bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Residential Mobility
Authors: Roux Guillaume Le
Published: April 2019

Residential mobility has been the subject of much research in various disciplines such as demography, economics, geography, history, and sociology. The meaning of this concept changes depending on the discipline, the date, and the national academic context. In its broadest sense, residential mobility can be defined as residence relocation regardless of the distance between the dwellings. The focus on the topic shifted from the measure of interregional migration to the study of individual behaviors in urban areas. In the meantime, the approaches diversified from a transversal perspective to a life‐course perspective, offering promising prospects of research.
RiodeJaneiro
Authors: Silvestre Gabriel
Published: April 2019

Brazil's second largest metropolitan area and one of the world's largest megalopolises, Rio de Janeiro is known for the beauty of its natural settings, its cultural heritage, and as a center of the oil and gas industry. It was an important colonial city of the Portuguese empire and capital of Brazil for almost 200 years until the construction of Brasília. Its development trajectory is illustrative of the urbanization process of Brazil, marked by phases of accelerated growth, intense inward migration, and uneven development. Around 22 percent of the population live in favelas, making Rio a city marked by social inequality and spatial segregation. The hosting of the 2016 Olympic Games was envisioned as a watershed moment in urban development but the delivery of a global city agenda was plagued by difficulties. Political and economic instability have affected the country, region, and city since 2015 and the post‐Olympic development trajectory of Rio is unclear.
Rural Migrant to the City
Authors: Liu Ye , Liu Yuqi
Published: April 2019

The growing flood of rural population to cities in the Global South has drawn much attention from social scientists. Rural migrants in the city are a socially heterogeneous group. Their migration to the city is relational between migrants, nonmigrants, and former migrants and situated within the economic, social, and cultural structures of both sending and receiving areas. Their decision to move is influenced by multifaceted and complex factors. The impacts of rural migrants' stay in the city on their well‐being and life chances are mixed. In the host city, they benefit from the improvement of life chances and economic well‐being, but they suffer from social exclusion as well as institutional discrimination. The concentration of rural migrants has both beneficial and detrimental effects on the host city. How to manage rural migrants is, therefore, a highly contested and politically controversial issue in most countries.
Rustbelt
Authors: Rich Meghan Ashlin
Published: April 2019

Rustbelt, a term that dates to the 1970s, originally refers to a geographic region of the USA, a swath encompassing the industrial manufacturing cities within the Midwest and Northeast. Economic restructuring, global competition, demographic shifts, and fiscal crises precipitated the steep decline of industrial cities. Cities in the manufacturing belt of the USA rose with the fortunes of industry in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. After World War II, a number of major shifts to the US economy led to the decline of rustbelt cities: the rise in importance of the automobile industry to the US economy, the federally subsidized suburbanization of the USA, and the expansion of an extensive interstate highway system. A unionized workforce became less attractive to major industries, facing pressure from shareholders as well as competitive global industries. Cities have attempted economic restructuring through nodal services, the creative economy, and the growth of immigrant communities.
Santiago
Authors: Oyarzun Fernando Pérez
Published: April 2019

Santiago, capital city of the Republic of Chile, is located in a wide valley in the center of the country, which is crossed by the Mapocho and Maipo rivers. Pedro de Valdivia, a Spanish conquistador, founded it in 1541. Its population reached six million in 2010. Surrounded by a beautiful mountain landscape, it is considered an attractive location for international investment, due to its communication and financial systems. Administratively, it is divided into a large number of small municipalities; it does not have a central authority for the whole metropolitan area. Air pollution, due to lack of natural ventilation in winter, is one of its main shortcomings. The housing deficit has been confronted through intense social housing construction policies. However, the lack of good quality conditions in vulnerable neighborhoods remains significant.
Section 8/Housing Choice Voucher
Authors: McClure Kirk
Published: April 2019

The federal government of the USA uses the Section 8 and Housing Choice Voucher programs to help poor renter households consume good quality, affordable housing. The Section 8 program contained both a production component and a voucher component. The production component has about 785,000 units in a rapidly shrinking portfolio. The Housing Choice Voucher program serves about 2.4 million households. Both programs help households whose income is very low, below 30 percent of the area median family income. The households receiving vouchers lease a unit that passes a physical inspection and has rents below a ceiling amount. The tenant pays about 30 percent of income toward the rent and utility costs, and the program pays the remainder. The voucher program has not produced the spatial mobility that was expected. Rather, participating households tend to remain in neighborhoods with high concentrations of poverty and few employment opportunities.
Sensing Cities
Authors: Davidson Joyce , Henderson Victoria L.
Published: April 2019

