bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Old Bailey in the Late Seventeenth Century
Authors: Beattie J M
Published: November 2023

We have seen some of the ways in which alterations in the policing of the City of London in the century after the restoration of Charles II reflected changes in the society and economy of the metropolis as well as contemporary anxieties about crime. The following four chapters take up the parallel story of the variety of responses to the crime problem in the criminal justice system more narrowly, centring on the changing nature of the law and the work of the most important criminal court in England, the Old Bailey. We begin with a chapter on the way trials were conducted in the late seventeenth century. with the nature of juries, the verdicts reached in property cases, the penal options available to the courts at the beginning of our period, and the way the criminal law was put into practice.
Conclusion
Authors: Beattie J M
Published: November 2023

Numerous changes took place in the way the City of London dealt with crimes against property in the years between the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the middle of the eighteenth century, some of them planned, others more the outcome of changing practice or the consequences of broader developments in the social and cultural character of the metropolis. The changes in policing and punishment we have discussed can be summarized under four heads that express their intentions-or at least their effects, whether intended or not: measures to improve the prevention of crime; to encourage detection and the prosecution of offenders; to ensure the conviction of guilty offenders; and to make punishments more effective.
A New History Of Ireland
Authors: Hill J R
Published: November 2023

A New History of Ireland, Volume I marks the culmination of the largest scholarly project in modern Irish history. It consists of nine volumes, by over a hundred contributors, mainly historians but including also historical geographers and specialists in other disciplines, such as language and literature, the visual arts, and music. Seven of the volumes are text, and deal not only with politics but also with economic, social, and cultural history. The other volumes contain maps and reference material. As the final volume to appear in this multi-volume series, A New History of Ireland Volume I brings to a close the project initiated by T. W. Moody and R. Dudley-Edwards in the 1960s, to provide a comprehensive new synthesis of modern scholarship on every aspect of Irish history and prehistory, from the earliest geological and archaeological evidence, through the Middle Ages, and down to the present day. Volume I begins by looking at geography and the physical environment. Chapters follow which examine pre-3000, neolithic, bronze-age and iron-age Ireland and Ireland up to 800. Society, laws, church and politics are all analysed separately as are architecture, literature, manuscripts, language, coins and music. The volume is brought up to 1166 with chapters, amongst others, on the Vikings, Ireland and its neighbours, and opposition to the High-Kings. A final chapter moves further on in time, examining Latin learning and literature in Ireland to 1500.
Neolithic Ireland
Authors: Kelly M J O’
Published: November 2023

Despite the fact that this is open to a number of interpretations besides the straightforward ones that elm shoots may have been used as cattle fodder and that, since these trees usually grew on good ground, they were removed to provide pasture, the alteration in the hitherto prevailing ecological pattern must signify a corresponding change in man’s behavioural pattern. These pollen changes antedate 3000 b. c. in many cases.
Language and literature to 1169
Authors: Carney James
Published: November 2023

In the prehistoric period in Ireland all learning (including law and religion) was controlled by the druidic order. The druids were an institution of great antiquity and common to all the Celtic peoples; the earliest reference to them is that of Sotion of Alexandria (c.200 b. c.). Posidonius refers to three learned classes among the Celts: druids, seers, and bards; but it seems certain that ‘seers’ and ‘bards’ were, at least in some sense, druids.
Ireland c.800: aspects of society
Authors: Cróinín Donnchadh Ó
Published: November 2023

The woodlands were not stable: they advanced and retreated in response to human activity, prehistoric and historic. Most woods were privately owned, managed for large timbers, and coppiced and pollarded for small ones. They provided many products: timbers of many kinds (for buildings, carpentry, basketry, and domestic vessels), pannage and rough grazing for animals, wild fruit and nuts for human consumption. The bogs were used for peat and summer pasture. Literary and legal sources convey the impression that large woods were scarce. Scots pine may have been harvested to virtual extinction.
The Visionaries and their World
Authors: Blackbourn David
Published: November 2023

Margaretha Kunz, Katharina Hubertus, and Susanna Leist took no part in the haymaking that was occupying Marpingen at the beginning of July 1876. All three were 8-year-olds with older brothers and sisters to carry out this and other physically demanding jobs: Kunz was the youngest of ten, Leist the secondyoungest of nine, Hubertus the middle child of five. But they had been entrusted on 3 July with another task often given to younger peasant children. As Susanna’s father later remarked: ‘I let the child go into the woods because she couldn’t help me with my work; she could pick berries there.’ The social status of their families is difficult to establish precisely. ‘Poor, but with enough to live on’ was how the parish priest later described their circumstances. What scraps of evidence we have suggest that the girls came from middling Kuhbauer families, although (as we shall see) the Kunz family was more ambiguously placed. They certainly owned meadows and barns, while Johann Leist was known to be in funds at the beginning of 1877 after selling a pair of draught oxen and a cow.
Pilgrims, Cures, and Commercialization
Authors: Blackbourn David
Published: November 2023

