bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE PRIMARY MOULT OF WADERS ON THE ATLANTIC COAST OF MOROCCO
Authors: Pienkowski M. W. , Knight P. J. , Stanyard D. J. , Argyle F. B.
Published: April 2008

Data from 3659 waders of 23 species live‐trapped in the years 1971‐73 on the Atlantic coast of Morocco during the period of autumn moult and migration are analysed to estimate duration and timing of primary moult. Common Sandpiper was the only species to moult primaries in its first autumn (unless published ageing criteria are incorrect). Several species showed a low incidence of arrested primary moult and a higher incidence was observed in Ringed, Kentish and Grey Plovers. This is discussed in relation to breeding and migration.

Similar rates of primary feather replacement relative to specific moult duration were observed in all species for which information was available. Comparisons between species and with published studies showed that variations in rate of moulting between species and between different geographical populations of the same species were largely due to differences in feather growth rate rather than in the numbers of primaries concurrently in growth. Variations in rate between individuals of the same population were achieved, at least in the first part of moult, by differences in feather dropping rate resulting in differences in the numbers of primaries growing concurrently.

The timing and duration of moult in different populations and differences between breeding and non‐breeding components were closely related to the requirements of other annual cycle activities, notably breeding and migration. Non‐breeding birds summering in Morocco had started moult early. Locally breeding birds had an early start to a fairly slow moult which overlapped with breeding and which in some cases passed through an arrested stage. Birds breeding in cold temperate and arctic regions and wintering in Morocco moulted in a short time soon after arrival. In some cases, notably in Ringed Plovers, birds had commenced moulting on the breeding grounds and arrested moult during migration. Most Redshank and possibly Dunlin migrated in active wing moult. The fastest primary moult was achieved by high arctic breeding birds, Curlew Sandpiper and possibly Little Stint, which stopped to moult in Morocco before moving on to wintering areas further south. This situation is contrasted with that of populations of these two and other species wintering in the southern hemisphere where moult occurs over an extended period during the northern winter.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLIMATE AND ANNUAL CYCLES IN THE COTINGIDAE
Authors: Snow D. W.
Published: April 2008

This survey is based primarily or the state of moult of over 4000 specimens of cotingas from all parts of the neotropical region. The seasonality of moult thus revealed is combined with existing knowledge of breeding seasons and seasonal environmental changes in an attempt to work out the broad pattern of annual cycles and their relation to climate.

Within any local population the date of onset of moult may vary according to sex and age. In genera in which both sexes participate in nesting, males and females begin to moult at about the same time, or the males slightly in advance of the females. In genera with marked sexual dimorphism, in which only the female attends the nest, males may begin to moult well before females, at about the time that the latter begin egg‐laying. The former group includes the genera Pachyramphus and Tityra, comprising species that are largely insectivorous, and the latter group includes the more specialized frugivorous genera. In all areas with well‐marked seasonality, the ‘frugivorous group’ moults on average before the ‘Pachyramphus group’. It appears to be a general rule for first‐year birds to moult earlier than older birds.

A regional survey embracing all parts of the neotropical region shows that the peak of onset of moult occurs towards the end of the dry season (frugivorous group) or early in the wet season (Pachyramphus group). The changing moult seasons, strikingly in conformity with the geographical changes in the period of heaviest rainfall, are traced along a number of transects from Mexico in the north to Paraguay and Bolivia in the south.

Such evidence as there is suggests that the main period of onset of moult in the frugivorous and Pachyramphus groups coincides with the period when their food is approaching or at its seasonal peak of abundance. It seems that both breeding and moult, which are almost entirely mutually exclusive, are as far as possible timed to coincide with this most favourable period; but whereas the moult takes a more or less fixed length of time the period when breeding is possible varies greatly in different species. Widely different patterns of annual cycle may result from the interaction of the two processes. Examples are given both from the cotingas and from species of other families with similar ecology.

The proximate factors controlling the timing of the moult are briefly considered. It is suggested that increasing food availability is the main environmental controlling factor, and that an endogenous circannual cycle of moult must also be involved.
HANDEDNESS, HOLDING AND ITS POSSIBLE TAXONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE IN GRASSQUITS, TIARIS SPP
Authors: Baptista Luis F.
Published: April 2008

The use of the foot to hold down nest material or food items was studied in two species of grass‐quits. Two Cuban Olive Finches used only their left foot, and seven others used predominantly or exclusively their right foot. An Olive Finch from Costa Rica used mostly its left foot. Cuban Melodious Finches infrequently used the foot to hold down items. This difference in behaviour probably reflects differences in feeding ecology. The incidence of holding supports arguments for affinity between Tiaris spp. and geospizines.
ADAPTIVE ADVANTAGES OF MIXED‐SPECIES FEEDING FLOCKS AMONG SEED‐EATING FINCHES IN COSTA RICA
Authors: Rubenstein Daniel I. , Barnett Raymond J. , Ridgely Robert S. , Klopfer Peter H.
Published: April 2008

The feeding ecology of three Costa Rican finches occurring in mixed flocks, Tiaris olivacea, Sporophila aurita corvina and Sporophila torquella, was investigated by measuring both behavioural and ecological variables. Observations on foraging height, rate of hopping and pecking rate, as well as the identity, proximity and number of nearest neighbours were recorded. In addition the duration of all feeding and perching episodes were timed. Comparisons were also made between the abundances of food items (grass seeds) consumed and those potentially available for consumption.

