bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
TRAINING GENERALIZED RECEPTIVE PREPOSITIONS IN RETARDED CHILDREN1
Authors: Frisch Sue Ann , Schumaker Jean B.
Published: March 2006

Three retarded children were trained, using prompting and reinforcement procedures, to respond correctly to three categories of prepositional requests: “put the___ next to the___”, “put the___under the___”, and “put the___on top of the___”. Training sessions were alternated with probe sessions throughout the study. During training, a child was trained to respond to one request (e.g., “put the doll next to the cup”); during probing, the child was tested for generalization of this training to untrained requests. Responses to untrained requests were never prompted nor reinforced. The results showed that, as requests from one category were trained, the children's responses to the untrained requests of that category became increasingly correct. As discriminations among two or more categories were trained, the children's responses to the untrained requests of those categories also became increasingly correct. Thus, the methods employed appear to be successful in training generalized receptive discrimination among prepositional categories and possibly can be utilized in training other generalized receptive language skills.
“AN ANALYSIS‐OF‐VARIANCE MODEL FOR INTRASUBJECT REPLICATION DESIGN”: SOME ADDITIONAL COMMENTS1
Authors: Thoresen Carl E. , Elashoff Janet D.
Published: March 2006

The fixed effects ANOVA procedure utilized by Gentile, Roden, and Klein (1972) for single subjects is found inappropriate. Hartmann's proposal of a one‐way fixed‐effect ANOVA model is also considered. Time series analysis that takes serial correlation effects into account is recommended.
CONCERNING THE STATISTICAL PROCEDURES ENUMERATED BY GENTILE et al.: ANOTHER PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Keselman H. J. , Leventhal L.
Published: March 2006

The thrust of this paper is to bring to the attention of operant researchers statistical procedures that are appropriate for correlated data. In addition to specifying these statistical procedures consideration is given to the question of using individual comparison statistics rather than omnibus F tests. Specifically, it is recommended that a more powerful test of the experimental hypotheses can be obtained by performing Bonferroni t statistics rather than analysis of variance F tests.
STATISTICAL INFERENCE FOR INDIVIDUAL ORGANISM RESEARCH: MIXED BLESSING OR CURSE?1
Authors: Michael Jack
Published: March 2006

Descriptive and inferential statistics are described as judgemental aids, stimuli to which the scientist can more easily react than to his raw experimental results. The increasing emphasis on the significance test as the main judgemental aid utilized in experimental psychology is credited with several harmful effects on experimental practice. The area known as “the experimental analysis of behavior” has so far escaped most of these harmful effects, but now we see an increased interest in the development of appropriate significance tests for individual organism research. This interest is based on the view that it is not possible to effect adequate levels of experimental control with much human applied research, and that in such cases a significance test would be quite valuable as a judgemental aid, both of which points are considered to be essentially incorrect, and if accepted, potentially harmful.
THE EFFECTS OF PRINCIPAL‐IMPLEMENTED TECHNIQUES ON THE BEHAVIOR OF PUPILS1
Authors: Copeland Rodney E. , Brown Ronald E. , Hall R. Vance
Published: March 2006

Three investigations were conducted on the effects of various procedures initiated by a principal on the behavior of elementary school children. Seventy nine children including kindergarten, first, third, and fifth graders served as subjects. In Experiment I, when three chronically absent children attended school, the principal entered their classrooms and praised them for being present. In Experiment II, three low‐achieving subjects were sent to the principal's office to receive praise contingent on meeting predetermined criteria in word‐recognition and addition tutoring sessions. Experiment III assessed the effects that a procedure implemented by a principal had on the academic functioning of 74 third graders. Twice weekly in two classrooms the principal recognized both improving students and the highest performing students for their work on addition study sheets. In all three experiments, the target behaviors increased when the principal applied the treatment contingencies. The application of multiple baseline designs revealed a functional relationship between the children's behavior and the procedures implemented by the principal. Since the study was carried out in an overcrowded inner‐city public school, it was suggested that the treatment procedures might be widely applicable.
A PROCEDURE FOR MAINTAINING STUDENT PROGRESS IN A PERSONALIZED UNIVERSITY COURSE1
Authors: Miller L. Keith , Weaver F. Hal , Semb George
Published: March 2006

Ten students in a personalized university course were given target dates for completing each of 26 lessons. The lessons could be completed before those dates, but not after. The first two failures to complete a lesson by the target date led to “warnings”; the next failure required the student to withdraw from the course. When each student's rate of lesson completion was compared with and without target dates, it was found that students completed an average of 1.0 lesson a day with the target‐date contingency and 0.3 without it. Individual data indicated that most students did few or no lessons without the contingency. It was concluded that a target‐date contingency is an effective method for maintaining student progress in personalized university courses.
SOCIOMETRIC AND DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR AS A FUNCTION OF FOUR TYPES OF TOKEN REINFORCEMENT PROGRAMS1
Authors: Drabman Ronald , Spitalnik Robert , Spitalnik Karen
Published: March 2006

