bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Spontaneous Infrarenal Aortic Dissection in an Athlete Managed Emergently With Endovascular Stent Grafts, Occluders, and Femoral-Femoral Artery Bypass
Authors: Callahan Morgan , Campbell Joseph
Published: November 2018

While competing in an obstacle course race, a 57-year-old male athlete developed left groin and leg pain. Several days later, infrarenal aortic dissection with clinically worsening left leg ischemia was diagnosed. An emergent repair was performed and consisted of an aorto-uni-iliac endovascular stent graft, an occluder in the left iliac artery, and a right-to-left femoral-femoral artery bypass. To the authors’ knowledge, the present report is the first case of a spontaneous infrarenal aortic dissection in a competitive athlete associated with participation in an extreme athletic event.
Three‐Dimensional (
3D
) Facial Reconstruction
Authors: da Costa Moraes Cicero André , Dias Paulo Eduardo Miamoto
Published: November 2018

Originating in the late nineteenth century, three‐dimensional (3D) facial reconstruction is a human identification auxiliary technique that uses the skull and other information to produce an approximate image of the appearance of an individual while still alive. Three major schools of 3D facial reconstruction serve as a reference for modern applications of the technique: the Russian, the American, and the British methods, developed, respectively in the 1920s, 1960s, and 1970s. 3D techniques started with manually modeling clay, but increasingly apply computational solutions via manual, semi‐, or fully automated methods. There are different contexts for the application of the technique which vary from forensic human identification to shedding light on the appearance of historical figures and evolutionary ancestors. Recently, genetic analysis is being used as reference data to produce fully automated facial reconstructions.
Aerial Photography
Authors: Fowler Martin J. F.
Published: November 2018

The interpretation of photographs taken from an airborne platform, also known as aerial archaeology, represents one of the most important advances in archaeology in the twentieth century. In addition to contributing to the discovery of new sites, aerial photography has an important role to play in their recording and the monitoring of changes over time. The worldwide archives of millions of historical aerial and satellite photographs represent a considerable and largely untapped resource for archaeological survey and landscape analysis. The increasing online access to archives of digitized aerial and satellite photographs, and the development of geographical information systems (GIS) to aid their interpretation and analysis, present new and unique opportunities for the discovery of archaeological sites that have been destroyed through intensive land use and development, and to provide insights into the character of ancient landscapes.
Archaeointensity
Authors: Pavón‐Carrasco Francisco Javier , Gómez‐Paccard Miriam
Published: November 2018

Archaeointensity stands for an indirect measurement of the intensity or strength of the Earth's magnetic field inferred from heated archaeological materials. The archaeointensity along with the other two angular elements, that is, declination and inclination, describe the spatial and temporal behavior of the paleomagnetic field by means of archaeological features. This is the main goal of one of the most recent disciplines in geosciences: archaeomagnetism. The fact that the archaeointensity determination is more complex and time‐consuming than directional studies, together with the different sources of errors that can hamper a proper determination of archaeointensities, make this geomagnetic field element a current challenge for the archaeomagnetic community.
Archaeological Sciences
Authors: Martinón‐Torres Marcos
Published: November 2018

Archaeological sciences
are the many subdisciplines that involve the application of science, technology, engineering, and mathematical methods in archaeology. Most frequently defined by their methods rather than by specific aims or study areas, archaeological sciences cover the engagement of physics, chemistry, biology, genetics, computing, or medicine, among other disciplines, to the study of both organic and inorganic archaeological remains, as well as associated sediments or contextual information such as their date or spatial location. Other relevant terms such as scientific archaeology, archaeometry, or heritage science each have specific connotations that make them different, although with fluid boundaries among all. Initial attempts at integrating archaeology and natural sciences were made difficult primarily by problems of communication among specialists. In the last two decades, the training of researchers across disciplines has led to a truly interdisciplinary generation of scholars who can plan and lead archaeological science projects much more fruitfully and effectively. As a result, modern archaeology can no longer be conceived without science, although some challenges remain to ensure sustainability, access to resources, and the input of archaeological knowledge into scientific practice.
A
ssessment:
H
eritage
I
mpact (
HIA
)
Authors: Rogers Ayesha Pamela
Published: November 2018

Heritage Impact Assessment (HIA) has developed out of the environmental assessment model to become an important tool for heritage planners and managers. Heritage resources are under pressure from development everywhere, with a resulting loss and compromise of values, authenticity, and integrity. The ongoing development of a standardized methodology for carrying out HIA employs systematic examination of the full range of potential events and outcomes, combining overview with detail. It integrates heritage values and authenticity with development visions, engineering works, and stakeholder input to engage with the bigger picture and provide a valuable decision‐making tool.
Behavioral Archaeology
Authors: Hollenback Kacy L.
Published: November 2018

