bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Brain Effect Site Pharmacokinetics: Delivery of Biologics Across the Blood–Brain Barrier
Authors: Fricker Gert , Mahringer Anne
Published: December 2015

The understanding of the morphology of the blood‐brain barrier (BBB), and the molecular and cellular mechanisms that determine its function is a prerequisite for successful delivery of macromolecules to the brain. This chapter reviews present knowledge about receptors in brain capillary endothelial cells (BCECs) and delivery systems, which can be used to move biologics across the barrier and have an impact on their therapeutic efficacy. These include: transferrin receptor, insulin receptor, low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor, and leptin receptor. A "Trojan horse" approach might be useful to deliver macromolecular drugs to the CNS, by coupling the respective drug to an endogenous substrate or an antibody versus one of the receptors in the luminal membrane of the BBB. The colloidal carriers used for brain‐directed drug delivery are mainly polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, or solid lipid nanoparticles. The microbubble/focused ultrasound approach significantly increases the cerebral content of erythropoietin by bettering vascular permeability.
Molecular Pathology Techniques in the Preclinical Development of Therapeutic Biologics
Authors: Flandre Thierry , Taplin Sarah , Jones Stewart , Lloyd Peter
Published: December 2015

This chapter reviews a range of molecular pathology‐based techniques that are currently used in preclinical animal studies to assist in answering specific scientific questions related to target biology (expression) and biotherapeutic distribution (including off‐target binding). It also highlights the importance of using a combination of appropriate complementary technologies rather than a single technique. The chapter describes an integrated approach that combines pharmacokinetics (PKs), target expression, concentration, receptor occupancy, pathology, immunogenicity, and other relevant information within the same study to characterize and interpret the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) profile of a biotherapeutic. This integrated approach can also serve to maximize the information generated in a single study and can limit the number of animals used. Methods used to determine the biodistribution of a therapeutic protein‐based molecule in treated animals include wholebody autoradiography (WBA) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) using either chromagen or fluorescence‐based detection methods.
Labeling and Imaging Techniques for Quantification of Therapeutic Biologics
Authors: Jang Julie K. , Canter David , Hu Peisheng , Epstein Alan L. , Khawli Leslie A.
Published: December 2015

This chapter discusses considerations on the choice of different labels suitable for various detection and imaging methods. It describes labeling methods of protein therapeutics in terms of direct versus indirect methods and in terms of radiohalogens (e.g., radioiodine), trivalent cation radiometals (e.g., indium, copper, and zirconium), and fluorophores. The chapter provides a guide for scientists to find the optimal combination of labeling techniques and labels suitable for pharmaceutical application. The chapter also discusses the advantages and the limitations of the labeling method. It emphasises on the use of numerous imaging techniques for assessing the pharmacokinetics (PK) and biodistribution of biologic proteins, with a focus on positron emission tomography (PET) and single‐photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and a brief discussion of the role of optical imaging (OI) in this application. Biodistribution studies for biologics are routinely carried out using radioactive iodine isotopes.
Biosimilar Development: Nonclinical and Clinical Strategies and Challenges with a Focus on the Role of
PK
/
PD
Assessments
Authors: Hurst Susan , Yin Donghua
Published: December 2015

To compare the pharmacokinetic (PK) and/or pharmacodynamic (PD) properties between a proposed biosimilar product and the originator's product, the study(s) should be designed in a way that any difference in the properties could be sensitively detected. This chapter introduces the topic of biosimilarity with a focus on nonclinical and clinical aspects that incorporate PK/PD and immunogenicity considerations including regulatory requirements and study design considerations. The determination of biosimilarity is based on a head‐to‐ head comparison of the proposed biosimilar to the biotherapeutic reference product in terms of quality, safety, and efficacy. These aspects are determined via a hierarchical stepwise process that includes analytical/ biological studies, nonclinical
in vivo
studies, and clinical studies. The regulatory environment for biosimilars is currently evolving and must be constantly monitored by the biosimilar manufacturers as they work to develop the proposed biosimilar for the global market.
Review: The Critical Role of Clinical Pharmacology in the Development of Biologics
Authors: Zhao Liang , Wang Diane , Zhao Ping , Shang Elizabeth Y. , Wang Yaning , Sinha Vikram
Published: December 2015

Compared with small‐molecule drugs (SMDs), the development of biologics has become one of the fastest growing areas in research and drug development owing to advancement in biotechnology sciences such as recombinant protein technology. This chapter focuses on the clinical pharmacology aspects of biologics, including their basic pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) characteristics, first‐in‐human dose selection, model‐based dose determination, and trial design. It also discusses monoclonal antibodies, proteins, and peptides. Compared to SMDs, biologics have unique characteristics in absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination, which play a role in their use as therapeutic interventions and lead to significant differences in their development. Quantitative methods, such as mechanism‐based PK, physiologically‐based PK, PK/PD, and exposure‐response models, offer great benefit for biologics development. With the advancement of new quantitative tools, drug developers and researchers can gain powerful insight into designing the most effective therapeutic regimens.
Investigating the NonclinicalADMEandPK/PDof an Antibody–Drug Conjugate: A Case Study of Ado‐Trastuzumab Emtansine (T‐DM1)
Authors: Tibbitts Jay
Published: December 2015

