bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Organizational Principles Under External Pressure
Authors: Eckes Christina
Published: March 2019

Chapter 3 identifies how the organizational principles of subsidiarity, primacy, and consistency are interpreted in the context of external relations. When Union action gives effect to international law, for example, this is portrayed by the EU institutions as amounting in certain circumstances to an assumption that the requirements of subsidiarity are met. Yet subsidiarity is regularly reduced to an economic concept focused on increasing ability to achieve a certain objective, that is, effectiveness. The chapter highlights the democratic legitimacy dimension of subsidiarity. It argues that, in particular, the principle of subsidiarity forms part of the bonding structures because it offers a formal legal opportunity to justify Union action and explicate that the Union is better placed to represent its citizens externally. With regard to primacy, Chapter 3 demonstrates that this principle is the necessary precondition for both the autonomy and effectiveness of the EU legal order. It explains how EU external relations may put primacy under pressure. It gives a glimpse of why national courts may rebel against the primacy of EU law because of this external pressure. Chapter 3 then turns to the principle of coherence. It argues that the Lisbon Treaty made a choice for coherence through ambiguity, which empowers the Court and contributes to the opaqueness of decision-making in the context of external relations. It argues that (perceived) coherence is a necessary precondition for bonding structures between the Union and EU citizens to realize their potential. Moreover, justifiability and hence legitimacy require a certain level of coherence and predictability.
European Union Rights and Values in Human Health
Authors: de Ruijter Anniek
Published: March 2019

This book looks at the impact of the expanding power of the EU in terms of fundamental rights and values. The current chapter lays down the framework for this analysis. Law did not always have a central role to play in the context of medicine and health. The role of law grew after the Second Word War and the Nuremberg Doctors Trials (1947), in which preventing the repetition of atrocities that were committed in the name of medicine became a guidepost for future law regarding patients’ rights and bioethics. In the period after the War, across the EU Member States, health law developed as a legal discipline in which a balance was struck in medicine and public health between law, bioethics, and fundamental rights. The role of EU fundamental rights protections in the context of public health and health care developed in relation with the growth of multilevel governance and litigation (national, international, Council of Europe, and European Union). For the analysis here, this chapter develops an EU rights and values framework that goes beyond the strictly legal and allows for a ‘normative language’ that takes into consideration fundamental rights as an expression of important shared values in the context of the European Union. The perspective of EU fundamental rights and values can demonstrate possible tensions caused by EU health policy: implications in terms of fundamental rights can show how highly sensitive national policy issues may be affected by the Member States’ participation in EU policymaking activities.
Institutional Build-up of EU Health Actors
Authors: de Ruijter Anniek
Published: March 2019

The growth of substantive EU public health and individual health policy and law is matched by a historic build-up of EU institutional actors. The institutional expansion has increased the EU’s capacity for law- and policy-making in the field of health and as such the possibility for the growth of EU power in this area. This chapter traces the evolution and growing presence of EU institutional actors in human health. It outlines the relevance of the growing institutional capacity for creating EU health law and policy. Subsequently a sketch is drawn of the emergence of EU institutional involvement in health policy—while taking into consideration that it may not be possible to create an exhaustive overview of all health actors involved at the EU level. This outline illustrates the growth of a variety of institutional actors and the expanding number of ways these engage in health policymaking. Moreover, the chapter demonstrates various ways in which EU institutional involvement in health is continuously expanding and changing. It illustrates that there is ample opportunity for formal actors with legislative or regulatory powers to be involved in informal processes of coordinating policy in the shadow of hierarchy. The growing institutional presence of the EU in health policy over time, and the possible shift in power to the EU this can entail, again confronts us with the pressing issue of its impact on fundamental rights and values in health.
A Commission under Scrutiny
Authors: Hoyle Carolyn , Sato Mai
Published: March 2019

This chapter examines the nature of criticisms about the Criminal Cases Review Commission, especially with regards to its application of the ‘real possibility test’ in investigating and referring potential wrongful conviction cases. It begins with a discussion of the Commission's structural failings as perceived by critics external to the institution, with particular emphasis on the argument that focusing on safety and the real possibility test prevents the Commission from referring cases to the Court of Appeal in the interests of ‘justice’, or ‘innocence’. Critics also claim that the Commission does not strike a proper balance between thoroughness and efficiency in the allocation of its finite resources; that it is inconsistent in its response; and that it sometimes does not communicate adequately with applicants and their legal representatives. The chapter concludes with an overview of the book's key research goals as well as the methods employed to realise them.
Triage: The Application Screening Process
Authors: Hoyle Carolyn , Sato Mai
Published: March 2019

