bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Psychologists seek the unexpected, not the negative, to provoke innovative theory construction
Authors: Darley John , Todorov Alexander
Published: January 2005

Krueger & Funder (K&F) see social psychologists as driven to demonstrate that people's behavior falls below relevant moral and intellectual standards. We suggest that social psychologists search for demonstrations of when it is that people's actual behaviors and decisions deviate from expected or ideal behaviors and decisions, and what these “deviations” tell us about general decision processes, including those that do not produce unexpected actions. Often the discoveries are of positive rather than negative behaviors.
Where in the brain does the forward model lurk?
Authors: Donchin Opher , Raz Amir
Published: January 2005

The general applicability of forward models in brain function has previously been recognized. Grush's contribution centers largely on broadening the extent and scope of forward models. However, in his effort to expand and generalize, important distinctions may have been overlooked. A better grounding in the underlying physiology would have helped to illuminate such valuable differences and similarities.
Beyond negative and positive ideologies
Authors: Fiedler Klaus
Published: January 2005

There are reasons to endorse Krueger & Funder's (K&F's) critique, but also to disagree with their diagnosis. A “problem-seeking approach” is hardly the cause of imbalance and lack of theoretical integration. Precommitted, ideological theories afford a more appropriate explanation.
Apes and angels: Adaptationism versus Panglossianism
Authors: Figueredo Aurelio José , Landau Mark J. , Sefcek Jon A.
Published: January 2005

The “straw man” prior expectation of the dominant social psychology paradigm is that humans should behave with perfect rationality and high ethical standards. The more modest claim of evolutionary psychologists is that humans have evolved specific adaptations for adaptive problems that were reliably present in the ancestral environment. Outside that restricted range of problems, one should not expect optimal behavior.
From semantic analogy to theoretical confusion?
Authors: Gaveau Valérie , Desmurget Michel , Baraduc Pierre
Published: January 2005

We briefly address three issues that might be important to evaluate the validity of the “emulation theory”: (1) Does it really say something new? (2) Are similar processes engaged in action, imagery, and perception? (3) Does a brain amodal emulator exist?
Does the brain implement the Kalman filter?
Authors: Goussev Valeri
Published: January 2005

The Kalman filtering technique is considered as a part of concurrent data-processing techniques also related to detection, parameter evaluation, and identification. The adaptive properties of the filter are discussed as being related to symmetrical brain structures.
The irrationality paradox
Authors: Gigerenzer Gerd
Published: January 2005

In the study of judgmental errors, surprisingly little thought is spent on what constitutes good and bad judgment. I call this simultaneous focus on errors and lack of analysis of what constitutes an error, the irrationality paradox. I illustrate the paradox by a dozen apparent fallacies; each can be logically deduced from the environmental structure and an unbiased mind.
Amodal imagery in rostral premotor areas
Authors: Hanakawa Takashi , Honda Manabu , Hallett Mark
Published: January 2005

Inspired by Rick Grush's emulation theory, we reinterpreted a series of our neuroimaging experiments which were intended to examine the representations of complex movement, modality-specific imagery, and supramodal imagery. The emulation theory can explain motor and cognitive activities observed in cortical motor areas, through the speculation that caudal areas relate to motor-specific imagery and rostral areas embrace an emulator for amodal imagery.
Null hypothesis statistical testing and the balance between positive and negative approaches
Authors: Goodie Adam S.
Published: January 2005

Several of Krueger & Funder's (K&F's) suggestions may promote more balanced social cognition research, but reconsidered null hypothesis statistical testing (NHST) is not one of them. Although NHST has primarily supported negative conclusions, this is simply because most conclusions have been negative. NHST can support positive, negative, and even balanced conclusions. Better NHST practices would benefit psychology, but would not alter the balance between positive and negative approaches.
The size-weight illusion, emulation, and the cerebellum
Authors: Hubbard Edward M. , Ramachandran Vilayanur S.
Published: January 2005

In this commentary we discuss a predictive sensorimotor illusion, the size-weight illusion, in which the smaller of two objects of equal weight is perceived as heavier. We suggest that Grush's emulation theory can explain this illusion as a mismatch between predicted and actual sensorimotor feedback, and present preliminary data suggesting that the cerebellum may be critical for implementing the emulator.
Another route to broadening the scope of social psychology: Ecologically valid research
Authors: Gosling Samuel D.
Published: January 2005

An imbalance is identified in social psychology between controlled experimental studies (which are common) and real-world, ecologically valid studies (which are rare). The preponderance of experimental studies (which provide mere existence proofs and lack realism) helps fuel social psychology's fault-finding focus. Laboratory experiments and ecological studies should be pursued jointly to examine social life in the real world.
The role of “prespecification” in an embodied cognition
Authors: Jordan J. Scott
Published: January 2005

Grush makes extensive use of von Holst and Mittelstaedt's (1950) efference copy hypothesis. Although his embellishment of the model is admirably more sophisticated than that of its progenitors, I argue that it still suffers from the same conceptual limitations as entailed in its original formulation.
Is social psychological research really so negatively biased?
Authors: Gregg Aiden P. , Sedikides Constantine
Published: January 2005

