bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
LORD GRENVILLE AND THE ‘SMOKING GUN’: THE PLOT TO ASSASSINATE THE FRENCH DIRECTORY IN 1798–1799 RECONSIDERED
Authors: DUREY MICHAEL
Published: November 2002

This article re-examines the evidence that has been used to claim that, in the aftermath of the collapse of the British secret service's counter-revolutionary plans in France in September 1797, foreign secretary Lord Grenville supported a French royalist plot to assassinate the Directory. It concludes that, although his agent James Talbot was actively involved and probably thought he had official permission to proceed, Grenville remained ignorant of the plot until December 1798. He subsequently ordered Talbot to withdraw from the conspiracy. Emphasis is placed on communications difficulties associated with undercover secret service activities in this era and on bureaucratic failures within the foreign office, together with evidence to suggest that Talbot was temperamentally unsuited to the role of intelligence officer.
WOMEN, GENDER, AND THE PROMOTION OF EMPIRE: THE VICTORIA LEAGUE, 1901–1914
Authors: RIEDI ELIZA
Published: November 2002

The Victoria League, founded in 1901 as a result of the South African War, was the only predominantly female imperial propaganda society in Britain during the Edwardian period. To accommodate women's activism within the ‘man's world’ of empire politics the League restricted its work to areas within woman's ‘separate sphere’ while transforming them into innovative methods of imperial propaganda. Through philanthropy to war victims, hospitality to colonial visitors, empire education, and the promotion of social reform as an imperial issue, the League aimed to encourage imperial sentiment at home and promote colonial loyalty to the ‘mother country’. The League's relationship with its colonial ‘sister societies’, the Guild of Loyal Women of South Africa and the Canadian Imperial Order, Daughters of the Empire, demonstrates both the primacy of the self-governing dominions in its vision of empire, and the importance of women's imperial networks. The Victoria League illustrates both significant involvement by elite women in imperial politics and the practical and ideological constraints placed on women's imperial activism.
Conversion of magnetic energy and the width
of current sheets
Authors: NÚÑEZ MANUEL
Published: November 2002

Magnetic reconnection is one of the most efficient ways of transforming
magnetic into kinetic and thermal energies. We prove a general identity relating the
energy transfer in a neighborhood of a current sheet, where reconnection is assumed
to occur. With some reasonable hypotheses regarding the geometry of stream and
field lines, we prove that for a constant rate of transformation of magnetic energy,
the width of the current sheet must grow with the plasma conductivity. Hence an
enhanced diffusivity seems necessary for certain classical models of fast reconnection
to work.
Age and growth of the undulate ray, Raja undulata, in the Algarve (southern Portugal)
Authors: Coelho Rui , Erzini Karim
Published: November 2002

Aspects of the population dynamics of the undulate ray, Raja undulata (Chondrichthyes: Rajidae), one of the more abundant elasmobranch fish captured along the Portuguese south coast (Algarve), were studied for the first time. Some traditional elasmobranch vertebral enhancing techniques were compared and the most precise for this species determined to be the cedar wood oil immersion and the alizarin red S stain. The sample consisted of 14 age-classes, with age-classes 3 to 8 being the most represented. Evidence of an annual deposition pattern of a pair of bands (one opaque and one translucent) was found by marginal increment analyses. Von Bertalanffy growth parameters were estimated and no differences found between males and females (all data: Linf=110·22 cm, K=0·11 y−1 and t0=−1·58 y).
A very compact mt-DNA control region in the widely distributed goby Pomatoschistus minutus (Teleostei: Gobiidae)
Authors: STEFANNI S. , CHEN I.-S. , MILLER P.J.
Published: November 2002

The control region of the mitochondrial genome was amplified and sequenced for six individuals of the gobioid fish Pomatoschistus minutus, from several European localities, and one specimen of the related Deltentosteus quadrimaculatus. The length of this region for the former species was found to be 773 bp, 7·1% shorter than that previously described as the most compact D-loop known among teleosts. Sequences from other fish have been compared and the largest gap falls in the section between the conserved sequence block and the pyrimidine tract. Alignment of P. minutus sequences was done with D. quadrimaculatus, whose control region length was 853 bp, and this gap was found to be of 61 bp. For the P. minutus sample, the intraspecific sequence divergence is 0·07%.
Occurrence of Stomatolepas elegans (Cirripedia: Balanomorpha) on a leatherback turtle from Finnmark, northern Norway
Authors: Carriol René-Pierre , Vader Wim
Published: November 2002

Stomatolepas elegans on a Dermochelys coriacea is reported at Seiland, Finnmark, northern Norway at the highest latitude recorded for this species or for any members of its subfamily (Platylepadidae), as well as for its turtle host. The distribution of the species of Stomatolepas is given and their taxonomy is briefly discussed. A recording of data on the different species of Stomatolepas gives the distribution on the host as well as the identity and the collecting locality of the latter.
Richard Titmuss and Social Policy
Authors: MISHRA RAMESH
Published: November 2002

David Reisman, Richard Titmuss: Welfare and Society (2nd edn), Basingstoke:
Palgrave, 2001, vii+307 pp., £50.00.