This chapter examines how the Criminal Cases Review Commission makes sense of approximately 1,400 applications it receives each year, focusing on the mechanisms that are in place for stage one of decision-making — that is, cases are screened in or out of the process. Drawing on Keith Hawkins' theoretical framework of ‘surround’, ‘field’ and ‘frame’, it considers how the Commission screens out applications early through a ‘triage’ process. The chapter first describes the four types of applications received by the Commission before discussing individual commissioners' decision frames, the new screening policy that has been introduced at stage one decision-making, and decision frames in relation to the surround and field. It also analyses the Commission's approach to guilty pleas, the impact of legal representation on stage one decisions, and drivers of stage one decision-making. It shows that the Commission, in practice, uses ‘triggers’ as shortcuts to help guide decision-making at stage one.
Responding to Applicants’ Allegations of Policing Without Integrity
Authors: Hoyle Carolyn , Sato Mai
Published: March 2019

This chapter examines the Criminal Cases Review Commission's response to claims that policing without integrity affects the safety of the applicant's conviction. It first considers cases of wrongful conviction that led to the establishment of two royal commissions on criminal procedure and criminal justice before discussing whether the inclusion of allegations of police misconduct can be the ‘kiss of death for an application to the Commission’ and whether the test of unsafety is more widely protective than a test of innocence. It then explores how the Commission's ‘surround’ influences its decision field and how it assumes a legal frame in making crucial decisions regarding evidence of improper policing. It also analyses cases with police misconduct and non-disclosure as a ground for referral before concluding with an overview of past, present, and future challenges faced by the Commission with regard to the issue of policing without integrity.
‘Post-decision Decision-making’
Authors: Hoyle Carolyn , Sato Mai
Published: March 2019

This chapter examines the Criminal Cases Review Commission's policy on post-decision decision-making, focusing on what happens in cases when the Commission has decided there are no grounds for referral but where the applicant comes back with further information or a new application to try to persuade the Commission that its decision was wrong. The chapter first describes the legitimacy of the Commission's post-decision decision-making before discussing its instrumental decision-making based on referrals, judicial review, and procedural justice. It then shows how the Commission responds to ‘further submissions’ or ‘reapplications’, and how they provide applicants with an opportunity to have their cases reconsidered. It also analyses the empirical and theoretical drivers that underpin the Commission's decision field, the new ‘frames’ that make it possible to redefine cases in further submissions and reapplications, and how developments in the surround affects the Commission's decision frame.
Experimental Science and the Art of the Novel
Authors: McLeish Tom
Published: March 2019

The coincident birth of experimental science and the early English novel is followed to its underlying rationale of mimesis—the construction of small, abstracted worlds in which possibilities and constraints play out and which teach us about the wider world. The second mode of imagination is the textual. The entangled story of the textual in literature and science is followed though Newton and Milton, Boyle and Defoe, Humboldt and Emerson, and a parallel reading of Henry James’ The Art of the Novel and William Beveridge’s The Art of Scientific Investigation. Late-modern comparisons are made between Feynman’s Nobel Prize account, and the writing of Nabokov and Woolf, finding that textual imagination still displays common creative patterns in science and literature.
The End of Creation
Authors: McLeish Tom
Published: March 2019

The book finishes with an examination of the human purpose of creativity and creation. The evidence and narrative gathered so far is summarized in a ‘creation narrative’—a basic story of the emotional and cognitive trajectory of the creative process. Drawing on recent work in anthropology, narratology, and theology, and on phenomenological philosophy of the human condition, the chapter develops the thesis that creativity of all kinds contributes to a healing of a broken or incomplete human relationship with the world. The story of our growing understanding of the rainbow acts as an illustration of the extreme length, but great human depth, of this process.
When Elephants Rampage
Authors: Abrahms Max
Published: March 2019

This chapter examines the effects of removing militant leaders in so-called decapitation strikes. Leadership decapitation has become a cornerstone of counterterrorism strategy. Most research on this topic assesses whether killing the leader “works” by reducing the lifespan of the group or its ability to produce violence. But this chapter suggests a more nuanced finding. If militant leaders often restrain the rank-and-file, then taking them out should make their groups even more extreme in their targeting choices. More than the quantity of violence, decapitation reduces its quality. This chapter presents a battery of evidence that removing the leaders of most militant groups leads to more indiscriminate violence by empowering lower-level members to have less restraint about civilians.
Denial of Organizational Involvement
Authors: Abrahms Max
Published: March 2019

The first two rules for rebels are important for the leader in minimizing terrorism. Even in the best-run groups, though, some militants may occasionally commit terrorism due to ignorance, stupidity, carelessness, bad luck, or for personal reasons like revenge. Regardless of the exact cause, civilian attacks are a public relations fiasco for the organization. Like the head of any organization, militant leaders must act strategically to minimize the fallout to its reputation whenever members blunder. The third rule for rebels is for the leader to brand the organization as moderate even when members act otherwise. In practice, this means denying organizational involvement (DOI) in civilian attacks. This chapter explains the scientific basis of DOI and its pervasiveness in militant groups with smart leaders.
The expressive function of language
Authors: Gutzmann Daniel
Published: March 2019

