bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Vodka before the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Christian David
Published: October 2011

Alcohol is a drug, a narcotic. In Europe, including Russia, the most important natural sources of alcohol have been honey, fruits, and grains — the sources, respectively, of meads, wines, and beers. Alcoholic drinks played a vital role in the ritual, spiritual, and social life of working class Russians in both town and country, from very early times. The traditional pattern of alcohol consumption was dominated by periodic binges accompanying the more important religious and personal festivals. These festivities linked together many strands of working class life in both town and country. Relations of idyllic directness and simplicity between governments and drinkers became an anachronism as soon as alcohol became a bearer of ‘exchange-value’ as well as an object of utility. This profound change was associated in Russia with the appearance of vodka, a distilled drink. This chapter examines how the Russian government went about exploiting its monopoly over the production and sale of vodka. The taxation of alcohol distillers and retailers is also discussed.
Making Vodka—The Nobility's Share
Authors: Christian David
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines how vodka was made. Russia's gentry distillers, who made the vodka traded during the 19th century, were more concerned with vodka as a substance than any other group apart from the consumers. But for distillers, too, the point of vodka was to be found in its value rather than in its chemistry. Distilling was both a technology and a way of redistributing wealth. So it is important to ask not only how vodka was made, but also how money was made from the making of vodka, and by whom. These two aspects of distilling interpenetrate each other, even though for the sake of clarity the technology of vodka-making must be distinguished from its economics. The giant government-run distilleries of the early 17th century were technologically advanced, but costly to run, so that the government soon began to employ contract distillers from the merchantry. Merchant distilleries were designed to produce for a commercial profit. This chapter also explores the social history of distilling and income generated from distilling.
Upper Class Protest—Press Attacks on the Tax Farm
Authors: Christian David
Published: October 2011

When Nicholas I died in February 1835, he left a world that still belonged to Nikolai Gogol. Much in this world still smacked of Muscovy, not least its taverns, its distilleries, and its vodka merchants. A decade later that world was dead, brought down by ten years of glasnost' and reform. Serfdom had gone, so had the Nicholaevan censorship, the old legal system, and the traditional structures of local government. The tax farms also disappeared. This overhaul of Russia's social and legal structure was the achievement of the decade of perestroika known as the period of the ‘Great Reforms’. This chapter examines the Russian liquor trade and the upper class opposition to tax farming.
Working Class Protest: Boycotting Vodka
Authors: Christian David
Published: October 2011

At first the working class assault on the tax farm, which began in September 1858, was peaceful and disciplined, taking the form of organized boycotts of vodka. In September 1858, consumers in the townships and villages of Catholic Lithuania began, with the support of the local Catholic clergy, to take oaths of abstention from vodka. By the end of 1858, the boycotts had spread from the Catholic provinces of Lithuania far to the East into the Orthodox provinces of Great Russia; and in the first months of 1859, they spread throughout much of European Russia. In May 1859, the protests turned violent. What had started out as a non-violent, even rather respectable, movement of protest was now beginning to look like an incipient peasant insurrection. For 1859, Soviet historians have listed as many as 636 incidents involving either boycotts or riots against tax farms in a year in which there were altogether 938 separate reports of peasant insubordination.
Working Class Protest: Smashing Taverns
Authors: Christian David
Published: October 2011

In May 1859, the vodka protests in Russia turned violent. There were attacks on taverns in town after town in Pensa province, mainly during local markets. The movement spread West to neighbouring Tamhov province and then East to the Volga provinces of Samara, Saratov, Simbirsk, Orenburg, and Kazan as well as to Vyatka in the Urals, and Voronezh province to the South. Meanwhile, riots broke out further to the West in Moscow province. After July, the protests began to subside, although there were minor outbreaks even into the first months of 1860. In contrast to the boycotts, which were mainly a rural phenomenon, most of the riots seem to have taken place in towns or large villages, and mainly on market days when large crowds were present. Amongst those arrested for ‘inciting’ the riots were landlords, priests, towndwellers, and several ex-soldiers or soldiers on leave, though it seems that state peasants probably played the major role. The riots reflected the same working class hostility to tax farms as the boycotts.
Contract Marriage
Authors: Stone Lawrence
Published: October 2011

