bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On the Core and Dual Set of Linear Programming Games
Authors: Samet Dov , Zemel Eitan
Published: October 2008

We study the relation between the core of a given LP-game and the set of payoff vectors generated by optimal dual solutions to the corresponding linear program. It is well known that the set of dual payoffs is contained in the core, and that cores of games in which players are replicated converge to the set of dual payoffs when the number of replications tends to infinity. We give a necessary and sufficient condition for finite convergence. As corollaries we strengthen a sufficient condition due to Owen and obtain new conditions as well. We also study conditions in which the core and the set of dual payoffs coincide even without replication. We give a necessary and sufficient condition for this phenomenon and present two classes of LP-games with this property which properly subsumes all examples of this type discussed in the literature.
Successive Approximation Methods for Solving Nested Functional Equations in Markov Decision Problems
Authors: Federgruen Awi , Schweitzer Paul J.
Published: October 2008

This paper presents a successive approximation method for solving systems of nested functional equations which arise, e.g., when considering Markov renewal programs in which policies that are maximal gain or optimal under more selective discount—and average overtaking optimality criteria are to be found. In particular, a successive approximation method is given to find the optimal bias vector and bias-optimal policies. Applications with respect to a number of additional stochastic control models are pointed out.

Our method is based on systems of simultaneously generated (single-equation) value-iteration schemes.
Equivalence of Surface Density and Average Directional Density
Authors: Eaves B. Curtis , Yorke James A.
Published: October 2008

The average directional density criteria for evaluating tilings is shown to be equivalent to surface density and valid for random broken paths just as for straight paths.
Permuting Elements Within Columns of a Matrix in Order to Minimize Maximum Row Sum
Authors: Coffman E. G. , Yannakakis M.
Published: October 2008

We study the problem of permuting the elements within columns of a given m × n matrix A so as to minimize its maximum row sum (sum of the elements in a row). We introduce and analyze an approximation algorithm of greedy type for this NP-complete problem. We prove that our algorithm produces matrices with maximum row sums no more than 3/2 − 1/2m times greater than those found by an optimization rule. Moreover, examples are presented which achieve this relative performance. Thus, our algorithm represents a substantial improvement in that all earlier algorithms have a worst-case performance that is asymptotically twice that of an optimization rule. We verify that our algorithm requires at most O(m2n) time, which is a modest increase over the earlier algorithms requiring Θ(mn log n) time in the worst-case.
Open Queueing Networks in Heavy Traffic
Authors: Reiman Martin I.
Published: October 2008

This paper presents heavy traffic limit theorems for the queue length and sojourn time processes associated with open queueing networks. These limit theorems state that properly normalized sequences of queue length and sojourn time processes converge weakly to a certain diffusion as the network traffic intensity converges to unity. The limit diffusion is reflected Brownian motion on the nonnegative orthant. This process behaves like Brownian motion on the interior of its state space, and reflects instantaneously on the boundaries. The reflection direction is a constant for each boundary hyperplane.
Variable Dimension Complexes Part I: Basic Theory
Authors: Freund Robert M.
Published: October 2008

Over the past several years, much attention in the field of simplicial pivoting algorithms has been focused on the new class of variable-dimension algorithms, wherein the sequence of simplices generated varies in dimension. This study is aimed at the combinatorial nature of variable-dimension algorithms. In Part I, we introduce the notion of a V-complex, short for variable-dimension complex. We show that when a labelling function is introduced on a V-complex, certain path-following properties arise. The main result of Part I is a characterization of paths on a labelled V-complex.

Part II of this study uses the path-following theory of labelled V-complexes developed in Part I to provide constructive algorithmic proofs of a variety of combinatorial lemmas in topology. We demonstrate two new dual lemmas on the n-dimensional cube, and use a generalized Sperner lemma to prove a generalization of the Knaster–Kuratowski–Mazurkiewicz covering lemma on the simplex. We also show that Tucker's lemma can be derived directly from the Borsuk–Ulam theorem. We report the interrelationships between these results, Brouwer's fixed point theorem, and the existence of stationary points on the simplex.
Variable Dimension Complexes Part II: A Unified Approach to Some Combinatorial Lemmas in Topology
Authors: Freund Robert M.
Published: October 2008

