bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
26. The Euro Crisis and European Integration
Authors: Hodson Dermot , Puetter Uwe
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines how the European Union addressed the euro crisis that emerged in late 2009, two years after the global financial crisis. It first considers the complex relationship between the euro crisis and the global financial crisis before discussing the challenges the euro crisis has posed to the existing institutional set-up of the Economic and Monetary Union and the EU as a whole. It then asks why the euro crisis continues to raise questions about Greece's future in the euro area and the fate of the single currency more generally. A timeline of the euro crisis is provided and the main changes to the institutional framework of European economic governance to date are analysed. The chapter also explores the consequences of the euro crisis for the EU's legitimacy.
27. The Future of the EU
Authors: Laffan Brigid
Published: September 2017

This chapter discusses the future of the European Union by presenting four scenarios: Disintegration, Piecemeal Adjustment, Functional Federalism, and a United States of Europe. Although systemic disintegration is unlikely, the chapter argues that partial disintegration of the EU may occur because of the possible exit of the UK and the victories of secessionist movements in some member states. It also shows that the political battle concerning the future of the Union is between Piecemeal Adjustment and Functional Federalism. Moreover, it suggests that a United States of Europe is highly unlikely since the member states are not in favour of further federation while the degree of contestation about the future of the EU precludes a transformation of the system. The chapter concludes by considering the potential impact of Germany's leadership role on any future scenario for the EU.
3. Conservatism
Authors: Garnett Mark
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the basic features of conservative ideology, with particular emphasis on its strongly contested nature. It begins with a discussion of two major issues: whether conservatism is distinctive ideology and whether the core ideas of conservatism have changed over time. It then shows how conservatism differs from varieties of liberalism and goes on to explore ‘conservatism’ in the United States, along with some apparent manifestations of conservatism in political parties and movements outside the United Kingdom. Finally, it looks at the relationship between conservatism and religion. Case studies on the ideas of Edmund Burke, Winston Churchill, Barry Goldwater, and Friedrich von Hayek are presented.
5. Anarchism
Authors: Bates David
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the key ideas and concepts of ‘classical’ anarchist thinkers. Among the ideas associated with anarchism are: a belief in the potential of human nature, and a corresponding critique of arbitrary authority; a refusal of state authority; a rejection of the institution of private property; militant atheism; and an emphasis on the importance of revolutionary politics. The chapter first considers how anarchist views on human nature, the state, political action, private property, and religion vary, and where possible, what unites them. It then discusses recent critical responses to anarchism, particularly ‘post-anarchism’, and specific historical examples of anarchism. It also analyses the extent to which anarchism can be regarded as a cohesive political ideology.
7. Fascism and the radical right
Authors: Kallis Aristotle
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines fascism as a distinct form of ultra-nationalism, combining glorification of the nation with aggressive exclusion of those perceived as outsiders and even more enemies. It first considers the ‘era of fascism’ and the basic tenets of fascist ideology before discussing the various terminologies and classifications that have been used in order to analyse fascism and the radical right. It then explores the historical context in which fascism emerged as a radical ideology in twentieth-century Europe, seeking a ‘third way’ beyond liberalism and socialism. It also assesses fascism's overlaps with other established ideologies such as conservatism, authoritarianism, liberalism, and revolutionary socialism, along with the ensuing hybrids that it has spawned.
International Relations and the European Union
Authors: Hill Christopher , Smith Michael , Vanhoonacker Sophie
Published: September 2017

