bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Drainage Piles -A Method for Increasing The Axial Capacity of Friction Piles
Authors: Kinra R.K. , Luque R.F. , van Daalen F.
Published: October 2008

This paper describes a method for increasing the axial capacity of friction piles embedded in clay soils. The proposed method consists of increasing the shear strength, and consequently the soil-pile adhesion, of the soil around a pile. This is accomplished by draining water from the surrounding soil into the pile. Equations are developed to predict the maximum pile capacity, and Terzaghi's theory of radial consolidation is used to predict the variation with time of the bearing capacity during the drainage process. Results from preliminary laboratory tests that demonstrate the feasibility of the drainage pile concept are described, and practical considerations that need to be investigated in greater detail are discussed.

Introduction

This paper introduces an unconventional method for increasing the load carrying capacity of offshore platform piles. The basic concept consists of increasing the axial capacity of friction piles embedded in clay soils by facilitating drainage of water from the soil formation into the pile. In this system, the drainage pile is analogous to a well point. The reduction in water content due to drainage causes the soil to consolidate around the pile, resulting in an increase in the soil shear strength. This leads to an increase in the soil-pile adhesion, and consequently in the axial pile capacity. The principle of driving water out of a soil layer in order to increase the soil strength locally is already a familiar one in the area of soil stabilization, and is the basis of sand drain technology and electro-osmosis.

The conventional method of increasing the axial capacity of friction piles is to increase their diameter or embedded length. The pile dimensions, however, can only be increased until the penetration resistance equals the driving capacity of the largest pile driving hammers available. If additional bearing capacity is required to support the platform, the designer has to modify the design by either altering the platform configuration, changing the pile dimensions or resorting to the use of additional piles. Regardless of the alternative chosen, the overall cost of the platform can be expected to increase substantially. In such instances, the use of drainage piles to increase the bearing capacity without altering the design may prove to be an economically attractive alternative. Drainage piles may also find application in helping to increase the load-carrying capacity of existing platforms that fail to satisfy new or revised design criteria. In such platforms, the existing conventional piles could conceivably be converted into drainage piles, thereby increasing the load carrying capacity of the platform without increasing the pile dimensions.
Stable Platforms for the Launch and recovery of Submersibles
Authors: Estabrook Norman B. , Horn Henry M.
Published: October 2008

A new type of platoon has been developed from which submersible vehicles can be safely launched, recovered, and transported in heavy seas. An unpowered catamaran, this platoon offers unique advantages over conventional techniques by performing its functions while submerged below surface disturbances. To date, two such systems have been successfully operated with various submersibles in the Hawaiian Islands and off the coast of Southern California. Additional applications for this concept are seen in such areas as salvage, construction, and offshore oil recovery.

Introduction

Launching and recovering submersibles through the ocean interface has historically been a serious problem, particularly in rough seas. The lack of a safe, efficient, and economical means of handling these fragile vehicles is one of the reasons that the majority of them are currently not in use.

Characteristically, the methods commonly employed for launching and recovering submersibles fall into three categories; (1) cranes on board a mother ship, (2) special purpose ships, and (3) towing directly to and from dive sites. While it is not the purpose of this paper to evaluate these methods, it can safely be stated that as seas approach state 3, all of the currently employed techniques begin to break down with resulting hazards to equipment and personnel or cancellation of operations altogether.

A seemingly ideal solution to most of the problems associated with current handling techniques would be to use a large submarine which could travel great distances to and from a dive site if necessary, sink below all surface turbulence, and launch and recover a deep submersible vehicle (DSV) while underwater. Although this does not eliminate the very real problem of recovering a disabled submersible on the surface, it is mainly the economics of such a vessel which precludes any serious consideration of the method at present.

An attractive compromise to this "solution" is the use of a simple, un powered platfonn which can act as a stable base for transporting submersibles and which can hover below the surface for their safe launch and recovery.

Such a launch and recovery platform has been developed in Hawaii and utilized successfully for over 2 years in rough Hawaiian waters. Called the LRT for "Launch, Recovery, and Transport," it not only reduces the cost of handling deep submersibles, but also improves the reliability of operation in high sea states, thereby making the submersible, itself, more cost effective.

Design Requirements

A number of essential design requirements were initially established for the LRT platoon and may be summarized as follows:(available in full paper)
Advancement of Spar VIV Prediction
Authors: Yung T-.W. , Sandström R.E. , Slocum S.T. , Ding Z.J. , Lokken R.T.
Published: October 2008

Vortex Induced Vibration (VIV) of spar hulls is an essential operational issue in high current environments and an important consideration for mooring and riser integrity. Based on extensive analytical, laboratory, and field studies, ExxonMobil has developed a reliable methodology for predicting the VIV of classic spars, which has been validated by field measurements.

