bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Harvest of a Century
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

Physics was the leading science of the twentieth century and the book retraces important discoveries, made between 1895 and 2001, in 100 self-contained episodes. Each is a short story of the scientists involved, their time, and their work. Together they form a mosaic of modern physics: formulating relativity and quantum mechanics, finding the constituents of matter and unravelling the forces between them, understanding the working of conductors and semiconductors, discovering and explaining macroscopic quantum effects (superconductivity, superfluidity, quantum Hall effect), developing novel experimental techniques like the Geiger counter and particle accelerators, building revolutionary applications like the transistor and the laser, and observing astonishing features of our cosmos (expanding universe, cosmic background radiation). The text is intended for easy reading. Occasionally, a more thorough discussion of experimental set-ups and theoretical concepts is presented in special boxes for readers interested in more detail. Episodes contain extensive references to biographies and original scientific literature. The book is richly illustrated by about 600 portraits, photographs and figures.
Music and the Irish Literary Imagination
Authors: White Harry
Published: November 2023

Harry White examines the influence of music in the development of the Irish literary imagination from 1800 to the present day. He identifies music as a preoccupation which originated in the poetry of Thomas Moore early in the nineteenth century. He argues that this preoccupation decisively influenced Moore's attempt to translate the 'meaning' of Irish music into verse, and that it also informed Moore's considerable impact on the development of European musical romanticism, as in the music of Berlioz and Schumann. White then examines how this preoccupation was later recovered by W.B. Yeats, whose poetry is imbued with music as a rival presence to language. In its readings of Yeats, Synge, Shaw and Joyce, the book argues that this striking musical awareness had a profound influence on the Irish literary imagination, to the extent that poetry, fiction and drama could function as correlatives of musical genres. Although Yeats insisted on the synonymous condition of speech and song in his poetry, Synge, Shaw and Joyce explicitly identified opera in particular as a generic prototype for their own work. Synge's formal musical training and early inclinations as a composer, Shaw's perception of himself as the natural successor to Wagner, and Joyce's no less striking absorption of a host of musical techniques in his fiction are advanced in this study as formative (rather than incidental) elements in the development of modern Irish writing. Music and the Irish Literary Imagination also considers Beckett's emancipation from the oppressive condition of words in general (and Joyce in particular) through the agency of music, and argues that the strong presence of Mendelssohn, Chopin and Janácek in the works of Brian Friel is correspondingly essential to Friel's dramatisation of Irish experience in the aftermath of Beckett. The book closes with a reading of Seamus Heaney, in which the poet's own preoccupation with the currency of established literary forms is enlisted to illuminate Heaney's abiding sense of poetry as music.
The Physiology and Phenomenology of Action
Authors: Berthoz Alain , Petit Jean-Luc , Macann Christopher
Published: November 2023

Though many philosophers of mind have taken an interest in the great developments in the brain sciences, the interest is seldom reciprocated by scientists, who frequently ignore the contributions philosophers have made to our understanding of the mind and brain. In a rare collaboration, a world famous brain scientist and an eminent philosopher have joined forces in an effort to understand how our brain interacts with the world. Does the brain behave as a calculator, combining sensory data before deciding how to act? Or does it behave as an emulator endowed with innate models of the world, which it corrects according to the results of experiences obtained by the senses? The two authors come from very different backgrounds-the philosopher Jean-Luc Petit belongs to the philosophical tradition of Husserlian phenomenology. Alain Berthoz has long been interested in the physiology of action (movement, posture, decision-making, perception, etc.). Drawing on cutting-edge research from the cognitive sciences, the authors have produced a highly original volume showing how phenomenology and physiology can interact to further our understanding of the brain and the mind.
Apothecaries as experts and brokers in the sixteenth-century network of the naturalist Carolus Clusius
Authors: Egmond Florike
Published: November 2023

Like physicians, apothecaries were often involved in sixteenth-century natural history. Yet it is not so easy to find information about what they actually contributed to this field of expertise and how they did this, except in a very fragmented way, at the individual, local, or at most regional level. The literature concerning European apothecaries in the sixteenth century is largely concerned with the study of materia medica, the production and translation of pharmacopoeia and with various aspects of professionalization, such as the creation of guilds, the development of professional standards, and the conflicts between physicians and apothecaries connected with attempts to demarcate their respective professional territories.
‘The spoils of Roman grandeur’: Correspondence collecting and the market in Rome
Authors: Coltman Viccy
Published: November 2023

Chapter 1 opened with Adolf Michaelis’ letter to the Right Honourable W. Cowper Temple at Broadlands in Hampshire, so Chapter 2 begins with another letter—from Cowper Temple’s grandfather, Viscount Palmerston, who acquired the sculptures whose ancient specimens were catalogued by Michaelis in 1877 and published in Ancient Marbles in Great Britain in 1882.
‘Casting a lustful eye’: Charles Townley as collector and cataloguer
Authors: Coltman Viccy
Published: November 2023

