bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Study of graphite-like materials obtained from coal-tar pitch
Authors:   Federal Research Center on Coal and Coal Chemistry, Sozinov Sergey A. , Popova Anna N. ,   Federal Research Center on Coal and Coal Chemistry, Sotnikova Larisa V. ,   Federal Research Center on Coal and Coal Chemistry, Valnukova Anastasiya S. ,   Federal Research Center on Coal and Coal Chemistry, Dudnikova Yulia N. ,   Federal Research Center on Coal and Coal Chemistry
Published: February 2021

In the research, the study of precursors of graphite-like materials obtained from medium-temperature coal tar pitch was carried out on the individual components of coal tar pitch by separating the multicomponent composition of the pitch into separate fractions. Such approach, to study the physicochemical characteristics of the individual components of coal tar pitch, contributes to both the determination of the contribution of individual pitch components to the process of its structuring during carbonization and the development of new environmentally friendly methods for the synthesis of functional materials for various applications. The β-fraction was precipitated with n-hexane from toluene extract of coal tar pitch. γ-fraction was isolated from n-hexane by solvent evaporation. α2-fraction was isolated from the residue, insoluble in toluene, by quinoline extraction. The composition and structure of the isolated individual fractions of coal tar pitch were studied by physicochemical methods of analysis. The shape and morphology were investigated by electron microscopy. To study the composition and structure, the methods of elemental analysis, infrared spectroscopy, electron-paramagnetic resonance, XRD-analysis, and thermoanalysis were used in combination with methods of derivative analysis, chromatography, and mass spectrometry. The authors of the work propose new approaches to the use of individual fractions of coal tar pitch in order to obtain new graphite-like materials on their basis.
Сrystalline structure and dielectric properties of ceramic materials based on AgNbO3
Authors:   Chelyabinsk State University, Bezborodova Polina A. , Filonenko Elena M. ,   Chelyabinsk State University, Erager Kseniya R. ,   Chelyabinsk State University, Butakov Anatoly V. ,   Chelyabinsk State University, Lupitskaya Yulia A. ,   Chelyabinsk State University
Published: February 2021

Using the data of qualitative X-ray phase analysis, it was shown that in a wide concentration range at 1223 K compounds based on silver niobate are formed in the condition of the heterovalent substitution of tungsten(VI) ions for niobium(V) ions. These compounds are isomorphic to a perovskite-type structure. Microprobe analysis data allows to determine the homogeneity of the analyzed samples and the correspondence of their experimental compositions to the theoretical ones for the formula Ag1-xNb1-xWxO3. Using the data of X-ray diffraction analysis (Rietveld method) in the Crystallography Data Analysis Software – GSAS, the crystal structure of the obtained compounds was refined. The surface morphology of samples having been obtained at 1373 K was investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It was shown that with an increase of Nb5+ to W6+ substitution degree for Ag1-xNb1-xWxO3 ceramic samples in the range of the (0.2≤x≤0.8) molar ratio, the average particle size for the studied compositions grows from 1.3 to 5.2 μm, respectively. For the obtained ceramic compounds based on silver niobate with a perovskite-like structure (tetragonal distortion), the temperature-frequency dependences of dielectric parameters in the range 300-900 K were studied. It was found that samples slowly cooled from 1373 K are characterized by low values of (ε ~ 10) and loss (tgδ ~ 0.004 at f = 1 kHz) at room temperature. The ceramics obtained are characterized by relatively high values of dielectric permittivity ε at low frequencies and/or high temperatures. The dielectric parameters of the obtained ceramics are similar to the characteristics of so-called "colossal" dielectric constant materials. The revealed features of the dielectric characteristics of quenched ceramics apparently result from Maxwell-Wagner relaxation at intercrystalline contacts.
Investigation of the effect of antibiotics on the rate of remineralization of tooth enamel
Authors:   Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education Academician I.P. Pavlov First St. Petersburg State Medical University of the Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, Grishin Vladimir V. , Grishin Vladimir V. ,   Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education Academician I.P. Pavlov First St. Petersburg State Medical University of the Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, Kanyuka Elizaveta N. ,   North-Western State Medical University named after I. I. Mechnikov, Solovey Denis V. ,   North-Western State Medical University named after I. I. Mechnikov, Ivanova Irina S. ,   North-Western State Medical University named after I. I. Mechnikov, Popov Alexey S. ,   North-Western State Medical University named after I. I. Mechnikov, Chukhno Alexander S. ,   St. Petersburg State Chemical-Pharmaceutical University, Zamyatina Anna V. ,   St. Petersburg State Chemical-Pharmaceutical University, Zhalko Mikhail E. ,   Perm National Research Polytechnic University
Published: February 2021

