bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Health Related Fitness and Blood Pressure in Boys and Girls Ages 10 to 17 Years
Authors: Bazzano Carmelo , Cunningham Lee N. , Varrassi Giustino , Falconio Tony
Published: August 2016

The present study examined the relationships among the AAHPERD Physical Best health related physical fitness test (HRPFT) items to resting blood pressure in 80 boys and 84 girls from the Lanciano, Italy, school system. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was significantly associated with age for both sexes. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) for boys was found to be associated with fatness when age was held constant. To examine the relationship between blood pressure and the HRPFT, data were sorted into two groups of students passing or failing to meet the criterion-referenced standard (CRS) by 1-mile run performance and sum of skinfolds. SBP did not differ significantly between groups for either sex. Boys who failed to meet the CRS for 1-mile run performance showed a higher DBP of 4 mmHg when compared to boys who achieved the CRS. The group passing the aerobic fitness and body composition tests tended to perform better on all test items. With the possible exception of DBP for boys, it is concluded that performance on the Physical Best HRPFT is not associated with resting blood pressure in children and adolescents.
Feasibility and Costs of Monitoring Physical Activity in Young Children Using the Caltrac Accelerometer
Authors: Ellison R. Curtis , Freedson Patty S. , Zevallos Juan C. , White Mary Jo , Marmor Jaci K. , Garrahie Ellen J. , Moore Lynn L.
Published: August 2016

Monitoring of physical activity among 3- to 7-year-old children was achieved with an electronic motion sensor, the Caltrac accelerometer, for 1,666 days (of 2,030 scheduled) over a 2-year period. Failure of the monitor averaged once for each 45 days of successful monitoring. The total cost of devices, repairs, and batteries over the 2 years averaged $1.31 per day of successful monitoring. It is concluded that use of the Caltrac accelerometer is a feasible and relatively inexpensive approach for monitoring physical activity in young children in epidemiologic studies.
Caltrac Validity for Estimating Caloric Expenditure with Children
Authors: Bray Molly S. , Morrow James R. , Pivarnik James M. , Bricker John T.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the validity of the Caltrac accelerometer for estimating resting and exercise energy expenditure for children. Seventeen children 9 to 12 years of age participated in the study. Criterion values of energy expenditure were determined from measures of oxygen consumption (VO2) and respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and Caltrac estimates of energy expenditure were obtained concurrently for each experimental condition. Correlations were significant between Caltrac estimates and measured energy expenditure at rest (r = .53, p<.03) and at slow (r = .89, p<.001) and brisk (r = .85, p<.001) treadmill walking. The Caltrac overestimated caloric expenditure for rest (M = 7%; range = −8 to 36%) and also for both slow (M = 17%; range = −3 to 30%) and brisk (M = 25%; range = 5 to 46%) walking. However, because of the high validity coefficients during activity, and because of its practicality in field settings, the Caltrac may be useful in estimating daily resting and walking energy expenditure for groups of children.
Advances in Biomechanical Analysis of the Physically Challenged Child: Cerebral Palsy
Authors: Holt Kenneth G. , Jeng Suh Fang
Published: August 2016

This paper presents some of the ways we are attempting to understand why physically challenged children adopt the movement patterns they do. It focuses on the skill of walking and compares non-neurologically disabled persons with children with cerebral palsy. A multidisciplinary approach is advocated in which the tools of biomechanics, physiology, and dynamical systems theory are explored. Traditional biomechanics of children with cerebral palsy tend to be descriptive in nature. More recent methods include both traditional biomechanical and dynamical systems approaches to understand why physically challenged children adopt the gait patterns they do. The concept of self-optimization is introduced as a way to motivate the investigations. Mechanical energy conservation, minimal metabolic cost, normality, and stability are discussed as some of the potential optimality criteria. Optimality criteria measurement including several methods of analysis of stability are discussed, and preliminary results of findings in the three groups are reported.
Two Motor Control Approaches That May Help to Identify and Teach Children with Motor Impairments
Authors: Sveistrup Heidi , Burtner Patricia A. , Woollacott Marjorie H.
Published: August 2016

Children in physical education classes, special education classes, and rehabilitation programs have extremely varied abilities and deficits in motor tasks. Among the problems faced by the teachers, therapists, and other specialists is the identification of the underlying mechanisms that produce the problems observed in these children. In addition, teachers and others must design an appropriate intervention strategy. This paper discusses two approaches being used to study the underlying systems and computations that contribute to the control and regulation of movement. The systems approach focuses on the problems that children with specific pathologies have in regulating their balance and equilibrium. The computational or modular approach addresses the motor deficits observed in certain children in terms of three possible computational units: timing, force production, and motor sequencing. These approaches may provide additional techniques for identifying the pathology underlying the behavioral deficits of children with motor impairment. Also, with these tools it may be possible to design alternative programs that will address the causes as well as the effects of the deficits observed in certain groups of children.
Correlates to Performance on Field Tests of Muscular Strength
Authors: Woods Jeffrey A. , Pate Russell R. , Burgess Maria L.
Published: August 2016

