bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Growth status, age, and grade as predictors of school continuation for Guatemalan Indian children
Authors: Bogin Barry , MacVean Robert B.
Published: February 2006

Schooling is considered by many researchers and agencies as an important contributor to individual and national development for populations living in the less developed countries. Accordingly, programs to increase school enrollment and continuation from grade to grade are being developed for many of these countries. This paper investigates the relationship of physical growth status (height, weight, and body composition), grade in school, and age to school continuation for a sample of Indian children living in a village near Guatemala City. It was found that physical growth status, a reflection of health and nutritional status, does not predict school continuation. A child's age and current grade in school do predict continuation. Most children leave school after reaching 9 years of age or after completing the second grade. It is suggested that children may learn enough to satisfy their parents' expectations by this age or grade. Also, the child's economic value to his or her family may be a significant reason for school drop‐out.
A classification of European skulls from three time periods
Authors: Sokal Robert R. , Uytterschaut Hilde , Rösing Friedrich W. , Schwidetzky Ilse
Published: February 2006

We analyze the taxonomic structure of European populations at three time periods, the Early Middle Ages, the Late Middle Ages and the Recent Period. The data consist of sample means for 10 cranial variables based on 137, 108, and 183 samples for the three periods. Clustering by standard numerical taxonomic procedures reveals that the data are represented only poorly as hierarchic classifications. The clusters form significant and moderately strong associations with an arrangement of the samples by regions (geography) and by language family. Whereas during the early period, language family showed a stronger association with clusters based on cranial morphology, in the recent populations these clusters correspond better with geography than with language. Ordinations of these populations by means of nonmetric multidimensional scaling shows the continuity of the taxonomic structure at all three periods. Only a few populations are outliers. The relations between phenetic distances (cranial morphology), geography, and language are examined by means of multiple Mantel tests. At all three periods geography is correlated somewhat more strongly with phenetics than is language affiliation, but the correlation with the latter increases with time. When the data are pooled over the three periods, the populations tend to group by language affiliation more than they do by period. Ordination of the pooled data reveals language patterns rather than patterns due to period, showing strong shifts in cranial measurements through time. These analyses show that while there is no clear‐cut taxonomic structure in European populations that would justify the traditional classifications based on the crania, there are significant and important associations with both language affiliation, geography, and time period, in this order. These patterns are likely to have become established through the migration and subsequent expansion of populations into their areas of occupation during the time interval studied rather than by geographic differentiation in situ.
Hypothesis: A selective advantage for cystic fibrosis heterozygotes
Authors: Meindl Richard S.
Published: February 2006

European populations have both a particularly long history of pulmonary tuberculosis and extremely high frequencies of cystic fibrosis (CF). While carriers of the recessive gene are asymptomatic for CF disease, their fibroblasts produce excessive amounts of hyaluronic acid, whose role in successful isolation of virulent pathogens appears to be especially adaptive in host resistance to the human strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. CF heterozygosity may have been an adaptation to a disease environment once dominated by this infection.
Evolution of the sacrum in hominoids
Authors: Abitbol M. Maurice
Published: February 2006

In order to study the formation of the sacrum during the primate evolution, a new way of numbering mammalian vertebrae is presented; this demonstrates that the thoracolumbosacral complex is fixed at 22 vertebrae in 80% and at 22 ± 1 in 100% of the cases. The shift of a vertebra from one type to another occurs either at the thoracolumbar or at the lumbosacral junction and not at the cervicothoracic junction. Rarely does the shift take place at the sacrococcygeal junction. Data from 318 primates reveal that the seven original lumbar vertebrae of the Old World monkeys are reduced in the great apes by a caudad “thoracization” of one to two lumbar vertebrae and a cephalad sacralization of one to four lumbar vertebrae. In the apes, sacralization is not total and different stages that are intermediate between lumbar and sacral are described. In Homo sapiens there is a total sacralization of the last two original lumbar vertebrae. In addition, development of the sacral wings (alae) is minimal in apes and reaches its maximum in hominids. The tendency of the hominoid sacrum to incorporate the last lumbar vertebrae and to widen markedly provides for an enhanced articulation of the sacrum with the ilium and offers a firm base of support for the trunk during erect posture. This is necessary for the support of the weight of the trunk above the sacrum and for the stabilization of the body during bipedal posture and locomotion. Encephalization did not play any major role in the widening of the sacrum since the former by far preceded the latter.
Resolution of genetic and uterine environmental effects in a family study of new dermatoglyphic measure: Sole pattern ridge counts
Authors: Malhotra K. C. , Vijayakumar M. , Borecki I. B. , Mathew S. , Poosha D. V. R. , Rao D. C.
Published: February 2006

