bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Parenting and Educating for Success in Math and Science Early Childhood through College
Authors: Hrabowski Freeman A. , Maton Kenneth I. , Greene Monica , Greif Geoffrey L.
Published: November 2020

While the young women we focus on in this book have been successful in general in their schooling, they have achieved at the highest levels, in particular, in mathematics and science. Indeed, strong course work and high grades in mathematics and science courses in high school, along with high SAT scores in math, were among the primary criteria used to admit them to the Meyerhoff Scholars Program. As discussed in the first chapter, education and careers in math and science grow increasingly important in our technologically focused society, and African Americans, particularly African American women, are extremely underrepresented in these fields. To help increase the representation of Black women in math and science careers, it is useful to identify the factors which contribute strongly to academic success in these fields. In so doing, we hope to provide insights that will contribute to the success of future generations of African Americans in these disciplines. In Chapters 2 and 3, the mothers and fathers described a number of ways in which they helped support and encourage their daughters’ academic success, including approaches focused specifically on math and science. In Chapter 4, the daughters described the many ways in which their parents had been helpful and supportive in their academic endeavors overall. In this chapter, we listen as the daughters tell us, in their own voices, tell about those factors that helped them to be successful particularly in math and science. The first section, “The Pre-College Years,” focuses on the initial development and longer-term maintenance of the daughters’ interests in math and science, and the critical roles parents, teachers, and others played. In the second section, “Voices from the Community,” we hear directly from a number of people from the community who have had contact with some of the daughters during their pre-college years. The young women identified these educators, church members, and other community members as playing a significant mentoring role in their lives. These mentors share with us their experiences related to the pre-college math and science pursuits of the young women, as well as other Meyerhoff students, and African American youth more generally.
Exceptions to the Legal Requirements: Incompetence
Authors: Berg Jessica W. , Appelbaum Paul S. , Lidz Charles W. , Parker Lisa S.
Published: November 2020

It might seem strange to locate discussion of incompetence under the heading of “exceptions.” Although patient competence serves as a prerequisite for informed consent, surely patient incompetence cannot serve to relieve physicians of all obligations, either ethical or legal, under the doctrine of informed consent. The goals of informed consent—safeguarding patient welfare and autonomy—apply no less to incompetent patients, although they must be pursued differently. The goals of informed consent are pursued on behalf of an incompetent patient by a process of surrogate decision making. A surrogate or proxy participates in the informed consent process on behalf of the incompetent patient. Yet, from the perspective of the physician, the patient’s incompetence constitutes an exception to the usual process of informed consent. A determination of incompetence alters the legal requirements for physician disclosure and for patient consent and thus it is properly regarded as an exception in this sense. This chapter, like the previous two, focuses on the legal doctrine of informed consent and addresses the variation in the legal requirements occasioned by a patient’s incompetence. We leave to others to examine in greater detail the ethical justifications for the legal framework surrounding treatment of incompetent patients (3). It has been recognized since the earliest legal cases dealing with consent that certain individuals are incompetent to consent to treatment and that they may be treated without their consent (4,5). One alternative to treatment without the patient’s consent would be no treatment at all (6), a result that would make a fetish of consent, for it would mean that those lacking the ability to make medical decisions would be required to forgo medical care. The exception for incompetent patients is closely related to the emergency exception. In fact, many situations involve an overlap of the two exceptions, since a number of cases of genuine emergency treatment involve unconscious (and thus incompetent) patients. However, the class of incompetent patients includes more than just those who are unconscious, and situations arise involving the treatment of incompetent patients that are not emergencies.
The Independent Evolution of Informed Consent to Research
Authors: Berg Jessica W. , Appelbaum Paul S. , Lidz Charles W. , Parker Lisa S.
Published: November 2020

