bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE ARABIAN ORYX (ORYX LEUCORYX PALLAS)
Authors: Stewart D. R. M.
Published: April 2008

Summary

The Arabian Oryx (Oryx leucoryx Pallas) is in danger of extinction and in May, 1962, an expedition attempted to capture and remove to a place of safety a breeding nucleus of the species.

The habitat, which consists of the central sand sea of southern Arabia and the gravel plains surrounding it, is subject to extreme conditions of aridity and carries only sparse vegetation. The species is the smallest of the four oryxes and the only one found outside Africa. It differs mainly in its size, light colouring and the shape of its hooves, which are broad and rounded and probably adapted to walking on loose sand. Very little is known of the life history and social structure. Herds containing varying numbers of both sexes usually number 1–15. The gestation period is 240 days, one calf being born at a time, and the calving season appears to vary widely. The oryxes prefer the gravel plains, where there is most food, but can retire into the sand sea when alarmed or if rain falls there provided the heat is not too great. They cover great distances in search of food and feed principally on grasses, together with a few herbs, fruits and roots. Information on food preferences was obtained from the literature, faecal analysis, stomach contents and observation of the tracks of feeding animals. The oryxes exist for long periods without free water, but take it readily when it is available. To obtain shade during the heat of the day, they dig hollows with their horns and hooves.

The species is now found in only a small part of its former range, which extended from southern Arabia to Mesopotamia and the Syrian Desert. With the advent of modern transport and weapons its numbers have been drastically reduced by Arab hunting parties, who believe various parts of the animal to have magical properties. Apart from man it is not affected by predators. Despite one or two attempts to conserve it within its natural range, its survival almost certainly depends upon the establishment of a herd elsewhere. Since the expedition was limited for political reasons to the extreme western end of the species' present range. and only captured three animals, attempts are being made to obtain further specimens; about 12 exist in captivity, and a further expedition might be possible in one of the few areas where any remain in the wild.
ESTIMATION OF THE LARGE MAMMAL DENSITIES, BIOMASS AND ENERGY EXCHANGE IN THE TARANGIRE GAME RESERVE AND THE MASAI STEPPE IN TANGANYIKA
Authors: Lamprey H. F.
Published: April 2008

Summary

An account is given of the transect system of game counting used in this study, including the use of a visibility profile to determine the absolute area covered. Monthly density figures derived from the transect counts over four years are given for each of the common species separately and for the large mammal population as a whole.

Direct aerial counting and total counting on the ground were employed to provide checks on the transect results and the former method was also used to obtain an overall population estimate of the Tarangire Game Reserve.

The application of statistical analysis to the numerical data obtained is discussed and, because of the time‐serial correlation of the monthly values, a non‐parametric method is employed to confirm the significance of as many as possible of the density fluctuations indicated.

Within the Tarangire Reserve, the annual density of large mammals varied between c. 60 animals per square mile in the rains and c. 250 animals per square mile during the dry season concentration. Aerial and ground survey and counting of the dispersed animals in the Masai Steppe provided data on the extent and the routes of the dispersal of animals after they leave the Reserve in the rains, and indicate a dispersal density of 2.5 animals per square mile (as compared with 80–140 animals per square mile in the similar country of the Serengeti Plains). The lowness of this density is attributed to human activity over the last 50 years, particularly to the removal of dry season water supplies.

The seasonal fluctuations in numbers in the Tarangire Reserve, due to the movement of some species, are discussed and the ungulates are classified as residents and immigrants. The residents are further divided into those which have partial dispersal in the rains and those which do not. Impala numbers fluctuate seasonally but with a phasing which is the opposite of that of the immigrant species. A further element in the population consists of passage migrants which occur irregularly in the Tarangire Reserve as they move from one part of the dispersal area to another in the rains.

Estimates of the biomass and of the metabolic energy expenditure rate in the transect‐area population indicate that the total varies between 16,000 Calories per hour per square mile (16,000 lbs weight: 60 animals per square mile) in the rains, and 170,000 Calories per hour per square mile (207,000 lbs weight: 250 animals per square mile) in the dry season. The results confirm the very high carrying capacity of African Acacia savanna game range.
THE FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF BOCK HYRACES (genera PROCAVIA and HETEROHYRAX) IN KENYA
Authors: Sale J. B.
Published: April 2008

1. The paper is based on field observations and studies of a captive colony.

2. A classified list of food plants is discussed under the headings of lowland habitat, drought conditions and alpine habitat. Rock hyraces are shown to have a very wide food selectivity. Water requirements and some unusual foods are mentioned briefly.

3. Feeding behaviour is shown to be of two types described as “group” and “casual” feeding. The pattern of group feeding is described and its diurnal occurrence discussed. Casual feeding is briefly considered.

4. Evolutionary changes in hyrax feeding habits have been in the direction of decreasing selectivity of food material. The relationship of hyraces to the ungulate stock is supported by a number of similarities between the feeding behaviour of modern hyraces and ungulates.
AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY ON THE ECOLOGY OF HYRAX (DENDROHYRAX BRUCEI AND PROCAVIA JOHNSTONI) IN THE SERENGETI NATIONAL PARK
Authors: Turner M. I. M. , Watson R. M.
Published: April 2008

1. Dendrofoyrax brucei and Procavia johnstoni populations have been studied in kopjes surrounding the senior author's house.