The heritability of sole pattern ridge counts was examined in two family studies of endogamous castes from peninsular India. The phenotypes included ridge counts for each of the eight configurational areas separately, all areas combined, and only distal areas combined. Differences in heritability estimates were found between populations as well as among the individual configurational areas. Although some ridge counts do not show familial resemblance, others appear to be moderately heritable. Estimates of h2 range from 0.36 to 0.63 in one family series and from 0.22 to 0.51 in the other. In addition, significant uterine environmental effects were detected in one family series but not in the other.
Transverse relationships of the infraorbital foramina in cleft and noncleft individuals
Authors: McKinstry Robert E.
Published: February 2006

An evaluation of the location of the infraorbital foramina in a transverse plane was undertaken by direct skull and radiographic measurements in unrepaired cleft palate and age‐ and sex‐matched noncleft individuals. Physioprints were obtained on six dry skulls with left‐sided clefts of the primary and secondary palates and on six age‐ and sex‐matched noncleft palate skulls. The left infraorbital foramen was found to be significantly superior in a transverse plane to the right infraorbital foramen in the cleft palate skulls. No significant differences in transverse location of the infraorbital foramina were found in the cleft skull group based on differences in sex or age. Posterioranterior cephalographs were obtained on 15 left unilateral cleft palate individuals and on age‐ and sex‐matched noncleft palate individuals. The location of the infraorbital foramina in a transverse plane in the posterior‐anterior cephalographs was found to be too variable to permit the use of parametric statistical tests. When the data on location of the infraorbital foramina were analyzed by a nonparametric statistical test it was found that the left infraorbital foramen was significantly superior to the right infraorbital foramen in the cleft palate individuals. The more superiorly placed infraorbital foramen on the cleft side was suggestive of a vertical deficiency of the maxilla on the cleft side.
Talocrural joint in African hominoids: Implications for Australopithecus afarensis
Authors: Latimer Bruce , Ohman James C. , Lovejoy C. Owen
Published: February 2006

Talocrural joints of the African apes, modern humans, and A.L.288‐1 are compared in order to investigate ankle function in the Hadar hominids. Comparisons between the hominids and African pongids clearly illustrate the anatomical and mechanical changes that occurred in this joint as a consequence of the evolutionary transition to habitual bipedality. Features which are considered include the obliquity of the distal tibial articular surface, the shape of the talar trochlea, and the location and functional implications of the talocrural axis. In every functionally significant feature examined the A.L.288‐1 talocrural joint is fully bipedal. Moreover, the Hadar ankle complex also shows the functional constraints which are necessarily imposed by the adaptation to habitual bipedalism.
Basicranial morphology and ontogeny of the extinct giant lemur Megaladapis
Authors: MacPhee R. D. E.
Published: February 2006

The extinct Holocene giant lemurs of Madagascar—Magaladapis, Palaeopropithecus, and Archaeoindris—possess a suite of basicranial features not found in any other lemuriforms: (1) ectotympanic not “free,” (2) external acoustic canal elongated, (3) tympanic floors not swollen, and (4) reduced internal carotid and stapedial arteries. According to some authors, the first three traits are strongly convergent on morphological conditions in catarrhine primates. Study of juvenile and adult stages of Megaladapis indicates that the actual degree of convergence, from an ontogentic perspective, is rather slight. Giant lemurs, as a consequence of their massive body size, exhibit more exaggerated versions of traits characteristic of all members of infraorder Lemuriformes. (1) Although the ectotympanic is expanded and fused to the bulla, fusion results from complete obliteration of the recessus dehiscence; anthropoids have a different ectotympanic‐petrosal relationship and never exhibit a recessus dehiscence. (2) Although the external acoustic canal is elongated, its exterior portion is formed by the petrosal, and not by the ectotympanic as in anthropoids. (3) The volume of the middle ear is negatively allometric with respect to body size; in the absence of specific sorts of auditory specialization, mammals having the projected body sizes of the giant lemurs would be expected to have relatively small tympanic cavities, and therefore to lack prominent bullae. (4) The internal carotid systems of palaeopropithecines and Megaladapis are absolutely and relatively reduced; to compensate for this, these lemurs apparently relied on the vertebrobasilar system for most of their cerebro‐orbital supply, and on divisions of the external carotid for meningeal supply. It is important to note that the basicrania of giant lemurs display the same essential combination of traits that serve to distinguish lemurs from other euprimates (e.g., aphaneric ectotympanic, importance of the vertebrobasilar system, entry point of internal carotid stem into middle ear). This implies that the ontogenetic basis for these features is not easily modified and provides a justification for the heavy weight traditionally placed upon this region by paleoprimatologists.
Biological affinities between the migrant groups of fishermen of Puri Coast, Orissa, India
Authors: Reddy B. Mohan , Chopra Virendra P. , Mukherjee Deba P.
Published: February 2006