International Relations and the European Union takes a unique approach by incorporating the study of the EU's world role into the wider field of international relations. The text explains the EU's role in the contemporary world. Beginning with an examination of theoretical frameworks and approaches, the text goes on to address the institutions and processes that surround the EU's international relations. Key policy areas, such as security and trade, are outlined in detail, alongside the EU's relations with specific countries, including the United States, China, India, and Russia. Updates for the third edition include expanded discussions of three key perspectives to provide a rounded picture of the EU's place in the international system: as a sub-system of international relations, as part of the process of international relations, and as a power in its own right.
3. Engaging the World
Authors: Edwards Geoffrey
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the ways in which the European Union enters into international relations and engages with key processes in the world arena. It first provides a historical background on the interaction of an evolving EU with the rest of the world before discussing the main patterns of relationships and interactions in the areas in which Europe has been active. It then considers two centres of enduring tensions in the EU's external engagement: EU's engagement with processes of international cooperation and conflict, and with processes of global governance. It also looks at tensions that arise between the collective ‘European’ and national positions. They are between: Europeanization and national foreign policy; rhetoric and achievement; big and small member states; old and new Europe; and the concept of civilian power Europe and the EU as an international security actor with access to military forces.
5. The Institutional Framework
Authors: Vanhoonacker Sophie , Pomorska Karolina
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the institutional context of the European Union's international relations. EU institutions such as the Council, Commission, European Parliament, and the Court of Justice play substantially different roles depending on the policy area. Such variations reflect differing paths of evolution and the different degrees of integration in different areas of external policy. The chapter first considers how we should think about the roles of institutions before discussing some of the key ideas about the ways in which the EU's institutions work. It then explores how institutions affect three policy areas: the Common Commercial Policy, development cooperation policy and humanitarian aid, and European foreign policy and security cooperation. It also describes four propositions that explain why institutions matter and shows that that change in EU membership and in the institutional arrangements in the global arena has had important implications for the development of the EU's ‘internal’ institutions.
6. The Problem of Coherence in the European Union’s International Relations
Authors: Gebhard Carmen
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the problem of coherence in the European Union's international relations. The EU consists of an extremely complex system of institutional structures. One of the implications of this complexity is coherence, or the ambition and necessity to bring the various parts of the EU's external relations together to increase strategic convergence and ensure procedural efficiency. The chapter first provides a historical overview of the concept of coherence and the debates around it before discussing different conceptual dimensions of coherence. It then describes the neutral, benign, and malign ‘faces’ that coherence assumes in political and academic debates. Based on this conceptual framework, the chapter explores the current legal basis of the Treaty of Lisbon as well as the EU's comprehensive approach to external action in crises and conflicts as one of the key political initiatives aimed at fostering the objectives laid down in primary law.
10. The European Union as a Trade Power
Authors: Meunier Sophie , Nicolaïdis Kalypso
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the determinants of the European Union's trade power as well as the contribution of trade policy to the power of Europe in the international system. It first considers how the EU acquired and expanded competence to represent the member states in trade policy, from the Common Commercial Policy in the Treaty of Rome to trade policy after the Treaty of Lisbon. It then provides an overview of the EU trade policymaking process before discussing the exercise of the EU's trade power. In particular, it explores the European single market and world trade liberalization, settlement of disputes in the World Trade Organization, and the EU's retreat from multilateralism. The chapter also looks at preferential trade agreements, along with bilateral and regional agreements, and concludes with an analysis of how the EU is resolving the tensions inherent to being a world power in trade and through trade.
11. The European Union and the Global Political Economy
Authors: Verdun Amy
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the position of the European Union in the global political economy (GPE). It also considers key dimensions of change and development as well as the EU's impact on the operation of the contemporary GPE. To this end, the chapter discusses central ideas in international political economy and relates these to the growth of the EU. Furthermore, it analyses the EU's role in the GPE in three areas: European integration, the EU's engagement in the GPE, and the EU's claims to be a major economic power. It concludes with an assessment of global economic governance, focusing in particular on the EU's role in the financial, economic, and sovereign debt crises.
13. The European Union and International Development
Authors: Carbone Maurizio
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the evolution of the European Union's development policy since the Treaty of Rome. It shows how the EU has used development policy as part of its wider external relations agenda in an attempt to establish itself as an influential global actor. The chapter first considers the transformation in the EU's (post)colonial development policy before discussing the changes introduced since 2000, including the attempt to project a common vision on international development and to promote synergies between foreign aid and other policies. In particular, it analyses the EU partnership with ACP (African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group of States), the Lomé Convention, and the Cotonou Partnership Agreement. The chapter concludes with an assessment of EU development policy in the context of international relations.
17. The European Union and the USA
Authors: Smith Michael , Steffenson Rebecca
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the evolution of the European Union's relations with the United States. More specifically, it looks at the ways in which EU–US relations enter into the international relations of the EU as well as the implications for key areas of the EU's growing international activity. The chapter begins with an overview of the changing shape and focus of the EU–US relationship as it enters into economic, political, and security questions. It then considers the impact of EU–US relations on the EU's system of international relations, on the EU's role in the processes of international relations, and on the EU's position as a ‘power’ in international relations. It shows that the EU–US relationship has played a key (and contradictory) role in development of the EU's foreign policy mechanisms.
20. Acting for Europe
Authors: Hill Christopher , Smith Michael , Vanhoonacker Sophie
Published: September 2017