Krueger & Funder (K&F) overstate the defects of Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST), and with it the magnitude of negativity bias within social psychology. We argue that replication matters more than NHST, that the pitfalls of NHST are not always or necessarily realized, and that not all biases are harmless offshoots of adaptive mental abilities.
Beyond balance: To understand “bias,” social psychology needs to address issues of politics, power, and social perspective
Authors: Haslam Alexander , Postmes Tom , Jetten Jolanda
Published: January 2005

Krueger & Funder's (K&F's) diagnosis of social psychology's obsession with bias is correct and accords with similar observations by self-categorization theorists. However, the analysis of causes is incomplete and suggestions for cures are flawed. The primary problem is not imbalance, but a failure to acknowledge that social reality has different forms, depending on one's social and political vantage point in relation to a specific social context.
The art of representation: Support for an enactive approach
Authors: Newton Natika
Published: January 2005

Grush makes an important contribution to a promising way of viewing mental representation: as a component activity in sensorimotor processes. Grush shows that there need be no entities in our heads that would count as representations, but that, nevertheless, the process of representation can be defined so as to include both natural and artificial (e.g., linguistic or pictorial) representing.
Out of the theoretical cul-de-sac
Authors: Hertwig Ralph , Wallin Annika
Published: January 2005

A key premise of the heuristics-and-biases program is that heuristics are “quite useful.” Let us now pay more than lip service to this premise, and analyse the environmental structures that make heuristics more or less useful. Let us also strike from the long list of biases those phenomena that are not biases and explore to what degree those that remain are adaptive or can be understood as by-products of adaptive mechanisms.
Emulation theory offers conceptual gains but needs filters
Authors: Reed Catherine L. , Grubb Jefferson D. , Winkielman Piotr
Published: January 2005

Much can be gained by specifying the operation of the emulation process. A brief review of studies from diverse domains, including complex motor-skill representation, emotion perception, and face memory, highlights that emulation theory offers precise explanations of results and novel predictions. However, the neural instantiation of the emulation process requires development to move the theory from armchair to laboratory.
Asch and the balance of values
Authors: Hodges Bert H.
Published: January 2005

Values will be central to developing a more balanced social psychology. A nonconformist account of Asch's (1956) experiments is used to illustrate the role of multiple values and to support and extend Krueger & Funder's (K&F's) claims. A balance of values, one that goes beyond accuracy and truth, and that avoids absolutism and relativism, is needed.
The goodness of judgment index
Authors: Jussim Lee
Published: January 2005

Evidence is presented indicating that mainstream social psychology material leads undergraduates to conclude that people are irrational. To help address the problems identified by Krueger & Funder (K&F), a new statistic, the Goodness of Judgment Index (GJI), is presented. A concrete example based on a recent study is used to show how the GJI can be used to bring some balance back to research emphasizing error and bias.
Brains have emulators with brains: Emulation economized
Authors: Schubotz Ricarda I. , Yves von Cramon D.
Published: January 2005

This commentary addresses the neural implementation of emulation, mostly using findings from functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). Furthermore, both empirical and theoretical suggestions are discussed that render two aspects of emulation theory redundant: independent modal emulators and extra measurement of amodal emulation. This modified emulation theory can conceptually integrate simulation theory and also get rid of some problematic philosophical implications.
One path to balance and order in social psychology: An evolutionary perspective
Authors: Kenrick Douglas T. , Maner Jon K.
Published: January 2005

Consideration of the adaptive problems faced by our ancestors suggests functional reasons why people exhibit some biases in social judgment more than others. We present a taxonomy consisting of six domains of central social challenges. Each is associated with somewhat different motivations, and consequently different decision-rules. These decision-rules, in turn, make some biases inherently more likely to emerge than others.
Emulator as body schema
Authors: Slaughter Virginia
Published: January 2005

Grush's emulator model appears to be consistent with the idea of a body schema, that is, a detailed mental representation of the body, its structure, and movement in relation to the environment. If the emulator is equivalent to a body schema, then the next step will be to specify how the emulator accounts for neuropsychological and developmental phenomena that have long been hypothesized to involve the body schema.
Is there a “People are Stupid” school in social psychology?
Authors: Kihlstrom John F.
Published: January 2005

This commentary notes the emergence of a “People are Stupid” school of thought that describes social behavior as mindless, automatic, and unconscious. I trace the roots of this “school,” particularly in the link between situationism in social psychology and behaviorism in psychology at large, and suggest that social psychology should focus on the role of the mind in social interaction.
Evidence for the online operation of imagery: Visual imagery modulates motor production in drawing
Authors: Smith Alastair D. , Gilchrist Iain D
Published: January 2005

One property of the emulator framework presented by Grush is that imagery operates off-line. Contrary to this viewpoint, we present evidence showing that mental rotation of a simple figure modulates low-level features of drawing articulation. This effect is dependent upon the type of rotation, suggesting a more integrative online role for imagery than proposed by the target article.
Not just a passion for negativity
Authors: Klar Yechiel , Levi Uzi
Published: January 2005