2. The two species have been described and a short historical review of the Hyracoidea is given. Some notes are made concerning “Hyraceum”.

3. The kopjes under study are described, being typical of granite outcrops in the Serengeti region.

4. The adaptations of both species of hyrax for the kopje habitat are described. Observations are made on the diurnal activity patterns in relation to climatic conditions.

5. A list of all plants available to the animals is presented, and those eaten by either species are indicated. Comment is made on the lack of overlap in the diets of the two species, and this is suggested as being partly due to lack of pressure on food resources.

6. A discussion on the possible evolution of the kopje‐dwelling habit is held, which concludes that reconvergence may have taken place as a result of forest giving way to woodland and plains.
A COUNT OF THE LARGE MAMMALS OF THE LAKE MANYARA NATIONAL PARK: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Authors: Watson R. M. , Turner M. I. M.
Published: April 2008

1. The method of counting the large mammals in Lake Manyara National Park is described.

2. The results of the count are listed, and the biomass estimated.

3. It is suggested that the present population exceeds the carryingcapacity because elephant and buffalo are being made to enter and stay in the Park by increasing cultivation round the boundaries.

4. The rise in lake level has aggravated the position by cutting off another route of entry an d exit.

5. The extinction of the plains game population is likewise attributed to the new lake level and increased cultivation.
OESTROUS BEHAVIOUR, OVULATION AND THE FORMATION OF THE CORPUS LUTEUM IN THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT,
Authors: Short R. V.
Published: April 2008

A female elephant was observed throughout most of oestrus, and was then shot. The cow was mated by many different bulls during the course of oestrus. Initially, there seemed to be little competition between bulls for the cow, but as oestrus wore on, fighting broke out amongst the bulls and one eventually appeared to establish mastery, driving the other bulls away. It was interesting that this master bull showed no discharge from his temporal glands.
MATING AND COURTSHIP OF THE BLACK RHINOCEROS
Authors: Goddard John
Published: April 2008

During a study of the rhinoceros population at Ngorongoro Crater and Olduvai Gorge, mating or courtship behaviour was observed on six occasions. Precopulatory, copulatory and post‐copulatory behaviour is described and illustrated. Mating takes place at any time of the year and there is little doubt that the species is polygamous and polyandrous. The impermanence of the mating bond, and the pugnacity of the male rhinoceros when a female is in oestrus, is shown with the aid of a documented description.
THE STATUS OF THE DUGONG (DUGONG DUGON MOLLER); KENYA, 1961
Authors: Jarman P. J.
Published: April 2008

The scarcity of dugong (Dugong dugon Miiller) throughout their former range and lack of knowledge of the species' ecology justifies this record of the opinions of the fishermen in the Lamu district of Kenya, where the species is still plentiful.

The area and the programme of questioning are described. The social life, reproduction, movements and predators of the dugong are recorded as reported by the fishermen. The present distribution is contrasted with the past. My observations on the food plants and their distribution are given, as well as the fishermen's estimation of the part each plays in the dugong's diet.

The need for calm water over feeding grounds, afforded by depth of water or shelter from winds, seems to be a controlling factor in the distribution of dugong. Man appears to be the main predator.
THE GIRAFFE OF NAIROBI NATIONAL PARK: HOME RANGE, SEX RATIOS, THE HERD, AND FOOD
Authors: Foster J. B.
Published: April 2008

The giraffe of Nairobi National Park, Kenya have been studied for one year. Each animal seen has been photographed from the left side and the pattern on the neck used to recognize each individual. While the pattern may become darker with age, it does not significantly change in detail even over many years. At present 65 adult male, 72 adult female and 30 immature giraffe can be recognized. Movements of individuals are described as well as associations with other individuals. The 3ex ratio of the giraffe is discussed in relation to that found in the plains ungulates. The population of giraffe in the Park is considered to be particularly high and the relation of giraffe to the vegetation is discussed briefly.
AGEING THE UGANDA DEFASSA WATERBUCK KOBUS DEFASSA UGANDAE NEUMANN
Authors: Spinage C. A.
Published: April 2008

Chronological ages have been assigned to the defassa waterbuck of western Uganda using four complementary techniques. These are the “jaw board” method in which collected skulls are sorted into arbitrary groups based upon tooth eruption and attrition; tooth impressions taken from immobilised animals at yearly intervals; counting of cementum lines in sectioned incisor teeth, and growth of horns in young males. Using these methods an animal could be aged to within plus or minus six months.
LIVEWEIGHTS AND BODY MEASUREMENTS OF SERENGETI GAME ANIMALS
Authors: Sachs R.
Published: April 2008

More than 300 game animals shot in the Grumeti Controlled Area, Tanzania during research into game utilisation were weighed and measured. The results are presented and compared with other available data. Considerable variation is apparent between animals of the same species from different areas.

