bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Exploring External Motivation for Change
Authors: Silva-Corvalan Carmen
Published: November 2023

I noted in Chapter I that the transfer of features from one language into another is one of the strategies used by bilinguals to cope with having to communicate in two different linguistic systems. Throughout this book, I have examined the possibility that a number of changes affecting Spanish in Los Angeles may be the result of(among others) specific processes of transfer of features from English, that is, processes that imply what Martinet (in his Preface to Weinreich’s Languages in Contact) calls ‘the permeability of linguistic cells’.
Foundational Problems in and Methodological Lessons from Quantum Field Theory
Authors: Cushing James T
Published: November 2023

One can consider the developments in quantum field theory from the point of view of foundational problems posed about physical reality at both the epistemological and ontological levels, or as a ‘laboratory’ to study the actual methodology of the scientific enterprise. I shall address both of these issues in this paper. My contention is that at the foundational level there is essentially nothing new in quantum field theory that is not already present in non-relativistic quantum mechanics. This is quite different in emphasis from the view expressed by Redhead (1983a). Even in quantum mechanics most of the difficulties which arise are generated by the realist’s inclination to take the formalism too literally as representing physical reality, often in a modified or distorted classical view. More serious consideration of Bohr’s philosophical framework of complementarity may prove fruitful for coping with this problem, which is not new to quantum field theory, being already the central interpretative problem of quantum mechanics. On the other hand, as a source to illustrate how theories arc constructed and established in actual scientific practice, quantum field theory does provide a wide range of useful examples. Here too, although there are many technically fascinating topics (such as renormalization), quantum field theory is pretty much (meth odological) business as usual. Much more interesting, essentially new, methodological departures are seriously proposed (with varying degrees of credibility) by some rival or alternative developments in modern theoretical physics, such as the S-matrix programme, with its bootstrap conjecture, or cosmology, with various forms of the anthropic principle (Gale 1983) and with the inflationary universe scenario (Guth 1981 ).
The Negative-Energy Sea
Authors: Saunders Simon
Published: November 2023

The Dirac hole theory was developed in response to a growing crisis over the Dirac theory of the electron. It predicts the existence of antiparticles in relativistic quantum theory; the antiparticle came into existence as a ‘hole’ in a sea of negative-energy particles. In 1972 Heisenberg said ‘I think that this discovery of antimatter was perhaps the biggest jump of all the big jumps in physics in our century.’ He was speaking of the phenomenology, of pair creation and annihilation processes, the basic mechanisms of relativistic dynamics.
Linguistic Consequences of Language Contact and Restriction
Authors: Mougeon Raymond , Beniak Édouard
Published: November 2023

The description of minority or threatened languages with a view to documenting the linguistic consequences of language contact and restriction has now emerged as a distinct area of investigation within sociolinguistics. In this book, Raymond Mougeon and Édouard Beniak present a series of analyses of the impact that contact with English on the one hand, and language-use restriction on the other, have had on the evolution of the French dialect spoken in the predominantly English-speaking province of Ontario, Canada. As a background to the analyses, the authors provide sociohistorical and sociolinguistic information on the Franco-Ontarian community, and make comparisons with other varieties of French both within and outside North America. They address fundamental theoretical issues such as the interplay between linguistic and extralinguistic causes of structural change and the mechanisms of linguistic change in bilingual as opposed to unilingual speech communities.
Lexical Semantics without Thematic Roles
Authors: Ravin Yael
Published: November 2023

One of the central issues in modern linguistics has been the relationship between syntax and semantics. Within the framework of generative grammar, established by Chomsky in the early 1960s, it has been assumed that syntax is distinct from, and independent of, semantics. This premise has been challenged recently by Chomsky himself; he now proposes semantics, and in particular thematic roles, as the basis for generating syntactic structures. Yael Ravin argues that thematic roles are not valid semantic entities, and that syntax and semantics are indeed autonomous and independent of one another. She advocates a Decompositional approach to lexical semantics, in the spirit of Katz's semantic theory. In the course of her argument she discusses theoretical issues such as indeterminacy and ambiguity, lexical configuration rules, and lexical projection, and analyses the semantic content of event concepts such as causation, action, and change.
Science and Moral Philosophy in the Scottish Enlightenment
Authors: Emerson Roger L
Published: November 2023

Any educated Scot at the end of the seventeenth century would have come to a consideration of moral philosophy from a prior understanding of his duties as they were taught by the ministers of the Kirk. As a child, he would have learned from The shorter catechism, Answer 41, that “The moral law is summarily comprehended in the ten commandments”, which the Lord spoke to Moses from burning Mount Sinai, where He also wrote them on two stone tablets.
Professors of Virtue: The Social History of the Edinburgh Moral Philosophy Chair in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Sher Richard B
Published: November 2023

