bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
IMPLICATIONS OF THE STEREOTYPING AND MODIFICATION OF SEX ROLE
Authors: Nordyke Nancy S. , Baer Donald M. , Etzel Barbara C. , LeBlanc Judith M.
Published: March 2006

This article discusses and questions a study by Rekers and Lovaas (1974), which sought to “normalize” a young boy's sex‐role behavior. The reasons given for treatment and the treatment itself are questioned. The ethical implications of the treatment and its outcome are then discussed, and alternative treatment procedures are suggested. Finally, the experimenters' description of the feminine sex‐role is criticized.
A METHOD FOR INTEGRATING AN AUTISTIC CHILD INTO A NORMAL PUBLIC‐SCHOOL CLASSROOM1
Authors: Russo Dennis C. , Koegel Robert L.
Published: March 2006

This study investigated the feasibility of using behavioral techniques to integrate an autistic child into a normal public‐school class with one teacher and 20 to 30 normal children. The results showed: (1) that during treatment by a therapist in the classroom, the child's appropriate verbal and social behaviors increased, and autistic mannerisms decreased; and (2) training teachers in behavioral techniques was apparently sufficient to maintain the child's appropriate school behaviors throughout kindergarten and the first grade.
GASOLINE CONSERVATION: A PROCEDURE FOR MEASURING AND REDUCING THE DRIVING OF COLLEGE STUDENTS
Authors: Foxx R. M. , Hake D. F.
Published: March 2006

The study sought to motivate college students to reduce the number of miles they drove each day and thus save gasoline. Students in two psychology classes were divided by class into two groups. The experimental group was offered various combinations of prizes such as cash, a tour of a mental‐health facility, car servicing, and a university parking sticker for reducing driving. The value of the prize received was scaled in terms of per cent reduction in driving. The contrast group received no inducements. The condition in which the experimental group's mileage reduction was reinforced was counterbalanced by two baseline conditions. Several special recording procedures were used to reduce and detect the possibility of subjects altering their odometers, the source of the driving data. Experimental subjects reduced their average daily mileage by 20% relative to the initial baseline; the contrast group did not change. During the one‐month reinforcement condition, the 12 experimental subjects saved some 170 gallons (worth $102) of gasoline.
THE ROLE OF FEEDBACK IN VOLUNTARY CONTROL OF BLOOD PRESSURE IN INSTRUCTED SUBJECTS1
Authors: Surwit Richard S. , Hager Joanne L. , Feldman Theodore
Published: March 2006

Forty normal male volunteers were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions and instructed to raise and lower their systolic blood pressure. Subjects received either beat‐to‐beat feedback contingent on pressure changes, noncontingent beat‐to‐beat feedback, noncontingent feedback presented randomly with respect to the occurrence of each heart beat, or instructions alone. The order of increase and decrease trial blocks was counterbalanced across groups. Subjects receiving contingent feedback were monetarily rewarded for appropriate pressure changes. Subjects receiving noncontingent feedback received rewards and feedback equal to the mean received by the contingent group. Subjects in the instructions‐only condition were also paid this bonus but were informed of their earnings only at the conclusion of the experiment. Results indicated that in the presence of instructions, feedback, whether contingent or noncontingent, added little to subjects' ability to control pressure during a single session. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.
A SIMULTANEOUS DISCRIMINATION PROCEDURE FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF VISION IN NONVERBAL CHILDREN1
Authors: Newsom Crighton D. , Simon Karen M.
Published: March 2006

Few nonverbal developmentally disabled children ever receive adequate vision assessment because of their limited language skills. The present study details a simultaneous discrimination procedure for measuring subjective visual acuity in such children. A stimulus fading procedure was used to train a discrimination between Snellen Es differing in orientation, and a psychophysical tracking method was used to determine acuity thresholds. The procedure was tested with 11 nonverbal autistic and schizophrenic children and validated with four nonpsychotic children. Eight of the psychotic children were successfully examined in one to three sessions. Two of these children were identified as having significant acuity losses. The validity assessment showed that the experimental procedure resulted in thresholds equal to or slightly lower than those obtained with the Illiterate E chart.
A BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO COACHING FOOTBALL: IMPROVING THE PLAY EXECUTION OF THE OFFENSIVE BACKFIELD ON A YOUTH FOOTBALL TEAM
Authors: Komaki Judi , Barnett Fred T.
Published: March 2006

Because of the emphasis on winning, the difficulties involved in assessing performance, and the lack of frequent and contingent reinforcement, a behavioral approach to coaching football was used. The players, all nine‐ or ten‐year‐old males, were members of an offensive backfield on a Pop Warner football team. Three frequently‐run offensive plays were broken down into a series of five behaviorally defined stages, permitting construction of checklists suitable for observing the players during both game and scrimmage sessions. The intervention consisted of the presentation and explanation of the appropriate checklist, and frequent contingent reinforcement in the form of feedback and recognition for instances of desired play execution. Performance gains averaging 20% occurred for each of the three plays after, and not before, the staggered introduction of each intervention. The results suggest that behavioral specification and positive reinforcement of desired play execution is a viable approach to the coaching of football.
AN EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICITY CONSERVATION PROCEDURES1
Authors: Palmer Michael H. , Lloyd Margaret E. , Lloyd Kenneth E.
Published: March 2006

