bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Nasalization: an overview of the notion and research
Authors: Butkauskaitė Edita
Published: March 2021

Nasalization, treated both from a phonetic and phonological point of view, has a rather long history of research. It was first described in reference to nasal sounds in the 5th century BC. Nowadays it is mostly treated in the context of abundant experimental research into nasal and nasalized sounds and is based on radiographic, electrographic, nasographic, fiberoscopic and aerodynamic data.In traditional phonetic studies a nasalized segment is understood as a sound whose production involves a flow of air through the mouth and nose; nasalization is defined as the production of a sound when the velum is lowered so that some air passes through the nose.Linguistic studies of Lithuanian and other researchers have identified three types of nasalization: nasal vowels, nasalized vowels and nasal consonants. Only about one fourth of world languages have nasal vowels in their inventory and they are treated as individual phonemes. French is one of the few examples of such languages. In linguistic studies such nasalization is also called contrastive. In languages which have no nasal vowels, nasalization occurs next to or between the nasal consonants [m] and [n]. The type of nasalization is referred to as contextual nasalization; their respective sounds are called nasalized vowels. The notion of nasalization also includes nasal consonants, whose production also involves the air escaping through the mouth and nose.Nasalization has been extensively discussed in the studies on phonetics and phonology produced by foreign researchers, especially those investigating English and French. The studies include both theoretical papers and overviews of experimental research focusing on investigating both sound length and quality. In Lithuania investigation into nasalization has only just started.
On place adverbials ČIA end TEN in East Aukštaitian Utena subdialect
Authors: Judžentytė Gintarė
Published: March 2021

The article deals with one case of the usage of the adverbs of place čia and ten in East Aukštaitian Utena dialect (to be more precise, the dialect used at the boundary of North East Aukštaitian Vilnius and Utena). The aim of the article is to analyse the meanings of the adverbs of place čia and ten used in deictic situations on the basis of  Karl Bühler's theory of deixis. The analysis of dialectal texts has revealed that: 1. Apart from the main meanings of ‘in this place' and ‘in a further place', in this sub-dialect the adverbs of place čia and ten, when accompanied by gestures, acquire other meanings: depending on which side the speaker is pointing to, they may refer to the right and the left side. This conclusion is based on the following reasons: a) in direct deixis, adverbs of place referring to the right and the left side are not necessary since the speaker may show to the objects seen by the interlocutor using his/her hand; b) in the case of imaginary deixis the addresser projects the reality from his own perspective, therefore in this situation čia and ten, when accompanied by gestures, may also mean both the right and the left side; c) in the case of anaphora adverbs čia and ten function as substitutes and may also refer to a place in either the left or the right side. 2. When adverbs čia and ten acquire the meanings of ‘right' and ‘left', the correlation of distance between them disappears: from the perspective of origo, they both refer to a place further, to the right or to the left. 3. Adverbs of place meaning left or right (dešinėj, dešinėjè, dešinėn, iš dešinės, po dešine, po dešinei, kairėj, kairėjè, kairėn, iš kairės, po kaire, po kairei) should be treated as deictic, because: a) they are used synonymously together with adverbs of place čia and ten accompanied by a gesture; b) they are directly related to origo, i.e. refer to a place in either one or the other side. 4. The studies carried out lead to a conclusion that the adverbs of place under investigation are used under the same linguistic circumstances in the Lithuanian language in general.
A. Pupkis. Kazlų Rūdos šnektos žodynas 1–2
Authors: Bacevičiūtė Rima
Published: March 2021

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S. Ambrazas. Būdvardžių darybos raida
Authors: Villanueva Svensson Miguel
Published: March 2021

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Languages used in the Vilniškiai subdialect
Authors: Kardelis Vytautas
Published: March 2021

Based on the data collected during dialectological expeditions in 2009–2012 in the districts of Švenčionys, Ignalina and Utena, the article discusses the state of the languages used in the area under investigation. Since the expeditions were more of a pilot study type of research, the data provided in the article are preliminary and are indicative of possible guidelines for a further, comprehensive and thorough investigation.

With respect to the languages used, the whole region under investigation could be divided into the following areas:

Linguistically homogeneous or more or less homogeneous areas:

the area of dialectal language, marked by the usage of either the subdialect of Vilniškiai or Uteniškiai (the area of Labanoras–Ignalina–Salakas);

the areas of the variations of Slavic languages in which: a) Slavic language variations are dominant with minimal use of Lithuanian (area of Gaidė), b) there is some linguistic dynamics and change in linguistic attitudes (area of Bačkininkai).

Linguistically heterogeneous areas:

Slavic language variations are used together with partially non-dialectal Lithuanian, however, Slavic language variations dominate. These areas include the regions of Pabradė-Joniškis and Turmantas;

the dialect is used together with Slavic language variations, but the Lithuanian language is dominant (the dialect and partially non-dialectal language). This area encompasses Strūnaitis-Švenčionėliai, Didžiasalis, Neverėnai;

 the dialect, Slavic language variations and non-dialectal Lithuanian are used (Svirkos-Adutiškis area).

