bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
How is International Law Made? – The Stages of Growth of International Law and the Use of its Customary Rules
Authors: Meijers H.
Published: July 2009

Following the First World War, a group of lawyers and diplomats drafted the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice. Ever since, the Statute of the World Court has contained an article (Article 38) which indicates the rules the Court should apply when it administers the law. Since that time the complexity of international society has increased considerably, and the need for speedy production of rules of international law has also grown very conspicuously, consequent upon the ever-increasing interdependence of the more than 160 states which are now the main producers of that law. In these circumstances, it seems to me to be of importance to state in as plain terms as possible how international law is made.
Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts: The Diplomatic Conference, Geneva, 1974 – 1977
Authors: Kalshoven Frits
Published: July 2009

As set out in section II of this paper, the Diplomatic Conference, by adopting Article 48 of Protocol I, reaffirmed the principle of distinction “between the civilian population and combatants and between civilian objects and military objectives”. The obligation to make this distinction serves, as the Article states, “to ensure respect for and protection of the civilian population and civilian objects”. As a logical consequence of this obligation, the Article lays down that the Parties to the conflict “accordingly shall direct their military operations only against military objectives”.
Private armed groups and world order
Authors: Kahn S.G.
Published: July 2009

In December 1968 Israeli forces launched an attack on Beirut Airport, claiming as justification, inter alia, Lebanese responsibility under international law for a number of incidents involving damage to life and property caused, it was alleged, by groups operating from the Lebanon 1). The action, which was the culmination of a long series of attacks by Arab groups, and similar earlier reactions, received widespread criticism, and have had far-reaching political consequences, but in contrast there has been little legal analysis of the underlying problems raised by the existence and activities of private groups operating from one country with violent acts against another country or of the remedies available to the State attacked. The political immediacy of these incidents has even led writers to employ circumlocutions or arbitrary cumulations of terms in order, it seems, to avoid committing themselves. In an article discussing the Beirut raid 2) Falk suggests that the language used to characterize acts of violence by non-State groups is either cumbersome or implies a degree of sympathy with, or antipathy to, such activities. He therefore uses such terms as “terrorist”, “guerrilla activity”, “liberation movement” and “freedom fighters” interchangeably. In a reply 3), Blum claims that “guerrilla” is “devoid of implying political values” and uses the word throughout 4).
Is stare decisis an impediment to the enforcement of international law by British courts?
Authors: Erades L.
Published: July 2009

In 1950 the late J. Drion began his inaugural lecture as professor in the Law Faculty of Leyden University by quoting a well-known English saying: “When a doctor makes a mistake, he buries it; when a judge makes a mistake, it becomes the law of the land” as an introduction to a learned exposition on the fundamental rule of English law: stare decisis et quieta non movere. According to this rule British courts are, as a matter of principle, bound by decisions on points of law, laid down in the judgments of the superior courts, the House of Lords, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and the Court of Appeal. Until 1966 the House of Lords was even bound by its own precedents, as still is the Court of Appeal. The House of Lords can overrule the Court of Appeal and it may, by a single decision, be presumed to bind future Courts of Appeal. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which is not strictly a judicial body is not bound by its own judgments and does not in theory bind British courts, but the fact that it is manned largely by Law Lords makes its opinions of very great value as precedents.
The Benelux Court
Authors: Schneider J.W.
Published: July 2009

“By applying norms in a uniform and consistent manner, the court insures the equal administration of justice which is, of course, at the heart of any rule of law system”. Judged by this function the contemplated Benelux Court, whose task it is to promote uniformity in the application of legal rules common to Belgium, Luxemburg and the Netherlands (Art. 1(2) ) is no less a judicial organ than any true court. Some doubts may be entertained as to whether its function of resolving basic conflicts is equally prominent. In the final analysis, the Court's judicial activity does help to solve conflicts but, apart from its role as an administrative tribunal, the Court's task remains strictly indirect, that is by way of preliminary review. It does not hand down judgments directly binding upon the litigant parties. This somewhat reduced role is allied to the peculiarity of the legal order, or rather the entire system, within which its work has been charted. This system is the Benelux Economic Union whose basic instrument, the Union Treaty of 3 February 1958, does not mention that it is a common market; in fact, it materially resembles the European Common Market. Its juridical structure is, however, a strictly intergovernmental one and its decisions are taken by unanimity (Art. 18) which features are characteristic of an international organization whereas a supranational organization is provided with an organ capable of issuing “real” decisions without admitting of the direct intervention of the governments concerned.
The International Court of Justice's “natural prolongation” and the continental shelf problem of islands
Authors: Goldie L.F.E.
Published: July 2009