Part II of this study uses the path-following theory of labelled V-complexes developed in Part I to provide constructive algorithmic proofs of a variety of combinatorial lemmas in topology. We demonstrate two new dual lemmas on the n-dimensional cube, and use a generalized Sperner lemma to prove a generalization of the Knaster–Kuratowski–Mazurkiewicz covering lemma on the simplex. We also show that Tucker's lemma can be derived directly from the Borsuk–Ulam theorem. We report the interrelationships between these results, Brouwer's fixed point theorem, and the existence of stationary points on the simplex.
Existence of Equilibrium on a Manifold
Authors: Schofield Norman
Published: October 2008

Existence of equilibrium of a continuous preference relation p or correspondence P on a compact topological space W can be proved either by assuming acyclicity or convexity (no point belongs to the convex hull of its preferred set). Since both properties may well be violated in both political and economic situations, this paper considers instead a “local” convexity property appropriate to a “local” preference relation or preference field. The local convexity property is equivalent to the nonexistence of “local” cycles. When the state space W is a convex set, or is a smooth manifold of a certain topological type, then the “local” convexity property is sufficient to guarantee the existence of a set of critical optima.
On the Existence of Average Optimal Policies in Semiregenerative Decision Models
Authors: Deppe Hans
Published: October 2008

This paper gives sufficient conditions for the existence of average optimal policies in a decision model, which is a generalization of a denumerable state space semi-Markov decision model. The conditions extend most of those previously known; especially, neither uni-chainedness nor communicatingness is assumed. An average optimal policy can be obtained as a limit of discount optimal policies. If structured policies are discount optimal, there exists a structured average optimal policy. The results are applicable to more general continuous time models such as the one by Yushkevich and Fainberg (Yushkevich, A. A., E. A. Fainberg. 1979. On homogeneous Markov models with continuous time and finite or countable state space. Theory Probab. Appl. 24 156–161.).
A Minimax Theorem
Authors: McLinden L.
Published: October 2008

A new, general criterion is given for ensuring that a closed saddle function has a nonempty compact set of saddlepoints. Under this criterion it is shown also that every minimaximizing sequence clusters around some saddlepoint. A comparable theorem is given for semicontinuous quasi-saddle functions. The new criterion is applied to constrained saddlepoint problems and to the Fenchel-Rockafellar duality model for constrained convex minimization. Finally, the relationship to existing saddlepoint results is explored in detail.
A Light Traffic Approximation for a Single-Server Queue
Authors: Daley D. J. , Rolski T.
Published: October 2008

It is shown that in the GI/G/1 queue, with W(S, T) denoting a stationary waiting time random variable that is determined by the generic service and interarrival times S and T, [Formula: see text] whenever the right-hand side exceeds one. While equality need not necessarily hold when Pr{T > 0} = 1, sufficient conditions are given for the limit result to remain true.
Industry Clockspeed: Measurement and Operational Implications
Authors: Mendelson Haim , Pillai Ravindran R.
Published: October 2008

We argue that industries and industry segments are characterized by a clockspeed that gauges the velocity of change in the external business environment and sets the pace of their firms' internal operations. Using data from the electronics industry, we develop and validate an integrated metric for clockspeed that takes into account both demand- and supply-side factors. We show that after controlling for product complexity and other factors, higher industry clockspeed is associated with faster execution in product development and manufacturing (e.g., shorter development time, quicker stabilization of production) and more frequent changes in organizational structure. Our findings on the effects of clockspeed can help researchers studying other industries, and our results provide benchmarks against which practitioners can compare and classify their own organizations.
Allocating Fibers in Cable Manufacturing
Authors: Adelman Daniel , Nemhauser George L. , Padron Mario , Stubbs Robert , Pandit Ram
Published: October 2008

We study the problem of allocating stocked fibers to made-to-order cables with the goals of satisfying due dates and reducing the costs of scrap, setup, and fiber circulation. These goals are achieved by generating remnant fibers either long enough to satisfy future orders or short enough to scrap with little waste. They are also achieved by manufacturing concatenations, in which multiple cable orders are satisfied by the production of a single cable that is afterwards cut into the constituent cables ordered.