Biological affinities between the three endogamous groups of marine fishermen of Puri are examined with the help of nine anthropometric measurements and 22 dermatoglyphic traits of fingers and palms. The results are interpreted in the light of their ethnic, geographical, and migrational backgrounds. Multiple discriminant analysis and Mahalanobis's generalized distances suggest higher discrimination of populations with reference to anthropometric traits as compared to that in dermatoglyphic variables. While the nature of interpopulation distances conforms to the geographic pattern in anthropometrics, no clear picture emerges in the dermatoglyphic distances supporting either ethnic or geographic evidence.
Anthropometric analysis of the face in hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia: A family study
Authors: Ward Richard E. , Bixler David
Published: February 2006

Sixteen individuals with hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia (HED) were compared to normal standards as well as to 16 unaffected family members by using a series of 20 anthropometric measurements of the head and face. Individuals with HED were generally smaller than normal controls or their unaffected relatives. However, this size reduction was not uniform. Instead, it was most evident in the anterior‐posterior dimensions of the lower two‐thirds of the face, in facial height, and in the size of the ears, nose, and mouth. A stepwise discriminant function analysis indicated that a function constructed from four variables (depth of the lower face, width of the nose, mandibular arc, and total facial height) could accurately classify 96.7% of the 32 individuals in the combined sample of affected and unaffected individuals. These findings demonstrated that the face of individuals with HED is unique and can be useful in its diagnosis. Additional studies are needed to determine if similar‐though‐less‐pronounced facial abnormalities can be used to detect minimally affected gene carriers of this presumably X‐linked condition.
Describing a craniofacial anomaly: Finite elements and the biometrics of landmark locations
Authors: Bookstein Fred L.
Published: February 2006

An intergroup comparison of cephalometric landmark configurations by the finite‐element method elegantly depicts the algebra of some of the size and shape change measures that one may define by reference to those landmarks. In studies of mean differences between groups, the statistical analysis of these finite elements is equivalent to competent statistical analysis of the same data using any other geometric metaphor, such as properly standardized vector descriptions of landmark “movement” or scalar measures, size and shape variables, taken in sufficient variety. In applications to landmark data, the reality of finite‐element depictions is purely statistical rather than phenomenological. In the absence of additional evidence, they should not be held either more or less biologically meaningful than other descriptions of the same landmark changes to which they lead. These propositions are exemplified using landmark data from 13 cases of Apert syndrome.
Endemic disease patterns in Paleopathology: Porotic hyperostosis
Authors: Palkovich Ann M.
Published: February 2006

Recent research has shown that constitutional factors can elicit a porotic skeletal lesion pattern related to iron‐deficiency anemia, even when adequate dietary iron is available. This study considers the pattern of skeletal involvement under conditions of chronic or endemic dietary stress. Analysis focused on 54 subadults aged 0–10 years at death from the Arroyo Hondo site. Early age of onset is documented in the pattern of coincident active periosteal reactions and porotic lesions under 6 months. Endemically inadequate diets affecting pregnant females and their fetuses, acting synergistically with immediately acquired infections, not weaning diets, are the probable major underlying causes for the early onset of iron‐deficiency anemia at Arroyo Hondo.
New Australopithecus boisei specimens from east and west Lake Turkana, Kenya
Authors: Leakey R. E. F. , Walker A.
Published: February 2006

New specimens of Plio‐Pleistocene Australopithecus boisei are described from east and west Lake Turkana in Northern Kenya. These include a cranium and partial mandible from deposits close to 2.5 Myr and two partial crania and two mandibles from later horizons. The earlier fossils enable us to decipher, for the first time, some of the in situ evolution of this species within the Turkana Basin. The following are among the important changes in the cranium through time: 1) increase in size and change in shape of the braincase, 2) changes in the meningeal vessel pattern and possibly in the venous drainage pattern, 3) increased flexion of the cranial base and decreased prognathism, and 4) changes in the temporal bone to bring about a more vertical posterior face of the petrous pyramid and the development of a strong articular eminence.
Comparative craniofacial variation in Navajo Indians and North American Caucasians
Authors: Phipps Gerald S. , German Rebecca Z. , Smith Richard J.
Published: February 2006

Landmarks digitized from lateral cephalometric radiographs of 107 Navajo Indians between 10 and 12 years of age were analyzed to determine coefficients of variation or standard deviations for 38 cephalometric measurements. These values were compared with the same measures of variation for identical measurements on North American whites derived from the Michigan and Philadelphia Growth Studies. For the majority of variables, there were no differences between groups. Variation for the genetically and environmentally isolated Navajo Indians was the same as that of the highly diverse Caucasian samples. However, measurements of upper, lower, and total anterior facial height (N‐ANS, ANS‐Me, and N‐Me, respectively) indicate that these features are substantially less variable in Navajo Indians relative to the Michigan and Philadelphia populations.
Human temporal bone from the Lower Paleolithic site of Castel di Guido, near Rome, Italy
Authors: Mallegni F. , Radmilli A. M.
Published: February 2006