Children in a first‐grade classroom were divided into four groups. Baseline measures of disruptive classroom behavior were taken on a well‐behaved and disruptive child in each group. Following baseline, four types of token economies were simultaneously introduced and rotated every 10 days within a Latin Square design. The token economies were: (1) individual reinforcement determined by individual performance; (2) group reinforcement determined by the behavior of the most disruptive child; (3) group reinforcement determined by the behavior of the least disruptive child; (4) group reinforcement determined by the behavior of a randomly chosen child. The token economies were compared on their effectiveness in changing target behavior, preference by the targets, ease of use, and cost. Additionally, sociometric responses were taken on questions of responsibility, friendship, and funniness. Results showed a significant decrease of inappropriate behavior for the disruptive children and no difference between the effectiveness of the four types of token economies in producing behavior change. However, there were other differences that indicated that the system in which group reinforcement was determined by a randomly selected child would be desirable for most teachers. Results also showed changes in the sociometric status of the disruptive children. As predicted, disruptive children were rated as more responsible when they were in the group reinforcement determined by the most disruptive child in the group token economy. Using behavior modification techniques indirectly to change sociometric status is suggested as offering a new potential technique for behavior change agents.
MODIFICATION OF HUMAN GASTRIC ACID SECRETION WITH OPERANT‐CONDITIONING PROCEDURES1
Authors: Whitehead William E. , Renault Pierre F. , Goldiamond Israel
Published: March 2006

In an attempt to control gastric acid secretion with operant‐conditioning techniques, four normal women were given visual feedback on gastric pH plus money reinforcers. When money was made dependent on increased secretion in a differential‐reinforcement‐of‐high‐rates schedule, the rate of secretion of three of the four subjects increased to three times baseline. When money was then made dependent on decreased secretion in a differential‐reinforcement‐of‐other‐behaviors schedule, the rate of secretion of these three subjects returned to baseline levels. Heart rate, respiratory frequency, abdominal electromyographic activity, and stomach motility (measured by the electrogastrogram method) were not consistently correlated with acid secretion across subjects, although individual subjects showed substantial correlations between acid secretion and one or more other physiological response.
BEHAVIORAL COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY: TRAINING A COMMUNITY BOARD TO PROBLEM SOLVE1
Authors: Briscoe Richard V. , Hoffman David B. , Bailey Jon S.
Published: March 2006

This study demonstrated the effect of training nine lower socio‐economic adults participating as policy board members in a federally funded rural community project to make behaviorally defined statements to increase problem‐solving behaviors in board meetings. A multiple‐baseline design across subjects and skills was used to analyze the behavioral categories of: (1) stating the problem; (2) finding solutions to the problem, and (3) implementing the action to the solution. Problem‐solving responses during board meetings increased for subjects following training and remained higher than baseline during follow‐up.
DEVELOPING GENERALIZED BEHAVIOR‐MODIFICATION SKILLS IN HIGH‐SCHOOL STUDENTS WORKING WITH RETARDED CHILDREN1
Authors: Gladstone Bruce W. , Sherman James A.
Published: March 2006

Seven high‐school trainees each conducted training sessions with two profoundly retarded children. Each trainee was asked to teach one child to follow the instruction “Bring ball” and the other child to follow the instructions “Sit down” and “Come here”. During baseline sessions, before the trainees had been instructed in behavior‐modification techniques, no trainee successfully taught either child to follow the instructions. After differing numbers of baseline sessions, trainees were exposed to training procedures designed to teach them to teach one child to follow the instruction “Bring ball”. The training procedures consisted of videotaped modelling, rehearsal, and corrective feedback and praise. Following the training procedures, four of the seven trainees successfully taught their child to follow the instruction “Bring ball”. Further, all trainees were able to teach their other children to follow the instructions “Sit down” and “Come here”, even though they had received no modelling, rehearsal, or feedback on how to teach the children to follow these instructions. The ability of the trainees to teach new behaviors to different children indicates the development of generalized skills in behavior modification.
REACTIVITY TO HOME OBSERVATION: A COMPARISON OF AUDIO RECORDED BEHAVIOR WITH OBSERVERS PRESENT OR ABSENT1
Authors: Johnson Stephen M. , Bolstad Orin D.
Published: March 2006

The study compared the behavior of family members at home as recorded by audiotape recordings in two conditions: with an observer present or absent. Behavioral differences were expected as a function of differential reactivity to these observational procedures, but none was found, and there was no evidence of adaptation effects in either condition. In general, significant positive correlations were obtained between the rates of recorded behavior in both situations. The implications of these findings for the development of nonreactive observation procedures were discussed.
MODIFYING LETTER AND NUMBER REVERSALS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN1
Authors: Stromer Robert
Published: March 2006

