bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Influence of structure and counterions on physicochemical properties of linear alkylbenzene sulfonates
Authors: Moreno A. , Cohen L. , Berna J. L.
Published: January 2007

The effects of different inorganic and organic counterions on the physicochemical behavior of three commercial linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LAS) have been studied. It has been found that the counterion hydration radius of the corresponding commercial linear alkylbenzene sulfonates has great influence on solubility, viscosity, surface tension and critical micelle concentration (CMC). The counterion has no influence on the detergency performance of the finished formulation. The alkyl chain length and the presence of tetralines have an important influence on solubility, viscosity and surface tension.
X‐ray diffraction and scanning electron microscope studies of processed rice hull silica
Authors: Proctor Andrew
Published: January 2007

The structure and composition of processed rice hull ash were studied to better understand its adsorption of the soy oil components, lutein and free fatty acids. The silica‐rich ash was composed largely of low order cristobalite and tridymite in the form of opal CT, with variable particle size. On heating of the ash there was conversion to a more ordered form of opal C, fusing of particles, and loss of potassium. Acid washing, following heating, also removed potassium and slightly reduced particle size further. Crystal form, particle size, particle fusion and potassium content may be important factors influencing ash adsorption of soy oil components.
Lipid oxidation: Mechanisms, products and biological significance
Authors: Frankel E. N.
Published: January 2007

This paper reviews our studies of fatty acid hydroperoxides, their secondary products and mechanisms for their formation in the context of some of their possible biological consequences. The uneven distribution of isomeric hydroperoxides in oxidized linolenate and photosensitized oxidized linoleate is related to the formation of hydroperoxy cyclic peroxides. Interest in the hydroperoxy mono‐and bi‐cycloendoperoxides from oxidized linolenate stems from their structural relationship to the prostaglandins. However, the biological activity of hydroperoxy cyclic peroxides formed by autoxidation has not yet been reported. Thermal decomposition studies of secondary lipid oxidation products show they are important precursors of volatile compounds. An acid‐acetalation decomposition procedure establishes that 5‐membered hydroperoxy cyclic peroxides and 1,3‐dihydroperoxides are important precursors of malonaldehyde. This approach provides a more specific test than the thiobarbituric acid (TBA) color reaction to evaluate lipid oxidation products as sources of malonaldehyde and its biological effects due to crosslinking. A better understanding is needed of the biological effects of a multitude of lipid oxidation decomposition products other than malonaldehyde.
Preparation and emulsifying properties of polyethylene glycol (15OO) diesters of fatty acids
Authors: Bhattacharyya D. N. , Krishnan S. , Kelkar R. Y. , Chikale S. V.
Published: January 2007

Oil soluble polyethylene glycol (PEG‐1500) diesters of stearic, 12‐hydroxystearic, oleic and 12‐hydroxy oleic (ricinoleic) acids were prepared by standard condensation reaction procedure. The surface active/emulsifying properties of the products were evaluated by determining interfacial tension and through performance test in making water‐in‐oil emulsion. The presence of double bond or hydroxyl group in the C18 acids, PEG content of reacting mixture, and nature and concentration of the catalyst in preparing the emulsifier all were found to have great bearing on the emulsifying property and stability of w/o emulsions, particularly when the aqueous phase contained a significant quantity of ions. Only the first factor, the effect of double bond and/or the hydroxyl group, is discussed in this paper.
Characterization ofβ‐carotene thermal degradation products in a model food system
Authors: Onyewu Philip N. , Ho Chi‐Tang , Daun Henryk
Published: January 2007

A model system developed in our laboratory for the study of thermal degradation products (TDP) of carotenoids was employed.β‐Carotene (10 g) in glycerol was heated at 210 C for 4 hr, 1 hr, 15 min and 5 min. The time and temperature chosen were similar to edible oil deodorization and deep fat frying. In this study, the TDP ofβ‐carotene were quantified as influenced by time and temperature of heating. Results indicate that at 210 C, degradation is almost complete after 4 hr and most of the nonvolatile products are viscous, yellow‐brownish material. Shorter times (1 hr, 15 min and 5 min) cause less degradation. TDP include nonpolar as well as oxidized derivatives ofβ‐carotene. The results of this study provide information on the type, amount and mechanism of formation of compounds resulting from heating carotenoids.
Weathering effects on Chinese tallow fruit lipid content
Authors: Echols R. E.
Published: January 2007

The lipid contents and fatty acid compositions of freshly ripened and weathered Chinese tallow fruits were examined. After weathering for a year, the shell lipids, including all unsaturated fatty acids, and the seed lipids, including some polyunsaturated fatty acids, decreased by 33% and 7%, respectively. Rainfall during growth affected fruit yield but not lipid contents.
Effectiveness of antioxidants in refined, bleached and deodorized palm olein
Authors: Augustin M. A. , Berry S. K.
Published: January 2007

