bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An ethometric analysis in a zoological garden: Modification of ungulate behavior by the visual presence of a predator
Authors: Stanley Mark E. , Aspey Wayne P.
Published: June 2005

Zoological gardens often juxtapose enclosures of predator and prey for educational purposes under the assumption that the predator and prey habituate to each other. To determine if prey are aware of the predator, we studied an exhibit with five species of African ungulates separated by a dry moat from their natural predator, the African lion. Using both focal and scan sampling, activity budgets of ungulates in response to various predator behaviors were quantified. Interindividual distances also were recorded as a measure of the degree of herding relative to predator behavior. Ungulates spent significantly less time in seven behaviors (Lying Down, Feeding, Drinking, Sniffing Ground, Sniffing Each Other, Defecating, Urinating) when the predator was visually present than when the predator was visually absent. Five of these behaviors (Drinking, Sniffing Ground, Sniffing Each Other, Defecating, Urinating) occurred at low frequencies and durations. Interindividual distances, on the other hand, varied little, although intraspecific distances were significantly shorter than interspecific distances. The changes in ungulate behavior indicate an awareness of the predator; for example, less time was spent with the head down (Feeding, Drinking, Sniffing Ground) when the predator was present, allowing more time for predator surveillance. These results indicate that the ungulates in this zoo exhibit modify their behavior when a lion is visually present. These modifications, though, seem to have no deleterious effects on ungulate behavior.
Interspecific aggression in mixed ungulate species exhibits
Authors: Popp James W.
Published: June 2005

Mixed ungulate species exhibits are often plagued with difficulties stemming from interspecific aggression. Several aspects of interspecific aggression were investigated in mixed ungulate species exhibits at the Audubon Zoolnogical Garden in New Orleans, Louisiana. Success of a mixed species exhibit was found to be correlated with the rate of male‐initiated aggression, but not with the total rate of aggression. Neither taxonomic relatedness nor size difference between the species could be used to predict the success of a species pairing. The total rate of aggression in an exhibit was related to taxonomic relatedness, aggression being highest between distantly related species. Increases in aggression were triggered by births, mating activity, and introduction of an animal to an exhibit.
Hemosiderosis in lemurs
Authors: Gonzales John , Benirschke Kurt , Saltman Paul , Roberts Jeff , Robinson Phillip T.
Published: June 2005

In the late 1960s, pathologists at the San Diego Zoo began to notice iron storage in the internal organs of captive lemurs. Hemosiderin was found in liver, spleen, lymph nodes, duodenum, and occasionally other organs. This was most pronounced inLemur macaco, least pronounced inLemur catta, with the severity inLemur variegatus variegatusandLemur variegatus ruberfalling somewhere in between. Since 1968, 20 of 29 necropsied lemurs had hemosiderosis, three with hepatomas, three with cholangiomas, and one with a metastatic pheochromocytoma. In a preliminary attempt to compare their iron absorption, five black‐and‐white ruffed lemur (Lemur variegatus variegatus) weanlings and five rhesus monkey weanlings were each given ∼500 nmol/kg FeCI3(27.9 μg iron/kg) containing 5 μCi of59Fe in 0.1 M HCl via a nasogastric tube. Retained59Fe was measured by whole body gamma counting and found to be roughly the same in the two groups, possibly because insufficient quantities of iron were administered and/or excessive iron absorption becomes apparent only in older animals. Our conclusions were the following: (1) Hemosiderosis in lemurs is associated with tissue damage similar to that seen in humans with idiopathic hemochromatosis. (2) Because iron deposits occur both in parenchymal cells and reticuloendothelial cells, hemosiderosis in lemurs is probably not a model for idiopathic hemochromatosis in a pure sense.
In vitro fertilization and potential reproductive strategies for rare animals
Authors: Brackett Benjamin G.
Published: June 2005

This review presents ways that in vitro fertilization (IVF) methodology might be employed in future animal‐breeding practices. The utility of IVF in promotion of reproduction in endangered animals hinges on the production of viable embryos that can survive to, in turn, procreate. Progress has evolved through rabbit and cow experimentation and parallels between potential practical applications in cattle breeding and those to enhance propagation of rare animals are becoming apparent.
Reproductive physiology studies in zoological species: Concerns and strategies
Authors: Wildt David E. , Bush Mitchell
Published: June 2005

A sophisticated understanding of reproductive physiology of domestic animals has evolved over only the past several decades. Related technical advances in this field have permitted propagation through artificial insemination and/or embryo transfer using fresh or frozen‐thawed gametic or embryonic material. More recent studies in genetic engineering and embryo micromanipulation have generated additional potential for improved reproductive efficiency in the farm‐animal industry. Although these procedures provide incentive for solving management problems and improving the endangered status of many zoological species, achieving these objectives will be neither simple nor immediate. Major obstacles to confront include the poor image of research, unavailability of research stocks, lack of financial support, scarcity of trained personnel, and the idea that new reproductive techniques offer a “quick fix” to the problem of inadequate reproduction in an endangered species. Zoological researchers should now concentrate on establishing basic reproductive relationships in species of interest. Comparative studies in domesticated animals will accelerate progress. The immediate goal should be the production of sound scientific data of publishable quality. Only then can artificial propagation be considered as a viable alternative to preserving wildlife species.
Animal behavior and the captive management of wild mammals: A personal view
Authors: Schaaf C. D.
Published: June 2005

