bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mohawk–Mahican War (1624–1628)
Authors: Hemmis Timothy C.
Published: November 2011

The Mohawk–Mahican War was a conflict between the Mohawk and Mahican tribes in the upper Hudson River Valley. In the early seventeenth century the Dutch settled in present‐day New York and began trading for fur (predominantly beaver) with the local Native Americans. Although there is little historical documentation about this conflict because both combatant sides were Native American oral cultures, scholars have speculated that the Mohawk attacked the Mahicans because they wanted to eliminate their economic competition in the new European fur trade. The Mohawk were isolated from the European traders by their neighbors—the Mahicans to the east and the Algonquian tribes to the north. Consequently, the Mohawk could not directly trade with either the French in New France or the Dutch in New Amsterdam.
Napoleonic Wars (1802–1815)
Authors: Mikaberidze Alexander
Published: November 2011

A series of conflicts fought between Napoleonic France and changing sets of coalitions of European powers. The starting point for the Napoleonic Wars is usually considered the signing of the Peace of Amiens between France and Britain in 1802, while the end point is set in the wake of Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo and his exile from France in 1815. These wars were a continuation of the Revolutionary Wars that began in 1792 and produced profound political, economic, military, and ideological changes throughout the European continent. Ideological aspects of the Napoleonic Wars are often emphasized as a main source of the conflict, but Europe, in fact, was not divided along ideological lines. While ideology did matter, the conflict was largely driven by geopolitical considerations that were similar to those existing during the wars of Louis XIV. As in the early 1700s, the rise of a powerful French state in the early 1800s threatened the balance of power in Europe and led to the creation of broad coalitions to prevent France from achieving complete dominance on the continent. In addition, the Napoleonic Wars were influenced by a long‐standing colonial and commercial rivalry between France and Britain.
Nelson, Horatio, 1st Viscount Nelson (1758–1805)
Authors: Kuehn John T.
Published: November 2011

On September 29, 1758 Horace, later Horatio, Nelson was born in Burnham Thorpe, England. He was the sixth of eleven children, the son of Reverend Edmund Nelson and his wife Catherine. At the age of 12 Horace prevailed upon his father to gain him an appointment as a midshipman in the Royal Navy serving under his uncle Captain Maurice Suckling aboard the
Raisonable
(64 guns) in 1771. Captain Suckling detached Nelson for service on a merchant trader to the West Indies to develop his seamanship. Nelson thrived under Suckling's program, learning seamanship from the deck plates to the foretop.
Nine Years' War (1594–1603)
Authors: O'Neill Eoin
Published: November 2011

The Nine Years' War started as a local rebellion in Ireland led by Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone. With considerable tactical flexibility O'Neill alternated between fighting and negotiating, eventually turning the rebellion into a major war which attracted Spanish aid and forced Elizabeth I to intervene on a massive scale, nearly bankrupting her. In the end, despite the landing of a small Spanish force in Kinsale in 1601, Elizabeth was victorious, extending English rule over the whole country for the first time.
North–West Rebellion (1885)
Authors: England Shawn
Published: November 2011

This armed uprising, the largest rebellion in Canadian history, had its roots deep in the history of Canada's fur trade and the creation of Rupert's Land. This was an enormous territory created in 1670 by fiat of England's King Charles II, who also granted the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) a lucrative fur trade monopoly within the vast Hudson Bay watershed. A mixed‐race and predominantly French Catholic people known as the Métis evolved there over the next two centuries, as company employees and other Europeans formed sexual unions with indigenous women. In 1811 Thomas Douglas, the 5th Earl of Selkirk, established the Red River Colony in the heart of Rupert's Land for Scottish immigrants, but it grew slowly during the nineteenth century by attracting numerous mostly Métis settlers.
Onasander (first century CE)
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav
Published: November 2011

A Platonic philosopher of Greek origin, Onasander also wrote a work on generalship (
Strategikos
) sometime in the mid‐first century. Relying on the classical Greek tradition (including the works of Xenophon and Aristotle), Onasander emphasized the idea of a just war and the importance of a commander's moral qualities and strength of character for military success. He also included interesting observations on troop psychology and gave practical advice, such as on battle formations, marching order, methods of advance and retreat, and ways of deception of the enemy.
Strategikos
was dedicated to Quintus Veranius, Roman consul (49 CE) and governor of Britain (57–58), and was used extensively during the Byzantine period. It served as the foundation for later Byzantine military treatises — the
Strategikon
allegedly authored by the emperor Maurice (r. 582–602) and the
Taktika
traditionally ascribed to the emperor Leo VI (r. 886–912). In the late Middle Ages,
Strategikos
was translated into several European languages, largely for practical purposes no doubt.
People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN)
Authors: Stapleton Timothy J.
Published: November 2011

