bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Robert Burns and British Poetry
Authors: Pittock Murray G. H.
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses Robert Burns, a poet who dwelt on the early phase of the poem ‘Resolution and Independence’. It examines the critical introspection that has tended to exclude Burns from an increasingly narrow definition of Romanticism since 1945. The lecture presents an argument that Burns' concerns are in many respects not those of the ‘peasant poet’ or a particularist Scottish writer, but in dialogue with the other major British Romantic poets. Finally, it demonstrates that Burns' self-consciousness, poetic flexibility, and playful use of category and genre demand a deeper understanding of the nature of British Romanticism and of the scope of his achievement within it.
The Old Testament
Authors: Barr James
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses and presents a survey of the Old Testament, beginning with the Hebrew text of the Old Testament and its ancient versions. It examines the rise of traditional biblical criticism and considers a study of the Hebrew language and its cognate Semitic languages. Finally, a survey of various topics and their historical perspectives is provided, along with some recent developments. The main focus of the chapter is to describe the dominant position of the mid-twentieth century.
The medieval church
Authors: Luscombe David
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the contributions that were made by former Fellows of the Academy to the study of the medieval church. It states that the history of the medieval church is inseparable from the general history of the Middle Ages, since the church shaped society and society shaped the church. The chapter determines that no hard and fast distinction can always be made between the works by ecclesiastical historians during the twentieth century, and the contributions made to general history by other historians.
The study of religions
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the study of religions. The first section attempts to define the term ‘religion’, and shows that specific definitions of religion clearly express the inclinations of their propagators. The patterns of religion are examined, followed by a discussion of the various anthropological approaches. The phenomenological approach and social theories of religion are studied, along with reasons and religious belief. The problem of religious diversity is discussed in the latter portion of the chapter.
The Case for Saltational Events in Human Evolution
Authors: Tattersall Ian
Published: February 2012

This chapter argues the case that the speciation of modern Homo sapiens exemplifies the principle of punctuated equilibria, i.e. it is a saltational change. Evolutionary saltation is a rather ill-defined Victorian concept that may contrast in various ways with gradual (linear) evolution. The discussion looks at the human morphological and behavioural records in an attempt to discern pattern in human evolution, and particularly in the emergence of Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens is a variable species, although not notably more so than Homo neanderthalensis, which can itself be understood only in the context of its membership in a diverse clade of endemic European species. The record clearly indicates that both modern human morphology and modern human cognitive processes appeared rather suddenly, even saltationally, although not at the same time.
When did Directional Asymmetry Enter the Record?
Authors: Steele James
Published: February 2012

This chapter reviews evidence for the evolution of primate asymmetries in brain morphology and in behaviour, including the fossil and archaeological record of human evolution. This evidence suggests that, while morphological asymmetries are conserved features of the human brain, human functional asymmetries are derived, at least in their degree and consistency. The discussion offers a partial explanation that takes account of allometric scaling in the evolution of brain size, neocortex size, and intra- and interhemispheric connectivity.
Sexual Selection, Timing and an X–Y Homologous Gene: Did Homo Sapiens Speciate on the Y Chromosome?
Authors: Crow Tim J.
Published: February 2012

This chapter provides a theory of the speciation of modern Homo sapiens, that a single gene played a critical role in the transition from a precursor species. The theory is founded upon the following: firstly, the premise that hemispheric asymmetry is the defining feature of the human brain and the only plausible correlate of language; secondly, an argument for a specific candidate region (the Xq21.3/Yp11.2 region of homology) based upon the reciprocal deficits associated with the sex chromosome aneuploidies, and the course of chromosomal change in hominid evolution; and thirdly, a particular evolutionary mechanism (sexual selection acting on an X-Y-linked gene) to account for species-specific modification of what initially was a saltational change. These postulates relate to the case of modern Homo sapiens. On the basis of the recent literature, the discussion argues that the third premise has general significance as a mechanism of speciation.
Between Anarchy and Community in International Relations
Authors: Mayall James
Published: February 2012

This chapter presents the text of a lecture on international relations. It discusses Stanley Hoffmann's opinion on the matter which is that international relations is a by-product of America's own rise to world power after 1945 and its somewhat solipsistic identification of its own interests with those of the world as a whole. It suggests that international relations should be considered as the science of uncertainty, of the limits of action, of the ways in which states try to manage but never quite succeeded in eliminating their own insecurity.
Trust as a Psychosocial Feeling: Socialization and Totalitarianism
Authors: Waiter Patrick , Marková Ivana
Published: February 2012

