bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fatwa DSN MUI In Managing The Dispute Settlement Of Sharia Economic In Indonesia Through Basyarnas
Authors: Radliyah Nunung , Musjtari Dewi Nurul , Setyowati Ro'fah
Published: May 2020

Sharia Council is an institution that plays a role in securing the standard of Sharia in every Islamic Financial institution in the world. In Indonesia, the role is conducted by the National Sharia Council (DSN) established by the Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI) in 1998, strengthened by the Decree of the MUI Leadership Board. Kep-754/MUI/II/1999 dated February 10, 1999. The existence of MUI DSN in managing the settlement of sharia banking disputes has not been fully recognized by the people of Indonesia. It can be seen in the implementation of sharia contracting in sharia banking has not yet decided dispute resolution option through National Syariah Arbitration Board (BASYARNAS). The purpose of writing a paper is to know the legal basis of the binding force of the Fatwa DSN in arranging the settlement of dispute Sharia Economy in Indonesia through BASYARNAS and its consequences for the Islamic financial institutions (LKS) who disobey the fatwa DSN. This research is a normative research with the philosophical, juridical and sociological approach. Data analysis with qualitative descriptive. The results of this study indicate that the legal basis of the power of the DSN Fatwa in regulating the settlement of Sharia Banking disputes is Article 26 of Law No. 21 Th. 2008 and Article 31 of Decree of the Board of Managing Directors of Bank Indonesia Number 32/34/1999. There will a negative impact for LKS do not comply with the content of the DSN Fatwa, such as the difficulty in carry out its activities, aside of negatively influencing the performance and level of credibility of DPS in LKS.
The Effectiveness Of Islamic Law Implementation To Address Cyber Crime: Studies In Arab, Brunei Darussalam, And China
Authors: Hasanah Uswatun
Published: May 2020

Technology development cause crime in the world that keep fluctuating and changing.  Cyber crime is one of crime activities which takes place in the internet and develop fast globally, even faster than the conventional crime. Cyber crime is not only about computer-crime, cyber-terrrorist, cyber-narco-terrorist, but also capable to make impact toward state economy. This paper aims to understand the implementation of Islamic law or Islamic criminal law to see cyber crime. Islamic criminal law has been developed many years ago before arrival of information technology. This paper describes how Arab, Brunei Darussalam, and China reduce crime by adoption of islamic law. Islamic law what meant here is a law based on Islam, not a law made by Muslims then applied by Muslims. Islamic law can be practiced in every single country, although they don’t declare explicitly or they think that what have they done is not islamic law. Islamic law contains general principles to respon and develop efficient ways to overcome cyber-crime.
Menakar Progresivitas Hukum Wakaf dalam Pengembangan Wakaf Uang di Indonesia
Authors: Efendi Mansur
Published: May 2020

This study explained the progressivity of waqf law in Indonesia, especially cash waqf development. The progressivity of waqf law is good enough to respond to global challenges or field needs. The progressivity of waqf law in Indonesia can be observed from the development of waqf’s act regulations from pre-independence era until the post-reformation era. In cash waqf, there is fundamental law progressivity. It marked by act No. 44 year 2004 about waqf. Those act described new paradigm must be built on waqf management in Indonesia.  Furthermore, those act also gave a space for cash waqf as a part of waqf development in Indonesia. Another progressivity which appeared in those act is waqf treasure object. Act No. 44 year 2004 confirmed that waqf treasure object is not only immovable object,  as public understanding, but also applied on the movable object. Furthermore, the progressivity of waqf law has reached on waqf management and its institutional aspect. At least, this progressivity described collective awareness on the strategic role of waqf in Indonesia’s economics.
Kebijakan Pemerintah Kabupaten Sukoharjo dalam Menciptakan Iklim Investasi yang Kondusif
Authors: Dona Fery
Published: May 2020

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kebijakan Pemerintah Daerah Kabupaten Sukoharjo dalam menciptakan iklim investasi yang kondusif, dan untuk mengetahui apa saja hambatan yang dihadapi Pemerintah Daerah Kabupaten Sukoharjo dalam menciptakan iklim investasi yang kondusif.Penelitian ini menggunakan jenis penelitian empiris, yang diteliti pada awalnya adalah data sekunder kemudian dilanjutkan dengan penelitian terhadap data primer. Analisis data menggunakan deskripsi kualitatif, yaitu hasil pengelolahan data kualitatif ini digambarkan dengan kalimat dipisahkan berdasarkan kategori untuk memperoleh kesimpulan.Hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa kebijakan Pemerintah Daerah Kabupaten Sukoharjo dalam menciptakan iklim investasi yang kondusif antara lain membangun gedung pusat promosi potensi daerah, menetapkan Peraturan Bupati No. 38 tahun 2015 tentang Rencana Umum Penanaman Modal Kabupaten Sukoharjo tahun 2015-2025, menetapkan Peraturan Bupati Sukoharjo No. 2 tahun 2017 tentang Standar Pelayanan Pada Dinas Penanaman Modal dan Pelayanan Terpadu Satu Pintu Kabupaten Sukoharjo, menetapkan Peraturan Bupati Sukoharjo No. 4 tahun 2017 tentang Layanan Perizinan Online dan Secara  Mandiri di Kabupaten Sukoharjo, menetapkan Peraturan Bupati Sukoharjo No. 32 tahun 2017 tentang Pendelegasian Kewenangan Di Bidang Perizinan dan Non Perizinan Kepada Kepala Dinas Penanaman Modal dan Pelayanan Terpada Satu Pintu, menetapkan Peraturan Bupati Sukoharjo No. 1 tahun 2018 tentang Perubahan Atas Peraturan Daerah Kabupaten Sukoharjo No. 14 tahun 2011 tentang Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah Kabupaten Sukoharjo tahun 2011-2031, mengikuti promosi investasi. Kemudian juga diperoleh hasil mengenai hambatan yang dihadapi Pemerintah Daerah Kabupaten Sukoharjo dalam menciptakan iklim investasi yang kondusif antara lain Sukoharjo belum mempunyai terminal  peti kemas, ada penolakan dari masyarakat terhadap izin tertentu salah satunya adalah izin menara telekomunikasi, adanya protes dari masyarakat kepada pelaku usaha yang disebabkan kelalaian pelaku usaha.
Kajian Metodologis Terhadap Fatwa MUI Tentang Rokok
Authors: Firmansyah Heri
Published: May 2020