The analysis of variance of the feeding behaviour revealed that the presence or absence of neighbouring birds, whether of the same or different species, influenced the duration of feeding bouts more significantly than did either differences in habitat or species‐characteristic behaviour. In addition the dietary comparisons revealed overlap in both species and size of seed consumed. Such similarities suggest that these species are not partitioning fields in the classical sense.

We propose that the increase in the duration of the feeding bout associated with the presence of mixed species aggregations leads to increased feeding efficiency and is the result of intra‐ and inter‐specific social learning. Certainly flocking is often advantageous, since searching in a group facilitates finding clumped resources; mixed species flocking, by increasing exposure to a diversity of foraging places and patterns, can further augment feeding efficiency.
A SURVEY OF BLOOD PARASITES OF BIRDS IN THE MASCARENE ISLANDS, INDIAN OCEAN: WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW SPECIES AND TAXONOMIC DISCUSSION
Authors: Peirce M. A. , Cheke A. S. , Cheke R. A.
Published: April 2008

A survey was carried out on the prevalence of blood parasites in birds in the Mascarene Islands. Smears from 357 birds of 25 species in 12 families were examined, of which 150 (42%) were found to harbour blood parasites. The most common parasites were Leucocytozoon; a new species, L. zosteropis, is described from the Grey White‐eye Zosterops borbonica mauritiana. This parasite was observed in smears from 68 birds of three species: Z. borbonica, Z. chloronothos and Z. olivacea. Other species of Leucocytozoon identified were L. fringillinarum from fodies, sparrows and a bulbul and L. marchouxi from two doves.

Haemoproteus was found only in domestic pigeons Columba livia and identified as H. columbae. Plasmodium relictum, P. vaughani and an unidentified species with elongate gametocytes were found in Zosterops, and Plasmodium sp. of low infection observed in other hosts. Trypanosoma mayae is redescribed from the House Sparrow Passer domesticus and the Mauritius Fody Foudia rubra, and considered to be a valid species. A new species of trypanosome, Trypanosoma phedinae, is described from the Malagasy Swallow Phedina b. borbonica. Other birds were found to harbour low infections of unidentified species of trypanosomes. A small number of birds were infected with Atoxoplasma, haemogregarines and Rickettsia‐like organisms. An unidentified organism with a predilection for eosinophils was observed in several Mascarene Swiftlets Collocalia francica.

The results are discussed in relation to the possible effects of the parasites on the birds of the Mascarene Islands and comparisons made with the results of similar surveys on other Indian Ocean Islands.
DIFFERENTIAL GROWTH AND BODY COMPOSITION IN ALTRICIAL PASSERINES
Authors: O'Connor Raymond J.
Published: April 2008

The differential development of various body organs and of fat, water, and other constituents was studied in three species with altricial nestlings—Blue Tit, House Martin and House Sparrow.

In all species resources available at each stage of the nestling period were allocated to those components of most use to the nestlings at the time, although due regard was paid to future needs. Components associated with the ingestion and assimilation of food, such as the mouth, gizzard, intestine and liver, developed early in the nestling period whilst locomotory components, such as wings and pectoral muscles, developed late. Similarly, body plumage needed for insulation developed ahead of the locomotory remiges and rectrices, but only after much of the nestlings' growth in size had been completed.

The water index (water content/lean dry weight) provided a consistent index of tissue and nestling maturity amongst young of different nutritional status. This index was very similar for all three species when age was expressed as a fraction of the nestling period.

Both absolute fat content and the fat index (fat content/lean dry weight) increased with age. The adaptive value of these trends and of interspecific differences in fat index is discussed.

The results are seen as consistent with both the physiological bottleneck models of avian growth rates. It is suggested that the growth patterns of birds may be dominated more by ecological considerations affecting all aspects of the development mode than by internal physiological constraints affecting growth rates alone.
SOME DISPLAY POSTURES OF AUSTRALIAN PIGEONS
Authors: Frith H. J.
Published: April 2008

The bowing display and other postures commonly seen in sexual display, of Australian and some New Guinea pigeons are described. These behavioural data are examined to determine how they support phylogenetic groupings based on the birds' morphology.

The inclusion ofLeucotreronandMegaloprepiainPtilinopusis supported. Among the bronzewing pigeonsPhaps, Ocyphaps, GeophapsandPetrophassaare very similar behaviourally, as well as morphologically;Petrophassais the most divergent. The display postures do not assist the classification ofLopholaimus, ChalcophapsorLeucosarciabut, rather, emphasize the separation of these from other groups of pigeon species. The bowing displays ofGeopeliaandStreptopeliado not support the suggestion thatG. humeralisshould be moved from the former genus to the latter.
KLEPTOPARASITISM OF SANDWICH TERNS STERNA SANDVICENSIS BY BLACK‐HEADED GULLS LARUS RIDIBUNDUS
Authors: Fuchs Eduard
Published: April 2008

The parasitic behaviour of Black‐headed Gulls in a mixed colony of terns and gulls at the Sands of Forvie on the northeast coast of Scotland is described in some detail. Food‐stealing occurred with varying frequency throughout the breeding season. Less than 6% of the terns were attacked during incubation and when their chicks were a few days old, but up to 29% were attacked thereafter. At the same time the percentage of successful attacks rose from 1% or less to 6.5%.