Georg Simmel, who is well known for his study of the emerging social conditions of sociality and its forms, developed the analysis of psychosocial feelings and emotional categories in order to grasp the phenomenology of socialization. His ideas on trust, more than those of any other scholar, are pertinent to the study and understanding of trust/fear in totalitarian and post-Communist societies. More specifically, Simmel's concept of trust is based on the self/other dialogical interdependence and psychosocial feelings; multifaceted meanings of trust/distrust in their cultural, historical, and political historical conditions; secrets as reciprocal relations and secret societies; and inductive knowledge gained through different forms of socialization. Totalitarian and semi-totalitarian political regimes thrive on distrust and promote a socialization that displays itself in psychosocial feelings of fear and suspicion. This chapter discusses social relations rather than economic relations, trust and language, socialization of distrust, socialization and totalitarianism, and secrecy in the Soviet bloc.
Diffuse Trust or Diffuse Analysis? The Specificity of Political Distrust in Post-Communist Europe
Authors: Miller William L. , Koshechkina Tatyana Y. , GRØDELAND ÅSE B.
Published: February 2012

Political theorists claim that political trust is located on the continuum that runs from blind faith to enforceable contract. Trust ‘as passion’ borders on blind faith, while trust ‘as calculation’ comes close to enforceable contract. More often located between these extremes, political trust is usually a mix of faith and calculation, varying from largely irrational responses to the charisma of political leaders to largely calculated ‘bets on the actions of others’. This chapter discusses political distrust in post-Communist Europe and looks at four broad categories of potential influences (all negative) on political trust: distrustful citizens, untrustworthy institutions, discordance between citizens and government, and hard times. It also examines incompetence, scandal, dishonesty, and corruption; responsiveness and fairness; the untrustworthiness of elected and unelected officials; and the unfairness that citizens perceive or actually experience.
Introduction
Authors: Anthony F. Heath , Ermisch John , Gallie Duncan
Published: February 2012

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Britain is in the process of rapid social change. There are major changes going on in the patterns of family formation, there is a growing rate of childbirth outside marriage, and the so-called second demographic transition should be noted as well. This book aims to understand and explain the social mechanisms that underlie some of the major features of contemporary social life. It discusses how sociology makes important contributions to public debate about education, gender inequalities, ethnic disadvantage, unemployment and new religious movements.
The Puzzle of Retirement and Early Retirement
Authors: Harper Sarah , Laslett Peter
Published: February 2012

This chapter focuses on early retirement, explaining why at a time of increasing longevity, and in particular healthy and active longevity, there is a continual withdrawal from the labour force of men and women who have not yet reached the formal age of retirement. While the expectation of a healthy life has been steadily growing, between 1950 and 1995 the estimated average age in the UK of the transition from economic employment to economic inactivity by older workers fell from 67.2 to 62.7 years for men and from 63.9 to 59.7 years for women. There are three main explanations for this change. First, economists have taken the view that there exist within most national pension systems incentives to retire. Second, sociologists argued that changes within the workplace and labour market have forced employees to withdraw. Finally, there are the changing attitudes of the workers and a growing internalisation of retirement as an extended period of funded leisure and consumption.
What are the New Religious Movements Doing in a Secular Society?
Authors: Wilson Bryan R. , Barker Eileen
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses one of the major social changes that have taken place in late twentieth-century Britain — secularisation — the process whereby religion loses its social significance. In the second half of the twentieth century there was a major decline in Britain in formal church membership and attendance, although the decline in religious belief is less well established. The chapter also discusses the emergence of new religions in the secular society. They derive from a wide variety of sources: some such as the Jesus Army from the Baptist tradition of Protestant Christianity, others such as the New Jerusalem claim to represent the true Orthodox tradition; many others have a non-Christian character, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness and the Brahma Kumaris have their roots in Hinduism, while Buddhism has given rise to Soka Gakkai and Shinto to Konkokyo; and also Paganism, Wicca, Satanism and traditions deriving from science fiction. The most important point to be made about these new religious movements is that because of their diversity, any generalisation concerning them can almost certainly be shown to be untrue for one or another of their number.
Biography and Autobiography in the Italian Renaissance
Authors: McLaughlin Martin
Published: February 2012

