bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Short-Term Flavour Memory in the Rat
Authors: Westbrook R. F. , Provost S. C. , Homewood J.
Published: October 2014

In a series of experiments, rats were exposed twice to a flavour at times T1 and T2, and the second of these exposures was followed by toxicosis. The level of the subsequent aversion was viewed as an index of whether the flavour had been recognised as familiar at T2, with a familiar flavour accruing less aversiveness than an unfamiliar one. A flavour was recognised as familiar at time T2 after a long flavour-exposure at time T1 (Experiment Ia) when moderate (3·5 h) and long (27·5 h) T1-T2 intervals were employed but was so recognised after a brief exposure at T1 (Experiment Ib) only when a moderate T1-T2 interval was employed. The memorial processes underlying flavour recognition after a brief flavour exposure were assumed, therefore, to be transient. The remaining experiments employed a brief flavour exposure at T1 and moderate T1-T2 intervals in various attempts to disrupt flavour recognition. Recognition at T2, however, was not disrupted when one (Experiment II), or three (Experiment IV) distractor flavours were interpolated between the target flavour's presentations at T1 and T2. This failure was not due to the distractor having proactively interfered with the associability of the target flavour with illness at T2 (Experiment III). Further, recognition was not disrupted when the position of the target flavour's presentation at T1 was varied across a list of distractor flavours (Experiment V), nor when the similarity of the distractor and the target flavour was varied (Experiment VI). The results indicate that the processes subserving recognition after a brief presentation of that flavour, although transient, are resistant to interference and were discussed in terms of current theories of short-term memory in animals.
The Effect of the Instrumental Training Contingency on Susceptibility to Reinforcer Devaluation
Authors: Dickinson Anthony , Nicholas D. J. , Adams Christopher D.
Published: October 2014

Two experiments investigated performance of instrumental lever pressing by rats following post-conditioning devaluation of the sucrose reinforcer produced by establishing an aversion to it. In Experiment I rats responded less in an extinction test after being averted from the sucrose following training on a ratio schedule, but not following an equivalent amount of training on an interval schedule. This was true even though the devalued sucrose would not act as an effective reinforcer on either the ratio or interval schedule. Experiment II provided a further investigation of the insensitivity of interval responding to reinforcer devaluation by comparing test performance under simple extinction with responding when the devalued reinforcer was presented on either a response-contingent or non-contingent schedule during the test. Once again simple extinction performance was unaffected by prior reinforcer devaluation. Furthermore, neither non-contingent nor contingent presentations of the devalued reinforcer significantly depressed responding below the level seen in the extinction condition. Ratio, but not interval performance appears to be controlled by knowledge about the instrumental contingency that encodes specific properties of the training reinforcer.
A Re-Examination of One-Trial Blocking in Conditioned Suppression
Authors: Dickinson A. , Nicholas D. J. , Mackintosh N. J.
Published: October 2014

Three experiments on the conditioned suppression of licking in rats examined the amount of conditioning produced by a single conditioning trial to a clicker-light compound and the effect of prior conditioning to the light on the level of conditioning to the clicker. In Experiment I, prior conditioning to the light, far from blocking conditioning to the clicker, actually enhanced it, whether the clicker was presented in a simultaneous compound with the light or in a serial compound preceding the light. Experiment II, however, showed that this potentiation effect could be abolished if a trace interval was inserted between the clicker and light in the serial compound arrangement. Moreover, Experiment III demonstrated a significant blocking effect when a trace interval separated the clicker and light on the single compound trial. These results establish that one-trial blocking of conditioned suppression is possible, and suggest that in some earlier studies blocking may have been masked by higher-order conditioning to the target stimulus.
Delayed Matching by Fornix-Transected Monkeys: The Sample, the Push and the Bait
Authors: Gaffan David , Shields Claude , Harrison Susan
Published: October 2014

In the acquisition event of ordinary delayed matching to sample the monkey sees a sample, displaces it, and finds a food reward underneath; subsequently the retention test consists of a choice between that sample and a distractor, and the strength of the memory laid down by the acquisition event may be assessed by the correctness of choice at the retention test. The present experiments varied the acquisition events and examined the effect of those variations on normal and fornix-transected monkeys' memory. One variation was to proceed as normally but never to bait the sample at acquisition; this variation allowed assessment of the role of the food reward in ordinary matching. Another was to present the sample, baited and to be displaced, as normally, but to present also the distractor, baited but not requiring to be displaced, in a second acquisition event; this “push–match” variation allowed assessment of memory for the displacement. The main result from normal monkeys was that matching to unbaited samples was learned much faster than matching to baited samples. Following fornix transection, final performance levels in matching to baited and to unbaited samples were unimpaired but push–match showed a permanent deficit. These results support earlier indications that fornix-transected monkeys have normal sensory memory but are deficient in the memory of instrumental responses.
Effects of Anxiolytic Drugs on the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect in Runway and Skinner Box
Authors: McNaughton N.
Published: October 2014

The partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE) in the runway is reduced by anxiolytics in a non-state-dependent manner when a 24 h inter-trial interval is used, but there is some doubt as to the nature of the drug effects when shorter intervals are used. Experiment 1 repeated a study by Gray (1969), in which ambiguous results were obtained using eight trials/day. It demonstrated that the anxiolytic barbiturate, sodium amylobarbitone, given both in acquisition and extinction does not reduce the PREE. It confirmed Gray's observation that the PREE is abolished if the drug is given in acquisition but not in extinction. This suggests that a 24 h inter-trial interval is one critical factor in non-state-dependent reduction of the PREE. Experiments 2 and 3 tested the effects of the anxiolytic benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide, on the PREE with a 24 h inter-trial interval in the Skinner box. The basic task was a single FR5 sequence terminating in delivery of 10 (Experiment 2) or 20 (Experiment 3) reward pellets each day. There were 10 acquisition trials and partially reinforced rats received either three (Experiment 2) or four (Experiment 3) non-rewarded trials. The drug abolished the PREE in Experiment 2 and effectively reversed it in Experiment 3. These results confirm previous work with this drug in the runway (Feldon and Gray, 1981) and extend them to a very different experimental situation. These results support the idea that the PREE depends on different processes with different acquisition parameters; and that when a 24 h inter-trial interval is used the PREE is largely produced by some general process, probably the counterconditioning of conditioned frustration, which is sensitive to anxiolytic drugs. They also demonstrate very clearly the paradoxical effects of the anxiolytic drugs when given in both acquisition and extinction: they generally increase resistance to extinction in continuously reinforced animals, but block the increase in resistance (the PREE) produced by behavioural schedules.
Hyperstriatal Lesions and Short-Term Retention of Non-Visual Information in Pigeons
Authors: Macphail Euan M. , Reilly Steve
Published: October 2014

Short-term retention of non-visual information was investigated using three series of hyperstriatal-lesioned and unoperated control pigeons. Neither retention (Experiment 1) nor acquisition (Experiment 3) of go/no-go alternation was disrupted by the lesions. Similarly, Experiments 2 and 5 failed to detect significant disruption of either retention or acquisition of spatial alternation. Increases in the retention intervals used in these tasks reduced accuracy in both groups but did not differently affect hyperstriatal as opposed to control performance. A lasting deficit was, however, obtained in a delayed-response task (Experiment 4), but this deficit, which was independent of retention interval, appeared to be the result, not of a disruption of memory, but of an exaggerated perseverative tendency. Experiment 6 confirmed that all three series of hyperstriatal birds showed disruption of reversals of a spatial discrimination. It is concluded that hyperstriatal lesions do not disrupt memory processes, and the hypothesis that hyperstriatal damage induces perseveration of central sets is discussed.
Spatial Behaviour of Cats in Cue-Controlled Environments
Authors: Poucet Bruno
Published: October 2014

Two groups of six cats were subjected to a spatial learning task in cross-mazes that differed only in the spatial relationship between the goal and the single available visual cue. When this cue was remote from the goal (“mapping situation”), the cats did not need more testing days to reach the learning criterion than when it was above the goal (“guidance situation”). Additional behavioural data gave evidence of two information-gathering strategies within each group: the first consisted of taking the relevant information from the starting point; the second was to choose the correct path from the central choice-point. These strategies were discussed in the light of O'Keefe and Nadel's theory (1978) concerning two spatial behaviours, mapping and route-following.

The results of a second experiment showed that the cats subjected to the mapping situation were markedly less affected than those subjected to the guidance situation by a delay introduced between the moment when the relevant cue was still available and the moment when the subjects were allowed to run to the goal.

In a third experiment, it was shown that only cats that were seen as choosing their path from the starting point during learning (Experiment 1) succeeded in using short-cuts: subjects that chose from the central choicepoint needed to pass through this place when a shorter path was available.

These results show that the processes involved in spatial behaviours may be characterized by taking into account some of the behavioural components. Furthermore, the properties of these processes can be assessed with additional experiments, such as delayed-reaction tasks and short-cutting tests.
A Socio-Technical, Probabilistic Risk Assessment Model for Surgical Site Infections in Ambulatory Surgery Centers
Authors: Bish Ebru K. , El-Amine Hadi , Steighner Laura A. , Slonim Anthony D.
Published: October 2014

Background.

To understand how structural and process elements may affect the risk for surgical site infections (SSIs) in the ambulatory surgery center (ASC) environment, the researchers employed a tool known as socio-technical probabilistic risk assessment (ST-PRA). ST-PRA is particularly helpful for estimating risks in outcomes that are very rare, such as the risk of SSI in ASCs.

Objective.