During World War I (1914–1918) South Africa invaded neighboring German South West Africa and after the conflict Pretoria administered the territory as a mandate of the League of Nations. White settlers moved in and South Africa ruled the territory as a new province. In 1965 the South West African People's Organization (SWAPO), frustrated by years of futile non‐violent protest and state oppression, formed the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) to pursue an armed struggle against South African occupation. Based in the west of newly independent Zambia, PLAN insurgents infiltrated northern South West Africa. In August 1966 South African paratroopers and police destroyed a PLAN camp at Omgulumbashe in the first engagement of the “Border War.” In September 1966 PLAN attacked a border town and in March 1967 ambushed police in West Caprivi. PLAN commander Tobias Hanyeko, in May 1967, was killed in a skirmish with police near the Zambezi River. After two large groups crossed the border in October 1968 and were eliminated, PLAN began to use smaller units. PLAN launched a new offensive in early 1973, which prompted the South African Defense Force (SADF) to take over counterinsurgency from the police. Initially, the SADF used medical services and development projects to win “hearts and minds,” but as the conflict expanded South African counterinsurgency became increasingly brutal.
Pequot War (1636–1637)
Authors: Hall John W.
Published: November 2011

The Pequot War was the first major conflict between Native Americans and English colonists in New England. It is remembered for the sacking of the Pequots' Mystic fort, during which English colonists killed hundreds of men, women, and children, burning most of them alive. The war temporarily obliterated the Pequots as a distinct political entity and altered the balance of power between English colonists and the region's Native communities, which increasingly struggled to maintain autonomy.
Philippine–American War (1899–1913)
Authors: Mihara Robert
Published: November 2011

The Philippine–American War (or Philippine Insurrection), following the larger Spanish–American War (1898), brought into collision American political and economic ambitions with the aspirations of Filipino nationalists to establish a Philippine Republic. The conflict in the Philippines began on February 4, 1899 with the Battle of Manila when the Republican Army, under Emilio Aguinaldo, clashed with the US 8th Corps, under the command of Major General Wesley Merritt, in the capital suburbs. The two armies had jointly laid siege to Spanish‐occupied Manila the year before, but the partnership effectively ended after Merritt's corps entered the Walled City on August 13, 1898 under a secret agreement brokered between US representatives and the Spanish garrison. The armies were settled into opposing lines until Private William Grayson of the 1st Nebraska shot at a Filipino patrol in February 1899, sparking the Philippine–American War. It would drag on for another three years before President Theodore Roosevelt declared victory in July 1902.
Piłsudski, Jó zef Klemens (1867–1935)
Authors: Schwonek Matthew R.
Published: November 2011

Jó zef Klemens piłsudski, a revolutionary turned soldier, was first head of state and commander in chief of the armed forces of the Second Polish Republic. The first marshal of Poland from March 3, 1920, he is best known for his leadership during the RussoPolish War (1919–1920) and the climactic Battle of Warsaw, but his long career included contributions to the struggle for independence before 1918 as well as diplomacy and military affairs between the two world wars. His legacy is complex. Instrumental in founding an independent republic after 123 years of partition, he overthrew its democratic government in May 1926, putting in its place a military dictatorship, which he dominated until his death.
Ransoms
Authors: Ambühl Rémy
Published: November 2011

In Middle English raunsom or raunson derives from the old French
raencon
(or
raenson, rancon, ranson, ranchon
, etc.) and from the Latin
redemptio
. Ransom is commonly defined as the price or sum paid or demanded for the release of a prisoner. However, it has not always been strictly financial. This nuance is highlighted by the medieval use of the term finance (
fenaunce, fynance, financia
), which seemed to designate a ransom that was paid in money, whereas ransom could also be partly or entirely paid in goods.
Reagan Doctrine
Authors: Scott James M.
Published: November 2011

A strand of post‐World War II containment policy, the Reagan Doctrine was a foreign policy strategy devised by the Reagan administration (1981–1989) to challenge what it perceived as Soviet expansionism in the developing world. Its purpose was to support anti‐Soviet insurgencies, providing rebel movements with American assistance to raise the costs of maintaining or acquiring clients and perhaps even overthrow Sovietsupported regimes and hasten the end of the Cold War.
Rommel, Field Marshal Erwin (1891–1944)
Authors: Lieb Peter
Published: November 2011

Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was a German military commander during World War II, chiefly in the North African theater of war. Until today he has arguably remained the best‐known and most popular military leader of World War II. His tactical brilliance and chivalrous behavior, as well as German and British propaganda, created a myth around his personality. After the failed plot against Hitler in 1944 he was forced to commit suicide, as he was seen to be closely linked with the conspirators.
Scharnhorst, General Gerhard von (1755–1813) and Gneisenau, Field Marshal August Neidhart von (1760–1831)
Authors: Kuehn John T.
Published: November 2011

The names of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, two of the most famous generals in Prussian service, are generally linked together. For many, the men as individuals remain some what opaque. There are good reasons for the German veneration of these two men. They were at the forefront of a renaissance of professional military reform in the Prussian army after Prussia's disastrous defeat at the hands of Napoleon in 1806. Nonetheless, neither man was actually a Prussian, or even a Brandenburger, despite the very Prussian von that both used in their names. Gerhard Johann David Scharnhorst was from Hanover, a German possession of the British crown, while August Wilhelm Anton Niedhart von Gneisenau was from Saxony, historically an electorate (and later kingdom) at odds with the Hohenzollern monarchy in Berlin. It is true that the men were close friends, but the real unifying thread for them can be found in a key friend they shared in common — the Prussian Carl von Clausewitz. These two German patriots were key to Clausewitz's rise. Both men mentored and protected him, seeing in him an intellect and passion of great value. Clausewitz returned the favor, writing hagiographically about both of his friends, especially Scharnhorst.
Self‐defense
Authors: Neff Stephen C.
Published: November 2011

