bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
EFFECT of PULPER‐FINISHER OPERATION ON QUALITY of TOMATO JUICE and TOMATO PUREE
Authors: NOOMHORM ATHAPOL , TANSAKUL AMPAWAN
Published: February 2007

Preliminary tests were done on the performance of an existing pulper finisher design with two unadjustable blades. Quality parameters such as consistency index and yield were determined at screen sizes of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 mm and speeds: 100, 300, 500 and 700 rpm. Design modifications were made on the pulper finisher by addition of another blade and slide tapering of blades to allow smooth flow of material on one direction. Quality parameters such as consistency index, pulp/serum ratio, particle size distribution, total solids and total yield were evaluated.

A maximum quality index in terms of total solids, pulp/serum, consistency, particle size distribution was achieved at screen size 1.0 mm and a speed of 700 rpm. Maximum yield of tomato juice however, was obtained with screen size of 1.5 mm and a speed of 700 rpm. Results of the comparative tests done on existing and modified pulper finisher showed that quality and quantity of tomato juice and puree from the modified unit is better and higher. A 3% increase in yield was observed from the modified unit.
SEPARATION of CHOLESTEROL FROM BUTTEROIL USING QUILLAJA SAPONINS. II. EFFECTS of TEMPERATURE, AGITATION and CONCENTRATION of QUILLAJA SOLUTION
Authors: SUNDFELD ESDRAS , KROCHTA JOHN M. , RICHARDSON THOMAS
Published: February 2007

The separation of cholesterol from butteroil was achieved by various processes based on contacting it with aqueous solutions of Quillaja saponaria saponins followed by separation of the cholesterol‐saponin complex. Alternative processes and controls studied were (1) Water Control (W): butteroil was contacted with pure water; (2) Reaction (R): butteroil was contacted with aqueous solution of saponins; (3) Adsorption Control (A): butteroil was contacted with water, diatomaceous earth was then added; (4) Reaction + Adsorption (R+A): diatomaceous earth was added to the Reaction medium (from 2); (5) Reaction + Washing (R+W): the aqueous phase resulting from Reaction (2) was discarded and pure water contacted with the fat. the last step in all the above processes and controls was the separation of the fat phase, after which analyses were made. ANOVA indicated that the Adsorption Control process did not yield any significant cholesterol reduction over the Water Control; all other processes resulted in significant cholesterol separation in the order R+A > R+W > R. the levels of cholesterol reduction achieved by the R, R+W, and R+A processes were significantly affected by the concentration of quillaja solution and temperature; the level of agitation had no significant effect over the range investigated. Quillaja powder residue was present in the fat phase after Reaction (2) but both adsorption and washing procedures significantly reduced it.
INFLUENCE of RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES of FLUID and SEMISOLID FOODS ON the PERFORMANCE of A FILLER
Authors: RAO M.A. , COOLEY H.J. , ORTLOFF C. , CHUNG K. , WIJTS STAN C.
Published: February 2007

For low‐viscosity foods, in a piston filler (FMC PN010), power‐law relationships were found between the number of cycles/minute at which splashing occurred on the rim of a container versus viscosities of the test fluids. Splashing was due to either the breakup of a discharge jet in the nozzle or overflow of discharge fluid over the rim of a container. the formation of droplets due to breakup of discharge jets was confirmed by solution of the flow equations on a Cray‐2 super computer. With foods containing particulates in a low‐viscosity liquid, splashing occurred when the food hit the bottom of the container and again when the plunger hit the top of the heaped food. With foods having high magnitudes of yield stresses, the plug formed in the discharge nozzle of the filler contributed to heaping of the foods.
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING STUDIES of the FREEZE‐DRYING KINETICS of POTATO
Authors: RUTLEDGE D.N. , RENE F. , HILLS B.P. , FOUCAT L.
Published: February 2007

Subzero temperature NMR Imaging of the nonfreezing water in potato cylinders is used to study freeze‐drying kinetics. the analysis of the distribution of transverse relaxation rates of the samples between +5C and ‐25C is used to determine the state of water in potato tissue and establish imaging protocols. the evolution of the Residual Water Content, the diameter of the frozen core observed visually and of the nonfreezing water detected by NMR Imaging, are monitored as a function of the freeze‐drying time. These results are interpreted with a theoretical model based on pure sublimation from the surface of a finite cylinder.
MODELING FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION of STEADY‐STATE O2 PARTIAL PRESSURES IN MODIFIED‐ATMOSPHERE PACKAGES
Authors: TALASILA P.C. , CAMERON A.C.
Published: February 2007

A mathematical model was developed to predict the frequency distribution of steady‐state O2 partial pressures in modified‐atmosphere packages of fresh and minimally processed fruits and vegetables. Variation in O2 uptake was predicted to have relatively larger influence on the package O2 distribution than variation in film permeability to O2. the model also predicted that the range of O2 partial pressures in the packages would be larger for the products with lower K1/2 (a constant in product O2 uptake equation) values. the percent deviation of package O2 partial pressures from [O2]med increased with [O2]med up to about 3 kPa and gradually decreased thereafter. Package O2 distribution was symmetrical at higher [O2]med but became gradually asymmetrical with decreasing [O2]med from 6 kPa. the model was used to predict target [O2]med for the design of modified‐atmosphere packages for different probability levels of having package O2 being equal to or less than a minimum tolerable level of the product.
SIMULTANEOUS DIFFUSION of CITRIC ACID and ASCORBIC ACID IN PREPEELED POTATOES
Authors: LOMBARDI A.M. , ZARITZKY N.E.
Published: February 2007

The study of the simultaneous diffusion of chemical preservatives in vegetable tissues permits the determination of the time required to complete this process and the concentration distributions of the preservatives.