This paper extends our previous discussion of key issues related to reliable prediction of classic spar VIV. The main areas addressed in this paper include:Estimation of current drag using field measurementsPeak value statistics for the measured time seriesVIV lock-in dominanceSingle- versus multiple-degree-of-freedom motion

Introduction

Spar technology continues to evolve, and is currently seeing wide application in deep to ultra-deep water fields in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM). Eight spars have been installed in the GOM since 1996 and five more are in various stages of design and construction. These include classic spars (Deep Draft Caisson Vessel, or DDCV), truss spars and cell spars. A spar platform is characterized by a large, usually cylindrical, hull that extends deep into the water.

In the Gulf of Mexico, the presence of the loop current and loop current eddies introduce the potential to cause vortex-induced-vibration (VIV) on the spar hull (Figure 1). Speeds in these currents can remain high well below the surface, exposing the entire hull to large forces. In addition, hurricane currents may also cause VIV motion of the spar.

Field measurements have shown that all of the three classic spars (Hoover [1], Genesis [2], and Neptune [2]) have experienced VIV. From these experiences, we have observed that both loop/eddy currents and inertial currents (after a severe storm) could cause VIV. For the Hoover DDCV, eddy currents with speeds as low as one to two knots have induced VIV.

Figure 1 - Gulf of Mexico Currents (Available in full paper)

Industrial experience with VIV started many decades ago with the development of VIV suppression devices for smokestacks and chimneys (Figure 2). Over the years, there have been numerous studies on VIV physics as well as VIV suppression devices for onshore and offshore structures [3]- [6]. In recent years, there has been an increased interest in spar VIV design practice, highlighted by the first ever industry-wide workshop dedicated exclusively to spar VIV [2]. The October 2003 workshop addressed a wide range of topics, including regulatory perspectives, current VIV design practices, model test practices, field observations, and technology gaps. The workshop participants concluded that significant progress had been made, yet spar VIV prediction was still a challenging task. A part of the results from the workshop was incorporated into the new Appendix H - Spar Mooring Design for Vortex Induced Motion in RP 2SK Station-Keeping for Floating Structures.
NACE MR0175-2003 Impact on API 6A Equipment and Customers
Authors: Smith S.C. , Dufour J.D. , Wehner E.S.
Published: October 2008

API 6A "Specification for Wellheads and Christmas Tree Equipment" requires compliance with NACE MR0175 for equipment supplied for use in sour (Hydrogen Sulfide-H2S) service. Major changes to the NACE standard in the 2003 revision created the need for substantial changes to the API specification in terms of how both users and manufacturers specify equipment. New environmental restrictions have been imposed by NACE on many commonly used materials. Consequently, new material and temperature classifications have been created within the API document in order to permit compliance with these restrictions.

This paper reviews the background to the changes in the NACE standard, their effect on API 6A and some precautions that users of this equipment should consider. Additionally, upcoming changes to NACE MR0175 2003 with the 2004 publication of NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 will be discussed.

NACE MR0175 2003 Revision

NACE MR0175 prescribes the requirements for production equipment to be used in sour (hydrogen sulfide bearing) hydrocarbon service. Prior to 2003, it only addressed sulfide stress cracking (SCC) as a possible failure mode. Recognizing this, NACE formed the CRA (Corrosion Resistant Alloy) Rewrite Committee to address some of the perceived shortcomings of the earlier revisions. These included:Catastrophic failure mechanisms other than (SSC) were not included in the scope of the document, but other mechanisms such as chloride stress corrosion cracking (SCC) may be the limiting factor in a sour environment.Many environmental parameters important to a material's susceptibility to environmental cracking (SCC or SCC) were not adequately addressed. Depending on the specific alloy, these could include temperature, partial pressure of H2S, chloride concentration, presence of free sulfur, temperature, and other factors.In the last ten years or so, there has been a growing trend to include environmental restrictions that define the safe operating limits for new alloy additions to MR0175. Many of the materials included in earlier editions have a limit on maximum hardness and possibly heat treat condition, but no environmental restrictions. This gave the wrong impression that these materials were safe to use under all environmental conditions.The balloting and approval process to add new alloys was unrealistically long - in some cases years. The resultant work of the CRA Rewrite Committee formed the basis for the changes found in NACE MR0175- 2003: Standard Material Requirements: Metals for Sulfide Stress Cracking and Stress Corrosion Cracking Resistance in Sour Oilfield Environments".

Historically there have been few revisions to MR0175 that have impacted the acceptability of previously approved materials. Typically, the revisions have added new alloys, modified test environments, etc. The 2003 revision, however, presents a new approach for selecting materials for use in sour service.
Mobility of Large Sediment Features In the Southern North Sea
Authors: Cloet R.L.
Published: October 2008

This paper examines areas of seabed instability along the east coast of England and Scotland. It demonstrates the existence of sediment circulation patterns which slowly evolve. When spoil deposits are injected in such systems they are seen to accelerate the process. However, an understanding of such circulations may permit the system being used for natural storage of spoil where a build up of a shoal can be tolerated.

