bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Gunneraceae
Authors: Wilkinson Hazel P
Published: November 2023

Gunneraceae are a monogeneric family with about 50 species in six subgenera distributed in Malaysia (excluding the Malay Peninsula), Solomon Islands, Tasmania, New Zealand, Hawaii, Juan Fernandes, Mexico to Chile, Falkland Islands, Tie1rn del Fuego, tropical and South Africa, and Madagascar. All the species are perennial rhizomatous herbs growing in damp to wet places from low altitudes to above 3000 m. The smaller-leaved species are stoloniferous but the larger-leaved species are pachycaulous with stems proximally prostrate but tending to be erect distally. Some of the species in the subgenus Panke are gigantic plants reaching up to 6 m in height and are among the largest herbs on earth. In contrast, the smallest species, G. herteri Osten in the subgenus Ostenigunnera, is only 2–4 cm high. The larger-leaved upright species grow in large stands and the smaller-leaved, prostrate species grow in dense mats. Gunnera has a symbiotic relationship with the blue-green alga Nostoc, which enters the plant by means of glands on the stem just below the base of each young developing leaf and also at the seedling stage. In adult plants, cells in both stem and possibly also in the young leaf lamina are clearly seen to contain the N2 fixing Nostoc cells.
Theoretical foundations
Authors: Green Stephen A , Bloch Sidney
Published: November 2023

Moral decision-making is concerned with analysis of human conduct regarding right and wrong actions. Moral theories formulate presumed judgments about right and wrong in an attempt to facilitate objective application of those precepts to particular circumstances and thereby guard against inconsistency and relativism. The primary goal of this section is to provide an understanding of the various theories utilized in the broader context of bioethics as preparation for applying them to the ethical dilemmas arising in psychiatric practice and research that are explored in this volume. The inherent complexity of matters subject to moral deliberation suggests that resolution by a single theoretical approach is unlikely.
Fungi
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Fungi are a distinct class of micro-organisms that are ubiquitous in the environment as decomposers and have great commercial importance in baking, brewing and in the pharmaceutical industry. There are an estimated 200,000 species of fungi but only about 200 or so are pathogenic to humans. The diseases they cause in man, the mycoses, tend to be sub-acute or chronic and are found mainly in individuals whose defence mechanisms, especially their specific immune system, are compromised. By far the most common group of fungal infections that dentists diagnose and treat are caused by the yeast Candida albicans and therefore the characteristics of this fungus in particular will be highlighted in this chapter. The fungal cell has typical eukaryotic features (Fig. 1.4, p. 5) including a nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and a rigid cell wall that is external to the cytoplasmic membrane.
Human herpes viruses
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

There are over 100 identified herpes viruses in nature. The hostspan includes vertebrates and invertebrates, but the viruses share common structural and genomic properties. All are icosahedral viral particles (Fig. 6.2, p. 56) 150–200 nm in diameter made up of 162 hollow capsomeres, and possess a double-stranded DNA genome. Herpes viruses all have a lipid-containing envelope (Fig. 6.6, p. 58). Figure 19.1 lists the currently recognized members of the human herpes virus family. Herpes viruses can establish lytic, persistent and transforming infections, but they are renowned for establishing latent infections (Chapter 6), with the result that clinical presentations may vary depending on whether the infection is primary or secondary (reactivation). Long-term intermittent shedding of herpes viruses into saliva is important in relation to spread of infection in the community and to cross-infection in the clinical setting. The herpes viruses are ubiquitous and many individuals are infected at an early age, often experiencing asymptomatic infections.
The oral microflora and dental plaque
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

The oral flora is one of the most ecologically diverse microbial populations known to man. It contains at least 350 different cultivable species, with probably a further 50% that cannot be cultured with current laboratory techniques. Saliva contains up to 100 million organisms per millilitre.
Multiple sclerosis
Authors: Filippi Massimo , Rocca Maria A
Published: November 2023

