bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ida, Mount
Authors: Kotsonas Antonis
Published: December 2012

Ida, also known as “Psiloritis” from medieval times onwards, is an extensive mountain range of central Crete rising to 2,456 m.
Idaean Cave
Authors: Kotsonas Antonis
Published: December 2012

The Idaean Cave is situated in central Crete,on Mount Ida, at an altitude of 1,500 m. It has always been far from centers of habitation, on the upland pastures of the plain of Nida, and is blocked off by snow in the winter.
Iolkos in Thessaly
Authors: Galanakis Yannis
Published: December 2012

One of the oldest settlements in the Pagasitic Gulf, from where the Argonauts set sail for Kolchis, according to Greek tradition.
Kalapodi in Phokis
Authors: Livieratou Antonia
Published: December 2012

The site of Kalapodi in northeastern Phokis hosts a significant sanctuary that presents the most plausible case of religious continuity from the Late Bronze to the Early Iron Age in mainland Greece.
Keftiu
Authors: Bachhuber Christoph
Published: December 2012

Keftiu (
Kaptara
in Akkadian) designates a region that is first recorded in a text from Mari in northern Syro‐Mesopotamia, attributed to the reign of Zimri‐Lim (ca. 1780–1758
BCE
).
Kition
Authors: Georgiou Artemis
Published: December 2012

Kition is an ancient Cypriot polity, located on the southeastern coast of the island, lying within the limits of the modern town of Larnaca.
Klaros
Authors: Draycott Catherine M.
Published: December 2012

Klaros was the site of an oracular cult of Apollo, located on the coast of Ionia, between Smyrna and Ephesos, in the chora of Kolophon.
Kommos
Authors: Kotsonas Antonis
Published: December 2012

Situated on the south coast of central Crete, Kommos, the ancient name of which is unclear, was a harbor town in the second millennium
BCE
and a sanctuary in the first millennium.
Manika
Authors: Hilditch Jill
Published: December 2012

Manika is an Early Bronze Age site with evidence of both a settlement and extended cemetery.
Minoa on Amorgos
Authors: Charalambidou Xenia
Published: December 2012

Minoa, centrally located on the west coast of Amorgos in the eastern Cyclades Islands, was one of the island's main cities, along with Arkesine and Aigiale.
Mitrou in East Lokris
Authors: Livieratou Antonia
Published: December 2012

The site of Mitrou is a small tidal island very close to the coast of East Lokris.
Mycenaean archaeology
Authors: Galanakis Yannis
Published: December 2012

Mycenaean archaeology is the field that deals with the material culture of the Late Bronze Age (1700–1050BCE), mostly in central and southern Greece and the Aegean islands.
Nichoria
Authors: Galanakis Yannis
Published: December 2012

A major Bronze and Early Iron Age site situated on a ridge, in a well‐watered area, at the intersection of important land routes, 2 km inland from the northwest corner of the Messenian Gulf.
Osteria dell'Osa in Latium
Authors: Smith Christopher J.
Published: December 2012

Osteria dell'Osa is one of the most important necropolis sites in Latium vetus, and the largest.
Petras in Crete
Authors: Christakis Kostis S.
Published: December 2012

Located on a hill by the sea and just east of the modern city of Siteia is the harbor town of Petras.
Phokaia
Authors: Draycott Catherine M.
Published: December 2012

Phokaia, modern Foça, was the northernmost of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia Minor (
see
Ionia; Panionion).
Phylakopi on Melos
Authors: Galanakis Yannis
Published: December 2012

Phylakopi, one of the earliest proto‐urban sites in the Aegean, became the main reference point for Cycladic prehistory, providing the first reasonably complete timeline for the Aegean Bronze Age.
Salamis (Cyprus)
Authors: Alexandridou Alexandra‐Fani
Published: December 2012

The site of Salamis on the east coast of Cyprus is of immense importance because of the finds of the royal necropolis excavated by the Cyprus Department of Antiquities from 1952 to 1974.
Stirrup Jar
Authors: Georgiou Artemis
Published: December 2012

The stirrup jar (or false‐necked jar) is a vessel usually made of clay.
Theagenes of Megara
Authors: Davies Philip
Published: December 2012

Theagenes, tyrant of Megara, apparently rose to power after having “slaughtered the herds of the rich” (Arist.Pol.
Thera
Authors: Bendall Lisa M.
Published: December 2012

The island of Thera, also known as Santorini, lies at the southern edge of the Cyclades.
Tiryns
Authors: Livieratou Antonia
Published: December 2012

Tiryns, one of the most important Mycenaean palatial citadels, is located on a low rocky outcrop on the east side of the Argive Plain, a short distance from the coastline.
Ialysos in Rhodes
Authors: Bourogiannis Giorgos
Published: December 2012

Ialysos (Ίαλυσóς) was one of the three ancient cities of the island of Rhodes, occupying part of the long coastal plain close to the modern villages of Trianda and Kremasti, 15 km southwest of the city of Rhodes.
Troy
Authors: Bachhuber Christoph
Published: December 2012

Troy is different things to different people. To the archaeologist, Troy is another name for an important site in northwestern Turkey called Hisarlık with an outstanding stratigraphy that spans the Bronze and Iron ages, well into the Greek and Roman periods.
Vitsa Zagoriou
Authors: Kotsonas Antonis
Published: December 2012

Vitsa Zagoriou is a modern name for a site in the hinterland of northwest Greece (north of Ioannina).
Wanax
Authors: Bendall Lisa M.
Published: December 2012

Wanaxis an official title in Linear B (spelledwa‐na‐ka), referring to the ruler of a Mycenaean palace state.
Zygouries
Authors: Galanakis Yannis
Published: December 2012

