bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Simple Field Test for the Detection of Manganese in Quaternary Deposits
Authors: Alford J. J. , Bundschuh J. E. , Caspall F. C.
Published: April 2006

In the field it is often difficult to distinguish black manganese dioxide from specks of charcoal or other organic materials. Misinterpretations can be avoided by testing the earth material with a small amount of potassium periodate which will oxidize any manganese to the highly colored permanganate ion.
The Ringo Site, Southeastern Arizona
Authors: Johnson Alfred E. , Thompson Raymond H.
Published: April 2006

Excavations by the University of Arizona Archaeological Field School in the summer of 1962 indicate that this small site in the Sulphur Spring valley was occupied fromA.D.1250 to 1325. Architectural remains consist of the two adobe-walled room-plaza complexes. Burials were extended inhumations and primary cremations. The artifact inventory is characterized by its simplicity and lack of elaboration. Locally made pottery was primarily plain red and brown with both smudging and texturing. Most of the painted pottery was traded into the site from the surrounding Chihuahua, White Mountain, Tonto Basin, and Tucson areas. The site apparently represents an essentially Mogollon complex with strong contacts with the Babicora phase in Chihuahua and additions from the general Western Pueblo sphere of influence. A Ringo phase,A.D.1250-1350, is tentatively defined.
A Possible Gold Pectoral from Panama
Authors: Mitchell Russell H.
Published: April 2006

An undecorated gold disk, considered to be a pectoral in an early stage of manufacture, is described. This specimen is from a stone-covered grave in the Province of Bocas del Toro and is attributed to the Chiriqui culture.
Some Comments on the Archaeology of San Clemente Island, California
Authors: Townsend Sam-Joe
Published: April 2006

During September of 1958 M. B. McKusick and C. N. Warren conducted archaeological excavations on San Clemente Island, California. In 1959 the result of their work was published. They delineate three cultural complexes for the island which are named “Milling Stone,” “Mortar and Pestle,” and “Big Dog.” The data presented by McKusick and Warren are examined and their three cultural complexes are rejected because these complexes are not adequately supported by the data.
The Union Lake Skull, A Possible Early Indian Find in Michigan
Authors: Black Meredith , Eyman Charles E.
Published: April 2006

A human skull found in a peat deposit in Oakland County, Michigan, is dated at approximately 5000 B.C. by pollen analysis. The skull is morphologically similar to other early skeletal finds, and it is suggested that it may be classed with Neumann's Otamid variety.
A Practical Field Method for the Preservation of Soil Profiles from Archaeological Cuts
Authors: Dumond D. E.
Published: April 2006

A method is presented by which sections of soil profiles are preserved through the use of liquid casein glue. The method may be used in most soils encountered by the archaeologist, and requires only materials frequently to be found in the archaeological field camp.
On the Use of Cumulative Curves and Numerical Taxonomy
Authors: Thomas David H.
Published: April 2006

Irwin and Wormington (1970) employ cumulative curves to assess overall similarity between artifact complexes of the Great Plains. Properly applied, ogives are relevant only to R-mode phenomena. Numerical taxonomic aids are advanced as procedures more ef ficacious for such Q-mode analyses. Numerical taxonomy and computer techniques in general are currently within the reach of every archaeologist.
A Possible Case of Cannibalism in the Early Woodland Period of Eastern Georgia
Authors: Phelps David Sutton , Burgess Rebekah
Published: April 2006

Preliminary investigations at White's Mound, Richmond County, Georgia, have revealed a stratified sequence of cultural material that begins with Stallings Island fiber-tempered pottery and is followed by Deptford, which occurs coincident with a more popular cord-marked type and minor amounts of a fabric-impressed type. The cord-marked pottery is assumed to be indicative of the timing and impact of the Northern tradition on this area. The last test square excavated on the site yielded evidence of possible cannibalism in the form of redeposited fragmentary bones, most of them cooked and a few calcined. With the deposit of bones, some of which had been cut, were a boatstone, a bear-claw necklace, and Deptford bold check-stamped and simple-stamped sherds. An alternative explanation is redeposited cremation which does have precedence in the Georgia area and in the Northern tradition.
Comment on Jett's “Pueblo Indian Migrations”
Authors: Ellis Florence Hawley
Published: April 2006

Southwestern archaeologists generally agree with Jett's opinion that more than one cause was involved in the widespread 13th-century Pueblo migrations, but they may disagree with his emphasis on the influence of non-Pueblo enemy groups, for which actual evidence remains meager, and his de-emphasis on the effect of known drought conditions. A serious specific error, however, lies in his use of the “Flagstaff” (Pueblo Plateau) tree-ring record for prehistoric weather fluctuation in areas of the Rio Grande and southern Arizona, since these are completely outside the area defined by Douglass, Schulman, and others for the “Flagstaff” chart. Past weather conditions in the Rio Grande frequently contrasted or differed in degree of wet and dry periods, as indicated by the Rio Grande tree-ring chart, and some areas of the Southwest still are not covered by charts.
On the “Making” of an Assemblage of Stone Tools
Authors: Ammerman Albert J. , Feldman Marcus W.
Published: April 2006

