bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Formative Site of Las Haldas, Peru: Architecture, Chronology, and Economy
Authors: Matsuzawa Tsugio , Shimada Izumi
Published: April 2006

In 1958 and 1969 the Tokyo University expeditions excavated the Formative site of Las Haldas on the Peruvian coast as part of their multiyear investigation into the developmental processes of Andean civilization. The site, known for a temple complex consisting of 6 terraces and a circular sunken court, provides comparative data for the key highland Formative site of Kotosh. The results of the 1969 excavation refuted the earlier view that the temple complex was preceramic. The large quantity of organic refuse, the architectural build-up, and the radiocarbon dates suggest long, continuous occupation based on maritime economy. Las Haldas was a key component of a pan-Andean exchange system, which cross-cut major ecological zones, and must be considered in conjunction with agricultural populations in the nearby Casma Valley and farther inland.
Stratigraphic Excavations in the Eastern Lowlands of Costa Rica
Authors: Snarskis Michael J.
Published: April 2006

Although the eastern lowlands of Costa Rica have seen little scientific archaeology, recent stratigraphic test excavations have outlined a ceramic sequence of almost 1,500 years in the region. The earliest ceramic complex in this sequence, El Bosque, has been radiocarbon dated to the first few centuries after Christ. Stylistically, the El Bosque complex resembles material from contemporary periods in adjacent regions (Zoned Bichrome, Aguas Buenas), but also shares many ceramic modes with the Colombian site of Momil. A carbonized maize cob from an El Bosque midden is eight-rowed Pollo, an ancient race of South American maize. Evidence is presented supporting the hypothesis that aboriginal cultural traditions in eastern Costa Rica were basically part of a northern South American tropical forest pattern.
Electron Microprobe Analysis of Weathered Florida Chert
Authors: Clark David E. , Purdy Barbara A.
Published: April 2006

Underlying paleo-Indian period artifacts, deeply weathered chert implements have been recovered in Florida from a sandy clay horizon heretofore considered culturally sterile. Although the stratigraphic position of the stone implements in the sandy clay deposit has been demonstrated without question, dating has been a problem because no carbon-containing material has been preserved. Thus experiments were undertaken to investigate the environmental conditions under which the stone artifacts have weathered and the time required for the given extent of weathering. The electron microprobe was used to evaluate the surface compositional changes that occur in Florida chert during weathering. The patina of a chert surface exposed to an acid environment was found to be depleted of iron to a depth of ∼ 600μm. The mechanism through which Fe is leached from the surface is thought to be a diffusion-controlled process in which the depth of leaching is proportional to the square root of exposure time. This may provide a means of dating artifacts fashioned from these cherts.
From Teotihuacan to Tenochtitlan: The Early Period Revisited
Authors: Charlton Thomas H.
Published: April 2006

Blanton ’s use of a hypothesis of warfare among Early Post- Teotihuacan sociocultural entities of the Basin of Mexico to account for selective reoccupation following the end of Teotihuacan is based ultimately on a conceptualization of a dichotomy between a peaceful Classic period and a warlike Postclassic period. Except for unoccupied areas between local concentrations of Early Toltec sites there are no data to support the warfare hypothesis. Through a presentation of available Early Toltec settlement pattern data from the Basin of Mexico and a consideration of the sociocultural connections between Teotihuacan and the Early Toltec epi-Teotihuacan states, I support my earlier model which utilizes a tightly reasoned cultural ecological (sociocultural factors pais environmental features) framework to account for and predict the locations of concentrations of Early Toltec period sites. Continuity between Teotihuacan and the Early Toltec period sites is stressed.
The Anna O. Shepard Bibliography: Addenda
Authors: Kolb Charles C.
Published: April 2006

Several additions and corrections to the recent compilation by Morris of the late Anna Shepard’s bibliography are reported.
Interregional Trade and the Formation of Prehistoric Gateway Communities
Authors: Hirth Kenneth G.
Published: April 2006

Interregional exchange of commodities appears to have been important in the formation of complex societies. The transition from reciprocal to redistribution economies involved an institutionalization of long distance exchange. Large and important settlements called gateway communities emerged along natural trade routes at key locales for controlling the movement of commodities. A model is constructed that relates long distance trade and regional economics to the emergence of market centers in Formative Mesoamerica. The gateway community model depicts early interregional trade more efficiently than central place formulations. This model is examined in light of data collected from Chalcatzingo in Morelos, Mexico, a community that maintained an important position in both local and long distance trade during the first half of the Mesoamerican Formative.
Tecali Vessel Manufacturing Debris at Tollan, Mexico
Authors: Diehl Richard A. , Stroh Edward G.
Published: April 2006

The evidence for the production of tecali (travertine) vessels at Tollan, Hidalgo, Mexico is examined and some possible secondary uses for the resultant waste materials are considered. An attempt is also made to show how artifact reuse can confuse the archaeological record, possibly leading to false conclusions.
Copena Galena: Source Identification and Analysis
Authors: Walthall John A. , Stow Stephen H. , Karson Marvin J.
Published: April 2006