The addition of antioxidants butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), propyl gallate (PG), tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), dilaurylthiodipropionate (DLTDP), and trihydroxybutyrophenone (THBP) at a level of 200 ppm to refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm olein resulted in the retardation of the oxidative deterioration of the oil when stored at 60 C for a period of 10 weeks. The extent of oxidative deterioration was determined by measuring the peroxide and anisidine values and E1 cm1% at 232 nm and 268 nm of the oil. Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) proved to be a relatively ineffective antioxidant, whereas TBHQ afforded the most protection for the RBD olein.
Stereospecific analysis of fish oil triacyl‐sn‐glycerols
Authors: Ando Yasuhiro , Nishimura Kazuhiko , Aoyanagi Naoki , Takagi Toru
Published: January 2007

Stereospecific analysis of fish oil triacyl‐sn‐glycerols was carried out by novel high‐performance liquid chromatography on a chiral stationary phase. The positional distributions of fatty acids were determined without accumulation of errors in a particular position and preferential hydrolysis for a particular fatty acid. High‐resolution gas‐liquid chromatography on an open tubular column detailed the distribution of unsaturated fatty acid isomers having olefinic bonds in different positions. The distribution of fatty acids was not independent of other fatty acids. The distribution of long‐chain highly unsaturated fatty acids 22:6(n‐3), 22:5(n‐3) and 20:5(n‐3) was governed by total amounts of 20:1 and 22:1 in triacyl‐sn‐glycerols. Long‐chain monounsaturated acids 20:1 and 22:1 were influenced by the position of the olefinic bond in 20:1 occurring in triacyl‐sn‐glycerols. Shorter‐chain C14‐C18 fatty acids seemed to be influenced by total fatty acid composition. These results introduce a concept of mutual interaction between fatty acids to the investigation of positional distribution of fatty acids.
Synthesis of dimethyl‐substituted C18 furanoid fatty ester
Authors: Lie Ken Jie M. S. F. , Wong K. P.
Published: January 2007

Reaction of a C18 furanoic fatty acid with dimethyl dicarboxylate (DMAD) furnished the corresponding bicyclo Diels‐Alder adduct, which was partially hydrogenated over Pd/BaSO4. Heat treatment (160–180°C) of the partially hydrogenated product caused a retro‐Diels‐Alder reaction to yield a furanoid fatty acid derivative containing methoxycarbonyl (COOCH3) substituents at the 3‐and 4‐positions of the furan nucleus. Reduction of the COOCH3 substituents with LiBH4 gave the corresponding CH2OH‐substituted furanoid fatty acid. Hydrogenation of the latter over Pd/C furnished the desired dimethyl‐substituted furanoid acid derivative (overall yield 60%). The spectroscopic properties of the intermediates and product are reported.
The influence of temperature on interactions and structures in semisolid fats
Authors: Johansson Dorota
Published: January 2007

The strength of fat crystal networks in oil increases at elevated temperatures due to increased adhesion between partially melted crystal surfaces. This strong adhesion, in combination with low oil viscosity (weak hydrodynamic force), is the reason for extensive fat crystal flocculation at elevated temperatures. The crystal flocs likely sinter, dramatically increasing the thickness of semisolid fats. Crystal growth also occurs. The described temperature‐induced crystal changes may be suppressed by a controlled sintering process at low temperature. Emulsifiers, such as sorbitan esters of tristearate, also suppress the temperature‐induced changes. Fat crystals can be used as thickeners or gelling agents for triglyceride oils in various applications. It is possible to direct the thickening to a specific temperature, and to control the degree of thickening, by choice of fat phase composition, additives, tempering conditions, and crystallization technique.
Sensory and chemical stability of tortilla chips fried in canola oil, corn oil, and partially hydrogenated soybean oil
Authors: Hawrysh Z. J. , Erin M. K. , Kim S. S. , Hardin R. T.
Published: January 2007

The effects of canola, corn, partially hydrogenated soy (PHS), partially hydrogenated canola (PHC), and low‐linolenate canola (LLC) oils on sensory and chemical attributes of tortilla chips were determined initially, after Schaal storage for 8 and 16 d (S8 and S16), and after practical storage for 16 and 24 wk (P16 and P24). Fresh chips were similar to each other in characteristic and off‐odors/flavors, except that PHC chips had the lowest characteristic and highest off‐odor/flavor. All S8 chips had similar lower (P<0.001) characteristic and greater off‐odor/flavor scores than hidden reference chips, but PHC chips had a more intense off‐odor than did LLC chips. After S16, canola chips had the lowest (P<0.001) characteristic and highest off‐odor/flavor; all other chips were similar. At P16, canola, PHC, and LLC chips had slightly higher (P<0.001) characteristic odor/flavor scores than other chips. After P16 and P24, all stored tortilla chips had lower characteristic odor/flavor scores than hidden reference chips. Rancid, painty, buttery odor/flavor, and bitter flavor notes were detected in Schaal and practically stored chips. Stored chips from all oils were similar in color and crispness. The peroxide value and thep‐anisidine value for oils extracted from Schaal‐stored chips tended to support panelist data; results from similar analyses of practically stored chips did not. Peroxide values andp‐anisidine values for stored used frying oils and the corresponding sensory data for stored chips generally did not agree. Results indicate considerable potential for increasing use of canola oil products for frying tortilla chips.
Soybean oil triacylglycerol analysis by reversed‐phase high‐performance liquid chromatography coupled with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry
Authors: Neff W. E. , Byrdwell W. C.
Published: January 2007

