bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Separation of Powers
Authors: Weiner Greg
Published: August 2023

Separation of powers is a doctrine according to which the legislative, executive, and judicial functions of a regime should be exercised by distinct departments in order to protect the individual from exposure to arbitrary power at the hands of a single authority wielding the entire power of the state. It has been described, alongside representation, as a foundational element of western constitutional thought. The doctrine is the symbiotic product of several strands of western thought as well as of the political development of western states.
Sex Workers and Trafficking
Authors: Berg Heather
Published: August 2023

Sexual labor occupies a major role in the global history of how gender, class, race, sexuality, family, citizenship, embodiment, health, and space are theorized and legislated. It is central to discussions of labor, agency, and intimacy, and has taken on an even greater role within the context of advanced global capitalism. In recent years, sexual labor, particularly as it connects to migration, has emerged as a key concern in discussions of global policy. The United Nations, International Labour Organization, and various international, regional, and national legal bodies have, with varying results, made sex work and trafficking policy foci.
Sidgwick, Henry (1838–1900)
Authors: Schultz Bart
Published: August 2023

Henry Sidgwick is the least well‐known of the great classical utilitarians. And his professed allegiance to that tradition – the tradition of Jeremy Bentham and James and John Stuart Mill, holding that the greatest happiness is the ultimate normative standard – is quite complex and qualified, since he rejected the empiricism, psychological egoism, and associationism of the earlier utilitarians and was more concerned with individual ethics, the possible conflict between one's own good and the general good, and parapsychology. Indeed, his philosophical reputation primarily rests on his book
The Methods of Ethics
, which first appeared in 1874, and which unlike the earlier utilitarian tradition was primarily concerned with “private ethics,” rather than legal and political reform.
Simon, Herbert Alexander (1916–2001)
Authors: Jordan Sara
Published: August 2023

Which discipline can claim the work of Herbert Simon as its own? Computer scientists, cognitive scientists, political scientists, public administration scholars, statisticians, and artificial intelligence specialists all claim a portion of the vast intellectual corpus of Herbert Simon as their own. Of all of the disciplines that claim Simon as an intellectual progenitor, it is unusual for political theorists to claim Simon as their own. This is an unfortunate error in the bibliography of the field. Herbert Simon is one of the twentieth century's foremost theorists of reason, organization, and decision‐making. From Herbert Simon, the fields of politics and political theory gained the concepts bounded rationality, satisficing, and a theory of adaptive organization.
Skinner, Quentin (1940–)
Authors: Palonen Kari
Published: August 2023

Quentin Skinner has been a key figure in intellectual history and political theory debates for a half century. Skinner both made provocative moves to debates and become himself a target of fierce polemics: his name is difficult to ignore in contemporary controversies, intellectual history, and political theory.
Social Choice Theory
Authors: Núñez Matías
Published: August 2023

Social choice theory is the formal study of collective decision‐making. Its modern version was initiated by both Arrow and Black and is concerned with the construction of a social preference out of individual preferences.
Social Darwinism
Authors: Byrne William F.
Published: August 2023

“Social Darwinism” is a term which refers to the application of evolutionary theory, such as that of Charles Darwin, to human society. Beyond this vague description the term is a problematic one, partly because it has usually been invoked by those opposed to (rather than sympathetic to) whatever particular idea or thinker is in question. Consequently there is no significant body of self‐identified Social Darwinian thought on which to draw in order to impart a precise and detailed meaning to the term. It has, however, been politically significant.
Social Democracy
Authors: Berman Sheri
Published: August 2023

Social democracy, as originally conceived, represented a full‐fledged leftist alternative to Marxism that had at its core a distinctive belief in the primacy of politics and communitarianism. The key to understanding its true nature lies in the circumstances of its birth. Social democracy's foundations were laid in the late nineteenth century when Eduard Bernstein and other democratic revisionists began attacking the main pillars of orthodox Marxism's historical materialism and class struggle, and arguing for an alternative based on new principles, the primacy of politics, and cross‐class cooperation.
Social Movements
Authors: Scholz Sally J.
Published: August 2023

Social movements are collective actions to bring about social, political, or economic change. As collective action, they involve the concerted efforts of many people; however they are not always intentional in their inception or progression.
Sociobiology and Politics
Authors: Hannagan Rebecca J.
Published: August 2023

Edward O. Wilson published the infamous
Sociobiology
in 1975. Sociobiology – the synthesis of ethology and population biology – was a new discipline that argued for the eventual subsummation of the social sciences into the biological sciences. Despite intense criticism, Wilson's sociobiology has come to fruition, not in a political movement within the social sciences against “leftist” critique, but in a fundamental shift in the belief that science can answer fundamental questions about human values and behavior.
Socrates (469–399 BCE)
Authors: Cherry Kevin M.
Published: August 2023

