bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hepatitis C Virus Infection and Dialysis: 2012 Update
Authors: Fabrizi Fabrizio
Published: December 2012

Hepatitis C virus infection is still common among dialysis patients, but the natural history of HCV in this group is not completely understood. Recent evidence has been accumulated showing that anti-HCV positive serologic status is significantly associated with lower survival in dialysis population; an increased risk of liver and cardiovascular disease-related mortality compared with anti-HCV negative subjects has been found. According to a novel meta-analysis (fourteen studies including 145,608 unique patients), the adjusted RR for liver disease-related death and cardiovascular mortality was 3.82 (95% CI, 1.92; 7.61) and 1.26 (95% CI, 1.10; 1.45), respectively. It has been suggested that the decision to treat HCV in patients with chronic kidney disease be based on the potential benefits and risks of therapy, including life expectancy, candidacy for kidney transplant, and co-morbidities. According to recent guidelines, the antiviral treatment of choice in HCV-infected patients on dialysis is mono-therapy but fresh data suggest the use of modern antiviral approaches (i.e., pegylated interferon plus ribavirin). The summary estimate for sustained viral response and drop-out rate was 56% (95% CI, 28–84) and 25% (95% CI, 10–40) in a pooled analysis including 151 dialysis patients on combination antiviral therapy (conventional or pegylated interferon plus ribavirin).
Description of a new genus and species of Candonopsini (Crustacea, Ostracoda, Candoninae) from the alluvial valley of the Upper Parana River (Brazil, South America)
Authors: Higuti Janet , Martens Koen
Published: December 2012

The genus Candobrasilopsis gen. nov. is here described, with C. rochai gen. nov. sp. nov. as type species, from the alluvial valley of the Upper Paraná River. The enigmatic Candonopsis brasiliensis Sars, 1901 is here redescribed and transferred to this new genus, the new combination being Candobrasilopsis brasiliensis (Sars, 1901). The new candonid genus belongs to the tribe Candonopsini, because of the absence of the proximal seta on the caudal ramus. It is closely related to Latinopsis Karanovic & Datry, 2009, because of the relatively short terminal segment of the mandibular palp (length less than 1.5 times the basal width, while this segment is longer than three times the basal width in Candonopsis) and the large and stout b-seta on the T1. However, it differs markedly from Latinopsis in the size and shape of the calcified inner lamellae of both valves and in the type of hemipenis. We also discuss the doubtful allocation of several other genera to the Candonopsini, raise Abcandonopsis Karanovic, 2004 to generic status and reassess the uncertain position of Candonopsis anisitsi Daday, 1905 within Latinopsis.
Livros didáticos de História da rede salesiana de escolas: prescrições e usos
Authors: Otto Clarícia , Kantovitz Geane
Published: December 2012

O livro didático é um dos dispositivos da educação escolar marcado por um emaranhado conjunto de interesses dos autores, editores, gestores institucionais, entre outros envolvidos no processo de sua fabricação. É um artefato impresso que se constitui em fonte inesgotável de pesquisa, especialmente, no que tange aos usos feitos por professores e estudantes. Assim, neste artigo, objetiva-se apresentar questões em torno da coleção de livros didáticos de História para o ensino médio da Rede Salesiana de Escolas (RSE), em Santa Catarina: contexto de fabricação, prescrições por parte da Rede e autores, sua utilização por cinco professores e 173 estudantes do ensino médio. Observou-se que o professor como mediador do processo de ensino e aprendizagem influi na forma como os estudantes se apropriam e produzem representações acerca do livro didático e do conhecimento histórico.
Tensões curriculares e narrativas: o ensino de História da América Latina
Authors: Venera Raquel Alvarenga Sena , Conceição Juliana Pirola da
Published: December 2012

Este trabalho versa sobre parte das análises resultantes da pesquisa intitulada “A Escola e os jovens no mundo contemporâneo: processos de formação histórica latino americana” desenvolvida em duas escolas na cidade de Florianópolis, de 2009 a 2011. Essas escolas são públicas e campos de estágio de formação inicial de professores de História da Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. A pesquisa empírica foi desenvolvida junto aos jovens da sétima série do Ensino Fundamental e investigou a formação da consciência histórica latino americana. Para esseartigo, especificamente, o foco é a relação entre as escolhas curriculares para o Ensino de História, das duas escolas e a inferência delas nas narrativas dos estudantes acerca da História latino americana. Busca-se uma leitura conceitual de currículo, a partir dos Estudos Culturais, que permite a percepção de tensões políticas na construção de pertencimentos e identidades dos jovens e que foram expressas em suas narrativas sobre a América Latina. As análises aqui apresentadas dão visibilidade às disputas na construção de memórias e identidades, no interior do currículo, que atuam na orientação da vida presente dos jovens e na construção de perspectivas de futuros. Neste movimento são realizadas escolhas que mobilizam determinados saberes de acordo com os sujeitos que se deseja formar e as identidades que se pretende construir.
A vassoura, a simpatia e a espada: Imagens da democracia brasileira nos anos 50
Authors: Meyrer Marlise Regina
Published: December 2012

