bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Special Tribunal for Lebanon and the Syrian Conflict
Authors: Daher Aurélie
Published: September 2019

By directly taking the reins of power in Lebanon in early 2011, Hezbollah seemed to have succeeded in protecting itself against any deleterious effects of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. But when it brought down the Hariri cabinet and installed itself in parliament, the party leadership did not yet know that the flipping of power relations within the chamber would also enable it to cope with a totally different kind of threat, much more severe than that posed by the tribunal: the revolt in Syria against the regime of Bashar al-Assad. Thus, in the 2010s, Hezbollah has been under fire from three sides: the Syrian opposition, Israel, and Lebanese anti-Syrian Sunnism.
Hezbollah in the Eyes of Its Public
Authors: Daher Aurélie
Published: September 2019

At no point in the preceding ten chapters has the presentation of Hezbollah proceeded in an encyclopedic spirit -- they deal only with those aspects of Hezbollah's historical, sociological, and organizational reality that explain the strength of its mobilization. The focal point of the book thus far has been issuance, and only the elements that served to foster the formation of a specific perception of the party by its supporters have been addressed. The present chapter now turns to reception: how the public close to Hezbollah dwelled on, reworked, and integrated these elements into reasons for retaining its political leanings over the years.
Conclusion
Authors: Daher Aurélie
Published: September 2019

The arrival of Israeli tanks in Lebanon in June 1982 set in motion the mobilization of part of the militant Shiite world around a desire to take up arms against the invaders. But this drive initially translated into a very localized military organization: the IRL. The civilian council representing the main currents within the IRL was soon replaced by Hezbollah. Officially dedicated to the defense of the Resistance's social and political interests, Hezbollah was given responsibility for mobilization on the Resistance's behalf and for defusing threats against it on the domestic scene.
Of all the factors sustaining the continued mobilization of Hezbollah over time, the strongest consists of a set of perceptions -- more precisely, the gradually developed and regularly renewed meaning given to its actions and its achievements. The effect of these interpretations is especially durable because the party's followers had triggered an identity shift. Indeed, between 2000 and 2010, the Shiites sense of self-esteem improved rapidly. The admiration, trust, and, especially, gratitude felt towards Hezbollah – without which such a liberation of community identity and its ascendancy would have remained a long-term aspiration – undeniably constitutes the rock-solid base which the party's mobilization can rely on today.
War
Authors: Alborn Timothy
Published: September 2019

For much of the eighteenth century, Britons remarked on gold’s sordid uses by their European rivals in diplomacy and war; only after 1750 did they start criticizing such abuses by their own rulers. After 1789, constant French allusions to “Pitt’s gold” prompted most British observers to discount the same associations between gold and foreign policy that they had long taken for granted as truisms of history. During the war against Napoleon, when British gold in circulation and in banks fell from more than £40 million to around £3 million, subsidies continued to occupy an exaggerated position in rhetoric surrounding this drain. The major debate pitted those who claimed trade as the culprit and those who blamed an over-issue of Bank of England notes. The result in either case was the same: twenty years of living without guineas permanently altered Britons’ perception of that precious metal.
Trade
Authors: Alborn Timothy
Published: September 2019

After 1820, most Britons recognized that the tight money supplies created by the gold standard had the effect of periodically depressing economic activity. These downturns also linked gold to poor harvests, since grain imports drained the metal from the Bank of England, and protectionists predicted disastrous consequences for the country under free trade, owing to the additional strains that such imports would place on gold reserves. This chapter places these mercantilist anxieties in the context of older fears of bullion drains to India and China, since the arguments in the 1830s echoed earlier Orientalist ethnographies, and examines the liberal response, which tried to divert attention away from gold and toward the Bank’s lending practices. Class fissures widened in a political system that secured the fortunes of financiers (through the gold standard) and landed aristocrats (through the Corn Laws) but left factory owners and urban laborers on the outside looking in.
Display
Authors: Alborn Timothy
Published: September 2019

“Display” discusses gold’s appearance in British ethnographies of a wide variety of people who broadcast foreignness with gold earrings, nose rings, chains, bracelets, bangles, and bells. This genre of writing was most evocative in descriptions of Greek and Middle Eastern women who brandished coins around their necks instead of concealing them in their pockets; but it was also present in depictions of African kings, Southern European peasants, and—most effusively—South Asians of nearly all castes and ethnicities. In the course of describing foreign adornment, travel writers developed a series of models that explained the brandishing of gold as rational for the stage of civilization under review but not, implicitly, for contemporary British society; and British visitors to almost every foreign clime viewed golden ornaments as picturesque signs of a society frozen in age-old customs.
Introduction
Authors: Holbo Christine
Published: September 2019

