bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
ESTIMATING THE SUCCESS OF TRAJECTORY FORECASTS1
Authors: Lehr William J. , Simecek-Beatty Debra
Published: January 2013

A common tool in response to oil spills is trajectory forecasting. While the essential equations of oil spill trajectory modeling have not changed in four decades, the assessment of their effectiveness has only recently undergone quantitative analysis. The authors assert that estimating the success of any forecast can be approached in two different ways: (1) operationally, where the measured location of the spill is used to evaluate previous forecasts and improve the trajectory model in future forecasts, and (2) assessing the utility of the forecast, where spill location dependent cleanup decisions are affected by the model results, either favorably or unfavorably.

The challenge of determining operational success often lies in the method of estimating trajectory error in a defensible way that incorporates the uncertainty inherent in the reported slick observations and highlights the flaws in either the intrinsic model parameters or environmental input. The authors discuss the limitations of simply using the distance between the center of masses of the observed and forecasted spill locations. Some alternative supplementary approaches are discussed.

Adoption of a metric for spill modeling error allows the ability to assign anticipated accuracy to the forecast and highlights the input or model parameters most sensitive to forecast improvement. However, it does not measure the increased value of a better forecast to the actual response. To have an impact, spill forecasts must affect spill response decisions by providing additional information, often in the form of conditional probabilities, regarding oil amount and location. The authors review the likelihood that these probabilities would be, or could be, known, given different spill scenarios. If known, these probabilities can be combined with probabilities of success and anticipated rewards for different cleanup scenarios. By handling the problem in a probabilistic manner, trajectory analysis can assist analysts using risk-reward calculations to determine maximum possible gain while minimizing risk. Assessment in improved trajectory prediction would then be translatable into assessment in improved spill response. Whether existing technology is compatible with such an approach to trajectory forecasting and spill response remains an unanswered question.
VISUAL COMPARISONS OF SELECTED SHORES AFFECTED BY THE Prestige OIL SPILL, NORTHERN SPAIN 2002–2004
Authors: Little David I. , Fichaut Bernard
Published: January 2013

Walkover and photographic surveys were conducted on four occasions up to February 2004 on shorelines of Galicia, Asturias and Vizcaya that were severely affected by Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) from the November 2002 Prestige incident. The geomorphology and ecology impacts resulting from both the oil and cleanup actions were observed by experienced scientists. Some cleanup methods worked well, and environmental disturbance was minimized. However, inefficient or over-zealous treatments also occurred, particularly early in the incident response. The study showed that rocky headlands are now often clean, and that wave-cut rock platforms have been cleaned effectively by high-pressure flushing. Maritime vegetation has, however, been trampled and oiled secondarily in the supra-tidal zone. Backshore botanical impacts resulted from cleanup equipment lay-down, vehicle refueling, and vehicular and pedestrian traffic. In some cases, vegetation and often soil removal during construction of access routes across the backshore will mean permanent adverse impact. Boulder and cobble storm berms were often oil-saturated above the mean high water level. Some of these are in fact relict geomorphic features inherited from previous higher sea levels during the interglacial periods, and so natural recovery would be very slow indeed. These coarse deposits were commonly treated by inefficient storm berm relocation, although good results were also achieved elsewhere. Numerous cases were seen of underlying and non-oiled finer sediments being exposed to erosion. Vegetation and substrate impacts were most severe where oil quantities were large and cleanup protracted or imperfectly supervised. Generally, estuaries were well protected by booming, and were only slightly oiled. Sand dunes have also escaped the worst impacts of oil and intrusive cleanup. There was, however, criticism of the government's handling of offers of advice from Spanish scientists expert in shoreline dynamics. This was in contrast to the international cooperation that typified the tracking, modeling and cleanup of oil offshore. It is recommended that existing best practices (e.g. Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique; SCAT) be more widely adopted in spills with potentially prolonged and injurious shoreline cleanups.
REALTIME GEO-REFERENCED DETECTION OF DISPERSED OIL PLUMES
Authors: Fuller Christopher B. , Bonner James S. , Kelly Frank , Page Cheryl A. , Ojo Temitope
Published: January 2013

The current SMART protocol used by the U.S. Coast Guard relies on traditional ex-situ fluorometers that require physical transport of the sample from the water column to the instruments. While sample transport methods are available (e.g. pumps and discrete sampling), they introduce time lags in the data acquisition process. These lags can be a source of error when the data is post analyzed and is not conducive to real-time monitoring efforts, creating significant logistical problems and dispersion (smearing) of the sample stream. Another limitation of the currently-used equipment is that it requires much attention to manually record GPS data which is later used to determine the spatial distribution of an oil plume. Recent developments of in-situ fluorometric instrumentation promise to simplify problems associated with deployment of ex-situ instrumentation (e.g. insuring that pumps are primed) in boat-based field applications. This study first compares the performance of two in-situ fluorometers in a simulated oil and dispersant application at the Shoreline Environmental Research Facility at Texas A&M University in Corpus Christi, Texas. The fluorometers were the WETStar and the ECP-FL3 (both by WETLabs, Inc.). To address issues related to data collection from a GPS and a fluorometer, a system was developed that simultaneously merges data from both instruments into a single file and presents the data real-time as a color-coded ship track. The applicability of this system was tested and evaluated during a spill response exercise conducted by the Texas General Land Office and the U.S. Coast Guard in Galveston Bay, Texas, U.S.A.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS IN A SUBTROPICAL BRAZILIAN RIVER AFTER AN OIL SPILL
Authors: de Faria Bias Marçal , Timmerman Mário César , Platte Eduardo Barcellos , Rosário Mário do
Published: January 2013

