bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Uncorporating The Large Firm
Authors: Ribstein Larry E
Published: November 2023

So far we have seen how the corporate form initially rose to prominence in the United States to serve the needs of the large firms that arose during the nineteenth-century Industrial Revolution. Large firms chose the corporate form over partnership-type alternatives such as the joint stock company that they might have adapted to their purposes. By the mid-twentieth century, the corporation dominated for closely held firms as well. Then, in the late twentieth century, the LLC Revolution pushed the close corporation aside. So at this point in the story corporations and uncorporations seem to neatly divide between large publicly held and smaller closely held firms.
Crusade for Democracy
Authors: Brewer Susan A
Published: November 2023

As a result of world war I, President Woodrow Wilson sought nothing less than the creation of a new world order based on American principles and interests and led by the United States. After three years of staying out of the European conflict, the president decided that the United States must take a hand in ending it. Confident of American moral and economic superiority, he believed the United States would save civilization from barbarism. To the war, he brought a plan for peace. It challenged old world imperialism by advocating the principle of self-determination, which allowed people to choose their own governments. He called for open door capitalism and advocated an international collective security system.
Seared by the Horrors of War
Authors: Desjardin Thomas A
Published: November 2023

The Fourth of July was wet and passed slowly. The rain that began the previous afternoon lasted well into evening and paused only a short while before returning as a torrent. Between the opposing lines the occasional skirmish firing continued, but nothing more. With the confusion waning and the two armies apparently settled in to weather the storm, Joshua Chamberlain had time to wander and have a look around. He returned to the spur where details of soldiers had removed the scenes of the conflict, marking the burials of his men with rough headboards made of ammunition boxes. As he led his horse past the shallow graves, he thought that even the animal bowed his head, “as if recognizing the faces of those who often followed him to battle.”
The Docile Individual
Authors: Zakaras Alex
Published: November 2023

In many ways, Emerson is [Ceasy to write about. His prose is lucid and elegantly crafted. His essays are dense with provocative ideas. The scope of Emerson’s interest is expansive—one comes to feel that very little of American life in the nineteenth century escaped his judgment. George Kateb has illustrated Emerson’s eagerness to impersonate and sympathetically explore as many conflicting values and ideas as he could (2002, 4); Sacvan Bercovitch has written that Emerson wrote America itself, carrying each of its cultural and philosophical premises to its limit (1993, 342). So one could begin almost anywhere, on any page of his essays, and find plenty to think and write about.

But this very density and variety create interpretive challenges. The most important of these is the problem of contradiction. Emerson is a philosopher famous for his repudiations of consistency; “I am always insincere,” he once confessed, “as always knowing there are other moods” (LA 587).
Issues Entrepreneurs: Charisma, Charisma-Producing Events, and the Shaping of Pro Bono Practice in Large Law Firms
Authors: Epstein Cynthia Fuchs
Published: November 2023

The classic sociological definition of a profession—one that differentiates professions from business and other activities—holds that among other things its work must contribute to the public good (Parsons 1954 [1949]). However, a number of analysts of the legal profession (Larson 1977; Abbott 1988) have questioned whether this defining characteristic is true any longer for the law. More than some professions, such as medicine or the ministry—in which service is part of their vital core—the legal profession has, over time, moved closer to a business model. Nonetheless, a service-to-society ethos has always found expression in the voices of respected leaders of the bar (Kronman 1993; Linowitz & Mayer 1994), in the mandates of national and regional bar associations, and in the commitment to pro bono work of a substantial number of large law firms, suggesting that the service ideal remains alive. Of course, how the ethos is addressed and carried out varies greatly, with consequences for society, for the profession, and for lawyers themselves. Furthermore, and perhaps ironically, the large “Wall Street” firms that most closely define high-stakes business law in this country are precisely the firms that contribute the legal personnel whose pro bono service makes up the largest component of U.S. civil legal assistance (Galanter & Palay 1995; Sandefur 2007).3
Costa Rica
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

The trust was introduced in 1964 in the Commerce Code of Costa Rica following that of Mexico in its guidelines. Thus, Porras Zamora explained that “trusts in Costa Rica arise as a response to a necessity in view of the economic growth of [Costa Rica] in the 1970s. Although trusts had been in our Commerce Code as commercial agreements since 1964, it was not until 1971 that banks were permitted to offer this service thanks to the reform of [a]rticle 116 of the National Banking System’s Organic Act [and] it has not been until the late 1980s and 1990s that it has taken on increased interest as a business.”
Detention of Combatants and the Global War on Terror
Authors: Jr. James A Schoettler
Published: November 2023

