bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Felony Courts
Authors: Koski Connie M.
Published: January 2014

With the exception of the few states that operate single‐tiered trial court systems, felony courts in the United States are situated at the secondary level of state trial court hierarchies. Felony courts vary in name and structure from state to state, but are commonly known as courts of general jurisdiction. These courts typically handle all criminal matters not resolved in courts of limited jurisdiction and allow for convicted offenders to receive penalties that may be greater than one year of imprisonment. Contrary to popular belief, the majority of criminal cases rarely go to trial. This is true for both felony and misdemeanor cases. And, similar to misdemeanor‐level courts, which are the courts of limited jurisdiction, felony courts have historically been plagued with a variety of issues including heavy caseloads, frequent lack of monetary and structural resources, overworked and often undertrained personnel, and criticisms related to the broad utilization of discretion by courtroom actors.
Sentencing Guidelines
Authors: G. Harmon Mark
Published: January 2014

Over the past 25 years sentencing guidelines have represented an important and substantial change in the US criminal justice system. Guidelines were passed to reform (or change) sentencing structures. To date, 19 states and the federal government have adopted some form of sentencing guidelines. Under guidelines, an offender's sentence is largely determined by his or her prior record and offense severity. Guidelines have shifted the structure of sentencing from an indeterminate model—where judges rely on an offender‐centered approach that allows for relatively loose punishment ranges with prescribed maximums—to a determinate model. Sentencing guidelines, as a new model of punishment, move the system to a crime‐centered approach with a structure that mandates more narrowly tailored punishments. The end result provides a substantial reduction in the discretionary power of judges to impose disparate sentences, along with an increased certainty with regard to the type of sentence that may be given.
Judicial Selection and Removal at the Federal Level
Authors: Brennan Pauline K. , Wagoner Stacy A.
Published: January 2014

Federal judges are appointed to life terms and may work in either trial or appellate courts. Although they have tenure for life, federal judges may still be removed from office at any time for cause. This entry outlines the duties performed by different types of federal judges, the judicial selection and appointment process, and the method by which a federal judge may be removed from office.
Case Study Research
Authors: Elechi, O. Oko , Piper, Doshie , C. Morris Sherill V.
Published: January 2014

A case study is a strategy of inquiry. It describes the detailed study of a specific individual unit of study or phenomenon. A case study is more about a choice of what is to be studied than a methodological choice. The focus of case studies is an in‐depth examination of a particular case for its own sake rather than for the purpose of generalizing the findings. Case studies are examples of variable‐oriented research.
Restorative Justice
Authors: Gaub Janne E.
Published: January 2014

Restorative justice introduces the practice of restoration and reparation into the criminal justice system by including victims, offenders, and the community in the process of reconciliation. The four primary forms of restorative justice are victim–offender mediation, family group conferencing, sentencing circles, and community reparative boards. The most important benefits of these programs are that they yield higher rates of compliance than formal criminal justice sanctions and victims feel that they have been treated fairly through the process. Criticisms include due process violations and concerns of selection bias.
Juvenile Court
Authors: Kurlychek Megan
Published: January 2014

Today we are all familiar with the notion of a juvenile justice system: a distinct system of justice designed to keep delinquent children separate from more hardened adult offenders. However, this has not always been the case. There was not always a separate juvenile court. Moreover, the purpose and practice of juvenile justice has changed vastly over the past 113 years since its inception. This entry briefly outlines the historical context that led to the creation of the juvenile court, the operation and distinct processes that hallmark this system of justice, and the major reforms and changes that have shaped the court over the past century. It ends with a discussion of the future of the juvenile court in American justice.
Genetic Theories of Criminal Behavior
Authors: Boisvert Danielle , Vaske Jamie
Published: January 2014

The influence that genes have on antisocial/criminal behavior has begun to receive a great deal of attention in the criminological literature. Studies that assess the association between criminal behavior and genetic polymorphisms do so by way of gene‐behavior studies, gene × gene studies, and/or gene × environment studies. More specifically, researchers from many disciplines have identified genetic polymorphisms that operate either additively, in conjunction with other genes, and/or in interactions with the environment to influence a variety of antisocial behaviors. These genes are primarily related to the serotonin system, dopamine system, and enzymatic system. A review of the most widely studied genetic polymorphisms that influence criminal behavior is provided below, which include: (1) a serotonin transporter polymorphism (5HTTLPR); (2) serotonin receptor polymorphisms (5HT
2A
His452Tyr & 5HT
2A
1438G/A); (3) a dopamine transporter polymorphism (DAT1 3'UTR VNTR); (4) polymorphisms in dopamine receptor genes (DRD2 TaqIA RFLP & DRD4 48bp VNTR); and (5) a monoamine oxidase A polymorphism (MAOA 30bp VNTR). Following this, a discussion on the limitations of this type of research is provided, along with specific directions for future research.
Police Culture
Authors: Nhan Johnny
Published: January 2014

