bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Complex Multifactorial Genetic Diseases
Authors: Camp Nicola J , Bansal Aruna
Published: September 2006

Variation in traits can be due to genetic factors or the environment – nature versus nurture – or to a combination of both. It can be of interest, especially when a trait is detrimental, to model the effect of the genes involved and, beyond that, to map them. Knowledge of disease susceptibility genes may help in the quest for new treatments and cures.
Human Genetics: Online Resources
Authors: Adler David A
Published: September 2006

There is a large source of information concerning human genetics available on a variety of different Internet sites, via the World Wide Web. Such online resources are now everyday tools in biological research and medicine.
Obesity
Authors: Garrow JS
Published: September 2006

Throughout history there are records of individuals who were notably fat; this was usually regarded as a sign of power and success. However, in the last quarter of the twentieth century there was a rapid increase in the proportion of the population that was obese (so fat as to reduce health and life expectancy), so obesity is now a major public health problem.
Williams Syndrome
Authors: Lenhoff Howard M
Published: September 2006

Williams syndrome is a rare condition caused by the union of a sperm and an egg in which one is missing a small portion of its chromosome 7. Individuals with Williams syndrome have a low IQ compared with normal individuals and exhibit an array of strange impairments, behaviours and abilities that intrigues both geneticists and cognitive scientists.
Plant Cuticle and Suberin
Authors: Kolattukudy PE
Published: September 2006

Plant cuticle comprises an insoluble lipid‐derived polymeric structural component – cutin – embedded in a complex mixture of soluble lipids (‘wax’). When a plant needs to erect a barrier to seal a wound or to generate an internal diffusion‐resistant compartment, a polymeric cell wall accrustation – suberin – together with soluble waxes is deposited. Both polymers can be degraded, analysed and characterized. The epidermal cells and suberizing cells have specialized enzymes that convert the common cellular fatty acids into the unique components of the cuticle and suberin.
Malaria
Authors: Sherman Irwin W
Published: September 2006

Malaria is principally a disease of the blood that results from infection by protozoan parasites of the genus
Plasmodium
.
Shellfish Poisoning
Authors: Taylor FJR Max
Published: September 2006

Shellfish poisoning is the illness or death of humans, and other mammals and seabirds, caused by the consumption of shellfish that have been contaminated by eating toxin‐producing microscopic algal species during harmful algal blooms (HABs).
Protozoan Asexuality
Authors: Kuhlmann Hans‐Werner
Published: September 2006

Asexuality is a mode of reproduction that, unlike sexual reproduction, occurs without meiosis and the fusion of gametes. Its consequence is multiplication and conservation of the genotype in the offspring. In protozoa, asexual reproduction occurs by cell division.
Babesiosis
Authors: Palmer Guy H
Published: September 2006

Babesia
spp. are apicomplexan parasites that infect a wide variety of animals, including humans, causing severe disease in domestic animals and human babesiosis.
Giardiasis
Authors: Garcia Lynne Shore
Published: September 2006

Giardiasis is an intestinal parasitic infection caused by the protozoan flagellate
Giardia lamblia
. The parasite is transmitted from one host to another via the infective cyst form, often through contaminated food, water or person‐to‐person transmission by the faecal–oral route.
Leishmaniases
Authors: Chang Kwang‐Poo
Published: September 2006

Leishmaniases are diseases transmitted by sandflies. These diseases are largely zoonotic, but sometimes anthroponotic, and have a spectrum of clinical manifestations ranging from self‐healing cutaneous lesions to visceralization with fatal consequence. The causative agents are the trypanosomatid protozoa
Leishmania
, widespread in temperate, tropical and subtropical areas. Intralysosomal parasitism of macrophages is a key feature in their molecular mechanisms of virulence.
Apicomplexa
Authors: Marquardt William C , Speer CA
Published: September 2006

The phylum Apicomplexa includes several thousand parasitic protists that cause major diseases of mankind and of domestic and companion animals. Among the diseases that they cause are malaria, coccidiosis, toxoplasmosis, sarcocystosis, cyclosporosis, cryptosporidiosis and piroplasmosis.
Cryptomonads
Authors: Clay Brec L , Kugrens Paul , Lee Robert E
Published: September 2006

Cryptomonads are unicellular, biflagellate protists that contain chlorophyll
a
and
c
and phycobiliproteins. They possess a unique cell covering termed a periplast and a surface architectural configuration consisting of a furrow and/or gullet complex.
Antiprotozoan Drugs
Authors: Croft Simon L , Sutherland Colin
Published: September 2006

Current drugs for the treatment of protozoal infections, for example malaria, trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis, are inadequate and new drugs are being sought. There are no vaccines available for these diseases.
Slime Moulds
Authors: Blanton Richard L
Published: September 2006

Slime moulds are organisms that feed and grow like protozoa but reproduce like fungi. Their unusual name belies their importance as experimental research organisms and their potential to provide insights into the evolution of multicellularity.
Bacterial Antibiotic Resistance
Authors: Mobashery Shahriar , Jr Eduardo F Azucena
Published: September 2006

Mechanisms of bacterial antibiotic resistance refer to the processes that enable bacteria to counter the harmful action of antibacterial agents against them.
Chloroplast Genome
Authors: Howe Christopher J
Published: September 2006

