bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
14. Tracing and recovering trust property
Authors: Watt Gary
Published: August 2023

There are situations where trust property passes into the hands of a third party ‘stranger’—a person other than a trustee or beneficiary of the trust. Personal and proprietary remedies against strangers are particularly valuable where the claimant cannot be satisfied with actions against the original trustee. The claimant has to make choices not only in relation to the final remedy, but also when required to ‘elect’ between evidential alternatives. The tracing process, which supplies the evidence that a stranger has received trust property, may require the claimant to make such a choice. This chapter deals with tracing and ‘remedies’, focusing on how a claimant, typically a beneficiary of the trust, is able to trace trust property into the hands of a stranger and recover it by means of a proprietary remedy.
15. The equitable personal liability of strangers to the trust
Authors: Watt Gary
Published: August 2023

Even if a trust beneficiary successfully traces misappropriated trust property, he will only be entitled to a proprietary remedy against a stranger, who retains possession or control of the trust property. The beneficiary’s proprietary claim will fail if the stranger received the trust property, but has not retained it. However, the beneficiary (or the trustee) may be able to bring a claim against the stranger personally if the receipt was wrongful. This chapter analyses the circumstances in which a stranger may be personally liable in equity for analogous wrongs. After providing an overview of who strangers are, it examines a number of policy considerations and practical measures designed to give strangers some degree of protection. The chapter also looks at trusteeship de son tort, personal liability in equity for receipt, and equitable liability for assistance in a breach of trust.
5. Jurisdiction
Authors: Henriksen Anders
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses the international legal concept of jurisdiction as well as the content of the relevant legal principles. The term jurisdiction relates to the authority of a state to exert its influence and power—in practice make, apply and enforce its rules—and create an impact or consequence on individuals or property. The chapter explains the difference between, respectively, the jurisdiction to prescribe and the jurisdiction to enforce and the main elements thereof. It analyses the different principles of prescriptive jurisdiction (the principle of territoriality, nationality, universality, protection and so-called passive personality) and discusses the issue of concurring jurisdictions as well as jurisdiction on ships and aircraft. It also discusses the prohibition on enforcing jurisdiction on the territory of another state as well as the legal consequences of violating that prohibition.
6. Immunity from national jurisdiction and diplomatic protection
Authors: Henriksen Anders
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses the different forms of immunity from national jurisdiction enjoyed by a state and its representatives. It presents state immunity and the complicated distinction between sovereign (jure imperii) and commercial (jure gestionis) acts. It discusses the exception to state immunity for commercial acts; provides an overview of some of the additional exceptions to state immunity; and discusses the immunities of state representatives. It distinguishes between immunity ratione personae and immunity ratione materiae and discusses how the distinction is applied to different state representatives. It also discusses the immunities of diplomatic representatives and diplomatic missions as well as the issue of consular protection and the immunities enjoyed by so-called special missions.
10. International environmental law
Authors: Henriksen Anders
Published: August 2023

International environmental law is an area of international law where states have decided to cooperate with each other in order to fulfil certain goals of common interest and, for the most part, its rules and principles belong in the category of the international law of cooperation. This chapter discusses the most important parts of international environmental law and its main legal sources. It presents the fundamental principles of international environmental law, including those that seek to prevent damage to the environment and those that seek to ensure a balanced approach to environmental protection. It provides an overview of the most important parts of the substantial regulation in international environmental law, including the legal regime for the protection of the atmosphere, the conservation of nature and the regulation of hazardous substances. It also discusses features related to implementation and enforcement that are particular to international environmental law.
12. The peaceful settlement of disputes
Authors: Henriksen Anders
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses some of the more relevant methods for peaceful dispute settlement. It begins by introducing a number of non-adjudicatory settlement mechanisms and providing a brief overview of the role played by the UN. It then discusses the adjudicatory means of settling disputes, including international arbitration; the competences and powers of the International Court of Justice; issues of access to the Court and the Court’s jurisdiction in contentious cases; the power of the Court to issue provisional measures; the effects of the Court’s decisions; the relationship between the Court and the UN Security Council; and the Court’s competence to issue advisory opinions.
2. The Constitutional Rulebook
Authors: Sueur Andrew Le , Sunkin Maurice , Murkens Jo Eric Khushal
Published: August 2023

