bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Síndrome de burnout em profissionais de enfermagem de uma unidade de terapia intensiva Burnout syndrome in nursing professionals from an intensive care unit
Authors: Fernandes Larissa Santi , Nitsche Maria José Trevizani , Godoy Ilda de
Published: April 2017

Objetivo: Avaliar o nível da Síndrome de burnout nos profissionais de Enfermagem na Unidade de Terapia Intensiva. Metodologia: Estudo quantitativo e transversal, realizado com 47 profissionais de Enfermagem que trabalham na Unidade de Terapia Intensiva de um hospital publico de alta complexidade, no período de Abril a Outubro de 2012. Utilizou-se um questionário estruturado autoaplicável acrescido do Maslach Burnout Inventory, analizou-se por regressão logística pelo teste de Wald. Resultado: 74,5% dos profissionais obtiveram um alto nível para exaustão, 93,7% baixo nível para realização profissional e 93,7% alto nível para despersonalização. Considerações finais: O ambiente intensivista é propício para o desenvolvimento da Síndrome.
Consumo de tabaco entre universitários: uma revisão sistemática Tobacco consumption among college students: a systematic review
Authors: Guerra Fernando Marcos Rosa Maia , Costa Cassia Kelly Favoretto , Bertolini Sônia Maria Marques Gomes , Marcon Sônia Silva , Parré José Luiz
Published: April 2017

Objetivo: identificar como o consumo de tabaco entre universitários é abordado na literatura. Métodos: foi realizada uma revisão sistemática de janeiro de 2004 a dezembro de 2013. A pesquisa foi feita nas bases de dados LILACS, MEDLINE e SciELO, utilizando-se a metodologia Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviewsand Meta-Analyses - PRISMA. Resultados: De 316 artigos encontrados, 62 atenderam os critérios de inclusão. Sendo, a maioria publicada em espanhol (46,77%). A distribuição das publicações quanto às áreas das revistas, em termos nacionais, mostrou que a saúde geral e a medicina tiveram maior participação (19,35% ambas). Para as revistas internacionais, a área de medicina se destacou com 19,35%. Conclusão: Assim existem muitos estudos publicados no período proposto que abordam a mesma temática sob diferentes perspectivas; contudo, as pesquisas relatam divergências do consumo desses produtos com relação ao sexo, fatores de proteção e aqueles que podem predispor o surgimento de hábitos nocivos. Objective: To identify how tobacco use among college students is discussed in the literature. Methods: A systematic review was conducted from January 2004 to December 2013. The survey was conducted in the databases LILACS, MEDLINE and SciELO, using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic methodology Reviewsand Meta-Analyses - PRISMA. Results: Of 316 articles found, 62 met the inclusion criteria. And, most published in Spanish (46.77%). The distribution of publications about the areas of magazines, in national terms, showed that the overall health and medicine had higher participation (19.35% both). For international magazines, the area of medicine stood out with 19.35%. Conclusion: So there are many studies published in the proposed period that address the same issue from different perspectives; however, studies report differences in consumption of these products with regard to gender, protective factors and those that may predispose the emergence of harmful habits.
Consumo de álcool entre pescadores: uma revisão integrativa Alcohol consumption among fishermen: an integrative review
Authors: Batista Ribeiro Crystiane Ribas , Sabóia Vera Maria , Pereira Claudia Maria
Published: April 2017

Objetivo: Sintetizar a produção científica quanto ao consumo de álcool entre pescadores. Método: Revisão integrativa realizada por meio de levantamento bibliográfico nas bases de dados CAPES, ScieLO e LILACS, com período de coleta de dados entre março a abril de 2014. Resultados: Evidenciou-se o consumo de álcool como atividade habitual entre pescadores, salientando sua associação com religião, longas jornadas de trabalho, desconhecimento dos níveis máximos de consumo de álcool semanais satisfatórios, acidentes ocupacionais, doenças sexualmente transmissíveis e cardiovasculares, e hiperlipidemia. Conclusão:O consumo de álcool é uma prática comum entre os pescadores e apesar de todos os estudos apontarem para essa prática, não há evidências de alternativas reais relacionadas à promoção, prevenção e cuidado da saúde de pescadores no que tange ao consumo de álcool.  Descritores: Consumo de bebidas alcoólicas, Pesqueiros, Saúde do trabalhador, Enfermagem.
Meteor radar observations of vertically propagating low‐frequency inertia‐gravity waves near the southern polar mesopause region
Authors: Song I.‐S. , Lee C. , Kim J.‐H. , Jee G. , Kim Y.‐H. , Choi H.‐J. , Chun H.‐Y. , Kim Y. H.
Published: April 2017