Daily electricity consumption of four families was recorded for 106 days. A reversal design, consisting of various experimental conditions interspersed between repeated baseline conditions, was used. During experimental conditions, daily prompts (written conservation slogans attached to front doors) and/or daily feedback (daily kilowatts consumed and daily cost information) were in effect. Maximum consumption occurred during the initial baseline; minimum consumption occurred during different experimental conditions for different families. The mean decrease from the maximum to the minimum for all families was 35%. Reversals in consumption were demonstrated in three families, although successive baselines tended to decrease. No clear differences in effectiveness between prompting and feedback conditions were apparent. The procedures used resulted in considerable dollar savings for the families.
EFFECTS OF A PROCEDURE DERIVED FROM THE OVERCORRECTION PRINCIPLE ON MANIPULATED AND NONMANIPULATED BEHAVIORS
Authors: Wells Karen C. , Forehand Rex , Hickey Kevin , Green Kenneth D.
Published: March 2006

Positive practice overcorrection has been shown to be effective in reducing stereotypic self‐stimulatory behaviors displayed by retarded and autistic individuals. In addition, the procedure also may increase the occurrence of appropriate behavior through intensive practice. In the present study, several stereotypic and one appropriate behavior (appropriate toy play) displayed by two autistic children were measured before and during treatment by a positive practice in appropriate toy play overcorrection procedure. Overcorrection was introduced for each of the targeted inappropriate behaviors in succession for both children. Results showed that overcorrection reduced all stereotypic behaviors displayed by both children. In addition, one subject displayed marked increases in the behavior practised during overcorrection, appropriate toy play, relative to its baseline rate of occurrence. The results indicate that for some individuals, overcorrection may be effective in teaching and motivating appropriate forms of behavior as well as in reducing stereotypy.
REMEDIATION OF MUTUALLY AVERSIVE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN A PROBLEM STUDENT AND FOUR TEACHERS BY TRAINING THE STUDENT IN REINFORCEMENT TECHNIQUES
Authors: Polirstok Susan Rovet , Greer R. Douglas
Published: March 2006

This study tested the effect of a social reinforcement training procedure for a problem student on the verbal and nonverbal approval and disapproval of four of the student's teachers. A design incorporating aspects of a multiple baseline within an extended reversal design (ABABA) was employed. Data were taken on the four teachers' approval and disapproval of a student regarded as a major discipline problem and the target student's approval and disapproval of the four teachers during baseline 1, experimental condition 1, baseline 2, experimental condition 2, and a postcheck or baseline 3 condition six weeks after experimental condition 2. Results showed that increased student approval and decreased disapproval were attributable to training procedures. The increased student approval increased three of the four teachers' approval and decreased the disapproval of all four teachers. Six weeks after experimental condition 2, both approval and disapproval by three of the four teachers and the student and disapproval by all four teachers and the student remained changed over baseline conditions. Student and teacher approval and disapproval were highly correlated at statistically significant levels.
THE EFFECTS OF OBSERVER PRESENCE ON THE ACTIVITY LEVEL OF FAMILIES1
Authors: White Geoffry D.
Published: March 2006

In the present study, the possibility that the act of observing behavior may result in changes in those behaviors was investigated. An investigation of reactivity is important to the validity of research findings because the result obtained when observers are present may not generalize to situations when observers are absent. The effects of observer presence were assessed with five families, each consisting of a mother and two children, in a laboratory setting designed to resemble a typical family living room, containing a table, couch, chairs, toys, books, and a bathroom and kitchen area. The families were each exposed to a sequence of four 30‐minute conditions during which an observer was alternatively physically present or absent from the room. From behind an unobtrusive one‐way mirror, family members' locations were recorded every 15 seconds on gridded floor‐plan diagrams drawn to the scale of the room. After all data were collected, lines were drawn for each family member connecting the numbers sequentially and a map‐reading device was then used to measure the distance covered during each minute of observation. The presence of observers markedly reduced the activity level of all families, with the average reduction approximating 50%. However, more extended observations in natural family settings may reveal that families habituate to observer presence in a relatively short period of time. If so, the solution to the reactivity problem would involve extending the observation sessions. However, if families do not habituate, new forms of data collection might be required to guarantee the validity and generalizability of data collected by obtrusive observers.
TEACHING NAMING OF COIN VALUES—COMPREHENSION BEFORE PRODUCTION VERSUS PRODUCTION ALONE1
Authors: Miller M. Ann , Cuvo Anthony J. , Borakove Larry S.
Published: March 2006

