bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
EVALUATION OF THE RESPONSE BY SPECIALISED FOREIGN VESSELS TO THE RELEASE OF OIL FROM PRESTIGE
Authors: Wadsworth Tim
Published: January 2013

Following the spill of oil from PRESTIGE, Spain and Portugal called for resources to assist in the response. Over the following month, a major fleet was assembled with sixteen vessels from eight nations. Although a significant volume of oil was subsequently collected at sea the vessels experienced varying degrees of success.

This paper looks at the operations of each vessel and considers the reasons for their different performance. Consideration is given to the behaviour and spread of the oil and how this affected operations. The capabilities of the vessels to recover oil in Atlantic waters and to store and subsequently discharge this oil are considered. The containment and recovery systems used are analysed to determine their suitability in the circumstances. The command and control of the fleet by the authorities is discussed. The paper concludes by comparing the effectiveness of this fleet of specialised vessels with that of the fleet of fishing vessels which contributed to the overall volume of oil collected at sea.
“HOW CLEAN IS CLEAN” – PROPOSED METHOD FOR DETERMINING ENDPOINTS AND EVALUATING RESULTS OF OIL SPILL CLEAN UP OPERATIONS
Authors: Fejes Jonas , Lindgren Charlotte , Arbjörk Christina
Published: January 2013

Determining endpoint in clean up operations after oil spill is considered a necessary action to appoint appropriate methods, equipment and levels of clean up. Today international standards to assist decision making in these questions are not commonly spread. In this article a first step for developing guidelines for determining endpoints is presented. The proposed method considers four parameters; quantity of oil, type of oil, ecological sensitivity and time of year. In different combinations the parameters give criteria for when clean up should be ended as further actions might cause more harms than benefits. The method focuses on environmental aspects and therefore mainly ecological effects are considered.
THE GULF WAR OIL SPILL TWELVE YEARS LATER: CONSEQUENCES OF ECO-TERRORISM
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Hayes Miles O. , Getter Charles D. , Cotsapas Linos
Published: January 2013

The intentional release of an estimated 11 million barrels of oil during the 1991 Gulf War was the largest oil spill in history. An assessment of the physical, chemical, and ecological impacts of this spill shows that, 12 years later, oil residues and habitat modifications continue to have toxic effects on intertidal communities. As of 2003, there are an estimated 8 million cubic meters of oiled sediment remaining along the 803 km of impacted shoreline in Saudi Arabia. Of this volume, 45% occurs in muddy tidal flats and 23% in salt marshes and mangroves. Much of the oil in these sheltered habitats occurs as oiled crab burrows, with liquid oil remaining in the burrows to depths that exceed 50 cm. These habitats show the lowest degree of ecological recovery since the spill, with 87% of the upper intertidal zones of mangroves and marshes and 71 % of muddy tidal flats having reduced species richness and a disturbed community structure. Those habitats exposed to the greatest amount of wave activity contain the smallest amount of residual oil; however, on outer sand beaches, the oil is commonly buried to depths exceeding 1 m. The factors that affect the ecological recovery of the intertidal habitats include: 1) The chemical toxicity of the oil residues; 2) the physical toxicity of heavy and hardened oil residues; 3) other physical barriers that affect seed germination of plants, settlement of larvae, and burrowing; 4) limited sources for recruitment of biota; 5) reduced hydrological functioning of tidal channels. This study shows the importance of oil removal as the first phase of habitat recovery. It also indicates the potential for large-scale damage by blatant acts of eco-terrorism.
Emergency Response Planning Exercises For Oil Spills Caused By Natural Hazards
Authors: Yoshioka Gary , Coder Ellinor , Jun Allen
Published: January 2013

Emergency response exercises are designed to evaluate the operational readiness of responders to act consistently with plans, policies, and procedures. The design and execution of an exercise includes scenario development, exercise control and simulation, documentation, critiques, and after-action reports. Representatives of government agencies and private parties participate in exercises intended to ensure the successful implementation of oil spill response plans and contingency plans.

Exercise scenarios for oil spills associated with a natural hazard highlight unique problems, because natural hazards can cause spills in a number of different ways. For example, earthquakes, landslides, lightning strikes, tornados, hurricanes and other storms can affect vessels, pipelines, drilling platforms, and storage tanks. In addition, the cause of many large spills from vessels is often reported as “grounding” or “collision,” but frequently a contributing cause of these accidents is severe weather.