Children from regular and special‐education classes were exposed to tutoring procedures designed to modify letter and number reversals. In Experiment I, two students showed reversals during letter‐naming (e.g., saying p for q) and two‐digit number (e.g., writing 31 for 13) exercises. In Experiment II, one subject made two‐digit reversals, while the other child reversed single‐digit numbers (e.g., 9 written with circle on right side of stem). The subject in Experiment III emitted letter reversals under naming, dictation, and copying exercises. The child in Experiment IV showed written letter reversals on both sides of the “body midline” under dictation procedures. Basic treatment procedures during all experiments involved modelling of correct and incorrect symbol formation, and differential experimenter feedback following student responses. During Experiments I and II, subjects were praised for each correct response, and informed when a reversal occurred. Experiment III included a Modelling Only Phase before these feedback procedures. Besides praise, treatment conditions in Experiment IV consisted of additional feedback following correct responses (e.g., charting correct responses), and temporal delays imposed between dictated letters and student responses. Except for occasional letter‐naming reversals of one subject (Experiment I), and letter dictation errors of another (Experiment IV), reversals were eliminated when all experiments terminated. The Modelling Only Phase in Experiment III also reduced reversals to a low level. These findings suggest that a variety of reversal problems may be effectively assessed and remediated via simple modelling and reinforcement procedures. In addition, postcheck observations indicated that the effects were enduring. The present procedures should be easily implemented by school personnel.
IDENTIFYING SPECIFIC EROTIC CUES IN SEXUAL DEVIATIONS BY AUDIOTAPED DESCRIPTIONS1
Authors: Abel Gene G. , Blanchard Edward B. , Barlow David H. , Mavissakalian Matig
Published: March 2006

Using audiotaped descriptions of sexual experiences and a direct measure of penile erection, it is possible to specify more precisely erotic cues in sexual deviates. Results indicated that such cues are highly idiosyncratic. Some tentative conclusions and suggested application for the method are discussed.
DESIGN OF LIVING ENVIRONMENTS FOR NURSING‐HOME RESIDENTS: INCREASING PARTICIPATION IN RECREATION ACTIVITIES1
Authors: McClannahan Lynn E. , Risley Todd R.
Published: March 2006

Nursing‐home residents have frequently been characterized as unoccupied and disengaged. At the outset of the present study, most residents were to be found in their own rooms, not exhibiting gross motor behavior or social interaction, and not participating in appropriate activities. To modify residents' levels of participation with the environment, a manipulative area was provided in the lounge. Participation in the lounge averaged 20% on days when the activity was not available, but increased to a mean of 74% on days when equipment and materials were given and residents were prompted to participate. When prompts were withdrawn and materials were available only by request, mean participation fell to 25%. The findings demonstrate that manipulative activities can support a high level of participation with the environment, if residents are prompted to use equipment and materials.
THE USE OF PROMPTS TO ENHANCE VICARIOUS EFFECTS OF NONVERBAL APPROVAL
Authors: Kazdin Alan E. , Silverman Nancy A. , Sittler Judith L.
Published: March 2006

The effect of nonverbal teacher approval (physical contact in the form of patting approvingly) delivered to target subjects on the attentive behavior of adjacent peers was examined in a special‐education classroom. In a reversal design, two pairs of moderately retarded children were exposed to nonverbal approval, with only one subject in each pair receiving approval. In different phases, nonverbal approval was delivered alone or in conjunction with a verbal prompt directed to the adjacent peer or to the class as a whole. The prompt was designed to make salient the target subject's attentive behavior and the nonverbal reinforcing consequences that followed. Providing contingent nonverbal approval alone consistently altered attentive behavior of the target subjects but did not alter the attentive behavior of adjacent peers. However, accompanying nonverbal approval with a verbal prompt did increase attentive behavior of nonreinforced peers.
REPLICATION OF THE ACHIEVEMENT PLACE MODEL IN CALIFORNIA1
Authors: Liberman Robert Paul , Ferris Chris , Salgado Paul , Salgado Jessie
Published: March 2006

Attempting to replicate procedures from Achievement Place, token reinforcement procedures were used to modify savings, conversational interruptions, and table‐setting of delinquent boys residing in a home‐style, community based, treatment setting. The tokens (points) were redeemable for various privileges and could be earned for specified appropriate behaviors and lost for specified inappropriate behaviors. Contingent point fines reduced the frequency of interruptions. Point rewards improved table‐setting, but even large point rewards did not substantially increase savings. Baseline data indicated that lateness to dinner was not a problem, as it was in Achievement Place. Withdrawal of contingent points and back‐up rewards did not disrupt the clean‐up behavior of two boys.
DO ELEPHANTS EVER FORGET?1
Authors: Markowitz Hal , Schmidt Michael , Nadal Leonie , Squier Leslie
Published: March 2006

Three adult female elephants (Elephas maximus) were tested on a light‐dark discrimination problem with an 8‐yr intertrial interval. The first subject took only 6 min to reach criterion and made only two errors, suggesting remarkable retention. The other two subjects were found to have visual anomalies that would have gone undetected without this research.
EFFECTS OF IMPLEMENTING A TOKEN ECONOMY ON TEACHER ATTENDING BEHAVIOR
Authors: Breyer Norman L. , Allen George J.
Published: March 2006