Antibody‐drug conjugates (ADCs) are a growing class of anticancer agents combining the targeting ability of an antibody with the potency of a cytotoxic agent. Ado‐trastuzumab emtansine (Kadcyla®, or Trastuzumab‐DM1 (T‐DM1)) is approved for the treatment of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2+ (HER2+) metastatic breast cancer and in development for other HER2+ indications. This chapter explores the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) and absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) strategy and data for T‐DM1. In the course of the development of T‐DM1, a substantial body of information was generated describing the ADME characteristics of the ADC. The strategy was to develop a comprehensive understanding of the behavior of T‐DM1, including its PK/PD, distribution,in vivoandex vivostability, catabolic fate, and excretion. The foundation upon which PK and ADME evaluation is built is thorough and robust bioanalytical methods capable of determining the presence of key components of the molecule of interest.
Use of
PK
/
PD
Knowledge in Guiding Bispecific Biologics Research and Development
Authors: Baumann Andreas , Prabhu Saileta , Kanodia Jitendra
Published: December 2015

This chapter describes the different types of bispecific formats as well as the principles used to generate them, before elaborating on the biochemical and pharmacological properties including affinity, avidity, and pharmacokinetics (PK). In addition, assay strategies to measure these compounds and the use of pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) modeling in the design and development of these complex molecules are also covered. Next, the chapter highlights some of the key properties of bispecific antibodies (bsAbs) that may be considered or leveraged while developing these novel and complex therapeutics. The overall PK behavior of the bsAb is strongly dependent on the format. BsAbs based on immunoglobulin G (IgG) may be preferred due to the favorable PK properties (e.g., long serum half‐life) as well as the option to modulate the effector functions. Finally, it presents three case studies to highlight some of the challenges in the research and development of bsAbs.
Holocaust
Authors: Emil Katz Fred
Published: December 2015

In human history the Holocaust stands out as the largest systematic effort to exterminate an entire category of human beings. It did so in a country, Germany, that had produced Kant, Goethe, and Einstein, along with museums, galleries, and orchestras that were the envy of the world. In science and in the fine arts as well as in medicine and higher education, Germany's status was second to none. Germany was modernity at its best. Yet Germany also manifested a conspicuous vulnerability: the embrace of a false messiah, Adolf Hitler, and, with him, a journey into a world of unequaled moral degeneracy—a world that countenanced mass murder under the claim that some sort of higher good was thereby achieved. That higher good was Hitler's dream of Germany's national grandeur, achieved through military ventures and, most especially, through racial and ethnic purification.
H
ull
H
ouse
Authors: Scimecca Joseph A.
Published: December 2015

Hull House is generally acknowledged to be the first settlement house in the United States. Founded in 1899 by Jane Addams and her college friend, Ellen Gates Starr, Hull House was located on Halsted Street in one of the poorest and most ethnically diverse sections of Chicago. From its inception, the main purpose of Hull House was to help the residents of the nearby neighborhoods (populated predominantly by recent Italian, Jewish, Greek, German, and Polish immigrants) overcome the conditions of poverty that surrounded them and defined their lives. Hull House was modeled on Toynbee Hall of London, a settlement house in London where students from Oxford and Cambridge University, lived and worked among the residents of the poorest areas of the city during their school holidays.
Birth of a Nation, The
Authors: Smith Jason
Published: December 2015

The Birth of a Nation
was a silent film released in 1915, applauded at the time as a masterpiece. However, the film was a racially charged propaganda film that perpetuated the “Lost Cause” ideology of the Civil War. Within the social milieu it sparked both protests, from the NAACP, and approval from the larger white community. The film left a lasting legacy on the film industry and its racist portrayal of African Americans.
M
oynihan Report, The
Authors: Patterson James T.
Published: December 2015

“The Negro Family: The Case for National Action” (March 1965) was a seventy‐eight‐page report written by Daniel Patrick Moynihan, an assistant secretary of labor in the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson. It offered a grim portrait of contemporary conditions facing lower‐class black families in the United States. Most famously, it concluded that such families were trapped in a “tangle of pathology.” Though the Johnson administration at first reacted enthusiastically to the report, a number of developments—including a terrible riot in the black neighborhood of Watts in Los Angeles in August 1965—dampened Americans' enthusiasm for social reforms to deal with such conditions. Many black leaders, moreover, resented Moynihan's dismal portrait. Some branded him as a racist. With the report enmeshed in controversy, the Johnson administration dropped it.
D
urkheim, Émile (1858–1917)
Authors: Malczewski Eric
Published: December 2015

