bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Early Period
Authors: Heine Steven
Published: June 2006

This chapter explores the first stage or period of Dōgen’s career. This period covers his initial training in China with Master Ju-ching to his return to Japan to establish authentic Sung style practice. The period has two sub-periods. The first is the “early early” sub-period (1223-1227), which covers his travels to the Five Mountains region of China and experience of shinjin datsuraku, which are examined for a critical understanding of the impact on Chinese Ch’an on Dōgen’s entire career development. The second or “late early” sub-period (1227-1233) began when Dōgen returned to Japan. It includes his first few years at Kenninji temple and then at Fukakusa beginning in 1230, and his composition of the Bendōwa. The history and conversion of the Daruma School and its founder, Nōnin, are also discussed.
The Middle Period, Part I
Authors: Heine Steven
Published: June 2006

This chapter describes the second stage or middle period of Dōgen’s career, which covers the establishment of his first temple in Kyoto through the completion of his move to Echizen, and the initial explosion of literary productivity that features a rich variety of styles and themes composed in both kanbun and kana. Dōgen composed many works during the middle period, some of the most notable being Shōbōgenzō zuimonki, 75-Shōbōgenzō, Fukanzazengi, Mana Shōbōgenzō, Gakudōyōjinshū, and Genjōkōan. The period is characterized by intense creativity with jishu and jōdō styles coupled with the emergence of a partisan polemical standpoint in promoting the value of Ju-ching while denigrating the approaches of rival lineages. It encompassed the move to Echizen and all of the transitional modes this represented.
The Middle Period, Part II
Authors: Heine Steven
Published: June 2006

This chapter discusses the question of why Dōgen left Kyoto for Echizen in the summer of 1243, perhaps the most significant yet most mysterious event that transpired at the midpoint of his career. Reasons for the move are explored through three theories: the Withdrawal Hypothesis, the Desperation Hypothesis, and the Hakusan Tendai and Hakusan Shinkō Hypotheses. An analysis of the sequence of Dōgen’s writings clearly shows that it was during this crucial and extremely challenging juncture that he began eulogizing Ju-ching in a heightened manner, cultivated an interest in Ch’an models, and began moving towards jōdō style sermons.
The Late Period
Authors: Heine Steven
Published: June 2006

This chapter explores the late stage of Dōgen’s career. This stage is divided into two sub-periods. The first is the early late period (1246-1248) extending from the mission to Kamakura until Dōgen’s return to Eiheiji. The phase beginning with the return from Kamakura was dynamic, marked by the composition of at least three major writings. These include jōdō and shōsan sermons collected in Eihei kōroku; the majority of the 12-Shōbōgenzō fascicles; and the Hōkyōki. Poetry (both waka and kanshi) and other short works were also composed during this period. These writings collectively express what seems to be a new attitude toward the doctrine of karmic causality in its various ramifications.
one Understanding the Dual Crisis
Authors: Schierup Carl-Ulrik
Published: June 2006

This chapter introduces the book’s central questions, themes, and theoretical concepts, and elaborates on the moral-political premises of the study. It starts with a discussion of the contemporary dual crisis of the welfare state and the nation. This complex crisis presents the European Union with a dilemma centered on changing frameworks of citizenship, social exclusion, and the racialization of social relations. It has important historical similarities with the American dilemma of race, class, and democracy described by the Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal. This emerging ‘European dilemma’ can no longer be dealt with through the defensive strategies through which European governments and EU institutions have endeavored to appease anti-immigrant populist parties in the past: by adopting restrictive immigration and asylum regimes, shifting from multiculturalism towards revamped assimilationist policies, or devising new ‘guest worker’ systems designed to keep the ‘problem’ away from the core institutions of society altogether. On the one hand, the very future of the European project of integration is dependent on the successful framing of new inclusive modes of citizenship and broad forms of social solidarity. On the other hand, taking this task seriously means confronting powerful political and economic interests. Thus, a central question of the book is whether current national and EU-level anti-discrimination and equal opportunities policies can succeed in the absence of some form of broad social compact on citizenship and social welfare in terms of normative political consensus, and strong institutions beyond and complementary to the market.
three Migration, Citizenship, and the European Social Model
Authors: Schierup Carl-Ulrik
Published: June 2006

