bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Graphene oxide as an interface phase between polyetheretherketone and hydroxyapatite for tissue engineering scaffolds
Authors: Peng Shuping , Feng Pei , Wu Ping , Huang Wei , Yang Youwen , Guo Wang , Gao Chengde , Shuai Cijun
Published: April 2017

The poor bonding strength between biopolymer and bioceramic has remained an unsolved issue. In this study, graphene oxide (GO) was introduced as an interface phase to improve the interfacial bonding between polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and hydroxyapatite (HAP) for tissue engineering scaffolds. On the one hand, the conjugated structure of GO could form strong π-π stacking interaction with the benzene rings in PEEK. On the other hand, GO with a negatively charge resulting from oxygen functional groups could adsorb the positively charged calcium atoms (C sites) of HAP. Consequently, the dispersibility and compatibility of HAP in the PEEK matrix increased with increasing GO content up to 1 wt%. At this time, the compressive strength and modulus of scaffolds increased by 79.45% and 42.07%, respectively. Furthermore, the PEEK-HAP with GO (PEEK-HAP/GO) scaffolds possessed the ability to induce formation of bone-like apatite. And they could support cellular adhesion, proliferation as well as osteogenic differentiation. More importantly,in vivobone defect repair experiments showed that new bone formed throughout the scaffolds at 60 days after implantation. All these results suggested that the PEEK-HAP/GO scaffolds have a promising potential for bone tissue engineering application.
Association of Serum Autotaxin Levels with Liver Fibrosis in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C
Authors: Yamazaki Tomoo , Joshita Satoru , Umemura Takeji , Usami Yoko , Sugiura Ayumi , Fujimori Naoyuki , Shibata Soichiro , Ichikawa Yuki , Komatsu Michiharu , Matsumoto Akihiro , Igarashi Koji , Tanaka Eiji
Published: April 2017

Metabolized by liver sinusoidal endothelial cells, autotaxin (ATX) is a secreted enzyme considered to be associated with liver damage. We sought to clarify the diagnostic ability of ATX for liver fibrosis in 593 biopsy-confirmed hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected patients. The diagnostic accuracy of ATX was compared with clinical parameters and the established fibrosis biomarkers Wisteria floribunda agglutinin-positive Mac-2-binding protein, FIB-4 index, AST-to-platelet ratio, and Forn’s index. Median ATX levels were consistently higher in female controls and patients than in their male counterparts (P < 0.01). Serum ATX concentration increased significantly according to liver fibrosis stage in overall and both genders (P < 0.001). The cutoff values of ATX for prediction of fibrosis stages ≥F1, ≥F2, ≥F3, and F4 were 0.8, 1.1, 1.3, and 1.7 mg/L, respectively, in male patients and 0.9, 1.7, 1.8, and 2.0 mg/L, respectively, in female patients. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for ATX to diagnose fibrosis of ≥F2 (0.861) in male patients was superior to those of FIB-4 index and Forn’s index (P < 0.001), while that in female patients (0.801) was comparable with those of the other markers. ATX therefore represents a novel non-invasive biomarker for liver fibrosis in HCV-infected patients.
Experimental and predicted mechanical properties of Cr1−xAIxN thin films, at high temperatures, incorporating in situ synchrotron radiation X-ray diffraction and computational modelling
Authors: Mohammadpour Ehsan , Jiang Zhong-Tao , Altarawneh Mohmmednoor , Mondinos Nicholas , Rahman M. Mahbubur , Lim H. N. , Huang N. M. , Xie Zonghan , Zhou Zhi-feng , Dlugogorski Bogdan Z.
Published: April 2017

Cr1−xAlxN coatings, synthesised by an unbalanced magnetic sputtering system, showed improved microstructure and mechanical properties for ∼14–21% Al content.
Thin sandwich graphene oxide@N-doped carbon composites for high-performance supercapacitors
Authors: Hu Cejun , Zhang Guoxin , Li Haoyuan , Zhang Cong , Chang Yingna , Chang Zheng , Sun Xiaoming
Published: April 2017

An ultrathin layer of ca. ∼1.9 nm N-doped carbon was deposited on GO via dehalogenation of PVDC.
Regeneration of dental–pulp complex-like tissue using phytic acid derived bioactive glasses
Authors: Cui Cai-Yun , Wang Sai-Nan , Ren Hui-Hui , Li Ai-Ling , Qiu Dong , Gan Ye-Hua , Dong Yan-Mei
Published: April 2017

Phytic acid derived bioactive calcium phosphosilicate (PSC) glasses were synthesised by using phytic acid as a phosphorus precursor. PSC have superior biocompatibility for dental pulp cells and ability to regenerate dentin–pulp complex to 45S5.
Myristic acid-hybridized diatomite composite as a shape-stabilized phase change material for thermal energy storage
Authors: Han Jie , Liu Songyang
Published: April 2017

