bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
1917—Russian Jacobins Come to Power
Authors: Bergman Jay
Published: September 2019

Chapter 6 shows in detail the degree to which concepts and categories particular to the French Revolution permeated political debate in Russia in 1917 between the February and the October Revolutions. It also shows Lenin relying on what he understood (or misunderstood) to be the essence of Jacobinism in advocating an armed insurrection in Petrograd before the preconditions for a proletarian revolution, as Marx and Engels had described them, existed. This was a dilemma that Lenin, by 1917, had wrestled with for well over a decade; that the Jacobins, in 1792–3, provided a scenario for taking power successfully after a revolution in their own country had begun helps to explain the Bolsheviks’ decision in October 1917 to carry out an armed insurrection in Petrograd that would supersede the revolution that had occurred in February.
Returning to the Leninist Line under Khrushchev and Brezhnev
Authors: Bergman Jay
Published: September 2019

Following Stalin’s death in 1953, the ambivalence with which Lenin viewed the Jacobins is once again the reigning orthodoxy. As a result, the debate among Soviet historians over the relationship between the Jacobin dictatorship and the Thermidorian reaction to it, which began in the 1920s but was interrupted during the Stalin era, resumed. Most considered the downfall of the Jacobins the catalyst for economic changes that essentially reversed the Jacobins’ policies; several others, however, saw a ‘growing over’ in terms of policy from the Jacobin phase of the French Revolution to the Thermidorian one. But the debate did not shake the consensus that the revolution ended with the demise of the Jacobins in 1794, rather than with Napoleon’s coup five years later.
The Revolution That Stopped Too Soon
Authors: Bergman Jay
Published: September 2019

Neither Marx nor Lenin wrote much about the Revolution of 1830. This was largely because the revolution stopped too soon, thereby merely ratifying changes within the bourgeoisie instead of replacing the capitalist system (that existed to benefit the bourgeoisie) with a proletarian one. In the way the Bolsheviks explained it, the bourgeoisie split in the 1820s into more prosperous elements favouring the continuation of the Bourbon Restoration and less affluent ones that in 1830 were able to install the so-called Orléanists in power. This split, which continued, ensured the latter’s quick demise. But the proletariat was still too small and too weak and insufficiently radical politically to succeed it. However, despite its limited consequences, the Revolution of 1830 served the enormously important purpose of showing that the French Revolution, while sui generis in many ways, was also the first in a series of revolutions in the history of France that together constituted a genuine tradition of revolution.
China and Intervention at the UN Security Council
Authors: Fung Courtney J.
Published: September 2019

What explains China’s response to intervention at the UN Security Council? China and Intervention at the UN Security Council argues that status is an overlooked determinant in understanding its decisions, even in the apex cases that are shadowed by a public discourse calling for regime change in Sudan, Libya, and Syria. The book posits that China reconciles its status dilemma as it weighs decisions to intervene: seeking recognition from both its intervention peer groups of great powers and developing states. Understanding the impact and scope conditions of status answers why China has taken certain positions regarding intervention and how these positions were justified. Foreign policy behavior that complies with status, and related social factors like self-image and identity, can at times mean that China selects policy options bearing material costs. China and Intervention at the UN Security Council offers a rich study of Chinese foreign policy, going beyond works available in breadth and in depth. It draws on an extensive collection of data, including over 200 interviews with UN officials and Chinese foreign policy elites, participant observation at UN Headquarters and a dataset of Chinese-language analysis regarding regime change and intervention. The book concludes with new perspectives on the malleability of China’s core interests, insights about the application of status for cooperation, and the implications of the status dilemma for rising powers.
Status and Intervention in Syria, 2011–2015
Authors: Fung Courtney J.
Published: September 2019

Chapter 6 analyzes China’s decision to halt intervention into the Syria crisis, issuing repeated vetoes instead in 2011, twice in 2012, and again in 2014 against the P3 advocated intervention calling for verbal censure, sanctions, compliance with peace plans, and referral of the Syria case to the International Criminal Court. The chapter challenges the popular view that these four vetoes were a “given” due to the Libya case, which ultimately had led to regime change. The vetoes were not automatic per se; China reconsidered its position, weighing factors against one another before each landmark vote. However, China’s status concerns were largely discounted in this case: there was no status trigger, and concerns about acting within peer group standards did not come into play. None of China’s peer groups could exact social costs on an unresponsive China. China rejected the great powers position that President Bashar al-Assad was no longer a legitimate ruler, and regional players were in internal disarray preventing them from successfully transmitting status signals to China. This is not to say that China was insensitive to status concerns, but that China reconciled status concerns against other interests. China used rhetorical adaptation to clearly distinguish intervention from regime change, and to modify the normative content of the responsibility to protect.
Global Justice & Finance
Authors: Hayward Tim
Published: September 2019