Food items brought back to the ternery were predominantly sandeels, clupeids and gadoids. Only a small proportion of terns carrying fish shorter than 7 cm were attacked whether they were sandeels, clupeids or gadoids.

Robbing success was higher with clupeids and gadoids than with sandeels.

The effect of the Black‐headed Gulls' kleptoparasitism on the Sandwich Terns' breeding success is thought to have been negligible during incubation and early chick‐life, but might have influenced fledging weight and ultimately post‐fledging survival.
NEST BUILDING AND NESTING BEHAVIOUR OF THE SOCIABLE WEAVER PHILETAIRUS SOCIUS
Authors: COLLIAS ELSIE C. , COLLIAS NICHOLAS E.
Published: April 2008

The behaviour of the Sociable Weaver Philetairus socius was studied briefly in South Africa in 1969, and more extensively in aviaries in southern California for over three years (1972‐75). The species was bred successfully in captivity, apparently for the first time.

Building of the compound nest in nature is reviewed in the light of preceding accounts, both by ourselves and by others. The optimal preference for nest materials was experimentally determined. Male and female appear identical and there seems to have been no previous detailed account of the behaviour of Sociable Weavers based on distinctively colour‐ringed individuals of known sex. Among the sex differences in behaviour are the amount and nature of building, dominance, malespecific song, and sex differences in relative share of incubation and in the care of nestlings and fledglings. In addition, we describe in detail for the first time certain rarely observed behavioural acts including precopulatory courtship and copulation. Allopreening and water bathing are very rare in this species, and the birds do not take dust baths.
DIFFERENTIATION OF FORAGING NICHE AMONG TITS, PARUS SPP., IN NORWAY DURING WINTER
Authors: HOGSTAD OLAV
Published: April 2008

The winter foraging behaviour of Willow Tit Parus montanuss, Coal Tit P. ater and Crested Tit P. cristatus was studied in several spruce‐dominated, coniferous forest areas in which either Willow Tit alone, Willow Tit and Coal Tit, or all three species together were present. In the areas where Crested Tits were absent, Willow Tits foraged significantly more often in the outermost parts of spruce branches and less frequently on the parts of branches closer to the trunk, than in the area in which Crested Tits were present. In the area in which all three species were present, the same change in foraging pattern of Willow Tits was found in mixed flocks in which Crested Tits were lacking. The foraging pattern of Coal Tits was unaffected by the presence of members of either or both the other two tit species. It is suggested that the expansion of the feeding niche of Willow Tit in the absence of Crested Tit is a result of ecological release, due to a reduction in the degree of interspecific competition.
DIURNAL ACTIVITY OF ADELIE PENGUINS PYGOSCELIS ADELIAE AT CAPE BIRD
Authors: SPURR E. B.
Published: April 2008

Activity cycles of non‐breeding Adelie Penguins were investigated at Cape Bird, Antarctica. There was continuous light during the observation period, but none the less regular fluctuations of light intensity and temperature were maintained. The penguins had no single period of rest, but were active throughout the 24 hours. However, there were statistically significant diurnal variations in the levels of certain activities among non‐breeders, with an overall reduction in activity‐levels in the middle of the day, especially on warm midsummer afternoons. It is suggested that this cyclic activity minimum may be associated with the low heat tolerance of Adelie Penguins.
HEAD‐SCRATCHING AMONG NORTH AMERICAN WOOD‐WARBLERS (PARULIDAE)
Authors: BURTT EDWARD H. , HAILMAN JACK P.
Published: April 2008

A survey of 40 species of 14 genera of North American wood‐warblers (Parulidae) reveals that the head‐scratching method employed is surprisingly stable within species. The experiments by Nice & Schantz (1959a, b) induced some normally overwing head‐scratchers to scratch the head under the wing. It is suggested that this was because their leg rings became caught in secondaries, making normal overwing head‐scratching impossible. A few exceptional head‐scratching patterns under different conditions invariably involved normally overwing head‐scratchers employing the underwing method, and a few species head‐scratch under the wing as nestlings but change to overwing before fledging. In all, 31 species appear to be normally overwing head‐scratchers, seven are underwing head‐scratchers, one species uses both methods and one remains uncertain. There is no evidence for lateral preference in either head‐scratching method, and head‐scratching is only loosely linked sequentially to preening. The functional significance of head‐scratching may be related to blockage of the eustachian tube, or to cleaning and oiling the feathers. Avian head‐scratching is more difficult to homologize with mammalian head‐scratching than others have considered it to be, but all evidence suggests that within birds underwing head‐scratching is phylogenetically primitive. In wood‐warblers, the head‐scratching method does not correlate with taxonomy. However, ground‐dwelling wood‐warblers tend to scratch the head under the wing and arboreal wood‐warblers over the wing. This correlation provides the first strong clue to the functional significance of the difference between methods in passerine birds.
COMMUNAL ACTIVITIES AMONG WHITE‐WINGED CHOUGHS CORCORAX MELANORHAMPHUS
Authors: ROWLEY IAN
Published: April 2008

White‐winged Choughs Corcorax melanorhamphus live in groups of 2–20 birds that nest communally. Most of the study population (82%) was composed of groups of 4–8 individuals. The oldest male in each group appears to perform a ‘linchpin’ role in group cohesion, and groups tend to disintegrate if he dies or leaves. Polygyny is shown to occur, and it is thought that some 15% of clutches are due to two females laying in the same nest. Progeny tend to stay in their natal group rather than dispersing. They help to rear subsequent offspring. All group members may help to build the nest and to incubate, brood, guard, clean and feed the young (both in and out of the nest). No correlation was found between group size and the rate of feeding young in the nest. From 186 nesting attempts, the average production was 1–4 birds of which only 16% survived to adulthood (= 4 y. o.).