The Castel di Guido site, with an estimated age of approximately 300,000 years, has yielded abundant animal remains, Acheulian stone and bone bifaces, and small tools. On the surface of the original deposit, turned over by agricultural activities, fragments of human remains were discovered between 1980 and 1986, including a temporal bone described here.
Age and sex biases in the preservation of human skeletal remains
Authors: Walker Phillip L. , Johnson John R. , Lambert Patricia M.
Published: February 2006

Inaccuracies introduced through biases in preservation are a major source of error in paleodemographic reconstructions. Although it is generally assumed that such biases exist, little is known about their magnitude. To investigate this problem, we studied age and sex differences in the preservation of skeletal remains from Mission La Purisima and a prehistoric cemetery (Ca‐Ven‐110). Comparison of mortality profiles obtained through analysis of skeletal remains and burial records from the mission indicates that biases in preservation can be very significant in poorly preserved skeletal collections. The Purisima burial records show that most of the people interred in the cemetery were either infants or elderly adults. The skeletal remains, in contrast, are predominantly those of young adults. The burial records and skeletal collection produced comparable sex ratios. These results show that age biases in preservation are much more important than sex biases. This conclusion is supported by data on the completeness of the skeletons from La Purisima and Ca‐Ven‐110. At both sites, the remains of young adults were better preserved than those of children or elderly adults, and the completeness of male and female skeletons was comparable.
On generating birth rates from skeletal populations
Authors: Horowitz Sheryl , Armelagos George , Wachter Ken
Published: February 2006

Sattenspiel and Harpending (1983, American Antiquity 48(3): 489–498) have stated that the life expectancy at birth (e) which paleodemographers calculate from skeletal population data is actually the mean age at death (ād) of the population. Yet, only when a population is neither growing or declining (i.e., is stationary) are these two statistics equivalent. They further assert, that the mean age at the death (ād) is more accurately interpreted as a measure of the fertility of the population.

While we support their statement that since paleodemographic calculations use skeletal evidence of death, these do not a priori produce life expectancy values, we disagree that the inverse of the birth rate is a substitute for the average age at death (ād). The following pages demonstrate that: 1) An exact expression for the relationship between ād and 1/b can be derived using standard stable population theory, wherein ād = 1/b is shown to be a special case. 2) There are only two cases when ād = 1/b is an identity. 3) Whereas empirically ād and 1/b appear to correspond closely, this is an artifact of heavy mortality at early ages, which is a characteristic of the populations being considered. 4) Without insights into the behavioral dynamics of the situation any assessment of the demographics of the population is questionable.
Absence of strongly kin‐preferential behavior by adult female sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys)
Authors: Ehardt Carolyn L.
Published: February 2006

The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that kin‐preferential behavior would be present in sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys), a species taxonomically close to baboons and macaques. The affiliative behavior of the adult female members of a large captive group of these mangabeys was analyzed to test this prediction. These females groomed, were approached by, were in proximity to, and were in contact with their kin significantly more than expected, but only when all kin were included in the analysis. Removal of only the mother‐infant (< 1 year) dyadic interactions removed all significant kin effects. Kin‐preferential behavior was also absent in affiliative interactions among the adult females as a class. Affiliation between mothers and offspring significantly exceeded that for all other kinship categories (such as siblings, etc.), and affiliation with kin other than offspring did not differ from that with nonkin adults. In their interactions with nonkin, the adult females showed some preference (duration of grooming) for those adult females of similar age, an effect predicted by the intensity of interaction among members of the same age cohort during development. These similar‐aged females may also be paternally related. In comparing these results with the existing literature on kin‐preferential behavior, two conclusions may be reached: (1) age and degree of kinship are primary factors that must be considered in order to avoid the existing overgeneralization of the importance of kinship in primate social organization, and (2) the role and importance of affiliative behavior in kin‐selection theory should perhaps be re‐examined in light of questions raised by this study.
Bone resorption of the pubis and preauricular area in humans and nonhuman mammals
Authors: Tague Robert G.
Published: February 2006

Some innominates of adult human females show areas of bone resorption on the dorsal aspect of the pubic corpus and preauricular area of the ilium. For both sites, many studies have shown a positive association between degree of resorption and parity. The present study tested hypotheses concerning resorption of the pubis and preauricular area. Samples of innominates from three prehistoric Amerindian populations were used. Within each population, only a minority of females, in general, showed resorption more severe than that which characterized males. The severity of resorption of the pubis was not significantly associated with that of the preauricular area. Pitting of the pubis, but not of the preauricular area, was significantly correlated with age‐at‐death in each sample of Amerindian females. Also, sacral angulation was not significantly associated with resorption of the preauricular area. Observations on resorption of the pubis and preauricular area in samples of Pan troglodytes and Gorilla gorilla are reported.

