bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Congress Guts Powell’s Irrigation Survey and Establishes New National Parks
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter describes public lands policies developed during the Fifty-first Congress (1889–1891). This Congress did little on public lands in its first session, but that changed dramatically in the second session, beginning in March 1890. As the year began, John Wesley Powell was working to preserve as well as advance the work of his Irrigation Survey. By June, the survey had identified two hundred reservoir sites and about thirty million acres of public land that might be irrigated from them. The General Land Office then began to take steps to open the potentially irrigable lands to entry under laws like the Homestead Act, but progress was slow. Senator William Stewart, whose relationship with Powell had frayed during their joint western tour the previous summer, wanted faster action, and he lined up allies in Congress. The chapter traces the conflict between the Powell and Stewart factions over the political movement to reserve more public lands from divestment. Within six months, this same Congress would give the president broad and unilateral authority to establish what came to be known as forest reserves on public land.
Congress Gives the President Broad Authority to Reserve Public Lands
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the political dynamics involved in the reservation decisions of the late 1800s. Early in 1890, President Benjamin Harrison asked Congress to enact legislation to prevent the “rapid and needless destruction of our great forest areas.” He forwarded the recommendation by the American Association for the Advancement of Science to establish reservations of public lands in the higher reaches of watersheds in order to preserve favorable hydrologic conditions. By expressly conferring on the president such broad power to reserve public lands from divestment, Congress did somewhat alter the political dynamic. When Congress considers legislation that applies to a specific tract of public land, it typically gives substantial deference to the view of its members who represent that area. The president, representing all the people in the nation, tends to give somewhat less deference to local views. Even though Congress can always reverse the president's action, it is usually considerably easier to stop legislation from being enacted than it is to enact it.
The First Forest Reserves
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the forest reserves established during the terms of President Harrison and his successor, Grover Cleveland. Most of Harrison's forest reserves were, as the House Public Lands Committee noted in an 1893 report, the result of petitions submitted by local groups “interested in the preservation of forest conditions” in their surroundings. The chapter also explores further challenges Congress faced with forest reserve legislation, including issues such as reserve management and whether or not and how often the extractive industries are allowed to work these lands. The chapter shows some of the bills introduced to address these problems. Yet despite Congress's difficulty in pushing the legislation over the finish line, it showed no appetite for rolling back the nearly 18 million acres of forest reserves that had already been created.
The General Land Office Struggles and Cleveland Spurs Congress into Action
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter describes the struggles of the General Land Office (GLO) to enforce its authority, as well as Congress' response thereof. In April 1894, as congressional deliberations dragged on, the GLO issued its first formal regulations regarding the reserves, prohibiting their use for mining, farming, grazing, logging, or other business purposes. Many livestock, timber, and mining interests simply defied the prohibition. Livestock operators in particular tended to be locally influential, and knew that the GLO lacked the funds and personnel to challenge them. Enforcement resources were scanty, and prosecutions, especially of nomadic sheepherders, not easy to pursue. Cleveland's addition of further reserves in 1897, however, finally spurred Congress to complete its forest reserve legislation.
An Organic Act for the Forest Reserves
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter is about the National Forest Organic Act, which left intact 18 million acres of forest reserves. It also confirmed broad presidential authority to make new forest reserves. Altogether, it cemented into the nation's culture the idea that vast amounts of land would be retained permanently in national ownership. The Organic Act articulated the reasons for establishing new forest reserves—“to improve and protect the forest within the reservation, or for the purpose of securing favorable conditions of water flows, and to furnish a continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens of the United States.” Each reason held important implications for the future. The objective of improving and protecting forests put the government deeply into the business of managing landscapes for healthy outcomes.
Public Lands, Science, and History
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter explores legislation surrounding American public lands set aside for cultural and historic preservation during the first decade of the twentieth century. It discusses how the Antiquities Act was a landmark in public land policy. Although it followed the well-worn path of giving the executive the authority to reserve public lands from divestment in order to serve national objectives, its four hundred words contained several important new features. Additionally, the Antiquities Act was the first time that Congress unequivocally declared, in legislation of general application, that scientific inquiry was a sufficient reason by itself to hold lands in public ownership. From that point forward, science played an increasing role in public land policy, and eventually, Congress made heeding the teachings of science part of the mandate of all agencies managing public lands.
Roosevelt, Public Lands, and Energy Development
