bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sensory Integration in Developmentally Delayed Preschool Children
Authors: Cowden Jo E. , Torrey Carol C.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate performance of developmentally delayed preschoolers on intramodal and intermodal matching tasks in the visual and haptic modalities. The performance of these preschoolers was compared with the learning profile of handicapped children. Further analysis determined the relationship between performance on intra- and intermodal matching tasks and scores on visual motor integration and cognitive matching. Eighteen developmentally delayed preschoolers from ages 3.4 years to 5.11 were involved in four matching conditions: visual-visual, haptic-haptic (intramodal), visual-haptic, and haptic-visual (intermodal). Results of this study indicated that accuracy in all modalities increased as chronological age increased. The learning profile of developmentally delayed preschoolers differed from that of nonhandicapped children: the delayed children scored highest on the haptic-visual task, with the visual-haptic and visual-visual scores only slightly lower, but the haptic-haptic scores markedly lower. No meaningful relationship was apparent between performance in the four modalities and cognitive matching and visual motor integration.
The Role of the Federal Government in Adapted Physical Education
Authors: Hillman William A.
Published: August 2016

The development of adapted physical education over the past 20 years has been significantly influenced by the federal government through legislative statutes. A predecessor to Public Law 94-142 that may well have had the most impact on handicapped children was Public Law 90-170, which provided the foundation for adapted physical education by allowing monies for training research and development. This legislation established committees and conferences that brought together national figures to serve as advisory consultants. Programmatic support from the federal government has led to the training of many teachers and much published research in adapted physical education.
Sport Psychology: An Undeveloped Discipline from Among the Sport Sciences for Disabled Athletes
Authors: Asken Michael J. , Goodling Michael D.
Published: August 2016

This article describes the relationship and potential contribution of sport psychology to disabled athletic competition. It is suggested that sports for disabled individuals is an area that has been essentially neglected by sport psychology research and intervention, although appropriate and needed applications do exist. Evidence for this neglect as well as examples of beneficial applications are provided. Recommendations are given for approaches to integrate sport psychology knowledge and techniques into the area of sports for disabled athletes.
Physical Activity Experiences of Individuals Living With a Traumatic Brain Injury: A Qualitative Research Exploration
Authors: Self Megan , Driver Simon , Stevens Laurel , Warren Ann Marie
Published: August 2016

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a significant public health issue due to the incidence, complexity, and cost associated with treatment. The purpose of this study was to determine physical activity (PA) knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and barriers among individuals with a TBI undergoing outpatient rehabilitation. Seventeen participants completed a series of group interviews regarding their PA needs. A qualitative research design was adopted and trustworthiness was established through investigator triangulation of data. A cross-case analysis was completed to identify themes and conceptual patterns. The main themes identified were (a) an inability to differentiate between PA and physical therapy, (b) a limited knowledge of PA health benefits and the relationship to rehabilitation, and (c) an interest in participating in a PA based health promotion program. Future interventions should educate individuals about PA, the associated health benefits, and the role PA plays in the rehabilitation process.
The Ambiguous Role of the Paraeducator in the General Physical Education Environment
Authors: Bryan Rebecca R. , McCubbin Jeffrey A. , Mars Hans van der
Published: August 2016

The use of paraeducators has increased as a main mechanism to include more students with disabilities in the public schools in the U.S. Although the utilization of paraeducators is intended to be a supportive service delivery option, many concerns and challenges have resulted. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of the paraeducator in the general physical education environment from the perspectives of special education, physical education, and adapted physical education teachers and paraeducators. Data were collected from a phenomenological approach using questionnaires, interviews, and observations. Results indicate concerns about the clarity of the role of the paraeducator in physical education. Emerging themes include elastic definitions of student protection and teacher backup, contradictory expectations and mixed acceptance, and paraeducators’ role ambiguity. Findings regarding the role of the paraeducator are essential in determining both best practice and legal policy for the appropriate utilization of paraeducators in physical education.
Creation and Validation of the Self-Efficacy Instrument for Physical Education Teacher Education Majors Toward Inclusion
Authors: Block Martin E. , Hutzler Yeshayahu , Barak Sharon , Klavina Aija
Published: August 2016

The purpose was to validate a self-efficacy (SE) instrument toward including students with disability in physical education (PE). Three scales referring to intellectual disabilities (ID), physical disabilities (PD), or visual impairments (VI) were administered to 486 physical education teacher education (PETE) majors. The sample was randomly split, and exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (EFA and CFA, respectively) were conducted. After deleting items that did not meet inclusion criteria, EFA item loadings ranged from 0.53 to 0.91, and Cronbach’s alpha reliability was high (for ID = .86, PD = .90, and VI = .92). CFA showed that the ID scale demonstrated good goodness-of-fit, whereas in the PD and in the VI scales demonstrated moderate fit. Thus, the content and construct validity of the instrument was supported.
Construction and Validation of a Hysteresis Brake Wheelchair Ergometer
Authors: Burkett Lee N. , Chisum Jack , Cook Ralph , Norton Bob , Taylor Bob , Ruppert Keith , Wells Chris
Published: August 2016