In the conduct of armed conflict, a State may not only kill or wound combatants fighting on behalf of its enemies, but it also may take them prisoner and hold them until the end of the conflict. Indeed, where an enemy combatant clearly is no longer capable of fighting due to wounds, or where an enemy combatant has clearly signaled his or her desire to cease fighting, a State’s only option to remove an enemy combatant from the battlefield will be to take that person prisoner. The principal sources of law regarding the detention of enemy combatants are (i) the Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land annexed to Fourth Hague Convention of 1907 (hereinafter Hague IV Regulations); (ii) the 1949 Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (hereinafter GPW); and (iii) certain provisions of the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (hereinafter “Additional Protocol I” or “API”).4 Together, these treaties define a highly protective regime that ensures that captured enemy soldiers are humanely treated by their captors, properly accounted for, and set free once hostilities are over. Importantly, enemy soldiers who are treated as prisoners of war under these treaties cannot be prosecuted by the capturing State for belligerent acts against lawful targets (such as killing combatants who are fighting on behalf of the capturing State) provided such acts were done in accordance with the law of war. This protection against prosecution, typically called “combatant immunity,” is an important protection under international law.
Battlefield Perspectives on the Laws of War
Authors: Lewis Michael W
Published: November 2023

Any genuine understanding of the role of the law of war in the struggle against transnational terrorism begins with an appreciation of the unique context in which the law of war operates. The previous chapters have focused primarily on the strategic level of war. At that level, time, space, and the nature of operational challenges allow for a robust role for both law and lawyers. As my co-authors have illustrated, while fidelity to the core principles of the law is a universal element of disciplined military operations, application of the principles in these contexts involves a high degree of complexity. The student of the law must, however, always be aware of the reality that the strategic and operational complexity of law must somehow effectively translate into practical application. At the tactical “point of execution” level, military personnel risk their lives and take the lives of others, based upon instantaneous decisions that seldom allow for reflection or consideration, let alone the benefit of timely legal advice. For the law of war to be meaningful, it must function effectively at this level. To make it effective at this level, the process of translating the complex legal mandates from the strategic level into practical parameters is critical. This process involves a distillation of the complex and comprehensive legal regimes described in previous chapters into workable operational principles. Making this process work is one of the great challenges facing the law of war.
Introduction: Risky Business
Authors: O’Neill Philip D
Published: November 2023

The 21st century tests, in new ways, the continuing quest to prevent and roll back the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Renewed political emphasis is evident in seeking arms control measures, as well as informal behavioral constraints. Calibrated movement toward nuclear disarmament is again making legal process tools a valued element of our layered WMD defense. An essential element of that process is the manner in which we verify agreements to control, limit, and disarm. Verification is well recognized, both in principle and politically, as “a key component of meeting our core objective for our nonproliferation policies—namely preventing rogue states and non-state actors from obtaining nuclear, chemical or biological weapons and their means of delivery.”
Pronouncing Arabic I
Authors: Mitchell T F
Published: November 2023

Pronouncing Arabic, I provides the student of Arabic with an acceptable model for reading a written text aloud. Acceptance is not, however, thereby implied of the widespread Arab view that written Arabic alone should be studied, and reference is made wherever necessary to other Arabic `accents'. Professor Mitchell's book is the first comprehensive and accurate account of a prestigious Arabic `accent'; the categories of phonetics supplied offer both the means of practical instruction on pronunciation and a framework for the wider study of the spoken language. Eight chapters cover the definition of the style of Arabic with which the book is concerned; the essentials of phonetics, the phonetic classification of the consonants of the Arabic alphabet, practical instructions on the pronunciation of Arabic consonants and vowels, accentuation, features of juncture and pause, quantity, rhythm, and intonation. Abundant illustrative and practice material is also provided. How to write the accepted Arabic script is dealt with in a companion volume, Writing Arabic, also published by the Oxford University Press.
Identity and Gender in the Mexican American Testimonio
Authors: García Mario T
Published: November 2023

Recent Chicana and Latina texts rewrite the traditional Latina narrative by focusing on women as subjects, as historical agents, and by imagining a new future for women. Their subjects in different ways challenge the traditional Latino model for women’s proper sphere. Rather than accepting what Shari Benstock terms the ‘private self as representing the world of women, the new Latina writers project themselves and their subjects into the public world as well. While the private may not always be political, it is certainly not divorced from women’s public roles and their public aspirations. In effect, as Carolyn Heilbrun suggests about other transgressive writers, who dare to cross previously closed borders concerning identity and self-representation, these Latina writers reject womanhood-at least as defined in traditional patriarchal terms-and instead rewrite the definition of being a woman. They dare, to use Heilbrun’s term, to be ‘ambiguous women’.
Introduction
Authors: Leydesdorff Selma , Passerini Luisa , Thompson Paul
Published: November 2023