Vertically propagating low‐frequency inertia‐gravity waves (IGWs) are retrieved from meteor radar winds observed at King Sejong Station (KSS: 62.22°S, 58.78°W), Antarctica. IGW horizontal winds extracted from temporal band‐pass filtering in regular time‐height bins show the frequent occurrence of IGWs with the downward phase progression and the counterclockwise rotation of their horizontal wind vectors with time (i.e., upward energy propagation) near the mesopause region throughout the whole year of 2014. The vertical wavelengths of the observed IGWs roughly range from 14 km to more than 20 km, which is consistent with previous observational studies on the mesospheric IGWs over Antarctica. Stokes parameters and rotary spectra computed from the hodographs of the IGW horizontal wind components reveal that the intrinsic frequencies of the upward propagating IGWs are |f|−3|f| with seasonal variations of the relative predominance between |f|−2|f| and 2|f|−3|f|, where f is the Coriolis parameter at KSS. The hodograph analysis also indicates that the N‐S propagation is dominant in austral summer, while the NE‐SW propagation is pronounced in austral winter. The propagation direction is discussed in relation to the generation of IGWs due to dynamical imbalances occurring in the tropospheric and stratospheric jet flow systems. Ray tracing results indicate that the N‐S propagation in summer may be due to the jet flow systems roughly north of KSS and the NE‐SW propagation in winter may be either the SW propagation from the jet flow systems northeast of KSS or the NE propagation (around the South Pole) from the south of Australia and Southern Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Corona discharges from a windmill and its lightning protection tower in winter thunderstorms
Authors: Wu Ting , Wang Daohong , Rison William , Thomas Ronald J. , Edens Harald E. , Takagi Nobuyuki , Krehbiel Paul R.
Published: April 2017

This paper presents lightning mapping array (LMA) observations of corona discharges from a windmill and its lightning protection tower in winter thunderstorms in Japan. Corona discharges from the windmill, called windmill coronas, and those from the tower, called tower coronas, are distinctly different. Windmill coronas occur with periodic bursts, generally radiate larger power, and possibly develop to higher altitudes than tower coronas do. A strong negative electric field is necessary for the frequent production of tower coronas but is not apparently related with windmill coronas. These differences are due to the periodic rotation of the windmill and the moving blades which can escape space charges produced by corona discharges and sustain a large local electric field. The production period of windmill coronas is related with the rotation period of the windmill. Surprisingly, for one rotation of the windmill, only two out of the three blades produce detectable discharges and source powers of discharges from these two blades are different. The reason for this phenomenon is still unclear. For tower coronas, the source rate can get very high only when there is a strong negative electric field, and the source power can get very high only when the source rate is very low. The relationship between corona discharges and lightning flashes is investigated. There is no direct evidence that corona discharges can increase the chance of upward leader initiation, but nearby lightning flashes can increase the source rate of corona discharges right after the flashes. The peak of the source height distribution of corona discharges is about 100 m higher than the top of the windmill and the top of the tower. Possible reasons for this result are discussed.
Atmospheric components of the surface energy budget over young sea ice: Results from the N‐ICE2015 campaign
Authors: Walden Von P. , Hudson Stephen R. , Cohen Lana , Murphy Sarah Y. , Granskog Mats A.
Published: April 2017

The Norwegian young sea ice campaign obtained the first measurements of the surface energy budget over young, thin Arctic sea ice through the seasonal transition from winter to summer. This campaign was the first of its kind in the North Atlantic sector of the Arctic. This study describes the atmospheric and surface conditions and the radiative and turbulent heat fluxes over young, thin sea ice. The shortwave albedo of the snow surface ranged from about 0.85 in winter to 0.72–0.80 in early summer. The near‐surface atmosphere was typically stable in winter, unstable in spring, and near neutral in summer once the surface skin temperature reached 0°C. The daily average radiative and turbulent heat fluxes typically sum to negative values (−40 to 0 W m−2) in winter but then transition toward positive values of up to nearly +60 W m−2 as solar radiation contributes significantly to the surface energy budget. The sensible heat flux typically ranges from +20–30 W m−2 in winter (into the surface) to negative values between 0 and −20 W m−2 in spring and summer. A winter case study highlights the significant effect of synoptic storms and demonstrates the complex interplay of wind, clouds, and heat and moisture advection on the surface energy components over sea ice in winter. A spring case study contrasts a rare period of 24 h of clear‐sky conditions with typical overcast conditions and highlights the impact of clouds on the surface radiation and energy budgets over young, thin sea ice.
Heterogeneous ice nucleation of α‐pinene SOA particles before and after ice cloud processing
Authors: Wagner Robert , Höhler Kristina , Huang Wei , Kiselev Alexei , Möhler Ottmar , Mohr Claudia , Pajunoja Aki , Saathoff Harald , Schiebel Thea , Shen Xiaoli , Virtanen Annele
Published: April 2017

