bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The manufacturing/design interface
Authors: Van Dierdonck R.
Published: May 2007

The paper explains why the traditional relationship between design and manufacturing needs to be changed and what it should be replaced with. Traditionally, the relationship has been sequential. At the beginning of the innovation process design goes ahead alone, manufacturing's input being largely overlooked. Only after the design has been completed does manufacturing take over responsibility, and only then may it emerge that re‐design is necessary to make production feasible. The results can be high costs, late delivery and disappointing performance.

The changes that have made this practice less supportable include shortened product lifecycles, Japanese competition, customers becoming increasingly quality‐conscious, need to deliver exactly on time, and minimization of inventories.

Fortunately, new technologies such as CAD/CAM and FMS have come along that can help to rectify these deficiencies; how far they are taken up and effectively used depends on the sharp distinction between the functions being discarded and replaced by their substantial integration. Possibilities that each enterprise could explore include ensuring continuous communication and cooperation between the functions, joint problem solving, replacement of functional management by project management, supplier involvement, elimination of the status differential between design and manufacturing, design for manufacturability, and better understanding by the design function of the realities of the business world.

The author warns that integration may not be a universal cure. In particular, he suggests that the innovations closely linked with scientific advances may need some degree of functional differentiation.

Changes in the competitive environment require manufacturing organizations to change their view on the relationship between manufacturing and design, and on the way the interface between these two functions has to be managed. In this paper we will first describe the traditional view. Afterwards we will describe the environmental changes that make us question the effectiveness of this view. Finally in a third part we will describe the characteristics of the new approach.
Industrial exploitation of new joining technologies
Authors: Williams J. J. E.
Published: May 2007

Joining technology is critical to manufacturing and fabrication industries, since it greatly influences the design, assembly and ultimate competitiveness of the product. In particular, adhesive bonding is now attracting strong interest from many industries. This trend is further strengthened by dramatic advances in new materials, many of which cannot be joined by conventional means.

However, most industries are failing to exploit the opportunities offered by current adhesive technology, for a variety of reasons. CEST (the Centre for Exploitation of Science and Technology) has undertaken to examine these reasons, and to initiate a programme of actions which will lead to wider acceptance of adhesive joining within industry.

We have selected a number of companies from a range of industries, which we believe can effectively drive the exploitation process. By working closely with these companies it has been possible to define a number of strategic projects, which will promote this exploitation process. Several projects consist of targeted research and development, to fill the ‘missing links’ of technology which have impeded exploitation to date.

These coordinated actions will be initiated from the end of 1989. Typically, these projects will be collaborative, involving both industrial and university or polytechnic partners. The scopes of a number of such projects are described in detail, and their potential impacts on manufacturing processes are explained.
Technology analysis and R&D management
Authors: Van Wyk Rias J.
Published: May 2007

Technology analysis is a new field of knowledge aimed at creating a fuller understanding of the technological setting within which business operates. It provides a macro‐discipline and is specifically aimed at improving the effectiveness of management of technology. As such it is of direct relevance to R&D management.

The essential tools of technology analysis constitute a set of analytical frameworks covering aspects such as: (i) a common approach to describing individual technological artefacts, (ii) a taxonomy of technologies, (iii) a classification of technological trends, (iv) a chart of technological limits, and (v) a socio‐technical preference profile.

These frameworks help the R&D manager to dissect and debate typical R&D management problems such as: (i) selecting R&D projects, (ii) setting broad R&D objectives in the case of a given project and (iii) setting specific R&D goals to meet the said objectives. The frameworks also help the R&D manager to portray and present research achievements within a simple and intuitively appealing framework.
Changing control strategies in industrial R&D
Authors: Whittington R.
Published: May 2007

This article reports a comparative study of six in‐house and eight independent industrial R&D organisations. These organisations are analysed in terms of three types of control strategy ‐ market control, hierarchical control and professional control. The paper suggests that the professional control strategy, emergent after World War Two, is now being increasingly challenged by market control strategies. R&D organisations under or adopting market control are shown to enjoy marked productivity advantages. The distinctive managerial practices of market controlled R&D are analysed. It is concluded that many in‐house laboratories have much to gain by partial adoption of these market control practices.
Aspects of the integration of technical functions for efficient product development
Authors: Carlsson Matts
Published: May 2007

It is probably safe to say that today it is universally accepted and often common knowledge that cooperation between product development and the market functions is crucial for the ability of companies to develop market oriented products. Likewise, there are some strong indications that well functioning cooperation between production and product development is crucial for the development of products that are efficient to manufacture. However, no satisfactory solutions have yet been found to the issues of integration and cooperation. Although there is a consensus of opinion among companies that the need for cooperation is very great, a number of issues still remain to be solved. It is, for example, not clear on which issues cooperation should take place, nor which functions should be involved, nor yet how this should be done. This paper tries to answer some of these questions.
Industry characteristics influencing the technical output: A case of small and medium size firms in the US
Authors: Chakrabarti Alok K.
Published: May 2007

Using the small and medium size firms in the US as a sample, this paper reports on interrelationship among patents, publications and new products. Correlates of R&D expenditure, patents and papers and new products are presented. Relationships between firm size and R&D output and productivity are also investigated.