The Krueger & Funder (K&F) article would gain in constructive value if the authors spelled out what role the heuristics-and-biases approach could play in balancing the field of social cognition, lowering the burden of blame on it, cautioning overly enthusiastic readers from championing the “enough-with-the-biases” movement, and acknowledging that not all biases are caused by minorities.
If emulation is representation, does detail matter?
Authors: Stein Lynn Andrea
Published: January 2005

Grush describes a variety of different systems that illustrate his vision of representation through emulation. These individual data points are not necessarily sufficient to determine what level of detail is required for a representation to count as emulation. By examining one of his examples closely, this commentary suggest that salience of the information supplied is a critical dimension.
The “reign of error” in social psychology: On the real versus imagined consequences of problem-focused research
Authors: Kruger Justin , Savitsky Kenneth
Published: January 2005

Krueger & Funder (K&F) make the familiar accusation that social psychologists focus too much on what people do wrong, rather than on what they do right. Although there is some truth to their charge, their accusations are overstated and their conclusions are incorrect. The field is far less problem-focused than they suggest, and the proposed consequences of this approach are more imagined than real.
Accuracy and error: Constraints on process models in social psychology
Authors: Lambert Alan J. , Payne B. Keith , Jacoby Larry L.
Published: January 2005

In light of an historical obsession with human error, Krueger & Funder (K&F) suggest that social psychologists should emphasize the strengths of social perception. In our view, however, absolute levels of accuracy (or error) in any given experiment are less important than underlying processes. We discuss the use of the process-dissociation procedure for gaining insight into the mechanisms underlying accuracy and error.
Sensation and emulation of coordinated actions
Authors: Walter Charles B.
Published: January 2005

Although the application of the emulation model to the control of simple positioning movements is relatively straightforward, extending the scheme to actions requiring multisegmental, interlimb coordination complicates matters a bit. Special consideration of the demands in this case, both on sensory processing and on the process model (two key elements of the Kalman filter), are discussed.
Proper experimental design and implementation are necessary conditions for a balanced social psychology
Authors: Ortmann Andreas , Ostatnicky Michal
Published: January 2005

We applaud the authors' basic message. We note that the negative research emphasis is not special solely to social psychology and judgment and decision-making. We argue that the proposed integration of null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) and Bayesian analysis is promising but will ultimately succeed only if more attention is paid to proper experimental design and implementation.
Representing is more than emulating
Authors: Wang Hongbin , Yang Yingrui
Published: January 2005

Mental representations are more than emulations. Different types of representations, including external representations, various mental models (distorted and abstract), and emulative models, can all play important roles in human cognition. To explain cognitive performance in a specific task, a systematic analysis of the underlying representational structures and their interactions is needed.
Multi-process models in social psychology provide a more balanced view of social thought and action
Authors: Petty Richard E.
Published: January 2005

Krueger & Funder (K&F) describe social psychology as overly consumed with maladaptive heuristics and biases. This characterization fails to consider multi-process models of social thought and action. Such models, especially with respect to attitudes, have outlined the situational and individual difference variables responsible for determining when thoughts and actions are relatively thoughtful versus when they are more reliant on mental shortcuts.
Errors of judgment and the logic of conversation
Authors: Schwarz Norbert
Published: January 2005

Experimental procedures routinely violate the cooperative principle of conversational conduct by presenting irrelevant information in a way that implies its relevance to the task at hand. This contributes to an overestimation of the prevalence of judgment errors relative to natural contexts. When research participants are aware that the usual norms of conversational conduct do not apply, the emerging errors are attenuated or eliminated.
Computing the motor-sensor map
Authors: Wiener Oswald , Raab Thomas
Published: January 2005

“Articulate models” subservient to formal intelligence are imagined to be heterarchies of automata capable of performing the “symbolic (quasi-spatial) syntheses” of Luria (1973), where “quasi-spatial” points to the abstract core of spatiality: the symbol productions, combinations, and substitutions of algebraic reckoning. The alleged cognitive role of internal “topographic images” and of “efference copies” is confronted with this background and denied.
Motoric emulation may contribute to perceiving imitable stimuli
Authors: Wilson Margaret
Published: January 2005

First, I note three questions that need further exploration: how fast the emulator operates, compared to the real-time events it models; what exactly perceptual emulation, with no motor component, consists of; and whether images are equivalent to raw sensations. Next, I propose that Grush's framework can explain the role of motor activation in processing “imitable” stimuli.
Further explorations of the empirical and theoretical aspects of the emulation theory
Authors: Grush Rick
Published: January 2005

The emulation theory of representation articulated in the target article is further explained and explored in this response to commentaries. Major topics include: the irrelevance of equilibrium-point and related models of motor control to the theory; clarification of the particular sense of “representation” which the emulation theory of representation is an account of; the relation between the emulation framework and Kalman filtering; and addressing the empirical data considered to be in conflict with the emulation theory. In addition, I discuss the further empirical support for the emulation theory provided by some commentators, as well as a number of suggested theoretical applications.
Balance in psychological research: The dual process perspective
Authors: Stanovich Keith E.
Published: January 2005

