bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE IN READING FRENCH
Authors: Burling Robbins
Published: October 2006

Students who wish to read French and who are willing to omit instruction in the spoken language have learned successfully by using texts that are mixtures of French and English. The texts begin with English words in French word order, and in subsequent passages a few French words are substituted for the English words. Later the proportion of French gradually rises. The method has the advantage that adult students can practice from the beginning with adult materials. They need never be subjected to the French equivalent of “Dick and Jane”. The method also allows a relatively systematic introduction of grammatical material, another advantage for the adult student, and it allows a good many aspects of the language to be absorbed relatively unconciously through extensive exposure to written matierals. Its major disadvantage is the unaesthetic appearance of the mixed texts. The method violates a number of widely held assumptions about second language instruction but reasons exist for doubting all these assumptions.
VARIABLES AFFECTING NATIVE MEXICAN CHILDREN'S LEARNING SPANISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE1
Authors: Brière Eugène J.
Published: October 2006

To assess the effect of the different variables of theoretical and practical interest to second language research, 920 Native Mexican children, aged five through twelve, learning Spanish as a second language were tested on a Spanish language achievement test. The variables measured for investigation were: order of presentation of the different parts of the test; age, sex and native languages of the children; whether the father, mother and siblings speak Spanish; proximity of the domicile to a Spanish speaking community; amount of attendance at school; and whether the parents needed to speak Spanish to travel for work. The variables which had a statistically significant effect on test scores were: order of presentation of the parts of the test; native language of the children; father speaks Spanish; attendance at school; and need for the parents to speak Spanish to travel for work. All other variables in this study were not statistically significant. Discussion of the results includes possible reasons for the findings.
IS THE “NATURAL ORDER” AN ARTIFACT OF THE BILINGUAL SYNTAX MEASURE?
Authors: Krashen Stephen D.
Published: October 2006

In a recent study, Porter (1977) reported that the rank order for grammatical morphemes in obligatory contexts between child first language acquirers using the BSM was “moderately dissimilar” to that found for child second language acquirers using the BSM. Also, correlations between the L1 BSM order and child L1 orders obtained from spontaneous speech are “highly dissimilar”. He suggests that the order obtained with the BSM could be “an artifact of the testing situation” and should be validated using spontaneous speech of second language performers. This paper makes three points about these conclusions. (1) Spontaneous speech data has been provided since Porter's paper was written, and there appears to be clear agreement between BSM and spontaneous speech (and writing) morpheme orders. (2) The BSM L1 order found by Porter is not “highly dissimilar” to child L1 order obtained using spontaneous speech, as the rank order correlation (rho =.67, n = 7) is quite close to statistical significance. (3) The degree of similarity between Porter's L1 order and BSM L2 orders is not inconsistent with previous findings. This suggests that the “natural order” found using the BSM for second language acquirers is not an artifact of the test.
RHETORICAL AND COMMUNICATIVE STYLES IN THE NEW VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
Authors: Richards Jack C.
Published: October 2006

New varieties of English have developed in various parts of the world in recent years in countries where English functions as a second. rather than a foreign language. The processes by which distinctive varieties of English develop in such settings are described. The functional and linguistic characteristics of the processes of nativization and indigenization are discussed with reference to several nativized varieties of English. A distinction is made between two contrasting norms for speech events in these varieties of English, rhetorical and communicative norms Rhetorical norms are repertoires of English used for speech events which have the functional status of Public, Formal, High. Distant, Impersonal, etc., Communicative norms are speech repertoires used for speech events which have the contrasting functional status of Private, Informal, Low, Intimate etc., Five different linguistic processes commonly used to mark a shift from rhetorical to communicative norm in several new varieties of English are discussed in terms of the employment of variable linguistic rules. Acquisition of rhetorical norms is related to socialization. Implications are discussed for language teaching and for creative literary writing in, English.
COMPARTMENTALIZED AND INTEGRATED CONTROL: AN ASSESSMENT OF SOME EVIDENCE FOR TWO KINDS OF COMPETENCE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE CLASSROOM1
Authors: Palmer Adrian S.
Published: October 2006

This paper provides some empirical support for the hypothesis that there are two types of language control: compartmentalized control in which performance on discrete point tests or achievement tests is relatively unrelated to performance on communication tests and intergrated control in which the two types of performance are more highly related. Data is presented from three studies: one, a study of individual differences; the other two, controlled experiments in foreign language instruction. The evidence tends, in general, to support the posited distinction, and three factors are suggested as accounting for the two types of competence.

Next, the paper considers the hypothesis that integration indicates acquisition in Monitor Theory terms, and the data is interpreted in terms of this hypothesis.