This paper discusses the exercise objectives and special considerations for responding to oil spills caused by different types of natural hazards. Natural hazards present emergency planners with a variety of warning times, from little or no warning to days and weeks. Natural hazards have the potential to cause spills over a wide area, so coordination among several jurisdictions is particularly important. Some discharges may be even greater than an expected “worst case” spill, because an earthquake or flood can rupture multiple tanks and damage secondary containment structures. In addition, the conditions created by natural hazards can delay and hinder response efforts.
EL PROCESO DE PLANIFICACIÓN DE LA AUTORIDAD DEL CANAL DE PANAMÁY SUS RESULTADOS EN LA PREPARACIÓN PARA DERRAMES DE HIDROCARBUROS
Authors: Urho Gonzal P.
Published: January 2013

Por el Canal de Panamá, diariamente transitan barcos de todo el mundo. Alrededor de 13 a 14 mil buques, con todo tipo de carga, lo utilizan cada año. De hecho, estas actividades comerciales representan aproximadamente el 5% del transporte mundial. La Autoridad del Canal de Panamá (ACP) administra esta vía, y acorde con las mejores medidas de preparación y respuesta a emergencias, cuenta con un plan integral de contingencias para escenarios con efectos adversos. El plan incluye un componente operacional, un componente estratégico y un componente de información. También, utiliza el Sistema de Comando de Incidentes (SCé) como estructura organizativa del recurso humano y el modelo de Planificación “P” como método de trabajo proactivo para pasar de una respuesta táctica a estratégica. El SCIpermite organizar al personal de respuesta con una terminología común, una jerarquía y funciones claras y una estructura modular y flexible. De esta manera, se ajusta a las necesidades de un incidente en vez de intentar ajustar el incidente o personal de respuesta a estructuras organizativas que obedecen a operaciones u organigramas normales de las empresas o instituciones con diferentes modelos y terminologías. La Planificación “P” facilita el proceso para que el SCI fije los objetivos de la respuesta y elabore acciones concretas para mitigar todos los aspectos contraproducentes de un incidente, no sólo los asuntos tícticos. Durante el proceso de planificación de contingencias, se reconoció la necesidad de aumentar las capacidades de respuesta a derrames de hidrocarburos. Por consiguiente, la ACP presentó a sus clientes un programa conocido como el Plan de Manejo de Emergencias de Contaminación por Hidrocarburos en el Canal de Panamí (PCSOPEP) que entró en vigencia el 1 de enero de 2005, luego de amplias consultas y modificaciones con la comunidad marítima internacional. La ejecución exitosa del PCSOPEP involucró varias etapas. Se requirió la actualización del Reglamento para la Navegación en Aguas del Canal de Panamí, estableciendo la responsabilidad del buque ante derrames y la presentación de un plan específico para el canal como requisito de trínsito, la fijación de tarifas para cubrir los costos de mantener la disponibilidad de personal y equipo para dar respuesta a estos incidentes y la designación de la ACP como ente que brinda la disponibilidad y el servicio de respuesta y limpieza en caso de derrames. La ejecución de estas directrices requirió el desarrollo de estrategias, la confección de proyectos de inversión y el aumento de la cantidad de empleados con capacitación en derrames de hidrocarburos. Inicialmente, las estrategias de respuesta se enfocaron en la remoción mecínica, pero el programa consideró la evaluación e incorporación de medidas alternas como protocolos de respuesta a ser desarrollados al nivel de un plan nacional de contingencias.
M/V TONG CHENG: SAFE ASSURANCE, SAFE HAVEN, SAFE RESULTS
Authors: Moore K.
Published: January 2013

On January 12, 2007 the MIV TONG CHENG, a 485 ft. Chinese flag break bulk vessel loaded with cargo and 130,000 gallons of oil, en route to the Panama Canal, notified Coast Guard Sector Honolulu that it had suffered damage to its #2 cargo hold and the hold was full of seawater. Located 700 miles from the nearest port (Honolulu), the vessel'S pumps were unable to keep up with the flooding, and with 26 personnel on board, the vessel advised it was diverting to Honolulu for emergency repairs. As the vessel proceeded toward Honolulu, its decreasing speed, the presence of two additional cargo ships in escort and the discovery of an oil sheen trailing the vessel raised significant concerns over the threat this posed to Hawaii. At stake in allowing the vessel a safe haven were the pristine shorelines of the Hawaiian Islands and potential crippling of the port'S vital lifeline to commercial marine traffic, its only source of sustenance. A myriad of issues had to be addressed as the vessel made preparations to come into Honolulu Harbor and a multi-agency, international Unified Command was established. The Unified Command, using the Incident Command System, managed the various contingencies from search and rescue of the crew if the ship were lost, to the potential discharge of 130,000 gallons of fuel. A risk-based decision process was employed to weigh the off-shore response challenges against the near-shore risks while taking into account the remoteness and sensitive marine environment of the Hawaiian Islands.

This paper provides insight into the dynamic and complex response and the incident management teams decisions regarding allowing this vessel in distress to enter a critical and environmentally sensitive port. The vessel was successfully repaired and allowed to depart Hawaii. This case is a classic example of proper decision making and risk balancing for a critical safe refuge request.
THE IPIECA OIL SPILL WORKING GROUP 20:20 VISION REFLECTIONS AND PROJECTIONS ON OUR 20TH ANNIVERSARY
Authors: Bennett Bernie , Osikilo Yvette
Published: January 2013

The International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA) Oil Spill Working Group (OSWG) is celebrating its 20th anniversary.