Behaviorists can undertake noninvasive studies of zoo animals using only the simplest of research tools, unlike those biologists who are concerned with functions below the level of the whole, living organism. With careful interpretation, the results of behavioral studies can be applied to improve the management, husbandry, and exhibition of wild mammals in captivity. This often involves comparisons with research results obtained from studies of animals in the wild, since the behavior of captive specimens may in some measure be altered. Examples are given involving the breeding biology or social organization of three species: (1) barasingha or swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli), (2) mongoose lemur (Lemur mongoz), and (3) drill (Papio leucophaeus). Suggestions are made to improve the allocation of time and resources for research by zoo personnel, including a greater reliance on cooperative efforts to solve problems of common interest.
Alginate‐ and gelatin‐bound foods for exhibit fishes
Authors: Spotte Stephen , Stake Paul E. , Bubucis Patricia M. , Buck John D.
Published: June 2005

Procedures are given on how to prepare alginate‐ and gelatin‐bound moist foods for exhibit fishes. Fish meal is the principal nutrient source; no fresh ingredients are used. The liquid portion can be seawater, distilled water. NaCl dissolved in distilled water, or canned clam juice, depending on whether the fishes to be fed are freshwater or seawater. Proximate analysis of the foods is provided on both a moist (ready‐to‐feed) and dry (desiccated) basis.
Additional notes on requirements of captive whiptail lizards (Cnemidophorus), with emphasis on ultraviolet radiation
Authors: Townsend Carol R. , Cole Charles J.
Published: June 2005

Since 1972 we have maintained a colony of parthenogenetic Cnemidophorus exsanguis, which has reached the seventh generation in our laboratory. This paper reports improved husbandry techniques that allow maintenance of healthy, reproducing colonies of this and additional species of Cnemidophorus. In addition, aspects of the physiology of calcium regulation and metabolic bone disease are discussed in relation to the captive rearing of lizards through many generations.
Feed selection and digestibility by captive giraffe
Authors: Baer David J. , Oftedal Olav T. , Fahey George C.
Published: June 2005

A digestion trial with subsequent examination of feed selection was conducted using two captive giraffe fed four feedstuffs. Apparent digestibility coefficients were relatively high, indicating that the animals were efficiently utilizing the feedstuffs. However, values could be affected by the possible ingestion of soil containing acid‐insoluble ash. A high fiber pelleted feed was eaten in a greater quantity than a low fiber feed, even though the constituents in each feed were the same. Gross energy content of residual hay was higher than gross energy content of the offered hay. whereas neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber content were lower in the residual than in the offered hay. The animals did not appear to be selecting for a diet high in energy or low in fiber. Based on these results and other information, re‐classification of giraffe as a facultative concentrate selector or as an intermediate feeder may be appropriate.
Monitoring luteal function in the lion‐tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) through urinary progesterone metabolite measurements
Authors: Shideler S. E. , Mitchell W. R. , Lindburg D. G. , Lasley B. L.
Published: June 2005

A direct radioimmunoassay for measuring urinary 20‐hydroxyprogesterone cross‐reactivity to monitor and assess luteal function and detect pregnancy in the lion‐tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) is described. Urine samples were collected daily during ten nonconceptive and five conceptive ovarian cycles of five dult female lion‐tailed macaques. Urine was analyzed for concentrations of 20α‐hydroxypro‐gesterone cross‐reactivity, estrone conjugates, and creatinine.

The strength of the luteal phase in normal nonconceptive cycles (n = 8) is characterized by a maximum sevenfold increase (day 9) in mean 20α‐hydroxyprogesterone cross‐reactivity over follicular phase levels; the duration, by a 13‐day sustained elevation of mean 20α‐hydroxyprogesterone cross‐reactivity levels. Pregnancy is detectable from 20α‐hydroxyprogesterone cross‐reactivity values approximately 20 days after the periovulatory estrone conjugate peak (n = 4). Apparent anovulation (n = 1), extended follicular phase (n = 1), and early abortion (n = 1) also are detectable using 20α‐hydroxyprogesterone cross‐reactivity measurements.
Induction of a fertile mating in a red ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata rubra) using pregnant mare serum gonadotropin
Authors: Karesh William B. , Willis Mary S. , Czekala Nancy M. , Lasley B. L.
Published: June 2005

Pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG) was administered to an adult female red ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata rubra) as part of a medical evaluation to determine the cause of reproductive failure. Successful fertilization, pregnancy, and parturition occurred following PMSG treatment. This report documents an approach to evaluating reproductive failure in an endangered primate species and illustrates the value of collecting objective data on all individuals in a colony for retrospective and comparative analysis. Data from basic and applied research on a variety of species were synthesized to establish a logical protocol for fertility evaluation of an individual. The use of PMSG to induce estrus, ovulation, or fertilization has not been documented for an endangered primate species.
1983 Studbook for rare leopards, Panthera pardus ssp
Authors: Shoemaker Alan H.
Published: June 2005

Numbers of most rare subspecies of leopards held in captivity increased during 1983. Persian leopards increased by 19% during 1983, Chinese leopards by 14%, and Ceylon leopards by 57%. Only Amur leopards experienced a decline (7%) during this period, a situation caused primarily by the loss of several aged, wildborn males held in Russian zoos. The number of ancestors (founders) of the four subspecies' captive populations continues to be small, but several new founders have been acquired and should produce young during 1984. The disappearance of animals after transfer to animal dealers, primarily in Europe, continues to plagus these studbooks, a situation caused by the inability of zoos to absorb all the surplus offspring and the lack of cooperation from several animal dealers.