Galena artifacts from Middle Woodland Copena burial mounds have been analyzed by means of atomic absorption spectrophotometry in order to determine their trace element compositions. These results are compared to trace element characteristics of galena sources in eastern North America. Analysis to date suggests the Upper Mississippi Valley galena district as the source for these artifacts. Implications concerning Middle Woodland exchange systems are also offered.
Disembedded Capitals Reconsidered
Authors: Santley Robert S.
Published: April 2006

The concept of a disembedded capital is viewed as a specious construct. The logical foundations of disembeddedness of political authority from local commerical hierarchies are viewed as largely untenable, at least in prehispanic Mesoamerica, and the close parallels between Monte Albán and Teotihuacán in terms of general site location, access to prime agricultural land, level of craft specialization required to meet local needs, and local market patterns suggest that both sites had similar roles with respect to local central-place support hierarchies. An alternative evolutionary model is then offered, one which relates developments manifest in the Basin of Mexico and in the Valley of Oaxaca to an economic and political strategy which seeks to minimize labor input and amount of systemic risk.
Fluted Points in Mesoamerica and the Isthmus: A Reply to Rovner
Authors: Bray Warwick
Published: April 2006

Contrary to Rovner's assertion, an account by Francisco Ximénez in 1772 most probably refers to a fluted point, though other interpretations are possible. Surface finds admittedly have limitations, and it is possible that some individual specimens were made on flakes or blades rather than prepared blanks; nevertheless there seems to be a relationship between Isthmian points and paleo-Indian forms from North and South America.
Llama Herding and Settlement in Prehispanic Northern Chile: Application of an Analysis for Determining Domestication
Authors: Pollard Gordon C. , Drew Isabella M.
Published: April 2006

A new technique involving microscopy distinguishes wild from domestic camelids in collections from archaeological deposits in the Atacama Desert. Results of the faunal analysis provide additional critical data which allow a more complete reconstruction of the changes in economic and settlement patterns and of the cultural processes these changes may have involved.
Ceramic Evidence for the Prehistoric Distribution of Maize In Mexico
Authors: Dunn Mary Eubanks
Published: April 2006

This archaeological and botanical study of maize (Zea mays) represented on Zapotec funerary urns is relevant to studies of the development and spread of prehistoric cultures, and of the evolution of maize agriculture. In the Valley of Oaxaca, circa A.D. 600-1200, the Zapotecs attached models of actual ears of maize to their ceramic funerary urns. The high frequency of the depiction of Nal Tel on the urns suggests that Nal Tel had important symbolic associations for the Zapotecs. It was found that the races Chapalote, Harinoso de Ocho, and a type of dent com had a much wider geographical distribution in Precolumbian times than they do today.
A Lowland Maya Long Count/Gregorian Conversion Computer Program
Authors: Sidrys Raymond V. , Krowne Clifford M. , Nicholson H. B.
Published: April 2006

A Fortran computer program is presented which converts Lowland Maya Long Count dates into their equivalent Gregorian dates, and the reverse, for the period post-A.D. 100. The program uses the Modified Thompson 2 Correlation Constant, but other Correlation Constants can also be employed. This program does not offer a new correlation hypothesis.
Painting, Writing, and Polity in Teotihuacan, Mexico
Authors: Millon Clara
Published: April 2006

Two hitherto unrelated Teotihuacan mural paintings, no longer in situ, probably are companion pieces from upper and lower walls in the same portico or room or in related porticos or rooms of the same compound. The tassel headdresses worn by the figures in the paintings appear to be insignia of "Rain God"-related social units or institutions, signifying leadership and authority, with military associations. The contexts in which the tassel headdresses occur, both within the ancient city and outside its borders, suggest that persons with rights to the headdress may have been members of or attached to the ruling establishment or the bureaucracy of the Teotihuacan state. The unique two-part notation on the upper wall painting appears to be hierarchically ordered, corresponding to a ranking either of the social units to which the figures belong, or of institutions which they represent, or of places associated with them.
Trace Element Analysis of Obsidian Artifacts from a Classic Maya Residential Group at Nohmul, Belize
Authors: Hammond Norman , Neivens Mary D. , Harbottle Garman
Published: April 2006

Forty-nine obsidian artifacts from a Classic period residential group at Nohmul, northern Belize, have been analyzed by neutron activation analysis. The majority of the samples originated from Ixtepeque, and the remainder from El Chayal. Increasing prominence of the Ixtepeque source from the Late Classic into the Terminal Classic (i.e., before and after ca. A.D. 800) suggests greater use of a coastal distribution route known to have originated in the Formative and to have remained in use through the colonial period.
A Comment on Mobley's “Demographic Structure of Pecos Indians”
Authors: Palkovich Ann M.
Published: April 2006

Further consideration of the Pecos data reveals two important limitations to paleodemographic reconstruction. First, a significant bias in the age profile of the ceramically dated portion of the skeletal sample raises doubts about the suitability of these data for diachronic studies. Second, Ruff has shown that the original adult ages given for Pecos were systematically overestimated. This biases the age profile and variously affects life table values.
Reply to Richard T. Smith
Authors: Knapp Gregory
Published: April 2006

