bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hand‐raising a philippine tarsier, Tarsius syrichta
Authors: Haring David M. , Wright Patricia C.
Published: June 2005

An infant female tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) weighing 20 g at birth was removed for hand‐raising at 1 day of age. The infant was maintained in an incubator (32°C, 80% humidity), and fed every 2–3 hours for the first 10 days of life. The infant received a varied formula for the first 4 days. Esbilac (3.3–8.0 cc daily) was given for days 5–10. From days 11 to 67 the infant was fed 6.5–8.0 cc of formula seven times daily. A liver fortified formula was introduced on day 53. Birthweight doubled by day 41 and tripled by day 101. The animals first successful jump was observed at day 25. On day 68 she captured and ate her first live prey. Introduction to adult tarsiers began on day 60. This is the first successful hand‐raising of any species of tarsier, which is a genus that reproduces poorly in captivity.
DNA “fingerprints” and paternity ascertainment in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Authors: Ely John , Ferrell Robert E.
Published: June 2005

Highly variable regions of DNA are found in a wide diversity of organisms and are typically composed of alleles consisting of a variable number of tandem repeats (VNTRs) of a short core sequence. DNA fingerprinting probes are VNTR probes that simultaneously detect a large number of similar VNTRs in the target DNA. The highly polymorphic pattern observed in a DNA fingerprint allows resolution of questions concerning individual identification. M13 phage was used to fingerprint captive chimpanzees for paternity ascertainment. Although the probability of band sharing among captive chimps appears to be higher than among some other reported captive and feral animal populations, the probe is highly useful and can be expected to become more widely used in the genetic management of captive populations.
Pathology and diseases of great apes at the National Zoological Park
Authors: Munson Linda , Montali Richard J.
Published: June 2005

Knowledge of the diseases of great apes in captivity is essential for captive management of self‐sustaining populations. This survey of medical and pathology records of orangutans, gorillas, and one chimpanzee at the National Zoological Park was conducted to provide a data base for improving health care of captive apes. Strongyloidiasis, balantidiasis, and entamoebiasis were recurrent problems in adult and juvenile apes of all species. Cardiac fibrosis also was prevalent in middle‐aged apes and was a major cause of mortality. Bacterial infections were prevalent in perinatal orangutans and resulted in the death of two. For gorillas, rheumatoid arthritis associated with mycoplasma infections, and infertility were major problems. Because the pathogenesis of many of these lesions is unknown, survival of great ape populations in captivity may depend on future research on these problems.
Placental implications for pregnancy complications in the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)
Authors: Soma Hiroaki
Published: June 2005

Placentas from 28 term chimpanzee pregnancies, including two sets of dichorionic‐diamniotic twin‐pregnancies, were examined and compared histopathologically with those obtained from 171 small‐for‐dates (SFD), 306 premature, and 77 pregnancy toxemic human infants. Term infant and placental weights for the chimpanzee were generally smaller than for any of the human categories studied. Macroscopically, the chimpanzee placentas showed a high frequency of extrachorialis, infarctions, intervillous thrombi, and marginal hemorrhages, pathologies frequently associated with pregnancy toxemia and abruptio placenta in the human being. Yet, ultrastructurally, the chimpanzee chorionic villi evidenced well‐developed organella, syncytial microvilli, and chorionic capillaries, although villitis and inflammation of the membranes and cord were not infrequently seen. These findings suggest that chimpanzees may suffer the same obstetric complications seen in human pregnancies.
Mountain gorilla life histories, reproductive competition, and sociosexual behavior and some implications for captive husbandry
Authors: Watts David P.
Published: June 2005

New data on modal patterns of, and variability in, mountain gorilla life history tactics and sociosexual behavior, collected during long‐term fieldwork at the Karisoke Research Centre, are presented here. These data show that immature males and females develop sociosexual relationships with both peers and adults, and that these relationships—which contribute to more complex social relationships—often lead to mating between natal females and males who are “familiar” partners. They also show that within‐group reproductive competition between males can reach considerable levels, but that immature males are sometimes able to copulate with both nulliparous and parous females; that unrelated silverbacked males can reside in the same all‐male group but become intolerant of each other if females join the group; and that, whereas females sometimes compete with each other for opportunities of copulate, their probability of conceiving is probably not decreased by any inability to control the mating situation. This information may contribute to continued improvement in the husbandry of captive gorillas.
Comparison of black‐footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) and domestic ferret (M. putorius furo) courtship activity
Authors: Miller Brian J. , Anderson Stanley H.
Published: June 2005