Since the study is based on correlational analysis, causal inferences are not drawn. The data indicates that the three indicators are related, but their strength of relationship varies with industries. Growth of sales is related with new products, but not with patents or papers.

Although the data point to the fact that small firms are more productive than their larger counterparts, there are many reasons to come to such a sweeping generalisation. Reporting of R&D data is not reliable for small firms as the very definition of R&D differs from firm to firm. Nature of R&D also changes as the firm grows in size; opportunities for patents or new products also change accordingly. These make it difficult to accurately measure and compare the R&D efficiency across firms of different sizes.
Stretching the knowledge‐base of the enterprise through contract research
Authors: Haour G.
Published: May 2007

Global competition is forcing companies to become more effective in developing new products or processes. One of industry's responses to this challenge is to more extensively tap external sources of technical expertise.

As one of the modes of gaining access to external technological knowledge, contract research is discussed. First, the offer and demand in this area are documented. Contract research represents a small, but growing, fraction of companies' R&D efforts. Exceptions are ‘young’ sectors, such as biotechnology, which require a strong connection with University research.

The characteristics of contract research are then presented and illustrated, considering in particular the factors for which it is most effectively utilised. A major advantage is to provide the client company with an extension of its internal R&D for the duration of the contract. It also offers an effective antenna for capturing business as well as technical intelligence. This is especially the case when the company contracts out work far removed from its location or technical base. Finally, the role of contract research in co‐generating technology is discussed.
Technological communities and the diffusion of knowledge
Authors: Rappa Michael A. , Debackere Koenraad
Published: May 2007

The external acquisition of technological knowledge is a central theme in research on technology management. In this paper it is argued that technological communities may provide a useful unit of analysis to study information and knowledge exchange among scientists and engineers working on a particular research agenda. Based on a worldwide survey of more than 700 individuals engaged in the research and development of neural network technology, the dynamics within that particular community are explored. The primary focus is to compare the characteristics of academic and industrial researchers, with special attention given to the timing of their entry into the field.
The new product development process: past evidence and future practical application, Part 1.
Authors: Barclay Ian
Published: May 2007

This article conducts a review of the research work into the process of product development and the way in which it has progressed over nearly forty years. It also shows that much of the work is unknown to many product development managers. The article goes on to show why the application of past research evidence has been restricted and describes attempts at translating the results into effective action.
Management of European fast reactor R&D
Authors: Judd A. M. , Sheriff N.
Published: May 2007

Since 1984 government‐funded fast reactor R&D in France, Germany and the UK has been run as a collaborative activity, and since 1988 as a unified programme in support of the design and construction of the advanced European Fast Reactor. This paper describes the international management structure which has been set up, and the means used to control the work. It is written from the point of view of those engaged in the project, and makes no attempt at a formal analysis of the structure.

The main difficulty is that control of funding remains with the three governments. The R&D programme has to be managed so that it meets the needs of each government separately as well as the designers' requirements.

To start with the management structure was excessively bureaucratic, but it has become more flexible and efficient. This has happened as the initial nationalistic suspicions have broken down, and the staff engaged in the work have learnt more about each others' ways of working so that an atmosphere of trust and inter‐dependence has grown up.

(This paper was written before the changes in UK policy on fast reactor development were announced in November 1992.)
Patterns of international R&D cooperation for new product development: the Olivetti multimedia product
Authors: Zagnoli Patrizia , Cardini Chiara
Published: May 2007

Abstract

The aim of the paper is to identify a number of different patterns of international R&D cooperation during the initial phases of the product development process. This is a case‐study of new product development based on the work of the Olivetti Multimedia Laboratory in Pisa, how it set up its own pattern of multinational collaboration in the idea generation and pre‐competitive phase; how, in turn, this collaboration led to new R&D collaboration agreements to satisfy specific problem‐solving requirements connected with the confirmation of a dominant design, though limited to a certain extent by previous agreements between Olivetti and other firms; the role played by marketing in the choice of alternative solutions. Finally, in the product implementation phase, the emergence of a defined technological paradigm leads to a highly competitive environment, where R&D collaboration is increasingly directed towards multifunctional requirements (R&D, manufacturing, marketing) within a strategic network of alliances that involves large sized companies, start‐up firms, industrial and university research units.
Application of option pricing theory to R&D
Authors: Newton D. P. , Pearson A. W.
Published: May 2007

