bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A PROPOSED RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY FOR WASHINGTON STATE1
Authors: Geselbracht Laura , Rubin Jonathan , Leschine Thomas M.
Published: January 2013

A state legislature sponsored study of Washington's oil spill damage assessment programs has revealed a number of problems. Studies designed to assess damages following major marine oil spills have not always been cost-effective and appropriate, state oil spill response activities have been difficult to fund, agencies have had difficulties spending damage recoveries in accordance with state law, and laws and regulations provide inadequate guidance on how to monetize resource damages identified. In addition, state agencies lack an alternative to field-based studies for compensation recovery in situations where damages are for all intents and purposes unquantifiable. An examination of CERCLA-based natural resource damage assessment procedures, the civil penalties in lieu of damages system employed by the State of Alaska, and other damage assessment practices had led to a recommendation for substantial changes in state marine resource damage assessment procedures. The recommended approach emphasizes the use of CERCLA-like preassessment screening to guide decisions about whether to quantify damages through field studies or to charge civil penalties in lieu of damages, as done in Alaska. In addition, emphasis is placed on direct negotiations with the responsible party to identify restoration/enhancement projects as alternatives to paying damages, and on developing capabilities to manage recovered damages and assessment costs through a new revolving fund.
OCS-RELATED OIL SPILL IMPACTS ON NATURAL RESOURCES: AN ECONOMIC RISK ANALYSIS1
Authors: Opaluch James J. , Grigalunas Thomas A.
Published: January 2013

Risk analyses of oil spills are important in the development of outer continental shelf (OCS) leasing policy as well as other marine policies relating to oil. This paper explores the use of the Natural Resource Damage Assessment Model for Coastal and Marine Resources (NRDAM/CME) to provide a risk analysis of oil spills related to OCS oil development. For the categories of natural resources included in NRDAM/CME, the expected value of damages from large oil spills appears quite small relative to the value of oil developed. Expected damages range from $300,000 to $19.7 million per billion barrels of oil developed. Ongoing research by the authors will refine these estimates by including additional categories of damages, which will increase the damage estimates, and oil spill cleanup and the effect of OCS production on reducing imports, which will reduce the estimated net costs of OCS development.
LIMITATIONS ON UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANK LEAK DETECTION SYSTEMS
Authors: Jones Frank E.
Published: January 2013

This paper discusses the limitations imposed on internal volumetric leak detection systems for underground gasoline storage tanks by uncertainty in the value of the thermal expansion coefficient for gasoline and uncertainties in measurements of the temperature of the gasoline. For leak detection or level sensing systems that are used to infer or measure volumetric leak rates, correction must be made to account for the expansion or contraction of the gasoline. An analysis is made of experimental determinations, in other work, of the density of samples of gasoline and calculated values of the thermal expansion coefficient. The data are divided according to three categories of gasoline: regular, unleaded, and premium. In each of these categories the estimate of the standard deviation of the thermal expansion coefficient is approximately 3 percent of the mean value. Examples are given of the magnitude of the apparent leak rate or error in leak rate due to uncertainties in the thermal expansion coefficient.

In order to correct for expansion or contraction of the gasoline, the mean temperature of the entire quantity of the gasoline must be known. An error in mean temperature will result in an apparent leak rate or an error in leak rate. Examples are given of the magnitude of the apparent leak rate or error in leak rate.
GUIDELINES FOR USE OF DISPERSANTS ON SPILLED OIL—A MODEL PLAN
Authors: Fraser J. P. , Horn S. A. , Kazmierczak L. J. , Kinworthy M. L. , Lasday A. H. , Lindstedt-Siva J.
Published: January 2013

The American Petroleum Institute Spill Response and Effects Task Force has developed guidelines (a “model plan”) for use of dispersants on spilled oil. This model plan is consistent with subpart H of the National Contingency Plan and provides the information needed to implement subpart H. The model plan addresses the questions of where, when, why, and how dispersants should be used and what materials should be used. The components of the model plan are the following:Detailed descriptions of most of the currently used methods for making dispersant use decisionsA dispersant use information form (Federal Region VI format)Discussion of the technical basis for dispersant use decision makingTabulations of properties (specific gravity, viscosity, pour point, and sulfur content) of oils transported through or produced in the area of interest, including an indication of relative dispersibility of each of these productsInventories of dispersants and application equipmentA quality assurance/quality control planLiterature on dispersant application techniques.