Attempts at the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea at Geneva in 1958 to define the legal characteristics of islands for the purpose of delimiting continental shelf boundaries proved abortive, despite the presentation of several proposals and draft amendments to the relevant provision of the International Law Commission's 1956 Draft Articles Concerning the Law of the Sea. One difficulty the Fourth Committee faced arose from its formalistic approach. It seemed reluctant to look behind the word “islands”, and appraise different categories of islands differently. A prime example of the confusion this nominalism caused is to be found in the report of Mr. Gihl's intervention in this regard. He reasoned about offshore and coastal islands on a single continental shelf with the mainland coast in terms of islands “having a continental shelf of their own”.
Warships in territorial waters, their right of innocent passage
Authors: de Vries Reilingh O.G.
Published: July 2009

This study deals with the question whether there is, to-day, an international right of innocent passage of warships through territorial waters in time of peace. With this in view it will first be examined which links there are with other fields of international law; then will follow a more comprehensive review of the fundamentals of the problem.
The regime of navigation on international waterways Part II: The territorial scope of the regime of free navigation
Authors: Vitányi Béla
Published: July 2009

In Article 5 of the Paris Peace Treaty of 30 May 1814 the Contracting Parties agreed to establish a regime of free navigation on the Rhine, at the same time giving a mandate to the forthcoming Congress of Vienna to establish similar navigation regimes for other rivers “which, in their navigable course, separate or traverse different States”. This idea was given substance in the definition of the international regime in the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna of 9 June 1815. Article 108, in particular, speaks of States “separated or traversed by the same navigable river”, while Article 109 provides that “the navigation of the rivers, along their whole course, referred to in the preceding article, from the point where each of them becomes navigable, to its mouth, shall be entirely free … ” So, the application of the rules of free navigation is dependent upon two criteria: the first, of a physical character, is that the water-course possesses by reason of its natural conditions the technical qualities summarized in the word “navigability”. The seond, of a political character, is the condition that the water-course borders on or passes through more than one State. But, in conformity with the basic idea of the Act of Vienna, which regulates the navigation of rivers on the basis of the community of interests of the riparians, for a waterway to be governed by this Act it is necessary that one and the same section of it fulfils both criteria. Consequently, a water-course, the non-navigable upper course of which traverses one State while the whole of its navigable course is in the territory of another State, is not covered by the Act of Vienna.
Optimal design of manipulator parameter using evolutionary optimization techniques
Authors: Rout B. K. , Mittal R. K.
Published: July 2009

A robot must have high positioning accuracy and repeatability for precise applications. However, variations in performance are observed due to the effect of uncertainty in design and process parameters. So far, there has been no attempt to optimize the design parameters of manipulator by which performance variations will be minimum. A modification in differential evolution optimization technique is proposed to incorporate the effect of noises in the optimization process and obtain the optimal design of manipulator, which is insensitive to noises. This approach has been illustrated by selecting optimal parameter of 2-DOF RR planar manipulator and 4-DOF SCARA manipulator. The performance of proposed approach has been compared with genetic algorithm with similar modifications. It is observed that the optimal results are obtained with lesser computations in case of differential evolution technique. This approach is a viable alternative for costly prototype testing, where only kinematic and dynamic models of manipulator are dealt with.
Mima mound microtopography and vegetation pattern in Kenyan savannas
Authors: Cox George W. , Gakahu Christopher G.
Published: July 2009

Earth mounds are important determinants of vegetation pattern in savannas, acting as foci for establishment of woody plants. In the Kenya highlands, mounds formerly attributed to termites have recently been found to be Mima mounds produced by rhizomyid mole rats. We investigated Mima mounds on black cotton soils near Kenyatta International Airport and on brown clay soils between Nairobi and Thika. At Kenyatta Airport, mounds had loamier, more granular soils than intermounds, and contained small rocks that mole rats can move. At the site between Nairobi and Thika, mound soils were more friable, higher in pH, and lower in carbon than intermound soils. Data from this and other studies indicate that Mima mound soils are more favourable for plant growth than those of true termite mounds. Mound vegetation exhibited lower coverage of grasses and greater coverage by forbs, shrubs, and bare ground, a pattern indicative of intense grazing and soil disturbance. Acacias, absent from most mounds, were abundant in the zone bordering the mound. This pattern may reflect the favourability of mound soils, combined with the effects of high grazing pressure. Future studies of savanna vegetation should distinguish between termite mounds and Mima mounds.
Two-year study of male orchid bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Euglossini) attraction to chemical baits in lowland south-eastern Perú
Authors: Pearson David L. , Dressler Robert L
Published: July 2009

Chemical baits corresponding to natural orchid fragrance chemicals were used to attract and sample male orchid bees in terra firme and flood plain forest sites on the Tambo-pata Reserve in south-eastern Perú. The study was conducted monthly for two years. A total of 38 species of bees was collected at these chemical baits, and although most species were collected from both habitats, 11 species were significantly more common in one habitat than the other. There was considerable variation in the number and types of chemicals to which each of the orchid bee species was attracted.

Two cycles of seasonal abundance occurred annually in the number of orchid bee individuals and species collected at the chemical baits. A major peak occurred a month following onset of the wet season, and a minor peak occurred during the dry season. Species body size was related to seasonal activity, but additional factors such as flowering phenology and nest parasites were also probably involved.