Die Anzahl individuen der meisten Unterarten seltener Leoparden in Menschenobhut erhöhte sich im Jahre 1983. Die Zunahme betrug für den nordpersischen Leoparden 19%, für den chinesischen Leoparden 14% und für den ceylon‐Leoparden 57%. Nur der amur Leopard nahm im dieser Periode um 7% ab, vor allem wegen des Todes einiger alter, männlicher Wildfänge in russischen Zoos. Die Anzahl Vorfahren (Gründermitglieder) der vier Unterarten in Menschenobhut bleibt klein. Einige neue Gründermitglieder, die sich voraussichtlich 1984 fortpflanzen werden, konnten aufgenommen werden. Ungenauigkeiten im Zuchtbuch entstehen durch Verschwinden mehrer Exemplare nach Abgabe vor allem an europäische Tierhändler: Diese Situation wird verursacht durch Platzmangel in anerkannten Zoos und fehlende Kooperations‐bereitschaft einiger Tierhändler.
Courtship behavior among musk‐ox males kept in confinement
Authors: Reinhardt Viktor
Published: June 2005

During twelve 2‐h observation sessions courtship behavior was recorded among seven musk‐ox males (Ovibos moschatus) kept in a paddock together with six females. The animals were sexually mature and of the same age. Foreleg kicking and genital sniffing were more common than mounting. All three activities were of a nonaggressive nature but were shown almost exclusively by dominants toward subordinate partners. Assuming the role of courted females, recipients were never the target of aggressive acts.

It was concluded that courtship among mature musk‐ox males functions as a nonaggressive reinforcement of dominance, promoting low‐risk coexistence of males.
Mother‐infant and infant‐infant interactions in captive sable antelope: Evidence for behavioral plasticity in a hider species
Authors: Hnida John A.
Published: June 2005

Five mother‐infant pairs of sable antelope.(Hippotragus niger) were studied over a 3‐mo period at the Oklahoma City Zoo. Observations were made using instantaneous scan and ad libitum sampling on focal animals (four from the day of birth and one from 1 day of age) and continuing for 1–5 wk for each mother‐infant pair. Evidence is presented that conflicts with descriptions of hider maternal behavior found in the literature. Mothers often initiated nursing bouts by approaching to within a meter or less of infants that were in hiding sites (25 of the 35 bouts initiated by mothers when infants were in hiding sites). In addition, two mothers were seen lying in contact with or next to hiding infants for greater than 12 h postpartum (15 and 23 h postpartum respectively). These findings indicate that some behaviors associated with hider species can be modified in captivity; this could have implications for captive management of hider species with regard to reintroduction. Infants as young as 1 wk of age hid with other infants. Hiding infants did not move away from other infants that approached and hid with them. These findings call into question Murdock et al's [1983] conclusions that infants of hider species avoid hiding together and that hiding and crèching are distinct activities. It is suggested that hiding and crèching form part of the continuum of early social development in some hider species. A primiparous mother was nursed by two infants other than her own (ten observations). This situation is described and its implications for captive management are discussed.
Description of collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) milk composition
Authors: Lochmiller Robert L. , Hellgren E. C. , Grant W. E. , Greene L. W. , Dill C. W.
Published: June 2005

Composition of collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) milk was described for samples obtained from a group of four captive females maintained on a high quality diet and four wild‐caught females inhabiting semiarid rangelands in southern Texas. The gross composition of peccary and porcine milks are fairly similar, with some differences in mineral composition. Results suggest that bottle formulations developed for domestic swine piglets would provide adequate nutrition for hand‐rearing nursling peccaries.
Regurgitation and reingestion in captive gorillas: Description and intervention
Authors: Gould Edwin , Bres Mimi
Published: June 2005

Direct observation of regurgitation and reingestion (r/r) of captive gorillas was used to describe and catalog this behavior and thus lay the groundwork for possible intervention in the r/r cycle. Analysis of questionnaires regarding 117 gorillas at 17 zoos suggests that social deficits during early development contribute to the occurrence of r/r later in life. Wild‐caught and captive‐born, hand‐reared gorillas show higher incidence of r/r than that of mother‐reared infants. R/r increases the daily ingestion time. Feeding browse decreases r/r and increases time spent feeding from about 11% of the day to 27% of the day.
A survey of research in American zoos and aquariums
Authors: Finlay Ted W. , Maple Terry L.
Published: June 2005