We use a function that values fibers according to length, and which can be viewed as an approximation to the optimal value function of an underlying dynamic programming problem. The daily policy that arises under this approximation is an integer program with a simple linear objective function that uses changes in fiber value to take into account the multi-period consequences of decisions. We describe our successful implementation of this integer program in the factory, summarizing our computational experience as well as realized operational improvements.
Fill-Rate Bottlenecks in Production-Inventory Networks
Authors: Glasserman Paul , Wang Yashan
Published: October 2008

The bottleneck in a production-inventory network is commonly taken to be the facility that most limits flow through the network and thus the most highly utilized facility. A further connotation of “bottleneck,” however, is the facility that most constrains system-wide performance or the facility at which additional resources would have the greatest impact. Adopting this broader sense of the term, we look for fill-rate bottlenecks: facilities in a production-inventory network that most constrain the system-wide fill rate (the proportion of demands filled within a fixed delivery leadtime) or facilities at which either additional production capacity or additional inventory would have the greatest impact on the fill rate.

We consider systems in which various components are produced through a series of stages holding intermediate inventories and are then assembled into finished goods to meet external demands. With each station in the network we associate precise measures of the station's propensity to constrain the fill rate. We call a station with a minimal measure a fill-rate bottleneck and justify this label both theoretically and numerically. Examples show that even the least utilized facility can be a fill-rate bottleneck. Unlike utilization, our bottleneck criteria capture information about process variability.
Managing a Customer Following a Target Reverting Policy
Authors: Gavirneni Srinagesh , Tayur Sridhar
Published: October 2008

We consider a stochastic, capacitated production-inventory model in which the customer provides information about the expected timing of future orders to the supplier. We allow for randomness in customer order arrivals as well as the quantity demanded, but work under the assumption that the customer is making every effort to follow the schedule provided. We term this as a target reverting policy. This gives rise to an interesting nonstationary inventory control model at the supplier. After characterizing the optimal policy, we develop solution procedures to compute the optimal parameters. An extensive computational study provides insights into the behavior of this model at optimality. Further, comparing the cost of the optimal policy to the cost of simple policies that either ignore the customer's information or the capacity constraint, we are able to provide insights as to when these simplifications could be costly.
Addendum to “A Single-Item Inventory Model for a Nonstationary Demand Process”
Authors: Graves Stephen C.
Published: October 2008

In preparing a review I recently discovered an important reference for a key result in Graves (1999). Wecker (1979) had previously derived the variance for demand over a deterministic lead-time for an IMA (0, 1, 1) demand process. I develop effectively the same result, given as Equation (8) in Graves (1999). I state this as the variance of the inventory random variable for an inventory system that is subject to an IMA (0, 1, 1) demand process, a deterministic replenishment lead-time and an adaptive base-stock control policy given by (7). But given these assumptions, the variance of the inventory is the same as the variance of the demand over the lead-time.

Although the Wecker manuscript has not been published, Eppen and Martin (1988) reference it and use the key result as part of their research.
General Organizational Classification: An Empirical Test Using the United States and Japanese Electronics Industries
Authors: Ulrich Dave , McKelvey Bill
Published: October 2008

This study empirically tests the existence of populations. It reports a general organizational classification for both the United States and Japanese electronics industries. It tests for and identifies populations within a family of electronics industries and demonstrates the relevance of a general organizational classification for explaining how different natural selection processes affect different populations. Data include 669 US and 144 Japanese electronic firms. The results suggest that classification should play a more central role in development of organizational science.
The Bigman Metaphor for Entrepreneurship: A “Library Tale” with Morals on Alternatives for Further Research
Authors: Stewart Alex
Published: October 2008

Melanesian Bigmanship (a meritocratic, enacted career of political-economic leadership) is recounted as an anthropological metaphor for entrepreneurship. This “library tale” has two purposes. The first is a demonstration of conceptual uses of ethnographies for developing grounded theory. Propositions are generated on entrepreneurial orientations and opportunity structures. Opportunities are seen to arise in the creation of linkages between spheres of exchange, or fields in which an object exchanges at different values. Entrepreneurial tactics, such as converting between spheres, call for skills in informal planning, astute use of timing, and networking. These “tactical” skills coexist with “moral” skills, in persuasiveness, the manipulation of norms, and recognition of culturally specific opportunities. The entrepreneur's acts thus create a dialectic of moral (normatively approved) and tactical (instrumentally enacted) changes.