Study objectives were to (1) identify the risk factors associated with SSIs resulting from procedures performed at ASCs and (2) design an intervention to mitigate the likelihood of SSIs for the most common risk factors that were identified by the ST-PRA for a particular surgical procedure.

Methods.

ST-PRA was used to study the SSI risk in the ASC setting. Both quantitative and qualitative data sources were utilized, and sensitivity analysis was performed to ensure the robustness of the results.

Results.

The event entitled “fail to protect the patient effectively” accounted for 51.9% of SSIs in the ambulatory care setting. Critical components of this event included several failure risk points related to skin preparation, antibiotic administration, staff training, proper response to glove punctures during surgery, and adherence to surgical preparation rules related to the wearing of jewelry, watches, and artificial nails. Assuming a 75% reduction in noncompliance on any combination of 2 of these 5 components, the risk for an SSI decreased from 0.0044 to between 0.0027 and 0.0035.

Conclusion.

An intervention that targeted the 5 major components of the major risk point was proposed, and its implications were discussed.
Regional Variation in Urinary Catheter Use and Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection: Results from a National Collaborative
Authors: Greene M. Todd , Fakih Mohamad G. , Fowler Karen E. , Meddings Jennifer , Ratz David , Safdar Nasia , Olmsted Russell N. , Saint Sanjay
Published: October 2014

Objective.

To examine regional variation in the use and appropriateness of indwelling urinary catheters and catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI).

Design and Setting.

Cross-sectional study.

Participants.

US acute care hospitals.

Methods.

Hospitals were divided into 4 regions according to the US Census Bureau. Baseline data on urinary catheter use, catheter appropriateness, and CAUTI were collected from participating units. The catheter utilization ratio was calculated by dividing the number of catheter-days by the number of patient-days. We used the National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) definition (number of CAUTIs per 1,000 catheter-days) and a population-based definition (number of CAUTIs per 10,000 patient-days) to calculate CAUTI rates. Logistic and Poisson regression models were used to assess regional differences.

Results.

Data on 434,207 catheter-days over 1,400,770 patient-days were collected from 1,101 units within 726 hospitals across 34 states. Overall catheter utilization was 31%. Catheter utilization was significantly higher in non-intensive care units (ICUs) in the West compared with non-ICUs in all other regions. Approximately 30%–40% of catheters in non-ICUs were placed without an appropriate indication. Catheter appropriateness was the lowest in the West. A total of 1,099 CAUTIs were observed (NHSN rate of 2.5 per 1,000 catheter-days and a population-based rate of 7.8 per 10,000 patient-days). The population-based CAUTI rate was highest in the West (8.9 CAUTIs per 10,000 patient-days) and was significantly higher compared with the Midwest, even after adjusting for hospital characteristics (P = .02).

Conclusions.

Regional differences in catheter use, appropriateness, and CAUTI rates were detected across US hospitals.
Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Healthcare-Associated Infections in the United States, 2009–2011
Authors: Bakullari Anila , Metersky Mark L. , Wang Yun , Eldridge Noel , Eckenrode Sheila , Pandolfi Michelle M. , Jaser Lisa , Galusha Deron , Moy Ernest
Published: October 2014

Background.

Little is known about racial and ethnic disparities in the occurrence of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) in hospitalized patients.

Objective.

To determine whether racial/ethnic disparities exist in the rate of occurrence of HAIs captured in the Medicare Patient Safety Monitoring System (MPSMS).

Methods.

Chart-abstracted MPSMS data from randomly selected all-payer hospital discharges of adult patients (18 years old or above) between January 1, 2009, and December 31, 2011, for 3 common medical conditions: acute cardiovascular disease (composed of acute myocardial infarction and heart failure), pneumonia, and major surgery for 6 HAI measures (hospital-acquired antibiotic-associated Clostridium difficile, central line-associated bloodstream infections, postoperative pneumonia, catheter-associated urinary tract infections, hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and ventilator-associated pneumonia).

Results.

The study sample included 79,019 patients who had valid racial/ethnic information divided into 6 racial/ethnic groups—white non-Hispanic (n = 62,533), black non-Hispanic (n = 9,693), Hispanic (n = 4,681), Asian (n = 1,225), Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (n = 94), and other (n = 793)—who were at risk for at least 1 HAI. The occurrence rate for HAIs was 1.1% for non-Hispanic white patients, 1.3% for non-Hispanic black patients, 1.5% for Hispanic patients, 1.8% for Asian patients, 1.7% for Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander patients, and 0.70% for other patients. Compared with white patients, the age/gender/comorbidity-adjusted odds ratios of occurrence of HAIs were 1.1 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.99-1.23), 1.3 (95% CI, 1.15-1.53), 1.4 (95% CI, 1.07-1.75), and 0.7 (95% CI, 0.40-1.12) for black, Hispanic, Asian, and a combined group of Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander and other patients, respectively.

Conclusions.

