bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
BURIAL PRACTICES DURING THE LATE FORMATIVE/EARLY CLASSIC IN THE BANDERAS VALLEY AREA OF COASTAL WEST MEXICO
Authors: Mountjoy Joseph B. , Sandford Mary K.
Published: March 2007

In this article we report on the results of our attempts to locate and study shaft-and-chamber tombs in the Municipality of Puerto Vallarta on the southern (Jalisco) side of the Banderas Valley of coastal West Mexico and to place these tombs in the broader context of burial practices in this area during a time corresponding to the Late Preclassic and Early Classic of Mesoamerica. We located and studied nine sites where shaft-and-chamber tombs had reportedly been discovered and looted, but here we focus on three (El Reparito, El Pozo de Doña Amparo, and La Pedrera) where we were able to excavate un-looted as well as partially looted shaft-and-chamber tombs. In the process we obtained evidence of (1) the location and type of soil selected for the excavation of such tombs; (2) variation in the form and content of the shafts and tomb chambers; (3) the tools used for digging and the manner of sealing such tombs; (4) chronological placement of the tombs; (5) burial of infants, sub-adults, and adults in the chambers; (5) pathology in the pre-Hispanic population responsible for such tombs; (6) cremation of bodies and their curation for different periods of time before incineration; and (7) alternative forms of interment along with shaft-and-chamber tombs in the same cemetery. Also, the data obtained lend support for the idea that the Ameca River and the Banderas Valley formed a “soft frontier” at this time between fairly distinct pre-Hispanic cultural traditions found to the north and to the south of the river, an area in which there was some intermixing of these traditions.
Altered epigenetic variance in surviving litters from nutritionally restricted lactating primiparous sows
Authors: Vinsky M. D. , Murdoch G. K. , Dixon W. T. , Dyck M. K. , Foxcroft G. R.
Published: March 2007

Feed restriction of primiparous sows during the last week of lactation has been shown to decrease embryonic growth and female embryo survival to Day 30 of gestation. This study sought to determine whether global DNA methylation and epigenetic gene expression of the candidate genes Igf2, Igf2r, and Xist were associated with these treatment effects. Given that these epigenetic traits are expected to be important for embryo viability, changes in variance for these traits at Day 30 were predicted to be reflected in the loss of abnormal embryos at this time. Consistent with this prediction, variance in DNA methylation was reduced (P < 0.001) in Restrict male embryo, and there was a tendency for reduced variance (P < 0.06) in Restrict female embryos. Variation in DNA methylation tended to be correlated (R = 0.42, P < 0.1) with the difference in variance of embryo weights between treatments (P < 0.01), suggesting a relationship between epigenetic changes and embryonic development. Variance in Igf2r expression tended to decrease (P < 0.07) in Restrict female embryos while variance in Xist expression tended to decrease in Restrict male embryos (P < 0.08), suggesting that maternally inherited epigenetic defects may cause female embryonic loss and reduced growth before Day 30 of gestation.
Luhmann's General Sociology
Authors: Østerberg Dag
Published: March 2007

The article deals with Niklas Luhmann's treatise Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft, exposing it to a critique in terms of Luhmann's own criterion: plausibility. It is argued that both Parsons' general sociology and Marxism render more plausible accounts of modern society than does Luhmann's theory of autopoietic systems. It is asserted that the fundamental mistake in Luhmann's theory is his conflation of the concepts of differentiated social systems and autonomous social systems, a conflation that confers a ring of the imaginary to Luhmann's treatise.
Edward Westermarch: A Sociologist Relating Nature and Culture
Authors: Allardt Erik
Published: March 2007

A core idea in all of Edward Westermarck's studies is the strong connection between nature and culture. As attempts to survive environmental threats, moral ideas contain similarities in a very wide range of historical situations. Westermarck connected nature and culture in the three major fields of his scholarship: in his studies of the human marriage and family, in his Moroccan field-work dealing with rituals and moral beliefs, and in his studies of the origin of moral ideas and emotions. There have been remarkable vicissitudes in his scholarly fame. In the early 20th century he was a leading international sociologist. His large treatises on the history of human marriage and the origin of the moral ideas were translated to many languages and his ideas were intensively discussed. Already in the 1920s Westermarck's scholarship based on evolutionism and Darwinism tended to become neglected, and during the subsequent decades it was largely ignored by both sociologists and anthropologists. During the two last decades of the 20th century, however, tendencies towards a renaissance of the ideas of Edward Westermarck are clearly observable.
Reactions to Inequity, II
Authors: Anderson BO , Shelly Robert K.
Published: March 2007

