bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Radar observations of individual desert locusts (Schistocerca gregaria (Forsk.) (Orthoptera, Locustidae))
Authors: Riley J. R.
Published: July 2009

Techniques used in the radar detection and identification of individual flying insects are outlined, and laboratory and field measurements of the radar cross section of the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria (Forsk.), are presented. The cross section was strongly aspect-dependent, and had an average value of approximately 1 cm2 at a radar wavelength of 3·2 cm. An example is given of the periodic fluctuation in radar cross section (the radar ‘signature’) produced by locusts in free flight, and the spectral contents of the signatures obtained from 35 laboratory-bred free-flying locusts are described. The fundamental components of the signatures, presumed to be at the wing beat frequency, were closely grouped about 23 Hz. It is suggested that the feasibility of using radar signatures as a means of insect identification will largely depend on the degree to which the species of interest are characterised by specific wing beat frequencies. Estimates of locust flying speed and heading deduced from photographs of locust and balloon radar tracks produced a mean value of 5·3 m s-1. Undetected small-scale flight manoeuvres may introduce negative errors in the estimation of flying speed. It is concluded that radar will provide unique observational facilities for the entomologist but that the limitations introduced by the problem of target recognition have yet to be defined.
The mosquitoes of Bwamba County, Uganda. X. Observations on the biting behaviour ofAnophelesspp. other thanA. gambiaeGiles, with notes on the behaviour of these species in the Entebbe area
Authors: Haddow A. J. , Ssenkubuge Y.
Published: July 2009

This paper reports the data for the uncommonAnophelesspp. from 24-h man-baited catches mainly in the Semliki Forest, Uganda, but also from the Zika and Mpanga ForestsAnopheles(Cellia)nili(Theo.),A.(C.)marshallii(Theo.),A. (C.)demeilloniEvans,A. (C.)squamosusTheo.,A. (A.)coustaniLav.s. str.andA. (A.)tenebrosus(Dön.) were rarely caught.A. (A.)obscurus(Grünb.),A. (C.)mouchetiEvans andA. (C.)keniensisEvans were also scarce, but the numbers did indicate nocturnal and ground-haunting habits. Comparison of catches of the less uncommon species (A. (A.)ziemanni Grünb.,A. (A.)paludisTheo.,A. (A.)implexus(Theo.),A. (C.)funestusGiles,A. (C.)hargreavesiEvans andA. (C.)pharoensisTheo.) with those obtained by other workers showed them to be primarily ground haunting and nocturnal but with wide variation in their temporal distribution patterns.
Ticks (Ixodoidea) of domestic animals in Cyprus
Authors: Le Riche P. D. , Altan Y. , Campbell J. B. , Efstathiou G. C.
Published: July 2009

A total of 15 835 ticks was identified, mainly from sheep and goats, in a livestock survey in Cyprus in 1970–72. Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum Koch, H. a. excavatum Koch, H. marginatum marginatum Koch, H. m. turanicum Pom., H. m. rufipes Koch, Haemaphysalis sulcata C. & F., Ixodes crenulatus Koch and Rhipicephalus turanicus Pom. & Matikashvili are recorded for the first time in Cyprus. H. sulcata was found in all parts of the island; Hyalomma spp. and Rhipicephalus spp. were mostly seen in the low drier areas, and Ixodes gibbosus Nutt. in the wetter areas; Boophilus annulatus (Say) was confined to one small area. Ticks were most common in autumn and early winter. Haemaphysalis sulcata and I. gibbosus were only found in the winter months, whereas Hyalomma spp. were found all the year round but especially in the warmer months. The Hyalomma subspecies showed some differences in seasonal distribution. Immature Rhipicephalus ticks were found in the colder months whereas the adults were seen mainly in the spring and early summer. Immature Haemaphysalis sulcata and Hyalomma spp. were extremely rare on ruminants. Only adults of I. gibbosus were seen in the first year of the survey, whereas only immatures, mainly larvae, were seen in the second year. The period of attachment of R. bursa C. & F. adults was shorter than that of R. turanicus and corresponded closely to the incidence of babesiosis in sheep and goats. The predilection sites of ticks for cattle, sheep and goats are given.
Variation in the proportion of different reproductive stages of female bushflies (Musca vetustissimaWlk. (Diptera, Muscidae)) in bait catches as a cause of error in population estimates
Authors: Hughes R. D.
Published: July 2009

Most trapping techniques for estimating populations assume that all individuals are equally trappable. Where potential protein sources are used as baits for muscoid flies, which are known to have a cyclical intake of protein during ovarian development, numbers caught may not be comparable. Accumulated field data on the reproductive stages of samples of the bushfly (Musca vetustissimaWlk.) in a study area near Canberra have been analysed to show that only flies in the last stages of maturing their eggs (reproductive stage IV) are uniformly under-represented (about 22% of expectation) in baited samples.
A new genus and species of Elachistid moth (Lepidoptera, Elachistidae) reared on sugar-cane in Papua New Guinea
Authors: Bradley J. D.
Published: July 2009