Field tests of upper body muscular strength and endurance (UBMSE) are often administered to children, but little is known about the determinants of performance on these tests. Therefore the purpose of this investigation was to examine potential determinants of performance on several common field tests of UBMSE including pull-ups, flexed-arm hang, push-ups, and two types of modified pull-ups. Subjects were 56 girls and 38 boys, ages 9 to 11 years. Potential determinants assessed were age, height, weight, gender, % fat, physical activity, and laboratory measures of muscular strength and endurance. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the laboratory measures of UBMSE failed to account for significant fractions of variance in performance on four of the five tests. However, % fat was significantly associated with performance on four of five tests. These results indicate that factors other than muscular strength and endurance account for most of the variance in performance, and that % fat appears to be a particularly important determinant of performance.
Variations in Grasping and Throwing Patterns as a Function of Ball Size
Authors: Burton Allen W. , Greer Nancy L. , Wiese-Bjornstal Diane M.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effect of ball size on the movement patterns used by children and adults to grasp a ball and then to throw it as hard as possible. A total of 104 kindergarten, second-grade, fourth-grade, eighth-grade, and young adult males and females were asked to pick up six styrofoam balls of different diameters (from 4.8 to 29.5 cm) four times each as they were presented in random order, and then throw them as hard as possible at a wall 6.7 m away. Transitions from one- to two-hand grasps were made as ball diameters increased, with older subjects switching at significantly larger diameters than younger subjects (p<.0001); however, when ball size was scaled to hand size, older subjects switched at significantly smaller relative diameters than younger subjects (p<.Ol), indicating that hand size may be a critical factor in determining grasp form. Transitions from one- to two-hand throws were made by less than 25% of the subjects (mostly kindergartners and females), demonstrating a strong preference by older children and adults for throwing with one hand, even with ball diameters larger than a subject’s hand size.
A Preliminary Study of the 20-m Multistage Shuttle Run as a Predictor of Peak VO2 in Hong Kong Chinese Students
Authors: Barnett Anthony , Chan Lawrence Y.S. , Bruce Lain C.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present study was to determine the validity of the 20-meter multistage shuttle run (MSR) for predicting peak VO2 in Hong Kong Chinese students, ages 12–17 years. Fifty-five subjects, 27 boys and 28 girls, performed the MSR in the school environment and had peak VO2 determined in the laboratory. A correlation of 0.72 (p<0.001) was found between peak VO2 and predicted peak VO2 using an equation previously developed with Canadian children (6). However, maximal shuttle run speed alone was a better predictor in this group (r=0.74, SEE=4.6 ml · kg−1·min−1, p<.001). Multiple-regression analysis (best-subsets) was performed and the best predictor variables were maximal speed and sex with either triceps skinfold or weight. For practical application in the school setting, the equation peak VO2 = 24.2 − 5.0(sex) − 0.8(age) + 3.4(maximal speed) (r=0.82, SEE=4.0), where for sex, male = 0 and female = 1, is suggested.
An Examination of the Anaerobic Capacity of Children Using Maximal Accumulated Oxygen Deficit
Authors: Carlson John S. , Naughton Geraldine A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine the anaerobic capacity of children using the maximal accumulated oxygen deficit technique (AOD). Eighteen healthy children (9 boys, 9 girls) with a mean age of 10.6 years volunteered as subjects. Peak oxygen uptake and submaximal steady-state oxygen uptake tests were conducted against progressive constant work rates on a Cybex cycle ergometer. Supramaximal work rates were predicted from the linear regression of submaximal steady-state work rates and oxygen uptakes to equal 110, 130, and 150% of peak oxygen uptake. Results indicated a significant interaction in the responses of both sexes when the accumulated oxygen deficit data were expressed in both absolute and relative terms. The profile of accumulated oxygen deficits across the three intensities indicated a downward shift in the girls responses between the 110 and 150% supramaximal tests. This trend was not evident in the boys’ responses. Intraclass correlations conducted on test-retest data indicated that compared to the boys, the reliability of the girls in the accumulated oxygen deficits in liters and ml·kg−1 was poorer.
Measuring Physical Activity in Children with Cystic Fibrosis: Comparison of Four Methods
Authors: Orenstein David M. , Nixon Patricia A. , Washburn Richard A. , Kelsey Sheryl F.
Published: August 2016

