bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Analysis of Air Gap Size and Distribution in Single and Multilayer Clothing Systems Using 3-D Whole Body Digitizing
Authors: Li Peng , Corner Brian D. , Paquette Steven , Lee Calvin , Kim Il Young
Published: January 2012

Today's three-dimensional (3-D) whole body digitizers provide accurate representations of the surface of the human body relatively quickly and easily. These 3-D data provide a novel means for visualizing and quantifying the interface between the user and their clothing or equipment. In this paper we discuss how images from a Cyberware 3-D whole body digitizer are used to determine local and global distributions of air gaps in single and multilayer clothing systems. Quantifying air gap sizes and distributions and their effects on clothing thermal insulation is one aspect of a multidisciplinary research effort directed toward improving flame/thermal protective clothing. We begin with our method for collecting and editing the scan data. We then describe how we identify and quantify air gaps in the clothing systems. Examples are given that show concordance between air gap distribution and burn patterns obtained from full-scale manikin fire tests. We finish with a discussion of the role 3-D digitizing will play in the development of burn test simulation software. The simulation software will incorporate scan data, lab-and full-scale burn test results.
Predicting Centre-Dependent Spatial Density Functions of 3D Surface Anthropometry Data
Authors: Hoekstra Pyter N.
Published: January 2012

A new, valuable but vast dataset will become available to the scientific and general public: the results of the CAESAR project (Civilian American and European Surface Anthropometry Resource). The concept of centre-dependent spatial density functions was introduced earlier to realise a major reduction in surface anthropometry scan data. Here the basic mathematics are described of centre-dependent vector shifts needed to arrive at these spatial density functions. Since as yet no real 3D scan data are available to us the concepts are tested with a Monte Carlo generation of ninetytwo models with a reasonable variation in eight anthropometric variables and discussed.
Communication of Ergonomics Information to Student Designers; Are we Improving?
Authors: Porter C.S. , Porter J.M.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes the development of a tool (the checklist) and method (the package drawing) for facilitating the inclusion of ‘sound’ ergonomics into student product designs.

The checklist was developed by the authors for teaching purposes. It is very simple and enables the student to identify all the ergonomics requirements and issues associated with their product, the ergonomics information they require and how they might source the information. It also provides a discussion tool for staff tutorials, ensuring that students have thought about pertinent issues prior to the tutorial. It has improved the identification of ergonomics issues, their solutions and levels of communication between students and staff.

The ‘package’ drawing is the automotive industry standard for visually presenting the way in which the occupants and mechanicals are arranged within a vehicle. Some aspects of ergonomics are presented e.g. sight lines and fit. In student projects this often the totality of the presented ergonomics. The method has, therefore, been developed and extended to encompass initial evaluations of ingress/egress, access to storage space and. ranges of adjustment required to provide more ergonomics information. It has improved the coverage of some of the basic issues of ‘fit’ and has been well received by the students because it is visual.
Communicating with Designers: The Role of Empathy, Evidence and Inspiration
Authors: Suri Jane Fulton
Published: January 2012

To make effective contributions to design, human factors practitioners need ways to influence the thinking and behavior of people with very different priorities from their own. Practical insights and techniques developed in the course of work with many development teams are presented here. They are based upon three principles: facilitating empathy, making information visible, and providing inspiration. Techniques for creating empathy are emphasized and include character development, scenario-building, and role-playing. The creation of visual material includes use of graphical ways of presenting information, photography, video, model-making and sketching as data gathering and presentation tools. Throughout, suggestions are made for communicating human factors information in ways that are inspirational rather than restrictive to designers.
Computerized Tools for Human Simulation and Ergonomic Evaluation of car Interiors
Authors: Hanson Lars
Published: January 2012

Cars are a media fulfilling vital part of the society's need of transports as well as representing an icon of the technical development by underlining critical aspects of man and machine interface. However, various studies show that drivers experience pain and fatigue and also get disorders due to frequent or longterm driving at poor body postures. Through integration of ergonomics into the early design phase these issues can be minimized. Comfort and safety are of special importance when designing car interiors. Comfort is complex. Interior parameters such as; aesthetics, cabin space, ease of reaching controls, luminance, noise, odor, seat design, styling, climate and vibration affect the driving experience. Perceived comfort is to some extent possible to replicate by computer simulation of the human being, which at the same time could illuminate ergonomics by means of various ergonomic evaluation methods in some case integrated in these tools.