Finally, a method of teaching for integration is suggested which incorporates the three factors identified in the empirical studies.
LINGUISTIC COMPLEXITY AND THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH STRUCTURE
Authors: Schmierer Richard J.
Published: October 2006

Two linguistic considerations essential for the successful teaching of English grammatical structure to students of English as a Second Language are noted. The first of these – that grammatical instruction given to ESL students must be linguistically complete – is taken as a fact which is universally recognized and 7 accepted by ESL structure teachers. The second – that linguistic complexity commonly varies in different manifestations of a given grammatical structure and that such varying complexity must be purposefully controlled and manipulated by the teacher of English structure – provides the focus for the present discussion.

This viewpoint concerning the role of linguistic complexity in the teaching of English structure is introduced using as an example the English present continuous verb structure. On the basis of this example, common shortcomings found in the instructional programs of those structure teachers who fail to take considerations of linguistic complexity into account in their instruction are then cited. Two further examples ‐ one concerning the linguistic complexity of negation as it interacts with the some/any distinction in English, and one concerning the linguistic complexity found in English embedded sentences ‐ are introduced to provide additional support for the central theme of the paper: that the conscious manipulation of parameters of linguistic complexity is required for the successful teaching of English grammatical structure.
THE FORMAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL SELECTIVITY OF LI INFLUENCE ON L2 ACQUISITION
Authors: Zobl Helmut
Published: October 2006

This study applies structuralist insights into the mechanisms of contact‐induced language change to an examination of the selectivity of L1 influence on L2 acquisition. The principle of selectivity refers to formal properties that make L2 structures immune or receptive to L1 influence as well as L2 developmental stages that activate L1 transfer along a time axis. Basic to the approach set forth is the structuralist assumption that a language will accept only those external influences that correspond to its own structural tendencies and systemic biases. It is proposed that areas of an L2 potentially susceptible to L1 influence can be identified through an examination of that L2's learner‐language. This entity refers to developmental aspects of the acquisition of that L2 both as a first and as a second language.

The paper examines in some detail the formal parameters that govern the selectivity of L1 transfer. The proposed approach is capable of accounting in a principled way for conflicting findings reported in L2 research on the occurrence and non‐occurrence of structural transfer.
PHONETIC APPROXIMATION IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION1
Authors: Flege James Emil
Published: October 2006

This instrumental study of the phonetic contrast between English /ptk/ and /bdg/ produced by Saudi Arabians reveals that native‐language phonetic norms may carry over to production of target‐language sounds. Despite the existence of phonetic interference, however, the present cross‐sectional study suggests that Saudi learners gradually approximate the phonetic norms of English, at least insofar as several temporal acoustic correlates of stop voicing are concerned. The Saudis' English speech, although not typically Arabic or English in phonetic terms, seems to be the product of a fairly stable interlanguage phonetic system which admits the possibility of phonetic strategies by individual speakers.
A HYPOTHESIS FOR SEMANTIC DEVELOPMENT IN A SECOND LANGUAGE
Authors: Strick Gregory J.
Published: October 2006

A comparative investigation of semantic structure among adult native English speakers and speakers of English as a second language and the suggested course of semantic development among children support a hypothesis for semantic development in a second language.

Second language learners are seen to conceptualize semantic relations in the domain of address terms with respect to salient perceptually‐based dimensions and less salient abstract dimensions relevant to their native cultural orientation rather than the orientation of the second language. Among children too, the progression from perceptual to abstract representation is suggested to occur as a function of the learner's growing knowledge and experience of the world. Since semantic development occurs as a continuing process through adulthood, especially for adult second language learners, second language semantic development is hypothesized to occur as a process of transition from native to second language semantic structures and a function of the changing cultural orientation of the learner. The transition is initially marked by the learners' salient reliance upon perceptually‐based dimensions and later by increasingly salient reliance upon abstract culturally relative dimensions in the second language.
FACTORS RELATED TO PERFORMANCE IN READING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE
Authors: Williams David
Published: October 2006

This paper reports the results of a study of the reading performance of 368 Nigerian primary‐five pupils. The study assessed performance in reading English as a second language in relation to variables such as (I) language environment, (2) reading resources, (3) attitude towards reading English, (4) exposure to the mass media (English), (5) type of school, (6) sex differences, and (7) age. Data were collected from tests of comprehension, vocabulary knowledge, and rate of reading and from questionnaires administered to pupils, teachers, and head teachers. Results of multiple regression analyses indicated that type of school and reading resources were the best predictors of scores on the reading tests. The multiple regression analyses also showed that attitude towards reading English contributed significantly to the prediction of reading performance, although this variable, taken separately, did not correlate very highly with scores on the reading tests. Exposure to the mass media, and age, acting in combination with other variables, accounted for some of the variation in the reading scores. Language environment as a single factor correlated substantially with reading performance, but the influence of this variable was apparently suppressed in the prediction analyses. Sex was one of the least important variables in the prediction of the reading performance scores.
QUESTIONS IN FOREIGNER TALK DISCOURSE
Authors: Long Michael H.
Published: October 2006