Soybean oil triacylglycerols from genetically modified soybean lines were conclusively identified by reversed‐phase high‐performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization. Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization is a soft ionization technique which gives simple spectra for triacylglycerols. Spectral identification of the triacylglycerols was based on the molecular [M+1]+ ion and the 1(2)‐, 2(3)‐ and 1(3)‐diacylglycerol fragments. Triacylglycerols identified in high‐stearic and high‐palmitic soybean varieties were quantitated by reversed‐phase high‐performance liquid chromatography with flame‐ionization detection. There was excellent agreement between the fatty acid composition calculated from the triacylglycerol composition and the fatty acid composition obtained by gas chromatography of the transmethylated oils. The oils of the modified soybean varieties, compared to typical soybean oil, contained increased content of triacylglycerols known to be more oxidatively stable, such as linoleoyloleoylstearoyl, linoleoylpalmitoylstearoyl, and linoleoyldipalmitoyl glycerols, and less triacylglycerols like trilinoleoylglycerol, known to decrease oxidative stability. This study showed that the atmospheric pressure chemical ionization technique is suitable for mass spectral identification of neutral molecules, such as triacylglycerols, which do not contain a chargeable functional group.
Rheological properties of alumina‐polyacrylate gel dispersions
Authors: Farooq Amjad , Mehreteab Ammanuel , Broze Guy , Dixit Nagaraj , Hsu Donald
Published: January 2007

Rheological properties of aqueous alumina‐polyacrylate gel dispersions have been investigated with a controlled stress rheometer as functions of both cross‐linked polyacrylate and alumina concentrations at pH 13. These studies were conducted to understand the role of alumina‐polyacrylate interactions in building the rheology of complex liquids that contain surfactants, sodium hypochlorite, alkali, and inorganic salts. Viscosity and viscoelasticity of polyacrylate gel dispersions can be enhanced by the addition of colloidal alumina. The trends in viscosity and viscoelasticity are explained on the basis of changes in the conformation of polyacrylate and repulsive interactions of negatively charged polyacrylate and alumina particles.
Rapid and direct lodine value and saponification number determination of fats and oils by attenuated total reflectance/fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
Authors: van de Voort F. R. , Sedman J. , Emo G. , Ismail A. A.
Published: January 2007

A simple, rapid and reproducible method of determining the iodine value (IV) and saponification number (SN) for fats and oils was developed with an attenuated total reflectance/Fourier transform infrared spectrometer and commercially available triglycerides as calibration standards. Partial least squares was used to determine the spectral regions correlating with the known chemical IV and SN values, and the calibration set was augmented with additional standards generated by spectral co‐adding techniques. The calibration model obtained was used to analyze commercially available fats and oils with a wide range of IV and SN values, and the results were compared to the values obtained by American Oil Chemists’ Society methods. With the spectrometer calibrated and programmed, IV and SN results could be obtained within 2–3 min per sample, a major improvement over conventional wet chemical methods.
Cyclic voltammetry of lipophilic compounds in oil: Direct determination of lipid peroxide with a carbon past electrode
Authors: Kim Ok‐Sun , Maekawa Keiko , Kusuda Kousuke
Published: January 2007

In preliminary experiments, we demonstrated that a cyclic voltammogram of a lipophilic compound can be conveniently obtained with the past electrode that was made from graphite powder and an oil in which the compound is dissolved. This finding was applied to the direct determination of lipid peroxides. Oxygenation of lipids at 120°C was followed by the cathodic current created by the reduction of the peroxides. The validity of the method was investigated by comparison with conventional methods (peroxide value, thiobarbituric acid, and weight gain). The amount of peroxides in an oil and its cathodic current show a linear relation in the initial stages of peroxidation (ca. 12 h). This electrochemical method was applied successfully to the evaluation of the antioxidant activity of butylated hydroxytoluene in linseed oil.
Comparative nutritional study of enzymatically and chemically interesterified palm oil products
Authors: Ray S. , Bhattacharyya D. K.
Published: January 2007

A comparative evaluation of the nutritional value of palm oil, which was interesterified by lipozyme and by chemical catalysis, has been done with albino rats (Charles Foster strain). The two interesterified fats have identical coefficients of digestibility, and rats fed the two fats exhibit similar patterns of growth response and food efficiency ratio. The total lipid and total cholesterol levels in serum of rats of the two interesterified fats are nearly the same, but there is a significant difference in free cholesterol level. The lipozyme‐catalyzed product creates a higher level of free cholesterol. Liver lipids of rats are identical in amount for the two groups, but the total cholesterol level of the lipozyme‐catalyzed group is significantly less than the chemically catalyzed group. The positional distribution of fatty acids differs between the two interesterified products. The nutritional attributes of interesterified oils can vary depending on the specificity of the catalyst employed.
Interference of peroxides with the determination of total carbonyls in autoxidized fats
Authors: Mizuno G. R. , Chipault J. R.
Published: January 2007

The contribution of hydroperoxides to the carbonyl content of autoxidized fats measured by a colorimetric 2,4‐dinitrophenylhydrazone procedure has been studied. Carbonyls were determined in radiation oxidized methyl myristate, in autoxidized methyl esters of oleie, linoleic and linolenic acids and in autoxidized oils, before and after reduction of hydroperoxides to hydroxyl groups.