Mobility of Large Sediment features in the Southern North Sea:

The east coast of U.K. is characterised by the existence of large sandbodies which can attain lengths of 25 miles, and may be 8 - 9 miles wide. It is also a coastal area which has known intensive navigation for several centuries and some surveys acceptable by present day standards have been made for almost 200 years. These hydrographic surveys were and still are subjective to a degree, in the sense that the surveyors experience and local knowledge make a significant difference to the quality of the survey. They contain a deliberate bias towards better consistency in the depth ranges of 3 to 6 fathoms which for over a century has been the warning depth zone for shipping or in deeper water show a marked preference for the shoaler soundings. During the last decade navigational attention has shifted dramatically to the 10-15 fathom depth range because the size of ships has increased enormously. The consequence has been a vastly increased need for new hydrographic surveys in areas where little or no historical knowledge exists of either the shape of the seabed, or its stability. In existing surveys in areas which have frequently been examined the information is not as reliable as at shoaler levels. The adequacy of available means to delineate the seabed accurately is the subject of another paper, being presented at this Conference (1), whereas the present paper deals with the question of relative stability of the seabed and the consistency of the movement to which it is subjected.

The first example is a channel system in the Outer Thames Estuary (fig. 1, 2) called the Edinburgh Channels, which for a period of about a century traversed a major sandbank, the Long Sand, at a point where it is some 5 miles wide, which until recently, provided access by major shipping to the Port of London by a shorter route than the one now in use. The historical development of these channels is shown in Fig. 3 for the period 1839 to 1962. Initially a shallow cut is seen almost to cross the bank from SE to NW, but of more interest at this stage is the growth of two converging "spits", one from Knock John bank eastward, and the other from Long Sand westward. The sequence shows it took about 60 years for the convergence to build a new bank about 3 miles long by a mile wide, and at one point over 40 feet in thickness when referred to the 1839 surface.
Na Kika's Dynamic Model Operator Training Simulator
Authors: Dziubla P.W. , Lang P.P. , Lindsay M.S. , Sanders D.L. , Shepard N.H.
Published: October 2008

Introduction

The Na Kika project is among the most complex subsea developments executed by our industry and faced a number of unique flow assurance challenges due to the extreme water depth (5800 to 7600 ft), distributed well layout, variability in produced fluids (from six distinct fields), offsets of up to 26 miles and relatively low temperature reserves. Flow assurance strategies thus were a key driver to system selection and overall assessment of project profitability. This paper gives an overview of the development of the fully integrated dynamic simulator that incorporated flow assurance and other novel processes into a unique training strategy for successful operation of the Na Kika host and subsea systems.

Background

The Na Kika project consists of six oil and gas fields in the Mississippi Canyon area of the Gulf of Mexico that are tied back to a semi submersible based floating production facility in 6350 ft of water. Water depths range from 5800 to 7600 ft. The individual fields in the Na Kika base development are Ariel, Kepler, Fourier, Herschel, and East Anstey, each of which will be developed as subsea fields with produced fluids routed back to a floating host roughly located in the center of the development area. See Figure 1. The sixth field, Coulomb, will be produced by a single flowline back to the Na Kika processing facility. Offset distances from the host are in the range of 5 (Ariel) to 26 miles (Coulomb).

The Na Kika subsea layout consists of a single, 10" × 16" pipe-in-pipe flowline loop for those fields north of the host (Ariel and Kepler). On the south side, there are two flowline loops, an 8"x12" pipe-in-pipe insulated oil loop for the Herschel and selected Fourier wells, and an 8" un-insulated gas loop for the East Anstey and selected Fourier wells. The subsea system at Fourier includes the flexibility to allow wells to produce back through either the gas or the oil flowlines, particularly with jumper reconfiguration. Production from the Coulomb wells, which lie south of the host, will be transported by a single 26-mile flowline back to the host. This subsea architecture deviates significantly from earlier projects through the use of flowline loops, as opposed to dual lines to a manifold, and the use of a single flowline for the Coulomb gas wells.

Hydrate Control and Remediation Strategy

All deepwater subsea projects have hydrate concerns due to the fact that hydrocarbon systems fall into the hydrate stability regime at the typical seabed temperature of 39 ÂºF when pressures exceed 400 to 600 psig. Hydrate control and remediation is a particular concern for Na Kika due to the extreme water depth at the location, which leads to high hydrostatic head, and the downward slope of the flowlines on the north side of the host. The single flowline tieback for the Coulomb gas wells introduces additional hydrate risks and concerns, including the effectiveness and safety of single sided blowdown for hydrate remediation.
Commercial Development of Offshore Marine Phosphates
Authors: Manderson M.C.
Published: October 2008

1. Purpose

The objective of this paper is to portray the current and longer range status of the world phosphate rock industry in such a way as to allow individuals or groups who are knowledgeable in underwater mining technology to better assess the near term commercial prospects for recovering phosphate minerals from subsurface offshore deposits. To assist the reader in making this assessment, particularly as to the approximate time frame when subsurface recovery of phosphorite nodules may become attractive, this discussion examines the intermediate and long range supply-demand outlook for presently known commercial grade deposits along with related mining costs, quality of reserves and approximate delivered costs to reach major world markets.

