bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Homeschooling
Authors: Gaither Milton
Published: January 2020

The US homeschooling movement has grown steadily since the early 1980s. In that time a robust body of academic literature has emerged to assess various aspects of the phenomenon in relation to family life. This entry summarizes the findings of the literature on the history and demography of homeschooling in the United States, parental motivation, curriculum and social networks, and its impact on the life course.
Parents Who Are Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, or Transgender
Authors: Haden Sara Chiara , Applewhite Kimberly
Published: January 2020

The prevalence of children being raised by one or more parent who identifies as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender, has increased dramatically since the late 1990s. This entry discusses the prevalence of LGBT parenthood in the United States today, explores unique legal and epidemiological issues affecting this population, and reviews research on family functioning and child outcomes.
Immigrant Families
Authors: Maríñez‐Lora Ané M. , Cua Grace , Cruz Kenia , Patel Dhara
Published: January 2020

Immigrant families migrate with children, have their children join them in their settlement country once they are more established, or have children in the settlement country. How these children fare is influenced by their country of origin, their host country, race and ethnicity, religion, parental human and financial capital, parental degree of assimilation to the host culture, and the reasons for the migration.
Daycare and Its Effects
Authors: Shpancer Noam
Published: January 2020

Most US children spend time in daycare during their first 5 years of life. The effects of daycare on children's development are smaller than family influences. Daycare is not inherently harmful to children. Daycare may help to accelerate children's cognitive and language development and buffer against the ill‐effects of disadvantaged home environments. Daycare attendance predicts increased rates of infections and heightened stress, yet the developmental implications of these effects are unclear. Daycare is associated with increased child noncompliance and, when care quality is low, may also predict disruptions in parent–infant attachment. The positive effects of daycare are associated mainly with educationally stimulating, responsive care at high‐quality daycare centers. High‐quality daycare, however, is rare in the United States, and costs are often prohibitively high. Improving the quality, affordability, and accessibility of daycare is bound to help both children and parents thrive.
Nursery Schools and Classes
Authors: Prochner Larry
Published: January 2020

Nursery schools provide educational programs for young children, generally aged 2 to 4, prior to school‐starting age. Historically, nursery schools offered a combination of care and education for poor children using play‐oriented teaching strategies and focusing on socialization. The current trend is for nursery education, now called early childhood education, to be included in a comprehensive program of early childhood services or as part of state‐run schools as a noncompulsory preprimary class.
Compensatory Education
Authors: Melhuish Edward , Barnes Jacqueline
Published: January 2020

Children from disadvantaged backgrounds are likely to start school less well prepared than their peers. For many years researchers have worked on developing and testing the effectiveness of early education and care programs designed to improve these children's chances. Some programs start as early as the first year of life and others begin when children are 3 or 4 years old. Overall, the best evidence (summarized here) suggests that high‐quality programs offered in the first 3 years, especially if they continue after age 3, can produce benefits for cognitive, language, and social development. But, without follow‐on intervention, large initial impacts may not be sustained if children continue to experience disadvantage. From 3 years, disadvantaged children benefit in their cognitive and social development from high‐quality preschool provision if it has a well‐developed curriculum and well‐qualified teachers. Gains are likely to be evident in school and continue into adult life.
School Settings
Authors: Jessel John
Published: January 2020

In this entry the nature of primary education and the availability of an inclusive basic education worldwide are introduced and some key aspects of contemporary primary school settings outlined. These include the organization of compulsory education at national and school levels, school enrollment, class size, and the grouping of students. The cultural background of student populations and the linguistic diversity arising from migration are also considered, as are curriculum and learning approaches, the school year, and the school day. Topics relating to the physical amenities available, the impact of digital technology on school settings, and virtual schools are also introduced.
Immigrant Status Effects
Authors: Bagci Sabahat Cigdem
Published: January 2020

Given the massive numbers of immigrant families throughout the world, investigating the psychological consequences of immigration among children has become a critical research area in child development literature. Immigrant status leads to a range of divergent outcomes in children, affecting various aspects of their developmental trajectory. While for some children immigration has negative effects, others have been shown to display a more resilient outlook by achieving as well as, and sometimes even better than, native children. The relevant literature has demonstrated that the extent to which immigrant status affects developmental outcomes is quite complex and depends on the interplay between various macrolevel and microlevel factors, including country of origin and residence, socioeconomic status, familial capital, language proficiency, generational status, and discrimination. This entry outlines a general understanding of immigrant status effects on children's psychological and educational well‐being and discusses major theoretical perspectives in the study of immigration in childhood.
Television
Authors: Blades Mark
Published: January 2020

Children watch many hours of television each week. Television programs can be accessed on traditional television sets and on tablets and phones. Television provides information, knowledge, and entertainment, and can be a positive experience for children, through which they learn about the world. Television broadcasts can be less beneficial if children spend so much time in front of a screen that they are not engaged in more healthy activities. Television broadcasts may present a biased view of the world, for example, by showing inaccurate gender or racial stereotypes, or by promoting unattainable ideals of beauty or success. Children's television may also include inappropriate content, including advertisements for unhealthy products. Media literacy programs and other interventions are possible ways to protect children from the negative influences of television.
Adolescence in the Contemporary World
Authors: Lee Tak‐Yan
Published: January 2020