Part of the production of the Refinery Getúlio Vargas (Paraná State, South Brazil), is transported through OLAPA Pipeline to a Marine Terminal in Paranaguá. In February/2001 occurred a displacement of a great amount of land which caused abrupt rupture of the pipeline in km 57, and 57.000 liters of diesel oil was spilled. Despite all efforts of PETROBRAS contingency team, the oil spilled reached 3 rivers (Meio River, Sagrado River and Nhun-diaquara River) and ending at the sea in Antonina Bay. Right after the incident, a monitoring program was established to evaluate short term effects. One year after the incident, long term effects were also evaluated, especially concerning benthic community and ecotoxicology on the rivers affected by the spill, and plant and birds community in region on its influence.

The results point short term effects on water chemistry, but those lasted no more than one week. Short and long term effects on birds and benthic community were not detected.
KEYS TO SUCCESS IN DEVELOPING THE FIRST JOINT TRANS-BOUNDARY WILDLIFE RESPONSE GUIDELINES: THE CANADA/UNITED STATES DIXON ENTRANCE EXAMPLE
Authors: Bergmann Pamela , Ross Paul
Published: January 2013

A paper written for the 2001 International Oil Spill Conference (Bergmann and Russo, 2001) discussed the first-of-its-kind, wildlife-response contingency planning effort underway in the trans-boundary area, known as Dixon Entrance, between British Columbia (B.C.) in Canada and Alaska in the United States (U.S.). The paper described how this initiative was conducted within the framework of Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) and United States Coast Guard (USCG) joint contingency planning in Dixon Entrance. The paper focused on activities successfully completed at that time; namely, a 1999 workshop attended by key Canadian and U.S. stakeholders, which resulted in an agreement by Canadian and U.S. wildlife resource agency representatives to develop a joint Dixon Entrance wildlife response plan focusing on migratory birds and sea otters.

This paper describes how, following the workshop, a joint Canada/U.S. Dixon Entrance (CANUSDIX) wildlife response working group was established to complete this task. The resulting Canada-United States Marine Spill Pollution Contingency Plan CANUSDIX Annex-Operation Appendix: Wildlife Response Guidelines (CANUSDIX Wildlife Response Guidelines) (DOI-OEPC et al, 2003) were completed and signed by appropriate Canadian and U.S. wildlife resource agency officials in April 2003, and were then adopted by the CCG and USCG in September 2003.

The paper also provides an overview of the process used by working group members and their stakeholder partners to develop the guidelines. Moreover, the paper describes: (1) factors that helped contribute to the success of the effort; (2) challenges that had to be overcome; (3) milestones that helped keep the work on track; and (4) additional unanticipated benefits. Together, this information will allow other parties in trans-boundary areas around the world to use the Dixon Entrance wildlife response guidelines, and the process undertaken to develop the document, as a model for conducting similar pre-incident planning.
JOINT MEXICO-UNITED STATES OIL SPILL RESPONSE PREPAREDNESS TRAINING ACTIVITIES
Authors: Parker-Hall Heather A. , Holmes Timothy P. , Ramirez Norma A. Hernandez
Published: January 2013

Exercise and evaluation of the Pacific Annex of the Joint Contingency Plan Between the United Mexican States and the United States of America Regarding Pollution of the Marine Environment by Discharges of Hydrocarbons or Other Hazardous Substances (MEXUSPLAN) uncovered a significant need for joint training between spill responders, planners, decision-makers and stakeholders on both sides of our border.

Sponsored by U.S. Coast Guard District 11 (USCG Dll) and the Second Mexican Naval Zone (ZN2), a series of training sessions were held for Mexican officials from the Northern Baja California region and Mexico City in early 2003. The first of these well-attended sessions was held in two locations: San Diego, CA and Ensenada, Mexico in February 2003. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Hazmat facilitated the first session, the Joint Mexico-United States Oil Spill Science Forum. It provided a scientific view of oil spills. The following joint session facilitated by USCG Dll and held in Ensenada was a tabletop exercise designed in preparation for the signing of the MEXUSPAC Annex. Through the use of a spill drill scenario, this session included instruction and dialogue about the roles and responsibilities of both U.S. and Mexican spill responders. Both sessions included presentations from several agencies of the Regional Response Team IX/Joint Response Team: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, U.S. Dept. of the Interior and California's Office of Spill Prevention and Response. Industry partners also contributed topics of discussion, further complementing the U.S. response landscape. Mexican response agencies, including PEMEX, SAGARPA, SEMARNAT and PROFEPA, provided valuable input ensuring dialogue helping to identify additional joint response gaps. Upon the most significant gaps brought to light was the need for additional information regarding dispersant use by Mexican agencies, particularly in light of the approaching international SONS Exercise in April 2004. To this end, USCG Dll and NOAA HAZMAT developed and presented a modified Ecological