We work with memory, and we work with gender. We are aware of a notably strong and rapidly growing feminist scholarship on autobiography, which is the focus of Laura Marcus’s review article in this volume. And intuitively we have felt that there are differences between the ways in which men and women remember. We have all had direct experiences, both in our personal lives and in our research activities, which anecdotally support this feeling. We also know that our intuitions are widely shared. Indeed, it would seem common sense, given the sharply differentiated life experiences of men and women in most human societies, and the very widespread tendencies for men to dominate in the public sphere and for women’s lives to focus on family and household, that these experiences should be reflected in different qualities of memory. Hence, when we hear on the radio a public memory contest, for example about past football scores, or identifying snatches of music, we are not at all surprised if the winner is a man. On the other hand we would be astonished if we came across a couple in which the woman constantly turned to the man to confirm how and when they first met, when their first child was born, when it was weaned, and so on.
Male Work and Mill Work: Memory and Gender in Homestead, Pennsylvania
Authors: Modell Judith , Hinshaw john
Published: November 2023

Recent literature on memory has focused on the physical and material bases for ‘remembering’ .1 In the steel town of Homestead, Pennsylvania, the physical structure of an enormous mill dominated images of the town for nearly a century. In 1986, the USX Homestead Works closed, and several years later a development company began to tear down the buildings that lined the Monongahela River. What disappeared then, we suggest, was not only the central source of economic and social life in the community, but also the framework for memories. Around the image of the mill, people constructed their own identities, incorporating work-based ideologies of gender. Thus, destruction of the mill altered the cultural and psychological as well as the social and the physical landscapes of the town.
Women, Crime, and Custody in Victorian England
Authors: Zedner Lucia
Published: November 2023

This book explores how the Victorians perceived and explained female crime, and how they responded to it - both in penal theory and prison practice. In Victorian England women made up a far larger proportion of those known to be involved in crime than they do today; the nature of female criminality attracted considerable attention and preoccupied those trying to provide for women within the penal system. Lucia Zedner's rigorously researched study examines the extent to which gender-based ideologies influenced attitudes to female criminality. She charts the shift from the moral analyses dominant in the mid-nineteenth century to the interpretation of criminality as biological or psychological disorder prevalent later. Using a wide variety of sources - including prison regulations, diaries, letters, punishment books, grievances and appeals, Dr Zedner explores both penological theory and the realities of prison life. This is a rich and scholarly study, which reveals much about the relationship between responses to female criminality and prevailing social values and concerns.
‘Incarnate and Incorporate’:the Lord of Limit
Authors: Hilton Boyd
Published: November 2023

By the eighteen-fifties the evangelical or retributive version of free trade ideology, with its essentially agrarian or physiocratic, rentier, nationalist, and static or cyclical view of the economy, was rapidly losing ground to the more optimistic and expansionist, industrializing, and cosmopolitan vision of Cobden. Parliament endorsed this development symbolically in 1855, and again more fully in 1856, when it made provision for general limited liability. As Peter Cotterell has written, ‘it is extremely difficult to account for this sharp and dramatic change’:
Collective Bargaining 1934-1939
Authors: Clegg Hugh Armstrong
Published: November 2023

THE two previous volumes of this history, covering 1889 to 1910 and I 9I I to I 933, opened with chapters outlining the state of British trade unions prior to the beginning of their periods. The years 1889 and 19r r brought departures in British trade-unionism, with the ‘new unionism’ of 1889 and the series of ‘strikes on a scale not previously experienced’1 from 1911, and therefore it was necessary to outline what had gone before to put them into context. However, there is no need for a similar introduction to this volume because there was no sharp tum in the development of British trade-unionism in 1934. For several years previously the main influence on the unions had been the world-wide economic depression which began in 1929. Whether the trough of this depression was located in 1931 or 1932, a slow recovery was certainly in progress by the end of 1933. Unemployment was falling, with the consequence that trade union membership began to increase again in 1934, after several years of continuous decline. But this change, while most welcome to the unions, did not bring any rapid alterations in other aspects of their behaviour, and the concluding chapter of volume ii, ‘Trade Unions in 1933’, would need few amendments of any substance to apply to the unions in 1934. There were events in Germany in 1934 that were to have profound consequences for British trade unions, as for the British people and for the world, but they had still to unfold.
From the Scientific Revolution to the Germ Theory
Authors: Cook Harold
Published: November 2023