The courts survived the Reformation intact, and made regular use of archdeacon's visitations to oblige village churchwardens to report any cases of unmarried cohabitation, bastardy, adultery, or contract and clandestine marriages. The problem that faced the ecclesiastical courts after 1600 was how to deal with the massive revival during the late 1640s and 1650s of the practice of secret contracts, which had almost disappeared from court litigation before the war, and how to drive most of the population back into regular public weddings in the church. This chapter also examines the legal imperialism by the common law judges, suits for seduction of a daughter, and suits for breach of promise.
Private Separation
Authors: Stone Lawrence
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses private separation, common among the middling sort and the elite. It traces the early history of the private separation deed from 1650 to 1760, as well as its legality from 1740 to 1860. Private deeds of separation developed to meet a growing need of incompatible but non-adulterous adults to break free from an insupportable cohabitation. Between 1790 and 1830, an attempt was made by lords Kenyon and Eldon to abolish private separation deeds. However, their efforts generated a backlash. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the chief defect of the private deed of separation was the shaky legal status of some of its clauses, and the difficulty of enforcement if they were challenged in courts. Still, it served as the most informal, but the most commonly used and most convenient legal option available to victims of marital discord.
Aid and Democracy
Authors: Edwards Jill
Published: October 2011

Could Spain participate in the Marshall Plan while at the same time it was politically otracized at the United Nations? While the State Department monitored warily the fortunes of the monarchists, the more practical question of Spain's integration into international trade and commerce was rekindled in June 1947 with the launch of the European Recovery Programme, more popularly known as the Marshall Plan. The problem of integrating Spain into the new Western commercial system, designed to prop up the economies of Western Europe and prevent capitulation to communism, epitomizes the increasing division of interests created between Britain and the United States on that issue, and subsequently the North Atlantic Treaty. This chapter discusses the question of economic sanctions against Spain, the O'Konski amendment that would have allowed Spain to participate in the Marshall Plan, Francisco Franco's response to Spain's exclusion from the Marshall Plan, and Spain's improving commercial relations with several countries such as France and Britain.
Trouble at the United Nations
Authors: Edwards Jill
Published: October 2011

Following the enormous acrimony of 1947 on the Spanish issue, the matter had been allowed to lie dormant in the United States. Despite the uncertain support of Britain and France, Harry S. Truman's advisers reviewed and decided to maintain U.S. policy. The State Department's policy and instructions on Spain to their United Nations (UN) delegation were also circulated to selected embassies. These reiterated that although the United States UN delegation should not take the initiative, they were to make known the United States government's sympathy with Brazil's motion for repeal. Dean Acheson's attempt to explain the government's change of policy after the last-minute decision in May to abstain on the Spanish question, riddled as it was with contradictions, sounded falsely contrived.
The Long Haul to the Accords
Authors: Edwards Jill
Published: October 2011

For Dean Acheson and Harry S. Truman, the ascendancy of military planners appeared to mark an admission of defeat on the Spanish question. The removal of the United Nations recommended sanctions on Spain facilitated the United States' pursuit of negotiations with Spanish leader Francisco Franco. Britain's negative response about the possible role of Spain in relation to the general defence of Western Europe was not simply a matter of socio-political factors, but military and economic as well. British defence chiefs placed the importance of Iberia high in the new NATO defence structure, but had more immediate and engrossing considerations in the Mediterranean than popular opinion or union pressure, had it so endeavoured, could alone have influenced. Like their American counterparts they had the politico-strategic dilemma presented by Spain under constant review. This chapter looks at the issue of military bases, accords, and the British armament industry in relation to Spain.
Traditional Systems of Social Security and Hunger Insurance: Past Achievements and Modern Challenges
Authors: Platteau Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2011

This chapter attempts to assess broadly the performance of traditional systems of social security as they exist or have existed in Third World village societies. It pursues the three following objectives: (1) to identify the main characteristics of the institutions providing social security in the societies under concern; (2) to bring into light the basic principles that their functioning obeys; and (3) to identify the most important problems and limitations to which they are subject. It achieves these objectives adopting the Scott–Popkin controversy as a convenient point of departure for the whole discussion. The chapter further provides a more detailed picture of apparently successful risk-pooling mechanisms as they have been found to prevail in several village societies. It evaluates the adequacy of traditional systems of social security in the light of modern challenges and present circumstances.
Introduction
Authors: Skinner Andrew Stewart
Published: October 2011

Following the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, it appears that Adam Smith gave greater emphasis to jurisprudence and economics at the expense of the ethical material. While the lectures on theology have not been discovered as yet, it is at least possible that Smith's position would have shown agreement with that of Isaac Newton. Smith made use of a number of Newtonian analogies whose implications are not inconsistent with the view of God as the Divine Architect or Great Superintendent of the Universe. He made wide use of mechanistic (and other) analogies, seeing in the universe a ‘great machine’ wherein we may observe ‘means adjusted with the nicest artifice to the ends which they are intended to produce’. The remaining parts of Smith's lectures — ethics, jurisprudence, and economics — were seen by him as the parts, separate but interconnected, of an even wider system of social science, a point that emerges clearly from the advertisement to the sixth edition of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, published in the year of Smith's death.
Historical Theory
Authors: Skinner Andrew Stewart
Published: October 2011