Despite apparent similarities in the issues raised, informed consent in the research setting has evolved quite separately from informed consent to treatment. Consent to treatment is largely a creature of case law, with some subsequent statutory modification. Consent to research has been shaped by professional codes, statutes, and administrative regulations, with the courts playing a less important role. Systematic medical research, of course, is a newer phenomenon than medical treatment. The eighteenth century saw some of the first efforts to demonstrate the etiology of diseases. One was Lind’s controlled study of the effects of citrus juices in preventing scurvy (1). Pierre Louis’s classic study, in the 1820s, of the efficacy of bloodletting as a treatment for pneumonia demonstrated the potential of clinical investigation, but his medical colleagues were slow to follow his lead (2). By the turn of the century, the pace of experimentation with human subjects was quickening. The etiologies of beriberi and pellagra, for example, were discovered using human volunteers. In the early years of systematic medical investigation, only sporadic attention was paid to the circumstances under which research should be carried out, including the issue of consent. There are a few statements from leading physicians of the time, such as Paul Ehrlich and William Osier, endorsing the disclosure of information about the risks and benefits of experimental treatment. After a public scandal in Prussia in the 1890s, involving experimentation on unsuspecting patients who were inoculated with the spirochete that causes syphilis, the Prussian government required consent for any further research with human subjects (3). Shortly thereafter, Walter Reed, conducting his famous experiments in Cuba on yellow fever, developed a contract—very much like the modern consent form— for his volunteers to sign, which included a discussion of the risks they would be running (3). Public concern in Germany culminated in the 1931 promulgation of guidelines that required clear explanations of innovative or experimental treatments (4). Interestingly, this pre-war German code of ethics, which addressed human experimentation, was, in some ways, more extensive in its protections and principles than either the post-war Nuremberg Code or Helsinki Declaration (5).
Fulfilling the Underlying Purpose of Informed Consent to Research
Authors: Berg Jessica W. , Appelbaum Paul S. , Lidz Charles W. , Parker Lisa S.
Published: November 2020

To a great extent the underlying purposes of informed consent in research settings resemble those in the treatment situation. Informed consent promotes individuals’ autonomy by allowing subjects to make meaningful decisions about participation in research projects. Informed consent is also a means of reducing inequalities of knowledge and power in the researcher-subject relationship and thus increases the cooperation and compliance of subjects. Increased knowledge also enhances patients’ abilities to make decisions that will protect them from unwanted and undesirable intrusions on bodily integrity, perhaps of even greater importance here than in treatment settings, because of the sorry history of abuses inflicted on research subjects. As great as the similarities are between consent to treatment and consent to research, the differences are equally great. In treatment settings, as already noted, clinicians and patients are presumed to share the same goal: promoting patients’ health. They may disagree over the means, but a general coincidence of interests is ordinarily the rule. Charles Fried calls this confluence of interests the principle of personal care. “The traditional concept of the physician’s relation to his patient is one of unqualified fidelity to that patient’s health. He may certainly not do anything that would impair the patient’s health and he must do everything in his ability to further it”. The essence of this principle is that physicians will not allow any other considerations to impinge on their decisions as to what measures are in their patients’ best interests. Since the goal of scientific investigation is the production of generalizable knowledge, not primarily the promotion of individual health, the interests of subjects and researchers are not identical. Clinician-researchers who are providing treatment to subjects in their research studies may feel this clash of interests most acutely as steps taken to protect the generalizability of the data may conflict with the maximization of benefit to individual subjects (2). The need to take this conflict into account in the decisionmaking process is largely responsible for the differences between consent to research and consent to treatment.
Missing Elements: What Philosophers of Science Might Discover in Chemistry
Authors: Woody Andrea , Glymour Clark
Published: November 2020

In the late middle ages, chemistry was the science and technology closest to philosophy, the material realization of the method of analysis and synthesis. No longer. Contemporary philosophy is concerned with many sciences—physics, psychology, biology, linguistics, economics—but chemistry is not among them. Why not? Every discipline has particular problems with some philosophical coloring. Those in quantum theory are famous; those in psychology seem endless; those in biology and economics seem more sparse and esoteric. If, for whatever reason, one’s concern is the conceptual or theoretical problems of a particular science, there is no substitute for that science, and chemistry is just one among others. Certain sciences naturally touch on substantive areas of traditional philosophical concern: quantum theory on metaphysics, for example, psychology on the philosophy of mind, and economics and statistics on theories of rationality. In these cases, there is a special interest in particular sciences because they may reform prior philosophical theories or recast philosophical issues or, conversely, because philosophy may inform these subjects in fundamental ways. That is not true, in any obvious way, of chemistry. So what good, then, what special value, does chemistry offer contemporary philosophy of science? Typically philosophical problems, even problems in philosophy of science, are not confined to a particular science. For general problems—problems about representation, inference, discovery, explanation, realism, intertheoretic and interdisciplinary relations, and so on—what is needed are scientific illustrations that go to the heart of the matter without requiring specialized technical knowledge of the reader. The science needed for most philosophy is familiar, not esoteric, right in the middle of things, mature and diverse enough to illustrate a variety of fundamental issues. Almost uniquely, chemistry fits the description. In philosophy of science, too often an effort gains in weight and seriousness merely because it requires mastery of an intricate and arcane subject, regardless of the philosophical interest of what it says. Yet, surely, there is something contrived, even phony, in illustrating a philosophical point with a discussion of the top quark if the point could be shown as well with a discussion of the ideal gas law.
Butlerov’s Vision: The Timeless, the Transient, and the Representation of Chemical Structure
Authors: Weininger Stephen J.
Published: November 2020