Besides their nesting activities, White‐winged Choughs have a form of communal defence; they, also, roost, forage, drink, bathe, dust, and roost together. It is concluded that the association into groups provides the adaptive advantage of a buffer against periodic fluctuations in available food– the youngest (= smallest investment) dying first.
SEASONALITY OF MARABOU STORKS LEPTOPTILOS CRUMENIFERUS IN EASTERN AFRICA
Authors: POMEROY D. E.
Published: April 2008

Nesting by Marabou Storks in eastern Africa is seasonal, and so are assemblages of non‐breeding birds at places with a regular supply of food. In Uganda, where temperatures and day‐length are almost constant, Marabous have nested at about the same time each year, despite considerable variations in rainfall from year to year. However, rainfall can have a modifying effect, delaying egg‐laying by up to a few weeks. The timing of egg‐laying varied regionally throughout eastern Africa, but in general nesting began during a dry season and continued into the next wet season. In drier areas the timing of nesting was more complex.

Regional variations in the nesting season, and in the sizes of feeding assemblages, are consistent with north‐south movements of individual Marabous to or across the equator, enabling them to avoid the late wet season and early dry season. These are times when the supply of natural foods is likely to be least. Figure 6 summarizes the data and indicates probable movements. In the wetter areas the main northwards movement is in October‐November, returning four to six months later. In driet areas the timing is almost reversed.
TONGUE MORPHOLOGY AND AFFINITIES OF THE HAWAIIAN HONEYCREEPER MELAMPROSOPS PHAEOSOMA
Authors: BOCK WALTER J.
Published: April 2008

Melamprosops phaeosoma has a thick straight tongue with an anterior spoon‐like trough, but without any indication of a tube. Its hyoid skeleton has an elongated, flattened basihyale, stout parallel paraglossalia and a concavity along the dorsal surface of the ceratobranchiale. All the tongue muscles could be dissected but the superficial M. mylohyoideus and M. serpihyoideus were too damaged to figure and describe. The M. ceratoglossus and the M. hypoglossus obliquus are large; the latter muscle inserts mainly on the basihyale and ceratobranchiale, but a small number of fibres pass beneath the basihylale. The M. hypoglossus anterior is absent. The morphology of the tongue apparatus of Melamprosops is very similar to that of Ciridops and of Loxops and supports placement of Melamprosops in the Drepanididae. Further it suggests that Melamprosops evolved from an ancestor with a tubular tongue, supporting the suggestion that it evolved from Loxops.
DISPERSION, BREEDING AND PREY OF THE HEN HARRIER CIRCUS CYANEUS IN GLEN DYE, KINCARDINESHIRE
Authors: PICOZZI N.
Published: April 2008

Hen Harriers were studied on a grouse moor in northeastern Scotland from 1970‐74. Numbers in spring were fairly stable, and the 24 nesting territories occupied in 1974 were regularly dispersed with a mean nearest neighbour distance of 1.52 ± s. e. 0.09 km. Many pairs apparently failed to breed and left the area. The mean clutch size of those remaining was 4.70 ± s. e. 0.24 (n= 27) and the mean number of young fledged per successful nest was 3.11 ± s. e. 0.26 (n= 19). Young males were more likely to disperse far from the study area than young females.

The variety of prey species observed from hides at five nests was very limited, and comprised mainly pipits, grouse chicks and lagomorphs. Estimates by weight suggest that grouse and lagomorphs accounted for 89% of all prey. Males brought more small items and fewer large items to nests than females, and on average provided 72% of all prey items seen during watches from the hides.

On the basis of studies of prey at three nests in 1974, and counts of grouse in spring and late summer, harrier predation was estimated to have reduced the number of grouse which might otherwise have survived to late July that year by a maximum of 7.4%.
POPULATION DYNAMICS OF THE FLIGHTLESS CORMORANT NANNOPTERUM HARRISI
Authors: HARRIS M. P.
Published: April 2008

A small population of Flightless Cormorants was followed from 1970 to 1975 inclusive. The birds were extremely sedentary, most never moving more than 2 km from where hatched. Many birds bred several times within a year, almost always with different mates. After successful breeding the mean interval to the next attempt among females was significantly shorter than among males, probably because the male continued to attend the juvenile for longer than did the female.

There was an annual peak of nesting in April to November, when sea temperatures were lowest; some nesting occurred in other months but these nests were less successful. About 73% of juveniles survived at least three months after going to sea. Adult females had a significantly higher rate of annual survival (91%) than did males (82%). The mean annual survival of both sexes combined over a 13 year period was 87%. The mean age of first breeding was about 30 months for both males and females.