Thomas de Quincey once observed, with the professorial practice at Edinburgh particularly in mind, that “Moral Philosophy, in the large and popular use of that term by the Scotch, offers so immeasurable an expanse, that two people might easily wander there for a whole life and never happen to meet”. Those who have tried to make sense of eighteenth-century academic moral philosophy will be inclined to agree. Elements of what would now be called psychology, religion, epistemo logy, metaphysics, logic, ethics, jurisprudence, sociology, history, economics, political science, philosophy of history, rhetoric, literary criticism, and more, all found their way into Scottish moral philosophy i:Iasses during the age of the Enlightenment.
Representation and Interpretation
Authors: Davidson Donald
Published: November 2023

A person is a physical object which in detail and as a whole functions according to physical laws. So there can be no reason why an object indistinguishable in every way from a natural person should not be designed and built by people. It follows that there is no reason why an artificial object could not think, reason, make decisions, act, have beliefs, desires, and intentions.
Biological Explanation and Intentional Behaviour
Authors: Noble Denis
Published: November 2023

The problem that I want to address in this paper is one that is encountered in many different fields of science. It sometimes appears as an argument between reductionist and non-reductionist modes of explanation. In that form the argument can occur at the boundaries between, for example, chemistry and biology. Claude Bernard, the French nineteenth-century physiologist, employed the argument in his attempts, via the concept of milieu interieur and of its feedback control, to define the nature of physiology against the reductionist attempts of the organic chemists.
The Final Form of Kant’s Practical Philosophy
Authors: Wood Allen
Published: November 2023

By the year 1768, Kant claimed to be at work on a system of ethics, under the title ‘metaphysics of morals’ (Ak. 10:74).1 During the so-called silent decade of the 1770s, when Kant was working on the Critique of Pure Reason, he promised repeatedly not only that he would soon finish that work but also that he would soon publish a metaphysics of morals (Ak. 10:97, 132, 144).2Yet it was not until four years after the first Critique that Kant finally wrote a work on ethics, and even then he merely laid the ground for a metaphysics of morals by identifying and establishing the supreme principle on which a system of duties would be based (G. 4:392). Three years later, in the Critique of Practical Reason, Kant once again dealt entirely with foundational questions in moral philosophy. Kantian ethics is primarily known, especially among English-speaking philosophers, through these two ethical works of the 1780s, neither of which contains anything like a ‘metaphysics of morals’.
Kant’s Deductions of the Principles of Right
Authors: Guyer Paul
Published: November 2023

In the Doctrine of Right, Part I of his 1797 Metaphysics of Morals, Kant appears to derive his ‘universal principle of right’ —’Any action is right if it can coexist with everyone’s freedom in accordance with a universal law, or if on its maxim the freedom of choice of each can coexist with everyone’s freedom in accordance with a universal law’ (RL, Introduction, §C, 6:230) —from the fundamental principle of morality, which presents itself to us in the form of the Categorical Imperative. He appears simply to apply that fundamental principle’s requirement that we use our power of free choice and of action upon our choice in accordance with the condition that the maxims upon which we choose to act be universalizable (e.g. G. 4:402, 421) to the external use of our freedom—that is, to our physical actions in so far as they can affect other persons, in order to derive the rule that we act only in ways that leave others a freedom of action equal to our own, regardless of our purposes in and our motives for so acting, those being subjects for ethical but not legal rules.
Whence Public Right? The Role of Theoretical and Practical Reasoning in Kant’s Doctrine of Right
Authors: Ludwig Bernd
Published: November 2023

For every reader familiar with Kant’s Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, the second paragraph of the ‘Universal Principle of Right’ in Kant’s Metaphysical First Principles of the Doctrine of Right is, I think, a surprising one when encountered for the first time: reason says … that my freedom is in its idea restricted to those conditions and may also forcefully [thätlich] be so restricted by others’ (MS, §C, 6:230).
Instituting Principles: Between Duty and Action
Authors: O’Neill Onora
Published: November 2023

Much discussion of the practicality—or conversely of the formalism—of Kant’s ethics has concentrated on the capacity of the Categorical Imperative to discriminate principles of duty from other practical principles. Yet, even supposing that principles of duty can be identified, they will still not fully answer the question ‘What ought I to do?’ Any principle can be enacted or embodied or instituted in many different ways, among which agents have to decide.
Introduction
Authors: Clapin Hugh
Published: November 2023

Two mysteries continue to frame debate in contemporary philosophy of mind. The first is the nature of consciousness. In particular, how can our conscious experience fit into the growing body of scientific knowledge about the mind and the brain? The second mystery is intentionality. How can our thoughts be about other things? For some time intentionality has appeared the easier of these two problems, and it seems that significant progress has been made. The invention of automatic computing devices in the middle of the century, following important theoretical work by Alan Turing, showed that a machine could manipulate and make use of internal representational states, thus providing an example of how the mind’s internal representations might operate. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s much work has been done on the questions of how material states of mind could bear content.
Ideology, Projection, and Cognition
Authors: Price A W
Published: November 2023