Salah satu yang dihasilkan oleh ijtima Ulama Komisi Fatwa se-Indonesia III yang di adakan oleh MUI pada tahun 2009 di Padang Pajang adalah fatwa mengenai rokok. Di dalam fatwa yang dikeluarkan MUI, ada tiga poin ketentuan hukum mengenai hukum rokok, yaitu pertama mereka sepakat akan adanya perbedaan mengenai hukum merokok yaitu antara makruh dan haram. Kedua, peserta ijtima sepakat memberikan amanah kepada MUI Pusat untuk menetapkan fatwa kemakruhan atau keharaman rokok. Ketiga, dalam ijtima’ ulama tersebut disepakati bahwa hukum merokok haram bagi empat hal yaitu merokok di tempat umum, bagi anak-anak, bagi wanita hamil dan bagi pengurus Majelis Ulama Indonesia. Artikel ini berupaya untuk meneliti fatwa MUI tersebut dari sisi metodologinya. One of the results produced by Ijtima’ Ulama of the Indonesian Fatwa Commission III which was held by the MUI (Indonesian Ulema Council) in 2009 in Padang Pajang was a fatwa concerning smoking. In the fatwa issued by the MUI, there are three points in the legal provisions regarding the cigarette law, namely first they agreed that there would be a difference regarding the smoking law, namely between makruh and haram. Secondly, the ijtima participants agreed to give the mandate to the Central MUI to establish a fatwa for the makruh or haram of smoking. Third, the ijtima’ ulama agreed that smoking law is illegal for four things, namely smoking in public places, for children, for pregnant women and for the members of the Indonesian Ulema Council. This article seeks to examine the MUI fatwa in terms of its methodology.
Implementasi Hermeneutika Amina Wadud atas Bias Politik Gender dalam Syariat: Rekonstruksi Aurat pada Pria
Authors: Suheri Suheri , Yahuda Robbin Dayyan
Published: May 2020

Political Gender bias hints at the marginality of women under the control of men. Women seem to never move from the shackles of male dominance in all aspects, not least Syari'at religion. Imam Mazhab organize the woman's nakedness on all parts of the body except the face, palms and soles of the feet. And the opposite, men strip the body, except between the navel to the knee. Ideal moral distortion is clearly appear at this point, where the prevention of adultery against the fornication is contrary to the facts. Surveys prove that 7 parts of a man's body which not used in the limits of the genitals, potentialy stimulate women sexual. Thus, the reconstruction of the male aurat is necessary for potential change in Gender Politics bias.This study seeks to launch a new discourse for overcome Gender Political bias in Shari'ah. The study is based on hermeneutics of suspicious that initiated by Amina Wadud as one of the initiators of gender equality. Methods of data analysis are qualitative, referring to previous research results and mixed with other data sources. Three variables are presented in this study: first, the explanation of Amina Wadud's hermeneutics. Second, the disclosure of gender-bias evidence in Shari'ah. Third, the implementation of Amina Wadud’s Hermeneutic on the Political bias in Shari'ah, which contains the reconstruction offer on the Male aurat. The novelty side of the study lies in the reconstruction of male aurat and the use of Amina Wadud’s Hermeneutic as a blow to the analysis of male problems, where prior research has only focused on women's issues.
Islamic Family Law Reform: Early Marriage and Criminalization (A Comparative Study of Legal Law in Indonesia and Pakistan)
Authors: Abubakar Fatum
Published: May 2020