This paper is a survey of such three tools, ANNIE-Ergoman, JACK and RAMSIS, used for human simulation and ergonomic evaluation. By these tools it is possible to evaluate clearance, comfort, field of vision and reach. The tools are compared and the comparison shows that all three tools have great potential in evaluating car interiors ergonomically in the early design phase. But the comparison also highlights differences between these tools and areas where one tool is superior the other. The paper points on areas as: manikins' skin representation and manikin's movements require further improvements. The paper also underlines the importance having tool-users with insight in the ergonomic evaluation methods. Furthermore, enhancement of the ergonomic evaluation methods and the integration between simulation and ergonomic evaluation methods are also needed.
Statistics for 3D Human Body Forms
Authors: Mochimaru Masaaki , Kouchi Makiko
Published: January 2012

A method of calculating representative forms from a given set of forms was developed, in which surface data is modeled by polygons based on landmarks. Inter-individual distances are defined as distortions in FFD control points. By calculating inter-individual distances for all possible pairs of forms, the distribution of the 3D forms in m-dimensional space is obtained using MDS. Each MDS dimension represents an independent shape factor. Forms with specific MDS scores, such as (0.5,0,0,0), (1,0,0,0) in standard deviation units, are calculated as weighted averages of all actual forms. An FFD transformation grid is calculated that represents the systematic form transformation along an MDS dimension. Forms with different scores for the first or second MDS dimensions only and average scores (=0) for the other MDS dimensions are calculated using these transformation grids.
Ergonomics in Italy
Authors: Grieco Antonio , rè Alessandra
Published: January 2012

Ergonomics developed in Italy in the seventies in a milieu characterized by severe social tensions as well as by a huge applicative demand raising the problem of large industrial plant transformation and redesigning.

Since then many changes have occurred: a change in demand, a generational change, a change in training, the increasing number of company's ergonomic services. The traditional sector of workplace analysis and redesigning was supplemented by other activities in product ergonomics.

Within the process of Italian and European certification, these changes led the Italian Ergonomics Society to work out a professional profile of the ergonomist, which is now included in a Law Bill.
Ergonomics in Germany
Authors: Landau Kurt
Published: January 2012

In Germany there is a wide gap between the narrow, scientifically, technically and physiologically based definition of ergonomics and the much more comprehensive definition of “Arbeitswissenschaft” (work sciences) containing elements of industrial engineering, industrial sociology, personnel management and other application-related disciplines.

This paper reviews the trends in ergonomics research and teaching over the last 100 years and describes this bifurcated development. The Gesellschaft für Arbeitswissenschaft (GfA, German Ergonomics Society) supports the broad definition of ergonomics. The structure and size of the GfA is explained. Memoranda prepared by the GfA and the German Research Association on the current situation in ergonomics are discussed. The incorporation of ergonomics in various branches of study is discussed and opinions are expressed on study qualifications containing elements of ergonomics and their opportunities on the labor market.
Inclusive Design and Usability
Authors: Green W.S.
Published: January 2012

This introduction to the symposium Inclusive Design and Usability gives an overview of some of the issues and problems facing ergonomists and designers who attempt to provide access to current technologies for a wide range of user groups, particularly those who may be considered disadvantaged or handicapped. The relationship of ergonomics and design is raised.
Improving Home Appliances to Support the Learning Phase
Authors: Freudenthal Adinda
Published: January 2012

As part of an investigation resulting in design guidelines for home appliances subjects were observed using a new TV/VCR combination. The way they approached the device, how they learned to use it and the guidelines relevant for optimal usability, during novice use, are discussed.
Aesthetic Intelligence Assists Inclusive Design
Authors: Macdonald Alastair S.
Published: January 2012

Product preference is rarely an exercise in logic, and is a more complex process than selection through visual features, ease of use or physical fit alone. This paper argues that if the human factors dimensions of a product embraces only a narrow ‘norm’ then the product's features will only be perceived and be usable by a relatively narrow range of users: it will be ‘exclusive’. If the concept of ‘aesthetic intelligence’ is understood then products can be designed to be more inclusive in nature. By acknowledging personal responses and cultural values, in addition to physiological and psychological issues, a broader, more inclusive range of user preferences and responses can be accommodated. Using a ‘scenario of sensory encounter’ the author proposes a methodological approach to revealing our aesthetic intelligence which extends Dreyfuss' paradigm for an ‘environmental comfort zone’, to encompass a richer set of issues influencing usability and acceptability.
Research for Usage Oriented Design: Quantitative? Qualitative?
Authors: Kanis H. , Green W.S.
Published: January 2012