This chapter examines EU policies concerning social exclusion, migrant integration, labour migration, and asylum in the early 21st century. A two-pronged approach analyzes EU efforts in the realm of migrant integration together with its interventions in the area of immigration and asylum. A new anti-discrimination orientation is being turned into mandatory EU directives and EU-sponsored transnational development programmes, but this reorientation towards diversity, social inclusion, and equal opportunity is part of a new European Social Model, which is conditioned by a neo-liberal policy dynamic. The contours of the EU’s modernized Social Model are those of a post-national workfare regime. This has critical implications for the transformation of the frameworks of citizenship marking the post-war European welfare states in general, and the incorporation of immigrants and ethnic minorities in European societies in particular. The first part of the chapter explores the changing conditionality posed by the neo-liberal turn and changing frameworks of citizenship with regard to the inclusion of resident denizens and citizens with migrant background. That is, it focuses on the actual condition of being a citizen. The second half of the chapter discusses the changing conditions for becoming (or not becoming) a citizen, framed by a newly emerging supranational political economy of border control, migration management, and asylum.
five Britain's ‘Neo‐American’ Trajectory
Authors: Schierup Carl-Ulrik
Published: June 2006

The ‘Thatcher revolution’ and its continuation by New Labour make Britain a kind of master model for the neo-liberalization or Americanization of European welfare states. This chapter examines Britain’s new political economy and its links with immigration and ethnic diversity. The development of the specific model of state managed race relations and multiculturalism went parallel to the growth of inequality and the restructuring of the labour force according to the criteria of race, gender, human capital, and legal status. Current debates on the alleged threat from disaffected Muslim youth and the need for social cohesion arise from this failure of British multiculturalism to overcome barriers of race and class, and indicate a search for new forms of social control: less state in economic and social issues is matched by a stronger state in matters of identity and order.
eight ‘Paradise Lost’?
Authors: Schierup Carl-Ulrik
Published: June 2006

The ‘Swedish Model’ has been taken to represent the quintessential social democratic welfare regime. Sweden enjoys a reputation for having one of the world’s most far-sighted immigration policies and is still referred to as an international model with respect to its policies for the incorporation of immigrants and new ethnic minorities. However, these policies experienced deep-seated changes and serious setbacks from the 1990s. This chapter focuses on a truly puzzling disjuncture between a strong commitment to sustainable welfare and diversity on the one hand, and deepening structurally and institutionally grounded ethnic-class divisions on the other. General trends in migration are described, and the historical specifics of the so-called ‘Swedish model’ and its subsequent transformation are presented. This is the basis for an analysis of the changing forms of racialized marginality. The chapter concludes by setting out Swedish policies on migration and incorporation, and discusses migrants’ ambivalent position in a changing social democratic welfare state.
Introduction: The Best of Times, The Worst of Times
Authors: Dodson Debra L.
Published: June 2006

Drawing on the strikingly different records of the 103rd and 104th Congresses — congresses in which women’s proportional presence was roughly similar — this introduction to Part I highlights the empirical evidence of the complexity belying the probabilistic relationship between descriptive and substantive representation of women. This lays the foundation for comparing and contrasting gender’s impacts on policymaking as the environment changes, examining how women’s efforts to bring (feminale) gendered perspectives to the policymaking process affect and are affected by (masculine) gendered institutions, assessing the implications for the connection between descriptive and substantive representation of women, and exploring what this may mean for all citizens in a representative democracy. Special attention is devoted to why the 103rd and 104th Congresses are an ideal laboratory for exploring the dynamic, probabilistic relationship between descriptive and substantive representation of women.
Reproductive Rights: Redefining the Meaning of Critical Mass
Authors: Dodson Debra L.
Published: June 2006

When the 1994 elections gave control of Congress to a conservative, Christian Coalition-dominated, Republican majority, what some had over-optimistically touted as a critical mass of women became a token group, notwithstanding a slight increase in numbers. Nowhere was that more evident than in the ability of that new Republican majority to re-define the agenda, raising new issues (Partial Birth Abortion Ban) and challenging seemingly non-controversial, bipartisan, well-established programs (funding for the Title X Family Planning program and international family planning programs). The continued evidence of the gender gap in prochoice support, along with the critical role played by the shrinking cohort of prochoice Republican women in challenging their leadership’s anti-reproductive rights agenda, reinforce the importance of increasing descriptive representation. Nevertheless, the gendered roles assumed by a growing vocal cohort of female Republican reproductive rights opponents, reluctance by some ostensibly prochoice Republican women to challenge their leadership, a shrinking gender gap in prochoice support within Congress, and the frustrations of those who attempted to fight these often futile battles, all highlight the critical role that institutional environments, increased ideological diversity among women, and extra-institutional forces play in shaping the probabilistic relationship between descriptive and substantive representation, in strengthening or weakening perceptions of legitimacy surrounding gender difference, and in defining and redefining the meaning of substantive representation of women and realizing the potential for difference. These case studies explore gender differences in perspectives of reproductive rights opponents, provide insight into the value of bipartisan support for reproductive rights policy agendas (despite Republicans being less prochoice than Democrats), and point to the important role of women voters in maintaining bipartisan support and political resolve.
Women's Health: A Shelter in the Storm
Authors: Dodson Debra L.
Published: June 2006