In this paper I want to compare of legal law in Indonesia and Pakistan about early marriage. In Indonesia, marriage law No. 1/ 1974 explained that the limit of age of marriage is sixteen (16) years for women and nineteen (19) years for men. In Pakistan, after the 1961 MFLO amendment, Pakistan established the minimum age of marriage under the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929, is eighteen (18) years for men and sixteen (16) years for women. In addition to Law No. 1 of 1974, in Indonesia, the KHI is clearly repeating Article 15 Paragraph (2), for candidates who have not reached the age of 21 years, they must obtain permission as provided in Article 6 Paragraph (2), (3), (4), and (5) of Law No. 1 year 1974. Otherwise, in Indonesia this regulation is slower than other perversions country that I mention. The questions in this paper are; first, why does the legislation of Indonesia provides dispensation of marriage in the Court for prospective couples under the age of marriage? Second, why does Pakistan's legislation give prison sanctions and penalties for married couples under the age of marriage? Thirdly, why does the legislation of Indonesia and Pakistan implement different determination of law for early marriage? The conclusion; if both prospective brides are still below the minimum age for marriage, the parents of the two brides-to-be may submit a marriage dispensation in a religious court. Dispensation of this marriage is regulated in Minister of Religious Affairs Regulation No. 3 year 1975, specifically for people who are Moslems. This matter the marriage law also provides an outlet as a solution if the minimum age requirement is not met. Otherwise, In Pakistan, Historically; the marriage of children is in conflict between those who feel established and those who want change by reforming their family law. So, MFLO 1961 came out of the outcome of the change of the Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 to sanction marriage with fines and imprisonment for married couples who are married under the minimum age set for marriage. Even sanctions are given for parents, guardian, and marriage organizers as well as even more than the sanctions given to his son. Even if the renewal of Islamic law in the Indonesia have been done. Indonesia is somewhat late in doing Islamic law reform than Pakistan.
Monodualistik Penanganan Tindak Pidana Pelecehan Seksual Perspektif Pembaharuan Hukum Acara Pidana Indonesia
Authors: Susila Jaka
Published: May 2020

Penelitian ini bertujuan : (1) Untuk mengetahui bagaimana penanganan kasus kejahatan pelecehan seksual (2) Untuk mengetahui sejauhmana negara dalam mengedepankan perlindungan hak bagi korban pelecehan seksual (3) Untuk mengetahui gagasan dasar perlindungan hukum terhadap korban kejahatan pelecehan seksual sebagai proses dalam pembaharuan hukum acara pidana (KUHAP) di Indonesia.Metode  yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini metode analisis-deskriptif (analytical-descriftif method). Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kepustakaan (library research) an sich yang bersifat literer,  sekaligus bersifat field research (penelitian lapangan). Sifat library research artinya penelitian ini akan didasarkan pada data tertulis yang  berkaitan dengan kejahatan asusila atau seksualitas.Hasil penelitian pada penanganan kasus pelecehan seksual menunjukkan bahwa belum sepenuhnya memberikan efek jera bagi pelaku pelecehan seksual. Hal ini menjadi perhatian penting bagi penanganan korban pelecehan seksual sehingga tidak hanya menjadi langkah kuratif namun juga preventif dengan menekan niat pelaku pelecehan seksual. Dalam hal lain, sistem perlindungan hukum yang saat ini berjalan terhadap korban belum sepenuhnya mengembalikan luka baik psikologis maupun fisik setelah mengalami pelecehan seksual. Hal ini seharusnya menjadi perhatian penting bagi sistem hukum untuk tidak hanya memberikan perlindungan hukum selama proses hukum, namun juga mengembalikan martabat korban seperti sediakala. Oleh karenanya sistem hukum memberikan berbagai rekomendasi yang dapat diusulkan. Diantaranya adalah memberikan bentuk-bentuk sanksi berdasarkan perlakuan ekstern diantaranya yang diusulkan adalah hukuman kebiri serta hukuman rajam. Dimana perlakuan ekstern bertujuan untuk memberikan suatu efek jera. Pandangan lain memasukkan bahwa sistem hukum progresif dimana dalam pandangan ini maka hukum progresif menempatkan korban pelecehan seksual tidak hanya sebagai subjek namun juga menempatkan manusia yang menjadi korban tidak hanya secara fisik namun juga psikologis.
Pelaksanaan Pasal 43 Undang-Undang Nomor 41 Tahun 2004 Mengenai Pengelolaan dan Pengembangan Harta Wakaf di Pondok Modern Darussalam Gontor
Authors: Efendi Mansur
Published: May 2020

Undang-undang Nomor 41 Tahun 2004 tentang wakaf, telah memberikan ruang dalam pengelolaan wakaf produktif. Pasal 43 secara tegas menyatakan bahwa pengelolaan dan pengembangan wakaf dilakukan secara produktif. Ini menunjukkan bahwa banyak pihak berharap manfaat wakaf produktif dapat dihadirkan secara nyata dalam kehidupan. Lebih jauh, spirit dari Undang-undang wakaf ini adalah menegaskan bahwa wakaf merupakan instrument atas pengelolaan aset produktif untuk kepentingan publik. Namun kenyataannya, pengelolaan wakaf belum sepenuhnya dilakukan secara produktif. Meskipun pengelolaan wakaf secara produktif sudah dimulai, namun jumlahnya masih sedikit. Banyak pihak mengeluhkan kendala yang dihadapi dalam pengelolaan wakaf produktif. Tulisan ini ingin menggambarkan sejauhmana pelaksanaan UU No. 41 Tahun 2004, khususnya Pasal 43 yang mengupas tentang wakaf produktif di Pondok Modern Darussalam Gontor. Jauh sebelum Undang-undang wakaf diterbitkan, Pondok Gontor sudah mengembangkan wakaf produktif, yang hasilnya digunakan untuk kepentingan sosial. Pengelolaan wakaf produktif di Pondok Modern Darussalam Gontor diharapkan dapat menjadi salah satu model bagi nadzir pengelola wakaf di Indonesia. Dengan demikian, kendala teknis pengelolaan wakaf produktif setidaknya dapat dikurangi.
Implementasi Supervisi Klinis Berbasis Konsep Tri Hita Karana (THK) Untuk Meningkatkan Kinerja Guru di SD Negeri 1 Banyuning Semester Ganjil Tahun Pelajaran 2017/2018
Authors: Putriasih Ni Nyoman
Published: May 2020

