bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The development of children's strategies on an inductive reasoning task
Authors: Whitebread David
Published: May 2011

This paper reports an analysis of children's cognitive strategies on an inductive reasoning task, by means of a new methodological approach. A sample of 72 children aged 6, 8 and 10 were presented with three different versions of a multidimensional discrimination learning task, which was presented in such a way as to ‘optimise’ their performance. Their responses were analysed in terms of 10 Strategy Components, scores on which were analysed by means of cluster analysis. Overall, the children performed at more sophisticated levels than previously found. Five Strategy Clusters representing distinct patterns of strategic behaviour were revealed. A developmental sequence was established between these patterns of strategic behaviour and, significantly, two alternative developmental routes relating to strategic style. While the results support a complex model of strategy construction, as revealed by recent research, the distinct nature of the Strategy Clusters points to a discontinuous model of strategy development. This evidence of children's differing abilities to construct and select appropriate strategies in relation to a novel task strongly supports the educational imperative of encouraging children's early use and awareness of cognitive strategies.
Analogical reasoning and the nature of context: A research note
Authors: Richardson Ken , Webster David S.
Published: May 2011

Recent theorising about children's reasoning has tended to move towards a ‘contextualist’ view of cognition and away from the idea of an overall, context‐free, mechanism, varying in efficiency, which is the presupposition underlying traditional standardised reasoning tests. An earlier study suggesting improved reasoning performance among children on socio‐cognitively meaningful versions of Raven's Matrices tended to support this shift. The main purpose of the study reported here was to observe whether a similar improvement would be found with contextually‐based analogical reasoning problems as well. Ten analogy items from a standardised test were administered to 11‐year‐olds together with 10 structurally‐equivalent knowledge‐based items. The results reflected improved performance on the latter, overall, and additional analyses led to further suggestions about the nature of the ‘contextual advantage’ and the origins of item difficulty.
Primary school children's understanding of the school
Authors: Buchanan‐Barrow Eithne , Barrett Martyn
Published: May 2011

This paper reports a study which examined children's understanding of the primary school as a microscopic society, investigating their acquisition of system concepts such as rules, community, self/system interaction and power, and their comprehension of the interrelationships. A sample of 144 children, aged 5–11 years old, from four schools, responded to a questionnaire which probed their understanding in three main areas: (1) the function of school rules; (2) the organisation and power structure of the school: and (3) their own role in school life. The results revealed developmental trends in the children's comprehension of aspects of school life such as rules, roles and power/authority. In addition, the children's responses displayed a developing knowledge of the system of the school, demonstrating an increasing grasp, with age, of the interconnections between the different parts. Overall, the results suggest a possible model for the children's acquisition of an understanding of the school as a system, beginning with an acknowledgment of the highest point of power and subsequently extending downwards through lower levels in the power hierarchy. The children's path to system‐knowledge therefore proceeds from a recognition of the role of the headteacher, through to an understanding of the intermediate power layers of the teachers, until they finally come to comprehend and value their own part in the school.
Gender differences in approaches to learning in first year psychology students
Authors: Wilson Keithia L. , Smart Roslyn M. , Watson Robert J.
Published: May 2011

This paper investigates gender differences in students’ approaches to learning in higher education. Previous studies have found some evidence for gender differences, but interpretation of these findings has been problematic given a range of methodological limitations including poor response rates and the inappropriate use of univariate statistical analyses. The Study Process Questionnaire (Biggs, 1987) and the abbreviated Approaches to Study Inventory (Entwistle, 1981) were both administered to two samples of first year psychology students. Response rates of 98 per cent and 61 per cent were achieved, and results were analysed using multivariate procedures. No gender differences were found on the equivalent deep, surface or achieving scales with either instrument. Significant correlations between the deep, surface and achieving scales of the SPQ and ASI were found, suggesting that both are measuring similar constructs.
The learning strategies of bilingual versus monolingual students
Authors: Bochner Stephen
Published: May 2011

Four studies, two in a boys’ and two in a girls’ school, were conducted to test the hypothesis that bilingual pupils have a cognitive advantage over comparable monolingual children. Age (14 or 16 years old) and language proficiency (one or two languages) were systematically varied for a total of N of 496. SES, first and second language proficiency, intelligence, scholastic achievement, educational opportunity and teaching environment were all controlled. The dependent variable was the students’ learning style. The learning strategies of the bilingual boys and the older girls were found to be superior relative to their monolingual cohorts. The results are consistent with predictions that bilingualism has a positive effect on gifted, intellectually stimulated children.
Overachievement and coping strategies in adolescent males
Authors: Parsons Alexandra , Frydenberg Erica , Poole Charles
Published: May 2011

How to assist young people to achieve to their potential is a universal concern of educators. The relationship between achievement above that expected on the basis of IQ alone (often referred to as overachievement) in school assessment and preferred coping style, as assessed by the Adolescent Coping Scale (ACS, Frydenberg & Lewis, 1993a), was investigated in a group of 374 boys in Grades 9, 10 and 11 at an independent boys’ school in metropolitan Melbourne. Separate partial correlation analyses for each of the three year levels showed that three of the coping strategies, Work and Achieve, Solve the Problem, and Social Support positively correlated with overachievement at all three levels. Other subscales also correlated significantly at one or other of the grade levels.

