bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Poly(phenylsilsesquioxane)
Authors: Lin Gui , Baney Ronald H
Published: November 2023

Acronyms, Alternative Names, Trade Names Phenyl-T, PPSQ, PLOS, CLPHS, phenyl silicobenzoic anhydride, cyclolinear poly(phenylsiloxane), phenyl siliconic anhydride, Ladder Coat® (Mitsubishi Electric), Glass Resin (Owens Illinois/Showa Denko), OctaPhenyl-POSS®
Poly(phenyl/tolylsiloxane)
Authors: Meier Dale J
Published: November 2023

Properties of Special Interest Highly crystalline, high melting point, excellent thermal stability, mesomophic state at high temperatures
Polyphosphates
Authors: Ding Leiyuchuan , Foxman Bruce M
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Acids: Intermediate in fertilizer production. Catalysts for alkylation, dehydrogenation, polymerization, and isomerization. Dehydrating agent in dye and pigment production. Salts: Builders in detergent and cleaning formulations. Consistency control agents in foods. Deflocculants in clays, dyes, and ink. Anticalculus agents in toothpaste and mouthwash. Dispersants for solids in clay processing, drilling mud, and pigments. Flame retardation. Models for natural biopolymers.
Poly(phosphazene), Bioerodible
Authors: Magill Joseph H
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Polymers have shown promise as bioerodible materials capable of (controlled degradation and sustained drug delivery for therapeutic and other related uses. Polyphosphazenes have been evaluated for approximately two decades, but research has become more focused in recent years.
Poly(phosphazene), semicrystalline
Authors: Magill Joseph H
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Fiber, slit tape, nonwoven fabrics, cast and biaxially oriented film, containers and closures, automotive interior and exterior parts, appliance housing and components, medical applications, component in elastomeric blends with polyethylene and olefinic rubbers.
Polypyrrole
Authors: Kulkarni Amit S , Rane Shrish , Beaucage Gregory
Published: November 2023

Major Applications There are potential applications for PPy in display devices, chemical sensors, electrodes in batteries, drug carriers, heating fabrics, deionizers, and as a catalyst. Properties Of Special Interest Presence of an extended π–bonding system, which imparts electrical properties to the polymer. Doping to either p or n type can enhance these properties. Polypyrrole is stable in air at ambient temperatures, as well as high as 250°C in its doped state. Polypyrrole can also be synthesized in a doped state. It changes color when switched from its conducting to insulating state.
Poly(silylenemethylenes)
Authors: Shen Q H , Interrante L V
Published: November 2023

Acronyms, Trade Names, Alternative Names PSM, PSE (I), HPCS (IIa), AHPCS, SP-4000, SMP-10 (II), poly[silylene(methylene)] (I), poly(carbodihydridosilane) (I), poly(silaethylene) (I), hydridopolycarbosilane (IIa), allylhydridopolycarbosilane (IIb), Starfire Matrix Polymer (IIb)
Polystyrene, Head-to-head
Authors: Li Michael. T , Malanga Ying
Published: November 2023

Preparative Technique H H polystyrene has never been obtained directly from styrene monomer and indirect polymerization techniques have to be used. H–H polystyrene was first synthesized in a four step reaction. It is synthesized by the selective hydrogenation of 1,4-poly(2,3-diphenyl-1,3-butadiene) (PDPB) using potassium/ethanol.
Poly(sulfur nitride)
Authors: Rubinson J F
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Electrode fabrication in crystalline, film, or paste form. Electrodes are useful in both aqueous and some nonaqueous solvents. Ion-selective electrode. Contact with semiconductors yields high-voltage junction. Photocell and lithium battery fabrication. Properties of Special Interest A number of the intermediates in its synthesis as well as the dry polymer are explosive under certain conditions. A thorough literature survey of its properties should be undertaken before synthesis or use.(1,2,3) Intrinsic metallic conductor. Undoped polymer is a superconductor at 0.3 K, while doped forms have been made with higher Tc.
Poly(tetrafluoroethylene)
Authors: Kerbow D L , Aten R M
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Granular and fine powder forms are used in electrical wire insulation, seals, and gaskets, and in valve and pipe fittings and linings for harsh chemical applications. Fine powders are also prepared in fiber, filament, and porous fabric forms. Dispersions are used in glass cloth coatings to provide weather protection, mechanical strength, and chemical resistance. Micropowders are used as additives to inks, lubricants, and plastics to provide lubricity, antiburning, and nonstick properties.
Poly(tetrahydrofuran)
Authors: Yuan-Huffman Qingwen Wendy
Published: November 2023