Jenis penelitian ini adalah Penelitian Tindakan Sekolah yang  terdiri dari 2 siklus. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui peningkatan Kinerja Guru di SD Negeri 1 Banyuning Semester Ganjil Tahun Pelajaran 2017/2018 setelah diterapkan Supervisi Klinis Berbasis Konsep Tri Hita Karana (THK). Subjek penelitian ini adalah seluruh Guru di SD Negeri 1 Banyuning Semester Ganjil Tahun Pelajaran 2017/2018 yang berjumlah 14 orang. Metode pengumpulan data dalam peneltian ini  menggunakan  metode  observasi untuk mengumpulkan data. Data yang terkumpul kemudian  dianalisis menggunakan analisis statistik deskriptif dan metode deskriptif kuantitatif. Hasil penelitian siklus I Hasil Kinerja guru adalah pada perencanaan mencapai 74,0, pelaksanaan 73,5 dan pada penilaian mencapai 74,9. Pada siklus II hasil penelitian meningkat menjadi : pada perencanaan 87,3, pelaksanaan 88,1 dan pada penilaian mencapai 88,0. Maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa melalui Implementasi Supervisi Klinis Berbasis Konsep Tri Hita Karana (THK) dapat Meningkatkan Kinerja Guru di SD Negeri 1 Banyuning Semester Ganjil Tahun Pelajaran 2017/2018018.
Aristotle Redivivus
Authors: Ruse Michael
Published: May 2020

This chapter explains occurrences during and after the Scientific Revolution, in which the personification of nature that is at the heart of the Aristotelian philosophy had a nasty way of reappearing in the most orthodox of machine-metaphor- influenced places. Even more than mechanics, optics was riddled with final-cause thinking. Pierrre de Fermat's “principle of least time” explains Snell's law of refraction, the connection between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction. Since light going from a less dense to a denser medium is bent toward the normal, it is not going from beginning to end by the shortest distance. But assuming that light travels less quickly in a more dense than less dense medium, one can show that it does travel in the shortest time.
What Does Terrorism Accomplish? Economic, Psychological, and Political Consequences of Terrorism
Authors: Krueger Alan B.
Published: May 2020

This chapter considers the consequences of terrorism. This is the area where with the least research. The chapter offers the author's interpretation of the literature, referring along the way to some of the work that has been done. It focuses first on the economic consequences of terrorist attacks. Then the chapter turns to their psychological consequences, followed by some comments about the role of the media. It also puts the threat of terrorism into perspective by comparing it with other risks that we as a nation have faced and placing it in historical context. Finally, the chapter discusses the political impact of terrorism on the target country.
Questions and Answers Following the Lectures
Authors: Krueger Alan B.
Published: May 2020

This chapter outlines several questions as well as the author's answers following the lectures covered in the previous chapters. The topics are based on the lectures themselves, from the micro-level characteristics of individuals who participate in terrorism, to the ways terrorism emerges within society, and finally to the impacts of terrorism upon target countries. The chapter expands on the topics listed in the previous chapters. These question and answer segments also address some issues not directly tackled in the lectures, such as the coverage of terrorism from a more Middle Eastern perspective. The chapter also references some studies and materials for further clarification.
Linguistic Expats and Bounded Fluency
Authors: Neeley Tsedal
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on the Japanese linguistic expats and their linguistic shock, which initially presents a barrier to learning a foreign language. It provides the results of the seemingly insurmountable challenge at the mandate's announcement—base English language proficiency for the Japanese domestic workforce. Here, the term “linguistic expat” is used to describe employees like Kenji who live in their home country yet must give up their mother tongue when they enter their place of employment or sign into a conference call from a remote location. This chapter shows how this twist—a mismatch between language, nationality, and organizational culture—made the Japanese employees uncomfortable. Learning English, at least in the first phase, required that they form new perceptions of themselves, their company, and their jobs. The demands of the mandate made them feel anxious about their productivity and insecure about their future at Rakuten. Although the majority of the linguistic expats progressed in their acquisition of English, few were able to reach a level where fluency was automatic.
Historical Fantasies, Fantastical Myths
Authors: Miller-Idriss Cynthia
Published: May 2020