This entry traces the history of the study of adolescence and examines the definition from the perspectives of multiple disciplines. Adolescents growing up in a digital environment in the contemporary world both face similar issues to older generations and experience new difficulties in different ways. The entry reviews the research on adolescent developmental issues and integrates it from an ecological perspective. It also reviews major theories of adolescent development and challenges commonly found in developed countries from a developmental science perspective in order to identify research gaps and policy agendas for future action.
Transition From Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood
Authors: Shek Daniel T. L. , Dou Diya , Cheng Mabel N. S.
Published: January 2020

Emerging adulthood is neither late adolescence nor early adulthood. It is a period characterized by changes and possibilities, where one has increasing freedom for self‐exploration while receiving support from one's family of origin. Traditional “trademarks” of adulthood included marriage, parenthood, and the formation of a working identity. Most adults achieved these tasks in their early twenties. In contrast, the concept of emerging adulthood was proposed roughly two decades ago to describe a distinct life course of young adults in contemporary societies. Nowadays, teenagers are expected to pursue postsecondary education in order to equip themselves with professional knowledge in order to gain a decent job. As the rapidly changing economy has posed additional demands on new generations, young people have come to spend more time exploring their career opportunities. The impacts of this transformation include prolonged education, increased adjustment and readjustment, increased financial dependence on the family of origin, and delayed entry to marriage and parenthood.
Religious Development in Adolescence
Authors: Scarlett W. George
Published: January 2020

Developments in early adolescence make possible new and powerful connections to religion, connections that can have far‐reaching consequences for adolescents' religious–spiritual identity, and moral development. Using two major paradigms and four major theoretical perspectives for conceptualizing religious development, this entry provides an overview of scholarship on religious development in adolescence.
Values in Adolescence
Authors: Wong Dennis S. W. , Yeung Connie T. Y. Au
Published: January 2020

Values are beliefs and attitudes about the way the world should be ordered. Studies on human values have indicated that they are highly associated with our understanding of individual needs, motivations, social cognitions, and cultures. Numerous studies focusing on aspects of human values have been undertaken over the past few decades. Studies have examined value orientation; the dimension and structure of values; cultural values; and personality, reasoning, and values. To develop a comprehensive understanding of values in adolescence, this entry highlights a few prominent theories of human values. The entry describes studies that have adopted well‐known measurements of youth values and discusses empirical studies of some other youth values for comparison. Similarities and differences with respect to crucial values among young people in the East and West are discussed.
Assessment of Adolescent Mental Disorders
Authors: Ho Man Yee , Kwan Chi Kin
Published: January 2020

This entry provides conceptual and practical justifications for including chronological age in psychiatric diagnosis and mental health assessment. Considerations in the clinical assessment of adolescents and the types of clinical assessment that are available for adolescents are discussed, together with the assessment tools for diagnosing common mental disorders in adolescence, the role and relevance of developmental psychopathology, and developmental considerations in psychiatric diagnosis. The entry also outlines positive mental health assessment in adolescents.
Treatment of Adolescent Mental Disorders
Authors: Davies Benjamin R. , Allen Nicholas B.
Published: January 2020

Adolescents seeking help for mental disorders have many options for effective treatment and, as such, evidence‐based practice needs to be able to match individual adolescents with the most effective treatment approach. However, there is no definitive guide to what treatment regimen will be most effective for a given adolescent. This entry discusses various approaches to treatment selection, including developmental and demographic considerations, varying treatment modalities (i.e., psychosocial, pharmacological, somatic), clinical staging, and transdiagnostic approaches to both the prevention and the treatment of adolescent‐onset mental disorders. While diagnosis is a powerful tool to match clients to treatments, recent advances are increasingly allowing practitioners to move beyond this framework to address each individual and their presenting psychopathology more precisely. Along with providing effective intervention for individual cases of mental disorders, practitioners must also move beyond the treatment of individual clients, and measure success by the reduction of population‐wide mental distress.
Diagnosis of Adolescent Mental Disorders: Cross‐Cultural Issues
Authors: Suen Yi‐Nam , Hui Christy L. M. , Chen Eric Y. H.
Published: January 2020

Adolescence is a rapid phase of human development at all levels—biologically, psychologically, and socially. The order of most of the biological changes appears to be universal, but the timing and the speed of changes may vary between individuals. During adolescence, important neuronal developments take place in regions of the brain such as the limbic system (which is associated with emotion regulation, reward processing, pleasure seeking, and sleep regulation) and the prefrontal cortex (which is associated with executive functions in late adolescence). Psychosocial and emotional changes occur in parallel with the hormonal and neurodevelopmental changes during adolescence. As their cognitive and intellectual capacities increase, adolescents develop reasoning skills, logic, and moral thinking. They also become more capable of abstract thinking and of making rational judgments. The changes that take place in the adolescent environment and the internal changes of adolescence are interrelated. External influences, which differ between cultures and societies, include social values and norms, as well as the changing roles, responsibilities, relationships, and expectations during this period of life. This entry discusses how culture shapes the experience of, and communication about, mental disorders in adolescence, as well as how it relates to the development of mental disorders.
Metacognition
Authors: Selmeczy Diana , Ghetti Simona
Published: January 2020