A 26‐item questionnaire was distributed to 153 American zoos, aquariums, and animal parks. A response rate of 78% was achieved after a second mailing. The results indicate that most zoos encourage research and have engaged in recent research activities of some type. Behavioral and reproductive research are the most common types of scientific activity, while nonprimate mammals are the most likely research subjects. Research activity is correlated with attendance and with academic affiliations. Nearly half of the institutions surveyed reported that their research efforts were expanding.
Socialization processes in a female lowland gorilla
Authors: Brown Susan G. , Wagster Molly V.
Published: June 2005

A low‐interactive, captive, female lowland gorilla, Molly, was studied following the introduction into her enclosure of three gorillas, two males and a female, raised from birth in captive gorilla groups. Observations were made 6 mo after the new gorillas were introduced. Throughout the period of observation, Molly interacted in an affiliative manner with one of the males, playing or sitting quietly with him in a tree (where Molly spent most of her time) and occasionally on the ground. Agonistic displays between Molly and the new female decreased after they were released in the enclosure without the males for a series of days. Molly, however, continued to react to the other male, the most dominant, in an agonistic manner, and usually retreated from his reach, climbed the tree, and/or grimaced and piloerected whenever he approached. Although Molly's continued avoidance of the dominant male impeded her complete socialization, we propose that the interventions employed in this study—introduction of new younger gorillas into and an enclosure, and a series of dyadic separations between the noninteractive gorilla and each of the new group members—are possible strategies that can be used to facilitate socialization of captive, noninteractive gorillas.
Genetic identification of hybrid camelids
Authors: Gentz Edward J. , Yates Terry L.
Published: June 2005

North American zoos in 1984 had the first opportunity in many years to obtain South American camelids after a long embargo on imports. The Rio Grande Zoo in Albuquerque, New Mexico, purchased two alpacas and one presumptive llama during this period. The llama, however, appeared to be phenotypically intermediate between a llama and an alpaca. In an attempt to ascertain the identity of this animal, it and purebred individuals of llama and alpaca were compared at 22 presumptive genic loci using starch‐gel electrophoresis. Genic differences between llama and alpaca suggest this animal to be a hybrid. If further tests prove consistent with the findings of this study, this technique will provide a simple assay using easily obtained blood for identifying llama and alpaca. The use of genetic management techniques such as this in zoos holds great potential for helping to preserve pure breeding lines of closely related interfertile animals.
Captive biology of an asocial mustelid; Mustela erminea
Authors: Doncarlos Michael W. , Petersen Jay S. , Tilson Ronald L.
Published: June 2005

Successful captive reproduction, management, and exhibition of ermine (Mustela erminea) are unreported. Wild ermine are solitary and asocial specialist predators of small vertebrates. In captivity they alternate brief periods of frenetic activity with long periods of inactivity, are furtive, and because of interindividual aggressiveness, are managed as solitary animals. These species‐specific traits have precluded ermine as an ideal animal for captive management and public exhibition. Here we present observations of gestation and litter size, neonatal reproduction, male reproductive variance, and a possible correlation between diet and female reproductive success. We also describe methods of husbandry and of exhibit animal rotation which enhances visitor viewing of the animal.
Artificial insemination with frozen, thawed semen and pregnancy diagnosis in addax (Addax nasomaculatus)
Authors: Densmore Mary A. , Bowen M. Jill , Magyar Steve J. , Amoss Max S. , Robinson Richard M. , Harms Paul G. , Kraemer Duane C.
Published: June 2005

Nonsurgical artificial insemination (AI) procedures were performed using frozen, thawed semen in two adult female addax. Pregnant mares' serum gonadotropin (PMSG) (300 IU) and prostaglandin (PG) (125 μg) was administered intramuscularly to female 1 on days −3 and −1, respectively, where day 1 was the first day of AI. Only one injection of PG was used, as a low serum progesterone (PROG) concentration (0.5 ng/ml) and a low pregnanediol glucuronide (PdG) concentration (0.36 ng PdG/mg creatinine) had been recorded on day −13. A total of 219 × 106 motile sperm was deposited in the os cervix or anterior vagina on days 1–4. High serum PROG levels (9.4–15.8 ng/ml) and high urinary PdG levels (1.35–1.63 ng PdG/mg creatinine) were observed on days 23, 31, and 39, and the fetal heart was seen beating during an ultrasound exam on day 45. A male calf was born on day 266, 8.7 mo after insemination. This is the first live birth resulting from AI of an antelope with frozen, thawed semen. The Synchro‐mate‐B system of estrous control was used in female 2. The implant was inserted, and the injection was given on day −11 per the manufacturer's instructions. The implant was removed on day −1, and a total of 220 × 106 motile sperm was deposited in the os cervix or anterior vagina on days 1 and 2. High serum PROG levels (17.5–24.5 ng/ml) were observed on days 13, 21, and 29. Although the fetal heartbeat was observed during an ultrasound examinataion on day 42, the fetus was not carried to term. Details of the radioimmunoassay used to determine the luteinizing hormone immunoreactivity of urine samples are presented.
Sexual resurgence and possible induction of reproductive synchrony in a captive group of orangutans
Authors: Zucker Evan L. , Robinett David S. , Deitchman Marsha
Published: June 2005