The ice nucleation ability of α‐pinene secondary organic aerosol (SOA) particles was investigated at temperatures between 253 and 205 K in the Aerosol Interaction and Dynamics in the Atmosphere cloud simulation chamber. Pristine SOA particles were nucleated and grown from pure gas precursors and then subjected to repeated expansion cooling cycles to compare their intrinsic ice nucleation ability during the first nucleation event with that observed after ice cloud processing. The unprocessed α‐pinene SOA particles were found to be inefficient ice‐nucleating particles at cirrus temperatures, with nucleation onsets (for an activated fraction of 0.1%) as high as for the homogeneous freezing of aqueous solution droplets. Ice cloud processing at temperatures below 235 K only marginally improved the particles' ice nucleation ability and did not significantly alter their morphology. In contrast, the particles' morphology and ice nucleation ability was substantially modified upon ice cloud processing in a simulated convective cloud system, where the α‐pinene SOA particles were first activated to supercooled cloud droplets and then froze homogeneously at about 235 K. As evidenced by electron microscopy, the α‐pinene SOA particles adopted a highly porous morphology during such a freeze‐drying cycle. When probing the freeze‐dried particles in succeeding expansion cooling runs in the mixed‐phase cloud regime up to 253 K, the increase in relative humidity led to a collapse of the porous structure. Heterogeneous ice formation was observed after the droplet activation of the collapsed, freeze‐dried SOA particles, presumably caused by ice remnants in the highly viscous material or the larger surface area of the particles.
A simulation study on the electric field spectral dependence of thunderstorm ground enhancements and gamma ray glows
Authors: Cramer E. S. , Mailyan B. G. , Celestin S. , Dwyer J. R.
Published: April 2017

We have done a thorough simulation analysis on the variability of the photon spectra produced with (due to Relativistic Runaway Electron Avalanche—RREA) and without (Modification of Spectra) the avalanche multiplication process. Despite some measurements obviously showing a variability of the spectra, numerous theoretical studies consider RREA spectrum independent on the electric field. However, analytical calculations by Cramer et al. (2014) have shown that RREA spectrum under low electric fields is not constant and stops being exponential. Using the Relativistic Electron Avalanche Model code, we model various layouts of the electric field configuration and study the predicted photon spectra. The primary focus of the present paper is to study the photon energy spectra, as gamma rays are more often observed by ground‐based detectors. The simulation analysis of photon spectra potentially can help to deduce electric fields in thunderclouds.
IMF By effects on ground magnetometer response to increased solar wind dynamic pressure derived from global MHD simulations
Authors: Ozturk Dogacan Su , Zou Shasha , Slavin James A.
Published: April 2017

During sudden solar wind dynamic pressure enhancements, the magnetosphere undergoes rapid compression resulting in a reconfiguration of the global current systems, most notably the field‐aligned currents (FACs). Ground‐based magnetometers are traditionally used to study such compression events. However, factors affecting the polarity and magnitude of the ground‐based magnetic perturbations are still not well understood. In particular, interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) By is known to create significant asymmetries in the FAC patterns. We use the University of Michigan Block Adaptive Tree Roe Upwind Scheme (BATS'R'US) magnetohydrodynamic code to investigate the effects of IMF By on the global variations of ground magnetic perturbations during solar wind dynamic pressure enhancements. Using virtual magnetometers in three idealized simulations with varying IMF By, we find asymmetries in the peak amplitude and magnetic local time of the ground magnetic perturbations during the preliminary impulse (PI) and the main impulse (MI) phases. These asymmetries are especially evident at high‐latitude ground magnetometer responses where the peak amplitudes differ by 50 nT at different locations. We show that the FACs related with the PI are due to magnetopause deformation, and the FACs related with the MI are generated by vortical flows within the magnetosphere, consistent with other simulation results. The perturbation FACs due to pressure enhancements and their magnetospheric sources do not differ much under different IMF By polarities. However, the conductance profile affected by the superposition of the preexisting FACs and the perturbation FACs including their closure currents is responsible for the magnitude and location asymmetries in the ground magnetic perturbations.
Receptors for the Four‐Helical Cytokines
Authors: Rose‐John Stefan
Published: April 2017

Cytokines belong to a family of proteins that coordinate the activity of the immune system and many other body functions. Most cytokines belong to a protein family exhibiting a four‐helical topology. Receptors for these cytokines belong to the immunoglobulin superfamily and are all type I transmembrane proteins. Within the cell, cytokines typically signal via the JAK–STAT‐signalling pathway and also via the Ras‐MAP‐kinase‐, Akt‐, PI3‐kinase and YAP pathways. Many cytokines form families, which are defined by common receptor subunits shared by the cytokine family members, thereby reducing the number of receptor complexes. Furthermore, this set‐up results in similar modes of signalling for the members of one cytokine family. Some cytokines with a four‐helical topology have been recognised as important therapeutic targets for the treatment of autoimmune diseases.

Key Concepts

Cytokines are small proteins of 100–200 amino acids, which belong to several different protein families.

Most, but not all, cytokines belong to the four‐helical class of cytokines.

Many cytokines can be grouped into families, which are defined by the usage of common receptor subunits and therefore share many signalling pathways.

Cytokine receptors also occur as soluble proteins, which can act as agonists and antagonists.

Cytokines and cytokine receptors are therapeutic targets for the treatment of autoimmune diseases.
Immunity: Regulation by the Indigenous Gastrointestinal Microbiota
Authors: Butler Matt
Published: April 2017

Human beings are colonised by a beneficial ecosystem of microorganisms collectively termed the commensal microbiota or microbiome. Predominantly found at mucosal surfaces, these organisms are most abundant in the lower gastrointestinal tract. While the majority cannot be cultured outside the body, the development of molecular biological techniques (e.g. 16S ribosomal RNA PCR and shotgun metagenomic sequencing) is now allowing investigators to explore the microbiota in unprecedented detail. Research has uncovered a complex interplay between the intestinal microbiome and the host immune system. Gnotobiotic and germ‐free animal systems have revealed an absolute requirement for commensal microbes during normal immune development, and these interactions continue to shape immunity throughout adult life. In man, alterations to the normal intestinal microbiota (termed ‘dysbiosis’) have been associated with inflammatory bowel diseases, systemic autoimmune, metabolic and even neurological disorders.