Émile Durkheim never conducted a study of nationalism, but it is quite clear what such a study would have entailed for him: it would be centrally concerned with defining the specific form of collective consciousness common to the average man within the putative national unit; it would have a central subject matter comprised essentially of social facts and of theoretical entities based on these facts; and it would be genealogical in its approach, showing how the national unit developed throughout history. Durkheim did identify certain key characteristics of French and German collective consciousness, so there are empirical guiding lights that inform what qualities a study of French or German nationalism would need to account for. Additionally, Durkheim offers definitions of certain concepts central to the study of nationalism—a
people
, a
nationality
, and the
state
.
Conflict Resolution and Ethnic Relations
Authors: Avruch Kevin
Published: December 2015

Many writers have debated the distinctions (or significant lack of them) between such terms as ethnicity, race, and nationality. Some argue that even religion or linguistic affiliation “counts.” One way to conceptualize these terms collectively is to see them as alternative though nonexclusive bases of social identity which, in different degrees of subjective salience, constitute for individuals a “basic group identity,” which in turn becomes a primary basis of group affiliation (Isaacs 1975). This entry treats all the various components of basic group identity under the general rubric of ethnicity, and relations among groups so constituted as ethnic relations. In that case, it will be noted in examining the titles of several classics in the field (Esman 1977; Smith 1981; Horowitz 1985 [2000]; Stone 1986), that ethnicrelationsseems inevitably to imply ethnicconflict. Following this, the focus of this entry is on different modalities of the management or resolution of ethnic conflict.Resolutionis used in this entry as a cover term to refer to several different processes.
Aleuts
Authors: Reedy Katherine
Published: December 2015

Aleuts
, also known as Unangan, are indigenous peoples of the western Alaska Peninsula, Shumagin Islands, Aleutian Islands, and Pribilof Islands of Alaska, and the Commander Islands of Russia numbering approximately three thousand today. They live a subsistence lifestyle fishing, hunting, and gathering that is supported by commercial fisheries.
Equality
Authors: Zack Naomi
Published: December 2015

Universal human equality that includes all peoples is a relatively new idea in western history. In the United States, racial inequality has frequently been addressed by increasing educational opportunities. Minorities in other western states may receive more direct government aid, while poor nonwhite countries may in the long term benefit materially by becoming part of the global economy. Issues of white racism and white privilege have an uncertain future.
H
mong
Authors: Youyee Vang Chia
Published: December 2015

The Hmong are an Asian ethnic minority dispersed around the globe by the twenty‐first century. Of the estimated five to six million people of Hmong ethnicity in the world, the largest number is found in southern China, followed by Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. After the Second Indochina War, thousands of Hmong from Laos became political refugees and subsequently settled in the United States. Smaller populations migrated to Argentina, Australia, Canada, and France (French Guiana). While no Hmong nation‐state exists, nation‐building efforts have been an integral part of Hmong history across place and time.
Expulsion
Authors: Costalli Stefano
Published: December 2015

The expulsion of specific ethnic communities from their territories is closely connected to the rise of nationalism, according to which nation‐states have to be ethnically homogeneous in order to be stable and viable. Conversely, each ethnic nation is entitled to claim its own independent state. Therefore expulsion is a part of ethnic cleansing and it needs to be understood in the context of ethnic conflicts. Since the nineteenth century, forced expulsions have involved so many millions of persons that precise estimates are not available. Ethnic conflicts can originate at the systemic, state, or community level. Their consequences are tragic for the victimized populations, but recent empirical studies have found that massive refugee flows are also dangerous for the stability of contiguous countries. Nonetheless, separation, expulsion, and partition have also been proposed as effective ways of conflict resolution.
G
reeks
Authors: Roudometof Victor
Published: December 2015

This entry offers a brief overview of the different uses of the ethnonym “Greeks” in varied historical periods.
Afrikaners (Boers)
Authors: Giliomee Hermann
Published: December 2015

The Afrikaners stem from the interaction between Dutch, German, and French immigrants to the southern tip of Africa in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Because of an increasing balance of the sexes, the exceptionally strong position of European women, and the weakness of the missionary efforts there, a fairly rigid form of endogamy had developed by 1800. The use of the term “Afrikaners” for this slaveholding community had become widespread. It was a predominantly white community, which spoke Dutch and Afrikaans—a language forged by whites, Khoikoi, and slaves. British rule in the nineteenth century turned this white community into an ethnic community of “Afrikaners” and “Boers.” Afrikaner nationalism and its handmaiden, apartheid, developed in the twentieth century within the context of rigid segregation, an electoral system that rewarded the ethnic mobilization of the Afrikaners as the largest enfranchised ethnic group, and the rise of Afrikaans as a high‐culture language.
Chosen Peoples
Authors: Smith Anthony D.
Published: December 2015