During the period of 1300–1600, autobiography and biography flourished in Italy despite the controversial thesis of the ‘rise of the individual’ during the Italian Renaissance. In the same period, a typology of biographical works emerged distinguishing the Middle Ages and the Renaissance in Italy. These three strands of biography are: collection of lives, a De viris illustribus tradition, revived in Petrarch's work of the same name and inspired by Classical lives of famous rulers, by medieval Viri illustres, and by famous writers and artists; individual biographies, again either of a single ruler or of an individual, and once more derived from Classical models, such as Boccaccio's De vita et moribus Francisci Petrarcchi and Trattatello in laude di Dante; and autobiography, which was pioneered by Petrarch through his Secretum, a purportedly secret dialogue in which St. Augustine was the subject. This chapter discusses distinctive examples of the three strands of biography, with emphasis on the biographies and autobiographies of the writers. It charts the rise and principal developments of these genres during 1350 to 1550.
Freud and the Art of Biography
Authors: Bowie Malcolm
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses Freud and the art of biography. It discusses Freud's psychoanalysis, which took an important role in the structuring of biographies, and the role of writing of lives in clinical psychoanalysis. Although Freud understated the role that writing lives has had in clinical psychoanalysis, biographies nevertheless contributed to Freudian psychoanalysis. While they were initially seen from a different perspective, clinical psychoanalysis is, on the whole, closely related to biography, for the encounter between the ‘analysand’ and the analyst involves the writing and rewriting of a life history.
A Life on Film
Authors: Christie Ian
Published: February 2012

During the twentieth century, the concept of ‘total’ representation emerged as an equivalent to Noël Burch's ‘Frankenstein complex’. ‘Total’ representation has taken on the form of omnipresent surveillance, using an all-powerful system or state in a technological extrapolation of the panopticon of Bentham. This chapter discusses the possible relationship – if any – between the exponential rise of audiovisual recording and the development of biography. It is argued that there are closer links between the early twentieth-century revolution in biography and the rise of cinema than might be supposed. The chapter also tries to show that the meaning of biographical film cannot be reduced to simplistic canons of accuracy, since these are more typically allegorical.
Government and the Judiciary
Authors: Stevens Robert
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the changes in the relation between the government and the judiciary in Great Britain during the twentieth century, explaining that, for much of the twentieth century, the judiciary has been thought more of as a dignified and effective element in the constitution. It argues that as Britain moved from oligarchy to democracy, and as utilitarianism and then liberalism became the fashionable order of the day, the Reform Acts made it appear increasingly inappropriate for the judiciary to intrude into the public law arena.
The Electoral System
Authors: Curtice John
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the changes in the electoral system in Great Britain during the twentieth century, focusing on elections to the House of Commons, and considers franchise, the translation of votes into seats, and the rules about campaigning. It describes the main features and the principal changes that occurred during the course of the twentieth century, and attempts to explain why the electoral system came to have the characteristics it did.
William Spencer Barrett, 1914–2001
Authors: Hollis Adrian
Published: February 2012

Spencer Barrett in many ways seems to have been an old-style Oxford classics don. He did not move very far from his base. He did not lecture outside England (although he was certainly invited to speak in America) and not very often outside Oxford. He did not even visit Greece until middle age, and that was partly to confirm some details of the topography of Trozen about which, essentially, he had already made up his mind. His published work, though superb in quality, was modest in quantity, considering that he had such a long career. In 1964 his book Hippolytus was published, which became essential reading for any scholar working seriously on Greek Tragedy. Apart from Hippolytus, Barrett's most important publication was a sixty-five-page discussion of Sophocles' Niobe (and other plays on the same theme) in Richard Carden's book, The Papyrus Fragments of Sophocles.
Charles Frederick Carter, 1919–2002
Authors: Williams Bruce
Published: February 2012

Charles Carter was appointed Lecturer in Statistics at Cambridge in 1945, and in 1947 became a Fellow of Emmanuel College. He wrote many papers in his six years at Cambridge on a range of post-war economic problems. In 1959 He became Stanley Jevons Professor of Political Economy and Cobden Lecturer at the Victoria University of Manchester. In 1962 the University Grants Committee had appointed a Planning Board to establish the University of Lancaster, with Sir Noel Hall, Principal of Brasenose College, Oxford, as Chairman. The Board made its plans for the nature of the University and its buildings on a greenfields site, and then sought a Vice-Chancellor. Charles Carter was the Board's choice. He soon proved himself to be a superb administrator. When grants for residential buildings were less than expected he borrowed the necessary funds, and had buildings designed suitable for letting to visitors during student vacations. He attracted academic and research staff of high quality, and he was influential in providing for more students choice in the nature of their degree studies.
John Erickson, 1929–2002
Authors: Mackintosh Malcolm
Published: February 2012

John Erickson made his mark as a historian, scholar, soldier and military analyst during a period of major upheaval in international relations after the Second World War — especially in Europe — and during the clash between Soviet Communism and the Western group of nations which became known as the Cold War. He was actively involved in efforts to establish an informed academic dialogue between East and West on arms control issues. The earliest initiative came to Edinburgh through a process which became known as the Edinburgh Conversations.
Geoffrey Stephen Kirk, 1921–2003
Authors: Lloyd-Jones Hugh
Published: February 2012