A methodological critique is presented of experiments on reactions to inequity (failure of distributive justice) reported by J. Stacy Adams and coworkers. It is alleged that social pressures from the experimenter rather than perceived inequity may account for the experimental findings. A new experiment is reported in which attempts were made to remove any pressures from the experimenter. A theoretical reformulation is presented which, if correct, seems to account for the findings of a number of equity experiments reported in the literature. It is indicated how the proposed explanation is experimentally verifiable.
Remarks Concerning Some Problem of Marxist Class Theory
Authors: Israel Joachim
Published: March 2007

As an introduction the scientific status of Marxism is discussed and the Marxian thesis concerning the discrepancy between productive forces and relations of production is interpreted as a cultural lag hypothesis. The discussion of class- theory is based upon a contextual analysis of the way Marx and Mao-Tse-Tung used the class-concept. It is shown that Marx uses several concepts. Finally a two-dimensional class-model is developed, where power and class-consciousness are used as classificatory variables yielding six different classes. Some theoretical problems connected with this model are discussed.
On the Need and Possible Structure of a Commuriication Research Information System in Scandinavia
Authors: Bråten Stein
Published: March 2007

The present paper outlines some rough suggestions for a possible Nordic computer-based information system for storing, processing and delivering the output of theoretical and empirical research on human communication that is being carried out within scientific and applied contexts first and foremost in the Nordic region. Such a system may contribute towards an integrated body of knowledge of human communication systems. The suggested areas covered and some gross dimensions of a possible reference frame for the organization of information are indicated, and user relations and requests are commented upon. It is advocated that both processed empirical data and theoretical propositions be handled by the proposed information system (called CRISS for short), and reasons for the need of it being partly computeriz ed are given.
Industrialization and Labor Response: Notes Toward the Construction of a Multi-Level Data Structure
Authors: Lafferty W.M.
Published: March 2007

This paper is a broad attempt at a multi-level conceptualization of social change. It proceeds by taking a concrete research problem (the relationship between industrialization and the response of labor) and following it through successive stages of conceptualization, model-building, and the construction of an integrated structure for operationalization. The purpose of the paper is thus twofold; specifically, it presents a theory, model and data-gathering approach for the concrete problem at hand and, generally, it outlines possible theoretical and causal links among three distinct levels of social phenomena.

It begins by depicting selected concepts from five different theorists in a conglomerate model which shows posited conceptual links within a causal range. It then proceeds to build up a multi-level framework around the three levels of ecological aggregate, organizational structure, and the individual actor. The theoretical nature of human ecology is presented as especially appropriate for analysis of change variables and the relationship of organiza tional structure to the ecological base is defined. The communal unit is defended as a contextual base and the individual is related theoretically to both this base and the level of emergent structure. A more complete categorization of contextual and backround variables is then added to that of the existing litera ture, and the nature of these variables is made more precise in terms of the multi-level structure. Finally an attempt is made to integrate, in a determinate fashion, the three "incommensurate" levels. This is done by relying on prin ciples from ecological psychology whereby the concepts organism-environ ment, inside-outside, and thing-medium are used to postulate possibilities for cross-level causality. The end product is a multi-level, ecologically-based data structure for the analysis of dynamic social variables. An example is then presented of its application to the relationship between industrialization and labor response in Norway.
The Development of Civic Competence: Socialization or Task Generalization
Authors: Martinussen Willy
Published: March 2007

According to prevalent sociological theory people acquire their basic attitudes and skills through socialization processes during childhood and adolescence. Such assumptions are challenged in this study of civic competence among 18 year old students and their middle-aged parents. The findings show low parent-student congruity of political knowledge, ideological sophistication, political efficacy and interest, and indicate that the degree of civic comptence more is a result of experiences in people's ethnic, educational and occupational situations. In other words, availability of this political resource to a great extent directly depends upon a person's place in the general opportunity structure of society.
Some Reasons for and Effects of the Use of Attitude-Variables in Sociological Theory
Authors: Aage Hans
Published: March 2007

This contribution to theoretical analysis is grounded in the weak postition of sociological theory, the cause of which is said to lie in the use of attitude-variables. The use of such variables is necessitated by the great demand for precision in the results of sociological analysis. Furthermore, a study of the contemporary hterature, particularly textbooks, reveals that attitude-variables are used to the extent that they may be said to be a central characteristic of current sociology. On the basis of a study of attitude-variables — Homans exchange theories, specific social-psychological results and the range of random variations — it will be argued that attitudes either constitute a part of all sociological results or modify them to the extent that a true, non-trivial sociological theory is, in principle, impossible.
The Welfare State - a Manifestation of Late Capitalism
Authors: Israel Joachim
Published: March 2007