The conviction of constituting a “chosen people” is found among many ethnic communities and nations across the ages. In the conditional version, members believe they stand in a privileged relationship with the deity, but only insofar as they adhere to a strict moral and ritual code of duties. This version originated among the Israelites in the Sinai desert after their exodus from Egypt and was taken over by the church and by many European nations, but in the latter the conviction became unconditional, the privileges of ethnic election entailing only vague political duties of conversion or expansion. The conviction of chosenness can also be found outside the Judeo‐Christian tradition, for example in Iran, Burma, and Japan. The idea of ethnic election has been vital to the cohesion and persistence of many ethnic communities down the ages and continues to underpin the sense of national identity in many national states today.
Artists and Nationalism
Authors: Smith Anthony D.
Published: December 2015

Of all ideological movements, nationalism is most closely associated with artists, especially visual artists. This is partly because nationalism is also a type of culture, but mainly because the abstraction of its main concepts—nation, homeland, autonomy, unity, identity, authenticity—requires concrete “realization.” Visual artists have been attracted to nationalism insofar as its concepts demand an individual and expressive response; conversely, nationalist movements often require potent and stirring imagery, which can mobilize “the people.” Typically artists employ different modes of communication—didactic, evocative, commemorative—to “realize” the nation by endowing it with “body,” “atmosphere,” and “authenticity.” We can appreciate these modes in the landscapes of Turner, Constable, and Friedrich, in the heroic figural compositions of David, Ingres, Fussli, Surikov, and Gallen‐Kallela, and in the elegaic commemorative paintings, sculptures, and architecture of West, David, Banks, and Lutyens, all of whom sought to give shape and meaning to the national ideal.
Cross‐National Communication
Authors: Smith Peter B.
Published: December 2015

The choice of language to be spoken in cross‐cultural communication gives first‐language speakers greater power and can impede effectiveness if first‐language speakers do not adjust and simplify their speech. Speakers accustomed to direct styles of communication need to learn to understand the more implicit styles of communication that prevail among those from other parts of the world.
Totalitarianism
Authors: El‐Ojeili Chamsy
Published: December 2015

The origins of the term “totalitarianism” can be traced to treatments of Italian fascism: it was first used in 1923 by Giovanni Amendola and subsequently appropriated by the fascists themselves, for instance in Giovanni Gentile's comments on the “totalitarian spirit” and a new “total conception of life”—the aspiration to completely transform all social spheres and human beings themselves. In the 1930s and early 1940s, a number of largely Marxist and former Marxist thinkers used the term, sometimes as a wasy of underscoring crucial similarities between fascism and communism, sometimes with a focus on the rise and operation of fascism, and often as an extreme expression of more wide‐ranging transformations in or from capitalism, captured in phrases such as “bureaucratic collectivism,” “totalitarian state capitalism,” “totalitarian monopoly capitalism,” and “the managerial revolution.”
Barth, Fredrik (1928–)
Authors: Hylland Eriksen Thomas
Published: December 2015

Fredrik Barth is a major figure in twentieth century social anthropology and the founder of the Department of Social Anthropology at the University of Bergen. He has published ethnographically based monographs from Iraqi Kurdistan, Swat (Pakistan), Iran, New Guinea, Oman, and Bali, and has consistently emphasized the acting individual and the social process, rather than system and structure, in his theoretical contributions. However, Barth's most famous contribution to the social sciences is his reworking of the concept of ethnicity, which he sees chiefly as a social phenomenon delineated by ethnic boundaries, not as a product of cultural differences.
Ethnicity
Authors: Hylland Eriksen Thomas
Published: December 2015

Ethnicity refers to the enduring relationship between more or less bounded groups, which perceive themselves as being culturally distinct. It is thus an aspect of a relationship, not a fixed property of a group. In the contemporary world, ethnicity can be seen as a way of making cultural differences comparable. All ethnic groups invoke similar defining characteristics, notably shared origins, shared customs and beliefs, and—in the case of minorities—a history of oppression. Seen as a kind of imagined community, ethnicity is related to nationhood on the one hand, and race on the other hand.
G
umplowicz,
L
udwig (1838–1909)
Authors: Konieczny Matthew J.
Published: December 2015

Ludwig Gumplowicz was a sociologist, lawyer, and professor at the University of Graz in the Austro‐Hungarian empire. Born in Cracow to an assimilated Jewish family, Gumplowicz became a pioneer of the nascent discipline of sociology. According to him, the group—not the individual—was the driving force in the development of society and historical change. Social groups, he argued, drove historical change through interactions that were invariably characterized by conflict. Of the numerous bases on which social groups might be organized, Gumplowicz devoted the most attention to that of “race” and explored in great detail the racial conflict among groups that he posited as inevitable. But he explicitly distinguished his own racial conflict theory from theories of racial superiority of his time, which he held in contempt, as pseudo‐scientific. Gumplowicz's theories were highly influential among the first conflict theorists and inspired early theoretical work on the governance of multiethnic states.
Social
D
arwinism
Authors: Hodgson Geoffrey M.
Published: December 2015