The next day Marpingen was host to around 20,000 visitors, with up to 4,000 in the Hartelwald at any one time. The crush of pilgrims already threatened to exhaust supplies of food and drink in the village, and Neureuter observed that he would have to hear confessions ‘day and night’ to satisfy the demand. There was general agreement that I 2 July marked the beginning of what Father Schwaab of Urexweiler called the ‘great rush’. Carts and pilgrims on foot crowded the roads and tracks in all directions; Neureuter recorded that ‘the carts even come down the Tholey mountain at night, a road that can hardly be travelled in the day’. A schoolteacher in Dörsdorf was unable to conduct his classes because of the noise made by passing pilgrims. The stream of people was not to abate for fourteen months, although the numbers fluctuated over that period.
Communications*
Authors: Pethybridge Roger
Published: November 2023

Provincial life as such is now left behind as we turn to various types of connections between it and the political and cultural centres of Russia. Some nationwide systems of Bolshevik political control are examined in the next chapter, whereas here more neutral communications networks are studied. However, since the accent in this book lies on social and political affairs, the railways and the press will be considered from this angle. In fact both networks were subject to heavy political intervention. The first carried goods and people, the second ideas and information. Within their own spheres, they were of overriding importance. Road, air, and even river transport were of little significance by comparison with the railways. The public relied to a minimal extent on what were by modern standards vestigial radio, telephone, and film distribution systems. Lenin and the Bolsheviks had grasped the supreme political importance of the railways and the press as instruments for turning their domination of some cities of European Russia in 1917 into an all-Russian revolution.
Lack of Improvement in Control over the Localities
Authors: Pethybridge Roger
Published: November 2023

Before turning to examine in later chapters the individual characteristics of three localities in 1926, a more general survey is given here of ideological theories, institutions, and human agents that were manipulated by the central authorities in their efforts to keep the later years of NEP on an even political and social keel in the provinces. The institutions singled out are the moral Soviets and the Central Control Commission and its branches. The agents will be divided into those who facilitated control and those who increasingly hampered it. The ideas and topics treated in this chapter should be related to the subjects discussed for I 922 in Chapter 5, as is implied by the similarity in the titles of the two chapters. A theoretical concept which kept cropping up in the minds of leading Bolsheviks throughout NEP was smychka, the notion of town and country alliance. It has just featured in the previous chapter, for instance. Between 1921 and 1923 Lenin had moved towards an alliance with what were termed the middle peasants, who were considered by most central party leaders to be in the majority in the countryside. The practical effects of this line, or rather lack of them in 1922, were reviewed earlier in the case-study of the Kursk guberniia. By 1924 it was clear that smychka was having little or no impact 0111 the realities of rural life. Even Stalin now devoted some thought to the problem of alliance in his role as temporary ally of Kamenev and Zinoviev.
Rituals of Retribution
Authors: Evans Richard J
Published: November 2023

Copywriter - Modern History section for 1996 cat The state has no greater power over its own citizens than that of killing them. This book examines the use of that supreme sanction in Germany, from the seventeenth century to the present. Richard Evans analyses the system of `traditional’ capital punishments set out in German law, and the ritual practices and cultural readings associated with them by the time of the early modern period. He shows how this system was challenged by Enlightenment theories of punishment and broke down under the impact of secularization and social change in the first half of the nineteenth century. The abolition of the death penalty became a classic liberal case which triumphed, if only momentarily, in the 1948 Revolution. In Germany far more than anywhere else in Europe, capital punishment was identified with anti-liberal, authoritarian concepts of sovereignty. Its definitive reinstatement by Bismarck in the 1880s marked not only the defeat of liberalism but also coincided with the emergence of new, Social Darwinist attitudes towards criminality which gradually changed the terms of debate. The triumph of these attitudes under the Nazis laid the foundations for the massive expansion of capital punishment which took place during Hitler's `Third Reich'. After the Second World War, the death penalty was abolished, largely as a result of a chance combination of circumstances, but continued to be used in the Stalinist system of justice in East Germany until its forced abandonment as a result of international pressure exerted in the regime in the 1970s and 1980s. This remarkable and disturbing book casts new light on the history of German attitudes to law, deviance, cruelty, suffering and death, illuminating many aspects of Germany's modern political development. Using sources ranging from folksongs and ballads to the newly released government papers from the former German Democratic Republic, Richard Evans scrutinizes the ideologies behind capital punishment and comments on interpretations of the history of punishment offered by writers such as Foucault and Elias. He has made a formidable contribution not only to scholarship on German history but also to the social theory of punishement, and to the current debate on the death penalty.
The Forbidden Books of Pre-revolutionary France
Authors: Darnton Robert
Published: November 2023

