bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Future Water‐level Declines in Deep Sandstone Wells in Chicago Region
Authors: Walton W. C.
Published: July 2006

Future water‐level declines in deep sandstone wells penetrating the Cambrian‐Ordovician Aquifer, the most highly developed aquifer for large ground‐water supplies in the Chicago region, are considered. The Cambrian‐Ordovician Aquifer is encountered at an average depth of about 500 feet below the land surface at Chicago; it has an average thickness of 1000 feet and is composed chiefly of sandstones and dolomites. Recharge is received from overlying glacial deposits in areas averaging 47 miles west of Chicago and from leakage through a shale confining bed.

Geohydrologic conditions are simulated by a model aquifer, i. e., a semi‐infinite rectilinear strip of sandstones and dolomites 84 miles wide and 1000 feet thick. The model aquifer is bounded by a recharge boundary 47 miles west of Chicago and by two intersecting barrier boundaries 37 miles east and 60 miles south of Chicago, and is overlain by a confining bed consisting mostly of shale averaging 200 feet thick. The hydraulic properties of the model aquifer and its confining bed, the image‐well theory, and appropriate ground‐water formulas are used to construct a mathematical model which provides a means of evaluating the practical sustained yield of the aquifer and predicting future water‐level declines. Records of past pumpage and water levels establish the validity of this mechanism as a model of the response of the aquifer to heavy pumping.

Pumpage from deep sandstone wells concentrated in six pumping centers has increased from 200,000 gallons per day (gpd) in 1864 to 96.5 millions of gallons per day (mgd) in 1961. As a result of heavy pumping, water levels in deep sandstone wells declined more than 650 feet at Chicago between 1864 and 1961.

The maximum amount of water that can be continually withdrawn from existing pumping centers without creating critical water levels or exceeding recharge is estimated to be about 46 mgd. Withdrawals from the Cambrian‐Ordovician Aquifer have exceeded the practical sustained yield since 1959. It is estimated that about 65 mgd could be obtained by shifting one existing pumping center toward the west and by adding 2 new pumping centers north and northwest of Chicago.

Unless lake water is made available to those areas with short supply a pumpage increase from 96.5 mgd in 1961 to 243 mgd in 2010 can be expected. Using this pumpage increase and taking into consideration dewatering of portions of upper units of the aquifer, declines in nonpumping water levels that may be expected between 1963 and 2010 at existing pumping centers were computed by using the mathematical model.

Pumping water levels in most pumping centers will be at critical stages a few feet above the top of the lowermost and most productive unit of the aquifer by 2010.
Case Histories of Resistivity and Seismic Ground‐Water Studies
Authors: Carpenter G. C. , Bassarab D. R.
Published: July 2006

Numerous articles have been written in the past on the methods and techniques of resistivity and seismic exploration in ground‐water studies, however, few articles ever show why a specific type of survey was chosen and what the results or relative costs of such a survey were. In this paper, the authors have attempted to illustrate why particular techniques are chosen and indicate the actual results of the study. In addition, the general cost of the study is mentioned so that one might compare the cost versus other savings or benefits on the project.

The four studies indicate that savings on projects may vary from many thousands of dollars to good will depending on the nature of the problem to be solved.
Progress in the Water Well Construction Industrya
Authors: Guardino S. T.
Published: July 2006

The modern water well contractor is a combination structural engineer, mechanic, geologist and sanitarian. Contractor's skills and accumulated knowledge should be assembled within an area and used as the basis for design and water well specifications. Engineering a water well should have the primary objective of obtaining an adequate supply of potable water, with equal importance placed upon the protection of the source of supply.

The drilling of a test bore should be included in the design of every water well. A properly drilled and accurately logged test bore can determine exact design features and equipment requirements. In an area where formation samples may be deceiving and where a more accurate log is required, it is possible to contract for an electric log of the test bore. When it is essential to obtain truly representative samples in an uncontaminated form, core samples may be taken as the test bore is being drilled.

Well drillers have the right in most places to procure water for the consumers in the quantities available, and along with this right, they have the obligation of preventing contamination or depletion of the source of supply. It is the well drilling contractor's position to either directly design his projects or consult with the designing agent, making recommendations that will enhance quality rather than convenience or economy.

The water well driller should acquaint his customer with modern construction procedures and modern water well design just as he has become aware of building codes and architectural specifications in the construction of buildings and homes. Contractors must keep pace with the achievements of technical people associated with the water well industry by self‐education and incentive. The water well industry should be, and is, proud of its responsibility.

The design and construction of a water well is no longer limited to the procurement of underground water, but also entails certain obligations on the part of the designer or contractor. Every industry, particularly those who produce consumer goods, have certain responsibilities, but none of their products are as absolutely essential to the existance of life or have a more important role in the social and economic welfare of mankind than the product of the water well drilling industry.