In the seventeenth century, Hugo Grotius identified defense as one of the three categories of just causes for war. This notion of defense was not confined to the actual fending off of an ongoing attack, but extended to the taking of action against impending dangers as well. There were naturally some worries over the potential misuse of this right of defensive war, and international lawyers were at pains to stress that it could not be used to justify action against dangers that were merely speculative. In the nineteenth century, the idea of self‐defense played little role in international legal discourse because of the general acceptance of war as an inherent sovereign right of states. When lawyers wrote of emergency action by states, they generally spoke instead in terms of a more general right of self‐preservation (or, in modern terminology, necessity), which would justify states in taking emergency action that normally would be unlawful. The criteria for the exercise of this right of necessity were most memorably articulated by American secretary of state Daniel Webster, in 1841: when there is “a necessity… , instant, over whelming, leaving no choice of means, and no moment for deliberation.” This statement by Webster has been adopted by international lawyers as the basic standard for self‐defense. Self‐defense was not expressly mentioned in the text of the Kellogg–Briand Pact of 1928. Nevertheless, it was clear from the context that the states parties recognized that it was outside the scope of the prohibition against war. Only in 1945, with the conclusion of the United Nations Charter, did self‐defense move to the legal center stage. The Charter allows self‐defense in case of “armed attack” (Article 51) — the only important circumstance in which states may employ armed force unilaterally.
Seminole Wars (1817–1818, 1835–1842, 1855–1858)
Authors: Watson Samuel
Published: November 2011

The Seminole Wars were a series of US efforts to dispossess the Amerindians of Florida against resistance centered among the Seminoles and Mikasukis. In military campaigns punctuated by coercive diplomatic offensives over a period of nearly half a century, the national standing army, volunteers from the southern states, and militia from Georgia and Florida drove 90 percent of a population of perhaps ten thousand Indians from the region. Most of the survivors were forcibly resettled in modern‐day Oklahoma as part of Andrew Jackson's Indian removal policy during the Second Seminole War; a few fled to the Bahamas; and several hundred remained in the interior of the Everglades, forming the core of today's Florida Seminole and Mikasuki nations.
Sepoy Mutiny (1857–1859)
Authors: Peers Douglas M.
Published: November 2011

The Sepoy Mutiny (1857–1859), also commonly known as the Indian Mutiny, Indian Rebellion, or, amongst an older generation of nationalist historians, the First War of Independence, was an armed uprising that began in locally raised units of the East India Company's Bengal Army (the other two armies of the East India Company were the Madras Army and the Bombay Army). Upwards of three‐quarters of the sepoys serving in the Bengal Army mutinied. While there were signs of discontent in some units of the other two presidency armies, the fact that these armies remained largely loyal would later prove critical to the British ability to retain their hold on India. Not only did Madras and Bombay provide the British with military forces with which they could attack the rebels in the north, but they also prevented the spread of rebellion into the wider civilian populations of the Madras and Bombay presidencies. And while the mutineers did draw support, in some cases rather grudgingly, from some key members of the Indian aristocracy who were aggrieved at their diminished authority, other princes either chose to support the British or remained neutral, thus denying the rebels the leadership that would have allowed them to break out of their circumscribed area of operation. The king of Nepal, for example, offered troops to the British. In Bengal, however, anger at British rule soon spread amongst the civilian population in the strategically vital plains of central and northern India, where it took on many of the attributes of a popular uprising. This explains the lack of consensus amongst historians as to how best to title these events. British rule in India was seriously threatened and the fighting that ensued was marked by brutality and savagery on both sides. It has been calculated that rebels killed as many as 6,000 Europeans, but there are no reliable estimates as to the numbers of Indians who died. However, if we compare the census of 1871 with earlier calculations of the population of North India, there is a noticeable decline, suggesting that Indian casualties could possibly number in the hundreds of thousands.
Siege Warfare (Early Modern)
Authors: Martens Pieter
Published: November 2011

Early modern warfare was dominated by sieges rather than battles. Sieges were far more numerous and more decisive for the outcome of a war, and many of the major battles were actually fought between a besieging army and a relief force, as at Pavia (1525), St. Quentin (1557), Mezokeresztes (1596), Nördlingen (1634), Rocroi (1643), and Vienna (1683). Moreover a failed siege could prove just as destructive to the beleaguering army as a lost battle, and equally damaging to princely prestige; witness the ruinous defeats of the Emperor Charles V's troops before Metz (1552), the Ottomans at Malta (1565), or the French royal army at La Rochelle (1573).
Somalia Civil War (2006)
Authors: Phillips Gervase
Published: November 2011

