bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Role of dimer interface in activation and desensitization in AMPA receptors
Authors: Gonzalez Jennifer , Du Mei , Parameshwaran Kodeeswaran , Suppiramaniam Vishnu , Jayaraman Vasanthi
Published: May 2010

The conversion of chemical to electrical signals by the AMPA receptors is the key step by which these proteins control cognitive and motor responses. Here, we have used luminescence resonance energy transfer (LRET) to gain insight into the conformational changes induced by glutamate binding in the agonist-binding domain in functional AMPA receptors expressed in oocytes and HEK-293 cells. The LRET-based distances indicate that the interface between the upper lobes of the agonist-binding domain within a dimer is in a decoupled state in the unligated Apo state of the receptor. Agonist binding results in the formation of the dimer interface in the open-channel form of the receptor. In the continued presence of glutamate when the receptor is primarily in the desensitized state, the dimer interface is decoupled, confirming that the decoupling of the dimer interface leads to channel closure. The LRET distances also indicate that the dimer interface is preformed before activation in the L484Y mutation and also is formed in the antagonist (ZK200775)-bound form of the AMPA receptor. These results suggests that, although the preformation of the interface is not sufficient to drive channel activation, it could play a role in the energetics of activation and hence modulation of the receptor by auxiliary proteins or small molecules.
Energy levels of few-electron quantum dots imaged and characterized by atomic force microscopy
Authors: Cockins Lynda , Miyahara Yoichi , Bennett Steven D. , Clerk Aashish A. , Studenikin Sergei , Poole Philip , Sachrajda Andrew , Grutter Peter
Published: May 2010

Strong confinement of charges in few-electron systems such as in atoms, molecules, and quantum dots leads to a spectrum of discrete energy levels often shared by several degenerate states. Because the electronic structure is key to understanding their chemical properties, methods that probe these energy levels in situ are important. We show how electrostatic force detection using atomic force microscopy reveals the electronic structure of individual and coupled self-assembled quantum dots. An electron addition spectrum results from a change in cantilever resonance frequency and dissipation when an electron tunnels on/off a dot. The spectra show clear level degeneracies in isolated quantum dots, supported by the quantitative measurement of predicted temperature-dependent shifts of Coulomb blockade peaks. Scanning the surface shows that several quantum dots may reside on what topographically appears to be just one. Relative coupling strengths can be estimated from these images of grouped coupled dots.
Circadian-independent cell mitosis in immortalized fibroblasts
Authors: Yeom Mijung , Pendergast Julie S. , Ohmiya Yoshihiro , Yamazaki Shin
Published: May 2010

Two prominent timekeeping systems, the cell cycle, which controls cell division, and the circadian system, which controls 24-h rhythms of physiology and behavior, are found in nearly all living organisms. A distinct feature of circadian rhythms is that they are temperature-compensated such that the period of the rhythm remains constant (~24 h) at different ambient temperatures. Even though the speed of cell division, or growth rate, is highly temperature-dependent, the cell-mitosis rhythm is temperature-compensated. Twenty-four-hour fluctuations in cell division have also been observed in numerous species, suggesting that the circadian system is regulating the timing of cell division. We tested whether the cell-cycle rhythm was coupled to the circadian system in immortalized rat-1 fibroblasts by monitoring cell-cycle gene promoter-driven luciferase activity. We found that there was no consistent phase relationship between the circadian and cell cycles, and that the cell-cycle rhythm was not temperature-compensated in rat-1 fibroblasts. These data suggest that the circadian system does not regulate the cell-mitosis rhythm in rat-1 fibroblasts. These findings are inconsistent with numerous studies that suggest that cell mitosis is regulated by the circadian system in mammalian tissues in vivo. To account for this discrepancy, we propose two possibilities: (
i
) There is no direct coupling between the circadian rhythm and cell cycle but the timing of cell mitosis is synchronized with the rhythmic host environment, or (
ii
) coupling between the circadian rhythm and cell cycle exists in normal cells but it is disconnected in immortalized cells.
Substrate specificity of the TIM22 mitochondrial import pathway revealed with small molecule inhibitor of protein translocation
Authors: Hasson Samuel A. , Damoiseaux Robert , Glavin Jenny D. , Dabir Deepa V. , Walker Scott S. , Koehler Carla M.
Published: May 2010