The techniques of linear measurement are fully described in an attempt to standardise measurements for comparative purposes.
THE PATHOLOGY OF SOME DISEASES FOUND IN WILD ANIMALS IN EAST AFRICA
Authors: Murray Max
Published: April 2008

Fifty‐four post‐mortem examinations were carried out on wild animals. A wide range of disease conditions was found and a number of these are discussed in detail. Two conditions of particular importance were parasitic bronchitis and muscular dystrophy; these were found in approximately one third of the antelopes examined.
EYE LENS WEIGHT AND AGE IN AFRICAN ELEPHANTS
Authors: Laws R. M.
Published: April 2008

Eye lens dry‐weights have been determined for 543 African elephants from three populations in East Africa. When plotted against estimated ages based on tooth replacement and wear criteria they indicate growth curves with rapid initial growth in lens weight, succeeded by a phase of rectilinear growth which apparently persists throughout life.

Parameters for the regressions of lens dry weight on age have been calculated by sex and locality. Confidence limits are fitted and no significant difference in the growth rates can be demonstrated, except for a sex difference in the values for the α intercept.

Variability at age is slightly greater in males than females, but is little greater than i3 indicated by studies on other species using known‐age animals. This is taken to confirm the accuracy of the age criteria adopted and leads to conclusions on their precision.

It is suggested that this method might provide an objective check on the accuracy and precision of age estimates in other species.
THE ECOLOGY OF THE NILE CROCODILE (CROCODYLUS NILOTICUS LAURENTI) ON CENTRAL ISLAND, LAKE RUDOLF
Authors: Modha M. L.
Published: April 2008

1. Lake Rudolf, nothern Kenya, has one of the largest undisturbed populations of the Nile Crocodile. In 1965 the Kenya Game Department initiated the Lake Rudolf Crocodile Research Project. Central Island, where the crocodiles live under undisturbed conditions, was chosen for studying breeding behaviour and ecology of the reptile. Eight months were spent on the island.

2. On the island most of the crocodile population was confined to a crater lake, Lake C, which supported up to 500 animate at the height of the 1965‐66 breeding season.

3. The 1200 m shoreline of Lake C was shared out between about a dozen large males each guarding his territory by patrolling up and down the shore. The territorial shore lengths ranged from 60 to 230 m. The territories extended about 50 m into the water.

4. The crocodiles were first seen courting on 10.10.65 in Lake C. The territorial males exhibited a “courtship splash display”. Copulation ranged from 30 to 100 seconds; eleven copulations averaged 58 seconds.

5. The factors important in site selection for nesting are shade, suitable soil, proximity to water and the degree of slope of the shore. Because the shores of a second crater lake, Lake A, satisfied these conditions they had the largest number of nests. The fully exposed sites on Lake C, and the Lake Rudolf shores, had very few nests.

6. The females dig the nests with their forelimbs, using them in turn. The hind limbs and the belly are used to push away the soil collecting at the mouth of the burrow. The female guards the nest constantly throughout the incubation period of three months against monitor luzards. Laying began in the third week of November, 1965 reaching its peak during the second week of December. The crocodile egg is oblong, measuring 55.5 to 89.0 mm in length and 43.0 to 54.0 mm in width. Mean weights of the eggs from 15 clutches ranged from 83.7 to 126.6 g. Clutch sizes on Central Island varied from 14 to 46 eggs, giving a mean of 33 eggs per clutch.

When the young are about to hatch, the mother releases them by digging up the nest. The young when they hatch are about 31.0 cm long and weigh about 76.8 g. They are guarded by the mother for at least six weeks. Infant mortality is probably very considerable.
THE USE OF M.99 FOR THE IMMOBILISATION OF THE DEFASSA WATERBUCK, (KOBUS DEFASSA PENRICEI)
Authors: Hanks J.
Published: April 2008

Waterbuck were darted with the new “Hypodart” fired from the crossbow, and with the “Cap‐Chur” gun.

Eleven waterbuck were successfully immobilised with M.99 alone. The remaining 37 received M.99 in conjunction with an ataractic, acetylpromazine maleate. Hyoscine hydrobromide, a parasympatholytic drug, never formed part of the immobilising dose and was given to only five of the immobilised animals. Not only is this drug unnecessary; its use is a positive disadvantage and was responsible for the death of one waterbuck. Three other waterbuck died, two of these probably from heat stroke, a consequence of using acepromzine on a hot day. The remaining animal damaged a leg when trying to get up and was killed by lion five days later.

This paper gives justification for combining M.99 and acepromazine in the approximate ratio of 1:1 for the immobilisation of this species, and suggests that the losses experienced by other workers through torticollis may well have been the result of the acepromazine.
ESTMATING LTVE WEIGHTS OF EIJEPHANTS FROM HIND LEG WEIGHTS
Authors: Laws R. M. , Parker I. S. C. , Archer A. L.
Published: April 2008

A correlation between dissected hind leg weight and Uve weight is demon‐strated for 38 African elephants. Cal‐culated regressions are presented for adult males and for females and immature males. Considered as a per‐centage of Uve weight, hind leg weight varIes between 5.3 and 6.3% according to live weight, and can be used to predict live weight accurately.
INVASION OF THE SERENGETI NATIONAL PARK BY ELEPHANTS
Authors: Lamprey H. F. , Glover P. E. , Turner M. I. M. , Bell R. H. V.
Published: April 2008

1. Elephants were first recorded in the Serengeti in 1955 and were probably absent f or at least the previeras 40 years.

2. Elephant numbers have inereased, mainly through immigration, to their present level of approximately 2,000 and have remained at this level for the last three years.