No other group has more knowledge of the vast underground water resources or the importance of the
Percussion‐Reverse Circulation Water‐Well Drilling System Designed and Developed in Italy
Authors: Massarenti Ing. Mario
Published: July 2006

This paper describes the new percussion‐reverse circulation system, designed and developed in Italy for water‐well drilling. In a special reverse circulation rig, the percussion bit, consisting of a tube with external welded blades, slides up and down on the outside of the hollow drill pipes, while the hollow drill pipes remain still. The field of application of the reverse circulation method is thus enormously enlarged; either hard, cemented formations or soft, unconsolidated deposits, as well as big boulders of any size are bored much faster and more efficiently than with any other method of drilling, provided that a sufficient source of water is available.
Water Resource Management in the Prospect Valley Area, Coloradoa
Authors: Skinner M. M.
Published: July 2006

This paper is essentially a summary of observations and conclusions of a 3 year hydrologic study (Skinner, 1963) in Prospect Valley, Colorado. A general description of the area is presented, including a brief review of the geology and hydrology with special emphasis on the surface and ground‐water supplies for irrigation. The effects of an artificial ground‐water recharge operation on ground‐water levels and ground‐water quality are discussed. Based on historical water deliveries some water resource management aspects are proposed involving conjunctive use of surface and ground‐water supplies.
Why Electric Log Water Wells?
Authors: Zoblin C. W.
Published: July 2006

This paper describes an electric log and what it can do for water well contractors and ground‐water hydrologists. Electric logs furnish data on depth of hole, where casing should be set and perforated, static water levels, relative water‐yielding properties of aquifers, water quality, character of formations encountered, etc. The electric log is a permanent record of a water well which can assist in planning future repair work.
Artificial Recharge of Surface Water to the Ogallala Formation in the High Plains of Texasa
Authors: Valliant James
Published: July 2006

In 1957, the High Plains Research Foundation, Plainview, Texas, initiated a full scale program to investigate all factors affecting the recharge of surface water to the ground‐water formation. Some of the factors being investigated and studied are: rate of recharge, effects of solids contained in the lake water being recharged, maintenance practices, and evaluation of different filtering materials. This program was started because of concern about the declining water table and the potential of the lakes as a means of recharging the formation.

Artificial ground‐water recharge in the High Plains is accomplished by injecting water collected in playa lakes into a well constructed for this purpose. Either by gravity or pumping, water is placed back into the underground formation through the well casing in reverse of the pumping process. These wells can be used for irrigation crops as regular irrigation wells.
An Empirical Model Study of Cones of Depression Produced by Pumping Wellsa
Authors: Lehr J. H.
Published: July 2006

It is of the utmost importance that ground‐water users understand the basic concept that all the ground water within a single set of hydrologic and geologic boundaries is part of a single hydrologic system. It is therefore worthwhile for all ground‐water users to understand the manner in which ground water moves through the pore spaces of saturated rock and to understand the various configurations of the water table brought about by the pumping of water table wells. The movement of ground water is illustrated in two hydraulic models which were constructed in order to bring ground‐water flow into surroundings where it can be visually observed. The models consist of watertight plexi‐glass cases containing a porous consolidated mixture of sand and epoxy resin, which simulates a true sandstone. The models are used to study cones of depression produced by pumping wells. Photographic histories of several ground‐water flow conditions are illustrated.
Ground‐Water Recharge Hydrologya
Authors: Schiff Leonard
Published: July 2006

The hydrology of ground‐water recharge depends upon the physical and chemical characteristics of both soil and water. These characteristics must be measured and related to subsurface storage space and water movements to determine the feasibility of a site for recharge and to select appropriate methods and systems of recharge. Then water may be efficiently stored underground to be used independently or conjunctively with releases from surface storage reservoirs.
The Problem of Integrating Ground‐Water and Surface Water Usea
Authors: Bittinger M. W.
Published: July 2006

The problem of integrating or coordinating surface water and ground‐water use is becoming serious in many areas where the two supplies are hydraulically connected. Because surface waters were generally developed first in the West, later development of connected ground‐water supplies has tended to devaluate the prior appropriations on the streams. Legally, those withdrawing such ground water may be in jeopardy. However, the highest beneficial use of the total water resources can only be obtained through a combined or integrated use of both surface and ground water. A simple hypothetical stream‐aquifer situation is used to illustrate the influence of ground‐water pumping upon surface flows and water available for diversion. One example of a possible solution is presented. Legal and economic factors must also be considered in designing the best physical situation.
State Programs in Water‐Resources Investigation
Authors: Sokol Daniel , Cook E. F.
Published: July 2006

Eighty‐one state agencies are engaged in hydrologic investigations. Many of these agencies have vigorous programs involving many phases of water resources; a few merely administer state funds in state‐federal cooperative programs. The scopes of activities differ from state to state and include observation‐well measurement, stream gaging, areal investigation, site investigation, statewide compilation, drilling test wells, cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey, providing geologic support for hydrologic investigations, basic research, studying special problems, and publication of hydrologic reports.
Geohydrological and Geophysical Investigations Near Izmir, Turkeya
Authors: Bierschenk W. H.
Published: July 2006

Alluvial aquifers underlying Cigli Air Base near Izmir, Turkey are moderarely permeable (Pf= 1,600 gallons per day per square foot) but contain brackish waters. To circumvent the need for construction of an expensive electro‐dialysis treatment plant, an area several miles to the north was explored for water of good quality to meet the base requirement of 600 gallons per minute.