The TIM22 protein import pathway mediates the import of membrane proteins into the mitochondrial inner membrane and consists of two intermembrane space chaperone complexes, the Tim9-Tim10 and Tim8-Tim13 complexes. To facilitate mechanistic studies, we developed a chemical-genetic approach to identify small molecule agonists that caused lethality to a
tim10-1
yeast mutant at the permissive temperature. One molecule, MitoBloCK-1, attenuated the import of the carrier proteins including the ADP/ATP and phosphate carriers, but not proteins that used the TIM23 or the Mia40/Erv1 translocation pathways. MitoBloCK-1 impeded binding of the Tim9-Tim10 complex to the substrate during an early stage of translocation, when the substrate was crossing the outer membrane. As a probe to determine the substrate specificity of the small Tim proteins, MitoBloCK-1 impaired the import of Tim22 and Tafazzin, but not Tim23, indicating that the Tim9-Tim10 complex mediates the import of a subset of inner membrane proteins. MitoBloCK-1 also inhibited growth of mammalian cells and import of the ADP/ATP carrier, but not TIM23 substrates, confirming that MitoBloCK-1 can be used to understand mammalian mitochondrial import and dysfunction linked to inherited human disease. Our approach of screening chemical libraries for compounds causing synthetic genetic lethality to identify inhibitors of mitochondrial protein translocation in yeast validates the generation of new probes to facilitate mechanistic studies in yeast and mammalian mitochondria.
Induced polymerization of mammalian acetyl-CoA carboxylase by MIG12 provides a tertiary level of regulation of fatty acid synthesis
Authors: Kim Chai-Wan , Moon Young-Ah , Park Sahng Wook , Cheng Dong , Kwon Hyock Joo , Horton Jay D.
Published: May 2010

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), the first committed enzyme in fatty acid (FA) synthesis, is regulated by phosphorylation/dephosphorylation, transcription, and an unusual mechanism of protein polymerization. Polymerization of ACC increases enzymatic activity and is induced in vitro by supraphysiological concentrations of citrate (> 5 mM). Here, we show that MIG12, a 22 kDa cytosolic protein of previously unknown function, binds to ACC and lowers the threshold for citrate activation into the physiological range (< 1 mM). In vitro, recombinant MIG12 induced polymerization of ACC (as determined by nondenaturing gels, FPLC, and electron microscopy) and increased ACC activity by > 50-fold in the presence of 1 mM citrate. In vivo, overexpression of MIG12 in liver induced ACC polymerization, increased FA synthesis, and produced triglyceride accumulation and fatty liver. Thus, in addition to its regulation by phosphorylation and transcription, ACC is regulated at a tertiary level by MIG12, which facilitates ACC polymerization and enhances enzymatic activity.
Archaeopteryx
feathers and bone chemistry fully revealed via synchrotron imaging
Authors: Bergmann U. , Morton R. W. , Manning P. L. , Sellers W. I. , Farrar S. , Huntley K. G. , Wogelius R. A. , Larson P.
Published: May 2010

Evolution of flight in maniraptoran dinosaurs is marked by the acquisition of distinct avian characters, such as feathers, as seen in
Archaeopteryx
from the Solnhofen limestone. These rare fossils were pivotal in confirming the dinosauria-avian lineage. One of the key derived avian characters is the possession of feathers, details of which were remarkably preserved in the Lagerstätte environment. These structures were previously simply assumed to be impressions; however, a detailed chemical analysis has, until now, never been completed on any
Archaeopteryx
specimen. Here we present chemical imaging via synchrotron rapid scanning X-ray fluorescence (SRS-XRF) of the Thermopolis
Archaeopteryx
, which shows that portions of the feathers are not impressions but are in fact remnant body fossil structures, maintaining elemental compositions that are completely different from the embedding geological matrix. Our results indicate phosphorous and sulfur retention in soft tissue as well as trace metal (Zn and Cu) retention in bone. Other previously unknown chemical details of
Archaeopteryx
are also revealed in this study including: bone chemistry, taphonomy (fossilization process), and curation artifacts. SRS-XRF represents a major advancement in the study of the life chemistry and fossilization processes of
Archaeopteryx
and other extinct organisms because it is now practical to image the chemistry of large specimens rapidly at concentration levels of parts per million. This technique has wider application to the archaeological, forensic, and biological sciences, enabling the mapping of “unseen” compounds critical to understanding biological structures, modes of preservation, and environmental context.
Paradoxical suppression of cellular senescence by p53
Authors: Demidenko Zoya N. , Korotchkina Lioubov G. , Gudkov Andrei V. , Blagosklonny Mikhail V.
Published: May 2010

The tumor suppressor p53 is a canonical inducer of cellular senescence (irreversible loss of proliferative potential and senescent morphology). p53 can also cause reversible arrest without senescent morphology, which has usually been interpreted as failure of p53 to induce senescence. Here we demonstrate that p53-induced quiescence actually results from suppression of senescence by p53. In previous studies, suppression of senescence by p53 was masked by p53-induced cell cycle arrest. Here, we separated these two activities by inducing senescence through overexpression of p21 and then testing the effect of p53 on senescence. We found that in p21-arrested cells, p53 converted senescence into quiescence. Suppression of senescence by p53 required its transactivation function. Like rapamycin, which is known to suppress senescence, p53 inhibited the mTOR pathway. We suggest that, while inducing cell cycle arrest, p53 may simultaneously suppress the senescence program, thus causing quiescence and that suppression of senescence and induction of cell cycle arrest are distinct functions of p53. Thus, in spite of its ability to induce cell cycle arrest, p53 can act as a suppressor of cellular senescence.
Chemical sensing in mammalian host–bacterial commensal associations
Authors: Hughes David T. , Terekhova Darya A. , Liou Linda , Hovde Carolyn J. , Sahl Jason W. , Patankar Arati V. , Gonzalez Juan E. , Edrington Thomas S. , Rasko David A. , Sperandio Vanessa
Published: May 2010