In June 2006a coalition of local Sharia courts (responsible for the implementation of the Islamic code of law) seized control of the Somali capital Mogadishu, driving out the rival forces of feuding warlords. This alliance, known as the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), brought a measure of peace and stability to the war‐torn city unknown since the government of Siyad Barre had been overthrown in 1991. Yet their success would bring further conflict. As the ICU's sphere of influence expanded across southern and central Somalia, its militia clashed with the forces of the internationally recognized (but weak) Transitional Federal Government (TFG). To the north, the semi‐autonomous region of Puntland and the
de facto
independent state of Somaliland were both militantly resistant to any notion of reintegration into a unified Somali state. Furthermore, although the ICU contained a broad spectrum of religious opinion, the presence within its ranks of committed fundamentalists attracted the anxious attention of the United States and the foremost regional power, Ethiopia, leading to military intervention by both countries.
Spanish Army of Flanders
Authors: Tenace Edward
Published: November 2011

The arrival of the duke of Alba in the Netherlands in 1568 with an army of ten thousand Spanish veterans marked the auspicious beginning of the Army of Flanders, recognized even by its foes as the leading school for military training in all of Europe. During the early stages of the Dutch rebellion, it established its fearsome reputation in such lopsided contests as Jemmingen (1568), Mook (1574), and Gembloux (1578), battles in which the army suffered only minimal casualties compared to the near annihilation of the enemy. Despite its inability to put down the Dutch rebellion, the Army of Flanders would remain a redoubtable fighting force through the 1640s, and survive until the end of the Habsburg Dynasty in Spain. Its fighting ability derived from two sources.
Spanish Succession, War of the (1701–1714)
Authors: Starkey Armstrong
Published: November 2011

The War of the Spanish Succession was a catastrophe that many had foreseen and struggled to prevent. For decades European statesmen had anticipated the death without direct heirs of the last Habsburg king of Spain, Charles II (1661–1700). As the seven teenth century drew to an end, the eyes of European statesmen were drawn to the Spanish inheritance, an empire that included Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, Naples, Milan, the Spanish Netherlands, and colonies in the Americas, and the Philippines. Claims to this inheritance could be presented by the Austrian branch of the Habsburg family and by the French Bourbon family of Louis XIV. This, of course, was no mere family squabble over the details of a will. Acquisition of the Spanish Empire by either side threatened to destroy the European balance of power and thus the interests of states not directly involved in the obscure legal issues were linked to the outcomes.
Sri Lankan Civil War
Authors: Stone David R.
Published: November 2011

The Sri Lankan Civil War originated in religious and ethnic divides among the Sri Lankan population. Under British colonial rule, Sri Lankan society was dominated by English‐educated Christians who were disproportionately Tamil. With independence in 1948, the Sinhalese, the Buddhist ethnic majority comprising approximately 70 percent of the population, asserted their own identity, making Sinhalese the official language, establishing Buddhism as the official religion, and disenfranchising Tamil migrants who had moved to Sri Lanka from India under British rule to work on tea plantations. This created resentment among the largely Hindu Tamil minority. Tensions between Buddhist Sinhalese and Hindu Tamils grew steadily.
Takeda Shingen (1521–1573)
Authors: David Spafford
Published: November 2011

No one better than Takeda Shingen embodies the archetype of the warlord in Japan's Warring States period (1467–1600). A brilliant general and a master of intrigue, he also stands out among the great political innovators of his age, and his long rise and sudden passing perfectly epitomize the uncertainty of families' fortunes in the sixteenth century.
Talat, Mehmed (“Talat Pasha”) (1874–1921)
Authors: David Pizzo
Published: November 2011

Talat Pasha was an important Turkish leader and member of the Committee for Union and Progress (CUP) in the early twentieth century. Rising from humble origins, Talat climbed to the highest levels of Ottoman government. In that capacity he had much to do with the Young Turk revolutionaries' social and economic reforms, and he was a leading figure in the country's foreign relations. He is perhaps best known, however, for his controversial involvement in the deportation and massacre of hundreds of thousands of Ottoman Armenians during World War I.
Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)
Authors: Wilson Peter H.
Published: November 2011

The Thirty Years' War was the most destructive conflict in European history before the two world wars. It is regarded as a significant stage in western warfare, associated with the idea of an early modern Military Revolution, and with “great captains” like Gustavus Adolphus, Condé, and Turenne. Nearly all the continent's major and most of the minor powers became involved. The peace congress in the two Westphalian towns of Münster and Osnabrück was attended by 194 official delegations and is widely hailed as a landmark in the development of modern diplomacy and the transition to an international order based on sovereign states.
Tokugawa Shogunate (1603–1868)
Authors: Wilson Noell
Published: November 2011