FROM the publication of Harvey’s work on the circulation of the blood in 1628 to Pasteur’s formulation of the germ theory in the 1860s, European medicine changed dramatically. Three developments stand out: rapid growth in the number of formally educated and certified practitioners; development of med ical theory and practice that assumed truth lay in investigations into chem istry and the material structure of the body; and, towards the end of the period, sudden population growth and urbanization, contributing to enor mous alterations in the human environment. The development of a material ist outlook meant that medicine threatened established views even while it developed more precise ideas about the cause of disease; the rise of a formally educated medical profession meant harder times for women and alternative practitioners; and rapid urbanization brought about terrible living conditions for many people while increasing the need for governmental medical inter vention. The consequence of these processes was that university-based medi cine gained authority, a process sometimes termed ‘medicalization’.
The Rise of the Modern Hospital
Authors: Trohler Ulrich , Proll Cay-Rudiger
Published: November 2023

In accounting for the rise of the hospital to the central place it now occupies in modern medicine, it is necessary to consider a number of factors-cultural, socio-political, and medical-which brought about the transformation of an earlier, medieval religious social-service system. TI1e Enlightenment of the eighteenth century was the beginning of this process. At a pace that proceeded faster than the growth of population, new types of hospital were created and older hospices were transformed. During the French Revolution and its after math, through the last third of the nineteenth century, and especially after the Second World War, hospitals moved from caring for the suffering towards the provision of treatment for the sick and their diseases. The hospital has since played an ever-increasing and more influential part in the practice, teaching, and research of medicine. Accordingly, the social world within the hospital has changed, as hospital admissions have altered such that patients now come from all strata of society, as the duration of patients’ stay has dimin ished and their age varied, and as doctoring, nursing, and hospital adminis tration have been professionalized and specialized, and new ways of hospital funding have had to be found.The text of this chapter deals with the origin and evolution of various types of hospitals in their interplay with medicine and society.
Introduction
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

In the late eleventh and twelfth centuries the churches of western Europe underwent successive waves of ‘reform’. Pope Gregory VII and his allies reformed the papacy and bishoprics. Cistercians reformed the monasteries. Finally came the reform of regular canons, who lived by a rule like monks but one step less divorced from the rest of the world. It was the Premonstratensians, from Prémontré near Laon, who began this wave of reform, and it struck England around u43-4. Half a dozen Premonstratensian houses were founded at once, especially in northern and eastern areas just then being settled, and the order went on expanding. It did so by taking on houses of the older Augustinian canons on request from their lay patrons, and canons in the older houses would then be told to obey the new discipline or depart, while a posse of new canons, complete with the new rule, would arrive to direct affairs. The result has gone down as one of the more successful monastic experiments. By the late thirteenth century the Premonstratensians had founded twenty-five houses in various parts of England, many to become famous and prosperous.
Suicide and Judicial Records
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

In searching the past no student can be blamed for looking first at contemporary chroniclers. They wrote for him. But in the matter of suicide their reticence has been emphasized by its very exceptions, thrust into the narrative by considerations special to themselves. Reticence is itself a form of communication; and that of the chroniclers has revealed, among other things, the directions the search must now take. Those special areas, law and religion, whose peculiar conditions caused chroniclers to utter on suicide, had their own documentation, beyond any chronicles. They are therefore the areas, among medieval writings generally, where suicides were most likely to be recorded. That is a hair-thin logical deduction, but a moment’s reflection will give it more substance.
Portraits from English Courts II
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

Historical evidence calls for reading in two ways: directly, for what it says, and indirectly, for what it reveals without saying. Of silent modes of revelation none is more fruitful than anomaly. That is why Jacques Le Goff, the French social and intellectual historian, has taught us the principle ‘recherchez l’anomalie.’ For anomalies usually reveal influences at work behind the writer’s shoulder and of which he is unaware, influences urging him to say or imply contradictions.
Visigothic Spain 409–711
Authors: Collins Roger
Published: November 2023

The chronological boundaries of this period in Spanish history are defined by two invasions. The first of these was that of the Alans, Sueves, and Vandals, who crossed the Pyrenees in September or October 409, and put an end to Roman imperial rule over much of the Iberian peninsula. Although this process was not completed until the Visigothic conquest of the last imperial enclaves in the 470s, the collapse of the defences of the Pyrenees in 409 began the transition to the rule in Spain of a series of monarchies whose ruling families were of Germanic origin. At the other end of this period in 7II, invaders from the south, comprising mixed forces of Berbers and Arabs, brought about the collapse of the Visigothic kingdom, and with it the end of the existence of a unitary state exercising authority over virtually the whole peninsula. This would only be recovered during the brief period (1580–1640) in which Portugal was subject to the rule of the Habsburg kings of Spain.
Us Non-Proliferation Campaigns And Their Impact On Institutional Change
Authors: Riecke Henning
Published: November 2023