Adam Smith's interest in social history found a number of precedents and parallels on the Continent. It is interesting to note that, as Quaestor for the University Library, Smith made purchases including the works of Giannonne, Daniel, and Brosse, and that he owned copies of works by Fénelon, Fontenelle, Rollin, Raynal, Mably, Duclos, and Chastellux, to name a few. Such writers are associated with something of a revolution in historical writing. Smith's own work on the history of civil society is particularly noteworthy, and is among the first subjects that he appears to have addressed. Even if we exclude the Edinburgh Lectures, it is now well known, from the account supplied by John Millar, that the third part of Smith's lecture course delivered from the Moral Philosophy chair had been concerned with ‘that branch of morality which relates to justice’. Smith managed to isolate four distinct modes of subsistence to which there corresponded four types of social structure: the stages of hunting, pasturage, farming, and commerce.
Shared and Collective Responsibility
Authors: LUCAS J. R.
Published: October 2011

The shareability of reasons makes it possible to share responsibility, and this chapter considers the ways we can be responsible for actions taken by another, either on our instructions or on our advice, or because we were in some sense accomplices before or after the act. Collective responsibility can extend a long way, far further than is comfortable. We often find ourselves feeling responsible for what our ancestors, compatriots, or co-religionists have done, and seek some means of dissociating ourselves and disavowing actions taken by members of our group.
Doing and Deserving
Authors: LUCAS J. R.
Published: October 2011

Having construed punishments as tangible tokens of disapprobation, this chapter elucidates rewards as tangible tokens of esteem. It distinguishes desert, which is concerned with what an agent has done, from merit, which is concerned with what he is. It argues against John Rawls' contention that desert ought not to be a basis for distributing good things. Desert is not the only basis, but it is the pre-eminent one, which, in default of good reason to the contrary, we ought to adopt. It is particularly appropriate for distributing the fruits of co-operative endeavour, and where these accrue unevenly, a monetary transfer enables the score to be made even.
Money
Authors: LUCAS J. R.
Published: October 2011

Money raises many questions about its responsible use, and these are laid out in this chapter. The fact that money obtains its value by conferring choice affects our understanding of its moral properties. In so far as it increases the individual's range of choice, it is a good thing, and equally it is good in extending our opportunities of concerting our actions in cases where the benefit would, in the absence of monetary transfers, accrue unevenly or to some partners not at all. But it also increases the burden of responsibility on the individual, who cannot disclaim many obligations on the score of not being able to discharge them.
Responsibility in Personal Relations
Authors: LUCAS J. R.
Published: October 2011

The concept of responsibility has less application to the intimate world of personal relationships, in which first-personal rather than omni-personal reasoning is paramount, but irresponsibility can be deeply corrosive, particularly in matters of sexual morality and family obligation. This chapter discusses these together with issues of loyalty to the group, and reaches unfashionable conclusions, being much harder on permissiveness than advanced thinkers of the present age, and softer on homosexuality than would be approved by popular sentiment.
Beyond Responsibility
Authors: LUCAS J. R.
Published: October 2011

This chapter moves beyond responsibility to a discussion of identification with and acceptance by other human beings and God, and offers a rethinking of the Atonement. It argues that responsibility comes out as an important but limited concept, and an important but limited virtue. It plays an important part in our interchanges with one another, especially our more distant ones. It underlies many of the concepts and institutions of social and political life, and we need to further greater responsibility in politics and business generally. Even as we move into the more intimate realms of personal relations and religion it remains important—there is no virtue in irresponsibility among friends or before God—but it is not all-important. In those realms what we do is not the prime manifestation of what we are, and what we are is more important than just what we succeed in doing.
The Model
Authors: McCall Storrs
Published: October 2011

This chapter attempts to show a model of the universe that can illuminate, perhaps even resolve, some difficult philosophical problems, such as the problems of the direction and flow of time; what causation consists of; the nature of scientific laws; the interpretation of quantum mechanics; objective probability; counterfactuals and related conditionals; the identity of individuals across possible worlds; essential properties; and lastly the nature of practical reason and decision, and the problem of free will. The universe tree can be regarded as a huge cosmic entity, depending neither for its existence nor for its nature upon being cognized by a conscious intelligence. Although on many of its branches, and at its first branch point, conscious intelligences presently do exist, there is no guarantee that this will always be the case.
Causation and Laws of Nature
Authors: McCall Storrs
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the notion of cause in scientific philosophy and discusses David Hume's doctrine of ideas. Instead of finding the original of the idea of efficacy, power, or necessary connection in the world, Hume found it not in an impression of sensation but in an impression of reflection. The idea of necessary connection derives from the easy transition that the mind makes from the idea of the cause to that of the effect, after it has experienced the constant conjunction of the corresponding impressions. If the world is looked upon as a single four-dimensional course of events, or for that matter as a three-dimensional state of affairs with only one successor-state, then Hume's conclusion seems justified.
Criteria, Scepticism, and Other Minds
Authors: Mulhall Stephen
Published: October 2011

