bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE ROLE OF STIMULUS AND PAIR IMAGERY IN PAIRED‐ASSOCIATE LEARNING
Authors: MORRIS P. E. , REID R. L.
Published: April 2011

Paivio's conceptual peg hypothesis contains the assumption that during paired‐associate learning, words which easily elicit images (high I‐value) will re‐elicit a mediating image more frequently than will words of low I‐value. Ratings of the ease of forming an image to paired‐associates were obtained, and indicated that, at least for the pairs used, the ease of forming a mediating image is a function of the meaningfulness of the word pair as well as the I‐value of the individual words. The subsequent paired‐associate learning of the pairs supported the conceptual peg hypothesis. The recall of responses to stimulus words of high I‐value correlated highly (r = 0.76) with the rated ease of forming an image to the pair, while there was no correlation for pairs with low I stimuli (r = 0.02).
EFFECTS OF TACTUAL AND PHONOLOGICAL SIMILARITY ON THE RECALL OF BRAILLE LETTERS BY BLIND CHILDREN
Authors: MILLAR SUSANNA
Published: April 2011

Forty‐eight severely blind children, able to cope with set‐sizes of two and three, four, five or six serial items were tested on probed recall of Braille letters they could either name or discriminate, when the letters were (1) dissimilar in tactual characteristics and name sounds, (2) similar in feel, but different in name sound, and (3) dissimilar in feel but similar in name sound. Results showed that tactual similarity produced recall decrements by subjects able to be tested under set‐sizes of up to five items, while phonological similarity produced recall decrements by subjects testable under set‐sizes of five and six items. It was argued that tactual information survives perception and affects recall, and that blind children can encode tactual inputs either tactually or verbally, but that this probably depends upon different processes.
THE RECALL OF DIGITS BY NORMAL, DEAF AND AUTISTIC CHILDREN
Authors: HERMELIN B. , O'CONNOR N.
Published: April 2011

Normal, autistic and deaf children were tested for their immediate memory of visually presented digits. The digits were exposed either with or without a left to right spatial display arrangement, and had to be recalled forwards as well as backwards. Normal and deaf children tended to be sensitive to both display conditions and recall requirements whereas autistic children were mainly affected by direction of recall. Serial position effects in the normal and deaf groups were more dependent on order of retrieval than on input order.
SUBJECTIVE VALUE OF INFORMATION
Authors: BRANTHWAITE ALAN
Published: April 2011

Research into the way information is processed has indicated that it is undervalued. There are suggestions that this may be the result of central mental processes, response bias or the method of measuring subjective probability. The research described here used confidence ratings and decision times as independent indices of subjective probability. These two measures were found to correspond closely in the findings. The results show two distinct effects: one is to overestimate the probability of unlikely events (Cohen's inertial‐Ψ effect) and the other is to underestimate the value of information in changing the probabilities (a ‘conservatism’ effect). However, not only is it the case that information is undervalued, but the relationship between information and subjective probability is different from the relationship between information and statistical probability. Subjective probability appears to increase linearly with the antilog of the informaton in bits. The possible meaning of this result is discussed.
THE EFFECTS OF NEGATIVE RELATEDNESS UPON WORD‐PICTURE AND WORD‐WORD COMPARISONS AND SUBSEQUENT RECALL
Authors: GELLATLY ANGUS R. H. , GREGG VERNON H.
Published: April 2011

In two experiments subjects were required to compare the meanings of either a word and a picture, or of two words. Different name levels, i.e. category versus superordinate names, had only a small effect on the time to compare a name with a picture. When incongruent stimulus pairs were semantically related, both positive and negative decision times were longer than when the incongruent pairs were unrelated; relatedness also affected subjects' recall of stimuli. Implications for models of semantic decision are discussed.
PREFERENCES FOR COMMON WORDS, UNCOMMON WORDS AND NON‐WORDS BY CHILDREN AND YOUNG ADULTS
Authors: COLMAN A. M. , WALLEY M. , SLUCKIN W.
Published: April 2011

In the first experiment, groups of 6–7‐year‐old, 10–11‐year‐old and 18–20‐year‐old subjects were presented with aesthetic choices between common words and unfamiliar non‐words. All groups displayed a preference for real words but this tendency was significantly more pronounced in the intermediate age group than in either the younger or the older groups. In the second experiment, a group of 18–21‐year‐old subjects displayed a significant preference for uncommon words over common words, while groups of 7‐year‐old and 9–10‐year‐old subjects overwhelmingly preferred the common words. These results indicate an inverted‐U function relating familiarity and liking, and this provides a parsimonious interpretation of the preferences of subjects of all ages.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE ITEMS OF THE EYSENCK PERSONALITY INVENTORY
Authors: MacRAE K. D. , POWER R. P.
Published: April 2011