The safety of antibiotics is still debatable. The properties of large molecules to give insoluble compounds with metal ions leads to a decrease of absorption of active components and most often loss of biological activity. Depending on the presence of functional groups in the side chain, the formation of complexes of different strength is possible. The properties of a number of antibiotics to interact with calcium ions allow us to expect the interaction of these antibiotics with the surface of the tooth enamel along the calcium centers. The alkaline environment of the oral cavity and the excess of calcium ions in the saliva, in comparison with phosphate residues, make it possible to make available the calcium centers of the hydroxyapatite crystal. The strength of this complex will be determined by the structure and functional substituents of the antibiotic molecule and will not depend much on its charge. In this article the effect of broad-spectrum antibiotics on the remineralizing ability of saliva in relation to tooth enamel based on the experiments performed on teeth is discussed. The analysis of the degree of remineralization function of saliva was carried out by means of spectrophotometric determination of the stability of calcium complexes with individual broad-spectrum antibiotics at different multiplicity of individual components. As a result of setting up an experiment to restore tooth enamel after treatment with these solutions of antibiotics, the characteristic assessment of which is the presence of sites of remineralization and their size on the surface of the tooth enamel for certain periods of time and in comparison with the standard, it was concluded that antibiotic solutions reduce the remineralization ability of saliva to restore the outer surface of the enamel of teeth.
Political Reformer
Authors: Altmann Alexander
Published: February 2021

This chapter highlights some of Moses Mendelssohn's attempts at political reform. It also takes a look at some civil reforms conducted on behalf of the Jews in Europe at the time. Here, the chapter shows how the role that Mendelssohn played in promoting the civil rights of Jews was wholly unpremeditated. Unlike his Bible project, they were not the results of long-term planning. Even so, they did grow out of deep-seated, life-long concerns, and they by no means reflected a newly awakened interest or a shift in his attitude. On the contrary, on many previous occasions Mendelssohn had acted as intercessor when Jewish communities were threatened with special measures of a cruel kind.
The Nature of Hasidic Prayer
Authors: Jacobs Louis
Published: February 2021

This chapter considers the nature of Hasidic prayer, which is central to early Hasidic life. It reveals how the Hasidic elevation of prayer over other religious duties, even over that of study of the Torah, is not in keeping with the Jewish tradition. The Hasidim here were, in fact, innovators. The chapter goes on to argue that the rabbinic tradition the obligation to pray is rabbinic, not biblical. In addition, the Hasidic teachers were not unaware that their elevation of prayer over all other duties was a departure from what, at least, was held to be the tradition. Hence, they sought to justify their innovation by seeking to demonstrate that the tradition, when rightly understood, was really in line with their attitude.
The Hasidic Prayer Book and Prayer House
Authors: Jacobs Louis
Published: February 2021

This chapter examines the Lurianic Prayer Book, how it differs from the standard prayer book, and why the Hasidim adopted it. It shows how R. Isaac Luria, the famous Safed Kabbalist and originator of a new Kabbalistic system, placed great stress on the doctrine of kavvanot (‘intentions’). Luria adopted the Sephardi Prayer Book for the purpose of the kavvanot. But the Hasidim, who lived in an Ashkenazi milieu, were obliged to adapt the Lurianic forms to the Ashkenazi Prayer Book. Thus it came about that the Hasidic Prayer Book differed from the older Sephardi rite, from the original Lurianic rite, and from the older Ashkenazi Prayer Book. The ideal Hasidic Prayer Book, as the chapter demonstrates, would have been a careful blending of all three elements to suit the purposes of the new movement. But these three elements were never combined in a consistent way.
Preparations for Prayer
Authors: Jacobs Louis
Published: February 2021

This chapter takes a look at preparation (hakhanah, or hakhanot in plural) in prayer, which is also an important aspect of Hasidic life. The Hasidim taught that, because of the significance of prayer, it must not be engaged in without eager anticipation beforehand. Prayer had to be preceded by a period of preparation during which the mind would be cleared of unworthy thoughts and the body cleansed of impurities. In that vein, the chapter shows how the Hasidic preparations were arduous in the extreme. The thoughts of the worshipper were to be directed to God through prior contemplation, and the bowels were to be evacuated. Among the earliest Hasidim the use of tobacco was advocated to achieve both these aims. For many of the Hasidim all this was so important that the Talmudic rules regarding the special times for prayer were overlooked.
Rabbi Loew in Legend
Authors: Sherwin Byron L.
Published: February 2021

This chapter discusses the legends surrounding the “exalted” Judah Loew, called the “Maharal,” rabbi of Prague. In the synagogue of Prague, Rabbi Loew's chair still stands. Though great scholars and mystics have been rabbis in Prague, none has presumed to sit upon that chair. His presence is too keenly felt; the legends about him remain too potent. The many legends about Judah Loew are variations upon a single motif: his alleged magical abilities. The legends coalesce around two themes: (1) Judah Loew and the Emperor Rudolf II, and (2) the Maharal and the golem. The legends of Rudolf and Loew are the embellishment of history by legend, while the legends of the golem represent an attempt to root legend in historical fact. Eclipsed by the legends about him, his life and his thought remain enshrined in the tomes he composed. This book reveals the secrets of his life and delineates the content of his teachings.
The Man Behind the Legends: The Life of Judah Loew
Authors: Sherwin Byron L.
Published: February 2021