Chloroplasts contain a genome that is a relic of the endosymbiont that gave rise to the organelle. Chloroplast genomes encode proteins important for photosynthesis and other chloroplast functions, and their expression can be controlled at many levels.
Plant Gene Mapping Techniques
Authors: Grant David , Shoemaker Randy C
Published: September 2006

Plant genetic maps are graphic representations of the organization of chromosomes. Maps are developed using a wide range of classical and molecular techniques and population structures.
Plant Quantitative Traits
Authors: Pooni Harpal S , Kearsey Michael J
Published: September 2006

Plant quantitative traits are controlled by many genes whose individual effects are often much smaller than those of the environment. These genes strictly follow Mendelian principles of inheritance and they can be isolated and cloned using linkage maps and sophisticated statistical analyses.
Phyllotaxy
Authors: Rutishauser Rolf , Peisl Peter
Published: September 2006

Phyllotaxy (phyllotaxis) is the mode of arrangement of leaves, scales, or bracts with flowers along the plant stem. Phyllotaxy research deals with the study of biological pattern formation (morphogenesis); it answers questions such as what the shoot apical meristem (SAM) does and how it does it.
Flowers
Authors: Ingrouille Martin
Published: September 2006

Flowers are the reproductive structures of the flowering plants (angiosperms), class Magnoliopsida. The huge range of types and colours of flowers represents different adaptations for reproduction, to promote cross‐pollination between individuals.
Carpels
Authors: Smyth David R
Published: September 2006

Carpels are the female reproductive organs within a flower that enclose the ovules, protecting them and screening out inappropriate pollen. They arose, probably from leaf‐like organs, long after the origin of ovules. Genes controlling key steps in carpel and ovule development have been discovered.
Plant Anatomy
Authors: Barclay Gregor
Published: September 2006

Plant anatomy describes the structure and organization of the cells, tissues and organs of plants in relation to their development and function.
Epidermis
Authors: Glover Beverley J
Published: September 2006

The epidermis is the protective outer layer of clonally related cells covering all plant organs. It is composed of a number of specialized cell types which differentiate from the basal epidermal cell in adaptively significant frequencies and patterns.
Mesophyll
Authors: Pyke Kevin
Published: September 2006

Cells of the mesophyll make up the bulk of internal leaf tissue and are the major site of photosynthesis in a plant by virtue of containing large populations of chloroplast organelles. The differentiation of the mesophyll and its coordinated expansion is important to leaf function because light interception by chloroplasts and gas exchange in the internal airspaces of the leaf are crucial to optimize rates of photosynthesis.
Plant Cuticle
Authors: Kerstiens Gerhard
Published: September 2006

Plant cuticles are protective lipophilic membranes that cover leaves and many stems and fruits. The cuticular polymer matrix and waxes provide a good but imperfect barrier against the loss of water and solutes and damage by pests and pathogens.
Segments (Phytomers)
Authors: Bossinger Gerd
Published: September 2006

The structure of higher plants can be interpreted as being derived from a repetition of morphogenetic units called phytomers.
Vitamin A Deficiency
Authors: Sommer Alfred
Published: September 2006

Vitamin A deficiency is common among children in developing countries, and is responsible for one to two million deaths and half a million new cases of blindness every year. Improving vitamin A status can dramatically improve child health, vision and survival.
Venous Thrombosis
Authors: Taberner David A
Published: September 2006

Certain pathological situations, usually several, interact to cause the development of a coagulum (thrombus) of clottable protein (fibrin) and cellular blood components within veins, which may cause damage by occluding the venous circulation locally, or by migration (embolization) elsewhere in the vascular tree. Treatment is usually by anticoagulation, which prevents further formation, relying on natural lysis to remove the fibrin.
Renal Tubular Disorders
Authors: Wilson Patricia D
Published: September 2006

Kidney diseases that derive from the malfunction of the tubular portion of the renal nephron comprising the proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule and collecting ducts. These diseases can be common or rare and may have genetic or nongenetic causes and include cystic kidney diseases as well as disease caused by abnormalities of tubule ion transport.
Liver Failure
Authors: Summerfield John A
Published: September 2006

Liver failure is defined as the syndrome that develops when there is insufficient liver cell mass for the synthetic, metabolic and excretory functions of the liver to maintain normal body homeostasis.
Gastrointestinal Tract: Congenital Abnormalities
Authors: Walker‐Smith John A
Published: September 2006

The gastrointestinal tract may be subject to a variety of congenital abnormalities (i.e. abnormalies present at birth) which may arise during embryological development.
Postmaturity
Authors: Rodeck Charles H , Holmes Anna E
Published: September 2006

Postmaturity syndrome occurs most commonly in prolonged pregnancy and results from placental insufficiency. Despite advances in obstetric care it remains a difficult problem to predict and prevent.
Glycosylation and Disease
Authors: Rhodes Jonathan , Yu Lu‐Gang
Published: September 2006

Glycosylation is the process of attachment of sugars to proteins and lipids to form the glyoproteins and glycolipids found in eukaryotic organisms. The presence of oligosaccharides on a protein can have substantial effects on its size, stability, charge and antigenicity. Altered glycosylation is implicated in cancer, mucosal diseases and pathogen–host interactions.
Eosinophilia and the Hypereosinophil Syndromes
Authors: Venge Per
Published: September 2006