The use of the phrase “social Darwinism” in leading anglophone academic journals was rare before the 1940s and generally restricted to critics, who applied it to racist, individualist, or imperialist ideologies that they disapproved. No ideological movement described its own doctrine as “social Darwinism.” Because of their antimilitarism, Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner were not presented as social Darwinists until the 1930s, when the phrase began to shift in usage and meaning under the influence of Talcott Parsons, who applied it to any extensive use of ideas from biology in the social sciences. Subsequently Richard Hofstadter gave social Darwinism a huge boost in the context of a global antifascist war. He created a list of prominent “social Darwinists,” who had never previously been so described. “Social Darwinism” remains today a pejorative, ambivalent, and misleading phrase; it describes doctrines that had little if anything to do with Charles Darwin.
Alliances
Authors: Bowser Benjamin P.
Published: December 2015

There are three distinct approaches: activists who form cross‐racial/ethnic alliances; alliances formed by political elites; and community‐level alliances that emerge without elite leadership or activists interventions. The third form or “natural alliances” have generated the most interest in the past decade. Examples have been Black‐Latino alliances; more attention has focused on Caribbean and Black American relationships; and to the Zapatista National Liberation Army in Mexico—it too involved alliances. New areas for research are racial/ethnic alliances in online networks and in social gaming where real players can assume other racial/ethnic identities in the game. Three studies utilized empirically based testing, but raised more questions. Clearly, there is a need for more focused research on natural alliances among racial/ethnic actors.
Informal Economy
Authors: Ibrahim Habiba , Shelton Divine‐Chel'O , Monti Daniel
Published: December 2015

People create employment opportunities for themselves that put them on the margins of the regular paid economy in a variety of cultural settings. Though often viewed as a stop‐gap strategy or last resort for unemployable people, the informal economy can also involve people who have a place in the regular economy and are searching for means to supplement their otherwise insufficient salaries.
Riots
Authors: Baker Katrina , Crecelius Robert , Monti Daniel
Published: December 2015

Collective acts of “spontaneous” street violence have been a popular means to carry out reprisals, raise grievances, and assert a group's prerogatives for hundreds of years in both western and nonwestern societies. The timing and shape of popular unrest have been used to explain a variety of conflictive situations. Indeed, the persistence of riots throughout history highlights their effectiveness both in addressing specific social issues and in initiating social change.
Media and Diaspora
Authors: Sinclair John
Published: December 2015

A diaspora is a form of migration defined by the dispersal of a people into several countries, and their media are the modes of communication they maintain with each other and with their homeland. These media include international satellite television services and also, increasingly, new forms of communication over the Internet. Diasporic media can provide transnational communities with innovative ways of expressing their identities.
G
ypsies (
R
omany People, Travellers)
Authors: Okely Judith
Published: December 2015

“Gypsy,” “Romany,” and “Traveller” are only some of the titles of the various mobile groups found in the Americas, Europe, the Middle East, and South Asia. This entry concentrates on Gypsies, Romany people, or Travellers linked to the United Kingdom. The label “Roma” is adopted by groups mainly in the European continent. It has not been used among travelling peoples in Britain. The UK Gypsy Council survives from the mid‐1960s.
G
uatemalan Immigrants to the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Menjívar Cecilia
Published: December 2015

This entry highlights the ethnic variation within Guatemalan immigrant communities in the United States, linking it with the heterogeneous ethnic landscape in Guatemala as well as with the violent political conflict in that country. The entry also captures interethnic dynamics within Guatemalan ethnic communities in the United States, as these reflect these relations in the origin country. The entry also discusses the challenges Guatemalan immigrants face, as formal channels to secure permanent legal status are largely closed to them.
S
alvadoran Immigrants to the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Menjívar Cecilia
Published: December 2015

Salvadorans have encountered exclusionary immigration laws, increased border enforcement, and downgraded labor markets that offer low‐paid and insecure jobs. However, Salvadorans have established vibrant communities and have responded to these challenges by organizing themselves. They have participated as leaders and organizers in some of the largest political demonstrations in the United States
Grundtvig,NikolaiFrederikSeverin (1783–1872)
Authors: Østergård Uffe
Published: December 2015

The Danish theologian, poet, and educational and political thinker Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig lived a very long and productive life from 1783 to 1872. In this long life he not only witnessed enormous changes in his own society and state, but also lived through the intellectual period of the Enlightenment and through the romantic era, both of which left a deep imprint on his thinking. He is the single person most responsible for the national culture and political thinking that came to characterize Denmark in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It could even be argued that he still plays a dominant role in the national and social thinking of the globalized inhabitants of Denmark today, even when they operate as relatively successful managers in transnational companies all over the world. He certainly was the most influential national thinker of his day and is considered the most prominent Danish nation builder.
Mandela,Nelson (1918–2013)
Authors: Boehmer Elleke
Published: December 2015