The introduction argues that the reconstruction of the American novel in the post-Civil War era had its roots in a confrontation with the legal remapping of the nation under the Fourteenth Amendment. William Dean Howells’s pivotal influence on the shaping of post-Civil War American literature, this chapter suggests, was rooted in his grasp of the challenge Reconstruction posed to the epistemological and legal foundations of the novel as form. Providing an initial definition of the idea of “legal realism” in fiction as the confluence between Fourteenth-Amendment universalism and a mandate to understand modern society from a plurality of perspectives, the introduction asserts that the project of creating an “autonomous art”—an art that was not subservient to politics, journalism, philosophy, or morality—involved embracing all of these fields in relation to the new definition of citizenship and in relation to a sociological panorama of American society. Oliver Wendell Holmes’s assertion that “the life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience,” cut against the novel’s universalism but also opened up new possibilities of representation, which were embraced, extended, and criticized by Albion Tourgée, in defending the rights of African-American freedmen to equality, and by Helen Hunt Jackson, in articulating the rights of Native Americans to enjoy either the rights of nations or those of citizenship. Concluding with the idea that objective exploration of nescience in relation to the suffering of others can be a source of knowledge in law as in literature, the introduction explores the connection between legal right and the novel’s frameworks of sympathetic imagination and multi-perspectival dissonance.
Introduction
Authors: Prestholdt Jeremy
Published: September 2019

Why do certain individuals become martyrs, heroes, villains, and commercialized symbols? What meanings do transnational icons have for diverse audiences? What can the popular attraction to these figures tell us about both the global past and contemporary cultural politics? This book seeks to answer these questions by studying the history of popular attraction to iconic figures over the past fifty years, a period of significant global integration. It explores the transformation of individuals into idealized symbols and the circulation of those larger-than-life icons in mass culture. In the first instance this is a story of symbolic communication in a media age. In the second instance this is a book about the larger contexts of iconic resonance and the people that embrace icons. It is an inquiry into why so many people are drawn to iconic figures, how such figures condense larger ideals and desires, mirror and affect popular sentiments, and gain or lose meaning. By considering the resonances of four very different figures across the globe over several decades, Icons of Dissent seeks to shed new light on the transnational factors and historical contingencies that define icons.
Me Against the World Tupac Shakur and Post-Cold War Alienation
Authors: Prestholdt Jeremy
Published: September 2019

This chapter narrows the analytical scope to examine a transnational icon's audience in one nation. More precisely, it explores the convergence of mass media and social discontent in the early post-Cold War era by focusing on the popularity of American hip-hop artist Tupac Shakur in Sierra Leone. Shakur's worldview was more nihilistic than that of either Guevara or Marley, and his iconic resonance has not reached the level of these figures. Nonetheless, Shakur offered poignant critiques of contemporary inequalities and so came to embody post-Cold War disillusionment and social alienation, particularly for young male audiences. To demonstrate this point, this chapter looks closely at rebel combatants' attraction to Shakur during the Sierra Leone civil war, one of the most harrowing conflicts of the late twentieth century. Militant factions embraced Shakur as an inspirational figure representing those attributes combatants wished for: empowerment and the ability to overcome great odds. They used Shakur T-shirts as uniforms and incorporated his lyrics into their everyday rhetoric. As a result, Tupac references in Sierra Leone offer a window on how young people sought broader relevance for their experiences and searched for meaning through the iconography of global popular culture.
One Love Bob Marley, The Mystic, and the Market
Authors: Prestholdt Jeremy
Published: September 2019

This chapter explores how anti-systemic figures of the Cold War era were reimagined in the post-Cold War world. It begins by considering the exponential growth of Bob Marley's popularity after his death, and the amplification of discrete elements of his message. Specifically, it concentrates on the alternative meanings listeners have projected onto Marley since the 1980s, notably the view of him as a spiritual lodestar. From the mid-1980s Marley's record label and many fans began to champion him as a suprareligious figure and a symbol for politically neutral concepts like "One Love". This reinterpretation of Marley flattened his message but substantially widened his appeal. In the 1990s a new generation of Bob Marley fans looked to him as a voice of imprecise yearnings for spiritual fulfillment and social change. But Marley's skyrocketing popularity also contributed to increasingly vapid forms of commodification, which reduced Marley's message to cultural style. By the early 2000s, Marley's image appeared on a dizzying array of products, from underwear to soft drinks. Consequently, an intense debate ensued over the meaning of Marley's music and legacy, one in which Marley's heirs, seeking to redeem his name as an ethical brand, have played an increasingly important part.
Brand Rebel Che Guevara Between Politics and Consumerism
Authors: Prestholdt Jeremy
Published: September 2019