A study was undertaken to investigate relationships among linguistic input, conversational interaction, and second language acquisition. Tapes and transcripts of eight informal conversations among native speakers of English and 36 conversations between native speakers and students of English as a second language were compared. Differences were found between the two corpora in (1) their discourse structure, and (2) the relative frequencies of certain syntactic and morphological constructions. Relationships existed between the discourse structures and the relative frequencies, and between the relative frequencies and the order in which second language acquirers produce the constructions accurately in obligatory contexts.
SOME USES OF MENTALISTIC DATA IN SECOND LANGUAGE RESEARCH1
Authors: Cohen Andrew D. , Hosenfeld Carol
Published: October 2006

This paper speaks to the issue of investigating mental states in second language research. Although researchers have been attracted to mentalistic techniques for many years. such research techniques have not received widespread endorsement. Recently, applied linguists have come to apply such techniques to the study of language learning out of the realization that learners themselves may have important insights into how they learn.

First, we present a theoretical model for researching mental states. Second, we provide a methodological framework for researching mental states in second language learning. Third, we discuss the studies that we personally have conducted which have investigated mental states. Fourth, we refer to our ongoing research efforts in this area. Finally, we suggest ways that findings from mentalistic research could be directly applied to improving language learning.
DETERMINING THE DEBILITATIVE IMPACT OF TEST ANXIETY
Authors: Madsen Harold S.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study is to assess how detrimental the effects of anxiety are in ESL language exams. A variety of recent studies have demonstrated significant differences in the emotive reactions of examinees to various language tests. And dozens of research reports in psychology literature identify both facilitating and debilitating results from test anxiety. But to date there have not been any published accounts of attempts to measure the impact of debilitating anxiety generated by ESL for foreign language tests.

To assess the impact of anxiety, a battery of six different ESL examinations was administered to 114 EL1 students ranging in ability from beginning to advanced. These students were also administered the Alpert and Haber Achievement Anxiety Test. Performance on the most anxiety‐producing subtest is shown to be debilitating for the most anxious‐prone students. The study demonstrates that high anxiety‐producing ESL tests not only are psychologically debilitating but also are less valid and potentially biased in favor of students with low test anxiety.
SCHOOL‐AGE SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS' ACCESS TO SIMPLIFIED LINGUISTIC INPUT1
Authors: Snow Catherine E. , Hoefnagel‐Höhle Marian
Published: October 2006

Studies of the speech addressed to young children show that the linguistic input to first language learners is simpler, more correct, and more redundant than speech to adults. Studies of foreigner talk, on the other hand, suggest that the linguistic input to adult second language learners contains ungrammatical utterances, incorrect word order, simplified forms which are not found in the standard language, and repetition of the second language speaker's own mistakes. The questions arise whether such distorted speech input is also addressed to child second language learners, with whom much simpler conversational topics can be discussed, and whether the nature of the speech input to second language learners is related to the speech or ease of their second language acquisition. The speech addressed to English‐speaking children, aged 3 to 18, by their Dutch classmates and teachers was analyzed. This speech was found to be simpler than speech addressed to native speakers of the same age, and was not characterized by mistakes or distortions. Many explicitly tutorial sequences were found in the speech to the second language learners. However, no aspect of the input speech looked at could be directly related to the second language learners' subsequent improvement in Dutch.
ORIENTATIONS IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: I. THE EFFECTS OF ETHNIC TY, MILIEU, AND TARGET LANGUAGE ON THEIR EMERGENCE.
Authors: Clément Richard , Kruidenier Bastian G.
Published: October 2006

Studies comparing the relative effectiveness of different orientations to second language acquisition have obtained contradictory results. In the present study, these contradictions are traced to ambiguities pertaining to the definition of orientations and to the influence of the milieu on the acquisition process. This study assessed the influence of ethnicity (French vs. English), milieu (unicultural vs. multicultural). and target second language (French or English vs. Spanish) on the emergence of orientations. The subjects were 871 grade I 1 students distributed in eight groups obtained by permutations of the above t h m factors. The ratings given to 37 reasons for learning the target language were factor analyzed separately for each sample, thus generating eight six‐factor structures. The 48 factors were then correlated and factor analyzed in order to delineate clusters of orientations which would be common to all samples or to subsets of the samples. The results show that instrumental, friendship, travel, and knowledge orientations were common to all groups, while five orientations resulted from specific combinations of ethnicity and target language, on the one hand, and milieu, on the other hand. These results arediscussed with respect to the influence of the learning context on orientations and in terms of their implications for further studies.
THE MODIFIED STAGE HYPOTHESIS: SOME POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS
Authors: Schneiderman Eta I.
Published: October 2006