An important prehistoric settlement in the Valley of Kleonai in Corinthia (northeast Peloponnese), almost midway from Mycenae to ancient Corinth.
Tsoungiza
Authors: Galanakis Yannis
Published: December 2012

An important prehistoric settlement on a ridge in the Nemea Valley (Corinthia), 500 m to the west of the Temple of Zeus at Nemea and about 10 km northwest of Mycenae.
Administration, Byzantine
Authors: Riedel Meredith L. D.
Published: December 2012

Government administration in the Byzantine world was large, competent, and highly centralized. It was engaged in adjudicating disputes, performing public works, building roads, minting coinage, regulating trade, and maintaining a postal service, transport system, tax regime, and standing army. Fiscal, judicial, ecclesiastical, and military offices were assigned to perform the various administrative duties; curiously, there was no dedicated diplomatic or foreign service to maintain relations with neighboring states. Ambassadors were usually high‐ranking civil servants or clerics, temporarily seconded for specific journeys to foreign courts. From the beginning, the Byzantine state held a monopoly on the production of coinage through the output of a dozen imperial mints and oversaw a highly monetized economy for most of its history.
Amulets, Christian
Authors: Parani Maria G.
Published: December 2012

Despite vehement opposition by the church, Christians, in their search for protection against the maleficent activity of demons, adopted the use of amulets, usually in the form of personal ornaments such as pendants, rings, and armbands, which were worn on the body for greater effectiveness.
Anastasius Bibliothecarius
Authors: Neil Bronwen
Published: December 2012

Anastasius Bibliothecarius (d. ca. 879CE) earned his epithet from his service over ten years as librarian in the court of Pope Hadrian II.
Basilica
Authors: Rodley Lyn
Published: December 2012

Basilica, in the Roman world, denoted an important public building, an indication of status that persists today when the term is attached to important churches of any form.
Byzantine era
Authors: Kouroumali Maria
Published: December 2012

The term Byzantine era (also known as World era or Creation era) refers to the computational system of calculating time used officially by the Byzantines from the late seventh centuryCEuntil the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.
Caesaropapism
Authors: Riedel Meredith L. D.
Published: December 2012

Caesaropapism is a polemical term denoting the arrogation of ecclesiastical power by a secular sovereign.
Canons
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: December 2012

Canon (kanon, rule) is the word used for church laws (in both east and west). It is not clear why the wordnomoswas avoided (not entirely, though: witness the use of the termnomocanonfor a collections of canons).
Chosroes I
Authors: Rance Philip
Published: December 2012

Chosroes I (ca. 496–579
CE
), called “Anūshirwān” (“of immortal soul”), was the most renowned of the late Sasanian rulers.
Constantine VI
Authors: Olster David
Published: December 2012

Constantine VI (b. 771, crowned 776, r. 780–97) was the son of Leo IV and Eirene, who was regent during his minority.
Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus
Authors: Studer‐Karlen Manuela
Published: December 2012

Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (lived 905–59
CE
) was a Byzantine emperor of the Macedonian Dynasty (crowned co‐emperor probably May 15, 908).
Constantinople, councils of
Authors: Pratsch Thomas
Published: December 2012

These were of two types: ecumenical councils, with representatives from all five patriarchates, whose decisions were binding on the entire church, and local councils, whose decisions were binding only on the patriarchate of Constantinople.
Cosmology, Byzantine
Authors: Kominko Maja
Published: December 2012

Cosmology is the science that explores the physical and spiritual systems of the universe, frequently in conjunction.
Court (imperial), Byzantine
Authors: Kouroumali Maria
Published: December 2012

The imperial court was the most important unit in Byzantine society. Referring to the physical location of the emperor and the people who comprised the imperial household, it provided the focal point of the collective identity of the Byzantines.
Crime, Byzantine
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: December 2012

In Classical Roman law as reformulated for the Byzantine period by Justinian I (527–65
CE
), criminal law effectively came under the heading of administrative or “state” law and accordingly was not a topic deemed appropriate for consideration by legal scholars or civil jurisconsults.
Easter
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: December 2012

Easter, or Pascha, is the Christian feast of the Passover, which celebrates the resurrection of Christ from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion.
Economy, Byzantine
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: December 2012

The economy of the Byzantine Empire from the fourth century to the middle of the sixth centuryCEwas characterized by rising population levels, urban expansion, and a quickening of commercialized and monetized production and exchange.
Eschatology, Byzantium
Authors: Mavroudi Maria
Published: December 2012

Eschatology is the contemplation of “last things” pertaining to both the individual and the cosmic end.
Eudoxia, empress
Authors: Riedel Meredith L. D.
Published: December 2012

Eudoxia, the daughter of Bauto, a Frankish general, reputedly a very beautiful woman, became wife of the Byzantine emperor Arcadius in 395
CE
.
Evagrius Scholasticus
Authors: Kouroumali Maria
Published: December 2012

Evagrius (ca. 535–after 594CE) was born in Epiphania, a small town on the Orontes river in Coele Syria.
Fools, Holy
Authors: Alwis Anne
Published: December 2012

The Holy Fool (σαλóς) is a saintly figure who shatters societal expectations in his seemingly random acts of provocation and aggression, causing him to be labeled as insane.
Forts, Byzantine
Authors: Riedel Meredith L. D.
Published: December 2012

Byzantine forts were defensive military constructions, either permanent or temporary. In Byzantium, inheritors of the Roman Empire, these were primarily along roads or in frontier regions.
Frontiers, Byzantine
Authors: Olster David
Published: December 2012

The “frontier” in Late Antiquity had several meanings and implies considerably more than “border.”
Furniture, Byzantine
Authors: Parani Maria G.
Published: December 2012