The Tokugawa shogunate was the last, and longest enduring, of three shogunates, or warrior‐staffed bureaucracies, in Japanese history, following the Kamakura (1185–1333) and Ashikaga (1336–1573) shogunates. The Tokugawa warrior house, which founded the eponymous shogunate, emerged
primus inter pares
after allied forces led by general Tokugawa Ieyasu defeated rival warlords at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu's victory, and creation of a new political center in Edo, completed the early modern unification process begun by his predecessors, Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. In 1603, after Ieyasu consolidated his alliances, Emperor Go‐Yōzei invested him with the title of shogun, an abbreviation of
seii tai shōgun
(barbarianquelling generalissimo), which had originated in the eighth and ninth centuries as a temporary commission granted to generals charged with pacifying the Emishi of the northeast. To legitimate his appointment to this position, Ieyasu carefully crafted a family genealogy descended from the prestigious Minamoto line of warriors, including Yoritomo, head of the first shogunate in Kamakura. As well, he fostered a new strain of neo‐Confucian ideology to buttress his rule. Ieyasu retained the title shogun for only two years, until 1605, when he transferred the position to his son, Hidetada, so that he could oversee the succession while in full health and create a tradition of peaceful power transfer among Tokugawa rulers. The post would be filled by a succession of 15 Tokugawa heirs until the final shogun, Yoshinobu, abdicated in 1868.
Trenchard, Marshal of theRAFSir Hugh, 1stViscount Trenchard (1873–1956)
Authors: Pugh James
Published: November 2011

Britain's most important airpower commander during World War I, Trenchard became first Chief of the Air Staff (CAS) for the Royal Air Force (RAF), a post he held on two occasions. Not an original thinker or theorist in the sense of Gulio Douhet or William “Billy” Mitchell, Trenchard established a sound footing for the RAF and secured the continued independence of Britain's junior service. The caricature of the blusterous, blunt, and inarticulate “Boom” Trenchard (a nickname reflecting the power of his voice) is too readily accepted. Trenchard, whose great gift was his understanding of the political and economic dimensions of senior command, recognized his weaknesses and surrounded himself with able deputies who expressed his policies in more eloquent form.
War and Medicine
Authors: Perry Heather R.
Published: November 2011

Until quite recently, scholars seemed unwavering in the belief that war, however brutal in its prosecution, had the unintended and positive by‐product of inspiring medical progress. This conventional opinion held that in responding to the wounds of war, medical practitioners became innovators of treatments, therapies, and techniques crucial to saving soldiers' lives. Moreover, this thesis argued, as the weapons of war evolved to create new injuries, so too did the medical response to them. War was often perceived, as one scholar has noted, as a handmaiden to medical progress. Toward the end of the twentieth century, however, scholars began studying more closely the relationships between war and medicine and today the topic of war and medicine can refer to a number of subjects including: conflictrelated disease and public health, the impact of war on medicine, the impact of medicine on war, the organization of military medicine, and the overall care and welfare of soldiers on the battlefield. This article examines these interrelated phenomena while also highlighting significant developments or historical debates within each of them.
War and Music
Authors: Sweeney Regina
Published: November 2011

War and music have been intertwined since ancient times. Music propelled fighters into battle and signaled retreats, while soldiers' heroic deeds or sad deaths inspired composers. In many cases, a conflict stimulated the production of music for both amateurs and professionals, especially during the massive nationalist wars of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Wars have also stimulated musical exchanges with armies sharing tunes or adopting new instruments. And technology has dramatically changed how music can be conveyed—from being memorized, carried in songbooks, or played with instruments, to being reproduced on radio or compact discs.
Wars of the East India Company (1748–1849)
Authors: Deshpande Anirudh
Published: November 2011

The replacement of the Mughal Empire by the numerous regional polities in south Asia during the eighteenth century underscored the rise of British power in India. The British conquered large parts of India by crushing the French and simultaneously exploiting the differences between the native powers. During the Seven Years' War, and the concomitant Carnatic Wars in south India, Britain defeated France and became dominant in south Asia. The Portuguese, confined to the coast, posed no threat to the English East India Company (hereafter, “Company”) founded in 1600 and operating from its trading factories in Surat and some other places. The Dutch, defeated by the British in the seventeenthcentury maritime wars, were driven away from India and Ceylon. Thus, after 1750, Britain emerged as the foremost modern global naval, commercial, and colonial power. In general, British mercantile and political interests coincided in this period to create a vast overseas empire resting on the back of colonial resources and manpower. The colonies provided the mercantile capital necessary for the Industrial Revolution and, later, markets to British industry and finance.
World War I: Southern Front
Authors: Vandervort Bruce
Published: November 2011

From 1915 down to the end of World War I, some three million Italian soldiers, aided from time to time by British and French troops, fought a little over two million Austro‐Hungarian soldiers, backed on occasion by German troops, over control of some of the most unforgiving real estate in western Europe. The war these soldiers waged took place along a four hundred mile arc north of Venice, fronted over most of its distance by the highest mountains in Europe, the Dolomites and the Carnic and Julian Alps. But most of the battles were fought along the eastern sector of the front, the some forty‐mile stretch along the Isonzo River, which flows to the Adriatic. Across the river, the land rises approximately two thousand feet to two desolate plateaux, the Bainsizza, etched with steep ridges, and the Carso or Karst, a treeless limestone waste in what is today Slovenia. The territory the two armies fought over was partially inhabited by Italians who had remained Austrian subjects after the nineteenth‐century wars that led to the unification of Italy. Bringing this irredenta, or “unredeemed” region, under the Italian flag was a major reason for Italy's abandonment of its long‐standing partnership in the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria Hungary and its entry into World War I in 1915 on the side of the Triple Entente.
Non‐native english language speakers benefit most from the use of lecture capture in medical school
Authors: Shaw‡ Graham P. , Molnar David
Published: November 2011