Nuclear non-proliferation has been one of principal objectives of United States foreign and security policy. Both the build-up of non-proliferation institutions and unilateral or collective efforts against potential nuclear proliferators and their programmes have been crucial elements of American strategy. The non-proliferation regime would not be what it is today without these American efforts. However, the effects of US campaigns against alleged defectors are not always positive. This needs to be explained.
Russian Genre Painting in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Gray Rosalind P
Published: November 2023

This book addresses the little-studied area of Russian genre painting in the first three-quarters of the nineteenth century. Rosalind Gray begins by examining artistic patronage and published texts which engaged with the visual arts, in order to illustrate the context in which Russian artists were working. Five major painters - Venetsianov, Bryullov, Ivanov, Fedotov and Perov - are then discussed in detail. Dr Gray identifies the vital contribution which these artists made to Russian intellectual life, as genre painting was appropriated as a medium in the dissemination of popular values and social change. At the same time, the relationship between Russian and European art is explored. The book demonstrates that, far from being a self-contained movement, Russian genre painting instead engaged in a fluid and complex dialogue with the art of the West.
England, France, and Christendom, 1360–1413
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

While the capture of King John of France at Poitiers in 1356 dictated an eventual suspension of hostilities, peace was not achieved until 1360, the only peace of the Hundred Years War acknowledged by both sides. Yet the ensuing decade was not one of real peace or even of the absence of war. Neither side wanted a ﬁnal peace; both treated it as a suspension of hostilities in which they manoeuvred for allies, contested spheres of inﬂuence, and even fought war by proxy. Edward III sought to open up further areas for military intervention by his sons, while Charles V, who succeeded on the death of John in 1364, set his mind to expel the English from the territories his father had conceded.
Ruling England, 1360–1413
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

No one would have doubted, in 1360, that the ‘Great Peace’ marked the commencement of a new era. Although France’s prostration exposed her to English and Gascon routiers, the Commons in parliament saw it as marking their ‘deliverance from the bondage of other lands and the many charges they had sustained in times past’. For thirty years the king had pressed them hard, securing their partnership in war with the promise of ruling with ‘lenience and gentleness’, when peace came. King and subjects could now look forward to the fruits of victory. While the court replaced the camp as the focus of Edward’s life, its tone was consciously chivalric. Still vigorous at 50, Edward indulged a passion for hunting and falconry, feasts and tournaments. Windsor was reconstructed as the ceremonial centre of the monarchy, with the Order of the Garter established in St George’s Chapel.
England and her Neighbours
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

Edward III’s prospective renunciation of the French crown in 1360 might have diverted his ambitions towards creating a multiple kingdom of Great Britain, with Scotland added to Wales, Ireland, and the Channel Islands. Like other such conglomerates, its sole bond would have been the king’s lordship; it would not have been envisaged or realized as a unitary state, with common institutions and citizenship. For Welsh, Irish, and Scots were distinct peoples, with different languages, laws or customs, social structures, and identities, who lived in deﬁned territories. In each a sense of ethnic nationhood had been fostered by resistance to, and hatred of, the English.
Introduction
Authors: MacDonald Michael , Murphy Terence R
Published: November 2023

Death has a history. The ways people die have changed over the centuries; beliefs about death and burial customs have changed even more profoundly. Massive epidemics and periodic famines have disappeared from the western world; they have been replaced by the slaughter of world war and by genocide. Individuals seldom die in the prime of their lives, struck down by fevers and infections; most of us perish in old age, succumbing to diseases of the heart. That is why the killers that do not respect age, cancer and AIDS, are so terrifying. When mortality rates were very high, in the medieval and early modern period, death was accepted as a part of life-’Tame Death’, Philippe Aries called it. The dying tried to end their lives well, observing customary rituals; the survivors played their parts, too, as participants in the rites of dying and later in the rites of burial. Dying was an art. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, less and less emphasis was placed on the hour of death. The art of dying became more dependent on the art of living, living as a good Christian.
The Identification of Suicides
Authors: MacDonald Michael , Murphy Terence R
Published: November 2023

Sociologists have in recent years challenged Durkheimian approaches to the study of suicide. The attack has been mounted on two fronts. Critics have assailed the ‘positivists’’ reliance on official statistics. They have shown that suicide rates a1:e generally inaccurate, and that they do not reflect the actual rate at which suicide is committed. More specifically, they have demonstrated that the ratio between recorded suicides and the ‘real’ suicide rate is not constant but varies from time to time as the personnel and procedures of certifying agencies change. They have argued that the classification of a death as a suicide is a complex social event. A suicide verdict is arrived at only after the coroner, witnesses, family, and others have analysed the circumstances surrounding the death and the background of the deceased in light of prevailing definitions of and attitudes to suicide and what one scholar calls ‘folk theories’ about the states of mind, motives, and personal history of people who kill themselves. On a broader front, the critics have attacked the theories underlying statistical studies. They have called for approaches and methods that owe more to phenomenology and symbolic interactionism than to positivism and functionalism. The ethnomethodologists emphasize the labelling process and focus their attention on the agencies that classify deaths and the attitudes and procedures that influence their choices.
Theoretical Perspectives
Authors: Baranzini Mauro
Published: November 2023