In a now famous article, Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov declared that . . .there will be possible only ONE such rational formula for each substance. If then the general laws will have been derived which govern the dependence of the chemical characteristics of the substances on their structure, such a formula will express all these characteristics. . . . Time and experience will teach us best how the new formulas will have to appear if they are to express chemical structure. (Butlerov, [1861], 1971, p. 291). . . Butlerov’s statement contains a multiplicity of claims, implicit and explicit, with respect to ontology, epistemology, and representation. He clearly believes that each substance has a single structure that makes it possible to represent it by means of “one . . . rational formula.” Butlerov further implies that all chemical characteristics of a substance are knowable, as well as being representable, by means of a single structural formula. The boldness of Butlerov’s assertion is perhaps related to its having been advanced at a particular historical moment. In the decade or so preceding Butlerov’s article, chemists’ ability to deduce chemical structure had been greatly aided by the reformation of atomic weights and the rise of the valency concept (Brock, 1993, chaps. 6 and 7). At the same time, chemical synthesis was still in its infancy, and the number and type of compounds whose chemical characteristics had to be accounted for had not yet reached astronomical proportions. Butlerov’s prophecy has been taken as heralding the first step toward the creation of molecular representations with which all chemical properties of a substance could be rationalized. Some imagine these to be iconic formulas of a “photographic” fidelity. Others assert that the ultimate representation of a chemical substance is a mathematical equation—the molecular wavefunction—that would permit not only the rationalization but even the prediction of the material’s chemical behavior (Mosini, 1994). One of my theses is that no such single “rational formula” exists or could exist. However, exploring why Butlerov’s vision is unrealizable can shed light on what entities chemists see as “ fundamental” and the role of time within chemistry.
Chemical Synthesis: Complexity, Similarity, Natural Kinds, and the Evolution of a “Logic”
Authors: Rosenfeld Stuart , Bhushan Nalini
Published: November 2020

The goal of this chapter is to extract some of the conceptual underpinnings of the idea of synthesis and of the different aspects that constitute its practice. In so doing, we show why chemical synthesis should be of interest to metaphysicians and philosophers of science. To this end we (1) provide a provisional characterization of synthesis; (2) describe what chemists have understood to be the “logical” structure that underlies the modern practice of multistep synthesis; (3) explore the notions of molecular and synthetic complexity and the relationship between them; (4) analyze the use of similarity judgments in the categorization of compounds; and, related to this, (5) undertake a scrutiny of the notion of a natural kind in the context of the possibility of chemical synthesis. These last two, intertwined, issues having to do with categorization are of particular interest, given that some philosophers have taken chemistry to be the science that, in its theoretical workings, dispenses with such disreputable concepts as similarity and the associated idea of a natural kind which are of “dubious scientific standing.” For instance, Quine (1969) argues that the freedom from such imprecise means of categorization in chemistry is a marker of its status as a more “mature” science, one to which other domains aspire. However, by the same token, and ironically, this feature of chemistry in effect removes the discipline from the purview of philosophers, for reasons that will become clearer later on in the chapter. We argue against Quine, concluding that chemistry fails the test of maturity but becomes philosophically interesting in the process. The mid-nineteenth-century defeat of vitalism and the subsequent unification of organic and inorganic chemistry came in large measure as a result of chemical synthesis. This early indication of the powerful implications that arise for chemistry from this unique field of investigation might well suffice for its continuing philosophical scrutiny. There are at least two other reasons for undertaking a philosophical investigation of synthesis. Synthesis is, and has long been, pervasive in the practice of chemistry and is a unique, and defining, feature of this field.
How Symbolic and Iconic Languages Bridge the Two Worlds of the Chemist: A Case Study From Contemporary Bioorganic Chemistry
Authors: Grosholz Emily R. , Hoffmann Roald
Published: November 2020

