bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Looking to the Past to Plan for the Future
Authors: Rowe Rebecca J.
Published: September 2017

Anthropogenic impacts are rapidly changing climates and habitats from local to global scales. As a result, forecasting how the distribution and abundance of species will change as their environment shifts is a major priority for the natural sciences. Much can be learned about how species will respond to future environmental changes by examining how they responded to past episodes of environmental change. Specimens and associated field data stored in natural history collections represent archives of ecological information from which baseline conditions can be reconstructed at decadal to centennial time scales. This chapter presents two case studies of small mammal assemblages in western North America to illustrate different methods for the use of collections data in a resurvey and how the method employed is contingent upon the completeness and quality of the collections data.
Monitoring
Authors: Perevolotsky Avi , Berg Naama , Ginzburg Orit , Drori Ron
Published: September 2017

The monitoring of natural ecosystems or species of conservation concern can be defined as the “collection and analysis of repeated observations or measurements to evaluate changes in condition and progress toward meeting a management objective.” A key aspect of monitoring is that the observations are repeatable and that they are done at regular intervals. Such repeatability allows for the assessment of changes that occur through time. Events and samples in monitoring programs must be repeated at regular intervals in defined locations. As a result, monitoring programs are beset by many of the key challenges of replication. This chapter reviews the origin of monitoring and some of its basic principles. It discusses the four main reasons for undertaking monitoring programs; determining which component of the environment or which species should be monitored; and different ways to construct monitoring programs.
Monitoring the State of Nature in Israel
Authors: Drori Ron , Berg Naama , Perevolotsky Avi
Published: September 2017

This chapter presents a case study of the Israeli National Biodiversity Monitoring Program (IBM) that encompasses a diverse set of ecosystems. Israel is located at a crossroads of Africa, Asia, and Europe. It sits at the southeastern tip of the Mediterranean ecosystem, bordering the vast Saharo-Arabian desert belt to its south and connected via the Rift Valley to the heights of Southeast Asia and the dry tropical ecosystems of East Africa. This combination of geography and ecology provides habitats for a remarkably high number of species, but the high densities of Israel's population and its rapid development, intensive land use, and climatic change threaten this biodiversity. A key component of a strategy to conserve biodiversity is a monitoring program that can identify the current state and trends—stable, declining, or thriving—of biodiversity in a country. The case study discusses the goals and implementation of the IBM, with particular attention to the challenges of replication and repeatability in this long-term monitoring program.
Replication of Data Analyses
Authors: Boose Emery R. , Lerner Barbara S.
Published: September 2017

The metadata that describe how scientific data are created and analyzed are typically limited to a general description of data sources, software used, and statistical tests applied and are presented in narrative form in the methods section of a scientific paper or a data set description. Recognizing that such narratives are usually inadequate to support reproduction of the analysis of the original work, a growing number of journals now require that authors also publish their data. However, finer-scale metadata that describe exactly how individual items of data were created and transformed and the processes by which this was done are rarely provided, even though such metadata have great potential to improve data set reliability. This chapter focuses on the detailed process metadata, called “data provenance,” required to ensure reproducibility of analyses and reliable re-use of the data.
Best Practices for Creating Replicable Research
Authors: Ellison Aaron M.
Published: September 2017

This chapter suggests a series of best practices for creating replicable research that cross disciplinary boundaries. First, the observational or experimental design should account for variation within and among sites, whether in the field or in the laboratory. Second, the acceptable levels of Type I and Type II statistical errors should be set before the project begins. Third, investigators should carefully and quantitatively review the literature and/or do a pilot study to determine the expected effect size (e.g., the expected relationship(s) between two or more variables of interest or the difference in outcome between experimental treatments and controls) and its variance. Finally, there should be a clear assessment of resources available.
Secession and War
Authors: Kelso John R.
Published: September 2017

In this chapter, John Russell Kelso narrates the events that occurred between April and July 1861 as the Civil War broke out. He recalls how his school closed a few weeks earlier than usual following the intense excitement generated by the firing upon Fort Sumpter by the secessionists of South Carolina. He considers his decision to stand by the Union as it prepared to fight the Confederate States to be the most critical step of his life. During a grand meeting called in their town, addressed by Peter Wilkes and other speakers from Springfield, Missouri. Kelso joined with others to form military companies called Home Guards. He was the first man to volunteer into this service. Kelso shares his early experiences as a Union soldier fighting the Confederate rebels.
The Battle of Forsyth, and a Raid on Thieves and Cut-Throats
Authors: Kelso John R.
Published: September 2017