As previously discussed in the Introduction, when Lord Lansdowne wanted to dispose of his duplicate sculpture of a Wounded Amazon (figure 1), his dealer Gavin Hamilton initially hoped that she might be a desirable acquisition for one of his other British clients. George Grenville, Thomas Mansel Talbot, and James Hugh Smith Barry were variously offered and rejected the opportunity to acquire the unwanted Amazon, with Charles Townley canvassing Mansel Talbot at Hamilton’s explicit request. These potential purchasers for Lansdowne’s Amazon are testimony to the social networks of communication and exchange between collectors of marbles in Britain, networks often orchestrated by the dealers Gavin Hamilton and Thomas Jenkins in their correspondence from Rome. Using material in the Townley Archive, this chapter surveys similar negotiations in Townley’s acquisition of a bust of Antinous from the Duke of Dorset. This leads, via the London workshop of the sculptor Joseph Nollekens, into a discussion of the multiple but hitherto underwritten role of British sculptors in imported collections of ancient marbles in the second half of the 18th century, as producers of original works, as restorers of excavated specimens, dealers and draughtsmen. The drawings Townley commissioned of marbles in Italian collections and those in his own collection at Park Street introduce a cohort of artists in the urban centres of Rome and London who were responsible for reproducing sculpture on paper. Townley’s museo cartaceo is identified as a descendant of that of the early 17th-century Italian scholar and diplomat Cassiano dal Pozzo, which was acquired by King George III in 1762. A number of sheets from Townley’s paper museum have recently been re-identified as deriving from that of dal Pozzo—providing a tangible connection between the two collections.
Conclusion: Joseph Nollekens’ The Judgement of Paris
Authors: Coltman Viccy
Published: November 2023

Four sculptures (figures 82–5) now in the collections of the J. Paul Getty Museum and Villa at Malibu may be seen to embody the problematic inherent in the historiography of ancient marbles in Great Britain as codified in the later 19th century by the German Professor of Archaeology, Adolf Michaelis. Michaelis’ pioneering research—critiqued here in Chapter 1 for the first time—exposed over 2,000 individual ancient marble specimens in 66 private collections in Britain to the latest ‘scientific’ scrutiny. They were systematically studied, numbered, measured, deciphered, and classified in a corpus of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture. Michaelis’ classic work, continued by his grateful successors, including A. H. Smith, Cornelius Vermeule, and Frederik Poulsen, put ancient marbles in Britain on the academic agenda, when they had hitherto been neglected in favour of the study of painting, in an estrangement of the sister arts that has still to be properly realigned.
Geography, Politics, and Imperialism in the Asian Customs Law
Authors: Mitchell S
Published: November 2023

All discussions of the lex portorii Asiae should be introduced with a stern warning to readers. Since its first publication in 1989, numerous studies have been devoted to the text and its interpretation, but it has been hard to find a consensus of opinion among scholars on many of the major problems and issues which it has raised. The reasons for this are simple. The inscription, despite its size and length, is only partially preserved. The text evidently continued for longer than the 154 surviving lines. More seriously, the entire left- hand side of the inscription was cut away when the stone was reshaped to serve as part of the socle of the ambo in the Basilica of St John at Ephesus, and this process has removed the beginnings of all the lines.
Bumblebees
Authors: Goulson Dave
Published: November 2023

Bumblebees are familiar and charismatic insects, occurring throughout much of the world. They are increasingly being used as a model organism for studying a wide range of ecological and behavioural concepts, such as social organization, optimal foraging theories, host-parasite interactions, and pollination. Recently they have become a focus for conservationists due to mounting evidence of range coBIOL15ANIB and catastrophic extinctions with some species disappearing from entire continents (e.g. in North America). Only by improving our understanding of their ecology can we devise sensible plans to conserve them. The role of bumblebees as invasive species (e.g. Bombus terrestris in Japan) has also become topical with the growing trade in commercial bumblebee nests for tomato pollination leading to establishment of non-native bumblebees in a number of countries. Since the publication of the first edition of the book, there have been hundreds of research papers published on bumblebees. There is clearly a continuing need for an affordable, well-illustrated, and appealing text that makes accessible all of the major advances in understanding of the behaviour and ecology of bumblebees that have been made in the last 30 years.
Introduction
Authors: Goulson Dave
Published: November 2023

Bees (Superfamily Apoidea) belong to the large and exceedingly successful insect order Hymenoptera, which also includes wasps, sawflies and ants. There are currently approximately 25,000 known species of bee, belonging to over 4,000 genera, and undoubtedly many more remain to be discovered. All bees are phytophagous, feeding primarily on nectar and pollen throughout their lives. While many other insects feed on nectar or pollen as adults, very few do so throughout their development. This is simply because pollen and nectar, although nutritious, are sparsely distributed in the environment, and immature insects cannot fly from flower to flower to collect them (they do not have wings). In bees, the adult females gather the food for their offspring, so that the offspring themselves do not need to be mobile.
Thermoregulation
Authors: Goulson Dave
Published: November 2023