An item analysis was carried out on Forms A (n = 200) and B (n = 252) of the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) in order to establish how well the items perform. The method was, for each scale, to compare the mean total score of the people who said ‘yes’ to each item with the mean total score for the people who said ‘no’. The differences between the means were tested for significance, and it was found that some items had no significant differences, some differed significantly on the expected scale, some on the expected scale as well as others, some better on scales other than the expected one, and some did not differ on the expected scale but did on another scale. Particularly useful was the discovery of items which when answered ‘no’ predict the neuroticism score, since such items are not included in the EPI. On the basis of the analysis, various tests could be constructed. Useful tests might contain a better balance of ‘yes’ and ‘no’ items, items which predict the total scores better than does the average item, or only the very best items to make up a very short form for the selection of extreme groups.
INSPECTION TIME AND MEASURED INTELLIGENCE
Authors: NETTELBECK T. , LALLY M.
Published: April 2011

Ten subjects with WAIS Full Scale IQ scores ranging from 119 to 47 were required to discriminate between two lines of markedly different length, exposed in random order for ten different durations, by pressing one of two keys. Estimates of inspection time Λ, the rate at which sensory input is accumulated and passed to subsequent decision processes, were calculated directly from the psychometric functions obtained. Λ was found to correlate negatively with subtests contributing to Performance IQ. There was a substantial degree of consistency between estimates of Λ on two different occasions and training did not appear to affect the index, although differences between the two estimates increased as the value of the first estimate increased. Mean overall response latency did not correlate significantly with intelligence and measures obtained from retarded subjects were very like those reported in similar experimental situations utilizing normal subjects. This unexpected finding is interpreted as suggesting that, in this situation, retarded subjects have been prepared to respond on the basis of less evidence than is usually required by intellectually normal subjects.
THE INFLUENCE OF CONTEXT ON CHILDREN'S USE OF IDENTIFYING EXPRESSIONS AND REFERENCES
Authors: WARDEN DAVID A.
Published: April 2011

Three experiments are reported, each examining young children's ability to use the indefinite article to introduce a new referent to a context of discourse, and the definite article to refer to an already‐introduced referent. The context of the speaker's referring expressions is varied in terms of the nature of, and the listener's knowledge of, the referents. The results indicate that children under five years fail to take account of their audience's knowledge of a referent — their referring expressions are predominantly definite. Between five and nine years, children inconsistently introduce referents with indefinite expressions. It is argued that mastery of the introductory function of a requires decentration on the part of the speaker.
WERE CATTELL'S ‘PERSONALITY SPHERE’ FACTORS CORRECTLY IDENTIFIED IN THE FIRST INSTANCE?
Authors: HOWARTH EDGAR
Published: April 2011

Cattail's system of personality factors has not changed in essentials since his foundation ‘personality sphere’ studies of 30 years ago, although the original 12 factor (A through L) system has been extended and has found worldwide application in the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF). The article begins with a summary of recent criticisms of the latter, as reflecting upon Cattell's system, and then proceeds to a specific re‐examination of the foundations of that system in order to put the question: Were Cattell's ‘personality sphere’ factors correctly identified in the first instance? Instead of 12 factors, it is herein suggested that possibly six clear‐cut factors might have been extracted originally, factors which accord well with more recent work carried out independently from Cattell's laboratory. The implications of this are examined, accompanied with recommendations for more accurate delineation of personality factors in the future.
CONCURRENT CONDITIONING OF EVALUATIVE MEANING AND IMAGERY
Authors: LOHR JEFFREY M.
Published: April 2011

Research indicates that evaluative word meaning and denotative meaning (imagery) are distinct mediational mechanisms and can be conditioned. It is hypothesized that the meaning‐responses can be conditioned concurrently and independently. The present study factorially varied the unconditioned stimuli for each conditioned mediational response. Results provide support for the hypotheses and additional knowledge concerning the nature of both learning mechanisms.
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE PERFORMANCE OF INTROVERTS AND EXTRAVERTS ON STANDARD PROGRESSIVE MATRICES*
Authors: MOHAN VIDHU , KUMAR DALIP
Published: April 2011

The present study was designed to bring out the differences between extraverts and introverts on Standard Progressive Matrices. A group of 100 subjects of equal number of sexes were given a qualitative analysis of their performance on SPM. The study brought out the initial superiority of extraverts over introverts. But with passage of time and increase in difficulty level the introverts did significantly better as shown both by the t‐ratios and the F‐ratios. Personality interacted with sex to yield differences in performance of wrong scores only. These findings were discussed in terms of arousal, cortical excitation and reactive inhibition.
RIGHT‐AND LEFT‐HANDED COUNTING OF BRAILLE DOTS IN SUBJECTS UNACCUSTOMED TO BRAILLE
Authors: MYERS D. H.
Published: April 2011

Previous work has shown that children acquainted with Braille can usually read better with their left than with their right hand. It is also known that, at least in right‐handed people, the right cerebral hemisphere is dominant for counting dots.