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter shows how Theodore Roosevelt set in motion a fundamental reevaluation of U.S. public land policy in relation to energy development. In at least one respect, his impact in this area was even greater. The movement to reserve forests was well under way before he took office; Roosevelt just accelerated it. The same was true, though to a lesser extent, regarding the movement to use public lands to protect wildlife. But the idea that the United States should retain ownership of energy resources found on public lands in order to control and guide their development, a policy he strongly advocated, was almost entirely new. By the time Roosevelt took office, it was becoming increasingly clear that each of the pertinent legal regimes on public lands—the Coal Land Law, the Mining Law, and a hodgepodge of others—contained features that were fundamentally incompatible with orderly, efficient energy development.
National Forests Become National with Enactment of the Weeks Act
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on the Weeks Act. The act was the first major national forest legislation enacted as a stand-alone law; the forest-reserve bills that Congress passed in 1891, 1897, and 1907 were components of large legislative packages. Like support for forest reserves in the West, the coalition of interests that pushed the Weeks Act through Congress was thoroughly bipartisan. The Weeks Act gave the secretary of Agriculture the authority to “examine, locate, and recommend for purchase such lands as in his judgment may be necessary to the regulation of the flow of navigable streams,” and to proceed with such purchases if certain conditions were met. Lands so acquired were to be “permanently reserved, held, and administered as national forest lands” just like other lands in the system. The act was not geographically limited, although the widely shared expectation was that the first purchases would be in the southern Appalachians and the White Mountains, and in fact they were. The program eventually expanded across many other states.
Public Lands at the End of the Age of Theodore Roosevelt
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter recounts further developments in public land policy toward the end of the age of Roosevelt. It shows the Supreme Court's endorsements of Congress's broad authority over whether and how public land could be used. They made it clearer than ever that there were no constitutional obstacles to Congress or the executive deciding to hold on to and manage large tracts of public land for various public purposes. The bottom-line message was that the courts would leave it largely up to the executive branch—subject to being overruled by Congress—to decide whether particular tracts of public land would be maintained in public ownership, and if so, how they would be managed. The chapter also considers Congress's growing dissatisfaction with how new states had administered grants of public land, because there was an unprecedented number of detailed, stringent restrictions on how the grants should be used.
National Parks Take Center Stage
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter describes public land policy during the Woodrow Wilson administration. It shows how the most prominent public lands accomplishment during his presidency was the creation of the National Park Service (NPS) to administer the growing number of parks in what would become a national park system. The chapter also discusses the controversy surrounding a project to tap high-quality water in the glacier-carved Hetch Hetchy Valley in the Sierra Nevada. In the meantime, Wilson also signed the NPS into law in 1916. The creation of this new agency underscored the idea that all these units would now serve a common national interest.
The National Forest System Matures and Evolves
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses several developments in the national forest system. It takes a look at some acquisitions during this era, before turning to the General Exchange Act. This act authorized the Interior secretary to trade unappropriated public lands for nonpublic lands of “equal value” inside national forests that the Agriculture secretary deemed “chiefly valuable for national forest purposes” in the same state. During this period, livestock grazing had also become more entrenched, as the chapter explores tensions between park and livestock operators over the private use of public land. Additionally, the Forest Service had become a “multiple use” agency when the boom in outdoor recreation made it a primary use of many forests, and Congress began to nudge the agency to be more accommodating to it.
Ranchers, Homesteaders, and Energy Developers Compete for Primacy
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter turns to some key legislation. In 1916, Congress made one more attempt to promote large-scale privatization of the mostly arid General Land Office-administered lands by enacting the Stock-Raising Homestead Act (SRHA). Then, in 1920, Congress completed work on two landmark laws. The Mineral Leasing Act resolved the long struggle over whether fossil fuels on lands overseen by the General Land Office and the Forest Service should be held and developed via leasing arrangements instead of being privatized under the Mining Law. The Federal Water Power Act gave the Forest Service (as well as other agencies administering public land reservations) the authority to prescribe conditions governing hydropower projects on their lands; this action was part of a general reform that made hydropower projects subject to a new regulatory program administered by a new agency, the Federal Power Commission.
Public Lands and Multipurpose Water Development
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses how the arid West's remaining public lands became sites for locating federally funded projects. These were to generate power and water to meet the demands of its burgeoning urban areas, where most of the land had long been in private ownership. The public lands also furnished large amounts of open space for recreation and inspiration, which contributed to the quality of life in western urban oases. Over those decades, Congress made more federal dollars available to build and operate reclamation-project works than it did for managing national forests, parks, and all other public lands combined. As the western states' reaction to the Garfield Committee's recommendation had made clear, this transformation in the reclamation program made it easy for most western politicians to accept, indeed to welcome, the continued ownership by the national government of vast expanses of mostly arid public lands in their midst.
The Taylor Grazing Act