This chapter provides a biography of Judah Loew. Whether Loew spent his childhood in Posnań or in Prague cannot be determined. It is only with 1553 that there is any certainty where he was and what he was doing. According to the contemporary chronicler, David Ganz, Loew served as rabbi of Nikolsburg and Chief Rabbi of Moravia between 1553 and 1573. It was in Moravia that Loew's abilities as a community leader became manifest. Indeed, his organizational abilities and the force of his personality and scholarship made a profound and lasting impact upon Moravian Jewry. In 1573, Judah Loew left his position as Chief Rabbi of Moravia to assume residence at Prague as a private citizen. The threats of expulsion, plagues, and massacres which had characterized Jewish life in Bohemia were all in the past by 1573. Thus, Judah Loew came to Prague during the short-lived “Golden Age” of Prague Jewry. The years in Prague between 1588 and 1592 were eventful ones for Loew. In 1592, an event occurred which secured for him a singular place in Jewish legend if not in Jewish history; namely, his aforementioned audience with the quixotic Hapsburg king, Rudolf II.
Jew and Gentile: Theoretical Considerations
Authors: Sherwin Byron L.
Published: February 2021

This chapter addresses Judah Loew's views on the distinctions between Jews and Gentiles, especially Christians. For Judah Loew, each people may be considered a unique “species” of human being, a separate, distinguishable rung on the “chain of being.” In this “chain of being,” Moses is the form of Israel and Israel is the form of the world. As such, Israel's eternal existence is essential to the existence of the world and to the other peoples of the world, while the existence of other people is accidental. In order for perfection of the world—the Messianic Era—to begin, a proper relationship must obtain between Israel and the other peoples of the world. Israel's relationship with the Gentiles may be one of complementary or of contradictory opposition.
Jew and Gentile: Halakhic Concretizations
Authors: Sherwin Byron L.
Published: February 2021

This chapter studies Judah Loew's views concerning the Jewish people and its relationship to other peoples. It analyzes the application of his theoretical considerations to two concrete problems in Jewish religious law (halakhah): Jewish use of Gentile wine and religious conversion. For Rabbi Loew, Jewish use of Gentile wine is not simply a minor infraction of the law, but a distortion of fundamental metaphysical realities. Just as Jew and Gentile are mutually exclusive, so must be Jewish and Gentile wine. By using Gentile wine, the Jew thereby identifies with his contradictory opposite. All that can result from such activity is the pollution of the sacred, the violation of Israel. A second halakhic issue which concerned Judah Loew was religious conversion to Judaism. Being a traditionalist, he had to take into account the longstanding halakhic possibility of conversion, developed and sanctioned by earlier authorities. However, his position concerning the essential incompatibility of Jewish and Gentile natures on the physical, social, and metaphysical levels of existence would seem to eliminate the possibility of conversion to Judaism, both theoretically and practically.
Man and Cosmos: The Quest for Perfection
Authors: Sherwin Byron L.
Published: February 2021

This chapter discusses Judah Loew's views on perfection. In developing his notion of the centrality of man, Loew drew from the anthropocentric views of his predecessors in the history of Jewish thought; his ideas seem rooted in Jewish mystical speculation. Man's perfection is essential for the realization of the cosmos. According to Judah Loew, man both reflects and embodies the three dimensions of reality. The three aspects of man—intellect (seikhel), soul (nefesh), and body (guf)—correspond to the three worlds: celestial, intermediary, and terrestrial. Therefore, to understand Judah Loew's notion of man, one must consider the three aspects of existence and their representations in man. The goal of the human being must be the purification of his body, of his matter, in order for it to coexist with the soul (nefesh). The chapter then looks at the perfection of the body, the soul, and the intellect.
Mystical Theology and Social Reform
Authors: Sherwin Byron L.
Published: February 2021

This chapter focuses on the relationship between Judah Loew's theological constructs and his program for social reform. By intertwining his mystical theology with his social dissent, Judah Loew follows a pattern characteristic of the Western mystical tradition in general and of the Jewish mystical tradition in particular. The chapter then explores Loew's views on contemporary social issues, specifically the quality of rabbinic leadership, and the theory, practice, and content of Jewish education. It is clear that his social criticism, his mystical theology, and his personal concerns, rather than being separate and disjoined, coalesce to form a comprehensive whole. One may not separate Loew the educator from Loew the mystic. One may not disassociate Loew the social reformer from Loew the theologian. One may not disjoin the mystical theology of the Maharal of Prague, nor his social dissent, from the man whose legacy they are.
Conclusion
Authors: Sherwin Byron L.
Published: February 2021

This concluding chapter describes how previous studies of Judah Loew ignored his theology. Moreover, previous studies have attempted to portray him as he was not, i.e., as a proto-modern. Thus, a penultimate goal of this book has been to demonstrate the cohesion amongst the events which constitute Loew's biography, the mystical theology contained in his massive writings, and the social conditions which evoked his concern. It provides a first attempt at a comprehensive study of the major themes of Loew's theology of Judaism. Ultimately, Judah Loew's world view derived from Jewish religious tradition, specifically from Jewish mystical tradition. The chapter then considers how Jewish life and thought in Central and Eastern Europe have been neglected by modern Jewish scholarship. Historians of Jewish mysticism have virtually disregarded the significant contributions of late medieval Jewish European mystics to the development of Jewish mystical speculation.
Ideology and Experience
Authors: Wilson Stephen
Published: February 2021

In this analysis of racism in late nineteenth-century France, anti-Semitism is studied in its social context as an indicator and symptom of social change. The author provides a more general analysis of anti-Semitic ideology in France, and the book concludes with a study of the Jewish response to this challenge. The book focuses on antisemitism in France at the time of the Dreyfus Affair. This upsurge of antisemitism occurred in a country which had a very small Jewish community, by Central and East European standards, and the “autonomous” aspect of antisemitism, its general social function as an ideology, is thus more evident.
The Dreyfus Affair, Public Opinion and Antisemitism: II
Authors: Wilson Stephen
Published: February 2021

