bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Aspects of infant speech development in the first year of life
Authors: Delack John B.
Published: February 2018

Introduction. Despite a rather extensive literature on the subject, most research on the nature of infant speech can be characterized as impressionistically descriptive, or anecdotal, or speculative, or some combination thereof. Such studies have by and large ignored the structure, function and natural history of early vocal behaviour, an empirically adequate specification of which is a necessary prerequisite to an understanding of the development of infant vocalizations and of their relationship to later linguistic usage. Likewise, reports have generally failed to recognize the dynamic interactions within the developing organism as a whole, eschewing discussion of concomitant neurophysiological maturation and cognitive growth. While detailed consideration falls beyond the scope of the present paper, some insight into the issues involved may be gained from recent treatises dealing with brain development (Jacobson, 1975), myelogenesis (Lecours, 1975) and the ontogeny of cerebral dominance (Zangwill, 1975). Problems relating to speech input and output requirements in acquisition have been treated by Mattingly (1973), and the interplay of physiological-cognitive factors with respect to early speech perception and production has been critically overviewed by Gilbert (1975). Suffice it to say that until experimental evidence can be adduced, interpreted and properly interwoven into a coherent description, definitive theories on the acquisition and development of speech and language must perforce remain only as desiderata.
Effect of temporal expansion of speech on aphasic comprehension
Authors: Marckworth Mary Lois
Published: February 2018

Language events occur in a temporal domain. Every speech event occupies a span of time and has temporal boundaries beyond which it cannot be reduced (or, presumably, expanded) and remain intelligible. Normal language users operate successfully within these temporal boundaries, both producing and perceiving utterances within the critical limits.
Essai sur l’imparfait latin et français
Authors: Tiffou Etienne
Published: February 2018

IL ne saurait être question dans un article de faire un historique de la critique sur les problèmes soulevés par l’imparfait; on trouvera dans Imbs (1960) un état satisfaisant de la question, auquel on pourra se reporter avec profit. Notre but est d’essayer d’éclairer l’ambiguïté que l’on dénote dans l’imparfait en français. Pour ce faire, nous n’avons pas, du moins consciemment, voulu nous situer dans un système de linguistique particulier. Nous nous sommes contenté de donner une interprétation assez générale pour rendre compte des valeurs les plus insolites du temps que nous nous proposons d’étudier, et qui parfois semblent entrer en contradiction les unes avec les autres.

D’une façon générale on caractérise l’imparfait comme ayant une valeur aspectuelle, c’est-à-dire comme un duratif passé, ou comme un passé inachevé, et accessoirement comme un itératif. Mais ces valeurs ne recouvrent pas toutes celles de l’imparfait et sont même en quelque sorte accessoires. L’opposition qu’il y a entre Il y a dix ans je travaillais comme garçon de course à Paris et Il y a dix ans j’ai travaillé comme garçon de course à Paris n’exprime pas seulement une opposition duratif-non duratif. Il est évident que là n’est pas la différence essentielle entre ces deux exemples. On sent le caractère complexe de l’imparfait, mais l’opposition de ces deux phrases ne permet pas de bien le cerner.
The measurement of interference in old texts
Authors: Danesi Marcel
Published: February 2018

As Bott (1970: 217-19) points out, one of the most successful applications of computer to language research has been in the production of concordances—alphabetical lists of all the words in a written corpus followed by a reference system (i.e., page and line number) and a context (i.e., the line in which the word occurs). This valuable tool has greatly facilitated the description of the language of old texts.

The literature on the synchronic problems related to languages in contact is abundant. However, the effects of borrowing on the formation of a language have not been studied in any detail mainly because (in our opinion) of the lack of appropriate analytical tools. Clearly, the diagnosis and examination of interference mechanisms in old texts is important not only for a complete historical description of a language at a particular stage in its development, but also as a means of understanding the nature of contact phenomena. With the advent of computer concordances this lacuna may soon be filled.
‘Sliding’ in English dialects
Authors: Mitchell J. Lawrence
Published: February 2018

Although variants of the form [fri] and [bof] for standard [θri] ‘three’ and [boθ] ‘both’ are well attested in dialects as divergent as Cockney (Sivertsen 1960) and Black English Vernacular (Wolfram and Fasold 1974), there has been no attempt, to my knowledge, to treat these “substitutions” (a term with which they are frequently dismissed) as anything but isolated phenomena. Wyld (1936) and Dobson (1957), who are among the most respected authorities on English phonology, both specifically identify the [θ]/[f] alternation as an “isolative change.
A note on reconstructions as evidence for linguistic theory
Authors: Hooper Joan Bybee
Published: February 2018

G. L. Piggott’s paper “Implications of linguistic change for concrete phonology” does not present diachronic evidence in favor of a theory of phonology with abstract representations and derivations, as it claims, but rather reconstructs a hypothetical sequence of events. This reconstruction is based on a theory of phonology; that is, Piggott reconstructs a sequence of events that is consistent with the theory that he holds. It is not legitimate, therefore, to turn around and use this reconstructed situation as an argument for his theory. We return to this point below.

