bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Impossible Triangle: Obama-Netanyahu-Abbas
Authors: Ben-Ami Shlomo
Published: February 2022

Obama arrived in the White House with ambitions about America’s reconciliation with the Muslim world, and a historic nuclear deal with Iran. But, his belief that an Israeli-Palestinian peace was central to such grand strategic endeavors clashed with Benjamin Netanyahu who refused to see the link. Netanyahu, nonetheless, agreed to engage in talks with the Palestinians. He even agreed to a freeze of settlements expansion. Having failed to achieve any progress during his first term, the President left the Palestinian file in the hands of his second term Secretary of State, John Kerry. A Framework Agreement negotiated through Kerry’s good services ended in failure. Netanyahu agreed to surprisingly bold peace formulae—including an endorsement of the 1967 borders—but Palestinian President Mahmud Abbas refused to accept the proposed Framework for not meeting Palestinian requirements on issues such as refugees, Jerusalem and security. Israeli concerns about the regional context—Iran’s rise and the turmoil of the Arab Spring—did not favor a more forthcoming attitude to a Palestinian peace. Netanyahu’s rightwing coalition’s push for the expansion of settlements was another factor inhibiting progress.
The Region and the World: A Broken Reed
Authors: Ben-Ami Shlomo
Published: February 2022

The Israel-Palestine conflict has never developed in a regional and global vacuum. Regional and international stakeholders played a central role in the birth of the problem and they also share the responsibility for its persistence. Now, with the changing regional setup, the Arab states have lost interest in the Palestinian problem and, in their fear of being exposed to the rising threat of their Iranian nemesis while the US is disengaging from the region, found in Israel a reliable new ally. Palestine has been demoted. The same can be said of the global powers. Israel is losing the almost unconditional support it used to have in US public opinion, but this has not been translated into a change in the administration’s political and military support for the Jewish state. America’s serial failures in matters of war and peace in the Middle East have killed her appetite for any new engagement in the unrewarding quest for an Israeli-Palestinian peace. The same is true of other global powers. The logic for an international solution to Palestine is compelling; but the conditions for it do no exist. Multilateralism is in disarray and the agenda of the global community is overwhelmingly absorb by other strategic and even existential challenges, from global warming to mass migrations, from trade wars to the Covid pandemic and from multipolar competition to nuclear proliferation.
Ominous Unravelings
Authors: Ben-Ami Shlomo
Published: February 2022

With the two-state solution discarded by the forces at play in Palestine-Israel and beyond, ominous scenarios are either emerging by osmosis or being toyed with by pundits and leaders. The single bi-national state that has a long pedigree among intellectuals and leftwing activits has now become a more legitimate option both because of the ideological and political hegemony of the Israeli right, and because of the compelling power of the evolving reality in which the very notion of a peace process has vanishedd from the political discourse. This means a drift to a South African reality that would not have a South African solution. The idea of a unilateral disengagement along the lines of the 1967 Alon Plan, the 2006 Ehud Olmert’s Convergence Plan or Donald Trump’s Deal of the Century could re-emerge as a response to the innate drive of Zionism to preserve a state with a Jewish majority. Unilateralism, however, is no solution, for it would leave the West Bank in a state of mayehm. An enemy state would rise there possibly similar to the one in Gaza.
Left to Our Own Devices
Authors: Ticona Julia
Published: February 2022

Over the past three decades, digital technologies like smartphones and laptops have transformed the way we work in the United States. Over the same period of time, workers at the top and the bottom of the income ladder have experienced rising levels of job insecurity and anxiety about their economic futures. Despite this connection, we rarely link our everyday technology problems to our economic climate. Left to Our Own Devices explores the ways that workers use their digital technologies to navigate insecure and flexible labor markets. Through one hundred interviews with high- and low-wage precarious workers across the United States, the book explores the surprisingly similar “digital hustles” they use to find work and maintain a sense of dignity and identity. However, although they shared similar practices, the digital hustle ultimately reproduces inequalities between workers at either end of polarized labor markets. The terms on which workers are included into the digital economy are marked by stark differences in power and privilege. Instead of a cognitive or individualistic approach to our “addictions” to technology, this book explains that our technologies must be understood as essential tools to cope with insecurity and manage the new risks that have emerged in the wake of the Great Recession and the crumbling social contract between employers and employees. In an economic climate characterized by unraveling social safety nets, workers use their devices to weave their own.
Will Automation, AI, and Robots Lead to Widespread Unemployment?
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: February 2022

Automation eliminates certain jobs, as it has for hundreds of years. These disruptions are painful to many, but there are benefits of expanded production, increased quality, and lower costs to consumers, which often increases employment opportunities for many people. Controversies rage about Amazon's rapid growth, facilitated by automation in fulfillment centers, but at the same time their employee numbers have grown ten times in the past decade. While agricultural employment has dropped dramatically in the past hundred years, it has also led to more jobs in food distribution, supermarkets, and restaurants. At the same time, healthcare jobs have grown substantially for nursing, home care, personal training, and medical managers. New industries include software engineering, financial management, and renewable energy systems installation. The challenges are to ensure safety for workers and share the benefits of automation widely.
Introduction: Rising above the Levels of Automation
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: February 2022