In 1972 breeding success (0·14 young fledged per pair) was much lower than in other years (0·60 young per pair), a lower proportion of juveniles survived, no birds bred for the first time and probably many fewer pairs nested. Adult survival was not affected. This reduced breeding output was associated with an influx of anomalously warm sea water to the area (El Niño). The availability of food is probably both the ultimate and the proximate factor controlling the timing of breeding.
A NEW SPECIES OF SERIN FROM ETHIOPIA
Authors: ASH J. S.
Published: April 2008

From Ethiopia, a new species of streaked seedeater (Serin), the Ankober Serin Serinus ankoberensis. is described. It is closely related to S. menachensis of the Arabian peninsula, and like it, is a highland species living at around 3030 m along the top of the steep escarpment of the central highland massif. It is a terrestrial species. A nest found in March contained three white eggs in a vertical hole in an overhanging bank.
AGONISTIC AND SPACING BEHAVIOUR OF THE NOISY MINER MANORINA MELANOCEPHALA, A COMMUNALLY BREEDING HONEYEATER
Authors: DOW DOUGLAS D.
Published: April 2008

The Noisy Miner is a communally breeding Australian honeyeater in which several males feed the offspring of a single female. They reside year‐round in colonies, which may number several hundred birds. Miners within colonies unite to mob predators and are successful in defending their colony area against all other species of birds. The species is also highly aggressive intraspecifically. Individuals in a colony in southeastern Queensland were present most of the time in small activity spaces. Most resident males showed extensive overlap of activity space from one season to the next. Males did not defend their activity spaces, so that coalitions of birds occurred whose membership changed with place and time. Certain assemblages of males, termed coteries, were of a more permanent nature. Coterie members showed aggression towards outsiders at border regions.

Females' activity spaces were much smaller and less variable than those of males. They showed almost no overlap and were probably maintained by mutual avoidance. Females tended to nest within the activity space they occupied shortly before the breeding period. Thus the spacing of males and females within a colony was quite different.

Interactions, often agonistic, were frequent between individuals, between an individual and a group, and between groups. Encounters involving two males in which participants normally lived farther apart were more often agonistic than when participants lived more closely, and more aggression was seen within coteries than between them. When larger groups of birds had agonistic encounters, they more frequently involved birds from different coteries. Very little male‐female aggression was seen. Interactions between males and females of different coteries were usually sexual, sometimes involving attempted copulation.

Colony sizes are probably too large to permit individual recognition of fellow members, but this could be more likely in coteries. Many males in coteries are doubtless closely related, but outsiders frequently infiltrate them. Coteries are not reproductive units.
THE IMITATIVE RANGE OF THE SONG OF THE MARSH WARBLERACROCEPHALUS PALUSTRIS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO IMITATIONS OF AFRICAN BIRDS
Authors: DOWSETT‐LEMAIRE FRANÇOISE
Published: April 2008

This paper presents the first extensive evidence of vocal imitations of African birds by a Palaearctic migrant, the Marsh WarblerAcrocephalus palustris. Nearly 30 individual tape recorded repertoires have been analysed, most of them from Belgium; imitations of each identified species were compared to models by spectrographic analysis. A list of 113 African species (33 non‐passerines, 80 passerines) was thus established (Appendix), which, added to the list of 99 European species, gives a total imitative range of 212 species. The low‐pitched voices of many non‐passerines exclude them from imitation.

Vocal imitations of some rather local species in East Africa provide information on the localization of the autumn and winter quarters ofA. palustris. In particular, the frequency of imitations of such species as Vinaceous DoveStreptopelia vinacea, Boran CisticolaCisticola bodessaand Red‐pate CisticolaC. ruficepslends support to the idea of the existence of autumn quarters in northeastern Africa.

Individual repertoires contain an average of 76.2 different imitated species (extremes 63–84), the number of African species (average 45.0) exceeding that of European species (average 31.2). About a fifth of the complete song remains unidentified and probably corresponds to imitations of African birds whose voices have not yet been recorded. The most recurrent imitations are those of noticeably noisy species, widespread in Africa.A. palustrisappears not to be selective in its repertoire. Imitations of different species can, to some extent, be combined and alternated into original motifs.

Circumstantial evidence indicates that the youngA. palustrisare still learning song motifs when on their way to their winter quarters and probably stop learning soon after their arrival there, most of them in January, at the age of 6–7 months. There is a temporal separation between the sensitive phase and the motor phase of song learning.

