bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On the Handling of Heavy Bias in a Self-Paced Task
Authors: Leonard J. A. , Newman R. C. , Carpenter A.
Published: July 2007

Following an earlier observation that systematic variations in performance on a task with heavy frequency imbalance was correlated with fluctuations in the amount of bias in the input programme, an experiment was carried out to establish the roles of long and short term sampling. Two groups of subjects were trained on a self-paced, five-choice task. One group's input had an average of 68 per cent. bias on one source, the other had 44 per cent. on the same source. Analysis of data was carried out on three levels of local bias for each condition, one level being identical for both conditions. It was found that responses to the biased stimuli were determined by the average bias in each input sequence and not by moment to moment variations in that bias. The effect observed originally can therefore be accounted for in terms of a relatively simple additive model which includes the “repetition effect” first described by Bertelson.
Comparison of the Effect of Hard and Easy Mental Arithmetic upon Blocking of the Occipital Alpha Rhythm
Authors: Glass Alan
Published: July 2007

The intensity of blocking of the alpha rhythm of the EEG induced by the solution of five Hard mental multiplications has been compared with the intensity of blocking induced by five Easy mental multiplications in 36 normal subjects. From predictions derived from the application of two hypotheses concerning the intensity of blocking, it would be anticipated, firstly, that blocking would be more intense in the Hard tasks, if their solution required increased mental concentration and, secondly, that insofar as “higher thought” processes are more extensively required in the solution of Hard tasks, then blocking would be less intense in Hard tasks than in Easy tasks. However, the findings of the experiment have been that blocking is of the same intensity in tasks of both kinds. Possible reasons for this are discussed.

Hard tasks differed from Easy tasks, with regard to the relation of EEG changes and performance. It is thought that different mechanisms may underly the solution of the two types of task.
Visual and Auditory Stores in Short-term Memory
Authors: Murdock Bennet B.
Published: July 2007

If retrieval in short-term memory can be either from a pre-perceptual sensory store or from a post-perceptual memory then recall should vary as a function of input into sensory store. To test this possibility two experiments with paired associates compared visual and auditory presentation under conditions as comparable as possible. In both experiments modality interacted with retention interval: more recency with auditory but, in Experiment I, more primacy with visual. The interaction was taken as support for the hypothesis. An alternative hypothesis (that storage is post-perceptual but not a-historical) was discussed and weak negative evidence presented.
The Effect of Superseding Signals
Authors: Gottsdanker Robert
Published: July 2007

Eight adult human subjects were given a step-tracking task in which an occasional second signal within 50, 70, 90, 120, or 240 millisec, called for curtailing or reversing the first command. It was found for inter-signal intervals through 120 millisec. that the shorter the interval the greater was the reduction in amplitude and duration of the majority of responses, with no delay in the effect of the second signal. Where a larger change of response was called for, reversal rather than curtailment, there was a greater effect. A second signal occurring at the 240 millisec. interval (in almost all cases after the start of the response), had no detectable effect. Since the over-all RT was about 180 millisec., it is evident that for at least the first two-thirds of the RT period the initial response is not typically impervious to the effect of a second signal.

Contrary to the expectations of the uncommitted-period version of the hypothesis of substitutive grouping a reversing signal at the 50 millisec. interval did not yield many reversed responses. Moreover this view cannot accommodate the finding that for intervals through 120 millisec., relatively few distributions of response amplitude can be accounted for by the summation of instances of response to the first signal alone and to the second signal alone. It is concluded that for these intervals, there were generally either overlapping responses to the two signals or else unitary responses in which the two signals were grouped to produce a combined effect.
Transfer of Training after Guidance or Practice
Authors: Macrae A. W. , Holding D. H.
Published: July 2007

On a pursuit tracking apparatus presenting target courses of three levels of complexity, provision was made for either normal practice or forced-response guidance; the guidance training was gained by holding the control knob during automatic tracking. After five training trials on the most complex course, or on the simplest course, subjects were transferred to the intermediate course. The effects of guidance on the intermediate course were also examined.

Normal practice on the simple course produced more transfer than normal practice on the most complex. Further, guidance on the complex course gave significantly better transfer than did practice on that course. The superiority of guidance is tentatively ascribed to the opportunity it provides for the development of anticipation.
Stimulus Variation and Sequential Judgements of Duration
Authors: von Sturmer G.
Published: July 2007

When a series of reproductions of an interval is made in the absence of a standard the judgements progressively lengthen. The similarity between stimulus conditions in this type of time estimation experiment and the conditions which produce a decrement in human vigilance is discussed. It is argued that failure to detect cues for the passage of time reduces the amount of time perceived to elapse. Reproduced judgements must consequently be increased in length to match remembered standards. The hypothesis is then made that the kind of variation in background stimulation which facilitates vigilance should increase the frequency of detection of cues for duration and reduce reproduced judgements. This hypothesis is tested with 80 subjects and a reversal of the serial reproduction effect is found on trials with changed background conditions.
Short-term Memory for Word Sequences as a Function of Acoustic, Semantic and Formal Similarity
Authors: Baddeley A. D.
Published: July 2007

Experiment I studied short-term memory (STM) for auditorily presented five word sequences as a function of acoustic and semantic similarity. There was a large adverse effect of acoustic similarity on STM (72·5 per cent.) which was significantly greater (p < 0·001) than the small (6·3 per cent.) but reliable effect (p < 0·05) of semantic similarity.