The purposes of this experiment were to determine whether (a) it would require fewer trials to teach verbal production of coin values directly or to teach auditory comprehension first, (b) comprehension training would generalize or transfer to production, and (c) production training would generalize to comprehension. Fourteen mentally retarded subjects participated. Their mean mental age was 4.83 yr (SD = 1.83), their mean chronological age was 12.67 yr (SD = 3.17), their mean IQ was 43.86 (SD = 7.81), and their mean arithmetic grade level was Kindergarten 0.1. A matched groups pretest‐posttest design, as well as a multiple baseline across responses within each group were employed. The Comprehension‐Production Group received coin‐value training using two procedures sequentially: auditory comprehension (pointing to the correct coins in response to their verbally stated value) followed by verbal production (verbally stating the coins' value in response to a pointing prompt). The Production Group was trained on the production procedure only. Each subject was repeatedly administered coin‐value comprehension and coin‐value production tests, which provided the dependent measures. The results indicated that the two experimental groups improved significantly in their comprehension and production of coin values from pretest to posttest and maintained those increments on one‐ and four‐week followup tests. Mean group performance on four‐week followups ranged from 89 to 96% correct for the two dependent measures and two groups. Multiple‐baseline data showed pronounced increases in performance only after training was initiated on a particular coin. A comparison of the number of trials required for both groups to complete their respective training programs indicated that teaching production alone (X̄ trials = 137.42) was significantly more efficient than training both comprehension and production (X̄ = 281.71). The failure of the comprehension procedure to facilitate production acquisition was evidenced by the fact that the Comprehension‐Production Group required as many verbal naming trials to achieve mastery as did the Production Group. On the other hand, there was generalization from production training to comprehension. Subjects in the Production Group who were not trained to point to the coins in response to verbal instruction averaged 99% correct on the comprehension test. Research to this point may suggest an interaction between mental level and direction of transfer. The mentally retarded may experience facilitation from production to comprehension training, and for the nonretarded, the direction of transfer may be the converse.
COMMUNITY APPLICATIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: TRAINING LOW‐INCOME PROCTORS1
Authors: Mathews R. Mark , Fawcett Stephen B.
Published: March 2006

A community education system might be most effectively implemented in low‐income communities if it were deliverable by neighborhood residents. A proctor training manual, designed to teach neighborhood residents how to administer standardized learning units to their peers, was analyzed in two experiments. The results of Experiment I showed that the percentage of occurrence of proctor behaviors increased after completion of the manual. Supplementary data suggest that specified proctor behaviors generalize to actual instructional situations. The results of Experiment II showed that the percentage of occurrence of trainee behaviors was higher when instructional packages were administered by trained proctors than when administered by untrained proctors. This study demonstrates an effective procedure for training low‐income community residents to serve as proctors for a community education system.
TEACHING COIN EQUIVALENCE TO THE MENTALLY RETARDED1
Authors: Trace Michael W. , Cuvo Anthony J. , Criswell Judith L.
Published: March 2006

A program was designed to teach coin equivalence to mentally retarded adolescents. Coin equivalence was defined as choosing several different combinations of coins to equal specified target values. A pretest‐posttest matched‐groups design was employed with an experimental group receiving the monetary training, and a no‐training control group. A multiple baseline across coin‐counting responses was also incorporated in the experimental group. Training was divided into six stages, each teaching one specific method of combining coins to equal 10 target values from 5¢ through 50¢. A three‐component response chain was used, requiring (a) naming, (b) selecting and counting, and (c) depositing target monetary values into a coin machine. Experimental subjects improved significantly in coin equivalence performance and maintained their skill on follow up tests; control subjects did not.
THE EFFECT OF EXPERIMENTER FACIAL ORIENTATION DURING IMITATION MAINTENANCE1
Authors: Garcia Eugene E. , Trujillo Alex
Published: March 2006

The training and maintenance of imitative responding has become an important therapeutic process with language‐handicapped children, as indicated by Garcia and DeHaven (American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1974, 79, 169–178). Typically a training “package” is used, that might entail the use of operant shaping, fading, reinforcement, and punishment techniques designed to increase correct imitation and decrease incorrect responding. Only recently have studies begun to concentrate on the components of these training “packages”. Steinman (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1970, 3, 159–167) highlighted the roles played by less conspicuous but functionally important components of these packages. The present study attempted to provide a systematic extension of this work within an applied context. Using subjects who were responding at high levels during an imitation‐maintenance procedure, experimenter facial orientation (experimenter's eyes and head oriented towards the subject's face and head), was systematically manipulated for experimentally determined “types” of imitative behavior. Differential responding within these parameters provided an evaluation of facial orientation as a functional component within this training package. Three retarded children participated in the study. Two types of topographically different imitative responses were defined for experimental purposes (“standing” and “sitting”). Each subject progressed through four conditions of the study, which called for the reinforcement of all imitative responses. But during preselected conditions, experimenter facial orientation was removed from the therapeutic package for one of the two topographical types of imitation. Results indicated that imitation of the two topographical types of models was dependent on the presence of experimenter facial orientation within the experimental procedure.
BEHAVIORAL CONTROL OF MEDICINE COMPLIANCE
Authors: Epstein Leonard H. , Masek Bruce J.
Published: March 2006