This chapter presents Major Milton A. Burch's account of the Battle of Forsyth, which occurred from July to August 1862. After the fight at Ozark, Burch was ordered by Brig. Gen. Egbert B. Brown to take command of 100 men of the battalion to which John Russell Kelso belonged, and to proceed to Forsythe and, if possible, ascertain what number of the enemy were in that vicinity. During the battle, several of Burch's own men were slightly wounded, and some half dozen rebels were killed. During a scouting expedition, Kelso captured several rebels. On his return to Ozark, he wrote a letter to his wife detailing his experience.
Introduction
Authors: Troy Michele K.
Published: September 2017

This book explores the curious relationship between Albatross Press—a British-funded publisher of English-language books with Jewish ties—and the Third Reich of Adolf Hitler. Albatross began printing its books in Germany in May 1932, barely a year before Hitler came to power. It made its name not in the trade of mild classics but in edgy, modern British and American books. From its titles to its packaging, Albatross projected a cosmopolitan ethos at odds with German nationalism. This book tells the story of survival against the odds, of what happened when a resolutely cosmopolitan, multinational publishing house became entwined with the most destructively nationalistic culture of modern times. It asks how Albatross was allowed to print and sell its books within the nationalistic climate of Nazi Germany, became the largest purveyor of English-language paperbacks in 1930s Europe and then vanished with so little trace.
Tauchnitz Has a Rival
Authors: Troy Michele K.
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on Albatross Press's emergence as a rival of German publishing firm Bernhard Tauchnitz. By the time Nazi officials started scrutinizing Albatross and its books, books in English had been part of the German economy for almost a century. It was Bernhard Tauchnitz that had seized on the idea of selling inexpensive English-language paperbacks throughout continental Europe. By 1931, Tauchnitz editions had grown into a thriving sector of the international book trade. When Dr. Hans Otto, the head of the Tauchnitz board, first heard rumors of the Albatross Press in late October 1931, he paid attention. This chapter examines how Bernhard Tauchnitz under Otto handled the challenges presented by Albatross, who was led by the trio of Max Christian Wegner, John Holroyd-Reece, and Kurt Enoch.
Winning the Continent
Authors: Troy Michele K.
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on Albatross Press's efforts to win the European continent, including the increasingly nationalistic German market. On February 15, 1932, flying in the face of the economic turmoil raging in Europe, Albatross began with optimism. In a half-page advertisement in the Börsenblatt, the firm introduced the first six volumes of the Albatross Modern Continental Library to booksellers in the German-speaking world. Evidently, the exhausting work of the previous year had come to fruition: securing funding, testing printers, creating a look for the series, selecting the titles, and persuading authors, agents, and publishers to throw over Bernhard Tauchnitz for Albatross. This chapter examines how Albatross, led by Max Christian Wegner, Kurt Enoch, and John Holroyd-Reece, pursued a modern agenda that trespassed on the terrain of the British publishing establishment.
The Scissors in Their Heads
Authors: Troy Michele K.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines how Albatross Press fared under Nazi censorship. In Britain, Albatross armed itself against enemies it could largely see; in Nazi Germany, it faced a more daunting challenge: the unpredictable nature of censorship. In the wake of Nazi restrictions, most of the literary and political elite critical of National Socialism chose to take flight. Four times more authors emigrated from Germany in the first six months of Adolf Hitler's regime than in all the years that followed. By the summer of 1933, a number of these prominent refugees, Jews and non-Jews alike, had made their way to Sanary. Despite these frightening developments, 1933 proved to be a year of momentum for Albatross. From Germany, its books were able to reach other markets without impediment. This chapter explains how Albatross escaped the level of scrutiny and penalty that the Nazi regime hailed down on other German publishers.
A Tale of Two Publishers
Authors: Troy Michele K.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines Albatross Press's acquisition of Bernhard Tauchnitz. Few Tauchnitz or Albatross readers knew the reasons behind the near demise and resurrection of Tauchnitz, or the machinations behind its sale. In book trade circles in Leipzig, one rumor that circulated was that Sir Edmund Davis, the financial weight behind Albatross, wanted to purchase Tauchnitz. The Reich Literary Chamber, charged with oversight of all publishing matters in Germany, had not only approved but also officiated over the Albatross-Tauchnitz merger. This chapter considers John Holroyd-Reece's negotiations with Oscar Brandstetter that sealed the Albatross-Tauchnitz union; the agreements that would guarantee Albatross a role in the German economy for years to come; and the role of National Socialism in the Brandstetter enterprises.
The Shell Game
Authors: Troy Michele K.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines why Albatross Press did not choose to restructure its business outside of Nazi Germany considering that Adolf Hitler's regime was extremely hostile to the spirit of the press. Despite the incursions of the Nazi bureaucracy on Albatross's way of doing business, the firm continued to flourish. Kurt Enoch became one of thousands of Jews to emigrate from Germany in 1936. He sold his publishing and distribution businesses to Max Christian Wegner, who returned to Germany. This chapter asks why Albatross did not seize the moment of Enoch's emigration to Paris to move its entire operation out of Germany. It suggests that the biggest reason for Albatross's decision to remain in Germany was Nazism itself.
Return and Departure
Authors: Troy Michele K.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines how World War II affected the fates of Albatross Press's former leaders. Nazi Germany's military maneuvers were quickly redrawing the map of Europe, with important implications for former Albatross leaders such as Max Christian Wegner and Kurt Enoch. While waves of German troops crossed the Belgian border into France, Wegner followed behind with supply trucks for his enormous army division. To return to France was to cross over the lines of memory, reaching back to the time, almost a decade earlier, when he had first moved to Paris to launch his Albatross dream. While Wegner prepared to occupy France, Enoch prepared to defend it. The chapter considers what the Nazi occupation of Paris meant to different people like Wegner, Enoch, and Sylvia Beach.
The Deutsche Tauchnitz
Authors: Troy Michele K.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines how the Nazi authorities used the Deutsche Tauchnitz series—which consisted of “special editions of modern German novels, to be disseminated for propaganda purposes only in countries outside Germany that Hitler occupies”—in an attempt to make German culture accessible to continental readers. In the early part of World War II, the German book trade had plenty of books to sell. The problem was how to make foreign readers want to read them. To address this issue, Nazi propaganda officials launched what scholars have since called “an international soft power campaign.” Deutsche Tauchnitz was formed based on the model used by Albatross Press and Bernhard Tauchnitz for producing Anglo-American books. This chapter considers how German literature for export became a major agenda at both the Reich Literary Chamber and Foreign Office and the role played by Wolfgang Krause-Brandstetter in this initiative.
The Climate and the Debt
Authors: Mayhew David R.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines two major impulses of transnational incidence that have action blotters extending back decades: climate change and long-run deficit. Current evidence shows how it is not clear that peer countries are actually digging their teeth much deeper into climate change than the Americans. In a 2014 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) report, the U.S. ranked fifteenth in climate-control progress. Meanwhile, American remedial action regarding debt/deficit has apparently stood up well as compared to others. As of 2011, the United States ranked thirteenth in public debt as a percentage of GDP in a comparison set of thirty-one peer countries. Given the trends, this American near-averageness does not point to a carefree future.
“Let’s Find a Way to Go after Them”: The Fadlallah Affair and the Achille Lauro Hijacking, 1985
Authors: Fuller Christopher J.
Published: September 2017