We know little about Socrates, who so changed the course of philosophy that those who preceded him are called Presocratics. Tradition tells us one way Socrates differed from those predecessors is that he wrote nothing. Our knowledge of him, therefore, is unavoidably mediated: we know Socrates only through others, three of whom – Aristophanes, Plato, and Xenophon – knew him personally and confront us with differing and potentially unreliable evidence. Aristophanes is an obvious, if friendly critic, and Plato and Xenophon present themselves as defenders of Socrates. We might also look to scattered remarks of Aristotle and other Greek authors and to the reports handed down by later generations – Cicero, for instance, and Diogenes Laertius – but discovering the “historical Socrates” has long posed a challenge for scholars.
Sophists
Authors: Corey David
Published: August 2023

The Sophists were professional teacher‐intellectuals who first appeared in Greece in the fifth centurybce. Though they hailed from different cities around the Greek‐speaking world and traveled widely in search of students, they were most famous for their trips to Athens, where they captivated audiences with their public speeches (epideixeis), offered private instruction to politically aspiring youths and conversed with some of the most prominent figures of the age from Pericles to Socrates. Neither a school nor a movement in any strict sense, the Sophists varied markedly in what they taught and how they viewed the world. A common error has been to present them too uniformly under one or another basic heading: rhetoricians, relativists, skeptics, atheists, immoralists, humanists, or democratic theorists. None of these labels applies adequately to the Sophists across the board. Because of their diversity, the best way to consider the Sophists and their historical significance is to proceed figure by figure.
Sovereignty
Authors: Miller Ted H.
Published: August 2023

“Sovereignty,” in its most common usage, suggests supremacy. Inherently aspirational, perhaps impossible, the concept compels persons to ask who will have the last word. Within a community, will sovereignty be exercised by the people, be rooted in fundamental laws, a deliberative body, a particular office, some combination of the above, or perhaps the decision of a particular individual? Political philosophers within the liberal tradition, such as John Stuart Mill, have spoken of a sovereign self, and this has raised questions about the limits and scope human autonomy. Political theorists and political participants past and present have argued over wshat is actually, or could be, possessed when states, peoples, institutions, or persons claim sovereignty. There are debates over the origins and future of such claims, and whether these claims
ought
to be made.
Spanish Civil War
Authors: Ackelsberg Martha A.
Published: August 2023

The Spanish Civil War (1936–9) was as much an ideological, as a military, battle. On one level, it may be understood as the first stage of the battle between democracy and fascism that was World War II. At the same time, it was the scene of deep and bitter conflicts with longstanding roots in Spanish history and culture. On the one side (the rebels) was a loose agglomeration of traditionalists, conservatives, the official Catholic church, and modern fascists; on the other, a republic supported (or at least defended) by groups that had profound conflicts among themselves, including revolutionary, or libertarian, socialists, and anarchists and authoritarian communists. It provided a context in which multiple, and profoundly different, worldviews struggled to be enacted, if not to dominate.
Spencer, Herbert (1820–1903)
Authors: Long Roderick T.
Published: August 2023

English philosopher, sociologist, and political theorist Herbert Spencer was one of the nineteenth century's most influential thinkers, building a broadly libertarian politics on the twin pillars of evolutionary social theory and utilitarian morality.
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady (1815–1902)
Authors: Perry Elisabeth Israels
Published: August 2023

Elizabeth Cady Stanton was the leading political thinker of the American nineteenth‐century women's rights movement. The author of the 1848 “Declaration of Sentiments,” she attacked “coverture,” the common law principle that subordinated married women to their husbands, and opposed women's exclusion from juries, the professions, and the ballot box. She then organized women's rights conventions, wrote articles, and lectured widely on women's rights. After the Civil War, she opposed the constitutional amendments that enfranchised freedmen and not women. She advocated equal access to divorce and the right of married women to refuse childbearing, and attacked the Bible as a key source of women's subjugation.
State, The
Authors: Coole Diana
Published: August 2023

The state is the pre‐eminent political institution of the modern world. As such, it occupies a pivotal role within political theory and political science as well as within the everyday lives of citizens. The discipline of international relations is built on the premise that the state is the principal political actor within an international system of states, while domestically it is the seat of government. Today every continent with the exception of Antarctica is divided into states, of which almost 200 are recognized by the United Nations.
State Church
Authors: Liebell Susan P.
Published: August 2023

Although both concepts – state and church – evolve over western political history, all state churches have two central elements:
one
religious group is granted official status by the state, and the state religion or church is controlled by the head of state of the government. The
degree
of control of the church by the state, or the state by the church, varies significantly from case to case.
Statelessness
Authors: Arnold Kathleen R.
Published: August 2023

In modern and contemporary western thought, theorists have been particularly interested in notions of displacement, homelessness, and statelessness, often connecting them to feelings of alienation (which, in turn has often been linked to critiques of capitalism); nationalist and colonial movements of inclusion (Self) and radical exclusion (Other); and critical reactions to mass production, an increasingly technological society, and the homogenization of culture (thus, introducing ideas like “anomie” and “mass culture”). The term statelessness has also been linked to more literal notions of homelessness, as both an inevitably individual and yet increasingly, mass phenomenon in the early twentieth century. Earlier notions of alienation thus took on a new form at the turn of the century, during the world wars and in the interwar period as notions of homelessness and statelessness were no longer merely “spiritual” or visceral but a very real and permanent form of displacement.
Sublimation
Authors: Fred Alford C.
Published: August 2023

