bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Isolation and characterization of microsatellites in the columnar cactus: Polaskia chichipe and cross‐species amplification within the Tribe Pachycereeae (Cactaceae)
Authors: Otero‐Arnaiz A. , Cruse‐Sanders J. , Casas A. , Hamrick J. L.
Published: May 2004

Microsatellite markers were developed for the columnar cactus Polaskia chichipe from central Mexico. After an enrichment procedure and three screening steps 87% of colonies contained microsatellites. A pair of primers for 10 loci (seven polymorphic) were developed, tested and used to estimate variation in samples of 18–45 individuals from the Tehuacan Valley, Mexico. Alleles per locus ranged from two to eight (mean 5.28; SD 2.5). Range of expected heterozygosity values was 0.188–0.797 (mean 0.502; SD 0.25). These loci are particularly useful for more precise evolutionary studies, such as gene flow and breeding systems, for this cactus species.
Polymorphic dinucleotide microsatellite loci in the clonal ascidian Diplosoma listerianum: predominance of compound and highly interrupted imperfect repeats
Authors: Maclean Lorna , Pardini Amanda T. , Noble Leslie R. , Bishop John D. D. , Jones Catherine S.
Published: May 2004

We report the isolation of the first dinucleotide microsatellite loci from the clonal ascidian, Diplosoma listerianum. Most repeats were compound and highly interrupted, with flanking sequences containing many small interspersed repetitive regions. Consequently, most primers detected polymerase chain reaction products outside the expected size range, and only five out of 15 primers detected polymorphic single‐locus markers. Characterization of five variable loci from two UK populations revealed three to seven alleles per locus, with observed heterozygosity of 0.00–0.86 and expected heterozygosity of 0.10–0.66. Three loci showed significant heterozygote deficits either because of inbreeding, population substructure or the presence of null alleles.
Eleven microsatellite loci for the saddleback clownfish Amphiprion polymnus
Authors: Quenouille Brice , Bouchenak‐Khelladi Yanis , Hervet Caroline , Planes Serge
Published: May 2004

We report nine (CA)12−49, one (GATA)39, and one (TCTA)26 microsatellite loci for the saddleback clownfish Amphiprion polymnus, isolated using an enrichment cloning procedure. A large number of alleles (range 6–30), and high levels of observed heterozygosity (mean = 0.6810) were resolved in 100 individuals of a single population, indicating that these markers should be useful to assess genetic structure and population dynamics over fine spatial scales.
Polymorphic microsatellite loci in the Coffee Berry Borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera, Scolytidae)
Authors: Gauthier N. , Rasplus J.‐Y.
Published: May 2004

Microsatellite loci were isolated from the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei, which is regarded as the major pest in coffee cultures. Seven polymorphic loci were obtained from an enriched genomic library. A low to moderate genetic diversity was observed per locus, with an observed number of alleles ranging from two to five in the 39 unrelated individuals sampled from Ethiopia. A clear deficit of heterozygotes within the population (mean heterozygosities, HO = 0.10/HE = 0.50) and an extreme inbreeding (FIS, 0.70–1.00) were demonstrated. Cross‐species amplifications showed that some of the markers could be useful in two closely related Hypothenemus species.
Characterization of seven polymorphic microsatellite loci in the Common Loon (Gavia immer)
Authors: Mcmillan Amy M. , Bagley Mark J. , Evers David C.
Published: May 2004

We describe polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primers and conditions to amplify seven microsatellite DNA loci isolated from the Common Loon (Gavia immer). The PCR primers were tested on 83 individuals from 10 locations in North America, including breeding, migration stopover, and wintering areas. Between two and seven alleles were observed to segregate at the seven microsatellite loci, with observed heterozygosities ranging from 0.048 to 0.695.
Isolation and cross‐species amplification of seven microsatellite loci from Emydoidea blandingii
Authors: Libants S. , Kamarainen A. M. , Scribner K. T. , Congdon J. D.
Published: May 2004

We describe the cloning and characterization of seven microsatellite loci from [CA]‐ and [GA]‐enriched partial genomic libraries of Blanding's turtle, Emydoidea blandingii, and their use in two other species of freshwater turtle, Chrysemys picta and Chelydra serpentina. These loci will be used in a long‐term ecological study of the reproductive success of these co‐occurring freshwater turtle species.
Polymorphic microsatellite loci in Allodapine bees for investigating the evolution of social behaviour
Authors: Langer Philipp , Molbo Drude , Keller Laurent
Published: May 2004

Allodapine bees provide extraordinary systems for investigating the evolution of cooperation and particularly the division of reproduction in animal societies. We present the first microsatellite primers for two native Australian species (Exoneura nigrescens and E. robusta; Hymenoptera: Apidae: Xylocopinae) which allow the accurate determination of pedigrees, reproductive skew and relatedness in colonies. Up to 55 different alleles were observed per locus.
Polymorphic microsatellites loci in the black Aphid, Aphis fabae Scopoli, 1763 (Hemiptera, Aphididae)
Authors: Coeur d’acier A. , Sembène M. , Audiot P. , Rasplus J. Y.
Published: May 2004

