bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Prince Adam Czartoryski and Napoleonic France, 1801–1805: A Study in Political Attitudes
Authors: Zawadzki W. H.
Published: June 2009

The preservation and the consolidation of international peace was the general aim of Emperor Alexander I of Russia in the first year of his reign. The young autocrat, faced with the novelty of international politics and bent on domestic reform, hoped for good relations with all the powers and tried to avoid any serious entanglement in European affairs. Diplomatic relations with Great Britain, which had been severed by the unstable Emperor Paul, were restored in June 1801, and a treaty of friendship was signed with the French Republic in October of the same year. Alexander expressed his readiness to co-operate with Bonaparte, whom he at first much admired, in arranging a general continental pacification and in settling the indemnities for the German princes dispossessed by France's expansion to the Rhine. The only issue that could have marred Franco-Russian relations at die time was Alexander's concern that full inde- pendence be restored to Piedmont and Naples. Nevertheless, the appointment of V. P. Kochubey, an advocate of a passive foreign policy, as head of the College for Foreign Affairs in October 1801, confirmed Alexander's pacific intentions. Yet widun four years Russia was to find herself at war with France as a leading and zealous promoter of a wide European coalition and the champion of a new European order.
The Abolition of Negro Slavery and British Parliamentary Politics 1832–3
Authors: Gross Izhak
Published: June 2009

The so-called ‘decade of reform’ witnessed far-reaching changes not only in Britain's domestic affairs but also in the colonial sphere. This applied particularly to the sugar colonies. Until the early 1830s the economy and society of those colonies had rested upon two main pillars – slave labour and a protected market for their produce in the United Kingdom. Yet within a few years the first of these pillars was completely destroyed, the second was already beginning to crumble, and the old ruling classes in the sugar colonies were in a state of frustration, rapidly despairing of the possibility of adapting themselves to the new situation.
Anti-popery on the Welsh Marches in the Seventeenth Century
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: June 2009

South Wales and the border counties played a crucial part in the events known as the ‘Popish plot’. The alleged catholic conspiracy laid particular emphasis on the roles allotted to Welsh magnates like Worcester and Powis, with their neighbours and dependants, and invasion plans were said to hinge on strategic centres like Chepstow castle and Milford Haven. Men from this area were active in the’plot’, whether as informers - notably Bedloe - or as parliamentary opponents of the duke of York; Welsh Jesuits were supposedly involved in the main conspiracies and murders, and Border protestants like Bishop Croft were among their main targets. John Arnold of Monmouthshire even aspired to the position in the whig leadership held by Shaftesbury, and the tory Ailesbury regarded the worst villains of the whole ‘plot’ as Arnold himself and his Herefordshire kinsman John Dutton Colt. It was also in this area that the ‘plot’ was at its most violent, and Professor Kenyon's study of the Popish plot rightly refers to ‘this battle area on the frontier of Wale’. ‘The main damage suffered outside London’ by the Jesuits was the loss of the south Wales district headquarters at the Cwm, when this was raided in 1678 by Croft, Arnold, and another ultra-protestant named Charles Price: ‘ the south Wales mission was the only one completely eliminated’. In 1679 a Jesuit wrote from north Wales that’ the college of South Wales was totally rooted up. We of the north have fared a little better, thus far; but God knows how long it is to last, for we live in constant fears and perils, only three of us now remaining’.
The 1945 General Election Reconsidered
Authors: Pelling Henry
Published: June 2009

It may be thought surprising that one should attempt to reassess the 1945 general election, in view of the attention which has already been paid to it. The election was, as is well known, the subject of the first of the Nuffield election surveys, which have continued thereafter to the present day; and although that book, unlike more recent Nuffield studies, contained no account of the politics of the period preceding the election, such accounts have appeared in more recent years, most notably, perhaps that by Dr Paul Addison entitled The road to 1945. Addison’s work, however, full though it is on the politics of wartime, stops short at the election itself; and the Nuffield study, being the first of its series, was also, it is fair to say, the crudest and least adequate – although when it was published it marked an enormous technical advance on any previous rapid study of a British general election.
Women, consumption and coverture in England,c. 1760–1860
Authors: Finn Margot
Published: June 2009

Historians concerned to demonstrate women's increasing relegation to a private, domestic sphere in the later eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have emphasized the extent to which married women's opportunities were restricted by the common law practice of coverture, which deprived wives of the ability to enter into economic contracts in their own right. Yet social and cultural historians have argued that women played an essential role as purchasers in promoting the consumer revolution of these decades. This article explores the devices used by married women consumers to evade the strictures of coverture. Focusing on three overlapping practices – wives' willingness and ability to pledge their husbands' credit to purchase a wide range of ‘necessary’ goods, their use of this tactic to secure a degree of independence from unsuccessful marriages, and their active participation in the deliberations of a variety of small claims courts – it argues that the purchase of coverture in the sphere of consumption was partial and contested, rather than monolithic.
La République au Village in the Southern Massif-Central, 1789–1799
Authors: Jones P. M.
Published: June 2009

