bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Vertebrate cydophilin B
Authors: Price E R , McKeon F
Published: November 2023

Cyclophilin B was identified by low stringency hybridization screens of cDNA libraries using the cyclophilin A sequence as a probe (Bergsma et al., 1991; Hasel et al., 1991; Price et al., 1991). Cyclophilin B was also identified as a protein in human breast milk (Spik et al., 1991) and in the media of COS cells transfected with a chicken cDNA library (Caroni etal., 1991).
Neurospora crassa FKBPs
Authors: Tropschug M
Published: November 2023

FK506-binding proteins; rapamycin-binding proteins; peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerases (PPIase, EC no. 5.2.1.8.); rotamases, immunophilins (Schreiber, 1992).

Neurospora crassa is sensitive against the immunosuppressants FK506 and rapamycin, which originally were isolated as antifungal agents. This led to the search for receptor proteins for these immunsuppressants. In 1990, the abundant human (Standaert et al., 1990) and N. crassa cytosolic FKBPs (Tropschug et al., 1990) were cloned (see separate entry on N. crassa Cyps, p. 382). FKBPs are found in every prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell and in all subcellular localizations, like cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or nucleus (reviewed by Schreiber, 1992; Kunz and Hall, 1993; Schmid, 1993; Fischer, 1994; Galat and Metcalfe, 1995).
Drosophila FKBP39
Authors: Theopold U , Hultmark D
Published: November 2023

Drosophila FKBP39 is the first member of the FK506-binding proteins found in this species. FKBP39 shows the highest similarity to a subfamily of these proteins that comprises one yeast and another insect protein. These FKBPs are characterized by a highly charged N-terminal domain followed by a C-terminal domain that binds the immunosuppressive drug FK506.

The cDNA isolated from a library of immune-induced adult flies (GenBank accession number Z46894) shows an open reading frame which codes for a protein with a bipartite domain structure (Theopold et al., 1995): the N-terminus contains two stretches of amino acids with acidic residues, separated by highly basic stretches (Fig. 1). Part of the second basic stretch comprises two overlapping, possible nuclear localization signals. The C-terminal domain shows high similarity to proteins that bind the-immunosuppressive drug FK506 (Gething and Sambrook, 1992; Kay, 1996; see overview, p. 359).
Mammalian Pin1
Authors: Lu K P , Hunter T
Published: November 2023

Pinl, a human protein interacting with the mitotic NIMA kinase isolated from Aspergillus nidulans, contains a catalytic domain characteristic of the highly conserved third family of peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerases that are distinct from either the cyclophilins or the FK506-binding proteins. Pinl is a widely expressed 18 kDa protein localized in nuclear speckles which also contain spliceosomes. Pin 1 is structurally and functionally related to Ess1/Ptf1, an essential protein in budding yeast, and to the Drosophila dodo protein. The biological function of this protein includes an essential role in regulation of mitotic progression, via direct interaction with a subset of mitosis-specific phosphoproteins, including NIMA and CDC25.

Pinl was originally isolated as a protein that interacts with the Aspergillus NIMA protein kinase and suppresses its mitosis-promoting activity in a yeast two-hybrid screen (Lu etal., 1996).
Mammalian MSF
Authors: Sakaguchi K Mihara,M
Published: November 2023

MSF (mitochondrial import stimulation factor) was isolated as a N-ethyl maleimide (NEM)-sensitive cytosolic factor required for in vitro protein import into mitochondria. MSF catalyses unfolding of precursor proteins, keeps them in an import-competent conformation, targets the unfolded proteins to mitochondria, and eventually mediates ATP-dependent mitochodrial protein import.
Mammalian Hip
Authors: Hohfeld J
Published: November 2023

The nucleotide sequence of the hip cDNA of rat predicts a 368 amino acid protein of 41.3 kDa (GenBank accession number X82021). The protein migrates with reduced mobility in SDS-PAGE resulting in an apparent mass of c. 50 kDa. Hip forms a homo-oligomer of c. 160 kDa probably containing four subunits. Rat Hip is 90.5% identical to p48 of the human Hsp90-progesterone receptor complex (accession number U28918) and 36 % identical to a so-called heat shock-related protein of Plasmodium berghei (accession numbers L04508 and L21710), revealing conservation of the Hip protein during eukaryotic evolution.
Quality control in the endoplasmic reticulum
Authors: Simons J F , Helenius A
Published: November 2023

The reasons for quality control are at least threefold. First, it makes sense to keep newly synthesized proteins in the ER until folding is completed because the ER contains a rich variety of chaperones and folding enzymes at high concentrations. The ER also has an ionic and redox milieu optimized for folding and disulfide formation. In the extracellular space, or other final compartments of residence, no folding machinery is available.
The HSP90 family — an overview
Authors: Scheibel T , Buchner J
Published: November 2023

Hsp90, Hsp80, Hsp81, Hsp82, Hsc82, Hsp83, Hsp85, HsplOO, Grp94, endoplasmin, Gp96, HtpG, c62.5, Erp99, Hsp108

Arabidopsis capsulatum, g-S21764; Arabidopsis thaliana, S-P27323; Candida albicans, g-X81025; Canis familiaris, (e) g-U01153; Cricetulus griseus, g-L33676; Catharanthus roseus, (e) g-L14594; Drosophila melanogaster, S-P02828; Escherichia coli, S-P10413; Gallus gallus, (a) s-P11501; G. gallus, (b) S-Q04619; G. gallus, (e) S-P08110; Histoplasma capsulatum, g-M55629; Homo sapiens, (a) S-P07900; H. sapiens, (b) S-P08238; H. sapiens, (e) S-P24625; Hordeum vulgare, (e) e-S31862; Leishmania.
Escherichia coli GroEL, structure, function
Authors: Weissman J S , Fenton W A , Braig K , Adams P D , Horwich A
Published: November 2023