The mammalian gastrointestinal (GI) tract is colonized by a complex consortium of bacterial species. Bacteria engage in chemical signaling to coordinate population-wide behavior. However, it is unclear if chemical sensing plays a role in establishing mammalian host–bacterial commensal relationships. Enterohemorrhagic
Escherichia coli
(EHEC) is a deadly human pathogen but is a member of the GI flora in cattle, its main reservoir. EHEC harbors SdiA, a regulator that senses acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs) produced by other bacteria. Here, we show that SdiA is necessary for EHEC colonization of cattle and that AHLs are prominent within the bovine rumen but absent in other areas of the GI tract. We also assessed the rumen metagenome of heifers, and we show that it is dominated by
Clostridia
and/or
Bacilli
but also harbors
Bacteroidetes
. Of note, some members of the
Bacteroidetes
phyla have been previously reported to produce AHLs. SdiA-AHL chemical signaling aids EHEC in gauging these GI environments, and promotes adaptation to a commensal lifestyle. We show that chemical sensing in the mammalian GI tract determines the niche specificity for colonization by a commensal bacterium of its natural animal reservoir. Chemical sensing may be a general mechanism used by commensal bacteria to sense and adapt to their mammalian hosts. Additionally, because EHEC is largely prevalent in cattle herds, interference with SdiA-mediated cattle colonization is an exciting alternative to diminish contamination of meat products and cross-contamination of produce crops because of cattle shedding of this human pathogen.
Absent in melanoma 2 is required for innate immune recognition of
Francisella tularensis
Authors: Jones Jonathan W. , Kayagaki Nobuhiko , Broz Petr , Henry Thomas , Newton Kim , O'Rourke Karen , Chan Salina , Dong Jennifer , Qu Yan , Roose-Girma Meron , Dixit Vishva M. , Monack Denise M.
Published: May 2010

Macrophages respond to cytosolic nucleic acids by activating cysteine protease caspase-1 within a complex called the inflammasome. Subsequent cleavage and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 are critical for innate immunity. Here, we show that macrophages from mice lacking absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) cannot sense cytosolic double-stranded DNA and fail to trigger inflammasome assembly. Caspase-1 activation in response to intracellular pathogen
Francisella tularensis
also required AIM2. Immunofluorescence microscopy of macrophages infected with
F. tularensis
revealed striking colocalization of bacterial DNA with endogenous AIM2 and inflammasome adaptor ASC. By contrast, type I IFN (IFN-α and -β) secretion in response to
F. tularensis
did not require AIM2. IFN-I did, however, boost AIM2-dependent caspase-1 activation by increasing AIM2 protein levels. Thus, inflammasome activation was reduced in infected macrophages lacking either the IFN-I receptor or stimulator of interferon genes (STING). Finally, AIM2-deficient mice displayed increased susceptibility to
F. tularensis
infection compared with wild-type mice. Their increased bacterial burden in vivo confirmed that AIM2 is essential for an effective innate immune response.
Inhibition of host translation by virus infection in vivo
Authors: Toribio René , Ventoso Iván
Published: May 2010

Infection of cultured cells with lytic animal viruses often results in the selective inhibition of host protein synthesis, whereas viral mRNA is efficiently translated under these circumstances. This phenomenon, known as “shut off,” has been well described at the molecular level for some viruses, but there is not yet any direct or indirect evidence supporting the idea that it also should operate in animals infected with viruses. To address this issue, we constructed recombinant Sindbis virus (SV)-expressing reporter mRNA, the translation of which is sensitive or resistant to virus-induced shut off. As found in cultured cells, replication of SV in mouse brain was associated with a strong phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF2) that prevented translation of reporter mRNA (luciferase and EGFP). Translation of these reporters was restored in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo when a viral RNA structure, termed downstream hairpin loop, present in viral 26S mRNA, was placed at the 5′ end of reporter mRNAs. By comparing the expression of shut off-sensitive and -resistant reporters, we unequivocally concluded that replication of SV in animal tissues is associated with a profound inhibition of nonviral mRNA translation. A strategy as simple as that followed here might be applicable to other viruses to evaluate their interference on host translation in infected animals.
Loss of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 causes impairment of protein degradation pathways, accumulation of α-synuclein, and apoptotic cell death in aged mice
Authors: Tong Youren , Yamaguchi Hiroo , Giaime Emilie , Boyle Scott , Kopan Raphael , Kelleher Raymond J. , Shen Jie
Published: May 2010

Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease. LRRK2 is a large protein containing a small GTPase domain and a kinase domain, but its physiological role is unknown. To identify the normal function of LRRK2 in vivo, we generated two independent lines of germ-line deletion mice. The dopaminergic system of

LRRK2
−/−

mice appears normal, and numbers of dopaminergic neurons and levels of striatal dopamine are unchanged. However,