To most Frenchmen of the revolutionary generation the south conjured up a stereotype image of militant royalism in which bizarrely accoutred peasants followed ci-devant seigneurs and priests into battle and murder gangs toiled under a burning sun. The principal weakness of such a view lies not in the factual detail nor even in the presumption that the entire population was insurgent, but in its essentially linear perspective. As a recent historian has observed, the south can be characterized not only by its fervent royalist commitment but also by its predilection for the politics of extremes. The complicating and exacerbating factor in this southern counter-revolutionary equation was the presence of a parallel and equally uncompromising loyalty to the Republic. Of course, both stances were rationalizations whose ideological content needs careful weighing, but their interaction in small and often volatile communities provided counter-revolution with a dynamic which perpetuated confrontation and drove each side to extremes of savagery and fanaticism.
Gentlemen and Geology: the Emergence of a Scientific Career, 1660–1920
Authors: Porter Roy
Published: June 2009

Historians will give no thanks for being told that professionalization models are fraught with pitfalls as putative interpretations of scientific development. When deployedstricto sensu, essentially to trace the evolution of the remunerated career structure, the concept of professionalization invites blinkered antiquarian administrative history. Too easily, however, the jargon can serve as a blanket pseudo-explanation of the key phenomena of modern science, and thereby it loses all precision. Thus a recent author, having noted that professionalization is a Protean term, concludes ‘perhaps we can use it to mean the emergence of a scientific community’. But this runs the risk of collapsing quite distinct concepts into each other, and thereby of begging the very questions which must be faced.
13. Studies in the Ripening of Cheddar Cheese I. A Method of Following the Course of Ripening of Cheddar Cheese
Authors: Allen L. A.
Published: June 2009

A Study of the chemical changes involved in the ripening of Cheddar cheese becomes largely a study of protein degradation. The result of the breakdown of the casein through the combined effect of rennin, milk enzymes and proteolytic bacteria is to furnish water-soluble decomposition products which increase in amount as the ripening progresses. In consequence a method used by many workers in the past to follow the course of ripening was to determine at intervals the percentage of soluble nitrogen present in the cheese. It must be remembered, however, that the decomposition products which make up this soluble nitrogen factor comprise different compounds such as caseoses, peptones, polypeptides, amino acids and ammonia, which are of decreasing molecular complexity in the order named. All these compounds are soluble in water to varying extents and, therefore, a determination of the soluble nitrogen merely gives an estimate of the sum total of the nitrogen which they represent, and gives no information as to the way in which it is distributed amongst the different types.
42. The Yield and Composition of Milk with Special Reference to the Influence of Climatic Conditions and other Factors
Authors: Houston J. , Hale R. W.
Published: June 2009

This article records the preliminary results of an investigation of some of the causes of the variations in the yield and composition of milk. The influence of the season of the year, and the influence of climatic conditions on the average yield and composition of the milk of a herd, are discussed.

The relationships between the data are studied by means of simple corre-lation and also by means of partial correlation. The temperatures used are the average temperatures for the periods between the milkings. Thus the day-temperature is the average temperature of the interval between the morning and evening milking, and the night temperature is the average temperature of the interval between the evening milking and the next morning milking. The daily temperature is the average of these two temperatures.
61. Discoloration in New Zealand Cheddar Cheese. Muddy, Bleached and Pink Defects. II. Biochemical Investigations
Authors: Moir George M.
Published: June 2009

The evidence of pH and catalase tests confirms the view that mould growth is closely associated with the production of discoloration in cheese.

The pink discoloration appears to be the result of acids acting upon the annatto colour.

Evidence available from observations and other sources, suggests that the bleaching is chemically a reduction in which changes in the fat play a part.

The muddy or dark discoloration appears to be produced by enzymes (including possibly tyrosinase) which diffuse into the cheese from centres of mould growth and act upon chemical substances present in mature cheese.
65. The Composition of the “Isotonic Diluent” in Samples of Milk low in Solids-not-fat
Authors: Davies William Lewis
Published: June 2009

Casein nitrogen has been shown to account for roughly 76 per cent, of the total nitrogen in over 200 samples of normal milk. Samples low in solids-notfat have shown a casein nitrogen percentage below this figure, and by assuming a 76 per cent, level of casein nitrogen as standard, it is suggested that milk may be considered as made up of two fractions, (a) a true-milk fraction and (b) an isotonic diluent. From the distribution of the nitrogen in whole-milk samples it has been possible to calculate on this basis the amount of dilution and the nitrogen distribution in the diluent. Results are given for 38 samples of milk. The chloride content of the diluent has also been approximately arrived at and is approximately isotonic with a hypothetical non-lactosecontaining milk.

The similarity in composition of the diluent either to a modified blood serum or lymph serum or a casein- and lactose-free lacteal secretion has been discussed. Its high chloride content favours its similarity either to lymph serum or a “transudate” or “exudate” closely allied in composition to lymph serum from pathological secretory tissue. The possibility of after-effects of attacks of mastitis causing a chronic catarrhal condition of the udder being the cause of the secretion of this diluent is also discussed.
71. The Heat Denaturation of Albumin and Globulin in Milk
Authors: Rowland S. J.
Published: June 2009

The heating of milk causes denaturation of the lactalbumin and lactoglobulin to an extent depending on both the temperature and the time of heating.