Police culture is a set of values that shape how police officers perceive their working environment and act within it. This worldview is shaped by real and perceived dangers associated with police work and characterized by strong group introversion and cynicism toward non‐police individuals and groups. Consequently, an “us versus them” mentality is created and reinforced through officer selection, training, and work experience, which manifests in cynical attitudes toward the public and tacit acceptance of misconduct, metaphorically known as “the blue wall of silence.”
Sellin, Thorsten
Authors: Lindley Don E.
Published: January 2014

Johan Thorsten Sellin, American sociologist and pioneer in the early development of scientific criminology, is considered by many as the father of cultural conflict theory. He began his teaching career as a high school instructor and moved on to become one of the giants in sociology instruction at the University of Pennsylvania. Sellin is revered by his colleagues as one of the giants in the field of criminology. Sellin stressed the importance of cultural diversity (conflict) in modern society, and how legislative laws, reflecting social majority group values and interests, conflicted with less powerful group behaviors. Sellin posited that as heterogeneous societies increased, there would be an increase in individual deviance, thus also increasing the likelihood and frequency of conflict in societies. In addition to his contributions to criminological theory, his role in elevating conflict theory, and his work as an opponent of the effectiveness of the death penalty, Sellin mentored other major theorists, including Marvin Wolfgang and Freda Adler.
Politics and Crime Policy
Authors: Cihonski Diane , Ruiz Jim , Hummer Don
Published: January 2014

This entry focuses on the interplay between politics and crime policy. Much of the focus follows the Democratic and Republican political platforms and explains the historical development of their respective crime control ideologies in the twentieth century. A number of crime control initiatives are explained to demonstrate the political and judicial environments in which these strategies were conceived.
Mounted Police Tradition
Authors: Julseth Jason , Ruiz James
Published: January 2014

Over the centuries horseback police officers have demonstrated a number of distinct advantages over their bipedal counterparts, but, with the advent of the automobile, electronic communications, and the need to cover large distances faster, the mounted police temporarily fell out of favor. However, police horse patrols witnessed a resurgence in the late 1900s and into the twenty‐first century. This article examines mounted policing in its historical context and demonstrates the cyclical nature of crime control.
Electronic Surveillance
Authors: Clark‐Miller Jason , Brady Hallie C.
Published: January 2014

Technological advances have enhanced the capacity of law enforcement to monitor criminal conduct, and raised concerns among privacy advocates that the widespread use of electronic surveillance threatens to undermine individual liberties. In this article, we briefly review the debate on the use of electronic means of surveillance as it has played out in the United States and describe some of the current methods of surveillance available to law enforcement agencies. We suggest that state actors are under considerable pressure to regulate their use of electronic surveillance lest they provoke a public response that results in the most promising intelligence gathering tools “going dark.”
Disproportionate Minority Confinement
Authors: Helms Geoffrey C.
Published: January 2014

Disproportionate minority confinement has been used in the United States to describe the overrepresentation of minority offenders in correctional facilities. The expression was introduced in 1992 when the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention described disproportionate minority youth confinement in the US. Since then, it has been used to describe disproportionality issues in offender populations, including racial disparity and minority overrepresentation.
Scarpitti, Frank
Authors: Van Antwerp Victoria
Published: January 2014

Frank Scarpitti is a distinguished scholar in sociology and criminology. His long career explored a wide variety of subjects, including juvenile delinquency, mental health treatment, female criminality, organized crime, and environmental crime. Scarpitti devoted most of his academic career to teaching at the University of Delaware, where he served as a mentor to countless students. He has been honored with numerous awards from the American Society of Criminology and was elected to serve as president for the organization in 1981.
Bentham, Jeremy
Authors: Van Antwerp Victoria , Steele Skylar R.
Published: January 2014

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) is one of the most historic and prominent legal philosophers of all time. His contributions to the realm of political science, criminology and criminal justice, and the intersection between politics and humanity continue to spark conversation and influence policy to this day. Although considered quite eccentric, Bentham's ideas and writings have shaped and influenced the modern criminal justice system in the United States and throughout the world. Bentham's inspiration and legacy has lived on in succeeding generations of scholars and administrators throughout the world.
Problem‐oriented Policing
Authors: Stevens Kelli D.
Published: January 2014