Its mission has been, through education, training and awareness initiatives, to enhance the state of preparedness and response to marine oil spill incidents in priority coastal locations around the world. Its programme is carried out in close cooperation with the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and operates within the context of the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation (OPRC), 1990.

The OSWG is made up of oil spill managers and specialists from IPIECA member companies and associations, supported by invited representatives from other organisations in the oil spill response community.

It aims to ensure that the full range of industry interests is adequately reflected in its work programme. Coordination between these industry-based organisations and the IMO remains an essential ingredient in the success of the OSWG programme

This paper reviews the main activities and achievements of the IPIECA OSWG over the last 20 years and attempt to illustrate and measure the impact of its work on global oil spill preparedness.

We then hypothesize as to how the work of the IPIECA OSWG might develop over the next 20 years, which could serve as future strategic/planning guidance.
CLEAN NIGERIA ASSOCIATES LIMITED: DEVELOPMENT, CHALLENGES AND FUTURE OF AN AFRICAN OIL SPILL CO-OPERATIVE
Authors: Nnubia Chibuzor
Published: January 2013

Clean Nigeria Associates Limited (CNA) was established in 1981 by oil companies operating in Nigeria as a non-profit second tier oil spill response organization. The primary objective was to provide a pool resource of oil spill response equipment, fast and effective second tier oil spill response capabilities, and expertise to aid members of the association in combating oil spills as a back up to any such capability kept by individual members.

CNA Oil Spill Response equipment and materials are currently stocked in Nigeria in two main bases (Onne and Warri) and two satellite bases (Kaduna and Eket) in Nigeria. The main bases became effectively active in 1985 when most of the equipments were purchased for CNA by Halliburton Nigeria Limited who was then the procurement and operating contractor.

The CNA stockpiles seven general types of oil spill response equipment/materials as follows:1. Fast Response Vessels and Flat Bottom Boats2. Offshore and inland Containment Booms3. Skimmers and Pumps4. Dispersant Spraying System5. Sorbents6. Vehicles7. Communication Equipment

Currently, CNA has three outsourced contracts - operations, warehousing and vehicle leasing. Also, upgrade activities are in progress to position CNA to play its role as enshrined in the newly established Nigerian National Oil Spill Contingency Plan.

This paper describes the history, development, challenges and future of CNA the first oil spill co-operative in Africa and its role in the rapidly changing Nigerian energy scene. It will also examine the method in which it functions as well as oil spills to which it has responded.
WHERE RESPONSE MEETS NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT (NRDA)
Authors: Lehto Jason
Published: January 2013

During oil spill incidents, NRDA and response activities may co-occur. This paper discusses those occurrences, focusing on ephemeral data collection and emergency restoration. Current laws provide some guidance for how these activities may be coordinated. The Field Operations Guide (FOG) and the National Contingency Plan (NCP) state that it is the responsibility of the Incident Commander (IC) to notify natural resource trustees of the incident and to coordinate NRDA representative's activities through the Liaison Officer. The FOG and NCP also state that it is the responsibility of the trustees to conduct their NRDA preassessment activities without hindering the response. The overlap between NRDA and response may be further complicated because many trustees may work within the environmental unit or the wildlife recovery unit for the response and also have the responsibility to work on NRDA. They may work in the Incident Command System advising the IC on response issues while also trying to initiate a damage assessment.

Data collection during a response is critical for managing the incident as well as performing a thorough damage assessment. Although the types of data collected to aid the response may be similar to those used in damage assessment, often the scale and level of detail may be quite different. Even with these differences, synergies in ephemeral data collection may exist.

Emergency restoration activities do sometimes occur before the response has concluded. The Oil Pollution Act regulations state that emergency restoration may occur if the action is needed to avoid the loss of natural resources, or to prevent any continuing danger to natural resources. If the trustees determine that emergency restoration is needed, they are required to consult with the IC prior to taking any such action. As an example, this paper will discuss emergency restoration actions undertaken during the Whatcom creek, WA gasoline spill to reduce the impact to migrating salmon.
DISCOUNTING, RISK, AND UNCERTAINTY IN NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENTS
Authors: Hampton Steve , Zafonte Matthew
Published: January 2013

Restoration-based scaling methods, such as Habitat or Resource Equivalency Analysis (HEA or REA), quantify lost resource services from an injury and gained resource services from a restoration project into the future. In many cases, the injury and/or the restoration project are projected to last several decades or even into perpetuity. Following economic theory and federal guidelines, resources provided (or lost) in the future are discounted at some specified rate, usually 3%. This paper reviews the role and significance of discounting in restoration scaling. We review time preference, inter generational concerns, risk, and uncertainty as rationales for discounting, and examine various discounting formulations (e.g. constant and hyperbolic). We present several quantitative examples in a restoration-scaling context regarding different discounting approaches. We conclude that, while the specification of the discount rate can have a large effect on restoration scaling calculations with long time horizons, incorporation of risk and uncertainty of restoration project benefits over time can overwhelm the effect of alternative specifications of time preference.
THE M/V SELENDANG AYUOIL SPILL SUBSISTENCE SEAFOOD SAMPLING PROGRAM AND PUBLIC HEALTH EVALUATION PROCESS
Authors: Mauseth Gary S. , Svarny-Livingston Sharon , Arnold Scott M. , Erickson Gerald M.
Published: January 2013