3. Vegetation changes caused by elephants in the Serengeti include the destruction of the larger trees at the rate of at least six per cent, per year.

4. Recovery of the woodfends from the effeets of elephants is retarded by the inhibiting effeets of bush fires on the regeneration of young trees.

5. The policy and management implications of the elephant invasion are discussed.
HORNS AND OTHER BONY STRUCTURES OF THE SKULL OF THE GIRAFFE, AND THEIR FUNCTIONAL SIGNIFICANCE
Authors: Spiiiage C. A.
Published: April 2008

The gross morphology of the giraffe skull and its superficial anatomy is described. The parietal, median, occipital, orbital, azygous horns and other exostoses are described. The giraffe's peculiar mode of intra‐specific fighting is explained and the features of the giraffe's skull are related to this. It is concluded that the skull of the male giraffe is highly specialised for its particular mode of fighting. The male differs in this respect from the female whose skull is not so developed and who fights with her forefeet.
A COMPARISON OF THE REPRODUCTIVE TRACTS OF CROCUTA CROCUTA, HYAENA HYAENA AND PROTELES CRISTATUS
Authors: Wells Milton E.
Published: April 2008

The reproductive tracts of three species of Ethiopian hyaenids are discussed. These species are Crocuta crocuta, Hyaena hyaena and Proteles cristatus, this being the first detailed description of the two latter species. The greatest anatomical variations are found between the females of Crocuta crocuta and Hyaena hyaena, while striking similarities are present among the males of Crocuta crocuta, Hyaena hyaena, and Proteles cristatus.
pH AND SOIL MOISTURE IN THE SUBSTRATE OF GIANT SENECIOS AND LOBELIAS ON MT. KENYA
Authors: Allt G.
Published: April 2008

Soil moisture and soil pH determinations were made in the Afroalpine belt of Mt. Kenya between 3,780 m and 4,480 m, and the pH of free water samples was also found.

A range of pH tolerance is suggested for some giant species of Lobelia and Senecio, and comparisons are made with other published data.
THE PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF IMPLEMENTING A CONTROLLED BURNING SCHEME IN THE KIDEPO VALLEY NATIONAL PARK
Authors: Ross I. C. , Harrington G. N.
Published: April 2008

A controlled burning scheme, in conjunction with experimental plots, was necessary in order to investigate the effects of fire on tree regeneration in an area which otherwise suffers frequent uncontrolled fires and where an important tree species, Acacia gerrardii, was failing to regenerate.

The proposed programme, the methods of putting in firebreaks and carrying out burns, and the first year's results, are described. Although during this first year of operation the scheme was only partially successful in excluding uncontrolled fires, valuable experience was gained regarding various aspects and problems associated with the operation of such a scheme.
THE ROLE OF FIRE AND OTHER INFLUENCES ON THE SAVANNAH HABITAT, WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Authors: Glover P. E.
Published: April 2008

The derivation and definitions of the word “savannah” are discussed.

The roles of fire, grazing and shifting cultivation as limiting factors in the savannah habitat are briefly considered. The savannah regions of Africa are made up of communities of plants and animals which have been “deflected” from their normal course of ecological succession by the influences of cultivation, fire, grazing and browsing.

Fire‐sensitive plants are those which have not developed a resistance to burning. Many plants, for example “geophytes”, have become fire‐tolerant.

The ability of woody plants to survive underground and regenerate quickly in savannah regions when given respite from grass fires for a few years is one of the reasons why regrowth is so difficult to control in overgrazed country, tsetse control clearings and areas protected from fire.

The savannah regions can be regarded as areas of natural or semi‐natural vegetation which provide a habitat for wild and/or domestic ungulates. Therefore, it is from the rangeland aspect that the possibilities for further research in the savannah habitat should be considered.

To succeed in future research projects, the disciplined co‐operation of the local people is essential.

A few suggestions for some of the more obvious lines of research are:

1. Prolonged investigations on the effects of fire, grazing and browsing on all types of savannah country.

2. More intensive investigations on root systems and soil moisture relationships of the plants concerned are necessary.

3. Studies of the nutritive value of different plants.

4. Closer investigation into the cultivation of land for subsistence agriculture when it might be put to better use as rangeland is necessary.

5. The possibilities of using all suitable parts of the savannah regions to the best advantage must be investigated in detail.

6. The conservation and use of wild life resources must be studied as an integral part of savannah research.
FOOD HABITS OF WILDEBEEST, ZEBRA, HARTEBEEST AND CATTLE IN KENYA MASAILAND
Authors: Casebeer R. L. , Koss G. G.
Published: April 2008

A study was conducted of grass selectivity shown by four herbivores on open range lands of Kenya Masailand. At four seasons over one year, wildebeest, zebra and kongoni (Coke's hartebeest) were taken. Stomach materials and faeces were sampled from each animal. Faecal samples were collected from cattle that had been grazing in the same area. Simultaneously, vegetation availability assessments were made.