A series of data has been given for the amounts of albumin and globulin denatured on heating samples of milk at various temperatures from 63 to 80° C, for periods of from 2½ to 60 min.

An average of 10·4 per cent, of the total soluble protein was denatured after 30 min. heating at as low a temperature as 63° C.

Smooth curves were obtained for the progress of denaturation with time at each temperature, and, over the range of 63–75° C, the relative increase in velocity of denaturation for each rise in temperature of 1° C. was found to be constant, the temperature coefficient of the reaction being 1·5.
77. A Study of Factors Influencing the Keeping Quality of Some Victorian Salted Butters in Cold Storage
Authors: Loftus-Hills G. , Scharp L. R. , Bellair T. S.
Published: June 2009

Seventy boxes of salted Victorian butter were held at 12° F. for three months. Bacteriological and chemical examinations were carried out before and after storage in order to observe the changes which occurred and the factors which controlled deterioration.

The bacteriological examination showed that on the average only slight changes in bacterial numbers occurred during the actual cold storage period. None of the bacterial, yeast or mould counts revealed any positive association with keeping quality.

The catalase test gave negative results. It is suggested that enzyme activity is not an important factor in controlling deterioration of the butters.

The chemical examinations indicated that the variations in curd or salt content did not affect keeping quality. Fat hydrolysis, as measured by ether soluble acidity of the fat, and fat oxidation as measured by peroxide value, did not appear to be important factors in deterioration. Considerable variations were observed in the acidity of butters made from cream supposed to be “neutralised” to the same acidity. Acidity of the butter as measured by titration of water-soluble material was closely related to the pH of the butter. Butter acidity and copper content appeared to be the most important factors controlling keeping quality. The mechanism by which acidity causes deterioration was not revealed by the investigation.
82. Studies in the Ripening of Cheddar Cheese. IV. The Bacterial Flora of Cheese made from Milk of a Very Low Bacterial Count. V. The Influence of the Rennet Flora on the Flora of the Cheese. VI. The Influence of the Starter on the Ripening Process
Authors: Allen L. A. , Knowles N. R.
Published: June 2009

In a previous communication (Allen (1)) it was shown that Cheddar cheese made from milk of a very low bacterial count (Grade A (T.T.)) exhibited a retarded rate of ripening, as evidenced by proteolysis and development of flavour and texture, when compared with similar cheese made from ordinary market milk, and the view was advanced that the miscellaneous flora of market milk produces sufficient proteolysis of the casein in the early stages of manufacture to provide the starter organisms with necessary nitrogen compounds for rapid growth.
124. The Metabolism of Betaine and Allied Tertiary Nitrogenous Bases in the Ruminant
Authors: Davies William Lewis
Published: June 2009

In the ruminant, the main tertiary nitrogenous metabolite of all the tertiary nitrogenous bases examined is trimethylamine oxide. Small traces of trimethylamine and insignificant traces of mono- and dimethylamine also occur in cow's urine. The nitrogen of simple bases (trimethylamine and trimethylamine oxide) is almost quantitatively and rapidly excreted as trimethylamine oxide. With betaine, choline and the methyl ester of dimethylaminoacetic acid, only from 14 to 43 per cent, of the nitrogen is excreted as trimethylamine oxide, the amount so excreted depending on the level of nitrogen intake, the nature of the base fed and the degree of accommodation of the animal to the base fed.

The rates of excretion of the tertiary metabolite show well-defined peaks depending on the nature and amount of the base fed. The feeding of 100 g. of betaine would show a peak of excretion at about 4½ hours after feeding. The importance of the time interval between feeding and milking is discussed from this aspect. No unchanged betaine was be detected in the urine.
165. The statistical treatment of experiments involving equalized feeding. The problem of appetite
Authors: White Paul
Published: June 2009

In an ad libitum feeding experiment the greater growth of a group of animals may be due either to superior availability or to superior palatability of their diet. To distinguish between these two factors it is necessary to eliminate the effect of superior palatability by equalizing the food intake of corresponding animals. If the quantity offered is so small that it is always consumed entirely, the range of application of the experiment is restricted to conditions of substarvation, and at the same time the possibility of obtaining from the results any evidence of difference of palatability is sacrificed. The ration plan must therefore be designed to be as liberal as possible subject to the conditions that the aggregate food intakes are equalized in pairs (or larger groups), while at the same time the animal with the smallest appetite of each pair (or group) is always on the border-line of refusing a little of its portion. In the first set of experiments described in the preceding paper (1) a system of this kind is employed.
189. The effect of commercial sterilization on the nutritive value of milk. VI. Comparison of the total nutritive value of raw and commercially sterilized milks
Authors: Henry K. M. , Ikin E. W. , Kon S. K.
Published: June 2009

1. The effect of commercial sterilization on the total nutritive value of milk was studied in five separate experiments.

2. In the first experiment raw and sterilized milks supplemented with minerals were given in equal amounts to pairs of litter-mate male rats. No differences were found in the growth performance of the rats, but the rats on sterilized milk consumed it more readily than their mates on raw milk. This difference was statistically significant.