A somewhat weaker point is in principle possible, and Piggott tries to make it also. This would be to show that some theory cannot provide an historical account of how a certain situation could have arisen. Note that all that is required here is that the theory provide sufficient machinery to produce a plausible reconstruction of a state of affairs. Piggott is quite correct in maintaining that this is a legitimate test of a theory. He argues that the theory he defends provides such an account of the examples he discusses, but that the theory of Hooper (1976), natural generative phonology, cannot provide such an account.
A rule ordering paradox in Hare
Authors: Rice Keren
Published: February 2018

Recent changes in Hare, an Athapaskan language of the lower Mackenzie River Valley, require that a rule of epenthesis be ordered in two places in the grammar. The original rule is ordered before a rule of vowel raising. In the innovative dialect of Hare, part of the environment for this epenthesis rule is revised and it must be ordered after the raising rule.
Old French Epenthesis and Syllabic Structure
Authors: Singh Rajendra
Published: February 2018

In a provocative article in a recent issue of this journal, Walker (1978) accounts for Old French (OF) alternations of the type ancestre: ancessour, mendre: menour, prendre:prenons, and cosdre: cousons with a synchronic rule of consonant epenthesis given in (1) below:

The purpose of this remark is to argue that even if OF can be said to have consonant epenthesis as a synchronic phonological process (for some convincing arguments to the contrary, see Morin 1980 [above in this volume]), Walker’s formulation of it leaves a lot to be desired.
Chapter I: The Aim, and the Method of Treatment
Authors: Wilson Richard Albert
Published: February 2018

But that same Where (Space), with its brother When (Time), are from the first the master-colours of our Dream-Grotto; the Canvas (the warp and woof thereof) whereon all our Dreams and Life-Visions are painted.—CARLYLE, Sartor Resartus, 1830.

When Kant in his investigation of the nature and validity of human knowledge in the Critique of Pure Reason (1781) undertook an examination of the nature of Space and Time as the starting point in the discussion, he struck the path which all fruitful philosophical investigation has followed since. Since Space and Time are the two ‘forms’ within which the whole system of life and nature unfolds itself to the human mind, and are at the same time the ‘warp and woof on which man elaborates his mental sense-picture of the world, an examination of these two sense-forms should be the self-evident starting point in any true cosmic philosophy. Yet it seems to have taken something more than a century for the full significance of Kant’s method to sink into the general philosophical consciousness, and it is only in our own time that its fruits have begun to mature. What strikes one in the philosophical writings of the present century, whether starting from mathematics, or science, or pure speculation, is the common assumption in all of them that some exposition of Space and Time must form the foundation of any adequate treatment of the nature of the world, the human mind, and the structure of human knowledge. The title of Professor Alexander’s book, Space, Time, and Deity (1920), is symbolic of the modern point of view.
Chapter II: Two Old-world Theories of Language
Authors: Wilson Richard Albert
Published: February 2018

Adam’s first task was giving names to natural Appearances: what is ours still but a continuation of the same?—CARLYLE, Sartor Resartus, 1830.

What is now usually known as the ‘external divine-origin theory’ of language—a misnomer which arose from erroneous theological expositions of the narrative given in the early chapters of Genesis—has still an interest for the modern student; first, because of the prolonged influence which it has had upon language theory in the Western world; and second, because of certain significant facts regarding language which an understanding reader still finds in that old story of language origin, to say nothing of the poetic attractiveness of the story itself.
Chapter IV: Herder and the New World
Authors: Wilson Richard Albert
Published: February 2018

In Being’s floods, in Action’s storm,I walk and work, above, beneath,Work and weave in endless motion!Birth and Death,An infinite ocean;A seizing and givingThe fire of living.’Tis thus at the roaring Loom of Time I ply,And weave the living Robe of Deity.

GOETHE, Song of the Earth-Spirit, Faust, 1774.

If pressed for an exact date of the true beginning of the scientific investigation of language, one would naturally think of the date of the publication of Johann Gottfried Herder’s prize essay on the Origin of Language, 1772. In passing from Rousseau’s essay to Herder’s—although they are separated by only twenty-two years, and by the distance between Paris and Strassburg—we step clearly over the threshold from medievalism into the new world of free philosophical investigation, into an atmosphere as clear as that in which Plato and Aristotle worked. Herder’s essay on language is the starting point for all the scientific work that has since been done on that subject, and has thus a very important historical significance in addition to its permanent scientific value. Its full significance, however, can be fully appreciated only in relation to the general scientific and philosophic thought of the time, and it will be necessary to digress for a few pages to describe the intellectual atmosphere in which Herder worked in the latter half of the eighteenth century in Germany.
Chapter III: The Organic Hypothesis
Authors: Wilson Richard Albert
Published: February 2018

It is a long way from granite to the oyster; farther yet to Plato and the preaching of the immortality of the soul. Yet all must come as surely as the first atom has two sides.—EMERSON, Nature, 1841.

How can purposive forms of organization arise without a purposive working cause? How can work full of design build itself up without a design and without a builder?—KANT, The General History of Nature, 1755.

But there can be no reasonable doubt that living matter, in due process of time, originated from non-living; and if that be so, we must push our conclusion farther, and believe that not only living matter, but all matter, is associated with something of the same general description as mind in the higher animals. We come, that is, to a monistic conclusion, in that we believe that there is only one fundamental substance, and that this possesses not only material properties, but also properties for which the word mental is the nearest approach.—JULIAN HUXLEY, Essays of a Biologist, 1926.