Theory of user-product interaction is summarised and implemented in a graphical representation. This graphical representation stresses the central role of user activities (perception, cognition/experience and use actions including any effort) in dealing with featural and functional product characteristics. The interaction is primarily seen as situated, and constrained by, rather than being predictable from, human characteristics and capacities; no role is given in the graphical representation to mental representations. For observational research to be supportive of usage oriented design, there are two requirements: a focus on user activities, and a direct link from these activities to featural and functional product characteristics. It is argued that qualitative studies constitute the obvious type of research to meet these criteria. Quantitative research may also be possible as is illustrated with an empirical example. It is experimentation, in the sense of hypothesis testing, involving control and standardisation in order to establish some causality, which tends to fall short in linking natural user activities to product characteristics.
Usability and Emotional Responses at 3 Stages of User-Product Interaction
Authors: Trathen Stephen D.
Published: January 2012

This paper examines the interaction between users' responses to issues of usability and aesthetics, in relation to a variety of domestic electrical appliances. Emotional and usability attributes will be developed for the selected products, through focus group discussions. Then 180 subjects will be tested using the various models within two product types at 3 stages of user-product interaction:

Stage A: Evaluation of models within product types based on 2D images. Stage B: Evaluation of subsets of models within product types based on physical inspection and handling. Stage C: Evaluation of same sets of models within product types based on actual use.
Expert and Novice User Differences and Implications for Product Design and Useability
Authors: Popovic Vesna
Published: January 2012

This paper explores differences and similarities between novice and expert users of interactive artifacts. In order to achieve this, protocol analysis was used to identify users' cognitive categories, knowledge categories and knowledge representation. This research is based on the premises that knowledge — domain-specific knowledge in particular — plays a significant role in distinguishing a novice from an expert user, and the way in which they use technologically interactive devices. The differences between expert and novice users were compared and identified with associated knowledge and knowledge representation for each cognitive category. These constitute the features that differentiate them as they reflect the kind of processes, representations, strategies or knowledge organisation that may occur for each cognitive category during the interaction. The paper also addresses the transitional process through which a novice becomes an expert and concludes about this finding's implication to design.
Anticipation of Usability Problems by Practitioners
Authors: Rooden M.J. , Kanis H.
Published: January 2012

In studying anticipation of usability problems a variety of approaches may be adopted. Some are characterised by experimental control, others leave room for exploration. This paper discusses consequences of adopting a particular approach in an empirical study carried out at TU Delft. Results from our approach are presented together with discussion of possible consequences of a more experimentally controlled approach. In our study twenty practitioners, such as designers and ergonomists, identified potential usability problems on the basis of design models and tapes of users' trials with these design models. Large inter-individual differences emerged, mainly because the practitioners adopted a variety of procedures and drew from different sources of knowledge and experience. The adopted procedures were studied to locate sources for inter-individual differences, in order to improve methods of anticipation.
Aircrew Performance during Emergency Conditions: A Comparison between an Electronic and Traditional Paper Natops
Authors: Deaton John E. , Glenn Floyd , Burke C. Shawn , Good Michael , Dorneich Michael , Downs Joshua
Published: January 2012

Prior research addressing the integration and interpretation of information presented either on paper or in electronic form has found significant preferences favoring paper-based presentation of text in terms of search times and comprehension (Rice, 1994; Askwall, 1985). When an electronic checklist was used as the source of information in flight training simulations with aviators, fewer subsystem failures were detected by the aviators than when a paper checklist was used (Palmer and Degani, 1991). More recent research, however, has pointed out the advantages of electronic checklists (Boorman, 2000). At this time, no research known to the authors has addressed the performance of pilots using paper vs. electronic forms of the NATOPS (Naval Air Training and Operating Procedures Standards) manual and Pocket Checklist (PCL). The purpose of this evaluation was to compare aircrew performance when using the traditional paper copy of NATOPS and the PCL with that of the prototype Interactive Electronic NATOPS (IE-NATOPS) developed by CHI Systems. This evaluation effort attempted to establish whether or not there are notable differences in resolving problem situations dependent upon the format of the NATOPS and PCL used. Data were gathered at the Naval Air Station Jacksonville, Florida, using pilots with recent experience in the H-60F rotorcraft. Results are presented in terms of both information access speed as well as time required to solve numerous problem scenarios requiring access to NATOPS information.
A comparison of pilot navigation performance using conventional instrumentation, head-down, and head-up highway-in-the-sky primary flight displays
Authors: Beringer Dennis B. , Ball Jerry D.
Published: January 2012

A study was conducted to compare pilot eye movements and flight performance attainable using highway-in-the-sky (HITS) format displays in both head-up display (HUD) and head-down display (HDD) configurations and conformal (with outside world) and compressed forms within the HUD, with a baseline conventional-instruments condition. Results were mixed, and the HUD was not clearly superior to the equivalent HDD when comparing flight technical error. Workload appeared to be comparable for the HITS formats but slightly elevated for specific tasks in a baseline condition using conventional instrumentation. The need for a conformal HUD for general aviation operations was not supported for most flight operations, and pilots preferred the HUD over the HDD and the compressed HITS format over the conformal HITS or conventional instruments.
Auditory VS. Visual Data Link: Relative Effectiveness
Authors: Helleberg John , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2012