The purpose of developing this model plan is to provide a format that may be used to establish consistent regional and local dispersant use plans throughout the country.
THE WEATHERING OF VOLATILE HYDROCARBONS FROM CRUDE OIL SLICKS ON WATER
Authors: McAuliffe Clayton D.
Published: January 2013

Comparing total C1 to C10 hydrocarbons measured in water column samples immediately after chemical dispersion of crude oil slicks in field studies with those found in chemical dispersion of fresh crude oil showed complete loss of these hydrocarbons from the field slicks in less than two hours. This independent method of measuring evaporation showed more rapid evaporation than found in most other field studies that collected samples of oil from the slick. The easiest part of the slick to sample is the thicker portion, which may be remnants that are less weathered than the slick as a whole. Many laboratory weathering studies have used slick thicknesses many times greater than in the field with evaporation occurring in days rather than hours. Some evaporation models can quickly and inexpensively predict volatile hydrocarbon loss under different wind conditions, and varying air and water temperatures. The rapid loss of C1 to C10 hydrocarbons reduces biological toxicity, and restricts possible adverse effects to areas near the spill site. Evaporation of these hydrocarbons likewise increases slick oil viscosities and reduces chemical dispersant effectiveness. Thus the best slick control is obtained if it is sprayed quickly, although some oils can be effectively treated for several days.
LONG-TERM WEATHERING OF AMOCO CADIZ OIL IN SOFT INTERTIDAL SEDIMENTS
Authors: Page David S. , Foster Judith C. , Fickett Paulette M. , Gilfillan Edward S.
Published: January 2013

Samples of sediment were taken at intervals between 1979 and 1986 from soft sediment locations in the Aber Benoit, an estuary heavily impacted by the Amoco Cadiz oil spill of 1978, and from a comparable reference site outside the spill zone. Each sample was analyzed for aliphatic hydrocarbons by capillary gas chromatography. The data demonstrate the progressive weathering of the Amoco Cadiz oil resulting in an assemblage of biogenic hydrocarbons similar to the reference site by 1986 at all but the most heavily impacted locations. The data indicate that any residues of weathered Amoco Cadiz oil present in 1985-86 were in the final stages of degradation.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND RESTORATION RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A MANGROVE FOREST AFFECTED BY JET FUEL
Authors: Ballou Thomas G. , Lewis Roy R.
Published: January 2013

A jet fuel spill in Ensenada Honda, Naval Station Roosevelt Roads, Puerto Rico, was investigated to determine impacts on mangrove communities and to develop a mitigation plan to reverse the damage. The spill caused rapid, widespread damage to mangroves, killing almost six hectares of forest. Residual contamination of water and sediments was very low.

Mitigation recommendations were developed for this incident and other mangrove forests affected by oil spills. The recommendations place primary emphasis on natural recovery, with additional actions to increase colonization and/or survival of propagules as needed.
THE ASHLAND OIL SPILL, FLOREFFE, PA — CASE HISTORY AND RESPONSE EVALUATION
Authors: Miklaucic Cdr. E. A. , Saseen J.
Published: January 2013

On January 2, 1988, a storage tank at the Ashland Oil Terminal, Floreffe, Pennsylvania, near the Monongahela River 24 miles upstream of Pittsburgh, suffered an instantaneous and complete failure, releasing 90,000 barrels (about 3.9 million gallons) of diesel oil into the environment. The speed and volume of the release made “first aid” almost impossible. Within hours, an estimated 18,000 barrels (750,000 gallons) of diesel had entered the river. Responders were faced with a power and communication lines shutdown, contaminated potable water intakes, oil dispersion from river currents and turbulence resulting from numerous river dams, and life-threatening weather conditions, with temperatures often below 0°F. With the U.S. Coast Guard as first federal official on scene (FFOS) and the Environmental Protection Agency acting as on-scene coordinator (OSC), a thoroughly integrated response organization of federal, state, local, and interstate agencies evolved.

Once the situation was stabilized, aggressive restoration of the Ashland site by traditional removal techniques began. However, significant factors challenged the scientific community throughout river recovery areas. First, as contamination became suspended throughout the water column, water supply intakes at all depths were affected, resulting in water shortages for most of the population downstream as far as 200 miles. Supplying potable water and technical assistance to water authorities prompted questions about the use of 311 (k) for activities not clearly defined as cleanup. Additionally, cold weather caused extensive freezing, and ice cover limited full use of absorbent materials and equipment. Finally, river access points also hampered boom deployment and surface oil recovery.

This case demonstrated the benefits of contingency planning and revealed areas where additional coordination might be accomplished. The associated Ashland site restoration continues to the present time.
RESULTS OF THE 1987 FORTIES CRUDE OIL TRIAL IN THE NORTH SEA
Authors: Hurford N. , Buchanan I.
Published: January 2013

This report presents the results of a trial to study the behavior of Forties crude oil spilled at sea. The trial involved the release of approximately 20 metric tons (t) of Forties crude oil and monitoring the movement, spreading, and dispersion of the slick over a four-day period. Surface samples were collected at regular intervals to determine changes in the physical properties of the oil. The implications of the results for the development of oil spill simulation models are discussed.
INNOVATIVE CLEANUP AND EQUIPMENT USE ON THE PITTSBURGH OIL SPILL
Authors: Usher David
Published: January 2013

An environmental spill contractor responded to the largest inland oil spill in U.S. history. Special equipment and techniques proved useful in coping with this unusual situation. The experience level of the responder's personnel was a key factor in the cleanup.
THE TANK BARGE MCN-5: LESSONS IN SALVAGE AND RESPONSE OPERATIONS1
Authors: Yaroch Gregory N. , Reiter Gary A.
Published: January 2013

On January 31, 1988, the tank barge MCN-5 capsized and sank in the Guemes Channel area of Puget Sound. The four weeks following the sinking presented the federal on-scene coordinator (OSC) and other federal, state, and local agencies responding to the incident with many lessons in diving, salvage, and spill response activities.