This entry gives an overview of Nelson Mandela's career as an activist and politician and as president of the new democratic South Africa from 1994.
M
ontgomery Bus Boycott
Authors: Johnson‐Coleman Sasha R.
Published: December 2015

Many events took place in Alabama during the civil rights movement, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. Its capitol, Montgomery, is the namesake of the bus boycott that brought national and international attention to a movement that had been fought by African Americans and others for generations. The Montgomery Bus Boycott (December 5, 1955–December 20, 1956) gave rise to significant leaders and institutions such as Mrs. Rosa Parks, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Montgomery Improvement Association, forever imprinting them as iconic symbols of the movement.
Manifest Destiny
Authors: Chua Peter
Published: December 2015

Manifest destiny refers to a racialized ideology in which the Christian God ordained US settlers and land speculators to occupy new territory and claim political and economic sovereignty over the native people and resources. Sociological inquiries examine the material basis of this ideology in terms of conflicts over land tenure, market expansion, and racialized labor exploitation. They also emphasize processes of racial and gender subordination as well as newer patronizing group and national relations associated with a sense of cultural, religious, and political superiority.
Culture of Poverty, Beyond the
Authors: Bell Monica , Fosse Nathan , Lamont Michèle , Rosen Eva
Published: December 2015

Understanding social life requires attending to the cultural dimension of reality. Yet, when it comes to the study of low‐income populations, factoring in culture has often been a contentious project. This is because explaining poverty through culture has been equated with blaming the poor for their predicaments. Scholars have moved the debate forward by making a case for integrating culture in explanations of poverty. This requires drawing on analytical devices such as frames, narratives, institutions, repertoires, and boundaries that capture intersubjective definitions of reality. These concepts have been useful for identifying a diversity of frameworks through which low‐income populations understand their reality and develop paths for mobility. This entry builds on these contributions by exploring the place of culture in studies of American low‐income populations in three important areas of social life: family, neighborhood, and work.
Blyden, Edward Wilmot (1832–1912)
Authors: Neuberger Benyamin
Published: December 2015

Blyden is widely regarded as the Father of modern black and African nationalism. He had a profound impact on an entire generation of African nationalists. Blyden was born in the West Indies, but lived in West Africa for most of his life. His career as clergyman, educator, journalist, administrator, diplomat, politician, and philosopher of black nationalism was remarkable. Some of his works—like
Vindication of the Negro Race
(1857),
Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race
(1887), and
African Life and Customs
(1908)—became classics of African Nationalism in the twentieth century. Nearly all major ideas advanced by black and African nationalists after World War I were first developed in Blyden's writings—whether it be Garvey's “Black Zionism,” Nkrumah's “African personality,” Padmore's “pan‐Africanism,” or Senghor's and Césaire's “négritude.”
Iraq
Authors: Zeidel Ronen , Baram Amatzia , Efrati Noga
Published: December 2015

Since it was constructed by Britain as a Sunni‐hegemonic nation‐state in 1920 and a monarchy in 1921, Iraq has been confronted by sectarian (mainly Sunni–Shi'i) and ethnic (mainly Arab–Kurdish) challenges. The monarchy and its divisive tribal policy were abolished by the 1958 revolution, but the other challenges remained. The promotion of pan‐Arabism by most regimes, too, complicated the crystallization of an Iraqi national community: most Shi'is and Kurds were wary of being “drowned” in a unified Sunni Arab ocean. While the monarchy was semidemocratic, it was succeeded in 1958 by highly authoritarian regimes. The American occupation and the demise of the Baath ushered in three major developments: Iraq became a democracy, albeit a seriously flawed one; political hegemony passed into Shii hands; and the Kurds won real autonomy. By 2015 the democratization of Iraq had still failed to create an integrative patriotic unity and resolve the ethnic and sectarian tensions.
Immigrant Employment
Authors: Abarca César G.
Published: December 2015

This entry defines immigrant employment as a human process where a foreign‐born worker is to be engaged, is engaged, or has been engaged in a remunerated activity in a country of which the worker is not a native. Immigrant employment includes low‐wage, low‐skills occupations and high‐skills and highly compensated occupations. Immigrant labor is recruited from developing countries and it contributes in the development of industrial sectors in developed countries such as information technology, finance, software engineering, manufacturing, services, construction, manufacturing, and agriculture. Researchers have documented the vulnerability of this labor source and its susceptibility to abuses and exploitation in the host countries.
Scotland
Authors: McCrone David
Published: December 2015

Scotland is a country of over five million people, currently part of the United Kingdom. Scots are neither an “ethnic group” nor a “national minority” within the British state. They are a collectivity defined by territory, place of birth, residence, and ancestry. Being Scottish derives from having a sense of place (territory) rather than a sense of tribe (ethnicity). Scots consider themselves Scots first and British second. Scotland shares similarities with other “understated” nations (Catalonia and Euskadi in Spain, Flanders in Belgium, Quebec in Canada, and Wales in the United Kingdom). Scottishness is carried by a range of institutional markers such as law, education, and civil government, so that Scots have a civic rather than an ethnic sense of national identity, with greater potential for national inclusion. The creation of a devolved Scottish parliament in 1999 was an outcome, not a cause, of a growing sense of being Scottish.
S
pencer,
H
erbert (1820–1903)
Authors: Abrutyn Seth
Published: December 2015