II. World Phosphate Demand vs. Reserve Availability

A. Present Situation

In 1970 world phosphate rock consumption ranged between 75 and 80 million long tons. Consumption was divided as follows: 30% was consumed in North America, 50% in eastern and western Europe (including the USSR), 10% in Asia, and the remaining 10% in Oceania and Africa (combined). The breakdown in consumption by area is shown in Table 1.

Current world production of phosphate rock is presented in Table 2, by major producing areas. The United States accounts for about 40% of total world production; most of the balance is supplied about equally from North Africa and the Soviet Union, each with 20-25% of the world total. The remaining 10% is produced in Asia and Oceania, with the most important production occurring on the three Southeast Asian islands of Nauru, Ocean, and Christmas.

Approximately 50% of total world rock production now moves in international trade, or J5-40 million tons per year. Table 3 shows the approximate export tonnage in 1970 from each of the major exporting areas. The United States accounts for about 30% of international trade, and North Africa accounts for 40-50% of international movements. The remaining 20-30% is supplied jointly from Russia and from the three phosphate producing islands of Ocean, Nauru, and Christmas.

Figure 1 presents the current pattern of international trade. A large majority of Europe's supply comes from North Africa and to a lesser extent from West Africa, the United States and from the Kola Peninsula in Russia. A large new source of North African rock production will be forthcoming soon from the Spanish Sahara. Spanish output will also be oriented principally to markets in Europe.

The United States exports about equal volumes of phosphate rock eastward to Northern Europe and westward to the Pacific Basin area, in which its major market is Japan. Rock production from the three aforementioned Southeast Asia islands is dedicated almost entirely to New Zealand and Australia.

B. Future Situation

1. World-Wide

One of the pivotal questions affecting the commercialization timetable for undersea phosphate sources relates to the relationship between future phosphate demand and the known reserves of commercial grade rock from deposits on land.
Fast Track FPSO's for Deepwater and Ultra-Deepwater
Authors: Wyllie Michael W.J.
Published: October 2008

SBM has recently added three Brazilian FPSO's to its lease fleet: the Espadarte FPSO, FPSO Brasil and FPSO Marlim Sul, all operating in the Campos Basin. These projects involved many challenges, including deepwater and ultra deepwater conditions, fast track schedules and large topside processing facilities. This paper describes the technical features of the vessels, along with the methods adopted to meet these challenges, and focuses specifically on the evolution of the design to incorporate lessons learned.

INTRODUCTION

Single Buoy Moorings Inc (SBM), a member of the IHC Caland Group, owns and operates three deepwater Floating Production, Storage and Offloading (FPSO) vessels that are currently operating in the Campos Basin, offshore Brazil. These units, which are leased to our client, Petroleo Brasileiro S.A. (Petrobras), are:Espadarte FPSO, operating in 800m water depth on the Espadarte field since 2000.FPSO Brasil, operating in 1300m water depth on the Roncador field since 2002.FPSO Marlim Sul, soon to start operation in 1200m water depth on the Marlim Sul field. These three world-scale FPSO projects faced technical challenges due to deepwater and ultra deepwater locations, and project execution challenges due to the ambitious fast track schedules. The strategy on these projects was to use preengineered proven building blocks to deliver fit-for purpose FPSO's on fast track schedules. This approach has also been used recently by SBM to deliver a 'generic' series of 3 large leased FPSO vessels to ExxonMobil for projects in West Africa.

This paper provides a general overview of the 3 Brazilian FPSO projects, highlights some of the factors contributing to their success, and describes some of the methods adopted to meet the above challenges. The evolution of design of these three vessels, to incorporate lessons learned, is also discussed.

GENERAL

The three SBM owned and operated FPSO's in the Campos Basin look rather similar, and have benefited from synergy to achieve fast track schedules. However, they do differ in many ways, and each has been tailored to match specific project requirements.

The Espadarte FPSO serves a number of deepwater fields, in addition to Espadarte. Production from the nearby Marimba Leste field may also be tied in to this vessel. The FPSO has therefore been designed to be flexible in terms of its ability to process a range of crude oils from 18 to 29° API, and has provision for future Electric Submersible Pumps (ESP's) in up to 4 wells.