Aphis fabae is a widespread pest in Europe. This species includes four morphological cryptic subspecies which are mostly identified by their partially distinct secondary host range. To determine the extent of gene flow and isolation between these four taxa, we isolated and characterized eight microsatellite loci from A. fabae fabae and tested them on the three other subspecies. Polymorphism ranged from five to 35 alleles on the 138 individuals collected. When analysing each taxon separately, significant deviations from Hardy‐Weinberg (HW) equilibrum were observed. This could have different explanations, including the presence of null alleles, or the Wahlund effect or the mating system.
Effects of Habitat Features and Landscape Composition on the Population Structure of a Common Aquatic Turtle in a Region Undergoing Rapid Development
Authors: MARCHAND MICHAEL N. , LITVAITIS JOHN A.
Published: May 2004

Abstract: We investigated the demography of a common aquatic turtle (Chrysemys picta) along a gradient of urbanization in southeastern New Hampshire. Using a geographic information system and live trapping of turtles, we compared the proportion of males, the proportion of adults, and the relative abundance of turtles in 37 ponds. We used satellite images, aerial photographs, and field visits to describe pond‐specific features and habitat composition up to 2000 m from the perimeter of each pond. The proportion of males was positively associated with the percentage of forest cover within 500 m, greater road density within 100 m, and an index of predator activity at a pond. The proportion of adults in a population was associated with road density within 250 m of the pond and the percentage of the pond perimeter that was forested. Abnormal population structures associated with greater road densities did not necessarily result in lower abundances of turtles in ponds. Turtle abundance increased as the distance to neighboring wetlands decreased and the amount of nesting habitat near pond edges increased. Pond‐specific features also affected turtle abundance where populations were larger in ponds with organic substrates and abundant coverage by shoreline vegetation than in ponds lacking these features. Few turtles were encountered in ponds with an abundance of herbaceous emergent vegetation, and fewer turtles were captured during a summer with abundant precipitation. Suburban and urban developments, with dense road networks and abundant populations of generalist predators (especially the raccoon, Procyon lotor), can alter the structure of aquatic turtle populations. Although these alterations may not result in immediate changes in turtle abundance within a specific population, we suspect that the reduction in recruitment caused by habitat alterations will eventually reduce or eliminate local populations. Even though there are life‐history differences among species of turtles, our results may provide new insight into the causes of recent declines of other turtles.
Long‐Term Population Changes of Native and Introduced Birds in the Alaka‘i Swamp, Kaua‘i
Authors: FOSTER JEFFREY T. , TWEED ERIK J. , CAMP RICHARD J. , WOODWORTH BETHANY L. , ADLER COREY D. , TELFER TOM
Published: May 2004

Abstract: Within the last 30 years, five endemic bird species of the Alaka‘i Swamp, Kaua‘i, Hawai‘i, have likely gone extinct. We documented population trends of the remaining avifauna in this time period to identify a common pattern in the Hawaiian Islands: decline of native species and expansion of introduced species. We conducted bird surveys over 100 km2of the Alaka‘i and Kōke‘e regions of Kaua‘i in March–April 2000 to estimate population size, distribution, and range limits of seven native and six introduced forest birds. We compared the results with four previous surveys conducted over the last 30 years. Five of the seven native species we studied have fared well, maintaining sizeable populations (>20,000 individuals) and unchanged or increasing numbers. The endemic ‘Akikiki (Oreomystis bairdi), however, declined from 6296 (SE ± 1374) to 1472 (SE ± 680) individuals and exhibited range contraction from 88 to 36 km2. The ‘I‘iwi (Vestiaria coccinea) also experienced a decline and contraction, though not as severe. Populations of several introduced forest birds are increasing, but all species, excluding the Japanese White‐eye (Zosterops japonicus), were at low numbers (<5,500 individuals in survey area). One introduced species, the Japanese Bush‐Warbler (Cettia diphone) recently invaded, whereas another, the Red‐billed Leiothrix (Leiothrix lutea), has been extirpated. Two hurricanes in the past 20 years appear to have most strongly affected nectarivores and may have contributed to the decline or extinction of several other species. Overall, native bird populations on Kaua‘i have exhibited species‐specific responses to limiting factors. Although most native populations appear stable, the extant native avifauna is vulnerable as a result of limited distributions and the potential for widespread habitat degradation.
Importance of Reserve Size and Landscape Context to Urban Bird Conservation
Authors: DONNELLY ROARKE , MARZLUFF JOHN M.
Published: May 2004

