bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Roger Taney’s Long Underwear
Authors: Edwards Laura F.
Published: January 2022

This chapter explores the institutional context of federalism in which the legal principles associated with textiles flourished. Following textiles, rather than the development of new institutions at the state and federal level, it reveals a layered federal system with many moving parts. New governing institutions at the state and federal level were built atop an inherited edifice from the colonial era, in which legal authority was widely dispersed among distinct jurisdictions, which included those at the county and municipal levels. Different bodies of law moved across these jurisdictions, where they operated simultaneously and occasionally merged. Law also included the social practices of ordinary people, who all expected to have a say in translating their customs into law. The resulting dynamics sustained the legal principles attached to textiles and their place within a federal system that was not neatly ordered or easily controlled by its elite leaders.
Margaret Ten Eyck’s Accounts
Authors: Edwards Laura F.
Published: January 2022

Marginalized people accounted for the production of and trade in textiles with thick descriptions, in oral as well as written forms. This form of accounting might seem different from the record keeping of white male merchants, which tracked credits and debits in ledgers alphabetized by customers’ names. Both forms, however, were financial accounts, with legal implications. Marginalized people’s accounts followed the legal principles of textiles, which established ownership through relationships, not just to the material goods but also to the people who witnessed their production and trade. Those relationships then established credit, with the power to blunt other legal restrictions. For those without strong claims to rights or property, individual claims to property and power were only possible in the context of “we”—a community fashioned in part through the production and distribution of textiles.
Mrs. Harris’s Marriage
Authors: Edwards Laura F.
Published: January 2022

As this chapter shows, the federal system that enabled people to make creative use of textiles’ legal principles also undermined them. Within this system, rights had advantages over the legal principles associated with textiles. They traveled over all federalism’s jurisdictions, local, state, and federal; the legal principles of textiles did not. No wonder, then, that activists focused on the extension of rights, to African American men as well as to women regardless of race. While necessary, the extension of rights only went so far. Not only did they reinforce the very inequalities they were supposed to ease, but they also moved the legal principles of textiles further away from the practice of law. The results left those with weak claims to rights without the power they used to have within the legal system.
Mary Todd Lincoln’s Old Clothes
Authors: Edwards Laura F.
Published: January 2022

In 1867, Mary Todd Lincoln’s efforts to sell her wardrobe generated national outrage. Newspapers from coast to coast sneered at a former first lady so vulgar as to think anyone would want to buy her old clothes. As the conclusion shows, the ensuing drama illustrates the legal transformation of textiles and the remaking of the legal order more generally. Postwar legal changes solidified the negative connotations associated with the street trade. Selling secondhand clothing savored of slavery: it seemed like selling the body itself. Legal changes that extended rights to more of the population also made a market based in the legal principles associated with textiles seem outdated and unnecessary. As the case of Mary Todd Lincoln indicates, that form of emancipation had limits. Despite the wider distribution of rights, the economy and much of the law remained inaccessible to the vast majority of the population.
Wesley’s Shadow
Authors: Harris Paul William
Published: January 2022

Chapter 1 covers the early decades of Methodism in the United States, specifically with regard to Black churchgoers. John Wesley’s strong antislavery stance was part of the heritage of Methodism, but the movement’s success in the United States propelled the Church toward a series of compromises that accommodated slavery and slaveholders. As the denomination succumbed to racial caste, many Black Methodists broke away to form the African Methodist Episcopal and African Methodist Episcopal Zion Churches. Many Methodist leaders also embrace the colonization movement, which represented another accommodation to slavery and caste, and Black Methodists played an important role in the colony of Liberia. While southern Church leaders emphasized their commitment to Christianizing slaves, abolitionists fought to make their voices heard within the Church. Those tensions finally led to a schism over slavery in 1844 and the establishment of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
The Southwestern Confronts the Nadir
Authors: Harris Paul William
Published: January 2022

Chapter 6 tells the story of the Southwestern Christian Advocate, the leading voice for the Black membership of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Beginning in the 1880s, the paper had a series of African American editors of varying militancy. A. E. P. Albert, at one extreme, played an important role in resisting streetcar segregation in New Orleans, a fight that ultimately led to the Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision. After Albert was replaced by the General Conference in 1892, subsequent editors E. W. S. Hammond, Isaiah B. Scott, and Robert Elijah Jones often began cautiously but became more outspoken in reaction to growing racial oppression. The paper spoke out strongly against Jim Crow segregation, lynching, and disfranchisement, helping to maintain a witness against racial caste within the denomination.
Turning Inward
Authors: Harris Paul William
Published: January 2022