The addition of activated carbon (10%) effectively enhances the thermal conductivity and heat transfer properties of the MA/H-diatomite-2 composite PCM.
Modification of a Pd-loaded electrode with a carbon nanotubes–polypyrrole interlayer and its dechlorination performance for 2,3-dichlorophenol
Authors: Sun Zhirong , Song Ge , Du Ran , Hu Xiang
Published: April 2017

A novel Pd loaded Ti electrode was prepared with a carbon nanotubes and polypyrrole interlayer modification, referred to as a Pd/CNTs–PPy/Ti electrode with high electrocatalytic activity for dechlorination.
Highly correlated ab initio thermodynamics of oxymethylene dimethyl ethers (OME): formation and extension to the liquid phase
Authors: Himmel Daniel , White Robin J. , Jacob Eberhard , Krossing Ingo
Published: April 2017

The principal thermodynamic functions of gaseous and liquid oxymethylene dimethyl ether (OMEn) oligomers were established based on a quantum chemical compound method delivering almost CCSD(T)/A′VQZ quality. From known and assessed phase change data, thermodynamic values for the liquid phase were established.
Perspective: Structure and ultrafast dynamics of biomolecular hydration shells
Authors: Laage Damien , Elsaesser Thomas , Hynes James T.
Published: April 2017

The structure and function of biomolecules can be strongly influenced by their hydration shells. A key challenge is thus to determine the extent to which these shells differ from bulk water, since the structural fluctuations and molecular excitations of hydrating water molecules within these shells can cover a broad range in both space and time. Recent progress in theory, molecular dynamics simulations, and ultrafast vibrational spectroscopy has led to new and detailed insight into the fluctuations of water structure, elementary water motions, and electric fields at hydrated biointerfaces. Here, we discuss some central aspects of these advances, focusing on elementary molecular mechanisms and processes of hydration on a femto- to picosecond time scale, with some special attention given to several issues subject to debate.
Magnetocaloric effect of Sr-substituted BaFeO3 in the liquid nitrogen and natural gas temperature regions
Authors: Yoshii Kenji , Hayashi Naoaki , Mizumaki Masaichiro , Takano Mikio
Published: April 2017

We have investigated the magnetocaloric effect (MCE) of Ba1-xSrxFe4+O3 (x≤0.2), a series of cubic perovskites showing a field-induced transition from helical antiferromagnetism to ferromagnetism. The maximum magnetic entropy change (-ΔSmax) at 50 kOe varies from ∼5.8 J kg-1K-1 (x=0) to ∼4.9 J kg-1K-1 (x=0.2), while the refrigerant capacity remains almost the same at ∼165 J kg-1. Interestingly, the temperature of -ΔSmax decreases from ∼116 K to ∼77 K with increasing x, providing this series of rare-earth-free oxides with potential as a magnetic refrigerant for the liquefaction of nitrogen and natural gas.
PFA and precipitousness of the nonstationary ideal
Authors: Veličković Boban
Published: April 2017

We apply Neeman’s method of forcing with side conditions to show that PFA does not imply the precipitousness of the nonstationary ideal on

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Semantics and Morphosyntactic Variation
Authors: Francez Itamar , Koontz-Garboden Andrew
Published: April 2017

Systematic variation in form between semantic equivalents across languages is a key explanandum of linguistic theory. Two contrasting views of the role of lexical semantics in the analysis of such variation can be found in the literature: (1) uniformity, whereby lexical meaning is universal, and morphosyntactic variation arises from idiosyncratic differences in the inventory and phonological shape of language-particular functional material, and (2) transparency, whereby systematic variation in form arises from systematic variation in the meaning of basic lexical items. This volume contrasts these views as applied to the empirical domain of property concept sentences—sentences expressing adjectival predication and their translational equivalents across languages. Demonstrating that property concept sentences vary systematically between possessive and predicative form, the authors propose a transparentist analysis of this variation that links it to the lexical denotations of basic property concept lexemes. At the heart of the analysis are qualities: mass-like model-theoretic objects that closely resemble scales. The authors contrast their transparentist analysis with uniformitarian alternatives, demonstrating its theoretical and empirical advantages. They then show that the proposed theory of qualities can account for interesting and novel observations in two central domains of grammatical theory: the theory of lexical categories, and the theory of mass nouns. The overall results highlight the importance of the lexicon as a locus of generalizations about the limits of crosslinguistic variation.
Variation in the form of property concept sentences: The explananda
Authors: Francez Itamar , Koontz-Garboden Andrew
Published: April 2017

This chapter demarcates the empirical scope of the book, defining the key notions of property concept sentence and property concept lexeme, showing that property concept sentences vary in whether they invoke the morphosyntax of canonical predication or the morphosyntax of possession. We consider, at a descriptive level, how the nature of the property concept lexeme in a property concept sentence is tied to this variation. Facts from several languages of particular interest are surveyed, including Hausa, Bisa, Ulwa, and Huitoto. It is then shown that the same kind of variation as is observed in property concept sentences is also observed in comparatives.
Introduction. We the peoples: the Promise of the United Nations
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi M.
Published: April 2017