Experiment II compared STM for sequences of words which had a similar letter structure (formal similarity) but were pronounced differently, with acoustically similar but formally dissimilar words and with control sequences. There was a significant effect of acoustic but not of formal similarity.

Experiment III replicated the acoustic similarity effect found in Experiment I using visual instead of auditory presentation. Again a large and significant effect of acoustic similarity was shown.
A comparison of two Flash and Two Click Thresholds in Schizophrenic and Normal Subjects
Authors: Venables P. H.
Published: July 2007

The thresholds of fusion of paired flashes and paired clicks were compared. It was found that schizophrenics tended to show relatively higher click thresholds than normal subjects and in the most deteriorated schizophrenics two click thresholds tended to be higher than two flash thresholds.
Error-Detection and Correction Latencies as a Function of S-R Compatibility
Authors: Rabbitt P. M. A. , Phillips Shirley
Published: July 2007

In choice-response tasks employing correction-procedure, error-correcting responses are typically found to be faster than equivalent correct responses. An experiment was made to compare error-correction RT under conditions of good and poor S-R compatibility in a two-choice task. After practice, variations in S-R compatibility producing significant variations in mean correct RT nevertheless have no effect on error-correction time. The contrast between this result, and one previously reported (Burns, 1965) leads to a re-discussion of the processes of error detection and correction.
Shorter Articles and Notes an Optimum Interval in the Assessment of Pain Threshold
Authors: Hasalam Dian R. , Thomas E. A. C.
Published: July 2007

When the Limiting Method is used to measure heat-pain threshold, the observed threshod has been shown to depend on the size of the stimulus increment used (Haslam, 1965). An experiment is reported here which repeats a finding of the experiment referred to above that the variability of threshold is relatively large when the stimulus increment is small. A statistical analysis of the data shows that the previously untested hypothesis that pain threshold is uniform over the population (Hardy, Wolff and Goodell, 1952) is a reasonable one. The psychological implications of threshold variability are discussed in the light of a theoretical model, and a criterion for an optimum interval in the assessment of heat-pain threshold is discussed.
Overtraining and Goal Approach Strategies in Discrimination Reversal
Authors: Mandler Jean M. , Hooper W. Ronald
Published: July 2007

An analysis of perseverative responding, position habits, and running speed in two experiments on Y-maze reversal learning is presented. These behaviours are described in terms of different goal approaching strategies in overtrained and mastery trained rats. Analysis of such strategies and other behaviour acquired during overtraining is applied to the problem of conflicting data and apparatus differences in the study of reversal and transfer learning.
Intermanual Transfer of Practice Decrements with a Haptic Illusion
Authors: Over R.
Published: July 2007

Sixteen subjects were given 8 pre-practice, 80 practice, and 8 post-practice trials with the inverted T illusion figure. Judgements were made haptically with one hand being used on pre- and post-practice trials and the other hand on practice trials. Mean illusion diminished in magnitude over the practice trials. Inter-manual transfer of the practice decrement was found, but it was partial rather than complete. The illusion after practice was less than before practice, but it was greater than the error found on the last block of practice trials. The bearing of these results on the different theories of illusions is considered.
Binocular Rivalry and Immediate Memory
Authors: Sampson H. , Horrocks J. B.
Published: July 2007

Three experiments examine features of a simple memory task on which right-handed, right eye dominant subjects have been reported to recall digits projected to the right eye more accurately than those projected simultaneously to the left eye. Superior recall by these subjects of information projected to the right eye was observed only when stimuli projected simultaneously to both eyes were seen as overlapped in the binocular percept. Under monocular presentations, accuracy of recall was not related to the eye with which stimuli were viewed. The binocular oveslap condition has a significance other than that of simply increasing the difficulty of identifying the elements in a visual display for there were no differences in accuracy of recall from each eye when overlapped stimuli were viewed monocularly. More accurate recall of right eye information appears to reflect the resolution of a conflict between inputs from each eye. The possible relation of this finding to cerebral dominance is also discussed. Order of recall in these experiments depended mainly on spatial cues provided by the experimental situation.
A Comparison of the Effects of Inferotemporal and Striate Cortex Lesions on the Visual Behaviour of Rhesus Monkeys
Authors: Cowey Alan , Weiskrantz Lawrence
Published: July 2007