Chapter 8 focuses on the efforts Blacks made toward racial uplift both at home and through missionary work in Liberia, efforts that still failed to gain them the recognition they sought within the Methodist Episcopal Church. Frustrated in their efforts to advance within the denomination, Blacks in the M.E.C. increasingly looked to themselves during the early twentieth century. Events like the Young People’s Congress made uplift less about gaining white acceptance and more about strengthening the Black community. In their efforts to elect a bishop of African descent, Black leaders increasingly came to accept that such a bishop could only be elected if he were effectively restricted to working solely with Black conferences. Hopes for Atlanta were dashed by the violent riot of 1906. In Liberia, Alexander Camphor, frustrated in the insular and prideful community of Monrovia, became convinced that missions could be more effectively carried out in the interior among the indigenous groups, and he quit his position after ten years to undertake an unsuccessful campaign to raise funds for such a venture.
Walk Together, Children
Authors: Harris Paul William
Published: January 2022

The participation of Blacks in Methodist Episcopal Church governance stood as a major barrier to reunion with the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and growing calls to segregate them still further forced those African Americans to consider the limits of accommodation. Chapter 9 looks at some steps that were taken to allow “bishops for races and languages” and thus enable the election of bishops of African descent confined to working with their own people. Although organic union with the Church South remained decades away, a plan took shape that paved the way. The early years of the twentieth century also saw continuing frustrations in Liberia and the passing of aging white allies from the scene. Nonetheless, with the historically black colleges and academies of the Freedmen’s Aid Society continuing to turn out educated leaders, their prophetic hopes for racial reconciliation and advancement lived on.
Does free will come in degrees?
Authors: Hall Jonathan , Vierkant Tillmann
Published: January 2022

The question of whether free will exists is often reduced to the binary question of whether or not its existence would be compatible with determinism. However, there are a number of important dimensions that permit different degrees of free will. Four components of free will seem to allow for a graded approach: (1) the ability to act in line with intentions (2) which are consciously formed (3) using one’s rational machinery and (4) without external interference. Finally, the chapter discusses whether there are lower and upper limits to this gradability such that above a certain level having more of the components does not create more free will, and below some threshold there is no free will at all, not just less.
What kind of neuroscientific evidence, if any, could determine whether anyone has free will?
Authors: Roskies Adina L.
Published: January 2022

No neuroscientific evidence that one could feasibly obtain could settle, by itself, whether anyone has free will, since there are both philosophical and empirical components to this question. However, neuroscience could provide evidence for or against free will, given certain philosophical commitments. This chapter sketches some possibilities but ultimately argues that our interpretation of brain data and its relevance to a deep philosophical question are mediated by a lot of theory, both philosophical and psychological, and that our neuroscience is unlikely to uncover deep truths about metaphysical questions that don’t presuppose some controversial metaphysical views.
What are reasons?
Authors: Sinnott-Armstrong Walter
Published: January 2022

Reasons in general are answers to why-questions. Epistemic reasons say why someone should believe some proposition. Practical reasons tell agents why they should do some action. Explanatory reasons specify why some event happened. Practical reasons for actions are facts, whereas explanatory reasons for actions are desires or beliefs. Drawing these distinctions can help to solve some major puzzles about reasons, such as whether reasons have neural correlates in the brain. Some kinds do, but others do not. Despite their differences, all reasons are reasons because of their roles in explicit or implicit arguments.
How can we determine whether or not an agent is conscious of a bit of information relevant to an action?
Authors: Mudrik Liad , Schurger Aaron
Published: January 2022

Determining whether or not an agent is conscious of a bit of information relevant to action requires first that we can determine if an agent is conscious of a given bit of information, which by itself is challenging. In addition, we have to be able to tag that bit of information as being “relevant to action.” This chapter reviews some of the neuroscience and philosophy behind perceptual “content consciousness” and some of the key considerations involved in measuring neural information and determining its subjective status. One of those key considerations is determining (or deciding) what qualifies a bit of information as relevant to action. The chapter proposes a hypothetical empirical approach to the question posed which remains an open and active research question.
Are any neural processes truly random (or stochastic)?
Authors: Liljenström Hans
Published: January 2022

A common view is that free will requires some kind of underlying indeterministic processes. Hence, it is natural to look for such (random/stochastic) processes in the brain and investigate their possible role in cognition and consciousness. This chapter discusses the experimentally observed neural fluctuations at molecular, cellular, and network levels, and what they may mean for brain functions. Of special interest is the complex neurodynamics of cortical networks, observed with, e.g., electroencephalography or other brain-imaging techniques. It can be characterized as both noisy (indeterministic) and chaotic (deterministic), in addition to oscillatory at various frequencies. Apparently, both indeterministic and deterministic processes can account for the observed (unpredictable) fluctuations in neural processes, but it is not yet possible to determine whether this neural unpredictability can account for any free will. The limitation of current scientific methods is also discussed in response to the follow-up questions.
Chinese Approaches to Welfare
Authors: Rühlig Tim Nicholas
Published: January 2022