It was concluded that overachievement may be better regarded as approaching one's full potential by the use of optimal coping strategies and avoidance of alternative responses to stress which appear to be non‐productive.
Metamemorial functioning of children with moderate learning difficulties
Authors: Male Dawn B.
Published: May 2011

This study investigates whether children with moderate learning difficulties (MLDs) have a knowledge of which mnemonic strategies are available and applicable across a range of hypothetical memory tasks. The study compared the strategic awareness of 20 MLD and 20 typical children. Recall tasks were varied to include both discrete, abstract or context free items (described as ‘non‐authentic’) and meaningful items (described as ‘authentic’). The results suggest that, when required to make strategic judgments relating to the recall of non‐authentic items, MLD children are significantly less efficient than their typical peers. Under these task conditions, the modal strategy mentioned was of the ‘look/think/say’ variety. By way of contrast, when required to make strategic judgments relating to the recall of authentic items the MLD children demonstrated mnemonic awareness that was equal to that of their typical peers. The implications of this for the design of strategy training programmes are discussed, with particular reference to the need to utilise the mnemonic awareness already at the disposal of MLD children.
Self‐monitoring as a mediator of person‐environment fit: an investigation of Hong Kong mathematics classroom environments
Authors: Wong Ngai‐ying , Watkins David
Published: May 2011

The research literature indicates that students tend to achieve better in a learning environment close to their preference. It was hypothesised that the congruence between the preferred and actual classroom environments would have an effect on students' learning and the impact would be more salient among low rather than high self‐monitoring individuals since the latter can more easily adapt themselves to situations. This hypothesis was supported by regression surface analyses in a study of 356 Hong Kong secondary school students using an instrument developed to assess the psychosocial environment of Hong Kong mathematics classrooms.
Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (1985): review and further study of validity and reliability
Authors: Willcoxson Lesley , Prosser Michael
Published: May 2011

In this study the validity and reliability of the revised version of Kolb's (1985) Learning Style Inventory are investigated using the responses to the LSI2 of 187 Arts and Science students in an Australian university. Results indicate high internal consistency of the LSI2 scales and some evidence of validity. While, as predicted, four factors forming two bipolar dimensions were found for the Science subsample, for the Arts subsample Active Experimentation formed the anticipated bipolar dimension with Reflective Observation, but also with Concrete Experience and Abstract Conceptualisation. Higher mean scores for Arts students on Concrete Experience and for Science students on Active Experimentation conform to results obtained for the LSI1 (Kolb, 1976). Mean scores indicate no significant differences on the basis of gender, but students who completed the majority of their primary and secondary schooling in Asia scored higher means on Concrete Experience, which is possibly attributable to cultural influences upon learning styles.
The Neale Analysis of Reading Ability Revised — systematically biased?
Authors: McKay Michael
Published: May 2011

The aim of this study was to assess the claims by Stothard & Hulme (1991) that the Neale Analysis of Reading Ability Revised is systematically biased against boys, suffers from an inappropriate gradation in question difficulty in the comprehension subtest of Form 2 of the test and that as a consequence, Form 1 and Form 2 of the test are not parallel. A stratified random sampling procedure based on socio‐economic status of schools in Victoria, Australia, was used to select 250 children who were administered both forms of the test. The results suggest that girls and boys do not differ significantly at different age levels in Accuracy or Comprehension scores on either form of the test. Mean Comprehension scores for passages 5 and 6 of Form 2 of the Australian edition of the test were in the expected direction for both boys and girls, supporting the test's assertion regarding the item difficulty for each passage. Further reliability data are provided to support the equivalence of the norms for each form claimed by the test manual. In summary no evidence has been found in these data to support the claims of Stothard & Hulme.
Lunchtime supervisors' attitudes towards playful fighting, and ability to differentiate between playful and aggressive fighting: an intervention study
Authors: Boulton Michael J.
Published: May 2011