The effects of bilateral removal of inferotemporal cortex or lateral striate cortex are compared. The former operation impairs visual pattern discrimination learning, without disturbing prompt detection and retrieval of food, visual acuity or visual fields. In contrast, animals in which the macular striate projection area has been removed are significantly superior in tests of visual pattern discrimination learning despite showing impairment of visually guided reaching, visual acuity, and visual fields. The results indicate that the inferotemporal defect is not caused by deficient visual sensitivity or acuity.
The Binomial Distribution of Right, Mixed and Left Handedness
Authors: Annett Marian
Published: July 2007

Right, mixed and left handers are found in binomial proportions in seven samples of varied subjects whose lateral preferences were ascertained by several methods. These proportions have been obtained in previous studies of humans and animals when the performance of several actions has been recorded in complete samples and when consistent right and left subjects have been separated from those of mixed usage.
The Effect of Prior Recall on Multiple Response Recognition
Authors: Brown John , Packham D. W.
Published: July 2007

Certain investigators have found that recognition is impaired when a recall test is interpolated during the retention interval. One possible explanation of this finding is that interpolated recall leads subjects to employ a more stringent recognition criterion. In the two experiments reported here, the influence of the recognition criterion was eliminated by using a multiple-response test requiring subjects to rank a recognition list consisting of old and new items. Nevertheless recall impaired subsequent recognition in both experiments, the effect being most marked for lowly ranked items. The recognition test in the first experiment was carried out in two stages. This made possible a direct examination of whether recall has an effect on the recognition criterion. No evidence for such an effect was obtained. Other ways in which recall may affect the recognition criterion are discussed.
Refractoriness in Information Processing
Authors: Shaffer L. H.
Published: July 2007

Two experiments on refractoriness were carried out in which the warning, first and second signals, S0, S1 and S2 respectively, were all single-valued, and the distributions of random intervals between S0 and S1, and S1 and S 2 were the same. In the first experiment the intervals in a trial were statistically independent: the null hypothesis, that the latencies of the two responses would be similar, was rejected, but the results were also found to agree with no existing alternative hypothesis. In the second experiment the intervals in a trial were conditionally related and the second response was found to be faster than in the first experiment. This is discussed in the context of the issue of serial or parallel processing of information.
The Perception and Learning of Temporal Patterns
Authors: Garner W. R. , Gottwald Richard L.
Published: July 2007

Subjects observed sequences of stimuli generated by the repetition of temporal patterns formed of eight elements, each element being a binary event. Rate of presentation varied from 0.8 to 8.0 elements per sec.; stimuli were either visual or auditory; there were 10 different basic patterns; and for each basic pattern there were a preferred and a non-preferred starting pattern. Subjects observed as long as necessary in order to give a verbal description of the pattern after terminating it. Difficulty (measured by observation time and accuracy of description) was related to basic pattern and generally increased with increased rate. Differences due to starting pattern were found only at low rates, while differences due to modality were found only at high rates. Similar effects were obtained with respect to pattern description.

These consistently different effects of starting pattern and modality at low and high rates require a distinction between pattern perception at higher rates, which is phenomenally integrated, immediate, compelling and passive, and pattern learning at lower rates, which is unintegrated, derived, intellectualized and active. Even though a distinction between perception and learning is necessary, similar principles of pattern organization operate for both.
Gradients of Distortion Seen in the Context of the Ponzo Illusion and Other Contours
Authors: Fisher Gerald H.
Published: July 2007

It is suggested that the spatial distortion evident in the Ponzo figure is a special case of a more general illusion in which a gradient of attenuation appears within areas bounded by angular brackets. The magnitude of this gradient is measured in five lines seen against a number of angular contexts. A similar gradient appears also in the presence of single oblique lines. Accordingly, it is suggested that the distortions seen in the figures usually referred to as “the angle illusions” depend upon the presence of contours which do not necessarily define angles. The implications of these findings for certain existing theories which suggest that some illusions depend upon apparent-distortion of angular size and that they contain features usually associated with two-dimensional perspective projections of typical three-dimensional scenes are discussed.
Channel-Capacity, Intelligibility and Immediate Memory
Authors: Rabbitt Patrick M. A.
Published: July 2007

When subjects try to remember lists of digits played to them through pulse-modulated white noise the number of errors they make is greater than would be expected if digitrecognition errors and immediate memory errors were independent (Exp. 1).

A second experiment compared recall of digits in early list positions, when digits in subsequent list positions were presented through noise, and in clear. Digits in early positions were less well remembered when digits in later list positions had to be discriminated through noise.