The second purpose is a demonstration of methodological implications of ethnographies. Library tales are helpful in the process of “constant comparison” (Glaser and Strauss 1967), by augmenting available, within-site observations with other sources of insight, and of potential disconfirmation of emerging ideas. However, there are limits to the “translation” of library tales. There thus arises a need for observations tailored to specific comparative questions. Multiple site case replication research is suggested for tailoring observations to synchronic, comparative uses. Processual, continuous contextual analysis is suggested for diachronic, intensive followups to such questions as the relationships amongst constraints and individual agency.
A Dual Methodology for Case Studies: Synergistic Use of a Longitudinal Single Site with Replicated Multiple Sites
Authors: Leonard-Barton Dorothy
Published: October 2008

This paper describes a case study methodology that combines a real-time longitudinal (three-year) study with nine retrospective case studies about the same phenomenon. These two kinds of case studies offer opportunities for complementary and synergistic data gathering and analysis. That is, specific strengths in each method compensate for some particular weakness in the other. For instance, the retrospective studies offer the opportunity to identify patterns indicative of dynamic processes and the longitudinal study provides a close-up view of those patterns as they evolve over time. The combination of the two types of case studies also enhances three kinds of validity: construct, internal and external. The author also discusses problems with and shortcomings of this dual methodology and suggests the circumstances for which the methodology is especially appropriate.
Longitudinal Field Research on Change: Theory and Practice
Authors: Pettigrew Andrew M.
Published: October 2008

This paper reveals the author's theory of method for conducting longitudinal field research on change. The paper also discusses a range of practical problems in carrying out time-series research in organisational settings. The practical problems include dealing with time in longitudinal research; issues of site selection, choices about data collection and degrees of involvement the importance of clarifying research outputs, audience, and presentation; and finally handling problems of complexity and simplicity associated with longitudinal comparative case study research on change. The paper concludes by discussing some ethical issues of longitudinal research field research, and managing a community of researchers.
Methods for Studying Innovation Development in the Minnesota Innovation Research Program
Authors: Van de Ven Andrew H. , Poole Marshall Scott
Published: October 2008

This paper describes the methods being used by the Minnesota Innovation Research Program to develop and test a process theory of innovation which explains how and why innovations develop over time and what developmental paths may lead to success and failure for different kinds of innovations. After a background description of the longitudinal field research, this paper focuses on the methods being used to examine processes of innovation development. These methods pertain to the selection of cases and concepts, observing change, coding and analyzing event data to identify process patterns, and developing theories to explain observed innovation processes. We believe these methods are applicable to other studies that examine a range of temporal processes, including organizational startup, growth, decline, and adaptation.
Alternate Approaches to Integrating Longitudinal Case Studies
Authors: McPhee Robert D.
Published: October 2008

In dealing with a large set of longitudinal case studies, researchers often assume that they can and should seek a single set of variables and explanatory theory to deal similarly with all the cases. This paper describes three approaches to the problems of cross-case integration and comparison. It also describes a set of comparative methods that can be used to diagnose case-study data-sets, to see which integrative approach is best.
Explicit and Implicit Structuring of Genres in Electronic Communication: Reinforcement and Change of Social Interaction
Authors: Yates JoAnne , Orlikowski Wanda J. , Okamura Kazuo
Published: October 2008

In a study of how an R&D group in a Japanese firm adopted and used a new electronic medium, we identified two contrasting patterns of use: the use of community-wide communication types, or genres, deliberately shaped by the action of a small, sanctioned group of mediators; and the use of local genres tacitly shaped by members within their own research teams. We suggest that these patterns reflect the more general processes of explicit and implicit structuring, resulting in both the reinforcement and change of social interaction within communities. Explicit structuring included the planned replication, planned modification, and opportunistic modification of existing genres, while implicit structuring included the migration and variation of existing genres. We believe that these two processes provide suggestive models for understanding the initial and ongoing use of new electronic media within a community.
Introduction to the Special Issue: Applications of Complexity Theory to Organization Science
Authors: Anderson Philip , Meyer Alan , Eisenhardt Kathleen , Carley Kathleen , Pettigrew Andrew
Published: October 2008

The seven articles that appear in this special issue concerning applications of complexity theory to organizations push our field forward significantly, not simply by importing ideas from an emerging interdisciplinary area, but by using them to inform rich, theoretically-grounded depictions of how organizations operate. Each emphasizes how the interaction of elements in a system produces surprising, emergent behavior that can be understood through formal models, even if those models cannot necessarily predict how a given system will evolve. Together, they constitute a foundation for a new way of thinking about how to model nonlinear behavior in organizations.
Organization Culture as a Complex System: Balance and Information in Models of Influence and Selection
Authors: Frank Kenneth A. , Fahrbach Kyle
Published: October 2008