Chaperonin 60, cpn60 (Hemmingsen et al., 1988; Goloubinoff etal., 1989b); GroES as chaperonin 10, cpn10 (Goloubinoff etal., 1989a). GroEL was originally identified through mutations of Escherichia coli that led to defective A phage biogenesis (Georgopoulos et al., 1973; Sternberg, 1973).
The structure of Escherichia coli GroES
Authors: Hunt J F , Deisenhofer J
Published: November 2023

The crystal structure of GroES shows that the 10 kDa monomer forms a topologically irregular four-stranded 0- barrel (Hunt et al., 1996; Mande et al., 1996). This structure is homologous to that of a /3-barrel domain found in the enzymes alcohol dehydrogenase, quinone oxi-doreductase (Murzin, 1996).
Cytosolic chaperonins — an overview
Authors: Kubota H , Willison K
Published: November 2023

In the cytosol of both prokaryotic, eukaryotic cells, many proteins that are newly synthesized or recovering from denatured states require folding assistance from a variety of molecular chaperones (Gething, Sambrook, 1992; Hartl, 1996). Early studies on chaperones identified a family of c. 60 kDa chaperonins (now called CPN60s) that includes GroEL of Escherichia coli, Hsp60 of mitochondria, the rubisco subunit binding protein of chloroplasts (Ellis, van der Vies, 1991).
CCTη,
Authors: Kubota H , Willison K
Published: November 2023

Mouse Cctq cDNA (GenBank accession number Z31399) was isolated by random selection from a testis cDNA library (Kubota et al., 1994). The mouse CCT protein is 544 amino acids in length, it shares approximately 30% identity with the other subunits of CCT, 40% with the archaebacterial chaperonin TF55 (Kubota et al., 1994). The CCT17 protein also shows weak similarity to the eubacterial chaperonin GroEL, intraorganellar chaperonins Hsp60, rubisco subunit-binding protein (Kim et al., 1994; Kubota et al., 1994, 1995a).
CCTб
Authors: Kubota H , Willison K
Published: November 2023

The yeast homologue of CCT0 is also called Cct8p (Kubota etal., 1995a). Mouse Ccte cDNA (GenBank accession number Z37164) was isolated by hybridization using a human PCR probe produced with a mixed primer for a motif (TNDGATI) conserved between CCTa, the archaebacterial chaperonin TF55 (Kubota etal., 1995b).
Cofactors in the facilitated folding of a-, β-tubulin
Authors: Cowan N J
Published: November 2023

Cofactor A, Rbl2 (S. cerevisiae) (Archer et al., 1995); cofactor D, Cin1 (5. cerevisiae, S. pombe) (Stearns et al., 1990); cofactor E = Pac2 (S. cerevisiae, 5. pombe) (GenBank accession number U16814). The tubulin cofactors were originally discovered as two crude fractions obtained by ion exchange chromatography that were together required (in addition to ATP, GTP, CCT, native tubulin heterodimers, the latter included so as to provide the opportunity for stabilization by exchange of newly folded tubulin polypeptides) for the productive folding of a-, j8-tubulin (Gao et al., 1993).
Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 CIpC
Authors: Clarke A K
Published: November 2023

The Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942 CIpC (Clarke, Eriksson, 1996) is an 87 kDa polypeptide (840 amino acids) containing the two conserved ATP-binding domains characteristic of all larger Clp proteins (i.e. CIpA, B, C; see overview of HSP100/Clp proteins, p. 231). The length of the intervening region between the ATP-binding domains (i.e. 100-110 amino acids) is also representative of proteins within the CIpC subfamily, as are the two highly conserved repeat motifs located within the N-terminal region (Squires, Squires, 1992).
Chloroplast-localized Clp proteins
Authors: Vierling E
Published: November 2023

Complete derived amino acid sequences of higher plantClpC proteins are available from (Moore andKeegstra, 1993; GenBank accession number L09546) and(Gottesman 1990; P31541,P31542),, a sequence missing less than 70 codons atthe amino terminus available from Brassica napus(X75328). Overall the ClpC amino acid fromare also reported as ESTs for Arabidopsis thaliana (Squires,Squires, 1992;
Guidebook to the Calcium-binding Proteins
Authors: Celio Marco R
Published: November 2023

This is the latest book in the Sambrook and Tooze Guidebook Series, and it comprehensively details all that is currently known about the calcium-binding proteins. Calcium-binding proteins form a large family and have many functions within the cell, including decoding cellular signals. This is an active and expanding area of research, with new and important discoveries continually being made. Biochemists will find this book particularly useful, as will biologists in many fields in which the calcium-binding proteins are involved, such as neuroscience.
Introduction to EF-hand calcium-binding proteins
Authors: Celio Marco R
Published: November 2023

Calbindin D-28k is an intracellular soluble Ca2•-binding protein which, together with calretinin, constitutes the six EF-hand-domain branch of the troponin C superfamily of Ca2•-binding proteins. Ca/bind in D-28k shows a tissue-specific expression pattern, in some of the tissues its expression is regulated by vitamin D.
Leukocidins and gamma lysins (Staphylococcus sp.)
Authors: Ferraras M , Menestrina G
Published: November 2023

