bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Environment and Crime
Authors: Lynch Michael J. , Barrett Kimberly L.
Published: December 2015

For the past 20 years, a number of criminologists have become increasingly interested in the study of crime and the natural environment. This area is more widely known contemporarily as green criminology – a specialty area within criminology research. This entry discusses the history of crimes against the environment, defines and describes what is meant by “green criminology,” and notes milestones in the evolution of this literature. Several examples of green crimes are given, and data that evinces their extent and severity is provided. This entry concludes by emphasizing the importance of continued study of green criminology.
Criminal Procedure
Authors: Nored Lisa S.
Published: December 2015

Criminal procedure refers to the various constitutional provisions and laws that, in combination, create a legal process through which criminal offenses can be adjudicated. The result is a system through which an individual should be able to expect both due process and a fair treatment. This entry provides a brief overview of the controlling legal doctrines and constitutional bases for our criminal justice process.
Digital Crime
Authors: Hewitt Chanel , Marcum Catherine D.
Published: December 2015

The creation of technology is constantly expanding from what it was in past generations. Since the 1960s, computers have had a revolutionary impact on culture and commerce, including the rise of instant communication by way of electronic mail, instant messaging, two‐way interactive video calls (web cameras), and the creation of the World Wide Web. The purpose of this entry is to provide an overview of how the invention of the Internet and its blossoming popularity influenced the development of cybercrime. Further, this entry provides a review of the broad categories of cybercrime and how they have provided a whole new realm of possibilities for criminal offenders to victimize unsuspecting Internet users.
D
rug
E
nforcement
A
dministration (
DEA
)
Authors: Oberweis Trish , Petrocelli Matthew
Published: December 2015

Created by unifying the widely dispersed drug enforcement units in the United States, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) has the singular task of enforcing the nation's drug laws. The DEA operates worldwide and focuses its efforts on the upper echelons of consolidated drug organizations, working cases for months or even years at a time to document evidence against the highest levels of traffickers possible. This relatively small agency leverages impact by collaborating with a wide range of other law enforcement agencies at all levels domestically and abroad. Information sharing, co‐investigations, and cooperative efforts characterize the efforts of the DEA and its agents. Due to its integration both into the organized criminal underground and with other law enforcement units, the DEA finds itself uniquely well positioned to contribute to antiterrorism efforts worldwide.
Aggression and Crime
Authors: Boutwell Brian B.
Published: December 2015

This entry provides a detailed review of the nature of the linkages between aggression and crime through a biological and biosocial lens. Specifically, these associations are considered along with a general review of the evidence gleaned from the works of pioneering scholars in this area of research. Concluding thoughts and directions for future research are discussed.
Child Molestation
Authors: Finn Mary A. , McDonough Kerry
Published: December 2015

The definition of child molestation, as well as the broad range of behaviors that lie within this definition (i.e., child sexual abuse, child sexual assault, and sexual exploitation of children), is examined. The prevalence of child molestation and the characteristics of the victims and the offenders of child molestation are provided. Four key strategies employed by the justice system to manage sex offenders, including sexual psychopath/sexual predator laws, mandatory sex offender registry and notification legislation, castration, and polygraph testing, are reviewed.
At‐Risk Youth
Authors: Blevins Kristie R.
Published: December 2015

The term “at‐risk youth” is typically used to describe a juvenile who has been exposed to elements and experiences that increase the probability of delinquency or other negative behavior. Common risk factors include association with delinquent peer groups, problems in school, family issues, and substance use. Risk levels may be accurately identified by the use of standardized risk assessments, and high‐risk youth should be placed in appropriate treatment programs that may reduce risk levels and the likelihood of recidivism.
Stalking
Authors: Ngo Fawn T.
Published: December 2015

In the United States, stalking was not considered a crime until 1990 when California passed the nation's first antistalking law. Although legal definitions of stalking vary across states, stalking is generally defined as repeatedly following, harassing, and menacing another person with the intent to cause fear in the victim. Stalking represents another form of aggression and violence in interpersonal relationships. Stalking can take many forms and appears to be quite common and part of everyday life experiences for many people. The fears, emotional, and financial distress that stalking victims endure are many and varied. Empirical findings from a growing body of research on stalking have rendered this type of victimization as a serious social problem and criminal justice concern that warrants attention and prevention.
Feminist Theory
Authors: Policastro Christina
Published: December 2015

