bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Child M S
Published: November 2023

Semiclassical mechanics is a short-wavelength link between classical and quantum mechanics, similar to that between wave and geometrical optics. Its object is to maintain contact with the structure imposed by classical mechanics, without sacrificing quantum mechanical accuracy, or, in the vivid words of Berry and Mount (1972), to ‘sew quantum mechanical flesh onto classical bones’. The overriding principles are that the classical phase space is divided into ‘accessible’ and ‘inaccessible’ regions characteristic of the type of motion, and that the boundaries of these regions impose a classical structure, which is evidenced in the quantum mechanics by interference in the bright accessible regions and exponential decay into the shadow regions. The strength of the classical skeleton is that this structure is maintained whether the observations are made in coordinate space, quantum number space, or some mixed representation. In all cases the central quantity is the classical action, whose dimensions are those of Planck’s constant; on one hand it guides the classical motion, according to the minimum action principle, and on the other it adds a phase to each classical trajectory, which gives rise both to quantum mechanical interference and, by a mathematical extension, to quantum mechanical tunnelling.
Matrix Elements
Authors: Child M S
Published: November 2023

The calculation of matrix elements raises several interesting points. In the first place it immediately raises the question of normalization of the semiclassical wavefunctions, which is addressed in Section 5.1. The conclusion is that the JWKB normalization factors for bound and continuum states differ only by a factor dependent on the density of states. Secondly Section 5.2 shows how an angle–action representation for the wavefunction leads directly to the Heisenberg correspondence between matrix elements and classical Fourier components. Thirdly Franck–Condon and curve-crossing matrix elements often show informative interference patterns which are clearly revealed by the stationary phase and uniform approximations outlined in Section 5.3. Finally the more awkward non-curve-crossing cases examined in Section 5.4 provide a further illustration of the uniform approximation approach.
Non-Separable Bound Motion
Authors: Child M S
Published: November 2023

Quantization problems for non-separable bound systems are best appreciated in the light of knowledge of the possible phase space structures, discussed in Section 7.1. Emphasis is placed on the role of the so-called invariant tori, which are generalizations of the phase orbits of Section 4.1. Section 7.2 describes how the simplest situations may be quantized by an extension of the Bohr-Sommerfeld approach, due to Einstein (1917), Brillouin (1926a, b), and Keller (1958) (EBK). However, resonant situations, in which the frequencies of motion in different degrees of freedom are rationally related, introduce two types of complication. The first is that unstable resonances inevitably lead to bifurcation into two or more coexisting types of motion at a given energy, which means that different procedures are required in different parts of phase space and that non-classical corrections may be important at the boundaries between these different regions. Section 7.3 shows how difficulties of this type may be handled by methods due to Jaffe and Brumer (1980) and Sibert et al. (1982 ), while Section 7.4 offers an alternative to the above methods, based on a Fourier representation of the torus due originally to Percival and Pomphrey (1973, 1976). The second type of complication, which is more serious, is that interactions between several such resonances may lead to classical chaos; the extent to which such chaotic systems may be quantized by classical perturbation and adiabatic switching techniques is explored in Sections 7.5 and 7.6. Finally Section 7.7 deals with quantization by use of periodic orbits as suggested by Gutzwiller (1967, 1969, 1970, 1991) and Berry and Tabor (1976, 1977). Reviews of the various approaches have been given by Percival (1977), Handy (1980), Noid et al. (1981), and Ezra et al. (1987).
The ClassicalS Matrix
Authors: Child M S
Published: November 2023

The classical S matrix is a natural extension of the semiclassical phase shift employed in Sections 8.1 –8.3. A simple example appeared earlier in eqn (8.121) in a context that recognized a tacit distinction between the treatment of translational and internal degrees of freedom. In the more general approach, described below, all degrees of freedom are treated equivalently in a manner applicable to arbitrary non-separable processes, with specific reference to inelastic and reactive scattering and photodissociation. Two different formulations have been adopted. One due to Pechukas (1969) and Miller (1970, 1974, 1976) starts from the Feynman path integral approach to quantum mechanics (see Feynman and Hibbs 1965), as discussed in Appendix C in the context of the theory of transformations in classical and quantum mechanics. The other, due to Marcus (1970) and coworkers, which is based on a direct JWKB type of approximation for the scattering wavefunction, is expounded in Section 9.1 in a way that leads naturally to the uniform approximations that make the difference between an intuitively attractive and a quantitatively reliable theory. Reviews of the two approaches have been given by Miller (1974, 1976) and Child (1974a, 1976a).
Reactive Scattering
Authors: Child M S
Published: November 2023