Forty‐eight vertical resistivity soundings were made along six traverses. Profiles thus obtained delineated an area favorable for testing. Test drilling at or near three recommended locations resulted in three supply wells completed in an 11 to 23 foot thick gravelly sand 260 or more feet deep.

The aquifer is artesian and tests indicated a field coefficient of permeability (Pf) in the range 5,000 to 8,500 gallons per day per square foot with declines to the south. Step‐drawdown test data suggested that the design capacity of the three wells, from north to south, be 800, 500, and 400 gallons per minute, respectively.

Water sampled during pumping tests is chemically good, with a maximum 490 parts per million total solids and a maximum 50 parts per million chlorides. The danger of salt‐water encroachment is present, however, and well waters are being sampled routinely so that encroachment may be detected early and consequent remedial action taken.
Ground Water and Underground Gas Storage
Authors: Bays C. A.
Published: July 2006

Much underground gas storage depends on the presence of ground water for its effectiveness. Many of the techniques of the geohydrologist are useful in exploration, design, and development of underground storage fields for natural gas. Both local and regional geologic and hydrologic conditions are pertinent to gas storage effectiveness. Behavior of water in aquifers and their caprock zones can be used to predict behavior with gas. Leakage has been common in underground gas storage.

Conflict between the public interest in gas storage and water resource development as both are expanded in the future is to be anticipated. There are many problems yet remaining in the development of underground gas storage to insure the complete effectiveness of design and operation.
A Reconnaissance Appraisal of Ground‐Water Potential and Development in Saskatchewan, Canadaa
Authors: Mollard J. D.
Published: July 2006

Ground water, being essentially free of salt and suspended matter, generally free of contamination from chemical and bacterial waste and relatively stable in temperature, is attractive to industries, municipalities, farmers and urbanized society in Saskatchewan. However, ground‐water reservoirs are difficult to locate and evaluate and ground water tends to be highly mineralized when compared to surface water. Suspected ground‐water reservoirs do not represent a capital asset until they are proven up, at least partially, and catalogued.

It is possible that some 2 × 108 million gallons of water are stored in the glacial drift beneath southern Saskatchewan. Pumpage of ground water was about 50 million gallons per day in 1963, or about 1.8 × 104 million gallons per year. If we were to prospect as diligently and as successfully for ground water throughout southern Saskatchewan as we already have to locate 14 million gallons per day around many of our cities, towns and villages, theoretically we should locate another 486 million gallons per day of recoverable ground water.

Because present pumpage of ground water is small, the ground‐water reservoir in southern Saskatchewan is still essentially full. However, the amount of usable ground water actually recoverable will remain difficult to estimate reliably until we receive more refined information on amounts of ground‐water recharge and on the dependable productive capabilities of some of our Province's major aquifers.

Most municipal ground‐water supplies in Saskatchewan contain total dissolved solids in the order of 500 to 1500 parts per million. Hardness usually falls in the 200 to 900 parts per million range; alkalinity is regularly below 600 parts per million and iron below 6 parts per million. While waters in many aquifers in the lower part of the glacial drift and in the underlying bedrock in Saskatchewan are often very highly mineralized, this water is customarily suitable for stock‐watering purposes. There is great need in Saskatchewan for the development of a small‐unit demineralizer that is within the budget of the average farmer.

Aquifers in Saskatchewan most suitable for development include surficial sand and gravel, sand and gravel in buried bedrock valleys and other sand and gravel within the glacial drift. High salinity, low permeability, customary great depth below ground surface, difficult and costly drilling, and difficult and costly well construction and well development make bedrock aquifers unattractive except for certain types of industries that can use inferior quality water.

There is much merit in following a systematic and scientific procedure when trying to locate ground‐water supplies. Any sequence of steps or phases followed must consider the elements of economy, quality of work, speed and efficiency. Mathematical and electric analog models are useful when trying to forecast the long‐term dependable yields of aquifers under different pumping schemes.
Economics and Ground‐Water Developmenta
Authors: Hartman L. M.
Published: July 2006

The economics of ground‐water resource development and use are discussed. After a consideration of the welfare criteria, problems of defining and managing property rights are presented. The interrelated nature of ground‐water use and external effects resulting from uncoordinated individual action lead to inefficiencies in ground‐water development and use unless appropriate institutional arrangements have been made.
Hydrologic Aspects of the Disposal of Oil‐Field Brines in Alabamaa
Authors: Knowles D. B.
Published: July 2006

Contamination of fresh‐water supplies by the disposal of oil‐field brines occurs on a small scale in Alabama. The problems that exist, however, are symptoms of potentially serious problems in the management of oil‐field wastes.

