bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Legislators on Social Scientists and a Social Issue: A Report and Commentary on Some Discussions with Lawmakers about Drug Abuse
Authors: Blum Richard H. , Funkhouser Mary Lou
Published: March 2006

Fifty California legislators holding committee posts important for drug legislation were interviewed. Goals were to elicit legislator conceptions of the effects and aims of drug legislation on behavior, to assess their views of public opinion on drug problems and their own reactions to controversial proposals for new laws, and to determine opinions of behavioral science and scientists as information sources for new legislation. Expressed views were related to party affiliation, liberalism-conservatism, and philosophical position. Half of the legislators said the behavioral sciences had too little information to give; one fifth rejected such research as useless or undesirable. The majority were critical of behavioral scientists, including psychiatrists, and gave little credence to their opinions. Interview rating of positions on drug issues correlated .91 with voting records on other issues rated as liberal or conservative. All liberals were Democrats; most conservatives were Republicans. Philosophical positions, rated as moral absolutism versus pragmatism, were related to political stance; but philosophy was a better predictor of acceptance or rejection of behavioral science than was political stance.
East-West Conflict and Sino-Soviet Relations
Authors: Hoisti Ole R.
Published: March 2006

The hypothesis that a high level of intercoalition conflict tends Studies in to increase intracoalition unity, whereas more relaxed relations International between blocs tend to magnify differences within the alliance, Conflict and was examined in the context of Sino-Soviet relations. Seventy Integration eight documents written by leading Chinese and Soviet decision Stanford makers in five periods during the years 1959-1963 were content University analyzed through the Stanford version of the "General Inquirer" on the IBM 7090.

The data revealed that during the most intense period of the Cuban crises of 1961 and 1962 both Chinese and Soviet perceptions of American policy were overwhelmingly on the negative, strong, and active ends of the evaluative, potency, and activity dimensions. During the three periods of lower East-West tension, differences between Chinese and Soviet perceptions were greater than in the high tension periods on all three dimensions.
Individual Applications of Laboratory Training
Authors: Bunker Douglas R.
Published: March 2006

Laboratory Training has roots in the blending of research and action. Application interest took precedence in its early development, and the present need is to advance scientific knowledge of training processes and outcomes. Recent studies toward an empirical foundation for training theory are reviewed. Data are presented from a study of perceived behavior changes one year after participation in training. Participants are seen by co-workers as increasing significantly more than controls in cognitive openness, behavioral skill, and understanding of social processes. Long-range changes are correlated with learning measures at time of training.

The clear evidence for the impact of laboratory methods for some subjects must be followed by further inquiry which will explicate processes and conditions.
The Effects of Participation in a Foreign Specialists Seminar on Images of the Host Country and the Professional Field
Authors: Kelman Herbert C.
Published: March 2006

A Multi-National Communications Seminar for broadcasting Department of specialists was subjected to an intensive evaluation study, de Psychology signed to assess the effectiveness of the Seminar in achieving its The University goals. This paper reports data based on one of the procedures of Michigan used: a detailed questionnaire, completed by the 28 participants and an appropriate comparison group in their own countries before the beginning of the Seminar and some nine months after its completion. The major finding is a significant increase among the participants-relative to the comparison group-in the complexity and differentiation of their images of America and of American broadcasting. This increase seems clearly attributable to their American experience.
Mutually Therapeutic Perception and Self-Awareness in a T Group
Authors: Clark James V. , Culbert Samuel A.
Published: March 2006

A T Group was studied to test hypotheses that: (1) some members would show higher Problem Expression Scale (PES) ratings of samples of their speech near the end of their group experience than at the beginning, and (2) the members showing the most PES improvement will be those members who enter into the most interpersonal relationships in which the members perceive one another as high in level of regard, empathy, congruence, and unconditionality of regard. Of the nine students and one trainer in this study, four had significantly positive PES changes. Moreover, the number of mutually perceived therapeutic relationships in which a member participated was related to improvement of PES ratings. Replication of this study, using a larger n, seems justified.
Explorations in Interpersonal Competence—II
Authors: Argyris Chris
Published: March 2006

Part I

A set of categories is presented designed to measure interpersonal competence.

The primary plus categories on the individual and interpersonal levels are owning up to, openness, and risk taking. On the norms level they are individuality, concern, and trust.

The primary minus categories on the individual and interpersonal levels are not owning up to, not being open, and rejecting risk taking. On the norms level they are conformity, antagonism, and mistrust.