As recently as the 1960s, it was widely believed that insects were all essentially ectothermic, so that their body temperature remained close to ambient temperature unless they used external heat sources (generally solar radiation) to heat themselves. Thanks largely to studies of North American moths and bumblebees carried out by Bernd Heinrich in the 1970s, this is now known to be very far from the truth (see particularly Heinrich 1979b). Although many insects, particularly the small species, are unavoidably ectothermic due to their large surface area to volume ratio, larger flying insects such as sphingid moths, dragonflies and bumblebees can generate considerable quantities of metabolic heat, and use this to maintain stable body temperatures many degrees above the ambient temperature. Indeed, they would be entirely unable to fly without this ability. Much of what follows is based on the work of Heinrich. Readers wishing to know more are directed to his excellent book ‘Bumblebee Economics ’ (Heinrich 1979b), and to two more recent general texts on insect thermoregulation, ‘The Hot-Blooded Insects ’ (Heinrich 1993) and ‘The Thermal Warriors ’ (Heinrich 1996).
Finding a Mate
Authors: Goulson Dave
Published: November 2023

Males of some Bombus species station themselves by a prominent landmark (either perched or hovering) and await a female. It appears that they search visually for queens, and they have unusually large compound eyes to facilitate this. Despite their large eyes, the males are clearly not able to distinguish queens from other organisms at a distance, since they will readily chase after any small flying organism, including birds. At least eight species of bumblebee are known to use this system of mate location; two from Europe (B. confusus and B. mendax ) (Saunders 1909; Krüger 1951; Schremmer 1972), three from North America (B. nevadensis , B. griseocollis and B. rufocinctus ) (Frison 1917; Hobbs 1965a; Alcock and Alcock 1983; O’Neill et al. 1991) and three from Asia (Williams 1991). O’Neill et al. (1991) describe the behaviour of the North American species in detail. Males stake out territories, usually centred on a prominent perch such as a fence post or tree. They dart out from their perch at passing insects, and if they encounter a queen they attempt to grasp her in mid-air with their legs; if successful the couple often continue in flight (and are then lost from view), but sometimes they fall to the ground.
Natural Enemies
Authors: Goulson Dave , Brown Mark J F
Published: November 2023

Bumblebees are attacked in various stages of their life cycle by a diverse range of predators, parasites and parasitoids. The importance of these organisms is perhaps best illustrated by the vigour of bumblebees when they are freed from their natural enemies. In New Zealand, four bumblebee species were introduced in 1885 from the United Kingdom, and only three of their many parasites were accidentally introduced with them (Donovan and Wier 1978). Two of these bumblebee species (B. subterraneus and B. ruderatus) are now extinct or nearly so in the United Kingdom. In contrast, all four species are fl ourishing in New Zealand, and they often occur at extraordinary densities, far greater than those observed in their natural range, suggesting that elsewhere their numbers are held in check by natural enemies. Similarly, successful colonization of Tasmania by B. terrestris, which is both inbred (Schmid-Hempel et al. 2007) and lacks most parasites (Allen et al. 2007), provides further support for this parasite-release hypothesis.
Intraspecific Floral Choices
Authors: Goulson Dave
Published: November 2023

Within plant species, individual flowers exhibit considerable variation in the rate at which they produce rewards. There can also be substantial variation between flowers on the same plant. This variation may be due to micro-environmental influences, genetic variation, age of the plant or age of the flower. If foragers can distinguish between more and less rewarding flowers of their preferred species, then they can enhance their foraging success. The time it takes for a bumblebee forager to handle a flower varies greatly according to floral morphology, from less than 1 s for simple flowers to up to 10 s for complex flowers (e.g. Heinrich 1979b; Pyke 1979; Hodges 1981; Best and Bierzychudek 1982; Osborne 1994; Cresswell 1999). If the flower contains little or no reward then this time is wasted, so there is strong selection pressure on bees to evolve means of choosing the more rewarding flowers.
Foraging Cues Gained from Other Bees
Authors: Goulson Dave
Published: November 2023

The waggle dance of the honey bee has been frequently described and much studied, and is one of the most complex systems known in insect communication; indeed, far more information is conveyed than can be managed by most vertebrates. In contrast, it has long been assumed that foraging in bumblebees is essentially a solitary endeavour— that workers do not communicate with each other about good sources of forage, so that each individual has to learn for itself which flowers provide reward. Indeed, it has been known for many years that bumblebees (of a range of species) are unable to recruit nestmates to specific places (Jacobs-Jessen 1959; Esch 1967; von Frisch 1967; Kerr 1969). Nevertheless, it has become apparent that bumblebee foragers do communicate, and that recruitment does occur, but not to specific locations. In an elegantly simple experiment, Dornhaus and Chittka (1999, 2001) demonstrated that, on their return to the nest, successful foragers of B. terrestris stimulate other workers to forage, and communicate to them the scent of the food source that they have located (Fig. 10.1). The returning forager runs around on the surface of the nest in an excited manner, frequently bumping into nest mates and buzzing her wings (very similar behaviour occurs in some stingless bees). She also releases a pheromone from tergites 5–7 (Dornhaus et al. 2003). The combination of pheromone and behavioural signalling stimulates workers to leave the nest and search for the source of the floral scent. Workers in the nest also respond differentially according to the quality (sugar content) of the incoming nectar, and are more likely to go foraging themselves when the incoming nectar is sugar-rich (Dornhaus and Chittka 2005).
Competition and Niche Differentiation in Bumblebee Communities
Authors: Goulson Dave
Published: November 2023