Polymerization None Cationic ring-opening living polymerization (1–3) Solvents None Benzene, ethanol, tetrahydrofuran, Chloroform (4–6) Nonsolvents None Petroleum ether, hexane, methanol, water (4–6)
Poly[1-(trimethylsilyl)-1-propyne]
Authors: Wu Sizhu , Madkour Tarek M
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Potential applications involve oxygen enrichment applicable to combustion furnaces, car engines, and respiration-aiding apparatuses. Also in the transport of oxygen dissolved in water applied to contact lenses and artificial lungs. In liquid mixture separation associated with ethanol concentration of fermented biomass. Furthermore, in polymer degradation related to resist materials for microlithography. Properties of Special Interest Glassy ductile polymer with high permeability and low selectivity. A white amorphous silicon containing acetylene stable to air and soluble in nonpolar solvents such as toluene, cyclohexane, and carbon tetrachloride. Thus, it allows for tough film formation by solution casting.
Polyurethane Urea
Authors: Ramanathan L S , Sivaram S , Mishra Munmaya K
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Polyurethane urea is useful in making interior automobile parts like armrests, head rests, gear shifts, knee protection pad, etc. Rigid integral PU foams are used in electronic and construction fields. Properties of Special Interest High compressive strength, less weight, good weatherability, and excellent properties of electrical insulation.
Poly(vinyl butyral)
Authors: Sundararajan P R , Khan Mostofa Kamal
Published: November 2023

Major Applications The significant use is in lamination of safety glass (automotive windshields). Others are structural adhesives, binders for rocket propellants, ceramics, in metallized brake linings, lithographic and offset printing plates, magnetic tapes, powder coatings; binder matrix in photoactive, elecrooptic and electronic devices, protective coatings for glass, metal, wood, and ceramics; in wash primers for protecting metal surfaces (e.g., naval vessels); adhesion promoter in inks; dispersions used in textile industry to improve abrasion resistance and reduce color crocking.
Poly(vinylidene fluoride)
Authors: Scheinbeim Jerry I , Zhang Qiming , Zhang Shihai
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Wire and cable insulation, tubing, piping, sheet and melt-cast films for electrical and electronics, binder for high-quality metal finishes for building components used on exterior wall panels, roofing shingles, and on industrial, commercial and residential buildings, binders for lithium-ion battery electrode, membranes for battery, used in fluid handling systems for solid and lined pipes, fittings, valves, and pumps, in manufacture of microporous and ultrafiltration membranes, chemical-tank lining, piezoelectric sensors for telephone headset, hydrophones, keyboards and, printers, pyroelectric sensor for infrared sensing, high energy density capacitor films.
Silicon (germanium) oxo hemiporphyrazine polymers
Authors: Zeldin Martel , Zhang Yuli
Published: November 2023

Class Cofacial polymers Structure [M(hp)O]n:
Sulfo-ethylene-propylene-diene Monomer Ionomers
Authors: Wang Shuhong
Published: November 2023

General Information These polymers consist of sulfonated derivatives of ethylene-propylene-diene terpolymers. The ionic associations induced by the sulfonate groups are significantly stronger than is the case with the carboxylated products. For a detailed comparison, see reference (2). Even after several years of active development, sustainable commercial uses have not emerged. Thus, these products are no longer being produced even though they are of considerable technical interest.
Morpheus And Berkeley On Reality
Authors: Mawson Tim
Published: November 2023

Despite this rather opaque comment, Morpheus actually relies on a pretty straightforward understanding of what it is that makes something real as opposed to unreal. He relies on this understanding when he classifies his hovercraft, the Nebuchadnezzar; deserted and devastated cities on the surface of the Earth; and the populous and thriving (at least until the end of the second film) city of Zion near its center as real. And he relies on it when he classifies the world of the Matrix; what he calls “the Construct,” the white world in which he first explains the nature of the Matrix to Neo; and the virtual arena in which they first spar as unreal. He relies on it to make sense of his general mission as being to wake people up from unreality and into reality. And he relies on it to make sense of his particular mission as being to do this for Neo, the person whom he believes will be able to destroy the unreality of the Matrix for good. In so relying on it, Morpheus actually assumes that there’s an important difference between those electrical signals that are fed into our brains by computers when we’re floating in our tanks and those that he experiences when, for example, he’s sitting with his crew in the cockpit of the Nebuchadnezzar. If Morpheus thought that reality was simply a matter of having electrical signals interpreted by your brain.
Introduction: A Parent’s Nightmare
Authors: Gur Raque E , Johnson Ann Braden
Published: November 2023

This is a book about schizophrenia, a serious mental disorder that usually appears in late adolescence or early adulthood, seemingly without warning. Schizophrenia is many things, not least a disease that affects all the people who know and love the person who has it. Since many people who develop schizophrenia are teenagers or young adults, the disease affects the parents of those children directly and painfully. Parents must watch as the child they know and love changes in ways they may not fully understand. At the same time, parents will most likely continue to be the chief caretakers of their affected children, often well into adulthood. For in the age of deinstitutionalization and managed health care, the family is the first line of defense against a serious, personality-altering, and potentially life-threatening chronic mental illness.
Getting the Right Treatment for Your Child: Medications, Therapy, and More
Authors: Gur Raque E , Johnson Ann Braden
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, we mentioned that most of the progressive deterioration that schizophrenia can incur will take place within the first five to ten years after the individual has experienced the first psychotic episode. It is worth reiterating this point if only to emphasize its implicit recommendation: that early diagnosis and intervention at the first signs of the disease can help to prevent its worst effects over the long term.
Everyday Life
Authors: Gur Raque E , Johnson Ann Braden
Published: November 2023