This division could be useful for prospective sociolinguists and especially valuable in the research of language contacts; in addition, it may facilitate researchers in their choice of methodology for studies of this kind.
On the use of the adverbs of place ČIA and TEN in the area of Pabradė-Joniškis
Authors: Judžentytė Gintarė
Published: March 2021

The article deals with one case of the meaning of the adverbs of place čia (‘here’) and ten (‘there’) in the area of Pabradė–Joniškis. The main goal of the article is to demonstrate that in deictic situations, the adverbs čia and ten acquire new meanings. The adverbs of place under consideration are analysed in four different deictic situations: in the case of direct deixis and in imaginary deixis, to be more precise, in its three types. The research has shown that the meanings of čia and ten in deictic situations change and this shift in meaning depends on the direction of the coordinate source (origo) that a subject/agent posits or identifies with.

The analysis of dialectal texts in the area of Pabradė–Joniškis has revealed that:

 1. Apart from their main meanings of ‘in this place’ and ‘in that place’, based the usage of language in the area under analysis, the adverbs of place čia and ten, when accompanied by a gesture in a deictic situation acquire new meanings. Depending on the direction that the speaker is pointing to, they can mean the right or the left side, whereas if the speaker points directly, these words can obtain the meaning of ‘straight’.

a) When the adverbs čia and ten acquire the meanings of ‘right’ and ‘left’, the correlation of distance between them disappears, i.e. with respect to origo they both refer to a place that is further, to the right or to the left.

b) When the adverbs čia and ten acquire the meaning of ‘straight’, the distance correlation between them also disappears, i.e. from the point of view of origo they both refer to a place that is straight.

2. The most outstanding is the first type of imaginary deixis in the usage of these adverbs:

a) Since the conceptual space is transferred to the space between the interlocutors and they both understand that space as being proximal, in this situation the deictic ten is not used at all, i.e. only cases of the deictic čia are used.

b) Only in the first case of imaginary deixis does the deictic čia acquire a very unconventional meaning of distance. When used together with a deictic gesture, apart from the meaning of ‘in this place (between us)’, it could also mean ‘this distance’.

3.The analysis carried out has demonstrated that in the language of Pabradė–Joniškis area the deictic čia and ten acquire the same meanings as in the East Aukštaitian Utena subdialect.
The relation between the codification and actual usage of the preposition VIRŠ
Authors: Vaičiakauskienė Sonata
Published: March 2021

The analysis of Lithuanian syntax phenomena shows that there are many inconsistencies in the actual usage of some cases and prepositions and the codified rules of grammar that apply to them.  This article concentrates on the actual usage of the Lithuanian preposition virš (‘above’) over the last decade. Thus the aim of the article is to discuss the relation between the codified rules of grammar and the current use of the preposition virš and to provide some guidelines in relation to the specification of its codified rules. The analysis of the usage of virš reveals that this preposition is used to refer to some excess in quantity, weight, time, distance, property or characteristic as well as to some overbalance, especially in periodical press. Such usage of the preposition virš is quite frequent both in spoken and written language. Currently, such usage of virš is considered by language standardisers as avoidable or even unacceptable in standard language. Such attitudes of linguists are based on the fact that the usage of virš in the sense of excess is a result of the influence of Slavic languages and dialects. The data of the analysis suggest that the usage of the preposition virš is becoming more common not only due to the above-mentioned reason but also because of the similarity or even overlap between the meanings of constructions used to refer to excess that are standardised and those that are considered to be avoidable. Systemic characteristics of the usage of the preposition virš show that its usage in the sense of excess is not necessarily in conflict with the standard language system. As a result, the pervasive use of the preposition virš in the sense of excess suggests that with regard to language users’ habits but not conflicting with language systematicity, linguists should consider the possibility of standardising the usage of virš in the sense of ‘excess’. Certainly, before anything can be put forward, more research on the usage of the preposition virš has to be carried out.
Multifunctionality of the mental verbs MANYTI ‘think’, SUPRASTI ‘understand’, ŽINOTI ‘know’: epistemicity and pragmaticalization
Authors: Liauksminienė Justina
Published: March 2021