This study examined the effectiveness of several behavioral techniques on compliance of college students taking vitamin C on q.i.d. regimen. Compliance was assessed by a new technique using a variation of the urine tracer procedure designed specifically for this study. Subjects were provided vitamin C tablets, with three tablets per week containing phenazopyridine, a drug that produces a bright red‐orange urine discoloration. Subjects were requested to indicate when urine discolorations occurred, and compliance was assessed by comparing the time of their report to the time predicted on the basis of the scheduled sequence of vitamin C and phenazopyridine tablets. Baseline compliance was assessed for 72 subjects over a three‐week period, with the 40 most noncompliant subjects randomly assigned to four groups for Treatment I. The groups were: self‐monitoring, taste, taste and self‐monitoring, and a no‐treatment control group. The self‐monitoring procedure involved recording the time medicine was taken; the taste procedure involved providing the subjects with flavored tablets to increase the saliency of tablet taking; and the self‐monitoring and taste procedure involved providing subjects with flavored tablets and asking them to record the flavor of each tablet they ingested. At the end of six weeks, half the subjects in each of these groups participated in response‐cost procedures while the remaining subjects continued with their previous procedures. Response‐cost procedures were implemented by returning a portion of the subjects' deposit only if a preset compliance criterion was met. Treatment II procedures were implemented for an additional three weeks. Results indicated the self‐monitoring and taste plus self‐monitoring procedures were superior during Treatment I. The implementation of response cost during Treatment II was associated with a marked improvement in compliance, independent of the history of noncompliance. The effects of the taste plus self‐monitoring procedure were maintained during Treatment II and results obtained by this procedure were not significantly different from effects of response cost.
MODIFICATION OF COMBINED MIGRAINE‐MUSCLE CONTRACTION HEADACHES USING BVP AND EMG FEEDBACK
Authors: Sturgis Ellie T. , Tollison C. David , Adams Henry E.
Published: March 2006

The effect of blood volume pulse (BVP) and frontalis muscle action potential (EMG) feedback on control of vasoconstriction of the temporal artery and frontalis muscle activity in combined migraine‐muscle tension subjects was investigated in a multiple baseline design (across subjects and responses). The data indicated: (a) both subjects obtained an ability to control BVP during BVP feedback and EMG during EMG feedback; (b) there were decreases in frequency of migraine headaches during BVP feedback and decreases in muscle contraction headaches during EMG feedback. The results of this study supported the theoretical explanation of two pain mechanisms involved in combined muscle contraction‐migraine headaches as well as the effectiveness of biofeedback procedures that target directly the specific pain mechanism in the elimination of the two types of head pain.
SOME THOUGHTS ON CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN SAYING AND DOING
Authors: Israel Allen C.
Published: March 2006

Recent research on verbal‐nonverbal correspondence is evaluated, and conceptual, methodological, and applied issues regarding correspondence are addressed. Directions for research concerning the correspondence training procedure and extended applications are suggested.
EFFECTS OF SERIAL DEPENDENCY ON THE AGREEMENT BETWEEN VISUAL AND STATISTICAL INFERENCE1
Authors: Jones Richard R. , Weinrott Mark R. , Vaught Russell S.
Published: March 2006

Comparisons between visual and time‐series inferences from behavorial data show that serial dependency in scores is likely to disrupt agreement between the two methods of analysis. If researchers follow an earlier recommendation that time‐series analysis be used to supplement or confirm visual analysis, this study's findings suggest that the two methods will disagree most often when the data contain high levels of autocorrelation and when reliable behavorial changes are indicated by time‐series analysis.
TEACHING JANITORIAL SKILLS TO THE MENTALLY RETARDED: ACQUISITION, GENERALIZATION, AND MAINTENANCE
Authors: Cuvo Anthony J. , Leaf Ronald B. , Borakove Larry S.
Published: March 2006

A task analysis of janitorial skills required for cleaning a restroom was performed. Six subtasks with a total of 181 component responses were identified. Subjects were required to progress through a series of four prompt levels ordered generally from more to less direct assistance for 20 of the most difficult component steps. Another series of four prompts, ordered from less to more direct assistance, was used to teach the other 161 responses. Subjects progressed to the next more intense prompt level contingent on a failure to respond appropriately with less assistance. A multiple baseline across subjects as well as the six subtasks was employed to evaluate the efficacy of the procedures. Six moderately retarded adolescents were trained in their public school. The results show rapid response acquisition, skill generalization to a second restroom, and maintenance of the newly learned behavior. The present research provides evidence of a model for analyzing and training vocational skills to the mentally retarded.
IMPROVING THE GENERALIZED MNEMONIC PERFORMANCE OF A DOWN'S SYNDROME CHILD1
Authors: Farb Joel , Throne John M.
Published: March 2006