The modified stage hypothesis (Galloway and Krashen 1980) is one of several explanations put forth in response to the contradictory results of a wave of recent studies exploring patterns of cerebral lateralization for the two languages of bilingual subjects. The modified stage hypothesis, roughly paraphrased, predicts that the degree of right hemisphere involvement in the early stages of L2 acquisition is proportional to the amount of natural acquisition versus learning (in Krashen's sense) that is taking place. Conversely, formal learning of the L2 is predicted to be more dependent upon left hemisphere functions. Thus learners (as opposed to acquirers) are likely to exhibit greater left lateralization in their L2 than individuals for whom that language is the L1. Acquirers, on the other hand, should be less lateralized in their L2 than native speakers of that language.

Findings in support of the modified stage hypothesis compel us to examine how learning and acquisition might differentially engage the two hemispheres in the acquisition process. This examination leads to the discovery of an apparent contradiction between conclusions drawn from the experimental findings in support of the modified stage hypothesis and Krashen's Monitor theory which underlies it.
THE USE OF COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGIES IN NARRATIVE DISCOURSE: A CASE STUDY OF A LEARNER OF MOROCCAN ARABIC AS A SECOND LANGUAGE
Authors: Fakhri Ahmed
Published: October 2006

Research in second language learners’communicative strategies has provided an elaborate framework for analyzing how learners manage to convey meanings and messages in spite of their limited "knowledge" of the target language. Many studies (e.g., Færch and Kasper 1983) have dealt with the identification and classification of communicative strategies (CSs). This paper investigates a new aspect of the use of CSs: the interaction between the application of CSs and narrative discourse features.

Twelve narratives were collected from a learner of Moroccan Arabic as a second language over a four‐week period during daily conversation sessions in the target language. The analysis of the data draws upon research in narrative discourse (e.g., Labov 1972) and language learners’CSs (e.g., Tarone 1980; Færch and Kasper 1983). The study suggests that the subject resorted to a number of strategies to compensate for her linguistic deficiencies and that the application of these strategies was not random but constrained by narrative discourse features. The limitations of this study are discussed and suggestions for further research made.
PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: ANOTHER LOOK AT INTERLANGUAGE SYLLABLE STRUCTURE
Authors: Sato Charlene J.
Published: October 2006

This study investigates syllable structure in the interlanguages of two Vietnamese learners of English. An analysis of conversational data sampled at three points over a ten‐month period shows first language transfer in three areas: (1) a preference for the closed syllable in the modification of English syllable‐final consonant clusters, (2) greater difficulty in the production of syllable‐final than syllable‐initial clusters, and (3) negligible use of vowel epenthesis as a syllable modification strategy. These results are interpreted as disconfirmation of the hypothesized universal preference for the open syllable and of the hypothesized prevalence of epenthesis as a syllable modification strategy in interlanguage speech.
INFERENCING IN ESL: PRESUPPOSITIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF FACTIVE AND IMPLICATIVE PREDICATES
Authors: Carrell Patricia L.
Published: October 2006

One aspect of pragmatic competence in a second language is the ability to draw correct inferences. Much of the information conveyed by a text, or even a single sentence, is not conveyed directly as the literal meaning of that text or sentence, but is rather conveyed only indirectly, as inferences which are to be drawn from the text or sentence. The process of comprehending a text or sentence, then, is at least partially the process of drawing correct inferences. If second language learners are to be said to have comprehended a text or sentence, they must also have drawn the correct inferences from it. The study reported in this paper, which included both advanced and high‐intermediate ESL learners as well as a control group of native speakers, investigated the drawing of two types of inferences in ESL ‐ presuppositions and implications ‐from English sentences containing factive and implicative predicates (Kiparsky and Kiparsky 1970; Karttunen 1971).