Archaeology has focused on the analysis of artifacts since its origins as a professional discipline in the late nineteenth century. Explicit consideration of the formation and behavioral meaning of the archaeological record, however, as well as the material life of ancient and modern societies did not emerge until the latter half of the twentieth century. These topics are the focus of behavioral archaeology, a social science that arose out of the New Archaeology in the 1970s. Today, behavioralists focus on human–artifact interactions in both the past and present, with great attention placed on issues of technological change, continuity, and performance. It differs from other types of archaeology in that its core subject matter is explicitly material culture and its role in human life in all times and all places.
Bones and Ivory
Authors: Tiley‐Nel Sian L.
Published: November 2018

Archaeological bone and ivory as organic raw material play a crucial role in understanding the manufacture of tools and artifacts. Although both of animal origin and derived from skeletal material, bone and ivory are not homogenous. Despite their similar chemical composition, their physical structure, morphology, and characteristics are different. Proper identification of these organic materials is important when interpreting their nature, origin, use, manufacture, function, and other such archaeological information. Bone and ivory will also naturally deteriorate and decay over time, since they are derived from living organisms and because their organic composition is largely based on carbon. An understanding of the structure, composition, and constituents of bones and ivory is fundamental to the comprehension of excavated organics, as well as an understanding of how and why they survive and are preserved throughout the archaeological record.
Llamas and Alpacas
Authors: López Gabriel E. J.
Published: November 2018

In this entry, the processes of intensification and domestication of camelids in the Andes are analyzed and briefly discussed from an archaeological perspective. The diverse evidence from related research is also considered. Additionally, the main archaeological sites with evidence of change in camelid use during the Middle Holocene and beginning of the Late Holocene are presented.
Chemical Mapping
Authors: Atwood David A.
Published: November 2018

This article will provide a framework for understanding how chemical analysis can be used within the field of archaeology. Chemical mapping can be defined and understood by combining the conventional geographical definition of “map” with the scope that “chemistry” encompasses. Chemical substances can be subdivided into five interrelated classes: elements, molecules, compounds, mixtures, and materials. Each chemical substance in this classification system will have a very large collection of applicable analytical characterization techniques. Only three of the chemical substances are necessary to develop a clear, utilitarian definition for chemical mapping:
elements
,
compounds
, and
materials
. Relatively recently, synchrotron radiation has dramatically enhanced and expanded many chemical techniques currently used in the analysis of artifacts. Chemical maps now encompass much more detailed information for the elements, compounds, and materials, within an archaeological artifact. Recent history clearly demonstrates that unexpected scientific and technological advances will make the discipline of chemistry a continuous partner with archaeology.
Clay Tablets
Authors: Goren Yuval
Published: November 2018

Understanding the materialities and technologies of clay cuneiform tablets is a relatively new branch in archaeological sciences. Scholars still dispute the precise location of several cities and kingdoms that appear in the texts. A century of textual and archaeological research has clarified some of these problems, but many issues still remain unsolved. From the 1970s on, new methodologies were introduced, which approach the problem of locating the provenance of the tablets through mineralogical and chemical analyses of their clay. With the use of ceramic petrography, XRD, ICP‐MS, NAA, and TGA, the origin and technology of clay tablets have been suggested. New methodologies adopt nondestructive methods such as pXRF, ESEM‐EDS, Raman and surface FTIR.
Compositional Data Analysis
Authors: Buxeda i Garrigós J.
Published: November 2018

Compositional data encompasses two different types of data: first, data expressed as absolute amounts (like counts, mass, or size) but with an interest in their portions of the total amount; and second, data expressed as relative values (like relative frequencies, percentages, or parts per million). Both types of data, which arise in multiple cases of archaeological science studies, have been analyzed with common statistical techniques designed for real Euclidean vector spaces. None of them, however, are in such sample spaces. The former sample space is the real projective space, while the latter is the simplex. Since the 1980s, the development of compositional data analysis has provided a mathematically well‐founded basis for the analysis of both types of data through different transformations (alr, clr, and ilr) that ensure the necessary real Euclidean vector space.
Deterioration of Stone and Petroglyphs
Authors: Ioannou Ioannis
Published: November 2018

The deterioration of stone and petroglyphs is an international problem, particularly affecting monuments and archaeological sites. There are many possible causes for such deterioration. This entry focuses on the most common ones, namely salt crystallization, atmospheric pollution, frost action, biological growth, and inherent defects. The aim is to provide a comprehensive and balanced account of the aforementioned causes that will allow for a better understanding and more effective tackling of the problem of deterioration of stone and petroglyphs.
Diet and Sulfur Isotopes
Authors: Rand Asta J. , Nehlich Olaf
Published: November 2018