‘Human love is a subjective thing … it is joy accompanied by an idea which we project against any suitable object in the line of our vision, just as the rainbow iris is projected against an oak, ash, or elm tree indifferently. So that if any other young lady had appeared instead of the one who did appear, I should have felt just the same interest in her, and have quoted precisely the same lines from Shelley about her, as about this one I saw. Such miserable creatures of circumstance are we all!’
Self-Bracketing Pyrrhonism
Authors: Castagnoli Luca
Published: November 2023

‘One of the few brands of skepticism in the history of philosophy to … accept—and even embrace—the charge of self-refutation is Pyrrhonism, especially as it is represented to us by our most extensive source for Pyrrhonist “doctrine”, Sextus Empiricus.’’ Starting from this remark, in his ‘Skeptical Homeopathy and Selfrefutation’ Mark McPherran tries to provide a detailed account of the way in which the Sceptical ϕϕναι and λóγoι, although selfrefuting, can nevertheless ‘work’. As the similes of purgatives, of fire, and of a ladder attempt to explain-McPherran suggests the Sceptical formulae (e.g. oνδϵν  μαλλον) and arguments (the proof against proof) are supposed to refute themselves, but only after having obtained their expected effect on the dogmatic tenets, and having thus left the dogmatist in the beneficial condition of ϵποχη and αταραξια.
Movements and ‘Movements’
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: November 2023

The pun of my title will tell you a good deal about what the topic of this chapter will be. Sonatas, symphonies, concertos, string quartets are composed of ‘movements.’ That is the word we use to describe the individual, self-contained parts of which they are constituted. We do not use that word usually to describe the separate, self-contained parts of an opera, oratorio, song cycle, cantata, in short, the various forms of classical music with text. The word ‘movement5 seems to be reserved for what the nineteenth century came to call ‘absolute music’: pure instrumental music without text or title.
lntuitions and Moral Theorizing
Authors: Hooker Brad
Published: November 2023

The term ‘moral intuitionism’ gets attached to arange of different views. Some of these views are more widely held than others are. Here is a list of views often referred to as intuitionism, and a ranking of them in terms of popularity:

Reflective equilibrium method. Moral theories are better to the extent that they accord with moral claims that are attractive in their own right-i.e. apart from any inferential support they receive from other moral claims. Most philosophers currently accept this theory.
Phraseology as a Language of Culture: Its Role in the Representation of a Collective Mentality
Authors: Teliya Veronika , Bragina Natalya , Oparina Elena , Sandomirskaya Irina
Published: November 2023

Phraseology is a domain of linguistic study which to a high degree illustrates the correlation between language and culture. In a typological approach, it is necessary to define and classify the types of cultural information which are illuminated by lexical collocations. Clearly, the recent development of cognitive linguistics and conceptual analysis in the 1980s and 1990s can provide a reliable foundation for this kind of investigation. A further important reason why cultural information should be included in an account of linguistic meanings concerns the needs of lexicography today. For the practical purposes of compiling a dictionary oflexical collocations, a number of theoretical points must be elucidated concerning the general problem of cultural markedness.
Tone in Mituku: How a Floating Tone Nailed down an Intermediate Level
Authors: Goldsmith john
Published: November 2023

This chapter presents some straightforward facts from the tonal system of a Bantu language, Mituku, described by Stappers (1973). The interest of the facts lies in the way they help clarify notions about constraints and certain kinds of representation-based generalizations. As we shall see, there is a simple principle at work to which we can appeal in order to explain why in a small number of cases-and only in these cases-a contour tone can appear on a single vowel. The contour-toned vowels in question are among those where the vowel can be shown to be the surface manifestation of two distinct vowels at deeper level (indeed, the two vowels are from distinct morphemes). Mituku, we will say, displays the no more than one tone per vowel (I TperV) restriction. It is, of course, an utter banality in the world of tonal systems to find a restriction on tone to the effect that no more than one tone may appear per mora (or short vowel), and indeed it is that banality that reassures us that we have the right generalization here.
Learning Word-to-meaning Mappings
Authors: Mark Siskind Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

When acquiring their native language, children learn a lexicon that maps words to their meanings. On one hand, this task must be easy. Most children within the same linguistic community learn the same lexicon, despite the fact that each child hears widely different sets of utterances in widely different situations. On the other hand, we have difficulty explaining how children accomplish this task. A natural assumption is that children learn the lexicon by associating their linguistic and nonlinguistic experience. This intuition, however, leaves many questions unanswered.
Single- and Dual-route Models of Inflectional Morphology
Authors: Nakisa Ramin , Plunkett Kim , Hahn Ulrike
Published: November 2023