Staphylococcus aureus strains produce two kinds of bi¬ component toxins designated as leukocidins and γ-lysins (Freer and Arbuthnott 1983; Noda and Kato 1991).The Panton-Valentine (PV) leukocidins are two single polypeptide chains of 32 and 34.5 kD, called LukS and LukF respectively (S and F stand for slow and fast eluting during preparation). As single components they are inactive but act synergistically to induce damage of selected white cells: monocytes, macrophages, and polymorphonucleated cells (neutrophils), but not lymphocytes.
Depressant insect selective neurotoxins from scorpion venoms
Authors: Zlotkin E
Published: November 2023

The depressant insect-toxins, upon injection, induce a slow, progressively developing flaccid paralysis of blowfly larvae, which reveal a prolonged-extended shape of their body in contrast to the shortened-contracted body shape induced by the excitatory toxins (see above entry; Fig. 1; Zlotkin 1983).Depressant toxins were isolated from the venom of the following Buthinae scorpions: Buthotus judaicus (Bj IT2; Lester et al. 1982), Leiurus quinqauestriatus quinquestriatus, (Lqq 2; Zlotkin et al. 1985), leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus (Lqh IT2; Zlotkin et al. 1991).
µ-Agatoxins (Agelenopsis aperta)
Authors: Adams M E , Norris T M
Published: November 2023

µ-Agatoxins are a group of homologous polypeptide toxins from venom of the American funnel web spider, Agelenopsis aperta (Adams et al. 1989b; Skinner et al. 1989). Six toxins, μ-Aga-I to VI (Fig. 1), which range in size from 36-38 amino acids, have been isolated and sequenced. The amino acid sequences of μ-agatoxins are highly conserved and the spacing of cysteine residues, which form four internal disulfide bonds, is identical among all of the toxins. The μ-agatoxins cause convulsive paralysis when injected into insects
Margatoxin, noxiustoxin, and kaliotoxin (Centruroides margaritatus, Centruroides noxius, Androctonus mauretanicus)
Authors: Slaughter R
Published: November 2023

Margatoxin (MgTX) and noxiustoxin (NxTX) are 39 amino acid peptides which share with charybdotoxin (ChTX) significant sequence homology and such structural motifs as three disulfide bridges, a mid-chain {a-helix), and a C terminal antiparallel β-sheet. MgTX and NxTX comprise the best-studied members of a second class of scorpion venom derived potassium channel blockers based on structure and channel selectivity. One other scorpion toxin that has been included in this class because of sequence homology with MgTX and NxTX is Centruroides limpidus limpidus toxin I (Martin et al. 1994). This peptide also blocks voltage-gated potassium channels but has not been extensively studied.
Dendrotoxins (Dendroaspis species)
Authors: Harvey A L
Published: November 2023

Dendrotoxins block certain voltage-dependent K+ channels in neurones (Harvey and Anderson 1991). They are isolated from venom of three species of African mamba snakes: the Eastern green mamba (Dendroaspis angusticeps), the Western green mamba (D. viridis), and the black mamba (D. polylepis) (Strydom 1973a; Harvey and Karlsson 1980). The dendrotoxins are small basic proteins of 57–60 residues in a single polypeptide chain crosslinked by three disulfide bonds (Fig. 1). Six natural variants have been sequenced: two isoforms of α-dendrotoxin and δ-dendrotoxin from D. angusticeps, toxin I and toxin K from D. polylepis, and Dv-14 from viridis (Strydom 1973b; Joubert and Taljaard 1980;Mehraban et al. 1986). Two related toxins, γ- and y-dendrotoxin, from D. angusticeps have been partially sequenced (Benishin et al. 1988).
ω-Conotoxins (Conus spp.)
Authors: Olivera B M , Imperial J S , Yoshikami D
Published: November 2023

The ω-conotoxins are a major family of paralytic neurotoxins produced in the venoms of various species of marine gastropods belonging to the genus Conus. At this time, the most widely known of these peptides is ω-conotoxin Gv1A (wGv1A), which has 27 amino acids and three disulfide linkages; in many scientific publications, the term ω-conotoxin (and sometimes the even more general ‘conotoxin’) is used to refer to ω-conotoxin Gv1A. (For example, the widely used ‘conotoxin-sensitive Ca channel’ usually means the channel is sensitive to wGv1A.) Several other ω-conotoxins have the same pharmacological specificity as ω-conotoxin Gv1A in mammalian systems, notably ω-conotoxins Mv11A and Sv1A.
PLTXII (Plectreurys tristes)
Authors: Branton W D
Published: November 2023

PLTXII is one member of a family of Plectreurys toxins which are potent neurotoxins found in Plectreurys spider venom (Branton et al. 1987). The peptide chain of the toxin contains 44 amino acids including 10 cysteine residues that probably form five disulfide bonds (Branton et al. 1993a) (Swiss-Prot databank:P34079; NCBI Seq ID: 633835), as shown in Fig. 1. The peptide chain is quite polar in character, but the carboxy terminal threonine residue is carboxyamidated and O-palmitoylated, resulting in an amphipathic structure that is soluble in both aqueous and organic media.All similar toxins in Plectreurys venom appear to be similarly acylated at C-terminal threonine or serine residues. The novel, O-palmitoyl moiety is absolutely required for biological activity (Branton et al. 1993a; Bodi et al. 1995). PLTXII is a potent and specific inhibitor of insect (Drosophila) neuronal voltage dependent Ca2+ channels. At nanomolar concentration, it rapidly and irreversibly blocks synaptic transmission in Drosophila by blocking presynaptic Ca2+ channels (Branton et al. 1987; Leung et al. 1989).
α-Bungarotoxin (Bungarus multicinctus)
Authors: Gotti C
Published: November 2023

