bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Contributions of the Lock Box to Preschool Assessment
Authors: Goodman Joan F. , Fox Alison A. , Glutting Joseph J.
Published: March 2007

The Goodman Lock Box is a measure of young children's ability to impose order upon an unfamiliar complex stimulus. By coding the spontaneous movements of preschoolers for 6 Y2 minutes as they explore 10 locked doors and assorted toys, scores are derived for three scales: Competence, Mental Organization, and Aimless Actions. The construct of mental organization gains support from studies which suggest that children's scores increase with age, that the test identifies deficits in mentally retarded, hyperactive, and autistic/atypical children apart from IQ differences, and that it contributes to the prediction of achievement in kindergarten children. Further support for the construct is found in recent research of cognitive psychologists who emphasize the importance of the executive function in learning and its absence in specific clinical populations.
Personality Inventory for Children-Short Form: Useful for Educational Screening?
Authors: Ehly Stewart W. , Keith Timothy Z. , Reimers Thomas M. , DeKrey Stephen J.
Published: March 2007

The Personality Inventory for Children (PIC) has been investigated for its validity in identifying children in school and clinical settings. The current study, an extension of an earlier study, used a sample of 95 children participating in public school programs for the nonhandicapped, the learning disabled, the mentally disabled, and the emotionally disabled to establish the best predictors of placement using the short form of the PIC. Additional analyses relating to the application of the nine scales identified as predictors of group assignment are reported.
Simultaneous Synthesis, Regulation, and Arithmetical Performance
Authors: Garofalo Joe
Published: March 2007

This study examined arithmetical performance in relation to Luria's theory of the functional organization of the brain and Das, Kirby, and Jarman's model of simultaneous-successive processes. It was found that both computation and problem solving are related to simultaneous synthesis and behavior regulation factors. However, tests of problem solving and quantitative ability loaded higher on the simultaneous synthesis factor than on the behavior regulation factor, while the computation test loaded higher on the regulation factor than on the simultaneous synthesis factor.
Long-Term Stability of Intelligence and Achievement Scores in Specific-Learning-Disabilities Samples
Authors: Kaye Daniel B. , Baron Marc B.
Published: March 2007

To compile data useful for informed reevaluation decisions that concern specific-learning-disabled (SLD) children, the stability of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) and Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) scores was assessed over a period of approximately 3 years in two samples of SLD children. Both samples began in a part-time learning-disabilities program (SLD-P). At the second WISC-R testing, 68 students remained in the part-time program, and 31 students had been placed in a full-time SLD program (SLD-PF). The WISC-R IQ reliabilities were high with the exception of Verbal IQ(VIQ) in the SLD-PF group. WRAT scores were less reliable. For both groups, VIQs decreased and Performance IQs (PIQs) increased over time. In the SLD-P group WRAT-Math scores decreased over time, and in the SLD-PF group WRAT-Spelling scores decreased over time. Regression analyses that used time in program as a covariate revealed unimpressive effects of program on WISC-R and WRAT scores. Cautions about program placement and the experimental design are discussed.
Relationship among the K-ABC Nonverbal Scale, the Pictorial Test of Intelligence, and the Hiskey-Nebraska Test of Learning Aptitude for Speech- and Language-Disabled Preschool Children
Authors: Kennedy Maureen Hartnett , Hiltonsmith Robert W.
Published: March 2007

The concurrent validity of the K-ABC Nonverbal Scale as a measure of intelligence among speech- and language-impaired preschool children was investigated. K-ABC performance was compared for 30 speech- and language-impaired preschoolers with performance on the Pictorial Test of Intelligence (PTI) and the Hiskey-Nebraska Test of Learning Aptitude (HNTLA). Overall scores on the three measures were significantly correlated, with nonsignificant differences among correlations. Significant differences were found among the mean standard scores; the K-ABC Nonverbal Scale produced the lowest mean score. Implications are discussed.
Age-Related Effects on the Predictive Validity of the Miller Assessment for Preschoolers
Authors: Miller Lucy J. , Schouten Peter G. W.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the predictive validity of the newly developed Miller Assessment for Preschoolers (MAP) for age-graded groups. A 4-year prediction interval was used, and criterion measures were the WISC-R and the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery. Stepwise multiple regressions were used to assess the value of individual MAP subscales as predictor variables. In addition, correlations between the MAP Total Score and criterion measures were calculated for all six age categories specified for the MAP. Results are discussed in terms of the instability of developmental status among young children and the need to assess skill domains that are relatively stable at an early age.
Commonality of Diagnostic Categories for Students Assessed on the K-ABC and WISC-R
Authors: Jennings William B. , Bennett Roger , Cole Troy , Gibson Kathy , Meeks Gregory , Cohen Robert
Published: March 2007