The organic hypothesis holds that the world was at no time of its evolution a merely purposeless mechanical world, in which matter was prior to mind in the time order. The real original world was already and always a world of matter, life, mind, and purpose, actual or latent. Matter on this hypothesis is regarded not as an independent substance in its own right, but as the means or material through which the life and mind of the world works itself out from its potential to its actual destiny. The life-force, or mind-force, or whatever we may call it in its earlier stages, works within the sensuous material of the world, and gradually shapes and moulds this material first into what we now call inorganic formations, and then, in the ripeness of time and environment, into those organic forms in which the lifeprinciple rises into recognizable living shapes, and emerges into actual objective existence.
Chapter V: Animal Intelligence and Expression
Authors: Wilson Richard Albert
Published: February 2018

The goal of truth lies in a single point from which we can survey all sides and discover that no animal can invent language, that no God must invent it, and that man as a human being can and must invent it.—HERDER, Origin of Language, 1772.

Since these animal cries have purposive significance similar to that of language, in what respect do they differ from language? I shall try to give a definite answer to this question.

First, they are inarticulate while language is articulate. And what precisely does ‘inarticulate’ mean? It means (1) that these cries are not explicitly articulated sounds with clear-edged beginnings, middles, and endings, as are the word-sounds ‘h-a-p’ and ‘h-o-p,’ or ‘d-i-g’ and ‘d-i-p,’ so that one sound can be clearly and definitely differentiated from another; and (2), as a corollary to this, the sounds have no conventional meanings; that is, they are not invested each with an arbitrary and definite connptation quite apart from any natural sound-suggestion which they may have, so that one sound stands exclusively for one thing, another sound for another thing, as do the words of language like ‘wolf and ‘bear.’ In other words, the animals’ cries are natural cries as distinguished from the conventionalized sounds which we call words, and they have the characteristic vagueness or indefiniteness of significance which all natural sounds have. In this respect of natural vagueness of significance the cries of animals resemble the mechanical sounds in nature, though differing from these in expressing purpose.
Chapter XI: Last Step : Translation of Language from Time to Space
Authors: Wilson Richard Albert
Published: February 2018

Words are fleeting in pronunciation, but permanent when written down.—BACON, Advancement of Learning.

Statues of brass or marble will perish; and statues made in imitation of them are-not the same statues nor the same workmanship, any more than a copy of a picture is the same picture. But print and reprint a thought a thousand times over, and with material of any kind, carve it in wood or engrave it on stone, the thought is eternally and identically the same thought in every case. It has a capacity of unimpaired existence, unaffected by change of matter, and is essentially distinct and of a nature different from everything else that we know of or can conceive.—THOMAS PAINE, The Age of Reason.

And now we come to the final step in the making of language. By the conventionalization of sound in oral speech, which is the actual language, man accomplished two things. First, he changed the vague suggestiveness of natural sounds into perfectly defined, articulated, limited sound symbols, that can be clearly differentiated from one another by the ear, as ‘rat,’ ‘cat.’ Second, by conventionalization he transformed the pure time symbols into space-time symbols, as in the sentence, ‘The bird sings,’ where ‘bird’ is a representation of space, ‘sings’ of time, though both are carried from the lips of the speaker to the ear of the listener upon the common substratum of sound, that is, time.
The Guillaumian Tradition in Canadian Linguistics
Authors: Hewson John
Published: February 2018

The ambivalence of Canadian English spelling, which recognizes both British orthodoxy and Noah Webster’s innovations, is one of the many indicators of Canada’s role as a half-way house between Europe and the United States. Unlike the latter, which cut itself off from its European roots and has not infrequently drifted towards isolationism, Canada has maintained strong links with both Britain and France. This situation is reflected in the study and teaching of linguistics in Canadian universities. Stemming from the British, French, and American traditions, there is considerable diversity of theoretical position, which can be a great strength insofar as it leads to a dialectic, to a tolerance of others’ prejudices and a willingness to smile at one’s own. The dialectic—the push and pull of argument between different points of view—can also lead to a better understanding of the various schools of linguistics (including one’s own), and how they differ.
On Taking the Synchronic out of the Diachronic
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N.
Published: February 2018

An aspect of the unravelling debate between proponents of ‘abstract’ phonology and ‘natural’ phonology focuses on the role of diachrony in justifying one’s descriptions and in underpinning one’s theories (insofar as they are meant to explain and predict). As a phonetologist who has no theoretical predilections for either transformational generative phonology (TGP) or Hooper’s natural generative phonology (NGP), my viewpoint leads me to view some of the issues raised in Piggott 1980, and in Hooper 1980 which replies to it, as either side-stepping what seem to me to be more fundamental issues or as addressing the issues discussed obliquely instead of head on. Although the fundamental position of developmental linguistics (or lectology) has been clarified at length in other writings, there may be some profit in making those points concrete in direct connection with an actual debate over an actual analysis. Piggott argues against the adequacy of Hooper’s NGP with data taken from Algonquin-Ojibwa. He contrasts Ojibwa nouns that exhibit the deletion of word-final glide plus lax vowel (e.g.anini‘man’ vsaniniwag‘men’) and Ojibwa verbs that exhibit the loss of word-final lax vowel butnota preceding glide (e.g.ni-wīndigōw‘I am a Windigo’ vsni-wīndigōwi-min‘we are Windigos’).
Handsaw or Harlot? Some problem etymologies in the lexicon of Chinook Jargon
Authors: Harris Barbara P.
Published: February 2018

