bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Simulation of air bubble scattering effects in 193nm immersion interferometric lithography
Authors: Lin C. H. , Wang L. A.
Published: January 2006

In 193nm immersion lithography, the presence of air bubbles in water poses a serious concern to the resist image formation. In this study, air bubble scattering effects were characterized by the Mie theory and the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method. The influence range of bubbles both in forward and lateral directions with respect to their sizes was analyzed. It is predicted that as bubble size exceeds 90nm in diameter, light scattering becomes significant. In the FDTD simulation, the effects of scattered waves in two- and three-beam interferometric lithography were simulated to mimic the actual imaging formation in an immersion scanner. It is found that the more beams are involved in the image formation, the more scattered waves interfere with the image forming waves, and then degrade the final image. Finally, the effect of a moving bubble was also simulated. The phenomenon of image distortion in the presence of bubbles was simulated by employing the three-dimensional FDTD method.
Hyper high numerical aperature achromatic interferometer for immersion lithography at 193 nm
Authors: Charley A. L. , Lagrange A. , Lartigue O. , Simon J. , Thony P. , Schiavone P.
Published: January 2006

An apparatus for immersion interferometric lithography is described here where the interfering beams are created by illuminating a first diffraction grating followed by a second diffraction grating recombining the diffracted beams onto the photoresist plane. The main advantage of this system is to be achromatic: thus it is possible to use a basic commercial ArF excimer laser as the exposure source. We present here the calculations made to evaluate the different parameters that can influence the depth of focus in the immersion configuration. As the setup is mainly based on the two diffraction gratings, it matters to properly design it. The purpose of this article is to show the optimization made on the diffraction gratings in taking into account their fabrication process since they are fabricated using the capabilities of the silicon line available in our laboratory. On one hand, calculations have been done to determine the second grating period as a function of the first grating period and the “immersion numerical aperature.” By simply adding a fluid to a “dry” system, we will indeed be able to improve the depth of focus but not the resolution. In playing with the diffraction grating periods, we are able to benefit from the introduction of the immersion fluid. We have performed simulations in order to optimize the grating diffraction efficiency as a function of the etch depth and the fractional linewidth. Finally, we report on the results obtained with the achromatic immersion interferometer. The apparatus was used with a 193 nm GAM excimer laser to print resist patterns having a period of 100 nm with excellent contrast.
Enhanced molecular patterning via microdisplacement printing
Authors: Dameron Arrelaine A. , Hampton Jennifer R. , Gillmor Susan D. , Hohman J. Nathan , Weiss Paul S.
Published: January 2006

Here we demonstrate the versatility of “microdisplacement printing,” a soft lithographic patterning technique that employs microcontact printing to replace pre-formed self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) selectively. We use molecules that are common in microcontact printing as well as low-molecular-weight molecules that cannot be patterned by traditional methods. Multiple component SAMs were fabricated by additional processing steps, extending microdisplacement printing to more complex patterns.
CONTROL OF VORTEX SHEDDING BEHIND A CIRCULAR CYLINDER USING ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES
Authors: CHEN ZHIHUA , FAN BAOCHUN , ZHOU BENMOU , AUBRY NADINE
Published: January 2006

Both open and closed loop control algorithms have been developed for manipulating wake flows past a solid cylinder in an electrically low-conducting fluid. The intent is to avoid vortex shedding and flow separation from the body, which is achieved through the introduction of localized electromagnetic forces (Lorentz forces) in the azimuthal direction generated by an array of permanent magnets and electrodes on the surface of the circular cylinder. The array of actuators offers the advantage of making the Lorentz force time and space dependent. More specifically, one closed loop control method has been derived from the equations of motion capable of determining at all times the intensity of the Lorentz force in order to control the flow. This is accomplished first, independently of the flow (open loop algorithm) and second, based on some partial flow information measured on the surface of the solid body (closed loop algorithm).
PHARMACOGENOMICS OF ACUTE LEUKEMIA
Authors: Cheok Meyling H , Lugthart Sanne , Evans William E.
Published: January 2006

▪ Abstract  Over the past four decades, treatment of acute leukemia in children has made remarkable progress, from this disease being lethal to now achieving cure rates of 80% for acute lymphoblastic leukemia and 45% for acute myeloid leukemia. This progress is largely owed to the optimization of existing treatment modalities rather than the discovery of new agents. However, the annual number of patients with leukemia who experience relapse after initial therapy remains greater than that of new cases of most childhood cancers. The aim of pharmacogenetics is to develop strategies to personalize medications and tailor treatment regimens to individual patients, with the goal of enhancing efficacy and safety through better understanding of the person's genetic makeup. In this review, we summarize recent pharmacogenomic studies related to the treatment of pediatric acute leukemia. These include work using candidate-gene approaches, as well as genome-wide studies using haplotype mapping and gene expression profiling. These strategies illustrate the promise of pharmacogenomics to further advance the treatment of human cancers, with childhood leukemia serving as a paradigm.
HUMAN FLAVIN-CONTAINING MONOOXYGENASES
Authors: Cashman John R. , Zhang Jun
Published: January 2006