Abstract: We tested whether reserve size, landscape surrounding the reserve, and their interaction affect forest songbirds in the metropolitan area of Seattle, Washington (U.S.A.), by studying 29 reserves of varying size (small, medium, large) and surrounding urbanization intensity (urban, suburban, exurban). Larger reserves contained richer and less even bird communities than smaller reserves. These size effects disappeared when we removed the positive correlation of shrub diversity with reserve size, suggesting that greater habitat diversity in large reserves supported additional species, some of which were rare. Standardizing the number of individuals detected among all reserve size classes reversed the effect of size on richness in exurban landscapes and reduced the magnitude of the effect in suburban or urban landscapes. The latter change suggested that richness increased with reserve size in most landscapes because larger areas also supported larger samples from the regional bird species pool. Most bird species associated with native forest habitat (native forest species) and with human activity (synanthropic species) were present in reserves larger than 42 ha and surrounded by >40% urban land cover, respectively. Thus, we recommend these thresholds as means for conserving the composition of native bird communities in this mostly forested region. Native forest species were least abundant and synanthropic species most abundant in urban landscapes, where exotic ground and shrub vegetation was most common. Therefore, control of exotic vegetation may benefit native songbird populations. Bird nests in shrubs were most dense in medium (suburban) and large reserves (urban) and tended to be most successful in medium (suburban) and large reserves (exurban), potentially supplying another mechanism by which reserve size increased retention of native forest species.
Using a Remote Technology in Conservation: Satellite Tracking White‐Naped Cranes in Russia and Asia
Authors: HIGUCHI HIROYOSHI , PIERRE JOHANNA P. , KREVER VLADIMIR , ANDRONOV VLADIMIR , FUJITA GO , OZAKI KIYOAKI , GOROSHKO OLEG , UETA MUTSUYUKI , SMIRENSKY SERGEI , MITA NAGAHISA
Published: May 2004

Abstract:  We investigated the application of satellite tracking to the conservation of cranes and other waterbirds and the necessity of international cooperation in the conservation of migratory species. Using satellite tracking, we followed 11 White‐naped Cranes (Grus vipio) on migration from their breeding grounds in eastern Russia to their wintering grounds in China and Japan. From 1991 to 1993, we captured cranes with the aid of helicopters and attached satellite transmitters (platform transmitter terminals) to captured birds via a harness system. We tracked cranes for 156 days on average, across 2558 km, and obtained an average of 339 locations per crane. Cranes migrated over 8–90 days. During migration, birds spent 1–30 days at 4–12 rest sites. Cranes wintered at two main sites: Poyang Lake, China, and Izumi, Japan. All seven cranes migrating to the Poyang Lake area rested at the Yellow River delta–Bohai Bay, China, and all three traveling to Izumi rested in the Demilitarized Zone on the Korean Peninsula. Other important rest sites were marshes around the Wulagai River, Huainan, Hu‐Lun Lake, Linyi, Tangshan, the Three Rivers (Sanjiang) Plain, Tianjin, and the Xar Moron River, all in China, and Lake Khanka–Xinghai at the border of China and Russia. The habitats resting cranes used most frequently were plains, including upland areas, marshes, and rivers. Although nature reserves exist at the two main wintering sites of Poyang Lake and Izumi, rest sites used by cranes were poorly protected. Even when areas used by cranes for resting or wintering were included in nature reserves, reserves were threatened by human encroachment and development. To ensure that cranes can continue to migrate successfully, it is crucial that the establishment of reserves continues at important rest areas and that the areas covered by reserves at wintering sites be extended to include more of the areas utilized by cranes. Also, development and human disturbance should be minimized in reserve areas. Because long‐distance migrant birds, including cranes, range over such large areas, conservation of these organisms and their habitats necessitates multinational communication and cooperation.
A Multiple‐Site Comparison of Woodpecker Communities in Bornean Lowland and Hill Forests
Authors: LAMMERTINK MARTJAN
Published: May 2004

Abstract: Logging in the Sunda region of Southeast Asia has affected nearly all lowland forests. Despite numerous studies on the effects of this logging, its impact on vertebrate communities remains unclear because few researchers have compared more than two independent study sites. I assessed whether a community of 14 woodpecker species in West Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo, has been affected by logging in lowlands and whether hill‐forest reserves are a suitable alternative for woodpecker conservation. Eight study sites in lowland plains (<70 m elevation) occurred in unlogged forest and forests with a range of increasing logging intensities. In addition, two sites were sampled in unlogged hill forest (120–400 m elevation). Woodpecker species richness and composition in lowlands remained unchanged over the range of increasing logging disturbance. Over this range, however, significant reductions occurred in total woodpecker biomass (61% reduction), total woodpecker density (41% reduction), and densities of Checker‐throated Woodpecker (Picus mentalis) and Great Slaty Woodpecker (Mulleripicus pulverulentus), which were reduced 85% and 83%, respectively. The quantity of timber removed (cut basal area) was a better predictor of woodpecker density than the proportion of an area remaining as unlogged patches. Time since logging, which varied from 3 to 22 years, had little predictive value. Within home ranges in logged areas, woodpeckers foraged preferentially in unlogged patches but preferred logged patches for other activities. Hill forest, although unlogged, had woodpecker densities, biomass, and species richness even lower than heavily logged lowland sites. Notably, the Great Slaty Woodpecker was absent from hill sites, which implies that hill reserves are not an option for conservation of this logging‐sensitive species. The responses of this species in population density may serve as an indicator in forest management. Protection of logged lowland forest should be preferred over that of unlogged hill forests, but emphasis in conservation effort in the Sunda region is currently on hill forests. Safeguarding the few remaining areas of unlogged lowland forest on Borneo must be a top priority because those forests are of vital importance as reference sites in biodiversity studies.
Incorporating Collateral Data in Conservation Biology
Authors: LINACRE NICHOLAS A. , STEWART‐OATEN ALLAN , BURGMAN MARK A. , ADES PETER K.
Published: May 2004