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease affecting the central nervous system (CNS) of young adults in the western countries, leading, in the majority of the cases, to severe and irreversible clinical disability. Since its clinical introduction, conventional magnetic resonance imaging (cMRI — dual-echo and post-contrast T1-weighted scans) has greatly improved our ability to diagnose MS and to monitor its evolution, either natural or modified by treatment. CMRI-derived measures have indeed shown several advantages over clinical assessment, including their more objective nature and increased sensitivity to MS-related changes. Nevertheless, the magnitude of the relationship between cMRI measures of disease activity or burden and the clinical manifestations of the disease is weak (Fig. 11.1). This necessarily limits the role of cMRI for the understanding of MS pathophysiology and monitoring of experimental treatment. Several factors are likely to be responsible for this clinical/MRI discrepancy. First, dualecho imaging lacks specificity with regard to the heterogeneous pathological substrates of individual lesions and, as a consequence, does not allow an accurate quantification of tissue damage. Specifically, oedema, inflammation, demyelination, remyelination, gliosis, and axonal loss all lead to a similar appearance of hyperintensity on T2-weighted images. This is a major issue now that there is compelling evidence that: (a) inflammatory demyelination is not enough to explain ‘fixed’ neurological deficits in MS; (b) irreversible axonal damage does occur in inflamed MS lesions; and (c) axonal damage is the main contributor to the clinical manifestations of the disease and to its clinical worsening over time. Secondly, T2-weighted images do not delineate tissue damage occurring in the normal-appearing white matter (NAWM), which usually represents a large portion of the brain tissue from MS patients and which is known to be damaged in MS patients. Post-mortem studies have shown subtle changes in the NAWM from MS patients, which not only include diffuse astrocytic hyperplasia, patchy oedema, and perivascular cellular infiltration, but also axonal damage. Finally, dual-echo imaging does not provide an accurate picture of gray matter (GM) damage, which several pathological studies have shown to be prominent in MS and which is likely to be associated with some clinical manifestations of the disease, such as cognitive impairment and fatigue.
FMRI and pharmacology: what role in clinical practice?
Authors: Honey Garry D , Bullmore Edward T
Published: November 2023

FMRI has had an enormous impact on cognitive neuroscience research. This technique, which allows us to investigate the functioning of the living human brain, has contributed significantly to the rapid progress witnessed in recent years in understanding the neural basis of human thought, action, and emotions. The technology is applied with increasing sophistication to address questions beyond experimental manipulation prior to its inception. The application of FMRI naturally turned toward psychiatric and neurological disease states, with optimistic early predictions of unprecedented advances in our understanding of cerebral dysfunction and radical breakthroughs in its treatment. It is now a little over a decade since the first studies involving FMRI in clinical populations were reported, and one might reasonably conclude that FMRI has yet to fulfil these initial, and with hindsight, perhaps unrealistic expectations. However, whilst clinical breakthroughs may not yet have emerged, considerable progress has been made in understanding the neurobiological basis of a number of diseases of the nervous system. A significant contribution to this progress has been via the combined application of FMRI with pharmacological manipulations, visualizing, albeit indirectly, the changes in brain function following exposure to both clinical pharmacotherapeutics and compounds in experimental medicine. Pharmacological imaging thereby offers a unique insight into disease pathology and its treatment. In this chapter, we consider the extent to which its application has contributed towards greater understanding in this area; for a related review of clinical applications of FMRI see Matthews et al..
Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies
Authors: Borchmann Peter , Engert Andreas
Published: November 2023

The therapeutic potential of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) was realised a long time before their structure had been explored. It was Paul Ehrlich in the late nineteenth century who developed the idea of a targeted therapy against malignant tumours. Still today, it is fascinating to read his Croonian lecture or the Nobel Prize lecture given in 1908 (see Ehrlich 1900). It took some generations of researchers to reveal the origin and structure of antibodies and then to produce monoclonal antibodies with a defined specificity in significant amounts (Porter 1967; Edelman et al. 1968; Kohler and Milstein 1975). In 1975, Kohler and Milstein published details of the hybridoma technology, which is the fusion of an antigen-specific B-ceJl with an immortal cell-line, resulting in an immortal clone producing the antigen-specific antibody (Kohler and Milstein 1975).
Moral values: What is the right thing?
Authors: McGrath Joanna Collicutt
Published: November 2023

In considering the effects of acquired brain injury (ABI), I have paid a good deal of attention to the characteristics of individual human persons. This is essential to any understanding of the nature of this group of health conditions, and to the healthcare of those affected by them. But there is another important reason for emphasizing the personal. The individual person is at the centre of many (though not all) conceptions of morality.
Gynaecological disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila
Published: November 2023

The female genital tract comprises the vulva, vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. Note that the cervix is part of the uterus, but it is useful to consider it separately from the rest of the uterus as the diseases which affect the cervix are quite distinct from those of the main body of the uterus. Often the vulva, vagina, and cervix are collectively referred to as the ‘lower genital tract’ and the rest of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries are known as the ‘upper genital tract’.
Endocrine disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila
Published: November 2023

An endocrine gland is an organ that produces hormones (Fig. 14.1). Hormones are molecules secreted into the blood which act on specific target cells throughout the body. Endocrine glands are therefore distinguished from exocrine glands which release their secretions into the bowel, respiratory tract, or skin.
Nationalizing the Masses, 1898–1931
Authors: Vincent Mary
Published: November 2023