This chapter summarizes the volume's major findings and revisits the three perspectives on the European Union: as a system of international relations, as a participant in wider international processes, and as a power in the world. It also considers the usefulness of the three main theoretical approaches in international relations as applied to the EU's external relations: realism, liberalism, and constructivism. Furthermore, it emphasizes three things which it is clear the EU is not, in terms of its international role: it is not a straightforward ‘pole’ in a multipolar system; it is not merely a subordinate subsystem of Western capitalism, and/or a province of an American world empire, as claimed by both the anti-globalization movement and the jihadists; it is not a channel by which political agency is surrendering to the forces of functionalism and globalization. The chapter concludes with an assessment of the EU's positive contributions to international politics.
10. European agencies: Managing Europeanization
Authors: Kelemen R. Daniel , Majone Giandomenico
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines why European Union agencies have been created and what impact they are having on European governance. It begins with a discussion of theories that explain law-makersʼ design choices and the increasing popularity of European agencies, focusing on delegation and policy credibility, the politics of agency design, and legal obstacles to delegation. It then looks at the development and operation of three regulatory agencies: the European Environment Agency, the European Medicines Agency, and the European Food Safety Authority. It also considers issues regarding the EU agenciesʼ independence and accountability before concluding with an analysis of the model in which an EU agency serves as the coordinating hub of a network of national regulatory authorities.
14. Coreper: National interests and the logic of appropriateness
Authors: Lewis Jeffrey
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the role of the Committee of Permanent Representatives (Coreper) in the European Union. Coreper originated as a diplomatic forum to meet regularly and prepare meetings of the Council of Ministers. It evolved into a locus of continuous negotiation and de facto decision-making, gaining a reputation as ‘the place to do the deal’. Coreper is the site in EU decision-making where national interests and European solutions interact more frequently, more intensively, and across more issue areas than any other. The chapter first provides an overview of the origins of Coreper before discussing its structure and powers. It then considers how Coreper, as an institutional environment, gives rise to what neo-institutionalists call ‘logic of appropriateness’, which informs bargaining behaviour and influences everyday decision-making outcomes.
11. Federal and local government institutions
Authors: Loughlin John
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on federal and local government institutions. More specifically, it considers the ways in which territorial governance has been understood and implemented within the nation-state model. The territorial organization of nation-states may be either federal or unitary, although each of these categories may be further categorized as being either more or less decentralized. The welfare states of the post-war period represent the culmination of the nation-state-building process and placed emphasis on central control over sub-national levels of government. The chapter begins with a discussion of the modern nation-state and territorial governance, citing the rise of nationalism in unitary states and federal states. It then considers territorial governance in welfare states, along with the classical distinction between federal and unitary states. It also examines trends towards regionalization and decentralization in unitary states before concluding with an assessment of local government and local autonomy.
12. Political parties
Authors: Katz Richard S.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the role that political parties play in the working of democracy. Political parties are among the major actors in democratic politics. Whether or not in power as the result of victory in free and fair elections, the governments of most countries have effectively been in the hands of party leaders. When governments were not in the hands of party leaders, most often because party government was interrupted by a military takeover. The chapter first considers various definitions of a political party before tracing the origins of political parties. It then describes the functions of parties and the ways in which parties are organized, regulated, and financed. It concludes with an analysis of the role of parties in the stabilization of democracy in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, as well as challenges confronting parties in the new millennium.
14. Interest groups
Authors: Erne Roland
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the role that interest groups play in political systems across time and space. Many scholars define interest groups as voluntary organizations that appeal to government but do not participate in elections. In a comparative context, however, this formal definition is problematic as the form of interest representation varies across countries. An alternative suggestion is to distinguish ‘public’ and ‘private interest groups’, but the term ‘public interest’ is problematic because of its contentious nature. The chapter begins with a review of different definitions of interest groups and the problems associated with each. It then considers the legacies of competing theoretical traditions in the field, namely republicanism, pluralism, and neocorporatism. It also discusses the role of interest associations in practice, distinguishing different types of action that are available to different groups, including direct lobbying, political exchange, contentious politics, and private interest government.
16. Social movements
Authors: Kriesi Hanspeter
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on social movements, specific forms of collective behaviour having action repertoires of their own that distinguish them from established political actors. Social movements include movements of the extreme right and anti-racist movements, transnational peace movements, and movements aimed against powerful financial interests and orchestrated through social media. The chapter first explains the meaning of social movements and presents a conceptualization of key terms before comparing social movements with organizations. It then considers how social movements attract the attention and gain the support of the public through a combination of protest politics and information politics. It also discusses the role of social movements in political processes and describes three theoretical approaches to social movements: the classical model, the resource mobilization model, and the political process model. The chapter concludes by analysing the emergence, the level of mobilization, and the success of social movements.
19. Political communication
Authors: Esser Frank , Pfetsch Barbara
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the dimensions of the political communication system. It first explains the rationale for a comparative study of political communication before discussing relevant models of relationship between media and political institutions as well as differences in political communication cultures among media and political elites. It then reviews findings on country-specific reporting styles in political news coverage and evaluates divergent approaches in government communication and election communication. On the side of the citizens, the chapter explores cross-national differences in the consumption of political news, along with the positive contribution of public service broadcasters for informed and enlightened citizenship. Finally, it looks at political information flows, comparing message production by political actors, political message production by media actors, usage patterns of political information, and effects of political communication.
23. The EU as a new political system
Authors: Hix Simon
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the development and operation of the European Union from a comparative politics perspective. It first considers the evolution of the EU, from the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1951 that established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) to the admission of Lithuania in 2015 as the nineteenth member of the Eurozone, and the UK's decision to leave the EU in 2016. The chapter then explores the process of European integration and goes on to explain what it means to think of the EU as a political system. It also describes the two basic dimensions of the EU system: the vertical dimension (the EU as a ‘regulatory state’) and the horizontal dimension (the design and operation of EU decision-making). The chapter concludes by analysing the ‘missing link’ in the EU system — the lack of genuine democratic politics.
Contemporary Political Philosophy
Authors: Kymlicka Will
Published: September 2017