Peter Alcock, Howard Glennerster, Ann Oakley & Adrian Sinfield (eds.),
Welfare and Well-Being: Richard Titmuss's Contribution to Social Policy,
Bristol: Policy, 2001, vi+249 pp., £16.99 pbk.
Social Policy Digest NUMBER ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY FOUR February to April 2002
Authors: BENNETT FRAN , JONES KEN
Published: November 2002

Contents

1 Social security and income maintenance

2 Health

3 Education

4 Housing and environment

5 Personal social services

6 Law and the treatment of the offender

7 Unemployment and the labour market

8 Race relations

9 The voluntary sector

10 Government

11 Gender and sexuality

12 Demography
On-line multi-criteria based collision-free posture generation of redundant manipulator in
constrained workspace
Authors: Chen Jin-Liang , Liu Jing-Sin , Lee Wan-Chi , Liang Tzu-Chen
Published: November 2002

The manipulator with a large degree of
redundancy is useful for realizing multiple tasks such as maneuvering
the robotic arms in the constrained workspace, e.g. the task
of maneuvering the end-effector of the manipulator along a pre-specified
path into a window. This paper presents an on-line technique
based on a posture generation rule to compute a null-space
joint velocity vector in a singularity-robust redundancy resolution method. This
rule suggests that the end of each link has to
track an implicit trajectory that is indirectly resulted from the
constraint imposed on tracking motion of the end-effector. A proper
posture can be determined by sequentially optimizing an objective function
integrating multiple criteria of the orientation of each link from
the end-effector toward the base link as the secondary task
for redundancy resolution, by assuming one end of the link
is clamped. The criteria flexibly incorporate obstacle avoidance, joint limits,
preference of posture in tracking, and connection of posture to
realize a compromise between the primary and secondary tasks. Furthermore,
computational demanding of the posture is reduced due to the
sequential link-by-link computation feature. Simulations show the effectiveness and flexibility
of the proposed method in generating proper postures for the
collision avoidance and the joint limits as a singularity-robust null-space
projection vector in maneuvering redundant robots within constrained workspaces.
Effect of base compliance on the dynamic stability of mobile
manipulators
Authors: Abo-Shanab R. F. , Sepehri N.
Published: November 2002

This paper extends the model developed previously by the authors,1 for studying
dynamic stability of mobile manipulators. The extended model not only takes
into account the dynamics of the base that can potentially
rock back-and-forth, but also accounts for the flexibility of the
contact between the base and the ground. A novel method
of virtual links is used to reformulate the problem of
modeling the non-fixed base manipulator in terms of a fixed-base
manipulator with one degree of freedom joints. The resulting model
is then used to simulate planar movements of a Caterpillar
excavator-based log-loader. The results clearly demonstrate the relationship between movement
of the implement and the stability of the machine. The
flexible contact between the base and the ground is also
shown to influence the stability. The results are also compared
with those obtained by the previous model, which assumed rigid
contact between the base and the ground. It is demonstrated
that the assumption of rigid contact tends to overestimate the
stability. Consequently, flexibility in the contact bet- ween the base and
the ground must be considered to more accurately predict the
stability of mobile manipulators.
Distances in Random Induced
Subgraphs of Generalized n-Cubes
Authors: REIDYS C. M.
Published: November 2002

In this paper we study distances in random subgraphs of a generalized n-cube
[Qscr ]ns over
a finite alphabet S of size s.
[Qscr ]ns is the direct product of complete graphs over s vertices,
its vertices being the n-tuples (x1, …, xn), with xi ∈
S, i = 1, … n, and two vertices being
adjacent if they differ in exactly one coordinate. A random (induced) subgraph γ
of
[Qscr ]ns
is obtained by selecting
[Qscr ]ns-vertices with independent probability pn and then inducing the
corresponding edges from
[Qscr ]ns. Our main result is that dγ
(P,Q) [les ] [2k+3]d[Qscr ]ns
(P,Q) almost
surely for P,Q ∈ γ, pn = n−a and 0 [les ] a < ½, where k =
[1+3a/1−2a]
and dγ and d[Qscr ]ns
denote the distances in γ and [Qscr ]ns, respectively.
Genomic analysis of the host response to hepatitis C virus infection
Authors: Su Andrew I. , Pezacki John P. , Wodicka Lisa , Brideau Amy D. , Supekova Lubica , Thimme Robert , Wieland Stefan , Bukh Jens , Purcell Robert H. , Schultz Peter G. , Chisari Francis V.
Published: November 2002

We have examined the progression of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections by gene expression analysis of liver biopsies in acutely infected chimpanzees that developed persistent infection, transient viral clearance, or sustained clearance. Both common responses and outcome-specific changes in expression were observed. All chimpanzees showed gene expression patterns consistent with an IFN-α response that correlated with the magnitude and duration of infection. Transient and sustained viral clearance were uniquely associated with induction of IFN-γ-induced genes and other genes involved in antigen processing and presentation and the adaptive immune response. During the early stages of infection, host genes involved in lipid metabolism were also differentially regulated. We also show that drugs that affect these biosynthetic pathways can regulate HCV replication in HCV replicon systems. Our results reveal genome-wide transcriptional changes that reflect the establishment, spread, and control of infection, and they reveal potentially unique antiviral programs associated with clearance of HCV infection.
Viral and immunological determinants of hepatitis C virus clearance, persistence, and disease
Authors: Thimme Robert , Bukh Jens , Spangenberg Hans Christian , Wieland Stefan , Pemberton Janell , Steiger Carola , Govindarajan Sugantha , Purcell Robert H. , Chisari Francis V.
Published: November 2002