On December 8, 2004, the M/V Selendang AYU, a bulk freighter, ran aground on the western shoreline of Unalaska Island, Alaska, spilling an estimated 339,538 gallons of intermediate fuel oil and 14,680 gallons of marine diesel. A primary concern arising from this incident was the potential contamination of traditional subsistence seafood resources consumed by tribal members and others on Unalaska Island. The process of addressing this concern consisted of the following components: 1) formation of a subsistence seafood ‘core’ or management team that included representatives of the local tribe, native corporation, federal and state agencies, and the responsible party; 2) formation of an advisory team representing technical specialists from non-governmental organizations (NGOs), academia, and subsistence users; 3) identification of important subsistence seafood resources, including intertidal mussels, sea urchins, chitons, salmon, cod and sea lions; 4) a consumption survey of major subsistence seafood users from Unalaska Island; 5) the collection of 56 samples in 2005 and 9 in 2006 by teams that included representatives of the core and advisory teams; 6) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) analysis and organoleptic and paralytic shellfish poison (PSP) testing of the collected samples; 7) a risk-based public health evaluation of the analytical results of collected samples by the State of Alaska Division of Public Health; and 8) communication of the results to the public.

In the core spill area (Skan and Makushin Bays), only one subsistence sample contained PAHs exceeding risk-based screening criteria. This was a mussel sample collected in April 2005 prior to clean-up actions. No samples collected in 2006 exceeded public health screening criteria. In the main subsistence area (Unalaska Bay), only one chiton sample collected in June 2005 exceeded risk-based public health screening criteria. However, it was determined that the elevated PAH concentrations were not derived from the Selendang AYU. Subsequent samples collected from the same location could not confirm elevated PAHs. Overall, PAHs were not present at levels of health concern, but two samples contained

PSP toxin above regulatory guidelines. Due to PSP concerns, the State of Alaska has an on-going advisory against the consumption of locally harvested shellfish that pre-dates the spill.
MANAGING MULTIPLE OIL SPILLS FROM A NATURAL DISASTER: THE KATRINA OIL SPILL RESPONSES
Authors: Cantin Ronald , Laferriere Roger , Hewett Larry , Henry Charlie
Published: January 2013

Every nation faces the possibility of a major natural disaster and few plans are in place to deal with the massive consequences that follow. When Hurricane Katrina reached landfall, the human toll and extent of damage made it the worst natural disaster in American history. The news headlines were filled with the images of desperation and the efforts of the thousands of heroes across the spectrum of government who worked tirelessly to help the citizens of the Gulf Coast of the United States recover. Less visible to the American public was the vast environmental impact caused by millions of gallons of oil released by hundreds of individual oil spills. The total oil volume lost to the environment is estimated at over 8.2 million gallons, making it the second largest oil spill in United States history. Moreover, this spill was the first major environmental disaster managed under the newly published National Response Plan, a plan developed following the tragic events of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. This paper will describe how response managers overcame the incredible challenges of managing multiple oil spills in an enormous area devoid of the support infrastructure, human resources and the logistics network normally present in major spills within the United States. The authors will offer a first hand account of the strategies employed by the response management system assembled to combat the spills. They will describe key lessons learned in overcoming competition for critical resources; the importance of combining scientific, legal and other support in determining response options such as burning and debris removal; and the methodology employed in creating a Unified Area Command that included multiple responsible parties. Finally, this paper will provide insights to processes within the Joint Field Office, an element of the National Response Plan, and how well it performed in supporting response efforts.
USE OF VERTICAL DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY AT THE BAYOU PEROT, LA SPILL FOR OIL MAPPING AND VOLUME ESTIMATION
Authors: Locke Chris , White Mark , Michel Jacqueline , Henry Charlie , Sellars Jon D. , Aslaksen Micheal L.
Published: January 2013