Risk Assessment for their Mexican counterparts. Hosted by ZN2 in October 2003, this highly successful workshop brought together many key decision makers, planners and stakeholders from both sides of the border to discuss tradeoffs inherent in the use of existing spill response tools, including dispersants. Joint training and discussion sessions such as these are key to ensuring any measure of success in a joint spill response. Several additional training and discussion topics designed for the Mexican-U.S. joint response forum have been identified with many in the planning phase. Acknowledging the similarities as well as differences in response systems of our two nations' is essential to the success of these joint collaborations. Such continued efforts will help bridge existing gaps.
MEXUS GULF EXERCISE 2004*
Authors: Hutto Warren T. (Tommy) , Pertuz David
Published: January 2013

The Agreement of Cooperation Between the United States of American and the United Mexican States Regarding Pollution of the Marine Environment by Discharges of Hydrocarbons and Other Hazardous Substances signed in February 2000 by the U.S. Coast Guard and the Secretaria de Marina-Armada de Mexico, established the beginning of a successful bilateral cooperation between both countries for the preparation and response to pollution incidents that could affect the coastal waters of both countries. The agreement calls for joint pollution response exercises to be conducted to exercise the bilateral coordination and joint response system.

In May 2004, the Shell Exploration and Production Company acted as the Responsible Party in such a joint exercise, denominated MEXUS GULF 2004. The exercise was conducted in Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico May 25–27, 2004. Building on a previously conducted exercise in 2002, the objectives of the 2004 exercise were to exercise and identify joint response procedures following a significant impact to the shared shorelines. Specifically, the four identified objectives included:Identify Natural Resources Damage Assessment (NRDA) Procedures in Mexico.Address transboundary movement Procedures of collected waste and contaminated equipment with emphasis on movement from Mexico to the U.S.Identify joint procedures for clean-up and rehabilitation of oiled wildlife.Exercise Joint Command and Control Procedures including transboundary and field communications

Shell Exploration and Production Company (SEPCo), working jointly with the U.S. Coast Guard, and the Mexican Secretaria de Marina—Armada de Mexico and with outstanding support from the National Ocaanographic and Atmospheric Administration, The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Minerals Management Service and the Texas General Land Office designed and executed an outstanding exercise well lessons learned were captured and shared.

This paper will cover the planning, logistical considerations, execution and lessons learned from the joint exercise as well as the successful use of the Incident Command System as an incident response management tool for bilateral cooperation.
MODELING FATES AND IMPACTS OF HYPOTHETICAL OIL SPILLS IN DELAWARE, FLORIDA, TEXAS, CALIFORNIA, AND ALASKA WATERS, VARYING RESPONSE OPTIONS INCLUDING USE OF DISPERSANTS
Authors: McCay Deborah French , Whittier Nicole , Dalton Colleen , Rowe Jill , Sankaranarayanan Subbayya , Aurand Don
Published: January 2013

Oil spill response may include use of chemical dispersants and in situ burning equipment, in addition to traditional mechanical response equipment. To evaluate the potential impacts of various response strategies, oil spill and atmospheric plume modeling were performed to evaluate areas of the atmosphere at sea level, water areas, shoreline lengths, sediment areas, and water volumes impacted above thresholds of concern to biological species and habitats, human health and socioeconomic resources. For the oil spill modeling, a stochastic approach was used to allow the range and frequency of possible environmental conditions to be examined for each spill site, spill volume and response option evaluated. Long term (decade or more) wind and current records were sampled at random and model runs were performed for each of the spill dates-times selected. This provides a statistical description of the environmental fate and impacts that would result if a spill occurred. Stochastic modeling was performed in five representative locations in the US: (1) offshore of Delaware Bay, (2) offshore of Galveston Bay, (3) offshore of San Francisco Bay, (4) Prince William Sound, and (5) offshore of the Florida Keys. These data were used to evaluate potential impacts of changes in response strategies, i.e., combining use of dispersants and in situ burning with traditional mechanical recovery. The results of the oil spill modeling for the Florida Straits location are summarized herein.
OIL SPILL PREPAREDNESS & RESPONSE IN THE BOHAI BAY REGION – A MULTI LAYERED APPROACH 1
Authors: Ooi Patrick , O'Driscoll Declan , Ng Sean
Published: January 2013