This chapter analyses the extent and the nature of public interest and involvement in the Dreyfus Affair, in geographical, political, and social terms. Something can be gleaned in answer to the first question about the geography of opinion, from the police reports on disturbances during the Affair, on Dreyfusard and anti-Dreyfusard meetings, and on the distribution of sections of the various Leagues created or recreated on one side or the other. The chapter then considers the involvement or non-involvement in the Affair of existing political groups, studying in particular the behaviour of the more independent organizations of the Left and the participation of groupings of the Extreme Left. The police reports yield evidence of antisemitism and “nationalism” among workers, and it is known that the anti-Dreyfusard Leagues tried, with partial success, to recruit them. Meanwhile, in the involvement of the middle and upper classes in the Affair, one finds that several groups, professional and confessional, stand out: students and university teachers, the officer corps, Catholic clergy and laity, Protestants and Jews. The last three categories are not, of course, exclusively middle- or upper-class, but militancy among them does seem to have been mainly a phenomenon of the elite.
The Antisemitic Riots of 1898
Authors: Wilson Stephen
Published: February 2021

This chapter examines the antisemitic riots of 1898, which was possibly the high-point of popular involvement in the Dreyfus Affair, and certainly the main manifestation of hostility to Jews in the period. The evidence from administrative and police reports establishes that the 1898 riots were both serious and widespread, and it provides a good idea of what provoked them. They can thus be placed in the wider perspective, not simply of French antisemitism, but of popular disturbances in general in nineteenth-century France, for the two had traditionally gone together. What was the nature of this antisemitism, and what prompted it, beyond the simple pretext afforded by the Dreyfus Affair? There is a fair correlation between the Jewish presence in a town and the outbreak of an antisemitic riot. In general, it seems to be true that antisemitism in France was not prompted by real grievances against Jews, by the experience of coexistence; it was directed against real Jews. Indeed, the 1898 riots were often expressions of patriotic sentiment, of support for the army and of opposition to Emile Zola, but their main targets were Jews, and Jews were attacked in a material way.
The Ligue Antisemitique Française
Authors: Wilson Stephen
Published: February 2021

This chapter addresses the foundation of the Ligue Antisémitique Française in February of 1897. With the Ligue Antisémitique Française, Jules Guérin seemed to have organized the body of militants, ready for action, which the circumstances of the Dreyfus Affair required. Indeed, the Ligue's several thousand members in Paris and the provinces played a leading part in the agitation, “direct action,” and street-fighting of these years. This activist role, as well as the Ligue's “socialism,” its anticlericalism, and the cynicism of its leaders also represented a significant new trend in antisemitism that can fairly be labelled proto-fascist. Guérin seems to have nursed two apparently contradictory ambitions: to become a kind of overlord and directing agent for all the political groups supporting antisemitism and to win exclusive popular support for his own organization by an uncompromising and violent attack on Jews, with clearly radical implications.
Antisemitism in French Politics: The Antisemitic Group in the Chamber of Deputies 1898-1906
Authors: Wilson Stephen
Published: February 2021

This chapter explores the significance of antisemitism in political terms. Was the antisemitic movement regarded as a legitimate political organization? How far was it an electoral and parliamentary force? Antisemitism seems to have appeared as an electoral platform in metropolitan France for the first time in 1889. Although antisemitism seems to have maintained a political presence in the legislature through the 1890s, 1898 marks a mutation in its fortunes. Most significant was the success in the May General Elections of a substantial contingent of 22 declared antisemites. Despite this measure of support, however, and despite the fact that some antisemites made a reputation in the Chamber of Deputies, antisemitism was never a force of any great importance within the established political system, nor did it constitute a united and coherent party. The opposition to revision of the Dreyfus Case within the Chamber and within government, though it may have rested on an unconscious bedrock of anti-Jewish prejudice, was more obviously motivated by fear of upsetting political and legal order than by any deliberate antisemitism. The chapter then considers the antisemitic parliamentary group, providing a valuable insight into the way in which, in a crisis, antisemitism could find a place, albeit marginal, in the political spectrum in France.
Economic Antisemitism
Authors: Wilson Stephen
Published: February 2021

This chapter discusses economic antisemitism. Many contemporaries explained the revival of antisemitism as a primarily economic phenomenon, as a means by which rational economic interests were defended or pursued. Henri Maret, director of Le Racial, argues that the characteristics of contemporary antisemitism were “incontestably economic. People do not detest the Jews because they belong to a different race or to a different religion, but quite simply because it is believed that they are accumulating wealth, and this is coveted.” Many features of the antisemitism of the period confirm the validity of this economic interpretation. Antisemites very often directed their attacks against Jews as the agents of capitalism, as bankers, speculators, and monopolists. More generally, “Jewish domination” was held to be responsible for the general economic crisis of the later decades of the nineteenth century, and for long-term changes in economic structure. Despite all this, however, analysis of antisemitic ideology and action suggests that it was a reaction to economic phenomena of a less rational kind than the simplistic psychology of some contemporary observers assumed.
Nationalist Antisemitism: “France for the French”
Authors: Wilson Stephen
Published: February 2021