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter details the history and functions of the 1934 Taylor Grazing Act (TGA). The TGA was a landmark achievement in public land history. Its fundamental purposes were expressed in its title—to “stop injury to the public grazing lands by preventing overgrazing and soil deterioration, to provide for their orderly use, improvement, and development, [and] to stabilize the livestock industry dependent upon the range, and for other purposes.” Although most of it focused on controlling livestock grazing, those last three words were significant, for the act recognized that these lands could have many different uses. It also directed the Interior Department to accommodate them as far as reasonably possible.
Other New Deal Public Land Policies
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter explores other New Deal public land policies. Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal included an initiative, unveiled early in 1934, to use funds appropriated for federal economic emergency relief to buy millions of acres of damaged land, mostly former farmland, back into national ownership. Additionally, the chapter considers how the term “multiple use” became part of the lexicon of public land policy, and was mostly applied to national forests. Another New Deal innovation with enduring implications for public land policy came in 1938 when the chiefs of the Forest and Park Services signed a cooperative agreement with the Appalachian Trail Conference. Roosevelt also tackled issues such as the rivalry between the Forest and Park Services, dam projects, national recreation areas, and the public reaction to his public land policies.
Mineral Policy Developments Onshore and Offshore
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers mineral policy developments in the aftermath of World War II. At the time, Congress took some modest steps to curb the reach of the Mining Law of 1872. The law was beginning to create problems for governmental managers and other users of public lands, as counterfeit claims were a problem for the legitimate mining industry. Additionally, the chapter takes a look at the ramifications of the nuclear age, when uranium was thought to be a scarce mineral, and public lands were thought to be the most likely place to find it. At first, as part of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, Congress reserved all uranium that might be found on public lands. This step proved ineffectual. Uranium could still be extracted from preexisting mining claims or mineral leases. The chapter also takes a look at public lands underneath the oceans and seas along the nation's shores, which were an important part of the public lands story after World War II.
Making the Modern Forest Service
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter explores developments in the history of the modern Forest Service. It discusses two significant acts: the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974 (RPA) and the National Forest Management Act of 1976 (NFMA). The NFMA is notable for crafting what amounted to a new organic charter for the Forest Service, the first fundamental change since 1897. Although the 1974 and 1976 laws added complexity to Forest Service decision making, the first generation of plans produced under the NFMA did little to change national forest management. The NFMA required forest plans to “provide for diversity of plant and animal communities.” To implement this vague command, the Forest Service's regulations required maintaining “viable populations” of existing species in each planning area. In the early 1980s, the agency designated the northern spotted owl as a “management indicator species,” making it a proxy for many species. Additionally, the chapter discusses further developments in fighting wildfires as well as the decline of multiple use through restrictive zoning.
Making the Modern U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter traces the growth of the modern Fish and Wildlife Service. Here, the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 marked a major advance by finally formally establishing the National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS). The chapter also takes a look at the increasing problem of incompatible secondary uses, before turning to the landmark NWRS Improvement Act of 1997. However, the NWRS Improvement Act did not fully resolve a tension inherent in the refuge system's dual nature—that is, where individual units were established with specific purposes that may not exactly square with the system's overarching mission. In addition, the chapter explores the delicate matter of relations with state authorities, as well as the protection of wildlife resources offshore.
Making the Modern National Park Service
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter turns to the expansion of the national park system, beginning in 1960. It begins with the long struggle to establish Redwood National Park in Northern California, which illustrated a number of challenges facing the national park system in the modern era. There was also a controversy involving national park and national forest lands in the southern Sierra Nevada. In the mid-1960s, yet another controversy erupted over dams involving the park system. In 1978, Congress departed from its traditional practice of adding units to the park system through stand-alone legislation. Several modern pieces of legislation have since enhanced the Park Service's authority to protect lands in the park system. The chapter also describes the National Parks Omnibus Management Act of 1998, which was the last of Congress's reforms of the “organic acts” of the four public land agencies.
The Politics of Public Lands in the Modern Era
Authors: Leshy John D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines public land policies throughout various presidential administrations. In the 1970s, as the network of protected public lands was rapidly expanding, rhetoric on the right side of the political spectrum began to change. Along with the usual calls for loose regulation and making more public lands available for mining and logging came demands that the United States simply relinquish ownership of substantial amounts of public land to private interests or state governments. The chapter first takes a look at the politics of public lands as seen from the Reagan administration to the George W. Bush administration. Next, the chapter explores presidencies from George W. Bush to Donald Trump, focusing in particular on the latter's administration.
Introduction
Authors: Jones Elizabeth D.
Published: September 2022