This chapter looks at the constitution of the United Kingdom to understand its function as a rulebook: for constitutional arrangements to work well, people need to know what the rules are and there also needs to be broad consensus that the rules are right. It explores the sources of the rules in the United Kingdom’s famously ‘unwritten’ constitution: these include Acts of Parliament, the common law, and constitutional conventions. It also considers the question: who makes the rulebook? To answer this, we must listen to a debate about the respective roles of politicians and judges (called ‘political constitutionalism’ and ‘common law’ or ‘legal’ constitutionalism).
9. Accountability
Authors: Sueur Andrew Le , Sunkin Maurice , Murkens Jo Eric Khushal
Published: August 2023

This chapter turns to one of the central features of a good constitution, namely that it provides opportunities for those who exercise public power to be ‘held to account’ or ‘accountable’ for their decisions and conduct. In relation to ministers, this includes the convention of individual ministerial responsibility (ministers are answerable to Parliament) and the convention of collective responsibility (ministers cannot publicly disagree with government policy). Parliament has developed a variety of practical mechanisms for holding ministers to account, including: debates in the chamber; select committees inquiries; and parliamentary questions posed to ministers.
10. Prerogative Powers
Authors: Sueur Andrew Le , Sunkin Maurice , Murkens Jo Eric Khushal
Published: August 2023

This chapter examines the continuing significance of prerogative powers (sometimes referred to as the Royal Prerogative). Prerogative powers are those that were originally exercised by the monarch before the modern parliamentary system was established. While most prerogative powers have now been replaced by statutory powers, they remain important in some contexts, for example in relation to the deployment of armed forces abroad, the conduct of the United Kingdom’s foreign affairs, and the prorogation of Parliament. As well as considering these issues the Chapter also looks at reform of the prerogative.
11. Introduction to Legislative Functions
Authors: Sueur Andrew Le , Sunkin Maurice , Murkens Jo Eric Khushal
Published: August 2023

This chapter provides an overview of the themes covered in Part III of the book, consisting of Chapters 12 and 13. The chapters are concerned legislation, which can be made for a variety of purposes: to set out public law rights; to impose taxation; to create powers for public bodies to take action; the regulation of commercial activity; and social control. Chapter 12 examines the processes involved in making Acts of the UK Parliament. The legislative process for making Acts of Parliament provides opportunities for democratic debate, but critics often express concern that the making of legislation is a rushed affair in which the public and parliamentarians have too little time and influence. Chapter 13 looks at ‘delegated legislation’—that is, rules that have the binding force of law made by ministers and other authorities, in which Parliament has even more of a limited scrutiny role.
20. Protecting Rights: Using Human Rights in the United Kingdom Courts
Authors: Sueur Andrew Le , Sunkin Maurice , Murkens Jo Eric Khushal
Published: August 2023

This and the next chapter examine how human rights are protected in the domestic courts of the UK. This chapter considers the background and main features of the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) and the relationship between the courts and the executive and Parliament in human rights situations. Chapter 21 examines three case studies. The first of these is the litigation brought by Shabina Begum challenging her school’s refusal to allow her to wear a jilbab to school. The second case study considers the application of the Human Rights Act in the context of anti-terrorism measures. The third considers prisoner voting.
9. Direct actions before the Court of Justice
Authors: Foster Nigel
Published: August 2023

This chapter analyses direct actions filed before the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) against European Union (EU) institutions. These include actions for damages for loss caused by an act of the Institutions under Articles 268 and 340 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), action for failure of the institutions to act under Article 263 TFEU, and judicial review of EU acts under Article 263 TFEU. This chapter explains that the cases involving Article 263 TFEU and Article 340 TFEU received the most attention for their admissibility and merits. It also includes a consideration of Article 265 and 277 actions.
12. Free movement of persons
Authors: Foster Nigel
Published: August 2023

This chapter examines European Union (EU) law concerning the free movement of workers, establishment, services, and citizenship. It traces the historical development of the free movement rights of the self-employed and other workers and discusses the relevant provisions of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). It explains the criteria for being considered an EU worker and describes the basic rights of those economically active EU nationals. It also considers the right of member states to refuse entry or order deportation and explains the procedural rights of persons facing such decisions. It considers the extension of free movement rights, which significantly affected the position of third-country nationals (TCNs), the wholly internal situations, and the extension of free movement rights into European citizenship. This chapter also discusses the general free movement provisions of the EU Directives and the Maastricht Treaty and analyses the case law of citizenship Articles of the TFEU, explaining the principle of the wholly internal rule and the treatment of TCNs.
Legal Skills
Authors: Finch Emily , Fafinski Stefan
Published: August 2023