After systematic attempts to increase a teacher's positive responding to her first‐grade students, a token‐economy system was implemented as a “last resort”. On‐task student behavior and relative frequency of positive and negative teacher comments were systematically observed. Data indicated that institution of the token system was associated with a relatively higher percentage of positive than negative comments. Termination and re‐implementation of the token system caused reversals of the teacher's behavior.
THE MARKED ITEM TECHNIQUE: A PRACTICAL PROCEDURE FOR UTTER CONTROLsp1
Authors: Hayes Steven C. , Johnson V. Scott , Cone John D.
Published: March 2006

Unobtrusively marked items of litter were placed among existing trash on the grounds of a federal youth correctional facility. Inmates voluntarily collected trash and deposited it at a central location, where they were given money or special privileges for each piece of marked litter found. A multiple‐baseline design with litter counts in three areas revealed successive reductions of 55%, 88%, and 71% after 17, 22, and 36 days of baseline, respectively. A fourth area served as a baseline‐only control, and revealed no systematic changes. Advantages of the procedure over previously devised techniques were discussed and applications in other areas of pollution control suggested.
BEHAVIORAL SELF‐MANAGEMENT IN STORY WRITING WITH ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN1
Authors: Ballard Keith D. , Glynn Ted
Published: March 2006

The effect of self‐management procedures on objective writing responses and on the subjectively assessed quality of children's writing was investigated. All experimental procedures were applied to each of the 37 children in a regular Grade 3 class, and 14 of these children were randomly selected for data collection. Following baseline conditions, self‐assessment plus self‐recording of writing responses was introduced. This did not increase the number of sentences, number of different action words, or number of different describing words, or improve the quality of the stories. Self‐determined and self‐administered reinforcement was added to the self‐assessment and self‐recording procedures contingent on each of the writing responses in turn. Rates of responding were substantially increased and the stories received higher subjective ratings of quality from two independent judges. An increase in on‐task behavior was correlated with self‐reinforcement of writing responses.
PRIMES, CONTINGENT ATTENTION, AND TRAINING: EFFECTS ON A CHILD'S MOTOR BEHAVIOR1
Authors: Hardiman Sharyl A. , Goetz Elizabeth M. , Reuter Katherine E. , LeBlanc Judith M.
Published: March 2006

The use of primes, contingent attention, and training sessions to assess a child's engagement and skill in six large motor activities was examined using a combination reversal and multiple‐baseline design. Assessment was based on four levels: proximity to equipment, touching equipment, unskilled participation, and skilled participation. Before training, priming (suggestion to the child) was more effective than contingent attention for increasing the subject's engagement (but not skill) in five activities and for increasing skilled participation in one activity. Training of four activities in the natural environment effectively increased the subject's skill level in five activities. Thus, training appeared to generalize to one of these five activities in this setting and also to skillfully executed stair climbing in an adjoining setting. After training, primes and contingent attention were sufficient to maintain both the subject's skill level and engagement in all activities. Postchecks in the same setting the following semester with different teachers revealed only slight increases in participation, as compared to previous baselines, but all participation was at the skilled level. Social interaction, which was not experimentally manipulated, did not systematically vary in relation to changes in experimental conditions.
INCIDENTAL TEACHING OF LANGUAGE IN THE PRESCHOOL1
Authors: Hart Betty , Risley Todd R.
Published: March 2006

“Incidental teaching” denotes a process whereby language skills of labelling and describing are learned in naturally occurring adult‐child interactions. In the present study, 15‐min daily samples of the spontaneous speech of 11 children were recorded during free play over eight months of preschool. After incidental teaching of compound sentences, increases in unprompted use of compound sentences were seen for all the children, first directed to teachers, and then to children, in accordance with who attended to the children's requests for play materials. The incidental teaching procedure also stimulated spontaneous variety in speech, and appears to have general applicability to child learning settings.
ROLE PLAYING TO TRAIN ELEMENTARY TEACHERS TO USE A CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT “SKILL PACKAGE”1
Authors: Jones Fredric H. , Eimers Robert C.
Published: March 2006

Two teachers who led regular third‐grade classrooms in a suburban elementary school were trained via role‐playing to use a broad range of social skills in dealing with group behavioral management in the classroom. Teacher training reduced disruptive student behavior during both seat work and group discussions in both classrooms. A measure of student productivity during arithmetic period in one classroom showed significant gains in arithmetic problems correct per day for the middle and bottom thirds of the class, with the bottom third increasing by 76%.
SHAPING DATA COLLECTION CONGRUENT WITH EXPERIMENTAL HYPOTHESES1
Authors: O'Leary K. Daniel , Kent Ronald N. , Kanowitz Jay
Published: March 2006