The water depth at the originally selected location for this FPSO was 1000m. This location was changed at a late stage of the project to accommodate new field data, and the FPSO was finally moored in 800m.
Single Point Mooring System for an Offshore LNG Import Terminal
Authors: Krekel M.H. , Leeuwenburgh R. , Bishop W.M. , Davis J.F.
Published: October 2008

The paper describes the conceptual design of an offshore LNG import terminal based on the 'Bishop Process', sited on Vermilion, block 179, offshore Louisiana. It clarifies the Basis of Design for the complete terminal and describes the design and verification process followed for the Single Point Mooring ystem for offloading of LNG. The work done to date confirms the technical and economical feasibility of the concept. Although new in configuration, most of the individual components have been in use for LNG terminals and SPM systems for a long time.

Introduction

The US is currently by far the world's largest gas market. Of the current supply 85% is produced within the US, and 15% is imported; 98% from Canada and only 2% in the form of LNG. Whereas US demand is expected to grow with 2% per annum, the current U.S. gas production shows an increasing intrinsic decline rate and more undiscovered gas reserves are needed each year to keep up with demand. E&P operations in new frontier areas (e.g. the Alaskan North slope) are unlikely to be allowed in the near future and gradually the realization is dawning that only large scale LNG imports can meet the expected demand and stabilize the price of natural gas. In its annual outlook for 2004 the US Energy Information Administration predicts that LNG imports will grow from a modest 0.2 tcf in 2002 to 4.8 tcf or 15% of expected total supply by 2025[1]. Although new liquefaction projects for gas are being sanctioned, community concerns, congested ports, security and cost considerations are seen to frustrate the development of significant increases in capacities to receive LNG in the US but also in Europe.

This paper describes the conceptual design for an offshore LNG import terminal based on the 'Bishop Process', which is developed as part of a research project sponsored by the US Department of Energy's National Energy Technology Laboratory. Ten companies, ranging from operators, mid stream companies, contractors and equipment vendors are participating in this project. The objective of this cooperative research is to design, construct, field test and evaluate the performance of key components of a salt cavern based LNG receiving facility and to describe their application in LNG receiving facilities in the Gulf coast and North-East US.

Salt cavern based LNG import terminals have material advantages over tank design terminals in capital costs, operating costs, volume of storage, send out rates, security, and acceptance by the community[2]. As a consequence of the abundant appearance of salt formations found in the Gulf region in combination with hydrocarbon accumulations, the concept has very high potential in this region: not only is the connecting infrastructure to the US gas distribution system in place, it is also underutilized because of declining production and thus there is capacity available to handle large volumes of LNG imports.
The Peaking of Oil: Reality or Simply a Myth?
Authors: Simmons Matthew R.
Published: October 2008

The world's 120 largest oilfields produce close to 33 million barrels of oil a day, almost 50% of the world's crude oil supply. The 62 smallest "giant fields" account for 12% of the world's daily oil supply. In contrast, the fourteen largest fields, whose average age is 43.5 years, account for over 20%!

With production from giant fields providing such a significant share of the world's oil supply, it seems important to understand the decline rates each of these fields now experience and to determine what future decline rates are likely to be. Unfortunately, there is little publicly available data for even the most visible of these giant fields to even make an educated guess at this important statistic.

There is ample data showing that giant oilfields do ultimately peak and then begin to decline. All the giant fields of Texas are classic illustrations of this. Prudhoe Bay, Cusiana, or the entire population of the North Sea's true giant fields also demonstrate not only that large fields decline but also that production declines rapidly once it peaks.

In 1956, M. King Hubbert predicted that U.S. oil production would peak in the early 1970's. At the time, Hubbert was widely criticized by some oil experts and economists, but M. King Hubbert's oil prediction is coming to pass in most of the world's existing oil basins.

Saudi's Ghawar field, by far the largest producing oilfield the world has ever known, might last another 100 years. But, the field might also have already peaked. That no public data is available to shed any light on this issue places a giant question mark over the supply from this field. Someday even a field as large as Ghawar will begin its decline. If its decline rate comes close to those experienced by the North Sea fields or Prudhoe Bay, it would take a global drilling boom to find enough smaller fields merely to replace lost Ghawar oil supply.

Sooner or later, most of the world's current population of giant fields will all be in decline. If the world's future supply needs to result from new fields that are getting progressively smaller, it could require over 3,000 new oilfields to be found and developed over the next 10 years compared to just over 400 named new oilfields that were discovered in the past decade.

Until there is far better transparency on the world's giant oilfield production and decline rates, the world can only guess at its future oil supply. There is an urgent need for better data on all these key fields as the welfare of the world's economy depends on it!