Exploratory research suggests that the categories can be used (1) with an encouraging degree of reliability, (2) with an encouraging degree of predictive validity, and (3) as the basis to describe increases or decreases in individual and group competence during T-Group and other training.

Part II

The categories are used as a basis to evaluate the relative effectiveness of lecture versus laboratory education in the subject areas of interpersonal relationships and group dynamics.

The study suggests that processes are generated in the lecture approach similar to those which create difficulties in backhome groups but without providing opportunity to explore these processes in a way that might confront participants with inconsistencies between rational analysis and actual behavior. The data suggest that a laboratory approach, with its emphasis upon such exploration and confrontation, seems to produce more behavioral change.
Some Classroom Quiddities for People-Oriented Teachers
Authors: Thelen Herbert A.
Published: March 2006

The schools "socialize" children, shaping them into the role of organization man and student. But the schools do not "educate" children because the process of education is a quest, voluntarily entered into, after meaning, and there is nothing voluntary about participation in most classrooms. Classroom practices are unnatural, unreasonable, and "against nature." Natural tendencies that could be counted on to educate (rather than merely socialize) children are usually ignored and suppressed. Yet these potentially educative tendencies fit together within a coherent, sequential strategy of learning: learning begins with arousal of the individual during a "confrontation"; then interaction in small groups develops the individual's awareness of his thoughts and feelings; comparison of testimony among individuals leads (under guidance of the teacher) into identification of problems or of an agenda for investigation by the class; the experiences of investigation are reported and examined to see what light they throw on the problems and on how to cope with them.
Personal Style, Group Composition, and Learning
Authors: Harrison Roger , Lubin Bernard
Published: March 2006

Part I

This is an investigation of differences in interpersonal behavior and learning in a sensitivity training laboratory between highly person-oriented and highly work-oriented participants (identified through the Person Description Instrument III). Second, it is a study of the effects of a training design that involves both heterogeneous and homogeneous training groups.

It was expected, and confirmed at satisfactory levels of significance, that the person-oriented members would be seen as behaving more expressively and warmly and that they would be more comfortable and would feel stronger interpersonal ties within their homogeneous group than would the work-oriented members. It was expected, but with results approaching significance in the opposite direction, that person-oriented members would be seen as learning more than would the work-oriented members.

It is hypothesized that the person-oriented group found the laboratory a kind of psychic home without much challenge, whereas the work-oriented members experienced "culture shock," and that this in fact pushed them toward change.

Part II

To test the learning model, data were examined from a laboratory in which each participant was assigned to a heterogeneous training group and to an experimental group composed in terms of preference for high, low, or moderate structure. The statistical and impressionistic data collected through member ratings of one another and through interviews with staff and participants strongly suggest that homogeneous groups do not provide the confrontation needed for optimum learning. The superiority of the mixed high-and low-structure (and more stressful) groups in terms of member learning suggests that feelings of completion, cohesion, and emotional satisfaction may not be the appropriate criteria for evaluating the impact of a training group experience.
Theory and Method in Applying Behavioral Science to Planned Organizational Change
Authors: Bennis Warren G.
Published: March 2006

Three assumptions underlie this paper: (1) that the proportion of contemporary change that is planned or that issues from deliberate innovation is much higher than in former times; (2) that man's wisdom and mundane behavior are somewhat short of perfection insofar as they regulate the fate and selective adaptation of complex human organizations; (3) that behavioral scientists in increasing numbers are called upon to influence organizational functioning and effectiveness. The paper is concerned with the strategic, methodological, and conceptual issues brought about by the emergence of the action role of the behavioral scientist.
An Organization Improvement Program in a Decentralized Organization
Authors: Beckhard Richard
Published: March 2006

Presented here is a description of a planned organization improvement program in a medium-sized decentralized organization. The program had as its goal the improvement of organization effectiveness along the following lines:

Improved communications among various parts of the organization

Change in managerial style from management by control to management by objectives

Improved operating efficiency

Increased problem-solving skills of the total management

Establishment of a systematic program of growth and development for management executives.

This paper deals with the program which the organization followed in working toward its objectives and with the role of the educational consultant in the process. The paper has been organized into five parts: assumptions about organization change, a description of the organization's mission and structure, the identification of the need for improvement, first phases of the program, and a redefinition of the change goals and the program of activities used to implement these new goals.