Krueger & Funder (K&F) are right that various imbalances characterize social psychology, but I question whether they are characteristic of psychology or cognitive science as a whole. Dual-process theories, popular in the latter fields, emphasize both processing biases and the adaptiveness of human cognition in a more balanced manner.
The role of learning in normative and non-normative behavior
Authors: Stolarz-Fantino Stephanie , Fantino Edmund
Published: January 2005

There are good reasons why social psychologists have emphasized the negative side of human reasoning. They are simply following humans' tendency to pay particular attention to unusual occurrences. Attempts to refocus attention onto a wider range of behavior should include the influence of learning on both normative and non-normative behavior.
Social cognitive neuroscience: The perspective shift in progress
Authors: Wood Jacqueline N.
Published: January 2005

Krueger & Funder (K&F) describe social cognitive research as being flawed by its emphasis on performance errors and biases. They argue that a perspective shift is necessary to give balance to the field. However, such a shift may already be occurring with the emergence of social cognitive neuroscience leading to new theories and research that focus on normal social cognition.
Social psychology: A field in search of a center
Authors: Krueger Joachim I. , Funder David C.
Published: January 2005

Many commentators agree with our view that the problem-oriented approach to social psychology has not fulfilled its promise, and they suggest new research directions that may contribute to the maturation of the field. Others suggest that social psychology is not as focused on negative phenomena as we claim, or that a negative focus does indeed lay the most efficient path toward a general understanding of social cognition and behavior. In this response, we organize the comments thematically, discuss them in light of our original exposition, and reiterate that we seek not a disproportionately positive social psychology but a balanced field that addresses the range of human performance.
A one-year intensified study of outbreaks of gastroenteritis in The Netherlands
Authors: VAN DUYNHOVEN Y. T. H. P. , DE JAGER C. M. , KORTBEEK L. M. , VENNEMA H. , KOOPMANS M. P. G. , VAN LEUSDEN F. , VAN DER POEL W. H. M. , VAN DEN BROEK M. J. M.
Published: January 2005

In 2002, in The Netherlands a national study of gastroenteritis outbreaks was performed. Epidemiological information was collected by the Public Health Services (PHS) and the Food Inspection Services (FIS) using standardized questionnaires. Stool samples were collected for diagnostic testing. For foodborne outbreaks, food samples were taken. In total, 281 gastroenteritis outbreaks were included, mainly from nursing homes and homes for the elderly (57%), restaurants (11%), hospitals (9%) and day-care centres (7%). Direct person-to-person spread was the predominant transmission route in all settings (overall 78%), except for restaurant outbreaks where food was suspected in almost 90% (overall in 21% of outbreaks). The most common pathogen was norovirus (54%), followed by Salmonella spp. (4%), rotavirus group A (2%), Campylobacter spp. (1%) and only incidentally others. In conclusion, most outbreaks were reported from health and residential institutions, with norovirus as the dominant agent. Control should aim at reducing person-to-person spread. In foodborne outbreaks norovirus was common, due to contamination of food by food handlers. Salmonella, as the second foodborne pathogen, was mainly associated with raw shell eggs. These results stress the continuous need for food safety education, complementary to governmental regulation.
Prevalence of hepatitis C in drug users in Flanders: determinants and geographic differences
Authors: MATHEÏ C. , ROBAEYS G. , VAN DAMME P. , BUNTINX F. , VERRANDO R.
Published: January 2005

The prevalence of hepatitis C and related risk factors in drug users were compared in two geographic regions in Belgium, the city of Antwerp and the mixed urban–rural area of Limburg. All 310 participants were surveyed and screened for hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV. Prevalence rates of anti-HCV, anti-HBc and anti-HIV were 71, 62 and 4% in Antwerp and 46, 21 and 0% in Limburg respectively. Injecting drug use, duration of injecting drug use, work as a commercial sex-worker, originating from Turkey or Northern Africa, marginalization and anti-HBc positivity were identified as independent predictors for hepatitis C infection. In this study an important difference in HCV seroprevalence among drug users in a methadone maintenance programme across two geographic regions in Belgium was demonstrated. This was explained not only by variations in drug-related risk behaviour, but also by differences in sexual risk behaviour and socio-economic status.
Completion of screening for latent tuberculosis infection among immigrants
Authors: CARVALHO A. C. C. , SALERI N. , EL-HAMAD I. , TEDOLDI S. , CAPONE S. , PEZZOLI M. C. , ZACCARIA M. , PIZZOCOLO A. , SCARCELLA C. , MATTEELLI A.
Published: January 2005