Eosinophilia denotes the increased number of eosinophil granulocytes in blood or tissue and is associated with a large number of human diseases. Hypereosinophilia is the condition when excessive numbers of eosinophils are produced and which often leads to serious organ damage by the eosinophils.
Anaemia: Adaptive Mechanisms and Consequences
Authors: Erslev Allan J
Published: September 2006

Tissue hypoxia induced by an anaemia causes the activation of a number of metabolic activities, all with the aim of ameliorating hypoxic injury. This compensatory feedback, which effects the symptomatology of anaemia, is to a great extent initiated by the production of a single transcription factor, HIF, enhancing the action of genes involved in the transport and utilization of oxygen.
Haematopoietic Growth Factors: Therapeutic Uses
Authors: Fetscher Sebastian , Mertelsmann Roland
Published: September 2006

Haematopoietic growth factors (HGF) belong to the family of cytokines that are glycoprotein products of activated cells. Their main biological function is as a means of short‐range intercellular communication influencing survival, self‐renewal, proliferation, differentiation and activation of cells at all levels of haematopoietic development. The clinical application of HGF was one of the main contributors to increased therapeutic possibilities in medicine achieved during the last two decades of the twentieth century.
Immune Complex Disease
Authors: Hardy Kenneth J , deShazo Richard D
Published: September 2006

Immune complexes derive from complex interactions between antibody, antigens, complement and various receptors. Immune complex disease can manifest in a myriad of ways when dysregulation in one or more of these components occurs.
Hodgkin Disease
Authors: Ng Andrea K , Mauch Peter M
Published: September 2006

Hodgkin disease is a malignancy of the lymphatic system, affecting predominantly young adults. Advances in diagnosis, staging and treatment in the last 30 years have allowed long‐term cure in the majority of patients. Current challenges include better understanding of the aetiology and pathophysiology of the disease, optimization of control rates especially in patients with unfavourable prognosis or advanced‐stage disease, modification of therapeutic approaches to reduce the risk of long‐term complications, and increasing the awareness of patients and physicians of the potential late effects of treatment so that patients can receive appropriate follow‐up care.
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukaemia
Authors: Catovsky D
Published: September 2006

CLL results from the expansion of a clone of CD5+ B lymphocytes with distinct morphology and membrane antigens. The clinical course is variable and is determined by the stage of the disease. Genetic abnormalities detected by FISH analysis are important determinants of prognosis. Treatment is only indicated in symptomatic patients with active disease.
Neutropenia
Authors: Dale David C
Published: September 2006

Neutropenia is a decrease in the number of neutrophilic leucocytes in the blood. Clinically neutropenia is defined as an absolute blood neutrophil count (total white blood cells per litre multiplied by the percentage of neutrophils) more than two standard deviations below the normal mean.
Acute Myelogenous Leukaemia
Authors: Lichtman Marshall A
Published: September 2006

Acute myelogenous leukaemia is the result of a malignant transformation of a primitive cell in the bone marrow. The neoplastic transformation imparts a growth and/or survival advantage to the cell. The functional result of this alteration is to impair blood cell production, which normally occurs in the marrow, leading to a profound decrease in red blood cells (anaemia), white blood cells (leucopenia), and platelets or thrombocytes (thrombocytopenia) in the blood. Untreated, the disease results in death in weeks.
Autonomic Failure in Humans
Authors: Freeman Roy
Published: September 2006

Autonomic failure is a consequence of disease of the central and peripheral nervous system.
Peripheral Neuropathy
Authors: Pritchard Jane
Published: September 2006

The peripheral nerves include all nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. A wide variety of diseases and disorders can affect one or all of the types of peripheral nerves. Collectively these disorders are referred to as ‘peripheral neuropathies’.
Marburg and Ebola Haemorrhagic Fevers
Authors: Feldmann Heinz , Klenk Hans‐Dieter
Published: September 2006

Ebola and Marburg viruses cause severe haemorrhagic fever and belong to the most dangerous human pathogens.
Flavivirus Infections in Humans
Authors: Gould Ernest A
Published: September 2006

Flaviviruses can cause clinical disease in humans and also in animals. They are known as arboviruses, and infect and replicate in both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts.
AIDS
: Clinical Manifestations
Authors: Dore Gregory J , Cooper David A
Published: September 2006

People with HIV infection experience a wide range of clinical manifestations. Due to their association with HIV‐induced immunodeficiency, more than 20 conditions, including opportunistic infections and malignancies, have now been classified as AIDS‐defining illnesses. The spectrum of AIDS illnesses is determined by several demographic and clinical factors and has contrasting patterns in developing and industrialized country settings.
Filarial Diseases
Authors: Duke Brian OL
Published: September 2006

Filarial diseases are caused by nematode worms that spend part of their life cycle in human hosts, and part in a blood‐sucking insect vector. According to species, the adult worms live in the human lymphatic vessels, the subcutaneous tissue and deep connective tissues, or in serous cavities.
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
Authors: New Maria I
Published: September 2006

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a family of treatable disorders whose common feature is impaired cortisol synthesis, most often due to an enzymatic defect. In some forms, a build‐up of steroids in the pathway prior to the defective enzyme leads to an overproduction of androgens and virilization of an affected female fetus.
Vitamin
B
12
: Disorders of Absorption and Metabolism
Authors: Watkins David , Rosenblatt David S
Published: September 2006