This chapter undertakes a careful analysis of commercial iconography and accompanying slogans and textual references to Norse and Germanic mythology in T-shirts and other products. It combines the analysis with interview data explaining how youth interpret the meaning of these symbols and myths. The chapter argues that the fantasy of Nordic heritage—and all the positive traits associated to be a part of that heritage—including loyalty, purity, beauty, integrity, and honesty—appeal to youth as a strategy for handling the uncertainty of the postmodern era. It shows how fantastical myths and symbols are used to directly depict or evoke a sense of loss, a sense of a particular way of life “slipping away,” or a sense of urgency around a need for preservation, survival, resurrection, or rebirth of a particular kind of nation. The chapter argues that they help to crystallize a kind of “magical thinking” about the death (or potential death) of a blood-based ancestral group. In closing, the chapter links these arguments to new theoretical work about the appeal of Nazism and fascism as rooted in the loss of stability in the global, postmodern era.
Dying for a Cause, Causing Death
Authors: Miller-Idriss Cynthia
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines historical and contemporary far right wing symbols that directly depict, reference, or evoke death or dying through reference to historical myths and legends as well as contemporary acts of violence. It traces three ways in which the far right deploys symbols of death: abstract death, specific deaths and death threats, and reference to the death of a civilization or entire way of life. The chapter argues that the iconography of death helps evoke fear and produce anxiety among viewers, in part by breaching societal taboos that deem death unspeakable and by evoking death and violence in the name of the nation. By linking depictions of weapons that can cause death; illustrations or references to blood, war, physical fighting or confrontation; or violence to a particular vision of the nation, the chapter argues that such iconography makes coded or oblique references to contemporary immigration and diversity in ways that indirectly or directly threaten members of minority and nonwhite groups. Symbols of death are thus a performative strategy to demonstrate fearlessness and suggest violence as a means to achieve nationalist or extremist goals.
Conclusion
Authors: Miller-Idriss Cynthia
Published: May 2020

This concluding chapter teases out two sets of implications illuminated in the book: one for our understanding of culture and one for our understanding of nationalism and extremism. Both implications rest on the evidence presented in the previous chapters of how the use of coded symbols can serve as a mechanism both of belonging and of resistance, helping youth feel connected to other insiders in the far right scene while simultaneously expressing resistance against mainstream society. The chapter argues that this “push and pull” of belonging and resistance ought to expand our understanding of gateways to radicalization and violence by showing how commercialized extremist products—and other “lifestyle elements” like tattoos or far right wing music—help strengthen racist, nationalist, and ideological identification and act as conduits of resistance to mainstream society. In the German case, the commercialized, coded references and symbols—many of which use humor or aggressive coded references to historical atrocities against Jews, Muslims, and others deemed not to belong—desensitize and socialize consumers and their peers and dehumanize victims. Disaffected and disenfranchised youth who enter extremist and radical scenes through their consumption of subcultural elements like tattoos, clothing, styles, or music may become gradually more involved with extremist ideologies. Far from being mere “subcultural style,” commercialized extremist products can be a gateway to extremist scenes, radicalization, and violence. Style and aesthetic representation thus need to be considered more seriously for their potential role in radicalization.
Gold Mining
Authors: Vogel David
Published: May 2020

This chapter, which begins by exploring California's early history, demonstrates the critical role played by both geography and public policy in shaping the state's early economic development, the environmental impacts of that development, and the state's efforts to address those impacts. The discovery of gold in the Sierra foothills in 1848 literally created the state of California. However, the geography of those foothills and the valley into which their rivers flowed also made gold mining one of the most environmentally destructive natural resource activities in nineteenth-century America. It sharply divided the business interests of northern California, leading to a prolonged and bitter battle between mining companies and farmers in the Sacramento Valley. This conflict was finally resolved by a federal court decision in 1884 that banned hydraulic mining—the first important environmental ruling issued by a federal court. This decision was issued in San Francisco by a California judge, illustrating the important role played by the state in the history of pollution control in the United States.
Computability
Authors: Stillwell John
Published: May 2020

This chapter develops the basic results of computability theory, many of which are about noncomputable sequences and sets, with the goal of revealing the limits of computable analysis. Two of the key examples are a bounded computable sequence of rational numbers whose limit is not computable, and a computable tree with no computable infinite path. Computability is an unusual mathematical concept, because it is most easily used in an informal way. One often talks about it in terms of human activities, such as making lists, rather than by applying a precise definition. Nevertheless, there is a precise definition of computability, so this informal description of computations can be formalized.
Rediscovering the Leninist Idea
Authors: McAdams A. James
Published: May 2020

This chapter argues that, in the first ten years after Stalin's death, the temptation to address the Soviet Union's challenges through personalistic rather than institutional means represented the single greatest impediment to the restoration of the party's authority. Under the populist leadership of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's (CPSU) first secretary, Nikita Khrushchev, the party's centrality to the USSR's future was rhetorically returned to the forefront of the regime's proclamations. Yet it was all too frequently trumped in deed by the “great man” principle. The same dictatorial proclivity was present throughout the communist world, especially in the People's Democracies of Eastern Europe. In the wake of their mentor's passing, “little Stalins,” like Walter Ulbricht in East Germany, Bolesław Bierut in Poland, and Mátyás Rákosi in Hungary, were acutely aware of their vulnerability. Accordingly, although they paid tribute to the concept of collective leadership, they simultaneously subverted it.
The Party Comes Back
Authors: McAdams A. James
Published: May 2020