No conclusion as to the possible functions of the imitative element of the song can be drawn at present.
THE KLEPTOPARASITIC BEHAVIOUR OF THE ARCTIC SKUA STERCORARIUS PARASITICUS WITH THREE SPECIES OF TERN
Authors: TAYLOR I. R.
Published: April 2008

The behaviour of Arctic Skuas when stealing fish from three species of tern was studied at the estuary of the River Ythan, Aberdeenshire. The skuas' attacks were made by flying low over the water at high speed and by approaching the terns from behind and below. The adaptiveness of this flight path is discussed. The skuas attacked singly and in groups of up to five. Group attacks were more successful than single bird attacks, but the return per bird was greatest when the skuas attacked in pairs. The success of attacks also depended upon the species of tern being attacked. The duration of attacks varied with the number of skuas in the attack, the species of tern being attacked and the outcome of the attack. Attacks were directed more frequently against Sandwich Terns than against Common Terns, correlating with the success of the attacks against these two species.
SEABIRDS OF THE SENEGAL UPWELLING AND ADJACENT WATERS
Authors: BROWN R. G. B.
Published: April 2008

Seabird distributions were observed off Senegal during the upwelling season there, in February‐March 1976, and are interpreted against an oceanographic background. Gannets Sula bassana, Pomarine Skuas Stercorarius pomarinus, Great Skuas Catharacta skua, Lesser Black‐backed Gulls Larus fuscus, Black‐headed Gulls L. ridibundus, Sandwich Terns Sterna sandvicensis and Royal Terns S. maxima were the dominant species on the shelf and slope adjacent to the inshore upwelling zone. Grey Phalaropes Phalaropus fulicarius were the only seabirds associated with an oceanic ‘front’ farther offshore; it is suggested that this and similar boundary zones are important feeding areas during the pelagic phase of this species' annual cycle.

Leach's Storm‐Petrels Oceanodroma leucorhoa were seen east to 20W, but the predominant storm‐petrel of the waters between 23W and the continental slope was the Madeiran O. castro. It is suggested that the hatching period of Madeiran Storm‐Petrels on the Cape Verde Islands is timed to take advantage of the arrival there of young fish in the surface waters, spawned off the African coast and drifted offshore. However Madeiran Storm‐Petrels make no direct use of the coastal upwelling; nor do Little Shearwaters Puffinus assimilis or White‐faced Storm‐Petrels Pelagodroma marina, the other winter‐breeding Cape Verdes seabirds, which probably feed close to the Islands.

The Senegal upwelling is underexploited by seabirds, in contrast to comparable upwelling systems elsewhere. It is suggested that this is due to the seasonal timing of the upwelling, the scarcity of secure nest‐sites for breeding seabirds, and the competing attractions of the Benguela upwelling in the South Atlantic.
THE ORIGIN OF AFROTROPICAL KINGFISHERS
Authors: FRY C. H.
Published: April 2008

Conclusions from a study of plumages, geographical distribution, and available anatomical and biological characters, are that the family Alcedinidae arose in Malesia, and that the 18 Afrotropical kingfishers are the product of 8–11 separate invasions from Malesia, one via America.

Halcyon badia and the H. leucocephala species‐group (doubtfully including H. chelicuti) represent separate invasions by Asian ‘Entomobia’, and the H. malimbica species‐group may represent a third such influx (alternatively, all of these Halcyons are the product of one single ancient dacelonine colonization of Africa, and have then extended twice into Asia). H. chloris arrived independently and recently, from Oriental littoral stock. Ceyx madagascariensis colonized Madagascar from Malesia by trans‐oceanic flight; the Ceyx lecontei species‐group is the product of invasion by Oriental C. erithacus forebears, and the Corythornis cristata superspecies probably arose separately from Oriental stock closely‐reiated with the Ceyx lecontei progenitor. Alcedo quadribrachys arose quite recently from ancestral Oriental A. meninting, and A. semitorquata originated even more recently from the tropical‐temperate A. at this. The origin of Ceryle rudis is obscure but may be Oriental; and Megaceryle maxima appears to have originated in the Americas.
THE EFFECTS OF EXPERIENCE AND BREEDING STATUS ON THE USE OF A WINTERING SITE BY BEWICK'S SWANS CYGNUS COLUMBIANUS BEWICKII
Authors: Evans Mary E.
Published: April 2008

Bewick's Swans were identified individually at Slimbridge from 1968‐69 to 1975‐76, both within one winter and from one winter to the next, by bill markings or large numbered leg rings. Units, rather than individuals, were used for analysis, each unit being placed into one of two categories (New, Experienced), and into one of four classes (family, pair, single, yearling).

The Experienced category arrived proportionally earlier, had fewer one‐day attendances, stayed longer, were absent less, and departed later than the New category. Experienced families were absent more than the other Experienced classes and, in the early part of the winter, left proportionally ahead of them. Arrivals of the New classes were at different rates: yearlings built up quickest, followed by singles, pairs and families. Families had more one‐day attendance than yearlings and singles, and pairs were absent more than the other classes. The departures of the New classes, except of families, were closely synchronised.

The different behaviours of the classes which determine length of stay are discussed. The birds most likely to return were those with a long attendance in a previous season.
BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE EDIBLE‐NEST SWIFTLET AERODRAMUS FUCIPHAGUS
Authors: Langham Nigel
Published: April 2008

A colony of the Edible‐nest Swiftlet Aerodramus fuciphagus nesting in a Chinese shophouse in Penang, Peninsular Malaysia, was studied for seven months. Birds bred throughout, but laying was concentrated in the period October to February. Incubation and fledging periods were 23 ± 3 days and 43 + 6 days, respectively. Most young hatched during the dry season. The normal clutch size was two, with many birds laying second clutches (75%) and some third clutches (15‐4%) using the same nest. Clutch size showed no variation with clutch order or month.