The sources of contamination are: 1) evaporation pits and 2) leaks in pipelines or well‐head connections to disposal wells. The storage capacity and construction of many pits are inadequate for the evaporation of the quantity of brine they receive. Waste overflows during rainstorms, affecting vegetation in surrounding areas. Some of the brine overflowing from the evaporation pits or percolating to the water table from the pits or leaks in pipelines moves to the nearest stream. The base flow of some streams in the oilfield areas is maintained by highly mineralized ground‐water inflow.

Pits should be used only if: 1) the pit is constructed in an area underlain by semi‐impermeable material, and 2) the storage capacity and construction of the pits is adequate for the quantity of brine and storm runoff they receive.

The elimination of contamination from leaks in pipelines and wellhead connections can be accomplished through an effective system of monitoring.
Planning a Ground‐Water Programa
Authors: Walton W. C.
Published: July 2006

Skilled planning is essential to achieve the level of efficiency in ground‐water resource evaluation programs which will be required in the future with foreseeable manpower and money limitations. The planning effort must be broader in scope in the future than it has been in the past if ground‐water hydrologists are to successfully cope with an expanding number of marginal ground‐water development projects. To insure adequate consideration of all factors, planning procedures should provide for reconnaissance type quantitative analyses of ground‐water conditions before committments concerning scope and emphasis of the program are made. A substantial amount of careful computation should be included as an integral part of the planning effort.
Geoelectrical and Seismic Refraction Investigations Near San Jose, Californiaa
Authors: Zohdy Adel A. R.
Published: July 2006

The geoelectrical resistivity method, in conjunction with a few seismic refraction profiles, is used to locate permeable strata for the artificial recharge of ground water. Both Schlumberger and Wenner electrode configurations are used in carrying out the resistivity measurements. Possibilities and limitations in the interpretations of some sounding curves are discussed. An attempt to interpret (horizontal) resistivity profiles in terms of theoretical profiles over hemispherical sinks is included.

The results of the seismic refraction profiles seem to show that, within the depth of interest, the alluvial strata lack a good elastic differentiation. On the other hand, the resistivity measurements have indicated the presence of buried stream channels. The discovery of one such channel is confirmed by later drilling and a good correlation is shown between geoelectrical predictions and geologic findings. It is shown that the construction of isoresistivity maps can greatly contribute to the successful performance and interpretation of electrical soundings.
Tracing the Continuity of Pleistocene Aquifers in Northern New Jersey by Seismic Methodsa
Authors: Gill H. E. , Vecchioli J. , Bonini W. E.
Published: July 2006

Seismic refraction measurements were used to draw a new bedrock contour map in Morris County, New Jersey, where the major ground‐water supplies are found in Quaternary sand and gravel deposits filling pre‐Pleistocene channels. Aquifer performance tests aided in tracing the continuity of the Quaternary aquifers in these channels. In one case, the lack of continuity between two wells substantiated the seismic prediction that two separate channels were involved.

The success of the seismic exploration emphasizes the value of using such methods, so that test drilling can be devoted to exploring the more favorable areas for production wells.
Estimating Water Quality, West Bengal, India
Authors: Chatterjee K. N.
Published: July 2006

In this paper a way of estimating the probable character of the water in sand aquifers is explained with examples. Comparative chemical quality of water from many types of sand formations generally encountered during drilling may be predicted with considerable accuracy by observing the color of an aquifer sand and its depth. This approximate method of “guessing” water chemistry, if properly used, can do much to guide the water well contractors. It may often fail due to incorrect application of the technique rather than a failure of the technique.
Recharge Distribution Determined by Analog Modela
Authors: Matlock W. G.
Published: July 2006

A two‐dimensional, passive element electric analog model was used to determine the spatial distribution of natural ground‐water recharge in the Santa Cruz River basin of southern Arizona. Existing records were used to draw a ground‐water level contour map of the area in its undeveloped condition. The model was made to duplicate these contours by varying inputs from known locations of recharge. Recharge distribution as determined by the model was consistent with previous estimates, but no direct correlation was found with the contributing drainage area.
Digital Computer Methods for Water‐Quality Dataa
Authors: Morgan C. O. , Dingman R. J. , McNellis J. M.
Published: July 2006

The digital computer is used on a routine basis in the ground‐water program in Kansas for tasks ranging from the listing of water‐quality data in tabular and publishable form to statistically and graphically analyzing a mass of data.