Chapter 4 focused on Cavell's view of concepts in their application to the external world. This chapter narrows that focus and looks at his view of concepts in their application to a certain sort of denizen of the external world, namely, creatures regarded as possessed of a mind.
Emerson: Perfectionism, Idiosyncrasy, Justice
Authors: Mulhall Stephen
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines Cavell's views on Emerson, seeing him as the founder of the mode of thinking which Thoreau exemplifies. Cavell identifies Emerson as proposing a practice of philosophical reading as a means of overcoming sceptical despair — an essentially Romantic practice in which recounting criteria forms the central part of a more general attempt to allow oneself to be read by words and the world, and thereby restore their life in all its relative autonomy.
Subjective Conceptions
Authors: Denham A. E.
Published: October 2011

Genuine moral judgements might be only available to someone possessed of moral competence, and moral competence requires, at a minimum, that one be susceptible to a specific kind of moral experience — the experience of others' concerns and interests as valuable. That experience, in turn, requires that one be able to conceive of others' purposes as from their subjective point of view, a conception which features some of the affective and motivational phenomenology which they themselves enjoy. This chapter examines subjectivity and its relationship to idiosyncracy, how imagination contributes to one's ability to conceive adequately of others' perspectival experiences including their sentiments, and how the subjective imagination contributes to one's other-person ascriptions of experience.
Chapter 1
Authors: Hallaq Wael B.
Published: October 2011

No concept can be formed except by means of definition, as goes the first point by the logicians. First, this asserts that there is no doubt that the onus of proofs rests with him who negates, just at it rests with him who affirms. Second, it may be argued that what is intended by ‘definition’ is the definiendum itself. Third, all the communities of scholars and advocates of religious doctrines, craftsmen, and professionals know the things they need to know, and verify what they encounter in the sciences, and the professions without speaking of definitions. Another point is that people until this very day are not known to have definitions which accord with their principles. These are the four main points in addition to others which are explored in this chapter.
Varieties ofde reThought
Authors: Bach Kent
Published: October 2011

The previous chapter proposed a way of schematizing the general form of de re thought and characterized the de re representations and relations associated with each of the three kinds of de re thought: perception-based, memory-based, and communication-based. This chapter takes up the last two cases in more detail. They are interesting in their own right and will also serve to clarify the author's account. The discussion of them will include some concrete illustrations of why the insights underlying the causal theory of names properly belong to the theory of singular thought. At the end of the chapter, in order to highlight certain of the distinctive features of the author's, this is compared with the approach taken by Evans, which might seem at first glance to be similar. The underlying difference arises from the distinction between identifying an object and merely thinking of one, and it is argued that the identity of the object of a de re thought does not depend on one's belief about its identity.
Varieties of Reference
Authors: Bach Kent
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents general views on meaning and reference. It addresses the question: what is speaker reference. It then discusses referring expressions, Russell's theory of descriptions, meaning and reference, and types of referring.
Definite Descriptions II: The Referential/Attributive Distinction
Authors: Bach Kent
Published: October 2011

If Russell's theory of descriptions concerned their use and not just their meaning, it could account only for attributive uses of complete definite descriptions, where what is asserted is a uniqueness proposition. But it is not a theory of their use, contrary to what the various objections to it implicitly assume. In the course of defending it against these objections, it was shown how it could be supplemented with a pragmatic account of referential uses. This chapter develops that account in detail, but not before examining how Donnellan formulated the referential/attributive distinction originally.
The Lost Theory of Asclepiades of Bithynia
Authors: Vallance J. T.
Published: October 2011

An ancient doctor who advocated the therapeutic benefits of wine and passive exercise was bound to be successful. However, Asclepiades of Bithynia did far more than reform much of traditional Hippocratic therapeutic practice; he devised an extraordinary physical theory which he used to explain all biological phenomena in uniformly simple terms. His work laid the theoretical basis for the anti-theoretical medical sect called Methodism. For his trouble he was despised by his intellectual progeny and, more importantly perhaps, by Galen. None of his work survives intact, but copious ancient testimonia relating to him allow us to reconstruct many details of the theory. His ideas offer us a fascinating glimpse of how Hellenistic philosophy and medicine interacted, and provide an introduction to one of the most intriguing doctrinal disputes in Greek science.
Void?
Authors: Vallance J. T.
Published: October 2011