Because of the scarcity of the endangered black‐footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) and the amount of knowledge necessary for their conservation, surrogate research can play an important role in recovery. In this paper, we investigate surrogate behavioral research potential by comparing courtship behavior of the black‐footed ferret to the congeneric domestic ferret (M. putorius furo). Ten female domestic ferrets were bred to five male domestic ferrets and eight female black‐footed ferrets were bred to five black‐footed ferret males. Courtship activities were defined, analyzed, and quantitatively compared between both groups. Lag sequential analysis of was used to prepare the behavioral matrices, and matrix cells were compared between groups with an equality of proportions test. Courtship patterns did not differ significantly between the two closely related species, and the domestic ferret would probably be an adequate surrogate for reproductive behavior research on the black‐footed ferret.
Social behavior of the Guianan cock‐of‐the‐rock (Rupicola rupicola) in captivity
Authors: Duce Susan , Brannian John
Published: June 2005

The lek‐breeding Guianan cock‐of‐the‐rock, Rupicola rupicola, has been infrequently maintained in North American zoos in recent years. Successful captive breading has not been reported, although the closely related Rupicola peruviana has rarely reproduced in captivity. It has been suggested that male‐male competition may be important for stimulating mating behavior in lek‐breeding species [Alcock, 1979]. However, zoos have not typically housed multiple male cocks‐of‐the‐rock with females and successful breeding of R. peruviana has occurred with paris [Berry et al., 1982]. In the present study, 2.1 R. rupicola were maintained together in a free‐flight, naturalistic exhibit at the Kansas City Zoo. Male‐male and male‐female interactions were observed over an 8‐week period during the initial introduction. Based on comparisons with field studies, it was concluded that (1) one male quickly established dominance over the other male, (2) although establishment of well‐defined territorial leks was not observed, several major components of lek displays were seen, and (3) the femal showed no difference in her interactions with either male during the study period. Unfortunately, due to the untimely death of the birds, it could not be determined whether the observed behavior may have eventually led to successful mating.
Behavior of captive‐raised rattlesnakes (Crotalus enyo) as a function of rearing conditions
Authors: Marmie William , Kuhn Shane , Chiszar David
Published: June 2005

Two litters of rattlesnakes (Crotalus enyo; n = 6 per litter) were raised in large cages and small plastic boxes, respectively. No significant differences in exploration of a novel environment were observed between the litters, or between either of them and a group of wild‐caught C. enyo, suggesting that the common practice of rearing baby snakes in small cages has no debilitating consequences on these measures. In the absence of differences between the litters, the two samples were pooled and additional analyses revealed the existence of reliable individual variation. Experiment 2 compared the two litters and the wild‐caught snakes on measures of prey‐directed behavior. The two captive‐reared litters did not differ, but both exhibited lower levels of strike‐induced chemosensory searching than did wild‐caught snakes.
Comparison of an exact and a simulation method for calculating gene extinction probabilities in pedigrees
Authors: Thomas Alun
Published: June 2005

A comparison is made between a much used simulation method, commonly called gene dropping, and the exact computational technique of peeling. These methods are illustrated using the problem of finding the distribution of the number of distinct ancestral genes surviving at an autosomal locus. Each method is used on several real zoo pedigrees, of varying size and complexity, and the results are compared. Gene dropping is found to be a good approximation to peeling, but for all but the most complex pedigrees surveyed, peeling is preferable. The relationship between heterozygosity and allelic variability is investigated.
Breeding program for the lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis) in North America
Authors: Read Bruce , Vogt Dale , Houston E. W.
Published: June 2005

The lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis) has been kept in North American zoological parks since 1930 but has never been a common species in collections. In 1987 this population totaled 28 animals: 15 males and 13 females. A pedigree evaluation in 1987 of the existing population indicated that eight effective founders and one potential founder were represented in the North American herd. Three new potential founders from European captive populations were added to the population in 1987 to increase the number of existing founder lines to 12 animals. As this species is not endangered or threatened in its native habitat, it is not a high priority to qualify for designation as an SSP species. Because of this, the institutions holding lesser kudu in North America decided to join informally and draft a breeding program to better manage this small captive population. This program was designed to minimize inbreeding and equalize genetic representation of founder animals to maximize genetic diversity. It requires a shift in management philosophy to establish stable groups of breeding females at participating institutions while rotating appropriate breeder males through these herds in a controlled manner to ensure minimization of inbreeding and maximization of genetic diversity. It is hoped that this program can serve as a model for the management of other small captive populations of non‐SSP species.
Dental care for a captive killer whale, Orcinus orca
Authors: Graham Mark S. , Dow Pierre R.
Published: June 2005

The crowns of several teeth of a captive killer whale, particularly on the mandible, were worn to the level of the pulp cavities by biting a cement structure in the pool. Food plugging partially vacant pulp cavities created intense vascularization, inflammation, and eventually a systemic focus for infection. This trauma correlated with an elevated white blood cell count. Haematology was restored to normal following regular care for the worn teeth. Patent drainage of the pulp cavity was maintained through routine brushing with a large‐scale toothbrush. Administration of antibiotics was not necessary in controlling the white blood cell count.
Urinary steroid evaluations to monitor ovarian function in exotic ungulates: VII. Urinary progesterone metabolites in the Equidae assessed by immunoassay
Authors: Kirkpatrick J. F. , Lasley B. L. , Shideler S. E.
Published: June 2005