Manuscript

The argument of energy resource adequacy has been debated for close to a century. The simple fact that the world now uses over 80 million barrels a day of oil and another 35 million barrels of oil equivalent of natural gas is proof to many skeptics of the peaking concept that this will be a problem worthy of serious analysis in 2004 or beyond.
Timing is Everything: The Information Crisis on Future Oil Supply
Authors: Williams Bob
Published: October 2008

This paper will examine the highly polarized debate over the prospect of an imminent peak and precipitous decline in global oil production, which has seen a sharp resurgence in the petroleum industry in recent years. Coming from a journalist's standpoint of neutrality, this paper will assess the impacts of both the depletionist and antidepletionist scenarios for future oil supply on the petroleum industry and on global society.

Introduction

The highly polarized debate over the prospect of an imminent peak and precipitous decline in global oil production has seen a sharp resurgence in the petroleum industry in recent years.

This is no longer a mere academic exercise, as it has been in the past. The claims of those who believe in an imminent peak-oil scenario are gaining greater credence among media and government circles, pulling the debate into the mainstream of society. In this latest incarnation of the debate, the depletionist school is garnering wider attention because of the debate's currently topical linkages to the volatile geopolitics of war and terrorism and concerns over the postulated catastrophic climate change caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases.

Energy security and environmental issues for decades have been significant drivers of government policymaking affecting the oil and gas industry in major ways. Thus it is apparent that the peak-oil debate will factor into future decisions by government bodies and by the public at large in ways that could have extreme impacts affecting even the future viability of the petroleum industry.

Therefore, it is critical to assess the impacts, in terms of public acceptance, of both the depletionist and antidepletionist scenarios for future oil supply on the petroleum industry and on society overall.

However, there is nothing approaching consensus on the peak-oil debate, as was ascertained in a series of articles this author developed on the theme of Future Energy Supply in the Oil & Gas Journal in summer 2003.1 While there is a spectrum even among centrist positions, the debate remains highly polarized and even rancorous at times.

Unfortunately, as the debate seeps into the mainstream consciousness, it is exactly this sort of polarization that has tremendous appeal to the mainstream media and to political idealogues. It is possible that crucial decisions on this issue will be made by policymaking entities and by consumers that will have a tremendous bearing on the industryâ??s prospects, much as was the case in the wake of the 1970s oil price spikes and the environmental disasters involving the 1969 Santa Barbara Channel oil spill and the 1989 Exxon Valdez tanker oil spill. Given the apocalyptic scenarios offered by the peakoil theory proponents, however, these choices could entail much more far-reaching impacts on the industry, including its very survival.

So it follows that it is imperative that the petroleum industy places a top priority on arriving at some sort of consensus on the peak-oil issue-sooner rather than later.
Seismic Reservoir Surveillance in the Alba Field, UK North Sea
Authors: Nevill Peter , Condon Patrick , Mattson Paul
Published: October 2008

The feasibility of a time-lapse seismic response to production was identified early on in the life of the Alba field, UK North Sea. The reservoir rocks and fluid properties (oil and water), were conducive to a change in seismic properties in response to water encroachment. The acquisition of appropriate seismic data took longer to obtain, due in part to the vintage of the 3D baseline survey (acquired in 1989) and the focus on lithology identification in a subsequent repeat survey (acquired in 1998), shot using ocean bottom cable. The acquisition differences between the two surveys made it difficult to extract more than the simplest 4D response from the surveys.

In 2002, the Britannia coventurers acquired a long offset survey in response to their subsurface requirements. This data provided an opportunity to revisit the overlying Alba 4D response, using a more recent baseline survey and monitor and more similar acquisition geometries.

The intepretation of this more recent baseline and monitor pair showed that the amplitude of the direct hydrocarbon indicator (representing the oil water contact) was reduced by production. The contact was no longer a flat surface near active producers and the Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator (DHI) was seen to be tilted. This was probably in response to the production as the effect was not observed in the vicinity of abandoned producers. Comparison of the observed response to forward modeling of the seismic response from the reservoir simulator confirmed that the effect was water coning under the producers. The forward modeling also identified the possibility for amplitude changes at the top of the reservoir. These areas are being evaluated along with production and reservoir simulation to identify infill producer and injector locations.

Introduction

The Alba Field is located in Block 16/26 in the UK North Sea (Figure 1). The reservoir is a high net-to-gross, unconsolidated Middle Eocene sand interval averaging 100m in thickness at an average depth of 2000m. The reservoir is thought to be the result of high-density turbidity currents depositing large volumes of sand into pre-existing erosional features1. Sands have a porosity of 35%, and permeabilities of 3500mD. The field is closed by pinchout of the sands to the west and east and dip of the sands from north-west to southeast. Local pinchout cause the sands to be compartmentalized into three producing areas known as: the "Main Area,", "15 Area" and "12 Area". The field has produced over 250mmbbls of 19–20 API since January 1994 and in 2003 had a daily average production rate of 82,700 bopd from 30 horizontal producers. Crude oil in Alba has a viscosity of 8.8 cp and is considered to be moderately viscous when compared to other heavy oil fields. Prior to August 2002, pressure is maintained by water injection from 5 injector wells, one in the 15 Area, and four in the center of the Main Area. Production is processed through the Alba Northern Platform.
Magnetometer Compass
Authors: Burt Wayne E.
Published: October 2008

A ship or other craft is acted upon by earth's magnetic lines of force. These lines enter and leave the earth at differing angles depending on the ship's location on the earth. The ship's relation to the magnetic lines of force is in three magnetic vectors which are a trigonometric function of the angle of the lines of force.