The January 2007 release of over 8,000 barrels of a condensate crude oil from a damaged well in Bayou Perot, Louisiana resulted in intermittent oiling of remote mud flats and salt marshes over a 30 square mile area. NOAA'S National Geodetic Survey collected aerial vertical digital photography 17 days after the spill to assist in locating and quantifying areas of oiling. The effective pixel size was 34 centimeters, however, the data were processed to 40 centimeter resolution. Useful products were posted to the web within two days after acquisition. Standard supervised and unsupervised image processing techniques were used in conjunction with oblique photography and field knowledge to define the oiling signatures. Time constraints required that the classification be conducted on mosaiced, non-color balanced images (ideally each image would be classified independently to account for differences in illumination and/or processing). However, the strong visible signature of the oiled areas and ground-truth data from field surveys resulted in high confidence levels for several oil types which in turn were used to enhance the identification of the remaining classes. Five oil types were identified: Black (218,000 ft2), Red (81,000 ft2), Orange (154,000 ft2), Yellow (38,000 ft2), and Light Yellow (349,000 ft2) corresponding to the color and attributes of the oil. The total conservative estimate of oiled area was 840,000 ft2 or nearly 20 acres. Based on estimated thicknesses of the different oils, the total volume of oil present at the time of imagery acquisition was 3,330 barrels. This value was close to the actual amount of oil recovered over the time period between the date of imagery acquisition and the end of cleanup.
CASE STUDY - OIL SPILL IN THE NIGERIAN DELTA REGION
Authors: Smith Matt
Published: January 2013

On 17th March 2006 an Improvised Explosive Device damaged a manifold on a pipeline, resulting in a release of Brass River crude into the Brass River itself. As soon as the spill was noticed the pipeline was shut down and the resultant release was contained by a series of booms, although an undefined amount escaped into the river.

Over flights revealed a large volume of black oil from a position north of the manifold down to the mouth of the river. This was located to the eastern shoreline, with a sheen extending though out the river and extending approximately 6 kilometres offshore. It was estimated that a volume of 8000 to 9000 barrels of oil could have spilt into the river.

The objectives for the personnel attending were to;Determine the fate of the oilDetermine the environmental impacts of the oil on the topography of the areaDetermine near shore and shoreline impacted areasGive technical advice to optimise time and resources for maximum oil recovery

The area around the Brass River is mainly mangrove swamps and tree forests with several local communities situated adjacent to areas of sandy beach. The paper discusses the review and choice of appropriate spill management strategies; namely: mechanical recoveries, monitor & evaluate, contain & collect. It will also look in to the initial estimation and quantification of the spill as well as tracking the recorded volumes of oil throughout the duration of the spill. It concludes that the use of booms to contain the oil and then use a recovery device to recover the oil was the correct course of action to take with any black oil that escaped requiring manual clean-up either in the river or on the beach areas.

The paper discusses the effectiveness of the interface with the local Tier 2 contractor, the client and the local authorities and also reviews the security measures that were in place for expatriate personnel, especially when outside guarded facilities.
BUILDING PREPAREDNESS IN ASIA: A PARTNERSHIP APPROACH
Authors: Peng Daniel Chan Kok
Published: January 2013

The International Maritime Organization'S (IMO) “International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation, 1990” (OPRC 90) has been in force for more than 12 years now. IMO has been instrumental in setting up and providing both technical support and funding for various regional arrangements that provide the platform to achieve the objectives laid out by the Convention, both at the regional and national level. These efforts were sometimes carried out through the IMO/International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA) Global Initiative (GI) Programme with strong support from national government and industry.

Generally across Asia, national governments have to take preparedness to the provincial government level where the operational issues and challenges lie, often beyond the remit of existing technical support and funding from external organisations. The task of developing an integrated preparedness and response solution often involves inter-agency cooperation both at the national and local government level that may have competing priorities that outstrips available resources.

A possible solution to this is through “Partnerships” among stakeholders, as the new paradigm that seeks to involve relevant stakeholders at the local provincial level where most of the practical challenges are. In East Asia Seas region, PEMSEA NETWORK OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS FOR SUSTAINABLE COASTAL DEVELOPMENT (PNLG) formed on 13 December 2006 recognises that oil spill preparedness and response is an integral part of the sustainable coastal development. This provides a platform for such “Partnerships” that integrate the different elements of preparedness between local government and industry at the provincial level.

Oil Spill Response and East Asia Response Ltd (OSRL/EARL) is a ‘not for profit’ Tier 3 response organisation with a regional base in Singapore for the Asia Pacific Region. Recognising the importance and issues surrounding oil spill preparedness and response we had been proactively involved in the region for the past six years through our advocacy activities that seek to address these challenges with the support of the oil industry. OSRL/EARL on 16 December 2006 joined the East Asian Seas (EAS) Partnership Council as a member to provide the technical support and operational expertise to enhance oil spill preparedness in high risk areas in the region.
PREPARING FOR FIRST OIL
Authors: Miles Chris
Published: January 2013

In this paper the author draws from experience gained at the new ENL (ExxonNefigas) Export Terminal at DeKastri in the Russian Federation.

The Terminal received first oil in late September 2006, to export through 5 new build tankers loading at the new Single Point Mooring facility. The oil is produced to the east of Sakhalin, and is pumped via the Chaivo Terminal across Sakhalin Island and the Tartar Straights to mainland Russia. Once ashore the pipe route turns south to DeKastri, a total run of approximately 230 kilometres.

