bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CH4, CO, and H2O spectroscopy for the Sentinel-5 Precursor mission: an assessment with the Total Carbon Column Observing Network measurements
Authors: Galli A. , Butz A. , Scheepmaker R. A. , Hasekamp O. , Landgraf J. , Tol P. , Wunch D. , Deutscher N. M. , Toon G. C. , Wennberg P. O. , Griffith D. W. T. , Aben I.
Published: March 2012

Abstract. The TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) will be part of ESA's Sentinel-5 Precursor (S5P) satellite platform scheduled for launch in 2015. TROPOMI will monitor methane and carbon monoxide concentrations in the Earth's atmosphere by measuring spectra of back-scattered sunlight in the short-wave infrared (SWIR). S5P will be the first satellite mission to rely uniquely on the spectral window at 4190–4340 cm−1 (2.3 μm) to retrieve CH4 and CO. In this study, we investigated if the absorption features of the three relevant molecules CH4, CO, and H2O are adequately known. To this end, we retrieved total columns of CH4, CO, and H2O from absorption spectra measured by two ground-based Fourier transform spectrometers that are part of the Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON). The retrieval results from the 4190–4340 cm−1 range at the TROPOMI resolution (0.45 cm−1) were then compared to the CH4 results obtained from the 6000 cm−1 region, and the CO results obtained from the 4190–4340 cm−1 region at the higher TCCON resolution (0.02 cm−1). For TROPOMI-like settings, we were able to reproduce the CH4 columns to an accuracy of 0.3% apart from a constant bias of 1%. The CO retrieval accuracy was, through interference, systematically influenced by the shortcomings of the CH4 and H2O spectroscopy. In contrast to CH4, the CO column error also varied significantly with atmospheric H2O content. Unaddressed, this would introduce seasonal and latitudinal biases to the CO columns retrieved from TROPOMI measurements. We therefore recommend further effort from the spectroscopic community to be directed at the H2O and CH4 spectroscopy in the 4190–4340 cm−1 region.
Hydrometeorological extremes derived from taxation records for south-eastern Moravia, Czech Republic, 1751–1900 AD
Authors: Brázdil R. , Chromá K. , Valášek H. , Dolák L.
Published: March 2012

Abstract. Historical written records associated with tax relief at ten estates located in south-eastern Moravia (Czech Republic) are used for the study of hydrometeorological extremes and their impacts during the period 1751–1900 AD. At the time, the taxation system in Moravia allowed farmers to request tax relief if their crop yields had been negatively affected by hydrological and meteorological extremes. The documentation involved contains information about the type of extreme event and the date of its occurrence, while the impact on crops may often be derived. A total of 175 extreme events resulting in some kind of damage are documented for 1751–1900, with the highest concentration between 1811 and 1860 (74.9% of all events analysed). The nature of events leading to damage (of a possible 272 types) include hailstorm (25.7%), torrential rain (21.7%), flood (21.0%), followed by thunderstorm, flash flood, late frost and windstorm. The four most outstanding events, affecting the highest number of settlements, were thunderstorms with hailstorms (25 June 1825, 20 May 1847 and 29 June 1890) and flooding of the River Morava (mid-June 1847). Hydrometeorological extremes in the 1816–1855 period are compared with those occurring during the recent 1961–2000 period. The results obtained are inevitably influenced by uncertainties related to taxation records, such as their temporal and spatial incompleteness, the limits of the period of outside agricultural work (i.e. mainly May–August) and the purpose for which they were originally collected (primarily tax alleviation, i.e. information about hydrometeorological extremes was of secondary importance). Taxation records constitute an important source of data for historical climatology and historical hydrology and have a great potential for use in many European countries.
Influence of parallel computational uncertainty on simulations of the Coupled General Climate Model
Authors: Song Z. , Qiao F. , Lei X. , Wang C.
Published: March 2012

Abstract. This paper investigates the impact of the parallel computational uncertainty due to the round-off error on climate simulations using the Community Climate System Model Version 3 (CCSM3). A series of sensitivity experiments have been conducted and the analyses are focused on the Global and Nino3.4 average sea surface temperatures (SST). For the monthly time series, it is shown that the amplitude of the deviation induced by the parallel computational uncertainty is the same order as that of the climate system change. However, the ensemble mean method can reduce the influence and the ensemble member number of 15 is enough to ignore the uncertainty. For climatology, the influence can be ignored when the climatological mean is calculated by using more than 30-yr simulations. It is also found that the parallel computational uncertainty has no distinguishable effect on power spectrum analysis of climate variability such as ENSO. Finally, it is suggested that the influence of the parallel computational uncertainty on Coupled General Climate Models (CGCMs) can be a quality standard or a metric for developing CGCMs.
Deep Western Boundary Current transport variability in the South Atlantic: preliminary results from a pilot array at 34.5° S
Authors: Meinen C. S. , Piola A. R. , Perez R. C. , Garzoli S. L.
Published: March 2012