It was suggested that terms such as corpuscula and so on refer to the same fragile particles. This chapter argues that the fragility of Asclepiades’ corpuscles was something which set them apart from the indivisible atoms of Democritus and Epicurus. In the best modern account, Harig argues that Asclepiades was indeed a void theorist and by this time in antiquity, void came in many guises, often in highly sophisticated forms. In fact, calling them all ‘void’ is rather misleading, especially given the degree of involvement of prominent void antagonists in the debate. On the other hand, this kind of void is physically passive and has no power, but it gives the atoms their crucial room to move and Epicurus positively affirmed its existence.
Asclepiades?
Authors: Vallance J. T.
Published: October 2011

The Asclepiadean corpuscular hypothesis can be seen for what it was. It was not Epicurean as to the extent that it stands in a tradition of ‘monistic theories’, the theory might broadly be termed ‘atomistic’, but this misrepresents it seriously. It was not Heraclidean either though this may come as a big surprise to those scholars who have assumed that Asclepiades is a transparent source for the Heraclidean theory. The corpuscular hypothesis of Asclepiades marks a notable attempt at pairing down the multiplicity of explanations of physiological and pathological phenomena. Not only does this type of activity lie in a well-attested Hippocratic tradition, but in one whose importance in the development of Hellenistic medicine seems often to be overlooked.
Introduction
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

This book tries to show that, if forensic proof in Anglo-American courts is analysed in terms of the mathematical calculus of chance, the anomalies and paradoxes which are generated are too numerous and too serious for intellectual comfort. It also describes a differently structured concept of probability in a degree of detail that enables its merits and demerits to be appropriately evaluated. The general aim establishes the rationality of the concept and the depth of its entrenchment in human culture. In addition, it demonstrates that the non-Pascalian concept of probability can indeed perform the forensic tasks for which any Pascalian concept seems illsuited and that the non-Pascalian concept has some important uses even outside the somewhat stylized institutional framework of legal proceedings. Furthermore, to avoid accusations of word-play, it needs to show too that the title of this non-Pascalian concept to be called a concept of probability is quite a strong one.
The Difficulty about Proof beyond Reasonable Doubt
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents an elaboration on the difficulty about proof beyond reasonable doubt. It is more inclined to hold that a particular conclusion falls short of certainty because there is a particular, specifiable reason for doubting it, than to hold that it is reasonable to doubt the conclusion because it falls short of certainty. Hence a scale of mathematical probability is used for assessing proof beyond reasonable doubt. What is needed instead is a list of all the points that have to be established in relation to each element in the crime. Not that a high statistical probability is necessarily useless; but it must enter into a proof as a fact from which to argue rather than as a measure of the extent to which a conclusion has been established, and its relevance must also be separately established.
Dispositions
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

This chapter first provides some difficulties in current truth-functional analyses of dispositions. The truth-functional analysis of dispositional statements encounters difficulties that neither Quine's nor Carnap's proposal overcomes. Every dispositional statement encapsulates a statement about an inductive, not a mathematical probability. But statements about inductive support or inductive probability are open to both a nominalist and a realist interpretation. The difference between an Austinian and a Blackstonian interpretation of legal reasoning from precedent is analogous, but adopting an anti-realist position on one such issue does not necessarily commit a philosopher to adopting this position on another, analogous issue. The nominalist interpretation is not superior on grounds of ontological economy, because it involves a principle of plenitude. But it has greater epistemological coherence. So the analysis of dispositions in terms of inductive probabilities does not necessitate any retreat from anti-realism.
Divine Commands and Moral Autonomy
Authors: Quinn Philip L.
Published: October 2011

It has become fashionable to try to prove the impossibility of there being a God. More recently, James Rachels has offered a moral argument intended to show that there could not be a being worthy of worship. What Rachels attempts to establish is that obedience to divine commands would require giving up the role of moral autonomy. If this were so, it would destroy the prospects for a defensible divine command theory of morality. This chapter examines the position Rachels is arguing for. It shows that Rachel's attempt to prove that no being could be a fitting object of worship rests on a false premise and its, therefore, unsound. This chapter also shows that the genuine philosophical perplexity which motivates Rachels's argument can be dispelled without too much difficulty.
In Defence of the Divine Command Conception
Authors: Quinn Philip L.
Published: October 2011