What was the purpose of the United Nations? First, it was to safeguard peace and security. Second, it was to restore faith in human rights. Third, it was to uphold respect for international law. Finally, the UN wanted to promote social progress and better standards of living. The Introduction asks: has the UN been able to achieve all, some, or any of these goals? The UN might not have quite lived up to the hopes of its founders, but it is the only truly global organization in history. The UN might be deeply flawed and in need of reform, but it is still needed.
2. An impossible hybrid: the structure of the United Nations
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi M.
Published: April 2017

‘An impossible hybrid: the structure of the United Nations’ explains the various functions of the conglomeration of organizations, divisions, bodies, and secretariats that make up the UN. The Security Council is the central organ of the UN system and has primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security. The General Assembly is the forum where the 193 member states can make their cases heard. The UN Secretariat serves the other principal organs of the UN and administers the programs and policies laid down by them, with the Secretary-General at its head. The roles of the Economic and Social Council, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and World Trade Organization are also described.
4. Peacekeeping to peacebuilding
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi M.
Published: April 2017

Peacekeeping is among the most visible roles of the United Nations. But how much do people trust in UN peacekeeping operations? ‘Peacekeeping to peacebuilding’ shows how the UN has struggled to live up to the expectations of its founders in this area. Between 1948 and 1988 the UNSC authorized only thirteen peacekeeping missions. In those years, a number of interstate and an increasing number of intrastate (or civil) wars took place. Cold War pressures explain, to some extent, this imperfect record. Today's more numerous peacekeeping activities are far more complex in nature than they used to be: keeping peace is more than just making and building peace.
7. Reform and challenges: the future of the United Nations
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi M.
Published: April 2017

The United Nations is structurally flawed and its operations are cumbersome. Despite being able to come up with excellent ideas, it often lacks the means of implementation. The UN is in need of reform, but reforming the system and obtaining world-wide international support are not new aims. ‘Reform and challenges: the future of the United Nations’ asks: how can this enormous institution that represents widely different interests from around the world be improved? How can its effectiveness be enhanced? In what ways can the UN's development policies be changed to improve the chances of success in the struggle against poverty? How can the UN safeguard both human security and human rights assertively?
2. Populism around the world
Authors: Mudde Cas , Kaltwasser Cristóbal Rovira
Published: April 2017

Today, populism affects almost all continents. While all populists share a common discourse, populism is an extremely heterogeneous political phenomenon. Individual populist actors can be left or right, conservative or progressive, religious or secular. Almost all populist actors combine populism with one or more other “host” ideologies. “Populism around the world” provides a concise overview of the main populist actors of the past 150 years. It focuses on North America, Latin America, and Europe in describing the characteristics and host ideology, and the specific interpretation of “the people” and “the elite” of the populists in these regions before looking at some recent populist actors outside these traditional areas.
1. The context of American elections and political parties
Authors: Maisel L. Sandy
Published: April 2017

‘The context of American elections and political parties’ explains the framework under which elections are run in the United States. This is laid out in the Constitution, which outlines the basic tenets of democracy in America. The most important aspects of that framework are the separation of powers, with a single executive separate from and elected separately from the legislature, and the federal system with residual powers left to the states. The electoral college system, unique to the United States, is a result of the initial decisions made at the time of the framing of the Constitution.
4. Making and remaking a presidency
Authors: Jones Charles O.
Published: April 2017

A separated power system will inevitably feature differing tenures and work habits among its institutional components. Even though a change at the top is important, programs and people already in place do most of the work. A huge bureaucracy is needed to administer programs costing billions of dollars. “Making and remaking a presidency” looks at how the presidency manages the day-to-day running of government. A new president will be held accountable for what happens in the labyrinth of federal units, programs, rules, and procedures. The new incoming team has to learn on the job. The presidency is a dynamic institution, one constantly being shaped and reshaped.
Zoological Researches
Authors: Barnes Jonathan
Published: April 2017

Aristotle’s first period in Athens had lasted for twenty years. In 347 he suddenly left, probably for political reasons. During his travels, 347–35, he undertook most of the work on which his scientific reputation rests. He made or collected observations in astronomy, meteorology, chemistry, physics, psychology, and other sciences; but his scientific fame rests primarily on his work in zoology and biology. According to ‘Zoological researches’, his studies on animals laid the foundations of the biological sciences and were not superseded for over two millennia. His History of Animals is not flawless, but it is a masterpiece. Nowhere else does Aristotle show more vividly his ‘desire to know’.
Reality
Authors: Barnes Jonathan
Published: April 2017

Science is about real things. That is what makes it knowledge rather than fantasy. But what things are real? What are the fundamental items with which science is concerned? That is the question of ontology, to which Aristotle devoted much attention. One of his ontological essays, the Categories, is relatively clear; but most of his ontological thought is to be found in the more obscure Metaphysics. ‘Reality’ attempts to determine what Aristotelian substances are. The first and plainest examples of substances are animals and plants and perhaps also artefacts. In general, perceptible things — middle-sized material objects — are Aristotle’s basic realities and the things with which science is principally concerned.
Causes
Authors: Barnes Jonathan
Published: April 2017