Results of the study, which are compared to earlier empirical studies of fully proficient native speakers of English (Just and Clark 1973; Vosniadou 1982), show the ESL learners are in the process of acquiring this aspect of pragmatic ability in English. Specific results reveal better comprehension of implied meaning over presupposed meaning, better performance on semantically positive predicates than on semantically negative predicates, and an interaction between inference type (implication versus presupposition) and predicate polarity (positive versus negative). These results are explained in terms of previous research on the distinction between given and new information. Additional research is proposed and potential pedagogical implications are also discussed.
LEARNING STRATEGIES USED BY BEGINNING AND INTERMEDIATE ESL STUDENTS
Authors: O'Malley J. Michael , Chamot Anna Uhl , Stewner‐Manzanares Gloria , Kupper Lisa , Russo Rocco P.
Published: October 2006

This study was designed to (a) identify the range, type, and frequency of learning strategy use by beginning and intermediate level ESL students and (b) determine the types of language tasks with which the strategies tend to be associated. Students at beginning and intermediate levels in English proficiency were interviewed in small groups to determine the strategies used to assist in learning each of a number of language tasks: pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, following directions, listening, making a brief presentation in class, social communication, and functional communication (e.g., applying for a job). In addition, ESL and other teachers of limited English proficient students were interviewed to detect their familiarity with student use of strategies, and to determine whether or not they introduced strategies to their students during instruction. Findings indicated that (a) strategies could be classified into three broad categories—metacognitive, cognitive, and social mediating strategies, (b) students tended to use strategies most often with less complex language tasks, (c) strategies students used most often tended to require little cognitive processing of the learning materials, and (d) teachers were generally unaware of students' strategies and rarely introduced strategies while teaching.
THE EFFECT OF WORD ORDER ON LISTENING COMPREHENSION AND PATTERN RETENTION: AN EXPERIMENT IN SPANISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Authors: Glisan Eileen W.
Published: October 2006

An important skill which the language learner uses in the listening task is knowledge of the syntax of the target language. This study empirically examines the effect of one aspect of surface structure, word order, on the listening comprehension and pattern retention of native English speakers learning Spanish The factors of sentence length and position of a sentence in a given context are also analyzed As the basis for the experiment, a brief discussion is presented of theoretical implications of word order processing and memory in listening. A comparative analysis of Spanish and English word order patterns follows, which identifies three principal word order patterns of Spanish. subject‐verb‐object, verb‐subject‐object, and object‐verb‐subject Results are reported of the experiment which tested the abilities of native English‐speaking students of Spanish and native Spanish speakers to comprehend an oral passage and remember the word order of certain sentences. The findings indicate that word order significantly affected the degree of comprehension of the English speakers In addition, for both groups of participants, sentences which were both longer and in final position in a context were comprehended most effectively Word order and sentence position significantly affected surface retention of both groups Further, there is indirect evidence to lend additional support to transformational grammar theory indicating that native speakers and foreign language learners may utilize an aural processing strategy of converting patterns to the basic SVO word order Implications of this investigation for Spanish foreign‐language pedagogy as well as suggestions for further research are included.
UNIVERSALS IN RELATIVE CLAUSE ACQUISITION: EVIDENCE FROM CHILD AND ADULT L1 AND L2 LEARNERS OF HINDI‐URDU
Authors: Hansen Lynne
Published: October 2006

In the search for universals of relative clause acquisition, the present research investigated the comprehension of six types of Hindi‐Urdu correlative sentences by child and adult L1 and L2 learners. Group comparisons show a sharper distinction between the performance of the first and second language learners than between the children and adults. While the native speakers tend to pay attention to case markers in interpreting sentences, the English‐speaking learners tend to ignore these morphological cues, relying rather on a word order heuristic. The L1 errors, particularly those of the adults, are more systematic than the L2. Many of the learners do not appear to have any functional strategy for discovering the missing noun complement in the Hindi‐Urdu correlative clauses and instead resort to random guessing. The paper concludes that language universals are available for the processing of complex structures only once a certain level of proficiency has been attained.
INTAKE AS THE LOCUS OF EQUILIBRATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING*
Authors: Boulouffe Jacqueline
Published: October 2006

Equilibration between assimilatory (organism‐inward) and accommodatory (organism‐outward) processes has been described as a necessary condition of both development and learning. The difference between the two, however, is that in the case of learning, equilibration often has to be pedagogically implemented, whereas this is not true of development.

Intake, the notoriously impenetrable interval between input and output, was identified as the locus of equilibration in language learning when the learners (French‐speaking EFL beginners), faced with having to construct a new utterance, demonstrated minimal conceptualization through tentative expression (assimilation) and sufficient preliminary familiarity with the correct expression in a model sentence for this expression to confirm its relevance (accommodation). A dialectic interaction that resulted in adjustment was generated by this encounter of the learner's intended meaning in search of a form that had remained unanalyzed when first received.