Numerous studies in the past 30 years have researched physiological adaptation to stress by wheelchair-bound subjects. Instrumentation necessary to produce this effect had to be designed and tested prior to obtaining valid data. This study had two main purposes: to design a wheelchair ergometer for physiological testing of spinal cord-injured subjects, and to demonstrate the validity of the maximal stress test when using the wheelchair ergometer. To test the validity of the wheelchair ergometer, 10 disabled subjects (9 paraplegic and 1 quadriplegic) participated in both a maximal field test (FT) and a maximal wheelchair ergometer test (WERG), with each subject serving as his or her own control. A randomly assigned counterbalanced design (5 subjects assigned to complete the FT first, with the second group of 5 subjects completing the WERG first) was used to reduce the learning effect in the study. The results of the t-tests indicated there was no significant difference between V̇O2 and V̇E, (STPD) averages for the WERG and FT for maximal effort with two-tailed significant levels of t = .9016 and t = .7294, respectively. The Pearson product moment correlation level was statistically significant at p < .0001, when the WERG V̇O2 was compared to the FT V̇O2 (r = .94), and was significant at p < .005 when the WERG V̇E was compared to the FT V̇E (r = .82).
A Biomechanical Analysis of the Running Pattern of Blind Athletes in the 100-m Dash
Authors: Gorton Beatrice , Gavron Susan J.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate selected kinematic variables of two classes of blind runners, B-1 and B-3, in the 100-m dash. A total of 26 males served as subjects and were filmed in actual competition at the 1984 International Games for the Disabled. Filming was conducted at 150 frames per second with the camera positioned perpendicular to the plane of motion. Kinematic data extracted from the film included center of gravity, displacements, velocities, and selected joint angles. It was believed that the results of this study would be useful for (a) establishing some descriptive data of blind athletes in B-1 and B-3 classes, (b) understanding individual differences among blind runners of two different classifications, and (c) providing empirical data of the running patterns from which implications for the development of teaching/coaching methods might be gained.
Confronting the Interaction between Perception and Movement in Adapted Physical Education
Authors: Burton Allen W.
Published: August 2016

The possibility that movement problems experienced by children may be at least partially accounted for by perceptual deficits needs to be considered by adapted physical educators. The ecological approach to perception, emphasizing the person-environment relationship, provides a useful conceptual foundation for defining perceptual deficits in relation to movement, for assessing perceptual deficits, and for designing and implementing remedial programs. A starting point for acknowledging the interaction of perception and movement in adapted physical education programs might be to strive to include activities that are purposeful in nature whenever possible. The next step, for students who may be suspected of having perceptual deficits, might be to help the children become better attuned to the affordances in their environment.
Medical Care for Wheelchair Athletes
Authors: Mangus Brent C.
Published: August 2016

The number of wheelchair-bound athletes training for and competing in local, state, national, and international sporting events increases every year. As participation increases, sports injuries associated with the training and competition of these athletes also increase. Medical attention for wheelchair athletes during training and competition should be provided by competent professionals. However, even with competent professionals providing medical attention to wheelchair athletes, injuries do occur. Typical injuries experienced by the wheelchair-bound athlete include carpal tunnel syndrome, various shoulder problems, numerous problems with the hands, and lacerations, abrasions, and contusions to all parts of the body. The ability of the wheelchair athlete to thermoregulate his or her own body is also an area of concern for those providing health care during practice and competition. More researchers are studying injuries and injury rates to the wheelchair athlete, and the body of literature in this area is becoming larger. Future research can begin to document the effects of strength training, nutrition, various conditioning strategies, the biomechanics of the wheelchair motion, and the psychological impact of athletic injuries. Although some physiological factors have been studied, many remain to be addressed in an effort to shed light on the injuries experienced by wheelchair athletes.
Self-Concept and Motor Performance of Hearing Impaired Boys and Girls
Authors: Hopper Chris
Published: August 2016

This pilot study examined self-concept and motor performance of hearing impaired boys and girls, ages 10 to 14. Subjects were 32 students from the Washington State School for the Deaf in Vancouver. Self-concept was measured using the Harter Self-Perception Profile consisting of six subscales: scholastic competence, social acceptance, athletic competence, physical appearance, behavioral conduct, and global self-worth. Motor performance was assessed with the 9-min run, sit-ups, sit and reach, Bass stick test, long jump, shuttle run, and catching a ball. Results of this pilot study indicated that students scored highest in the scholastic domain and lowest in the social acceptance domain. The physical appearance scale was most related to global self-worth. Those students who viewed themselves as athletically capable did best in the 9-min run. Girls scored higher than boys in athletic competence, physical appearance, and social acceptance domains.
Effects of Leisure Education versus Physical Activity or Informal Discussion on Behaviorally Disordered Youth Offenders
Authors: Munson Wayne W.
Published: August 2016