As the term was originally defined by Freud (1905), sublimation referred to the deflection of erotic drives from their original sexual aim toward more socially constructive activities, thus alleviating the need for constant repression. Artistic creation, work that requires mastery (that is, not mere labor), and the activities of raising and caring for a family are all examples of sublimated erotic drives.
Syndicalism
Authors: Boggs Carl
Published: August 2023

Derived from the French word
syndicalisme
, meaning “trade unionism,” syndicalism emerged as a theoretical and political force in several European countries – mainly Russia, France, Spain, and Italy – in the period spanning the 1890s to the 1930s. While somewhat politically moderate in origins, associated with economic bargaining between workers and capitalists, syndicalism became quickly radicalized, evolving into anarcho‐syndicalism that attempted to bring together three broad tendencies: Marxism, anarchism, and trade unionism.
Tacitus, Publius Cornelius (ca. 56–115/18?)
Authors: Waszink Jan
Published: August 2023

The Roman historian Publius Cornelius Tacitus was likely born in southern Gaul (modern France), embarked on an administrative career in Rome and the provinces, and subsequently turned to writing history. His most important works for political thought are the
Annales
and
Historiae
, which describe the period of the Julio‐Claudian imperial dynasty and the events following the death of the emperor Nero in 69
ce
respectively.
Tagore, Rabindranath (1861–1941)
Authors: Godrej Farah
Published: August 2023

Rabindranath Tagore, known informally as “Rabindranath” or “Gurudev,” was a prolific Indian poet, philosopher, playwright, composer, novelist, and educator. The first non‐European to be awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913, Tagore is a towering figure in Indian artistic and intellectual history. Best known for his massive corpus of plays, poetry and novels in Bengali, Tagore was also a public intellectual and political philosopher. His political work was written within the context of the Indian nationalist movement for independence, which was at its height during the latter half of his life.
Theocracy
Authors: Ritter Ted
Published: August 2023

Theocracy describes a system of government in which God or a similar deity rules either directly or through earthly representation in the form of priests or other divine rulers. It includes the belief that the ruling government receives the power to govern directly from God. The individual or individuals who govern receive their instructions and laws from God. In a theocratic government God himself is recognized as the head of the state.
Thucydides (ca. 460/455?–ca. 400 BCE)
Authors: Saxonhouse Arlene W.
Published: August 2023

Thucydides, an Athenian, authored a work describing the conflict between the Athenians and the Spartans, generally referred to as the Peloponnesian War, that occurred during the last three decades of the fifth centurybce(1998). Thus, Thucydides is often described as the “historian” of the Peloponnesian War, though the practice of history in ancient Greece did not have the baggage it currently possesses and though it is through his narrative that he constructs a series of conflicts with an intervening peace into a unified war. Thucydides says simply in his first sentence: “Thucydides the Athenian wrote [zunegrapse] about the war of the Peloponnesians and the Athenians and how they fought with one another.” He adds that he began writing immediately when the war began expecting that it would be a significant event and “most worthy of report.”
Time and Political Theory
Authors: Hutchings Kimberly
Published: August 2023

Time, like space, is crucial as an organizing principle in different aspects of our everyday experience, from our working day to our religious beliefs. In the context of thinking about time in relation to political theory, “time” refers to any kind of temporal ordering. A temporal ordering is one that distinguishes between past, present, and future. When we order things temporally then we use terms such as beginning, ending, origin, return, speed, acceleration, interruption, continuity, novelty, repetition, sameness, teleology, eternity, and so on. Political theories that use these kinds of terms are either implicitly or explicitly imputing a temporal order to political phenomena. This temporal order in turn plays a role in the kinds of claims that can be made about what politics is, can, and ought to be.
Tocqueville, Alexis de (1805–59)
Authors: Janara Laura
Published: August 2023

Alexis de Tocqueville was born in Paris in 1805, taking his place as the third and youngest son of an aristocratic Norman family. These circumstances of birth situated him between the fading world of theancien régime(what he calls “aristocracy”), and the emergent world that he calls “democracy.” Indeed, he came expressly to understand himself as a man located between these two distinct “social states.”
Tragedy of the Commons
Authors: Thiele Leslie Paul
Published: August 2023

The tragedy of the commons refers to a collective action problem wherein commonly owned or shared resources are exploited to the point of severe degradation or destruction. The notion that public goods are susceptible to overexploitation goes back at least to Aristotle, who reflected in his
Politics
that “That which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it.” The problem received its formal articulation in an article published by Garrett Hardin (1915–2003) in
Science
entitled “The Tragedy of the Commons.” Hardin's presentation of the issue, its practical significance, and the most prominent scholarship that developed in its wake are addressed here.
Unger, Roberto Mangabeira (1947–)
Authors: Hutchinson Allan
Published: August 2023