The influence of instructions and feedback from an experimenter on observational recordings of disruptive behavior was evaluated. Four subject‐observers recorded four categories of disruptive behavior from videotapes of children in a classroom setting. Two sets of videotapes, labelled “baseline” and “treatment”, were matched for rates of disruptive behavior in each category. The observers were told that two target behaviors were expected to decrease and the other two control behaviors were not expected to change during the treatment condition. During observational recording of treatment videotapes, the observers were given positive feedback when they reported decreases in the two target behaviors, and negative feedback when they reported either no change or increases in the two control behaviors. The target behaviors were recorded less frequently by observers, while recordings of control behaviors were unaffected during the treatment phase. These results suggest that contingent feedback to observers should be avoided as a possible source of bias in behavioral recordings.
SOME EFFECTS OF REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES IN TEACHING PICTURE NAMES TO RETARDED CHILDREN1
Authors: Stephens Carl E. , Pear Joseph J. , Wray Lyle D. , Jackson Gaye C.
Published: March 2006

The effects of several different schedules of primary reinforcement were compared in a picture‐naming task with retarded children. In Experiment I, number of correct responses and learning rate were higher under fixed‐ratio schedules than under continuous reinforcement. In Experiment II, number of correct responses and learning rate tended to be greater under intermediate than under low or high fixed‐ratio schedules. In Experiment III, number of correct responses was higher under interlocking schedules, in which the response requirement increased with time following the previous reinforcement, than under comparable fixed‐ratio schedules. Learning rates were generally low and, perhaps because of this, not very different under the two types of schedules in this experiment. Accuracy (i.e., proportion of trials on which correct responses occurred) was typically high and insensitive to variations in schedule and schedule parameter throughout each experiment.
AN ANALYSIS OF A PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK SYSTEM: THE EFFECTS OF TIMING AND FEEDBACK, PUBLIC POSTING, AND PRAISE UPON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND PEER INTERACTION1
Authors: Houten Ronald Van , Hill Sharon , Parsons Madeline
Published: March 2006

In the first experiment, after establishing baseline composition rates in each classroom, timing (announcing time limits) and feedback (student self‐scoring) were introduced followed by the introduction, removal, and reintroduction of public posting of highest scores. Timing and feedback improved story writing performance and public posting of highest scores improved performance even further in both classrooms. Teacher praise produced further improvement in one classroom but had no effect on performance in the other. Changes in on‐task behavior paralleled changes in writing rate. Comments made by children concerning their own work or work of their peers were recorded throughout the experiment. Although the baseline rate of performance comments was almost zero, the introduction of each variable markedly increased the rate of performance comments. In the second experiment, baseline rates on reading and language exercises were established in a fifth‐grade classroom. The entire performance feedback system was introduced on a multiple baseline across the two behaviors and then removed during the final phase of the experiment. Introducing the system improved performance on both tasks. These results further increased the generality of some of the findings of the previous experiment and of previous research on the efficacy of the experimental package of timing, feedback, public posting, and praise.
MANIPULATION OF POTENTIAL PUNISHMENT PARAMETERS IN THE TREATMENT OF SELF‐INJURY1
Authors: Griffin James C. , Locke Bill J. , Landers William F.
Published: March 2006

The self‐injurious behavior (SIB) of a blind, profoundly retarded male was observed within a field setting as multiple forms of punishment were applied. The effects of hair‐tug punishment were first systematically examined, then hair‐tug and electric shock punishment were administered in varing ratios (of punishment deliveries per SIB response) supplemented by continuous restraint contingencies and made contingent on recurrent antecedents of SIB cycles. Treatments were applied over six months of consecutive daily sessions ranging from 30 min to 8 hr duration. Posttreatment followup observations were taken 12, 24, and 34 months after treatment. Partial suppression was produced as a direct function of hair‐tug punishment in the initial phase. A generally progressive decrement was produced on already lowered SIB rates with the succeeding components of the treatment package. Extended periods of total SIB suppression occurred as punishment was rendered contingent on antecedent components of each SIB response cycle. Followup observations of nearly 3 yr duration indicated total suppression generalized over all settings in which the subject functioned. The findings were related to the contrasting limits prevailing in most reports of punishment‐based SIB suppression.
INSTRUCTIONS, FEEDBACK, PRAISE, BONUS PAYMENTS, AND TEACHER BEHAVIOR1
Authors: Harris V. William , Bushell Don , Sherman James A. , Kane John F.
Published: March 2006

The study was conducted within a training and demonstration center for teachers from several different school districts. The teachers staffing the center were employees of the host school district who volunteered to serve in the center. Unfortunately, these volunteers did not always use the program materials appropriately and therefore did not always provide clear models for visiting teachers. In particular, four of the volunteer teachers did not always instruct their students from the appropriate reading text, even when encouraged to do so by the principal of the school in which the center was located. Various procedures were employed to alter this situation. The experimenter, (associate director of the training and demonstration center) provided instructions, feedback, and praise regarding use of the appropriate reading text. These procedures had clear effects with only one teacher. Then, merit or bonus payments were provided for teachers who used the appropriate reading text for criterion periods of time; a procedure that was very effective with all four teachers. The problem worked on in this study is typical of those faced by workers in public institutions where change cannot be brought about by the researcher's authority. All teachers in the present study had the necessary skills to demonstrate accurately the prescribed program procedures, but they did not always do so until the bonus payment was used. Although the bonus payment procedure might be inappropriate in some school situations, the procedure could easily be adjusted to accommodate the established practices of many schools. For example, establishment of explicit performance criterion and use of in‐service stipends for meeting criterion performance during school hours, rather than attendance at meetings after school, might well be comparably effective.
THE USE OF IMPOSED AND SELF‐SELECTED TRAINING PACKAGES TO ESTABLISH CLASSROOM TEACHING SKILLS1
Authors: Clark Hewitt B. , Macrae John W.
Published: March 2006