The analysis of stable sulfur isotopes from human and animal tissues is a relatively recent development in archaeological dietary studies. In human diets, sulfur is ultimately derived from soils at the base of the food chain, which are influenced by local lithology, hydrology, and atmospheric circulation. Plants assimilate local soil δ34S values into amino acids that are incorporated into the tissues of their consumers, making it possible to differentiate the source of dietary protein (i.e., marine, terrestrial, or freshwater) and identify individuals with nonlocal diets. Recent developments in method and theory have allowed sulfur isotope analysis to be more routinely employed in isotopic studies of archaeological diet, although several key areas require further research. When applied in conjunction with other isotopic assays and interpreted within the environmental and archaeological contexts, stable sulfur isotope analysis offers a powerful and complementary tool for the investigation of archaeological diets.
Digital Cartography
Authors: Chapman Henry
Published: November 2018

Cartography is the abstract representation of space, including the study and practice of making maps. As an essentially spatial discipline, maps and plans have always been fundamental to archaeology. In recent years, digital technologies have become ubiquitous in supplying both the data and tools for accessing and creating maps, in addition to analyzing spatial relationships. The development of new surveying methods has increased the ways in which cartographic data can be generated and presented, the range of options open to the surveyor, and the speed at which data collection can be conducted. However, it is also raising new challenges regarding data re‐use, archiving, and objectivity.
Digital Photogrammetry
Authors: Barnes Adam
Published: November 2018

Digital photogrammetry is an image‐based, three‐dimensional (3D) measuring technique that involves a series of digital images with overlapping views of an object (e.g., a ceramic pot or stone structure) or a surface (e.g., a landscape from an aerial perspective). The overlapping portions of each image pair (known as a stereopair) provide the stereoscopic parallax required for most photogrammetric processes, including the measurement of discernable points in 3D space. Digital photogrammetry is a flexible and relatively straightforward process, making it useful in a wide variety of scientific and commercial applications, especially ones involving survey, mapping, 3D modeling, and other remote sensing methods.
DNA
: Next Generation Sequencing
Authors: Linderholm Anna E.
Published: November 2018

Ancient DNA studies have made a transition from traditional Sanger sequencing to using the recent invention of next generation sequencing (NGS). Using NGS, one DNA sample is translated into millions of reads in a very short time. This new technology has revolutionized the medical field as well as made studying ancient DNA more feasible and achievable.
Maize
Authors: Benz Bruce
Published: November 2018

The history of maize is one of human domestication of an endemic wild species—teosinte (
Zea may
s ssp.
parviglumis
)—to create a novel species whose productivity and culinary attributes satisfied the needs of early Mesoamerican cultivators. Today, world maize production exceeds 1.0 × 10
9
metric tonnes. Whether domestication can be attributed solely to human selection, to random genetic drift, or to environmental constraints depends on analysis of the character and antiquity of the archaeological material. Maize's antiquity depends on dates derived directly from the material itself or stratigraphically associated organic material. The accuracy of such indirect dates depends on factors such as the material dated, the integrity of the site's archaeological stratigraphy, the skills and reliability of the excavators, and the depositional environment. The latter also affects direct dating of maize. The antiquity of maize from indirectly dated contexts tends to have radiocarbon dates that are on average 1,000–1,500 years earlier—are statistical outliers—than directly dated maize from contexts that predate 4000 cal.
bce
. Mapping the antiquity of maize in the Americas supports the postulated ancestry and origin based on genetic evidence. Archaeological research in the Americas will elucidate the process of domestication that created maize from teosinte.
Empiricism
Authors: Marila Marko M.
Published: November 2018

In archaeology, definitions of the term empiricism are varied. In one sense, empiricism refers to the lack of specific archaeological theory due to the concreteness of archaeological materials and the craft‐like character of archaeological methods from excavation to data analysis. As a philosophical term, empiricism denotes a more specific genealogy of epistemological positions in archaeological theory. In epistemological terms, empiricism in archaeology varies from the naive inductivism of culture‐historical archaeology to the logical positivism of New Archaeology. Lately, empiricism has been revived as a speculative attitude in the epistemology of archaeology after the ontological turn.
Estimating Skeletal Sex: Cranial and Pelvic Morphology
Authors: Hulse Cortney N. , Stull Kyra E.
Published: November 2018