A direct enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for non‐specific urinary progesterone (Po) metabolites, utilizing a non‐specific monoclonal antibody against pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide, was evaluated for the purpose of assessing luteal function in equids. Urinary pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide (PdG) and immunoreactive PdG‐like conjugate (iPdG) concentrations, indexed by creatinine, were compared to plasma Po concentrations in non‐conceptive ovarian cycles through two ovulations in four mares. High‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) of urine from lutealphase mares and a pregnant zebra revealed an absence of significant concentrations of PdG and the presence of at least three immunoreactive compounds, all of which were more polar than PdG. The concentration of iPdG in the mare ranged from a nadir of approximately 3 ng/mg Cr at the time of ovulation to nearly 400 ng/mg Cr at the mid‐luteal‐phase peak and paralleled plasma Po concentrations. This non‐radiometric assay for iPdG permits the assessment of ovulation, luteal formation and function, and luteolysis in unprocessed urine samples from domestic mares. Data from a single zebra indicate this approach also will permit simplified and non‐invasive longitudinal studies of ovarian function among a wide range of Equidae.
Hand‐rearing, growth, and development of the red bird of paradise (Paradisaea rubra) at the New York Zoological Park
Authors: Worth Wendy , Hutchins Michael , Sheppard Christine , Bruning Donald , Gonzalez Joy , McNamara Tracy
Published: June 2005

Growth and development of six hand‐reared red bird of paradise chicks was documented at the New York Zoological Park from March 1988 to May 1989. A total of 16 eggs were laid, of which 10 were fertile. Clutches consisted of two eggs and the female left the next infrequently during incubation. Two chicks left in the nest were apparently victims of parental abuse. Eggs were subsequently removed from the nest after 10–14 days, candled, and if fertile, were artificially incubated. The average incubation period was 16.6 days. Newly hatched chicks were without down and their eyes remained closed until approximately 6 days of age. Hand‐reared chicks were maintained in Air Shield Infant Isolettes. The weight of newly hatched chicks was about 8 g, and the weight typically doubled during the first week. Ratios of food intake to body weight were highest between day 4 and 10. Pin feathers were visible on the wings after 4 days, and after 3 weeks, the chicks were fully feathered. Analysis of the diet revealed acceptable levels of iron, but vitamin A and E levels were higher than recommended for poultry chicks. This paper documents the first successful hand‐rearing of any species of birds of paradise from hatching to fledging.
Estrous synchronization in the gaur (Bos gaurus): Behavior and fertility to artificial insemination after prostaglandin treatment
Authors: Godfrey R. W. , Lunstra D. D. , French J. A. , Schwartz J. , Armstrong D. L. , Simmons L. G.
Published: June 2005

The gaur (Bos guarus) is an endangered species that is a wild ancestor of domestic cattle. This study was conducted to evaluate 1) the efficacy of prostaglandin F2α (PG) to synchronize estrus in gaur, 2) behavior of male and female gaur around estrus, and 3) fertility after artificial insemination (AI) at the PG‐induced estrus. Six female gaur were utilized, along with a vasectomized gaur bull used to aid in detecting estrus. All females were given two i.m. injections of PG (25 mg/injection) 11 days apart, and monitored for estrus for 120 hr (48 hr via chinball marks, followed by 72 hr continuous observation) after the second PG injection. Three of the six females were in estrus during the 120‐hr evaluation period. One female was in estrus prior to 48 hr after the second PG injection, and two females were observed in estrus during the 72‐hr continuous observation period. When a female was observed in estrus (standing to be mounted by the vasectomized bull), she was bred by AI at 12 and 24 hr after the onset of estrus. The four females not observed in estrus, including the one marked during the first 48 hr, were bred by AI at 80 and 92 hr after the second PG injection. Of the two gaur females observed in estrus, one female was first mated by the vasectomized bull at 77 hr and the second female was mated at 98 hr after PG. Both females exhibited very short durations of receptivity (less than 4 hr). The second female observed in estrus became pregnant after AI and gave birth to a healthy gaur calf after a 299‐day gestation. It appears that female gaur can be synchronized with PG techniques developed for domestic cattle. These data should provide useful information for programs studying and maintaining this endangered species and may have relevance for the cattle industry, since the gaur could provide a source of diverse ancestral genetic material.
Flamingo breeding: The role of group displays
Authors: Stevens Elizabeth Franke
Published: June 2005

Group displays in flamingos have been presumed to play a role in stimulating synchronous nesting and in facilitating pair formation. This study compares the group displays and breeding success of a captive flock of Caribbean flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber ruber) at the National Zoological Park between 2 years: the frequency and synchrony of group displays were measured for a flock of 17 in 1988 and then again in 1989 after flock size was increased to 21. In 1989 the rate of occurrence of display activity increased 48%, the synchrony of group displays increased 100%, the frequency of mounts and copulations almost doubled, and for the first time in the flock's history two fertile eggs were produced. The use of sprinklers to simulate rain had no effect on the group displays. The amount of naturally occurring rainfall in 1989 was almost twice that in 1988. The increased frequency and synchrony of group displays could be attributed to increased flock size, change in sex ratio, addition of strange individuals, or increased rainfall. This study, however, provides evidence for a relationship between behavioral stimulation from group displays and components of breeding success in flamingos.
Report on captive hatches of California condors (Gymnogyps californianus): 1983–1990
Authors: Kuehler Cynthia M. , Sterner Donald J. , Jones Deborah S. , Usnik Rebecca L. , Kasielke Susie
Published: June 2005