An attempt is made to view an assemblage of stone tools as something in the process of being generated over time. A formal model is developed which includes variables such as activities and tool types and also draws attention to somewhat less visible variables that enter into the formation of an assemblage such as the dropping rates of tools and mapping relations between tool types and activities. Implications of the model for the interpretation of correlation coefficients which are often used in the quantitative analysis of assemblages and also for the "functional" argument are discussed.
Geoarchaeology: The Geomorphologist and Archaeology
Authors: Gladfelter Bruce G.
Published: April 2006

The contributions of the earth sciences, particularly geomorphology and sedimentary petrography, to the interpretation and environmental reconstruction of archaeological contexts is called "geoarchaeology." The physical context provides a palaeo-environmental legacy liable to patterning and interpretation just as artifacts imply prehistoric cultural activity. Through field study and laboratory analyses, the geoarchaeologist elaborates the micro-, meso-, and macro-environments of a site, and provides input for erecting prehistoric human activity patterns in time and space. The categories of information that must be examined in the field, the range of interpretive problems that confront the field worker, and the laboratory techniques which corroborate field interpretations can be illustrated by examining archaeology in an alluvial site. These considerations emphasize the need to involve the geomorphologist in all aspects of the design and execution of an archaeological excavation.
An Ancient Clay Mine at Yo’ K'at, Yucatan
Authors: Arnold Dean E. , Bohor Bruce F.
Published: April 2006

This paper describes the contemporary clay mine at Hacienda Yo’ K'at, Yucatan, and documents the archaeological association of a restored sherd-tool of Puuc slateware in a collapsed tunnel of the mine. The shape of the sherd and its in situ position suggest that it was used to gather clay in the mine during the period of A.D. 800-1000. The paper suggests the relationship of these data to the neutron activation studies of Yucatan pottery and their contribution to the study of ancient Maya trade.
Mound J, Monte Albán: Possible Astronomical Orientation
Authors: Aveni Anthony F. , Linsley Robert M.
Published: April 2006

Mound J, Monte Albán, a building of peculiar orientation and shape, has been mapped and tested for astronomical orientation. At the time of construction of the building, a line perpendicular to the base of the steps of J would have pointed to the rising position of the bright star Capella, which rose heliacally on one of the days of solar zenith passage. We note the existence of a possible zenith sighting tube built into the steps of building r which lies in the line of sight. A second coincidence is discussed in which 5 of the 25 brightest stars are found to have set close to the azimuth of the "point" of the building at the time it was erected.
Astronomical Tables Intended for Use in Astro-Archaeological Studies
Authors: Aveni Anthony F.
Published: April 2006

Tables are presented which give the rise-set azimuths of prominent celestial bodies and the heliacal rise-set dates of bright stars for a combination of epochs, latitudes, and horizon elevations.
Cautionary Note on Edible Meat Poundage Figures
Authors: Stewart Frances L. , William Stahl Peter
Published: April 2006

Dissection of certain animal specimens indicated that meat poundage figures based on modern processing practices could be unreliably high.
Climatic Oscillation as a Factor in the Prehistory of Amazonia
Authors: Meggers Betty J.
Published: April 2006

The existence of climatic oscillations during the Quaternary in the Neotropics was inferred from the distributions and diversities of the modern flora and fauna. Recent data on soils, geomorphology, palynology, and paleoclimatology confirm the existence of periods of aridity and permit more accurate definition of their durations and impacts. A review of linguistic and archaeological evidence reveals patterns similar to those exhibited by a wide range of biological phenomena. The significance attached to these similarities depends on the theoretical paradigm by which they are judged.
Butchery and Natural Disarticulation: An Investigatory Technique
Authors: Hill Andrew
Published: April 2006

The relative frequencies of intact skeletal joints in accumulations of mammalian remains can be used to produce models of the ways skeletons break apart in different circumstances. Information concerning disarticulation in the natural environment permits the detection in archaeological situations of features that may be due to prehistoric human butchery practices. The sequence of disarticulation of excavated Bison occidentalis butchered by North American Paleoindians is compared with that derived from natural assemblages of modern African Topi, Damaliscus korrigum.
On the Methodology of Faunal Analysis
Authors: Grayson Donald K.
Published: April 2006

Although faunal analysis has a long history in archaeological studies, little emphasis has been placed upon the development of methodologies which would allow the valid and reliable analysis of animal remains from archaeological sites. The most crucial decision which a faunal analyst must make as regards the statistical manipulation of his data concerns the proper unit to use in that manipulation. The 2 units which seem to have gained most popularity in faunal studies are discussed, as are the generally non-comparable results which stem from the various ways in which 1 of these units—the minimum number of individuals—has been applied. Finally, suggestions for the standardization of the use of minimum numbers in faunal analysis are made.
Mushrooms, Drugs, and Potters: A New Approach to the Function of Precolumbian Mesoamerican Mushroom Stones
Authors: Kôhler Ulrich
Published: April 2006