Material objects change, and their changes are caused. The scientist’s world is full of causes, and scientific knowledge requires the capacity to state causes and to give explanations. We should expect Aristotle’s scientific treatises to contain many causal pronouncements and explanations, and his philosophical essays to include some account of the nature of causation and explanation. ‘Causes’ introduces Aristotle’s doctrine of the ‘four causes’: the material cause; the formal cause; the motive cause and the final cause. Aristotle does not admit causeless events into the natural world. But he accepts that not all events are amenable to scientific understanding; for not everything exhibits the sort of regularity which science requires.
Aristotle’s World-Picture
Authors: Barnes Jonathan
Published: April 2017

According to ‘Aristotle’s World-Picture’, Aristotle was a remarkable scientist and a profound philosopher, but it was as a philosopher-scientist that he excelled. The elements of the sublunary world are four: earth, air, fire, and water. Our earth is naturally at the centre of the universe. Beyond it lie the moon, the sun, the planets, and the fixed stars, attached to a series of concentric spheres. Aristotle argued that the physical universe is spatially finite but temporally infinite. The celestial spheres, and the bodies they carry, are quintessential and divine; but they are moving divinities. Beyond them, incorporeal and outside the universe, is the changeless source of change: the ‘unmoved mover’.
4. Trademarks and the politics of branding
Authors: Vaidhyanathan Siva
Published: April 2017

Control of trademarks is control of language. Trademarks, whether they are images, logos, names, or phrases, are ubiquitous in most of the world. They make up a significant set of the symbols through which we construct our identities, affiliations, and associations. But control of trademarks is also important to us as consumers. Consumer protection and convenience justify these restrictions on expression. Trademarks, like other forms of intellectual property, also regulate commercial competition. “Trademarks and the politics of branding” outlines what trademarks do and don’t do and explains how they are different to copyrights and patents. Trademarks operate very differently and exist for very different reasons.
Variety within early Confucianism
Authors: Gardner Daniel K.
Published: April 2017

‘Variety within early Confucianism’ considers two very different, early interpretations of the Confucian tradition that have influenced education, social practices, and intellectual tradition throughout imperial Chinese history: that of Mencius (fourth c.bce) and of Xunzi (third c.bce). Both followers of Confucius agree that: (1) man is morally perfectible; and (2) to achieve moral perfection man must undertake a self-cultivation process. But for Mencius, the source of man's moral potential is internal, found in man's nature itself; for Xunzi, man's nature is evil and he must look externally to his environment and culture to find moral resources to redirect his recalcitrant human nature.
Confucianism in practice
Authors: Gardner Daniel K.
Published: April 2017

‘Confucianism in practice’ shows how Confucianism was played out in everyday family life, in the moral education of peasants and elite alike, and in the administration of the state. Premodern Chinese society and politics were heavily guided by Confucian principles. Prior to the thirteenth century, civil service examination candidates were expected to demonstrate mastery of the Five Classics. In 1313, with the growing influence of the Zhu Xi school, the government decreed the Four Books would now serve as the basis of the examinations. Despite undergoing frequent change and reform, the system remained intact for nearly fifteen hundred years and was a powerful force in shaping and sustaining China's cultural and social norms.
3. Human rights foreign policy and the role of the United Nations
Authors: Clapham Andrew
Published: April 2017

How are human rights put into practice? What does it mean when governments announce that their foreign policy is concerned with promoting and protecting human rights? Where is the enforcement of these rights? ‘Human rights foreign policy and the role of the United Nations’ considers human rights in terms of foreign policy and international law and examines the UN’s Universal Periodic Review process and the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. It is only recently that governments have actively involved themselves in how another state treats its nationals, but enthusiasm for human rights in foreign policy ebbs and flows.
5. Deprivations of life and liberty
Authors: Clapham Andrew
Published: April 2017

‘Deprivations of life and liberty’ considers the rights to life and liberty, which may be limited through legal restrictions designed to protect a defined legitimate objective. The human rights approach starts from a presumption that we all have rights to liberty, freedom of expression, belief, assembly, association, property, and fair trial. Any restriction on these rights has to be justified as proportionate to the aims pursued by the restriction according to a four-stage schema developed in human rights law. Is the right to life absolute? When is the detention of an individual lawful?
7. Food, education, health, housing, and work
Authors: Clapham Andrew
Published: April 2017

‘Human rights’ covers not only civil and political rights such as freedom from torture, slavery, and arbitrary detention, but also economic, social, and cultural rights. Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for their health and well-being and the right to security. ‘Food, education, health, housing, and work’ considers these rights in turn, examining their place in a wider view of human rights, and the appropriate mechanisms for their enforcement. A main concern is that economic and social policy is best determined by policy makers who are democratically accountable, and not by unelected judges with no specialized knowledge of how to prioritize the distribution of limited resources.
8. Sound out of place
Authors: Goldsmith Mike
Published: April 2017