There are about 250 species of bumblebee worldwide, mostly distributed through the temperate, alpine and arctic regions of the northern hemisphere (Williams 1989a).In most communities, several different species of bumblebee occur sympatrically (Ranta and Vepsäläinen 1981; Williams 1989b). All Bombus species occupy a broadly similar niche. They are all large (relative to other bees), hairy and facultatively endothermic; they exhibit remarkably little morphological variation; they all nearly have an annual cycle and are active at similar, overlapping, times of the year; and they all feed almost exclusively on nectar and pollen throughout their lives. One might expect fierce interspecific competition to shape bumblebee communities (Brian 1954; Heinrich 1976a).How then do many species manage to coexist?
Christology
Authors: Gerald O’Collins S J
Published: November 2023

In this fully revised and updated second edition of his accessible account of systematic Christology, Gerald O’ Collins continues to challenge the contemporary publishing trend for sensationalist books on Jesus that are supported neither by the New Testament witness nor by mainline Christian beliefs. This book critically examines the best biblical and historical scholarship before tackling head-on some of the key questions of systematic Christology: does orthodox faith present Jesus the man as deficient and depersonalized? Is his sinlessness compatible with the exercise of a free human will? Does up-to-date exegesis challenge his virginal conception and personal resurrection? Can one reconcile Jesus’ role as universal Saviour with the truth and values to be found in other religions? What should the feminist movement highlight in presenting Jesus? This integral Christology is built around the resurrection of the crucified Jesus, highlights love as the key to redemption, and proposes a synthesis of the divine presence through Jesus. Clear, balanced, and accessible, this book should be valued by any student reading systematic theology, anyone training for the ministry in all denominations, as well as interested general readers.
Shakespeare’s Medieval Morality
Authors: Krug Rebecca
Published: November 2023

In Act 2 of The Merchant of Venice, Launcelot Gobbo, Shylock’s servant, imagines himself as the hero of a medieval morality play. Standing alone on stage, Launcelot narrates an inner struggle between his conscience and ‘the fiend’ in which the two discuss Launcelot’s ongoing service to Shylock. According to Launcelot, his own conscience, like the Good Angel in medieval morality plays, urges him to stay with Shylock and to continue to serve his master faithfully. The fiend, on the other hand, like the earlier drama’s ‘Malus Angelus,’ encourages Launcelot to leave Shylock’s household, crying, ‘away! . . . for the heavens, rouse up a brave mind . . . and run’ (2.2.11–13). Presenting Launcelot’s inner conflict as an allegory in which good and evil argue with one another, Shakespeare, in The Merchant of Venice, follows medieval dramatic practice. Like Everyman and Mankind, the heroes of medieval moralities, Launcelot draws the play’s audience into his ethical struggle by analyzing his choice in front of the audience. Launcelot speaks directly to the audience, giving them a ‘blow by blow’ account of his struggle. In doing so, he involves the audience in his decision to run away from his master and offers them as well as himself an opportunity to move from allegorical abstraction to moral action.
The Iron Age Round-house
Authors: Harding D W
Published: November 2023

In contrast to Continental Europe, where the Iron Age is abundantly represented by funerary remains as well as by hill-forts and major centres, the British Iron Age is mainly represented by its settlement sites, and especially by houses of circular ground-plan, apparently in marked contrast to the Central and Northern European tradition of rectangular houses. In lowland Britain the evidence for timber round-houses comprises the footprint of post-holes or foundation trenches; in the Atlantic north and west, the remains of monumental stone-built houses survive as upstanding ruins, testimony to the building skills of Iron Age engineers and masons. D. W. Harding's fully illustrated study explores not just the architectural aspects of round-houses, but more importantly their role in the social, economic and ritual structure of their communities, and their significance as symbols of Iron Age society in the face of Romanization.
Tobacco
Authors: Robson Philip
Published: November 2023

We can only guess at when North American Indians (and Aztecs in central Mexico) first incorporated tobacco into religious rituals and social interactions, but it seems to have been long established by the time Christopher Columbus arrived in the ‘New World’ towards the end of the 15th century. The dried plant was smoked in pipes or roll-ups made from leaves. The addictive quality of the habit was appreciated quickly by the missionaries who were more successful at converting the Indians to Catholicism than persuading their new recruits to desist from smoking in church. There was much bemusement in Spain when the travellers returned with what was, for a short while at least, the original duty-free supply of tobacco. Its reputation was founded on its use as a medicinal plant rather than for pleasurable effects, and it rapidly became sought after throughout mainland Europe as a treatment for intractable headaches, asthma, gout, tumours, and labour pain.
Cannabis
Authors: Robson Philip
Published: November 2023