To define the early events that determine the outcome of acute hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, we compared the course of viremia with the peripheral and intrahepatic T cell response and intrahepatic cytokine profile in six acutely infected chimpanzees. Three different outcomes were observed after peak viral titers were reached: sustained viral clearance, transient viral clearance followed by chronic infection, and chronic infection that persisted at initial peak titers. The results indicate that HCV spread outpaces the T cell response and that HCV rapidly induces but is not controlled by IFN-α/β; that viral clearance follows the entry and accumulation of HCV-specific IFN-γ-producing T cells in the liver; and that it may not require the destruction of infected cells.
Disrupted synaptic development in the hypoxic newborn brain
Authors: Curristin Sheila M. , Cao Anjun , Stewart William B. , Zhang Heping , Madri Joseph A. , Morrow Jon S. , Ment Laura R.
Published: November 2002

Infants born prematurely risk significant life-long cognitive disability, representing a major pediatric health crisis. The neuropathology of this cohort is accurately modeled in mice subjected to sublethal postnatal hypoxia. Massively parallel transcriptome analysis using cDNA microchips (9,262 genes), combined with immunohistochemical and protein assays, reveals that sublethal hypoxia accentuates genes subserving presynaptic function, and it suppresses genes involved with synaptic maturation, postsynaptic function, and neurotransmission. Other significantly affected pathways include those involved with glial maturation, vasculogenesis, and components of the cortical and microtubular cytoskeleton. These patterns reveal a global dysynchrony in the maturation programs of the hypoxic developing brain, and offer insights into the vulnerabilities of processes that guide early postnatal cerebral maturation.
An
Arabidopsis
histidine kinase is essential for megagametogenesis
Authors: Pischke Melissa S. , Jones Linda G. , Otsuga Denichiro , Fernandez Donna E. , Drews Gary N. , Sussman Michael R.
Published: November 2002

C
yto
k
inin-
I
ndependent 1 (CKI1) belongs to a group of putative plant histidine kinases whose members do not appear to act as ethylene receptors. The deduced protein structure, combined with the observation that
Arabidopsis
callus cultures overexpressing CKI1 exhibit a “cytokinin-independent” cell division and greening phenotype, led to the hypothesis that CKI1 is involved in cytokinin signaling, perhaps acting as a cytokinin receptor. To test the function of CKI1, we used a reverse-genetic approach to identify plants carrying T-DNA insertions in
CKI1
. Two independent alleles were identified, which produce the same developmental phenotype. Analyses of populations segregating for the
cki1–5
or
cki1–6
T-DNA insertion alleles failed to reveal any homozygous
cki1
plants, indicating that the homozygous mutant condition was lethal. Based on segregation distortion, transmission studies, a microscopy-based examination of developing female gametophytes, and mRNA expression data, we suggest that CKI1 function is required for megagametophyte development. Our work with
CKI1
mutants indicates that signal transduction by means of a His/Asp phosphorelay system may play an important and previously unsuspected role in female gametophyte development in
Arabidopsis
.
RAG-dependent peripheral T cell receptor diversification in CD8+T lymphocytes
Authors: Serra Pau , Amrani Abdelaziz , Han Bingye , Yamanouchi Jun , Thiessen Shari J. , Santamaria Pere
Published: November 2002

Rearrangement of T cell receptor (TCR) genes is driven by transient expression of V(D)J recombination-activating genes (RAGs) during lymphocyte development. Immunological dogma holds that T cells irreversibly terminate RAG expression before exiting the thymus, and that all of the progeny arising from mature T cells express the parental TCRs. When single pancreatic islet-derived, NRP-A7 peptide-reactive CD8+T cells from nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice were repeatedly stimulated with peptide-pulsed dendritic cells, daughter T cells reexpressed RAGs, lost their ability to bind to NRP-A7/Kdtetramers, ceased to transcribe tetramer-specific TCR genes, and, instead, expressed a vast array of other TCR rearrangements. Pancreatic lymph node (PLN) CD8+T cells from animals expressing a transgenic NRP-A7-reactive TCR transcribed and translated RAGsin vivoand displayed endogenous TCRs on their surface. RAG reexpression also occurred in the PLN CD8+T cells of wild-type NOD mice and could be induced in the peripheral CD8+T cells of nondiabetes-prone TCR-transgenic B10.H2g7mice by stimulation with peptide-pulsed dendritic cells. In contrast, reexpression of RAGs could not be induced in the CD8+T cells of B6 mice expressing an ovalbumin-specific, Kb-restricted TCR, or in the CD8+T cells of NOD mice expressing a lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus-specific, Db-restricted TCR. Extra-thymic reexpression of the V(D)J recombination machinery in certain CD8+T cell subpopulations, therefore, enables further diversification of the peripheral T cell repertoire.
Targeting the
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
30/32-kDa mycolyl transferase complex as a therapeutic strategy against tuberculosis: Proof of principle by using antisense technology
Authors: Harth Günter , Horwitz Marcus A. , Tabatadze David , Zamecnik Paul C.
Published: November 2002