The present paper compares, in right‐handed subjects unacquainted with Braille, the comparative skill of right and left middle (M) and index (I) fingers in counting Braille dots. In one experiment with 30 subjects no significant difference was found between LI and RI fingers. Another experiment failed to reveal any R/L differences although it detected a superiority of I over M fingers at P < 0ṁ025. When the task was split between the two I fingers working simultaneously they performed significantly (P < 0ṁ001) better than when working alone. This latter finding is thought to have a bearing on the failure to detect R/L differences; other possible explanations of the findings are also discussed.
OCULOMOTOR ADAPTATION TO PRISMS: COMPLETE TRANSFER BETWEEN EYES
Authors: CRAWSHAW MARTIN , CRASKE BRIAN
Published: April 2011

It is argued that previous experiments investigating interocular transfer of adaptation have been concerned with an adaptation of the registered position of the limb used to indicate direction. Thus the question of interocular transfer of adaptation sited at the eye remains open.

Two experiments are reported. The first showed that there was complete transfer between exposed and unexposed eyes. The conditions were such that the adaptation could be explained only as a change in the registered position of the eye in the head, or of the head on the shoulders. The second experiment showed that changes of this latter kind did not occur.
REHEARSAL SPAN VERSUS MEMORY SPAN: WHAT DOES THIS COMPARISON TELL US ABOUT VERBAL MEMORY?
Authors: PORTER LAWRENCE
Published: April 2011

In the rehearsal span (RS) task the subject is presented with a series of items such that each new item is presented only after he has repeated all the preceding items in the correct order. Contrary to the results reported by Dalrymple‐Alford (1967), it was found (a) that the maximum number of digits, on average, a subject could repeat back under these conditions (the rehearsal span) was significantly greater than the conventional memory span (MS); and (b) that recall of early items in the series benefited from the cumulative rehearsal in the RS task. In addition, ordered free recall of RS series was superior to that of MS series. Presentation rate had no significant effect on the magnitude of any of the above differences between performance in the RS task and that in the MS task. These results do not support previous conclusions, based on the failure to observe any difference between MS and RS, about the role of rehearsal in short‐term verbal memory.
A COORDINATION OF HAND PREFERENCE AND SKILL REPLICATED
Authors: ANNETT MARIAN
Published: April 2011

Annett (1970a) described 283 subjects classified for hand preference and measured for the movement time of each hand on a peg moving task. A new sample of 804 subjects has been examined and classified as before. The mean differences between hands for each preference group are very similar in both samples.

Hand preference can be regarded as anchored to an objective measure of manual skill. Both preference and skill are continuously distributed variables, not discrete ones. The quest for the ‘essence’ of left handedness should be replaced by studies of the characteristics of the distributions involved and of the criteria used to identify segments of the distributions.
The achievement motive construct and its measurement: Where are we now?
Authors: FINEMAN STEPHEN
Published: April 2011

The achievement motive (nAch) is a construct which has attracted many applied researchers. The present paper reviews the nature and conceptualization of nAch, focusing on the considerable number of different projective and questionnaire instruments which have been evolved for its measurement. The instruments are examined for their convergent validity, which is found to be very poor. Reasons for this are explained in terms of the psychometric characteristics of the instruments and whether nAch should be conceptualized as a conscious or unconscious variable. Guidelines for the future development of nAch measures are presented.
Time of day effects in school children's immediate and delayed recall of meaningful material
Authors: FOLKARD SIMON , MONK TIMOTHY H. , BRADBURY ROSAMUND , ROSENTHALL JOANNA
Published: April 2011

Independent groups of school children were read a story at either 09.00 or 15.00. The results from those children receiving an immediate memory test were in line with previous studies, children who were read the story at 09.00 obtained higher immediate memory scores than those who were read the story at 15.00. However, when the memory test was delayed by one week, children who were read the story at 15.00 obtained higher memory scores than those who were read it at 09.00. This superiority of delayed recall following 15.00 presentation was unaffected by the time of day at which the recall was made, and is consistent with previous studies on the effect of arousal on long‐term memory. It is pointed out that the current practice of teaching most academic matter in the morning is based on early studies, and that these studies failed to take account of the interaction now known to exist between arousal level at presentation and the delay of recall.
Non‐verbal and verbal behaviours associated with parting
Authors: SUMMERFIELD ANGELA B. , LAKE J. A.
Published: April 2011