This chapter traces Guevara's unlikely resurgence in the post-Cold War era. The reimagination of Guevara for the new millennium isolated and extended dimensions of his complex profile, and he reemerged in nearly singular form: with long hair and beard, wearing a beret and looking into the distance, an image dubbed "Heroic Guerrilla" ("Guerrillero Heroico"). Through this image Guevara once again became a ubiquitous antiestablishment symbol. For those who were critical of contemporary globalization and domestic repression, he evoked the radicalism of the 1960s and early 1970s. Though Guevara's rebellious aura proved alluring, admirers frequently deemphasized his socialist beliefs. Moreover, as Guevara regained political relevance, he also began to appeal as a commercial, brand-like logo, quickly surpassing similar historical cases. Adaptations of the Heroic Guerrilla appeared on everything from baby clothes to mud flaps, which introduced Guevara to yet wider audiences, including many who embraced him as an antisystemic icon. While Guevara's ideology was excised to a great degree, an often implicit politicality continued to underwrite his potency as a symbol for diverse movements. Therefore, Guevara functioned simultaneously as an apolitical object of consumption, an inspirational symbol for alternative social possibilities, and the most prominent icon of dissent in the world.
Conclusion
Authors: Prestholdt Jeremy
Published: September 2019

Why do particular figures appeal to diverse audiences at specific historical moments? What social roles do icons play in an interfaced world? Tracing the history of global icons over the past half-century demonstrates that the answers to these questions lie not only in the form and connotations of icons, but also in their significant malleability across space and time.
Global icons crystallize thought, channel ideas, foster real or imagined linkages, and focus communal energies. They represent imagination beyond the state, political party, or movement. In short, audiences transform iconic figures into the dynamic products of the transnational imagination and collective interpretation. Seemingly timeless, iconic figures symbolize transcendence and communal ideals while remaining malleable. Thus, attraction to icons is not the idolization of the individual per se. Rather, it is the idolization of possibility, of the visions and values that audiences imagine iconic figures to represent.
What Is Positive Evolutionary Psychology?
Authors: Geher Glenn , Wedberg Nicole
Published: September 2019

Positive evolutionary psychology is the marriage of positive psychology and evolutionary psychology. Evolutionary psychology focuses on using Darwin’s big idea to shed light on all kinds of psychological phenomena. Positive psychology seeks to use the scientific approach to understanding psychological phenomena to help people lead richer lives. Positive evolutionary psychology thus is the use of evolutionary principles to help guide people toward living richer lives. This first chapter spells out the basics of this approach to help set the reader on a journey toward understanding Darwin’s implications for living the good life. Laying the groundwork for the basic assumptions and parameters of positive evolutionary psychology, then, should have the capacity to lead to new research questions and new insights into the positive aspects of the human experience.
The Bright Side of Religion
Authors: Geher Glenn , Wedberg Nicole
Published: September 2019

Evolutionists are famous for being at odds with religion. However, a current movement in the field of evolutionary studies focuses on using evolution to help understand religion, as opposed to simply having ideological debates that can be draining. This chapter focuses on exactly this approach: using evolutionary principles to shed light on the nature of religious experiences. From this perspective, religion can be understood in terms of its ability to help cultivate social groups in which individuals take an other-oriented approach. Implications for understanding all kinds of human groups are discussed, with an eye toward demarcating principles that lead to positive group outcomes.
Taking the High Road in Life
Authors: Geher Glenn , Wedberg Nicole
Published: September 2019

This chapter addresses “strategic pluralism,” or the fact that multiple behavioral strategies exist in most life domains. Dark strategies, which focus on selfish approaches to advancing one’s own goals, are described from an evolutionary perspective. Costs and benefits of such strategies are presented. Other-oriented strategies to life are also presented, so that a side-by-side comparison can be made by the reader. Bad-mouthing others in one’s social sphere is used as an example of a dark strategy. Alternative strategies for dealing with others, focusing on mutual respect and “taking the high road,” are also discussed in detail. This chapter is about taking the high road in life; taking the high road is seen as consistent with the goals of positive psychology.
Healthy Living Reconsidered
Authors: Geher Glenn , Wedberg Nicole
Published: September 2019

In recent years, the evolutionary approach to health and medicine has led to major advances in our understanding of physical and mental health. A core concept in this area pertains to evolutionary mismatch, which helps explain why people gravitate toward unhealthy diets and sedentary lifestyles. Further, several common mismatches can help us understand issues with mental health. For instance, the large-scale prevalence of highly addictive cell phones and related technologies ultimately has adverse psychological consequences for people for various reasons. If we want to understand issues of human health, we must utilize an evolutionary perspective. Practices like selflessness, virtuosity, temperance, altruism, and even diet and exercise are nothing new. By studying facets of positive psychology through an evolutionary lens, it can be seen more clearly how these positive emotions and practices of healthy living have been adaptive for humans all along.
Prologue
Authors: Chapman Con
Published: September 2019

The rationale for a biography of Johnny Hodges is given; namely, confusion and contradictory accounts as to basic facts about him ranging from his birth date to his given name to the spelling of his surname to the instrument that he played on a regular basis in person and on recordings. Hodges’s reticence is cited as an explanation; he was not a talkative man, rarely gave interviews, and revealed little when he did. Despite the fact that he was a very private man, he could be recognized around the world by the sound of a single note he produced on the alto saxophone, a claim made about many musicians in both jazz and other genres, but only rarely true.
Young Man With a Sax
Authors: Chapman Con
Published: September 2019