The function of archaeological mushroom stones has been subject to various speculations. Recently their explanation as ritual objects, associated with the ceremonial consumption of hallucinogenic mushrooms, seems on its way to general acceptance. The subsequent analysis refutes such an interpretation and reveals their real function as potters’ molds.
A Conceptual Framework for the Study of Artifact Loss
Authors: Fehon Jacqueline R. , Scholtz Sandra C.
Published: April 2006

Accurate interpretation of archaeological remains requires the explication of cultural formation processes, the activities responsible for forming the archaeological record. Loss is one of several processes by which materials may be transformed from systemic context to archeological context. Conditional probability theory provides a basis for conceptualizing how loss operates as an S-A process. Laws of loss, expressed as c-transforms, can be formulated to relate the systemic context event, loss, to variability in the archaeological record.
Two Techniques for Better Theodolite and Transit Setups
Authors: Reyman Jonathan E.
Published: April 2006

Frequent theodolite and transit setups are time consuming. Two techniques are described which reduce time expenditures and improve setup efficiency. The first technique requires the use of a small bubble level, the second, pieces of a rubber tire.
A Preservative Compound for Archaeological Materials
Authors: Brown Margaret Kimball
Published: April 2006

A compound is described which has been used in the field for consolidation of bone, shell, stone, pottery, fabric, and so forth. It has also been used in the laboratory with satisfactory results. This preparation can be applied to damp materials in the ground and allows for the preservation of otherwise nonrecoverable items. The ease of preparation and application makes it useful without requiring special training. The compound is water soluble and, importantly, the treatment is reversible, so that if different treatment is desired in the future the compound can be removed.
The Sims Site: Implication for Paleoindian Occupation
Authors: Adair Lou C.
Published: April 2006

A collection of lithic material from a site in the lower Tennessee River valley contains Paleoindian projectile points, uniface, and biface tools. Since few projectile points of Archaic types are included, there are implications that the rather extensive biface industry is of Late Paleoindian origin, contrary to the accepted idea that biface industries occur extensively only in post-Paleoindian occupations.
Snail Shells and Maize Preparation: A Lacandon Maya Analogy
Authors: Nations James D.
Published: April 2006

A recent report by Moholy-Nagy (1978) notes the frequency and wide distribution of the freshwater snails Pomacea flagellata and Pachychilus spp. in archaeological sites of the southern Maya Lowlands. The report suggests that these snails served as supplementary sources of protein. In this comment, the author describes the modern Lacandon Maya use of Pachychilus shells as lime for processing maize into tortillas and corn gruels and proposes that snail shells may also have served the ancient Maya as a source of lime.
The Distribution of Late Postclassic Spindle Whorls in the Valley of Mexico
Authors: Parsons Mary Hrones
Published: April 2006

Settlement pattern surveys over a large portion of the Valley of Mexico by Sanders, Blanton, and Parsons have produced a sample of over 600 Aztec spindle whorls with good provenience data. This paper examines the distribution of both cotton and maguey whorls, and their variation from sub-region to sub-region within the Valley of Mexico. Particular attention is given to the maguey whorls. These clearly fall into three distinct stylistic groups, each of which appears to be restricted to a limited area within the Valley of Mexico. An attempt is made to explain this distribution in terms of the prehispanic Aztec market system.
Trace Element Analyses of Archaeological Materials
Authors: Ives David J.
Published: April 2006

Numerous reports of trace element analyses contain defects which severely limit their utility. These defects are, on the whole, inexcusable and serve only to hamper the comparison and replication of such studies by other researchers.
Maya Blue—A New Perspective
Authors: Littmann Edwin R.
Published: April 2006

A detailed and critical review of the literature pertaining to Maya Blue led to the conclusion that the presence of indigo as an integral component of the pigment has not, as yet, been established by acceptable scientific criteria. A Maya Blue was prepared from indigo and attapulgite which had all the observed properties of the authentic pigment. Although the experiments performed in the present study can hardly be called scientific proof of the composition of the prehistoric material, they strongly suggest that the colorant was indigo, at least in one type of Maya Blue.

The strong emphasis usually placed upon the identification of attapulgite as the base mineral of Maya Blue seems to be an exercise in the use of identification equipment. The question of whether attapulgite, a clay of variable composition and available from widely separated sources, is the base of Maya Blue is immaterial. It appears that any clay containing palygorskite, sepiolite, montmorillonite, or possibly other minerals free of plate-like crystal structures can be converted to a Maya Blue pigment with all the observed chemical and physical properties of the authentic material.

The present experimental work and some reported observations regarding variations in shade and color of Maya Blue specimens suggest there may be more than one pigment so designated and that a blue mont-morillonite is one of the alternatives to an indigo-colored clay for post-firing decoration of pottery and mural painting.