Abstract

Much attention has been paid in the literature to methods for the evaluation and selection of R&D projects. The evidence is that these are less extensively used than might be expected. More recently, an approach based on Option Pricing Theory has been suggested as one which is likely to be of considerable value to management. In this paper the method is described, the information which is required is identified and the way in which it might be applied in practice is discussed.
Assessing the rate of technological progress using hazard rate models of R&D communities
Authors: Rappa Michael A.
Published: May 2007

This paper describes the use of hazard rate models for assessing emerging technologies. It suggests that on a global scale the decisions of researchers, in terms of their entrance, continuance, and exit from a field, can serve as an indicator of the rate of progress in the emergence of a new technology. The approach is demonstrated using the literature on magnetic bubble memory technology as a source of data to determine the contribution‐spans of researchers. Survival and hazard functions are estimated based upon the experience of more than seventeen‐hundred researchers contributing to the field over two decades.

The author is indebted to Professor Raghu Garud (New York University) and Dr. Koenraad Debackere (Gent University) for their help in developing this avenue of research, and Professors Thomas Allen and Edward Roberts (MIT) for their support and encouragement.
R&D project selection for promoting the efficiency of energy use
Authors: Silvennoinen P.
Published: May 2007

Screening criteria for selecting energy R& D projects are discussed and applied to a dozen projects currently underway. The impact on energy balance and environmental quality cannot be seen as the only, nor even the dominating, attribute. In the cases studied, the R&D portfolio seeks to achieve a balance between these factors and the other criteria related to technology and the market. In the event the development work is carried out at an independent R&D centre, it will be necessary to have a committed industrial partner from an early stage onwards in order to ensure objectivity, market perception and provide the best chance of commercialisation.
Technological communities and the diffusion of knowledge: a replication and validation
Authors: Debackere Koenraad , Rappa Michael A.
Published: May 2007

In a previous paper, we have argued that technological communities provide a useful level of analysis to examine information and knowledge flows among researchers. Based on an international survey of more than 700 scientists and engineers engaged in the development of neural network technology, the information and knowledge exchange patterns of two important subsets of that particular technological community, i.e. academic researchers and industrial researchers, were explored. The analyses demonstrated that industrial researchers, even if they are more commercially oriented than their colleagues in academia, recognise the professional community as a relevant locus of information and knowledge. An obvious methodological need exists, though, to generalize beyond the neural networks community. This is the aim of the present paper. Based on questionnaire surveys of researchers belonging to two other technological communities, the empirical results from the neural network community study are replicated and, to a large extent, validated.
An analysis of entry and persistence among scientists in an emerging field of science: the case of neural networks
Authors: Rappa Michael A. , Debackere Koenraad
Published: May 2007

This paper examines the factors that influence scientists in their choice and persistence in an area of research, and compares the experience of scientists who enter a field early with those scientists who follow in their footsteps once the field becomes widely accepted. Evidence is presented from an international survey of more than seven‐hundred scientists working in the field of neural networks. After controlling for cohort and experience effects, the results suggest that early entrants as a group are indeed different in both their motivations to enter and their persistence to remain in the field. In general, compared with scientists who enter late, early entrants are significantly less influenced by the social dynamics of the research community.
Book Reviews
Authors: PEARSON A. W. , WILLMOTT H.
Published: May 2007

New Technology‐Based Firms in the 1990's

In Search of Management: Culture, Chaos and Control in Managerial Work
Measuring the economic benefit from R&D: results from the mass, length and flow programmes of the UK national measurement system
Authors: Klein Jeremy A. , Stacey Edward P. , Coggill Christopher J. , McLean Mick , Sagua May I.
Published: May 2007

This study sought to measure the economic consequences of reduced expenditure on specific sections of the UK National Measurement System (NMS), part of the state‐funded technological infrastructure. A method was developed which can be adapted to any publicly or privately financed R&D of which the benefits and cost‐effectiveness are unclear or contested.

The recent interactions between the NMS and industry were investigated empirically. Five mechanisms were found to account for the majority of instances of successful value creation. Several case studies of each mechanism were collected, illustrating their existence beyond reasonable doubt.