Can global justice be promoted by distributing money more equitably? Could even relatively small financial sacrifices by the affluent work, through benign leverage, to achieve that goal? This book casts new light on such questions by considering what is presupposed about finance. Redistributive proposals assume money to be a reliable measure, store of value, and medium of exchange. Yet maintaining stable interest, inflation and exchange rates in a dynamic capitalist economy is a considerable achievement involving a complex financial system. Such global coordination could, if so directed, contribute immensely to humanity’s betterment, yet under the direction of a profit seeking elite it leaves a majority disempowered, impoverished, and indebted. To pay debts, ever more desperate measures to wrest value from the world’s natural resources increase ecological pressures to harmful extremes, and those pressures do not stop short of driving wars. The profit seeking economy is held in place by the complex legal arrangements that constitute finance. Globally, there has developed, unannounced and unaccountably, what amounts to a privatized constitution—binding agreements that transcend sovereign jurisdictions. Hopes of redirecting the financial assets created within this system, by means of modest reforms, towards objectives of social justice and ecological sustainability may prove illusory. To achieve such objectives arguably requires the constitution of a global normative order guided by public and political decision-making. The achievement of a publicly accountable constitutional order that is superordinate to the financial system might be regarded as a revolutionary transformation.
Money for Justice?
Authors: Hayward Tim
Published: September 2019

Recent debates about global justice have featured various proposals to make the world more just by means of transferring money. Their assumption is that just purposes may be achieved by applying, in a global context, the kind of redistributive fiscal policy that has proven capable of supporting social justice within the context of a welfare state. In global or international contexts, however, that assumption may not be warranted. In the absence of global political institutions and a single global currency, it would be premature to make policy commendations whose effectiveness would presuppose their existence. Additionally, there is a problem that the value of taxes, even if successfully raised and transmitted, can be subject to volatilities in financial markets. Attention should be directed to the institutional conditions required for global taxation as well as for the governance of global finance more generally to ensure it is in the public interest.
The Good of Finance and the Critique of Financialization
Authors: Hayward Tim
Published: September 2019

This chapter considers the valuable social purposes that finance can in principle serve and how the processes referred to as financialization may undermine the good functioning of finance. When that happens, the practices internal to finance develop according to the logic of internal profit-seeking rather than supporting what the activities in the rest of the economy and society more widely are intended to achieve. The financial system operating globally today can be criticized in three major respects: it hampers economic productivity, undermines distributive justice, and drives ecological irresponsibility. Yet although economic productivity may be compromised by financialization, financialization itself might be seen as an adaptation to problems within the economic system. Hence it may be that the problems associated with financialization cannot satisfactorily be tackled (through steps to improve governance of the monetary system) without addressing the problematic tendencies in the productive economy itself.
Can Giving Money End Severe Poverty?
Authors: Hayward Tim
Published: September 2019

Some moral and political philosophers assume that the international institutional order is imperfectly just, but not thoroughly unjust. Thus the global financial system, for all its contingent faults, is assumed, in principle, to be suitable as a medium for transferring income and wealth as ethics or justice might require. Problematizing that assumption, this chapter critically examines some influential proposals for deploying financial means in the pursuit of just ends. Particular attention is paid to proposals simply to send money abroad to poor people in the form of cash transfers. For while cash transfers can bring some benefits to recipients, questions remain as to how beneficial they are for the broader goal of alleviating global poverty. Furthermore, a paradox about cash transfers is that they are, in fact, cashless. Investigating this paradox leads to discerning powerful vested interests supporting programmes of ‘cash’ transfers for reasons not purely of justice but also of profit.
Can Benign Leverage Be Relied on to Make the World More Just?
Authors: Hayward Tim
Published: September 2019

Some moral and political philosophers have argued that a duty of the affluent to relieve global poverty can be discharged by transferring an amount of money that is relatively small in global terms. This is to rely on an effect conceptualized in this chapter as benign leverage. The assumption that benign leverage can achieve global justice implies that current international institutional arrangements are imperfectly just, not fundamentally unjust. Somewhat paradoxically, however, the more successfully the leverage is used in order to benefit the poor, the more difficult it may become to achieve further success or even to consolidate gains already made. Given that the leverage effect depends on the existence of significant inequalities, one should consider carefully the conditions that must pertain for it to operate and how just they may in fact be.
Can Money Transfers Serve to Offset Ecological Harms?
Authors: Hayward Tim
Published: September 2019