I want to try to answer a question that was first raised seventy nine years ago by Daniel Mamet and that has been dangling ever since: what did the French read in the eighteenth century? Whatever it was, according to Mamet, it was not what we commonly take to be eighteenth-century French literature. We envisage the literature of every era as a corpus of works grouped around a core of classics; and we derive our notion of the classics from our professors, who took it from their professors, who got it from Theirs, and so on, back to some disappearing point in the early nineteenth century. Literary history is an artifice, pieced together over many generations, shortened here and lengthened there, worn thin in some places, patched over in others, and laced through everywhere with anachronism. It bears little relation to the actual experience of literature in a given time.
The French Revolution or Pure Democracy
Authors: Furet Francois
Published: November 2023

The repercussions of the French Revolution are universal because it proclaimed itself to be universal. Independent of the particular conditions of its birth and even of the country in which it broke out, it gave itself the mission not of adjusting institutions to the circumstances of national history or to the state of opinion, but rather of remaking the social contract from top to bottom, as though it were an artefact to be completely reworked, remodelled according to the principles of reasoning will. It was thus an event that was inextricably political and philosophical, and contemporary observers immediately saw it as a blend of these two aspects, hailing 1789 as the victory of Enlightenment philosophy in the realm which it had made its speciality — the reorganization of the polis. The unique character of the French Revolution in modem history derives from this combining of genres, by virtue of which 1789 was to be accompanied by a laicized religious annunciation where the promise of democracy was substituted for that of God.
Regionalism and Counter-Revolution in France
Authors: Forrest Alan
Published: November 2023

In the vast literature of counter-revolution regional identity is often subsumed or alluded to, but it is rarely investigated in depth, and the significance of regional loyalties is seldom analysed. This is not hard to understand. Regionalism is a rather imprecise concept, a sense of belonging or of mutual identity which defies quantification, a gut feeling of pride in the past and in a shared experience. Like nineteenth-century nationalism, it has diffuse cultural, linguistic, and literary inspirations. It is certainly more deeply implanted in some regions than in others. And, like nationalism again, it may be stronger in times of conflict, when there is a common enemy to be fought or a common threat to be fended off. That threat, in an eighteenth century context, was clearly to be found in the advancing pretensions of the centralist state, whether of the Bourbon monarchy or, more dramatically, of the Revolution. The enemy could easily become the revolutionary administration itself.
Auto—emancipation?
Authors: Vital David
Published: November 2023

European Jewry was now divided. It was divided defacto and more than ever before in conscience. It was one thing to observe events in Russia from without and at the immense distance in space and mind separating the barbarities inflicted on the Pale of Jewish Settlement from the comparative order and civilization of central and western Europe. It was another to suffer, or even merely to observe, them at first hand from within the empire itself. Sympathy and benign concern for the easterners when contemplating their disasters were not un-common sentiments in Berlin, Vienna, Budapest, London, and Paris, as we have seen. For the Jews of Russia and Poland themselves matters were of course vastly more immediate, depressing, and, above all, urgent. For the great majority within the Pale, but also for the very small minority allowed to live outside it, for the rich, for the poor, for the high and for the low, for firmly orthodox believers no less than for those who had been touched (or more) by secularism and by indigenous Russian culture, for those who had escaped molestation almost as much as for those who had suffered it at the hands of the mob or those of the authorities-for all these, for all classes, some sort of reckoning had now to be made.
War
Authors: Vital David
Published: November 2023

The Jews of Europe passed through the valley of the shadow of death during the years 1914—18 with the rest of the continent’s population—which is to say, as best they could. That they were no more spared the crippling horrors of the war than any one else was at once the result and the supreme expression of the radical change in their circumstances. The days when, insignificant exceptions apart, it was natural, but also possible, for Jews to keep out of the way when the gentiles foolishly and incomprehensibly fought each other were over. Where their participation in continental warfare, if any, had been on an essentially individual basis—as bankers and provisioners, but only very rarely as soldiers—it was now first and foremost as ordinary fighting men in the ranks of each of the armies of the belligerents. Countless numbers of perfectly ordinary, non-political Jewish people marched off to war and to personal, often fatal involvement in the great and terrifying events that proceeded to unfold from August 1914 onwards along with all the other ordinary, non-political people who were marching off to war. They did so, moreover, for all the world as if it were a natural and (in central and western Europe) a worthy and desirable thing to do. Their political masters had still to determine whether, and if so in what way and to what degree, further advantage was to be taken of their services.
Inquisitorial Law and the Witch*
Authors: Tedeschi John
Published: November 2023

