bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Growth and Productivity of Green-growing and Dormant ‘Chardonnay’ Benchgrafts during Vineyard Establishment
Authors: Bettiga Larry J.
Published: December 2018

Vine growth and yield variables were measured for grape (Vitis vinifera) planted as green-growing and dormant ‘Chardonnay’ benchgrafts during the first 8 years after vineyard establishment. Benchgrafts of ‘Freedom’ and ‘Kober 5BB’ rootstock were evaluated. Vines planted as green-growing benchgrafts had smaller trunk and cordon diameters and lower pruning weights. Growth variables measured were higher for ‘Freedom’ benchgrafts than ‘Kober 5BB’. Yields were higher for vines planted as dormant benchgrafts in three of the first six production years when compared with vines established with green-growing plants. Productivity was higher for vines planted with dormant benchgrafts or grafted on ‘Freedom’ rootstock because the permanent framework of vines in these treatments was fully developed earlier in the training process, which allowed for earlier crop production.
Determination of the Physical, Chemical, and Hydraulic Characteristics of Locally Available Materials for Formulating Extensive Green Roof Substrates
Authors: Ntoulas Nikolaos , Nektarios Panayiotis A. , Kapsali Thomais-Evelina , Kaltsidi Maria-Pinelopi , Han Liebao , Yin Shuxia
Published: December 2018

Several locally available materials were tested to create an optimized growth substrate for arid and semiarid Mediterranean extensive green roofs. The study involved a four-step screening procedure. At the first step, 10 different materials were tested including pumice (Pum), crushed tiles grade 1–2 mm (T1–2), 2–4 mm (T2–4), 5–8 mm (T5–8), 5–16 mm (T5–16), and 4–22 mm (T4–22); crushed bricks of either 2–4 mm (B2–4) or 2–8 mm (B2–8); a thermally treated clay (TC); and zeolite (Zeo). All materials were tested for their particle size distribution, pH, and electrical conductivity (EC). The results were compared for compliance with existing guidelines for extensive green roof construction. From the first step, the most promising materials were shown to include Pum, Zeo, T5–8, T5–16, and TC, which were then used at the second stage to develop mixtures between them. Tests at the second stage included particle size distribution and moisture potential curves. Pumice mixed with TC provided the best compliance with existing guidelines in relation to particle size distribution, and it significantly increased moisture content compared with the mixes of Pum with T5–8 and T5–16. As a result, from the second screening step, the best performing substrate was Pum mixed with TC and Zeo. The third stage involved the selection of the most appropriate organic amendment of the growing substrate. Three composts having different composition and sphagnum peat were analyzed for their chemical and physical characteristics. The composts were a) garden waste compost (GWC), b) olive (Olea europaea L.) mill waste compost (OMWC), and c) grape (Vitis vinifera L.) marc compost (GMC). It was found that the peat-amended substrate retained increased moisture content compared with the compost-amended substrates. The fourth and final stage involved the evaluation of the environmental impact of the final mix with the four different organic amendments based on their first flush nitrate nitrogen (NO3−-N) leaching potential. It was found that GWC and OMWC exhibited increased NO3−-N leaching that initially reached 160 and 92 mg·L−1 of NO3−-N for OMWC and GWC, respectively. By contrast, peat and GMC exhibited minimal NO3−-N leaching that was slightly above the maximum contaminant level of 10 mg·L−1 of NO3−-N (17.3 and 14.6 mg·L−1 of NO3−N for peat and GMC, respectively). The latter was very brief and lasted only for the first 100 and 50 mL of effluent volume for peat and GMC, respectively.
Economic Contributions of the Green Industry in the United States in 2013
Authors: Hodges Alan W. , Hall Charles R. , Palma Marco A. , Khachatryan Hayk
Published: December 2018

Economic contributions of the green industry in the United States were estimated for 2013 using information on industry output, value added, employment and domestic/international exports, retail sector lawn and garden product sales, and economic multipliers from Impact Analysis for Planning (IMPLAN) regional economic models for each state. Direct industry output for all sectors was estimated at $136.44 billion (B), and total output contributions, including indirect and induced regional economic multiplier effects of export sales, were $196.07 B. The total value-added contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) was $120.71 B, including labor income contributions of $82.47 B, other property income contributions of $28.91 B and business taxes paid to local, state, and federal governments of $9.30 B. The industry had direct employment of 1,599,662 full-time and part-time jobs, and total employment contributions of 2,035,636 jobs in the broader economy. The largest individual industry sectors in terms of employment and GDP contributions were landscaping and horticultural services (1,105,526 jobs, $54.70 B); greenhouse, nursery, and floriculture production (240,809 jobs, $20.36 B); and lawn and garden equipment and supplies stores (217,798 jobs, $12.87 B). The top 10 states in terms of employment contributions were California (245,267 jobs), Florida (197,073), Texas (149,364), Ohio (77,664), Pennsylvania (77,569), Illinois (76,254), New York (73,676), North Carolina (72,014), Georgia (64,066), and Michigan (63,189). Green industry contributions represented 0.72% of U.S. GDP and 1.11% of total workforce employment, and it contributed over 1.0% of GDP in five states, and over 1.25% of employment in 10 states. Employment contributions averaged 0.6 jobs/mile2 of land area and 6.4 jobs per 1000 persons in the U.S. population, while GDP contributions averaged $34,176/mile2 and $382 per capita. Since 2007–08, green industry contributions in 2013 increased by 4.4% for employment and 2.7% for GDP in inflation-adjusted terms. Growth in the industry was highest for wholesale and retail trade, whereas production and manufacturing declined. Although the green industry has grown slowly in recent years, it remains an important contributor to national, state, and local economies.
Use of Plastic in Greenhouse Vegetable Production in the United States
Authors: Hochmuth Robert C. , Hochmuth George J.
Published: December 2018