In previous studies on resorption of the pubis and preauricular area in the human innominate, the proposed etiologies involve ligamentous hyperplasia and joint trauma. However, a number of studies on resorption of the pubis in the nonhuman mammalian innominate have been overlooked by anthropologists. These latter studies demonstrate that estrogen alone can induce resorption of the mammalian pubis by stimulating the synthesis of osteoclastic enzymes. Partial resorption of the pubis may be obstetrically advantageous in some mammals, as resorption would delay or inhibit synostosis of the interpubic joint. The relationship between estrogen and the preauricular area is an issue that requires further research.
Genetic studies among the sedentes and migrant oraons of eastern India
Authors: Saha N. , Tay Jsh. , Piplai C. , Gupta R. , Roy SK
Published: February 2006

A total of 334 Oraons of both sexes from two localities in eastern India were tested for 11 polymorphic and six monomorphic blood genetic markers. The sample comprised 130 sedentes from the Gumla district in Bihar and 204 migrants to the Jalpaiguri district of North Bengal. At the hemoglobin locus one example of HbAS was observed in the Gumla sample, while two cases of HbAS were found in the Jalpaiguri group. The Oraons are a distinct tribe and are characterized by a very low frequency of Hp1, TFC2, and a high frequency of TfD1 and Gc1F at the serum protein loci. In the red cell enzyme systems the Oraons have a higher frequency of pa at the acid phosphatase locus and GLO1 at the Glyoxalase I locus. Absence of red cell lactate dehydrogenase and very low Hbs and GdB‐ is also characteristic of the Oraons. A probable new nondeficient slow variant of Gd has been observed in polymorphic frequency in the Oraons of Gumla. There was an excess of homozygotes at the Gc locus. No significant difference in the gene frequency between the two groups of Oraons was observed at any of the loci. Genetic distance estimates using the gene frequency data indicate that the Oraons of the two localities are genetically homogeneous and form one cluster with the Bhils. They are nearer to the Irula and Kurumba tribes of the Nilgiris rather than the other Dravidian tribes, Tamils, or Nayars.
Mathematical hazard models of mortality: An alternative to model life tables
Authors: Gage Timothy B.
Published: February 2006

A five‐parameter competing hazard model of the age pattern of mortality is described, and methods of fitting it to survivorship, death rate, and age structure data are developed and presented. The methods are then applied to published life table and census data to construct life tables for a Late Woodland population, a Christian period Nubian population, and the Yanomama. The advantage of this approach over the use of model life tables is that the hazard model facilitates life‐table construction without imposing a particular age pattern of mortality on the data. This development makes it possible to use anthropological data to extend the study of human variation in mortality patterns to small populations.
Subscapularis function in gibbons and chimpanzees: Implications for interpretation of humeral head torsion in hominoids
Authors: Larson Susan G.
Published: February 2006

Chimpanzees and gibbons, along with other hominoids, share a number of features in the morphology of their shoulders that have generally been associated with use of the upper limb in overhead postural and locomotor activities. These include the position and shape of the scapula, as well as the morphology of the proximal end of the humerus. Results of an electromyographic (EMG) analysis of shoulder muscle activity patterns indicate that these two species of hominoids also share broad similarities in shoulder muscle function during locomotion and voluntary movements. Differences do exist, however, in the activity patterns of subscapularis, a medial rotator of the arm. These differences mainly involve a greater participation by the gibbon subscapularis in free arm movements. This greater participation is characterized by earlier onset of muscle activity, higher amplitude of recruitment, and involvement of more of the total mass of the muscle. These differences in muscle recruitment suggest that the shoulder of gibbons differs from that of chimpanzees in some manner that necessitates the greater contribution of a medial rotator to the production of motion in the upper limb. I suggest that the low degree of humeral head torsion in gibbons, compared to that of other hominoids, gives their elbow a “lateral set” that must be overcome by the action of subscapularis during free arm movements. I propose that this modest degree of humeral head torsion in gibbons reflects a compromise between necessary changes caused by the repositioning of the scapula onto the dorsum of the thorax and the demands for extreme positioning of the elbow during brachiation. In addition, I suggest that the greater amount of torsion in the chimpanzee humerus is an accommodation to quadrupedal habits, and finally, that the high degree of torsion in human humeri is an independently acquired trait related to use of the upper limb as a manipulatory organ.
Effects of size on Vervet (Cercopithecus aethiops) gait parameters: A cross‐sectional approach
Authors: Vilensky Joel A. , Gankiewicz Eva , Townsend Douglas W.
Published: February 2006