In April 1985, a 22‐year‐old group‐living female orangutan gave birth to her second infant, marking an interbirth interval of 12 years, 2 months. The timing and patterning of sexual activity displayed by the group of two females and one male over a 3‐year period were analyzed to identify variables that might account for this female's sexual resurgence. Variables considered were (1) movement to a new habitat, (2) opening of a vaginal stricture, (3) addition of a second female to the group, (4) male sexual resurgence, and (5) copulatory synchrony. None of these variables alone could account for the resurgence of fertility, although several of them account for the increase in copulatory frequency. This suggests that a combination of factors may be operating, including the induction of fertility via the presence of another cycling female. This induction effect has been described for rhesus macaques, and since this orangutan group meets the conditions necessary for such an induction effect, it is offered as another possible variable influencing fertility. Indices of pregnancy determination, as they relate to gestation lengths and prematurity of infants, also are evaluated and compared.
Progress report: Results of a long‐range captive breeding program for the bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus and Tursiops truncatus gilli
Authors: Cornell Lanny H. , Asper Edward D. , Antrim Jim E. , Searles Stan S. , Young W. Glenn , Goff Tom
Published: June 2005

There have been 36 bottlenose dolphins born in breeding colonies at Sea World, California, and Sea World, Florida, from 1978–1985. Significant features of this successful reproductive program are construction of a compatible breeding colony, early hormonal detection of pregnancy, pre‐ and postnatal association of inexperienced mothers with experienced females and their calves, and minimized handling of the mothers and calves until the calves are over 1 year of age. Inclusion in the breeding colonies of males old enough to be effective breeders is stressed. Females in the colonies have successfully bred from 8–9 years of age to 23–24 years of age. Calving intervals in the colonies vary from 2 to over 3 years. Calves are born all year round, with some peaking in calving activity in the spring and fall months. Serum progesterone levels greater than 6,000 pg/ml, maintained over a 4–6‐week period, are considered indicative of pregnancy. Progesterone levels vary from less than 10,000 to over 50,000 pg/ml during gestation, averaging 25,000 pg/ml. The need for further study of variation in the pattern of progesterone levels during pregnancy is emphasized. A gestation period for Tursiops of 11.5 to 12 months is consistent with our cumulative progesterone data.
Ultraviolet irradiances of various lamps used in animal husbandry
Authors: Gehrmann William H.
Published: June 2005

A variety of lamps are used in animal husbandry, but data with respect to ultraviolet irradiances from these lamps, which may be important for alleviating or preventing metabolic bone disease, are generally unavailable. This paper reports irradiances from representative lamps as well as transmission and reflective properties of various materials.
Behavioral sex differences and activity patterns of captive humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti)
Authors: Merritt Kathleen , King Nancy E.
Published: June 2005

Three female and two male captive Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) were observed in an enclosed exhibit over a period of 10 months to examine behavioral sex differences and to establish whether captive Humboldt penguins exhibit behavioral activity patterns. There were no statistically significant differences between the behaviors of males and females in six categories: resting, self‐maintenance, locomoting, lack of visibility, agonistic behaviors, or pair‐directed behaviors. Although not statistically significant, the pair‐directed activities of bowing and ecstatic displaying were found to have potential use for sexual identification. Females bowing to males accounted for 77% of the observed bows. Further, males were observed performing 68% of the observed ecstatic displays, while females performed only 32%. Four behavioral phases were defined: molting, proximity, nesting, and “other.” Statistically significant behavioral differences occurred between the four phases for all ethogram behaviors with the exception of agonistic and pair‐directed behaviors. Although housed under natural daylight and in an exhibit simulating their habitat in the wild, the captive birds failed to demonstrate a breeding season but bred throughout the study. However, this may have been influenced by one or more of the following factors: a ready supply of food; an air‐filtered, temperature‐controlled atmosphere; and the presence of an adequate number of nesting sites.
Urinary steroid evaluations to monitor ovarian function in exotic ungulates: V. Estrogen and pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide excretion in the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)
Authors: Ramsay E. C. , Kasman L. H. , Lasley B. L.
Published: June 2005

A study of female black rhinoceros (Diceros bicomis) urinary steroid and steroid metabolite excretion was performed to determine if techniques useful for monitoring reproductive events in the Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) could be utilized to evaluate the black rhinoceros. Urine samples from 19 zoo‐held black rhinoceros were analyzed for estrogen, estrone conjugates (EC), and pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide (PDG) content by direct radioimmunoassays. Estrogen analysis revealed that >95% of the estrogens present in female black rhinoceros urine are conjugated, with estrone and estradiol accounting for virtually all of these estrogens. There is no observable difference in the amount of estrogen present in estrus; postestrus; and early‐, mid‐, and late‐gestation urine samples. Analysis of serial urine samples for EC failed to reveal any discernible levels or patterns which reflected reproductive status. Neither nonpregnant nor early‐gestational female black rhinoceros' urine samples contained detectable amounts of PDG. Urinary PDG concentrations became measurable in midgestation (9–12 months prior to parturition) and rose steadily throughout the remainder of gestation. PDG levels declined sharply and became nondetectable 1 day postpartum. Though a wide range in PDG levels was observed among individual pregnant animals, each female consistently excreted increasing amounts of PDG through latter pregnancy.
Social behavior of a group of orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) on an artificial island in Singapore Zoological Gardens
Authors: Poole Trevor B.
Published: June 2005