The paper presents the results of the pilot study on the multifunctionality of the Lithuanian mental verbs manyti ‘think’, žinoti ‘know’ and suprasti ‘understand’. The study focuses on the first person singular present tense forms and imperative forms of the verbs and analyses their tendencies to function as markers of epistemicity or pragmatic markers in fiction. The data for the analysis have been taken from the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian Language (http://tekstynas.vdu.lt), namely the subcorpus of fiction. The analysis of the data reveals that out of the three Lithuanian mental verbs under consideration, the first person singular present tense form manau ‘I think’ is most frequently used as a marker of epistemicity. It expresses author’s judgement on the truth value of the proposition or source of information. It should be noted that individual imperative forms of the mental verbs have not fully lost their primary lexical meaning, yet they have been frequently found to function as pragmatic markers. The imperative forms of the verbs are used to establish and maintain a relationship with the interlocutor, introduce the opposite point of view, summarize the facts that were previously mentioned, boost or hedge the proposition. They exhibit such features as syntactic mobility, absence of the propositional meaning, and rise of pragmatic functions in discourse. Consequently, the forms under analysis may be comparable to sentence adverbs which modify the proposition rather than constitute a part of it.
Seven stages of Lithuanian dialectology
Authors: Kardelis Vytautas
Published: March 2021

This article is a continuation of ongoing debate on the development of Lithuanian dialectology, the issues of which were first addressed and published in 2015. One of the key ideas expressed by the specialists of dialectology was a proposal to start the development of an extensive model of interests of Lithuanian dialectology. The model could encompass a historical approach, i.e. issues of the development of Lithuanian dialects, essential features of that development as well as the most significant empirical and methodological transformations. The second approach would focus on the perspectives of Lithuanian dialectology which can be placed on the basis of the existing model of interests in Lithuanian dialectology and specific studies carried out in the field. This article proposes a perspective-based plan of research into dialectology and attempts to suggest a tool to implement that plan. The article begins with several introductory remarks about the author’s view towards the existing state of Lithuanian dialectology. It could be briefly described in the following way: traditional dialectology: neogrammarian atomism (exclusive of the theory of dialectology) → structural dialectology: →   phonology and natural morphology (inclusive of the theory of phonology and natural morphology but exclusive of the theory of structural dialectology) →  the new dialectology: (inclusive of the theory of dialectology: geolinguistics and sociolinguistics, the dynamic socio-cognitive view). The proposed perspective-based plan of research consists of seven stages, namely: typological, varieties (lects) and variants, dialectometry, sociolinguistics and language contacts, perceptive, salience, and empirical. The article does not seek to describe each of the stages in great detail or to review extensive research literature existing on the aspects discussed above. The main aim of this article is to identify and discuss some research trends which are relatively new in Western linguistics and to suggest their application in Lithuanian dialectology. Perhaps this could initiate a discussion among Lithuanian and, possibly, foreign dialectologists working with Lithuanian and Slavic languages with regard to theoretical and methodological issues pertaining to dialectology research. Arguably, the foundation of such a prospective discussion was laid in the work “Lithuanian Dialects of the Early 21st Century: A Geolinguistic and Sociolinguistic Study. Maps and their Commentaries”. Hopefully, this review article will also contribute to the prospective discussions and motivate young researchers of dialects to embark on dialectology research by applying new trends in Lithuanian dialectology.
Verbal nouns abstracts with the suffix -imas / -ymas in the catechism of M. Petkevičius (1598): the formation and translation
Authors: Smetonienė Anželika
Published: March 2021

The catechism of M. Petkevičius (1598) is the first book in Lithuanian language by Reformers in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the second book in Lithuanian language in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the first hymnal in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, however, there are only few studies of it. In this article verbal nouns abstracts, derivatives with suffix -imas / -ymas from verbs, are analysed. The aim is to determinate whether such abstract making type in the sixteenth century was most numerous, as is it today, and is some rare type of making such derivative abstracts recorded in the catechism of M. Petkevičius. Also, it was fond what Polish words were translated to Lithuanian language as verbal nouns abstracts. In order to achieve the aim, from the catechism of M. Petkevičius were elected all such abstracts: 220 different abstracts with suffix -imas / -ymas, that was used a total of 780 times. In conclusion it can be said that already in the catechism of M. Petkevičius derivatives from verbs with the suffix -imas / -ymas significantly prevails, although there are recorded a different pattern of verbal abstract derivatives (eg. mėgumas). Moreover, at the end of a sixteenth century the formation of verbal abstracts with suffix -imas / -ymas was established and little different from the formation of such abstracts in the current Lithuanian language. Also, there is some correlation between most numerous verbal noun formation type (-imas / -ymas derivatives) in the Lithuanian language and most numerous verbal noun formation type (-anie, -enie, -cie derivatives) in the Polish language: all Polish nomina actionis with suffixes -anie, -enie, -cie were translated to the Lithuanian language as verbal abstracts with suffix -imas / -ymas.
Lithuanian temporal adverbials: position in the system of temporal expressions and a review of semantic research
Authors: Makauskaitė Indrė
Published: March 2021

