bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Strategic Thinking in Complex Problem Solving
Authors: Chevallier Arnaud
Published: August 2016

Strategic Thinking in Complex Problem Solving provides a framework and practical tools to help the reader solve problems. In our personal and professional lives, we are required to solve problems that are not clearly defined and have moving and interdependent parts. Successful resolution requires us to be T-shaped, having both depth and breadth of knowledge and skills. This book focuses on the latter part, the knowledge and skills that can be beneficial in solving any complex problem. Integrating findings from many disciplines as well as conclusions from practitioners, this book provides concrete guidelines. It breaks the resolution process down into four steps—framing the problem (identifying what needs to be done), diagnosing it (identifying why there is a problem or why it has not been solved yet), identifying and selecting potential solutions (identifying how to solve the problem), and implementing and monitoring the solution (resolving the problem, the do). For each of these four steps—what, why, how, do—the book explains techniques that can promote success and demonstrates how to apply them on a case study and in additional examples. The case study—that of a lost dog that may have been kidnapped—guides the reader through the resolution process, illustrates how the concepts apply, and creates a concrete image to facilitate the recollection. Relying on theoretical and empirical evidence but using simple, accessible language, it enables the reader to learn not just about problem solving but how to actually solve complex problems.
Identify Potential Root Causes
Authors: Chevallier Arnaud
Published: August 2016

The third chapter, “Identify potential root causes,” explains how to leverage an issue map—a graphical breakdown of the key question—to identify all the possible root causes for the problem and test them. The chapter introduces four rules to build effective issue maps: consistently answering the key question, going from the diagnosis question to the conclusions, breaking the problem space into a mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive (MECE) structure, and being insightful. The chapter provides guidelines to follow each of the four rules. These include differentiating the structure from the answers, deferring criticism while generating ideas, and balancing satisficing and optimizing. It discusses how to consider alternative ways to dissect a key question and ways to assess the respective insightfulness of each. Finally, the reader will find ideas to build maps, such as using analogies to approach unfamiliar problems or considering existing frameworks.
Determine the Actual Cause(s)
Authors: Chevallier Arnaud
Published: August 2016

The fourth chapter, “Determine the actual cause(s),” concludes the diagnostic process by explaining how to converge on the actual root cause(s) of the problem. Readers are first shown how to summarize the diagnostic map into a meaningful set of hypotheses and prioritize their analysis. In the next step, this chapter explains how to analyze hypotheses using inductive, deductive, and abductive logic. It shows how to avoid common diagnostic problems and how to identify the analysis needed for each hypothesis by focusing on variables that rule out competing hypotheses. It also illustrates how to work with evidence (evaluating its relevance, credibility, and inferential force) and facilitate serendipity. Finally, the chapter discusses how to conclude the diagnostic analysis, particularly avoiding common biases such as confirmation bias and overconfidence. It introduces Bayesian inference as a way to shed light on competing hypotheses and it examines how to choose from conflicting hypotheses using Occam’s razor.
Select a Solution
Authors: Chevallier Arnaud
Published: August 2016

The sixth chapter, “Select a solution,” concludes the search for a solution by explaining how to test various options and select one or more. The chapter shows how to conduct the test by first doing an initial screening to eliminate options that are not suitable. Readers learn how to gather evidence to analyze the remaining alternatives and to grade the strength of evidence. Next, to prepare for a case where there are more possible alternatives than can be implemented simultaneously, this chapter demonstrates how to use a decision tool—a Simple Multiattribute Rating Technique Exploiting Ranks (SMARTER)—to rank all the possible solutions in order of appeal for the decision-maker. Finally, the chapter explains how to conduct a parallel process to capture quick wins while conducting the decision analysis and how to use the issue map as a road map and a central repository for the information gathered about the problem.
Dealing with Complications and Wrap Up
Authors: Chevallier Arnaud
Published: August 2016

The final chapter, “Dealing with complications and wrap up,” describes practices to develop the right skill set and attitude. Readers are shown how to hone their designer and researcher skills. The chapter also discusses what to do when time and other constraints prevent the solver from following the full process described in previous chapters. Further, the chapter advocates for embracing failing when it makes sense, that is, when the cost of failure is acceptable and failing provides a valuable learning experience. It also explains why keeping a learning mentality and a soft focus is important for successful problem solvers and how to do so. Finally, the chapter provides suggestions for developing one’s wisdom in the context of problem solving, adapting during the course of a project, balancing humility and decisiveness, seeking feedback, and using one’s intuition judiciously. It concludes with ideas to develop one’s resilience.
Underdetermination
Authors: Lewis Peter J.
Published: August 2016