The chapter outlines the enormous importance of Word Trade Organization (WTO) law to China’s state control and its implications for China’s state-permeated economy and welfare system. The chapter demonstrates the PRC’s contradictory policies, not least by highlighting China’s good compliance record with adverse WTO Dispute Settlement Body rulings and contrasting this with China’s creativity in circumventing implementation of WTO law in the banking sector. In line with the core argument of the book, China’s contradictory policy is traced to trade-offs between different economic and nationalist legitimization needs and the varying degrees of influence of different actors within the party-state. The chapter ends by discussing the implications for the future international order, referencing two modes of action that provide China’s contradictory WTO policy with systemic relevance: China’s instrumental approach to law and its undermining of the key definitions that underpin the core vocabulary of international trade policy.
Zen Meditation as a Practice of Clearing the Heart-Mind
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This chapter explains the importance of meditation for Zen in terms of what the Buddhist tradition calls the three levels of wisdom: received, intellectual, and experiential wisdom. As important as memorizing teachings and intellectually reflecting on them are, liberating wisdom can only be obtained experientially through holistic practice. Zen meditation is a non-discursive practice of clearing of the heart-mind. Rather than adding words, images, or thoughts to the mind, it proceeds by way of “subtraction.” It is only by letting go of all egocentric agendas that one can fulfill the ultimate aim of Zen, which is to become an egoless and effective vehicle for the great Bodhisattva vow to liberate all sentient beings from suffering. After explaining how Zen teachers have criticized misuses of secularized “mindfulness” techniques, the chapter ends with an account of the proximate benefits of practicing Zen meditation, such as reducing stress and increasing concentration and self-confidence.
The Buddha’s First and Last Lesson
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This chapter discusses the Buddha’s Middle Way between a hedonistic indulgence of sense desires and an excessively ascetic denial of sense desires. It begins by recounting Siddhartha’s early sheltered and indulgent life in his father’s palace and his dramatic encounters with an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a spiritual recluse. It then discusses how he experimented with extreme asceticism before discovering the Middle Way and becoming the Buddha. A common misunderstanding is corrected: the Buddha did not say that all desires should be abandoned. Rather, he distinguished between three types of desires: those that should be fostered (such as lovingkindness and compassion), those that should be eliminated (such as craving and greed), and those that require moderation (such as the desire for food and sleep). The Middle Way concerns the third type of desire. The Buddha taught us to be satisfied with what suffices.
The True Self Is Egoless
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This chapter explains, from the perspective of Zen Buddhism, the Buddha’s teaching of anatman, a word that gets variously translated—for example, as “no-self,” “egolessness,” or “no-soul.” Debates among Buddhist traditions and scholars about how to understand the anatman doctrine are introduced. It is argued that the Buddha’s key philosophical doctrine of “interdependent origination” can be understood in terms of the “Ontological Middle Way” of a “process ontology”; things and selves exist, but as interdependent processes rather than as independent and permanent substances. Buddhism views the self as a “life-stream,” as a “process-self” rather than a “substance-self.” Zen understands the teaching of “no-self” to be compatible with its teaching of the “true self.” In Zen, the quest to know oneself paradoxically leads to an enlightening “not-knowing,” which entails an understanding of the interconnected and ungraspable nature of the true self.
But We Are Not the Same
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This chapter explains how Zen attends to individuality and uniqueness as well as unity or oneness. The East Asian Buddhist metaphor of “water and waves” is used to explain the relation between the universal Buddha-nature and interconnected individuals. Among theological conceptions of God, this Zen Buddhist metaphysics best accords with panentheism, that is to say, with the idea that “all is in God.” A kōan from The Blue Cliff Record, in which one Zen master playfully assumes the name of another, is explicated in order to explain what the modern Zen philosopher Ueda Shizuteru means when he says that “the free exchange of the role of host is the very core of dialogue,” and, ultimately, what it means to say that we can take turns being the center of the universe.
Dying to Live
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This chapter compares core teachings of Zen, Pure Land Buddhism, and Christianity. It begins with a reflection on some past and recent Buddhists and Christians who have thought that the two religions are either compatible or incompatible. It then explores the ways in which Buddhism and other traditions can provoke us into rethinking what we mean by “God,” and it suggests that Zen’s conception of the Unborn Buddha-mind is most nearly compatible with a panentheism that sees “all in God” rather than God as a transcendent being outside the world. Like the Gospel of Thomas and the Vimalakirti Sutra, Zen masters have understood the Kingdom of God and the Pure Land to be here and now for those who are awakened. The chapter ends by examining one of the deepest parallels among these traditions—namely, the idea that we have to pass through a “Great Death” in order to truly live.
Engaged Zen
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This chapter connects Zen’s teaching of wholehearted engagement in the duties of everyday life with the modern movement of Engaged Buddhism. It explains how Mahayana Buddhism stresses the spiritual significance of everyday life in the midst of society. This is exemplified in the Vimalakirti Sutra and also in the lessons that Zen master Dōgen received from two monastery cooks who were totally devoted to caring for their communities. The founder of Engaged Buddhism, Thich Nhat Hanh, says, “Meditation is not an escape from society. Meditation is to equip oneself with the capacity to reintegrate into society, in order for the leaf to nourish the tree.” He teaches that we need to practice “being peace” in order to be capable of “bringing peace” to others. The chapter ends with a probing discussion of the relation between spreading peace and fighting for justice.
The Dharma of Karma
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines the teaching (Dharma) of karma according to Zen Buddhism. Karma is related to the biblical teaching “You reap what you sow,” yet it is understood as a natural lawfulness at work in the universe rather than as punishments and rewards meted out by a supernatural deity. Karma is a teaching of moral and psychological causality. It entails self-determination, in the sense that “we make our habits, and our habits in turn make us.” It is not a strict determinism or fatalism, but rather a teaching of “situated freedom.” Although the teaching of karma has been misused in a manner that entails “blaming the victim,” the chapter concludes by suggesting how a proper understanding of karma can avoid this pitfall.
Being in the Zone of Zen
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This chapter relates what Zen calls “no-mind” (Japanese: mushin) and “non-doing” (Chinese: wuwei) to what is popularly called “being in the zone.” It also relates these to what Hindus call “karma yoga,” to the idea from the Star Wars films of “using the Force,” to what psychologists call “the flow experience,” and to what cognitive scientists call “hot cognition.” When the modern Japanese Zen master Yamada Mumon says that “the goal of life is to play,” he is referring to what the Zen tradition has called “the meditative state of play.” Philosophers have called this kind of experience “autotelic.” The chapter concludes by critically examining the dangers of a half-baked “just do it” state of mind, and how Zen teachings and practices have in fact been misused for military purposes.
Sōtō and Rinzai Zen Practice
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This chapter explains the differences between the meditation methods of the Sōtō and Rinzai schools of Zen. It begins by tracing the methodological disputes between these two schools back to the twelfth century, when the Linji (Japanese: Rinzai) master Dahui, who advocated the use of kōans, criticized the “silent illumination” taught by Caodong (Japanese: Sōtō) masters such as Hongzhi. The chapter presents these methods as distinct yet compatible. It explains Dōgen’s Sōtō Zen practice of “just sitting” and “non-thinking” as a matter of awakening to an open field of nondual awareness. The latter sections of the chapter discuss the Rinzai Zen practice taught by Hakuin of working with kōans, the enigmatic stories, dialogues, sayings, or questions assigned as topics of meditation and used to trigger and test a student’s awakening experience of kenshō or “seeing into one’s true nature.”
Death and Rebirth—Or, Nirvana Here and Now
Authors: Davis Bret W.
Published: January 2022