Expression of time is an important field in linguistic research. In Lithuanian linguistics, the study of time has focused first and foremost on tense and aspect systems. Therefore, Lithuanian language has developed a big diversity of means to encode time, e.g. noun cases (vasarą ‘in summer’) and noun phrases (liepos vakarą ‘in July evening’), prepositional phrases (po darbo ‘after work’), adverbs (netrukus ‘soon’), subordinate clauses (kai nustos lyti ‘when it stops raining’). All of them despite their different grammatical status are suggested to be called temporal adverbials. ‘Adverbial’ is a quite new notion in Lithuanian linguistics, it was first presented in the studies of stance adverbials but is also convenient in the field of linguistic expression of time. The purpose of the paper is to demonstrate the necessity of distinguishing a semantic-functional class of temporal adverbials in Lithuanian linguistics and to show their position in the system of means that encode time. The second part of the paper presents a few semantic models of the temporal adverbials made by foreign linguists and the semantic research of Lithuanian temporal means that should be regarded as temporal adverbials.
What does say these forms as VALGU or ŽINĖJAU, created by foreign speakers
Authors: Ramonaitė Jogilė Teresa
Published: March 2021

This paper focuses on Lithuanian L2 verb forms that do not exist in the target language. The data is drawn from the Lithuanian L2 corpus and includes spontaneous speech data by 17 speakers of different L1s and all three acquisition varieties (pre-basic, basic and post-basic). The non-existent verb forms make only a small part of the overall verb forms used, however, when distinguished from occasional mistakes, the forms that indicate grammatical development that are analysed show notable systematicity among different speakers. Five distinct and most frequent formants are analyzed in detail, namely -u, -a, -o, -(i)au, ė, that are used by several speakers with seemingly similar function. The analysis reveals specific functions and discusses different factors that have an effect on the acquisition of these formants. In many cases frequency is an important factor, however, with formants -u and -ė transparency and regularity seem to have a stronger effect and thus facilitate the acquisition. Formant -a, being nearly the most common and extremely multifunctional (i.e. rather unmarked), is incorporated into the system firstly as part of the base form and holds this position till a very advanced stage of Lithuanian L2 acquisition. Verb stem type also has an effect with the regularly suffixed verbs being acquired the easiest, while the mixed type and the primary ones cause many difficulties for the speakers. Overall, the systematicity discovered shows the creative structuring of the interlanguage that only occurs more actively in the post-basic variety of acquisition.
Bavarian geographer's Prissani and (Old) Prussians
Authors: Ardoino Diego
Published: March 2021

It is a widespread opinion in literature that the ethnonym Prussians is first encountered as the form Bruzi in a short Latin manuscript headed Descriptio civitatum et regionum ad septentrionalem plagam Danubii. Indeed among the 58 tribes listed in the Bavarian Geographer's Descriptio there is another ethnonym, Prissani, which formally could be compared with the (Old) Prussians. On the base of the context in which the ethnonym is attested, of a thorough philological and linguistic examination of it and of onomastic data, the paper states that a) Prissani were probably settled in Moravia or not far from it, namely next to the region in which the Bavarian Geographer located the Bruzi; b) it is likely that Bruzi ir Prissani are corradicals and show different Latin ethnonym-forming suffixes; c) Bruzi and Prissani indicate the same tribe or two different groups of the same tribe; d) Bruzi and Prissani in the early Middle Ages have moved to the north, along the Vistula, from Moravia and the region located between the Rhine and the Enns rivers to the Prussia; e) we cannot say whether Bruzi and Prissani were really Balts or not.
The necessitive impersonal REIK(Ė)TI ‘need’: the rise of modal meaning
Authors: Jasionytė-Mikučionienė Erika , Šinkūnienė Jolanta
Published: March 2021

The focus of the paper is on the frequency, distribution patterns and semantic profile of the necessitive impersonal reik(ė)ti ‘need’ in old and contemporary Lithuanian texts. The study employs corpus based quantitative and qualitative analysis to investigate the patterns of use of reik(ė)ti ‘need’ in the Database of Old Writings (16th-17th centuries) as well as the fiction sub-corpus of the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language and the humanities and biomedical sciences sub-corpora of the Corpus of Academic Lithuanian (CorALit). The study follows van der Auwera and Plungian’s (1998) modality framework. The quantitative analysis shows that the present tense form reikia ‘need.PRS.3’ is the dominating one across all the sub-corpora analysed. The results of the qualitative study indicate that the deontic sub-type of participant external modality is prevailing in the old Lithuanian texts as well as in the fiction sub-corpus and in the biomedical sciences texts of the contemporary Lithuanian. The discourse of the humanities displays a fairly frequent employment of reik(ė)ti ‘need’ for discourse organising functions alongside the deontic uses. Although the usage patterns of reik(ė)ti ‘need’ in the biomedical sciences and the humanities share certain common features, they also point to discipline specific trends of argumentation. It is also important to observe that the objective deontic reik(ė)ti ‘need’ seems to gradually acquire the features of subjective deontic modality over time, which corresponds to the typical subjectification cline (cf. Traugott 1989).
Zum Gebrauch von Mehrwortverbindungen in Abschlussarbeiten der Studierenden von geisteswissenschaftlichen und technischen Fächern
Authors: Volungevičienė Skaistė
Published: March 2021