The MCN-5 sank only a short time after it was loaded with approximately 9,800 barrels of heavy cycle gas oil (HCGO) at the Shell refinery near Anacortes. The HCGO presented unique problems due to its 1.086 specific gravity, which caused it to sink rather than float. In addition, the HCGO had been loaded on top of approximately 500 barrels of lighter oils remaining from previous cargos. This oil, although demonstrating normal floating characteristics, required the responding agencies to deal with both floating and sinking oil in the same response. Further, the response to the MCN-5 was complicated by extreme tidal currents that hampered diving and salvage operations, and required contingency planning to the extent possible for containment and recovery of the spilled oil of both types.

This case history presents the problems encountered and the manner in which they were handled. It includes a description of the on-scene organization that successfully integrated federal, state, and local interests into a single force for dealing with the situation.
RESPONSE STRATEGIES IN A HIGH TIDAL RANGE ESTUARINE SYSTEM: THE SAVANNAH RIVER OIL SPILL
Authors: Biedenbender Phillip L. , Michel Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

In early December 1986, the tank vessel Amazon Venture discharged approximately 500,000 gallons of No. 6 fuel oil into the Savannah River. From the outset, the on-scene coordinator (OSC) placed the highest priority on protecting the Savannah National Wildlife Refuge and adjacent wetlands from environmental impacts. During 12 days of continuous effort, over 6,500 feet of sorbent and containment boom were deployed in the refuge. Nearly all of the containment and deflection barriers were ineffective due to tidal changes in flow direction and associated very high current, which were frequently over 6 meters per second. In spite of protection efforts concentrated in the refuge, less than 100 gallons of oil were recovered there. In other contaminated areas, cleanup focused on removal of oil from the water surface (recovering about 150,000 gallons) and on shoreline cleaning of rocks and seawalls in public places. No cleanup of wetlands was recommended. This paper is a discussion of the various response strategies evaluated and used in mitigating the effects of a major oil spill in this high tidal range estuarine system.
Oil Spill Contingency Planning in Shanghai1
Authors: Baokang Pu , Chengguo Yu
Published: January 2013

Shanghai, one of the world's biggest cities and seaports, is situated on the Yangtze River estuary and the Huangpu River.

Significant oil spill accidents have occurred in recent years in China, and have caused the municipality great anxiety. A contingency plan, probably the first one at the local level in this country, has been developed under the initiatives of the Shanghai Harbour Superintendency Administration, supported by the local Environment Protection Agency (EPA) and other organizations. A governing body dealing with marine pollution has been established on a cooperative basis in the Shanghai Marine Safety Superintendence.

The role of the contingency plan and its governing bodies, procedures and arrangements relating to the control of pollution by oil and other harmful substances, monitoring stations along the Huangpu River (one of the busiest waterways in China) pollution response teams and their training, and liability and compensation for pollution are described in this paper. Problems concerning the lack of funding and resources available, technique, and professional staff, which are generally faced by developing countries, as well as the harmonization of cooperating parties are discussed and various difficulties are tried to be overcome.
Natural Cleaning of Shorelines Following the Exxon Valdez Spill
Authors: Jahns Hans O. , Bragg James R. , Dash Lawrence C. , Owens Edward H.
Published: January 2013

Field observations have identified a number of natural processes that contributed to the cleanup of the Exxon Valdez spill. This paper focuses on physical processes that remove oil residue from shoreline sediments. Data from shoreline surveys at 16 monitoring sites in Prince William Sound show significant reductions in both surface oil coverage and sediment oil content during the period from September 1989 to March 1990, while cleanup activities were suspended.