α-Bgtx is a single polypeptide containing 74 amino acids cross-linked by five disulfide bridges (Fig. 1). Its complete amino acid sequence was reported in 1972 (Mebs et al. 1972) and is homologous to that of other a-toxins obtained from cobra and sea snakes; in fact on the basis of their amino acid sequences, more than 80 aneurotoxins (or postsynaptic neurotoxins) have been identified (Endo and Tamiya 1987, 1991). These aneurotoxins have been classified into two distinct subclasses: the ‘short’ toxins that all have four disulfide bridges and 60-62 amino acids, and the ‘long’ toxins with five disulfide bridges and 66-74 amino acids. In Fig. 1, the amino acids that are highly conserved in the long toxins are circled while those invariant among all aneurotoxins are enclosed by a square.
α-Conotoxins (Conus spp.)
Authors: Olivera B , McIntosh J M
Published: November 2023

The α-conotoxins are probably the largest family of paralytic neurotoxins found in the venoms of cone snails (genus Conus), a very successful group of predatory molluscs comprising c. 500 species (Olivera et al. 1985; Myers et al. 1991). The first neurotoxin purified from Conus venoms was an α-conotoxin (α-conotoxin GI from Conus geographus venom); this peptide has 13 amino acids and two disulfide bonds (Gray et al. 1981). α-Conotoxins found in lndo-Pacific fish-hunting cone snails are among the major peptidic components used to paralyse fish prey, and have the consensus sequence shown in Fig. 1. Even the unusual α-conotoxin, S11, which has three disulfide bonds, fits the consensus sequence (Ramilo et al. 1992).
β-Bungarotoxin (Bungarus multicinctus)
Authors: Mebs D
Published: November 2023

At motor nerve terminals β-Bgt induces a triphasic change in neurotransmitter release, which varies with animal models and experimental conditions: an initial reduction in meep frequency, e.g. decrease in transmitter release, is followed by a phase of an increase and, finally, by a complete inhibition of release (Harris 1991; Hawgood and Bon 1991). Although PLAractivity has been supposed to be related to the neuromuscular blockade by the toxin, the specific and effective binding to a membrane receptor (or acceptor), most probably through the molecule’s B-chain, is essential for its neurotoxic effect.
Rattlesnake venom neurotoxins: crotoxin-related proteins
Authors: Bieber A L , Bon, C , Faure G
Published: November 2023

Only two of the neurotoxins from rattlesnake venoms, crotoxin and Mojave toxin, have been characterized to any appreciable extent. These two toxins have very similar structures, comparable activities, and are immunologically crossreactive. Briefly, the toxins are noncovalent heterodimeric protein complexes with isoelectric points in the pH range of 5 to 6 and molecular masses near 24 kDa. The complexes can be dissociated into distinct separable subunits (Rubsamen et al. 1971; Cate and Bieber 1978): one a basic phospholipase, the other an acidic protein without any known biological activity in the absence of the basic subunit. The sequences for both subunits of crotoxin (Aird et al. 1986; 1990a) and of Mojave toxin (Aird et al. 1990b; Bieber et al. 1990a) have been published. The data indicate that the two distinct subunits are related to one another and that both show sequence similarity to secretory phospholipases A2+ A high degree of sequence similarity is also apparent when the sequences of subunits from C. d. terrificus and C. s. scutulatus are compared to one another.
Textilotoxin (Pseudonaja textilis textilis)
Authors: Pearson J A , Barnett D , Comis A , Connor M , Harrison B M , Lloyd D R , Nicholson G M , Nicholson P , Retson K V , Spence I , Tyler M I , Wilson H I , Howden M E M
Published: November 2023

Textilotoxin is the main neurotoxin responsible for the high lethality of the venom of P. textilis textilis. This elapid snake was the cause of nine snake bite fatalities in Australia in the period 1981 to 1991 (Sutherland 1992). The toxin possesses phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activity, like other ,β-neurotoxins from elapid, crotalid, and viperid snakes. Studies on the mechanism of action using electromyography in the mouse demonstrated a use-dependent rate of development of neuromuscular blockade (Lloyd et al. 1991), in which the development of such blockade in vivo was accelerated by increasing rates of nerve stimulation.
α-Latrotoxin (black widow spider)
Authors: Malgaroli A , Meldolesi J
Published: November 2023

α-l Tx is a single chain, slightly acidic (pl 5.2-5.5), non-glycosylated protein composed of 1401 amino acids (Kiyatkin et al. 1990). The structure includes an N-terminal region of -500 amino acids free of repeats, whereas the remaining region is of high intrinsic homology with short repeats occurring up to 19 times. α-LTx is homologous to α-latroinsectotoxin, and not to other proteins, including Ca2+ channels of any type (GenBank accession number: X55009). The site of receptor binding has not been identified. α-l Tx causes massive stimulation of transmitter release from all investigated neurons (Rosenthal and Meldolesi 1989). Other cell types are insensitive to the toxin (Scheer and Meldolesi 1985; Rosenthal and Meldolesi 1989) with the exception of nerve cell lines (e.g. PC12). Sensitivity is due to expression of neuron-specific receptors localized in the presynaptic membrane of central and peripheral synapses (Malgaroli et al. 1989).
Introduction
Authors: Pollard Thomas D
Published: November 2023