Vitamin B
12
is a water‐soluble vitamin produced by bacteria and present in animals but not plants. Disorders in the intake, absorption, or metabolism of this vitamin can result in abnormalities of the blood and nervous system.
Haemoglobinopathies
Authors: Loukopoulos Dimitris L
Published: September 2006

Haemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues in a very precise manner defined by its unique structure. Alteration of this structure during genetic events leads to ‘variant’ molecules which may have different properties causing interference with oxygen delivery and impairment of the carrier's health.
Renal Fanconi Syndrome
Authors: Bergeron Michel , Gougoux André
Published: September 2006

Renal Fanconi syndrome is a tubular dysfunction increasing the urinary excretion of glucose, amino acids, phosphate and bicarbonate and inducing rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.
Prenatal Diagnosis
Authors: Binns Victoria , Hsu Nancy
Published: September 2006

Prenatal diagnosis is the process of ruling in or out fetal anomalies or genetic disorders, to provide expecting parents with information and the opportunity to modify pregnancy management and/or postnatal care.
Heart Failure: Introduction
Authors: Coats Andrew JS
Published: September 2006

Heart failure is a disease caused by reduced heart pumping and associated with shortness of breath, fatigue and increased mortality.
Hypertension
Authors: Alper Arnold B , Calhoun David A , Oparil Suzanne
Published: September 2006

Hypertension is defined as a sustained increase in blood pressure. Historically, the level of blood pressure designating hypertension has been a systolic blood pressure of 140 mmHg or more and/or a diastolic blood pressure of 90 mmHg or more. However, the risk imparted with increasing blood pressure is continuous, such that the level of blood pressure must be considered within the context of the overall cardiovascular risk profile.
Blood Cell: Lineage Restriction
Authors: Zhou Yi , Zon Leonard I
Published: September 2006

Blood cell lineage restriction is a series of processes by which different blood cell lineages are produced from a population of multipotential cells. These processes involve cell proliferation and cell differentiation and are believed to repeat early embryonic processes of blood cell formation.
Signal Transduction Pathways in Development: Wnts and their Receptors
Authors: Nusse Roel
Published: September 2006

Secreted Wnt proteins act through a conserved pathway to control development.
Roots: Contribution to the Rhizosphere
Authors: Gunawardena Uvini , Zhao Xiaowen , Hawes Martha C
Published: September 2006

Diverse compounds exuded by different parts of the root system create a unique environment known as the rhizosphere. Interactions among microorganisms found within the rhizosphere and communication between these microorganisms and plant roots play an important role in maintaining plant health.
Contrast Agents: Physical and Biological Basis
Authors: Dawson Peter
Published: September 2006

Contrast agents occupy a pivotal position in the science and art of medical imaging. A medical image from whatever source must exhibit contrast to allow one part of the image to be differentiated from another. An agent that enhances contrast in an image is termed a contrast agent.
Nuclear Medicine
Authors: Ell Peter J
Published: September 2006

Nuclear medicine encompasses applications of radioactive materials in diagnosis or treatment or in medical research, with the exception of the use of sealed radiation sources in radiotherapy. The radiation used in this medical field stems from the nucleus of the atom, in contrast with radiology, which makes use of X‐rays, which are generated outside the nucleus.
Baltimore, David
Authors: Kevles Daniel J
Published: September 2006

1938–American ‐born biologist who shared a Nobel Prize in 1975 for the discovery of reverse transcriptase.
Bates, Henry Walter
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1825–1882 British naturalistwho described mimicry in insects.
Bauhin, Caspar
Authors: Martensen Robert L
Published: September 2006

1560–1624 French/ Swiss anatomist and botanist who contributed significantly to nomenclature in both fields.
Bayliss, William Maddock
Authors: Tansey EM
Published: September 2006

1860

–

1924

English

physiologist

who

investigated the physiology and biochemistry of intestinal and pancreatic function

, discovering with his brother‐in‐law Ernest Starling the digestive hormone secretin; he also formulated an effective treatment for wound shock during World War I.
Beadle, George Wells
Authors: Power HJ
Published: September 2006

1903

–

1989

US

geneticist

who, with Edward L. Tatum, demonstrated the

genetic control of enzyme synthesis whereby the production of each enzyme is controlled by a different gene: the ‘one gene–one enzyme’ theory

.
Bichat, Marie‐François‐Xavier
Authors: Albury W Randall
Published: September 2006

1771–1802 French medical figure of the Revolutionary period who was a leading exponent of vitalism and a founder of histology and histopathology.
Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich
Authors: Rupke Nicolaas A
Published: September 2006

1752–1840 German comparative anatomist who made fundamental contributions to physical anthropology.