This study compared the effects of leisure education versus physical activity or informal discussion on behaviorally disordered youth offenders. Studied specifically were the treatment effects on self-esteem, leisure functioning, attitudes toward self, leisure, and work, and leisure participation and satisfaction. Subjects (N=39) were randomly assigned to leisure education (LE), physical activity (PA), or informal discussion (ID) groups that met for 1 hour each week for 10 weeks. Multivariate analyses of variance revealed no significant differences among the three groups on self-esteem, leisure functioning, attitudes toward self, leisure, and work, or leisure participation and satisfaction. No evidence was gained to support the proposition that a leisure education program focusing on beliefs, feelings, and behaviors is more effective than other methods for enhancing the self-esteem and leisure functioning of behaviorally disordered youth offenders.
Classroom Teachers’ Accuracy in Observing Students’ Motor Performance
Authors: King Christine M. , Dunn John M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the accuracy of classroom teachers in observing students’ motor performance. In order to assess teacher accuracy in rating motor performance, an analysis was conducted on students’ scores on the Short Form of the Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-S) between those who were rated high as compared to those who were rated low in motor performance, as determined by a teacher observation form. The two-tailed t statistic indicated a significant difference between standard mean scores for upper and lower quartile performances on the BOT-S (P<.05). However, there was a high degree of variance within the high and low groups. The results suggest that classroom teachers are more accurate in observing high motor performance than in observing low motor performance.
Children with Special Needs— Motodiagnostic Test Procedures and Kiphard’s Mototherapeutic Approach
Authors: Doll-Tepper Gudrun M.
Published: August 2016

Problems exist in the definition and terminology of the “minimal cerebral dysfunction” syndrome. Various possibilities of diagnosing the different symptoms of the syndrome will be presented in this article. Specific reference will be made to motricity, including the so-called motodiagnostic test procedures, of which the most frequently used in the Federal Republic of Germany will be presented. The psychomotor approach, originally devised by Kiphard and currently called “motopedagogy/mototherapy,” is introduced as one of the most successful means of intervention.
A Comparison of Fractionated Reaction Time between Cerebral Palsied and Nonhandicapped Youths
Authors: Parks Susan , Rose Debra J. , Dunn John M.
Published: August 2016

This research studied the effects of cerebral palsy on the ability to plan and execute a one-handed aiming task. Simple reaction time (SRT) was fractionated into its premotor (PMT) and motor (MOT) components. Subjects were 20 youths, 10 with cerebral palsy and 10 nonhandicapped youths. The effect of accuracy demands on the planning and execution time was also studied by manipulating endpoint target size. Significant differences in PMT but not in MOT were obtained between groups, indicating that spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsied youths require more time to plan a simple aiming movement due to central processing limitations. Although manipulation of endpoint target size did not affect programming time for either group, the time to execute the movement increased significantly. This finding suggests that instead of incorporating the parameter of movement accuracy in the selected motor program, subjects adopted a feedback driven strategy to achieve greater endpoint accuracy.
Motor Development of Infants Subject to Maternal Drug Use: Current Evidence and Future Research Strategies
Authors: Cratty Bryant J.
Published: August 2016

Literature alludes to tremulousness, hypertonicity, and hypotonicity as well as other signs of atypical motor development in infants exposed prenatally to cocaine and other drugs. Some have hypothesized that movement aberrations brought about by exposure to abusive substances during the prenatal period have developmental significance. The pervasive nature of the problem, together with the unique developmental characteristics that present themselves, suggest the need for innovative research and new assessment tools. This paper reviews the available evidence and suggests new research strategies together with innovative evaluative instruments compatible with the characteristics of neonates, infants, and children stressed prenatally with noxious biochemical environments produced by maternal drug use. Neurological implications for the appearance and disappearance of abnormal movement characteristics are also contained in the review.
Performance Evaluation of Wheelchair Athletes: More than a Disability Classification Level Issue
Authors: Brasile Frank M.
Published: August 2016

