bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Processing Constraints on L1 Transfer
Authors: Pienemann Manfred , Biase Bruno Di , Kawaguchi Satomi , Ha°kansson Gisela
Published: November 2023

This chapter focuses on the interplay between first language (L1) transfer and psycholinguistic constraints on second language (L2) processability. The theoretical assumptions underlying this chapter are those made in processability theory (PT) (Pienemann, 1998), which include, in particular, the following two hypotheses: (a) that L1 transfer is constrained by the processability of the given structure, and (b) that the initial state of the L2 does not necessarily equal the final state of the L1 because there is no guarantee that the given L1 structure is processable by the underdeveloped L2 parser.
The Contradictions of American Capital Punishment
Authors: Zimring Franklin E
Published: November 2023

Why does the United States continue to employ the death penalty when fifty other developed democracies have abolished it? Why does capital punishment become more problematic each year? How can the death penalty conflict be resolved? In Contradictions in American Capital Punishment, Frank Zimring reveals that the seemingly insoluble turmoil surrounding the death penalty reflects a deep and long-standing division in American values, a division that he predicts will soon bring about the end of capital punishment in our country. On the one hand, execution would seem to violate our nation’s highest legal principles of fairness and due process. It sets us increasingly apart from our allies and indeed is regarded by European nations as a barbaric and particularly egregious form of American exceptionalism. On the other hand, the death penalty represents a deeply held American belief in violent social justice that sees the hangman as an agent of local control and safeguard of community values. Zimring uncovers the most troubling symptom of this attraction to vigilante justice in the lynch mob. He shows that the great majority of executions in recent decades have occurred in precisely those Southern states where lynchings were most common a hundred years ago. It is this legacy, Zimring suggests, that constitutes both the distinctive appeal of the death penalty in the United States and one of the most compelling reasons for abolishing it. Impeccably researched and engagingly written, Contradictions in American Capital Punishment casts a clear new light on America’s long and troubled embrace of the death penalty.
F. Scott Fitzgerald 1896-1940 A Brief Biography
Authors: Bryer Jackson R
Published: November 2023

Perhaps the silliest but nonetheless most persistent question fiction writers is whether their work is autobiographical is a foolish query because, on the one hand, no novelist or short-story author writes directly about his life, but just as surely no author fails to incorporate his own experiences into his work. Knowledge of a writer’s biography, then, can be very useful in analyzing his writing, although seeking one-to-one connections between real-life persons and events and fictional characters and situations is often less fruitful than finding the bases for themes and emphases in an author’s life story. So it is that, in the case of F. Scott Fitzgerald, many of his fictional concerns and motifs can be illuminated by a knowledge of his biography.
Fitzgerald’s Flappers and Flapper Films of the Jazz Age Behind the Morality
Authors: Prigozy Ruth
Published: November 2023

F. Scott Fitzgerald was born just one year after Auguste and Louis Lumiere projected moving pictures onto a screen, forever changing the world of popular entertainment. The achievements Of Georges Melies, Thomas Edison, Sergei Eisenstein, and the master silent-film director D. W Griffith were milestones in the history of the medium and profoundly affected the aspirations, habits, and even economic conditions of those who came of age in the early decades of the twentieth century.
Public Mental Health Systems: Structures, Goals, and Constraints
Authors: Urff Jenifer
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides an overview of public mental health services in the United States, including a brief history of public mental health and the evolving roles of the federal and state governments, a description of the structure of public mental health systems today, and a discussion of factors that constrain public mental health systems and drive systems change.
Functionaland Evolutionary Ecology of Bats
Authors: Zubaid Akbar , McCracken Gary F , Kunz Thomas H
Published: November 2023

Every three years a major international conference on bats draws the leading workers in the field to a carefully orchestrated presentation of the research and advances and current state of understanding of bat biology. Bats are the second most populous group of mammalia species, after rodents, and they are probably the most intensively studied group of mammals. Virtually all mammologists and a large proportion of organismic biologists are interested in bats. The earlier two edited books deriving from previous bat research conferences, as well as this one, have been rigorously edited by Tom Kunz and others, with all chapters subjected to peer review. The resulting volumes, published first by Academic Press and most recently by Smithsonian, have sold widely as the definitive synthetic treatments of current scientific understanding of bats.
Quantifying Relationships between Form and Function and the Geometry of the Wear Process in Bat Molars
Authors: Evans Alistair R
Published: November 2023