Women’s health did not suffer the same endless litany of political defeats as other policy areas in the Republican-controlled 104th. While the case studies of women’s health research funding, breast cancer screening, and women veterans’ health suggest that women’s presence within the institution is important for ensuring substantive representation of women, they also suggest that other factors play a critical role in giving meaning to women’s presence. These include the political environment of Congress, the ideological perspective of those who hold positional power, and the extra-institutional pressure generated from the gender gap in the mass public, which gives legitimacy to action on behalf of women’s health among male members concerned about the next election.
Health Insurance Reform: Institutional Structure, Contingent Meanings
Authors: Dodson Debra L.
Published: June 2006

The story of health insurance reform in the 104th brings to life many of the contested issues surrounding gender difference in impact. It illustrates the importance of going beyond quantitative evidence of gender difference to look carefully at the substance of those differences that emerge, to understand their relationship to the broader political context, and to explicitly consider the motivations belying difference. That those who were seen as advocates for women in the health care reform battles of the 103rd played little role in health insurance reform, while some of the more visible vocal women critics of the Clinton plan led the effort some saw as ‘radical’, that the prime [female] motivator and facilitator of the effort was not seen as driven by gendered forces or even connected with women’s organizations, and that Republican women who had supported women’s health also supported a measure likely to have reversed state mandates protecting women’s health benefits all make health insurance reform a unique laboratory for addressing the contested issues that surround difference. The conclusions suggest a growing gap between gender difference and the standards of third wave feminism, the need for an active engaged women’s movement to counter the threat posed by essentialist assumptions that grant legitimacy to any pronouncement women make on behalf of women, the contribution differences in the masculinist cultures of parties may make toward partisan differences in the manifestation of feminist protest, and they caution against the gendered consequences of ostensibly gender-neutral institutional procedures.
The Religious Leadership of Ireland 1770–1850
Authors: Yates Nigel
Published: June 2006

This chapter examines the religious leadership of Ireland between 1770 and 1850. There are separate sections on the Church of Ireland, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Presbyterian churches. Within each of these sections, a number of key individuals have been identified and their careers analysed.
Health Promotion in the Good Society
Authors: Cribb Alan
Published: June 2006

This chapter introduces the concept of health-policy ethics by exploring the nature and ethics of health promotion. The main concern is to highlight the implications of the issues reviewed for the theory and practice of healthcare ethics when it shifts from a clinical to a more societal focus. It begins by identifying generalizations about health promotion broadly conceived and some of the distinctive features of health-promotion ethics. Some of the fundamental continuities between health promotion and more conventional healthcare are discussed.
Rethinking Health Education
Authors: Cribb Alan
Published: June 2006

This chapter makes a case for a new conception of health education, which properly reflects a diffused health agenda and diffused responsibility. It also considers some of the dilemmas facing educators in this area. It calls for an education for action which: (i) is based upon treating people as subjects not just as objects; (ii) is based upon broader and more self-consciously debated notions of what might count as valuable ends; and (iii) is closely linked to genuine mechanisms of inclusion in health-related decisions-making.
The Irrational Augustine
Authors: Conybeare Catherine
Published: June 2006

This book explores the earliest works of St. Augustine to discover the anti-dogmatic Augustine, one who gives questioning, uncertainty, and human limitations their due role in his theology. These early works are considered performances, through which multiple questions can be raised and multiple options explored, both in words and through their dramatic framework. It is shown that the very idiosyncrasy of Augustine’s arguments and his manner of pursuing them are of immense significance, which suggests possibilities for interpretation of the more idiosyncratic riches in his later works. The book is divided into three parts. Part I analyzes Augustine’s use of the genre of philosophical dialogue, why he may have chosen the genre, and what he achieves with it. Part II discusses the roles played by Augustine’s mother. Part III focuses on the dialogue, the Soliloquia.
5 The Interrogation of Reason
Authors: Conybeare Catherine
Published: June 2006

The anomalous dialogue, the Soliloquia, was also composed at Cassiciacum, and must be read alongside the others. While it lacks the paralinguistic potential of stage-setting, it is of particular interest as it portrays Augustine in conversation with his own ratio, or reason. This chapter explores the way in which these two are characterized, and their treatment of topics as they discuss ‘God and the soul’. It also looks at how the ratio of the liberal disciplines might relate to the personified ratio of the Soliloquia.
Contradiction
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: June 2006

This chapter provides an account of the nature of negation which not only endorses the traditional idea of negation as a contradictory-forming operator, but also allows for the possibility of dialetheism.
Boolean Negation
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: June 2006

This chapter argues that in the context of an account of meaning appropriate for dialetheism, Boolean (classical) negation is a meaningless notion.
Denial and Rejection
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: June 2006