This chapter looks back at the diverse efforts to maintain order in the communist world. Here, one might reasonably credit the Soviet regime and its “small bloc” allies with seriously attempting to preserve some of the international movement's original ideals. In an important way, “developed socialism” meant that their populations could expect to enjoy relatively decent lives. Nonetheless, the chapter contends that the primacy of single-party rule made it increasingly difficult to sustain the basic elements of the Brezhnev consensus. Despite the best efforts of socialist planners to modernize their economies, these regimes could not keep up with their citizens' rising expectations. As conditions grew more uncertain, party members undercut their credibility by seeking to insulate themselves from these trials and using their positions to their exclusive benefit.
The Party in Peril
Authors: McAdams A. James
Published: May 2020

This chapter describes the decline of the communist party and its attempts to salvage major disasters, such as the Chernobyl fallout. Unlike in the preceding decades of communist rule, when they could supplement a Marxist interpretation of their conditions with references to looming threats to national security, Cold War tensions, and economic perils, the credibility of these rationales had faded. This is not to say that opponents of significant change were equally disadvantaged in other parts of the communist world. In the case of China, the chapter highlights, the regime managed to defend its rule. But China's leaders faced a different type of party crisis and responded with a different remedy—the use of brute force—that neither the Soviet Union's leader nor his Eastern European allies dared to implement. Otherwise, the need for the vanguard that had made sense in its original European and Russian contexts vanished.
“Si Vis Pacem”
Authors: Mitchell A. Wess
Published: May 2020

This chapter explores the outworkings of geography and administrative complexity on Habsburg conceptions of military force and political power more broadly. The Habsburg Monarchy’s physical and political geography shaped how its leaders thought about war. Austria’s position at the heart of Europe dictated that it would be a continental power and thus need large land armies to achieve security. But encirclement by powerful rivals meant that Austria could not defend all of its frontiers simultaneously using military force alone. Internal complexities placed further limitations on the size and capabilities of Habsburg armies, curtailing their utility as offensive instruments. Together, these constraints influenced Habsburg strategic behavior by encouraging the development of defensive conceptions of force that sought to avoid risk when possible, highlighting gaps that would need to be filled to augment the monarchy’s weak military capabilities, and prompting the systematic development of strategy as a tool for coping with Austria’s difficult environment, with a particular emphasis on managing the time parameters of competition and avoiding the full impact of the virtually limitless threats facing the monarchy.
Harvest of Briars
Authors: Mitchell A. Wess
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines the competition with the Ottoman Empire and Russia, from the reconquest of Hungary to Joseph II’s final Turkish war. On its southern and eastern frontiers, the Habsburg Monarchy contended with two large land empires: a decaying Ottoman Empire, and a rising Russia determined to extend its influence on the Black Sea littorals and Balkan Peninsula. In balancing these forces, Austria faced two interrelated dangers: the possibility of Russia filling Ottoman power vacuums that Austria itself could not fill, and the potential for crises here, if improperly managed, to fetter Austria’s options for handling graver threats in the west. In dealing with these challenges, Austria deployed a range of tools over the course of the eighteenth century. In the first phase (1690s–1730s), it deployed mobile field armies to alleviate Turkish pressure on the Habsburg heartland before the arrival of significant Russian influence. In the second phase (1740s–70s), Austria used appeasement and militarized borders to ensure quiet in the south while focusing on the life-or-death struggles with Frederick the Great. In the third phase (1770s–90s), it used alliances of restraint to check and keep pace with Russian expansion, and recruit its help in comanaging problems to the north. Together, these techniques provided for a slow but largely effective recessional, in which the House of Austria used cost-effective methods to manage Turkish decline and avoid collisions that would have complicated its more important western struggles.
Barricades of Time
Authors: Mitchell A. Wess
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines Austria at its post-Napoleonic peak, assessing congress diplomacy and the pecuniary, forts-based system that undergirded it. The Habsburg Monarchy emerged from the Napoleonic Wars in a position of unprecedented strength. In the postwar settlement at the Congress of Vienna, Austria regained lost territories to form an expanded empire whose possessions and dependencies stretched from Venice to Cracow. To protect these enlarged holdings, Habsburg leaders extrapolated on past frontier strategies to build a European-wide security system based on two broad components: a reorganized and fortified network of buffer territories integrating neighboring lands into Austrian defense; and elaborate diplomatic structures that mediated conflict and co-opted rivals into the joint management of Habsburg buffers. The resulting “Vienna system” mitigated the time pressure of managing multiple frontiers while converting long-standing enemies into participants in the maintenance of Austrian power. This, in turn, obviated the need for large standing military commitments on the scale that would have been demanded to manage Austria’s sprawling position through force alone. The apogee of Habsburg strategic statecraft, this system of security endowed Austria with many of the attributes of hegemony at an affordable cost to itself, while creating conditions of European stability that lasted for half a century.
Between Hammer and Anvil
Authors: Mitchell A. Wess
Published: May 2020