The chapter describes hodges’s musical household, along with his limited instruction on the piano and saxophone. He received instruction on the saxophone formally, from (among others) a student at the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston, and informally, from other young men in his neighborhood, which came to be known as “Saxophonist Ghetto” because of the large number of musicians who played the instrument living there. Hodges’s youthful introduction to Sidney Bechet at a Boston burlesque show, at which he played a soprano sax, is described. The chapter recounts the saxophone’s history and its development in the jazz genre, as well as Hodges’s early public performances in the Boston area at a very young age. Hodges begins to develop a reputation both in Boston and throughout New England, and he eventually comes to the attention of Duke Ellington in a Boston nightclub.
His Tone
Authors: Chapman Con
Published: September 2019

The chapter discusses the most characteristic aspect of Johnny Hodges’ music: the tone he achieved on his instrument. In this respect, he was a throwback to the earliest days of jazz in New Orleans, when a musician was judged not primarily on the basis of speed or melodic invention but on the quality of the sound he produced. Citations to the views of New Orleans precursors--particularly Hodges’s model, Sidney Bechet—are provided in support of this view, which has fallen into disuse as jazz has developed from a music for communal dance and social occasions (parades, funerals, and picnics) to a music experienced primarily with the intellect, sitting down. Techniques that came to characterize Hodges’s style, primarily glissando and portamento are described; before Hodges, glissando had been thought to be not just impossible but also improper, in bad taste.
Scuffling in New York
Authors: Chapman Con
Published: September 2019

The chapter details how Hodges began to travel between his home in Boston and New York, whose jazz scene was much larger. He worked in “dancing schools”—establishments that had many female dancers but few teachers, as they functioned as dating services cum whorehouses. He began to play in jam sessions, typically all-night affairs at which young players tested their skills against each other and more established musicians. Hodges’s first steady job playing at a club paid him $25 per week and $25 to $30 per night in tips, but he did not move permanently to New York right away, instead commuting back and forth until sometime in 1925. The chapter describes how Hodges played with several bands before joining first Sidney Bechet’s band, then Chick Webb’s. Webb was unable to keep his group together, and Hodges joined Duke Ellington in 1928.
The Competition
Authors: Chapman Con
Published: September 2019

This chapter describes Hodges’s lifelong rivalry—sometimes friendly, sometimes less so—with the other leading alto saxophonist of his era, Benny Carter, along with two other notable altos, Jimmy Dorsey and Willie Smith. Carter was Hodges’s opposite in many respects; he had a thorough knowledge of harmony and music theory, though he was largely self-taught. Hodges, by contrast, was an “inspired primitive” in the words of one jazz critic; he did not pick up written music quickly and would often get frustrated when faced with a complicated score until his bandmates had walked him through his part. History’s judgment on the two men comes down slightly in Hodges’s favor. With his unique tone and his long-standing tenure in Ellington’s band, Hodges produced more memorable works than did Carter, who spent many years overseas and in Hollywood, out of the jazz mainstream.
The Small Groups
Authors: Chapman Con
Published: September 2019

The chapter describes the small groups formed from Ellington’s orchestra. Hodges did not have a hit under his own name until Ellington was persuaded by Helen Oakley, a young jazz promoter and publicist, that he could release records by subgroups of his orchestra without tarnishing his own reputation. Hodges hit it big with “Jeep’s Blues,” which rang out from jukeboxes all over Harlem. Some of Hodges’s small-group numbers, including “The Jeep Is Jumping” and “Good Queen Bess,” named after his mother, are among his most memorable. The small-group sessions followed a pattern: a slow blues tune, two pop ballads, and a mid-tempo dance tune. They also kept Hodges connected to his roots in the blues and the black community from which he sprang, at a time when Ellington’s music was increasingly viewed as entertainment for whites and upper-class blacks.
Blanton, Webster, and the Forties
Authors: Chapman Con
Published: September 2019

The chapter describes developments in the Ellington band during the 1940s. In 1939 the band hired bassist Jimmie Blanton, and in 1940 tenor Ben Webster left Teddy Wilson’s band to join Duke. This was the beginning of what many feel was the Ellington band’s best years, and Hodges was part of its rising reputation, as he won the DownBeat fan poll for top alto for the first time, then continued to win it for the rest of the decade. Hodges served as model and inspiration for Webster, who would develop a more tender approach on the tenor that was based in large part on Hodges’s style. The Blanton-Webster period in the band’s history was short-lived, as Blanton died in 1942 and Webster was fired in 1943. Afterward, Hodges became the Ellington orchestra’s principal soloist on ballads, taking several solos for every one that any other musician played.
The Rabbit Strays
Authors: Chapman Con
Published: September 2019