While it is impossible to correlate dramatic profit improvement and measurable increase in operating efficiency fully with this educational effort, there seems to be clear evidence that the program contributed significantly.
Free Speech Advocates at Berkeley
Authors: Watts William A. , Whittaker David
Published: March 2006

This study compares highly committed members of the Free Speech Movement at Berkeley with the student population at large on three sociopsychological foci: general biographical data, religious orientation, and rigidity-flexibility. Questionnaires were administered to 172 FSM members selected by chance from the ten to twelve hundred who entered and "sat-in" the Administration Building at the University of California on December 2, 1964. A comparative sample of 146 student respondents, selected randomly from the student directory, was obtained by mail. Results indicated that the sit-ins were younger and more homogeneous in age, had parents who were more academically elite (in terms of Ph.D. and M.A. degrees held), and comprised a larger proportion of females than that of the cross-sectional group. No differences were obtained in academic achievement (accumulative grade point average) or in birth order and number of siblings. It was found, as predicted, that the FSM members were less influenced by formalized religion than the cross-sectional group representing the student body and that they were also less rigid, as measured by a 27-item scale of rigidity-flexibility. This latter finding is of particular interest, considering the purported rigidity of the FSM in negotiations with the University administration, and suggests the necessity of distinguishing between a trait of rigidity as psychologically defined and commitment.
T Group for a Work Team
Authors: Kuriloff Arthur H. , Atkins Stuart
Published: March 2006

This case history tells of the use of T-Group training to improve interpersonal competence in a small manufacturing company. The beneficial effects enabled the company to accomplish specific and general tasks, producing economic gain, which would not have seemed possible prior to the T Group. Specific examples of such accomplishments are given.

Certain findings are reported about the methods used in this T Group. These suggest that effective results in a T Group for a work team may be attained by (i) a prior level of trust in the boss, (2) presence of the boss in all T-Group sessions, (3) intensive and consecutive sessions followed by immediate application of learning on the job, (4) emphasis on improving individuals' interpersonal competence primarily for the sake of the business, (5) confrontation of each person as seen by others, and self-disclosure of personal feelings between people.

The case history is in two parts-the company background prior to the T Group, and the day-by-day account of the dramatic highlights of each session.
Human Relations Training and Interracial Social Action: Problems in Self and Client Definition
Authors: Lakin Martin
Published: March 2006

This paper reviews the efforts of a group of human relations trainers, varying widely in experience, who volunteered to help conduct a training conference for civil rights workers and volunteers. The experience, described as ineffective, is shared as a model of pitfalls which could be characteristic of training with groups committed to social action where the training function is less clearly defined than in "conventional" training laboratories. The author concludes that laboratory training techniques and values do have relevance for complex social action programs but that a high degree of competence and experience is required, plus readiness on the part of the client. He suggests that effective and ineffective ventures need to be monitored more accurately and observations shared as a way to build more stable and reliable guides to effective social intervention.
Change in Self-identity in a Management Training Conference
Authors: P. French John R. , Sherwood John J. , Bradford David L.
Published: March 2006

In this experiment, the amount of feedback (communicated objective public identity-COPI) was systematically varied and was related to responses on questionnaires asking about self-perception.

Three hypotheses were tested: (i) the major hypothesis-the greater the amount of COPI, the greater the change in self-identity; (2) the greater the centrality (importance) of a dimension of self-perception to the subject, the greater the change in his self-identity on that dimension; (3) the lower a person's selfevaluation (or the higher his dissatisfaction) on a dimension of self-perception, the greater the change in his self-identity along that dimension.

The setting for the experiment was a two-week conference in human relations training for 20 middle-management personnel. Questionnaire measurements of self-identity were made at the beginning, half way through, and at the end of the conference. In addition, a follow-up questionnaire was mailed to all participants ten months after the end of the conference to measure the permanence of change in self-identity. Major support for the hypotheses was expected during the second week of the conference (by which time the experimental manipulations had been introduced), with less change for the postconference period and little, if any, change during the first week.