The distinction between embanked and sunken fields is not merely semantic. There is good evidence for frequent flooding at Chilca. Archaeostratigraphy provides neither privileged nor unambiguous evidence for original field function. The full range of environmental, archaeological, ethnohistoric, and ethnographic evidence is more consistent with the embanked-field theory than with Smith’s alternative.
Yes Virginia, It Really is That Old: A Reply to Haynes and Mead
Authors: Adovasio J. M. , Gunn J. D. , Donahue J. , Stuckenrath R. , Guilday J. E. , Volman K.
Published: April 2006

All of the presently available and processed data from Meadowcroft Rockshelter indicate that the radiocarbon dates for middle and lower Stratum IIa are not discordant with either the associated fauna, flora, and artifacts or with the known geological history of the Cross Creek drainage. Consequently, it is reiterated that the earliest occupations at this locality still represent the best evidence recovered to date for the presence of pre-Clovis or pre-fluted point populations in the New World. It is further suggested that a maintenance of the "Clovis primacy syndrome" is both anachronistic and futile.
Honk If You Know Darwin: Brief Reply to Dunnell and Wenke
Authors: Yoffee Norman
Published: April 2006

Having previously responded to one anguished claim that societal evolutionism is so a subset of biological evolution, it is interesting now to consider the position that societal evolutionism owes nothing to the natural sciences. Dunnell and Wenke's schoolmasterly comment, while properly underscoring the independent idea of evolution as part of social philosophy, curiously adumbrates a number of biological issues that by their own standards are not wholly relevant to the matter at hand. Their slight understanding of the content of ancient documents—the nature of these documents as archaeological artifacts and their value in explaining the past-betrays an unfortunate tendency toward archaeological solipsism.
Conjoinable Pieces and Site Formation Processes
Authors: Villa Paola
Published: April 2006

Evidence provided by conjoined bone and lithic fragments from Old World sites such as Gombe Point, Meer II. Terra Amata, and Hortus shows that disturbance during burial, or following deposition, may affect archaeological assemblages to a much larger extent than previously imagined. The existence of an apparently undisturbed matrix, or of a finely stratified sequence, is not enough to rule out vertical displacement of artifacts and, in the case of multilevel sites, mixture of assemblages. As a result, many inferences based on fine stratigraphic controls may be open to question. Conjoined pieces can be used to test the presence and extent of stratigraphic disturbances that have not left clear, macroscopic traces in archaeological sediments and which have, therefore, few chances of being recognized.

Before all things, brethren, we admonish and command you … that when you hear an exposition of the mystery of the Scriptures telling of things that took place, you believe what is read to have actually taken place as the reading narrates; lest undermining the foundation of actuality, you seek, as it were, to build'in the air.

St. Augustine
Manufacture of Mesoamerican Prismatic Blades: An Alternative Technique
Authors: Clark John E.
Published: April 2006

Recent analyses of primary documentary sources have demonstrated that Don Crabtree's technique of prismatic blade manufacture differs significantly from that of the ancient Mexicans. The most widely known of these ethnohistoric descriptions of blademaking, as well as several previously not considered, are reevaluated and compared to the Crabtree technique. Major discrepancies between the Aztec technique and that described by Crabtree then became the focus of replication experiments. Finally, prismatic blades were successfully produced in the manner and with the tool described by the early Spanish friars.
Easements and Artifacts: An Archaeological Investigation of the Internal Revenue Code
Authors: Tiedt Glenn F.
Published: April 2006

A 1980 amendment to the Internal Revenue Code introduced a new concept of the “qualified conservation contribution” which provides income tax benefits to the donor of historic land areas and certified historic structures. Archaeological sites can be either, and archaeologists who understand the charitable contribution provisions of the Internal Revenue Code will recognize opportunities to protect archaeological resources through donations of land or easements. This article describes the tax concepts in sufficient detail to enable archaeologists to help interested landowners begin to explore charitable contributions as alternatives to sales.
A Late Formative Period Stela in the Maya Lowlands
Authors: Hammond Norman
Published: April 2006

A plain stela has been identified at the site of Cuello, Belize. On the basis of stratigraphy and the accompanying cache vessels it has been dated to the latter part of the Late Formative, ca. A.D. 100. This date is approximately 200 years older than the earliest Initial Series dated stela so far known in the Maya lowlands, and comparable with some early dated monuments in the Pacific piedmont zone. Stela erection in the lowlands may antedate the secondary use of such monuments as vehicles for dynastic propaganda.
Maya Blue—Further Perspectives and the Possible Use of Indigo as the Colorant
Authors: Littmann Edwin R.
Published: April 2006