The individual or simultaneous diffusion of citric and ascorbic acids in pre‐peeled potatoes was analyzed; the effect of pH decrease on the diffusive flux of ascorbic acid and the interaction between both acids was considered as the multicomponent diffusion problem.

Potato spheres of different radii were immersed in individual solutions or mixtures of citric and ascorbic acids in concentration ranging from 0.5% to 2% W/V for different immersion times and agitation conditions. the residual concentration of citric acid was determined by titrable acidity (22058 AOAC method) and that of ascorbic acid by 2–6 dichlorophenol‐indophenol method.

Experimental data were fitted to the mathematical models and the effective diffusion coefficients were determined for citric (De= 4.3 ± 0.2 × 10−10 m2/s) and ascorbic acids (De= 5.45 ± 0.4 × 10−10 m2/s) diffusing individually. When mixtures of two acids were used, multicomponent analysis was adopted and interaction coefficients were evaluated (D12= 6.67 ± 0.8 × 10−11 m2/s and D21= 8.33 ± 0.8 × 10−11 m2/s); they were an order of magnitude lower than binary diffusion values.

The pH effect on the diffusive flux of ascorbic acid was decoupled from the interaction of both acids during simultaneous diffusion by studying the diffusion of the first acid in potatoes preacidified with the second acid.
IMPLEMENTATION of an AUTOMATED REAL‐TIME STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROLLER
Authors: TAN J. , CHANG Z. , HSIEH F.
Published: February 2007

Through a simple application, this research demonstrates the potential and procedure of applying computer vision and control techniques in developing automated real‐time statistical process controllers (SPC). A computer vision system was developed to sample and measure quality variables (area, length, and width) of an extruded food product. Shewhart control charts were used to monitor the state of statistical control. Corrective actions were determined by using a PI control algorithm to minimize the product size variation caused by material inconsistency in moisture content. the system was implemented and tested. Considerable improvement was achieved in product size uniformity.
NMR IMAGING, CALORIMETRIC, and MATHEMATICAL MODELING STUDIES of FOOD FREEZING
Authors: KERR W.L. , KAUTEN R.J. , OZILGEN M. , McCARTHY M.J. , REID D.S.
Published: February 2007

Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), calorimetry, and temperature measurements were used to monitor cylindrical potato sections frozen at ‐11C and ‐42C. MRI showed the advance of the nonsymmetric freezing zone and loss of signal intensity as liquid water turned to ice. Differential calorimetry was used to follow heat removal during transient freezing. Measured times to 95% enthalpy change were 24 min (‐42C) and 49 min (‐11C), as compared to modeled values of 29 min (‐42C) and 100 min (‐11C). Times to 95% change in the NMR signal, integrated over the area of the image, were 21 min (‐42C) and 56 min (‐11C). Changes in NMR signal intensity could be correlated with the amount of unfrozen water remaining after a steady‐state had been reached. At ‐42C, NMR indicated 25% unfrozen water remaining as compared to 26% by calorimetry, and 22% by modeling. At ‐11C, NMR measured 67% unfrozen water remaining as compared to 48% by calorimetry, and 25% by equilibrium modeling.
EFFECTS of pH ON the ULTRAFILTRATION of BOVINE SERUM ALBUMIN AT HIGH IONIC STRENGTH USING A MACROPOROUS TITANIA MEMBRANE
Authors: TRZEBIATOWSKA M. , SZANIAWSKI A.R. , SPENCER H.G.
Published: February 2007

The ultrafiltration of bovine serum albumin (BSA) buffered at pH 3.8, 4.8 and 6.8 in solutions with ionic strengths greater than 0.05 mol dm−3 was investigated at pressures of 0.20 and 0.70 MPa using a macroporous titania membrane. Protein rejections as high as 0.94 were obtained. Both pH and pressure affected the permeability and rejection. the relative amount of irreversible fouling was estimated by evaluating parameters of a resistance model. Conditions providing the lowest fouling index and the least irreversible fouling while retaining high BSA rejection were obtained at the highest pH, 6.8, and lowest pressure, 0.20 MPa.
YIELD AND QUALITY OF ONION FLAVOR OIL OBTAINED BY SUPERCRITICAL FLUID EXTRACTION AND OTHER METHODS
Authors: DRON ADITI , GUYERU DANIEL E. , GAGE DOUGLAS A. , LIRA CARL T.
Published: February 2007

Methods of extraction of onion flavor oil were studied including supercritical fluid extraction using carbon dioxide (CO2), liquid CO2 extraction and steam distillation‐solvent extraction. The effect of using entrainers with supercritical fluid extraction was also studied. The yield and the quality of onion extracts obtained from the different methods were compared. The maximum yield of 0.0324% was obtained by supercritical CO2 extraction at 3600psi (24.5 MPa), 37C at a CO2 flow rate of 0.5 L/min. Ethyl alcohol used as entrainer enhanced the yield of onion oil over that obtained by supercritical CO2 experiment without entrainer at the CO2flow rate of 1.0 L/min. Gas chromatography and combined gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry of the extracts indicated that the flavor profiles were different for extracts obtained by different methods. Supercritical and liquid CO2 extracts had fresh onion‐like flavor as opposed to a cooked flavor of the extract obtained by steam distillation‐solvent extraction.
COAGULATION OF FISH PROTEINS FROM FROZEN FISH MINCE WASH WATER BY OHMIC HEATING
Authors: HUANG LIHAN , CHEN YING , MORRISSEY MICHAEL T.
Published: February 2007