The number of orchid bee species found on the Tambopata Reserve was similar to the number found in forest sites of eastern and central Brazil, Costa Rica, and Panamá. This homogeneity in species richness is in marked contrast to other insect groups such as Odonata, Lepi-doptera, Asilidae (Diptera), Tabanidae (Diptera), and Cicindelidae (Coleoptera), for which the species numbers recorded on the Tambopata Reserve are the highest for any similar sized area in the world.
Seasonal effects on litterfall in a Hong Kong mixed forest
Authors: Lam Paul K. S. , Dudgeon David
Published: July 2009

An investigation of seasonal rates of litter production in a mixed forest, Hong Kong Island, was undertaken from October 1982 to January 1984. Total annual litterfall amounted to 1218.96 g m−2yr−1, comprising 68.6% leaves, 18.9% woody material, and 12.5% fruits, seeds and insect frass. 398.70 g m−2of litter was recorded immediately after a severe typhoon (9 September 1983). Rates of leaf-fall and organic debris production were correlated with prevailing temperature and rainfall. Leaf-fall peaked in January 1983, March to July 1983, and in September 1983 after the typhoon, while large amounts of insect faeces were collected in May and June. Woody litter production rates were correlated with temperature and rainfall recorded in previous months. Woody litterfall exhibited no obvious periodicity but was slightly increased during March and April. The seasonal distribution of litterfall is discussed in relation to climatic factors and habitat nutrient economy.
Breakdown of Ficus fistulosa (Moraceae) leaves in Hong Kong, with special reference to dynamics of elements and the effects of invertebrate consumers
Authors: Lam Paul K. S. , Dudgeon David
Published: July 2009

Seasonal variations in the breakdown and dynamics of chemical elements in Ficus fistulosa leaves in a mixed forest on Hong Kong Island were investigated between October 1982 and September 1983. Mean rate of leaf material weight loss from coarse-mesh (3 mm) bags was 1.82% day-1, about four times that inside fine-mesh (0.2 mm) bags (mean rate 0.44% day-1). Breakdown rates varied seasonally with maximum rates in spring or summer, and were significantly correlated with prevailing temperatures, the rainfall of the two previous months, and the soil moisture content of the previous month. Potassium and Mg were rapidly leached from leaf material throughout the year while the concentrations of C, N, P, Ca and Na remained relatively stable. In the absence of macrofauna (inside fine-mesh bags) decomposition rate constants (k) were positively correlated with the mean abundance of mites and Collembola, as well as with total invertebrate abundance. In the presence of macrofauna (inside coarse-mesh bags) decomposition rate constants were positively correlated with isopod and amphipod abundance. There was no significant correlation between breakdown rates of leaf material and mesofaunal abundance inside coarse-mesh bags. The importance of climate and invertebrates as rate determinants of Ficus decomposition is discussed.
The forests of Bhutan: a vital resource for the Himalayas?
Authors: Sargent Caroline , Sargent Orlando , Parsell Roger
Published: July 2009

Large areas of the Himalayas have become severely deforested although little has been published about the extent of this problem in the closed Kingdom of Bhutan. A preliminary survey was undertaken during 1983. Without detailed information or accurate maps, LANDSAT 2 imagery was used to prepare a sampling stratification and to plot the distribution of defined vegetation types after sampling and analysis. Eleven forest noda are described in relation to their habitats, and area and timber volume estimates given. Deforestation pressures are discussed.
Regeneration following clearing in a Jamaican montane forest: results of a ten-year study
Authors: Sugden A. M. , Tanner E. V. J. , Kapos V.
Published: July 2009

Succession was monitored over ten years in a 10×10m plot in forest with mor humus at 1550 m in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica, following the removal in January 1975 of all aerial plant parts and some of the root material. In April 1977, August–January 1980/1 and August 1984, all woody recruits in the plot were tagged and numbered, identified and measured (height), and mapped on a 1 m grid. The height of coppice was recorded. Ten of the eleven tree species present before felling produced coppice shoots. Two individuals almost attained canopy height by 1984. Twenty tree species and three shrub species were recruited from seed; six of the tree species were normally absent from the forest. Species composition changed very little with time.

The rate of seedling recruitment was greatest immediately after clearing. The overall den-sity of individuals changed little after 1977. Overall mortality of recruits was about 10% per annum. Mortality of the earliest recruits declined with time since establishment. Later recruits and individuals with poor growth had higher mortality than other plants. Mortality was not density-dependent. Growth rates of recruits were relatively slow. Only ten individuals exceeded 4 m by 1984.

Recruitment rates, density, growth and species diversity were greatest in the parts of the plot where the mor humus had been removed or piled up during the initial clearance. Recruit-ment, growth and density were least, and mortality was greatest, at the edge. There was no relationship between any of these parameters and the presence of coppicing stumps.