The results indicate that hydroperoxides decompose to carbonyl compounds during the carbonyl determination and give carbonyl contents that are too high. The extent of the interference depends on the nature of the peroxides and, therefore, on the fatty acid composition of the material and on other factors probably associated with the conditions during autoxidation and subsequent storage. For these reasons it is not possible to apply a erratum for peroxide interference based on the determined peroxide value.

Carbonyl determinations on autoxidized lipids should be preceded by reduction of the peroxides to non‐carbonyl compounds, and care should be taken to prevent losses of low molecular weight carbonyls during this procedure.
Application of thin‐layer chromatography to the quantitative estimation of tissue triglycerides. I. Triglyceride distribution in the livers of calf, pig and rat
Authors: Sahasrabudhe Madhu R.
Published: January 2007

A multiple technique (TLC‐GLC) has been applied to the quantitative estimation of triglycerides in the livers of calf, pig and rat. The results are in general agreement with the triglyceride pattern calculated from the fatty acid distribution as suggested by Vander Wal (15).
The metabolism of polyenoic fatty acids
Authors: Klenk E.
Published: January 2007

Feeding experiments with C14‐labeled and unlabeled unsaturated fatty acids have been used to study the possible routes of formation of the C20‐ and C22‐polyenoic fatty acids of rat liver phosphatides. The acids of the palmitoleate, oleate, linoleate, and linolenate types (considered on the basis of the position of the double bond closest to the methyl end) are apparently formed from the C16 and C18 unsaturated acids of the corresponding types. The results rule out possible transformations of the C20‐ and C22‐polyenoic acids from one type to another, and demonstrate the exclusive introduction of new double bonds toward the carboxyl group. Isomers of linoleate or linolenate in which the double bonds were shifted by one carbon atom toward the carboxyl or methyl groups were incorporated into the phosphatides only to a negligible extent in the form of polyenoic acids.
Plant lipids
Authors: Allen C. Freeman , Good Pearl
Published: January 2007

The literature on lipid composition of algae and higher plants is reviewed to August, 1964. The complex glycero‐ and sphingolipids which have been reported from these sources are cataloged, and reference is made to key papers relating to their characterization, structure, and distribution.
Behaviour of lipase activity of the gamma‐irradiated groundnut during germination
Authors: Patel G. M. , Vyas D. N. , Patel K. C.
Published: January 2007

Lipase activity of gamma‐irradiated groundnut has been reported. The dosage levels: 10, 30, 50, 70, 90 and 120 Kiloroentgen (kr) units have different effects on lipase. Radiation levels of 50 kr units and above induced damage to the active centers. Lipase activity was found to decrease during the initial stages of germination, and to increase in later stages. After reaching maximum value, the activity decreased. The lipase of control seeds doubled during germination in light. Increase in irradiated seeds was about 1.5‐fold. Maximum activity for seeds treated under different conditions was attained at different periods of germination. Plant growth and the behaviour of lipase has been explained on the basis of other metabolic factors such as: ascorbic acid oxidase, amino acids and free fatty acids liberated during germination, and their mutual effects.
Studies on the fatty acid composition of crayfish lipids
Authors: Wolfe D. A. , Rao P. Venkata , Cornwell D. G.
Published: January 2007

The fatty acid composition of carcass and exoskeleton lipids was determined for the freshwater crayfishOrconectes rusticus. Lipid fractions were isolated by column and thin‐layer chromatography. Fatty acid methyl esters and alcohol acetates were then prepared and analyzed by gas‐liquid chromatography. Peak identities were established from retention time data for methyl esters, hydrogenated methyl esters, and saturated, monoene, diene, and polyene methyl esters separated as acetoxy‐mercuri‐methoxy derivatives. Minor component acids were estimated from their relative compositions in these fractions.
Optical brighteners as detergent additives
Authors: Stensby Per S.
Published: January 2007

Laundering with brightener‐free detergents generally restores, but does not improve, the initial whiteness of soiled white fabrics. Optical brighteners are needed to increase the total spectral radiance, which normally results in better whiteness and an impression of superior cleanliness. Today's quality detergents therefore contain optical brighteners, often at levels higher than 0.5%. The outlay for brightener at this level represents a significant portion of the total raw‐material cost. Proper evaluation and selection of brightener systems (1–5) is therefore important. Selection is related to detergent type, laundry habits, fiber content of the wash load, the hue of white preferred by housewives, and other factors. These factors tend to change. For example, in recent years, cold‐water washing has become more popular in the United States; the capacity of washing machines has increased; bleach dispensers have been added; more polyamide and polyester, resin‐treated cotton and blended fabrics have been introduced; and improved surfactant/builder systems have been developed for detergents. New brightener systems have, of necessity, been adopted. Changes will no doubt continue. The detergent industry will consider these changes carefully and will have to update brightener systems to comply with the new conditions.
Hydrogenation of triglycerides containing linolenic acids. I. Calculation of selectivity
Authors: Schmidt H. J.
Published: January 2007

A simple graphic method is presented for the determination of selectivity direct from the analytical data before and after hydrogenation of fatty oils. For the technically important hydrogenation of soybean oil, where trienoates are to be hydrogenated preferentially, a graph for the determination of the linolenate selectivity ratio was prepared.