Despite many important predictive features of bat dentition having been described in the literature, a number of these have not been given sufficient attention or measured on actual teeth. I aim to address this by establishing criteria for the choice of useful functional parameters of chiropteran dentition. These are: (1) they apply to tooth components rather than an entire tooth, where the three main tooth components are cusps, crests, and basins; and (2) they have a predictive element, so that changes in the parameter are readily interpretable in terms of changes in function, such as increased force or energy required for the component to function. Parameters that influence the function of cusps and crests, in forced crack propagation of tough foods are described in detail: tip and cusp sharpness, cusp occlusion relief, rake angle, crest relief, approach angle, food capture, edge sharpness, and fragment clearance. All the parameters were measured for the upper molars of the microchiropteran Chalinolobus gouldii. Many of the parameters did not change significantly with heavy wear, pointing to geometrical and design characteristics for the maintenance of shape with wear in the dilambdodont tooth form.
Social and Population Structure in the Brown Long-Eared Bat, Plecotus auritus
Authors: Burland Tamsin M , Entwistle Abigail C , Racey Paul A
Published: November 2023

The brown long-eared bat (Plecotus auritus) is a Palaearctic species with low wing loading and low aspect ratio, which feeds primarily by gleaning. Like most temperate-zone bat species, P. auritus forms colonies during summer. However, this species is unusual in that adult males are present within these colonies. Using both ecological and genetic techniques, the pattern of social organization and population structure was determined for this species close to the northern border of its distribution. A ringing study conducted at 30 summer roost sites determined that P. auritus formed small, mixed-sex colonies, with natal recruitment and long-term association to the colony in both sexes. Little exchange among roosts was identified; just six movements were recorded from 1138 recaptures and no individual was caught for a second time at a new site. P. auritus was found to be highly selective of its summer roost site at this latitude, which may explain the high natal philopatry and colony stability identified. Mean colony relatedness was low. This is probably a result of low skew in male reproductive success and a high incidence of inter-colony mating; over 80% of colony offspring were fathered by males from other summer colonies. Such a pattern of mating suggests that neither inbreeding avoidance nor competition for mates is likely to force males to disperse from their natal colony. The strong spatial distribution of individuals in the summer population was not reflected in patterns of genetic structure. Low levels of genetic differentiation among colonies were identified, probably as a result of inter-colony mating. However, genetic isolation by distance was evident within the population, suggesting that mating among colonies is restricted to those located close by. It is proposed that, at high latitudes, social organization and population structure in P. auritus are strongly influenced
Evolutionary Dynamics of the Short-Nosed Fruit Bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Pteropodidae): Inferences from the Spatial Scale of Genetic and Phenotypic Differentiation
Authors: Storz Jay F , Bhat Hari R , Balasingh Johnson , Nathan P Thiruchenthil , Kunz Thomas H
Published: November 2023

We report the results of a population-genetic study of the short-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Pteropodidae). The purpose of our study was to assess the relative importance of drift, gene flow, and spatially varying selection in shaping patterns of genetic and phenotypic variation across a latitudinal climatic gradient in peninsular India. At a microgeographic scale, polygynous mating resulted in a substantial reduction of effective population size. However, at a macrogeographic scale, rates of migration were sufficiently high to prevent a pronounced degree of stochastic differentiation via drift. Spatial analysis of genetic and phenotypic differentiation revealed that clinal variation in body size of C. sphinx cannot be explained by a neutral model of isolation by distance. The geographic patterning of morphometric variation is most likely attributable to spatially varying selection and/or the direct influence of latitudinally ordered environmental effects. The combined analysis of genetic and phenotypic variation indicates that recognized subspecies of C. sphinx in peninsular India represent arbitrary subdivisions of a continuous spectrum of clinal size variation.
Restoration of the Republic
Authors: Hart Gary
Published: November 2023

Rarely does scholarship anticipate the most dramatic events of the moment. In this timely work Gary Hart does just that, arguing for the restoration of republican virtues and for homeland security as an important first step. The American democratic republic has from its founding been a paradoxical success. Simultaneously attached to state and national power, citizens’ rights and citizens’ duties, American democracy has uniquely turned its reliance on consent from the governed into a powerful governing of the consenting. In a remarkable political feat, America’s founders combined mixed government, the language of popular sovereignty and a self-conscious emphasis on checks and balances to forge a republic that has weathered the test of time. The complex realities of the twenty-first century, however, have fundamentally challenged the underpinnings of this enduring American experiment, repeatedly exposing the tensions at the heart of America’s mixed system of government. What then is the nature of an American republic in an age of democracy? How can the democratic values of social justice and equality be balanced with republican values of civic duty and popular sovereignty? Bringing to light a long-neglected aspect of Thomas Jefferson’s political philosophy—the “ward republic”—Gary Hart here offers a wholly original blueprint for republican restoration in which every citizen can participate democratically in the governing of his or her own life. Of crucial relevance for contemporary society, including its startlingly prescient plan for homeland security, Restoration of the Republic provides original insights into issues of national urgency as well as the timeless questions that bedevil the American democratic experiment.
A Leap in the Dark
Authors: Ferling John
Published: November 2023