Key Concepts

A human being is a ‘metaorganism’ – all mucosal surfaces are colonised by commensal microorganisms, collectively termed the microbiome.

Microbes are most abundant in the lower GI tract. The intestinal microbiota provides the host with vital nutrients and prevents colonisation by pathogens.

Novel molecular biology techniques (e.g. 16S rRNA PCR and shotgun metagenomic sequencing) are opening up the microbiome for in‐depth study.

The human microbiome project has identified >10 000 different species associated with humans with individuals carrying 200–400 species in the gut.

Colonization begins in the womb, continues during birth and normally reaches equilibrium by 2–3 years of age.

The microbiota regulates the intestinal immune system by stimulating the epithelial barrier, promoting release of secretory IgA by plasma B cells and inducing the development of homeostatic Th17/Treg populations in the gut mucosa.

Intestinal microbes can also influence systemic immunity via the production of bioactive molecules, such as pattern recognition receptor agonists (e.g. LPS), short‐chain fatty acids, tryptophan and polyamines.

Abnormal changes in the microbiota are associated with chronic inflammatory diseases, allergic inflammation, metabolic and neurological diseases.
Plant Light Stress
Authors: Pascual Jesús , Rahikainen Moona , Kangasjärvi Saijaliisa
Published: April 2017

Photosynthesis forms the basis for primary production and fuels the formation of biomass with valuable chemical composition in plants. Although photosynthesis requires sunlight, the very nature of sunlight also has negative effects on photosynthesis. Visible light and ultraviolet light, the inherent parts of sunlight, may cause damage to the photosynthetic machinery and other cellular components. Plants have therefore evolved various protective and response mechanisms, which monitor the intensity, wavelength, duration and direction of light and mitigate the negative effects of light stress. Currently, the underlying molecular mechanisms and functional overlaps among light receptor and chloroplast signalling, and the consequent light‐dependent adjustments in plant performance are emerging. The ability to delicately sense, signal and respond to the ambient light environment forms a key contributor to plant growth and productivity.

Key Concepts

Photosynthesis causes a potential risk of photodamage.

Excess light and ultraviolet radiation from sunlight lead to increased production of ROS, which may cause photooxidative damage.

Plants have evolved protective and response mechanisms against photodamage.

ROS act as signalling molecules that mediate vital functions in inducing resistance to light stress and other abiotic and biotic stresses.

Chloroplast retrograde signals play key roles in eliciting cross‐tolerance to biotic stress factors.
Molecular Genetics of
H
ermansky–
P
udlak Syndrome
Authors: Huizing Marjan , Gochuico Bernadette R , Gahl William A , Malicdan May Christine V
Published: April 2017

Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome (HPS) is an autosomal recessive, genetically heterogeneous disorder characterised by oculocutaneous albinism and a bleeding diathesis. Subtype‐specific features such as neutropenic immunodeficiency and fatal lung fibrosis also occur. To date, 10 human HPS subtypes (HPS‐1 to HPS‐10) and their associated genes have been identified. All of the HPS protein products are involved in the biogenesis of lysosome‐related organelles (LROs) in specialised cells, including melanosomes in melanocytes and delta granules in platelets. The HPS proteins are all components of one of the three biogenesis of lysosome‐related organelles complexes (BLOC‐1, BLOC‐2 or BLOC‐3) or the adaptor protein complex‐3. These complexes are essential for the correct formation of LROs, which are produced by the complex interaction of proteins, membranes and vesicles from the endocytic and biosynthetic pathways. Cells from patients with LRO disorders serve as useful tools for elucidating the complex pathways involved in the biogenesis of these organelles.

Key Concepts

HPS is caused by mutations in 10 known genes and is characterised by oculocutaneous albinism and a bleeding tendency.

The proteins that are encoded by the HPS genes are all required for the correct formation of lysosome‐related organelles (LROs).

LROs share features with lysosomes but have distinct morphology, composition and/or functions.

LROs are maintained by the regulated flow of proteins, membranes and vesicles among the complex endosomal machinery.