The main aim of this volume is to enquire theoretically into the process of accumulation, distribution, and transmission of savings in a capitalist society. In particular the aim is to focus on the forces which account for the formation of two types of accumulated savings (inter-generational assets or bequests and life-cycle savings) and on their respective role in the determination of the distributive equilibrium variables of the model.
Wealth Accumulation and Income Distribution in Modern Economic Theories
Authors: Baranzini Mauro
Published: November 2023

Various surveys (for example, Britto, 1973) have made use of the following classification for recent contributions on growth and distribution. The first two groups refer to their saving assumptions, while the remainder refer to other relevant aspects of growth and distribution. We distinguish the following lines of research.
Variation
Authors: Moon Rosamund
Published: November 2023

Corpus studies of FEIs show clearly that their forms are often unstable. Fixedness is a key property of FEIs, yet around 40% of database FEIs have lexical variations or strongly institutionalized transformations, and around 14% have two or more variations on their canonical forms. Of course, some FEIs are more fixed than others, and some, for example, take place and at all, do not vary at all; however, variation is very widespread. This is not a phenomenon confined to English, but has been reported by people involved in text-based or corpus-based studies of FEIs in other languages. For example, Clausen (1996) discusses it with respect to Swedish, and Cignoni and Coffey (1995) with respect to Italian: lexicographers working with Danish and Czech have also observed it (personal communications). Nor are all these variations ad hoc manipulations for stylistic effect. Such exploitations happen (see Section 6.7) and are very noticeable in text, but they are not the dominant type. Designating departures from canonical forms as ‘artistic deformations’ (Mel’cuk 1995: 213) or ‘wordplay’ (Schenk 1995: 257) underplays the prevalence and significance of the phenomenon of variation.
The user’s perspective
Authors: Cornish Francis
Published: November 2023

This final principal chapter will consider the psychological validity of the approach to anaphoric reference presented and defended in Chapters 2-5, as well as of the kinds of representation retrieved or evoked by both deficits and anaphors, as argued for in Chapters 4 and 5.
Intrasentential Centering: A Case Study
Authors: Kameyama Megumi
Published: November 2023

One of the necessary extensions to the centering model is a mechanism to handle pronouns with intrasentential antecedents. Existing centering mod els only deal with discourses consisting of simple sentences. and leave unclear how to delimit center-updating utterance units and how to process complex utterances consisting of multiple clauses. This chapter explores the extent to which a straightforward extension of an existing inter sentential centering model contributes to this effect I will motivate an approach that breaks a complex sentence into a hierarchy of center updating units, and proposes the preferred interpretation of a pronoun in its local context arbitrarily deep in the given sentence structure. This approach will then be substantiated with examples from naturally occur ring written discourses.
Assigning Antecedents to Ambiguous Pronouns: The Role of the Center of Attention as the Default Assignment
Authors: Hudson-D’zmura Susan , Tanenhaus Michael K
Published: November 2023

Four experiments examined the use of pronouns and nouns in discourse using an on-line coherence judgment task. Ambiguous pronouns referring to the center of attention (Grosz, Joshi. and Weinstein 1983) were judged to be coherent more often and more quickly than ambiguous pronouns which did not refer to the center of attention indicating that an immediate provisional interpretation was made on the basis of the discourse structure. In addition, ambiguous pronouns were processed faster than explicit nouns when both were used to establish the discourse focus. Ambiguous pro nouns were interpreted as referring to the focused entity even when this assignment was implausible.
A Quantitative Look at Discourse Coherence
Authors: Hurewitz Felicia
Published: November 2023

Centering transitions, as a measure of discourse coherence, allow us the means to compare the function of syntactic pragmatic constructions across various styles of discourse. This study demonstrates a way to use centering transitions in a corpus-based quantitative analysis in order to test hypotheses about discourse structure and speech production.
Underlying Representations in Optimality Theory
Authors: Hammond Michael
Published: November 2023

As a first approximation, word-final syllables of English can be closed by at most a single consonant if the vowel is tense or diphthongal, and at most two consonants if the vowel is lax.
The Implications of Lexical Exceptions for the Nature of Grammar
Authors: Inkelas Sharon , Orgun C Orhan , Zoll Cheryl
Published: November 2023