Rather than reduplicate every item in the lexicon for number and gender, human languages have regular systems of phonological changes that systematically mark changes in these attributes. Various theories have been put forward to define how these systems operate and how they are acquired. Here we will concentrate on just one aspect of inflectional morphology—whether the system is best described as a single-route or a dual-route mechanism. In contrast to connectionist models of inflectional morphology that have argued for a singleroute mechanism (Rumelhart and McClelland 1986, Plunkett and Marchman 1991), Pinker (1991) states that inflectional morphology in all human languages is computed by a dual-route mechanism consisting of a pattern associator and a rule. During the course of acquisition, one type of inflection is identified as a ‘default’ and this form is produced by the rule-route whenever the pattern associator memory fails. If a word is similar to a known irregular, however, the pattern associator produces the appropriate irregular form and blocks action of the rule. For example, when producing the plural of the regular word dog, the rule route produces the plural dogs and the pattern associator has no irregular entry for the singular form, and so does not block production of dogs. For the irregular word sheep, the pattern associator produces the irregular plural sheep and the rule, which erroneously produces the form sheeps, is blocked (see Figure 10.1).
An Output-as-input Hypothesis in Language Acquisition
Authors: Elbers Loekie
Published: November 2023

In order to acquire knowledge of language, children have to analyse language, at least to a certain extent. Where does the input for this analysis come from? In the following it is argued that the input for children’s linguistic analysis comes primarily from their own production, rather than from their comprehension. The theoretical arguments for this output-as-input hypothesis are largely based on what is known about the processes of planning and delivering speech (Levelt 1989). A three-phase, inductive acquisition model (the output-as-input model) is proposed, which takes the child’s own productions as primary input for analysis. Crucial features of the model are pointed out, its three phases are elaborated, and empirical evidence from three different case studies is discussed.
Role of dead reckoning in navigation
Authors: Etienne Ariane S , Berlie Joëlle , Georgakopoulos Joséphine , Maurer Roland
Published: November 2023

In the late fifteenth century, early transoceanic navigators, such as Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus for the first time lost sight of land for a long period. They then had to make their way through a no man’s land or rather through a no man’s sea. Possibly, they had to overcome greater navigational and psychological barriers than our first present day space travellers. who could always see the globe from where they started their mission and maintained constant contact with their base. To avoid getting lost, there was only one thing our early explorers could do: keep track of their own position relative to their point of departure.
Spatial representations and homing pigeon navigation
Authors: Bingman Verner P
Published: November 2023

For many years racing pigeon hobbyists from Toledo, Ohio would gather together for a summer weekend and send their birds to Houston, Texas for the big 1300 mile race. What would occur on that weekend in Toledo and Houston would be repeated in a similar fashion in many different places, at different times of year and attests to the remarkable navigational ability of the racing pigeon, Columba livia. The winning pigeon would return home in about 2 days, and even a middle of the pack bird would return in 3-4 days. It is this remarkable navigational ability that motivated European ethologists of the 1950s to ask the question: How do they do it? However, as simple a question as this is, it is remarkable how different scientific cultures have interpreted the same question in very different ways.
An Experimental Investigation of the Entrainment into a Buoyant Jet in a Weak Cross flow
Authors: Gaskin* S J , Wood** I R
Published: November 2023

The entrainment into buoyant jets in a weak cross flow is investigated using a particle image velocimetry (PIV) technique to obtain a detailed picture of the entrainment velocities. The experiments show that the entrainment velocities can be superimposed in the irrotational region. This implies that, given the entrainment velocity for a buoyant jet in a still medium, the entrainment velocity in a moving medium can be calculated by adding the cross flow velocity to the entrainment velocity in a still medium. The implications of this lead to an additional term in the integral momentum equations and show how the normal entrainment assumption changes naturally into the forced entrainment formulation at higher cross flows.
Zr-and Hf-centred Lewis acid in organic synthesis
Authors: Suzuki Keisuke
Published: November 2023

The nature of a given Lewis acid, MLn can be modified by changing the metal (M), the ligand (L, chiral or non-chiral) as well as the charge (neutral or cationic), thereby endowing it with useful properties in organic synthesis. Early transition metals are attracting current attention to exploit their hard Lewis acidic characters. Although titanium has been studied most, recent attention is also centred at its group-4 congeners, i.e. zirconium and hafnium. Although they have been extensively used in the polymerization field,1-3 the use in organic synthesis is still rather limited either as a tailor-made catalyst or as a transient species in the course of the reaction.4 This chapter describes some unique reactivities of cationic zirconocene or hafnocene complexes, thereby dealing with four modes of functional group activation
Preparation and reaction of triorganozincates
Authors: Harada Toshiro , Oku Akira
Published: November 2023

Reaction of diorganozincs with organolithium or Grignard reagents produces a thermally stable ate complexes R3ZnM (M = Li, MgX) called organozincates.1·2 Organozincates are generally more reactive than organozinc halides and diorganozincs, undergoing 1,2-addition to aldehydes and ketones and 1,4- addition to conjugate enones.3 The latter reaction has been studied rather extensively and proved to be an alternative method to the use of cuprates as demonstrated in three-component coupling approach to prostaglandins. Like other ate complexes, zincates bearing a leaving group at a proper position rearrange with 1,2-migration to give homologated organozincs (Equations6.1 and 6.2).
Transition metal catalysed reactions of zinc organometallics
Authors: Knochel Paul , Jones Philip , Langer Falk
Published: November 2023