Metacognition refers to the ability to self‐reflect about our own cognitions, such as feeling confident when we are right and uncertain when we are wrong. Metacognition begins to emerge during early childhood and improves throughout middle childhood and adolescence. Infants and toddlers engage in behaviors that indicate early knowledge of mental states using nonverbal behaviors. Metacognition using verbal indicators emerges during early childhood, and improves substantially throughout childhood as children become more sensitive to subtle differences in mental states. Older children and adolescents become increasingly sophisticated in their metacognition and use it to guide their decisions in complex situations. The entry outlines the chronological development of metacognition throughout childhood and discusses areas of applied and future research.
Alcohol Use
Authors: Peeters Margot , Cousijn Janna
Published: January 2020

Experimenting with alcohol use in adolescence is age‐normative behavior. Around 60–80% of adolescents have experimented with alcohol use before the age of 18. However, for some adolescents this experimenting with drinking results in persistent and uncontrolled use of alcohol. Why are some adolescents more resilient or vulnerable to alcohol misuse? And can we identify possible risky drinking patterns in adolescence? This entry discusses predictors and consequences of alcohol use while focusing on both social and cognitive processes in relation to trajectories of alcohol use in adolescence and young adulthood.
Sleep
Authors: Miller Michelle A.
Published: January 2020

Sleep has a number of functions. It important for restoration and recovery of the body, fighting infection, alertness, memory and performance, brain development, and the regulation of mood, emotions, and behavior. Evidence suggests that children in our society are unlikely to obtain sufficient sleep on a regular basis. Short sleep and sleep disorders can have major effects on the mental and physical health and well‐being of young people. There are a number of social, environmental, and health‐related factors that might affect young people's sleep, and these need to be addressed along with ways in which sleep may be improved.
Learning Disabilities
Authors: O'Neill Sue C. , Cumming Therese M. , Grima‐Farrell Christine , Strnadová Iva
Published: January 2020

There is a societal expectation that all young people who complete their secondary education will be literate and numerate and, increasingly, meet national standards. However, not all young people who leave school are equipped with functional levels in either domain, and for those with learning disorders or disabilities an early departure from the school system is common. These early departures can impact young people's immediate and future employment prospects, and for some increase the chances of involvement in criminal and antisocial activities. In this entry, learning disabilities are defined and their prevalence and diagnosis are briefly reported, and a discussion is offered of the impacts of this disability on adolescents' academic, behavioral, and social–emotional functioning as well as their transition to postschool life. The entry also discusses evidence‐based interventions that can address these areas.
Group Dynamics
Authors: McGuire Luke , Rutland Adam
Published: January 2020

Relations between social groups play a crucial role in the development of social understanding between middle childhood and adolescence. Recently, theoretical insights from the group dynamics literature have been applied to an examination of children's developing moral reasoning. An emerging line of research argues that the social and intergroup context of children's moral decisions must be taken into consideration to more fully understand children's moral reasoning and behavior. This entry presents an overview of a developmental intergroup perspective, the social reasoning development (SRD) approach, which draws on social identity and social domain theories. The SRD approach aims to extend understanding of the dual importance and developing coordination of group dynamics and intergroup factors in children's moral development. Following an examination of this theoretical framework, recent work drawing from this perspective is outlined, with a particular focus on how group norms and intergroup processes play a role in the context of morally relevant resource allocation tasks. Resource allocation often involves coordinating information regarding the group identities of recipients as well as the potential inter‐ and intragroup consequences of biased or fair allocation strategies. It is therefore a key context in which intergroup dynamics should be studied.
Family Context
Authors: Pote Helen
Published: January 2020

The influence of the family during the adolescent period has been clearly demonstrated across a range of adolescent developmental domains. This entry focuses on adolescent psychological outcomes and reviews models of family functioning, with a focus on the adolescent period; family context research that has taken a reciprocal and holistic view of adolescent development; and family interventions to alleviate psychological distress during the adolescent period. The role that family factors, such as family cohesion, play in the development of adolescent emotional and behavioral outcomes is not fully understood. The family context may be a primary risk factor for negative outcomes, or, if it is functioning well, the family may act as a protective buffer against other cumulative risk factors. Further research is required that considers the family context in a fully reciprocal manner and tries to elucidate explanatory mechanisms for the influence of family functioning upon adolescent development.
Peer Support of Mental Health
Authors: Heary Caroline , Hennessy Eilis
Published: January 2020

While much is known about the processes by which peer influences can lead to maladaptive outcomes, much less is known about how peers can enhance and protect the mental health of adolescents. Peer support can come from friendships, romantic relationships, and the broader peer network. This entry considers evidence for the promotive and protective effects of peer support on adolescent well‐being. There is now substantial evidence to suggest that peers can enhance adolescent well‐being and psychosocial adjustment, and effectively support adolescents through difficult times. How such support interacts with support from family or school deserves further attention. The entry considers evidence on interventions that capitalize on the value of peer support as a means of promoting positive health outcomes. While there are some initial promising findings, more robust evidence is needed. Interventions must also consider the potential risks and benefits to all involved.
Grooming
Authors: Brown Sarah J. , Walker Kate
Published: January 2020