By approaching the subject of the present volume from the point of view of the legal historian rather than that of the ethnologist or the social historian, I have attempted in this paper to provide a general legal and bureaucratic background against which the witchcraft question may be studied. My intention is to investigate the organization and procedures of a court system, rather than pursue the socio economic or folkloristic implications of the witch persecutions. The following thesis regarding the type oflegal justice administered by the Congregation of the Holy Office in Rome may appear novel to some readers. In fact, the contrast between the procedures described here and the judicial practices of civil courts elsewhere in Europe and in Italy itself is startling.
Iceland: Sorcerers and Paganism
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten
Published: November 2023

lCELAND is situated on the geographical margins of Europe, and the links of communication across the North Atlantic were not always intensive. Yet historically Iceland was always embedded in the wider Nordic and European context, a fact which is reflected also in the seventeenth-century witch-trials. The present paper is concerned with these trials under the double perspective of the witch-craze in Early Modern Europe, in relation to which Iceland is but a peripheral instance, and the local cultural categories of witchcraft, defined from the core of a distinctive Icelandic culture. As elsewhere, the local shaping of the witch-hunt owed as much to pre-existing notions of supernatural powers as to the new ideas of satanic influence. Since the Viking Age and the first settlements on Iceland, a whole range of popular notions of magic intervention in nature and history had been central to the world-view of the Icelanders, and even the conversion to Christianity in AD 1000 had not estranged these notions.1 In many ways the Catholic times represented a continuation of the heathen traditions, at least in practice, if not in theological doctrine.
The Comparative Approach to European Witchcraft
Authors: Burke Peter
Published: November 2023

IN the last twenty years or so, witchcraft has moved from the periphery of historical attention to a place near the centre. When, in the later 1960s, Professor Trevor-Roper published his lively essay on what he called, following nineteenth-century German scholars, the European ‘Witch-craze’, he can hardly have guessed that he was summarizing and synthesizing the conventional historical wisdom on the subject at the very time when this conventional view was being undermined. Trevor-Roper took Europe for his province, ranging from Scotland to Transylvania, but he deliberately limited himself to the beliefs of clerical and lay elites. A sturdy rationalist, he expressed a firm lack of interest in what he called ‘those elementary village credulities which anthropologists discover in all times and at all places’, and his account of the ‘craze’ attempted to relate its rise and subsequent decline to such major intellectual movements such as Aristotelianism and Platonism, Reformation, and Scientific Revolution.
Models of Development
Authors: Hitchins Keith
Published: November 2023

The advent of the Hohenzollerns, the promulgation of a constitution in 1866, and the achievement of independence in 1878 brought Rumanian politicians, economists, and social thinkers face to face with the new problem of national development. The specific issues were many and varied, but two general directions presented themselves. One, drawing upon the Western European experience, would lead to industrialization and urbanization and bring radical changes to every facet of Rumanian society; the other was based upon Rumania’s agricultural past and emphasized the preservation of traditional social structures and cultural values.
The First World War
Authors: Hitchins Keith
Published: November 2023

In the weeks following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June 1914 King Charles and Liberal and Conservative politicians watched the deteriorating international situation with increasing anxiety. They had good reason to fear war, for Rumania’s geographical position made it inevitable that she would find herself in the middle of an expanding, European conflict. The country faced the crisis far from united. There were serious political divisions between the king and a small group of Germanophiles, on one side, and the majority of politicians and public opinion, on the other. which favoured the Entente. Yet both sides could agree on the urgent need to avoid war. The lack of preparedness of the Rumanian army and the aggressive behaviour of Austria-Hungary toward Serbia gave everyone pause. Convinced that Serbia wished to settle the crisis peacefully and fearful that otherwise Russia would support Serbia militarily and a general war would break out, the king and Prime Minister Bratianu urged both parties to settle their differences through negotiation. They became thoroughly alarmed when Austria-Hungary presented a drastic ultimatum to Serbia on 24 July. War now seemed to them inevitable, since Serbia, in their view, could not possibly accept all its terms.
Englishmen And Frenchmen In Occupied Paris
Authors: Thompson Guy Llewelyn
Published: November 2023