The term
sensing cities
seeks to express something of the phenomenal, affective, and emotional ways city life is experienced. Instead of focusing on the city as a territorial unit or a technocratic articulation of modern political economy, it urges an appreciation of how urban modes of life are mediated through less quantifiable experiential forces and registers, often linked to particular
felt
understandings of the city as the pinnacle of modernity's “civilizing process.” The modern city binds strangers in relationships of utility, aesthetics, and ethics that require ongoing affective and emotional discipline, and the development and performance of urban(e)
sensibilities
.
Sexualities
Authors: Hubbard Phil
Published: April 2019

Sexuality has been a relatively ignored dimension of urban and regional research until recent times. The emergence of “queer theory” in the social sciences, coupled with the rising visibility of “LGBT neighborhoods” in many Western cities, has changed this, and encouraged increasingly innovative investigations of the way urban and rural spaces are experienced by those with sexual identities that are Other to the dominant heterosexual norms present in society. But, in addition to focusing on LGBT experiences, studies have also examined the ways that heterosexuality intersects with gender, class, and ethnicity to create complex topographies of desire and disgust. Such studies make a strong case that sexuality is as fundamental to the production and consumption of space as other categories of identity, and challenge urban and regional scholars to address sexual matters that they might find difficult or even “squeamish.”
Shanghai
Authors: Chen Xiangming
Published: April 2019

Shanghai's rise and transformations over the past 25 years have fascinated and intrigued the world. Many looking at Shanghai outside China accept the word “rise” as capturing the city's post‐1990 trajectory. Shanghai is also seen as a new global city that may soon rival Hong Kong and even London and New York in the future, although it was already one of the world's largest and most cosmopolitan cities in the 1920s. This entry suggests understanding Shanghai's post‐1990 rise and transformation through the lens of renaissance. Viewed this way, Shanghai's existing and envisioned roles in the twenty‐first century look remarkably similar to what they were earlier in the twentieth century, even though the underlying factors differ. Four salient themes are also identified as key elements that herald an emerging Shanghai school of urban studies: path dependency, the state's dilemma, migration and integration, the global–regional–local nexus.
Slums and Shanties
Authors: Gilbert Alan
Published: April 2019

Until the twentieth century, the slum was a problem of the Global North. Today, poor quality housing, a lack of services, and frequently overcrowding are confined mainly to the Global South. There the shelter problem is one less of homelessness than of quality – flimsy and unserviced structures house far too many people. Unlike the slums of the North, most of the poor quality shelter in the South has been built by the people themselves. Such self‐help housing can be highly problematic, particularly when it is built in dangerous places and where governments fail to provide essential infrastructure and services, but it is often a highly effective solution to rapid urban growth. Too many slums exist, but the vast bulk of shanty housing is capable of improvement and without it the Global South would face an even worse shelter crisis than it does today.
Shenzhen
Authors: Ross Benjamin David
Published: April 2019

Shenzhen is an urban megalopolis of over 10 million people in southeastern China. As late as the 1970s it consisted of only two small urban hamlets and a smattering of fishing villages. Shenzhen is the preeminent example of the massive urbanization sparked by China's shift from a command to a market economy, beginning with the Deng Xiaoping reforms of 1978. It has thus provided fertile ground for urban scholars to study many of the issues relating to China's urbanization and political economy such as rural‐to‐urban migration, urban villages, and land rights.
S
mith,
N
eil
Authors: Dunn Kathleen
Published: April 2019

Neil Smith (1954–2012) was an influential Marxist geographer known for his work on gentrification and the process of uneven development. His rent gap theory of gentrification argues that reinvestment in working‐class urban areas arises due to a gap between present and potential ground rent if redeveloped for a higher and better use. Smith characterized gentrification as a class project of revanchism, or revenge, of the upper classes to “take back” the city, a late‐twentieth‐century manifest destiny of urban “pioneering” for profit. He also developed an influential theory of uneven development, explicating how nature is produced from within the capitalist mode of production and offering a relational method for analyzing the production of space writ large. Smith also wrote extensively about the relationship between the discipline of geography, empire, and globalization, writing a widely lauded book on geographer Isaiah Bowman and a final shorter book on the ends of globalization. Born and raised in Scotland, Smith earned his doctorate degree as a student of David Harvey at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore and held positions at Columbia University, Rutgers University, and from 2000 to his death in 2012 was distinguished professor at the City University of New York Graduate Center, where he founded the Center for Place, Culture and Politics.
Social Innovation in Cities
Authors: Oosterlynck Stijn
Published: April 2019