Automated systems can be wonderful, but strategies for ensuring activation when needed and preventing inadvertent activations contribute to reliable, safe, and trustworthy operation that increases user acceptance. Good design also includes ways for maintenance staff to gather performance data to know whether the operation is correct and adjust controls to make sure the device functions correctly. The long-standing levels of automation which went from full human control to full computer control has limited imagination of what is possible. Breaking free from the assumption of a zero-sum situation in which more automation means less human control requires fresh thinking.
Two-Dimensional HCAI Framework
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: February 2022

The mistaken message has been that more automation necessarily meant less user control. Over the years, this idea began to trouble me so I eventually shifted to the belief that it was possible to ensure human control, even while increasing computer automation. The decoupling of these concepts leads to a two-dimensional HCAI framework, which suggests that achieving high levels of human control and high levels of computer automation is possible. The two axes go from low to high human control and from low to high computer automation. Awareness of the dangers of excessive automation and excessive control will enable designers to introduce safer designs with override mechanisms to allow humans to take over from machine errors and interlocks to prevent human errors. This simple expansion to two dimensions is already helping designers imagine fresh possibilities.
Teammates and Tele-bots
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: February 2022

Do designers benefit from thinking of computers as being teammates, partners, and collaborators? When is it helpful and when is there a danger in assuming human–human interaction is a good model for human–robot interaction? Innovation goal researchers and developers want to build tele-bots that extend human capabilities, while providing superhuman perceptual and motor support, thereby boosting human performance, while allowing human–human teamwork to succeed. The combined strategy could be to use science goal algorithms to implement automatic internal services that support the innovation goal of human control. This approach is implemented in the many car-driving technologies such as lane following, parking assist, and collision avoidance. The idea is to give users the control they desire by putting “AI inside,” which provides valuable services to users based on machine and deep learning algorithms. In this way users have the benefit of AI optimizations, an understanding of what is happening, a clear model of what will happen next, and the chance to take control if needed.
Assured Autonomy and Control Centers
Authors: Shneiderman Ben
Published: February 2022

This chapter discusses the science goal for products and services that are autonomous with no human intervention. Rather than assured autonomous systems acting alone, innovation goal researchers want to support supervised autonomy by way of control panels and control centers (sometimes described as human-in-the-loop or humans-on-the-loop), in which humans operate highly automated devices and systems. The combined strategy could be to have science goal algorithms provide highly automated features, with user interface designs that support human control and oversight. This combined strategy is in use in many NASA, industrial, utility, military, and air traffic control centers, where rich forms of AI are used to optimize performance, but the operators have a clear mental model of what will happen next. Predictable behavior from machines is highly valued by human operators.
Introduction: ‘A Constant but not Frozen Tradition’
Authors: Rassi Salam
Published: February 2022

The Introduction opens with the story of Middle Eastern Christians who migrated to the island of Cyprus during and after the Crusades. Among them was a Nestorian priest named Ṣalībā ibn Yūḥannā who, in the 1330s, produced compendia of authoritative Arabic theological texts by medieval authors who flourished between the ninth and fourteenth centuries. Prominent among these are works by ʿAbdīshōʿ of Nisibis (aka ʿAbdīshōʿ bar Brīkhā), an older contemporary of Ṣalībā who died in 1318. Taking this theological canon as its starting point, the Introduction sets out the book’s main themes. Central is the premise that a vast corpus of anti-Muslim Syriac and Arabic apologetic literature came to define the theological identity of Christians living in the medieval Islamicate World—so much so that many of these Christians carried this apologetic tradition with them after leaving the Middle East for Lusignan Cyprus. A major architect and systematizer of this canon was ʿAbdīshōʿ bar Brīkhā, whose apologetic oeuvre and engagement with the intellectual, cultural, and literary world of Islam is the focus of this book.
The Life and Times of a ‘Most Obscure Syrian’
Authors: Rassi Salam
Published: February 2022