Herbert Spencer was a nineteenth‐century British sociologist, often considered one of the founders of the discipline. He conceptualized society as sharing many qualities of an organism, including their propensities to grow larger, differentiate in terms of structure and function, and face new problems related to integrating these new structures. Spencer believed the three basic problems groups had to resolve when faced with bigger and denser populations were
production
,
distribution
, and
regulation
. The latter of the three was central to Spencer's general and specific evolutionary theories, as differentiation was synonymous with heterogeneity and, as such, problems related to the control and coordination of disparate social units were always salient. In modern social sciences, Spencer is typically regarded wearily as he coined the term “the survival of the fittest” and many of his principles were appropriated by various social Darwinist movements in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
H
astings,
A
drian (1929–2001)
Authors: Smith Anthony D.
Published: December 2015

Only in his last years did the scholar of Christian history Adrian Hastings turn his attention to questions about nationalism. His major work,
The Construction of Nationhood
(1997), attacked the idea that nations were modern, arguing that many nations in Europe, starting with the English and Irish, could be traced to the early Middle Ages. A nation for Hastings was an ethnic group that had its own literary language, and it was Christianity, not modernization, that, by sanctioning vernacular languages, had encouraged and shaped the growth of nations. Hastings is also perhaps too ready to accept the continuity of medieval with modern nations, ignoring the many political disruptions in the historical record. Despite these criticisms, Hastings's emphasis on the dynamic bond of religion and his refusal to accept the dominant modernist orthodoxy have rendered an invaluable service to the continuing debates on the nature and antiquity of nations and nationalism.
Ben‐Gurion, David (1886–1973)
Authors: Aronson Shlomo
Published: December 2015

The purpose of this entry is to demonstrate in positive terms the unique contribution of David Ben‐Gurion both to the struggle with the Holocaust and its legacy and to the birth of Israel in a partitioned Palestine. At the same time his mobilizing leadership generated rejection and finally rendered his politics increasingly impossible to pursue.
Palestinians
Authors: Suleiman Camelia
Published: December 2015

“Palestinians” refers to the inhabitants of the corridor between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean before the 1948 Palestinian dispossession and the birth of the state of Israel. For much of the twentieth century, Palestinian identity revolved around this mass exodus. However, the roots of Palestinian national identity go back at least as far as the second half of the nineteenth century. People in Ottoman lands were experimenting with different ideas of nationhood and citizenship. Today as in the past, Palestinian nationhood is challenged by competing ideas from within, but at the same time by the encounter with Jewish nationalism.
Prejudice
Authors: Jennings Laura
Published: December 2015

Prejudice is the prejudgment of a person or idea based on perceived group association. Prejudice, an attitude, should be distinguished from discrimination, a behavior. Prejudice has been a subject of research since the early 1900s, when social scientists began to investigate its role in antisemitic and anti‐immigrant sentiment. Linked to stereotyping and authoritarianism, prejudice has manifested differently in different time periods, and its effects have prompted numerous suggestions for solutions including education, increased contact between groups, and use of media as a tool to decrease levels of prejudice.
Ethnic Economies
Authors: Gold Steven J.
Published: December 2015

Ethnic economies exist in any situation where common ethnicity exerts a significant influence on economic relations. This includes the ethnic‐owned economy of the self‐employed, their unpaid family workers, and their coethnic employees, and also the ethnic‐controlled economy, wherein ethnic networks allocate jobs in non‐coethnic firms or the public sector. This entry reviews the workings of ethnic economies among various populations, the resources immigrant and ethnic groups use to build small businesses that provide jobs and earnings, the impact of ethnic economies on social mobility, and ethnic economies' consequences for group members, communities, and the larger society.
Cambodia under Pol Pot
Authors: Hagood Lee Susan
Published: December 2015

Cambodia experienced a devastating genocide in the 1970s that was ignored by the international community despite post‐Holocaust promises of “never again.” Pol Pot and his Khmer Rouge associates manipulated ideologies of agrarian communism and self‐reliant nationalism to recruit followers and exert totalitarian control over the populace. As in other genocides, the leaders divided the population into stratified groups to facilitate mass killing, with urban residents and ethnic minorities particularly at risk. As the slaughter expanded, the regime turned on itself, torturing and executing its cadres in a special high‐level prison. By the time neighboring Vietnam invaded and brought an end to the killing in 1979, some two million Cambodians had died. A handful of Khmer Rouge leaders were brought to trial in a war crimes tribunal with just three convicted by 2015.
Football Hooliganism
Authors: Armstrong Gary , Rosbrook‐Thompson James
Published: December 2015