Parents who live with mentally ill children have an extremely tough row to hoe. Not only do they have to put aside their hopes and expectations for what that person could have become, had things been different, but they must also cope with unnerving and even deranged behavior that other people may never see in their lives. They must spend hours, days, weeks— whatever it takes—tracking down therapists, hospitals, clinics, and favorable decisions from insurance companies. What is not always fully appreciated, however, is that the relatives of the mentally ill must also master their own emotional responses to the daily reminder that their son or sister is different, odd, peculiar, eccentric, unpredictable, and/or downright hostile.
Prevention of Schizophrenia: The Challenges
Authors: Gur Raque E , Johnson Ann Braden
Published: November 2023

With the advent of newer, “atypical” antipsychotic medicines, we have seen that the principal symptoms of schizophrenia can usually be controlled. We are not yet able to address some of the behavioral aspects of the disorder as efficiently, however. The general failure of traditional outpatient therapy programs to address the social and vocational needs of people with schizophrenia has led to the development of intensive, individualized treatment initiatives, such as Assertive Community Treatment (ACT), designed to restore patients to genuine participation in all aspects of adult life. But no matter how successful programs are at reintegrating people with schizophrenia into society, most people would agree that it would be even better if we could prevent them from becoming sick in the first place.
Writing Fighting War
Authors: Batstone William W , Damon Cynthia
Published: November 2023

Cicero, discussing Caesar’;s Gallic War commentaries in a work on rhetoric and Latin style, made the general comment, “They really must be thought excellent. For they are naked and lovely, with every oratorical ornament stripped away like clothing. For in history nothing is sweeter than a pure and clear brevity” (Brutus 262). In the preceding chapters we have seen Caesar’;s style at work constructing arguments and offering an interpretation of people and events that served Caesar’;s needs. Here we concentrate on features of Caesar’;s style that facilitate his presentation.1 We will see that in the Civil War, at least, the general impression Caesar gives of an unornamented plainness is effective in itself and also serves as a foil that allows his occasional ornaments to shine. Everywhere Caesar shows both his “mastery of easy, everyday language” and his sensitivity to the effects produced by variation.
Epilogue: Surviving Failure
Authors: Batstone William W , Damon Cynthia
Published: November 2023

The newly personal terms of political engagement that, in chapter 4, we saw Caesar developing are also visible in the historical record outside his commentaries. From Cicero’;s correspondence, for example, we know that after Pharsalus Caesar insisted on issuing pardons in person: he wanted to “hear each case” himself (Att. 11.7.2, Dec. 48). One of those whose cases Caesar eventually heard in person was Cicero himself, who, once restored to favor, turned busily to promoting the restoration of others.2 He tells one anxious petitioner that Caesar favored requests based on personal obligations, requests, that is, made to him by his friends or by those he had already pardoned on behalf of those with whom they themselves had personal relationships: I have made your case more openly than my situation really warranted. The circumstance of my weakened influence was overcome by the place you have in my affections and by my long-standing and diligently reciprocated love for you.
Medicine and the Limits of Knowledge
Authors: Montgomery Kathryn
Published: November 2023

I set out to write a book about clinical judgment: how, given the uncertainty of its knowledge, medicine is taught and practiced and how its identification with science affects both patients and physicians. Before I was well into it, my 28-year-old daughter found a breast lump and had an excisional biopsy. Physical symptoms are read narratively, contextually, and interpreted in cultural systems. A physician’s diagnosis is a plot summary of a socially constructed pathophysiological sequence of events. The lump is there. It is a sign, caught in medias res, a clue to a natural history that is unfolding. Science describes and explains it and determines what can be done about it. But the importance of that lump, the acts its discovery entails, and what those acts will mean are social and cultural matters. Although for turn-of-the-millennium North Americans, culture is shaped by—of a piece with— Western scientific medicine, within that culture, as Lynn Payer pointed out, there are significant national variants. The French like breasts, she observed, and not surprisingly, surgeons in France regularly performed lumpectomies long before the English and Americans, who like randomized clinical trials. Is there a fixed, invariant truth about breast cancer and its treatment, a reality that has nothing to do with culture? Certainly there are scientific facts, refinements in knowledge, improvements in care.
“What Brings You Here Today?”: The Idea ofCause in Medical Practice
Authors: Montgomery Kathryn
Published: November 2023

My daughter’s illness sent me on a quest to understand the idea of cause. To know the cause of disease is to have control. Medicine is driven by it, and patients and their families are part of that drive. And yet, as I discovered, the idea of cause in medical practice bears as odd a relation to science as clinical medicine itself. The physician’s investigation of cause, even as it seems to confirm clinical medicine’s status as a science, undercuts that claim at every turn. The idea of cause fits right into the misdescription of medicine because it is central to the profession’s conventional, positivist ideal of science. Yet in the physician’s office or the emergency room, cause is the object of a retrospective, narrative investigation that more nearly resembles investigation in history or economics than experiments in microbiology or chemistry. The face-to-face encounter with a patient gives what the physician knows about biological cause a practical, taken-for-granted, confirmatory role. What science has yet to discover seldom comes to mind—and then only in truly puzzling cases. Physicians instead are in pursuit of a diagnosis, the cause of the patient’s illness, and this causal pursuit is framed as science rather than as simply a rational inquiry. Yet a look at the clinical uses of cause reveals some of the important ways clinical medicine differs from a Newtonian science and highlights instead medicine’s practical rationality, the clinical judgment essential to the work of diagnosis and treatment.
Clinical Knowing
Authors: Montgomery Kathryn
Published: November 2023