Among patients hospitalized with acute cardiovascular disease, pneumonia, and major surgery, Asian and Hispanic patients had significantly higher rates of HAIs than white non-Hispanic patients.
The Association between Age, Sex, and Hospital-Acquired Infection Rates: Results from the 2009-2011 National Medicare Patient Safety Monitoring System
Authors: Eckenrode Sheila , Bakullari Anila , Metersky Mark L. , Wang Yun , Pandolfi Michelle M. , Galusha Deron , Jaser Lisa , Eldridge Noel
Published: October 2014

Objective.

To define the relationships between age, sex and hospital-acquired infection (HAI) rates in a national cohort of hospitalized patients.

Methods.

Analysis of chart-abstracted Medicare Patient Safety Monitoring System data from randomly selected medical records of patients hospitalized between January 1, 2009, and December 31, 2011, for acute cardiovascular disease, pneumonia, or major surgery associated with 1 of 6 HAIs. Patients were stratified into 6 groups. We then analyzed the association of age, sex, and 2 outcomes; the rate of occurrence of HAI for patients who were at risk and the rate of patients having at least 1 HAI.

Results.

Among 85,461 patients, all groups except younger female surgical patients had higher catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) rates than male patients. After adjustment for comorbidities, there was no overall evidence of higher HAI rates among elderly patients. In patients with acute cardiovascular disease, women had higher rates of HAIs. Among patients with pneumonia, there was no significant difference in the rate of HAIs among most age and sex groups. Among surgical patients, all age and sex groups had a significantly higher adjusted rate of developing at least 1 HAI except females 65 years of age or older. Similar results were seen for the outcome of the occurrence rate of HAIs.

Conclusions.

There was not an overall increased risk of HAIs among older patients hospitalized for acute cardiovascular disease, pneumonia, and major surgery after adjustment for comorbidities. The relationship between sex and the rate of HAIs varied depending upon the underlying acute reason for hospitalization.
Smuggling in Early America
Authors: Koot Christian J.
Published: October 2014

Smuggling was a regular feature of the economy of colonial British America in the 17th and 18th centuries. Though the very nature of illicit commerce means that the extent of this trade is incalculable, a wide variety of British and colonial sources testify to the ability of merchants to trade where they pleased and to avoid paying duties in the process. Together admiralty proceedings, merchant correspondence and account books, customs reports, and petitions demonstrate that illicit trade enriched individuals and allowed settlers to shape their colonies’ development. Smuggling formed in resistance to British economic and political control. British authorities attempted to harness the trade of their Atlantic colonies by employing a series of laws that restricted overseas commerce (often referred to as the Navigation Acts). This legislation created the opportunity for illicit trade by raising the costs of legal trade. Hampered by insufficient resources, thousands of miles of coastline, and complicit local officials, British customs agents could not prevent smuggling. Economic self-interest and the pursuit of profit certainly motivated smugglers, but because it was tied to a larger transatlantic debate about the proper balance between regulation and free trade, smuggling was also a political act. Through smuggling colonists rejected what they saw as capricious regulations designed to enrich Britain at their expense.
Race and the Origins of Plantation Slavery
Authors: Roberts Justin
Published: October 2014

“Twenty and odd” Africans arrived in Virginia aboard a Dutch vessel in 1619 shortly after permanent colonization of the English Americas began. There has been significant academic debate about whether the enslavement of peoples of African descent in England’s early 17th-century colonies was an inevitable or “unthinking decision” and about the nature and degree of anti-black racism during the 17th century. The legal and social status of African peoples was more flexible at first in the English colonies than it later became. Some Africans managed to escape permanent enslavement and a few Africans, such as Anthony Johnson, even owned servants of their own. There was no legal basis for enslavement in the British Americas for the first several decades of settlement and slave and servant codes emerged only gradually. Labor systems operated by custom rather than through any legal mechanisms of coercion. Most workers in the Americas experienced degrees of coercion. In the earliest years of plantation production, peoples from Africa, Europe, and the Americas often toiled alongside each other in the fields. Large numbers of Native Americans were captured and forced to work on plantations in the English Americas and many whites worked in agricultural fields as indentured and convict laborers. There were a wide variety of different kinds of coerced labor beyond enslavement in the 17th century and ideas about racial difference had yet to become as determinative as they would later be. As the staple crop plantation system matured and became entrenched on the North American mainland in the late 17th and early 18th centuries and planters required a large and regular supply of slaves, African laborers became synonymous with large-scale plantation production. The permeable boundaries between slavery and freedom disappeared, dehumanizing racism became more entrenched and U.S.-based planters developed slave codes premised on racial distinctions and legal mechanisms of coercion that were modeled on Caribbean precedents.
The Separation of Church and State in the United States
Authors: Green Steven K.
Published: October 2014