Abstract. The first direct estimates of the temporal variability of the absolute transport of the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) at 34.5° S in the South Atlantic Ocean are obtained using just under one year of data from a line of four pressure-equipped inverted echo sounders. Hydrographic sections collected in 2009 and 2010 confirm the presence of the DWBC, one of the main deep pathways of the Meridional Overturning Circulation, based on neutral density, temperature, salinity, and oxygen values. Both observations confirm that the DWBC reconstitutes itself after breaking into eddies in the western sub-tropical Atlantic near 8° S. The amplitude and spectral character of the DWBC transport variability are comparable with those observed at 26.5° N, where longer records exist, with the DWBC at 34.5° S exhibiting a transport standard deviation of 25 Sv and variations of ~40 Sv occurring within periods as short as a few days. There is little indication of an annual cycle in the DWBC transports, although the observation record is too short to be definitive, and the dominant time scale during the first year of the experiment was about 9–10 days. A "Monte Carlo-style" analysis using 27 yr of model output from the same location as the observations indicates that another 48–60 months of data will be required to encompass a fairly complete span of deep transport variability. The model suggests the presence of an annual cycle in DWBC transport, however the statistical significance of the annual cycle with even 27 yr of model output is low, suggesting that annual period variations in the model are weak as well.
Free interactions, hierarchical structure: Factors explaining replies attraction in online discussions
Authors: Himelboim Itai , McCreery Stephen
Published: March 2012

Given the opportunity to interact freely, individuals conform to a structure, in which a few actors attract a large and disproportionate number of ties or relationships. Drawing from literature on preferential attachment and scholarship about online discussions, this study examines patterns of replies, which are one aspect of the disproportionate attraction of replies in forums, as predicted by two factors: number of existing replies and content of posted messages. In two 2X2 experimental designs conducted via a custom developed online discussion platform, 198 subjects participated. Findings show an interaction, where the number of replies increased replies attraction only for the high–interest messages, illustrating the balance between the individual and group dynamics levels in evoking discussions.
Censorship and deletion practices in Chinese social media
Authors: Bamman David , O'Connor Brendan , Smith Noah
Published: March 2012

With Twitter and Facebook blocked in China, the stream of information from Chinese domestic social media provides a case study of social media behavior under the influence of active censorship. While much work has looked at efforts to prevent access to information in China (including IP blocking of foreign Web sites or search engine filtering), we present here the first large–scale analysis of political content censorship in social media, i.e., the active deletion of messages published by individuals.

In a statistical analysis of 56 million messages (212,583 of which have been deleted out of 1.3 million checked, more than 16 percent) from the domestic Chinese microblog site Sina Weibo, and 11 million Chinese–language messages from Twitter, we uncover a set a politically sensitive terms whose presence in a message leads to anomalously higher rates of deletion. We also note that the rate of message deletion is not uniform throughout the country, with messages originating in the outlying provinces of Tibet and Qinghai exhibiting much higher deletion rates than those from eastern areas like Beijing.
Ozil IP torsional mode versus combined torsional/longitudinal microcoaxial phacoemulsification
Authors: Helvacioglu Firat , Tunc Zeki , Yeter Celal , Oguzhan Hasan , Sencan Sadik
Published: March 2012

Purpose.

To compare the safety and efficacy of microcoaxial phacoemulsification surgeries performed with the Ozil Intelligent Phaco (IP) torsional mode and combined torsional/longitudinal ultrasound (US) mode using the Infiniti Vision System (Alcon Laboratories).

Methods.

In this prospective randomized comparative study, 60 eyes were assigned to 2.2-mm microcoaxial phacoemulsification using the Ozil IP torsional mode (group 1) or combined torsional/longitudinal US mode (group 2). The primary outcome measures were US time (UST), cumulative dissipated energy (CDE), longitudinal and torsional ultrasound amplitudes, mean operation time, mean volume of balanced salt solution (BSS) used, and surgical complications.

Results

Both groups included 30 eyes. Mean UST, CDE, and longitudinal and torsional ultrasound amplitudes in group 1 were 1 minute 15±34.33 seconds, 8.74±5.64, 0.43±0.74, and 25.56±8.56, respectively, and these parameters in group 2 were 1 minute 40±51.44 seconds, 9.28±5.99, 3.64±1.55, and 3.71±1.34, respectively. UST and longitudinal amplitudes were found to be significantly low in group 1 (p<0.001, p<0.001), whereas torsional amplitude was found to be significantly high in this group (p=0.001). Mean volumes of BSS used in groups 1 and 2 were 63.30±18.00 cc and 84.50±28.65 cc, respectively (p=0.001).

Conclusions.