This introductory chapter provides a background of ancient DNA research, which is broadly defined as the practice of extracting, sequencing, and analyzing degraded or damaged DNA from long-dead organisms, ranging from hundreds or hundreds of thousands to even millions of years old. Given the profound nature of findings generated by scientists in this field, a history of ancient DNA research offers the opportunity to understand how the study of fossils has impacted evolutionary biology and our conceptions of evolutionary history. Even more interesting, however, is the field's uniquely high-profile character among press and public audiences. As the search for ancient DNA evolved from the 1980s to the present, the researchers involved in it responded to the field's technological challenges and increasing identity as a celebrity science. The introduction concludes that a history of ancient DNA research offers the opportunity to understand the intricate interchange between science and media in terms of how the practice, process, and communication of science were in turn influenced by it.
Ideas to Experiments
Authors: Jones Elizabeth D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines early research efforts to test the theoretical preservation and potential extraction of DNA from fossil species, a central feature of which was speculation. Scientists from George Poinar and Svante Pääbo to Allan C. Wilson and Russell Higuchi clearly speculated about the recovery of DNA from fossil material hundreds to millions of years old. In these early years, scientists also feared that too much speculation with too little evidence could harm their research and reputation in terms of credibility. Even Wilson, a visionary for his time, confessed that the search for DNA from fossils was an exotic and speculative undertaking. From the outset, Higuchi was concerned with contamination that would affect DNA authenticity and consequently its credibility. Yet even with reliable evidence for the successful extraction of DNA from the quagga, the National Science Foundation (NSF) funding panel rejected Wilson and Higuchi's proposal on the grounds that the research and evidence for it was underdeveloped and not widely applicable across the sciences. Moreover, Pääbo conducted his study of ancient Egyptian mummies in secret for fear of failure and subsequent reprimanding or ridiculing. This tension between science and speculation was an equally important element that colored ancient DNA's emergence and evolution into a new way to study evolutionary history.
Testing Limits
Authors: Jones Elizabeth D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter details how, by the early 1990s, a small but growing group of researchers became interested in testing the limits regarding the theoretical preservation and potential extraction of DNA from museum specimens, human remains, and fossil material. Crucially, scientists' pursuit of this goal was chiefly facilitated by the innovation of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). With PCR, they were able to more easily extract and sequence the small amounts of degraded DNA from ancient and extinct organisms. Meanwhile, some scientists sought to use ancient DNA sequences to investigate the properties of and processes that contribute to DNA degradation in hopes of finding observable or generalizable patterns. However, as the search for DNA from fossils developed into a discipline, it did so under the influence of intense press and public interest, particularly as this new line of research coincided with the publication of Jurassic Park (1990), accelerating the attention that the field and its practitioners received.
Contamination
Authors: Jones Elizabeth D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter addresses how, in the wake of contamination problems at the turn of century, researchers felt their credibility was compromised. The one way to fix this, as far as they were concerned, was for fellow colleagues in the field to strictly adhere to the criteria of authenticity. Here, ancient DNA researchers engaged in boundary work through the publication of criteria of authenticity and a mandate that fellow colleagues, editors, and reviewers alike adhere to these standards. In some ways, a handful of practitioners advocated for technical boundaries around the practice through the implementation of criteria via the use of certain technologies and techniques. In other ways, this boundary work was quite literal as the presence or absence of an “Ancient DNA Lab” was a physical boundary used by some scientists to help demarcate credible from less credible work. As researchers engaged in boundary work, they did so on two fronts and in response to two separate but intertwined issues impacting their legitimacy with the broader public and their authority in the scientific community. While they were concerned about contamination in the literal and technical understanding of the term, they were also concerned about the influence of celebrity.
Ancient Genetics to Ancient Genomics
Authors: Jones Elizabeth D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter describes the innovation of next-generation sequencing (NGS), which was the result of years of work dedicated to developing a more time-efficient and cost-effective DNA sequencing technology. While there is certainly continuity regarding the interplay between science and the media from the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to the NGS eras, namely scientists' need for the press to maintain momentum to continue to be competitive in the field, there does seem to be a distinct difference. The hype around the search for ancient DNA is far less about resurrecting dinosaurs today, although this narrative certainly colors media reports and public discourses on new discoveries in the field. Rather, scientists' new-found technological and financial capacity to sequence entire genomes of archaic human specimens has led to expectations on another level: the ability of scientists to use ancient DNA data to rewrite our understanding of human evolutionary history. Ancient DNA researchers are indeed making more and farther-reaching claims about human origins, history, migrations, and admixture. These claims encompass centuries of historical, sociological, and cultural controversies over political and cultural identity.
Jurassic Park Effect
Authors: Jones Elizabeth D.
Published: September 2022