In 1898, Spain went to war with the United States of America. At issue were Spain’s colonial possessions: Cuba had again been in revolt since 1895 and, for all Cánovas’ intransigence, huge numbers of Spanish troops had been unable to quell the island rebellion. By the time Cánovas was assassinated by an anarchist in August 1897, the Philippines were also in revolt and it was clear that US intervention in the Caribbean was only a matter of time.
The Nation’s Wealth and the People’s Welfare
Authors: Daunton Martin
Published: November 2023

In 1852, George Graham, William Farr, and Horace Mann reflected on the population tables of the census of 1851. They were full of pride and optimism in what they found. Since the first census of 1801, the population of Great Britain had increased by 10 million— which nearly equalled the increase ‘in all preceding ages’. At the same time, the population was concentrated into new industrial towns at ever greater densities. The question they pondered was whether this population could be ‘profitably employed’. Many economists, not many years previously, doubted that they could, fearing that the growth of population would result in a decline in economic welfare as predicted by T. R. Malthus. The possibilities of economic growth seemed to be extremely limited.
The Growth of the British Economy
Authors: Daunton Martin
Published: November 2023

By the late 1950s, politicians were alarmed at Britain’s poor growth record compared with other countries and their attention turned to competing cures for the ‘sick man of Europe’. As Jim Tomlinson points out, ‘declinism’ became an ideology, an assertion that something should be done. By 1964, this had become the central issue of the general election. Not surprisingly, the writings of economic historians on British performance in the previous hundred years were influenced by these debates. Their analysis was shaped by contemporary political debates over economic decline, and they drew on the past to refute or support policy proposals.
Precedent as a Source of Law
Authors: Cross Rupert , Harris J W
Published: November 2023

We have now completed the account of the operation of the rules of precedent summarized on p. 6. These rules generate what may not ineptly be described as ‘jurisprudential’ problems of their own. Are they rules of law? Can the rules of precedent be based on precedent? Why does the idea of the prospective overruling of a judicial decision tend to be anathema to an English lawyer when retrospective legislation is equally abhorrent to him? Brief discussions of these questions will be found in Chapters VII and VIII. This chapter and Chapter VI are primarily concerned with problems posed by case-law generally. They would arise even if the English rules of precedent were very different from what they are. They stem from the older and more important rule that judges must have regard to case-law. In what sense is a judicial decision, i.e. a precedent, a source of law? Do decided cases throw any light on the question, raised by Austin, whether a custom is law before it is enforced by the courts? In what sense is custom subordinate to precedent and precedent to legislation? What is the nature of the joint operation of statute and precedent as sources of English law? These are the types of problem with which this chapter is concerned.
Interpretation in Public Law
Authors: Loughlin Martin
Published: November 2023

My task in this book is a theoretical one. This, however, should not be taken to suggest that it is concerned essentially with esoteric ideas. It is theoretical in the sense that it begins with the ordinary material of public law and tries to extend our understanding of that material by seeking to discover what is implied in it. It tries to make clear something which, although dimly apprehended, is obscure. That is, it is an exercise in trying to move from a position of knowing something indistinctly and confusedly to a position in which our knowledge is more explicit and systematic. In order to carry out this task we must challenge the impact which the scientific quest has had on public law thought. Just as the attempt to press political studies into a natural scientific framework has distorted and obscured many of the issues that are indispensable to an understanding of political life, so also this claim may be made for law. The conception of law which we obtain from the formalist approach and the adoption of the analytical method obscures more than it reveals.
Social Security and Society
Authors: Harris Neville
Published: November 2023

A serious study of social security law needs to take close account of the social con text to the welfare state because of the interaction between the kinds of provision made and level of support offered by the benefits system and key social phenomena such as poverty, unemployment, the shape and role of the family, housing tenure, demography, and migration of people. Indeed, while state welfare provision is often seen as having wide social and economic objectives such as preserving social stability or maintaining social control for the benefit of the capital economy,as noted in Chapter 1, it is also a response to specific social problems. The fact that the social security system touches the lives of so many individuals in society at any one time, and has the potential to affect all citizens at one time or another, underlines the extent of its overall social impact.
Introduction: The Conceptual Question
Authors: Sin Kam Fan
Published: November 2023

The trust is a charismatic institution. It has won the imagination of generations of lawyers and historians; has laid claim to be the greatest and most distinctive achievement performed by Englishmen in the field of jurisprudence; and has been honoured as an instrument of law reform.
Evolution of the Unit Trust
Authors: Sin Kam Fan
Published: November 2023

A necessary characteristic of any collective investment vehicle is the passive part played by investors in the conduct of the investment activities of the vehicle. This involves the segregation of those who provide the money from those who manage it. The trust is a natural candidate by reason of its ability to segregate the title and management of properties from their beneficial enjoyment.
Trusteeship in the Unit Trust
Authors: Sin Kam Fan
Published: November 2023