Clinical medicine shares both its epistemological predicament and its rational method with history, economics, anthropology, and the other human sciences—all disciplines less certain than the physical sciences and far more concerned with meaning. Unlike those disciplines, medicine does not reflect on (because it does not readily acknowledge) its interpretive character or the intermediate rules it uses to reach its conclusions. Instead, claiming a “technical rationality” based on science, medicine takes little notice ofeither the tensions inherent in its practical reasoning or the ingenious means it has devised for expressing and mediating those tensions. Chief among these are the competing and counterweighted but thoroughly common sensical maxims and aphorisms described in chapter 7. In uncertain circumstances, they guide the real-life clinical rationality that is ignored or misdescribed in the profession’s claim to be (or to be on its way to becoming) an old-fashioned positivist science.
Knowing One’s Place: The Evaluation ofClinical Judgment
Authors: Montgomery Kathryn
Published: November 2023

If a kind of visual field defect obscures not only medicine’s knowledge of the nature of its knowing but also an awareness of that lack, how is clinical judgment evaluated? If medicine were only a science, physicians could establish their clinical competence by answering test questions correctly. But because it is a practice, its evaluation is a much more complicated exercise. I stumbled on this realization by chance when I invited second-year medical students in my “Sherlock Holmes and Clinical Judgment” seminar to attend a hospital case conference in internal medicine so they could observe residents and attending physicians solving clinical problems out loud. Two years before, soon after the arrival of a new chief, the department had been organized into three “firms.” For its British originators, the word “firm” is a nonsports synonym for “team.” And while Americans hear its corporate, money-making connotations, the advantages of the new arrangement soon made “firm” seem, locally at least, an entirely different word.
Meaning and Thought Literal or Figurative?
Authors: Koller Bálint , Endrődi Noémi , Komlósi Sarolta , Tóth Rita , Kövecses Zoltán
Published: November 2023

What is the relationship between literal and figurative meaning, on the one hand, and concrete and abstract meaning, on the other? (The first half of this chapter is based on Kovecses 20056.) Traditionally, the answer is that literal meaning goes together with concrete meaning and figurative meaning with abstract meaning. Thus, for example, the meaning of the word ship is both literal and concrete. We typically and normally talk about ships as ships and not as, say, plows of the sea, although exceptionally we can talk about ships this way. The second assumption is that figurative meaning commonly goes together with abstract meaning. Thus, for example, the abstract meaning of ‘losing control over one’s emotions’ gains expression in such figurative phrases (or through such figurative meanings) as ‘going crazy’, ‘becoming wild’, ‘flying off the handle’, ‘flipping one’s lid,’ ‘blowing one’s top’, and ‘going into a frenzy’.
The Embodied Mind the Role of Image-Schemas
Authors: Koller Bálint , Endrődi Noémi , Komlósi Sarolta , Tóth Rita , Kövecses Zoltán
Published: November 2023

As was noted in chapter 2, the first step in acquiring a category is forming a structural description of an entity. Structural descriptions consist of the most elementary properties of entities. As we saw, these elementary properties include lines, surfaces, weight, vertical or horizontal extension, roughness or softness, sweetness or bitterness, and so on. When these experiences occur repeatedly, certain schematic structures begin to emerge and get represented in the brain/mind. The structures that emerge this way are what are called image-schemas.
Prejudice
Authors: Crow Bill
Published: November 2023

Jazz helped to start the erosion of racial prejudice in America. The music was a strong magnet to those who had ears for it, and it drew whites and blacks together into a common experience. It was difficult to admire the music without admiring the musicians, and for many whites, educated in prejudice, it was their first chance to discover that blacks could be admirable. The process continued in other popular venues like professional sports and pop music. In the 1920s and ‘30s, black and white musicians enjoyed the social freedom they constructed for themselves within the jazz world, so different from the state of affairs in the rest of the United States at that time. Jazz musicians formed many warm and enduring interracial friendships. But it took a while longer for a few white bandleaders to risk presenting black musicians with their bands. The black pioneers in those bands told many stories of the bitter resistance in the music business to this change. Meanwhile all traveling black musicians faced the hard realities of going into hostile territory to work.
Pranks
Authors: Crow Bill
Published: November 2023