▪ Abstract  This review summarizes recent information concerning the pharmacological and toxicological significance of the human flavin-containing monooxygenase (FMO, EC 1.14.13.8). The human FMO oxygenates nucleophilic heteroatom-containing chemicals and drugs and generally converts them into harmless, polar, readily excreted metabolites. Sometimes, however, FMO bioactivates chemicals into reactive materials that can cause toxicity. Most of the interindividual differences of FMO are due to genetic variability and allelic variation, and splicing variants may contribute to interindividual and interethnic variability observed for FMO-mediated metabolism. In contrast to cytochrome P450 (CYP), FMO is not easily induced nor readily inhibited, and potential adverse drug-drug interactions are minimized for drugs prominently metabolized by FMO. These properties may provide advantages in drug design and discovery, and by incorporating FMO detoxication pathways into drug candidates, more drug-like materials may be forthcoming. Although exhaustive examples are not available, physiological factors can influence FMO function, and this may have implications for the clinical significance of FMO and a role in human disease.
Regulation of heavy subunit chain of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase by tumor necrosis factor-α in lens epithelial cells: role of LEDGF/p75
Authors: Takamura Yoshihiro , Fatma Nigar , Kubo Eri , Singh Dhirendra P.
Published: January 2006

TNF-α induces oxidative stress by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS). This molecule elevates the expression of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase heavy subunit (γ-GCS-HS). Lens epithelium-derived growth factor (LEDGF)/p75, a transcriptional protein, is inducible by oxidative stress and protects cells from various stresses by upregulating stress-responsive genes. This paper presents evidence that TNF-α elevates the expression of LEDGF and that LEDGF is one of the transactivators of γ-GCS-HS gene. An analysis of the γ-GCS-HS promoter sequence (−819 to +518 nt) revealed the presence of putative sites for LEDGF binding. Gel mobility assay confirmed the binding of LEDGF to the heat shock element (nGAAn) and the stress response element (A/TGGGGA/T) present in γ-GCS-HS promoter. Transactivation experiments showed activation of γ-GCS-HS promoter in cells overexpressing LEDGF or treated with a sublethal dose of TNF-α (20 ng/ml). Downregulation of γ-GCS-HS promoter activity in cells transfected with LEDGF small interfering RNA validated the finding. Notably, cells treated with TNF-α (20 ng/ml) for 24 h had an increased abundance of LEDGF and γ-GCS-HS mRNA and protein. In contrast, cells treated with TNF-α for longer periods or with higher concentrations of TNF-α showed reduced expression of LEDGF and γ-GCS-HS and increased cellular death with higher ROS levels. Cells overexpressing LEDGF revealed elevated GSH levels (10–15%), a condition that may potentially eliminate the insult to cells induced by TNF-α. Thus TNF-α regulation of LEDGF may be physiologically important, as elevated expression of LEDGF increases the expression of endogenous γ-GCS-HS gene, the catalytic subunit of the regulating enzyme in GSH biosynthesis that may constitute a protective mechanism in limiting oxidative stress induced by inflammatory cytokines.
Anion channels transport ATP into the Golgi lumen
Authors: Thompson Roger J. , Akana Hillary C. S. R. , Finnigan Claire , Howell Kathryn E. , Caldwell John H.
Published: January 2006

Anion channels provide a pathway for Cl− influx into the lumen of the Golgi cisternae. This influx permits luminal acidification by the organelle's H+-ATPase. Three different experimental approaches, electrophysiological, biochemical, and proteomic, demonstrated that two Golgi anion channels, GOLAC-1 and GOLAC-2, also mediate ATP anion transport into the Golgi lumen. First, GOLAC-1 and -2 were incorporated into planar lipid bilayers, and single-channel recordings were obtained. Low ionic activities of K2ATP added to the cis-chamber directly inhibited the Cl− subconductance levels of both channels, with Km values ranging from 16 to 115 μM. Substitution of either K2ATP or MgATP for Cl− on the cis, trans, or both sides indicated that ATP is conducted by the channels with a relative permeability sequence of Cl− > ATP4− > MgATP2−. Single-channel currents were observed at physiological concentrations of Cl− and ATP, providing evidence for their importance in vivo. Second, transport of [α-32P]ATP into sealed Golgi vesicles that maintain in situ orientation was consistent with movement through the GOLACs because it exhibited little temperature dependence and was saturated with an apparent Km = 25 μM. Finally, after transport of [γ-32P]ATP, a protease-protection assay demonstrated that proteins are phosphorylated within the Golgi lumen, and after SDS-PAGE, the proteins in the phosphorylated bands were identified by mass spectrometry. GOLAC conductances, [α-32P]ATP transport, and protein phosphorylation have identical pharmacological profiles. We conclude that the GOLACs play dual roles in the Golgi complex, providing pathways for Cl− and ATP influx into the Golgi lumen.
The gastroenteroinsular response to glucose ingestion during postexercise recovery
Authors: O’Connor Aine M. , Pola Suresh , Ward Blathnaid M. , Fillmore Davina , Buchanan Keith D. , Kirwan John P.
Published: January 2006