Chemists move habitually and with credible success—if sometimes unreflectively—between two worlds. One is the laboratory, with its macroscopic powders, crystals, solutions, and intractable sludge, as well as the things that are smelly or odorless, toxic or beneficial, pure or impure, colored, or white. The other is the invisible world of molecules, each with its characteristic composition and structure, its internal dynamics and its ways of reacting with the other molecules around it. Perhaps because they are so used to it, chemists rarely explain how they are able to hold two seemingly disparate worlds together in thought and practice. And contemporary philosophy of science has had little to say about how chemists are able to pose and solve problems, and, in particular, to posit and construct molecules, while simultaneously entertaining two apparently incompatible strata of reality. Yet chemistry continues to generate highly reliable knowledge, and indeed to add to the furniture of the universe, with a registry of over ten million well-characterized new compounds. The philosophy of science has long been dominated by logical positivism, and the assumptions attendant on its use of predicate logic to examine science, as well as its choice of physics as the archetype of a science. Positivism thus tends to think of science in terms of an axiomatized theory describing an already given reality and cast in a uniform symbolic language, the language of predicate logic. (See especially the locus classicus of this position, Carnap, 1937.) We here wish to question certain positivist assumptions about scientific rationality, based on an alternative view brought into focus by the reflective examination of a case study drawn from contemporary chemistry. Our reflections owe something to Leibniz (1686, 1695, 1714), Husserl (1922), Kuhn (1970), and Polanyi (1960, 1966), and draw on the earlier writings of both of us—Hoffmann (1995; Hoffmann & Laszlo, 1991) and Grosholz (1991; Grosholz & Yakira, 1998). We will offer a nonreductionist account of methods of analysis and synthesis in chemistry.
Integrated Waste Management: More than Just Landfills
Authors: Tammemagi Hans
Published: November 2020

Just as a general fights a battle with tanks, infantry, artillery, and air support, the campaign against waste also requires an arsenal of many weapons. Instead of relying solely on landfills, as has been done since time immemorial, the industry is developing an integrated waste management strategy. The objective is to minimize impact on the environment by employing all possible waste management technologies—especially reduction/reuse/recycling and incineration—in addition to landfills. An integrated waste management strategy is required by law in many jurisdictions and is now being used in most North American communities. Most U.S. states, for example, have made recycling mandatory and have established goals for reducing waste per capita by 25% to 50% over a period of four to ten years. In Canada, a comprehensive waste reduction plan established in the province of Ontario in 1991 has the goal of reducing the amount of waste going to disposal by at least 50% per capita by the year 2000, compared to the base year of 1987. The goal is to be achieved through implementing the “three Rs”: reduction (10%), reuse (15%), and recycling (25%). Some jurisdictions have set even higher goals; for example, Seattle is aiming to reduce waste going to landfill by 60% by the year 2000. An integrated waste management plan follows the life cycle of consumer products from cradle to grave, seeking to maximize the useful life of the resources that are involved. A complete suite of elements that might be used in an integrated waste management system is illustrated in Figure 4.1, although any municipality may utilize only some of these. 1. Source reduction: The objective is to reduce the amount of waste that is created in the first place. This can be accomplished in a number of ways: purchasing products with minimal packaging; developing products that are more durable and easily repaired; substituting reusable products for disposable single-use products; or implementing tax and other economic measures to encourage producers to generate less waste and use fewer resources. For source reduction to have a significant impact, society needs to turn away from the current consumer preference for once-through, disposable, and limited-life products.
Incineration: The Burning Issue
Authors: Tammemagi Hans
Published: November 2020

Fire has always held a fascination for humans, and it has been one of our most useful tools. Fire has provided warmth, cooked food, cleared forest lands, offered protection against marauding animals, and much more. Although garbage has probably been burned ever since humans discovered fire, it has been incinerated in a systematic manner for only about a century. Perhaps surprisingly, given its long history and obvious benefits, waste incineration is a topic that is both controversial and emotional. In this chapter we will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of incineration and how it can contribute to an integrated waste management program. Under proper conditions, incineration provides a number of benefits: • It greatly reduces the volume of waste that must go to disposal in landfills—a vitally important objective. In conventional municipal incinerators, the volume reduction ranges from 80% to 95%, with a mean of about 90%. • It can be used in conjunction with landfill mining (see chapter 8) to reclaim closed landfills and greatly extend the operating lifetimes of existing landfills. • The ash produced is relatively homogeneous and thus more suitable than raw waste for treatment such as solidification in concrete. • A relatively large proportion of the organic compounds, including putrescible and hazardous wastes, is destroyed; thus, there is a net reduction in the quantity of toxics. • Energy can be generated as a useful byproduct, which preserves nonrenewable fuels like natural gas, oil, and coal. Fewer air pollutants are produced by burning waste than by burning coal or oil. The use of incineration has been increasing in the United States since about the mid-1980s, and currently the country burns about 16% of its municipal wastes (EPA, 1994). This figure is significantly lower in Canada—about 4%—but it can be much higher overseas. For example, Japan, which faced its waste disposal crisis in the 1950s, 20 years before the crisis reached North America, incinerates approximately 34% of its municipal garbage (Hershkowitz & Salerni, 1987). Most Japanese incinerators generate electricity.
Kindling the Spark
Authors: Haroutounian Joanne
Published: November 2020