Chapter 2 explores ʿAbdīshōʿ’s world based on his own testimonies and those of his contemporaries. While we possess few facts about his life, the cultural, political, and intellectual history of the Church of the East in the thirteenth century is relatively well-documented. ʿAbdīshōʿ’s literary activities took place at the height of Mongol rule over a region of Upper Mesopotamia known as the Jazīra. The destruction of the Baghdad Caliphate in 1258 and the subsequent establishment of the Ilkhanate inaugurated four decades or so of non-Muslim rule by mainly Shamanist and Buddhist sovereigns over a largely Muslim region. In 1295, the Mongol elite in the Middle East officially converted to Islam. This development had far reaching consequences for the region’s non-Muslim population and may have partly formed the historical backdrop to ʿAbdīshōʿ’s anti-Muslim apologetics. The chapter also situates ʿAbdīshōʿ’s literary output in a period in which Syriac and Arabic Christian scholarship had become markedly receptive to Islamic theological and philosophical models. While ʿAbdīshōʿ’s own involvement in the broader intellectual networks of his day appears limited, his work on alchemy evinces a high level of engagement with Arabo-Islamic modes of knowledge production, particularly in the area of alchemy. The receptiveness to non-Christian models is less obvious in ʿAbdīshōʿ’s other works but is nevertheless present in his apologetics.
General Conclusion
Authors: Rassi Salam
Published: February 2022

This chapter concludes that ʿAbdīshōʿ bar Brīkhā wrote his apologies with a centuries-long wealth of tradition behind him. Although he composed these works at a time of heightened religious tensions, his theology belongs to a broader genre of apologetics that had been in continuous development since at least the eighth century. The widespread popularity of apologetics among Syriac- and Arabic-using Christians in the medieval Middle East reveals the very importance of this genre in the articulation of Christian belonging and exclusion. Yet, in ʿAbdīshōʿ’s extensive oeuvre, we have also observed the capacity of this genre to creatively adapt and naturalize models and expressions inspired by Arabic literature and held in common with Islamic philosophy and kalām. This book ends by arguing for the continued use of non-Muslim sources for the study of the religious and intellectual history of the Islamicate world. Based on the vast and rich body of apologetics synthesized and mediated by ʿAbdīshōʿ, the book also argues for the value of studying the continued development and canonization of intellectual and religious traditions rather than focusing solely on their origins.
Introduction
Authors: Cohn, Jr. Samuel K.
Published: February 2022

The Introduction sets the stage, posing the principal questions this book will confront, synthesizing the social science literature that it borrows from and will contest, explaining two principal and problematic keywords that run through the book—revolt and popolo. It then introduces the primary sources and databases constructed from them to analyse how revolts and ideals of democracy changed from the communal period in Italy of the thirteenth century to the period of Italian wars, 1494–1559. In this staging, the introduction also engages with the vast historiography on popular revolt and protest over the late medieval and early modern periods across much of Europe and points to the enigma of the paucity of such work for early modern Italy, especially before the Neapolitan revolt of Masaniello in 1647. This paucity is doubly enigmatic given the importance of the late medieval revolt, especially in Tuscany and Umbria, and the rich scholarship on it since the late nineteenth century.
Prices and Crises
Authors: Cohn, Jr. Samuel K.
Published: February 2022

This chapter begins by reviewing the historiography of food riots from Camille-Ernest Labrousse in the 1940s to the twenty-first century. Against much of this literature, the chapter argues that these riots of subsistence were not the principal form of revolt in ‘preindustrial times’ as has often been alleged; nor was scarcity a principal pre-condition of popular revolt. However, by the mid-1470s and through the sixteenth century, food riots became more common and a conjuncture between scarcity and revolt was no longer negatively linked as it had been during the Middle Ages. Moreover, the chapter finds two sorts of bread riots in early modern Italy, and historians have yet to recognize the differences. One form—the rarer of the two—was composed mostly of starving women and children, often accompanied by impoverished men from the countryside. Neither leaders nor targets were generally mentioned; their cries were for mercy and bread with little violence or repression ensuing. The second form was revolts of the popolo, comprised mostly of armed adult men, who elected their leaders, and chose distinct targets such as granaries or ships ready to export grain. In addition, these were enmeshed within broader revolts often with larger constitutional and political objectives.
“Guided by her Foot, Which is Basest”
Authors: MacConochie Alex
Published: February 2022

The chapter traces an arc from overt embodiments of social dominance, and the ways playwrights critique them, to enactments of mutual intimacy. The first section, on kicks, argues the anonymous A Yorkshire Tragedy encourages sympathy with the victims of such abuse—and, indeed, to see superiors’ kicks of their inferiors (whether wives or those lower down the social scale) as abuse. In a similar aspect shift, Shakespeare’s Love’s Labour’s Lost and the anonymous Locrine burlesque the political ritual of foot-kissing, purporting to expose this ceremony as evidence of foreigners’ and Catholics’ unhealthy erotic fixation on the feet. Representations of the feet are again at issue in Dekker’s The Shoemaker’s Holiday and William Rowley’s A Shoemaker, A Gentleman, which invert somatic metaphors of the body politic in scenes of eroticized shoe-fittings. Here, an erotic interest in the feet, specifically those of highborn ladies, is seen as healthy, embodying artisanal aspirations to upward mobility. The final section considers a gesture—what the jealous Leontes in Shakespeare’s The Winter’s Tale calls “horsing foot on foot,” elsewhere called “treading of toes”—which embodies a covert enactment of mutuality. This form of touch (analogous to our own contemporary “playing footsy”) embodies both male and female lovers’ resistance to the authority of husbands and of socially higher-ranking men. Involving body parts equated with dominated groups only, it is an embodiment of parity that can only be imagined, it seems, as a form of resistance to hierarchy.
“Lady, Shall I Lie in Your Lap?”
Authors: MacConochie Alex
Published: February 2022