This chapter considers the worry that, rather than there being no description of the microworld available, there may be several competing descriptions. The problematic role of measurement in standard quantum mechanics is explained. Three leading approaches for responding to the measurement problem are laid out—spontaneous collapse theories, hidden variable theories, and many-worlds theories. This is a prima facie example of underdetermination: Several incompatible descriptions of the world are consistent with the phenomena. However, it has been argued that there is no real underdetermination here, because the former two approaches reduce to the many-worlds approach. This argument is shown to rest on unresolved questions concerning the empirical adequacy of the many-worlds approach. So at present the underdetermination remains, but it is argued that it presents no real barrier to deriving metaphysical conclusions from quantum mechanics.
Primate conservation genetics at the dawn of conservation genomics
Authors: Lynn Milena Salgado , Sechi Pierfrancesco , Chikhi Lounès , Goossens Benoit
Published: August 2016

Conservation genetics is a relatively young interdisciplinary field. Essentially, it concerns the application of genetic methods to threatened species. It aims to obtain detailed insights about their evolution, ecology, taxonomy, and population genetics and to inform conservation strategies. This chapter discusses the application of the most commonly used molecular techniques to the conservation of primates, with a focus on non-invasive samples. Recent technological advances in sequencing techniques are allowing the transition from classical population genetic studies, based on few markers, to studies based on whole-genome information. The main techniques and concepts are broadly explored and practical examples are given together with pointers to recent studies and reviews. The aim is to give the reader a general understanding of what the field of conservation genetics is, how it can be applied to primate research and conservation, and how it will likely change in the future.
The role of translocation in primate conservation
Authors: Beck Benjamin B.
Published: August 2016

Humans have translocated thousands of nonhuman primates for conservation, welfare, economic, political, aesthetic, religious, and scientific reasons. Translocations that are intended to promote conservation should increase the probability of the establishment of a self-sustaining population of the species and/or restore critical ecological functions. Nine successful conservation-motivated nonhuman primate translocations, involving fewer than 800 individuals, are described. Translocation has not been used extensively as a conservation tool for nonhuman primates, although it may play a larger role in the future. Many primates have been translocated for welfare purposes: to avoid their certain death or to improve their wellbeing. Conservation-motivated translocations are also designed and conducted to maintain wellbeing, but there are inherent risks in moving nonhuman primates to new environments. Body size, niche breadth, and being born in captivity or in the wild are shown to have direct and indirect effects on the probability of success of nonhuman primate translocations.
The Structure of Stoic Metaphysics
Authors: Bailey D. T. J.
Published: August 2016

This chapter presents a new interpretation of Stoic ontology. It aims to explain the nature of, and relations between the following: the fundamental items of their physics, bodies; the incorporeal items about which they theorized no less; and universals, towards which the Stoic attitude seems to be a bizarre mixture of realism and anti-realism. The first half of the chapter provides a new model to explain the relationship between the first and second of these items. This model clears up several problems in Stoicism and gives a precise answer to the question of how bodies and incorporeals differ in their mode of being. The second half of this chapter considers the vexed issue of the status of those items in the third item, namely, Stoic universals.
Impact of the Global Response to HIV/AIDS
Authors: Haacker Markus
Published: August 2016

Establishing the impact of the global response to HIV/AIDS is challenging because attribution is not straightforward, and many variables are observed only indirectly. HIV prevalence among young people has declined in almost all countries with significant HIV prevalence. Expanded treatment has reduced mortality among people living with HIV to about 2% in some countries with high HIV prevalence, and 4.6% across developing countries (instead of 8.8% without treatment). In some countries with high HIV prevalence, expanded treatment access has partially reversed the catastrophic health impacts of HIV/AIDS, with life expectancy plunging below 50 years. These gains have been achieved without causing obvious adverse impacts on summary non-HIV/AIDS indicators. The fact that HIV/AIDS has received a ‘disproportionate’ amount of funding relative to other health challenges has motivated charges that ‘HIV/AIDS has received too much money’, and the chapter closes by discussing the validity of this claim.
Cambodia’s Path to Industrial Development
Authors: Chhair Sokty , Ung Luyna
Published: August 2016

Cambodia emerged a newly independent nation in 1953 with ambitions for growth and development through the expansion of industry. Sixty years on, following decades of war and destruction, these ambitions are beginning to be realized with double-digit growth rates. On the surface, Cambodia appears to be an emerging economic success story. Digging deeper, however, reveals that this is not without uncertainties and challenges. Cambodia has one of the fastest growing populations in the world. Between 1998 and 2008 the population increased from 11.4 million to 13.4 million, an average annual increase of 1.5 per cent. With the labour force projected to increase by 213,000 per annum between 2010 and 2013, the economy will come under increasing pressure to generate productive employment opportunities. It is against this backdrop that this chapter explores the evolution of the economy and industrial development.
Exterior Algebra and Grassmann Algebra
Authors: Vaz Jayme , da Rocha Roldão
Published: August 2016