The evolution of plastic uses (excluding glazing) in the production of greenhouse vegetables is presented. Plastics are used in almost every aspect of crop production, including providing a barrier to the soil, lining crop production troughs, holding soil and soilless media, and providing a nutrient film channel. Irrigation systems have become very elaborate, with various plastic products used to transport water and nutrients and to provide a means of emitting nutrient solution to the crop. The greenhouse environment is managed from several plastic components, including air distribution tubes, shade materials, and energy curtains. Plastics are now common in greenhouse vegetable crop training, insect monitoring, postharvest handling, storage, and marketing.
Impact of Plastics in the Floriculture Industry
Authors: Larson Roy A.
Published: December 2018

Plastic products have revolutionized commercial floriculture. Even plastic flowers have caused a new marketing consideration because they are quite competitive with the marketing of live material. Plastic pots are used widely because they are lightweight, attractive, and relatively inexpensive. Plastic flats and trays have been readily accepted by the consumer, and were instrumental in the development of plug culture. Major components of automatic watering systems are made of plastic, and much of the plumbing practiced in commercial floriculture is done with plastic pipe and fittings. Plastic foams are used in floral arrangements, growing media, and propagation cubes or strips. Plastic is used to make steam-sterilization covers, shading material for the manipulation of both light intensity and photoperiod, and mulches or ground covers to help control weeds. Very large quantities of plastic are used in commercial floriculture, and recent landfill restrictions have necessitated procedures for recycling. Recycling procedures are known, but logistics and economics of recycling have not been resolved completely.
Degradation of Plastic Compost Bags Used for Yard Waste
Authors: Taber Henry G. , Cox D.F.
Published: December 2018

Three trials, beginning June, July, and September 1991, examined the breakdown of photodegradable plastic bags. The plastic contained a light-sensitive compound dissolved in the polymer to hasten degradation. The bags were placed in east-west rows on bare ground. Other factors studied included turning the bags over either every 3 or 7 days and either filling the bags with fresh grass clippings or leaving them empty. Strength loss was determined with a hand-held puncture tester. Strength increased initially by 36%, 32%, and 63% in the three trials, respectively. The bags took 33, 35, and 64 days to reach brittleness (puncture strength of 180 g) in the three trials, respectively. Once degradation began, all trials showed similar rates of decline. However, the degradation began 7 days after exposure in the first two trials, but not until 14 days after exposure in the September trial. The addition of grass clippings to the bags increased the initial strength and delayed the onset of degradation. Turning the bags every 3 days rather than every 7 did not affect degradation.
Sodium Lignin Sulfonate and Sodium Orthophenylphenate Interaction on Browning of Pear Fruits
Authors: Sitton J.W. , Patterson M.E , Apel G.W.
Published: December 2018

Immersion of Anjou pears (Pyrus communis L. cv. Beurre d Anjou) in sodium lignin sulfonate (SLS), a flotation agent used in hydraulic handling of pears, did not cause injury leading to skin browning. Immersion of cut pear slices in SLS discolors pear fruit flesh, but the discoloration derived from SLS pigments does not intensify with time. When the fungicide sodium orthophenylphenate (SOPP) was combined with SLS, necrotic skin mottling occurred with increased immersion times and temperatures. A white precipitate in the SLS SOPP solution accompanied phytotoxicity of pear skin tissue. Acidification of alkaline SOPP solutions (pH 11.3) with 0.01 N HCl down to pH 10 produced mild skin necrosis. Both acid (0.01 N HC1) and alkaline (0.01 n KOH) solutions of SOPP and SLS-SOPP combinations caused browning of pear flesh.
Inducible Chilling Injury of Grapefruit on Trees
Authors: Purvis Albert C. , Yelenosky George
Published: December 2018

Potted Marsh grapefruit [Citrus paradisi (Mad.)] trees with mature fruit were subjected to successive 7-day exposures to 20, 15, 10, and 5C, followed by 7 days at 25C in controlled-environment walk-in rooms. Circular depressions (pits), characteristic visible symptoms of chilling injury, developed in the peel of the fruit. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of inducible chilling injury of grapefruit on trees under artificial environments. The ability to induce chilling injury in the peel of grapefruit on trees enhances opportunities to study the mechanism of resistance to chilling injury that can be developed by various preharvest strategies.
Inexpensive Sand Filters for Drip Irrigation Systems
Authors: Roberts B.W. , O'Hern C.W.
Published: December 2018