This chapter traces the breakdown of the Metternichian system, from the time of the revolution of 1848 and Crimean War to the debilitating defeats by Italy in 1859 and Prussia in 1866. In the middle decades of the nineteenth century, the Habsburg Monarchy suffered defeats in a series of short, sharp wars that would bring an end to the Metternich system and pave the way for Austria’s demise as a Great Power. These changes occurred not primarily because of economic decay or the empire’s internal complexity but instead because Austria lost the tools that it had used in the past to manage the sequencing and duration of its wars. This was the result of both structural changes beyond its leaders’ control and avoidable errors and a deviation from the principles that had formerly shaped its past statecraft. Specifically, Austria’s leaders abandoned the flexible statecraft that had allowed them to control conflict sequencing and avoid isolation; rivals adopted new technologies that denied the monarchy’s armies the ability to use attrition and terrain to prolong conflict and outlast stronger militaries; and nationalism trumped treaty rights as a source of territorial legitimacy, allowing hostile polities to form in the areas that had previously served as the monarchy’s buffer zones. Deprived of its traditional strategic toolbox, Austria was forced by its strongest rival to accept cohabitation with its strongest ethnic minority and for the first time had to absorb the full costs of managing a 360-degree defensive position.
The Habsburg Legacy
Authors: Mitchell A. Wess
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses the Habsburg grand strategy. The Habsburg Empire had an especially pressing need to engage in the pursuit of grand strategy because of its vulnerable location and the unavailability of effective offensive military instruments with which to subdue the threats around its frontiers. Weakness is provocative, and apathy is rarely rewarded in even the most forgiving of strategic environments. For an impecunious power in the vortex of east-central European geopolitics, these traits, if permitted to coexist for long, would lead to the extinction of the state. This was the signal lesson from the wars of the eighteenth century, which had culminated in a succession struggle that saw a militarily weak Austria dangerously bereft of allies invaded from three directions and almost destroyed. These experiences spurred Habsburg leaders to conceptualize and formalize the matching of means to large ends in anticipation of future threats. The result was a conservative grand strategy that used alliances, buffer states, and a defensive army to manage multifront dynamics, avoid strains beyond Austria’s ability to bear, and preserve an independent European center under Habsburg leadership.
Cold War
Authors: Robinson Geoffrey B.
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines the role of foreign powers in the October 1, 1965 incident. It argues that the wider international context, in particular the rhetoric and logic of the Cold War and anticolonial nationalism, affected the contours of Indonesian politics, making it more militant and polarized. In addition, that general atmosphere, together with the actions of major powers elsewhere in the region and beyond, contributed to political conditions inside Indonesia in which a seizure of power by the army was much more likely to occur. In creating this atmosphere of polarization and crisis, several major powers played some part, including China. Yet it was overwhelmingly the United States, the United Kingdom, and their closest allies that played the central roles.
Release, Restrict, Discipline, and Punish
Authors: Robinson Geoffrey B.
Published: May 2020

This chapter argues that the decision to release most political detainees was the result of a major international campaign undertaken by human rights organizations in the mid-1970s. That campaign succeeded in large part because it coincided with significant changes in global norms and attitudes pertaining to human rights as well as the position of the U.S. government, and came at a time when Indonesia was vulnerable to outside economic pressures. The chapter makes clear, however, that there was powerful resistance to the idea of releasing these prisoners—and an insistence on the continued need to protect the body politic from the “latent danger of Communism”—particularly on the part of the army leadership. As a consequence, even after prisoners were released, they and their families continued to suffer egregious restrictions, formal and informal, on every aspect of their lives. The formal restrictions continued until the end of the New Order in 1998, but the deep social and psychological legacies have lasted much longer. Finally, the chapter makes the case that the onerous restrictions on released prisoners were part of a more general obsession on the part of the New Order regime with creating and maintaining order, discipline, and stability.
Violence, Legacies, Silence
Authors: Robinson Geoffrey B.
Published: May 2020

This chapter draws together the main threads of the story and argument, and suggests some of their broader implications. It does so by returning to the three central questions posed at the outset: How can we explain the violence? What have been its consequences? And why has so little been said or done about it in the past half century? While focusing on the Indonesian story, the chapter also points to some ways in which that experience might inform our general understanding of the logic of mass killing and incarceration, the legacies of such violence, and the ways in which it is dealt with over time.
The Empire of International Legalism
Authors: Hurd Ian
Published: May 2020

This concluding chapter argues that the international rule of law is a structure of political authority. It creates a hierarchy in international affairs in which legal obligations are superior and governments are subordinate. The structure depends on and is reinforced by the widespread practice of legal justification by states. Within that structure, international law is at once constraining, empowering, and constituting of the foreign policies of governments. The chapter uses the language of “empire” to describe this structure. It is a centralized and hierarchical system that unites its subjects under a single political authority, the empire of international legalism. Under the empire of international legalism, policy must be made consistent with legal obligations. However, this just means that foreign policy decisions have to come with legal reasons, and political disputes turn into arguments over what the law permits or forbids. In theory, one cannot say what the results will be.
Herbert Hoover, the “New Era,” and American Foreign Policy, 1921–1929
Authors: Leffler Melvyn P.
Published: May 2020