In this chapter, exterior algebras and Grassmann algebras are discussed. In particular, their morphisms, inherited from the tensor algebra, are presented in a general framework. In some texts, the terms exterior algebra and Grassmann algebra are considered to be synonyms; however, this is not the case here! In this chapter, the differences between the exterior algebra and the Grassmann algebra are presented as clearly as possible, in order to avoid confusion later on. The quasi-Hodge isomorphism is thus presented and studied. In addition, based on Grassmann’s use of the Hodge star operator to define the regressive product, the quasi-Hodge operator is used to obtain the quasi-Hodge isomorphism, with the aid of a metric structure. At the end of the chapter, the Hodge isomorphisms are examined.
Classification and Representation of the Clifford Algebras
Authors: Vaz Jayme , da Rocha Roldão
Published: August 2016

In this chapter, the classification and representation of Clifford algebras are introduced and discussed. Some important theorems regarding the structure of Clifford algebras are presented; later on, these are used for the classification and construction of the representations of the Clifford algebras as well. The periodicity theorems and their generalisation are demonstrated and exemplified. The Clifford algebras up to dimension 8 in all metric signatures are explicitly derived; hence, with the aid of the periodicity theorem, all Clifford algebras of finite dimension are classified. In addition, procedures to explicitly build Clifford algebra matrix representations are presented, through the idempotent structure.
General Introduction—Aims, Rationale, and Methodology
Authors: Freedland Mark
Published: August 2016

This introductory chapter sets out the aim of the work, that of effecting a critical re-analysis of the English law of the contract of employment in a multi-authored but closely co-ordinated treatise. It depicts a rationale for so doing, namely that the law of the contract of employment is central to labour law, but in a way which seems perpetually problematical. It then proposes a methodology for the work, developed by considering the institutional basis of the law of the contract of employment, depicting the contract of employment as lying in a conceptual domain between agreement and regulation, offering to provide a normative reconstruction of the law of the contract of employment, introducing the doctrinal analysis of the law of the contract of employment, and finally explaining the division of the work into a general and a specific part and illustrating the way in which this division will operate.
The Legal Structure of the Contract of Employment
Authors: Freedland Mark
Published: August 2016

This chapter proposes a large and evolving set of structural principles which between them identify the contract and prescribe its functioning. These principles characterize and impart shape and structure to the contract of employment, and the chapter suggests a theory of adjudication which helps to explain how the process of articulation and application of those structural principles takes place. It articulates a set of three central normative principles, exchange, integration, and reciprocity, derived from the processes of legislation and adjudication. The chapter then argues that these three principles work to explain and evaluate an essentially variable and evolutionary structural core of the law of the contract of employment. A concluding section explains how, in the subsequent chapters, this structural core is related to and placed in the context of the larger body of principles and rules which compose the law of the contract of employment.
Relational Contracts
Authors: Brodie Douglas
Published: August 2016

In recent years there has been growing interest in the concept of a relational contract which has been defined as a ‘contract that involves not merely an exchange, but also a relationship between the contracting parties’. (MA Eisenberg, ‘Relational Contracts’ in J.Beatson and D Friedmann (eds), Good Faith and Fault in Contract Law (OUP, 1995) 296.) The chapter aims to provide an indication of the changes to common-law doctrine that might come about given the categorization of the employment contract as relational. The chapter suggests what a judicial construction of a relational contract would look like. This includes the concept of fair dealing and reciprocity and self-help remedies.
Fragmenting Work, Fragmented Regulation
Authors: Albin Einat , Prassl Jeremias
Published: August 2016

This chapter explores the legal construction of the contract of employment through two interrelated phenomena of the British labour market—the fragmentation of work (as opposed to atypical work) and regulation. It claims that the legal construction of the contract of employment, which still adopts one standard prototype of contract, has been a vehicle of social exclusion for work patterns in a fragmented work domain and that it has also been a vehicle leading to the fragmentation of regulation that brings about social exclusion. Three meanings of social exclusion are discussed in the chapter. The first meaning is exclusion from basic labour rights. The second is exclusion from the relevant idea of industrial citizenship, particularly the denial of voice. The third is exclusion resulting from the deprivation of capabilities, or to use Amartya Sen’s ideas, it is the deprivation from the richness of life and the freedom to choose.
A Comparative Reflection from Canada—A Good Faith Perspective
Authors: Mummé Claire
Published: August 2016