Since physical fitness and activity may affect prognosis in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF), it is important to be able to measure physical activity in these individuals. Fifty-two such patients younger than 20 years were studied with two electronic activity monitors (LSI and Caltrac monitors) and two activity recall questionnaires (Paffenbarger’s Harvard Alumni Survey and Kriska’s Physical Activity Survey). Spearman rank correlation was used to examine relationships among activity levels as assessed by these tools. There was significant correlation between 3-day activity levels as assessed by the two electronic monitors at each of three measurement periods, and between the activity questionnaires: Kriska’s questionnaire correlated with Paffenbarger’s survey. The monitors correlated less closely with the questionnaires. In this study, two standard physical activity questionnaires correlate with each other and two electronic monitors also correlate with each other in their estimates of physical activity in patients with CF. Since the monitor-questionnaire correlation was substantially less than the monitor-monitor correlation or the questionnaire-questionnaire correlation, it appears that these types of instruments may capture different aspects of activity in children with CF.
Parental Influence on Children’s Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity Participation: An Expectancy-Value Approach
Authors: Dempsey Jill M. , Kimiecik Jay C. , Horn Thelma S.
Published: August 2016

This investigation examined parental influence on children’s moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) participation via an expectancy-value model that included parents’ behavior, parents’ beliefs about their children’s MVPA, and children’s beliefs about their MVPA. The influence of parents on their children’s MVPA was investigated via questionnaires tapping the belief systems of fourth- and fifth-grade children (n=71) and their parents (n=69). Self-reported MVPA was assessed for parents and children. Correlational analyses demonstrated a number of significant relationships between parents’ belief systems and children’s MVPA behavior and children’s belief systems and their physical activity participation. Based on hierarchical regression analyses, there was no evidence of a positive relationship between parents’ physical activity behavior (role modeling) and children’s physical activity behavior. Parents’ perceptions of their children’s MVPA competence was the only parent belief system variable related to children’s MVPA participation. In addition, children’s task orientation and expectancies significantly predicted their MVPA participation.
Motivation for Participation in Physical Activity: A Comparison of Parent–Child Perceived Competencies and Participation Motives
Authors: McCullagh Penny , Matzkanin Karen T. , Shaw Susan D. , Maldonado Marcela
Published: August 2016

An important issue facing sport psychology researchers as well as practitioners is understanding the motives of children involved in youth sport programs. The present study extended previous work in this area by examining parental perceptions of their children’s motivations and perceived competencies in addition to the typically assessed variables of youth-reported motives and perceived competencies. Eighty-one children and one of their parents from a youth soccer league served as subjects for this study. Results indicated that children and parents alike ranked intrinsic motives such as feeling good and having fun as primary reasons for participation. In addition, both parents and children rated external reasons as the lowest priorities for participation. Multivariate analyses of variance indicated that children rated all the motive subscales more positively than their parents. No significant relationships were found between perceived competencies and motives.
Who Determines What’s Important? Perceptions of Competence and Importance as Predictors of Self-Esteem in Youth Football Players
Authors: Ebbeck Vicki , Stuart Moira E.
Published: August 2016

The present study examined perceived competence, individual importance (what is important to the individual), and group importance (what is perceived to be important to the group) as determinants of self-esteem. The sample consisted of 100 male football players ranging in age from 11 to 14 years. A questionnaire containing items that assessed the central constructs was administered to the players during a team practice near the end of a 7-week competitive season. Self-esteem was the dependent variable, with perceived competence, individual importance, and group importance entered as the set of predictor variables in a non-stepwise multiple regression analysis. Results revealed that the set of predictor variables accounted for 47% of the variance in self-esteem. Both perceived competence and individual importance contributed significantly to explaining self-esteem, although perceived competence was the strongest predictor. The findings of this study are discussed in terms of how the values of significant others might influence the development of self-esteem.
Sources of Information Underlying Personal Ability Judgments in High School Athletes
Authors: Horn Thelma S. , Glenn Susan D. , Wentzell Amy B.
Published: August 2016

This study was conducted to test whether there are age and gender differences in the criteria that high school athletes use to evaluate their ability in sport contexts. To test this issue, 435 high school athletes from a variety of sports were administered the Sport Competence information Questionnaire which provides a measure of preference for 10 competence information sources. A 2 × 2 (Gender × Age Level) MANOVA revealed that older adolescents were more apt to use self-comparison/internal information, goal achievement, and sport attraction/enjoyment to judge their sport ability while younger athletes were more dependent on the evaluation of peers. In addition, females scored higher than males on the use of self-comparison/internal information and on evaluative feedback from significant others. In contrast, males scored higher on the use of competitive outcomes and speed/ease of learning to evaluate personal sport competence. The results indicate that high school athletes do vary in the sources of information they use to judge their sport competence, and that gender and age can account for a significant amount of that variation.
Application of the Doubly Labeled Water Technique for Studying Total Energy Expenditure in Young Children: A Review
Authors: Goran Michael I.
Published: August 2016