Some aspects of the theory of reactive scattering carry over from the classical S matrix theory discussed in the previous chapter. In particular the reactive tunnelling calculations of George and Miller (1972) and Stine and Marcus (1972) were among the earliest applications of the complex classical trajectory technique. However, the reactive context introduces a number of severe complications in the light of which the present discussion is restricted to models in which the atoms involved are assumed to be constrained to a line. The first remaining complication concerns the choice of coordinate system, because no single system allows an equally convenient description of the dynamics in the reactants, products, and interaction regions of the potential energy surface. Section 10.1 describes the three most commonly used types of system. The second complication is that chemical reaction dynamics is almost invariably inhibited by one or more bottlenecks or transition states between reactants and products. Some trajectories pass through them unimpeded, others are reflected directly back towards reactants, while yet others may be trapped between them for significant periods and it is this diversity of behaviour that restricts the validity of the classical S matrix approach. Nevertheless the nature and properties of these bottlenecks is now very wen characterized. Section l0.2 gives an outline, taken from the authoritative review by Pollak (1985), while Section 10.3 discusses the consequences in relation to interference effects and quantum mechanical resonances. Finally Section 10.4 refers to the nature of effective (vibrationally adiabatic) barriers to vibrationally state-selected reactions and to the general phenomenon of reactive tunnelling in a state-selected context.
Boron trifluoride/aluminium trichloride-mediated conjugate addition and substitution reactions
Authors: Ibuka Toshiro , Yamamoto Yoshinori
Published: November 2023

The conjugate addition and the substitution reactions of ordinary organo-copper reagents are the most important carbon–carbon bond-forming processes in synthetic organic chemistry today. However, owing to either moderate reactivity of the conventional organocopper reagents or severe steric hindrance in the substrates, the attempted conjugate addition to certain α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds or substitution to allylic and propargy-lic systems often gives none of the desired products. Failure to react with ordinary organocuprates has undoubtedly detracted from the application of organocopper reactions in synthesis.
Alkyne carbocupration and polyene synthesis
Authors: Normant J -F
Published: November 2023

The addition of organocopper reagents to terminal alkynes and to acetylene represents an efficient way to synthesize vinylcopper reagents with a given geometry. The addition proceeds in a Markownikov way in a purely syn-specific fashion. Two approaches may be considered. With terminal alkynes (eqn 1), RCu is preferably prepared from a Grignard reagent which can be primary or secondary, and the solvent can be ether, THF, or ether-dimethyl sulfide.
Techniques for chemical studies
Authors: Buback M , Hinton C
Published: November 2023

Chemical reactions in fluid phases have several interesting aspects, particularly in the supercritical fluid state where both the temperature, T, and the pressure, P, are above the critical values: (i) the availability of an extended range of pressures and temperatures offers opportunities to run a process under conditions which optimize the kinetics and selectivity; (ii) since the solvent properties can be significantly varied in the supercritical fluid state, homogeneity of the reaction mixture may be easily obtained and phase separation for product recovery may be achieved after the reaction without major problems; (iii) additional advantages of carrying out chemical processes in supercritical phases accrue from the excellent heat- and masstransfer properties in these states; (iv) free-radical polymerizations in extended ranges of pressure and temperature are particularly important since the kinetics of the process and the properties of the polymeric product are tied together.
Structures of metal alkoxides and oxoalkoxides
Authors: Struchkov Yuri T , Turova Nataljya Ya. , Yanovsky Alexander I
Published: November 2023

Although metal alkoxides and oxoalkoxides lie on the border between organic and coordination chemistry, their crystal structures are appropriate to organic crystal chemistry, involving molecular type packings. Moreover their crystal and molecular structures give some insight into their reactivity and chemical transformations.
Aza crowns
Authors: Parker David
Published: November 2023

Macrocyclic polyamines are versatile ligands that form well-defined complexes with a wide range of metal ions. The selectivity and stability of metal complex formation is a sensitive function of the number of nitrogen binding sites, their relative disposition and the conformation of the macrocyclic ligand. The importance of this domain of coordination chemistry is reflected in the growing number of applications of functionalised aza crowns. For example, selectivity in complex formation is being harnessed in the development of polymer-supported aza crowns for the separation of metal ions, while the kinetic stability of many of the metal complexes has permitted the development of radiolabelled complexes for in vivo use. Protonated polyamines bind strongly to charge dense anions and selectivity in the binding of monoand polyphosphate anions has been defined.
Equilibria in dilute solutions in water
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 3 we have shown that, on bringing together volumes of two different ideal gases, A and B, they form a homogeneous mixture, which, at equilibrium, is totally randomised, that is, disordered. We also referred to the possibilities of weak interactions between A and B, which give deviations from perfect or ideal gas behaviour, and stronger ones, which may lead to the formation of gaseous compounds, AnBm, at equilibrium with A+B. An example is H20 in an equilibrium mixture with H2 and 02 when the temperature is kept > 3000°C. The mixture of the three gases is still homogeneous and disordered, but some order, structure, in H20 has appeared. The reasons for such ordering were described in Chapter 2. In the case of two bulk liquids similar considerations apply, but in these cases miscibility is more limited and phase separation frequently occurs (see Chapter 4). In liquids and particularly in liquid/solid and solid/solid mixtures, we often observe a higher degree of order in the phase distribution of the two components A and B, up to the limit of pure co-operative compound formation, which is absent in the mixtures of gases. In all these cases the mixing of similar mole fractions of components only was considered, starting from two, A and B, and then going forward to larger numbers.
Early cellular organisation in anaerobes
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto
Published: November 2023