The aim of the study was to examine the effect of sex of subject and acquaintance on the behaviour of 24 pairs of same‐sex subjects at a particular transition point, the closure of a meeting. Each pair of subjects was asked to discuss a topic of its own choosing for 20 min. They were instructed that a buzzer would then sound and they should open envelopes which instructed one or both of them to go elsewhere for the rest of the experiment. The procedure was videotaped. Subjects subsequently completed a questionnaire giving their perceptions of themselves and their partners. It was found that friends showed more verbal and non‐verbal interaction during parting than did strangers. Differences related to both sex and degree of acquaintance were found in the questionnaire responses. The results are discussed in relation to social skills and to differential expectations of future interaction.
The processing of negative or incongruent perceptual and combined perceptual/linguistic stimuli
Authors: HOOSAIN RUMJAHN
Published: April 2011

A psychological model of mediational processes based on the derivation of the meaning of perceptual or linguistic signs predicts increased processing times for signs that have negative affective meaning and conjoined signs with incongruent affective meanings. The procedure used in the experiments enables identical responses for positive and negative signs. The postulated effects are shown to be valid for perceptual as well as conjoined perceptual and linguistic cognitions, using schematic drawings of facial expressions and quotations attributed to persons with the expressions. The findings suggest that perceptual and linguistic cognitions share the same semantic systems, although the latter are more specific.
Thinking with restricted language. a personal construct investigation of pre‐lingually profoundly deaf apprentices
Authors: GORDON ANGUS
Published: April 2011

By means of the deaf manual system of communication, Personal Construct grids were elicited from profoundly deaf apprentices. Contrary to expectation, the grids are not uni‐dimensional, and they are as well elaborated as grids with the same supplied elements and constructs elicited from hearing subjects. Implications of the deaf subjects' grids are considered in the light of the relationship between thinking and language explored by Furth.
Evidence that focal processing involves a build‐up of a visual object
Authors: Solman Robert T.
Published: April 2011

Subjects were required to make one of three judgements when presented with a tachistoscopically displayed letter, and the PEST procedure was used to obtain point estimates of the stimulus exposure time required to yield a SO per cent (corrected for chance) level of accuracy. The judgements were ordered in terms of the information required, and on the assumption that pattern recognition involves the build‐up of an appropriate visual object (Neisser, 1967), it was predicted that as the visual representation required to make a judgement increased in detail, the exposure time required would also increase. The results showed that stimulus exposure time increased as subjects located at one of four positions, classified as angular or circular, and identified a letter from the set F,T,O,Q. The type of information required to make these judgements, changed from the figure‐ground discrimination needed for location, to the detailed level of representation needed for identification. Therefore, the results supported the prediction and were taken as evidence that pattern recognition involves the build‐up of a visual object. The judgements location, classification, and identification were also made on a letter from the set F,f,Q,q, but in this case the classification judgement required subjects to name the letter independent of its case. The results showed that naming was just as difficult as identifying and this suggested that the level of representation required to name the letter was the same as that required to identify it.
Levels of mastery of the coordinators and and or and logical test performance
Authors: Johansson Bo S.
Published: April 2011

The purpose of the present experiment was to study the relation between mastery of the words and and or and performance on conjunctive and disjunctive tasks. A definition test was used to measure level of mastery of the linguistic terms and a traditional logical test to measure logical task performance. The tests were presented to subjects in the age interval 6–22 years. The results showed a close relation between ability to define and and or and pattern of performance on the logical tasks. This was taken to indicate that level of mastery of the words and and or was interrelated with ability to solve logical tasks.
Familial sinistrality and degree of left‐handedness
Authors: McKeever Walter F. , VanDeventer Allan D.
Published: April 2011

Hécaen & Sauguet (1970) reported that, according to a handedness inventory measure, familial sinistrality among left‐handers (brain‐damaged patients) was associated with weak left‐handedness. We assessed the relationship of familial sinistrality and degree of left‐handedness among 71 normal left‐and 80 right‐handed subjects. No general relationship of degree of left‐handedness, defined by four handedness tasks, to familial sinistrality obtained. Only one of the tasks (finger tapping speed) significantly differed between familial and non‐familial left‐handers, the familial left‐handers being more strongly left‐handed on the task.
The progress of psychology
Authors: Farrell B. A.
Published: April 2011

Koch has argued that psychology is an imitation science, because it has failed to build an edifice of positive knowledge; and that it cannot logically do any better in the future.

The paper rejects this sceptical argument. The sceptics appear to be victims of the accumulation‐cumbuilding picture of scientific progress, and prisoners of the mistaken presupposition that progress in science consists in either the achievement of a paradigm, or the subsequent development of one. The paper points to weaknesses in the thesis that it is not logically possible for psychology to do any better in the future and achieve a paradigmatic advance.