The K-ABC and the WISC-R were administered in a counterbalanced order as part of a psychoeducational battery to 164 children referred to an urban school mental health center for academic problems. The study compared the extent of agreement in the diagnoses of learning disability and mental retardation based on these instruments. Diagnoses were made by experienced clinicians who had access to only one of the two test profiles (K-ABC or WISC-R). While statistically significant overlap in diagnostic decisions between the K-ABC and WISC-R was found, a large number of children received different diagnoses based on the two tests. When different diagnostic decisions were made, the differences were likely to be conservative. For instance, Learning Disabled with one instrument became No Diagnosis with the second instrument, rather than Mentally Retarded. The most significant data for prediction of diagnosis were the cognitive measure (either WISC-R or K-ABC), plus a measure of achievement.
Are there Errors in Error Analysis?
Authors: Berninger Virginia W. , Alsdorf Barbara
Published: March 2007

This study examined (a) developmental changes from the end of kindergarten to the end of first grade and achievement group differences (top, middle, low) in errors on visual language tests (which involve letters or word-like stimuli, but do not require reading or spelling) and on auditory language tests; (b) relationships between these visual and auditory errors and spelling errors on a computerized test of written reproduction at the end of first grade; and (c) relationships between achievement group, stimulus type (phonically regular and irregular words, nonsense words, letter strings), and error types (omissions, substitutions, transpositions) on the computerized test (N = 27). Of 56 coded visual and auditory errors, 21 showed significant developmental changes and 11 showed significant achievement group differences. Only one error type - reversals - was correlated across two different tasks. Level of performance on visual and auditory language tests was correlated with level of performance on spelling achivement, but specific kinds of visual or auditory language errors were not, in general, related systematically to specific kinds of spelling errors on the computerized test. The interaction between achievement group and error type was not significant, but the three-way interaction among achievement group, error type, and stimulus type was significant. Although the computerized test showed a relationship between errors and information processing, the psychometric test results suggest that visual and auditory errors may not reflect stable, valid information processing constructs that ex- plain spelling errors. Clinicians are advised to use error analysis cautiously until its reliability and validity for psychoeducational assessment are demonstrated.
The Relationship among the Reading Subtests of the WJ-R, PIAT-R, K-TEA, and WRAT-R
Authors: Prewett Peter N. , Giannuli Maria M.
Published: March 2007

The reading subtests of the WJ-R, PIAT-R, K-TEA, and WRAT-R Level 1 were administered to 118 referred elementary-school students. A principal components analysis resulted in one factor on which all reading subtests loaded highly. The WJ-R and K-TEA reading subtests tended to yield similar scores, while the PIAT-R and WRAT-R reading scores were significantly lower than the WJ-R and K-TEA scores. Implications for current diagnostic practices are discussed.
Validation of the Teacher Rating of Academic Achievement Motivation
Authors: Stinnett Terry A. , Oehler-Stinnett Judy
Published: March 2007

The Teacher Rating of Academic Achievement Motivation (TRAAM) is a scale in development designed to measure children's academic motivation and to be used in a multifactored assessment. This study examined construct and criterion-related validity of the TRAAM with an elementary school sample. Gender and grade differences in academic motivation also were examined. Construct validity was established by investigating the relationship of the TRAAM with the Scale of Instrinsic vs. Extrinsic Orientation in the Classroom (SIEOC), the Children's Academic Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (CAIMI), and the Social Skills Rating System Teacher version, elementary level (SSRS-T). Criterion-related validity of the scale was demonstrated by using the TRAAM factors and Total Score, the SIEOC and CAIMI subscales, and the SSRS-T Social Skills subscales and Academic Competence domain to predict problem behaviors and academic achievement. A discussion of the TRAAM's limitations concludes the article.
Teacher Ratings of Student Social Behavior as a Predictor of Special Education Status: Discriminant Validity of the School Social Behavior Scales
Authors: Merrell Kenneth W. , Sanders Deanna E. , Popinga Monique R.
Published: March 2007

In this study 58 learning-disabled (LD), 48 mentally retarded (MR), 55 emotional-behavioral disordered (EBD), and 58 regular education (RE) students in grades one through six were compared on levels of social skills and problem social behaviors. Subjects were teacher-rated on the School Social Behavior Scales (SSBS; Merrell, 1993a). LD and MR groups had similar levels of adjustment, which were significantly poorer than the RE group, but significantly better than the EBD group. SSBS scores were found to predict overall group membership patterns to a significant extent and were most effective at predicting group membership of RE and EBD subjects, but less effective at predicting group membership of LD and MR subjects. Findings highlight the importance of positive and negative social functioning as discriminating variables and lend support to the discriminant validity of the SSBS and its use as a research, screening, and assessment tool.
Classification of Risk Status in Kindergarten Screening: A Comparison of Alternative Measures
Authors: Hall John D. , Bramlett Ronald K. , Barnett David W. , Cox Faye W.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the classification agreement associated with estimates of risk status across alternative measures for 92 kindergarten children and their caregivers. The study focused on the child variable of educational risk as measured by two instruments: Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning-Revised (DIAL-R) and Early Screening Profiles (ESP). Family risk was measured by the Parenting Stress Index (PSI). Overall, the classification agreement between the measures designed to assess educational risk was moderate, but higher than past similar studies with preschool children. In contrast, the classification agreement between the measures of educational and family risk was low. The practice of kindergarten screening may need to be expanded to allow for the assessment of other critical variables, such as family risk.
Predictive Validity of the Teacher Rating of Academic Achievement Motivation (TRAAM) with Hispanic Students
Authors: Schuck Lisa A. , Oehler-Stinnett Judy , Stinnett Terry A.
Published: March 2007