Having argued in Chapter 4 that there are ecological constraints on economic growth, this chapter starts by showing that ecological change in turn can exacerbate financial instability, thereby compounding the problem. So proposals of liberal environmentalism, which, like the Stern Review, highlight the economic benefits of environmental policies, may overstate the scope of win–win solutions. The idea that ecological costs and benefits can be expressed in economic terms depends on assumptions about the stability and predictability of prices. Yet radical uncertainties underlie the non-reliability of money as a medium for transferring value over time as well as across geopolitical space. Accordingly, proposals for providing funds for compensation or adaptation in relation to ecological harms are called into question, and attempts to determine appropriate future discount rates are rendered radically uncertain. Meanwhile, the monetization of ecological goods does provide opportunities for short-term business profits that may tend to fuel the underlying problem.
The Monetary Constraints on Tax Justice
Authors: Hayward Tim
Published: September 2019

This chapter assesses the hypothesis that a global shift of economic relations in favour of the poor could precipitate a countermovement of asset values in the opposite direction. Some theorists of tax justice have already highlighted a need to impede illicit financial flows, but the further problem identified here is that such flows are not necessarily illegal. ‘Shadow banking’ is so integrated into the global financial structure that licit and illicit flows are intermingled. An especially problematic result is the generation—particularly through the creation of various financial derivatives—of illusory forms of liquidity. These destabilize the financial system, undermining productive economies and ordinary people’s livelihoods. Thus global finance is overrun by ‘mad money’ that is backed by little real collateral but has a very real capacity to increase indebtedness. The monetary system should be brought under accountable political control for justice to be possible in relation to global finance.
Finance, War, and ‘Humanitarian Intervention’
Authors: Hayward Tim
Published: September 2019

In view of disturbing hypotheses about the incentive structures of finance-led capitalism, this chapter begins by considering the synergies between finance and that ultimate form of injustice, war. It goes on to examine critically the standards of argument appropriate for recommending military intervention on humanitarian grounds. A particular concern is that sufficient epistemic due diligence should be done with respect to any such case. Given the ascendancy in recent times of a widely held ‘liberal’ belief that humanitarian intervention, and even regime change operations, can quite often be justified, the counter-argument is also considered. In fact, it is argued that protecting people might be more effective if it involved less confrontational methods of discharging humanitarian responsibilities. The chapter closes by reflecting on intriguing similarities and connections between ideas of using military means to humanitarian ends and ideas about money in the global financial system being serviceable to such ends.
Conclusion
Authors: Hayward Tim
Published: September 2019

This concluding chapter sums up the key arguments of the book and indicates questions for further research. It emphasizes that the existing international institutions did not come into being through any constitutional process and are not necessarily suited to achieving what is best for people or planet. Hence proposals of modest reform of the emerging global institutional order may not be a sufficient basis for meeting the imperatives of our age. The financial system needs to be constrained to track more realistically the sense of proportion to be discerned in the natural order of things and in the idea of a rough equality of every human being. The challenge, viewed as a normative objective of global justice, is to supplant the current implicit and private constitution that facilitates the rule of finance globally by arrangements whose immanent purpose is to support the achievement of justice, sustainability, and peace.
What Has Happened to Party Politics in Western Europe?
Authors: Green-Pedersen Christoffer
Published: September 2019

Party politics in Western Europe has changed profoundly over the last decades. Long gone are the times when class-based political parties with extensive membership dominated politics. Instead, party politics has become issue-based. Surprisingly few studies have focused on how the issue content of West European party politics has developed over the past decades. This book therefore offers a comprehensive analysis of the issue content of West European party politics. To do so, the book develops a new theoretical model labelled the ‘issue incentive model’ of party system attention. The aim of the model is to explain how much attention issues get throughout the party system, which is labelled ‘the party system agenda’. To explain the development of the party system agenda, one needs to focus on the incentives that individual policy issues offer to large, mainstream parties, i.e. the typical Social Democratic, Christian Democratic, or Conservative/Liberal parties that have dominated West European governments for decades. The core idea of the model is that the incentives that individual policy issues offer to these vote- and office-seeking parties depend on three factors, namely issue characteristics, issue ownership, and coalition considerations. The issue incentive model builds on and develops a top-down perspective according to which the issue content of party politics is determined by the strategic considerations of political parties and their competition with each other.
Everyone Really Loves Health Care
Authors: Green-Pedersen Christoffer
Published: September 2019

