bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
In Defence of the Human Being
Authors: Fuchs Thomas
Published: October 2021

With the progress of artificial intelligence, the digitalization of the lifeworld, and the reduction of the mind to neuronal processes, the human being appears more and more as a product of data and algorithms. Thus, we conceive ourselves “in the image of our machines,” and conversely, we elevate our machines and our brains to new subjects. At the same time, demands for an enhancement of human nature culminate in transhumanist visions of taking human evolution to a new stage. Against this self-reification of the human being, the present book defends a humanism of embodiment: our corporeality, vitality, and embodied freedom are the foundations of a self-determined existence, which uses the new technologies only as means instead of submitting to them. The book offers an array of interventions directed against a reductionist naturalism in various areas of science and society. As an alternative, it offers an embodied and enactive account of the human person: we are neither pure minds nor brains, but primarily embodied, living beings in relation with others. This general concept is applied to issues such as artificial intelligence (AI), transhumanism and enhancement, virtual reality, neuroscience, embodied freedom, psychiatry, and finally to the accelerating dynamics of current society which lead to an increasing disembodiment of our everyday life. The book thus applies cutting-edge concepts of embodiment and enactivism to current scientific, technological, and cultural tendencies that will crucially influence our society’s development in the twenty-first century.
The Great Stoic Revival
Authors: Sherman Nancy
Published: October 2021

Why is Stoicism the new Zen of the West now? In part, the need for finding calm is ever pressing. In the tech world, work weeks can be manic, the lead-up to new funding rounds even tougher, and the pressure to design products that are both user-friendly and examples of smart engineering leads to stress and burnout. Stoicism offers lifehacks for detoxing from anxiety and stress. For the alt-right, it has the additional badge of being a philosophy of “dead white men.” The Covid-19 pandemic added a new layer of anxiety as people faced stresses from social isolation, job losses, massive death, and basic fear. The pandemic made clear that people need ways of preparing themselves, emotionally and psychologically, for worst-case scenarios. Individuals are hungry for ways of dialing down anxiety and tempering despair. Stoicism is an uncanny mix of a philosophy of empowerment and a philosophy of accepting what lies beyond full human control with equanimity. The book distills lessons for modern resilience with concrete meditation guides for the art of living well.
Can Capital Punishment Survive If Black Lives Matter?
Authors: Cholbi Michael , Madva Alex
Published: October 2021

Drawing upon empirical studies of racial discrimination, the Movement for Black Lives platform calls for the abolition of capital punishment. The authors defend the Movement’s claim that the death penalty in the United States is a “racist practice” that “devalues Black lives.” They first sketch the jurisprudential history of race and capital punishment in the United States, wherein courts have occasionally expressed worries about racial injustice but have usually called for reform rather than abolition. They argue that the racial discrimination at issue flows in part from implicit biases concerning race, criminality, and violence, which do not fit comfortably within the picture of racial bias advanced by the courts. The case for abolition rests on Black Americans as a class (not merely those who interact with the criminal justice system as capital defendants or as murder victims) being subject to such bias and thereby not being accorded equal status under the law.
Ecosocial Theory, Embodied Truths, and the People's Health
Authors: Krieger Nancy
Published: October 2021

This book employs the ecosocial theory of disease distribution to combine critical political and economic analysis with a deep engagement with biology, in societal, ecological, and historical context. It illuminates what embodying (in)justice entails and the embodied truths revealed by population patterns of health. Chapter 1 explains ecosocial theory and its focus on multilevel spatiotemporal processes of embodying (in)justice, across the lifecourse and historical generations, as shaped by the political economy and political ecology of the societies in which people live. The counter is to dominant narratives that attribute primary causal agency to people’s allegedly innate biology and their allegedly individual (and decontextualized) health behaviors. Chapter 2 discusses application of ecosocial theory to analyze: the health impacts of Jim Crow and its legal abolition; racialized and economic breast cancer inequities; the joint health impacts of physical and social hazards at work (including racism, sexism, and heterosexism) and relationship hazards (involving unsafe sex and violence); and measures of structural injustice. Chapter 3 explores embodied truths and health justice, in relation to: police violence; climate change; fossil fuel extraction and sexually transmitted infectious disease: health benefits of organic food—for whom? ; public monuments, symbols, and the people’s health; and light, vision, and the health of people and other species. The objective is to inform critical and practical research, actions, and alliances to advance health equity—and to strengthen the people’s health—in a deeply troubled world on a threatened planet.
Advancing Research on Efficacy Beliefs
Authors: Feltz Deborah L. , Beauchamp Mark R.
Published: October 2021