Social innovation refers to localized social initiatives that address unmet social needs through a transformation of social relationships that empowers people. The term has a long history, going back to utopian socialism and the New Left's concern with autonomy and self‐governance, and is more recently related to the critique of technological determinism in urban and regional development research. It attempts to develop an alternative mode of social regulation that grounds urban and regional development in an ontology of community and neighborhood development rather than economic competitiveness. Current research and theory in social innovation are concerned with the localized character of social innovation, the role of the state, transdisciplinary knowledge production, and the shifting model of social change.
Social Mix
Authors: Ruiz‐Tagle Javier
Published: April 2019

“Social mix” generally denotes the social diversity of a given geographic area, which could be economically, racially, ethnically, and/or culturally based. It is a long‐standing planning ideal, has been achieved through different means, has been proposed for a wide variety of goals, and has been used interchangeably to refer to concepts like “integration,” “mixed‐income communities,” “poverty deconcentration,” “balanced communities,” and so on. There has been abundant literature from the 1990s, to the extent that social mix is currently one of the most studied subjects in the field, with at least five special issues of prominent academic journals dedicated to the topic. Although the evidence on the effects of social mix is somewhat mixed, the problems of its conceptual foundations and the amount and variety of issues created when implemented have led the large majority of academia to oppose this idea.
Sociospatial Differentiation
Authors: Li Zhigang
Published: April 2019

Sociospatial differentiation refers to the process or outcome of spatial division between different social groups. The dynamics of sociospatial differentiation is attributed to various social, economic, cultural, and political factors at both macro and micro levels. There are different mechanisms of sociospatial differentiation across various contexts. In Western contexts, for instance, it is often attributed to such determinants as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and lifestyle. In transitional countries, such as China, it is largely determined by the lasting impacts of institutional factors such as residential registration, property rights, and so on. In the early twenty‐first century sociospatial differentiation has been exacerbated along with rising social inequality in both the Global North and the Global South. Direct discrimination in housing access has decreased but subtle practices of geographic steering, information restriction, and differential fees still persist.
Space
Authors: Klein Megan R.
Published: April 2019

This entry focuses on the study of space, particularly in the field of sociology. It traces the history of spatial thinking in sociology from the early twentieth century to more recent scholarship which brings space into conversation with dimensions of oppression such as race and gender.
Spatial Consciousness
Authors: Galland Daniel , Grønning Marius
Published: April 2019

Spatial consciousness may refer to individual or collective awareness about real‐world spatial phenomena and processes. This entry begins by framing the “spatial” while linking it with the realm of the “conscious” by proposing a conceptual articulation that differs between three distinct but interrelated perspectives on consciousness in relation to space, namely phenomenal, representational, and intentional. The entry then elaborates an account of spatial consciousness from the perspective of planning as a spatial discipline, departing from the early experiences of planning as a modern project, followed by contemporary understandings and illustrative examples. On the basis of these respectively conceptual and applied accounts, the entry finally reflects on the role of spatial consciousness in practice and in the expanding canon of academic planning literature, from its Western tenets to a postcolonial, global perspective, and considers a series of theoretical and practical implications.
Spatial Pioneers
Authors: Christmann Gabriela B.
Published: April 2019

Spatial pioneers are individuals who enter unpopulated areas (greenfield sites), and especially populated areas, both urban and rural, appropriating and changing them in new ways. The appropriations of spatial pioneers are implemented through new uses of spaces, creative changes of spatial–material arrangements, and – not to be neglected – by the attribution of new meanings to places. Spatial pioneers tend to be artists or creative or alternative types, but also include civil society actors and microentrepreneurs in the creative industries. Some pioneers specifically go to places that are not used (temporarily) by their owners (e.g., vacant lots, abandoned buildings) and are therefore devalued. These types of spatial pioneers are also called temporary users. It has been repeatedly shown that creative uses and symbolic transformations by spatial pioneers ultimately add value to places. Due to this observed higher valuation, urban and regional planning stakeholders have been taking advantage of the creative actions of spatial pioneers since the 1990s, not only in many European countries (mainly the UK, the Netherlands, and Germany), but throughout the world (e.g., in the USA).
Spatial Segregation
Authors: Rasse Alejandra
Published: April 2019

The notion of spatial segregation refers to the distribution of social groups, infrastructure, activities, or any other element in space. Urban studies typically analyze segregation across different groups (socioeconomic, racial, ethnic), defined as the degree of separation among social groups in a city space. The causes of spatial segregation encompass sociocultural, institutional, and economic factors. Central aspects to consider include the role of the state, through urban regulations and housing policy, and the role of the land market in urban organization. There are diverse forms of segregation with wide‐ranging consequences for those subject to it. Although the emergence of enclaves may be positive, there is consensus that large segregated zones, inhabited almost entirely by people from disadvantaged backgrounds, lead to negative repercussions for these groups. The link between detrimental consequences and certain types of segregation has prompted the development of urban desegregation policies.
Sprawl
Authors: Hanlon Bernadette
Published: April 2019