Study 1 provided data about lunchtime supervisors' (N=72) attitudes towards playful fighting, since this group had not figured in previous research. Participants expressed generally positive attitudes, although those individuals with the longest service tended to hold the least favourable views. It was argued that the opinions of this section of school staff should be considered when policy about playful fighting on the playground is developed. Study 2 investigated the ability of participants to discriminate between playful and aggressive fighting. They were shown a videotape of children involved in ten separate episodes of the two types of encounter, and asked to say whether the children were playing or really fighting. The nature of these episodes was assessed by asking the children involved and by ratings by an experienced researcher. Participants' responses that indicated errors in perceiving play to be aggression, and, separately, aggression to be play, were tallied. On average, errors were made on more than one in four of the episodes, and there were more errors of the latter type than of the former type. A short intervention was implemented that highlighted how it is possible to discriminate between playful and aggressive fighting. Participants were then shown another series of ten episodes and the number of errors made were again tallied. Statistical analysis showed that the intervention was followed by a significant reduction in errors of mistakenly viewing episodes of aggressive fighting as play. It is argued that these results point to the need for training of lunchtime supervisors in this aspect on non‐verbal decoding skill, and that such training might take a form similar to that implemented in this study.
Primary teachers' knowledge and acquisition of stress relieving strategies
Authors: Cockburn Anne D.
Published: May 2011

Over the last 20 years there have been numerous studies of teacher stress but little is known of how teachers acquire coping strategies; their knowledge of those available to them and their opinion of these techniques.

A total of 335 Norfolk primary teachers responded to a postal questionnaire providing biographical details; levels of job satisfaction and work related stress; responses to a range of commonly advocated techniques to reduce teacher stress and their opinion on who—if anyone—should take more responsibility for reducing teacher stress. On average the respondents were aware of 35 stress reduction strategies. The most effective strategies were ensuring that one understood what one was about to teach and thorough lesson preparation. A significant proportion of practitioners said that they would not consider seeking expert sources of advice. A total of 89 per cent of practitioners reported that they acquired at least some strategies through their own experience.

It was concluded that the issue of teacher stress needs to be considered at governmental, school and individual levels. In the light of some resistance to traditional methods of stress reduction, the implications for initial and in‐service training were explored.
Peer relations, loneliness, and self‐perceptions in school‐aged children
Authors: Sletta Olav , Valås Harald , Skaalvik Einar , Søbstad Frode
Published: May 2011

Recent studies have suggested that certain behavioural characteristics in children are closely associated with peer acceptance, and that children who are not accepted by peers are more lonely than other children. The present research examines a more comprehensive pattern of relationships. In addition to behavioural characteristics, peer acceptance, and feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction, the study includes self‐perceptions of social competence, self‐esteem, and goal orientation (defensive ego‐involvement). A theoretical model is presented to analyse predictive relations. The model was tested on a sample of 8th grade children (N=96). Teacher and peer assessments of behavioural characteristics (humour, externalising, internalising and prosocial behaviour) were applied.

In general, results were consistent with the proposed model. Loneliness was predicted by behavioural characteristics and low peer acceptance, and strong negative paths were found from loneliness to self‐esteem and perceived social competence. Self‐perceptions were not predicted by peer acceptance, and few direct paths were found from behavioural characteristics to self‐perceptions. Thus loneliness has a mediating position between behaviour and peer acceptance on the one hand and self‐perceptions on the other hand. This indicates that children's self‐perceptions are affected by their socio‐emotional reactions to peer difficulties and not directly by low peer acceptance. Strong negative paths were found from self‐esteem and perceived social competence to defensive ego‐involvement, which suggests that negative self‐perceptions may have adverse consequences for children's goal orientations. Practical implications of the findings are discussed.
Assessment of bully/victim problems in 8 to 11 year‐olds
Authors: Austin Sharon , Joseph Stephen
Published: May 2011

The aim of the present study was to develop two six‐item self‐report scales (the Bullying‐Behaviour Scale and the Peer‐Victimisation Scale) to assess bully‐victim problems at school. These scales were designed so that they could be immersed within the Self‐Perception Profile for Children (SPPC: Harter, 1985) thus reducing the saliency of the items. Internal reliability of both scales was found to be satisfactory (Cronbach's alpha = 0.83 and 0.82 respectively). Data are reported on the association between scores on both scales and scores on the SPPC and the Birleson Depression Inventory (Birleson, 1981) with 425 children (204 boys and 221 girls) ranging from 8 to 11 years (mean = 9.2 years). Forty‐six per cent of the children were classified as bullies, victims, or both: 22 per cent were classified as victims only, 15 per cent as bully/victims, and 9 per cent as bullies only.
Effects of menstrual cycle moods and symptoms on academic performance: a study of senior secondary school students
Authors: Boyle Gregory J.
Published: May 2011

Background. Menstrual cycle moods and symptoms may well play a discernible role in the academic performance of some post‐pubescent adolescent female students.