This chapter studies how the search for DNA from fossils is still intimately connected to the idea of resurrecting ancient and extinct species, be it dinosaurs, mammoths, thylacines, quaggas, or even passenger pigeons. This link between the two, the science of ancient DNA research and the prospect of de-extinction, was not established by accident. Far from it, scientists, journal editors, media reporters, popular writers, and movie producers alike made the link and reinforced the association as the disciplinary development of ancient DNA research coincided with the worldwide success of Jurassic Park. Ancient DNA researchers then, as well as now, engage with this rhetoric of resurrection, or at least entertain press and public interest in it, not because it represents their work but because they understand the advantages in doing so when communicating to the public for support. Since the turn of the twenty-first century, new technologies and techniques have caused a number of ancient DNA researchers to do more than just entertain the idea of reviving extinct species.
On the Margins of the Nation and the State
Authors: Mankoff Jeffrey
Published: September 2022

The Turkish Republic sought to secure its heavily Kurdish southeastern periphery by curtailing tribal autonomy, suppressing religious orders, and imposing cultural and linguistic assimilation. When all else failed, Ankara fell back on large-scale violence against Kurdish populations. Southeastern Anatolia nevertheless remained a postimperial borderland where the state lacked a monopoly on the use of force. With its emphasis on an Ottoman-Islamic core to Turkish identity, the AKP seeks to supplement previous governments’ efforts to solve the Kurdish problem with aspects of a classically imperial approach to frontier management. Invoking the example of Sultan Abdülhamid II, appeals to a common Ottoman-Islamic heritage suggest that Kurds—at least the majority who are Sunnis—can be full members of the Turkish nation without ceasing to be Kurds. This approach is central to the AKP’s strategy for integrating the Kurdish borderland and ending the conflict with the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK). So too though are efforts to secure the frontier through cross-border military operations into Iraq and Syria and the development of vassal-like relations with the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in northern Iraq.
Locating the Georgians at Home and Abroad
Authors: Corfield Penelope J.
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines how the number of people living in the British Isles continued to rise. It follows the long eighteenth century of apparently unstoppable growth and demographic catastrophe. Demographic boom in many areas of Great Britain tended to encourage in growth areas a sense of optimism and buoyancy. For most of this period, all three kingdoms were experiencing prolonged urbanisation. The chapter then shifts to discuss the stark demographic divergence between mainland Britain and Ireland. It recounts the various inventive make-work projects in response to food crises in eighteenth- as well as nineteenth-century Ireland. The chapter investigates how the Irish population looked for regular livelihoods in a well-functioning economy. Georgian demographic expansion had thus left Ireland vulnerable to natural disaster, with which officialdom was ill-equipped to deal. In the absence of new solutions, the chapter unveils how several Irish families took the empirical option of emigration, motivated by a combination of grief and determination.
Exploring Sexualities
Authors: Corfield Penelope J.
Published: September 2022