Noise can be two very different things: for a scientist, noise is extraneous acoustic or electromagnetic energy, but for most of us ‘noise’ is any sound that is unwanted by the person exposed to it. ‘Sounds out of place’ considers the main sources of noise pollution, noise-induced hearing loss, and what can be done to eliminate or reduce noise: active noise cancellation, zone separation, and tackling reverberation in public spaces. Although our hearing systems are important, their performance is not usually a matter of life and death. This is not the case for some marine creatures, such as whales and dolphins, which can be devastated by the effects of noise underwater.
1. What is social work?
Authors: Holland Sally , Scourfield Jonathan
Published: April 2017

What is social work, what makes it distinctive, and where do its boundaries lie? ‘What is social work’ provides a short definition: it is a community-based response to social need. Social workers spend their time trying to ease social suffering. They encounter the extreme casualties of social inequality—the victims of poverty, illness, addiction, and abuse—and they operate in the space between the state and the poor or marginalized. A broad definition is necessary when looking at any social phenomenon internationally, because of political and cultural variations. Important themes in social work’s history are also considered along with the boundaries with other professions such as public health, counselling, psychotherapy, and community development.
Does God exist?
Authors: Bowker John
Published: April 2017

‘Does God exist?’ looks at ways in which philosophers and theologians have tried to answer that question in careful and precise language. In contrast, poets and believers use far more vivid and descriptive language to speak of God and to speak to God in prayer and worship. How are the two ‘languages’ related to each other? And do they tell us the truth? That question leads to a consideration of some of the major arguments for and against God, and to the reason why the arguments often lead to judgements of probability and not to conclusive demonstration.
The religions of Abraham
Authors: Bowker John
Published: April 2017

‘The religions of Abraham: Jewish understandings of God’ looks at Judaism in detail and the foundations in the Biblical period in order to show how the distinctive Jewish understandings of God came to be established, and how also those early characterisations of God were already beginning to be changed and developed within the Biblical period itself. The ways in which the first and foundational characterisations began to be, from the earliest days, developed and transformed are considered. The most obvious are the developments of the rabbis, of Kabbalah, of Maimonides, of the Hasidim, and of liturgy and prayer.
The religions of Abraham
Authors: Bowker John
Published: April 2017

‘The religions of Abraham: Muslim understandings of God’ looks at Islam, which began historically with the life and work of Muhammad (570–632). From the Muslim point of view Islam began long before that with the purpose of God in Creation that people should live according to Din. In Muslim belief the Quran is the uncorrupted, complete, and final revelation transmitted from God through Muhammad into the world. But the Quran has to be interpreted and applied. Of decisive authority in doing this were the many Traditions, known collectively as Hadith, recording the things that Muhammad said and did. On the basis of Quran and Hadith, different schools of Sharia emerged.
1. Crossing languages
Authors: Reynolds Matthew
Published: April 2017

What is translation? Is translation any different from communication in general? ‘Crossing languages’ considers the range of ways of doing things with words that can be thought of as translation, including from one foreign language to another, but also less obvious examples such as from technical jargon into common language. Firstly, translation does not simply jump from one language to another—there is a no-man’s land called ‘translationese’, which is a blend of two languages. Secondly, all translation involves diplomacy, mediation, and the avoidance of conflict. Thirdly, every translation is a crowd translation, drawing on more than one source text and different people’s expectations. But this is just the beginning.
5. Power, religion, and choice
Authors: Reynolds Matthew
Published: April 2017

Translation errors, or mere differences, do not matter much in themselves. Their effects depend on their interpretation and use. ‘Power, religion, and choice’ considers how translation relates to power and discusses the translation of English Bibles and how Catholic versions differ markedly in their choice of words from Protestant and Anglican ones. Censorship affects the styles of authors and translators who write with an awareness of what their readers and literary authorities are likely to want. There is also a burden on translators who can make powerful choices—those that can promote one way of using a language over another and may help new words come into a language.
7. Translational literature
Authors: Reynolds Matthew
Published: April 2017

‘Literature’ is often attached to a region of the world and its culture. But what if there are other ways of configuring the global geography of imaginative writing? ‘Translational literature’ looks at multilingual writing and the forms and influences traversing languages. It shows that the inherent translationality of literary writing creates particular difficulties but also opportunities for the literary translator. Many think that no translation can ever be as good as the original text, but there is a literature of translation made up of works which grow as they are translated, developing new complexity and power. Theatre in translation is also discussed considering what the future might hold for translation.
3. How behaviour develops
Authors: Wyatt Tristram D.
Published: April 2017

Behaviours evolve by natural selection. As genes influence how behaviours develop, selection on behaviour will alter gene frequencies in subsequent generations: genes that lead to successful behaviours in foraging, parental care, or mate choice, for example, will be represented in more individuals in future generations. If conditions change, then mutations of the genes that give rise to advantageous behaviours will be favoured by selection. ‘How behaviour develops’ explains that the environment is equally important: both genes and environment are intimately and interactively involved in behaviour development. Behavioural imprinting is also discussed along with co-opting genes, gene regulation, social influences on brain gene expression, phenotypic plasticity, and play.
4. Learning and animal culture
Authors: Wyatt Tristram D.
Published: April 2017