A comparison of techniques for determining the food selectivity indicates that faecal and stomach‐content analyses provide similar results when the diets are almost entirely grass.

The selectivity exhibited by the four herbivores was determined by faecal analyses. Three grass species were preponderant in all diets as well as in the available menu. In comparing the selectivity shown for the three dominant grasses there is a high degree of similarity even though statistical differences are demonstrated. All animals favoured Themeda triandra over Pennisetum mezianum and Digitaria macroblephara. Kongoni displayed the highest degree of selectivity and cattle and zebra had the greatest similarity in diets. Each animal species had a wide spectrum of grasses in their diets: these contained a greater number of species during the drier seasons than during the rainy seasons.

Wild animals had a greater diet variation between seasons than did cattle, the diet of the latter remaining much more consistent than the combination of available grasses.
THE AGEING OF IMPALA FROM A POPULATION IN THE KENYA RIFT VALLEY
Authors: Roettcher D. , Hofmann R. R.
Published: April 2008

Material from 100 impala from a mainly grazing population in the Kenya Rift Valley was investigated to establish age criteria applicable in both the field and the laboratory. Methods relate to tooth eruption, replacement and attrition; horn development; skull and long bone growth and ossification.

Determinations are related to the main calving seasons, which occur with two peaks at the time of the long and short rains. All results are approximations which have an accuracy of ±2 months up to physical maturity at an age of c. 2 y. Age determination in animals from 3–8 y appears to yield reliable results with an accuracy of ±6 months at the lower end of the scale, and ± 1 y or even 2 y in older animals.
CROCODILE DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS IN THE MAJOR WATERS OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL UGANDA IN 1969
Authors: Parker I. S. C.
Published: April 2008

This report presents the results of a survey into the current status of the Nile crocodile in the major waters of central and western Uganda, made on behalf of the Uganda Fisheries Department and the Trustees of the Uganda National Parks.

The waters covered by the survey are described briefy

Crocodile numbers and distribution were assessed by diurnal aerial counting and nocturnal ground counts as described by Graham (1968). The major sources of error inherent in these techniques are recognised and discussed. Efforts to reduce bias in results included the use of a light helicopter to obtain data for comparison with those obtained from a conventional aircraft. Comparative costs are also presented.

Inaccessible areas of dense papyrus were searched at night from a helicopter equipped with a spotlight.

Information was obtained from fishermen in Lake Albert on the status of crocodile to corroborate other results.

The analysed results of aerial and ground counts give estimates of less than 100 crocodile outside the Murchison Falls National Park, indicating the species' reduction to the status of an ‘occasional’ or ‘rare’ animal. Within the National Park crocodile occur in two populations separated by the Murchison Falls. Below the Falls it is estimated that there are 1064 crocodile, and above 433.

By use of aerial photography 369 crocodile from the larger of the National Park's populations were measured for length. From Graham's (1968) age/length data, age classes are ascribed to those measured. This, together with data from the counts, permitted the computation of a survivorship curve for the population. This is presented with two possible alternatives. From these curves it does not appear that the population is declining through lack of recruitment.

From the aerial photographs river banks are classified into four crude categories. By relating crocodile in the photographs to the nearest bank category, it is shown that they have a marked preference for sandy banks over swampy shores, hard flat earth or cliffs. It is also shown that smaller crocodile make more use of swampy areas than larger specimens.

Biomass densities for both crocodile populations in the National Park are computed. The larger shows a biomass of 347 kg/km of shoreline which compares with 350.2 kg/km for Lake Rudolf (Graham's (1968) data modified), the smaller 75.3 kg/km.

The decline of crocodile in Uganda is attributed to expanding human populations and over‐exploitation for skins.

Recommendations for the future conservation and management of crocodile are presented. These are based on reducing immature mortality rates by hatching eggs and artificially rearing small crocodiles for a period of 6 months after hatching. Some of these should be used to augment recruitment in the National Park populations, and the surplus placed in other waters until of an exploitable size.
THE DIET OF DUCK AND COOT ON LAKE NAIVASHA
Authors: Watson R. M.
Published: April 2008

The diet of coot and duck on Lake Naivasha has been investigated to provide information on the duck/coot interaction.

Some 79 duck and coot were shot in a limited area over a period of 24 h, and their stomach contents preserved in 4% formalin.

The analysis of stomach contents was performed in two stages: large particles being completely identified and counted, small particles being sampled.

The results of the analyses are considered to be most usefully expressed as proportions of food component by number of particles.

Identification of components has been made by matching epidermal characters with collected plants, by matching shape and structures of seeds with collected seeds, and by recognition of such materials as arthropod exoskeletal fragments and molluscan shell. Some components have not been specifically identified.

A discussion has been presented on the problem of relating the results of stomach‐content analysis to ecologically significant differences in feeding. The discussion hinges on four questions:

Is the result of a stomach‐content analysis an accurate and appropriate indication of the stomach‐contents of a bird when shot, and, if so, do the results presented indicate differences between stomach contents?

What is the relationship between stomach‐contents at the time of shooting and food ingested over the immediately preceding period, and do differences between stomach contents indicate differences in food intake?