Feminist theory highlights the presence of a gendered social structure. According to feminists, gender is socially constructed and acts as a mechanism for social stratification in a male‐dominated society. Feminism is not a single perspective but encompasses five schools of thought: liberal, Marxist, socialist, radical, and postmodern feminism. Each perspective highlights specific sources and solutions to gender inequality. Feminism has impacted the fields of criminology and criminal justice by encouraging scholars to consider the role of gender in mainstream criminological perspectives and by influencing the way that feminist criminologists approach questions related to the association between gender and crime.
Identity Theft
Authors: Hochstein Lucy Edwards
Published: December 2015

Identity theft is fraud that illegally uses personal information for gain. This is a dual crime in that both individuals and organizations, such as banks, credit extenders, and insurance companies, are victimized in the same incident. Personal information fraud covers a wide range of criminal activities, among them credit card forgery, medical identity theft, child identity theft, mortgage fraud, and fraudulent income tax returns. Criminals obtain personal information through various means from individual contact to high‐tech international crimes that breach large databases. The multifaceted aspects of identity theft produce inherent challenges for the criminal justice system, including crime description, discovering perpetrators, defining and identifying victims, criminals' use of sophisticated technology, and the interjurisdictional and cross‐national features of these crimes. The many ways these crimes are perpetrated require criminal justice agencies to engage in interagency collaboration, acquire enhanced expertise and resources, and develop innovative investigative strategies.
Crime and Punishment in thePhilippines
Authors: Reyes Napoleon C.
Published: December 2015

The colonization of the Philippines by Western powers has produced an eclectic legal system that combines continental European civil law tradition and Anglo‐American common law tradition, with a sprinkling of indigenous customary law, Islamic law, and contemporary law. The amalgamation of legal influences can be seen in the country's criminal law and justice system. This entry examines the Philippine government's response to crime and criminals in light of the region's historical, cultural, and political development.
Probation
Authors: Viglione Jill
Published: December 2015

With over five million individuals under some form of community supervision, probation is the most commonly used form of criminal sentencing. Probation officers have the most comprehensive involvement with offenders, playing an important role in sentencing and supervision decisions. This entry traces the history of probation and the ways in which the roles of probation officers have shifted over time. The current movement toward use of evidence‐based practices suggests a return to rehabilitative ideals, challenging the traditional notion of probation enforcement and the way officers approach their job.
Media and Crime
Authors: Hayes Rebecca M.
Published: December 2015

Media and crime is an extremely broad topic, which can include the influence of media on crime and the criminal justice system, or vice versa. Media include newspapers, television, and the internet. Some specific areas of research are the media's influence on the social construction of criminality/victimization, fear of crime/moral panic, pretrial publicity, and the crime scene investigation (CSI) effect. It is commonly believed among media scholars that the media perpetuate a culture of fear by creating moral panic regarding social issues (e.g., crime). The media assist with shaping the public's perception of who is a criminal and who is a victim and of the underlying situational notions surrounding criminal activity and the criminal justice system. The topic of media and crime continues to be shaped by our changing technological landscape, future research needing to address how the social media are influencing perceptions of crime, actual criminality, and the criminal justice system.
InternationalCriminalCourt (ICC)
Authors: O'Brien Melanie
Published: December 2015

The International Criminal Court (ICC) is the world's first permanent international court for bringing justice through criminal prosecution to perpetrators of the international crimes of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and aggression. This entry first outlines the structure of the ICC. Jurisdiction is then assessed, followed by a framework of the crimes under the Court's jurisdiction. Current situations under investigation and cases are summarized. The entry finishes with a brief discussion of some of the controversies that have arisen since the ICC's inception.
Power‐Control Theory
Authors: Blackwell Brenda Sims , Kane Kayla
Published: December 2015

Power‐control theory was developed by John Hagan with colleagues A. R. Gillis and John Simpson in an effort to theoretically explain the gender gap in offending and changes in this gap over time. The theoretical structure enhances elements from traditional control theories with measures of household/family power – referenced as household patriarchy – drawn from Marxian definitions of class. The theory has garnered some support over the years, with mixed findings concerning the role of patriarchy, but more support for the control elements linked to understanding the gender gaps in crime and delinquency.
Police Brutality
Authors: Root Carl
Published: December 2015

Police brutality involves the use of unnecessary and/or excessive violence by police. Though a satisfactory universal definition has yet to emerge, the phenomenon has existed throughout the history of policing. From the earliest instances of American slave patrols to the modern police departments of the twenty‐first century, both individual and collective instances of police brutality emerge. These instances are disproportionately concentrated amongst certain populations, specifically the poor, minority, and immigrant communities. Alongside this history of police brutality has existed antibrutality sentiment and action within the citizenry, the press, and both local and national government.
Parole
Authors: Golder Seana
Published: December 2015