Solid particles in water such as sand, silt, clay, or organic debris can clog drip irrigation systems. Filters that remove these particles from the water are necessary, but expensive, for small-scale or part-time farmers. A falter that is functionally similar to commercial units can be built from a steel barrel and common plumbing supplies for about $100. Components and instructions to build such a falter are presented here.
An Ultrasonic Tree Trunk Diameter Caliper
Authors: Upchurch B.L. , Glenn D.M. , Vass G. , Anger W.A.
Published: December 2018

A unique sensing system is described using an ultrasonic transducer for measuring tree trunk diameters in the orchard. Trunk diameters were calculated from the time it took sound waves to travel from the transducer to the trunk and back to the sensor. The device was calibrated with objects ranging in diameter from 1.6 (0.63 inch) to 19.0 cm (7.5 inches). The distance between the transducer and object was reduced as the diameter increased and was highly correlated (P = 0.99) with actual diameter. The ultrasonic tree diameter sensor exhibited a mean error of 0.04 cm.
Rowcovers and High Tunnels Enhance Crop Production in the Northeastern United States
Authors: Wells Otho S. , Loy J. Brent
Published: December 2018

Crop growth is enhanced with the use of relatively inexpensive rowcovers and high tunnels. Even though these structures do not provide the same degree of environmental control as greenhouses, they modify the climate sufficiently to lengthen the growing season from 1 to 4 weeks in the spring and 2 to 8 weeks in the fall. Rowcovers generally remain over a crop for 2 to 4 weeks, whereas a high tunnel may function for an entire growing season. Both systems require a relatively low capital investment, provide a good return on investment, and improve the ability of new growers to succeed in the crop production business. The selection of either rowcovers or high tunnels will depend on the management program of a grower; however, both growing systems potentially are economically viable means of season extension.
Postharvest Water Intake and Decay of Tomatoes
Authors: Showalter Robert K.
Published: December 2018

Serious, postharvest decay losses occurred in tomatoes when water in which they were submerged was cooler than the fruit. Tomatoes have extensive intercellular air spaces, a heavily cutinized epidermis, and no stomatal openings. When tomatoes with unbroken skins were submerged in packinghouse dump tank water of lower temperatures, the internal air contracted and water plus decay organisms were drawn into the fruits through the stem scar. Heating dump tank water has been successful in limiting this decay problem.
A Review of Certified Nursery Personnel Programs in the United States
Authors: Schnelle Michael A. , Cole Janet C.
Published: December 2018

Nursery personnel certification programs are designed to advance professionalism throughout the nursery and garden center industry. Certified nursery personnel may be perceived more favorably by their employers, peers, and, most important, by the public they serve. Certification programs currently are conducted in 39 states. Many state nursery or related organizations also offer landscape certification programs; however, such programs are not addressed here.
Utilization of Sewage Sludge Compost in Horticulture
Authors: Gouin Francis R.
Published: December 2018

Sewage sludge is being converted to compost by many municipalities. Its use in the production, establishment, and/or maintenance of horticultural crops is dependent on soluble salt concentration, particle size, stability, dewatering procedures, storage conditions, and crop needs. Soluble salt concentration has the greatest effect on the amount of compost that can be used as a soil or potting media amendment. Because composted sewage sludge is rich in plant nutrients, it can supply many of the nutrient needs of plants, depending on the amount used and if the plants are growing in the ground or in containers. However, improper storage of composted sewage sludge can render the product useless due to the accumulation of acetic acid and alcohol that occur under anaerobic conditions.
Reclaimed Wastewater for Irrigation of Citrus in Florida
Authors: Davies Frederick S. , Maurer Michael A.
Published: December 2018

Reclaimed municipal wastewater has been used to irrigate young and mature sweet orange and grapefruit trees in Florida. In the central ridge area of Florida, trees receiving reclaimed wastewater had greater yields and improved tree vigor compared to trees receiving wellwater. The high level of reclaimed wastewater applied (2.54 cm/week), however, decreased fruit total soluble solids, acids, and their ratio. In contrast, tree vigor and fruit quality were not different for mature grapefruit trees growing in the coastal, flatwoods area of Florida, which received reclaimed wastewater or canal water. Yields, however, were higher for the reclaimed wastewater treatments in one season, but the effect was variable. No adverse effects of applying high levels of reclaimed wastewater were noted at either site. The use of reclaimed wastewater for citrus irrigation has potential benefits for Florida citrus growers in the future.
Horticultural Uses of Municipal Solid Waste Composts
Authors: Rosen Carl J. , Halbach Thomas R. , Swanson Bert T.
Published: December 2018