Legal Skills is structured in three parts, covering a full range of legal skills. The first part deals with sources of law and includes information on finding and using legislation, case law, books, journals, and official publications, making sure you understand where the law comes from, and how to use it. The second part covers academic legal skills and provides advice on study and writing skills, legal reasoning, referencing and avoiding plagiarism, essay writing, dissertations, problem solving, and revision and examinations. The final part of the book covers the practical legal skills of oral presentation, mooting, negotiation, and drafting.
8. Books, journals, and official publications
Authors: Finch Emily , Fafinski Stefan
Published: August 2023

This chapter describes the role of books (student textbooks, cases and materials books, monographs, practitioners’ books, legal encyclopedias and digests, dictionaries, revision guides), journals (general journals, specialist journals, practitioner journals, foreign journals), and official publications (Command Papers, Bills, Parliamentary papers, Parliamentary debates, Law Commission reports) amongst the secondary sources which may be encountered during legal studies.
4. Consideration and estoppel
Authors: Taylor Richard , Taylor Damian
Published: August 2023

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter explains the nature of consideration with the aid of examples and discusses two basic definitions of consideration (consideration as a legal benefit or burden and as the price of a promise) as well as the past consideration rule. It addresses whether performance of an existing duty can count as a legal benefit or burden to form consideration for a promise. It considers existing public duties, existing duties owed to a third party and existing duties owed to the promisor. The chapter examines the related rules concerning part payment of a debt and the extent to which promises not supported by consideration can be enforced using promissory estoppel.
6. Exemption clauses
Authors: Taylor Richard , Taylor Damian
Published: August 2023

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. Exemption clauses provide that one party will not be liable in certain situations; they exclude or limit liability. Exemption clauses have traditionally been frowned upon because they have been misused, often to the detriment of consumers, and the courts have responded by repeatedly looking for ways to cut them down. In recent years the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 has given the courts much stronger powers and the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations have strengthened the position of consumers. These statutory controls have recently been radically overhauled in the Consumer Rights Act 2015 and this chapter provides a full explanation of these complex developments.
10. Frustration
Authors: Taylor Richard , Taylor Damian
Published: August 2023

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter examines the frustration of a contract. Fundamental changes in the facts assumed by the parties, ‘frustrating events’ such as natural disasters and less catastrophic events may fundamentally change the parties’ obligations and frustrate the contract. Frustration of a contract brings the parties’ obligations to an end; a less substantial, non-frustrating event will have no effect and the parties must continue to perform their obligations even if they have become more onerous. The discussions cover the allocation of risk, examples of frustration, limits on frustration, effects of frustration and the Law Reform (Frustrated Contracts) Act 1943.
Tort Law
Authors: Horsey Kirsty , Rackley Erika
Published: August 2023

Tort Law encourages the reader to understand, engage with and critically reflect upon tort law. The book first discusses the tort of negligence, looking at the basic principles of the duty of care and at special duty problems relating to omissions and acts of third parties, psychiatric harm, public bodies and economic loss. It also covers breach, causation and remoteness and defences to negligence. The book then considers occupiers’, product and employers’ liability and breach of statutory duty before moving on to look at personal torts and explaining trespass to the person, defamation and the invasion of privacy. It next discusses land torts and and finally looks at liability (including vicarious liability), damages and limitations.
9. Causation and remoteness of damage
Authors: Horsey Kirsty , Rackley Erika
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses the final ‘hurdle’ for the claimant to overcome in the tort of negligence—causation. The claimant must prove that their injuries were caused by the defendant’s actions in both fact and law. To establish cause in fact, the claimant must show, on the balance of probabilities, that the defendant’s breach caused their harm. Tests for cause in law encompass a remoteness test (which involves establishing whether the damage that occurred was foreseeable to the defendant at the time of the negligence). It is the type of harm that must be foreseeable, not its extent. The last part of the test is to ask whether any intervening acts (acts that occurred after the defendant’s breach) broke the chain of causation. If so, the defendant will not be liable.
11. Occupiers’ liability
Authors: Horsey Kirsty , Rackley Erika
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses occupiers’ liability, which deals with the risks posed, and harms caused, by dangerous places and buildings. In such cases, the occupier of the premises may be liable where a person who comes onto their land is injured in or by unsafe premises if the occupier has not taken reasonable care to ensure that those entering are safe. The general principles of negligence have been incorporated into, and modified by, statute in the form of the Occupiers’ Liability Acts 1957 and 1984. Although the Acts define the circumstances in which a duty of care will be owed (and tell us something as to its extent, as well as matters relating to its discharge and limitation), questions of breach and causation still need to be established by reference to the ordinary principles of negligence.
12. Product liability
Authors: Horsey Kirsty , Rackley Erika
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses the ways in which liability for defective products is regulated in tort law and which is primarily regulated by statute. The chapter considers manufacturers’ liability in negligence and the problems claimants may encounter when trying to sue. This leads to a later development relating to product liability—the Consumer Protection Act (CPA) 1987—enacted to ensure better protection of consumers from defective goods by making producers strictly liable for harms caused by the products they market. However, a claimant may still claim in negligence due to the statutory limitations in relation to certain types of claim.
13. Employers’ liability
Authors: Horsey Kirsty , Rackley Erika
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses employers’ liability and, in particular, the non-delegable duty of care, which employers owe to their employees to ensure that they are reasonably safe when at work. The duty ensures that an employer remains responsible for key tasks even when their obligations have been delegated to another. The duty of care is typically said to have four components (building on Lord Wright’s statement in Wilsons & Clyde Coal Co Ltd [1938]) comprising the provision of: a competent workforce; adequate material and equipment; a safe system of working (including effective supervision); and a safe workplace.
17. Defamation
Authors: Horsey Kirsty , Rackley Erika
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses the tort of defamation. This area of law has undergone significant legislative change following the enactment of the Defamation Act 2013. The chapter considers the elements to a claim in defamation and key defences, including honest opinion, publication on a matter of public interest and privilege (where the statement is made in the performance of a duty). Remedies include an injunction to prevent publication, and a permanent injunction to prevent further publication and damages.
19. Actions under the rule of Rylands v Fletcher
Authors: Horsey Kirsty , Rackley Erika
Published: August 2023