The California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) recovery plan entails increasing the reproductive rate via replacement‐clutch manipulation and artificial incubation of eggs. During the period from 1983 to 1990, 37 eggs have been artificially incubated; 32 of these were known to be fertile and 28 hatched (fertility: 86.5%; hatchability: 87.5%).
Plasma cortisol response of seawater‐adapted mummichogs (Fundulus heteroclitus) during deep MS‐222 anesthesia
Authors: Spotte Stephen , Bubucis Patricia M. , Anderson Gary
Published: June 2005

Anesthetics are used to reduce stress in fishes during handling and transfer. However, deep anesthesia of seawater‐adapted mummichogs (Fundulus heteroclitus) results in a time‐related increase in plasma cortisol, indicating a primary (neuroendocrine) stress response. Groups of seven fish were bled within 1 to 12 min of exposure to the anesthetic MS‐222. Plasma cortisol rose more rapidly in fish removed from the MS‐222 solution immediately after 1 min and held between wet paper towels than in fish that remained immersed. The difference between methods was significant (P < 0.001) with variation restricted to the later sampling periods. Differences were not significant in fish sampled immediately after 1 min (P > 0.05).
A technique for obtaining early life history data in pouched marsupials
Authors: Roberts Miles , Kohn Frank
Published: June 2005

Early developmental and demographic events in many marsupials occur in the mother's pouch out of animal managers' sight. Because pouch examination is perceived as being stressful both to animal and handler, the pouch has proven to be a formidable physical and psychological barrier to the study of early life history events in marsupials in zoos. Demographic and developmental data such as litter size at birth, secondary sex ratios, infant mortality rates, and early rates of growth and development, normally considered essential information for the development of breeding programs, are therefore essentially unavailable for most zoo populations of marsupials. Here we describe a technique for the safe and non‐stressful examination of the pouches of small (< 2 kg) marsupials that enables the capture of such data. The technique, involving the use of transparent plastic tubes of slightly different diameters for restraining the animals and an otoscope for examining the pouch and its contents, has been very successfully applied to life history studies of four species at the National Zoological Park: Pseudocheirus peregrinus, Petaurus breviceps, Philander opossum, and Chironectes minimus.
Strike‐induced chemosensory searching in venomoid pit vipers at Hogle Zoo
Authors: Chiszar David , Smith Hobart M. , Glenn James L. , Straight Richard C.
Published: June 2005

Six pit vipers with ligated and severed venom ducts were each observed twice. In the no‐strike trial a rodent was presented for 3 sec but held (on tongs) out of striking range. The strike trial began with a 3 sec presentation, but the prey item was then moved into striking range, and all snakes immediately struck and released the rodents. Prey were removed after no‐strike and strike presentations and the rate of tongue flicking was recorded for 30 min. Only strike presentations were followed by high rates of tongue flicking, which were indistinguishable from those seen in pit vipers with functioning venom apparatus. We conclude that venom injection is irrelevant for the causation of strike‐induced chemosensory searching.
Growth rate of 21 captive‐born, mother‐raised cheetah cubs
Authors: Wack Ray F. , Kramer Lynn W. , Cupps William , Currie Patricia
Published: June 2005

This paper presents the growth rate of 21 clinically normal, mother‐raised. captive cheetah cubs from birth through 45 days of age. The development of a growth curve for healthy, mother‐raised cheetah cubs provides a diagnostic tool for individuals involved in cheetah propagation. Use of the curve may alert caretakers to problems early and thus help reduce the high neonatal mortality rate seen in captive‐born cheetah cubs.

The growth curve was constructed using 21 (11 males and 10 females) captiveborn cheetah cubs from six litters (offspring of three unrelated adult males and three unrelated adult females) born at the Columbus Zoo from September 1985 through December 1989. Each cub was weighed to the nearest gram the morning after birth and approximately the same time every consecutive morning for 45 days. The mean weight the morning after birth was 463 g (range 385–542 g). The average litter size was 3.5 (range 2–4, n = 6). The daily weight gain was 40–50 g/cub/day.
Concentrations of progesterone, testosterone and estradiol‐17β in the serum during the estrous cycle of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
Authors: Taya K. , Komura H. , Kondoh M. , Ogawa Y. , Nakada K. , Watanabe G. , Sasamoto S. , Tanabe K. , Saito K. , Tajima H. , Narushima E.
Published: June 2005