Natural cleaning appeared to be dominated by wave action during storms. Changes in oiling conditions on high- and moderate-energy beaches can be explained as the result of wave action, based on beach profile data and time-lapse photography. However, observations from low-energy areas indicate that rates of change there were often as high as those from the more exposed and energetic wave environments. Studies of the oiled sediments have shown that interactions between the residual oil and fine mineral solids, such as clay particles, played an important role in the natural cleaning process. These interactions formed flocculated aggregates of a solids-stabilized emulsion in which small oil droplets are coated with micro-sized mineral fines and surrounded by seawater. In this form, the oil no longer sticks to the sediment surfaces so that it can be removed by low-energy waves or tidal washing. The large specific surface area of the flocculated oil promotes its eventual biodegradation by indigenous microorganisms.
Controlled Burning of Crude Oil on Water Following the Grounding Of the Exxon Valdez
Authors: Allen Alan A.
Published: January 2013

During the evening of the second day following the Exxon Valdez oil spill, an estimated 15,000 to 30,000 gallons (57,000 to 114,000 L) of North Slope crude oil were eliminated using in-situ combustion techniques. The oil was collected with the 3M Company's Fire Boom, towed in a U-shaped configuration behind two fishing boats. Working with 500-foot (152-m) tow lines, a 450-foot (137-m) boom was moved at about one-half to one knot (0.26 to 0.52 m/s) through slightly emulsified oil patches downwind of the spill. Once oil had filled the downstream portion of the U-shaped boom and the boats were clear of any surrounding slicks, a gelled-fuel igniter was released from one of the tow boats. Shortly after ignition, flames gradually spread out over the entire area of the contained oil. As flames reached 200 to 300 feet (61 to 91 m) into the air, the area of the contained oil layer (and therefore the size and intensity of the fire) could be controlled by adjusting the speed of the vessels. The total burn time was approximately 75 minutes; however, the intense part of the burn lasted for about 45 minutes. The original volume of oil, likely between 15,000 and 30,000 gallons, was reduced to approximately 300 gallons (1,136 L) of stiff, taffy-like burn residue that could be picked up easily upon completion of the burn. The controlled elimination of crude oil therefore resulted in an estimated 98 percent or better efficiency of burn.
Saving Endangered Species in Major Oil Spill Cleanup Efforts
Authors: White Jan , Williams Terrie
Published: January 2013

While wildlife rehabilitation efforts generally attempt to save as many animals as possible, working with rare or endangered species presents new challenges. Every single individual animal has increased significance, and, further, each one that dies may result in a large fine on the spiller. This paper focuses on the way in which treating rare or endangered animals differs from the usual “herd health medicine approach” used with more common species, and the costs associated with such an approach.
Response to the January 1990 Arthur Kill Heating Oil Spill
Authors: Bubar Brian G. , Czarnecki J. R.
Published: January 2013

A spill of approximately 13,500 bbl (567,000 gallons) of No. 2 heating oil occurred on January 2, 1990, from an Exxon pipeline in the Arthur Kill waterway, which separates Staten Island from New Jersey. Areas affected by the spill included the New Jersey and New York shorelines of the Arthur Kill, Kill Van Kull, and Newark Bay, including environmentally sensitive areas at Pralls Island, Shooters Island, and Fresh Kills.

A preestablished Exxon management team supervised cleanup activities under the oversight of the United States Coast Guard (USCG), the pre-designated federal on-scene coordinator. A central command center was set up to interact with the appropriate agencies and to conduct morning and afternoon briefings. To assist in the cleanup, Exxon used equipment of the local oil spill cooperative, Clean Harbors Cooperative, five oil spill contractors, the USCG Atlantic Area Strike Team, and U.S. Navy skimmers. Cooperative equipment was primarily operated by a team of Exxon “first responders” during the initial stages of the response. Tri-state Bird Rescue and Exxon employees were actively involved in wildlife recovery and rehabilitation activities. At the operation's peak, more than 150 Exxon personnel and 400 contract personnel were involved; over 60,000 feet of containment and 400,000 feet of sorbent boom were used; and 40 vacuum trucks, 70 boats, 10 mobile skimmers, and 4 helicopters were in service. Within three weeks more than 140,000 gallons of oil were collected.
The Nestucca Major Oil Spill: A Christmas Story
Authors: Yaroch Gregory N.
Published: January 2013

Near midnight on December 22, 1988, at the entrance to Grays Harbor, Washington, the tug Ocean Service breaks its towline to the barge Nestucca. In maneuvering to recapture the drifting barge, which is loaded with 70,000 barrels of Bunker C oil, it punctures one of Nestucca's cargo tanks. Pollution control forces are called into action. This narrative tells just how many people and organizations were involved in minimizing damage in two countries and credits their success to planning, preparedness, and cooperation.
Organizing for Response: The Unresolved Problem
Authors: Cohn Ruth E. , Wallace William A. , Harrald John R.
Published: January 2013

During the critical hours immediately following a significant spill, responders must perform three functions: determine the initial strategy and tactics, mobilize resources, and create the response organization. This paper examines the processes of creating and managing a smoothly functioning response organization. The current trend toward the creation of highly centralized response organizations based on the Incident Command System is criticized, based on research that demonstrates the need for a decentralized, flexible decision-making structure during a crisis. Research that examines the role of the external environment and organizational culture in the creation of effective crisis management organizations is identified. The formation of decision-centered organizations that effectively use decision-making groups is discussed. Until and unless these issues are better understood and addressed by disaster researchers and managers, organizing for response will remain an unresolved problem.
The Apex Barges Spill, Galveston Bay, July 19901
Authors: Greene Thomas C.
Published: January 2013