The low reactivity of zinc organometallic reagents can be dramatically increased by adding a transition metal catalyst. Many transition metal salts undergo transmetallation with organozinc halides or diorganozincs producing intermediate transition metal organometallics which display an enhanced reactivity toward many organic electrophiles due to the presence of d-orbitals. This increased reactivity allows many reactions not possible with conventional main group organometallic compounds to be carried out.1 The moderate activity of zinc organometallics is an essential factor for the success of these transmetallations, since it avoids the transfer of several organic groups to the same metal centre and therefore reduces the decomposition pathways avail-able of these transition metal organometallic intermediates.
Supercritical fluid chromatography
Authors: Clifford Tony
Published: November 2023

In chromatography, compounds are dynamically partitioned between two phases, one of which is mobile, and these compounds move with the mobile phase to an extent depending on the fraction of time they spend in it. As different compounds will partition differently, they will travel at different speeds, and so a mixture of compounds will separate as they move. For supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC), the mobile phase is a supercritical fluid and the stationary phase is a packed bed of solid material, which may have specific compounds bonded on to it, or a quartz capillary wall, which is coated with a thin layer of polymer.
Addition of electrophilic organoselenium reagents to carbon-carbon double bonds
Authors: Beaulieu Pierre l. , dáziel robert
Published: November 2023

Since the discovery in the late 1950s that species of the type RSeX add stereospecifically to simple alkenes, electrophilic selenium-based reagents have provided the synthetic chemist with an ever-growing arsenal of methods for the construction of complex organic molecules. Comprehensive reviews of the rich chemistry characteristic of electrophilic selenium species have appeared. In this chapter we have concentrated on the practical aspects of this chemistry, limiting ourselves to the generation and use of novel organoselenium electrophiles. Representative examples are provided of applications to carbon-oxygen, carbon-nitrogen and carbon-carbon bond formation. A final section is devoted to the growing importance of homochiral electrophilic selenium reagents and their application to asymmetric synthesis.
Free-radical reactions and reductive deselenizations
Authors: Back Thomas G
Published: November 2023

Several reviews of free-radical reactions of selenium compounds have appeared,1 2 and a recent monograph provides practical guidelines for freeradical reactions in general, including ones that involve selenium compounds, as well as a list of earlier reviews.3 The relative ease with which certain types of organoselenium compound undergo homolytic cleavage has provided the basis for numerous synthetically useful procedures. substrate, with generation of the corresponding alkyl or vinyl radical. Transfer of an ArSe moiety from ArSeZ to the latter species then completes the chain and regenerates Z . When a good hydrogen atom donor such as a tin hydride is present and/or selenium-group transfer is relatively slow,
X-ray diffraction broadening effects in materials characterization
Authors: Kimmel Giora , Dayan David
Published: November 2023

It is difficult to avoid instrumental broadening in powder diffraction and it is usually considered a drawback of this method. Therefore, the line broadening caused by structural reasons is usually ignored in routine characterization work. Nowadays, all data collection in XRPD (X-ray powder diffraction) is digitized and it is easy to perform accurate data processing. Although extensive work had been done in the last decade in the field of line-broadening analysis of XRPD there is still little agreement as to whether or not this method can be accepted as a characterization tool. The purpose of the present chapter is to demonstrate that valuable information is lost if the broadening effects are ignored.
Oxidation of the C=C bond
Authors: Ito Y N , Katsuki t.
Published: November 2023

Metal complexes promote catalytic epoxidation in two different ways: (i) by activation of an oxidant and subsequent migration of an oxygen from the oxidant to olefins; (ii) by oxidation of a metal ion by an oxidant to the high-valent metal oxide and subsequent oxygen transfer to olefins with the reduction of metal ion which can be reoxidized to the metal oxide in situ.The former types of reactions are catalyzed mostly by early transition metal complexes and the latter type of reactions mainly by group VII-X transition metal complexes. For example, t-butyl hydroperoxide is activated by O=V(OR)3 or O2Mo(OR)2 and undergoes epoxidation. During these reactions, the oxidation states of the vanadium and molybdenum ions do not change (Scheme 2.1.1). In general, olefins bearing a precoordinating functional group are good substrates for this type of reaction (see Section 2.3), while epoxidation of isolated olefins is rather slow. On the other hand, stereospecific epoxidation of olefins and C—H hydroxylation of alkanes are realized in living cells with the aid of oxidizing enzymes. Based on the clarification of the catalysis of an iron porphyrin complex at the active site of the representative oxidizing enzyme cytochrome P450, investigations into the enantioselective epoxidation of simple olefins with metalloporphyrin complexes or its equivalents as catalysts were commenced. The P-450-catalysed reactions transfer oxygen atoms to substrates via a high-valent oxo iron porphyrin complex that is produced by the complex redox procedure containing the enzymatic reaction with molecular oxygen. However, the formation of the same oxo species can be chemically effected by treatment of an iron porphyrin complex with stoichiometric oxidants such as iodosylbenzene (Scheme 2.1.2). Besides iron porphyrins, many other metal complexes have been found to catalyse oxygen-transfer reactions via the corresponding high-valent metal oxides.
Cooperative breeding
Authors: Payne Robert B
Published: November 2023