In a third experiment prose passages were played to subjects who subsequently answered questions about their factual content. Judged by this technique recall of the first half of a prose passage is less accurate if the second half must be heard through noise than if the entire passage is heard through a good fidelity system. These results together are interpreted as demonstrations that increased difficulty of recognition of speech through noise may interfere with other activities, (conveniently termed “rehearsal”) which may be necessary to efficiently retain data in memory.
Involvement of Neck Proprioceptive System in Visual After-Effect from Prolonged Head Tilt
Authors: Day R. H. , Wade N. J.
Published: July 2007

Judgements of object orientation after prolonged head tilt differ relative to those made before tilt. This visual spatial after-effect was investigated with lateral head tilt relative to the upright and supine body. The data from two experiments indicate that the magnitude and direction of the visual after-effect does not differ under the two body postures. It is concluded that the proprioceptive system of the neck, as opposed to the otolith system of the utricle, is involved in the after-effect.
The Time-Course of Preparation with Regular and Irregular Foreperiods
Authors: Bertelson Paul , Tisseyre FrançOise
Published: July 2007

A previous experiment (Bertelson, 1967) had shown that the temporal information brought by a warning signal affected RT even after very short foreperiods (FPs). The present experiment was carried out to examine whether this result was contingent on the predictability of the FP. After a 5 sec. waiting delay, the subject heard a warning click which was followed after a predictable (regular procedure) or unpredictable FP (irregular procedure) by the visual signal calling for a choice reaction. The range of FPs was 0–300 msec, again. The time course of the adjustments triggered by the click was found to be similar under both procedures. The main conclusion is that a shift from preparation to reaction can occur at any time and need not be programmed before preparation is started.
Influence of Accommodation on the Viewing of an Optical Illusion
Authors: Millodot Michel
Published: July 2007

This study demonstrates the role of microfluctuations of accommodation in the viewing of the concentric ring illusion. Four experiments were carried out. Experiment I consisted of changing the distance between the illusion and the eyes but retaining visual angle, luminance and pupil size constant. In Experiment II, the accommodation of the eyes is paralysed by a cycloplegic. In Experiment III, the illusion is shown to a monocular aphakic and in Experiment IV, the exposure time is varied between 1/100 and 5 sec. Furthermore, a series of observations compared the concentric ring illusion seen with both eyes simultaneously. The evidence provided by the results of these experiments plus others discussed provide evidence that the concentric ring illusion is caused by the microfluctuations of accommodation.
An Investigation into Some of the Underlying Associative Verbal Processes of the Stroop Colour Effect
Authors: Pritchatt Derrick
Published: July 2007

The Stroop test was examined to throw some light on the verbal basis of the test. When words are presented printed in the wrong colour it is found that the written word provides more interference with response to the colour of print than occurs the other way round (the Stroop effect). It was shown that, by allowing subjects to match the colour of the print with colour patches instead of words, the interference due to the written word can be considerably reduced. In a further experiment, associations were formed by the subjects between nonsense syllables and colours in the course of a paired-associate learning task. When nonsense syllables were presented printed in colours different from those associated with them, it was found that the interference effects depended upon the direction of the stimulus-response association in the paired-associate experiment. It is concluded that the underlying processes in the Stroop effect are primarily verbal and depend partly upon the directionality of previously established verbal associations.
Typing Performance as a Function of Text
Authors: Shaffer L. H. , Hardwick J.
Published: July 2007

The performance of skilled typists was examined on texts ranging from prose to random letters, with the aim of discovering some of the factors that support its fluency. It was found that speed and errors were the same for prose and random word texts, and although performance got progressively worse on more degraded texts the biggest decline came between first- and zero-order random letter texts. The results were discussed in the context of several hypotheses about transcription processes, some assuming a statistical, left-to-right encoding of letters and others assuming linguistic encoding, either preserving the linguistic units in response units or translating the linguistic units into letter responses under the control of a sequencing process.
Reversal Learning of Object and Positional Discriminations by Mink, Ferrets and Skunks
Authors: Doty Barbara A. , Combs Walter C.
Published: July 2007

Mink, ferrets and skunks were tested on successive reversals of two-choice object or positional discriminations in a modified Wisconsin General Training Apparatus. All species showed considerable improvement in performance after considerable training and some subjects exhibited one-trial reversal learning. Mink and ferrets persistently made more errors when position cues were relevant than when object cues were relevant; the reverse was true of skunks.
Discrimination of “W” and “V” Shapes by Goldfish
Authors: Bowman Rosemary , Sutherland N. S.
Published: July 2007