A major spill of 692,000 gallons of catalytic feedstock oil resulted when the Greek tankship Shinoussa collided with and sank the tank barge Apex 3417 and damaged the tank barge Apex 3503 in the Houston Ship Channel, Galveston Bay, Texas on July 28, 1990. The owner of the barges took immediate action to contain and recover the oil and salvage the sunken barge, but on the sixth day withdrew from the cleanup. The Coast Guard On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) federalized the cleanup and continued for another 15 days, completing the cleanup on August 17, 1990. Bioremediation microbes were used for the first time by the OSC to treat oiled marsh areas. Visually, the treatment appeared successful. Several problems were encountered and lessons learned during the major cleanup operation.
National Oil Spill Response Planning in the U.S.S.R.: Principal Conceptions and Objectives
Authors: Khalimonov O. , Nunuparov S.
Published: January 2013

International and domestic experience in the response to major oil spills at sea confirms the vital necessity of a national contingency plan to guarantee effective utilization of national resources and those of assisting countries and organizations.

Experience in responding to recent major oil spills underlines deficiencies connected with the shortage of technical means and also with ineffective organization of the response and cooperation of all parties involved. This results in unjustifiable delays in decision making and, finally, in catastrophic damages to the environment.

The main principles of the U.S.S.R. national oil spill response plan, currently under consideration for approval, are as follows:involvement of a wide range of national forces and forces of the neighboring countries under preliminary agreed-upon schemes;strengthening and development of appropriate legal instruments to stipulate obligations of the parties involved in pollution response operations;development of a mechanism to reduce impediments to financial, technical, and related agreements required prior to commencement of operations (sources of finances, preliminary approval of the response technology by competent authorities, facilitation of custom procedures);unification of the structure of the U.S.S.R national contingency plan with a view to making it compatible with corresponding plans of neighboring countries following the prototype developed by the International Maritime Organization (IMO);cooperation in the establishment of the international monitoring system, data bank, and computerized exchange of information.
Development of the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response
Authors: Nolan Cadets John P. , Blood Susan J.
Published: January 2013

The International Oil Pollution Prevention and Response (OPPR) Convention represents current international efforts to improve capabilities to prepare for and respond to catastrophic oil spills. Initiated by the United States, it is being negotiated by the Marine Environment Protection Committee of the International Maritime Organization (IMO). Major components of the proposal include the establishment of an International Marine Pollution Information Center located at IMO headquarters, National Response Centers in each coastal state, and oil spill response contingency plans for ships. Other proposed articles include prepositioning of oil response equipment in high-risk areas, a research and development program for response techniques, and international cooperation during responses to catastrophic oil spills.

Several problems have complicated negotiations of the OPPR Convention. First, severe time constraints have been placed on the negotiators, with the final conference1 to consider the OPPR scheduled for November 1990. Second, the United States suffers from a lack of credibility in the IMO, since the Senate has not yet ratified previous initiatives, the 1984 protocols to the 1969 International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, and the 1971 Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage. Finally, the IMO's financial troubles have placed the concept of the International Information Center in jeopardy.

In spite of these obstacles, a clear majority of countries are willing to support the document, realizing that it fills a gap in marine oil pollution prevention and response. The OPPR Convention will likely be carried through to adoption by the November conference.

This paper traces the development of the International Convention on Oil Pollution Response and Prevention. It summarizes the background and initial proposals of the Convention, and then discusses the problems that arose during negotiations. Finally, it describes the present status of the Convention and offers a projection of its future direction.
Outcome of the IMO Conference on International Co-Operation on Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response1
Authors: Edwards David T. , Pascoe David B.
Published: January 2013

In October 1989, the Assembly of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) unanimously adopted a resolution calling on the IMO to convene a diplomatic conference to consider the adoption of an international treaty instrument on oil pollution preparedness and response. This resolution was adopted in the wake of the Exxon Valdez disaster, which had occurred only six months previously and which focused the world's attention on the severe environmental consequences of a major oil spill and the need for an adequate and timely response to such an incident.

In November 1990, the IMO convened a diplomatic Conference on International Co-operation on Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response. This paper discusses in depth the outcome of this conference, in particular the provisions of the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation, 1990 (OPRC Convention) and related resolutions and recommendations adopted by the Conference.

This international convention fills a gap in the international framework of treaties dealing with marine pollution. Although there are, in many regions of the world, regional agreements and arrangements for responding to marine pollution emergencies, until now there has been no global framework for cooperation and mutual assistance in this field. Also, the effectiveness of many of these regional agreements and arrangements is entirely dependent on the capacity and resources of the states participating in them. For those regions of the world where such resources and expertise are not readily available, this convention will play a particularly important role in facilitating international cooperation at the global level, as well as in reinforcing regional arrangements and national oil pollution preparedness and response strategies.

