish children murdered by the Nazis and their local henchmen, but perhaps as well with the fragmented memories of an imagined, more whole or “authentic” Jewish childhood in eastern Europe. The chapter reveals that the impulse to repair the breach of memory — and perhaps his ambivalence about that impulse — is certainly part of his impulse for studying at Mesivtha Tifereth Jerusalem (MTJ), as it has directed his professional life for the past four decades. In another dream, it was about his mother's father, Yeshaya Kravits, who somehow became Cyrus Weltman in America. In this dream, they were bringing him home to live with them. Ultimately, the chapter analyzes Nasanel's remarkable gift — the ability to extend time, or to defy the shackles of quantified, linear time.
Voter Volatility and Stability in Presidential Campaigns
Authors: Baker Andy , Ames Barry , Rennó Lúcio
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses novel descriptive facts on the dynamics of vote choice during presidential election campaigns. Using all available panel data from Brazil and Mexico (plus one from Argentina), it estimates the amount of preference change that occurred in 10 election campaigns. Between any two panel waves, 17 to 45 percent of voters switched across party lines. The chapter then depicts campaign volatility at the national level, using nationwide poll results to show how the horse race unfolded in the four main election cases (Brazil 2002, Brazil 2006, Brazil 2014, and Mexico 2006). These polling trends provide a brief historical background to the election cases and allow one to refute claims that the observed switching is based strictly on individual (and potentially socially isolated) calculations to avoid a wasted vote.
Discussion and the Regionalization of Voter Preferences
Authors: Baker Andy , Ames Barry , Rennó Lúcio
Published: May 2021

This chapter extends the discussion of the previous chapter and focuses on larger subnational units. It illustrates how political discussion explains the geography of the vote across states and entire subnational regions. Political discussion during the Brazil 20144 and Mexico 2006 campaigns drew many voters toward the political leanings of their states, deepening North versus South and other regional divides. Scholars tend to see the regional clustering of political preferences in Brazil and Mexico as the sum of individual-level interests, identities, and demographics (e.g., the Mexican North is conservative because its residents are relatively wealthy). The chapter shows that social influences make the regionalization of preferences much greater than the sum of these individual parts.
1944-1958
Authors: Reich-Ranicki Marcel
Published: May 2021

This part recounts how, after they were liberated by the Russians, the author and his wife made their way to Warsaw. He then joined the Communist Party and began working for the Foreign Ministry. But since he did not adhere to the strict policies of the Communist Party, he was eventually imprisoned and dismissed from the party. This dismissal led to his work as a journalist and his return to German culture, and it enabled him to turn his love for German culture into a profession. From 1950 to 1958, he became the foremost Polish literary critic of German literature from the East and the West, and he befriended some of the most important writers and critics of the times, such as Anna Seghers, Bertolt Brecht, Hans Mayer, Siegfried Lenz, Heinrich Böll, and many of the members of the famous Group 47.
Introduction
Authors: Fleming Sean
Published: May 2021

This chapter provides an overview of state responsibility. There are two contemporary theories of state responsibility. According to the agential theory, states can be held responsible because they are 'moral agents' like human beings, with similar capacities for deliberation and intentional action. According to the functional theory, states can be held responsible because they are legal persons that act vicariously through their officials. This book reconstructs and develops a forgotten understanding of state responsibility from Thomas Hobbes' political thought. It argues that the Hobbesian theory of state personality provides a richer understanding of state responsibility than the agential theory or the functional theory. Any cogent and complete theory of responsibility must answer three 'Fundamental Questions' about the entity in question: the Question of Ownership, the Question of Identity, and the Question of Fulfilment.
The Agential and Functional Theories of State Responsibility
Authors: Fleming Sean
Published: May 2021

This chapter distinguishes, compares, and evaluates the two dominant theories of state responsibility. According to the agential theory, states can be held responsible because they are moral agents like human beings. According to the functional theory, states are principals rather than agents. The primary distinction between the two theories of state responsibility is that they rely on different understandings of how corporate entities can act. The chapter then uses the Three Fundamental Questions to bring the agential and functional theories into dialogue and to put them to the test. It argues that neither provides an adequate set of answers. While the 'agent' and 'principal' models of state responsibility are useful in some respects, each has important gaps and blind spots.
Populism and Backlashes against International Courts
Authors: Voeten Erik
Published: May 2021