Pilots flew a GA simulator based on ATC-instructed maneuvers, while scanning outside for traffic. Various length ATC instructions were delivered through a textual, voice, or redundant data link format. Pilots read back the instructions, then complied with the maneuver. Visual scanning was measured. Results indicated the visual display provided greatest accuracy of communications read back and least disruption of traffic monitoring and flight-path tracking. The voice-only condition was most disruptive, partially because the pilot's eyes were drawn into the cockpit longer while note taking, compared to the two visual text displays. The redundant display never supported better performance than the visual display. This cost resulted, partially because arrival of the discrete auditory communications disrupted flight-path performance. Pilots allocated ∼60% of visual attention to the instrument panel, and communications accuracy was degraded by longer ATC instructions. Results are interpreted referencing mechanisms of attention, working memory, and the pilot's task priority hierarchy.
A Preliminary Examination of Situation Awareness and Pilot Performance in a Synthetic Vision Environment
Authors: Stark Julie M. , Comstock J. Raymond , Prinzel Lance J. , Burdette Daniel W. , Scerbo Mark W.
Published: January 2012

Synthetic vision displays utilize computer generated imagery derived from an onboard database of terrain, obstacle, and airport information to provide pilots with an unobstructed view of the world ahead. A major goal of these displays is to reduce low visibility related aviation accidents such as CFIT. In addition to improving pilot performance, synthetic vision displays may also affect pilot situation awareness. Prototype synthetic vision displays were examined in a high-resolution graphics simulation facility at NASA Langley Research Center. Two display sizes, two fields of view, and the presence of a tunnel guidance system were manipulated to investigate the effects on pilot performance and situation awareness. Use of a tunnel guidance system improved pilot performance and lowered reported mental workload. Participants reported lower workload and increased situation awareness with the smaller display size. There were no profound performance differences as a function of display size. Implications of retrofitting synthetic vision displays into existing aircrafts is discussed.
Knowledge of and Attitudes towards Automation among Pilots from one Major Carrier's Fleet
Authors: Hitt James M. , Jentsch Florian , Bowers Clint
Published: January 2012

The flight management system (EMS) has been one component of a suite of advanced automated systems which are now standard on most commercial aircraft. While the potential benefit of these systems has been cited from both users and designers, many users have recognized the difficulties of the FMS. Comments related to the difficulty of the interface, lack of or misunderstanding of system use, and increased workload are not uncommon. The current paper focuses on pilot knowledge and attitudes towards FMS use for an entire fleet of a major airline. Knowledge and attitudinal measures were obtained through pilot completion of vignette-based questionnaires. The questionnaires examined knowledge through investigating various knowledge types, difficulty of questions, and trained vs. untrained FMS-related topics. FMS knowledge scores were significantly related to flight hours in type and years with the current fleet. In addition, there was an interaction between time with current fleet and crew position in that the best knowledge scores were demonstrated by Captains and First Officers at different experience levels.
The Role of Risk in Aviation Decision Making: How Pilots Perceive and Manage Flight Risks
Authors: Orasanu Judith , Davison Jeannie
Published: January 2012

The current direction in CRM training is threat and error management. In order to manage threats and to prevent them from leading to unsafe situations, pilots must first assess the risks associated with them. Risk assessment feeds into decision making in two ways: during assessment of the precipitating event (or threat) that requires a decision to be made, and in evaluating potential courses of action. Survey data were collected from over 100 airline pilots concerning their everyday experience with five types of risk: economic, physical, productivity, professional, and social. These risks may be pitted against each other, creating goal conflicts and decision dilemmas. Data from this study are helping us to understand what risks are salient to pilots in everyday flight and how pilots manage those risks when making decisions.
The ‘Where’ and the ‘Why’ of Cross-Country VFR Crashes: Database and Simulation Analyses
Authors: O'Hare David , Owen Douglas , Wiegmann Douglas
Published: January 2012

General Aviation (GA) accidents involving ‘VFR into IMC’ continue to be a major source of fatalities with a fatality rate more than four times greater than for GA accidents in general. We report two studies into the causes of cross-country weather-related accidents. In the first study we analyse the records of 77 New Zealand crashes where it could be determined that the aircraft was on a cross-country flight. We compared the characteristics of crashes that occurred after externally-driven events such as engine-failures with crashes where the pilot maintained on-going control over the aircraft. Significant differences were found for distance into the flight, visibility, altitude, crash severity and for the pilots' age and recent flight time. In the second study, 18 qualified GA pilots completed two simulated cross-country flights involving several commonly encountered weather conditions with or without the use of GPS. Detailed measures of decision making, risk assessment and situational awareness were collected during the flights. We discuss the implications of the findings for training and flight safety in general aviation.
Alternatives for Air Traffic Control Displays
Authors: Yuditsky Tanya , Sollenberger Randy L.
Published: January 2012