Academic motivation is an important construct that has been shown to be related to children's achievement outcomes. It may be an especially important factor to consider when one is examining the achievement patterns of Hispanic children. These children have not fared as well in the educational milieu as majority group children, and academic motivation may account for some of that difficulty. The Teacher Rating of Academic Achievement Motivation (TRAAM) has been shown to be an instrument that is valid with majority students, but its characteristics with minority children need to be examined. This study investigated the TRAAM's ability to predict group achievement test scores (Stanford Achievement Test [SAT]) and teacher-assigned grades, in relation to the Achievement Motivation Scale (AMS) and the Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT), for 67 third-through fifth-grade middle-class Hispanic (Mexican-American) students. Correlations for the TRAAM Total Score with SAT scores and grades ranged from .25 to .72, p < .001). A series of stepwise multiple regression analyses indicated that the TRAAM was the best predictor of grades. (TRAAM accounted for 23 to 54% of the variance with AMS, SAT, and OLSAT in the equation.) The TRAAM predicted SAT scores over the AMS (13 to 32% of the variance accounted for); even with OLSAT in the equation, the TRAAM accounted for a significant portion of variance in all SAT scores (5 to 19%) except Math. Results strongly support the use of the TRAAM with Hispanic students.
Verbal-Performance IQ Discrepancies on the Mainland Chinese Version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-RC)
Authors: Ryan Joseph J. , Dai Xiaoyang , Paolo Anthony M.
Published: March 2007

Verbal IQ (VIQ) minus Performance IQ (PIQ) discrepancies were examined for the mainland Chinese version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-RC), using the urban standardization sample as the data source. At the .05 level of significance, a 14-point discrepancy was required; 18 points were needed at the .01 level. The occurrence of reliable discrepancies, regardless of direction, was not related meaningfully to gender or age, although significant relationships were obtained with years of education and intelligence level. When the Chinese sample was compared with American subjects from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) normative group, cross-cultural similarities and differences in VIQ-PIQ relationships were demonstrated. Interpretative strategies developed on the WAIS-R may not generalize to the WAIS-RC.
The Problem with Grade and Age Equivalents: Wiat as a Case in Point
Authors: Hishinuma Earl S. , Tadaki Sandi
Published: March 2007

Problems associated with grade equivalents (GEs) and age equivalents (AEs) have been noted in the past. This study investigated the counterintuitive observation that a student entering first grade can obtain a standard score of 99 on the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT) and obtain a grade equivalency approximately one-half grade behind actual grade placement. The present study confined this derived-score-discrepancy phenomenon to the following WIAT subtests and regions: (a) Basic Reading-primary grades; (b) Mathematics Reasoning-primary grades; and (c) Oral Expression-intermediate and high school grades and ages. Recommendations are offered to practitioners in light of the findings.
The Base-Rate Fallacy in School Psychology
Authors: Kennedy Mary Lynne , Willis W. Grant , Faust David
Published: March 2007

The diagnostic utility of a sign is dependent on the base rate, or prevalence, of an event within a population and may shift dramatically when the base rate changes. Decision makers, however, often commit the base-rate fallacy, that is, they underweight or disregard base-rate information and defer instead to case-specific information, even when it is irrelevant to the decision. The studies reported here examined how school psychologists integrated relevant and irrelevant clinical information with base rates, how diagnostic accuracy was influenced by enhancing the salience of base rates, and how base rates were used in the absence of other clinical information. Consistent with prior literature on the base-rate fallacy, although school psychologists used base-rate information appropriately when no other clinical information was available, their diagnostic accuracy declined markedly with the addition of either irrelevant or relevant clinical information. This effect was robust to and not reversed by the salience of base-rate information. This research also provides a demonstration of the important but counterintuitive notion that the addition of further valid information to the diagnostic mix can lower accuracy by decreasing attention to a weight assigned to more predictive variables.
The Reliability and Validity of a Short Form of the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems
Authors: Hansen Nathan B. , Umphress Val , Lambert Michael J.
Published: March 2007

The Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP) is a 127-item measure designed to assess problems of an interpersonal nature in a clinical setting. As an outcome measure, however, its clinical use is limited due to its length and current trends in therapy research toward multiple, rather than merely pre- and post-, assessments. A shortened form of the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IP-S) is proposed to remedy this limitation and to encourage repeated testing over time. This article examines the psychometric properties of the IIP-S as well as its potential as an outcome instrument. High reliability and validity coefficients were found, and the IIP-S was able to distinguish between asymptomatic, community, and outpatient samples. Application of the IIP-S to dose-response research, clinical significance, and the phase model of psychotherapy out-come are also discussed.
Mass Loss of and Temperature Distribution in Southern Pine and Douglas Fir in the Range 100 To 800°C
Authors: Do M.H. , Springer G.S.
Published: March 2007