We have investigated the effect of sequence-specific antisense phosphorothioate-modified oligodeoxyribonucleotides (PS-ODNs) targeting different regions of each of the 30/32-kDa protein complex (antigen 85 complex) encoding genes on the multiplication of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
. Single PS-ODNs to one of the three mycolyl transferase transcripts, added either once or weekly over the 6-wk observation period, inhibited bacterial growth by up to 1 log unit. A combination of three PS-ODNs specifically targeting all three transcripts inhibited bacterial growth by ≈2 logs; the addition of these PS-ODNs weekly for 6 wk was somewhat more effective than a one-time addition. Targeting the 5′ end of the transcripts was more inhibitory than targeting internal sites; the most effective PS-ODNs and target sites had minimal or no secondary structure. The effect of the PS-ODNs was specific, as mismatched PS-ODNs had little or no inhibitory activity. The antisense PS-ODNs, which were highly stable in
M. tuberculosis
cultures, specifically blocked protein expression by their gene target. PS-ODNs targeting the transcript of a related 24-kDa protein (mpt51) had little inhibitory effect by themselves and did not increase the effect of PS-ODNs against the three members of the 30/32-kDa protein complex. The addition of PS-ODNs against the transcripts of glutamine synthetase I (
gln
A1) and alanine racemase (
alr
) modestly increased the inhibitory efficacy of the 30/32-kDa protein complex-specific PS-ODNs to ≈2.5 logs. This study shows that the three mycolyl transferases are highly promising targets for antituberculous therapy by using antisense or other antimicrobial technologies.
Identification of the gene responsible for the
cblA
complementation group of vitamin B
12
-responsive methylmalonic acidemia based on analysis of prokaryotic gene arrangements
Authors: Dobson C. Melissa , Wai Timothy , Leclerc Daniel , Wilson Aaron , Wu Xuchu , Doré Carole , Hudson Thomas , Rosenblatt David S. , Gravel Roy A.
Published: November 2002

Vitamin B
12
(cobalamin) is an essential cofactor of two enzymes, methionine synthase and methylmalonyl-CoA mutase. The conversion of the vitamin to its coenzymes requires a series of biochemical modifications for which several genetic diseases are known, comprising eight complementation groups (
cblA
through
cblH
). The objective of this study was to clone the gene responsible for the
cblA
complementation group thought to represent a mitochondrial cobalamin reductase. Examination of bacterial operons containing genes in close proximity to the gene for methylmalonyl-CoA mutase and searching for orthologous sequences in the human genome yielded potential candidates. A candidate gene was evaluated for deleterious mutations in
cblA
patient cell lines, which revealed a 4-bp deletion in three cell lines, as well as an 8-bp insertion and point mutations causing a stop codon and an amino acid substitution. These data confirm that the identified gene,
MMAA
, corresponds to the
cblA
complementation group. It is located on chromosome 4q31.1–2 and encodes a predicted protein of 418 aa. A Northern blot revealed RNA species of 1.4, 2.6, and 5.5 kb predominating in liver and skeletal muscle. The deduced amino acid sequence reveals a domain structure, which belongs to the AAA ATPase superfamily that encompasses a wide variety of proteins including ATP-binding cassette transporter accessory proteins that bind ATP and GTP. We speculate that we have identified a component of a transporter or an accessory protein that is involved in the translocation of vitamin B
12
into mitochondria.
A genomic-scale view of the cAMP response element-enhancer decoy: A tumor target-based genetic tool
Authors: Cho Yee Sook , Kim Meyoung-Kon , Cheadle Chris , Neary Catherine , Park Yun Gyu , Becker Kevin G. , Cho-Chung Yoon S.
Published: November 2002

Enhancer DNA decoy oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) inhibit transcription by competing for transcription factors. A decoy ODN composed of the cAMP response element (CRE) inhibits CRE-directed gene transcription and tumor growth without affecting normal cell growth. Here, we use DNA microarrays to analyze the global effects of the CRE-decoy ODN in cancer cell lines and in tumors grown in nude mice. The CRE-decoy up-regulates the AP-2β transcription factor gene in tumors but not in the livers of host animals. The up-regulated expression of AP-2β is clustered with the up-regulation of other genes involved in development and cell differentiation. Concomitantly, another cluster of genes involved in cell proliferation and transformation is down-regulated. The observed alterations indicate that CRE-directed transcription favors tumor growth. The CRE-decoy ODN, therefore, may serve as a target-based genetic tool to treat cancer and other diseases in which CRE-directed transcription is abnormally used.
Identification in
Drosophila melanogaster
of the invertebrate G protein-coupled FMRFamide receptor
Authors: Meeusen Tom , Mertens Inge , Clynen Elke , Baggerman Geert , Nichols Ruthann , Nachman Ronald J. , Huybrechts Roger , De Loof Arnold , Schoofs Liliane
Published: November 2002