In the jazz world there is a tradition of pranks, practical jokes, and general devilment. Most bands have had at least one prankster. Sometimes pranks become epidemic, especially on long road trips. Jimmy Rushing never forgot one that Count Basie played on him while they were in Dallas with the Blue Devils. Basie said: Jimmy Rushing got in touch with a girlfriend of his who worked in a restaurant, and during a certain time of day he could go around there and get himself a free meal. I had been there and had seen him do it a few times. So one day while he was fooling around in the pool room or somewhere I got hungry and slipped around there and told his girl friend that Jimmy said he won’t be around today and said for me to eat his meal. I ate my head off and cut out, and later on he went around there and sat at the table. She kept walking by without bringing him anything. At first he thought she was just busy and then he started wondering. She finally came and stood looking at him.
Charlie Parker
Authors: Crow Bill
Published: November 2023

Charlie Parker upset the jazz world with the beauty and inventiveness of his playing, in the same way Louis Armstrong had upset it twenty-five years earlier. Like Armstrong, Parker added a whole new set of melodic phrases to the standard jazz vocabulary. As Lennie Tristano remarked when Parker died, “He could sue almost everybody who’s made a record in the last ten years.” Al Cohn tried to explain the impact that Parker had on his contemporaries: The thing about Charlie Parker was that he was such a giant, he was so much better than everybody else. It’s not like there was this guy, and that guy. There was everybody else, and then there was Charlie! You could take his solos, if you would put them down on paper and analyze them, they really had substance, creativity, the way he used changes. There wasn’t anybody else doing that then.
John Birks Gillespie
Authors: Crow Bill
Published: November 2023

Dizzy Gillespie never saw a reason to limit himself to any narrow application of his musical talent; he discovered early in his career that he could entertain the soul, the intellect, the feet, and the funnybone at the same time. Even though his early admirers created a cult of modernity around him, Dizzy established himself as one of the most ecumenical artists in the jazz world. Although Gillespie and Charlie Parker had a rare musical rapport, Parker didn’t understand Dizzy’s urge to make his audiences laugh. Privately, Charlie had a good sense of humor, but he felt Dizzy’s capers on the bandstand detracted from his artistic dignity. Standing at the bar in Birdland one night, Bird watched Dizzy “cutting the fool” to the delight of his audience. Charlie said with genuine concern, “How can he do that?” John Coltrane worked with Dizzy, and years later made this comment: I don’t make a habit of wishing for what I don’t have, but I often wish I had a lighter nature. Dizzy has that beautiful gift. I can’t say, “Be happy, people.” It’s something I can’t command. But you have to be true to your own nature.
Miles Davis and John Coltrane
Authors: Crow Bill
Published: November 2023

Miles Davis was in the vanguard of modern jazz through several major periods of its development. At the beginning of his career, while jamming with Charlie Parker and the other innovators of the bebop era, he was already finding a sound and style that broke away from Dizzy Gillespie’s powerful influence on young trumpet players. Miles was impressed with the sound of men like Freddie Webster and Shorty Baker, and developed a fat, smoky middle-register sound and a sparse style all his own. Davis grew uncomfortable whenever he felt he was repeating himself, continually changing his groups in search of something new to play. He was very successful in finding and shaping new talent, and in choosing the right combination of music and musicians to take the next interesting step forward. Miles was one of the first jazz stars since the days of the haughty piano ticklers to refuse to ingratiate his audience. He spoke little onstage, never announced his musicians or the names of the tunes that were played, and often played with his back to the audience and then left the stage while others were soloing. His music was so strong that his listeners accepted it on his terms.
Diabetes Mellitus and Obesity
Authors: McCarthy Mark I
Published: November 2023

An Epidemiological Perspective on Diabetes Mellitus and Obesity

Increasingly, the twin threats of diabetes and obesity are perceived as amongst the most important global contributors to human disease and death (Kopelman, 2000; Zimmet et al., 2001). The rise in the prevalence of both conditions has been staggering. Over the course of less than a generation—from 1995 to 2010—the total number of people with diabetes is projected to double (from approximately 110 to 220 million) (Fig. 12–1). This burden of increased prevalence will fall disproportionately in the societies least able to deal with the social and economic costs of this new ‘‘epidemic,’’ since prevalence rates are climbing fastest in Asia, Africa, and South America (Zimmet et al., 2001). These increases in diabetes prevalence are following similar trends in rates of obesity. According to the latest figures from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in the USA, 65% of adults are overweight [body mass index (BMI) exceeding 25 kg m 2], 30% obese (BMI > 30), and 5% extremely obese (BMI > 40) (Hedley et al., 2004).
Hemostasis and Thrombosis
Authors: McVey John H , Tuddenham Edward GD
Published: November 2023

Vertebrates have evolved a complex system to prevent blood loss that involves coordinate vascular wall muscle contraction, cell aggregation (platelets), and the deposition of a clottable protein (fibrin). To achieve this, a complex network of positive and negative regulated reactions have evolved that result in controlled fibrin deposition and platelet activation only at the site of vascular injury without compromising blood flow through either the uninjured or damaged blood vessels.
Genomics and Cancer: Mechanisms and Applications
Authors: Davies Mark , Sampson Julian
Published: November 2023