Southern pine and Douglas fir test specimens were placed in an over kept at either 100, 160, 245, 400, 600, or 800 °C, and the center point temperatures and the mass losses of the specimens were measured as functions of exposure time. A model is described for calculating the temperature distribution in and the mass loss of wooden beams having rectangular cross sections. Comparisons were made between the data and the results of the model, and reasonable agreements were found between the measured and calculated temperatures and mass losses. Some tests were also performed to assess the effect of ambient oxygen concentration on the mass loss.
Influence of Heating Rates on the Toxicity of Evolved Combustion Products
Authors: Gad  , Smith  , Benjamin I.A.
Published: March 2007

The Forum is intended to provide for dialogue and discussion among five experts, scientists and consultants. Contributions to The Forum will not be referred in the conventional sense, but will be subject to review by the Journal's Editorial Board relative to appropriateness, clarity, timeliness, and scope of interest. The Editorial Board will be the sole judge of those contributions to be published. Opinions expressed, however, are those of the authors and not of the Editors or Technomic Publishing Com pany, Incorporated.
Are the Combined Toxicities of Co and Co2 Synergistic?
Authors: Crane Charles R.
Published: March 2007

The Forum is intended to provide for dialogue and discussion among fire experts, scientists and consultants. Contributions to The Forum will not be refereed in the conventional sense, but will be subject to review by the Journal's Editorial Board relative to appropriateness, clarity, timeliness, and scope of interest. The Editorial Board will be the sole judge of those contributions to be published. Opinions expressed, however, are those of the authors and not of the Editors or Technomic Publishing Com pany, Incorporated.
Effects of Combustion Gases On Escape Performance of the Baboon and the Rat
Authors: Kaplan Harold L. , Grand Arthur F. , Switzer Walter G. , Mitchell Daniel S. , Rogers Walter R. , Hartzell Gordon E.
Published: March 2007

In postcrash aircraft fires, only a few minutes are often available for egress. To assess the potential of selected combustion gases (CO, acrolein and HCl) to impair human escape, a signalled avoidance task was developed for use with the juvenile African Savannah baboon. After a 5-minute exposure, the animal was required to select and depress the correct lever to open an escape door and then to exit into the adjacent compartment of a shuttlebox. With CO, the EC50 for escape failure was 6850 ppm. Acrolein (12 to 2780 ppm) neither prevented escape nor affected escape times, despite irritant effects at all concentrations. Similar results were obtained with HCI (190 to 17,200 ppm) in that, despite severe irritant effects, all animals successfully performed the escape task. With a comparable shuttlebox and escape paradigm for rats, the EC50 of CO was 6780 ppm. Five-minute exposures to HCI (11,800 to 76,730 ppm) did not prevent escape but severe post-exposure respiratory effects and lethality occurred at 15,000 ppm and higher. In both species, escape time was not affected by HCI but a concentration-related increase in intertrial responses was evident. The data suggest that laboratory test methods for measurement of incapacitation of rodents may be useful in evaluating potential effects of atmospheres containing CO or irritant gases on human escape capability.
Development of a Safety Concept for Assessment of the Toxicity of Combustion Products
Authors: Sasse H.R. , Einbrodt H.J. , Prager F.H.
Published: March 2007

A safety concept to evaluate the acute toxicity data of fire effluents for assess ing the toxic hazards in real fire is described. It is demonstrated that wrong conclusion will be the outcome if any laboratory toxicity data are used as direct pass-fail criteria. Analytically determined concentration data of major com ponents are useful for the interpretation of bioassay data, mathematical model ling as well as quality control.
The Effects of Flame Retardant Combinations in PVC-Epoxidised Natural Rubber Miscible Blends: Antimony Trioxide in Combination with Halogen and Non-Halogen Based Additives
Authors: Varughese K.T. , De S.K. , De P.P.
Published: March 2007

Effects of antimony trioxide in combination with halogen and non-halogen based additives in a matrix of PVC/ENR miscible blends were studied for processibility, miscibility of blend components, strength properties, thermal stability, and flammability. Flammability measurements were carried out by limiting oxygen index measurement. The impairments in processibility and strength properties were within tolerable limits. Additive combinations did not alter the miscibility of blend components. Thermal stability was greatly influenced. Synergistic flame retardation of zinc borate with Sb2O3 with and without decabromodiphenyl ether was explained by a vapor phase- condensed phase flame retardation mechanism. The antagonistic effect of phosphorus/antimony was greatly deactivated by a halogen additive and/or zinc borate.
Flammability Characteristics of HCFC 141b and HCFC 142b
Authors: Lavelle James P.
Published: March 2007

HCFC 141b and HCFC 142b are potential alternative foam blow ing agents for the fully halogenated CFCs 11 and 12. A lack of available infor mation has prompted a study of the flammable characteristics of these alter natives. This paper presents the results of flammability limit testing according to ASTM E-681-85. The effects of temperature, humidity, ignition source, and volume of apparatus are discussed. Other flammability properties, such as heat of combustion, minimum ignition energy, autoignition temperature, and maxi mum rate of pressure rise, are compared to more common flammable materials.
Characteristics and Attributes of Char Forming Combustion Modified Flexible Foams Based on PHD Polyol
Authors: Szabat J.F. , Eicher W.J. , Baumann G.F.
Published: March 2007