An Elachistid moth whose larva mines leaves of sugar-cane in Papua New Guinea is described and named Eupneusta solena gen. et sp. n. The genus is differentiated from Dicranoctetes Braun, a New World genus which contains the Cuban species D. saccharella (Busck) whose larva is also a miner in leaves of sugar-cane. Descriptions of the larva and pupa are included, and special note is made of the highly developed spiracular processes of these stages.
Ticks (Ixodoidea) on migrating birds in Cyprus, fall 1967 and spring 1968, and epidemiological considerations
Authors: Kaiser Makram N. , Hoogstraal Harry , Watson George E.
Published: July 2009

More or less cursory examination of migrating birds in Cyprus revealed 115 of 2580 southward (fall) migrants and 177 of 22015 northward (spring) migrants to be infested by 167 and 797 ticks, respectively. Most ticks on fall migrants wereHyalomma marginatum marginatumKoch; others wereIxodes frontalis(Panz.), I.ricinus(L.),Haemaphysalis concinnaKoch, andH. punctataC. & F., all representative of the Eurasian fauna. Most ticks on spring migrants wereH. m. rufipesKoch; others wereAmblyomma lepidumDön.,A. nuttalliDön., andA. variegatum(F.), representative of sub-Saharan Africa, andArgas streptopeliaKaiser, Hoogst. & Horner,Ixodes eldaricusDzhaparidze, and I.redikorzeviOlen. which probably attached to the hosts in the eastern Mediterranean area. In Africa and Eurasia, 16 arboviruses have been recorded from eight of these tick species, and also the agents of boutonneuse fever, Siberian tick typhus, Q fever, and tularaemia. The epidemiological potential of migrating birds is enhanced by the multiplicity of pathogens that may infect them and the biological diversity of ticks that may infest them. The remarkably wide distribution of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus in Africa and Eurasia is likely to be due to intercontinental carriage of the virus and ticks by migrating birds.
Insect infestations and their effects on the growth and yield of field crops: a review
Authors: Bardner R. , Fletcher K. E.
Published: July 2009

A knowledge of the often complex relationship between insect populations and their effects on the yield-forming processes of crops is useful for assessing pest status and for devising methods of minimising the effects of infestation on yield. After a preliminary section on definition of terms, consideration is given to ways in which insects injure plants and crops, particularly annual crops. Investigations into the yield-forming processes of unattacked crops can often provide useful insights into the likely effect of insect injuries on yield. The differences between the characteristics of individuals and populations are discussed, both of insects attacking plants, and plants responding to the attacks of insects. The distribution of insects on plants and on crops and the effect that this has on damage is considered, as is the time and duration of the attack in relation to the growth cycle of the crop. The components of plant resistance to insect attack are then discussed, especially tolerance and the various ways in which plants and crops compensate for injury. The review concludes with an examination of the quantitative relationships between numbers of insects or injuries and their effects on yield. The generalised response is a sigmoid curve relating an upper and lower plateau of yield where changes in the numbers of insects or injuries have little effect. Most relationships conform to some part of this curve, though few show all its features.
Pullus impexus(Muls.) (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae), a Predator ofAdelges piceae(Ratz.) (Hemiptera, Adelgidae), with notes on its Parasites
Authors: Delucchi Vittorio
Published: July 2009

The biology ofPullus impexus(Muls.), a Coccinellid beetle predacious onAdelges piceae(Ratz.) in Switzerland, Germany and France, was studied during 1950–1952. The present work is a part of the research on the complex problem of factors in the control of the Balsam Woolly Aphid in Canada.

The morphology of both the larva and the adult has been studied. Some information has been provided on the probable distribution of the species.

P. impexushas only one generation a year. The eggs are deposited during the late summer or early autumn on infested trees and the larvae hatch in April. The larvae develop and adults appear in May. The adults of the new generation are to be found in June together with adults of the old generation. In the biology, particular attention has been directed to the diet of the insect in each of its stages, in order to establish the value of the species from the standpoint of biological control.

Two new species of Hymenopterous parasites were found in Switzerland and in Germany,Scymnophagus mesniliFerr., a parasite of pupae, andCentistes scymniFerr., a parasite of the imagines. The life history of these species has been briefly studied. A cephaline gregarine species was noted in the mesenteron of adults ofP. impexusand a nematode in the abdominal cavity of a female. The two Hymenopterous species provide an important limiting factor in the increase of the population ofP. impexus.
Variation with Age in the Susceptibility to DDT and the Respiration Rate of male and female Drosophila melanogaster Mg.
Authors: Kerr R. W.
Published: July 2009

DDT in odourless distillate was topically applied to individual males and females of the Rothamated wild type of Drosophila melanogaster Mg. The lines for the regression of mortality in probits on log. dosage of DDT for males and females, five days old, were parallel, and males were 1·86 times as susceptible as females. Susceptibility was high in young flies, but rapidly decreased with age, to a minimum at about five days, thereafter increasing rapidly in males and not significantly in females. The need for sexing and standardising age in flies used for toxicological investigations was thus demonstrated.

Respiration rate in untreated flies was measured by a modified Barcroft method. In males it increased with age up to five days, and then decreased; in females it increased with age up to nine days. Variations with age in respiration rate and susceptibility to DDT were negatively correlated.
The Freezing Process of Frost-hardy Caterpillars
Authors: Asahina E. , Aoki K. , Shinozaki J.
Published: July 2009

Using mainly the overwintering prepupae of a “ slug caterpiller ”,Cnidocampa flavescens(Walk.), the mechanism for the frost-resistance in insects was investigated.