This chapter explores the consequences of lexical exceptions for the nature of grammar, drawing a comparison between two types of phonological theory: rule theory (or derivational theory), which uses rules to capture alternations and constraints to capture static patterns, and Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky 1993), which uses constraints to handle alternations as well as static patterns. We conclude that in order to deal with lexical exceptions, rule theory is forced to use morpheme-specific co-phonologies (subgrammars), a practice which engenders such serious problems that it must be rejected outright. By contrast, Optimality Theory is capable of avoiding morpheme-specific co-phonologies. The fact that OT has violable constraints allows it to employ a principled prespecification approach to lexical exceptions. As we demonstrate, prespecification has a number of advantages over the co-phonology approach and none of its fatal problems. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the positive implications of OT for a principled underlying representation, and with some speculation on the grammatical status of static patterns.
English Pronunciation in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Beal Joan C
Published: November 2023

Thomas Spence (1750-1814) was a native of Newcastle upon Tyne who is best known for his political writings, and more particularly for his radical `Plan' for social reform involving common ownership of the land. One hitherto neglected aspect of Spence's Plan was his proposal to extend the benefits of reading and of `correct' pronunciation to the lower classes by means of a phonetic script of his own devising, first set out and used in Spence's Grand Repository of the English Language (1775). The Grand Repository was one of many English pronouncing dictionaries produced in the late eighteenth century to satisfy the growing demands for a clear guide to `correct' pronunciation. It differs from its contemporaries firstly in that it was intended primarily for the lower classes, and secondly in that it is the only eighteenth-century pronouncing dictionary of English to use a truly `phonetic' script in the sense of one sound = one symbol. In this fascinating and unique account, Beal pays particular attention to the actual pronunciations advocated by Spence and his contemporaries with a view to reconstructing what was felt to be `correct' pronunciation in eighteenth-century Britain. With broad appeal to linguists and historians alike, this study highlights the importance of pronouncing dictionaries as a resource for the historical phonologist, and provides a valuable addition to the limited body of knowledge on eighteenth-century pronunciation.
On establishing a tradition
Authors: Hullen Werner
Published: November 2023

In the field of linguistics, theoretical as well as applied, there are several such ‘established custom[s] or institution[s]’, the most noteworthy of which is probably grammatography, the description of analogous structures of any language for the sake of teaching and improving its use according to certain criteria. Indeed, in Europe we have used in grammatography a stable, that is, a traditional, terminology since Dionysius Thrax (?170-?90 BC) (Law and Sluiter 1995). Another tradition of this kind has been rhetoric since the days of Cicero (106-43 BC) and Quintilian (?35-?100) (Plett 1995); a third is what would today be called semiotics, meaning the explanation of the nature and the functions of various kinds of signs, notably the linguistic ones, as has been done since Aristotle (384/3-322 BC) and St Augustine (354-430) (Deely 1982, Posner, Robering, and Sebeok 1997).
Function, Selection, and Innateness
Authors: Kirby Simon
Published: November 2023

This book explores issues at the core of modern linguistics and cognitive science. Why are all languages similar in some ways and in others utterly different? Why do languages change and change variably? How did the human capacity for language evolve, and how far did it do so as an innate ability? Simon Kirby looks at these questions from a broad perspective, arguing that they can (indeed must) be studied together. The author begins by examining how far the universal properties of language may be explained by examining the way it is used, and how far by the way it is structured. He then considers what insights may be gained by combining functional and formal approaches. In doing so he develops a way of treating language as an adaptive system, in which its communicative and formal roles are both crucial and complementary. In order to test the effectiveness of competing theories and explanations, Simon Kirby develops computational models to show what universals emerge given a particular theory of language use or acquisition. He presents here both the methodology and the results. Function, Selection, and Innateness is important for its argument, its methodology, and its conclusions. It is a powerful demonstration of the value of looking at language as an adaptive system and goes to the heart of current debates on the evolution and nature of language.
The Impact of Processing on Word Order
Authors: Kirby Simon
Published: November 2023

In order to explore how pressures on language use can explain language universals, some theory of use must be put forward. This chapter examines such a theory--the performance theory of John Hawkins (e.g. Hawkins 1994a)-that has been mainly used to explain word-order universals. Hawkins’s theory provides us with an explicit quantification of the relative parsing complexity of various orders of constituents. The main thrust of this chapter will be to solve the problem of linkage in this specific case: how does a difference in parsing complexity lead to a difference in cross-linguistic distribution? Although this is a quite specific example of the fit of universals to processing, the solution will be developed in general terms and extended to other examples later in the book.
A Local Grammar of Evaluation
Authors: Hunston Susan , Sinclair John
Published: November 2023