A batch‐type ohmic heating device was developed to investigate the possibility of coagulating fish proteins from frozen fish mince wash water. At constant voltage (90 VAC), the temperature of wash water samples was raised to different set points (40, 50, 60, 70, and 80C, respectively). Effect of heating on coagulation of proteins and removal of COD, TS, and TSS was investigated. When the temperature reached 70C, 33.0%, 59.3%, 33.3%, and 92.1% protein, COD, TS, and TSS, respectively, were removed from the wash water. Holding samples at constant temperatures for longer time periods did not improve solids removal, except at 40C. The highest heating temperature for effective coagulation of proteins and removal of solids is 70C. The relationship between heating temperature and heating time followed a second order polynomial model. Apparent electrical conductivity and energy consumption increased linearly with the heating temperature. At the early stage of heating, almost all electric energy was converted to heat energy. As the temperatures rose, energy efficiency began to decrease linearly with the temperature. Overall energy efficiency was above 86%.
THE RESPONSE OF SOME PROPERTIES OF FRUITS TO VACUUM IMPREGNATION
Authors: SALVATORI DANIELA , ANDRÉS ANA , CHIRALT AMPARO , FITO PEDRO
Published: February 2007

The behavior of several fruits (three varieties of apples, strawberry, kiwi‐fruit, mango and peach) during vacuum impregnation (VI) treatments was studied by using specially designed equipment and methodology to determine deformation and impregnation levels in fruit samples. The coupling of the Hydrodynamic Mechanism (HDM) and the Deformation‐Relaxation Phenomena (DRP) was analyzed throughout the two typical steps of VI process (first period at vacuum pressure and second period at atmospheric pressure). VI experiments were carried out over different lengths of time under vacuum (t1) and at atmospheric pressure (t2) duration in order to obtain kinetic information on the coupled HDM and DRP. Nevertheless, neither the duration of t1 or t2 was observed to have an influence on the deformation and impregnation levels in the examined time scales. The effective porosities (ɛe) of the fruits that were studied were determined and compared with the fruit porosity (ɛ) obtained from density data. In almost all cases the ratio ɛe/ɛ was lower than 1, which indicates that only a fraction of fruit pores was available to HDM action. DRP affects the volume fraction of impregnated liquid in all cases.
STUDY OF THE STEADY FLOW BEHAVIOR OF HAZELNUT PASTE
Authors: ERCAN SAYBIL NURAY , DERVISOGLU MURAT
Published: February 2007

The steady flow behavior of five different hazelnut pastes was studied and compared. Among the three steady shear geometries tried; cone and plate, plate and plate and concentric cylinder, the concentric cylinder was found to produce the most consistent data. Generated data were used to test the applicability of possible rheological models. Power Law Model could correlate the data very successfully. Yield stress values determined were quite low and application of Herschel‐Bulkley Model did not improve the correlation significantly. The temperature dependency of the flow behavior was also studied obtaining data at four different temperatures. Correlations for temperature dependency were incorporated into the rheological model equations and these models were used to estimate pumping power requirements for pipe flow.
SIZE AND SHAPE EFFECT ON NONUNIFORMITY OF TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE DISTRIBUTIONS IN MICROWAVE HEATED FOOD MATERIALS: PART I SIMULATION
Authors: VILAYANNUR R.S. , PURI V.M. , ANANTHESWARAN R.C.
Published: February 2007

Temperature and moisture distributions were calculated using a finite element model (FEM) in potato samples of different shapes (brick‐, cylinder‐, and hexagonal prism‐shaped), sizes (75, 90 and 105 cm3) and height to base dimension ratios (DR = 0.25 to 1.75). For each of the three product volumes considered, the nonuniformity in temperature distribution (as indicated by the standard deviation of temperature (SDT) distribution within the product) was found to be lower in the case of hexagonal prism‐shaped products (SDT ranged from 4.9 to 6.4C for product volume of 90 cm3) when compared with brick (7.0 to 7.5C) and cylinder‐shaped products (5.2 to 8.2C). The time to reach the same maximum temperature of 80C, however, was longer in hexagonal prism‐shaped products (61 s for product volume of 90 cm3 and DR = 1.0) when compared to brick (48 s) and cylinder‐shapes (44 s). For the cases considered, the nonuniformity of temperature and moisture distribution increased as the product volume increased from 75 to 105 cm3, in the case of brick‐ and hexagonal‐shaped products. Cylindrical products of low volumes (75 cm3) and low radii showed high temperature nonuniformity. The moisture nonuniformity in all the product shapes considered was influenced by the area.
THE REMOVAL OF β‐LACTOGLOBULIN FROM STAINLESS STEEL SURFACES AT HIGH AND LOW TEMPERATURE AS INFLUENCED BY THE TYPE AND CONCENTRATION OF CLEANING AGENT
Authors: KARLSSON CAMILLA A.‐C. , WAHLGREN MARIE C. , TRÁGÅRDH A. CHRISTIAN
Published: February 2007