Each of the cut projects would have been expected to have encouraged growth and profitability in identified sectors of the economy through one or more of these five mechanisms. The effects of the cuts were modelled over 30 years. Compared to the costs of the cut projects projected over the same period, the benefits to the economy were predicted to exceed the costs.
Developing a ‘receptive’ R&D environment for inward technology transfer: a case study of the chemical industry
Authors: Trott P. , Cordey‐Hayes M.
Published: May 2007

The purpose of this paper is to show how certain internal organisational activities affect an organisation's ability to engage in the external acquisition of technology commonly referred to as inward technology transfer. The study focuses on a technology trawling exercise conducted by ICI and reveals difficulties in ‘receptivity’ on the part of the receiving businesses. A conceptual framework is developed which identifies four major components of the inward technology transfer process. These are: ‘Awareness’‐‘Association’‐‘Assimilation’‐‘ Application’. Using this conceptual device separate studies are conducted within two large multinational chemical companies in the North West of England. The findings reveal the importance of certain non‐routine activities and indicate how successful organisations are able to manage the tension between the need for creative non‐routine assimilation processes to generate a ‘receptive’ environment for future growth and efficient routine activities to remain competitive in the short‐ierm.
The development of networks between engineering contractors and their clients: the special case of partnering
Authors: Robertson H. , Pearson A. W. , Ball D. F.
Published: May 2007

This paper sets out to show how partnering arrangements between engineering contractors in process plant contracting and their process industry clients have led to increasing collaborative contributions at the ‘front end’ of capital asset formation. Partnering arrangements are seen here as formalised long‐term contracts between process plant contractors and their clients, intended to apply to engineering and other services in major capital projects over a number of years.

While research does not appear to have been affected to a significant extent, partners seem to be interacting increasingly on process development and design. One outcome of partnering is to increase the contractors' involvement in their clients' overall business objectives. As a result of this change in the character of their services, contractors are more inclined to seek opportunities to improve plant efficiency, rather than following given specifications. This interaction of entities with a different focus and, to some extent, different skills is a potential source of innovation which to date has not been realised to any great extent.
Choice or No Choice: Is the Langer Effect Evidence Against Simulation?
Authors: KÜHBERGER ANTON , PERNER JOSEF , SCHULTE MICHAEL , LEINGRUBER ROBERT
Published: May 2007

Abstract: The discussion of whether people understand themselves and others by using theories of behaviour (theory theory) or by simulating mental states (simulation theory) lacks conclusive empirical evidence. Nichols et al. (1996) have proposed the Langer effect (Langer, 1975) as a critical test. From people's inability accurately to predict the difference in the subjective value of lottery tickets in choice and no‐choice conditions, they argued that people do not simulate behaviour in such situations.

In a series of four experiments, we consistently failed to replicate the original difference between choice and no‐choice under the conditions used by Nichols et al. We conclude that the replicability of the effect depends on an unknown combination of factors. As long as the target effect is not better understood and under better experimental control, it is difficult to use it as a yardstick against which the accuracy of simulation can be assessed.
Choice Effects and the Ineffectiveness of Simulation: Response to Kühberger et al.
Authors: NICHOLS SHAUN , STICH STEPHEN , LESLIE ALAN
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Kühberger et al. show that producing the Langer effect is considerably more difficult than has been assumed. Although their results clearly demonstrate a need for further exploration of the Langer effect, none of their arguments undermines the evidence against simulation theory that we presented in Nichols et al. (1996). In our study the actor subjects did show an effect, but the prediction subjects did not predict it, despite the fact that they were provided with all the details of the actor's situation. Further, we report additional evidence that corroborates our empirical case against simulation theory.
Katz Astray
Authors: GEORGE ALEXANDER
Published: May 2007

Abstract: The foundations of linguistics continue to generate philosophical debate. Jerrold Katz claims that the subject matter of linguistics consists of abstract objects and that, as a consequence, the discipline cannot be viewed as part of psychology. I respond by arguing (1) that Katz misinterprets work in the philosophy of mathematics which he believes sheds light on foundational questions in linguistics; (2) that he misunderstands aspects of Noam Chomsky's position, against whose conception of linguistics many of his claims are directed; (3) that Katz fails to dispose of a much more plausible analysis, according to which linguistics remains an empirical inquiry in spite of its abstract subject matter; and, finally, (4) that his arguments against what he calls‘generativism’, appealing to the existence of an infinitely long grammatical sentence of English, are flawed.
Individualism and Marr's Computational Theory of Vision
Authors: BUTLER KEITH
Published: May 2007