Cooperative breeding birds live in social groups. In the group some birds, the “helpers”, help rear the young of other individuals, the breeders. Helpers may provide relief to the breeders by taking part in the care of a brood, and the helpers may increase the number of brood young that survive. This behavior is curious. The helpers, by not breeding themselves, may not be behaving in their own best interest. This altruistic behavior would under most conditions be selected against, if only because other individuals would leave more offspring and the helpers themselves would fail to reproduce (Stacey and Koenig 1990, Ligon 1999). Nevertheless the New World anis and Guira Cuckoo are among the most social of all cooperative breeding birds.
Melt phase behaviour of block copolymers
Authors: Hamley Ian W
Published: November 2023

A remarkable property of block copolymers is their ability to self-assemble in the, melt into a variety of ordered structures with nanoscale periodicities. These structures can be controlled by varying the composition of the block copolymer or the segregation between blocks (via temperature or degree of polymerization). In addition to the now well-established lamellar (lam), hexagonal-packed cylinder (hex) and body-centred cubic (BCC) micelle phases, a number of new morphologies have been discovered, which supplement the ‘classical’ structures. The identification of a bicontinuous cubic phase of la3-d symmetry, sometimes called the gyroid phase, is now established. Other ‘perforated layer’ structures have been reported, but seem to be metastable structures formed during the transition to the gyroid structure. In this chapter, the disordered phase is abbreviated by dis.
Beyond peptide libraries
Authors: Terrett Nicholas K
Published: November 2023

Chapters 2 and 3 described the explosive growth in methods for the rapid synthesis of peptide libraries, primarily for immunological studies, reflecting the critical role played by solid phase peptide chemists in the initial development of combinatorial chemistry methods. Following the seminal 1991 Naturepapers from Houghton and Lam, there was an enormous growth in interest in combinatorial chemistry from the entire chemical community in general, and from pharmaceutical chemists in particular. The technology clearly had the potential to accelerate the processes involved in drug discovery, and many pharmaceutical and specialized biotechnology companies began their own investigation of combinatorial methods. Whilst most were based on solid phase methods, primarily resin beads, there was an enormous diversity in the approaches used to generate and test compounds. In addition, the drive was to apply rapid chemical methods to non-peptide structures, as these were generally accepted to be superior starting points for drug discovery programmes. Peptides are poorly absorbed if administered orally, and are subject to rapid metabolism and elimination if administered systemically (intravenously for example).
Solid phase library chemistry
Authors: Terrett Nicholas K
Published: November 2023

The last chapter documented the ineluctable progression away from the established solid phase synthesis of peptoids, oligonucleotides, and oligosaccharides towards the novel oligomers demanded by chemists working in combinatorial chemistry. At the end of the chapter, the synthesis of ‘peptoids’ on solid phase demonstrated that combinatorial chemistry has moved beyond the synthesis of peptide libraries towards the more complicated synthesis of low molecular weight organic molecules. These publications provided an enormous impetus to the further study of solid phase chemistry, and without doubt, in future years they will be considered to have been the watershed that set combinatorial chemistry on its path away from peptide synthesis.
Combinatorial chemistry applications
Authors: Terrett Nicholas K
Published: November 2023

It is impossible to give a comprehensive overview of the considerable influence and impact of combinatorial chemistry, as it is evident that the applications and successes are both numerous and varied. Furthermore, there are new and highly significant opportunities being made on a weekly basis. The objective of this chapter is to give a sense of the advantages in biology and medicinal chemistry that have resulted from a use of combinatorial libraries, describing some of the more interesting results. Many examples of combinatorial libraries have been described in the preceding chapters and to avoid repetition reference is made as appropriate to previous sections.
Introduction and some general concepts
Authors: Zard Samir Z
Published: November 2023

In chemistry, as in other branches of science, experiment often precedes theory. Accidental discoveries thus bring fresh light and reveal aspects of the subject hitherto unsuspected. And radical chemistry is no exception. It is therefore perhaps useful to outline, in a very broad manner, the way the field developed over the past century or so, viewed from the perspective of the synthetic organic chemist.
Organo-silicon, -germanium, and -mercury hydrides
Authors: Zard Samir Z
Published: November 2023

Silicon and germanium are in the same periodic column as tin, and the radical chemistry associated with these elements is in many ways qualitatively similar. The increased strength of the bonding to hydrogen and carbon translates into slower kinetics and less efficient chain processes as compared with organotin derivatives (Chatgilialoglu and Newcomb 1999). For example, hydrogen abstraction from tri n-butylgermane by a given carbon-centred radical is about 10-20 times slower than from tri-n-tributyl tin hydride (Johnston et al. 1985), and from triethylsilane and other simple silanes it becomes too slow to be generally useful.
Redox processes
Authors: Zard Samir Z
Published: November 2023