O artigo se propõe a estudar a representação da democracia brasileira nos a nos 50, através da análise das fotorreportagens da revista O Cruzeiro. A partir das reportagens sobre os três personagens políticos que apareceram com maior frequência na revista no período estudado - Jânio Quadros, Juscelino Kubitscheck e Henrique Teixeira Lott - procuramos identificar os valores defendidos e difundidos pelo periódico com relação a política e políticos da época, contribuindo, assim, para a construção de uma imagem específica da democracia brasileira nos anos 50. A análise levou em consider ação a especificidade das fontes, ou seja, fotorreportagens, as quais constituem-se em um texto predominantemente visual.
Treblinka (1942-1943): a vida e a fuga de um campo de concentração
Authors: Costa Júlio César Virgínio
Published: December 2012

Resenha do livro Eu sou o último judeu: Treblinka (1942-1943), de Chil Rajchman, que busca descrever suas possíveis contribuições à História e ao ensino de História.
O ensino de história - algumas reflexões do Reino Unido: entrevista com Peter J. Lee
Authors: Silva Cristiani Bereta da
Published: December 2012

O interesse em publicar uma entrevista com o professor Peter Lee vem ao encontro do desejo de fazer circular ainda mais suas pesquisas e reflexões sobre como as crianças e jovens elaboram ideias sobre a história, no Brasil. Tal desejo parte do pressuposto de que o ensino de História na Educação Básica pouco ou nada avançará sem que os professores e pesquisadores da  área  considerem  seriamente  a  questão  da  aprendizagem,  ou  melhor,  os  processos  cognitivos envolvidos na construção do pensamento histórico. Processos que implicam compreender como os sujeitos elaboram as ideias históricas e como constroem percepções sobre o passado. Com esta entrevista espera-se também contribuir com o debate sobre as formas e funções da história na vida cotidiana, pois se postula aqui - e a discussão de Peter Lee também atenta para isso - que a história é uma forma de pensar e interpretar a existência humana, no tempo.
Increasing the Efficiency of Railway Transport by Improvement of Suspension of Freight Wagons
Authors: Petrović Dragan , Bižić Milan , Gašić Milomir , Savković Mile , Gajić Vladeta
Published: December 2012

Railway transport has a very important role in economy of every country. The efficiency of railway transport depends both on the quality of transport organization and on the technical reliability of the railway rolling stock. During operation of the railway freight wagons in the last years, a large number of breaks of suspension system elements have been noticed. This feature is especially reported at four-axle double wagon for coal transport (designated Fbd) and three-axle wagon for transport of cars (designated DDam). Frequent breaks of suspension system elements reduce the efficiency of transport and in some cases cause derailment of wagons and lead to large economic losses. In this paper, the causes of breakage of suspension on both wagons (Fbd and DDam) have been analyzed, but also the possibilities of how to resolve these problems, i.e. how to reduce them to a minimum or avoid them completely.
New Approach to Determining Visibility Length on Passive Protected Level Railroad Crossings
Authors: Sever Drago
Published: December 2012

The paper is based on the question whether the existing (legislation determined) method for determining the visibility length on passive protected level railroad crossings insures the relevant level of traffic safety. It has been recognised that using of such method does not provide stopping of road driver vehicles in front of railroad crossing in all conditions. Based on such conclusion a new approach to determining visibility length on passive protected level railroad crossing is proposed. The new approach is based on the assumption that it is necessary, primarily on level railroad crossings with local roads to recognize the worst possible and expected road and weather conditions. The testing of the proposed method in the real environment has shown that at lower speeds of road vehicles there is almost no difference, and that important benefits are recognised for the speeds of 30 and 50km/h where longer stopping distances of road vehicles have been detected (road vehicle can stop safely in front of a rail crossing) with almost the same visibility lengths. The use of the proposed method could have important impact on the increase of traffic safety on passive protected level railroad crossings.
Comparative Analysis and Pedestrian Simulation Evaluation on Emergency Evacuation Test Methods for Urban Rail Transit Stations
Authors: Wang Zijia , Chen Feng , Li Xiaohong
Published: December 2012

The emergency evacuation test method of rail transit station not only affects the operation safety of the station, but it also has significant influence on the scale and cost of the station. A reasonable test method should guarantee both the safety of evacuation and that the investment is neither excessive nor too conservative. The paper compares and analyzes the differences of the existing emergency evacuation test methods of rail stations in China and other regions on the evacuation load, evacuation time calculation and the capacity of egress components, etc. Based on the field survey analysis, the desired velocity distribution of pedestrians in various station facilities and the capacity of egress components have been obtained, and then the parameters of pedestrian simulation tool were calibrated. By selecting a station for the case study, an evacuation simulation model has been established, where five evacuation scenarios have been set according to different specifications and the simulation results have been carefully analyzed. Through analyzing the simulation results, some modification proposals of the current emergency evacuation test method in the design manual have been considered, including taking into account the section passenger volume, walking time on escalators and stairs of the platform, and the condition in which the escalator most critical to evacuation should be considered as out of service.
Liquid Phases for Gas ChromatographyUpdate based on the original article by Nicholas H. Snow,Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry, © 2000, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Authors: Snow Nicholas H.
Published: December 2012