Like all pidgins, the lexicon of Chinook Jargon has a number of sources; although the core vocabulary is chiefly of Chinookan and Nootkan origin, English and French have also made large contributions, the percentage of each varying from time to time and from place to place. As Sankoff (1980: 145) points out, “Chinook Jargon remained highly variable throughout its history. Its vocabulary changed radically over time depending on the locus and proportions of its various groups of speakers, and because of the increasing dominance of English over time.” While most of the lexical items in the Jargon have been more or less satisfactorily accounted for, especially those of French and English origin, there remain a score or so of words for which an etymology either is not recorded or is of dubious accuracy. For some time, I have been attempting to track down the origins of as many of these ‘mystery words’ as possible, or to offer more probable sources than those usually cited. In this paper, I deal only with those items whose origin is apparently in or through French.
Traduction et ponctuation
Authors: Spilka Irène V.
Published: February 2018

Si la traduction peut bénéficier des enseignements de la linguistique théorique, il est possible qu’à son tour, de par son ancrage dans la pratique quotidienne des langues en contact, elle parvienne à éclairer certains problèmes de langage. C’est donc un regard de traducteur que nous jetons sur la ponctuation.

Longtemps celle-ci est demeurée l’affaire des grammairiens, des typographes et des pédagogues qui s’efforcèrent d’en régler l’usage, mais elle intéresse aujourd’hui les linguistes, habitués à observer, décrire, classer, expliquer, éventuellement désireux de rationaliser des habitudes fondées davantage sur la tradition que sur des principes explicites. La revue Langue française y consacre en effet une livraison, dirigée par Nina Catach, dont en guise d’introduction nous présenterons quelques articles susceptibles d’intéresser les traducteurs.

Les auteurs anciens et modernes ne s’entendent guère sur la définition de la ponctuation. Selon Nina Catach, il faudrait retenir deux définitions, l’une “extensive,” l’autre limitée aux signes “intérieurs au texte, en général explicites, discrets, formant système” (1980:19), et qui sont “communs au manuscrit et à l’imprimé” (1980:21). La “ponctuation de mots” (blanc, apostrophe, trait d’union, trait de division) et la “ponctuation de texte” (alinéas et paragraphes, par exemples) viendraient alors compléter la “ponctuation de phrases” (virgule, points, etc.). La ponctuation ainsi comprise s’inscrit dns le cadre de l’ “orthotypographie, qui recouvre tous les aspects de l’orthographe …relevant essentiellement de l’autorité des ateliers d’imprimerie, et qui sont explicitement traités comme tels dans les codes et manuels typographiques” (1980:20).
Tlingit: An Object-Initial Language?
Authors: Dryer Matthew S.
Published: February 2018

A number of early grammatical descriptions of Tlingit, a non-Athapaskan Na-Dene language spoken in southeast Alaska and in adjacent areas of Canada, describe the language as being OSV. Evidence is presented in this paper that Tlingit is not OSV.

Until recent years, it was thought that of the six logically possible word orders of subject, verb, and object, only SOV, SVO, VSO, and VOS existed. (See for example Pullum 1977). Since then, however, evidence for the existence of object-initial languages has been presented by Derbyshire (1977) and Derbyshire and Pullum (1981). Almost all of the object-initial languages discussed by Derbyshire and Pullum are spoken in or near the Amazon basin in South America. There is to date no clear case of an object-initial language spoken outside of South America.
Serial Verbs and the Empty Category Principle in Krio
Authors: Nylander Dudley K.
Published: February 2018

One of the principles of grammar introduced in Chomsky (1981) is the Empty Category Principle, which can be stated as follows:

(i)

[α e] must be properly governed.

Proper government, as defined by Chomsky, is of two types (see footnote 2). First, there is proper government by a lexical category of the [±N±V] type. In (2a), for example, the empty category (ei) is properly governed by the verb see, a lexical element of the [-N+V] type. Second, there is proper government by coindexation. In (2b), for example, the empty category in subject position (ei) is properly governed by the coindexed trace in COMP (ti).
The Consonantal Coefficient in Selected Languages
Authors: Tambovtsev Yuri A.
Published: February 2018

In this paper, the consonantal coefficient is defined as the ratio of consonants to vowels occurring in continuous spoken texts in any one language. The vowel coefficient is the reciprocal, i.e. the ratio of vowels to consonants in the same type of texts. For example, if a text consisted of all vowels and no consonants, the value of the consonantal coefficient would be zero. The vocalic coefficient would theoretically be infinity, but no comparison could actually be made. Similarly, in a text that was all consonants and no vowels, the values would be reversed. In a text in which the number of vowels and consonants was equal, the value of both the consonantal coefficient and the vocalic coefficient would be 1, or unity. The use of the coefficient gives us a method for the classification of languages that can be of use in typological studies, just as the coefficient of stem to inflection or vice-versa can give us another index for typological classification.
In Defense of General Nativism
Authors: O’Grady William
Published: February 2018