This chapter offers a very brief historical perspective on the notion of expressivity and introduces the general idea of hybrid semantics, before presenting various instances of expressions fulfilling the expressive language function, and the tools for their semantic analysis. The three main phenomena of this book will be introduced (expressive adjectives, expressive intensifiers, and expressive vocatives) and the specific semantic properties of expressive meaning will be discussed. The second half of the chapter provides an overview of recent formal approaches to expressivity and sketches the main ideas of a formal semantic approach to expressive meaning that is based on the idea of a multidimensional system, before presenting the specific system that will be used for the purposes of the case studies in this book.
Looking back and looking ahead
Authors: Gutzmann Daniel
Published: March 2019

The final chapter is concerned with looking back and looking ahead. It concludes with a broad view of the topics dealt with in this book and summarizes the main findings: expressivity can partake in agreement, expressivity can trigger movement, and expressivity can be selected for. The chapter briefly predicts what the main conclusion—that expressivity is represented in syntax—may mean for existing and future research on expressives and the syntax-semantics interface, before giving some concrete suggestions for future directions of investigations including reflections on expressive adjectives, expressivity and its relation to determiners, cross-linguistic variation, and diachronic development and acquisition.
Buying for Britain, China, or India?
Authors: Thackeray David
Published: March 2019

Chapter 3 seeks to gain a clearer understanding of the language, reach, and limits of competing patriotic trade campaigns in the Empire-Commonwealth during the 1920s and 1930s. Efforts to foster the concept of ‘buying British’ served to highlight the marginality of Indian and Chinese businesspeople within the imperial economic community. This stimulated the development of competing patriotic trade campaigns in which non-white imperial subjects challenged British economic leadership by presenting themselves as part of alternative economic communities connected across and beyond imperial spaces. The hybridity of colonial subjects’ identities impeded efforts to develop patriotic trade networks and meant that the content, character, and popular appeal of trade campaigns shifted between different regions. Despite the prevalence of a ‘Buy British’ rhetoric in the Dominions, patriotic trade drives there quickly came to focus chiefly on national protectionism rather than wider themes of imperial collaboration.
Introduction
Authors: Thackeray David
Published: March 2019

Forging a British World of Trade explores the politics of culture, ethnicity, and market in the Empire-Commonwealth between the 1880s and 1970s, focusing on efforts to promote an economic system centred on trade between the UK and the old Commonwealth. This chapter situates the themes of the study within the existing historiography on British World networks. In recent years British World studies have received significant criticism both for the focus of their research and its absences. A key part of the problem here is that studies of the British World too often neglect key questions of uneven cultural and power relations. No one idea about the optimal future of British World collaboration was ever hegemonic. We should not discard the British World as a category of analysis, but rather explore how British World economic networks competed over time with alternative national, regional, and international ideas of trade community.
Introduction
Authors: Ryan Kevin M.
Published: March 2019

A variety of phonological phenomena are sensitive to weight, including stress, prosodic minimality, meter, end-weight, tone licensing, compensatory lengthening, syllable structure, reduplication, and allomorphy. After a preamble situating prosodic weight historically with examples from Sanskrit, this introductory chapter surveys weight-sensitive systems and the universals of weight that hold across them. For example, length and complexity contribute to weight in every part of the syllable, including the onset, which is traditionally regarded as being irrelevant for weight. Sonority also affects weight across phenomena, with greater sonority contributing to weight in the syllable rime but detracting from it in the onset. Weight further applies to prosodic constituents above the syllable. Finally, the scope and aims of the book are summarized, including an outline of the subsequent chapters on metrical weight systems as well as an introduction to the constraint family employed to relate weight to prominence across systems.
Prosodic minimality in isolation and in context
Authors: Ryan Kevin M.
Published: March 2019

Prosodic minimality refers to the minimum size requirements that languages impose on prosodic words. To date, nearly all research on prosodic minimality considers the prosodic word in isolation. This chapter summarizes this literature but focuses rather on the phonological analysis of minima in the context of larger prosodic constituents, a domain that reveals new issues. In particular, resyllabification across words can threaten minima (as when CVC words resyllabify), to which languages can respond either by suppressing resyllabification if it threatens minimality, by allowing resyllabification but repairing the word through lengthening, or by letting the resulting degenerate word stand as such. Case studies of Prakrit, Tamil, and Latin illustrate these three possibilities, respectively. Tamil is of further interest because only a subset of its coda consonants contribute to minimality. Evidence converges from across systems that its two rhotics fail to bear weight, despite being highly sonorous coda consonants.
Conclusion and further issues
Authors: Ryan Kevin M.
Published: March 2019