Between 1949 and 1959, Geoffrey Kirk published several valuable articles on Heraclitus and one on Anaximander; and his book Heraclitus: the Cosmic Fragments appeared in 1954. By this title he indicated those fragments ‘whose subject-matter is the world as a whole, as opposed to men’, on which he supplied a learned and judicious commentary, which has stood the test of time. In 1957 the first edition of The Presocratic Philosophers, edited by Kirk in collaboration with J. E. Raven, appeared. This book is an invaluable substitute for the selection of texts from the almost complete collection of fragments and testimonies edited by H. Diels and W. Kranz that had been provided by H. Ritter and L. Preller (edn. 9, 1913), and it contains a commentary that for the most part is of high quality.
Dimitri Dimitrievich Obolensky, 1918–2001
Authors: Shepard Jonathan
Published: February 2012

By the time that he completed his fiftieth year, Dimitri Obolensky had been Professor of Russian and Balkan History at the University of Oxford for nearly seven years and had achieved distinction in a number of fields. But it was a work then in progress that drew together his literary and historical talents to spectacular effect, offering a new vision of the development of East European history across a thousand-year span. A well-paced narrative and reliable work of reference within a clear conceptual framework, The Byzantine Commonwealth is likely to remain indispensable for anyone interested in exploring the pre-modern history of Europe east of Venice and the Vistula. The distinctive texture of the book not only derives from its blend of careful scholarship and bold advocacy of an idea. There is also a tension, well contained, between the scrupulous presentation of the facts and possible interpretations arising from them and passionate recall of the religious affiliations and values that once had underlain eastern Christendom.
Richard Bruce Wernham, 1906–1999
Authors: Bernard G. W.
Published: February 2012

Bruce Wernham was born on 11 October 1906 at Ashmansworth, near Newbury, Berkshire, the son of a tenant farmer. He attended St Bartholomew's Grammar School, which he remembered with affection all his life, serving as Governor from 1944. In 1925 he went on to Exeter College, Oxford, and took a first in Modern History in 1928. He returned to study towards a D.Phil. His chosen theme was ‘Anglo-French relations in the age of Queen Elizabeth and Henri IV’, a subject that would remain at the centre of his interests for the rest of his life. After a year, he moved to London in order to work on the State Papers in the Public Record Office and the British Museum.
England's Revelry
Authors: Griffin Emma
Published: February 2012

This study looks at the relationship between popular recreations and the spaces in which they took place, and in doing so it provides a history of how England enjoyed itself during the long eighteenth century. Because the poor lacked land of their own, public spaces were needed for their sports and pastimes. Such recreations included: parish wakes and feasts; civic fairs and celebrations; football, cricket and other athletic sports; bull- and bear-baiting; and the annual celebrations of Shrove Tuesday and Guy Fawkes. Three case studies form the core of this book, each looking at the recreations and spaces to be found in different types of settlement: first, the streets and squares of provincial market towns; then the diverse vacant spaces to be found in industrialising towns and villages of the west Midlands and West Riding of Yorkshire; and finally the village greens of rural England. Through a detailed examination of contemporary books, diaries and newspapers, and records in over forty archives, the book addresses the questions of what spaces were used, and what was the interaction with those who used and controlled the land. The Industrial Revolution has been seen to have had a negative impact on popular recreation; through its use of the concept of space, this book provides an alternative to this traditional view.
Popular recreations
Authors: Griffin Emma
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the various qualities of popular recreations, such as being events of intrinsic historical interest and occasional moments of release or reversal. It illustrates some of the ways in which space is important in shaping these customs and practices. Long-forgotten pastimes are also described.
Bull-baiting: intellectual history
Authors: Griffin Emma
Published: February 2012

This chapter attempts to establish the extent of concern for animal suffering during eighteenth-century England. An intellectual history of this sport is provided. It looks at the rapid emergence of hostile criticism about bull-baiting in the late eighteenth-century. The chapter also attempts to situate the outpouring of concern within the wider context of concern about animal cruelty.
Space for recreation in industrial England
Authors: Griffin Emma
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the theme of space. It aims to position the sports and pastimes described in Chapter 6 more firmly within their topographical context. The chapter also discusses these activities using the finer perspective of space. An assessment of how far pressure on space during the early nineteenth-century industrial towns served to constrict the practice of these activities is presented.
New texts and old theories
Authors: Parsons Peter
Published: February 2012

This chapter describes how the concept of ‘classical’ changes over time by the discovery of new texts. Renaissance scholars collected and printed what they could find. Yet returns soon diminished; and the new science of archaeology could apparently do little to help. However, it gradually became apparent that the cities of the Egyptian Greeks preserved in quantity original books and documents in a way not possible in their motherland. And in one aspect, the papyri are an epiphenomenon of Hellenistic and Roman culture. The twentieth century added to the stock of Greek and Latin literature, slowly and piecemeal. Such finds reminds one how much is lost, and how here and there the lost may be found: new pleasures, new contexts, new interpretations, and new blood for the Classics.
The use of images: visual history and ancient history
Authors: Smith R. R. R.
Published: February 2012