LRRK2
−/−

kidneys, which suffer the greatest loss of LRRK compared with other organs, develop striking accumulation and aggregation of α-synuclein and ubiquitinated proteins at 20 months of age. The autophagy–lysosomal pathway is also impaired in the absence of LRRK2, as indicated by accumulation of lipofuscin granules as well as altered levels of LC3-II and p62. Furthermore, loss of LRRK2 dramatically increases apoptotic cell death, inflammatory responses, and oxidative damage. Collectively, our findings show that LRRK2 plays an essential and unexpected role in the regulation of protein homeostasis during aging, and suggest that LRRK2 mutations may cause Parkinson's disease and cell death via impairment of protein degradation pathways, leading to α-synuclein accumulation and aggregation over time.
Magnetism and superconductivity driven by identical 4
f
states in a heavy-fermion metal
Authors: Nair Sunil , Stockert O. , Witte U. , Nicklas M. , Schedler R. , Kiefer K. , Thompson J. D. , Bianchi A. D. , Fisk Z. , Wirth S. , Steglich F.
Published: May 2010

The apparently inimical relationship between magnetism and superconductivity has come under increasing scrutiny in a wide range of material classes, where the free energy landscape conspires to bring them in close proximity to each other. Particularly enigmatic is the case when these phases microscopically interpenetrate, though the manner in which this can be accomplished remains to be fully comprehended. Here, we present combined measurements of elastic neutron scattering, magnetotransport, and heat capacity on a prototypical heavy fermion system, in which antiferromagnetism and superconductivity are observed. Monitoring the response of these states to the presence of the other, as well as to external thermal and magnetic perturbations, points to the possibility that they emerge from different parts of the Fermi surface. Therefore, a single 4
f
state could be both localized and itinerant, thus accounting for the coexistence of magnetism and superconductivity.
Flt3 permits survival during infection by rendering dendritic cells competent to activate NK cells
Authors: Eidenschenk Céline , Crozat Karine , Krebs Philippe , Arens Ramon , Popkin Daniel , Arnold Carrie N. , Blasius Amanda L. , Benedict Chris A. , Moresco Eva Marie Y. , Xia Yu , Beutler Bruce
Published: May 2010

A previously unappreciated signal necessary for dendritic cell (DC)-mediated activation of natural killer (NK) cells during viral infection was revealed by a recessiveN-ethyl-N-nitrosourea-induced mutation calledwarmflash(wmfl).Wmflhomozygotes displayed increased susceptibility to mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection. In response to MCMV infection in vivo, delayed NK cell activation was observed, but no intrinsic defects in NK cell activation or function were identified. Rather, coculture experiments demonstrated that NK cells are suboptimally activated bywmflDCs, which showed impaired cytokine production in response to MCMV or synthetic TLR7 and TLR9 ligands. Thewmflmutation was identified in the gene encoding the Fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 (Flt3). Flt3 ligand (Flt3L) is transiently induced in the serum upon infection or TLR activation. However, antibody blockade reveals no acute requirement for Flt3L, suggesting that the Flt3L → Flt3 axis programs the development of DCs, making them competent to support NK effector function. In the absence of Flt3 signaling, NK cell activation is delayed and survival during MCMV infection is markedly compromised.
Being human: dignity of labor as the foundation for the spirit–work connection
Authors: Bolton Sharon C.
Published: May 2010

There is little doubt that creating a workplace that fosters and values spirituality is a worthwhile aim, but if we are to explore the spirit–work connection then we need a little more emphasis on the actual work – what is it that people do, how do they do it, how do they
feel about it, how are they rewarded, is the work dirty, dangerous, devalued? And, the ultimate question underscoring all of these workplace experiences, do we derive dignity from our labor? Before we can enjoy the good working relationships and human connectedness that workplace spirituality
demands, we need to identify objective and subjective factors that might make bad jobs better – factors that are introduced in this paper as a dimensions of dignity at work framework. We ask too much of workplace spirituality if we expect it to foster human connection, heal the
wounds of bad work and at the same time meet the demands of a market economy.
Forgiveness and spirituality in organizational life: theory, status of research, and new ideas for discovery
Authors: Worthington Everett L. , Greer Chelsea L. , Hook Joshua N. , Davis Don E. , Gartner Aubrey L. , Jennings David J. , Norton Lucy , Van Tongeren Daryl R. , Greer Todd W. , Toussaint Loren
Published: May 2010

Spirituality is one’s intimacy and closeness with something beyond the self that is held to be sacred (i.e. God, humankind, nature, the cosmos). Workplace conflict and lingering resultant unforgiveness disrupt individuals’ senses of spirituality in the workplace –
both in their individual lives and their sense of shared spiritual closeness. Forgiveness is one important way to restore spiritual harmony. We define forgiveness, and briefly review the literature addressing forgiveness in organizations. We also present a model of relational spirituality
and forgiveness that addresses how spiritual appraisals around transgressions can help or hinder forgiving and communication around transgressions. We apply this model of spirituality and forgiveness to organizations. We conclude by noting areas of future research needed in this area.
Complement drives Th17 cell differentiation and triggers autoimmune arthritis
Authors: Hashimoto Motomu , Hirota Keiji , Yoshitomi Hiroyuki , Maeda Shinji , Teradaira Shin , Akizuki Shuji , Prieto-Martin Paz , Nomura Takashi , Sakaguchi Noriko , Köhl Jörg , Heyman Birgitta , Takahashi Minoru , Fujita Teizo , Mimori Tsuneyo , Sakaguchi Shimon
Published: May 2010