A blue pigment having the chemical stability of authentic Maya Blue can be prepared from indigo and attapulgite with the raw materials available to the ancient Maya, and by techniques presumably within their knowledge. The procedure possibly used consists of impregnating attapulgite with an extract of indigo plant leaves and stems and subsequently heating the impregnated clay for an extended period of time at the temperature of boiling water. This procedure would obviate the need for transportation of montmorillonite to areas far removed from its source and would account for the existence of the various types of Maya Blue noted in a previous report.
An Examination of Settlement Patterns at Coba, Quintana Roo, Mexico, and Tikal, Guatemala: A Reply to Arnold and Ford
Authors: Folan William J. , Kintz Ellen R. , Fletcher Laraine A. , Hyde Burma H.
Published: April 2006

Data from Coba, Quintana Roo, Mexico indicate strongly that Arnold and Ford"s (1980) settlement pattern analysis of Tikal, Guatemala is the result of an insufficient sample combined with their inability to distinguish between vaulted and unvaulted masonry structures. These deficiencies, together with a standard labor investment calculation for shrines and the use of an invalid measuring technique, have produced a distorted homogenized view of Classic Maya urban organization.
A Late Paleoindian Animal Trapping Net from Northern Wyoming
Authors: Frison George C. , Andrews R. L. , Adovasio J. M. , Carlisle R. C. , Edgar Robert
Published: April 2006

A net made of juniper (Juniperus sp.) bark cordage and designed for capturing animals the size of deer or mountain sheep has been radiocarbon dated to late Paleoindian times. It was recovered in the Absaroka Mountains of north-central Wyoming and provides insight into prehistoric animal procurement strategies that did not require the use of stone artifacts.
Sulphur Springs Woman: An Early Human Skeleton from Southeastern Arizona
Authors: Waters Michael R.
Published: April 2006

Sulphur Springs Woman, an early human burial, was recovered from alluvial deposits dated between 8,200 and 10,000 years before the present in Whitewater Draw, southeastern Arizona. These are the oldest human remains from the Southwest and are some of the oldest in North America. These bones provide data on the earliest inhabitants of the New World.
The Archaeology of the Absurd: Comments on ℌCultural Materialism, Split Inheritance, and the Expansion of Ancient Peruvian Empiresℍ
Authors: Paulsen Allison C.
Published: April 2006

Conrad's discussion bears little relation to the generally accepted outline of Peruvian prehistory. He presents evidence that is not evidence in support of a weak and untestable hypothesis. Since he is apparently unacquainted with a substantial body of recent and current research, he has launched superficial and absurd criticisms at the proposition that changes in climate are reflected in changes in human society and culture. Not only is this theory substantiated by a growing number of independent studies, but ironically enough Conrad joins their ranks by supporting my hypothesis about climate and culture in late prehistoric Andean cultures. His shallow arguments opposing cultural materialism do not deal with issues and are far from convincing. Altogether his work appears to belong to a previously unidentified archaeological specialty, the Archaeology of the Absurd.
Symbolic “One-Leggedness”: Pacal as Tezcatlipoca
Authors: Fitzer P. M.
Published: April 2006

It is suggested that the portrayal of a Maya ruler as lame represents a transformation to the god Tezcatlipoca, sometimes known as "one leg." God K of the manikin scepter is a continued reference to this transformation in Late Classic times.
A New Method for Describing and Analyzing Artifact Shape
Authors: Dibble Harold L. , Chase Philip G.
Published: April 2006

A simple, yet objective and replicable method for recording a number of variables of the two-dimensional morphology of artifacts is presented and described. This method permits precise quantification of variables such as artifact shape and area, retouch length along the perimeter of chipped stone tools, measures of convexity or concavity, area and location of cortex, etc. Moreover, it allows for direct comparisons among varied artifact assemblages.
The Management of Late Andean Irrigation Systems on the North Coast of Peru
Authors: Netherly Patricia J.
Published: April 2006

Documentary research combined with field study has made possible the reconstruction of the sociopolitical organization of the Late Prehispanic Chimu and Chimu-Inca polities of the North Coast of Peru. Many aspects of the management of the large-scale irrigation networks of the region are integrated into that organization. Rights to the water of a particular canal–and to the lands it watered–can be shown to have been vested in socio-political groups which occupied different hierarchical positions according the size of the canal. Maintenance, repair, and distribution of the water were carried out by these groups; there was no centralized state bureacracy to oversee hydraulic affairs. Understanding the organization of the canal system permits a series of hypotheses for the reconstruction of ancient territorial units and the organization of settlement patterns within them.
The Carter/Kerr-McGee Paleoindian Site: Cultural Resource Management and Archaeological Research
Authors: Frison George C.
Published: April 2006

A decade of intensive archaeological survey of the Powder River Basin in Wyoming has revealed one stratified Paleoindian site along with several thousand sites of later age. This site is only a remnant of a much larger one. It has four cultural levels that include Clovis, Folsom, Agate Basin-Hell Gap, and Alberta-Cody respectively, with intervening sterile deposits. The site location and the taphonomics of the bone bed in the Alberta-Cody level suggest that the site was associated with the procurement of large animals. Interdisciplinary investigation of the site indicates that past geologic activity is largely responsible for the scarcity of Paleoindian sites in the basin. The history and basic philosophy of cultural resource management in this area are reviewed. Currently, land ownership is divided between federal and state agencies and private operators, such that the surface may be privately owned while the subsurface is federally owned. The argument is made for a future cultural resource management program for the Powder River Basin that is strongly oriented toward research in contrast to the present policy of inventory and avoidance of archaeological sites.
Broken Bones, Bone Expediency Tools, and Bone Pseudotools: Lessons from the Blast Zone around Mount St. Helens, Washington
Authors: Lyman R. Lee
Published: April 2006