Though the freezing point of the blood shows the value of about −2°C. the prepupae are very readily supercooled. When cooled below −20°C., however, the insect body suddenly congeals hard. Insects frozen thus, even for a long period of 100 days, usually withstand the solidification of their bodies without any harmful effect upon either the further development or upon the next generation.

Judging from the shape of the freezing curves of the prepupae and the freezing processes of the blood and isolated tissues, it is inferred that the most probable freezing process of the caterpillar is as follows. At first, the blood freezes rapidly, and consequently the grade of supercooling of the tissue cells is very much lessened by the latent heat of fusion of ice. Extra-cellular freezing of the tissue cells then takes place, in which case the properties of the blood as well as some property of the plasmic surface layer of the cells may play an important role in the prevention of the transmission of freezing into the cell. With the advance of the blood freezing, the tissue cells undergo dehydration and contraction; neverthless, they usually withstand such a condition for a long period, provided that the freezing temperature is not too low. Consequently, the so-called anabiotic state of a frozen insect does not necessarily mean the destruction of the cell structure.
Toxicity of the Botanical Insecticide Ryania speciosa to Culex pipiens fatigans Wied.
Authors: Charles L. J.
Published: July 2009

In the course of general studies on control of Culex pipiens fatigans Wied. in British Guiana, the indigenous shrub Ryania speciosa, proven to possess insecticidal activity against certain agricultural pests, was investigated.

Aqueous extracts of the dried stem were shown to possess toxic properties against all larval stages of C. pipiens fatigans under clean laboratory conditions. Under conditions simulating a water-logged pit latrine, however, toxicity was greatly reduced by adsorption of the active agent ryanodine, rendering the crude stem relatively ineffective after 16 days. Because of the great bulk of unprocessed material required for even this limited result in pit latrines—which constitute an important local problem—Ryania was not considered of practical value in C. pipiens fatigans control.

Aqueous and alcoholic extracts of Ryania speciosa had no contact insecticidal properties against adults of this species.
Mesoclanis seed flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) on Chrysanthemoides (Asteraceae) in South Africa: distribution, attack strategy and impact on seed production
Authors: Edwards P.B. , Brown E.M.
Published: July 2009

Three species of Mesoclanis flies that attack the developing seeds of Chrysanthemoides monilifera in South Africa are being assessed for their potential as biological control agents of C. monilifera in Australia. Surveys in South Africa indicated that M. polana Munro is restricted to C. m. rotundata along the subtropical northern coast, M. magnipalpis Bezzi and M. dubia Walker occur on all three subspecies sampled (C. m. rotundata, C. m. monilifera, C. m. pisifera), although M. dubia is less abundant and has a more restricted distribution than M. magnipalpis. Mesoclanis eggs are laid into a wide range of flowerhead stages of C. m. rotundata over a period of approximately 12–14 days, from very small flowerheads with involucral bracts still completely closed, to flowerheads with the laminae of ray florets (petals) starting to elongate. Levels of oviposition by M. magnipalpis into C. m. pisifera are low in very young flowerheads, possibly as a consequence of a heavy layer of indumentum on young C. m. pisifera flowerheads. The pattern and location of feeding and pupation within flowerheads differs slightly for the three Mesoclanis species, but none of the species is associated with the formation of gall tissue. The effect of Mesoclanis activity on ovule development was assessed on four occasions. Mesoclanis destroyed all the ovules in some capitula, and the maximum level of ovule destruction recorded for a site was 64%.
Effects of sugar-formulated triflumuron-treated targets on reproduction in the olive fruit flyBactrocera oleae(Diptera: Tephritidae)
Authors: Mazomenos B.E. , Stefanou D. , Langley P. , Pantazi-Mazomenos A.
Published: July 2009

Adult olive fruit fliesBactrocera(Dacus)oleaeGmelin were exposed for 24 h to 25 × 10 cm polyester target devices, impregnated with 3% a.i. triflumuron (2-chloro-n-[[[trifluromethoxy]phenyl]amino]carbonyl]benzamide), a chitin synthesis inhibitor, formulated in 10% w/v sugar solution and air-dried. Treated insects were tested for egg hatch inhibition and larval mortality. Inhibition of egg hatch and F1 larval mortality depended on the sex exposed and the elapsed time after exposure. Egg hatch was reduced to 37.6% and F1 larval mortality reached 100% when both exposed sexes were mated. Exposure of one sex prior to mating resulted in a lower level of egg inhibition and larval mortality; but exposure of females was more effective at inhibiting egg hatch and larval survival than exposure of males in these crosses. In flies exposed once, the residual activity of triflumuron decreased gradually, fifteen days post-exposure egg hatch and larval mortality reached 62% and 44% respectively. Target devices aged under natural conditions reduced egg hatch to an average of 39% and inhibited completely larval development for a period of four months.
Mitochondrial DNA characterization of populations ofLutzomyia whitmani(Diptera: Psychodidae) incriminated in the peri-domestic and silvatic transmission ofLeishmaniaspecies in Brazil
Authors: Ready P.D. , Day J.C. , de Souza A.A. , Rangel E.F. , Davies C.R.
Published: July 2009