Aims. It was expected that menstrually related moods and symptoms would have both negative and positive influences on academic learning outcomes, and that the magnitude of these effects would be directly proportional to the salience of such moods and symptoms across the monthly cycle.

Samples. The sample comprised 427 post‐pubescent female students (Years 10, 11, and 12) attending a number of senior secondary schools within the Melbourne metropolitan area, Australia.

Methods. Given the sensitivity of conducting such a study, combined with the logistical difficulties of obtaining prospective data within school settings, retrospective Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MDQ) scores were related to the previous end‐of‐year academic grades across a wide range of 18 senior school subjects. Despite the conservative design constraints and associated data analyses (correlations were not corrected for attenuation), some systematic effects were observed.

Results. At the premenstrual, menstrual, and intermenstrual phases, moods and symptoms significantly predicted grades in 14 per cent, 7 per cent, and 13 per cent of instances, respectively. Although most significant relationships were negative, scores on the MDQ Arousal scale for the intermenstrual phase positively predicted grades in English Literature, (general) Mathematics, Art and Craft, History, Mathematics 1, and Study of Society.

Conclusions. Evidently, menstrual cycle variables play a small, but discernible role on academic learning outcomes, contributing both positively and negatively to performance. Future, prospective studies are now needed to provide a more definitive account of menstrual cycle influences on academic performance.
The identification of children with developmental coordination disorder by class and physical education teachers
Authors: Piek Jan P. , Edwards Karen
Published: May 2011

Background. Children diagnosed with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have difficulty performing coordinated movements. In addition, these children have been found to have long‐term social, emotional, behavioural and academic problems. Early identification is therefore important, and teachers may be very useful in this identification process.

Aims. In the present study, the ability of physical education and class teachers to identify children with coordination problems using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children checklist was assessed.

Samples. A total of 171 children was initially assessed. From this sample, 32 children found to have coordination problems were compared with 32 control children, matched on age, sex and Verbal IQ.

Methods. Motor coordination difficulty was identified in children aged between 9 and 11 years using the performance test of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC; Henderson & Sugden, 1992). These scores were then compared with the scores on the MABC checklist which was given to the child's class and physical education teachers.

Results. Class teachers were only able to identify 25 per cent of the children with DCD, whereas physical education teachers were able to identify 49 per cent of the DCD children.

Conclusion. These differences were discussed in relation to the contextual settings in which the children were tested, based on the theory described by Sugden & Sugden (1991) in the development of their Motor Competence Checklist (MCC).
The performance effects of headings within multiple‐choice tests
Authors: Marcinkiewicz Henryk R. , Clariana Roy B.
Published: May 2011

Background. It has been suggested that headings within multiple‐choice tests positively affect test performance; however, there is little research to date to either support or reject this hypothesis.

Aims. Do headings within multiple‐choice tests facilitate test performance?

Sample. The available sample for this study included employees of a large manufacturing plant in the western part of the United States (N=143). Participants ranged in age from 26 to 64 years old; the median age was 44 years old.

Method. The experimental group received a multiple‐choice recertification test with headings included; the control group received the same test without headings. The data were analysed by analysis of covariance.

Results. A significant difference was obtained for the treatment main effect, F (1,140) =4.33 (p<.04), with a calculated effect size for headings over no headings of es=0.33. Post hoc analysis of item difficulty data suggests that headings may have the greatest effect on less difficult test items and have little effect on difficult test items.

Conclusions. The findings of the present study indicate that headings within multiple‐choice tests positively affect test performance. Perhaps more importantly, the findings indicate that headings may differentially impact test items of differing difficulty. Further research is recommended.
Pupils' self assessments of academic attainment at 7, 11 and 16 years: effects of sex and ethnic group
Authors: Blatchford Peter
Published: May 2011

Background. There is much concern with group differences in educational attainment in school. Better understanding of pupils' academic ability perceptions promises to help understanding of differences in attainment.

Aims. The aim of this paper is to examine ethnic and sex differences in academic self assessments at 7,11 and 16 years, and ethnic and sex differences in the degree of under and overestimation of self assessment.

Samples. Results come from a longitudinal study of white and black UK pupils in inner London schools. Samples sizes at7, 11 and 16 years were 133, 175, 108 respectively.

Methods. Self assessments, other self report data and attainments were collected at each age.