Roberto Mangabeira Unger is a Brazilian social and legal theorist who has spent his career at Harvard Law School. A polymathic and prolific scholar, he has cultivated an almost messianic persona in his writings and presentations. While primarily engaged in theoretical work, he has also remained active in Brazilian oppositional movements and politics.
Utilitarianism
Authors: Weinstein David
Published: August 2023

Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism. Consequentialism stipulates that the moral rightness of an act depends exclusively on the value of that act's consequences or on the consequences of following rules requiring similar acts. Utilitarian consequentialism is hedonistic in turn, holding that the value of an act or rule's consequences depends only on the pleasure or pain in those consequences. Utilitarian consequentialism is, in addition, typically maximizing insofar as moral rightness depends on the consequences with the most pleasure and least pain. Finally, utilitarian consequentialism presupposes equal consideration and agent‐neutrality, namely that everyone's pleasures and pains matter equally and that the perspective of the agent doing the action is normatively irrelevant. Needless to say, utilitarian versions of consequentialism have come in a variety of permutations, each reformulated in response to old and new criticisms.
Utopia
Authors: Stillman Peter G.
Published: August 2023

Utopias are proposals for a better way of life. Most commonly, when people think of utopias, they think of written utopian texts, relatively detailed descriptions of alternative societies, brought about by human action, that criticize existing societies and propose a good society with principles and practices better than those of the authors’ and readers’ own societies. Closely related are the mirror image of utopian texts, dystopias, which are relatively detailed descriptions of societies worse than those in which the author and readers currently live and that criticize specific tendencies or trends in those societies. Some consider as a separate group anti‐utopias, or descriptions of societies that criticize or oppose a specific utopia or utopias in general. Activists have been moving beyond textual construction and have been building utopian communities (sometimes called intentional communities), whose members agree to live together according to their shared values and which promise a substantially different and better way of life than that of mainstream society. Because the desire for a better way of life is felt by many cultures and individuals, one can also talk of utopianism, utopian dreaming, or utopian longing, where the desire, wish, or idea for a better world or a better way of life exists and can be manifest in dreams and myth, in art and music, or in written texts that are books or pamphlets, poems and songs, or brief prose passages.
Veblen, Thorstein (1857–1929)
Authors: Schroeder Susan K.
Published: August 2023

Thorstein Veblen is one of the founders of what is now known as original institutional economics (OIE), and the political dimension of his work has been traditionally cast in that context. Veblen's method is multidisciplinary in the sense that elements of psychology, anthropology, history, and sociology are integral to his expositions of agents’ behavior within a capitalist market economy. The political aspects of Veblen's writings are primarily directed at the role of the modern capitalist state as a mode of governance. He observed that the modern capitalist state does not provide enough support to fulfill the needs of the underlying population because the decisions, interpretations, and precedents embodied within its policies, legislation, and legal structures have been influenced by vested (business) interests.
Vico, Giambattista (1668–1744)
Authors: Verene Donald Phillip
Published: August 2023

Throughout his career Vico was professor of Latin eloquence (rhetoric) at the University of Naples (1699–1741). In 1735 he was appointed Royal Historiographer by Charles of Bourbon. Vico is widely known as the modern founder of the philosophy of history, which he pioneered in his major work, published in two versions, the first in 1725, the second in 1730 and revised in 1744, the full title of which is
Principles of New Science of Giambattista Vico concerning the Common Nature of the Nations
, commonly known as the
Scienza nuova
or
New Science
. The title was inspired by Bacon's
Novum Organum
and even more directly by Galileo's
Dialoghi delle Nuove Scienze
.
Virgil (70–19 BCE)
Authors: Dominik William J.
Published: August 2023

Virgil composed theEclogues(42–38bce),Georgics(37–29) andAeneid(29–19) during the period covering such events as Caesar's deification in 42, the civil wars, Octavian and Antony's defeat of Brutus and Cassius at the battle of Philippi in 42, the land confiscations in Italy in 41, Octavian's defeat under Agrippa of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31, and his award of the title Augustus in 27. The concept of geopolitics – the association between geography, nature, and contemporary politics – is articulated throughout the Virgilian corpus. The persistent intrusion of political issues, themes, and events in the geographical setting of Italy constitutes a political and ideological statement.
Virtue
Authors: Button Mark E.
Published: August 2023