Criteria for recognizing technological and use-wear modifications have been used to identify “bone expediency tools” by archaeologists who analyze bone assemblages recovered from sites where butchering of animals took place. These criteria are here reviewed and then used to identify bone pseudotools in cervid bone assemblages completely formed by non-human processes and recovered from the blast zone around the Mount St. Helens volcano in Washington. The procedures for identifying stone tools and bone tools share similar strengths and weaknesses that seem to originate with the logical criteria used for recognizing modifications to the objects under study. Less equivocal inferential identifications of bone objects as “tools” can be facilitated by turning to the problem of constructing testable hypotheses about the way patterns of use-wear modifications to bone tools can be expected to appear in the archaeological record.
The Evolution of Social Ranking on the Northwest Coast of North America
Authors: Ames Kenneth M.
Published: April 2006

The small, hierarchically organized societies on the Northwest Coast provide excellent examplex of the evolution of social complexity in nonagricultural contexts and thus can serve as an important testing ground for current models. Available archaeological data indicate that ranking appeared on the coast between 3,000 and 2,000 years ago. It is argued here that ranking developed from the interaction of two systems constraints and two processes: subsistence specialization, environmental circumscription and population growth, and promotion. Ranking develops because, given certain conditions, it provides both improved monitoring of the environment and improved responses to environmental shifts through information flow.
Congenital Deformities and the Olmec Were-Jaguar Motif
Authors: Murdy Carson N.
Published: April 2006

Although previous studies of Olmec iconography have correctly recognized the importance of the jaguar element and its conceptual origins in the shaman-jaguar transformation complex of beliefs, they have not explained why the Olmec expression of feline features should be different from their expression in other prehistoric American art styles sharing origins in the same complex of beliefs, nor why the Olmec chose to express them in the form of an infant were-jaguar, often held in the arms of a seated adult male. It is here suggested that the majority of the attributes of the were-jaguar motif can best be explained by analogy with the congenital deformities manifested in and associated with multifactorial neural tube defects. The apparent fusion of the portrayal of these defects with the portrayal of feline elements suggests that the art style and religious beliefs were being manipulated for political reasons, which would be most likely in a chiefdom form of sociopolitical organization. Reasons for stylistic variation in the portrayal of the were-jaguar and its widespread distribution are discussed.
A Comparative Study of Basic Edge Angle Measurement Techniques
Authors: Dibble Harold L. , Bernard Mary C.
Published: April 2006

Four methods of edge angle measurements, including one developed by the authors, are applied to a sample of unretouched flakes in order to determine their relative accuracy, reliability, and economy. The authors discuss various statistical analyses which are available and essential in evaluating the significance of variability between and within the different measuring techniques, applying them to the results obtained from this study.
Debitage Analysis and Archaeological Interpretation
Authors: Sullivan Alan P. , Rozen Kenneth C.
Published: April 2006

The systematic study of chipped stone debitage provides important information about prehistoric lithic technology. However, the results of most debitage analyses are unconvincing because of questionable assumptions and inherent flaws in the typologies used to classify the material. After briefly reviewing these problems, we present an alternative approach that does not rely on the presumed technological origins of individual artifacts as the basis for debitage classification and interpretation. An important element of this approach is a typology composed of interpretation-free and mutually exclusive debitage categories. The derivation of this typology is described and the utility of the approach is demonstrated with two Arizona case studies. The TEP St. Johns project provides new data and interpretations about Archaic Period technological and settlement changes while the Pitiful Flats study illustrates how differences in functional and organizational factors affect debitage assemblage variability.
Tree-Ring Dating of Baldcypress and the Potential for Millennia-Long Chronologies in the Southeast
Authors: Stahle David W. , Cook Edward R. , White James W. C.
Published: April 2006

The tree-ring dating of baldcypress has been achieved in the southeastern United States, and the first 500 to 600 year long baldcypress chronologies have been developed from remnant stands of old-growth trees. An 800 year long cypress tree-ring chronology based on living trees and extended with long dead submerged logs has recently been dated, demonstrating the feasibility for very long chronology extension using progressively older sources of preserved cypress wood from old-growth trees, historic buildings, prehistoric archaeological sites, and natural deposits of submerged and buried logs and stumps. The longevity, climate sensitivity, and excellent preservation of ancient baldcypress wood make this species the only realistic prospect for millennia-long tree-ring chronologies extending to the mid-holocene in the Southeast, with important potential applications to the tree-ring dating of prehistoric archaeological sites, paleoclimatic reconstruction, and the calibration of independent dating methods.
Aboriginal Thermal Alteration of a Central Pennsylvania Jasper: Analytical and Behavioral Implications
Authors: Schindler Debra L. , Hatch James W. , Hay Conran A. , Bradt Richard C.
Published: April 2006