Late Antique and early Byzantine household furniture and furnishings included beds, tables, couches for dining, seats, footstools, chests and cabinets, lighting devices, bedding, curtains, wall‐hangings, and carpets.
Greek, changes in levels of (Byzantine)
Authors: Manolessou Io
Published: December 2012

The Greek language during Byzantine times may be described in terms ofdiglossia: two linguistic varieties, High and Low, each encompassing a continuum of registers, coexist and have different functions.
Iconography, Byzantine
Authors: Hennessy Cecily
Published: December 2012

Iconography denotes the subject matter of an image or object, and by extension its meaning and interpretation.
John Scholasticus
Authors: Whately Conor
Published: December 2012

John III Scholasticus was patriarch of Constantinople from January 31, 565, to his death on August 31, 577 (John of Ephesos 3.2.31; Theophanes
AM
6069).
Jurisprudence, Byzantine
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: December 2012

Legal science in the early Byzantine period of the fourth to the sixth centuries remained one of the great intellectual glories of the Roman world, but was also a cause of perennial headaches to emperors and administrators in that, in accordance with the long‐standing principles of the civil law, the opinions and writings of legal scholars such as Paulus, Gaius, and their less famous contemporaries and successors had legal standing and could be cited as authority in court.
Languages, Byzantium
Authors: Manolessou Io
Published: December 2012

The languages spoken in Byzantium varied with the expansion/reduction of the empire's borders, the influx of new peoples through invasion or settlement, or the extinction of native languages through language shift.
Leontios of Neapolis
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: December 2012

Leontios was bishop of Neapolis in Cyprus in the first half of the seventh century.
Libraries, Byzantine
Authors: Gaul Niels
Published: December 2012

Municipal public libraries disappeared over Late Antiquity.
Literacy, Byzantine
Authors: Demoen Kristoffel
Published: December 2012

Byzantium is commonly regarded as a profoundly literate society, whatever definition one accepts for literacy.
Maurice, emperor
Authors: Olster David
Published: December 2012

Maurice (582–602
CE
) began his career as the notary of Tiberios II, and later
magister militum
, Count of the Excubitors, and finally Caesar.
Music, Byzantine
Authors: Lingas Alexander
Published: December 2012

Music rooted in the secular, pagan, and Christian musical cultures of Late Antiquity was ubiquitous in Byzantium.
Patron, patronage, Byzantine
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: December 2012

Patronage (Latin
patrocinium
, Greek
prostasia
) – the deployment of the influence of the more powerful members of society to the benefit or disadvantage of their social inferiors – was a basic fact of life in the Byzantine world
Peter the Fuller
Authors: Francisco Hector R.
Published: December 2012

Peter, surnamed Gnapheus (the Fuller), was a patriarch of Antioch (ca. 471–488
CE
) and one of the champions of the Miaphysite cause in the second half of the fifth century.
Phokas, Emperor
Authors: Olster David
Published: December 2012

The emperor Phokas (r. 602–610) has perhaps the worst reputation of any Byzantine emperor because the Byzantine historical tradition relied on the sources of his successor, Herakleios, who legitimated his own reign by blackening his predecessor.
Pottery, Byzantine
Authors: Armstrong Pamela
Published: December 2012

As in the ancient world, while wealthy citizens would have used metal plates at table, most Byzantine households ate from ceramic dishes.
Roads, Byzantine
Authors: Riedel Meredith L. D.
Published: December 2012

The Byzantines inherited the all‐weather road system built by the Roman legions in the eastern provinces and elsewhere (
see
Roads, Roman Empire). It was this extensive road system that enabled Roman armies to move rapidly, respond efficiently to external threats, and enjoy access to sources of supply. Their secondary use was for transport of commercial goods, although shipping by sea was easier, faster, and less expensive. Byzantium also maintained the Roman postal system on major roads, most of which had way stations at regular intervals for this purpose. Most roads were built and maintained by the army for military purposes, and road administration in the Byzantine empire was thus more or less centralized through the sixth century. From the seventh century onward, there is no evidence to support centralized management of road building or maintenance in the provinces. Byzantine sources differentiate between wide and narrow roads, or paved and unpaved roads, and between roads suitable for wheeled vehicles and those that were not.
Science, Byzantine
Authors: Mavroudi Maria
Published: December 2012

The modern study of Byzantine science is, together with its necessary theoretical background provided by Byzantine philosophy, one of the most neglected fields in Byzantine studies.
Slavery, Late Antiquity and Byzantium
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: December 2012

Slavery was a fundamental feature of both Late Antique and Byzantine economy and society, with the distinction between free (
liber
) and slave (
servus
) standing at the heart of social perceptions.
Sophia, empress
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: December 2012

Aelia Sophia (ca. 530–post 601
CE
) was the wife of Justinian I's nephew and successor
JUSTIN II
and a formidable power at court.
Stoudios monastery; Studitetypikon
Authors: Hatlie Peter
Published: December 2012

The Stoudios was among the most prominent and durable monasteries of the Byzantine age.
Stylite (pillar saint)
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: December 2012

Stylites are holy men who effected their separation from the world by living on a platform on the top of a pillar. The most famous, and first, of the Stylites was Symeon Stylites (ca. 389–459
CE
), a Syrian holy man who lived for many years on top of a pillar in an enclosure that later became a monastery named for him (now known as Qa'lat Sem'an). Other notable stylites include Daniel Stylites, who lived in Constantinople (409–493), and Symeon the Younger, of the Wonderful Mountain (521–592).
Symeon the Stylite the Elder
Authors: Hatlie Peter
Published: December 2012

Symeon the Stylite the Elder (ca. 390–459CE) was the first known “pillar dweller” (stylítes) of the Early Byzantine world. His severe, prolonged corporeal asceticism atop a column in Qal'at Sem'an in Syria earned him a special standing within the history of eastern Christian monasticism.
Theodore of Sykeon
Authors: Bell Peter
Published: December 2012