Groomingis a term that has become widely used in relation to child sexual abuse and exploitation, with media attention and public concern leading to the introduction of legislation in at least 196 countries to try to prevent it. Despite this, there is variation in definitions and confusion over the use of the term. It is most commonly used to describe behaviors prior to abuse, such as the identification of a potential victim who is manipulated into situations that allow the abuse to take place. Behaviors by perpetrators to maintain abuse and to keep the victims, their significant others, and the community from disclosing it are also included in many explanations of grooming. As many of these behaviors, such as spending time with a child or adolescent, are typical and normal behaviors, with only the intent of the perpetrator making such acts of concern, it is extremely difficult to identify grooming prior to abuse/exploitation.
Civic Engagement and Community Consciousness
Authors: Flanagan Constance
Published: January 2020

Civic engagement refers to the collective actions of people working together to create the kinds of communities and societies they want to live in. When people engage in civic affairs, they are making decisions about the commons, those resources that belong to everyone within a community and for which everyone is responsible. Civic engagement is positively associated with personal and community health and well‐being. Community consciousness denotes one's awareness of a group, neighborhood, or some kind of public beyond the private world of one's family. Community consciousness is both a predictor and an outcome of civic engagement. During the course of development, children and adolescents become participating members of their polity by being engaged members of mini‐polities (e.g., schools, community‐based organizations) that are part of the public sphere. Through collective actions (e.g., speaking up, taking a stand, organizing with others to effect a positive change) in these mini‐polities, young people cocreate what it means to be a member of their local community, state, and nation with the prerogatives and obligations associated with membership.
Impulsivity in Adolescence: Predictors and Consequences
Authors: Khurana Atika , Romer Daniel
Published: January 2020

This entry reviews the history of the study of impulsivity, primarily as a psychological concept, noting its multifaceted nature and wide‐ranging implications for externalizing behavior problems, especially in adolescents. The concept was originally studied as a personality disposition but was then made more precise by researchers using animal models who distinguished between impulsive action and impulsive choice. This distinction is used to organize the vast literature on this topic as it has evolved. This entry considers how impulsivity differs from the related concept of novelty or reward seeking and how it intersects with research on executive function. The entry reviews its connection with various adolescent risk behaviors and suggests potential avenues for future research to reduce its adverse effects in children and adolescents.
Love: Theories and Stages
Authors: Seiffge‐Krenke Inge
Published: January 2020

This entry describes the developmental sequence of romantic relationships. Early adolescent romantic relationships are often transient and capricious, and middle adolescent romance is highly passionate and sometimes idealistic. In contrast, romantic relationships in the latter stages of adolescence are in general less idealistic and often take a more pragmatic perspective. This entry summarizes empirical evidence for the different stages of romance, including research infrequency, duration, and quality of romantic relations, as well as the impact of gender and culture.
Personality Disorders in Adolescence
Authors: Wall Kiana , Leavitt Jacob , Sharp Carla
Published: January 2020

Once a taboo subject, the study of personality disorders in adolescence has received much attention in recent years. This review of the burgeoning literature begins by placing the study of youth personality pathology in the broader context of the study of personality pathology in general. It then reviews major advances in this area of research and explains some of the barriers previously limiting research in this area. It concludes with a summary of current and future research, and clinical and policy directions.
Evaluation of a new secondary dose calculation software for Gamma Knife radiosurgery
Authors: Prusator Michael T. , Zhao Tianyu , Kavanaugh James A. , Santanam Lakshmi , Dise Joe , Goddu S. Murty , Mitchell Timothy J. , Zoberi Jacqueline E. , Kim Taeho , Mutic Sasa , Knutson Nels C.
Published: January 2020

Current available secondary dose calculation software for Gamma Knife radiosurgery falls short in situations where the target is shallow in depth or when the patient is positioned with a gamma angle other than 90°. In this work, we evaluate a new secondary calculation software which utilizes an innovative method to handle nonstandard gamma angles and image thresholding to render the skull for dose calculation. 800 treatment targets previously treated with our GammaKnife Icon system were imported from our treatment planning system (GammaPlan 11.0.3) and a secondary dose calculation was conducted. The agreement between the new calculations and the TPS were recorded and compared to the original secondary dose calculation agreement with the TPS using a Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test. Further comparisons using a Mann‐Whitney test were made for targets treated at a 90° gamma angle against those treated with either a 70 or 110 gamma angle for both the new and commercial secondary dose calculation systems. Correlations between dose deviations from the treatment planning system against average target depth were evaluated using a Kendall’s Tau correlation test for both programs. The Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test indicated a significant difference in the agreement between the two secondary calculations and the TPS, with a P‐value < 0.0001. With respect to patients treated at nonstandard gamma angles, the new software was largely independent of patient setup, while the commercial software showed a significant dependence (P‐value < 0.0001). The new secondary dose calculation software showed a moderate correlation with calculation depth, while the commercial software showed a weak correlation (Tau = −.322 and Tau = −.217 respectively). Overall, the new secondary software has better agreement with the TPS than the commercially available secondary calculation software over a range of diverse treatment geometries.
An expanded parenchymal CD8+ T cell clone in GABAA receptor encephalitis
Authors: Bracher Aline , Alcalá Carmen , Ferrer Jaime , Melzer Nico , Hohlfeld Reinhard , Casanova Bonaventura , Beltrán Eduardo , Dornmair Klaus
Published: January 2020