It is shown by a generally valid mathematical derivation that it is possible in the hydrogenation of triglycerides containing linolenate to calculate the selectivity ratios in a relatively simple manner by eliminating the reaction time. As a result, one obtains a relationship between the initial and final concentrations of monoenoate, dienoate, and trienoate and the selectivity ratios. The exact calculation of such graphs as well as the exact determination of the selectivity ratios require no computer.
Automated refractive index measurement of catalyst‐laden edible oils undergoing partial hydrogenation
Authors: Cole Charles F. , Hill Glen M. , Adams Alois J.
Published: January 2007

A planar optical waveguide, excited by monochromatic light, becomes a sensor for measuring the refractive index (RI) of edible oils. RI is commonly used to determine iodine value (IV). This process sensor operates in the presence of nickel catalyst and diatomaceous earth (DE) powders. An on‐line refractometer system, incorporating this sensor, demonstrates an accuracy of ±0.0001 RI units (RIU). Resolution is 0.00001 RIU. The waveguide refractometer is based on a loss in light transmission due to a temperature‐induced matching of waveguide and oil RIs. An algorithm adjusts the RI to conform to the temperature and wavelength as specified in AOCS Method Cc 7–25 (Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists' Society, edited by D. Firestone, American Oil Chemists' Society, Champaign, 1989), the accepted procedure for RI measurement with an Abbé refractometer. The theory, construction and performance characteristics of a prototype waveguide refractometer are described. Samples of partially hydrogenated soybean oils (IV ranges=106–75) are first examined with the Abbé refractometer, then tested in the prototype waveguide refractometer. Catalyst and DE are subsequently added to each sample, and RI data are taken again with the waveguide refractometer. Results confirm the instrument's ±0.0001 RIU accuracy and its immunity to interference from catalyst and DE. Real‐time operation holds promise for automatic control, improved production efficiency, and better batch‐to‐batch consistency of the hydrogenation process.
Present and future position of coconut oil in world supply and trade
Authors: Ignacio L. F.
Published: January 2007

Coconut oil will remain available in quantities enough to meet the needs of industrial, institutional and household consumers in market countries at least throughout this century. Principal producing countries have restructured their domestic consumption formulations to make this commodity available to its users at more steady supply levels. This is being coupled by rejuvenation of tree stands, productivity measures and expanded hectarage. At the same time, parallel sources of similar oils are being explored in coconut‐producing countries like Papua, New Guinea, which now is a coconut and palm oil supplier nation.
Treatment of empty fruit bunches for recovery of residual oil and additional steam production
Authors: Jorgensen H. K.
Published: January 2007

The fiber and shells in fresh fruit bunches (FFB) are important as fuel in a standard palm oil milling process, with the empty bunches being incinerated or mulched for fertilizer application to oil palms. However, dewatering the empty bunches in an additional pressing station can substantially enhance the available energy. Recovery of residual oil which results from the pressing of the empty bunches is an attractive economic proposition in itself, especially with the change in the composition of the fresh fruit bunches as a result of the introduction of the weevil. The resultant fibrous material serves as valuable fuel for steam generation which can be profitably used for further downstream processing, especially where a refinery is located near a palm oil mill.
Chemistry of refining
Authors: Swoboda P. A. T.
Published: January 2007

Processing practices are reviewed, discussing the chemistry involved. Refining is a process of purification. Both the individual unit operations and the whole integrated process are considered. Efficiency of the physical and the alkaline refining procedures as practiced in Malaysia are compared. Palm oil is unique in being a fruit flesh oil and not a seed oil. The crude oil is produced at the oil mill by cooking, pressing and clarification. Quality of the crude affects the efficiency of refining and thus the quality of the fully processed product. Moreover, after fractionation problems can arise in refining of crude stearin. Recent research into the nature of the minor and trace constituents of crude palm oil is described. Their partition during fractionation and removal during the purification process of refining are important. Some chemical artifacts that can be formed during processing are discussed. Certain findings of the research laboratory are confirmed by actual commercial operations. Unique product specifications mean that both feedstock quality and refinery operation need to be controlled. Efficient optimization of processing requires a better understanding of the chemistry involved. Alternative purification procedures specifically relevant to palm oil are being investigated in the laboratory.
Processing for industrial fatty acids ‐ II
Authors: Ooi Suan Lin , Pee Ho Kee
Published: January 2007

Fatty acids are produced industrially from tallow, palm oil, palm stearin, palm kernel oil and coconut oil. The current and future supply situations of these raw materials and market economics favor palm stearin and palm kernel oil as major raw materials for fatty acids. The Malaysian oleochemical industry has adopted high‐temperature and high‐pressure “splitting” of triglycerides. Variations in product yields occurring in the processing of tallow and palm stearin and of coconut oil and palm kernel oil are indicated. Developments on the enzymic hydrolysis of triglycerides to fatty acids have been made, particularly in Japan. Enzymic hydrolysis at low temperature has the advantage of energy conservation compared to the high‐temperature and pressure‐splitting process. But enzymic hydrolysis is only applicable to triglycerides of low titre, such as palm kernel oil.
Oleochemicals in the plastics industry
Authors: Smith H. Verity
Published: January 2007