This chapter explores the visual aspect, a territory shared with archaeology and art history. The Greek and Roman world poured an astonishing amount of its surplus into expensive monuments and elaborate public images, and their study is naturally an important part of classical archaeology. Unlike many other archaeologies, this subject studies a world extremely well documented by abundant and diverse literary and textual evidence, and it is thus part of the wider classics project. The discussion explores some of the great gains made by recent work in this area and some of the remaining deficiencies. Gains have resulted from application of historically based questions, while deficiencies arise from the still largely untheorised nature of this subject's research and discourse.
Ciceronian correspondences: making a book out of letters
Authors: Beard Mary
Published: February 2012

This chapter exemplifies the complexities of the surviving evidence, looking at the literary works of Cicero. The Letters of Cicero are one of the most extraordinary survivals from the ancient world, and a correspondence that ranks with the great letter collections of all time, from Abelard to Virginia Woolf. This chapter is an experiment in reading those Letters in a radically old-fashioned way. It poses a question: what difference does the order in which one chooses to read it make to our literary, cultural and historical understanding of the collection? It suggests that there is a strong cultural logic in the order of the letters preserved in the manuscripts. It also examines traditional books and Letters to Atticus and to Friends.
Greek history: a discipline in transformation
Authors: Davies John K.
Published: February 2012

This chapter takes a systematic look at one particular sub-discipline, Greek history, from their predecessors, who had created and adorned the heroic age of historical scholarship on the history of ancient Greece. It tries to describe different innovations in studying Greek history as lucidly and as dispassionately as possible. It largely eschews personalities in favour of formats and themes. The second section surveys the main genres of scholarship historically. The third section attempts to identify the main directions and problems which preoccupy scholars at present. The last section presents four case-studies of new material.
Another look at Virgil’s Ganymede
Authors: Hardie Philip
Published: February 2012