The role of T cells in autoimmune encephalitis syndromes with autoantibodies against cell surface antigens is still enigmatic. Here we analyzed the T cell receptor repertoires of CD8+ and CD4+ T cells in a patient with “idiopathic” gamma‐aminobutyric‐acid‐A receptor (GABAA‐R) encephalitis by next‐generation sequencing and single‐cell analyses. We identified a CD8+ T cell clone that was strongly expanded in the cerebrospinal fluid and in the hippocampus but not in the operculo‐insular cortex. By contrast, CD4+ T cells were polyclonal in these tissues. Such a strong clonal expansion suggests that CD8+ T cells may play a significant role in the pathogenesis.
Nanocontact Tailoring via Microlensing Enables Giant Postfabrication Mesoscopic Tuning in a Self‐Assembled Ultrasonic Metamaterial
Authors: Ghanem Maroun Abi , Khanolkar Amey , Zhao Han , Boechler Nicholas
Published: January 2020

The ability to tune the resonant frequency of a self‐assembled ultrasonic metamaterial with mesoscale spatial resolution, after fabrication, by up to 250% is demonstrated. This tunability is achieved by the microlensing‐enabled modification of nanocontact features, wherein the metamaterial resonant elements “dig in” to the substrate. In addition to tunability exceeding prior MHz–GHz frequency ultrasonic metamaterial examples, the system presented herein can be tuned after assembly at a spatial resolution commensurate with the laser spot's diameter. It is posited that these aforementioned advantages will enable a new class of ultrasonic gradient index devices, such as ultrasonic elastic wave cloaks, that can be manufactured in a scalable manner and then rapidly tuned. Finally, it is expected that this large tunability at ultrasonic frequencies will have broader application to areas including optomechanics, acoustoplasmonics, quantum‐mechanical oscillators, and adhesion control.
Water and radiation use in maize–pea intercropping is enhanced with increased plant density
Authors: Fan Zhilong , Chai Qiang , Yu Aizhong , Zhao Cai , Yin Wen , Hu Falong , Chen Guodong , Cao Weidong , Coulter Jeffrey A.
Published: January 2020

Crop management to improve water use is a well‐established strategy for the effective use of limited natural resources in intercropping systems. Here, maize (Zea mays L.)– pea (Pisum sativum L.) strip intercropping with three maize densities (D1: 45,000, D2: 52,500, and D3: 60,000 plants ha−1) was compared to sole maize with three maize densities and sole pea. Soil water extraction and water difference were determined through soil water content over depth and across rows in intercropping, measured six times during the growing season. Land equivalent ratio (LER), radiation use efficiency (RUEGY for grain yield, and RUEBM for biomass), and water use efficiency (WUE) were calculated to compare intercropping with sole cropping. A soil water supplement potential from intercropped maize strips to intercropped pea was observed during the pea independent growth and co‐growth with maize periods, which declined as the growing season progressed and with increased maize density. After pea harvest, the potential of compensatory soil water for maize existed from the pea strips, which was greater with increased maize density. Maize–pea intercropping produced 23–38% greater total yield than corresponding sole crops, as the LER ranged from 1.23 to 1.38. Maize–pea intercropping with D3 attained the greatest grain yield, RUEGY, RUEBM, and WUE among three maize density treatments, and was 10, 9, 17, and 14% greater than that of corresponding sole maize. Increasing maize density increased grain yield, radiation and water use efficiency, and LER, indicating that the intercropping advantage was improved with increased maize density.
Endemic violence in a pre‐Hispanic Andean community: A bioarchaeological study of cranial trauma from the Majes Valley, Peru
Authors: Scaffidi Beth K. , Tung Tiffiny A.
Published: January 2020

Objectives

This study examines violence‐related cranial trauma frequencies and wound characteristics in the pre‐Hispanic cemetery of Uraca in the lower Majes Valley, Arequipa, Peru, dating to the pre‐ and early‐Wari periods (200–750 CE). Cranial wounds are compared between status and sex‐based subgroups to understand how violence shaped, and was shaped by, these aspects of identity, and to reconstruct the social contexts of violence carried out by and against Uracans.

Materials and Methods

Presence, location, and characteristics (lethality, penetration, and post‐traumatic sequelae) of antemortem and perimortem cranial fractures are documented for 145 crania and compared between subgroups. Cranial wounds are mapped in ArcGIS and the locational distribution of injuries is compared between male and female crania.