Chapter 10 described which elements, compounds and reaction sequences have been selected in order to generate a living system. This was but a descriptive analysis of connected but uncoordinated rates of uptake and reactions in pathways, although it did also show the need for energy coupled to element incorporation. We stressed that the very fact that the chemistry was energised made it more probable that degradation would occur rather than synthesis. Since survival must depend on driving synthesis more efficiently than degradation, a living system cannot just push energy into all syntheses randomly or into reversible catalysed reactions. In order to bias effective over random synthesis and over degradation a considerable degree of organisation is necessary, where organisation implies flow of material and energy in managed dissipative systems (Fig. 11.1). We know that life is only identifiable and has superior survival character because it has organised its own production of a self-protected set of molecules in a cell and this must be examined next. Now, an additional feature that we can show has survival value is that life self reproduces. Reproduction is copying and in biological chemistry implies coded activity. We cannot solve the initial problems of the origin of the whole of this efficient organisation and reproduction in any very convincing way today but we can imagine some possibilities for its beginnings.
Thioacylation of the amino group of an amino acid
Authors: Barrett Graham c.
Published: November 2023

The problems of side-reactions encountered in acylation and alkoxycarbonylation of amino acids (Chapter 2) are not encountered in thioacylation protocols Thioacylation of amines is easily accomplished with thionesters although the reaction rates are relatively slow; the corresponding reaction, aminolysis of carboxylic esters, can be used in acylation but is slower still. The choice of the chloride leaving group was a logical improvement for the provision of efficient acylating agents (a choice that is not available, for reasons of stability of reagents, for thioacylation), although the good leaving group propensity of the thiolate anion in nucleophilic substitution reactions continues to be exploited in N-trifluoroacetylation (Table 2.11 in Chapter 2) for which the commonly-used reagent is methyl trifluorothiolacetate, CF COSMe.
Reductive modifications of the carboxy group
Authors: Barrett Graham c.
Published: November 2023

The formation of aldehyde and hydroxymethyl groups is the standard out come when reductive modifications of amide, ester and carboxy groups are performed. The aldehydes have become important in the context of the synthesis of peptide mimetics, being particularly effective as progenitors of products with extended carbon chains.
Analysis of circular dichroism: electric dipole allowed transitions
Authors: Rodger Alison , Norden Bengt
Published: November 2023

The absorption spectrum of a solution of chiral molecules measured with left circularly polarized radiation would differ by at the very most 2% from that measured with unpolarized or right circularly polarized light. For most samples the difference between the absorbances measured with left and right circularly polarized light rarely exceeds ±0.001%. A CD spectrum is thus the result of a small difference between two large absorbance numbers. It gives only the helical or asymmetric part of the change that occurs when radiation is absorbed and this is probed by a combination of the electric and magnetic fields of the radiation. The smallness of the difference is due to the fact that at a given field strength magnetic field interaction energies are some thousand times weaker than the corresponding electric field interaction energies.
ICHD-2 Applied To 362 Patients With Migraine With Aura According to ICHD-1
Authors: Eriksen M K , Thomsen L L , Olesen J
Published: November 2023

The second edition of the International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD-2) subdivides migraine with aura (MA) differently from the first edition of the classification (ICHD-1), and presents new diagnostic criteria for MA (Table 14.1). The ICHD-2 criteria for MA was based on empirical findings and have a high sensitivity and specificity compared with expert diagnosis according to ICHD-1. The frequency and characteristics (apart from those being part of the diagnostic criteria) of the new ICHD-2 subtypes of MA remain to be described.
Appendix to the International Classification of Headache Disorders (2nd edition): Application Of Diagnostic Criteria For Tension-Type Headache
Authors: Torelli P , Beghi E , Manzoni G C
Published: November 2023

The new revised edition of the International Classification of Headache Disorders (2nd Edition (ICHD-II), published 15 years after the first edition, also includes an interesting Appendix. In addition to being the first step to remove a few disorders included as diagnostic entities from the classification in the 1st Edition (sufficient evidence for this has still not been published) the Appendix contains criteria for entities that have not been sufficiently validated by research studies proposes an alternative set of criteria to those in the main body of the classification, namely for migraine without aura (MO) (coded to A1.1) and for tension-type headache (TTH) (coded to A2.1, A2.2, A2.3).
Experimental Models For RA
Authors: Holmdahl Rikard
Published: November 2023