It was an age of fascinating leaders and difficult choices, of grand ideas eloquently expressed and of epic conflicts bitterly fought. Now comes a brilliant portrait of the American Revolution, one that is compelling in its prose, fascinating in its details, and provocative in its fresh interpretations. In A Leap in the Dark, John Ferling offers a magisterial new history that surges from the first rumblings of colonial protest to the volcanic election of 1800. Ferling's swift-moving narrative teems with fascinating details. We see Benjamin Franklin trying to decide if his loyalty was to Great Britain or to America, and we meet George Washington when he was a shrewd planter-businessman who discovered personal economic advantages to American independence. We encounter those who supported the war against Great Britain in 1776, but opposed independence because it was a "leap in the dark." Following the war, we hear talk in the North of secession from the United States. The author offers a gripping account of the most dramatic events of our history, showing just how closely fought were the struggle for independence, the adoption of the Constitution, and the later battle between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans. Yet, without slowing the flow of events, he has also produced a landmark study of leadership and ideas. Here is all the erratic brilliance of Hamilton and Jefferson battling to shape the new nation, and here too is the passion and political shrewdness of revolutionaries, such as Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry, and their Loyalist counterparts, Joseph Galloway and Thomas Hutchinson. Here as well are activists who are not so well known today, men like Abraham Yates, who battled for democratic change, and Theodore Sedgwick, who fought to preserve the political and social system of the colonial past. Ferling shows that throughout this period the epic political battles often resembled today's politics and the politicians--the founders--played a political hardball attendant with enmities, selfish motivations, and bitterness. The political stakes, this book demonstrates, were extraordinary: first to secure independence, then to determine the meaning of the American Revolution. John Ferling has shown himself to be an insightful historian of our Revolution, and an unusually skillful writer. A Leap in the Dark is his masterpiece, work that provokes, enlightens, and entertains in full measure.
Community HIV Prevention Interventions: Theoretical and Methodological Considerations
Authors: DiClemente Ralph J , Crosby Richard A , Wingood Gina M
Published: November 2023

Despite advances in biomedical research, there is still no preventive vaccine or medical cure for HIV/AIDS. Consequently, efforts to change high-risk behaviors remain the best available means to prevent HIV transmission. Because HIV is largely transmitted through sexual behavior and shared injection drug use, it can be prevented through appropriate behavioral changes. However, changing HIV risk behavior is particularly difcult because an individual’s propensity to adopt and maintain behaviors occurs in the context of their social relationships and lifestyles. As such, these behaviors represent the endpoint of a complex decision-making process that weighs the following relevant internal and external influences: interpersonal, social, economic, and psychological influences within a cultural context superimposed over traditions, values, and patterns of social organization. While such a complex decision-making process is not easily amenable to modication, HIV-associated risk-taking is not random, uncontrollable, or inevitable and, of particular importance, many of the factors that influence these behaviors are modifiable.
The Evolution of Allometry in Modular Organisms
Authors: Preston Katherine A , Ackerly David D
Published: November 2023

The variation in organismal form that arises from size-dependent relationships among parts is a fundamental aspect of development and evolutionary change. Allometric analysis was one of the earliest morphometric tools developed to reveal ontogenetic or evolutionary changes in shape as a consequence of changes in organ or body size (Gayon, 2000). As allometric analysis has become more sophisticated, it has continued to provide insights into patterns and mechanisms of multivariate evolution (e.g., Niklas 1994; West et al. 1999). Although studies of allometry have been particularly prevalent in the animal literature, recent work has demonstrated the power of allometric analysis for interpreting morphological variation in plants as well (e.g., Armbruster 1991; Weiner and Thomas 1992; Jones 1993; Mazer and Wheelwright 1993; Niklas 1994; Ackerly and Donoghue 1998; Niklas and Enquist 2002).
Studying the Plasticity of Phenotypic Integration 1n a Model Organism
Authors: Pigliucci Massimo
Published: November 2023

It should be clear from a survey of the heterogeneous literature on phenotypic integration that biologists still have to agree on exactly what integration is to begin with. Indeed, one of the aims of this book is to clarify the discussion on this essential aspect of the problem. Since we do not have a clear definition of integration, it may seem premature to ask other questions about it, such as how it evolves, what are its molecular underpinnings, and in what ecological context it needs to be framed. Yet, as the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1953/1973) has pointed out, most complex concepts are defined not by some essential property, but by a network of properties that intersect in different ways, depending on the viewpoint from which a given question is asked. Concepts whose exact nature eludes easy definition, often referred to as “family resemblance” concepts, may include phenotypic integration, and that may be why it is difficult to put a finger on what exactly the latter is. Moreover, scientists-by definition of what they do-cannot afford to be shy about investigating things that they cannot define in an essentialist fashion Gust think of the amount of work done on speciation, despite the lack of a generally agreed-upon definition of species: Barraclough and Nee 2001; Schluter 2001). It therefore makes perfect sense to ask how to go about investigating the ecology of phenotypic integration even though we may disagree on the very definition of the concept.
Form, Function, and Life History: Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Integration
Authors: Zelditch Miriam Leah , Moscarella Rosa A
Published: November 2023