The convention makes provision, among other things, for oil pollution emergency plans for ships, offshore platforms, and sea ports; oil pollution reporting procedures; establishment of national and regional systems for preparedness and response; the facilitation of international cooperation and mutual assistance; exchange of information; and promotion of research and development, and technical cooperation and training.

The convention also enhances the IMO's role in the promotion of international cooperation in combating oil pollution and assigns to the IMO a number of functions related to the implementation of the convention, notably with respect to information collection and dissemination and advisory and training services in the field of oil pollution preparedness and response.
Natural Resource Damage Assessment of the Shell Oil Spill at Martinez, California
Authors: Fischel Marion , Robilliard Gordon A.
Published: January 2013

On April 23, 1988 about 400,000 gallons (9,500 barrels) of San Joaquin Valley crude oil were accidentally released from the Shell Oil Company Martinez Manufacturing Complex. The oil flowed into Peyton Slough, Suisun Bay, and Carquinez Strait of the San Francisco Bay system. Approximately one week after the oil spill, discussions on assessing the injury to natural resources were initiated between Shell and the federal and state agencies that were trustees of the affected resources. At this time, the trustees and Shell agreed that a single cooperative study should be conducted, managed by a contractor acceptable to all concerned parties. The lead trustee was the California Department of Fish and Game. However, within one month after the spill, the Attorney General's office of the State of California assumed responsibility for the damage assessment. Subsequently, legal considerations and constraints imposed by the state Attorney General's office prevented active participation in the study by the agencies.

The work agreed upon included video and aerial photographic surveys, and mapping of the areas affected by the spill; a study of fish and macroinvertebrate abundance and distribution; hydrocarbon analyses of fish and clam tissue; a comparison of the effects of oil on marsh vegetation; a survey of the distribution and abundance of the benthos; an ambient aquatic toxicity study; a survey of endangered species (birds and mammals); chemical analyses of the sediment and water; chemical and physical characterizations of San Joaquin Valley crude oil; and a study of the weathering of the oil. A preliminary study to estimate natural resource damages (economic analysis) also was conducted.
Studies on the Physical and Chemical Behavior of Oil and Dispersant Mixtures
Authors: Fingas Mervin , Bier Ian , Bobra Mark , Callaghan Sandra
Published: January 2013

Laboratory studies on dispersant effectiveness were conducted to assess the effects of several variables and to determine the action mechanisms of dispersants. The variables examined were temperature, salinity, and dispersant quantity. Dispersant effectiveness was measured as a function of the five oil bulk components: asphaltenes, aromatics, polar compounds, saturate compounds, and waxes.

The effect of water temperature variation is logarithmically correlated with dispersant effectiveness. With regard to salinity, effectiveness is at a peak when salinity is about 40%c (parts per thousand) of typical commercial dispersant formulations and falls to nearly 0 as salinity decreases to 0. Effectiveness also falls to 0 as salinity rises from 40 to 80%o. This behavior is explained by the necessity for a certain level of ionic strength to stabilize the surfactant between the oil droplet and the water. Dispersant quantity was also found to be an important factor. Dispersant-to-oil ratios greater than about 1:40 or 1:60 result in very low dispersant effectiveness. Effectiveness is logarithmic with respect to dispersant-to-oil ratio.

Dispersion experiments wee conducted to investigate the effects of oil composition. Dispersant effectiveness is positively and strongly correlated with the saturate concentration in the oil and is negatively correlated with aromatic, asphaltene, and polar compound contents of the oil. Dispersant effectiveness is only weakly correlated with oil viscosity. Dispersant effectiveness is primarily limited by oil composition.
Dispersant Trials using the Pac Baroness, a Spill of Opportunity
Authors: Payne James R. , Clayton John R. , Phillips Charles R. , Robinson John , Kennedy Dave , Talbot Lt. Joe , Petrae Lt. Gary , Michel Jacqui , Ballou Tom , Onstad Skip
Published: January 2013

Fuel oil released from the sinking of the PAC Baroness off Point Conception, California, was used as a spill of opportunity to study dispersant application technology and evaluate remote sensing methods used to track the slick. Forty-one gallons of the dispersant Corexit 9527 were applied by helicopter to a 100-m-by-700-m portion of the slick on 29 September 1987. Photographic documentation of the spill's behavior was completed from a U. S. Coast Guard H-3 helicopter, and the U.S. Coast Guard AirEye Falcon Jet was used for side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) coverage from an altitude of 5,000 ft and IR/UV scans from 400 ft. Continuous subsurface UV fluorescence measurements and grab samples of water beneath the slick were obtained from a support vessel before and after dispersant application. The results of the tests were somewhat equivocal, owing to the limited area and very thin nature of the slick, combined with 15-to-20-knot crosswinds, which caused breakup of both treated and untreated control areas. Photographs showed a subtle difference between the head of the slick (original subsurface source) and the treated area 200 m downcurrent, but the breakup of the oil due to the crosswind as the slick moved downcurrent precluded differentiation between the treated area and the untreated control area 700 m from the source. The SLAR data were of limited value because of the resolution of the technique and the extremely small area treated. The aerial UV scans did suggest a change in the slick behavior in the treated area; however, the ground-truth UV fluorescence measurements and subsequent chemical analyses did not indicate enhanced subsurface concentrations of dispersed oil. Attempts to complete another series of tests on 1 and 2 October 1987 were thwarted by adverse weather conditions and the continuing decline of the amount of oil surfacing from the vessel. Suggestions are presented for improving dispersant trials at future spills of opportunity.
Development of Dispersant Pre-Approval for Washington and Oregon Coastal Waters
Authors: Wiechert J. , Rideout M. L. , Little D. I. , McCormick D. M. , Owens E. H. , Trudel B. K.
Published: January 2013