Tree species showed a clear spectrum from obligate gap-demanders to obligate shade-bearers. The persistence of gap-demanding species in this forest (in which gaps are normally rare) may be due to infrequent hurricanes, and also to a natural ability to produce basal sprouts. The succession conforms to an initial floristic composition model; it is slow, and we suggest that at least 50 years will elapse before the plot begins to resemble the undisturbed forest.
Life cycle and diet of Zygonyx iris insignis (Insecta: Odonata: Anisoptera) in Hong Kong running waters
Authors: Dudgeon David , Wat Christina Y. M.
Published: July 2009

Zygonix iris is widespread in tropical Asia, and larvae are sprawlers/clingers on rock surfaces in fast-flowing streams and rivers. In the Lam Tsuen River, Hong Kong, this species is univoltine; emergence occurs prior to the summer monsoon and larval recruitment during the wet season. Studies on larval dietary composition in four habitats indicated that Z. iris is a generalist predator, consuming epibenthic prey taxa in proportion to their abundance in the environment. Larval Chironomidae (Diptera) and Baetis (Ephemeroptera) were the commonest food items at all sites and there was little consistent evidence of preference for individual taxa. Larger Z. iris larvae tended to consume more prey taxa than did smaller larvae, and Baetis prey size was positively correlated with predator size. No size selection of chironomid larvae was apparent. Despite its unusual larval habit, Z. iris is a generalist feeder resembling lotic and lentic temperate-zone Odonata.
Changes in a secondary forest in southwestern Nigeria following a ground fire
Authors: Isichei Augustine O. , Ekeleme Friday , Jimoh Bakare A.
Published: July 2009

In January 1983, two 50 m × 50 m rain forest plots in the University of Ife campus in southwestern Nigeria were demarcated for a baseline study of species composition, litterfall and tree girth increments. By accident, a severe ground fire burnt one of the plots on 31 January, barely two weeks after litter traps had been set and species listing and first girth measurements completed.

The effect of this fire was assessed in the burnt plot after 14 months, in April 1984. The fire affected small trees especially, and there were indications that some species were more sensitive than others.

Manihot glaziovii, which was present in the plot and abundant in its vicinity before the fire showed a big increase in density after the fire because it was able to germinate in the openings created by the fire. These observations were related to succession, and it is concluded that the observation by some workers that the initial composition of a regrowth forest may be partly predicted from a knowledge of the seed bank in the soil may be applicable in the present case.
Mosaic patterns in dipterocarp rain forest in Indonesia, and their implications for practical forestry
Authors: Torquebiau Emmanuel F.
Published: July 2009

Tropical rain forest is described as a mosaic of ecologically uniform patches. A method is proposed to recognize and inventory the patches and to draw mosaic maps, based on the size and architecture of canopy trees. Mosaic maps from three different forest localities in Indonesia are compared in terms of the relative area occupied by each kind of patch, and the surface range and number of constituent patches. The comparison shows that the mosaic patterns are specific to the sites and can be used for the characterization of patch dynamics in different forest types. Possible implications for forest management are discussed in the light of the mosaic maps.
Extraction of arthropods from neotropical soils with a modified Kempson apparatus
Authors: Adis Joachim
Published: July 2009

A modified Kempson apparatus is described, the extraction procedure for arthropods in neotropical soils is given, and an example from Central Amazonia is presented.
Ant foraging on ant-inhabited Triplaris (Polygonaceae) in western Brazil: a field experiment using live termite-baits
Authors: Oliveira Paulo S. , Oliveira-Filho Ary T. , Cintra Renato
Published: July 2009

Foraging parameters of two ant species, Pseudomyrmex triplarinus and Crematogaster sp., on P. triplarinus-occupied shrubs of Triplaris surinamensis were evaluated in a semi-deciduous forest of Mato Grosso, western Brazil. Live workers of the termite Microcerotermes strunckii, used as baits for ants, were placed on leaves in the lower, medium and upper thirds of the crown of thirty experimental Triplaris (nine baits/plant). Besides attacking more than twice as many baits as Crematogaster (131 against 59), Pseudomyrmex also attacked them signifi cantly faster. Pseudomyrmex patrolled the plant uniformly, while Crematogaster patrolled more intensively the lower portion of the crown of Triplaris. Baits retrieved by Pseudomyrmex were taken to their nests in the stem galleries of Triplaris; those retrieved by Crematogaster were carried to nearby nests in the forest understory. Greater aggressiveness and alertness to foreign objects (i.e. baits), better eyesight, larger size, and an individual foraging technique appear to be responsible for the greater foraging success of Pseudomyrmex when compared with Crematogaster.
The dynamics of tree populations in tropical forest: a review
Authors: Swaine M. D. , Lieberman Diana , Putz F. E.
Published: July 2009

Published work on the dynamics of forest tree recruitment, growth and mortality in natural tropical forest is reviewed. In most forests studied, annual mortality is between 1% and 2% and is independent of size class in trees >10 cm dbh; mortality is negatively correlated with growth rate and crown illumination; growth rate is highly variable between individual trees, but shows strong autocorrelation between successive measurements on the same tree.