Gathering perspectives of musical talent from the psychological, musical, and educational fields, Kindling the Spark is the only single sourcebook that defines musical talent and provides practical strategies for identifying and nurturing it. Joanne Haroutounian uses her experience as teacher, researcher, and parent to clarify central issues concerning talent recognition and development in a way that will easily appeal to a wide audience. The book describes the different stages of development in musical training, including guidelines for finding a suitable teacher at different levels, social and psychological aspects that impact musical training, and research on talent development by ages and stages from infancy and preschool years through the teen years. An important feature of the book are "sparkler exercises" designed to provoke observable talent behavior in home, school, and studio settings. The book also includes an Appendix of Resources which lists books, media, organizations, and specialized schools that offer additional information on musical talent, identification, and development. For music educators in both public school and private studio settings--as well as for parents and their musically inclined children--Kindling the Spark provides an invaluable summary of the research on talent and a wealth of resources for developing it.
Talent as Music Aptitude
Authors: Haroutounian Joanne
Published: November 2020

Several years ago, my husband called me into his studio as he was practicing for an upcoming solo violin concerto performance with the National Symphony. As I entered the room, I noticed three bows lying on the floor. Without a word, he motioned for me to be seated on the sofa. He picked up the first bow and began to play a passage of the music. He set this bow on the floor, picked up the second, and played the same passage. He repeated this process with the last bow. When he finished, he paused and looked at me. I motioned to the middle bow. He nodded in agreement. This was the bow he would use for the performance. Musicians communicate through sound. The wordless exchange of musical ideas described here exemplifies the fine-tuned discrimination of sound that is at the heart of music aptitude. While listening to the repeated musical passage, my husband and I were both aware of the subtle qualities of sound that each bow produced as it was drawn across the strings of the violin. The first had a gutsy, robust sound; the second a melancholy, sweet quality; the third a square cleanliness. We listened, interpretively reflected on these qualities, and decided that melancholy sweetness would best match the mood of the Armenian folk tunes within the solo concerto. Words were not necessary. Obviously, this level of musical communication is quite sophisticated. It relies on years of musical training, listening, and interpretive understanding. However, if you layer away the training and skills, we arrive at the underlying discrimination of differences in sound. The discrimination of sound, prior to any formal training, is where music aptitude begins. Music exists through sound. Sound develops into music through combinations of rhythm, loudness, pitch, and the different qualities of these sounds. Music psychologists define the capacity to sense these musical components as music aptitude. The more discriminately one senses subtle differences in these components, the higher one’s music aptitude. Music aptitude combines inherent musical capacities with listening skills that may develop without formal training or education.
Talent as Musical Intelligence
Authors: Haroutounian Joanne
Published: November 2020

Jake was enjoying his first few months of piano lessons and eager to make musical connections with all he was learning. At his last lesson, he learned the pattern of whole steps and half steps of a major scale, discovering the joy of playing his first black key in the G major scale. The teacher was hesitant to venture farther than C major and G major during that first introduction to scale structure. Jake couldn’t wait to share the discovery he had made “all by himself” during his week of piano exploration. He began his journey from the bottom C of the keyboard. He played the scale he had learned last week, jumping up five keys to G and playing that scale. Then with a wry smile, he ventured five more keys up to D, A, E, B, and so on, playing each discovered scale with imaginative fingering but accurate notes! Jake had discovered the basic scale relationship of the “circle of fifths” on his own. Jake’s curiosity and ability to find and solve a musical problem exemplifies a student who demonstrates musical intelligence. This term describes the process of developmental learning through music, which distinguishes it from music aptitude, which is based primarily on natural musical capacities. The concept of musical intelligence most likely dates back to the early Chinese and Greek theories of music and most decidedly is included in the texts of Carl Seashore. The renaissance of the term can be credited to Howard Gardner, a leading cognitive psychologist at the Graduate School of Education of Harvard University, who included musical intelligence as one of seven multiple intelligences in Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983). The publication of Gardner’s theory broadened the concept of intelligence from a single factor of general intelligence, or “g,” to seven separate intelligences, each unique to a specific domain. Actually, the idea of multiple intelligences is not new or novel. J. P. Guilford’s Structure of Intellect (1959,1967) includes over 120 different ways of knowing. Tests and curricular models based on this theory are prevalent in the field of gifted education.
Perspectives of Talent Identification
Authors: Haroutounian Joanne
Published: November 2020