This chapter assesses the rise of populism as an ideological shift that can be orthogonal to the main ideological dimension of contestation. It advances two main points. First, populist leaders have incentives to contest expert-based international institutions that interpret liberal rules when these interpretations interact with preexisting populist mobilization. Moreover, populism offers an ideology to challenge the authority of these institutions. Second, populists are diverse in their positions on the main dimension of contestation, which complicates their ability to form effective multilateral reform coalitions. The chapter then applies the book's conceptual framework to the rise of populism with an empirical application to international courts.
Election and Removal
Authors: McConnell Michael W.
Published: May 2021

This chapter points out how the delegates spent far more time debating how the president would be chosen, the length of his term, and the method of removal than they did debating presidential powers. It emphasizes that the mode of selection of the president was one of the thorniest issues the delegates faced during the period. It also illustrates how the delegates repeatedly argued over how to choose the president as some favored selection by the legislature, while some favored popular election. The chapter recounts the eventual adoption of the electoral college in the Convention as the closest practicable method to popular election. It talks about Wilson and John Rutledge, who urged that the president must be elected by the people at large, by the freeholders of the country.
The President’s Legislative Powers
Authors: McConnell Michael W.
Published: May 2021

This chapter explains the king's extensive powers to control the legislative branch and decide when and whether to call a parliament. It details how the Crown lost control over the timing of elections and sessions of Parliament after the Glorious Revolution. It also refers to colonial governors that exercised parallel prerogatives over colonial legislatures and introduced and dismissed legislative assemblies at will that frustrated the expression of popular will. The chapter analyzes the colonial assemblies of Massachusetts, South Carolina, Maryland, Georgia, and Virginia, which were all dissolved in retaliation for their criticism of taxation. It discusses how the president was stripped of all powers with respect to the timing and conduct of elections, and almost all power over the timing of legislative sessions.
Other Prerogative Powers
Authors: McConnell Michael W.
Published: May 2021

This chapter focuses on the Convention and the Committee of Detail that addressed and allocated every prerogative power of the Crown to the president or to Congress or denied the power to the national government altogether. It looks at the significant categories of prerogative power and emphasizes that the framers' treatment of lesser powers is often interesting and revealing. It also mentions the Habeas Corpus Acts of 1640 and 1679 that effectively ended the practice of early monarchs asserting authority to imprison subjects without legal redress by guaranteeing judicial review. The chapter reviews the substantial prerogative powers of the king in his capacity as the supreme governor of the “Church by Law Established.” It identifies the prerogative powers that devolved upon the United States and eventually became nongovernmental.
The Logic of the Organization of Article II
Authors: McConnell Michael W.
Published: May 2021

This chapter focuses on the sections that divided Article II, such as Section 1 that addresses the selection and perquisites of the president, and Section 4 that covers impeachment. It deals with the powers of the president, which are set forth in the first sentence of Article I of Section 1 called the “Vesting Clause” or the “Executive Power Clause.” It also mentions the second clause that enumerates two more prerogative powers, which are subjected to the advice and consent of the Senate. The chapter cites the additional presidential power found in Article I of Section 7 that underscores the legislative character of the presidential power. It discusses the Committee of Style and Arrangement that was led by Gouverneur Morris, which sculpted the organization of Article II. It covers Clause 1, Section 2 of Article II that vests the president with the Commander-in-Chief Power, the Opinions in Writing Power, and the Pardon Power.
Three Presidents, Three Conflicts
Authors: McConnell Michael W.
Published: May 2021