The behavior of 12 orangutans (three adult males, two adult females, two subadult males, three adolescent males, and two infant males) was observed on a 450‐m2 island at the Singapore Zoological Gardens (SZG). Male orangutans (6–18 years old) showed less social and solitary play as they aged; adults (over 16 years old) were not seen to play. As they grew older males increasingly spent less time making physical contact, but the amount of time they spent in proximity (within arm's length) to others increased. Adult females regularly played with other group members. Contact, allogrooming, and social play showed nonrandom relationships between individuals. Adult females showed the most allogrooming and contact, adolescent and subadult males the most play. There was no obvious dominance hierarchy. One adult male spent about 10% of his time walking around the perimeter of the island. One‐year‐old infants rarely interacted with other individuals apart from their own and the other infant's mother. While orangutans lead relatively solitary lives in nature, it was concluded that the opportunities for social contact and play provided by the SZG orangutan island were beneficial to this species in captivity. Opportunities for social interaction provided the animals with a means of increasing the stimulus component of their environment, thus compensating for the inevitable restriction of complexity and unpredictability as compared with the wild state.
Reproductive biology of captive alpine ibex (Capra i. ibex)
Authors: Stüwe Michael , Grodinsky Carolyn
Published: June 2005

We studied the reproductive biology of alpine ibex bred at the Peter & Paul Wildlife Park, St. Gallen, Switzerland, from 1930 through 1943 and 1968 through 1983. Peter & Paul Wildlife Park had supplied most of the original stock used to reestablish ibex populations in the European Alps after they had become extinct.

Ibex females were seasonally polyestrous. Their estrous cycle averaged 20 days, and their gestation period averaged 167 days. Females between 1 and 15 years of age on average produced 0.78 young per year; females between 3 and 13 years of age produced 0.99 young per year. The average age at which captive ibex females gave birth was 8.44 years. Sex ratio at birth was unbiased. More singletons than twins were born, but the proportion of twins born during the years 1968 through 1983 was higher than during the earlier study period. There were no differences in the survival rates of male or female and single or twin offspring.
Management and husbandry of ruffed lemurs, Varecia variegata, at the San Diego Zoo. II. Reproduction, pregnancy, parturition, litter size, infant care, and reintroduction of hand‐raised infants
Authors: Brockman Diane K. , Willis Mary S. , Karesh William B.
Published: June 2005

Detailed descriptions of ruffed lemur reproductive biology and behavior are presented, including data on pregnancy, parturition, litter size, and infant care. As with various other prosimians, ruffed lemurs are reproductively photosensitive and seasonally polyestrous. Litters of one to six infants are born from March through July after a gestation length of 102 days. The most frequent litter size in captivity is twins, followed by singletons. Females give birth in nest boxes, usually between the hours of 2000 and 0400. Maternal neglect is associated with low birth weight, infant hypothermia, and large litter size. Infants rejected by the dams are artificially reared in a nursery setting and reintroduced to adult animals at 4–6 months of age.
Social enrichment of the environment with infants for singly caged adult rhesus monkeys
Authors: Reinhardt Viktor , Dan Houser W. , Eisele Stephen G. , Champoux Maribeth
Published: June 2005

The practicability of social enrichment for singly caged adult rhesus monkeys was examined. Twenty‐nine weaned rhesus monkey infants were removed from breeding troops to avoid overcrowding and were placed with unfamiliar singly caged adults. An adult‐infant pair was considered compatible when (1) the two animals started huddling with each other within the first 5 days after pair formation and (2) the infant showed no signs of depression and took its share from a limited amount of favored food. Adult‐infant pairs were compatible in 90% (26/29) of cases. Compatibility depended neither on the sex, age, and origin of the adult nor on the sex of the infant. There was no evidence that partners lost interest in each other during 7–11 months of follow‐up observations. Three adults exhibiting stereotypical behavior abandoned their peculiar habits after they had lived with their young companions for 4 months. It was concluded that the often‐heard notion that rhesus monkeys are highly aggressive should not prevent simple attempts to provide singly caged animals with a companion.
Submarine foraging behavior of alcids in an artificial environment
Authors: Duffy David Cameron , Todd Frank S. , Siegfried W. R.
Published: June 2005

We used an artificial environment at Sea World, Inc, San Diego, to study underwater foraging behavior of alcids. Larger birds dove longer and had greater wingbeat frequencies. The pigeon guillemot Cepphus columba was the only species to use both feet and wings for propulsion; all others used just wings. Aggressive interactions underwater were common. Competition among alcids in the wild may occur primarily underwater, and artificial environments may be the best means to study such interactions.
Use of novel objects to enhance environments of captive chimpanzees
Authors: Paquette Daniel , Prescott Jacques
Published: June 2005

A small group of chimpanzees was allowed to manipulate different quantities of novel objects in order to enhance their captive conditions. This procedure led to a general increase in the manipulation frequency by the apes. It decreased their inactivity and their self‐grooming, and almost eliminated the abnormal behaviors displayed by one individual. The distribution of novel objects did not affect the total frequency of social interactions and did not increase the aggressivity of the animals, even though dominant individuals secured most of the objects when only a small number of them were available. Following their familiarization with the novel objects, the chimpanzees' manipulation frequency decreased whereas self‐grooming and abnormal behaviors were increased. Suggestions are made on how to maximize the use of a limited bank of toys to occupy captive chimpanzees.
Influence of environmental manipulation and nest‐box availability on reproductive success of captive cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus)
Authors: Millam J. R. , Roudybush T. E. , Grau C. R.
Published: June 2005