This chapter reveals that Herbert C. Hoover was a “forgotten progressive.” In the 1970s, his place in American history was being reconceived by historians, who argued that Hoover was not the heartless and dogmatic conservative who waged relentless war against the New Deal. Trained as an engineer, widely traveled, and committed to scientific management, Hoover wanted to use knowledge to transcend class divisions and national rivalries without overextending the reach of government. Serving as an adviser to President Woodrow Wilson during World War I and orchestrating the distribution of relief after the conflict, he believed that the system of democratic capitalism was beleaguered by mass politics and the ideological appeal of rival systems of political economy. He wanted to safeguard the American way of life, the defining quality of which was individual opportunity. He believed that to achieve this goal he had to encourage businessmen, workers, and farmers to see that their interests could be served through voluntary cooperation.
Mansā Mūsā and Global Mali
Authors: Gomez Michael A.
Published: May 2020

This chapter describes Mali's most legendary figure: Mansā Mūsā. A remarkable period of stability and expansion ensued under Mansā Mūsā, resulting in a West Africa at its pinnacle. Mūsā would embrace Islam emphatically, breaking with predecessors by building mosques in key cities, laying the foundation for Mali's reputation as a Muslim land. Islam would soon become a principal cultural signifier, articulating a realm of growing ethnic diversity while compensating for an imperial presence guided by a minimalist theory of governance. For all of Mūsā's accomplishments, however, he would never fully escape rumors of matricide and intrigue. But in paying close attention to what the sources say, it is as critical to note what they do not say, which leads to the stunning realization that the very zenith of the Malian moment is essentially disregarded in the oral traditions.
Of Clerics and Concubines
Authors: Gomez Michael A.
Published: May 2020

This chapter argues that while the religious leaders of Timbuktu and Jenne enjoyed unrivaled prestige, there were other actors who, though receiving scant attention in the secondary materials, were nonetheless significant figures. Specifically, holy men associated with the Mori Koyra community played influential roles, as did royal women, including, and especially, the royal concubines. Indeed, women were a critical component of the askia's strategy in realizing an ethnic pluralism that would transform relations between the clan and the state, such that loyalties to the former could be accommodated within the latter. Buoyed by a resurgent economy, stellar scholarship, and the reconfiguration of political fealty, Songhay experienced a new age of cosmopolitanism. With so many accomplishments, it is little wonder Askia Muḥammad is revered as one of the most important leaders in West African history, his policies a template for Muslim reformers for centuries to come.
Holy Nations?
Authors: Stanley Brian
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses the relationship between Christianity and nationalism. The twentieth century—and in particular the years after the First World War—saw the global diffusion of the European idea of the nation-state and the corresponding spread of mass nationalist sentiment. As Western colonial intrusion into the economies of Asia and Africa deepened, Asian and African peoples drew on a wide variety of ideas and strategies in pursuit of a goal that was increasingly defined as “national” liberation from alien rule. From the dawn of the twentieth century, nationalism and Christianity, at least in its traditional Western forms, were set on a collision course. In point of fact, at least during the first two decades of the century, nationalism was not generally aligned in opposition to Christianity, nor even to Western thought as a whole, for the simple reason that the educated elites who pioneered the first Asian and African nationalist movements were often the product of mission education and took many of their ideas from Western ideological sources. Indeed, right through the century, there remain a few striking exceptional cases of a continuing, or even growing, convergence between Christian and nationalist identities, both in Europe and beyond it. The chapter then considers two such examples. The first, that of Korea, is largely Protestant in character; the other, Poland, is decidedly Catholic.
The Voice of Your Brother’s Blood
Authors: Stanley Brian
Published: May 2020

The chapter assesses the systematic violence inflicted on Jews in Nazi Germany and on Tutsis in Rwanda in 1994. What was arguably novel about the twentieth-century phase in the long history of the brutality that human beings have periodically shown to each other was the ideological prominence that was repeatedly given to the spurious idea of “race” as a legitimating basis for systematic violence. The approximately 6 million Jews who were slaughtered in the Holocaust or Shoah, and the 800,000 to 1 million Tutsi and Hutu who were killed in Rwanda in 1994, died because they belonged to an ethnic category whose very existence was deemed to threaten the health and even survival of the nation to which they belonged. Indeed, ideas of racial difference played a more prominent part in the history of collective human violence than in previous centuries. It is also undeniable that the churches in many cases proved receptive to such ideas to an extent that poses uncomfortable questions for Christian theology. For Christians, what is doubly disturbing about the unprecedented scale and rate of ethnic killing in these two cases is the seeming impotence of their faith to resist the destructive power of racial hatred. Ultimately, the two holocausts—in Nazi Germany and in Rwanda—both tell a depressing story of widespread, though never total, capitulation by churches and Christian leaders to the insidious attractions of racial ideology, and of the habitual silence or inaction of many Christians in the face of observed atrocities.