The objective of our study was to evaluate the sociodemographic factors associated with completion of screening for latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) among undocumented immigrants in Brescia, Italy. Screening for LTBI was offered to 649 immigrants; 213 (33%) immigrants completed the first step of screening; only 44% (55/124) of individuals with a positive tuberculin skin test result started treatment for LTBI. The univariate analysis showed that being unmarried, of Senegalese nationality and being interviewed by a health-care worker with the same native language as the immigrant were significantly associated with completion of screening for LTBI. In the multiple logistic regression, being interviewed in the native language of the health-care worker (OR 2·5, 95% CI 1·3–4·8, P=0·004) and being of Senegalese origin (OR 2·3, 95% CI 1·4–3·6, P=0·0005) were independently associated with adherence to LTBI screening. Our results suggest that knowledge of the sociodemographic characteristics of immigrants, and the participation of health-care workers of the same cultural origin as the immigrant during the visits, can be an important tool to improve completion of screening for LTBI.
PspA family typing and PCR-based DNA fingerprinting with BOX A1R primer of pneumococci from the blood of patients in the USA with and without sickle cell disease
Authors: PAYNE D. B. , SUN A. , BUTLER J. C. , SINGH S. P. , HOLLINGSHEAD S. K. , BRILES D. E.
Published: January 2005

Disease and mortality rates for Streptococcus pneumoniae infections are much higher in patients with sickle cell disease (SCD) than in age-matched patients without SCD. Pneumococcal surface protein A (PspA) has been proposed as a component in human vaccines against S. pneumoniae to provide greater breadth of coverage than can be obtained with the 7-valent conjugate vaccine. The cross-reactivity of PspA is associated with the ‘PspA family’ structure. In this study we examined strains of S. pneumoniae from patients with and without SCD to determine whether the strains infecting the hypersusceptible population of SCD patients were limited to the same two PspA families already known to comprise over 95% of strains infecting non-SCD patients. Each strain was also evaluated according to the presence or absence of specific PCR fragments based on repetitive BOX elements to screen for possible SCD-associated clonal structure. Strains from SCD and non-SCD patients were similarly dispersed among the most common BOX PCR groups and strains from both groups expressed a similar distribution of PspA variants. Thus, a PspA vaccine designed for the population at large should also be appropriate for patients with SCD.
Prolonged persistence of bovine herpesvirus in small cattle herds: a model-based analysis
Authors: MOLLEMA L. , DE JONG M. C. M. , VAN BOVEN M.
Published: January 2005

Herpesviruses can remain dormant in once-infected hosts and, upon reactivation, cause such hosts to become infectious. This phenomenon of latency and reactivation may enable herpesviruses to persist for a long time in small host populations. To quantify the effect of reactivation on persistence, the time to extinction of bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BHV-1) in small cattle populations was calculated. For realistic parameter values the mean time to extinction is already more than 100 years in a population of 10 animals. In a population of 20 animals the time to extinction is approximately 2000 years. The effects of vaccination on persistence were also studied, revealing that continued vaccination of the whole population could result in much faster eradication. For instance, in an isolated herd of 20 animals BHV-1 could be eradicated in 44 years.
Estimating the mortality rate of hepatitis C using multiple data sources
Authors: WU C. , CHANG H.-G. , McNUTT L.-A. , SMITH P. F.
Published: January 2005

The New York State hospital discharge database and the multiple cause-of-death file were used to estimate the mortality rate of hepatitis C in New York State excluding New York City in 1997. The mortality rate with hepatitis C was severely underestimated when each data source was used alone. Applying the capture–recapture method using the hospital discharge database and the multiple cause-of-death file appears to be an efficient method to estimate the mortality rate with hepatitis C.
A large-scale gastroenteritis outbreak associated with Norovirus in nursing homes
Authors: CALDERON-MARGALIT R. , SHEFFER R. , HALPERIN T. , ORR N. , COHEN D. , SHOHAT T.
Published: January 2005

An increase in gastroenteritis outbreaks due to Norovirus has been reported worldwide. We investigated a large-scale outbreak affecting 246 residents and 33 staff members in six nursing homes in the Tel-Aviv district, Israel, during 3 weeks in 2002. Person-to-person spread was noticed in all nursing homes. The spread of disease could not be attributed to social interactions. Among the elderly residents, the hospitalization rate was 10·2% and the case-fatality rate was 2·0%. Bacteriological cultures were negative. Overall, 7 out of 15 stool specimens were positive for Norovirus by RT–PCR. All were sequenced and found to be 90% identical. The characteristics of this outbreak and the RT–PCR results suggest that illness was caused by Norovirus. Due to the high case-fatality rate of Norovirus gastroenteritis, there should be a high index of suspicion when encountering a gastroenteritis outbreak among the elderly. This will enable prompt action to stop the spread of illness.
An outbreak of food poisoning due to a genogroup I norovirus
Authors: SALA M. R. , CARDEÑOSA N. , ARIAS C. , LLOVET T. , RECASENS A. , DOMÍNGUEZ A. , BUESA J. , SALLERAS L.
Published: January 2005