The ship's relation to these lines is:Horizontal with respect to ship's longitude (HL);Horizontal with respect to athwart ship (HA); and

Vertical (Z). Magnetic north (He) with respect to this navigating ship, is obtained by resolving pythagorean theorem:(Mathematical equation available in full paper)

But, navigation with a magnetic compass is not quite that simple. The ship is continually rolling and pitching. The values of HL and HA are continually changing. Also, the vertical magnetic component (Z) enters the equation. Navigation by the commonly known magnetic compass minimizes these influences by placing the compass bowl on gimbals for stabilization with respect to vertical, placing the compass card in a dampening liquids and using permanent magnets that seek magnetic north (He). Other magnetic techniques are also employed. The advantages and disadvantages of magnetic compasses are well known.

A magnetic compass has been made in which a three-axis magnetometer is permanently fixed to the craft and the stabilization is achieved by roll and pitch accelerometers. Analog computers are employed to seek magnetic North by performing the following trigonometric computations:(Mathematical equation available in full paper)

This is a unique navigating device. It has never been marketed. However, the comprizing components and subassemblies have been proven by service use. This compass overcomes many of the disadvantages of similar devices in that it is simple, compact, static, accurate, and facilitates readout at any location.

INTRODUCTION

The original magnetic compass has been improved and refined; it is hardly recognizable when viewing today's model. Today's models work so well because horizontal orientation of the sensing magnets is maintained by mounting the compass bowl in a gimbal system. Gyroscopic and other mechanical compasses are now employed as supplements and substitutes for the magnetic compass. These mechanical compasses have enjoyed varying degrees of success and acceptance. The most widely used are large and require special power and ancillary equipment for their operation.

Many ships are required to have two magnetic compasses, a standard and a steering. Often, however, the navigation spaces are too confined to accomodate a suitable steering magnetic compass.

Precise navigation is demanded of some small boats. To obtain this needed accuracy, the bulky gyroscopic compass with its ancillary hardware is sometimes employed, or less than precise navigation is accepted.

An accurate, reliable, and small magnetometer compass will answer the needs described. The magnetometer compass will also make a mechanical compass with in the cost reach of the pleasure craft owner. It will assure him of accurate dependable navigation.
Potential Environmental Mining in Impact of Manganese-Nodule the Deep Sea
Authors: Malone T.C. , Garside C.C. , Roels O.S. , Paul A.Z.
Published: October 2008

Deep-sea mining operations will result in the removal and redistribution of sediments and benthic organisms and, where airlift or hydraulic lift systems are employed, in the discharge of nutrient-rich, sediment-laden bottom water into the surface layer. The data prescribed here focus on two aspects of the environmental impact problem of manganese nodule mining: the establishment of baseline environmental conditions prior to dredging and the potential effects of the surface discharge of bottom water on phytoplankton populations.

Data on the chemical and biological oceanography of prospective manganese-nodule mining areas are extremely sparse. In general, benthic biomass is low, ranging between 0.01 and 0.05 gm/sq m. Phytoplankton productivity and standing crop in the photic zone are also low (less than 150 mg C/sq m/D and 30 mg cgla/sq m, respectively), probably due to slow rates of dissolved inorganic nitrogen flux into the photic zone above the thermocline.

The results of enrichment experiments conducted in a Mn-nodule area of the western North Atlantic indicate that the surface discharge of bottom water will stimulate phytoplankton productivity and may affect phytoplankton species composition. However, these changes will be small and primarily dependent on the rate at which the effluent is diluted by mixing with surface water. The greater the rate of dilution by mixing, the more rapid will be the phytoplankton growth response, but the smaller will be the actual yield per unit volume.

INTRODUCTION

The mining of ferromanganese deposits from the deep sea will affect benthic and pelagic environments depending, to a great extent, on the methods of retrieval and separation employed. Three mining systems have been proposed, each of which will remove different combinations of water sediment and nodules from the ocean floor. 45 The continuous-line bucket (CLB) system utilizes open-mesh metal dredge buckets to gather and retrieve nodules. The buckets are attached in series by a continuous loop of cable running from the mining vessel to the ocean floor. The system is designed to bring only nodules to the surface. The two remaining systems utilize a bottom collecting device for nodules and vertical transport through a pipe by hydraulic (HP) or airlift (ALP) pumping. Both of these systems will transport large quantities of bottom water and sediments to the surface, where they will be discharged.