In the food industry, severe fouling of equipment surfaces is common and frequent cleaning is necessary. The aim of this work was to contribute to an understanding of the cleaning process. The adsorption of β‐lactoglobulin (β‐LG) onto stainless steel surfaces and its removal by detergent were followed at 24 and 82C using in situ ellipsometry. Soil removal using different concentrations of sodium hydroxide was studied. Furthermore, NaOH was combined with the anionic surfactant sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS). Increasing the NaOH concentration resulted in an enhanced cleaning rate and better cleanability. When the concentration was increased to 0.8 mg/mL, the cleaning process could no longer be monitored by ellipsometry. Combining SDS with NaOH resulted in improved cleaning compared to if using the individual components. Adsorption and removal of β‐LG at high temperature led in all cases to decreased cleanability compared to the results obtained at room temperature.
STUDIES ON THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE MOISTURE SORPTION CHARACTERISTICS OF POTATOES
Authors: McMINN W.A.M. , MAGEE T.R.A.
Published: February 2007

An understanding of the moisture sorption characteristics of food systems is an important objective in food engineering, in particular with respect to the mass transport phenomena during drying. A standard gravimetric technique was employed to examine the influence of temperature on the adsorption and desorption behavior for potatoes. The type II sorption isotherms were analysed using the Guggenheim‐Anderson‐de Boer model, with the observed hysteresis phenomena displaying a temperature dependence. The moisture dependent net isosteric heats of sorption were determined using the Clausius‐Clapeyron equation.
A STUDY OF HIGH PRESSURE WATER JETS FOR CUTTING CHICKEN BREAST MEAT
Authors: BANSAL R.K. , WALKER JOEL T.
Published: February 2007

A replicated experiment was conducted to determine optimum settings for orifice size, operating pressure, and nozzle traverse speed for cutting boneless chicken breast meat with high‐pressure water jets. Three orifices of 0.076, 0.127 and 0.178 mm were tested with different water pressures in the 90 to 224 MPa range and nozzle traverse speeds in the 50 to 800 mm/s range. A 0.127‐mm orifice working with water pressure in the range of 179 to 224 MPa and at 100 mm/s or slower cutting speed gave best results in this study to produce sharp clean cuts. Water jets from a 0.178‐mm orifice frequently caused too much meat loss especially at higher water pressures and slower nozzle speeds. Variations in chicken filet thickness also had significant effect on chicken breast meat cutting quality and depth with both 0.076 and 0.127‐mm orifices.
MOISTURE LOSS AS RELATED TO HEATING UNIFORMITY IN MICROWAVE PROCESSING OF SOLID FOODS
Authors: NI H. , DATTA A.K. , PARMESWAR R.
Published: February 2007

Moisture loss due to internal evaporation and its relationship to nonuniformity of heating in microwave reheating of high moisture solid foods was studied. A simple heat and mass transfer model was developed that excluded diffusional limitations of moisture movement. Microwave absorption and some dielectric and thermal properties were measured as input parameters to the model. Effect of varying microwave penetration with moisture level and temperature was included. For smaller total moisture loss, typical for a reheating application, predictions of total moisture loss and temperatures matched well with experimental data. Most of the moisture loss occurred from the edges due to higher temperature at these locations. Uniformity of heating to achieve a given average temperature is the key variable controlling total moisture loss. When starting from a frozen material, heating is much more nonuniform, leading to a greater moisture loss. As surface area increases for a given volume, uniformity of heating increases and the total moisture loss reduces. This simple model can be an effective tool in computer‐aided optimization of food products and processes.
THE APPLICATION OF PORTION CONTROL OPTIMIZATION IN AN AUTOMATED CAN‐FILLING PROCESS
Authors: OMAR F. , SILVA C.W. DE
Published: February 2007

The main objective of portion control is to ensure that desired portions, usually specified by weight, are placed in the packages. In can‐filling in particular, an optimal goal would be to minimize underfilling and overfilling. This paper develops an advanced packaging process for automated can‐filling of fish, which achieves this goal. The overall automated system uses an innovative technique of optimal overlapping and cutting of fish. First, a batch of fish are overlapped in a linear orientation where the ordering sequence, the head orientation, and the degree of overlap between fish are the variables of optimization. The optimization is carried out with the objective of minimizing the absolute total weight of underfill and overfill of the produced cans.

The optimal portioning method should possess a computational speed that is consistent with the process speed and the filling accuracy requirements. Several models of optimization have been developed. This paper follows a model development procedure that realizes a feasible and practical model. A numerical example that uses real data on a batch of salmon is presented to illustrate the approach and to demonstrate its feasibility in achieving both optimization objective and the processing speed. A comparison of several optimization models that have been developed is given, with respect to the computational speed and the filling accuracy. Results show that the optimal portioning method is able to achieve high production rates and improved filling accuracy in can‐filling process of salmon.
FIBER OPTIC SENSOR RESPONSE TO LOW LEVELS OF FAT IN SKIM MILK
Authors: CROFCHECK C.L. , PAYNE F.A. , HICKS C.L. , MENGÜÇ M.P. , NOKES S.E.
Published: February 2007

A fiber optic transmission technique using single fibers to deliver and receive light was investigated for measuring the milkfat content of homogenized skim milk. Light transmission through skim milk for wavelengths of 400 to 1000 nm was measured using a fiber optic spectrophotometer. Transmission was measured for distances of 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 mm and for milk containing 0.05 to 0.21 wt% milkfat. Skim milk was centrifuged, and the resulting fractions mixed to yield samples with 5 different milkfat levels. Three optical responses were tested for correlation with milkfat content. One used a light intensity measurement at a single transmission distance of 4 mm, the second used the light intensity ratio of two wavelengths at a single transmission distance of 4 mm, and the third used six different transmission distances to determine a light extinction coefficient at a single wavelength. The calibration equations from all three methods were able to predict sample milkfat content with a RMSE of 0.008 to 0.012 wt%. Statistical analysis did not find a significant difference between the three methods. Hence, for simplicity using a single transmission distance is attractive for further sensor design.
EVALUATION OF PROCESSES TO ENHANCE GRAIN AND MEAT COPRODUCTS1
Authors: CHA J.Y. , FLORES R.A. , KASTNER C.L.
Published: February 2007