Abstract:  Conservation biologists often need to set ecological modeling assumptions or estimate parameters from sparse data. In some cases this problem can be addressed by incorporating data from closely related species or from the same species at different sites (i.e., collateral data). Currently no structured methods exist for incorporating such information. An analogous problem in Actuarial science is to set premium rates in situations with little direct data on claim frequency or size. The rates are estimated using actuarial credibility theory, which incorporates collateral data with the direct data. actuarial credibility theory combined with the actuarial control cycle financial management process also provides an adaptive mechanism for updating assumptions. This theory may have some utility for ecologists wanting to incorporate collateral data in an adaptive management framework, a companion to approaches such as Bayesian updating. We describe the historical development of actuarial credibility theory from early ad hoc methods to empirical Bayes approaches. We explore some of the theory's strengths, such as relative simple formulae for incorporation collateral data, and we explore some of the theory's weaknesses, such as the use of the best linear approximation to the Bayes estimate. We illustrate potential applications of the theory using an example on the mortality rate of the Powerful Owl ( Ninox strenua).
Harvest of the PalmChamaedorea radicalis, Its Effects on Leaf Production, and Implications for Sustainable Management
Authors: ENDRESS BRYAN A. , GORCHOV DAVID L. , PETERSON MAREN B. , PADRÓN SERRANO EDUARDO
Published: May 2004

Abstract: Few studies have integrated local management strategies with ecological experiments to assess the harvest and management of nontimber forest products, even though nontimber forest resources are primarily managed by local communities. To understand the harvest and management of leaves from the understory palmChamaedorea radicalisMart. in the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, we documented local management practices and used this information to conduct an experiment to examine the effect of several leaf‐harvest regimes on leaf production, length, and yield. We interviewed palm harvesters to document harvest and management strategies and collected data on the number of leaves sold by 12 harvesters over 32 months to estimate the number of leaves harvested per year in the community of Alta Cima. In January 1999, we established 10 study plots (50 palms/plot; n= 500) to conduct our harvest experiment. Plots were divided into subplots of 10 palms each, and treatments were randomly assigned to subplots. The treatments were as follows: control, 1×/year, 2×/year, and 4×/year harvest, and a modified 4×/year harvest, during which one leaf at most was removed each time. Leaf production, length, and yield were recorded through August 2001. Palm harvesting was intense, with an average of 4000 leaves harvested per collector per month. Harvest resulted in a modest increase in leaf production; however, leaves produced in the harvest treatments were significantly shorter than those in the control. This reduction in leaf length led to a 41–68% decline in yield after 2 years because many leaves produced were too short to be marketable. This response suggests that leaf harvesting is not a stable source of income for communities in El Cielo. Because we tailored our experimental treatments to approximate current harvest practices and potentially acceptable alternatives, our results were directly relevant to communities and interpretable within the local context.
Rethinking Community‐Based Conservation
Authors: BERKES FIKRET
Published: May 2004

Abstract:  Community‐based conservation (CBC) is based on the idea that if conservation and development could be simultaneously achieved, then the interests of both could be served. It has been controversial because community development objectives are not necessarily consistent with conservation objectives in a given case. I examined CBC from two angles. First, CBC can be seen in the context of paradigm shifts in ecology and applied ecology. I identified three conceptual shifts—toward a systems view, toward the inclusion of humans in the ecosystem, and toward participatory approaches to ecosystem management—that are interrelated and pertain to an understanding of ecosystems as complex adaptive systems in which humans are an integral part. Second, I investigated the feasibility of CBC, as informed by a number of emerging interdisciplinary fields that have been pursuing various aspects of coupled systems of humans and nature. These fields—common property, traditional ecological knowledge, environmental ethics, political ecology, and environmental history—provide insights for CBC. They may contribute to the development of an interdisciplinary conservation science with a more sophisticated understanding of social‐ecological interactions. The lessons from these fields include the importance of cross‐scale conservation, adaptive comanagement, the question of incentives and multiple stakeholders, the use of traditional ecological knowledge, and development of a cross‐cultural conservation ethic.
Social Capital in Biodiversity Conservation and Management
Authors: PRETTY JULES , SMITH DAVID
Published: May 2004