The overall hatching success was 69‐0 %, most losses caused by eggs falling from or with the nest. Fledging success was similar for broods of two (625%) and broods of one (59‐4%), so that the former were twice as productive. The main loss of chicks occurred when they fell from the nest and were eaten by mammalian predators. There was a tendency for breeding success to decline with successive clutches, but not with month, being highest in November (53‐6 %) and February (55‐6 %).

The growth rate of single chicks and successful broods of two was similar, except that the second chick was more prone to fluctuations in weight. Some second chicks showed evidence of starvation before falling from the nest.

Diet was examined by analysis of foodballs regurgitated by mist‐netted adults. Foodballs weighed 0–13‐1 08 g and, on average, contained over 500 prey items. The main arthropods caught were Hymenoptera (40‐8%), Ephemeroptera (26‐4%), Homoptera (15‐4%) and Diptera (7‐7%). Flying ants and mayflies contributed most by weight, although figwasps and mayflies were the most numerous prey items.

Only in December did the percentage of moulting mist‐netted adult swiftlets fall below 70 %. It appeared that many birds were moulting and breeding simultaneously, although 21% of birds had primaries moulting in two places, suggesting arrested moult.

Diurnal activity showed a normal high dawn exodus and dusk inflow of birds, although there was evidence of an increase of birds flying out prior to the dusk inflow. Nest harvesting was continued throughout the study, but most of the marked nests under study were left undisturbed.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF THE PALILA PSITT1ROSTRA BA1LLEUI OF HAWAII
Authors: III Charles van Riper
Published: April 2008

The behavioural ecology and breeding biology of the endangered Palila Psittirostra bailleui was studied from 1971 to 1975. The most intensive breeding occurred from June to August, and coincided with peak production of mamane Sophora chrysophylla seeds, the bir?s major food source. The Palila was able to make adjustments in its breeding to compensate for yearly differentiation in the timing and abundance of this food supply.

Sexual chasing and courtship feeding were the most frequently encountered pre‐nesting behaviours. Territory was a mate‐defended area, which later in the nesting sequence was confined to the nest site. A total of 26 nests was found; most were placed on larger branches of mamane trees. Nest construction occurred primarily in the morning hours and lasted up to 20 days. Both sexes took part in nest construction, albeit the male role was minimal. Unless the nest was placed in the terminal fork of a tree, it usually contained a large stick base.

The modal clutch size was two; eggs were laid early in the morning and in all cases one per day. Incubation sometimes began with the first egg and lasted 15–16 days. Only the female incubated, and she covered the eggs for about 75% of the daylight hours and throughout the night. Egg hatching was asynchronous, with the first young emerging early in the morning and the second not until later that same day.

Only the female brooded, and the rate declined until day 15 when essentially it stopped. Both parents fed the young by regurgitation, and the number of feedings per hour decreased slightly over the nestling period. It is thought that insects and finely masticated plant material formed the bulk of the nestling diet until about day 5 when mamane seeds became important. Helpers were found at one nest. Young developed slowly and did not leave the nest until 21–27 days old. It is believed that these prolonged nestling periods were able to evolve because of the (former) absence of ground predators. After fledging, young remained with their parents for at least 30 days.

Productivity was regulated by small clutch size, low population numbers and by the length of an individual nesting sequence (in that a pair could potentially raise only one brood each year). The primary reason for the endangered status of this bird appears to be the effect of habitat alteration upon a specialist, coupled with the fact that the small effective breeding population and low dis‐persability of the species may have resulted in decreased genetic fitness.
BEHAVIOUR OF THE ALEUTIAN GREY‐CROWNED AND BROWN‐CAPPED ROSY FINCHES LEUCOSTICTE TEPHROCOTIS
Authors: Shreeve D. F.
Published: April 2008

Visual and vocal displays of Brown‐capped Rosy Finches Leucosticte tephrocotis australis, observed in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, and of Aleutian Grey‐crowned Rosy Finches L. t. griseonucha on Adak Island, Alaska, are compared and contrasted with general behaviour among the Fringillidae.

Visual display behaviour of the two subspecies is very similar. Vocal displays, as shown by sonagrams, are by comparison divergent. Most of the sound energy in the flock call of griseonucha is concentrated in a single band of frequencies. The range of these frequencies is small, and the call is whistle‐like to the human ear. The flock call of australis, more like that of other finch species, consists of three major bands of frequencies. Based on this difference, it is hypothesized that the flock call of griseonucha may be specialized for penetration of high background noise, which characterizes the windy environment of the Aleutians. In ambient noise that extends across the frequency range of the flock calls, the narrow‐range flock call of griseonucha is relatively high in signal/noise ratio. Some divergence in vocal display may also result from social mimicry in the respective habitats. The flight call of australis is click‐like, and more like the flight call of the 8ympatric Violet‐green Swallow Tachycineta thallasinea than that of griseonucha or of descriptions of the flight call of other finches.

The two races differ also in general breeding habits. The breeding season, from first sexual chasing to fledging of young, in griseonucha spans nearly seven months; the study population was sedentary. In australis, individuals migrate in summer to alpine breeding grounds, and the events of breeding occur within about two months. Males were observed to feed their mates during the nesting period, in both races. Male and female fed the young and removed excreta from the nest, with about equal frequency.