In part I the discussion of talent began with a poetic scene and ended with reflective after-thoughts, befitting the theoretical nature of the subject. The quest to recognize the spark of potential talent in young children brings us into the very real world of the school classroom. Suppose it is your task to observe student behavior in a third grade elementary music class and identify students who show evidence of potential talent. Your attention is drawn to the following students: . . . Student A is playing a melody from her music book on a xylophone. She decides to elaborate by creating a “variation.” Excited, she busily starts notating and revising her ideas on manuscript paper. . . . . . . Observation Notes: Musical training is evident. Performs with ease. Shows curiosity, creativity in musical tasks. An outstanding student. . . . . . . Student B is sitting in a listening center with headphones on, totally absorbed in the activity of circling patterns he hears. He taps his pencil as he listens, quickly working through the ear-training exercise. A quick check shows that his answers are correct. . . . . . . Observation Notes: Fine-tuned listening. Quite perceptive and quick in complex listening tasks. He is rather shy in group activities. . . . . . . Student C volunteers to sing and act out a solo in a cowboy song. He performs with confidence, singing in tune and with expression, obviously enjoying himself. His performance is met with spontaneous applause. . . . . . . Observation Notes: Quite a showman. Comfortable in front of an audience. Clear, clean vocal quality and intonation. Performs with personal flair. Shows leadership skills in group activities. Energy plus enthusiasm. . . . . . . Student D works with a number of Orff instruments, simply “fooling around” with sounds and rhythms. Each repetition shows a bit more development of an imaginative improvisation, which she describes as a “summer storm.” . . . . . . Observation Notes: Sensitive awareness of mood in music. Syncopated rhythms used in improvisation—retained well by ear. Adept at learning by ear. Not comfortable working with notation. . . . . . .
The Spark: Underpinnings of Musical Talent
Authors: Haroutounian Joanne
Published: November 2020

The musical spark that I have discussed in theoretical terms, sought through research, and personally reflected on now requires simple definition. What are the basic underpinnings of musical talent that we can recognize, “kindle,” and develop? If we take away the technical intricacies of musical training, a set of talent criteria emerge that describe how one musically “knows” and the behaviors that develop this musical “knowing.” These musical underpinnings are the ability to be keenly aware of sounds, to inwardly sense and manipulate these sounds, and to communicate them to others through personal interpretation. These are the simple basics, from kindergarten to the Van Cliburn Competition. Take away the technical trappings, and there you have it. This chapter puts ideas gathered from earlier chapters into a simplified musical talent framework that can be used as a cohesive reference for musical talent identification. Each criterion is explained, with talent indicators and procedures to trigger this recognition. The criteria that describe the basic underpinning of musical talent consist of: • Musical awareness and discrimination perceptual awareness of sound rhythmic sense sense of pitch • Creative Interpretation metaperception • Dynamic of performance • Motivation and commitment To support active use of this chapter as a way to recognize musical talent, Sparkler Activities that highlight each talent criterion are offered throughout the chapter. Asterisks (*) indicate key talent behaviors, and there are follow-up activities to expand opportunities for identification. Musical “knowing” begins with the ability to listen. Musical awareness describes the perceptive sensitivity to sounds. Musical discrimination is the sensing of differences in sounds. These inherent sensory capacities are described as music aptitude by music psychologists and music intelligence by cognitive developmental psychologists. The capacity to sense musical components of rhythm, loudness, pitch, and the tonal quality of sounds may be psychometrically measured through the administration of a music aptitude test. These capacities can also be assessed through activities that focus on aural perception, rhythmic movement, and tonal memory of melodies or songs. Musical awareness and discrimination consists of three basic sensory components—the perceptual awareness of sound, a rhythmic sense, and a sense of pitch.
Unveiling the Spark
Authors: Haroutounian Joanne
Published: November 2020