This chapter provides an overview of self-efficacy theory in sport and physical activity settings, including measurement issues, team dynamics and collective efficacy, and relational efficacy beliefs. Five major research questions are posed to stimulate future research. These are (a) What functional properties and directional paths work best to predict behavior in sport and physical activity contexts? (b) What measurement, methodological, and analytic advances can be used to improve our understanding of the dynamic processes involved in the relationships between efficacy beliefs and behavioral responses in physical activity contexts? (c) How might teamwork processes and structure foster improvements in collective efficacy? (d) How can we design research to disentangle the interrelationships among relational efficacy beliefs? and (e) What do the trajectories of self-efficacy beliefs look like across the life course? The importance of each question and suggestions for ways to pursue answers are provided.
Flow and Clutch States
Authors: Swann Christian , Goddard Scott , Jackman Patricia C. , Schweickle Matthew J , Vella Stewart
Published: October 2021

Increased performance and rewarding experiences are among the core goals of sport psychology. Flow, studied since the 1970s, has traditionally been viewed as the primary psychological state underlying such occasions. Recently, however, it has been suggested that research on flow is approaching a “crisis point,” and that there is a need to shift toward a more constructive program of research. Specifically, this includes consideration of “clutch states,” which share experiential characteristics with flow but occur through different contexts and processes, leading to different psychological outcomes. The similarities and differences between these states have been tentatively outlined in the Integrated Model of Flow and Clutch States. This chapter presents future directions for the study of flow and clutch states in sport, exercise, and performance psychology to help move the field beyond the “crisis point” and ultimately provide evidence-based guidance that athletes, coaches, and practitioners can use to reliably achieve these sought-after states.
Mental Skills
Authors: Collins Dave , Richards Hugh
Published: October 2021

This chapter considers issues in optimizing the impact and efficacy of mental skills training (MST). Balancing MST focus between performance, well-being, and character development is essential and requires data-driven case conceptualization. Effective professional judgment and decision-making underpins development of effective MST, enabling consideration of aspects such as timing, sequencing, and periodization, which determine the optimum “blend” of intervention techniques and delivery. Three interacting factors underpin effective application of MST. Relevant performer characteristics (e.g., gender, age, maturity) and special circumstances (injury, retirement) interact with practitioner characteristics such as level of experience, specific training, and preference/expertise with certain skills. Interactions are also influenced by cultural/contextual factors, from normative expectations of service delivery to contractual conditions and geographical locations (online/remote). The actual benefit of mental skills can only be realized when the provider both comprehends how to plan and deliver effectively and can navigate influential factors appropriately.
Health Behavior and Exercise Adherence
Authors: Razon Selen , Sachs Michael
Published: October 2021

Behavioral compliance is a fundamental problem in exercise settings. Exercise psychology is concerned with psychosocial determinants of exercise behavior. First, theories and research related to the psychology of exercise are reviewed. Next, five major unanswered questions that revolve around the most commonly studied and least understood aspects of exercise behavior are explored. Specifically, antecedents, determinants, consequences, measurement, and interindividual differences related to exercise behavior are considered. The importance of effectively answering these questions is discussed considering that physical inactivity remains the greatest public health issue of the 21st century. Finally, from a scientist-practitioner standpoint, the potential of experimental methods, systematic reviews, case reports, expert opinions, and cohort studies for approaching the unknowns and advancing the field is evaluated.
Perspectives on Language Instruction
Authors: Easterbrooks Susan R.
Published: October 2021

This chapter provides a concise view of classic and newer learning theories such as statistical/incidental learning, chunk-based language learning, and semantic/lexical field theory as they pertain to deaf and hard-of-hearing children. It investigates the problems children will face when they have not mastered a first language prior to school entry and what the teacher needs to do to address this. It describes such options as metalinguistic instruction and learning content without having first mastered the language of the textbook. It provides in detail what teachers need to know and be able to do across the multiple pathways to language learning, and defines the components of language (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics). Finally, a chapter summary and several discussion questions are provided.
The Positivity Effect
Authors: Barber Sarah J. , Kim Hyunji
Published: October 2021

As people get older they show an increased preference toward positive and/or away from negative information. This is known as the positivity effect and it is typically explained through the lens of socioemotional selectivity theory. According to this theory, as people get older they see time as more limited, and this causes them to prioritize emotion-related goals. Age-related changes in time horizons may also contribute to positivity effects. However, because positivity effects are thought to involve motivated goal pursuit, they are often theorized to require cognitive control resources. This review evaluates evidence that positivity effects are related to time horizons and to motivational priorities and are linked to individual differences in cognitive capabilities. It concludes that research has yielded mixed results about the links between positivity effects, time horizons, and cognitive capabilities, and that researchers should consider whether there are multiple pathways that lead to positivity effects.
Pakistan’s Blasphemy Laws versus Religious Pluralism
Authors: Bokhari Fatima Y.
Published: October 2021