The data used for statistical analysis in this investigation were based on results from 79 males tested at the National Wheelchair Basketball Association/Paralyzed Veterans of America wheelchair basketball camp held at Wright State University in August 1989. Results acquired from a multivariate analysis of variance indicated significant differences in scores across NWBA player classification levels. Post hoc comparisons indicated that Class II and Class III participants were similar and that Class I participants recorded lower overall skills proficiency scores. A stepwise forward regression analysis was conducted to determine the influence of predictor variables on skill proficiency levels. Results indicate that one’s level of disability may influence performance; however, amount of time spent in practice, previous experience in the sport, and age also influence one’s overall performance in wheelchair basketball.
Prioritizing Adapted Physical Education Goals: A Pilot Study
Authors: Sherrill Claudine , Montelione Thomas
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to develop and field test an instrument to assist in prioritizing adapted physical education goals. Nine goals were identified, and the paired-comparison technique was selected to examine beliefs concerning the relative importance of each goal. Data were collected from three samples representative of individuals who teach physical education to handicapped students and/or train others to do so. Findings indicated that the goal ranked as most important by each sample was not significantly different from those ranked as second and third in importance. Adapted physical educators consider many goals to be of equal importance. In general, motor skills, fitness, self-concept, and perceptual motor function/sensory integration are held in high esteem whereas creative expression is considered least important. Other goals are assigned intermediate importance. The Goals of Adapted Physical Education Scale (GAPES) is a valid and reliable instrument that offers promise for the further study of adapted physical education goals.
Effects of a Resistance Training Program on Adults with Mental Retardation
Authors: Rimmer James H. , Kelly Luke E.
Published: August 2016

Very low levels of strength and muscular endurance have been reported in adults with mental retardation. A progressive resistance training program was developed for a group of adults with mental retardation (ages 23-49 yrs) using state-of-the-art equipment (Nautilus Isokinetic Systems). A MANCOVA analysis was employed to determine the differences between control and experimental groups. The analysis revealed a significant overall group effect. Subsequent univariate ANCOVA analyses were performed to isolate the significant dependent measures. Results indicated that a 2-day-a-week resistance training program was effective in improving the strength levels of this population. It was also revealed that the resistance training program was favorably received by the participants and could be performed with minimal assistance. Service providers for the mentally retarded should consider community based weight training facilities as a viable avenue for improving the strength levels of this population.
Physical Education and Sport for the Deaf: Rethinking the Least Restrictive Environment
Authors: Butterfield Stephen A.
Published: August 2016

Efforts to include children with disabilities in mainstream settings often raise questions as to what constitutes “least restrictive.” This paper addresses educational placement of deaf children, especially as it pertains to physical education and sport. Many leaders in deaf education hold that placement of deaf children in public schools often occurs without regard to their socioemotional/cultural/language needs. This paper provides a rationale for the residential school as a viable and legitimate placement option for deaf children. Also included in the paper is a brief historical overview of deaf education including the contributions of residential schools to deaf sport and deaf culture.
Item Response Theory: A Useful Test Theory for Adapted Physical Education
Authors: Cole Emily , Wood Terry M. , Dunn John M.
Published: August 2016

Tests constructed using item response theory (IRT) produce invariant item and test parameters, making it possible to construct tests and test items useful over many populations. This paper heuristically and empirically compares the utility of classical test theory (CTT) and IRT using psychomotor skill data. Data from the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD) (Ulrich, 1985) were used to assess the feasibility of fitting existing IRT models to dichotomously scored psychomotor skill data. As expected, CTT and IRT analyses yielded parallel interpretations of item and subtest difficulty and discrimination. However, IRT provided significant additional analysis of the error associated with estimating examinee ability. The IRT two-parameter logistic model provided a superior model fit to the one-parameter logistic model. Although both TGMD subtests estimated ability for examinees of low to average ability, the object control subtest estimated examinee ability more precisely at higher difficulty levels than the locomotor subtest. The results suggest that IRT is particularly well suited to construct tests that can meet the challenging measurement demands of adapted physical education.
Feasibility of an Exercise Program for Adults with Cerebral Palsy: A Pilot Study
Authors: Pitetti Kenneth H. , Fernandez Jeffrey E. , Lanciault Monique C.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the effectiveness of a training program for cerebral palsy (CP) adults engaged in full-time employment (8 hrs/day) that would improve their functional capacity. Seven ambulatory CP adults (5 men, 2 women, age 30.5 + 8 yrs) trained on a Schwinn Air-Dyne ergometer (SAE) twice a week for 30 minutes at 40-70% of peak VO2 for 8 weeks. Pre- and posttraining exercise tests were performed on the SAE and an arm crank ergometer. Following training, significant increases (p<0.05) in peak VO2 and peak ventilation (VE) were seen, with no significant increases in peak heart rate (HR) or respiratory quotient (RQ) on the SAE. No significant increases in peak VO2, HR, VE, or RQ were seen when exercised on the arm crank ergometer following training. The results indicate that the training protocol used in this study allowed ambulatory CP adults to exercise consistently and safely while demonstrating improvements in functional capacity. Although the mode of exercise involved the arms, the training program did not improve the exercise capacity of the upper body, as evaluated by arm crank ergometry.
Effects of Variability of Practice on the Transfer and Performance of Open and Closed Motor Skills
Authors: Eidson Thomas A. , Stadulis Robert E.
Published: August 2016