Goldfish were trained to discriminate between “W” and “V” shapes; different groups were trained with the shapes in different orientations. Transfer tests were given after training and the following conclusions were drawn. Animals learned to discriminate between the training shapes by detecting the difference in the number of points present in each; they learned the difference in the relative number of points rather than the absolute number present in each shape; the subjects transferred well to pairs of shapes bearing points facing in different directions from those on the training shapes; knobs were treated as practically equivalent to points; animals relied more heavily on differences at the tops of the shapes than on differences in the bottom halves.
Partial Reinforcement and Partial Delay of Reinforcement Effects with 72-Hour Intertrial Intervals and Interpolated Continuous Reinforcement
Authors: Rashotte Michael E. , Surridge C. Thomas
Published: July 2007

Three groups of rats ran 108 trials in a straight runway, one trial every 3 days. On the first 44 trials, one group received continuous (and immediate) reinforcement (CRF), a second group 50 per cent partial reinforcement (PRF), and the third group a 50 per cent schedule of partial delay of reinforcement (PDR). All groups received CRF on the next 20 trials, and extinction on the last 44 trials. The PRF and PDR groups extinguished at approximately the same rate, and significantly more slowly than the CRF group.
The Effect of Hunger on Water Intake in Rats
Authors: Oatley Keith , Tonge D. A.
Published: July 2007

Although reciprocal inhibition between eating and drinking has been postulated, the commonly observed reduction of water intake by hungry rats may not be due to any direct inhibitory mechanism. In one experiment rats deprived of food for 24 hr. and then injected with 2 ml. of NaCl drank the same as rats that had received food ad lib. In the second experiment a stomach load of 10 ml. of water 3 hr. before the salt injection was designed to abolish any water deficit that might have occurred during food deprivation had there been inhibition of drinking by hunger. Here again rats deprived of food did not drink less than undeprived animals. In fact the hungry rats drank slightly but significantly more. This phenomenon may be related to the observation confirmed here that during food deprivation rats excrete about twice as much rather dilute urine as during ad lib food intake. This seems to indicate that though in general food deprived rats drink less than normal they actually drink more than they need. Schedule induced polydipsia also occurs during food deprivation and this too makes it unlikely that water-intake is actually inhibited during hunger.
Effects of Grammaticalness, Presentation Rate, and Message Length on Auditory Short-Term Memory
Authors: Gerver David
Published: July 2007

The aim of this study was to demonstrate the effect of message structure, message length, and presentation rate upon auditory short-term memory. Subjects were asked to reproduce in writing messages at different levels of “grammaticalness” (Coleman, 1965) presented through headphones at 3–4 words/sec. or 6–7 words/ sec. There was better recall of the more structured, shorter, and slower messages. The results are discussed in terms of acquisition and encoding of information.
Errors and Error Detection in Typing
Authors: Shaffer L. H. , Hardwick Jane
Published: July 2007

The errors and error detections made by qualified and trainee typists were examined, when they were given a passage of prose that included pseudo-words and words made up of random consonants. It was shown that trainees make more and detect relatively fewer errors. For all typists errors are made more often per letter in long or degraded words and are relatively less likely to be detected.
Recognition vs. Recall: Storage or Retrieval Differences?
Authors: Freund Richard D. , Brelsford John W. , Atkinson Richard C.
Published: July 2007

Differences between recognition and recall performance may be due to differences in storage processes, differences in retrieval processes, or some combination of both. An attempt was made to determine which process was critical by withholding information, at the time of study of a stimulus-response pair, about how that item was to be tested on its next presentation. It was found that differences between recognition and recall did not depend upon whether or not the subject knew, at time of study, the mode of test to be employed. These results were interpreted as support for the assertion that, in this particular task, differences in retrieval processes were sufficient to account for differences in recognition and recall. It was found that both the direction and magnitude of the recognition-recall difference depended upon the guessing correction employed.
Complexity and Colour Preferences in Chicks of Different Ages
Authors: Berryman Julia C. , Fullerton Clare , Sluckin W.
Published: July 2007

Five- and six-day old chicks were found to prefer a complex stimulus to a simple one, whilst 2-day old ones showed no such preference; but a red stimulus, whether simple or complex, tended to be preferred at both age levels when it was paired with a non-coloured complex stimulus. Preference for complexity may be usefully viewed in any species in the context of the behavioural development of the individual.
Extension Cues in Open and Closed Figures
Authors: Worrall Norman , Firth Diane
Published: July 2007

Subjects were shown line drawings of figures differing in degree of closure, and asked what the drawings most looked like. Responses were dichotomized into “upright” (e.g. beaker) and “extended” (e.g. runway). Although, overall, about twice as many upright as extended responses were given, relatively open figures yielded about twice as many extended responses as did relatively closed figures. Converging lines as such appeared an unexpectedly weak cue for extension, and horizontal discontinuity in a drawing seemed more suggestive of extension than did vertical discontinuity. Reclassifying the responses as two- or three-dimensional showed that although two-dimensional responses were less common overall, they were three times as common in relatively closed drawings. Predictions are made relating the findings to standard visual illusions.
Static Visual Noise and the Ansbacher Effect
Authors: Stanley Gordon
Published: July 2007