In gas chromatography (GC), the liquid phase, also called the stationary phase, provides the medium in which the separation occurs. The magnitude of separation is given by the relative strengths of intermolecular interactions between analyte and stationary phase molecules, thus numerous liquids have been used over the years. The stationary phase can be coated onto a solid support and packed into a tube (packed column GC), or coated onto the wall of a capillary (capillary GC). Today, most GC analyses are performed using capillary columns.
Sample Preparation for Gas ChromatographyUpdate based on the original article by Kornél Torkos,
Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry
, © 2000, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Authors: Eke Zsuzsanna , Torkos Kornél
Published: December 2012

The success of a gas chromatographic analysis mostly depends on the sample preparation procedure. Biological and environmental samples are not suitable for direct analysis. Organic analytes can be separated from matrixes by extraction methods such as gas–solid, liquid–liquid, solid–liquid, purge‐and‐trap, headspace, solid‐phase (SPE), solid‐phase micro‐ (SPME), stir bar sorptive (SBSE), membrane assisted (MAE), supercritical fluid (SFE), and Soxhlet extractions. These extraction methods are called phase separation methods. Matrix solid‐phase dispersion (MSPD) is a special highly efficient phase separation procedure for biological matrixes such as meat, liver, muscle, and vegetables. QuEChERS is a widely used standardized procedure for the sample preparation of fruits and vegetables for the determination of pesticide content. The aim of the extraction procedure is not only separation of organic analytes from matrixes but also concentration in another phase. If the organic analytes contain protic (active) hydrogen (alcohols, carboxylic acids, amines, oxo compounds, etc.) some derivatization reactions, such as acylation, alkylation, and silylation, might be needed. The aim of the derivatization is to increase the sensitivity of detection and thermal stability of the organic analytes. The other aspect of derivatization is to reduce the polarity of the compounds.
Methods for Retrospective Detection of Exposure to Toxic Scheduled Chemicals. Part
B
: Mass Spectrometric and Immunochemical Analysis of Covalent Adducts to Proteins and
DNA
Authors: Noort Daan , Black Robin M.
Published: December 2012

In this article, an overview of the methods that are currently available for retrospective detection of exposure to a number of chemical warfare agents (CWA), based on adducts formed with macromolecules such as proteins, is presented. These methods can be applied for various purposes, e.g. diagnosis and dosimetry of exposure of casualties, confirmation of nonexposure, verification of nonadherence to the Chemical Weapons Convention, health surveillance, and forensic purposes. The advantage of using protein adducts as biomarkers in comparison with free metabolites is that they are potentially much more long‐lived. The methods are predominantly based on LC/MS analysis of enzymatic digests of the (modified) proteins or on selective removal of the specific adduct moiety from the protein, followed by GC/MS or LC/MS. Several of the methods have been successfully applied to actual cases and were shown to be highly retrospective.
Mass Spectrometry for Peptide and Protein Analysis
Authors: Duncan Mark W. , Gibson David S.
Published: December 2012

Mass spectrometry is playing an increasingly important role in the characterization and quantification of peptides and proteins. In fact, more conventional approaches to characterization, including techniques such as Edman sequencing and amino acid (AA) analysis, have been largely displaced. Mass analysis — following either matrix‐assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) or electrospray ionization (ESI) — offers rapid molecular mass determinations with high mass accuracy on subpicomole amounts of material and information can be obtained on the constituents of complex mixtures.

The application of tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) allows fragmentation of peptide ions, and of proteins with some enhancements too. The MS/MS spectra of peptides and proteins can interpreted de novo or matched against database entries to provide partial amino acid sequence information and peptide/protein identification. Both peptide‐centric (bottom‐up) and protein‐centric (top‐down) approaches to protein characterization have been adopted and are now routinely applied.

Mass spectrometry has also been pivotal to the development and wide application of proteomics: i.e. the large‐scale identification of the proteins present in a complex biological sample. Proteomics is now routinely applied to characterize and quantify the constituents of complex biological tissues and fluids.

This entry describes the available approaches to peptide and protein characterization based on mass spectrometry, the constantly evolving analytical methods for proteomics, and available strategies for protein quantification.
Detection of Explosives using Pulsed Laser Fragmentation andMIRSpectroscopy
Authors: Mordmueller Mario , Willer Ulrike , Schade Wolfgang
Published: December 2012