This chapter explores the arduous relationship between legal pluralism and religious pluralism, through a historical analysis of the evolution of Pakistan’s blasphemy laws originating from the colonial era codified “offens es against religion.” Pakistan’s context, with its distinct ideological basis and experience with disrupted democratic governance, enables a distinct understanding of the role of a democracy (and the politics that impacts its form and substance) in defining and protecting fundamental freedoms, particularly the freedom of religion. The chapter provides insights into the challenges of navigating a space for religious pluralism and minorities in a s tate established on a religious identity, comprising a clear religious majority, and yet retaining considerable religious and other diversity within. The chapter argues, as a central claim, that blasphemy laws that cater exclusively to a religious majority are inherently incompatible with the aims of legal and religious pluralism.
“Stranger, Enemy”
Authors: Ali Nosheen
Published: October 2021

This chapter examines the making of anti-Shia hostility, humiliation, and annihilatory politics in contemporary Pakistan. It argues that in order to make sense of the violence against the Shia in Pakistan, we need to go beyond the typical analysis, which is couched in the framework of Islam, religion, theological difference, and sectarianism. Instead, this chapter proposes that the social dimension of Shia minoritization in Pakistan is better understood through the concept of “sectism,” which theoretically draws upon the ways in which racism, casteism, and sexism have been understood as projects of majoritarian privilege and domination. Moreover, it argues that questions of sect and gender have become intrinsically linked in contemporary Muslim contexts, and hence must be understood relationally in order to examine the religio-political, hegemonic formations of military-militant Islam in Pakistan. Finally, the chapter offers broader reflections on the question of Islam, feminism, and democracy in Pakistan.
Bringing Global Governance Home
Authors: Henry Laura A. , McIntosh Sundstrom Lisa
Published: October 2021

The world’s problems are increasingly global in scale. Climate change, pandemics, and the actions of multinational corporations are all beyond the ability of any single state to address. States and civil society actors have joined a growing number of global governance institutions to address these challenges collectively. While global governance is initiated at the international level, the effects of global governance occur at the domestic level and depend upon the actions of domestic actors. NGOs act as “mediators” between global and domestic political arenas, translating and adapting global norms for audiences at home. However, NGO participation in global governance varies significantly by country and by issue area. The role of domestic NGOs in global governance has been relatively neglected—a puzzling gap since domestic implementation determines whether global “best practices” are applied for the common good or languish as words on the pages of international reports. The BRICS states (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) offer excellent cases for delving into contention around NGOs’ role as mediators due to their shared aspiration to shape global governance and their varied political and economic characteristics. Bringing Global Governance Home: NGO Mediation in the BRICS States fills gaps in our knowledge by identifying and explaining significant cross-national variation in NGO participation in global governance based on an original dataset. Moreover, it combines insights from international relations and comparative politics to explain the dilemmas and strategies of NGO mediation in case studies on HIV/AIDS, climate change, sustainable forestry, and corporate social responsibility.
Sympathy for the Devil
Authors: Matthes Erich Hatala
Published: October 2021

According to some approaches to the ethical criticism of art, the moral flaws of an artwork can also be aesthetic defects of that work. Might something similar be true of the moral flaws of artists themselves? If something you’ve learned about an artist’s behavior leads you to question or reject their work, then you’ll likely agree that there are times when you just can’t separate the art from the artist. Turning away from an artwork in disgust is both a moral and aesthetic response: you’re not just making a moral judgment about the artist—that judgment is shaping your reception of their artwork as well. This chapter argues that under certain circumstances an artist’s immorality can alter the meaning of their work, sometimes affecting its aesthetic success.
Survival and Autonomy
Authors: Greble Emily
Published: October 2021

The Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 and World War I shattered the social fabric of Ottoman Europe and led to a radical revision of the region’s political boundaries. How did experiences of successive traumas—expulsions, famine, disease, massacres, and new occupation regimes—shape Muslims’ understandings of the European project and their experiences within it? This chapter analyzes this catastrophic era from diverse Muslim perspectives. It reveals how many Muslims found legal promises of political equality and rights ambiguous and intangible, and instead sought to define their own terms of political belonging. They wanted autonomy, confessional sovereignty, and the protection of Islamic institutions and property.
“Back to Islam!”
Authors: Greble Emily
Published: October 2021