This chapter examines the rule from Rylands v Fletcher [1868]. The rule holds that where there has been an escape of a dangerous thing in the course of a non-natural use of land, the occupier of that land is liable for the damage to another caused as a result of the escape, irrespective of fault. The rule today is best understood through a trilogy of cases: Rylands v Fletcher, Cambridge Water Co Ltd v Eastern Counties Leather plc [1994] and Transco v Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council [2004]. The development of the rule has led to an increased overlap with ideas from nuisance and negligence.
1. Introduction
Authors: Smith Ian , Warnock Owen , Mitchell Gemma
Published: August 2023

This book focuses on employment law, which has been the subject of as rapid a transformation as can have happened to any legal subject in recent times, and is certainly one of the most difficult areas of law in which to keep up to date. In some ways employment law is a curious mixture of ancient and modern, for much old law lies behind or at the basis of new statutory law and in some cases the old law continues to exist alongside the new. The subject is, however, unrecognizable from what it was only 40 years ago, with the enormous increase in statute law and the ever-increasing volume of case law on the modern statutes. Thus, the intending student must be able to exercise the lawyer’s skill in dealing with both extensive case law and major statutes, sometimes of astounding complexity. As well as setting out the history of this area of law, this chapter covers important background features of procedure and the enforcement of the law through tribunals, including significant developments such as ACAS early conciliation, the fiasco over tribunal fees, and possible future reforms to the system of adjudication.
9. State Liability
Authors: Costa Marios , Peers Steve
Published: August 2023

This chapter outlines the development of the state liability doctrine under European Union (EU) law following the Francovich v Italy case. It explains that the principle of state liability provides individuals with a tool before their national courts to secure the enforcement of their rights under EU law. The chapter examines the scope and the conditions for liability; the criterion of a ‘sufficiently serious’ breach laid down in subsequent cases such as Brasserie du Pêcheur and Factortame and considers that there may be many hurdles to overcome in establishing a successful claim. It analyses its relationship with other Treaty provisions dealing with non-contractual liability.
11. Enforcement Actions
Authors: Costa Marios , Peers Steve
Published: August 2023

This chapter examines the enforcement rules for European Union (EU) law found in Articles 258, 259 and 114(4) of the Treaty on the functioning of the European Union (TFEU). It outlines the enforcement mechanism by focusing on the various stages of Article 258 TFEU and explains the discretionary powers of the Commission to initiate the proceedings. The chapter also provides the interpretation of the terms ‘reasoned opinion’ and ‘formal notice’ given by the Court of Justice (CJ). It describes the consequences of the failure to comply with the ruling from the CJ and the conditions under which financial penalties may be imposed upon Member States according to Article 260.
15. Harmonisation
Authors: Costa Marios , Peers Steve
Published: August 2023