This study examined gastrointestinal hormone and peptide responses when glucose was ingested after prolonged exercise. Six endurance-trained male athletes ran on a treadmill for 2 h at 60% V̇o2 max. Immediately after the run, the athletes consumed 75 g of glucose in 250 ml of water (ExGLU) or flavored water as a placebo control (ExPL). On a separate visit, the athletes rested for 2 h and then consumed glucose (ConGLU). During the first 60 min of recovery from exercise alone (ExPL), plasma vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), gastrin, and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) all increased significantly, whereas glucose, insulin, and gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) were unchanged from the immediate postexercise value. When glucose was ingested after exercise (ExGLU), glucose, insulin, VIP, gastrin, GLP-1, and GIP were all increased ( P < 0.01). However, when glucose was ingested after resting for 2 h (ConGLU), VIP levels were unaffected, although glucose, insulin, gastrin, GLP-1, and GIP levels increased ( P < 0.05). The plasma glucose response was greater ( P < 0.03) and the plasma insulin response lower ( P < 0.004) during ExGLU compared with ConGLU. There was a significantly higher ( P < 0.01) VIP response during the initial period of recovery in ExGLU than there was with both ExPL and ConGLU. Plasma VIP showed a modest negative correlation with circulating glucose ( r = −0.35, P < 0.03) and insulin ( r = −0.37, P < 0.03) during the ExGLU recovery period. In summary, when glucose is ingested after prolonged exercise, there is mild insulin resistance and a corresponding rapid transitory increase in plasma VIP. These data suggest that VIP may play an important glucoregulatory role when glucose is ingested during the immediate postexercise recovery period.
The glucagon-like peptide-1 metabolite GLP-1-(9–36) amide reduces postprandial glycemia independently of gastric emptying and insulin secretion in humans
Authors: Meier Juris J. , Gethmann Arnica , Nauck Michael A. , Götze Oliver , Schmitz Frank , Deacon Carolyn F. , Gallwitz Baptist , Schmidt Wolfgang E. , Holst Jens J.
Published: January 2006

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) lowers glycemia by modulating gastric emptying and endocrine pancreatic secretion. Rapidly after its secretion, GLP-1-(7–36) amide is degraded to the metabolite GLP-1-(9–36) amide. The effects of GLP-1-(9–36) amide in humans are less well characterized. Fourteen healthy volunteers were studied with intravenous infusion of GLP-1-(7–36) amide, GLP-1-(9–36) amide, or placebo over 390 min. After 30 min, a solid test meal was served, and gastric emptying was assessed. Blood was drawn for GLP-1 (total and intact), glucose, insulin, C-peptide, and glucagon measurements. Administration of GLP-1-(7–36) amide and GLP-1-(9–36) amide significantly raised total GLP-1 plasma levels. Plasma concentrations of intact GLP-1 increased to 21 ± 5 pmol/l during the infusion of GLP-1-(7–36) amide but remained unchanged during GLP-1-(9–36) amide infusion [5 ± 3 pmol/l; P < 0.001 vs. GLP-1-(7–36) amide administration]. GLP-1-(7–36) amide reduced fasting and postprandial glucose concentrations ( P < 0.001) and delayed gastric emptying ( P < 0.001). The GLP-1 metabolite had no influence on insulin or C-peptide concentrations. Glucagon levels were lowered by GLP-1-(7–36) amide but not by GLP-1-(9–36) amide. However, the postprandial rise in glycemia was reduced significantly (by ∼6 mg/dl) by GLP-1-(9–36) amide ( P < 0.05). In contrast, gastric emptying was completely unaffected by the GLP-1 metabolite. The GLP-1 metabolite lowers postprandial glycemia independently of changes in insulin and glucagon secretion or in the rate of gastric emptying. Most likely, this is because of direct effects on glucose disposal. However, the glucose-lowering potential of GLP-1-(9–36) amide appears to be small compared with that of intact GLP-1-(7–36) amide.
Roles of anandamide in the hepatic microcirculation in cirrhotic rats
Authors: Yang Ying-Ying , Lin Han-Chieh , Huang Yi-Tsau , Lee Tzung-Yan , Hou Ming-Chih , Wang Ying-Wen , Lee Fa-Yauh , Lee Shou-Dong
Published: January 2006

Cannabinoids have been reported to participate in the pathogenesis of peripheral vasodilatation in cirrhosis. However, their roles in increased intrahepatic resistance (IHR) in cirrhotic livers are unknown. We aimed to investigate the effects of cannabinoids in the hepatic microcirculation of cirrhotic rats produced by bile duct ligation. In isolated liver perfusion, portal perfusion pressure (PPP) and the production of eicosanoids in the perfusate were measured. In addition, various hepatic protein levels [cyclooxygenase (COX) isoform and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX)] were also determined. Finally, concentration-response curves for PPP and the corresponding production of eicosanoids in response to anandamide (1.44 × 10−10–1.44 × 10−3 M) after indomethacin (COX inhibitor), piriprost (5-LOX inhibitor), or furegrelate (thromboxane A2 synthase inhibitor) preincubation were obtained. The study showed that cirrhotic livers had significantly higher levels of PPP, COX-2 and 5-LOX protein expression, and production of thromboxane B2 (TXB2) and cysteinyl leukotrienes (Cys-LTs) than normal livers. Anandamide induced a dose-dependent increase in PPP in both normal and cirrhotic livers. The anandamide-induced increase in PPP was found concomitantly with a significant increase in TXB2 and Cys-LT production in the perfusate. In response to anandamide administration, cirrhotic livers exhibited a significantly greater increase in IHR and production of TXB2 and Cys-LTs than normal livers. Indomethacin and furegrelate, but not piriprost, significantly ameliorated the anandamide-induced increase in IHR in cirrhotic livers. In conclusion, anandamide plays, in part, an important role in increased IHR of cirrhotic livers. The anandamide-induced increase in IHR in cirrhotic livers may be mediated by increased COX-derived eicosanoid (mainly thromboxane A2) production.
Lipid Metabolism and Liver Inflammation. I. Hepatic fatty acid uptake: possible role in steatosis
Authors: Bradbury Michael W.
Published: January 2006