Composting of municipal solid waste (MSW) has received renewed attention as a result of increasing waste disposal costs and the environmental concerns associated with using landfills. Sixteen MSW composting facilities are currently operating in the United States, with many more in the advanced stages of planning. A targeted end use of the compost is for horticultural crop production. At the present time, quality standards for MSW composts are lacking and need to be established. Elevated heavy metal concentrations in MSW compost have been reported; however, through proper sorting and recycling prior to composting, contamination by heavy metals can be reduced. Guidelines for safe metal concentrations and fecal pathogens in compost, based on sewage sludge research, are presented. The compost has been shown to be useful in horticultural crop production by improving soil physical properties, such as lowering bulk density and increasing water-holding capacity. The compost can supply essential nutrients to a limited extent; however, supplemental fertilizer, particularly N, is usually required. The compost has been used successfully as a sphagnum peat substitute for container media and as a seedbed for turf production. High soluble salts and B, often leading to phytotoxicity, are problems associated with the use of MSW compost. The primary limiting factor for the general use of MSW compost in horticultural crop production at present is the lack of consistent, high-quality compost.
Controlled-release Fertilizers Affect Nitrate Nitrogen Runoff from Container Plants
Authors: Yeager Tom , Cashion Geri
Published: December 2018

Container plant runoff NO3-N levels varied with sampling time and were periodically higher than the 10-ppm federal drinking water standard during 4.5 months following fertilizer application, even though controlled-release fertilizers Nutricote 18N-2.6P-6.6K Osmocote 18N-2.6P-10K, Prokote 20N-1.3P-8.3K, and Woodace 19N-2.6P-10K were used. Leachate collected from containers had a higher NO3-N level than runoff regardless of sampling time. Leachate NO3-N ranged from 278 ppm for Nutricote 3.5 months after application to 6 ppm for Prokote 1 week after application.
Onion Irrigation and Nitrogen Leaching in the Arkansas Valley of Colorado 1990-1991
Authors: Ells J.E. , McSay A.E. , Soltanpour P.N. , Schweissing F.C. , Bartolo M.E. , Kruse E.G.
Published: December 2018

Water and nitrogen (N) are major inputs in the production of onions in the Arkansas Valley of Colorado. Because nitrates move with irrigation water, the effect of different rates of application of both N fertilizer and water on nitrate leaching were studied simultaneously. After a 2-year field study (1990-1991), it was concluded that >50 t·ha-1 of onions could be obtained without any N fertilizer when >42 ppm of nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) were initially present in the top 33 cm of soil and up to 112 cm of irrigation water was applied. Total onion yield was not improved by applying more than the calculated irrigation requirement. The 2-m profile of soil under these experiments was found to contain >1400 kg·ha-1 of residual NO3-N prior to fertilizer treatments. When twice the estimated irrigation requirement was applied, >1000 kg·ha-1 of NO3-N was unaccounted for and presumed to have been mostly leached below the 2-m profile and partly denitrified. In both years, the onions were planted on land that had been fallowed the previous season, which does not help explain the presence of the high levels of nitrates found in the soil profile. It was concluded that sound water and N management practices in onion fields are crucial for preservation of water quality.
Responses of Five Container-grown Herbaceous Perennial Species to Laboratory Freezing
Authors: Iles Jeffery K. , Agnew Nancy H.
Published: December 2018

The capacity of plant materials to resume normal growth after exposure to low temperature is the ultimate criterion of cold hardiness. We therefore determined the low-temperature tolerance of five commercially important herbaceous perennial species. Container-grown blanket flower (Gaillardia ×grandiflora Van Houtte. `Goblin'), false dragonhead [Physoste- gia virginiana (L.) Benth. `Summer Snow'], perennial salvia (Salvia ×superba Stapf. `Stratford Blue'), painted daisy (Tanacetum coccineum Willd. `Robinson's Mix'), and creeping veronica (Veronica repens Loisel.) were subjected to 0, -2, 4, -6, -8, -10, -12, -14, -16, and -18C in a programmable freezer. The percentage of survival of most species was adequate when exposed to -10C. Producers of container-grown perennials are advised to provide winter protection measures that prohibit root medium temperatures from falling below -10C.
Portable Soil Moisture Meters
Authors: Faber Ben , Downer James , Yates Lori
Published: December 2018

Soil moisture status can be measured using neutron probes, time domain reflectometry, tensiometers, gravimetric methods, and electrical resistance blocks. Most methods have limitations; they may be time-consuming (gravimetric), expensive (neutron probe, time domain), or fixed in place (tensiometer, gypsum block, and neutron probe) (Schmugge, 1980; Weems, 1991). Water management in droughty, urban areas of the country would benefit from identification of a portable, fast, and relatively inexpensive soil moisture measuring device suitable for use in urban lawns and gardens. In this study, we have identified an instrument that may be suitable for this purpose.
Rowcovers Improve Early Season Tomato Production
Authors: Reiners Stephen , Nitzsche Peter J.
Published: December 2018

`Pilgrim' tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) grown under slitted clear polyethylene or spunbonded polypropylene rowcovers were compared to those with no protection for the effect on yield. Both covers significantly increased early yield in terms of fruit numbers and weight, but no differences were observed in total yields. In addition, no difference was observed in yield between two tomato transplant sizes- 4- to 5-leaf stage and 6- to 7-leaf stage---grown in the same-sized containers. The results from this study indicate that early tomato yield may be enhanced with the use of rowcovers.
A Capillary, Noncirculating Hydroponic Method for Leaf and Semi-head Lettuce
Authors: Kratky Bernard A.
Published: December 2018