Abstract: A great deal of philosophical work has addressed the question of whether Man's computational theory of early vision is individualistic. Burge and Davies have argued that, according to Marr's theory, visual states are individuated non‐individualistically. Segal has denied that Marr's theory has these non‐individualistic implications. More recently, Shapiro has argued that the entire debate has been misguided. I argue that Shapiro is mistaken in a fairly deep way, attention to which allows us to raise and clarify several important issues involved in discussions of individualism. Contrary to Burge and Davies, and by a route rather different from Segal's, I defend the claim that Man's theory offers no reason to think that visual states are individuated non‐individualistically.
Fregean Innocence
Authors: PIETROSKI PAUL M.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Frege's account of opacity is based on two attractive ideas: every meaningful expression has a sense (Sinn) that determines the expression's semantic value (Bedeutung); and the semantic value of a‘that’‐clause is the thought expressed by its embedded sentence. Considerations of compositionality led Frege to a more problematic view: inside ‘that’‐clauses, an expression does not have its customary Bedeutung. But contrary to initial appearances, compositionality does not entail a familiar substitutivity principle. And Fregeans can exploit this point in a way that lets them reject Bedeutung‐shifting.
National ideology, technology and employment: the construction industry in Singapore
Authors: Wilkinson Barry , Leggett Chris , Patarapanich Somsong
Published: May 2007

An understanding of the changes taking place in Singapore's construction industry is not achieved simply by reference to ‘technological imperatives’. Changes in technology, work patterns and employment are closely bound up with the ideological orientations of the ruling elite. This article analyses these changes and examines the implications for the workforce.
A Swedish workplace of the future?: The Tomteboda mail centre
Authors: Löfgren Mats
Published: May 2007

In 1983, the Swedish Post Office opened the most technically advanced mail centre in the world. Here the author describes how work is organised in this futuristically designed workplace.
Neo‐corporatism and technological change in Australia: an international perspective
Authors: Markey Ray
Published: May 2007

Industrialised nations have responded to the recent impact of new technology either by planning within a corporatist framework, or by reacting to changes determined by ‘market forces’. Australia is moving from the second to the first strategy because of a combination of political and legal changes, building upon traditional institutions
Confidence, visibility and pressure: the effects of shared information in computer aided hotel management
Authors: Buchanan David A. , McCalman James
Published: May 2007

This article analyses the use made of computer based information systems in hospitality management. The findings indicate that, rather than replacing the middle management role, computer systems are used as support mechanisms which remove uncertainty associated with decisions based on hunch or inadequate information.
Trade unions and alternative technology in Scandinavia
Authors: Bansler Jørgen
Published: May 2007

Scandinavian trade unions have been trying to influence the introduction of new technology in the work process since the early seventies. Recently, the most progressive unions have initiated their own research projects aimed at developing alternative technologies. This article discusses two examples.
Barriers to growth: skills and training in telematics
Authors: Locksley Gareth , Morgan Kevin , Thomas Graham
Published: May 2007

Great claims have been made about the growth prospects of the telematics sector, the primary source of communications networks and services. However, this article argues that the telematics sector faces some formidable barriers to growth, especially with respect to skills provision.
Technology agreements and industrial relations in Belgium
Authors: Albertijn Michel , Hancké Bob , Wijgaerts Dany
Published: May 2007

Belgium has a very developed system of national collective bargaining and as a result, it is one of the few countries with a national technology agreement. An analysis revealed that this agreement was not used very much. This article looks at the use and importance of technology agreements for unions.
In the name of progress? skill and attitudes towards technological change
Authors: Rolfe Heather
Published: May 2007

This article uses case study data to explore the relationship between skill and workers’attitudes to technological change. A detailed model of skill is constructed to examine whether and how jobs are deskilled. The influence of a range of skill‐based and other factors on attitudes is then assessed.
Labour process analysis and socio‐technical design: living apart together?
Authors: Dankbaar Ben , den Hertog Friso
Published: May 2007

Here the authors explore how the labour process approach and the socio‐technical approach can be used in the process of design and redesign of production organizations. The implications of both approaches are looked at in several cases of work reorganization in Rotterdam harbour.
Police management, office automation and organizational change
Authors: Taylor J. A. , Williams Howard
Published: May 2007

Police forces, in common with much of the UK system of public administration, continue to come under pressure to engage in managerial and administrative modernisation. This article looks at the role office automation systems play in these processes and at the case for organizational change to accompany the adoption of these systems.
From coal mining to a high technology economy? the case of an innovation centre in South Yorkshire
Authors: Turner Royce
Published: May 2007