The Ozil IP torsional mode may provide more effective lens removal than the combined torsional/longitudinal US mode with a lower UST and volume of BSS used.
Just War as Compromise Rethinking Walzer's Position on Realism
Authors: King Mark D.
Published: March 2012

In Just and Unjust Wars, Michael Walzer draws on the work of classical just war theorists such as Augustine and Vitoria to offer a principled antidote to the moral realism that often dominates popular debate about war ethics. The understanding of role morality on which Walzer bases his modern account of just war theory differs in subtle but significant ways from that of his classical predecessors, however, and because of this he is not entirely successful in challenging the realist positions of Thucydides and Hobbes. While Augustine and Vitoria argue that the innocence of soldiers for ad bellum violations is contingent on limited knowledge, Walzer conceives of this innocence as an absolute derived from their occupation of the role of soldier. For this reason, Walzer's account of just war theory functions more as a compromise between principles and realism than a true ethical alternative.
Traveling Wave Solutions of a Generalized Zakharov-Kuznetsov Equation
Authors: Zhang Wenbin , Zhou Jiangbo
Published: March 2012

We employ the bifurcation theory of planar dynamical system to investigate the traveling-wave solutions of the generalized Zakharov-Kuznetsov equation. Four important types of traveling wave solutions are obtained, which include the solitary wave solutions, periodic solutions, kink solutions, and antikink solutions.
Prediction of Global Solar Radiation in Abu Dhabi
Authors: Assi Ali , Jama Mohammed , Al-Shamisi Maitha
Published: March 2012

Mathematical expressions have been employed to estimate global solar radiation on horizontal from relative sunshine duration for two weather stations in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), which are Abu Dhabi and Al Ain. These expressions include the original Angstrom-Prescott regression function (linear), quadratic function, third-order function, single-term exponential function, power function, logarithmic, and linear-logarithmic function. The predicted values were compared to the measured values using number of statistical methods to validate the goodness of the fits, such as residual analysis and goodness of fit statistics. All the used mathematical models performed generally well in both cities of Abu Dhabi and Al Ain, with all values of the coefficient of determination (R2) higher than 75%. Specifically, the linear Angstrom-Prescott model estimated the average monthly global radiation on horizontal best for the city of Abu Dhabi, providing the second lowest mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 1.89% and the highest value of R2, which is approximately 94%, while the third-order model proved to be the best estimator for the city of Al Ain, providing the lowest MAPE value (3.06%) and a corresponding R2 of 83%.
Downregulation in GATA4 and Downstream Structural and Contractile Genes in the db/db Mouse Heart
Authors: Broderick Tom L. , Jankowski Marek , Wang Donghao , Danalache Bogdan A. , Parrott Cassandra R. , Gutkowska Jolanta
Published: March 2012

Reduced expression of GATA4, a transcriptional factor for structural and cardioprotective genes, has been proposed as a factor contributing to the development of cardiomyopathy. We investigated whether the reduction of cardiac GATA4 expression reported in diabetes alters the expression of downstream genes, namely, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), B-type natriuretic, peptide (BNP), and α- and β-myosin heavy chain (MHC). db/db mice, a model of type 2 diabetes, with lean littermates serving as controls, were studied. db/db mice exhibited obesity, hyperglycemia, and reduced protein expression of cardiac GLUT4 and IRAP (insulin-regulated aminopeptidase), the structural protein cosecreted with GLUT4. Hearts from db/db mice had reduced protein expression of GATA4 (~35%) with accompanying reductions in mRNA expression of ANP (~40%), BNP (~85%), and α-MHC mRNA (~50%) whereas expression of β-MHC mRNA was increased by ~60%. Low GATA4 was not explained by an increased ligase or atrogin1 expression. CHIP protein content was modestly downregulated (27%) in db/db mice whereas mRNA and protein expression of the CHIP cochaperone HSP70 was significantly decreased in db/db hearts. Our results indicate that low GATA4 in db/db mouse heart is accompanied by reduced expression of GATA4-regulated cardioprotective and structural genes, which may explain the development of cardiomyopathy in diabetes.
High‐Throughput Screening Assay for Embryoid Body Differentiation of Human Embryonic Stem Cells
Authors: Outten Joel T. , Gadue Paul , French Deborah L. , Diamond Scott L.
Published: March 2012

Serum‐free human pluripotent stem cell media offer the potential to develop reproducible clinically applicable differentiation strategies and protocols. The vast array of possible growth factor and cytokine combinations for media formulations makes differentiation protocol optimization both labor and cost‐intensive. This unit describes a 96‐well plate, 4‐color flow cytometry–based screening assay to optimize pluripotent stem cell differentiation protocols. We provide conditions both to differentiate human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) into the three primary germ layers, ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm, and to utilize flow cytometry to distinguish between them. This assay exhibits low inter‐well variability and can be utilized to efficiently screen a variety of media formulations, reducing cost, incubator space, and labor. Protocols can be adapted to a variety of differentiation stages and lineages. Curr. Protoc. Stem Cell Biol. 20:1D.6.1‐1D.6.13. © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Amniotic Membrane: Separation of Amniotic Mesoderm from Amniotic Epithelium and Isolation of Their Respective Mesenchymal Stromal and Epithelial Cells
Authors: Barbati Antonella , Grazia Mameli Maria , Sidoni Angelo , Di Renzo Gian Carlo
Published: March 2012