The main task set was to prepare for and conduct a Tier 1 Drill for Offshore and Shoreline Response, so as to demonstrate to the Russian Authorities the ENL capability and level of readiness. There was a large amount of equipment to be commissioned, stored in a dedicated Oil Spill Response (OSR) warehouse within the terminal. Equipment is also located on 2 dedicated vessels used for mooring and icebreaking duties.

The response team to be trained were all Russian Nationals, many of whom had already attended nationally accredited courses but lacked practical experience. For this reason the priority for training was to assess the most likely scenarios along pipelines, the terminal and the SPM, and to conduct a series of exercises building up to weekly Drills that encompassed all aspects of a real mobilisation. The acting team lead had to supervise briefings, select appropriate equipment, and identify logistics and safety and welfare arrangements. At the operational location the seasonal variation of the weather is a huge factor, so it was vital to run exercises to cover all eventualities both onshore and offshore.

As well as the preparation of the team and equipment response procedures had to be examined and modified, introducing a system to ensure complete readiness of all the factors that contribute to an effective Tier 1 response.

The paper will explore the process of preparing for first and identify issues faced along the way.
TRENDS IN PIPELINE LEAK DETECTION SYSTEMS USING SONIC TECHNOLOGY
Authors: Prezzi Jairo A.
Published: January 2013

Acoustic sensing is a relatively well known method for detecting leaks, particularly in transport pipelines. This methodology is based on the rarefaction phenomenon which occurs around the leak spot as a result of a sudden rupture of the pipe wall. The physical forces involved in the phenomenon generate a pressure disturbance that propagates through the fluid, upstream and downstream the pipe. The key feature behind acoustic technology, when applied to LDS, is the systems capability to monitor pressure disturbances and accurately recognize and pinpoint characteristic “leak waveforms” superimposed on the background noise. This is usually achieved by a combination of mechanical, hardware and software filtering techniques. Although real applications have demonstrated the effectiveness of acoustic technology over a quite broad range of scenarios, it has experienced few innovations along the past years. The relative technological stagnation and the experience achieved in several LDS installations in Brazil, encouraged Aselco, a Brazilian company focused on LDS applications, to invest in developing new strategies around the classical acoustic concept. The R&D project started in early 2006 jointly with NETeF, Thermal and Fluids Engineering Centre, at University of São Paulo at São Carlos. A 1. 2Km pipeline was built at NETeF'S lab in order to simulate leaks under mono or multiphase flow conditions. Among the project goals was the development of a new generation of systems dedicated to leak detection encompassing more elaborated algorithms to identify leak acoustic signatures. The core R&D is still centered on the acoustic concept, but under a different approach such as DSP-Digital Signal Processing, pattern recognition through neural network analysis. Another line of development is toward multivariate systems, which bring together both acoustic and hydraulic modeling algorithms running on the same platform. The experimental data obtained, proposed system architecture and characteristics are hereby discussed. Also, the prospective aspects and application of the new technology are objects of analysis.
INCIDENT MANAGEMENT TEAM TRAINING AND EXERCISES: DEVELOPING THE TEAM
Authors: Hall Christopher J.
Published: January 2013

Developing and training an Incident Management Team (IMT) is a critical requirement for companies involved in oil exploration, production, and transportation. Companies beginning operations in new areas face high expectations from the local regulatory community and may find it challenging to meet these goals. Training programs for IMT personnel that consist of reviewing regulations, forms, and position descriptions fall far short of preparing the IMT to effectively manage an incident. A more useful approach to IMT training begins in the classroom and quickly migrates to tabletop and “walk-through” training workshops. Walk-through training captures the pace of a drill without the participants feeling any pass / fail pressure. Designing courses in this format requires careful planning and preparation. Instructor staffing must be sufficient to monitor events and ensure training objectives are being met.

Involving the regulatory agencies in training builds familiarization and enhances a coordinated response team. Company team members will find the regulatory community eager to participate in walk-through training. This team-building pays big dividends during exercises and actual events. Coordinating IMT training with Spill Response Team (SRT) training promotes communication and strengthens the overall understanding of operational limitations. Using the IMT for non-spill events, such as earthquake or mass casualty incidents, further broadens their understanding of other applications of the Incident Command System (ICS). Members gain an opportunity to fill different roles in their response organization and learn more about the team'S capabilities.