How far do differences in diet so deduced apply to the whole population of birds concerned in the study?

Are the differences in diet relatable to availability of food, and can any valid inferences be made concerning the birds' interaction?

It is concluded that at the time of the shooting, over the limited area examined, there was little overlap in diet for important components, and therefore probably little competition for food among the duck species and coot.

Some general observations have been made on the feeding biology of duck and coot, and it is pointed out that the feeding apparatus of coot differs from that of all duck species in having shearing edges. This difference is related to the dietary differences in a predictable manner.
STUDIES ON THE FOOD HABITS OF LESSER KUDU IN TSAVO NATIONAL PARK, KENYA
Authors: LEUTHOLD WALTER
Published: April 2008

Summary

As part of a broader ecological investigation, in the framework of the Tsavo Research Project, food habits of lesser kudu have been studied during 2 y in Tsavo National Park (East).

Free‐ranging lesser kudu were observed, from a Land Rover, while feeding in different habitats and at different times of the year. Each time one animal fed on one individual plant was noted as one “food record”; some 2000 records are analysed in this paper.

Leaves of trees and shrubs constitute the main bulk of the diet of lesser kudu. Creepers and vines, herbs, grasses, fruits and tubers of some root succulents contribute variable but relatively small proportions of the food.

Pronounced local and seasonal variations in the composition of the diet were found. Local variations are mainly a result of differences in the vegetation of the different habitats. Seasonal variations are caused by changes in the vegetation's condition, depending on rainfall. Deciduous trees and bushes, herbs, climbers and grasses account for much smaller proportions of the diet during the dry season, when evergreen species are crucial for survival.

Lesser kudu feed on a wide variety of plants, utilizing all layers of the vegetation that they can reach, at least to some extent. A total of 105 plant species have so far been recorded as being eaten by lesser kudu.

With regard to food only, the vegetation changes in Tsavo National Park do not appear to have had any adverse effects on the population of lesser kudu. However, the amount of suitably structured habitat has been substantially reduced in recent years. If present trends continue, it may decrease further, to the point of jeopardizing the future of lesser kudu in large parts of Tsavo National Park.
THE COLLECTION OF FOUND IVORY IN MURCHISON FALLS NATIONAL PARK, UGANDA
Authors: GRAHAM A. D. , LAWS R. M.
Published: April 2008

Summary

The paper concerns the circumstances surrounding the collection of ivory from dead elephants, with particular reference to Murchison Falls National Park.

The characteristics of the interval between death and complete disintegration of an elephant are described. These, combined with observations of known age skeletons, comprised the criteria used in classifying skeletons found from the air into three relative age classes.

Average annual mortality is estimated for the population north of the Nile (MFPN) at 147 animals yielding 1945 kg of ivory, and for that south of the Nile (MFPS) at 474 animals yielding 7497 kg ivory. Park‐found ivory records are analyzed for the 11 y 1959–69. The expected age distribution of deaths is compared with the observed. For MFPN a bias in favour of large (male) tusks is present, explicable by the concentration of ranger search effort in areas of known high male density. For MFPS a bias towards small tusks is thought to be caused by elephants wounded outside the park dying inside it.

The National Park recovers an average of 27.6 % of its available ivory per annum, with large annual fluctuations probably correlated with the incidence of wounding outside the park. High losses to poachers are evident.

An aerial search for ivory showed a tendency for elephants to die near watercourses. A finding rate of one carcass every 4.3 km of watercourse was obtained. As only 5 % of carcasses still had tusks the aerial searching was prematurely terminated. The results indicated a finding efficiency of 26.4% of the available current year carcasses. Comparative costing suggests that ground searching would be a more efficient method of finding ivory than aerial searching. The high value of the available ivory in Murchison and other areas justifies intensive searching. The low collection rates prevailing in East Africa are largely attributable to the absence of appropriate search efforts.
SOME ASPECTS OF BIG‐GAME UTILIZATION OF MINERAL LICKS IN YANKARI GAME RESERVE, NIGERIA
Authors: HENSHAW JOHN , AYENI JULIUS
Published: April 2008

Summary

At least ten major mineral licks occur along the Gaji River which bisects the Yankari Game Reserve. The licks show varying degrees of utilization and have craters of up to 1200m3 in volume. Three hundred and eighty five hours of observation were kept at one of the licks. Its use by different species was highly variable. Some species occurring in the reserve made no visits to the lick, whereas Western hartebeest (51 groups), waterbuck (53 groups) and warthog (276 groups) made frequent visits. Lick use was much greater in the daytime than at night, with the peak occurring around 1400 h. A limited number of soil samples (29) were analysed but no single element can be considered as the factor attracting wildlife. However, the lick areas were richer in most minerals than were samples of soil from drier habitat in the open woodland. It is possible that significantly increased lick use might in the future indicate degrading environmental conditions in the drier parts of the reserve. If hides are constructed, the commonly utilized licks will provide excellent opportunities for behaviour observatioii and photography by tourists.
NOTES ON AGEING CRITERIA AND REPRODUCTION OF THOMSON'S GAZELLE
Authors: ROBINETTE W. L. , ARCHER A. L.
Published: April 2008

Summary

Data collected from 265 cropped Thomson's gazelle in northern Tanzania have permitted development of ageing criteria based on weights, horn growth and dentition.