This chapter examines the effectiveness of harmonisation in removing barriers to the four freedoms of the internal market in the European Union (EU). It explains the degree of variation amongst negative, positive, total and minimum harmonisation. It considers the relationship between mutual recognition and harmonisation and discusses concerns regarding the freedom of Member States to take individual action in harmonised fields and Member State competence. It evaluates the scope of the EU’s power to enact harmonising measures in the context of the internal market and the extent to which the Union effectively has a general power to regulate. The chapter also discusses the relevant procedures of Articles 114 and 115 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU).
16. Customs Union
Authors: Costa Marios , Peers Steve
Published: August 2023

This chapter examines the creation of the customs union to ensure free movement of goods within the European Union (EU), discusses the relevant provisions of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). The chapter considers the significance of the common customs tariff applicable to all imported goods from outside the EU and explains the prohibition on customs duties and on discriminatory taxation. It also explains that the prohibition on discriminatory taxation serves to prevent Member States from circumventing the prohibition on customs duties by discriminating against imports via their internal taxation system. The chapter also highlights criticisms of the Court of Justice’s (CJ) approach to customs duties and measures having an equivalent effect.
19. Citizenship: Rights of Free Movement and Residence
Authors: Costa Marios , Peers Steve
Published: August 2023

This chapter examines the European Union (EU) law concerning citizenship and the right of residence and free movement. It suggests that while citizenship provides a broad framework of rights, it is important to recognise the higher level of protection awarded to the economically active under Articles 45 (workers), 49 (establishment) and 56 (services) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). The chapter also considers the link between migration and the rights claimed, and the underlying concerns about the abuse of Union law rights. It also considers the position of third-country nationals (who are family members or dependents of an EU national) and students. This chapter also examines the social rights that arise as part of free-movement rights under Articles 21, 45, 49 and 59 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). As well as dealing with the provisions in the Citizens’ Rights Directive (CRD) (Directive 2004/38) and Regulation 492/2011, the chapter deals with social security and citizenship. This chapter also examines the European Union (EU) law concerning the free movement of persons and the limitations of this right on grounds of public health, public security, or public policy, including the ‘rule of reason’ and expulsion, refusal of entry or an entry ban due to criminal offences or other personal conduct. It considers the substantive scope of the derogation provisions and the procedural guarantees in the CRD applicable to EU citizens and their family members facing expulsion, refusal of entry or entry bans.
3. Enforceability of promises: consideration and promissory estoppel
Authors: Merkin KC Robert , Saintier Séverine , Poole Jill
Published: August 2023

Poole’s Casebook on Contract Law provides a comprehensive selection of case law that addresses all aspects of the subject encountered on undergraduate courses. In order to be enforceable, a promise must either be supported by consideration or be expressed in the form of a deed. This stems from the assumption in English contract law that only bargains should be enforced. This chapter examines the enforceability of promises, focusing on consideration and promissory estoppel. The case law has addressed what can constitute consideration and whether a promise can be enforced in the absence of consideration. The chapter focuses particularly on the enforceability of alteration promises, discusses part-payment of a debt, when and how the doctrine of promissory estoppel will operate, and how far the doctrine can be extended.
5. Content of the contract and principles of interpretation
Authors: Merkin KC Robert , Saintier Séverine , Poole Jill
Published: August 2023

Poole’s Casebook on Contract Law provides a comprehensive selection of case law that addresses all aspects of the subject encountered on undergraduate courses. This chapter examines what the parties to a contract have undertaken to do; that is, the terms of the contract, and the principles determining how the courts interpret the meaning of those contractual terms. It considers whether pre-contractual statements are terms or mere representations. The chapter then turns to written contracts, focusing on the parol evidence rule, entire agreement clauses, and the effect of signature on the contractual document. It also discusses oral contracts and incorporation of written terms in such contracts by means of signature, reasonable notice, consistent course of dealing, and common knowledge of the parties. In addition to express terms, this chapter looks at how terms are implied, particularly terms implied by the courts—terms implied in law and terms implied in fact. There is discussion of the typical implied terms in sale and supply contracts in the B2B and B2C context. Finally, this chapter focuses on the principles governing the interpretation of contractual terms.
9. Misrepresentation
Authors: Merkin KC Robert , Saintier Séverine , Poole Jill
Published: August 2023