The doubly labeled water technique represents an unobtrusive and noninvasive means to measure total daily energy expenditure in free-living human subjects who are unaware that energy expenditure is being measured. When combined with measurement of resting energy expenditure, the doubly labeled water technique can also be used to estimate energy expenditure related to physical activity. The relatively recent availability of the doubly labeled water technique in humans has led to several advances in the fundamental understanding of whole body energy metabolism in several important areas. The purpose of this paper is to review the areas in which the doubly labeled water technique has specifically advanced our understanding of whole-body energy metabolism in young children.
The Identification of Skeletal Myopathies Due to Defects of Oxidative Metabolism by Analysis of Oxygen Utilization during Exercise
Authors: Paridon Stephen M. , Wolfe Steven B. , Lee Chau P. , Nigro Michael A. , Pinsky William W.
Published: August 2016

To determine whether defects of skeletal muscle oxidative phosphorylation can be differentiated from other causes of skeletal muscle weakness by aerobic responses to exercise, 10 patients with oxidative phosphorylation abnormalities (n = 5) or defects of contractile element apparatus or peripheral neuropathy (n = 5) underwent bicycle exercise testing. Results were compared with 16 healthy control subjects. The response of oxygen consumption to work rate and ventilatory threshold were significantly reduced in the oxidative phosphorylation group when compared to subjects with other causes of muscle weakness and the control group. Exercise testing appears to be useful in distinguishing patients with defects of oxidative phosphorylation from those with other causes of skeletal muscle weakness.
Participation in High School Sports and Adolescent Sexual Activity
Authors: Smith Edward A. , Caldwell Linda L.
Published: August 2016

Survey data from 1,071 high school students in a large southern city indicated that high school sports participants were more likely to be sexually active than were nonparticipants. This result was true for both males (66% vs. 52%) and females (52% vs. 36%) and was independent of the sport in which the adolescent participated. This finding suggests that high school teams may provide an opportunity for reaching teenagers in need of sex education counseling.
Exercise Training Hemodynamics and the Prevalence of Arrhythmias in Children Following Tetralogy of Fallot Repair
Authors: Sklansky Mark S. , Pivarnik James M. , Smith E. O’Brian , Morris Jody , Bricker J. Timothy
Published: August 2016

The effects of exercise training on hemodynamics and on the prevalence of arrhythmias in 11 asymptomatic children following tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) repair were investigated. Training consisted of three 30-min supervised exercise sessions per week for 8 consecutive weeks. Each subject exercised on a cycle ergometer and/or treadmill at 60–80% of measured peak heart rate (HR). Submaximal HR decreased (p < .0016), and maximal treadmill time increased, in every patient (p < .0004). Small decreases occurred in submaximal cardiac output (CO) (p < .094), VO2 (p < .047), and respiratory rate (RR) (p < .053). No significant change occurred in peak HR, peak VO2, or in resting LV end-diastolic dimension or posterior wall thickness. No significant change occurred in atrial or ventricular ectopy. It was concluded that young active children following repair of TOF can demonstrate aerobic training effects with an 8-week exercise program of three 30-minute sessions of moderately intense aerobic activity per week.
Achievement of V̇O2max Criteria in Adolescent Runners: Effects of Testing Protocol
Authors: Rivera-Brown Anita M. , Rivera Miguel A. , Frontera Walter R.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effects of three testing protocols on the frequency of achievement of V̇O2max criteria in 13 male adolescent long-distance runners. All subjects completed the modified Taylor (T), Bruce (B), and Taylor intermittent (TI) running protocols on a treadmill to volitional fatigue. The criteria for V̇O2max were (a) respiratory exchange ratio (R) > 1.0, (b) heart rate (HR) >95% predicted max, and (c) increase in V̇O2 < 2.1 ml·kg−1·min−1 with an increase in workload. A plateau was identified in 54%, 39%, and 85% of the subjects during the T, B, and TI protocols, respectively (p < .05). V̇O2 at exhaustion was similar during all protocols (T = 70.8 ± 4.1, B = 71.4 ± 3.5, TI = 69.6 ± 5.0 ml·kg−1-min−1; p > .05). The data suggest that the characteristics of a protocol can determine the frequency of a plateau achievement but have no effect on the attainment of the R or HR criteria. V̇O2 during running exercise to volitional fatigue is independent of testing protocol.
The Covariate Influence of Muscle Mass on Isokinetic Peak Torque in High School Wrestlers
Authors: Housh Terry J. , Stout Jeffrey R. , Housh Dona J. , Johnson Glen O.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the covariate influence of estimated muscle mass on age-related increases in isokinetic peak torque for flexion and extension of the forearm and leg in high school wrestlers. One hundred thirteen high school wrestlers volunteered to be measured for strength at 30, 180, and 300°·s−1. Underwater weighing was performed to determine body composition characteristics, and the anthropometric equation of Martin et al. (10) was used to estimate total skeletal muscle mass (MM). There were significant (p < .05) relationships (r = .19 to .37) for age versus peak torque covaried independently for fat-free weight (FFW) and MM for forearm flexion at 30, 180, and 300°·s−1; forearm extension at 180 and 300°·s−1; and leg extension at 30, 180 and 300°·s−1. The results of this study indicated that there was no increase across age in MM per unit of FFW, and the age-related increases in peak torque in high school wrestlers could not be fully accounted for by changes in MM.
Maximal Treadmill Performance of Children with Cerebral Palsy
Authors: Hoofwijk Martine , Unnithan Viswanath , Bar-Or Oded
Published: August 2016