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840).

image
Bordet, Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent
Authors: Cruse JM , Lewis RE
Published: September 2006

1870

–

1961

Belgian

bacteriologist

and

immunologist

who

discovered
Bordetella pertussis
, the causative agent of whooping cough, immune haemolysis and complement fixation.
Brown, Robert
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1773–1858 British botanist and explorer, who also observed the cell nucleus and ‘Brownian motion’.
Brown‐Séquard, Charles Edouard
Authors: Aminoff MJ
Published: September 2006

1817

–

1894

Mauritian

‐born

British

(later

French

)

physiologist

who defined the sensory pathways in the spinal cord, emphasized the importance of functional processes in the operation of the nervous system, showed experimentally that the adrenal glands are essential to life, and founded modern hormone replacement therapy by his use of organ extracts.
Buffon, Georges Louis
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1707–1788Frenchnatural philosopher most famous for his work
Histoire Naturelle
, in which he proposes a sequential history of the origin of the Earth and animals.
Ramón y Cajal, Santiago
Authors: Glickstein Mitchell
Published: September 2006

1852

–

1934

Spanish

histologist

whose work formed the basis of the neuron doctrine: the idea that the brain and spinal cord are made up of individual cells, called neurons, and their supporting cells and blood vessels.
Steenstrup, J Japetus S
Authors: Farley J
Published: September 2006

1813

–

1897

Danish

naturalist

best known for his work on the type of development that he called the ‘alternation of generations’.
Cope, Edward Drinker
Authors: Kneeland Timothy W
Published: September 2006

1840–1897 American vertebrate palaeontologist and noted neo‐Lamarckian who described over one thousand new vertebrate specimens.
Cori, Gerty Theresa Radnitz
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1896–1957 Czech‐born (then Austria‐Hungary) American biochemist who carried out pioneering work on carbohydrate metabolism.
Cuvier, Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Baron de
Authors: Oldroyd David R
Published: September 2006

1769

–

1832

French

zoologist

,

comparative anatomist

, and

administrator

, well known for his ‘catastrophism’, but also one of the principal founders of geology as a geohistorical science.
Dale, Henry Hallett
Authors: Tansey EM
Published: September 2006

1875–1968 English physiologist and pharmacologist, whose work on chemical neurotransmission, especially by acetylcholine, elucidated a basic mechanism of nerve function.
Baeyer, Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1835 – 1917 German organic chemist and Nobel Prize winner who synthesized indigo and who developed the strain theory of atomic bonding.
Koelliker, Rudolf Albert von
Authors: Schickore J
Published: September 2006

1817

–

1905

Swiss

anatomist

who made important contributions to the fields of

microscopic anatomy, in particular to histology and embryology

.
Needham, John Turberville
Authors: Ratcliff MJ
Published: September 2006

1713

–

1781

British

priest and

microscopist

who

experimented on the generation of microorganisms

.
Oken, Lorenz
Authors: Rupke Nicolaas A
Published: September 2006

1779–1851 German natural scientist who was a leading advocate of idealist morphology and has been called ‘the father of scientific meetings’.
Simond, Paul‐Louis
Authors: Brey PT , Simond M
Published: September 2006

1858–1947 French military doctor ranking General and Pasteurien who discovered the role of the rat flea in the transmission of bubonic plague.
Smith, Theobald
Authors: Wilkinson Lise
Published: September 2006

1859–1934 American bacteriologist, known particularly for his contributions towards the study of tuberculosis and the tick transmission of Texas fever in cattle.
Starling, Ernest Henry
Authors: Tansey EM
Published: September 2006

1866–1927 English physiologist who worked on body functions and their regulation, especially the activity of the heart, and who, with William Bayliss, discovered secretin, a chemical messenger for which he coined the word ‘hormone’.
Manson, Patrick
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

1844–1922 British doctor who established the role of arthropods as secondary hosts in parasitic diseases and who founded the discipline of tropical medicine in Britain.
McCollum, Elmer Verner
Authors: Carpenter Kenneth J
Published: September 2006

1879–1967 US nutritionist who pioneered the use of small animals in nutritional studies and discovered vitamin A.
Freud, Sigmund
Authors: Gilman Sander L
Published: September 2006

1856–1939 Austrian physician and founder of psychoanalysis.
Galen of Pergamum
Authors: Nutton V
Published: September 2006

AD
129–216 Greek physician, anatomist and physiologist.
Roux, Pierre Paul Émile
Authors: Board Suzanne
Published: September 2006

(1853–1933) French medical
bacteriologist, key experimenter in the development of
Pasteur's rabies treatment, discoverer of the diphtheria exotoxin,
and director of the Institut Pasteur 1904–1933.
Primary Cell Cultures and Immortal Cell Lines
Authors: Stacey Glyn
Published: September 2006

Primary cell cultures can be established from tissue explants or, more usually, from disaggregated tissue samples. Cells that can be subcultured many times are called cell lines and examples have been isolated from diverse tissues and cell types. Continuous cell lines of unlimited lifespan can be generated by means of a number of immortalization techiques, although in most cases such cell lines have arisen spontaneously.
DNA Synthesis: Autoradiography and BrdU Staining
Authors: Madsen Peder
Published: September 2006

It is often necessary to evaluate the proportion of DNA‐replicating nuclei (S‐phase cells) in a given population of cells. Classical methods for detection of cells in the S phase use incorporation of modified nucleosides, followed by direct visualization of the DNA ‐replicating cells.
Yeast Cell Culture
Authors: de Spencer Alicia l Ragout , Spencer JFT
Published: September 2006

Yeasts – unicellular, eukaryotic fungi with membrane‐bound nucleus and mitochondria – were among the first microorganisms to be domesticated. They are still used for brewing and baking, but under appropriate culture conditions they also find numerous technological applications, including fodder production, production of fermented foods, waste disposal and, when genetically engineered, the production of vaccines and therapeutic proteins.
Animal Cell Separation and Fractionation
Authors: Bird R Curtis , Bird Allison E Church , DeInnocentes Patricia
Published: September 2006