Parole is one of the most common forms of community corrections. Parole is the release of individuals from prison to the community, where they are allowed to serve a portion of their sentence provided that they comply with the conditions of their release. The landscape of the criminal justice system in the United States has experienced significant changes over the past 30 years. Consequently, almost all aspects of the parole process have experienced changes during this time. Today, a record number of people are on parole in our communities. The basic dimensions of parole and the changing nature and scope of parole as well as future directions are addressed.
Social Bond Theory
Authors: Schroeder Ryan D.
Published: December 2015

Social bond theory is a preeminent perspective in criminology that stresses strong social integration acts as a deterrent to criminal motivations. The development of social bond theory is traced from early sociological theorizing and empirical research that set the foundation for the theory through the introduction of Hirschi's formalized social bond theory of criminology. Research on family processes, schools, and religiosity in support of social bond theory are briefly summarized. Finally, questions that remain to be answered from the social bond theory perspective are discussed.
Crime and Punishment in
G
reat
B
ritain
Authors: Slate Risdon N.
Published: December 2015

Great Britain's system of justice and, comparatively, its influence on justice in America is explored. An analysis of the police, courts, and prisons in Great Britain is undertaken. Crime statistics and sentencing practices are examined, as is the impact of socioeconomic factors on the crime problem.
Child Pornography
Authors: Hewitt Chanel , Marcum Catherine D.
Published: December 2015

Child pornography has become one of the largest social concerns in the world. The welfare of abused and exploited children has become the forefront for combatting and punishing offenders. The United States and other countries are trying to tackle child pornography by legal definitions and adjudication. Arrests are doubling, sites are gradually being removed, victims are receiving restitution, and law enforcement, politicians, and advocates are actively taking a stand to protect children. The entry will provide an overview of the history and the prevalence of issues surrounding child pornography. In addition, the legal definitions of child pornography will be defined, along with the prevalence and usage of child pornography. Lastly, the entry will examine how law enforcement and legislatives practices are trying to combat child pornography.
Hot Spots Policing
Authors: Telep Cody W. , Weisburd David
Published: December 2015

Hot spots policing involves police focusing more resources on small units of geography (e.g., addresses, street blocks, small groups of street blocks) with high levels of criminal activity. The tactics police use at these crime hot spots can vary, but often involve some combination of increasing patrol presence and problem solving. There are a large number of rigorous evaluations of hot spots policing suggesting that the approach can be effective in reducing crime and disorder without simply displacing crime to areas nearby.
Crime Measurement
Authors: Gilmore Lance E. , Poyer Brittany
Published: December 2015

Crime measurement is the process by which law enforcement, researchers, and other interested parties attempt to record and/or study the type and amount of crime that has occurred in a specific place or country, for example in the United States. The three methods for doing so are through official crime data, through self‐offending surveys, and through victimization surveys. Each method contributes its own piece of the larger true crime figure that has eluded everyone for so long. Those who wish to use these methods should have an understanding of their strengths and weaknesses in order to properly put the data into practice. The ultimate goal should be to use all three methods in conjunction with one another in order to provide the entire picture of the true crime figure.
Law and Crime
Authors: Hayden Griffin O.
Published: December 2015

In US society, only the presence of law can create the presence of crime. Principles of the common law and the United States Constitution provide multiple safeguards to protect Americans and ensure this principle. Society's determination of what type of behaviors will be tolerated is often predicated on normative values and a sense of morality within that society. Legal philosophers have debated the extent to which a society should protect its citizens from not only those who could harm them, but also from self‐harm. Last, what values are reflected in legal codes is often dependent on the people in power who might have differential motivations when organizing society and creating legislation.
Crime and Punishment in
S
weden
Authors: Hermansson Klara , Heber Anita
Published: December 2015

Crime levels in Sweden lie around the Western European average and are also on par with those of the United States, but the structure of crime differs. Despite stable, and even decreasing, crime rates during the twenty‐first century, reactions to crime and offenders have hardened. The number of prison inmates in Sweden is among the lowest in the world, and the sanctioning system is diversified, employing a range of different options.
Crime and Punishment inAustralia
Authors: Dowling Christopher , Cale Jesse
Published: December 2015

With a population of just over 22 million people, Australia is a relatively safe country. Rates of personal and property crime are quite low by international standards, and comparable to, if not lower than, a number of other English‐speaking Western industrialized nations (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2013). However, as in many other Western countries, the post‐World War II era saw an increase in rates of personal, and especially property crime in Australia. While these trends were fuelled largely by broad demographic and economic changes, such as urbanization, there was also a concomitant rise in the Australian public's awareness of crime. Increased attention toward crime in both media and political discourse has been one of the driving forces over the years toward increased criminal justice measures to address real and perceived crime problems in Australia. There has also been a growing recognition of the need to address several of the longstanding and intractable policy issues including the disproportionate involvement of Indigenous peoples in the criminal justice system, and new and emerging crime trends such as cybercrime. The extent to which these goals are being accomplished remains a contentious point of debate.
Sexual Harassment
Authors: Carter Collins Sue
Published: December 2015