In the past year a number of computer programs in FORTRAN IV have been developed by Charles O. Morgan and Jesse M. McNellis using an IBM‐7040 computer to store, retrieve, and manipulate water‐quality data. These programs:

(1) Tabulate data at the rate of 40 chemical analyses of water per minute in a format similar to that found in the Kansas ground‐water publications.

(2) Perform necessary calculations and print Stiff diagrams at the rate of 30 per minute.

(3) Perform necessary calculations and print Piper diagrams, including a square modification of the normally diamond‐shaped cation‐anion diagram, and trilinear diagrams of the cations and anions. The symbol representing the analyses located on the diagrams can be designated by either an analysis number or a geologic unit number. A cation‐anion diagram showing the average chemical composition of water for an aquifer can also be printed. These diagrams for 50 analyses can be produced in 1.5 minutes.

(4) Plot maps of 42 individual, combined, or calculated parameters obtained from the data cards. These maps can be plotted to any specified scale and for as many as 10 designated geologic units. Computer time involved for one map with 50 plotted points is 15 seconds.

It is estimated that the use of these programs will save several man‐months during a ground‐water study, and the error inherent in the manual manipulation of data is greatly reduced. The present cost for running 50 analyses through the four water‐quality programs on the computer is approximately $20.
New Graduate Program in Hydrogeology at the University of innesota
Authors: Graf D. L.
Published: July 2006

A graduate program in hydrogeology is described, in which the field is defined as encompassing the whole range of processes operating in water and water‐mineral mixtures at and near the earth's surface. The interdisciplinary character of this training is insured by requiring both a minor from another department and course work in other sub‐disciplines of hydrogeology in addition to the one in which the thesis is carried out. The importance of nonscientific aspects of hydrogeology is recognized by allowing for minors in fields such as economics and business administration.
Geochemistry and Ground‐Water Movement in Northwestern Minnesotaa
Authors: Maclay R. W. , Winter T. C.
Published: July 2006

The relation between water quality and water movement within the ground‐water reservoir may be better understood if studies of flow systems are used in conjunction with hydrochemical methods. Within small watersheds, local, intermediate, and regional flow systems may develop, depending upon the shape, the relief, and the thickness of the ground‐water reservoir. Lateral and vertical variations of water quality in the ground‐water reservoir reflect the difference in length of flow paths within a system. The relative ion concentration of the major ions in solution in ground waters change as water moves from recharge areas to discharge areas. These changes are used to interpret the direction and rate of ground‐water movement.

Ground‐water types mapped in the Two Rivers watershed of northwestern Minnesota indicate that calcium bicarbonate type water occurs near the source of recharge and progressively changes to the sulfate type as water moves downgradient toward the discharge area. Local recharge areas are indicated by the greater penetration of calcium bicarbonate waters into the ground‐water reservoir. The calcrum bicarbonate type water of surface streams during low flow indicates that water moves into the stream from the upper part of the ground‐water reservoir. Chloride type water moves from the Paleozoic rocks and mixes with water in the glacial drift probably at places where permeable zones in the Paleozoic rocks are in contact with the overlying drift.
An Electrical Analog Study of the Geometry of Limestone Solution
Authors: Bedinger M. S.
Published: July 2006

This study of the geometry of limestone solution is based on the following conditions: (1) the limestone is impermeable but contains and transmits water in joints, fractures, bedding‐plane partings, and solution channels; (2) at depth, the limestone aquifer is underlain by impermeable rock; (3) ground water in the limestone is under water‐table conditions; (4) recharge to the limestone is by infiltration of precipitation through the overlying rock to the zone of saturation; (5) discharge from the aquifer is by seeps and springs; and (6) ground water dissolves the limestone through which it flows, continuously modifying the flow pattern and the hydrologic properties of the medium. These conditions commonly are found in limestone terranes in the eastern and central United States. An electrical analog was constructed conforming to this description of the ground‐water flow system and has been used to define the pattern, velocity, and density of ground‐water flow and the relative length of time of contact of water with the aquifer. Successive models are used to illustrate progressive limestone solution and changes in ground‐water flow in the aquifer. The initial analog indicates a strongly convex water table with the greatest density of flow at shallow depths beneath the water table near the point of discharge. Successive models indicate greater concentration of flow near and on the level of ground‐water discharge, an overall lowering of the water table, and a pronounced flattening of the water table near the discharge point.

Results of the analog study support the following conclusions:

(1) The most active zone of solution is at shallow depths beneath the water table and near the point of ground‐water discharge. Consequently, the size of channels generally decreases with depth and increases with proximity to the point of ground‐water discharge.