A comparative analysis was performed on 18 mitochondrial DNA sequences, or haplotypes, ofLutzomyia (Nyssomyia) whitmani(Antunes & Coutinho) isolated by PCR from 28 individual flies originating from 10 Brazilian locations 150–2500 km apart. A phylogenetic analysis using maximum parsimony indicated support for three to four major lineages (Outgroups were haplotypes ofLutzomyia (Nyssomyia) intermedia(Lutz & Neiva)). OneL. whitmanilineage was found in the Atlantic Forest zone of the North East, including the species' type locality, and is distinct from a second monophyletic group of haplotypes located in the drier interior of Brazil, stretching from the Tropic of Capricorn to Teresina just outside Amazonia. This provides no support for a previous hypothesis thatL. whitmanisensu stricto is a single form widely-distributed south of Amazonia, and characterized by derived anthropophilic and synanthropic behavioural traits. The ranges of both lineages include populations incriminated in the peri-domestic transmission ofLeishmania braziliensissensu stricto. A third, Amazonian, group of haplotypes was less well-defined. It appears to consist of two sub-lineages which, like the twoLeishmaniaspecies associated with them, are strictly silvatic and are separated by the Amazon floodplain. The zoophily of the Amazonian populations was not shown to be an ancestral trait. The geographical distributions of the Brazilian lineages are concordant with the broad patterns of bioclimate believed to have persisted since the late Tertiary period. These findings are part of ongoing research on the behavioural genetics ofL. whitmanisensu lato aimed at understanding the evolution and maintenance of peri-domestic transmission of human cutaneous leishmaniasis.
Observations on Mosquito Behaviour in Native Huts
Authors: Hadaway A. B.
Published: July 2009

Mosquitos continue to enter occupied, untreated native huts throughout the night, with peak periods of entry at dusk and dawn. Early morning mosquito catches do not give a true picture of the numbers entering and leaving huts during the night.

In a series of catches 63 per cent. of 5,576 mosquitos and 79 per cent. of 506 Anopheles gambiae were caught resting on the underside of the thatch roof.

By using five traps inserted in apertures one foot below the top of the wall, the numbers of mosquitos attempting to leave a hut were determined. Of 1,014 mosquitos entering huts before 10 p.m., 63 per cent. remained inside until 6.30 a.m., that is for 8½ hours. Catches to estimate numbers entering and leaving at different times during the night were also made.

Treatment of huts with DDT wettable powder and DDT-kerosene solution did not interfere with the normal behaviour of mosquitos as far as entry was concerned. Biting occurred in the treated huts.

The DDT wettable powder appeared to be more effective than the DDT-kerosene solution.

Some mosquitos entered the treated huts, fed and then left before acquiring a lethal dose. After making contact with treated surfaces mosquitos became restless but, under the conditions existing in the huts during the experiments, activation did not result in more leaving the treated huts than the untreated one. Unfortunately there were few A. gambiae and the predominant species entering the huts was Taeniorhynchus fuscopennatus.

Some of the female A. gambiae released into unoccupied DDT-treated huts escaped into the traps before acquiring a lethal dose. Although there was a tendency for more to enter the traps of a DDT-treated hut than those of an untreated hut, the data are insufficient to show a significant difference.

The majority of mosquitos entering the traps did so within one hour of their release.

No mosquitos were still alive 12 hours after their release in huts treated 17 weeks previously with DDT wettable powder or DDT-kerosene solution, or in the hut treated 12 weeks previously with "“Gammexane” wettable powder.
The Wetting of Insect Cuticle
Authors: Pal Rajindar
Published: July 2009

The best method of assessing the wetting powers of liquids is to measure the contact angle formed with a particular solid surface. In order to study the wetting of insects by spray liquids, it was necessary to measure, as rapidly as possible, the contact angles of very small droplets on restricted surfaces (such as portions of the insects). The apparatus used projected a greatly enlarged image of the drop, the outline of which could be traced very quickly and used for subsequent calculations.

Under practical conditions, spray droplets impact on insects with some relative velocity either due to drift of the spray particles or to flight movements of the insect.Measurements were therefore made of the contact angles formed by droplets of water of known size falling on to insects (or to a beeswax surface) at a known speed. It was found that with rather large drops (5 mm. diameter) the contact angles formed were somewhat lower than the normal advancing contact angle. With small droplets (0·1-0·5 mm. diameter) there was no difference. Biological tests were made with 30 species of insects, differing widely in the nature of their integument and habitat. The resistance to wetting was found to vary greatly, not only from species to species but also on different parts of the body of a single insect. In general, most of the insects were readily wetted by oils and unwetted by water. Insects withhard cuticular lipoids, such asTenebrio, were more hydrophobic than the Blattidswith greasy cuticular waxes. A few species were both lipophilic and hydrophilic (larvae ofMamestra, Polia, Musca). Apart from the chemical nature of the cuticle, irregularities and the presence or absence of hairs were important. Increased roughnesslowers the contact angles of liquids with good wetting powers, but has the opposite effect with liquids with poor wetting powers. Measurements were made of thecontact angles formed on individual hairs ofArctia cajalarvae by spray droplets. The contact angles formed on these hairs by plain liquids were strongly correlated with the angles formed on smoothTenebriocuticle or on an artificial beeswax surface; but there was only very rough correlation between the three sets of data when aqueous solutions of wetting agents were tested.