A training program was conducted to improve the generalized mnemonic performance, or memory, of a Down's Syndrome child. Training was directed at digit‐span performance with generalization from training determined by responses to untrained mnemonic performance probes. The digit‐span items varied in length from three to five digits. Each length constituted an item class, with each class trained within the framework of a multiple‐baseline design. Probes consisted of untrained digit‐span items, grammatical sentences, nongrammatical sentences, and match‐to‐sample items. A training procedure, in which 15 items from each class varied continually from trial to trial and from day to day, resulted in the percentage of correct responses to both training and probe items increasing to levels substantially above baseline. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the training procedure in improving the generalized mnemonic performance of a Down's Syndrome child.
PROMPTING TECHNIQUES TO INCREASE THE RETURN RATE OF MAILED QUESTIONNAIRES1
Authors: Winett Richard A. , Stewart Gary , Majors James S.
Published: March 2006

To increase the return rate of questionnaires mailed to clergy and physicians concerning their mental‐health practices, different prompts were used after the questionnaire was received during four mail‐outs to four randomly drawn samples of clergy and physicians. For each mail‐out, the sample was divided into experimental (received prompt) and comparison (no prompt) groups, and one type of prompt or combination was used. Non‐returnees of the questionnaire in the experimental group received either: (a) a single telephone call, (b) a memo, (c) a package (personal letter and new questionnaire) or package plus a telephone call, or (d) a double call. Comparison physicians and clergy were mailed only the original questionnaire. Relative to their respective comparison group's return rate, which averaged 22% across the four mail‐outs (range 18% to 24%), the single call and package alone about doubled the overall return rate, the package and call increased the return rate about two‐and‐a‐half fold, and the double call almost tripled the return rate. The memo was ineffective. A cost‐effectiveness analysis indicated that the double‐call procedure was less expensive than the single call, and much less expensive than the package alone or package with a call in securing returns. An analysis of the pattern of returns showed clearly that when prompts were not delivered (comparison groups), very few returns were received after about seven days from the initial mail‐out. Most returns from prompts (experimental groups) were received by several days after the prompt. The results were seen as salient to the problem of reducing selection or volunteer bias in questionnaire studies and subsequent research demonstrating the effectiveness of telephone calls made about a week after distribution of surveys in securing high return rates was discussed.
EFFECTS OF RESPONSE COST ON THE BEHAVIOR OF A MILLION PERSONS: CHARGING FOR DIRECTORY ASSISTANCE IN CINCINNATI1
Authors: McSweeny A. John
Published: March 2006

An interrupted time‐series analysis of local directory‐assistance calls in the Cincinnati area from 1962 to 1976 revealed a significant reduction in the daily frequency of calls after charges were introduced in 1974. No reductions occurred in the daily frequency of long‐distance directory‐assistance calls, which remained free. The results attest to the efficacy of response‐cost procedures with large subject populations in the natural environment. The applicability of response‐cost procedures to social and business problems is discussed.
SEVERE CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS: TEACHERS OR COUNSELLORS
Authors: Marlowe Roy H. , Madsen Charles H. , Bowen Charles E. , Reardon Robert C. , Logue Patrick E.
Published: March 2006

This experiment was designed to determine the relative effectiveness of teacher and counselling approaches in the reduction of disruptive or inappropriate classroom behavior. Inappropriate classroom behavior frequencies of 12 academically low achieving, seventh‐grade, black male students, with a reported high rate of inappropriate classroom behavior, were recorded. Three groups, with nearly equal mean inappropriate behaviors, were randomly assigned to one of three treatment conditions: behavioral counselling, client‐centered counselling, or no counselling. Each counselling group received fifteen 30‐minute counselling sessions, at a rate of two to three times a week. In addition to counselling, all students subsequently received teacher approval within the classroom. Results indicated that the teacher was able to reduce inappropriate behavior more than any counselling group. There were also indications that behavioral counselling, but not client‐centered counselling, was moderately helpful in reducing inappropriate classroom behavior.
INCREASING SENIOR CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN A COMMUNITY‐BASED NUTRITIOUS MEAL PROGRAM1
Authors: Bunck Theodore J. , Iwata Brian A.
Published: March 2006

Two experiments were conducted to compare the effects of several prompting and reinforcement procedures on the participation of elderly citizens in a nutritious meal program. Experiment I employed a variation of the multiple‐baseline design across three groups of approximately 60 households each. Elderly persons not previously participating in the program were introduced to the following conditions: (1) public service radio announcements for four weeks to advertise the meal program and the availability of free transportation, (2) a home visit that served as a personal invitation and a second prompt for participation, (3) a followup telephone call, and (4) an incentive menu for participation, which was sent through the mail. Results indicated that the home visits and incentives were both effective as recruitment procedures and superior to other conditions; however, incentives proved to be the most cost‐effective intervention. Experiment II used a variation of the multi‐element design to compare the effects of scheduled activities and incentives in maintaining higher levels of participation by those persons who had attended the meal program at least once in the past, but whose current rate of participation was low. Results showed that activities improved attendance levels somewhat and that incentives substantially increased the number of meal program participants. Data from these experiments thus indicate that relatively inexpensive procedures may be used effectively to increase the extent to which elderly persons make use of potentially beneficial community‐based services.
EFFECTS OF INTERMITTENT MODELLING ON OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING1
Authors: Brody Gene H. , Lahey Benjamin B. , Combs Melinda L.
Published: March 2006