A comparison of the values of certain temporal and spatial locomotor parameters was made among ten different‐aged (sized) vervet monkeys locomoting at nine identical speeds. Cycle and stance durations decreased across speed for all the animals; at any one speed both parameters also varied directly with body size. Stride length increased with speed for all the animals and was greater in the larger animals. Swing duration and hindlimb support length tended to be relatively consistent for each animal across speed, but varied among the animals directly with body size. Hindlimb duty factor decreased with speed for any one animal but showed no direct correlation with size. Hindlimb angular excursion also showed no correlation with size, nor did it show a simple relationship with speed. In terms of gaits and gait transitions, the data indicate that vervets use a very wide variety of gait types, which are not easily correlated with speed or body size. Furthermore, the data suggest the existence of a run–gallop transition zone of speeds for these animals, rather than the existence of a specific transition speed. Finally, the data were used to test intraspecifically the elastic and dynamic similarity models, both of which predict how locomotor parameters will change with size in animals. The results are generally consistent with the dynamic model.
Study of five haemogenetic markers (Gc, C3, Bf, Ag, and GALT) in six Indonesian populations and in 12 subgroups of Balinese
Authors: Scherz R. , Breguet G. , Ney R. , Pflugshaupt R. , Bütler R.
Published: February 2006

In various ethnic groups of the Indonesian archipelago and of Bali, the polymorphisms of the serum proteins Gc globulin (vitamin D‐binding protein), C3 (complement component 3), Bf (complement factor B), Ag x,y (lipo‐protein allotypes), and of the red cell enzyme system GALT (galactose‐1P‐uri‐dyltransferase) were analysed. Among the studied proteins, the Gc system was the most informative one for the anthropologist. Besides considerable differences of frequencies of the common alleles Gc*1F, Gc*1S and Gc*2, a number of rare alleles (1A1, 1A3, 1A8, 1A9, 1A12, 1C2, 1C21, 1C24, and 2C8) and some new ones (1C28, 1C29, 1C30, 2C9) were observed. The presence of Gc*1A1 demonstrates the relationship to the Australo‐Melanesian populations, but Mongolian variants (1A3, 1A8, 1A9, 1C2) were also encountered.

Within the C3 system a very high frequency of the C3*S allele was observed in all populations. The rare alleles C3*F0.55, C3S1, and C3*S0.5 were observed in some groups. A new allele (C3*F0.35) was detected in a Chinese individual and in a nobleman from Bali. The frequency of the Bf*F allele was rather low in general, and the Bf*S0.7 allele was found in three Indonesian individuals only. The Ag*(x) frequencies were rather high, as it is known for Asiatic populations. Variability among subgroups was not very pronounced. The GALT*2 allele (Duarte variant of the enzyme) was observed very rarely; however, it was present in several populations. Enzyme activities could not be determined, and therefore we cannot tell whether the galactosaemia gene (GALT*0) was present or not.
Palmar dermatoglyphics of dyslexia
Authors: Jamison C. Sorenson
Published: February 2006

Palmar dermatoglyphic prints were taken of 261 dyslexics (173 males and 88 females) and compared against those of 707 controls (372 males and 335 females). Dyslexics of both sexes were found to exhibit greater complexity in terms of ridge count and pattern location than controls, particularly on the left hand. Specifically, both male and female dyslexics exhibited higher left a‐b counts, wider atd angles on both palms, and higher frequencies of pattern in left interdigital area IV. Additionally, male dyslexics also had higher right a‐b counts and greater frequency of pattern in the left hypothenar area. Dyslexics of both sexes were also found to have more distally located axial triradii, and investigation of bilateral asymmetry found dyslexics to exhibit more directional asymmetry than controls in the variable of a‐b count, with the left value for both groups being greater than the right.

It was concluded that the study evidenced strong support for the hypothesis that some causative factor relating to the development of dyslexia is operating during the time period in which dermatoglyphic features are formed. The relevance of these findings in terms of the Geschwind hypothesis and the possible importance of prenatal testosterone are discussed.
Directional asymmetry in the forelimb of Macaca mulatta
Authors: Falk Dean , Pyne Linnea , Criss Helmkamp R. , DeRousseau C. Jean
Published: February 2006

Asymmetry was investigated in the forelimbs of 150 rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) skeletons using measurements of right and left humerii, radii, ulnae, second metacarpals, and femora. Seven of the ten forelimb dimensions were larger on the right than on the left side. Paired t‐tests revealed that the mean of the right side was significantly larger than that for the left for two measurements of the ulna and two of the humerus. No measurement was significantly larger on the left than on the right side. These results indicate a small but significant asymmetry in the forelimb bones of rhesus monkeys and, as is the case for humans, the direction of asymmetry favors the right side. Our findings are consistent with an interpretation of hypertrophy of certain muscles and opens the question of whether rhesus monkeys preferentially use their right forelimbs for manipulative tasks that require manual dexterity, as is the case for humans. These forelimb skeletal asymmetries are discussed in light of the recent literature on cortical asymmetry and handedness in nonhuman primates.
New first metatarsal (SKX 5017) from Swartkrans and the gait of Paranthropus robustus
Authors: Susman Randall L. , Brain Timothy M.
Published: February 2006