The chapter describes Johnny Hodges’s break with the Ellington orchestra in the early 1950s. He had occasionally threatened to leave the band, and in early 1951 he did so with the encouragement of record producer Norman Granz, who signed him to a recording contract and financed his break. Hodges took two Ellingtonians with him, and among other noteworthy musicians who joined was a young John Coltrane, whom Hodges had to fire because of his drug habit. Hodges said he and his co-conspirators made the break because they wanted to return to simpler music than the ambitious works that Ellington would sometimes write. The economic reasons for the break are also discussed. The big bands were suffering, and Ellington had announced a pay cut. Ultimately Hodges found that he was not suited to be a bandleader; he disbanded the group and returned to Ellington in 1955.
The Rabbit Returns
Authors: Chapman Con
Published: September 2019

The chapter discusses the return of Johnny Hodges to the Duke Ellington orchestra. He found himself out of place; new members with new ideas had been added to the orchestra, and his style was out of fashion. His return had to be viewed as an admission of defeat, but Charlie Parker had died earlier in the year, creating the opportunity for Hodges to make a comeback. Norman Granz soon recorded and released a number of small-group albums with Hodges as leader, but the general state of the Ellington organization was one of dejection, as it was reduced to playing an outdoor water show and then was given decidedly second billing at the Newport Jazz Festival. At the festival Paul Gonsalves played a marathon solo on Diminuendo and Crescendo in Blue, and Ellington’s fortunes were revived. Hodges’s return to prominence is detailed.
The Blues
Authors: Chapman Con
Published: September 2019

The chapter discusses the nature of the blues and Johnny Hodges’s place within the genre. Recognized as a master of the blues in his time, he would not be thought of as a blues musician by most listeners today because what is meant by that term has been narrowed over time. Guitar-based blues music has crowded the horn-based variety out of the marketplace since rock ‘n’ roll displaced jazz as the most popular music among America’s youth. A brief history of the evolution of the term blues in American music is provided, along with an explication of the role played by W. C. Handy in popularizing the genre before electric amplifiers gave rise to the current ascendancy of guitars over horns. Hodges’s blues-based collaborations with organist Wild Bill Davis are then described as largely responsible for creating a new subgenre of jazz, the organ-sax combo, which endures to this day.
Carnival Music in Trinidad and into the Diaspora
Authors: Allen Ray
Published: September 2019

The first chapter offers a brief history of Carnival music in Trinidad and the emergence of diasporic Carnival celebrations in New York, London, and Toronto. The tangled transnational origins of calypso, steelband, and soca along with their development as expressions of cultural identity and resistance for Afro-Trinidadians together set the stage for the music’s migration to North America and Europe. Calypso and steelband are recognized today as Trinidad’s most distinctive contributions to the world’s musics. The traditions associated with the twentieth-century Carnival are best understood as products of musical hybridity. That is, both calypso and steelband evolved through a similar process of hybridization. This chapter provides the necessary background for understanding this music’s migration and life outside the Caribbean in Harlem and Brooklyn.
From Rhythm to Accent, from Sound to Rhyme
Authors: Ohriner Mitchell
Published: September 2019

The model of flow presented in Flow: The Rhythmic Voice in Rap Music attends carefully to accent and rhyme, yet neither term is easily defined. In the case of accent, the term refers to very different concepts in scholarship on the rhythm of speech and the rhythm of music. This chapter exposits theories from those domains before reconciling them in an accent discovery method calibrated for the rhythm of rap flows. Similarly, the chapter addresses cognitive challenges in representing rhyme, such as temporal boundaries and phonetic similarity.
Flow, Metric Complexity, and Text in Eminem
Authors: Ohriner Mitchell
Published: September 2019

Eminem (aka Marshall Mathers) has attracted much scholarly and media attention for his abilities as a rhymer as well as the controversial content of his lyrics and his possible cultural appropriation. This chapter fills a gap in Eminem scholarship by examining his use of the vocal groove classes described in Chapter 4. Specifically, it shows how Eminem sequences vocal grooves in a way that creates rhythmic narratives of accruing metric complexity (i.e., the proportion of accented syllables not aligned with the beat or a beat’s midpoint). These rhythmic narratives often support and even foreshadow narrative events in lyrics. By documenting correlations between Eminem’s lyrics and his rhythmic choices, the chapter shows a new way in which flow connects music to text. The chapter closes by reflexively considering the historically problematic relationship between the analysis of music complexity and Afro-diasporic music.
Flow, Groove, and Beat in Black Thought
Authors: Ohriner Mitchell
Published: September 2019