Once again returning to that third grade class of music-makers and donning the role of observer, we now recognize the breadth of musical talent we seek, and have a taste of activities that can highlight different aspects of this talent. It is now necessary to know why we are there, what happened prior to our arrival, and what happens next. We are ready to look at the overall process required to recognize musical talent in a school setting and the programing that will serve the needs of these identified students. The rationale behind including musical talent in gifted identification rests on the renewed interest in musical ways of knowing or “musical intelligence” and the broadened philosophy and definition of “outstanding talent” recently embraced in the field of gifted education. Music-related neurological research has drawn interest from the media and general public, which also helps swing the educational pendulum toward the recognition of musical talent as a viable educational necessity. First and foremost, administrators must realize that talent identification is an extension of an existing music program, not a replacement. All children should learn music as a basic part of their education. As discussed earlier, identification is not for the purpose of choosing students for a music program. Its purpose is to provide more challenging and individualized instruction for students who have the potential to develop talents beyond what is provided by the normal school curriculum. Effective procedures for talent recognition require solid understanding of the criteria of potential talent, observation of students in the process of music-making, and multiple stages reflecting local gifted/music program needs. Gifted specialists, who have traditionally relied on the quantitative assurance of test scores for identification, should broaden their scope to include the assessment of musical performance and listening behavior. They should also understand the process of metaperceptive learning in the arts. Music educators, who have traditionally relied on performance-driven assessment as the sole means of talent recognition, must seek ways to include talents beyond performance and consider the option of music aptitude testing in this identification.
From Spark to Flame: Nurturing Musical Talent
Authors: Haroutounian Joanne
Published: November 2020

The minute you open the studio door and make eye contact with the eager I child on the front steps, you are hooked. There is something about this child that captures your attention. This child has potential talent. You know even before you have heard a note of music. Seasoned teachers have this intuitive feeling and can sense the energy and enthusiasm of these youngsters. They may be quiet and shy, yet their eyes give them away. You are eager to check out your “hunch.” After a few minutes of musical tasks in the studio, with parents sizing up the teacher-pupil possibilities, you realize you were correct. So let’s get started! Anyone who has taken music lessons remembers that very first lesson, when books are slick and new and every maneuver learned on the instrument is an adventure. The talented youngster literally takes off full speed ahead in this adventure. The journey can be exciting and rewarding, if the match of teacher and student “clicks.” In previous chapters we have described the importance of training in the lives of young, talented children, but we have not examined how this training nurtures talent. In this chapter I attempt to answer some important questions concerning training and talent development. What must we know about musical learning to match training with student reasoning abilities at different ages? Where do we begin? How can we keep a talented student comfortably challenged in the studio or classroom? This chapter will answer some of the basic questions regarding musical learning, beginning private instruction, the private studio, suitable curriculum for the young talented student, and creative opportunities that will nurture a young musician. When last we left our creative preschooler, lots of imaginative singing was taking place, with a growing sense of tonality to the “real” songs in the culture. By the age of four, the entire song is imitated. At five or six, a young singer has emerged who is comfortably learning new songs by rote. The next few years are critical in the development of musical talent. Understanding the cognitive and musical development of children at this age will help gauge musical expectations.
Ice Crystals in Cirrus
Authors: Bailey Matthew P. , Hallett Joan T.
Published: November 2020

Cirrus is conventionally considered as cloud forming in the Earth's upper troposphere at temperatures somewhat below -40°C, composed of ice crystals and forming long, wispy trails. This characteristic shape, in the form of a curl of hair, results from evaporation in vertical shear of horizontal winds, and leads to its Latin name—originally proposed by Luke Howard in 1803. Here we address the nucleation, growth, and evaporation processes that influence the concentration and shape of individual particles and their role in specific atmospheric phenomena. To set the scene, figure 3.1 shows examples of such crystals collected by aircraft. In this chapter, we also address the radiation and dynamic environment in which crystals grow and subsequently evaporate. Crystal growth depends on the location of a crystal with respect to the cloud edge and the intervening cloud optical thickness; evaporation depends on larger scale processes as at fronts and cumulonimbus anvils and also at inversion interfaces where shear instability and resulting gravity waves produce significant effects over a range of scales. These effects lead to differing cloud radiative properties and ultimately control of the earth's radiation budget and overall climate (Liou 1986; Stephens et al. 1990; Liou and Takano 1994; Takano and Liou 1995; Mishchenko et al. 1996; Strauss et al. 1997; Macke et al. 1998). A growing crystal implies a supersaturated or supercooled environment with respect to the solid phase and can, in general, be considered as growth from either three-fold symmetry overlying a needle, (NASA DC-8,TOGA COARE,-48°C, deep tropical convection, 1993). The replica visually shows a uniformity of color in vertical illumination, indicating a thin crystal a few micrometers thick, uniform to ±0.05 μm. e. Replica of needles, small scalene and triangular three-fold symmetry plates, hexagonal plates, columns, and irregular crystals collected by D.L.R. Falcon in thin cirrus over the Alps, temperature -55°C, October 29,1992. (Courtesy Dr. P. Wendling.) f. Replica of crystals from the evaporating tip of a contrail formed 50 s earlier by the NASA 757 aircraft sampled from the NASA DC-8. Multiple trigonal symmetry crystals are present, with a 60° rotation (left side), along with hexagonal and scalene and triangle crystals, concentration 10/cm3. Clear sky environment over Kansas, temperature -52°C, 1840-1900Z, 4 May 1996.
Polysiloxanes and Related Polymers
Authors: Mark James E. , Allcock Harry R. , West Robert
Published: November 2020