Problem‐oriented policing is a philosophy about policing that suggests certain proactive principles to follow in order for police strategies to be effective; it should not be confused with community‐oriented policing. Fundamental components of problem‐oriented policing include re‐conceptualizing police work in terms of identifying a specific problem, not just viewing police work case by case. This forces the police to examine the root causes of crime and to develop a strategy to address those causes. By examining an issue fully and determining the root cause(s), new information may surface that was previously an unknown contributing factor. The use of critical‐thinking skills and careful planning is essential for the success of problem‐oriented policing.
Agriculture Crime
Authors: Donnermyer Joseph
Published: January 2014

Part of the false image that assumes rural areas are relatively crime free is the perception that agricultural crime is both infrequent and insignificant. However, recent research from various countries finds high levels of property crime victimization, with specific ecological correlates for different kinds of offenses. Further, food producers are part of local, national, and global economic and political systems, and embedded in social structures (including systems of inequality based on property ownership) that are important for understanding the wider context of agricultural crime in countries around the world. As well, agriculturalists themselves are often the offenders, ranging from the commission of petty theft, to violations of environmental regulations, to the exploitation of farm labor.
Police Training
Authors: Stevens Kelli D.
Published: January 2014

Police agencies must adapt to changing societal needs and problems in order to effectively serve their communities. Thus, incorporating training and continuing education classes that cover these critical topics allows police to keep pace with changes and growth. Not only is it important to consider special topics for training police, but also the methods by which police are trained and in what contexts. Training and education of officers must continue throughout their careers, and personnel from all levels within the organization should continue to obtain the education and training needed to be effective in completing the tasks associated with the positions they hold.
Sheriffs and County Law Enforcement
Authors: Stroupe Walter , Swindell Sam
Published: January 2014

The sheriff is the most well‐known figure in the criminal justice system. The position of sheriff is symbolic of law enforcement and political importance. The office of sheriff as we now know it developed over time. The development of the sheriff is believed to have begun over 1,000 years ago in England and occurred with the development of England's local government structure. In the United States, sheriffs were not the first form of law enforcement for the colonies. This distinction belonged to provost marshals and marshals, operating under central military authority from 1625 to 1727. In 1634, Virginia was also divided into eight shires or counties similar to England's model, complete with the administrative position of sheriff appointed by the colonial governor. The sheriff was considered the chief and most powerful official in most counties, with responsibilities that included collecting taxes, conducting elections, maintaining bridges and roads, and law enforcement. The colonial sheriff was also charged with carrying out court orders of corporal punishment against offenders and maintaining devices for such punishment, including stocks, pillories, whipping posts, and ducking stools.
Burglary
Authors: M. Kopp Phillip
Published: January 2014

Burglary is a criminal offense committed against the property of another that occurs when an individual enters or remains in a structure with the intent to commit a separate crime. Burglary is a felony offense included by the Federal Bureau of Investigation as one of the eight index offenses reported in the annual Uniform Crime Report. Burglary has trended steadily downward from 1980, when 3.8 million incidents were reported to police, to 2007 (2.17 million). Burglars offend for profit, often selecting their targets with care, planning their crimes in advance, and taking into account multiple variables in deciding when and where to offend. Burglary can have a profound and lasting effect on victims in a variety of ways. Burglary, given its random and hidden nature, is extremely difficult to detect, and roughly 12% of all burglaries cases lead to the arrest of an offender.
Biosocial Explanations of Crime
Authors: Boisvert Danielle
Published: January 2014

While the field of criminology is rooted in sociological tradition, biosocial criminology has emerged as a promising perspective in studying antisocial behaviors. This perspective encompasses research from other scientific disciplines, namely molecular genetics, evolutionary psychology, neurology, psychiatry, and behavioral genetics. At its core, biosocial criminology views criminal/antisocial behavior as a function of both the social environment and biological/genetic factors. One of the most prominent ways to assess the influence of genetic and environmental factors on criminal behavior is to study twin pairs using behavioral genetic methodology. As such, a review of twin studies, particularly using ACE and ADE models, is provided. Next, the current empirical status of twin studies is provided along with a discussion of the assumptions and future directions for this type of research.
Stolen Goods Markets
Authors: Smith Brian T. , Schneider Jacqueline L.
Published: January 2014

Historically, the crime of handling stolen goods has been under‐researched. In the last decade, however, research has begun to highlight the important role that stolen goods markets have in keeping theft levels high. After the theft, the stolen goods enter a lengthy process of buying and selling until the illicit product reaches its final consumer. Stolen goods markets present criminologists and practitioners with an interesting opportunity to reduce thefts by turning attention to the actual goods that are in demand and to those who participate in the market activities.
State Prosecutors
Authors: Keller‐Charbonneau Elizabeth
Published: January 2014