Results. White pupils by the end of junior and secondary school were less positive about their own attainments, and about themselves at school. While black girls showed confidence in their attainments, and had the highest attainments in reading/English, white girls tended to underestimate and have little confidence in their school attainments.
Teachers' views on bullying: definitions, attitudes and ability to cope
Authors: Boulton Michael J.
Published: May 2011

Background. Teachers play a crucial role in preventing and managing the widespread problem of bullying. Despite this, scant attention has been paid to their views on this type of problem.

Aims. To determine (i) what behaviours teachers regard as bullying; (ii) teachers' attitudes towards bullying, bullies and victims; (iii) teachers' self‐beliefs about their ability to deal with bullying and their need for training; (iv) teachers' views of their responsibility for bullying in various locations; (v) the impact of length of service on attitudes and perceived ability to cope with bullying.

Sample. Pre‐, infant, junior, and secondary school teachers (N=138) from schools selected on a convenience basis. Age range 19 to 57 years (mean = 35.8), length of teaching experience range one to 38 years (mean = 12.2 years).

Methods. Standardised questionnaire completed and returned within a one‐week period.

Results. Teachers viewed a wide range of behaviours as bullying, but significantly more agreed that some items (e.g., ‘Threatening people verbally’) were bullying than agreed others were (e.g., ‘Leaving people out’). Teachers expressed generally negative attitudes towards bullying and bullies, and were generally sympathetic towards victims, although sympathy diminished with increasing length of service. Teachers, regardless of length of service, were not confident in their ability to deal with bullying and 87 per cent wanted more training. Significantly more teachers felt responsible for preventing bullying in the classroom and playground than outside of school.

Conclusion. School psychologists must consider teachers' views about many aspects of the problem of bullying if they are to devise optimum strategies for tackling it.
Inferences about teacher expectations from national assessment at key stage one
Authors: Plewis Ian
Published: May 2011

Background. Concern has been expressed about whether the relatively low achievements of, for example, boys and African Caribbean pupils, might be due, in part, to teachers having low expectations for pupils from these groups. Developments in national assessment provide a way of looking further at this question.

Aims. To show how the two measures of attainment used in national assessment—teacher assessment and Standard Assessment Tasks (SATs)—relate, and thus to draw inferences about whether and how teacher expectations vary systematically across socio‐demographic groups. Also, to show that there are different statistical approaches to this question.

Samples. Data from pilot studies of national assessment at Key Stage One (ages 6 to 7); between 6000 and 7000 pupils in England; background data on gender, ethnic group and social class.

Methods. Differences between the ideas of individual mismatch between teacher assessments and SATs, group mismatch and a measure of bias are elaborated, and these different ideas are linked to different statistical models for categorical data.

Results. No evidence of systematic individual mismatch but some evidence of group mismatch by gender and ethnic group. The results for bias suggest that teachers might have expectations for boys, ethnic minority pupils and pupils from less advantaged backgrounds which are too low.

Conclusions. Care is needed in defining aspects of mismatch and bias when studying teacher expectations. Possible teacher biases against some groups of pupils merit further investigation.
A longitudinal study of beginning reading achievement and reading self‐concept
Authors: Chapman James W. , Tunmer William E.
Published: May 2011

Background. Although achievement‐related self‐perceptions are causally related to academic performance, it is not clear at what age this relationship starts to form, especially in terms of learning to read.

Aims. The aim of this longitudinal study was to examine the emerging causal interplay between reading self‐concept and beginning reading performance.

Sample. One hundred and twelve children who started school at the age of 5 years participated in the study over a two and a half‐year period.

Method. Path analyses were used to examine the relationships between reading‐related skills and reading self‐concept at the start of Year 1, the middle of Year 2, and the middle of Year 3.

Results. Reading performance emerged as causally predominant over reading self‐concept between the middle of Year 2 and the middle of Year 3.

Conclusions. Initial reading‐related experiences in school are associated with the development of reading self‐concepts within the first two and a half years of schooling. This period may mark the time during which negative ‘Matthew effects' develop for those who experience initial difficulties in learning to read.
Investigating the influence of achievement on self‐concept using an intra‐class design and a comparison of the PASS and SDQ‐1 self‐concept tests
Authors: Hay Ian , Ashman Adrian , van Kraayenoord Christina E.
Published: May 2011

Background. The formation and measurement of self‐concept were the foci of this research.

Aims. The study aimed to investigate the influence of achievement on academic self‐concept and to compare the Perception of Ability Scale for Students (PASS, Boersma & Chapman, 1992) with the Self‐Description Questionnaire‐1 (SDQ‐1, Marsh, 1988).

Sample. The participants were 479 grade 5 (mean age 126.6 months) coeducational Australian students, located in 18 schools.