Blends of soybean meal (SBM) and pork red blood cells (RBC) or stick water (SW) were extruded at different extrusion temperature profiles using a laboratory‐scale single screw extruder. The ratios of SBM:RBC were 90:10, 85:15, and 80:20 on a dry basis. The ratio of SBM:SW was 80:20 on a dry basis. Ground extrudates were analyzed for physical and nutritional properties which indicate the suitability of each treatment for use in feed processing systems. As screw speed increased from 60 to 120 rpm, the protein digestibility of the ground extrudates from the blends of SBM with 20% RBC increased from 94.4 to 97.1% at an extrusion temperature of 90C, and from 89.1 to 93.1% at an extrusion temperature of 130C. The protein digestibilities of the ground extrudates decreased as RBC content and particle size of the SBM increased. The protein digestibilities of the extrudates from the blends of SBM with RBC and SW decreased as extrusion temperature increased and screw speed decreased. The equilibrium moisture content of pelletized extrudates was lower than that of ground extrudates at each water activity tested. The extrudates from the blend of SBM with RBC had increased protein content and quality because of an improved balance of essential amino acids compared to SBM alone.
VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS FROM CITRUS FEED MILL EMISSIONS1
Authors: GENTRY TREVOR S. , BRADDOCK ROBERT J. , MILLER WILLIAM M. , SIMS CHARLES A. , GREGORY JESSE F.
Published: February 2007

Although citrus processors recover most of the essential oils in the peel, the amount remaining is released as air pollutants and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during cattle feed manufacturing. Citrus processing plants are required to obtain permits allowing emission of 91 t/year (100 tons/year) of VOCs, an amount exceeded by most processors. The objective of this study was to develop an accurate, on‐site method to measure VOC emissions, accomplished by use of adsorbent traps subsequently analyzed by gas chromatography. Over 90 percent of the oil entering the feed mill was accounted for, with d‐limonene as the major VOC, including other terpenes, β‐pinene and myrcene. Of sampling locations in a typical feed mill, error analysis determined the least precision (16.9%) was associated with determining the input rates of peel to the dryer. The sampling technique developed is a viable method for monitoring VOCs with reproducible results.
TIME‐TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIPS FOR IQF SHRIMP WITH LIQUID NITROGEN AND ITS QUALITY ASSESSMENT
Authors: GOSWAMI T.K. , RAVINDRA M.R. , NAYAK T.K.
Published: February 2007

Experiments were conducted to study the time temperature relationship during freezing of individual raw shrimp by dipping in Liquid Nitrogen. Four sets of experiments were conducted. The first set involved the assessment of the temperature profile of the gaseous nitrogen environment in a thermocole container with varying quantity of liquid nitrogen. The next two sets of experiments involved direct dipping of the raw shrimp in a liquid nitrogen bath in a thermocole container using perforated stainless steel tray suspended by means of a wire loop, one in a single tier and the other in a double tier. The fourth set was conducted in a laboratory model tunnel provided with immersion freezing facility. In each case, the dipping time was progressively increased from 5 s to 30 s at 5 s increments. The time‐temperature relationships obtained were compared with those from available literature and were found to exhibit similar trend.

The quality of the frozen shrimp was also studied in terms of pH, TVB, TMA and Indole content. It was observed that dipping shrimp in liquid nitrogen for the specified period retained the quality well within the acceptable commercial limit.
SUPERCRITICAL CO2/ETHANOL EXTRACTION OF ASTAXANTHIN FROM BLUE CRAB (CALLINECTES SAPIDUS) SHELL WASTE
Authors: FÉLIX‐VALENZUELA LETICIA , HIGUERA‐CIAPARA INOCENCIO , GOYCOOLEA‐VALENCIA FRANCISCO , ARGÜELLES‐MONAL WALDO
Published: February 2007

Astaxanthin (AX) is the major naturally occurring carotenoid pigment in marine crustaceans and the flesh of salmonids. These organisms are unable to synthesize AX de novo and when farmed commercially, require it in their feed. The high cost of synthetic AX has promoted research into new natural sources of ihe pigment, such as crustacean wastes. In this work, AX from demineralized crab (Callinectes sapidusj shell waste was extracted with a mixture of supercritical C2 and ethanol as a cosolvent. The effect of total solids load, pressure and temperature was assessed by response surface methodology (RSM). Extracted AX was determined by HPLC. The experimental data were fined to a second order model whereby the conditions for maximum extraction yield were defined (≥ 34 MPa, 45C and solids load of 25 g). Pressure and solids load were the most important factors affecting AX extraction yields.
OPTIMIZATION OF WHEAT BLENDING TO PRODUCE BREADMAKING FLOUR
Authors: HAYTA MEHMET , ÇAKMAKLI ÜNSAL
Published: February 2007

Linear programming was utilized to optimize the blending of wheat lots which have different quality characteristic and costs. Using best subsets regression three quality tests (particle size index, dough volume and falling number value) were selected in relation to loaf volume of bread to be produced. The chosen criteria were set up in a linear programming format as a model for the computerized solution. The model's applicability was assessed in a commercial mill. As a result of applying the model it was found possible to produce breadmaking flour with a reasonable quality and at a lower cost.
USE OF NONLINEAR DIFFERENTIAL VISCOELASTIC MODELS TO PREDICT THE RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF GLUTEN DOUGH
Authors: DHANASEKHARAN M. , WANG C.F. , KOKINI J.L.
Published: February 2007