Combustion modified foams have been used in various applica tions for several years and they can be formulated to meet a variety of flam mability standards. Two general groups are commercially established: foams having margmal fire retardancy and foams having a high degree of resistance to ignition when exposed to high energy open flames such as two sheets of burning paper. The latter include melamine modified HR foams, which drip and develop molten polymer upon flame exposure, and the hydrate alumina modified HR foams that form a surface char upon flame exposure that protects the foam underneath against burning and reduces the rate of fire growth in fur nishings. Several types of latter foams have been developed, namely: high per formance COMBUSTION MODIFIED HIGH RESILIENCE (CMHR) foams that contain a sophisticated flame retardant system comprised of hydrated alumina and auxiliary flame retardants; MRC high resilience foams for medium risk category occupancies which also contain hydrated alumina and flame retardants; and ATH/HR that perform within the range bounded by Cali fornia 117 foams and CMHR foam—they are high resilience foams that contain only hydrated alumina and a liquid flame retardant. All of these are char formers-a very important attribute for fire safety in furnishings, transit vehicle seating, and other applications.

Since all of the said char forming combustion modified foams based on PHD polyol contain organic materials, they are subject to decomposition and igni tion, and will sustain burning when exposed to a sufficiently intense heat source. Nevertheless, all of them represent a significant contribution to im proved fire safety in the end applications.

Combustibility tests were conducted using specified controlled tests to measure the performance behavior of the material under these conditions. The data are not intended to reflect the hazards of this or any other material under actual fire conditions. This paper emphasizes the importance of char forming characteristics of foam in fire performance.
Smoke, CO2 and CO Evolution from Cotton and Flame Retarded Cotton: Part 2. Behaviour of Single Layer Fabrics in Air at Elevated Temperatures
Authors: Horrocks A.R. , Akalin M. , Price D.
Published: March 2007

Smoke, CO and CO2 emissions have been determined from un treated cotton and flame retarded cotton fabrics at elevated temperatures. The flame retardants studied at commercial levels of applications were ammonium polyphosphate (Amgard TR), ammonium polyphosphate—ammonium bromide (Amgard CD), a phosphonium salt-urea-polycondensate (Proban CC), a phos phono-propionamide (Pyrovatex CP) and an antimony (III) oxide-aliphatic bro mide (Flacavon H14/587) formulation.

Combustion product analyses were undertaken at elevated temperatures (225-300°C) in air under burning conditions (above the respective temperature oxygen index) and non-flaming pyrolysis. Under both conditions smoke densi ties and CO concentrations increased with temperature. Carbon dioxide con centrations under non-flaming conditions showed similar increases but under burning conditions, decreased with increasing temperature. At a given temper ature, the P- and N-containing retardants reduced smoke density under burn ing conditions and increased it under pyrolysis relative to pure cotton below 350°C. These same flame retardants reduced CO and CO2 formation at each temperature from burning fabrics but produced little change with respect to cotton under non-flaming conditions.

The presence of aliphatic bromine in the Sb2O3—bromine synergistic system caused significant increases in smoke density and CO and CO2 concentrations with respect to all other fabrics under pyrolysis in air.

The observed trends are analysed in terms of current knowledge of pyrolysis and combustion mechanisms.
A Method to Determine the Potential Toxicity of Smoke from Burning Polymers: III. Comparison of Synthetic Polymers to Douglas Fir Using the UPitt II Flaming Combustion/Toxicity of Smoke Apparatus
Authors: Caldwell Daniel J. , Alarie Yves
Published: March 2007

Mice were exposed for 30 minutes to smoke from burning poly mers under naming conditions using the UPitt II apparatus for evaluation of flaming combustion/toxicity of smoke. The burning conditions were selected to enable comparison to Douglas fir data previously presented. The principal toxi cant was found to be CO for polymethyl methacrylate and polycarbonate. How ever, other toxicants, HCN and HCl, contributed to the observed lethality of smoke from rigid polyurethane foam and polyvinyl chloride respectively. The LC50 smoke concentration (in mg/L obtained from the mass loss rate and airflow rate) (SCLC50 ), survivable exposure concentration (SEC) and cumula tive hazard (Σ h) were calculated for these synthetic polymers to permit compar isons between these polymers and Douglas fir. As found with Douglas fir, the Σh for exposure to smoke from a burning polymer varied with the burning con ditions. However, the smoke concentration over the range of burning conditions evaluated, was a good predictor of lethality for each polymer tested.
The Burning Behaviour of Combustion Modified High Resilience Polyurethane Foams
Authors: Horrocks A.R. , Price D. , Edwards N.L.C.
Published: March 2007

Limiting (LOI) and extinction (EOI) oxygen index values have been determined for combustion modified high resilience polyurethane foams of a range of densities. The data obtained show that the value of the extinction oxygen index at zero ignition time, [EOI] o, is less than the LOI value. [EOI] o is directly related to the flame retardant concentration of the foam sample rather than foam density which is the determining factor of the LOI values. Thus the [EOI] o parameter can be considered to be a superior measure of the intrinsic foam flammability. General conclusions are drawn as to the relationships be tween foam density and melamine flame retardant content and the LOI and [EOI] o values.
Risk-Oriented Testing and Assessment of Smoke Density
Authors: Prager F.H. , Wittbecker F.-W. , Egresi M. , Sasse H.R. , Zorgman H.
Published: March 2007