This chapter considers the evolution of the concept of ‘good faith’ in Canadian employment law. As in many other common-law jurisdictions, the Canadian common law has historically conceived of the employment relationship within a narrow transactional contractual paradigm. Unlike other common-law jurisdictions, however, statutory employment protections are relatively weak in Canada, leaving the courts as the primary site of innovation in the field. Canadian attempts to challenge the contractual paradigm have occurred primarily through debates over good faith in employment, in three jurisprudential contexts: case law concerning the types of damages available for wrongful dismissal; constructive dismissal claims; and tort claims for negligent infliction of emotional distress. This chapter traces the history of the Canadian good faith debate, including Bhasin v Hrynew and Potter v New Brunswick, so as to take stock of the current state shape of the common law of employment contracts in Canada.
The Definition of the Contract of Employment and its Differentiation from Other Contracts and Other Work Relations
Authors: Riley Joellen
Published: August 2016

This chapter interrogates the core structural principle of ‘integration’ in the construction of employment contracts. The integration principle is central to the definitional boundary between employment (as a ‘contract of service’) and other contracts for services. In an employment relationship, the worker is under the general control of and/or integrated into the organization of the employer or employing enterprise. The chapter outlines and critically assesses the various tests developed over time, and under evolving social and economic circumstances, to define the boundary between employed and non-employed work relationships, from the early control test, and multifactorial tests, to more a recently articulated ‘economic reality’ test. The chapter considers the problem of ascribing employer responsibilities within triangular contracts for engaging work (labour hire arrangements), and concludes with a discussion of various legal responses to employer strategies to avoid the consequences of finding that their workers are employees.
Illegality, Public Policy, and the Contract of Employment
Authors: Bogg Alan
Published: August 2016

This chapter considers the law concerning the theoretical basis and practical operation of the rules of public policy regulating legal claims based on the contract of employment. The first part of the chapter examines the theoretical justifications and underlying principles of public policy, and it argues that illegality has an important and potentially legitimate role in supporting the institutional functions of the contract of employment associated with revenue law and migration law. The second part of the chapter examines the specific rules regulating the operation of the illegality doctrine in respect of tort and contract claims based upon the contract of employment and in particular it examines the impact of revenue fraud on legal claims associated with the contract of employment. The third part examines the legal effects of illegality on the contract of employment.
Terms Inserted into the Contract of Employment by Legislation
Authors: Davies Acl
Published: August 2016

This chapter examines the express insertion of terms into contracts of employment by statute. There are three significant examples of this: statutory rights to notice of termination, the equality clause governing equal pay between men and women, and the entitlement to be paid at least the national minimum wage. All three have in common the desire to draw on the contract of employment for reasons of convenience in relation to enforcement. The chapter also considers the possibility that the courts might give contractual effect to statutory rights even where they are not expressly formulated as contract terms focusing in particular on the decision of the High Court in Barber v RJB Mining (UK) Ltd in the context of working time.
The Content of Contracts of Employment—Terms Incorporated from Collective Agreements or from Other Sources
Authors: Sanders Astrid
Published: August 2016

This chapter considers how and when external or additional sources become incorporated into the contract of employment. The focus is on three main sources: collective agreements made through trade unions, company or staff handbooks, and disciplinary and grievance procedures. The chapter presents the standard ‘general’ judicial two-stage approach to incorporation: intention to incorporate or methods of incorporation, and aptness. However, the contribution of the chapter is to observe that judges appear to be applying this general approach differently depending on the source. The argument is that this de facto hierarchy of sources is misplaced. A relaxed approach should similarly be taken to the incorporation of terms from collective agreements or, if anything, the terms of a collective agreement ought to be more easily incorporated than terms from either a company handbook or an employer’s disciplinary procedure.
Duration, Lawful Termination, and Frustration of the Employment Contract
Authors: Cabrelli David
Published: August 2016

This chapter emphasizes the pivotal role that the common-law rules on the implied duration and the termination of the contract of employment play in defining the essence and nature of that institution. With regard to the common law of termination, the chapter explains how key authorities such as Johnson, Eastwood, and Edwards do not preclude the addition of ‘just cause’ requirements to the unrestricted reasonable notice rule as a means of furnishing protection to employees falling outside the coverage of the statutory unfair dismissal regime. The chapter moves on to address other common-law rules in play in respect of the termination and frustration of the employment contract, e.g. those applying in the context of termination by the employer making a payment in lieu of notice, summary dismissal by the employer, resignation and retirement by the employee, and the expiry and non-renewal of a fixed-term employment contract.
The Discovery of the Higgs Boson
Authors: Gagnon Pauline
Published: August 2016