Both australis and griseonucha have marked excesses of males in the mature populations, but both are monogamous. It is considered that the unbalanced sex ratio may have selective effects on the behaviour associated with reproductive activity.
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE LITTLE AUKALLE ALLEIN WEST GREENLAND
Authors: Evans P. G. H.
Published: April 2008

A study of the breeding biology, feeding ecology, and behaviour of the Little Auk was carried out on Horse Head Island (73° 38′ N, 57° 08′ W) in west Greenland between July and August 1974. Distinct subcolony groups were recognized within the colony. During incubation, attendance at the colony increased to a peak between 2100 and 2400 h, with large rafts building up on the sea before engaging in aerial flights and then settling on land. During the nestling period, this pattern changed with further peaks at 0600 and 1800 h, and a decline during the afternoon, particularly during the late nestling period.

Little Auks fed exclusively on copepods and amphipods (94%Calanus finmarchicus) usually captured within 2.5 km of the colony. Feeding rhythms fitted closely the known diurnal vertical migrations ofCalanuswith peaks between 2200 and 0800 h. Some individuals within subcolony groups showed synchrony of feeds, mainly between 1800 and 2400 h. The mean number of feeds to a chick in 24 h was 5.25. Growth rates of young were comparable between all four experimental groups and controls, although the latter attained higher weights. Mean daily weight increases were constant until 18 days of age when they declined sharply. This was not reflected in a change in mean daily weight increases with date and so suggests that food availability had not declined. Instead there was a reduced feeding rate to chicks from age 21 days to fledging.

Breeding success was 50 %, mainly the result of egg desertion and predation by Arctic Foxes, and this may have been reduced by our own activities. Behaviour postures and the responses they elicited are described together with the diurnal patterns of different activities. Aerial flights are also described and their possible function discussed.

It is concluded that the shortness of the time when abundant food is available has encouraged close breeding synchrony and this is achieved by mass flights and rafting on the sea beside the colony, and subdivision of the colony into groups with communal behaviour close to the nests.
BODY SIZE, ITS HERITABILITY AND INFLUENCE ON JUVENILE SURVIVAL AMONG GREAT TITS, PARUS MAJOR
Authors: Garnett M. C.
Published: April 2008

This paper reports on part of a three‐year study into the biological significance of variation in body size of individuals from a single population of Great Tits in Wytham Woods near Oxford, from 1973 to 1976. It is a reasonable hypothesis that the body size of an individual is controlled partly by heredity and partly by environmental factors. Genetical factors by themselves are shown to account for nearly three‐quarters of the total observed phenotypic variance of body size. Of the likely environmental factors considered, only the date of hatching (in 1973) and an annual difference in body size are shown to have significant effects.

Previous workers have shown that heavier fledglings have a better chance of surviving the immediate post‐fledging period than lighter fledglings (e.g., Perrins 1965). It had been postulated that this differential survival rate might be due to variations in the fat reserves of fledglings. However, the data presented here suggest that this hypothesis is unlikely, and that the body size of fledglings has a more significant influence. The aggressive behaviour of fledgling Great Tits towards one another may be the mechanism responsible for this since it is shown that larger fledglings tend to dominate smaller fledglings.
CLUTCH SIZES AND BREEDING STRATEGIES AMONG BERMUDAN AND NORTH AMERICAN PASSERINES
Authors: Crowell Kenneth L. , Rothstein Stephen I.
Published: April 2008

Evidence for reduction of clutch size in insular passerines is presented. Average clutch sizes for the Catbird, Cardinal and White‐eyed Vireo were reduced 14.0, 18.2 and 30.7%, respectively as compared with coastal North American populations from similar latitudes. Differences are highly significant. Clutch size in the Eastern Bluebird was not reduced. Trends in latitudinal and longitudinal variations of clutch size in North America are examined. With the exception of a slight latitudinal gradient in coastal populations, no consistent trends existed. There is no evidence for reduced variability in clutch size or increased egg size in the Bermudan populations, but both these parameters may show some response to combined effects of latitude and longitude in continental populations.

Reduction of clutch size in insular nidicolous birds is consistent with both the Lack‐Ashmole resource limitation hypothesis and Cody's energy allocation hypothesis. In the absence of experimental evidence for life history optimization in response to K‐selection, the modified Lack hypothesis seems sufficient.
A SOCIO‐ECOLOGY OF MAGPIES PICA PICA
Authors: Vines Gail
Published: April 2008

The behaviour and ecology of unmarked Magpies Pica pica living in the Cotswolds were investigated over 18 months. The spacing of nests was significantly more regular than random and breeding pairs defended territories throughout the year. In winter pairs occasionally left territories to feed with non‐breeding birds which flocked throughout the year.

Magpies in flocks had a higher averiage feeding rate than birds alone or in pairs. Aggression rates in flocks increased as birds fed closer together and as food patches became richer.

Agonistic interactions between Crows Corvus corone and Magpies were common; Crows frequently dominated Magpies in disputes over food, and Crows also ate Magpie eggs and young. Single Magpies were most often chased by Crows while Magpies in flocks were able to feed longer in the presence of Crows.

Differences in fledgling success among breeding pairs were related to the location of nests; Magpie pairs breeding near Crow nests suffered higher rates of agonistic encounters with Crows and also produced fewer fledglings than did Magpies breeding at greater distances from Crow nests. Magpie nests were located nearer human habitations than were Crow nests.