In April 1941, the Axis powers attacked, occupied, and dismembered Yugoslavia. A multi-sided civil conflict broke out within the international war. Balkan Muslims fought on many different sides: as Ustashas, members of the Croatian army (domobrani), two different Waffen SS units, the Wehrmacht, and various Italian divisions; they also fought against the Axis as members of communist resistance armies (Partisans), national resistance armies (Chetniks and Ballists), and different Muslim militias and bandit groups. Muslims were both perpetrators and victims in regional campaigns of mass violence and genocide. This chapter traces Muslim responses to these complex wartime dynamics. It reveals how some Muslims hoped that Hitler’s New European order would undo decades of European policy that had subverted Islamic legal autonomy and Muslims’ confessional rights under the guise of bureaucratic and legal reform. Armed with languages of political Islam and the tools of revivalist mass movements, some Muslims fought to enshrine Islamic law in domestic codes and use wartime conditions to re-Islamicize society. Other Muslims became attracted to promises of brotherhood and liberation espoused by socialist resistance movements, seeing socialism as the best path forward for Muslim equality in Europe. The war created both hardship and opportunity.
Oxford in Wartime
Authors: Lipscomb Benjamin J.B.
Published: October 2021

This chapter introduces the remaining women—Iris Murdoch, Mary Scrutton (later Midgley), and Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe (Elizabeth to her friends)—and describes the state of women’s education in Oxford leading up to and during World War II. Somerville College, where all but Anscombe attended, was at that time one of the most selective institutions in the British Empire. This was due not only to its reputation within Oxford, but also to its small enrollment and the limited number of women’s colleges in general. Despite Somerville’s selectivity, the women still faced disadvantages. Oxford still treated its women as “on probation,” and few women had received the education in classical languages that was a gateway to the prestigious “Greats” degree. During the war, however, as Oxford was drained of fighting-age men, women students were able to benefit from more intensive mentoring and other learning opportunities formerly directed toward men.
“Time, Like the Sea . . . ”
Authors: Lipscomb Benjamin J.B.
Published: October 2021

This chapter follows Midgley, Anscombe, Murdoch, and Foot through their later years—after they had shaken contemporary orthodoxy in ethics—and reflects on their contributions. These women’s ideas shaped a new generation of philosophers—including many women. Midgley became known not only for her work in ethics, but also as a critic of scientific reductionism. Murdoch devoted herself to her fiction, though also teaching and writing philosophy on the side. She always felt that her work was inadequate. Elizabeth Anscombe remained a strident defender of Catholic teaching, though her work gravitated back to philosophy of mind. Foot, the person who most bound together her friends, was an important mentor to women philosophers, published her one monograph at age 80, and tried to bury the hatchet with Hare. The work of these women set the stage for a new generation of naturalistic ethicists, headed by Rosalind Hursthouse and Alasdair MacIntyre.
The Many Modes of Moral Progress
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: October 2021

The final chapter opens with an examination of the possibility of using the account of moral progress to generate a (pragmatist) concept of moral truth. Its main task is to begin mapping the dimensions of moral practice at the individual and collective levels, thus exposing the variety of ways in which moral progress can occur. Finally, it offers some brief suggestions about directions in which contemporary societies might make moral progress.
Rage Renegades
Authors: Cherry Myisha
Published: October 2021

After mentioning briefly the term “rage renegades” in Chapter 4, this chapter provides a more in-depth elaboration and evaluation. “Rage renegades” refers to allies with Lordean rage. They are rage renegades because although their privilege and place in a white-supremacist society is meant to guarantee that they will be complicit or engage in racism as a way to maintain racial domination, they instead show outrage at such a society. In doing so, they rebel against a racist system that was designed to benefit them exclusively. But rage renegading can also go wrong when it reinforces the same white supremacy that the rage aims to challenge. This chapter describes four ways in which this misdirection can happen as well as provides some suggestions for how to steer clear of it.
What Is a Problem?
Authors: Prasad Monica
Published: October 2021

This chapter considers various objections to problem-solving sociology that arise immediately when proposing work of this kind, revolving around the question of whether problem-solving compromises scholarly objectivity: Isn’t the designation of something as a “problem” a social process, one that can be distorted by operations of power? Partly for this reason, shouldn’t a scholar adopt a neutral, detached, objective attitude instead of taking sides in social issues? Wouldn’t it be arrogant to say that you know best what things can be called problems, much less how to solve them? The chapter argues that it is possible to be objective when examining social problems, by turning the normative question into an analytical question.
The View from Mars
Authors: Prasad Monica
Published: October 2021

This chapter argues that the dialogue between theory and empirical site can be fruitful for both solving the problem, and developing theory, if the analyst is able to find the theoretical question inside the problem-solving question. The chapter breaks down what “theory” means and how to theorize. There is no easy recipe for the kind of creativity necessary to perform this work, but there are several useful tricks and strategies, including trying to develop the view from Mars, and several sociological subfields that it may be worth thinking about, including organizational sociology, the sociology of law, network theory, and political sociology.
The Donkey Deity
Authors: Litwa M. David
Published: October 2021