In the absence of the Armagnacs, the Burgundian faction in Paris maintained a remarkable degree of unity amongst the people of the capital. Yet, although we have considered some of the reasons why people supported the duke of Burgundy, and ways in which loyalty to the Anglo-Burgundian regime was encouraged, we are not much closer to answering the question that must particularly intrigue an English historian: what was the attitude of the Parisians to Englishmen as people, and to those aspects of the regime which made it English as well as Burgundian? Here it is perhaps impossible to generalize. According to the Bourgeois, the requirement that everyone take an oath to the duke of Bedford in 1423 provoked a broad range of reactions, some doing this cheerfully but others with much ill will. The anonymous Bourgeois was not even sure in his own mind what he felt about the invaders since he reckoned that if you were to be captured and ransomed it was better to be taken by the English than by anyone else, and he admired the efficiency of Henry V and the duke of Bedford. Even so, he still saw the foreigners as mean and warlike people, doing little for Paris and spending less, with highly uncivilized notions about catering.
An Age of Transition?
Authors: Dyer Christopher
Published: November 2023

This significant new work by a prominent medievalist focusses on the period of transition between 1250 and 1550, when the wealth and power of the great lords was threatened and weakened, and when new social groups emerged and new methods of production were adopted. Professor Dyer examines both the commercial growth of the thirteenth century, and the restructuring of farming, trade, and industry in the fifteenth. The subjects investigated include the balance between individuals and the collective interests of families and villages. The role of the aristocracy and in particular the gentry are scrutinized, and emphasis placed on the initiatives taken by peasants, traders, and craftsmen. The growth in consumption moved the economy in new directions after 1350, and this encouraged investment in productive enterprises. A commercial mentality persisted and grew, and producers, such as farmers, profited from the market. Many people lived on wages, but not enough of them to justify describing the sixteenth century economy as capitalist. The conclusions are supported by research in sources not much used before, such as wills, and non-written evidence, including buildings. Christopher Dyer, who has already published on many aspects of this period, has produced the first full-length study by a single author of the 'transition'. He argues for a reassessment of the whole period, and shows that many features of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries can be found before 1500.
Open Fields and Enclosure: The Demise of Commonality
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

The sentiments of John Clare, the Northamptonshire poet, were put more prosaically by a lace-dealer of that county. ‘I lament that this field is now a going to be enclosed’, wrote David Hennell of Wollaston. ‘Some that have large quantities of land are set upon it, and pay no regard to the many little ones that may be injured, and I fear many ruined.
Furnaces, Forges, and Mines
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

The debate on rural industrialization and its metamorphosis into factory production ignores trades, in both town and country, which were based upon fixed, centralized plant. These included some of the most important industries of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries: the mining of coal and minerals such as iron, lead, tin, and copper; the smelting of ores in furnaces and their refining in forges; the processing of domestic and imported agricultural commodities by sugar-refiners, leather-tanners, seed-crushers, flour-millers, maltsters, brewers, and distillers; and the production of salt, paper, and glass. Although the dynamic of growth in plant-based trades was very different from protoindustrial industries, they were often mutually dependent. The nail-makers of the west Midlands, cutlers of Sheffield, and the producers of buckles, buttons, and small metal goods of Birmingham could only grow by specialization because their supplies of iron, steel, copper, and brass were freed from restraints through the use of coal as a source of heat in furnaces and forges. The impact of the ‘modernized’ sector was much greater than is suggested by the low proportion of the work-force directly employed, for a change in the supply of materials to domestic workers disrupted the existing social relations of production in the ‘traditional’ sectors.
Merchants and Marketing
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

Britain’s distinctive regional economies, with their particular social structures and patterns of production, were not self-sufficient: specialism only makes sense where markets permit the exchange of commodities, and connect the regions into a nationally integrated economy. The question is: how efficient were markets in providing these links? The operation of a market depends upon the quality and quantity of information which is available to participants, for a consumer or shopkeeper in, say, Devon might well have no knowledge of the price or design of clocks or cutlery manufactured in Birmingham or Sheffield, and might consequently continue to purchase from local craftsmen in Exeter whose costs were higher. Competition was ‘imperfect’, and the slow development of a more ‘perfect’ market depended upon improved flows of information through the distribution network, allowing areas to concentrate on the production of goods in which they had a competitive edge, and offering consumers access to the lowest-cost suppliers. Of course, the provision of trade networks to link production and consumption itself imposed ‘transaction costs’, and improvements in the efficiency of intermediaries could have a significant impact on the final price to the consumer. Economic historians have concentrated on changes in the production of goods, but changes in marketing which reduced transaction costs could have as great an impact on the final price to the consumer. The technical marvels of steam engines and spinning-machines are more striking than the mundane activities of merchants and shopkeepers who left fewer visible remains and records, but they are not necessarily of greater economic significance. After all, the greatest fortune in the textile trades was not made by Richard Arkwright in the production of yarn; it was accumulated by James Morrison, the ‘Napoleon of shopkeepers’, whose textile warehouse in the City of London supplied the inland trade with its handkerchiefs, ribbons, braids, and fabrics.
The Standard of Living and the Social History of Wages
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