Differences in the rate of dynamic processes can be detected between some species at a site, but data are presently insufficient to determine whether these differences are preserved at other sites where the species occur. None of the studies discussed are of sufficient duration to permit us to draw any conclusions about the equilibrium or non-equilibrium of floristic composition.
Herpetofauna of a northern Australian monsoon rain forest: seasonal changes and relationships to adjacent habitats
Authors: Martin K. C. , Freeland W. J.
Published: July 2009

The herpetofauna of a floodplain monsoon rain forest in northern Australia is composed primarily of species from non rain forest habitats. The majority of frog species use rain forest as a seasonal refuge, and there is a marked increase in numbers during the dry season. Faunal richness lies within limits expected on the basis of the length of the dry season and species richnesses of non-Australian faunas. There are few lizard species and an abundance of frog species (none of which is a rain forest specialist) in comparison to rain forest herpetofaunas in other tropical regions. The impoverished lizard fauna, and the paucity of rain forest specialists may be because (a) seasonal invasion of rain forest by frogs prevents evolution of, or colonization by, specialists or (b) rain forest specialists may not have been able to cross semiarid habitats separating the Northern Territory from eastern Australian rain forests. The herpetofaunas of monsoon forests in Cape York Peninsula may provide a means of distinguishing between these hypotheses.
The distribution and ecology of the freshwater prawnCaridina singhalensis(Decapoda, Atyidae) endemic to Sri Lanka
Authors: Benzie John A. H. , De Silva P. K.
Published: July 2009

The distribution and microhabitat preference of the freshwater prawn,Caridina singhalensis, endemic to Sri Lanka, was determined. The species is now restricted to a 10–15 km stretch of the Behihul Oya headwaters, its distribution being determined by physiography and agricultural development.

Beds ofIsolepis fluitanssupport some 76% of the adult population, at mean monthly densities of around 210 individuals m−2.Aponogeton jacobseniibeds and roots of marginal vegetation beneath overhanging banks support about 12% each, at mean monthly densities of 41 individuals m−2. The prawn produces young all year round but a peak in the number of ovigerous females occurs from September to January. Only juveniles produced after the rains appear to survive in great numbers. The submerged roots of marginal vegetation form a nursery area for about 45% of the annual output of young. Conservation plans for this endangered species need to take account of the particular importance ofI. fluitansand root habitats toC. singhalensis.
The use of tubificids for weeding and aquaculture in paddy fields in Japan
Authors: Kurihara Yasushi , Kikuchi Eisuke
Published: July 2009

Tubificid worms that live in the paddy mud increase in numbers when an organic fertilizer is applied. They mix the soil by passing it through their gut as well as by their burrowing and respiratory movements, thereby checking the sprouting of paddy weeds. Tubificids inhabiting the pond's mud also serve as fish food. It is suggested that such a pond might be appropriate for aquaculture.

This study considers a method to control paddy field ecosystems based on the above to produce rice and freshwater fish, with organic fertilizers but without the use of herbicides and insecticides.
Interactions between nectarivorous birds and the flowers ofAphelandra sinclairianain Panama
Authors: Fraga Rosendo M.
Published: July 2009

Flowers ofAphelandra sinclairianahave features of flowers pollinated by hermit humming-birds (long corollas) and of those pollinated by territorial humming-birds (dilute nectar, clustered distribution). Flowers in large clumps at the peak of the blooming season were pollinated by two territorial humming-birds, but at the end of the season or in isolated plants the main avian pollinator was the non-territorial hermitPhaethornis superciliosus. Visits by avian nectar thieves were more frequent at high flower densities. The reproductive output of inflorescences was similar at different levels of flower aggregation.Aphelandraflowers in large clumps could exchange pollen with extraterritorial plants because territorial humming-birds did not completely exclude pollinating hermits. The commonest nectar thief at high flower aggregations was the passerineVermivora peregrina, the second most common nectar thief was the hermitPhaethornis longuemareus.
The ecology of small mammals in Ogba Forest Reserve, Nigeria
Authors: Iyawe John Giobaguan
Published: July 2009

A total of 392 small mammals belonging to five species of small rodents and four species of shrews were caught. The small mammals and their percentage composition were Crocidura nigeriae (20.9%), Crocidura grandiceps (11.7%), Crocidura crossei (9.7%), Crocidura flavescens manni (20.4%), Mus musculoides (39.0%), Praomys tullbergi (11.5%), Lophuromys sikapusi (3.6%), Lemniscomys striatus (1.3%), and Arvicanthis niloticus (0.3%).

There were monthly variations in the number of Mus musculoides and Crocidura nigeriae.

In Mus musculoides breeding was at a maximum at the beginning and towards the end of the wet season and early dry season. In Crocidura nigeriae breeding was maximal during the wet season and low in the dry season.