Some support for the first and third hypotheses was found, while there was no support for the second hypothesis.
An Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Some Curriculum Innovations in Law Schools
Authors: Simon Rita James
Published: March 2006

This article reports the results of an evaluation of the effectiveness of curriculum innovations on third-year law students in four law schools over a three-year period. Each "program" school was matched to a nonprogram school. Students' attitudes in "program" and "control" schools were compared along such dimensions as legal ethics, professional activities, relations with clients, and more general personality measures, before and after exposure to a clinical program. Each program lasted the academic year. A standard questionnaire was administered to students in the program and control schools. The major goal of the clinical programs was to enhance the students' sense of professional responsibility so that when they entered legal practice their behavior would be more in keeping with the standards of their profession. The results of the evaluation were disappointing. The responses of the students exposed to the clinical programs did not show any significant shift in a more professionally responsible direction. Like the control students, the attitudes of the program students changed hardly at all between the first and second surveys. Exposure to clinical programs did not significantly alter students' attitudes toward professional ethics or professional behavior.
A Framework for Planning Behavior Change in Juvenile Offenders
Authors: Lenrow Peter B.
Published: March 2006

This paper examines a number of disagreements about how to produce behavior change in juvenile offenders. It is proposed that efforts made in the behavioral sciences to reconcile different views of behavior change may be fruitfully applied in reconciling different methods used by juvenile court judges and other court personnel. Herbert Kelman's conceptual framework for comparing different methods of inducing change ("compliance," "identification," and "internalization") has provided a means of integrating behavioral science theories and findings. It is used here as a guide for comparing the usefulness of different influence methods in working with juvenile offenders. It is concluded that both direct efforts to influence action and indirect efforts aimed at modifying attitudes may be effective. It is suggested that the use of influence agents dissociated from the court, group settings, and work roles offers opportunities for coordinating various approaches.
Freedom School Effectiveness: Changes in Attitudes of Negro Children
Authors: Johnson David W.
Published: March 2006

This paper reports the effects of teaching Negro history to a small group of Negro students between the ages of eight and 13. The "Freedom School" was instituted out of concern for the Negro's negative self-attitudes and their effects on his attitudes toward society, maturation, motivations, and aspirations. The study here reported used interviews, four months apart, to determine changes in super-ego strength, in self-confidence, in attitudes toward Negroes and toward civil rights. Selected factors of Cattell's Child Personality Questionnaire and an attitude questionnaire were used. To control for effects of the first interview, a control group received the second but not the first interview. Negro interviewers were used. The statistical norms for Cattell's Child Personality Questionnaire were used as a control, comparing the students with the "average" American child. The findings are given as tentative evidence that teaching Negro history and culture can be effective in raising the attitudes of Negroes toward Negroes.
Working with an "Impersonal" T Group
Authors: Greening Thomas C. , Coffey Hubert S.
Published: March 2006

What happens in a sensitivity training group composed of impersonal, inexpressive people? To what special training strategies (or methods of sustaining their own morale) do the trainers resort in their efforts to achieve training goals or at least to stave off bleak silence and frustration? How do the experiences of the trainees compare with those of trainees in more heterogeneous or "personal" groups? This article discusses these issues in the hope that the study of a special "impersonal" group may add to our knowledge of how trainers can help groups in general to overcome communication problems and interpersonal distance.
The Effects of Process Analysis and Ties to His Group upon the Negotiator's Attitudes Toward the Outcomes of Negotiations
Authors: Hornstein Harvey A. , Johnson David W.
Published: March 2006

A one-day intergroup conflict laboratory was conducted to investigate the effects of the use of modified "surrey feedback" during negotiations. This procedure focused on increasing the negotiators' awareness of the competitive behavior in the negotiations and the distortions in internegotiator perception. The results suggest that mediators and others who seek to intervene between two groups in conflict can use techniques of process analysis, such as survey feedback, to increase the negotiator's positive evaluation of the negotiations and its outcomes. The results also point out that whereas high commitment to one's own group and its initial position in the negotiations will tend to mitigate the cooperation-inducing effects of this procedure, high satisfaction with one's role in the home group will tend to enhance them. It was suggested that high commitment leads one to a state of "insulated ignorance," in which one is protected from examining his own behavior, and the other's perceptions and feelings, through a conviction in the superiority of his own group's proposal and its inevitable success. High satisfaction with role, on the other hand, leads one to feel freer to deviate from his group's position.
The Reduction of Prejudice through Laboratory Training
Authors: Rubin Irwin
Published: March 2006

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that increases in self-acceptance, resulting from sensitivity training, have the the oretically predictable but indirect effect of reducing an individual's level of ethnic prejudice. The role of an individual's level of psychological anomy,3 hypothesized to condition the influences of sensitivity training, was also examined. The results suggest that sensitivity training may well be a powerful technique in the reduction of ethnic prejudice, particularly among those who are low in psychological anomy.
Antecedents of Planned Organization Change
Authors: Greiner Larry E.
Published: March 2006