Theodore of Sykeon, saint, was born in the reign of Justinian I and died in 613 in Sykeon, in Galatia in western Asia Minor, within the jurisdiction of the city of Anastasiopolis, and on the main imperial highway from Constantinople to Ankyra (modern Ankara) and the east.
Umayyads
Authors: Decker Michael J.
Published: December 2012

Founded by Muawiya b. Abi Sufyan, caliph 661–680
CE
, the Umayyads were the first dynasty to rule the Islamic world. They inherited an expansionist imperialist project with a new religion still in its formative phase and Arab backers whose loyalties were often in conflict with the caliphs. There is a particular dearth of sources from the Syrian Umayyad powerbase to counter the prevailing negative image crafted later under the Abbasids.
Constantinople, Land Walls
Authors: Crow James
Published: December 2012

The Theodosian Land Walls are among the most prominent surviving Late Antique monuments in modern Istanbul.
Weaponry,
B
yzantine
Authors: Dawson Timothy
Published: December 2012

The first point of engagement in battle used projectiles. Missiles in use were slings, javelins, and arrows. The use of slings throwing stone, ceramic, or Lead bullets continued throughout the period and beyond, but was increasingly marginalized by more effective projectiles such as arrows.
Yarmuk, battle of
Authors: Decker Michael J.
Published: December 2012

The Battle of Yarmuk, or Jabiya‐Yarmuk – Jabiya being an encampment where some sources place some phases of the battle – is widely considered the decisive encounter between the Byzantine and Arab armies of Islam for dominance over Syria–Palestine. Full reconstruction is impossible due to source problems. There is no contemporary Greek account of the battle and only cursory references in Syriac and Armenian histories. No contemporary Muslim accounts survive, and modern historiography cannot untangle the complexities of traditions embedded within later authors (thefutuhliterature, Baladhuri, Tabari).
Adria
Authors: Lomas Kathryn
Published: December 2012

Adria was a port on the Adriatic coast of Italy, between the deltas of the Po and Adige rivers. It lay on important communications routes between Italy, continental Europe, and Greece and controlled an area of fertile territory. Later the harbor silted up and Adria was linked to the sea by a canal.
Agoge
Authors: Kennell Nigel
Published: December 2012

Agoge(“upbringing”) is the name commonly given to the citizen training system at Sparta, which probably began in the sixth centurybceand survived, with interruptions, until the mid‐fourth centuryce.
Amnesty
Authors: Bearzot Cinzia
Published: December 2012

Amnesty is an act aimed at avoiding the proliferation of legal accusations in critical civic times. An amnesty that excluded blood offenses and aspiring tyrants was granted in Solon's time (Plut.Sol. 19). The most famous case, however, is the 403bceAthenian amnesty. The termamnestiais relatively recent; in 403 the notion was originally expressed asme mnesikakein(= “I do not recall the offense,” thus “I do not take vengeance”).
Arcadian League
Authors: Freitag Klaus
Published: December 2012

In the Catalogue of Ships Homer mentions the Arcadians living in the Peloponnese (Il. 2.603–14). The literature of the Archaic and Classical period also makes frequent reference to them. The origin of the Arcadian
ethnos
(Hdt. 8.73.1) is actually disputed.
Bessos
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: December 2012

A prominent Persian, Bessos is described as a kinsman of Darius III; hence he was either a close relative or one of thesyngeneis(“kinsmen”).
Cavalry, Greek
Authors: Bugh Glenn R.
Published: December 2012

For most of the Greek world, cavalry was a late development. It would play an auxiliary role in armies of the Classical period, advantaged by its mobility and elevated fighting platform, but limited in numbers by the high cost of maintaining and replacing a war horse.
Chalcidice, Chalcidian League
Authors: Psoma Selene
Published: December 2012

In antiquity, the term Chalcidice meant “the territory of the Chalcidians” (Zahrnt 1971: 30–1). Today it refers to the peninsula that lies between the Axios and Strymon rivers; the lakes Pyrrholia and Bolbe form the northern boundary. Three peninsulas (Pallene, Sithonia, and Athos or Akte) are the southernmost points of the region. Inscriptions connect this area with Thrace (Flensted Jensen 2004: 810–11).
Cleopatra, daughter of Philip II
Authors: Landucci Franca
Published: December 2012

Cleopatra (ca. 353–308bce), daughter of Philip II of Macedon and Olympias, sister of Alexander the Great.
Delphi
Authors: Rousset Denis
Published: December 2012

Delphi, the best known sanctuary of the Greek world, is located in Phokis, roughly 600 m up the side of Mount Parnassos. The abundance of water may account for human habitation from the Mycenaean period, which continued during the Dark Ages and up to the early Archaic period, through to the end of antiquity.
Democracy, Athenian
Authors: Rhodes P. J.
Published: December 2012

By ca. 500BCEmany Greek states had developed to a stage where all free native men who were rich enough to fight as Hoplites in the state's army were citizens with some degree of political power.
Democracy, non‐Athenian
Authors: Robinson Eric
Published: December 2012

One of antiquity's most celebrated political innovations, democracy (demokratiain Greek) flourished for centuries in many parts of the Greek world.
Derkylidas
Authors: Stewart Daniel R.
Published: December 2012

Derkylidas (ca. 440s–ca. 380s
bce
) was a Spartan commander and harmost, active in Asia Minor. He was nicknamed “Sisyphus” for his cunning and inventiveness (Xen.
Hell
. 3.1.8).
Dynasteia, idea of, Greece
Authors: Bearzot Cinzia
Published: December 2012