But though the sceptics' case against psychology is a bad one, their case against a traditional view about the nature of psychology is sound; and this suggests that we should think in a different way about the subject.
The tachistoscopic recognition of letters under whole and partial report procedures as related to intelligence
Authors: Mosley James L.
Published: April 2011

Investigations of the short‐term memory task performance of retarded individuals have indicated that these individuals demonstrate a deficit in the mechanisms necessary for the acquisition, storage and/or retrieval of information. The present study examined the tachistoscopic letter recognition task performance of retarded and non‐retarded individuals under a partial report and a whole report procedure. The results revealed that the retarded subjects did significantly more poorly relative to the non‐retarded subjects under both procedures. The data were interpreted as indicating that the retarded subjects were inefficient in their strategy to make the simultaneous input task manageable. Further, the data provided no support for the suggestion that a visual‐to‐auditory encoding process exists between iconic and short‐term memory.
Prose and prejudice: Some effects of priming context on the immediate recall of information
Authors: Wilkes A. L. , Aired G.
Published: April 2011

Two experiments are reported in which recall of the same information is compared following different priming passages. In one case the subjects were primed by material that was consistent with the content of the main passage; in a second case, the priming introduced information in conflict with it. A further condition involving no priming passage was also investigated. It was found that inconsistent priming led to more accurate recall of the material involved in the conflict. Consideration of serial position, inference responses, reading times and neutral information supported the view that inconsistent priming, in particular, elicited deeper levels of analysis for the items of information taken as being relevant.
Levels of processing: A reply to Eysenck
Authors: Lockhart Robert S. , Craik Fergus I. M.
Published: April 2011

These comments take up the major issues raised in Eysenck's (1978) critique of Craik & Lockhart (1972): The problem of circularity in the definition of ‘depth’, the distinction between qualitative and quantitative differences in encoding, and the relationship between the concepts of depth, strength and elaboration. It is claimed that despite certain weaknesses, the original formulation possesses considerable heuristic value.
Memory for prose: Quantitative analysis of recall components
Authors: Cornish I. M.
Published: April 2011

Previous work on recalling prose material can be criticized for its limited use of quantitative analysis and for neglecting the theoretical implications of the distinctions between verbatim and other forms of recall. A controlled set of nine passages was specially written, and administered over three sessions to 18 subjects. Two analytic schemes were applied, one based on clauses, the other, a well‐defined one, used the actual words to split reproduced material into verbatim, non‐verbatim and intrusive components. These proved a qualified success, but the use of systematic qualitative analysis in future was recommended. Most of the variations in quantity of material recalled came from variations in the verbatim component only, whether associated with inter‐ or intra‐individual differences, and the importance of verbatim recall justified paying it more attention in future.
Remembering pictures of real and ‘unreal’ faces: Some practical and theoretical considerations
Authors: Ellis Hadyn D. , Davies Graham M. , Shepherd John W.
Published: April 2011

Three experiments are reported which explore the effects of lines on faces upon recognition memory. In Expt I a comparison of recognition memory for photographs of real faces with memory for Photofit faces indicated that memory for the former is significantly better. Experiment II examined one possible explanation for the first results by comparing memory for faces with memory for the same faces containing lines representing the feature boundaries of Photofit faces. The unlined faces were recognized more readily. This result was replicated in Expt III which also indicated that random lines produced the same deleterious effect on face memory as the systematic Photofit‐type lines.

The practical and theoretical implications of these results are discussed in relation to forensic face recall systems and pattern recognition.
On the nature of difficulties in spatial‐perceptual tasks: Ethnic and sex differences
Authors: Jahoda Gustav
Published: April 2011

The common claim that Africans exhibit a general weakness in handling spatial relationships is questioned, as is that of a general male superiority. The aim of the study was to identify some of the specific areas in which ethnic and sex differences may be located. A sample of 72 Ghanaian children evenly divided according to sex and early, middle and later stages of primary schooling were administered a series of tasks adapted from Piaget & Inhelder (1971); the same tasks were given to an equivalent group of Scottish children. On a block construction task involving memory the Ghanaians performed at the same level as the Scots when working from models, but not when the presentation consisted of photographs or line drawings (P< 0.001). On two tasks requiring mental rotation of shapes and, subsequently, the actual assembly of shapes into regular figures, the Ghanaians again experienced more difficulty (P< 0.001). Intercorrelation of scores on the various tasks suggested that the underlying structures of abilities may differ in Ghana and Scotland. The pattern of sex differences was exactly the same in both cultures. Girls did less well with the block construction (P< 0.001), but there was no significant sex difference on mental rotation or shape assembly.
National differences in personality: Yugoslavia and England
Authors: Lojk Leon , Eysenck Sybil B. G. , Eysenck Hans J.
Published: April 2011