Taken together, these findings suggest that immune-mediated inflammation directed to peripheral joints plays a role in the disease process. One explanation for such a response would be the occurrence of an infectious agent persisting in the joint. However, so far it has not been possible to identify such an agent as an explanation for RA. Alternatively, the immune reaction could be directed to the molecular targets in the joints, in cartilage, or the synovial tissue. Another explanation could relate to a defect in a gene related to peripheral joints, for example leading to cartilage fragility or a gene affecting immune recognition. However, such a genetic defect has not been found. Thus, the cause and driving forces are polygenic and multifactorial, and the understanding of the disease will require a detailed basic analysis of disease mechanisms. Animal models are excellent tools for such an analysis. Recent advances in animal models mimicking different aspects of human diseases, and the improvement in genetic techniques, has dramatically increased their usefulness. The present overview will include not only models for RA, but also models more similar to some related diseases such as psoriasis arthritis, Reiter’s disease, ankylosing spondylitis, Lyme disease, and septic arthritis (summarized in Table 4.1).
The Role Of Macrophages In Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Kinne Raimund W , Stuhlmüller Bruno , Palombo-Kinne, Ernesta , Burmester Gerd-R
Published: November 2023

Macrophages (Mcps) are of central importance in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), due to their prominent numbers in the inflamed synovial membrane and at the cartilage/pannus junction, their clear activation status 1–4 (see Table 5.1 for details), and their response to successful anti-rheumatic treatment5. Although Mcps probably do not occupy a causal pathogenetic position in RA (except for their potential antigen-presenting capacity) , they possess broad pro-inflammatory, destructive, and remodeling potential, and contribute considerably to inflammation and joint destruction in acute and chronic RA (see Table 5.2 for details). Also, activation of this lineage extends to circulating monocytes and other cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS), including bone marrow precursors of the myelomonocytic lineage and osteoclasts 2,7,8 (see Table 5.3).
The Role Of Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes In Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Müller-Ladner Ulf , Gay Steffen
Published: November 2023

The fibroblast-like synoviocyte (FLS), also termed synovial fibroblast or type B synovial fibroblast, has developed from a cell known to be involved in homeostasis within the synovium to a key pathogenic cell that mediates joint destruction in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). This evolution is based on the advances in molecular biology, which has provided novel insights into the role and function of a variety of RA synovial cells. Interestingly enough, the FLS now being characterized as driving cells in the destructive processes in the rheumatoid joint were described adequately as ‘transformedappearing’ on a histological level by Fassbender decades ago .
The Roles Of B Cells In Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Silverman Gregg J
Published: November 2023

Decades of intensive investigation into the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis(RA) have led to the characterization of complex interactions of diverse infiltrating cell types, which are regulated by a variety of membrane-associated and secreted molecules. Many decades ago, B lymphocytes were first implicated in surveys that demonstrated immunoglobulin(Ig) complexes in joints affected by the chronic inflammatory synovitis of RA. B lymphocytes and Ig-producing plasma cells were also found to be prominent participants in the infiltrated and hyperplastic synovia, and more recent observations have indicated that these cells contribute to pathogenesis by both local Ig-dependent and independent functions. However, despite extensive efforts, there has been limited progress in proving that specific anti-self and/or anti-microbial antigenic targets are responsible for the recruitment of clonally restricted B cell sets into the rheumatoid synovium, and as a result controversies persist regarding the factors responsible for the recruitment of these B lymphocytes. In the following sections, the cumulative evidence of the roles of B-lineage cells and their products is discussed, and important recent observations are highlighted.
The Stress System And The Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis In Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Chrousos George P , Kaltsas Gregory A
Published: November 2023

The neuroendocrine and immune systems communicate with each other via a number of shared regulatory mediators (steroid hormones, neuropeptides, and cytokines) and receptors, and play major roles in maintenance of homeostasis and adaptation . Exposure to inflammatory stimuli is followed by an integrated response from the site of inflammation via the release of specific cytokines, the key ones being interleukin (IL) IL-1, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-), and IL-6, and via activation of neural afferent autonomic sensory fibers. These cytokines and afferent nerves lead to the secretion of acute phase proteins by the liver, and initiate a non-specific response via the stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the systemic/ adrenomedullary sympathetic nervous systems (SNS) . This leads to systemic elevations of glucocorticoids and catecholamines (Cas), which aim at regulating the inflammation at the site of initiation . Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a paradigmatic, multifactorial autoimmune disease that is derived from the patient’s excessiveimmune and inflammatory response . In this chapter, the current understanding of interactions of the stress and immune systems and their physiologic and pathophysiologic implications in the initiation/perpetuation of the inflammatory component in RA will be discussed. The use of potential therapeutic means based on the presence of such alterations will also be raised.
Clinical Aspects Of Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Zvaifler Nathan J
Published: November 2023