Method. An intra‐class research design was used to investigate the influence of frame‐of‐reference on self‐concept development.

Results. As students' academic scores rose above their class mean their self‐concepts increased and as students' academic scores fell below their class mean their self‐concepts decreased. Students' difference from class mean predicted their self‐concept scores. This finding was consistently shown across the reading, spelling, and mathematics domains using test and teaching rating data. A comparison between the PASS and the SDQ‐1 demonstrated concurrent validity across self‐concept domains.

Conclusion. The findings support the notions that the social environment is a significant agent that influences self‐concept, and that teacher ratings and standardised tests of achievement and the PASS and the SDQ‐1 are valid measures for self‐concept research.
Developmental differences in addition strategies: a comparison of mathematically disabled and mathematically normal children
Authors: Ostad Snorre A.
Published: May 2011

Background. Several studies concerned with task‐specific strategies in addition have suggested that, when compared with the performance of mathematically normal peers (MN pupils), the performance of mathematically disabled pupils (MD pupils) is characterised by frequent use of inefficient problem‐solving strategies. These studies, however, have focused more or less exclusively on single age‐groups and on the youngest age‐groups in particular. What characterises strategy use, as this develops year by year during the primary school stage, has not been adequately studied.

Aims. The major purpose of the present study was to investigate the character and extent of differences between the MD pupils and the MN pupils as reflected in the use of task‐specific strategies for solving elementary addition problems as the pupils move up through primary school, i.e., from grade 1 to grade 7. Particular concern was with the variability within the groups of MD pupils, especially in light of the general literature showing substantial heterogeneity in the performance characteristics of the mathematically less able children.

Sample. The sample included 32 MD pupils in grade 1, 33 MD pupils in grade 3, 36 MD pupils in grade 5 and a corresponding number of MN pupils in each of the grades.

Methods. The pupils were asked to solve 28 single‐digit addition problems on two different occasions separated by an interval of two years. The task‐specific strategies used by the pupils were recorded on a ‘trial‐by‐trial basis' and were classified as defined single variants of backup strategies and retrieval strategies, respectively.

Results. The pattern of development as it emerged in a longitudinal perspective in the present study showed the mathematically disabled pupils as being characterised by: (a) use of backup strategies only, (b) use of the most primary backup strategies, (c) small degree of variation in the use of strategy variants and, (d) limited degree of change in the use of strategies from year to year throughout the primary school.

Conclusions. Compared with the mathematically normal pupils, the mathematically disabled exhibited a divergent pattern of development, with unexpectedly little variability within the group itself.
The influence of the educational context on student nurses' conceptions of learning and approaches to learning
Authors: Eklund‐Myrskog Gunilla
Published: May 2011

Background. In previous research a quite similar variety of conceptions and approaches has been identified. However, while context does seem to influence which aspects of the experience and approach are accentuated and which are left in the background, the question is to what extent conceptions and approaches are contextually dependent.

Aim. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of the educational context on student nurses' conceptions of learning and approaches to learning, i.e., to investigate in what sense and to what extent conceptions and approaches are contextually dependent.

Method. The phenomenographic approach, expanded towards grounded theory, was taken as the point of departure.

Sample. Data for the cross‐section study were collected through individual interviews with student nurses (N=60) both at the beginning and at the end of nursing training.

Results. As a result of the analysis, qualitative similarities and differences in students' conceptions and approaches were found. In comparing the two groups of student nurses, a trend of development could be identified since students used more developed conceptions and approaches at the end than at the beginning of the educational programme. These differences found between the student groups could largely be explained in terms of the nursing training.

Conclusions. The results thus showed that conceptions and approaches are to some extent contextually dependent.
Reading, vocabulary and language preference in 7‐ to 8‐year‐old bilingual Asian children
Authors: Beech John R. , Keys Alison
Published: May 2011

Background. Children who have a second language at home and report more usage of this language in various contexts ought reciprocally to be less proficient in English as frequency of exposure to English is reduced. Similarly there should be a two‐way directional influence between oral vocabulary and reading development.

Samples. A group of 40 bilingual Asian children was compared with an age‐matched mixed race (but with only one Asian child) monolingual group of 24 children. Mean age was 8 years for both groups (range 7; 6 to 8; 6 years) and socioeconomic status was low. Group allocation was based on a specially devised Language Preference Questionnaire (LPQ) examining different contexts of language use (e.g., during numerical analysis).

Method. Standardised tests of non‐verbal intelligence, vocabulary, basic reading, reading comprehension and the LPQ were given.