The test liquids included saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, mineral oils with varying aromatic contents, organic esters, alcohols and aqueous solutions. Among the hydrocarbons, members of the aliphatic series wet insect cuticle more readily than the aromatic group. The aromatic contents of the oils did not, however, affect their very high wetting powers.

The effects of adding surface active agents to aqueous sprays were investigated. Of the samples tested, the most effective wetting agents were those with neutral un-ionised molecules.
The resting Habits of Glossina medicorum, G. fusca and G. longipalpis
Authors: Nash T. A. M. , Davey J. T.
Published: July 2009

The purpose of this note is to illustrate the importance of searching for resting tsetse when making a fly survey. Highly experienced entomologists and fly boys, who are accustomed to making surveys for G. palpalis (R.-D.), G. tachinoides Westw. and G. morsitans Westw., get into the habit of expecting tsetse to be attracted to themselves or to screens or to bait animals, and may easily fail to detect the less common species unless they appreciate that these should be searched for in their resting haunts.
The Biology and external Morphology of the Larvae of Epilachninae (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae)
Authors: Kapur A. P.
Published: July 2009

The Epilachninae constitute one-sixth of the known species of the family Coccinellidae. They are herbivorous and include a number of well known pests of cultivated plants in different parts of the world. Their adults present a great uniformity of external structure, with the result that nearly all the known species have been placed in one genus, Epilachna Hope. Their identification is made more difficult by the employment of characters such as the elytral markings and spots which may vary a great deal in one species or be almost identical in two quite unrelated species. Lately, there has been a tendency to split the genus by employing more reliable morphological characters, including genitalia. A greater knowledge of the biology and morphology, including that of the immature stages, particularly the larvae, is necessary to evolve a natural classification. Relatively little was known of the larvae. This paper deals with 14 species belonging to six different genera.

In addition to discussion of the relationship of this subfamily with other Coccinellidae in the light of the extensive larval material examined, it is observed that larvae belonging to different genera, including those recently erected or revived, show considerable morphological differences that support a division of Epilachna (s.l.) based on adult characters. A study of the larvae of nine species that are still retained in the genus Epilachna shows that they are separable into several groups, which may well indicate where further division of the genus may be made.
The Identity of the Species of Hypoderma (Dipt.) attacking Goat
Authors: van Emden F. I.
Published: July 2009

The status of the species of Hypoderma that attack goats, and related species, is discussed. The Oriental species, H. crossi, and the Mediterranean species, H. aeratum, are shown to be distinct. H. aegagri is known in the larval stage only, but as this is identical with that of H. aeratum, the latter becomes its synonym.
Studies on the swarming Habits of Mosquitos and other Nematocera
Authors: Nielsen Erik Tetens , Greve Hans
Published: July 2009

The principal object of this work was to elucidate the swarming behaviour of Aëdes cantans and other mosquitos, Chaoborus crystallinus and certain Chironomids. In addition, ancillary studies were made of the general ecology of these species. The swarms were found to consist entirely of males and to bear no direct relationship to mating or to the search for food. There was no noticeable difference between the swarming habits of the different species of mosquitos and even the differences between the Culicids and Chironomids were very slight. Swarming was observed to take place at about sunset in the evening and sunrise in the morning. The evening swarms appeared to be formed in response to decreasing light intensity and to disperse at a light intensity of about 7 Lux. Low temperatures may delay the start of swarming. The morning swarms started at about the same threshold of light intensity and at this time also their duration was reduced by low temperatures. Below about 50°F. they were not formed at all. Atmospheric humidity appeared to be of minor importance.
The Mediterranean Fruit Fly in Israel
Authors: Rivnay E.
Published: July 2009

The status of the Mediterranean fruit fly in Israel is reviewed briefly. Apricots, peaches and guavas are the most severely attacked of the summer fruits.

The ecology of the various stages of the insect is discussed. It is pointed out that, in addition -to temperature, the type of food influences the length of development of the larva. The threshold of development in the temperature development hyperbola has been calculated and found to be between 10–11°C.

The threshold of development of the pupae was found to be close to 11CC. A daily exposure of the pupae for six hours at a temperature of 32–37°C. caused no injury, but a similar exposure at 42°C. brought about a heavy mortality. At 46°C. one hour's exposure resulted in considerable injury whilst three hours' exposure killed 80 per cent, of the pupae. This explains the very high mortality of the pupae in the groves during June, July and August.

A study of the development of the eggs in the ovarioles at various degrees of temperature indicated that at 18–22°C. no appreciable development took place and at 23–25°C. it was still retarded. The optimum development temperature was found to be 27–29°C, whilst 33–34°C. was actually detrimental.

A study of the length of life of the adult showed that survival was longest between 16–19°C. at which temperature it took 100 days to reach 50 per cent, mortality and 200 days a 100 per cent, mortality.

The fluctuation of the fly population in Israel is discussed in detail. It is pointed out that the prevalence of host fruits is one of the great factors responsible for these fluctuations. An analysis of the climatic conditions month by month and its influence upon the fly population is discussed. The curve depicting the fluctuations of the fly in the coastal plain has two depressions, one between December and January, and the other in July and August. In the Upper Jordan Valley, the summer depression was more clear-cut than in the maritime plain, and the spring population reached a much greater height than that in the autumn.