The problem involved in determining smoke density data are described, inter alia, in the relevant national and international test methods. An attempt is made to illustrate general conditions for risk-related, applica tion-oriented testing and assessment based on the possible obstruction of rescue work in the event of a fire occurring. The informativeness of such smoke measurements is explained. The influence of superficial fire propagation must also be taken into account in the interpretation of both static and dynamic methods. A static method such as the ISO smoke box method makes it possible, for example, to assess the effectiveness of screening facings and thus of the amount of time available for rescue operations before the exposed building product contributes towards the smoke generated per unit area.
Effect of Zinc and Zinc Borate on Fire Properties of Modified Polyphenylene Oxide
Authors: Benrashid R. , Nelson G.L. , Ferm Donald J.
Published: March 2007

Modified polyphenylene oxide resin (m-PPO) (virgin) and m-PPO flame retarded with triaryl phosphate (FR m-PPO) were blended with zinc borate, zinc, and zinc/zinc borate. Both virgin and FR m-PPO containing zinc borate showed a marked reduction in smoke production (flaming and non- flaming-NBS Smoke Chamber). In FR m-PPO a reduction in oxygen index values was seen for zinc borate, except at the highest level tested (50 PHR). Zinc, on the other hand, showed an increase in oxygen index for FR m-PPO. Given the potential for both condensed and vapor phase activity for triaryl phosphate in m-PPO, the reduction in both smoke and oxygen index by zinc borate suggests a deactivation of the vapor phase activity of triaryl phosphate.
Polymers and Composites- An Examination of Fire Spread and Generation of Heat and Fire Products
Authors: Tewarson Archibald , Macaione Domenic P.
Published: March 2007

Fiber reinforced composite (FRC) materials are used extensively because of their favorable physico-chemical properties and high strength- to-weight ratio. The use of composites in Army vehicles as a means of decreas ing weight and enhancing survivability, without reducing personnel safety, has been under study for some time. Although FRC materials are very attractive in terms of their physico-chemical properties, concern for possible fire hazard is understandable as organic polymers are one of the major constituents of the materials. A joint study thus was undertaken by the U.S. Army Materials Tech nology Laboratory (MTL) and the Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FMRC) to quantify flammability behavior of selected composite materials for the assessment of fire hazard.

In the study, eight FRC materials, identified as MTL #1 to #8, were used. The FRC materials were 3 to 45 mm in thickness. The flammability behavior was examined by using the FMRC Flammability Apparatus (50 kW-Scale) and Ox ygen Index (OI) apparatus, Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) instrument, NBS smoke chamber (ASTM E 662), and Gas Chromatograph-Mass Spec trometer (GC-MS) instrument at MTL.

This article presents results for ignition, flame spread, heat release rate, gen eration rates of products, light obscuration by smoke and flame extinction by Halon. In comparison to ordinary combustibles, such as cellulosics and most non fire retarded plastics, the eight FRC materials have higher resistance to ig nition (as indicated by the Thermal Response Parameter, TRP) and flame spread (as indicated by higher values of the Fire Propagation Index, FPI). The FPI values for the FRC materials, examined in this study, ranged from 3 to 13, indicating that for Group 1 FRC materials (FPI < 10), self-sustained flame spread beyond the ignition zone would be difficult, whereas for other Group 2 materials ( FPI ≥ 10), flame spread beyond the ignition zone would be ex pected, although at a slower rate. For Group 2 materials fire protection is re quired, which could be provided by techniques such as surface coating, surface lamination using highly fire resistant FRC materials, and others.

Generation of heat, smoke, toxic and corrosive products is closely related to FPI. Within the FRC materials, examined in this study, differences were found between the generation rates of heat, smoke, and other products.

Results for flame extinction by Halon 1301 are also discussed. The flame ex tinction data are consistent with the design of the current suppression system for the crew compartment of Army combat vehicles.

The study suggests that the FPI concept and associated parameters related to generation of heat, smoke, toxic, and corrosive products, is a useful concept for realistic flammability quantification and screening of FRC materials and for use in the hazard assessment. This, however, needs to be validated by perform ing large-scale fire tests.
Corrosivity Test Methods for Polymeric Materials. Part 1- Radiant Furnace Test Method [1]
Authors: Kessel Stephen L. , Bennett James G. , Rogers Charles E.
Published: March 2007

This is the first in a series of papers published by the Polyolefins Fire Performance Council, a unit of the Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc., to investigate corrosivity test methods. In this paper, 25 polymeric materials were evaluated for smoke corrosion using the proposed ASTM E05.21.70 test stan dard. These commercially available polymeric materials cover a broad range of compositions used for wire and cable insulation and jacketing.

The samples were decomposed in the proposed ASTM apparatus and a copper probe was subsequently exposed to the combustion gases. The corrosive poten tial, as defined by metal loss in angstroms, was determined for each material. The data demonstrate that the ASTM E05.21.70 test protocol does differentiate corrosive potentials of polymeric materials. Some refinement in this test method is warranted to better develop it as a standard for measuring corrosiv ity.