Novel players of LRO biogenesis are revealed by human disease and animal mutations, which continue to provide invaluable resources for elucidating the complex pathways involved in the biogenesis of these organelles.
Kinship
Authors: Berman Carol M.
Published: April 2017

Kinship is one of the major organizing principles of primate social structure. It is of critical importance to evolutionary biologists and anthropologists interested in the origins of cooperation and human kinship systems. Maternal kin recognize each other primarily through familiarity. Mechanisms of paternal kin recognition are still in their infancy, but may be related to reproductive skew and phenotypic matching. Although patterns of kin‐related behavior vary widely among and within species, kin favoritism and incest avoidance are reoccurring themes that seem to appear whenever circumstances permit. The reproductive benefits of kin favoritism are beginning to be better understood, as are roles and limitations of kin selection as an explanatory framework.
Capture–Recapture
Authors: Kessler Sharon E.
Published: April 2017

Capture–recapture techniques have contributed greatly to primatology. This entry provides an overview of how researchers conduct capture–recapture studies of primates, what data can be collected, and what can be learned from that data. Capture–recapture studies enable researchers to study the distribution and movement of individuals throughout a habitat, population density, and population changes over time. When capture–recapture data are combined with morphometrics, genetic sampling, hormone sampling, and/or health examinations, and so on, it becomes a powerful tool for learning about primate genetics, health, behavior, and conservation.
Scabies
Authors: Cohn Douglas L.
Published: April 2017

Scabies, otherwise known as mange, is caused by the parasitic mite
Sarcoptes scabiei
. It is considered a zoonotic disease and can infest a number of Old World primate species, among a wide variety of mammals.
Sarcoptes scabiei
causes a skin disease, and it can be treated successfully.
Mycoplasma
Authors: Cohn Douglas L.
Published: April 2017

Mycoplasmas are primitive bacteria classified in the genusMycoplasma(family Mycoplasmataceae), which can be cultured from healthy individuals encompassing a wide variety of vertebrate species. Most of the strains isolated from nonhuman primates, both Old World and New World, are ones that are considered human in origin. Disease attributed toMycoplasmainfection has been associated with polyarthritis in great apes and Old World monkeys. Antibiotic therapy has been used to treat these cases of infection.
Jumping
Authors: Dunbar Donald C.
Published: April 2017

Primates jump to travel rapidly through home ranges and territories, to avoid predators, and to quickly access feeding and resting sites. Jumps can be divided into hops and leaps, which are jumps on the same surface versus between separate surfaces, respectively. Hops are further subdivided according to the number of jumps in sequence (single hops versus multiple or ricochetal hops). Leaps are more usefully subdivided according to the orientation of the surface from which the jump originates (e.g., horizontal versus vertical). Most primates perform single hops and leaps from horizontal supports, but many prosimians ricochet on the ground and vertical cling and leap (VCL) from vertical supports. Small‐sized New World monkeys and juvenile Old World monkeys also practice VCL. The morphological design of some species is advantageous for jumping, but all primates can jump successfully, especially when they access the potential energy stored in a bent support branch.
Immunodeficiency
Authors: Yee JoAnn L.
Published: April 2017

Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is unable to function normally. Since the primate immune system is a primary defense against the infectious agents that threaten normal health, this compromised state leaves the animal vulnerable to infection and subsequent disease. In primary immunodeficiency, parts of the immune system are missing or nonfunctional from birth. Secondary or acquired immunodeficiency results when the immune system's normal function is impaired by an external cause such as infection, stress, toxins, radiation, or another primary disease.
Color Vision of Primates
Authors: Jacobs Gerald H.
Published: April 2017

Color vision is a perceptual capacity that allows animals to discriminate between visual targets that differ consistently only in wavelength content. So defined, a majority of all vertebrates possess some color vision. Since about 1990, research on primate color vision has been directed toward documenting the nature of color vision across different taxa, trying to understand how this capacity may have evolved, and examining how primates may exploit color vision in the support of adaptive behaviors.
Phalangeal Curvature
Authors: Congdon Kimberly A.
Published: April 2017

Phalangeal curvature is a term describing the presence of convex curvature along the dorsal surface of manual and pedal phalanges. In extant primates, phalangeal curvature is most pronounced in species that engage in high frequencies of arboreal locomotion. For this reason, it has long been used to infer climbing behaviors in fossil primates. This association is supported by research that suggests phalangeal curvature lowers the forces experienced by digits during grasping. The interpretation of phalangeal curvature as a trait indicative of climbing has contributed to long‐standing debates regarding the locomotion of well‐known fossil hominids. However, proper application of this feature towards interpreting fossil behavior relies on determining if it is a plastic or inherited trait, which is still being explored.
Cultural Behavior
Authors: Schuppli Caroline , Koops Kathelijne , van Schaik Carel
Published: April 2017

It is becoming increasingly evident that social learning plays a more important role in primate skill acquisition than previously thought. Accordingly, it is likely that cultural repertoires of many species are bigger than currently estimated, and that following the available methods to detect culture in animals, we only get to see the tip of the culture iceberg. Innovations are at the base of all cultural variation, and although more research is needed to clarify under which conditions innovations are favored, it seems that in primates innovations are mainly the product of serendipity. In order for culture to be maintained, contact between generations and some form of oblique or horizontal transmission must exist. Culture can evolve, and complex human culture was built on a foundation similar to primate culture. The pattern seen across species strongly suggests that culture is the precondition for complex cognitive evolution.
Infanticide
Authors: Borries Carola
Published: April 2017