This chapter concludes, summarizing key findings concerning prosodic weight and raising issues for further research. It compares three approaches to weight-sensitivity in phonology, namely, categorical mapping constraints (such as WEIGHT-TO-STRESS), phonetic discriminant analysis (which identifies optimal criteria), and direct phonetics–phonology interface approaches (such as $t$-to-Stress, where $t$ is a numerical weight percept). Advantages and pathologies of each approach are discussed, pointing towards a possible eventual synthesis. The chapter also includes sections treating the opacity of weight criteria, the domain of the weight percept (which is argued to include parts of onsets by way of p-centers), and the varying degrees of categoricity vs. gradience found in different types of phenomena, where the incidence of gradience tends to correlate with domain size.
Geodesics
Authors: Carlip Steven
Published: March 2019

The generalization of a “straight line” in Euclidean geometry is a geodesic, the shortest distance between two points in a (possibly curved) space or spacetime. This chapter introduces geodesics, starting with examples and leading up to the general geodesic equation. Along the way, the metric and the notion of causal structure are explained, and it is shown that the geodesic equation can reproduce the equations for motion of an object in Newtonian gravity.
Manifolds and tensors
Authors: Carlip Steven
Published: March 2019

The mathematical basis of general relativity is differential geometry. This chapter establishes the starting point of differential geometry: manifolds, tangent vectors, cotangent vectors, tensors, and differential forms. The metric tensor is introduced, and its symmetries (isometries) are described. The importance of diffeomorphism invariance (or “general covariance”) is stressed.
The stress-energy tensor
Authors: Carlip Steven
Published: March 2019

The “source” of gravity in the Einstein field equations is the stress-energy tensor. After a discussion of why gravitational mass should be part of a rank two tensor, this chapter derives the stress-energy tensor for a variety of types of matter: point particles, perfect fluids, scalar fields, and electromagnetism. The chapter discusses the relationship of differential and integral conservation laws, and introduces the problem of gravitational energy. It concludes with a discussion of one of the most remarkable results of general relativity, the fact that equations of motion for matter do not need to be introduced separately, but follow from the field equations.
Key Questions
Authors: Bains Sunny
Published: March 2019

“Key Questions” works through the questions that come up when trying to evaluate a technology or think through how to solve a technical problem. It starts by looking at the technology itself and how to determine what it’s likely to be good for based on features such as performance or cost. Then it turns the question around to look at the problem being solved and what its requirements are: these criteria will help understand what success looks like. The effect of time is considered next. How will the demands of the technology and its application evolve? What difference will any start-up lag will make? Finally, it goes on to consider all the technologies competing to solve the given problem: how do they match up to the requirements of the application? Are there weaknesses that stop them being viable solutions?
Audience and Explanation
Authors: Bains Sunny
Published: March 2019

“Audience and Explanation,” which is the first of three chapters on communicating technical work, starts by focusing on the audience and how understanding their backgrounds and interests is critical to being able to report in a way that is meaningful to them. It consider their motivation for reading, what kinds of explanations will make sense to them, what kind of visualizations will be helpful, and the language that they will (or won’t) be able to follow. A section on jargon explains when to use a word without explanation, when to define, and when to avoid using a technical word altogether. There is also a discussion on the use of various kinds of figures (e.g. charts, photographs, and diagrams), how they are best used, captions, and how to avoid problems with copyright and plagiarism.
Technical Argument and Structure
Authors: Bains Sunny
Published: March 2019

“Technical Argument and Structure” discusses the steps involved in constructing a report. For a technical story to be told coherently, the audience must be given the context they need to appreciate the work that has been done. The first part of this chapter covers a straightforward formula to achieve this. The argument starts by presenting the vision (goal) for the work and then narrows down to the reason why progress was needed, the specific technical problem or obstacle that needs to be tackled to make this progress, the prognosis, and the competing solutions (and why the status quo is not good enough in these particular circumstances). This then leads perfectly to a discussion of the new solution. The second part of the chapter talks about overlaying structure on top of that: specifically, how to think about introductions, titles, and conclusions in the context of the technical argument.
Tense and Interperspectival Content
Authors: Ludlow Peter
Published: March 2019

Is tense, as some contend, merely a feature of language (linguistic tense) or is it used to express some perspectival feature of the world? Many have argued that a proper analysis of linguistic tense would say that the tense operators in natural language express nonperspectival features of the world—that past and future linguistic tense are just used to express static universal relations between events or times. Tensers and detensers are split on precisely this point: tensers take tense to express an irreducible and real perspectival feature of the world, and detensers think it is a superficial property of language or thought that refers to aperspectival contents. In this chapter tense is among several examples of perspectival content. It is argued that perspectival contents, or interperspectival contents, are expressed in different ways from different perspectival positions.
Some Alternative Accounts of Interperspectival Content
Authors: Ludlow Peter
Published: March 2019