This chapter challenges the perception that the CIA has become militarized as a result of the War on Terror. It explains that the agency's role as the United States' vanguard in its violent confrontation with terrorism began as early as 1985, when it was actively involved in a paramilitary plot against a suspected terrorist leader, Ayatollah Mohammed Hussayn Fadlallah. With pressure growing on the Reagan administration to act against increasingly aggressive terrorist elements, Defense Secretary Caspar Weinberger determined to keep the Pentagon away from the messy business of counterterrorism, but Director Casey opted to put his agency on the front line. Although that plot was unsuccessful in its first effort, its fallout shaped the way the CIA would conduct its future counterterrorist operations.
“Talking about Capturing bin Laden”: The Clinton Administration and the Legal Architecture of Lethal Force in Counterterrorism, 1993–2000
Authors: Fuller Christopher J.
Published: September 2017

This chapter addresses the notion that the CIA's drone campaign lacks appropriate congressional oversight and domestic legal authorization, instead revealing that the agency sought extensive legal cover from both the executive branch and Congress before undertaking its role as aerial executioner. Introducing the concept of the covert action pendulum, the chapter argues that a historic cycle of agency excess followed by a backlash of congressional investigation and subsequently increased oversight became established. It also examines how the hard-learned lessons from these pendulum swings prompted Langley's cautious managers to insist upon the creation of the complex legal architecture that now underwrites the United States' drone campaign.
“Ninja Guys in Black Suits”: Alternative Counterterrorism Tools, 1993–2008
Authors: Fuller Christopher J.
Published: September 2017