The twentieth century was marked by an accelerating intensity of critical attention to Virgil, triggered initially by a revaluation of the merits of Latin literature in comparison to its Greek models. This chapter takes a short passage of the Aeneid, what might appear little more than a vignette, and offers a reading both intensive in its detailed teasing out of the text, and extensive in the networks of allusion and meaning in which this passage is caught. It draws on some of the reader-response approaches which developed in the later part of that century. Michael Putnam's interpretation lays emphasis on elements that are suppressed in this description of the Ganymede story: Jupiter's erotic delight in his human prey, and the triumphant elevation of the boy to immortality on Olympus.
Charity and Usury: Jewish and Christian Lending in Renaissance and Early Modern Italy
Authors: Pullan Brian
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses some of the bitter controversies that arose over the interest levied by many of the Monti. It looks at the efforts that some of them made to avoid any charges at all, and lists the many reasons why Jewish banks survived along with the Monti de Pietà. The author uses the conflict between Shylock and Antonio in The Merchant of Venice to begin the chapter. This conflict may symbolise a rivalry between the Jewish and Christian institutions that was still in progress in Shakespeare's day.
The Foundations of Shakespeare’s Text
Authors: Woudhuysen H. R.
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses the foundations of Shakespeare's text, starting with a summary of the current views of the texts of his plays and how they should be edited. It then discusses the recent work on the attribution of plays and poems to Shakespeare. The lecture addresses some of the assumptions about the status and significance of English Renaissance play texts and the handling of certain typographic features. It also looks at the considerations of the implications of supposing that Shakespeare revised his own works. A critical account of several recent editorial views of those who advocate ‘unediting’ is also presented.
Abraham Lincoln: The Great Emancipator?
Authors: Foner Eric
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses the evolution of Abraham Lincoln's views on slavery and race. It looks at his eventual role as the Great Emancipator, which was given to him in light of the events of the Civil War. During the War Lincoln accepted the idea of ‘colonizing’ former slaves and developed concrete policies regarding slavery. Even before and after the War Lincoln made steps to improve the situation of slaves in America. The Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 is discussed in the lecture as well.
Revenants and Migrants: Hardy, Butler, Woolf and Sebald
Authors: Beer Gillian
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses how far during the twentieth-century writers have trusted memory as good. It compares the longing mistrust of Hardy's poem ‘The Voice’ with the serene re-embodiment of Mrs. Ramsey appearing to the artist Lily in To the Lighthouse. The lecture also discusses the concept of revenants and tries to answer the question of what will happen when migration becomes a common experience, without the likelihood of return.
Scholarship and the Musical: Reclaiming Jerome Kern
Authors: Banfield Stephen
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses Jerome Kern, who provides a convenient and important case study for the reclamation of the musical as historical output. It explores how the cross-disciplinary, unruly, and sometimes ephemeral, materials of popular musical theatre can best be first located and safeguarded. These materials are then reconstituted for the detached assessment they now demand, away from the pressures and traditions of showbusiness and popular canons. The lecture touches on four areas: the changing expectations of genre, the workings of nationalism, the nature and scope of the source materials, and the interplay of creative ambition and commercial expediency.
Working Memory and Learning During the School Years
Authors: Gathercole Susan E.
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses the concept of working memory, which is the capacity to hold material in mind and to manipulate it for brief periods of time. It reveals that there is enough evidence that working memory plays a very important role in supporting many important aspects of learning during childhood. It is also suggested that impairments in learning result directly from failures to meet the working memory demands of many activities in the classroom.
Carving Sutras into Stone before the Catastrophe: The Inscription of 1118 at Cloud Dwelling Monastery near Beijing
Authors: Ledderose Lothar
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses the unearthed engraved stones created by the Buddhist monks of the Cloud Dwelling Monastery. It reveals that the rubbings of the inscriptions on these stones can help in analysing the doctrinal predilections of Tongli. The slabs that were excavated even contain two short texts which were written by Tongli himself, further proving the point that he was a leading figure in the Chan Buddhist school, and had close ties to the imperial court of the Liao dynasty.
Forms and Processes: Some Thoughts on the Meaning of Urbanization in Early Archaic Greece
Authors: De Polignac François
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the forms, process, and meaning of urbanization in the early Archaic Period in Greece. It explains that the Greek world is particularly suitable for a study of the processes of urbanization in the Archaic Mediterranean. Prime candidates for the essential traits of a Greek town are the clear functional distinctions between different types of space, and one such distinction is that between exterior and urban space.
Urbanization in Etruria
Authors: Rasmussen Tom
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the process of urbanization in Etruria. There is general agreement that, in Etruria, urbanization was well under way by the end of the seventh century BC. During this period Tarquinia already showed two of the defining criteria of urban settlement: centralized authority; and state, or public cult. The chapter describes the population figures in Etruria given that urbanization depends on population densities.
Urban Foundations? Colonial Settlement and Urbanization in the Western Mediterranean
Authors: Van Dommelen Peter
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the relation between urbanization and colonial settlement in the western Mediterranean and evaluates whether the Mediterranean should be considered an urban region. It investigates the interconnection between urbanization and colonialism and analyses archaeological evidence for early colonial settlement, focusing on Greek colonization in South Italy and Sicily and the Phoenician presence on the Tyrrhenian islands and the Spanish south-east coast. The findings indicate that the urban fabric of many colonial foundations does not necessarily have to be understood in urban terms.
Science in Nineteenth-Century England: Plural Configurations and Singular Politics
Authors: Pickstone John
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the sciences and their politics in the nineteenth-century. It characterises Victorian science, technology and medicine, and states how they relate to state institutions and to scientific professions. It begins by suggesting a model for the configurations of natural knowledge in the late eighteenth century. It then deals with sciences and institutions, suggesting that these disciplines owed much to French museums and professional schools, and to German universities. It also considers three generations of scientist: first, the Anglican gentlemen of the British Association of the Advancement of Science (BAAS) in the 1830s; secondly, T. H. Huxley and his associates from the 1850s; and thirdly, a few professors who developed research laboratories from the 1870s. It asks what they understood about the meanings of science as a claimed unity and how they relate to the social and political projects variously characteristic of each generation.
Classifying Sciences: Systematics and Status in mid-Victorian Natural History
Authors: Endersby Jim
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses mid-Victorian natural history sciences, focusing on the disputes over the classification within both the zoological and botanical communities. Zoologists argued over the merits of William Macleay’s quinary system, claiming that all organisms could be classified in groups of five. Botanists attacking the Linnaean or sexual system were divided over what should replace it; the most widely used of its rivals was known as the natural system. Several metropolitan naturalists felt the need to bring stability by settling these arguments. Hugh Strickland was the most prominent zoological stabiliser, an opponent of quinarianism and other forms of classificatory radicalism. Strickland established the world’s first formal rules of zoological nomenclature and attempted to use the authority of the British Association to impose them on naturalists.
Victorian Social Science: From Singular to Plural*
Authors: Goldman Lawrence
Published: February 2012