Most deciduous teeth are replaced between 12 and 15 months of age and the third molar becomes fully functional at nearly 2 y. Asymptotic horn length of about 32 cm is reached by males at 20–24 months. Dressed carcass weights were about 60 per cent of live weights, being slightly higher in males and higher in January than February. Females are capable of breeding before 1 y. Only single foetuses were found and these only in the right uterine horn. There was evidence of lambing every month but with May and November peaks.
Defaecation by African elephants (Loxodonta africana africana (Blumenbach))
Authors: COE MALCOLM
Published: April 2008

A study of defaecation in the African elephant was carried out at the Voi headquarters of the Tsavo (East) National Park. Four orphaned animals aged between 1 and 10 years were observed for 4 days and 3 nights. During the day the time and weight of each individual's defaecation was recorded while at night only the time of defaecation. Details of all the records are presented.

Analysis has shown that the amount of dung produced with each defaecation bears a similar characteristic to that of the growth curve of these animals. The rate of defaecation does not vary significantly with age.

Records of defaecation arranged by time demonstrate an apparent periodicity with a low peak mid‐morning and a high peak mid‐afternoon.

The potential use of this information in feeding and population studies is discussed.
The food habits of wild ungulates in Uganda by analyses of stomach contents
Authors: FIELD C. R.
Published: April 2008

Food eaten by six species of ungulates was studied by analysing stomach contents, using the method developed for faecal analyses.

Frequency analyses showed that some herbivore species tend to be selective in their feeding. This suggested that availability and growth form of plants may be important in this respect. The observations agreed with those of other workers, which shows that feeding habits are consistent over large areas.

In general, herbivores were classified in three groups with regard to preferences; namely pigs, certain antelope, and buffalo and waterbuck.

Comparison of the proportions of epidermal fragments of particular grass species present in stomachs in wet and dry seasons showed that significant seasonal differences exist in the diet of most herbivores. Annuals and most members of the Andropogoneae were present in stomachs in larger proportions during the rains for reasons of availability and palatability. Chloris gayana and Sporobolus pyramidalis were usually present in greater proportions in dry seasons.

Differences in the proportions of epidermal fragments of particular plant species present within wet or dry seasons were usually insignificant. A few herbivores, however, showed significant differences within seasons. This indicates that they are sensitive to small changes in plants and that they may have a feeding cycle involving a gradual and regular alternation of plant species.

A comparison of the proportions of fragments of the same plant species in different herbivores showed that animal species usually avoided competition by their specialized food habits. There was greater separation in the longer dry season, but competition may have occurred when food supplies were reduced by large herbivores such as buffalo and hippopotamus.
Age estimation of zebra
Authors: SPINAGE C. A.
Published: April 2008

A method of zebra age determination, using the decreasing height of Ml in a wear model, was compared with the method of visual assessment of incisor changes as used by Klingel & Klingel (1966). Good agreement between the methods was found.
Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephants in Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda
Authors: WEIR J. S.
Published: April 2008

The availability of water soluble calcium, sodium and potassium in the Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda was established. In certain local situations elephants have been attracted to particular soils or rocks and have dug them up and ingested them. These sites are characterized by high localized concentrations of water soluble sodium, sometimes associated with calcium. Results are compared with those from other regions of Africa, and it is concluded that under these equatorial climatic conditions elephants are attracted to water soluble sodium. Their requirements may, however, be satisfied to a large extent by sodium in drinking water or in food.
Observations on the blood of a tropical bat, Otomops martiensseni
Authors: KINOTI G. K.
Published: April 2008

Observations are reported on the composition of the blood of a tropical, cave‐dwelling bat, Otomops martiensseni. The most remarkable feature of the blood was the very high numbers of erythrocytes, with mean values of 14–42 times 106 and 12–46 times 106 cells per mm3 of blood, for female and male bats respectively. The red cells were spherical, biconcave discs with a mean diameter of 5‐3 um, a mean thickness of 1–8 urn and a mean volume of 40‐7 μm3. High haemoglobin values were obtained, with means of 20–70 and 18‐15 g per 100 ml of blood, for female and male bats respectively. The leucocyte count varied from 1360 to 5200 cells per mm3 of blood and was rather lower than in other mammals.

Electrophoresis of serum gave six protein fractions which were identified as albumin and α1α2, β1β2 and γ globulins.
Lion population regulation
Authors: BERTRAM BRIAN C. R.
Published: April 2008

Lion population size is investigated by examining the effects of food supply and of aspects of social behaviour, on the factors which determine population size in a given area: the sizes of the lion prides there, and the sizes of the territories they occupy. Data come mainly from 7 years of records of two lion prides in the Serengeti.

There is little evidence, but it is probable that territory size alters little. Pride size is best measured in terms of the number of adult females; it does not change in response to short‐term changes in food availability, and appears to be regulated.