The role of the state prosecutor has evolved significantly over time. Once a privately hired attorney seeking justice for an individual, a prosecutor at the state level is now an elected state employee representing everyone in or jurisdiction. Prosecutors represent the government's interests at all points of the criminal adjudication process. They decide on the type and number of charges to file. Ultimately, they handle all aspects of criminal case‐processing on behalf of the citizens of the jurisdiction they serve. Whether acting independently or collaborating as part of the courtroom workgroup, the prosecutor is responsible for determining the processing of criminal cases and, to a large extent, outcomes for defendants.
International and Supranational Courts
Authors: Dammer Harry R.
Published: January 2014

Over the last 20 years there has been a rapid development of judicial mechanisms to address issues related to international or transnational crime, such as crimes against humanity and war crimes. These judicial mechanisms, called supranational courts, are the descendants of the ad hoc tribunals formed after World War II, such as the Nuremburg and Tokyo tribunals. To address more recent war crimes and atrocities, the United Nations (UN) formed the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. In 1998 the UN passed the Rome Statute calling for the formation of a permanent supranational court called the International Criminal Court. More recently, a new form of internationalized courts, also called hybrid or mixed courts, seek to prosecute persons responsible for violations of international and domestic law. The legitimacy of supranational courts comes from a variety of sources, including international law, the UN, and the legal principle ofjus cogens. Supranational courts will need to address a number of significant challenges if they hope to prosper and gain respect in the international community.
Child Abuse
Authors: F. O'Neill Brian
Published: January 2014

The topic of child abuse encompasses a variety of destructive behaviors that include neglect, both physical emotional, and sexual attacks. There are a number of legal definitions that vary by jurisdiction, as do the categorizations of activities. Statistical trends for these crimes in the United States continue to climb. Procedures for reporting child abuse, as well as legal obligations to report, are discussed.
Sex in Prison
Authors: Osborne Michael , T. Osborne Kimberly
Published: January 2014

Prison policies prohibit sexual relationships in prisons; however, sexual relationships occur between inmates and between inmates and staff. Most prisoners, males and females, meet sexual needs through masturbation and consensual sexual relationships. Even so, some inmates use force or coercion to engage in nonconsensual sexual relations with weaker inmates. Although rape in prison is not as widespread as the media portray, it is evident in all prisons.
Crime Drop of the 1990s
Authors: Mishra Sandeep
Published: January 2014

In the early 1990s, crime dropped unexpectedly and dramatically in the United States and Canada. Here, the geographical and demographic scope of the drop in crime is explored, and potential explanations put forth to explain the drop in crime are reviewed.
Training in Law Enforcement
Authors: Hunt Donald
Published: January 2014

Training is crucial to the efficiency of any law enforcement agency. This is true at the federal, state, and local levels of policing. Instruction of personnel within these organizations typically follows a twofold process. First, each recruit must successfully complete the prescribed basic training courses for their particular agency. Once the recruit graduates from basic training, advanced specialized training takes place throughout that officer's career, often honing expertise in a specialized area. Not only do both basic and advanced training continue to sharpen the skills of the officer, but they also help to keep the officer's respective agency from civil litigation due to misconduct and rights violations. Training is the best weapon an officer can carry.
Pennsylvania System
Authors: Day George J.
Published: January 2014

The Pennsylvania System of confinement was one of two competing prison philosophies in use in the United States during the 1800s. The system focused on rehabilitation through solitary confinement, labor, and personal reflection. Used initially at the Walnut Street Jail and Eastern State Penitentiary, the solitude of the system was believed by many to cause mental illness causing the system to be less popular in the United States than the Auburn System.
Prison Gangs
Authors: Mikutis Megan J.
Published: January 2014

Researching the development and growth of prison gangs in the United States is challenging due to their secretive nature. Further, access to prison gang members and institutional prison gang records is controlled by prison administrators. Prison officials often refer to prison gangs as security threat groups, describing them as self‐perpetuating crime organizations operating within correctional facilities that often continue criminal operations in free society. Membership in a prison gang is often based on racial or ethnic characteristics of an inmate. Prison officials employ several strategies to control prison gangs, both in prisons and in communities.
Assassination
Authors: Wilson Margaret A. , Scholes Angela
Published: January 2014

Assassination research occupies a relatively small area of the literature, and progress has been hindered by anomalies in research findings thrown up by variations in the person being targeted, the geographic region, and whether or not the planned attack is actually completed. As such, it is related to, and draws on, studies in homicide, stalking, and terrorism research. Assassination research initially grew out of attempts to “profile” the personality and background characteristics of those who had attacked prominent persons, but over time, research has evolved to take a more risk‐focused approach.
Civil Rights and Criminal Justice
Authors: Henderson Howard
Published: January 2014