Medical education in the United States and Canada continues to evolve. However, many of the changes in pedagogy are being made without appropriate evaluation. Here, we attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of lecture capture technology as a learning tool in Podiatric medical education. In this pilot project, student performance in an inaugural lecture capture‐supported biochemistry course was compared to that in the previous academic year. To examine the impact of online lecture podcasts on student performance a within‐subjects design was implemented, a two way ANCOVA with repeated measures. The use of lecture capture‐supported pedagogy resulted in significantly higher student test scores, than achieved historically using traditional pedagogy. The overall course performance using this lecture capture‐supported pedagogy was almost 6% higher than in the previous year. Non‐native English language speakers benefitted more significantly from the lecture capture‐supported pedagogy than native English language speakers, since their performance improved by 10.0 points. Given that underrepresented minority (URM) students, whose native language is not English, makes up a growing proportion of medical school matriculates, these observations support the use of lecture capture technology in other courses. Furthermore, this technology may also be used as part of an academic enrichment plan to improve performance on the American Podiatric Medical Licensing Examination, reduce the attrition of URM students and potentially address the predicted minority physician shortage in 2020. BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY EDUCATION Vol. 39, No. 6, pp. 416–420, 2011
Problem‐solving test: Submitochondrial localization of proteins
Authors: Szeberényi József
Published: November 2011

Terms to be familiar with before you start to solve the test: mitochondria, outer membrane, inner membrane, intermembrane space, mitochondrial matrix, mitochondrial fraction, cell fractionation by differential centrifugation, pellet, supernatant, detergents, phenol, cytosolic fraction, integral and peripheral membrane proteins, hypotonic solution, SDS‐polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, Western blotting. BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY EDUCATION Vol. 39, No. 6, pp. 459–461, 2011
Synthetic Virus‐Like Particles and Conformationally Constrained Peptidomimetics in Vaccine Design
Authors: Riedel Tina , Ghasparian Arin , Moehle Kerstin , Rusert Peter , Trkola Alexandra , Robinson John A.
Published: November 2011

Conformationally constrained peptidomimetics could be of great value in the design of vaccines targeting protective epitopes on viral and bacterial pathogens. But the poor immunogenicity of small synthetic molecules represents a serious obstacle for their use in vaccine development. Here, we show how a constrained epitope mimetic can be rendered highly immunogenic through multivalent display on the surface of synthetic virus‐like nanoparticles. The target epitope is the V3 loop from the gp120 glycoprotein of HIV‐1 bound to the neutralizing antibody F425‐B4e8. The antibody‐bound V3 loop adopts a β‐hairpin conformation, which is effectively stabilized by transplantation onto a D‐Pro‐L‐Pro template. The resulting mimetic after coupling to synthetic virus‐like particles elicited antibodies in rabbits that recognized recombinant gp120. The elicited antibodies also blocked infection by the neutralization sensitive tier‐1 strain MN of HIV‐1, as well as engineered viruses with the V1V2 loop deleted; this result is consistent with screening of V3 by the V1V2 loop in intact trimeric viral gp120 spikes. The results provide new insights into HIV‐1 vaccine design based on the V3 loop, and illustrate how knowledge from structural biology can be exploited for the design of constrained epitope mimetics, which can be delivered to the immune system by using a highly immunogenic synthetic nanoparticle delivery system.
Preparation, Characterization of a Novel Chelating Resin Functionalized with o‐Hydroxybenzamide and Its Application for Preconcentration of Trace Metal Ions
Authors: Islam Aminul , Ahmad Akil , Laskar Mohammad Asaduddin
Published: November 2011

A stable extractor of metal ions was synthesized through azo linking of o‐hydroxybenzamide (HBAM) with Amberlite XAD‐4 (AXAD‐4) and was characterized by elemental analyses, IR spectral, and thermal studies. Its water regain value and hydrogen ion capacity were found to be 12.93 and 7.68 mmol g−1, respectively. The optimum pH range (with the half‐loading time [min], t1/2) for Cu(II), Cr(III), Ni(II), Co(II), Zn(II), and Pb(II) ions were 2.0–4.0 (5.5), 2.0–4.0 (7.0), 2.0–4.0 (8.0), 4.0–6.0 (9.0), 4.0–6.0 (12.0), and 2.0–4.0 (15.0), respectively. Comparison of breakthrough and overall capacities of the metals ascertains the high degree of column utilization (>70%). The overall sorption capacities for Cu(II), Cr(III), Ni(II), Co(II), Zn(II), and Pb(II) ions were found to be 0.29, 0.22, 0.20, 0.16, 0.13, and 0.11 mmol g−1 with the corresponding preconcentration factor of 400, 380, 380, 360, 320, and 320, respectively. The limit of preconcentration was in the range of 5.0–6.3 ng mL−1. The detection limit for Cu(II), Cr(III), Ni(II), Co(II), Zn(II), and Pb(II) were found to be 0.39, 0.49, 0.42, 0.59, 0.71, and 1.10 ng mL−1, respectively. The AXAD‐4‐HBAM has been successfully applied for the analysis of natural water, multivitamin formulation, infant milk substitute, hydrogenated oil, urine, and fish.
Removal of Copper, Nickel, and Zinc Ions from Electroplating Rinse Water
Authors: Revathi Meyyappan , Saravanan Mohan , Chiya Ahmed Basha , Velan Manickam
Published: November 2011