Norovirus infection is associated with approximately 90% of epidemic non-bacterial acute gastroenteritis. The objective of this study is to describe an outbreak of norovirus genogroup I gastroenteritis which affected workers in a hospital and was attributed to food prepared by an infected food handler. Forty cases were detected, of whom 80% were interviewed. The index case was the cook employed in the hospital cafeteria. The following symptoms were observed: abdominal pain in 90·6%, vomiting in 71·9%, diarrhoea in 71·9%, general indisposition in 62·5%, headaches in 53·1% and fever in 32·4% of cases. The initial symptoms were abdominal pain in 37% and vomiting in 28%. Of the 14 samples analysed by RT–PCR, 12 (86%) were positive for a genogroup I norovirus. After sequencing the strain was identified as genotype Desert Shield. Many of the foodstuffs consumed were made by hand, favouring transmission from the index case to the cafeteria users.
Measles elimination in Italy: projected impact of the National Elimination Plan
Authors: MANFREDI P. , WILLIAMS J. R. , CIOFI DEGLI ATTI M. L. , SALMASO S.
Published: January 2005

A mathematical model was used to evaluate the impact of the Italian Measles National Elimination Plan (NEP), and possible sources of failure in achieving its targets. The model considered two different estimates of force of infection, and the possible effect on measles transmission of the current Italian demographic situation, characterized by a below-replacement fertility. Results suggest that reaching all NEP targets will allow measles elimination to be achieved. In addition, the model suggests that achieving elimination by reaching a 95% first-dose coverage appears unlikely; and that conducting catch-up activities, reaching high vaccination coverage, could interrupt virus circulation, but could not prevent the infection re-emerging before 2020. Also, the introduction of the second dose of measles vaccine seems necessary for achieving and maintaining elimination. Furthermore, current Italian demography appears to be favourable for reaching elimination.
The importance of imported infections in maintaining hepatitis B in The Netherlands
Authors: VELDHUIJZEN I. K. , SMITS L. J. M. , van de LAAR M. J. W.
Published: January 2005

In The Netherlands, in May 1999 an enhanced surveillance of hepatitis B was begun to collect detailed information of patients with acute hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. The objective was to gain insight in transmission routes and source of infection of new HBV cases. Through public health services, patients were interviewed on risk factors. It appeared that the majority (59%) acquired the infection through sexual contact; 52% of these by homosexual and 48% by heterosexual contact. In 60% of the heterosexual cases, the source of infection was a partner originating from a hepatitis B-endemic region. Sexual transmission is the most common route of transmission of acute hepatitis B in The Netherlands and introduction of infections from abroad plays a key role in the current epidemiology of HBV. As well as prevention programmes targeted at sexual high-risk groups, prevention efforts should focus more on the heterosexual transmission from HBV carriers.
Outbreak of cyclosporiasis in British Columbia associated with imported Thai basil
Authors: HOANG L. M. N. , FYFE M. , ONG C. , HARB J. , CHAMPAGNE S. , DIXON B. , ISAAC-RENTON J.
Published: January 2005

Sporadic outbreaks of cyclosporiasis, a common cause of protracted diarrhoea in underdeveloped countries, are often undetected and undiagnosed in industrial countries. In May 2001, an outbreak of Cyclospora cayetanensis gastroenteritis was identified in British Columbia, Canada, with 17 reported cases. We conducted a case-control study involving 12 out of the 17 reported and confirmed case patients. Eleven (92%) of the patients had consumed Thai basil, an essential ingredient in Vietnamese cuisine, compared to 3 out of 16 (19%) of the control patients (P=0·003). Trace-back investigations implicated Thai basil imported via the United States as the vehicle for this outbreak. This is the first documented sporadic outbreak of cyclosporiasis linked to Thai basil in Canada, and the first outbreak of cyclosporiasis identified in an ethnic immigrant population. This outbreak provides the opportunity to increase our understanding of this emerging pathogen and improve on our prevention and control for future outbreaks.
A large outbreak of scombroid fish poisoning associated with eating escolar fish (Lepidocybium flavobrunneum)
Authors: FELDMAN K. A. , WERNER S. B. , CRONAN S. , HERNANDEZ M. , HORVATH A. R. , LEA C. S. , AU A. M. , VUGIA D. J.
Published: January 2005

In August 2003, an outbreak of scombroid fish poisoning occurred at a retreat centre in California, USA. In a retrospective cohort study, 42 (75%) of the 56 dinner attendees who ate escolar fish (Lepidocybium flavobrunneum) met the case definition. Individuals who ate at least 2 oz of fish were 1·5 times more likely to develop symptoms than those who ate less (relative risk 1·5, 95% confidence interval 0·9–2·6), and to develop more symptoms (median 7 vs. 3 symptoms, P=0·03). Patients who took medicine had a longer duration of symptoms than those who did not (median 4 vs. 1·5 h, P=0·05), and experienced a greater number of symptoms (median 8 vs. 3 symptoms, P=0·0002). Samples of fish contained markedly elevated histamine levels (from 2000 to 3800 ppm). This is one of the largest reported outbreaks of scombroid fish poisoning in the United States and was associated with a rare vehicle for scombroid fish poisoning, escolar.
Under-notification of giardiasis in Auckland, New Zealand: a capture–recapture estimation
Authors: HOQUE M. E. , HOPE V. T. , SCRAGG R. , GRAHAM J.
Published: January 2005