This chapter argues that the notion of the evil (Judean) creator had existed for centuries in native Egyptian revisionary mythology. The notion was thus already prepared for its early Christian application to the Judeo-catholic creator. Since the second century BCE, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans had identified the evil god Seth-Typhon (often depicted as a donkey-like creature) with the Jewish god Yahweh. The Seth-Yahweh tradition, with all its negative valence, was then applied to the creator worshiped by Christians as well. Evidence for this view comes from the early Christian depiction of the creator and his sons in donkey (Typhonian) form. In addition to material culture (gems, amulets, and graffiti), four texts are analyzed in this chapter: The Birth of Mary, the Secret Book of John, the so-called Ophite diagram, and the Phibionites described by Epiphanius.
The Evolutionary Naturalist Challenge to Non-Naturalist Normative Epistemic Realism
Authors: Talbott William J.
Published: October 2021

In Chapter 12, the author presents and responds to Street’s evolutionary naturalist challenge to non-naturalist normative realism, especially as applied to non-naturalist normative epistemic realism. He begins by defining scientistic naturalism. Then he introduces a new conception of non-Platonist sensitivity to fundamental normative principles, especially fundamental epistemic principles. The author refers to this as probabilistic sensitivity. It is not any form of direct insight into the content of the fundamental epistemic principles; it is a sensitivity of our particular epistemic judgments, both explicit and implicit, to the requirements of those principles in particular cases. The author responds to Street’s challenge by arguing that her position, a form of scientistic naturalism, is subject to reliability defeat. He avoids reliability defeat for his own position by arguing that evolution selected for better learners over worse learners, and this selection produced beings with probabilistic sensitivity to the metaphysically necessary, fundamental principles of epistemic rationality, which are the principles for being a good learner.
Conclusion
Authors: Talbott William J.
Published: October 2021

In this Conclusion, the author summarizes the main features of his theory of epistemic rationality and explains how his theory avoids commitment to any of the five presuppositions of the Proof Paradigm. He explains his new solution to the epistemological version of Berkeley’s puzzle. He recaps the real-world epistemological issues addressed by his theory. He concludes with some final thoughts, including a call to philosophers to reject both the presuppositions of the Proof Paradigm and the narrow scientism that characterizes so much of contemporary American philosophy. He urges us to replace that narrow scientism with a more expansive understanding of the human mind that can make sense of its “unreasonable effectiveness” in scientific and other inquiry.
The Dark Side of Consumption
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

This chapter introduces the underlying strategy of the book. The author generally follows a chapter on consumer trends with a chapter that discusses critiques of consumerism, with an emphasis on environmental issues. He identifies three major strands of criticism in the late 1940s and early 1950s: the moral and cultural, the egalitarian and political, and the environmental. Lewis Mumford and Dwight Mac Donald were among the moral critics; Truman, liberal democrats, and civil rights advocates pursued the egalitarian agenda; and William Vogt, Fairfield Osborne, and Aldo Leopold articulated the environmental critique. The final section looks at some of the collateral damage suburbanization did to the environment.
The Era of Populuxe
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

The title of this chapter comes from a book in which art critic Thomas Hine described the shift from functional consumerism in the postwar decade to consumerism as a lifestyle in the late 1950s. A phenomenon described as “the Great Compression” defined the equality of income distribution that distinguishes the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s from the decades that followed. It gave rise to mass consumerism in which advertising was the great driver. The “Cola Wars” between Coke and Pepsi are one example. What Americans bought and where they bought it shifted with the move to the suburbs and the development of auto-centric shopping centers. Income and social class often distinguished the merchants who occupied these centers. Over time, advertisers began to disaggregate the mass market and define niche markets. This social disaggregation in some ways anticipated the unraveling that occurred in the 1960s.
Segmented America and the New Identity Politics
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

Cultural historian Gary Cross articulated one theme of this chapter: “Consumerism redefined democracy, creating social solidarities and opportunities for participation that transcended suffrage rights or political ideologies.” Indeed, many of those who participated in the counterculture expressed their rebellion through new forms of consumption and simplified lifestyles. At the same time, another major theme emerged that underlay the turmoil of the 1960s: At the dawn of the Populuxe era, Americans had begun to define their consumer society by what made them different more than by the values they held in common. Suburbs like Levittown that had blurred social class distinctions became more segregated by race, religion, and class. Cities provided refuges for those seeking to distance themselves from conventional behaviors. Teen fads, rock and roll, feminism, and African American consumerism are among the areas covered in this chapter.
The American Way of Life Polluted
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