Although much is known about techniques for teaching elementary pupils in the classroom, no procedures have been consistently effective in training teachers to use these techniques. In the present study, six teacher trainees were observed individually and trained sequentially to use a variety of teaching skills: praise for academic responses, praise for appropriate classroom behavior, correction procedures for incorrect academic responses, and token fines. These skills were examined under four conditions: (1) baseline sessions were taught by the trainees before any instructions on the use of the teaching skills. (2) Instruction sessions were taught by the trainees after they were given instructions describing the use of several teaching skills. (3) During each Imposed‐Package session, the trainees received modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, and grade and quiz contingencies on their use of a particular teaching skill. (4) During each Self‐Selected Package session, a grade contingency was in effect with the trainees choosing the components (modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, quiz contingency) they wanted included in their training package for a particular skill. The effects of instructions were quite varied. Large increases on three of the four skills occurred with one trainee; almost no changes occurred with another trainee; and changes with the remaining four trainees fell within these extremes. The Imposed and Self‐Selected Packages reliably increased the use of teaching skills, including those skills for which instructions had not been effective. The Self‐Selected Package was considered to be as effective as the Imposed Package, since the time required for training a teaching skill varied from two to nine sessions with both packages. Under the Self‐Selected Package, the trainees chose from modelling, verbal feedback, and graphic feedback, but none chose the quiz contingency. Questionnaire data collected after training showed that all six trainees preferred the Self‐Selected Package to the Imposed Package. The effectiveness of the Self‐Selected Package, together with the trainees' preference for it, suggests that it may be desirable for teacher training programs to specify the teaching skills, arrange a contingency for performance, and allow trainees to choose which additional components are to be used in each training session.
MODIFICATION OF THE EXCESSIVE INAPPROPRIATE CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR OF TWO ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS USING HOME‐BASED CONSEQUENCES AND DAILY REPORT‐CARD PROCEDURES1
Authors: Todd Dennis D. , Scott Richard B. , Bostow Darrel E. , Alexander Stephen B.
Published: March 2006

Two experiments investigated home‐based reinforcement contingencies to control excessive behavior in normal classrooms. Subjects were, respectively, a 12‐yr‐old fifth‐grade boy and a 9‐yr‐old fourth‐grade boy, each in a separate classroom and with a different teacher. Following baseline observations in which observers recorded several categories of student behavior and teacher‐student interaction, separate conferences were held including parents of the two children, the principal, teachers, and experimenters. A daily report‐card procedure was agreed on, stipulating a one‐day suspension from school following three successive “undesirable” daily report cards as well as the supervision of home‐based privileges and other reinforcers usually contingent on satisfactory daily reports. Measurements of daily rates of teacher attention indicated no important change in this variable throughout the various experimental conditions. The daily report procedure significantly reduced disruptive classroom behavior. In a second experiment, a teacher‐operated timer cued her own time‐sample observations. Reliability measures revealed that the teacher could accurately measure the child's behavior while she was teaching the class. The procedure was ultimately successfully expanded to the teacher's total contact hours each day.
SOCIAL‐SKILLS TRAINING TO MODIFY ABUSIVE VERBAL OUTBURSTS IN ADULTS
Authors: Frederiksen Lee W. , Jenkins Jack O. , Foy David W. , Eisler Richard M.
Published: March 2006

Social‐skills training was used to modify abusive verbal outbursts displayed by two adult psychiatric patients. Five target behaviors—looking, irrelevant comments, hostile comments, inappropriate requests, and appropriate requests were monitored during role‐played situations. Social‐skills training, consisting of behavior rehearsal with modelling, focused instructions, and feedback, was introduced in a multiple‐baseline design across individuals. Training improved all target behaviors. The improved behavior generalized to: (1) novel scenes role‐played with the original respondent, (2) training and novel scenes role‐played with a different respondent, and (3) interpersonal situations on the hospital ward.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OF DECREASES IN HUMAN SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE1
Authors: Whitehead William E. , Lurie Ellen , Blackwell Barry
Published: March 2006

Decrease in human systolic blood pressure of 4.35 mm Hg (range: 0 to 12 mm Hg) were classically conditioned in normal and hypertensive subjects using a delayed conditioning paradigm in which a 30‐sec auditory stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) was followed immediately by tilting the subject 15° head‐down to elicit small decreases in blood pressure. Conditioning occurred within five trials. A control group demonstrated that sensitization of the reflex by repeated tilting could not account for the blood‐pressure decreases associated with the conditioned stimulus in experimental subjects.
PEER AND COLLEGE‐STUDENT TUTORING AS REINFORCEMENT IN A TOKEN ECONOMY1
Authors: Robertson Stephen J. , DeReus Denise M. , Drabman Ronald S.
Published: March 2006