Cancer is diagnosed in one in three of those living in the ‘‘developed world’’ and causes the death of one in four. Longevity is a major factor in the health impact of cancer since the incidence of most common cancers shows a log-linear relationship with age (Hanson et al., 1980). Environmental and social factors including smoking, diet and the trend to a delay, and reduction in numbers of pregnancies are also of striking importance in determining the pattern of cancers seen in contemporary society. Nonetheless, cancer is fundamentally a genetic disease. Its development is determined by the accumulation of mutations in genes that normally coordinate the birth and death of cells to ensure that they are produced only as and when they are required and their regulate behavior such that they remain under control at the level of tissue, organ, and organism. Over the last three decades, our understanding of cancer has been transformed by the identification of many genes that are mutated, or whose expression is altered in cancers, and by the characterization of their functions that are lost or changed as a cancer develops. Key mechanisms of tumorigenesis have been established, and many of the signaling and regulatory pathways that are hijacked by cancers have been elucidated, often through genetic approaches. Many advances that have impacted on knowledge of cancer have come initially from genetic studies of simple organisms, notably bacteria and yeast where comprehensive experimental strategies could be adopted.
Hematological Malignancies: The Paradigm of Acute Myeloid Leukemia
Authors: Mills Kenneth I , Burnett Alan
Published: November 2023

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a clinically and molecular heterogeneous set of hematopoietic disorders (Lowenberg et al., 1999) which account for 77% of acute leukemia (Walker et al., 1994). It is the most common form of acute leukemia in adults but forms only a minor fraction (10%–15%) of childhood leukemia (Lightfoot, 2005). The overall incidence of AML is approximately 4 in 1,00,000 in the United States and United Kingdom, and increases with age from 1 in 1,00,000 in people younger than 35 years old at diagnosis to 15 in 1,00,000 in those older than 75 years. The incidence rates are slightly higher in males and in Whites.
Genomics and Infectious Diseases: Susceptibility, Resistance, Response, and Antimicrobial Therapy
Authors: Jamieson Sarra E , Peacock Christopher S
Published: November 2023

Mankind has been afflicted with infectious diseases throughout history and, at the start of the third millennium, the global burden of infectious disease is still extremely high, with World Health Organization (WHO) figures indicating that infectious diseases are the second leading cause of death after cardiovascular diseases (WHO, 2004) (see Fig. 25–1). Of the 57 million deaths worldwide in 2002, an estimated 14.9 million ( 26%) were due to infectious or parasitic disease, with the majority of this burden falling on children in the African and South East Asian regions (Black et al., 2003; Bryce et al., 2005). Of those 14.9 million deaths, large proportions were due to well-known infectious diseases, namely HIV/AIDS (human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) (2.77 million deaths in 2002), tuberculosis (TB) (1.57 million deaths), and malaria (1.27 million deaths) as illustrated in Figure 25–2. As well as mortality figures, the overall burden placed on a population by a particular disease can also be measured in disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) (Murray and Acharya, 1997). This measurement takes into account not only the number of years of healthy life lost due to early mortality, but also the number of years of healthy life lost due to disability or poor health, which are combined and used to quantify the overall disease burden. Using this measure, the global burden of infectious and parasitic diseases was 445 million DALYs in 2002, as compared to cardiovascular diseases with a burden of approximately 148 million DALYs in 2002 (WHO, 2004).
Learning and Behavioral Disorders
Authors: Raymond Lucy , Cox James
Published: November 2023

At present, compared to many areas of medicine, relatively little is known about the underlying cellular mechanisms that lead to learning and behavioral disorders in humans. The reasons for this are many, including social, political, medical, and practical issues. The advent of the Human Genome Project and developments in molecular genetics over the last 20 years now means that, from a practical point of view, this area can be considered in detail, which was not possible previously.
Gastroenterology
Authors: Buscaglia Jonathan , Jagannath Sanjay
Published: November 2023

The oropharynx can provide diagnostic clues to a variety of GI diseases. Some examples are noted below. A potentially pre-malignant white thickening of the tongue or oral mucosa. When in doubt, refer all intra-oral white lesions. Causes: Poor dental hygiene; smoking; sepsis; aphthous stomatitis; squamous papilloma; verucca vulgaris; 2° syphilis. Oral hairy leukoplakia is a painless, shaggy whitish streaky patch on the side of the tongue due to EBV which is often seen in patients with AIDS.
Surgery
Authors: Gearhart Susan L , Jacobs Lisa
Published: November 2023

An abnormal communication between 2 epithelial surfaces, eg enterocutaneous between the bowel and the skin; endothelial in arteriovenous fistulae), eg gastrocolic fistula (stomach/colon). Fistulae commonly close spontaneously but will not do so in the presence of chronic inflammation, distal obstruction, epithelialization of the track, foreign bodies, or malignant tissue.
Hematology
Authors: Moliterno Alison R
Published: November 2023

Due to the underlying cause or to the anemia itself: Fatigue, dyspnea, palpitations, headache, tinnitus, anorexia, dyspepsia, bowel disturbance and angina if there is pre-existing coronary artery disease. Patients who have developed their anemia rapidly are often more symptomatic than those who have developed anemia slowly, in which case there has been time for physiologic compensations for their anemia to occur.
Geriatric medicine
Authors: Christmas Colleen
Published: November 2023