Removal of copper, nickel, and zinc ions from synthetic electroplating rinse water was investigated using cationic exchange resin (Ceralite IR 120). Batch ion exchange studies were carried out to optimize the various experimental parameters (such as contact time, pH, and dosage). Influence of co‐existing cations, chelating agent EDTA on the removal of metal ion of interest was also studied. Sorption isotherm data obtained at different experimental conditions were fitted with Langmuir, Freundlich, Redlich–Peterson, and Toth models. A maximum adsorption capacity of 164 mg g−1 for Cu(II), 109 mg g−1 for Ni(II), and 105 mg g−1 for Zn(II) was observed at optimum experimental conditions according to Langmuir model. The kinetic data for metal ions adsorption process follows pseudo second‐order. Presence of EDTA and co‐ions markedly alters the metal ion removal. Continuous column ion exchange experiments were also conducted. The breakeven point of the column was obtained after recovering effectively several liters of rinse water. The treated rinse water could be recycled in rinsing operations. The Thomas and Adams–Bohart models were applied to column studies and the constants were evaluated. Desorption of the adsorbed metal ions from the resin column was studied by conducting a model experiments with Cu(II) ions loaded ion exchange resin column using sulfuric acid as eluant. A novel lead oxide coated Ti substrate dimensionally stable (DSA) anode was prepared for recovery of copper ions as metal foil from regenerated liquor by electro winning at different current densities (50–300 A cm−2).
Pristionchus uniformis, should I stay or should I go? Recent host range expansion in a European nematode
Authors: D’Anna Isabella , Sommer Ralf J.
Published: November 2011

Pristionchus pacificus has been developed as a model system in evolutionary developmental biology, evolutionary ecology, and population genetics. This species has a well‐known ecological association with scarab beetles. Generally, Pristionchus nematodes have a necromenic association with their beetle hosts. Arrested dauer larvae invade the insect and wait for the host's death to resume development. Only one Pristionchus species is known to frequently associate with a non‐scarab beetle. Pristionchus uniformis has been isolated from the chrysomelid Leptinotarsa decemlineata, also known as the Colorado potato beetle, in Europe and North America, but is also found on scarab beetles. This unusual pattern of association with two unrelated groups of beetles on two continents requires the involvement of geographical and host range expansion events. Here, we characterized a collection of 81 P. uniformis isolates from North America and Europe and from both scarab beetles and L. decemlineata. We used population genetic and phylogenetic analyses of the mitochondrial gene nd2 to reconstruct the genetic history of P. uniformis and its beetle association. Olfactory tests on beetles chemical extracts showed that P. uniformis has a unique chemoattractive profile toward its beetle hosts. Our results provide evidence for host range expansion through host‐switching events in Europe where P. uniformis was originally associated with scarab beetles and the nematode's subsequent invasion of North America.
Microfluidic synthesis of tunable poly‐(N‐isopropylacrylamide) microparticles via PEG adjustment
Authors: Huang Shuqiang , Lin Bingcheng , Qin Jianhua
Published: November 2011

We present a microfluidic droplet method to synthesize a series of tunable poly(N‐isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) microparticles by the addition of polyethylene glycols (PEGs). The PEGs are used as porogens and could be removed simply by washing step. By varying molecular weights and concentrations of the PEGs, morphologies and temperature‐sensitive properties of the formed PNIPAM microparticles are flexibly tuned. It is found that PEG of lower molecular weight induces smaller micropore sizes, and results in faster response rate. The volume changes prior to and after shrinkage can also be regulated by the addition of PEGs due to tuned homogeneities of micropores. The microparticles tuned by PEG1000 with ratio of added PEGs to NIPAM of 2:1 respond the fastest (120 s), whereas with ratio of added PEGs to NIPAM of 1:1 display largest volume change (1/γ=12.12). This simplicity and controllability of tunable microparticles synthesis are appealing for various applications ranging from chemical delivery, drug release control, to optical applications.
Functional brain connectivity at rest changes after working memory training
Authors: Jolles Dietsje D. , van Buchem Mark A. , Crone Eveline A. , Rombouts Serge A.R.B.
Published: November 2011