The termdynasteiaindicates (withdynastes,dynasteuo) forms of unlimited power that can become arbitrary in nature. In Classical‐age sources,dynasteiacan refer to absolute personal power, to hegemony of a city, or to political power on a dynastic or territorial basis.
Epaminondas
Authors: Bearzot Cinzia
Published: December 2012

Epaminondas was a Theban statesman (ca. 420–362
BCE
), son of Polymis. He was instructed in philosophy and rhetoric by Lysis of Tarentum, the Pythagorean.
Epitadeus,
rhetra
of
Authors: Lupi Marcello
Published: December 2012

The alleged
rhetra
of Epitadeus is a law introduced by the Spartan ephor Epitadeus.
Euboulos, Athenian politician
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

Euboulos was one of the most influential politicians in Athens in the period from the end of the Social War (355BCE).
Euripides
Authors: Medda Enrico
Published: December 2012

Euripides (ca. 485–407/6BCE) is the youngest member of the triad of poets that Aristophanes (Frogs, 405BCE) already regarded as the giants of Athenian tragic theater.
Five Thousand, at Athens
Authors: Shear Julia L.
Published: December 2012

After the fleet of the Four Hundred oligarchs was defeated by the Peloponnesians off Eretria and most of Euboea revolted in 411bce, the Athenians held an assembly and voted to depose the Four Hundred and replace them with the Five Thousand (Thuc. 8.97.1).
Gelon, Sicilian tyrant
Authors: Lomas Kathryn
Published: December 2012

Gelon's early career was as a supporter of the tyrant Hippokrates and commander of the cavalry of Gela.
Harpalos
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: December 2012

Harpalos, of the royal house of Elimiotis, perhaps the nephew of Philip II's wife Phila.
Hellenes
Authors: Mitchell Lynette G.
Published: December 2012

“Hellenes” was one of the names the Greeks used to describe themselves in antiquity (Thuc. 1.3.2–4); it derived from their supposed descent from Hellen, son of Deucalion (see esp. Hall 1997: 34–66).
Hephaistion, Macedonian
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: December 2012

Hephaistion son of Amyntor was coeval with Alexander and the king's closest friend since childhood.
Hermokrates of Syracuse
Authors: Zambon Efrem
Published: December 2012

Hermokrates (d. 407
BCE
), son of Hermon, was a Syracusan democratic leader during the Peloponnesian War.
Hetaireia
Authors: Brock Roger
Published: December 2012

Thehetaireia(band ofhetairoi,i.e., comrades) is attested in Crete and Cyrene as a social subdivision akin to the Spartansyssition, but the term is more usually applied to informal groupings of upper‐class males who engage jointly in warfare and politics and meet socially in thesymposion.
Hysiai
Authors: Stewart Daniel R.
Published: December 2012

Hysiai was a dependent settlement of Argos, in the southwestern Argolid.
Iphikrates
Authors: Almagor Eran
Published: December 2012

A celebrated Athenian general and military reformer (d. ca. 353BCE), the son of a cobbler (Plut.Mor. 187a) of the deme Rhamnous (Aeschin. 1.157), first mentioned commanding Peltasts in the Peloponnese during the Corinthian War (393–390), where he annihilated a Spartan unit of 600 men near Corinth (Xen.Hell. 4.5.11–18; Diod. Sic. 14.91.2).
Isagoras
Authors: Raaflaub Kurt A.
Published: December 2012

Son of Teisandros, leader of an aristocratic faction involved in Athenian power struggles in 508/7 after the expulsion of the tyrants (Hdt. 5.66; [Arist.]
Ath
.
pol
. 201.
Kalokagathia
Authors: Poddighe Elisabetta
Published: December 2012

The Greek wordkalokagathiadefined the perfect (physical and moral) excellence of thekaloi k'agathoi(the “beautiful and good” men).
Land and landholding, Greece
Authors: Krasilnikoff Jens A.
Published: December 2012

In the Archaic and Classical periods control and possession of land was intimately associated with the notions of citizenship and the
Polis
.
Logos epitaphios
Authors: Wolpert Andrew
Published: December 2012

The Athenians honored their fallen soldiers with a public burial at the end of the battle season followed by a funeral speech (logos
epitaphios
) delivered by a man presumably chosen for his rhetorical skill and leadership, since Perikles, Demosthenes, and Hyperides were all selected to give such a speech.
Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus
Authors: Scholz Peter
Published: December 2012

Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus in Asia Minor (ca. 350–341
bce
). His origins are unclear.
Phrynichos
Authors: Tuci Paolo A.
Published: December 2012

Phrynichos was an Athenian general and politician (d. 411
bce
), son of Stratonides of the deme of Deiradiotai. His origins may have been humble, as
lysias
refers to him as a poor shepherd who came to ATHENS from the countryside to earn money as a sycophant (Lys. 20.11–12). He is first mentioned in the ancient sources in relation to 422, when he appears to have been well known enough to have a group around him (Ar.
Vesp
. 1302).
Adversus Iudaeos
Authors: Jacobs Andrew S.
Published: December 2012

The body of literature “against the Jews” may refer narrowly to specific treatises so entitled (by their authors or later editors) that responded to real or imagined Jewish accusations against Christ, Christians, and Christianity. Texts entitledAdversus Iudaeoswere written by, or later attributed to, Tertullian, Cyprian of Carthage, Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom, Ambrosiaster, Augustine, and Theodoret of Cyrus. Although varying in format (from sermon to formal treatise to lists oftestimonia, or “proof‐texts,” drawn from the Old Testament), these treatises shared common arguments: Jesus' messiahship according to scripture, God's repudiation of Jews as the chosen people, and the rejection of Jewish Law in light of a new, spiritual revelation.
Ascension of Isaiah
Authors: Nicklas Tobias
Published: December 2012