The actin system is not only very old in an evolutionary sense but is also highly abundant. All the eukaryotic species studied have actin. Both actin and myosin are thought to rank among the five most abundant proteins on earth and in the best studied cases, actin and all of its associated proteins constitute more than 25 per cent of protein in non-muscle cells: in muscle the figure is over 60 per cent.
Actobindin
Authors: Bubb Michael R
Published: November 2023

While there are no other proteins with extensive homology to actobindin, the actin-binding site, as identified by covalent cross-linking techniques, includes an LKHAET motif that is found in thymosin β 4, fimbrin, Dictyostelium a-actinin, tropomyosin, and myosin heavy chain.
Anillin
Authors: Field Christine M , Alberts Bruce
Published: November 2023

Anillin was first isolated in Drosophila.1 We recently cloned an anillin-related protein from a human cDNA library. Domains that are conserved between the Drosophila and vertebrate polypeptides include one SH3-binding consensus, the actin-binding domain, two of the nuclear localization (NLS) sequences, and the pleckstrinhomology (PH) domain (C. Field and Aaron Straight; unpublished data). Antibodies raised against the human protein show the same cell-cycle localization as the Drosophila protein (Karen Oegema; unpublished results).
Septins
Authors: Longtine Mark S , Pringle John R
Published: November 2023

The septins are a family of filament-forming proteins that have been identified in a variety of fungi and animals (including mammals), but not yet in plants; each organism investigated has multiple septin family members (see reviews). All known septins contain a P-loop motif that is presumably involved in nucleotide binding, and most but not all, are predicted to contain a coiled-coil structure near the carboxyl-terminus that is probably involved in protein-protein interactions. The septins localize primarily to the cell cortex, including the division site, and they have important roles in (at least) cytokinesis, morphogenesis, and cell-wall biogenesis. The septins appear to function at least in part by serving as a template for localizing and organizing other molecules at the cell surface; the relationship between septin function and filament formation remains unclear.
Calponin
Authors: Gimona Mario , Small J Victor
Published: November 2023

Calponin is an abundant protein of smooth muscle, first identified by Takahashi and colleagues (as p34 k) in heat-stable fractions of avian gizzard and subsequently named α-calponin (α-CaP). Cloning analyses suggested the existence of a lower molecular weight variant α CaP), but a protein corresponding to such a variant could only so far be detected in mammalian uterine tissue, and was termed I (light) CaP. The major mammalian CaP variant has the same molecular weight as the avian α-CaP and is termed h1 CaP (heavy variant 1) to distinguish it from a non-expressed variant detected at the mRNA level (h2). A further, acidic variant of calponin (acidic CaP) has been shown to be expressed in a non-tissue specific manner.
Cap 100/protovillin
Authors: Noegel Angelika A
Published: November 2023

Protovillin is a monomer with a molecular mass of approximately 100 kDa. It has only been identified so far in D. discoideum, where it is present in all stages of the life cycle. It is found throughout the cytosol and underneath the plasma membrane (Fig. 1). Protovillin caps the barbed ends of actin filaments and does not sever F-actin. The capping activity is Ca2+-independent but can be inhibited by PIP2. At the amino acid level, protovillin exhibits highest homology to villin, a vertebrate protein that bundles actin filaments in the microvilli of epithelial cells and, in the presence of Ca2+ severs actin filaments. Like villin, protovillin has a head piece.
Dystroph in Zutrophin
Authors: Moores Carolyn , Kendrick-Jones John
Published: November 2023

Utrophin: dystrophin-related protein (DRP). The dystrophin and utrophin genes are subject to complex transcriptional and splicing controls, both from s· promoters and from promoters within the genes themselves, so that a variety of tissue specific isotypes and shorter isoforms may be expressed (see Table 1). All except one of the isoforms so far identified share the characteristically unique (-terminal domains of dystrophin and utrophin. The tissue distribution associated with each isoform differs and their functions remain unclear. Other more distantly related proteins are dystrobrevin, found predominantly at the neuromuscular junction, and the so-called DRP2 protein.
Tropomyosins
Authors: Smillie Lawrence B
Published: November 2023

Tropomyosins (TMs) are found in virtually all eukaryotic cells in association with actin. In skeletal and cardiac muscles, TM, together with the troponin complex, comprises the regulatory mechanism by which the interaction of F-actin and myosin are controlled by the level of calcium ions,3,4 In smooth muscle and non-muscle cells in which the troponin complex is absent, its role is less clear. However, through its end-to-end interactions and spanning of multiple actin monomers, cooperative phenomena of myosin interaction with actin and binding of such proteins as caldesmon and tropomodulin are probably transmitted along the thin filament. The cellular location and functions of different TM isoforms in the assembly/disassembly, stabilization and length determination of F-actin filaments and their interaction with myosin and other proteins are currently being investigated (for reviews, see refs 2, 5, 6).
Villin
Authors: Friederich Evelyne , Louvard Daniel
Published: November 2023

Villin is one of the major structural actin-binding proteins which are associated with the actin cytoskeleton of the intestinal or renal epithelial cell brush border microvilli. Villin belongs to a family of actin-binding proteins which share sequence identities and that have similar effects on actin polymerization or organization in vitro. Villin is most probably involved in the assembly of the brush border cytoskeleton.
APC protein
Authors: Polakis Paul
Published: November 2023

The adenomatous polyposis coli protein has no synonyms but note that the acronym APC also refers to antigen presenting cell and anaphase promoting complex.