(2) Generally, solution channels have a greater lateral than vertical extent.
Maximum Drawdown in Intermittently Pumped Wells
Authors: Tavener G. F.
Published: July 2006

A method is presented for computing maximum drawdown in a well being pumped intermittently but in accordance with a regular sequence of fixed periods of pumping at constant discharge followed by fixed periods of rest. The method is extended to allow for interruption of the basic pattern by occasional changes such as the elimination of the pumping phase from certain individual cycles.
Artificial Ground‐Water Recharge Investigations in Northeastern Illinois
Authors: McDonald C. K. , Sasman R. T.
Published: July 2006

The rapidly increasing development of ground‐water resources in northeastern Illinois has brought about regional and local problems of water supply, thus creating considerable interest in the feasibility of artificial recharge as a partial solution. Artificial ground‐water recharge is considered as a partial solution to regional and local problems of water supply in the primarily metropolitan region of northeastern Illinois. Five artificial recharge facilities are now in operation in the area; their average annual recharge rates range from 25,000 to 395,000 gallons per day (gpd). Several additional areas where artificial recharge may be feasible are identified on the basis of criteria established for the region.

An initial study in the Park Forest‐Chicago Heights area indicates that recharge to the Silurian dolomite aquifer, the source of water supply in the area, is feasible. This study provides guidelines to aid in additional studies of artificial recharge in northeastern Illinois.
The Hydrologic and Geologic Aspects of a Perching Layer‐San Joaquin Valley, Western Fresno County, Californiaa
Authors: Haskell E. E. , Bianchi W. C.
Published: July 2006

A shallow, wide spread perching layer was isolated in the alluvial profiles of western Fresno County, California. Geologic and hydrologic interpretations are given, based on field and laboratory measurements of the physical properties of this layer. Some of the approaches investigated included using existing electrical logs from irrigation wells, head loss observations in wells and piezometers, core drilling, and core analysis. Differences in alluvial profile permeabilities are shown which result in perched water under the existing field flow conditions. The quantity of vertical flow through the layer is estimated using core permeabilities and hydraulic gradients observed in the field.

Hydraulic properties and descriptions for the perched zone are presened which can be used to delineate profile flow limitations at other locations in the San Joaquin Valley. The study may be used in estimating the rate at which this perched water table could rise If, in the future, imported water and changes in irrigation patterns cause a large quantity of water to flow vertically.
Test Hole in Aquifer with Many. Water‐Bearing Zones at Jacksonville, Floridaa
Authors: Leve G. W. , Goolsby D. A.
Published: July 2006

One of the deepest water‐exploration wells in the southeastern United States was completed in 1966 at Jacksonville, Florida. It was drilled to a depth of nearly 2,500 feet to supply geologic and hydrologic information on the deeper unexplored part of the Floridan aquifer. This aquifer consists of a series of water producing zones separated by nonproducing zones. An important new fresh‐water producing zone was found, and the contact between the fresh water and salt water was located. The well was completed in three separate zones so that it could be used to monitor the the deeper part of the aquifer to detect any salt‐water encroachment. This paper describes the objectives, techniques, and results of drilling the test well.
A Computer‐Oriented Ground‐Water Information Storage and Retrieval Systema
Authors: Turner Wm. R.
Published: July 2006

The ever‐increasing volume of information being collected by the Groundwater Division of the Research Council of Alberta required that a data storage and retrieval system be devised to handle this information in an efficient and economical manner.

The HYDRODAT computer‐oriented system developed for this purpose is a modification of the format developed by the United States Geological Survey and conforms to the proposed interagency compatibility requirements set forth by the Canada Department of Energy, Mines and Resources.

The basic elements of the system are: a well‐schedule form for the recording and coding of geologic, hydrologic, and water quality data; and five 80‐column IBM punch cards for transferring the coded data to magnetic tape.

Selective and rapid retrieval of large volumes of ground‐water information using HYDRODAT provides the geologist and engineer with analytical methods which would otherwise be tedious, if not impossible, to apply by conventional methods.
Aquifer Recharge Efficiency of Wells and Trenches
Authors: Scott V. H. , Aron G.
Published: July 2006

The most commonly practiced method of artificial recharge at present is through basins. This spreading method may not be physically feasible or practicable if land values are high or a shallow, densely compacted layer forms a barrier impeding the direct downward percolation of the ponded surface water.

For the case of the latter condition, alternative methods of wells or trenches dug down to the pervious aquifer and backfilled with gravel have been investigated. These were explored from the standpoint of construction and operating cost and hydraulic efficiency as influenced by such factors as the depth to the aquifer, the thickness, depth of saturation, permeability and specific yield of the aquifer, interference of closely spaced wells and duration of continuous operation of the wells or trenches. Furthermore, effects of bacterial growth and chemical composition of the recharge water on the hydraulic performance of wells or trenches are discussed.

An economic comparison based on field conditions in a prospective recharge site at Stockton, California, is used to illustrate the developed criteria for relative effectiveness of the two methods.

As a general conclusion, it was found that while recharge through trenches would be more efficient hydraulically and economically for the case of very shallow subsurface barriers, wells would become more competitive as the thickness of an impervious top layer increases.
The Geological Profession and Ground Watera
Authors: Agnew A. F.
Published: July 2006

A supply of good‐quality water is our most critical natural resource, for our municipal growth and an increasingly healthy industrial base. The economic viability of our farms depends upon it. The locating and development of this resource is the province of the hydrogeologist.