This chapter discusses the connection between negation, denial, and untruth. There are close connections between these notions, but not the simplistic ones that are standardly supposed to obtain.
Justice and Legitimacy in Upbringing
Authors: Clayton Matthew
Published: June 2006

This book defends a particular liberal conception of justice and legitimacy, and applies it to certain issues concerning the upbringing of children. It begins by offering an account of liberal political morality that draws on the work of Rawls and Dworkin. It then defends the claim that the distribution of childrearing rights should be sensitive to the interests of both children and parents. With respect to the issue of whether it is permissible to impart controversial values to children, a distinction is drawn between shaping children’s political motivations and enrolling them into disputed conceptions of the good. Whereas there is a requirement of liberal legitimacy to foster liberal virtues of civility and reciprocity, the widely held view that the enrolment of children into particular ethical or religious practices is rejected as illegitimate. Finally, the practice of age-based discrimination in the case of the allocation of certain rights, such as the right to vote, is defended and criteria for determining the appropriate age of majority are discussed.
Introduction
Authors: Clayton Matthew
Published: June 2006

This chapter introduces the central questions addressed in the book and states the main positions to be defended. The focus of the book is briefly discussed, which includes the choices of parents as well as the policies of governments.
5 The Age of Majority
Authors: Clayton Matthew
Published: June 2006

This chapter addresses issues of justice with respect to the end of childhood. Should there be an age at which certain legal rights become available to individuals and, if so, how should the appropriate age be determined? The chapter defends age-based discrimination against objections that it is unjust or undemocratic. It then considers the issue of the voting age and defends certain criteria for its determination.
A Few Lessons for the Future
Authors: Mauro Paolo , Sussman Nathan , Yafeh Yishay
Published: June 2006

This concluding chapter reiterates three main themes emphasized in the book. The first is that institutional and political reforms seldom reduce the cost of capital quickly; other types of events, especially wars and episodes of politically-motivated violence, have a far more immediate and pronounced impact on the cost of borrowing. The second theme is that country-specific developments played a more important role in determining spreads in 1870-1913 than they did in the 1990s, as reflected in the high co-movement of bond spreads today. The third theme is that the existence of institutions aimed at resolving debt crises may have contributed to the continuous expansion of the international bond market in the 19th century, but creditor coordination is likely to be less effective today.
1 From 1966 to 2005: Balancing Protection and Access in Pediatric Research
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman
Published: June 2006

This chapter examines the changes in policies regarding children in research between 1966 and 2003. It reviews Henry Beecher’s famous article, Ethics and Clinical Research, which described 22 projects published after World War II that he found to be of questionable ethics; Paul Ramsey’s examination of the ethical problems in medicine; debates over the moral permissibility of children’s participation in nontherapeutic research; the government’s policy shift from an exclusive focus on protecting children from research risks to promoting greater access by children in research during the early 1990s; and international research ethics. It is shown that new policies have encouraged pediatric pharmacological testing and have led to some improved pediatric labeling.
12 Lead Abatement Research
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman
Published: June 2006

In August 2001, the Maryland Court of Appeals harshly criticized the Kennedy Krieger Institute of Johns Hopkins University for knowingly exposing poor children to lead-based paint. This chapter examines the court’s ruling that parents cannot consent to nontherapeutic research that poses any degree of risk to children subjects. It argues that the court was mistaken because parents legally can and morally should be allowed to consent to some nontherapeutic research. The research methodology to determine whether the research is approvable under the current federal regulations is also examined to refine what is meant by being ‘at risk’ for a ‘disorder or condition’.
Just Peace: A Cause Worth Fighting For
Authors: Roberts Sir Adam
Published: June 2006

Along with identifying a number of pitfalls to be avoided in this project of conceptualizing a Just Peace, Roberts proposes using the term ‘justifiable force’ rather than Just War. This would move the tradition away from appearing to approve of war as a whole, and towards recognizing something more conditional and cautious — that the threat and use of military force by a particular state or group of states may, in precise circumstances, be justifiable. Roberts writes about how the development of the European Union has affected the nations of this region, and encourages an idea of ‘induction’ through adherence to human rights law as the way to become a part of this union. It is through processes at the regional level that we can find positive illustrations of how justice can be maximized without the introduction of force. Since a desire to proliferate the ‘good’ has long been what has shaped human relations, this examination of ‘induction’ provides an example of how an internal focus on justice can create an environment that promotes promulgation.
Just Peace: A Dangerous Objective
Authors: Beilin Yossi
Published: June 2006