A simple, capillary, non-circulating hydroponic method is described. Lettuce seedlings are transplanted into 218-mm-long plastic tubes containing 160 ml of growing medium and the bottom 25 mm is submerged into a tank of nutrient solution. No additional fertilization, watering, or monitoring is required from transplanting until harvesting. Although the nutrient solution level may drop below the bottoms of the tubes, the roots continue to take up adequate water and nutrients to sustain growth. This method does not require pumps or electrical power. `Green Ice' leaf lettuce produced 24% more salable yield growing with this method than comparable plants growing in conventional soil culture.
Interplanted Barley and Rye in Carrots and Onions
Authors: Zandstra Bernard H. , Warncke Darryl D.
Published: December 2018

Carrots (Daucus carota L.) or onions (Allium cepa L.) were interplanted with barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) or rye (Secale cereale L.) seeded at 0, 0.5, 1.0, or 2.0 bushels/acre (0, 43.5, 87, and 174 liters-ha-i). Barley was killed at heights of 4, 8, 12, or 16 inches (10, 20, 30, or 40 cm), and rye was killed at 4, 6, 7, or 8 inches with a postemergence graminicide. Barley and rye killed at 4 inches did not reduce onion yield. If barley exceeded 8 inches and rye exceeded 7 inches when killed, onion yields were reduced. Carrot yield was reduced only by 2 bushels of barley killed at 16 inches. One bushel of barley per acre killed at 4 inches appeared to be optimal in giving good soil protection and minimal crop competition.
Using a Computer Spreadsheet and Compiler to Extend Growth Models to Greenhouse Growers
Authors: Wulster George J.
Published: December 2018

A software application for the personal computer has been developed using the macro languages of Lotus l-2-3 Release 2.2 and the spreadsheet compiler Baler XE Release 1.0E to provide Easter lily (Lilium longiflorum Thunb.) growers with a tool to track and predict various developmental stages of the crop during greenhouse forcing.
The Global Demand For United States Frozen Potatoes in the Year 2000
Authors: Gao Yanqing , Guenthner Joseph F.
Published: December 2018

An econometric model was developed to forecast the global demand for U.S. frozen potato products in the year 2000. Quantity-dependent demand equations were established for the U.S. retail market, the U.S. food service market, the Japanese market, and the rest of the world. It was estimated that total sales of U.S. frozen potato products will be 81.5 million cwt in 2000, a 33% increase from 1989. The domestic retail market is forecast to increase by 4%, and the food service market by 33%. Exports are expected to double 1989 volume, with a 30% increase in exports to Japan and a 264% growth in exports to the rest of the world.
Opportunities for Biotechnology Transfer to Developing Countries
Authors: Durzan Don J. , Durzan M.D.
Published: December 2018

Prospects for the establishment of joint-ventured agribusiness in developing countries are a function of international agreements, local risk conditions, business networks, and banking systems that are willing to support the innovative transfer, protection, assessment, and commercialization of biotechnology. The integration of biotechnology will occur only if truly convincing practices emerge that enhance biodiversity and the competitiveness of sustainable production, utilization, and marketing cycles. Integration also depends on agreements on intellectual property rights, plant protection, trade and tariffs, price stabilization, and non-trade-distorting policies. These policies deal with broad issues in research, pest and disease control, environmental quality, germplasm conservation, resource retirement programs, and even with crop and disaster insurance. Measures derived from these policies will apply to novel processes and to organisms that have been genetically engineered and approved for release into the environment. For developing countries, much more attention will have to be paid to biological diversity and sustainable balances among intercropped agriforest and horticultural production systems. Balances should be compatible with regional and local customs and practices before genetically engineered “green goods and services” are introduced in the marketplace. Recombinant DNA technologies are currently better-suited to deal on a “gene-by-gene” basis, with commodity surpluses and material conversions involving more concentrated and industrialized processes than with field plantations of genetically engineered, complex, and long-lived crops that may require considerable adaptive plasticity. In most countries with developing economies, the integration of recombinant DNA technology represents a “special problematique” involving politico- and socioeconomic and environmental factors. Barriers to transfer and integration may involve evolving international agreements, public acceptance, resource over-exploitation, environmental degradation, rapid insect and disease resistance, contaminated water and food supplies, reduced quality of life, labor quality, corruption, crime, farmers' rights, germplasm conservation, and lack of protection of intellectual property, among other factors. Hence, the timing and mode of transferring biotechnology needs considerable impact assessment on a case-by-case basis.
Tomato Transplant Age: A Review
Authors: Vavrina Charles S. , Orzolek Michael D.
Published: December 2018