This paper highlights the concepts of scenario-based Incident Management Team training and provides examples and suggestions for course material, length, and frequency. Examples involving non-spill incidents are also presented.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME OFFICE OF SPILL PREVENTION AND RESPONSE CONVERGENT VOLUNTEER PROGRAM
Authors: Murphy Cynthia K.
Published: January 2013

The California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG), Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR) have the authority to use Convergent Volunteers during a spill event to assist with rehabilitating oiled wildlife. The Convergent Volunteer Program was created to allow concerned citizens to help save wildlife injured by oil spill events in our state. Volunteers’ interests, talents, and skills are matched with wildlife needs and work opportunities at the primary care facility responding to the spill. Previous experience with wildlife, while helpful, is not required to volunteer. Volunteers in the OSPR program are people from all walks of life, who want to be good stewards of California and our wildlife. Our volunteers are individuals who come forward to help assist with rehabbing oiled wildlife after learning of an oil spill from the media or other sources. They are average citizens willing to share their wealth of knowledge and learn how to rehabilitate wildlife that have been injured by spilled oil. Some volunteers work full time, some a few hours a week or month, or during a particular season or spill event. Volunteers perform a wide variety of tasks, such as; animal intake, animal food preparation, animal stabilization, animal washing, volunteer operations center, construction or electrical work (building pens, etc.) clerical and administrative tasks, and laundry. At the OSPR, we strive to ensure that all wildlife exposed to petroleum products in the environment receive the best achievable treatment available. Ultimately, we succeed because of the vigorous efforts of our dedicated oil spill volunteers.
CONTRACTOR SAFETY IN SPILL RESPONSE1
Authors: Qiuhui Quek , Toh Zerlina
Published: January 2013

Oil spills are fortunately not a daily event. However, when they do occur, many people are emotionally stirred into wanting to contribute to the clean up. These volunteers (e.g. Nakohdka, Erika, Prestige spills) and contractors come from a myriad of backgrounds and skills. They want to be assigned meaningful roles so they can feel ‘useful’. The additional risks imposed on the overall management of the spill response must be carefully assessed and managed. All responders will inevitably be exposed to health and safety issues in the response.

It is important to advocate health and safety during peace time to eliminate the exposure of the responders and contractors to potential hazards during an actual response. The challenge is to identify appropriate training standards that will ensure the competence of contractors’ knowledge and awareness of safety protocols during a response. Properly trained contractors are an invaluable asset during a spill response where they are effectively integrated into the overall response structure.

Trained contractors in Singapore have been tested in real time exercises and were incorporated successfully in actual spill responses. During spill response, contractors have safely participated in the response and clean-up activities. It has been demonstrated that contractors who have undergone training have a higher level of safety awareness as compared to those that have not undergone training.

This paper will discuss generally our training for contractors during peace time and specifically the health and safety modules, personal protective equipment (PPE) usage, safe handling of oil spill equipment / chemical dispersants and expectations of an individual in a spill. The paper will also briefly discuss the assignment of ‘volunteers’ during a spill response on how their skills can be best deployed and utilized with keeping health and safety risks as low as possible.
QUANTIFYING PERCENT COVER OF SUBMERGED OIL USING UNDERWATER VIDEO IMAGERY
Authors: Pfeifer Chris , Brzozowski Erik , Markarian Ralph , Redman Ramsey
Published: January 2013

On November 11, 2005, the double-hulled tank barge (TIB) DBL 152 struck the submerged remains of a drilling platform that collapsed during Hurricane Rita in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. The allision and eventual capsize of the barge caused the release of approximately 1.9 million gallons of low-API gravity slurry oil, which sank to the seafloor. Throughout the response, information on the concentration of submerged oil (volume per unit area) was sought to prioritize cleanup of multiple sunken oil patches. Numerous methods were employed to detect and assess submerged oil including, among others, divers to measure oil thickness and chain-weighted sorbent drags to delineate patch size. However, none of the techniques used were able to quantify the percent cover of oil, which emerged as a critical parameter for estimating oil concentrations.

This paper presents the methodology for quantifying percent cover of submerged oil used during the long-term monitoring phase of this incident. Orthographic (downward-looking) images of the seafloor were obtained using an underwater drop camera. Full-motion video was digitally recorded using a laptop computer and video capture hardware. Imagery was georeferenced by overlaying GPS coordinates onto the streaming video using a video annotator. Still images were extracted from the video using frame-grabbing software during post-processing. Percent cover of oil was then manually determined for each image using two different methods: ocular estimation and point counts. Seafloor imagery was acquired at discrete sample points along drift transects, and when visibility allowed, continuously between sample points.

Percent cover data obtained using these techniques, combined with oil thickness measurements and patch size information obtained using other methods, was used to estimate the volume of oil present within a discrete patch of submerged oil discovered in September 2006. Successful application of this technique demonstrated its viability as a cost-effective means of obtaining quantitative information about percent cover of submerged oil. Moreover, this relatively low-tech system was comprised primarily of off-the-shelf components that can be readily sourced, assembled and mobilized to a submerged oil spill response area.
EXPLORING A METHODOLOGY TO ASSESS COUNTRIES' PREPAREDNESS PRACTICES - OUTCOMES FROM A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE EUROPEAN AND NORTH AMERICAN APPROACHES
Authors: Veiga Marlene Calderón
Published: January 2013

Background: Little research has been conducted with the aim to identify and compare countries’ best practices to fund preparedness and assess their ability to respond effectively to catastrophic spills. The authors believe that important lessons can be learned from this analysis.