Previous analyses of and discourse on the relationship between flow and beat (i.e., the instrumental streams of a rap track) have mapped musical meaning flowing directionally from the beat to the flow. This chapter documents a wider range of relationships between flow and beat in the rapping of Black Thought, including flows that diverge from rather than converge with beats, and flows that converge with beats but with a conceptual or temporal distance. Since Black Thought performs with a live band (The Roots), the chapter also considers how changes to the beat in live performance affect the groove of his flow. As rap music presents an ontology far different from European classical music, one in which creative agencies multiply and authority frequently shifts, this chapter sketches an analytical method for a host of musics that do not exhibit the work concept of the classical score.
On Goodness
Authors: Wolfsdorf David Conan
Published: September 2019

On Goodness attempts to answer the question “What is goodness?” It is natural to associate this question with ethics; but goodness is not confined to ethics. Water and wine, a strategy for streamlining maintenance operations, and an oil painting may all be good and in non-ethical ways. Goodness figures prominently in ethics; so the study serves ethics. But it serves other domains as well. On Goodness is a contribution to the foundations of value theory. It is also a metaphysical inquiry, for two reasons. As the examples indicate, the entity under investigation is extremely general. Goodness occurs in potables, plans, and paintings, among countless other kinds of things. Second, it is particularly obscure what sort of being the entity is. Besides the description “good,” is there a single thing that good drinks, strategies, and artworks share? Is their goodness related in a more complex way? And regardless of these relations, in any instance, just what is that goodness? The question “What is goodness?” has been central to philosophy since Socrates and Plato made it their polestar. The distinctive contribution of On Goodness lies in its methodology. The method of pursuing the metaphysical question is linguistic. The basic proposal is that achieving the answer depends on clarifying the meaning and use of the words “good” and “goodness.” Consequently, the study is pervasively informed by and critically engaged with contemporary linguistic theories and ideas.
Introduction
Authors: Wolfsdorf David Conan
Published: September 2019

Chapter 1 introduces the governing question of the book “What is goodness?” Since ethical or moral goodness is one among many kinds of goodness, the question “What is goodness?” is not specifically an ethical or moral one. Rather, it is a question at the foundations of value theory. The question is also a metaphysical one, because of both the high generality and obscurity of goodness. The chapter proposes to pursue the metaphysical question at the foundations of value theory by linguistic means, precisely by addressing the question “What does the word ‘goodness’ mean?” Pursuit of this semantic question draws on recent theories and ideas in contemporary semantics as well as pragmatics and syntax. Chapter 1 concludes by presenting an overview of the structure of the book and its central results.
Bare Noun Phrases
Authors: Wolfsdorf David Conan
Published: September 2019

Mass nouns and plural count nouns are syntactically acceptable in argument positions without determiners; for example: “Goodness is rare”; “Dogs are common.” Contrast the syntactic unacceptability of “Dog is common.” Such so-called bare noun phrases are associated with various readings: universally, generically, and existentially quantified as well as so-called kind-denoting. Principally, two types of theory have been proposed to explained these facts: Carlsonian kind-denoting theories and ambiguity theories. Chapter 7 introduces bare noun phrases and the problem of their ambiguity and discusses the Carlsonian and ambiguity theories that have been proposed to explain them.
Pāṣaṇḍa
Authors: Brereton Joel P.
Published: September 2019

This chapter studies the term pāṣaṇḍa and its Middle Indic equivalents in literature from the last centuries BCE through the first centuries of the Common Era. In later Brahminical and non-Brahminical traditions, it is a term that characterizes “heretical” teachings and communities. This chapter shows that in earlier texts, however, pāṣaṇḍa is normally a neutral term for a religious community characterized by a dharma. It then attempts to define the nature of such religious communities in the Aśokan inscriptions. In particular, it addresses the question of whether Aśoka includes “householders” as members of such religious communities or not.
Gāhāvaï and Gihattha
Authors: Maes Claire
Published: September 2019

This chapter brings the evidence presented in the early Jain sources in conversation with Stephanie Jamison’s discovery that the Sanskrit term gṛhastha is a neologism in the Dharmaśāstra texts. It shows how gihattha, the Ardhamāgadhī equivalent of gṛhastha, is not a common term in the early Jain texts. It argues that determining the exact connotation of the term gihattha can help to date relatively the different layers of the Jain texts. When the term is carrying the Brahmanical ideology of the twice-born householder, then the passage in question must be either contemporaneous with or later than the Dharmasūtras. The chapter further offers a detailed examination of gāhāvaï (Sanskrit gṛhapati), the most popular term in the early Jain sources to refer to householders.
The Late Appearance of the Gṛhastha in the Vedic Domestic Ritual Codes as a Married Religious Professional
Authors: Lubin Timothy
Published: September 2019