The levels of progesterone, testosterone and estradiol‐17β in serum samples from two female Asian elephants were measured for the period of 32 months from February 1987 to September 1989. Serum samples were collected weekly from unanesthetized elephants. Each elephant showed eight ovarian cycles in 32 months. Ovarian cycles, characterized by changes in concentrations of serum progesterone, averaged 16.8 ± 0.6 (mean ± SEM. n = 14) weeks in length. The changes in concentrations of testosterone in the serum showed a similar pattern to those of progesterone with a striking increase noted during the luteal phase. The highest levels of serum estradiol‐17β were noted when progesterone levels showed low basal values. These results suggest that estradiol‐17β may be an index of follicular maturation during the estrous cycle in Asian elephants, and that the ovaries of Asian elephants may produce testosterone in the luteal phase.
Female sexual behavior in the absence of male‐male competition in captive Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)
Authors: Rendall Drew , Taylor Linda L.
Published: June 2005

A captive group of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). consisting of one adult male and three adult females, was observed for 88 hr during the 1988 mating season. We focused on the group's sexual activities because understanding how social dynamics affect reproductive behavior may enhance our ability to establish self‐sustaining captive populations. The adult male exhibited distinct preferences in copulation partners, although all females were receptive and cycled during the study period. The dominant female participated in the most copulations and successfully harassed and disrupted copulations between the male and the other females. The alpha female, therefore, actively constrained the formation of mating pairs. Further, the male did not consort with his year‐round female grooming partner. This female, the least dominant member of the group, engaged in the most autosexual and homosexual behavior. Birth season data show that only the dominant female bore offspring. This study emphasizes the influence of social dynamics on a group's reproductive potential and suggests an alternative means by which females can influence consort formation.
Primate puzzleboard: A simple environmental enrichment device for captive chimpanzees
Authors: Brent L. , Eichberg Jorg W.
Published: June 2005

An environmental enrichment device was designed and evaluated for captive chimpanzees. The puzzleboard consisted of a 61‐cm, square piece of clear plastic with holes of various sizes drilled into the center. The puzzleboard was bolted to the roof of a chimpanzee enclosure. Flavored primate treats were arranged on top of the board, and the chimpanzee used a finger to manipulate the food across the board to be retrieved through the larger holes. The behavior and puzzle use of 29 chimpanzees housed in eight groups were evaluated while the device was empty and while filled with food. For each group, four 1‐hr scan samples were recorded for each condition. Data showed that an average of 40 min elapsed from the time the puzzleboard was filled to the last recorded contact by a subject. Mean individual use ranged from 4.8 to 23.8 min/hr. Female chimpanzees used the puzzle significantly more often than did males. Aggressive, affiliative, inactive, and self‐directed behaviors were significantly reduced when the puzzle was filled. In addition, the puzzleboard was inexpensive, sturdy, and easily constructed, mounted, and operated.
Gender determination by body weight and linear measurements in American and Chilean flamingos, previously surgically sexed: Within‐sex comparison to greater flamingo measurements
Authors: Richter Nadine A. , Bourne Godfrey R. , Diebold Edward N.
Published: June 2005

Gender was determined by laparoscopic visualization of the gonads for 38 adult American flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber ruber L.) and 36 adult Chilean flamingos (P. chilensis L.). Concomitant body weight (kg) and linear measurements (mm) of the culmen (bill), tarsus (tarsometatarsus), middle toe, and wing were taken. Statistical comparisons of body weight and linear measurements for male vs. female were made for each species. Also, the same‐sex statistical comparisons were made between these two species, and between each of these two species and with data for greater flamingos (P. r. roseas L.) from a previous publication. As previously published for greater flamingos, an overlap between sexes existed in all measurements with males on average larger than females for both American and Chilean flamingos. However, Students' t‐test indicated a significant sexual difference for all measurements between males and females of each species except for culmen length in Chilean flamingos. Students' t‐test also indicated a significant difference when species were compared (Chilean vs. greater, and American vs. Chilean) and subspecies (American vs. greater) were compared for most of the 5 measurements. Thus, despite limitations imposed by between‐sex overlap, weights and linear measurements, especially tarsus, middle toe, and wing length, appear to be useful in determining an individual's gender when species or subspecies identification is considered.
Altricial and precocial mammals: A model of neural and muscular development
Authors: Grand Theodore I.
Published: June 2005

This model of growth offers a quantitative definition for altricial and precocial newborns, makes muscular strength a benchmark for locomotor independence, and discriminates related genera as well as genera across major taxonomic divides. The model contrasts four theoretical conditions of the neonate (I, small brain, weak musculature; II, small brain, strong musculature; III, large brain, weak musculature; IV, large brain, strong musculature) with species from three orders of placental mammal. Each species exhibits a distinct mother‐infant strategy from the altricial red panda cub (condition I) and the golden lion tamarin (condition III) to the precocial wildebeest calf (condition IV). The model proposes that early growth rates of brain and muscle correlate with nutrition, maternal effort during gestation and lactation, and parental care, whereas postnatal muscular growth correlates directly with adult body size and locomotor repertoire. An example of condition II (small brain, strong musculature) has not been found. This suggests that muscle does not grow in advance of the brain and that the brain acts as a pacemaker of growth. In order to increase our understanding of exotic species, noninvasive measures (body weight and length) and observations (opening of the eyes and ears, hair density, weaning, and the abilities to ther‐moregulate and to move) should be supplemented with analysis of the differential tissue and organ growth. In both theoretical and practical ways analysis of deceased individuals contributes to the understanding of all species.
Female genital swellings have no effect on chimpanzee agonism in well‐established groups
Authors: Bloomsmith M. A. , Lambeth S. P. , Alford P. L.
Published: June 2005