Hepatic steatosis is a growing public health concern. Nonalcoholic fatty liver is increasingly common in Western societies and may lead to steatohepatitis, fibrosis, and cirrhosis, possibly triggered by lipid peroxidation. The relation of fatty liver to obesity, type II diabetes, and/or metabolic syndrome is significant. One aspect these related disorders share is increased serum-free fatty acids, which may be taken up by hepatocytes. Uptake of fatty acids in excess of metabolic requirements will lead to storage as triglycerides, resulting in steatosis and providing substrate for lipid peroxidation. Fatty acid uptake may be crucial to understanding steatosis.
Dyslipidemia of chronic renal failure: the nature, mechanisms, and potential consequences
Authors: Vaziri N. D.
Published: January 2006

Chronic renal failure (CRF) results in profound lipid disorders, which stem largely from dysregulation of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and triglyceride-rich lipoprotein metabolism. Specifically, maturation of HDL is impaired and its composition is altered in CRF. In addition, clearance of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and their atherogenic remnants is impaired, their composition is altered, and their plasma concentrations are elevated in CRF. Impaired maturation of HDL in CRF is primarily due to downregulation of lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) and, to a lesser extent, increased plasma cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP). Triglyceride enrichment of HDL in CRF is primarily due to hepatic lipase deficiency and elevated CETP activity. The CRF-induced hypertriglyceridemia, abnormal composition, and impaired clearance of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and their remnants are primarily due to downregulation of lipoprotein lipase, hepatic lipase, and the very-low-density lipoprotein receptor, as well as, upregulation of hepatic acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT). In addition, impaired HDL metabolism contributes to the disturbances of triglyceride-rich lipoprotein metabolism. These abnormalities are compounded by downregulation of apolipoproteins apoA-I, apoA-II, and apoC-II in CRF. Together, these abnormalities may contribute to the risk of arteriosclerotic cardiovascular disease and may adversely affect progression of renal disease and energy metabolism in CRF.
FXYD proteins: new regulators of Na-K-ATPase
Authors: Geering Käthi
Published: January 2006

FXYD proteins belong to a family of small-membrane proteins. Recent experimental evidence suggests that at least five of the seven members of this family, FXYD1 (phospholemman), FXYD2 (γ-subunit of Na-K-ATPase), FXYD3 (Mat-8), FXYD4 (CHIF), and FXYD7, are auxiliary subunits of Na-K-ATPase and regulate Na-K-ATPase activity in a tissue- and isoform-specific way. These results highlight the complexity of the regulation of Na+and K+handling by Na-K-ATPase, which is necessary to ensure appropriate tissue functions such as renal Na+reabsorption, muscle contractility, and neuronal excitability. Moreover, a mutation in FXYD2 has been linked to cases of human hypomagnesemia, indicating that perturbations in the regulation of Na-K-ATPase by FXYD proteins may be critically involved in pathophysiological states. A better understanding of this novel regulatory mechanism of Na-K-ATPase should help in learning more about its role in pathophysiological states. This review summarizes the present knowledge of the role of FXYD proteins in the modulation of Na-K-ATPase as well as of other proteins, their regulation, and their structure-function relationship.
Molecular physiology of renal organic anion transporters
Authors: Sekine Takashi , Miyazaki Hiroki , Endou Hitoshi
Published: January 2006

Recent advances in molecular biology have identified three organic anion transporter families: the organic anion transporter (OAT) family encoded by SLC22A, the organic anion transporting peptide (OATP) family encoded by SLC21A ( SLCO), and the multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP) family encoded by ABCC. These families play critical roles in the transepithelial transport of organic anions in the kidneys as well as in other tissues such as the liver and brain. Among these families, the OAT family plays the central role in renal organic anion transport. Knowledge of these three families at the molecular level, such as substrate selectivity, tissue distribution, and gene localization, is rapidly increasing. In this review, we will give an overview of molecular information on renal organic anion transporters and describe recent topics such as the regulatory mechanisms and molecular physiology of urate transport. We will also discuss the physiological roles of each organic anion transporter in the light of the transepithelial transport of organic anions in the kidneys.
Neural Correlates of the Dependence of Compensatory Eye Movements During Translation on Target Distance and Eccentricity
Authors: Meng Hui , Angelaki Dora E.
Published: January 2006