The human amniotic membrane (hAM) or amnion contains two principal types of cells: amniotic epithelial cells (hAECs) and amniotic mesenchymal stromal cells (hAMSCs), located in two distinct regions: the epithelium and the stromal layer. Emerging evidence suggests that both of them retain multipotent/pluripotent characteristics, making the amniotic membrane a promising and very attractive source of cells for regenerative medicine. Therefore, the isolation of hAECs and hAMSCs has recently received great interest; they can be released by differential enzymatic digestion and various procedures have been reported; however, significant contamination of hAMCs with hAECs and vice versa frequently occurs. This unit describes an efficient and rapid method to separate, mechanically, amniotic mesoderm from amniotic epithelium in order to obtain, after subsequent enzymatic digestions, purified population of hAMCs and hAECs. In this way, the cells can be cultured or investigated for other aims avoiding additional procedures related to their purification. Curr. Protoc. Stem Cell Biol. 20:1E.8.1‐1E.8.15. © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Derivation of Cerebellar Neurons from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells
Authors: Erceg Slaven , Lukovic Dunja , Moreno‐Manzano Victoria , Stojkovic Miodrag , Bhattacharya Shomi S.
Published: March 2012

Here we provide a protocol for differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESC) into cerebellar neurons using a novel defined culture method. This protocol is based on the application of inductive signaling factors involved in the early patterning of the cerebellar region of the neural tube, followed by the application of factors responsible for cerebellar neuron specification. Human pluripotent stem cells are induced to form spherical embryonic‐like structures called embryoid bodies (EBs) and neuroepithelial tube‐like rosettes using defined chemical conditions. In the presence of FGF, Wnt, and RA signaling factors the rosettes were specified to OTX2‐expressing cells. Further specification of derived cells involves application of BMP factors involved in early development of granule cell progenitors, followed by mitogens and neurotrophins. It typically takes 5 weeks to generate the functional cerebellar granule neurons. This protocol is feeder‐free, applies human recombinant factors, and produces high yield of desired neurons. Curr. Protoc. Stem Cell Biol. 20:1H.5.1‐1H.5.10. © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
AfricanUnion
Authors: Süderbaum Fredrik
Published: March 2012

The African Union (AU) was created in 2002 as a successor to the Organization of African Unity (OAU), which was in need of revitalization. Since its inception in 1963 the OAU had been the primary forum for debating African unity and cooperation. All independent states in Africa have assumed membership of the AU (53 in total), except Morocco which withdrew in the mid 1980s due to the entry of Western Sahara.
A
genda 21
Authors: Evans Bob
Published: March 2012

Agenda 21 refers to the program adopted by 178 national governments at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, commonly known as the Earth Summit) held in Rio de Janeiro on June 14, 1992. The title reflects both the item number of the Summit agenda, and the intention to look forward to the next millennium. Agenda 21 may be regarded as an ambitious “blueprint” for securing global sustainable development:
Aging
Authors: Powell Jason L.
Published: March 2012

As we look forward into the mid twenty‐first century, demographers forecast dramatic increases in cultural diversity of the general population of the globe, which will also be reflected in increasingly aging populations. Globalization is a complex phenomenon that includes increased human interconnectedness facilitated by new information technologies and huge volumes of trade, capital, people, and cultures flowing across national borders, and an evermore integrated global economy. Globalization can be experienced as structural forces impinging on our daily lives, as the creation of new spaces and connectivity between locales, and also as ideological resources. Globalization as both an analytical tool and social practice throws into flux the policies and practices of individual nationstates to address social, economic, and political issues for older people, focusing on pensions and health and social care. It highlights how research needs to move from being state‐centered to research that acknowledges global forces and the impact of globalization on aging.
Agro‐Fuels
Authors: McMichael Philip
Published: March 2012

Social movement critics rename biofuels (e.g., corn, sugar, palm oil, and jatropha) as
agro‐fuels
, in recognition of their problematic environmental and social consequences. Whereas proponents claim the “biofuels transition” represents the development of an alternative green fuel, critics charge that agro‐fuels deepen the ecological footprint of industrial agriculture, and displace food crops. The 2007–08 food crisis focused attention on the contribution of agro‐fuels to food price inflation, with UN food rights
rapporteur
, Jean Ziegler, stating they were a “crime against humanity.” Estimates of the impact of biofuels on food prices varies – from an estimate by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of10 percent, through 30 percent by the International Monetary Fund, to the World Bank's estimate of 65–75 percent. Whatever the figure, the world's poor are deeply affected by the fuel/food competition, most notably in its inflation of one of their most basic needs: cooking oil, a major component of which is palm oil, now a profitable agro‐fuel. The Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD) predicts that industrial biofuels will account for one‐third of the rise of food prices over the next decade. And to meet global energy demand, agro‐fuels will require one‐third more land than currently cultivated, even though the International Energy Agency calculates that with other renewables, industrial biofuels will supply no more than 9 percent of the world's global energy consumption by 2030.
Al‐
J
azeera
Authors: Tawil‐Souri Helga
Published: March 2012