As early as 1929, university scientists began the quest to determine the ideal age at which to transplant tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). Investigations have included seedlings of 2 to 15 weeks of age produced in wood, peat, plastic, or Styrofoam containers. Early researchers often omitted descriptions of soil mixes and nutrient regimes, and used a wide variety of container types. Later investigators were inclined to use commercial soilless mixes, well-defined nutrient regimes, and polystyrene trays. Pioneers of transplant age research tended to use plants of 7 weeks and older, whereas work within the past 30 years has concentrated on younger plants. Many researchers drew conclusions after only 1 year of experimentation, while others found that results varied across years. Prior to the 1980s, virtually all studies were initiated and conducted in areas far from the thriving transplant industry established in the southeastern United States. Southern-grown transplants often were not in cluded for comparison, and few studies were implemented using plants grown under commercial conditions. After more than 60 years of transplant age research, it appears that transplants of 2 to 13 weeks can produce comparable yields, depending on the many factors involved in commercial production.
Ice or an Ice-replacement Agent does Not Improve Refrigerated Broccoli Storage at 1C
Authors: Klieber A. , Jewell L. , Simbeya N.
Published: December 2018

Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. Italica group) was stored separately with ice and with an ice-replacement agent in polystyrene boxes and without an internal coolant in plastic-lined fiberboard boxes at 1C for 5 weeks and then under simulated marketing conditions at 20C for 2 days. Internal coolants did not improve quality, which was marginally reduced under all handling conditions, and they did increase postharvest costs.
Device for Opening and Closing Magenta Vessels for Micropropagation
Authors: Gautz Loren D. , Wong Charles W.
Published: December 2018

A device is described that can be used to open and close Magenta vessels used for micropropagation. Performance of the device is reported and compared favorably to unassisted manual opening and closing of vessels. Benefits include elimination of a potentially physically damaging (e.g., carpal tunnel syndrome) manual operation.
Hands to Work, Hearts to God: The Story of the Shaker Seed Industry
Authors: Paine Laura
Published: December 2018

The Shakers were a celibate, communistic religious group, active primarily in the 18th and 19th centuries in the United States. Well-known for their craftsmanship in making furniture and other household items, their expertise extended far beyond these areas into a broad range of industries, including many agricultural enterprises. Seeds of vegetable varieties were produced and marketed independently by several of the Shaker communities starting in the late 18th century. During the first part of the 19th century, Shaker peddlers were one of a very few sources of vegetable seed for American gardeners, and seed sales comprised a major portion of the Shaker communities' income. Shaker doctrine encouraged excellence and integrity in all their business practices. These characteristics were largely responsible for the Shakers' success in the seed industry, as well as for their ultimate decline. Their enterprise sprang from their rural, agricultural roots and their markets were the small villages and farming communities across the eastern United States. The Shaker seed industry thus developed independent of the market forces governing “the World.” The commercial seed industry, based in Philadelphia (beginning in the first decades of the 1800s), and the Shaker seed industry had little effect on one another until mid-century, when improved transportation and mail service opened rural markets to the mainly city-based commercial seed dealerships. Unwilling to compete with commercial dealers, the Shaker seed industry gradually declined until the turn of the century, when it ceased to exist.
Electrophoretic Characterization of Taxus Cultivars
Authors: Greer C.E. , Schutzki R.E. , Fernandez A. , Hancock J.F.
Published: December 2018

Starch gel electrophoresis was used to fingerprint 55 Taxus plants, listed as 21 species and/or cultivars. Plants were analyzed for six enzymes, representing eight putative loci. Within many of the cultivars, different fingerprints were observed, indicating nomenclatural errors in Taxus.
Video Imaging for Quantifying Cucumber Fruit Color
Authors: Lin W.C. , Hall J.W. , Klieber A.
Published: December 2018

A video-imaging technique, using commercial software to process images obtained at 550 nm, was established to estimate chlorophyll content of cucumber fruit disks. The chlorophyll content of excised disks was extracted, determined, and regressed on the video-image grey level. They were linearly related. The change in grey level of the whole visible image accurately indicated the change of green color during fruit development on the vine and the loss of green color after 1 week of storage at 13C. The relationship of the chlorophyll content on grey level was quadratic for three imaging methods: 1) average grey level of the five disks; 2) average grey level of the whole cucumber image; and 3) average grey level of central one-third of the whole cucumber image. Chlorophyll content was most highly correlated to the grey level of the disks themselves (residual SD = 6.74 μg·cm-2), but this sampling technique was destructive. Both one-third of the fruit image (SD = 9.25 μg·cm-2) and the whole image (SD = 9.36 μg·cm-2) provided satisfactory precision. For simplicity, whole-fruit imaging is suitable for estimating fruit chlorophyll content and for quantifying fruit green color intensity. Potential use of this technique in product sorting and shelf life prediction of long English cucumbers is discussed.
Irrigation Scheduling Programs for Cabbage and Zucchini Squash
Authors: Ells James E. , McSay Ann E. , Kruse E.G.
Published: December 2018