Moral and political philosophers have been interested in the concept of virtue since the beginning of recorded thought. While some of these discussions frequently take on a highly abstract form and deal with complex matters of epistemology and psychology, one of the initial guiding inspirations for the inquiry into virtue was not to know what virtue is, but to become good. In accordance with this practical consideration and its focus on the formation of good character, ethics and the concern for virtue were understood as a branch of political science whose proper end was to make good citizens, capable of noble actions. Despite the more recent tendency to characterize these kinds of commitments as entailing a form of “moral perfectionism” that might otherwise strain credulity, Aristotle freely owned that “it is no easy task to be good.” From Confucius, Plato, and Aristotle, to Aquinas, Hume, and Kant, moral and political philosophers have not only inquired into the nature, purpose, and end of virtue, but have also provided complex and diverse accounts of a range of more specific virtues (and vices). For their part, political theorists have also shown an acute interest in asking whether specific ethical virtues (or what are perceived to be good ethical qualities) remain so within the unique context of political deliberation, public judgment, and collective action and whether certain qualities that might be labeled vices in personal moral life are capable of serving as necessary virtues in public‐political life.
Voegelin, Eric (1901–85)
Authors: Cooper Barry
Published: August 2023

Eric Voegelin was born in Cologne, the son of a middle‐class engineer. He was nine when his family moved to Vienna, where he received his formative education, graduating with a doctorate in law and political science in 1922. His thesis was codirected by Othmar Spann and Hans Kelsen. Voegelin subsequently studied briefly at Oxford, and in 1924 he received a three‐year Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Fellowship enabling him to study in the USA, at Harvard, Columbia, Wisconsin, and Yale, followed by a year in Paris. He later served as Kelsen's assistant in Vienna and taught in the university as a
Privatdozent
(private lecturer) as well as teaching at a
Volkshochschule
(adult education college).
Voltaire (François‐Marie Arouet) (1694–1778)
Authors: Caverly Matthew M.
Published: August 2023

Voltaire was the pseudonym for François‐Marie Arouet, an eighteenth‐century French man of letters who personified and popularized the intellectually liberal climate of the Enlightenment. Voltaire was the chief social and political protagonist of his age; he promoted the ideas of religious and political tolerance as propagated by British liberal thinkers such as Locke and Swift. In particular, he spread liberal rationalist Enlightenment ideas to continental Europeans. However, Voltaire was not always, nor completely, a classical liberal; he saw virtue in constitutional monarchy as practiced in Great Britain. Also, he was a staunch advocate of “enlightened absolutism” like that practiced by his patron Frederick the Great of Prussia. Voltaire promoted his ideas through his position as a playwright and member of the elite literati in his native France as well as through his service in the Prussian court. Additionally, Voltaire accomplished his project through the production of a massive library of writings, including plays, poems, novels/novelettes, histories, and philosophical treatises. Voltaire's legacy is somewhat tarnished by his raucous lifestyle and later philosophical treatments of his works, which claimed that he was more of a transcriber of culture than a true innovator in the history of ideas. For our purposes, his greatest contribution lay in his ability to satirize the powers‐that‐be, whether in church or state, and call for a truly enlightened age manifested in civic tolerance, political republicanism, and religious freedom.
von Gierke, Otto (1841–1921)
Authors: Thornhill Christopher
Published: August 2023

Otto von Gierke (1841–1921) was an organic theorist of the legal state: that is to say, he was a theorist of the state who viewed the inner constitutional form of the political order as composed by multiple parts and associations, organically integrated to form the state as a unifying legal structure. He was the leading representative of the Germanic School of legal‐historical research in imperial Germany, which, pioneered by Georg Beseler, promoted concepts of Germanic law as an alternative to the dominant positivist orthodoxy, based in Roman law and primarily represented by Paul Laband. Central to Gierke's work was a critique of the concept of the legal personality under Roman law and positivism. He argued that the Roman legal concept of the legal person deduced legal obligations from solitary, atomized, and essentially
private
subjects. This conception of the legal person reduced legal status to a highly simplified notion of legal formation, and it restricted agents under law to a statically prescribed series of solitary and purposive rights and freedoms.
von Pufendorf, Samuel (1632–94)
Authors: Carr Craig L.
Published: August 2023

Samuel von Pufendorf was one of the most important thinkers of the seventeenth century and one of the central figures and primary architects of the modern natural law tradition. The son of a Lutheran minister, Pufendorf began his intellectual odyssey with the study of theology but soon tired of theological orthodoxy and gravitated toward the philosophical method that guided much of his political thought. When he turned to political philosophy, he found himself laboring in the shadow of the two intellectual giants whose work immediately preceded his own: Grotius and Hobbes, and his political thought was substantially influenced by both writers.
Wealth
Authors: Miller Char Roone
Published: August 2023

“Wealth,” closely related to the concept of abstract value, refers to the many ways that people create, possess, accumulate, transfer, and store value. Ancient wealth could be stored as material objects: horses, land, and gold tripods. These objects represented recognition from others and promised the perception of worth from other people. Wealth continues to be stored and displayed in similar objects, such as houses, cars, cash, and horses. Contemporary wealth often refers to objects such as capital, stocks, bonds, and treasury bills; even when wealth is completely immaterial it continues to be a means of establishing recognition, rank, and status among people. Life itself, and the time it affords, can signify an ultimate expression of wealth. Time often figures as a possession abundantly held by the wealthy; who spend more of their time away from activities of work or labor, while those without wealth typically labor at more physically demanding and highly managed jobs. Wealth, Adam Smith suggested at one point, referencing Thomas Hobbes, is also power; meaning the power to command or purchase the labor of others (Smith 1970 [1776]: 31). Wealth promises, additionally, the social power to realize desires produced through social recognition.
Will to Power
Authors: Hawley Thomas M.
Published: August 2023