Beilin was a former chief negotiator for the Israeli government in the Oslo process at Camp David and Taba. He brings a valuable contribution to this volume as a practitioner and political scientist involved directly in conflict negotiations. After fulfilling his post as the Minister of Justice for the Israeli government, he became one of the lead Israeli representatives in the Geneva Accord negotiations. In this sceptical work, Beilin points to the possible dangers of speaking about the combined concepts of justice and peace, believing that there cannot be one without the other. Peace treaties have often been signed and implemented by the victors of conflict, but have left the population on either side out of the determinations of justice. Beilin presents a history filled with examples in which political leaders have bypassed opportunities for peace because they did not deem the conditions just, and thus perpetuated conflict with untold costs.
5 Rome and Serdica
Authors: Parvis Sara
Published: June 2006

This chapter examines the moves toward a second Ecumenical Council in the years after the second depositions of Athanasius and Marcellus. Constantius’ brother, Constans, is presented as a central figure in the negotiations, perhaps from as early as 340. It is argued that the decisions of the Synod of Rome, here dated to Spring 341, were not intended to be binding on the East in the absence of any Eastern bishops, but merely addressed the local problem of whether or not to continue to treat Athanasius and Marcellus as bishops in the absence of convincing evidence that they had been validly deposed. The works written by Athanasius and Marcellus in Rome at this time, the First Oration against the Arians, the Letter to Julius, and probably On the Holy Church (De Sancta Ecclesia), are examined. It is argued that all draw on a statement agreed between the two concerning a heresy, which Athanasius calls the Arian heresy and Marcellus calls Ariomania. The signatories and documents of the Eastern and Western synods of Serdica are minutely examined, and argued to show that the two alliances were now in a process of realignment. Marcellus and Athanasius were in fundamental disagreement over whether or not to issue a statement adding to the Nicene Creed, and most of the Easterners were not in as intransigent a mood as the letter written in their name might suggest. Marcellus withdrew from public engagement with the controversy shortly afterwards to obviate the need to choose between a breach with Athanasius or with his own pupil Photinus of Sirmium. He died nearly 30 years later in communion with the former, without ever having condemned the latter.
3 Kant's Arguments for His Formula of Universal Law
Authors: Parfit Derek
Published: June 2006

This essay considers the structure of the argument for duty in the Kantian context, in which it was most influentially formed. Kant notoriously argues that the supreme principle of morality must be purely formal, by which he means that it does not direct us to act in order to achieve certain ends. Thus, any principle directed to the realization of certain ends must be merely hypothetical in character, and its motivational grounds subjective. It is shown that Kant overlooks a third possibility, namely, that there can be substantive categorical principles that objectively require us to realize certain ends regardless of our inclinations.
7. Choice and Incentive Inequality
Authors: Hurley Susan
Published: June 2006

This essay considers the implications of self-interest for equality in the context of the ‘luck egalitarian’ view that an individual’s wealth is justly owned only if it is the result of a responsible choice. A possible response to Cohen’s argument against incentives might be that since individuals can choose to work harder on behalf of the disadvantaged, they are also partly responsible for, and entitled to, the extra wealth they produce. This view is rejected, noting that were the tax rate adjusted to accommodate responsibility for being productive, it would whittle away the benefits of productivity for redistributive purposes.
The Contract Theory
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: June 2006

One subsidiary aim of this book is to motivate a return to Consequentialism in political philosophy by highlighting its comparative advantage over its main contemporary liberal rival in the area of intergenerational justice: the Contract Theory. It explores both the contractarianism of David Gauthier and the liberal egalitarianism of John Rawls, who represent two general alternatives to the strategy of building political theory on a Consequentialist account of individual morality. This chapter presents new objections to both Gauthier and Rawls, based on their inability to do justice to basic needs in an intergenerational context.
Value Theory
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: June 2006

This chapter rejects the common assumption that we can construct a theory of value in isolation from our theory of right action on the grounds that our strongest moral convictions concern the morality of actions rather than the values of possible worlds. Moderate Consequentialism (which does not always oblige us to produce the best available outcome) can separate judgements of value from judgements of right action. This flexibility enables us to dissolve familiar puzzles without abandoning standard Consequentialist value theory. For instance, to solve Parfit’s Repugnant Conclusion, a lexical view is defended using both Kantian and Consequentialist arguments. This chapter begins with a sketch of the theory of well-being required by moderate Consequentialism. Its primary focus will be on theories of aggregation: accounts of the relationship between the value of an outcome and the values of the individual lives it contains.
Hybrid Moral Theories
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: June 2006

This chapter applies Samuel Scheffler’s ‘Hybrid View’ to the morality of reproduction. It concludes that the Hybrid View does not provide a satisfactory account of our obligations to future generations, as it cannot accommodate either reproductive freedom or parental obligations. The Hybrid View fails because it cannot appreciate the collective moral significance of reproduction. This failure is shared by all other theories that retain the individualist focus of Simple Consequentialism, and thus motivates the exploration of collective forms of Consequentialism, which begins in Chapter 5.
Reproductive Freedom
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: June 2006