Forensic anthropologists and bioarchaeologists use sexually dimorphic features, or features that exhibit sex differences in size and shape, to estimate the biological sex of skeletal remains. The cranium and pelvis are well recognized for being two of the most sexually dimorphic skeletal elements. Morphological methods have primarily been employed with both skeletal elements. Recent research has delivered updated statistical analyses in order to provide probability statements associated with the combination of morphological traits. The degree of sexual dimorphism is population dependent and time‐period specific and should be considered prior to application. Research involving pelvic morphology is moving towards the development of universal models and research involving the cranium is incorporating the quantification of shape differences.
Estimating Skeletal Sex: Metrics
Authors: Jones Christine A.
Published: November 2018

Metric sex estimation of the skeleton involves analysis of single or multiple measurements of cranial or postcranial bones. Standard metric methods include both univariate and multivariate measures, many of which employ discriminant function analysis. The highest rates of accuracy for correct classifications of sex using standard modern metrics range between approximately 80–90%, where most are based on discriminant function analysis, including the use of tools like Fordisc. While craniometrics are useful, methods that are based on postcranial metrics are more accurate. Traditionally, methods based on multivariate measurements of the humerus, scapula, femur, and tibia are more accurate, more commonly used, and are supported by more extensive research than methods using other postcranial bones.
Evolutionary Theories
Authors: Barrett John C.
Published: November 2018

The Darwinian theory of evolution states that changes in heritable variability are directed towards adaptive fitness by natural selection. This theory has provided archaeology with both the means to investigate human evolution and the logic by which to analyze the development of material cultural traditions. It is also an evolutionary theory that has recently been questioned by treating organisms, populations, and ecologies as developmental systems. One result of this has been to see living systems as symbiotic processes, a development in evolutionary theory that works against the intellectual dichotomy separating the biological and the social sciences.
Experiment in Archaeology
Authors: Schmidt Martin
Published: November 2018

The entry deals with the values of experimental archaeology as a method, and with the differences in experience and education, which are often subsumed under experimental archaeology. The authors argue for a more humanities type of approach.
Food Residue Analysis
Authors: Cramp Lucy J. E.
Published: November 2018

Visible and nonvisible traces resulting from the preparation, storage, or consumption of foodstuffs can be recovered from a variety of archaeological contexts, including from within the pores of ceramic fabrics, adhering to artifacts such as vessels or tools, and even trapped within dental calculus of ancient teeth. The origins of amorphous food residues are inferred through careful and highly sensitive analysis of surviving biomolecular fingerprints, which relies upon a robust understanding of the various degradation pathways likely to have affected the original distributions, as well as issues of contamination and mobility in the burial environment. However, using increasingly sensitive and selective analytical techniques, including chromatographic, mass spectrometric, and stable isotopic approaches, important dietary information can be obtained which spans individual‐ or site‐level analyses through to profound patterns in subsistence occurring over considerable geographical and chronological scales.
Fruits, Vegetables, and Nuts
Authors: Livarda Alexandra
Published: November 2018

Fruits, vegetables, and nuts have played an important role in the human trajectory, providing not only food but also a range of other resources, from oils and dyes to construction material. They can also serve as proxies for the investigation, for instance, of trade and other sociocultural interactions between people. Archaeological research of these plants is thus crucial in order to contribute to the understanding of such issues, as well as to the development of new, improved varieties and their sustainable use. This entry examines first the definition of fruits, vegetables, and nuts, and then discusses their study methods, recovery, preservation, and taphonomic and contextual issues, and finishes by outlining their interactions with people, from domestication to their current diversity.
Gemstones
Authors: Domínguez‐Bella Salvador
Published: November 2018

Gemstones have been throughout human history very valuable materials for either their beauty, significance, or rarity in nature. These substances, usually minerals, certain rocks, natural glass and some compounds of organic origin, which have very different physical and chemical characteristics, have been the subject of intense search, exploitation, distribution, or trade.

The relative value, its meaning or importance for each of the gemstones, has varied greatly through the different historical periods, cultures, or regions, some of them are associated with certain periods of prehistory or history or with certain cultures or geographical areas. These materials are an important part of the archaeological record and their study and interpretation can provide valuable information to archaeologists. The development of nondestructive techniques is of particular interest for mineralogical and physicochemical characterization and to determine their origin areas and possible routes of distribution or trade, both for archaeological materials and artworks.
Gender and Sexuality
Authors: Joyce Rosemary A.
Published: November 2018

Gender and sexuality emerged as themes in archaeology in the late twentieth century, in part as archaeological explanation required greater attention to the specific identity of agents, in part due to influence from feminist science studies, but also due to shifting demographics bringing more women into the field. Central concerns with the relation of biological sex to personal experience and categorical possibilities of men and women persist in archaeology of gender and sexuality today. Much research questions the correspondence of biological difference and social differences. The heteronormative assumption of correspondence between two sexes and social genders has been rejected by archaeologists using queer theory, but also is challenged by bioarchaeologists who understand sex as multidimensional and nonbinary. Growing out of queer theory, with its emphasis on embodied performance, archaeologists developed research on sexual desires and practices as materially observable facts of past societies.
Geometric Modeling
Authors: Simon Arleyn W. , Hansford Dianne , Razdan Anshuman
Published: November 2018