Recent literature extolling the virtues of "planned" organization change through massive training programs frequently overlooks the historical preconditions which may determine the success or failure of such programs. This article reports findings describing the history of an organization and its management prior to a decision to begin a Managerial Grid organization development program. In it we see how a consultant made use of roots put down in the unplanned stages many years before to build top management support for Managerial Grid training. It is quite possible that the presence or absence of such early events spells the difference between a mediocre and a highly successful organization change effort.
On the Future of Laboratory Education
Authors: Argyris Chris
Published: March 2006

The primary reason for the creation of laboratory education was to help human beings to deal more effectively with complex human relationships and problems. As such, laboratory education shares the same goals with many other types of education. What distinguishes laboratory education from most other education is its basic assumptions concerning the process of education. The traditional educational methods primarily emphasize substance, rationality, the in-appropriateness of feelings, direction and control by the teacher, and so on. Laboratory education assumes that these emphases are not adequate by themselves. New ones need to be added such as the importance of maintaining the effectiveness of the learning groups, the admission of all data that are relevant, including feelings, and the enlargement of responsibility by giving the students greater direction and control over their education (Bradford, Gibb, & Benne, 1964; Schein & Bennis, 1965).

Because feelings, group maintenance, and student control are so completely ignored in the traditional process, their emphasis in laboratory education may be easily mistaken by some as an overemphasis. This misperception is partially supported by the proponents of laboratory education who, in their striving to gain recognition (the hostility was so great in the early days that one might have placed his professional reputation in jeopardy by attending a laboratory), had to emphasize the differences in their approach.

In the early days an informal norm developed among the participants in laboratory education of constant inquiry into new methods and the encouragement of differences. It is well known that, to date, the National Training Laboratories is the best and largest ex- ample of a behavioral science organization that is still growing, serving its professional network and the public with the largest variety of educational experiences developed by its members. This diversity has been and continues to be an important strength, for one of the greatest dangers in any new profession is a two-quick jelling on any one set of concepts or methods.

As much as I admire and respect diversity, there comes a time when its forces can create disintegration and confusion. Diversity should be questioned, I believe, when the basic assumptions and values that underlie different methods seriously conflict with one another. In the physical and biological sciences, when the theories available make fundamentally contradictory assumptions about matter or the nature of the physiology of man, then research is necessary -to integrate by modification of one or both competing theories, to eliminate one of the points of view, or to find a theory that comprehends both.

I believe that the field of laboratory education is entering an era where research is necessary so that intelligent choices can be made. The purpose of this paper is to try to identify some of the issues with the hope that it will generate dialogue and research.
The Anarchist Movement and the T Group: Some Possible Lessons for Organizational Development
Authors: Bass Bernard M.
Published: March 2006

Spanish anarchism was an extremely cohesive but ineffective movement espousing many of the ideals similar to those advanced in laboratory training. This paper argues that there may be some parallels between the history of Spanish anarchism and the contributions of T-Group training to organization development, if insufficient attention is paid to the organizational learning that must take place along with the personal and interpersonal learning of the T-Group experience. Eight approaches are described for increasing organizational learning in the context of laboratory training and follow-up.
Changing Behavior as a Means to Increased Efficiency
Authors: Bartlett Alton C.
Published: March 2006

A firm in a highly competitive industry, operating below tolerable levels and sensing "problems," hired a new GM who sought help from a change agent. An in-house laboratory was created where Ss, under guise of skill training in communications, "simulated" giving and receiving descriptive nonevaluative feedback in role play of cases, on the grounds that it is easier to change behavior than attitudes. Environment was gradually transformed from Theory X toward Y as Ss became more open and risk taking and grew in interpersonal competence. Ss remedied company's faltering production, poor quality, and high cost "significantly" within three months following program. Application of behavioral science theories to allow people to help organizational performance does pay off.
Changing Universities: A Cross-Cultural Approach
Authors: Sunderland Stephen C.
Published: March 2006

Roger Harrison and Richard L. Hopkins' paper is one of the few post-Berkeley critiques that accurately delimits the painful conditions of teaching and learning within the contemporary university. What must teaching and learning be like when we have to acknowledge the soundness of the following insight by Harrison and Hopkins (i966, p. 9): "As most college graduates know, it is possible for a person to go through four or more years of higher education without having his values, emotions, or sense of self deeply touched once in a classroom."
Resistance to Research and Research Utilization: The Death and Life of a Feedback Attempt
Authors: Chesler Mark , Flanders Mary
Published: March 2006