3. Rats getting limited but equal amounts of milk in addition to a basal diet which supplied only protein, energy and minerals grew better on raw than on sterilized milk.

4. When the basal diet contained in addition 5% brewer's yeast and the milk intakes were the same as in the previous experiment no difference was found between the two groups.

5. Rats receiving raw milk to which 15 g. of cane sugar was added per 100 ml. grew better than rats receiving equal quantities of similarly treated sterilized milk.

6. Rats given raw milk containing 30 g. per 100 ml. of sugar grew as well as the rats on sterilized milk in the preceding experiment, but rats receiving similarly treated sterilized milk took much less milk than the raw milk rats, grew very poorly and some of them developed symptoms of beri-beri.

7. The difference between raw and sterilized milk is discussed and it is concluded that in these experiments on the total nutritive value of milk vitamin B1was the first limiting factor of sterilized milk.
193. Volatile acids of cheese. II. Methods of extraction
Authors: Hiscox E. E. , Harrison J. , Wolf J. Z.
Published: June 2009

An extraction method for estimating volatile acids in cheese has been described. The values obtained were considerably higher than those given by direct steam distillation.
202. The composition of cheese rinds
Authors: Davies W. L.
Published: June 2009

Rinds from home-produced and Dominion Cheddar cheese contain from 15 to 20 % of moisture, but those from unripe cheese contain up to 27 %. Salt tends to diffuse into the interior of cheese while the rind is slowly drying, but the rate of diffusion is not quantitatively proportional to the moisture content, although closely approached in cheese requiring a long period of ripening.

There is an appreciable loss of fat from the rind through absorption by the bandage. The fat has a high acid value and carries the characteristic taste of the rind.

Rinds have a higher crude protein content than the interior of cheese; the extent of protein breakdown is less but can be correlated with that in the interior of the cheese.

Rinds contain higher calcium and phosphorus contents in the dry matter and a higher Ca/P ratio than the interior of cheese.

The fibre content of rinds is negligible. The content can be gauged from a visual inspection of a sample for portions of bandage.
248. Haemolytic organism isolated from pasteurized cream
Authors: O'Droma L.
Published: June 2009

1. A description is given of a weakly haemolytic organism, which first appeared as a contaminant, in the form of pin-point colonies, in agar plates inoculated with dilutions of a cream which had been subjected to partial processing in a butter churn.

2. Though it resembled in many respects certain strains ofStr. bovisrecently isolated from pasteurized milk in America, it is concluded that the majority of its characteristics showed it to be a resistant strain ofStr. thermophiluswhich had adapted itself to contaminate a churn.

3. That the churn was responsible for the spread and maintenance of this heat resistant contaminant is regarded as significant and indicates that efficient pasteurization must be followed by storing and processing in sanitary equipment.

I am indebted to Dr M. Grimes for his help and suggestions in the course of this work.
271. The experimental error in the plate count examination of butter
Authors: Pont E. G.
Published: June 2009

In a preliminary investigation into the experimental error of the plate count examination of butter, 154 boxes of choicest quality butter were examined by plating in triplicate, in a dilution of 1/500, each of three 1 g. samples per box.

X2 tests in both this and a later series indicated that the means of the triplicate counts in respect of plates averaging less than 300 colonies gave, in the main, reasonably satisfactory estimates of the bacterial content of the samples. In two of the tests, however, excessive within-sample variability was shown by abnormally high values obtained from the summation of x2. This is accepted as an indication that the plate count was not always a reliable index of the sample population.

The between-sample variability in this series has been shown by transforming the counts to logarithms and calculating the coefficient of variation in respect of each box. In the distribution of the coefficients approximately 50% were found to lie on either side of a 4·0% level, while 10% gave values higher than 14·0%.

In a further inquiry twelve boxes of butter were selected for quality and uniformity and data were secured from the examination of seven 1 oz. samples selected at random from each box.

Treatment of the results by the method of analysis of variance, using a square root transformation, indicated that the estimates of within-sample variance obtained could be regarded as estimates of a common variance. Highly significant differences were found, however, among the between-sample mean squares, and the variability was found to be excessive in six of the twelve boxes examined.

No significant general correlation was found in this series between bacterial counts and either salt or moisture determinations.