A new, complete hallucal metatarsal (SKX 5017) was recovered from the “lower bank” of Member 1 at Swartkrans (ca. 1.8 m.y. BP). The new metatarsal is attributed to Paranthropus robustus, the predominant hominid found in Member 1 (>95% of hominid individuals). SKX 5017 is similar to Olduvai Hominid 8‐H from bed I, Olduvai (ca. 1.76 m.y. BP), and both resemble humans most closely among extant hominoids. The base, shaft, and head of SKX 5017 suggest human‐like foot posture and a human‐like range of extension (= dorsiflexion) at the hallucal metatarsophalangeal joint, while at the same time the distal articular surface indicates that a human‐like toe‐off mechanism was absent in Paranthropus. The fossil evidence suggests that Homo habilis and Paranthropus may have attained a similar grade of bipedality at roughly 1.8 m.y. BP.
Some additional morphological and metrical observations on pan brain casts and their relevance to the taung endocast
Authors: Holloway Ralph L.
Published: February 2006

Using an increased sample of chimpanzee brains and brain casts, 32 hemispheres were measured to determine the variability of OP–FP (occipital–pole) and OP–LS (occipital pole–lunate sulcus) arc dimensions and their ratios. The Taung endocast was remeasured to test Falk's assertions that the lunate sulcus is in a pongid position. The average ratio for the chimpanzee brains was 0.218, a value more than 2 + S.D.'s posterior to Falk's placement of the lunate sulcus on the Taung specimen. It is suggested that the chimpanzee and Taung occipital poles have a different morphometric pattern, the former being coincident with the caudal end of the LC (lateral calcarine) fissure. The Taung OP–LS arc consistently measured at least 42 mm, and not 40 mm as claimed by Falk.
A functional consequence of an ossified mandibular symphysis
Authors: Greaves Walter Stalker
Published: February 2006

According to most recent workers, the presence of fused symphyses in some mammals is explained by the common view that muscle force is transmitted better across a fused, as opposed to an unfused, mandibular symphysis. Recent theoretical work has cast doubt on the importance of fusion for simple force transmission by suggesting that force can also be transmitted efficiently across an unfused symphysis, an expectation that has since been confirmed by a number of observational studies. Perhaps the real significance of symphyseal fusion is that, in animals with upper and lower incisor tooth rows that apply large forces to relatively small resistant food items, muscle force from both sides of the head is reliably available only when the symphysis is fused. Independent movement between the two sides of the lower incisor row, permitted by a patent symphysis, allows the possibility that one side of the lower row will come into contact with the upper incisor row, dissipating all of the muscle force from that side. The dissipation of approximately half of the available jaw muscle force, allowed by a patent symphysis, cannot be ignored when attempting to explain the presence of fused symphyses if one accepts the idea that strong incisor biting is an important element in the masticatory apparatus of those primates and other mammals with fused mandibular symphyses.
Tooth scaling and evolutionary dwarfism: An investigation of allometry in human pygmies
Authors: Shea Brian T. , Gomez Anne M.
Published: February 2006

Gould has predicted that in rapidly dwarfed lineages the postcanine teeth exhibit a different scaling pattern than is the normal interspecific trend. His prediction of strong negative allometry has not been frequently tested in quantitative detail. Here we present results of scaling analyses of the molar teeth in African pygmies compared with other Africans of larger size and in Philippine pygmies compared with Filipinos of larger size. We find a pattern of strong negative allometry of tooth size to skull and body size in both these comparisons. This scaling pattern is explained by recourse to the developmental bases (known or inferred) of dwarfing in these populations. Body size decrease is related to low levels of the growth control substance insulin‐like growth factor I (IGF‐I), which does not appear to affect the size of the dentition. The implications of such developmental information for our understanding of allometric patterns in general, and dwarfing events in particular, are discussed.
Power analysis in biological anthropology
Authors: Hodges Denise C. , Schell Lawrence M.
Published: February 2006

Power in statistical terms is the probability of rejecting a false null hypothesis. Power analysis, although generally not employed by biological anthropologists, is especially useful in interpreting statistical tests in which the null hypothesis is not rejected, and in determining appropriate sample sizes. In this report, the utility of statistical power analysis and the level of variation in power is illustrated by performing power analysis on paleopathology data (Cohen and Armelagos: Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture, 1984). The power analyses indicate that most samples are adequately large for detecting large differences among groups, but are inadequate for detecting small differences. Statistical analyses with inadequate power to detect small to medium effects may be of questionable utility in many areas of biological anthropology, as well as in paleopathology. The application of power analysis is recommended for determining necessary sample size in advance of data collection and for interpreting negative results.
Back muscle function during bipedal walking in chimpanzee and gibbon: Implications for the evolution of human locomotion
Authors: Shapiro Liza J. , Jungers William L.
Published: February 2006