This chapter shows how depictions of a male character laying his head in a female character’s lap are used to explore the possibility of equality between agents, despite structural differences in power. Often, as in Robert Wilson’s The Coblers Prophesie (1594), this configuration embodies a lassitude dangerous to martial manhood. Yet, laying one’s head in another’s lap may also enact masculine, spousal authority. The two evaluations intersect in 1 Henry IV (1598) and a closely related play and 1 John Oldcastle, by a group of playwrights including Michael Drayton, both of which exploit fissures in the configuration’s social and symbolic use to suggest a third possible significance: laying heads in laps as an embodiment of mutual trust and reciprocity. All three of these meanings resonate within a similar scene in Hamlet. Ophelia, within the constraints imposed on her as a court lady, attempts to activate the third of these possibilities. But Hamlet’s own language and behavior demonstrate how pervasive masculine anxieties about female agency and emasculation, centered on the head-in-lap configuration, tended to militate against such reciprocity.
“What mean these Hands?”
Authors: MacConochie Alex
Published: February 2022

This chapter explores questions raised regarding individual agency and consent raised by depictions of manual contact, in negotiations ranging from business deals to politics to courtship. The focus is on the negotiations of power that precede, and even make possible, embodiments of consent, agreement, and affiliation. In the first section, Ben Jonson’s Poetaster and Thomas Dekker’s Satiro-Mastix feature the same character, Tucca, whose demands for handshakes highlight the ways an ostensibly friendly gesture nonetheless encodes struggles for dominance. As Tucca’s business handshakes are with players and playwrights, these two plays comment meta-theatrically on the power dynamics between theater professionals, their patrons, and their audiences. The next section turns to power struggles within the family, particularly between male relatives. Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors and Titus Andronicus present male hand-holding as an embodiment of social parity, but also use scenes of hand-holding to question whether such equality is tenable outside of certain carefully delimited contexts. Two more of Shakespeare’s Roman plays, Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra, leverage moments in which characters take hands to investigate connections between political agency and the struggles for power running through even the most intimate relationships between friends and lovers. Finally, depictions of the handfast in Heywood’s The Fair Maid of the Exchange and Webster’s The Duchess of Malfi show how taking hands in courtship and betrothal may double as a tactile negotiation of power relations between male and female agents.
The case for technological imperfections
Authors: Townsend Peter
Published: February 2022

Historically, it was only the presence of imperfections in flint that enabled them to be shaped into our first Stone Age tools, as fracture of perfect flints would have been impossible. The use of fire for cooking equally revealed the presence of metals and silicates in ores and experience slowly introduced the complex fields of metallurgy and simple glasses. Historically, all later advances followed this initial pattern by revealing that we needed traces of imperfections and impurities. In essence, there are very close parallels with cookery and the needs for traces of salt and spices. The influence of tiny minorities is no different in society where individuals, and their political dominance, can control and influence millions of other people (as for impurities in modern technologies).
Small anomalies and long-range consequences
Authors: Townsend Peter
Published: February 2022

Even with children’s building blocks one can make an intuitive first guess at the structure of localized imperfections. However, experimentally designing, identifying, characterizing and controlling them is far more difficult. One reason is that many defect sites have extremely long-range consequences and, in these cases, intuition is hard. Nevertheless, the need to do this and predicting the potential benefits are significant. Long-range effects uses are not just for semiconductors, but apply equally to radiation dosimetry, archaeological dating, information storage, plus chemical and biological reactivity. One can gain intuition by considering human interactions and how our lives are defined, not just by immediate contacts, but by political, social, legislative and factors that control the flow of goods and information across the globe.
Hints for a successful scientific career
Authors: Townsend Peter
Published: February 2022

A bonus of writing a book at the end of a career is that hindsight offers thoughts on how it could have progressed more efficiently, or better exploited results and opportunities. The chapter considers many key factors that lead to success in science, with topics ranging from fields of interest, to training, promotion of image, attendance at conferences etc. Many ideas apply beyond science but are rarely widely discussed, nevertheless they’re valuable even with changing patterns of work and communications. A further factor is that it is possible to realise that knowledge should not be confined to a narrow topic area, one should recognize and welcome discoveries and thoughts even if generated by serendipity, and understand how to optimize a scientific image. Finally, scientific opinion is not always correct, even if ideas have been promoted for a very long time.
Housing the Powers
Authors: Adams Marilyn McCord
Published: February 2022