The deep coal mining industry was in rapid decline in Britain in the 1980s and 1990s. In many localities formerly associated with the industry, there was a need to encourage diversification and innovation as a means of economic regeneration. The activities of one project which aimed at this are examined here.
The involvement of trade unions in quality: evidence from EC enterprises
Authors: Gill Colin
Published: May 2007

In 1987–88 a large attitudinal survey covering all 12 Member States of the European Community was carried out by the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions in Dublin which focused on various aspects of participation by employee representatives in new information technology. This paper presents evidence on one important aspect of technological change—that of participation in product and service quality.
Designing effective service operations: comparative case research from the Netherlands
Authors: Westbrook Roy , Morris Tim
Published: May 2007

This article examines the introduction of centralized processing. It looks at the multiple objectives underlying the initiative and how these were managed in implementation. Drawing on empirical data gathered at three similar sites a comparative analysis of the outcomes of centralization is presented and the variances are explained.
Computer based information systems and managers' work
Authors: Kimble Chris , McLoughlin Kevin
Published: May 2007

This article identifies three models that imply different views of the ‘impact’ of the use of computer based information systems for managers' work. Using case study evidence it argues that the ‘impact’ is not a stable and predictable outcome but a non‐linear ongoing process that changes and evolves over time.
Don't obliterate, informate!: BPR for the information age
Authors: Taylor John A
Published: May 2007

This article takes the view that BPR in the dominant form in which it is presently characterised, is a re‐expression of industrial age classical administration. As such it is oblivious of organization as a political entity or as a set of ‘human resources' . What is needed is a new model of BPR for the information age.
BPR as ‘IT‐enabled organizational change’: an assessment
Authors: Coombs Rod , Hull Richard
Published: May 2007

This article examines the emergence of BPR from the literature on the strategic use of IT. Two case studies of BPR are then presented. Analysis of this material suggests that there is a tension between strategic re‐orientation and cost‐saving in many BPR projects which is difficult to resolve. This tension is explored further using a historical analysis of ‘frameworks' of computing.
New technology: old industrial sociology?
Authors: Gilbert Michael
Published: May 2007

This article argues that studies of the introduction of new technology have tended to ignore the contributions of pre‐Braverman approaches. However, in some cases, they have implicitly rediscovered the findings of an older industrial sociology.
The Fossil expert system
Authors: BROUGH D.R. , ALEXANDER I.F.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Fossil is an expert system for Palaeontology, written in Prolog. It consists of a knowledge base and three interfaces: a collector's ‘query’ interface; an expert's ‘update’ interface and a student's ‘review’ interface. As such, it covers the major uses of a knowledge base in palaeontology. The underlying model of expert system use and its supporting tools are described. This view is an alternative to that provioded by expert system shells of the Apes type. Such an approach has proved useful in Palaeontology and is likely to be applicable to other areas where the knowledge is arranged taxonomically. The use of Prolog as an implementation tool is briefly discussed.
Extracting expertise from experts: Methods for knowledge acquisition
Authors: OLSON JUDITH REITMAN , RUETER HENRY H.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Knowledge acquisition is the biggest bottleneck in the development of expert systems. Fortunately, the process of translating expert knowledge to a form suitable for expert system development can benefit from methods developed by cognitive science to reveal human knowledge structures. There are two classes of these investigative methods, direct and indirect. We provide reviews, criteria for use, and literature sources for all principal methods. Direct methods discussed are: interviews, questionnaires, observation of task performance, protocol analysis, interruption analysis, closed curves, and inferential flow analysis. Indirect methods include: multidimensional scaling, hierarchical clustering, general weighted networks, ordered trees, and repertory grid analysis.
PAMS: A Domain‐specific Knowledge‐based Parallel Machine Scheduling System
Authors: Lee Jae Kyu , Suh Min Soo
Published: May 2007

Abstract: To overcome the inefficiency of domain independent tools, a domain‐specific knowledge‐based shell for parallel machine scheduling problems, PAMS (PArallel Machine Scheduling System), is proposed. PAMS has the following features; mixed knowledge representation, two‐stage status‐driven control strategy, conflict resolution using domain theory, domain‐specific syntax and primitive operators, interface with database, domain‐specific input/output interface, interactive scheduling capability, built‐in heuristic knowledge, multiple levels of schedule, and expansibility of the domain. A prototype of PAMS, PAMS‐1, is developed using C‐language on a supermicrocomputer, and the performance of PAMS‐1 is evaluated. The results show that the PAMS‐1 performs very well from various perspectives.
Leonardo
Authors: Forsyth Richard
Published: May 2007