Abstract: The knowledge and values of local communities are now being acknowledged as valuable for biodiversity conservation. Relationships of trust, reciprocity and exchange, common rules, norms and sanctions, and connectedness in groups are what make up social capital, which is a necessary resource for shaping individual action to achieve positive biodiversity outcomes. Agricultural and rural conservation programs address biodiversity at three levels: agrobiodiversity on farms, nearby nature in landscapes, and protected areas. Recent initiatives that have sought to build social capital have shown that rural people can improve their understanding of biodiversity and agroecological relationships at the same time as they develop new social rules, norms, and institutions. This process of social learning helps new ideas to spread and can lead to positive biodiversity outcomes over large areas. New ideas spread more rapidly where there is high social capital. There remain many practical and policy difficulties, however, not least regarding the need to invest in social capital formation and the many unresolved questions of how the state views communities empowered to make their own decisions. Nonetheless, attention to the value of social relations, in the form of trust, reciprocal arrangements, locally developed rules, norms and sanctions, and emergent institutions, has clearly been shown to deliver a biodiversity dividend in many contexts. This suggests a need to blend both the biological and social elements of conservation.
Designing a Conservation Landscape for Tigers in Human‐Dominated Environments
Authors: WIKRAMANAYAKE ERIC , McKNIGHT MEGHAN , DINERSTEIN ERIC , JOSHI ANUP , GURUNG BHIM , SMITH DAVID
Published: May 2004

Abstract:  Wildlife populations in small, isolated reserves face genetic and demographic threats to their survival. To increase the probability of long‐term persistence, biologists promote metapopulation management, in which breeding subpopulations are protected as source pools. Animals that disperse from the source pools increase the probability of persistence of the metapopulation across the greater landscape. We used a geographic information system (GIS)–based, cost‐distance model to design a conservation landscape along the Himalayan foothills for managing a metapopulation of Asia's largest predator, the tiger (Panthera tigris). The model is based on data from 30 years of field research on tigers, recent satellite imagery, and a decade of buffer‐zone restoration in this region. We used the model to (1) identify potential dispersal corridors for tigers; (2) identify strategic transit refuges; and (3) make recommendations for off‐reserve land management and restoration to enhance the potential of corridors for tigers. This tool can aid the design of conservation landscapes for other endangered, wide‐ranging species in human‐dominated environments.
Gap‐Crossing Decisions by the Red Squirrel, a Forest‐Dependent Small Mammal
Authors: BAKKER VICTORIA J. , VAN VUREN DIRK H.
Published: May 2004

Abstract:  Forest‐associated species in fragmented landscapes must traverse potentially inhospitable gaps to move between habitat patches. Although conservation biologists advocate connecting patches with corridors or improving the matrix to make it suitable for movement, little is known about the factors influencing gap‐crossing decisions for most species. We investigated gap crossing by the red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) in logged landscapes in southeastern Alaska, where the species avoids microhabitats associated with gaps created by clearcutting. We released individuals across clearcuts and determined the routes they took home with tracking spools and radio telemetry. Of 36 adult red squirrels translocated across six clearcuts, 14 crossed clearcuts to reach home. Squirrels were more likely to cross clearcuts if the detour efficiency (distance to home crossing gap divided by distance of forested detour) was low, indicating an ability to compare distances along alternate routes and travel costs or risks in different habitats. No other landscape metrics, such as gap size or crossing distance, predicted crossing behavior. Red squirrels of low body mass were more likely to cross clearcuts, where the probability of encountering conspecifics is low. Distance predicted route choice for squirrels detouring around clearcuts. Indirect evidence suggests that perceived predation risk, energetic costs, or both are higher in clearcuts. Detour efficiency reportedly influences the gap‐crossing decisions of some forest‐associated birds, but this is the first demonstration of its role in gap‐crossing decisions by a mammal.
Effects of New Forestry Practices on Rare Epiphytic Macrolichens
Authors: PYKÄLÄ JUHA
Published: May 2004

Abstract: The preservation of key habitats is included in modern forest‐management practices as one of the main means to preserve biodiversity in northern European production forests. I examined the distribution patterns and persistence of occurrence of rare epiphytic macrolichens in a predominantly unprotected forest landscape with an area of 278 km2in southern Finland. Occurrence data of macrolichens in two key habitats, rock outcrops and mires, were compared with data from production forests. The density of populations of rare macrolichens was 50‐fold higher on rock outcrops and 25‐fold higher on mires than in production forests. Most rare species of epiphytic macrolichens were found only in key habitats. In modern, intensively managed forest landscapes, rock outcrops appeared to represent the main habitats for rare macrolichens as a result of the long‐term continuity of old trees. Most macrolichen occurrences represented very small populations with a high extinction risk. Of the populations found in 1989–1995 in key habitats, 51% had disappeared, by 2000–2001, mainly as a result of forestry activities. The disappearance of populations significantly exceeded the rate of establishment of new populations. My results emphasize the importance of key habitats for declining forest species. There is also a need to improve and sharpen the guidelines for delimiting and managing key habitats in order to halt the continued decline of epiphytic macrolichens.
Rapid Tropical Forest Inventory: a Comparison of Techniques Based on Inventory Data from Western Amazonia
Authors: HIGGINS MARK A. , RUOKOLAINEN KALLE
Published: May 2004