This chapter talks about the issue of why the Obama administration adopted drone strikes as America's primary counterterrorism tool. By examining the methods applied by Obama's predecessors, such as the deployment of proxy agents; cruise missile strikes; rendition, imprisonment, and interrogation; and Special Forces raids, the chapter places this decision in context. It illustrates the extent to which the adoption of different counterterrorism policies from president to president has as much to do with the successes and failures of their predecessors' efforts as it does the ideological outlook of the policy makers themselves. The chapter also analyzes the impact of wider factors on influencing policy decisions; such as the American public's fatigue over foreign occupations, the financial limitations imposed by a decade of nation building, and the advent of new technological innovations.
“The Only Game in Town”: The Strategy and Effectiveness of the CIA’s Lethal Drone Campaign, 2009–2012
Authors: Fuller Christopher J.
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on the notions of accuracy, collateral damage, and blowback, assessing just how accurate the CIA's program is, and the extent to which it has aided the United States in its efforts to end the ongoing War on Terror. If one is to measure the campaign by its primary goals—the decapitation of the al-Qaeda leadership; the denial of safe haven in the AfPak region; and the undermining of the Taliban's insurgency against the U.S.-backed Afghan government in Kabul—the campaign has been a success. Yet, while the drone's ability to consistently loiter over the mountains and valleys of the AfPak region may have succeeded in reducing al-Qaeda's threat, the chapter argues that the CTC's drone campaign also played a key role in creating the power vacuum into which the Islamic State was able to step.
Conclusion: “It Sends Its Bloodhounds Everywhere”
Authors: Fuller Christopher J.
Published: September 2017

This concluding chapter examines the legacy of the CIA's drone war on U.S. counterterrorism, wider U.S. national security policy, and the conduct of America's rivals—both nation-states and terrorist groups. It contemplates the nature of technological progress, judging that innovations always introduce potential threats and opportunities in equal measure. Furthermore, while it is almost inevitable that terrorist groups will exploit drone technology for heinous ends, the technology also offers wider commercial and civilian society opportunities, just as previous transformative technologies, first developed for the purpose of taking lives, eventually came to transform them in positive ways. The use of drones to neutralize terrorists is best understood as the embodiment of America's long-term counterterrorism goal made possible by advancements in both technology and the willingness of the U.S. government to authorize the CIA in undertaking lethal counterterrorist actions.
Then and Now
Authors: Valkenburg Patti M. , Piotrowski Jessica Taylor
Published: September 2017

In the past, children were not considered children in the sense they are today, and if they could read, they read books for adults. This changed gradually after the publication of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's influential book on child rearing, Émile, ou De l'éducation, in 1762. As society's ideas about childhood and parenting began to shift, so did our ideas about which media are appropriate for children. This chapter describes how society's ideas about youth and media have been subject to swings of the pendulum since the seventeenth century. In addition, it compares the current generation with previous generations. Why are children and teens more self-aware and intelligent than ever? Why has youth culture become so dominant in society? Why do children display adult behavior at younger and younger ages? And lastly, what is media's role in these developments?
Themes and Theoretical Perspectives
Authors: Valkenburg Patti M. , Piotrowski Jessica Taylor
Published: September 2017

Not all youth are equally susceptible to the influence of media. Yet despite this truth, the idea that media and technology have large effects on all children and teens often prevails in contemporary discourse. This chapter reviews media effects theories from the early twentieth century onward. It clarifies what we do and do not know about the influence of media on youth. When are media effects large, and when are they small? And what do “small” and “large” effects mean, exactly? And which children and teens are especially susceptible to media effects, and why?
Infants, Toddlers, and Preschoolers
Authors: Valkenburg Patti M. , Piotrowski Jessica Taylor
Published: September 2017

This chapter discusses how media preferences evolve from birth through early childhood. The focus is on two age groups, infants and young toddlers (up to 2 years old) and older toddlers and preschoolers (2–5 years). For both age groups, it describes a number of specific developmental characteristics and predicts how they influence these young children's media preferences. At what age do infants begin to take an interest in media, and why at that age? Why are toddlers so fascinated by smartphones and tablets? Should very young children even be using media? What is the “pink frilly dress” phenomenon and how does it influence media preferences? And finally, why exactly is development such a strong predictor of media preference?
Media and Emotions
Authors: Valkenburg Patti M. , Piotrowski Jessica Taylor
Published: September 2017

This chapter takes a look at how entertainment media can evoke powerful emotions in youth (as well as adults). How is it that entertainment media can make children and teens fearful, agitated, and even sad—all while they know they are seeing fictional content? And does the experience of emotion differ across childhood, or is it, perhaps, more universal? To answer these and other questions, the chapter reviews key theories on emotion and discusses the role of child development in the experience of media-induced emotions, using fear as a case study. Finally, it reviews the tragedy paradox: why do we often enjoy watching horror movies and tearjerkers even though they make us feel afraid or sad?
Advertising and Commercialism
Authors: Valkenburg Patti M. , Piotrowski Jessica Taylor
Published: September 2017