The seasonal changes in the age structure of the two most common species: Mus musculoides and Crocidura nigeriae, are described.
Analysis of the niche of two sympatric species of Bombus (Hymenoptera, Apidae) in southeastern Brazil
Authors: Camillo Evandro , Garófalo Carlos Alberto
Published: July 2009

The sources of food and the width and overlap of the food niches of Bombus atratus and Bombus morio were determined by field observations and analysis of the pollen loads carried to the colonies by worker bees. The two species together utilized 50 flower species of which 26 were used by both. Solatium paniculatum (Solanaceae) and Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae) were the most frequently visited plants.

The food niche width and niche evenness for both species were similar. The correlation between niche width and niche evenness was non-significant showing that evenness does not depend on niche width. In addition, there was no correlation between niche width and overlap, i.e. overlap varied independently of niche width. A high overlap of food sources utilized by the two species was observed in September, October and November. This may be explained in one of two ways: (a) if B. atratus and B. morio compete for resources, competition would be more intense during those three months; (b) the convergency of both species to the same plant species (Solatium paniculatum and Psidium guajava) would only result in more intensive competition if resources were limiting. However, at that period of the year resources are abundant, therefore although the values of overlap were high, competition need not have occurred.
Elevational zonation of mammals in the central Philippines
Authors: Heaney Lawrence R. , Heideman Paul D. , Rickart Eric A. , Utzurrum Ruth B. , Klompen J. S. H.
Published: July 2009

Trapping and netting of small mammals on a land-bridge island (Leyte) and on an oceanic island (Negros) revealed similar patterns of elevational change in abundance and species richness. Fruit bats (Pteropodidae) reached their greatest local densities in agricultural areas, and were least abundant in montane mossy forest. The fruit bats found to be common in agri-cultural areas are widespread in Southeast Asia: in contrast, species that were most common in forested areas are Philippine endemics. Fruit bat abundance was greater on the oceanic island than on the land-bridge island. Trappable small mammals (families Soricidae and Muridae) showed no change in species richness with increasing elevation, but did show a gradual increase in overall abundance. Even though the oceanic island was depauperate of non-volant mammal species, it had the higher abundance of non-volant mammal individuals; however, this may have been due primarily to differences associated with the elevation of sampling sites. Murid rodents at the higher elevations on Leyte tend to be those that are members of the old endemic group of Philippine murids, and those at lower elevations tend to be members of more recently arrived groups. Most non-volant small mammals at all elevations on the oceanic Negros, and in agri-cultural areas on Leyte, are non-native species.
Patterns of seed rain at the edge of a tropical Queensland rain forest
Authors: Willson Mary F. , Crome F. H. J.
Published: July 2009

Both vertebrate- and wind-dispersed seeds moved farther from rain forest into old field than from old field into forest. Vertebrate-dispersed seeds from the rain forest moved farther into the field than wind-dispersed seeds, but seeds of both types moved similar distances from field into forest.

Habitat structure affected seed deposition patterns in the field, where shrubs provided perches for flying vertebrates. Vertebrate-dispersed seed deposition was significantly greater, and deposition of plumed, wind-dispersed seeds was significantly less, under shrubs than in the open. Deposition of vertebrate-dispersed seeds under fruiting shrubs was significantly less than under non-fruiting shrubs.
Fire, growth and survivorship in a Neotropical savanna grass Andropogon semiberbis in Venezuela
Authors: Silva Juan F. , Castro Fernando
Published: July 2009

This study was conducted in a woodland savanna in western Venezuela exclosed from grazing and burnt once a year towards the end of the dry season. Mean annual rainfall is 1500 mm, with a strong seasonality.

Two cohorts of seedlings of Andropogon semiberbis were tagged and monitored for up to three years. Several variables such as survivorship, plant size, seedling density, fire damage and distance to the nearest adult were measured or estimated. Two burning experiments to measure survivorship before and after fire, and two seedling-growth experiments to assess competitive interference from adult plants of three grass species were performed.

The highest mortality takes place during the dry season and is due to fire. This decreases as the plants get bigger due to increasing structural complexity of the clump by growth which gives added protection to the meristems. Other mortality factors such as desiccation, uprooting and shading seem to be important during the wet season, when mortality rate is relatively constant. Survivorship during the first year and after three years is strongly correlated to the size attained by the end of the first growing season.

Seedling densities are rather low and do not seem to play any role in survivorship in this population. Adult interference with seedling growth decreases with distance and seems to be due to root competition, although there is a tendency toward increased foliage interference related to the canopy structure of adult plants.
Comparative ecological studies of Paspalum vaginatum and Paspalum orbiculare in Nigeria
Authors: Lakanmi Olusola O. , Okusanya Olubukanla T.
Published: July 2009