Some of the problems scientists encounter in making their feedback of research findings relevant and useful to educational practitioners are explored in this paper. Feedback of research findings is considered as the transmission-reception link in the research utilization chain. Two sessions of scientist-practitioner collaboration are described: one in which their interaction was unproductive and alienative, and one in which major progress was made in the direction of scientist clarity and utility and practitioner trust and acceptance. Drawing from the events of these two sessions, a conceptualization of the feedback process is made, with force fields representing the dilemmas facing practitioners in their postures toward scientists and scientific resources, and vice versa. A series of suggested "rules of the game" includes attention to the client's preparation and contract formation, the establishment of trust, the demonstration of valued resources, and the facilitation of client autonomy.a
Comparison of Behavioral Changes Resulting from Human Relations Training Laboratories of Different Lengthsa
Authors: Bunker Douglas R. , Knowles Eric S.
Published: March 2006

The present paper reorts a comparative study of enduring behavior changes following human relations training laboratories of three weeks' and two weeks' duration. A behavior change description questionnaire was used eight to ten months after training to elicit descriptions of a subject's postlaboratory behavior changes as seen by the subject himself and seven of his co-workers (including superiors, peers, and subordinates). A matched control sample was obtained and assessed in the same manner.

Two interrelated measures of change were derived from the questionnaires: the "total change score," composed of the total number of different changes mentioned by a subject and his co-workers; and the "verified change score," composed of those behavior changes which are mentioned by two or more persons in a set of descriptions. A set of 17 inductively derived content categories were also used to make a qualitative analysis of the changes.

While both laboratory trained samples differed from the control sample on both measures, they also differed significantly from each other. Both the perceived change score and the verified change score reveal more changes made by the three-week sample. The content category analysis suggests that the three-week laboratory participants made more overt, pro-active changes, as opposed to the more passive, attitudinal changes made by the two-week sample. Analysis of changes by broad occupational groupings shows differences in response to training which interact with the samples studied.

The training designs of the three-week and two-week laboratories are discussed and shown to confound the duration variable. The greater relative emphasis on back-home application of laboratory training in the three-week program is suggested to be a major contributor to the qualitative differences in the kinds of changes made.
A Moment in Forever (The Personal Story of a Trainer)
Authors: Atkins Stuart
Published: March 2006

There are many dimensions to the application of laboratory training in our work and in our personal lives. Many of the articles that have appeared in this journal have explored the improvement of individual skills and abilities in work roles. This article explores a deeply personal side of the application of laboratory training. It is a frequent occurrence that individuals have intense and moving experiences in laboratory T Groups composed of persons who have never met one another before and who have no reason to believe that their paths will cross again. There is also the persistent dilemma of learning how to build into the enduring and significant relationships of our lives the same elements of openness, honesty, closeness, and caring that emerge in the T Group.

This article-or perhaps what might better be described as an autobiographical essay-is published with the hope that it illustrates both the possibilities and the dilemmas of using the momentary laboratory training experiences as a springboard for enriching our more enduring relationships. Carl Rogers describes it this way:

I have learned that if I can be close to what's going on in me and can communicate that to the other person, it is very likely to strike some deep note in him and to advance our relationship.... One of the things I have gradually learned is that what is most private to me is also most universal.

The Editor
Personality and the "Laboratory Style"'
Authors: Steele Fred I.
Published: March 2006

Much laboratory training activity assumes that all individuals have adequate skills for learning from immediate experience. The following study is based on the alternate premise that this type of learning requires a scientific posture toward one's world, and that this posture may be much more difficult for some personality types than for others. The author investigated this premise, using the Sensation Intuition scale of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (1962), and assuming that the Intuitive (N) mode of perception would be more facilitative of operation in the "laboratory style" than the Sensation (S) mode. Using three laboratory populations, it was found that the S-N scale does predict tendencies toward laboratory interpersonal value orientations (as measured by the Managerial Behavior Questionnaire) and ratings of effectiveness in a T Group. The scale was found less effective in predicting actual change. Several implications for laboratory selection and design are suggested.
Conditions for Competence Acquisition and Therapy
Authors: Argyris Chris
Published: March 2006

The acquisition of interpersonal competence and therapy are viewed as learning processes that differ in terms of several key dimensions. The former is especially relevant for those who are competence or growth oriented. Competence acquisition requires psychological success, the giving and receiving of information that is directly verifiable, minimally evaluative, and minimally contradictory. Therapy is especially relevant to those who are survival or deficiency oriented. Such individuals may best be helped by indirectly verifiable knowledge, knowledge that is evaluative and can lead to psychological failure. Competence acquisition requires a group setting whose internal milieu is different from that of therapy.
Phases, Roles, and Myths in Self-Analytic Groups
Authors: Dunphy Dexter C.
Published: March 2006