Abstract:  Floristic inventory is critical for conservation planning in tropical forests. Tropical forest inventory is hampered by large numbers of species, however, and is usually abbreviated by sampling only the tallest trees in the forest, an approach that remains time‐consuming. In a systematic effort to identify better means of abbreviating inventory in western Amazonia, we defined four classes of inventory abbreviation and evaluated them for use in inventory: occurrence metric, measured for individual taxa (e.g., presence‐absence); taxonomic resolution, the level to which stems are identified; diameter class, the classes included in inventory; and taxonomic scope, the taxon or taxa included in inventory. Using these four classes and all their possible combinations, we defined >300 inventory abbreviations and evaluated them by conducting nine inventories near Iquitos, Peru. We evaluated these abbreviations with four criteria: correlation between the floristic patterns of the full and abbreviated inventories, mean number of stems per site, total number of taxa, and height of inventoried stems. Presence‐absence inventories were generally interchangeable with abundance inventories, regardless of the use of other abbreviations. Genus‐resolution inventory captured 80% of the floristic pattern of the full inventory, with an 80% reduction in number of taxa sampled, but did not reduce the number of stems sampled. Inventories based on diameter class, with either species or genus identifications, revealed a majority of the floristic pattern of the full inventories with a fraction of the stems and taxa, but they were indistinguishable in efficiency from random sampling. Taxonomic‐scope abbreviations were more efficient than any other type of inventory, including random sampling, and required one‐fifth the number of stems and taxa of diameter‐class‐based methods and one‐twentieth the number of a full inventory. We believe that taxa‐based inventory may provide the optimal instrument for biological survey and conservation planning in western Amazonia.
Using Economic and Regulatory Incentives to Restore Endangered Species: Lessons Learned from Three New Programs
Authors: WILCOVE DAVID S. , LEE JOON
Published: May 2004

Abstract: We studied three new incentive‐based programs for restoring endangered species on private lands in the United States: safe harbor, Environmental Defense's Landowner Conservation Assistance Program, and conservation banking. For each program, we gathered data on the number of participating landowners, the number of species targeted for assistance, and the cumulative acreage of enrolled land. Measured in this way, both safe harbor and the Landowner Conservation Assistance Program have been remarkably successful. Landowners are drawn to three aspects of these programs: (1) the removal of regulatory burdens associated with attracting endangered species to their property; (2) technical guidance on how to restore habitats for endangered species; and (3) cost‐share assistance for habitat restoration. Technical guidance appears to be more important than either regulatory relief or financial assistance in securing the cooperation of some landowners. Assessing the success or failure of conservation banking proved more difficult, given the relatively small number of banks created to date and the lack of any centralized database on them. However, nearly half of the 47 endangered‐species conservation banks we surveyed have sold credits, indicating some success in either acquiring or restoring essential habitats.
Phylogenetic Diversity and Conservation Priorities under Distinct Models of Phenotypic Evolution
Authors: ALEXANDRE JOSÉ , DINIZ‐FILHO FELIZOLA
Published: May 2004

Abstract: Phylogenetics sometimes plays a major role in conservation planning, although there are still discussions about what to conserve, the evolutionary novelty revealed by adaptive process or the evolutionary potential expressed by neutral genetic divergence. I discuss the relationship between general models of phenotypic evolution and branch‐length transformations used in phylogenetic diversity (PD) indices. Phylogenetic diversity based on molecular phylogenies will be satisfactory under a neutral model of evolution with constant divergence rates. If evolution of phenotypes occurs under stabilizing or directional selection, however, PD will overestimate and underestimate evolutionary diversity, respectively. I took into account phenotypic patterns in quantitative traits by finding ancestral states and, for each ancestral‐descendent pathway, transforming branch length into amounts of phenotypic evolution before calculating PD. As an example, I applied the method in an evaluation of PD in the eight New World biodiversity hotspots. I based the evaluation on the phylogeny of terrestrial Carnivora and transformed and untransformed (time) branch lengths. In all hotspots, time‐only PD values were larger than their respective phenotypic PD estimates, as expected if stabilizing selection drives most of body size evolution. Both PD estimates were highly correlated with species richness across the hotspots, but the priority ranks changed when loss of species restricted to one hotspot was considered. If phenotypic evolution usually occurs under stabilizing selection processes, conservation efforts and resources would be reduced and/or restricted to a few distinct species with high evolutionary rates, reflecting new adaptive peaks. This may be a liberal conservation strategy, however, compared with PD values calculated from time‐calibrate supertrees or molecular phylogenies, and it is still necessary to understand how adaptive processes drive the evolution of complex phenotypes.
Effects of Artisanal Fishing on Caribbean Coral Reefs
Authors: HAWKINS JULIE P. , ROBERTS CALLUM M.
Published: May 2004