Al‐Jazeera is a satellite television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar, first launched in November 1996 as an Arabic‐language news channel. It has since expanded into a network of specialty television channels and Internet news sites in multiple languages available globally. As the Arab world's first news and current affairs channel, Al‐Jazeera's uncensored political coverage was unlike any Arabic‐language television programming previously available. In breaking the mold, it changed the landscape of Arab media and politics, garnering both support and criticism in the region and beyond.
Authoritarian Regimes
Authors: Vaillant Gabriela Gonzalez
Published: March 2012

Authoritarianism can be understood both as a political regime and an ideological construct. The term has also been employed to refer to certain psychological traits. As a political regime, authoritarianism can be defined as a form of government that monopolizes authority over the state without guaranteeing political pluralism or defense of civil liberties and with little or no accountability to the population. In order to enforce exclusive claim over power, authoritarian regimes revert to unconstitutional or illegitimate means such as the use of force, censorship, or infusion of fear. The idea of authoritarianism emerges in sharp opposition to the concept of democracy and it is often presented as its negative. Even though authoritarian regimes were the norm prior to modernity, “authoritarianism” first came to be employed as a concept at the end of the nineteenth century, becoming popularized only after World War I (the gradual emergence of the Rule of Law as a governing principle). Etymologically, the word “authoritarianism” comes from the Latin
auctor
, meaning leader or master.
Authoritarian
can be employed as an adjective and as a noun.
Autonomist Social Movements
Authors: Monteagudo Graciela
Published: March 2012

Autonomism is a set of theories and group practices strongly influenced by Marxism, situationism, poststructural and postmodern philosophies, that have been founded on and have contributed to the rise of social movements in different parts of the world, including most prominently Italy, Mexico, and Argentina. Autonomist movements are not aimed at state power, but rather engage in non‐capitalist social practices independent from the market, the state, trade unions, and conventional political parties. Their initiatives and practices build communities which are not only independent from the market but also explicitly stress the importance of participants' affects and personal connections.
Banking
Authors: Polillo Simone
Published: March 2012

Castells sees in the new finance‐ and service‐driven capitalism a “brand of capitalism [that] is essentially different from its historical predecessors. It has two fundamental features: it is global, and it is structured to a large extent around a network of financial flows” (2000: 502). And given the increasing ability of international finance capital and of more local banking actors to wrest the control of money away from nation‐states, economic geographer Cohen predicts a multiplication of currencies within national territorial jurisdictions (2004).
Blogs
Authors: Maratea R. J.
Published: March 2012

Web logs (Blogs) are periodically updated online journals structured in the form of postings or individual entries of commentary that represent a scrolling record of the author's thoughts. Current estimates suggest that there are approximately 20 million actively operated blogs. While professional journalists author some of these forums, blogging has attained notoriety by providing a conduit for “citizen journalism,” wherein ordinary individuals express their views in public arenas void of mainstream media oversight.
Bologna Process
Authors: Münch Richard
Published: March 2012

In 1999 the ministers of education from 29 European countries met at the University of Bologna, Italy, and decided to create a common European space of higher education. Ten years later, in 2009, 46 countries were included in this process. In 2001 the European Commission, advocating the advancement of European integration, joined this bold project. Bologna stands for the medieval tradition of scholars and students wandering about and exchanging ideas across Europe. This small elite, communicating in Latin as its common language, pioneered in creating a first European space of higher education. The universities affiliated to each other across Europe were the centers of the emerging European culture, which was based on the rediscovery of Hellenistic philosophy and Roman law.
Bottom Billion
Authors: Collier Paul
Published: March 2012

The “bottom billion” is a concept introduced in my eponymous book,The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done about It.
Brands
Authors: Arviddson Adam
Published: March 2012

Global brands are brands that expose a coherent identity across diverse cultural and geographical contexts. While the number and importance of global brands have increased with the most recent, neoliberal wave of globalization, the phenomenon is not new in itself. Brands were already an important element to the “first” wave of globalization of 1870–1913. Building on superior productive capacity and new advertising and marketing skills that had developed in a growing domestic consumer market, British brands like Pear's Soap were successful in colonial markets as well as in continental Europe and the United States. In the interwar years, the development of an American consumer society relied on new capacities for “Fordist” mass production: a consolidating cultural industry centered on radio, cinema, and the press, and new management and marketing practices along with market research and consumer psychology. In particular, there was a consolidation of American advertising practices; advertising underwent a “scientific turn” and began to rely more on systematic theories and models and less on intuition and artistic whim. These tendencies gave a growing strength to American brands like Lux Soap or Lucky Strike cigarettes. Aided by Hollywood cinema – where actors were often featured as “live” advertisements for branded consumer goods – and by the global expansion of American advertising agencies like J. Walter Thompson, these brands began to make inroads into European and, to some extent, Asian markets by the 1920s. For example, until the proclamation of “autarchy” in 1935, American brands had a discrete presence in fascist Italy and Coca‐Cola was consumed in Nazi Germany. They were sold against the backdrop of a globalizing American media culture, centered on cinema and jazz music, where commodities like cigarettes and bubble gum could achieve new, transnational meanings as part of an alluringly modern American way of life. During the postwar years, the global diffusion of American brands and of the American consumer culture of which they were part would be a key component of the processes of “Americanization,” whereby the United States built up a cultural “soft‐power” in the so‐called “free world” that remained in a position of relatively uncontested hegemony at least until the onset of the Vietnam War.
Cartels, Private International
Authors: Connor John M.
Published: March 2012