Washington State has initiated the development process for a dispersant pre-approval policy. In order to be more effective under the aegis of the Regional Response Team (RRT), the preapproval policy should, however, cover all of Region X, rather than only a given state within the region. The Region X RRT has, therefore, instigated an environmental impact statement (EIS) for dispersant use in the coastal waters of Washington and Oregon. The objective of this study is to develop recommendations for pre-approval so that a spill response can be immediate and therefore efficient and effective. Preparation of the EIS has been funded by industry through a Clean Sound Cooperative contract to Woodward-Clyde Consultants.

The first step in the study is to define those operational factors that limit the areas to be considered. The study then follows the dispersant decision guides summarized by the American Petroleum Institute2 to further define oil types, spill situations and geographical areas where dispersants are a viable option. Finally, there is an analysis of the environmental trade-offs associated with alternative treatment methods and with nontreatment, using the comparative modeling technique developed by S. L. Ross Environmental Research, Ltd. The EIS document will be issued by the Washington Department of Ecology (WDOE) and will focus on areas where dispersant use could be beneficial in terms of ecological trade-offs. Based on the study, a statement from the State of Washington Department of Ecology is anticipated to be promulgated by the end of 1990.
Impacts of the Exxon Valdez Spill and Subsequent Cleanup on Intertidal Biota—1 Year Later
Authors: Houghton Jonathan P. , Lees Dennis C. , Driskell William B. , Mearns Alan J.
Published: January 2013

A substantial amount of the crude oil which spilled from the tanker Exxon Valdez on March 24, 1989, was deposited on beaches in Prince William Sound. Major beach cleanup activities began in May and continued throughout the summer of 1989. Additional cleanup activities occurred during the summer of 1990. A study was conducted in 1989 to document the short-term impact to biota of hot water wash treatments. Additional field surveys were conducted in the summer of 1990 to evaluate recovery of littoral habitats from the effects of oiling and shoreline treatment. Stratified-random sampling was used to assess epibiota and infauna at 27 sites, representing several habitats and degrees of disturbance.

Preliminary data evaluations indicate that treatment methodologies applied in 1989 had varied effects on intertidal assemblages. Some treated rocky beaches were stripped of flora and fauna at mid- and upper intertidal elevations and showed relatively little colonization by mid summer 1990. On other oiled rocky beaches that received less severe or no treatment, the majority of the community dominants remained in place and significant recolonization was underway. Protected sand and gravel beaches subjected to hydraulic treatments displayed greatly altered beach morphology. Finer sands and gravels were flushed from upper intertidal elevations, often burying the lower beach in several centimeters of sediment, resulting in major reductions in infauna in 1990. Oiled but untreated sand and gravel beaches had a rich and varied infauna. The effects of 1989 shoreline treatment activities on intertidal flora and fauna were significant and widespread and will greatly complicate assessment of the long-term impacts of the oil itself.
Water-In-Oil Emulsification: A Physicochemical Study
Authors: Bobra Mark
Published: January 2013

This paper summarizes the results of a study that examined the basic mechanism by which asphaltenes, resins, and waxes stabilize water-in-oil emulsions. Experiments were conducted on the emulsification behavior of model oils that contained alkane and aromatic components and emulsifying agents. Results clearly demonstrate the importance that the physical state of an emulsifying agent has upon its ability to stabilize emulsions. It was found that, to be effective, emulsifiers, asphaltenes, resins, and waxes must be in the form of finely divided, submicron particles. In addition, it was shown that the solvency strength of an oil, which is determined by its alkane and aromatic components, controls the solubility/precipitation behavior of these emulsifiers. The chemical composition of the oil determines not only the amount and size of precipitated particles, but also the composition and wetting properties of the particles. All these factors were shown to influence emulsification.