This paper describes a comparative study of the development of two self-analytic groups meeting over a period of nine months. Methodologically, the study employs a computer system of content analysis which reads verbal text and categorizes words and phrases into a set of psycho-sociological variables specified by the investigator. This method is applied to brief reports written weekly by group members. Analysis of variance and factor analytic methods are applied to the output of the computer system to develop a model of change in the social structure and culture of the groups. This model demonstrates that the groups passed through similar phases which were strongly influenced by the emergence of nonrational role specialists and given an underlying common meaning by an integrating group mythology.
A Short-Form Measure of Self-Actualization
Authors: Bonjean Charles M. , Vance Gary G.
Published: March 2006

The importance of the concept self-actualization is discussed in the context of explaining and predicting behavior in complex organizations. Assessing self-actualization by use of the semistructured research interview is discussed; and a short-form, structured instrument is set forth, not as a substitute, but as an alternative technique that may better meet the needs of investigators and practitioners, particularly where time, expense, and (relative lack of) interviewing and analytic skills are important factors. The short form is validated (a) by comparing the data yielded by it with the data yielded by the semistructured form and (b) by showing that the scores yielded by the structured technique are associated with the same phenomena as the scores yielded by the semistructured technique.
First Reports from an Experimental College
Authors: Sewell Elizabeth
Published: March 2006

The following items depart from the usual form of an "article." Yet they are pregnant with the experience and growth of a highly creative change agent. Dr. Elizabeth Sewell is a poet, a literary scholar, and the head of Bensalem College, which was launched on its uncharted path by Fordham University in the summer of 1967. Each paragraph contains ideas which many a writer would expand into a full essay.

The poems carry their own impact; comment would be superfluous.

The Editor
A Comparative Study of Consulting Processes and Group Development
Authors: Friedlander Frank
Published: March 2006

The impact of three organizational development consulting processes is analyzed and compared in terms of prelaboratory interaction between consultant and client, interaction during laboratory sessions (trainer role and behavior, session climate and content), and postlaboratory interaction. Results indicate that the success of the development programs could be much better explained by whether there were prelaboratory and postlaboratory consultant activities than by variations in trainer role and behavior or by differences in content and climate of training sessions. Thus the conditions which clearly resulted in outstanding growth in group effectiveness and interaction patterns were (a) utilization of the laboratory as only one part of an integrated, ongoing, context-related development program in which the consultant used prelaboratory and postlaboratory time to gather and act upon his knowledge about the workgroup and its organizational context, and (b) the utilization of an internal consulting group which facilitated data gathering and action steps by both client and consultant. The underlying cause for the superiority of an integrated development program over a single laboratory program seems to be the increased acquisition and utilization of knowledge by the consultant of the workgroup and its organizational context.

Among programs which relied entirely upon laboratory sessions (with no prework or postwork), the results were disappointing: programs in which laboratory sessions were essentially sensitivity training sessions resulted (six months later) in a greater sense of involvement by members of the workgroup but had little or no impact on other group dimensions of effectiveness and interaction. Conversely, laboratories which were active, conceptual, and analytical of processes and participants had no impact upon member involvement and trust and resulted in minimum increases in group effectiveness.
Self-Directed Change: Two Studies
Authors: Kolb David A. , Winter Sara K. , Berlew David E.
Published: March 2006

These studies describe two experiments testing the effectiveness of a new procedure for self-directed behavior change in a self-analytic group and investigating the effects of variations in the change technique. In both studies, graduate students in industrial management selected personal change goals and worked to achieve them during weekly or biweekly group meetings. Initial commitment to achieveing the change goal was significantly related to change for subjects in both experiments (p < .015). The 25 subjects in Experiment I who were in groups where exchange of feedback about the projects was encouraged reported significantly more change (p < .o3) than did the 21 subjects in groups where the projects were not discussed. In Experiment II, where all 54 subjects were encouraged to discuss the projects, it was found that the amount of discussion of an individual's project in the group during the second half of the semester was significantly related to both self-perceived change (p < .015) and to group leaders' ratings of change (p < .015).
Operation KPE: Developing a New Organization
Authors: Dayal Ishwar , Thomas John M.
Published: March 2006

Although behavioural science concepts and consultants are being utilized with increasing impact in many organizations, no work, to the authors' knowledge, has been done with a virtually new organization. This paper describes a programme of organizational development in a new company.