It is suggested that equilibration in intake is indicative of a cognitive similarity between the learning of a foreign language – whether institutional or naturalistic – and the learning of other subjects.
LOCATIVE AND DIRECTIONAL EXPRESSIONS IN BASILANG SPEECH
Authors: Schumann John H.
Published: October 2006

This paper forms part of a project designed to describe the pidginization found in basilang speech, the earliest stage in second‐language acquisition, from the perspectives of word order, reference to time, and reference to space. The research reported here deals with locative and directional expressions in the English interlanguage of three Spanish speakers, two Japanese speakers, and one Chinese speaker. The results indicate that the oriental subjects tend to form these structures without prepositions much more frequently than Spanish speaking subjects. In addition, transfer and simplification seem to account for the structure of spatial expressions in basilang interlanguage.
LINGUISTIC AND COGNITIVE DETERMINANTS OF LEXICAL ACQUISITION IN A SECOND LANGUAGE*
Authors: Ijaz I. Helene
Published: October 2006

The meaning ascribed to select English spatial prepositions by adult English speakers was compared to that of advanced adult ESL learners. Two measures were used: a semantic‐relatedness test and a cloze‐type/sentence‐completion test. The ESL learners differed substantially from the native speakers in the semantic boundaries they ascribed to the words. The differences derived from a different weighting of the words' semantic dimensions. The weighting of the words'semantic dimensions by the ESL learners was influenced by native‐language transfer. The words' usage was related to the degree of similarity in the linguistic classification of corresponding meanings in the L1 and the L2 and the consequent conceptual restructuring required in the acquisition of the L2 words. The meaning ascribed to central members of the semantic category investigated more closely approximated that of native speakers than the meaning assigned to noncentral ones. The findings are shown to be related to the similar linguistic classification of central concepts of semantic categories across languages and the language‐specific classification of noncentral ones. The findings are interpreted as evidence that the principle of prototypicality underlies the structure of all languages as well as the cognitive processes involved in language acquisition.
NOTES TOWARD A DEFINITION OF MODERN STANDARD ARABIC
Authors: Cowan William
Published: October 2006

Modern Standard Arabic has two manifestations: a written manifestation and a spoken manifestation. These two manifestations differ significantly in the amounts and type of information they convey about the language. For example, the spoken manifestation ideally indicates case and mood inflections; the written manifestation does not, yet is intelligible to readers of the language. In this feature the written manifestation mirrors the facts of colloquial Arabic, which also does not have case and mood inflections. A suggested method of teaching this type of Arabic is one which omits the case and mood inflections at the elementary stage, and does not introduce them until after the basic core of the grammar has been learned.
The Cloze Test as an Alternative Measure of Language Proficiency of Children Considered for Exit from Bilingual Education Programs*
Authors: Laesch Kelley Bowers , van Kleeck Anne
Published: October 2006

The validity of a traditional language proficiency test, Language Assessment Scales, and an integrated test, the cloze text, in measuring academic language proficiency was assessed. The Language Assessment Scales and two written cloze passages were administered to 28 Mexican‐American third graders enrolled in bilingual education classes and compared to their performance on the California Test of Basic Skills. Results indicate that correlations between the Language Assessment Scales and the California Test of Basic Skills, and the Language Assessment Scales and the cloze test are nonsignificant, whereas the cloze test correlates significantly with all subtests of the California Test of Basic Skills. An error analysis for cloze responses reveals subjects make proportionately fewer errors in using syntactic cues as their total errors decrease. Implications for the use of the cloze test in assessing academic language proficiency, the existence of an academic language threshold, exit criteria from bilingual programs, and the need for continued language development are discussed.
Morphophonemic Variation in Clusters in Japanese English
Authors: Sounders Neville J.
Published: October 2006

This study examines the word‐final, voiceless, stop‐sibilant clusters formed by the attachment of [−z] morphemes to verbs and nouns in the spontaneous speech production of Japanese learners of English and finds that reduction is the favored production strategy; that noun attachments are subject to less error than are verb attachments; and that the initial consonant of the cluster affects the rate of omission.