Housing the powers? What powers? Soul powers—powers that shape the lives of human souls. They may be housed, and exercised, by those souls or by other agents. This book is about views on that subject developed by Christian philosophical theologians in western Europe from the mid-12th to the early 14th century, with some borrowing of thoughts from their Islamic counterparts. Chapters 1 to 3 discuss in increasing breadth and depth those theologians’ views about their own housing and exercise of soul powers. Chapters 4 to 8 discuss their views as to the possibility of some of our soul powers being outsourced—that is, housed and exercised by God or a super-human emanation of God. Chapter 4 is about outsourcing the subject—in an Islamic form that postulated an outsourcing of intellectual thinking from individual human beings to a single intellect that is eternally emanated from God and is the thinker of all the thoughts that humans ever think. That theory attracted the interest, though not the agreement, of European Christian philosophers. They found ideas of outsourcing the object, rather than the subject, of religious thought more congenial. The remaining four chapters of the book deal with ideas about outsourcing the object, rather than the subject, of understanding or cognition. In Chapters 5 and 6 the focus is mainly on Divine gifts of knowledge and understanding, and in Chapters 7 and 8 on gifts of action and willing or desire.
Outsourcing the Object: Divine Illumination II
Authors: Adams Marilyn McCord
Published: February 2022

Chapter 6 is a study of a disagreement between Duns Scotus and Henry of Ghent about Divine illumination. Henry did not (in this world anyway) know about the disagreement, because he died in his 70s in 1293 before Scotus was well known. Still, there was and is disagreement between the views on Divine illumination that Henry and Scotus developed and bequeathed to posterity. The differences between their most developed views are subtle. The main conclusion of the chapter is that Scotus insists that all of the conceptual content that we have before death is derivable by abstraction from phantasms, while Henry holds that God plays an efficient causal role in furnishing further contents: our “first” concepts of indeterminate being, good, true, one, beautiful; presumably our concept of subsistent being; and whatever content additions are involved in taking us beyond constructed concepts to clear and perfect concepts of creatable quiddities.
Article 50 Treaty on European Union
Authors: Kellerbauer Manuel
Published: February 2022

This chapter discusses Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU), which accords each Member State the right to withdraw from the EU in its sole discretion. This right cannot be exercised with immediate effect. Rather, the Treaty provision requires both the Union and its withdrawing Member State to enter into negotiations for at least two years with a view to agreeing on arrangements for the withdrawal and thus mitigating its disruptive impact. While the decision to withdraw is to be taken by each Member State in accordance with its own constitutional rules, the ensuing withdrawal process is governed by EU law. The possibility unilaterally and unconditionally to terminate EU membership illustrates that Member States have not abandoned their unfettered right to national self-determination but merely decided to exercise parts of their sovereignty jointly so long as they consider this to be in their best interest. Therefore, Article 50 serves at the same time as a reminder of the EU’s purpose to serve its Member States and their citizens and that its future existence depends on their continued support. In the context of the UK’s withdrawal from the EU, Article 50 TEU fulfilled its purpose of producing an orderly withdrawal based on a withdrawal agreement negotiated and concluded within the allotted time frame.
The Withdrawal Agreement, Protocol Relating to the Sovereign Base Areas of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Cyprus
Authors: Adams Catherine
Published: February 2022

This chapter studies the Protocol relating to the United Kingdom Sovereign Base Areas (SBAs) in the island of Cyprus. The two Base Areas (Akrotiri and Dhekelia) include both UK military bases and civilian areas. Protocol 3, which applied limited areas of EU law to the SBAs when Cyprus became a member state, was necessary to allow the continuation of the special arrangements for the SBAs under the Treaty of Establishment, which was concluded between the UK, Greece, Turkey, and Cyprus at the time Cyprus became an independent state. The Protocol to the Withdrawal Agreement provides for the continuation of those arrangements notwithstanding the UK’s exit from the EU. In general terms, the Protocol maintains the status quo by providing for the application of certain areas of Union law in the SBAs, and its enforcement through Union institutions and bodies, while protecting the rights of the UK under the Treaty of Establishment, in particular in relation to its military bases.
Global Pathways to Modern Taxation
Authors: Philipp Genschel , Seelkopf Laura
Published: February 2022

This introductory chapter argues that the extant literature on taxation and state formation suffers from four biases: a geographic bias favouring the fiscal experience of advanced Western democracies; a recency bias favouring the fiscal experience of recent decades; a substantive bias favouring the analysis of personal income tax and VAT over that of other important taxes; and a nationalist bias ignoring colonial and other non-sovereign modes of tax policy making. The chapter presents a new ‘Tax Introduction Dataset’ to address these biases. The dataset contains information on the historical date of first permanent introduction of six modern taxes (personal income tax, corporate income tax, inheritance tax, social security contributions, general sales taxes, VAT) in 220 countries worldwide, 1750–2018. The chapter clarifies the notion of modern taxation and maps the global diffusion of modern taxes across time, countries, taxes, and modes of adoption (sovereign and colonial). It introduces four main explanatory variables (war, economic recession, socio-economic modernization, and political institutions) and summarizes the findings of the chapters concerning the correlation of these variables with tax introductions across time, countries, taxes, and modes of adoption.
Social Security Contributions and the Fiscal Origins of the Welfare State
Authors: Kemmerling Achim
Published: February 2022