The Gṛhyasūtras (rulebooks of household ritual) might be expected to use the word gṛhastha, since it becomes the standard label for a married householder responsible for performing such rites. But in fact, when that role is mentioned, they employ older terms, suggesting that gṛhastha came into use only after the core works of the genre were composed, or that the ritualist authors were slow to accept it. The few occurrences we do find are in restricted contexts in supplementary chapters: in an appended list of penances (a penance for a gṛhastha vidyārthin, “a wisdom-seeker-who-stays-at-home,” Baudhāyana Gṛhyasūtra 4.12.1), and in two appendices that mention a gṛhastha alongside other individuals (including ascetics) worthy to be fed at rituals. This suggests that domestic ritual authorities in the era when the term was coming into use saw it as most applicable for depicting the married ritualist as a home-based religious professional comparable to an ascetic.
The Gṛhastha in the Mahābhārata
Authors: Bowles Adam
Published: September 2019

This chapter presents a survey of terms and concepts related to the householder in the Mahābhārata. It gives a statistical overview of the key terms and provides an account of their relational contexts, especially in their juxtaposition to the wandering mendicant, and their positioning in various versions of āśrama systems. It also highlights the prominence given to the king as the maximal householder, particularly with respect to Yudhiṣṭhira. Finally, it offers some considerations to account for the diversity of the Mahābhārata’s presentation of the householder.
Gṛhasthas Don’t Belong in the Rāmā̄yaṇa
Authors: Sherraden Aaron
Published: September 2019

This chapter explores the position of the gṛhastha in the Rāmāyaṇa primarily through its striking absence—the concept is not found in the text with the exception of one verse. It properly contextualizes this single reference and explore a number of other references to other “life-modes” to show where the Rāmāyaṇa sits ideologically in relation to the development of the āśrama system. Ultimately, it becomes clear that the Rāmāyaṇa has no narrative concern for a codified system of āśramas and the fluidity of the life-modes as depicted in the epic allowed the author of the Rāmāyaṇa to effectively ignore the gṛhastha, an institution we have come to accept as quintessential to the classical Hindu worldview.
Varieties of Understanding
Authors: Grimm Stephen R.
Published: September 2019

This chapter has two roles: (a) to introduce some of the key themes and questions in the volume, and (b) to indicate where several of the essays stand on these questions. One of the main questions asked is whether understanding human actions differs in important ways from understanding events in the natural world, and a contrast is drawn between how the “humanistic tradition” answers this question, as opposed to the “naturalistic tradition.” A further central question is why we desire firsthand understanding in areas such as philosophy, morality, and aesthetics, and whether this firsthand understanding is compatible with deferring to the testimony of others on these matters.
Toward a Theory of Understanding
Authors: Zagzebski Linda
Published: September 2019

This chapter proposes that understanding is the grasp of structure. The structure of an object gives it unity and lets us see it as a single object. When we grasp an object’s structure, we understand the object. Understanding must simplify what it grasps, and the larger and more complex the object of understanding, the more we must simplify and leave out of the phenomenon components that may be important at different times or for different purposes. The object of understanding can be anything that has structure: a living organism, an event, a narrative, a piece of music, a philosophical argument, a causal relation, a human intentional act, etc.
The Gap
Authors: Stohr Karen
Published: September 2019

This chapter unpacks the idea that the project of moral improvement aims at narrowing the gap between our moral selves and our moral ideals. The shape of the gap depends on how we conceptualize our moral ideals and what we presuppose about our actual moral situation. For moral improvement to be a practical project, it must meet two requirements. First, it must operate with a psychologically realistic picture of actual human capacities for self-knowledge and reflection. Second, it must employ a moral ideal that is normatively authoritative and regulatively efficacious for the person undertaking the project. She must regard it as an ideal for herself and as having practical upshot for how she conducts her life. The chapter concludes with the claim that we should think of moral ideals in terms of aspirational moral identities and moral improvement as a project of articulating and inhabiting a moral identity.
Being Agreeable
Authors: Stohr Karen
Published: September 2019

This chapter focuses on the social practice of being agreeable. The practice consists in the appropriate acknowledgment of other people in social gatherings, appropriate responsiveness to their needs and claims, and an appropriately cheerful disposition. The social practice of presenting oneself as open to engagement with other people and willing to respond to their claims is important to the normative space that constitutes a good moral neighborhood. In that space, people are able to carry out their projects and live up to their various commitments. The practice of agreeableness reinforces our willingness to help each other with those projects and enables us to count on others in return. Like self-deprecation, the social practice of agreeableness has the potential to undermine moral neighborhoods, particularly when it is used to reinforce troubling social norms about gender and race.
Development
Authors: Boris Eileen
Published: September 2019

This chapter turns to the construction of a category within a category, “women in developing countries,” whose difference from the Western norm defined the severity of woman’s oppression and made her into the other of the woman worker. In the early post-WWII years, the ILO juggled a commitment to equality with designation of Third World women as the most needy of distinct programs. It promoted handicraft despite the resemblance of such labor to exploitative industrial home work. When addressing Women Workers in a Changing World in 1964, the ILO separated the situation of women in developing countries, whose income generation could be integrated into home labor, from women in industrialized regions whose family responsibilities interfered with their labor force participation. At the 1975 UN World Conference on Women, the meaning of development, like that of equality, was up for grabs in the ideological contest between state socialist and newly independent states against the former colonial states and market economies. ILO opposition to the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) intertwined with its attempt to provide Third World women with substantive equality.
Home
Authors: Boris Eileen
Published: September 2019