A typical description of sprawl is a pattern of scattered low density peripheral urban development. The general consensus among commentators is that sprawl has at least one or more of the following characteristics: low density of buildings that results in an overconsumption of land and open space; little infrastructure for walking and public transit use but instead a reliance on the automobile and a large network of highways; a lack of traditional town centers; and the separation of residential settlements from workplaces and retail spaces. Sprawl is considered by many to be inefficient from the perspective of infrastructure and public service provision and, in addition, scholars suggest sprawl causes social and environmental problems. For instance, sprawl is said to encourage driving, exacerbate commute times, and thus create air pollution.
Studentification
Authors: Smith Darren P.
Published: April 2019

This entry outlines the main conceptual hallmarks of studentification. It shows that studentification is a term that is used globally to conceptualize urban changes tied to high concentrations of university students in distinct local neighborhoods. It reveals that studentification is a highly dynamic process of change, moving into new frontiers within towns and cities, and preceding processes of destudentification in some locations.
Suburbanization
Authors: Acharya Shrawan Kumar
Published: April 2019

The process of moving people and activities out from the core city to the suburbs, the commuting zone, is described as suburbanization. Suburbanization provides the opportunity to work and live separately and is the principal form of contemporary urbanization in the world, including the developing countries. It is facilitated by changes in the production system, improvements in transport technology, rural–urban migration, globalization, urban revitalization, and gentrification of the inner city areas. Suburbanization is constructed as a place for communitarian and sustainable living but has also been seen as anticity, as it has been associated with the decline and shrinkage of cities. As a lived experience and social construct it is a highly contested and hybrid space.
Surabaya
Authors: Silas Johan
Published: April 2019

Surabaya is one of the oldest inhabited cities in Indonesia, mentioned in historical records as long ago as the thirteenth century. Surabaya has been defeated in wars against the kingdoms of Yogya and Solo, colonized for over three centuries by the Dutch, yet after independence gradually the city managed to develop not only in terms of its built environment, but, most important, the cultural and human sides have been well looked after. Surabaya is an important commercial city in Indonesia, next to Jakarta. The strength of the growth of Surabaya is attributed to the deep involvement of the people and care for the lower income citizens. Thekampungimprovement program (KIP) has been well and consistently implemented and improved, but building a smart city and smart people in a wider way has also been achieved. With significantly high economic growth, Surabaya can also be called an ecological city, comparable to other towns and cities in the world.
Tokyo
Authors: Jacobs Andrew J.
Published: April 2019

Located in eastern Japan on the Kanto Plain and off Tokyo Bay, the 23Tokubetsu‐Kuencompass the territory formerly known as the City of Tokyo. Host to more than 9 million residents and 8 million workers, the TokyoKuare situated within a city‐region of nearly 37 million inhabitants, with 19 million in employment. Known for its high cost of living and its relatively lower levels of crime, income inequality, and racial‐ethnic diversity, Tokyo represents an interesting case study for scholars and students to compare with Western global city‐regions.
Tourist Bubble/Tourist Enclaves
Authors: Allis Thiago
Published: April 2019

Despite increases in and diversification of tourism since the mid‐twentieth century, the tourist bubble or tourist enclave phenomenon, with few exceptions, has been under research scrutiny since the 1990s. Tourism and related activities are intertwined with urban dynamics in different ways, from a quasi‐entire segregation – as in the resort complexes in coastal areas – to situations where the boundaries are blurred – as observed in the downtown requalification interventions since the 1970s in the USA and more recently in several countries (Germany, Spain, and more recently Latin American and Asian nations). Concepts of “tourism urbanization” and “urban tourism precincts” help researchers to understand and discuss the issues and contradictions of the relationship between tourism and urbanism, including some emerging reactions from local communities against the gentrification process associated with tourism development in urban spaces.
Uneven Economic Development
Authors: August Martine
Published: April 2019

Uneven economic development refers to the unequal patterns of growth and decline that emerge under capitalism, at a range of spatial scales, and that oscillate back and forth across space and over time. Marxist geographers have theorized how contradictions inherent to capitalism generate uneven development, explaining patterns of inner city decline, suburbanization, and gentrification. In the post‐1970s era of financialization and neoliberalism, uneven economic development and income inequality have intensified.
Urban Border
Authors: Jirón Paola
Published: April 2019