The technical studies which form the basis for some of the conclusions reached will be found in the appendix to this report.
A Simple Method for Distinguishing between Organic and Inorganic Paints on Black-on-White Anasazi Pottery
Authors: Nelson Fred W.
Published: April 2006

It is often very difficult to distinguish organic paint from inorganic paint (iron oxides) on Black-on-white Anasazi pottery. However, the paints can be distinguished by testing for iron using potassium ferrocyanide in the presence of hydrochloric acid. If iron is present a dark blue precipitate forms immediately.
Spatial Analysis of Occupation Floors I: Application of Dimensional Analysis of Variance
Authors: Whallon Robert
Published: April 2006

A statistical procedure for the analysis of patterns of spatial distribution of artifacts over occupation areas is outlined. This procedure envisions 3 steps: the testing for non-randomness of spatial concentrations in the distribution of each class of artifacts, the reorganization of the data so as to best reflect such concentrations in the analysis of intercorrelation among those artifact classes which exhibit significant spatial patterning, and finally the analysis of spatial intercorrelations among these artifact classes and the definition of clusters of classes of artifacts based on their similarity of distribution over the area concerned. A new statistical method called dimensional analysis of variance is presented as a method with which to begin this series of steps. Dimensional analysis of variance works with data in the form of counts per grid unit, thus making it applicable in many archaeological situations for which no other statistical methods are available for spatial analysis. The procedure of spatial analysis, based on dimensional analysis of variance, is illustrated with the analysis of a preceramic occupation floor in a small cave in the valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.
X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of Prehistoric Pottery
Authors: Weymouth John W.
Published: April 2006

This is a preliminary report on a quantitative method for grouping prehistoric pottery using x-ray diffraction techniques. Of the various analytical methods that have been applied to the analysis of pottery, x-ray diffraction techniques have been among the least used, and then usually to obtain qualitative information. Most analytic methods measure the relative abundance of chemical elements, but diffraction patterns give information on the crystalline substances in the pottery. In this study, attention is directed to the crystalline components of the temper rather than the clays or their derivatives. The method groups pottery according to the relative concentrations of such minerals as quartz, calcite, and the feldspars. Thus, success depends on reasonable consistency in the use of tempering materials by pottery makers at one time and place. I have examined a number of sherds from different sites in Iowa and Missouri supplied by Dale R. Henning, University of Nebraska. The results so far indicate that it is possible to group prehistoric pottery by a quantitative analysis of the x-ray diffraction pattern of the temper in the pottery.
The Quantification of Artifactual Assemblages: Some Implications for Behavioral Inferences
Authors: Cannon Aubrey
Published: April 2006

It is argued that the reliability of archaeological inferences based upon artifactual assemblages is in part a function of the methods used to quantify the assemblages. Using ethnoarchaeological data, this proposition is tested by comparing associated artifactual assemblages with the presence or absence of specialists in individual households. Assemblages are quantified in terms of absolute frequency, diversity, and proportional frequency. The correlation between each measure and the presence or absence of specialists is assessed. The analysis reveals assemblage diversity to be one of the strongest and most consistent indicators of specialization and further reveals an inherent flaw characteristic of proportional frequencies.
Response to Miksicek, Elsesser, Wuebber, Bruhns, and Hammond
Authors: Reina Ruben E. , Hill, II Robert M.
Published: April 2006

A recent statement by the five authors purports to demonstrate that the fruit we previously identified as ramón was really achiote. This response points out several weaknesses in the five authors' ethnohistorical methodology that makes their identification far less secure. The original aim of our paper is restated to turn discussion away from the minor point of ramón versus achiote.
Making a Meal out of Mahamaes: A Reply to Knapp's “Prehistoric Flood Management on the Peruvian Coast”
Authors: Smith Richard T.
Published: April 2006

While acknowledging the possible former role of floodwater in Chilca's sunken fields, this paper expresses concern about the limited and inconclusive evidence that Knapp presents in support of floodwater management. Too much reliance is placed upon inferences from integrated field layout while we still appear to lack either unequivocal and consistent stratigraphic evidence or firsthand experience of river flooding at Chilca. It is also doubtful whether one can legitimately assess the archaeological or hydraulic status of these fields without considering (1) the wider context of local irrigated farming, (2) the perennial source of underground water, and (3) the near certainty that fishing rather than agriculture was the subsistence base in such localities without perennial streams.
An Objective Test of the Effects of Heat Treatment of Flakeable Stone
Authors: Bleed Peter , Meier Marlene
Published: April 2006

Widely held notions about the effects of heat treatment of flakeable stone were tested by agitating matching sets of regularly shaped pieces of heated and raw chert. The tests indicate that heat treatment changes some of the variables that control flake formation although not necessarily in ways that make flintworking "easier." It appears that in order to realize an advantage to the practice, the flintknapper must call on individual skill to make technical readjustments.
Trend Surface Analysis and the Lowland Classic Maya Collapse
Authors: Bove Frederick J.
Published: April 2006