Finding a Higgs boson is like making maple syrup, where one must boil a huge volume of sap from maple trees to extract a few drops of syrup. The sugar represents the signal, and water the background. Likewise, physicists must sort billions of events, collected with the ATLAS and CMS detectors at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, to extract the signal, namely events bearing the characteristics of the Higgs boson, from the background. Each event corresponds to a snapshot taken by one of these detectors when protons traveling at nearly the speed of light collide. The energy released materializes to produce new particles such as Higgs bosons. Particle physicists use advanced statistical methods and computer-generated simulations to disentangle events containing a Higgs boson from all other types of events. This data analysis work is like extracting a needle from millions of bales of hay.
What Does Basic Research Put on Our Plates?
Authors: Gagnon Pauline
Published: August 2016

The main goal of fundamental research in physics is to increase human knowledge and answer some of the profound questions that human beings have always raised about their origin and fate. It also stimulates technological development through various spinoffs and applications, and it helps train a highly specialized workforce. CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics, is an example of international collaboration and contributes to world peace by bringing together thousands of scientists of 101 different nationalities who are working toward a common goal. Fundamental research in physics has also deeply modified our daily life. Even though not all scientific discoveries find immediate applications, without fundamental research, we would be without medical imaging, the World Wide Web, electronics, computers and mobile phones. Its economic impact is also tremendous: the branch of industry based on physics and technology generates 15% of the global wealth in Europe and employs 13% of its workforce.
Diversity in Physics
Authors: Gagnon Pauline
Published: August 2016

More women now undertake careers in physics than ever, but still only 17.5% of the scientists sent by universities and institutes worldwide to conduct research at CERN are female. Why is this so, and how could the situation be improved? Easily applicable changes are proposed to attract and retain not only women but also a broader diversity of people in science, since women are not the only underrepresented group in the field. Science has everything to gain by being more inclusive in terms of gender, race, sexual orientation, religion and physical ability since diversity brings more creativity, which is essential to science. Owing to its position as a scientific and international leader, CERN has the ability and a moral obligation to set an example at every level.
Sources and treatment of complexity
Authors: Pásztor Liz , Botta-Dukát Zoltán , Magyar Gabriella , Czárán Tamás , Meszéna Géza
Published: August 2016

The mathematical theory of dynamical systems can potentially address any complexity arising from the unique and stochastic nature of individual life histories, the interactions between individuals, the spatial heterogeneity and temporal variability of their environments, and the complexity of natural communities. Identification of individual states determining an organism’s response to its environment and the corresponding theory of structured populations provides general applicability for the theory of ecology. Deaths and births are stochastic events, but the expected behaviour of individuals still can be specified under well-defined conditions. Complex dynamics of interaction networks can be simplified by time-scale separations, because various environmental and population processes often have different temporal scales. The practical challenges for applied ecology call for fitting models to the plethora of empirical data supplied by automated data-collection technologies. The chapter closes, therefore, with a short introduction to maximum likelihood parameter estimation techniques and the related concept of model selection.
Exponential growth of unstructured populations
Authors: Pásztor Liz , Botta-Dukát Zoltán , Magyar Gabriella , Czárán Tamás , Meszéna Géza
Published: August 2016

The number of reproductive units is expected to grow exponentially in the absence of regulating feedbacks. The lack of feedbacks is a definitive assumption of any model predicting exponential growth, be it individual- or population-based, discrete or continuous, deterministic or stochastic. The exponential growth of a population can be characterised by its long-term per capita rate of increase (population growth rate, pgr) in any actual representation. Exponential growth with a constant pgr will occur whenever the stochastic changes in the environmental conditions—including modifying and regulating ones—affecting births and deaths are stationary in the long run. Case studies indicate that temporary periods of exponential population increase or decline must be regular in nature, and pgrs may show remarkable temporal and spatial invariance.
Competitive exclusion
Authors: Pásztor Liz , Botta-Dukát Zoltán , Magyar Gabriella , Czárán Tamás , Meszéna Géza
Published: August 2016

The principle of competitive exclusion states that in a population of reproductive units regulated by a single common factor all varieties but the one whose growth rate is highest at the extremal value of that factor will be excluded. This general pessimization rule has received several formulations since Darwin’s ‘survival of the fittest’, from Gause’s principle through K-selection to the P*-rule. Actual field and lab cases of competitive exclusion illustrate its validity and empirical value. Even though allelic fitness in diploid populations is inherently frequency dependent, usually directional (positive or negative) selection acts on alleles leading to competitive exclusion, the speed of which depends on their relative fitness (selection coefficient). In fluctuating environments the bet-hedging strategy is selected for. Modelling the spatial dynamics of an allele and invasion dynamics of a species is also similar. The chapter closes with an inventory of typical misconceptions of competition.
Ladin
Authors: Salvi Giampaolo
Published: August 2016