The
Ascension of Isaiah
is one of the oldest Christian apocalyptic writings. The full text of this apocryphon, which has been considered as deuterocanonical in the Ethiopian church for a long time, has only survived in an Ethiopic translation. Parts of the Greek original are preserved in the fifth‐ or sixth century Papyrus Amherst I. Coptic and (later) Latin and Old Church Slavonic versions of the text are also extant.
Bardesanes
Authors: Marx‐Wolf Heidi
Published: December 2012

Bardesanes (ca. 155–ca. 222ce), also called Bardaisan, was an early Christian philosopher and theologian who spent most of his life in Edessa, capital of Osroene. He was educated together with Abgar the Great (VIII, d. 212), king of Osroene, at whose court Bardesanes would later become a dignitary (Ramelli 2009: 5–6).
Barnabas, Epistle of
Authors: Rhodes James N.
Published: December 2012

The
Epistle of Barnabas
is a Christian text from the late first or early second century
ce
, one of the earliest and most important examples of Christian Adversus Iudaeos literature. Falsely attributed in Antiquity to Barnabas, the traveling companion of the Apostle Paul, the epistle lingered on the margins of the New Testament canon until the fourth or fifth century.
Carpocrates, Carpocratians
Authors: Reaves Pamela Mullins
Published: December 2012

Carpocrates was an early Christian teacher active in Alexandria during the first half of the second centuryce.
Celsus, philosopher
Authors: Hauck Robert J.
Published: December 2012

Celsus (ca. 180
ce
) was a second‐century intellectual who provided the earliest articulate criticism of Christianity in the Roman world. His only known work,
The True Doctrine
(
Alethes Logos
), does not survive, but is known through the extensive direct quotations provided by Origen in his
Against Celsus
.
Christology
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna
Published: December 2012

“Christology” means talk about Christ. The word is a modern adaptation oftheologia(“theology”) which Greek Christians used for discussions of the divine nature.
Clementine, Pseudo‐
Authors: Kelley Nicole
Published: December 2012

Pseudo‐Clementine literature, a corpus of pseudonymous ancient Christian texts important for the study of Jewish Christianity in Late Antiquity, is organized around a narrative of the life story of Clement of Rome.
Codex
Authors: Haines‐Eitzen Kim
Published: December 2012

The codex book form and its significance are summarized well in the opening lines of Roberts and Skeat's foundational work on the subject: “the most momentous development in the history of the book until the invention of printing was the replacement of the roll by the codex; this we may define as a collection of sheets of any material, folded double and fastened together at the back or spine, and usually protected by covers” (Roberts and Skeat 1987: 1).
Ebionites
Authors: Jones F. Stanley
Published: December 2012

“Ebionites” is a name used for Jewish Christians by church fathers. The origin and history of this designation are subject to debate.
Encratism
Authors: Koltun‐Fromm Naomi
Published: December 2012

Encratism, in ancient Christian scholarship, usually referred to the practice of radical sexual renunciation within early Christian tradition.
Gospel Book
Authors: Haines‐Eitzen Kim
Published: December 2012

The physical form of the earliest Christian Gospels–including Mark, Matthew, Luke, John, as well as noncanonical gospels like the Gospel of Thomas–was the Codex, in striking contrast to the rolls that were the norm for literary works in the Greco–Roman world.
Hexapla
Authors: Williams Megan
Published: December 2012

The Hexapla was an Old Testament written in six or more parallel columns, allowing various Hebrew and Greek texts to be compared across the page.
Jewish Christianity
Authors: Jones F. Stanley
Published: December 2012

Jewish Christianity is a collective designation for the varieties of ancient Christianity that, in observance, remained closer to the Jewish heritage of Christianity than did the evolving Great Church.
John, Acts of
Authors: Lalleman Pieter J.
Published: December 2012

TheActs of Johnis the oldest of the group of second‐century apocryphal Acts of Apostles. TheActs of Johnis a complex, anonymous text of which only two‐thirds of the ancient text has been preserved in total. Written in Greek, parts were incorporated in collections of stories about the apostle John and thus transmitted, to be reconstructed by modern scholarship.
John, Apocryphon of
Authors: Pleše Zlatko
Published: December 2012

Composed probably in the mid‐ to late second centuryce, this fully narrated version of the classic gnostic myth contains a secret revelation (Gr.apokruphon) by the resurrected Christ to the apostle John about the supreme God and his spiritual realm; the creation of the physical world by an inferior deity; and the origin, present state, and final destiny of the human race.
Judas Iscariot
Authors: Paffenroth Kim
Published: December 2012

In Gospel traditions Judas is named as one of Jesus' twelve disciples (Matt 10:4; Mk 3:19; Lk 6:16; Jn 6:71) and specified as the one who “betrayed” or “handed” Jesus over to the authorities (Matt 26:14–16; Mk 14:10–11; Lk 22:3–6), leading to Jesus' death.
Mani/Manichaeism
Authors: Gardner Iain
Published: December 2012

Manichaios (ca. 216–276ce) was an Aramaic‐speaking visionary in Persian Mesopotamia, renowned as the founder of a major world religion.
Marcellus of Ancyra
Authors: Lienhard Joseph T.
Published: December 2012

Marcellus of Ancyra (ca. 285–374) was a committed defender of Nicene theology, and regarded, especially in the East, as a heretic.
Nag Hammadi Library
Authors: Attridge Harold W.
Published: December 2012

Nag Hammadi, a town in Upper Egypt, was the site of a major discovery of ancient documents, attesting various strands of religious thought from the first centuries of the Christian era.
Nicaea, Council of
Authors: Löhr Winrich
Published: December 2012

With the council of Nicaea, the emperor Constantine forged a new tool of church governance in order to promote unity, concord, and peace in matters of Christian doctrine and church discipline in the Roman Empire.
Odes of Solomon
Authors: Charlesworth James H.
Published: December 2012