The application of these results to research problems and to routine tests involving the estimation of bacterial numbers in butter is discussed.
309. The freezing-point of milk: III. A survey of producers' milk as delivered to creameries in England and Wales
Authors: Aschaffenburg R. , Temple P. L. , Veinoglou B. C.
Published: June 2009

The results of freezing-point tests on some 4000 samples of milk as delivered by individual producers to creameries in England and Wales are analysed. Prior to the war about six out of every 100 samples were found to contain added water, but, as cases of heavy adulteration were comparatively rare, the total effect on the bulked milk supplies was small. After 2½ years of war the position had remained virtually unchanged.
377. Corrosion by commercial sodium hypochlorites and its inhibition
Authors: Botham G. H. , Dummett G. A.
Published: June 2009

Commercial sodium hypochlorites, whether containing KMnO4 or not, are shown to be corrosive at 150 p.p.m. available chlorine and 40° C. to metals such as aluminium, tinned copper, nickel silver and cast stainless steel (18 Cr, 8 Cu, 3 Mo) which are used in dairy equipment. Hypochlorites containing KMnO4 when aged are potentially dangerous to wrought 18/8 stainless steel. The attack is by pitting and therefore especially dangerous to all the metals investigated, and, in general, increases with increase of time of exposure and temperature.

Decay of sodium hypochlorite solutions results in conversion of NaOCl to NaCl and NaC103, which reaction is shown to follow a simple equation fairly closely in various storage conditions.

Attack on metals by sodium hypochlorite can be efficiently inhibited by addition of sodium silicate, which has a specific action in addition to the effect exerted by increase of alkalinity. NaOH and Na2CO3 additions to the same pH are not so effective and increase attack on aluminium.

Increase of pH from 9 to 10·5 by addition of Na2CO3 or sodium silicate reduces bactericidal efficiency of hypochlorites to the same extent.
393. Experiments on milking technique: 5. Effect of temporary changes in the interval between washing and milking: 6. Comparison of established washing and milking routines
Authors: Dodd F. H. , Foot A. S. , Henriques E.
Published: June 2009

1. Cows accustomed to preparation for milking 1 min. before putting on the teat cups were on single mornings (a) milked without preparation, (b) milked 3 min. after preparation, (c) milked 6 min. after preparation.

On treatment (a) ‘let-down’ was delayed but thereafter milking rate was not abnormal. Treatment (b) had no pronounced effect on milking efficiency, but treatment (c) resulted in a slightly slower rate of milking and a reduced yield of milk and butterfat.

2. In a second experiment a comparison was made between two established routines, in one of which udder washing, fore-milking and concentrate feeding was done less than 1 min. before milking and in the other more than 20 min. before milking. The data suggest that milking immediately after preparation was the more efficient routine, although the differences were not very great.
412. Coliform bacteria in New Zealand butter
Authors: Thomson G. I.
Published: June 2009

1. The limitations have been explored of a simplified form of Grimes's litmus milk method, as used for a presumptive test for coliform organisms in butter.

2. To improve on this test, the merits and demerits of renneted litmus milk and litmus milk agar have been investigated, and the latter found preferable.

3. Of 719 samples of export salted butter tested for coliform contamination, only 19·1% gave confirmed positive results using MacConkey broth as the presumptive medium, 21·9% were positive using a litmus milk agar medium, and 30·2% (on 434 samples only) were positive using renneted milk.

4. The coliform organisms isolated were classified into the usual types and a seasonal variation in the coli to aerogenes ratio noted.

5. An observation is made on what appears to be the inhibitory effect of bile salt on the gas production of several strains of the aerogenes-cloacae group isolated in this investigation.
423. Some observations on the behaviour of dairy cattle with particular reference to grazing
Authors: Castle M. E. , Foot A. S. , Halley R. J.
Published: June 2009

1. The behaviour of dairy cattle under normal commercial conditions of management was studied in two series of observations:

(a) Four cows were observed continuously for 24 hr. on four occasions at approximately two-weekly intervals.

(b) A herd (average fifty-two cows) was observed continuously for 24 hr. on twelve occasions at approximately monthly intervals.

2. Under our conditions and within our definitions, the cows grazed 6–52 hr., lay down 9–22 hr. and loafed 8–26 hr. on an average during 24 hr.

3. The cows ruminated 5–60 hr. per 24 hr.; 4–52 hr. when lying down and 1–08 hr. when loafing.

4. On average the animals defaecated 1T6 times, urinated 9–8 times, and drank 3–8 times in 24 hr.

5. One animal walked an average distance of 1–74 miles per 24 hr., excluding journeys to the cowshed.

6. No aspect of grazing behaviour was found to be strongly related to either current milk yields or air temperature.

7. When on ‘good’ pasture, as compared to ‘poor’, the animals grazed for a shorter time, walked less, and took fewer drinks.

8. From the results of the herd observations a similar periodicity of behaviour during 24 hr. was observed throughout the year but was more apparent when environmental conditions were similar.

9. When the herd was confined to 5 ft. concrete standings during the winter nights, the animals did not rest as comfortably as when out of doors.

10. Major peaks of grazing or eating were recorded after each milking followed by periods of lying down, especially during the night.