Schmidt’s (1975) schema theory hypothesis of variability of practice on the performance of both a closed and an open motor skill was investigated. Following an acquisition phase for each task, moderately mentally handicapped (MH) and nonhandicapped (NH) subjects were randomly assigned to either variable or constant practice. For the closed skill, constant practice groups exhibited more absolute error than the variable practice groups during performance of a transfer task. No significant effect of type of practice for the open skill was obtained. For the open skill, MH subjects had significantly greater absolute error and variable error than NH subjects; no performance differences were evidenced for the closed skill. For both MH and NH subjects, Schmidt’s variability-of-practice hypothesis was supported, but only for closed skills.
Blood Lipid and Percent Body Fat Levels in Down Syndrome versus Non-DS Persons with Mental Retardation
Authors: Rimmer James H. , Braddock Dave , Fujiura Glenn
Published: August 2016

Little data exist on the comparison of blood lipids and percent body fat between Down Syndrome and non-DS adults with mental retardation (MR). The following study was undertaken to determine if there were physiological and biochemical differences between these two groups. Subjects included 294 non-DS adults with MR (162 males and 132 females) and 31 adults with Down Syndrome (21 males and 10 females). Level of mental retardation was similar for both groups (males/females, Down vs. non-DS). A two-factor ANOVA with a regression approach was used to analyze the data. Results of the study found that there were no significant differences between the Down Syndrome and non-DS subjects on total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, or percent body fat. The present study suggests that the composition of lipoproteins and storage of body fat are similar in Down Syndrome and non-DS adults with mental retardation, and that the risk for developing coronary heart disease appears to be the same for both groups.
Perceived Challenge in Physical Activity by Individuals with Physical Disabilities: The Relationship between Appraisal and Affect
Authors: Crocker Peter R.E. , Bouffard Marcel
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the relationship between cognitive appraisal and self-reported affect during challenging physical activity by 55 adults (16 females, 39 males) with physical disabilities. Eleven cognitive appraisals related to perceived challenge in physical activity plus positive and negative affect experienced in a recent challenging physical activity were assessed in an interview. The data indicated that perceived challenge was characterized by higher levels of positive affect (M=4.03, SD=.71) compared to negative affect (M=1.54, SD=.61). Correlational analyses revealed that the appraisals of fitness and health, learning skills, demonstrating competence, effort, social approval, task value, and external control were all significantly related to positive affect. A regression analysis for positive affect revealed that a two-term equation using task value and social approval could account for 39% of the variance. No appraisals were significantly related to negative affect.
Experience, Expertise, and Teaching Effectiveness with Mainstreamed and Nondisabled Children in Physical Education
Authors: Vogler E. William , Van der Mars Hans , Cusimano Barbara E. , Darst Paul
Published: August 2016

Teaching effectiveness with elementary level mainstreamed and nondisabled children was analyzed from the perspective of teacher experience and expertise. There were three analyses: (a) experienced (12.6 yrs) versus less experienced (2.3 yrs) teachers, n=10 each, (b) expert (met 4 of 5 criteria) versus nonexpert (met no criteria) teachers, n=5 each, and (c) expert (met 4 of 5 criteria) versus experienced (no criteria, similar experience) teachers, n=4 each. Classes were matched on activities. Teaching effectiveness was evaluated by analysis of how the teacher allocated class time and how time was spent by the student. Specifically, motor appropriate, on- and off-task data were collected on one mainstreamed and one nondisabled student from each class. Results indicated that teacher behavior differed little as a function of either experience or expertise. Mainstreamed students were significantly less motor appropriate and more off-task than nondisabled students, and neither experience nor expertise significantly altered those differences. The results imply that greater teacher experience or expertise does not necessarily translate into improvements of teacher and student behavior, and simple placement of mainstreamed students with teachers with more experience or expertise may not necessarily be beneficial.
Can the Developmental Lag in Motor Abilities of Deaf Children Be Partly Attributed to Localization Problems?
Authors: Savelsbergh Geert J.P. , Netelenbos J. Bernard
Published: August 2016

Spatial information for the execution of motor behavior is acquired by orienting eye and head movements. This information can be found in our direct field of view as well as outside this field. Auditory information is especially helpful in directing our attention to information outside our initial visual field of view. Two topics on the effect of an auditory loss are discussed. Experimental evidence is provided which shows that deaf children have problems in orienting to visual stimuli situated outside their field of view. An overview is given from several studies in which the eye and head movements of deaf children are analyzed. Second, it is suggested that specific visual localization problems are partly responsible for deaf children’s characteristic lag in motor development. The latter is illustrated in two studies involving the gross motor task of ball catching.
Lou Marsh: The Pick and Shovel of Canadian Sporting Journalism
Authors: Morrow Don
Published: August 2016

Just before Canadiens and Leafs played at Maple Leaf Gardens Saturday night [March 7, 1936], the teams lined up at the centre ice opposite each other and the audience rose with bared heads and stood in silence while the big clock ticked off one minute« It was another testimonial to the memory of the late Lou Marsh.1
Mechanical Power Analysis of the Lower Limb Musculature in Race Walking
Authors: White Scott C. , Winter David
Published: August 2016