An attempt is made for a conceptualization of the functioning of the welfare-state as known in Scandinavia. A central thesis is that the state-apparatus has a certain degree of freedom to initiate actions within the constraints of a capitalistic economic system. This thesis rejects the idea of the state being neutral and independent as well as the idea of the total subordination of the state-apparatus under capitalist domination. Nor is the thesis accepted that there exists a harmonious co-existence between state-apparatus and monopolies. It is asserted that contradictions existing within a capitalistic society can be solved by state-invervention only through the creation of new contradictions. This is illustrated by means of the functioning of the public sector. It is finally asserted that the state-apparatus in order to maintain total capital has to restrict the actions of individual capitals. The theoretical and meta-theoretical consequences of this thesis are also discussed.
Dialectics between Occupational and Party Structures: Finland since World War II
Authors: Haranne Markku
Published: March 2007

The article discusses why the Finnish political system has remained rela tively stable despite rather fundamental changes in the professional structure of the population since the second world war. This problem is examined in the light of various survey-studies from the past few decades. The so-called big parties - the Social Democratic Party (SDP), the Finnish People's Democratic Front (SKDL), the Center Party (the former Ag rarian Union) and the Coalition Party - are traditionally class-based with respect to their supporters. A strictly class-tied mode of voting behavior has nonetheless diminished since the second world war. This is due to the fact that the support from the growing strata of white-collar professionals has been distributed relatively evenly among the different parties. This trend has, on the one hand, promoted the stability of the political field and on the other led to a homogenization of the constituencies of different parties.
Review Essay : The Rational Interpretation of Weber Revisited
Authors: Eliæson Sven
Published: March 2007

The Weber renaissance still pertains, with the old theme of the relationship between Marx and Weber part of it, though with a long prehistory going back as far as Karl Lowith. Turner accurately grasps the meaning of modern 'Marxian' interpretations of Weber and penetrates the comparative approach in Weber's substantial sociology. The prolonged engagement in the Marx- Weber theme is more confusing than illuminating, because of its spectacular character Thomason interprets Schutz's elaboration of Weber's understand ing and provides us with historical insight into the development of the Schutzean tradition of phenomenology.
Good Jobs and Bad: A Differentiated Structuring of the Labor Market
Authors: Anselme Michael , Weiszt Robert
Published: March 2007

The aim of this article is to try to reinsert into labor market analysis the socio-historical dimension essential to its functioning, but which had been neglected by approaches too much concerned with following economic models At the same time, the authors seek to make analysis tools of segmentation of labor market processes more precise These processes must be understood as a form of correspondence between some types of jobs and some categories of workers, which defines specific job trajectories that are called 'career lines'. Divisions in the structure of the labor market cannot be explained by a single overall process, but are caused by specific interactions of a set of economic, political, institutional and social factors.
Corporeality and Its Fates in History
Authors: Falk Pasi
Published: March 2007

The question is: how to thematize the historicalness of the human body and corporeality. The first part of the article deals with the changing position of the body and corporeality as a part of Order The order is in this context defined broadly, referring both to socio-practical structures and cultural meaning structures. The approach may be charactenzed as a synthesis of social, cultural and conceptual history (partly inspired by Michel Foucault's conceptions of archeology & genealogy). The historicalness of the body and corporeality is structured in a setting where the body is related to the Other: spirit, soul, reason and self The historical change of these binary oppositions is related to the increasing instrumentalization of the body - considered from two aspects: one's own body and another's (own) body Further it is shown how these two aspects are combined in modern society: the body as a means of expression acquires a dominant role on the basis of corporeal equality and individuality.

In the latter part of the article an approach is formulated to overcome the paradox of nature-culture parallelism in the definitions of the human body and corporeality. A fundamental distinction is made between the physical body (corporeal being) and corporeality, the latter being interpreted (through a critical reading of Georges Bataille's conceptions) as a central area of transgression. The concept of transgression allows an interpretation of corporeality as a cultural dynamics oscillating between the 'normal' (order/ everyday/profane) and the 'hyper-normal' state (liminality/fête/sacred). Thus it is possible to conceptualize corporeality - and now especially the sensual existence of man - in its historicalness. Finally, a distinction is made in the two dimensions of corporeality - the expressive and the experience aspect- which explains the paradox of two opposite interpretations of the historical fates of corporeality in modern society. Along the increasing instru mentalization and shielding of the body also the 'sensitiveness' to bodily pleasures is increasing. But on the other hand there is a clear shift of emphasis from the expressive aspect to the experience aspect of corporeality.
Review Article : Elite-circulation and Swedish school reforms
Authors: Tjellander Bengt
Published: March 2007

This paper discusses an application of Vilfredo Pareto's theory of elite- circulation in viewing the problems of in-service teacher training in Sweden
Social Mobility in France and Sweden: Women, Marriage and Work
Authors: Portocarero Lucienne
Published: March 2007