Within the past years, an increasing number of optical techniques for the detection of harmful substances has been investigated on account of the threat of terroristic attacks. Optical technologies have the capability to overcome the problems of extensive sample preparation and long measurement cycles that are known from widely used detection techniques such as mass spectrometry and gas chromatography. The threat of bombings has also produced interest in standoff techniques — in addition to checkpoint applications for screening of persons. Even in this field, optical technologies are well suited: to date, Raman spectroscopy and laser‐induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) seem to be the most promising technologies, but other optical methods are permanently developed. Particularly detection in the midinfrared (MIR) spectral region, providing selective fingerprints of molecules in the range from 3 to 11 µm, has experienced a renaissance with development of new laser sources, detectors, and spectroscopic techniques. In this paper, some comparatively new techniques for the detection of explosives in the MIR spectral range, relying on quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) and photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS), are presented. Another emphasis is put on the indirect detection of explosives via characteristic decomposition products and their active generation with laser‐induced photodissociation techniques.
Near‐Infrared Spectroscopy in Laboratory and Process Analysis
Authors: Alcalà Manel , Blanco Marcelo , Menezes José C. , Felizardo Pedro M. , Garrido Ana , Pérez Dolores , Zamora Eduardo , Pasquini Celio , Romañach Rodolfo J.
Published: December 2012

Near‐infrared (NIR) is a spectroscopic method based on the absorption of light in the wavelength region between 700 and 2500 nm due to vibrations of molecular functional groups in the sample. These spectral features arise from overtones and combinations of the fundamental molecular vibrations of these groups that occur in the infrared (IR) at longer wavelengths. NIR is rich with features arising predominantly from vibrations of C–H, O–H, and N–H.(1)

NIR spectra are acquired by determining the absorbance,A, of light over a continuous range of wavelengths in spectrophotometers or at several specific wavelengths in fixed‐filter photometers.

Absorbance is defined by the following equation:whereIis the signal intensity from the sample relative to the signal intensity from a reference,I0.

The reference can be an empty transmission sample cell for liquids, or it can be a broadband spectral reflector, such as a white ceramic, for reflectance measurements of solids. Absorbance is usually linearly related to concentration, following Beer's Law (Equation):where ɛ represents the molar extinction coefficient,Cis the concentration of the species, andlis the optical pathlength of light through the sample.

For a particular species and fixed experimental setup, ɛ andlare constants. Letting a constant,k = (ɛl)−1, then (Equation)

A principal advantage of NIR over mid‐IR for process applications is the ability to use fiber optics to transmit light between the instrument and the sample over considerable distance with NIR. This permits the instrument, a potential source of ignition, to be placed in safe areas where flammable vapors exist. Only the fiber‐optic probe in contact with the sample and the optical fibers that connect to the instrument need be placed in the hazardous location. A disadvantage of NIR is the characteristics of the spectra, which are typically composed of broad, overlapping peaks in comparison to IR spectra. This often requires the use of sophisticated data analysis methods that place additional demands on vendors to provide stable NIR instruments and upon manufacturers and end‐users to have highly trained staff, often at the PhD level, for calibration model development, implementation, and maintenance.
Lanthanides: Alkoxides
Authors: Boyle Timothy J. , Steele Leigh Anna M.
Published: December 2012

This chapter discusses the many [Ln(OR)
3
] structural arrangements. It is important to note that this chapter discusses only a few of the many homoleptic, homocationic [Ln(OR)
3
] species and none of the heteroleptic or heterocationic species that are available. The existing work on [Ln(OR)

x

] should lay the groundwork for an understanding of the exciting and diverse structure types that are possible with this family of compounds.
Lanthanides: Alkyl Compounds
Authors: Cotton Simon A.
Published: December 2012

Lanthanide alkyls are still an area where major discoveries remain to be made. These metals do not form simple molecular methyls; only two such compounds, LnMe
3
(Ln = Lu, Y), are known. These are believed to be oligomers and have to be made by an indirect route. Benzyls exist as octahedral solvates
fac
‐[Ln(CH
2
Ph)
3
(THF)
3
] (Ln = Sc, Y, La–Sm, Gd, Dy, Er, and Lu); their structure depends upon the size of the lanthanide concerned, as the compounds of the smaller metals (Sc, Y, Gd, Dy, Er, Lu) all feature three σ‐(h
1
)‐benzyl groups, and those of the largest metals all have three h
2
‐benzyls, with [Sm(CH
2
Ph)
3
(THF)
3
] having one h
2
‐benzyl and two h
1
‐benzyl groups. Five‐coordinate [Ln(CH
2
Ph)
3
(THF)
2
] (Ln = Sc, Lu) also exist. Trialkyls with the (trimethylsilyl)methyl group only exist for the smaller lanthanides, with five‐coordinate [Ln(CH
2
SiMe
3
)
3
(THF)
2
] (Ln = Sc, Tb, Er‐Lu) and six‐coordinate [Sm(CH
2
SiMe
3
)
3
(THF)
3
] known; yttrium forms both types. Using the very bulky bis(trimethylsilyl)methyl group leads to unsolvated three‐coordinate [Ln{CH(SiMe
3
)
2
}
3
] (Ln = Y, La, Ce, Sm, Lu); their trigonal pyramidal coordination geometries feature short Ln⋯CH
3
contacts. Lanthanide alkyls are intensely air‐ and moisture‐sensitive compounds which are employed as starting materials in various syntheses, including catalytic precursors.
Lanthanides: Cyclopentadienyl Compounds
Authors: Kresinski Roman A.
Published: December 2012