This chapter treats the topics of death, rebirth, and Nirvana in Zen Buddhism. As with other Buddhist sects in Japan, death is the financial as well as spiritual business of Zen temples, even though the true purpose of Zen practice is the experience of Nirvana in this life, rather than aiming to be reborn in a Pure Land after death. Traditional Buddhist teachings about “moment-to-moment rebirth” in this life as well as rebirth between lives are explained, as are literal and metaphorical interpretations of the Six Realms of Rebirth in Samsara. The chapter also discusses how some pivotal kōans require practitioners to confront their own mortality, so that they may attain true life by way of undergoing a spiritual Great Death.
What People Really Want
Authors: Perkins Franklin
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines Mengzi’s account of human motivation and natural dispositions. It starts by illustrating and supporting his claim that people have some actions they would rather die than do. If this claim is true, then people’s deepest motivation is not their own self-interest or even survival. The chapter then describes Mengzi’s categorization of these motivations into four types. Natural responses of compassion and care lead to the virtue of benevolence. Feelings of shame and disgust lead to rightness. The need for embodied expression of emotions, including feelings of deference and respect, lead to propriety. A natural tendency to distinguish and evaluate leads toward wisdom. The chapter concludes with a discussion of what Mengzi sees as most distinctively human.
Learning
Authors: Perkins Franklin
Published: January 2022

This chapter considers how Mengzi and other Confucians justify the importance of study and learning. As much as Mengzi talks about the goodness of our dispositions, he remains fully within a Confucian tradition that prioritizes learning, education, and self-cultivation. We cannot just trust our intuitions or feelings. The chapter discusses the Confucian reliance on tradition and how they defend it. It also includes a justification for the value of the humanities. The chapter concludes with an account of the ability a cultivated person has to adapt and modify what they know to fit the uniqueness of any given situation.
Temptations, Excuses, and Putting Ideas into Practice
Authors: Perkins Franklin
Published: January 2022