The trust has achieved a separation of the legal and equitable ownership by imposing on the legal owner, the trustee, an obligation to hold the trust properties for the benefit of the beneficiaries. That obligation is a characteristic feature of the trust.
Competition and Regulation in Telecommunications
Authors: Armstrong Mark , Vickers John
Published: November 2023

Telecommunications was the first network-utility industry in Britain to be privatized. Policy decisions in the UK about the appropriate competitive and regulatory framework for a private firm with monopoly power therefore first arose in the industry, and a pattern was set that has been followed to varying degrees with gas, airports, water, and electricity supply. The industry has the longest and richest history of regulation, and controversy about policy towards the industry shows no sign of abating.
Theory of the firm; managerial Behavior, Agency Costs, and Ownership Structure
Authors: Jensen Michael C , Meckling William H
Published: November 2023

This paper integrates elements from the theory of agency, the theory of property rights and the theory of finance to develop a theory of the ownership structure of the firm. We define the concept of agency costs, show its relationship to the ‘separation and control’ issue, investigate the nature of the agency costs generated by the existence of debt and outside equity, demonstrate who bears these costs and why, and investigate the Pareto optimality of their existence. We also provide a new definition of the firm, and show how our analysis of the factors influencing the creation and issuance of debt and equity claims is a special case of the supply side of the completeness of markets problem.
Co-Operative Agreement and the Organization of Industry
Authors: Mariti P , Smiley R H
Published: November 2023

The field of industrial organization involves, in major part, the study of how industry is organized and why. The organization of industry, including for example the size distribution of firms, depends in turn on how firms interact. In Markets and Hierarchies, Williamson (1975) has identified two major types of interaction: the marketplace (either competition between firms or single transactions between buyers and sellers), and mergers. Earlier, Coase (1937) identified the two methods for organizing economic activity as internal to the firm or external to the firm. This paper investigates an intermediate form of interrelationship between firms, which provides yet another way of organizing economic activity, the co-operative agreement.
Goodwill and the Spirit Of markerCapitalism
Authors: Dore Ronald
Published: November 2023

Why have large factories given way to the co-ordinated production of specialized family units in segments of the Japanese textile industry? One reason is the predominance of ‘obligated relational contracting’ in Japanese business. Consumer goods markets are highly competitive in Japan, but trade in intermediates, by contrast, is for the most part conducted within long-term trading relations in which goodwill ‘give-and-take’ is expected to temper the pursuit of self-interest.
Introduction
Authors: Dutton William H
Published: November 2023

At the end of the twentieth century, the depth and significance of the revolution in information and communication technologies (ICTs) is broadly acknowledged, although vigorous debates continue about its driving forces and social implications. The widespread consensus over the increasing centrality of computers and telecommunications across all levels and sectors of society and the economy has been reinforced by the way the mass media have discussed these major technological and business advances.
The Factory of the Future and the Productivity Paradox
Authors: Freeman Christopher
Published: November 2023

Predictions about the Factory of the Future

The factory is being reinvented from scratch. Traditional production lines are being ripped apart to make room for flexible ‘make-anything’ machinery ... Long narrow production lines with men [sic] crawling all over them-a feature of manufacturing every-where since the early days of the car-making dynasties—are

being ⃛ replaced with clusters of all-purpose machines huddled in cells run by computers and served by multi-fingered robots. The whole shape of the industrial landscape is changing.
The Politics of IT Strategy and Development in Organizations
Authors: Coombs Rod , Hull Richard
Published: November 2023

ICT is one of a small number of ‘generic’ technologies—like steam power and electricity—which have caused what the Austrian economist Schumpeter (1939) called ‘gales of creative destruction’ in market economies by fuelling economic growth. However, the forms of diffusion of the technology have been neither smooth nor simple (see Chapters 1 and 2). The complex nature of the diffusion process has contributed to uncertainty over its implications for organizations. It took decades of using the technology before there was widespread recognition that ICT-based systems did not simply change the way business is done—they changed the business itself and the structures of organizations involved in it.
Learning and Education in an Information Society
Authors: Gell Michael , Cochrane Peter
Published: November 2023

Education was one of the few sectors which remained relatively stable during the early decades of the all-pervasive ICT-based revolution which has been charted throughout this book. In the 1990s, however, education began to face the full brunt of a global maelstrom driven by ICT. This was because education held a near-monopoly on the important middle ground separating work and play in most advanced economies.
The Politics of Information and Communication Policy: The Information Superhighway
Authors: Dutton William H , Blumler Jay G , Garnham Nicholas , Mansell Robin , Cornford James , Peltu Malcolm
Published: November 2023