The aboriginal thermal processing of Bald Eagle Jasper in Central Pennsylvania is described in terms of the chemical and physical changes that occur in this material. Heat treatment is shown to transform the jasper's geothite component to hematite and to improve its workability by reducing its fracture toughness by one-half. This is accompanied by a yellow to red color change. The role of thermal alteration in the local lithic technology is inferred from laboratory heating experiments and from an analysis of lithic artifacts from the Houserville Site (36 Ce 65), a jasper workshop. The prehistoric utilization of this material is analyzed from a regional perspective. The results have implications for aboriginal social organization in Central Pennsylvania.
On Mathematical Models of the Classic Maya Collapse: The Class Conflict Hypothesis Reexamined
Authors: Lowe John W. G.
Published: April 2006

Recently, Hamblin and Pitcher (1980) have attempted to buttress the class conflict explanation of the Classic Maya collapse using a series of mathematical models. However, despite the exceptionally good agreement between these mathematical relations and the empirical data, the same cannot be said for the fit between the conceptual and mathematical models. The relations employed are very general, so much so as to often be isomorphic with very different processes. In one case at least, the same model appears to be consistent with several entirely distinct explanations of the collapse, and other mathematical readings of the monument data are by no means precluded. While these particular mathematical relationships fail to make a very strong case that the Classic Maya collapse was engendered primarily through peasant revolt and class conflict, which was very possibly Hamblin's and Pitcher's underlying aim, the attempt to cast explanations of the collapse into mathematical form points the way for the next generation of collapse models.
On Small Mammal Remains in Archaeological Context
Authors: Stahl Peter W.
Published: April 2006

Analysis of the dissected remains of certain small mammals suggests a consistently high ratio of edible meat to live weight. These figures, together with the great abundance of small mammals in natural and culturally modified settings, are combined to support the argument that they may have been important elements in prehistoric diet. Their dietary status may be consistently underestimated because of a number of biases.
“Brand X” versus the Recommended Product
Authors: Binford Lewis R.
Published: April 2006

Richard Gould has built a substantial literature treating the subject of archaeological method with an emphasis on ethnoarchaeology. His writings have been received with mixed feelings by the field and have recently sparked an interesting “debate.” Much of Gould's criticism of the recent literature stems from his misunderstanding of that material. In similar fashion, I suspect that much misdirection in the current “debate” stems from Gould's naivete regarding his own philosophy. Therefore, I have attempted an analysis of Gould's works that will, I hope, clarify his position as well as the character of the points he raises that are in need of debate.
The Burden of Tribalism: The Social Context of Southern African Iron Age Studies
Authors: Hall Martin
Published: April 2006

The study of the archaeology of farming communities in southern Africa is an inherently political activity but there has been little critical analysis of the role of social context in forming problems and in shaping answers. It is argued in this paper that the history of Iron Age research south of the Zambezi shows the prevalent influence of colonial ideologies, both in the earliest speculations about the nature of the African past and in the adaptations that have been made to contemporary archeological methodologies in their application to the subcontinent. Concepts such as ethnicity have acquired specific meanings in southern Africa that contrast with the use of similar ideas in other contexts such as Australasia. Such relativity reinforces the view that specific, detailed critiques of archaeological practice in differing social environments are necessary for an understanding of the manner in which the present shapes the past.
Architecture of the Early Valdivia Village
Authors: Damp Jonathan E.
Published: April 2006

The architecture of early Valdivia (3300–2300 B.C.) communities provides information about the structure of early village life on the Ecuadorian Pacific coastal lowland. Household units from the sites of Real Alto and Loma Alta seem to exhibit domestic patterning in sleeping areas, cooking, tool working, cotton spinning, garbage disposal, and burial of the dead. The village layout provides a plan for settlement in the shape of a letter U. The Valdivia U-shaped village is briefly examined in its prehistoric context. Together, house and village patterns at Real Alto and Loma Alta reflect the beginnings of settled life in the context of an agricultural economy.
The Calculation of Volumes of Middens, Mounds, and Strata Having Irregular Shapes
Authors: Sorant Peter E. , Shenkel J. Richard
Published: April 2006

A critical aspect in the estimation of human effort embodied in mound construction or in midden deposition is the volume of the deposit. When these deposits are of irregular contour, the use of standard geometric formulae for the determination of volumes of solids is inadequate. Given a basic contour map of a given deposit, a rather precise determination of volume can be calculated by the application of the formula derived from that for the volume of a truncated cone. The use of the formula involves the determination of the volumes between contour intervals, and then adding the successive contour interval volumes. This is done by measuring the areas of adjacent contours and inserting those data into the formula. The procedure can be accomplished by hand, using grid paper or a compensating polar plenimeter, or by computer–either mainframe or micro–by the incorporation of the formula into an existing contour mapping program.
Late Preclassic Mortuary Patterns and Evidence for Human Sacrifice at Chalchuapa, El Salvador
Authors: Fowler William R.
Published: April 2006