Developmental integration is usually viewed as a distinctively morphological phenomenon, but organisms are not just morphological systems and developmental integration involves more than form. Over the course of mammalian ontogeny, blind, deaf, toothless, nearly transparent, and virtually immobile infants develop into sighted, hearing, chewing, furred, and active adults. That transformation involves coordinated changes among form and function, and the timing of that transformation determines life-history schedules. In some groups, that transformation occurs very rapidly; in fact, in some clades it is nearly complete at birth, although in others it may take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Both the pace at which the sequence is completed, and some of the details of the individual steps, depend on how limited resources of time and energy are allocated to growth and development. But regardless of how resources are allocated, of how long those transitions take, and of the details of morphology, form and function must be coordinated. This coordination must characterize even the earliest stages of postnatal development, or else infants will not survive the peculiarly vulnerable nestling stage. Thus, integration is a dynamic feature of organisms, and its dynamics are partly a function of life-history strategies.
Phylogenetic Comparative Analysis of Multivariate Data
Authors: Steppan Scott J
Published: November 2023

A central question in fields ranging from quantitative genetics to phenotypic integration and developmental biology is how do patterns of covariation among traits evolve? The fields of inquiry differ in ·vhich underlying causes for the covariation they investigate, but they share the cha1lenge of somparing multivariate data sets. In order to understand the evolution u1 muse patterns, as opposed to their maintenance within an organism, it is critical to do so in a phylogenetic context. That is, history must be incorporated into the analysis. A phylogenetic perspective is only recently gaining much application in the pursuit to understand how organisms are built, how their structures are integrated through genetic organization and developmental processes, and how these integrating features both shape and are shaped by evolution. This chapter will discuss the methods available for comparing patterns of integration among taxa and how to conduct those comparisons phylogenetically.
Mood Disturbance Across the Life Span
Authors: Whiffen Valerie e. , demidenko natasha
Published: November 2023

As the most frequently reported form of mood disturbance, depression is said to be the “common cold” of emotional distress. Sadness is a common, human response to loss, failure, rejection, or disappointment. This sadness can be profound, as it may be after the death of a loved one. However, sadness is not depression unless it becomes complicated by negative feelings about our futures and our selves. Depressed people feel badly about themselves, they blame themselves for things going wrong in their lives, and they have trouble imagining a better future. Depression that is clinically meaningful involves physical symptoms as well, including changes in appetite, energy levels, and sleeping patterns. Depression is usually preceded by one or more highly stressful life events, which typically involve loss or devaluation, such as the break up of a relationship, or failure at school or work (Brown &Harris, 1978). Even positive life events can entail an element of loss and so risk depressed mood. For instance, when women first become mothers, they may be overjoyed by the baby’s birth but at the same time feel that they have lost freedom and control over their lives.
Violence Against Girls and Women: An Integrative Developmental Perspective
Authors: White Jacquelyn W , Frabutt James M
Published: November 2023

Violence against women takes many forms and may be physical or psychological, with the goal of intimidation and control. Sexual violence ranges from unwanted contact to rape. Rape may be the stereotypical stranger attack, but more frequently it is verbally or physically coerced sexual inter-course by an acquaintance. According to Amnesty International (1992), rape also occurs during cultural rituals involving genital contact, arranged marriages of children, gynecological procedures (rupture of the hymen, genital mutilation, induced abortions), forced prostitution, and sexual slavery. Rape of refugees and wartime rape have also been documented. Physical violence is most frequently manifested in cases of battering and wife abuse, as well as dating violence. Violence also can be seen in cases where men isolate women and deprive them of educational and employment opportunities, and in the case of immigrant women, denial of access to their green cards. These forms of violence share in common the fact that they are frequently committed by men known to the girls and women.
From Girlhood to Womanhood: Multiple Transitions in Context
Authors: Piran Niva , Ross Erin
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines, through a feminist lens, the research and theories in several domains relating to the transition from girlhood to womanhood. Four major biases, reflecting the dominant research and theoretical trends, are noted in the chapter. First, in Western cultures, the transition from girlhood to womanhood is typically seen as stretching from puberty to early adulthood (around legal voting age of 18). In contrast, other cultures view this transition as the time when an adolescent woman is expected to fulfill the social role of a woman. Second, the research conducted on adolescent women tends to include mainly middle-class White girls. The impact of social diversity, especially the intersections of ethnocultural, social class, geographical site, sexual orientation, immigration status, and disability, is rarely examined.
Psychopharmacotherapy and Women: Issues for Consideration
Authors: Dunivin Debra Lina
Published: November 2023