The election of US President Bill Clinton and Vice-President Al Gore in 1992 saw the metaphor of an ”information superhighway“ emerge as a topic of worldwide debate and action. Within a month of taking office, the Clinton Administration announced its ”information superhighway“ initiative, the National Information Infrastructure (Nil). This deployed the vision of an ”information superhighway“ as the centrepiece of a coordinated government strategy encompassing many social, economic, and technology policy areas. For example, the Nil plan argued for a dramatic shift in US telecommunications policy away from a previously limited role for government as regulator. Instead, the government involvement was seen to be a broader one of promoting the development of new ICT infrastructures, services, and products in order to help address major social and economic objectives, such as improving public services, democratic processes, and national competitiveness.
Human-Resource Management
Authors: Child John , Faulkner David
Published: November 2023

Until recently, the human-resource issues arising in strategic alliances have received rather little attention. This is despite evidence that many performance problems in alliances stem from poorly designed and executed human-resource-management (HRM) policies (Frayne and Geringer 1990). When alliances are established, the feasibility studies which are undertaken and negotiations between partners typically focus on matters of technology, markets, ownership, and management structures. They often neglect HRM issues, in the belief that these either are less consequential or can be sorted out once the alliance is up and running (Drouin 1996). It was, for example, estimated that only about 4 per cent of the time spent in creating collaborative ventures is spent resolving human-resource-related issues (Coopers & Lybrand/Yankelovich, Skelly & White 1986). Failures of international cooperation between firms can result from the poor adjustment of managers and staff to working with their partner’s nationals. American firms have in particular been noted for a neglect of rigorous selection and training for international assignments, and this has been associated with a high failure rate among their expatriates (Adler and Ghadar 1990).
Conclusion and the Future
Authors: Child John , Faulkner David
Published: November 2023

This book has covered a wide range of issues relevant to the creation and management of cooperative strategy in the present age. This concluding chapter begins by drawing these topics together in an overview. It then goes on to argue that important benefits could arise from bringing cooperation further into the mainstream of management thinking and practice, and it focuses on two ways forward. The first is to give more attention to the challenge of managing cooperation and developing it to a mature and fruitful condition. The second is to appreciate the key role that cooperative strategies can play in enabling organizations to cope with the uncertainties of new highly complex business environments. These themes reflect the emphasis in this book on the process and context of cooperation.
Thinking the Unthinkable [What Happens if the is Field as we Know it Goes Away?
Authors: Markus M Lynne
Published: November 2023

One of the central questions asked in this volume is the extent to which academics have a natural tendency to frame these questions in terms of disciplinary ‘turf’. We bemoan the fact that intellectual communities like organisational behaviour, operations management, and marketing are ‘discovering’ information technology (IT) as an important topic for their teaching and research. Whether their interests lie in IT impacts, soft ware engineering, or electronic commerce, we see them as laying claim to research domains that we think of as ours. We deplore their ignorance of our contributions, and bridle when they question the value of AIS. As the newest business school discipline, we believe AIS to be vulnerable in faculty hiring and promotion decisions and curriculum debates.
David F. Feeny and Leslie P. Willcocks
Authors: Capabilities Rethinking , Function Skills in the Information Systems
Published: November 2023

Despite wide recognition of the usefulness of resource-based approaches to organisational survival and competitiveness, these have rarely been applied in detail to the question of how the IS function in contemporary organisations can be configured. Against several trends-most notably outsourcing and that towards business ownership of IS-that for some commentators imply the steady demise or ‘withering away’ of the IS function, our own empirical work has led us to posit the emergence in practice of the ‘high performance’ IS function. This has four ‘faces’, or fundamental tasks. We advance a portfolio of nine core capabilities, several new to the IS function, which are required to deliver high performance in this context.
The Management of Knowledge Workers
Authors: Scarbrough Harry
Published: November 2023

The relevance of this chapter on knowledge workers to a book on in formation systems needs to be touched on only briefly. There are (at least) three major reasons why students and practitioners of IS should be concerned with the management of this particular group. For one, as possessors of specialist expertise many IS staff fall into the knowledge worker category. Their job mobility and the problems of controlling their work are the kind of management problems we see with other knowledge workers. Secondly, IS functions are increasingly finding that they have to tailor their services to user groups whose work is knowledge based.
What is the Management of Technological Innovation and Why is it Important?
Authors: Dodgson Mark
Published: November 2023

The challenge of management in business firms is to develop and sustain competitive advantages. These competitive advantages allow firms to meet their objectives, be they profit generation, growth, increased market share, or increased employee remuneration and job security. This book examines the ways in which the management of technological innovation contributes to the development and sustainability of competitive advantages.
The New Challenges of the Management of Technological Innovation
Authors: Dodgson Mark
Published: November 2023

Some of the challenges confronting firms in their management of technological innovation were described in Chapter 1. These challenges are reflections of major changes in the nature of industry and business. The most significant of these changes will be examined in five contexts: in industry in general, in business and innovation systems, in management, in the innovation process, and in globalization. To comprehend the future challenges of MTI it is necessary to understand these broader contextual and environmental changes.
Technology Strategy
Authors: Dodgson Mark
Published: November 2023