This chapter returns to the three varieties of criticism—the moral, the egalitarian, and the environmental—that characterized mass consumerism as destructive and a threat to democratic institutions and values. The Beats, William Whyte, Vance Packard, and Paul Goodman defined lines of moral outrage. John Kenneth Galbraith, Michael Harrington, Betty Friedan, and Martin Luther King Jr. attacked inequalities based on class, gender, and race. Among the “isms” that emerged in the 1960s, environmentalism was among the most potent and enduring. Rachel Carson was one of the key drivers with her critique of DDT and the arrogance of those who believed humans could improve on nature. The more radical Murray Bookchin echoed her critique, though in a more politicized fashion.
The Golden Age of Consumption
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

The chapter opens with a survey of the corporate displays and product features at the 1964 New York World’s Fair, highlighting the irony of the civil rights protest around the new Ford Mustang. It then explores major trends in consumer patterns with a focus on automobiles. The following section explores how the “Great Compression” influenced patterns of consumption, recreational pastimes, and leisure. It also looks at trends in home and household goods design, as well as growing diversity in consumption such as the new popularity of ethnic foods, led by pizza. The next section looks at the sources of the prosperity that fed the boom in consumerism. Finally, the last section deals with trash, a dark side of the consumerism where ironically some people measured the strength of the economy by the number of garbage trucks at landfills.
Identity Consumerism
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

In the era of feminism and civil rights, Americans were less inclined to identify themselves as one people. Instead, many linked themselves to African American, Latino/a, Native American, ethnic American, feminist, and homosexual subcultures. These identity groups transformed the idea of the United States as a mass society into that of a nation with a complex of distinct subcultures. These subcultures not only impacted American social and legal systems, but also changed how Americans shopped. Advertisers, retailers, and consumer goods manufacturers saw these trends as a reason to create new markets. Madison Avenue created advertising that reflected, and even enhanced, the idea of difference. Hence, identity politics went beyond the call for equality in the civic world to inspire new products and modes of consumption, ranging from Virginia Slim cigarettes targeted at liberated women, to Afro hairstyles and brightly colored African-inspired fashions, to a much broader array of ethnic foods, music, and clothing. The chapter also discusses cigarettes, advertising, popular music, and recreational drugs. The final section explores the impact of Bill Bernbach’s revolutionary ad campaign for the VW Beetle. Bernbach offered irony, satire, and whimsy instead of the formulaic, traditionally waspy and suburbanite campaigns that Madison Avenue had favored in the 1950s to produce the hard sell. Among the profound shifts the new agencies nurtured were more colorful and casual men’s clothing fashions. Soft drinks were another area in which advertising used psychedelic styles to appeal to young consumers.
The All-Consuming Nation Imperiled
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

This chapter focuses on what the author calls the Obama dilemma (muddied and muddled by the advent of Donald Trump): how, or do we, sustain economic growth in the era of global warming? It argues that George W. Bush failed substantially to identify the vital issues facing the United States during his presidency. Rather than mire the United States in unwinnable wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, he needed to recognize the perils of climate change, US dependence on Middle East oil, and growing debt in the private and public sectors. Obama, by contrast, confronted all those issues, only to have the oppositional politics of Mitch McConnell and other Republicans. They sought to destroy his presidency even if they damaged the nation in the process. It concludes with a look at fracking as it shifted the geopolitics of energy while threatening to complicate the issue of greenhouse gas emissions.
What is Freedom?
Authors: Buckle Toby
Published: October 2021

This work is a collection of interviews on the topic of freedom from many of the world’s leading academic thinkers on the subject, as well as highly influential activists. The book contains twelve interviews and an introduction. The interviews are presented in a simple readable format intended for a general audience, each with a short introduction and suggested reading. The interviews are split into three sections; history, philosophy, and activism, covering what freedom has meant, how it can be defined, and what work it does in real-world political contestation respectively. One central theme of the work is how freedom’s meaning has changed and evolved over time and been contested both between and within political traditions. The book also explores contemporary alternatives to individual negative liberty, and considers freedom as a possible ideal to which activists can appeal. A final issue many of the interviews touch on is how different conceptions of freedom relate to different ideas about human nature and our relationship with history.
American Catholicism Transformed
Authors: Chinnici Joseph P.
Published: October 2021