We define the complex system underlying organizational culture by incorporating the social-psychological principles of balance and information (B-I) into models of influence (changes in attitudes as a function of interaction) and selection (changes in interaction). We identify information based influence as a potential anchor for actors' sentiments so that they are not overwhelmed by normative influence. In the model of selection, we identify the pursuit of information as an important counterbalance to the effect of homophily (interacting with others like oneself). Using the tools of dynamic systems we show how our models generate the full range of equilibria of complex systems. Through simulations we also explore how our system responds to exogenous effects.
Through the Looking Glass of Complexity: The Dynamics of Organizations as Adaptive and Evolving Systems
Authors: Morel Benoit , Ramanujam Rangaraj
Published: October 2008

This paper examines how organization theory can benefit from advances made in the interdisciplinary field of complex systems theory (CST). Complex systems theory is not so much a single theory as a perspective for conceptualizing and modeling dynamic systems. The field of complexity is described in terms of the characteristics of systems that are typically the subject of its study, the type of analytical tools used by researchers in this field, and the recurring paradigms that characterize this research perspective. The concepts of self-organized criticality and self-organization and their relevance to organizational studies are examined. The potential usefulness of these concepts is illustrated in the context of organizational evolution and social network analysis. An alternative model of organizational evolution, based on biological evolution, is proposed and propositions are developed. Unlike traditional models for organization, this model does not rely on an algorithm of optimization of a fitness function. The problem of self-organization is approached from the viewpoint of random graph theory and is applied to the analysis of social networks. Finally, important issues in using concepts from the field of CST are discussed. It is suggested that the immediate benefits of CST may be as a framework that facilitates conceptual elaborations and encourages formal modeling; both activities may provide fresh and deep insights into organizational phenomena.
Landscape Design: Designing for Local Action in Complex Worlds
Authors: Levinthal Daniel A. , Warglien Massimo
Published: October 2008

In recent years, the management literature has increasingly emphasized the importance of self-organization and “local action” in contrast to prior traditions of engineering control and design. While processes of self-organization are quite powerful, they do not negate the possibility of design influences. They do, however, suggest that a new set of design tools or concepts may be useful. We address this issue by considering the problem of landscape design—the tuning of fitness landscapes on which actors adapt. We examine how alternative organizational designs influence actors' fitness landscapes and, in turn, the behavior that these alternative designs engender. Reducing interdependencies leads to robust designs that result in relatively stable and predictable behaviors. Designs that highlight interdependencies, such as cross-functional teams, lead to greater exploration of possible configurations of actions, though at the possible cost of coordination difficulties. Actors adapt not only on fixed landscapes, but also on surfaces that are deformed by others' actions. Such coupled landscapes have important implications for the emergence of cooperation in the face of social dilemmas. Finally, actors' perceptions of landscapes are influenced by the manner in which they are framed by devices such as strategy frameworks and managerial accounting systems.
Commentary on theOrganization ScienceSpecial Issue on Complexity
Authors: Cohen Michael
Published: October 2008

The appearance of this special issue of Organization Science reflects—and will surely increase—the attention organizational researchers are paying to studies of “complex systems.” There has been a remarkable wave of interest in this synthesis of concepts arising from the intersection of biology, physics, and computer science. However, if this line of work is to develop into a permanent source of valuable ideas for organizational researchers, rather than to prove a passing fancy, we need to begin sharpening our appraisal of the promise and limitations of complex systems theories in the study of organization. To have real value, such new ideas cannot for very long be characterized as the potential answer to almost every question. A period of testing their applicability across a spectrum of issues is needed. This will help us to determine on which problems the ideas work best, and which are best attacked with other tools.
On the Edge: Heeding the Warnings of Unusual Events
Authors: Marcus Alfred A. , Nichols Mary L.
Published: October 2008