Mengzi presents us with a philosophical vision of the meaning of human life, but his aim was to get people to act effectively in making the world a better place. That needs not just philosophy but concrete advice and practical guidance. With their sophisticated understanding of self-cultivation and long experience promoting social change, the Confucians gained insight into the temptations and distractions good people face, and the ways people can be co-opted by a corrupt system. This chapter gathers advice from Mengzi and other Confucians on how to deal with six temptations facing those concerned about the state of the world: wealth, prestige, compromise (selling-out), blaming others, lack of hope, and settling for having done enough.
Nursed in the Arms of Poverty
Authors: Lee John W.I.
Published: January 2022

This chapter traces John Wesley Gilbert’s family origins (noting the possibility that one or more of his enslaved ancestors came to Georgia from Antigua), then examines his birth into slavery in 1863. It reconstructs his childhood and family life in Augusta, Georgia, and his early education in the public schools of that city. It examines his studies at the Baptist-sponsored Augusta Institute, a training school for black ministers and teachers. When the school moved to Atlanta and became the Atlanta Baptist Seminary, Gilbert moved to Atlanta with it to continue his studies but was forced to return home by lack of funds. The chapter then traces Gilbert’s work as a teacher in Augusta, followed by his enrollment at Paine Institute, a joint foundation of the white Methodist Episcopal Church, South (MECS) and the Colored Methodist Episcopal (CME) Church. The chapter focuses on Gilbert’s relationship with Paine president George Williams Walker, who would become Gilbert’s lifelong colleague and father figure. It also introduces other key figures in Gilbert’s life, including John Hope (later the first black president of what is today Morehouse College). The chapter ends in 1886, with Gilbert’s completing school as one of Paine’s first seven graduates.
Enduring Spirit
Authors: Lee John W.I.
Published: January 2022

This chapter shows how historical memory about John Wesley Gilbert developed in the years after his death. It begins by considering the obituaries written soon after Gilbert’s death by Colored Methodist Episcopal (CME) minister J. A. Martin and by Gilbert’s close friend Dr. John Angelo Lester, then shows how both written records and living memories of Gilbert were lost by the 1930s. The chapter considers why memory of Gilbert remained alive in Methodist circles while his name was forgotten in the fields of Classics and classical archaeology. The chapter also celebrates the enduring spirit of Paine College, a true American treasure that has nurtured not only John Wesley Gilbert but many other African American men and women who have made distinguished contributions to our nation.
Non-State Armed Actors and International Legal Argumentation
Authors: Jo Hyeran
Published: January 2022

Non-state armed actors (NSAAs) are individuals or groups that militarily fight for their political, economic, or social goals. Why and when would they have incentive to engage in international legal argumentation? What are the contents of the NSAAs’ legal argumentation and associated processes? What putative effects does it produce? This chapter characterizes NSAAs’ legal argumentation and presents some patterns and processes as to how NSAAs build their legal and quasi-legal arguments. The final part of the chapter discusses various putative effects NSAAs’ legal argumentation generates, in terms of persuasion, reciprocity, compliance, and potentially peace.
Argumentation through LawAn Analysis of Decisions of the African Union
Authors: Werner Wouter
Published: January 2022

There is a long-standing dispute between the African Union and the International Criminal Court. At one level, this dispute concerns legal-technical questions such as immunities of heads of states, the identification of customary law, or the scope of resolutions of the UN Security Council. However, underlying these legal disputes are highly political questions regarding recognition, respect, and equality. The African Union has addressed these questions in a series of formal Decisions, adopted by its highest organ, the Assembly of Heads of State and Government. These Decisions reveal what gives the more doctrinal debates their political bite. In addition, these Decisions present the stance of the African Union in the form and with the authority of law, thus binding member states and presenting a unified position vis-à-vis the International Criminal Court and other international audiences. Political struggles are thus partly articulated in legal form, a type of “argumentation through law” that attaches formal validity to claims about membership, recognition, and equality.
The Paths Diverge
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

The white middle-class “Victorian” Americans of the decades beginning with the Civil War in the 1860s faced a series of cultural crises, including war, reconstruction, industrialization, urbanization, and rapid intellectual changes. The diverging paths in Protestant responses are here represented by the contrast between Henry Ward Beecher and the Blanchards, Jonathan and his son Charles. Beecher exemplified the progressive spirit of emerging liberal theology. God was revealed in the Bible but also in the Christian moral improvements of the modern age, such as in the defeat of slavery. Beecher presented a “Progressive Orthodoxy” that was part of a “New Theology.” Jonathan Blanchard, founder of Wheaton College (IL), was a biblicist evangelical abolitionist. He was also a postmillennialist. His son Charles, who succeeded him at Wheaton, was influenced by Dwight L. Moody, became a premillennialist, and promoted anti-modernist militancy of fundamentalism.
Two Revisions of Millennialism
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