‘J was reading a work the other day’, said Egremont, ‘that statistically proved that the general condition of the people was much better at the moment than it had been at any known period of history.’
Politics and Marriage
Authors: McGrew Roderick E
Published: November 2023

Paul’s relations with his mother were ambiguous. In his first six years, he almost never saw her, and it was not until he was nearly 18 that he shared any degree of intimacy with her. Contemporaries thought that Catherine disliked her son. They described her as treating him coolly and with reserve, showing none of the spontaneous warmth which marked her relations with people she liked. Privately, she was more relaxed, teasing or chaffing him, and occasionally quarrelling with him. At most what she offered him, however, was a sort of.amused objectivity with no display of spontaneous affection. On his side, Paul was uneasy in her presence. He was reported to have complained that nothing so frightened him as going before his mother, and observers in the court commented that he approached her as if he were guilty of something and expected to be punished. This behaviour contrasted sharply with the ebullience which was his usual style.
The Bank, the Court, and the Knights of Malta: 1797-1798
Authors: McGrew Roderick E
Published: November 2023

By the end of 1797, Paul could look back with some satisfaction on what he had accomplished. His enemies were scattered, he had firm control over the army and the state administration, and the outward traces of his mother’s reign had all but disappeared. His personal life was in good order. Relations with Mariia Fedorovna were on art acceptable footing; his sons were allied with him and working at his side. Best of all, the men he had chosen to lead the government had so far proved worthy of his trust; the state’s affairs were prospering. The peasant uprisings of the past winter were finished and showed no signs of breaking out again. Governmental reforms were moving steadily ahead and, while finances posed serious problems, there were plans in preparation to deal with them. Progress in the military was especially gratifying to Paul, though he was troubled by evidence of discontent in the ranks, and he resented the large number of officers’ resignations. None the less, he could well believe that he had drawn Russia back from the brink of disaster, that the most dangerous moments were past, and that his reformed version of the autocracy was well launched.
Crisis, Reconstruction, Merchanting, and Produce
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

The first ten years after the formation of UAC in 1929 had two distinctive features. First, this can be seen in retrospect to have been the last period in which this amalgam of companies and commercial activities operated in much the same way as they had done for decades, certainly since the imposition of European rule over the African territories in which they mainly operated. Secondly, this was also the period in which UAC was most unpopular in certain quarters and its activities most controversial.
Adaptation to Change
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

Apart from seeking the political kingdom (to use Nkrumah’s later concept), the first generation of African politicians after 1945 had perhaps three major economic objectives. They wanted the end of racial discrimination at the higher levels of government, the professions, and commerce. They wanted rapid industrialization, which they had been taught to believe was the only way to sustained growth and affluence. And they wanted Africans to take over the major import and export trades. This and the following chapter examine UAC’s response to these clearly articulated demands.
The Last Years of General Trading and Produce
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

The fifteen years after the end of the Second World War which saw the beginning of UAC as an industrial enterprise also saw the end of its two historic functions, at least in their original form. By 1961 it had been decided in principle that the company would run down its general trading business and withdraw from the main produce trades in cocoa, groundnuts, and palm products. So fundamental a redeployment of activities (though then restricted to anglophone and not francophone Africa) poses obvious questions. What connection, if any, was there between the end of these older functions and the entry into manufacturing in tropical Africa? Were the decisions to withdraw from the produce and merchandise trades at roughly the same time causally related or merely contemporary? What influence had decolonization and African economic nationalism? To answer such questions it will be necessary to examine these two commercial activities separately.
Industry: Ghana, the Congo/Zaire, and Francophone States
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

Nigeria was the most important and successful field for UAC’s industrial investments in Black Africa. But broadly the same approach was adopted in the three other countries or areas which are examined in this chapter. The profile of UAC’s industrialization in Ghana was different from that in any other West African state. For reasons which were outlined above, conditions favouring or demanding import-substituting industrialization existed in Ghana as early as the mid-1950s; by 1959 what were to be the three main Unilever/UAC industrial enterprises in Ghana-breweries, detergents, and textiles-were either in operation or planned. By 1960 also Sewards had started a small manufacturing business in an old building in Jamestown, making balms and face-creams, and there was a vehicle-assembly plant in the new industrial and port area at Tema.
The Decline of the Open Economy
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