Separation of church and state has long been viewed as a cornerstone of American democracy. At the same time, the concept has remained highly controversial in the popular culture and law. Much of the debate over the application and meaning of the phrase focuses on its historical antecedents. This article briefly examines the historical origins of the concept and its subsequent evolutions in the nineteenth century.
The Society of American Indians
Authors: Lomawaima K. Tsianina
Published: October 2014

In 1911, a group of American Indian intellectuals organized what would become known as the Society of American Indians, or SAI. SAI members convened in annual meetings between 1911 and 1923, and for much of that period the Society’s executive offices were a hub for political advocacy, lobbying Congress and the Office of Indian Affairs (OIA), publishing a journal, offering legal assistance to Native individuals and tribes, and maintaining an impressively voluminous correspondence across the country with American Indians, “Friends of the Indian” reformers, political allies, and staunch critics. Notable Native activists, clergy, entertainers, professionals, speakers, and writers—as well as Native representatives from on- and off-reservation communities—were active in the Society. They worked tirelessly to meet daunting, unrealistic expectations, principally to deliver a unified voice of Indian “public opinion” and to pursue controversial political goals without appearing too radical, especially obtaining U.S. citizenship for Indian individuals and allowing Indian nations to access the U.S. Court of Claims. They maintained their myriad activities with scant financial resources solely through the unpaid labor of dedicated Native volunteers. By 1923, the challenges exhausted the Society’s substantial human and miniscule financial capital. The Native “soul of unity” demanded by non-white spectators and hoped for by SAI leaders could no longer hold the center, and the SAI dissolved. Their work was not in vain, but citizenship and the ability to file claims materialized in circumscribed forms. In 1924 Congress passed the Indian Citizenship Act, granting birthright citizenship to American Indians, but citizenship for Indians was deemed compatible with continued wardship status. In 1946 Congress established an Indian Claims Commission, not a court, and successful claims could only result in monetary compensation, not regained lands.
The Significance of Society in the 18th Century: Conversations about Governance
Authors: Cayton Andrew
Published: October 2014

The American Revolution was an episode in a transatlantic outcry against the corruption of the British balance of power and liberty institutionalized in the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689. English speakers during the 18th century reflected on this constitutional crisis within a larger conversation about the problem of human governance. Although many people excluded from Parliament supported political reform, if not revolution, they also sought remedies for the perversion of political power and influence in new forms of social power and influence. This article looks at the convergence of political and social discussions in a common discourse about the nature of power and the ways in which human beings influenced each other. The first section outlines the meanings of power and influence in British politics. The second section uses the novelist Sarah Fielding’s Remarks on Clarissa (1759) to delineate revolutionary notions about social power and influence. The third section turns to the speeches and writings of Edmund Burke in the run-up to the American Revolution to look at how English speakers deployed notions of social power to advocate for political reform.
Posttraumatic Growth
Authors: Rodgers Selena T.
Published: October 2014

Trauma literature has seen a paradigm shift from pathology to embracing positive trajectories. Posttraumatic growth (PTG), defined as a positive psychological change resulting from a struggle with traumatic or life-changing events, may occur in a variety of populations and events. This entry, therefore, aims to increase our understanding of PTG. The entry begins with the conceptualization of PTG, followed by a discussion of protective factor associations, measures, and psychometric priorities. Nuanced attention is given to global translations and cultural aspects. The entry then presents debates about the challenges, controversy, and biases, as well as an overview of the empirical literature. The entry concludes with PTG contributions for social-work practice and pedagogy, together with recommendations for future research.
Prison Social Work
Authors: Matejkowski Jason , Johnson Toni , Severson Margaret E.
Published: October 2014

This entry provides a description of prison social work and the array of responsibilities that social workers in prison settings have, including intake screening and assessment, supervision, crisis intervention, ongoing treatment, case management, and parole and release planning. The authors provide the legal context for providing social-work services to prisoners and delve into issues involving three specific populations of growing concern to corrections officials and to prison social work: women inmates, inmates who are parents, and inmates with mental illness. The tension between the goals of social work and corrections is explored and opportunities for social workers to apply their professional values within the prison setting are highlighted.
Response to Intervention in Schools
Authors: Kelly Michael S.
Published: October 2014

This entry will focus on a model of intervention (the three-tier model often known as “Response to Intervention,” or RTI) that has become infused into school districts around the United States and is likely going to continue to impact the practice of school social workers and community-based social workers who provide services in schools. Since the 1990s, the literature around improving the academic achievement and behavioral functioning of school-age children has gradually focused more on RTI as a way to implement effective early intervention strategies for youth to prevent school failure. The principles of RTI have also come to be associated with a related but distinct model of Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS, sometimes also called Positive Behavior Supports/PBIS or School-Wide Positive Behavior Supports/SWPBIS) and this approach has also been promoted as an effective framework to improve an entire student body’s academic and social, emotional, or behavioral functioning. This entry will discuss the history of RTI (and PBIS), the policy context for the approaches’ growing adoption in American K–12 schools, and the (still small but growing) evidence base for RTI and PBIS as approaches for schools to enhance student academic and behavioral outcomes. Additionally, the specific role of school social workers (and community-based social workers working in schools) will be highlighted, specifically how the growing influence of RTI and PBIS offers new opportunities for social workers to serve schools, students, and families.
School Climate
Authors: Hopson Laura M.
Published: October 2014