Through the ages people have worried about the relationship between religion and morality. Most modern philosophers subscribe to some version of the thesis that morality is autonomous and they reject the claim that what is ethically right or wrong depends upon the command or choice of God. It is often said that divine command theories of ethics are preposterous or obviously untenable. This chapter challenges the conventional wisdom about these matters. It argues that philosophers have not succeeded in refuting certain divine command theories and are not justified in rejecting them. It also explains the divine command theory of ethics and what consequences it should have. This chapter also considers a number of objections to such theories and tries to show that none of them serves to refute all of the theories under discussion.
Divine Commands and the Logic of Requirement
Authors: Quinn Philip L.
Published: October 2011

This chapter proposes to examine a theory that is logically adequate for dealing with conflicting requirements. It also shows how it can be extended so that it is a divine command theory and argues that this theory too can be successfully defended against the standard philosophical requirements. This chapter begins by discussing ethical principles modeled on a system of general principles, called the ‘the logic of requirement’. It then discusses how this theory deals with conflicts between ordinary moral requirements and those imposed by a divine command.
Quality and Concept
Authors: Bealer George
Published: October 2011

This book provides a unified theory of properties, relations, and propositions (PRPs). The book explores the two traditional conceptions of PRPs and shows how they can be captured by a single theory.
Class
Authors: Bealer George
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues that set theory — unlike the theory of properties, relations, and propositions (PRPs) — is not rooted in natural logic but is instead born of certain confusions about natural logic. It shows that everything that set theory can do can be done equally well by the theory of PRPs. It concludes that there is no good logical or pragmatic reason for set theory. This shows that entities grounded in natural logic namely, ordinary aggregates and their properties, may permanently take over the functions that were served on an ad hoc basis by the artificial abstract aggregates of set theory.
Processional Prelude: Nocturne for the‘Son of the Gods’
Authors: Harris H. S.
Published: October 2011

The new nineteenth century found Hegel resolved to go to the University of Jena and carve a place for himself, if he could, as a philosopher. After 1800, he always remained a ‘Son of the Gods’ – one who did not speak easily in the tongues of men. The tension between his formal commitment as a supporter of Schelling's system and the natural evolution of his own concerns and problems – expressed in what he called ‘System’ before he went to Jena – was a source of difficulty and uncertainty for Hegel himself in these years. If no one understood him at this stage, it was at least partly because he did not yet fully understand himself. This chapter describes Hegel as a protégé of Schelling, a doctor of philosophy, a critical journalist, an extraordinary professor, and a private man.
The Philosophy of Spirit in 1804
Authors: Harris H. S.
Published: October 2011

The first two sections of this chapter describe the concept and the evolution of consciousness. The finite organism brings the hidden unity to light because it is knowingly alive. But it is also consciously finite; and the infinite process against which it has emerged is broken up into a field and a sequence of finite parts by its awareness. As a real process in the world, the spirit embraces all rational consciousness. The third section deals with language, tool, and patrimony. The fourth section discusses the struggle for recognition, and life in the Volk. The last section explores the concept of the Absolute Spirit.
The Logic and Metaphysics of 1804/5
Authors: Harris H. S.
Published: October 2011

This chapter describes Hegel's logic and metaphysics of 1804 and 1805. The first section comments on the approach to Hegel's logic. The second section explores the logic of understanding or ‘simple connection’. The third section examines the concept of the ‘bad infinite’. The fourth section describes the relations between substance, cause, and reciprocity. The fifth section deals with concept, judgement, and syllogism. The sixth section defines logical and metaphysical cognition. The last section explores Hegel's ideas of the Self, World, and Supreme Being.
Explaining Scenes
Authors: Jardine Nicholas
Published: October 2011

This chapter explains the ways in which a shift of scene may be brought about by changes in presuppositions and methodological commitments. It proposes the important role of local and tacit methods, practices, and techniques in determining of scenes of inquiry, and examines the problems of access imposed for historians. It first considers the existential, explanatory, and categorical presuppositions as determinants of scenes of inquiry. Then, it examines methodological commitments that affect different perceptions of relevance. The last section pays attention to the problems of access to local beliefs, commitments, and practices faced by the historians in explaining the formation, maintenance, and dissolution of scenes of inquiry.
The Sociological Challenge
Authors: Jardine Nicholas
Published: October 2011

This chapter considers other strategies for the legitimation of methods and beliefs whose prevalence and effectiveness cast doubt on the primacy of calibration against precedents and standards as arbitrator of methods and practices in the sciences. It looks at recent findings in the sociology and social history of the sciences that suggest that effective methods in securing consensuses in the sciences are generally neither calibrated nor such that they would survive genuine attempts at calibration. The chapter first considers a direct attack on the prevalence of genuine calibration. Then it looks into two sociological approaches to the study of closure of debate in the sciences: interest theory and network theory. Both theories entail major roles in the formation of consensus in the sciences for strategies of appeal to literary and aesthetic sensibilities.
Conclusion: Beware of Science
Authors: Jardine Nicholas
Published: October 2011