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, inflammatory, systemic disease with its primary manifestations in the synovial lining of diarthrodial joints. The disease is ubiquitous, occurs in both sexes at any age, (favoring women 3:1) and has been observed world-wide. The prevalence in most cohorts approximates 1% Rural populations seem to be less severely affected than urban dwellers and the disease may be worse in developed countries. The prevalence of RA increases with age. It begins most commonly in the fourth and fifth decades of life with a peak onset between the ages of 35 and 50 years . Variability is found not only in populations, but also in individuals. In the absence of treatment those patients with serologic reactions to immunoglobulins (rheumatoid factors, RFs) and cyclic citrullinated proteins (Chapter 13) and a particular genetic predisposition (shared human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR 1 epitopes—see Chapter 1) have the prototypic severe, unrelenting, progressive, destructive, disabling disease we recognize as RA. Individuals lacking these genetic and serologic features have an arthritis that is often milder, with less characteristic bilateral symmetrical synovitis, and fewer systemic manifestations. It has been argued that these are different diseases, but in this chapter they will be considered the same, unless additional features suggest an alternative rheumatic disease (see differential diagnosis below).
Psychological And Social Aspects
Authors: Kvien Tore Kristian , Smedstad Liv Marit
Published: November 2023

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic and potentially disabling disease with pervasive negative impacts on the functional, social, and mental status of affected individuals. Long-term disease outcome varies from minimal loss of function to a mortality and morbidity approaching that of a malignant disease . Substantial variation in function is readily observed among persons with RA. Much of the variation that is observed is the result of a multifactorial, complex interaction between the disease process and personal and social factors . In spite of a growing body of studies addressing associations between the above variables in RA, their inter-relationships are still insufficiently explored, and remain issues of controversy.
Large Joints And Feet
Authors: Rydholm Urban
Published: November 2023

Joint surgery in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an essential component of rheumatological rehabilitation, in particular large joint replacement procedures. Surgical synovectomy, however, has largely been replaced by local or systemic non-surgical measures (see Section 4). An increasing variety of joint prostheses are now in use. Immediate results are often dramatic but long-term, controlled trials are scarce. The outcome of surgical procedures in the large joints and feet differ between patients with RA and osteoarthritis (OA), due to the systemic and progressive character of RA.
Habitat creating factors: landforms, hydrology, and soils
Authors: Nagy Laszlo , Grabherr Georg
Published: November 2023

Mountain building occurred in three major phases and as a result today we see two largely different types of high mountains: (1) worn-down mountains of Caledonic (Scottish Highlands, Scandes, Appalachians) and Variscan (Urals, Altai, Tianshan) origin, and (2) younger rugged and higher mountain chains of so-called alpine origin that formed relatively recently. Today’s landforms are the result of tectonics, volcanic activity, weathering and mass wasting, water erosion, wind, and glacial and periglacial activity. The rate at which material is displaced towards lower elevations (denudation processes) is influenced by climate and rock type. The shaping of the alpine landscape in seasonally varying climates is by frost and snow (ice) impacts in the winter, followed by mass movement and fluvial activity during the summer. In arid areas, frost-shattered material is displaced down-hill by gravity. Most aseasonal tropical high mountains have also been, at least in part, subject to glacial events in the past and today frequent daily freeze–thaw occurs in the alpine zone, increasingly so with elevation (e.g. Table 4.5).
Temporal and spatial dynamics
Authors: Nagy Laszlo , Grabherr Georg
Published: November 2023

The discussion of temporal and spatial aspects of the dynamics in al-pine plant communities (and some examples of animal assemblages) begins with outlining processes during colonization. For expediency, the colonization of bare substrata is considered first, followed by plant community and animal assemblage formation (primary succession), and then by secondary succession. Subterranean and microbiological processes that pre-date and co-occur with the succession of higher life forms are considered. This phase (colonization and space filling) is highly dynamic in the absence of a climatic constraint, such as found on glacier forelands. In contrast, established alpine communities are characterized by generally slow dynamics (Fig. 7.21).

The second part is about change and its drivers in community composition in time and space: from inter-annual variability to long-term change at the patch and habitat scales. The main variables considered include recruitment, persistence, and sexual versus vegetative reproduction. The interactions that contribute to the dynamics of alpine plant communities are examined by looking at competition, facilitation, and mutualism. Finally, the impacts on species and vegetation dynamics of temperature, nutrients, and herbivores are discussed.
Land use and conservation of alpine landscapes, ecosystems, and species
Authors: Nagy Laszlo , Grabherr Georg
Published: November 2023