The Odes of Solomon
have attracted Jewish scholars and specialists in such diverse fields as the New Testament, Jewish‐Christianity, gnosticism, and Patristics.
Pamphilus of Caesarea
Authors: Williams Megan
Published: December 2012

Martyred on February 16, 310, under the emperor Maximums Daia (seeMaximinus (Valerius Galerius Maximinus Augustus)), Pamphilus was a presbyter of Caesarea (seeCaesarea Maritima) and one of the greatest Christian teachers of his day.
Peter, Gospel of
Authors: Foster Paul
Published: December 2012

TheGospel of Peteris a text originally known to modern scholars only through reference to its title and description of circumstances surrounding its use, provided by certain early Christian writers, most extensively Eusebius of Caesarea (Hist. eccl. 3.3.1–2, 4.12.1–6).
Polycarp of Smyrna
Authors: Berding Kenneth
Published: December 2012

One of the most important figures for understanding the history of Christianity in Asia Minor is Polycarp of Smyrna.
Prayer, Christian
Authors: Kiley Mark
Published: December 2012

As exercised from the first century through Late Antiquity, Christian prayer engages in petition, intercession, thanksgiving, and adoration.
Presbyter
Authors: Weatherwax Nancy
Published: December 2012

The church leadership role of the presbyter (from Greek for elder,presbuteros) emerged early in the New Testament period and later became the middle rank in the classic threefold order of ministry: Bishop, presbyter, Deacon.
Refrigeria, Christian
Authors: Jensen Robin M.
Published: December 2012

Early Christians believed that, after death, the soul would wait in repose until the general resurrection at the end of the age.
Serapion of Thmuis
Authors: Ferguson Everett
Published: December 2012

Serapion (Latin; or Sarapion, Greek) was bishop of Thmuis in the Nile Delta from about 339 to 360
ce
. Before becoming bishop he was abbot of a monastery.
Tertullian
Authors: Dunn Geoffrey D.
Published: December 2012

A Latin‐writing Christian author of the Severan age (late second and early third centuriesCE) from North Africa, Tertullian (Septimius Tertullianus) is an important figure in the history of Christian theology because of his contribution to the development of a Latin theological language, and his rigorous attitudes on wide‐ranging topics give an insight into a style of Christianity whose appeal is still attractive to many.
Theophilos of Antioch
Authors: Kannaday Wayne C.
Published: December 2012

Eusebius of Caesarea identifies Theophilos (ca. late second century
CE
) as the sixth bishop of Antioch (
Hist. eccl
. 4.20).
Matthew, Gospel of
Authors: Henderson Suzanne Watts
Published: December 2012

The Gospel of Matthew opens the New Testament canon with its story of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth, whom the Gospel designates as the Jewish messiah (Greek:Christos; Matt 1:1).
Aes alienum
Authors: Waddell Philip
Published: December 2012

Aes alienum
is a Latin term for financial debt; literally, it means “someone else's money.” The opposite, being in credit, was known as
aes suum,
“one's own money.” Debt played a major part in Roman history, especially under the republic.
Ager publicus
Authors: Harvey Paul B.
Published: December 2012

Ager publicus, “public land,” was territory acquired by the Roman state through conquest or surrender. That land was the property of the Roman people as a whole, to be administered through lease‐hold, by tenant‐farmers, or lease‐contractors (for pasturage), as authorized by Roman magistrates (especially, censors and consuls), and occasionally (as in the Gracchan era) by legislation requested by the plebeian tribunes.Ager publicuscould be ceded by the Roman people, through legal (legislative) action, to individuals on terms of limited possession or as private property enjoying full civil rights.
Agoranomoi
Authors: Boehm Ryan
Published: December 2012

Agoranomoiwere officials responsible for overseeing the upkeep and regulation of the Agora in Greek cities. Their duties included maintaining the order and cleanliness of the agora, imposing punishments or fines on those who violated the laws, and, in most cities, verifying weights and measures and seeing to the importation of grain supplies.
Agriculture, Greek
Authors: Jew Daniel
Published: December 2012

Agriculture was central to the life of the thousand or so city‐states which made up ancient Greece, and was the base upon which their economies and political cultures depended. Agriculture was affected by climate, land distribution, the socioeconomic status of households, and the issue of slave labor. Hesiod, Theophrastus, and Xenophon provide a good picture of specific crops farmed, the agricultural year, and slave‐management, all from a relatively elite point of view. Scholars however debate the actual cropping strategies which more ordinary households may have adopted.
Amphora Stamps
Authors: Barker Craig
Published: December 2012

The stamping of ceramic transport amphorae was a common practice in the production of both Greek and Roman forms of the commercial containers.
Improving the Antitumor Activity of Squalenoyl‐Paclitaxel Conjugate Nanoassemblies by Manipulating the Linker between Paclitaxel and Squalene
Authors: Caron Joachim , Maksimenko Andrei , Wack Séverine , Lepeltier Elise , Bourgaux Claudie , Morvan Estelle , Leblanc Karine , Couvreur Patrick , Desmaële Didier
Published: December 2012