The chapter analyses the worldwide introduction of social security contributions. It uses the example of Bismarck’s Germany to ask whether the adoption of social security contributions in non-European countries followed a similar logic as in European welfare state pioneers. To answer this question, the chapter develops the main differences between social security contributions and other modern taxes and deduces some empirical implications for the politics of their respective introduction. Next, the chapter explores quantitative evidence on why countries chose social security contributions when introducing their first social security laws. It finds that the decision to use social security contributions often followed the demands of urban workers seeking insurance rather than redistribution. The chapter concludes with qualitative evidence suggesting that these early manifestations of an urban bias often had long-term consequences for the politics of the welfare state.
Count Rumford and his Remarkable Creation in Albemarle Street
Authors: Meurig Thomas John
Published: February 2022

The American-born Sir Benjamin Thompson, otherwise known as Count Rumford of the Holy Roman Empire, was at one time the ‘Supremo’ of Munich in Bavaria, where he was both a successful social reformer, an incisive scientist and the creator of the English Garden in that city. Disappointed when he came to London in 1798, when King George IV refused to accept him as the Bavarian Ambassador to the Court of St. James, he decided to found the Royal Institution of Great Britain. He appointed two brilliant Englishmen—Humphry Davy and Thomas Young (of Milverton, Somerset), now regarded as the last person ‘who knew everything’. As well as his extraordinary linguistic skills—he helped decipher the Rosetta Stone—he was a physician, a physiologist, a philologist and a physicist. One of his experiments at the RI in 1801 disproved Newton’s views on the nature of light. Rumford’s final years in Paris entailed an unhappy marriage with the widow of Lavoisier.
Sir Humphry Davy
Authors: Meurig Thomas John
Published: February 2022

Herein we describe the extraordinary skills of Humphry Davy, the self-taught, woodcarver’s son from Cornwall, who combined brilliant scientific research with felicity of literary and poetic expression; and he became the toast of London. As well as his unique lecturing skills, he made fundamental discoveries in pure science and technology. He discovered the metals sodium, potassium, strontium, magnesium and chlorine; he invented the miners’ safety lamp; he did fundamental work in physiology; and founded the science of agricultural chemistry. He was also instrumental in founding the Geological Society and the London Club, Athenaeum. His marriage to a rich Scottish widow was not a happy one. He was a close friend of the poets Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey and Byron, and he himself was a minor poet. He claimed that his greatest discovery was Michael Faraday.
Michael Faraday
Authors: Meurig Thomas John
Published: February 2022

The rise of the bookbinder’s apprentice, Michael Faraday, to be one of the greatest scientists who ever lived, is the subject of this chapter. He was given tickets to go and listen to the last 4 lectures by the Director of the Royal Institution, Humphry Davy. This transformed his life; starting as a laboratory assistant, he spent the next 50 years at the RI; and his discoveries experimentally were later described by Lord Rutherford as the greatest in the history of science. Einstein also described him as the person responsible, with Clerk Maxwell of Cambridge, for the greatest change in our perception of the nature of the physical world. His succession of experiments—like the extraction of electricity from magnetism and the generation of continuous electricity—transformed the science and technology of his day and subsequently. His Laws of electrolysis are among the most accurate in science. He was also a brilliant lecturer, and his RI Christmas Lectures on ‘The Chemical History of a Candle’, translated into many languages, continues to inspire modern scientists.
The Fuel Cell
Authors: Meurig Thomas John
Published: February 2022

In an age when climate change is of vital importance, it is necessary to seek ways of ‘decarbonizing’ energy. In the 1840s a lawyer friend of Michael Faraday, named William Grove, invented a new method of creating electricity without producing carbon dioxide. He gave a Discourse on the subject in 1843. This he did using what later became known as the fuel cell. Effectively, under the right conditions, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen on coming into contact with a catalyst like platinum, generates electricity directly. This is now the basis of the hydrogen economy, which is being increasingly studied the world over. Another Discourse on the hydrogen fuel cell was presented at the RI in 1960 by Francis Bacon, who was responsible for designing the fuel cell used by the astronauts who landed on the moon.
Theories of grammatical knowledge in relation to formal syntactic and non-syntactic explanations
Authors: Francis Elaine J.
Published: February 2022