A robust but otherwise undistinguished weed now labelled Cannabis sativa has provided the world with one of its most remarkable drugs. The psychoactive and medicinal properties of cannabis have been recognized for thousands of years, and it was probably humankind’s first non-food crop. The use of cannabis as a medicine was described as long ago as the 16th century BC in the Egyptian Ebers papyrus.
Cocaine, amphetamines, and other stimulants
Authors: Robson Philip
Published: November 2023

Chewing the leaves of the coca plant (Erythroxylum coca) has been part of everyday life in many South American cultures for several thousand years. For millions of people the habit continues to fulfill a comparable role to that of coffee or tobacco elsewhere in the world. A wad of leaves tucked into the cheek for several hours, with perhaps a little woodash mixed in to increase salivation and enhance absorption of the active ingredients, will produce a sense of well-being, reduced hunger, and increased endurance.
Psychedelics and hallucinogens
Authors: Robson Philip
Published: November 2023

The defining characteristic of this group of drugs is their ability to induce profound changes in sensory perception, patterns of thinking, and emotion without at the same time clouding the mind. Terminology is difficult, because it always seems to be judgement-laden; one person’s psychotomimetic (psychosis mimicker) is another’s psycholytic (literally mind loosener, and by implication, consciousness expander). Hallucinogen is a widely used label derived from the Latin alucinari (‘to wander in the mind’), which somehow fails to do justice to the complexity of the human response to these substances. The term true hallucinogen is perhaps most appropriately applied to crude natural preparations, or to those drugs which disrupt mental functioning to the point of delirium (a mixture of delusions, hallucinations, confusion, disorientation, and memory disturbance) with loss of external frame of reference. For those drugs which have the property of ‘blowing the mind’ without impairing orientation and consciousness, the word coined in the 1950s by the psychiatrist Humphrey Osmond in the course of his correspondence with Aldous Huxley seems very suitable. ‘Psychodelic’ was derived from the Greek words psyche (mind) and delos (visible). The minor modification, psychedelic, became the noun and adjective of choice.
Anabolic steroids
Authors: Robson Philip
Published: November 2023

The effects of testosterone on muscle growth and development were first reported in 1938 and and the relevance of this discovery for improving sports performance was appreciated within a year. Derivatives were used by the German military in World War II to enhance aggression among new recruits. Body-builders began to give public endorsement to various brands of anabolic steroid in the 1940s and 1950s and they were openly used by Olympic weightlifting teams at that time. Since then, millions of pounds have been spent by official sporting bodies in an attempt to eliminate their use, but with only limited success.
Heroin and the opioids
Authors: Robson Philip
Published: November 2023

The opium poppy has provided humankind with one of the most important of all medicines. For thousands of years its products have been harnessed to soothe and sedate, and folklore evolved into descriptions in the great pharmacopoeias of the Egyptians, Sumerians, Greeks, Persians, and Romans. Today, the need and desire for the fruits of the poppy remain as great as ever. Strict international legal control of supply has created the basis for a world-wide, multi-billion dollar crime network built upon the exploitation and misery of millions of heroin addicts. Opioids remain central to pain control in Western medicine, but underdosing because of the fear of inducing dependency results in thousands of patients suffering needlessly.
The Nature of addiction
Authors: Robson Philip
Published: November 2023

Addictus—a citizen of ancient Rome who had built up debts that could not be repaid and was therefore delivered by the courts into slavery under his creditor. There is some confusion about the terms ‘addiction’ and ‘dependence’. They are often used interchangeably, but addiction is more properly taken to refer to psychological dependence and drug-seeking behaviour as distinct from physical dependence (see below).
Conversing with Antiquity
Authors: Hopkins David
Published: November 2023

Conversing with Antiquity collects, in a substantially revised and updated form, studies, by one of the leading scholars in the field, of the reception of the classics by English poets of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. A new Introduction locates the book’s investigations within the context of current debates between aestheticians and cultural historians about the reception of classical culture. Where some recent studies have regarded English poets’ dealings with the classics as acts of ‘appropriation’, or even ‘colonialization’, David Hopkins emphasizes the element of dialogic give-and-take in the relationship between these poets and their classical peers. He argues that, rather than simply ‘updating’ or ‘assimilating’ the classics to their own cultural norms, poets such as Abraham Cowley, Lucy Hutchinson, Thomas Creech, John Milton, John Dryden, and Alexander Pope engaged in trans-historical conversation with Greek and Roman poets, in which self-discovery and self-transcendence were as important as any simple 'accommodation' of ancient texts to modern tastes.
Between brains, bodies and things: tectonoetic awareness and the extended self
Authors: Malafouris Lambros
Published: November 2023