We mentioned in the introduction to this volume the generally accepted view that, except in the case of modality, evaluation does not have its own grammar and can most efficiently be explored in lexical terms alone. This bias arises partly at least because, from the viewpoint of a general grammar of the language, evaluation appears parasitic on other resources and to be somewhat randomly dispersed across a range of structural options shared with non-evaluative functions. If, however, we start from the expression of evaluation and identify the set of structures that are involved, we may well end up with a more systematic and coherent picture. That is what Hunston and Sinclair set out to do in their chapter: to provide a local grammar of evaluation.
Evaluation and Organization in Text: The Structuring Role of Evaluative Disjuncts
Authors: Thompson Geoff , Zhou Jianglin
Published: November 2023

People usually talk about coherence as the logical connections that can be made between the various parts of a (written or spoken) text. Specific connections may be signalled by conjunctive items (words such as and, so, but), which are one of the categories of cohesion (see Halliday and Hasan 1976; Halliday 1994). The argument underpinning Thompson and Zhou’s chapter is that both coherence and cohesion depend on evaluation — what the writer thinks about what he or she is writing — as well as on the logical connections. They argue that what they call ‘evaluative coherence’ runs alongside the more traditional ‘propositional coherence’. They provide evidence that some adverbs which express evaluation (such as unfortunately, plainly, happily) perform a function similar to that performed by the traditional category of conjunct. In other words, an adverb such as unfortunately does not only comment on the content of the clause of which it is a part, but can also suggest a specific kind of connection between two clauses, thereby establishing a cohesive link.
Beyond Exchange: APPRAISAL Systems in English
Authors: Martin J R
Published: November 2023

In this chapter Martin examines evaluative lexis expressing the speaker or writer’s opinion on, very broadly, the good/bad parameter. His study is set within the systemic functional linguistic tradition; and the account is therefore couched in terms of systems: sets of options which are available to the speaker or writer covering the meanings that can be and are typically expressed in particular contexts, and the linguistic means of expressing them.
English for the Computer
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Computer processing of natural language is a burgeoning field, but until now there has been no agreement on a standardized classification of the diverse structural elements that occur in real-life language material. This book attempts to define a "Linnaean taxonomy" for the English language: an annotation scheme, the SUSANNE scheme, which yields a labelled constituency structure for any string of English, comprehensively identifying all of its surface and logical structural properties. The structure is specified with sufficient rigour that analysts working independently must produce identical annotations for a given example. The scheme is based on large sample of real-life use of British and American written and spoken English. The book also describes the SUSANNE electronic corpus of English which is annotated in accordance with the scheme. It is freely available as a research resource to anyone working at a computer conected to Internet, and since 1992 has come into widespread use in academic and commerical research environments on four continents.
Cognates and Comparisons: Natural Morphology and Neo-Darwinian Evolutionary Biology
Authors: Mcmahon April
Published: November 2023

At present, some of the arguments around OT are uncannily and uncomfortably-like those current in the early days of Standard Generative Phonology: the definition of abstractness may differ, and we face an accumulation of constraints rather than rules, but the fundamental problems are very similar. Furthermore, they might be seen as arising from a shared conceptual weakness, in the form of a lack of constraint on the main formal mechanism of the theory, namely rules for Standard Generative Phonology and constraints for OT. Because of the drive inherent in both models to derive all phonological phenomena from a single mode of analysis, the rules and constraints become more and more divorced from actual data, and themselves become the focus of attention. One possible way forward for OT has emerged from the last two chapters: we might argue that restrictions on the number, type and language specificity of constraints are necessary, propose new machinery, and suggest restrictions in turn on that, ideally ensuring at each stage that we understand the interaction of the new mechanisms with those already established in the theory, and that we do not simply allow a proliferation of ill-understood and situation specific tools.
Reconstructing Language Development: Two Principles of Change
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N
Published: November 2023

I Without wishing to take sides here on the subject of Barschel’s ‘Der Modusbestand des Hethitischen: Eine Alterti.imlichkeit?’ (1986) I would like to suggest a consideration which ought to be, in my view, an essential ingredient in this sort of discussion, namely current knowledge on how new languages come into being-best summed up in Miihlhausler (1986b).
Method
Authors: Harris Zellig
Published: November 2023

Linguistics has not in general been one of the sciences in which the relevance and correctness of statements are determined by controlled methods of observation and argumentation. It is therefore desirable to consider what methods are relevant in linguistics, in the hope of establishing criteria for investigation and analysis. Choice of method is not less important than responsibility in data, and the choice should be determined not by personal preference or current custom but by the nature and the problems of the data. Furthermore, it will be seen in 2.2 that it is not enough to go by the separate observable features of the data, such as their linearity or their carrying meaning, but rather that one has to consider the regularities of all the data, and their interdependence.