Contemporary Political Philosophy has been revised to include many of the most significant developments in Anglo-American political philosophy in the last eleven years, particularly the new debates on political liberalism, deliberative democracy, civic republicanism, nationalism, and cultural pluralism. The text now includes two new chapters on citizenship theory and multiculturalism, in addition to updated chapters on utilitarianism, liberal egalitarianism, libertarianism, socialism, communitarianism, and feminism. The many thinkers discussed include G. A. Cohen, Ronald Dworkin, William Galston, Carol Gilligan, R. M. Hare, Catherine Mackinnon, David Miller, Philippe Van Parijs, Susan Okin, Robert Nozick, John Rawls, John Roemer, Michael Sandel, Charles Taylor, Michael Walzer, and Iris Young.
8. Social Constructivism and European Integration
Authors: Risse Thomas
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines social constructivism as an approach to the study of European integration and a challenge to more rationalist approaches such as liberal intergovernmentalism and versions of neofunctionalism. It first defines social constructivism before discussing the constructivist emphasis on the mutual constitutiveness of agency and structure, along with communicative and discursive practices, in the context of the study of European integration. It then considers the question of European identity as a particular subject area to which research inspired by social constructivism can contribute, paying attention to the contested nature of European identity, ‘Europeanness’ and national identities, and contested meanings of Europe and the European Union. The chapter also analyses constructivist contributions to the study of EU enlargement and concludes with reflections on the future of European integration research inspired by social constructivism.
4. Long Waves and Conjunctures of Democratization
Authors: Berg-Schlosser Dirk
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on the history of democratization since the late eighteenth century. It introduces the concepts of ‘waves’ (trends) and ‘conjunctures’ (briefer turmoils) and delineates the major developments in this respect. In this way, the major long-term and short-term factors leading to the emergence and breakdowns of democracies are also highlighted. The first long wave occurred during the period 1776–1914, followed by the first positive conjuncture in 1918–19, the second long wave (with some intermittent turbulences) in 1945–88, and the latest conjuncture in 1989–90. The chapter identifies the main ingredients to democratization throughout history, namely: republicanism, representation, and political equality. It concludes by considering some of the current perspectives and dangers for the future of democracy.
5. The Global Wave of Democratization
Authors: Markoff John
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on the great wave of democracy that had touched every continent. In the early 1970s, Western Europe was home to several non-democratic countries, most of Latin America was under military or other forms of authoritarian rule, the eastern half of Europe was ruled by communist parties, much of Asia was undemocratic, and in Africa colonial rule was largely being succeeded by authoritarian regimes. By the early twenty-first century, things had changed considerably, albeit to different degrees in different places. The chapter looks at regions of the world that underwent significant change in democracy between 1972 and 2004, including Mediterranean Europe, Latin America, Soviet/Communist Bloc, Asia, and Africa. It considers what was distinctive about each region’s democratization and what they had in common. It concludes with an overview of challenges faced by democracy in the early twenty-first century.
15. Electoral Systems and Institutional Design in New Democracies
Authors: Bogaards Matthijs
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on electoral systems and institutional design in new democracies. It first compares Maurice Duverger’s electoral laws with those of Giovanni Sartori before discussing the main insights from the literature on electoral systems in established democracies as well as evidence from new democracies. It then considers the impact of the electoral law on the type of party system and its role as intermediary between society and government in plural societies. It also examines the party system as independent variable, along with dependent variables such as the number of political parties, social cleavages and presidentialism. Finally, it discusses consociational democracy and how electoral system design can be used in managing ethnic conflicts.
17. Failed Democratization
Authors: Fish M. Steven , Wittenberg Jason
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines key factors that lead to failed democratization. It first describes five categories of countries: established democracies, established autocracies, robust democratizers, tenuous democratizers, and failed democratizers. Using the Freedom House Index, it explains why some democratizers slid backwards while others did not. In particular, it looks at the conditions that undermine democracy and political actors, such as the chief executive, that contribute to democratization’s derailment. The chapter identifies several major structural factors that influence whether democratization succeeds fully, succeeds partially, or fails. These include poverty, a late history of national independence, a large Muslim population, economic reliance on oil and gas, and gender inequality. The chapter concludes by considering ways of reducing the hazards of democratic reversal and preventing relapses into authoritarianism, such as strengthening legislatures and curtailing executive power.
9. From Deadlock to Dynamism
Authors: Ludlow N. Piers
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the origins of the European Community's (EC) transformation, arguing that the most important factor was the emergence of a new degree of consensus among economic and political leaders about what ‘Europe’ should do. In the course of the mid-1980s, the EC went from being a seemingly moribund entity to a rapidly developing success story. The launch of the single market programme revitalized the EC, helped it overcome long-standing institutional paralyses, created onward pressure for yet more integration, and forced the rest of the world to pay heed to the European integration process once more. The chapter explains how the apparently narrow target of establishing an internal market within the EC encouraged multiple other efforts to integrate Western Europe more closely. It also considers the important role played by national governments and the European Council in shaping the direction of European integration.
10. From the Single Market to the Single Currency
Authors: Heisenberg Dorothee
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines how France's dissatisfaction with de facto German dominance of the European Monetary System (EMS) set the European Community (EC) on the road to the economic and monetary union (EMU) in the late 1980s. It first considers the conduct and outcome of the Maastricht negotiations on EMU before discussing the rocky road to the launch of the single currency in 1999 and the experience of EMU since then. In particular, it analyses the difficulty of enforcing the Stability and Growth Pact for fiscal discipline among participating member states. It also looks at the Delors Committee and the role of Bundesbank president Karl-Otto Pöhl. Finally, the chapter explores attempts to coordinate fiscal policy management as well as the onset and impact of the eurozone crisis.
11. The European Union, the Soviet Union, and the End of the Cold War