The evolution of erect posture and locomotion continues to be a major focus of interest among paleoanthropologists and functional morphologists. To date, virtually all of our knowledge about the functional role of the back muscles in the evolution of bipedalism is based on human experimental data. In order to broaden our evolutionary perspective on the vertebral region, we have undertaken an electromyographic (EMG) analysis of three deep back muscles (multifidus, longissimus thoracis, iliocostalis lumborum) in the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and gibbon (Hylobates lar) during bipedal walking. The recruitment patterns of these three muscles seen in the chimpanzee closely parallel those observed in the gibbon. The activity patterns of multifidus and longissimus are more similar to each other than either is to iliocostalis. Iliocostalis recruitment is clearly related to contact by the contralateral limb during bipedal walking in both species. It is suggested that in both the chimpanzee and gibbon, multifidus controls trunk movement primarily in the sagittal plane, iliocostalis responds to and adjusts movement in the frontal plane, while longissimus contributes to both of these functions. In many respects, the activity patterns shared by the chimpanzee and gibbon are quite consistent with recent human experimental data. This suggests a basic similarity in the mechanical constraints placed on the back during bipedalism among these three hominoids. Thus, the acquisition of habitual bipedalism in humans probably involved not so much a major change in back muscle action or function, but rather an improvement in the mechanical advantages and architecture of these muscles.
Quantitative genetic analysis of Bi‐lliac breadth
Authors: Ikoma Eiki , Kanda Sanae , Nakata Shuji , Wada Yo , Yamazaki Keisuke
Published: February 2006

Bi‐iliac breadth, the frontal maximum diameter between right and left iliac crests, was measured in 1,547 male and 2,085 female residents of a rural area in Japan. All subjects were over 14 years of age. The bi‐iliac breadth showed an increase related to age but little sex difference. Modification of age and sex variations from the measured value was obtained by calculation of the score, represented by arithmetical means and standard deviations. Distribution of these scores appeared to be binomial, and since binomial distribution approaches normal distribution when n is large, it is presumed that this trait gains normal distribution. Thus variation of bi‐iliac breadth in subjects 20–79 years of age enables us to analyze inheritance.

No significant difference was found between husband and wife in the correlation coefficients or between father and daughter (0.13 ± 0.08). Significant differences were found as follows: father‐son (0.35 ± 0.05) (P < 0.001), mother‐son (0.28 ± 0.05) (P < 0.001), and mother‐daughter (0.28 ± 0.06) (P < 0.001). There was no indication of maternal or paternal effects, since no significant difference was found in father‐child and mother‐child correlation coefficients. It is concluded that bi‐iliac breadth is a quantitative genetic trait under control of polygenes on autosomes. Regression coefficient of child on midparental value was 0.55 ± 0.05, approximately twice the means of four pairs of correlation coefficients between parent‐offspring. Narrowly, heritability was estimated as 0.54 ∼ 0.55. Contribution of dominance to total variance was small (VD = 0.11), in contrast to the larger additive genetic variance (VA = 0.54).
Fitness and fertility among kalahari !Kung
Authors: Pennington Renee , Harpending Henry
Published: February 2006

In this paper we develop a model that examines fertility and childhood mortality patterns and their relationship to environmental variables. Interactions among environmental variables can account for different fertility patterns and different mixes of these variables can produce similar patterns of fertility. Our model attempts to quantify the idea that there is a trade‐off between producing a few children likely to survive to reproductive age and producing a greater number of children with lower chances for survival. The optimum mix of these strategies depends on environmental characteristics. We use the model to make predictions about fertility and mortality patterns among two Bushmen populations of southern Africa—the Ghanzi and Ngamiland !Kung—using data collected by Harpending in 1967–1968. The results do not support explanations of the low fertilities observed among !Kung Bushmen women, in whom it is thought that fitness is maximized by limiting fertility, and show no relationship between mortality and family size in either !Kung population. Instead, the number of offspring reaching reproductive age in both populations increases as their completed family size increases.

We examine the effects of sex, birth order, and paternal investment on mortality. No sex ratio differences and no differences in mortality by sex or birth order are present. Infant mortality among women who married more than once is significantly higher than among women who married once, suggesting that paternal care has a significant effect.
Pubertal growth of the cephalometric point gnathion: Multilevel models for boys and girls
Authors: Buschang Peter H. , Tanguay Richard , Demirjian Arto , Lapalme Lise , Goldstein Harvey
Published: February 2006

Two‐level polynomial models are used to summarize the amount Sella‐Gnathion (S‐Gn) and direction Nasion‐Sella‐Gnathion (N‐S‐Gn) of growth changes for the cephalometric landmark gnathion. Growth descriptions pertain to a mixed longitudinal sample of 209 French‐Canadian children 10–15 years of age. The boy's growth curve attains mean minimum prepubertal velocity at 10.8 years and maximum pubertal velocity at 14.1 years. The girl's curve follows a cubic pattern, attaining maximum pubertal velocity at 12.1 years. Boys are larger than girls throughout the age range. Variation between‐subjects increases with age in a curvilinear fashion. Growth direction of gnathion is more horizontally directed for girls than boys. Small but significant changes in growth direction occur between 10 and 15 years of age.