We here describe the cloning and characterization of the functionally active
Drosophila melanogaster
(Drm) FMRFamide receptor, which we designated as DrmFMRFa-R. The full-length ORF of a
D. melanogaster
orphan receptor, CG 2114 (Berkeley
Drosophila
Genome Project), was cloned from genomic DNA. This receptor is distantly related to mammalian thyroid-stimulating hormone-releasing hormone receptors and to a set of
Caenorhabditis elegans
orphan receptors. An extract of 5,000 central nervous systems from the related but bigger flesh fly,
Neobellieria bullata
(Neb), was used to screen cells expressing the orphan receptor. Successive purification steps, followed by MS, revealed the sequence of two previously uncharacterized endogenous peptides, APPQPSDNFIRFamide (Neb-FIRFamide) and pQPSQDFMRFamide (Neb-FMRFamide). These are reminiscent of other insect FMRFamide peptides, having neurohormonal as well as neurotransmitter functions. Nanomolar concentrations of the Drm FMRFamides (DPKQDFMRFamide, TPAEDFMRFamide, SDNFMRFamide, SPKQDFMRFamide, and PDNFMRFamide) activated the cognate receptor in a dose-dependent manner. To our knowledge, the cloned DrmFMRFa-R is the first functionally active FMRFamide G protein-coupled receptor described in invertebrates to date.
The relationship between force and focal complex development
Authors: Galbraith Catherine G. , Yamada Kenneth M. , Sheetz Michael P.
Published: November 2002

To adhere and migrate, cells must be capable of applying cytoskeletal force to the extracellular matrix (ECM) through integrin receptors. However, it is unclear if connections between integrins and the ECM are immediately capable of transducing cytoskeletal contraction into migration force, or whether engagement of force transmission requires maturation of the adhesion. Here, we show that initial integrin–ECM adhesions become capable of exerting migration force with the recruitment of vinculin, a marker for focal complexes, which are precursors of focal adhesions. We are able to induce the development of focal complexes by the application of mechanical force to fibronectin receptors from inside or outside the cell, and we are able to extend focal complex formation to vitronectin receptors by the removal of c-Src. These results indicate that cells use mechanical force as a signal to strengthen initial integrin–ECM adhesions into focal complexes and regulate the amount of migration force applied to individual adhesions at localized regions of the advancing lamella.
Slo1 Tail Domains, but Not the Ca2+ Bowl, Are Required for the β1 Subunit to Increase the Apparent Ca2+ Sensitivity of BK Channels
Authors: Qian Xiang , Nimigean Crina M. , Niu Xiaowei , Moss Brenda L. , Magleby Karl L.
Published: November 2002

Functional large-conductance Ca2+- and voltage-activated K+ (BK) channels can be assembled from four α subunits (Slo1) alone, or together with four auxiliary β1 subunits to greatly increase the apparent Ca2+ sensitivity of the channel. We examined the structural features involved in this modulation with two types of experiments. In the first, the tail domain of the α subunit, which includes the RCK2 (regulator of K+ conductance) domain and Ca2+ bowl, was replaced with the tail domain of Slo3, a BK-related channel that lacks both a Ca2+ bowl and high affinity Ca2+ sensitivity. In the second, the Ca2+ bowl was disrupted by mutations that greatly reduce the apparent Ca2+ sensitivity. We found that the β1 subunit increased the apparent Ca2+ sensitivity of Slo1 channels, independently of whether the α subunits were expressed as separate cores (S0-S8) and tails (S9-S10) or full length, and this increase was still observed after the Ca2+ bowl was mutated. In contrast, β1 subunits no longer increased Ca2+ sensitivity when Slo1 tails were replaced by Slo3 tails. The β1 subunits were still functionally coupled to channels with Slo3 tails, as DHS-I and 17 β-estradiol activated these channels in the presence of β1 subunits, but not in their absence. These findings indicate that the increase in apparent Ca2+ sensitivity induced by the β1 subunit does not require either the Ca2+ bowl or the linker between the RCK1 and RCK2 domains, and that Slo3 tails cannot substitute for Slo1 tails. The β1 subunit also induced a decrease in voltage sensitivity that occurred with either Slo1 or Slo3 tails. In contrast, the β1 subunit–induced increase in apparent Ca2+ sensitivity required Slo1 tails. This suggests that the allosteric activation pathways for these two types of actions of the β1 subunit may be different.
Foundations of Mathematical Biophysics
Authors: Rashevsky N.
Published: November 2002

Mathematical methods in biology occupy a somewhat peculiar position, and the attitude of many biologists toward them is similar to that of many practical engineers toward what is called pure scientific research. The modern progressive engineer recognizes the value of pure science, which seeks for truth regardless of any possibility of practical applications; yet he still frequently shows a definite dislike towards such investigations. The whole history of civilization demonstrates that discoveries which, at the time they were made, did not show any signs of the possibility of being turned into practical use, now lie at the basis of many useful engineering devices. As Professor R. A. Millikan has said, we owe our present-day civilization to Galileo. Every educated person, be he pure scientist or engineer, recognizes this fact. And yet the frame of mind of the “practical” man is not too receptive to investigations which do not show at least some remote prospects of practical applications. Unless he can see at least hypothetically some practical results of such research, he will not give it his whole-hearted enthusiasm. The ultimate criterion in the evaluation of any research still remains its practical use. Those pure scientists who have had close contact with what is called “industrial research” know only too well the truth of the above statement.
Beyond Mechanism and Vitalism
Authors: Singer Edgar A.
Published: November 2002