Learning is an animal’s capacity to change behaviour, as the result of individual experience, so that it is better adapted to the animal’s physical and social environments. Learning helps to fine-tune behaviour in flexible ways that would be difficult to encode genetically. It is an inherent property of nervous systems in even the simplest animals. Memory is an animal’s capacity to retain learned information to influence future behaviour. ‘Learning and animal culture’ discusses both classical and operant conditioning; innate responses that do not require learning; social learning, which across generations leads to cultural traditions; and the use of tools, which is now known not to be a uniquely human ability.
3. Assyrians at home
Authors: Radner Karen
Published: April 2017

‘Assyrians at home’ describes the great variety of living conditions and human experiences in the Assyrian Empire in the 7th century, the period when the source material is most numerous and diverse. First, it considers the life of King Esarhaddon and the continuing violence that attended his assumption of the title, before describing the frustrations of Šumaya and his cousin Urdu-Gula—scholars and trained exorcists—who did not share the privileged positions of Royal Scribe or Master Scholar that were bestowed on their relatives. The lives of Šulmu-šarri, a wealthy landowner from Dur-Katlimmu, and Duri-Aššur, a wine merchant of Aššur, and their families are also considered as illustrations of life in 7th-century Assyria.
5. Reactivity
Authors: Brock William H.
Published: April 2017

By the mid-19th century many different kinds of chemical change had been recognized and systematized in textbooks. It became the task of physical chemists to explain these different transformations in terms of exchanges between atoms and molecules powered by energy changes and the shifts in equilibrium that underlay all reactivity. Physical chemists found ways of expressing chemical change in mathematical terms and so brought generalization and systematization to chemical practice. ‘Reactivity’ considers the conditions for chemical equilibria and the mechanisms involved in chemical reactions by discussing concepts such as thermodynamics, periodicity, spectroscopy, ideal gases, Boyle’s law, electrolysis, ionic theory, kinetics, and inert gases.
Epilogue
Authors: Brock William H.
Published: April 2017

The Epilogue concludes with a brief look at some of the exciting, and more positive, aspects of chemistry since the 1960s: the use of computers to study perfect three-dimensional structural models and design new molecules on the screen; combinatorial chemistry; retrosynthesis; the discoveries of the carbon allotropes fullerene and graphene; and nanotechnology. In an age of cross-disciplinary, transdisciplinary science and technology several historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science have queried whether the concept of distinct scientific disciplines like chemistry, physics, and biology serves a purpose any longer. Has chemistry become a service science, or has chemistry taken over these other disciplines?
1. A long history
Authors: Glazer A. M.
Published: April 2017

‘A long history’ explains that it was during the 17th-century Enlightenment that saw the systematic study of crystals or ‘crystallography’ by key scientists including Johannes Kepler, Robert Hooke, Christian Huygens, Nicolas Steno, and Abbé René-Just Haüy—the true father of crystallography, who postulated that crystals must be made up of regular arrangements of polyhedral units. The 19th century saw new theories of crystals with the identification of thirty-two crystal classes, fourteen Bravais lattices, and 230 possible space groups. A new era of crystallography emerged with the discovery of X-ray diffraction by crystals by Max Theodor Felix Laue. William Henry Bragg and his son William Lawrence Bragg went on to identify many crystal structures.
3. Powerful forces
Authors: Close Frank
Published: April 2017

Why do atomic nuclei exist at all? A large nucleus contains many protons in close proximity. Why do these protons, all with the same electrical charge, not mutually repel? ‘Powerful forces’ shows the answer: a strong attractive force that acts between neutrons and protons when they are in contact with one another. Further studies of atomic structure have revealed that protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles. They consist of smaller particles: pions, which are made up of quarks that possess a ‘colour’ charge. The relativistic quantum theory of colour, known as quantum chromo-dynamics (QCD), is described along with ‘quark–gluon plasma’.
1. Home
Authors: Lenton Tim
Published: April 2017

Earth system science is the research field that seeks to understand how our planet functions as a whole system. Its scope is broad; it spans 4.5 billion years of Earth history, how the system functions now, projections of its future state, and its ultimate fate. It also considers how humans as a species are reshaping the planet. Earth system science is a deeply interdisciplinary field, which synthesizes elements of geology, biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. ‘Home’ explains how Earth system science emerged and introduces some of its fundamental concepts, including James Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis, climate regulation, feedback mechanisms, the ‘snowball Earth’ state, and how to combat global warming.
7. Sustainability
Authors: Lenton Tim
Published: April 2017

Whilst human transformation of the planet was initially unwitting, now we are increasingly collectively aware of it. This changes the Earth system fundamentally, because it means that one species can consciously and collectively shape the future trajectory of our planet. We know our current way of living is unsustainable, but we are still trying to work out what a sustainable and prosperous future looks like. This is an opportunity for Earth system science, because it can tell us what makes a sustainable Earth system and what does not. ‘Sustainability’ outlines how Earth system science can help humanity in our quest for long-term sustainability, starting with the lessons we can learn from Earth history.
Modelling future climate
Authors: Maslin Mark
Published: April 2017