Workplace sexual harassment is a significant problem that affects both women and men; however, the primary victims are women. Research indicates about half of all working women will be sexually harassed at some point in their work life. Sexual harassment is a recent term that was coined by three feminist professors at Cornell University in 1975 to describe nonconsensual or forced sex by male employers with female subordinates. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 is enforced by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and protects employees against sex‐based discrimination. Although early courts applied a voluntariness standard when determining employer liability for quid pro quo harassment and hostile work environment harassment the Supreme Court held that the proper standard is unwelcomeness. The Court provided definitive guidance on when employers will be held vicariously liable for sexual harassment resulting in a hostile or abusive environment and who constitutes a supervisor.
Diversion
Authors: Lynch Mathew D.
Published: December 2015

Diversion services have been in place since the late 1940s, when an increased focus on rehabilitation made its way into criminal justice policy. The introduction of treatment in lieu of incarceration has helped build models meant to engage potential offenders in the community. As a result, historical perspectives associated with diversion services drive current policies and funding allocation. This entry discusses diversion services in the criminal justice system, paying close attention to sources of referral, points of entry, and policies and practices currently in place.
Critical Criminology
Authors: Long Michael A.
Published: December 2015

Critical criminology is a diverse area of criminological theory and research that sheds light on how inequality and power relations shape who commits crime, why someone commits crime, what becomes labeled as crime, and how the criminal justice system responds to crime. This field has its roots in the Marxist analysis of crime and justice, but since the early 1970s it has expanded to include other critical approaches to crime – such as left realism, feminism, peacemaking criminology, postmodernism, cultural criminology, white‐collar crime, state‐corporate crime, and green criminology (among others). While somewhat different in their approaches, these various schools of critical criminology share the goal of challenging traditional criminology's neglect of inequality and power issues.
Victimization
Authors: Andreescu Viviana
Published: December 2015

For the past seven decades victimologists have examined the extent, nature, and causes of criminal victimization. The current entry presents the beginnings of victimology as an academic discipline, introduces some of the early scientific studies that influenced further developments of the discipline, and briefly describes the main theoretical perspectives that framed victimization research. The main data sources used to estimate victimization and a summary presentation of recent findings regarding victimization patterns and victimization trends in United States and worldwide are also included.
Crime and Punishment inAfrica
Authors: Morris Sherill V. C.
Published: December 2015

Africa is the world's second largest continent, occupying nearly 12 million square miles, with 55 states that are internationally recognized and members of either the African Union (AU) or the United Nations (UN) or both. Africa has a long history of powerful kingdoms and is home to a variety of civilizations with over 880 million people belonging to more than 3,000 native groups that speak more than 1,000 languages. This entry offers a brief introduction to Africa; its legal systems, a discussion of crimes common to this area, and a discussion of punishment and its relevance to Africa's native and contemporary societies.
Restorative Justice
Authors: Dawson‐Edwards Cherie
Published: December 2015

Restorative justice is philosophy that places repairing the victim's harm as a primary goal in the justice process. It includes concepts of reparation, reconciliation, and transformation while offering a space for victim healing and forgiveness. Restorative justice requires that offenders acknowledge the impact their behavior has on victims, family members, and the community and mandates some form of amends. Various models of restorative justice exist with mixed evaluative results. Restorative justice continues to serve as an alternate sanction for juvenile and adult offenders and has increasingly become a more popular solution in educational settings.
Child Abuse
Authors: Restivo Lauren , Richards Tara N.
Published: December 2015

Child Abuse is a pervasive problem that often results in negative consequences that reach beyond the primary victim to family members and other caretakers. This entry seeks to provide an overview of child maltreatment including a brief historical review that outlines the evolution of today's conceptualization of child abuse. In addition, a description of victim and perpetrator characteristics and risk factors for, and signs of, child maltreatment are provided. Finally, current child abuse reporting efforts are discussed and a review of child abuse prevention and intervention strategies is presented.
Homicide
Authors: Taylor Rae
Published: December 2015