There are times when pharmacotherapy may contribute to a woman’s optimal health, and there are many differences in the assessment and treatment of women and men. Women are bigger consumers of health care than men; they make more visits to health-care professionals, undergo more surgical procedures, occupy more hospital beds, have more chronic diseases, spend more for health care, and are given more prescriptions for medications (Burt & Hendrick, 2001). There are significant psychodiagnostic, sociocultural, and psychological differences, as well as physiological differences, between women and men that have implications for pharmacotherapy. For some drugs the pharmacokinetics (the body’s processing of the drug) and pharmacodynamics (the body’s response to the drug) are different for women and men. Levels of a psychotropic medication may vary across the menstrual cycle, and when used with exogenous hormones—for example, oral contraceptives (OC) and estrogen or combined hormone replacement therapy (ERT/ HRT; Anthony and Berg, 2002a,b; Food and Drug Administration [FDA], 1993).
A map of misreading
Authors: Bloom Harold
Published: November 2023

In print for twenty-seven years, A Map of Misreading serves as a companion volume to Bloom ‘s other seminal work, The Anxiety of Influence. In this finely crafted text, Bloom offers instruction in how to read a poem, using his theory that patterns of imagery in poems represent both a response to and a defense against the influence of precursor poems. Influence, as Bloom conceives it, means that there are no texts, but only relationships between texts. Bloom discusses British and American poets including Milton, Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats, Tennyson, Browning, Whitman, Dickinson, Stevens, Warren, Ammons and Ashbery. A full-scale reading of one poem, Browning ‘s “Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came,” represents this struggle between one poet and his precursors, the poem serving as a map for readers through the many versions of influence from Milton to modern poets. For the first time, in a new preface, Bloom will consider the map of misreading drawn by contemporary poets such as Ann Carson and Henri Cole. Bloom ‘s new exploration of contemporary poetry over the last twenty years will illuminate how modern texts relate to previous texts, and contribute to the literary legacy of their predecessors.
No Exit
Authors: Alstott Anne L
Published: November 2023

Having a child, it has been said, is the greatest risk one can take. Marriages may come and go but parenthood endures. There is simply no escape--no exit--from the emotional and practical responsibilities of parenting. Nor should there be. While certain questions swirling around children--What constitutes a “good” parent? What is the role of the state in ensuring the welfare of the child?--are endlessly debated, consistency and continuity of care incontrovertibly play a foundational role in the developmental years of a child’s life. Children, everyone agrees, need strong, reliable parenting. Parenting today, however, also involves something else: unprecedented economic peril. Over time, our society’s demands on parents have skyrocketed, while the economic rewards of child-rearing have diminished. Once, children provided financial benefit, as workers on the farm and as security in old age. For today’s parents, however, having a child is a one-way obligation, one which narrows paths and saps resources. Much of the economic burden falls on mothers, who work less, earn less, and achieve less than their childless peers. Low-income parents often struggle day-to-day to care for their children, hold down a job, and somehow find decent but affordable child care. Parents with severely ill or disabled children may find the course especially precarious. In order to create a more secure world for children and their parents, Anne Alstott argues, we must fundamentally change the way we think about parents’ obligations to children--and about society’s obligations to parents. Drawing on the same innovative thinking that propelled her and Bruce Ackerman’s influential work The Stakeholder Society, Alstott proposes a solution both pragmatic and controversial. She outlines two unsentimental proposals intended to improve parents’ economic options while respecting every individual’s own choices about how best to combine paid work and child-rearing. Rejecting both state paternalism and easy libertarianism, Alstott’s proposals are bold and unapologetic in their implications. At the heart of No Exit lie two basic beliefs: For the good of all, there should be no opt-out clause from parenting. And yet child-rearing should be a life stage, not a life sentence. Take care of your child, Alstott demands, and we-the societal we-will in turn take care of you. In this fearless, compassionate book, she shows us how.
The Genesis of Nonlinear Microscopies and Their Impact on Modern Developments
Authors: Masters Barry R , Peter T C So
Published: November 2023

In 1931, Maria Göppert Mayer published her doctoral dissertation that developed the theory of two-photon quantum transitions (two-photon absorption and emission) in atoms. In this chapter we describe and analyze the theoretical and experimental work on nonlinear optics, in particular two-photon excitation processes, that occurred between 1931 and the experimental implementation oftwo-photon excitation microscopy by the group of Webb in 1990. More recent major developments in nonlinear microscopy and their impact are briefly described. In addition to Maria Göppert-Mayer’s theoretical work, the invention of the laser has a key role in the development of two-photon microscopy. Nonlinear effects were previously observed in nonoptical frequency domains (low-frequency electric and magnetic fields and magnetization), but the high electric field strength afforded by lasers was necessary to demonstrate many nonlinear effects in the optical frequency range.
The Scientific Life of Maria Göppert-Mayer
Authors: Masters Barry R
Published: November 2023