11. Time of sunset has been related to the time when grazing ceased and the herd lay down.

12. In view of the data collected, tentative suggestions for improving grazing management
are made.
447. Milk yield in relation to infection with Streptococcus agalactiae
Authors: McLeod D. H. , Wilson S. M.
Published: June 2009

The records of milk yield and infection with Streptococcus agalactiae in four herds over periods of 9–13 years were analysed, using rigorous methods of control in the comparison of yields of infected and healthy cows. Fifty-seven cows which became infected in the second to sixth lactations yielded significantly more (56·5 ± 20·4 gal./lactation; P = 0·01) before infection than did non-infected animals in corresponding periods. In thirty-two animals infected in the second to fifth lactations an average apparent loss of 194·2 ± 28·3 gal. was found for the first lactation in which infection was detected. This represents a loss of about 24 % of the lactation yield.
497. An improved medium for lactobacilli
Authors: Briggs Mary
Published: June 2009

Several media previously recommended for lactobacilli by other workers have been examined, but none was found to support good growth of all species. Experiments are described in which the optimum concentrations and combinations of various ingredients, particularly Tween 80, were determined. These resulted in the development of a practical medium which has proved satisfactory for the growth of all varieties of lactobacilli.
502. The vitamin A potency of New Zealand butter
Authors: McDowell A. K. R. , McDowall F. H.
Published: June 2009

Results of a survey of the carotene and vitamin A contents, and of the vitamin A potency, of New Zealand butterfat and butter, are presented. The butter samples were drawn from twenty representative commercial factories at fortnightly intervals over three successive years (1946–8). The survey covers the analysis of 1517 samples of fresh butter and 670 samples of stored butter.

There were uniform and regularly recurring seasonal variations in both carotene and vitamin A contents of butterfats from all North Island districts. Maximum values were found in the late-autumn/winter/early-spring, and minimum values in the late-summer/early-autumn butterfats. The seasonal trends were thus distinctly different from those which have been reported for northern hemisphere butterfats, for which the maximum values are commonly found during the summer grazing period.

The seasonal variations in carotene and vitamin A contents of South Island butterfat were less marked and less consistent than those in the corresponding values for North Island butterfat.
533. Intramammary pressure changes in the lactating sow: I. The effect of oxytocin
Authors: Whittlestone W. G.
Published: June 2009

Using an electronic pressure recording system, pressure changes in the sow's mammary gland in response to injections of oxytocin and whole pituitrin have been recorded. The results suggest that an injection of oxytocin within physiological range may pass round the circulatory system twice, resulting in a small secondary pulse of pressure. Slow injections over periods of the order of 8–16 sec. are shown to produce a double rise in pressure, the two phases of which are of the same order of magnitude, suggesting a contraction followed by a period of relaxation and a further contraction.
542. The surface microplora of Stilton cheese—normal and slip-coat
Authors: Brindley Marjorie
Published: June 2009

Coat formation in Stilton cheese is started 5–10 days after manufacture by scraping the surface to fill in crevices and to smooth the coat. Normally the cheese, when ready for scraping, is firm at the surface, greasy to the touch and smells like ripe pears. In some dairies, however, an abnormal condition known as “slip-coat” may be apparent at the scraping stage. The cheese is not firm to the exterior, but has a layer of softened material ½–¾ in deep resembling a partially drained cream cheese. The texture is flaky, whereas in the scrapings from the surface of a normal cheese the texture is granular. Patches of grey, or, less commonly, yellow or brown discoloration, may be formed at the surface of slip-coat cheese.
553. Moisture losses in Cheddar cheese undergoing curing
Authors: Scott J. K.
Published: June 2009

The loss of moisture per pound of free moisture in a cheese is shown to depend on the moisture movement in the cheese and hence on a function of the group (diffusion rate × time/(height)2). The results of a series of experiments were correlated by means of the above expression. The variables correlated were time of storage, moisture content, fat content, air humidity, air temperature, size and shape of the cheese. Total moisture affects the free moisture value, and air humidity affects the free moisture via the equilibrium moisture. The main effect of temperature is on the rate of moisture diffusion, and the fat content also affects the rate of moisture diffusion. All experimental results for close-bodied cylindrical cheeses were approximately correlated by the expression.
574. Colour changes in heated and unheated milk: II. The whitening of milk on heating
Authors: Burton H.
Published: June 2009

In previous work the browning reaction in milk was examined by measuring the fall in optical reflectance which occurred during browning. It was then found that the heating of milk caused an initial rise in its reflectance, and, in the present paper this rise in reflectance, or whitening of milk, is examined in more detail. It is shown that the reaction causing it is independent of the subsequent browning. Whitening occurs at temperatures above 60°C., and takes place more rapidly at higher temperatures. The curves of reflectance against time are not exponential, and there is some evidence that the maximum amount of whitening depends on the temperature at which the milk is held. Reduction in pH of the milk causes an increase in the amount of whitening for a particular time-temperature treatment. From these data and other experiments it is concluded that the rise in reflectance is brought about by the denaturation of the soluble proteins of the milk and their subsequent coagulation into particles large enought to reflect light.
589. A chemical investigation of the volatile flavour principle of Cheddar cheese
Authors: Dacre J. C.
Published: June 2009

1. Steam distillates containing the flavouring substance(s) from Cheddar cheese were examined chemically. After the volatile fatty acids had been removed, the only substances identified in the flavour concentrates were ethanol, butyraldehyde, ethyl acetate and ethyl butyrate. None of these compounds appeared to be connected with the cheese flavour.