Infanticide is the killing of an unweaned individual by a conspecific, typically a recently immigrated adult male. Most cases can be explained based on sexual selection theory as a male reproductive strategy. This hypothesis predicts that males will not be related to the infant, the mother resumes cycling sooner, and the male has the chance to sire her next offspring. This holds true for most reported cases. Infanticide is considered low in cost for attackers but costly for females who lose their offspring (sexual conflict, sexual coercion). As a result, females have developed several counterstrategies. Between‐group infanticides, especially those in chimpanzees, are less well understood. Human infanticides are closely connected to the termination of the unusually long period of infant dependency with parents themselves, sometimes eliminating offspring with poor prospects. Similar to predation, infanticide is an omnipresent if uncommon threat that probably contributed to permanent male–female associations in primates.
Boundary Patrols
Authors: Mitani John C.
Published: April 2017

Boundary patrols are an unusual territorial behavior displayed by very few animals. In primates, only chimpanzees and spider monkeys have been observed to patrol their territories. During patrols, large groups of males gather and move around the periphery of their territories and into those of neighbors. Patrollers occasionally make lethal coalitionary attacks on neighbors that they encounter, especially in situations when large numbers of patrollers are able to isolate solitary neighbors. Patrolling and killing by chimpanzees have been shown to be parts of an evolved strategy to gain access to valuable resources.
Callimico
Authors: Porter Leila M.
Published: April 2017

The Goeldi's monkey (
Callimico goeldii
) is a small‐bodied monkey found in the forests of the western Amazon basin. The Goeldi's monkey belongs to the subfamily Callitrichinae, yet its dental formula (2.1.3.3) and litter size (one) are unique among this taxonomic group. It is rare and cryptic throughout its range, and is often found in dense understory habitats. The Goeldi's monkey regularly consumes fungus, a food item seldom consumed by other primates. These monkeys form small social groups that are often polyandrous. All adult group members help extensively to raise the group's infants, a behavior termed allocare. Both polyandry and extensive allocare are common among callitrichines but are uncommon among other primates. Goeldi's monkeys regularly form polyspecific associations with sympatric species of tamarins.
Visitor Effects
Authors: Hosey Geoff
Published: April 2017

Visitor effects are the behavioral and/or physiological changes that occur in animals when they are in proximity to unfamiliar people. These changes, if they occur at all, may be considered negative if they appear to challenge the animals' ability to cope and could thus compromise welfare, or positive if they appear to enhance the animals' welfare state. Visitor effects may be influenced by housing and husbandry, the behavior of people, individual characteristics of the animals, and their species. Negative visitor effects can often be reduced by providing animals with more opportunities to avoid public view. Previous research suggests that visitor effects are negative for many captive primates, indicating that human proximity is stressful, but in most cases the effect does not seriously compromise animal welfare.
Lee,PhyllisC.
Authors: Setchell Joanna M.
Published: April 2017

Phyllis C. Lee is Professor of Psychology at Stirling University, Scotland. She has conducted fieldwork on baboons, vervet monkeys, and elephants since 1975. Her research interests focus on physical growth; cognitive and social development; behavioral ecology and reproductive strategies; life history evolution; and biodiversity conservation.
Purgatorius
Authors: Silcox Mary T.
Published: April 2017

Purgatorius
is the oldest genus that has been attributed to the Order Primates. It appears near the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, approximately 66 million years ago, just as the nonavian dinosaurs are going extinct. Fossils attributed to this genus have been described from both the United States (Montana) and Canada (Saskatchewan). Mostly known from jaws and teeth,
Purgatorius
is primitive enough anatomically to serve as the potential ancestor to all later primates. In terms of behavior,
Purgatorius
probably lived in the trees and ate a mixed diet consisting of fruit and insects.
Purgatorius
is critical to studies of primate evolution in establishing the primitive starting point for the order.
Macaque (

Macaca

)
Authors: Thierry Bernard
Published: April 2017

Macaques are frugivorous, semiterrestrial primates forming multi‐male/multi‐female groups. Most live in the forests and semi‐open habitats of southern and eastern Asia, with one species inhabiting the forests of North Africa. The genus is composed of 22 species that share the same basic patterns of organization. Males disperse and periodically move from one group to another. Females stay in their natal group and form alliance networks based on kinship bonds. Macaques display wide interspecific variations in social relationships. Mating patterns range from regular changes in sexual partners to prolonged female guarding by males, and whereas some species exhibit strong social hierarchies, others display greater tolerance and more relaxed dominance relationships.
N
apier,
P
rudence
Authors: Groves Colin
Published: April 2017

Prue Napier was the leading expert on primate taxonomy in the 1970s and 1980s, and wrote the first three volumes of an important and indispensable catalogue of preserved primate material in the British Isles.
N
apier,
J
ohn
Authors: Groves Colin
Published: April 2017

John Napier, hand surgeon and magician, can be deemed the “inventor” of primatology.
Environmental Seasonality
Authors: Grueter Cyril C.
Published: April 2017

Environmental seasonality refers to variation in climate patterns (precipitation levels and temperature), solar radiation, and day length that prompt plant phenological changes and thus changes in food supply (most notably fruit and young leaves). This has direct repercussions on primate behavior and ecology, such as diet, ranging behavior, activity, and grouping patterns, as well as the timing of reproductive events.
Behavioral and Cognitive Research
Authors: Hopper Lydia M.
Published: April 2017