Reducing the incidence of aggression and wounding is a major concern for those managing socially housed chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Competition among adult males for access to sexually receptive females is believed to be one factor contributing to undesirably high levels of agonism. An observational analysis of two chimpanzee groups (n = 9, n = 8) was initiated to study this phenomenon. All‐events sampling was used to record agonistic and sexual behavior on days when one female in the group showed a maximal genital swelling and on other days when no female in the group had a tumescent swelling. The result of the multivariate analysis of variance indicated that the presence of a female with a tumescent swelling had no effect on bluff displays or aggressive, submissive, or reconciliatory behavior but that sexual behavior was significantly increased. These results may be explained by the fact that long‐term stability in group membership may reduce male–male competition for sexual access to females and the sometimes associated aggression and wounding. Colony managers dealing with well‐established groups of chimpanzees should invest more of their effort in controlling aggression elicited by factors other than the cycling of a single female group member.
Voluntary progression order in captive rhesus macaques
Authors: Reinhardt Viktor
Published: June 2005

The sequence in which 14 laboratory rhesus macaques left their home enclosure during a routine catching procedure was recorded on 30 occasions during 6 weeks. The animals were trained to voluntarily exit one by one and enter a transport cage for weighing and/or treatment.

Mean weekly exit orders cross‐correlated significantly, and individuals retained their exit positions with remarkable consistency throughout the study period. An animal's position did not depend on its sex, age, or dominance rank. The oldest female never failed to enter the transport cage as number 1. When she was prevented from taking the lead, the group was hesitant but eventually proceeded in the usual order. Food was a strong, yet not absolute, incentive for the monkeys to cooperate. If they could not expect a reward, they took more time before proceeding, but did so in the habitual order.

The predictability of the exit sequence has practical managerial value because it makes it possible for a single person to quickly catch a selected group member when necessary.
Estrogen metabolism in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
Authors: Czekala N. M. , Roocroft A. , Bates M. , Allen J. , Lasley B. L.
Published: June 2005

Estradiol‐17β metabolism was studied in two female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). In an initial study, 500 μCi of tritiated estradiol‐17β was injected iv into a single animal, and 0, 30 and 60 min serum samples were collected as well as all excreted urine and feces for 24 hr. In a second study, 1.5 mg unlabeled estradiol‐17β was injected iv into a second animal and 0, 5, 15, 30, and 60 min serum samples and a 30 min urine sample were collected postinjection. Analyses of samples from both studies demonstrated a rapid conversion of free estradiol to conjugated forms in the serum. The first (5 min) serum sample following the injection of unlabelled estradiol contained unconjugated estradiol: conjugated estradiol: conjugated estrone at a ratio of 60: 29: 10, respectively, and at 30 min a ratio of 33: 43: 24. The urinary estrogen metabolites were in the conjugated form with an estradiol: estrone ratio of 60: 40. No radiolabeled estrogen was found in the fecal samples during the 24 hr following administration of the radiolabeled estradiol. These data indicate a rapid clearance of circulating free estradiol in the elephant, with a major metabolite in the serum and urine being estradiol conjugate. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Behavioral, physiological, and morphological components of dominance and mate attraction in male green iguanas
Authors: Pratt Nancy C. , Alberts Allison C. , Fulton‐Medler Kathryn G. , Phillips John A.
Published: June 2005

This study investigated the morphological, physiological, and behavioral components of social dominance important for mate attraction in male green iguanas (Iguana iguana). A group of 9 male and 11 female adult green iguanas was studied in a large semi‐natural enclosure during one reproductive season (October–January). Four of the nine males never initiated aggressive encounters; the other five were observed to display aggressively toward each other and were ranked in a linear dominance hierarchy. Head size was the most important factor influencing fighting success. Head size and display frequency were positively correlated with plasma testosterone levels. Dominance rank directly influenced ability to monopolize areas containing resources used by females. The quality of a male's home range, measured as his access to a large basking rock in the enclosure, was related to the proportion of potential mates found within his home range. One male greatly surpassed the others in his ability to defend a home range of high quality and attract potential mates. These data suggest that physiological and morphological factors, through their influence on social behavior, may ultimately affect male reproductive fitness. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Effects of feeding enrichment on behavior of three species of captive bears
Authors: Forthman Debra L. , Elder Suzanne D. , Bakeman Roger , Kurkowski Timothy W. , Noble Constance C. , Winslow Samuel W.
Published: June 2005