In a recent reply to my review of The Language Lottery, David Lightfoot (1985) attempts to rebut the claims which I made about the viability of language learning without task-specific innate principles. The basic thrust of Lightfoot’s book is that there are innate linguistic principles which constrain the form of grammars and play a crucial role in language acquisition. I referred to this view as “special nativism” and contrasted it with “general nativism”, the thesis that genetic structuring of the mind is of a more general sort and does not include principles or notions specific to language. I suggested that special nativism is linked to a particular syntactic theory (transformational grammar) and that a theory of language learning more compatible with general nativism could well emerge from a different type of syntactic analysis. As an illustration of this, I briefly outlined two counterproposals, one pertaining to the interpretation of the indefinite pronoun one and the other to binding theory. In his reply to my review, Lightfoot misinterprets my suggestions, pointing to supposed inadequacies which would undermine the more general point I advanced.
Scale-and-Category analysis of Old English verbal groups
Authors: Cummings Michael J.
Published: February 2018

The linguistic approach to historical grammar. Most published material on the subject of historical dialects of English takes little interest in syntax. In recent decades, however, a growing number of titles have attempted to approach the syntax of historical dialects from a structuralist viewpoint. Some of the best recent material uses a transformational model. It is the purpose of this paper to illustrate the application of the “Scale-and-Category” model to the Old English verbal group, and thereby to suggest the appropriateness of the Scale-and-Category model for a more complete synchronic description of Old English. The principles of Scale-and-Category grammar were published by Prof. M. A. K. Halliday in 1961. Since then a number of published works have described language on these principles, but the study to which this paper is most directly indebted is Prof. M. Gregory’s yet unpublished description of modern English.

The principles of Scale-and-Category grammar were published by Prof. M. A. K. Halliday in 1961. Since then a number of published works have described language on these principles, but the study to which this paper is most directly indebted is Prof. M. Gregory’s yet unpublished description of modern English.
On the nature of associations in language
Authors: Sčur G. S.
Published: February 2018

Among the many and diverse treatments of the concept of “field” scattered through a wide range of literature is to be found a marked and growing tendency to interpret the “field” as a psychic phenomenon, notably as witnessed in the various attempts which have been made to explain associative groups of elements as field phenomena. Such an approach, however, is by no means always justified, if for no other reason than the fact that various associative groups are by their nature non-identical. Such non-identity is in particular to be explained by the existence of various types of associations, so that unifications of elements may, for example, have both a paradigmatic and a syntagmatic nature.
Morphemic classification of Old English adverb subsets
Authors: Peters R. A.
Published: February 2018

The description of Old English adverbs found in OE handbooks and grammars is the traditional Greco-Roman one based on function, namely a listing of words that function as modifiers of verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. The result is a morphological classification based on syntactic function.

In contrast, the classification of other OE parts of speech (verbs adjectives, pronouns, nouns) is based on paradigmatic sets marked by characteristic inflectional suffixes. One finds, therefore, inconsistency of classification and description. Whereas verbs, adjectives, pronouns, and nouns are identified as sets marked by morphemes of case, number, tense, etc., adverbs are identified as a set marked by function. However, it is possible to reclassify OE adverbs on a morphemic basis. This paper attempts to provide such an analysis, as well as a morphemic identification of characteristic subsets of OE adverbs.
The computer and Middle English dialectology
Authors: Logan H. M.
Published: February 2018

The attitude of many humanists toward the computer may be suggested by the reply of the ultimate computer to the ultimate question “Is there a God?” “There is now,” it clicked in reply. To anyone who knows anything at all about computers, this is simply funny; but many humanists take it seriously. They look upon the mighty works and despair. But whatever else it may be, the devilish device is certainly useful for linguistic work. Among its other uses, the computer has been applied with some success to produce concordances of poems, including a concordance of Middle English poems by the “Pearl” poet. It has also been applied to the statistical analysis of Modern English. These two applications of the computer may be combined to solve several problems in the recent approach to Middle English dialectology developed by Angus McIntosh and Michael Samuels.
Maintien duefinal dans l’évolution historique des mots du typefaireetmaireen français
Authors: Morin Yves-Charles
Published: February 2018

Dans cet article nous présentons une nouvelle théorie pour rendre compte du maintien due[ə] final en ancien français dans l’évolution historique des mots suivants:

Nous allons présenter d’abord les descriptions traditionnelles de ces évolutions, en précisant leurs limites, puis la solution de Fouché (1966), et enfin dans une troisième partie, notre propre solution.
A New View of to-Contraction
Authors: Frantz Donald G.
Published: February 2018

All treatments of so-called to-contraction in English (Lakoff (1970), Bresnan (1971), Lightfoot (1976)) attempt to deal with this phenomenon entirely in terms of contiguity. The purpose of this squib is to point out that the major constraint on this phenomenon is rather one of subject coreference, and furthermore that this coreference condition is identical to that for a universal rule which I have called ‘equi-subject clause union’ (Frantz 1976).