Many aspects regarding older adults make them a challenging and rewarding patient population to work with. Most of the care of older adults consists of chronic disease management. The course of their medical conditions will be punctuated by episodes of exacerbation of acute illness. With each successive exacerbation, prognosticating the amount of recovery becomes increasingly difficult. Another challenge in providing care to geriatric patients is that quality of life, risks of treatment, and functional disability take on greater importance in making treatment decisions.
Contemporary Issues in Qualitative Research and Music Education
Authors: Flinders David J , Richardson Carol P
Published: November 2023

In the first edition of the Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning, Donald Casey (1992) used the broad term “descriptive research” to include common forms of qualitative inquiry. In the introduction to his chapter, Casey said: “Despite some speculation to the contrary, descriptive research should by no means be conceived as any less vigorous, worthwhile, or useful than other research modes” (p. 115). Although critics remain (e.g. Shavelson & Towne, 2002), qualitative researchers today face less “speculation to the contrary.” Leading universities, journals, and book publishers now give qualitative studies an increasingly high profile. Professional organizations, such as the American Educational Research Association, have institutionalized qualitative approaches as a viable alternative to large-sample, statistical studies, and doctoral programs now provide expanded training in qualitative methods. Together with these opportunities, the number of qualitative researchers has multiplied. Their ranks have grown so quickly over the past decade that it is difficult to find a more prominent trend in the field of educational research. Who and what have contributed to this trend are among the questions raised in this chapter.
Evolutionary Perspective
Authors: Cohen M Michael
Published: November 2023

Animals can be characterized as being composed of two or three cell layers: the former are diploblastic; the latter, triploblastic. Examples of diploblastic animals include hydra, jellyfish, sea anemone, and coral. Most animals are triploblastic-for example, nematode worms, fruit flies, mice, and humans.
Embryonic, Developmental, and Postnatal Perspectives
Authors: Cohen M Michael
Published: November 2023

The neural tube is formed by fusion of the neural folds (Fig. 3-1). The process of neurulation is complex and involves proliferation of neuroblasts or matrix cells, development of the neuroepithelium and surface ectoderm, formation of the neural plate median hinge point, apical constriction of neuroepithelial cells, and expansion of the mesoderm and extracellular matrices. Four stages can be discerned: (a) induction of the neural plate by the notochord; (b) rostrocaudal lengthening and mediolateral narrowing; (c) lateral folding of the neural plate; and (d) apposition and fusion of the apical surfaces of the neural folds. There are three initiation sites of neural tube closure (81, 82) (Fig. 3-2).
Dysmorphic and Genetic Perspectives
Authors: Cohen M Michael
Published: November 2023

Anomalies may be simple, as in cleft lip-palate; complex, as in holoprosencephaly; or syndromic, as in Apert syndrome. There are many different ways to classify syndromes. Geneticists, craniofacial surgeons (see Tables 6-2 to 6-4, 6-7), and pediatricians all categorize syndromes in different ways. There are probably as many methods of systematizing these disorders as there are clinicians and craniofacial biologists working in the field. Any attempt to bring order to a group of disparate conditions is helpful, even if various classifications crosscut each other. A morphologic-etiologic classification of craniofacial syndromes is shown in Table 5-1. Selected molecular disorders with craniofacial anomalies are summarized in Table 5-2.
Sociocultural and Symbolic Perspectives
Authors: Cohen M Michael
Published: November 2023

For example, neomancy is divination by using the number, type, and position of moles on the body. According to doctrine, moles on the face duplicate the position of moles on the body, making it unnecessary for the neomancer to examine the whole body, thus avoiding embarrassment to the client (36). There are two main types of somatomancy. Astral somatomancy established a link between the features of the human body and astrology. By these means, a person’s temperament and character were determined. Also, the future course of events could be predicted, thus determining the person’s destiny. In natural somatomancy, divination was directly from the human body. Neomancy, discussed above, is an example (36). There are four general types of natural somatomancy. In theriologic physiognomy, divination employed human facial comparison with animals. By comparing the likeness of a specific face with that of a specific animal, a person’s character could be likened to the behavioral characteristics of that animal. A second type was the doctrine of the average person. The basic tenet was that the mental, moral, and physical attributes of persons were most favorable when they approached the average in the population. People who departed from the norm were, in proportion to their deviation, inferior in mentality, morality, and appearance. Third, the pseudo-inductive type was characterized by the single-case method with overgeneralization.
Neurobehavioral Mechanisms of Compulsive Drug Seeking
Authors: Vanderschuren Louk J M J
Published: November 2023

Drug addiction is a chronic relapsing disorder characterized by loss of control over drug taking. Whereas drug use starts out as controlled, casual use, during the development of the addiction syndrome, drug seeking and taking escalates into a compulsive mode of behavior. This is reflected by the criteria in DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), in which five out of seven symptoms signify that control over drug intake has been lost: [Substance dependence is .. . ] a maladaptive pattern of substance use, leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested by three (or more) of the following, occurring at any time in the same 12-month period.
Neurochemical Approaches to Addiction Treatment
Authors: Millington William R , Göktalay Gökhan
Published: November 2023