This chapter explores the strong human passions and emotions in the Georgian era. It discusses the prolonged sexualisation of British social life and culture, with a greater freedom of discussion, liberalisation of behaviour, and openness (within limits) to exploring alternative sexualities. One effect of this experimentation was to challenge the Georgians with pointed questions about consent and coercion. The chapter then jumps to highlight the generation after 1695, in which perceptible changes in public manifestations of the human sex drive and sexualisation of British society and culture continued. It addresses the controversial topics such as contraception, abortion, erotica and pornography, libertinism, masturbation, sexually transmitted diseases, and prostitution—as well as crossdressing, male same-sex relations, and (mutedly) lesbianism. The chapter examines how the Georgians' open preoccupation with sexual matters prompted a degree of middle-class backlash from the mid-nineteenth century under pressure from evangelists and moralists.
Aristocrats, Plutocrats and Cross-Class Gentlemen
Authors: Corfield Penelope J.
Published: September 2022

This chapter reviews the concept of ‘civil society’ and social interconnectedness for the Georgians. It highlights that the concept conveyed a secular sphere of human interaction, with shared values and peaceable intentions. The chapter then jumps to discuss the unwritten rules in Britain which welded society together—and guided social ‘upstarts’ on how to behave. While British society at first glance still seemed highly traditional, headed by kings, dukes, and earls, the chapter reveals that it was in a prolonged state of flux at all social levels. It emphasizes that the old landed aristocracy was merging with a new plutocracy, with some tensions in the process, to form a porous and broad-based ‘upper class’. The chapter then surveys one sign of social flexibility: the extension of the honours system. It also considers the marked long-term restriction in the number of hereditary titles.
The Allure of Celebrities and Meritocrats
Authors: Corfield Penelope J.
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on famous Georgians and rising stars. Their advancement did not automatically shake the deeper structures of class and inequality. The chapter argues that the careers of exceptional individuals promoted a realisation that social positions were not set in stone. It then examines how celebrities added a further level of complexity, as did the array of Georgian meritocrats and publicly known heroes. The chapter defines celebrities as all those from modest backgrounds who became, however briefly, ‘famous for being famous’. A significant number were women who were bypassing conventional gender roles. The chapter moves on to describe meritocrats as individuals from modest backgrounds who advanced through their talents. They were usually well respected in their own fields and wielded a strong, if specialised, influence. The chapter delves into these two social categories, which considerably overlapped, and examines them separately.
Georgians in an Age of Urbanisation
Authors: Corfield Penelope J.
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on Georgian Britain's sustenance of its multiplying urban population. It pays attention to its expanding long-distance trade, its growing overseas settlements, its dynamic naval power, its assertive military campaigns, and its heightened political reputation. Successful towns depended upon regular communications. They needed reliable outgoing networks for the distribution of goods, services, and urban ‘value-added’ culture. The chapter also describes the townspeople, the urban nightlife, and the physical countryside. It looks at these pro-town views which contained elements of the stereotypical and many lurking dangers among the urban masses. This chapter concludes by exploring how the Georgian towns, embarking upon a period of prolonged urban growth in all three kingdoms, became magnets with an urbane view of their own centrality.
A Parade for Empire’s End
Authors: Guldi Jo
Published: September 2022

This chapter describes a democratic ecology movement over decades and continents that insist on the idea of a global revolution that would bring food, water, and shelter to everyone. It talks about the people marching through their respective cities and decades, of which many recognized that they were jointly celebrating the end of empire. Marchers asserted that human existence had only one limit: humans require a place to lay their heads, typically in proximity to other humans, where they can work and find something to eat. The chapter traces the unfolding episodes that composed the land parade by inviting challenging questions about the historical significance of resistance when faced with the challenge of a world system that depends on the exploitation of both soil and labor. How could peaceful marchers, tracing the land by foot, reverse the forces uprooting bodies from their homes, millions at a time?
An Information Pipeline
Authors: Guldi Jo
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers the steel hoe used by East Asian farmers as a symbol of a development program that might see poor people manufacturing their own implements, turning farms into factories. Farmers, in other words, would become heralds of a future that was simultaneously industrial and rural. The chapter mentions supporters of the Rome Consensus that believed that a global peasant revolution was in the future of almost every nation working toward its independence from Europe. It talks about Norris Dodd, who spelled out a program that the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) would implement over the 1950s and '60s—the creation of an information pipeline. It then explains how the information pipeline conveys seed catalogues, agricultural statistics, prices, lists of agricultural experts, maps, and bibliographies of modern research to universities and ministries around the globe.
Racism, Skepticism, and the Cloak of Science in U.S. Debates About Land Redistribution
Authors: Guldi Jo
Published: September 2022