Homicide involves the killing of another person. While certain events constitute excusable or justifiable killing, murder is the intentional killing of another person with malice aforethought, and can involve premeditation or be committed in the heat of passion. The United States has one of the highest homicide rates in the world each year, with an average of 14,000 to 15,000 cases annually. Studies of patterns of homicide reveal that summer months, nights, and weekends produce higher rates, firearms are the most common weapon, and demographic patterns include higher rates among younger adults, males, and minorities.
Intimate Partner Violence
Authors: Muftić Lisa R. , Humphreys Erin N.
Published: December 2015

Intimate partner violence (IPV), the subset of domestic violence crimes that refers to violence between two intimate partners, is an issue that has caused much debate. This entry will provide an overview of these issues with emphasis placed on how IPV is defined and measured; the gender symmetry debate; societal, community, and individual factors; cost; the criminal justice system's response; and victim services.
Gang Membership
Authors: Mitchell Meghan M. , Pyrooz David C.
Published: December 2015

From the early to mid 1900s, ethnography and social observation formed the primary source for understanding street gangs and their behaviors. By virtue of the methodology of field research, the ecological context where gangs emerged and the group processes within gangs were key objects of study among early researchers and practitioners. Individual gang members were often discussed in terms of their life histories or how their backgrounds led to situational conflict, not in terms of classification and prediction. It was not until the 1980s and 1990s, well after the emergence of survey methodology in the social sciences, that we began to learn more about individual gang members. Indeed, the explosion of gang research over the past 30 years has really been an explosion of research on individual gang members. The current entry provides an overview of what is known about gang membership, including the risk factors for entering gangs, the patterns of gang membership in the life‐course, and relationship between gang membership, crime, and victimization.
Crime and Punishment inChina
Authors: Xu Jianhua , Liu Jianhong
Published: December 2015

The landscape of crime and punishment in the People's Republic of China has undergone dramatic changes in the past six decades. While prereform China has been regarded as a “crime‐free” society in terms of street crime, the crime rate has soared in the recent three decades due to rapid industrialization, urbanization, and modernization. Along with the rising street crime, white‐collar crime has also become rampant against a background of corruption, money‐worship, and moral anomie. China's incarceration rate is around the world average, but its wide use of the death penalty makes it one of the most punitive countries in the world. Its reliance on labor as a tool of rehabilitation has both roots in traditional Chinese culture and recent communist revolution. Although China is still criticized for many of its practice for violation of human rights in punishment, some progresses have been made in the recent decade such as abolishment of re‐education through labor system, limiting the use of public sentence rally, and reduction of death‐penalty usage.
Indirect Victimization
Authors: Leenaars Lindsey S. , Rinaldi Christina M.
Published: December 2015

Indirect victimization occurs when an aggressor manipulates the social network in order to harm the victim. It involves social exclusion, ignoring, gossiping, talking behind someone's back, writing nasty notes, trying to get others to dislike someone, and becoming friends with someone as revenge. Rates of indirect victimization in children and adolescents vary; however, across several recent studies, between 62% and 87% of youth reported being indirectly victimized. In general, and especially in children and adolescents, girls tend to be more indirectly victimized than boys. Indirect victimization has been linked to many short‐ and long‐term negative consequences. Both ontogenetic and phylogenetic theories of indirect victimization have been proposed.
Criminal Profiling
Authors: White John H. , Lester David
Published: December 2015

When the word “profiling” is mentioned, most people immediately think of police detectives and FBI agents sifting through a crime scene, gathering information about the behavior of offenders and then capturing the offender on the basis of that evidence. Although Arthur Conan Doyle's fictional character Sherlock Holmes may have been the first to use profiling techniques in solving crimes, present‐day novelist Thomas Harris popularized this type of investigative tool in his booksThe Red DragonandThe Silence of the Lambs. Television shows such asProfilerand most recentlyCriminal Mindshave further popularized this law enforcement technique. This type of profiling has been called “criminal profiling,” “offender profiling,” “criminal psychological profiling,” and “criminal investigative analysis.” Most recently, this process has been called “investigative consulting.” This entry provides an authoritative review on profiling.
Traffic Offenses
Authors: Sârbescu Paul , Iliescu Dragoş
Published: December 2015

The authors discuss the predictors of traffic accidents, focusing on the three main killers on the road: speeding, alcohol‐impaired driving and running red lights. For each of these three main predictors, the authors discuss the impact and effects of the offense and the factors associated with it. Speeding is seen throughout the world as a main national concern, due to the high level of casualties directly generated (up to 35% of the fatal traffic accidents). A number of personality factors and demographic variables are associated with speeding, defined as a deliberate risk‐taking behavior that endangers the safety of the driver and other road users. Alcohol‐impaired driving has a huge incidence across the world and a major part of road accidents is directly traceable to this behavior (up to 25% of the fatal traffic accidents). Different countries have different policies and levels of accepted blood alcohol concentration. A number of demographic and behavioral variables predict alcohol‐impaired driving, such as gender, living in a rural setting, being a binge drinker, and others. Running red lights is the major problematic driving behavior in intersections (up to 20% of the intersection accidents are due to drivers failing to obey the red light). A number of demographic variables, such as age and gender, are associated with this behavior. The response of drivers to enforcement is also discussed.
Rehabilitation
Authors: Dodson Kimberly D.
Published: December 2015