Prior to the Civil War, postmillennialism had been more common among most American evangelical Protestants than had premillennialism. Both were taught, however. After the Civil War, more progressive or liberal Protestants turned postmillennialism into a doctrine emphasizing the progress of modern civilization as evidence of the coming of Christ’s Kingdom on earth. William Newton Clark and A. C. McGiffert illustrate that approach. By contrast, the dispensational premillennialists developed a literalist reading of biblical prophecies. They divided world history into seven dispensations, each ending in human failure and divine judgment. At the end of our own last dispensation would be the “secret rapture” of the saints, a brief era of tribulation, and the return of Christ to set up a kingdom on earth for one thousand years.
The Fundamentals
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

The Fundamentals was a twelve-volume series published between 1910 and 1915. The project was financed by oil magnate Lyman Stewart. A. C. Dixon, Louis Meyer, and Reuben Torrey served terms as editors. The volumes were collections of essays, some previously published. They anticipated the fundamentalist movement and helped furnish its name. The essays included topics such as criticisms of various modern “isms.” Some essays were personal testimonies. Some defended the integrity of the Bible. Some promoted Keswick teachings. Overall, the tone of the essays was not as strident as much of later fundamentalism. For instance, some writers allowed that God might have used biological evolution as a means of creation.
Four Views circa 1910
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

Various emerging fundamentalists adopted a spectrum of views regarding the relation of Christianity to culture. At one extreme were the radical dispensationalists, such as Arno G. Gaebelein. Such leaders took seriously the implications of premillennial pessimism regarding culture, and condemned modern ideologies. They insisted that Christians must separate into pure churches. William B. Riley, by contrast, embodied the central tension in the movement between premillennial pessimism and continuing hopes for a more Christian America. Moody Bible Institute exemplified that same tension. Evangelist Billy Sunday dramatically embodied the tension between separatism and Americanism. William Jennings Bryan represents a third position, trying to preserve and reform Christian civilization in a progressive but biblically based direction. Conservative Presbyterians like B. B. Warfield and J. Gresham Machen, while staying away from direct political involvement, were more confident that biblically based and rational theological outlooks could challenge modern thought.
World War I, Premillennialism, and American Fundamentalism: 1917–1918
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

America’s entry into World War I transformed much of the emerging fundamentalist movement. It added a heightened sense of cultural crisis to other concerns. A good many fundamentalists at first opposed the war. Premillennialist journals, Our Hope and The King’s Business, emphasized fulfilled prophecies but opposed America’s entry into the war. William Jennings Bryan accepted the war only reluctantly. By contrast, Billy Sunday became a leading super-patriot. Modernist theologians, such as Shailer Mathews or Shirley Jackson Case, at first criticized the premillennialists who opposed the war. Soon, however, almost all emerging fundamentalists were taking positions such as that of William Bell Riley, as super-patriots. That would help establish a long-standing tension in the movement as a mix of premillennial cultural pessimism and American patriotic zeal to build a more Christian culture.
Fundamentalism as a Social Phenomenon
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

Abstract: Early interpretations of fundamentalism tended to explain it largely as a social phenomenon. It was seen primarily as a reaction of rural and small-town culture to modernity and urbanization. Stewart Cole and Norman Furniss, and William McLoughlin offered versions of this theme. Ernest Sandeen, by contrast, argued that fundamentalism was primarily a theological movement based on dispensationalism combined with Princeton Theology’s view of the inerrancy of the Bible. Both these approaches contain elements of truth. Fundamentalists tended to be people of northern European ethnic stock. Fundamentalist churches grew rapidly among people who had recently moved to a new part of the country. One helpful analogy is that their experience might resemble that of immigrants, of finding their old ways being ridiculed by the mainstream culture. So they might feel like strangers in their own land.
Fundamentalism as an American Phenomenon
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: January 2022

Distinctly American aspects of fundamentalism may be seen by comparison with similar movements with which fundamentalists were connected in Great Britain. One contrast is that anti-evolution was never nearly as popular among religious conservatives in Britain as in America. “The dynamics of unopposed revivalism” offers part of the explanation for the difference. England had a state church and a tradition of Christendom, while popular religion in the United States was dominated by revivalism. That helped contribute to tendencies in American popular religion to accept simple antitheses and dichotomies. While England had long traditions and historical development, American evangelicals tended to interpret history in common sense or either/or categories.
West Africa
Authors: Pokoo John M. , Aning Kwesi
Published: January 2022