Activation of serum complement triggers Th17 cell–dependent spontaneous autoimmune disease in an animal model. In genetically autoimmune-prone SKG mice, administration of mannan or β-glucan, both of which activate serum complement, evoked Th17 cell–mediated chronic autoimmune arthritis. C5a, a chief component of complement activation produced via all three complement pathways (i.e., lectin, classical, and alternative), stimulated tissue-resident macrophages, but not dendritic cells, to produce inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, in synergy with Toll-like receptor signaling or, notably, granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). GM-CSF secreted by activated T cells indeed enhanced in vitro IL-6 production by C5a-stimulated macrophages. In vivo, C5a receptor (C5aR) deficiency in SKG mice inhibited the differentiation/expansion of Th17 cells after mannan or β-glucan treatment, and consequently suppressed the development of arthritis. Transfer of SKG T cells induced Th17 cell differentiation/expansion and produced arthritis in C5aR-sufficient recombination activating gene (RAG)−/− mice but not in C5aR-deficient RAG−/− recipients. In vivo macrophage depletion also inhibited disease development in SKG mice. Collectively, the data suggest that complement activation by exogenous or endogenous stimulation can initiate Th17 cell differentiation and expansion in certain autoimmune diseases and presumably in microbial infections. Blockade of C5aR may thus be beneficial for controlling Th17-mediated inflammation and autoimmune disease.
Groups
Authors: Valente Thomas W.
Published: May 2010

This chapter describes how network analysts define and measure groups. Components are the building blocks of group definitions and consist of all the nodes connected to each other through any number of steps in network. Nodes that cannot reach each other are in different components. More complex group definitions are then provided, namely, k-plexes and n-cliques which permit variation in the degree of connectivity among group members needed to be a group member. The Newman-Girvan (2004) algorithm is introduced which provides mutually exclusive groups and a measure of how well the group definitions characterize the data. The chapter closes with a discussion of how groups influence behavior.
Network Interventions
Authors: Valente Thomas W.
Published: May 2010

This chapter describes how network data can be used to accelerate behavior change and/or improving organizational performance. Network interventions consist of behavior change programs that use social network data to identify specific people or groups to deliver and/or receive the behavior change program. Network interventions can take many different forms and have many different implementation considerations. Six classes of methods were reviewed: opinion leaders, groups, leaders matched to groups, snowball methods, re-wiring networks, and crossing network data with attributes. Many cautions are expressed about the importance of theory and ethnography to ensure the research team has sufficient knowledge of the community. The potential for network interventions to accelerate behavior change is great, but the application of these methods is likely to be challenging at first as both researchers and communities learn how best to apply networks and networking in the most effective ways. Examples from empirical studies are presented throughout.
Summary
Authors: Valente Thomas W.
Published: May 2010

This summary chapter reviews the models, methods, and applications that have been presented throughout the book. Network concepts have focused the research attention of many scientists and produced a rich body of research. In public health, virtually all chronic and infectious diseases are affected by networks and can profitably be studied using network tools. This summary chapter reiterates these points and provides some small empirical example which the reader can use to get started in this new, exciting and growing field. A glossary and long bibliography are provided.
3 Humanitarian Intervention, Consent, and Proportionality
Authors: McMahan Jeff
Published: May 2010

One of the central issues raised by Jonathan Glover's study of atrocities in the twentieth century is when it can be permissible, or indeed obligatory, to use military force to stop or to prevent such atrocities. This chapter argues that some of the traditional objections to humanitarian intervention are misguided — particularly those that treat national self‐determination or state sovereignty as a decisive barrier to the permissibility of intervention. It does, however, defend a “requirement of consent,” according to which the ostensible beneficiaries of humanitarian intervention should have a veto authority with respect to intervention on their behalf. It also argues for the surprising and perhaps paradoxical claim that the proportionality constraint on causing unintended but foreseen harm may be weaker in its application to harms inflicted on the intended beneficiaries of humanitarian intervention than it is in it application to harms inflicted on other innocent people in war.
4 Humanity and the Perils of Perniciously Politicized Science
Authors: Davis N. Ann
Published: May 2010