The will to power is a central concept in the writings of Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) because it captures what for him is an essential feature of all organic life: the desire for mastery, for an increase in strength, and for flourishing, abundant health. Something for which all living things strive, power is the index of an organism's ability to transform the raw materials of existence into conditions favorable to its particular form of life. The theory of the will to power is situated within Nietzsche's critique of the deadening effects of modern culture, particularly Christian morality. Because Christianity condemns expressions of strength in favor of submission and weakness, Nietzsche argues that its influence has led to the enervation and decline of humankind. The result is a nihilistic culture of sickly and sheep‐like beings who lack the strength to cope with human life and thus long for a world beyond death. The will to power is part of Nietzsche's response to the problem of nihilism as well as a means for overcoming the life‐denying effects of modernity.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1889–1951)
Authors: Havercroft Jonathan
Published: August 2023

Ludwig Wittgenstein is one of the most significant philosophers of the twentieth century, yet he published nothing on political philosophy. His few remarks on political and moral philosophy were outright hostile to the enterprise of normative theorizing. Despite this, Wittgenstein's influence on contemporary political philosophy has been far‐reaching. This is because Wittgenstein's work had a crucial influence on the linguistic turn in philosophy, and philosophy's linguistic turn shaped much political thought in the latter half of the twentieth century. The linguistic turn refers to the increased interest in the connections between the nature of language and philosophical problems in the first half of the twentieth century. The classical view of the relationship between language and objects in the material world held that words functioned like labels that are applied to pre‐existing objects.
Wittig, Monique (1935–2003)
Authors: Stewart Pamela J.
Published: August 2023

Monique Wittig, French philosopher, writer, and political activist, argued in all forms for the destruction of the category of sex, which supports heterosexuality as a political regime, marginalizing one category of sex for the benefit of another. Wittig termed this political and philosophical approach “Materialist Lesbianism,” describing heterosexuality not as an institution (or a “preference” or “norm”), but as a political regime resting on submission and appropriation of those in the sex category of women. Wittig was ahead of what would become known as queer theory by at least fifteen years, and much of feminist theory as well.
Wolin, Sheldon S. (1922–)
Authors: Xenos Nicholas
Published: August 2023

Sheldon S. Wolin is a central figure in the transformation of the study and practice of political theory in the USA in the post‐World War II period. Along with the émigré scholars Leo Strauss, Hannah Arendt, and Eric Voegelin, Wolin provided a fundamental challenge to the teaching of the history of political theory as a chronicle of successive ideas, each dying along with the social and institutional structures of which it was a part.
Wollstonecraft, Mary (1759–97)
Authors: Sapiro Virginia
Published: August 2023

Mary Wollstonecraft was a political and moral theorist best known for her 1792 book,
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
, one of the first full‐length treatises devoted to an examination of the social and political condition of women, and an argument for political and moral equality of women and men. She made important contributions more broadly to the history of thought on education, the family, inequality, and the French Revolution as well as to the development of romanticist writing, especially because of her travel memoir,
Letters Written during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark
.
Women in Western Political Thought
Authors: Marso Lori J.
Published: August 2023

The silencing of women writers and denigration of the feminine in the canon of western political thought has marked feminism's relationship to canonical texts as deeply ambivalent. And yet, conversations and debates initiated amongst feminists in response have been lively and provocative. Though it often seems that women are simply absent from political theory's canonical texts, in fact these texts frequently operate on gendered assumptions. The kind of person qualified for citizenship, the traits and behaviors a citizen should embody, what constitutes the geography and categorization of the political, how political life should be structured and conducted, and even what makes for a good and worthy life are all described in terms that characterize masculine traits as superior.
Xenophon (ca. 430–mid‐4th century BCE)
Authors: Ambler Wayne
Published: August 2023

Xenophon is one of only three authors who actually knew Socrates, the founder of political philosophy, and whose works about him have survived. The other two are Plato and the comic poet Aristophanes. Since Socrates himself left no record of his life or thought, our understanding of the origins of political philosophy depends heavily on these authors. In Xenophon's case, there are four works that focus on Socrates: the
Memorabilia
, the
Oeconomicus
(or, “Household Manager”), the
Symposium
, and the
Apology of Socrates
.
Zuckert, Catherine H. (1942–)
Authors: Sharpe Matthew
Published: August 2023