Historically, economic return, health considerations, religious beliefs, and above all population density have been the major shaping forces of human land use in high mountains, as well as in the lowlands. This chapter examines the impact of some of the land-use forms on alpine and upper montane landscapes and habitats. The examples from Europe are contrasted with those from North America, and most notably with those drawn from high-altitude mountain areas with a long history of land use such as the mountains emerging from the extensive plateau of the central Andes. As has been shown, in high mountain ecosystems a vertical zonation causes high biological diversity on a projected area basis and the existence of slopes gives a high-energy status to mountains, i.e. the movement of water and solid material along slopes is much more pronounced than on flatlands. These features make mountain environments sensitive to excessive perturbation, which is often the case with land use. Finally, we discuss conservation management measures that might minimize or ameliorate the impacts of perturbation and contribute to the maintenance of ecosystem functions, continued use, and biological diversity of alpine ecosystems.
Emotional, behavioural, psychiatric and social problems
Authors: Demellweek Colin , Rankin Peter , Baldwin Tony
Published: November 2023

As detailed in Chapter 8, cognitive problems following brain injury in children are common and varied. However, cognitive skills that are traditionally measured on neuropsychological tests such as memory, language or perception do not always adequately tap the range of behavioural, social and emotional difficulties that frequently develop following brain injury. Indeed, carers and teachers of children who have suffered brain injuries frequently report that it is the change in the child ‘s personality, moods or motivation that causes the most significant distress for all concerned. A range of terms may be applied to describe this area of difficulty including emotional, behavioural, psychiatric and social difficulties – as such, all these terms are included in the title of this chapter. However, some of the terms available may be confusing to the general public as they often describe the same essential phenomena and vary more according to the training of the professional making such observations, rather than the problems the child experiences.
Community liaison
Authors: Gregg Jackie , Baldwin Tony
Published: November 2023

This chapter will address the relevance and importance of the community child health and education services in the process of rehabilitation. Its role is crucial in continuing the acute hospital-based rehabilitation programme and effective communication with the hospital, primary care team and school. The aims of community liaison are to ensure that: early medical advice is submitted to the local education authority (LEA), if necessary, to ensure optimal educational provision; the local community paediatrician and family doctor are regularly updated on the child ‘s progress, so that local support is readily available for parents, siblings and extended family; the child ‘s local community paediatrician, general practitioner and therapists are briefed ready for the child ‘s discharge.
The future
Authors: Appleton Richard
Published: November 2023

Without doubt, the incidence of both traumatic and non-traumatic brain injuries will continue to increase, and it has been estimated that by 2020, road traffic accidents will be the third leading cause of disability-adjusted life years lost world-wide and the second leading cause in developing countries. Although these predictions are predominantly adult-based, there is no reason to expect that the increase in traumatic brain injuries in children will not mirror those in adults, particularly in those aged 15–18 years, and possibly even in younger age groups. It is also likely that there will be an increasing number of children with non-accidentally acquired brain injuries through an increase in teenage pregnancies and, if current trends continue, a further decline in family life and parenting skills.
A parent ‘s and her daughter ‘s experiences
Authors: Pearson Lizzie
Published: November 2023

This chapter gives a detailed (and unedited) account of how one family perceived and coped with their daughter ‘s brain injury, beginning with the mother ‘s account and followed by Lizzy ‘s own account, in which she reflects on her own feelings and memories. The account begins with her arrival on the neuro-rehabilitation ward.
Patients with colorectal cancer
Authors: Watson Dr Max , Barrett Ann , Spence Roy AJ , Twelves Chris
Published: November 2023

There is increasing evidence that, although expensive, a screening programme can allow the diagnosis of colorectal cancer while still at Dukes’ A or B stage. This may lead to a significant survival advantage for the screened population. This is commencing in England and Wales in 2007. See earlier section on screening in Chapter 1.
Inclusion criteria in ICPC
Authors:   Wonca
Published: November 2023

It has always been clear to the WONCA Classification Committee that an internationally agreed list of rubrics to classify problems met in primary care would not in itself ensure the highest level of statistical comparability. In the International Classification of Health Problems in Primary Care (ICHPPC-2-Defined) published in 1983 inclusion criteria for the use of each rubric were introduced to improve consistency of coding.
Hypertension-associated hypalgesia An important mechanism in headache and other pains?
Authors: Tronvik E , Stovner L J , Hagen K , Holmen J , Zwart J -A
Published: November 2023

The ICHD-II classification states that elevated blood pressure (BP) is not a cause of headache. This statement was corroborated by prospective data from a large unselected population in Norway (The Nord-Trøndelag Health Study—HUNT) on 22,685 adults, a study which in fact demonstrated that high systolic and diastolic pressures were associated with reducedrisk of non-migrainous headache 11 years later. For migrainous headache no clear association was found. The objective of the present study was to further explore the relation between BP and headache, and the effect of antihypertensive medication, in a cross-sectional study.
Gametogenesis and fertilization
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p. , Read Helen J
Published: November 2023

Millipedes have separate sexes. Secondary sexual structures have evolved to a high degree to ensure successful transfer of sperm from males to females. In this chapter, all aspects of reproduction will be covered, from the structure of reproductive organs and gametes, through to mating behaviour, egg laying, and early embryological development. Post hatching development is covered in Chapter 8.
The Phylogenetic Significance Of Flagellar Hairs In The Chromophyta
Authors: Leadbeater Barry S C
Published: November 2023