An acoustic study of the same clusters follows, which finds that the length of the [−z] morpheme in Japanese L2 English is shorter in the phonetic environment where there is greatest omission and longer when attached to nouns than when attached to verbs. It finds considerable evidence for post‐cluster epenthesis, even when a vowel segment follows, and for mid‐cluster epenthesis. The study also finds evidence that reduction and epenthesis are not alternative strategies in the resolution of production difficulties in L2 clusters.
Working Styles on Computers as Evidence of Second Language Learning Strategies*
Authors: Jamieson Joan , Chapelle Carol
Published: October 2006

Data collected on 33 ESL students working with computerized spelling and dictation lessons were used to infer three learning strategies: advance preparation, monitoring input, and monitoring output. Subjects' cognitive styles were measured by the Group Embedded Figures Test (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin, and Karp 1971) for field independence and the Matching Familiar Figures Test (Yando and Kagan 1968) for reflection/impulsivity. English proficiency was measured by the TOEFL. An analysis of amount of strategy use in a variety of situations revealed that all strategies were employed more frequently for the more complex dictation task than for the simple spelling task, and that only one strategy (monitoring input) was used more frequently by the low‐level students. Examining the correlates of strategy use indicated that advance preparation and monitoring output were significantly related to field independence, that advance preparation was significantly related to reflection/impulsivity, and that advance preparation and monitoring input were significant, negative predictors of performance on the TOEFL. This research concludes that learning strategies need to be considered in concert with cognitive style, and that computer collection of strategy data is a reliable method for examining strategies on different activities over a long period of time.
Using a Facet Design to Assess the Effects of the Form, the Source, and the Frequency of Information Necessary to Answer ESL Reading Comprehension Questions
Authors: Perkins Kyle , Brutten Sheila R.
Published: October 2006

Determining what reading comprehension questions actually measure is difficult to ascertain objectively. Facet theory and design suggest a means to define operationally what a given item measures by studying how an item is related to textually or nontextually based information. Three facets or structs (the form of information [explicit or implicit], the source of information [text or nontext], and the frequency with which the information appeared in the text) were entered into regression equations to determine how much variance the structs accounted for in the item scores from ESL reading comprehension tests from different levels of proficiency. The results suggested that the facets were differentially related to the item scores at different levels of proficiency.

Further true experimental research is suggested using the facet design to study the effects of the structs and to provide useful diagnostic information in terms of a typology of items that readers answered correctly and incorrectly.
The Influence of Task‐ and Proficiency‐Related Factors on the Use of Compensatory Strategies: A Quantitative Analysis
Authors: Poulisse Nanda , Schils Erik
Published: October 2006

The study described in this paper was set up to investigate the effect of foreign language learners' proficiency level on compensatory strategies used by these learners to solve lexical problems. At the same time, the effect of task‐related factors on compensatory strategies was examined. The study involved three groups of Dutch learners of English at three different proficiency levels. The subjects were tested on three different tasks: a picture naming/description task, a story retell task, and an oral interview with a native speaker of English.

It appeared that “proficiency level” is inversely related to the number of compensatory strategies used by the subjects: the most advanced subjects used fewer compensatory strategies than did the least proficient ones. Contrary to our expectations, however, the type of compensatory strategy chosen by the subjects was not to any large extent related to their proficiency level. Rather, the data indicate that task‐related factors play a large role in this respect. Whereas the subjects predominantly used analytic strategies in the picture naming/description task, they frequently resorted to holistic strategies and transfer strategies in the story retell task and the oral interview.

To explain these differences it is suggested that in selecting compensatory strategies the subjects observed general conversational principles.
Cross‐Linguistic Influence in Intonation: French/Japanese and French/English*
Authors: Lepetit Daniel
Published: October 2006

This article reports the findings of research on the acquisition of French intonation by native speakers of Canadian English and Japanese. Intonation is limited, in this study, to the domain of phonosyntax where intonational cues are correlated with syntactical units. Results of the study show that cross‐linguistic influence in intonation is of central importance in the learner's acquisition of the target system and that one should not underestimate the degree of complexity of that influence. The study shows that it is relevant to differentiate between cross‐linguistic influence of intonational phonological rules and cross‐linguistic influence of phonetic characteristics, and that in both aspects a cross‐linguistic influence is at work.
Speech Rate and NNS Comprehension: A Preliminary Study in Time‐Benefit Analysis*
Authors: Griffiths Roger
Published: October 2006

The study reported in this article describes an investigation into the effects of three speech rates: 200 words per minute [wpm] (3.8 syllables per second [sps]); 150 wpm (2.85 sps); and 100 wpm (1.93 sps) on the comprehension of three 350‐ to 400‐word lexically and grammatically graded passages delivered to a group of lower‐intermediate level adult NNSs(nonnative speakers). Results showed that moderately fast speech rates resulted in a significant reduction in comprehension, but that scores on passages delivered at slow rates did not significantly differ from those delivered at average rates. Subjective responses confirmed previous research findings showing that perception of speech rate variation is frequently inaccurate. Results of the investigation are discussed in relation to the practical recommendations that might be drawn from them, particularly in terms of time‐benefit analysis, if future studies support the present tentative findings.
Language‐Learning Strategies in Monolingual and Multilingual Adults*
Authors: Nayak Nandini , Hansen Nina , Krueger Nancy , McLaughlin Barry
Published: October 2006