Poole’s Casebook on Contract Law provides a comprehensive selection of case law that addresses all aspects of the subject encountered on undergraduate courses. A contract may include a statement that is a mere puff, a representation, or a contractual term. In the case of a representation, the maker asserts the truth of certain facts and thus induces the contract. In case of an actionable misrepresentation (an unambiguous false statement of fact which induces the other party to enter into the contract), the contract may be rendered voidable; that is, liable to be set aside or rescinded. In some instances, the injured party may claim for damages designed to restore him to his original position. This chapter examines the identification of actionable misrepresentation, duties of disclosure, types of misrepresentations, rescission as a remedy, damages for misrepresentation, including the damages available in s. 2 of the Misrepresentation Act 1967, and the effect of contributory negligence in any damages award. Finally, the chapter examines exclusion of liability for non-fraudulent misrepresentation and the effect of ‘non-reliance’ clauses in contracts. In the consumer context, it also notes the criminal offences in certain instances of misrepresentation under the Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations 2008 (CPRs) and the extension to include civil remedies for misleading actions.
2. Agreement
Authors: Merkin KC Robert , Saintier Séverine , Poole Jill
Published: August 2023

Course-focused and comprehensive, Poole’s Textbook on Contract Law provides an accessible overview of the key areas of the law curriculum. This chapter explains how to determine whether parties have reached an agreement. Traditionally, the existence of agreement is determined objectively on the basis of an offer and corresponding acceptance. However, this approach has been challenged for being artificial and inflexible, and even in the absence of these traditional criteria the courts have occasionally found agreement, particularly where there has been performance. For formation there needs to be an offer (as opposed to an invitation to treat) and that offer must be accepted before it has been rejected or otherwise lapsed. In order to be effective, offer and acceptance must be properly communicated, which normally means ‘received’. The chapter also considers the mirror-image rule, whereby an acceptance must be unconditional and correspond with the exact terms proposed by the offeror. This chapter also examines principles that determine when an agreement can be enforced with sufficient certainty and whether liability will arise in the absence of agreement. An apparent contract will be void if the terms are considered too uncertain or where there is no context for gap filling. But this must be balanced with the need to prevent the parties from using allegations of uncertainty to escape from bad bargains. This chapter therefore considers how the courts deal with the difficult question over agreements to agree.
7. Privity of contract and third party rights
Authors: Merkin KC Robert , Saintier Séverine , Poole Jill
Published: August 2023

Course-focused and comprehensive, Poole’s Textbook on Contract Law provides an accessible overview of the key areas of the law curriculum. According to the doctrine of privity of contract, only the parties to the contract are bound by, or can enforce, the obligations under the contract. A person who is not a party to a contract does not have any rights under that contract and is not subject to any of its obligations (or burdens). This chapter considers the rules of contract law, and related rules, that are applicable to contracts which stipulate third party rights. It considers the relevant provisions of the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999, the scope of the legislative reform, the test for third party enforceability and how the doctrine of privity of contract is related to the consideration requirement. It also looks at means of circumventing the privity doctrine such as assignment, and exceptions to the privity doctrine such as agency principles as employed in The Eurymedon. The chapter then examines remedies available to the promisee which have the effect of enforcing any promise in favour of a third party beneficiary or enabling substantial damages to be recovered to cover the third party’s loss. Finally, the means by which contractual burdens may bind third parties are examined.
15. Remedies providing for specific relief and restitutionary remedies
Authors: Merkin KC Robert , Saintier Séverine , Poole Jill
Published: August 2023

Course-focused and comprehensive, Poole’s Textbook on Contract Law provides an accessible overview of the key areas of the law curriculum. Equitable remedies that provide for specific relief refer to remedies for breach of contract which compel actual performance, rather than simply compensating for loss caused by breach. Compulsion of performance may take the form of claiming an agreed sum, a claim seeking specific performance, or a claim seeking an injunction. The claim or action for an agreed sum gives effect to the claimant’s performance interest by ordering the party in breach to pay the liquidated sum (debt), his agreed performance under the contract. The chapter examines the remedy of specific performance as a court order that compels actual performance of agreed obligations (other than payment of the price). As an equitable remedy it is available at the discretion of the court, but only when damages would be an inadequate remedy. This chapter also examines remedies providing for specific relief and restitutionary remedies, the latter of which refer to recovery based on failure of consideration and quantum meruit. Finally, the chapter examines the availability of specific compensatory remedies in instances where there is no financial loss, namely the exceptional remedy of an account of profit or the remedy of ‘negotiating damages’—and their relationship.
An Introduction to European Law
Authors: Schütze Robert
Published: August 2023