The United States air traffic control (ATC) system is designed to provide for the safe and efficient flow of air traffic from origin to destination. Traffic levels are projected to continue increasing over the foreseeable future. Because of the potential consequences of errors, it is important to identify and reduce the factors that increase ATC complexity. This research examined the application of color and text enhancements to ATC displays as methods of reducing complexity in the en route environment. The enhancements tested in this study were color coding of (a) aircraft destination airport, (b) overflights, and (c) special use airspace. Eight Certified Professional Controllers participated in the high fidelity, human-in-the-loop simulation. The results suggest that the enhancements were effective in helping controllers maintain safety, efficiency, attention, and situational awareness. The controllers issued fewer altitude changes overall when the overflight enhancement was used. Similarly, they issued fewer altitude changes for arrival aircraft when the destination airport enhancement was used. Over-the-shoulder observers rated the controllers as more effective in maintaining safe and efficient traffic flow, tailoring control actions to the situation, and prioritizing, with the use of the SUA enhancement. The controllers also reported that the enhancements helped in prioritizing control actions and planning ahead.
The Role of Gravity in Human Spatial Memory
Authors: Finkelmeyer Andreas , Werner Steffen
Published: January 2012

Research in humans and other animals has shown that different spatial reference systems are used in different spatial tasks and provide the basis for organizing spatial memories. Two groups of 16 subjects each learned the spatial locations of eight different objects surrounding them in the vertical plane while either lying on their sides or their front/back. Their ability to remember the locations was measured in a subsequent test phase. The results showed that subjects were faster and more accurate when they imagined themselves aligned with the vertical axis. Imagined orientations in the horizontal plane led to slower reaction times and less accurate responses, but were markedly better than imagined diagonal orientations. This indicates that humans use the reference direction specified by gravity to structure their spatial memory. Possible implications for the design of spatial displays are discussed.
A Comparison between a 2-D and a 3-D Simulation of Airport Tower Air Traffic Control
Authors: Weikert Clemens , Pham Mai , Montan Helene , Johansson Curt R.
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this study was to investigate if there is a difference in performance and experienced mental workload between 2-D and 3-D simulations of airport tower air traffic control. The air traffic control task was to give aircraft take-off and landing clearances. A total of ten subjects, all university students, participated in the study. All subjects were exposed to both 2-D and 3-D simulations. The order between 2-D and 3-D was rotated to exclude order effects. Performance was judged using a rating form used by the Swedish Air Traffic Services Academy. After each simulation the subjects were required to rate their mental workload on NASA-TLX. The results show no statistically significant differences between 2-D and 3-D with respect to performance or experienced workload. When looking at the raw data tendencies can be found for the 3-D to yield better performance and less mental load. This merits further study with a larger number of subjects and scenarios.
The ARC-Size Illusion as Applied to Planar Displays of Aircraft Traffic Inforamtion
Authors: Comerford Doreen , Uhlarik John
Published: January 2012

Shorter arcs are perceived as having less curvature (i.e., they are “perceptually flattened”), and this phenomenon has been labeled the Arc-size Illusion. This illusion was explored as it relates to planar displays of traffic information. Such displays often represent intent and/or history information with lines. Participants were presented with aircraft traveling on curvilinear paths, and their estimations of future aircraft location were examined. There were three major findings from the study. First, the data suggest that “perceptual flattening” and the Arc-size Illusion do indeed affect predictive judgments about aircraft on curvilinear paths. Second, and most surprising, the data suggest that increasing the size of the arc with a history line does NOT lessen “perceptual flattening.” Third, the data suggest that “perceptual flattening” is especially pronounced when predictor length is relatively short and the judgment location is relatively far. However, the effect of the predictor length essentially disappears when the judgment location is at a distance that is proportional to the predictor length.
Age Group Differences in Subjective Perceptions of Telephone Voice Menu Systems
Authors: Sharit Joseph , Czaja Sara J. , Nair Sankaran , Lee Chin Chin
Published: January 2012