The emergence of human sense of self is arguably among the most fundamental issues of human becoming, yet it rarely occupies the focus of explicit archaeological treatment (e.g. Fowler 2003; Knappett 2005; Gamble 2007). Besides remaining a great philosophical puzzle (e.g. Shoemaker 1968; Dennett 1991; Neisser 1988; Metzinger 2003; Zahavi 2005; Humphrey 2007), the question of self, and its manifold developmental, neurophysiological and anthropological dimensions (Gazzaniga 1998; Gell 1998; Strathern 1988; Damasio 1999; Gallagher 2000a, 2005; Rochat 2001; Lewis 2003; Gillihan & Farah 2005), cannot be easily extrapolated from the archaeological record.
Social ontologies
Authors: Gosden Chris
Published: November 2023

Neuroscientists study the brain to throw light on human capabilities, sometimes glossed as mind. Archaeologists study objects to understand past human collectivities, sometimes glossed as society. Both mind and society are abstract entities, somewhat hard to bring into contact due to their ghostliness. Rather than now concentrating on these two ghosts, mind and society, both neuroscientists and archaeologists are emphasizing material aspects of the brain in its body on the one hand and the physical properties of objects as they affect the body on the other. The triangle of brain–body–world is the point at which neuroscience and archaeology meet.
Evolving intentions for social interaction: from entrainment to joint action
Authors: Knoblich Günther , Sebanz Natalie
Published: November 2023

Humans have an amazing ability to cooperate with one another to achieve things they cannot achieve alone. Almost every single action we perform is embedded in a long chain of events that involves hundreds, if not thousands, of interacting people. Think of the simple act of making coffee. The coffee maker had been designed by a team of engineers, assembled by a team of workers and delivered to a store through the workings of a logistics company before you went to buy it.
The Elizabethan Stage
Authors: Chambers E K
Published: November 2023

Volume IV of a reissue of the E. K. Chambers’s seminal four-volume account of the private, public, and court stages, together with other forms of drama and spectacle surviving from earlier times, from the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth until the death of Shakespeare. Haled in its day as a comprehensive compendium of ‘practically all the discoverable evidence upon the various parts of the subject, collected, weighed, sorted, classified and built up with immense care into a logical and beautiful structure’ (New Statesman), the work is still much consulted by by today’s scholars and historians. From the author’s Preface: ‘My First Book is devoted to a description, perhaps disproportionate, of the Elizabethan Court, and of the ramifications in pageant and progress, tilt and mask, of that instinct for spectacular mimesis, which the Renaissance inherited from the Middle Ages, and of which the drama is itself the most important manifestation. The Second Book gives an account of the settlement of the players in London, of their conflict, backed by the Court, with the tendencies of Puritanism, and of the place which they ultimately found in the monarchical polity. To the Third and Fourth belong the more pedestrian task of following in detail the fortunes of the individual playing companies and the individual theatres, with such fulness and the available records permit. The Fifth deals with the surviving plays, not in their literary aspect, which lies outside my plan, but as documents helping to throw light upon the history of the institution which produced them.’
Studies on the Italian Universities of the Renaissance: an Unpublished Work of Paul Oskar Kristeller
Authors: Grendler Paul F
Published: November 2023

Paul Oskar Kristeller (1905–1999) wrote an introductory chapter for a projected book on Italian Renaissance universities, but he did not write the book and he never published the chapter. Kristeller had a strong interest in the history of Italian Renaissance universities. He probably began to gather information in the 1930s, and by the 1980s had filled eighty-three spiral notebooks (written on both sides of every page, usually in pencil) with information gleaned from a wide range of printed primary and secondary sources. He first lectured on Italian Renaissance universities to a faculty group at Connecticut College on 16 April 1942.
Humanism and Natural Philosophy in Renaissance Cambridge: Bodley MS 616
Authors: Andersson D C
Published: November 2023

We are still far from having an accurate idea of the detail of Aristotelianism in early modern Oxford and Cambridge. It will perhaps be useful to take as a starting point the earliest vernacular text of natural philosophy. The manuscript is an eclectic work: it evinces a concern to accommodate Aristotelian thought to the Scriptures and, more occasionally, to elements of Platonic and Stoic thought. It does so, however, to a lesser extent than does its source, a near contemporary Latin treatise by a Spanish humanist. This accommodation of the tradition of revealed religion and Platonism is compared with, and distinguished from, the superficially similar approach taken by John Doget’s earlier Cambridge commentary on the Phaedo.
Unmediated amperometric enzyme electrodes
Authors: Wilson George s. , Thevenot Daniel R
Published: November 2023