Repeat trials of a race walker were analyzed to ascertain the contribution to energy changes made by the lower limb muscles. A sagittal plane link segment model was used to calculate mechanical powers at the hip, knee and ankle. The ankle plantarflexors provided the major energy necessary to propel the body forward. Muscles about the hip contribute to a lesser extent via energy generation and transfer. At the knee, the muscles acted mainly as energy absorbers and did not contribute to forward propulsion. Mechanical powers calculated for the race walker were compared to other forms of locomotion. Patterns unique to the race walker were identified and discussed.
A Mechanical Analysis of the Grab Starting Technique in Swimming
Authors: Guimaraes Antonio C.S. , Hay James G.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to identify the mechanical characteristics of the hands-between-the-feet grab starting technique which contribute to a faster start. Twenty-four high school swimmers performed four trials of a grab start followed by a glide to a distance of 9 m. The results suggested that to obtain a faster start, swimmers should (a) move the center of mass fast in the forward direction while the feet are in contact with the starting block, (b) maximize the force exerted through the feet in the backward direction, and (c) maximize the force exerted through the hands against the starting block in the forward and upward direction.
A BASIC Program for Nonlinear Optimization Studies in Sport Biomechanics
Authors: Vaughan Christopher L.
Published: August 2016

The aims of this paper are to introduce a simple but general purpose BASIC program which can be applied to nonlinear optimization problems using most microcomputers, and to demonstrate the power and versatility of the method and the ease with which it can be utilized. The example chosen is the jump shot in basketball where the center has to release the ball so that it clears the outstretched hand of the defender, travels the correct horizontal and vertical distance to the hoop, and approaches the basket with a sufficiently large entry angle. The program can be applied to many different problems in sport biomechanics. Keywords are optimization, biomechanics, basketball, microcomputers.
Greg Louganis’ Springboard Takeoff: I: Temporal and Joint Position Analysis
Authors: Miller Doris I. , Munro Carolyn F.
Published: August 2016

A temporal and joint position analysis was conducted on Greg Louganis' forward and reverse 3-m springboard takeoffs performed during National Sports Festival V in Colorado Springs. The most notable differences between Louganis' technique and those of eight women finalists in the 1982 Canadian Winter Nationals (Miller & Munro, 1984) were in his greater ranges of joint motion particularly at the knees, hips, and shoulders. He also employed a straighter arm-swing. The fact that Louganis' takeoff duration averaged 0.45 ± 0.01 s, compared with a mean of 0.38 s for the women, allowed him more time to complete joint flexion and extension. This raised questions of adapting technique to progressive changes in skill and strength and monitoring improvement in performance objectively on a longitudinal basis.
Mechanics of Translation and Rotation during Conventional and Handspring Soccer Throw-Ins
Authors: Messier Stephen P. , Brody Mary Ann
Published: August 2016

This study examined the mechanics of translation and rotation during the conventional and handspring soccer throw-ins. Thirteen male collegiate soccer players were filmed at 100 fps while performing a conventional soccer throw-in for distance. Additionally, two male collegiate and two male youth league soccer players were filmed at 200 fps while performing a handspring throw-in. Analysis of the conventional throw-in revealed that rapid trunk flexion, and shoulder and elbow extension just prior to release appear to make important contributions to the performance variables (initial ball velocity, angle of release, range, angular momentum). Results of the handspring throw-in analysis suggest that the angular momentum generated during the preparatory and ball support phases was transferred to the arms, forearms, and ball during the latter stages of the movement. Although generalization to a larger population is limited, the results of this study suggest that the handspring throw-in technique has the potential to generate greater release velocities and longer throws, thereby enhancing scoring opportunities during throw-in situations.
Force Measurements during Cross-Country Skiing
Authors: Komi Paavo V.
Published: August 2016

To understand cross-country (X-C) siding it is important to record and identity forces of skis and poles separately and together. They both contribute to the forward progression, but their functional significance may be more complex than that of the ground reaction forces in running and walking. This report presents two methods to record forces on skis and poles during normal X-C skiing. A long force-platform system with four rows of 6-m long plates is placed under the snow track for recording of Fz and Fy forces of each ski and pole separately. This system is suitable especially for the study of diagonal technique under more strict experimental conditions. The second system consists of small lightweight Fz and Fy component force plates which are installed under the boot and binding. These plates can be easily changed from one ski to another, and telemetric recording allows free skiing over long distances and with different skiing techniques, including skating. The presentation emphasizes the integrated use of either system together with simultaneous cinematographic and electromyographic recordings.
Force Measurement in Cross-Country Skiing
Authors: Pierce Javin C. , Pope Malcolm H. , Renstrom Per , Johnson Robert J. , Dufek Janet , Dillman Charles
Published: August 2016