Salvage excavations in 1977–1978 of Structure E3-7 at Chalchuapa, El Salvador, revealed the structure to have been a multiple-episode Late Preclassic burial mound. The skeletal remains of 33 individuals were found in the construction fill. These remains are interpreted as evidence for human sacrifice. Osteological analysis was performed with the skeletal materials in situ. The individuals whose sex could be determined were adult males. This and other evidence suggests that the E3-7 burials might have been war captives from a “foreign” (non-Chalchuapa) population.
Some Issues in the Archaeology of “Tribal” Social Systems
Authors: Plog Stephen , Braun David P.
Published: April 2006

Saitta's (1983) comments on a model of the evolution of tribal social networks (Braun and Plog 1982) are discussed. Aspects of the model are clarified and problems with Saitta's interpretations are noted. In particular, we focus on questions concerning the relationship between stylistic variation and social networks and several issues concerning tribal social organization. We also address weaknesses in the alternative approach that Saitta describes.
A Non-Hierarchical Approach to Ceramic Decoration Analysis: A Southwestern Example
Authors: Jernigan E. W.
Published: April 2006

The element-motif-layout framework of design analysis, which has dominated the study of prehistoric Southwestern ceramic decoration since the late 1930s, is shown to be ambiguous as a means of understanding and comparing such decoration. A new analytical approach is presented involving the isolation of design units based on comparative study of how design configurations are used in a style corpus of whole vessels. Application of the method and its usefulness in comparative stylistic studies, as well as potential usefulness in ceramic dating, are discussed.
Isolation and Identification of Spanish Moss Fiber from a Sample of Stallings and Orange Series Ceramics
Authors: Simpkins Daniel L. , Allard Dorothy J.
Published: April 2006

A sample of Stallings and Orange series ceramics from riverine and coastal sites in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida was analyzed for fiber content. A portion of each sherd was macerated in acids to release fibrous tempering agents. The fibers, as well as other potentially identifiable materials, were then isolated from the maceration and examined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). A comparison with published anatomical descriptions and fresh plant material revealed that the Stallings series sherds contained fibers and scales of Tillandsia usneoides L. (Spanish moss). Fiber-tempered sherds of the Orange series from the Bluffton midden in Florida also contained Spanish moss, although it cannot be demonstrated at present that Spanish moss was the primary tempering agent of Orange series ceramics.
Directional Glyphs in Maya Inscriptions and Codices
Authors: Bricker Victoria R.
Published: April 2006

A phonetic and semantic interpretation of the directional glyphs in Maya inscriptions and codices reveals that they did not refer to the cardinal directions. The glyphs that have been identified previously with north and south can be read phonetically as zenith and nadir, respectively. The glyphs for east and west refer semantically to the rising and setting sun. These data support Clemency Coggins's recent suggestion that Classic Maya directional symbolism was related to the path of the sun across the sky and through the underworld, rather than to the cardinal directions.
Seasonality Determination by Oxygen Isotopic Profile: A Reply to Bailey et al.
Authors: Killingley John S.
Published: April 2006

A response is presented to the comment by Bailey et al. on the determination of seasonality of mollusk collecting using O-18 profiles of midden shells. Profiles were measured on two species of intertidal mollusks (Tegula funebralis and Collisella limatula) to provide further evidence for the applicability of the technique to seasonality studies.
Socio-Politics and the Woman-at-Home Ideology
Authors: Gero Joan M.
Published: April 2006

Archaeologists, as explorers and discoverers, have maintained the myth of objective research far longer than have researchers in other social science disciplines. Focused on action, the “cowboys of science” (Alaskan bumper sticker 1981) have dabbled little in self-reflective criticism.

Now at 50, however, the discipline is becoming aware that our notions of the past, our epistemologies, our research emphases, the methods we employ in our research, and the interpretations we bring to and distill from our investigations, are far from value-neutral.
The History and Science of Gastropods in Archaeology
Authors: Bobrowsky Peter T.
Published: April 2006

This study examines and defines the potential information offered to archaeology by the study of gastropod remains. A historical review of past accomplishments in archaeomalacology provides the foundation from which zooarchaeologists can begin to recognize the primary concerns for future research in the discipline. The past, present and future approaches to archaeomalacology are discussed under a taphonomic framework. Under the guise of biostratonomy, gastropod presence in archaeological contexts is explained according to four major pathways of shell introduction. Allied to this aspect of taphonomy is diagenesis, an understanding of which assists archaeologists in recognizing the role of gastropods in cultural versus natural environmental settings. This study concludes with a critique of present trends in archaeomalacological method and theory.
Terra PretaSoils and Their Archaeological Context in the Caquetá Basin of Southeast Colombia
Authors: Eden Michael J. , Bray Warwick , Herrera Leonor , McEwan Colin
Published: April 2006