This study investigated the hypothesis that people with multiple language skills have different language‐acquisition strategies than do people with single language skills. Multilingual and monolingual subjects learned a miniature linguistic system incorporating a reference world under instructions to “memorize” or instructions to “discover rules”. Although there was no clear evidence that multilinguals were superior in language learning abilities overall, multilingual subjects were found to be more able to adjust their learning strategies according to the requirements of the task.
Effects of First Language on Second Language Writing: Translation versus Direct Composition*
Authors: Kobayashi Hiroe , Rinnert Carol
Published: October 2006

This study of English compositions written by 48 Japanese university students examined: (1) differences between the texts resulting from two writing processes, one writing first in Japanese and then translating into English and the other composing directly in English and (2) the relationship between these two writing processes and students’ language proficiency. In terms of quality of content, organization, and style, lower‐level writers tended to benefit from translation, whereas higher‐level writers did not benefit much. Overall, syntactic complexity was greater in translations than in direct writings. In terms of error frequency, higher‐level students tended to make more errors that interfered with intended meaning in translation than in direct writing, but lower‐level students did not show any difference. Regarding the correlation between language proficiency and the quality of the writing resulting from the two composing processes, oral skills related more closely to writing quality than did grammar knowledge, particularly for direct writing.
English Ambisyllabic Consonants and Half‐Closed Syllables in Language Teaching
Authors: Trammell Robert L.
Published: October 2006

This article examines some of the articulatory, theoretical, instrumental, and psycholinguistic evidence concerning the validity of the notion of ambisyllabicity in English. Applications of the concept, including the notion of syllables being “half‐closed” by ambisyllabic consonants, are then considered in TESL and in teaching foreign languages to native speakers of English as well as in studies of syllable structure transference between first and second languages. In addition to being an important aspect of correct pronunciation at the allophonic level, native‐like syllabification with ambisyllabic consonants is seen as a crucial element in imitating correct word‐stress, which in turn is required for native‐like rhythm and accent assignment in intonation patterns at the phrase level. Basic information on the variability of English syllabification and ambisyllabification is compared to popular misconceptions about English syllabification, as revealed in hyphenation practices and dictionary pronunciation guides. A set of rules are presented for obligatory and optional ambisyllabification along with suggestions for their use with ESL and English foreign language students.
Linguistic and Cognitive Correlates of Academic Skills in First and Second Languages
Authors: Geva Esther , Ryan Ellen B.
Published: October 2006

Using the theoretical frameworks proposed by Cummins (1981a) and Bialystok and Ryan (1985), this research was designed to shed light on the relationship between cognitive correlates and linguistic skills in first (L1) and second (L2) language, and the extent to which performance on academic tasks in L2 can be predicted by these factors. The study was conducted with 73 Grade 5–7 children attending a bilingual English‐Hebrew day school. The test battery included a measure of intelligence, measures of linguistic knowledge in L1, measures of reading comprehension in L1 and L2 and static and working memory measures in L1 and L2.

Evidence was found for the theoretical notion that with increased speed of basic processing in L2, higher level cognitive processes involved in linguistic and oral communication in academic settings are facilitated. Additionally, results suggest that children who can more systematically employ analytic functions in their L1 are more likely to do so in their L2 as well, and that performance on linguistically demanding tasks such as reading in L2 can be more accurately predicted with the aid of information on memory storage and executive control functions, in combination with underlying intelligence and L2 oral proficiency. Results highlight the important role that memory plays in performing linguistic tasks in L2 and help to explain underlying ability factors related to Cummins' interdependence hypothesis.
Encouraging Learners' Conversational Participation: The Effect of Content Knowledge
Authors: Zuengler Jane
Published: October 2006

This study investigated the influence of interlocutors' relative content knowledge on conversational participation in interactions between native speakers (NSs) and normative speakers (NNSs) with limited oral skills. Forty‐five male NS‐NNS dyads were audio taped having two conversations; in the second conversation, which concerned students' major fields, 15 of the dyads included NNSs who had relatively more content knowledge, in another 15, the NSs had more knowledge, and in 15, participants were considered equal. Measures of conversational participation included amount of talk, pause fillers, back‐channels, topic moves, and several measures of interactional negotiation. Outcomes of log linear analyses indicated that both NSs and NNSs appeared conversationally active, but there were different patterns of participation that could to some extent be explained by relative content knowledge. As such, this study extends our understanding of the dynamics of NS‐NNS interchange.