Nonlinear viscoelastic models of the differential type, such as the Phan Thien Tanner model, White‐Metzner model and Giesekus model were used to predict the steady shear, oscillatory shear and transient shear properties of gluten dough. The predictions were compared with new data and the experimental results of Wang and Kokini (1995b). The Phan‐Thien Tanner model and the Giesekus model were used in eight modes to fit the relaxation modulus accurately. The White‐Metzner model gave the best prediction for the steady shear properties as it used a Bird‐Carreau dependence for the shear viscosity. The Phan‐Thien Tanner model and the Giesekus model predicted the transient shear viscosity and the transient first normal stress coefficient better than the White‐Metzner model. A consistent prediction of all the experimental data could not be obtained using a single model.
MASS TRANSFER IN PACIFIC HAKE (Merluccius australis) PACKED IN REFRIGERATED MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE
Authors: SIMPSON R. , ALMONACID S. , ACEVEDO C.
Published: February 2007

The objective of this research was to develop, and experimentally validate a fully mathematical model, to predict mass transfer phenomena in Pacific Hake (Merluccius australis) packed in refrigerated modified atmosphere.

A mathematical model to predict mass transfer of CO2, O2, N2 and water vapor was developed and validated. The diffusion model was developed utilizing Fick's second law, considering fish fillet as an infinite slab and applied to Pacific Hake (lean fish species) under refrigeration conditions. CO2 diffusivity of Pacific Hake was determined by an inverse procedure at OC and resulted in a value of 5.19 × 10−10 [m2/s] that is in accordance with values reported in the literature. However, postmortem variations of pH could affect solubility and diffusivity of CO2 in fish muscle.
EFFECT OF EXTRUSION OPERATING PARAMETERS ON AIR BUBBLE ENTRAPMENT
Authors: CISNEROS FAUSTO H. , KOKINI JOZEF L.
Published: February 2007

The effect of different extrusion operating parameters on air bubble entrapment during twin‐screw extrusion of amylopectin half‐products was studied. A ZSK‐30 twin‐screw corotating extruder with a slit die attached to the discharge end of the extruder to cool the extrudate to prevent water vapor puffing was used. The extrusion parameters investigated were screw speed (150, 300 and 500 rpm), mass flow rate (1.67 and 3.33 g s−1), native versus pregelatinized amylopectin, screw configuration (with or without kneading blocks), and moisture content (32 and 35%, w.b.).

The parameters that exerted the greatest effect on air bubble entrapment during twin‐screw extrusion are the type of amylopectin used, mass flow rate and screw speed. On the other hand, in the ranges studied screw configuration and moisture content did not show any significant effect on air bubble entrapment. Explanations for these results are interpreted with the aid of the barrel fill length mechanism proposed by Cisneros and Kokini (2001).
THE EFFECT OF THERMOCOUPLE AND RECEPTACLE TYPE ON OBSERVED HEATING CHARACTERISTICS OF CONDUCTION‐HEATING FOODS PACKAGED IN SMALL METAL CONTAINERS
Authors: ZHANG ZHONGBIN , WEDDIG LISA , ECONOMIDES SIA
Published: February 2007

Three different types of thermocouples and receptacles were studied to determine the effect on the observed heat penetration rate of a conduction‐heating food packaged in 202 × 204 and 211 × 300 cans. The studies were conducted at two product initial temperatures (70 and 140F) and three retort temperatures (240, 250 and 260F) using an Allpax R&D retort. The results indicated that the Ecklund stainless steel receptacles and needle type thermocouples in 202 × 204 cans increased the apparent heat penetration rates significantly, which resulted in underestimated Ball Formula process times (≈5%) and overestimated process lethalities (≈27%). However, in the 211 × 300 cans only minimal effects were seen on the apparent heat penetration rates, Ball process times and resulting lethalities. The use of plastic Delrin receptacles and thermocouples in 202 × 204 and 211 × 300 cans produced results in close agreement with those obtained from thin‐gauge flexible thermocouples having minimum conduction error.
THERMAL PROCESS EVALUATION OF RETORTABLE POUCHES FILLED WITH CONDUCTION HEATED FOOD
Authors: CRISTIANINI MARCELO , MASSAGUER PILAR RODRIGUES
Published: February 2007

Two models using the finite element technique (FE) and another using an analytical solution to solve the 3‐dimensional heat conduction equation for a finite plate were built. FE models were built considering the actual pouch shape and retort temperature profile. Chi‐square and regression lines were obtained for each set of temperatures generated by the models against experimental data. A mass average sterilizing value of 9.9 min was estimated when a critical point sterilizing value was at 8.7 min using the 3‐Dimensional FE model. Close agreement was found among the three models for heating phase. Using actual retort temperature profile made FE models more accurate than the one using analytical solution, especially for cooling phase.
EFFECTS of PULSED ELECTRIC FIELD ON QUALITY FACTORS and MASS TRANSFER DURING OSMOTIC DEHYDRATION of APPLES
Authors: TAIWO KEHINDE A. , ANGERSBACH ALEXANDER , KNORR DIETRICH
Published: February 2007