As a framework for the programme, three key problem areas were initially diagnosed as important for the future growth of the organization: (a) individual problems of identity, future security, and alienation; (b) a group-level problem of developing interdependence within the top management team; and (c) organizational issues associated with policy formulation and adaptation to the environment. The behavioural science concept of organizational role was applied to the problem of interdependence in evolving a new method of group development-The Role Analysis Technique (RAT).

The paper concludes with a discussion of three general issues which affect the future growth of the new organization: (a) the importance of developing concurrently at individual, group, and organizational levels; (b) the importance of evolving a norm of selfconsciousness about processes of growth; and (c) the dual relevance of differentiation and integration for effective organization development.
The Increasing Involvement of the Psychologist in Social Problems: Some Comments, Positive and Negative
Authors: Rogers Carl R.
Published: March 2006

On September 1, 1968, Carl R. Rogers received the professional achievement award given by the American Board of Professional Psychology at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association in San Francisco. He replied with seven incisive challenges to professional applied behavioral scientists. We are proud to publish them.

The Editor
The Initiation of Superordinate Goals
Authors: Johnson David W. , Lewicki Roy J.
Published: March 2006

The following is an exploratory study comparing the initiation of two types of superordinate goals in a highly competitive, nonzero-sum bargaining situation. One superordinate goal was introduced by a third party, was perceived by the participants as a natural event not linked to or created by the third party, and was not perceived by the bargainers in the conflict to be aimed at resolving the conflict. The other superordinate goal was initiated by one of the participants in the conflict, was identified with the initiator, and was perceived as being aimed at resolving the conflict. A variation of the standard intergroup conflict exercise was used for the study.

The data indicate that the first type of superordinate goal resolved the competition between the groups but in a way which, it is hypothesized, may lead to premature agreement, leaving the basic conflict of interests unresolved. The second type of superordinate goal, on the other hand, became caught up in the competitiveness of the situation and increased, rather than decreased, the competition.
Protest or Conform: Some Social Psychological Perspectives on Legitimacy
Authors: Flacks Richard
Published: March 2006

This is an edited version of a paper given at the September i, 1968, meeting of the American Psychological Association in San Francisco, California. Since Richard Flacks's paper is both timely and provocative, we feel it a privilege to publish it here.

The Editor
Effect of Feedback on Interpersonal Sensitivity in Laboratory Training Groups
Authors: Myers Gail E. , Myers Michele T. , Goldberg Alvin , Welch Charles E.
Published: March 2006

The 69 participants in the 1966 Rocky Mountain Workshop in Group Development, sponsored by the Adult Education Council of Metropolitan Denver, served as subjects in the present investigation. The study was designed to determine whether an instrumented feedback procedure based on sociometric ratings would help the members of laboratory training groups increase their sensitivity to others. It was found that subjects in experimental groups who filled out sociometric questionnaires and received feedback on their mutual ratings showed a significantly greater increase in sensitivity during a three-day period than control subjects who were not exposed to the sociometric procedure. Subjects in # i and # 2 control groups who rated one another but who did not receive feedback did not show a significant increase in sensitivity between the beginning and the end of the workshop, regardless of a time control in the administration of the questionnaire.
Black and White Students in Several Small Communities
Authors: Schmuck Richard A. , Luszki Margaret Barron
Published: March 2006

Sixty-three Negro pupils from eight classrooms in small Midwest communities were matched with an equal number of white peers on sex, grade, age, and socioeconomic status. The purpose of the study was to determine how black pupils in settings quite different from extensively studied central cities of large metropolitan areas compared on various measures of school and personal adjustment with their white counterparts. Measures included three student perceptual variables (self-esteem, school adjustment, and perceived parental support of school); attitudes toward family and peer groups; vocational interests and aspirations toward the futureall obtained from a sentence completion test; teacher ratings; and sociometric questions related to liking, influence, and expertness.

The few differences found favored the Negro pupils. Black boys were significantly higher on the school adjustment index than white boys, and in the eyes of their children, black parents displayed more interest in their sons' schoolwork than did white parents. Analysis by classrooms divided according to the percentage of black pupils showed no differences in school or personal adjustment on the measures used, suggesting that, in the classrooms studied, whether a pupil was in a majority or a minority position as a Negro had little bearing on his feeling of being accepted by his peers. Other findings showed greater differences based on sex rather than race. The implications of these findings are discussed, and recommendations for classroom teachers are presented.