Many cell types containing many different compartments can be fractionated into special cell populations or subcellular compartments. Fractionation strategies must be tailored to provide the highest quality enrichment of the fraction of cells, organelles or complexes sought and after careful assessment of the target and the uses to which the final enriched fraction will be put.
Mitochondria: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Mühlenhoff Ulrich , Lill Roland
Published: September 2006

Procedures developed for the isolation of pure and intact mitochondria have contributed considerably to the understanding of the complex biochemical functions of mitochondria, as they permit the detailed application of sophisticated biochemical and biophysical techniques to the investigation of this organelle.
hnRNP: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Tan Jia‐huai , LeStourgeon Wallace M
Published: September 2006

During transcription in higher eukaryotes, the elongating pre‐messenger RNA is bound by a unique set of abundant nuclear proteins to form a repeating array of 20–22‐nm particles termed 30–40S heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) particles. A variety of methods exist for the isolation and purification of hnRNP complexes and for the
in vitro
assembly of hnRNP assembly intermediates.
RNA: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Chomczynski Piotr , Mackey Karol
Published: September 2006

Isolation of RNA is the first critical step in analysing gene expression and viral RNA function and the cloning of genes. Isolation must free the RNA contaminants that may interfere with subsequent applications and must inactivate RNA‐degrading enzymes.
Tumorigenicity Assays
Authors: Frandsen Thomas Leth , Holst‐Hansen Claus , Brünner Nils
Published: September 2006

Tumorigenicity is defined as the ability of cultured cells to give rise to either benign or malignant progressively growing tumours showing viable and mitotically active cells in immunologically nonresponsive animals over a limited observation period. The ability of a cell line to produce tumour in an animal is highly dependent on and defined by the assay in which it is tested. A variety of animal systems are suitable for
in vivo
tumorigenesis studies.
Vesicle Transport Assay
Authors: Langford George M
Published: September 2006

Microtubules and actin filaments function as cytoplasmic filaments for vesicle transport. Vesicle transport assays were devised to study the movement of vesicles on these filaments. Video‐enhanced microscopy is an excellent method for such assays, with the possibility of detecting vesicles as small as 100 nm in diameter and microtubules 25 nm in diameter.
Motility Assays for Microtubule Motor Proteins
Authors: Rogers Stephen L , Scholey Jonathan M
Published: September 2006

Light microscopic motility assays provide critical information about the mechanism of action of motor proteins. Motility assays allow the visualization of individual motor proteins movingin vitro, and the movement of such motors as they drive microtubule‐based motility events in living cells.
Cell Staining: Fluorescent Labelling of Endocytic Compartments
Authors: Gorvel Jean‐Pierre , Méresse Stéphane
Published: September 2006

Endocytic compartments are acidic organelles involved in the transport of extracellular solutes and ligands from the plasma membrane to early, then to late endosomes and eventually to lysosomes. Endocytic compartments can be fluorescently labelled by fluid phase endocytosis, internalized specific ligands, resident proteins and pH‐sensitive probes.
Fluorescent Probes Used for Measuring Intracellular Calcium
Authors: Petersen Ole H , Burdakova Nina
Published: September 2006

Calcium signals are produced by sudden increases in the intracellular calcium concentration. The most effective techniques for measuring this concentration use fluorescent or luminescent probes. Two types of probe are widely used: those that undergo a change in fluorescence when calcium is bound, and those that emit light when calcium is bound.
Electroporation
Authors: Nickoloff Jac A
Published: September 2006

Electroporation is a simple, rapid and efficient technique for introducing DNA, RNA, proteins, and other bioactive molecules into cells and tissues. Electroporation – the creation of electrically induced membrane pores – is effective with a wide range of cell types including bacterial, fungal, plant and animal cells.
Vaccinia virus Expression System
Authors: Falkner Falko G , Dorner Friedrich
Published: September 2006

The vaccinia virus expression system consists of genetically modified (recombinant) vaccinia viruses and vertebrate host cells; it allows transfer and expression of foreign (nonvaccinia) genes in the cytoplasm of infected cells or in animals.
Baculovirus Expression System
Authors: van Oers Monique M , Vlak Just M
Published: September 2006

The baculovirus expression system uses recombinant baculoviruses for the production of biologically active proteins in cultured insect cells or insect larvae.
Semliki Forest Virus Expression System
Authors: Ekström Maria , Sjöberg Mathilda E
Published: September 2006

Eukaryotic cells can be programmed to synthesize foreign proteins by infection with recombinant
Semliki Forest virus
. The foreign protein will be produced at a high level from about four hours after infection, while the cell‐derived protein synthesis is shut down.
Gene Expression in Plants
Authors: Sablowski Robert WM
Published: September 2006

Changes in gene expression are central to plant development and environmental responses, and to modifying plants for practical use. Gene regulation and most of the approaches used to study it are similar in plants and other eukaryotes.
Gene Expression in
Escherichia coli
Authors: Ling Michael Mingfu
Published: September 2006

Essentially all genes can be expressed by using recombinant methods. Gene expression in
Escherichia coli
is the most efficient system.
Protein Determination
Authors: Guttenberger Martin
Published: September 2006

Protein determination aims at estimating the concentration of protein in unknown samples by comparing the unknown sample with a known standard. Sample preparation and choice of a suitable standard are the most important criteria for the accuracy of the results.
Gel Filtration
Authors: Hagel Lars
Published: September 2006