Since the late 1980s, an increasing amount of research and analysis has shown why technology should be a strategic issue (Teece 1987; Dodgson 1989; Pavitt 1990; Loveridge and Pitt 1990; Granstrand et al. 1992; Dussauge et al. 1993; Coombs 1994; Goodman and Lawless 1994; Burgelman et al. 1996). As we have seen in preceding chapters, technological innovation is a strategic issue for the following reasons.
Identification Problem in Macroeconometrics
Authors: Favero Carlo A
Published: November 2023

var in levels and VECM representations specify the probabilistic structure of the data. Consider the case of an empirical investigation of the monetary transmission mechanism to evaluate the impact of monetary policy on macroeconomic variables. Let’s partition the vector of n variables of interest into two subsets: Y, which represents the vector of macroeconomic variables of interest and M, the vector of monetary variables determined by the interaction between the monetary policy maker and the economy.
Cowles Commission Approach
Authors: Favero Carlo A
Published: November 2023

The traditional approach to econometric modelling of the monetary transmission mechanism, usually referred to as the Cowles Commission approach, aims at the quantitative evaluation of the effects of modification in the variables controlled by the monetary policy-maker (the instruments of monetary policy) on the macroeconomic variables which represent the final goals of the policy-maker.
The Concept of Corporate Strategy
Authors: Andrews Kenneth R
Published: November 2023

Corporate strategy is the pattern of decisions in a company that determines and reveals its objectives, purposes, or goals, produces the principal policies and plans for achieving those goals, and defines the range of business the company is to pursue, the kind of economic and human organization it is or intends to be, and the nature of the economic and noneconomic contribution it intends to make to its shareholders, employees, customers, and communities. In an organization of any size or diversity, ‘corporate strategy’ usually applies to the whole enterprise, while ‘business strategy,’ less comprehensive, defines the choice of product or service and market of individual businesses within the firm. Business strategy, that is, is the determination of how a company will compete in a given business and position itself among its competitors.
Industry Structure, Market Rivalry, and Public Policy
Authors: Demsetz Harold
Published: November 2023

Under the pressure of competitive rivalry, and in the apparent absence of effective barriers to entry, it would seem that the concentration of an industry’s output in a few firms could only derive from their superiority in producing and marketing products or in the superiority of a structure of industry in which there are only a few firms. In a world in which information and resource mobility can be secured only at a cost, an industry will become more concentrated under competitive conditions only if a differential advantage in expanding output develops in some firms. Such expansion will increase the degree of concentration at the same time that it increases the rate of return that these firms earn.
Towards a Strategic Theory of the Firm
Authors: Rumelt Richard P
Published: November 2023

I consider myself a mainstream researcher in the field of business policy, and the ideas I want to describe in this paper concern the foundations of a theory of business strategy that is rooted in economics. But is such a paper, whatever its merits, really appropriate at a conference entitled ‘Non-traditional Approaches to Policy Research’? Surprisingly, it is. The use of economic theory to model and explicate business strategy, as it is understood within the field of business policy, is distinctly non-traditional.
Transaction-Cost Economics in Real Time
Authors: Langlois Richard N
Published: November 2023

Although one can find versions of the idea in Smith, Marshall, and elsewhere, the modern discussion of the capabilities of organizations probably begins with Edith Penrose (1959), who suggested viewing the firm as a ‘pool of resources.· Among the writers who have used and developed this idea are G. B. Richardson (1972), Richard Nelson and Sidney Winter (1982), and David Teece (1980, 1982). To all these authors, the firm is a pool not of tangible but of intangible resources. Capabilities, in the end, are a matter of knowledge. Because of the nature of specialization and the limits to cognition, organizations as well as individuals are limited in what they know how to do effectively. Put the other way, organizations possess a pool of more-or-less embodied ‘how to’ knowledge useful for particular classes of activities.
The Prince
Authors: Machiavelli Niccolò
Published: November 2023

Having treated in detail all the characteristics of those principalities which I proposed to discuss at the beginning, and having considered, to some extent, the reasons for their success or shortcomings, and having demonstrated the ways by which many have tried to acquire them and to maintain them, it remains for me now to speak in general terms of the kinds of offence and defence that can be adopted by each of the previously mentioned principalities. We have said above that a prince must have laid firm foundations; otherwise he will of necessity come to grief. And the principal foundations of all states, the new as well as the old or mixed, are good laws and good armies. And since there cannot exist good laws where there are no good armies, and where there are good armies there must be good laws, I shall leave aside the treatment of laws and discuss the armed forces.
The Leadership Mystique
Authors: Vries Manfred F R Kets de
Published: November 2023