The methods of trend surface analysis, a form of regression analysis, are applied to complex archaeological surfaces, or response surfaces, derived from a series of points representing carved stone monuments in the Lowland Classic Maya region bearing the most recent dates. Results of a comparison of trend surface and residual maps produced and of an analysis of variance with expected maps do not support a strong west to east diffusionary trend for the collapse, nor a hypothesized invasion. Evidence is presented indicating the probable existence of five regional zones or sociopolitical spheres in the Late Classic whose existence may bear directly on the collapse through increased competition. The utility of the trend surface model is demonstrated, primarily as a method of formalized data description and as an aid in the building of process-response models.
The Behavioral Approach to Lithics and the Use of Ethnographic Analogy: A Comment on Odell
Authors: Sabo Deborah Rowland
Published: April 2006

George Odell's article calls attention to the need for more creative uses of the results of lithic use-wear studies. However, the structure of his argument is precarious because it is based on a hierarchy of assumptions about the stone tools themselves, as well as about the behavioral contexts of their use. A major failing of the argument is the lack of a rigorous methodology for construction and application of ethnographic analogies. The present comment argues for the use of general analogy, based on consideration of a range of pertinent ethnographic examples.
The Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization: A Reconsideration of the Evidence
Authors: Raymond J. Scott
Published: April 2006

Moseley's contention that coastal Peruvian civilization was founded on a maritime subsistence economy is challenged, and the evidence that he used to substantiate his claim is re-examined. It is argued that: (1) the number of calories represented by the faunal remains in the late preceramic sites of the central coast is too few to have supported more than a simple hunter-gatherer society; (2) the potential productivity of the agricultural food plants present in the preceramic sites has been grossly underestimated; (3) biases in the preservation of sites and of food remains in the sites have not been considered sufficiently in drawing conclusions from the data; and (4) when considered in relation to the hydrology of the Peruvian coast, the distribution of the late preceramic sites indicates a dependence on flood-plain agriculture.
Reassessing the Chicama-Moche Intervalley Canal: Comments on “Hydraulic Engineering Aspects of the Chimu Chicama-Moche Intervalley Canal“
Authors: Pozorski Thomas , Pozorski Shelia
Published: April 2006

The Chicama-Moche Intervalley Canal never carried water as a functioning canal due to uplift slope errors made by unsophisticated Chimu engineers. There is no evidence of tectonic uplift directly affecting the Intervalley Canal, either during or after its construction, to create the numerous uphill sections along its entire length. The hydrological calculations of Ortloff et al. (1982) are based on preliminary survey data which do not conform with more detailed excavation and survey data. Thus, in this commentary the Intervalley Canal is reinterpreted as an impressive manifestation of the political and organizational power of the Chimu rulers, but not as a great hydraulic engineering feat.
Memoir of an Avocational Archaeologist
Authors: Mohrman Harold
Published: April 2006

Among my earliest memories is the shoe box of “Indian rocks” that my father kept on a shelf
behind the kitchen stove. These he had found and brought in to keep as curiosities. Although he
knew some of the local collectors and at least one buyer for E. W. Payne of Springfield, Illinois, he
never thought of selling any of his finds, so when I came along there was a small collection waiting
for me.
Archaeological Survey in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley, 1940-1947: A Landmark Study in American Archaeology
Authors: Dunnell Robert C.
Published: April 2006

One of the hallmarks of the new archaeology was a shift from “sites” to regions as the investigatory universe appropriate to most archaeological problems (e.g., Binford 1964). This new emphasis was accompanied by a call for multidisciplinary investigations. The precedents usually cited are studies such as MacNeish's Tehuacan Valley project (Byers 1967-1972) and Braidwood's Jarmo project (Braidwood and Howe 1960). Archaeological Survey in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley, 1940-1947 (Phillips, Ford, and Griffin 1951), which shares many of these features, is not commonly cited and is one of the more undervalued classics of its time.
Two Paths to the Past: A Comparative Study of the Last Fifty Years ofAmerican Antiquityand theAmerican Journal of Archaeology
Authors: Dyson Stephen L.
Published: April 2006

The fiftieth anniversary of a journal, especially one as important and influential asAmerican Antiquity, is a time for celebration. It is also a moment for reflection both on the achievements of the past and the potential for the future. Major journals are mirrors of the intellectual history of the disciplines that they represent. They are also both intentionally or unintentionally shapers and trendsetters of that discipline. Time past, time present, and time future become inextricably woven in a consideration of their printed pages.
Alluvial Geology and Archaeological Potential of the Texas Southern High Plains
Authors: Stafford Thomas
Published: April 2006

Alluvial geology studies indicate that valleys crossing the Texas High Plains have significant archaeological and paleontological potentials. Paleo-Indian and Ceramic/Historic sites are unexpectedly common, and are associated with ancient lake and marsh environments, spring deposits, entrenched meander necks, and buried strath terraces. Paleogeologic maps illustrate prehistoric topography and relate known sites to depositional environments. Archaeologically, the most valuable strata in both Yellowhouse and Blackwater Draws date to 11,500 to 8000-6000 radiocarbon years B.P. and 1000-100 radiocarbon years B.P. Sediments dating to ca. 6000-2000 radiocarbon years B.P. have a distinctly lower archaeological content. Yellowhouse, Blackwater and Running Water Draws have similar sedimentary sequences which are divided into two lithostratigraphic units, the Yellowhouse Draw and Lubbock Formations.
A Re-Evaluation of the Isotopic and Archaeological Reconstructions of Diet in the Tehuacan Valley
Authors: Farnsworth Paul , Brady James E. , DeNiro Michael J. , MacNeish Richard S.
Published: April 2006

Carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in collagen from bones of individuals who lived in the Tehuacan Valley during the period 8000–1000 years B.P. have been interpreted as indicating earlier use of maize and more utilization of legumes as food sources than is suggested by the occurrence of the remains of these plants in the coprolites and debris excavated along with the bones. Reassessment of the assumptions made in interpreting the bone collagen isotope ratios reduces some but not all of the discrepancy between the isotopic and archaeological reconstructions of diet. The original archaeological reconstruction relied entirely on remains from cave sites, thus introducing seasonal and locational biases into the dietary reconstruction. Using the bone collagen isotope ratios as a guide, we re-interpreted the archaeological data to produce a more complete picture of temporal changes in the overall diet. We suggest that heavy dependence on grains began in the Coxcatlan phase and then may have remained unchanged for the next 5,500–6,500 years. These conclusions, which are based on a relatively small isotopic data base, need to be verified by an extensive program of isotopic analysis of the floral, faunal, and human remains from Tehuacan.
Reply to Doolittle
Authors: Peterson David A. , Winter Marcus C. , Hewitt William P.
Published: April 2006

Doolittle (1989) provides interesting information onpocitosandregistrosbut does not show that they are associated with irrigation agriculture exclusively, nor does he address the main point of our paper — that Hierve el Agua was a salt-producing site. We suggest several criteria for distinguishing salt-production sites from agricultural sites and present some additional observations in support of our interpretation of Hierve el Agua's function.
The Age of the Calaveras Skull: Dating the “Piltdown Man” of the New World
Authors: Taylor R. E. , Payen Louis A. , Slota Peter J.
Published: April 2006

The Calaveras skull, first reported in 1866, represents the earliest purported fossil human discovery in California and one of the earliest in the New World. The specimen is in the possession of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University. The validity of the original "Tertiary" age assignment was rejected by the first generation of professional American archaeologists early in the twentieth century. Radiocarbon analyses using both conventional decay counting and accelerator mass spectrometry indicate a late Holocene age for the Calaveras skull.
A Reconsideration of Aboriginal Fishing Strategies in the Northern Great Lakes Region
Authors: Martin Susan Rapalje
Published: April 2006

Aboriginal northern Great Lakes fishing strategies varied with season, target species, and organization of the labor force. The placement of Woodland archaeological sites complied with the structure of these fisheries, but their locations do not reflect prey specificity or one specialized technology. Rather, resource-general locations suggest an essential step in the process of specialization. Flexibility in settlement and social styles existed among prehistoric foragers of the midlatitudes, as did a variety of solutions to food-getting problems. Slow, accretional processes rather than temporally discrete growth processes were responsible for Late Woodland site characteristics in this region. Stable locational-selection patterns are visible through reexamination of the historical data base and through statistical analyses of environmental factors associated with sites at a number of Woodland localities.
An Alternative View of Sedentary Period Hohokam Shell-Ornament Production
Authors: Seymour Deni J.
Published: April 2006

Analysis of unpublished house floor and fill data has revealed new information concerning the production and distribution of shell artifacts at the Hohokam site of Snaketown. In addition to presenting data on the frequency and distribution of shell in structures, the analysis identifies manufacturing loci and evaluates previous statements concerning craft production at the site. Implications for the organization of production and exchange during the Sacaton phase also are considered. It is concluded that local kin groups could have procured, produced, and distributed shell products. This reconstruction is provided as an alternative to views which hold that a higher-level administrative agency was in control of the production and distribution of marine shell.
Middle Woodland Ceremonialism at Pinson Mounds, Tennessee
Authors: Mainfort Robert C.
Published: April 2006

Located on the West Tennessee Coastal Plain, Pinson Mounds is one of the largest Middle Woodland ceremonial centers in eastern North America. The site includes at least 12 mounds, a geometric embankment, and associated temporary habitation areas within an area of approximately 160 ha. Of particular significance is the presence of five large platform mounds ranging in height from 3 to 22 m. A series of two dozen radiocarbon determinations indicate that the Pinson Mounds site was constructed and used between approximately A.D. 1-500.
The Behavioral and Material Correlates of Site Seasonality: Lessons from Navajo Ethnoarchaeology
Authors: Rocek Thomas R.
Published: April 2006