An den meisten Hochschulen wird schon den BA-Studierenden beigebracht, wie man eine selbständige wissenschaftliche Untersuchung durchführt und beschreibt, obwohl BA-Abschlussarbeiten noch nicht als wissenschaftliche Arbeiten gelten. Ein Teil der Anforderungen, die an wissenschaftliche Arbeiten gestellt werden, sind allgemeingültig: In einer wissenschaftlichen Arbeit sollen das Ziel und die Aufgaben formuliert, die Methoden vorgestellt, die durchgeführte Analyse beschrieben und die Schlussfolgerungen gezogen werden. In verschiedenen Gesprächen und Diskussionen der Wissenschaftler ist aber zu hören: „Wir machen es doch anders!“. In diesem Beitrag wird eine Untersuchung vorgestellt, die sich zum Ziel gesetzt hat, die Hypothese zu überprüfen, ob in wissenschaftlichen Texten unterschiedlicher Wissenschaftszweige anders formuliert wird. Zur vorliegenden Analyse wurden die Abschlussarbeiten der Studierenden in geisteswissenschaftlichen und technischen Fächern herangezogen. Die Basis der Analyse bildet das Korpus der Studierendenarbeiten, das im Rahmen eines Projekts an der Universität Vilnius (Litauen) erstellt wurde. In diesem Beitrag werden nicht alle aufgefundenen Mehrwortverbindungen analysiert, sondern nur die mit den Lemata Autor, Arbeit, Objekt, Untersuchung, Ziel und Schlussfolgerungen. Die durchgeführte Untersuchung hat die Annahme bestätigt, dass die Vertreter unterschiedlicher Wissenschaften in ihren Texten unterschiedliche sprachliche Mittel gebrauchen und ihre Texte nach einer anderen Tradition verfassen.
A variant of a quasi-standard: attitudes of the young generation representing the Aukštaitian area
Authors: Kardelytė-Grinevičienė Daiva
Published: March 2021

he object of this paper is the variant of quasi-standard language, i.e. the variant of the perceived standard language formed by the young generation of the Aukštaitian area. The aims of the study are to examine whether the assessments made by respondents representing the Aukštaitian area suggest the presence of such a quasi-standard and, if they do, to provide the characterisation of this quasi-standard variant on the basis of the collected data. The data of the study consists of eight audio texts-stimuli which represent six Lithuanian regiolects (A and D represent Southern Aukštaitian; B and E represent Žemaitian, C represents Northwestern Aukštaitian, F represents the western part of Eastern Aukštaitian, G represents Southwestern Aukštaitian, while H represents the eastern part of East Aukštaitian) and the responses to two questions in the questionnaire designed according to the principles of perceptual dialectology which ask the respondents to rate the similarity of the audio text-stimulus to the standard language. The study demonstrated that the respondents perceived texts-stimuli B and E (representative of the Žemaitian dialect) as the least similar to the standard language. Texts-stimuli H (representative of the eastern part of East Aukštaitian regiolect), A and D (representative of East Aukštaitian regiolect), on the contrary, were seen as the closest to the standard language. Since the ratings of these texts-stimuli in the respondents’ assessment were substantially higher in comparison to the rest of the texts-stimuli, the results suggest the existence of a quasi-standard. The analysis of respondents’ motives of giving high scores to audio texts-stimuli A, D, and H demonstrates that the morphological and lexical characterisation of the quasi-standard of the young generation representing the Aukštaitian area is only fragmentary. The most prominent are phonetic features, namely: more open and more closed pronunciation of vowels i and u, shortening of unstressed long vowels o, u, and i, lengthening of the stressed short vowels u and i, correct accentuation and non-reduced endings. Based on the analysis carried out, it is possible to assume that the quasi-standard variety formed by the young generation representing the Aukštaitian area consists of some tertiary phonetic features of the eastern parts of East Aukštaitian and South Aukštaitian regiolectal zones, norms of standard language pronunciation, shortened verb forms typically characteristic of dialects and standard language and mixed lexis (containing that of standard language / dialects / borrowings).
The mental image of lightning in Lithuanian poetry
Authors: Kazlauskaitė Rūta
Published: March 2021