Nine children with spastic cerebral palsy (CP) and 9 controls (mean age 13.5 and 14.0, respectively) completed a maximal walking test on the treadmill. Initial gradient was set at 0% with a speed increase every 2 minutes until the “fastest walking speed” was achieved in the third stage. The gradient was then increased by 2.5–5% every 2 minutes. V̇O2max of the CP children was significantly lower (p = .001) than that of the controls (32.7 vs. 45.2 ml · kg1 · min−1). There was no significant difference in maximal heart rate between the two groups (189 vs. 197). However, the CP subjects had significantly higher (p = .007) ventilatory equivalent for O2 compared to the controls (41.4 vs. 33.6). The lower V̇O2max values of the CP children might reflect inefficient ventilation, compromised circulation, and local fatigue in the spastic limb muscles.
Reliability and Validity of Activity Measures in Preadolescent Girls
Authors: Ching Pamela L.Y.H. , Dietz William H.
Published: August 2016

Nonobese, preadolescent girls self-reported, and their parents provided proxy reports of daughters’ daily activities using questionnaires. Responses were evaluated for test-retest reliability, and for validity using one-week diaries. Results indicated all three respondents provided reproducible estimates of time daughters spent watching TV; daughters and mothers, of time daughters spent sleeping; and parents, of time daughters spent in vigorous activities. However, only daughters >10 years of age could provide valid reports for time spent in moderate activities and in sedentary and light activities on school days. Study results suggest that daughters and parents have difficulty providing reliable and valid estimates of activity level.
Children’s Ratings of Effort during Cycle Ergometry: An Examination of the Validity of Two Effort Rating Scales
Authors: Lamb Kevin L.
Published: August 2016

This study assessed and compared the validity of children’s effort ratings using the established Borg 6–20 Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale and a recently devised Children’s Effort Rating Table (CERT) during continuous cycle ergometry. Seventy school children were randomly assigned to one of two groups: Group 1 (RPE) and Group 2 (CERT). Both groups received two incremental exercise trials (Trial 1 and Trial 2) 7 days apart. For both scales, data analysis yielded significant (p < .01) Pearson correlations between perceived effort ratings and heart rate (HR) (rs ≥ .50) and perceived effort and absolute power outputs (rs ≥ .59). Moreover, correlations for CERT were consistently higher than for RPE. Test-retest intraclass correlations of R = .91 (CERT) and R = .90 (RPE) revealed that both scales were reliable. These data suggest that among preadolescent children the traditional scale (RPE) is not the only, nor indeed the best, option for monitoring perceived exertion during controlled exercise.
Learning Front-Crawl Swimming by Daily or Weekly Lesson Schedules
Authors: Bradley Sacha M. , Parker Helen E. , Blanksby Brian A.
Published: August 2016

The Modified Erbaugh Rating Scale–Front Crawl (MERS-F) (a rating scale for assessing stages of front-crawl swimming patterns) was used to measure performance change by 6-year-old male and female beginner swimmers participating in either 10 daily (Group D) or 10 weekly (Group W) lessons. The MERS-F was found to be a relatively objective (r = .98) and moderately valid (r = .78) assessment instrument. The maximal front-crawl skill rating of each lesson was subjected to a three-way ANOVA (Group × Gender × Lesson–repeated), which revealed that (a) the rate of improvement was the same for daily and weekly lesson schedules despite the higher performance rating for children in the daily lessons throughout; (b) front-crawl swimming skill increased significantly for both groups after the third of 10 lessons; and (c) there was no significant difference in the performance of boys and girls (p < .05).
An Evaluation of the Kenz Calorie Counter during Progressive Treadmill Exercise in Adults and Children
Authors: Walters Nicholas J. , Brodie David A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to assess the validity of data derived from the Kenz calorie counter during progressive, incremental treadmill exercise. Direct comparisons were made with calories calculated from on-line gas analysis. The subjects were 18 adults, 18 postadolescent children, and 24 preadolescent children. Linear regression (r2 > .95) showed a progressive deviation away from a 1:1 relationship between Kenz data and V̇O2 data with increasing age of subject which remained when standardized to kcal · kg−1 body mass or kcal · m−2 · hour−1. The Kenz calorie counter, after applying an age group correction factor, can thus be used as a suitable analog for measured energy expenditure.
Children’s Heart Rates during Physical Education Lessons: A Review
Authors: Stratton Gareth
Published: August 2016