There are opportunities for the producers of natural renewable products to manufacture downstream products of industrial value. The plastics industry is only one of many that offer such opportunities. Palm and coconut are two of the many plants with chemical possibilities.
Precipitation of anionic surfactants in the presence of sodium oleate and calcium ions
Authors: Das S. , Nayyar N. , Bhirud R. G. , Narayan K. S. , Kumar V. V.
Published: January 2007

Precipitation of anionic surfactants, linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) and alpha olefin sulfonate (AOS), by calcium ions was studied in the presence of sodium oleate. Lather stability was determined by the Ross‐Miles method, precipitation was followed by measuring the optical density (OD), and equilibrium surface tension (EST) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy were used to characterize the nature of the precipitate formed. For the 5 mM LAS‐0.7 mM oleate system, lather was unstable, and the OD was high in the 2–5°FH region of calcium hardness, while at higher calcium hardness levels, lather was stable and the turbidity of solutions decreased. On the other hand, in the 5 mM AOS‐0.7 mM oleate system, lather was unstable throughout the calcium hardness region studied (0–20°FH). Also, the turbidity build‐up was much higher in the AOS system than in the LAS system. Analysis of the precipitates formed in these systems by FTIR spectroscopy indicated that the precipitate from the AOS system had an additional band at 1190 cm−1, corresponding to the sulfonate group. These results, together with the EST data, confirm that the precipitate formed in the LAS system between 2–5°FH calcium is calcium oleate, and that formed in the AOS system is likely to be calcium (AOS) oleate. It is tempting to hypothesize that the similarity of AOS and oleate in chainlength could be responsible for the coprecipitation of AOS and oleate with calcium, whereas LAS, which has a larger headgroup with a benzene ring and two smaller chains (average length is C8) is unlikely to precipitate with the oleate.
Polymer/surfactant interaction—Its relevance to detergent systems
Authors: Goddard E. D.
Published: January 2007

The field of polymer/surfactant interaction is reviewed in this work. Results from two investigative methods,viz., dialysis and surface tension, are discussed, illustrating the main behavioral patterns and outlining the principles of the interactions. Next, aspects of the interaction phenomena that appear to have relevance to detergent formulation are presented. These include solution rheology, solubility control and surface conditioning. Lastly, the importance of surface activity of the polymer itself is stressed, culminating in a discussion of the properties of hydrophobically modified water‐soluble polymers (“polymeric surfactants”), both alone and in the presence of conventional surfactants.
A quantitative study of factors that influence the substantivity of fragrance chemicals on laundered and dried fabrics
Authors: Escher Sina D. , Oliveros Esther
Published: January 2007

Model investigations of physicochemical aspects of the substantivity of fragrance raw materials on laundered fabrics were performed. The overall process was divided into two consecutive steps, laundry and dryout, which were characterized by affinity and tenacity, respectively. The affinities of fifteen fragrance raw materials to cotton and polyacrylonitrile were measured in standard fabric softener and detergent solutions. Affinities correlated with the corresponding partition coefficient, P(o/w). To study the impact of parameters independent of the chemical structure of the fragrance molecules, 1‐[3H]‐3‐methyl‐5‐phenylpentanol (phenylhexanol) was selected, and aqueous solutions of defined anionic, nonionic and cationic surfactants were used as model detergent and fabric softener media. A sequence of experiments, based on the fractional factorial design, was planted for quantifying the relative contribution on substantivity of a number of variables: the concentration of the fragrance chemical, the type and concentration of the surfactants, the type and weight of the fabrics (cotton or polyacrylonitrile) and the washing temperature in the case of cotton. The affinity that characterizes the washing process depends mainly on the type of fabric and the type of surfactant and, to a lesser extent, on the surfactant concentration and the temperature. Anionic and nonionic surfactants, the main components of detergent powders, behave similarly, whereas the combination of cationic surfactant with cotton markedly enhances the affinity. For phenylhexanol, the tenacity after dryout is largely controlled by the type of fabric. The role of fiber swelling is discussed. The substantivity, which represents the global effect of laundering and dryout, shows the same trend as the affinity. The complexity of the physicochemical phenomena involved is highlighted by the importance of the interactions between the main contributing factors.
Flavor stability of soybean oil based on induction periods for the formation of volatile compounds by gas chromatography
Authors: Warner K. , Frankel E. N.
Published: January 2007