In Humanity, Jonathan Glover argues that success in resisting the resurgence of tyranny and crippling ideological conflict in the twenty‐first century turns on our acquiring a better understanding of human psychology, and of the ways in which people allow themselves to be silenced and distracted. This chapter underscores Glover's commitment to expanding the scope of moral philosophy to take better account of history and psychology, and argues that we need also to take more robust measures to counterbalance some of the more damaging consequences of the embrace of neoliberal ideology, notably the corporatization of scientific research, and the privatization fervor that allowed for the consolidation of the media. Both, in turn, have fostered the ‘pernicious politicization’ of science, which is a species of what Glover sees as one of the principal intellectual and moral failings of Stalinist Russia and Nazi Germany: allowing ideological Belief to dictate Truth, and thus to undermine truth‐directed science. The chapter explains how neoliberal ideology has played a fulcral role both in politicizing science and in eroding the ethos of the media, and thus compromised efforts to produce an educated citizenry and sustain a viable democracy.
5 Social Moral Epistemology and the Tasks of Ethics
Authors: Buchanan Allen
Published: May 2010

This chapter first identifies what is extremely valuable and distinctive in the approach to Ethics Glover takes in Humanity. It then goes on to argue that Glover's approach is incomplete, because it is insufficiently empirical and, more importantly because it lacks a conceptual framework capable of identifying the full range of topics for empirically informed Ethics research. The needed conceptual framework must incorporate social moral epistemology, which focuses on the interaction between the moral‐epistemic virtues and vices of individuals and the moral‐epistemic functions of institutions. Through the use of historical examples of the sort Glover appeals to in Humanity, this chapter shows that work in Ethics must pay more attention to the ethics of believing and to the role that institutions play in the formation of systems of belief.
6 The Strains of Dialogue
Authors: Keshen Richard
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues that there are inherent features of dialogue which tend to push interlocutors further apart both intellectually and emotionally. This is true even when the participants in a dialogue are reasonable people. The chapter explains why dialogue often strains the capacity of reasonable people to continue to respect each other. It explores Glover's concept of a breakthrough as a possible antidote to the strains of dialogue. A book‐length debate over Israel and Palestine serves as a test case for the argument of the chapter.
7 Humanity and Hyper-regulation: From Nuremberg to Helsinki
Authors: O'Neill Onora
Published: May 2010

Contemporary work on research ethics often points to Nazi inhumanity and abuse of research subjects as a prelude to arguing that research on human subjects requires their fully informed consent. By contrast, the Nuremberg Code of 1947 demanded more robustly that fundamental obligations not to force, deceive, or use duress be respected, in order to ensure that research participation would be voluntary. Subsequent codes, such as the Declaration of Helsinki, set more exacting regulatory requirements aimed at securing highly specific and explicit consent. This supposed improvement may be neither feasible nor ethically superior.
9 The Foundations of Humanity
Authors: Crisp Roger
Published: May 2010

This chapter concerns the metaethical foundations of Jonathan Glover's project in Humanity: A Moral History of the Twentieth Century. It begins by outlining both Glover's doubts about so‐called external reasons for action and his notion that ethics can be grounded in ‘self‐creation’. A distinction is drawn between nihilism about reasons, and a narrow version of externalism according to which there are reasons to act grounded in self‐creation. A mathematical analogy is used to suggest that the metaphysical and epistemological implications of externalism about reasons may be less worrying than Glover believes. The deep disagreement that persists in ethics, however, does require us often to suspend judgment. The chapter ends by suggesting that, by Glover's own lights, we should think that certain components of common sense morality, such as the acts and omissions doctrine, are significantly more harmful than the ‘monsters inside us’.
13 Responses: A Summing Up
Authors: Glover Jonathan
Published: May 2010

“Responses: A Summing Up” replies to the wide‐ranging contributions to the book. It argues for the complete exclusion of torture from public policy, and defends a broadly consequentialist ethical view of war. It discusses the mutual interplay between society and systems of belief, and urges the relevance of epistemology to dialogue between conflicting ideologies. In discussing an “external moral law,” it expresses doubts about “external reasons.” It discusses the obligation to alleviate poverty, recognizing how hard we find this, and looks for ways of doing better by working with the grain of our psychology. It considers how fantasies about being hard and tough erode the compassion that inhibits atrocities. “Responses: A Summing Up” (overoptimistically?) hopes to express some coherence of outlook toward these very diverse questions.
Executive Function: Theoretical Concerns
Authors: Martin Jack , Failows Laura
Published: May 2010

Research on executive function faces a variety of theoretical issues and challenges. In this chapter, we begin with a survey of definitions, methods, and conceptions that currently resist integration and raise the specter of theoretical incoherence. We move on to tackle broader issues of psychologism, reductionism, and mechanism. We then conclude with a general suggestion that might provide an initial platform for theoretical advance in research on executive functioning. What we recommend is the development of theories of executive function (EF) that privilege descriptions of the functional activities of individuals in particular task environments and social contexts over premature postulations of generously, but imprecisely, endowed psychological and neurological explanatory mechanisms of dubious ontological status.
Epistemic Flow and the Social Making of Minds
Authors: Lewis Charlie , Carpendale Jeremy I. M. , Towse John , Maridaki-Kassotaki Katerina
Published: May 2010