This chapter first establishes a strong prima facie Rule Consequentialist case in favour of reproductive freedom. Arguments against reproductive freedom are then examined and found wanting. Rule Consequentialism does not seek any precise population target, although the next generation must be large enough to provide cultural continuity and small enough not to overburden the environment. The empirical evidence suggests that in a stable society governed by an ideal code where women are provided with adequate education and a wide range of opportunities, a sustainable birth rate can be achieved. Reproductive freedom is thus no threat to the survival of society.
Optimism and Pessimism
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: June 2006

This chapter begins with a basic list of intuitively plausible principles of intergenerational justice, against which Rule Consequentialism can be measured. It then establishes the Rule Consequentialist commitment to political liberty and shows how that commitment is strengthened in the intergenerational case. It is shown that Rule Consequentialism copes with the possibility of future declines in aggregate well-being much better than its opponents, such as Rawls’s liberalism. This is illustrated using the current dispute between growth optimists and ecological pessimists.
The Limits of Rule Consequentialism
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: June 2006

This chapter focuses on a single problem for Rule Consequentialism: whether it makes unreasonable demands under partial compliance. It recaps the arguments of The Demands of Consequentialism, and then asks if an intergenerational perspective make Rule Consequentialism more or less palatable under partial compliance. It concludes that while the demands of Rule Consequentialism are moderate and plausible in some areas, they are extreme and somewhat implausible in others, and that the comparative stringency of Rule Consequentialism’s demands in different areas is often very peculiar. Rule Consequentialism cannot be a plausible complete moral theory. So long as it presents itself as a complete theory, its accounts of reproduction and future generations must themselves be unreasonably demanding.
The Paradox
Authors: Kvanvig Jonathan L.
Published: June 2006

This chapter examines the logical structure of the knowability paradox, presenting the details of the proofs that underlie the paradox, and clarifying which elements of these proofs give rise to paradox. It argues that there is no simple and obvious logical mistake in the derivation of the knowability result. A paradox has deep significance only if it arises from plausible premises. Those in question in Fitch’s proof are the claim of epistemic modesty, that some truths will never be known, and the knowability principle that all truths are knowable. Although the second claim does not have the same intuitive pull as the first, there are substantive grounds in its favour; grounds that some hold show that all truths are knowable, but which show at the very least that it is plausible to maintain that all truths are knowable.
What's Paradoxical?
Authors: Kvanvig Jonathan L.
Published: June 2006

This chapter explores the different grounds for accepting the claim that all truths are knowable, the assumption central to the derivation of Fitch’s result. It argues that although there is no compelling argument for holding that all truths are knowable, there are various positions in which this feature of semantic anti-realism fits naturally; rejecting this puts serious tension into a broad range of philosophical outlooks, including theism and physicalism. In the end, the paradox should be felt by everyone, even those who do not accept the knowability claim, because the heart of the paradox is not simply in what is implied by the knowability claim, but in a lost logical distinction between what is actual and what is possible.
Rules for the Knowledge Operator
Authors: Kvanvig Jonathan L.
Published: June 2006

This chapter examines the idea that the logical principles governing the knowledge operator are the root cause of the paradox. There are two such principles: the first is that knowledge implies truth, and the second is that knowledge distributes over conjunction, so that knowledge of a conjunction constitutes knowledge of the conjuncts. It is argued that the paradox cannot be avoided by questioning these principles.
Reservations about the Underlying Logic
Authors: Kvanvig Jonathan L.
Published: June 2006

This chapter explores the challenge to the proof of Fitch’s results presented by intuitionism, and the prospects of this viewpoint in avoiding the paradox that results. It argues that adopting intuitionistic principles of reasoning will not help avoid the paradox. It merely changes what is paradoxical from a lost distinction between known truth and knowable truth, to a lost distinction between unknown truth and unknowable truth. Since paradox remains in both cases, the solution to the paradox must be found elsewhere.
Chapter 2 The God of Spinoza
Authors: Sprigge T.L.S.
Published: June 2006

This chapter begins with an account of the life of Spinoza. It then discusses his great work, the Ethics, and the proof of its fundamental claim that there is just one substance, and that everything else which in any manner exists is a mode of it. There follows an account of Spinoza’s form of determinism and its ethical and religious significance and of his distinction between rational and irrational action. Finally there is a discussion of Spinoza’s views on institutionalized religion, and on Jesus. The chapter ends by asking whether Spinozism offers a ‘personal religion’.
Chapter 3 Hegelian Christianity
Authors: Sprigge T.L.S.
Published: June 2006