The hydrogeologist is more than just a ground‐water geologist, for he deals with water in virtually every geologic situation, above‐the water table as well as below it, and at the surface as well as underground.

The hydrogeologist must of course possess the necessary background in the allied sciences and fluid mechanics, and should know something of the social science aspects of water decision‐making. He must be able to work closely with the civil and sanitary engineers, and he must be able to make himself understood to planners.

In performing his work he has a responsibility to society, and this is equated with a responsibility to his profession. As Martin Van Couvering has said, the respect that our profession deserves “cannot be bought or solicited; it has to be earned by the right kind of performance.”
From Water Mining to Water Managementa
Authors: Kazmann Raphael G.
Published: July 2006

The significance of the work associated with the protection of aquifers against salt‐water encroachment, primarily in the area of Southern California goes far beyond the solution of this local problem. Engineers and planners are now able to turn to the record of extensive practice in the field of artificial ground‐water recharge to modify the concepts based on theoretical studies. Thus depleted aquifers, anywhere, can be evaluated as potential reservoirs for the storage of ground water – evaluated as to cost, legal complications, and administrative design in the same way, and on the same basis, that surface‐water impoundments are evaluated.

The work done on the West Coast in artificial recharge increases the number of alternates that are available to the water planner and, in the long run, this may be the most significant output of the engineering, construction, and operation of the barrier projects.
Geohydrological Reconnaissance in Upper Volta
Authors: Bierschenk W. H.
Published: July 2006

The landlocked Republic or Upper Voira lies in the heart of West Africa and comprises a wide lareritic plateau at the south edge of the Sahara Desert. From south to north, the rainfall decreases from about 1.200 mm. to less than 500 mm.; the evaporation increases from a low of 1,945 mm. to 3,385 mm.; and temperatures from 30° C to 34° C.

Latentic rocks occur as surficial deposits over much of the reconnaissance area, and generally are ferruginous, hard, and cemented. The underlying bedrock consists primarily of granite and granodiorite with lesser amounts of metamorphics.

The so‐called “under latérite” materials, consisting of the weathering products of the igneous and metamorphic rocks, constitute the principal aquifers in the investigated areas. These clays and sands generally can be counted upon to yield small supplies of water, adequate for at least domestic and stock use. Large‐diameter dug wells are used exclusively to tap the thin water‐bearing zones. Where 15 meters or more of weathered material occur above fresh bedrock, water can be found and exploited. A “good” well is one which produces 2,000 litersb per hour.

The chief importance of the bedrock as a source of water is that it may yield at least a small quantity of water from fractures at most localities where ir is below the water table.

Water in sufficient quantity and adequate quality is not now available to raise the standards of living in the 631 villages in the areas visited. Most of the immediate need can be met by developing ground water from the weathered material through large‐diameter dug wells.
Manmade Contamination Hazardsa
Authors: McGauhey P. H.
Published: July 2006

Hazards to ground water may result from adding to water which may infiltrate the soil, or to the soil through which water percolates, wastes from man's life processes; his industrial and commercial activity; or his use of water, fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture. From experimental data it is evident that particulate matter, including bacteria and viruses, do not move far with percolating water in a soil system. The chemical products of biodegradation of organic wastes, however, with a few exceptions such as phosphates, move quite freely and hence reach ground water. Since they are no different than the compounds found in ground waters the effect of domestic use of water is generally to increase the concentration of salts normally present in such waters. From the vast spectrum of compounds produced by the chemical industry and used in industry and commerce comes hazards to ground‐water quality such as metal ions, phenols, tar residues, brines, and exotic organics which may through accident, carelessness or waste‐water discharge contaminate ground water. Mineralization with nutrients and soluble soil fractions, and possibly, pesticide residues are the hazards from agricultural use. Leaching from solid waste landfills is possible under poor long‐term management and might involve chemicals, iron, and various earth minerals. It is concluded that the most serious hazard is the buildup of dissolved solids to levels inimical to beneficial use.
The Hydrogeology of an Induced Streambed Infiltration Area
Authors: Rahn Perry H.
Published: July 2006

The University of Connecticut well field is located in a sand and gravel ice‐contact stratified drift aquifer which fills the Fenton River valley to a depth of about 60 feet. The water that supplies these wells consists of captured ground‐water underflow which would normally discharge into the Fenton River, and water induced directly into the aquifer from river flow by pumping. Measurements of streamflow made at three weirs installed in the Fenton River adjacent to two of these pumped wells show the influence of wells on streamflow. Approximately 34 percent of the water pumped from the wells was stolen from the river via induced streambed infiltration, although this figure varies in accordance with pumping. Water‐level measurements in 30 observation wells installed in the aquifer around the pumped wells show that the cones of depression spread underneath the river, following coarse‐grained partially buried eskers. The fact that the water table is detached from the river and is below the streambed near the pumped wells is explained by the low vertical permeability of the streambed in contrast to the horizontal permeability of the rest of the aquifer. The streambed is unable to recharge the aquifer with as much water as the aquifer can carry away. Time‐drawdown pumping test plots show no effect of the river.
Design and Construction of a Dual Recharge System at Minot, North Dakotaa
Authors: Pettyjohn Wayne A.
Published: July 2006