The emergence of private international cartels is one of the dark sides of globalization. The formation of such cartels began in the late nineteenth century and grew in association with the vast expansion of international investment and international commodity trade that ended in the 1930s. Long believed to have been stamped out by aggressive antitrust prosecutions by the US government in the 1940s, a new and continuing wave of international cartels was discovered in the early 1990s. Because of their insidiously harmful effects on buyers and the competitive process itself, private cartels are now illegal in nearly every corner of the world. The universal adoption of anti‐cartel laws is a rare example of global harmonization of legal‐economic policies.
Casinopolitanism
Authors: Luke Timothy W.
Published: March 2012

Within the full sweep of contemporary globalization processes, casinopolitanism can be understood as an emergent set of urban development and branding practices, which make the niche industries of casino gambling, music entertainment venues, shopping malls, and resort hotels a key engine for economic growth, urban design, and cultural reproduction. While casinopolitanization grew more sporadically and locally in the twentieth century, this mode of urban development has become a very central frame for understanding how certain cities and geographies grow under neoliberal conditions of global commerce (Brenner & Theodore 2002).
Cathedrals of Consumption
Authors: Matusitz Jonathan
Published: March 2012

The concept of “cathedral of consumption” was coined by sociologist George Ritzer (1999, 2007). By and large, a cathedral of consumption is a consumption site that is part of a multinational corporation (MNC) with an exceptionally high level of international success. The success of the corporation – and its cathedrals of consumption – is such that it gives rise to a consumer cult and a display of abundance and excess. So are Disney World, the Apple Company Store, and mega‐malls. Besides providing numerous commodified goods and services at their locations that often exist around the globe, the cathedral of consumption often leaves for room for a do‐it‐yourself attitude, a self‐service flair, and an array of strategies that make consumers believe that their newfound shopping attitude will change their lives for good (Ritzer 1999). Cathedrals of consumption are places of hyper‐consumption; their massive size enchants many consumers. They are designed with the anticipation that consumers will gradually develop a passion for acquiring goods and services after experiencing a “spectacle.” Guy DeBord (2005) describes the spectacle as a form of drama, a form of theater, and a craze of information flows, music, entertainment, and other strategies intended to attract consumers from all walks of life. This spectacle also leads people to consume much more than they need. Cathedrals of consumption have been “aggressively exported to the rest of the world” (Ritzer 2007: 12).
Cities
Authors: Sassen Saskia
Published: March 2012

Large cities around the world today are the terrain where some of the novel conditions marking the twenty‐first century hit the ground: Multiple globalization processes assume concrete localized forms, electronic networks intersect with thick environments (whether financial centers or activist meetings), and new subjectivities arise from the encounters of people from all around the world. Thus, today's large cities have emerged as a strategic site for a whole range of new types of operations, some pertaining to the global economy (e.g., Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network [GaWC]; Fainstein & Judd 1999; Scott 2001; Abrahamson 2004; Gugler 2004; Rutherford 2004; Amen et al. 2006; Harvey 2007) and others to political, cultural, and subjective domains (e.g., Abu‐Lughod 1994; Clark & Hoffman‐Martinot 1998; Allen et al. 1999; Glaeser 2000; Cordero‐Guzman et al. 2001; Krause & Petro 2003; Lloyd 2005; Brenner & Keil 2006; Bartlett 2007; Ritzer 2010; Bridge & Watson 2011).
Coca‐Globalization
Authors: Foster Robert J.
Published: March 2012

The term coca‐globalization refers to the movement of everyday goods through spatially extensive networks of production and distribution, and to the politics of consumption that these networks engender.
Codex Alimentarius Commission
Authors: Ramsingh Brigit
Published: March 2012