This chapter looks at a number of attempts to exorcise perspectival content from the semantics (and thus, presumably, from our metaphysics). First, perhaps, we can make do with token indexical (token reflexive) content, give the account of human action and emotion that we needed, and avoid the use of perspectival contents. The chapter also considers other approaches to perspectival contents including David Lewis’s account of the de se, Kaplan’s theory of indexicals, and use-based accounts. It is argued that all such accounts sweep the perspectival content under the rug and fail to eliminate it.
Some Additional Metaphysical Questions
Authors: Ludlow Peter
Published: March 2019

The book has been making the case that perspectival content is necessary for the explanation of much of human activity, and that the best approach to tense is to think in terms of interperspectival contents. It has already covered a number of metaphysical worries about tense and perspectival contents (McTaggart’s argument, for example) but there are two additional worries that need to be addressed. The first has to do with the problem of truth-makers. The second has to do with the kinds of contents that are metaphysically admissible. It is argued that metaphysical concerns about truth-makers and Humean supervenience do not undermine the positing of interperspectival contents. Such contents are part and parcel of basic low-level descriptions and they do not thwart attempts at naturalization of our accounts of action, emotion, etc.
Food Commodity Speculation
Authors: Chadwick Anna
Published: March 2019

Chapter 3 explores the significance of practices of ‘food commodity speculation’ in the causation of the global food crisis. After introducing some of the main instruments and actors involved in commodity derivatives trading, the chapter examines competing claims over the role of financial speculation in the global food crisis. Seeking to break the impasse that has characterized debates on this issue, the chapter probes into claims by NGOs that commodity futures markets have been ‘financialized’ in recent decades. The author draws on a body of literature from the Social Studies of Finance to argue that there is an urgent need to reconceptualize the nature of derivatives and their contribution to processes of value formation in underlying markets. The chapter concludes by signalling the emergence of a new logic of financial accumulation that has significant implications both for attempts to use financial regulation to address ‘excessive’ levels of speculation, and, more broadly, for the political economy of hunger.
‘OTC’, ‘Financial’ Innovation, and Food Commodity Speculation
Authors: Chadwick Anna
Published: March 2019

This chapter takes issue with the popular presentation of the OTC market as a ‘regulatory vacuum’. The analysis demonstrates that the OTC market did not emerge spontaneously in response to the risk management needs of commercial actors, nor was it created through financial ‘deregulation’. Governments in the UK and the US were influential in the construction of the market and in the creation of a new private law centred approach to the regulation of finance in the years leading up to the global financial crisis and the global food crisis. Subsequent parts of the chapter challenge the dominant characterization of the products traded within this market as being the result of ‘financial’ innovation. Highlighting some of the significant developments in contract law that have furnished market actors with the capacity to develop new derivative contracts, the chapter ultimately demonstrates that contract law has played an active role in the emergence of a new market logic oriented towards financial accumulation.
Conclusion
Authors: Chadwick Anna
Published: March 2019

The conclusion begins with a discussion of the significance of some recent developments in the trajectory of agricultural commodity prices. The author then draws together the key arguments developed throughout the book, and offers some final reflections on the relationship between law and the political economy of hunger. The reflections are organized around the intellectual debts schema set out in the Introduction. Using the lenses of entitlement, commodification, Institutionalist insights, and Karl Polanyi’s motif of ‘double movement’, the author concludes with a determination on whether existing legal solutions to the challenge of world hunger are likely to be effective when the role of law in constituting markets and in conditioning logics of accumulation is taken into account.
Conclusion
Authors: Meyer Jessica
Published: March 2019

This chapter summarizes the arguments made in the previous chapters, relating the points that they make to the representation of the Royal Army Medical Corps in the aftermath of the war. It further considers what information is known about the post-war activities of some of the men whose personal narratives have been discussed in the text, to reflect on the effect of the war on individual men’s constructions of subjective masculine identity over time. In doing so, it argues that the multiple masculinity that existed in wartime society was evident across a range of wartime service, complicating and nuancing historians’ understandings of gender relationships in the period. Exploring such relationships in detail, it contends, enables us to more fully understand the work and experiences of a previously underexamined but significant category of First World War British servicemen.
Fiscal Policy Coordination
Authors: Rommerskirchen Charlotte
Published: March 2019