Further work is under way to evaluate other test methods as standardized corrosivity methods. This future work will focus on the proposed CNET ISO IC61/SC4/WG2 test, the DIN 57472 acid gas test, and the cone calorimeter (DyGST) corrosivity test under review by ASTM DO9.21.04.
Flammability Parameters of Materials: Ignition, Combustion, and Fire Propagation
Authors: Tewarson A.
Published: March 2007

In this paper, flammability parameters associated with the igni tion, combustion, and fire propagation processes and their usefulness for the development of fire resistant materials are discussed. The flammability param eters discussed are: (a) Critical Heat Flux (CHF) and Thermal Response Param eter (TRP), associated with ignition, (b) Heat Release Parameter (HRP) and Fire Propagation Index (FPI), associated with combustion and fire propagation.
Toxicity of Gases from Full-Scale Room Fires Involving Fire Retardant Contents
Authors: Morikawa T. , Okada T. , Kajiwara M. , Sato Y. , Tsuda Y.
Published: March 2007

Fire experiments were conducted in a 2-story fire resistant house using one of the first floor rooms as the burn room with various fire retardant or non-fire retardant items. The toxicity of the fire effluents was determined both by chemical analysis and bioassay techniques. Plywood boards arranged as corner walls and crumpled newsprint in a corrugated cardboard box were used as fire initiators. HCN and CO were the two major toxicants. The HCl level was generally and unexpectedly low in terms of toxicity. There was no case where fires involving fire retardant materials were more dangerous in tox icity than those of non-fire retardant ones. Calculated incapacitation times were in roughly good agreement with the actual incapacitation times for rab bits when the toxicants were limited to HCN and CO.
Factors for Consideration in a Test for Cigarette Ignition Propensity on Soft Furnishings
Authors: Spears A.W. , Rhyne A.L. , Norman V.
Published: March 2007

The outcome of a cigarette ignition propensity mock-up test is largely determined by the characteristics of the fabric/substrate and to a lesser extent by the characteristics of representative cigarettes. The effects of the im portant cigarette variables on ignition propensity are reflected in two measur able cigarette characteristics-Mass Burn Rate (MBR) and Linear Burn Rate (LBR). MBR is related to the instantaneous heat flux and LBR is a measure of the rate of movement of the cigarette firecone on the substrate. MBR and LBR are coupled but do not vary colinearly within cigarette sets that encompass wide parameter ranges. The cigarettes' relative ignition propensity rankings can be dominated either by MBR or LBR. The substrate fabric's characteristics dictate largely which burn rate controls the ranking. Dense fabrics of appre ciable thermal conductivity, such as the cotton ducks used in NIST test method development, are good heat sinks and rank cigarettes according to their extin guishability (viz. MBR). Moderate to heavy weight, less dense fabrics of higher air permeability and lower thermal conductivity are poorer heat sinks, and tend to not extinguish cigarettes but rather rank them according to the rate of pristine substrate involvement (viz. LBR). Moderate air flows impinging on cigarettes have a differential effect on the burn rate of cigarettes of different construction and thus can change the relative ignition propensity rankings of cigarettes. An investigation of the properties of 113 cellulosic upholstery fabrics which were ignitable by test cigarettes has shown that the ignition- determining properties of the duck fabrics lie on the outer fringe of the charac teristics ranges of upholstery fabrics. The interaction between the majority of upholstery fabrics and cigarettes is not predominated by the extinction mechanism. Hence, the duck furniture mock-up test is a poor predictor of cigarette ignition propensity ranking on real furniture.
Smoke/Char Relationships in PVC Formulations
Authors: Carty P. , White S.
Published: March 2007

Two blends of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene with unplasticised poly (vinyl chloride) and a tertiary blend of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, unplasticised poly (vinyl chloride) and poly (propylene) containing a smoke sup pressing iron compound gives good reductions in smoke and high yields of car bonaceous char when heated in air
Steady Behaviour of Long Duration in the Spontaneous Heating of a Bituminous Coal
Authors: Jones J.C.
Published: March 2007

So-called steady state behaviour in laboratory scale self-heating of solid substrates such as carbons and cellulosics has rarely if ever been truly steady, but has displayed a maximum in the temperature history. This is due to volatiles and/or to porosity. In this paper it is argued that the self-heating of a bituminous coal will, at the temperatures concerned, be free from these ef fects and will therefore display genuinely steady behaviour. This assertion is tested by experimental work on a Scottish bituminous coal, in which sustained steady behaviour is indeed observed, with a heat release rate calculated to be ~ 3 kW m -3.
Chemistry of Flame Retardants: III. Aging of N-Methylol-3- dimethoxyphosphorylpropionamide and Commercial Flame Retardants for Fabrics Containing This Substance
Authors: Kapura Aleksandr A.
Published: March 2007