Comparisons are reported between results on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire obtained from 491 male and 480 female Slovene‐speaking Jugoslavs; the comparison groups were 2312 male and 3262 female English subjects. Factor analyses of item intercorrelations showed close correspondence between the factors extracted in the two national samples, with indices of factor comparison well in excess of 0.95, and with reliabilities in the Jugoslav sample exceeding those in the original English standardization group. Sex differences were identical in both countries for all four factors, men having higher P and E scores, women higher N and L scores. National differences, agreeing with stereotypes, showed Jugoslavs to have higher P and lower E scores than the English. It was concluded that the organization of personality in Jugoslavia is sufficiently similar to that in England to make national comparisons feasible. Comparisons of delinquent subjects with non‐delinquent controls demonstrated similar differences to those observed in British samples.
Mental imagery and pictorial memory
Authors: Owens A. C. , Richardson J. T. E.
Published: April 2011

Previous research has failed to show consistent effects upon memory performance of individual differences in the use of mental imagery. A test of pictorial memory was devised which varied the ease with which the stimulus patterns could be verbally encoded. A factor analysis related performance in this task to a variety of other individual characteristics. The recall of material which could not be readily verbalized defined a factor within the solution which showed significant loadings of age and performance in the Progressive Matrices, but not of subjective ratings of the vividness of experienced imagery. The recall of material which could be readily verbalized did not contribute to the factorial structure of the results. It was concluded that the two sorts of pictorial material are remembered in quite different ways.
Maximum contrast between self and others in personal judgement: A repertory grid study
Authors: Adams‐Webber J. , Davidson D.
Published: April 2011

Frank (cf. Berlyne, 1971) operationally defines the ‘strikingness’ (salience) of an event as its relative frequency (pi) times its informational content (log2 1/pi). This index reaches its maximum value when p i = 1/e (approximately 0.368). It was shown that when subjects are asked to categorize themselves and others in terms of bipolar dimensions, e.g. calm‐excitable, they tend to assign other persons to different poles than the self about 37 per cent of the time. It was suggested, in light of Frank's hypothesis, that people may organize their personal judgements in such a way that perceived differences between themselves and others, considered as a whole, will stand out maximally as ‘figure’ against a general background of similarities.
The measurement of ‘conflict’ in repertory grids
Authors: Slade P. D. , Sheehan M. J.
Published: April 2011

Following on from Lauterbach's technique for assessing psychological conflict in triads of concepts, a similar method of conflict analysis is applied to personal constructs. A computer program designed to analyse both ‘ranked’ and ‘graded’ grids has been developed and the steps in this program, together with a description of the output, is delineated. The potential value of this form of analysis in both research and clinical practice is suggested and illustrative examples given.
Reduction of epileptic seizures by reinforcement of bladder continence
Authors: Connell Robert H. , Ryback David , La Fehr Susan
Published: April 2011

Epileptic seizures and resulting incontinence of urine were effectively reduced by reinforcement of incompatible behaviour with individual programming within a general token economy system. Two treatment phases, including token and social reinforcement, during an 11 week period resulted in significant seizure reduction. Therapeutic gains were maintained in a 6 month follow‐up.
Coordinating visual and kinaesthetic memory codes
Authors: Newell K. M. , Shapiro D. C. , Carlton M. J.
Published: April 2011

Four experiments examined the Connolly & Jones (1970) model which postulates that translation between modalities in the cross‐modal paradigm occurs before storage in short‐term memory. In general, the results provided no support for the translation notion. Delaying until the end of the retention interval knowledge of the reproduction mode failed to produce a matching performance decrement. Subjects were able to maintain the code of original presentation through the retention interval even when they did not expect reproduction to be in this mode. In addition, the asymmetry in the cross‐modal matching of visual (V) and kinaesthetic (K) information, whereby K‐V performance is more accurate than V‐K performance, was found to occur only under certain visual display conditions. The implications of these findings for general models of cross‐modal translation were discussed.
Sizing up categories: A reply to Morris (1977)
Authors: Wilkins A. J.
Published: April 2011

Morris (1977) claims that Wilkins' (1971) measure of category size may be inappropriate. In this reply to his criticism it will be argued that Wilkins' measure is perfectly appropriate, but that size, as a unitary concept, is inappropriate.
Current issues in the psychology of reasoning
Authors: Evans J. St B. T.
Published: April 2011

Recent studies of deductive reasoning are reviewed with respect to three questions: (i) Do people reason logically? (ii) Is reasoning introspectible? (iii) Is reasoning sequential? It is argued that the evidence of reasoning experiments suggests a negative answer to all three questions. This conclusion is interesting, since the last two questions at least might be answered affirmatively by common sense, and affirmative answers would be more consistent with the assumptions of many psychologists in related fields. The question is raised, however, as to whether experimental studies have good external validity for the measurement of ‘reasoning’ as we would generally understand the term.
Memorizing facial identity, expression and orientation
Authors: Walker‐Smith Gail J.
Published: April 2011