The growth response of Paspalum vaginatum S.W. and P. orbiculare Forst to different environmental conditions and the interactions between the two species were deter-mined experimentally in order to find out some of those factors which may be responsible for the species distribution. There was no difference in response (as measured by growth) of P. vaginatum to any of the soils tested but this was not so for P. orbiculare. P. vaginatum grew signifi-cantly better in waterlogged soil than in either moist or dry soil, while the soil moisture condi-tions had no significant effect on the growth of P. orbiculare. Salinity in the range of 0-50% that of sea water had no significant effect on the growth of P. vaginatum, however higher salinity significantly suppressed the growth. In P. orbiculare, salinity above 10% caused a signi-ficant decrease in growth to the extent that the species did not survive at 100% sea water concentration. In competition, P. vaginatum was the stronger competitor in red earth, the soil from its natural habitat, under saline conditions and in waterlogged conditions. The results are discussed in relation to the natural habitats of the species and used to explain, in part, their distribution.
The abundance of native insects on the introduced weed Mimosa pigra in Northern Australia
Authors: Flanagan G. J. , Wilson C. G. , Gillett J. D.
Published: July 2009

A monospecific stand of the alien shrub Mimosa pigra (Mimosaceae) was examined weekly for 14 months from March 1984. A total of 44 phytophagous insect species were found on M. pigra. The five most abundant of these made up 74% of the total community. This insect community in general showed a distinct seasonal cycle of abundance with maximum numbers during the wet season. However, a few species had a completely different pattern.

Two species, Mictis profana (Hemiptera: Coreidae) and Platymopsis humeralis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), were observed to cause substantial damage to M. pigra. When compared with the fauna of M. pigra from its native region, Central America, that of the Northern Territory is low in leaf and flower-feeding insects. It is suggested that these types of insects be sought as future biocontrol agents to complement those native insects causing damage and those biocontrol agents already released.
Tree densities and sex ratios in breeding populations of dioecious Central Amazonian Myristicaceae
Authors: Ackerly David D. , Rankin-De-Merona Judy M. , Rodrigues William A.
Published: July 2009

The densities of the breeding populations and the sex of all flowering individuals were recorded for five dioecious canopy tree species of Central Amazonian Myristicaceae, in 11 study areas of the Minimum Critical size of Ecosystems Project totalling 22.5 ha. Adult population densities were extremely low, ranging from 0.38 to 1.61 ha–1 for the five species studied. In a 10 ha study plot the mean distance to the nearest flowering conspecific ranged from 48 to 100 m, while the mean distance to the nearest opposite sex conspecific was 147 m. The two most abundant species, Iryanthera macrophylla and Virola calophylla, both showed male-biased sex ratios, of 23:9 and 20:6, respectively. The size class distribution of males, females and non-flowering individuals in V. calophylla suggests that earlier reproductive maturation of male plants may provide a partial explanation for this bias. In I. macrophylla, since 95% of the individuals were observed flowering, the observed ratio is representative of the population, and may be caused by sex shifts from male to female. The low reproductive densities, combined with the skewed sex ratios and overlapping generations of these species, create very small effective breeding populations, placing species such as these at great risk in the face of deforestation and habitat fragmentation.
Acclimation of seedlings of three Mexican tropical rain forest tree species to a change in light availability
Authors: Popma J. , Bongers F.
Published: July 2009

A comparison is made of the light acclimation potential of seedlings of three canopy species of the tropical rain forest of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico: Cordia megalantha, Lonchocarpus guatemalensis, and Omphalea oleifera. These species showed similar growth rates in a range of microhabitats. Gap dynamics were simulated by transferring plants between three environments: beneath a closed canopy, a small gap, and a large gap. Plants of all three species were able to adjust their morphology and growth rates in response to changes in light availability. Growth rates increased when plants were moved to a (larger) gap, and decreased when plants were moved to a more shaded environment. Shade-grown plants were able to acclimate faster to increasing light availability than sun-grown plants to decreasing light availability. Also, plants moved from shady to sunny conditions showed higher relative growth rates than sun control plants, whereas sun-grown plants when moved to the shade showed lower relative growth rates than shade control plants. Species differed in their response to gap dynamics. Omphalea could not acclimate morphologically to shading, but reacted faster than the other species in response to the occurrence of a large gap. Acclimation potential seemed to be related to plasticity in physiological rather than in morphological traits. Suppressed seedlings of all three species performed well in the shade, and were able to acclimate rapidly to gap-conditions.
Red crabs in rain forest, Christmas Island: removal and fate of fruits and seeds
Authors: O'Dowd Dennis J. , Lake P. S.
Published: July 2009

The red land crab (Gecarcoidea nalalis) is the major collector of fruits and seeds from the rain forest Moor on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. At three sites, they rapidly removed fruits and seeds of 17 species tested (usually within 12 h after placement) and most were taken to crab burrows. Direct observations of seed predation, and application of estimated chelar forces of red crabs indicated that seeds of many species, especially those with thin seed coats, are likely to be killed through handling. However, removal of some resistant seeds to burrows may be favourable for seedling establishment when canopy gaps occur. Fruit removal rates by crabs were positively related to nitrogen concentration in fruit tissues but negatively correlated with condensed tannins. These observations suggest that seed predation by land crabs may affect the success of colonization and the relative abundance of plants on oceanic islands.
Nitrogen mineralization and nitrification interra firmeforest and savanna soils on Ilha de Maracá, Roraima, Brazil
Authors: Marrs R. H. , Thompson J. , Scott D. , Proctor J.
Published: July 2009