Aims: To undertake a comparison of the North American and European approaches to deal with oil spills for building a methodology which identifies best practices and assesses their level of preparedness.

Methods’. Examination through case study analysis of contingency plans, legislation and past response to selected spills in countries with two different financing approaches: (a) the government-potential polluter approach and (b) government-only approach. The soft system methodology and capability maturity model are applied to ranking countries’ practices into levels of performance.

Results: A general methodology which identifies three parameters to assess preparedness systems:Oil pollution legislation,Contingency planning practices, andResponse performance in past selected spills

Each parameter establishes a set of best practices (indicators) which can be used to analyse and evaluate the countries’ systems in a qualitative manner.

Limitations: Ranking of countries is not presented here. This should be undertaken in consultation with responders in order to reduce the authors’ subjectivity. Nonetheless, certain conclusions regarding preparedness systems in Europe may be drawn based upon the authors’ examination of the above parameters.

Practical implications: The methodology provides a quick overview of the elements of preparedness which require more attention or where further steps should be taken to improve them. It backs current efforts for a wide harmonization of standards in oil pollution response.

Conclusions: The development of best practices is better achieved in countries which are implementing: (i) risk based legislation and (ii) policies promoting the participation of the oil and shipping industries, either by means of expertise assistance and/or providing sustainable means of financing preparedness measures.

Key words: “assessing preparedness,” “oil spills,” “maritime policy,” “contingency planning,” “potential polluter pays”.
LONG-TERM MONITORING OF SUBMERGED OIL IN THE GULF OF MEXICO FOLLOWING THE T/B DBL 152 INCIDENT
Authors: Pfeifer Chris , Brzozowski Erik , Markarian Ralph , Redman Ramsey
Published: January 2013

In November 2005, approximately 1.9 million gallons of Group V slurry oil was released in the western Gulf of Mexico following the allision of the double-hulled tank barge DBL 152 with the submerged remains of a pipeline service platform that collapsed during Hurricane Rita. The released oil was denser than seawater and sank to the bottom.

After approximately six weeks of intermittent cleanup using diver-direct pumping, submerged oil recovery operations were suspended by the Unified Command based on the high percentage (50%) of weather-related downtime, as well as indications that recoverable accumulations of oil were dispersing naturally, which further reduced the feasibility of cleanup. However, the responsible party was required to develop and implement a long-term monitoring program (LTMP) to track the fate and transport of the sunken oil and determine the potential need for resuming oil recovery operations once more favorable weather patterns returned in the spring.

This paper will present an overview of the approach, methods and results of the long-term monitoring efforts performed over a 14-month period following the incident. Major objectives of the LTMP included tracking the movement and fate of non-recovered submerged oil to assess its extent and continued dispersion; providing advance warning of potential impacts to Gulf Coast shorelines and other sensitive areas; and documenting changes in the oil'S chemical composition and physical properties through time due to weathering processes. Major findings of the LTMP include the dissipation of the main submerged oil field over the course of several months and the discovery, differential behavior and eventual dissipation of a discrete high-concentration oil patch found several miles from the incident location.

The importance of long-term monitoring data in the decision-making process to determine both the need for and feasibility of resuming submerged oil recovery operations will be emphasized. Information on the fate and transport characteristics of submerged oil and the adaptation of monitoring techniques to address evolving needs will also be addressed. Both the incident-specific information and the practical lessons-learned are intended to benefit those who may be faced with monitoring submerged oil spills in the future.
HOW A LOCAL NGO SUCCEEDED IN CLEANING UP THE LEBANON OIL SPILL, 2006
Authors: Elsarji Mohamed
Published: January 2013

The oil spill in Lebanon in August 2006 resulted in 15000 tons of heavy fuel oil covering more than 160 kilometers of beaches and sea floor of Lebanon. Bahr Loubnan is a Lebanese NGO who volunteered to undertake the clean-up work as a gift to the Lebanese people. Bahr Loubnan experts made a full assessment of the situation; divers explored the sea floor and located all patches of fuel that sank, as another team toured and assessed every affected beach. As a result, a detailed plan was prepared and submitted to the Lebanese government who gave its approval on Sept. 7th 2006. The clean-up crew cleaned any sunken oil found on the bottom of the sea and on two thirds of the affected beaches. The cost of the whole operation, including the cost of all needed equipment, protective gear, storage tanks, transportation and food, was less than half a million dollars. Local people who were hired to work in the clean-up operations were treated as partners in the project and not as “Laborers”. Fifty professional divers were assigned the job of cleaning the oil found on the sea floor. Sandy and pebbles beaches were cleaned by surf washing, which proved very successful. Powerful “Cachiers” pumping water at a pressure of 1450 bars were used to clean the oil off rocky beaches. The operation was a success. It would be impossible for anyone to distinguish between beaches that were polluted and those who were not.