Environmental conditions greatly influenced breeding induced by nest‐box presentation in pair‐bonded cockatiels. Thirty‐six pairs were first held under nonstimulatory environmental conditions for 13 weeks. To provide potential breeding cues, photoperiod, light intensity, ambient temperature, and humidity were then increased over a 12‐day period; millet was replaced by a nutritionally adequate, crumbled diet; and nest‐boxes were presented. Compared to previous trials performed under more constant conditions, number of pairs laying eggs, pair‐day egg production, clutch size, and chick hatch weight were significantly increased.

In experiment 2, either millet or crumbled diet was fed to 36 pairs during a 9‐week nonstimulatory period. Both groups were then exposed to stimulatory environments, fed crumbled diet, and presented with nest‐boxes. Their reproductive performances were not different, indicating that diet change was not required to stimulate breeding.

In experiment 3, birds were fed crumbled diet throughout the trial. Nest‐boxes were presented to 31 pairs during nonstimulatory conditions (group 1) or to 28 pairs during the transition to stimulatory conditions (group 2). Percent of pairs laying (85.7 v. 16.7), pair‐day egg production (0.279 ± 0.036 v. 0.036 ± 0.014), and clutch size (9.1 ± 1.0 v. 4.6 ± 1.2) were greater in group 2, indicating that nest‐box presentation is an insufficient stimulus to evoke maximal breeding under nonstimulatory environmental conditions.
Infant mortality in mother‐reared captive chimpanzees at Taronga Zoo, Sydney
Authors: Courtenay Jackie
Published: June 2005

Infant mortality in mother‐reared chimpanzees was examined from the records of Taronga Zoo, Sydney, Australia. Sex‐specific mortality probabilities were calculated using standard demographic techniques. Male mortality was found to be considerably higher than female mortality. Using the same techniques, changes in infant mortality over time were calculated, with particular reference to changes that had occurred since the chimpanzees were transferred to a new open air enclosure in 1980. Mortality was found to have decreased dramatically since the move to the new enclosure, but the observed decline was exaggerated by the very high proportion of female infants. The main causes of infant death as ascertained from the zoo records were pneumonia and trauma. In addition, undetermined causes in the first day of life were numerous. An examination of the contexts of infanticide in wild and captive chimpanzees revealed slight differences, but factors such as aggression towards unfamiliar individuals and redirected aggression were common to both. Cannibalism in the zoo has so far been limited to the bodies of stillborn infants.
Reproductive anatomy of three nulliparous female Asian elephants: The development of artificial breeding techniques
Authors: Balke J. M. E. , Barker I. K. , Hackenberger M. K. , McManamon R. , Boever W. J.
Published: June 2005

Detailed gross examinations of the reproductive tracts of three mature female nulliparous Asian elephants were conducted to develop artificial insemination (AI) techniques. Of primary concern was the determination of the length characteristics and the size and configuration of the foramina between segments of the tract. The elephants were 13, 28, and 40 years of age and had been maintained in captivity for most of their lives. One elephant died naturally and two were euthanized for health reasons. The reproductive tracts of two of the elephants were manually palpated in situ via the urogenital canal. A fibreoptoscope was used to visualize the internal structures of the terminal reproductive tract of one elephant and to deposit dye into the vagina. The reproductive organs were removed from the body cavity, dissected, measured, and photographed. The major anatomical obstacles to overcome for standard AI procedures (the passage of an AI pipette into the reproductive tract) were the length of the urogenital canal (85–97 cm), the constriction at the urogenital‐vaginal junction, and the tight cervix. The reproductive anatomy was compared to that of previous dissections reported in the literature.
Interactive singing of a male Mueller's gibbon with a simulated neighbor
Authors: Maples E. G. , Haraway M. M. , Collie L.
Published: June 2005

This study provides evidence for interactive singing, or countersinging, in the dawn song of a male Mueller's gibbon. Tape‐recorded answering calls from a simulated neighbor were initiated at the subject's baseline rate (every 18 sec), then successively at every 14 sec, 10 sec, 18 sec, 22 sec, and 26 sec. Two types of evidence for interactive singing were considered. First, the subject's initiation rate significantly increased when the initiation rate of the simulated neighbor increased (but did not decrease when the simulated neighbor's rate decreased). Second, the subject's rate of interruption of the simulated neighbor's vocalizations remained at the same low level regardless of the initiation rate of the simulated neighbor; these interruption rates were, in all cases, significantly lower than would have been expected by chance if interactive singing were not occurring. Evolutional value of interactive singing is considered in relation to demonstration of individual fitness and achievement of clear communication between neighboring groups.
A note on the labial swelling of a pregnant orang‐utan, Pongo pygmaeus abelii
Authors: Sodaro Carol Ann
Published: June 2005

Labial swellings following copulation were recorded during each of seven pregnancies for an adult female Sumatran orang‐utan (Pongo pygmaeus abelii). These swellings persisted throughout pregnancy and disappeared within a short time after the termination of pregnancy. Labial swellings may be a useful tool in diagnosing pregnancy in orang‐utans.
Giraffe restraint, habituation, and desensitization at the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo
Authors: Calle Paul P. , Bornmann John C.
Published: June 2005

The giraffe restraint device manufactured at the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo has the capability to fully support the weight of an immobilized adult giraffe in an upright posture and allow physical restraint of giraffe. The unit has been used for either chemical or physical restraint 74 times, in 22 months, on seven different adult giraffe, without animal or personnel injuries. Habituation and desensitization of the giraffe are critical prerequisites for the successful use of the giraffe restraint device.