Eighteen second‐grade children initially received feedback in the form of nonredeemable tokens for reducing their disruptive classroom behavior. Four types of tutoring were then introduced in a Latin Square Design: noncontingent tutoring from fifth‐grade peers, contingent peer tutoring, noncontingent college tutoring, and contingent college tutoring. No significant difference was found in the level of disruptive behavior of those children tutored by fifth‐grade peers or college students, but contingent tutoring was significantly effective in reducing disruptive classroom behavior.
THE EFFECTS OF A SELF‐INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE ON OVERACTIVE PRESCHOOL BOYS
Authors: Bornstein Philip H. , Quevillon Randal P.
Published: March 2006

The effects of a self‐instructional package on three overactive preschool boys were investigated using a multiple‐baseline design across subjects. Behavioral observations of the three target subjects indicated transfer of training effects from the experimental tasks to the classroom. On‐task behaviors increased dramatically concomitant with the introduction of the self‐instructional package, and treatment gains were maintained 22.5 weeks after baseline was initiated. In addition, the use of an observer‐expectancy control condition gave further credibility to the demonstration of a causal relationship.
THE EFFECTS OF TOKEN REINFORCEMENT ON THE BEHAVIOR OF DELINQUENTS IN COTTAGE SETTINGS1
Authors: Hobbs Tom R. , Holt Michael M.
Published: March 2006

A token economy designed to modify the behavior of 125 adolescent males committed to a state correctional institution was implemented in the boys' cottages, focusing on social behavior (peer interaction), rule following, and task completion. The program was sequentially introduced in a multiple‐baseline design in three independent cottages; a fourth group served as a comparison cottage. Appropriate behavior increased when the token program was introduced in each cottage. Data were collected for 14 months. Thus, the long‐term effects of initial behavior change were assessed.
THE EFFECTS OF PRIMARY REWARD ON THE I.Q. PERFORMANCE OF GRADE‐SCHOOL CHILDREN AS A FUNCTION OF INITIAL I.Q. LEVEL
Authors: Clingman Joy , Fowler Robert L.
Published: March 2006

The effect of candy reward on I.Q. scores was investigated in 72 first‐ and second‐grade children. All subjects were administered Form A of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test and, based upon these scores, were divided into three blocks: low, middle, and high. From each block, subjects were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (contingent reward, noncontingent reward, or no reward) that were in effect during administration of Form B. Results showed that candy given contingent upon each correct response increased I.Q. scores for the initially low scoring subjects, but had no influence on the scores of middle and high scoring subjects.
INCREASING EXTENDED CARE FACILITY RESIDENTS' ATTENDANCE AT RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES WITH CONVENIENT LOCATIONS AND PERSONAL INVITATIONS1
Authors: Newkirk Juhlin M. , Feldman Sherri , Bickett Alan , Gipson Martin T. , Lutzker John R.
Published: March 2006

Residents of extended care facilities generally exhibit a low level of attendance at recreational and therapeutic activities. Spatial arrangement of rooms, prompting, snacks, and small prizes have been suggested as factors that affect attendance. The present study examined the effects of an extensive system of prompts and the location of activity areas on the attendance of residents at a variety of activities. Twenty‐six subjects were randomly selected from the ambulatory population of the facility. The first time each subject entered the activity room during the first 6 min of an activity session their name was recorded. Reliability measures were taken at 10 sessions, with a 95% mean agreement between observers. The variables examined were the amount of individualization of subjects (experimental group I: names announced versus experimental group 2: names not announced), room location (central or peripheral), use of names in announcements (activity only versus activity and group I names), and mode of announcement (PA system only versus PA system and in‐person). A counter‐balanced group design with repeated measures was used, with a randomly determined order of application of experimental treatments. An analysis of variance split plot 2.222 (Kirk, R. E. Experimental Design: Procedures for the Behavioral Science. Belmont, Ca.: Brooks‐Cole, 1968.) of the level of subject attendance yielded significant main effects for room location, F(1, 24) = 5.47, p < 0.05, and type of announcement, F(1, 24) = 9.10, p < 0.01, and significant interactions for Individualization × Use of Names in Announcements, F(1, 24) = 5.57, p < 0.05, and Room Location × Mode of Announcement, F(1, 24) = 7.90, p < 0.01. The results indicate that using a centrally located room and announcement of resident names increases attendance at a variety of activities. The increased social and environmental interaction generated by activity attendance has potential therapeutic benefits for the residents involved. Furthermore, the kind of information reported here and by others should be taken into consideration by planners of a variety of group living facilities, ranging from nursing homes to residential treatment cottages.
ACCURACY OF SELF‐ASSESSMENT OF ON‐TASK BEHAVIOR BY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN1
Authors: Thomas John D.
Published: March 2006