Results

Middle adult males were disproportionately interred at Uraca, particularly in the elite Sector I. The Uraca mortuary population presents the highest rate of cranial trauma reported for pre‐Hispanic Peru: 67% of adults present trauma, and among those, 61.1% present more than one cranial injury. Males exhibit significantly more cranial trauma than females and present a higher mean number of injuries per person. Elite males show the highest mean number of injuries per person, more antemortem injuries, and are the only ones with perimortem cranial trauma, bladed injuries, penetrating injuries, and post‐traumatic sequelae. Both sexes were most frequently injured on the anterior of the cranium, while the proportion of posterior injuries was higher for females.

Discussion

The rate, intensity, and locational patterns of cranial trauma suggests the community was engaged in raids and/or war with enemy groups, some of which may have increased physical violence between community members. Engaging in violence was likely a prerequisite for burial in the elite sector and was bound up with the generation and maintenance of social status differences linked to male social life.
Host–Guest Chemistry Within Cellulose Nanocrystal Gel Receptors
Authors: Zhang Dongjie , Soto Miguel A. , Lewis Lev , Hamad Wadood Y. , MacLachlan Mark J.
Published: January 2020

Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) spontaneously assemble into gels when mixed with a polyionic organic or inorganic salt. Here, we have used this ion‐induced gelation strategy to create functional CNC gels with a rigid tetracationic macrocycle, cyclobis(paraquat‐p‐phenylene) (CBPQT4+). Addition of [CBPQT]Cl4 to CNCs causes gelation and embeds an active host inside the material. The fabricated CNC gels can reversibly absorb guest molecules from solution then undergo molecular recognition processes that create colorful host–guest complexes. These materials have been implemented in gel chromatography (for guest exchange and separation), and as elements to encode 2‐ and 3‐dimensional patterns. We anticipate that this concept might be extended to design a set of responsive and selective gel‐like materials functioning as, for instance, water‐pollutant scavengers, substrates for chiral separations, or molecular flasks.
NHC/Nickel(II)‐Catalyzed [3+2] Cross‐Dimerization of Unactivated Olefins and Methylenecyclopropanes
Authors: Huang Jian‐Qiang , Ho Chun‐Yu
Published: January 2020

Cross‐dimerization of a methylenecyclopropane (1) and an unactivated alkene (2) with typical hydroalkenylation reactivity was observed for the first time by using a [NHC‐Ni(allyl)]BArF catalyst (NHC=N‐heterocyclic carbene). Results show that the C−C cleavage of 1 did not involve a Ni0 oxidative addition, which was crucial in former systems. Thus the method reported here emerges as a complementary method for attaining highly chemo‐ and regioselective synthesis of methylenecyclopentanes (3) with broad scope. An efficient NHC/NiII‐catalyzed rearrangement of 1 leads to the convergent synthesis of 3 in the presence of 2.
Crosstalk‐Free Patterning of Cooperative‐Thermoresponse Images by the Synergy of the AIEgen with the Liquid Crystal
Authors: Zhao Ye , Zhao Xiaoyu , Li Ming‐De , Li Zhong'an , Peng Haiyan , Xie Xiaolin
Published: January 2020

Patterning multiple images within a single element without crosstalk can significantly increase the information capacity and security, but it is challenging to enable the response capability in each image. Now, the patterning of crosstalk‐free yet cooperative‐thermoresponse images (holographic and fluorescent images) is successfully achieved by designing a liquid crystal (LC)/AIEgen system with a unique synergy. The AIEgen's fluorescence intensity is controlled by the LC, while the LC's phase transition is in turn promoted by the AIEgen. The fluorescent image contrast is significantly boosted by efficient energy transfer (ΦET: 96 %) from the LC to the AIEgen. The AIEgen's photocyclization for fluorescent patterning occurs in a zero‐order kinetic manner and can be completed within several minutes when assisted by the LC. The photocyclization conversion is quantitatively dependent on the aggregation size: α∼exp(‐d), and able to reach as high as 98 %.
Efficient Solar‐Driven Water Harvesting from Arid Air with Metal–Organic Frameworks Modified by Hygroscopic Salt
Authors: Xu Jiaxing , Li Tingxian , Chao Jingwei , Wu Si , Yan Taisen , Li Wenchen , Cao Biye , Wang Ruzhu
Published: January 2020

Freshwater scarcity is a global challenge threatening human survival, especially for people living in arid regions. Sorption‐based atmospheric water harvesting (AWH) is an appealing way to solve this problem. However, the state‐of‐the‐art AWH technologies have poor water harvesting performance in arid climates owing to the low water sorption capacity of common sorbents under low humidity conditions. We report a high‐performance composite sorbent for efficient water harvesting from arid air by confining hygroscopic salt in a metal–organic framework matrix (LiCl@MIL‐101(Cr)). The composite sorbent shows 0.77 g g−1 water sorption capacity at 1.2 kPa vapor pressure (30 % relative humidity at 30 °C) by integrating the multi‐step sorption processes of salt chemisorption, deliquescence, and solution absorption. A highly efficient AWH prototype is demonstrated with LiCl@MIL‐101(Cr) that can enable the harvesting of 0.45–0.7 kg water per kilogram of material under laboratory and outdoor ambient conditions powered by natural sunlight without optical concentration and additional energy input.
Designing Covalent Organic Frameworks with a Tailored Ionic Interface for Ion Transport across One‐Dimensional Channels
Authors: Xu Qing , Tao Shanshan , Jiang Qiuhong , Jiang Donglin
Published: January 2020