This chapter examines the nationalist component of antisemitic ideology. First, nationalism was one of the most important explicit themes in antisemitic writing and speeches. Second, the specifically antisemitic movement was closely connected with the various organizations which, in the 1890s and 1900s, put forward nationalism as their main platform, and these organizations, themselves, subscribed to antisemitism. Third, it was claimed by antisemites that the Jews were indelibly foreign, and that they were involved in a more or less successful conspiracy with other forces to dominate and rule France to the detriment of its native citizens. The nationalism of the antisemites was thus directed, fourth, against internal enemies primarily; its function had less to do with France's external policy than with dampening potential internal conflict, projecting a hierarchical conception of society, and providing its adherents with security in a world of complexity and change.
Religious Antisemitism: “Among French Catholics”
Authors: Wilson Stephen
Published: February 2021

This chapter focuses on religious antisemitism. Contemporaries disagreed about the importance of the religious motive in antisemitism. These disagreements can be explained in terms of differences of viewpoint and intention, and must not obscure the fact that the involvement of French Catholics in the upsurge of anti-Jewish hostility was unequivocal. Indeed, Catholics were prominent in the ranks of the anti-Dreyfusards. However, Catholic anti-Dreyfusism was only one example of Catholic antisemitism in the period, or indeed in the nineteenth century as a whole. Catholics had opposed emancipation, and antisemitism was present in Catholic literature and sermons of the early and middle as well as the later parts of the century. The chapter then traces the roots of Catholic antisemitism in France.
‘At Our Place in al-Andalus’, ‘At Our Place in the Maghreb’
Authors: Blau Joshua
Published: February 2021

This chapter highlights how Maimonides frequently speaks of customs and expressions used ‘at our place’, often being more explicit and speaking of ‘at our place in al-Andalus’, or usually, ‘at our place in the Maghreb’. A. Geiger, the first to deal with these expressions, considered them always to refer to Maimonides’ actual place of abode: when in Spain, he wrote ‘at our place in al-Andulus’, whereas when in North-west Africa he used ‘at our place in the Maghreb’. The chapter suggests that in using ‘at our place’ and even ‘at our place in the Maghreb’, Maimonides invariably referred to his place of origin, Spain. Thus, Maghreb, in the usage of Maimonides, may have been applied in both a restricted and in a broad sense. In the restricted sense, it denotes North-west Africa, perhaps even in contrast to Spain; in the broad sense, it includes Spain. It is always in the broad sense that Maghreb is used whenever Maimonides speaks of ‘at our place in the Maghreb’. This is demonstrated by the fact that when speaking of Maghrebian customs, for example, Maimonides cites Spanish sages as practising them; or, likewise, by his adducing as Maghrebian expressions which are known from other sources as Spanish Arabic.
Knights
Authors: Sommerstein Alan H.
Published: February 2021

[Demosthenes comes out of the stage-house, in evident pain, followed presently by Nicias....
De Rerum Natura
Authors: Godwin John
Published: February 2021

avia Pieridum peragro loca nullius ante

trita solo. iuvat integros accedere fontis

atque haurire, iuvatque novos decerpere flores

insignemque mea capiti petere inde coronam

unde prius nulli velarint tempora Musae:

primum quod magnis doceo de rebus et artis

religionum animum nodis exsolvere pergo,

deinde quod obscura de re tarn lucida pango...
Titi Lucreti Cari De Rerum Natura Liber Quartus Commentary
Authors: Godwin John
Published: February 2021

The book opens with a declaration of intent and an apologia for his use of verse in communicating Epicurean philosophy. The lines are also to be found at 1.926-50 (cf 3.806-18 = 5.351-63; 1.1021-7 = 5.419-29), and editors have often attempted to locate the 'true' place in the poem as opposed to the 'imperfect transposition' (cf Kenney ad 3.806-18, Costa ad 5.128-41, Boyancé 82-3, ...
Life of Marcus Cato
Authors: Sansone David
Published: February 2021

28(1). Marcus Cato belonged to a family that, it is said, came from Tusculum. Before he embarked on his military and political career, however, he resided in and supported himself by means of an ancestral estate in the territory of the Sabines. Although his ancestors are generally regarded as having been entirely without distinction, Cato himself extols the bravery and martial expertise of his father Marcus and he claims that his paternal great-grandfather often won prizes for valor and on five occasions, when his charger was killed out from under him in battle, he was awarded from the public treasury the cost of the steed on account of his ...
Commentary
Authors: Sansone David
Published: February 2021

1: Plutarch often begins a pair of Lives with some general reflections and with a consideration of his reasons for comparing the two men he has chosen (see, for example, Pel. 1-2, Per. 1-2, Sert. 1, Thes. 1-2). Here, however, as at the beginning of ...
Tusculan Disputations 111 & IV
Authors: Douglas A. E.
Published: February 2021