After a brief outline of the principal episodes in the external history, the chapter surveys the principal aspects of phonology, morphology and syntax of Ladin and its dialects. Specific topics dealt with include: historical observations; phonetics and phonology; vowel system; consonant system; morphology of the nominal system; morphology of verb system; syntax of noun phrase; syntax of verb phrase; syntax of sentence structure.
Creoles
Authors: Bollée Annegret , Maurer Philippe
Published: August 2016

After a brief outline of the principal episodes in the external histories of Romance creoles, the chapter surveys the principal aspects of phonology, morphology and syntax of Ibero-Romance-based creoles and French-based creoles. Topics dealt with include: vowels; consonants; morphosyntax of noun phrase (plural formation, determiners, subject pronouns, object pronouns, adjectives), verb phrase (tense, aspect, mood; copulas; (give/directional) serial verbs), and of sentence (word order, object marking, verb doubling in contrastive focus constructions, valency changing operations, interrogative and focus constructions).
Prosodic structure
Authors: Marotta Giovanna
Published: August 2016

This chapter surveys some of the principal aspects of Romance prosodic structure. It covers the role of syllable structure in conditioning the distribution, quantity, and quality of stressed and unstressed vowels and the development of consonantal segments; phonotactic constraints; the role of the sonority hierarchy in segmental change; stress); length; and aspects of intonational patterns. Specific topics dealt with include: vowel quantity and syllable structure; consonant quantity; phonological processes and syllable structure (onset; s+C clusters; nucleus: vowels, diphthongs; coda); stress; rhythm; intonation (statements, narrow focus, yes-no question; wh-questions, imperatives).
Inflectional morphology
Authors: Maiden Martin
Published: August 2016

This chapter provides a comparative overview of Romance inflectional morphology of the nominal and verbal domains. It covers the distinction between roots, stems and inflectional endings; patterns of allomorphy; syncretisms; extended and cumulative patterns of grammatical exponence; suppletion; empty morphs and their distribution; the major distinctions between nominal and verbal paradigms; tense (synthetic future and conditional), aspect, mood (imperative and subjunctive), person and number marking on verbs; gender, number and case marking on nouns and adjectives; inflection classes (neutralization and creation)s; diachronic conservatism; cross-linguistic unity and disunity; non-finite forms; infinitives; gerunds; inflected non-finite forms; productivity.
The structure of the nominal group
Authors: Giusti Giuliana
Published: August 2016

The main goal of this chapter is to provide a comparative overview of the structure of the nominal group, including the distribution, combinatorial possibilities, and ordering of components such as articles, demonstratives, quantifiers, possessives, dependent genitives, adjectives; argument structure; agreement; and the marking of definiteness and specificity. Specific topics dealt with include: functional features on nouns; object referring nouns; event/result nouns; relational nouns; proper names; functional features on adjectives; relational adjectives; descriptive adjectives; determiner-like adjectives; direct vs indirect modfication; determiners; inflectional properties of determiners; demonstratives; articles; quantifiers; possessives; possessive adjectives; left periphery of the nominal group.
The structure of the clause
Authors: Cruschina Silvio , Ledgeway Adam
Published: August 2016

The main goal of this chapter is to provide a comparative overview of the principal aspects of the structure of the clause, including combinatorial possibilities and ordering of various components such as subjects, objects, adjuncts, and verbs; periphrastic formations; illocutionary and discourse particles; structure, categories, and discourse functions of the higher and lower left peripheries (complementizers, V2, topic, focus, illocutionary force). Specific topics dealt with include: overview of clause; sentential core; lower left periphery; inflectional domain; adverb classes and positions; verb positions; restructuring; higher left periphery; complementizers; illocutionary force, clause types, and sentence particles (declaratives, interrogatives, exclamatives, imperatives), verb second, topic and focus in the left periphery.
Sociolinguistic variation
Authors: Jones Mari C. , Parry Mair , Williams Lynn
Published: August 2016

The main goal of this chapter is to provide a comparative overview of some of the principal aspects of sociolinguistic variation in Romance, covering phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical variation among different groups of the speech community according to sociolinguistic variables such as age, gender, class, education, medium and register; the role of the nature, organization, and cohesion of particular social groups and networks in driving socially-determined variation and linguistic innovations; high and low prestige variants; normative forces, and reactions to, standardization. Specific topics dealt with include: French; Italo-Romance; Spanish; variationist studies; sociolinguistic models and categories; regional sociolinguistic variation; sociolinguistic variables; historical sociolinguistic variation; recent standardizing and convergence trends; forms of address; standards and norms; national norms; regional norms.
Palatalization
Authors: Repetti Lori
Published: August 2016