The fly appeared about two months later in the hills than in the plain, namely towards early June, and it disappeared also earlier, presenting a single peak in July and August.
A Method of distinguishing the larval Stages ofAgriotes sputator(L.) (Col., Elaterid.)
Authors: Basden Joan F.
Published: July 2009

The different instars ofAgriotes sputatorlarvae cannot be distinguished by measurements of total length or of various parts of the wireworm.

The number of teeth on the mesothoracic and abdominal spiracles increases with age, and an examination of 700 wireworms showed that the average numbers of teeth on the two thoracic or on all the abdominal spiracles fell into eight groups. These criteria were valid for populations collected at different times of the year.

The number of teeth on the thoracic spiracles of a larva in any particular group approximates to that on the abdominal spiracles of a larva in the next larger group.

The eight groups formed by counting either the thoracic or the abdominal spiracle teeth representgrowthstages and not necessarily instars.

The larvae may sometimes moult without growth, a phenomenon probably caused by an inadequate supply of food. At such an ecdysis the number of spiracle teeth does not increase.

The larvae pupate after attaining an optimum size, and reach this size in seven or eight growth stages.

A quick method of determining the growth stage to which a larva belongs is given, whereby more than 80 per cent, of the larvae are placed in their correct growth stages by counting the teeth on one spiracle only ; for less than 1 per cent, of the larvae is it necessary to examine as many as five spiracles ; an accuracy of more than 97 per cent, can be maintained.

The possibility of determining the relationship of growth stage and age is discussed.

The division of the larvae into those which will pupate after seven, and those which will pupate after eight growth stages is apparent at a very early stage in the life history. One larva was found which appeared to be in its ninth growth stage.

The cause of this difference in growth stage number is unknown. It may be due to the size of the egg, to the time of the year at which hatching occurs, or to heredity.
The Distribution and economic Importance of Ixodes ricinus (L.) in Wales and the Welsh Border Counties with special Reference to N.W. Cardiganshire
Authors: Evans G. Owen
Published: July 2009

Ixodes ricinus is the common tick infesting farmstock in Wales. Dermacentor reticulatus is recorded on cattle and sheep on two farms in N. Cardiganshire.

I. ricinus is widely distributed in the four major grassland zones of N.W. Cardiganshire. The most extensive areas of tick infestation are found on the marginal and hill farms. In lowland areas, except on extensive stretches of marshland, infested pastures are confined to isolated tracts of badly managed or poorly drained land. Infested grazings are invariably “rough” and contain one of the following plants as dominant: Festuca spp., Agrostis spp., Molinia caerulea, Nardus stricta, Pteris aquilina or Juncus spp. The degree of infestation of cattle depends on the relative area of the available grazing land colonised by the tick. Continuous stocking of infested pastures results in heavy infestations and vice versa.

Bovine piroplasmosis is the major tick-borne disease in N.W. Cardiganshire and predominates in the lowland districts. Outbreaks of the disease on marginal and hill farms are generally infrequent. Reasons are suggested for this phenomenon. Tick pyaemia is confined to lambs on hill grazings. The incidence of this disease is low.

The distribution of the tick in Wales and the border counties of Hereford and Salop shows a general relationship to areas of rough grazing. The tick is widespread in the western counties and is almost absent in the border counties. Radnorshire and Breconshire are interesting in that they have few infested farms in relation to the extensive nature of the “rough” grazing. A survey has also been conducted of the incidence of bovine piroplasmosis in Wales.
Studies on Salt-Water and Fresh-Water Anopheles gambiae on the East African Coast
Authors: Muirhead Thomson R. C.
Published: July 2009

The brackish water form of A. gambiae on the East African coast—and probably in Mauritius—is not the same as A. melas of West Africa.

In salt-water gambiae a variable proportion of the females have an additional dark band on the palps, resembling 4-banded melas, but the remainder are indistinguishable from typical gambiae.

Eggs and larvae of salt-water gambiae show no morphological differences from those of fresh-water gambiae, thereby differing from A. melas of West Africa.

Larvae of the two forms show a clear-cut difference in reaction to sudden changes in salinity, and a simple test has been worked out whereby wild-caught females can be accurately identified by the reactions of their progeny.

This physiological test has formed the basis of all work in comparing the incidence, habits, and infectivity of salt and fresh-water gambiae in Dar-es-Salaam.

Exposed to equal chances of infection in the same village during 1947 and 1948, fresh-water gambiae had a sporozoite rate of 9·4 per cent. while that of salt-water gambiae was 0·8 per cent.

About 4 per cent, of both forms were infected with filaria larvae, but monthly figures showed that infection rates in salt-water gambiae may rise to 22 per cent.

Fresh-water gambiae show little tendency to leave African houses at dawn after feeding, whereas in salt-water gambiae over one-third of freshly blood-fed females leave the house at dawn.

In fresh-water gambiae many half-gravid females leave the shelter of the house at dusk on the night after the blood feed. There is no marked difference in infectivity between those which leave the hut and those which remain indoors at this stage.