Results. Controlling for non‐verbal intelligence, there was a marked difference in receptive oral vocabulary and a weaker difference in reading ability between the two groups. The LPQ showed that bilingual children who reported thinking in their parental language had poorer English vocabulary development than bilingual children who preferred to think in English.

Conclusions. These findings are discussed in terms of either an effect of frequency of exposure to language or in terms of differences in phonological development between the two groups. The contrasting differences in the effects of bilingualism on vocabulary and reading suggest that in this particular socioeconomic setting parents of both groups do not have substantial impact on reading, but they do have an influence on the development of English oral vocabulary.
Cognitive‐metacognitive training within a problem‐solving based Logo environment
Authors: Kramarski Bracha , Mevarech Zemira R.
Published: May 2011

Background. The present study investigated the effects of metacognitive training implemented within a problem‐solving based Logo environment on students' ability to construct graphs and reflect on their learning.

Aims. (1) To compare achievement outcomes of students who learned to construct graphs within a problem‐solving based Logo environment that was either embedded with or with no metacognitive training; and (2) To examine the differences in students' cognitive‐metacognitive behaviours under the different conditions.

Samples. Participants were 68 students who studied in four computer classrooms.

Methods. Intact classrooms were randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups: one was exposed to a problem‐solving based Logo environment with metacognitive training (N=34) and the other to the same Logo environment with no metacognitive training (N=34). All students were examined at the beginning and at the end of the study on the Graph Construction Examination. In addition, at the end of the study students were interviewed to assess their cognitive‐metacognitive behaviours. Furthermore, to examine possible differences (if any exist) between the two conditions prior to the beginning of the study, students were administered the Raven Advanced Matrices Examination, and the Graph Interpretation Test.

Results. Although no significant differences were found between groups prior to the beginning of the study on all pretreatment measures, at the end of the study the students who were exposed to the metacognitive treatment tended to construct graphs better than their counterparts who were not exposed to such treatment. The metacognitive group was also better able to reflect on their learning than their counterparts who were not exposed to such training. In addition, structured interviews indicated the positive effects of the metacognitive training on students' information processing, social‐cognitive interaction, and error detection.

Conclusions. Being exposed to metacognitive training exerts positive effects on students' achievement outcomes and cognitive‐metacognitive behaviours.
Teachers' conceptions of understanding historical and scientific events
Authors: Newton D. P. , Newton L. D.
Published: May 2011

Background. Teachers of younger children commonly teach a range of subjects. Those with a science degree, for instance, may also teach subjects like history. Conversely, those with a history degree may also teach science.

Aims. Do such differences in academic background affect teachers' conceptions of understanding? The aim was to compare teachers' conceptions of understanding of scientific events and historical events, particularly when their degree was in one or the other of these subjects.

Sample. A total of 178 primary school teachers (58 with science degrees, 61 with history degrees, and 59 with other degrees) were tested in the main part of the study.

Method. Teachers rated 36 statements on a 1 to 5 scale for relevance to understanding historical and scientific events.

Results. Teachers generally discriminated between the relevance of the statements for understanding these events. At the same time, teachers with different degrees also disagreed about the level of relevance for understanding of a number of statements. Differences in the balance of subject experience could account for this.

Conclusions. Differences in academic backgrounds can affect conceptions of understanding of a subject. This could have consequences for the support for understanding that teachers provide.
Learning to read at home and at school
Authors: Stuart Morag , Dixon Maureen , Masterson Jackie , Quinlan Philip
Published: May 2011

Aims. Social class differences in reading achievement are well documented in the literature. The present study looked for social class differences in home literacy activities, such as reading to children, hearing children read, teaching children about the alphabet, and fostering phonological awareness through nursery rhymes and games of ‘I Spy’, which might underlie these.

Sample. Sixty‐one parents of children in Reception and Years 1 and 2 in a North London primary school were interviewed. Two social class groups were identified, by mother's occupation.

Methods. A structured questionnaire was used in the parental interviews: thus data collected relied on self‐reports. Children's reading ages and alphabet knowledge were measured, with the latter used as an indicator of reliability of parental self‐report.

Results. Mean reading age was significantly higher in middle class children, who knew significantly more letter‐sound correspondences. No social class difference was found in parents' reports of time spent hearing children read, but middle class parents reported spending more time reading to children: however, this did not relate to reading age. No social class difference was found in estimates of children's nursery rhyme knowledge, but middle class parents were more likely to report frequently playing ‘I Spy’. Both social class groups were equally likely to report teaching children letter names and sounds, but middle class parents reported using a wider variety and more materials than working class parents. When letter‐sound knowledge was used as a predictor of reading achievement, social class was no longer a significant determiner.