Abstract:  Although the impacts of industrial fishing are widely recognized, marine ecosystems are generally considered less threatened by artisanal fisheries. To determine how coral reef fish assemblages and benthic communities are affected by artisanal fishing, we studied six Caribbean islands on which fishing pressure ranged from virtually none in Bonaire, increasing through Saba, Puerto Rico, St Lucia, and Dominica, and reaching very high intensities in Jamaica. Using stationary‐point fish counts at 5 m and 15 m depth, we counted and estimated the lengths of all noncryptic, diurnal fish species within replicate 10‐m‐diameter areas. We estimated percent cover of coral and algae and determined reef structural complexity. From fish numbers and lengths we calculated mean fish biomass per count for the five most commercially important families. Groupers (Serranidae), snappers (Lutjanidae), parrotfish (Scaridae), and surgeonfish (Acanthuridae) showed order‐of‐magnitude differences in biomass among islands. Biomass fell as fishing pressure increased. Only grunts (Haemulidae) did not follow this pattern. Within families, larger‐bodied species decreased as fishing intensified. Coral cover and structural complexity were highest on little‐fished islands and lowest on those most fished. By contrast, algal cover was an order of magnitude higher in Jamaica than in Bonaire. These results suggest that following the Caribbean‐wide mass mortality of herbivorous sea urchins in 1983–1984 and consequent declines in grazing pressure on reefs, herbivorous fishes have not controlled algae overgrowing corals in heavily fished areas but have restricted growth in lightly fished areas. In summary, differences among islands in the structure of fish and benthic assemblages suggest that intensive artisanal fishing has transformed Caribbean reefs.
Testing the Value of Six Taxonomic Groups as Biodiversity Indicators at a Local Scale
Authors: KATI VASSILIKI , DEVILLERS PIERRE , DUFRÊNE MARC , LEGAKIS ANASTASIOS , VOKOU DESPINA , LEBRUN PHILIPPE
Published: May 2004

Abstract:  We examined six groups of taxa—woody plants, aquatic and terrestrial herpetofauna, small terrestrial birds, orchids, and Orthoptera—to determine their efficiency as biodiversity indicators in the Dadia Reserve in northern Greece. We investigated the indicator value of each group by examining the degree of congruence of its species‐richness pattern with that of the other groups and the efficiency of its complementary network in conserving the other groups and biodiversity. The two techniques differed in many respects in their outputs, but they both showed woody plants as the best biodiversity indicator. There was in general low congruence in the species richness patterns across the different groups. Significant relationships were found between woody plants and birds, Orthoptera and terrestrial herpetofauna, and birds and aquatic herpetofauna. None of the optimal complementary networks of the groups we examined protected all species of the other groups. Nevertheless, the complementary network of woody plants adequately conserved all groups except orchids. We conclude that the principle of complementarity must be integrated into the methodology of evaluating an indicator. In an applied context, our results provide a scientific background on which to base a biomonitoring program for the Dadia Reserve. In a wider scope, if the group of woody plants prove an adequate biodiversity indicator for other Mediterranean areas as well, this will be important because it will facilitate conservation‐related decisions for the entire Mediterranean region.
Increased Behavioral Variation and the Calculation of Release Numbers for Reintroduction Programs
Authors: McPHEE M. ELSBETH , SILVERMAN EMILY D.
Published: May 2004

Abstract:  Captive populations can exhibit more behavioral variation than their wild counterparts as a result of relaxed selective pressures in the captive environment. This increased variation can translate into decreased survivorship upon reintroduction to native habitats. Data show that captive populations of oldfield mice (Peromyscus polionotus subgriseus) exhibit such an increase in variation. Motivated by these results, we developed a series of calculations for a “release ratio” that can be used to determine the number of captive‐bred animals needed to compensate for the increased variance. We present calculations of release ratios for behavioral and morphological variables with different distributions and illustrate the functional relationship between release numbers, increased variation, and change in average behavior and morphology. Our calculations indicated that the release of 130–150 captive‐bred oldfield mice is equivalent to the release of 100 wildlike animals. Release ratios will vary among species, however, and perhaps among different populations of the same species and should be calculated separately for each situation. Development of the release ratio is the first rigorous effort to incorporate behavioral and morphological changes due to captivity into reintroduction planning. Release ratios will help conservation biologists ensure that the appropriate number of animals is released, thus increasing the success of reintroduction programs.
Effect of Weekend Road Traffic on the Use of Space by Raptors
Authors: BAUTISTA LUIS M. , GARCÍA JESÚS T. , CALMAESTRA RICARDO G. , PALACÍN CARLOS , MARTÍN CARLOS A. , MORALES MANUEL B. , BONAL RAÚL , VIÑUELA JAVIER
Published: May 2004

Abstract:  The traffic load near large cities may show dramatic cyclical changes induced by weekend tourism, and this could induce cyclical changes in the activity patterns of wildlife. We studied a 19‐km‐long section of a road that crossed a high‐use raptor area near a large city in Spain. We observed 18 raptor species along this segment of the road, including some threatened species, such as the Spanish Imperial Eagle (Aquila adalberti). The number of cars increased dramatically on Saturdays and Sundays, so we assessed the effect of varying traffic loads on raptor behavior by recording all birds of prey as close or distant to the road during working days and weekend days. On weekends, the occurrence of Spanish Imperial Eagles and vultures decreased near the road. The occurrence of other species did not change between working days and weekend days. The activity decrease on weekends by Imperial Eagles and other large raptors suggests that there are weekly cycles in raptor activity. Weekly cycles in wildlife caused by human activity are a source of concern in conservation biology.
Biotic Impoverishment and Homogenization in Unfragmented Forest Understory Communities
Authors: ROONEY THOMAS P. , WIEGMANN SHANNON M. , ROGERS DAVID A. , WALLER D. M.
Published: May 2004