Being able to assess one's own performance would seem to be prerequisite to most forms of self‐management. The present study investigated the extent to which children in a typical second‐grade classroom could accurately assess their own academic on‐task behavior. In essence, this investigation replicated an experiment by Glynn and Thomas (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7, 299–306) and extended those findings, by studying self‐assessment over a longer span of time. The 31 children in the class ranged in age from 7 yr five months to 8 yr six months. Although only eight “problem” children were observed and studied, the self‐control treatment procedures were applied to all children in the class. Behavior was observed daily during mathematics lessons for over eight school weeks. The study utilized a five‐phase ABABC design, where the A phases were baseline periods, B phases were self‐control periods, and C phase was a postcheck. In the self‐control phases, children were asked by the teacher to put a check on their own individual performance card if they were on‐task when a signal sounded. If they were not on‐task, they were instructed not to touch their card. Typically, 15 to 20 signals occurred per 40‐min session. At the end of the lesson, children were allowed to choose games to play according to how many checks they had earned. During all experimental phases, observers measured children's on‐task behavior. Other observers measured the children's accuracy of self‐assessment in the self‐control phases. The results showed noticeable increases in the daily mean on‐task behavior scores in the self‐control phases following baseline phases. Also, a high level of on‐task behavior was maintained in the postcheck phase. The variances of on‐task behavior scores during the self‐control phases were noticeably smaller than those in the baseline phases. Generally, individual data reflected group results, with some minor differences. Levels of accuracy of self‐assessment varied from very accurate (95% of the time) to relatively inaccurate (56% of the time). The overall level of accuracy for all children was 78%. No consistent individual pattern appeared across phases. Some children got better as the study proceeded and some got worse. Most subjects tended to give themselves too much reinforcement, rather than too little. Peer social surveillance appeared to be the major factor that influenced individuals' evaluation of their own behavior, even though the teacher did make some control remarks in regard to how the children marked their cards. The results also demonstrated that self‐control techniques can increase on‐task behavior in a classroom with no history of external reinforcement, and that these techniques can have a lasting effect for more than two months of a school year.
AN EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF “SPILLOVER” EFFECTS ON THE SOCIAL INTERACTION OF BEHAVIORALLY HANDICAPPED PRESCHOOL CHILDRENsp1
Authors: Strain Phillip S. , Shores Richard E. , Kerr Mary M.
Published: March 2006

The effects of prompting and social reinforcement directed to target subjects on their social behavior and that of peers who never received prompting and reinforcement for positive social behavior, were examined. In a combined reversal and multiple‐baseline design, three behaviorally handicapped preschool boys who exhibited divergent social behavior repertoires and varied histories with social reinforcement events, were sequentially exposed to intervention conditions in order to investigate “spillover” of treatment effects. Prompting and reinforcement increased positive social behavior and decreased negative social behavior emitted by all target subjects. The results also demonstrated a “spillover” effect on two target subjects, who at various times were not under intervention, and on the peers as well. The findings suggest that: (a) the direct and indirect effects of intervention procedures may be enhanced by designing treatment based on the social repertoire and reinforcement histories of the subjects; and (b) the treatment “spillover” effect may be increased by applying procedures to two children at once, rather than to one at a time.
THE DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTIONAL CONTROL OF READING‐COMPREHENSION BEHAVIOR1
Authors: Rosenbaum Michael S. , Breiling James
Published: March 2006

Reading comprehension, indicated by motor behavior and multiple‐choice picture selection called for in written instructions, was taught to an autistic child using verbal prompts, modelling, and physical guidance. The child was rewarded for correct behaviors to training items; nonrewarded probes were used to assess generalization. Probable maintaining events were assessed through their sequential removal in a reversal design. Results showed: (a) following acquisition, performance was maintained at a near‐100% level when candy, praise, attention, and training were removed, (b) absence of other persons was correlated with a marked decrease in performance, whereas their presence was associated with performance at near 100%, and (c) performance generalized to probes and across experimenters. Rewards, which may have been reinforcing during acquisition, did not appear necessary to maintain later performance. Instead, presence of others (a setting event) was demonstrated to have control over maintained performance.
CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN SAYING AND DOING: TEACHING CHILDREN TO SHARE AND PRAISE1
Authors: Rogers‐Warren Ann , Baer Donald M.
Published: March 2006

Five small groups of preschool children were taught to share and praise by the modelling of these behaviors and reinforcement of their reports of sharing and praising. Experiment I demonstrated that modelling and reinforcement of any (true or untrue) reports of sharing, and then of praising, promptly increased reports of the corresponding behaviors. Modelling and reinforcement for true reports of each behavior increased both reporting and actual behavior. Experiment II showed that both reported and actual sharing and praising may be increased by modelling and reinforcement for true reports of the target behavior, without previous reinforcement for any (true or untrue) reports of those behaviors. Sharing, but not praising, generalized to a second setting. Experiment III replicated the results of Experiment II for sharing and praising, and demonstrated similar success in increasing a third behavior, specific praising. In general, these experiments show that developing correspondence between children's reports of behavior and actual behavior may be an efficient means of increasing prosocial responses.