Physical educators have purported to teach children to be physically active and to promote their fitness. To achieve these goals, children should regularly experience moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during physical education lessons. For the purposes of this review, moderate physical activity is that which elicits a heart rate of 50% of maximum heart rate reserve (MHRR), moderate-to-vigorous activity elicits 60% of MHRR, and vigorous activity elicits 75% of MHRR. Duration criteria were set at 50% of lesson time or 20 min. The majority of lessons described in previous reports failed to achieve these criteria, although problems were noted in method and analyses of data. Lessons with physical activity as a direct goal have been successful in increasing MVPA. A greater focus on physical activity is required in the planning and delivery of physical education lessons if the physical activity and fitness goals of the physical education curriculum are to be met.
Effects of Training at a Young Age: A Review of the Training of Young Athletes (TOYA) Study
Authors: Baxter-Jones Adam D.G. , Helms Peter J.
Published: August 2016

This paper reviews the findings from a longitudinal study following the growth and development of young British athletes. Four sports were studied: gymnastics, soccer, swimming, and tennis. Four main areas of concern were identified and studied: sports injury, growth and development, psychological and psychosocial problems, and physiological functioning. No evidence was found to suggest that training affected growth or sexual development. The incidence and severity of injuries was low. Athletes were shown to have a healthy lifestyle. The negative effects of intensive training at a young age were outweighed by the many social, psychological and health benefits that a serious commitment to sport brought these young people.
Adolescent Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use, Multiple Drug Use, and High School Sports Participation
Authors: DuRant Robert H. , Middleman Amy B. , Faulkner Annie H. , Emans S. Jean , Woods Elizabeth R.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among anabolic-androgenic steroid use and other drug use, strength training, sports participation, and school performance of high school students. Among males not participating in school sports, 37% of the variation in anabolic steroid use was accounted for by frequency of cocaine use, injected drug use, other drug use, and engaging in strength training. Injection drug use and poly-drug use accounted for 22.1% of the variation in the frequency of anabolic-steroid use among males participating in school sports, 29.1% of the variation among females participating in school sports, and 63.3% of the variation among females not participating in school sports.
Aerobic Capacity as Related to Leg Strength in Youths with Mental Retardation
Authors: Pitetti Kenneth H. , Fernhall Bo
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between aerobic capacity (VO2peak) and leg strength of male (n = 17) and female (n = 12) youths (age = 14.2 ± 2.1 years) with mild to moderate mental retardation. Aerobic capacity was determined by a treadmill test (GXT) and isokinetic knee flexion and extension strength (peak torque, peak force, average force) was determined by isokinetic dynamometry. Results indicate that significant positive relationships (p < .05) exist between VO2peak (ml · min−1 · kg−1) and isokinetic leg strength expressed relative to body weight. The results indicate that leg strength is a contributor to aerobic fitness in youths with mental retardation. Additionally, when considering the low levels of both strength and VO2peak, leg strength may be a limiting factor of VO2peak in these youths, or the relationship may be explained by the concept of metabolic nonspecialization.
Blood Lactate Responses to Exercise in Children: Part 2. Lactate Threshold
Authors: Pfitzinger Peter , Freedson Patty
Published: August 2016

Part 2 reviews the literature concerning the lactate threshold in children. An analysis is presented comparing children to adults regarding responses to submaximal exercise, and the lactate threshold as a percentage of VO2max. Possible explanations for lower blood lactate concentrations during submaximal exercise in children are considered.
Functional and Muscle Size Response to 5 Days of Treadmill Training in Young Rats
Authors: Eliakim Alon , Moromisato Mark Y. , Moromisato David Y. , Cooper Dan M.
Published: August 2016

In this study, the hypothesis that improvements in functional and structural measures could be detected in the young, female rat with only 5 days of moderate treadmill training was tested. Eight-week-old female Sprague-Dawley rats were divided randomly into control (n = 10) and training groups (n = 11). Over the 5-day period, running duration and treadmill speed increased progressively. Maximal running time and gas exchange were measured on Day 6. In trained compared with control rats, maximal running time was 54% greater (p < .005), right hindlimb muscle was 16% heavier (p < .01), and end-exercise respiratory exchange ratio (RER) was 17% lower (p < .05). Substantial metabolic and structural adaptations occurred in young female rats after only 5 days of treadmill training. This protocol may be useful in discovering the initiating mechanisms of the training response in the young organism.
Architecture for Wellness: A Post-Occupancy Evaluation of a University Student Recreation Center
Authors: Davis Rebecca Weis , Shepley Mardelle McCuskey
Published: August 2016