American Catholicism Transformed examines the intellectual vibrancy of the Catholic Church in the United States in the context of the political and social changes of the postwar world and the Second Vatican Council. Committed to the papacy’s struggle against totalitarianism and its adoption of Cold War containment patterns, the American bishops emphasized the immutability of natural law, the acceptance of nuclear deterrence, the idealization of family life, and an argument for the compatibility of Catholic faith with US political tradition. This emphasis engendered fears of a growing secularism. Adopting different strategies, Catholic bishops, clergy, and laity publicly diversified into positions on the right and on the left. Deep intellectual and political divisions predated the Council, even as the civil rights movement shifted the balance of the public debate. At the Council itself, American participants actively influenced and personally adopted major conciliar values: the people of God, collegiality, the primacy of scripture, liturgical reform, religious freedom, and openness to the contemporary world. This thrust of the Council developed a new public language for the expression of the faith, one that would dominate the first phase of conciliar reception. As the geopolitics of the papacy changed and the struggle against communism emerged, a more contained vision of the faith would once again enter into public battle with the splitting conciliar forces for change. These long-term interactive patterns continue to shape contemporary American Catholicism in a pluriform direction. A new engagement with an American Catholicism Transformed is now needed.
Epilogue
Authors: Chinnici Joseph P.
Published: October 2021

Immediately after Vatican Council II, Spirit joined with Letter as the people of God, collegiality, access to the Scriptures, the role of the laity, religious freedom, and service to the world entered into Catholic identity. Cold War Catholic identity ceded primacy of place to a new politics of history that shaped the Church’s participative processes, commitment to ecumenism, practices of inculturation, and social vision. “Pastoral” adaptation dominated the initial phase of reception. Trends of internationality yoked to papal geopolitics exponentially increased and made the practices of the domestic Church problematic for other local churches. Within this politics, the post-conciliar world mirrored the debates of the Council itself. Differences of opinions quickly emerged and eventually coalesced into oppositional groups. Flashpoints of discord presaged the culture wars of the 1980s. American Catholicism’s transformation has led to a pluriform public identity that now calls for a new joining of Spirit with Letter.
The Long History of Software Patenting in the United States
Authors: Con Díaz Gerardo
Published: October 2021

The patent protections available to computer programs are almost as old as modern electronic computing. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, when a computer’s programming was as tangible as the machine’s circuits, there was nothing unusual about the idea that a patent could protect a program. The main problem was not whether programs were patent-eligible but how to draft patent applications for them that could bypass well-established doctrinal obstacles. As programs increased in complexity and programming languages enabled their creation through texts, inventors and their lawyers relied on the means-plus claim structure—a claim that discloses a machine as the means to perform a given collection of functions—as a shorthand to disclose the kinds of physicality that their predecessors would have spelled out. Successful patent applications combined means-plus language with very specific descriptions of interconnected electronic components to secure patent protections for the computer programs at their core.
Introduction
Authors: Sutton Jeffrey S.
Published: October 2021

This section introduces the topic by explaining the role that structure plays in protecting liberty and property rights. As illustrations, it explains how federalism offers a role for states and the national government to play in addressing pandemics, race discrimination, and criminal law. It explains how the states and federal government have adopted increasingly different forms of government over time. It then introduces the parts. Part I deals with the judicial branch. The second part of the book looks at current issues facing the executive branch in the state and federal systems. The third part of the book deals with the legislative branch. The fourth part of the book, all in Chapter 9, takes vertical separation of powers one step further: federalism within federalism. The fifth part of the book, all in Chapter 10, addresses the ultimate recourse of liberty: the freedom to change our fifty-one constitutions.
Preparing to Preach
Authors: Grove Kevin G.
Published: October 2021

Chapter 1 looks at Augustine’s earliest writings and Confessions, where he grapples with memory and anthropological mediation, including his consideration of the concept of recollection (anamnesis). The writings leading up to Confessions show that memory language helps the young Augustine to describe mediation within the human person—specifically the relation of soul and body, wisdom, and time. Then the chapter presents how Augustine places the anthropological mediation of memory and the salvific mediation of Christ into relief in Confessions (books 7, 10, and 11), specifically through the failure of memory to mediate God the creator’s presence to Augustine’s mind in Confessions 10. This new reading of Confessions makes an incipient but nonetheless important argument for the pairing of memory and Christ in time, especially in the language of the Psalms.
The Work of Memory
Authors: Grove Kevin G.
Published: October 2021

Chapter 6, on the work of memory and the life of grace, shows how remembering and forgetting form a binary construction that images and supplies language for Augustine to hold together any number of oppositions in Christ. Highlighting how Augustine applies remembering and forgetting, imagery, concepts, and language, the chapter revisits four central Augustinian binaries that emerged in chapter 1: lyre and psaltery (Christology from below and above), labor and rest, solitude and communion, and praising and groaning. The work of memory, for Augustine, extends to all created reality and structures the life of grace within the body of Christ.
Transitus and Trinity
Authors: Grove Kevin G.
Published: October 2021