Although previous research showed that volatile compounds detected by gas chromatography (GC) correlated well with flavor scores, no instrumental or chemical method has been available to predict flavor stability of vegetable oils reliably. A direct GC method was tested to predict flavor stability of soybean oil by measuring induction periods based on the time required for rapid formation of volatile compounds. By this technique, induction periods of 9, 5 and 0 days were obtained with oils containing a combination of tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) and citric acid (CA), CA only and no additives, respectively. Addition of methyl silicone to the oils containing CA or CA+TBHQ did not increase their stability. Prominent peaks identified by gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry included: pentane, hexanal, 2‐heptanal, 2,4‐heptadienal, 2‐decenal and 2,4‐decadienal. Measures of total volatile compounds, pentane and 2,4‐decadienal were best related to deteriorative changes. High correlation coefficients were obtained between individual and total volatiles with flavor scores. This study showed that flavor stability of oils can be predicted by determining induction periods based on the formation of volatile compounds.
Simultaneous determination of moisture and oil content in oilseeds by pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance
Authors: Gambhir P. N. , Agarwala A. K.
Published: January 2007

Pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance technique using Carr‐Purcell‐Meiboom‐Gill (CPMG) sequence has been used for simultaneous determination of moisture and oil content in rapeseed‐mustard. This method involves sampling the free induction decay (FID) following 90° pulse in the CPMG sequence and resolving the trace of the amplitude of the CPMG echo signals into exponentially decaying liquid components of oilseeds. The data show that water in oilseeds generally exists in 2 phases and the relatively slow decaying component disappears around moisture content of 7% and below. The moisture and oil content have been determined by the method for 34 samples of 5 different varieties of seeds at varying moisture levels (∼3% to 22%). The measured moisture and oil content have been compared with the values obtained by the oven drying method and earlier known FID method of pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) respectively, and the agreement is fairly good for rapid estimation with standard deviation of 0.70% for oil content and 0.99% for moisture content. This is a rapid and nondestructive method for determination of both moisture and oil content without weighing and drying the seeds and also seems suitable for other matrix samples.
Epoxidation ofLesquerella andLimnanthes (Meadowfoam) oils
Authors: Carlson Kenneth D. , Kleiman Robert , Bagby Marvin O.
Published: January 2007

Lesquerella gordonii (Gray) Wats andLimnanthes alba Benth. (Meadowfoam) are species being studied as new and alternative crops. Triglyceride oil from lesquerella contains 55–60% of the uncommon 14‐hydroxy‐cis‐11‐eicosenoic acid. Meadowfoam oil has 95% uncommon acids, includingca. 60%cis‐5‐eicosenoic acid. Both oils are predominantly unsaturated (3% saturated acids), and have similar iodine values (90–91), from which oxirane values of 5.7% are possible for the fully epoxidized oils. Each oil was epoxidized withm‐chloro‐peroxybenzoic acid, and oxirane values were 5.0% (lesquerella) and 5.2% (meadowfoam). The epoxy acid composition of each product was examined by gas chromatography of the methyl esters, which showed that epoxidizedL. gordonii oil contained 55% 11,12‐epoxy‐14‐hydroxyeicosanoic acid, and epoxidized meadowfoam oil contained 63% 5,6‐epoxyeicosanoic acid, as expected for normal complete epoxidation. Mass spectrometry of trimethylsilyloxy derivatives of polyols, prepared from the epoxidized esters, confirmed the identity of the epoxidation products and the straightforward nature of the epoxidation process. Synthesis and characterization of these interesting epoxy oils and derivatives are discussed.
Oxidative stability of fat substitutes and vegetable oils by the oxidative stability index method
Authors: Akoh Casimir C.
Published: January 2007

Oxidative Stability Index (OSI) of carbohydrate fatty acid polyesters, fat substitutes and vegetable oils were measured with the Omnion Oxidative Stability Instrument according to the new AOCS Standard Method Cd 12 B‐92 (The Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists' Society, edited by D. Firestone, AOCS, Champaign, 1991). The stability of crude and refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) vegetable oils (soybean, hydrogenated soybean and peanut) were determined at 110°C. In addition, OSI times for sucrose polyesters of soybean oil, butterfat, oleate:stearate and methyl glucoside polyester of soybean oil were determined in the absence and in the presence of 0.02 wt% antioxidants, [Tenox TBHQ (tertiary butylhydroquinone, Tenox GT‐2 (from Eastman Chemical Products (Kingsport, TN); and vitamin E (from BASF, Wyandotte, MI)], and the results were compared with those of vegetable oils. Crude oils were most stable (20.4–25.9 h), followed by RBD oils (9.3–10.4 h) for soybean and peanut oils, respectively, and fat substitutes (3.8–6.8 h). Overall, Tenox TBHQ was the best antioxidant for improving the oxidative stability of both vegetable oils and fat substitutes. The sucrose polyester made with oleic and stearic acid was more stable than fat substitutes containing more polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as those from soybean oil, or from short‐chain fatty acids, such as from butterfat. Antioxidants enhanced the stability of RBD oils (222% increase) and synthetic fat substitutes (421–424% increase) more than that of crude oils (33% increase). The shapes of the induction curves, not the actual OSI times for fat substitutes and vegetable oils, were similar and sharply defined.
Proportions of C18∶1n−7 and C18∶1n−9 fatty acids in canola seedcoat surface and internal lipids
Authors: Hu X. , Daun J. K. , Scarth R.
Published: January 2007