Geometric modeling methods and technology are integral to the documentation and analysis of the archaeological record at microscopic to macroscopic scales. Resulting models and visualizations enable researchers to examine new hypotheses about cultural and natural domains.
Geometric Morphometrics
Authors: Polly P. David
Published: November 2018

Geometric morphometrics provide tools for analyzing the shapes of objects based on the coordinates of points placed on their surfaces. These tools can be used for a wide variety of analysis, ranging from statistical regression and MANOVA to ancestor reconstruction and evolutionary modeling. A central component of most geometric morphometric methods is the alignment of points to a common coordinate system using Procrustes superimposition, which has the benefit of mathematically removing size from the analysis. The use of thin‐plate spline deformation grids to graphically illustrate analytical results are one of geometric morphometrics' most iconic features. Advances in three‐dimensional scanning of objects are pushing the field in new directions.
Glass and Faience
Authors: Cárdenas Karime Castillo , Lin Yuan
Published: November 2018

Glass and faience are two early synthetic vitreous materials developed in human history. While typological and stylistic approaches to the study of these two materials are useful and necessary, scientific research is essential in understanding their chemical and physical properties, production methods, and technological development, enabling the investigation of broader anthropological questions. This entry provides a brief introduction to glass and faience, with an emphasis on their production technology, current archaeological science studies, and potential future research directions.
Glazes, Slips, and Paints
Authors: Matin Moujan
Published: November 2018

In the field of ceramics, the terms “glaze,” “slip,” and “paint” designate three different types of coating that are applied on the surface of unfired or once‐fired (biscuit‐fired) ceramic bodies for decorative or functional purposes. This entry provides an overview of the composition and different applications of glazes, slips, and paints in archaeological ceramics and outlines the primary scientific techniques used for analyzing them by reviewing examples of previous studies.
Grapes and Viticulture
Authors: Valamoti Soultana Maria
Published: November 2018

Today, grapes and viticulture are widespread across all continents of the planet. Their origins lie in western Asia and the eastern Mediterranean. Archaeological science offers unique tools to investigate the beginnings and expansion of grapevine cultivation. Paleoethnobotanical remains of pressed grapes together with residue analyses suggest systematic harvesting, juice extraction, and fermentation for wine making as early as the 5th millennium
bce
in northern Greece, while residue analyses combined with pottery studies place the earliest indications for wine making in 6th millennium
bce
Iran. Paleoethnobotany, morphometrics, residue analyses, and DNA studies combined with artifactual (pots, seals, cultivation pits) and textual evidence enhance our understanding of the origins and spread of viticulture and wine making.
Grouting in Conservation
Authors: Biçer‐Şimşir Beril , Rainer Leslie
Published: November 2018

Grouting is a commonly used intervention method for reestablishing the continuity of structural elements (e.g., walls) and architectural surfaces (e.g., plasters, wall paintings, mosaics, stone ornaments) conserved in situ in the context of archeological sites, historic buildings, and monuments. Grouting aims to readhere delaminated areas or elements and fill voids and cracks that are inaccessible or difficult to access from the surface. This entry summarizes the recommended methodology and criteria to be followed in grouting interventions to be effective and durable. Design, testing, and selection of grouts compatible with the existing materials, and implementation of the grouting process (i.e., grouting) are described.
Heritage and Ecomuseums
Authors: Davis Peter
Published: November 2018

Heritage and the ecomuseum concept are connected by their relationship to placeand, in particular, to the distinctiveness of individual locales. The history of the origins and development of ecomuseum theory is briefly described, as are the ways in which ecomuseums are defined. Emphasis is placed on how ecomuseum processes link together, and conserve and interpret the varied heritages of localities. Examples are provided that illustrate how the ecomuseum paradigm works in practice to conserve heritage; the flexible nature of the ecomuseum allows it to adapt to local needs and the individual nature of places.
Heritage and Economics
Authors: Rouwendal Jan
Published: November 2018

A review of recent economic research that studies the value of heritage and its role in modern cities. It has been claimed that the preservation of historic buildings can have important beneficial effects on cities. The literature discussed here provides partial endorsement of these views and nuances them. We discuss the value of heritage for houses, cities, and tourism, the impact of restoration subsidies, and the position of preservation areas in cities.
Humanity and Animality
Authors: Oma Kristin Armstrong
Published: November 2018