Reprinted with permission from Optics & Photonics News , 11(9) , 38–41, (2000). Researcher and educator Maria Göppert-Mayer, winner of the 1963 Nobel Prize in physics for her work on the nuclear shell model, loved science and learning. That love sustained her through the difficulties she encountered in pursuing her profession, including relocation from Europe to America prior to the war years and never being granted a full-time salaried academic position until she was 53 years old. A study of Maria Göppert-Mayer’s life reveals insights into the influence of her parents on her education and achievements, as well as into the role of her mentors, physicists James Franck and Edward Teller, on her professional development. Göppert-Mayer’s doctoral thesis, published in 1931, predicted multiphoton excitation processes and servedas a precursor to the development of multiphoton excitation microscopy.
An Optical Design Primer for Nonlinear Optical Microscopes
Authors: Peter T C So , Kim Daekeun
Published: November 2023

Nonlinear microscopes can operate based on contrast mechanisms such as fluorescence, harmonic generation, or coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering. The microscope optical design should be adapted for each mode of contrast. Furthermore, the optical configuration of the microscope should be optimized for a given biological application. This chapter describes the basic design considerations of nonlinear optical microscopes. Specifically, this chapter will predominately focus on fluorescence-based systems, since they are most widely used. The instrument considerations specific to the other contrast mechanisms will be addressed in later chapters.
Image Formation in Multiphoton Fluorescence Microscopy∗
Authors: Gu Min
Published: November 2023

This chapter is dedicated to image formation in multiphoton fluorescence microscopy. In particular, the comparison of image formation is based on the three-dimensional intensity point spread function (IPSF), the three-dimensional optical transfer function (OTF), and axial and transverse image resolution for thin and thick objects.

Since its inception, confocal scanning microscopy has become a widely used and important tool in many fields, including biology, biochemistry, chemistry, physics, and industrial inspection (1–6). One of the main advantages in confocal microscopy is its ability of three-dimensional (3-D) imaging of a thick object. Because of the 3-D imaging property in confocal scanning microscopy, confocal fluorescence microscopy was achieved in the same period as confocal bright-field microscopy. Under the illumination of intermediate power, one incident photon can be absorbed in the sample under inspection to excite the electron transition from the ground state to an excited state. The excited electron returns to the ground state by radiating fluorescence light. The energy of the radiated fluorescence photon is slightly less than the incident one due to the nonradiation relaxation during the downward transition, and the corresponding microscopy in which the fluorescence light is imaged is termed single-photon (1-p) fluorescence microscopy.
Second-Harmonic Generation Imaging Microscopy of Structural Protein Arrays in Tissue
Authors: Campagnola Paul J
Published: November 2023

In the past several years, second-harmonic generation (SHG) has emerged as a powerful nonlinear optical contrast mechanism for biological imaging applications. SHG is a coherent processwhere two lower-energy photonsare up-converted to exactly twice the incident frequency (or half the wavelength). This effect was first demonstrated by Kleinman (Kleinman, 1962) in crystalline quartz in 1962, where thisadvance wasmade possible with the invention of the ruby laser. Since that discovery, SHG in uni-axial birefringent crystals has been exploited to frequency double pulsed lasers to obtain shorter wavelengths, thereby producing multiple colors from a single source. SHG from interfaces was later discovered by Bloembergen in 1968 and rapidly became a versatile spectroscopic tool to study chemical and physical processes at air–solid, air– liquid, and liquid–liquid interfaces (for reviews, see Eisenthal, 1996; Shen, 1989). The first integration of SHG and optical microscopy was achieved in 1974 by Hellwarth and coworkers, who used SHG as an imaging tool to visualize the microscopic crystal structure in polycrystalline ZnSe (Hellwarth & Christensen, 1974). Sheppard then implemented the method on a scanning microscope in 1977 (Sheppard et al., 1977).
Two-Photon Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy
Authors: Pabit Suzette , Berland Keith
Published: November 2023

With advances in high-sensitivity fluorescence microscopy, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) and related fluctuation spectroscopy methods have become important and practical research tools that allow researchers to investigate the chemical and physical properties of biomolecules in a variety of complex environments (Bacia & Schwille, 2003; Chen et al., 2001; Hess et al., 2002; Krichevsky & Bonnet, 2002; Muller et al., 2003; Rigler & Elson, 2001; Schwille, 2001; Thompson et al., 2002; Webb, 2001). Specifically, fluctuation spectroscopy measurements can provide quantitative information about mobility, concentration, interactions, chemical kinetics, and physical dynamics of biomolecules both in vitro and within living cells and tissues, and the various FCS methods are being increasingly applied in many new biomedical research areas. This chapter provides an introduction to FCS, focusing primarily on the basic theoretical and experimental considerations involved in FCS measurements and analysis. Several different classes of FCS applications are also introduced to provide an overview of some key FCS capabilities.
Applications of Nonlinear Intravital Microscopy in Tumor Biology
Authors: Jain Rakesh K , Booth Michael F , Padera Timothy P , Munn Lance L , Fukumura, Dai , Brown Edward
Published: November 2023