This chapter proposes an approach to the separation of powers that can be applied to presidents of all ideological stripes and personal dispositions. It cites George W. Bush and the authorization of torture, in which the Bush Administration authorized a written list of enhanced interrogation techniques, such as the notorious practice of water-boarding. It also covers President Obama's agreement between the United States and the Islamic Republic of Iran, along with certain other countries, under which Iran agreed to certain limitations on its development of nuclear weapons in exchange for the lifting of economic sanctions. The chapter describes the impeachment and acquittal of Donald Trump by the Senate as the most acrimonious separation-of-powers conflict in the tumultuous Trump years. It talks about the House vote on impeachment and the Senate vote on removal that surpassed the partisan impeachment and removal proceedings for President William Jefferson Clinton.
The Administrative State
Authors: McConnell Michael W.
Published: May 2021

This chapter illustrates the structure of the administrative state, which emerges as one of the main areas of focus among the Justices of the Supreme Court. It examines three of the most contentious issues to see what the structural logic of Article II has to contribute. It also cites the presidential constitutional review, under which the president can decide for himself that statutes passed by Congress are unconstitutional and use his powers to negate them. The chapter talks about the congressional delegation of power to executive agencies as the central feature of the modern administrative state. It explores executive agencies, like cabinet departments, that are headed by officers who are subject to removal at the pleasure of the president.
Conclusion
Authors: McConnell Michael W.
Published: May 2021

This chapter refers to the American founders as the first in the world to create a powerful, unitary, independent chief executive officer in the context of a system where the bulk of governing authority would be held by the legislative branch. It reviews the principal device of the constitutional framers in allocating large swaths of traditionally royal power to Congress rather than the president. It also mentions the requirement for advance congressional authorization and approval for many of the most significant powers of the state, such as taxation and coercion. The chapter discusses how the presidency has seemed to metastasize as Congress has ceased effectively to function in recent decades. It points out the dangers of a unilateral executive under the unconventional presidency of Donald Trump, which seemed more severe compared to more circumspect occupants of the office.
Elitist Interpretations of the Republic
Authors: Vergara Camila
Published: May 2021

This chapter traces the intellectual history and institutional iterations of the theory of the mixed constitution that originated as a critique of monocratic constitutions and offered a realist redress for systemic corruption based on the institutionalization of different forms of social power. It offers the genealogy of an elitist-proceduralist strand commenced by Polybius and Cicero, reinterpreted by Montesquieu, constitutionalized by Madison, and brought to its highest level of philosophical sophistication by Philip Pettit. It also analyses a plebeian-materialist strand originating in the political experience of the plebs within the ancient Roman republic and continuing in Niccolò Machiavelli's interpretation of the political praxis of the popolo during the Florentine republic. The chapter makes the distinction between elitist and plebeian constitutions based on who has final decision-making power in a given framework. It provides a visual representation of constitutional orders to better understand the distribution of powers and compare between different models of republics.
On Material Constitutional Thought
Authors: Vergara Camila
Published: May 2021

This chapter proposes a methodological approach to the study of constitutions that goes beyond the written text and jurisprudence in order to incorporate the material structure of society. It interprets the factual organization and exercise of power that is allowed and enabled by foundational institutions, rules, and procedures. It also discusses the premise of material constitutionalism on the idea that the organization of political power cannot be analyzed without taking into account political and socioeconomic power structures. The chapter establishes a constitutional ideology that stands opposed to legal positivism, formalism, and proceduralism. It traces the material approach back to Niccolò Machiavelli and distinguishes between institutionalist and critical strands.
Machiavelli on the Plebeian Power to Create and Punish
Authors: Vergara Camila
Published: May 2021

This chapter begins by presenting Niccolò Machiavelli's constitutional thought as the foundation of a type of constitutionalism that is material in its analysis of law and procedures, and anti-oligarchic in its institutional design. It recognizes the influence that socioeconomic inequalities exert over political power, in which Machiavelli embraces conflict as the effective cause of free government and strives to empower and channel emancipatory, plebeian energies through the constitutional order. It also focuses on Machiavelli's most important contribution to materialist constitutionalism: the plebeian nature of constituent power. The chapter contends that the constituent power in Machiavelli serves not as a bridge between basic principles and politics, but rather as the power exerted to resist oppression and establish plebeian and anti-oligarchic institutions. It looks at the democratic theory on the constituent power that has been conceived as the autopoietic power of the community.
Arendt on the Republic of Parties and Councils
Authors: Vergara Camila
Published: May 2021