During the course of the last century it has grown increasingly clear that not all the issues with which an experimental science can be faced are experimental issues. If there were no other ground for this belief, history itself would force upon us some such conviction. For there are differences of opinion dividing men today that have divided men from the earliest times recorded, and in every one of the ages in between the self-same issue will have involved in dissension, not an occasional disputant here and there, but all the best thinkers in all the known sciences of their day. Yet at no time has either party to such strifes been in possession of facts ignored by the other; for had this been the case, the ignorant party must ere now have been driven from the field by force of the facts it ignored. It is fair to suppose that an issue which has come no nearer to solution as century after century added its contribution to the store of human knowledge, cannot depend for its decision on any information to be looked for from the centuries to come.
The Problem of Vital Organization
Authors: Lillie Ralph S.
Published: November 2002

In considering this problem a distinction should first be made between its scientific and it philosophical aspects. The scientific problem is that of defining in exact understandable terms those conditions and factors (with their various types of combination and interplay) which make possible the synthesis of the living organism from the simpler elements of the non-living environment, and also its maintenance in the adult state as a fully developed and autonomous organic individual. The problem as thus stated is one to be approached by methods of observation and experiment, leading to verifiable results which are then expressed in systematic and intelligible form. The final statements or representations thus reached, the accepted scientific generalizations, inevitably take on a theoretical form, and as such are necessarily partial and abstract. Many of them, in fact, are to be regarded primarily as simplifications or models devised in the interest of clear representation or understanding. Their relation to concrete reality may range from attempts at exact portraiture to formulæ or diagrams having little more than heuristic significance. Any realistic philosophy of nature must always remember how incomplete and provisional are the theoretical conceptions of any natural science.
A Metaphysics of Design without Purpose
Authors: Moore Merritt Hadden
Published: November 2002

The problem of this paper may be stated simply. It is that, in dealing with the nature of reality, it is not only possible, but more fruitful and more accurate, to deal with the category of order or design, meaning by this, the structure or relationship of the parts of a whole, without associating this idea with that of purpose or teleology, than it is to conjoin these concepts. It is the purpose of the paper to show why this separation is advisable, and to indicate the background of the problem which tends to make difficult the separation of these two concepts.
Evolution and the Rise of the Scientific Spirit in America
Authors: Ratner Sidney
Published: November 2002

Ten years ago the civilized world was shocked out of an unwarranted confidence in the victory of science over superstition by the news that Tennessee had outlawed the teaching of man's evolutionary origin. Within the next three years both Mississippi and Arkansas joined Tennessee in defense of Biblical truth against the scepticism of science. The furor raised by the dramatic clashes between William Jennings Bryan and Clarence Darrow at the Scopes Trial in Dayton, Tennessee, has now become a faded memory. The struggle between Fundamentalists and Modernists has died down, though the embers still smoulder; and few ever think of the issues then raised, now that war and fascism threaten civilization.
The Impossibility of Interaction between Mind and Matter
Authors: Gaviola E.
Published: November 2002

The progress of psychology as scientific theory has been handicapped by the circumstance that it has been inclined to deal with two kinds of problems: on the one hand, with emotions, instincts, complexes, ideas, etc.; on the other, with the working of the sense-organs and of the central and sympathetic nervous system. To approach the first task it has had to create a system of mentalistic or introspective concepts, like the ones mentioned; to deal with the second enterprise it has adopted the physical language used by the natural sciences.
A Note on the Fruitfulness of Deduction
Authors: Abraham Leo
Published: November 2002

Deduction has frequently been condemned as a useless intellectual instrument because of its tautological character. To thoroughgoing opponents of rationalism, the pretensions of deduction are on the same level with those of induction. Both presume to yield more knowledge from the fact that we have some knowledge; and this is an impossible paradox, which not even so powerful an opponent of the “Philosophy of Experience” as Bradley could resolve to his own satisfaction. I wish in this brief note to indicate how this semblance of paradox may very easily be removed without having to deny, as has often been thought necessary, the tautologicality of deduction.
The Rôle of the Observer
Authors: Wiener Norbert
Published: November 2002

The distinction between psychology, logic, and epistemology is a commonplace. The first treats of experience as an act, experience in its relation to the individual observer. The second concerns itself with the internal marks by which truth may be distinguished from error, and in so far as it deals with experience, has to do with some sort of validity of the experience as evidence of a truth. The third discusses in a general way all the elements—observer, object, immediate presentation—which enter into the experience.
Schools of Psychology: A Complementary Pattern
Authors: Rosenzweig Saul
Published: November 2002

“If, then, we are really to find out what is true and what is false, we must direct our attention to the role of any particular item in the whole of which it is a part.”

—Wertheimer: On Truth.