‘Modelling future climate’ is about understanding the fundamental physical processes of the climate system. Modelling future climate considers the carbon cycle, cooling effects, carbon emissions, and the complex three-dimensional general circulation models that examine and further our understanding of the global climate system and which are used to predict future global climate. Over 40 climate models were used in developing the IPCC projections for the 2013 report. The three main realistic carbon emissions pathways suggest the global mean surface temperature could rise by between 2.8°C and 5.4°C by 2100 and predict an increase in global mean sea level of between 52 cm and 98 cm in this timeframe.
1. What is special about Earth’s atmosphere?
Authors: Palmer Paul I.
Published: April 2017

‘What is special about Earth’s atmosphere?’ describes the several interconnected layers that make up Earth’s atmosphere before considering the atmospheres of other planets. Each layer has different characteristics determined by the density of air and their relative proximity to Earth’s surface and outer space. The lower atmosphere consists of the troposphere, which extends from the surface to the tropopause at 10–15 km. The middle atmosphere is comprised of the stratosphere, extending to the stratopause at 50 km, and the mesosphere that stretches to the mesopause at 100 km. Above this is the upper atmosphere divided into the thermosphere, which takes us to 500–1,000 km, and the exosphere, which extends to the near vacuum of outer space.
2. Atmospheric physics
Authors: Palmer Paul I.
Published: April 2017

Earth’s atmosphere is tied closely with the Sun. The Sun emits electromagnetic radiation at a wide range of wavelengths. Radiation is transported through the atmosphere by transmission, absorption, and scattering. ‘Atmospheric physics’ outlines the Earth’s radiation budget—the incoming and outgoing radiation, equilibrium between them, and departures from this equilibrium due to increasing levels of clouds, greenhouse gases, and atmospheric aerosols. It then describes the greenhouse gases that absorb and emit radiation and the thermodynamics of the atmosphere. The importance of water, the dominant atmospheric constituent responsible for the loss of radiative energy to space and hence atmospheric cooling, and the electrical energy stored in the atmosphere are also discussed.
4. Atmospheric composition
Authors: Palmer Paul I.
Published: April 2017

Nitrogen, oxygen, and argon represent more than 99.9% of the air we breathe. But Earth’s atmosphere hasn’t always had that composition—it is on at least its third distinctive atmosphere. ‘Atmospheric composition’ provides a brief history of Earth’s atmosphere, before considering the two most important regions of the atmosphere for human survival—the stratosphere and troposphere. The stratospheric ozone layer shields harmful ultraviolet-B light penetrating to the surface, thereby protecting humans and ecosystems from harmful ultraviolet radiation. The troposphere is where billions of people live and breathe. It is also where air pollutants are emitted, wildfires burn, vegetation grows, and where the oceans exchange gases. The impact of atmospheric aerosols and greenhouse gases is also discussed.
1. The political popular
Authors: Rajadhyaksha Ashish
Published: April 2017

Very little of India’s early cinema has been preserved, so its history is based on intense memories and short remnants of films. Indian cinema was ‘officially’ born with Dhundiraj Govind Phalke’s mythological Raja Harishchandra, released in 1913. This chapter asks what might happen if we look at what gets left out by the historical emphasis on this film, and on Satyajit Ray’s equally famous Pather Panchali/Song of the Road, released 32 years later. Providing details of a virtually unknown low-budget film Pitru Prem/Father’s Love (1929) and the first truly national commercial success, Gul-e-Bakavali/The Magic Flower (1924), it opens up the influence of India’s colonial history and the swadeshi political movement on cinema.
4. The new cinemas
Authors: Rajadhyaksha Ashish
Published: April 2017

In 1956, a decade after Independence, India divided its regional states along linguistic lines. This politically-loaded decision opened up fraught histories that went back well over a century. ‘The new cinemas’ describes the impact on the cinema industry. The cinema now found itself radicalized on a number of fronts, becoming the vanguard of a variety of challenges to the Indian state, seceding from the default nationalism of the Bombay-based ‘all-India film’. There were occasionally successful efforts to make peace between the state and the film industry. Key figures in the New Cinema movement were Mani Kaul, Shyam Benegal, and Adoor Gopalakrishnan.
Introduction
Authors: van Es Bart
Published: April 2017

What is a Shakespearean comedy? Nearly half of Shakespeare’s plays could be described as comedies of some kind, but more restrictive criteria would whittle the number to just half a dozen true, festive Shakespearean comedies. The ‘Introduction’ describes how Shakespeare’s writing would have been influenced by the vibrant culture of commercial public theatre that he encountered in London, which drew on two traditions: the classical tradition of the grammar schools and the less structured jesting and clowning that grew from the morality play. Changes to Shakespeare’s plays after his death in three areas—the depiction of women; the treatment of politics; and the variation of theatrical design—are also considered.
5. Tilings and polyhedra
Authors: Wilson Robin
Published: April 2017