This paper is another pragmatic attempt to include women in the comparative study of intergenerational class mobility in France and Sweden, two societies that differ in their political history and in the prevalence of women's activity outside the home. In the main, it addresses two questions: How do the mobility patterns of women via marriage compare with those of men via occupational career? How do the mobility patterns of women via marriage compare with those of women via occupational career? These questions are treated in terms of actually observed life chances as well as in relative terms, which shows the impact of the division of labour by sex on differences in life chances by alternative channels of mobility. An attempt is also made to assess the relative importance of interactions between women's social origin, own occupation, and class position by marriage The association between the latter two proves to be the strongest by far. Rather unexpectedly, social origin does not appear to affect the association between husband's class and wife's occupational category either in France or in Sweden.
Marginal Labour Power and the Finnish Trade Union Movement
Authors: Kevatsalo Kimmo
Published: March 2007

Rapid structural change, relative technological backwardness, and a position between East and West are the key factors that explain why Finland, unlike most West European economies, has managed to sustain continued economic growth in the 1980s However, a sharp increase in unemployment rates after the mid-1970s revealed a process of marginalization within the Finnish labour force This article examines the labour movement's attitudes towards marginal labour power The mechanisms behind labour movement policies are described m logic of action terms. The conclusion is that the logics of action tend to remove the trade union movement further from the interests of marginal labour power, although there are some opposite tendencies too.
Social Structure and Union Character
Authors: Scheuer Steen
Published: March 2007

Is there a difference between manual and white-collar unions? And if so: What are the bases for especially white-collar unions if they differ to a great extent in collectivist attitudes or with regard to 'untonateness' from their manual counterparts? These are the central questions raised in the recent literature about white-collar unionism (e.g. Price 1983). In this research note, the author argues that for unions in Denmark, professionalism is a very important part of union strategy. most notably among the major part of the white-collar unions On the basis of interviews with union officials and a survey, the author is able to show that professionahsm is a very active strategy within some unions in Denmark, and that it is especially active (and successful) where the occupation of the membership is linked to formal education.

The empincal evidence is not given here, but in the author's book (Scheuer 1986), on which the following is based
Some Remarks on the Notion of Labour Society
Authors: Jahn Detlef
Published: March 2007

The term 'labour society' is often used in a non-theoretical manner. This has led to a debate in which the main grounds for supporting or criticizing the concept as an appropriate means of understanding the crisis of modern society seem to be either empirical study or personal conviction In response to an article which was published recently in this journal (Aho 1985) and which in my opinion shows how such a non-theoretical use can lead to miscomprehension of the central concept, I develop a theoretical framework in relation to the notion of labour society. Using this theoretical concept, I shall then interpret some of the empirical tendencies in modern society; in the light of post-war social developments, these provide justification for a discussion couched in terms of the concept of 'labour society'.
Small Production and State Intervention in Agriculture
Authors: Granberg Leo
Published: March 2007

The rapid accumulation of state functions in agriculture during this century is a new kind of phenomenon in our history. It is also a process common to all developed capitalist countries in Europe. This article concentrates on the main features of agricultural policies in Finland, in order to illustrate the socio-economic reasons behind state intervention in agriculture. Production, income and structural policies all have, besides agricultural, also more general social and economic goals But mechanisms exist that counteract the attainment of these goals Capitalization of subsidies to land prices, differentiation as a cause and as a consequence of policies, and rising accumulation threshold are considered It is suggested that expanded repro duction is inevitable for family farms and that generation change is a most critical point of the reproduction process. Thus it also is a most strategic object for state intervention.
Wage Bargaining and Social Norms
Authors: Elster Jon
Published: March 2007

Standard economic theories of wage bargaining emphasize self-interest and bargaining power as the determinants of the wage agreement. The author argues that social norms also shape wage negotiations in a number of ways. After a description of the Swedish system of collective wage bargaining, he discusses the role of social norms in bargaining between unions and employers and in the negotiations that take place among unions when they try to coordinate their claims vis-à-vis the employers. The article concludes with a discussion of the relation between self-interest and norms in the bargaining process
Reinforcing Gender Norms: Commercial and Altruistic Surrogacy
Authors: Roach Anleu Sharyn L.
Published: March 2007

Surrogate motherhood agreements have stimulated widespread public, governmental and academic debate. Much ot the discussion focuses on commercial contracts which are generally condemned, whereas more support exists for altruistic agreements. The paper argues that the distinction between commercial and altruistic surrogacy is neither self-evident nor natural. By examining two recent surrogacy cases it concludes that the distinction is based on gender norms specifyng that love and affection not self-intercstedness or financial gain should underlie women's motivations to have children.
Alcohol and Suicide - Durkheim Revisited
Authors: Skog Ole-Jørgen
Published: March 2007