This chapter begins with an account of Bill and Liz Paddock, who were a husband-and-wife team that had been involved in efforts to develop modern agriculture in Guatemala and Honduras. The Paddocks sounded the alarm, arguing that the entire enterprise of international development as practiced at that time was hopelessly corrupt and in need of a drastic overhaul. The chapter talks about how the couple delivered an impressive analysis of reason in the form of a systematic survey of the undertakings abroad of the United Nations, USAID, the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations, and other organs of international development. The chapter details how the Paddocks provided the American public with a reason to disinvest in land redistribution. Their prescription arrived just as the communities that might have most benefited from land redistribution at home were beginning to mobilize their own demands for land, demands that remain largely unacknowledged to this day.
Living Together, Working Together
Authors: Smith Edmond
Published: September 2022

This chapter tackles the collaborative relationships between merchants. Even if they work alone, in a partnership or as part of a larger corporate body, merchants rely on connections with other traders for issues such as accessing information about distant lands. Corporate structures and the common standards imposed across international commerce in England had helped strengthen the stability of the networks between traders. Entangled business interests were the only form of connection in the commercial community. However, the connection has led to strengthened relationships between merchants, shared information, and the enforcement of behavioural standards. The chapter also discusses how merchants enforce regulation and order in the fast-changing trading landscape.
Practitioner’s Perspectives on a National South African Higher Education Institution Policy Framework Mitigating Gender-Based Violence at a South African University
Authors: Brink Jaco Greeff , Mdaka Qaqamba , Matee Larona , Weppelman Kaylon
Published: September 2022

Gender-based violence (GBV) is a crime that violates the right to life, equality, human dignity, freedom and security of a person (South African Constitution, Act No 108 of 1996). The prevention and management of GBV is a critical transformation imperative and has in recent years (2014 to 2021) come under the spotlight at South African universities. The National Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) developed a policy framework to guide post-school education and training institutions to address GBV in 2020.

This article is a practitioner’s assessment and reflection of how the DHET policy framework on GBV can be implemented at Stellenbosch University, a public higher education institution (HEI) in South Africa. We look at how to integrate recommendations made in the GBV policy framework at South African universities and what are the current constraints that throttle GBV interventions. We reflect on existing mechanisms and policy recommendations that still need to be operationalised to effectively respond to GBV at universities. This article further assesses how institutional policy development, professional administrative and support services, and senior leadership structures can be leveraged to include, and efficiently implement, some of the GBV policy framework recommendations to address GBV at HEIs and in South Africa more broadly.
Rethinking the spatiality of ageing
Authors: Peace Sheila
Published: September 2022

This final Chapter brings local and national levels of analysis together with those global challenges to population ageing identified in Chapter 3, questioning how life-changing experiences are seen within and between these levels of spatiality and questioning the future. Consideration is given to: global health, global pandemic; actioning climate change; ageing and transient populations; technological solutions; connectivity and age-friendly places. To support this discussion theoretical perspectives are re-considered from a relational perspective, and demonstrated first, by re-visiting generic and dissonant meanings of home and homeland, and second, by acknowledging how global challenges relate to everyday local experiences with different temporal expression for individual ageing. To conclude this book re-considers person-environment interaction in later life indicating how different levels of spatial understanding can contribute to experiences of population ageing both individual and communal. The case is made to bring to environmental gerontology this broader understanding.
Introduction: Medical doctors and healthcare reforms
Authors: Denis Jean-Louis , Germain Sabrina , Régis Catherine , Veronesi Gianluca
Published: September 2022

Introduction chapter outlines how this comparative study assesses the role of medical doctors in reforming publicly funded health services in England and Canada. Respected authors from health and legal backgrounds on both sides of the Atlantic consider how the high status of the profession uniquely influences reforms. With summaries of developments in models of care, and the participation of doctors since the inception of publicly funded healthcare systems, they ask whether professionals might be considered allies or enemies of policy-makers.
Conclusion: Where do we go from here?
Authors: Chung Heejung
Published: September 2022

The final chapter brings together the content of this book to summarise how best to use flexible working, so it does not lead to negative outcomes. The chapter first explores some remaining questions, such as, will we see an expansion of flexible working post pandemic, how flexible working will impact workers’ well-being outcomes, and gendered division of labour and gender equality in the future. The chapter then goes on to provide some recommendations to avoid flexible working leading to self-exploitation and further traditionalization of gender roles. The recommendations are outlined for policy makers at the national and international level, companies and managers, and workers and families. These include issues around shifting work and work-life balance cultures and gender norms, providing better rights to flexible working and protection of workers when working flexibly, as well as possible move to shorter working hours. I end with some reflections especially for workers themselves to think about in light of the findings I present here in the book about self-exploitation around busyness and passion.
The trust–transparency nexus
Authors: Stafford Ian , Cole Alistair , Heinz Dominic
Published: September 2022