The study of borders is diverse, in terms of geographic and spatial scales as well as in terms of the types of borders studied and the disciplines that approach them. Border studies have evolved from a fixed territorial demarcation to seeing borders as processes and to a current more complex understanding of the experience of being and living in borders. Urban studies, particularly through urban planning, urban design, and architecture, has used the concept of borders as a planning tool to demarcate urban peripheries, limits, and edges in the city. Moreover, urban segregation and exclusion generally refer to various sorts of borders and boundaries generated in the city. A more contemporary understanding of urban borders sees them as dynamic, constantly shifting and changing; this involves understanding the way they are currently being performed and the implications of living, crossing, and experiencing borders.
Urban Citizenship
Authors: Fenster Tovi
Published: April 2019

Urban citizenship is a relatively new and critical concept aimed at challenging the traditional, nationally related, “top‐down” concept of citizenship. It proposes perceiving the citizen, inhabitant, and/or dweller as eligible to possess their rights to the city, the right to appropriate, and the right to participate. This Lefebvrian notion has been challenged by the reality of the 2011 protest movements and recently by the waves of refugees arriving in Europe from Syria, Afghanistan, and other countries.
Urban Consumption
Authors: Giglia Angela
Published: April 2019

Consumption is a fundamental part of contemporary city experience, as a result of the global economy and recent changes in the organization of spaces and urban order. Contemporary consumption places and urban practices are more and more articulated one to the other, responding to the socioeconomic stratification and residential location of inhabitants in metropolitan space. Consumption's most important characteristics are examined in this entry, which also indicates the necessity for further research in particular topics such as anticonsumerism networks, domestic consumption, and the illegal economy.
Urban Culture
Authors: Borer Michael Ian
Published: April 2019

Cities around the world are comprised of heterogeneous persons and ideas. The actions and interactions of people in cities are dependent upon urban dwellers' ability to live, work, and play near, and often with, strangers. This requires both a tolerance of differences and a willingness to accept and subscribe to overarching symbols, narratives, and rules of engagement in public places and spaces. Heterogeneity and the ways that urban dwellers contend with it are the key defining aspects of urban culture throughout contemporary cities.
Urban Entrepreneurial Governance
Authors: Lawton Philip
Published: April 2019

Almost three decades since the inception of the term “urban entrepreneurial governance,” this entry traces its shifting role since its inception, to the ways in which it has become increasingly embedded within cities on a global scale. This is demonstrated through an overview of the overlaps between different entrepreneurial strategies, including, for example, the creative class, real estate interests, and the promotion of place‐making strategies. In drawing out the role of these elements, the entry demonstrates how entrepreneurial urban governance has become part of a wider neoliberal shift in contemporary cities that is deeply uneven in its make‐up.
Urban Farming
Authors: Michelle Glowa K.
Published: April 2019

Urban farming has a long and varied history in cities across the globe. Since industrialization, urban farming has been used by institutional actors and social movements alike to promote food security, social stability, ecological sustainability, and economic development. Today scholars ask if urban farming challenges dominant uses and ideologies of space.
Urban History
Authors: Ibarra Macarena
Published: April 2019

Urban history is a field of history that focuses on the study of the city and of its urbanization processes. This field has developed from different traditions according to material and temporal contexts and it has been influenced by the shifts that historiography has experienced from the early twentieth century. Urban history is, naturally, an interdisciplinary field, while the collaborative work with specialists and professionals of diverse backgrounds is crucial for examining its objects of study. The different entities, associations, and societies, created in the twentieth and twenty‐first centuries, also show how urban history has contributed to urban studies and planning.
Urban Inequalities
Authors: D. Perelman Mariano
Published: April 2019

Focusing on the construction of social inequalities entails thinking of processes as relational, complex, and as products of long‐term historical development. It also entails thinking that the asymmetric distribution of territory – among other valuable assets – is at the center of social conflicts and of the (re)production of urban inequalities. Temporalities and the moralities of urban space are part of the way in which urban inequalities are produced and reproduced. The potentiality of the concept of urban inequality lies in the fact that it has the capacity to allow researchers to comprehend relationships between social groups and between them and space. It makes possible the study of social processes, as well as personal and group interactions throughout the entire urban space, unlike studies on segregation or poverty.
Urban Informality
Authors: Kundu Debolina
Published: April 2019

The interest in planning theory, particularly focused on housing, and the need to explain a resurgence of the urban informal sector in First and Third World contexts within the framework of globalization have particularly influenced emerging research in this area. The dynamism exhibited by the Asian metropolises and their particular location in national economic and political trajectories result in specific contestations which are manifested spatially and among diverse communities. Emerging global financial, cultural, ideological, and political flows through these cities configure urban informality in unique ways that offer insights on temporospatial processes in cities as well as on transnational urbanism. This entry focuses on the major dimensions of urban informality as a subject, changes over time, and current emphases of work in research theory. It argues that planners across the globe must learn to work with emerging urban forms. Policy epistemologies emerging from such studies are useful not only for cities of the developing world but also more generally for the discipline of urban planning.
Urban Policies
Authors: Mixon Constance A.
Published: April 2019