Reports indicate that within certain communities, those individuals who have historically fallen victim to civil rights abuses are also intertwined within the nexus of civil rights and criminal justice. This overrepresented criminal justice experience at every level, from interrogation to successful community reentry, has ushered in the largest number of citizens being processed through the justice system, with over 7 million adults or 1 out of every 33 citizens of the United States being under some form of criminal justice supervision (i.e., probation, parole, jail, or incarceration). Overrepresentations of this nature have created an outcry, by some, that the criminal justice system has been a respite of sociopolitical ills and a simultaneous agitator of civil rights abuses. Interestingly, despite the aforementioned relationship, rarely does the civil rights‐criminal justice dichotomy enter into critical academic thought.
Boot Camps
Authors: Barfield‐Cottledge Tiffiney
Published: January 2014

Boot camps emerged in response to correctional failures, high rates of recidivism, and prison overcrowding. Popular with politicians and the public, these programs promised punishment, rehabilitation, and decreases in recidivism rates for nonviolent offenders. Initially developed for adult offenders, boot camps were later redesigned for juvenile offenders. These programs offer an intermediate sanction, punishment that is less severe than long‐term incarceration and more severe than punishments associated with community correction. Viewed as both rehabilitative and punitive, these diverse programs based on the military boot‐camp model emphasize educational and vocational enhancement and development of self‐discipline, self‐esteem, and prosocial behavior. Although some question their long‐term rehabilitative ability, many practitioners believe offenders benefit from their emphasis on rehabilitation and discipline, which purportedly lessens recidivism, thus enhancing chances of living in society.
Validity
Authors: Hagan Frank E.
Published: January 2014

Validity addresses the question, “Is the study a true assessment of reality?” It applies both to whether a particular study has measured its concepts well and to whether the findings pertaining to causal relationships reflect reality. Common sense tells us that validity is a crucial feature of any study. Concepts that are not measured accurately will lead researchers to draw conclusions that are meaningless. In addition, a poorly designed study may draw conclusions about the existence of causal relationships that are incorrect. Again, the results would have no meaning and therefore be useless to criminal justice policy makers.
Search and Seizure
Authors: Jones David M.
Published: January 2014

The concept of “search and seizure” is addressed in the Fourth Amendment, which prohibits “unreasonable” searches and seizures. While the amendment clearly seeks to serve as a limit on government's discretionary power in the criminal justice process, what the concepts mean in practice can be complicated. This entry will seek to analyze some of these complications and describe trends in the United States Supreme Court's interpretation of the relevant phrases.
Self‐Defense
Authors: Lee Cynthia
Published: January 2014

The right of self‐defense is recognized in every state. Generally speaking, the defendant who acts in self‐defense must honestly and reasonably believe that it is necessary to use force to counter an imminent, unlawful attack, and the force he uses must be proportionate to the force threatened. If the defendant is the initial aggressor or provokes the encounter, he loses the right to act in self‐defense unless he withdraws from the affray and successfully communicates his withdrawal to the victim. The defense of self‐defense requires necessity, imminence, an unlawful attack, proportionality, and no initial aggressors.
Accreditation of Criminal Justice Agencies
Authors: Hunt Donald
Published: January 2014

The accreditation of any criminal justice agency is a lengthy and rigorous undertaking, opening up the organization to both public and private scrutiny of its practices. While many argue that the accreditation process is a step in the right direction for the advancement of public safety professionalism, there are others who argue that the process undermines the abilities of the officers and command staff to perform their actual tasks. This work explores the accreditation process as well as the pros and cons of the practice.
Indigent Defendants
Authors: Choe Gretchen H.
Published: January 2014

Providing legal representation to criminal defendants who are too poor to afford a lawyer can be accomplished in many ways. The right to counsel is guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States and costs associated with this must be carefully weighed against this protection. However, neither the Constitution, nor any cases that address this issue, defines precisely what makes a person indigent to the extent that they are entitled to receive a government‐appointed attorney. Different mechanisms are in place to attempt to make this balance.
Consent Defense
Authors: Bergelson Vera
Published: January 2014

This essay discusses the defense of consent in criminal law. This defense is available to a perpetrator who is charged with criminal conduct with respect to a victim if such conduct has been authorized by the victim. To be valid, the defense has to satisfy minimal requirements of voluntariness and rationality of consent and must not violate public policy. The law of the United States, as well as other common law jurisdictions, does not recognize consent of the victim as a defense to bodily harm, except in a few historically defined circumstances. That rule has been criticized for its arbitrary scope, outdated rationales, and potential for moralistic manipulation. Many civil law countries allow complete or partial defense in many cases of physical harm. Consent of the victim may exculpate the perpetrator who is charged with an offense that involves intrusive, harmful, or offensive conduct with respect to a victim if such conduct has been authorized by the victim.
Strict Liability
Authors: Mandiberg Susan F.
Published: January 2014