After looking at prior efforts to address domestic/household work, this chapter situates the making of the Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189), “Decent Work for Domestic Workers.” Paving the way were ILO discussions on migrant labor and the informal economy. “Decent work” and “fair globalization” initiatives framed the convention, but the ILO would not have formalized household employment without national and regional social movements, the creation of the International Domestic Workers Network (IDWN) under South Africa’s Myrtle Witbooi, and its campaign for ILO attention. Domestic workers gained a presence at the ILO, despite formal institutional barriers, aided by NGO and union allies, especially Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO) and the IUF (International Union of Food, Agricultural, Hotel, Restaurant, Catering, Tobacco and Allied Workers’ Associations). Convention No. 189 recognized the centrality of paid care work for women’s labor force participation and the functioning of the global economy. For a new century, it boosted the ILO in a fight against the precarity and informality that were undermining the very idea of universal labor standards. Parlaying victory into better conditions would prove daunting, but IDWN (and its successor, the International Domestic Workers Federation [IDWF]) secured more ratifications in a few years than many other conventions.
Pakistan’s Creeping Jihad and Expanding Nuclear Umbrella
Authors: Fair C. Christine
Published: September 2019

To complement and enable its advances at the lower end of the conflict spectrum, Pakistan also strategically acquired nuclear weapons. We now know that Pakistan had a crude device around 1983-4, if not earlier. As Pakistan became increasingly confident of its nuclear capabilities, it was more emboldened to use its proxies in India, secure in the belief that India would be unable to punish Pakistan militarily. Consequently, Pakistan's adventurism in India became bolder through the use of state-sponsored proxies, but also through Pakistani security forces masquerading as militants in the 1999 Kargil War. Until the reciprocal nuclear tests by India and then by Pakistan in May 1998, scholars used a term introduced by McGeorge Bundy, "existential deterrence," to describe the deterrence that seemed to exist between India and Pakistan. Given the opacity and uncertainty surrounding the two countries' programs, the mutual deterrence calculation of India and Pakistan did not rest on "relative capabilities and strategic doctrines, but on the shared realization that each side is nuclear-capable, and thus any outbreak of conflict might lead to a nuclear war." This chapter outlines the dual trajectories of Pakistan's development and deployment of Islamist proxies and nuclear weapons.
Locating Aitnaian Identity in Pindar’s Pythian 1
Authors: Lewis Virginia M.
Published: September 2019

Chapter 3 proposes that in Pythian 1 Pindar uses two myths to map out and reinforce a sense of civic identity for the newly founded city of Aitna. Building upon other work that shows that Typho’s prison celebrates Hieron’s recent military and political victories, the chapter argues that this myth creates a significant place for Aitna within a Panhellenic mythical context. According to Hesiod, Typho is the final foe Zeus faces before becoming uncontested king of the Olympians (Theog. 821–80). Typho’s placement under Aitna thus transforms the landscape into an important site for stability of the cosmic order and elevates the new city to a place of Panhellenic significance. Second, it demonstrates that the myth of the Dorian migration supplies a myth of continuity for the new citizens of Aitna. While these citizens originate from different cities—half from Syracuse, half from the Peloponnese, according to Diodorus—the myth of the Dorian migration offers a shared narrative that unites them as an ethnic group. Taken together these two myths offer Aitna both a sense of place within a wider Greek narrative and a celebration of their ethnic heritage through their performances in Aitna, in Sicily more broadly, and throughout the Greek world.
Mountstuart Elphinstone
Authors: Hanifi M. Jamil
Published: September 2019

During 1809, Mountstuart Elphinstone and his team of researchers visited the Persianate "Kingdom of Caubul" in Peshawar in order to sign a defense treaty with the ruler of the kingdom, Shah Shuja, and to collect information for use by the British colonial government of India. During his four-month stay in Peshawar, and subsequent two years research in Poona, India, Elphinstone collected a vast amount of ethnographic information from his Persian-speaking informants, as well as historical texts about the ethnology of Afghanistan. Some of this information provided the material for his 1815 (1819, 1839, 1842) encyclopaedic "An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul" (AKC), which became the ethnographic bible for Euro-American writings about Afghanistan. Elphinstone's competence in Farsi, his subscription to the ideology of Scottish Enlightenment, the collaborative methodology of his ethnographic research, and the integrity of the ethnographic texts in his AKC, qualify him as a pioneer anthropologist—a century prior to the birth of the discipline of anthropology in Europe. Virtually all Euro-American academic and political writings about Afghanistan during the last two-hundred years are informed and influenced by Elphinstone's AKC. This essay engages several aspects of the ethnological legacy of AKC.