Gel filtration is a chromatographic technique that separates solutes according to decreasing size. Typical applications are desalting (buffer exchange), fractionation (purification) and determination of molecular mass (solute size). The theory of gel filtration is well established and simulations of experiments may readily be performed to aid in selection and optimization of experimental conditions.
Peptide Sequencing by Edman Degradation
Authors: Smith John Bryan
Published: September 2006

Edman chemistry is a long‐established approach to determination of the primary structure, or sequence, of polypeptides.
Microinjection of mRNA into Somatic Cells
Authors: Murata‐Hori Maki , Wang Yu‐Li
Published: September 2006

Microinjection of messenger RNA (mRNA) represents a convenient, effective approach to probe protein functions during specific period of the cell cycle.
Posttranslational Processing: Peptide Hormones and Neuropeptide Transmitters
Authors: Varro Andrea
Published: September 2006

The regulatory peptides that act as hormones, paracrine messengers or neurotransmitters are generally synthesized initially as large, inactive precursors that are converted to their active forms by a variety of different posttranslational processing steps, including cleavage of the peptide chain and modification to individual residues by sulfation, phosphorylation, glycosylation and COOH‐terminal amidation.
DNA‐binding Enzymes: Structural Themes
Authors: Knopf Charles W , Waldeck Waldemar
Published: September 2006

DNA‐binding enzymes play pivotal roles in nucleic acid biosynthesis. Their structural and functional resemblance bears the imprint of DNA evolution.
Crystallization of Nucleic Acids
Authors: Holbrook Elizabeth L , Holbrook Stephen R
Published: September 2006

Crystal structure analysis by X‐ray diffraction requires large, well‐ordered, single crystals. The crystallization of nucleic acids has become the limiting step in their structural analysis by X‐ray crystallography. Approaches to crystallization have included batch methods, dialysis, evaporation, interface diffusion and vapour diffusion. The most widely and successfully used technique is hanging‐drop vapour diffusion.
Altman, Sidney
Authors: Sankaran Neeraja
Published: September 2006

1939

–

Canadian

‐born

molecular biologist

who made

seminal discoveries regarding the catalytic properties of RNA molecules

.
Barton, Derek Harold Richard
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1918

–

1998

British

organic chemist

who developed the

principles of conformational analysis and discovered a method for synthesizing the hormone aldosterone

.
Benacerraf, Baruj
Authors: Sankaran Neeraja
Published: September 2006

1920

–

Venezuelan

‐born

American

immunologist

noted for his

work on the genetics of the immune system.
Bishop, J Michael
Authors: Witkowski JA
Published: September 2006

1936

–

American

virologist

who

showed that cancer‐causing viruses have mutant versions of genes found in normal cells

.
Cech, Thomas R
Authors: Witkowski JA
Published: September 2006

1947

–

American

scientist

who

discovered that RNA can act as an enzyme

.
Corey, Elias James
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1928

–

American

chemist

who developed the

concept of retrosynthetic analysis

.
Curie, Marie
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1867

–

1934

Polish‐born French

physicist

and

radiochemist

who was a pioneer in the study of

radioactivity

.
La Mettrie, Julien Offray de
Authors: Power HJ
Published: September 2006

1709

–

1751

French

doctor and medical philosopher

known for his

materialistic conception of man as a machine

.
Elion, Gertrude Belle
Authors: Brown Cecelia M
Published: September 2006

1918

–

1999

American

chemist

who

developed a novel approach to the treatment of diseases

in which antimetabolites are used as drugs.
Foster, Michael
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1836

–

1907

British

physiologist

and

pioneer of the teaching of physiology.
Funk, Casimir
Authors: Carpenter KJ
Published: September 2006

1884

–

1967

Polish

biochemist

who studied the

dietary factor required to prevent beriberi and coined the term vitamine, later shortened to vitamin

.
Gasser, Herbert Spencer
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1888

–

1963

American

physiologist

who

elaborated the compound nature of nerve fibres

.
Gilbert, Walter
Authors: Anderson Raymond G
Published: September 2006

1932

–

American

molecular biologist

who was the

first to

isolate a genetic control element

and who

developed a rapid method for sequencing DNA

.
Karrer, Paul
Authors: Anderson Raymond G
Published: September 2006

1889–1971 Swiss organic chemist who determined the structure of vitamins A, B
2
and E and carried out their synthesis.
Kitasato, Shibasaburo
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1852–1931 Japanese bacteriologist who demonstrated that tetanus antitoxin could prevent tetanus.
David Lack and the Development of Field Ornithology
Authors: Cain Joe
Published: September 2006

1910–1973Britishornithologist and ecologist who studied Galápagos finches, producing detailed studies of natural selection and competitive exclusion in natural populations.
Moore, Stanford
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1913–1982 American biochemist and Nobel Prize winner who automated techniques for amino acid analysis.
Porter, Rodney Robert
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1917–1985 British biochemist and immunologist who determined the chemical structure of an antibody.
Porter, George
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1920– British physical chemist noted for the study of very fast reactions and for his contributions to the public understanding of science.
Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad von
Authors: Sutton Michael A
Published: September 2006