Authors: Anderson Jeffrey J.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the connection between German unification and the economic and monetary union (EMU), with particular emphasis on the relationship between the acceleration of European integration in the late 1980s and the seismic geopolitical shifts in Central and Eastern Europe, culminating in the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Following a review of relations between the European Community (EC) and the Soviet Union on the eve of those momentous events, the chapter explains how the rapid integration in Western Europe became intertwined with disintegration in Central and Eastern Europe. It shows that the collapse of the Soviet bloc had a profound impact on the European Union as ten newly-independent Central and Eastern European states clamoured for membership. The chapter concludes with an assessment of EU enlargement in the post-Cold War period.
6. Obama and smart power 1
Authors: Nye Joseph S.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines Barack Obama’s foreign policy agenda. The Obama administration referred to its foreign policy as ‘smart power’, which combines soft and hard power resources in different contexts. In sending additional troops to Afghanistan, his use of military force in support of a no-fly zone in Libya, and his use of sanctions against Iran, Obama showed that he was not afraid to use the hard components of smart power. The chapter first considers power in a global information age before discussing soft power in U.S. foreign policy. It then explains how public diplomacy came to be incorporated into American foreign policy and concludes by highlighting problems in wielding soft power.
12. US foreign policy in the Middle East 1
Authors: Dodge Toby
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the main dynamics that have transformed U.S. foreign policy towards the Middle East over the last eighty-five years, from Woodrow Wilson to Barack Obama. It first considers the applicability of realist, Marxist, and constructivist theories of international relations before discussing the role that the Cold War, oil, and Israel have played in shaping U.S. foreign policy. It shows how, in each of these three areas, U.S. tactical approach to the Middle East has produced unintended consequences that have increased resentment towards America, destabilized the region, and undermined its long-term strategic goals. The chapter also explores the Bush Doctrine, launched after 9/11 and the resultant invasion of Iraq. It concludes by assessing Obama’s attempts to overcome the tensions and suspicion causes by previous U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East.
8. Human rights
Authors: Campbell Tom
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines issues arising from analyses and critiques of human rights, including the nature and significance of rights in general, and the functions of human rights. It considers the philosophical and practical justifications for believing (or not believing) in human rights, different theories concerning how we might determine the content and scope of human rights, and how human rights should be implemented. Key themes discussed in this chapter include natural rights and the rights of man. A case study on torture and counter-terrorism is presented, along with Key Thinkers boxes featuring John Locke and Immanuel Kant. The chapter suggests that normative political theorists should promote a vision of human rights that relies primarily on political participation, progressive human rights legislation, and morally informed international diplomacy, rather than the transfer of political power from governments to courts.
5. The Single Market From Stagnation to Renewal?
Authors: Young Alasdair R.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the renewal of the single European market (SEM) as a major turning point in European policy-making. It presents the argument that many of the analyses that proliferated in response to the Single European Act (SEA) and the SEM overstated their novelty and understated some of the surrounding factors that helped to induce their ‘success’. The chapter first provides a historical background on how the single market was established before discussing the politics of policy-making in the SEM. It explains how new ideas about market regulation permeated the European Union policy process and facilitated legislative activism and important changes in the policy-implementing processes, culminating in the ‘1992 programme’ to make the single market a reality. Although the task of ‘completing’ the single market remains unfinished, the chapter shows that it has moved to the heart of European integration and altered the pattern of state–market relations in Europe.
13. Environmental Policy Contending Dynamics of Policy Change
Authors: Lenschow Andrea
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on the European Union’s environmental policy, the development of which was characterized by institutional deepening and the substantial expansion of environmental issues covered by EU decisions and regulations. Environmental policy presents a host of challenges for policymakers, including the choice of appropriate instruments, improvement of implementation performance, and better policy coordination at all levels of policy-making. The chapter points to the continuing adaptations that have been made in these areas. It first considers the historical evolution of environmental policy in the EU before discussing the main actors in EU environmental policy-making, namely: the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Parliament, the Court of Justice of the European Union, and environmental interest groups. The chapter also looks at the EU as an international actor.
14. Energy Policy Sharp Challenges and Rising Ambitions
Authors: Buchan David
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines three strands of the European Union’s energy policy: the internal energy market, energy security, and climate change. Energy policy has rapidly gained in importance for the EU, as it faces the challenges of creating an internal energy market, increasing energy security, and playing an active role in combating climate change. Reform of the energy market has been a constant activity since the late 1980s and has been based on liberalizing cross-border competition, but this could be increasingly undermined by member-state intervention and subsidy to promote renewable energy and to ensure adequate back-up power. Efforts to curb energy use and to develop a low-carbon economy are at the heart of Europe’s new programmes and targets to combat climate change. The chapter shows that each of the three strands of the EU’s energy policy involve different policy-making communities and illustrate a range of different policy modes.
15. Justice and Home Affairs Institutional Change and Policy Continuity
Authors: Lavenex Sandra
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the European Union’s justice and home affairs (JHA), which have evolved from a peripheral aspect into a focal point of European integration. It first considers the institutionalization of JHA cooperation, focusing on the Treaty of Lisbon which constitutes a milestone in the communitarization process, before discussing the main actors in the JHA. In particular, it looks at the organization and capacities of EU institutions, the continuity of intergovernmentalism, and the proliferation of semi-autonomous agencies and databases. It also explores the flow of policy, taking into account asylum policy and immigration policy, police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters, and the challenge of implementation. The chapter shows how cooperation among national agencies concerned with combating crime, fighting terrorism, and managing borders, immigration and asylum has gradually moved from loose intergovernmental cooperation to more supranational governance within the EU.
International Relations Since 1945
Authors: Young John W. , Kent John
Published: September 2017