This chapter discusses why youth are commercially interesting and why marketing seems to be targeting children at ever-younger ages. In particular, it shows how children represent three markets—a primary market, a market of influencers, and a future market—and discusses the implications of being a threefold market for children's socialization as consumers. How do brand awareness and brand loyalty develop in early childhood? How does children's development influence their consumer behavior? Following this, the chapter evaluates whether advertising is effective among these young consumers. To what extent does the commercial environment that surrounds youth influence them? It contextualizes these questions by highlighting what the youth market looks like today, noting sophisticated digital developments and discussing efforts to counter the potential negative consequences of advertising.
Piety, Pioneers, and Patriots: The First American Observatories
Authors: MacDonald Alexander
Published: September 2017

In the earliest period of American history, astronomy and the exploration of the heavens was considered a hallmark of intellectual development and a noble endeavor for the colonial elite. In the wake of the American Revolution, the desire to signal a robust and independent national presence intensified in all areas, including astronomy. Major efforts in this regard were led by John Quincy Adams. From the mid-1830s, and for the next four decades, the construction of observatories accelerated rapidly as part of what has been referred to as “the American Observatory Movement” starting with university and college observatories and progressing to observatories with broader social contexts. An observatory located on top of a Philadelphia high school was an unlikely inflexion point in the history of American space exploration. The motivations of religious belief also played a significant role in the funding of early American observatories. The Georgetown Observatory was a point of contention between American Jesuits and the Superior General in Rome, and politics and ambition elevated the Navy’s Depot for Charts and Instruments to America’s first National Observatory.
Public Spirit and Patronage: American Observatories
Authors: MacDonald Alexander
Published: September 2017

In the first half of the nineteenth century, American astronomical observatories were instruments for the personal exploration of the planets and the stars as well as monuments of civic development. Their value was often more symbolic than scientific and they represented significant expenditures for the individuals and communities that undertook them. Their costs were equivalent, in modern terms, to small robotic NASA probes. The cost of these facilities grew in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, with the Lick, Mount Wilson, and Mount Palomar Observatories representing major, billion-dollar equivalent investments in space exploration capabilities. These early American observatories were predominantly privately funded. Over forty observatories are investigated, only two of which were built with significant government support. The motivations that dominated the financing of these “lighthouses of the sky” were personal ones—intrinsic interest in the heavens and scientific curiosity, or the desire to signal status through monuments and legacies. This earliest period of American space exploration was thus one with an overridingly private context, with social entrepreneurs like Ormsby McKnight Mitchell and George Ellery Hale selling the mystique and adventure of the heavens to the wealthy elite and the general public. Major figures from the 19th century were involved in funding astronomical observatories, include Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller.
India’s Silent Revolution
Authors: Alley William M. , Alley Rosemarie
Published: September 2017

By far and away, India is the world’s biggest user of groundwater. Since independence in 1947, the country’s farmers have gradually amassed political power resulting in massive government subsidies for pumps and virtually free electricity. Most of the world’s farmers are limited by pumping costs, while groundwater pumping in India has gone way beyond sustainable limits. After laying out the problem, the chapter presents stories of groups working to bring some control over the country’s increasingly dire groundwater situation by such means as rainwater harvesting and reducing electricity subsidies.
The World’s Poorest People
Authors: Alley William M. , Alley Rosemarie
Published: September 2017

By almost any measure sub-Saharan Africa lacks even the most basic infrastructure to meet the needs of the almost one billion people living here. This chapter examines the links among water scarcity, poverty, and disease—and the potential of groundwater for mitigating these problems. The solution involves much more than the all too common approach of drilling a village well, installing a pump, and returning home. The chapter presents instructive stories of individuals who are doing it right, including capacity building.
Streamflow Depletion
Authors: Alley William M. , Alley Rosemarie
Published: September 2017

Much of the book’s discussion thus far has focused on groundwater depletion. However, as wells continue to pump, the source of water increasingly comes from surface water. This chapter examines how depletion of even a small part of groundwater storage can have large impacts on surface-water resources. Yet despite this critical connection, different laws govern surface water and groundwater. Solving this complex water resource relationship also involves accounting for the delayed effects of pumping on surface-water resources. The ongoing challenges for conjunctive management are illustrated by the South Platte River basin of Colorado, as well as the Arkansas and Republican Rivers.
Recharge and Recycling
Authors: Alley William M. , Alley Rosemarie
Published: September 2017

Managed aquifer recharge is a widespread and growing practice. In addition, using recycled water for groundwater recharge and water supply continues to grow as water resources are increasingly strained by population growth and climate change. Through a series of examples from around the world, the chapter illustrates the value as well as limitations of managed aquifer recharge and recycled water.
Poisoning the Well
Authors: Alley William M. , Alley Rosemarie
Published: September 2017