To stabilize objects of interest on the fovea during translation, vestibular-driven compensatory eye movements [translational vestibulo-ocular reflex (TVOR)] must scale with both target distance and eccentricity. To identify the neural correlates of these properties, we recorded from different groups of eye movement–sensitive neurons in the prepositus hypoglossi and vestibular nuclei of macaque monkeys during lateral and fore-aft displacements. All neuron types exhibited some increase in modulation amplitude as a function of target distance during high-frequency (4 Hz) lateral motion in darkness, with slopes that were correlated with the cell's pursuit gain, but not eye position sensitivity. Vergence angle dependence was largest for burst-tonic (BT) and contralateral eye-head (EH) neurons and smallest for ipsilateral EH and position-vestibular-pause (PVP) cells. On the other hand, the EH and PVP neurons with ipsilateral eye movement preferences exhibited the largest vergence-independent responses, which would be inappropriate to drive the TVOR. In addition to target distance, the TVOR also scales with target eccentricity, as evidenced during fore-aft motion, where eye velocity amplitude exhibits a “V-shaped ” dependence and phase shifts 180° for right versus left eye positions. Both the modulation amplitude and phase of BT and contralateral EH cells scaled with eye position, similar to the evoked eye movements during fore-aft motion. In contrast, the response modulation of ipsilateral EH and PVP cells during fore-aft motion was characterized by neither the V-shaped scaling nor the phase reversal. These results show that distinct premotor cell types carry neural signals that are appropriately scaled by vergence angle and eye position to generate the geometrically appropriate compensatory eye movements in the translational vestibulo-ocular reflex.
GABAA Receptor–Mediated IPSCs and α1 Subunit Expression Are Not Reduced in the Substantia Nigra Pars Reticulata of Gerbils With Inherited Epilepsy
Authors: Kumar Sanjay S. , Wen Xiling , Yang Yufeng , Buckmaster Paul S.
Published: January 2006

Domestic Mongolian gerbils, a model of inherited epilepsy, begin having spontaneous seizures at ∼1.5 mo of age, making it possible to evaluate them during epileptic and pre-epileptic stages. Previous studies have shown that GABA binding is reduced in the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) of both epileptic and pre-epileptic gerbils compared with controls, suggesting that reduced expression of GABAA receptors in SNr might be epileptogenic in this model. To test this hypothesis, we measured the expression of the GABAA receptor α1 subunit, the dominant α subunit expressed in the SNr, and evaluated GABAA receptor–mediated postsynaptic currents in SNr neurons. GABAA α1 subunit mRNA levels in substantia nigra–rich tissue from pre-epileptic animals were similar to controls, and immunocytochemistry for the α1 subunit showed similar strong expression in the SNr in both groups. Western analysis confirmed that expression of the α1 subunit protein was similar in substantia nigra–rich tissue from pre-epileptic and control gerbils. The frequency and amplitude of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) and the frequency of miniature (m)IPSCs in SNr neurons of pre-epileptic gerbil were similar to those of controls. The amplitude of mIPSCs in the pre-epileptics was significantly larger than controls. Zolpidem, an α1 subunit–specific modulator of the GABAA receptor, was equally efficacious in prolonging the decay time of mIPSCs in both groups. Hence, contrary to the predictions of the hypothesis, mRNA and protein expression levels of the major GABAA receptor α subunit were normal, and neurons of the SNr in pre-epileptic gerbils displayed normal or enhanced IPSC frequencies and amplitudes. Therefore reduced expression of GABAA receptors in SNr is not likely to be an epileptogenic mechanism in this model.
Development of Saccadic Suppression in Children
Authors: Bruno Aurelio , Brambati Simona Maria , Perani Daniela , Morrone Maria Concetta
Published: January 2006

We measured saccadic suppression in adolescent children and young adults using spatially curtailed low spatial frequency stimuli. For both groups, sensitivity for color-modulated stimuli was unchanged during saccades. Sensitivity for luminance-modulated stimuli was greatly reduced during saccades in both groups but far more for adolescents than for young adults. Adults' suppression was on average a factor of about 3, whereas that for the adolescent group was closer to a factor of 10. The specificity of the suppression to luminance-modulated stimuli excludes generic explanations such as task difficulty and attention. We suggest that the enhanced suppression in adolescents results from the immaturity of the ocular-motor system at that age.
mRNA expression in mouse hypothalamus and basal forebrain during influenza infection: a novel model for sleep regulation
Authors: Ding Ming , Toth Linda A.
Published: January 2006

After influenza infection, C57BL/6J mice develop increased slow-wave sleep (SWS) during the dark phase of the day-night cycle, whereas BALB/cByJ mice develop decreased SWS during the light phase. A previous analysis of CXB recombinant inbred mice revealed a quantitative trait locus (QTL) designated Srilp (sleep response to influenza, light phase) that was related to expression of the BALB/cByJ sleep phenotype. Srilp was localized to the 10- to 12-cM region of mouse Chr 6 between D6Mit74 and D6Mit188. Temt (thioether S-methyltransferase), which is located at region B3 of Chr 6, is a potential candidate gene for Srilp. We evaluated the expression of Temt and other Srilp candidate genes in hypothalamus and basal forebrain of uninfected and influenza-infected C57BL/6J and BALB/cByJ mice. We report here that Temt expression varies significantly with respect to mouse strain, health status, brain region, and day-night phase. C57BL/6J mice show day-night variation in Temt expression in hypothalamus, but BALB/cByJ mice do not. Temt expression in basal forebrain is much higher in C57BL/6J mice than in BALB/cByJ mice. During influenza infection, both C57BL/6J and BALB/cByJ mice show reduced Temt mRNA in basal forebrain at 30 h postinoculation, but expression remains much lower in the BALB/cByJ strain. In contrast, prostaglandin-d-synthase ( Ptgds) and lipocalin 2 ( Lcn2) mRNA increase in basal forebrain of both strains after influenza infection. Administration of the TEMT inhibitor sinefungin reduces sleep in uninfected BALB/cByJ mice and attenuates influenza-induced sleep enhancement in C57BL/6J mice. These data suggest that strain- and infection-related alterations in sleep may be influenced by Temt expression and perhaps by subsequent effects on prostaglandin metabolism.
Gene expression profiles of peripheral blood leukocytes after endotoxin challenge in humans
Authors: Talwar Shefali , Munson Peter J. , Barb Jennifer , Fiuza Carmen , Cintron Anadel Pilar , Logun Carolea , Tropea Margaret , Khan Sameena , Reda Debra , Shelhamer James H. , Danner Robert L. , Suffredini Anthony F.
Published: January 2006