This chapter provides a summary of Book III and IV of Cicero's Tusculans. It discusses how the two books deal with the question of whether the wise man (sapiens) is subject to mental distress or strong or excessive emotions. It also explains the stoic view of the wise man, to which Cicero adheres throughout, that suggests that he is virtually self-refuting. The chapter addresses questions on the isolation of mental and emotional problems, which Cicero regarded as less important than the conquest of the fear of death and the endurance of physical pain. It looks at the Roman attitude to Greek openness about homosexuality that compelled Cicero to agree with Epicurus.
Introduction
Authors: Carey Christopher
Published: February 2021

This chapter covers Demosthenes' prosecution speech that was delivered by Apollodoros, son of Pasion, against Neaera. It introduces Apollodoros, who is well known from a number of speeches preserved in the Demosthenic corpus and was involved in an unusual amount of litigation. It also discusses Stephanos, who belongs to the host of lesser politicians who attached themselves to the major political figures like Apollodoros. The chapter highlights Neaera's career as a slave prostitute in Corinth, who was subsequently acquired for sexual purposes by Timanoridas of Corinth and Eukrates of Leukas. It recounts how Neaera was able to purchase her freedom with the aid of an Athenian lover named Phrynion.
Introduction
Authors: Comber Michael , Balmaceda Catalina
Published: February 2021

This chapter focuses on Gaius Sallustius Crispus, a Roman historian who was famously known as Sallust and was born in Amiternuma in 86 BC, in which he was speculated to belong to the local aristocracy. It analyzes three major works Sallust produced after his retirement from politics in 44 BC: Bellum Catilinae, Bellum Iugurthinum, and Historiae. It also points out how Sallust did not find writing history easy as he compared the arduous labour of historical writing to politics or warfare in service of the state. The chapter recounts Sallust's creation of a particular manner of writing history. It explains how his writing style attracted attention and discussion both in ancient times and the present as it is described as archaic and innovatory but, at the same time, abrupt and artistic.
Commentary
Authors: Krentz Peter
Published: February 2021

This chapter interprets the original text and assesses its historical accuracy. It looks at Xenophon's elaborate and detailed treatment of the Thirty Tyrants that serves as a paradigmatic model of rulers who fail to restrain their greed and persist in acting against their own best interests. It also mentions details Xenophon has omitted in Hellenika, such as the Thirty's election, list of magistrates they appointed, executions of Strombichides and other officers who opposed the peace, and Sparta's role in the revolution. The chapter analyzes Xenophon's account of Kritias, Theramenes, and Thrasyboulos. It discusses Theramene's quarrel with Kritias, his trial, execution, and its consequences.
Introduction to Iphigenia in Tauris
Authors: Cropp M. J.
Published: February 2021

This chapter discusses that Euripides's Iphigenia in Tauris rewrites the myths of Iphigenia and Orestes and gives them new endings, which combines the two in a play and focuses on rescues, redemptions and restorations. It mentions that Iphigenia returns to the Hellenic world from exile in a barbarous realm, and Orestes is freed at last from the Furies' persecution. It also reviews Iphigenia's prologue-speech, which recalls how her father offered her to Artemis as the price for the launching of his fleet against Troy. The chapter cites the Chorus of Iphigenia, consisting of well-born Hellenic women whose experience of captivity, exile and loss of marriage parallels Iphigenia's experiences. It describes the original production of Iphigenia, in which three actors shared the play's seven speaking roles and are accompanied by a chorus of fifteen and numerous extras.
Iphigenia in Tauris
Authors: Cropp M. J.
Published: February 2021

Orestes in obedience to an oracle went to the land of the Taurians in Scythia with Pylades and planned when he arrived there to steal the image of Artemis which they revered. When he went ashore from the ship he suffered a fit of madness, and he and his friend were caught by the local people and brought in according to their custom to be sacrificed in the sanctuary of Artemis. For it was their custom to sacrifice foreigners who landed there…....
Introduction
Authors: Leggatt Stuart , Leggatt Stuart , Leggatt Stuart
Published: February 2021

This chapter introduces Greek philosopher Aristotle, who was born in 384 B.C. in Stagira, a town on the peninsular of Chalcidice in the northern Aegean. It looks at Aristotle's extant works and early writings in the dialogue form, which were the product of his years in the Academy that may have a Platonic outlook. It also explains how Aristotle's dialogues were ranked alongside Plato's own in terms of their literary qualities. The chapter focuses on the first two books of On the Heavens (De Caelo), which examines matters of importance to his cosmology regarding the generation and destruction of the terrestrial elements and weight and lightness. It explains how Book I and Book II contain discussions of relevance to Aristotle's conception of the natural movements of the elements.
On The Heayens 1
Authors: Leggatt Stuart
Published: February 2021

268a1 Knowledge about nature is clearly concerned for the most part with bodies and magnitudes, and their properties and changes, and, further, with all the principles that belong to this kind of substance. For of things formed naturally, some are bodies and [5] magnitudes, others possess bodies and magnitude, and others are the principles of those that possess body and magnitude....
Commentary
Authors: Leggatt Stuart
Published: February 2021

Chapter 1: The opening chapter of the treatise serves to introduce the important distinction between the cosmos as a whole and the several elements that compose it (first referred to in chapter 2 at 268b28-9, they are traditionally earth, water, air, fire - Aristotle himself adding the ...
Introduction
Authors: Sommerstein Alan H. , Sommerstein Alan H.
Published: February 2021