This chapter begins with a defence of the basic premises and strategies used in evaluating claims of the sciences to have accumulated real questions and true answers. The enterprise of this book and its companion, The Fortunes of Inquiry, is subjected to a reflexive assessment, in which the accounts of truth and reality are exposed. The chapter goes on to defend the right of the philosopher to offer such advice. It urges scientists to beware of the complacency induced by the myths of the unity, rationality, and ‘world-guidedness’ of science. It argues that the scenes of the inquiry of the sciences will remain limited and distorted unless scientists become more reflective, taking serious account of the findings of sociologists and social historians about the diversity of the social practices of the sciences. The chapter concludes that reflexive assessment of accounts of truth and reality is indicative of a distinctive domain of historical evidence in which a person may seek evidence of the truth.
Original Significances and Historical Explanation
Authors: Jardine Nicholas
Published: October 2011

This chapter looks into the interactions of historical interpretation with historical explanation. It argues that causal explanation is a primary goal of history, inseparable from historical interpretation. It considers the specific ways in which the hermeneutics of original meanings can answer the specific demands of historical explanation. These demands are related to the interpretation and explanation of human acts, not just linguistic acts. The chapter also shows how much better the hermeneutics of original meanings meets the demands of historical explanation compared to the traditional hermeneutics of intended meanings. Lastly, the chapter argues that it not only meets those demands, but also suggests profitable new ways of explaining the formation of scientific disciplines.
Efficacy, Causing, and Relevance
Authors: Steward Helen
Published: October 2011

In Chapter 5, it was argued that a proper appreciation of the important differences between singular and sentential explanations is essential if we are to understand properly the ontological and metaphysical implications of our causal talk. Towards the end of that chapter, a view called the Davidsonian view was outlined, which attempted to account for these differences by drawing on the distinction between two relations — the relation of causation and that of causal explanation. It was suggested that this answer seemed to leave unexplicated the connection between the relation of causal explanation — a relation whose holding, at least on one fairly plausible view, is dependent upon the tendency of human beings to find one fact, or set of facts, to be useful in achieving a certain kind of understanding of another — and ‘real metaphysical causality in the world’. This chapter, attempts to provide the outline of an account which might help us to understand this relation.
Token Identity Theories
Authors: Steward Helen
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues that the mistakes embodied in the view of causation called network model — the view according to which states are to be thought of as separate, causally efficacious particulars, each of which acts in concert with other events and states in a causal network — have lent illusory support to the token identity theory, and to other particularist theories of mind. It argues for the strong claim that the token identity theory is not only untrue of beliefs, desires, and the like, but that without the support provided by the imagery associated with the mistaken causal picture, it is probably unintelligible, conceived of as a theory which encompasses these states. The chapter makes out a case for the correlative thesis that certain conditions on the intelligibility of identity statements which are automatically satisfied where the terms of the identity are genuine particulars go unfulfilled in the case of the token state identities which are of interest to the philosopher of mind — identities between ‘token states’ like beliefs and desires and so-called ‘token states of the brain’ (or of its parts).
The Early Versions of the New Testament
Authors: Metzger Bruce M.
Published: October 2011

This book deals with the origin and transmission of all the translations of the New Testament made before about AD 1000, setting them in the historical context of the expansion of Christianity. For each a list is given of the earliest surviving manuscripts and of noteworthy printed editions, and an account follows of the history of the scholarly investigation and textual analysis of that version. An important feature of the book is the series of discussions of the characteristics of the languages concerned and their bearing on attempts to recover from the versions the readings of the underlying Greek manuscripts.
The Ethiopic Version
Authors: METZGER BRUCE M.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the introduction of Christianity into Ethiopia and the early manuscripts of the Ethiopic version of the New Testament. Many modern scholars date the origin of the Ethiopic version to a time during the 5th century and/or 6th century, in connection with the missionary activity of the Nine Saints. Of the several thousand Ethiopic manuscripts in European and American collections, about three hundred contain the text of one of more books of the New Testament. This chapter also discusses the Ethiopic textual analyses of the Gospels such as the Acts of the Apostles, Pauline Epistles, Catholic Epistles and the Book of Revelations, and the limitations of Ethiopic in representing the Greek New Testament.
The Old Church Slavonic Version
Authors: METZGER BRUCE M.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the introduction of Christianity among the Slavs and the translation of the New Testament in that region. According to the Vita Constantini, Cyril devised the Glagolithic alphabet for the writing of Slavonic and began the translation of the Gospel. The earliest Old Church Slavonic manuscripts, preserving biblical, liturgical, and theological texts, are written in Glagolitic script. This chapter also provides a list of New Testament manuscripts in the Old Church Slavonic version and examines the limitations of Old Church Slavonic in representing Greek.
Pauline Theology
Authors: Reumann John
Published: October 2011