Interactive voice response (IVR) systems are increasingly being used for a variety of tasks. Unfortunately many users experience difficulty and frustration when interacting with these systems. IVR systems may be particularly problematic for older people given the cognitive demands associated with their use. This paper reports results from a study examining the usability of IVR systems for two applications: banking and an electric utility company. The sample included 195 males and females ranging in age from 18–82 years. The participants used the system to respond to a set of 24 problems/questions. They performed these tasks at one of three speech rates: 0% compression, 10% compression, and 20% compression. Prior to performing the task, the participants completed a prior experience questionnaire; following task performance they completed a questionnaire assessing system usability. Findings from these subjective measures will be presented in this paper. Overall, the data indicate age differences in perceptions of usability. These data will be discussed with respect to implications for system design.
The Use of Communication Technologies by Older Adults: Exploring the Benefits from the User's Perspective
Authors: Melenhorst Anne-Sophie , Rogers Wendy A. , Caylor Evan C.
Published: January 2012

The use of advanced communication media may enhance the social networks of older adults. Although many older adults are open to new technology, there are still barriers that keep them from learning and using media such as e-mail and the Internet. Besides lacking skills, the lack of perceived advantages, or benefits, may also explain their reluctance. The goal of the present study was to investigate perceived context-related benefits of communication methods by older adults. Forty-eight independently living older adults in the age range of 65-80 years, 24 e-mail users and 24 non-users, participated in a focus group discussion of different communication scenarios. A systematic analysis of their comments and statements showed the relevance of perceived context-related benefit as a motivational factor for using or not using a medium. An implication of these results may be that training the skills to handle a new technology should also involve providing information about its specific benefits, from the user's perspective.
Looming Detection Among Drivers of Different Ages
Authors: Kennedy Robert S. , Jentsch Florian , Smither Janan Al-Awar
Published: January 2012

Rear-end collisions make up about 25 percent of all automobile crashes, 27 percent of crashes resulting in injuries, and 5 percent of all fatal car crashes in the U.S. We believe that one factor in these crashes is that some people are less able to detect when they are closing in on another car, and that this ability can be measured. Thirty participants in three age groups participated in this study. Testing included the detection of size change (looming), estimation of change in looming, manual lateral tracking, synthetic tail-following, and low-fidelity driving. Participants' visual and cognitive abilities were also tested. Results indicated that the looming detection task possessed a respectable amount of retest reliability and yielded a measure that provided stable data after one session. The results further indicated that the loom tests showed minimal relationships with other temporal visual functions, indicating that looming detection is a separate function. Finally, a clear relationship between age and looming detection was shown, but neither gender nor handedness appeared to have an effect.
Aging, Visual Performance and Eyestrain in Different Screen Technologies
Authors: Ziefle Martina
Published: January 2012

The focus of the study was the analysis of visual performance of elder workers with different screen technologies. Independent variables were display type (high quality CRT vs. TFT) and age of participants (20-30, 40-50, 51-65 years of age). A continuous visual search task was used in the experiment. 24 participants (eight per group) performed in a 30-minute search task under both conditions. Search time and accuracy were also measured as dependent variables. Eye movements (fixation time and fixation frequency) were analysed and visual acuity as well as the critical flicker frequency (CFF) were determined. Moreover, participants rated their visual discomfort and gave a rating for display type preference and reading comfort. The results draw a clear picture: Visual performance was best with TFT displays and the oculomotor effort (eye strain) was less (shorter fixation times with less fixations) than with CRT displays. The visual discomfort rating supported the findings and 18 out of 24 participants preferred the TFT screen over the CRT. However, the superiority of TFT screens in visual performance was most distinct in elder users (40-65 years) with a benefit in visual performance of up to 37% compared to CRTs. Thus, TFT displays can be highly recommended.
Improving Life Quality of the Elderly — Development of Functional Clothing, Anthropometric Investigation
Authors: Nowak E. , Kalka E.
Published: January 2012

The aim of this paper is to provide anthropometric characteristics of elderly women and to prepare data which will be used to develop tables of clothing dimensions for this group of women, with regard to the specific features of their body shape and body proportions.

Measurements of elderly women were taken at Social Welfare Centres, Society for Geriatric Assistance and University of Third Age. Up to the present they have embraced 142 women aged 60 to 81.

It has been proved that elderly women are characterized by a specific body construction. In comparison with younger women they are shorter, heavier and have significantly bigger trunk circumferences (circumferences of chest, waist and hips). For this reason majority of elderly women would not find for themselves appropriate clothes from among those made according to standard dimensions.
Older and Younger Drivers' Reliance on Collision Warning Systems
Authors: Cotté Nathalie , Meyer Joachim , Coughlin Joseph F.
Published: January 2012