Blood-fed and gravid females of fresh-water gambiae, funestus, and salt-water gambiae have been found in outdoor resting places, gravid females predominating in the case of the first two.

Although larvae of salt-water gambiae can complete their development in pure sea water, in nature increasing salinity becomes a limiting factor before it reaches that of sea water, continuous breeding being no longer possible at salinities over 83 per cent. sea water.

Salinity as a limiting factor explains the rather restricted breeding of salt-water gambiae on the coast, and suggests that certain coastal fresh-water swamps at Dar-es-Salaam could be cleared of all Anopheline breeding by salinifying with sea water.
A comparative Method for testing Agents used in Sheep Maggot Fly Control
Authors: Stones L. C.
Published: July 2009

A controlled technique is described, whereby the comparative protective values of various dips and sprays used in sheep maggot fly control can be accurately assessed.

In order to determine the exact mode of action of the agents under test, each is examined from the point of view of its power to inhibit oviposition by the adult fly and also for its larvicidal properties.

The “anti-adult” test involves the weekly exposure of treated groups of sheep to an active and dense fly population, maintained in a closed chamber under controlled conditions of temperature and light.

The larvicide test is a modification of a former method of larval implantation, and is applied to the sheep when the “anti-adult” protection, indicated by the previous test, is found to have failed.

In the second part of the paper, a number of results are presented which serve to illustrate the working of the technique, and demonstrate the comparative value of several methods of maggot fly control which are in current use.

A dip containing 0·5 per cent. DDT in water suspension was found to give the most satisfactory protection, and to achieve this result purely by its action against the adult fly. A 0·5 per cent. DDT benzene emulsion dip was less satisfactory, as alsowas spraying as a method of applying the insecticide. In general, spraying has given about half the protection of dipping, whilst on sheep in full fleece, the application of half a gallon of spray was found to be inadequate. Protection was again found to be poor when the fleece was carefully dressed with half a pound of a dry powder containing 5 per cent. DDT.

In contrast to DDT, BHC and arsenic were shown to possess virtually no “antiadult” properties at the concentrations tested. BHC and arsenic both acted as efficient larvicides and provided a valuable and similar degree of protection against the sheep maggot fly, as an incidental effect, when they were tested at the concentrations normally used for their primary function of sheep scab control.
The Sandflies (Phlebotominae) of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
Authors: Lewis D. J. , Kirk R.
Published: July 2009

This paper is mainly an account of the known distribution of the 36 species and eight varieties of Phlebotominae found in the Sudan. Their economic importance is briefly discussed.
On the Narcissus Flies, Merodon equestris (F.) and Eumerus tuberculatus (Rond.) and their Control
Authors: Edwards E. E. , Bevan W. J.
Published: July 2009

A résumé is given of the recommendations hitherto made for the control of the Narcissus flies, Merodon equestris and Eumerus tuberculatus. Nevertheless, the control of these pests still remains a major problem in the British Isles. Laboratory and field experiments on the control of both these species were carried out in 1946 and 1947. In the field trials, dichloro-diphenyl trichlorethane (DDT), benzene hexachloride (BHC) and mercurous chloride (calomel) were included. The DDT and BHC were applied in the form of sprays, at a concentration of 0·5 per cent. suspension in water, over the aerial parts of the Narcissus plants and the surrounding soil on three separate occasions at approximately monthly intervals during the oviposition period, starting on May 10, some two or three days before the adult flies normally appear in the district. The calomel was applied in the form of a 4 per cent. dust on separate occasions during this period.

BHC and DDT were successful in producing a marked reduction in the degree of infestations by both species of Narcissus flies and, of the two insecticides, the former was apparently more effective. Although calomel dust afforded an appreciable protection against attacks by the Large Narcissus Fly, M. equestris, it exercised negligible control of the Small Narcissus Fly, E. tuberculatus, in these experiments. It seems from the results obtained in the present investigations that DDT and, in particular, BHC do provide a much more effective and practical means of controlling infestations of the Narcissus flies than any other methods hitherto tested.
A new injurious Indian Grasshopper (Orthoptera, Acrididae)
Authors: Dirsh V. M.
Published: July 2009

The new genus Indomerus, described below, belongs to the group Calliptamini and is closely related to the group of genera characterised by a single tooth under the apical lobe of the cercus, but differs from all of them, except Paracaloptenus I. Bol. and Peripolus Mart., by the lobiform elytra. It differs from both Paracaloptenus and Peripolus by the broad, spade-shaped prosternal tubercle. From Peripolus the new genus differs also by the shape of the apical tooth of cercus, which in Indomerus is recurved backwards and covered by the upper lobe, while in Peripolus this tooth is lobiform like the upper lobe; from Paracaloptenus it differs by the excurved posterior margin of the pronotum which in Paracaloptenus is slightly incurved.
Studies on aqueous Suspensions of Insecticides
Authors: Hadaway A. B. , Barlow F.
Published: July 2009

Mosquitos were exposed for short contact periods to deposits on plaster blocks from aqueous suspensions of insecticides.

There is an inverse relation between the size of ground DDT crystals fractionated into size ranges by sedimentation and their effectiveness. Smaller particles are more effective than larger ones even when equivalent numbers are compared. Differences in effectiveness are attributed to differences in the amounts of insecticide picked up and retained by the insect.