Chapter 7 focuses on the second-largest trafficking route toward Europe, with West Africa as a major transit zone. Revisiting historical shifts in drug flows, this chapter traces West Africa’s historical involvement in the illicit drug trade. It analyzes how poverty, corruption, fragility, and ineffective law enforcement and oversight of West African state institutions have contributed to the region’s gradual transformation into a consumption zone, rather than a transit route for illicit drug flows. Calls for additional demand reduction interventions at the national level have therefore shaped drug policies in the region. The chapter concludes with a reflection on the usefulness of decriminalizing the illicit consumption of drugs.
Small Power
Authors: Doherty David , Dowling Conor M. , Miller Michael G.
Published: January 2022

This book examines the role local party organizations play in the electoral process. It draws on dozens of in-person interviews with local party chairpersons, as well as findings from a national survey of these local elites. Part I of the book explores who leads local party organizations and what these organizations do. The findings demonstrate that these organizations play a critical role in converting citizens into politicians and supporting them as they navigate the campaign process. These efforts appear to pay dividends as candidates from a party tend to perform better in areas where the local party organization is active. Part II considers what local party chairpersons look for in a candidate, drawing on findings from an experiment included in the national survey of party chairs. The experiment asked chairs which of a pair of candidates they thought would be most likely to prevail in a primary in their area and varied an array of candidate characteristics, including their policy positions, family structures, and their purported ethno-racial identity and gender. The results offer novel insights into the attributes elites who play a critical role in candidate recruitment see as enhancing (or degrading) an individual’s electoral prospects. Throughout, the experimental evidence is bolstered by findings from the in-depth interviews with chairs.
The Philosophy of War
Authors: Kersnovski Anton Antonovich
Published: January 2022

Anton Antonovich Kersnovski (1907–44) was Russian military historian, who immigrated to France after the defeat of the White Movement in the Russian Civil War. During his short writing career, Kersnovski authored hundreds of articles and numerous books, many of which have been widely republished, analyzed and commented on in post-Soviet Russia. This chapter is based on the translation of selected chapters from his Filosofiya voyny [The Philosophy of War], which was initially published as a series of articles, and was later turned into a book. In this work he combines strategic insights and historical commentary with a conviction that Russian strategy must reflect its national, Christian, spiritual roots and avoid the soulless rationalism of Lenin or unhelpful borrowing from the West.
Negotiated Rebellion
Authors: Jackson Ashley
Published: January 2022

Chapter 1 introduces a theoretical framework for under- standing civilian–insurgent negotiation. It draws on insights into bar- gaining dynamics from behavioral economics and sociology to help us better understand how civilians and insurgents interact, and what might drive certain behaviors. This framework was developed specifically to apply to the post-2001 war in Afghanistan, and the basic structure of this theory is adapted to organize analysis on the Taliban and civilians in the later chapters. The idea that parts of this theory might be relevant to other civil war contexts beyond Afghanistan is explored in the Conclusion.
The Art of the Deal
Authors: Jackson Ashley
Published: January 2022

The picture of civilian–insurgent relations that emerges from Chapters 2, 3 and 4 is explored more deeply in Chapter 5. Chapter 5 necessarily complicates the more linear and generalized narratives and theories put forth in Chapters 3 and 4, and digs into localized experiences of conflict. This chapter nuances and integrates the preceding discussion, tackling the questions of why some civilians have been more successful in negotiating with the Taliban than others, and why the Taliban’s strategy has varied according to time and place.
What Is Populism?
Authors: Tushnet Mark , Bugarič Bojan
Published: January 2022

This chapter reviews scholarly definitions of populism, emphasizing the relation between the assertedly “thin” ideology of populism and the thicker ideologies that give it content, and reviews as well quantitative studies that show the populism in power tends to erode some constitutional basics. It argues that understanding specific populisms and their relation to constitutionalism requires attention to those thicker ideologies. Doing so suggests that there is no systematic relation between populism and constitutionalism, and that much of the asserted relationship comes from the accompanying ideologies rather than from the populism. After reviewing various components said to be associated with populism, such as a “we versus them” mentality and charismatic leadership, the chapter argues that populisms share at most a family resemblance, and that some features said to be associated with populism are also associated with non-populist political parties and leaders. There are, in short, varieties of populism. The argument aims at deflating claims about inherent or necessary conflicts between populism and constitutionalism, but does conclude that the populist emphasis on majority rule sometimes does conflict with the principle of entrenchment that is a component of thin constitutionalism.
The Problem of the Frankenstate
Authors: Tushnet Mark , Bugarič Bojan
Published: January 2022