A large research literature suggests that modelling in the absence of reinforcement for either the model's or the observer's behavior is a potent source of social learning. This literature is based entirely, however, on experiments using models that always display the critical behaviors. It is possible, therefore, that results obtained in these experiments would not generalize to natural settings in which modelling is intermittent. The effects of intermittent modelling were examined using three groups of 15 four‐ and five‐year‐old children. Male and female children from middle‐income families were individually exposed to an adult model who alternated descriptions of pictures of common objects. With one group, the model used no descriptive adjectives (color or number) in her descriptions after baseline; she used descriptive adjectives with 50% of the pictures with a second group, and 100% of the pictures with a third. Analyses of the data showed that the children substantially increased their use of descriptive adjectives in both modelling groups, but not in the no‐modelling group. The fact that there were no significant differences between the 50% and 100% modelling groups suggests that results obtained in studies using consistent modelling can be generalized to natural settings.
NICOTINE FADING AND SELF‐MONITORING FOR CIGARETTE ABSTINENCE OR CONTROLLED SMOKING
Authors: Foxx R. M. , Brown Richard A.
Published: March 2006

This study compared four treatment approaches to cigarette smoking: (1) a nicotine fading procedure, in which subjects changed their cigarette brands each week to ones containing progressively less nicotine and tar; (2) a self‐monitoring procedure in which subjects plotted their daily intake of nicotine and tar; (3) a combined nicotine fading/self‐monitoring procedure; and (4) a slightly modified American Cancer Society Stop Smoking Program. Thirty‐eight habitual smokers were assigned to one of the treatment groups. The study had two goals: (1) to achieve a clinically significant percentage of abstinence, and (2) to reduce the nonabstainers' smoking to a “safer” level by having them smoke low tar and nicotine cigarettes. The 18‐month followup results showed that the nicotine fading/self‐monitoring group was the most successful: 40 per cent were abstinent and all who had not quit were smoking cigarettes lower in tar and nicotine than their baseline brands. Half the nonabstainers had decreased their rate of smoking relative to baseline while the other half had increased. Furthermore, the fading/self‐monitoring group achieved the largest reductions from baseline in daily nicotine and tar intake (61% and 70% respectively). The results suggest that the study's goals were achieved and that the nonaversive combined procedure could be used to treat not only habitual smokers but also smokers with severe cardiovascular and respiratory problems, because it does not have some of the inherent limitations of the successful aversive smoking cessation procedures.
EFFECTS OF SELF‐INSTRUCTIONAL TRAINING ON SECOND‐ AND THIRD‐GRADE HYPERACTIVE CHILDREN: A FAILURE TO REPUCATE
Authors: Friedling Carol , O'Leary Susan G.
Published: March 2006

Bornstein and Quevillon (1976) demonstrated generalization from a 2‐hour self‐instructional training session to on‐task behavior in the classroom with 4‐year‐old overactive children. In an attempt to replicate this work with older children, eight 7‐ and 8‐year‐old hyperactive children were assigned to either a self‐instructional training group or an attention‐practice control group. On‐task behavior in the classroom and performance measures in reading and arithmetic were assessed. The level of difficulty of these tasks was varied. The results of Bornstein and Quevillon's (1976) study were not replicated, although the subsequent introduction of a token program significantly increased on‐task behavior.
SENSORY EXTINCTION AND SENSORY REINFORCEMENT PRINCIPLES FOR PROGRAMMING MULTIPLE ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR CHANGE
Authors: Rincover Arnold , Cook Richard , Peoples Arthur , Packard Debra
Published: March 2006

The role of sensory reinforcement was examined in programming multiple treatment gains in self‐stimulation and spontaneous play for developmentally disabled children. Two phases were planned. First, we attempted to identify reinforcers maintaining self‐stimulation. Sensory Extinction procedures were implemented in which auditory, proprioceptive, or visual sensory consequences of self‐stimulatory behavior were systematically removed and reintroduced in a reversal design. When self‐stimulation was decreased or eliminated as a result of removing one of these sensory consequences, the functional sensory consequence was designated as a child's preferred sensory reinforcer. In Phase 2, we assessed whether children would play selectively with toys producing the preferred kind of sensory stimulation. The results showed the following. (1) Self‐stimulatory behavior was found to be maintained by sensory reinforcement. When the sensory reinforcer was removed, self‐stimulation extinguished. (2) The sensory reinforcers identified for self‐stimulatory behavior also served as reinforcers for new, appropriate toy play. (3) The multiple treatment gains observed appeared to be relatively durable in the absence of external reinforcers for play or restraints on self‐stimulation. These results illustrate one instance in which multiple behavior change may be programmed in a predictable, lawful fashion by using “natural communities of sensory reinforcement.”
MULTIPLE‐BASELINE ANALYSIS OF A TOKEN ECONOMY FOR PSYCHIATRIC INPATIENTS
Authors: Nelson Gary L. , Cone John D.
Published: March 2006