Bears are extremely popular among the zoo‐going public, yet while many zoo exhibits have undergone dramatic design changes in recent years, most bears continue to be housed in moated grottos constructed largely of gunite. In these traditional exhibits they frequently demonstrate stereotypic locomotor patterns and are often encouraged by the public to beg. Thus, the manner in which most captive bears are exhibited does not facilitate conservation education. It is possible, however, to provide bears with opportunities to demonstrate species‐typical feeding and foraging behaviors, even in standard exhibits. Subjects were four individuals of three bear species. Feeding enrichment was provided to one bear per week during three mornings during the summers of 1989 and 1990. Overall, animals were more active, less passive and less often engaged in abnormal behaviors during sessions with enrichment. Effects showed individual variation and were more profound during the second year of the study, when a greater variety of enrichment items was presented. These results suggest that simple and inexpensive methods of enrichment may have a significant, positive influence on the behavior of captive bears. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Development of captive bongos (Tragelaphus eurycerus): Activity budgets and developmental milestones
Authors: Forthman Debra L. , Perkins Lorraine A. , Mead Joan I. , Miller Nicolette S.
Published: June 2005

The development of changes in visual orientation, posture, activity budgets, and behavioral milestones was examined in five bongo calves which were observed from birth to 4 or 6 months of age. The only significant change in the calves' visual orientation was an increase in orientation to food. Reclining declined significantly over weeks, while standing increased and moving did not change. Overall, stationary behaviors dominated the activity budget, but decreased significantly over the study. The category that included locomotion, object exploration, and auto‐play did not change, while forage and rumination increased significantly. Contrary to expectation, the decline in suckling was not significant. Affiliative interactions with the dam decreased significantly during the study, but increases in affiliation with other bongos were not significant. Levels of agonistic behavior between the calves and their dams and other herd members were low throughout the study, and did not change significantly. One female calf achieved several developmental milestones later than the others. It is suggested that these differences may have been influenced by the dominance status of her dam. The results conform to the general developmental pattern of “hider” bovids. Bongos, however, show somewhat different patterns of social development than eland, which are reported to be more precocial in expression of aggressive and sexual behaviors. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Reproduction of the Indian wild dog (Cuon alpinus) in captivity
Authors: Paulraj S. , Sundararajan N. , Manimozhi A. , Walker Sally
Published: June 2005

The reproductive behavior and development of 3 wild‐caught and 2 captive‐born dholes (Cuon alpinus) was observed at the Arignar Anna Zoological Park during 4 successive mating seasons. Courtship was characterized by frequent urine marking and vocalizing by both sexes, by olfactory inspection of marked spots and of partners' genitalia, and by the female's licking and mounting of the male. Dholes exhibited the copulatory tie and back‐to‐back copulatory posture that is typical of other canids. Estrus may be longer, and the frequency of copulation higher, than is seen in other canids, however. The 4 litters born to the wild‐caught pair yielded information on growth and development. A captive‐born pair first began to show signs of sexual activity at 11 months of age. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss Inc.
Use of animals with unknown ancestries in scientifically managed breeding programs
Authors: Willis Kevin
Published: June 2005

Whether to incorporate animals with unknown ancestries as founders into scientifically managed captive breeding programs, can be a difficult decision. If the animals are offspring of known founders, their inclusion in the breeding program will result in an increased incidence of inbreeding in the captive population. If the animals are additional founders, excluding them from the breeding program will result in the loss of valuable genetic variation. In general, the practice in scientifically managed captive breeding programs is to exclude animals with unknown ancestries to avoid possible inbreeding. A method of estimating the cost of making an incorrect decision on whether to use animals of unknown ancestry as founders both in terms of lost genetic variation and increased inbreeding is presented. It was determined that the loss of genetic variation resulting from excluding founders is always greater than the loss of genetic variation caused by unequal founder line representation resulting from including related animals, as if they were founders. In addition, the increased rate of accumulation of inbreeding resulting from excluding founders will eventually overcome the initial inbreeding resulting from including related animals. However, in some cases, it will take a substantial number of generations for this to occur, and the benefits of possible lowered future expected inbreeding may never be realized. The decision concerning whether to use animals with unknown ancestry should, therefore, be based on the estimated relative costs of making an error, in terms of both lost genetic variation and expected future inbreeding, rather than on avoiding the immediate possibility of increased inbreeding alone. Two examples using studbook data are given to show how this method can be practically applied to the management of captive populations. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Analysis of urinary immunoreactive steroid metabolites and gonadotropins for characterization of the estrous cycle, breeding period, and seasonal estrous activity of captive killer whales (Orcinus orca)
Authors: Robeck T. R. , Schneyer A. L. , McBain J. F. , Dalton L. M. , Walsh M. T. , Czekala N. M. , Kraemer D. C.
Published: June 2005