When organizations pay inadequate attention to unusual events, the possibility of breaching a safety barrier increases. With hindsight it often appears that full advantage is not taken of what is known. Part of the reason organizations neglect apparent warnings is because of limited resources and the way resources are allocated. Drawing on concepts from the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm, this paper examines situations where resource availability and use can compromise safety by initiating drift. Empirical evidence from the nuclear power industry is reviewed to demonstrate the relationship between resources, resource deployment, and drift. Drift is influenced by error signals, feedback loops, and imperfect watchfulness. Resource availability and use can initiate drift, but they do not necessarily yield catastrophe. Should organizations fall into a threatened position, they can enlist characteristics, behaviors, and capabilities to stabilize the situation, avoid breaching the safety border, and achieve greater security. Through an in-depth study of two plants with contrasting reputations for safety, this paper identifies the characteristics, behaviors, and capabilities that organizations on the edge exhibit. The characteristics, behaviors, and capabilities of the plant with the stronger safety reputation changed after a significant reduction of resources. Resource reduction led to movement toward the safety border, which in turn led to change. Evidence shows that organizations operating closer to the border of safety respond to warnings from unusual events in a resilient rather than anticipatory way. To overcome unexpected problems and limitations, they rely on after-the-fact intervention rather than preparation, foresight, and the provision of countermeasures. Once they recognize they have problems, they explore for novel approaches, typically seeking new knowledge and skills by dismissing old staff and hiring new people, buying advice from outside experts or consultants, and modeling, benchmarking, and copying other organizations' best practices. Organizations on the edge initiate change in response to external demands for change often only after painful public incidents. These organizations emphasize hierarchy and powerful headquarters staff, and their leaders tend to act as commanders and controllers rather than as catalysts and facilitators. The focus of this paper is not on the occurrence of accidents per se, nor on highly reliable operations, but on the precursors and consequences of drift within a safety border. Operating on the edge of the border extends beyond safety to other performance measures and beyond nuclear power to other industries. In settings as diverse as U.S. banks, hospitals, and universities, Israeli kibbutzim, Japanese kereitsu, and Korean chaebol, operating on the edge has become more common.
Impact of CEO Succession in Japanese Companies: A Coevolutionary Perspective
Authors: Sakano Tomoaki , Lewin Arie Y.
Published: October 2008

In this paper, we set out to investigate whether strategic leadership matters at a moment in the life cycle of the firm when a change is made in the top leadership. By far, most of the conceptual and empirical literature on the consequences of CEO succession involves United States companies. Therefore, in this paper, we set out to investigate the impact of CEO succession on strategic and organizational changes in Japanese companies.

The empirical study consisted of a matched control group design involving 81 Japanese companies experiencing a CEO succession event and 81 companies with continuity of their CEO leadership. The results of the study can be summarized as follows. Overall CEO succession was not associated with radical strategic and organization changes. Japanese companies did engage in evolutionary organization and strategic adaptations during the five year period of the study but independent of CEO succession. The governance structure moderates organization changes (independent of CEO succession) in particular when the firm was affiliated with a main bank and the firm was experiencing severe financial pressure.
Introduction to the Special Issue: Communication Processes for Virtual Organizations
Authors: DeSanctis Gerardine , Monge Peter
Published: October 2008

Few topics have received more attention in the management literature of recent years than that of virtual organizations. Articles abound on the possibilities of virtual meetings, work teams, offices, factories, firms, and alliances. Given the burgeoning interest in this emerging phenomenon, it is surprising that very little empirical research exists on virtual organizations. Especially lacking are studies of communication processes within virtual organization settings. To help remedy this situation, this special issue provides an early window into several important communication processes that occur in virtual contexts. We are pleased to provide readers with a compendium of six articles that, collectively, advance current knowledge of communication processes for virtual organizations. Both single and multifirm studies are included here, with analyses covering such diverse topics as communication content, communication structure and effectiveness, tradeoffs in electronic and face-to-face relationships, and the use of communication in formation of organizational identity. All of the studies include rigorous analysis and careful measurement of communication, and all take place within naturally occurring organizational contexts, not laboratory settings.
Risk Mitigation in Virtual Organizations
Authors: Grabowski Martha , Roberts Karlene H.
Published: October 2008

This paper examines the problem of risk mitigation in virtual organizations (VOs). We begin by discussing risk propensity in virtual organizations, and draw on a variety of research to suggest processes important in obtaining high levels of reliable performance in VOs. From this research we identify four processes we think are important: organizational structuring and design, communication, culture, and trust. Based on existing research done in conventional and high reliability organizations (HROs), we suggest how these processes may enhance reliability in VOs. We discuss how thoughtful management of these attributes can mitigate risk, and conclude with a theoretical and research agenda for future work.
Network Structure in Virtual Organizations
Authors: Ahuja Manju K. , Carley Kathleen M.
Published: October 2008