Pauline theology opens up the question of the historical approach as against canonical criticism. On the one hand, ‘Pauline theology’ can mean the theology of the whole Pauline corpus, from all thirteen letters in the canon that claim to be by Paul. On the other hand, the phrase can mean, historically, the theology of Paul himself. Within the Pauline corpus, the pastoral epistles have a clear profile and, because of their differences from the acknowledged letters, even though some would find Paul's hand or at least fragments from his genuine letters in their production. Colossians and Ephesians form a subclass of Pauline thought, either later in his career (if the letters are genuinely his) or the work of the Pauline school, probably in the decades after Paul's martyrdom. Furthermore, this chapter also provides a list of key phrases in the order of frequency of occurrence in Paul's letters.
The Wisdom of James: Practical Remarks on Faith, Life, and Other Topics
Authors: Reumann John
Published: October 2011

In the last century of critical study, the Book of James has been left hovering between two opinions. Some have said, as was held traditionally from the 3rd century or so, that James the brother of Jesus himself wrote it, at a quite early date, emphasizing the words of Jesus, in a Jewish setting. Fair-minded consideration of James's letter has often been complicated by disputes, particularly during and since the Reformation, over the relation of James, asserting that a person ‘is justified by works and not by faith alone’, to the teachings of Paul. This epistle is a little over a third the length of Hebrews. It has stirred up even more controversy than the larger book. This ‘doctrinal’ problem—one of the few theological aspects to James—is best left for treatment later in connection with ‘faith’ and ‘righteousness’.
Modifying the Biblical Text
Authors: Lim Timothy H.
Published: October 2011

This chapter reinvestigates the issue of exegetical modifications in the pesharim. The approach adopted here, that is to confine the search for exegetical variants to internal evidence found in the pesharim, has been careful to impute to the pesherists exegetical modifications simply because their biblical texts differed from the Masoretic Text (MT). Each possible case of exegetical modification has been assessed on its own merits, without any undue influence of MT readings. As a result, there are fewer examples that can pass the stricter criteria in view here and some of these are different from the ones often mentioned in the scholarly literature. These results are modest, but more defensible within the context of a greater awareness of the pluriformity of the biblical texts. They are also significant enough to show that the Qumranians were not mere commentators, but also in some sense, authors of the biblical texts.
Nature of Pesherite Interpretation
Authors: Lim Timothy H.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses broadly the hermeneutical principles underlying Qumran exegesis. In both ideological orientation and exegetical tradition, the pesherists did not consider the words of their biblical texts to be fixed and immutable. As members of a community that lived by the precepts of the law, they saw themselves as participants in the unfolding revelation of God, even when the end-time had been delayed. They adapted biblical laws and supplemented them where there were perceived gaps, and found correspondences between contemporary events and figures of biblical prophecies. The pesherists behaved primarily as expositors of the biblical texts, but sometimes one cannot but feel that they were also acting as biblical authors. There is a formal distinction in their commentaries between what they quote as lemma and interpretation, and yet at certain points, they blur this dividing line by changing the very words of scripture.
Paul and his Old Testament Quotations
Authors: Lim Timothy H.
Published: October 2011

Paul lived at a time when the biblical text remained fluid. Textual variety and pluriformity characterized the scriptural scrolls that he consulted. He could quote from them or from one of the biblical excerpts that he presumably had before him. Sometimes, as in Galatians 3: 15, he insisted on a literal reading of the biblical passage, while on other occasions he could freely adapt his source. Still other times, it is thought that he produced a biblical proof-text from memory, the misremembering of which could account for variants and discrepancies. This latter suggestion, though plausible, is difficult to prove or even analyse, since the incorrect attribution of the biblical source can otherwise be explained by the existence of anthologies. ln any case, the postulate of pre-Pauline biblical excerpts does help in explaining some of the procedures which he was likely to have used.
Ecclesiology
Authors: Flegg Columba Graham
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the ecclesiology of the Catholic Apostolic Church. It describes the nature of the church, fourfold order and character of the ministry, the church's sources of funding for the maintenance of the ministry, and its various affiliate sects and societies. This chapter concludes that the ecclesiology of the Catholic Apostolic Church was based on certain premises that included its apostolic constitution and ministry being divinely given, and that its structure was revealed in the Scripture.