This chapter provides an overview of the history of social science in Britain and the ways in which it was institutionalised in the nineteenth century. Nineteenth-century social science was the product of three great changes, intellectual, material and spiritual. The European Enlightenment stimulated the development of and institutionalisation of the natural sciences, creating a new model for the study of human societies. The material changes include the expansion of population, growth of industries and manufacturing and development of mass culture and democracy. Rationalism and industrialisation caused the third change, the decline of conventional Christian belief and worship. The chapter also analyses the ‘statistical movement’, a dominant genre of social science up to 1860, and social evolution, which provided the leading paradigm for sociological thinking from the mid-century onwards.
Political Economy and the Science of Economics in Victorian Britain
Authors: Tribe Keith
Published: February 2012

This chapter looks at the historical understanding of political economy. It also describes the transformation of political economy as a general understanding of wealth and its distribution to a new science of economics. This transition can be linked to the expanding system of public education during the later end of the nineteenth century and the reorganisation of university life around teaching and research in modern subjects. The movement for wider access to higher education was associated with the formation of new university subjects in the humanities. Among these modern subjects, commerce and economics were prominent as new disciplines of study relevant to the modern world.
The Academy Abroad: The Nineteenth-Century Origin of the British School at Athens
Authors: Beard Mary , Stray Christopher
Published: February 2012

This chapter focuses on the foundation and early history of the British School at Athens. It shows how the story of such foreign institutes intersects with many of the key issues in the rethinking of the Classics in the late Victorian period. These issues involve: the role of archaeology within the study of Classics, how archaeology was to be defined and bounded, and the relationship between the study of Classics and the modern lands of Greece and Italy, particularly in the light of growing middle class tourism and its infrastructures.
The Russo-Turkish War, 1828–1829
Authors: Bitis Alexander
Published: February 2012

This chapter covers the 1828–9 Turkish war. It focuses on strategy, main operations and the role of personality, with less attention paid to tactics, supplies, logistics and the overall administration of the army. It considers the preparations for war, including the war budget, men and supplies; the 1828 Balkan campaign; the 1828 Caucasian campaign; political and military developments from October 1828 to April 1829; the 1829 Balkan campaign; and the 1829 Caucasian campaign.
Accuracy, Independence, and Trust
Authors: O’Neill Onora
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the issues of accuracy and trust involved in the Hutton Report. It explains that Lord Hutton's interpretation of the events surrounding the death of David Kelly led him to focus on a range of accusations and counter-accusations. The British government and the BBC had accused one another of inaccuracy and of making partly untruthful claims. This chapter suggests that though many of the documents disclosed in the Hutton Report rely on procedures that help secure accuracy, some of the people quoted in the report made claims that turned out to be inaccurate and they also dispensed with procedures that are important for securing accuracy.
Taking Stock: Scotland at the End of the Seventeenth Century
Authors: Whatley Christopher A.
Published: February 2012

This chapter provides a summary of the straits in which Scotland found itself in the opening years of the eighteenth century. It also presents the strengths and weaknesses of Scotland's economic position around the beginning of the reign of Queen Anne. It concludes by drawing some connections between economic conditions and the incorporating union. It is intended to argue that by the end of the century the achievements of the previous eight or nine decades in Scotland were being undermined by the country's losing struggle to maintain its position as a credible political entity. The consequences of the deeply troubled circumstances in which the Scots found themselves at the start of the reign of Queen Anne were profound. The Scots had to surrender their parliamentary independence, but not all that they valued as distinctively Scottish institutions and culture, and accede to the British incorporating union.
The Law of the Sea and the Two Unions
Authors: Ford John
Published: February 2012

This chapter explores the problems which union posed to maritime lawyers of both nations. It approaches the questions from an oblique angle by asking why in one area it did become possible to speak with some plausibility of a body of British law. In particular, it tries to address why lawyers in Scotland began to accept between the Unions of 1603 and 1707 that their sea law might need to be exposed to influence from south of the border. It then considers why the handling of maritime matters excepted from the general insistence on the preservation of a separate legal system in Scotland. A theoretical difference between approving the customs of mariners and determining the requirements of international law is vital, for it displays that the move towards developing a British law of the sea cannot simply have led from recognition that many maritime disputes had to be determined in accordance with international law. To secure the coasts against invasion and to promote mutual trade, there had to be a British admiralty regulating the exercise of jurisdiction over British ships in the British seas.
Scotland and the Monarchy in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Finlay Richard J.
Published: February 2012