The paper reviews Durkheim's theory of suicide, with particular reference to his treat ment of alcohol as a causal factor. It is argued that Durkheim views alcohol as an individual-level factor, rather than as a socio-cultural factor on a par with other social facts This conception is criticized, as is Durkheim's analysis of his data It is argued that the rate of alcohol abuse in society is a social fact that has an explanatory power beyond the level of individual suicides. Some possible causal links between the social suicide rate and rates of alcohol abuse are discussed.
The Compatibility of Employment and Childbearing in Contemporary Sweden
Authors: Hoem Britta
Published: March 2007

Popular theory wants to explain much of the fertility decline of the 1960s and the 1970s as a consequence of the growth in paid employment among women during the same period. The negative relationship generally found between family size and women's labour-force participation on the individual level is often given a similar interpretation Our tindings in this paper suggest that such notions are too simple In an analysis ot data from the Swedish fertility survey of 1981, there is a reduction in labour-force participation connected with childbearing, but we are unable to discern any appreciable converse influence of the individual employment history on childbearing patterns, represented here by the progression to the third hirth. We also find the opposite of what economic theory has predicted concerning the impact of education on childbearing more highly educated Swedish mothers of two children progress to a third birth more readily than corresponding women with less education The one-sided influence from childbearing to reduced employment should be sufficient to explain the negative relationship mennoned, and it seems that an understanding of the causes of the fertility decline must be found elsewhere than in a theory of labour-specific or education-based human-capatal accumulation on the individual level We offer as a hypothesis the possibility that present- day general fertility trends in affluent populations may be governed more by ideational developments that flow through societies as a whole than by an accumulation of effects of matenahsttc computations mude independently by individual couples.
Some Unresolved Problems in the Theory of Rational Behavior
Authors: Elster Jon
Published: March 2007

In an article written in 1977 the author offered a survey of unresolved problems in rational choice theory. The present paper is an attempt to rethink this issue. On the one hand, it emphasizes the question of indeterminacy, i.e situations in which the rational choice is not well defined The paradoxes of backward induction find their place here, as do the existence and importance of genuine uncertainty (as distinct from risk) On the other hand, the article discusses the question whether preferences can be said to be rational. Examples include time preferences, attitudes to risk, regret and the 'taste for fairness'. The examples are chosen with a view to showing that rational choice theory is not a predictive theory, but essentially a hermeneutic one. As part of the enterprise of self-understanding, the construction of rationality is partly discovery and partly decision There is no nght answer to all questions.
The Economics of Institutions: Avoiding the Open-Field Syndrome and the Perils of Path Dependence
Authors: Eggertsson Thráinn
Published: March 2007

In this article, recent research on the economics of institutions is summarized and assessed The economics of institutions is an attempt to integrate recent research in various sub-fields of economics and the other social sciences in order to present a coherent research program for exploring the link between institutions and wealth Although the core of the framework is a modified version of neo-classical economics, it is argued that the optimal deviation from the neo-classical model vanes with the level of analysis and the types of variables that we seek to endogenize. The unifying theme of the analysis is the introduction of transaction costs and the related concept of property rights, which give organizations and institutions a central role in economic life. The paper provides a summary view of the economics of institutions, and discusses in some detail two common lines of criticism. that the approach ignores power relationships in economic affairs, and that its use of the rational choice model is inappropriate The need for augmenting the economics of institution with an operational theory of mental models and learning is recognized.
Anticipating Ideological Conflicts
Authors: Nehnevajsa Jiri
Published: March 2007

The ideologies of persons or peoples can best be derived by determining how acceptable or unacceptable certain alternative future states of affairs are to them. The extent of agreement or disagreement regarding desirable futures among peoples of various countries gives a measurement of present and future ideological conflicts. The author, of Columbia University's Department of Sociology, reports on a preliminary study based on these principles and discusses some implications of the approach.1
Preface
Authors: Masotti Louis H.
Published: March 2007

This issue of The American Behavioral Scientist is dedicated to the memory of Dr. James R. Hundley, late of the Department of Sociology, Michigan State University, who passed away on November 3, 1967, before the paper he was preparing for this issue was completed. His premature death at the age of 28 is not only a tragic loss to his family, friends, and colleagues, but the behavioral sciences lost a most promis ing and able scholar. That his research may in some measure continue, the Depart ment of Sociology at Michigan State University has established (and is receiving contributions for) the Hundley Memorial Research Fund to support graduate students doing studies in the area of collective behavior.
Traditions of Modernity
Authors: Krishna Prakash Gupta
Published: March 2007