Older and younger drivers' responses to different forward-collision warning systems and their subjective evaluations were studied in a simulated driving task. The systems differed in the settings of the warning threshold and the visibility of possible causes for false alarms. The analysis of mean driving speeds allowed us to assess participants' reliance on and compliance with the systems. Older drivers drove consistently slower, but the patterns of results for both age groups were similar: Reliance (i.e. speed when no warning was given) was greater with systems featuring more false alarms and fewer omissions. Compliance (i.e. the deceleration after a warning) was greater with systems featuring fewer false alarms and more omissions. The ability to see the causes of false alarms led older drivers to express greater subjective tolerance for false alarms. Implications of these results for the understanding of responses to warning systems in general and in-vehicle collision warnings in particular are discussed.
Measureing the Performance of Experts: An Application to Air Traffic Control
Authors: Thomas Rickey P. , Willems Ben , Shanteau James , Raacke John , Friel Brian
Published: January 2012

The study applied the Cochran-Weiss-Shanteau (CWS) index, a behavioral-based measure of expertise that integrates discrimination and consistency. Larger CWS scores are indicative of better evaluation, i.e., greater discrimination and consistency. CWS was used to assess the performance of controllers operating in high-fidelity simulations of air traffic control (ATC). Large CWS scores were associated with superior performance, e.g., fewer separation errors. The CWS indices were also sensitive to changes in task complexity and controller efficiency, further validating the index. This research extended CWS to real controllers operating in high-fidelity simulations of ATC.
Supporting Situation Assessment Through Attention Guidance: A Cost-Benefit and Depth of Processing Analysis
Authors: Horrey William J. , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2012

Automated support systems may be useful tools for aiding situation assessment in complex environments such as the military battlefield. These environments are marked by large amounts of information which often must be weighted and integrated into a meaningful judgment or assessment. The present research examines the effects of attention cueing on information integration tasks in static battlefield situations. Sixteen participants completed a resource allocation task for 56 battlefield scenarios (based on perceived threats). For half the trials, an automated system guided their attention to high-threat units. On 2 trials a memory probe was administered to assess the depth of processing of information, and on the final trial an automation failure was presented. Results demonstrated an overall allocation performance advantage for automation but poorer recall for automation-enhanced units. Half of the participants failed to attend to the system failure. Those participants who detected the failure were inferred to have processed the cues more deeply on the memory trials. The costs and benefits of automated cueing are discussed.
The Role of 2-D and 3-D Task Performance In the Design and Use of Visual Displays
Authors: Tittle James S. , Woods David D. , Roesler Axel , Howard Martin , Phillips Flip
Published: January 2012

Recent advances in computerized graphics capabilities have led to increased development and use of 3-D displays. In this paper we will discuss a survey of results from the visual perception literature that compares 3-D and 2-D task performance. The basic trend of this research suggests that designers of visual displays must recognize that the internal representations observers extract from 3-D displays will be distinctly different, and perhaps more qualitative, than the computer representations or models used to generate these displays. Finally, the surveyed literature indicates that crucial information in 3-D displays should not be encoded as differences in magnitudes of depth, orientation, or curvature. Instead designers should try to encode important task dimensions within more qualitative 3-D distinctions such as ordinal depth, deviations from co-planarity, and the presence of flat versus curved surfaces.
Effect of Display Design and Situation Complexity on Operator Performance
Authors: Willis Robert A.
Published: January 2012

The U.S. Navy is currently developing its next-generation cruise missile, the Tactical Tomahawk, which improves upon current versions by its ability to be retargeted in flight against emergent time-critical targets. In this study, we developed an advanced operator interface prototype for monitoring, controlling and retargeting the Tactical Tomahawk missile and empirically tested the effect of mission complexity on the ability of shipboard operators to maintain situational awareness in various operational scenarios. The first phase of research involved a domain analysis of three primary domains: the weapon system; time-critical decisionmaking; and principles of interface design. The second phase was a concurrent Cognitive Work/Task Analysis (CW/TA) and scenario development effort. The third phase was interface component design followed by complete prototype implementation. In the final phase, we trained and tested twenty graduate students on the dynamic and interactive prototype, based on hypotheses pertaining to both monitoring and retargeting tasks. Statistical results support two primary conclusions. First, operators can maintain adequate situational awareness when monitoring eight missiles and twelve targets simultaneously. Second, results support the use of the missile timebar feature in the interface to compare events. Subjective results indicate the requirement for a robust decision support tool to facilitate rapid retargeting decisions. These and other results form the basis for recommendations to the Naval Surface Warfare Center, Dahlgren Division (NSWCDD) about how to most effectively allocate personnel resources in the design of a command and control watchstation for the Tactical Tomahawk cruise missile system.
Attitudes, Behaviors, and Cognition in Distributed Teams: The Effect of Team Opacity on Process and Performance
Authors: Fiore Stephen M. , Salas Eduardo , Bowers Clint A.
Published: January 2012