After a brief discussion of Kant’s critique of attempts to prove the existence of God, this chapter turns to Hegel. After some account of his life, there follows an account of his early posthumous theological essays. The chapter moves on to his final system. Some account is offered of his dialectical method and the progression from Pure Being, through the three great categories of The Idea in itself or The Logical Idea, The Idea outside itself or Nature, and the Idea in and for itself or Spirit. This terminates in what Hegel calls Absolute Spirit, which itself terminates in The Absolute Religion, that is to say Christianity. Hegel’s peculiar version of the doctrine of the Trinity is discussed. Finally the question as to the real religious value of Hegel’s system is raised.
Chapter 4 Kierkegaard and Hegelian Christianity
Authors: Sprigge T.L.S.
Published: June 2006

This chapter discusses the position presented by Kierkegaard in his two related works: Philosophical Fragments and Concluding Unscientific Postscript, which were published under the pseudonym, Johannes Climacus. It is shown that in Fragments, Climacus merely tried out the idea of God incarnating himself to achieve mutual love with men in spite of their fallen state, but did not specify Christianity as proclaiming the realization of this idea. In Concluding Unscientific Postscript, the focus is more explicitly on Christianity. Kierkegaard’s most thorough discussion of ethics, Works of Love, is also examined, which emphasizes the need for Christians to grow out of worldly self-love and embrace a life of suffering.
Chapter 6 Bernard Bosanquet
Authors: Sprigge T.L.S.
Published: June 2006

This chapter begins with a description of the life and early works of Bernard Bosanquet which show some remarkable insights into the future of Christianity. It then turns to his later work, particularly his Gifford Lectures. Its strange mixture of materialism and idealism is considered and explained. Accounts and evaluations are provided of his views on panpsychism, on the State, on the problem of evil, on teleology, and on how all things operate according to the kind of whole to which they belong. His ethical outlook is charged with a lack of compassion and this is exhibited in his connection with the Charity Organization Society.
Chapter 8 Process Philosophy and Theology: Whitehead and Hartshorne
Authors: Sprigge T.L.S.
Published: June 2006

Whitehead and Hartshorne are considered the founding fathers of process philosophy as a fully worked out metaphysic. Both believe that the basic stuff of the world is experience, which comes into being in what William James called ‘drops of experience’ or ‘momentary experiential wholes’. Both believe that each such momentary whole prehends earlier such wholes, and makes itself into a unitary reality with these prehended past wholes as its raw material. They also believe that creativity is a basic feature of reality. Their views on process theology, proofs of God’s existence, and ethics are discussed.
Christian Philosophical Theology
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

This book exposes and defends crucial items in the theological world-view of Christianity from the perspective of Christian philosophy. The topics considered include the nature of religious unbelief, the existence of God, the nature of God, religious faith, creation, revelation, Christology, redemption, scripture, and the beatific vision. The book revolves around questions like: Why believe in God? What is God like? Who was Jesus Christ? What is incarnation? How are humans redeemed? How should theology be done?
The Epistemic Status of Belief in God
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

This chapter presents a theistic proof called the Generic Cosmological Argument (GCA). In outline form, the GCA runs as follows: (1) if the universe can be explained, then God exists; (2) everything can be explained; (3) the universe is a thing; (4) therefore the universe can be explained; (5) therefore, God exists. The GCA is also defended against objections.
God, Creation, and Revelation
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

This chapter reviews the attributes of God in Christianity, then introduces the notions of divine greatness and divine sovereignty. It argues that God is sovereign in creation and in revelation, and discusses both concepts in some detail. It contends that scripture is the central place where God’s revelation is found.
Jesus Christ: Saviour or Guru?
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

In this age of theological pluralism, even within Christianity, is there good reason to affirm the incarnation of Christ as expressed in the Creed of Chalcedon? To affirm as much is to commit oneself to what is called a maximal christology, as opposed to the many minimal christologies available today. It is argued that the New Testament picture of Jesus is unified and consistent. The purpose of the incarnation is to show what God is like, to make it possible for human beings to know God, and to defeat God’s enemies. To accomplish as much, Jesus had to be truly human and truly divine. Four indications that Christ was divine are considered: his willingness to forgive sins, his reference to God as Abba, his willingness to speak “with authority”, and his implicit claims to be divine.
‘Seeing’ the Risen Jesus
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

This chapter argues that when Mary Magdalene, Peter, and others saw the risen Jesus, their “seeing” was a case of a normal vision. This is the natural way to read the New Testament accounts, especially given the physical detail contained in many of them. Six possible arguments in favor of objective vision are discussed. Two arguments in favor of normal seeing are presented: that the early church interpreted the “seeing” as normal vision, and that it is theologically significant that the “seeing” was normal. It underscores the reality of the incarnation, and places the church in a strong apologetic position.
Was Jesus Mad, Bad or God?
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