To illustrate, I will reconsider typical examples cited in discussions of this phenomenon, pointing out the relevance of coreference.
A Note on Phonological Change in Ojibwa
Authors: Cowan William
Published: February 2018

In the course of his discussion of the relative merits of transformational generative phonology (TGP) and natural generative phonology (NGP), Piggott (1980) introduces as evidence in favour of TGP two phonological changes that took place between Proto-Algonquian and Ojibwa in the following chronological order.: (1) final lax vowel deletion, and (2) the deletion of resulting word-final glides *-w and *-y. By change (1), Proto-Algonquian *elenyiw-a ‘man’ mutatis mutandis became *i/iniw, and by change (2), *iliniw became *i/ini, modern Algonquin dialect of Ojibwa anini. Much of Piggott’s argumentation in favour of TGP rests on certain types of exceptions to these historical processes. In the first type, a Proto-Algonquian form *ne-wi-nteko-wil ‘I am a Windigo [cannibal monster],’ and other verb forms of similar morphemic constituency, underwent final lax vowel deletion and became *ni-wīndigōw, but failed to undergo final glide deletion. This was because the final *-i, unlike the final *-a in *elenyiw-a, an inflectional suffix which does not occur anywhere in the paradigm of the modern word anini, was a derivational morpheme and part of the verb stem, and was retained in non-final position. There it stands in morphophonemic alternation with its own absence, as shown by forms such as ni-wīndigōwi-min < *ne-wi·nieko·wi-Hmena ‘we are Windigos.’ The underlying form of the singular verb is hence ni-wīndigōwi, and the fact that the surface word-final glide -w was not elided is adduced as evidence that the phonological change is better described in reference to the abstract, underlying form rather than the surface form. Since TGP can distinguish between underlying and surface word-final glides and NGP presumably cannot, Piggott claims that TGP can better characterize this change than can NGP.
The Singular Plurality of Verb Discord in English
Authors: Hirtle W. H.
Published: February 2018

Number discord between subject and verb raises a theoretical problem for which linguists have, as yet, provided no satisfactory answer. Since facts of both morphology and syntax are involved, it is a problem which brings into focus the relation between what Guillaumians call tongue and discourse. First I shall outline the problem by giving a number of examples, and then try to suggest one avenue which might be explored in the hopes of finding a solution.
Nativization and German -ieren
Authors: Singh Rajendra , Kully Rolf Max
Published: February 2018

Historically, languages seem to have two kinds of affixes: those that stay put as unproductive (English -ity, Hindi -at, and German -sal) and those that go on to increase their lexical domain (English -hood and non-, Hindi be-, German -ung). When a native affix attaches to non-native lexical items it could not previously attach to, we say that the lexical items in question have moved into the native classification (cf. Allen 1978; Aronoff 1976). English -hood, originally restricted to native bases, now attaches to latinate bases such as priest and state, implying that state and priest have been totally nativized. When a non-native affix increases its lexical domain, we say that the original restriction on it has been removed. Hindi be, originally restricted to [+Persian] words can now attach to almost any adjective (cf. Singh, forthcoming). Non-native affixes either stay put as unproductive (cf. English -ity) or may generalize to cover the entire lexicon (cf. English non- and Hindi be-). When they do generalize so pervasively, they can be attached productively to newly borrowed words. Attachment to newly borrowed words, however, generally implies free attachability with native bases (cf. the Russian nominal suffix -izm discussed in Shanskii, 1968, particularly pp. 100 ff).
Relational networks
Authors: Reich Peter A.
Published: February 2018

Many contemporary linguists describe their data in terms of a system of rules which state that one string of symbols is to be rewritten as another string of symbols, perhaps with the condition that this only occur when the symbols occur in a particular context. When the linguist wants to use the grammar to produce a particular utterance, he starts with an initial symbol and, one at a time in linear sequence, applies or attempts to apply the rules to the string of symbols he is building up. After applying all of the rules, or perhaps a subset of them, he may have to reapply the rules of a subset of them again and again until no further changes can be made to the string. If at the end of this process the string consists solely of terminal symbols, he has produced a grammatical utterance. Basically such systems consist of symbols and a few operations on these symbols, including match, copy, concatenate, and replace. This system grew out of a union of the item-and-process approach to linguistics with automata theory, an area of mathematics related to the understanding of computers.
‘Langue’ and ‘parole’: once again
Authors: Kelly L. G.
Published: February 2018

It is, perhaps, not unjust to divide linguists between those who accept the basic Saussurean dichotomy between langue and parole, and those who reject it. Saussure advanced this theory at a time when linguistics was still essentially diachronic, and the link between a language and its user was seen in literary rather than in social terms. But though his book was a much needed corrective to the mechanistic cast of contemporary Darwinian linguistics, developments in language analysis outgrew his statement of the theory as it appears in the Cours de linguistique générale.
Fragmentation of biofilm-seeded bacterial aggregates in shear flow
Authors: KIGHTLEY E. P. , PEARSON A. , EVANS J. A. , BORTZ D. M.
Published: February 2018

We present a model for the force acting to fragment a biofilm-seeded microbial aggregate in shear flow, which we derive by coupling an existing model for the shape and orientation of a deforming ellipsoid with one for the surface force density on a solid ellipsoid. The model can be used to simulate the motion, shape, surface force density, and breakage of colloidal aggregates in shear flow. We apply the model to the case of exhaustive fragmentation of microbial aggregates in order to compute a post-fragmentation density function, indicating the likelihood of a fragmenting aggregate yielding daughter aggregates of a certain size.
Rhythmic low-field magnetic stimulation may improve depression by increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
Authors: Xiao Le , Correll Christoph U. , Feng Lei , Xiang Yu-Tao , Feng Yuan , Hu Chang-Qing , Li Rena , Wang Gang
Published: February 2018

Background

Low-field magnetic stimulation (LFMS) has mood-elevating effect, and the increase of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is associated with antidepressant treatment. We evaluated the effects and association with BDNF of rhythmic LFMS in the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD).