Virtual organizations that use e-mail to communicate and coordinate their work toward a common goal are becoming ubiquitous. However, little is known about how these organizations work. Much prior research suggests that virtual organizations, for the most part because they use information technology to communicate, will be decentralized and nonhierarchical. This paper examines the behavior of one such organization. The analysis is based on a case study of the communication structure and content of communications among members of a virtual organization during a four-month period. We empirically measure the structure of a virtual organization and find evidence of hierarchy. The findings imply that the communication structure of a virtual organization may exhibit different properties on different dimensions of structure. We also examine the relationship among task routineness, organizational structure, and performance. Results indicate that the fit between structure and task routineness affects the perception of performance, but may not affect the actual performance of the organization. Thus, this virtual organization is similar to traditional organizations in some ways and dissimilar in other ways. It was similar to traditional organizations in so far as task-structure fit predicted perceived performance. However, it was dissimilar to traditional organizations in so far as fit did not predict objective performance. To the extent that the virtual organizations may be similar to traditional organizations, existing theories can be expanded to study the structure and perceived performance of virtual organizations. New theories may need to be developed to explain objective performance in virtual organizations.
A Self-Efficacy Theory Explanation for the Management of Remote Workers in Virtual Organizations
Authors: Staples D. Sandy , Hulland John S. , Higgins Christopher A.
Published: October 2008

The current study is a first step in investigating how virtual organizations can manage remote employees effectively. The research used self-efficacy theory to build a model that predicts relationships between antecedents to employees' remote work self-efficacy assessments and their behavioral and attitudinal consequences. The model was tested using responses from 376 remote managed employees in 18 diverse organizations. Overall, the results indicated that remote employees' self-efficacy assessments play a critical role in influencing their remote work effectiveness, perceived productivity, job satisfaction, and ability to cope. Furthermore, strong relationships were observed between employees' remote work self-efficacy judgments and several antecedents, including remote work experience and training, best practices modeling by management, computer anxiety, and IT capabilities. Because many of these antecedents can be controlled managerially, these findings suggest important ways in which a remote employee's work performance can be enhanced, through the intermediary effect of improved remote work self-efficacy. The current study also provides a basis for future research in the remote work area through its development and testing of a remote management framework.
Organizing Work by Adaptation
Authors: Hutchins Edwin
Published: October 2008

Common sense suggests that work is organized in accordance with plans that are created by designers who reflect on the work setting and manipulate representations of the work process in order to determine new and efficient organizational structures. Or, even if “outside” designers are not involved, the reorganization of work is normally attributed to the conscious reflection by members of the work group itself. A detailed examination of the response of a real-world group to a sudden and unexpected change in its informational environment shows that these common sense assumptions may be quite misleading.

While entering a harbor, a large ship suffered an engineering breakdown that disabled an important piece of navigational equipment. This paper considers the response of the ship's navigation team to the changed task demands imposed by the loss of this equipment. Following a rather chaotic search of the space of computational and social organizational alternatives, the team arrived at a new stable work configuration.

In retrospect, this solution appears to be just the sort of solution we would hope designers could produce However, while some aspects of the response appear to be the products of conscious reflection, others, particularly those concerning the division of cognitive labor, are shown to arise without reflection from adaptations by individuals to what appear to them as local task demands. It is argued that while the participants may have represented and thus learned the solution after it came into being, the solution was clearly discovered by the organization itself before it was discovered by any of the participants.
Intraorganizational Power and Organizational Design: Reconciling Rational and Coalitional Models of Organization
Authors: Astley W. Graham , Zajac Edward J.
Published: October 2008

This paper contends that the analysis of organizational design and the analysis of intraorganizational power are inextricably intertwined for all major models of organization. While the coalitional model of organization is often viewed as the only model that explicitly links these topics, we argue that power does in fact play a central role in the traditional, rational model of organization, and that it is only the conception of intraorganizational power that differs between the two models. After contrasting the design prescriptions and power implications of the coalitional and rational models, the paper reconciles these two models by developing an “adaptively rational” model of organization that takes into account both the political dynamics and the task requirements of organizations.
Processing Unstructured Organizational Transactions: Mail Handling in the U.S. Senate
Authors: Culnan Mary J.
Published: October 2008