Correlations between an understanding of self and other in psychological terms, often referred to as “theory of mind,” and the control of action, often labeled “executive functions,” have been reported and debated. We suggest that claims about such relations rest on a prior assumption that these are two separate, coherent domains and children have stable, measurable abilities in these areas. Examining relevant research, however, indicates variability in a number of ways, suggesting that both social understanding and executive skills are substantiated and develop within the flow of interaction with people and objects. According to our alternative approach to social cognitive development, social understanding develops within social interaction as children learn to talk about situations of shared understanding. We suggest that executive function and social understanding may be interdependent and emerge through the same processes within social interaction.
Underpinning Collaborative Learning
Authors: Flynn Emma
Published: May 2010

This chapter investigates the development of, and relations between, children's collaborative abilities and other cognitive skills, most notably mental state understanding and executive functioning. The first half of the chapter presents a review of the development of children's collaborative skills, from early interactions in infancy to peer tutoring in school-age children. The empirical and theoretical evidence of a link between changes in young children's collaborative abilities and their cognitive skills are discussed. The second half of the chapter presents a study that directly investigates the relations between children's peer tutoring and their second-order theory of mind, planning, referential communication and recall skills; showing a direct link between second-order mental state understanding and peer tutoring competence. The chapter concludes by focusing on the multidimensional, bi-directional nature of the relations between collaborative learning and the development of other important cognitive skills.
Psychological Distancing in the Development of Executive Function and Emotion Regulation
Authors: Giesbrecht Gerald F. , Müller Ulrich , Miller Michael R.
Published: May 2010

Within developmental psychology, the concept of psychological distancing captures the phenomenon that human beings can step back and withhold an immediate response, survey the environment, and reflect on a course of action instead of being dominated by immediate stimulation. In this chapter, we focus on the role that psychological distancing plays in the development of self-regulation. Our purpose in taking this approach is to highlight linkages between cognitive and emotional aspects of self-regulation. We begin by summarizing some classical views of psychological distancing and how they inform our understanding of self-regulation. We then examine the role of executive function in the development of psychological distancing. Specifically, we concentrate on how improvements in executive control facilitate the development of emotion regulation. Drawing on Irving Sigel's theory, the final section examines the role of social interaction, and in particular parent–child interaction, as the context in which psychological distancing and the development of self-regulation occur.
Emotional Contributions to the Development of Executive Functions in the Family Context
Authors: Perez Susan M. , Gauvain Mary
Published: May 2010

This chapter examines executive function development, specifically planning, in the family context in relation to social, emotional, and cultural processes. Learning from others relies on both cognitive and emotional processes. The development of planning (determination, organization, and implementation of future-oriented behaviors) and of emotional competence (emotional expression, understanding, and regulation) are intricately linked with children's experience in the family setting. Effective planning and emotional competence draw on many of the same underlying skills, in particular attention regulation and inhibition. Emotional competence contributes to the quality of social interaction, including children's ability to engage in and learn about complex cognitive skills from others. Family interactions also reflect the beliefs, values, and practices of the cultural context, which, in turn, influence children's learning opportunities in the family context. The research reviewed suggests the need for further examination of these interconnections toward a greater understanding of individual differences in cognitive and emotional development.
Do Early Social Cognition and Executive Function Predict Individual Differences in Preschoolers' Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior?
Authors: Hughes Claire , Ensor Rosie
Published: May 2010

Family socio-economic status is a robust predictor of individual differences in early executive function (EF) (e.g., Hughes and Ensor, 2005), but it is not known whether variation in family environment predict developmental trajectories for EF. To address this challenge, we examined data from comprehensive EF assessments and from multiple measures of family life for a socially diverse sample of 125 British children seen at ages 2 and 4. Our longitudinal results supported three distinct models of social influence. Specifically, while unrelated to observational measures of general positive parenting, EF trajectories were positively related to individual differences in: (i) deliberate maternal scaffolding; (ii) children's opportunities for incidental observational learning (assessed via a naturalistic EF task for mothers); and negatively related to (iii) indicators of disorganised and inconsistent parenting. Together, these findings indicate that families can, unintentionally, both help and hinder young children's EF development.
Chapter 3 The Duality of Affiliative Motivation
Authors: Weinberger Joel , Cotler Tanya , Fishman Daniel
Published: May 2010

Affiliation motivation, unlike other implicit motives, seems to have a dual nature. There is a bright positive side and a dark negative side to this implicit motive. The former is best captured by Intimacy motivation; the latter by Affiliation motivation. Research and theory supporting this duality is reviewed. These include data on social interaction, hormone profiles and correlates, autobiographical memory, social sensitivity, and leadership. Measurement issues are also reviewed. Basically, affiliation motivation is focused on not being alone and on a fear of rejection. This explains its dark side. Intimacy motivation is focused on close, meaningful, and mutually satisfying interactions. This explains its mostly positive correlates. Work carried out on dependency also shows a positive and negative side to this variable. These results come from a research tradition completely independent of implicit motives and yet parallel the findings concerning affiliation and intimacy very closely. These independent findings therefore provide support for the model. Finally, the results are shown to parallel the phenomenology of affiliation in the real, interpersonal world.
Chapter 6 Assessing Individual Differences in Achievement Motivation with the Implicit Association Test: Predictive Validity of a Chronometric Measure of the Self-Concept “Me = Successful”
Authors: Brunstein Joachim C. , Schmitt Clemens H.
Published: May 2010