This chapter expounds on the nexus of trust and transparency. First, trust refers to the contextually and institutionally contingent phenomenon based on the perceived competence, benevolence and honesty of government and other actors within governance networks. Conversely, government transparency is denoted to the citizen's right to know government information. Thus, transparency highlights the end of the political culture of secrecy and surveillance to allow citizens to access information on the government. Since citizens are asked to vote and make informed decisions, transparency is mostly believed to be essential for democracy as it would enhance trust within the overall political system.
Using archives and objects in voluntary action research
Authors: Brewis Georgina
Published: September 2022

The archives and records of voluntary organisations are vital assets. They are important for voluntary organisations as an evidence base and a source of institutional identity and memory. They can also play an essential role in helping researchers to understand the roles of these organisations in society, past and present. The chapter addresses traditional approaches to using archives as well as ways of working collaboratively with research partners to access, analyse and curate archival material. The chapter offers methodological and theoretical insights into research with archives and objects, including exploring the ‘material turn’ in historical research, highlighting a growing interest in ‘archive as subject’ as opposed to ‘archive as source’ and considering how researchers might combine analysis of both contemporary and archival sources to understand public policy issues.
Provider and user perspectives on long-term recovery in England: how do we know when we are done?
Authors: Klein Maike , Hill John
Published: September 2022

This chapter demonstrates the dynamic, non-linear, and complex trajectories involved in the journey towards long-term recovery from substance misuse. It begins by discussing some of the challenges in identifying and analysing long-term recovery. As has become evident, objectifying recovery as an outcome variable hinders us from identifying the processes of long-term recovery, a phenomenon in which the lines between wellness (that is, recovery) and pathology (that is, substance misuse) become blurry. The chapter then presents two real-life examples of people with lived experience of long-term recovery, offering clinical reflections based on practice experience in the UK. Finally, it offers recommendations for future research and a way forward that is more sensitive to the needs of people in long-term recovery.
Multiple recoveries: substance use and trauma
Authors: Fox Sarah , Berg Karin
Published: September 2022

This chapter evaluates the centrality of trauma to women's experience of substance use and long-term recovery. In a powerful and moving pen portrait of ‘Laura’, it highlights the complexities of substance use recovery when combined with recovery from violent victimisation. The recovery from violence and abuse becomes an ‘additional dimension’ to Laura's long-term recovery process. Indeed, the chapter challenges the limiting notions some definitions place on long-term recovery, pointing out that for someone with a 50-year history of using substances, three years is a very long recovery period. It is therefore important for practitioners to engage with the potential ongoing trauma women with such experiences face, and to understand that substance use can be a coping mechanism which should be removed with care and with support in place.
Revising perspectives on neoliberalism, hunger and food insecurity
Authors: Power Maddy
Published: September 2022

Chapter 2 sets out the theoretical framework that underpins the analysis throughout the book. It critiques key conceptual frameworks surrounding food insecurity and food aid – neoliberal political economy, rights-based frameworks, and mutual aid – and explicates concepts that inform the empirical analysis in subsequent chapters: religious neoliberalism, racial neoliberalism and the post-racial, and whiteness. It discusses the idea of neoliberal governmentality in depth, explaining how through this particularly insidious form of neoliberalism, state oversight and control embeds itself beyond centres and institutions of power into all corners of society – into communities, food aid, and family life. The chapter shows how religious actors and organisations collude – perhaps unintentionally – with the ruling power to uphold the status quo, and describes how the state, in the form of racial neoliberalism, creates and exploits racial divisions and inequalities to maintain elite power and white privilege. The chapter reflects on alternative frameworks for conceptualising food aid and food poverty: rights-based frameworks and mutual aid, drawing upon the writings of anarcho-communist thinker Peter Kropotkin.
Lived neoliberalism: food, poverty and power
Authors: Power Maddy
Published: September 2022

Chapter 6 moves outside the food aid arena to explore the lives of those who live in poverty but who do not necessarily access food aid. Drawing upon quantitative survey data and extensive conversations with people in and at risk of food insecurity, the chapter unpicks how neoliberal policies and narratives manifest in people’s lives. It highlights the systemic factors – income, social security, housing, living costs and transport – which create food insecurity and determine lived experiences of food, and shows how state power and the power of capital manipulates and coerces people living in poverty at every level of society, including within food charities.