The human APC protein has no known human homologues or isotypes, but genes coding for highly identical proteins have been identified in mice and Xenopus.  1•2 A Drosophila APC has also been identified although significant sequence homologies to human APC are limited to isolated regions.3
Mapmodulin
Authors: Ulitzur Nirit , Pfeffer Suzanne R
Published: November 2023

Mapmodulin is a 31 kDa protein that was purified from CHO cytosol on the basis of its ability to stimulate the microtubule-and dynein-dependent localization of Golgi complexes in semi-intact CHO cells.1,2 It is abundant in the cytosol of cultured mammalian cells (CHO, Hela, K562) and tissues (brain, kidney) and occurs in CHO cytosol primarily in a phosphorylated form. Approximately 5 per cent of the cellular mapmodulin pool resides peripherally on Golgi and ER membranes.
Op18/stathmin
Authors: Deacon Heather W , Mitchison, Timothy J , Gullberg Martin
Published: November 2023

Prosolin, stathmin, metablastin, leukaemia-associated protein 18, and oncoprotein 18 (Op18). Op18 has also been given a number of names based on its migration on SDS-PAGE, including p19, p18, 19K, pp17, and pp20 (see references in ref. 1).
STOPS
Authors: Margolis Robert L , Job Didier
Published: November 2023

No synonymous names have been assigned. Two other proteins have the capacity to stabilize microtubules to extreme conditions either in vivo or in vitro: histone H14 and myelin basic protein.
XMAP230
Authors: Andersen Søren S L
Published: November 2023

XMAP230 was identified using a monoclonal antibody that recognizes a phosphorylated epitope on rat MAP1 B.1,4 XMAP230 has a molecular weight of approximately 230 kDa (see Fig. 1).
Introduction: The Malecot Lineage in Population Genetics
Authors: Veuille Michel , Slatkin Montgomery
Published: November 2023

Gustave Malecot (1911-1998) was one of the pioneers of theoretical population genetics. He introduced some of the fundamental methods and principles of the field, yet because he wrote most of his papers in French and because some of his methods were developed long before they could be applied to data, Malecot’s work has been less well-known to English speaking scientists than that of S. Wright, J. B. S. Haldane, and R. A. Fisher. Recently, a new appreciation for Malecot’s work has emerged. Part of the renewed interest came from Nagylaki’s insightful review of Malecot’s work, published in Genetics in 1989. Another part of the renewed interest came from the realization that methods introduced by Malecot are of increasing relevance and utility. As discussed by Ewens (1990), Malecot’s methods for analyzing genetic identity were retrospective, meaning that they depended on the past history of each gene. As such, they were precursors to coalescent theory introduced by J. F. C. Kingman in 1982 and developed extensively by R. R. Hudson, F. Tajima, S. Tavare, R. C. Griffiths, P. Donnelly, P. Donnelly, J. Felsenstein, among many others.
The Scientific Work of Gustave Malecot (1911 1998): Our Common Heritage
Authors: Gillois Michel
Published: November 2023

Gustave Malecot was born on 28 December 1911 at La Grande Croix (Loire), near Saint-Etienne, in a Protestant family. His tastes carried him towards philosophy, Latin and mathematics. In October 1932, he entered the prestigious Ecole Normale Superieure on Ulm street in Paris. He attended lectures of famous mathematicians such as Emile Borel, Elie Cartan, Maurice Frechet and Georges Darmois. In 1935, he completed his course of academic studies and came out second in the ’Agregation de mathematiques’. His taste for applied mathematics brought him closer to Georges Darmois, who retained him in Paris from 1935 to 1939 and proposed the subject of his thesis. From 1940 to 1942 he was an instructor of mathematics at the high school in Saint Etienne, from 1940 to 1944, lecturer in mathematics at the University of Montpellier, and from 1944 to 1981, Professor of mathematics at the University of Lyon.
Usefulness of the Identity Coefficients for Assessing Evolutionary Forces
Authors: Ohta Tomoko
Published: November 2023

It is now evident that gene families of various kinds exist in eukaryote genomes. Gene families with uniform members are characterized by concerted evolution. Population genetics theory on the identity coefficients among gene members of a gene family shows that the balance between diversification by mutation and homogenization by illegitimate recombination is important. Selection may have a significant effect on the identity coefficients. It is pointed out that the interaction between selection and illegitimate recombination provides an efficient mechanism for generating variability. Measurement of linkage disequilibrium between nucleotide sites may be a useful approach to assess such an interactive effect of selection and illegitimate recombination. Evolution of new functions is due to gene duplication followed by differentiation. Positive selection is thought to be needed for the evolution of novel functions. However, both drift and selection often work on the evolution of real gene families, because of subfunctionalization of duplicate genes.
Pre-Speciation Coalescence and the Effective Size of Ancestral Populations
Authors: Takahata Naoyuki , Satta Yoko
Published: November 2023

We review methods and problems for estimating the extent of DNA polymorphism in the ancestral species common to two extant species. The methods are based on the concept of identity by descent developed by Gustave Malecot and can provide a way of studying not only the phylogenetic relationships, but also the demographic history of organisms. Since the long-term demographic history of organisms is difficult to be discerned, these methods may provide ordinarily inaccessible information. The application to the human lineage reveals a reduction in the effective population size after the divergence from the chimpanzee but well before the emergence of modern humans. By contrast, the Drosophila melanogaster subgroup appears to have been demographically stable over several millions of years. We are concerned with two major proble ns that are related to the underlying assumptions: (i) complete linkage among nucleotide sites at a locus or genomic region; and (ii) the homogeneous rate of nucleotide substitutions across sites. In the presence of intragenic recombination, the ancestral population size is underestimated and it is preferable to use a large number of independent regions of small sizes rather than a small number of independent regions of large sizes. In the presence of rate heterogeneity between genomic regions, large ancestral population sizes are spuriously estimated, whereas rate heterogeneity within a genomic region is largely irrelevant.
The Relationship between Coalescence Times and Population Divergence Times
Authors: Rosenberg Noah A , Feldman Marcus W
Published: November 2023