At the present time, polysiloxanes are unique among inorganic and semi-inorganic polymers. They have been the most studied by far, and are the most important with regard to commercial applications. Thus, it is not surprising that a large number of review articles exist describing the synthesis, properties, and applications of these materials. The Si-O backbone of this class of polymers endows it with a variety of intriguing properties. For example, the strength of this bond gives the siloxane polymers considerable thermal stability, which is very important for their use in high-temperature application (for example as heat-transfer agents and high-performance elastomers). The nature of the bonding and the chemical characteristics of typical side groups give the chains a very low surface free energy and, therefore, highly unusual and desirable surface properties. Not surprising, polysiloxanes are much used, for example, as mold-release agents, for waterproofing garments, and as biomedical materials. Some unusual structural features of the chains give rise to physical properties that are also of considerable scientific interest. For example, the substituted Si atom and the unsubstituted O atom differ greatly in size, giving the chain a very irregular cross section. This influences the way the chains pack in the bulk, amorphous state, which, in turn, gives the chains very unusual equation-of-state properties (such as compressibilities). Also, the bond angles around the O atom are much larger than those around the Si, and this makes the planar all-trans form of the chain approximate a series of closed polygons. As a result, siloxane chains exhibit a number of interesting configurational characteristics. These structural features, and a number of properties and their associated applications, will be discussed in this chapter. The major categories of homopolymers and copolymers to be discussed are linear siloxane polymers [-SiRR'O-] (with various alkyl and aryl R,R' side groups), (ii) sesquisiloxane polymers possibly having a ladder structure, (iii) siloxane-silarylene polymers [-Si(CH3)2OSi(CH3)2(C6H4)m-] (where the skeletal phenylene units are either meta or para), (iv) silalkylene polymers [-Si(CH3)2(CH2)m-], and (v) random and block copolymers, and blends of some of the above. Topics of particular importance are the structure, flexibility, transition temperatures, permeability, and other physical properties.
Ferrocene-Based Polymers, and Additional Phosphorus- and Boron-Containing Polymers
Authors: Mark James E. , Allcock Harry R. , West Robert
Published: November 2020

Ferrocene is an inexpensive, stable molecule with an interesting and reversible electrochemistry. It is synthesized by the metal-hydrogen exchange reaction of cyclopentadiene with sodium followed by treatment of the resultant sodium cyclopentadienide anion with ferrous chloride. The high stability and electroactivity of the ferrocene molecule has prompted numerous attempts to incorporate it into polymer structures. So, too, has the inherent torsional freedom of the cyclopentadienyl groups around the iron atoms and their capacity to serve as swivel group sites. Polymerization attempts range from the addition reactions of vinylferrocene and its derivatives, to condensation reactions, ringopening polymerizations, and dendrimer assemblies. These will be considered in turn. Considerable effort in the 1970s by Pittman, George, Hayes, Korshak, and others was applied to exploring the addition polymerization of vinylferrocene to give organic polymers with pendent ferrocenyl side groups. This type of polymerization reaction has been attempted with the use of free radical, cationic, anionic, and Ziegler–Natta methods. For free radical polymerization reactions, the initiating radicals must be generated from azo-initiators because peroxides cause oxidation of the metal. In polymerizations of the type shown in reaction (2) the side group ferrocene units are the source of both the thermal stability of the product polymers and complications inherent in the free radical polymerization process. For example, electron donation from the iron atoms to a growing radical chain end can convert an active radical to an anion, which terminates the polymerization. The Fe+ center then rearranges to form a paramagnetic, ionically bound Fe(III) species. Ultimately this leads to extensive chain-transfer, limitation of the chain length, and formation of branched structures. This does not occur if the ferrocene unit is insulated from the vinyl group by a spacer unit, as in, because these monomers polymerize normally. For example, monomer gives polymers with Mn molecular weights as high as 250,000. However, the electron-transfer process outlined in reaction (2) has serious practical consequences in the free-radical polymerization of. First, directly or indirectly, it causes precipitation of the growing polymer chains until, at monomer to polymer conversions of 90% or more, all of the polymeric product is insoluble in most organic solvents.