Cyclopentadienyl complexes were among the first organo— rare earth(III) species to be produced, and their study has burgeoned over the past half‐century due, in part, to improved handling techniques excluding oxygen and moisture. Their synthesis is commonly by means of direct replacement of smaller counterions using agents such as alkali metal cyclopentadienides. This reaction being sterically limiting, the introduction of cyclopentadienide ligands is generally sequential. The interactions between metal and ligand are dominated by electrostatics rather than covalent factors, and thus the predominant mode of bonding is with the metal ion sitting approximately on a planar ligand face, with all five C atoms interacting to approximately the same degree. Since rare earth ionic chemistry is generally electrostatically driven, other ligands may participate in the coordination sphere, according to the available remaining space. Coordination saturation seems to occur with three cyclopentadienyl ligands and two other commonly sized donor atoms such as S, even for the larger, early rare earths. Such ancillary ligands can frequently be accommodated flexibly and reversibly, the cyclopentadienyl ligands adjusting distance and orientation to compensate.

For complexes containing three cyclopentadienyl ligands, reactivity is generally limited to such reversible accommodation of ancillary ligands, or removal of ring ligands by protic reagents. For complexes containing two cyclopentadienyl ligands, increased steric space opens up a rich chemistry. Binuclear bridging species become common, and reactions involving insertion or activation of small ligand species become more common: several catalytic cycles are mediated by biscyclopentadienyl rare earth species. Single cyclopentadienyl rare earth complexes are yet more complex in their behavior because of their increased steric openness: however, they do number among them some interesting compounds of hypervalent oxygen and chlorine.
Lanthanides: Shift Reagents
Authors: Geraldes Carlos F.G.C.
Published: December 2012

The presence of paramagnetic metal centers causes enhanced shift and relaxation effects on the resonances of NMR‐active nuclei of ligand molecules. In this chapter, we describe the basic theory and main applications of paramagnetic NMR shift effects of Ln
3+
ions as structural reporters of small flexible ligands and paramagnetic complexes and their supramolecular constructs. Their applications on the structure and dynamics of proteins are also discussed, with particular emphasis on the aspects relevant to the development of Gd
3+
‐based MRI contrast agents and powerful NMR shift reagents for
in vivo
MRS of alkali ions (e.g.,
23
Na
+
,
7
Li
+
).
Lanthanides: Oxide and Sulfide Nanomaterials
Authors: Tsuzuki Takuya
Published: December 2012

Rare earth oxides and sulfides have many properties useful for industrial applications. By decreasing the particle size, these properties can be combined with the unique attributes of nanoscale objects, such as high surface area, low light scattering power, and quantum confinement effects, to realize a wide range of new applications. The methods to synthesize nanoparticles of rare earth compounds have been developed rapidly since mid‐1980s. As a result, some rare earth oxides are now produced in a commercial scale, enabling practical applications of rare earth oxide nanoparticles in electronic and automotive industries. Applications of rare earth oxide and sulfide nanoparticles in other industries including biomedicals, renewable energy, environmental protection, pharmaceuticals, personal care, surface coatings, and plastics are also expected in the future.
Lanthanides: Resource Sustainability
Authors: Atwood David A.
Published: December 2012

Rare earth elements have unique electronic, optical, luminescent, and magnetic properties that make them critically important in a broad range of products and applications. For example, rare earth elements are used as catalysts, in manufacturing, medicine, ceramics, and glasses. They are fundamentally important in the generation of clean energy and carbon‐free means of transportation. Projected growth rates of rare earth element demands will, for some elements, exceed production capabilities within several decades. Moreover, rare earth elements are currently mined, concentrated, and used in such an unsustainable manner that these critically important elements are unavailable for future generations. Making rare earth resources sustainable requires not only a careful economic assessment but also a determination of environmental and societal impacts. New chemical and engineering technologies are required to achieve this goal, beginning with the recycling and reuse of existing products. Ultimately, products and applications should be designed so that rare earth elements can be immediately and economically reused.
Age‐Appropriate Instruction and Assessment for School‐Age Learners
Authors: Muñoz Carmen
Published: December 2012

The recent trend toward teaching foreign languages in primary and pre‐primary school has enriched the education of young populations in many parts of the world while at the same time it has brought about new challenges for teachers, schools, and educational systems. Mainly, the inclusion of young learners in the foreign language teaching agenda has made evident the importance of age‐related differences among learners and has emphasized the relevance of research results for the provision of age‐appropriate instruction and assessment.
Analysis of Identity in Interaction
Authors: Gordon Cynthia
Published: December 2012

The relationship between language and identity has long been a topic of interest in linguistics.
Aptitude in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Robinson Peter
Published: December 2012