The past few decades have produced a wealth of information about the molecular underpinnings ofcancer. Various genes associated with oncogenesis and tumor angiogenesis have been identified, and this has led to the development of a wide variety of therapeutic agents. As we enter the post-genomic era, the grand challenges remaining in tumor biology are (i) to discover the relationships between the expression of novel genes and their function in an intact organism and (ii) to deliver newly discovered therapeutics to their targets in vivo in optimal quantities (Jain et al., 2002).
Interactions between Entomopathogenic Fungi and Arthropod Natural Enemies
Authors: Furlong Michael J , Pell Judith K
Published: November 2023

In both natural and agricultural ecosystems, complex multitrophic interactions involving herbivores, predators, parasitoids, and pathogens contribute to arthropod community structure. Studies of the individual relationships among insects and their predators, parasitoids, and pathogenic microorganisms are many and varied, and several represent landmarks in the theory and understanding of population ecology and biological control (Bellows and Hassell 1999). It is common for a herbivore to be exploited by a number of different natural enemies that will interact directly and indirectly not only with each other but also with the herbivore. However, until relatively recently, studies examining the interrelationships between phylogenetically distinct organisms, such as arthropod and pathogen natural enemies utilizing the same insect resource, were uncommon (Hochberg and Lawton 1990; Rosenheim et al. 1995). Only a limited number of these studies have considered interactions between arthro­ pod natural enemies and entomopathogenic fungi (Brooks 1993; Roy and Pell 2000).
Genetic Variation
Authors: Wayne Marta L , Miyamoto Michael M
Published: November 2023

Genetic variation provides the underpinning of modern biological thought. From evolutionary biologists studying finches in the field, to drug development in the pharmaceutical industry; from the developmental geneticists trying to understand the body plan of a mouse, to the researchers investigating the genetic basis for alcoholism; genetic variation gives us a handhold on the phenotype, which is otherwise a complex and slippery construct. Phenotypes are produced by genes, the environment, and the interaction between genes and the environment. There are few phenotypes for which variation occurring in nature is entirely environmental. However, beyond a conviction that organisms must ultimately be the products of their genes, it is very difficult to justify such a statement. This is in part because we still cannot describe the complete genotype-phenotype map for any but the simplest traits. Regardless, genetic variation has been found for virtually every trait ever examined, suggesting that genetic variation as a cause of phenotypic variation is likely to be rampant.
Gene Genealogies
Authors: Rosenberg Noah A
Published: November 2023

Genetic variation at a locus among extant individuals can be viewed as the result of mutations on a scaffold of genetic relationships-a gene genealogy. Because patterns of genetic variation contain much information about phenomena such as hybridization, migration, species divergence, and changes in population size, an understanding of gene genealogies is helpful for the application of genetic variation to inference about evolutionary processes. As we will see, gene genealogies, which underlie numerous statistical methods for population genetic analysis, are useful in diverse areas of genetics and evolutionary biology, ranging from phylogenetics to genetic mapping.
Genetic Architecture of Quantitative Variation
Authors: Cheverud James M
Published: November 2023

The genetic architecture of quantitative variation plays an important role in evolutionary processes for complex traits. There are two aspects of the genetic architecture of quantitative variation that need to be considered. First, there is the genetic architecture of the quantitative traits themselves, including: (1)the number of loci that affect trait variation; (2)the typical size of genotypic effects; (3) whether alleles at a single locus display dominance interactions; (4) whether alleles at multiple loci engage in epistatic interactions; and (5) the range and pleiotropic patterns of gene effects. These features describe the genetic architecture of a trait and are specified in quantitative genetic theory by the genotypic values at a locus or set of loci (Falconer & Mackay 1996). Genotypic values are simply the mean phenotypic value of individuals carrying a specified genotype (see Box 19.1). These genotypic value definitions do not involve allele frequencies. The second aspect of the genetic architecture of quantitative variation is the genotype and allele frequencies at the loci in question. Genotypic values and allele frequencies are combined to define the population genie values that in turn specify the components of genetic variation and, hence, help to determine the response to evolutionary forces such as selection and genetic drift (Box 19.2; Falconer & Mackay 1996). It is through its manifold effects on heritable genetic variation that genetic architecture impacts evolutionary processes.
Social Selection
Authors: Frank Steven A
Published: November 2023