1845–1923 German physicist who discovered X‐rays, and recognized their potential for medical diagnosis.
Ruzika, Leopold Stephen
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1887–1976 Croatian‐born Swiss organic chemist and Nobel prize winner who investigated male sex hormones.
Shiga, Kiyoshi
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1870–1957 Japanese bacteriologist who discovered the causal organism of bacillary dysentery.
Szent‐Györgyi von Nagyrapolt, Albert
Authors: Morgan Gregory J
Published: September 2006

1893–1986 Hungarian ‐ born US biochemist who is best known for his work on vitamin C and cellular respiration.
Wald, George
Authors: Bostanci Adam
Published: September 2006

1906–1997 US biological chemist who elucidated the biochemical basis of vision.
Large Fermenters
Authors: Winkler Michael A
Published: September 2006

A fermenter is a container in which a biological process can be carried out. Organisms, substrates and nutrients are brought together in the fermenter and maintained there in a favourable environment.
DNA Mechanics and Statistical Mechanics
Authors: Strick Terence , Allemand Jean‐François , Bensimon David , Croquette Vincent
Published: September 2006

The elastic properties of DNA are essential for its biological function. They control its bending and twisting as well as the induction of structural modifications in the molecule. These can affect its interaction with the cell machinery. The response of a single DNA molecule to a mechanical stress can be precisely determined in single‐molecule experiments that give access to accurate measurements of the elastic parameters of DNA.
Protein Unfolding and Denaturants
Authors: Konermann Lars
Published: September 2006

The biologically active state of most proteins is characterized by a tightly folded and highly ordered conformation. Denaturants are chemical or physical agents (e.g. urea, acid or heat) that can induce unfolding of the polypeptide chain. Unfolded proteins have a largely disordered structure.
Protein Structural Flexibility: Molecular Motions
Authors: Henchman Richard H , McCammon J Andrew
Published: September 2006

Protein molecules are intrinsically flexible and typically undergo a wide variety of motions at normal temperatures. The flexibility and dynamics of proteins have been harnessed by evolution for a wide variety of their activities, ranging from ligand binding to regulation of function.
Biological Data Centres
Authors: Stafford Phillip
Published: September 2006

The quality of genetic information increased substantially during the 1990s. Centralization of sequence information is becoming increasingly important to efficient data discovery and retrieval.
Metabolic Pathway Databases
Authors: Ellis Lynda BM
Published: September 2006

Metabolic pathway databases may draw on enzyme, compound and gene databases, but usually go beyond them to show how enzyme reactions link to one another and ultimately form pathways for catabolism, anabolism or other necessary cellular functions.
Protein Secondary Structures: Prediction
Authors: Chandonia John‐Marc
Published: September 2006

Secondary structure prediction methods are computational algorithms that predict the secondary structure of a protein (i.e. α helices, β strands and turns) from the primary structure (the amino acid sequence).
Neutron Diffraction
Authors: Bradshaw Jeremy P
Published: September 2006

Neutron diffraction complements X‐ray diffraction by providing information about the hydrogen atoms within biological materials. It allows biologists to study solvation effects, protonation–deprotonation equilibria and hydrogen bonding.
Fatty Acid Oxidation Disorders
Authors: Tyni Tiina , Turnbull Douglass M
Published: September 2006

Mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation is a major energy‐providing pathway during fasting and prolonged exercise in man and a number of inherited disorders affecting this metabolic pathway are known. Defects of mitochondrial β‐oxidation typically cause severe crises associated with low blood glucose (hypoglycaemia) during infancy and childhood and are also a relatively frequent cause of muscle diseases and cardiac muscle disease. It is essential to recognize this group of disorders because of therapeutic and prenatal diagnostic opportunities.
Evolution during Domestication
Authors: Gepts Paul , Papa Roberto
Published: September 2006

During the process of domestication, plants and animals have evolved under conscious and unconscious selection by humans.
Neuroimmunology
Authors: Antel Jack P , Owens Trevor
Published: September 2006

Neuroimmunology is the study of the interaction between the immune system and the nervous system. Entry and function of immune mediators into the central nervous system are dependent on specific molecule‐mediated communication between the two systems occurring at the level of the blood–brain barrier and within the brain parenchyma. Immune surveillance does occur within the central nervous system, protecting the host from infectious agents. An activated immune response within the central nervous system can have the dual roles of effecting tissue injury or contributing to neural protection and recovery from injury.
X‐ray Diffraction at Synchrotron Light Sources
Authors: Helliwell John R
Published: September 2006

The elucidation of biological structure and function for macromolecules and their complexes is undertaken extensively using X‐ray diffraction. Synchrotron X‐radiation is widely used, due to its exceptional X‐ray brilliance and tunability properties, in protein crystallography, fibre diffraction and solution scattering.
Mass Spectrometry: Peptide Sequencing
Authors: Watson J Throck
Published: September 2006

Electrospray and MALDI (matrix‐assisted laser desorption ionization) are two versions of desorption/ionization that allow modern mass spectrometry to be applied to the analysis of peptides and proteins. In addition to a direct indication of the molecular weight, the sequence of amino acids in a peptide can be deduced from the fragmentation pattern (the mass spectrum itself).
Macromolecules and Salts: Interactions
Authors: Eisenberg Henryk
Published: September 2006

Biological macromolecules carry electrical charges and operate in crowded and complex systems. An understanding of electrostatic interactions is essential for the evaluation of biological function.