Humanity and animality are concepts that refer to a particular understanding of the different natures of different kinds of beings—humans as one unit and animals as another. Brief definitions of the concepts follow, prior to a broad discussion of the ramifications of the understanding of these terms to academia and contextualizing what these terms might mean to archaeology. The terms refer to perceptions of the nature of different beings. However, recent advances in science have challenged the traditional understanding of humanity and animality, by studying animal cognition, sentience, and emotions. Some implications that are relevant to archaeology are considered: First, whether there is a difference in kind or in degree between humans and animals. Second, variability in the ontological rationales of different societies will define humans and animals in diverse ways. Third, societies grow out of human and nonhuman–animal interactions and it is therefore useful to understand animals as themselves. Human–animal studies is suggested as a useful approach to study multi‐species processes in past societies.
Imaging
Authors: Börner Wolfgang H.
Published: November 2018

Imaging methods use measurement data to visually represent archaeological objects in order to detect and delimit their characteristics. The measurement data or their processed information are spatially resolved and will be visualized with brightness values or a color scale. Imaging methods are applied in almost every natural scientific field, for example, medicine, archaeology, material inspection, and remote sensing.
Imaging in Human Remains
Authors: Eppenberger Patrick , Rühli Frank
Published: November 2018

Paleoradiology is the application of standard medical imaging techniques such as conventional X‐ray imaging, X‐ray computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for bioarcheological investigations. This discipline arose in parallel with the development of radiology and medical imaging technology, although it requires a distinctive methodology and a good understanding of the characteristics of bioarcheological materials and possible taphonomic and postmortem changes. Conventional X‐ray is still the primary modality used for paleoradiological imaging, since it is relatively simple to use, offers an excellent spatial resolution, and portable equipment is available for examinations at excavation sites or in museums. While many pathologies share common, nonspecific radiological characteristics, pathognomonic patterns (which allow the diagnosis of a specific condition to the exclusion of all others) are rather rare. Therefore, a differential diagnosis must be established with great care. As an experimental discipline, paleoradiology will always benefit from close interdisciplinary collaboration between scientists from different disciplines.
Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy (
IR
,
FTIR
,
DRIFT
,
ATR
)
Authors: Toffolo Michael B. , Berna Francesco
Published: November 2018

Infrared absorption spectroscopy is a versatile analytical method that can identify different compounds in archaeological materials and sediments by measuring the portions of the infrared spectrum absorbed by specific molecules. This technique was developed in the 1930s for the characterization of industrial materials, and then applied to the study of artifacts and works of art starting from the 1950s. In the last three decades, infrared spectroscopy has become an established tool in archaeological fieldwork, where it is used to obtain real‐time information regarding the archaeological contexts under excavation. Infrared spectrometry can determine the presence of crystalline and disordered inorganic materials, as well as organic materials in archaeological sediments, and thus it is a valuable method in addressing problems related to the preservation of the archaeological record, site formation processes, post‐depositional alterations, stratigraphic correlations, absolute chronology, pyrotechnology, and past human activities.
IR
Thermography
Authors: Santulli Carlo , Grifoni Roberta Cocci
Published: November 2018

IR thermography is an inspection technique that proves useful for the assessment of the conditions of archaeological remains, related to their decay due to exposure to the environment, as well as for the detection of buried objects or remains that have not been previously revealed. At a larger scale, IR thermography also allows inspection, normally with the support of photogrammetric software, of entire archaeological areas in recognizing features and in particular allowing more accurate mapping of the site; this is done from an aerial observation point and is often assisted by other techniques, such as ground‐penetrating radar.
Isotopes
Authors: Stos‐Gale Zofia Anna
Published: November 2018

All matter is built from atoms of the 92 naturally occurring chemical elements. The chemical properties of elements are determined by the number of the protons in the nucleus. Nuclei also contain neutrons, which do not affect the chemistry, but increase the mass of the atoms. Atoms of the same element with different masses are called isotopes, and natural elements may have several stable isotopes. The isotopic abundance of most elements is fixed by the way in which they were originally formed, but for elements that are formed by the in‐situ decay of radioactive parent elements, it depends on the original amount of the parent and the age of the rock, and can be different in different locations. Measurement of these abundances in rocks can give information about their age or can be used to identify a location. Isotopic abundances of heavy elements can be used in geology and archaeology for dating or characterizing minerals and human‐made materials.
Knowledge and Inference
Authors: Fotiadis Michael
Published: November 2018

