Deposition &#160;of plutonium isotopes in glacial environments in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
Authors: Łokas Edyta , Baccolo Giovanni Baccolo , Clason Caroline , Wachniew Przemysław , Takeuchi Nozomu , Zawierucha Krzysztof , Beard Dylan , Ambrosini Roberto , Pittino Francesca , Franzetti Andrea , Owens Phil , Poniecka Ewa , Blake William , Nastasi Massimiliano , Buda Jakub 
Published: March 2021

&lt;p&gt;Glaciers are temporary repositories for radionuclides and other airborne contaminants (eg. heavy metals). Retreat of glaciers results in the release of these contaminants to downstream ecosystems where they can be accumulated by biota, with further consequences along the trophic chain. Fallout radionuclides, and especially Pu released from nuclear weapons testing and nuclear accidents, concentrates on glacier surfaces in cryoconite granules. These aggregates of mineral and organic components are associated with biological consortia composed of archaea, algae, cyanobacteria, fungi and heterotrophic bacteria (Cook et al., 2016). Cryoconite is also responsible for local decrease ice albedo and is responsible for formation of water-filled holes. Contaminants are effectively trapped in cryoconite granules for long periods (up to decades) due to the &amp;#8220;sticky&amp;#8221; nature of the material. Cryoconite can thus be useful in monitoring of radionuclide deposition on glaciers (&amp;#321;okas et al., 2019; Giovanni et al., 2020).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Our collective research reveals widespread incidence of Pu isotopes in cryoconite across multiple sites on both hemispheres, including Svalbard, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, British Columbia, Alaska, the European Alps, the Caucasus, Siberia, Tien Shan, Altai, South America and Antarctica. The levels of plutonium isotopes (238,239,240Pu) found in cryoconite at these sites are orders of magnitude higher than those detected in non-glaciated environments, raising important questions around the role of glaciers, and specifically cryoconite, in concentrating levels of Pu isotopes above those found in the surrounding environment. The activity ratios of 238Pu/239+240Pu show that the plutonium-related radioactivity of cryoconite from the Northern hemisphere is compatible with the worldwide signal from the global radioactive fallout (0.025) but in some samples from Svalbard higher activity ratios are associated with an additional source of pure 238Pu, pointing to an influence of the SNAP-9A satellite burn up in the atmosphere occurred in 1964. Also activity ratios from South America and Antarctica are consistent with the global radioactive fallout ratio (including SNAP 9 re-entry) in the southern hemisphere (0.14), with an exception concerning cryoconite from the Exploradores Glacier (Chilean Patagonia, ratio 0.35). There are no known nuclear test sites near this glacier which could explain this anomalous value. However, there is also no information about the atmospheric re-entry of the automatic Interplanetary Station &amp;#8220;Mars&amp;#8217;96&amp;#8221; which was launched on 16 November 1996. It fell off the coast of Chile near the border with Bolivia and was not found so far. There were considerable quantities of 238Pu on board of the station, with a total activity of 174 TBq (IAEA, 2001). We hypothesize that this event could explain the anomaly observed at Exploradores Glacier, confirming the unmatched potential of cryoconite to study environmental radioactivity in glacial contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Acknowledgements&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;This study was supported by the National Science Center grant no. NCN 2018/31/B/ST10/03057.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cook et al., 2016. Progress in Physical Geography,&amp;#160;40(1), 66-111.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Giovanni et al., 2020.&amp;#160;CATENA,&amp;#160;191, 104577.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;IAEA, 2001.&amp;#160;International&amp;#160;Atomic&amp;#160;Energy&amp;#160;Agency&amp;#160;IAEA,&amp;#160;Vienna).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#321;okas et al., 2019.&amp;#160;The Cryosphere,&amp;#160;13(7), 2075-2086.&lt;/p&gt;