The word “rehabilitation” comes from the Latin prefix
re
meaning “again” and
habitare
“to make fit.” Therefore, rehabilitation is the act of restoring someone to their original state or making them whole again. The ability of the criminal justice system to rehabilitate offenders continues to be the subject of much debate among the public, scholars, politicians, and policymakers. Proponents of rehabilitation support the development and expansion of programs because they believe that these programs hold the most promise for reducing recidivism. To the contrary, opponents of rehabilitation claim that rehabilitative efforts do not significantly lower recidivism rates. Thus, they believe that rehabilitation should be abandon in favor of retributive forms of punishment to deter criminal behavior. However, rehabilitation continues to be embraced as the preferred method for correcting offenders. Recent rehabilitative efforts utilize evidence‐based research for the development, implementation, and continuation of rehabilitative programs.
Crime and Punishment in
I
taly
Authors: Lavorgna Anita
Published: December 2015

The Italian crime and punishment system is a civil law system that has been deeply influenced by both the classical and the positivist schools of criminology. This entry provides a brief overview of the current Italian criminal justice system and shows how history has shaped it. The entry considers both substantial and procedural law and their practical implementation.
Discrimination
Authors: Suresh Geetha
Published: December 2015

Discrimination is a prejudicial act that is socially wrong, morally undesirable, politically protested, and legally punishable. To discriminate is a form of prejudice that can lead to hate crimes. Discriminatory behavior can be of many types involving some form of exclusion or rejection. International organizations such as United Nations, United Nations Human Rights Council, and countries around the world currently endeavor toward solving discrimination, prejudice and harassment. The antidiscriminatory measures deployed to eradicate discrimination and establish social justice are noteworthy.
Pharmacy and Crime
Authors: Zabyelina Yuliya G.
Published: December 2015

The relationship between pharmacy and crime is not always straightforward, and refers to a variety of criminal offenses. Traditional types of offense include prescription drug abuse and violence against pharmacies, such as burglaries and robberies. The last two decades, however, have demonstrated the importance of countering the manufacture, trade, and distribution of fake, stolen, and illicit medicines. The expansion of the internet has contributed to the growing prevalence of online trade in counterfeit and illicit drugs. As it has become a dynamic and profitable industry, organized crime groups have been seeking a share of the profits it generates. Bringing damage to the integrity of public health systems around the globe and causing harm to the health of individuals, pharmaceutical crime has become an area of serious concern for national governments and the international community.
Subcultural Theories
Authors: Peck Jennifer H.
Published: December 2015

Classic subcultural theories provided historical and criminological assumptions about groups of individuals who adhere to an oppositional set of values and beliefs compared with mainstream culture. Since the reemergence of contemporary subcultural theories, the utility of these theoretical explanations to study illegal behavior holds promise in the present day. Various theoretical refinements of contemporary subcultural theories have been based on the limitations of classic subcultural perspectives. Modern subcultural perspectives have been able to link both macro‐ and micro‐level characteristics as potential and important explanations to the study of deviance, violence, and overall crime.
Crime and Punishment in
E
l
S
alvador
Authors: Carcach Carlos A.
Published: December 2015

El Salvador is considered as one of the most violent countries worldwide. High rates of homicide and extortion, and violent gangs, represent big challenges to government and are major threats to public safety. Low levels of confidence in the criminal justice system results in only a small fraction of victims reporting crimes to the police. Even with a low crime reporting rate, the system struggles to deal effectively with a high volume of cases. Impunity is a natural consequence of a collapsed criminal justice system and a real threat to democracy.
Community Corrections
Authors: Klein Lloyd
Published: December 2015

Community corrections is a strategy that emerged during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The US penal system expanded significantly from approximately 100,000 inmates to over a million incarcerated individuals around that time. The utilization of mandatory minimums, inclination toward longer prison sentences, the war on drugs, and increase in violence led to more extensive utilization of correctional institutions. Community corrections was offered as a way of treating individuals in community settings as a way of reducing cost, ensuring rehabilitation, and recognizing the problem of reintegrating individuals back into society after serving time in prison. Various forms of intermediate sanctions were employed with a focus on the community as a way of delivering correctional services.
Police History
Authors: Goforth Craig , Sims Barbara
Published: December 2015