This chapter focuses on Ecclesiazusae or The Assemblywomen as one of the two surviving plays of Aristophanes that were produced during the Corinthian War in the early years of the fourth century BC. It emphasizes that Ecclesiazusae has no precise date or explicit evidence that survived to confirm its exact time of publication, speculating that it could be between years 393 to 389. It also describes the democratic regime at Athens that had been restored between 403 and 402 after the surrender of Athens in 404 and rule of the Thirty. The chapter mentions how Sparta dominated the affairs of Greece and the Aegean. It talks about the friendship between Sparta and Persia that had been crucial in the defeat of Athens but gave place to hostility.
Note on the Text
Authors: Sommerstein Alan H.
Published: February 2021

The textual tradition of Ecclesiazusae is almost as meagre as that of Lysistrala. Michigan Papyrus 6649 (II60), published in 1981124, was the first papyrus to be identified as coming from this play; it contains portions of 32 lines from the agon, confirming a conjecture of Bentley's at 652. Of the seven medieval mss., three are not independent witnesses: Vbl is a copy of ...
Ecclesiazusae
Authors: Sommerstein Alan H.
Published: February 2021

ΠΡΑΞΑΓΟΡΑ‎, γυνή‎ ’Αττική‎.

ΧΟΡΟΣ‎, γυναικών‎ ’Αττικών‎.

ΓΥΝΗ‎ Α‎, γείτων‎ Πραξαγόρας‎.

ΓΥΝΗ‎ Β‎.

ΒΛΕΠΥΡΟΣ‎, γέρων‎, άνήρ‎ Πραξαγόρας‎.

ΓΕΙΤΩΝ‎ Βλεπύρου‎.

ΧΡΕΜΗΣ‎, γέρων‎.

ΑΝΗΡ‎ ού...
Commentary
Authors: Sommerstein Alan H.
Published: February 2021

1 PRAXAGORA means something like "she who is effective in public meetings”; appropriately, the audience will first learn that this is the heroine's name at 124, just before the Assembly rehearsal begins. It is a genuine Athenian name, with three inscriptional attestations from the early and middle fourth century ...
Appian: The Wars of the Romans in Iberia 'I Bhpikh
Authors: Richardson J. S.
Published: February 2021

1 (l) "Οροε‎ έστ‎] Πυρήνη‎ διήκον‎ άπο‎ της‎ Τυρρηνικήο‎ θαλάσσης‎ έπι‎ τον‎ βόρειον‎ ώκεανόν‎, οίκοϋσι‎ δ‎' αύτοθ‎ προς‎ μεν‎ εω‎ Κελτοί‎, δσοι‎ Γαλάται‎ ...
Tacitus: Annals V and VI
Authors: Martin Ronald
Published: February 2021

Books V and VI of Tacitus' Annals, when complete, carried the narrative of Tiberius' reign from AD 29 to 37. Unfortunately, most of Book V has been lost, and, with it, Tacitus' account of the sensational events that led to the execution on 18 October in AD 31 of Aelius Sejanus. Nevertheless, Annals VI contains a fascinating variety of incidents both at Rome and on Capri, to which Tiberius had retired permanently in AD 27. But, in addition to all the material that portrays Tiberius in a highly unfavourable light, there is much in Annals VI that shows a very different side to his character. Whereas Suetonius talks of an elderly emperor who discarded all interest in public affairs from the time he retired to Capri, Tacitus portrays a more complex character — one in which cruelty and vice stand alongside a deep concern for Rome's prosperity at home and abroad. Annals VI provides an absorbing account of the varied aspects of the behaviours and personality of Rome's most enigmatic emperor during the final years of his life. The book consists of Latin text with facing-page English translation, introduction and commentary.
Augustine: De Civitate Dei The City of God Books VIII and IX
Authors: Walsh P. G.
Published: February 2021

This edition of St. Augustine's The City of God (De Civitate Dei) is the only one in English to provide a text and translation as well as a detailed commentary of this most influential document in the history of western Christianity. In these books, written in the aftermath of the sack of Rome in AD 410 by the Goths, Augustine replies to the pagans, who attributed the fall of Rome to the Christian religion and its prohibition of the worship of the pagan gods. Before his conversion to Christianity in 386, Augustine had devoted himself to the study of Platonism. In books VIII and IX of De Civitate Dei, Augustine renews his acquaintance with this philosophy, which had played such a fundamental role in his conversion. The main topic of these books is demonology, with Augustine using the De Deo Socratis of Apuleius, which places demons as the intermediaries between gods and men, as the foundation of his exploration into this theme. Augustine is keen to point out the similarities between Platonism and Christianity and therefore puts forward the theory that the ideal mediator between God and man is Christ — he who shares temporary mortality with humans and permanent blessedness with God and can therefore lead men from wretchedness to eternal bliss. The volume presents Latin text with facing-page English translation, introduction and commentary.
The Holocaust: Sites of Massacre
Authors: Webber Jonathan , Schwarz Chris , Francisco Jason
Published: February 2021