This chapter demonstrates that Queen Victoria had a talent for interpreting and manipulating history, adopting national identities and evoking a significant response. It also discusses the English reaction when the ‘Stone of Destiny’ was (briefly) taken from Westminster Abbey in 1950 by nationalist students from Glasgow University. It specifically explores Scottish perceptions of the monarchy as part of a wider British identity in Scotland. It begins by briefly outlining the ways in which Victoria re-established the notion of monarchy in Scottish society. The contrast between the popular perception of Victoria and her heir, Edward, is examined to illustrate how notions of Scottishness were significant in identifying the attitudes towards the monarchy. It then addresses the period surrounding the coronation of Queen Elizabeth as it took place in 1953, the 350th anniversary of the Union of the Crowns. It further evaluates some of the reasons why the effect of monarchy as a unifying factor in British identity has decreased in Scotland over the last twenty years. There has been a steady decline in the number of Scots who served in the armed forces in the period after 1945.
National Identities and Twentieth-Century Scottish Migrants in England
Authors: McCarthy Angela
Published: February 2012

This chapter presents a preliminary examination of the twentieth-century Scottish migrant experience within England by investigating notions of national identity as articulated by individual migrants. It also shows that the analysis of interviews with Scottish immigrants in England reveal ‘predominantly favourable accounts of life in England’ and indicate that ‘Scots did not receive a hostile reception’. The six interviews used here for the exploration of Scottish identity were sourced from the National Sound Archive at the British Library. For the purposes of this discussion, expressions of identity are confined to Scottish-born migrants. In exploring what Scottish identities meant to these migrants, the chapter is mainly concerned with personal manifestations of Scottishness. The internal character of Scottishness briefly outlined in this chapter can misleadingly suggest that Scots were integrated into the societies they settled in. Moreover, the testimonies indicate that interpretations of Scottish identity have for too long been reliant on domestic conditions in Scotland.
New Unions for Old
Authors: MacCormick Neil
Published: February 2012

This chapter recommends a reversion from the 1707 Union of Parliaments to the 1603 Union of Crowns (though not of governments). Its argument is originally submitted to the joint attention of the Royal Society and the British Academy on a date very close to 5 November 2003. James succeeded in preserving peace in the islands during his long reign — long in England itself, longer yet in Scotland. In Westminster as well as Edinburgh and elsewhere, real power has come to be invested in parliaments, and thus in the governments that command parliamentary majorities through the dominance of political parties. The UK system works so long as party ties make more or less unquestioned the loyalty of the head of a devolved Scottish government to the head of the United Kingdom government. Generally, the present contribution is offered primarily as a scholarly, not a political one. It is enough if it has sketched grounds for taking seriously the question what ‘new unions for old’ might mean.
Poetic Influence on Prose: The Case of the Younger Seneca
Authors: Hine H. M.
Published: February 2012

Seneca used poetic vocabulary in his prose. Such statements seem ultimately to be based on the work of Summers and Bourgery. The work of Summers is the best short introduction to Seneca’s prose style. Bourgery spread his net rather more widely than Summers, listing first phrases in Seneca’s prose that are reminiscences of specific passages of earlier Latin poets. Five general observations on the methodology used by Summers and Bourgery are shown. The chapter also takes account of these observations as it first revisits the approach of Summers and Bourgery, and then shows how different approaches can be used to look for poetic elements in Seneca’s prose. The categories of word, namely (1) words absent from both Cicero’s and Seneca’s prose, (2) words whose absence from Seneca’s prose is probably accidental, (3) words that are common in earlier prose but not found in Seneca’s prose, and (4) words mainly found in poetry, but also in Cicero’s prose, are described. There have been a number of predominantly poetic words that are used by Cicero in his prose, but not by Seneca in his; and it is seen how genre and context are important for understanding Cicero’s uses of these words.
The Language of Pliny the Elder
Authors: Pinkster Harm
Published: February 2012

This chapter suggests that long sentences need not be ‘periods’. It also aims to take Pliny seriously in his own right and shows a few characteristics of his language in the light of his general aims. Pliny’s work covers a broad range of topics, some of which were more accessible for his audience than others, some of which were known in more detail in his time than others, and some of which human participants were more involved than in others. Although Pliny clearly views nature from the perspective of its significance for human beings, his text is nevertheless the largest work in Latin that is not chiefly anthropocentric in its subject matter, and therefore a welcome source for statistically ‘deviant’ linguistic structures. The chapter then addresses a few features of Pliny’s language that are not, or are less, determined by his subject matter. The overall organization of the material is very careful, down to the smallest detail.
‘Langues réduites au lexique’? The Languages of Latin Technical Prose
Authors: Langslow D. R.
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the characteristics of technical prose in some modern languages as well as in Latin. It specifically aims to question the assertion that Latin technical languages are nothing more than sets of technical terms, and to touch on one or two aspects of Latin technical prose in antiquity and the early Middle Ages. Throughout, the focus is mainly on linguistic features other than the terminology, although part of the argument is that vocabulary is inseparably intertwined with syntax and style. The chapter starts with the question of the definition of technical languages and the scope of their study, and then provides a contention that Latin technical languages are not simply sets of lexical items.