Since the development of the enzyme-based sensor for glucose first described by Clark (1) in 1962, there has been an impressive proliferation of applications involving a wide variety of substrates. These applications have recently been extensively reviewed elsewhere (2-4). These applications involve enzymes which catalyse redox reactions whose rates are made proportional to the analyte (substrate) concentration. Typically the progress of the reaction is monitored by measuring the rate of formation of a product or the disappearance of a reactant. If the product or reactant is electroactive, then its concentration may be monitored directly. The enzymes catalysing these reactions are typically oxidoreductases, but hydrolytic enzymes such as alkaline phosphatase can also be used if they produce an electroactive species. Because the species usually involved are small molecules, they can be monitored amperometrically without the need for a mediator, hence sensors based on these reactions are called ‘unmediated amperometric enzyme electrodes’. The most common system by far involves the monitoring of the disappearance of oxygen or the appearance of hydrogen peroxide (2). Strictly speaking, a biosensor should be ‘reagentless’ meaning that no additional reagents need be added to make the sensor function. Oxygen is, of course, a reagent which is consumed in the reaction, but because it is usually already present in the sample, no reagent addition is required. A large number of enzymes use NAD+ or NADH as a cofactor, which must be added to the solution. Regeneration of the cofactor within the sensor has not proven easy to implement and its electrochemistry is also not straightforward. See Chapter 3 for further details on NADH electrochemistry.
Conducting organic salt electrodes
Authors: Bartlett P N
Published: November 2023

Electrical conductivity is not a property frequently associated with organic compounds. Consequently electrically conducting organic materials originally attracted attention simply because they were unusual. The conducting charge transfer salts, with which this chapter is concerned, were first studied in the mid 1950s. The early work concentrated, not surprisingly, on the physics of the conduction process and included much work on the temperature dependence of the conductivity and the relationship between the crystal structures and the conductivity.
Conductimetric and impedimetric devices
Authors: Kell Douglas B , Davey Christopher L
Published: November 2023

The idea that (changes in) the electrical conductivity or impedance of a biological (or other) system may be used to sense biological activity goes back to the previous century (1). Notwithstanding, and despite many spectacular successes which include the discovery of the molecular thickness of biological membranes and the voltagegated conductivity of nerve axons, the generalized impedimetric approach (‘impedance or admittance spectroscopy’) remains astonishingly underexploited. Thus, Campbell and Dwek’s eponymous and otherwise excellent book, Biological Spectroscopy (2), does not even mention the technique. In the belief that this widespread lacuna is due to a general lack of appreciation of the relevant theory and terminology, we begin this chapter by a consideration of exactly what it is that is measured in an impedimetric experiment, and introduce the multifarious terminologies that many workers have applied to essentially the same phenomena. Given a proper appreciation of this, the practical approaches actually used, together with their pitfalls, follow naturally.
Non-organ-specific autoantibodies
Authors: Wallington T B , Gooi H C
Published: November 2023

Autoimmune diseases are characterized by immune react1V1ty towards selfcomponents; both autoantibodies and sensitized lymphocytes can be demonstrated but little is known about the significance of cell mediated mechanisms. The autoantibodies in organ-specific autoimmune diseases are directed predominantly at particular target organs, e.g. thyroid, which are also the sites of immunopathology (although the clinical manifestations may be multisystem). Organ-specific autoantibodies are discussed in Chapter 7.
Three-dimensional reconstructions and analysis of the cable properties of neurons
Authors: Turner D A , Wheal H V , Stockley, E , Cole H
Published: November 2023

The elegant dendrites of neurons in the central nervous system have both impressed and eluded investigators, particularly since the availability of Golgi stains for systematic visualization of neurons (1, 2). The many identified and potential purposes of dendrites, including increasing the surface area and extent for afferents and synaptic inputs, have been analysed in a number of ways. Thus, dendrites have been compared between cell classes, during development and during pathological alterations in neuronal structure. The analysis of dendrites has followed several different paths, depending on the analytic need. The methods currently include morphometry, or the analysis of dendritic extent in quantitative terms (1-4), camera lucida reconstructions for visualization (5-10) and partial or full three-dimensional reconstructions (11-14), for measurement of dendritic dimensions and extent outside of a single plane. These methods are progressively becoming more refined, particularly with computer-assisted reconstruction techniques (1-3, 15).
NMR Measurement of Cytoplasmic Free Calcium Concentration by Fluorine Labelled Indicators
Authors: Metcalfe James C , Smith Gerry A
Published: November 2023

1. Introduction A set of prototype indicators has been developed to measure by 19F NMR the free cytosolic concentration of Ca2+([Ca2+]i), Mg2+and Na+ and the cytosolic pH in cells using indicators labelled with fluorine (1, 2). Although the design and use of the Ca2+ indicators is described here, it is worth emphasizing that the co-loading of indicators for different cations has been demonstrated which allows simultaneous measurement of the free concentration of more than one cation (1). The indicators are designed on the same principle as the fluorescent indicators for cations which they are intended to complement. The 19FNMR indicators can be used in perfused tissues and organs where the use of fluorescent indicators is very restricted, whereas the fluorescent indicators can be used for single-cell measurements which are beyond the sensitivity of the 19F NMR indicators. Both types of indicator can be used in cell suspensions but for most studies of this kind the fluorescent indicators are easier to use. Eventually it is expected that the 19F NMR indicators will be applied to in vivo studies in the intact animal and be combined with spectroscopic imaging techniques which will provide [Ca2+]i measurements from precisely located regions within specific tissues. It is likely that localized measurements of [Ca2+]i and the free cytosolic concentration of other cations will be useful in both physiological and pathological studies.
Linker scanning mutagenesis
Authors: Luckow Bruno , Schütz Günther
Published: November 2023