Few phenomena in contemporary society have elicited such strong sentiments as that labeled “football hooliganism.” The disorder and violence that the phrase encapsulates has been studied, policed, and legislated against from a wide variety of starting points. In this entry the authors contend that the epiphenomena provoked by hooliganism are as worthy of academic inquiry as the “hooligans” themselves. The entry charts the history of football hooliganism as well as of governmental and academic responses to it, and ends by examining contemporary instances of hooliganism from around the world.
Zulus
Authors: Mahoney Michael R.
Published: December 2015

The Zulu people number about ten million and live almost entirely in the Republic of South Africa, where they are the largest ethnic group. The modern Zulu kingdom emerged in the 1810s under the leadership of King Shaka. Half of the Zulu kingdom was annexed by the Boers during the Great Trek after a war with Shaka's successor, Dingane. The last independent Zulu king was Cetshwayo, who lost the Anglo–Zulu War of 1879 to the British, who then annexed what was left of the Zulu kingdom in 1887. Zulus have always played a prominent role in South African politics, sometimes favoring South African national unity and at other times favoring Zulu particularism. The tendency toward Zulu particularism has sometimes led to violence, most notably in the 1980s and 1990s, leading to the deaths of some twenty thousand South Africans. In 2009, Jacob Zuma became South Africa's first Zulu president.
M
ao
Z
edong (1893–1976)
Authors: Chan Alfred L.
Published: December 2015

Mao Zedong, a Marxist–Leninist revolutionary and a leader of the Chinese Communist Party for more than half a century, radically transformed the culture and political economy of China. An avowed nationalist, he unified China and began the processes of modernization and industrialization. However, Mao was fundamentally ambivalent about the minorities, and Chinese policies oscillated on the two poles of pluralism and assimilation. When pluralism was the norm, the minorities were encouraged to develop their languages, education, cultures, and religions, as well as a degree of self‐government. When assimilation was ascendant, uniform central policies were imposed, and manifestations of minority characteristics were suppressed. This was particularly prominent during the radical periods of the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution when the minorities were compelled to conform to the collectivist and patriotic Maoist vision.
Stranger, the
Authors: Lemoyne Terri
Published: December 2015

Georg Simmel described the social type of “the stranger” as someone who is both close to a group and simultaneously outside it. Because of this unique relationship to the group, others view the stranger as possessing greater objectivity, autonomy, and freedom than group members. Simmel argued that, although all relationships experience some level of “strangeness,” the European Jew as a trader is a classic example of the stranger as a social type.
Naturalization
Authors: Spång Mikael
Published: December 2015

Naturalization is commonly defined as the acquisition of citizenship/nationality subsequent to birth. In its broad sense, naturalization refers to any process of acquiring citizenship, but in a more narrow sense it concerns granting of citizenship to a person upon his or her application. Regulation of naturalization differs between countries, but some common criteria are length of residence, lack of criminal record, good conduct, and knowledge of language and history. Regulation was liberalized in most democratic states during the period after World War II. Over the past decades, however, more restrictive policies have been adopted in several countries.
Medical Sociology and Genetics
Authors: Schwartz‐Marin Ernesto
Published: December 2015

The breadth of sociological inquiries into medical genetic science is as varied as the social and technological settings it explores. These inquiries encompass experiences as diverse as lay engagement with prenatal genetic testing, reproductive technologies and biobanking, and in‐depth laboratory ethnographies about the making of population categories for medical genetics. Therefore it is just fair to state that the field of medical sociology and genetics is vast and constantly expanding. Despite the diversity of the research done on genetics and its manifold medical applications, social scientists around the globe share preoccupations relating to the growing geneticization or racialization of biomedical endeavors aimed at tackling disease.
Yellow Peril
Authors: He Miao
Published: December 2015

As part of the Orientalism discourse, “yellow peril” is racist term referring to the fear of floods of Chinese immigrants to destroy western civilization, notably in the United Kingdom and United States. Its origin lies in the Opium Wars and “Coolie trade” from China that stimulated massive Chinese immigration to the west. Dr. Fu Manchu is the personification of “yellow peril” in western popular culture. This oriental stereotype still exists in the western media today.
Guestworkers
Authors: Wasmer Martina
Published: December 2015

“Guestworkers” are migrants who are allowed to enter a foreign country for the purpose of work under the assumption that their stay in the host country will be temporary. Guestworker programs have been applied at different times and at different places. The term “guestworkers” is most commonly associated with labour recruitment schemes in postwar Western Europe, particularly with the West German rotation model of guestworker employment. Guestworker programs aimed to add workers to the labor force without adding permanent residents to the population but resulted in large‐scale permanent settlement of foreign migrants. Discussion of guestworker programs focuses mainly on reasons for the failure to ensure temporariness of guestworkers' stay in the receiving country, on consequences of this type of labour migration for receiving as well as for sending countries, and on normative questions regarding the restricted rights associated with guestworker status.