As cities and their metropolitan regions are home to our most intractable social and economic challenges, the responsibilities and activities falling under the umbrella of urban policy continue to expand. This entry addresses the policies and actions of large cities in the USA, and the changing urban policy landscape of the twenty‐first century. This entry provides a summary of national urban policy in the USA, highlighting its decentralized nature. Unlike many other developed Western democracies, the USA has never had a fully comprehensive national urban policy agenda. Most urban policy in the USA depends on subgovernments. Thus, urban policy in the USA is highly variable and increasingly dependent on market forces.
Urban Poverty
Authors: Cano Ana Belén
Published: April 2019

Urban poverty refers to the set of economic and social difficulties that are found in industrialized cities and that are the result of a combination of processes such as the establishment of comfortable living standards, the increase of individualism, processes of social fragmentation, and the dualization of the labor market, which translates into social dualization (a divide between those who find themselves living within the conditions of well‐being and those who remain on the margins, excluded). It has been studied from two main analytical perspectives: the
underclass approach
(the theory that considers that poor people are responsible for their own poverty) and the
poverty approach
(which sees poverty as produced and reproduced by structural social forces). Methodologically, the measurement of urban poverty basically uses two methods: the
identification method
, based on a national minimum income considered indispensable for survival; and the method that analyzes social services users. The conceptual and analytical challenge in analyzing urban poverty requires focusing on the processes that generate urban poverty, such as social dualization, stigmatization, poverty concentration, precariousness, and not merely calculating the level of poverty. It involves analyzing the conditions that lead to the consolidation of situations of poverty, both the processes that generate urban poverty and those that offer a way out of it, in order to understand these processes with a view to acting on them.
Urban Regime Theory
Authors: Smith James M.
Published: April 2019

Urban regime theory has been the leading concept within urban politics for analyzing coalition‐based politics in large US cities. Urban regimes have been studied in numerous settings in the USA and beyond, with a specific focus on the informal relationships between public and private actors that allow city governments to develop and act on a policy agenda. In the early 2010s, the regime approach remained a central feature of the urban politics literature; however, many debates were underway on how to move beyond urban regime theory. These discussions about “next steps” in theory‐building have focused on the ways in which the validity of regime theory has been affected by changes in the global economy, transitions in intergovernmental relations, and scholarly critiques of the theory.
Urban Rescaling
Authors: Lukas Michael
Published: April 2019

This entry presents the evolution of the discussion about urban rescaling, relating it to the more general “scale debate,” on the one hand, and the urban implications of globalization, on the other. Different scale‐related approaches and issues such as global city theory, the rescaling of urban form, the rescaling of state spatiality, urban governance under neoliberalism, and the politics of scale are discussed. It is argued that the debate on urban rescaling has made significant contributions to expanding the conceptual vocabulary of urban and regional studies.
Urban Restructuring
Authors: Schafran Alex
Published: April 2019

Urban restructuring
generally refers to long‐term, major changes in the underlying economy, demography, physical layout, architecture, infrastructure, culture, social relations, or politics of city‐regions. Restructuring is by definition a historical concept, always referring to how major facets of an urban space have changed at a foundational level over time. While primarily used at the city‐region scale, it can be used to analyze major underlying changes at any scale. Its primary utility is its flexibility, holism, and lack of fixed definition or geographically specific connotations. Scholars around the world from different fields have embraced the concept as a way to conceptualize the various underlying changes impacting neighborhoods, cities, and regions.
Urban Revolution
Authors: Pradel‐Miquel Marc
Published: April 2019

The term “urban revolution” has been used to describe the social transformations that gave rise to city‐states during the Neolithic Age, and more broadly to refer to the growing centrality of urban life. Urban revolution refers to the historical shift from agricultural settlements to complex and dense communities constituting systems of trade and production. The term has also been used to refer to the transition to the traditional city in late capitalism, the expansion of the urban sphere, and the creation of large metropolitan regions in the context of postindustrial economies. The analysis of the urban revolution has engendered considerable debates on the nature of cities and on the elements explaining their growth, as well as debates on the historical formation of the state. More recently, the term has been used to describe the process of planetary urbanization.
Urban Transportation
Authors: Barbero José A. , Galeota Carla
Published: April 2019