This chapter provides a structural overview of the varieties of palatalization found in Romance varieties today as well as considering diachronic issues. It covers the emergence in Romance of a new order of palatals, both fricatives and affricates, due to original yod, and how new, secondary sources of palatalizing yod developed from asyllabic high vowels; diatopic differences in the palatalizing effects of front vowels, in the susceptibility of different underlying segments, in the palatalization of consonantal clusters, and in the palatalizing effects of postconsonantal laterals; positional differences in conditioning different palatal outcomes; morphologization of palatal/non-palatal alternations; recent waves of palatalization. Specific topics dealt with include: Latin yod and its effects; morphological consequences of palatalization by yod; consonant + front vowel palatalization; velar stop + front vowel; velar stop + a; non-dorsal consonant + front vowel; morphological consequences of front vowel palatalization; consonant + consonant palatalization; consonant + lateral; velar stop + coronal consonant.
Sandhi phenomena
Authors: Sampson Rodney
Published: August 2016

This chapter addresses some of the most important issues in Romance internal and external sandhi phenomena. It covers intervocalic sibilant voicing in affixation and compounding; devoicing of word-final obstruents; sibilant/vibrant neutralizations; vowel prothesis and paragogic vowel harmony; consonantal assimilations and dissimilations, epenthesis, apocope, and elision; liaison; rafforzamento. Specific topics dealt with include: phonologically-conditioned sandhi; vowel-edge phenomena; vowel hiatus; vowel-edge sandhi adjacent to pause; consonant-edge phenomena; left-edge sandhi; lenition with voicing and opening; lenition with fricativization or detensing with voicing; right-edge sandhi; assimilation-based sandhi; syllabification-based sandhi;morpho-syntactically and lexically conditioned sandhi; raddoppiamento fonosintattico; liaison; clitics; sandhi in verb phrases; sandhi in (preposition +) noun phrase; suprasegmental sandhi.
Writing Systems
Authors: Finbow Thomas
Published: August 2016

This chapter addresses some of the most important issues in the development and nature of Romance writing systems. It covers evidence for Romance phonology in subliterary and/or late Latin orthography (cf. also Wright’s work on reading Latin as Romance); emergence of major area-specific innovations, along the diachronic and synchronic axes, in adapting Latinate orthography to represent the expanded segmental inventories of Romance; rise and fall of diacritic conventions; phonemic, allophonic and diasystemic representations; competing orthographic traditions, and alphabets; stability, spelling reforms, and the role of academies; emergent and unstable systems. Specific topics dealt with include: Latin alphabet; late Latin and early Romance; two-norm hypotheses; single-norm hypothesis; logographic Latin; textual zones for developing Romance; selecting representational conventions; Romance diacritic conventions; Romance writing in other scripts; Judaeo-Spanish; aljamía; Romanian and Moldovan; Romance written with the Greek alphabet; levels of written representation; developing written traditions; stability, reform and regulation; regulatory bodies; spelling reform.
Number
Authors: Maiden Martin
Published: August 2016

This chapter addresses some of the most important issues in the expression of number in the Romance nominal system. It covers the origin of the plural inflectional endings (particularly ‘sigmatic’ vs ‘vocalic’ endings, and remnants of Latin nominative plural desinences); the fate of the Latin neuter plural endings (with especial attention to the so-called ‘neuter’ or ‘ambigeneric’ nouns of Daco-Romance and Italo-Romance); ‘collective’ plurals in Romansh and their morphological status; root allomorphy and suppletion in plural formation; neutralization of number distinctions (invariance); analogical effects of plurals on singulars (and vice versa).
Tonic pronominal system: morphophonology
Authors: Cappellaro Chiara
Published: August 2016

This chapter isurveys some of the most important issues regarding the morphophonological properties of Romance tonic pronouns. It covers person, number, gender, case, and animacy distinctions and markedness restrictions; cumulative exponence and syncretisms; overabundance; suppletion; tonic versus weak distinctions); allomorphic variations and concomitant positional restrictions; demonstratives as sources of tonic pronouns. Specific topics dealt with include: aspects of person marking from Latin to Romance; third person pronouns; morphological competition in the history of Romance personal pronouns; competition due to ‘case’ loss; competition due to loss of semantic contrast between ipse and ille; first and second person marking; third person marking; non-canonical phenomena in Romance third person markers; canonical inflection; syncretism; suppletion.
Auxiliary selection and participial agreement
Authors: Loporcaro Michele
Published: August 2016

The main goal of this chapter is to critically address from a comparative perspective some of the most important issues regarding the syntax of Romance auxiliary selection and past participle agreement, covering such areas as auxiliary splits licensed by verb class, person, tense, and mood; triple auxiliation; behaviour of different classes of reflexive; transitive-unaccusative splits in Romance participle agreement; stability and parameters in Romance participle. Specific topics dealt with include: features involved in Romance past participial agreement (target of past participial agreement; conditions on participial agreement; exceptional cases); variation in auxiliary selection; relevance of TAM for perfective auxiliation; a syntactic gradient for perfective auxiliation; mixed auxiliation systems:u, binary, or triple; perfective auxiliation at the syntax-semantics interface; some exceptional cases.
Simple Frequency Dependence
Authors: Friedman Daniel , Sinervo Barry , Friedman Daniel , Sinervo Barry
Published: August 2016