Abstract: Ecological change is often hard to document because of a lack of reliable baseline data. Several recent then‐versus‐now surveys of temperate forest and grassland communities demonstrate losses of local plant species, but most are based on data from a single site. We resurveyed understory communities in 62 upland forest stands in northern Wisconsin (U.S.A.) for which quantitative baseline data exist from 50 years ago. These stands are within a largely unfragmented region but vary in species composition and successional stage. We collected data on changes in (1) total and native species richness, (2) the ratio of exotic to native species, (3) the relative abundance of habitat generalists, and (4) community similarity among sites. We also compared how these rates of change varied over time. Over the past 50 years, native species density declined an average of 18.5% at the 20‐m2scale, whereas the ratio of exotic species to native species increased at 80% of all sites. Habitat generalists increased, and habitat specialists declined, accounting in part for an 8.7% rise in average similarity in species composition among sites. Most of these changes cannot be related to succession, habitat loss, or invasion by exotic species. Areas without deer hunting showed the greatest declines in native species density, with parks and research natural areas faring no better than unprotected stands. Animal‐pollinated and animal‐dispersed species also declined, particularly at unhunted sites. These results demonstrate the power of quantitative multistand data for assessing ecological change and identify overabundant deer as a key driver of community change. Because maintaining forest habitats alone fails to preserve plant diversity at local scales, local biotic simplification seems likely to continue in the region unless active efforts are taken to protect diversity.
Sensitivity of Systematic Reserve Selection to Decisions about Scale, Biological Data, and Targets: Case Study from Southern British Columbia
Authors: WARMAN LEANNA D. , SINCLAIR A. R. E. , SCUDDER G. G. E. , KLINKENBERG BRIAN , PRESSEY ROBERT L.
Published: May 2004

Abstract:  The identification of conservation areas based on systematic reserve‐selection algorithms requires decisions related to both spatial and ecological scale. These decisions may affect the distribution and number of sites considered priorities for conservation within a region. We explored the sensitivity of systematic reserve selection by altering values of three essential variables. We used a 1:20,000–scale terrestrial ecosystem map and habitat suitability data for 29 threatened vertebrate species in the Okanagan region of British Columbia, Canada. To these data we applied a reserve‐selection algorithm to select conservation sites while altering selection unit size and shape, features of biodiversity (i.e., vertebrate species), and area conservation targets for each biodiversity feature. The spatial similarity, or percentage overlap, of selected sets of conservation sites identified (1) with different selection units was ≤40%, (2) with different biodiversity features was 59%, and (3) with different conservation targets was ≥94%. Because any selected set of sites is only one of many possible sets, we also compared the conservation value (irreplaceability) of all sites in the region for each variation of the data. The correlations of irreplaceability were weak for different selection units (0.23 ≤r≤ 0.67), strong for different biodiversity features (r= 0.84), and mixed for different conservation targets (r= 0.16; 0.16; 1.00). Because of the low congruence of selected sites and weak correlations of irreplaceability for different selection units, recommendations from studies that have been applied at only one spatial scale must be considered cautiously.
Ecological Effectiveness of Agri‐Environment Schemes in Different Agricultural Landscapes in The Netherlands
Authors: KLEIJN DAVID , BERENDSE FRANK , SMIT RUBEN , GILISSEN NIELS , SMIT JOHN , BRAK BASTIAAN , GROENEVELD ROLF
Published: May 2004

Abstract:  Agri‐environment schemes are an instrument used by western European countries to counteract the negative effects of contemporary agriculture on biodiversity, but not much is known about their effectiveness. We investigated the ecological effects of Dutch agri‐environment schemes aimed at promoting botanical diversity or meadow birds, and we tested whether the effectiveness of the schemes depends on landscape type or structure. In three different types of landscape, we surveyed plants, birds, bees, and hover flies on 78 paired fields that either had agri‐environment schemes or were managed conventionally, and we collected data on a range of different environmental variables. Neither plant species richness nor abundance of meadow birds was higher on fields with agri‐environment schemes. Landscape type had a significant effect on both species groups, but the effects of the schemes were independent of landscape type. Neither the diversity of plants nor the abundance of birds was related to any of the environmental variables. Agri‐environment schemes designed to promote plant species richness or bird abundance did have positive side‐effects because they enhanced the species richness of bees and hover flies, irrespective of the type of landscape. Furthermore, landscape type, groundwater level (hover flies), and area of wooded edges (bees) significantly affected both species groups. The failure of the schemes to promote the target species may be related to the high intensity of land use in The Netherlands. Simple conservation measures taken by farmers may not be sufficient to counteract the impact of factors that are often controlled at the landscape level (e.g., hydrology). Similar studies in other countries are needed to place the results of our study into a European context.