Population growth, urban expansion, and greater prosperity lead to an increased flow of people and goods in cities. Transport systems face difficulties in coping with these escalations in demand, particularly when individual motorized transport becomes dominant. In this context, the urban mobility agenda is not limited to ensuring the provision of adequate access for people and goods, but should also try to reduce the negative impacts generated by transportation systems. Urban transport is facing a radical change as it looks for solutions compatible with sustainable development. This demands coordination of mobility strategies with other public policies, particularly those directed at urban development, housing, social inclusion, the environment, and energy. The challenge is greater in the developing world cities, where motorization is developing fast, public transport networks are weak, and there are significant financial and institutional barriers.
Value Capture
Authors: Smolka Martim O.
Published: April 2019

Value capture provides a mechanism for communities to recover land‐value windfalls accruing to land owners from public investments in infrastructure and services or from beneficial changes in land‐use norms and regulations. This progressive public financing option is gaining noteworthy traction in Latin American jurisdictions, as well as in nations worldwide. In recent years, the goal of value capture policies has broadened from cost recovery from direct beneficiaries of public investments to fairer redistribution of the overall costs and benefits of urbanization. In particular, charges for additional building rights have shown great promise in raising significant revenues to fund urban development.
Wired City
Authors: Dutton William H.
Published: April 2019

In the 1970s, telecommunication experts and journalists promoted conceptions of a wired city. They were inspired by the convergence of computing and telecommunications in the design of new cable systems, but their visions focused on the social uses and implications of local and interactive, two‐way communications, in contrast to one‐to‐many national broadcasting networks. Wired cities would reinforce local community news, education, and democracy. The vision fostered wired city projects that experimented with many of the innovations in electronic communication that have since become widely available with the diffusion of the Internet, such as for online news, entertainment, and commerce. However, rising concerns over urban social and economic issues, such as digital divides, created a context in which advances in wireless, big data, and social media help resurrect visions of digital media supporting more responsive urban communities.
Yangtze River Delta
Authors: Shen Jianfa , Kee Gordon
Published: April 2019

Centering on Shanghai, the Yangtze River Delta region is emerging as an important global city‐region. The entry introduces the socioeconomic development of the region, then focuses on the regional governance issues induced by the rapid economic and urban development. It argues that the lack of an appropriate governance system resulted in many problems at urban and regional levels, such as vicious intercity competition. Merger of administrative units is a mere palliative but signs of introducing proper regional governance have been seen in recent years. There are both top‐down regional planning efforts and bottom‐up cooperation initiatives. The
YRD Regional Planning
and the CUE Forum are two examples, respectively. The stakeholders' efforts contribute to deeper regional integration both spatially and functionally.
Zoning
Authors: Gatica Yasna Contreras
Published: April 2019

Zoning emerged, at the end of the nineteenth century, as an answer to the increasing density of city centers. The origin of zoning theory can be found in Germany as a concept coming from a functional perspective based on the increasing density and height of buildings. In the United States, more specifically in New York, the term was used in 1916 as applied to urban regulation, recognizing not only the difficulties of different land uses, but the interests of private agents and owners of particular spaces in the city, establishing requirements regarding the height of buildings, volumes, and population density within regulations. Zoning criteria in contemporary urban and regional studies give rise to many questions around the production processes of the city and attempts to control and conduct its physical and social occupation, and the conflicts and contradictions produced in the city.
A
msterdam
S
chool, 1910–1930
Authors: de Wit Wim
Published: April 2019

The term “Amsterdam School” refers to a group of architects active in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, between about 1910 and 1930. These architects, including Michel de Klerk (1884–1923), Pieter L. Kramer (1881–1961), and Hendrik T. Wijdeveld (1885–1987), are especially well known for the public housing blocks they designed in their city during and after World War I. Building primarily in brick, the Amsterdam School architects were able to mold this material into sculptural, often block‐long, structures. Ornamental details, seemingly rising out of the facade's surface, gave those buildings a unified look and helped to avoid the sense that the housing projects consisted of accumulations of relatively small apartments. The monthly journal
Wendingen
(“Turnings” or “Upheavals”) was the mouthpiece for this group of architects. It was published with some interruptions between 1918 and 1932.
Slum Tourism
Authors: Frenzel Fabian
Published: April 2019

“Slum tourism” is a growing form of international tourism that is found in many cities around the world. It has been fiercely criticized as voyeuristic, but defended as potentially contributing to poverty relief. In a narrow sense, slum tourism concerns short visits and guided tours through areas of urban poverty. More broadly, slum tourism can be described as a practice that addresses the relationship between poor and nonpoor and thus is connected to the “social question.” Slum tourism is related to a number of cultural and social forms that also address the poor–nonpoor relationship, including literature, film, and art. The economic impact of slum tourism has been discussed mainly with regard to the narrow definition of slum tourism as commoditized tours of poor neighborhoods. More recent approaches to slum tourism propose a broader understanding of its economic, social, and political impacts through the concept of tourist valorization.
Aerotropolis
Authors: Kasarda John D.
Published: April 2019