Kim Lane Scheppele’s term, “Frankenstate,” signals that looking at constitutional changes one by one might be misleading when the changes cumulate to create a constitutional monster. This chapter examines the mechanisms by which discrete changes become problematic. It identifies problems that occur when changes, not necessarily intrinsically problematic, interact to cause difficulties. Another phenomenon is that such changes might signal the possibility that other changes are in prospect, which would be problematic—a version of the argument that the intent lying behind changes matters. The chapter concludes with some pessimistic observations about the possibility of devising institutional mechanisms to guard against creating Frankenstates and with observations about the relation between the “liberalism of fear” and reactions to contemporary versions of populism.
Guardrails and Institutions
Authors: Tushnet Mark , Bugarič Bojan
Published: January 2022

Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt have argued that constitutions are maintained not only by formal institutional mechanisms but by informal “guardrails,” most notably mutual tolerance and forbearance. This chapter interrogates the idea of guardrails and the associated idea of a pro-constitutional culture, both in general and in connection with populism. Although the guardrails are said to be located outside formal institutions, maintaining the guardrails requires some institutional activity such as militant democracy. The chapter argues that, as with eliminating some veto gates, breaking through a guardrail is not always anti-constitutional. Guardrails are specific to particular historical and institutional orders, and breaking a guardrail might indicate only that an old order is passing, without implying that the new order will be less constitutionalist.
Rejecting Democracy
Authors: Tushnet Mark , Bugarič Bojan
Published: January 2022

Some populists sincerely want to expand the opportunities for ordinary people to govern themselves. Their advocacy for that goal is sometimes met with skepticism. This chapter examines three accounts of why some forms of government other than expanded democracy are desirable: technocracy, representative democracy to the exclusion of direct democracy, and libertarian governments whose reach is quite small. With respect to technocracy, the chapter argues that contemporary populism is a reaction to expanded technocratic governance, and sometimes a sensible one because technocrats tend to overlook the ways in which technocratic solutions fail to take all relevant values into account. Populists do not reject representative democracy entirely, but wish to supplement it with other modes of direct popular rule. Arguments from citizen ignorance underlie libertarian skepticism about the ability of collective political decision-making to advance the overall social good. The chapter points out some difficulties with the empirical evidence offered to support claims about voter ignorance. More important, it argues that ordinary people have “local knowledge” and “common sense” that they can and do use when they act politically: They are neither as ignorant nor as irresponsible as the libertarians contend.
Risorgimento Italy
Authors: Giudice Christian
Published: January 2022

The following chapter provides the reader with a brief history of the Italian Risorgimento, the sociopolitical movement that led to the unification of the country in 1870. The importance of Risorgimento ideas and values in the life of Arturo Reghini, who was born only eight years after the birth of the Italian nation, is highlighted and explored, especially through the works of Mario Banti and Denis Mack Smith. An analysis of the main threads of the occult tradition that flourished in nineteenth-century Italy and their impact on Reghini is also attempted, with special relevance given to Freemasonry, Spiritualism, and the occult ideas of Italo/Roman primacy, which blossomed in Naples toward the end of the century and strongly informed Reghini’s worldview. A short excursus on the history of the Vatican State and the Roman question is also attempted, since this event influenced Reghini’s strong anti-clerical stance.
Fascism and Traditionalism
Authors: Giudice Christian
Published: January 2022

The chapter opens with a historical overview on Benito Mussolini’s rise to power in the early 1920s and then proceeds to analyze the Fascist phenomenon, comparing it to Traditionalism, and trying to highlight its modern and anti-modern aspects. A section of Chapter 6 is dedicated to the scrutiny of the relationship between Fascism and occult fringes, and the author tries to conclude whether there were any overlaps as may be found in the Nazism-occultism pairing. The latter part of the chapter is entirely dedicated to the birth of the Traditionalist school and to its founder, René Guénon. Through the use of hitherto unpublished correspondence between Guénon and Reghini, the author seeks to shed more light on the influence that Guénon had on the Italian Traditionalist contingent but also theorizes an influence on Guénon exerted by Reghini and other members of the Schola.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Giudice Christian
Published: January 2022

This short chapter at the end of the work ties together the various strands and weaves them into a coherent tapestry, bringing to life a new form of anti-modern, right-wing, neo-Pagan, neo-Pythagorean, Traditionalist occultism that had been previously neglected by scholars such as Marco Pasi, Corinna Treitel, and Alex Owen. The existence of an intermediate pole between Theodor Adorno’s definition of occultism as a “metaphysics of dunces” and more recent scholarship’s portrayal of occultism as a solely progressive force is proven to exist and to constitute an under-researched facet of the occult revival. The use of Eisenstadt’s and Hobsbawm’s theories is also justified, and the idea of multiple modernities is backed by all the facts provided in Chapters 2 to 8. Other innovations brought forward by this text are highlighted by the author.