To increase the basic understanding of killer whale (Orcinus orca) reproductive physiology necessary for the development of artificial breeding programs, we utilized radioimmunoassays (RIA) to detect urinary immunoreactive steroid metabolites (pregnanediol‐3α‐glucuronide [PdG] and estrone‐conjugates [EC]) and gonadotropins (luteinizing hormone [LH] and follicle‐stimulating hormone [FSH]) in urine samples from six female killer whales. Urine samples were collected from the whales by voluntary presentation behavior over a 2‐ to 4‐year period. All urinary hormone values were corrected for intersample urine concentration variations by indexing with creatinine. Daily urine samples from four whales were collected during two conceptions and 18 complete estrous cycles. LH, FSH, EC, and PdG immunoreactive levels were determined and combined with observed copulatory activity in five cycles, including two conceptive cycles from two whales. Mean luteal phase lengths ranged from 9.7 to 19.2 days. Mean follicular phase lengths ranged from 6.5 to 16.8 days. Mean estrous cycle lengths based on the first detectable PdG levels were 41.6 ± 6.72 S.E.M. days. After PdG nadir, immunoreactive FSH levels showed a bimodal pattern with the first peak being greater in size, and both preceding a follicular phase EC increase. LH levels > the 95% confidence interval of the mean were considered significant.

Combined LH immunoreactive values from whales 2 and 6 during two and three estrous cycles, respectively, had significant LH peak concentrations on day minus 2. These significant LH peaks were assumed to represent the preovulatory LH surge. Eight copulations during two conceptive cycles were observed between whales 2 and 6 and a breeding male. Six of these copulations (3 with each female whale) occurred within 72 hours of the beginning or the end of the presumptive preovulatory LH surge. Estrous activity was seen throughout the year for the herd. However, individuals had varying periods of anestrus that could not be linked to environmental, social, or nutritional influences. The whales that were reproductively successful had anestrus intervals that were usually influenced by gestation, postparturient period, or lactation. The information obtained during this research enhances the foundation for future artificial reproductive management techniques. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Aggressive behavior and dominance hierarchies in female sable antelope, Hippotragus niger: Implications for captive management
Authors: Thompson Katerina V.
Published: June 2005

Social interactions of adult female sable antelope, Hippotragus niger, were observed at the National Zoological Park's Conservation and Research Center. Aggressive behavior was quantified for two herds containing 8 and 11 females. Aggression was lowest at calving, and highest near the time of conception. Dominance hierarchies were strictly linear and stable over time. Dominance rank was highly correlated with age, with the oldest females achieving highest rank. High‐ranking females initiated more aggression and were more likely to behave aggressively towards a newly introduced adult female. The newly introduced individual was the victim of prolonged, intense group chases and was permanently excluded from the herd. Low‐ranking females directed more aggression at yearling herd members than did high‐ranking females. Temporary absences by herd members resulted in long‐lasting, substantial increases in received aggression upon their return. Because of their aggressive nature, sable antelope present a challenge to captive management. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Habitat use, foraging behavior, and activity patterns in reproducing western tarsiers, Tarsius bancanus, in captivity: A managment synthesis
Authors: Roberts Miles , Kohn Frank
Published: June 2005

As the only obligatorily predatory primates, tarsiers are notoriously difficult to keep successfully in captivity. Here we report empirical and experimental results from a 5‐year study of behavior and life history in captive Tarsius bancanus. Four reproducing adult tarsiers used space nonrandomly, preferring small‐diameter vertical or near‐vertical locomotor substrates at midlevel enclosure heights (1.2–2.1 m) for sleeping, scanning, and prey capture. The tarsiers were completely nocturnal, and spent 78% of the scotophase scanning, 13% sleeping, and 9% in prey capture and other activities. Only live crickets were eaten; prey capture rates were highest in the first hour after waking, but overall activity rates were highest later in the scotophase. Adult males and nonpregnant or lactating females ingested approximately 44.7–49.7 kJ/day. Growing and lactating individuals ingested approximately 84.4–94.1 KJ/day. An energetically conservative, sit‐and‐wait predatory strategy was employed, in which 88% of capture attempts were successful. Most successful prey captures involved reaching for, or leaping from, 90° or 60° supports in a horizontal or downward direction onto prey less than 0.6 m away. Virtually all prey captures were in arboreal locations, despite much higher densities of crickets on enclosure floors. Prey capture rates during the first hour of the nocturnal activity period were positively correlated with arboreal cricket densities. At constant arboreal cricket densities, capture rates were negatively correlated with ambient light intensity, with optimum levels for prey capture ranging from 0.1 to 2.0 Lux. In terms of social behavior, these T. bancanus were nongregarious. Females enforced interindividual spacing by chasing and displacing males. Chase/displacement rates increased significantly during late pregnancy and lactation, apparently in an attempt to keep males from harassing infants. There was no direct male parental care. Infants were precocial at birth, and grew at a rate of 0.35–0.5 g/day, until nutritional weaning at approximately 60 days of age. The implications of specialized predatory morphology and behavior for management are discussed. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.