When trying to understand the behavior and cognition of nonhuman primates, researchers have to interpret the decision making of nonverbal species and quantify (indirect) behavioral responses as metrics for cognitive processes. The methods used to achieve this are as diverse as the topics primatologists study. Research with primates varies both in the location of study and in the manner in which the data are recorded. Observing primates in the wild enables evaluations of a species' natural behavioral repertoire and sheds light on how they respond to the ecology of their environment, while captive studies allow researchers to test the extent of a species' capacities and facilitates tightly controlled cross‐species comparisons. To develop a full picture most likely requires input from both wild and captive settings, and combining such data with robust analytical and modeling tools can further heighten primatologists' understanding of primate cognition and behavior.
Capuchin Monkeys (
Sapajus
and
Cebus
)
Authors: Fedigan Linda Marie
Published: April 2017

Capuchins are distributed across most of South and Central America and are divided into two types: robust monkeys with tufts of fur on their heads (genus
Sapajus
) and more gracile monkeys with smooth, untufted caps of fur (genus
Cebus
). They are distinguished from other Neotropical primates by their well‐developed motor skills, problem‐solving abilities, long lifespan, and large brain‐to‐body ratios. Being opportunistic omnivores, these monkeys are able to adapt to a wide variety of habitats and circumstances and can switch from a diet of mainly fruit to one of insectivory. They live in polygynandrous social groups and exhibit both cooperative infant rearing and sexual conflict. Several capuchin species are listed as Endangered or Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
Insectivory
Authors: DeLuycker Anneke M.
Published: April 2017

Insectivory, as a subset of faunivory, is the ingestion of insect prey as some percentage of the overall diet, and often includes arthropod and/or invertebrate prey. Primate species vary in their insect prey preferences, with respect to type and life stage of prey ingested. Insect prey represent high‐energy, high‐quality food sources, although they are available in small packages and consequently provide small rewards in relation to the energetic effort involved in finding and capturing them. Thus primates that are small‐bodied (less than 1 kg) with high metabolic rates rely on insect prey for the majority of their energetic and nutritional dietary needs. Primates vary in the methods and modes of insect prey capture and many primates have evolved morphological adaptations to specialize in insect prey detection and capture. Insectivory may have played an important role in euprimate evolution in the shift to small‐bodied, fast‐moving primates specializing in feeding on hard‐bodied insects.
Evolution of the Hominoidea
Authors: Begun David R.
Published: April 2017

The earliest fossil evidence of the Hominoidea is found in Africa at about 26 million years ago (Ma), but molecular dating of hominoid divergence events suggests an origin as early as 30 Ma. The oldest hominoids resemble the primitive catarrhine
Aegyptopithecus
in dental morphology, but by about 20 Ma the dentition is more modern. Early apes, best known from Kenya between about 19 and 17 Ma, are monkey‐like in their limb proportions and cranial morphology but ape‐like in details of the hips, hands, and feet. Middle Miocene apes (17–12 Ma) are transitional, with more modern teeth but limbs that are little changed from the early Miocene. Late Miocene apes all show evidence of some degree of suspension and orthogrady, as in living apes. About 12.5 Ma, fossil evidence records the earliest known hominines (African apes and humans) in Europe and pongines (orangutans) in Asia.
Evolution of the Cercopithecidae
Authors: Frost Stephen R.
Published: April 2017

Since their origin in Africa during the Miocene epoch, Old World monkeys have spread throughout that continent and several different groups of them have also dispersed across Eurasia to become the most widespread and speciose family of nonhuman primates, even reaching locations well outside of the tropical rainforest habitats typical of other primates. In spite of being relatively stereotyped in terms of their skeletal anatomy, locomotor mode, and social behavior, they have also come to occupy the widest range of environments of any primate group. Throughout their evolution, a wide array of ecologically and morphologically diverse forms have evolved and gone extinct.
Telemetry
Authors: van Kuijk Silvy , Fernandez‐Duque Eduardo
Published: April 2017

Radio telemetry is the use of radio waves to convey information over distances from a transmitter to a receiver. The system is used in primatology to rapidly track and find primates and to identify individuals, which facilitates data collection. There are two main ways of tracking primates with telemetry, their usefulness depending on the type of study conducted. Even though the use of radio telemetry can be very beneficial to researchers when collecting ecological and demographic data, there are some potential costs that have to be taken into careful consideration. In addition to the financial costs, primates can get injured during the capturing process or while wearing a radio collar, and possible behavioral changes may affect the data being collected.
Climbing
Authors: Hanna Jandy B.
Published: April 2017

As a primarily arboreal radiation, all primates must climb, and climbing is basal to the Primate Order. Climbing has influenced primate evolutionary history from the earliest primates to humans. There are various climbing styles utilized by primates, and such styles are influenced by and have an influence on primate morphology. Current research focuses on the biomechanics of climbing, and some skeletal features have been identified that are linked with climbing. Future research should provide comparative data on the different climbing styles, both biomechanical and behavioral.
Reciprocity
Authors: Smith Mackenzie F. , Brosnan Sarah F.
Published: April 2017