A strategy based on covalent organic frameworks for ultrafast ion transport involves designing an ionic interface to mediate ion motion. Electrolyte chains were integrated onto the walls of one‐dimensional channels to construct ionic frameworks via pore surface engineering, so that the ionic interface can be systematically tuned at the desired composition and density. This strategy enables a quantitative correlation between interface and ion transport and unveils a full picture of managing ionic interface to achieve high‐rate ion transport. Moreover, the effect of interfaces was scaled on ion transport; ion mobility is increased in an exponential mode with the ionic interface. This strategy not only sets a benchmark system but also offers a general guidance for designing ionic interface that is key to systems for energy conversion and storage.
A Comparison of Two Isoreticular Metal–Organic Frameworks with Cationic and Neutral Skeletons: Stability, Mechanism, and Catalytic Activity
Authors: Huang Ge , Yang Li , Yin Qi , Fang Zhi‐Bin , Hu Xiao‐Jing , Zhang An‐An , Jiang Jun , Liu Tian‐Fu , Cao Rong
Published: January 2020

Although many ionic metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have been reported, little is known about how the charge of the skeleton affects the properties of the MOF materials. Herein we report how the chemical stability of MOFs can be substantially improved through embedding electrostatic interactions in structure. A MOF with a cationic skeleton is impervious to extremely acidic, oxidative, reductive, and high ionic strength conditions, such as 12 m HCl (301 days), aqua regia (86 days), H2O2 (30 days), and seawater (30 days), which is unprecedented for MOFs. DFT calculations suggested that steric hinderance and the repulsive interaction of the cationic framework toward positively charged species in microenvironments protects the vulnerable bonds in the structure. Diverse functionalities can be bestowed by substituting the counterions of the charged framework with identically charged functional species, which broadens the horizon in the design of MOFs adaptable to a demanding environment with specific functionalities.
B(C6F5)3/Chiral Phosphoric Acid Catalyzed Ketimine–Ene Reaction of 2‐Aryl‐3H‐indol‐3‐ones and α‐Methylstyrenes
Authors: Zhang Qing‐Xia , Li Yao , Wang Jie , Yang Chen , Liu Cheng‐Jun , Li Xin , Cheng Jin‐Pei
Published: January 2020

The enantioselective ketimine–ene reaction is one of the most challenging stereocontrolled reaction types in organic synthesis. In this work, catalytic enantioselective ketimine–ene reactions of 2‐aryl‐3H‐indol‐3‐ones with α‐methylstyrenes were achieved by utilizing a B(C6F5)3/chiral phosphoric acid (CPA) catalyst. These ketimine–ene reactions proceed well with low catalyst loading (B(C6F5)3/CPA=2 mol %/2 mol %) under mild conditions, providing rapid and facile access to a series of functionalized 2‐allyl‐indolin‐3‐ones with very good reactivity (up to 99 % yield) and excellent enantioselectivity (up to 99 %ee). Theoretical calculations reveal that enhancement of the acidity of the chiral phosphoric acid by B(C6F5)3significantly reduces the activation free energy barrier. Furthermore, collective favorable hydrogen‐bonding interactions, especially the enhanced N−H⋅⋅⋅O hydrogen‐bonding interaction, differentiates the free energy of the transition states of CPA and B(C6F5)3/CPA, thereby inducing the improvement of stereoselectivity.
Potent Dual BET/HDAC Inhibitors for Efficient Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer
Authors: He Shipeng , Dong Guoqiang , Li Yu , Wu Shanchao , Wang Wei , Sheng Chunquan
Published: January 2020

As one of the most aggressive and lethal human malignancies with extremely poor prognosis, there is an urgent demand of more effective therapy for the treatment of pancreatic cancer. Reported here is a new, effective therapeutic strategy and the design of small‐molecule inhibitors that simultaneously target bromodomain and extra‐terminal (BET) and histone deacetylase (HDAC), potentially serving as promising therapeutic agents for pancreatic cancer. A highly potent dual inhibitor (13 a) is identified to possess excellent and balanced activities against BRD4 BD1 (IC50=11 nm) and HDAC1 (IC50=21 nm). Notably, this compound shows higher in vitro and in vivo antitumor potency than the BET inhibitor (+)‐JQ1 and the HDAC inhibitor vorinostat, either alone or and in combination, highlighting the advantages of BET/HDAC dual inhibitors for more effective treatment of pancreatic cancer.
Solid‐Phase Total Synthesis of Yaku'amide B Enabled by Traceless Staudinger Ligation
Authors: Itoh Hiroaki , Miura Kensuke , Kamiya Koichi , Yamashita Tomoya , Inoue Masayuki
Published: January 2020