The fourth edition of An Introduction to European Law offers a comprehensive and easy exploration of this complex subject. Topics covered include EU institutions and legislation, EU competences, fundamental rights, direct effect, primacy, and legal actions. The text offers a discussion of the internal market in terms of goods and persons. And it also introduces EU competition law in terms of cartels and offers an overview of the most important internal and external Union policies. The epilogue concludes with an examination of Brexit: past, present, and future.
10. Internal Market: Persons
Authors: Schütze Robert
Published: August 2023

This chapter highlights the complex constitutional arrangements governing the free movement of persons. The EU Treaties distinguished between two classes of economic migrants, namely, employed and self-employed persons; and today’s Treaty title dealing with persons still addresses ‘Workers’ and the ‘Right of Establishment’ in two separate chapters. With the 1992 Maastricht Treaty, the two special chapters on persons were complemented by the general rules on EU citizenship. Unsurprisingly, there has been a complex relationship between the two specific sources of free movement rights and the EU citizenship provisions. Their symbiotic relationship is particularly embodied in the ‘Citizenship Directive’. The chapter finally also considers the possible justifications for Member State restrictions on the free movement of persons.
Introduction
Authors: Schütze Robert
Published: August 2023

This introductory chapter provides a brief historical discussion of the European Union. The latter is today based on two treaties: the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). The TEU contains the general provisions defining the EU, while the TFEU contains the specific provisions with regard to the EU institutions and policies. This book analyses the creation, enforcement, and substance of European law in three parts.
2. The network of networks
Authors: Murray Andrew
Published: August 2023

This chapter traces the history of the internet, sometimes called the network of networks. It first looks at the origins of computer networks, beginning with the introduction of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network or ARPANET, followed by the ALOHANET and the SATNET. The chapter then outlines the development of the internet that began when Bob Kahn built an Internetwork Protocol and also explains how the modern internet functions, along with net neutrality. Finally, it considers the third network layer, the applications layer where higher-level protocols such as Hypertext Transfer Protocol make it possible to carry out operations such as web surfing.
16. Electronic contracts
Authors: Murray Andrew
Published: August 2023

This chapter examines contracts in electronic commerce and their implications for the traditional contract law and the law relating to payment and payment methods. It first looks at the rules for the formation of informal electronic contracts and the regulation of offer and acceptance, focusing on Articles 9–11 of the European Union’s Electronic Commerce Directive. The chapter then considers the question of when acceptance is effectively communicated to the offeror, the terms of the contract, and their enforcement as well as evaluating formal contracts and discussing their formation and terms. A focus for this chapter is the evolving laws on electronic signatures, the role of qualified trust service providers and how electronic signatures are formalized. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the evolving area of smart contracts: their design, formation and what the role of the law is in relation to these self-enforcing agreements through an analysis of the Law Commission Report Smart Legal Contracts.
19. Computer misuse
Authors: Murray Andrew
Published: August 2023

This chapter examines computer misuse, a collective term for a number of criminal offences committed by means of a computer, often through access to the internet, including computer hacking (unauthorized access), denial of service attacks, and the creation and distribution of computer viruses and other malware. It first discusses hacking, focusing on employee hackers and external hackers, and then looks at the political debate surrounding the UK’s Computer Misuse Act 1990, and extradition centred on the cases of hackers Gary McKinnon and Laurie Love. The chapter also considers ‘digital criminal damage’ associated with the creation and distribution of computer viruses, along with cases of web defacement and mail-bombing.
1. Introduction
Authors: Wade Sir William , Forsyth Christopher , Ghosh Julian
Published: August 2023

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the definition of administrative law. It then turns to the characteristics of the law, covering the legal systems of Britain and Continental Europe, EU law, European human rights, the development of administrative law in England and the failure of administrative law to keep pace with the expanding powers of the state in the twentieth century.
3. The Central Government
Authors: Wade Sir William , Forsyth Christopher , Ghosh Julian
Published: August 2023

This chapter describes the various public authorities and their legal status. These include the Crown and ministers; the civil service and the law of Crown service; some governmental functions of more importance to administrative law; and the filing and investigation of complaints against the government.
5. Public Corporations, Privatisation and Regulation
Authors: Wade Sir William , Forsyth Christopher , Ghosh Julian
Published: August 2023

This chapter begins with a discussion of public corporations, covering the uses of corporate personality, legal status and liability and relevance in administrative law. It then describes the mechanisms of privatisation and nationalisation, the changing nature of regulation and some regulatory mechanisms, including the regulation of commerce, financial services and public utilities.
13. The Rule Against Bias
Authors: Wade Sir William , Forsyth Christopher , Ghosh Julian
Published: August 2023