Reciprocal altruism provides one evolutionary explanation for cooperation, and extensive research has been conducted to discern when reciprocity occurs and the underlying proximate mechanisms. de Waal and colleagues have proposed three levels of reciprocity. Symmetry‐based reciprocity is noncontingent and based on symmetries in existing relationships. Attitudinal reciprocity is contingent and based on an increased positive affective state due to recent interactions. Calculated reciprocity requires the cognitive ability to track favors given and received and has thus far only been seen in great apes (including humans). Long‐term relationship structure may also play an important role in reciprocity, which may at least partly explain the relative lack of evidence for reciprocity from laboratory‐based studies compared with field studies. Future studies need improved methodologies to better assess the roles of partner choice and long‐term relationships in order to better discern the role that reciprocity plays in primate interactions.
Positional Behavior
Authors: Saunders Emily L. R. , Roberts Alice M. , Thorpe Susannah K. S.
Published: April 2017

Positional behavior describes an animal's physical activities, and has two components: posture and locomotion. Positional behavior is a vital part of a primate's ecology, as it directly affects foraging and reproductive success, and has strong links with morphology. Primates display hugely diverse and versatile positional repertoires, which allow them to exploit the complex environment of the forest canopy, and which were likely to have been important drivers of primate radiations. This entry develops the ecomorphological and evolutionary frameworks for studying positional behavior, and reviews some of the locomotor strategies that primates have developed in order to overcome environmental challenges.
Paternal Care
Authors: Boner Ria
Published: April 2017

Paternal care describes behaviors performed by a father that benefit his perceived offspring. Paternal care in primates exhibits substantial variability and thus defies a single hypothesis to explain its evolution. Monogamous social organization, high maternal to infant weight ratio, territoriality, and reduced sexual dimorphism have frequently been associated with paternal care. However, despite the prevalence of these correlates in species exhibiting paternal care, they are neither necessary nor consistent in explaining the presence of paternal care among the various primate groups. Current evolutionary models focus on the relative reproductive success of both males and females to better understand the selecting factors favoring biparental care in primates. At a proximate level, most advances have been made in the study of the endocrinological bases of paternal care.
Conflict Resolution
Authors: Schaffner Colleen M. , Aureli Filippo
Published: April 2017

Conflicts of interest and aggressive interactions are part of the normal day‐to‐day fabric of social interactions. Although aggression can be damaging to former opponents, postconflict resolution, such as reconciliation, can mitigate some of the damage and restore relationships to the preconflict level. Reconciliation is the postconflict affiliative reunion between former opponents that repairs their relationship and reduces postconflict uncertainty. Conflict resolution allows the many benefits of group living to be maintained in spite of the presence of conflict between group members.
Genetic Drift
Authors: Lawler Richard R.
Published: April 2017

Genetic drift is an evolutionary force that causes random fluctuations in allele frequencies over time in finite populations. Numerous models of genetic drift have been developed, but the most widely used is the Wright–Fisher model, which relies on a binomial sampling process. Models of genetic drift such as the Wright–Fisher model make a series of idealized assumptions about the properties of populations; these idealized assumptions can be rectified by defining an effective population size. Mathematical studies of genetic drift have greatly enhanced our ability to make insights into the past and present evolutionary processes.
Human Population Growth, Poverty
Authors: Estrada Alejandro
Published: April 2017

Global human population will increase from 7 billion in 2012 to 9 billion in 2050, with most of the growth taking place in developing tropical nations. Currently, 2 billion people live in species‐rich primate range regions (the Neotropics, Sub‐Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia). High levels of poverty in the human population are typical of tropical primate range countries. Accelerated growth of the human population has resulted in growing local and regional market demands for agricultural and animal products. Coupled with this is the growing demand for crops, wood, minerals, and oil from primate range countries by developed nations. This has resulted in large‐scale deforestation and rangeland destruction, causing significant losses of primate habitats and declines of primate populations. These processes heighten poverty in primate range regions. The above situation is a critical conservation challenge for the next decades which deserves special research attention.
Frugivory
Authors: Lambert Joanna E.
Published: April 2017

Frugivory refers to the consumption of the fleshy pulp components of angiosperm fruit. Many primate species have a diet that is composed, at least in part, of fruit. Most specialist mammalian frugivores—including primates—are found in the tropics, where fruit is more likely to be available year round compared with regions with more extreme seasons. However, although fruit pulp can provide simple sugars and starchy carbohydrates, frugivory presents multiple ecological and nutritional challenges. Fruit as a food resource is both temporally and spatially patchy, and fruit pulp is typically low in protein and may be protected by plant‐defensive chemistry.
Angiosperm Radiation Theory
Authors: Sussman† Robert W.
Published: April 2017

Fruiting trees in tropical forests depend for their existence on the animals that eat their fruit. Seeds falling below the parent plant are less likely to survive than those dispersed at a distance. Primates, along with birds and bats, are the most important dispersers of seeds in the tropics. Of course, this was not always the case, and the evolutionary histories of tropical rainforests and primates are intricately related. In fact, one might say they helped create one another through a long process of diffuse coevolution.