Irrigation scheduling programs were developed for cabbage and zucchini squash that produced high yield and water-use efficiency with a minimum number of irrigations. The irrigation programs are based on a soil water balance model developed by the USDA. The procedure involved selecting irrigation programs developed for similar crops and using them as standards for cabbage and zucchini for three growing seasons. The treatments involved irrigation levels higher and lower than the standard. After the third year, the best treatment for each year was selected. Coefficients for the standard model then were adjusted by trial and error to produce a program that called for the same number of irrigations and the same amount of water as the best-performing treatment when using the same weather data. These revised programs for cabbage and zucchini squash are available on computer disks and may be used on any IBM compatible PC provided wind, temperature, solar radiation, humidity, and precipitation data are available,
Training Persons with Mental Disabilities as Greenhouse Integrated Pest Management scouts
Authors: Eddy Robert T. , Sadof Clifford S.
Published: December 2018

Horticulture businesses will be encouraged to hire qualified individuals with disabilities due to the enactment of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Maintaining a safe workplace is a considerable challenge due to the use and storage of restricted-use pesticides. In a vocational training program, two persons with mental disabilities were trained to be effective Integrated Pest Management scouts using systematic teaching procedures. Trainees acquired employable skills while providing a service that enabled management to reduce use of conventional pesticides on a greenhouse poinsettia crop by up to 65%.
Managing Fruit Orchards to Minimize Hurricane Damage
Authors: Crane Jonathan , Balerdi Carlos , Campbell Richard , Campbell Carl , Goldweber Seymour
Published: December 2018

Hurricanes occur periodically in southern Florida, resulting in severely damaged or destroyed orchards due to high winds, fresh-water flooding, and salt damage accompanying these storms. Commercial fruit production is often markedly reduced following hurricane damage. Orchard establishment and management practices that increase tree rooting depth and reduce tree size decrease tree losses due to high-velocity winds that accompany these storms. Cultural practices, such as post-hurricane pruning, whitewashing, resetting, and irrigation of trees, can rehabilitate a damaged orchard. Planning for a hurricane will increase the ability of orchards to withstand a storm and resume fruit production as soon as possible following a storm.
Minimizing Environmental Stress in Field Establishment of Vegetable Crops in the Southwestern United States
Authors: Hartz T.K.
Published: December 2018

Overcoming environmental stresses during seedling establishment is crucial to successful vegetable production. In the irrigated production areas of the southwestern United States, stress most often is related to unfavorable temperature, soil or water salinity, or poor soil structure; it is frequently difficult to separate the effects of these stresses because they may all be present to some significant degree. Growers use a variety of techniques to ameliorate these conditions. Advances in seed technology have improved seedling establishment under unfavorable temperatures, particularly for lettuce. The use of sprinkler irrigation for stand establishment has become a widespread practice; sprinkling moderates soil temperature, minimizes salinity in the zone of germination, and reduces soil crusting. By modifying bed configuration, growers have been able to increase soil temperature to stimulate germination. Modifying seed placement and furrow irrigation patterns can create zones of lower salinity. Various chemical and physical treatments have proven effective in reducing soil crusting. The use of transplants-has expanded for many crops, both as a means to circumvent seedling establishment problems, as well as a technique to obtain earliness.
Early Development of Gerbera as a Floricultural Crop
Authors: Tourjee Kenneth R. , Harding James , Byrne Thomas G.
Published: December 2018

The development of gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii H. Bolus ex. Hooker) as a floricultural crop is traced from its collection as a botanical novelty in South Africa to its establishment as a commercial crop in the 1930s. The origin of the cultivated germplasm, G. jamesonii and G. viridifolia (DC) Schultz- Bipontinus, is discussed, as well as breeding work that occurred in Europe and the United States. The contributions of the two species to the cultivated germplasm is unknown. Early breeding in Europe was conducted by RI. Lynch at the Cambridge Botanic Gardens in England, R. Adnet at La Rosarie in Antibes, France; and by C. Sprenger in Italy. In the United States, early work was done at estates in New Jersey by Herrington and Atkins, and by the commercial growers Jaenicke and the J.L. Childs' Seed Co. Establishing the cold hardiness of the crop for temperate climates was an early goal of horticulturists and breeders. Much of the cultivated germplasm can be traced to material that passed through Cambridge and Antibes.
A Low-cost Microcomputer System for Controlling Relative Humidity in Horticultural Storages
Authors: Adam L.R. , Pritchard M.K.
Published: December 2018

An inexpensive system for monitoring and controlling relative humidity (RH) above 90% and for monitoring temperature was developed and tested in a storage research facility for horticultural crops. A general-purpose IBM-PC microcomputer connected to an analog/digital interface system allowed for 16 differential analog inputs and 12 digital outputs for monitoring temperature and RH in eight storage rooms. Relative humidity, measured at 2-min intervals by an inexpensive wet/dry bulb psychrometer in each room, was regulated by a cool-mist humidification system. The standard deviation of RH from set-point was ± 2.8% at 2C and ±3.1% at 10C dry bulb temperature. The software. written in BASIC, allows for additional upgrading to meet future requirements. Commercially available components were used to construct the system at a cost of about Cd$1400 (Canadian) (microcomputer and cool-mist humidification system excluded).
Comparison of Chopped Newspaper with Microfoam for Winter Protection of Container-grown Nursery Stock
Authors: Pellett Norman , Heleba David
Published: December 2018