In recent years, the Bohai Bay region has seen increasing activities in the areas of offshore oil exploration and production. This paper looks at the multi-layered approach taken by the oil industry members and the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) Government Authorities, to address oil spill response (OSR) preparedness and response capabilities in the region. It documents the OSR activities conducted by EARL and the setting up of OSR equipment Centres. A good and strong approach has been given to OSR preparedness and response capability for the Bohai Bay region, by both the Government and oil industry members. This paper identifies, and suggest further steps needed to ensure preparedness and the capability to deliver an effective response to an oil spill incident in the region.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS WITHIN THE INTERNATIONAL COMPENSATION REGIME
Authors: Jacobsson Måns
Published: January 2013

The international compensation regime is based on two international treaties elaborated under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), namely the 1992 Civil Liability Convention and the 1992 Fund Convention. The 1992 Civil Liability Convention governs the liability of the shipowner, whereas the 1992 Fund Convention provides supplementary compensation through the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund 1992 (1992 Fund), financed by a levy on oil receipts in Member States.

This paper describes recent developments in the international compensation regime.

The total amount of compensation available under the 1992 Conventions was increased from United States (US) $210 million to US $315 million for incidents occurring after 31 October 2003

In view of the experience of recent major incidents, the 1992 Fund set up a Working Group to hold an exchange of views concerning the need for and possibilities of improving the international compensation regime established by the 1992 Conventions.

As a result of preparatory work carried out by the Working Group, a Diplomatic Conference held in May 2003 adopted a draft Protocol establishing an optional third tier of compensation by means of a Supplementary Compensation Fund which would provide additional compensation over and above that available under the 1992 Conventions. The total amount of compensation available for pollution damage in the nations that become Parties to it will be US $1,150 million per incident, including the amounts payable under the 1992 Conventions. The Protocol will enter into force on 3 March 2005.

The Working Group continues its review of the 1992 Conventions and will examine a number of issues, inter alia, shipowners' liability. It is expected that the Working Group will make its final recommendations to the 1992 Fund Assembly in 2005 as to whether the 1992 Conventions should be re-opened and, if so, which issues should be considered.
UPTAKE OF FOUR PAHS OCCURRING INTO AERIAL PLANT TISSUE ARTIFICIALLY EXPOSED TO HEAVY FUEL OIL IN SALICORNIA
Authors: Meudec Anna , Dussauze Jacques , Deslandes Eric , Poupart Nathalie
Published: January 2013

Coastal salt-marsh vegetations are directly exposed to accidental marine pollution by oil spill, as it was the case in winter of the year 2000 following Erika tanker oil spill in France. As petroleum is incorporated in sediment, it tends to coat aerial parts of plants. Among fuel hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are the most toxic compounds known in marine organisms. Although their low water solubility, they can be taken up and bioaccumulated by plants. This work was conducted to determine whether PAHs, like naphthalene, phenanthrene, pyrene and benzo(a)pyrene, present in artificially fuel contaminated soils are transferred or not to aerial part of the coastal and edible plant, Salicornia fragilis. Sediments were mixed up with N°6. heavy fuel oil. Young plants of Salicornia were sampled in spring at the “Aber du Conquet” (Finistère, France), and cultured artificially in three different mixture conditions of oil and sediment: 0.2%, 2% or 20%. Two durations of culture were tested: one or five weeks. At the end of the culture, shoot are then cut off and PAHs concentrations were determinate by (GC-MS). Results showed that whatever the time of exposure and the concentrations of fuel oil in soil, significant PAHs concentrations were measured in Salicornia tissues. Phenanthrene and pyrene are the most abundant compounds. The particular morphology of Salicornia plants and the absence of PAHs in control also suggest that root uptake was the main pathway for accumulation of PAHs in this halophytic plant. By this capacity to uptake PAHs from fuel oil contaminated soil, Salicornia fragilis appears as a potential bioindicator of marine pollution by petroleum and may have a role in remediating contaminated soil.
NOAA'S ABANDONED VESSEL PROGRAM AND RESOURCES AND UNDER SEA THREATS PROJECT – PARTNERSHIPS AND PROGRESS FOR ABANDONED VESSEL MANAGEMENT1
Authors: Zelo Ian , Overfield Mike , Helton Doug
Published: January 2013

Recent incidents within our National Marine Sanctuaries and throughout our country have directed the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to begin to look proactively at catastrophic oil and other chemical releases from submerged and abandoned sources. Integrating data from several federal, state, and private sources, the Abandoned Vessel Program (AVP) and Resources and UnderSea Threats (RUST) database worked hand in hand to develop a joint inventory of submerged and abandoned vessels to determine through analysis the scope of this potential threat.
REMOVAL OF GROUNDED, DERELICT OR ABANDONED VESSELS AS SITE RESTORATION1
Authors: Zelo Ian , Helton Doug
Published: January 2013

Many agencies and organizations in the United States are implementing habitat restoration using a wide array of methods across a variety of habitats. These efforts are often motivated by legislative actions like the Oil Pollution Act, Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act, and the Clean Water Act but may also be implemented to meet the mission statements of particular agencies and organizations. While the goals and objectives of restoration efforts vary greatly and the range of potential restoration alternatives is large, these activities fall into three general categories; direct restoration, prevention and public education.