The behavior of several grades of laboratory N-methylol-3-di methoxyphosphorylpropionamide and samples of commercial durable flame retardants containing this substance: SPOLAPRET OS, PYROVATEX CP and their Russian-made analog in storage during several months was investigated, using HPLC. Due to the complexity of the composition of laboratory and com mercial samples, in which along with N-methylol-3-dimethoxyphosphoryl propionamide are N-methoxymethyl-3-dimethoxyphosphorylpropionamide, N,N'-oxydimethylenebis(3-dimethoxyphosphorylpropionamide) and 3-dimeth oxyphosphorylpropionamide, various chemical reactions proceed in the aging of these samples. The main path of conversion is transformations of the compo nents to each other. From them, the formation of N,N'-oxydimethylenebis(3-di methoxyphosphorylpropionamide) and N-methoxymethyl-3-dimethoxyphos phorylpropionamide from N-methylol-3-dimethoxyphosphorylpropionamide should be noted. However, it was also found that reactions resulting in the degradation of the components can occur, the overall concentration of the com ponents in a sample being decreased.
Comparative Study of Thermal Stabilities and Limiting Oxygen Indexes of Chlorinated, Brominated, and Iodinated Polystyrenes
Authors: Camps M. , Jebri A. , Drouet J.-C.
Published: March 2007

Chlorinated (PSCI), brominated (PSBr), and iodinated (PSI) polystyrenes have been characterised and their thermal stabilities measured.
A Single-Point Estimation of the Combustion Rate Expression for a Bituminous Coal
Authors: Jones J.C.
Published: March 2007

Principles underlying current tests for the spontaneous heating propensity of carbonaceous materials are examined and extended to enable rate expressions for such materials to be deduced. The extensions are ex perimentally implemented for a Scottish bituminous coal.
On Experimental Data Reduction for Zone Model Validation
Authors: He Y.
Published: March 2007

Theoretical considerations are given to experimental data reduc tion for zone model validations. Three schemes to obtain averaged parameters of a thermodynamic system in nonequilibrium state are discussed in the light of model validation. Examples are given to demonstrate the difference between the zone average temperatures obtained from two averaging schemes.
A Cone Calorimetric Study of Flame Retardance and Smoke Emission of PVC. I. The Effect of Cuprous and Molybdic Oxides*
Authors: Bin Li  , Jianqi Wang
Published: March 2007

A wealth of literature in research at molecular levels concern ing the transition metals, e.g., Cu- and Mo-containing compounds, has been intensively documented for flame retardance, particularly smoke suppres sion, of PVC. An attempt has been made in this article aimed at performing a cone calorimetric analysis in air at irradiances of 25, 35, and 50 kWm-2 for ex ploring the effect of Cu2O and MoO3 on the thermal behavior of PVC. Some mechanistic aspects on flame retardance and smoke generation of PVC for mulations have also been described based upon parameters, such as TTI, HRR, EHC, SEA, and TSP, etc., taken from the cone. The comprehensive analysis of MLR, HRR, and SPR as functions of time turns out to be most in formative as stated in the text.
On the "Cabins" Fire Safety Design Concept in the New Hong Kong Airport Terminal Building
Authors: Law Margaret
Published: March 2007

The Forum is intended to provide for dialogue and discussion among fire experts, scientists and consultants. Contributions to The Forum will not be refereed in the conventional sense, but will be subject to review by the Journal's Editorial Board relative to appropriateness, clarity, timeliness, and scope of interest. The Editorial Board will be the sole judge of those contributions to be published. Opinions expressed, however, are those of the authors and not of the Editors or Technomic Publishing Company, Incor porated.
Smolder of Cellulosic Fabrics. III. The Control of Radical Driven Reactions
Authors: Dyakonov Alexander J. , Grider David A.
Published: March 2007

The temperature programmed decomposition of cellulosic fabric was studied. Temperature Programmed Reaction (TPR) experiments performed in an inert atmosphere revealed that UV irradiation of #6 cotton duck fabric pro moted an increase in the degree of cellulose decomposition, while decreasing the onset temperature of decomposition. DSC-in-air experiments using these sam ples verified these observations. DSC spectra for non-irradiated samples revealed little difference in heat flows.

Intramolecular redox reactions induced during UV irradiation formed hydroperoxide groups, generating relatively low heat flow. These results imply that the major role of incorporated oxygen was the facilitation of low heat cellu lose degradation and cleavage reactions. Potassium iodide introduced into the fabric resulted in lower cellulose degradation activity in an inert gas at tempera tures below 240°C. Reduction of the peroxide groups in the cellulose by iodide ions was assumed to cause this change.

Monoethanolamine and nicotine were also applied to the cellulosic fabric, de creasing the rate of CO x formation. DSC spectra showed that low temperature heat-producing cleavage was suppressed. Nicotine and other components of ciga rette smoke were found to act as inhibitors of the onset of cellulosic smolder, thus preventing the smolder of cellulosic fabric.
Low-Temperature Oxidation Characteristics of Pipeline Wax
Authors: Jones J.C. , Cook B.
Published: March 2007

Four samples of pipeline wax from a North Sea crude oil pipeline have been examined in a microcalorimeter across a range of temperatures. The samples, which weighed a little under a gram, gave heat-release rates up to about 20 μW, and the initial temperature history is such that there is a small amount of melting which is manifest as a negative microcalorimeter signal. Esti mated activation energies for the oxidation are of the expected order of magni tude, though a little low.