The political philosopher Catherine Heldt is currently the Nancy Reeves Dreux Professor of Political Science at the University of Notre Dame and the Editor‐in‐Chief of theReview of Politics. Zuckert's work is oriented around two political philosophers, Leo Strauss and Plato, and the topics of natural right, the history of philosophy, the “crisis of modernity,” and the relation between philosophy, literature, and politics. Zuckert has published widely on ancient and modern philosophy, American literature, and contemporary cultural debates. Zuckert's booksNatural Right and the American Imagination: Political Philosophy in Novel FormandPlato's Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialoguesreceived prestigious publishers’ awards for scholarly excellence.
Zuckert, Michael (1942–)
Authors: Ward Lee
Published: August 2023

Michael Zuckert is a contemporary scholar of political philosophy and American political thought. His educational background includes an undergraduate degree from Cornell University and a PhD in political science from the University of Chicago, where he studied with Joseph Cropsey, Herbert Storing, and Leo Strauss. Michael Zuckert's major contribution to contemporary American intellectual life has been his effort to uncover the philosophical roots of the Anglo‐American political tradition through a number of studies of the concept of natural rights in early modern and American political thought.
Sub‐Micrometer Mechanochromic Inclusions Enable Strain Sensing in Polymers
Authors: Kiebala Derek J. , Style Robert , Vanhecke Dimitri , Calvino Céline , Weder Christoph , Schrettl Stephen
Published: August 2023

Blending different types of polymers with traces of a telechelic macromolecule that is end‐functionalized with excimer‐forming chromophores affords materials that display a highly sensitive, reversible, and strain‐dependent mechanochromic response. Confocal microscopy imaging reveals that the additive forms discrete, phase‐separated inclusions in host polymers such as poly(ε‐caprolactone), poly‐isoprene, poly(styrene‐b‐butadiene‐b‐styrene), and different thermoplastic polyurethanes. A comprehensive analysis shows that the mechanochromism of the blends originates from the distortion of the inclusions, which, independent of the additive content and chemical composition of the matrix, deform homogeneously and reversibly in response to the applied macroscopic strain. These findings support the conclusion that such excimer‐forming, telechelic macromolecules can be used as universal additives that allow the straightforward fabrication of a wide range of mechanochromic materials.
Metal–Organic Framework for Hypoxia/ROS/pH Triple‐Responsive Cargo Release
Authors: Chen Wenyu , He Huixin , Jiao Pengfei , Han Lefei , Li Jianchun , Wang Xiu , Guo Xuliang
Published: August 2023

Nanoparticulate antitumor photodynamic therapy (PDT) is suffering from a very short lifetime, limited diffusion distance of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Herein, a hypoxia/ROS/pH triple‐responsive metal–organic framework (MOF) is designed to facilitate the on‐demand release of photosensitizers and hence enhanced PDT efficacy. Tailored azo‐containing imidazole ligand is coordinated with zinc to form MOF where photosensitizer (Chlorin e6/Ce6) is encapsulated. Azo can be reduced by overexpressed azoreductase in hypoxic tumor cells, resulting in depletion of glutathione (GSH) and thioredoxin (Trx) which are major antioxidants against ROS oxidative damage in PDT, resulting in rapid cargo release and additional efficacy amplification. The imidazole ionization causes a proton sponge effect to ensure the disintegration of the nanocarriers in acidic organelles, allowing the rapid release of Ce6 through lysosome escape. Under light irradiation, ROS produced by Ce6 may oxidize imidazole to urea, resulting in rapid cargo release. All of the triggers are expected to show interactive synergism. The pH‐ and hypoxia‐responsiveness can improve the release rate of Ce6 for enhanced PDT therapy, whereas the consumption of oxygen by PDT may induce elevated hypoxia and hence in turn enhanced cargo release. This work highlights the role of triple‐responsive nanocarriers for triggered photosensitizer release and improved antitumor PDT efficacy.
Straw mulch decreased nitrogen fertilizer requirements via regulating soil moisture and temperature to improve physiology, nitrogen, and water use efficiency of wheat
Authors: Akhtar Kashif , Ain Noor Ul , Wang Weiyu , Ren Guangxin , Feng Yongzhong , Djalovic Ivica , Prasad P. V. Vara , Yang Gaihe , He Bing , Wen Ronghui
Published: August 2023