The most common use of the term “strict liability” is to denote crimes that do not require the prosecution to prove that the defendant was aware of engaging in wrongdoing. The meaning of strict liability has changed over time. While few traditional crimes impose strict liability, many modern regulatory crimes do not require awareness of wrongdoing in the traditional sense. This entry traces the use of the term “strict liability” in Anglo‐American criminal law.
Europol
Authors: Schumann Stefan
Published: January 2014

Europol−the European Police Office−is a core player of law enforcement cooperation in the European Union. Located in The Hague, Netherlands, it is a European Union agency established to strengthen and support the cooperation among police and other law enforcement agencies in the EU. Europol is not a European police unit and thus does not have executive powers itself. Europol's primary tasks are sharing information and intelligence, and supporting information sharing between stakeholders from different countries via its Europol Information System (EIS) and its Secure Information Exchange Network Application (SIENA). It provides operational and strategic analysis and operational support mainly by establishing Analysis Work Files (AWF). Europol cooperates with other EU law enforcement agencies and institutions, and third countries and organizations. It participates in Joint Investigation Teams (JIT) established by law enforcement agencies of two or more EU member states in investigations requiring cross‐border coordination and cooperation.
Trafficking in Body Parts (Organs)
Authors: BruckmÜller Karin
Published: January 2014

There is a gap between demand for and supply of transplantable body parts, especially organs. This shortage leads to patients' willingness to pay high sums of money for body parts. Hence traffickers, usually criminal organizations, make a lucrative business from body parts. There are two kinds of trafficking: trafficking of body parts (organs, tissues, and cells) and trafficking of persons for organ removal. Although these forms of trafficking are punished in most countries, it is estimated that a large number of body parts come from trafficking.
Stalking and Cyberstalking
Authors: Tjaden Patricia G.
Published: January 2014

Historically, stalking has been used to describe big‐game hunting or predatory behavior in the animal kingdom, such as a hunter stalking a deer or a cat stalking a bird. Stalking took on a new meaning in the United States in the 1980s when the tabloid press began using the term in their coverage of a series of high‐profile cases involving celebrity figures pursued by obsessed fans. Soon the term stalking was used to describe a pattern of domestic violence and abuse that involved unwanted harassing and threatening contacts perpetrated by former spouses and intimate partners. Eventually, human‐to‐human stalking was criminalized in all states and on all tribal and federal lands. In the process, the definition of stalking was broadened to include harassing and threatening behavior perpetrated by all types of persons. Although current stalking laws vary widely with respect to specific elements of the crime, stalking generally is defined as a course of conduct directed at a specific person that would cause a reasonable person fear. The term cyberstalking refers to the use of the internet and other forms of electronic communication to stalk another person.
Witch Hunts
Authors: Mauck Ryan Melissa
Published: January 2014

Witch hunts are almost as old as recorded history. While the Salem witchcraft trials of colonial America are best known, witch trials have taken place in most cultures around the world and persist in some regions even in the twenty‐first century. This entry chronicles the history of witch hunts from ancient Babylonia to the present day.
Accomplices
Authors: Gerstein Charlie
Published: January 2014

This essay will review the subject of the liability of an accomplice to a crime. It will begin by outlining the subject then discussing its history. Next, it will compare and contrast civilian approaches with common law approaches to the issue. It will then discuss various rules of criminal liability and the theoretical foundations and justifications for those rules.
Rational Choice Theory
Authors: Ahmad Janice , Emeka Traqina Q.
Published: January 2014

Rational choice theory purports that a person will commit crime after determining if the pain or punishment is worth the pleasure or reward of the act. This theory comes from the Classical and Neoclassical Schools. The policies that are based on this theory involve increasing the punishment for crimes in the hope that the pain outweighs the gain and therefore preventing future crime. These increased punishments are intended to enhance the impact of both specific deterrence and general deterrence. The concepts of rational choice theory have been used in the development of both lifestyle theory and routine activities theory.
Search Warrant Exceptions
Authors: Gregory Logan Keith
Published: January 2014

This entry examines the exceptions to the requirement that law enforcement officers must have a warrant before they can execute a search of persons, places, or things. While these exceptions to the warrant requirement may result in an intrusion of a person's privacy, the courts have determined that they are not unreasonable under the circumstances and comply with the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.
Organized Crime
Authors: Arsovska Jana
Published: January 2014