2. The essential flavour compound(s) could not be identified but some of its properties were elucidated.

3. The findings of other workers that the lower volatile fatty acids, diacetyl and acetyl methyl carbinol contribute to Cheddar-cheese flavour could not be confirmed. Flavour tests with numerous other compounds failed to show that they contributed to the typical flavour of Cheddar cheese.

The author gratefully acknowledges the helpful criticism and advice of Dr H. R. White-head throughout the investigation.
675. The carbon dioxide content of New Zealand Cheddar cheese
Authors: Robertson P. S.
Published: June 2009

Some of the factors influencing the concentration of carbon dioxide found in New Zealand Cheddar cheese have been investigated.

1. Cheeses made with the use of commercial starters (containing betacocci) are characterized by a rapid increase in their carbon dioxide content during the 2 weeks following manufacture.

2. Cheeses made with the use of single strain starters do not change in carbon dioxide content in the first 2 weeks following manufacture, but may ultimately contain as much carbon dioxide as commercial starter cheeses.

3. High concentrations of carbon dioxide within a cheese result in an open texture, especially when the carbon dioxide is formed shortly after manufacture.

4. The loss of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere is demonstrated by the existence of a carbon dioxide concentration gradient within the cheese.

5. Storage of cheese at a lower temperature than is usual results in retarded carbon dioxide formation.
698. Effect of the heat treatment of milk on the yield, quality and certain properties of standardized separated milk cheese
Authors: Sadek G. M. El , Motteleb L. Abd El
Published: June 2009

1. Four batches of soft cheese were made using rennet coagulation from both raw and pasteurized separated milk standardized to contain 1·5% fat and 7% added sodium chloride.

2. The yield of pasteurized milk cheese was about 3·33% higher than that of raw milk cheese.

3. Pasteurization of the milk improved the flavour and the texture of the fresh cheese, but had no marked effects on the body and general appearance.

4. The shelf keeping property after 4–5 days under the conditions of these experiments was better for the cheese made from raw milk. Reasons for this apparent anomaly are discussed.

5. Chemical analyses showed a greater moisture retention by the pasteurized milk cheese, leading to a lower content of fat and total nitrogen but increased sodium chloride in solution. Some retention of heat coagulable protein in the pasteurized milk cheese was suggested by a higher total nitrogen in dry-matter figure and by a lower nitrogen content of the pasteurized milk whey.

6. Pasteurization of the milk greatly reduced the total bacterial population of the fresh cheese and also the acidity of the whey produced.
703. Cineradiographic observations on machine milking
Authors: Ardran G. M. , Kemp F. H. , Clough P. A. , Dodd F. H.
Published: June 2009

Machine milking has been studied in three cows by cineradiography at 50 frames/sec. The findings of Pier et al.(5) have been confirmed.

The effects of variation in the pulsation rate, ratio and liner tension were investigated and the results compared with those obtained by other methods. The proportion of each milking cycle during which milk flows has been determined.
The composition of sow's milk during lactation with particular reference to the relationship between protein and lactose
Authors: Lodge G. A.
Published: June 2009

1. Data are given on the changes which occurred in the composition of sow's milk during the course of 24 lactations. The mean percentages of the major constituents (192 samples) were: total solids, 20·0%: crude protein, 5·7%: lactose, 4·7%; fat, 8·6% and ash, 0·89%.

2. There were differences in milk composition between sows and between successive lactations, but these were only appreciable for milk fat percentage between sows.

3. A highly significant negative correlation (P < 0·001; r = –0·62) was found to exist between the percentages of protein and lactose in the milk, quite apart from the general trend for protein content to fall with advance in lactation. Possible reasons for this are discussed.
The use of turbimetric methods for testing homogenized milk
Authors: Goulden J. D. S.
Published: June 2009

A detailed study has been made of spectroturbimetric methods for testing the degree of homogenization of milk, and it has been shown that, provided care is exercised in the design of the turbimeter, the turbidity index at a specified wavelength provides a useful practical measure of the degree of homogenization. This measurement can easily be made with a simple filter turbimeter.
The estimation of blood in bovine milk
Authors: Rammell C. G.
Published: June 2009

Details are given of a method, based on the peroxidase activity of the sedimented erythrocytes, that is suitable for the quantitative estimation of blood in milk.
The occurrence of pyridoxamine phosphate in milk
Authors: Gregory Margaret E. , Mabbitt L. A.
Published: June 2009

The presence of pyridoxamine phosphate in extracts of freeze-dried raw and evaporated milks has been demonstrated by separation and identification of the vitamin B6 active compounds by chromatography and electrophoresis on paper. Its presence in the milk extracts is the cause of the higher values for vitamin B6 activity measured with Streptococcus faecalis as compared with those obtained with Str. faecium or Saccharomyces carlsbergensis. This is because Str. faecalis can utilize the phosphate for growth as readily as free pyridoxamine, whereas Str. faecium and S. carlsbergensis cannot. The mild acid treatment used for extracting the vitamin B6 active compounds from the milk samples for microbiological assay was found to be insufficient to hydrolyse the pyridoxamine phosphate. Further treatment of the acid extracts with intestinal phosphatase released the pyridoxamine from its phosphate and increased the vitamin B6 activity measured with S. carlsbergensis and Str.faecium so that the total vitamin B6 activities of the freeze-dried raw and evaporated milks measured microbiologiclly, were then in agreement with the values found in previous tests with chicks and rats.