The aim of the present article is to compose and to evaluate the image of lightning that has been formed in Lithuanian poetry. The fragments of 148 poets’ 509 poems have been analysed. In the poetical worldview lightning is active. It is natural energy. It naturally manifests itself during the warm season and time of day (at evening, at night). Lightning usually acts as a living being (a human being, a reptile, less often as a bird or an ungulate), a plant or as a part of the body of a living being or a plant, an instrument of a living being. Less often lightning manifests itself as fire, water, earth. Lightning is compared and identified with the realities that are characterized by the following features: ‘glowing / bright / heated’, ‘sudden, short’, ‘formed in the heights, above’, ‘moving / moved’, ‘zigzag / twisting’, ‘increasing / branching out’, ‘powerful’, ‘piercing / sharp / hurting’.  The oppositional features ‘dull / extinguishing’, ‘slow, lingering’, ‘formed near the ground, below’, ‘calmed down / settled down’, ‘moving straight’, ‘vanishing, disintegrating’, ‘weak’, ‘streamlined’ show the approaching of lightning to a human being, its identification with a human being. Lightning in fact is defined by three features. The first one – the ability to strike: hit, cut, kick, scald, splash, etc. Lightning changes the current situation: injures or destroys, eliminates the object it points to (for example, cuts and cuts off, splits and splits up, stabs and pierces, burns and burns out). Thus the earth is cleaned up, renewed, refreshed. Lightings as instruments are ruled by the highest god of the Lithuanians, the ruler of nature Perkūnas, such mythical creatures as witch and devil, natural phenomena, the sky, the night, a human being (usually a young woman). The second feature – a specific manifestation or showing up of lightning. The electric current moving from above in zigzag or spiral (the metaphorical verbs bends, curls, twists, etc. are used) pulsates and increases (i.e. shines, flashes and grows, branches out, pours out). The third feature – the glowing and brightness of lightning. A special tone of light is shown by light, green, silver, fiery and similar epithets.  In the broad sense lightning is perceived as strength, life and illumination (the moment of change).
Foreign words in spoken Lithuanian language
Authors: Kamandulytė-Merfeldien Laura
Published: March 2021

The aim of this article is to redefine the phenomenon of borrowing on the basis of the Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian: to analyse the frequency and use of foreign words, to determine the proportion of new borrowings among foreign words, and to examine whether some of the foreign words may be treated as the instances of code switching or code mixing. The article attempts to make a distinction between new borrowings and other foreign words and discusses the phenomenon of code mixing in spoken language for the first time in Lithuanian; it also explains the terms of code switching and code mixing, which have not been discussed in Lithuanian linguistics. The results of the quantitative research have revealed that foreign words comprise only 0.33% of all words in spoken language. The largest proportion of these words is English words and phrases (93%), while lexemes or phrases from Russian, Latin, or Italian comprise only 7% of the words. The research has determined that new borrowings constitute 44% of all foreign words in the conversations under the present investigation, and code mixing has been employed in 56% of all instances. The research has demonstrated that code mixing is the most typical of spoken private speech, while the use of new borrowings is more frequent in more formal registers of spoken language, i.e. academic and media language.
Challenge for learners of Lithuanian as a second language: variation of pronouns
Authors: Ramonaitė Jogilė Teresa
Published: March 2021

The paper analyzes Lithuanian personal pronouns that are a challenge for learners of Lithuanian as a second language. The pronouns studied refer to ‘he’ and ‘she’ and correspond to jis and ji in the standard Lithuanian language as described in the Grammar of Modern Lithuanian and Dictionary of Modern Lithuanian and Lithuanian L2 textbooks. However, the repertoire of the spoken Lithuanian as demonstrated by the data of spoken corpora, consists of four pronouns: jis/jisai for masculine and ji/jinai for feminine. The analyses of the Lithuanian as a second language learners’ corpus shows that this variation of the natives’ speech is not really acquired by the second language learners and it does present a challenge in the more advanced stages of acquisition. If the beginning learners do not seem to notice this variation at all, some advanced speakers do incorporate the longer spoken variants into their speech but to extreme proportions and therefore overuse them when comparing to the native speakers. Also, at least one case shows the longer variants being not transparent enough to be acquired from the environment. This poses a variety of questions, also related to the necessity of studying the spoken variety of Lithuanian by the native speakers.
Expression of localization in the translations of Georg Wenker’s fourth sentence
Authors: Kardelytė-Grinevičienė Daiva
Published: March 2021