When we plunge into the organizational literature on leadership we quickly become lost in a labyrinth: there are endless definitions, countless articles, and never-ending polemics. As far as leadership studies go, it seems that more and more has been studied about less and less, to end up ironically with a group of researchers studying everything about nothing. It prompted one wit to say recently that reading the current world literature on leadership is rather like going through the Parisian telephone directory while trying to read it in Chinese! The proliferation of literature on effective leadership is amply reflected by the increase in the number of articles in its bible, Stogdill ‘s Handbook of Leadership.
Other problems or diagnoses found in association with borderline personality disorder
Authors: Krawitz Roy , Jackson Wendy
Published: November 2023

If you have BPD, the chances are you will also have or have had about three to four other diagnoses. It is only a minority of people with BPD who have ‘pure’ BPD with no other diagnoses. This information guides treatment.
Is it our awareness that makes a difference? (Self-reflection, chain analysis, and mindfulness)
Authors: Krawitz Roy , Jackson Wendy
Published: November 2023

Self-reflection of current experience requires us rapidly to shift our focus from full immersion in the experience to a position of stepping back just enough to allow for some degree of watching ourselves and self-reflection, and then to throw ourselves back into the experience, and so forth. Self-reflection enables us to take ownership of our experiences. Self-reflection is a psychological skill that requires practice. The aim of the chain analysis is to identify problems in the chain of events that occurred and then to explore solutions that will better prepare us the next time we are in a similar position.
Is it how we clarify our values and identity that makes a difference?
Authors: Krawitz Roy , Jackson Wendy
Published: November 2023

Identify your most important values, roles, and energizing activities. Identify what gives you a sense of pleasure, fulfilment, meaning, and purpose. Focus on strengthening these areas of your life.
Is it how we manage our physical health that makes a difference?
Authors: Krawitz Roy , Jackson Wendy
Published: November 2023

As our physical condition impacts on our emotional well-being, it is worth attending to, not only for its direct physical benefits but also for the beneficial effects on our emotional state.

It is important that we sleep as well as possible to support our resilience (hardiness) in dealing with our day to day tasks.

We need to eat a regular balanced nutritious diet to give our bodies the fuel it needs to keep going, especially at difficult times.
Is it our relationship with something ‘larger than ourselves’ that makes a difference?
Authors: Krawitz Roy , Jackson Wendy
Published: November 2023

Research has shown that the majority of people believe in something ‘larger than oneself’ in a spiritual or religious sense. If you are one of this majority, it makes sense to attend to these areas of your life to achieve life balance and fulfilment.

You can experience a sense of community in a wide range of ways such as belonging to local sports, book, singing, or music groups, or being part of the street or building you live in (greeting neighbours), or belonging to an AA, Narcotics Anonymous (NA), or other selfhelp group.
The Learning Organization and National Systems of Competence Building and Innovation
Authors: Lam Alice , Lundvall Bengt-Å
Published: November 2023

There is a growing understanding that knowledge is at the core of economic development. This is reflected in OECD publications referring to the knowledge-based economy (OECD 1996a, 1996b; Foray and Lundvall 1997). Here we prefer to define the present stage as a ‘learning economy’. Knowledge has always been at the core of economic development, and it is not obvious that there has been a radical change in ‘the amount of economically useful knowledge’. The useful stock of knowledge is not the sum of all knowledge that was ever created in the history of mankind. A lot of knowledge has been lost in a process of creative destruction.
Socio-political theory and ethics in HRM
Authors: Palmer Gill
Published: November 2023

Human resource management is a relatively new ‘discipline’ in management, but debates about appropriate ethical approaches to the management of people at work have a much longer history. This chapter comments on the history of socio-political and economic ideologies, in order to provide a broad context relevant to current debates about ethics and HRM.
Direct Compositionality on Demand
Authors: Barker Chris
Published: November 2023

The problem is that many natural language expression types lead a double life, simultaneously here and there, masquerading as a local lump but somehow interacting directly with distant elements. The two main examples discussed here are bound anaphora, in which an anaphor depends for its value on some distant binder; and quantification, in which some local element takes semantic scope over a properly containing constituent. Such action-at-a-distance confronts theories of the syntax–semantics interface with a dilemma: should we interpret these elements locally, where they enter into the syntactic structure, or globally, where they take semantic effect? Both approaches have staunch defenders.
Magnificence: the Zenith of Wolsey’ s Power I522-I528
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