Methods

A total of 22 MDD patients were randomized to rhythmic alpha stimulation (RAS) or rhythmic delta stimulation (RDS), with 5 sessions per week, lasting for 6 weeks. Outcomes assessments included the 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD–17), the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAMA), and the Clinical Global Impressions–Severity scale (CGI–S) at baseline and at weeks 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6. Serum BDNF level was measured at baseline and at weeks 2, 4, and 6.

Results

HAMD–17, HAMA, and CGI–S scores were significantly reduced with both RAS and RDS. RAS patients had numerically greater reductions in HAMD–17 scores than RDS patients (8.9 ± 7.4 vs. 6.2 ± 6.2, effect size [ES]=0.40), while RDS patients had greater improvement in HAMA scores (8.2 ± 8.0 vs. 5.3 ± 5.8, ES=0.42). RAS was associated with clinically relevant advantages in response (54.5% vs. 18.2%, number-needed-to-treat [NNT]=3) and remission (36.4% vs. 9.1%, NNT=4). BDNF increased significantly during the 6-week study period (p<0.05), with greater increases in RAS at weeks 4 and 6 (ES=0.66—0.76) and statistical superiority at week 2 (p=0.034, ES=1.23). Baseline BDNF in the 8 responders (24.8±9.0 ng/ml) was lower than in the 14 nonresponders (31.1±7.3 ng/ml, p=0.083, ES=–0.79), and BDNF increased more in responders (8.9±7.8 ng/ml) than in nonresponders (1.8±3.5 ng/ml, p=0.044). The change in BDNF at week 2 was the most strongly predicted response (p=0.016).

Conclusions

Rhythmic LFMS was effective for MDD. BDNF may moderate/mediate the efficacy of LFMS.
DEGREE OF STRINGENCY MATTERS: REVISITING THE POLLUTION HAVEN HYPOTHESIS BASED ON HETEROGENEOUS PANELS AND AGGREGATE DATA
Authors: Jobert Thomas , Karanfil Fatih , Tykhonenko Anna
Published: February 2018

Empirical studies on the trade-environment nexus that use panel data face two simultaneous challenges. One is associated with the potential presence of unobserved cross-country heterogeneity, while the other is due to the use of aggregate data. In this paper, we apply both the dynamic fixed effects and iterative empirical Bayes estimators to show first that when country heterogeneity is accurately accounted for in the estimation, it is possible to obtain significant impacts of trade variables on the environment, even though we use aggregate data. Second, using both the empirical Bayes parameter estimates and indicators of stringency of environmental regulations, we show that at low levels of stringency, the probability of having pollution-intensive foreign direct investments (FDIs) increases with a decrease in stringency. However, at high levels of regulatory stringency, more stringent regulations may lead to more pollution-intensive FDIs. This implies that pollution havens may exist only if environmental regulations are very lax or nonexistent.
Can the critical period be saved? A bilingual perspective
Authors: BIALYSTOK ELLEN , KROLL JUDITH F.
Published: February 2018

The idea that there is a critical period (CP) for language acquisition that starts sometime after birth and ends sometime around puberty has been central to language studies since Chomsky's paradigm shift that embedded language acquisition into human biological development (for discussion, see Bialystok & Kroll, in press). From early on, the critical period argument was loosely extended to include second language (L2) acquisition, an idea buttressed largely by anecdote: “children learn foreign languages so much better than adults” in spite of evidence to the contrary (Goldberg, Paradis & Crago, 2008; Snow, 1987). The review by Mayberry and Kluender (2017) describes the existing literature on L2 acquisition and adds recent empirical evidence from investigations of individuals learning American Sign Language (ASL) at different ages, often as a first language (L1) to offer important clarifications and insights to this debate. Their argument rests on a clear distinction between processes used in L1 or L2 acquisition to re-evaluation of some of the more extreme claims of the CP view. In brief, they argue that L2 acquisition is not a good test of the CP argument, a point with which we agree. However, our view is that CP effects on language acquisition are even more limited than Mayberry and Kluender suggest and we offer two further arguments to support their own formidable evidence and conclusion.
The consequences of very late exposure to BSL as an L1
Authors: WOLL BENCIE
Published: February 2018

Mayberry and Kluender (2017) make an important contribution to our understanding of the CPL, reporting the striking differences in regions of brain activation in Martin, a deaf man with very late exposure to an L1, compared to other deaf individuals, when processing single signs of ASL. They conclude: “The unique effects of AoA . . . suggest that the hierarchical structure of language and the architecture of the brain language processing system arise from their interaction over the course of early childhood when brain maturation and language acquisition are temporally synchronized.”
Diabetes mellitus und Sport
Authors: Kempf Patrick , Laimer Markus , Stettler Christoph
Published: February 2018