This study examines the variation of the means of expressing localisation in different translations of one German sentence into Lithuanian. The main instrument of the analysis is one of the forty German sentences created in the 19th century by Georg Wenker, the pioneer of linguistic geography. The choice of this sentence was determined by its distinctiveness as it features specific characteristics of the Landmark and the interrelations between complex spatial scenes realised in it. The Lithuanian translations of the original German sentence were obtained by means of an electronic questionnaire. The goals of the study are to examine the inventory of the means of expressing localisation with respect to the parameter of the translator’s dialect and to verify the proposition made in prior studies of the Lithuanian translations of Wenker’s data that the variation of the means of expressing localisation is determined by the complex spatial scenes realised in the original sentence. A general evaluation of the newly acquired data and its analysis seems to confirm the proposition that the complex spatial scenes realised in the original sentence play a key role in determining the variation of the means of expressing localisation in the Lithuanian translations of Wenker’s fourth sentence. A comparison of the data acquired for the present study with the material obtained by Wenker in the 19th century leads to a conclusion that the linguistic inventory utilised to express spatial relations in the Lithuanian translations is essentially the same, i.e. Lithuanian prefers prepositional constructions as the prototypical means of rendering spatial relations. However, the newly obtained material contains more cases which indicate the possible influence of the translator’s dialect in the choice of the means of expressing localisation (cf. the use of the illative case, specific lexemes, etc.). In addition, the data collected for the present study also exhibits a greater variability of the means of expressing localisation used to refer specific spatial scenes. This could have been determined by the factor of subjectivity, namely, by the tendency of the respondents of this study to interpret the original sentence with greater freedom in comparison to its interpretation by the participants of Wenker’s study.
Lithuanian spoken corpora and studies of first language acquisition: a view from outside
Authors: Riekhakaynen Elena
Published: March 2021

The paper provides an overview of Lithuanian spontaneous speech corpora and certain studies of the acquisition of Lithuanian as a first language. The author focuses mainly on those resources and papers that are published in English and thus can be used by non-Lithuanian speaking researchers as methodological and/or theoretical inspiration for further studies on different languages. Among the spoken corpora discussed in the paper are: the speech corpus Liepa, Sakytinės kalbos įrašų bazė, the Corpus of Spoken Lithuanian. The author pays special attention to the latter as it is closely connected to the development of the Lithuanian corpus of child and child-directed speech. The studies of the acquisition of Lithuanian as a first language are overviewed in the second part of the paper. The majority of studies on corpus data (including those conducted within international cross-linguistic projects) describe the acquisition of grammar by native speakers of Lithuanian. In the most recent research, there is a shift towards new aspects of first language acquisition (including phonology and morphophonology) and new methods (experiments becoming more and more popular).
Subdialects of the Kaunas environs in manuscript sources
Authors: Brazaitienė Laura
Published: March 2021

The goal of the article is to discuss the change of the subdialects of the surrounding area of Kaunas belonging to the territory of Kaunas district. The manuscripts of the second half of the 20th century and the printed texts of these subdialects and audio recordings served as research material.   The situation of subdialects in the Kaunas area is revealed by the analysis in different periods by the differentiating (the pronunciation of the consonant l, accented long and accented short vowels, stress retraction) and their characteristic (the pronunciation of unaccented inflexional vowels ė and o) dialectal features recorded in the manuscripts.It was found that the western part of the dialect area was more homogeneous in all classifications: the consonant lwas usually not hardened, cases of stress retraction were few, and the unaccented long vowels were seldom shortened. In the eastern part, the inhabitants of both speakers of the traditional Lithuanian subdialect and the local Polish language tended to retract the stress, shorten the unaccented long vowels, and prolong the accented short vowels. The influence of the local Polish language is thought to be explained by some other cases recorded in this part of the subdialect area.
They are kind of/sort of similar: a parallel corpus-based analysis of English KIND OF and SORT OF and their Lithuanian correspondences
Authors: Šolienė Audronė
Published: March 2021

The present paper reports on the English type nouns kind of and sort of and their Lithuanian correspondences in a contrastive perspective. This paper aims to describe the quantitative and qualitative distribution of the English kind of andsort of, to determine their translational correspondences in Lithuanian as well as to reveal how Lithuanian correspondences correlate with the functions (textual and interpersonal) that kind of and sort of perform in original and translated fiction texts. The research method is a quantitative and qualitative contrastive analysis based on data extracted from the self-compiled bidirectional corpus ParaCorpEN→LT→EN comprising fiction texts. The results show that kind of and sort of are prone to be used NP-internally; however, even in this construction they can feature as DMs. Kind of and sort of function as unambiguous DMs when they completely lose their nominality, i.e. are used NP-externally. The functional and semantic potential of the type nouns is fully reflected by their TCs. Very rarelykind of and sort of denoting a type are translated congruently into a Lithuanian type noun; they usually correspond to demonstrative pronouns. As discourse markers, kind of and sort of are realised by different Lithuanian correspondences which may help establish the common ground between the speaker and the hearer or refer to the previous context, may indicate epistemic imprecision, approximation or downtone a proposition. The high number of zero correspondence shows that the Lithuanian type nouns have not advanced on the grammaticalization path the way the English type nouns have and due to the multifunctionalilty, non-propositionality and context-dependence there is no one-to-one correspondence of the markers under scrutiny.
The expression and change of giving directives in the language of pre-school children
Authors: Ančlauskaitė Jolita
Published: March 2021