Individuals sometimes give up their own resources to benefit their neighbors. Such altruistic traits posed a difficulty for the original Darwinian formulation of natural selection, which emphasized the spread of individually advantageous characters. So how have altruistic traits become common in some populations? This is an important question because a purely individualistic world would look very different from the one that we see. With no altruism, there would be no multicellularity with specialized nonreproductive tissues, no social insects with specialized worker castes, and nothing at all like complex human societies.
Natural Hybridization
Authors: Arnold Michael L , Burke John M
Published: November 2023

The focus of this chapter is natural hybridization, that is the natural interbreeding of individuals from wild populations that can be distinguished on the basis of one or more heritable characters (Harrison 1990; Arnold 1997). Over the years, the evolutionary importance of natural hybridization has been a topic of considerable debate. Indeed, the potential outcomes ascribed to natural hybridization range from the extinction of one or both hybridizing taxa to the formation of new species (reviewed in Arnold 1997; see also Box 26.1).
fX174 et al., the Microviridae
Authors: Fane Bentley A , Brentlinger karie L , Burch april D , chen Min , Hafenstein Susan , moore Erica , Novak, Christopher R , uchiyama Asako
Published: November 2023

Sometime in the 1920s, a plaque was placed in a test tube labeled #174. It must have had a certain luster. Since then that phage has challenged genetic, biochemical, and biophysical dogmas. From the very beginning, it was unique. It was unusually tiny, readily passing through the smallest of ultrafilters. Sertic and Bulgakov (111) used its size to define a ‘‘race’’: race X (ten). Hence the name became fX174. The first electron micrographs revealed a small, isometric particle without an elaborate, and to some unseemly, tail structure. As the study of molecular biology progressed, the particle refused to behave. Its genome was singlestranded DNA (117), not a double stranded molecule. Although the data used to draw the first genetic maps were accurate, revealing the existence of the overlapping reading frames, the cistrons were arranged in an orderly and linear manner (12). However, when the genome was sequenced (1, 107) the raw data were proved correct. This complex genetic arrangement was so unexpected that many suspected an extraterrestrial origin. As the New York Times reported the theory (127), an advanced race engineered fX174 and disseminated it into the cosmos where it would ‘‘persist until the evolution of intelligent life and finally of investigators interested in the genetics of phage.’’ Attempts were made to find the hidden message in the genome, a holy truth or grail, maybe directions to an inhabited planet; however, none was uncovered. Perhaps the only aspect of fX174 that lends itself to science fiction is its name.
The Listeria Bacteriophages
Authors: calendar Martin J Loessner richard
Published: November 2023

Bacterial viruses specific for the genus Listeria were discovered almost 60 years ago (57), and were early reported for their usefulness in phage typing (61) of isolates of the pathogen Listeria monocytogenes (65). In the following years, phage typing of Listeria isolates has proven to be a very useful method, and led to the isolation of more than 400 phages for L. monocytogenes, L. ivanovii, and the nonpathogenic species L. innocua, L. seeligeri, and L. welshimeri (5, 9, 16, 19, 22, 25, 26, 31^33, 48^51, 53, 55, 63). To date, no phages infecting organisms of the species L. grayi have been found. This chapter briefly summarizes our present knowledge on Listeria phages, and gives an overview on their general and particular properties, with respect to both the basic science and the various practical applications.
Introduction:Organizing the Tools and Methods of Affective Science
Authors: Coan James A , Allen John J B
Published: November 2023

Affective science—the scientific study of emotion and emotion-related processes—is now a mature domain of inquiry, with its own standardized measures, induction procedures, data analytic challenges, subdisciplines, core theoretical debates, and so on. Though long associated with psychology, researchers in the affective sciences can now be found in a variety of disciplines. Psychologists, biologists, sociologists, geneticists, neuroscientists, ethologists, economists, behavioral ecologists, and even physicians each contribute their specific expertise like pieces of a puzzle, because emotions distribute their echoes and effects at every one of these levels and more.
Emotion Elicited by Primary Reinforcers and Following Stimulus-Reinforcement Association Learning
Authors: Rolls Edmund T
Published: November 2023

What are emotions? Why do we have emotions? What are the rules by which emotion operates? What are the brain mechanisms of emotion, and how can disorders of emotion be understood? What motivates us to work for particular rewards, such as food when we are hungry or water when we are thirsty? How do these motivational control systems operate to ensure that we eat approximately the correct amount of food to maintain our body weight or to replenish our thirst? What factors account for the overeating and obesity that some humans show? Why is the brain built to include reward and punishment systems, rather than in some other way? In this chapter I describe an approach to these issues that leads to ways based on fundamental principles to investigate emotions by using and understanding the processing of primary (unlearned) reinforcers and how learning of associations of other stimuli to these primary reinforcers occurs. I pay special attention to analyses of the operation of these systems in nonhuman primates, because of their close relevance to understanding the function of these reward-andpunishment systems in humans.