Heterokont flagellation, characterized by the presence of two flagella, one of which contains semi-rigid, tripartite, tubular hairs, is a feature common to motile cells of six chromophyte classes. On the basis of other ultrastructural and biochemical information five of these classes, namely the Raphidophyceae, Xanthophyceae, Chrysophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, and Phaeophyceae form a well defined natural grouping. The sixth class, the Eustigmatophyceae, whilst sharing many heterokont features and, therefore, probably having a common ancestry with the other heterokont classes, is sufficiently different in other respects to suggest an early phylogenetic separation. Semi-rigid tubular hairs are also characteristic of the Cryptophyceae but here the flagellation is not heterokont. Whilst probably sharing a common ancestry with the heterokont chromophytes the general absence of many other features associated with heterokont chromophytes leads us to the conclusion that the Cryptophyceae diverged from the main heterokont lineage at a very early stage. Based on flagellar morphology alone the Dinophyceae and Prymnesiophyceae would appear to be phylogenetically isolated from each other and from the remainder of the Chromophyta.
Evolutionary rates 1n the Teloschistaceae
Authors: Karnefelt I
Published: November 2023

The Teloschistaceae is generally recognized as a rather natural unit in the lichenized Ascomycotina. However, the same family has long been known to include an assemblage of rather unnatural genera and, in addition, there are numerous problems concerning delimitation of species among those genera. Problems related particularly to gradual geographical speciation are discussed in three of the most important genera in the Teloschistaceae and illustrated mainly from the African flora in the genera Xanthoria, Teloschistes, and Caloplaca. In one species in particular, Xanthoria mendozae, the known distributional pattern in the Southern Hemisphere supported by geological events and with only few opportunities for long distance dispersal, indicates an ancient history for this lichen. Two cladograms or strict consensus trees are presented, supporting the presumed unnatural affinities among accepted genera in the family.
Evolutionary inference: the value of viewing evolution through stickleback-tinted glasses
Authors: Foster Susan A , Bell Michael A
Published: November 2023

threespine stickleback species complex possesses a number of attributes that make it particularly suitable for evolutionary studies. This stickleback has undergone remarkable phenotypic diversification in freshwater habitats since the deglaciation of north-western North America, Scotland, and other less extensively studied regions (reviewed in Bell and Foster page 16 this volume). In some instances, speciation has occurred since the last deglaciation (McPhail Chapter 14 this volume). In addition, there exist many seemingly older, freshwater populations, and the marine, estuarine, and anadromous ancestors (hereafter referred to as marine ancestors) of the freshwater populations are extant in both the Atlantic and Pacific basins (Bell and Foster page 2). Extensive postglacial diversity, coupled with a limited, though long and informative, fossil record, provides a chronological dimension that is lacking in other species. The diversity of phenotypes, population ages, and interrelationships makes possible interpopulation comparisons that will shed light upon a variety of issues in evolutionary biology and that would be impossible in species with more obscure intraspecific phylogeny.
Parent-offspring conflict II: models of resolution
Authors: Mock Douglas W , Parker Geoffrey A
Published: November 2023

Although the ‘ battleground’ debate’ over parent-offspring conflict has now subsided, it is far from clear how such disagreements over PI allocation should be resolved. In this chapter we present two modelling approaches to behavioural conflicts, addressing whether (i) offspring arc likely to succeed in extracting Pl from parents against parental interests (an outcome called ‘ off spring wins’ ), (ii) parents thwart such attempts (‘ parent wins’ ), or (iii) neither party wholly prevails (various levels of ‘ compromise’ ). An excellent review of the current models is given by Godfray (1995b).
Tests of parent-offspring conflict vs. collaboration
Authors: Mock Douglas W , Parker Geoffrey A
Published: November 2023

Once tuned in, one is hard-pressed not to see conspicuous manifestations of parent-offspring ‘ conflict’ everywhere. For even a casual POC connoisseur, five minutes in any supermarket is an observational feast: children ogle chocolate bars, chewing gum and brightly wrapped peppermints (thoughtfully displayed by store managers right where shoppers must linger in the checkout line) and pester their parents with farragos of whining pleas. Parents vary greatly in their responsiveness to such ploys, but one is drawn irresistibly to imagine that candy sales must be higher, possibly much higher, as a result of the begging. Next our connoisseur proceeds to a toy store .
Sibling rivalry in ectothermic vertebrates
Authors: Mock Douglas W , Parker Geoffrey A
Published: November 2023