In Experiment I subjects made estimates of the apparent length of a 12 cm. long light arc-line rotating around a central fixation point at arc speeds of 66, 99, 132 and 165 cm./sec. Apparent contraction of the arc occurred as a function of speed, there being greater contraction in the presence of a superimposed random pattern of I cm. light squares (visual noise) than in its absence. The results of Experiment II indicated that there was no significant difference in length due to visual noise when the arcs were stationary. In Experiment III subjects made estimates of the speed of rotation of the arc and it was found that visual noise did not significantly affect the apparent arc-speed.
Effect of Electric Shock on Rats’ Activity in Familiar and Unfamiliar Environments
Authors: Sheldon M.H.
Published: July 2007

It is found that electric shock delivered before exposure to a Y-maze reduces the activity of rats whether the maze is familiar or unfamiliar. Increasing familiarity with the maze reduces activity for shocked and unshocked rats. It is argued that this finding presents difficulties for theories according to which exploratory behaviour depends on fear.
Effect of Prolonged Tilt on Visual Orientation
Authors: Wade N. J.
Published: July 2007

Visual orientation during lateral tilt is viewed in terms of orientation constancy. The postural systems involved in the maintenance of constancy are considered to be those of the otolith, neck and trunk. The relative contribution of these systems was investigated by obtaining visual verticality judgments immediately upon and several minutes after head, body, and trunk tilts. Due to the apparent non-adaptation of the otolith system any changes in visual orientation resulting from prolonged tilt would be attributed to adaptation of the proprioceptive system stimulated. For 30° head tilt visual orientation over-constancy was reduced by about 2°, reflecting the influence of the neck system. Prolonged body tilts of 30°, 60° and 90° reduced the constancy operating by approximately 1°, 3° and 8°, respectively. This was taken to indicate the contribution of the trunk system, which increased with increasing degrees of body tilt. The above interpretations received strong support from experiments involving trunk tilt, which stimulates only the neck and trunk systems.
A factor Analytic Demonstration of two Memory Processes
Authors: Detterman Douglas K. , Ellis Norman R.
Published: July 2007

A principal component solution and varimax rotation were obtained for eight studies using a serial position (SP) probe technique for studying short-term memory. The factor pattern which emerged showed the first and middle SPs to load on one factor, called the primacy factor, while the middle and last positions loaded on a second factor, called the recency factor. The results were consistent with the view that short-term memory is composed of two processes, primary memory and secondary memory. One study supported the notion that immature humans show a rehearsal deficit.
Reaction Times and Response Competition between the Right and Left Hands
Authors: Dimond Stuart
Published: July 2007

If subjects are required to make two responses at the same time, one with each hand, the responses of the hand appearing second in this sequence may be considerably delayed. The hands appear to be in competition with one another for first response. Interference of this kind was studied in an experiment in which, interspersed in a series of signals for either right or the left hand response, were a number of double signals which called simultaneously for response from both hands. Both the right and the left hands had an equal chance of taking precedence over the other, and an equal chance that their response would be delayed. The hand controlled by the dominant hemisphere responded first no more often than did the non-dominant one. A degree of synchrony developed between the responses of the hands as the subject experienced a greater number of signals for paired response.

In a second experiment the hands were required to compete with one another after practice had been given in responding with only one hand. The effects of practice were not equal and opposite across the body. Practised left hand responses were found not to be disturbed by the addition of a simultaneous signal for another response, whereas right hand responses were. This relationship exists in both right and left-handed subjects, and the results seem to point to differences in cerebral control between the hemispheres which may be related not to handedness but to side of the body as such.
An Experimental and Theoretical Appraisal of the Perspective and Size-Constancy Theories of Illusions
Authors: Fisher Gerald H.
Published: July 2007

The perspective and size-constancy theories of illusions are described. They both imply that illusory distortions arise as a consequence of mistaken perceptual impressions of depth. Predictions from these theories are tested in six experiments and several ancillary studies. They show that although differences in apparent distance may be sufficient for the appearance of illusions their presence is not a necessary condition. Detailed theoretical implications of these results are considered in discussion.
Perceiving the Sequence of Speech and Non-Speech Stimuli
Authors: Bertelson Paul , Tisseyre Françoise
Published: July 2007