A method for measuring the forces between the shoe and ski and upon the pole has been developed. Instrumented skis and poles are used with a portable data acquisition system that is carried by the skier in the field. Elite, top-level collegiate, and citizen skiers were used as subjects. Skiers performed the diagonal stride, and a marathon skate. Axial force levels at the forefoot were found to reach 164%, and 120% of body weight in the diagonal skate strides, respectively.
Estimates of the Energy Cost of Rifle Carriage in Biathlon Ski Skating
Authors: Frederick Edward C.
Published: August 2016

Elite biathletes now ski using skating techniques in place of the more traditional diagonal stride. Because of the more extreme flexion and extension of the trunk with these new techniques, it has become necessary to reevaluate the method of rifle carriage. This paper describes a model which evaluates the incremental mechanical power required to move the additional weight of the rifle through defined angular flexions and extensions of the trunk. By combining this model with actual observations of typical kinematics of trunk flexion, we can generate realistic estimates of the energy cost of rifle carriage. This approach is also used to evaluate the energy consequences of reduced rifle mass and of different rifle carriage strategies while moving with ski skating techniques. These results show that rotational kinetic energy changes are a minor part of the overall energy cost of rifle carriage, and that changes in the horizontal velocity of the rifle are the greatest source of increased cost of transport. The largest reductions in this cost, however, would come from reducing rifle mass because both potential and kinetic energies are affected. Additional but secondary reductions can be obtained by placing the rifle center of mass opposite the lumbosacral joint, thereby reducing horizontal and vertical excursions of the rifle.
Kinematic Analysis of Alternate Stride Skating in Cross-Country Skiing
Authors: Smith Gerald A. , McNitt-Gray Jill , Nelson Richard C.
Published: August 2016

Cross-country ski technique is undergoing rapid evolution. Alternate stride skating was the dominant technique during the 1985–86 racing season (double poling is synchronized with the “strong” side skate; no poling occurs with the “weak” side skate). High-speed films were made of elite male racers at the Holmenkollen World Cup races, Oslo, Norway (March 1986), skating up a 7° hill. Digitized data were filtered and processed to determine three-dimensional coordinates throughout a complete skating cycle. Ten skiers were analyzed, representing a range of performances. Over the 10-km race length, cycle rates for all skiers were similar; however, cycle lengths were significantly related to cycle velocity. The correlation between cycle velocity and length was r = 0.85. Ski angles were found to be asymmetrical. Weak-side ski angles were negatively related to cycle velocity; strong-side ski angles were similar for all skiers. Center of mass (CM) position throughout the cycle exhibited characteristic differences between faster and slower skiers. CM velocity vector direction was related to cycle velocity. Thus, faster skiers tended to maintain CM motion more nearly aligned with the forward direction.
Techniques Used by Elite Male Gymnasts Performing a Handspring Vault at the 1987 Pan American Games
Authors: Takei Yoshiaki
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine mechanical factors, through development of the deterministic model, that govern successful performance of the handspring vault. The subjects were 40 elite male gymnasts participating in the 1987 Pan American Games. A motion-picture camera placed with its optical axis at right angles to the runway was used to record the subjects’ performances. Significant correlations indicated that the following were important determinants for success: (a) large horizontal velocity and angular momentum at takeoff from board, (b) shorter time of preflight and smaller relative height of takeoff in preflight, (c) large horizontal breaking force and large vertical force exerted as well as a large loss of angular momentum during horse contact, and (d) large vertical velocity of takeoff from horse. Significant correlation of “on-horse” factors with the judges’ scores indicated that the more the gymnast focused on horse contact and the more vertical the direction of his effort at takeoff, the better the final result. A significant negative correlation revealed that the less the height of CG at touchdown on mat, the more points awarded by judges. This relationship was almost entirely a consequence of the landing angle.
Kinetic and Kinematic Characteristics of 10-m Platform Performances of Elite Divers: I. Back Takeoffs
Authors: Miller Doris I. , Hennig Ewald , Pizzimenti Marc A. , Jones Ian C. , Nelson Richard C.
Published: August 2016

Reaction forces elicited from the 10-m platform by the 29 male and 26 female competitors in the Fifth World Diving Championships during the takeoffs for dives from the back group were analyzed and related to their patterns of motion. Major changes in linear and angular momentum occurred during the final period of upward acceleration. During this “final weighting” phase, maximum vertical reactions of 3.0 to 4.0 times body weight (BW) and maximum horizontal reactions in the “propulsive” direction of 0.5 BW were recorded. Further, the moment of vertical platform reaction with respect to the center of gravity, which was dominant and promoted backward rotation, was opposed by the moment of the horizontal component. At final contact with the platform, higher vertical velocities were more evident for back dives than multiple back somersaults, and for dives performed in tuck than in pike, and in pike than in straight positions.
The Gliding and Push-Off Technique of Male and Female Olympic Speed Skaters
Authors: de Boer Ruud W. , Nilsen Kim L.
Published: August 2016