This chapter takes a first look at strategic interdependence, known to biologists as frequency dependent selection. It distinguishes positive interaction effects (increasing returns or synergy) from negative effects (e.g., congestion). The chapter introduces Maynard Smith’s famous Hawk‐Dove game, and goes on to show that there are only two other generic types of 2 × 2 games: dominant strategy (DS), illustrated with biological data on RNA viruses and economic examples drawn from eBay; and coordination (CO) games. Conditions for the prisoner’s dilemma are defined. The remaining sections show how these games represent edges of the state space in games with three alternative strategies. This includes data on male side‐blotched lizards that shows they play the true rock‐paper‐scissors: each edge game has a different dominant strategy, forming an intransitive loop around the 2‐dimensional simplex.
Social Games
Authors: Friedman Daniel , Sinervo Barry , Friedman Daniel , Sinervo Barry
Published: August 2016

The ways in which social structures can modulate strategic interaction are explored in this chapter. It covers Bergstrom’s model of assortative matching and Hadamard products of payoff matrices and adjustment matrices that provide a unified description of sexual selection. This new approach covers the transmission across generations via memes and genes, with or without crossover and recombination, and includes an example of haploid sexual selection drawn from Fisherian runaway. The approach could be expanded to include diploid sexual systems, thus linking population genetic models with game theoretic models. The chapter ends with a presentation of the Price equation in analyzing group structure and includes a biological example of cooperation. The last section extends the Price equation to continuous time.
Cellular Automaton Games
Authors: Friedman Daniel , Sinervo Barry
Published: August 2016

This chapter formalizes spatial strategic interaction as games on grids. It develops cellular automata examples ranging from Conway’s classic Game of Life to complex cooperation, and revisits several earlier examples of assortative and disassortative interactions in an explicit spatial framework. The chapter features simulations of viscous game dynamics with emergent features such as cooperative groups in public goods games, including density and frequency dependent interactions. Two-population versions of the cellular automata are developed (e.g., for the buyer-seller game). Esherichia coli bacteria provide an example of a spatial rock-paper-scissors game: a colicin-producing/colicin-resistant type is beaten by a colicin-resistant type, which is beaten by an undefended type, which is beaten in turn by the first type.
Speciation
Authors: Friedman Daniel , Sinervo Barry
Published: August 2016

Chapter 14 meditates on the classic theme of speciation. It first presents the idea of evolutionary branching in adaptive dynamics. The chapter then treats morph loss in the rock-paper-scissors game and two modes of mate choice: preference of males to maintain coadapted gene complexes versus preference for rare males to produce successful sons in the context of RPS cycles. It then presents cellular automata models that create boundaries between proto-species, based on Hamiltonian social fitness, preference for mates, and alternatively colored tags, the key trait used to mediate social interactions and mate preferences. It concludes with some standard bifurcation models and a repurposed Hotelling model as useful ingredients for further work.
Protein Analysis of Glioblastoma Primary and Posttreatment Pairs Suggests a Mesenchymal Shift at Recurrence
Authors: Wood Matthew D , Reis Gerald F , Reuss David E , Phillips Joanna J
Published: August 2016

Glioblastomas (GBM) are aggressive brain tumors that inevitably recur despite surgical resection, chemotherapy, and radiation. The degree to which recurrent GBM retains its initial immunophenotype is incompletely understood. We generated tissue microarrays of paired initial and posttreatment GBM (3 pairs positive and 17 negative for IDH1 R132H ) from the same patients and made comparisons in the IDH1 R132H -negative group for immunohistochemical and gene expression differences between primary and recurrent tumors. In initial tumors, immunopositivity for Ki-67 in > 20% of tumor cells was associated with shorter progression-free and overall survival. Recurrent tumors showed decreased staining for CD34 suggesting lower vessel density. A subset of tumors showed increased staining for markers associated with the mesenchymal gene expression pattern, including CD44, phosphorylated STAT3, and YKL40. Recurrent tumors with the greatest increase in mesenchymal marker expression had rapid clinical progression, but no difference in overall survival after second surgery. Comparison of protein and gene expression data from the same samples revealed a poor correlation. A subset of tumors (15%) showed loss of neurofibromin protein in both initial and recurrent tumors. These data support the notion that GBM progression is associated with a shift toward a mesenchymal phenotype in a subset of tumors and this may portend a more aggressive behavior.