School climate has received increasing attention from researchers and policy makers during the past two decades, as research points to its impact on student behavior and academic performance. This chapter presents definitions of school climate in the literature and provides a brief historical context for school climate research. In addition, it presents methods for assessing and intervening to improve school climate.
Social Exclusion and Inclusion
Authors: Lyons Karen , Huegler Nathalie
Published: October 2014

The term social exclusion achieved widespread use in Europe from the late twentieth century. Its value as a concept that is different from poverty, with universal relevance, has since been debated. It is used in Western literature about international development, and some authors have linked it to the notion of capabilities. However, it is not widely used in the social work vocabulary. Conversely, the notion of social inclusion has gained in usage and application. This links with values that underlie promotion of empowerment and participation, whether of individuals, groups, or communities. Both terms are inextricably linked to the realities of inequalities within and between societies and to the principles of human rights and social justice that feature in the international definition of social work.
Survivorship
Authors: Walsh Katherine
Published: October 2014

The term survivor has been applied to people who have endured diverse traumatic or life-threatening experiences ranging from sexual abuse to airplane crashes and wars. In the past 25 years, the term has also been applied to those diagnosed with cancer, an illness that once claimed the lives of most who were diagnosed with it, but which many now survive because of treatment advances. This entry addresses the social-work profession’s involvement with cancer survivorship as one example of survivorship. Social workers encounter cancer survivors in every practice arena, including hospitals and palliative-care programs as well as schools, correctional facilities, and mental-health clinics. They conduct research and provide education about the psychosocial impact of cancer and also provide counseling and advocacy. With their focus on strengths and resilience and their range of skills and knowledge about the biopsychosocial impact of life-threatening and traumatic experiences, social workers are uniquely positioned to assist survivors in adjustment to survivorship and in restoring well-being through micro, mezzo, and macro systems interventions.
Sustainable Development
Authors: Pasupuleti Sudershan , Srinivasa Susheelabai R. , Bheenaveni Ram Shepherd
Published: October 2014

The World Commission on Environment and Development’s report, “Our Common Future,” explicitly outlines social and ecological justice as vital and inherent parts of the idea of sustainable development. The global agenda of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) offers social workers the chance to reframe their position in the areas of people empowerment, socioeconomic development, human rights, and environmental protection. Social work practices are based on social justice conceptual framework. Social workers who follow social justice concepts examine all their assisting efforts through the lenses of equality, fairness, and egalitarianism. In general, social work problem-solving techniques are not only compatible with ecological approaches to sustainability, but also provide much-needed social justice awareness. The article attempts to analyze and correlate the imperative aspects of “idea of ecological justice” and “concept of sustainability” to frame and offer appropriate and progressive social work interventions for common future for all within the framework of SDGs.
Torture
Authors: Berthold S. Megan
Published: October 2014

Although state-sponsored torture violates human rights and international law, it is a widespread practice worldwide. The effects are profound and extend beyond the targeted individual. This entry will explore the debate surrounding different definitions of torture and examine who is targeted for torture and why, as well as the wide range of effects of torture on individuals, families, and communities. Factors that contribute to the resilience of torture survivors will be identified. The various roles that social workers can play with this population will be outlined and common assessment and intervention approaches utilized by social workers with torture survivors will be discussed.
Disasters
Authors: Gillespie David F.
Published: October 2014

Disasters are a form of collective stress posing an unavoidable threat to people around the world. Disaster losses result from interactions among the natural, social, and built environments, which are becoming increasingly complex. The risk of disaster and people's susceptibility to damage or harm from disasters is represented with the concept of vulnerability. Data from the Indian Ocean tsunami, Hurricane Katrina, and genocide in Darfur, Sudan, show poor people suffer disproportionately from disasters. Disaster social work intervenes in the social and built environments to reduce vulnerability and prevent or reduce long-term social, health, and mental health problems from disasters.
Capital Punishment
Authors: Fogel Sondra J. , Smith M. Dwayne , Bjerregaard Beth
Published: October 2014

Capital punishment, the administration of death as a legal sanction, is a criminal-justice response to a restricted class of criminal activities that involve the killing of another human being. As a legal process, capital punishment has been modified by several landmark U.S. Supreme Court decisions. Yet, it remains a controversial penalty with factors of race, gender, socio-economic status, mental health status of the defendant, and other extra-legal factors often attributed to the sentencing decision. Social workers are increasingly used as mitigation experts or in similar types of roles for the defense team. As a profession, social work opposes the use of capital punishment. The purpose of this entry is to provide an overview of the death penalty as it is currently practiced in the United States and to review current issues and controversies surrounding its administration.
Survivors of Suicide, Those Left Behind When Someone Dies by Suicide
Authors: Cerel Julie , Maple Myfanwy
Published: October 2014