Chapter 2 explores how acceptability judgments have been interpreted through the lens of different theoretical approaches in syntax, including derivational theories (e.g. Minimalism, Principles and Parameters), constraint-based theories (e.g. Sign-Based Construction Grammar, Lexical-Functional Grammar, Simpler Syntax), competition-based theories (e.g. Stochastic Optimality Theory, Decathlon Model), and usage-based approaches. Although there is a consensus among generative linguists that acceptability judgments can reflect a variety of different factors, it is shown that some theoretical approaches tend more toward formal syntactic explanations, while others tend more toward non-syntactic explanations. It is argued that two main factors contribute to this tendency: (1) the degree of form–meaning isomorphism that is built into the theory; and (2) the understanding of constraint application as either categorical or probabilistic/stochastic.
Public Servants
Authors: Geoffroy-Schwinden Rebecca Dowd
Published: February 2022

This chapter situates the founding of the Paris Conservatory in 1795 within French educational and cultural reforms during the French Revolution. It exposes the careful political line that musicians tread during the Revolution and the significance of their alignment with the military as they successfully institutionalized training and accreditation in their field, a critical final step to professionalization. The chapter argues that musicians recast themselves from cosmopolitan artists to national servants as a way to gain government funding for the Conservatory. Musicians who did not earn a place in the Conservatory also began to characterize their Old Regime work as patriotic service to the nation rather than to the monarchy as a way to obtain financial rewards. Because musicians received government support and served the nation, music came to be considered a public property.
Privilege by Any Other Name
Authors: Geoffroy-Schwinden Rebecca Dowd
Published: February 2022

This conclusion draws on the historical evidence presented throughout the book to argue that the new property regime implemented during the French Revolution began to exhibit the qualities of more contemporary definitions of privilege as “exclusive.” The exclusivity of musical production in Paris prioritized composers, musical works, and the nation, and ultimately supported nineteenth-century European musical values that were eventually reified in both music historiography and musicians’ professional and epistemic practices. As a result, we must understand the French Revolution as a significant point of departure not only for musical modernity but also for the values that continue to inflect “Classical” musical production.
Commercialization and How It Happens
Authors: Schelhorn Jean E. , Herbers Joan M.
Published: February 2022

This chapter offers a tour of the what and how of commercialization—the process of transferring potential and actual intellectual property and related technology/intellectual assets to third parties for use in improving existing products/services or as the basis for new ones. Technology transfer encompasses a variety of legally binding agreements that move inventions out of the institution and into the hands of third parties focused on commercial success. Described here are the fundamental elements of those agreements and the private- or public-sector entities that seek licenses to institutional assets in order to develop products/services for a market. Knowing the basics will provide an understanding of the process as well as insights into how a particular path emerges.
Adapting to the World of Commercialization
Authors: Schelhorn Jean E. , Herbers Joan M.
Published: February 2022

This chapter delves into the cultural divide between academic research and commercialization. To be successful in tech transfer, researchers must understand the need to adapt to new mindsets and to learn from others with legal and business experience. The key differences between the academic culture and one that places primacy on a market-driven mindset are described, and the skills needed for team-based translation of research to the marketplace are compared and contrasted. Reward systems are incongruent between the two cultures, and understanding the inherent tension between academic and market-driven value systems is important for researchers and policymakers alike.
PROFILE: Katalin Karikó
Authors: Schelhorn Jean E. , Herbers Joan M.
Published: February 2022

Katalin Karikó is a molecular biologist who became intrigued with the idea of using messenger RNA (mRNA) for therapeutic purposes more than 30 years ago. Messenger RNA is produced within cells by encoding information in DNA, and it directs the production of proteins. Her work paved the way for use of synthetic mRNA to prime the immune system of a host (like you and us) against viruses. mRNA vaccines are in widespread use for the first time as we battle the SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes COVID-19....
Insider Advice
Authors: Schelhorn Jean E. , Herbers Joan M.
Published: February 2022

Chapter 6 offers proactive steps for inventors to raise the probability that their insights and discoveries move into the hands of commercialization partners. It provides guidance on big mistakes to avoid. The single most important topic is avoiding public disclosure: academics used to the free exchange of ideas can easily erode their ability to commercialize if they share information out of sequence. The chapter also describes problems associated with inappropriate transfer of materials and data among institutions. Ten best practices are then offered; academics who follow those practices more effectively engage with the tech transfer office and support efforts to commercialize. Finally, advice is offered to those who work at smaller institutions that may not have a commercialization infrastructure.
Epilogue: Messages to Administrators and Commercialization Staff
Authors: Schelhorn Jean E. , Herbers Joan M.
Published: February 2022

We have primarily written for academic researchers, and we now offer some thoughts to those with whom they work.