Modern‐day policing is firmly grounded in the historical context of social control within a civil society. It is important to explore the early roots of policing to broaden an understanding of the basic tenets associated with the turning over of certain liberties to government in order to enhance the safety and security of local communities. The purpose of this entry is to provide a historical account of the evolution of policing from the Medieval and Middle Ages up to the twenty‐first century, situated within the modern‐day philosophy of community and problem‐oriented policing.
Crime and Punishment inJapan
Authors: Hamai Koichi , Ellis Tom
Published: December 2015

This entry first presents a critical summary of historical trends in crime and the current crime picture in Japan, then outlines the key elements of the criminal justice process one by one, in order of their occurrence: policing and prosecutions; courts; and punishment. Evidence on Japan's continued use of the death penalty, life sentences, and recidivism is also considered. The entry concludes with an overview of youth/juvenile justice in Japan.
Homeland Security
Authors: Logan Keith Gregory
Published: December 2015

Homeland security is about being prepared to identify and respond to any force, foreign or domestic, natural or man‐made, which threatens a nation's sovereignty or continuity. To ensure that the United States (US) is prepared and there will never be another September 11, the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created. DHS has five key mission plans to ensure the sovereignty and continuity of the homeland. Although it took a devastating terrorist event to awaken the US, homeland security is more than fighting terrorism. There are ten key areas that should be considered when building a homeland security program. Homeland security remains in the forefront of most Americans' concerns. Natural disasters and a morphing terrorist base continue to present daily challenges to domestic security, law enforcement, and the military. After September 11, the tranquil tapestry of American life changed – forever.
Crime and Punishment in
T
aiwan (Republic of
C
hina)
Authors: Chen Chien‐Min , Tsai Tsung‐Hsien
Published: December 2015

This entry overviews the trend and status quo of crime and punishment in Taiwan. Background and distinguishing features of the Taiwanese criminal justice are concisely introduced. More fundamentally, statistics of recent crimes in Taiwan are collected in order to show the patterns of crime events and the corresponding components. The correlation between the annual economic growth rate and the total number of reported crime events in Taiwan is systematically analyzed for the benefit of an in‐depth knowledge of the Taiwanese crime and punishment. Finally, a discussion of items of retributive punishment such as imprisonment terms, life sentence, and the death penalty is provided.
Crime and Punishment inTurkey
Authors: Khachatryan Norair
Published: December 2015

Before the Republic of Turkey was created, the Ottoman Empire ruled over the region for six centuries and employed archaic methods of crime punishment – such as corporal punishment and brutal ways of administering the death penalty – in order to combat the high prevalence of crime. Available statistics indicate that crime is on the rise in Turkey again, but this may be an artifact created by superior recording techniques and the inclusion of more offenses in the analyses. Turkey's aspiration of joining the European Union contributed to a progressive modernization of the criminal justice system, which includes the implementation of rehabilitation programs and the criminalization of numerous exploitative behaviors, as well as the suspension of the death penalty in 1984 and its abolition in 2004. Punishments now consist of life imprisonment without the possibility of release, life imprisonment with the possibility of release, lower prison sentences, and monetary fines. Oppression and crimes against non‐Turkish minorities, and the subsequent lack of punishment for the perpetrators, have been a matter of grave concern since the country's inception and continue to threaten Turkey's integrity.
Evaluation Research
Authors: Connell Nadine M.
Published: December 2015

In recent years, conditions of funding to state and local agencies with regard to social service programming have been contingent upon the ability of organizations to prove efficacy through evidence‐based assessment of program goals and outcomes. This is accomplished through the use of program evaluation, which utilizes the systematic assessment of program processes to determine whether program goals are being met. This entry discusses the various types of program evaluation available to researchers and practitioners, the reasons for undergoing such evaluation, and the ways to conduct evaluations with appropriate rigor. It also places this process within the larger area of evidence‐based criminology.
Longitudinal Research
Authors: Marie Baldwin Julie , Sobba Kristen N.
Published: December 2015

This entry defines longitudinal research, describes types of design and methodology of longitudinal research, the relationship between longitudinal research and criminological theory, and the limitations and practical issues concerning the collection and analysis of longitudinal data.
Miranda Rights
Authors: Trocchio Sarah
Published: December 2015