This chapter sets the scene for this study by providing historical context and introducing the key aspects, processes, and players of fiscal policy coordination. In so doing it charts key developments of pre-crisis fiscal policy coordination, before turning to the creation of the European crisis agreement, the European Economic Recovery Plan (EERP), and finally the reform packages post-crisis. Despite impressions to the contrary, the procedures for fiscal policy coordination are extensive, albeit enforced and reinforced with little political and legal power. Although there is persistent continuity for some ideas and procedures—the Stability and Growth Pact (SGP) and its fear of stability free riding chief among them—new innovations and reforms have made inroads.
Policy Needs Politics
Authors: Rommerskirchen Charlotte
Published: March 2019

This chapter sets out to examine the determinants of fiscal policy outcomes during the Great Recession. EU members form a diverse union. What are the implications of economic and political diversity for public finances and by implication for collective action? To answer this question, this chapter analyzes time-series cross-sectional, country-level data from the twenty-seven EU member states over a three-year period (2008–10). The empirical analysis asserts that the deficit bias attributed to contemporary public finances was stronger during the Great Recession. Political factors (amongst them partisanship, the electoral calendar, and the strength of government) have shaped public finances markedly.
Beggar-Thy-Neighbors
Authors: Rommerskirchen Charlotte
Published: March 2019

Diverse groups are a hotbed for free riders. This chapter thus tests whether fiscal policy coordination was marred by collective action failure. The central claim of this chapter is that accusations of stability or growth free riding are not borne out by factual evidence. Using regression analysis and Qualitative Comparative Analysis, the chapter shows that despite their greater ability to free ride (given their political clout and trade links), larger and more open economies implemented larger stimulus programs. Fiscal policy is further analyzed vis-à-vis a country’s fiscal space. Results show that, by and large, member states stimulated their economies in line with their fiscal room for maneuver. These findings are contrasted with the political discourse of the time, when indictments of growth free riding were widespread. Accusations of beggar-thy-neighbor politics were rife; first-order free riding was not.
Exit Stimulus
Authors: Rommerskirchen Charlotte
Published: March 2019

This chapter considers the determinants of fiscal policy outcomes during the Consolidation Years 2011–14. It disagrees with the claim that Europe is under the spell of an austerity illusion. Echoing Chapter 5, it finds that member states’ fiscal consolidation was by and large in line with domestic fiscal space. Proponents of fiscal rules would credit the strictures of the Stability and Growth Pact (SGP) or newly created debt brakes for bringing about consolidation. Yet there is no convincing evidence that these rules mattered for fiscal policy outcomes. Instead, financial market pressure mattered—this holds for the Stimulus Years and Consolidation Years alike. Market discipline is not felt equally across the EU. A prominent emerging fault line runs between program countries and those who fear the threat of market panic on the one hand, and credit countries who remain largely insulated from the vagaries of international capital markets on the other.
Free Riding Beyond Hard Times
Authors: Rommerskirchen Charlotte
Published: March 2019

Looking ahead, the legacy of the crisis years shapes fiscal policy coordination. The two main aspects of change considered in this chapter are purview and pliancy. First, fiscal policy has ceased to be defined in narrow ‘low-deficit’ targets and instead is set to encompass a twin notion of free riding: growth free riding and stability free riding. Second, fiscal policy coordination has become more flexible and as a result more adaptive to the challenges of sound public finances in the twenty-first century. While the institutional architecture for collective action has been strengthened, there is little reason to be optimistic as to the containment of endemic second-order free riding. Member states, this chapter argues, are continuing to rely on market discipline as the erratic enforcer of rules they are unable to bring to bear amongst themselves.
Moore against the New Skeptics
Authors: Lycan William G.
Published: March 2019

Moore’s method as detailed in Chapter 1 is applied against epistemological skepticism, and shown to have force in a way that other Moorean responses do not. The objections of Keith Lehrer, Peter Unger, and Barry Stroud are rebutted. In addition, this chapter responds to Stroud’s demand for a “deeper” response to the skeptic, and argues that the idea of a deeper response itself succumbs to Moore. It also addresses Moore’s own worry that “I know that I have hands” is both controversial and logically stronger than “I have hands,” arguing that that difference does not disqualify the knowledge claim as a term of the operative credibility comparison.
Copulas and light verbs as spellouts of argument structure
Authors: Welch Nicholas
Published: March 2019

Dene (Athapaskan) languages typically have a small inventory of semantically light verbs. This chapter demonstrates that their interpretations derive wholly from their syntactic context in predictable ways and proposes these verbs are spellouts of morphosyntactic structure with either semantically vacuous roots or none at all. They are shown to form a cline of structural complexity and it is suggested that some of the cross-linguistic semantic variability observed in light verbs may originate from this structural variation. Additionally, since these verbs serve as matrix verbs of full clauses, they cast doubt on claims that light verbs are syntactically dependent on main verbs. The extreme semantic impoverishment and configurational relatedness of these verbs suggests that they are a unified class. Two of them are commonly termed copulas; the data and analysis presented here, however, suggest that a principled distinction between copulas and light verbs may ultimately be illusory.
The support copula in the left periphery
Authors: O’Neill Teresa
Published: March 2019