Leonardo is an expert system development tool supplied by Creative Logic Ltd. The product runs on IBM XT or AT personal computers or close compatibles. Leonardo is available in three levels, each incorporating additional facilities. Level 1 costs £149, level 2 costs £695 and level 3 costs £1,995. A VAX version is also on sale at between £4,000 and £12,000, depending on machine configuration. Creative Logic Ltd. can be contacted at: Brunel Science Park, Kingston Lane, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PQ (0895 74468). (The version reviewed in this article was release 3.00, level 3, for the PC. It was run on a Tandon PCX with 640K bytes RAM, a 20‐megabyte hard disc and a monochrome monitor.)
Towards an intelligent tutor for a complex mathematical domain
Authors: Nwana Hyacinth , Coxhead Peter
Published: May 2007

Abstract: The domain of mathematics has played a special part in the evolution of Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs), beginning as far back as the 1950s when conventional Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) came into being. A brief historical review of this evolutionary process is presented, followed by a selective survey of some of the intelligent tutoring systems in the mathematics domain as well as some of their shortcomings and the criticisms levelled against them. The work achieved so far towards the realisation of an intelligent tutoring system for a complex mathematical domain is presented. A major conclusion is that the ‘mal‐rule’ methodology for developing tutoring systems may lend itself to simple ‘primitive’ domains, but its credibility is seriously questioned when it is applied to more ‘complex’ domains. An alternative methodology is proposed to solve this problem, together with an illustration.
Applications of a novel fuzzy expert system shell
Authors: Leung K.S. , Wong W.S. Felix , Lam W.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Much of the information resident in the knowledge base of a typical expert system is imprecise, incomplete or not totally reliable. The special features of a novel expert system shell based on fuzzy logic and numbers are presented. This rule‐based system can deal with exact, inexact (fuzzy) and combined reasoning as well as uncertainty represented by fuzzy numbers. Natural language interface is built in naturally using fuzzy logic representation. Several application areas, namely, classification, risk analysis and information retrieval, are discussed with four appropriate sample expert systems actually built using this shell. Through these expert systems, the additional power and advantages over traditional expert systems are illustrated. It has been demonstrated that the introduction of fuzzy concepts into expert systesms is not feasible but highly desirable.
Using knowledge‐based systems for estimating risks inherent in a proposed KBS project
Authors: Mockler Robert J.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: This article describes the development of a knowledge‐based system (KBS) for guiding both technical and non‐technical managers in estimating the risks inherent in proposed KBS development projects. The work described here is part of an ongoing research project studying the use of KBS both to teach and to do KBS development. So far, as part of this research project, over the past two years close to 150 non‐technical and technical full‐time business managers have developed some 75 KBS prototypes in conjunction with an MBA course in strategic planning. Based on replies to a survey of this test group, 17% of the KBS developed were reportedly used at work, 14% led to promotions, pay raises, or new jobs, and 14% led to participation in other KBS development projects at work. All but two of the survey respondents reported that their work on the KBS development project led to a substantial increase in their job knowledge or performance. The KBS work described here extends research work described by Cullen and Bryman [1988], Slagle and Wick [1988], Cohen and Howe [1988], Dologite [1988, 1989], and Mockler [1989(A) and (B)].
Introducing students to expert systems
Authors: Durkin John
Published: May 2007

Abstract: The emerging field of expert systems requires universities to address the educational requirements necessary to prepare students to enter and contribute to this field. This paper provides a guideline to educators on how to effectively introduce students to expert systems. This guideline describes the major objectives of an introductory course on expert systems, course topics, course material, and insight into how to effectively present the course. The recommendations made in this paper are a product of the experiences of the author gained over years of presenting such a course.
Acquaint
Authors: Plugge Leonard A.
Published: May 2007

Acquaint is an expert system shell developed for IBM‐compatible personal computers by Lithp Systems BV. Acquaint costs $5000. Lithp Systems can be contacted at Waterlandlaan 120,1441 RW Purmerend, The Netherlands (Tel: +31 (0)2990/38153). The 3.25 inch version is reviewed in this article. It was run on an IBM PS/2 model 80, with 6 Mb RAM, a 40 Mb hard disk drive and a black and white monitor.
Barriers to adopting management expert systems: case studies of management accounting applications which failed
Authors: King M. , McAulay L.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to draw attention to some important barriers to the practical application of expert systems to management problems. By drawing attention to these barriers, we show two findings: (a) that certain types of knowledge found in management situations are more likely to lead to the successful adoption of management expert systems (MESs) than others; (b) that a potential exists for an alternative form of MES application. The first finding has implications for knowledge elicitation. We propose that MESs developed from academic knowledge, which we define in specific terms, are more likely to succeed than those developed from working with managers in the field. Alternatively, feasibility studies should include an analysis of the type of knowledge which a manager is capable of providing to ensure that suitable knowledge is available for knowledge elicitation purposes. The second finding has implications for the developers of MESs at both research and commercial levels. We suggest the need for a check‐list MES application, capable of converting responses to strategic and operational questions into managerial actions.
Designing a practical user interface for an expert system shell
Authors: Cradwick Peter D.G.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: This paper describes some of the problems encountered in developing a user interface for a commercial expert system. The emphasis is on the practical side of interface implementation while attempting to follow the many guidelines presented in the literature.
An expert system for wide area network component configuration
Authors: Fillmer J.L. , Mellichamp Joseph M. , Miller David M. , Narayanan Sundaram
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Many organizations today have an interest in communications networks, either as users of public networks or as operators of their own private networks. Thus, the management of communications networks has become an important issue in the communications industry. The network design task is fundamental to the whole notion of network management; however, with the rapid rate of change in network technology and the emergence of highly sophisticated network users, network design has become an increasingly complex problem.