Suicide is a more prevalent cause of death in many countries than automobile accidents, homicide, and breast cancer. Despite this, the experience of people left behind after a suicide is not well understood. This entry provides a sociohistorical overview of suicide to place suicide death in a relevant cultural context, explores the bereavement experiences of those grieving a loss to suicide, and presents the debate about similarities and differences regarding suicide bereavement in relation to other forms of traumatic death. In addition, this entry examines the role of social workers in working with people bereaved by suicide.
Spirituality in Social Work
Authors: Hodge David R.
Published: October 2014

This entry addresses the topic of spirituality in the social work profession, with an emphasis on the American context. Toward that end, the history of the relationship between the profession and spirituality is traced from the profession’s origins, through secularization, to the present reemergence of spirituality as a legitimate subject in social work discourse. The diverse ways in which spirituality and religion are conceptualized are reviewed along with rationales that are advanced to support the inclusion of spirituality in social work. The topics of spiritual assessment and intervention are discussed and guidelines for using spiritual interventions in practice settings are presented with a brief review of the research on spiritual interventions from an evidenced-based perspective. Some of the organizations that help support and nurture spirituality in social work are delineated. The entry concludes with a summary of proscriptions for advancing spirituality to the next stage in its professional development.
Chevannes, Alston Barrington
Authors: Perry-Burney Gwendolyn D.
Published: October 2014

Alston Barrington “Barry” Chevannes (1940–2010) was known for his in-depth interviews and group discussions leading to the Jamaican and Caribbean Rastafari movement, justice reform, youth development, and Ganja Law Reform. He was a writer and composer of Jamaican folk and religious songs.
Weisman, Celia B.
Authors: Gelman Sheldon R.
Published: October 2014

Celia B. Weisman (1918–2000), professor emerita at Yeshiva University’s Wurzweiler School of Social Work, was a pioneer in advocacy on behalf of the elderly both nationally and internationally.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude
Authors: Zugazaga Carole
Published: October 2014

Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009) was a French anthropologist and ethnologist, and has been called one of the fathers of modern anthropology.
Suzman, Helen
Authors: Sinha Sunny
Published: October 2014

Helen Suzman (1917–2009) was internationally renowned for many years as the sole white woman representative in the South African Parliament to speak out against apartheid measures. As a Member of the Parliament (1953–1989), she spoke out against the unfair and discriminatory policies of the government, for instance, opposing capital punishment, prison conditions, gender discrimination against Black women, and policy of apartheid.
Sendler, Irena
Authors: Hegge Gloria
Published: October 2014

Irena Sendler (1910–2008) was a Polish social worker who saved almost 2,500 children between 1942 and 1943, by smuggling them out of the Warsaw ghetto, and finding non-Jewish families to adopt them.
Palazzoli, Mara Selvini
Authors: Comer Edna
Published: October 2014

Mara Selvini Palazzoli (1916–1999) was best known for being an original member of the Milan Family Center Team and is credited for helping to advance systemic therapy.
Estemirova, Natalya
Authors: Thomas Norma D.
Published: October 2014

Natalya Estemirova (1958–2009) was a human rights activist, a journalist, and a teacher who was abducted and killed in 2009 after working on stories of human rights abuses by the Russian government in Chechnya.
Farley, Rawle
Authors: Peterman Phylis J.
Published: October 2014

Rawle Farley, PhD (1922–2010), economist, scholar, academician, and advocate; known for his groundbreaking work in the study of economics in developing nations.
Havel, Vaclav
Authors: Thomas Norma D.
Published: October 2014

Vaclav Havel (1936–2011), born into a wealthy family in Czechoslovakia, became a famous playwright and an activist under the Communist regime. He was the last president of Czechoslovakia and the first president of the Czech Republic.
Human Trafficking: Exploiting Labor
Authors: Busch-Armendariz Noël , Nsonwu Maura , Heffron Laurie Cook , Mahapatra Neely
Published: October 2014

Human trafficking has become a major national and international problem, and while research suggests that trafficking in human beings for the purpose of cheap labor is higher than trafficking for the purposes of sexual exploitation, much less is understood about labor trafficking. This entry summarizes the current knowledge about labor trafficking including important definitions, describes ways in which people are exploited for labor, outlines related policies and laws, summarizes needs of survivors, and offers ways in which social workers are and can be involved in responding to this crime.
Whitton, Charlotte
Authors: Moscovitch Allan
Published: October 2014