The building analyzed in this study is a new student recreation center at a major university. The primary objective of the study was to create design guidelines for recreational facilities that would be useful to sports personnel and architects. Secondly, because the facility is being used as a model for other new facilities, the researchers believe that its successes and shortcomings should be identified. A third objective of this research is to provide a research format that recreational sports personnel can use to evaluate new facilities, or evaluate old facilities in order to justify new construction. The research methods implemented in this study were interviews, observation, behavioral mapping, and questionnaires. Issue-oriented questions were analyzed to address design features such as building organization and finishes. Behavior mapping studies were analyzed to study the ability to supervise the facility. In general, the facility was well received. Design shortcomings, however, included lack of signage, and problems with temperature control, and inappropriate materials selection. Recommended guidelines for recreational facilities are provided.
Participation Patterns in Campus Recreational Sports: An Examination of Quality of Student Effort from 1983 to 1998
Authors: Barcelona Robert J. , Ross Craig M.
Published: August 2016

The 1980s and 1990s saw tremendous growth in campus recreational sports programs. The emergence of these programs as significant contributors to the higher education mission has led practitioners to recognize the importance of increased student involvement in this area of campus life. One of the issues facing campus recreational sports is a lack of theoretical and empirical research in almost all facets of the field. This study examined participation patterns in recreational sports programs and facilities at 314 colleges and universities (n=4000) in four groups of years: 1983–1986, 1987–1990, 1991–1994, and 1995–1998 using data derived from the College Student Experiences Questionnaire (CSEQ) and the Center for Postsecondary Research and Planning at Indiana University, Bloomington.

The results of the study revealed the following: (a) there was no significant difference in student involvement for the recreational sports programs and facilities variables under investigation; (b) significant differences were found for all areas of recreational sports involvement under investigation regarding participants' gender, age, and place of residence, with males, students under the age of 22, and on-campus students reporting higher rates of recreational sports involvement than females, students over the age of 22, and off-campus students (p<.001); (c) there were no significant year-by-gender, year-by-age, or year-by place-of-residence interaction effects; d) where significant main effect differences were found, effect sizes (η2 partial) were fairly low.
Examining the Relationship between Adventure Program Offerings and Proximity to Mountain Adventure Sites
Authors: Jones Christopher D. , Turey Colin
Published: August 2016

The proximity to mountain sites is examined as a predictor of mountain adventure offerings. A priori hypotheses emphasized three concerns: (1) the relationship between participation in mountain adventure programs and proximity to mountain sites; (2) the prediction of adventure trips by proximity to mountain sites; and (3) the relationship between the number of mountain activities being offered and proximity to mountain sites. To assess these concerns, a series of questionnaires was sent to campus recreation program supervisors at 150 NIRSA institutions. Hypothesis testing conducted with stepwise regression analyses revealed that when controlling for institutional enrollment, proximity to mountain sites was a significant predictor of adventure program participation, number of programmed trips, and number of mountain activities offered. The direction of these relationships suggests a number of implications concerning the marketing of mountain adventure programs within the institutional setting.
Women Working in the Administration of Campus Recreation: Career Paths and Challenges
Authors: Bower Glenna , Hums Mary A.
Published: August 2016

Women have made in-roads into management positions in various traditionally male-dominated industries including the sport industry. The sport industry consists of a number of segments such as professional sport, intercollegiate athletics, health and fitness, facility management, sport for people with disabilities, sport marketing, and recreational sport. While scholars have focused attention on the careers of women working in management positions in several of these segments, almost no work has been done in the recreational sport segment. One specialized area within recreational sport is campus recreation. In this particular area, there is limited research on women working in administrative positions. Thus, the purpose of this study was to establish and examine career information of women working in the administration of campus recreation programs. The survey subjects were 376 women listed in the 2000–2001 NIRSA National Sport Recreational Directory as holding administrative level jobs in campus recreation.

The study addressed the following concerning women working in campus recreation administration: (a) demographics; (b) career paths; (c) most/least enjoyable aspects of their jobs; (d) greatest challenges; (e) career advice for women wanting to enter this profession; (f) short-term and long-term career aspirations; (g) the role of mentors on their careers, and (h) how they obtained their first/current job in campus recreation administration.

Analysis of the data for this descriptive study focused on two areas. First, means and standard deviations were calculated where appropriate. Second, the answers to the open-ended questions were investigated for recurring themes. After examining the data, suggestions for future research were generated.
Perceived Constraints by College Students to Participation in Campus Recreational Sports Programs
Authors: Young Sarah J. , Ross Craig M. , Barcelona Robert J.
Published: August 2016