The major environmental effects of these mining systems can be grouped into three categories:redistribution of bottom sediments on or near the bottom,redistribution or destruction of benthic organisms and their habitat andintroduction of sediments and/or associated bottom water at or near the surface. The major environmental effects of CLB mining will probably be confined to Categories 1 and 2, while both the HP and ALP systems will, following nodule separation, discharge nutrient rich, sediment-laden bottom water into the surface layer where it will probably remain.
American Petroleum Institude's Work on Oil Spill Prevention, Containment and Cleanup
Authors: Haxby L.P.
Published: October 2008

Since 1968, API has supported an extensive research program directed toward improving the industry's capability of'preventing- oil spills and improving response and capability of oilspill cleanup should a spill occur. These efforts have ranged from studies that determined industry's current oil-spill response capability to new equipment demonstrations and basic research on fate and effect of spilled oil Emphasis has also been placed upon the generation of harbor cooperatives to provide firstline defense capability and implementation of studies and organization of insurance plans to provide coverage for the expensive costs involved in an oil-spill disaster.

More recently, API's efforts have concentrated on improvement of oil-spill recovery in high sea conditions. Full-scale sea trials have been conducted on several systems, concentrating most heavily on "new concept" methods for oil-spill recovery under these adverse conditions. 'The paper provides a report of the mostrecent trials of this type of equipment and includes our Ocean Design and Engineering, BF Corp., and Reynolds projects.

In addition, the status of some of our fate and effect work, such as that being conducted by Texas A&M U., U. of California, and Battelle Memorial Institute's Pacific Northwest Laboratory, is detailed.

TEXT

Since 1966, the major environmental effort at API has been directed by the Committee on Environmental Affairs (CEA). At present, CEA consists of representatives from some 25 API member companies - men chosen for their experience not only in environmental research, but also in medicine, refining, marketing, transportation, production and public affairs CEA formulates basic industry policy on conservation matters and sponsors a broad program of environmental research. The current annual budget for CEA research is approximately $3 million.

One of the major subcommittees within CEA is the subcommittee on Oil Spills Prevention and Cleanup. The Institute has been concerned with the problem of oil spills for many years. But it is fair to say that the need to develop the capability to deal with a massive oil spill, such as the Torrey Canyon spill, or with a well blowout as unusual as the one in Santa Barbara Channel, was not widely recognized until these two unprecedented incidents occurred. Since then (in response to other incidents, increased public attention, and new legal requirements) our capability has improved markedly.

API did recognize that there was a hazard of smaller oil spills in harbors and along waterways where the petroleum industry and others operate terminals. In addition to encouraging each company to have equipment and materials available to cope with small spills at their own facilities, API has (since 1967) urged its member companies to work together to form local cooperatives to contain and clean up oil spills whenever they occur. Like volunteer fire departments, these groups purchase and pool equipment and resources, establish a system of communications, and adopt emergency plans.
The Approaching Maturity of Deep Ocean-Mining The Pace Quickens
Authors: Rothstein Arnold J. , Kaufman Raymond J.
Published: October 2008

Major advances by several independent efforts have taken place in the last few years to develop the nodule resource. A synopsis of this activity is presented. A summary and comparison of the available schedules and cost and investment estimates of several programs is presented. An analysis is made of the predicted achievements through the decade of the 1980's.

The world markets for the principal products from the nodules are scoped. The competitive production from today's sources are summarized and the impact on these sources of future ocean production is assessed.

The principal conclusions drawn are:There are up to ten prospective entrants to the deep ocean nodule mining race.A few are ready now to move rapidly to commercial production.The mine sites, mining equipment, processing plants, and markets are in-hand, and designed.Nevertheless, because of technical, commercial, and financial realities, in the late 1970's only a few units will come on-stream and, in the 1980's, less than ten units.Commercial success will not be realized by monopolizing world commodity markets but by competing with traditional sources and technologies in the world markets for a demand expanding at a pace well matched by the realities of this source of supply.

INTRODUCTION

About four years ago, there were many who predicted that the nodule' mining business was just a flash in the pan. At the other extreme, there were those who claimed that vast riches were to come from the deep ocean billions of dollars' of profit in a short while. There were others who claimed that land mining was a thing of the past and the future of all nickel, copper, and manganese mining was in the sea (1) (2) (3) (4). None of these extremes are true (5). Today there are very few who adhere to anyone of these extreme position.

The three or so companies that were sincerely active in the 1968-1969 time period continue to be active today. They have been joined by a half a dozen more companies representing interests in today's three principal Free World metal markets Japan, North America, and Europe.

There have been many publications in the past several years that identify the nodule resource sufficiently to permit anyone with the funding and know-how to start on a prospecting program that has a reasonable probability of success. Prototype mining equipments have been tested and larger sized equipments have been built and are getting ready for testing. Metal, ready for market, has been produced from the nodules and further scale-ups of several processes are in the works.