In 1965, a ground‐water recharge facility was constructed and placed in operation to forestall an impending water shortage at Minot, North Dakota. The facility is unique in that the rate of recharge to a buried sand and gravel aquifer is augmented by perforating an overlying bed of clay using hydraulic connectors (gravel‐filled bored holes) in conjunction with an open‐pit excavation. The connectors were drilled by typical well‐boring techniques and the open pit was excavated by common construction methods. The recharge technique made it possible to add about million gallons per day of water to underground storage with a total capital investment of about $200,000. The alternative originally proposed was a 50‐mile long pipeline to Garrison Reservoir, at a 1959 estimated cost of $12,000,000. The recharge technique employed at Minot should have wide application in the ground‐water industry in areas where natural recharge to permeable deposits is impeded by overlying beds of low permeability.
Estimating Cost of Ground‐Water Withdrawal for River Basin Planninga
Authors: Hollyday Este F. , Seaber Paul R.
Published: July 2006

Comparative costs of ground water were needed for comprehensive planning of water resources development in the Susquehanna River basin in order to appraise the feasibility of alternative sources of water supply. Log‐normal plots on logarithmic‐probability paper that represented specific capacities adjusted to 180 days of pumping were used to estimate well yields and costs of obtaining the ground water from each of 65 potential aquifers. The 25, 50, and 75 percent probability of occurrence of the specific capacities of successful wells were used in the calculations. The estimated well yields at these probabilities of occurrence were obtained using hypothetical well designs and selected drawdowns. Ground‐water costs for the estimated or design yields were calculated using amortized costs of well construction, electrical power costs, and maintenance costs, all obtained from standard sources.

The calculated well yields and costs for the 25 to 75 percent probability interval range from 15 to 9,000 gpm (gallons per minute) and from $0.004 to $0.11 per thousand gallons of design yield. The yields and costs group according to aquifer rock type. The calculated costs decrease with increasing well yield and the available yield depends upon the aquifer rock type available. Representative costs per thousand gallons of design yield for selected yields from aquifers composed of different rock types analyzed are: 50 gpm −$0.060 for shale and interbedded sandstone and shale, and $0.050 for metamorphic rock; 100 gpm ‐ $0.043 or shale and interbedded sandstone and shale, $0.037 for metamorphic rock, and $0.032 for carbonate rock; 500 gpm—$0.020 for sandstone, $0.015 for carbonate rock, and $0.012 for glacial sand and gravel; and 1,000 gpm —$0.009 for glacial sand and gravel. Differences in cost to obtain the same yield from different rock types are primarily due to differences in electrical power costs as determined by differences in pumping water levels.

If used with caution, the generalized yield and cost estimates for aquifer rock types may have usefulness in estimating ground‐water costs and yields in similar humid areas. They are primarily useful for planning and comparative purposes, but not for the actual design of engineering Projects.
Map Interpretation and Classification of Buried Valleys
Authors: Saines Marvin
Published: July 2006

Buried valleys are classified into two main types — those valleys completely buried by glacial drift, without present streams along their courses (Type I), and those partly buried or partly exhumed, usually with present streams along their courses (Type II). If a stream is flowing mainly in a Type II valley, the bottom of which is deeply buried by drift, local areas where the stream is cutting bedrock are postglacial channels of derangement. Postglacial channels of derangement, which often can be recognized on a topographic map, reveal that a buried valley (often Type I) exists nearby.
Feasibility Criteria for Subsurface Waste Disposal in Illinoisa
Authors: Bergstrom Robert E.
Published: July 2006

Recent increased interest in subsurface disposal of industrial liquid wastes in Illinois has shown the need for both geohydrologic and engineering criteria and State regulatory policies for evaluating proposed installations, with the object of protecting other resources, chiefly potable ground water.

Favorable geohydrologic conditions–specifically the presence of a variety of permeable formations that contain nonpotable water and are well confined from shallow to great depth–make waste disposal by wells feasible in much of the southern two‐thirds of Illinois. Natural safeguards permit disposal wells to be planned with conventional engineering precautions and only a minimal program of preoperational testing.

In much of the northern third of the State, the permeable rocks contain potable water to great depth, and there is moderate to high development of the ground‐water resource because of urban and industrial concentration. Exhaustive testing, substantial proof of acceptable site conditions, and incorporation of optimum engineering safeguards are considered necessary before the State regulatory agency can authorize installation.