Chopped newspaper at 3.5 and 7.0 kg.m-2 enclosed in white polyethylene sheeting or enclosed in nylon netting at 3.5 kg.m-2 was compared with two layers of 0.64-cm microfoam as winter covering of four taxa of container-grown nursery plants. White polyethylene-enclosed newspaper moderated winter temperatures more than net-enclosed newspaper or two layers of microfoam under white polyethylene. All coverings provided protection against winter injury, as evidenced by container temperature, but net-enclosed newspaper at 3.5 kg.m-2 resulted in a minimal percentage of Daphne burkwoodii `Carol Mackie' plants with three or more shoots longer than 2 cm in the spring. Gaillardia grandiflora, covered by newspaper during winter, had less spring growth than plants covered by microfoam, but all coverings provided protection for Juniperus horizontalis `Prince of Wales' and Physostegia virginiana.
Rowcovers Improve Sweetpotato Transplant Production in Field Beds and Hotbeds
Authors: Dangler James M.
Published: December 2018

Transparent polyethylene is used to enhance sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] transplant production in hotbeds and unheated field beds. Black plastic is used also in unheated field beds. The use of these bed covers, however, frequently results in transplant damage due to overheating. Despite the positive results obtained by using rowcovers in sweetpotato transplant production, recommendations for their use are not included in extension publications. Successful adoption of rowcovers by sweetpotato transplant producers in Alabama is illustrated.
Trends in Washington State's Apple Industry
Authors: Marshall David W. , Andrews Preston K.
Published: December 2018

Washington is the leading producer of apples in the United States. North-central and south-central Washington and the Columbia Basin are the major production regions within the state. The climate of these production regions is characterized by cold winters and hot, dry summers with high levels of light intensity. The principal varieties produced are still `Delicious', `Golden Delicious', and `Granny Smith'; however, `Fuji', `Gala', and `Braeburn' have been planted widely since 1988. Despite increasing levels of production and lower prices beginning in 1986, apple prices have recovered relatively well in recent years due to aggressive exports to southeast Asia and Mexico. Increased international competition has resulted in a trend towards higher-density orchards using dwarfing rootstock so that earlier production can be achieved. Evaluation of the performance of new varieties in Washington's climatic conditions has increased. Although not the focus of this article, several social and environmental issues are facing the Washington apple industry, including increasing restrictions on chemical usage, competition for a limited water resource, regulation of ground water quality, pending labor relations legislation, and increasing urbanization pressures.
Tillage is Necessary in Re-establishing Peach Orchards
Authors: Glenn D.M. , Kotcon J. , Welker W.V.
Published: December 2018

Three soil management treatments (cultivation, herbicide, and killed sod) were established in the drive middle of a 10-year-old apple orchard removed the year prior to planting peaches. The cultivation and herbicide treatments used preplant tillage, leaving a bare soil surface, whereas the killed-sod system was untilled. Peach trees (Prunus persica L. Batsch) were planted, and growth, yield, and soil bulk density were measured after 3 years. There were no differences in tree growth or yield for the three treatments These results were contrary to published reports that the killed-sod system increased early tree growth. The lack of growth response in the killed-sod system was attributed to the high soil bulk density remaining from the previous orchard. We concluded that truck and tractor traffic in the drive middle causes severe soil compaction, which may limit root development. The soil compaction can only be moderated by tillage.
Nursery Integrated Pest Management in Wisconsin
Authors: Delahaut Karen A. , Koval Charles F.
Published: December 2018

A Nursery Integrated Pest Management program was initiated in Wisconsin in 1991. From 1991 to 1993, the educational and monitoring program enhanced grower familiarity with the IPM concept, as well as provided detailed information on the pest problems common to woody landscape plants in Wisconsin. Educational features of the program include twilight seminars and winter workshops, a pest control guide that described the management strategies available for pests of woody landscape plants, and also statewide pest reporting and pest predictions.
Exploring Horticulture in Human Culture: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Youth Education
Authors: Eames-Sheavly Marcia
Published: December 2018

By examining the ways that societies have raised and prepared their predominant food crops, students can gain insights into horticultural methods and origins of food, and develop an awareness of and appreciation for diverse cultural heritage. An interdisciplinary approach to the subject permits young people to synthesize information form diverse sources and to understand the important historic relationship between humans and plants.
Conservation Tillage for Vegetable Production
Authors: Hoyt G.D. , Monks D.W. , Monaco T.J.
Published: December 2018

Conservation tillage is an effective sustainable production system for vegetables. No-till planters and transplanters and strip-till cultivation equipment are presently available for most vegetables. Lack of weed management tools (herbicides, cultivators, etc.) continues to be the cultural practice that limits adaptability of some vegetables to conservation tillage systems. Nitrogen management can be critical when grass winter cover crops are used as a surface residue. Advantages of using conservation tillage include soil and water conservation, improved soil chemical properties, reduction in irrigation requirements, reduced labor requirements, and greater nutrient recycling. However, disadvantages may include lower soil temperatures, which can affect maturity date; higher chemical input (desiccants and post-emergence herbicides); potential pest carryover in residues; and enhancement of some diseases.