Twelve behaviors selected for reinforcement among 16 chronic psychiatric inpatients were divided into four classes: (a) personal hygiene, (b) personal management, (c) ward work, and (d) social skills. A token economy program was introduced for each class in a sequential, cumulative, multiple‐baseline format. Corrections were included for methodological deficiencies frequently encountered in past studies. Treatment variables were systematically monitored, and target behavior rates, levels of global individual functioning, general ward behavior, and off‐ward behavior were assessed during baseline, implementation, and probe periods. Results indicated abrupt and substantial increases in performance of most target behaviors, significant improvements in global individual functioning (p < .025), positive changes in general ward behavior, and increases in social interaction during off‐ward activities. The findings provide strong evidence for the efficacy of a token economy and indicate that the multiple‐baseline design can be a useful method for evaluating token economy programs.
EFFECTS OF RELAXATION TRAINING ON PULMONARY MECHANICS IN CHILDREN WITH ASTHMA1
Authors: Alexander A. Barney , Cropp Gerd J. A. , Chai Hyman
Published: March 2006

An experiment, designed to overcome shortcomings in previous work, was conducted to investigate the potential symptomatic benefits of relaxation training in the treatment of asthma in children. Fourteen chronic, severely asthmatic children received three sessions in which they rested quietly, followed by five sessions of relaxation training, and finally three sessions of relaxing as trained previously. Pulmonary function was assessed, in a manner far more definitive than in previous studies, before and after each session, and three additional times at 30‐minute intervals thereafter. Tension in the frontales muscles, heart and respiration rates, and skin temperature and conductance were also monitored. Heart rate and to some extent muscle tension results tended to confirm the attainment of relaxed states. However, the lung function results failed to substantiate the previous, preliminary findings of a clinically meaningful change in pulmonary function following relaxation. The status of relaxation in the treatment of asthma was discussed.
EFFECTS OF SYSTEMATIC, RESPONSE‐DEPENDENT FADING AND THINNING PROCEDURES ON THE MAINTENANCE OF CHILD‐CHILD INTERACTION
Authors: Timm Matthew A. , Strain Phillip S. , Eller Paula H.
Published: March 2006

Previous investigations of the social behavior of handicapped preschool children (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7, 583–590; Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1976, 9, 31–40; Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1977, 10, 289–298) demonstrated that introduction of adult or peer confederate intervention agents produced substantial increases in levels of positive social behavior emitted by the subjects. In addition, it was observed that changes in rates of positive social behavior emitted by recipients of intervention tactics were accompanied by parallel changes in rates of positive social behavior emitted by interacting peers. However, with one limited exception, sudden removals of arranged intervention procedures were followed by immediate reductions in the levels of positive social behavior emitted by subjects and peers in each study. The current investigation was designed to examine the effects of response‐dependent removal of intervention procedures on the positive behavior of three socially withdrawn preschool boys. Interactive effects on the social behavior of classroom peers who did not receive adult prompts and contingent attention events were also examined. A combination of withdrawal of treatment and multiple baseline procedures was employed. The three target subjects received fixed numbers of prompts and contingent attention events during Intervention I and Intervention II, Phase 1 conditions. During Intervention II, Phase 2 conditions, prompts and contingent attention events were reduced on a response‐dependent basis for two subjects and on a response‐independent basis for the third subject. The results suggest that: (a) the intervention procedures produced marked increases in positive social behavior emitted by each subject; (b) response‐dependent fading and thinning, contrasted with response‐independent tactics, maintained levels of positive social behavior equivalent to those observed during Intervention I and Intervention II, Phase 1 conditions; (c) changes in positive and negative behaviors emitted by peers paralleled changes in positive and negative behaviors emitted by each subject; and (d) no “spillover” of treatment effects was noted for subjects during periods in which they were not direct recipients of intervention procedures.
FI SCHEDULES AND PERSISTENCE AT GAMBLING IN THE U.K. BETTING OFFICE
Authors: Dickerson Mark G.
Published: March 2006