The formula “Miranda rights” refers to a suspect's Fifth Amendment rights to silence and an attorney while being interrogated in police custody. The Supreme Court recognized these rights in 1966 in its landmarkMiranda v. Arizonaruling. The decision mandated that suspects be notified by police of constitutional protections available to them during interrogations and that police secure suspects' knowing and voluntary waiver of those rights, should suspect statements be admissible in court. Controversy persists around the extent to which these rights should be protected. As its varied rulings sinceMirandaindicate, the Supreme Court continues to seek a balance between crime control and due process as goals of the criminal justice system in the context of police interrogations. A rich empirical literature also examines the extent of the public's knowledge and activation of Miranda rights, law enforcement's response to Miranda rights, and the effectiveness of Miranda rights in controlling crime and protecting the innocent.
Missing and Exploited Children
Authors: Alexis Kennedy M.
Published: December 2015

The phrase “missing and exploited children” encompasses a variety of ways in which children can go missing from their homes and end up being abused while away. Most attention is given to abductions by strangers; but, more frequently, children are seduced or coerced away from their homes by someone they know. Noncustodial family members can also abduct children, either by force or without force. Some children are reported missing but their absence is due to benign reasons, for instance when they miss curfew or get lost. Children who leave home as runaways or are forced from their homes without alternative placements (thrownaways) are at great risk for being sexually exploited through commercial sexual activity or prostitution.
Eyewitness Testimony
Authors: Jones Angela
Published: December 2015

Erroneous eyewitness testimony has contributed to a large number of overturned wrongful convictions. Jurors have difficulty evaluating the quality of eyewitness identifications, especially when an eyewitness displays high confidence. Courts have relied on procedural safeguards to assist jurors to review eyewitness evidence. The New Jersey Supreme Court recently embraced the use of one type of safeguard, judicial instructions, based on psychological research. Variations of these instructions improve juror decision‐making.
Prosecutors
Authors: Peck Jennifer H.
Published: December 2015

Prosecutors are an integral part of the United States' justice process above and beyond being lawyers who present a case against a defendant in court. The current entry provides an overview of the purpose of prosecutors throughout the criminal justice and juvenile justice systems, with a particular focus on the role of prosecutorial discretion and ethical issues.
Crime and Punishment inSaudiArabia
Authors: Jennings Wesley G.
Published: December 2015

Crime and punishment in Saudi Arabia is unique by comparison to crime and punishment in Western societies, and in the United States in particular. The current entry provides a brief overview of traditional Islamic law as applied in Saudi Arabia and details the nature and extent of crime and the governmental responses to it in Saudi Arabia.
Victim Advocates
Authors: Richards Tara N.
Published: December 2015

A victim advocate is a formal support provider that may offer a crime victim a range of assistance such as information regarding safety planning or victim compensation, assistance completing paperwork or accessing shelter, or direct services such as crisis intervention or counseling. Victim advocates may be employed across a range of criminal justice system offices such as police departments or offices of the court or may work at a nonprofit agency such as a domestic violence shelter, sexual assault crisis center, or legal aid office. While research demonstrates challenges in advocate collaborations with system actors, evidence suggests that advocates are associated with more positive outcomes for crime victims.
Public Health and Crime
Authors: Comfort Megan
Published: December 2015

Public health is closely entwined with numerous aspects of crime and punishment. People living in poverty, who use illicit drugs, and who contend with mental health issues are all at elevated risk of criminal justice involvement. Efforts to meet basic health needs may result in people committing crimes, and efforts to avoid arrest may result in behaviors that increase health risk. Incarcerated populations report high levels of medical problems, and correctional facilities function both as sources of further compromised health and as sites for delivering health services. Crime also can carry heavy health consequences for victims, including physical injury and mental health difficulties. Furthermore, having an incarcerated family member is associated with negative health outcomes, and community‐level health is affected when high numbers of residents are involved with the criminal justice system.
Crime and Punishment in
G
reece
Authors: Wasileski Gabriela
Published: December 2015

According to the Ministry of Justice, Transparency and Human Rights in Greece, more than 12,479 individuals are in Greek jails or prisons. Approximately, 62% are nonnationals. Even though there are many causes for crime, variety of definitions of crime and complexity of offenders; the common belief is that the best strategies for reducing and deterring crime must involve legal punishments. In recent years the Greek government has shifted its approach to address crime and punishment. The public discourse about crime, along with common‐law enforcement practice, suggests a correlation between ethnicity, migration, crime, and punishment.
Crime and Punishment in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Jennings Wesley G.
Published: December 2015

Crime and punishment in the United States has its origins in practices of the European settlers who colonized America centuries ago. Although there is a wide range of crimes that occur in the United States and there are varied forms of punishment for them, perhaps no punishment is more controversial than the death penalty. Hence the current entry provides a brief review of the most recent advancements in death penalty research in the United States.