This chapter presents novel evidence for the morphological support approach to the copula, based on data from non-standard amalgam specificational copular constructions in English, like We need coffee is what we need. In these constructions, the copula linking the two clauses shows unusual syntactic and semantic properties. Evidence from an interpretation experiment shows that, although it is inflected for tense, the copula of an amalgam construction fails to associate with semantic tense. Furthermore, the amalgam copula cannot associate with the syntactic hallmarks of the T-domain or the V-domain; however, it can combine with material from the C-domain, suggesting that in these constructions, only the C-domain is present. To account for the amalgam specificational copular construction, a late-insertion analysis of the copula is adopted, under which the inflected forms of the copula are inserted as morphological support wherever inflectional features, combinations of [fin], [tense], and [φ‎], are stranded on a functional head. Since these features can be spelled out on a copula in C in the absence of T and V, it must be the case that higher functional projections can be independent from lower ones.
Number matching in binominal small clauses
Authors: Bejar Susana , Denniss Jessica , Kahnemuyipour Arsalan , Yokoyama Tomohiro
Published: March 2019

This chapter examines covariation in number specification in small clauses with two nominals, as exemplified by copular clauses with a nominal predicate (DP1 BE DP2). Number matching between DP1 and DP2 is obligatory in some such structures, but not others. Two questions arising from this are addressed: (A) By what formal mechanism should number matching between the DP1 and DP2 be enforced? (B) What determines whether matching is required or not? Regarding (A) this chapter argues that Agree is not well-suited for modeling this feature-sharing relation and proposes instead that number matching arises as a reflex of feature-valuation at Merge when DP2 has an unvalued number feature [_#]. Regarding (B), it is proposed that the availability of valuation as a reflex of Merge is sensitive to the feature structure of DP2 and is blocked when, for independent reasons, DP2 does not introduce an accessible [_#]. Three such cases are examined.
On PERSON, animacy, and copular agreement in Czech
Authors: Bartošová Jitka , Kučerová Ivona
Published: March 2019

This chapter provides novel empirical evidence from agreement in Czech copular clauses that the [+PERSON] feature is dependent on animacy (Adger and Harbour 2007, Nevins 2007, a.o.). The core evidence comes from agreement with φ‎-feature-deficient pronouns. It is argued that agreement with φ‎-feature-deficient pronouns yields a Multiple Agree configuration (Hiraiwa 2005). Strikingly, the interpretation of such a pronoun is restricted by all φ‎-features present in the Multiple Agree chain. Thus if a φ‎-feature-deficient pronoun with an unvalued PERSON feature enters a Multiple-Agree chain with valued φ‎-features, including a valued PERSON feature, then the PERSON feature restricts the interpretation of the antecedent of the pronoun. Crucially, this happens only if the pronoun gets valued as [+PERSON]. It is argued that this is because [+PERSON] pronouns have φ‎-feature valuation restricted by GENDER presuppositions associated with animate referents (Heim 2008, Sudo 2012, a.o.).
The copula in certain Caribbean Spanish focus constructions
Authors: Sáez Luis
Published: March 2019

Certain varieties of Spanish (mostly Caribbean) exhibit a focus construction where an inflected copula and an inflected lexical verb look like clause-mates (no pause or coordinating/subordinating particle mediate between them), which would be quite unexpected for a language like Spanish. This chapter proposes that the copula and the lexical verb are not clause-mates, but rather pertain to two different clauses: the leftmost one contains the lexical verb while the rightmost one is a cleft. The two clauses combine to form a construction similar to so-called ‘Horn-amalgams’. An analysis of these constructions is offered parallel to Kluck’s (2011) analysis of Horn-amalgams: there is ‘paratactic coordination’ (whence the lack of coordinating/subordinating particles) and the copula is a cleft copula introducing a cleft pivot and an (eventually sluiced) cleft-clause. This accounts for the fact that the focused item bears exhaustive focus and is interpreted as functionally related to the lexical verb.
Institutions
Authors: Voigt Stefan
Published: March 2019

This chapter offers a look at transformation processes from the perspective of the new institutional economics (NIE). It briefly describes the main pillars of this research area, including its assumptions, the definition of institutions, and their interplay. It is shown that the NIE can contribute to explaining the outcome of transformation processes by pointing at the different institutions relied upon during transition. In the section surveying the large literature on institutions and transition, special focus is laid on the role of constitutions for political transformation, property rights for economic transformation, and internal or informal institutions as institutions largely exempt from deliberate transformation which can, hence, constitute an important constraint in transformation processes. The chapter concludes by pointing out some research gaps.
Actors
Authors: Merkel Wolfgang , Wagener Hans-Jürgen
Published: March 2019