This article provides a critical analysis of the definitional and normative dimensions of organized crime, focusing on the main academic debates surrounding the topic. It elaborates on the global character of organized crime (“transnational crime”) and the UN efforts to develop a universal definition of organized crime that would serve as a basis for policy makers and law enforcement officials world‐wide. A chronological overview of the main organized crime paradigms, such as organizational, patron–client, enterprise, and network theories, is provided in order to better understand the nature of organized crime. Current trends, operational methods, and criminal activities of traditional and contemporary organized crime groups are discussed as well.
Jury Selection and Behavior
Authors: Russell Brenda , McCarty James C.
Published: January 2014

Understanding the jury selection process and jury behavior is helpful to those who seek to identify legal and extralegal factors that may influence juror verdicts. This entry discusses the jury selection process, research related to the selection of jurors, the behavior of jurors and the processes they use to evaluate evidence and understand legal instructions, and how extralegal factors may affect legal decisions.
Immunity
Authors: Toprani Steven M.
Published: January 2014

Immunity is generally recognized as an exemption from performing certain responsibilities or duties; immunity also encompasses protection from liability by statute or case law; lastly, immunity is also a bar from prosecution upon agreement with prosecutors typically made in exchange for testimony.
Careers in Forensic Science
Authors: Guido Jeri M.
Published: January 2014

There are many careers in forensic science available to fit almost any interest one may have. With proper schooling and training, one can become a medical examiner, forensic pathologist, forensic odontologist, or forensic nurse, to name a few. Many forensic scientists will testify in court during their careers. Forensic scientists are oftentimes the voice of the victim, when the victim may no longer be able to communicate with the world.
Search Warrants
Authors: Kanaboshi Naoki , R. Crawley William
Published: January 2014

A search warrant is a written order from a court directing law enforcement officers to conduct a search for evidence of a crime and to seize the evidence found. Under the Fourth Amendment of the US Constitution, searches and seizures by the government generally require a search warrant based on probable cause, particularly describing the locations to be searched and the objects to be seized, and issued by a neutral judicial officer. The Fourth Amendment also sets conditions regarding execution of a search warrant.
Corruption
Authors: Koller Cynthia
Published: January 2014

Corrupt activities by individuals, organizations, and larger social systems around the world cost businesses, countries, and their citizens, hundreds of millions of dollars in lost revenues, opportunities, and other social benefits every year. As such, the causes and consequences of corruption, and appropriate responses to regulate it, are major concerns of lawmakers, policymakers, law enforcement agencies, and the judicial system. Although corruption is not a new phenomenon, with pre‐Biblical concerns evident in the early writings of Western philosophers, it has become an increasingly high priority in the modern age of a global economy, advancing technology, diminishing natural resources, unstable governments, and unpredictable financial markets.
Civic Engagement
Authors: B. Harden Susan
Published: January 2014

Civic engagement is intentional action in service to one's community or efforts to contribute to the common good. Drawing on the political system of Ancient Greece, the democratic system of government in the United States requires civic engagement by citizens to successfully operate the functions of government. Activities which constitute civic engagement include political participation such as voting and running for political office; civic duties such as jury duty, registering for selective service, and paying taxes; public, community, and military service careers such as public safety officers, nonprofit directors, or Armed Forces members; community work such as volunteering or participating in a community organization; service learning; and civic learning. Participating in civic engagement activities has been shown to increase civic knowledge and skills, commitment to serving the community, levels of trust, and the psychological and social well‐being of participants.
Religion/Ideology and Crime
Authors: Lasky Nicole V.
Published: January 2014

This essay on religion/ideology and crime provides a thorough overview of the empirical research to date on this topic, focusing on the shifting trends in the literature since the 1960s, especially the gradual theoretical and measurement developments that have occurred since the groundbreaking “hellfire hypothesis.” It concludes with some recommendations for future research examining the religion–crime relationship.
Reiss, Albert
Authors: Arnold Thomas K.
Published: January 2014

Albert J. Reiss Jr.'s long career made an enormous impact on the field of criminology. Reiss helped shape the direction of American and international criminology through his activities as a prolific and influential author, educator, editor, leader, researcher, and consultant. He developed and tested one of the first formal statements of a control theory of delinquency and worked extensively in the field of policing. As an educator, he helped shape the careers of other criminologists.
Differential Opportunity Theory
Authors: Blair Lesli
Published: January 2014

Differential opportunity theory was one of the first to integrate the ideas from two distinct theories. The motivation for deviance strain theory was combined with the theories about means to learn criminal behavior. Differential opportunity theory was used to explain the emergence of three different delinquent subcultures: the criminal, the conflict, and the retreatist subcultures. Over the years since its inception, differential opportunity theory has received mixed empirical support.
Furlough
Authors: Peterson Bryce E.
Published: January 2014