This chapter recounts what happened in Polish Galicia during the Holocaust, emphasizing the brutality of the destruction by the Germans and the range of locations where Jews were murdered in occupied Poland. It includes photographs that go beyond conventional symbols that reveal how the Jews were hunted down and murdered. It also describes the remaining physical fixtures in Auschwitz, such as the barracks, barbed wires, entry gates, and the ruins of the gas chambers, that testify the force and fury of the systematic annihilation of over one million Jews. The chapter talks about the case of the Bełżec death camp in south-east Poland in which 450,000 Jews were deported and gassed immediately upon arrival. It considers Bełżec as the cemetery of the Jews of Galicia as countless Jewish communities met their end in 1942 and only seven have been thought to have survived.
How the Past Is Being Remembered
Authors: Webber Jonathan , Schwarz Chris , Francisco Jason
Published: February 2021

This chapter presents some of the ways in which the massive destruction wrought during the Holocaust that brought nearly all Jewish life in Poland to an end has been locally commemorated by both Poles and Jews. It considers how the events of the Holocaust and the local pre-war Jewish past are being remembered and preserved. It also discusses the Holocaust memorialization that started after the war but was hampered by widespread trauma of surviving Jews and the local Jewish population that suffered devastating loss. The chapter recounts how the communist government of Poland spent forty years presenting huge crimes committed during the German occupation as Polish national martyrdom at the hands of Hitler's fascists. It talks about the preservation of the Auschwitz site as a memorial and museum in 1947.
Afterword
Authors: Webber Jonathan , Schwarz Chris , Francisco Jason
Published: February 2021

What this book has attempted to do is to look at the Jewish heritage of Polish Galicia from a contemporary perspective, focusing on what can be understood of the past and the outstanding Jewish civilization that flourished there by looking at the present-day realities of what has been left behind....
The Crisis of Contemporary Jewish Thought
Authors: Sacks Jonathan
Published: February 2021

This chapter discusses the crisis of contemporary Jewish thought. The problem that threatens to render all contemporary Jewish thought systematically divisive is not the absence, but paradoxically the presence, of a shared language. Jews use the same words but mean profoundly different things by them. The point was dramatically illustrated by an utterance delivered at a key moment in modern Jewish history: the State of Israel's Declaration of Independence. The chapter then looks at the history of the impact on Jewish consciousness of the two decisive events of the present century: the Holocaust and the birth of the State of Israel. It also considers the third component of contemporary Jewish thought: the concept of peoplehood. Enlightenment thought had stressed the idea of universal humanity on the one hand, and the abstract individual on the other, freed from the constraints of tradition to make his own world of meanings through his choices. This was a language into which traditional Jewish identity could not be translated, and the sense of Jewish peoplehood suffered accordingly, especially in Western Europe.
The Future of a People
Authors: Sacks Jonathan
Published: February 2021

This chapter reflects on the value of Jewish unity. Unity is, as it always was, a religious value: a fact of covenant, a mutual commitment and faith. That it has become problematic should therefore occasion no surprise. It is a symptom of the tenuous hold of religion over the modern Jewish mind. But that it remains as a value is perhaps the most telling evidence that Jewry has not yet abandoned its religious roots. Habits of thought, senses of obligation, and gestures of action can persist long after the beliefs which gave them cogency have lost their hold. The concept of Jewry as ‘one people’ is a religious idea; surviving in a secular age, it is in need of resuscitation. The chapter then considers Jewish self-understanding, covenantal dualism, and the importance of inclusivism. Inclusivism is a statement of Jewish ecology: of the complex totality of Jewish peoplehood.
Hasidic Yeshivot in Inter-War Poland
Authors: Stampfer Shaul
Published: February 2021

This chapter discusses hasidic yeshivot in inter-war Poland. There is one obvious difference between hasidim and mitnagedim in the second half of the nineteenth century. It is that among mitnagedim, talmudic study was increasingly concentrated in yeshivot, or formal educational institutions, while among hasidim, yeshivot were generally unknown. This distinction disappeared in Poland between the First and Second World Wars, when one of the most striking phenomena of hasidism was the dramatic rise in the number of yeshivot, their ubiquity, and their role in the education of the young males of the hasidic elite. Some of these yeshivot were clearly identified with specific hasidic courts, while others were identified instead with hasidism in general. The multiplication of hasidic yeshivot and the creative solutions they offered to the challenges hasidim thought they were facing are clear evidence of the creativity and resourcefulness of inter-war hasidism.
‘A Thread of Blue’: Rabbi Gershon Henoch Leiner of Radzyń and his Search for Continuity in Response to Modernity
Authors: Magid Shaul
Published: February 2021

This chapter argues that the mid- to late nineteenth-century hasidic dynasty of Izbica–Radzyń constitutes an intellectual renaissance in hasidic creativity. The canonical tradition of medieval philosophic, kabbalistic, and pietistic literature emerged in mid-nineteenth-century hasidic discourse, specifically in Congress Poland, with surprising regularity. Rabbi Gershon Henoch of Radzyń revisited medieval Jewish philosophy and kabbalah and attempted to represent this rich tradition within the ideological framework of hasidic spirituality. His project seemed to have numerous goals, none of which was explicitly developed in his writings. First, he apparently sought to root hasidism in medieval philosophical and kabbalistic tradition in an attempt finally to put to rest the criticism that hasidism departed from normative Jewish practice and ideology. Second, Rabbi Gershon Henoch's entire programme was founded on an overt messianic impulse. This programme, including his attempt to reinstitute the lost tradition of tekhelet, should be seen as representing a mid-nineteenth-century hasidic response to modernity.