The use of a solubility model, using the Hildebrand-Scatchard equation, to predict the physicochemical conditions that favor water-in-oil emulsification, is discussed.
On Describing and Estimating the Fate of Stranded Oil
Authors: Sergy G. A. , Humphrey B. , Owens E.
Published: January 2013

The prediction of stranded oil fate and natural removal rates is essential to the selection of environmentally appropriate shoreline cleanup techniques, environmental priorities and tradeoffs. Our experience is that monitoring and describing stranded oil fate and persistence is not an exact science. Interpretation of data requires a careful and experienced approach. The need for a consistent long-term data set and appropriate methodology is stressed. A review of the different data and indices leads to the conclusion that length of oiled shoreline is unsuitable as a detailed measure of the degree of oiling and of changes in shoreline oiling. Length (and width) data are more appropriate for scoping estimates and qualitative uses. On coarse or mixed sediment beaches, quantitative oil penetration and concentration data are very difficult to obtain and interpret, affecting the calculation of oil volumes or oiled sediment volumes. Equivalent Area (EA) oiled appears to be the most appropriate and practical all-round index for the degree of shoreline oiling and for comparing temporal changes. Surface oil cover data become less representative of subsurface oil over time due to differential removal rates. Indices of change of beached oil and data sets generated from various spill monitoring programs are examined. Long-term data from the Baffin Island Oil Spill Project provide information on rates of change that can be applied to projections for real-world spills, by representing one worse-case boundary condition for coarse sediment beaches.
In-Situ Comparison of Bioremediation Methods for a Number 6 Residual Fuel Oil Spill in Lee County, Florida
Authors: Jones Mark A. , Greenfield Jeffrey H.
Published: January 2013

On July 5, 1988, as a result of overfilling, about 3,200 barrels of No. 6 fuel was spilled onto surface soils surrounding a Florida Power and Light Company storage tank, and spread over about 60,000 square feet of soil. About 2,300 barrels were recovered, leaving 900 barrels in the upper six to eight inches of the soil.

The spill was chosen as the site for a trial of in-situ enhanced bioremediation. An initial feasibility study in the laboratory was followed by groundwater monitoring, field remediation, and a small-plot research program. In the feasibility study, lower concentrations of nutrients applied periodically were almost as effective as a single application using a larger concentration. The small-plot study indicated that treatment with added bacteria and nutrients offered the greatest reduction in hydrocarbons. Addition of bacteria alone provided no advantage. In the field remediation program, two- and three-ring compounds were completely degraded, while four-, five-, and six-ring compounds were more resistant.

The research demonstrated that in-situ enhanced bioremediation can be a cost-effective method for treating soils contaminated with No. 6 fuel oil.
Bioremediation: Waxy Crude Oils Stranded on Low-Energy Shorelines
Authors: Lee Kenneth , Levy Eric M.
Published: January 2013

The degradation of a waxy crude oil (Terra Nova) spilled on sand beach and salt marsh environments in Nova Scotia was monitored over a seven-month period. In the sand beach environment, low concentrations of stranded oil (0.3 percent by volume) were degraded in a matter of days by the indigenous biota, while higher concentrations (3 percent) were much more persistent (components as light as n–C11 remained after six months). In contrast, similar concentrations of oil were found to be extremely resistant to biodegradation in the salt marsh. Our results suggest that cleanup of waxy crude oils at low concentrations in sand beaches should be left to nature, since natural biodegradative processes occur rapidly. At higher oil concentrations, however, nutrient enrichment with agricultural fertilizers was found to be an effective countermeasure. While biodegradation of oil stranded in salt marsh environments is generally limited by oxygen availability, nutrient enrichment may be an effective countermeasure to treat low concentrations of waxy crude oil in salt marshes, provided the oil does not penetrate beneath the aerobic surface layer.
International Cooperation in Oil Spill Response
Authors: Nichols J. A. , Moller T. H.
Published: January 2013

Effective response to a major marine oil spill occasionally calls for specialized equipment, personnel, and expertise that is beyond the capability of the country or company concerned. In recognition of this fact, a new International Convention on International Cooperation in Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response has been developed under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization.

There is already considerable potential for international cooperation through existing regional conventions and agreements, and other less formal arrangements. This cooperation involves governmental agencies, the oil and shipping industries, commercial companies, insurers, intergovernmental organizations, and international industry organizations. This will be illustrated by reference to two recent major oil spills in Europe where this international cooperation proved very successful. The first involved the cleanup of some 15,000 metric tons of heavy crude oil that impacted the holiday island of Porto Santo in the Madeiran archipelago. Cooperation among the Portuguese government, The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation, the tanker's oil pollution insurer, the Commission of the European Communities, and the governments of France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom resulted in the rapid provision of specialized equipment and associated personnel to deal with the major shoreline contamination.

The second incident, involving a spill of waste oil from a tanker in the Baltic Sea off the coast of Sweden, resulted in the rapid mobilization of cleanup resources from Sweden, Finland, Denmark, the Federal Republic of Germany, and the U.S.S.R. under the terms of the Helsinki Convention. During favorable weather conditions, the combined forces of the five countries were successful in recovering a high percentage of the oil at sea, with the result that the contamination of shorelines was minimal.