It is stated that children in their speech master directives at their earliest age and they use them the most frequently. However, it is currently unknown how these directives develop in the Lithuanian language and how their expression changes when a child grows up. This article investigates the change in the number and expression of directives during child’s raising, and what their differences emerge individually by comparing the speech of girls and boys. It is expected that the analysis conducted during the work will contribute to the studies of children’s pragmatic competence in Lithuania, i.e. to establish the most common characteristics typical to the directives used by children, by comparing the directives used by pre-school children at the beginning of the academic year and in its end in order to identify the differences and how children’s speech changes when more intensive formal education starts. The paper involves the gender dimension by expecting that differences in the language may be also envisaged between girls and boys. The object of this paper is directives used in spontaneous dialogues of pre-school children. The work material consists of 12 children’s dialogues, which have been transcribed and encoded morphologically by Software CHILDES (Child Language Data Exchange System). The following methods were applied during the work: 1) Cross-sectional (by sampling the subjects and gathering the work material); 2) Linguistic text corpora (by filing and analysing a child language text by Software CHILDES); 3) Comparative (by comparing: a) Data of the speech of girls and boys; b) Data of the speech of five-year-olds and six-year-olds). After summarising the results of this research, it might be stated that even pre-school children can use different forms of directive types. As it was expected, more difficult constructions and forms develop by experiencing more different situations, what is seen when the stages change (at the beginning and in the end of the study). The gender dimension highlighted in the study suggests that considerable differences were not identified, and most cases reported indicate more common charcteristics.
The aims of teaching mathematics: mathematical literacy vs mathematical reasoning
Authors: Norvaiša Rimas
Published: March 2021

We discuss different alternatives of the content of school mathematics. According to the prevalent public opinion in Lithuania school mathematics can be oriented either to the academic mathematics or to the applications of mathematics. In reality the second alternative means lowering of the level of teaching in the hope that school mathematics will be accessible to all students. While the content oriented to the academic school mathematics is accessible only to gifted students. In this article we describe a middle alternative content which we call school mathematics based on mathematical reasoning. We argue that such school mathematics serves all students and makes acquaintance with mathematical reasoning and with applications of mathematics to the real world. Reasoning makes mathematics reasonable for all.
Algebraic values of sines and cosines and their arguments
Authors: Mazėtis Edmundas , Melničenko Grigorijus
Published: March 2021

The article introduces the reader to some amazing properties of trigonometric functions. It turns out that if the values of the arguments of the functions sin x, cos x, tg x and ctg x, expressed in radians, are algebraic numbers, then the values of these functions are transcendental numbers. Hence, it follows that the values of all angles of the pseudo-Heronian triangle, including the values of all angles of the Pythagoras or Heron triangle, expressed in radians, are transcendental numbers. If the arguments of functions sin x and cos x, expressed in radians, are equal to x = r 2 \pi, where r are rational numbers, then the values of the functions are algebraic numbers. It should be noted that in this case the argument x = r 2\pi  is transcendental and, if expressed in degrees, becomes a rational.
Redefining the Standard for Atrial Fibrillation: A Patient-centric Report
Authors: Blomström Lundqvist Carina , Pürerfellner Helmut , White Alex , Schilling Richard
Published: March 2021

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Statistical Evaluation of Behavior and Population Dynamics Models Predicting Movement and Proportional Entrainment Loss of Adult Delta Smelt in the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
Authors: Korman Josh , Gross Edward , Grimaldo Lenny
Published: March 2021

There has been considerable debate about effects of entrainment of endangered Delta Smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus) at water export facilities located in the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta. In this paper we use a behavior-driven movement model (BMM) to simulate the movement of adult Delta Smelt, which, in conjunction with a population dynamics model, estimates the proportion of the population that is lost to entrainment, i.e., proportional entrainment loss (PEL). Parameters of the population model are estimated by maximum likelihood by comparing predictions to data from Fall Midwater Trawl (FMWT) and Spring Kodiak Trawl (SKT) surveys, as well as to daily salvage estimates. Our objectives are to evaluate different movement behavior hypotheses, to rank estimates of PEL based on how well predictions fit the data, and to sharpen our understanding of the data to inform future research and monitoring decisions.

We applied the modeling framework to data from water year 2002—a year when salvage was high—and tested 30 combinations of six behavior and five population dynamics models. More complex process and observation assumptions in the population model led to much improved fits in most cases, but did not appreciably influence PEL predictions, which were largely determined by movement predictions from the BMMs. Estimates of PEL varied considerably among behaviors (2% to 40%). The model with the highest predictive capability explained 98% of the variation in FMWT data across regions, 70% of the variation in SKT data across regions and surveys, and 28% and 43% of the daily variation in salvage at federal and state fish screening facilities, respectively. The PEL estimate from this model was 35%, more than double the original estimate from Kimmerer (2008) of 15%. While PEL estimates provided in this study should be considered preliminary, our framework for testing combined behavior-driven movement models and population dynamics models is an improvement compared to earlier efforts.