High intensity electric field pulses using varying field strengths (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 kV/cm corresponding to 12, 48 and 192 J/kg, per pulse, respectively, with a pulse duration of 400μs) and pulse numbers (2 to 50) were applied to apple slices as a pretreatment to study their influence on mass transfer during osmotic dehydration (OD). Cell membrane permeabilzation increased with increasing field strength and higher pulse number. Higher water loss and solids gain were obtained at 1.0 kV/cm. Pretreated apples turned brown but sample brightness improved with OD time but L values decreased with increasing pulse number. Maximum deformative force and amount of strain experienced by dried samples were influenced by both the field strength and OD time. Vitamin C content of dried samples reduced at higher field strengths and longer immersion times.
GRINDING SPRAY‐DRIED MILK POWDER NEAR the GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE
Authors: ZIEGLER GREGORY R. , LANGIOTTI JORDANA P.
Published: February 2007

The fine grinding of chocolate is typically accomplished on five‐roll mills. Chocolate manufacturers consider milk powder, a component of milk chocolate, difficult to grind. Spray‐dried milk powders comprise a glassy lactose matrix in which fat globules, air vacuoles and protein are entrapped. the glassy‐rubbery transition in commercial milk powders usually lies between 60–70C, depending on the moisture content. A mixture of 60% wt/wt commercial whole milk powder, Tg∼ 60C, and 40% wt/wt cocoa butter was ground in a three‐roll refiner at temperatures of 40, 50, 60, 70 and 75C. Below Tg the particles exhibited brittle fracture, while above Tg plastic deformation was evident and particles became highly asymmetric. the amount of fat liberated from the lactose matrix, so‐called free fat, particle density, and mean particle size increased with grinding temperature. However, the Casson yield value and plastic viscosity of finished “white chocolate” coatings, manufactured to a constant free fat content, increased with grinding temperature, suggesting an influence of particle shape on flow behavior.
RETORTABILITY of THIN‐WALLED ALUMINUM CONTAINERS PRESSURIZED WITH ADDED LIQUID NITROGEN (LN2)
Authors: AWUAH G.B. , ECONOMIDES A.
Published: February 2007

Studies were conducted to investigate the effect of initial container pressure on heat penetration parameters using flexible aluminum containers. A pilot scale liquid nitrogen dispenser, regulated to discharge a fine stream of liquid nitrogen (LN2), provided approximately 10 to 15 psi pressure within the container prior to end‐over‐end processing in a computer‐controlled retort using water immersion with 32 psi over pressure. Thermal process parameters including the heating rate index (fh), lag factor (jh), the cumulative lethality (Fo), cook‐value (Co) and the overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo) were examined in relation to retort temperature (241–261F), rpm (0–15 rpm) and product initial temperature (54–121F) using 5% w/w bentonite suspension with or without liquid nitrogen. Generally, containers with added liquid nitrogen had no impact on evaluated data compared to their counterparts without LN2 under similar experimental conditions. Estimated overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo) compared favorably with published data, while the Co/Fo ratio decreased with increasing temperatures as expected. Product cold spot location migrated in either upward or downward direction depending on the mode of heat transfer. Although added LN2 generally had no limiting effect on both heat transfer and heat penetration data, processing aluminum containers with high initial pressure at high retort temperatures could create excessively high internal pressure that could compromise container seam integrity.
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS of the MILK CONCENTRATING SYSTEM FROM A BRAZILIAN MILK POWDER PLANT
Authors: RIBEIRO CLÁUDIO PATRÍCIO , ANDRADE MARIA HELENA CAÑO
Published: February 2007

The steady‐state operation of the concentrating system from an industrial milk powder plant was studied using a simulation approach. This system is composed of two tubular preheaters, a plate pasteurizer, a thermocompressor and four climbing‐falling‐film plate evaporators operating in a multiple‐effect arrangement. Its simulation was performed using the ASPEN Plus shell, into which calculation routines previously developed by the authors had to be introduced in order to enable the calculation of the plate units. For the thermocompressor, a simulation code based on the solution of a design equation and the overall mass and energy balances was formulated and then introduced into ASPEN. In the validation step, simulation results were compared with operating data of the industrial plant, and a good agreement was verified. A sensitivity analysis of the concentrating system was then performed, considering two different operating variables, namely the milk inlet temperature and the motive steam pressure in the thermocompressor.
PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, and THERMAL CHARACTERIZATION of WHEAT FLOUR MILLING COPRODUCTS1,2
Authors: KIM Y.S. , FLORES R.A. , CHUNG O.K. , BECHTEL D.B.
Published: February 2007

Hard red winter (HRW) and hard red spring (HRS) wheat milling coproducts (bran, germ, shorts, and red dog) from three commercial flour mills and the Kansas State University pilot mill were evaluated for differences in physical, chemical, and thermal properties. the ranges of bulk density for bran, germ, and red dog determined at three moisture levels were 146.5 to 205.2 kgm−3, 269.2 to 400.6 kgm−3, and 298.9 to 398.1 kgm−3, respectively. the true density ranking order was: red dog >shorts = germ >bran, independently of the moisture level. Red dog had the smallest geometrical mean diameter with the highest variation (coefficient of variation of 23.8%). There was a significant (P < 0.05) difference among wheat blends and milling flows in the thickness of bran and germ at the same particle separation size. the image analysis study determined that the equivalent projected area diameter of bran at the same separation size was significantly (P < 0.05) larger than that of germ. the ratio between the equivalent projected area diameter and the particle thickness were within ranges of 15.7 to 37.6 for bran and 15.5 to 32.2 for germ particles. the chemical composition (ash, protein, lipids and fiber) ranges were determined for each coproduct. Ranges of thermal conductivity for bran, germ, shorts, and red dog were 0.049 to 0.074, 0.054 to 0.0907, 0.057 to 0.076, and 0.063 to 0.080 W(mK)−1, respectively. Specific heat of coproducts, measured with a differential scanning calorimeter, exhibited a wider range [1.08–1.94 kJ(kgK)−1] than that observed in whole wheat kernels and wheat flour. the variability observed among the samples was due to the different wheat sources and characteristic milling flows for the flour mills.
OPTIMIZATION CRITERIA FOR BATCH RETORT BATTERY DESIGN AND OPERATION IN FOOD CANNING‐PLANTS
Authors: SIMPSON R. , ALMONACID S. , TEIXEIRA A.
Published: February 2007