Recognition for facial identity, expression, and orientation was investigated in a successive face comparison task. Subjects were required to make same/different judgements about pairs of face photographs that could differ in any one of these respects. Overall recognition performance for identity alterations was superior to that for expression and orientation changes. After a short retention interval (1 s) there was no difference between recognition accuracy for different responses to identity, expression and orientation alterations, but after a long delay (20 s) some expression and orientation information was forgotten while accuracy for identity judgements remained unchanged. Subjects could remember some expression and orientation information over a 20 s period, but memory for these dynamic attributes was less durable than identity memory.
Intelligence as an information‐processing concept
Authors: Hunt Earl
Published: April 2011

Attempts to relate information‐processing capacities to intelligence test scores have had modest success when normal subjects are used but have been very successful in showing differences between extreme groups in information‐processing capacity. This is illustrated by reviewing studies relating memory to verbal comprehension. The reason for these disparate results may be that in normal subjects individual competence may depend largely on differences in choice of a problem‐solving strategy. Using sentence verification as an example, it is shown that information‐processing and psychometric measures are in much closer correspondence when account is taken of one's problem‐solving strategy. This, however, still leaves us with the problem of explaining positive manifold, i.e. the psychometric evidence for a concept of general intelligence. The relation between g and the idea of attentional resources is explored, by applying the dual task methodology to memory and reasoning tests. The results support the notion that g can be related to attentional resources.
Is the immediate memory span determined by subvocalization rate?
Authors: Standing Lionel , Bond Barbara , Smith Philip , Isely Catherine
Published: April 2011

The immediate memory span for eight types of material was measured, using 24 subjects, and various possible predictor variables were recorded. Span size for individual subjects was most highly correlated (r = —0–75) with their time‐scores on a subvocalization task; it appeared essentially unrelated to subject variables such as age, IQ, echoic memory and longer‐term memory. Span sizes for the different materials were also highly correlated with the mean subvocalization times found for these stimuli (r = —0–90), although the information content of the materials also appeared influential. Together, subvocalization rate and information content accounted for 98 per cent of the observed variance in span size across materials. A second experiment indicated that span size and subvocalization time were both unaffected by alcohol, while a third study indicated that span was decreased, and subvocalization time increased proportionately, by testing in a bilingual subject's second language. The data of all three experiments suggest that the span for a given type of material corresponds approximately to the number of items that the subject can subvocalize silently or in whispers in a fixed time interval (about 1–8 s or 2–2 s respectively, although these values are not constant across experiments). The results are interpreted as being consistent with a verbal‐loop process in short‐term memory, such that more items are maintained in storage if they can be circulated rapidly through this loop.
Sex difference in choice reaction time
Authors: Landauer Ali A. , Armstrong Simon , Digwood Joanne
Published: April 2011

The decision and movement time components of a visual choice reaction‐time task were examined using students and visitors to a university exhibition. The results of two separate studies showed that women have a faster decision time than men, and that men have a faster movement time. Since these two effects are in an opposite direction, no sex differences in the mean choice reaction times were found. It is concluded that on this particular task the cognitive performance of women is superior.
The golden section relation in the evaluation of environmental factors
Authors: Shalit Benjamin
Published: April 2011

Two hundred and thirty‐two subjects, coming from different civilian and military environments, were asked to evaluate factors which they perceived to be typical for their environment. Evaluation of these factors was positive, negative or neutral. The golden section hypothesis was tested by the ratio of positive to positive and negative evaluations and was not upheld. However calculating the ratio of positive to positive, neutral and negative evaluations produced a ratio of 0.62, thus confirming the golden section hypothesis. Results were discussed in terms of judgemental style, modes of appraisal and possible effect on coping.
The significance for intelligence of differences in birth‐weight and health within monozygotic twin pairs
Authors: Marsh R. W.
Published: April 2011

This paper presents further evidence to demonstrate the existence of intra‐uterine effects within the normal range of intelligence. The argument is then extended further to estimate the effects of organic factors in the environment that are also pathogenic for intelligence. The combination of these and intra‐uterine effects is found to be a substantial part of the variance associated with environmental factors. Various implications of these factors are discussed.
Effects of cigarette smoking on immediate memory and performance in different kinds of smoker
Authors: Williams D. Gareth
Published: April 2011

Changes in performance resulting from smoking were assessed in 48 male cigarette smokers who were classified both by daily consumption and by relative desire for smoking in situations inducive of high or low arousal. Each took part in four first cigarette of the day conditions involving a sham smoking control and three cigarettes differing in nicotine delivery. With increasing cigarette strength gains in letter cancellation speed on smoking increased although an inverted‐U relationship was suggested; immediate memory accuracy progressively deteriorated once pre‐smoking performance was controlled for. Smokers with greater desire to smoke in situations inducive of low arousal appeared to react more strongly to cigarettes and showed superior gain in cancellation speed on smoking. High cigarette consumption did not lead to between‐day tolerance to cigarette effects.
The effect of three instructional sets on the recall of story‐like material
Authors: Cornish I. M.
Published: April 2011