The purpose of this paper is to describe a development effort which incorporates expert systems techniques to treat one aspect of the network design problem—the initial planning and design of a network prior to implementation. The research effort was concerned with developing an expert system for Amdahl Communications Products which could be used by sales engineers in designing wide area networks to meet specified customer requirements. The system treats both the topological design problem and the component configuration problem.
Prototyping expert solutions: an evaluation of Crystal, Leonardo, GURU and ART‐IM
Authors: Drenth Hilary , Morris Anne
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Developing a prototype can be crucial to the eventual success of an expert system. This paper describes an evaluation of four expert system tools that can be used for prototyping. It outlines the evaluation method used and details findings, considering hardware and software requirements, tool features, support for development and consultation, and overall suitability for prototyping an expert system application.
The client‐centred approach: expert system development
Authors: Watson Ian , Basden Andrew , Brandon Peter
Published: May 2007

Abstract: This paper describes a project that is studying an expert system (ES) development method tailored to meet the requirements of small and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs). It is posited that many such organisations cannot use ES technology because of its high entry price and because the available tools and methods were developed for and by large organisations. Within this context our development method encompasses the entire life cycle of an ES from initial conception to implementation through to maintenance and updating. The central premise is that the method should be ‘client‐centred’, emphasising what the client can see, rather than being ‘technology‐centred’, emphasising how the knowledge engineers work. Discussion includes how this methodology addresses many criticisms of current ES development methods, including rapid prototyping and KADS.
Constructing and consulting the knowledge base of an expert systems shell
Authors: Gisolfi A. , Balzano W.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: This paper presents an expert system shell whose inference mechanism uses backward chaining. In particular the modules devoted to constructing and consulting the knowledge base are illustrated. The programming environment is based on the Arity‐Prolog language, a popular Prolog dialect running on IBM PCs and compatibles.
Knowledge acquisition and adaptation: a genetic approach
Authors: Odetayo Michael O.
Published: May 2007

Abstract: A genetic algorithm‐based (GA‐based) system (GAPOLE) is used to evolve a self‐learning, self‐optimising control strategy for a typical inherently unstable, dynamic system—a simulated pole‐cart system. The dynamics of the system are unknown to GAPOLE. The only information for evaluating performance is a signal indicating that the pole‐cart system is out of control. This presents a genuinely difficult credit assignment problem. We present some evidence which shows that GAPOLE compares well with the best alternative methods, but it is noteworthy that it is most robust. It is argued that maintaining a population of partial solutions offers some advantages: GA‐based algorithms can deliver more than one good solution at a time; they are able to adapt better in complex changing conditions. Results characterising the performance of the method as population size is varied are also presented. The results show that GAPOLE performed best with a population size of 300. Therefore it is suggested that this parameter, like other GA parameters, may have to be tailored to a particular application. This appears to contradict an earlier claim that a population size in the range of 60–110 is optimal for genetic algorithm‐based applications (Grefenstette 1986) across domains.
Designing for flexibility: a case study
Authors: Forslund Göran
Published: May 2007

Abstract: Expert systems have traditionally been designed with one particular purpose in mind, whether problem‐solving, critiquing etc. When the system is intended for users with varying background knowledge it becomes necessary to provide different facilities for different groups of users, which in turn puts demands on how the knowledge must be represented. This paper describes an industrial prototype—Protein Purification Advisor (PPA)—in the area of protein purification, and how a suitable choice of knowledge representation has allowed us to use the same knowledge for a number of purposes including those mentioned above. Particular interest is laid on the topic of how to represent the heuristic knowledge and how to use it in actual decision‐making.