In these days of Gestalttheorie it seems not untimely to inquire whether psychology itself does not stand in need of being recognized as a configuration of complementary parts. The suggestion, it is true, tends at the first to be repudiated by the implacability of the schools with their claims and counterclaims resounding on every side. On further analysis, however, such controversy seems to acquire the very different significance of having permitted certain partial aspects of the whole field to become well-articulated, even if in somewhat exaggerated form. In other words, if there is any underlying unity in psychology, then the very overstatements of the school zealots while unwittingly defeating their own purpose may have been doing the science a real service by throwing its basic pattern into bold relief. In broadest terms this seems to describe what has been happening in psychology in the recent past and to define the present stage of its development.
Arranging the Sciences: I. An Experiment
Authors: Malisoff William Marias
Published: November 2002

One of the most thankless tasks in the field of the philosophy of science is the arranging of the sciences. If philosophy is to fulfill the partial rôle of being the “science of the sciences” it is sure to return to this undertaking time and time again. Sometimes it will refer to the enterprise as “the classification of the sciences,” sometimes as the formulation of “the system of the sciences,” and occasionally in the grand manner as a description of the “order of Nature.” I prefer to speak of “arranging” the sciences.
A Theory of Time
Authors: Skulsky Samuel
Published: November 2002

Professor Schiller's question, “Must philosophers disagree?” can be answered in the negative if a technique can be worked out whereby it becomes possible to answer the question, “What are they talking about?” It is the aim of the ensuing remarks to provide at least the outline of such a technique and to illustrate its possible effectiveness in the specific context of controversies about the nature of time. That philosophers may continue to disagree in spite of the suggestions offered is, of course, to be expected in view of the long history of failures which compromise positions have encountered. The fate of the conciliator usually has been to receive the contempt of the embattled polemicists, and the fate of his peacemaking, to be construed as just another theory. Of course, this is in most cases the ulterior motive for his pretended altruism in assuming the rôle of arbitrator. Yet there are theories and theories. A position like that of Hume on the question of causality may reasonably be opposed to that of Leibniz but not in the same sense as to that of Kant. For the latter does attempt to provide a bridge between rationalism and empiricism and to do justice to the valid claims of each. The theory of time here proposed immodestly attempts a rapprochement among the multitudinous doctrines of time by setting forth one more doctrine.
Structure in Sentence and in Fact
Authors: Moore Willis
Published: November 2002

Ludwig Wittgenstein and certain of his friends and followers have offered an interesting answer to the question of the relation “one fact (such as a sentence) [must] have to another in order to be capable of being a symbol for that other”. The answer in brief, as Russell puts it, is that, “in order that a certain sentence should assert a certain fact there must … be something in common between the structure of the sentence and the structure of the fact”. Wittgenstein himself in the Tractatus usually denominates this common element as logical structure. The sentence is said to picture its fact; it reflects, mirrors, shows or exhibits by means of its own structure the structure of the fact it is about. Critics and interpreters generally agree with Russell's broad characterization of the theory but disagree greatly as to the exact nature of this postulated common structure. Consequently, the evaluation of the theory which this paper proposes to make must include an examination of its several alternative interpretations.
Causality in Field Physics in its Bearing upon Biological Causation
Authors: Northrop F. S. C.
Published: November 2002

The concept of causality as it appears in a specific scientific theory involves two factors: (1) the relation of necessary connection between the states of a system at different times, and (2) the definition of state at a given time.
The Scientific Method and Its Extension to Systems of Many Degrees of Freedom
Authors: Prescott C. H.
Published: November 2002

We are told that we live in a scientific world. All about us are the fruits of scientific research, and the products of scientific industry. But, in spite of this transformation of our material surroundings, scientific thought, or the scientific method as such, has had no effect upon the everyday thought and behaviour of our people. To be sure, along with the scientific gadgets a few scientific truths have been disseminated. They know the earth is round and moves about the sun; they could know that bacteria cause disease and that they are themselves descended from less articulate forms of animal life. Even when such conclusions are accepted, it is on the basis of authority with no understanding as to how they arose and on what basis they stand. For the large majority, science has merely acquired a cloak of respectability; it is a stronger magic than that of our forebears, and our modern alchemy is known as a powerful though mysterious source of pecuniary profit.
The Philosophy of “As If” in Physical Science
Authors: Peddie W.
Published: November 2002

We are accustomed to think and to speak of the physical universe as having objective existence, externally to ourselves; and as being in objective existence quite apart from any question of our perception of it. Even the idealistic philosopher regards the universe so, except when he is reflecting mentally upon other possibilities. The realistic view is the primary view. Idealism is an afterthought. And the idealist, if he is an investigator in physical science, cannot avoid acting upon the postulate of realism. Nothing else gives him a foothold for work. He has to regard the universe “as if” it were real. All our philosophies are necessarily based upon postulate; all our science is founded upon faith.
Logic and Probability in Physics
Authors: Darwin C. G.
Published: November 2002

General philosophy claims to be the critical subject which lays down for all of us what we may be allowed to think, and yet it has played no part whatever in the great revolutions of human thought of the present century—those connected with relativity and the quantum theory. It might have been expected that the scientists would have been constantly consulting the philosophers as to the legitimacy of their various speculations, but nothing of the kind has happened. Since no one can dispense with some sort of meta-physic, each scientist has made one for himself, and no doubt they contain many crudities, but it would seem that a deep interest in metaphysic is a disadvantage rather than an advantage to the physicist—at least I have the impression that those of my friends who are most inclined to speculate on the ultimate things appear to be the ones whose scientific work is most hampered by doing so. Now I propose to risk a similar indiscretion. I want to embody in it the practical philosophy of a physicist, and I do not mean it as an attack on the pure philosophers, who are very reasonable people, only chargeable with the minor offence of not having made me want to read their books!
The Place of Theory in Anthropological Studies
Authors: Kluckhohn Clyde
Published: November 2002