We report a solid‐phase strategy for total synthesis of the peptidic natural product yaku'amide B (1), which exhibits antiproliferative activity against various cancer cells. Its linear tridecapeptide sequence bears four β,β‐dialkylated α,β‐dehydroamino acid residues and is capped with an N‐terminal acyl group (NTA) and a C‐terminal amine (CTA). To realize the Fmoc‐based solid‐phase synthesis of this complex structure, we developed new methods for enamide formation, enamide deprotection, and C‐terminal modification. First, traceless Staudinger ligation enabled enamide formation between sterically encumbered alkenyl azides and newly designed phosphinophenol esters. Second, application of Eu(OTf)3 led to chemoselective removal of the enamide Boc groups without detaching the resin linker. Finally, resin‐cleavage and C‐terminus modification were simultaneously achieved with an ester–amide exchange reaction using CTA and AlMe3 to deliver 1 in 9.1 % overall yield (24 steps from the resin).
Molecular Evidence for Metallic Cobalt Boosting CO2 Electroreduction on Pyridinic Nitrogen
Authors: He Chao , Zhang Yun , Zhang Yuefeng , Zhao Lu , Yuan Lu‐Pan , Zhang Jianan , Ma Jianmin , Hu Jin‐Song
Published: January 2020

Nitrogen‐doped carbon materials (N‐Cmat) are emerging as low‐cost metal‐free electrocatalysts for the electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR), although the activities are still unsatisfactory and the genuine active site is still under debate. We demonstrate that the CO2RR to CO preferentially takes place on pyridinic N rather than pyrrolic N using phthalocyanine (Pc) and porphyrin with well‐defined N‐Cmat configurations as molecular model catalysts. Systematic experiments and theoretic calculations further reveal that the CO2RR performance on pyridinic N can be significantly boosted by electronic modulation from in‐situ‐generated metallic Co nanoparticles. By introducing Co nanoparticles, Co@Pc/C can achieve a Faradaic efficiency of 84 % and CO current density of 28 mA cm−2 at −0.9 V, which are 18 and 47 times higher than Pc/C without Co, respectively. These findings provide new insights into the CO2RR on N‐Cmat, which may guide the exploration of cost‐effective electrocatalysts for efficient CO2 reduction.
Lactone monomers obtained by enzyme catalysis and their use in reversible thermoresponsive networks
Authors: Farhat Wissam , Biundo Antonino , Stamm Arne , Malmström Eva , Syrén Per‐Olof
Published: January 2020

Enzyme‐catalyzed transformations have a great potential in both the pharmaceutical and chemical industry to achieve complex and (stereo)selective synthesis under mild reaction conditions. Still, the implementation of biocatalysis in the prerequisite upgrading of inert synthons into activated monomers for polymer applications has not yet been fully realized. In this contribution, we show that scaled‐up synthesis of bicyclic norcamphor lactone using an engineered Baeyer–Villiger monooxygenase (BVMO) is feasible to reach complete conversion of the corresponding ketone in 24 h in shake‐flask. The lactone monomer obtained by enzyme catalysis was copolymerized with ε‐caprolactone via ring‐opening polymerization to study the impact of the additional ring on material properties. Moreover, four‐arm star‐like, homo and block copolymers were designed from ε‐caprolactone, ε‐decalactone, and norcamphor lactone and characterized for their structural and thermal properties. These newly explored macromolecules were functionalized with furan rings using the enzyme Candida antarctica lipase B which allowed the formation of thermolabile networks via the pericyclic reaction with bismaleimide by means of Diels–Alder chemistry. The bonding/debonding state of these star‐like based materials can be tuned by a suitable selection of thermal treatment. The temperature‐dependent reversibility was assessed by thermal analysis and solubility test. Our results presented here shed light on the high potential of the use of chemoenzymatic approaches in the synthesis of new functional materials with tuned physiochemical properties. © 2020 The Authors. Journal of Applied Polymer Science published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2020, 137, 48949.
High‐performance poly(vinylidene fluoride)‐polyamide 11/lithium niobate nanocomposites for the applications in air filtration
Authors: Yuan Yali , Dong Chenglei , Zhao Jun , Liu Yaoyi , Shao Yiqin , Li Jinzhen , Zhong Chen , Ye Lin , Song Rui , Zhang Hui , Zhang Zhong
Published: January 2020

To overcome the fiber‐spinning problem of poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) because of its high melt viscosity and rapid crystallization, polyamide 11 (PA11) with excellent melt spinning capability and good electret properties is incorporated to prepare blends by melt mixing. Their crystal structure, morphology, electrical polarization properties, and melt spinning performance are systematically characterized by various techniques. It is found that the incorporation of PA11 reduces the crystallinity of PVDF, increases its thermally stimulated discharge current, and reduces its viscosity. Therefore, the blends show much better melt spinning capability. For such blends, the addition of outstanding inorganic electret materials, lithium niobate (LiNbO3, LN) nanoparticles is found to further improve the materials’ electret properties. Such a strategy is proved to be successful in melt spinning PVDF electrets into fine fibers, which is beneficial to their applications in air filtration and other related fields. © 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2020, 137, 48957.