The divergence time of two populations is the amount of time that has elapsed since the populations arose from an ancestral group, while the coalescence time of a set of copies of a gene is the amount of time that has elapsed since the most recent common ancestor of the gene copies lived. We briefly review the methods that have been used to infer divergence times and coalescence times from genetic data. We then consider the relationship between divergence times and coalescence times in a population genetic model that includes divergence followed by migration between two descendant populations, paying particular attention to the fact that migration can cause coalescence to occur more recently than divergence. Insights gained from the model and its special cases are applied to four examples: (i) the divergences of humans and chimpanzees; (ii) modern humans and Neanderthals; (iii) Africans and non-Africans; and (iv) Native Americans and Asians. For each example, we discuss the connection between hypothesized divergence times and estimated coalescence times.
Does physics rule the roost of scientific explanation?
Authors: Saslaw William C
Published: November 2023

Physics differs from mathematics in which, to quote Bertrand Russell, ‘we never know what we are talking about, nor whether what we are saying is true’, and from cosmology in which we push our questions back to such great distances and early times that our observations become highly distorted and lose information. By contrast, physics generally works in the here and now. It tries to find mathematical relations among measurable phenomena and quantitative concepts. In this, physics is generally regarded as being extraordinarily successful, an archetype of science.

And now I’m going to let you into the great secret of physics’ success: it asks relatively simple questions. Over the last three centuries, physicists have refined the technique of asking questions they know they can answer. Questions about well-defined phenomena that usually involve limited and specific forms of interaction. Of course, these questions may start off somewhat vaguely, but they have to congeal and become capable of experimental comparison in order to make significant progress.
Mathematical explanation
Authors: Barrow John D
Published: November 2023

Scientists have long known that there is safety in numbers. Mathematics offers a sure path to understanding Nature’s workings. This feature of the world – the remarkable effectiveness of simple mathematics for its description – was one of the first things that attracted me to sciences like astronomy as a teenager. It seems quite extraordinary that simple patterns deduced from watching gases expanding in jars, or the swinging of a bob on the end of a piece of string, could tell us things about the structure of stars or the expansion of the universe. Why was it that the next step the world took was the same as that predicted by squiggles on a piece of paper? Why does the universe march to a mathematical tune?

Mathematics is unlike all of the natural sciences because it is potentially infinite in extent.
Changes in Population and Society, 1500 to the Present*
Authors: Ogden P E
Published: November 2023

Corpses posed terrible problems, as churchyards overflowed and the air reeked of death. The authorities ordered mass graves, lined with quicklime. It was impossible to bury all immediately, and bodies piled up in the streets. Pepys came across a body in an open yard, with nobody to bury it, ‘the plague making us as cruel as dogs one to another’. (Porter, 1994: 83, on the plague in London in 1665) ‘Every man desires to live long,’ Swift observed, ‘but no man would be old.’ If current trends continue, many of us may live well past 80. How many of us will live past 100 and how well we will live at advanced ages are two much more uncertain questions.
Multidimensional Environmental Data
Authors: Camara Anrfonio S
Published: November 2023

Lancia, the Italian automobile manufacturer, had a television commercial a few years ago in which a car was travelling on the top of a map draping a digital terrain model of Italy. Now and then, the map would morph into a video of the natural landscape. The symbolic and the realistic were fully intertwined (Lancia, 1993).
Future Developments
Authors: Camara Anrfonio S
Published: November 2023

This book reviews methods for collecting, storing, modelling, visualising, and interacting with environmental data. Many of these methods arc non traditional, because of the multidimensional nature of the data. Environmental data are being increasingly derived from new sources of static and dynamic two- and three-dimensional imagery and other multimedia data such as sound. It is also shown that the Internet is influencing the development of some of those methods and resulting tools. These, benefiting from the Internet protocols and standards, are becoming interoperable components that can be assembled for environmental problem solving.
Aural Awareness
Authors: Pratt George
Published: November 2023

Traditional aural training is heavily biased towards the perception and identification of pitch and rhythm. But George Pratt argues in this book that in these days of CDs and cassette recorders much of this area of the subject can best be worked on alone. He demonstrates how, by tailoring tasks to individual needs, every student can make some encouraging progess in these aspects of music. But this also makes time available for developing the perception of other musical elements just as significant yet often neglected because of their more abstract and qualitative nature--elements such as timbre, texture and density; compass, range, and tessitura; dynamics and articulation; ordering music in structures and placing it in space. The chapters on these areas break new ground. They demonstrate how these `elements’, once perceived and analysed, are incorporated into the skills which musicians need--to notate sound quality accurately, to read or `image’ the implications of notation beyond though including pitch and rhythm; to play and sing by ear; to improvise and to memorize, not only ‘right notes’ but the subtle qualities and nuances which bind them into coherent music. This book was first published by Open University Press, and at that stage was primarily addressed to groups of music students and their teachers, in universities, colleges, conservatoires, and sixth forms. But, by a happy accident of timing, George Pratt was then invited to be a member of the National Curriculum Music Working Group, and many of the ideas here, in particular the identification and codification of musical ‘elements’, were fed into their thinking. The present book has been substantially revised to take account of what are now the statutory requirements of the National Curriculum in Music. Much of the material in it is either already accessible for pupils in the earlier years at school or is easily adapted by imaginative teachers. In addition, every section leads towards open-ended `do-it-yourself’ exercises and experiments which can be used by individuals. This follows the pattern established in Professor Pratt’s The Dynamics of Harmony: Principles and Practice (OUP, 1996), and is designed to encourage open-ended exploration generated by musicians’s individual needs and enthusiasms. This freedom to adapt exercises includes using them in any musical context. Timbre is as important to a rock group as to a classical orchestra playing on period instruments; performing by ear and from memory are as essential for handing down the un-notated music of some non-Western traditions as for a concert soloist; everyone who owns a CD can enhance their enjoyment of it by recognising the artistry and technical skills which have created it. So the book encourages self-reliance and the confidence to begin to discover for oneself music of any age, of any culture.
Aural synthesis
Authors: Pratt George
Published: November 2023