Archaeological knowledge consists of descriptions and explanatory hypotheses and is underpinned by images. Descriptions pertain to observations made during field and laboratory research, while explanatory hypotheses are the product of inferences relating observable residues of past actions to the nature of those actions. Knowledge encoded in images plays a decisive role in both descriptions and inferred explanations and it has done so since the eighteenth century. Explanatory hypotheses are drawn on the basis of a large stock of background knowledge pertinent to the observables at hand. They are guided at once by the expert's intuition and by the virtues of abduction, or inference to the best explanation, including parsimony. At times, abduction has been vitiated under the influence of biased theories.
Laser‐Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (
LIBS
)
Authors: Siano Salvatore , Agresti Juri
Published: November 2018

Laser‐induced breakdown (or plasma) spectroscopy (LIBS or LIPS) is a versatile analytical technique allowing the identification and quantification of atomic species composing a material through spectral analysis of the plasma generated by its irradiation with a high peak intensity (above ∼10
8
W/cm
2
) laser pulse. For solid materials, it is a microdestructive technique involving the atomization and partial ionization of a typical amount of material between ∼10 ng and ∼1 µg/pulse. The technique can provide elemental profiles along depths of several hundred microns by using up to some thousand laser pulses (typical depth resolution between ∼0.1 and ∼1 µm/pulse). Several laboratory and portable LIBS devices are available on the market and many archaeometrical experimentations and concrete applications have been reported in the literature, which show the powerful performance of the technique. In this entry, LIBS basic principles and the state of the art of its application in the field of cultural heritage are presented.
Making and Skill
Authors: Berg Ina
Published: November 2018

This entry discusses theories of making, learning, and skill acquisition. The section on “making” takes as a starting point the Cartesian dichotomies of nature versus culture and mind versus body before introducing approaches by Mauss, Bourdieu, and Ingold that offer more fluid, dynamic, and socially situated interpretations. The section on skill discusses a wide range of well‐known theories of learning in order to understand the process and social setting of skill acquisition generally, before exploring expert skill in particular.
Malnutrition
Authors: Paine Robert R. , Brenton Barrett P.
Published: November 2018

Malnutrition is a lack of a key component in one's diet. Bioarchaeologists tend to look at community‐level trends in food usage as it is influenced by cultural and environmental factors often using a biocultural and/or cultural ecology theoretical perspective. They typically focus on nutrients like iron and protein, and vitamins C and D. To assess prehistoric community dietary health issues, they also attempt to link the presence of macroskeletal lesions found on human burials to specific or general dietary problems: for example, anemia from a lack of dietary iron with cranial pitting often found on the skull or eye orbits. There are other variables that influence the health of communities and specific individuals, such as the effects of acute and chronic dietary starvation events, cooking strategies, the presence of infectious agents, and the strength of one's immune system. Each of these variables plays an important role in human health outcome.
Marine Excavation
Authors: Cook Gregory D.
Published: November 2018

The excavation of a maritime archaeological site involves removal of the soil matrix covering the site, recovery of artifacts after their context and position has been recorded, and then mapping/recording underlying features of the site, that is hull timbers (in the case of shipwrecks). Generally, excavation is the last step of fieldwork conducted on a site, after initial surveys and some degree of site testing has been undertaken to locate and determine the extent of the site.
Material Agency
Authors: Van Oyen Astrid
Published: November 2018

Material agency denotes the possibility that things can act. The defining criterion for such agency has varied between theoretical strands, but generally entails the notion that material objects have an effect on the course of action that is irreducible to direct human intervention. The concept of material agency is part of the “material turn” that puts objects in the picture of the humanities and social sciences as more than simply passive instruments or empty shells for social symbols and meanings. It contributes to a broader challenging of the boundaries between ontological categories such as nature and culture, and opens new opportunities for collaboration between scientific and interpretive archaeologies.
Microarchaeology
Authors: Toffolo Michael B.
Published: November 2018

The archaeological record comprises a macroscopic component represented by strata, artifacts, architectures, installations, graves, and so on, and a microscopic component that includes the materials of which artifacts and architectures are made, as well as the sedimentary matrix in which artifacts and architectures are found. Microarchaeology is thus the study of the microscopic archaeological record, that is, everything that cannot be seen by the naked eye and therefore requires the use of instrumentation. This branch of archaeology is the product of a long tradition of scientific archaeology that goes back to the nineteenth century. Microarchaeology makes extensive use of analytical methods developed in the field of the natural and life sciences to solve archaeological problems. This is done by integrating the information extracted from the microscopic record with the data obtained from the study of the macroscopic record. The result is a better interpretation of the archaeological record as a whole.
Mineral Inorganic Treatments
Authors: Balonis Magdalena
Published: November 2018