Chapter 7 connects the whole Christ as sojourning through earthly reality to the Trinity. The importance of memory in Trinity, this chapter suggests, is in large part an intellectual consequence of the work of memory in part 2. Idithun the leaper (chapter 3), festivals of abiding traces (chapter 4), and more serve this end. The chapter reveals not only a profound continuity between Augustine’s preaching and Trinity but also how Augustine’s mature contemplation about Christian doctrine organically unfolds from and builds upon the work of memory. The failure of human memory in Trinity can be anticipated. Further, the triad of memory, understanding, and will as well as Augustine’s treatment of scientia and sapientia are both connected to the work of memory.
Ius In Bello I
Authors: Ripstein Arthur
Published: October 2021

This chapter characterizes the prohibitive nature of the ius in bello rules in order to explain why they apply to both sides in a conflict. The chapter identifies other familiar cases in which rules governing the conduct of an activity apply even to people who are not entitled to participate in it, such as unlicensed drivers and kidnappers of children. The remainder of the chapter explains the prohibition of perfidy, the paradigmatic violation of which is a false surrender. Kant argues that perfidy is “wrong in the highest degree” because its principle makes rightful relations between nations impossible. Perfidy is a wrong that is specific to war, not a special case of a more general moral prohibition of deceit; as a wrong internal to war, it is wrong in the same way when committed by either side in a conflict.
Ius In Bello IV
Authors: Ripstein Arthur
Published: October 2021

Contemporary armed conflict no longer consists of wars with designated armed forces confronting each other to gain or hold political control of territory. This short chapter explains why the Kantian account of the in bello norms still applies, in particular, clarifying the way in which they reflect the distinctive moral problem of war. Misconceived instrumentalist accounts of the normative basis of the in bello rules create the impression that changed circumstances should generate different rules. Three issues are considered: war between enemies that deny each other’s legitimacy; combatants with uniforms; and wars against adversaries who reject the laws and customs of war. In each case, the Kantian account is shown to apply.
Human Resources for Health
Authors: Mukherjee Joia S.
Published: October 2021

People are the cornerstone of a health system. For a health system to function well, adequate numbers of well-trained and well-compensated health professionals are essential to effectively deliver care to those who need it. In impoverished countries, decades of under-resourced training programs, low wages, and poor working conditions have led to shortages of health workers. While the WHO recommends 4.45 doctors, nurses and midwives per 1000 people, many impoverished countries have only a few percent of that number. In the absence of trained personnel, programs have relied on volunteers or lower cadres of staff. Yet, the overall lack of well-trained and compensated staff has led to underperformance of the health system the very areas where the burden of disease is the highest. In this chapter, the causes of the human resources crisis are explained and programs that are working to increase the numbers of health professionals are presented.
From the Ashes of the Western Liberal Order
Authors: Fèvre Raphaël
Published: October 2021

This first chapter outlines ordoliberals’ implicit philosophy of history, building a causal link between historical liberalism in the nineteenth century and economic planning as developed in the first half of the twentieth century. Ordoliberals based their historical interpretation on an anthropological hypothesis in which the instinct to acquire power is the driving force of mankind. To paraphrase Marx’s famous formula: for ordoliberals, history is the history of the struggles for economic power. Rather than reflecting on the conditions for the development of a competitive market economy, the ordoliberals analyzed what they perceived as the deleterious effects of certain types of economic systems (laissez-faire liberalism for instance) for the whole political and social order.
Knowledge from the Inside
Authors: Kornblith Hilary
Published: October 2021

Knowledge may be examined from the third-person perspective, as psychologists and sociologists do, or it may be examined from the first-person perspective, as each of us does when we reflect on what we ought to believe. This chapter examines the first-person perspective. An account is provided of how belief acquisition appears from this perspective. The chapter then moves to a discussion of the psychological literature which investigates what actually happens when we reflect on what to believe. The phenomenon of confabulation is discussed in detail, highlighting the ways in which the first-person perspective may systematically distort our understanding of our own belief acquisition.
Looking the Gift Horse in the Mouth
Authors: Lechterman Theodore M.
Published: October 2021

This introductory chapter begins with a case study of a prominent donation by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos. Reactions to this announcement represent a common trend in criticism of philanthropy that overlooks the value of democracy. The chapter offers a formal definition of philanthropy as a social practice constituted by impersonal gratuitous transfers of private property. It reports recent statistics about the practice’s development. It argues that philanthropy raises distinctive political questions. It summarizes recent work on philanthropy in moral and political philosophy, noting its limited appreciation of democratic concerns. The chapter closes with a preview of the subsequent chapters and a disclaimer about the selective treatment of topics.