Techniques for in vitro mutagenesis of DNA play a major role in molecular biology. They are powerful tools in dissecting the relationship between structure and function of a given gene. A typical analysis of gene function proceeds in several steps with an increasing degree of resolution. Deletion mutations are usually analysed first; once a functionally important region has been delimited by deletion mapping, this site can be characterized in more detail by linker scanning mutagenesis and by single point mutations introduced by methods described elsewhere in this book. In linker scanning (LS) mutations a short segment of the DNA of interest is replaced by a new synthetic sequence without inserting or deleting base-pairs, thereby introducing a cluster of point mutations at the replacement site. Generation of a series of mutations in which the replacement site is systematically moved, allows scanning of the DNA of interest to identify regions which are critical for the activity of a gene product or in regulating gene expression. LS mutations give a relatively high degree of resolution, while the number of mutations required to perform a systematic analysis of a region of interest is reduced, compared to single base substitutions. In contrast to deletions, LS mutations do not alter the original distances between different DNA sequences. This makes the unequivocal interpretation of experimental results much easier.
Design of Crystallization Experiments And Protocols
Authors: Carter C W
Published: November 2023

Despite the fact that most pure proteins should be expected to crystallize readily under some set of conditiom, that ‘winning combination’ of solution conditions may be rather hard to find a priori. Often, there is little apparent connection between the degree to which proper protocols are observed and the degree to which satisfactory results are obtained. For this reason one should assume the worst at the outset for any new macromolecule or intermolecular complex, and try to identify potentially important factors by setting up efficient screening trials. The best all-round experiments for this purpose are factorial designs used by several generations of industrial chemists (1-3). Factorial experiments have been applied explicitly to the problem of protein crystallization (4-11). They serve not only to screen conditions, but also to provide information simultaneously about the effects of a number of different possible ‘factors’. Factorial experiments are the statistician’s answer to the ‘needle-in-the-haystack’ problem in any of its many guise . The less one knows about the behaviour of a system, the harder it will be to find an optimum combination, and the more important it is to think carefully about the experiments to use in order to characterize it. This reasoning is especially relevant to the crystallization of a new macro molecule.
Crystallization of Membrane Proteins
Authors: Relss-Husson F
Published: November 2023

Crytallization of integral membrane proteins is one of the most recent developments in protein crystal growth: in 1980, for the first time, two membrane proteins were successfully crystallized, bacteriorhodopsin (1) and porin (2). Since then, a number of membrane proteins (about 20) yielded three-dimensional crystals. In a few cases, the quality of the crystals was sufficient for X-ray diffraction studies. The first atomic structure of a membrane protein, a photosynthetic bacterial reaction centre, was described in 1985 (3), followed by closely-related structures of reaction centres from other bacterial pecies (4-6). The structure of porin was recently determined (7). Crystallization of membrane proteins is now a very actively growing field, and has been discussed in several reviews (8, 9).
Soaking of Crystals
Authors: Stura E A , Chen P
Published: November 2023

Once crystals of a macromolecule are obtained there are many circumstances where it is necessary to change the environment in which the macromolecule is bathed. By changing the environment of the cry tab it is possible to bind inhibitors, activators, substrate , products, and heavy atoms to the macro molecule, which may have sufficient freedom to undergo some conformational changes in response to these effectors. In fact, macromolecular crystals typically have a high solvent content which ranges from 27-95% (I, 2). Part of this solvent (typically 10%) is tightly associated with the protein matrix as ‘bound solvent’ (3), which occupies well-defined positions in refined crystal structures and can be considered to be a hydration shell around the protein. This shell consists of both water molecules and other ions present In the solution. The remaining solvent is free to diffuse within the macromolecular reticulum and can be replaced.
Shape and scaling
Authors: Swartz Sharon M , Biewener Andrew A
Published: November 2023

Size influences virtually every facet of an organism’s biology, including its biomechanical function. Changes in body size occur during growth (ontogeny), as well as during evolution and may range from tenfold to 100-fold during the growth of an individual to as much as one-thousand-fold to one-million-fold (depending on the breadth of taxa considered) during the evolution of a lineage. Frequently, such large differences in body size require that the shapes of structural components of the organism change to maintain their functional integrity. Analysis of the shape of biological structures, therefore, provides an important empirical approach for identifying and interpreting mechanical constraints underlying the form and function of skeletal support systems. Before discussing practical aspects of methodology in the analysis of shape, we discuss both conceptual and statistical issues related to scaling analyses of shape.