The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) is the international body responsible for creating the
Codex alimentarius
(Latin for “Food Code”), a list of international food standards. The CAC is a joint project of the United Nations' World Health Organization (WHO) based out of Geneva, and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) based in Rome. The
Codex alimentarius
contains information in the form of: standards, codes of practice and guidelines. The Codex standards are characteristic descriptions or parameters that relate specifically to the product or commodity
itself
. Commodity standards are the largest group of standards within this category (a total of over 200), covering the areas of cereals, pulses (legumes) and derived products; fats and oils; fish and fishery products; fresh fruits and vegetables; processes and quick‐frozen fruits and vegetables; fruit juices; meat and meat products, soups and broths; milk and milk products; sugars, cocoa products, chocolates and other related products. The codes of practice are instructions aimed at directing behavior and the process for handling food and food products at all steps along the food production continuum – production, manufacturing, transport, storage. One example of a recommended practice from the area of food hygiene is the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) method that assesses the risk of microbial contamination at key points along the food production system. Finally, guidelines are related to more general areas of policy and the
interpretation
of policies, codes of practice, principles, and standards.
Communism
Authors: Ray Larry
Published: March 2012

For much of the twentieth century around half the world's population lived under regimes whose social systems were officially “communist” and which claimed to be guided by Marxist–Leninist theory. The system had its origins in the 1917 Russian Revolution and creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922. Following the end of World War II in 1945 communist governments came to power across much of Eastern Europe and in China, and the world divided into hostile camps of “Western capitalism” and “Soviet communism.” Major wars were fought on the Asian borders of the systems, in Korea (1950–1953) and Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia between 1955 and 1975. The United States and USSR competed for hegemony over non‐aligned regions of what was known as the “Third World” in Asia, Africa, and South America, which often took the form of local military conflicts, civil wars and regime destabilization, such as the military coup that overthrew Salvador Allende's socialist government in Chile in 1973. This bipolar global division was known as the “Cold War” since outside these conflict zones it took the form of a conventional and nuclear armed stand‐off between the United States and the USSR and their allies. This came to an end during the later 1980s, beginning with arms reduction negotiations and a general thawing of East–West relations initiated by the USSR's reforming General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachov. This process was rapidly followed by the dramatic collapse of European and Soviet variants of communism in 1989–1991. The end of the bipolar world arguably signaled the period of the maturity of the concept of “globalization” in both academic and everyday discourse (Ray 2007: 3). Communism remains the official ideology of Cuba, North Korea and the People's Republic of China, although China is now one of the world's fastest growing capitalist economies. The Chinese public sector now employs only 32 percent of industrial and service workers and accounts for 37 percent of gross domestic product (GDP), whereas in 1995 it accounted for 78 percent (National Bureau of Statistics in China 2009). One can therefore speak of communism as a twentieth‐century and largely historical form of social and political organization.
Consciousness
Authors: Inglis David
Published: March 2012

Global consciousness refers to forms of thought which both take the “whole world” or the “planet as a whole” as their object, and use these notions as their frame of reference for understanding specific issues.
Consumer movements
Authors: Handelman Jay M. , Kozinets Robert V.
Published: March 2012

A global consumer movement is a particular type of social movement. A social movement is an effort, that is led by activists seeking a particular state of the world, to mobilize other people into the collective effort to change the current social order so as to bring about that particular state of the world (Kozinets & Handelman 2004; Den Hond & Bakker 2007). Because they relate specifically to global consumption, global consumer movements are intentional efforts by activists to alter a consumption‐related state of the world. In particular, many global consumer movements attempt, in one form of another, to stop the global spread of a marketplace ideology of consumption. These social movements tend to manifest locally and resist what is seen as a global infiltration of marketplace ideologies that deteriorate local cultures and community relations.
Cross‐Atlantic Relationships: Europe and the United States
Authors: Kroes Rob
Published: March 2012

America, that is, the United States, has been called the “first new nation.” It won its independence from Britain's colonial empire. Two centuries later it finds itself described as an empire, by Americans and non‐Americans alike. The irony of this transformation comes out most clearly in the trans‐Atlantic relationship, in particular with the former mother‐country Britain, but more generally with Europe as well. After all, alongside Britain, other European countries, such as Spain, France, and the Netherlands, were among the first to colonize and settle the North American continent.
Cultural Relativism
Authors: Vujnovic Marina
Published: March 2012

Cultural relativism is a principle that postulates that an individual's beliefs, cultural practices, and her or his whole way of life must be understood in relation to that individual's culture.
Department of Homeland Security
Authors: Mabee Bryan
Published: March 2012

The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created on November 25, 2002, as a means to better protect the US homeland from security threats. The creation of the DHS was the biggest restructuring of the US government since the 1947 National Security Act, which had created the National Military Establishment, the precursor to the 1949 Department of Defense. It brought together 22 government agencies, and as of 2010 had 216 000 employees, making it the third‐biggest Cabinet Department. The DHS amalgamated numerous government agencies under one bureaucratic body, including the Secret Service, Coast Guard, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Customs Service, and the Immigration and Nationality Service (in March 2003). The creation of the DHS was mainly a response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, which were seen partly as a problem of the organization of government, and the mandate of the DHS was primarily to provide counter‐terrorism measures, along with critical infrastructure protection, emergency disaster response, and border and immigration control (and enforcement).
Depeasantization
Authors: McMichael Philip
Published: March 2012