This chapter analyzes Hannah Arendt's intellectual relation with Rosa Luxemburg's work, including her critique of the American founding and her proposal for establishing a council system. It analyzes Arendt's most controversial, understudied, and misinterpreted work, On Revolution, which was conceived after her engagement with Luxemburg's critical essay on the Russian Revolution. It recounts Arendt's view on how the revolutionary spirit was lost and the government became mere administration at the moment when the founders focused on representation, and neglected to incorporate the township and the town-hall meeting into the Constitution. The chapter talks about Arendt's support of the council system as an alternative form of government aimed at the continual reintroduction of freedom as action in a public realm dominated by administration. It describes Arendt's proposal of the mixed constitution, in which parties are dedicated to administration and councils are dedicated to political judgment.
Wave Mechanics
Authors: Peebles P.J.E.
Published: May 2021

This chapter develops the wave mechanics formalism. The emphasis here is on symmetries and conservation laws: parity, linear and angular momentum, and the electromagnetic interaction. The only specific physical application is the completion of the study of an isolated hydrogen atom, with some discussion of the motion of a particle in a magnetic field. The chapter also outlines the general assumptions of quantum wave mechanics, which may be summarized as follows: the state of a physical system is represented by a wave function and each measurable attribute of the system is represented by a linear self-adjoint operator in the space of functions. To apply these general assumptions to a given physical system, one must give a specific prescription for the observables and their algebra, and one must adopt a definite form for the Hamiltonians as a function of the observables.
Atomic and Molecular Structure
Authors: Peebles P.J.E.
Published: May 2021

This chapter assesses some applications drawn from atomic and molecular structure. It deals with the structures of the lighter atoms and the simplest molecule, molecular hydrogen. The main approximation method used here is the energy variational principle, which is a powerful technique for computing the low-lying energies of a system such as an atom or molecule. The chapter then introduces the Pauli exclusion principle, which governs the symmetry of the state vector for a system of identical particles such as electrons. Two general features of the exclusion principle are worth noting. First, although the spins make only a very weak contribution to the Hamiltonians for helium, the lowest energy state with spin one is above the spin zero ground state, which is a considerable difference. Second, an electron arriving as a cosmic ray particle from a distant galaxy has to have a wave function antisymmetric with respect to the local electrons, even though the new electron has been away from us for a long time.
Scenarios
Authors: Peebles P. J. E.
Published: May 2021

This chapter describes some of the attempts to trace the links between theory and observation, showing how the character of the matter distribution we observe developed out of reasonable conditions in the early universe. Opinions on what the universe might have been like at high redshift span the range from primeval chaos to a distribution well ordered in the large but more or less chaotic or turbulent on small scales, to a universe quite precisely homogeneous and isotropic. It is not surprising that the arguments that have been advanced in favor of each scenario all make good points that to some seem compelling. The principle that has been adopted in this book and that argues against all variants of the primeval chaos scenario is that gravity tries to enhance density irregularities, not disperse them: as long as gravity is the dominant force it is hard to see how the universe could do other than grow more irregular. The chapter then considers the nature of protogalaxies and protoclusters.
Context
Authors: Pelli Giuseppe
Published: May 2021