Optimization of thermal processing in the commercial sterilization of canned foods is of great interest because the canning industry plays an important role within the economy of the food processing sector. Many food canning plants operate in a batch mode with a battery of individual batch retorts. The aim of this study was to propose and analyze several criteria and methodologies for optimum design and operation of such retort systems. Two criteria were proposed in the case of choosing the optimum number of retorts to be installed when designing a new batch‐operated canning line. The third criterion dealt with seeking optimum process conditions for maximizing output from a fixed number of retorts when processing small batches of different products and container sizes.

In the case of new plant design optimization, one objective was to determine the optimum number of retorts that would minimize on‐going processing costs related to labor and energy. Retort scheduling (programming) was studied from which a simple mathematical expression was derived for this purpose. A second objective was to determine the optimum number of retorts that would maximize the net present value of initial investment. Approaches based upon engineering economics were studied from which to develop a mathematical procedure for this purpose. In the case of maximizing output from a fixed number of retorts for different products and container sizes, isolethal processes were identified for various product/containers from which a common set of process conditions could be chosen for simultaneous processing of different product lots in the same retort.
OPTIMIZATION OF QUALITY RETENTION IN CONDUCTION‐HEATING FOODS OF CONICAL SHAPE1
Authors: PORNCHALOEMPONG P. , BALABAN M.O. , TEIXEIRA A.A. , CHAU K.V.
Published: February 2007

A cone frustum is an alternative shape for packaging thermally processed foods that can be useful in modeling the increasing number of microwaveable, ready‐to‐eat conical‐shaped food containers seen on supermarket shelves. Thermal processing in a cone frustum can be optimized by using numerical models for heat transfer to predict temperature distribution profiles, together with thermal destruction kinetics of target organisms and nutrient/quality factors. Iso‐lethality curves, showing combinations of process time and retort temperature that deliver equal lethality, were developed for each of three different cone frustum geometries (different dimensional proportions of major and minor diameters and height). Total volume average quality retention was determined for equivalent process time‐temperature combinations for quality factors with assumed thermal degradation kinetic parameters (D and Z‐values). Response of quality retention to the equivalent process combinations (designated by their retort temperature) revealed optimum process conditions that delivered maximum quality retention. The effect of kinetic parameters, thermal properties, and surface heat transfer coefficient on quality retention response to equivalent process conditions was also studied and compared with findings reported in the literature for the case of more traditional finite cylinder shapes.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY of APPLE and SOURCHERRY JUICE CONCENTRATES DURING OHMIC HEATING
Authors: ICIER FILIZ , ILICALI COSKAN
Published: February 2007

Ohmic heating is based on the passage of electrical current through a food product that serves as an electrical resistance. In this study, apple and sourcherry concentrates having 20–60% soluble solids were ohmically heated by applying five different voltage gradients (20–60 V/cm). the electrical conductivity relations depending on temperature, voltage gradient and concentration were obtained. It was observed that the electrical conductivities of apple and sourcherry juices were significantly affected by temperature and concentration (P < 0.05). the ohmic heating system performance coefficients (SPCs) were defined by using the energies given to the system and taken up by the juice samples. the SPCs were in the range of 0.47–0.92. the unsteady‐state heat conduction equation for negligible internal resistance was solved with an ohmic heating generation term by the finite difference technique. the mathematical model results considering system performance coefficients were compared with experimental ones. the predictions of the mathematical model using obtained electrical conductivity equations were found to be very accurate.
THE INFLUENCE OF WORK SOFTENING ON THE VISCOELASTIC PROPERTIES OF BUTTER AND MARGARINE
Authors: SHAMA F. , SHERMAN P.
Published: February 2007

Abstract Creep compliance‐time studies at low stresses give more information about the structural changes in work softened butter and margarine than the Cone Penetrometer. They show that margarine undergoes a greater structural change than butter. Margarine loses most of its instantaneous elasticity in an unrecoverable manner. However, most of the Newtonian viscosity loss is recovered. Butter loses much less of its instantaneous elasticity, and most of what is lost is recovered during aging, but less of the Newtonian viscosity which is lost is recovered. Retardation spectra derived from creep compliance‐time curves for both butter and margarine before work softening show a peak at ∼104 sec. In contrast to margarine, butter does not lose this peak when work‐softened. For margarine, the peak slowly redevelops during aging and occurs at ∼102 sec. Past interpretation of Cone Penetrometer data has been based on the simplified concept of primary irreversible bonds and secondary reversible bonds, and the changes in their relative proportions during work softening. The present approach avoids the allocation of bond strengths into these arbitrary categories, and is based on the realization that butter and margarine contain a wide range of bond strengths.
BOOK REVIEW
Authors: Szczesniak Alina S.
Published: February 2007

Aidvances in Oral‐Physiology (edited by Yojiro Kawamura, Osaka University)