In most fishes, reptiles and amphibians, offspring receive no post-zygotic parental investment, shareable or otherwise, and have little to contest with siblings they seldom if ever contact. Because most species are oviparous (hatching from eggs outside the mother’ s body), sibling embryos arc physically separated by shell membranes and thus remain isolated from one another until hatching, after which they are on their own (Shine 1988, Clutton-Brock 1991). Additionally, in contrast to birds and mammals, parental feeding of offspring is extremely rare. In some anurans, however, parents place larval offspring in small aquatic nurseries (restricted bodies of water suitable for early development, including rain-filled puddles, tree-holes, leaf axils, bromeliad ‘ tanks,’ ponds, and other ephemeral catchments). Many of these are prone to shrinkage and/or resource depiction from various consumers. Alternatively, off spring may be affixed to parental body parts. Either way, key resources may become limiting and highly developed sibling rivalry sometimes arises.
Flagellate design and function
Authors: Fenchel Tom
Published: November 2023

Adaptive traits of heterotrophic flagellates are discussed in terms of physical and physiological constraints with special reference to motility, feeding mechanisms, and growth rates. Many morphological and functional properties of flagellates are a consequence of small cell size and are therefore characteristic of all flagellates irrespective of their taxonomic position.
Heterotrophic Flagellates Associated With Sedimenting Detritus
Authors: Caron David A
Published: November 2023

Suspended detrital aggregates in aquatic environments are specialized micro-environments for heterotrophic protists in planktonic ecosystems. Ranging in size from a few micrometers to several centimeters, many of these aggregates harbour rich communities of bacteria, cyanobacteria, and photosynthetic eukaryotes, thereby constituting patches of highly elevated abundances of prey for many species of protozoa. Because these particles often contain concentrations of protozoan prey many times greater than in the surrounding seawater, suspended particles often are sites for the aggregation and growth of phagotrophic flagellates and other protozoa in pelagic ecosystems. Abundances of flagellated protozoa on particles can be more than two orders of magnitude greater than in an equivalent volume of water in the same environment without visible particles. Many of these species are ‘particle-associated’ forms and similar to benthic species, poorly adapted to planktonic existence but capable of capturing micro-organisms loosely associated with, or attached to, the particle surfaces. Protozoa on suspended detrital aggregates play a significant role in the remincralization of organic carbon and nutrients contained in suspended particulate material, and undoubtedly contribute to the flux of these elements in aquatic ecosystems
Phagotrophy in prymnesiophyte flagellates
Authors: Green J C
Published: November 2023

Phagotrophy has been noted in only three genera of the Prymnesiophyta, namely Prymnesium (one species), Coccolithus (the motile Crystallolithus phase of Coccolithus pelagicus only) and Chrysochromulina (20 species and two unnamed strains). It has been recorded either from observation of live specimens or by the detection of ingested material in electron micrographs of sectioned material. Most records suggest that phagotrophic prymnesiophytes are omnivorous, though there is tentative evidence that some prey selection may take place. Current theories with respect to osmotrophy following the induced release of nutrients from prey organisms by toxins released by predator cells (dasmotrophy) are discussed briefly. It is suggested that facultative heterotrophy may be of advantage to opportunistic prymnesiophyte species.
Shikimate Pathway: Why Does It Mean So Much To So Many?”
Authors: Singh Bijay K , Siehl Daniel L , Connelly James A
Published: November 2023

Chromagens providing brilliant colors in flowers and fruits, phytoalexins and cyanogenic compounds for plant defense, auxins responsible for a myriad of plant functions, lignins for structural support and folic acid for plant growth are only a few examples of the numerous compounds derived from the shikimic acid pathway. In addition to their obvious role in protein biosynthesis, the end products of this pathway, tryptophan, tyrosine and phenylalanine, are the substrates for all of these vital plant processes.
Important cis-regulatory elements involved in the regulation of genes expressed in developing seeds
Authors: BÄumlein Helmut , Fiedler Ulrike , Weschke Winfriede , Wobus Ulrich
Published: November 2023

Seed development is a complex process involving the regulated expression of different groups of genes. Here we summarize studies on cis-regulatory elements of two functionally different seed-specific genes of Vicia faha var. minor. They were carried out to identify possible similarities and differences in how these genes are regulated in transgenic tobacco plants. In this way we hope to learn more about the regulatory network controlling the gene expression patterns which underly the morphological and physiological processes leading to the mature seed.
Molecular characterization of cocoa storage proteins and proteinases
Authors: O’connor Juli , Masters Karen E , F. Revell Dean
Published: November 2023

Cocoa, the raw material from which all chocolate products originate, is derived from the beans of Theobroma cacao. Cocoa flavour is a uniquely desirable and highly complex combination of components, including reducing sugars, peptides, and amino acids (Mohr et al. 1971, 1976; Biehl et al. 1982; Pettipher 1990; Macdonald et al. 1991). The peptide component of this flavour is derived by endogenous proteolytic cleavage of the seed storage proteins during the fermentation of cocoa beans. On roasting the beans, this complex mixture of compounds generates the highly specific cocoa flavour via Maillard reactions.