Several classes of data collected from Northern Black Mesa, Arizona, are used to identify seasonality among nineteenth- and twentieth-century Navajo sites. The data include informant accounts, site layout and composition, hogan doorway orientations, and terminal tree-ring condition from dendrochronological samples. While each class of data yields information regarding an aspect of site seasonality, analysis reveals that more than one kind of information is represented by the various data sources. Specifically, hogan doorway orientation and tree-ring seasonality provide mutually reinforcing evidence regarding season of site construction; other data relate to the season of site use. These results suggest refinements in the assessment of Navajo site seasonality, as well as providing more general information regarding the identification of site season in archaeological contexts. In addition, the recognition of the alternative seasonal information provided by the different kinds of data, suggests new approaches to analysis of mobility and activity patterns.
The Mexican (“Aztec”) and Western Yucatec (Landa) Maya 365-Day Calendars: A Perpetual Relation
Authors: Drucker R. David
Published: April 2006

The Mexican ("Aztec") 365-day calendar and the Western Maya (Yucatec) 365 day calendar in use at the time of the Spanish conquests of Mexico and the Yucatan have an invariable relation to each other. The first nine mesomonths (named 20-day intervals) of the Yucatec 365-day calendar are coterminous with the last nine mesomonths of the "Aztec" calendar. The proof reconfirms the validity of the modified Thompson (584,283) correlation between Mesoamerican and European calendars.
Cacao Residues in Ancient Maya Vessels from Rio Azul, Guatemala
Authors: Hall Grant D. , Tarka Stanley M. , Hurst W. Jeffrey , Stuart David , Adams Richard E. W.
Published: April 2006

Results of chemical analyses on residues collected from ceramic vessels found in an Early Classic period Maya tomb revealed that certain of the residues contained theobromine and caffeine, a clear indication that the corresponding vessels once contained cacao in some form. One of the vessels yielding cacao residues is decorated with hieroglyphs, two of which we believe have the phonetic values for the word “cacao” in the Mayan language. These findings are significant for three reasons: (1) a new method for recognizing ancient cacao use is demonstrated, (2) a novel way of verifying glyph interpretations is presented, and (3) data are generated that indicate what contents certain Maya vessels actually held, thus permitting useful functional interpretations.
Comments on Cottrell's Long Distance Jasper Trade Hypothesis: In Defense of Renfrew's Trade Models
Authors: Koerper Henry C. , Fife Donald L. , Singer Clay A. , Ericson Jonathon E.
Published: April 2006

This paper critically assesses Cottrell's model of prehistoric exchange of jasper said to have been transported through the Mojave Desert to the Tomato Springs site in coastal southern California. We point out numerous conceptual and analytical errors which cast doubt on Cottrell's interpretation of the Tomato Springs site as a control center for the importation, production, and trade of this supposedly nonlocal material. Cottrell has not demonstrated a desert origin for the jasper found at Tomato Springs, and thus has no grounds for testing any of Renfrew's distance-decay models. The presence of local natural sources of jasper better explains the occurrence of this mineral at Tomato Springs and nearby sites.
The Emperors’ Cloak: Aztec Pomp, Toltec Circumstances
Authors: Anawalt Patricia Rieff
Published: April 2006

The official cape of the Aztec emperors characteristically is pictured with a blue, geometric design. A pictorial codex illustrates tribute textiles incorporating a portion of that same pattern. These sixteenth-century Aztec weavings came from geographic areas previously part of the twelfth-century Toltec empire; it is from that revered power that this motif derived. The imperial blue cloak of the Aztec rulers thus served as their “charter,” reflecting the empire's legitimacy based on the emperors’ claim to a Toltec genealogy. The design’s Nahuatl name plus recent dyeing experiments indicate the creation of the emperors’ cloak involved the deliberate inclusion of a labor-intensive tie-dye technique in order to produce a specific motif that carried a powerful symbolism. This design’s occurrence in other contexts confirms its importance and indicates the motif had pre-Toltec origins relating to geopolitical/mythological bases of authority in ancient mesoamerican societies.
Lexical Transcription and Archaeological Interpretation: “A Rock Feature Complex from Northwestern California”
Authors: Buckley Thomas
Published: April 2006

This Comment responds to Joseph L. Chartkoff's 1983 article, "A Rock Feature Complex from Northwestern California" (American Antiquity 48:745-760). Chartkoff describes two sorts of rock enclosures, identifying them both by a single Yurok-English name. The Comment points out there are at least two distinct words for such enclosures in the Yurok language, and that this linguistic evidence supports Chartkoff's hypothesis that the two sorts of rock features may be historically or ethnographically distinct.
Domesticated Chenopodium in Prehistoric Eastern North America: New Accelerator Dates from Eastern Kentucky
Authors: Smith Bruce D. , Cowan C. Wesley
Published: April 2006

Specimens of desiccatedChenopodium berlandierissp. jonesianum from Cloudsplitter and Newt Kash Rock-shelters in Menifee County, eastern Kentucky yielded accelerator dates of 3450 ± 150 B.P. and 3400 ± 150 B.P., respectively, extending the known age of this prehistoric domesticate by 1,000 years.
Additional Information on Split-Twig and Other Willow Figurines from the Greater Southwest
Authors: Jett Stephen C.
Published: April 2006

Bibliographic information on split-twig figurines is given to supplement that provided in Euler's (1984) site report on Stanton Cave, Arizona. In addition, previously unpublished figurines, from Arizona and Utah, are described.
Ethical Principles and Archaeological Practice: Development of an Ethics Policy
Authors: Lynott Mark J.
Published: April 2006