The removal of derelict, abandoned and grounded vessels is a tool that can be used as an effective part of many habitat restoration projects. Removals, on their own or in conjunction with other actions, clearly can be used as part of direct restoration. Additionally, in almost every case a removal will also reduce or prevent the threat of future harm to natural, public, or private resources as well as public safety.

The four case studies presented highlight the benefits of removal and hazards of failing to act. The Seagull (Guam) demonstrates how effective cooperation can successfully salvage a valuable vessel while protecting natural resources. The M/V Kimton (Puerto Rico) demonstrates that simply removing oil from a grounded vessel is not necessarily the best alternative. The F/V Mwaalil Saat (Saipan) is an example of what can happen if a vessel is identified as a threat but is not removed and the Tesoro Net Removal Project (Kauai, HI) is a valuable example of how the removal of debris unrelated to the primary incident can be a preferred restoration alternative.
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN OIL SPILL CLEAN-UP EXERCISE: A CASE STUDY OF RUMUEKPE PK 26.5 OIL SPILL, NIGER DELTA, NIGERIA1
Authors: Mrabure Charles , Ngene Patrick
Published: January 2013

Crude oil exploration and production in Niger Delta area of Nigeria started over fifty (50) years ago, and had brought with it several cases of oil pollution which as well as other human activities have resulted in devastation of the ecological landscape leading to depletion of natural resources, a source of livelihood for the indigenous people.

Due to the stress/hardship occasioned by depletion of natural resources such as fishes, other aquatic life, Land etc, the people have evolved from peace loving to hostile communities. They have embarked on several protests and kidnappings, the oil companies being primary target in all cases. Working in this area became a risk for the companies. Clean up of polluted sites thus became an almost impossible activity; initiating dialogue with the people became a herculean task because of lack of mutual trust.

In the case of PK26.5 oil spill clean up, several fruitful efforts were made to dialogue with the people, and this resulted in a partnership that saw Elf Petroleum Nigeria Ltd and her Contractor clean up an oil polluted site in this volatile region to the satisfaction of Regulatory authorities. Of the forty-four workers, forty (40) were from the community.
FULL SCALE IMPLEMENTATION OF STATE-OF-THE-ART MECHANICAL OIL SPILL RESPONSE TECHNOLOGY ON THE NORWEGIAN CONTINENTAL SHELF
Authors: Brekne Tharaid M. , Eide Gry Asheim , Skeie Geir M.
Published: January 2013

The Norwegian Clean Seas Association for Operating Companies (NOFO) has recently completed a comprehensive Research & Development (R&D) program. The main objective of this program was to provide a basis for decisions regarding selection of equipment in the next generation of NOFO's oil spill response. The R&D program was initiated in 2000 and the results from the preliminary phase of the program were presented at the 2003 IOSC in Vancouver.

In the summer of 2003, NOFO successfully carried out an Oil-on-water exercise. This exercise encompassed a full scale testing of new equipment developed in the second phase of the program. A series of experiments were performed where oil was released to the sea and subsequently recovered. In total, 170 cubic meters of oil emulsion was released, and approximately 80 % recovered. Based on the experiences from the Oil-on-water exercise, NOFO implemented Phase 3 of the R&D program. This phase comprised of redesign and modifications to two types of booms, and of a high capacity skimmer. Final testing of the Phase 3 results was completed in the first quarter of 2004, and concluded that the design criteria were met. Concurrently, NOFO has embarked on a three-year replacement plan, in which existing booms and skimmers are replaced by the new equipment types.

Phase 2 included a feasibility study on enhanced detection of oil spills under conditions of low light and reduced visibility. Based on results from this study, a project has been initiated to develop and implement a ship based radar system for detection of oil spills. This project is considered the first step towards the goal of achieving an oil spill response that is independent of light and visibility.

This paper outlines the conclusions of the R&D program and the 2003 Oil-on-water exercise, as well as the results from the final performance tests of the new equipment. Further, the new oil spill response is comprehensive, in terms of total capability and geographical coverage.
ENHANCEMENTS TO STOCK CCG TRANSFER PUMPS/SKIMMER UNITS
Authors: Cooper D. , MacKay R. , Brown C.
Published: January 2013

A number of modifications and enhancements of the two primary transfer pump/skimmer units, specifically the GT-185 and GT-260 stocked by the Canadian Coast Guard have been proposed over the past few years. Much of the focus of the testing during this time has centered on dealing with very viscous oils, but the proposed changes will impact the performance of these devices when dealing with any oil.