An ‘open economy’ has been briefly defined as one ‘that is heavily dependent on international trade, exports and imports being large in relation to the size of that economy’s national income’. By contrast, a ‘closed economy’ is one ‘that is not influenced by any form of international trade, that is, there are no exports or imports of any kind’. These are highly formal definitions; in practice, virtually no modern economy is entirely open or closed. But the economies of colonial Africa in which UAC and the other big European trading firms operated were, before decolonization, ‘open’ to a degree almost never found in the more developed West. That is, their economies were geared to production and export of certain raw materials and to importing a large proportion of their total consumption. To take as examples four of the countries with which UAC was most concerned, as late as 1968 trade (the sum of exports and imports) as a percentage of GNP was 21 per cent for Nigeria, 37 per cent for Ghana, 63 per cent for the Congo/Zaire, and 69 per cent for the Ivory
Introduction
Authors: Tibble Steven
Published: November 2023

The Relationship between the monarchy and nobility of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem is a subject which has attracted the attention of many historians. Broadly, three views of the relationship between the kings and their lords have been propounded. The first school of thought, of which J. L. La Monte was the last proponent, argued that the Latin Kingdom represented a state of ‘pure feudalism’ where the king was primus inter pares and a vigorous nobility exercised effective control over an emaciated monarchy.
Royal Manipulation of the Feudal Structure
Authors: Tibble Steven
Published: November 2023

In any discussion of the balance of power between the monarchy and the nobility of the Latin Kingdom, a primary consideration must be the extent to which the feudal framework was both unchanging in time and rigid in structure. John of Ibelin presents us with a list of the lordships, their rights and obligations. Because of the natural appeal of accepting this list as a key point of reference, historians have tended to assume implicitly, with minor exceptions, that it was a broadly accurate representation of the number and extent of the lordships of the Latin Kingdom, particularly in the twelfth century.
Seigneurial Resources I: The Example of Caesarea
Authors: Tibble Steven
Published: November 2023

The Kings of Jerusalem exercised political control over the seigneuries both on a broad structural level and in more prosaic ways, such as through fief distribution. It might reasonably be argued, however, that the existence of such controls would not necessarily imply the impotence of the seigneuries: it could be said that given a certain level of resources, of whatever derivation, any of the more substantial lordships might still exert a major influence on the monarchy. At the very least, such a resource level would tend to bode well for the power and influence wielded by a lord within his own seigneury and it has been generally assumed that the lords of the Latin Kingdom were masters within their fiefs.
Seigneurial Resources Ill: The Examples of Sidon and Arsur
Authors: Tibble Steven
Published: November 2023

The lordships of the Latin Kingdom were, as we have seen, militarily and financially much less powerful than has hitherto been assumed. Two lordships have always been identified as weak, however, because their poverty forced their lords to sell them to the Military Orders. This assertion, while true on one level, hides a deeper irony: that it was only the success of the Lords of Sidon and Arsur in retaining control of extensive portions of their land that made the sale of the seigneuries an attractive proposition to a Military Order. In the case of other lordships, such as Caesarea, the landed assets available to the seigneury were no longer sufficient to justify the extra military expenses that a take-over of the lordship would have entailed: potential purchasers were therefore not forthcoming.
Conclusions
Authors: Tibble Steven
Published: November 2023

When I started this study I rather expected to be arguing that the power of the lordships of the Latin Kingdom had in fact been underestimated in the past and that underneath their constitutional conflict with the monarchy in the thirteenth century there must have been a basis of economic and political strength.
Wales
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

In 1284 a group of Welshmen came to Edward I at Conwy and presented him with a reliquary cross, the Croes Naid, containing some of the wood of the Cross itself. The surrender of this to the English king was a symbolic, moving acknowledgement of conquest, for the cross had been the prized possession of Llywelyn ap GruVudd, prince of Wales.1 Edward spent most of 1284 on a tour of Wales, no doubt content in the knowledge that Llywelyn’s head adorned a pike mounted on the Tower of London. Conquest may appear, with the beneWt of hindsight, to be the logical end of a process that began in the eleventh century, if not earlier, but to men in the early thirteenth century it would not have seemed an obvious outcome.
Political Crises, 1294-1311
Authors: Crises Political , [CT] 1294-1311
Published: November 2023

In the early 1290s the years of success for Edward I came to an end. The men who had been the architects of the remarkable transformation of the English State in the Worst twenty years of the reign were no longer by his side, nor was his beloved Eleanor. The king’s ambition to lead western Europe in a successful crusade had to be abandoned; instead, he was faced with a succession of expensive and difficult wars nearer home. The political unity that had been forged from the unpromising material presented by England in the aftermath of civil war could not be maintained under the pressures of war Wnance and military logistics.
The Knights and the Gentry
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