In essentially all the reactions we have explored so far, the radicals were generated by thermal or photochemical homolysis. There is another way to produce radicals, shown in a formal manner in Scheme 8.1. It consists in removing an electron from an electron-rich species, represented by an anion, or by adding one electron to an electron deficient entity, now represented by a cation. It is of course possible to oxidize a radical to the cation level or reduce it to the anion.
Some concluding remarks
Authors: Zard Samir Z
Published: November 2023

This modification of an anonymous limerick (Parrott 1983) sums up humourously a prevailing view of radical reactions that will fade away eventually when radical chemistry takes up its legitimate position in the curriculum of undergraduate and graduate students. Indeed, the foregoing chapters give only a brief glimpse of the synthetic opportunities accruing from the implementation of radical processes. It is hoped that this survey of the main reactions and methods will encourage synthetic chemists to use this powerful arsenal for solving their synthetic problems.
Low-coordinated phosphorus compounds
Authors: Asmus Sven , BergsträßEr Uwe , Heydt Heinrich , Schmitz Marion , Regitz Manfred
Published: November 2023

‘Phosphorus in Organic Chemistry—from Discovery to Repudiation of the Double Bond Rule’ is the title of an article summarizing the history of this essential element. Phosphorus was first mentioned by the German alchemist Hennig Brand in 1669 and recognized as an element by Lavoisier; since the beginning of the 20th century much effort has been devoted to the development of the chemistry of tri-, tetra-, and pentacoordinated compounds(σx)with tri-, tetra-, and pentavalent phosphorus(λx)centres. Milestones reached around the middle of the century were undoubtedly the olefination reactions of G. Wittig and L. Horner that have had such a decisive influence on strategies of organic synthesis.
Oligosaccharides: Their synthesis and biological roles
Authors: Osborn Helen M I , Khan Tariq H
Published: November 2023

Exciting developments in analytical methods have recently been reported which allow isolation and identification of previously elusive carbohydrates. As a result carbohydrates have received considerable attention from both biologists and chemists who are attempting to fully understand their biological roles. In this book we wish to portray some of the current excitement in this rapidly growing area of research and highlight some of the challenges facing carbohydrate chemists and biologists. We wish to discuss a number of modern approaches for synthesising carbohydrates so that readers of this book will feel able to contribute to this area of research. The therapeutic potential of carbohydrates will also be discussed to further illustrate their importance.
Language classification: scientific and unscientific methods
Authors: Ringe Don
Published: November 2023

What do we linguists have to say-or what should we have to say-about our common human inheritance? I will argue that we have less to contribute than is often supposed; but we can make some contribution, because of the way languages are usually classified. We classify languages into families, not on the basis of general similarities between them, but on the basis of shared history.
Transient Mixed Convection from a Vertical Surface in a Porous Medium
Authors: Harris S D , Ingham D B , Pop I
Published: November 2023

An analysis is made of the unsteady mixed convection from a vertical flat plate in a fluid-saturated porous medium when the temperature on the surface is instantaneously changed from that of the surrounding fluid.
From Bench to Market: The Evolution of Chemical Synthesis
Authors: Cabri Walter , Fabio Romano Di
Published: November 2023

Who wins the race to turn molecules into medicines? How much does it cost? What factors influence the choice of synthetic routes and reaction mechanisms? How can pharmaceutical companies protect their discoveries? In From Bench to Market, Walter Cabri and Romano Di Fabio chart the process of industrial chemical synthesis, from the first discovery of a molecule, or 'new chemical entity', to its entry in the marketplace as a drug. They discuss all aspects related to the process research for bulk production, including comparison between different synthetic routes, key methodologies and reaction mechanisms, costs, patent competition, and crystalline forms. The authors use the real chemical history of the development of drugs from several therapeutic areas as detailed case studies, each chosen to illustrate a range of issues and methodologies in industrial chemistry. Several chapters cover the development of the various β-lactam antibiotics; two chapters describe the discovery and synthesis of the anticancer drugs Idarubicin and Paclitaxal; in another chapter, the synthesis of the anti-viral drug Acyclovir and the ‘patent war’ that resulted are explored. Between them, the authors represent considerable first-hand experience in pharmaceutical research and development. The technical, practical, and strategic information they have amassed make this essential reading for graduate and undergraduate chemists intending to work in the pharmaceutical industry, as well as for industrial chemists themselves. Lecturers teaching courses in medicinal and organic chemistry will also find it useful.
Acyclovir
Authors: Cabri Walter , Fabio Romano Di
Published: November 2023