This chapter explores potential links between thematic and chronometric methods of measuring implicit motives. It begins with a brief overview of the strengths and weaknesses inherent in thematic measures of motivational preferences. It then argues that reaction time-based measures (e.g., priming procedures) of implicit social cognitions can provide important insights into how implicit motives work and translate into goal-directed action. To exemplify this position, this chapter summarizes a number of studies examining the predictive validity of an Implicit Association Test designed to assess individual differences in achievement motivation. On this basis, it is argued that the field of implicit motives can benefit from an exchange of ideas with several important lines of social cognitive research on the automatic nature of motivational concerns.
Chapter 10 Biopsychological and Neural Processes of Implicit Motivation
Authors: Hall Julie L. , Stanton Steven J. , Schultheiss Oliver C.
Published: May 2010

In this chapter we provide an overview of recent research on the biopsychological correlates of implicit motives. We review evidence for a role of gonadal steroids (testosterone and estradiol) as well as stress axis activation in power motivation arousal and satisfaction/frustration, summarize recent research on the role of progesterone and affiliation motivation, and discuss a possible role for arginine–vasopressin in achievement motivation. We also present findings from brain imaging work that indicate that the needs for power, affiliation, and achievement modulate activity in a core motivational circuit consisting of striatum, amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, and insula when nonverbal social incentives are processed.
Chapter 15 Research on Implicit Motives Across Cultures
Authors: Hofer Jan
Published: May 2010

The chapter illustrates the methodological and substantial progress that has been made in cross-cultural studies on implicit motives. After introducing a multiculture and multivariate approach in conducting research, methodological means to remedy bias in measurements across cultural groups are addressed. Thereafter, cross-cultural research on implicit motives at the collective and individual level is critically evaluated. It is argued that research on implicit motives across cultural groups is indispensable to the understanding of universal and culture-specific variations in individuals’ mental processes and behavioral acts.
Chapter 17 Competencies as a Behavioral Manifestation of Implicit Motives
Authors: Boyatzis Richard E. , Kelner Stephen P.
Published: May 2010

Implicit motives manifest themselves in patterns of behavior that we call competencies. Since 1970, the study of competencies and their predictive relationship to effectiveness in many occupations in many types of organizations, sectors, and countries has allowed for the understanding of how functionally related clusters of behavior organized around a specific unconscious intent. Because of the behavioral nature of the competencies, measurement is more observable than projective tests, more holistic (i.e., incorporating physiological states as well as mental and emotional ones), and easier to use in applied settings. In this chapter, the history of research evidence is reviewed along with the theoretical distinctions and an empirically tested model for developing competencies in adults.
Chapter 18 Motive Training and Motivational Competence
Authors: Rheinberg Falko , Engeser Stefan
Published: May 2010

The chapter starts out discussing achievement motive trainings for entrepreneurs with the aim of fostering economic performance. Next, we review a variety of the original motive training programs and discuss how the training was extended to the educational domain, with a particular focus on the importance of individual reference norms for motive training. The chapter ends by stating that motive training programs should not necessarily change the implicit motive, but should rather foster the congruence of implicit motives and the motivational self-concept (e.g., the congruence between implicit and explicit motives). This aims at increasing motivational competence in trained individuals, enhancing flow experiences during goal pursuit.
Photoperiodic Control of Flowering in Lemna
Authors: Ito-Miwa Kumiko , Oyama Tokitaka
Published: May 2010

This chapter summarizes the photoperiodic induction of flowering in Lemna paucicostata 6746. Although this description conforms to the external coincidence model, it does not rule out the involvement of time measurement systems based on other mechanisms, such as an internal coincidence model. A bioluminescent reporter system that employs particle bombardment is an easy and powerful way to directly detail the dynamics of circadian behaviors. The reporter activity can be sustained for more than one week, long enough to allow examinations of circadian rhythms and the entire course of floral induction, which can be visually observed within a week after photoperiodic transitions. Examining Lemna plants using these molecular tools should assist in analyses of the processes that drive the recognition of day length to flower induction and the determination of critical day lengths, as well as evolutionary divergence in day-length responses.
Seasonality and Photoperiodism in Fungi
Authors: Roenneberg Till , Radic Tanja , Gödel Manfred , Merrow Martha
Published: May 2010

Compared to the overwhelming evidence of active seasonal adaptation in plants and animals, little is known about seasonality and photoperiodism in fungi. To approach this topic in any organism, several questions have to be answered: (1) Is there evidence for seasonality?; (2) Is there evidence for photobiology — a prerequisite for detecting changing lengths of day and night?; and, (3) Is there evidence for a circadian system that could be used as internal reference to make sense of the changes in day or night length? This chapter summarizes what is known about the questions enumerated above. It describes the first results of investigating seasonality and photoperiodism in Neurospora crassa, a classic model organism in circadian research. As in other organisms, the Neurospora photoperiodic responses rely on a functional circadian clock that involves determination of night length.