International Relations Since 1945 provides a comprehensive introduction to global political history since World War II. The text has been comprehensively updated to cover the period between 2001 and 2012. Discussing the World Trade Center bombing and concluding with the run-up to the 2012 US presidential elections, a new final section outlines broad developments including the changing world order and the global financial crisis. Three new chapters look at terrorism, the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, and the rise of major new powers including China. Student learning is supported by a range of helpful learning features including biographies of key figures and chronologies of events.
7. Fighting the Cold War: The Offensive Strategies
Authors: Young John W. , Kent John
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the offensive strategies employed by the United States and the Soviet Union in fighting the Cold War. It begins with a discussion of US covert operations and its revised national security strategy, focusing on Operation Solarium, the search for a post-Solarium national security policy, and subversion and intelligence gathering. It then considers the Berlin crises, noting that Berlin was at the heart of the Cold War, the heart of the German question, and on several occasions became the focus of tension between the two blocs in Europe. The airlift of 1948–9 to preserve the Western position in the city, which was an island in East Germany, had become a potent Cold War symbol. The chapter concludes with an analysis of the Offshore Islands crises and the Cuban missile crisis.
17. Middle East Conflicts in the 1980s
Authors: Young John W. , Kent John
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on conflicts in the Middle East during the 1980s. Despite the Camp David settlement, peace remained elusive in the Middle East. An Egyptian–Israeli settlement could neither resolve the conflict between Israel and the Arab states nor bring stability and peace to the region. Anwar Sadat and Menachim Begin had achieved a limited peace between Egypt. Egypt, for its part, had abandoned the myth of Arab unity between the competing states of the region and pursued national interests. However, other conflicts were taking place in the region, including those arising from the Lebanese Civil War, which added to the fundamental failure to deal with the Palestinian question. The chapter first considers Israel’s invasion of Lebanon before discussing the Arab–Israeli conflict and the Palestinian Question, the Iran–Iraq war of 1980–1988, and the United States’s accusation that Libya was a supporter of ‘international terrorism’.
4. Leave it to the Experts: Administrative Rationalism
Authors: Dryzek John S.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines administrative rationalism, a discourse of environmental problem solving which captures the dominant governmental response to the onset of environmental crisis. Administrative rationalism emphasizes the role of the expert rather than the citizen or producer/consumer in social problem solving, and which stresses social relationships of hierarchy rather than equality or competition. The chapter first considers the manifestations of administrative rationalism in various institutions and practices, including environmental impact assessment, planning, and rationalistic policy analysis techniques, before discussing the discourse analysis of administrative rationalism. It then explains the justification of administrative rationalism and problems of administrative rationalism, caused in part by its association with bureaucracy. It also explores the implications of the transition from government to governance for administrative rationalism.
7. Greener Growth: Sustainable Development
Authors: Dryzek John S.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines sustainable development, an integrating discourse covering environmental issues from the local to the global, as well as a host of economic and development concerns. Sustainable development is different from Promethean discourse because it requires coordinated collective efforts to achieve goals, rather than relying on human spontaneity and ingenuity. It is also different from environmental problem solving discourses because it is much more imaginative in its reconceptualization of the terms of environmental dispute and in its dissolution of some long-standing conflicts. After explaining what sustainable development is, the chapter provides a historical background on the concept. It then considers the discourse analysis of sustainable development and concludes by reflecting on the prospects for the success or failure of sustainable development.
Overview: Risk Factors and Historic Levels of Pressure From Insect Pests of Seedling Corn, Cotton, Soybean, and Wheat in the United States
Authors: Papiernik Sharon K , Sappington Thomas W , Luttrell Randall G , Hesler Louis S , Allen K Clint
Published: September 2017