Virtually all chemicals that humans use can find their way into groundwater. The cost of aquifer protection through proper handling and disposal of hazardous chemicals is miniscule compared to the ongoing costs of trying to clean up a contaminated aquifer—if it’s even possible. This chapter provides historical background on major chemical pollutants and examines key difficulties surrounding chemical contamination and remediation of groundwater with examples from throughout North America.
Pathogens
Authors: Alley William M. , Alley Rosemarie
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines microbial contamination of groundwater that can threaten drinking water supplies and the importance of proper well construction and protection. Case studies are presented of E. coli poisoning in Walkerton, Ontario and viruses in Wisconsin. The Walkerton incident in 2000 caused Canadian provinces to take a hard look at their drinking water safety through better monitoring, enforcement, training, and source-water protection programs. The Wisconsin case study illustrates the potential for viruses from leaking sewers to contaminant municipal wells.
Fracking
Authors: Alley William M. , Alley Rosemarie
Published: September 2017

Few environmental issues have received more media attention than fracking (hydraulic fracturing) for oil and gas development in shales and other unconventional resources. This chapter provides an objective overview of the potential impacts on groundwater and the need for better groundwater monitoring to resolve some of the uncertainties.
Transboundary Aquifers
Authors: Alley William M. , Alley Rosemarie
Published: September 2017

The difficulties of determining who has the right to use groundwater and how much they can pump becomes even more complicated for aquifers that cross international boundaries. The chapter discusses the few countries that have made progress in addressing transboundary aquifer issues. The chapter also provides a brief history of the Transboundary Aquifer Assessment Program along the U.S.-Mexico border to illustrate key concepts and challenges.
Sharing the Common Pool
Authors: Alley William M. , Alley Rosemarie
Published: September 2017

This final chapter brings together the main themes running throughout the book, and discusses key imperatives for achieving groundwater sustainability and responsible groundwater governance. In closing, five key areas are emphasized: (1) Groundwater laws and policies need to be updated to reflect the dynamic interconnection of surface water and groundwater; (2) proposed solutions must be tailored to local conditions and involve local stakeholders, but usually external pressure is also required to incentivize progress; (3) independent monitoring of groundwater conditions and trends is needed to guide effective groundwater governance; (4) the lag times for groundwater impacts and responses need to be understood and accommodated; and (5) climate change is simultaneously making groundwater more essential and amplifying threats to the resource.
Tort’s Landscape
Authors: Herzog Don
Published: September 2017

A sketch of the basic contours of tort law, for those not familiar with it. The chapter defends and starts deepening the traditional case that tort is private law: that what matters in a tort action is simply the claim that one party has wronged another, not making sound social policy or promoting Kaldor-Hicks efficiency or anything like that. It explores settings in which the law does take posthumous interests seriously.
Legal Dilemmas
Authors: Herzog Don
Published: September 2017

The chapter launches with Star Chamber proceedings against Lewis Pickering: in the sixteenth century, defaming the dead could be a crime. And that remains true even in today’s United States. But as the common law sharpened the distinction between tort and crime, it rejected the view that such defamation could be a tort. Tort claims extinguished when either plaintiff or defendant died. And when aggrieved survivors sued, the law held they hadn’t been wronged, even if they had been harmed, so they couldn’t recover, either.
“This Will Always Be There”
Authors: Herzog Don
Published: September 2017

The chapter offers a constructive account of posthumous harm by exploring how we can make sense of interests that survive one’s death. The dead can’t appeal to some of the interests protected by the tort of defamation: most obviously, the pain and suffering experienced by the defamed. But they can appeal to others. The chapter closes by examining the Tawana Brawley affair, and New York’s and Rhode Island’s grappling with making it a tort to defame the dead.
Introduction
Authors: Martin Dale B.
Published: September 2017

The modern scholarly task of “biblical theology,” “theology of the Old Testament,” or “theology of the New Testament” may be historically traced from around 1800 and through the 20th century. Its goal was both to describe the theology contained in the Bible but also to use that historical construction as a foundation for modern Christian theological appropriation of the Bible. The task, though, led either to bad theology, bad historiography, or both. A robust, Christian, orthodox theology must move beyond the limits of modernism and practice more creative, innovative readings of scripture.
Scripture
Authors: Martin Dale B.
Published: September 2017

Many Christians in the modern period have worked with inadequate notions about what “scripture” is. They have often thought of the Bible as a rule book, a manual for human behavior, a source for scientific or historical facts, a constitution for modern structures, including the church, or even a sex manual. In order to proceed with an adequate theological interpretation of the Bible, Christians need to develop an adequate notion of what theological scripture “is.” Chapter 2 offers different and various ways of imagining the nature of scripture, as cathedral or space we occupy rather than a foundationalist source for ready-to-hand knowledge.
God
Authors: Martin Dale B.
Published: September 2017