To define gene expression profiles that occur during the initial activation of human innate immunity, we administered intravenous endotoxin ( n = 8) or saline ( n = 4) to healthy subjects and hybridized RNA from blood mononuclear cells (0, 0.5, 6, 24, 168 h) or whole blood (0, 3, 6, 24, 168 h) to oligonucleotide probe arrays. The greatest change in mononuclear cell gene expression occurred at 6 h (439 induced and 428 repressed genes, 1% false discovery rate, and 50% fold change) including increased expression of genes associated with pathogen recognition molecules and signaling cascades linked to receptors associated with cell mobility and activation. Induced defense response genes included cytokines, chemokines, and their respective receptors, acute-phase transcription factors, proteases, arachidonate metabolites, and oxidases. Repressed defense response genes included those associated with co-stimulatory molecules, T and cytotoxic lymphocytes, natural killer (NK) cells, and protein synthesis. Gene expression profiles of whole blood had similar biological themes. Over 100 genes not typically associated with acute inflammation were differentially regulated after endotoxin. By 24 h, gene expression had returned to baseline values. Thus the inflammatory response of circulating leukocytes to endotoxin in humans is characterized by a rapid amplification and subsidence of gene expression. These results indicate that a single intravascular exposure to endotoxin produces a large but temporally short perturbation of the blood transcriptome.
Chloroplast-mediated regulation of nuclear genes in Arabidopsis thaliana in the absence of light stress
Authors: Piippo Mirva , Allahverdiyeva Yagut , Paakkarinen Virpi , Suoranta Ulla-Maija , Battchikova Natalia , Aro Eva-Mari
Published: January 2006

Chloroplast signaling involves mechanisms to relay information from chloroplasts to the nucleus, to change nuclear gene expression in response to environmental cues. Aside from reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced under stress conditions, changes in the reduction/oxidation state of photosynthetic electron transfer components or coupled compounds in the stroma and the accumulation of photosynthesis-derived metabolites are likely origins of chloroplast signals. We attempted to investigate the origin of the signals from chloroplasts in mature Arabidopsis leaves by differentially modulating the redox states of the plastoquinone pool and components on the reducing side of photosystem I, as well as the rate of CO2 fixation, while avoiding the production of ROS by excess light. Differential expression of several nuclear photosynthesis genes, including a set of Calvin cycle enzymes, was recorded. These responded to the stromal redox conditions under prevailing light conditions but were independent of the redox state of the plastoquinone pool. The steady-state CO2 fixation rate was reflected in the orchestration of the expression of a number of genes encoding cytoplasmic proteins, including several glycolysis genes and the trehalose-6-phosphate synthase gene, and also the chloroplast-targeted chaperone DnaJ. Clearly, in mature leaves, the redox state of the compounds on the reducing side of photosystem I is of greater importance in light-dependent modulation of nuclear gene expression than the redox state of the plastoquinone pool, particularly at early signaling phases. It also became apparent that photosynthesis-mediated generation of metabolites or signaling molecules is involved in the relay of information from chloroplast to nucleus.
State and Customary Law in Upper Egypt
Authors: Nielsen Hans Christian Korsholm
Published: January 2006

The elders of the villages and towns of Upper Egypt frequently convene councils for the settlement of disputes. These councils, which are independent of the state, deal with such matters as rights in water and land and also with succession disputes. Larger councils settle conflicts arising from homicide or feuds. I argue here that these councils should be analyzed as an integral part of society and that their relationship to the state is many-facetted. The continued importance of these institutions cannot be understood if one views customary law and reconciliation councils as no more than a reaction to a corrupt and unjust official legal system
A Cairene Way of Reconciling
Authors: Drieskens Barbara
Published: January 2006

Egyptians frequently solve conflicts without referring to state law. The scholarly examination of customary law and reconciliation has focused primarily on rural Upper Egypt, where the mechanisms of reconciliation (sulha) display a formal character. My aim here is to highlight the special features of reconciliation in an urban context by analyzing a conflict between two families in a suburb of Cairo. I argue that although the diputants talk about sulha as a formal and established system, this 'tradition' is shaped in the interaction between the two parties and adapted to the particular urban context in which the dispute occured. Second, in public and in a situation of conflict, the disputants portray honor, identity and tradition as static and essential qualities. However, the contingent nature of their understanding of notions such as state-law, revenge, reconciliation and the proper way to behave emerges from our analysis of the discussions that took place between and among the members of one family involved in the dispute.
A Major Link between France's Berber Policy in Morocco and its "Policy of Races" in French West Africa: Commandant Paul Marty (1882-1938)
Authors: Shinar Pessah
Published: January 2006