Following a comparative and evolutionary perspective, this paper seeks to analyze Indian, Chinese and Western traditions and their particularistic patterns of change at the macro-level, moves on to identify crucial ideological breaks during the pre- modern period in each case, and concludes with a brief elaboration of variable tradition-bound paths of modernity. In doing this, the paper attempts to suggest a revision of the tradition-modernity continuum by introducing a sacred-secular dimens ion in the explanation of socio-historical changes.
Party Strategies and Foreign Policy: The Case of Finland, I955-63
Authors: Anckar Dag
Published: March 2007

The author tries to explain why the foreign policy debate in the party press in Finland, 1955-63, actually took the form it did. The scheme of analysis developed by Gunnar Sjöblom for party strategies in a multiparty system is used as a theoretical frame of reference and is applied to a material consisting of editorials in 19 party papers in connection with debates on 9 foreign policy situations. As to the value systems of parties, the author makes a distinction between three foreign policy approaches: (1) lim itative, (2) adaptive, and (3) augmentative interpretations. A quantitative analysis suggests that the parties put forward their interpretations in accordance with a pattern which corresponds to the ideological rankings of parties. This is followed by an analysis of how the parties in their propaganda have tried to advance the vote maxima tion goal and the maximation of parliamentary influence goal, and by discussions of how the parties have solved conflicts between strategic goals and programme goals in different types of situations.
Norway between East and West in World War II
Authors: Udgaard Nils Morten
Published: March 2007

This article sets out to analyse the role accorded to Norway by her three Great Power Allies during the Second World War — The Soviet Union, Great Britain and the United States — and the policy responses of the Norwegian Government. Starting with the proposals for post-war Atlantic cooperation forwarded by the Government- in-exile, the author examines the position of Norway in relation to the changing spheres of influence of the Great Powers, their attitude to the question of small state unions in the post-war European set-up, the choice between Sweden and Great Britain as Nor way's main external supporter, the repercussions of the Soviet liberation of northern Norway and the configuration of external influences in Norway at the time when hostilities ended in Europe. He outlines the problems created for Norway by the lack of coordination between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, and points out that on several policy proposals Norway was out of step with her main Western Allies. Finally he establishes that Norway, to a greater extent than has so far been recognized, played a role in the delineation of Great Power — i.e. mainly Soviet and British — spheres of influence in Europe at the close of the war.
The Conquering of Inner Space
Authors: Traavik Kim
Published: March 2007

In discussing the legal and political problems connected with exploitation of the in organic resources of the continental shelf and deep seabed, the author examines the types and amount of resources available. Placing special emphasis on the interests of the developing countries, he goes on to suggest some of the probable consequences of large-scale extraction of offshore fuels and metals. Against this backdrop, the article concludes that, in the short run, the Third World countries are not likely to benefit greatly from the creation of a UN Sea-Bed Regime. In the final section of the article, some significant lines of division in UN Sea-Bed Committee are discussed.
How Does the Nuclear Arms Race Work?
Authors: Gray Colin S.
Published: March 2007

Many analysts are convinced that they understand how arms races work. However, very few arms race studies rest upon a disciplined use of historical data, or upon a willingness to consider seriously more than one or two of the more prominent candidates for the role of the driving factor in an arms race. This article suggests that any ana lysis of the dynamics of the nuclear arms race cannot afford to neglect the operation of the following factors: inter-state action-reaction processes; inter-armed service action-reaction processes; intra-armed service action-reaction processes; bureaucratic political games; the very individual structures and processes of each political system; military-industrial complexities; foreign policy goals and strategies; and finally, techno logical innovation. Synergistic combinations of the operation of the forementioned factors produce and sustain what we term arms races. Policy prescription for arms control, if it is to be relevant, must rest upon a deep understanding of the processes to be controlled. An appreciation of the true complexity of arms race phenomena is one important intellectual step towards the ability to control.
Denmark — Bridge between the Nordic Countries and the European Communities?
Authors: Amstrup Niels , Sørensen Carsten L.
Published: March 2007

In the public debate preceding the Danish EC-referendum in October 1972 an idea of Denmark as a 'bridge' between the Nordic countries and the EC was brought for ward. This article examines the use and meaning of this idea as perceived by the decision-makers. After the failure in 1970 of the negotiations on a future Nordic Eco nomic Union (NORDEK) and the Danish application for EC-membership, Danish pro-marketeers made the 'bridge'-idea more and more articulate to reassure those who might be worried about future Nordic cooperation. The debate after the Danish referendum reveals that the idea of Denmark as a bridge was useful as an argument in domestic politics preceding the referendum, but has had little utility as a foreign policy doctrine. What is left of the 'bridge'-idea when prospects for Denmark as a member of both the Nordic system and the EC-system are analyzed, is a Danish desire to promote integration between the two systems or at least to minimize the distance as much as possible.
Britain and Scandinavia: Their Relations within EFTA, 1960-1968
Authors: Archer T. Clive
Published: March 2007

Archer, T. C. Britain and Scandinavia: Their Relations within EFTA, 1960-1968. Cooperation and Conflict, XI, 1976, 1-23.