This essay provides a thorough overview of furlough programs used in jails and prisons, distinguishing between different types of furloughs. Also discussed is the history and prevalence of furloughs in the United States and globally, perceptions of furlough programs, and measures of success. Furloughs are used by correctional administrators to save money, reduce overcrowding, and, more importantly, rehabilitate offenders by promoting healthy relationships between offenders, their families, and the community. It concludes with a discussion of the effect of furloughs on recidivism and post‐release employability.
Intelligence and Crime
Authors: Muncy Amanda Marie
Published: January 2014

Researchers have been interested in the relationship between crime and intelligence throughout different points in history. Some researchers see a significant correlation between crime and intelligence quotient (IQ), while others, although they recognize the correlation, do not see the significance. As psychometric measures of intelligence have developed, more specific variables in the correlation between crime and intelligence can be isolated. Although much of the research thus far has focused on how low IQ serves as a catalyst for delinquent behavior, there is a limited amount of research on the effect of high IQ on delinquency. There is a serious underreporting of individuals who are considered genius by psychometric determination that engage in criminal activity.
Alternative Dispute Resolution
Authors: Goforth Patricia , Ulrich Zach
Published: January 2014

This encyclopedia entry on alternative dispute resolution (ADR) provides an overview of the various ADR methods currently available, ADR usage in both legal and non‐legal contexts, and the evolution of ADR processes and usage over time. An analysis of past and current trends in the area of ADR is also provided.
Police Stress
Authors: Rivera‐Vazquez Omara
Published: January 2014

Police stress has strong negative effects on individuals, police organizations, and communities. Studies indicate that officers who experience high levels of occupational stress report increased rates of physical and psychological illnesses. The purpose of this entry is to discuss the issue of police occupational stress and to provide information on the contributing factors and the related consequences. An overview of coping mechanisms at the individual and organizational levels as well as prevention and intervention programs currently utilized is provided.
Wolfgang, Marvin
Authors: Steele Skylar R.
Published: January 2014

Marvin Wolfgang is one of the most famous criminologists in the United States and his work has received global recognition. His contributions to research on delinquency, subcultures, and capital punishment continue to inspire generations of scholars. Wolfgang left behind a legacy in criminology and criminal justice that provided frameworks for uniting researchers around the world to critically examine problems in the field through empirical research.
Three Strikes Laws
Authors: Marie Martensen Kayla , Nichole Vigil Brandi
Published: January 2014

Three‐strikes laws provide longer prison sentences to law‐breakers, specifically those individuals with repeat felony convictions. Between 1993 and 1995 the trend of implementing three‐strikes laws surged. Each law is distinct based on three factors: what constitutes a strike, how many strikes are required to be “out,” and the consequences of being “out.” The rationale behind the three‐strikes laws emanated from: (1) research into career criminals, (2) the theory of incapacitation, (3) the theory of deterrence, and (4) public support. Despite support for three‐strikes laws, implementation of the law created a cascade of criticisms. The most criticized factor is cost, specifically with housing an aging population. While three‐strikes laws are in use in the majority of US states and the federal government, the law is most broadly, frequently, and harshly used in the state of California.
Juvenile Arrests
Authors: C. Kurlychek Megan
Published: January 2014

A formal arrest is the most frequent mechanism by which a juvenile comes into contact with the juvenile justice system. However, police enjoy considerable discretion when coming into contact with a juvenile and often choose not to make an arrest, but handle the situation informally. This is of primary concern to anyone studying juvenile delinquency in understanding which youth are formally arrested and why. Moreover, while many of the policing procedures are similar for adults and juveniles, there are special considerations and regulations an officer must adhere to when arresting a juvenile.
Assault and Battery
Authors: Currul‐Dykeman Kathleen
Published: January 2014

It is generally understood that an assault is a lesser included offense of a battery. This means in almost every case, an assault is included in a battery. During the time period when a victim is aware that a battery is about to come upon her (and up and until the contact is made) an assault has taken place. Once the touching occurs it results in a battery. That is why many jurisdictions have codified this behavior as one crime, “Assault and Battery.”
Counter‐Terrorism
Authors: Clarke Colleen M.
Published: January 2014

Counter‐terrorism is the prevention or deterrence of terrorist acts committed by individuals, groups, or nations against other nation‐states. Counter‐terrorism is utilized to reduce the opportunities for terrorists to inflict harm on those whose political, religious, or philosophical views differ from those of the terrorist mindset.
Indictment
Authors: Kohler da Cruz Becky
Published: January 2014

The indictment is the formal charging process initiated by the government against an individual who is believed to have committed a serious crime. This entry explains the indictment process, the laws that established this process, court decisions that have interpreted the extent of the power of indictment, and the impact that indictment has in the broader legal system.