Campus recreational sports programs are designed to provide an on-campus leisure opportunity for college students, hopefully enhancing their quality of collegiate life. Yet, not all students choose to participate, much to the chagrin of recreational sports professionals and school administrators. The purpose of this study was to investigate how perceived constraints on intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural levels influenced the participation of college students in recreational sports activities on an urban, commuter campus and a residential, rural campus. The sample of subjects consisted of 416 students who considered themselves nonparticipants in campus recreational sports. The results indicated that lack of time because of work, school or family, and not knowing the available activities were the two most strongly perceived constraints. Further investigation on differences in perceived constraints was conducted with respect to subjects' age, gender and place of residence.
Thinking Strategically about Marketing: A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Brand Equity in Recreation and Intramural Sports
Authors: Robinson Matthew J. , Gladden James M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this article is to develop a conceptual framework for understanding the formation of brand equity for college recreation and intramural departments by using prior research on brand management from both the marketing and sport literatures (e.g. Aaker, 1991; Gladden, Milne & Sutton 1998). This framework posits the formation of brand equity is an on-going process that is fueled by antecedents that are either department related, university related or market related. The department-related antecedents include the recreation leader, staff, and current existing programs and program promotion. The university-related antecedents include the reputation of the institution, facilities, and location of the facilities. The market-related antecedents include internal and external competitive forces. These antecedents lead to the creation of brand equity as composed of awareness, a perception of quality, associations with the brand and ultimately loyalty to the brand (Aaker, 1991). The level of brand equity will determine the consequences: campus visibility, amount of patronage, institutional funding, facility improvements, level of wellness on campus, and corporate sponsorship.
Examining the Importance of Recreational Sport Management Competencies Based on Management Level, Agency Type, and Organizational Size
Authors: Barcelona Bob
Published: August 2016

While jobs in the recreational sport and fitness industry are gaining in popularity, research related to the specific knowledge base and competency areas required of recreational sport managers has been limited (Barcelona, 2001; Toh, 1997). The purpose of this study was to examine the differences in the perceived importance of recreational sport competencies based on managerial level, agency type, and organizational size. Data from 295 respondents reveals significant differences in the importance placed on competencies needed for upper-and entry-level recreational sport personnel. Results also indicate significant differences in the importance of competencies for full-time personnel in campus and public recreation settings, as well as between small organizations (those with 0-1 full-time recreational sport staff member) and large organizations (those with four or more full-time recreational sport staff members). Where significant differences existed, effect sizes (η2) were generally small. Achieving greater understanding of the nature and importance of recreational sport management competencies can help the field become more accountable for its programs in academic preparation, professional training, and continuing education.
Leisure Motivation of Participants and Nonparticipants in Campus Recreational Sports Programs
Authors: Beggs Brent A. , Stitt James E. , Elkins Daniel J.
Published: August 2016

The factors that motivate college students to participate in leisure activities play a key role in better understanding participation patterns in campus recreational sports. This study utilized the Leisure Motivation Scale developed by Beard and Ragheb (1983) to determine factors that motivated college students' leisure choices. The purpose of this study was to examine motivational differences in students who participated regularly in campus recreational sports and students who did not regularly participate in campus recreational sports. The sample consisted of 631 students from two universities. The results indicated that students who did not participate regularly in campus recreational sports were seeking rewards from their leisure such as rest, escape and solitude, as well as the opportunity to use their imagination and learn. Students who regularly participated in campus recreational sports revealed that they were motivated to participate because of physical activity, challenge, and competition. In addition, differences in gender and overall motivation for leisure participation were examined.
Changes in Students' Recreation Activities, Satisfaction and Perceived Benefits following the Construction of a New Recreation Facility
Authors: Turman James C. , Hendel Darwin D.
Published: August 2016

Recreational sports facilities are increasingly part of the landscape on college and university campuses. Construction and operating costs have increased in the last decades and are supported by a variety of revenue streams, which vary as a function of public versus private control of the institution. This study examines differences in students' involvement in, satisfaction with and perceived benefits accruing from participating in recreational sports at an urban, research extensive public institution. The same survey was administered to two samples of students, once in 1992 and again in 1999 after the opening of a new recreation facility at the institution. Analysis of variance was used to examine the main effects for the facility in addition to the other main effects for year-in-school, gender, and residence. Results indicated significantly higher levels of student satisfaction after the opening of the new facility, but did not indicate higher levels of involvement and perceived benefits.
Factors Influencing the Willingness to Mentor Students within Campus Recreation
Authors: Bower Glenna G. , Hums Mary A. , Keedy John L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to discover factors influencing a person's decision to mentor students within campus recreation. The present study investigated four areas of inquiry within campus recreation: (a) What are the individual reasons for mentoring students? (b) What organizational factors inhibit or facilitate mentoring students? (c) What protégé characteristics attracted mentors?, and (d) What outcomes are associated with mentoring students?

The phenomenological study relied on in-depth interviews of five campus recreation professionals. This research study utilized three in-depth phenomenological interviews with each participant as the primary means of collecting data. The researcher used the constant comparative method of analysis throughout the study. Analysis of the data produced personal life history portraits of each participant and provided themes and categories for each research question. Study findings provided valuable information for campus recreation directors wishing to successfully mentor students entering the campus recreation profession.