This paper details the development of a collaborative series of projects supported by Environment Canada and the Canadian Coast Guard over the past six years. It provides background information on the original problems or design limitations of the oil spill recovery equipment. Descriptions of the subsequent modifications are presented, along with performance information which quantifies any improvements to performance. The work has evolved to include partnerships with federal government organizations from Canada and the United States, along with contributions by manufacturers of similar spill response equipment during testing trials.
FACTORS AFFECTING MARINE HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS IN AN AREA OF NATURAL SEEPS AND ABANDONED OIL WELLS - SUMMERLAND, CALIFORNIA
Authors: Leifer Ira , Wilson Ken , Tarpley John , Lewis Robin , Imai Randy , Sowby Michael , Mayer Ken , Moore Carlton
Published: January 2013

A video-monitored oil-seep capture tent and an intertidal seep tank were developed and deployed to quantify emissions in shallow (5-m) nearshore waters and at an intertidal location at Summerland Beach, California. At two sites, where bubbles appeared clear, gas to oil ratios were 105:1; at a site where bubbles were dark, gas to oil ratio was 8.4:1. Nearshore oil emissions were conservatively estimated at 0.8 L dy’1. The size distribution of oily bubbles sharply peaked at 1500 µm, and the gas to oil ratio varied between bubbles. Oil affected the bubble's buoyancy and hydrodynamics. Time series of seabed emissions showed oil was mostly released in pulses. Several mechanisms that may cause variability in oil emissions were proposed. Intertidal oil emission were estimated a 12 L dy−1. Also, beach surveys showed less than trace amounts of beached oil and no oiled fauna over a 19-month period.
EVOLVING POLLUTION-RELATED REQUIREMENTS INTERNATIONALLY AND IN THE UNITED STATES
Authors: Waldron Jonathan K.
Published: January 2013

This paper will analyze the domestic and international pollution-related requirements for vessels that have recently come into force, or will likely soon affect, vessel owners and operators. In particular, the international requirements reviewed include: MARPOL Annex I, Annex IV, Annex VI, the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ship's Ballast Water, the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems, and the London Convention and its 1996 Protocol. The analysis of changing domestic law reviews the pollution related amendments to the Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation Act of 2004 (CGMTA), Pub. L. No. 108-293, which was signed into law on August 9, 2004, which made numerous amendments relating to the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90), Pub. L. No. 101-380. Vessel owners and operators should continue to monitor evolving pollution related regulations in order to comply with new requirements.
OIL SPILL RESPONSE ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT—BOHAI SEA—CHINA
Authors: Boben Mark , Yuheng Liu
Published: January 2013

Oil spill response along the coast of China has been recognized as an important issue by the Chinese government. The Bohai Sea in particular, is an area of high oil exploration and production activity, with offshore developments comprising platforms and FPSO's (floating, production, storage and off-loading) together with associated vessels and pipelines. Major shipping lanes from the East China Sea into China also pass through the offshore oil fields. For the oil companies operating in the area, the prospect of an accidental oil spill is a concern from both a domestic and international perspective.

In 2000, the companies involved in upstream activities in the Bohai Sea began discussions with the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) to develop an oil spill response capability. Led by ConocoPhillips, the international oil companies worked with CNOOC to build a framework for developing an oil spill response organization (OSRO) to provide appropriate services within the Bohai Sea. The key tenet for this OSRO, was to be able to perform to international standards.

In 2002, the CNOOC executive management, through its subsidiary, Bohai Corporation(COOBC) committed to establishing a commercial oil spill response organization, Bohai Environmental Services Ltd. (BES). The BES remit is focused on the Bohai Sea, but with the eventual goal of providing response services along the wider China coastal region and eventually fulfilling a longer term vision of expanding into the international market.

This Paper describes the standards required by the international oil companies and how BES was conceived and organized to meet them.
PREPAREDNESS ASSESSMENT… STILL THE KEY TO ACQUIRING AND MAINTAINING, “RIGHT MIX” CAPABILITIES
Authors: Bates Clifford Scott
Published: January 2013

The most recent national study of the adequacy of government owned versus private sector oil spill removal capability, known as the capability limits or (CAPS) review, is currently seven years old. While oil spill response preparedness assessments have continued via the National Strike Force Coordination Center Oil Spill Removal Organization (OSRO) assessment visits, the Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP), and the Spills of National Significance (SONS) exercises, the outdated CAPS review stands as a great impediment to the Coast Guard's ability to continue to make sound overarching policy decisions regarding known national oil spill removal equipment inventories and expertise levels as they pertain to oil spill risks. The CAPS review established a baseline by which regulatory decisions pertaining to the “Right government/private Mix” of capabilities for oil spill response could be made. The ability to accurately assess this mix is a critical component of the Preparedness model that has been used for oil spill response and should continue to be used for Preparedness for all contingency response. This model is depicted below in Figure 1.FIGURE 1PREPAREDNESS (TO RESPOND) MODELFIGURE 1. PREPAREDNESS (TO RESPOND) MODEL