It is probably true that the greater number of contemporary American anthropologists feel that “theory” is a very dangerous kind of business which the careful anthropologist must be on his guard against. This statement represents, in the first instance, merely a crude induction from my experience in talking with professional anthropologists. It is, however, symptomatic that not until 1933 did a book by an American anthropologist include the word “theory” in its title. Only a single book published subsequently is explicitly given over to anthropological theory, and this avowedly concentrates upon the historical development of theories rather than upon a fresh and extended analysis of the more abstract aspects of anthropological thought. But because anthropology still painfully remembers the stomach-ache it got from the too easy generalizations of many nineteenth century “arm-chair ethnologists” is insufficient reason, it seems to me, for that almost morbid avoidance of theory which tends to produce acute indigestion from sheer bulk of unordered concrete observations. Landheer has with some justice commented:
A Clarification of Critical Realism
Authors: Sellars Roy Wood
Published: November 2002

What I propose to do in the present paper is to clarify critical realism on some crucial points. While such is my primary purpose, I also entertain the hope that logical positivists and pragmatists may be led to see in this form of realism a necessary supplementation to their emphases and insights. I am persuaded that there has been misunderstanding and prejudice at work partly because of verbal phobias in connection with such phrases as the copy-theory, representative perception, transcendence, the subjective, Cartesian dualism, etc., etc. So strong have these accumulated prejudices been that, in America at least, there has been a tendency to outlaw epistemology. I do not find the same situation in England for instance. Here it seems at times as though pragmatism and positivism have consciously “ganged up” against epistemology—in my opinion to the hurt of philosophy. I have the impression that the younger philosophers in America are bewildered and are largely drifting. Under these conditions it is the duty of any one who believes that he has a clear-cut epistemology capable of rising above these verbal phobias to seek to present it as precisely as possible.
Peirce's Treatment of Induction
Authors: Goudge Thomas A.
Published: November 2002

Charles Peirce was one of those rare individuals, an expert logician who is at the same time an experienced practical scientist. His logical acumen was apparent even to his contemporaries; while an early training in chemistry, astronomy, geodesy and optics, left him, as he declares, “saturated through and through with the spirit of the physical sciences.“ One is therefore hardly surprised to discover that he was deeply interested in scientific methodology—particularly in the logic of induction. Indeed, it would not be an exaggeration to say that some of his most significant contributions to philosophy were made in precisely this field. No apology is thus required for devoting attention to them. In the present paper I want to sketch his treatment of induction very briefly, and attempt a tentative estimate of its validity.
Some Consequences of the Positivistic Interpretation of Physics
Authors: Bushkovitch A. V.
Published: November 2002

The prevailing philosophical mood among those physicists today whose interests are mainly in the field of modern atomic theory, is some form of positivism. This is true not only of the leaders in the field of quantum mechanics, as for instance Heisenberg, Jordan, and Dirac, in whose writings on the philosophical aspects of the recent revolutionary advances in physics the positivistic tendency is clearly visible, but also of the rank and file of competent students of the modern quantum theory.
The Human Skin: Philosophy's Last Line of Defense
Authors: Bentley Arthur F.
Published: November 2002

Human skin is the one authentic criterion of the universe which philosophers recognize when they appraise knowledge under their professional rubric, epistemology. By and large—except for a few of the great Critics and Sceptics—they view knowledge as a capacity, attribute, possession, or other mysterious inner quality of a “knower”; they view this knower as residing in or at a “body”; they view the body as cut off from the rest of the universe by a “skin”; all of which holds for philosophizing physicists and physiologists even as for the professionals of the arcanum itself. If this assertion seems crude, one may recall that there are times when a bit of crudity is a fair physic for an inflamed subtlety. In the case before us the factual crudity lies in the use of “skin” for a criterion, not in our calling attention to the fact. The “skin” that is so used is, indeed, that of ancient anatomical schematism, unaffected by the transformation of understanding which modern physiological research has brought about. Yet if philosophers cease thus crudely to employ it, all their issues of epistemology will vanish, and the very type of attack they make on cognition will be discredited; whereupon the task of determining the status of knowledge itself will pass from their hands to those of the scientists who have taken over so many regions of philosophical arrogation in the past. This is what I propose here to show.
The A Priori in Contemporary Thought
Authors: Miller David L.
Published: November 2002

The belief in the old type of a priori knowledge is gone. Cartesian innate ideas vanished with the severe criticism of Kant who held that only the form, not the content, of experience is known a priori. More recent criticism of Kant's a priori has taken place indirectly by way of the development of non-Euclidian geometries so that today there is no longer the belief that either the content or the form of experience is fixed and changeless or known with certainty a priori. But has the a priori phase of experience passed altogether? If not, what in recent thought has taken its place?