A tiling of the plane (or tessellation) is a covering of the whole plane with tiles so that no tiles overlap and there are no gaps. Polyhedra are three-dimensional solids that are bounded by plane faces. How many are there, and can we construct and classify them? ‘Tilings and polyhedra’ describes the different types of tilings and polyhedra that are possible, beginning with regular tilings made up of regular polygons, semi-regular tilings, and irregular tilings. There are only five types of regular polyhedra—the tetrahedron, cube (or hexahedron), octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron—but there are numerous semi-regular polyhedra, including prisms and antiprisms.
8. Scratching the surface with cosmogenic isotopes
Authors: Ellam Rob
Published: April 2017

‘Scratching the surface with cosmogenic isotopes’ explains spallation—when a high energy cosmic ray particle removes several nucleons from an atom. Spallation produces 10Be from 16O in the atmosphere and rock surfaces, while spallation of silicon produces another cosmogenic isotope, 26Al. Cosmogenic isotope production is about four times greater at the poles than at the equator and is also greater at higher altitudes. To calculate a cosmogenic isotope exposure age, the latitude and altitude at which the sample was exposed needs to be known. Using ‘exposure’ and ‘burial’ methodologies, cosmogenic isotopes can be used to address various scientific problems such as recreating the seismic histories of tectonically active areas.
7. Molecular biology in the clinic
Authors: Divan Aysha , Royds Janice A.
Published: April 2017

Environmental agents can cause genetic and epigenetic changes to DNA, the consequences of which lead to deregulation of cellular processes and pathways that cause disease. Genetic variation can either be inherited if acquired through the germline or non-heritable when the DNA changes occur in somatic (body) cells. ‘Molecular biology in the clinic’ discusses two key contemporary areas of clinical research that have benefited from an improved knowledge of their molecular basis: ageing and cancer. It shows that we are now better able to predict disease risk and design drugs that have higher clinical efficacy by targeting specific molecular pathways.
9. Future challenges
Authors: Divan Aysha , Royds Janice A.
Published: April 2017

Advances in molecular biology provide us with opportunities for tackling chronic global issues. ‘Future challenges’ discusses two areas of molecular biology that will have significant impact on society in the coming years: non-communicable diseases and synthetic biology. Molecular biology is being applied to some of the most serious challenges facing our future health and longevity. These are the obesity epidemic, personalized medicine, and the impact of genetic diseases. Synthetic biology combines genetic engineering techniques with the practical principles of engineering to design and build new biological systems or organisms with novel or enhanced properties. What are the ethical and social concerns raised by this advancing technology?
7. Globalization and the rise of network governance
Authors: Theodoulou Stella Z. , Roy Ravi K.
Published: April 2017

The forces of globalization are compelling public administrators to direct their attention increasingly towards transnational forms of governance. ‘Globalization and the rise of network governance’ shows that in network governance-type systems, power and authority tend to be decentralized and dispersed among a variety of autonomous stakeholders operating beyond the scope and control of national governments. They are organized around values, concerns, issues, and problems ranging from global climate change to human security. Flexible and fluid in their organizational structure, they allow participants to flow in and out of a network as circumstances change. Examples of how governing networks have been particularly influential in addressing the climate change crisis are provided.
8. The future of public administration
Authors: Theodoulou Stella Z. , Roy Ravi K.
Published: April 2017

Both the field and the practice of public administration have been extraordinarily dynamic. While essential public services are not likely to disappear any time soon, the manner in which their administrative functions are carried out and evaluated is likely to change considerably. In a globalized world characterized by increasing uncertainty and growing expectations of demanding citizenry, the politics of budgetary austerity is pressing on public administrators at every level of government. They must think in radically different ways about what it means to govern in the 21st century. ‘The future of public administration’ predicts a future with new sets of challenges for the nation-state and its public administration systems.
2. The burden of the past
Authors: Beller Steven
Published: April 2017

To understand the emergence and success of antisemitism in the late 19th and 20th centuries, the significance of the centuries-long heritage of hostility between Christians and Jews needs to be recognized. This conflict over beliefs led to the institutionalization within medieval European Christendom of the Jews as a protected minority. ‘The burden of the past’ considers the legacy of Jewish–Christian relations in creating the phenomenon of antisemitism and the stereotypical image of Jews in the minds of non-Jewish people in Europe. Anti-Jewish prejudice was a necessary condition of antisemitism’s success, but the circumstances in which an atavistic prejudice became the basis for a modern political movement were also salient.
6. Concatenations
Authors: Beller Steven
Published: April 2017

By 1914, the scene was set for antisemitism on a large scale throughout Central and Eastern Europe. Racial antisemitism and ethno-nationalism had prevented a full integration of Jews into society. ‘Concatenations’ looks at the effect of antisemitism in all its variant forms on the Jewish situation within European society. Central European Jews adjusted to the new situation of racism and ethno-nationalism by adopting the same approach to their own identity: to form their own state, improve themselves, cure European society of antisemitism, and complete the emancipation by integration into humankind as a nation rather than as individuals. But how did this apparently manageable situation result in the Holocaust?