The infrequent rainfall caused drought‐prone conditions, particularly in semiarid regions of China, where most of the precipitation occurs in summer season. Thus, the summer rainwater conservation is very important for winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) production. Therefore, a 2‐year field experiment was conducted on straw mulch along with nitrogen (N) fertilizer to improve physiology, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), wheat yield, and water use efficiency (WUE). Maize (Zea mays) was a rotated crop after wheat, and therefore, maize straw mulch (S1, 0 kg ha−1; S2, 4500 kg ha−1; S3, 9000 kg ha−1) was in the main plots, and N fertilizer (N1, 0 kg ha−1; N2, 192 kg ha−1 [80%]; N3, 240 kg ha−1 [100%]) was in the subplots. The interaction of S3N3 and S3N2 produced 59.2% and 43.8% higher net photosynthesis and enhanced its characteristics at booting stage compared with that of S1N1. Higher Soil Plant Analysis Development (SPAD) values (49.1% and 41.0%) and leaf area (85.6% and 61.0%) were measured with S3N3 and S3N2 treatments at booting stage compared with S1N1. Both S3N2 and S3N3 had increased wheat N‐uptake (91% and 103%, respectively) compared to S1N1. While S3N3 and S3N2 enhanced soil moisture conservation, NUE (19.7% and 22.8%) and WUE (47.2% and 47.2%) improved the growth yield of wheat compared to S1N1. Higher wheat grain yield (7604 kg ha−1) was obtained from interaction of S3N2. Therefore, interaction of S3N2 is a viable approach for improving the winter wheat crop performance in terms of NUE, WUE, and wheat yield for semiarid areas in China.
Chemodivergent Staudinger Reactions of Secondary Phosphine Oxides and Application to the Total Synthesis of LL–D05139β Potassium Salt
Authors: Luo Wenjun , Xu Fang , Wang Zhenguo , Pang Jiyan , Wang Zixu , Sun Zhixiu , Peng Aiyun , Cao Xiaohui , Li Le
Published: August 2023

Unprecedented Staudinger reaction modes of secondary phosphine oxides (SPO) and organic azides are herein disclosed. By the application of various additives, selective nitrogen atom exclusion from the azide group has been achieved. Chlorotrimethylsilane mediates a stereoretentive Staudinger reaction with a 2‐N exclusion which provides a valuable method for the synthesis of phosphinic amides and can be considered complementary to the stereoinvertive Atherton–Todd reaction. Alternatively, a 1‐N exclusion pathway is promoted by acetic acid to provide the corresponding diazo compound. The effectiveness of this protocol has been further demonstrated by the total synthesis of the diazo‐containing natural product LL‐D05139β, which was prepared as a potassium salt for the first time in 6 steps and 26.5 % overall yield.
Synthesis of Difluoromethylated Alkenes via Copper‐Catalyzed Protodefluorination of β‐(Trifluoromethyl)styrenes
Authors: Dong Tao , Ye Yibin , Wang Yanhui , Cheung Kelvin Pak Shing , Tsui Gavin Chit
Published: August 2023

Under typical copper‐catalyzed hydroboration conditions, β‐(trifluoromethyl)styrenes demonstrate unusal reactivities by forming difluoromethylated alkenes via a net protodefluorination process. This is also distinct from trifluoromethyl alkenes with alkyl substituents where defluoroborylation products predominate.
Anomalous origin of the left coronary artery from the right pulmonary artery
Authors: Mukai Takeo , Waki Kenji
Published: August 2023

Key Clinical Message

ALCAPA should be considered in the differential diagnosis of myocarditis, and contrast‐enhanced CT or catheterization should be considered even if coronary artery abnormalities are not detected on echocardiography.
Enhancing Gating Performance in Organic Molecular Field‐Effect Transistors by Introducing Polar Azulene Components
Authors: Xu Yuqing , Liu Desheng , Wang Meishan
Published: August 2023

Organic molecular field‐effect transistors (FETs) are promising building components for future electronic circuits. Efficient control of charge transport properties is one key issue in the design of organic molecular FETs. In this study, we propose a redesign of a naphthalene‐based FET by introducing two azulene components in opposite dipole moment directions. Using density functional theory combined with non‐equilibrium Green's function, the simulated electronic transport characteristics reveal that the introduction of polar azulene components effectively narrows the frontier molecular orbitals gap, leading to an increase in the ON‐state current. Meanwhile, the OFF‐state current is significantly suppressed by highly localizing the dominant electronic transport channel. As a result, improved gate controllability is achieved with a higher ON‐OFF current ratio, which is nearly seven times higher than that of the naphthalene‐based FET device. These findings provide theoretical directions for future design of organic molecular FET devices with enhanced gating regulation efficiency.
Zn‐Based Metal–Organic Frameworks Using Triptycene Hexacarboxylate Ligands: Synthesis, Structure, and Gas‐Sorption Properties
Authors: Sugamata Koh , Yamada Shoko , Yanagisawa Daichi , Amanokura Natsuki , Shirai Akihiro , Minoura Mao
Published: August 2023

A series of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) based on zinc ions and two triptycene ligands of different size have been synthesized under solvothermal conditions. Structural analyses revealed that they are isostructural 3D‐network MOFs. The high porosity and thermal stability of these MOFs can be attributed to the highly rigid triptycene‐based ligands. Their BET specific surface areas depend on the size of the triptycene ligands. In contrast to these surface‐area data, the H2 and CO2 adsorption of these MOFs is larger for MOFs with small pores. Consequently, we introduced functional groups to the bridge‐head position of the triptycene ligands and investigated their effect on the gas‐sorption properties. The results unveiled the role of the functional groups in the specific CO2 binding via an induced interaction between adsorbates and the functional groups. Excellent H2 and CO2 properties in these MOFs were achieved in the absence of open metal sites.