The use of neonicotinoid insecticides in the United States has grown by about a factor of four since the mid-2000s. Seed treatments account for a significant fraction of overall insecticide application to crops, and a large proportion of major U.S. crops are now planted using seed treated with neonicotinoids. Neonicotinoid insecticidal seed treatments are primarily intended to protect crops against sporadic or minor early-season pests. A better understanding of factors that influence the risk of economic infestations and extent of crop damage by sporadic pests is needed to target neonicotinoid insecticidal seed treatments use based on expected pest pressure. In a series of papers, we review the distribution, ecology, and historical management of seed and seedling pests targeted by neonicotinoid seed treatments in U.S. corn (Zea mays), soybean (Glycine max), wheat (Triticum aestivum), and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). This information is key to region-specific management practices that reduce the risks and increase the benefits of neonicotinoid seed treatments.
AGN jet feedback on a moving mesh: cocoon inflation, gas flows and turbulence
Authors: Bourne Martin A. , Sijacki Debora
Published: September 2017

In many observed galaxy clusters, jets launched by the accretion process on to supermassive black holes, inflate large-scale cavities filled with energetic, relativistic plasma. This process is thought to be responsible for regulating cooling losses, thus moderating the inflow of gas on to the central galaxy, quenching further star formation and maintaining the galaxy in a red and dead state. In this paper, we implement a new jet feedback scheme into the moving mesh-code arepo, contrast different jet injection techniques and demonstrate the validity of our implementation by comparing against simple analytical models. We find that jets can significantly affect the intracluster medium (ICM), offset the overcooling through a number of heating mechanisms, as well as drive turbulence, albeit within the jet lobes only. Jet-driven turbulence is, however, a largely ineffective heating source and is unlikely to dominate the ICM heating budget even if the jet lobes efficiently fill the cooling region, as it contains at most only a few per cent of the total injected energy. We instead show that the ICM gas motions, generated by orbiting substructures, while inefficient at heating the ICM, drive large-scale turbulence and when combined with jet feedback, result in line-of-sight velocities and velocity dispersions consistent with the Hitomi observations of the Perseus cluster.
Methadone and the QTc Interval: Paucity of Clinically Significant Factors in a Retrospective Cohort
Authors: Bart Gavin , Wyman Zachary , Wang Qi , Hodges James S. , Karim Rehan , Bart Bradley A.
Published: September 2017