The chemistry developed for the synthesis of the antiviral acyclic nucleotide acyclovir is an interesting example of competition among industrial research groups as this product is a generic drug. There are more than 20 bulk producers worldwide1 and, among them, Quimica Synthetica SA, Lachema AS, Recordati SpA, Heumann Pharma Gmbh, Solchem Italiana SpA, Cipla Ltd, Yung Zip Chemical Ind. Co., Lek Pharmac, Mallinckrodt Chemical Inc., Istituto Biologico Chemoterapico, and, of course, Burroughs-Wellcome (now Glaxo-Wellcome) have deposited a drug master file (DMF) in the USA. The high level of competition has had a dramatic effect on the price of the bulk active product and during the last 10 years there has been a process-patent war between generic companies and the originator, Glaxo-Wellcome.
Paclitaxel
Authors: Cabri Walter , Fabio Romano Di
Published: November 2023

The US government funded all the important pre-clinical and clinical research studies on the molecule and sought a firm, namely BMS, to commercialize the invention.
Perfect Incompressible Fluids
Authors: Chemin Jean-Yves , Gallagher Isabelle , Iftimie Dragos
Published: November 2023

The aim of this book is to offer a direct and self-contained access to some of the new or recent results in fluid mechanics. It gives an authoritative account on the theory of the Euler equations describing a perfect incompressible fluid. First of all, the text derives the Euler equations from a variational principle, and recalls the relations on vorticity and pressure. Various weak formulations are proposed. The book then presents the tools of analysis necessary for their study: Littlewood-Paley theory, action of Fourier multipliers on L spaces, and partial differential calculus. These techniques are then used to prove various recent results concerning vortext patches or sheets, essentially the persistence of the smoothness of the boundary of a vortex patch, even if that smoothness allows singular points, as well as the existence of weak solutions of the vorticity sheet type. The text also presents properties of microlocal (analytic or Gevrey) regularity of the solutions of Euler equations, and provides links of such properties to the smoothness in time of the flow of the solution vector field.
In defence of noise
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

Our reactions to random phenomena, for example games of chance such as roulette or blackjack, are often irrational and tainted by primitive superstition. Ask the man in the street whether a penny is more or less likely to fall heads if it has just shown three tails in a row. A science student will often have difficulty deciding just how to draw a straight-line graph through data showing a large scatter of the experimental points, even though he knows in principle about least-squares-fitting procedures. Noise is somehow regarded as wrong-something to be suppressed at all costs. We may feel guilty about publishing results with large error bands or spectra with prominent noise contributions.
Chimpanzees, humans, and the forest
Authors: Boesch Christophe , Boesch-Achermann Hedwige
Published: November 2023

Forest scene: July 1976: Valentin, a man of the local Guéré tribe, probably about 40 years old, had the reputation of being a healer, and one who not only used natural remedies but who also relied on magic forces for his art. He was recommended to us by the park authorities as someone who could help us in setting up our first camp and in finding our way through the forest. He had his own, in our view quite unorthodox, way of doing this. Also very intriguing were the stories he told when we said that we were here to live in the forest to learn all about the chimpanzees. ‘That’s easy’, he said, ‘the old people know a lot about the chimpanzee. They say he is our brother. In the old days he was of great help to us in warfare against our neighbours. Therefore they ask us to be grateful towards him and respect him. Nobody must kill him, even if he takes some of our fruit and vegetables. Anyway, he is very clever and you never see him because there is always a guardian. But when you hear a big ‘palaver’ in the forest, you know that the head of the family is distributing nuts. ‘And do you know how they carry these nuts around?’ Valentin asked us. Of course we did not. ‘Well, they catch a monkey, take its skin and use it as a bag. Isn’t that very smart?’ Indeed, we were highly impressed and wondered whether we were dreaming. War, nuts, hunting — all the big words were there. Valentin had certainly set us thinking.
The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation
Authors: Schluter Dolph
Published: November 2023

Adaptive radiation is a spectacular feature of evolution. It is also widespread, more so than the list of familiar cases, including the Galapagos finches, the cichlid fishes of East African lakes, and the Hawaiian silversword alliance, alone would suggest. Much of life’s diversity, perhaps even most of it, has arisen during similar episodes of speciation and phenotypic and ecological divergence. My main goal in this book is to assess how far we have come in understanding the causes of this remarkable process. Before I began the book I held the naive notion that my years of study on the Galapagos finches, where my fascination with adaptive radiation began, on African and American finches, and more recently on fishes of postglacial lakes, had taught me enough about adaptive radiation that my task would involve little more than writing down all I knew before I forgot it. As the book got underway the limits of my knowledge became distressingly apparent, and I now feel I learned most of its contents along the way. Here I aim to put the results of many studies together to ask whether they conform or contra st with the dominant ‘ecological’ theory of adaptive radiation that was formulated in the first half of the last century.
The ecology of adaptive radiation
Authors: Schluter Dolph
Published: November 2023

What are the ecological causes of adaptive radiation? The last major synthesis of ideas led to the ‘ecological theory’ that phenotypic divergence and rapid speciation in adaptive radiation are ultimately the outcome of divergent natural selection arising from differences between environments and competition for resources. In this final chapter, I summarize our state of knowledge of the ecology of adaptive radiation, and judge the theory in light of the evidence presented in the previous chapters. I also review some of the major questions that remain and thus the work that lies ahead.