Yohimbine effectively reversed the effects of xylazine sedation of giraffe. A drug combination of detomidine and azaperone offers promise as an alternative to either physical restraint or immobilization of giraffe for selected clinical and investigative procedures.

Using the restraint device it has been possible to perform tuberculin testing, venipuncture, vaginal examination, rectal palpation, rectal ultrasound, cervical catheterization, hoof‐trimming, and placement of a hoof block on awake, habituated, and desensitized giraffe.
Optimal dose of human chorionic gonadotropin for inducing ovulation in the ferret
Authors: Mead Rodney A. , Joseph M. M. , Neirinckx Sandra
Published: June 2005

The optimal dose of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) for induction of ovulation was determined by comparing the ovulatory response of 119 mated ferrets (controls) with that of estrous females induced to ovulate with five different dosages of hCG. Copulation induced formation of 12.7 ± 4.5 corpora lutea (CL) in all 119 females and resulted in a 90.7% conception rate as evidenced by finding approximately eight blastocysts/female in the uteri of 108 ferrets. All doses of hCG tested induced ovulation; however, the lower doses (50 and 75 IU) resulted in a lesser percentage of females ovulating. The highest doses of hCG (150 and 300 IU) resulted in fewer CL/female being formed. The optimal dose of hCG for simulating copulation induced ovulation was 100 IU. Tubal transport of unfertilized oocytes in pseudopregnant females was found to be significantly retarded when compared to the rate of transport of embryos in the control group.
Training in zoo biology, captive breeding, and conservation
Authors: Waugh David
Published: June 2005

Different types of training in zoo biology, captive breeding, and conservation are discussed and the availability of a variety of programs documented. Emphasis is given to the need for more training in general, and especially for less‐developed countries where zoos have much potential yet to be realized. The aims, structure, content, and impact of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust's International Training Program are examined.
The reproductive biology of female Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus)
Authors: Wemmer Chris , Halverson Tim , Rodden Melissa , Portillo Timothy
Published: June 2005

Data for this study came from breeding records of 27 Père David's (Elaphurus davidianus) hinds maintained in large pastures and from estrous records of four hand‐reared nulliparous hinds. The mean estrous cycle length ranged from 17.5 to 19.6 days. Standing estrus resembled that of other cervids, except that a low, moaning vocalization was given in response to contact, and activity (as measured by pedometers) did not increase. Mean gestation length was 183.38 ± SD 6.11 days (n = 21), and nearly all females conceived in the second and third years. The median interbirth interval was 362 days. The median birth date was April 8, and 80% of the births occurred over a 9.5‐week period. Multiparous hinds gave birth an average of 20.5 days earlier in the season than primiparous hinds. There was no dimorphism in birth weight. The results are discussed in light of comparative data for other species.
The reproduction and growth of Phrynosoma ditmarsi (sauria: Iguanidae) in captivity
Authors: Montanucci Richard R.
Published: June 2005

Aspects of the reproduction and growth of Phrynosoma ditmarsi from Sonora, Mexico, were observed in captivity. Lizards were maintained indoors with a seasonally adjusted photoperiod. Mating occurred from August through December, with the majority of copulations observed in August, September, and October. Lizards were over‐wintered between temperatures of 13°C and 16°C, with occasional drops to 8° C. The female reproductive cycle is not completely understood. Females may have stored sperm over the winter months, with ovulation and fertilization occurring in the following spring. Alternatively, embryogenesis may have been interrupted during the winter. Parturition occurred in June and July. Males became sexually mature at 13 months of age. Females first copulated at this age, resulting in the production of young at 24 months of age. Courtship and non‐receptive behaviors were similar to those of other Phrynosoma.
Urinary androstenedione and luteinizing hormone concentrations during musth in a mature African elephant
Authors: Brannian John D. , Griffin Frank , Terranova Paul F.
Published: June 2005

Musth has not been well documented in captive African elephants. A 37‐year‐old African bull elephant in the Kansas City Zoological Park was observed during periods of behavioral musth and non‐musth. Androstenedione and luteinizing hormone (LH) concentrations in urine were measured by radioimmunoassay. Urinary androstenedione and LH levels were significantly higher in musth urine than in non‐musth samples. A positive correlation (P > 0.001) existed between urinary LH and androstenedione concentrations. These results indicate that musth can occur in a zoo‐maintained African elephant and that urinary androgen levels are elevated during musth, possibly as the result of LH stimulation of testicular steroidogenesis.