Objective:

Methadone is associated with prolongation of the electrocardiographic QTc interval. QTc prolongation may be linked to cardiac dysrhythmia and sudden cardiac death. The rate of these events is unknown in methadone-maintained patients.

Methods:

This retrospective cohort study of 749 patients with opioid use disorder receiving methadone maintenance therapy through a single safety-net hospital, queried the electronic health record for electrocardiogram results, demographics, methadone dose, and diagnostic codes consistent with cardiac conduction disorder (International Classification of Disease, Ninth Revision [ICD-9] 426) and cardiac dysrhythmia (ICD-9 427). Factors associated with QTc interval were explored; Cox proportional-hazards regression models were used to analyze time to an event that may predispose to sudden cardiac death.

Results:

One hundred thirty-four patients had an electrocardiogram while on methadone, 404 while off methadone, and 211 both while on and off methadone. Mean QTc interval while on methadone (436 ms, SD 36) was significantly greater than while off methadone (423 ms, SD 33). Age and methadone dose were weakly associated with increased QTc interval (P < 0.01 and P < 0.0005, respectively, adjusted R
2 = 0.05). There were 44 ICD-9 426 and 427 events over 7064 patient-years (6.3 events/1000 patient-yrs). Having a QTc greater than sex-specific cut-off values was significantly associated with time to event (hazard ratio 3.32, 95% confidence interval 1.25–8.81), but being on methadone was not.

Conclusions:

Methadone is associated with QTc prolongation in a nonclinically significant dose-related manner. Cardiac events were rare and the sudden cardiac death rate was below that of the general population. Current recommendations for cardiac risk assessment in methadone-maintained patients should be reconsidered.
Stop and go: hematopoietic cell transplantation in the era of chimeric antigen receptor T cells and checkpoint inhibitors
Authors: Ghosh Arnab , Politikos Ioannis , Perales Miguel-Angel
Published: September 2017

Purpose of review

For several decades, hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) has been considered the standard curative therapy for many patients with hematological malignancies. In addition to the cytotoxic effects of the chemotherapy and radiation used in the conditioning regimen, the benefits of HCT are derived from a reset of the immune system and harnessing the ability of donor T cells to eliminate malignant cells. With the dawn of the era of immunotherapies in the form of checkpoint inhibitors and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, the role of HCT has evolved.

Recent findings

Immunotherapy with checkpoint inhibitors is increasingly being used for relapsed Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma after autologous HCT. Checkpoint inhibitors are also being tested after allogeneic HCT with observable benefits in treating hematological malignancies, but with a potential risk of increased graft versus host disease and transplant-related mortality. Immunotherapy with Cluster of differentiation 19 CAR T cells are powerful options with aggressive B-cell malignancies both for therapy and as induction leading to allogeneic HCT.

Although immunotherapies with checkpoint inhibition and CAR T cells are increasingly being used to treat hematological malignancies, HCT remains a standard of care for most of the diseases with the best chance of cure. Combination of these therapies with HCT has the potential to more effectively treat hematological malignancies.