Prior to Sept 11, 2001, it was assumed that the costly and cumbersome to complete findings of the CAPS review would remain valid for an extensive period of time. This was a valid assumption given the stability of Post OPA 90 oil spill response capability at the time. When Sept 11, 2001 shifted government and private response priorities away from oil spills, the validity of the assumption began to degrade. Unfortunately, a request for an update must now compete for funding and support with security-related studies. Further, just as this study provides appropriate support for overarching oil spill regulatory decisions, so too could it be used as the national preparedness assessment model for any developing Hazardous Substance or Weapons of Mass Destruction legislation. The oil spill response communities' inability to promote the value of having an easily updated thorough CAPS review process ensures the model will be overlooked or dismissed in the development of a healthy national all contingency response capabilities assessment program. All of this negatively impacts national preparedness pertaining to either oil or HAZMAT response. To bolster my assertions this paper will first define and discuss impressions of the 1998 CAPS review. Secondly, the paper will review some of the long-standing response principles that have established assessment as crucial to preparedness in the oil spill response field. Lastly, the paper will outline an assessment model that incorporates the successes of the oil spill response program and explain the value that adoption of such a model would have for a national all-contingencies preparedness assessment program.
TIER 3 RESPONSE CENTRES—THE CHALLENGE OF OPERATING IN A TIER 2 ENVIRONMENT1
Authors: O'Driscoll Declan
Published: January 2013

East Asia Response Limited (EARL) in Singapore is a regional Tier 3 centre that provides response services throughout the Asia Pacific region.

The Tier 3 response centres are designed to provide external international support to members. When these resources are used, the management of the response and the logistics support are drawn from the receiving organization.

When a spill occurs in the Singapore Straits, particularly involving a shipping company or a P & I club, a whole new set of expectations and responsibilities need to be recognized both from the Government and the responsible party's point of view.

The Port Authority has the jurisdiction over Singapore Port and is responsible for managing the clean-up under the guidance of the National Contingency Plan. The responsible party is looking for a comprehensive spill response service.

EARL has put in place various additional arrangements to meet the new expectations of authorities and responsible parties. These include the training of external manpower sources, development and testing of booming plans for sensitive sites and logistics plans to support response crafts and waste management.

This paper will highlight preparedness, response planning and activation in what is one of the world's busiest ports.
THE BEHAVIOUR AND TREATMENT OF ORIMULSION® BITUMEN STRANDED ON PEBBLE, COBBLE OR IMPERMEABLE SUBSTRATE SHORELINES
Authors: Owens Edward H. , Sergy Gary A. , Harper John
Published: January 2013

Bitumen from an Orimulsion® spill can strand on shorelines in the form or dispersed bitumen or coalesced bitumen. Wetness of the shoreline substrate is an important factor in the adhesion of the bitumen and this in turn significantly effects selection of a treatment technique. Stranded bitumen on the surface of a shoreline that remains wet and/or non adhesive can be removed relatively easily by a combination of low-pressure washing, flooding, and recovery, or by manual and mechanical removal techniques. When stranded on dry surfaces or when interfacial surfaces dry, then the bitumen will strongly adhere to shoreline substrates either in the form of thin coatings or thick deposits of bitumen that are difficult to remove. Heated, high-pressure seawater washing is effective but must be accompanied by flooding to minimize penetration into coarse sediments. Sediment relocation, sediment removal, wet tilling and natural recovery techniques are appropriate techniques under specific oiling conditions. Temperature greatly effects bitumen penetration into sediments. Where bitumen coatings or deposits form in subsurface sediments then treatment becomes extremely difficult, requiring sediment removal or techniques to bring oiling surface sediments to the surface for treatment.
ASSESS INTERTIDAL IMPACTS: LESSONS LEARNED FROM 11 YEARS OF MONITORING IN PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND1
Authors: Coats Douglas A. , Shigenaka Gary
Published: January 2013

“How many samples do we need?” and “Where should we collect them?” are questions common to most field monitoring programs. They are especially compelling when an oil spill impinges on a coastline and an intertidal monitoring program must be rapidly implemented to assess impacts. Moreover, these initial sampling decisions profoundly affect the ultimate validity of the assessment study. While it is important to avoid squandering limited resources by oversampling, an undersized study is equally wasteful if it cannot reliably discern significant impacts and produce useful results.

All else being equal, the power to detect change in an ecosystem is dictated by its inherent variability. Variability estimates were computed for a variety of intertidal assemblages using data collected within Prince William Sound over eleven years, following the Exxon Valdez oil spill. The sample-size recommendations that emerge from these power analyses demonstrate that spill and cleanup impacts to most intertidal taxa can be reliably detected using four to six replicate samples collected at three or more treatment sites, and at an equivalent number of reference sites. They also demonstrate that collecting more than eight replicate samples within each site does little to increase the power to detect differences in mean populations.