Soil mineralization and nitrification rates were measured in (1) undisturbed and felled gaps of varying size interra firmeforest, and (2) along a forest – savanna transect, on Ilha de Maracá in northern Brazil. Both rates were similar to those found in studies of other forests with a marked seasonal rainfall pattern. However, rates were much lower than those of tropical forests where there is little seasonality in rainfall. A major finding was that the highest rates were during the transition between dry and wet seasons, implying that wetting and drying may be an important initiator of soil nitrogen flux. Felling had little effect on either process up to a gap size of 2500 m2. In the forest-savanna study, nitrogen mineralization was lower in the savanna in all seasons, but in the wet season when the savanna soils were water-logged NH4+-N was immobilized. Experimental additions of nutrients identified two important results; first that added NH4+-N was quickly immobilized rather than nitrified – this may be an important nutrient conservation mechanism, and second that soil calcium appeared to be a limiting factor, either directly or through a pH effect.
Germination ecology of the woody herb Uraria picta, from southern Nigeria
Authors: Okusanya O. T. , Lakanmi O. O. , Oyesiku O. O.
Published: July 2009

The germination response of Uraria picta to five environmental factors was investigated. It germinated both in light and dark but germination in the light was significantly better than in the dark; there was further germination when seeds first placed in the dark were later brought into the light. It germinated well in the three soil types used but germination in humus and sand was significantly better than in red earth. There was an increase in germination with an increase in burial up to 1.5 cm, thereafter germination levelled off. There was no germination in water-logged conditions and there was an increase in germination as soil moisture decreased. Alternating temperatures of 31/21°C and 31/15°C favoured germination while 21/15°C inhibited germination. The results are discussed in relation to the phenology and distribution of the species.
Community structure of Auchenorrhyncha (Homoptera) in montane rain forest in Vietnam
Authors: Novotný Vojtěch
Published: July 2009

The adult Auchenorrhyncha community within the understorey of a montane tropical forest in Vietnam is described A total of 1132 specimens representing 223 morphospecies and 16 families was found in a 4300-sweep sample None of the species exceeded the 5% dominance level More than half the species are represented by single individuals within the 309 ms of vegetation Spatial community pattern is mosaic like at a scale of hundreds of metres as the similarity of 100 sweep samples does not depend on their spatial distance Areas 1 5–3 km distant from one another differ markedly in their Auchenorrhyncha communities These between-site differences exceed the intra-site community heterogeneity Population density of Auchenorrhyncha species is not correlated with their body size The Auchenorrhyncha community within a forest markedly differs from the community of an adjacent ruderal area A transitional zone between these habitats is intermediate in Auchenorrhyncha species composition
Habitat and food preferences of Greylag and Barheaded Geese wintering in the Keoladeo National Park, India
Authors: Middleton Beth A
Published: July 2009

Greylag (Anscr anser) and Barheaded Geese (Anser indicus) wintering in the Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, India, have habitat and food preferences which are comparable to overwintering geese in other parts of the world These geese preferred to eat the dominant grass species in the Park, Paspalum distichum, as determined by a comparison of the mean proportion of Paspalum of the total food eaten by Greylag and Barheaded Geese (0 932 & 0 971, respectively) with the mean availability of Paspalum in the wetland (0 795) However, based on a habitat study at the end of their overwintering season in February 1986, both species of geese used sites with the same amount of Paspalum distichum cover (c 14%) as sites that they did not use (c 14%)

The means of habitat characteristics of sites geese used versus sites they did not use, respectively, are given here in order of their relative preference based on rankings of their standardized means Greylags preferred sites which were grazed concurrently by other species of herbivores (frequency = 0 9 & 0 4), were farther from trees with Painted Stork nests (Mycteria leucocephala; 981 & 887 m) and from trees in general (49 & 26 m), or had deeper water 61 & 49 cm) However, Greylags did not prefer sites which were farther from open water (65 & 223 m), had been cut by hand (frequency = <0 1 & 0 1), were farther from vegetation dominated by Vetivcria zizanioides (668 & 842m), had been bulldozed (frequency = <0 1 & 0 1), or had any amount of cover of the exotic aquatic weed, Eichhornia crassipes (0 0 & 0 3%)

Barheaded Geese preferred sites which were remote from the Park boundary (1156 & 757m), were farther from any road (423 & 235 m), had been grazed by geese in 1984 (0 3 & <0 1), had higher covers of droppings (0 4 & 0 1%), or had been burned in the previous summer (frequency = 02 & 0 1) They did not prefer sites which had deeper water (25 & 61 cm), had been grazed by geese in 1985 (frequency = 0 0 & 0 5), were farther from vegetation dominated by Vetivcria (511 & 733 m), had been bulldozed (frequency = 0 0 & 0 1), or were farther from open water (29 & 115 m) This information can be used to construct management plans for Greylag and Barheaded Geese overwintering in the Keoladeo National Park and other parts of northern India