In this paper we discuss the small, but growing, area of distributed teams and emphasize how work characteristics associated with such teams may alter both the processes and the products emerging from distributed interaction. We discuss these factors within the context of a construct we label team opacity and describe how the attitudes, behaviors, and cognitions of team members may be affected by a lack of co-location. We suggest that distributed team performance can best be understood through conceptualization of a coordination space within which distributed interaction occurs over time and space.
Integrating Cognitive Analyses into a Large Scale System Design Process
Authors: Bisantz Ann M. , Roth Emilie , Brickman Bart , Gosbee Laura Lin , Hettinger Larry , McKinney James
Published: January 2012

This paper describes an approach for integrating cognitive analysis in the early stages of design of a new, large scale system – a next generation US Navy Surface combatant. Influencing complex system designs in ways cognizant of human-system integration principles requires work products that are timely and tightly coupled to other elements of the system design process. Analyses were conducted, and recommendations made in parallel with, and as inputs to design decisions regarding system purposes, functionality, automation capabilities and staffing levels. We could not wait for design decisions to be made before proceeding or require other design groups to wait for our outputs. Thus, it was necessary to select and adapt cognitive work analysis methods to fit the demands of a time pressured design situation. A functional abstraction hierarchy model, and a series of cross-linked matrices were developed to provide a principled mapping between system function decompositions produced by system engineering teams, cognitive tasks, information needs, automation requirements, and concepts for displays. Cross-referencing the matrices supported design traceability standpoint and the integration of cognitive analyses with functional analyses being performed by other design teams. Results fed into design decisions with respect to level of automation, manning requirements and initial display prototypes. Providing an illustration of the processes and methods we applied is valuable because it describes and formalizes the relationship between concepts used in cognitive analyses and those used in systems engineering; it demonstrates the generalizability of cognitive engineering methods in a set of circumstances where few well documented examples exist; and it provides guidance for other human factors practitioners who may find themselves in similar circumstances.
A Systematic Approach to Developing System Design Recommendations
Authors: Freeman Jared T. , Paley Michael J.
Published: January 2012

A systematic approach to developing design recommendations is described. It begins with the imposition of constraints on the solution space. Empirical results from domain research are then used as catalysts for conceptualizing new functions and designs. Where empirical data are not available, interviews are used to elicit issues of importance. This approach was used to develop design guidance for a prototype Navy command and control system.
Exercises/Techniques for Teaching Cognitive Systems Engineering
Authors: Guerlain Stephanie , Hayes Caroline , Pritchett Amy , Smith Philip
Published: January 2012

There has been rapid growth in the field of Cognitive Systems Engineering in the past 8 years, as evidenced by the HFES formation of a technical group devoted to Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making in 1994, and the proliferation of papers that have been submitted to this technical group since that time. At least 7 universities have hired new faculty in the past 4 years specifically to teach Cognitive Engineering. Due to the complex, interdisciplinary nature of the field, and the broad background of students that enter this field, it is necessary to define a common core set of concepts and means for teaching those concepts in an effective way. For this panel, faculty from four universities share several exercises and demonstrations that they have found to actively and effectively involve students in learning key cognitive engineering concepts and techniques.
Designing an Optimal Team for a Novel Semi-Automated System
Authors: Miescher Sarah , Spitz Gabriel , Anastasi Donna , Lind Ann-Marie T.
Published: January 2012

The introduction of automation to support a multi-person team impacts the nature of the tasks performed by each operator in the team. The Team Integrated Design Environment (TIDE) methodology is a systematic and formal process that uses algorithms and models of human-system operations to determine the optimal team size, role composition, and task allocation for a specified kind of mission. This paper describes how the TIDE methodology was applied to derive concepts of team structure for the new Semi-Automated Target ***IDentification System (ATIDS) that is being developed at the Kwajalein Missile Range. Application of the TIDE methodology enabled systematic evaluation of a set of potential team structures and their associated performance. Based on the performance characteristics and the face validity of each proposed team concept, a team structure was selected. This team structure is currently used as a basis for developing the user-interface to the ATIDS application and will be used for manning and operating the ATIDS-enabled target tracking and identification system.
Cognitive Integration: Exploring Performance Differences Across Varying Contexts
Authors: Shattuck Lawrence G , Merlo James L.
Published: January 2012

Understanding the evolving, complex events on a battlefield requires a decision maker to integrate data from disparate sources. The study described herein extends previous work on cognitive integration. Twenty-one former Army battalion commanders participated in a simulation of an offensive military operation. In addition, twelve Army officers who serve as observers/controllers of units training for stability and support operations (SASO) were interviewed. The results of these studies, when compared to earlier studies strongly suggest that military decision makers seek out and integrate data based on context. Implications for design of decision support systems are also discussed.