The task is to estimate on which syllable of a spoken sentence a click was superimposed. Experiment I confirms Ladefoged and Broadbent's finding of a systematic tendency to prepose the click (negative displacement), but shows also that the tendency is decreased when prior knowledge of the sentence is provided. Experiment II shows that acoustic prior knowledge is not necessary to produce the decrease and that it occurs also with textual prior knowledge. Experiment III shows that the negative displacement is not eliminated by short-term practice on the task, as Fodor and Bever contended. The effect of prior knowledge is inconsistent with the explanation of negative displacement in terms of attention demands suggested by Ladefoged and Broadbent. It is argued that this explanation was unnecessary, and that negative displacement can be expected in a system which analyses speech by discrete units.
Effects of Food Deprivation on the Performance of a Two-Turn Task in a Temporal Circular Maze
Authors: Mohay Heather , Chen Chia-Shong
Published: July 2007

Ten hooded rats were trained to perform a two-turn task in a temporal circular maze. The effects of levels of food deprivation (2, 26, 50, 74, 98, 122 hr.) on performance were evaluated. It was found that the correct responses were not affected, but both running time and competing behaviour decreased significantly with increase in hours of food deprivation. In a second experiment 8 rats were trained in a similar way and after attaining a stable performance, were run for a further 4 sessions at 24 hr. deprivation, and then at 72 hr. deprivation. The results precluded the possibility that the results obtained in Experiment I were due to practice effects, and support the findings on the effects of deprivation.
Recognition Assessed by D′ and by a Non-Parametric Alternative (the A-Index) as a Function of the Number of Choices
Authors: Brown John , Routh David A.
Published: July 2007

Freedom from restrictive assumptions and ease of psychological interpretation are two basic criteria for a satisfactory measure of recognition performance. The A-index (Brown, 1965 a) comes close to fulfilling these criteria. It is based on the proportion of wrong choices rejected in a multi-choice test as revealed by the number of choices required to select the correct choice. It can be transformed into the d′ measure of signal detection theory (SDT) if the standard assumptions of this theory hold, but not in general. Two experiments on the recognition of words-in-noise are described. In the first there were 3, 5, 8 or 16 choices. They were typed on a card which was displayed to the listener during the presentation of a word. On both measures 5-, 8- and 16-choice recognition did not differ significantly, while 3-choice recognition was slightly, but significantly, superior. The second experiment concerned the effect of delaying the display of the card until 2 sec. after presentation. No evidence for an effect was obtained. In both experiments, there was suggestive but not conclusive evidence that the d′ measure tended to overestimate recognition efficiency.
Stimulus and Task Factors as Determinants of Ear Advantages
Authors: Haggard Mark P. , Parkinson Alan M.
Published: July 2007

Two dichotic experiments are reported which dissociate stimulus and task factors in perceptual lateralization. With only trajectories of fundamental frequency as a distinguishing cue, perception of the voicing of stop consonants gives a right ear advantage. Identification of the emotional tone of a sentence of natural speech gives a left ear advantage. If such parameters as fundamental frequency variation or overall naturalness of the speech material determined the direction of an ear advantage, the reverse pattern of results would have been obtained. Hence the task appears more important than the nature of the stimulus.
Changes of Pupil Size and Rehearsal Strategies in a Short-Term Memory Task
Authors: Kahneman Daniel , Wright Patricia
Published: July 2007

Twelve subjects learned lists consisting of 3 groups of 4 items each drawn from vocabularies of digits, colour names or boys' names. There were two conditions of recall, total or partial, and two retention intervals, 3 and 7 sec. A view of the function of rehearsal suggests that rehearsal for total recall should be more intense than for partial recall, but only with a brief retention interval. Measurements of pupillary diameter confirm this prediction. Conditions under which pupillary measurements can serve to test theories of psychological processes are discussed.
Functional Structure in Sentences: A Performance Analysis
Authors: Kennedy R. A. , Wilkes A. L.
Published: July 2007

Two experiments are reported which attempt to define the groupings of component words within sentences which subjects have committed to memory. The structural groupings are indexed by judgement latencies for pairs of words and these serve as the input matrix for a hierarchical clustering (HC) analysis. It is concluded that when subjects make judgements concerning the forward order of pairs of words, the latencies imply the presence of a hierarchical organization. Although the tree structures obtained do not follow in any detail the surface structures of the sentence types in either experiment, nonetheless when constituent analysis indicates no difference it is accompanied by identical performance structures, and when a surface distinction is called for, an appropriate difference is found in the tree diagrams produced by cluster analysis. Deep structure differences involving the rearrangement of component words are not found in the hierarchical structure subjects imposed. The pausing patterns followed by subjects when reading the sentences are shown to relate to the structural diagrams generated by the HC analysis.
Lateral Word Recognition: Effects of Unilateral and Bilateral Presentation, Asynchrony of Bilateral Presentation, and Forced Order of Report
Authors: McKeever Walter F.
Published: July 2007