Estimation of the degree of undercount is important for disease surveillance. Capture–recapture techniques are now being used to evaluate the completeness of disease ascertainment. This study estimated the level of under-notification of giardiasis in the Auckland adult population using a capture–recapture method. Two independent datasets of giardiasis cases [ges ]15 years were generated from the 1998–1999 Auckland Giardiasis Study (AGS) case database and cases notified to Auckland Regional Public Health Services (ARPHS) for the same period of time. Cases were matched and under-notification was estimated using a two-sample capture–recapture method. During the 12-month period, 199 cases participated in the AGS and 413 cases were notified to ARPHS. The capture–recapture calculation indicated that only 49% of cases were notified. Under-notification by a factor of 2 obscures the true burden of giardiasis. Socio-economic conditions and water quality may influence disease notification inversely. Capture–recapture techniques are useful in evaluating the completeness of surveillance.
Molecular epidemiology of Salmonella spp. isolates from gulls, fish-meal factories, feed factories, animals and humans in Norway based on pulsed-field gel electrophoresis
Authors: NESSE L. L. , REFSUM T. , HEIR E. , NORDBY K. , VARDUND T. , HOLSTAD G.
Published: January 2005

The molecular epidemiology of 98 isolates of Salmonella serovar Agona (n=27), S. Montevideo (n=42) and S. Senftenberg (n=29) from wild-living gulls, fish-meal factories, feed factories, humans and domestic animals was investigated using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and computerized numerical analysis. Two of the S. Agona profiles were identified both in gulls and in two of the factories. In addition, one of these profiles was detected in two infected poultry farms. Two of the S. Montevideo profiles were also identified both in gulls and in two of the factories, and one of these profiles was observed in a human isolate. Four factories shared an identical S. Senftenberg profile. The S. Senftenberg profile found in gulls was not identified in any other source investigated. The presence of isolates with identical PFGE profiles indicates potential epidemiological links between different factories, as well as between gulls and factories.
Characterization of multidrug-resistance phenotypes and genotypes of Escherichia coli strains isolated from swine from an abattoir in Osaka, Japan
Authors: KUMAI YUKO , SUZUKI YASUHIKO , TANAKA YOSHINORI , SHIMA KENSUKE , BHADRA RUPAK K. , YAMASAKI SHINJI , KURODA KOICHI , ENDO GINJI
Published: January 2005

A total of 455 highly tetracycline-resistant Escherichia coli strains were isolated from 84 healthy swine from abattoirs and it was found that 56·9, 43·1, 22·2, 15·4, 2·6 and 1·5% of strains were resistant to chloramphenicol, ampicillin, kanamycin, trimethoprim–sulphamethoxazole, ofloxacin and gentamicin respectively. Interestingly, E. coli strains isolated from certain finisher hog groups exhibited resistance against 2–7 antimicrobials, but strains isolated from multiparous sow groups in each herd were resistant to only 2–4 antimicrobial agents. When randomly selected 108 tetracycline-resistant isolates were tested for the presence of resistance genes, the following genes tet(A) (n=6), tet(B) (n=95), tet(D) (n=1) or both tet(A) and tet(B) (n=6) were found to be distributed among them. Furthermore, 52 isolates carried the integrase 1 gene and 24 strains gave five different PCR amplicon profiles using primers from the variable region of integron. Extensive nucleotide sequence analyses of these amplicons revealed the presence of dhfrI, dhfrXII, dfr17, aadA, aadA2, aadA5, aadA21, aacA4 and catB3 genes which code for different antibacterial resistance proteins.
Herders response to acute land pressure under changing property rights: some insights from Kajiado District, Kenya
Authors: KABUBO-MARIARA JANE
Published: January 2005

This paper examines the response of herders to increased shortage and degradation of land in an arid and semi-arid land setting in Kenya, under changing property right regimes using both survey and secondary data. We argue that the responses adopted are livelihood strategies to improve herder's welfare. We explore the determinants of three different strategies: crop cultivation, investment in land improvements, and migration with livestock. We employ the probit regression framework to explain each strategy. The main findings of the study are that private property rights, educational attainment, and availability of water are major determinants of the three strategies. We recommend policies that favour privatization of existing common property resources, improve education levels, and increase supply of water in the district.
Poverty, property rights and collective action: understanding the distributive aspects of common property resource management
Authors: ADHIKARI BHIM
Published: January 2005