The conventional view of transaction processing, which has focused primarily on highly structured transactions, oversimplifies the information processing environment confronting most organizations. This exploratory field study investigates how U.S. Senate offices answer constituent mail on legislative issues. The study develops a model which views transaction processing systems (TPS) as an organizational information system. Using this model, the paper next develops the position that when TPS are viewed this way, the design and functioning of all TPS may be analyzed using the answers to three questions: (1) what transactions will be accepted by the organization for processing, (2) what rules will be used for processing transactions, and (3) how will feedback about these transactions be routed upward? Unlike most structured transactions, mail transactions are designed by the correspondent rather than the organization. As a result, the task of answering mail is characterized by low analyzability and high variety not found in most other routine transaction processing applications. Implications for the design of systems to support the processing of unstructured transactions in other contexts are discussed.
Knowledge of the Firm, Combinative Capabilities, and the Replication of Technology
Authors: Kogut Bruce , Zander Udo
Published: October 2008

How should we understand why firms exist? A prevailing view has been that they serve to keep in check the transaction costs arising from the self-interested motivations of individuals. We develop in this article the argument that what firms do better than markets is the sharing and transfer of the knowledge of individuals and groups within an organization. This knowledge consists of information (e.g., who knows what) and of know-how (e.g., how to organize a research team). What is central to our argument is that knowledge is held by individuals, but is also expressed in regularities by which members cooperate in a social community (i.e., group, organization, or network). If knowledge is only held at the individual level, then firms could change simply by employee turnover. Because we know that hiring new workers is not equivalent to changing the skills of a firm, an analysis of what firms can do must understand knowledge as embedded in the organizing principles by which people cooperate within organizations.

Based on this discussion, a paradox is identified: efforts by a firm to grow by the replication of its technology enhances the potential for imitation. By considering how firms can deter imitation by innovation, we develop a more dynamic view of how firms create new knowledge. We build up this dynamic perspective by suggesting that firms learn new skills by recombining their current capabilities. Because new ways of cooperating cannot be easily acquired, growth occurs by building on the social relationships that currently exist in a firm. What a firm has done before tends to predict what it can do in the future. In this sense, the cumulative knowledge of the firm provides options to expand in new but uncertain markets in the future.

We discuss at length the example of the make/buy decision and propose several testable hypotheses regarding the boundaries of the firm, without appealing to the notion of “opportunism.”
Strategies for Exploiting Technological Innovations: When and When Not to License
Authors: Hill Charles W. L.
Published: October 2008

Given the limits of the patent systems, an innovating firm faces a difficult strategic conundrum: should it license its new technology to competitors or not? If the innovating firm does not license its new technology, competitors may quickly develop their own, possibly better, version of the technology. On the other hand, if imitation of the new technology is difficult, by denying its technology to competitors the innovating firm may be able to establish a competitive advantage. If the innovating firm does license its new technology to competitors, it runs the risk of losing control over that technology (of giving away its competitive advantage to competitors). On the other hand, if competitors are able to rapidly imitate the new technology anyway, by licensing its technology the innovating firm may ensure that its version of the technology becomes the dominant design in an industry. Moreover, the innovating firm will receive royalty payments in this scenario.

Given these different scenarios, what should an innovating firm do? In this paper a theoretical framework is constructed that identifies the factors that influence an innovating firm's choice between licensing and not licensing. This suggests that the speed of imitation, the extent of first mover advantages, and the transaction costs of licensing play a major role in determining the appropriate choice.
Management of Technology and Moose on Tables
Authors: Leonard-Barton Dorothy
Published: October 2008

Management of Technology, like Strategy and Marketing, is not a discipline, although studies in it may inform the underlying disciplines. MOT is an issue-driven field, focused on the process of knowledge generation and transformation within a social system. That social system can range from a product development team to a corporate function, a firm, an industry, a network of organizations and individuals, to even society at large. Several implications follow from this definition of management of technology.
Organizational Downsizing: A Convergence and Reorientation Framework
Authors: Freeman Sarah J. , Cameron Kim S.
Published: October 2008

Organizational downsizing is becoming pervasive as a characteristic of modern organizations, yet little scholarly literature has addressed the processes and outcomes associated with this phenomenon at the organizational level. Downsizing has often mistakenly been confused operationally with concepts such as decline, layoffs, or nonadaptability, indicating that the definition of the concept remains imprecise. This paper offers a straightforward, operational definition of downsizing. Then the literature on organizational downsizing is used to build a theoretical framework of the process of effective downsizing and the organizational changes that may accompany it. Important organizational processes, characteristics, and outcomes associated with downsizing are identified.