Depeasantization involves the erosion of peasant practices and the substitution of market rationality in agriculture. Represented as the expulsion of small producers from the land, it is a premise of theories of capitalist modernity. Both liberal and Marxist narratives of development view depeasantization as a precondition for liberal democracy or collective socialism, respectively. Peasantries are considered obstacles to change given the modern view of “tradition” as pre‐social, and given an assumed resistance to technological change. Modernization trajectories follow the rise of urbane, industrial orders, and the relocation of peasants into the urban proletariat as industrial production systems expand. Such expansion involves the global elaboration of factory systems, post‐industrial service sectors, and industrialization of food systems from farming to retailing. Agro‐industrialization and agro‐exporting have been decisive in displacing peasants in Southern agrarian societies by the organized dumping of cheapened Northern food surpluses via World Trade Organization (WTO) liberalization rules, and land‐grabbing for agro‐exporting and industrial biofuels to supply distant consumer markets. At the same time, rural–urban migration has proceeded apace, as rural conditions have deteriorated, urban jobs have outpaced rural employment, and farming and farm‐work have been devalued in a modern market context. In the early twenty‐first century the urbanized proportion of the world's population finally surpassed rural populations. There remain about 1.2 billion peasants; 40 percent of humanity lives in small‐farm households.
Developmental idealism
Authors: Thornton Arland
Published: March 2012

For centuries, the related systems of modernization theory and developmentalism have dominated scholarship by giving scholars models for understanding social change. This model has specified the elements considered to be modern and has indicated that high levels of development and the good life were located in Northwest Europe and its diasporas. With its causal theories, the model specified both the factors that produced development and the consequences of development for various aspects of life.
Distanciation
Authors: Stones Rob
Published: March 2012

In his grand summation of structuration theory,
The Constitution of Society
, Anthony Giddens defines time‐space distanciation as “(t)he stretching of social systems across time‐space, on the basis of mechanisms of social and system integration” (1984: 377). System integration here can be seen as the ways in which the various “parts” of the social system are combined and coordinated. These parts can be anything from the spatially dispersed but coordinated units of a multinational company such as McDonald's or Starbucks, to the ways in which the global financial system or the international configuration of military power is coordinated. The emphasis on distanciation draws attention to the ways in which the coordination of these parts typically takes place at a distance rather than in situations of co‐presence.
Division of Labor
Authors: Herod Andrew
Published: March 2012

The term
division of labor
refers to how the tasks associated with completing an economic activity — manufacturing a car, selling stocks, growing corn — are organized. Perhaps one of the most famous historical examples of this was outlined in Adam Smith's 1776
Wealth of Nations
, in which he detailed how pin manufacturing was broken into 18 different operations, including drawing out the wire, straightening it, cutting it, pointing it, making the pin's head, and even putting the pin in its paper holder. Each of these operations was conducted as a separate, though interlinked, part of the larger process of turning rough metal into a finished product. For Smith, breaking the operation down into such specialized activities allowed a more efficient production system than if the process were organized so that each individual worker conducted all 18 activities. Such increased efficiency, Smith argued, resulted from three factors: (i) breaking up the production process allowed workers to specialize in particular activities and so become more effective in conducting them; (ii) workers could avoid wasting the time typically lost by having to switch from using tools appropriate for one part of the operation to tools more appropriate for a different part; and (iii) such specialization allowed for and encouraged the invention and deploying of a large number of machines which could make each individual worker more productive (Smith 1961/1776).
Ecological problems
Authors: J. Antonio Robert , J. Brulle Robert
Published: March 2012

Human activities have long impacted the environment in substantial ways. For example, some scientists hypothesize that humans were a contributing cause of the mass extinction of megafauna (large mammals) in late Pleistocene, North America (roughly 13 000–14 000 years ago), and had parallel impacts in other parts of the world. During the Holocene epoch (past 10 000 years) relatively stable, moderate climate provided favorable conditions for development of powerful productive forces, elaborate material cultures, and complex civilizations. Human impacts grew gradually with incremental increases in population and production. Starting in the mid seventeenth century, more rapid population growth, emergent markets, and other precursory social conditions for capitalist development accelerated these impacts. By the late eighteenth century, capitalist industrial revolution increased already explosive population growth, stirred massive expansion of new urban build environments, and greatly elevated resource consumption and the scope, variety, and severity of human impacts. The impacts have continued to accelerate, and threaten to destabilize the climatic and ecological foundations of human civilization. Later twentieth‐centuryglobalizationincreased transnational resource usage and waste production exponentially at a meteoric pace, causing widespread environmental damages, eviscerating ecological services, producing human development setbacks in poor regions of the world, and generating catastrophic risks. Early twenty‐first century scientists proposed and deliberated about formally recognizing a new Anthropocene epoch, coeval with capitalist industrialism, in which human activities have emerged as the primary force animating overall ecological change.