This study examines, in a developing-country context, the contribution of community forestry to household income with particular emphasis on group heterogeneity and equity in benefit distribution. The economic analysis of household-level benefits reveals that poorer households are currently benefiting less in absolute terms from community forestry than less poor households. In terms of the contribution of forests to total household income, the study results suggest that the poor are actually less dependent on forests than the rich, a finding that is somewhat contradictory to results from other similar studies. The average ‘poor’ household obtains Nepalese rupees (Nrs) 7,756 gross income from community forest annually, while the more ‘rich’ households obtain on average Nrs 24,466 per year. In terms of the contribution of forests to net household income, the study results seem to suggest an inverted U-shaped relationship – as income increases dependency on forest resources may decline. Econometric analysis suggests that income from the community forests is related to socio-economic attributes and private endowments of households. Households with land and livestock assets and upper caste households gain more from the commons, while better-educated households depend less on forest resources. Female-headed households benefit less from community forests, further aggravating the inequity in distribution of benefits. The study makes a number of recommendations to improve community forestry in Nepal.
Now that your land is my land…does it matter? A case study in Western India
Authors: MUKHOPADHYAY PRANAB
Published: January 2005

This paper examines the implications of tenancy legislation and privatization of community lands in Goa on the supply of local public goods for soil conservation. In the post-tenancy period our survey reveals an increasing number of farmers being affected by salinity ingress. These findings support the hypothesis that when community institutions break down, individual agents who become new resource owners do not have sufficient incentive to undertake supply of local public goods, which leads to a decline in productivity and affects long-term sustainability.
State regulation versus co-management: evidence from the Cochin Estuarine Fisheries in India
Authors: SRINIVASAN JEENA T.
Published: January 2005

This paper examines the property rights of the Cochin estuarine fisheries in India, which in spite of having well-defined access and conservation rules imposed by the state, have failed to ensure proper resource management. Considering the resource characteristics and the causes for state's failure, co-management, which requires a redefinition of management functions by state as well as users, has been proposed as an alternative. Analysis of user characteristics, using the two-stage estimation procedure, throws policy signals that under co-management the state can strengthen the licensing system to restrict access to fishing and to impart awareness regarding conservation rules. The logit analysis on users' role indicates that, although certain types of heterogeneities contribute towards the critical mass needed for a collective action, the distributional implications may lead at least some to oppose co-management. This implies that, even if users initially get to agree to co-operate and share any rents from conservation, significant prisoner's dilemma will soon occur returning the resource to its current state, and co-management will have to still grapple with lack of well-defined property rights.
EDUCATION VOUCHERS, GROWTH, AND INCOME INEQUALITY
Authors: CARDAK BULY A.
Published: January 2005

This paper studies a growth model with public and private education alternatives. The impact of education vouchers on economic growth and the evolution of income inequality are considered. Results indicate that introducing education vouchers can increase economic growth. Households switching from public to private education experience higher incomes. This raises the tax base, in turn raising public education expenditures and growth of the whole economy. Vouchers are found to generally increase income inequality. Welfare comparisons show that voucher schemes may in some cases gain majority support, depending on assumptions and parameters. The results add a new dimension on which vouchers can be evaluated in the continuing policy debate.
LEARNING TO FORECAST AND CYCLICAL BEHAVIOR OF OUTPUT AND INFLATION
Authors: ADAM KLAUS
Published: January 2005

This paper considers a sticky price model with a cash-in-advance constraint where agents forecast inflation rates with the help of econometric models. Agents use least-squares learning to estimate two competing models of which one is consistent with rational expectations once learning is complete. When past performance governs the choice of forecast model, agents may prefer to use the inconsistent forecast model, which generates an equilibrium where forecasts are only constrained rational. Output and inflation then display persistence, inflation responds sluggishly to nominal disturbances, and the dynamic correlations of output and inflation match U.S. data surprisingly well. The rational expectations equilibrium instead has great difficulty in matching any of these features.
CASH-IN-ADVANCE CONSTRAINTS, BUBBLES, AND MONETARY POLICY
Authors: MICHEL PHILIPPE , WIGNIOLLE BERTRAND
Published: January 2005

In this paper, we study the equilibrium dynamics of an overlapping generations model with capital, money, and cash-in-advance constraints. At each period, the economy can experience two different regimes: Either the cash-in-advance constraint is binding and money is a dominated asset, or the constraint is strictly satisfied and money has the same return as capital. When the second regime occurs, we say that the economy experiences a temporary bubble. We show the existence of temporary bubbles, and we prove that cyclical equilibria may exist. In these equilibria, the economy experiences some periods without bubbles and some periods with bubbles. We also show that monetary creation can be used to eliminate temporary bubbles.
SOCIAL SECURITY EVALUATION: A CRITIQUE
Authors: SOARES JORGE
Published: January 2005

I study the bias of actuarially fair measures commonly used to evaluate the impact of a social security system on the well-being of individuals. I investigate how the magnitude of this bias is affected by different features of a pay-as-you-go social security system. Social security affects an individual's welfare in ways other than through its direct effect on her lifetime income. It influences labor and savings decisions and hence factor prices, affecting labor income and the return to savings. Although social security can provide insurance against risk, it can also push borrowing-constrained individuals further away from their optimal consumption paths. I show that, by ignoring these features, actuarially fair measures can grossly misevaluate the impact of social security on the well-being of an individual.