Like height, intelligence quotient (IQ), or working‐memory capacity, aptitude is measurable, and differs in degree between learners in any population. Unlike height, aptitude cannot be directly observed, but must be inferred from performance on psychological tests designed to measure it. Higher aptitude for second or foreign‐language learning predicts more successful adaptation to instructed, or naturalistic exposure to the second language (L2), as measured by demonstrably faster progress in learning, and in higher levels of ultimate attainment in proficiency at the end of a course of instruction, or following a period of naturalistic exposure to the L2. Aptitude is therefore atheoretical construct(see Jordan, 2004), operationalized in the form of a test, which aims to predictphenomenathat characterize second language acquisition (SLA) (such as incidental learning, metalinguistic awareness, fossilization, and others), and the extent to which successful SLA occurs as a result. Although little was known about these SLA phenomena during the period when aptitude tests were first developed (the 1930s to the 1950s), recent attempts to conceptualize and measure aptitude are addressing the extent to which tests of aptitude predict them— including for example, the extent of successful incidental L2 learning (Robinson, 2005a), metalinguistic awareness of the L2 (Roehr, 2008), and the influence of each on levels of ultimate L2 attainment (Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam, 2008). Some of these issues are described below, following a discussion of early developed conceptualizations, and measurement of aptitude for language learning.
Assessment of Academic Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Douglas Dan
Published: December 2012

A test of academic language ability is one that is intended to assess “the ability to operate successfully in the [language] used in the academic domain” (Davies, 2008, p. 1). Davies goes on to elaborate on academic language proficiency later in the book:
Assessment of Integrated Skills
Authors: Plakans Lia
Published: December 2012

Assessment of integrated skills refers to the use of test tasks that combine two or more language skills to simulate authentic language‐use situations. In such assessment, task demands aim to overlap and synthesize combinations of reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Although possibly more common in classroom assessments, such tasks are now included in large‐scale tests, for example:
Assessment of Pragmatics
Authors: Roever Carsten
Published: December 2012

The assessment of second language pragmatics is a relatively recent enterprise. This entry will briefly review the construct of pragmatics, discuss some major approaches to testing pragmatics, and highlight some of the challenges for pragmatics assessment.
Assessment of Business and Professional Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Lockwood Jane
Published: December 2012

The use of English in international worksites and across business and professions has grown rapidly since the 1980s. Multinational companies doing business worldwide need to communicate and negotiate with each other; global professionals need to build knowledge together across linguistic and cultural boundaries; governments and NGOs need to keep the peace and help build developing countries; and immigrants with professional and occupational aspirations and qualifications need to find work in their new homelands. These situations predominantly use English as their lingua franca (Graddol, 2006). English‐language competency has become a global core skill and a highly valued commodity in today's world of work. Therefore developing and measuring business and professional language competence is understandably in high demand.
Attention, Noticing, and Awareness in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Leow Ronald P.
Published: December 2012

The role attention plays in the learning process has almost always been assumed since the earliest studies in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). Any exposure, be it aural or written, manipulated or authentic, to the foreign or second language (L2) is arguably premised on the role of attention on the part of the learner. The SLA field up to the mid‐1990s had generally assumed that experimental conditions (instruction or exposure, be it explicit, that is, with awareness, or implicit, that is, without awareness) elicited the required attention paid to the targeted item(s) in the L2 input. This premise is evidenced in the type of research design employed in the studies, which was the classical pretest—experimental condition—posttest design, without any concurrent or online data on learners' actual attention paid to the targeted items in the input.
Baker, Colin
Authors: Lewis W. Gwyn
Published: December 2012

Colin Ronald Baker, widely acknowledged as one of the most perceptive leading international scholars in the field of bilingualism and bilingual education, was born on October 1, 1949 to a monolingual English family in Danbury, Essex, southeast England. Having attended the local primary school in Danbury and King Edward VI Grammar School in Chelmsford, he crossed the border to Wales to receive his higher education at Bangor, a university that specializes in bilingualism and which is situated in a city in the heartland of Welsh‐speaking Wales where the indigenous population is fluently bilingual in English and Welsh. He graduated with First Class Honors in Educational Studies before obtaining his PhD in Social Psychology. One of his influential tutors at Bangor was W. R. Jones, who had a worldwide reputation for research and writing on bilingualism and intelligence, language attitudes, and the effectiveness of bilingual education, and so the seeds were sown for Baker's distinguished career in this particular field.
B
akhtin,
M
ikhail
M
.
Authors: Bredella Lothar
Published: December 2012

Mikhail M. Bakhtin (1895–1975) has become a dominant figure in various disciplines.
Belcher, Diane
Authors: Hirvela Alan
Published: December 2012

Since the mid‐1990s it has been impossible to think of work in the domain of language for specific purposes (LSP) without also thinking of Diane Belcher. This has been particularly true in the case of English for specific purposes (ESP), where Diane's voice has resonated strongly, clearly, and persuasively as a scholar and journal editor. In each of these roles she has had a major impact on the development of ESP theory and pedagogy. In particular, she has been a master at synthesizing and interpreting key work in the field and then extracting from it new perspectives and insights that extend the boundaries of the field and challenge how we think about ESP. This has also meant being a leader and a risk‐taker, someone willing to question the status quo, to formulate intriguing and valuable new ideas, and to advocate for people not properly represented in ESP.
Bhatia, Vijay
Authors: Lung Jane
Published: December 2012