Conclusions. Very few differences were found by social class, and those found did not relate clearly to reading achievement.
Is self‐explanation while solving problems helpful? The case of analogical problem‐solving
Authors: Neuman Yair , Schwarz Baruch
Published: May 2011

Background. Explanations people give themselves (or what are called self‐explanations) while learning have been shown to be positively associated with various learning measures. However, the effect of self‐explanation on analogical problem‐solving has not been investigated.

Aim. The aim of this study is to investigate the relation between self‐explanation and analogical problem‐solving.

Sample. Twenty‐four university students from the social science faculty. All the students were in their early twenties, 75 per cent of them being females.

Method. The students were asked to solve three analytical reasoning problems (one learning problem and two test problems). The students were prompted either to self‐explain or to think‐aloud. During the problem‐solving, verbal protocols were tape‐recorded.

Results. Students prompted to self‐explain performed better in the test phase. The analysis of verbal protocols from good and poor solvers allowed us to identify four categories of self‐explanation. Three categories were positively associated with analogical problem‐solving. However, one category pertaining to the ‘surface structure’ of the problems studied had detrimental effects on further problem‐solving.

Conclusions. In contrast to previous findings, only certain kinds of self‐explanations improve analogical problem‐solving. We suggest, therefore, that the role of certain self‐explanation is to support better the representation of solution schemes.
A comparative study of approaches to studying in Hong Kong and the United Kingdom
Authors: Sadler‐Smith Eugene , Tsang Florence
Published: May 2011

Background. The study was conducted in the context of a number of comparative studies into student approaches to studying, particularly in an Asian context, and used the Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory (RASI).

Aims. (i) Explore the cross cultural validity of the RASI; (ii) compare the approaches to studying of Hong Kong and UK students; (iii) examine the predictive validity of the RASI; (iv) investigate the relationships between age, gender and approach.

Samples. The samples consisted of undergraduates at two institutions in Hong Kong (N = 183) and the UK (N = 225) following business studies and related degree programmes.

Method. The RASI was administered in the course of a study skills workshop in which co‐operation was voluntary. Learning performance data from summative and formative assessments were used to examine the predictive validity of the RASI.

Results. Principal components analysis was generally successful in reconstructing the three RASI scales; however the ‘relying on memorising’ subscale loaded ambiguously. The RASI failed to predict any aspect of learning performance for the Hong Kong sample, whilst for the UK sample there were some low correlations. An interaction of age and gender in their effect upon deep and strategic approaches was observed for the Hong Kong sample.

Conclusions. (i) The conception of ‘Asian learners as rote learners' is not supported; (ii) approaches to studying should not be seen in isolation from contextual factors, particularly the demands of assessment regimes; (iii) conceptualisations of memorisation require further theoretical and empirical elaboration.
A Rasch measurement model analysis of the Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory
Authors: Waugh Russell F. , Addison Patricia A.
Published: May 2011

Background. The Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory (Entwistle & Tait, 1994) comprises 38 self‐report items designed to measure student approaches to learning in a higher education context. The items have been conceptualised and designed from five learning orientations, corresponding to five subscales of the Inventory: ‘a deep approach’, ‘a surface approach’, ‘a strategic approach’, ‘a lack of direction’ and ‘academic self‐confidence’.

Aims. The study aims to create an interval level scale for the Inventory and analyse its psychometric properties using a modern measurement model, the Extended Logistic Model of Rasch (Andrich, 1988a, 1988b; Rasch, 1980), and investigate the conceptual design of the Inventory.

Sample. The sample was 346 students (170 females, 176 males, 212 less than 23 years and 134 older than 23), studying in first year Faculty of Business, at a university in Perth, Western Australia.

Method. A scale was created for the Inventory and analysed for reliability, fit to the model, meaning and validity. The Inventory was analysed separately for each of four subgroups (females, males, younger and older students) to test the invariance of the scale. The five subscales were analysed separately to test the conceptual design and meaning of the Inventory.

Results. The Inventory has satisfactory psychometric properties, when items 20 and 33 are deleted. Easier and harder items need to be added to better target the student measures. Its conceptual design from the five learning orientations is confirmed. Only 15 items have satisfactory invariance across the four subgroups. The psychometric properties of three subscales (deep approach, surface approach and strategic approach) are only moderately satisfactory and the item separabilities of the other two (lack of direction and academic self‐confidence) are unsatisfactory.

Conclusions. The Extended Logistic Model of Rasch was found to be useful in creating an interval level scale for the Inventory, and for analysing its psychometric properties and conceptual design. It is suggested that the Inventory can be improved conceptually by adding more items relating to attitudes, intentions and behaviour and by adding harder and easier items to target the student measures better.