Sir GeoVrey Luttrell was a knight of no very great distinction, but his is one of the most celebrated images of knighthood. On a page of the Luttrell Psalter he is shown mounted, encased in an elaborate high saddle, his surcoat, aillettes, crest, and pennon all bear his arms, azure a bend between six martlets argent, as does his horse’s trapper and crest. His dappled grey horse is still, head bent down, but his bared teeth express a warlike character. Glover’s wife, Agnes, hands him his gilded helm, and holds his lance, which bears a triangular pennon. Grover’s daughter-in-law Beatrice Scrope waits to hand him his shield. Both ladies wear gowns embroidered both with the Luttrell arms and with those of their fathers.
The Management of Land
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

If proWts were to be made from estates, they had to be electively managed. There were two main ways of doing this. The manors could be rented out, and a Weed sum received. Leases could vary in length, but were usually fairly long. Alternatively, manors could be administered directly. Paid socials would run them, and the landlord would take the proceeds. There would still be a rental income from the tenants on a directly run manor, but the lord or his oYcials would take the proceeds of the demesne lands directly. A rental system overed a stable income, whereas under direct management there was a much greater potential for taking advantage of improving economic circumstances, and also, of course, a greater risk when times were not good. In periods of inexertion, it made little sense to settle for weed rents, which would steadily decline in real terms; direct management was the wiser option.
Crime and Punishment
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

It might take very little for the order and restraint that controlled medieval society to collapse. In 1345 a miracle play was taking place in the marketplace at Carlisle. Two of the spectators came to blows. One was a servant of the bishop, one of a local magnate, Peter de Tillioll. The latter sent the coroner and two others to the bishop, who was in the castle, to demand justice. A body of thirty-one armed men rushed out from the castle, and with a lethal volley of arrows stopped the legal proceedings that the mayor was conducting into the affair. The mayor decided to arrest those responsible for the attack, and this led to a full-scale riot, in which the castle garrison spread terror through the town.1 This was a society that could be close to the edge.
The Catalan Industrial élite, 1898-1923*
Authors: Harrison Joseph
Published: November 2023

When Antonio Cánovas, architect of the Restoration system, set about his task of reinstalling the previously discredited Bourbon monarchy in 1875, he soon secured the approval of the majority of the fuerzas vivas (the so-called productive forces) of Catalonia. At first sight perhaps, Cánovas’s achievement of introducing a system oflimited pluralism—in which a narrow oligarchy of agrarian and financial interests alternated in power, represented in two artificial parties, Conservatives and Liberals—might seem to have little appeal to representatives of Spain’s foremost industrial region. Catalan politicians, it should be remembered, played no small part both in the ousting of the unpopular Isabel II and in the administration of the ill-fated Federal Republic. Was it not a Catalan, Laureano Figuerola, who, as Minister of Finance, championed the cause of free trade in 1869 when he led the assault on the country’s high tariff barriers? However, Barcelona in the second half of the nineteenth century was not Manchester: the textile manufacturers of the ciudad condal were protectionists to a man. Figuerola, with his Cobdenite ideas, attracted only antipathy from the owners of a plethora of small, undercapitalized, and uncompetitive mills who clamoured for even greater customs duties to be imposed on imported goods whenever market forces turned against them.
Introduction
Authors: Fincham Kenneth
Published: November 2023

Much scholarly interest and debate surrounds the history of the reformed Church of England from 1558 to 1642. It is a startling fact, therefore, that we still know little about the pastoral work of its nominal leaders, the bench of bishops. For many years attention was focused on the episcopate’s economic fortunes and social status, not on its government.1 No doubt this was connected with the uneven and uninviting character of episcopal archives. More importantly, at work was the unproven assumption that the diocesan government of the reformed episcopate was at best uninteresting, at worst insignificant. Uninteresting, since on one view the Reformation was largely completed with the Elizabethan Settlement of 1559, so there was little reason to study episcopal activities; insignificant, because it was held that after 15 59 English protestantism fissured into two antagonistic groups, Anglicans and Puritans, the forces of conformity, hierarchy and sterility ranged against the progressive dynamism of radical protestantism. Unsurprisingly, Puritans won the contest for historians’ attention.2 The choice seemed all the more sensible in the light of Hugh Trevor-Roper’s influential essay of 1955 which identified the episcopate of 1610-2 8 as a group of time-serving careerists who ignored their spiritual responsibilities.3
Central Politics
Authors: Fincham Kenneth
Published: November 2023

In April 1619 James I believed he was dying. Prince Charles and leading councillors were summoned to his bedside at Royston to hear the King deliver his political testament. Among other instructions, Charles was reminded of his duty as Supreme Governor of the Church, and was urged to respect the bishops ‘as grave and wise men, and the best companions for princes’.1 James here expressed his steadfast devotion to the institution and personnel of episcopacy.