Vijay Kumar Bhatia is known internationally as one of the leading researchers and theorists on the subject of genres and is a renowned international author in the field of English for specific purposes. He is best known for his work in critical genre analysis of professional discourse. Over the past 44 years his specialities have grown to include discourse and critical genre analysis, legal analysis, as well as ESP and professional communication (theory and practice). He is a professor in the Department of English at the City University of Hong Kong and the founding president of the Asia‐Pacific Association of LSP and Professional Communication; he is also an adjunct professor at the Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
Bilingual Education and Immigration
Authors: Edwards Viv
Published: December 2012

“Globalization”—or economic activity across national frontiers—is a relatively new term, usually applied to more recent population movements. The process to which it refers, however, started in the late 19th century, slowed in the period from the start of World War I, and has been gaining speed ever since, assisted by increasingly sophisticated communications and transport technologies (Education, Audiovisual, and Culture Executive Agency [ESCWA], 2008). From the 1960s, migration began to involve a wider range of sending and receiving countries (Spellman, 2002); since the late 1990s, the nature and extent of this migration have undergone further rapid changes. This new migration has been characterized by “super‐diversity” or “the diversification of diversity” (Vertovec, 2006).
Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Quantitative Methods
Authors: Kroll Judith F. , Rossi Eleonora
Published: December 2012

Experimental approaches to bilingualism and multilingualism have developed at a rapid pace in the past 20 years (e.g., Kroll & De Groot, 2005).
Bowen, J. Donald
Authors: Henrichsen Lynn
Published: December 2012

J. Donald Bowen (1922–89) began his academic career as a Spanish teacher and researcher and became an early leader in applying the findings of modern linguistics (especially phonetics and phonology) to language teaching methods and procedures.
Brain Activity During Second Language Processing (ERP)
Authors: Davidson D. J.
Published: December 2012

The electroencephalogram (EEG) offers a unique view of second language (L2) processing because it is one of the few noninvasive techniques available within cognitive neuroscience to directly examine brain function during key events that take place during language comprehension. An EEG recording is a record of large‐scale electrical activity of the brain over time, usually recorded with an electrode attached to the skin on the scalp. Primarily because it offers good time resolution, and because it is somewhat better suited to receptive language processing rather than production, researchers have used EEG to address questions about the functional organization of second language (L2) comprehension and learning. The time resolution of EEG enables it to capture the rapidly changing electrical response to individual words, morphemes, or speech sounds. Because of this, experiments are often conducted to examine first and/or second language performance using tasks that require listeners (or readers) to comprehend relatively short‐duration material such as syllables, words, or sentences. The average response is then used, for example, to better understand when or how L1 and L2 language processing differ in the first few moments after the onset of a word, and also how these responses change over time during learning.
Brown, Penelope
Authors: Kim Younhee
Published: December 2012

Brown, Penelope (born on November 2, 1944 in Summit, New Jersey, USA) is probably best known for the monograph,Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage(Brown & Levinson, 1987) coauthored with Stephen Levinson. Penelope Brown is currently a senior researcher emerita at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in the Netherlands.
Central Institute of Indian Languages
Authors: Singh Udaya Narayana
Published: December 2012

The Central Institute of Indian Languages (abbreviated as CIIL) was established in mid‐1969 by the government of India to coordinate between the central and state governments as well as among state language institutes, tribal research institutes and bureaus, institutions dealing with languages such as the Central Institute of English, Hyderabad (now known as EFLU), the Central Institute of Hindi, the Anthropological Survey of India, the Language Division of the Registrar‐General's Office, and university departments of languages and linguistics.
Chapelle, Carol A.
Authors: Jamieson Joan
Published: December 2012

Carol A. Chapelle (1955– ) is distinguished professor of liberal arts and sciences at Iowa State University, where she has taught and conducted in research applied linguistics since 1985. Her research and teaching is aimed at developing productive links between knowledge in applied linguistics and educational practices, particularly with respect to the use of technology for language learning and assessment. Her limited success as a learner of Russian in high school and college may have prompted her interest in the challenges faced by the adult language learner and their practical consequences for teaching—an interest that has sustained her teaching and research in computer‐assisted language learning and language assessment.
Child Pragmatic Development
Authors: Cekaite Asta
Published: December 2012

Language is a tool that children and adults use to act in and explore the social world; to create, develop, and sustain social relationships; and to engage with others in culturally meaningful activities. Thus, pragmatic development involves children's acquisition of communicative competences, that is, learning how to use language, to communicate and understand others appropriately and effectively in a widening range of social contexts and activities while assuming increasingly complex social roles (Hymes, 1972). In contrast to children's development of grammar and syntax, consistently shown to be largely completed by the age of 5 years, children's sophisticated mastery of varied conversational skills is a long‐term process. Basic pragmatic skills emerge at quite an early age, but are refined and developed throughout preadolescence and adolescence, over time allowing the child to engage in a constantly broadening range of social activities, and to become a full‐fledged member of the culture and society. Indeed, children's acquisition of communicative competence has crucial social and educational implications. Conversational skills play a major role in a child's access to interactions with peers and in forging peer‐group relations in the first and second language. Such skills are important in adult‐child relations, qualifying children as interactionally competent students in educational settings, and play a significant role in shaping children's written literacy skills.
Classroom Research
Authors: Spada Nina
Published: December 2012