As Vice Presidents, Provosts, Deans, and Department Chairs, you lead discussions to set policies that affect the way researchers think and behave. Throughout our book we have referenced policies concerning intellectual property, conflicts of interest, revenue-sharing, and the like. These policies are important to your institution’s agenda of translating research to the society at large, to be sure. Now we encourage you to examine all your policies to assess whether in fact they encourage researchers to ...
“Mein Kampf to a 4/4 Beat”
Authors: Byman Daniel
Published: February 2022

Europe lacks America’s legacy of slavery, but it has legacies of fascism, imperialism, and anti-Semitism as well as a less-welcoming attitude toward immigrants, particularly from Muslim countries. Violent white supremacy reemerged in Europe in the 1970s, in part accompanying the rise of the skinhead movement, and was often promoted via white power rock-and-roll, eventually spreading throughout Europe. For most of the Cold War period and the years immediately following it, most of the racial violence in Europe was low-level but constant, with assaults on immigrants particularly common in many countries. Law enforcement was slow to respond, often not acting until problems became acute.
An Analytical Approach for Understanding Proto-State Media Systems
Authors: Winkler Carol , El Damanhoury Kareem
Published: February 2022

Chapter 7 lays out an integrated model for conducting comparative studies of proto-states media systems. It begins by reviewing the applicable elements from current state-based, media system models that have ongoing relevance in the proto-state context. It then expands conventional media systems theory by establishing the need for considerations of four new rubrics: transhistorical identity formulations, transpatial identity formulations, material condition–attention interactions, and material condition–resiliency interactions. Taking each of the elements in turn, the chapter describes key factors associated with the new rubric, demonstrates its application to Sunni militant groups, and speculates on its application to other militant groups. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how attention to the four new rubrics has implications for winning hearts and minds in the online environment.
Emancipation Narrative
Authors: Goehr Lydia
Published: February 2022

Chapter 2 presents Danto’s intoxicated pursuit of art’s liberation and the historical narrative that led him to his most strident claims: first, about what it was possible for art to do when, and second, when the philosophy of art came to know its proper task. The more Danto addressed Hegelian, Marxist, Nietzschean, and Sartrean passages of thought, the greater his conviction that while social or political critique can motivate the philosopher almost as a will to freedom, equality, and justice, the analytical project of definition had finally to rest alone on the logic of the concept.
Egyptian-Jewish Bohème
Authors: Goehr Lydia
Published: February 2022

In recent histories addressing the modern conceptualization of bohème, the Egyptian-origin thesis, even while known, is rarely subjected to vigorous enquiry. This is less true of histories written about the Gypsies, from which we learn that, around 1800, the thesis was rejected, and partly by being made explicit within the new sciences of the Enlightenment. Various disciplinary perspectives were engaged to prove that if the Gypsies originated in one place, then the place was not Egypt but India. But this thesis proved no less contrived than the rejected one. Chapter 11 focuses on the Egyptian-origin thesis, where the wandering of the Egyptian-Gypsies was brought into constant comparison and contrast with that of the Jews.
Grey Days for a Gay Science
Authors: Goehr Lydia
Published: February 2022

Chapter 14 tracks a divine and mythic parentage that relates the Red Sea to la vie de bohème. It shows the living and gay science as pitted against a deathly dismal science. Greying thoughts are shown as spreading in cities, streets, gardens, and homes where, most of all at home, the thinker rarely feels at home. The thinker, with many names, soon lands with Nietzsche, who, as I show, deliberately borrowed thoughts as untimely for his own times. Nietzsche’s contribution to a genealogy of liberty through a micrology of wit is presented, after which the discussion turns to the role of birds and of ladders in the pursuit of truth and error. This pursuit, always bearing on philosophical method, prepares for the subsequent critique of monochromatic formalism.
Street Signs of Libation and Liberation
Authors: Goehr Lydia
Published: February 2022

Chapter 19 offers a history of signboards. It pursues a dialectic between sobriety and insobriety that gave wit to the quarrel between philosophy and the arts from the very start. The history of commercial signs and painted boards raises subtle puzzles of social reformation and artistic reclassification in discourses of family and property. The history of signboards affords insight into the emerging modern market of art where artworks-on-sale fed into the first declared public exhibitions. When this happened in London, Hogarth had a particular role to play as a brother laughing and crying in-arms. It was a doubled-up role for a brotherhood later re-dressed by writers of la vie de bohème. By the chapter’s end, something new is known about the London brotherhood that inspired the Red Sea anecdote before the anecdote traveled to Paris.
Conclusion
Authors: Withun David
Published: February 2022

W. E. B. Du Bois’s work and thought, including his concept of “double consciousness,” his inspiration by classical myth and thought, and his search for the history of Africans and African Americans, point the contemporary reader toward a modern cosmopolitanism. Du Bois both exposed and exemplified the multiform nature of culture and personal identity. Culture and identity are not monolithic blocs, but rather the result of the frequent cultural exchanges that characterize the history of nearly all of the world’s people groups and the sharing of divergent perspectives within the context of the wider human experience. Du Bois’s formation in the classics and delight in cultural interchange open up for the modern thinker a rich, cosmopolitan perspective.