Even if ancient biblical writers did not have the philosophical training to have anticipated later Christian doctrines such as the transcendence or immanence of God, divine simplicity, even the doctrine of the trinity, postmodern Christians should not be constrained by those historical limits from reading the New Testament to arrive at robust, though sometimes complex, theologies of the nature of God and of what it means to say, in the 21st century, “I believe in God.”
The emergence of a new society
Authors: Payne Geoff
Published: September 2017

Criticism of the ‘traditional/modern society’ dichotomy does not mean the Fisher-Clark thesis of long-term, universal shifts from agriculture into manufacturing, and then into service industries, can be ignored. Although ‘services’ is an unsatisfactory category, ‘occupational transition’ has shrunk manual, manufacturing employment and expanded white collar work. Because the parents’ generation were less middle class than their offspring are, this provided necessary but not sufficient conditions for rising upward mobility rates. This chapter illustrates British changes 1911-2011, with more detailed consideration of the period 1997-2014 showing the underlying occupational transition concept needs reformulation to allow for gender differences. It concludes that the expansion of the middle class following the Welfare State later constricts opportunities: advantaged children become the more advantaged new parents’ generation. The mobility gap begins to tighten.
The new mobility regime
Authors: Payne Geoff
Published: September 2017

Data from the most recent survey are used to explore occupational class (NS-SeC) distributions, and intergenerational absolute and relative mobility flows between seven origins and seven destinations. While acknowledging the challenges in conceptualising and operationalising women’s social class, this evidence suggests broad similarities but clear, specific differences between male and female mobility. Mobility rates continue to be high overall, but with limited access to Class 1 (professionals and managers), in particular for women; limited escape from Class 7 (routine operatives); and a distinctive pattern for Class 4 (self-employed). The gender variations, arising from the gendered labour market, are related to gender differences in occupational transition. Evaluation of trends has to cautious, but no evidence of a reduction in mobility rates is found, and downward mobility seems to be increasing.
Tightening bonds and professional access
Authors: Payne Geoff
Published: September 2017

This chapter extends the sceptical discussion of meritocracy to higher education, and access to employment. The professions’ partially successful attempt to achieve a closed shop restricts entry by those from less advantaged homes, and the less academically skilled of their own children. Data on qualifications and ‘personal qualities’ required for recruitment show detailed connections between social and cultural capital, and occupational outcome, are complicated. Higher education is status stratified: not all degrees are equal. The Higher Education Initial Participation Rate (‘HEIPR’) exaggerates the number of graduates; other statistical sources do not include data on social class. Increasing student diversity does not automatically increase mobility: working class students continue to be disadvantaged once they enter university. Meritocratic and individualistic explanations of mobility are inadequate.
Moving on
Authors: Payne Geoff
Published: September 2017

Britain’s mobility rates are not distinctively low, but are uneven; lower among the elite (neglected in much mobility analysis); professionals and managers; small businesses; and routine operatives. Class and gender interact in producing these patterns, prompting questions of fairness and effectiveness of low mobility ‘pockets’. Policies need a generation to work fully, but both SAD and DIM explanations point to low probabilities of increasing mobility rates from the lower classes. Also, the expansion of desirable jobs /classes needed to accommodate extra upwardly mobile numbers is far greater than contemporary occupational transition rates. ‘More mobility’ will not solve social inequality, but reducing inequality may promote mobility and make life more bearable for the inevitable ‘losers’. We need a new approach, which combines solid sociological evidence with fresh thinking about the interconnection of upward and downward mobility, and addresses the micro-causes, and experience, of being mobile.
Introduction: policy analysis in Belgium – tradition, comparative features and trends
Authors: Brans Marleen , Aubin David
Published: September 2017

This introductory chapter contextualizes and analyses the characteristics of the discipline and practice of policy analysis in Belgium. It first highlights the relatively young tradition of policy analysis in Belgium. Secondly, it identifies the characteristics of the Belgian political systems and their likely impact upon the nature of policy analysis. Thirdly, it specifies the current and emerging trends and challenges relevant for the practice of policy analysis and policy-making.
Ideas as close as possible to power: Belgian political parties and their study centres
Authors: Pattyn Valérie , Hecke Steven Van , Pirlot Pauline , Rihoux Benoît , Brans Marleen
Published: September 2017