An earlier study of prose recall (Cornish, 1978) was extended to look at the effects of giving subjects different recall instructions; these were ‘normal’, or emphasized accuracy or quantity of recall. Instructional differences affected the non‐verbatim and intrusive recall components, but not verbatim recall. Previous results were therefore unlikely to have been influenced by instructional ambiguities. Together, the two studies go some way towards separating the effects of acquisition and recall processes in reproduced prose material.
Reaction time as a function of the cardiac cycle
Authors: Wynn V. T.
Published: April 2011

Simple reaction times to auditory stimuli varied with the phase of the cardiac cycle in which the stimulus was presented. Longitudinal studies showed that stimuli triggered at different phases in the ECG gave rise to different rhythmic patterns of behaviour.
Children's long‐term memory for information that is incongruous with their prior knowledge
Authors: Ceci Stephen J. , Caves Richard D. , Howe Michael J. A.
Published: April 2011

Seven‐ and 10‐year‐olds listened to a tape‐recorded story. In one version, familiar television characters were described as having attributes that were incongruous with those that the children thought them to have. For example, Six Million Dollar Man was said to be too weak to carry a can of paint. Immediately after hearing the story, half of the children were asked to rate the characters on the basis of their descriptions and behaviour in the story. At this stage there was no evidence of systematic distortions in remembering. However, children who were asked to rate the incongruous characters in the story three weeks later displayed considerable shifts in memory in the direction of their pre‐experimental knowledge of the character's attributes. Long‐term memory for unfamiliar characters in a parallel version of the story showed no such shift, indicating that memory distortion for the incongruous information was influenced by children's prior knowledge and was not the result of random forgetting.
Why Evans is wrong in criticizing introspective reports of subject strategies
Authors: Morris Peter E.
Published: April 2011

In several recent publications Evans has criticized the use of subjects' strategy reports in the explanation of their performance. In this paper a distinction is drawn between ‘strategy statements’ made via introspections, and ‘self‐hypotheses’ where subjects speculate on the causes of their behaviour. Evans' empirical and logical arguments are shown not to invalidate strategy statements, and the value of such statements is illustrated.
Visual‐motor localizations in normal and subnormal development
Authors: Anwar Feriha
Published: April 2011

Subnormal and normal children, of like mental age, were compared on a visual target localization task. Severely subnormal children were found to be less accurate than normal children, in conditions where they visually directed or visually guided their hand to the target and received visual knowledge of results. On visually directed localizations without knowledge of results or with proprioceptive knowledge of results (same hand) no significant difference was found between normal and severely subnormal children. Another experiment with moderately subnormal children revealed that developmental changes on visually directed and visually guided localizations are a function of mental age rather than chronological age.
Epistemic curiosity and incidental recognition in relation to degree of uncertainty: Some general trends and intersubject differences
Authors: Boykin A. Wade , Harackiewicz Judith
Published: April 2011

This study sought to clarify the empirical relationships between epistemic curiosity, incidental recognition, and degree of uncertainty. Sixty‐four college and high school students had to solve four problems differing in level of uncertainty, measured in terms of the nearness in probability of being correct of four response alternatives, on each of eight trials. Additionally, subjects indicated how curious they were to learn the correct answer for each problem just prior to being shown that answer. Subsequently, an incidental recognition test for the correct answers was administered. It was revealed that both epistemic curiosity and recognition bore monotonically increasing relationships to degree of uncertainty, and that systematic intersubject differences in expressed curiosity but not recognition obtain. The results are discussed in terms of the prevailing theoretical orientation generally, and particularly in terms of certain conflicting predictions. Considerations for future research directions are entertained.
Learning to identify referents
Authors: Warden David
Published: April 2011

When do children intentionally use the indefinite article to identify referents for their listener? Children between five and eight years of age were presented with a communication task under four different experimental conditions, in an attempt to find contexts which would encourage the appropriate use of such indefinite expressions. Even the eight year olds failed to identify their referents consistently, although nearly all the children used indefinite expressions intermittently when mentioning new referents. The results are interpreted in terms of the complexity of the task and the children's motivation to communicate.
Noise, attentional selectivity, serial reactions and the need for experimental power
Authors: Hartley L. R.
Published: April 2011

The paper draws attention to the very low experimental power of a recent attempt to replicate Hockey (1970). A successful attempt to replicate Hockey (1970), using considerably more experimental power, is reported.

It is also pointed out that the power of Forster & Grierson's attempt to repeat Hockey's finding without the presence of response‐produced cues is so very low that a successful result is not to be expected.

Finally a number of problems in the application of Poulton's composite theory of noise to serial reaction performance are pointed out.