Lipids of canola seedcoats (Brassica napus L. andB. rapa L.) were prepared by surface washing and by complete extraction of seed coats with toluene. The major fatty acyl‐containing triacylglycerols, wax esters and free fatty acids were separated by thin‐layer chromatography prior to transesterification and analysis by gas‐liquid chromatography. The proportion of C18∶1n−7 to C18∶1n−9 was higher in the extracted lipids than in the surface‐washed lipids for all three classes.
Formulation of household automatic dishwasher detergents
Authors: Fuchs R. J.
Published: January 2007

The growth of the household automatic dishwasher detergent market and factors affecting future growth is reviewed. Major formulation changes that have occurred during the years are discussed, with emphasis on those contributions which resulted in significant improvement in performance. Present day formulations are classified according to types of ingredients and method of manufacture. Formulation options, types of equipment that can be used and factors which affect product performance are discussed, and performance test methods are described.
Sampling for respirable cotton dust
Authors: Robert K. Q. , Baril A.
Published: January 2007

The nature of sampling from a dust cloud containing fine dust and lint fragments is reviewed. The definition of “respirable cotton dust” in the OSHA Cotton Dust Standard is compared and contrasted with the quantity measured by the NIOSH (Lumsden‐Lynch) vertical elutriator (VE) cotton dust sampler. Theoretical and empirical factors that affect the accuracy and precision of VE measurements are discussed. Technologies for alternative sampling strategies and for improving VE sampling are described.
Lipid methodology — Chromatography and beyond. Part I. GC/MS and LC/MS of glycerolipids
Authors: Kuksis A. , Myher J. J. , Marai L.
Published: January 2007

This paper reviews recent examples of the application of combined high temperature gas‐liquid chromatography (GLC) and reversed phase high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electron impact and chemical ionization mass spectrometry for structural studies of natural diacyl and triacylglycerols. It was concluded that the combination of reversed phase HPLC with direct liquid inlet chemical ionization mass spectrometry provides the most complete resolution and most reliable identification of natural acylglycerols, far exceeding the capabilities of either technique alone. The LC/MS method is suitable for quantitative analysis following appropriate calibration of the total or fragment ion response.
Ammoniation of aflatoxin B1 in a pressure chamber used to decontaminate toxin‐containing cottonseed meal
Authors: Lee L. S. , Koltun S. P. , Stanley J. B.
Published: January 2007

Radiolabelled aflatoxin B1 mixed with non‐labelled B1 distributed on an inert carrier was treated in a pressurized ammoniation chamber with 4% ammonia at 40 psi and held at 100 C for 30 min. Twenty per cent of the radiolabel was lost, probably as volatiles. Less than 1% of the original toxin was recovered as B1 indicating that ammoniation altered the structure of essentially all of the B1. Approximately 20% of degraded aflatoxin B1 was accounted for as a 206 MW compound that exhibited properties of a nonfluorescent phenol with a difuran moiety but neither the lactone carbonyl nor the cyclopentenone ring of aflatoxin B1. The remaining degradation products were fragments of B1 having molecular weights less than 200.
Effect of surfactant structure on stability of enzymes formulated into laundry liquids
Authors: Kravetz L. , Guin K. F.
Published: January 2007

The effect of surfactant structure on enzyme stability in heavy duty laundry liquids was investigated. Surfactants studied were alcohol ethoxylates and anionic surfactants having varying hydrophobic and hydrophilic types and chain lengths. Enzymes used were proteases and amylases. The results showed these enzymes were considerably more stable when formulated into laundry liquids containing alcohol ethoxylates and ethoxysulfates than when formulated with alcohol sulfates and surfactants containing sulfonate groups such as linear alkylbenzene sulfonates and alpha olefin sulfonates. Enzyme stabilizer systems were only partially effective in reducing the enzymedeactivating influence of sulfonate‐containing surfactants.
The production potential of eicosapentaenoic and arachidonic acids by the red algaPorphyridium cruentum
Authors: Cohen Zvi
Published: January 2007

The red microalgaPorphyridium cruentum is a new source for eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and arachidonic acid (AA) fatty acids of potential pharmaceutical value. The conditions leading to a high content of either fatty acid were investigated. The highest EPA content was obtained under conditions resulting in high growth rate (2.4% of ash free dry weight in Strain 1380‐1d). High AA content was obtained under slow growth conditions and was maximal in th stationary phase or under nitrogen starvation (2.9%). Strain 1380‐la had the highest content (1.9%) of arachidonic acid under exponential growth conditions. By imposing nitrogen starvation, it was possible to obtain a lipid mixture which may be separated into AA and EPA rich fractions.
Investigation of the technological properties ofNigella sativa (black cumin) seed oil
Authors: Üstun G. , Kent L. , Çekin N. , Civelekoglu H.
Published: January 2007

Three commercially cultivatedNigella sativa seed varieties of Turkish origin were analyzed, and the characteristics and constituents of the seed oils were reported. Presence of lipase enzyme in seed results in enzymatic hydrolysis at ordinary temperature; the free acid content of oil may increase up to 40% or higher. Black cumin seed oil might serve as a source of semi‐drying oil and fatty acids of technical grade, and the removal of free fatty acids from oil and the recovery of fatty acids were investigated.