William S. Burroughs was something of an expert on drug addiction; he was a heroin addict, a ‘‘junky’’ as he put it, for much of his adult life. An offbeat novelist and contemporary of Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac, Burroughs created one of the most eloquent descriptions of opiate addiction we have: Junky. In it, he describes the defining components of addiction: the initial euphoria, or ‘‘kick,’’ naive users experience, the decline of euphoria and onset of craving that marks the transition from drug use to drug addiction, the overwhelming compulsion to obtain and consume ‘‘junk,’’ no matter what the consequences, the intense dysphoria of withdrawal, and the seeming inevitability of relapse. It is this progression of events that addiction research attempts to model, to understand and to treat and it is Burroughs’ dictum, ‘‘Once a junky, always a junky’’ that addiction research strives to overturn. It is easy to see why Burroughs arrived at this pessimistic conclusion. In the 1950s the prospect of treating addiction seemed remote. The only pharmacotherapy available was disulfiram, an aldehyde dehydrogenase inhibitor given to recovering alcoholics as a type of aversive therapy (Kiefer and Mann, 2005). The first real breakthrough came in the mid-1960s with the introduction of methadone as maintenance therapy for opiate addiction (Kreek, 2000).
“Impulsology” A New Paradigm for Addiction
Authors: Shirley Kara Lee , Norelli Lisa J , Smith Howard S
Published: November 2023

Addiction is a chronic relapsing disease in which compulsive seeking and participation persist despite serious negative consequences (Cam et al., 2003). Participation of the addictive behavior often induces euphoria in initiation phase, or may significantly relieve stress (Cam et al., 2003). Continued participation in the addictive behavior can lead to adaptive changes within the central nervous system that can lead to tolerance, physical dependence, sensitization, craving, and relapse (Cam et al., 2003; see Figure 13.1). Addiction closely resembles other chronic relapsing disease states such as diabetes, asthma, and hypertension (Heilig et al., 2006). Although it is inappropriate to forgo the social and behavioral context of addiction, this is consistent with the therapeutic approach of other chronic relapsing disease states. Unfortunately, addiction is viewed by many to result from deficits in character such as ‘‘willpower,’’ not amenable to comprehensive medical care (Heilig et al., 2006). The impulsive nature of addictive behavior renders the disease susceptible to societal judgment of patient character. Character judgment is often based upon the social and legal acceptance of the addictive behavior, rather than the multifaceted consequences of the behavior itself.
Cannabinoids in Pain and Addiction
Authors: Martin Billy R , Lichtman Billy R , Welch Sandra P
Published: November 2023

Although there is a rich history describing the use of cannabis and its constituents for numerous maladies, pain management represents one of the most prominent indications. However, cannabis and the psychoactive constituent D9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) produce a broad spectrum of pharmacological effects in the same dose range. It is this multiplicity of effects that has hampered the clinical usefulness of cannabinoids. Moreover, lack of knowledge regarding the mechanism by which cannabinoids produce their effects has limited the strategies for developing more effective means of controlling pain with this class of drugs. The discovery that THC and related cannabinoids produce their effects via a unique biological pathway, the endocannabinoid system, opens new avenues for exploring the underlying causes of pain, as well as potential for creating new modalities of pain control. This chapter will provide a brief characterization of the endocannabinoid system, evidence it plays a role in pain perception, ways of manipulating it to produce analgesia, and interactions between endocannabinoid and opioid systems in pain control.
Pharmacologic Approaches to Opioid Dependence and Withdrawal
Authors: Collins Eric D
Published: November 2023

In the clinical management of patients with pain (PWPs), the questions of whether, when, and how to stop chronic opioid therapy will inevitably arise. This chapter provides guidelines for medical detoxification from opioids for PWPs maintained on them. The detoxification process is essentially the same for malignant pain syndromes and for chronic nonmalignant pain (CNMP) syndromes. Some decisions about the need for opioid detoxification may be affected by the presence of malignancy, but such differences are beyond the scope of this chapter.
Traditional Chinese Medicine for Pain and Addiction
Authors: Patel Gira , Euler David
Published: November 2023

In 1997, the National Institutes of Health had a consensus conference that concluded acupuncture to be effective in the treatment of tennis elbow, fibromyalgia, low back pain, osteoarthritis, and headaches, just to name a few ailments. This consensus conference opened the door to hundreds of research grants investigating the efficacy and mechanisms of acupuncture. This sparked the public’s interest in this procedure.
Management of Painin Chemical Dependency in the Primary Care Clinic
Authors: McCarberg Bill H
Published: November 2023

The management of pain in primary care is a difficult and complex endeavor. Persistent pain management remains an elusive and frustrating goal despite a growing knowledge about the pathophysiology of pain. Primary care physicians struggle with unexplained variability among pain patients. Physical abnormalities are not predictive of pain severity or dysfunction (Flor & Turk, 1988). Large numbers of patients experience pain that may be constant, over long periods of time, and yet their life functioning is not changed in major ways. Conversely, there are other patients with similar structural abnormalities who suffer substantially more and cannot maintain their usual levels of activity (Sanders et al., 1992).