Virtually from the beginning of the protectorate (1912), the French in Morocco attempted to seal off the Berber-speaking tribes from the penetration of Islam and of the Arabic language. The present paper argues that this policy (the "Berber policy") was modeled on a similar policy (the "policy of races") adopted by the French in West Africa at the beginning of the twentieth century, the main difference being that in West Africa it was the "animists" who were to be sealed off. In both cases, the French acted as they did in order to ensure the permanence of their rule. It is argued that Paul Marty, the eminent authority on Islam in West Africa, was a key figure in the implementation of these policies in both regions.
Variability in Terrestrial Carbon Sinks over Two Decades. Part III: South America, Africa, and Asia
Authors: Potter C. , Klooster S. , Tan P. , Steinbach M. , Kumar V. , Genovese V.
Published: January 2006

Seventeen years (1982–98) of net carbon flux predictions for Southern Hemisphere continents have been analyzed, based on a simulation model using satellite observations of monthly vegetation cover. The NASA Carnegie Ames Stanford Approach (CASA) model was driven by vegetation-cover properties derived from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer and radiative transfer algorithms that were developed for the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). The terrestrial ecosystem flux for atmospheric CO2 for the Amazon region of South America has been predicted between a biosphere source of –0.17 Pg C per year (in 1983) and a biosphere sink of +0.64 Pg C per year (in 1989). The areas of highest variability in net ecosystem production (NEP) fluxes across all of South America were detected in the south-central rain forest areas of the Amazon basin and in southeastern Brazil. Similar levels of variability were recorded across central forested portions of Africa and in the southern horn of East Africa, throughout Indonesia, and in eastern Australia. It is hypothesized that periodic droughts and wildfires associated with four major El Niño events during the 1980s and 1990s have held the net ecosystem carbon sink for atmospheric CO2 in an oscillating pattern of a 4–6-yr cycle, despite observations of increasing net plant carbon fixation over the entire 17-yr time period.
On the Vertical Structure of Modeled and Observed Deep Convective Storms: Insights for Precipitation Retrieval and Microphysical Parameterization
Authors: Smedsmo Jamie L. , Foufoula-Georgiou Efi , Vuruputur Venugopal , Kong Fanyou , Droegemeier Kelvin
Published: January 2006

An understanding of the vertical structure of clouds is important for remote sensing of precipitation from space and for the parameterization of cloud microphysics in numerical weather prediction (NWP) models. The representation of cloud hydrometeor profiles in high-resolution NWP models has direct applications in inversion-type precipitation retrieval algorithms [e.g., the Goddard profiling (GPROF) algorithm used for retrieval of precipitation from passive microwave sensors] and in quantitative precipitation forecasting. This study seeks to understand how the vertical structure of hydrometeors (liquid and frozen water droplets in a cloud) produced by high-resolution NWP models with explicit microphysics, henceforth referred to as cloud-resolving models (CRMs), compares to observations. Although direct observations of 3D hydrometeor fields are not available, comparisons of modeled and observed radar echoes can provide some insight into the vertical structure of hydrometeors and, in turn, into the ability of CRMs to produce precipitation structures that are consistent with observations. Significant differences are revealed between the vertical structure of observed and modeled clouds of a severe midlatitude storm over Texas for which the surface precipitation is reasonably well captured. Possible reasons for this discrepancy are presented, and the need for future research is highlighted.
A Comparison of the Conservation of Number Concentration for the Continuous Collection and Vapor Diffusion Growth Equations Using One- and Two-Moment Schemes
Authors: Straka Jerry M. , Gilmore Matthew S. , Kanak Katharine M. , Rasmussen Erik N.
Published: January 2006

One- and two-moment parameterizations are integrated over hydrometeor diameters D(0, ∞) for vapor diffusion and the continuous collection growth processes. For the conditions specified, the total number concentration of collector particles should be conserved. To address the problem, the gamma distribution function is used for the spectral density function. Predicted variables can include total mixing ratio q, total number concentration Nt, and characteristic diameter Dn (inverse of the distribution slope λ). In all of the cases, the slope intercept no is diagnosed or specified. The popular one- and two-moment methods that are explored include the one-moment method in which q is predicted, no is specified, and Nt and Dn are diagnosed; the one-moment method in which q is predicted, Dn is specified, and Nt and no are diagnosed; the two-moment method in which q and Dn are predicted and Nt and no are diagnosed; and the two-moment method in which q and Nt are predicted and no and Dn are diagnosed. It is demonstrated for the processes examined that all of the schemes 1) fail to conserve Nt for the collector particles when Nt should be conserved and 2) have other unphysical attributes, except for the two-moment method in which q and Nt are predicted. In recent years there has been a dramatic increase in the use of more-sophisticated microphysical parameterizations in cloud, mesoscale, and climate models, and it is increasingly important for a model user to be cognizant of the strengths and weaknesses of the parameterizations in complex models.
Relationships between the Irrigation-Pumping Electrical Loads and the Local Climate in Climate Division 9, Idaho
Authors: Alfaro Eric J. , Pierce David W. , Steinemann Anne C. , Gershunov Alexander
Published: January 2006