This chapter focuses on the first stage of reform and the direct rule of the Austrian Habsburgs, from the early eighteenth century, in Lombardy. It highlights the powerful axis with an agenda of reform for Milan and Lombardy. The local nobility was at first hesitant or even hostile, and some of them remained so, but there were also individuals and groups who themselves nurtured ambitious plans for reform, and saw the attractions of service in the imperial administration. The 'Lombardian Enlightenment' was the product of the working together of these two forces. The chapter also examines the period of maximum cooperation between the imperial power and the progressive aristocracy of Milan and Lombardy in the 1760s and 1770s. Ultimately, it discusses the most progressive nobles during the time and the house of Count Pietro Verri: the self-styled Accademia dei Pugni or 'Academy of Fisticuffs.'
Postscript: From Forced Labour to Penal Servitude
Authors: Pelli Giuseppe
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses the impact of Cesare Beccaria's work on philosophers, jurists, politicians and church leaders in Italy and abroad. The debates and controversies that it provoked concerned far more than the death penalty, for he had surveyed the whole system of criminal justice with a fiercely critical eye. It reviews Beccaria's surrogate penalty of hard labour, which has received rather less attention than his views on the death penalty and other aspects of criminal justice. The chapter also explores the process by which the favoured surrogate penalty of the two Italian reformers (for Giuseppe Pelli as well as Beccaria advocated forced labour) evolved into the punishment that is routinely characterised as 'penal servitude' by contemporary legal historians and criminologists. Ultimately, the chapter investigates preliminary observations of Beccaria's surrogate penalty as slavery or servitude, and both Pelli and Beccaria's reference to their preferred alternative punishment as forced labour, not as imprisonment at hard labour.
FLUCTUATION OF Doleschallia bisaltide LARVAE (LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPHALIDAE) ON CARICATURE-PLANT (Graptophyllum pictum)
Authors: Adi M Bakti Samsu , Susanti Dian , Wijaya Nur Rahmawati
Published: May 2021

Fluctuation of Doleschallia bisaltide larvae (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) on caricature-plant (Graptophyllum pictum).Caricature-plant cultivation is often damaged due to the attack of Doleschallia bisaltide larvae. High reproduction ability ofD. bisaltide is a serious problem that need to be managed, therefore it will not inflict a financial losses. This study was aimedto determine the fluctuation of D. bisaltide larval population in the caricature-plant plantation in Kalisoro, Tawangmangu.The observations were carried out with a survey method on five observation plots for seven months from March to September2018. The data were analyzed by descriptive statistics and the Spearman rank correlation coefficient test. The results showedthat the population structure was changed during the observations with the highest larval population in May. The results ofSpearman rank correlation coefficient test showed significant and positive correlation between third, fourth, and fifth instarslarvae with the rainfall. The control of D. bisaltide can not only depend on the presence of natural enemies, therefore controlinterventions were needed especially at a suitable time and environment whne the population increased.
Sovremennye problemy v izuchenii rasprostranennosti i diagnostike rasstrojstv shizofrenicheskogo spektra u detej i podrostkov
Authors: Панкова О. Ф. , Казин Н. М. , Иванова С. М.
Published: May 2021

Aktual'nost' izucheniya pokazatelej rasprostranennosti, polovozrastnyh osobennostej i diagnostiki rasstrojstv shizofrenicheskogo spektra (razdel F2 SHizofreniya, shizotipicheskie i bredovye rasstrojstva) u detej i podrostkov — pacientov detskih psihiatricheskih klinik ob"yasnyaetsya predstoyashchim vstupleniem v dejstvie Mezhdunarodnoj klassifikacii boleznej (MKB-11), v kotoroj sushchestvennye izmeneniya vneseny v celyj ryad razdelov, vklyuchaya rasstrojstva iz gruppy shizofrenii. Trudnosti diagnostiki dannoj gruppy invalidiziruyushchih rasstrojstv svyazany s polimorfizmom klinicheskoj kartiny, sindromal'noj nezavershennost'yu psihopatologicheskih fenomenov, nalichiem «stertyh» atipichnyh form. Vyyavlennye pri analize stacionarnyh kart pacientov odnoj iz detskih psihiatricheskih bol'nic izmeneniya v strukture zabolevaemosti (umen'shenie chisla pacientov s diagnozom shizofrenii (F20) i znachitel'noe uvelichenie chisla pacientov s diagnozom shizotipicheskogo rasstrojstva (F21)), a takzhe ser'eznye protivorechiya v voprosah diagnostiki, ocenke dinamiki rasstrojstv, iskhodov, urovnya social'nogo funkcionirovaniya bol'nyh pozvolyayut podcherknut' neobhodimost' dal'nejshego izucheniya s ispol'zovaniem kliniko-katamnesticheskih metodov dlya preodoleniya vyyavlennyh trudnostej i protivorechij v diagnostike, lechenii i reabilitacii dannyh pacientov.