Networks of functional connectivity are highly consistent across participants, suggesting that functional connectivity is for a large part predetermined. However, several studies have shown that functional connectivity may change depending on instructions or previous experience. In the present study, we investigated whether 6 weeks of practice with a working memory task changes functional connectivity during a resting period preceding the task. We focused on two task‐relevant networks, the frontoparietal network and the default network, using seed regions in the right middle frontal gyrus (MFG) and the medial prefrontal cortex (PFC), respectively. After practice, young adults showed increased functional connectivity between the right MFG and other regions of the frontoparietal network, including bilateral superior frontal gyrus, paracingulate gyrus, and anterior cingulate cortex. In addition, they showed reduced functional connectivity between the medial PFC and right posterior middle temporal gyrus. Moreover, a regression with performance changes revealed a positive relation between performance increases and changes of frontoparietal connectivity, and a negative relation between performance increases and changes of default network connectivity. Next, to study whether experience‐dependent effects would be different during development, we also examined practice effects in a pilot sample of 12‐year‐old children. No practice effects were found in this group, suggesting that practice‐related changes of functional connectivity are age‐dependent. Nevertheless, future studies with larger samples are necessary to confirm this hypothesis. Hum Brain Mapp, 2013. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Robotic stereotactic body radiotherapy in the treatment of sinonasal mucosal melanoma: Report of four cases
Authors: Ozyigit Gokhan , Cengiz Mustafa , Yazici Gozde , Yildiz Ferah , Sezen Duygu , Yildiz Demet , Gurkaynak Murat , Zorlu Faruk , Akyol Fadil
Published: November 2011

Background

Sinonasal mucosal melanoma (SNMM) is a rare entity originating from melanocytes of the sinonasal mucosa. Postoperative radiotherapy is recommended in all cases to increase local control. However, external radiotherapy is rarely used as a definitive treatment modality. In this report, we present 4 cases of SNMM treated with CyberKnife (Accuray, Sunnyvale, CA).

Methods

All patients were immobilized with a thermoplastic mask. A planning CT scan with 1‐mm thickness was obtained, and these images were fused with MRI for the contouring procedure. Multiplan (Accuray) inverse planning software was used for treatment planning. Robotic stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) was delivered with CyberKnife.

Results

Median follow‐up was 26 months. Three patients had complete response to CyberKnife, and 1 patient had partial response.

Conclusion

Robotic SBRT seems to be an appealing treatment option for local control. Effective systemic treatment is required to prevent distant metastases. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck, 2013
Hippocampal activity during recognition memory co‐varies with the accuracy and confidence of source memory judgments
Authors: Yu Sarah S. , Johnson Jeffrey D. , Rugg Michael D.
Published: November 2011

It has been proposed that the hippocampus selectively supports retrieval of contextual associations, but an alternative view holds that the hippocampus supports strong memories regardless of whether they contain contextual information. We employed a memory test that combined the ‘Remember/Know’ and source memory procedures, which allowed test items to be segregated both by memory strength (recognition accuracy) and, separately, by the quality of the contextual information that could be retrieved (indexed by the accuracy/confidence of a source memory judgment). As measured by fMRI, retrieval‐related hippocampal activity tracked the quality of retrieved contextual information and not memory strength. These findings are consistent with the proposal that the hippocampus supports contextual recollection rather than recognition memory more generally. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Molecular cytogenetic evaluation of the mechanism of genotoxic potential of amsacrine and nocodazole in mouse bone marrow cells
Authors: Attia Sabry M.
Published: November 2011

The mechanism of genotoxic potential of the cancer chemotherapeutic drugs amsacrine and nocodazole in mouse bone marrow was investigated using a micronucleus test complemented by fluorescence in situ hybridization assay with mouse centromeric and telomeric DNA probes. In animals treated with different doses of amsacrine (0.5–12 mg kg−1), the frequencies of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes increased significantly after treatment with 9 and 12 mg kg−1. A statistically significant increase in micronuclei frequency was also detected for 75 mg kg−1 nocodazole (two exposures, spaced 24 h apart). Both compounds caused significant suppressions of erythroblast proliferation at higher doses. Furthermore, the present study demonstrated for the first time that amsacrine has high incidences of clastogenicity and low incidences of aneugenicity whereas nocodazole has high incidences of aneugenicity and low incidences of clastogenicity during mitotic phases in vivo. The assay also showed that chromosomes can be enclosed in the micronuclei before and after centromere separation. Therefore, the clinical use of these genotoxic drugs must be weighed against the risks of the development of chromosomal aberrations in cancer patients and medical personnel exposed to drug regimens that include these chemicals. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Proline and hydroxyproline deposited on silver nanoparticles. A Raman, SERS and theoretical study
Authors: Cárcamo J. J. , Aliaga A. E. , Clavijo E. , Garrido C. , Gómez‐Jeria J. S. , Campos‐Vallette M. M.
Published: November 2011

The Raman and surface‐enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectra of l‐proline (Pro) and trans‐4‐hydroxy‐ l‐proline (Hyp) were recorded. SERS spectra were obtained on colloidal Ag prepared by reduction with hydroxylamine. Allowing sufficient time for Pro and Hyp to adjust in the colloidal solution resulted fundamentally in obtaining unique and reproducible SERS spectra. Hyp stabilizes on the surface more rapidly than Pro. The spectral analysis indicates that Pro interacts with the Ag surface through the carboxylate group. The interaction of Hyp with the metal surface occurs through the amino, methylene and carboxylate moieties of the molecule. The spectroscopic results are supported by quantum chemical calculations, performed using extended Hückel theory (EHT) of the title compounds interacting with an Ag cluster model. The assignment of the Raman bands was supported by a normal coordinate analysis performed through Becke, three‐parameter, Lee–Yang–Parr/6‐311 G* + calculations. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.