The aerotropolis is a new urban form that relies on an airport and its integrated surface transportation infrastructure to speedily connect high value, time‐sensitive firms to their distant suppliers, customers, and enterprise partners. It consists of a multimodal airport‐based commercial core (airport city) and outlying corridors and clusters of aviation‐linked businesses and associated mixed‐use commercial/residential developments that benefit from each other and from their accessibility to the airport. The competitive advantages of the aerotropolis along with its key components, planning principles, critiques, and counterpoints are discussed.
Historic Urban Preservation
Authors: Zhang Yue
Published: April 2019

Historic urban preservation is the act or process of maintaining the physical form and original fabric of a building, a site, or an urban area. From ancient times to the age of industrialization, the subject of preservation was expanded from historic monuments to urban texture. Facing the large‐scale urban renewal of the postwar era, policy‐makers in different countries tied historic urban preservation to zoning ordinances and tax policies. While these policies led to the protection and adaptive reuse of historical structures and neighborhoods, they caused gentrification in cities. The concept of historic urban preservation is largely an invention of the West, but it was exported and diffused to the rest of the world in the process of globalization. There has been an increasingly close connection between historic urban preservation and the tourism industry. In many cities, from the East to the West, historic buildings are restored as tourist attractions.
Luxury City
Authors: Brash Julian
Published: April 2019

This entry discusses the term “luxury city,” defined as a distinct strategy of development that aims to bring into being an urban environment geared to satisfy the interests and desires of wealthy elites in a variety of ways. The entry notes the ways in which the concept builds on and extends to other concepts in urban theory, discusses the role that the luxury city plays in contemporary class processes, and links the luxury city to the ongoing deepening of global economic inequality.
Nature's Metropolis
Authors: Sirigotis James
Published: April 2019

“Nature's metropolis” is both a seminal text in urban studies and a theoretical orientation toward the interdependencies of urban centers and their rural hinterlands. While the term was coined by William Cronon, the concept has gone on to inform a wide range of research that focuses on the coconstitution of urban and rural landscapes, fundamentally challenging the traditional Western nature–society binaries. Hailing from a Marxist tradition, research regarding nature and cities has been tied to analyses of the changing modes of capitalist industrialization and urbanization. Today a variety of work overturns the long‐held ideological boundaries between nature and society and between urban and rural in various ways, some of which are reviewed here.
PhiladelphiaNegro,The/W. E. B. DuBois
Authors: Reed Touré F.
Published: April 2019

W. E. B. DuBois'sThe Philadelphia Negrohas remained a topic of study and debate since it was originally published in 1899. The study not only pioneered concepts and methods that would define American sociology but provides clear insights into the class politics that informs DuBois's vision for racial uplift at the dawn of the twentieth century.
Place Attachment
Authors: Paulsen Krista E.
Published: April 2019

Place attachment
describes the emotional and affective bonds between people and places. These places might be of any scale – a room in a house, a local restaurant or bar, a city, or a region. Place attachments are typically formed as people engage in positive interactions in places over time, imbuing those places with meaning and memories. Place attachment is particularly evident when people are displaced or when places are dramatically changed or destroyed. In the absence of such disruptions, we can recognize attachments as motivating a variety of behaviors that range from relocation to political and environmental activism.
Place Politics
Authors: Qian Junxi
Published: April 2019

This entry deals with the theme of place politics. It argues that place is rendered a center of contestation when competing imaginaries and conceptions of a particular locale come into mutual play. The primary point of view advocated here is that all political struggles and actions are place‐based. In addition, this entry outlines two major dimensions of place politics: first, the threat of place being “annihilated” by the modernist logic of
space
and by the hegemonic impulses of globalization; and, second, the aspirations of different groups to define and monopolize identities of places and how struggles over meanings and values constitute the ongoing dynamics of power and resistance.
Place‐Making
Authors: Huang Shu‐Mei , Roberts Jayde Lin
Published: April 2019

Place‐making is an assemblage of related concepts and practices predicated on the phenomenon of place. Although scholars have mostly focused on human actions in particular locations and have prioritized the significance of materiality, some have argued that place is porous and multiscalar and contains multiple human and nonhuman actors. As a process, it can be conceived of as a bundle of numerous actors rather than as a prescribed territory. As praxis, it has been a loosely defined set of practices that seek to make, transform, and care for places and for the people in them. This process tends to be inclusive and is often synonymous with community‐building, which celebrates collective action, sometimes without sufficient recognition of the politics in place‐making. Given the increasing mobility of our world, mobility and place cannot be binaries. Today, to consider mobility in the discussion of place‐making is not just a theoretical discussion but also an empirical imperative.