Classroom research (CR) in applied linguistics has evolved from descriptions of pedagogic practices used primarily for second/foreign language (L2) teacher training purposes, to experimental investigations of the effects of instruction on L2 learning, to analyses of a wide range of learner factors that are thought to contribute to more (or less) successful learning. Below CR is defined along with a description of how it has evolved, how it has been conducted and the types of questions and topics that have been investigated.
Cluster Analysis
Authors: Csizér Kata , Jamieson Joan
Published: December 2012

“Cluster analysis is the art of finding groups in data” (Kaufman & Rousseeuw, 1990, p. 1).
Comparative Phonetics and Phonology
Authors: Hayes‐Harb Rachel
Published: December 2012

It has long been observed that non‐native ac‐cents exhibited by second language learners are not random in their features; rather their features seem to be predictable at least in part from the native language(s) of the learner.
Comparing Two+ Related Samples
Authors: Mihai Florin M.
Published: December 2012

In a survey of four major applied linguistics journals, more than 40% of the linguistics studies had used a design where the means of more than two samples were compared (Lazaraton, 2005). In many instances, researchers have employed a repeated measures design with the purpose of measuring the same dependent variable across two or more intervals. For example, a linguist might want to measure pronunciation accuracy of students taking an accent reduction course at 1‐, 3‐, and 6‐month intervals after course completion.
Complexity in Multilingual Systems
Authors: Jessner Ulrike
Published: December 2012

Although multilingualism (or plurilingualism, to use a more Eurocentric term to describe the individual level) is by no means a new phenomenon, this field has only recently begun attracting a growing number of researchers. In a number of publications authors have referred to multilingual development as both a dynamic and a complex process. Today scholars are realizing more and more that in the study of multilingualism, the interaction of a variety of factors needs to be taken into consideration. The investigation of the complexity of multilingualism, a phenomenon which seems to lend itself to being approached from a dynamic systems theory (DST)/complexity theory (CT) perspective, has become one of the most challenging scientific undertakings of the linguistic academic community.
Computer‐Assisted Pronunciation Teaching
Authors: Chun Dorothy M.
Published: December 2012

Although the teaching of pronunciation does not appear to be one of the top priorities for most language teachers at the beginning of the 21st century, it is an important aspect of spoken language that cannot be ignored in view of globalization, the growing needs of cross‐cultural communication, and issues of speaker identity and social integration.
Computer‐Assisted Vocabulary Load Analysis
Authors: Webb Stuart , Nation Paul
Published: December 2012

The development of computer software and frequency‐ranked word lists has made it easier to determine the representation and frequency of words in text. It has allowed researchers to collect data on the millions of words in corpora in a matter of seconds. Analysis of the vocabulary in text and corpora can provide data about the ease or difficulty with which discourse may be understood, the extent to which words may be learned through reading and listening, and the words which may be most useful for comprehension.
Connectives
Authors: Bondi Marina
Published: December 2012

Connectives(orconnectors) (Frenchconnectif/connecteur, Italianconnettivo/connettore, Spanishconector, GermanKonnektor/Konnektiv) are a key feature of language in use and have been studied from many different points of view—syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, and cognitive.
Conversation Analysis and Interactional Linguistics
Authors: Kern Friederike , Selting Margret
Published: December 2012

Interactional linguistics is grounded on the premise that language should not be analyzed in terms of context‐free linguistic structures but as a resource for the accomplishment of actions in social interaction. With this in mind, interactional linguistics takes an interdisciplinary approach to a linguistic analysis that aims at an understanding of how language is both shaped by and itself shapes the actions it is used for. Interactional linguistics combines an interest in linguistic phenomena and structures with the theory and methodology of conversation analysis (CA) and contextualization theory (CT). It is conceptualized as an interface between linguistic analysis and the analysis of social interaction.
Conversation Analysis and Communication Disorders
Authors: Wilkinson Ray
Published: December 2012

A communication disorder can profoundly affect a person's ability to convey information to others and to produce a full range of social actions within conversation (such as requesting, offering, telling off, correcting, telling jokes or stories, etc.). It can have a significant impact on a person's social and personal identity and their ability to create and maintain interpersonal relationships. The investigation of communication disorders is important in order to be able to analyze their causes and the forms they take and, ultimately, to improve treatment for those affected. At the same time, analyzing how communication may break down or not function with normal limits holds out the promise of being able to tell us something about the workings of normal, non‐disorder, communication and its components. Other approaches such as neuropsychology, for example, have long drawn on communication disorder data in order to learn about both normal and disordered functioning (Ellis & Young, 1996).