A series of new lipid prodrugs of paclitaxel, which can be formulated as nanoassemblies, are described. These prodrugs which are designed to overcome the limitations due to the systemic toxicity and low water solubility of paclitaxel consist of a squalene chain bound to the 2′‐OH of paclitaxel through a 1,4‐cis,cis‐dienic linker. This design allows the squalene‐conjugates to self‐assemble as nanoparticular systems while preserving an efficient release of the free drug, thanks to the dienic spacer. The size, steric hindrance, and functional groups of the spacer have been modulated. All these prodrugs self‐assemble into nanosized aggregates in aqueous solution as characterized by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy and appear stable in water for several days as determined by particle size measurement. In vitro biological assessment shows that these squalenoyl–paclitaxel nanoparticles display notable cytotoxicity on several tumor cell lines including A549 lung cell line, colon cell line HT‐29, or KB 3.1 nasopharyngeal epidermoid cell line. The cis,cis‐squalenyl‐deca‐5,8‐dienoate prodrug show improved activity over simple 2′‐squalenoyl‐paclitaxel prodrug highlighting the favourable effect of the dienic linker. The antitumor efficacy of the nanoassemblies constructed with the more active prodrugs has been investigated on human lung (A549) carcinoma xenograft model in mice. The prodrug bearing the cis,cis‐deca‐5,8‐dienoyl linker shows comparable antitumor efficacy to the parent drug, but reveals a much lower subacute toxicity as seen in body weight loss. Thus, nanoparticles with the incorporated squalenoyl paclitaxel prodrug may prove useful for replacement of the toxic Cremophor EL.
Synthesis and properties of photocross‐linked polymers of epoxidized linseed oil with different reactive diluents
Authors: Remeikyte Ausra , Ostrauskaite Jolita , Grazuleviciene Violeta
Published: December 2012

Cross‐linked polymers were obtained by photopolymerization of epoxidized linseed oil with different reactive diluents (3,4‐epoxycyclohexylmethyl‐3,4‐epoxycyclohexane carboxylate, 1,4‐cyclohexane dimethanol diglycidyl ether, bisphenol A diglycidyl ether, trimethylolpropane triglycidyl ether, and bis[4‐(glycidyloxy)phenyl]methane) using the mixture of triarylsulfonium hexafluoroantimonates as photoinitiator. The kinetic of photocross‐linking reactions of compositions with different concentrations of reactive diluents was investigated. The 69%–91% conversion of epoxy groups of the compositions containing reactive diluents was reached. The mechanical properties, thermal stability, and swelling in polar and nonpolar solvents of the photocross‐linked polymers were studied. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
Energieeffiziente Kühlung und thermischer Raumkomfort: Vergleichende Analyse von acht europäischen Nichtwohngebäuden (Teil 1)
Authors: Kalz Doreen , Pfafferott Jens
Published: December 2012

Unter dem europäischen Programm Intelligent Energy for Europe (IEE) fanden sich acht europäische Partner zusammen, um im Rahmen des Projektes ThermCo Lüftungs‐ und Kühlenergiekonzepte für Nichtwohngebäude mit niedrigem Energieeinsatz im Hinblick auf die Energieeffizienz und den thermischen Raumkomfort zu bewerten. Die Analyse erfolgte auf Basis von detaillierten Langzeitmessungen über ein Betriebsjahr in acht Demonstrationsgebäuden in unterschiedlichen klimatischen Zonen Europas und einer standardisierten Datenauswertung. Im Quervergleich aller acht Gebäude werden die Kühlkonzepte gleichermaßen nach dem thermischen Kühlenergiebezug, dem thermischen Raumkomfort und dem Primärenergieeinsatz für die technische Gebäudeausrüstung und die Beleuchtung bewertet. Ein Energiekonzept ist erst dann zufriedenstellend, wenn mit möglichst geringem Energieeinsatz und bei hoher Anlageneffizienz ein guter thermischer Raumkomfort zur Verfügung gestellt werden kann. Mit entsprechenden Gebäudesignaturen werden diese Parameter in einen Zusammenhang gebracht und die Zielstellung überprüft. Detaillierte Komfortuntersuchungen nach der europäischen Komfortnorm DIN EN 15251:2007‐08 geben Hinweise auf die Wirksamkeit der eingesetzten Kühltechnologien in den jeweiligen Klimazonen. Daraus lassen sich Handlungsempfehlungen ableiten.

Energy efficient cooling and thermal interior comfort: comparison of eight European non‐residential buildings. Under the framework of the European Program Intelligent Energy for Europe (IEE), the project ThermCo evaluates low‐energy ventilation and cooling concepts for non‐residential buildings all‐over Europe using a standardized method based on existing monitoring data from best practice examples. The proposed approach is applied to eight demonstration projects in different climatic zones of Europe. The analysis is based on long‐term monitoring campaigns in high‐time resolution over one year of operation. In cross‐comparison of all eight buildings, the cooling concepts are evaluated according to the thermal cooling energy consumption, the thermal interior comfort, and the building’s total primary energy use for heating, cooling, ventilation, and lighting.
Schallschutz im Geschosswohnungsbau − mehr Planungssicherheit durch neue Prognoseinstrumente
Authors: Schäfers Martin , Pekrul Olga
Published: December 2012

Innerhalb der zukünftigen Schallschutznorm DIN 4109 ist für den Nachweis des Luftschallschutzes die Umstellung auf das europäisch harmonisierte Verfahren nach DIN EN 12354‐1 [1] vorgesehen. Nach einem einleitenden Überblick über den aktuellen Entwicklungsstand der in Deutschland relevanten Regelwerke zum Schallschutz im Wohnungsbau werden die Grundzüge dieses Rechenverfahrens sowie die national im Zuge der Normungsarbeit vorgenommenen Präzisierungen desselben vorgestellt. Anhand von vergleichenden Berechnungen wird aufgezeigt, dass das neue Rechenverfahren gegenüber dem bisherigen Verfahren nach DIN 4109, Beiblatt 1 einen deutlich größeren Anwendungsbereich sowie eine gesteigerte Prognosesicherheit aufweist. Abschließend wird der neue Kalksandstein‐Schallschutzrechner vorgestellt, welcher dem Planer die Möglichkeit gibt die Nachweise nach dem neuen (genaueren) Verfahren bereits jetzt einfach und zielgerichtet zu führen und somit schallschutztechnische Schwachstellen frühzeitig zu identifizieren und zu optimieren.