The 1988 Winter Olympic Games provided a unique opportunity to study large numbers of optimally prepared speed skaters during ideal ice and weather conditions for all the competitors (indoor Olympic Oval in Calgary). In this study a kinematic analysis was conducted of the gliding and push-off technique during the Men’s and Ladies' 1,500-m and 5,000-m races. Statistical analysis showed that factors such as trunk position, preextension knee angle, and peak knee and hip angular velocities failed to correlate with mean lap speed. Within such a homogeneous group of elite athletes it was found that the higher work per stroke of the faster skaters was correlated to a longer gliding phase and a more horizontally directed push-off. All skaters showed plantar flexion at the end of the stroke, which is undesirable and indicates the complex nature of the gliding and push-off technique in speed skating.
Comparative Assessment of Novel Sailing Trapeze Harness Designs
Authors: Hall Susan J. , Kent Jane A. , Dickinson Vern R.
Published: August 2016

Prolonged trapezing during sailing often results in low back pain among elite sailors. Modifications of the trapeze harness have been proposed as one approach to ameliorating this problem. To evaluate six harnesses incorporating novel features that had tested well during pilot work, myoelectric activity was monitored at C5, T6, and L5 levels of sacrospinalis and at an abdominal site while five elite sailors wore the harnesses. Integrated EMG (IEMG) values were stored by a microcomputer at periodic intervals during each 10-min trial, as each subject maintained a static horizontal trapezing position in the laboratory. Factorial repeated-measures ANOVA indicated no change in IEMG values over time, but significant (p<0.001) differences among harnesses at all four electrode sites. Features of trapeze harness design that appear to minimize muscular tension include heavy, rigid padding throughout the harness, full-length shoulder-to-buttocks support of the trunk, and adjustable leg strap supports as opposed to a crotch strap.
Development of a Model to Represent an Aluminum Springboard in Diving
Authors: Sprigings Eric J. , Stilling Denise S. , Watson L. Glen
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to develop a springboard model that could be used to predict, in future diving simulation studies, the vertical interaction forces between a diver’s feet and the board during the time of board depression and recoil. To achieve this, the characteristic parameters (effective mass, stiffness, and damping) for a Duraflex springboard were first examined using a finite element approach. The finite element results indicated that a linear model, consisting of a lumped mass and spring, could be used to simulate the actual dynamic behavior of a springboard system. The effects of damping on the board’s motion were found to be negligible and could safely be ignored. The values for the model’s parameters (board stiffness and effective board mass) were determined empirically and are reported in this paper.
The Torsion of the Foot in Running
Authors: Stacoff Alex , Kaelin Xaver , Stuessi Edgar , Segesser Bernhard
Published: August 2016

In the research of running shoes, excessive pronation is often related to various running injuries. Anatomically, pronation is a movement that occurs in more than one joint. Previous investigations that evaluated the pronation in running studied the movements of the lower leg and the rearfoot only. However, pronation could also be influenced by the movement of the forefoot and therefore depend on the torsional stiffness of the foot and of the shoe sole. This study investigated the relationship between the torsion and the pronation in running with a rearfoot touchdown and with a forefoot touchdown. The results show that, compared to running barefoot, running with a shoe decreases torsion and thereby increases pronation significantly (p< 0.01) for the forefoot and rearfoot touchdown conditions. Thus the reduction of torsional movement due to stiff shoe soles could well be a reason for running injuries caused by excessive pronation. It is concluded that modern running shoes could be designed to allow a certain torsional movement of the foot.
Changes in Distance Running Mechanics Due to Systematic Variations in Running Style
Authors: Williams Keith R. , Ziff Jodi L.
Published: August 2016

There is little information on how a change in one feature of an individual’s running mechanics affects other aspects of running style. This study manipulated experimental conditions such that eight subjects ran with three different step lengths, three step widths, and three varying degrees of shoulder rotation. The effect of these changes on rearfoot pronation measures, step length, and step width were examined. Results showed that varying step length over a range of 18 cm and shoulder rotation over a range of 17° caused no significant differences in maximal pronation angle, total amount of pronation, or maximal pronation velocity. Varying step width from landing approximately 5 cm lateral to the midline to crossing over a midline by 2 cm increased the maximum pronation from 12.2 to 18.3°, the amount of pronation from 14.1 to 21.1°, and maximal pronation velocity from. 329°/s to 535°/s. It is suggested that runners with problems due to excessive pronation might try changing step width. Changes in step width and shoulder rotation had no significant effect on step length, and alterations to shoulder rotation did not affect step length or step width significantly. These results suggest that a runner attempts to maintain some aspects of running mechanics despite major alterations to other elements of running style.