Relationships between Britain and Scandinavia in EFTA are examined using three variables: industrial base, attitude to the EEC, Nordic-British division. After initial cooperation in establishing EFTA, British relations with Scandinavia declined and after 1963 harmony on EFTA issues amongst the Scandinavians increased. Response to the British import surcharge illuminates the part Sweden played as bridgebuilder between Britain and Scandinavia. The role of EFTA's institutions in the relationship is shown and EFTA's usefulness for the four states is evaluated: by the end of the sixties EFTA provided fewer pay-offs and other trade options were taken up in Nordek and the EEC.

T. Clive Archer, Department of Politics and Centre for Nordic Studies, University of Aberdeen, Scotland.
The Exercise of International Civil Power
Authors: Sjöstedt Gunnar
Published: March 2007

The words 'power' and 'influence' are unusually frequent in literature on international politics, but despite this, these terms represent an area where intensified research still seems necessary. Power is too often considered synonymous with military power, and so certain aspects of international power have been neglected. There is little known about how power is exercised by means of non-coercive methods through the exploita tion of a non-military power base. What, for instance, are the conditions that will enable a nation to negotiate successfully about the international monetary system in the IMF and other organizations? Civil power is exercised when one nation makes another behave in accordance with its own preferences by employing only the non-military components at its power base. Civil power is a theoretical concept which only rarely exists in reality.
Direct Elections to the European Parliament: Toward a Federal Future?
Authors: Lodge Juliet
Published: March 2007

Lodge, J. Direct Elections to the European Parliament: Toward a Federal Future? Cooperation and Conflict, XIII, 1978, 215-230.

The direct election of the European Parliament is controversial for a variety of reasons. In particular it is expected to stimulate a change in the exercise of political authority in the EC to the advantage of the Commission and European Parliament. Following a discussion of the origins, nature and key elements of direct elections, the controversy over their implications for national governments is analysed. Zero sum assumptions are rejected, and two institutional models for the future EC examined. The static model represents minimalist approaches, whereas the dynamic model presages insti tutional developments along federal lines.
The Concept of Foreign Policy Actions in Comparative Analysis
Authors: Carlsnaes Walter
Published: March 2007

The author's argument is that the unit of analysis in the comparative study of foreign policy stands in need of closer taxonomical examination with reference to certain logical, philosophi cal and methodological considerations. He proposes the concept of 'foreign policy actions' as the pertinent analytic unit in this area of inquiry, and then proceeds to examine its constituent elements in order to unfold a delimitation of this concept in terms of its specific denotative and connotative properties. This involves a discussion of, respectively, the notions of 'action', 'policy' and'foreign', and pari passu of the various elements which can be said to characterize each and which together constitute the formal definition which is proffered at the end of the article. The purpose of this classificatory exercise is to argue for a unit of analysis which - in addition to begin philosophically cognizant- seeks to combine definitional inclusiveness with empirical specificity, that is to say, a concept which fuses the extensional requirements of the comparative method with differentiae in such a way that it will make the explanation of foreign policies in the form of empirical generalizations both feasible and meaningful.
The Portuguese Revolution of 1974—75 and U.S. Foreign Policy
Authors: Oldberg Ingmar
Published: March 2007

Oldberg, I. The Portuguese Revolution of 1974-75 and U.S. Foreign Policy. Coop eration and Conflict, XVII, 1982, 179-189

The article analyzes American reaction to the development in Portugal from April 1974 to November 1975. It is shown that the Administration took an alarmist view, that it was pessimistic concerning prospects for democracy, and that it was prone toward taking repressive measures, whereas other political actors at home and abroad exercised a restraining influence. Internationally, the Portuguese events gave rise to a new domino theory which was used to discourage West Europeans from going soft on Communism. The doctrinaire Moscow-orientated Portuguese Communists helped form the American attitude toward the Euro-Communists. In relation to the Soviet Union, the Americans used the detente process, culminating in the CSCE Conference in Helsinki in July 1975, as a means toward restricting Soviet aid to the Portuguese Communists. This seems to have worked, thus making American intervention less urgent. But the Portuguese Revolution paved the way for revolutionary regimes in Portugal's African colonies, which the Soviets and their allies could assist. This dealt the first serious blow to the American interest in detente with the Soviet Union.
Multipolarity and Modernization. Sources of China's Foreign Policy in the 1980s
Authors: Østergaard Clemens Stubbe
Published: March 2007

Stubbe Østergaard, C. Multipolarity and Modernization. Sources of China's Foreign Policy in the 1980s. Cooperation and Conflict, XVIII, 1983, 245-267.