Analogously, “parallelism” tests on multi-year data provide a reliable means of quantifying long-term recovery in intertidal populations following an oil spill. Parallelism tests examine temporal trends in mean abundance at impacted sites relative to reference sites. However, the ability to detect major recolonization events with parallelism tests varies widely depending on the taxa being tested. For example, the marked recolonization in Fucus and epifaunal invertebrates that was experienced four years after the Exxon Valdez spill could have been detected by sampling at only two reference and two impact sites. In contrast, infaunal populations exhibit greater variability, making detection of nonparallel trends difficult without sampling at least six reference and six impacted sites.
OIL SPILL MONITORING HANDBOOK
Authors: Stevens Leigh , Wardrop John
Published: January 2013

This paper describes afield handbook jointly prepared for the New Zealand (NZ) Maritime Safety Authority (MSA) and Australian MSA (AMSA) to help plan the scope, scale, and design of oil spill monitoring programs. A two-class monitoring nomenclature is used to classify monitoring according to its underlying purpose.

Type I (Operational) Monitoring: provides information of direct relevance to spill response operations, i.e. information needed to plan or execute response or cleanup strategies.

Type II (Scientific) Monitoring: relates to non-response objectives, i.e. short and long term environmental damage assessments (including recovery), purely scientific studies, and all post spill monitoring activities.

The two-class monitoring nomenclature recognizes the very different objectives of Type I and Type II monitoring, and the methods, scope, and degree of scientific rigour required for each. These in turn, have a significant bearing on the cost of the monitoring, and who will pay for it.

Currently, Type I monitoring costs are recovered in NZ and Australia from the spiller (or insurer) alongside other operational response costs. The handbook, formatted as a field pocket guide, provides specific guidance as to what may be considered “necessary” and “reasonable” Type I monitoring, as well as presenting guidelines for defining study objectives, spatial boundaries, monitoring parameters, sampling and assessment methods, study duration, logistics, design constraints (and solutions), resources, and termination criteria. Type II monitoring programs are usually not integral to the response, and funding is less well defined, so Type II monitoring is not specifically addressed in the Handbook. However, many of the Type I guidelines are also relevant for Type II studies.

The Handbook is intended to provide responders with sufficient guidance to determine the type of information necessary for an operational spill response, and an overview of the methods commonly used to collect the information needed to reach defensible spill response decisions in an appropriate time frame, and with an acceptable level of accuracy. The Handbook is supported by a Background Paper describing the key issues to be considered in establishing a monitoring program.
CONDUCTING A NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT (NRDA) FOR SEA TURTLE INJURY RESULTING FROM AN OIL SPILL NEAR FORT LAUDERDALE, FL
Authors: Jeansonne James H. , Moore Thomas , Bernhart David , Snover Melissa
Published: January 2013

Following a mystery oil spill near Ft. Lauderdale, Florida in August 2000, natural resource trustee agencies (Trustees) conducted a natural resource damage assessment (NRDA) under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA). During the NRDA, injury to several life stages of Loggerhead sea turtles (Carena caretta) and Green sea turtles (Chelonia my das) was quantified using a computer model, SIMAP (French-McCay, 2001), and the type and scale of restoration required was determined. Quantification of injury required Trustees to determine key model input parameters based on a variety of scientific data sources. The restoration scaling portion of this NRDA required Trustees to quantify the number of Loggerhead sea turtle hatchlings it would take to replace a post-pelagic juvenile (age 17 to 20 years) and an adult female (42 to 50 years old). To accomplish this, Trustees developed a simple model based on recent life stage and population dynamics assumptions for the south Florida Loggerhead sub-population. Details of the sea turtle NRDA method and rationale for determining the required model input parameters are discussed.
OIL SPILL PLANNING AND RESPONSE IN A TERRORIST ENVIRONMENT REAL LIFE EXPERIENCES1
Authors: Peng Daniel Chan Kok
Published: January 2013

The world's perspective on security issues had greatly changed after the events of the 9/11 incident. Great strides to enhance maritime security were made following that incident. We see nations working together for a safer environment as seen in the rapid adoption and implementation of the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code in July 2004.

Historically, most oil spill response activities took place in coastal waters and coastlines due to collision and grounding of vessels. We must now also consider the possibility of oil spills occurring in ‘non traditional’ areas due to terrorism and piracies.

The threat of terrorism is very real. The “USS Cole” at Aden, Yemen on October 2000 and “MT Limburg” off the coast of Yemen on October 2002 were examples. Many regions of the world with high maritime traffic are considered hot spots for such terrorist and piracy activities. For instance, certain parts of the Malacca Strait are known for piracy and sea robberies. These activities may well lead to major oil spills. Vessels are considered “soft targets” for a terrorist attack. These incidents will generate high publicity and may create devastating environmental damage. The consequences are too severe for us to ignore as the economic impact may cripple the global economy.

Oil spill responses are complex and each incident presents their own challenges. Oil spill response organizations have little exposure when dealing with an incident resulting from a terrorist attack. What considerations are given to the oil spill responder's safety? Oil spill response organisations must factor in such scenarios into their contingency plans. In the bigger picture of a major incident the role of the oil spill responder may not be the primary focus of an incident command. They have to be proactive to make necessary preparations and security arrangements with government agencies and security providers.

The author will use the case history of the ‘Limburg,’ to which the Alliance responded, as an example to illustrate the response and responder security issues that arise during such an event.