So far, we have identified a selection of elements of musical expression. By concentrating on them one at a time we may begin to see the influences at work to give a piece of music its unique character. But it is not enough merely to observe that a selection of elements is occurring: we need in addition to become aware of the effect of that occurrence. Furthermore, musical character depends not on individual elements alone but on the ways in which they interact. The aesthetic experience of music requires more than simply an objective recognition of its constituent parts.
Imaging
Authors: Pratt George
Published: November 2023

There are two ways of ‘reading’ music. One is to see its symbols and react mentally and physically to them straight on to an instrument. The other is to convert the symbols into imagined sound, inside your head. The first of these ways is perfectly valid and in fact, for almost everyone, is the more reliable means of discovering the pitches involved in melody and harmony. There are very few musicians who can pick up a score and imagine it accurately. Those with ‘perfect pitch’ may get close to ‘hearing’ this pitch element but for many there is little more than a general sense of metrical and rhythmic flow at a first silent ‘reading’.
Playing from memory
Authors: Pratt George
Published: November 2023

One of the benefits of improvising ( Chapter 11) is that it frees us from the written score. Instead of peering at symbols on a page, all our attention can be on the musical sound we are creating. In some situations, eyes can encourage ears to listen-following a score during the performance of a record can stop our minds wandering away from the music, seeing performers moving, watching the ‘body language’ of members of a chamber ensemble reacting to one another or an orchestra responding to a conductor, all can keep our ears focused on the sounds they are making. But in other circumstances, seeing can fog listening. Try an experiment: fix your eyes on something near you-the dial of your watch, say-and concentrate hard on it.
Solving Mathematical Problems
Authors: Tao Terence
Published: November 2023

Authored by a leading name in mathematics, this engaging and clearly presented text leads the reader through the tactics involved in solving mathematical problems at the Mathematical Olympiad level. With numerous exercises and assuming only basic mathematics, this text is ideal for students of 14 years and above in pure mathematics.
Analytic geometry
Authors: Scarani Valerio , Thew Rachael
Published: November 2023

This chapter consists of problems involving geometrical concepts and objects, but whose solution requires ideas from other branches of mathematics: algebra, inequalities, induction, and so on. One nice trick that sometimes works very well is to rewrite the geometry problem in terms of vectors in order to use the laws of vector arithmetic. Here is an example of this.
NGOs as Gatekeepers: A Green Vision
Authors: Long Tony , Lorinczi Larisa
Published: November 2023

The European Union (EU) is a highly complex political setting and the public affairs function for NGOs and other lobbying organizations is becoming equally complex as it seeks to mirror the institutions and processes with which it interacts. A central feature of the EU-lobbying system is that it is essentially a multi-arena, multi-level decision-making system, in which all actors necessarily participate in a complex series of what Tsebelis termed ‘nested games’ (Tsebelis 1990). Depending on the subject matter, decision-making powers are distributed between Community institutions in different ways. This adds up to a highly complex system of governance and a high degree of functional segmentation.
The Changing World of European Health Lobbies
Authors: Greer Scott L
Published: November 2023

Health seems like an unlikely candidate for Europeanization. It is at the core of the welfare state, vitally important to member states and their politicians, and consequently long protected from European Union (EU) policy. EU treaties have only weak and tightly delimited health policy competencies, reflecting member states’ unwillingness to countenance EU (or any outside) intervention in health. The interest group ecology is also tightly bound to states, no matter how international the conference circuit. Even in countries with little or no corporatism, such as the United Kingdom, there is a great deal of ‘private interest government’ in health (Streeck and Schmitter 1985; Salter 2004). In such tightly drawn policy sectors, Europeanization of interests and policy-making might be a dramatic shock for policy-makers, and a dramatic case study of theories of European politics and integration for the scholars.
A Ban on Tobacco Advertising: The Role of Interest Groups
Authors: Boessen Sandra , Maarse Hans
Published: November 2023

Since the launch of the Europe against Cancer (EAC) programme in 1987, various tobacco control measures have been introduced: the ban on tobacco advertising on television (89/552/EEC), two directives on tobacco labelling (89/622/EEC and 92/41/EEC), the directive on tar maximums for cigarettes (90/239/EEC), and three directives on minimum tax levels for tobacco products (92/12/EEC, 92/79/EEC, and 95/59/EEC) (Duina and Kurzer 2004). The ban on tobacco advertising, prohibiting any form of communication, printed, written, oral, by radio, television and cinema, was without any doubt the most contentious one (Mossialos and Permanand 2000: 66–8). Its adoption in 1998 followed after almost ten years of negotiations (see Boessen and Maarse 2008).