Consolidation is an essential conservation treatment when addressing deteriorated surfaces. It aims to restore binding mechanisms and improve cohesion at the microscopic scale of loose and friable materials. This entry provides a compilation of the most common inorganic mineral treatments used for the consolidation of calcium carbonate‐based cultural heritage objects such as wall paintings, stone sculptures, outdoor monuments, and porous building materials. A critical review on the advantages and disadvantages as well as the range of applications of each method are presented.
Mobility and Lead Isotopes
Authors: Sharpe Ashley E. , Kamenov George D. , Krigbaum John
Published: November 2018

Lead isotope ratios (
206
Pb/
204
Pb,
207
Pb/
204
Pb, and
208
Pb/
204
Pb) are used with increasing frequency in archaeological science to track the movement of animals, including humans. Like other isotopes used for sourcing, including strontium and oxygen, lead isotope ratios from bone and tooth enamel apatite can be matched to known lead sources in local bedrock, thereby identifying the original place of origin of humans/fauna. The application of lead isotope tracing in mobility studies allows archaeologists to address questions pertaining to seasonal migrations, immigration, trade, communication, and other cross‐regional interactions.
Mortuary Analysis
Authors: Rakita Gordon F. M.
Published: November 2018

Mortuary analysis consists of the study of the contexts in which human remains are recovered in archaeological excavations. However, the manner in which human burials and their contents have been analyzed has varied through time as theoretical paradigms in archaeology and their associated goals have changed. Initially examined for chronological keys, burials have subsequently be used to reconstruct social structures, to interpret religious or ideological meaning, to examine negotiations between social groups, to study the role of ancestors among the living, and to study social inequality. The field has also seen an increasing awareness of the importance of the dead in the lives of the living both in the past and in contemporary society.
Multispectral and Hyperspectral Imaging
Authors: Verhoeven Geert
Published: November 2018

Since the invention of photography, a variety of approaches have made noninvasive imaging for cultural heritage applications possible. Multi‐ and hyperspectral imaging (together denoted spectral imaging) are two techniques that evolved from conventional color photography, having overcome its spectral limitations. Instead of imaging in three broad spectral bands, multispectral imaging acquires data in up to ten more or less equally wide and nonoverlapping spectral bands. Hyperspectral imaging goes beyond the multispectral approach by generating images in tens to hundreds of narrow, contiguous (i.e., adjacent but not overlapping) spectral bands. Most spectral imaging techniques are limited to the optical electromagnetic spectrum and acquire the reflected portion of the radiation that is used to illuminate the scene. However, imaging the emitted thermal radiation or active techniques based on laser scanners do exist as well. In cultural heritage, all these techniques are used to gain a better, noninvasive insight into the chemical and physical properties of the object(s) under investigation.
Multi‐View Stereo
Authors: Ducke Benjamin
Published: November 2018

In computer vision and image‐based three‐dimensional (3D) reconstruction, the term multi‐view stereo (MVS) is commonly applied to computer programs that generate dense 3D point clouds (often in the range of tens or even hundreds of millions of points) from a (potentially very large) series of images. Modern MVS software allows mixing of images taken from arbitrary positions and by different cameras, including video frames. This is greatly facilitated by the ability of structure from motion (SfM) software to reconstruct camera properties in a no‐parametric manner (from images alone), eliminating the need for manual camera calibration. In a typical SfM‐based process, MVS is the step that follows image matching and pose estimation and precedes surface reconstruction, providing the vertices for densely meshed, “water‐tight” object surfaces. Due to its low cost and flexibility, MVS has become a very popular technology and evolved into a mainstay for archaeological site and object documentation.
Network Science
Authors: Brughmans Tom , Peeples Matthew A.
Published: November 2018

Network science is the study of the collection, management, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of network data. It has been applied in a diversity of archaeological research contexts sporadically since the 1960s, and more commonly since the early 2000s. In this entry, network science is defined and its archaeological application is briefly reviewed. It concludes with a list of challenges that are still to be addressed in future archaeological network science.
Nondestructive Compositional Analysis of Ceramics
Authors: McKenzie‐Clark Jaye , Magnussen John
Published: November 2018

Ancient pottery plays an important role in the investigation of past civilizations; it provides archaeologists with specific details of life in ancient times. Compositional analysis of the ceramic material can identify the manufacturing techniques employed by ancient potters, and pinpoint distribution patterns of ceramic goods throughout the ancient world. Nevertheless, this vital information usually comes at a considerable cost because most compositional analyses require the partial or total destruction of the ancient artifact, resulting in the loss of irreplaceable cultural heritage. A new technique employing dual energy computed tomography (DECT), developed at Macquarie University, Australia, provides comparable results to conventional analyses, but in stark contrast the DECT technique is totally nondestructive, thereby preserving cultural heritage for future generations.