This chapter begins with a discussion of judicial and administrative impartiality, including cases when a judge is disqualified because they may be or fairly suspected to be biased, a history of the test bias, and application of the ‘fair-minded and well-informed observer’ test. It then describes the causes and effects of prejudice.
17. Boundaries of Judicial Review
Authors: Wade Sir William , Forsyth Christopher , Ghosh Julian
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses the scope of judicial review. Judicial review is a procedure for obtaining the remedies specified in the Senior Courts Act 1981, namely the quashing order, the prohibiting order and the mandatory order, and declaration and injunction. The scope of judicial review, therefore, is the same as the scope of these remedies. Their boundaries, as set out already, are fairly clear, but in the non-statutory area they are uncertain.
23. Statutory Tribunals
Authors: Wade Sir William , Forsyth Christopher , Ghosh Julian
Published: August 2023

Tribunals have attracted the attention of the legislature on several occasions, most recently with the Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement Act 2007, which implements far reaching and fundamental reforms seeking to impose system and order on the maze of specialised tribunals. This chapter discusses the 2007 reforms, the procedure of tribunals and appeals on questions of law and discretion.
6. Article 3: Freedom from Torture or Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
Authors: Harris David , O’boyle Michael , Bates Ed , Buckley Carla M. , Kamber KreŠimir , Bryanston-Cross ZoË , Cumper Peter , Green Heather
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Article 3 prohibits torture and inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. It imposes a negative obligation on states not to engage in such treatment or punishment and a positive obligation to act to prevent state actors and private persons from doing so. There is also a procedural obligation to investigate allegations of ill-treatment. Article 3 applies to treatment in all life contexts, including treatment in prisons. Unlike most Convention Articles, Article 3 is expressed in unqualified terms so that proscribed ill-treatment is never permitted, even for the highest reasons of public interest.
21. Article 2, First Protocol: The Right to Education
Authors: Harris David , O’boyle Michael , Bates Ed , Buckley Carla M. , Kamber KreŠimir , Bryanston-Cross ZoË , Cumper Peter , Green Heather
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses Article 2 of the First Protocol of the European Convention on Human Rights, which guarantees the right to education. Article 2 extends to all forms of education provided or permitted by the state—primary, secondary, and higher education, as well as to private schools and universities. The right to education consists of a variety of rights and freedoms for children and parents. These mostly belong to the pupil or student, but parents do have certain rights of their own under Article 2 about the way in which their child is educated.
7. Non-fatal offences against the person
Authors: Ormerod David , Child John
Published: August 2023

This chapter deals with non-fatal offences against the person, a variety of offences designed to criminalise behaviour ranging from the infliction of serious (non-fatal) injuries to potential targeting of any non-consensual contact. The chapter begins by explaining the offences of assault and battery, the actus reus and mens rea of each, and defences. It then considers relevant provisions of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861 with respect to assault occasioning actual bodily harm, wounding or inflicting grievous bodily harm, and wounding or causing grievous bodily harm with intent. The chapter then considers ‘conduct focused’ offences against the person, such as harassment and poisoning. Finally, the chapter outlines potential legal reforms concerning modernisation and re-codification, constructive liability, and consent; and the potential application of the offences against the person within a problem question. Relevant cases are highlighted throughout the chapter, with a brief summary of the main facts and judgments.
2. Who makes company law and what is it for?
Authors: French Derek
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses the sources and purposes of company law. Legislation is the most important source of company law. The effect of EU legislation on UK law is explained, including retained EU Regulations which continue in force despite Brexit. Litigation concerning companies has generated a vast quantity of case law. There are other rules such as the UK Corporate Governance Code and there are practitioner texts and academic articles and books in abundance. There is a discussion of the purpose of company law which notes that its most significant purpose must be to facilitate business, but there is argument over whether mandatory rules of company law are the best way to encourage business enterprise. This leads to the discussion of whether companies should only serve the interests of their members (the shareholder-centred view of the company) or whether wider public interests must be considered.
3. Registration
Authors: French Derek
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses the process of registration for the incorporation of companies under the Companies Act 2006. It considers the distinction between private and public companies, the meaning of limited liability and the significant characteristics of the company created by the registration procedure at Companies House, such as a company’s separate corporate personality (which is highly artificial), its members, shareholding, directors, secretary, name, constitution and its registered office and domicile. To deter misuse of companies, the registration process involves disclosing much information about a company which is then available for public inspection. This process of public disclosure continues throughout a company’s existence.