Events did not bear out the lofty pretensions of Cornish’s political farce. Scarcely a week after Charles had left England, Surrey commenced military operations in France, but his campaign had ended by October in sickness, and with nothing accomplished; fighting was also undertaken on the Scottish border but this, although continuing late into 1523, petered out inconclusively; and the main English project, Suffolk’s invasion from Calais, unsupported by the Imperial allies, likewise ended ingloriously. The only results of the campaign were mutual suspicions on the part of the allies, and financial difficulties and widespread discontent in England. To add to Wolsey’s displeasure the death of Pope Adrian VI in September 1523 and the election of Clement VII made it, perhaps, too clear that the Emperor’s avowed championship of the English Cardinal’s candidature was worthless. Charles V had increased his hold upon Italy; Henry had gained nothing in France; and Wolsey had been snubbed-such was the outcome of the Friendship, Prudence, and Might so spectacularly celebrated in the summer of 1522.
The Reign of Edward VI
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

HENRY VIII, stricken and speechless-having reluctantly accepted the inevitability of death by squeezing Archbishop Cranmer’s hand as token that he ‘trusted in the Lord’-departed this life on 2.8 January 1547. ‘The said king died of a dropsi, as it was thought’, wrote his loving son Edward, with great composure, a couple of years later.1 Even while Henry lay dying the political vultures were gathering. Sir William Paget, writing to Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, in the summer of 1549, exhorted the Lord Protector to ‘Remember what you promised me in the gallery at Westminster, before the breath was out of the body of the King that dead is : remember what you promised immediately after, devising with me concerning the place which you now occupy’. The precise nature of these promises is not made apparent; but, clearly, the two politicians had spent Henry VIII’s dying moments planning how best to turn the situation to their own advantage. The new monarch-to-be was a child, 9 years of age, and the old King had sought to meet the difficulties posed by the government of a minor by the simple expedient of ruling England from the grave. Henry’s will, drawn up at Christmas, made careful arrangements for the impending regency, and, in particular, was concerned that no one magnate should enjoy supreme power. But this will posed more problems than it could solve for those who sought to take over the control of government, and whose main concern was, therefore, to circumvent Henry’s provisions.
Newly Industrialized Countries
Authors: Guy Frederick
Published: November 2023

Before the late 1970s, the industrialized countries of the world were essentially those which had already been industrialized in 1940. The industrial world roughly corresponded to the membership of the OECD, plus the Soviet Union and its allies in central and eastern Europe. Those were the First and Second Worlds. The Third World consisted of all other countries; the same countries are also known as “less developed countries,” or sometimes “underdeveloped” or “developing” countries.

There were, of course, industries in Third World countries, but we refer to them as nonindustrial because few of their exports were manufactured – their comparative advantage and international specialization were in the primary sector, the products of farms, mines, and oil wells. Most imports to Third World countries were manufactured products from the First or Second World. This broad pattern of specialization defined the international division of labor.
Poverty Traps
Authors: Guy Frederick
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter dealt with newly industrialized countries – countries which had, in the space of a few decades, joined the industrial world. Reading about those countries, one could be forgiven for getting the impression that the whole world is fast becoming part of the modern industrial and service economy. Many countries, we know, are quite poor and not growing very fast. Figure 14.1 provides some comparisons.

We’ve all heard that about half of the world’s population lives on incomes of less than US$2 per day, whether in backward countryside or urban slums. Most readers of this book will never have had to live that way, nor has the author; for this reason, attempting to understand the situation of the poorer half of humanity requires, for most of us, greater efforts of imagination and sympathy than do the topics discussed in previous chapters.
Language Contact and Convergence in Pennsylvania German
Authors: Burridge Kate
Published: November 2023

Like any speech community, the Pennsylvania Germans do not represent a totally homogeneous group. What exists is a complex design of social, cultural, and religious diversity that must be taken into account in any appraisal of the linguistic situation. This is particularly true for patterns of contact-induced change.
Assessment of asthma
Authors: Hasan Arshad S , Suresh Babu K
Published: November 2023

Asthma diagnosis is usually easy, but a series of tests may help to make the diagnosis in difficult cases Spirometry is the single most important lung function test for the diagnosis and management of asthma Allergy skin prick tests help to identify relevant allergens The ability to monitor nitric oxide in exhaled air may prove useful in guiding the need for anti-inflammatory treatment

The first step in caring for asthma is to make a confident and correct diagnosis, and the second is to assess its severity. Only then can appropriate treatment be prescribed, and further monitoring and treatment adjustments should result in good control of asthma with few long-term complications.
Allergen avoidance
Authors: Hasan Arshad S , Suresh Babu K
Published: November 2023

Avoidance of a relevant allergen by an asthmatic may prevent symptoms and exacerbations and may reduce the need for medication to control the disease The most relevant allergens for people with asthma are those that are inhaled and are present all year round, such as house dust mites, moulds, pets, and cockroaches A comprehensive approach is required for reduction of house dust mite allergens and avoidance measures should be carried out over the whole house An important step for reduction of house dust mite, mould, and cockroach allergens is to eliminate their reservoirs and make the environment hostile to their survival