Belgium, like Italy, is often considered a text book example of partitocracy. The dominance of political parties involves many functions and dysfunctions in a polity that is highly fragmented along linguistic and ideological lines. Political parties not only assert their institutional position as gate keepers to what demands and interests are aggregated for legislative and executive politics. They also play a dominant role in the policy-making process, by framing problems, ideologically promoting solutions, and negotiating compromises in the cumbersome formation and continuation of coalition government. Like other actors who play a role in the policy-making process, political party organisations too are faced with the increasing complexity of problems, and with the demand to back up their proposals with expert-based argumentation. In Belgium, each party organisation comprises a study service. Although their origin and history has been documented in general party organisation studies, this chapter is the first contribution to understanding the way these intra-party study units are organized and how they generate policy relevant advice. Findings concern all major political parties, across the language border.
Public consultation and participation in Belgium: directly engaging citizens beyond the ballot box?
Authors: Damme Jan Van , Jacquet Vincent , Schiffino Nathalie , Reuchamps Min
Published: September 2017

In Belgium, as in many other countries, there is a growth of diverse types of public inquiries and public consultation arrangements in policy-making. The rationales behind these consultation processes differ as to perspectives on democracy. Some inquiries and consultations are conceived from an instrumental perspective from which it is believed that engaging citizens in policy analysis has something tangible to contribute, by for instance enriching knowledge of specific policy problems, or by fostering policy support necessary for implementing solutions. From a more substantive view on democracy, citizens’ inquiries are rooted in participative and deliberative democracy, and are expected to contribute to legitimacy. In this chapter, the authors analyze the variety of public inquiries and consultation arrangements in Belgium at different levels of government, with a view to clarifying the public’s role in policy making and policy analysis beyond the ballot box.
Policy analysis by academics
Authors: Brans Marleen , Aubin David , Smet Valérie
Published: September 2017

Through their policy relevant research outputs and integration in policy networks, Belgian academics ‘speak truth to power’ (Wildavsky 1979) or ‘make sense together’ (Hoppe 1999) in political and public debates about policy problems and options. At the turn of the millennium, the federal and regional governments have moved to institutionalizing policy relevant research in what are called interuniversity research pillars, and middle to long term research programmes, thematically organised along the priorities decided by the respective governments. Next to these structural interfaces, there are other access points for academics to bring their expertise to policy-making. Sectoral academic experts maintain multiple relationships with knowledge brokers. They are welcome guests in opinion sections of the written and spoken media and hold positions in the strategic advisory bodies of different governments. Several of them are also active in think tanks, or act themselves as consultants in commercial university spin-offs. This chapter analyses the structural and individual access of academics to policy-making in Belgium. The empirical material is based upon documents analysis and budget information, on a study of knowledge utilisation in labour market and education policies in Belgium, and on a recent survey on the impact of social science research on Flemish policy-makers.
Introduction: what size is ‘just right’ for a care provider?
Authors: Needham Catherine , Allen Kerry , Hall Kelly
Published: September 2017

This chapter sets out the context for the research, highlighting the growing salience of debates about the size of care organisations, but a lack of consensus about whether small is beautiful or large is efficient. It also locates the research within high profile policy debates in the UK about personalisation, personal budgets, care outcomes and austerity. The chapter also sets out how micro-enterprises are defined and gives examples of some of the micro-enterprise case studies that are included in the research. The chapter goes on to give more details of the approach to the research design, which examined how 17 micro-enterprises performed compared to 10 small, medium and large organisations in three case study sites in England, speaking to 143 people who work in or use these services. The chapter also discusses the involvement of co-researchers with lived experience of care services. The chapter finishes by summarising what follows in the rest of the book.
Enterprise and care
Authors: Needham Catherine , Allen Kerry , Hall Kelly
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on enterprise and care considering the contribution that new delivery models such as social enterprises make within public services more broadly and care in particular. The chapter also considers the ambiguity of the social enterprise label and its capacity to be claimed by a range of governance types, including the for-profit as well as the not-for-profit. The chapter then draws together the evidence on micro-enterprises into four research hypotheses that are tested in later chapters of the book, through qualitative and quantitative research. These are derived from the policy claims that are made by proponents of micro forms of service delivery: that micro-enterprises are more personalised, innovative, cost-effective and outcomes-oriented than larger organisations.
Micro innovation: what, how and who?
Authors: Needham Catherine , Allen Kerry , Hall Kelly
Published: September 2017

Chapter eight draws on the interviews undertaken with people running care organisations, to bring out three types of innovation - what innovation, how innovation and who innovation. This chapter identifies the different types of innovation that are displayed within the specific context of care; referred to here as what, how and who innovations. In terms of what innovations, some micro-enterprises are delivering services that deviate from the traditional residential, domiciliary and day models of care through the provision of flexible ‘one-to-one support’. Whilst micro-enterprises were offering more flexible services, larger organisations were also offering a broad range of services, and in day provision especially, larger services were found to offer more choice to service users. Whilst it tends to be the what and who innovations within micro-enterprises that are most widely reported, it may be the how innovations that are most important when it comes to the context of social care for older people. For people receiving personal care in the home, the scope for micro providers to take a more flexible approach gives them an advantage over large care providers.