The electrical load from irrigation pumps is an important part of the overall electricity demand in many agricultural areas of the U.S. west. The date the pumps turn on and the total electrical load they present over the summer varies from year to year, partly because of climate fluctuations. Predicting this variability would be useful to electricity producers that supply the region. This work presents a contingency analysis and linear regression scheme for forecasting summertime irrigation pump loads in southeastern Idaho. The basis of the predictability is the persistence of spring soil moisture conditions into summer, and the effect it has on summer temperatures. There is a strong contemporaneous relationship between soil moisture and temperature in the summer and total summer pump electrical loads so that a reasonable prediction of summer pump electrical loads based on spring soil moisture conditions can be obtained in the region. If one assumes that decision makers will take appropriate actions based on the forecast output, the net economic benefit of forecast information is approximately $2.5 million per year, making this prediction problem an important seasonal summer forecasting issue with significant economic implications.
Profiles of Raindrop Size Distributions as Retrieved by Microrain Radars
Authors: Peters Gerhard , Fischer Bernd , Münster Hans , Clemens Marco , Wagner Andreas
Published: January 2006

Data of vertically pointing microrain radars (MRRs), located at various sites around the Baltic Sea, were analyzed for a period of several years. From the Doppler spectra profiles of drop size distributions (DSDs) are obtained. A significant height dependence of the shape of the DSDs—and thus of the Z–R relations—is observed at high rain rates. This implies, for the considered sites, that ground-based Z–R relations lead to underestimation of high rain rates by weather radars.
Cluster Analysis of Surface Winds in Houston, Texas, and the Impact of Wind Patterns on Ozone
Authors: Darby Lisa S.
Published: January 2006

The city of Houston, Texas, is near a complex coastline and numerous petrochemical plants, the combination of which plays a large role in Houston’s air pollution events. It has long been known that the thermally driven afternoon onshore flow (sea breeze or gulf breeze) transports ozone-rich air inland. As a way of quantifying the role of the gulf breeze in Houston’s high-ozone events, cluster analysis of hourly averaged surface winds from a regional network of meteorological sensors was performed for 27 summer days of 2000, with the dates coinciding with the Texas Air Quality Study 2000 (TexAQS 2000). Hourly averaged winds were partitioned into 16 independent clusters, or wind patterns, while simultaneously keeping track of the maximum ozone in the network for each hour. Clusters emerged that represented various wind patterns, including thermally driven flows, stagnant winds, and a thunderstorm outflow. All clusters were used to assess which wind patterns were most likely to be coincident with the maximum ozone of the day. High ozone was most likely to occur with clusters representing the gulf breeze. Clusters occurring before the ozone maximum of the day were analyzed to determine which sequences of wind patterns were most likely to precede high ozone. A transition from offshore flow to onshore flow, with at least 1 h of stagnant winds in between, routinely occurred in the 6 h preceding ozone measurements reaching ≥ 120 parts per billion by volume (ppbv). On nontransition days with high ozone, ozone maxima ≥ 120 ppbv often occurred the hour after a wind direction shift of greater than about 45°.
Oceanic Response to Idealized Net Atmospheric Freshwater in the Pacific at the Decadal Time Scale*
Authors: Huang Boyin , Mehta Vikram M. , Schneider Niklas
Published: January 2006

In the study of decadal variations of the Pacific Ocean circulations and temperature, the role of anomalous net atmospheric freshwater [evaporation minus precipitation minus river runoff (EmP)] has received scant attention even though ocean salinity anomalies are long lived and can be expected to have more variance at low frequencies than at high frequencies. To explore the magnitude of salinity and temperature anomalies and their generation processes, the authors studied the response of the Pacific Ocean to idealized EmP anomalies in the Tropics and subtropics using an ocean general circulation model developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Simulations showed that salinity anomalies generated by the anomalous EmP were spread throughout the Pacific basin by mean flow advection. This redistribution of salinity anomalies caused adjustments of basin-scale ocean currents, which further resulted in basin-scale temperature anomalies due to changes in heat advection caused by anomalous currents. In this study, the response of the Pacific Ocean to magnitudes and locations of anomalous EmP was linear. When forced with a positive EmP anomaly in the subtropical North (South) Pacific, a cooling occurred in the western North (South) Pacific, which extended to the tropical and South (North) Pacific, and a warming occurred in the eastern North (South) Pacific. When forced with a negative EmP anomaly in the tropical Pacific, a warming occurred in the tropical Pacific and western North and South Pacific and a cooling occurred in the eastern North Pacific near 30°N and the South Pacific near 30°S. The temperature changes (0.2°C) in the tropical Pacific were associated with changes in the South Equatorial Current. The temperature changes (0.8°C) in the subtropical North and South Pacific were associated with changes in the subtropical gyres. The temperature anomalies propagated from the tropical Pacific to the subtropical North and South Pacific via equatorial divergent Ekman flows and poleward western boundary currents, and they propagated from the subtropical North and South Pacific to the western tropical Pacific via equatorward-propagating coastal Kelvin waves and to the eastern tropical Pacific via eastward-propagating equatorial Kelvin waves. The time scale of temperature response was typically much longer than that of salinity response because of slow adjustment times of ocean circulations. These results imply that the slow response of ocean temperature due to anomalous EmP in the Tropics and subtropics may play an important role in the Pacific decadal variability.