Pyridoxamine phosphate could only be detected in small amounts in a sample of fresh milk. The possibility that more of it was formed during the processing and storage of the freeze-dried samples is discussed.
The effect of antioxidants on the keeping quality of whole milk powder: I. Flavones, gallates, butylhydroxyanisole and nordihydroguaiaretic acid
Authors: Abbot J. , Waite R.
Published: June 2009

Spray-dried whole milk powders have been prepared containing 0·01% of four flavones, propyl and dodecyl gallates, butylhydroxyanisole (BHA) and nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA). The powders were stored at 20 and 37°C and examined at intervals of 25 days for taste of the reconstituted milk, peroxide value of the fat and oxygen absorption of the powder. Three of the four flavones, 7,8-dimethoxy-3,2',5'-trihydroxyflavone, 6-ethyl-3,7,2',5'-tetrahydroxyflavone and 6-dodecyl-3,7,2',5'-tetrahydroxyflavone improved the keeping quality of the powder, the last-named compound being the most effective, but 3,7,8,2'5'-pentahydroxyflavone was without antioxidative properties in this system. These results are briefly discussed with respect to substitution within the flavone molecule.

Dodecyl gallate was a very effective antioxidant for spray-dried whole milk powder and propyl gallate and NDGA, whilst affording good protection, were less so; BHA did little to improve keeping quality.

The best antioxidant of the flavones investigated, 6-dodecyl-3,7,2',5'-tetrahydroxyflavone, appeared to be almost as effective as propyl gallate and NDGA in these milk powders.
The relationship between the number of mastitis pathogens placed on the teats of dry cows, their survival, and the amount of intramammary infection caused
Authors: Neave F. K. , Oliver J.
Published: June 2009

When the teats of dry cows were dipped in a culture containing 3–25 × 106 mastitis organisms/ml only 25% of 71 quarters acquired an intramammary infection. Small numbers of organisms applied to teats caused negligible infection. The degree of contamination also determined the survival of the organisms on the exterior of teats, which was much greater at the teat apex than on the body of the teat.

There was no evidence that swabbing the teat apex increased the chance of intramammary infection. Washing the udder of infected cows with a disinfectant increased the chance of recovering the organisms from the teat skin.
The prevention of infection of the dry udder
Authors: Oliver J , Neave F. K. , Sharpe M. Elisabeth
Published: June 2009

A within-cow comparison was made of methods of control of udder infection in dry cows whose teats were deliberately contaminated with cultures of mastitis organisms. Very nearly complete protection against infection with staphylococci and streptococci was obtained by infusion of antibiotics through the teat canal. Disinfection alone, i.e. dipping the teats in 2% chlorhexidine, gave good protection against staphylococci but no protection against Streptococcus uberis.
The effect of the microbial flora on the flavour and free fatty acid composition of cheddar cheese
Authors: Reiter B. , Fryer T. F. , Pickering A. , Chapman Helen R. , Lawrence R. C. , Sharpe M. Elisabeth
Published: June 2009

Comparisons were made of the flavour, free fatty acids and bacterial flora of commercial cheese made at different factories and experimental cheese made under aseptic conditions: (i) with δ-gluconic acid lactone instead of starter, (ii) with starter only, (iii) with starter and added floras derived from the curd of the commercial cheeses (reference flora cheeses).

Comparison of the bacterial flora of commercial and reference flora cheeses showed that replication of organisms was better with some reference floras than with others. In all the cheeses the lactobacilli increased in numbers during maturation, whilst other groups of organisms died out.

The amount of acetic acid present was influenced by the starter and by the lactobacilli. Single-strain starters produced some acetic acid, most of which was lost in the whey; commercial starters produced considerably more, due to the presence in them of Streptococcus diacetilactis. Later in maturation lactobacilli increased the acetic acid content, a greater increase being observed with homo-than with heterofermentative strains.

The initial levels of butyric and higher fatty acids in the milk varied with source of the milk and with the season, summer milk having higher levels than winter milk. During cheese-making a slight increase of these acids occurred in every cheese made with starter and a further small increase occurred during ripening. However, there was no increase in the content of these acids in the cheese made with δ-gluconic acid lactone, indicating that lactic acid bacteria were weakly hydrolysing the milk fat.

Flavour trials showed that Cheddar flavour was present not only in the reference flora and commercial cheese, but also in the cheese made with starter only. Different starters produced different intensities of flavour; one strain produced an intense fruity off-flavour. Cheeses made with δ-gluconic acid lactone were devoid of cheese flavour.