Change in China's policy towards the USA, the USSR and the Third World is analysed in terms of its immediate causes, and by means of a framework categorizing types of sources, processes of change and reappraisals, as well as stabilizers affecting all of these. It is shown that there has been a descriptive reappraisal since Afghanistan, based on perceived changes in conditions of policy towards important power groupings, changes that imply global multipolarity. Domestic politics, in particular the drive towards economic modernization and its ideological ramifications, has resulted in a normative reappraisal of policy. It is found that purges and professionalization have affected composition of the foreign policy-making system, while conflicts between representatives of technocratic and bureaucratic constituencies have affected the balance of power within the system. The article describes the resulting policy, which is marked by independence and equidistance towards the superpowers.
Scandinavian Talks on Military Cooperation in 1946-1947: A Prelude to the Decisions of 1948-1949
Authors: Nevakivi Jukka
Published: March 2007

During the first two years after the Second World War, Britain took on the burden of defence arrangements for Western Europe and therefore had a special interest in the talks on military cooperation which began in September 1946 between Denmark, Norway and Sweden. These talks were primarily for the reconstruction of the armed forces of Norway and Sweden. The existence of these deliberations was revealed by the Russians at the latest in February 1947. Their confidential warning did not discourage the Scandinavians from continuing their military discussions, which were followed by consultations on a possible customs union between the three states. The proposed plans obviously angered the Kremlin who had reason to suspect a connexion with Western military integration. The resulting tension between the Soviet Union and the Scandinavian countries, especially Sweden, may have hurried the former to extend its FCMA (Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance) treaty system from Poland, Hungary and Rumania to Finland, despite the fact that Finland was not one of the 'peoples' democracies'.
The United Nations and the Resolution of International Conflicts
Authors: Väyrynen Raimo
Published: March 2007

Väyrynen, R. The United Nations and the Resolution of International Conflicts. Cooperation and Conflict, XX, 1985, 141-171.

The United Nations evolves in interaction with its external environment, which has changed in several ways during the postwar era. The distribution of power between major powers and in the global system as a whole have created the context in which the UN has served the functions of conflict manifestation, conflict resolution, and collective legitimization. The world organization operated in the conditions of US hegemony from 1948 to 1963 after a brief prelude as the coalition of victorious powers in 1945-1947. The gradual erosion of this hegemony and the process of decolonization blended the UN with a measure of both duopoly and fragmentation from 1964 to 1974. The processes of fragmentation and disagreement have become even more visible since the middle of the 1970s. Transformations in the international environment have also changed the types of conflicts which the UN is expected to manage and resolve. In particular the number and complexity of peripheral conflicts referred to the organ ization has increased, while it has faced considerable difficulties in handling them successfully. This fact, together with the general crisis of multilateral international cooperation, has given rise to efforts to rehabilitate the role of the United Nations in the maintenance of collective security.
Hegemonic Decline and the Possibility of International Cooperation: Comments on Duncan Snidal's 'The Limits of Hegemonic Stability Theory'
Authors: Hovi Jon , Rasch Bjørn Erik
Published: March 2007

Hovi, J. & Rasch, B. E. Hegemonic Decline and the Possibility of International Cooperation: Comments on Duncan Snidal's 'The Limits of Hegemonic Stability Theory'. Cooperation and Conflict, XXI, 1986, 241-251.

This research note offers some support for Duncan Snidal's proposition that declining hegemony does not necessarily mean vanishing international cooperation. It is however argued that Snidal's own defence of this proposition is ill-founded. A model is presented that in a theoretically more satisfactory way restores the basis of Snidal's critique against hegemonic stability theory. Not only does the model improve the theoretical foundations of Snidal's reasoning, it also yields interesting predictions beyond those obtained by him. In particular, it challenges the conventional wisdom that hegemonic decline worsens the situation of all countries involved. Both small states and — surprisingly — the hegemon itself may stand to gain from the decline of the leader.
Iceland: Vulnerability in a Fish-based Economy
Authors: Kristinsson Gunnar Helgi
Published: March 2007

Fish — Iceland's main export product — accounts for three quarters of its exports. Although only a small proportion of the population is employed in fishing and fish processing, the economy is highly vulnerable to any fluctuations in the earnings from fish exports. This article discusses the Icelandic responses to vulnerability: an inwardly orientated emphasis on rapid adaptation to change, and an outwardly orientated qualified support for liberal trade policies. Also discussed is the possible impact of some of the changes in the foreign economic relations of the country in recent years, and the question of Iceland's relationship with the process of European integration.