Factors causing change in pride size are examined in the same way. Reproduction is profoundly influenced by behavioural factors, and to some extent by food; cub mortality is strongly influenced by both. However, these appear to be relatively unimportant in population regulation since in practice whatever the levels of these factors, more than enough female cubs survive to replace adult losses, and only some are recruited, the rest being expelled. This recruitment is influenced possibly by food and certainly by behaviour, and appears to be density dependent.
Movements and patterns of habitat utilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park, Kenya
Authors: LEUTHOLD WALTER , SALE JOHN B.
Published: April 2008

Following the 1970‐71 drought, which resulted in heavy elephant mortality, a long‐term study was initiated in Tsavo National Park to determine movements and home ranges of individual elephants and their relations to overall distribution patterns and environmental factors such as rainfall. The preliminary results presented show the post‐drought situation but it is recognized that they may not represent normality. Methods used were radio‐tracking and observations of visually identifiable individuals. Two aerial counts provided data on overall distribution.

Two bulls and two cows were radio‐tagged in Tsavo West and two bulls and four cows in Tsavo East, providing home range and movement data. Home ranges in Tsavo West (mean = 350 km2) were considerably smaller than in Tsavo East (mean = 1580 km2).

The differences between Tsavo West and Tsavo East are probably related to habitat quality, Tsavo East receiving less rainfall than Tsavo West. This view is supported by the fact that the 1970‐71 mortality was largely confined to Tsavo East.

The movements of individuals were useful in interpreting relatively major shifts in elephant distribution that occurred within a 4‐month period.

The following preliminary conclusions emerge from the results obtained so far:

(1) Elephants in the Tsavo area, particularly Tsavo East, were more mobile during the study period than was assumed from earlier studies, undertaking long‐distance movements in fairly direct response to localized rainfall.

(2) A subdivision of the overall population into locally distinct units may exist during the dry season but did not obtain after significant rainfall, when the elephants ranged over wide areas and came into contact with animals from other dry‐season units.

(3) Circumstantial evidence suggests that food is the primary proximal factor governing movements and distribution of elephants in the area. Food availability, in turn, is determined largely by the spatial and temporal pattern of rainfall.
The Seronera bull problem: The elephants
Authors: CROZE HARVEY
Published: April 2008

(1) The activities of bull elephants in the vicinity of the Serengeti National Park headquarters at Seronera was monitored from 1968 to 1971.

(2) Elephant bulls congregate in small groups of ever–changing composition; a dominance heirarchy cuts across group integrity.

(3) Occupancy of the drainage area of the Seronera river is predictable by rainfall; changes in occupancy level are a question of duration rather than amplitude.

(4) The feeding behaviour of the bulls is described. It is argued that large Acacia trees are uprooted for nutritional rather than social reasons. The effects of the bulls on the Seronera woodlands will be analysed in Part II (Croze, 1974).
Utilization of the grazing resources by buffaloes in the Arusha National Park, Tanzania
Authors: VESEY‐FITZGERALD D. F.
Published: April 2008

The purpose of the survey was to develop a meaningful method for assessing the utilization of the existing edaphic and serai grasslands in the park. Particular attention was given to the effect of grazing on the growth of different species of grasses, the course of plant succession and the fire hazard, in relation to the productivity and diversity of the environment. The distribution and composition of the different types of grassland are described and their suitability as pasture at different seasons is discussed.

Utilization was assessed by recording the extent of short grass that is maintained by grazing in relation to the unused mature grass at different seasons of the year. Near optimum utilization of the edaphic (high water‐table) grasslands in the bottom lands takes place over a prolonged period. Utilization of the derived grasslands on the hills and uplands is increasing as the buffalo herds benefit by protection in the park. It is estimated that the available pastures can still accommodate an increased population of buffaloes and other grazing animals. Furthermore, advantages to the environment will accrue as a result of the reduced fire hazard.

Buffaloes are the dominant grazing animals throughout and so mainly their impact on the vegetation is considered. The distribution and density of the buffalo population is recorded, and it is concluded that the existing number is well within the carrying capacity of the park. It is suggested that under‐grazing could be serious because of the increased fire risk that would result. In order to improve the grazing in the secondary grasslands preliminary trials for managing fire by patch burning have been successfully initiated.
The daily activity of the elephant in the Rwenzori National Park, Uganda
Authors: WYATT J. R. , ELTRINGHAM S. K.
Published: April 2008

Eighteen elephants were followed individually in the Rwenzori National Park, Uganda for varying periods and their activity noted at 4‐min intervals. Continuous data extending over 24 h or more were collected from seven of these elephants. About 75% of the total time was spent in feeding and about 75% of the feeding activity consisted of grazing or feeding at ground level. There were three feeding peaks, one in the morning, another in the afternoon and the third around midnight. The feeding rate tended to increase during the day. The proportion of the total feeding time spent in browsing increased in the dry season. Walking took place mainly at dusk. The principal sleeping period occurred during the small hours of the morning with a shorter rest period in the early afternoon. The elephants defaecated about eleven times in the 24 h and drank an average of 1–3 times. The rate of progress through the bush averaged 0–5 km/h. Comparisons are made with published data concerning the activity patterns of waterbuck and warthog in the Rwenzori Park and of elephants in the Tsavo National Park, Kenya.