Zusammenfassung. Körperliche Aktivität und Training sind wichtige Bausteine eines gesunden Lebensstils, auch oder vor allem bei Personen mit Diabetes mellitus. Eine Reduktion des kardiovaskulären Risikos sowie eine Verbesserung zahlreicher weiterer Parameter durch Bewegung konnte sowohl bei Personen ohne Diabetes als auch bei Patientinnen und Patienten mit Diabetes in Studien gezeigt werden. Beim Typ-2-Diabetes wird daher – zum Teil auch noch bei Vorhandensein von Spätkomplikationen – ein mehrmals wöchentlich durchgeführtes Ausdauer- als auch Krafttraining zur Verbesserung der glykämischen Kontrolle und Reduktion des kardiovaskulären Risikos empfohlen. Bereits kurze Trainingseinheiten haben einen nachhaltig positiven Effekt auf den Organismus, die Überwindung der Inaktivität und Ausübung von Sport ist aber im Alltag häufig mit gewissen Schwierigkeiten verbunden. Unterschiedliche Trainingstypen haben differierende Auswirkungen auf den Blutzuckerspiegel, dies ist vor allem bei Patientinnen und Patienten mit Insulintherapie zu beachten. Bei Patientinnen und Patienten mit Typ-1-Diabetes gelten per se dieselben Aktivitätsziele. Sport birgt bei diesen Patienten nebst den günstigen Effekten aber auch die Gefahr einer Destabilisierung der glykämischen Kontrolle, insbesondere ist das während des Sports erhöhte Hypoglykämierisiko relevant. Durch adäquate blutzuckeradaptierte Therapiemodifikationen und unter Einsatz moderner technologischer Hilfsmittel kann dem aber wirksam entgegengewirkt werden.
Bedeutung und Therapie der Dyslipidämie beim Diabetes
Authors: Bilz Stefan
Published: February 2018

Zusammenfassung. Die diabetische Dyslipidämie ist durch eine Erhöhung der Triglyzeride, eine Erniedrigung des HDL-Cholesterins und eine qualitative Veränderung der LDL-Partikel, die kleiner, dichter und somit atherogener sind („small, dense LDL“) gekennzeichnet. Sie ist wesentlich mitursächlich für das 2 – 4 fach erhöhte kardiovaskuläre Risiko von Patienten mit Typ 2 Diabetes. Statine reduzieren das LDL-Cholesterin und die kardiovaskuläre Morbidität und Mortalität von Patienten mit Typ 2 Diabetes. Sie sind eines der wichtigsten Instrumente der kardiovaskulären Prävention und somit mit wenigen Ausnahmen für alle Betroffenen empfohlen. Eine lipidsenkende Kombinationstherapie mit Fibraten, Ezetrol und PCSK9-Hemmern führt zu einer weiteren Reduktion kardiovaskulärer Ereignisse, ohne dass bisher eine Mortalitätsreduktion nachgewiesen werden konnte und ist somit Patienten mit besonders hohem Risiko vorbehalten. Da das kardiovaskuläre Lebenszeitrisiko bei vielen Patienten mit Typ 1 Diabetes ebenso als hoch einzuschätzen ist, wird bei diesen insbesondere bei Vorliegen von Folgekomplikationen oder weiteren Risikofaktoren ebenso eine Statintherapie empfohlen.
Monitoring Tropical Cyclones with Lightning and Satellite Data
Authors: Solorzano Natalia , Thomas Jeremy , Bracy Connor
Published: February 2018

A new storm-following tool continually watches for lightning over the open ocean. Combined with satellite microwave data, the new real-time observations will improve forecasts of tropical cyclones.
TRAF6 regulates EGF-induced cell transformation and cSCC malignant phenotype through CD147/EGFR
Authors: Zhang Xu , Wu Lisha , Xiao Ta , Tang Ling , Jia Xuekun , Guo Yeye , Zhang JiangLin , Li Jie , He Yijing , Su Juan , Zhao Shuang , Tao Juan , Zhou Jianda , Chen Xiang , Peng Cong
Published: February 2018

TRAF6, a well-known adapter molecule, plays pivotal role in TLR/IL-1R associated signaling pathway. Although TRAF6 has been shown to have oncogenic activity in various malignant tumors, the details remain unclear. In this study, we demonstrated that TRAF6 facilitates Ras (G12V) and EGF-induced cellular transformation through EGFR. Silencing of TRAF6 expression significantly downregulated AP-1 activity, as well as MMP-2,9 expression after EGF stimulation. Furthermore, we found that TRAF6 plays an essential role in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) malignant phenotypes, affecting cell growth and migration. CD147/Basigin, a transmembrane glycoprotein belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily, is over-expressed in tumors and induces tumorigenesis. Our results showed that CD147 formed complex with EGFR and TRAF6. Knockdown of TRAF6 disrupted the CD147-EGFR complex, thereby inducing EGFR endocytosis. Therefore, TRAF6 might be a novel molecular target for cSCC prevention or therapy.