Methodological individualism is widely accepted in the social sciences as a fundamental theoretical paradigm. In this context, it means attributing collective decisions or societal acceptance to individual behaviour. From the perspective of action theory, the outcome of transformation processes therefore depends less on objective circumstances (structures) or power configurations than on the subjective assessments, strategies, and actions of the relevant actors. As a rule, elites are the predominant actors in political and in economic system change. Since in the transformation process the basic institutions of society are generally reformulated at the negotiating table, much of the attention is centred on negotiation theories that use game-theoretical tools. By contrast to modernization, culturalist, and structuralist theories, actor theories set out from the micro and meso levels of the actors. Different approaches can be discerned. Historical-empirical approaches do not go beyond the description of transformation processes. Economic public choice approaches assume rather simplistic motivational structures of actors. In actor-centred institutionalism, the social sciences find a typical fusion of paradigms: action- and structure-theoretical approaches are combined.
Political Economy Approaches
Authors: Bönker Frank
Published: March 2019

This chapter discusses two strands of transformation research that focus on the interaction of economics and politics and start from the assumption of rational, self-interested actors. The political economy of policy reform approach deals with the political preconditions for successful large-scale economic reforms. It emerged from the analysis of economic reforms in developing countries in the 1980s, played a major role in the analysis—and the design—of economic reforms in postcommunist transition countries in the 1990s, but has lost importance since. The second strand of transformation research discussed in the chapter addresses the economic origins of democracy and dictatorship. Two distinct yet complementary approaches can be identified—one focusing on the struggle between the rich and the poor, the other emphasizing conflicts between the governing elite and the citizens.
Political Mobilization Approaches
Authors: Opp Karl-Dieter
Published: March 2019

This chapter deals with mobilizations or, equivalently, mobilization processes. These are processes in which collective action originates. A major theme of this chapter is the effects of mobilizations on transformations. These are understood as relatively radical societal upheavals. Mobilizations from below, in contrast to mobilizations from above, played a major role in the transformations of communist states in 1989/90. Only mobilizations from below are dealt with in this chapter. It is first discussed under which conditions mobilization processes come about. Next the role of mobilizations in transformation processes is addressed. The answers to these questions are applied to the explanation of the collapse of former communist states. The chapter applies in particular the theory of collective action and outlines a micro-macro explanation of transformation processes.
Discourse Approaches
Authors: Angermuller Johannes , Kollmorgen Raj
Published: March 2019

As a practice of meaning making in society, discourse points to important dimensions of social and historical change. This chapter discusses examples of discourse research on social transformation in Central and Eastern Europe. It shows how methods from linguistic, semiotic, and cultural theory can be used to account for a changing social order (e.g., how change is narrated in Russia during the perestroika period or how Eastern Germans are represented in Western media discourse after the reunification). Against a background in Discourse Studies, we put special emphasis on macrosociological views of discursive change, which one can find, for instance, in Foucault’s power/knowledge approach, Laclau/Mouffian hegemony analysis, and Critical Discourse Analysis. The chapter concludes by pointing out the strengths as well as the limits of discourse research, which is based on the idea that language not only represents social realities but, through representation, also contributes to creating them.
Democratic Transitions in the Late Twentieth Century
Authors: Thiery Peter
Published: March 2019

This chapter provides an overview of the latest democratization thrust, which had already ebbed away by the mid-2000s, and which Samuel Huntington describes as the ‘third wave’ of democratization. This wave began in the 1970s in Southern Europe (Portugal, Greece, Spain) and spread via Latin America to Asia, Eastern Europe, and Africa; only the Arab world remained largely resistant to democratization efforts until the ‘Arab Spring’. The different (and changing) global and international environments, different currents, the course, and the results of this wave of democratization at both global and regional levels are examined. Finally, the explanatory approaches and the relevant factors of these democratization processes are briefly outlined.
Civil Society
Authors: Keane John , Merkel Wolfgang
Published: March 2019

The theoretical meanings, history, and different forms of civil society during regime transformation are the central focus of this chapter. It notes a paradox: during the past several decades, the growing consensus about the theoretical and practical importance of civil society has been overshadowed by growing disagreement about the exact meaning of the term, and the proper normative relationship between state institutions and civil society. The chapter thus aims to define civil society more precisely by examining its philosophical and temporal roots. It examines how in practice civil society can be related to state institutions in different ways. It probes the reasons why a civil society has great significance for the way we think about democracy, and why, in practice, different manifestations of civil society during the different stages of regime transformation are vital preconditions for building a strong democracy backed by a robust civil society.