Charlotte Whitton (1896–1975) was a woman of enormous energy, personal ambition, and drive. She had essentially three careers: as a social worker who was the guiding force behind the ascendency of the Canadian Council on Child Welfare, as a journalist and campaigner on child welfare and other social service issues, and as a municipal politician who rose to be the first woman mayor of a major Canadian city.
Kelso, John Joseph
Authors: Moscovitch Allan
Published: October 2014

John Joseph Kelso (March 31, 1864–September 30, 1935) was a young journalist when he became involved in child welfare in his adopted home of Toronto. He was instrumental in the passage of the first child protection legislation in Canada, and in spreading the need for voluntary children’s aid societies across Ontario and for similar legislation across Canada. He became superintendent of child welfare in 1893 and remained in that post for 40 years, shaping the development of the child welfare system in Ontario and Canada.
Davidson, George
Authors: Moscovitch Allan
Published: October 2014

George Davidson’s (1909–1995) working life included four careers over a period of over 45 years. In his first two careers he was director of welfare in the government of British Columbia, executive director of the Canadian Welfare Council, and then the government of Canada’s first deputy minister of welfare. In his later careers he was president of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation and undersecretary general of the United Nations.
Adoption: Lesbian and Gay Adoptive Parents
Authors: Goldberg Abbie E. , Moyer April
Published: October 2014

Adoption by lesbian and gay parents is becomingly increasingly common. This entry presents an overview of the limited research that has focused on lesbian and gay adoptive parents. Specifically, this entry addresses the experience of adoptive parenthood for lesbian and gay parents, with emphasis on the decision-making process (that is, choosing adoption, choosing an agency, choosing an adoption type, and specifying child characteristics), the transition to adoptive parenthood, the psychological adjustment of the adoptive parents and their children, and the adoptive parent–child relationship. We end with recommendations for future research and implications for practitioners and policymakers.
Prison Violence
Authors: Levan Kristine
Published: October 2014

This entry presents an overview of prison violence and how issues such as overcrowding and scarcity of resources may contribute. Exploring both collective and interpersonal levels of violence, issues such as incidents between inmates and those between inmates and staff are examined. This entry looks at the issues facing males, females, juveniles, and the mentally ill as they contend with correctional institutions and violence within these institutions. The potential effects of violent victimization are also examined, as well as potential interventions and solutions to reduce violence.
Grandparents
Authors: Gibson Priscilla , Valandra
Published: October 2014

Little attention has been paid to the role of grandparents, yet this intergenerational family role has shifted both inside and outside of the family. Social policies have pushed it into public debate on the rights of grandparents. Although traditional characteristics remain, new contemporary aspects of the role have emerged. This entry provides content on the significant factors that prompted the diversity in grandparenting and its social construction by adult children, grandchildren, and society.
Odum, Howard W.
Authors: Rotabi Karen Smith
Published: October 2014

Howard W. Odum (1884–1954) was the founding dean of the University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Public Welfare.
Economics and Social Welfare
Authors: Lewis Michael Anthony
Published: October 2014

This article will cover basic economic concepts, as well as their relevance to public policy. It defines economics and follows this with discussions of microeconomic concepts, such as market, demand, supply, equilibrium price, and market failure. Next, it takes up discussions of macroeconomic concepts, such as gross domestic product, aggregate demand, inflation, unemployment, fiscal policy, taxes, and free trade. As these economic concepts are discussed, they are related to public policies, such as Social Security, Unemployment Insurance, and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, which all address the provision of benefits for people in need of income and resources.
End-of-Life Decisions
Authors: Csikai Ellen L.
Published: October 2014

As medical technology advances producing the ability to prolong life almost indefinitely, individuals and families are asked to make increasingly complex choices about what treatments best correspond to their conceptions of how they wish to die. These decisions create a need for attention to medical aspects as well as psychosocial consequences. Social workers play pivotal roles in ensuring access to needed information and resources and in safeguarding individuals' rights to self-determination in end-of-life decisions. This entry discusses issues related to advance care planning, the process of end-of-life decision making, and social work roles with individuals, families, and health care providers.
Epistemology
Authors: Cole Allan Hugh
Published: October 2014

This entry discusses principal ways in which knowledge and knowing have been understood within philosophy, science, and social science, with implications for contemporary social work practice. Attention is given to various types of knowledge, its necessary conditions, scope, and sources. It focuses particularly on how practice wisdom remains a key source of knowledge for social work theory and practice, and suggests that greater epistemological clarity could further competent social work practice in an increasingly pluralistic world.
Faith-Based Agencies and Social Work
Authors: Boddie Stephanie Clintonia
Published: October 2014

This entry presents the history of faith-based services, demonstrating that they are a long-standing component of the U.S. service delivery system. Recently, the reduction in financial support of some government social services and growing skepticism about the effectiveness of government services have led to an expansion in interest and sometimes in financial support of faith-based services. At present, faith-based services are delivered in formal agencies with varying ties to government, and also in many congregations.