This experiment enquired: (1) whether right visual field (RVF) recognition superiority was greater in bilateral than in unilateral word presentation; (2) whether left field-favouring attentional or recall sets could be induced by presenting left visual field (LVF) words 20 msec prior to RVF words or by instructions to report LVF words prior to RVF words. Results showed: (1) all conditions studied yielded significant RVF superiority; (2) RVF superiority magnitude was significantly greater in bilateral than in unilateral presentation, suggesting the tenability of hypotheses that different mechanisms operate in these conditions; (3) neither earlier delivery nor earlier report of LVF words altered the pattern of RVF superiority in bilateral presentation, the later result demonstrating that differential receptive organization rather than differential recall of the two stimuli is responsible for RVF superiority in bilateral presentation.
Adaptation to Prisms: Do Proprioceptive Changes Mediate Adapted Behaviour with Ballistic Arm Movements?
Authors: Baily John S.
Published: July 2007

In Experiment I subjects pointed repeatedly at a target viewed through laterally displacing prisms and received terminal visual feedback. In one task the pointing movements were slow (proprioceptively controlled), and in the other they were fast (pre-programmed). In both tasks adaptation proceeded at the same rate and to the same level of performance. Following fast pointing with prisms a large amount of arm-body adaptation was found with slow and fast test movements, while following slow pointing with prisms a large amount of arm-body adaptation was found with slow test movements, but only a small amount with fast test movements. The result suggests that adapted behaviour with preprogrammed movements is not mediated by a proprioceptive change. In Experiment II pointing movements were passive. No arm-body adaptation was found with fast test movements, and, contrary to expectation, only a small amount with slow test movements.
Retroactive Contour Enhancement: A New Visual Storage Effect
Authors: Standing L. G. , Dodwell P. C.
Published: July 2007

A test stimulus (a visual form) which is below recognition threshold when flashed briefly against a steady background field can be raised to complete discriminability if the background field is terminated and replaced by darkness within about 100 msec of the test flash. There must therefore be an efficient storage process for the apparently “invisible” form. The phenomenon is shown to occur under a variety of conditions. It appears not to be a simple visual masking phenomenon. The tasks used are forced-choice, and the phenomenon provides a new demonstration of visual storage effects which previously have generally been reported only for supraliminal visual test stimuli.
When Negation is Easier than Affirmation
Authors: Johnson-Laird P. N. , Tridgell J. M.
Published: July 2007

An experiment is reported which establishes that affirmative sentences are not always easier to grasp than negative sentences. The subjects had to make inferences from pairs of premises such as: “Either John is intelligent or he is rich. John is not rich”. The task was reliably easier when the second premise was explicitly negative (as in the example) than when it was an affirmative (“John is poor”). It was most difficult when the negative occurred in the disjunctive premise and was denied by an affirmative (e.g. “John is intelligent or he is not rich. John is rich”). It is argued that it is simpler to establish that two statements are mutually inconsistent when one is the explicit negation of the other, but that the natural function of the negative is to deny.
Light Reinforcement in the Rat: The Effects of Continuous and Discontinuous Periods of Apparatus Familiarization
Authors: Williams D. I. , Lowe G.
Published: July 2007

The effects of continuous and discontinuous periods of apparatus familiarization on light reinforcement in rats were examined. A previous finding that the light reinforcement effect is greater with longer pretest periods in the dark box was confirmed by comparing 270 min and 30 min periods in the box prior to testing 24 h later. A discontinuous period of 9 daily 30 min sessions, however, produced a bigger effect than the 270 min continuous period. It was concluded that the degree of familiarization with the apparatus is a more important factor than length of time per se in the dark in determining the effectiveness of light as a reinforcer.
Apparent Size and Duration of a Movement After-effect
Authors: Bonnet Claude , Pouthas Viviane
Published: July 2007

Four experiments were performed to study the relationship between Emmert's law and the duration of the movement after-effect (MAE). The duration of the MAE increased with increased distance of the test field; this result was shown to be produced by the correlative change in apparent size of the after image. The effect did not occur when cues for distance judgments were reduced. Reducing the duration of the MAE suppressed the variation in its duration at varying distances of the test field. Some implications for the mechanism of the MAE are discussed.
The Effects of Stimulus Dimensionality on the Rate of Gain of Information
Authors: Levy Robert M. , Norton Gloria K.
Published: July 2007

Hick's paradigm as extended to an absolute judgment task by Doherty was used to study the effects of dimensionality on the rate of stimulus identification in two experiments. Two undimensional conditions, size and brightness, and two bidimensional conditions, size-brightness redundant and size-brightness non-redundant, were employed. The significant linear components of the regression of choice reaction time on transmitted information for the undimensional and bidimensional stimuli supported and extended Hick's law. The finding of nearly identical slopes for the two undimensional and redundant bidimensional condition regression lines suggests a stage of processing which has a constant capacity in bits/s and which is independent of stimulus dimensionality. An increase in slope for the non-redundant condition is attributed to a difference in response requirements.