Investigation of dark earths from two archaeological sites near Araracuara, on the Río Caquetá in Colombian Amazonas, indicates that these soils are anthropic, with characteristics similar to those of theterra pretasoils of the Brazilian Amazon. The Araracuara sites belong to the Camani (plainware) phase of the second to ninth centuries A.D. and to the Nofueri phase (ninth to seventeenth centuries) with pottery of the Polychrome Tradition. The Araracuara examples are the first archaeologicalterra pretasoils analyzed from west of Brazil, although similar materials are reported from Ecuador and Peru. The problems of recognizing and dating the first appearance ofterra pretasoils are discussed, and a plea is made for closer collaboration between archaeologists and soil scientists.
Comments on Studies of Thermal Alteration of Central Pennsylvania Jasper
Authors: Patterson Leland W.
Published: April 2006

Comments are offered on heat treating experiments and archaeological studies by Schindler, Hatch, Hay and Bradt concerning Bald Eagle Jasper from central Pennsylvania. Their conclusions concerning aboriginal patterns of use of Bald Eagle Jasper are critiqued. Their explanations for the effects of thermal alteration on jasper fracture properties are also questioned.
Punas, Pundits, and Prehistory: Comment on Wheeler's Review of “Prehistoric Hunters of the High Andes”
Authors: Rick John W.
Published: April 2006

Wheeler's review, while concentrating on key topics, uses inapplicable ecological data, misinterprets important issues, and makes incorrect statements about the book's contents.
Stable Populations and Skeletal Age
Authors: Sattenspiel Lisa , Harpending Henry
Published: April 2006

A common procedure in paleodemography is to use mean skeletal age to estimate the expectation of life at birth in a population. This paper shows that skeletal age and expectation of life at birth are not equivalent unless the population is stationary. This assumption is not justified for most real populations. We show that mean skeletal age is approximately equivalent to the reciprocal of the birth rate and is not correlated with the death rate. Thus, the practice of inferring changes in life span and death rates from changes in mean age at death is not reliable and most conclusions of paleodemographic studies should be revised. On the other hand, skeletal age may provide high-quality information about fertility in archaeological populations. Several published paleodemographic studies are reinterpreted in light of the model presented.
Cucurbits in Andean Prehistory
Authors: Whitaker Thomas W.
Published: April 2006

Cucurbits were recovered at archaeological sites from three geographical areas: (1) Coastal Peru, (2) the Andean Highlands, and (3) the Andean region of Northern Argentina. Analysis indicates that cucurbits were cultivated in the Coastal Plain of Peru as long ago as 4000–3000 B.C., perhaps longer. Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Standl., Cucurbita moschata, Duch. ex Poir, and the perennial squash, C. ficifolia Bouche were among the first cultigens. At a later date C. maxima Duch. is recorded from this area. It is probable that C. moschata and C. ficifolia reached the area from Central America or Mexico. Two sites excavated in the Andean Highlands yielded only limited amounts of cucurbit material, probably because the plants are not adapted to high altitude culture. Only rinds of L. siceraria and a species of Cucurbita were present. Exploration of archaeological sites in Northern Argentina is just commencing as far as cultivated plant materials are concerned, and little has yet been published. My identification of plant materials from excavations in Northern Argentina indicates an abundance of well-preserved C. maxima and L. siceraria.
The Radiocarbon Evidence for the Temporal Priority of Chavin de Huantar
Authors: Burger Richard L.
Published: April 2006

A critical evaluation of radiocarbon measurements taken from recent excavations at Chavin de Huantar, Peru provides the basis for an absolute chronology for the Chavin culture at Chavin de Huantar which spans from 850 B.C. to 200 B.C. Radiocarbon measurements from four coastal sites stylistically related to Chavin de Huantar are reviewed and found to be generally prior in date to the earliest known occupation at Chavin de Huantar.
Comments on David Meltzer's “Paradigms and the Nature of Change in American Archaeology”
Authors: Custer Jay F.
Published: April 2006

Meltzer indicates that little change is evidenced by the New Archaeology. To the contrary, analysis of changes in archaeological theory since 1960, in light of changes in anthropological theory, indicates that a major metaphysical shift from historical, particularistic research to nomothetic research seeking explanations has occurred. Therefore, a major paradigm shift is indicated.
Emergent Tribal Formations in the American Midcontinent
Authors: Bender Barbara
Published: April 2006

Archaic societies in the American midcontinent tend to be viewed as “archetypal” egalitarian, subsistence-oriented, gatherer–hunters. The strong techno-environmental orientation of most recent studies makes it hard to understand how and why increasingly socially differentiated gatherer-hunter societies emerged during the later Woodland period. In this article I attempt a social perspective on gatherer-hunters in general and those of the Archaic in particular. I suggest that alliance and exchange are universal hominid strategies and that, while they may have ecologically or biologically adaptive features, they are primarily about social relations and social reproduction.

Gatherer-hunter reciprocity has been stressed in the literature, but the opposite side of the coin is debt, and debt is about inequality, however slight or well masked. The internal social feedbacks embedded in alliance and exchange that might exacerbate social differentiation, and the feedback between social demand and productive intensification are explored. The divide between the midcontinental Archaic and Woodland begins to crumble.