This study reports on the direct observations of customers in two U.K. betting offices gambling on horse and dog races. These observations revealed that bets were more frequently placed in the last minutes just prior to the start (the OFF), and that this was caused by high‐frequency gamblers (customers who had eight or more bets in a session) consistently placing their bets in the last two minutes prior to the OFF. Low‐frequency gamblers (three or fewer bets/session) avoided this time period placing their bets earlier, or after the OFF, i.e., on a later race. It was argued that the betting behavior of the “gamblers” could not be explained either in terms of “skillful betting” or solely in terms of variable ratio schedules but was more adequately accounted for in terms of an interval schedule. It was further suggested that time‐based schedules might be of heuristic value in generally understanding persistence at gambling while losing.
THE EFFECTS OF SEQUENTIAL PICTORIAL CUES, SELF‐RECORDING, AND PRAISE ON THE JOB TASK SEQUENCING OF RETARDED ADULTS
Authors: Connis Richard T.
Published: March 2006

The present study investigated the effects of a self‐recording procedure using sequentially organized picture cues on independent task changes of four mentally retarded adults. Independent task changes were identified as the beginning of new tasks without directives or instruction. In addition to investigating treatment effects, the long‐term maintenance of the task‐change behavior was measured. During self‐recording and picture‐cue training, the subjects completed an increased proportion of independent task changes, and this behavior was maintained for more than 10 wk following removal of the training procedures. Self‐recording using picture cues was shown to be an effective procedure for teaching mentally retarded adults to function more independently in a job setting.
SHARING IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN: FACILITATION, STIMULUS GENERALIZATION, RESPONSE GENERALIZATION, AND MAINTENANCE
Authors: Barton Edward J. , Ascione Frank R.
Published: March 2006

Three approaches to facilitating verbal and physical sharing and of the generalizability and durability of the behaviors that were trained were investigated. During a free play period, groups of preschool children were taught to share verbally, to share physically, or to share verbally and physically; another group was not trained. Immediately following free play, the children were observed in a different setting. Follow‐up was conducted 4 weeks after training ended. Physical sharing that was durable and generalizable resulted only when children were taught to share verbally. Increases in physical sharing produced by training children to share only physically were not durable and did not generalize. Training both verbal and physical sharing produced results with a magnitude slightly greater than teaching just verbal sharing. Despite a lack of special programming, some of the treatment effects generalized to another setting and were maintained during the Follow‐up. There was response generalization of the effects of training verbal sharing to physical sharing but not vice versa. Problems with the concept of response class, a methodological suggestion for studying response generalization, and possibilities concerning why generalization and maintenance occurred without specific programming are discussed.
INSTRUCTIONS, FEEDBACK, AND REINFORCEMENT IN REDUCING ACTIVITY LEVELS IN THE CLASSROOM
Authors: Schulman Jerome L. , Suran Bernard G. , Stevens Theodore M. , Kupst Mary Jo
Published: March 2006

The biomotometer, an electronic device which simultaneously measures motor activity and provides auditory feedback, was used in combination with material reinforcers in an experiment to reduce children's activity level in a classroom setting. Subjects were nine boys and two girls, aged 9–13, from a day hospital program for emotionally disturbed children. After five baseline trials, each child had five contingent reinforcement trials in which he/she received feedback “beeps” from the biomotometer and was given toy or candy rewards after each trial in which activity fell at least 20% below mean baseline level. Then five noncontingent reinforcement trials were run in which children received rewards for wearing the apparatus without the feedback attachment. Results indicated that the intervention “package,” including instructions, feedback, and contingent reinforcement, was successful in all five trials for 8 of 11 children. Activity levels increased during the final noncontingent phase.
APPLICATIONS OF SELF‐CONTROL PROCEDURES BY CHILDREN: A REVIEW
Authors: O'Leary Susan G. , Dubey Dennis R.
Published: March 2006

Self‐control procedures as used by children to affect their own behavior were reviewed. Particular emphasis was placed on self‐instruction, self‐determined criteria, self‐assessment, and self‐reinforcement. Self‐punishment, comprehensive programs, and innovative self‐control procedures (distraction and restatement of contingencies) were also evaluated. Basic effectiveness, comparisons with similar externally imposed interventions, maintenance, and the augmental value of the procedures were assessed. Important problems for future research were identified.
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF REINFORCEMENT AND PRACTICE FOR ENHANCING THE CREATIVE WRITING OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN1
Authors: Glover John A.
Published: March 2006

Reinforcement (team points) and practice were applied to the written work of 16 fifth graders on three operationally defined components of creative writing, fluency, flexibility, and originality.4 These three components were assessed via five response measures. Fluency was defined as the number of different ideas each student listed in an idea list prepared prior to writing an essay. Flexibility was measured in two ways, idea list flexibility and story flexibility. Idea list flexibility was defined as the number of different kinds of ideas which appeared in each day's list whereas story flexibility was defined as the number of different approaches to the topic that the child used in the story itself. Originality was also measured in two ways, idea list originality and story originality. Idea list originality was defined by the statistical infrequency of ideas in the children's lists of ideas. Story originality was determined by blind, subjective ratings of stories conducted by independent raters. All of the measures of creative responding were demonstrated to be under experimental control. The procedures also raised students' scores on Torrance's Tests of Thinking Creatively With Words on three variables, fluency, flexibility, and originality. Adoption for classroom use seems straightforward.