Unsettling conditions surrounding the contemporary practice of archaeology have generated an urgent need for clear ethical guidelines. The Principles of Archaeological Ethics were developed to help meet this need and provided in draft form to the Society for American Archaeology membership for review as part of a Special Report (Lynott and Wylie 1995b). Since that initial publication, two additional principles have been developed, and the original six principles have been revised and published in this journal (61:451-452). The changes were made in response to comments provided by the membership and the Executive Board. The principles are intended to serve as ethical ideals rather than a code of professional conduct.
Cation-Ratio Dating of Varnished Artifacts: Testing the Assumptions
Authors: Harry Karen G.
Published: April 2006

Dorn (1983) has proposed that changes in rock varnish chemistry can be used to date varnished artifacts. Specifically, he suggests that the varnish cation ratio, (K + Ca)/Ti, decreases as the age of the varnished surface increases. Although the method is generating significant archaeological interest, many of its underlying assumptions remain undemonstrated. This paper examines one premise of the method, that the varnishing process is regular. Data obtained from varnish distributional studies challenge this assumption and, when compared with the chemical data obtained from the same archaeological site, suggest that the cation-ratio dating technique may not be able to provide accurate dates for most varnished artifacts.
Unpacking the Discard Equation: Simulating the Accumulation of Artifacts in the Archaeological Record
Authors: Varien Mark D. , Potter James M.
Published: April 2006

Quantifying discard to accurately estimate the duration of site occupation is critical middle-range research necessary for understanding assemblage diversity, the nature of settlement systems and mobility strategies, and population size, and for testing any anthropological theory that depends on the accurate measurement of these variables. We address this middle-range research by employing a computer simulation to explore assumptions inherent in the discard equation and to determine the accuracy with which cooking pot refuse measures the length of site occupation. The accumulation of discarded cooking pot sherds is simulated using a strong archaeological case: the Duckfoot site, a Pueblo I residential site located in the Mesa Verde region of southwestern Colorado. We argue that estimating the length of site occupation using data from a strong archaeological case is superior to using the discard equation and ethnographic data, but that the discard equation and ethnographic data-used judiciously-can provide reasonable estimates if a strong archaeological case is not available. Results indicate that the most variable and least accurate results are generated by short-term occupations of sites by small numbers of households. We further conclude that quantifying the accumulation of discarded cooking pot sherds has considerable promise as a means of estimating the length of site occupation.
Nupe State and Community
Authors: Nadel S. F.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

In central Nigeria, between 8° 30' and 10° 30' N. lat., lies Nupe-land. Two rivers form its boundaries, the Niger to the south and west, the Kontagora river to the north. Another river marks its central axis: the Kaduna. The boundary to the east is formed by the gradually rising land, which eventually reaches the hills of Gwari country. It is a low, open, fertile country, covering roughly 7,000 sq. m., inhabited by a population who were known from the ancient days, and all over Nigeria, as an industrious and able people. The census of 1931 gives their number as 326,000, but for various reasons one may safely take it to be considerably higher, probably up to half a million.
The Changing Position of Women in the Sierra Leone Protectorate
Authors: Little K. L.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

Women in the Sierra Leone Protectorate fulfil a role which, as in the case of the men, varies in accordance with their social age. In the early stages there is little distinction between the sexes either in training or in their relation to the rest of the community.

Among the Mende, the arrival of a female child is greeted by the women with even greater delight than is that of a boy. They say that girls do not forget their mothers in time of need as boys sometimes do. A girl, like a male child, is named according to whether she is the first or a subsequent surviving child of her mother; if she is the first she will be known as Boi. The children who follow her may be named after various ancestors, or after important living members of the family. The naming is done four days after birth, and the individual woman, whose name the child is to bear, carries her out in the early morning, faces the sun, spits three times on to the child's face, and says: ‘Resemble me in all my ways and deeds, because you are named after me.’ As an infant, the child is referred to as nyalui, and though she may enjoy the considerable affection of both parents, her social significance is very small. Should she die, there is no crying for her. The corpse is simply wrapped up in leaves and buried under a banana tree, or at some other place where it is customary to deposit rubbish.
The White Women's Labor Laws: Anti-Chinese Racism in Early Twentieth-Century Canada
Authors: Backhouse Constance
Published: April 2006

Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, provided the setting, in May 1912, for two widely publicized trials that highlighted the explosive fusion between race, gender, and class in early twentieth-century Canada. The prosecutions were based on a Saskatchewan statute passed several weeks earlier, “An Act to Prevent the Employment of Female Labour in Certain Capacities.” The first of its kind in Canada, this statute made it a criminal offence for “Chinese” men to employ “white” women. Quong Wing and Quong Sing, men who operated two restaurants and a rooming house in Moose Jaw's small but growing Chinatown, were charged with violating the new law. Between them, they employed three white women: Nellie Lane and Mabel Hopham as waitresses and Annie Hartman as a chambermaid.