In this chapter, C.S. Lewis’ famous trilemma argument in favor of the divinity of Christ (Jesus was either mad, bad, or God) is developed, and a version of it is defended. The crux of the argument is the assertion that Jesus himself implicitly claimed to be divine. This assertion is buttressed by the notion that prayers and worship were addressed to Jesus, that he forgave sins, that he addressed God as Abba, that he spoke with authority and even in places overthrew the law, and that he declared that one’s relationship to him would determine one’s eternal fate. The trilemma argument is also defended against objections.
10 Is Kenotic Christology Orthodox?
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

There are two main theories to explain how incarnation was possible: classical christology and kenotic christology. This chapter defends one version of kenoticism. The biblical issue is: which theory best captures the Jesus that we find described in the Gospels? The philosophical issue is: in order to be “truly human”, must the Logos limit itself or divest itself of certain divine properties? Kenoticism is orthodox because it is consistent with Scripture (as seen in Philippians 2:1-11) and with classical creeds. Three objections to kenoticism are answered.
Bodily Redemption
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

Human beings face two great problems: guilt and death. Although disembodied existence is in some sense possible, it would be an attenuated existence since we are normally embodied beings, and complete and ideal existence for us is embodied. Matter is not evil because it was created by God, who is all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good. We are redeemed from guilt and death by the life, death, and resurrection of Christ. Despite Catholic and Protestant differences at this point, Christians largely agree that we are justified by faith in Christ. Two different scenarios for the general resurrection are discussed, as well as the beatific vision.
The Resurrection of the Dead
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

This chapter discusses the general resurrection. It first establishes that classical mind/body dualism — a theory seen (in different forms) in Plato and Descartes — is not the Christian position. Temporary disembodiment, which is the theory of life after death and the interim state held by most theologians, is discussed. The nature of the disembodied interim state, the reunification of body and soul at the Parousia, and the nature of the gloried body are also explored. It is argued that contrary to certain philosophers, this overall picture of the general resurrection is coherent. Christian theologians differ on whether the new glorified body consists of the same matter as the pre-mortem body, but both theories are possible. John Perry’s arguments against survival of death are answered.
4 Jesus' I‐Sayings inThomasand their Relationship to Johannine Traditions
Authors: Dunderberg Ismo
Published: June 2006

A close analysis of I-sayings in Thomas and their relationship to Johannine writings supports the conclusion that there was no mutual dependence between these texts. The following sayings in Thomas are examined in detail: 13, 17, 28 (incarnation), 61 (equality with God), 71 (the temple saying), and 77 (‘I am the light’). Affinities between these sayings and the Gospel of John go back to their common background in Jewish Wisdom literature and in early Christian theology. Nevertheless, the way some important theological issues, such as incarnation and equality with God are discussed in these two gospels suggest that they were written in about the same time — in the turn of the 1st and 2nd century. Many of their common ideas find parallels in the early Christian literature from this period.
Time and Eternity in Mid-Thirteenth-Century Thought
Authors: Fox Rory
Published: June 2006

This book examines 13th century views about time, particularly the views of Thomas Aquinas and his contemporaries in the middle of the century. As medieval thinkers considered time to be just another duration alongside the durations of aeviternity (the aevum) and eternity, the scope of the study covers all three durations, culminating in an examination of God’s relationship to time. Chapter 1 opens the discussion by examining some of the key language and terminology which 13th century thinkers used. Chapters 2-5 examine the topological properties of time: the properties that determine its shape and structure. Chapter 6 investigates the metrical properties of time: the properties pertaining to time when it is considered as a measure. Chapter 7 looks at the criteria, factors, and language which 13th century thinkers typically took as entailing that a particular would be in time. Chapter 8 explores how 13th century thinkers discussed existence outside of time, particularly as it was applied to aeviternity and aeviternal beings. Chapter 9 examines the content of the medieval concept of eternity, and how these ideas are best rendered in contemporary language. Chapter 10 examines the specific question of how 13th century thinkers viewed God’s relationship to time.
3 Priority, Posteriority, and Causality
Authors: Fox Rory
Published: June 2006

This chapter focuses on the other two temporal relations: temporally before (temporal priority) and temporally after (temporal posteriority), examining the notions in themselves before turning to the related question of 13th century attitudes to the causal theory of time. Thirteenth-century accounts of simultaneous causation undermine the possibility that 13th century thinkers would have accepted that temporal relations could be reduced to more fundamental causal relations, since the existence of simultaneous causation implies that causal orderings and temporal orderings could be uncoupled. The notion of backwards causation is also explored as part of the general investigation of causation and causal sequences.