There is no significant increase in kills of mosquitos exposed for the same contact period to dosages of 10–20 micron DDT crystals above 3 mg. per sq. ft. “Persistence” of deposits of these crystals, however, increases as the dosage increases.

Crystal length alone is not critical, for fine 60 micron DDT needles are slightly more effective than ground crystals in the 10–20 micron range. The shape and mass of crystals together influence pick-up and determine their effectiveness.

There is also an inverse relation between crystal size and effectiveness of methoxychlor and DDD. The effectiveness of Compound 497 and of the gamma isomer of benzene hexachloride is influenced much less by particle size than is that of DDT.

The inert ingredient of a wettable powder has a masking effect on the insecticide, and this is intensified as the proportion of diluent to insecticide increases.

The availability of the deposit from an aqueous suspension of DDT crystals depends largely on the nature of the surface to which it is applied.
Two new Species of Pseudiastata (Dipt., Drosophilidae) predacious on the Pineapple Mealybug
Authors: Sabrosky Curtis W.
Published: July 2009

The genus Pseudiastata was described by Coquillett (1908) for a single species from Maryland, P. nebulosa, which he placed in the family Geomyzidae. Melander (1913b) referred it to the Drosophilidae and he has been followed in this by subsequent workers. The convergent anterior frontal bristles are suggestive of Milichiidae, however, and the genus may run to that family in some keys.
Studies on the Ox Warble Flies,Hypoderma lineatumandHypoderma bovis
Authors: Bevan W. J. , Edwards E. E.
Published: July 2009

A historical account of the Ox Warble Flies,Hypoderma lineatumandH. bovis, is given and the economic importance of the two species is discussed. Certain aspects of their biology and control have been studied over a period of several years in South Wales culminating in intensive investigations in the years 1945 and 1946.

The adults ofH. lineatumemerge from their puparia in early May and those ofH. bovisa month later. The adults of both species in their persistent endeavours to oviposit, worry cattle, whenever the weather is sunny and calm, from the end of May to early September but they tend to avoid the vicinity of water and shade.

The degree of incidence is high in Britain, at least in South Wales, judging by the larval populations present in the backs of cattle. Over 80 per cent. of the cattle included in the surveys conducted in 1945 and 1946 harboured infestations of varying intensity; in one case 152 larvae were recorded on a Shorthorn heifer.

The larvae spend, on an average basis, 42·5 days in the subcutaneous tissues of the backs of their hosts. They begin to depart in order to pupate much earlier than is normally assumed to be the case in Britain, more particularly in Worcestershire, where the proportion of larvae pupating prior to March 28th was as low as 1·4 per cent. compared with over 20 per cent. in the present studies.

The marked variations commonly observed in the seasonal incidence of the larvae in their final instars on cattle are correlated with the relative prevalence of the two species in different districts.

The incidence of both species, judging by the intensity of infestations, is associated with the topographical conditions of the locality. For instance, herds on upland pastures are generally less liable to severe attacks than those on lowland farms.

Cattle under three years old normally carry much heavier infestations of the larvae of both species than those exceeding this age when kept under identical conditions during the oviposition period.

Diphenyl-dichloro-trichlorethane and benzene hexachloride preparations are ineffective for destroying the larvae, at least in their final instars, but emulsions of the former insecticide when applied in the form of a spray to the legs and flanks of cattle during the period of oviposition proved highly promising and warrant further investigations.
The Bionomics of some Malayan Anophelines
Authors: Lamborn W. A.
Published: July 2009

A long series of breeding experiments were conducted by the writer at the Malaria Bureau, F.M.S., between April 1920 and April 1921 with a view to obtaining in bred families a sufficiency of Anophelines for the purpose of study which might perhaps set at rest, once and for all, various long-vexed questions as to the validity of certain species; and for the purpose of obtaining further data than were previously available as to the bionomics of the insects.
On a Method of Separating Insects and other Arthropods from Soil
Authors: Morris Hubert M.
Published: July 2009

In an investigation of the insect fauna of the soil, the obtaining of the insects from this medium has hitherto been a very laborious and tedious process. It has necessitated the crumbling of the soil by hand, and the examination of it in small quantities at a time over sheets of paper. This method is naturally a lengthy one, and in order to facilitate it the apparatus which is now described was designed.
On Fish and Mosquitos in Palestine
Authors: Buxton P. A.
Published: July 2009

One of the greatest difficulties of anti-mosquito work in Palestine is that there are a series of swamps in the littoral plain, lying almost at sea level and prevented from draining into the Mediterranean by sand-dunes and sand-bars which block their outlet channels. It appears that cutting channels through the coastal dunes is a task which would have to be repeated at very frequent intervals, and until some-what large sums of money are available the pumping of these numerous swamps into the sea cannot be undertaken. There are, moreover, other rather large areas of marsh, notably Lake Huleh, Beisan marsh and the Marj Sanour, the proper drainage of which is at the moment beyond the financial resources of the country. We have therefore to rely for the moment on ameliorative measures which are admittedly not sufficiently radical. Among other things, I have begun a study of our native fish, hoping to find some small and voracious species that breeds rapidly and is able to live in waters of different degrees of salinity. The results which I have obtained are perhaps discouraging, but certainly interesting.