This chapter provides an analysis of party system attention to health care. Based on the issue incentive model, the importance of issue characteristics for understanding the rising party system attention to health care is clear. Health care is an obtrusive issue of great importance to everyone, so large, mainstream parties have a strong incentive to focus on the issue. However, as it is difficult to satisfy public demands, party attention is often an exercise in blame avoidance. Rapid progress within health-care technology has thus generated more party system attention to the issue because parties are struggling to meet public demands while controlling costs. Comparative differences in how much the attention to health care has increased can be explained to some extent by the comparative differences in health-care systems. The more responsibility for health care is concentrated with the state, the more party attention because parties have to address all kinds of questions about service provision. When responsibility is defused to societal actors, political parties attend less to the issue. Also, the analysis reveals no significant party differences in attention to the issue. There are no niche parties on the issue and no strong tendency for the large, mainstream parties to pay more attention to the issue than other parties do. Thus, health care seems to be an issue to which all political parties have to pay attention.
The Devil is in the Detail
Authors: Jetschke Anja , Abb Pascal
Published: September 2019

This chapter addresses the authority of the United Nations Security Council and its politicization by the BRICS. In particular, it explores the patterns of contestation for the reform of the United Nations Security Council and the Responsibility to Protect. How do the BRICS position themselves towards these two issues and how do they justify their demands? Do they build a challengers’ coalition? Using, first, a qualitative analysis of BRICS statements and, second, congruence analysis, this chapter maps and explains the positions of BRICS states on UNSC reform and R2P. We find that BRICS’ individual positions show a convergence on the basic contours of UNSC reform and R2P. The contestation pattern clearly indicates that this group favours the UNSC having strong international authority and also that they share concerns about the liberal content of the UNSC. While there is a strong tendency towards convergence on the one hand, BRICS strongly disagree on the details of the reform of the UNSC—as well as on the implementation of R2P on the other. These differences are so strong that they are unlikely to be resolved in the near future. Congruence analysis shows that power transition theory best explains their agreement ‘in principle’, but that none of the available theories explain their disagreement ‘in detail’. We conclude that, as things stand, the BRICS do not pose a challenge to the status quo in governance within the field of international security.
Cleavages in World Politics
Authors: Binder Martin , Payton Autumn Lockwood
Published: September 2019

This chapter systematically examines the potential cleavages that run between the rising and the established powers in international politics. To that end, it analyses and compares the voting behaviour of the BRICS, IBSA, and G7 states in the United Nations General Assembly (GA). GA voting is particularly suited to identify the potential conflict lines between ‘new’ and ‘old’ powers as it runs the gambit of issues confronted in the international system and provides a forum where states can express their preferences relatively freely. Using a spatial model of voting (W-NOMINATE), this chapter analyses more than 500 roll-call votes in the GA over the period 2002–11.
The Internet in Daily Life
Authors: Rainie Lee , Wellman Barry
Published: September 2019

No other information and communication technology in history has spread at the pace of the Internet. Data from the Pew Research Center and NetLab, focused on the North America, shows how the spread of digital technology has reshaped the flow of daily life, vastly expanded the personal and information boundaries of users, and transformed the way people take care of their health, learn new things, and act as citizens. While change continues, Lee Rainie and Barry Wellman discern general social trends, including a large shift from small, tight-knit, locally rooted social groups to larger, more loosely knit, and geographically expanded personal networks, which they call “networked individualism.” This chapter provides an introduction into how digital innovations over the past generation have been adopted by users and how the utility of these tools is reshaping the ways people spend their time, enlighten themselves, and carry on in their daily lives.
Internet Memes and the Twofold Articulation of Values
Authors: Shifman Limor
Published: September 2019

Shifman illuminates the roles of a central cultural phenomenon in the digital age—the meme. She introduces the concept of the Internet meme, and traces the rise of memes over the past decade till they have become a prevalent mode of communication across the globe. The chapter provides insights on memes in digital communication cultures, explaining why they matter economically, socially, and politically. Shifman argues that memes are nothing less than new ways of expressing and constructing values. While there are many different kinds of memes, Shifman argues that the content of Internet memes tends to go well beyond the overt values expressly conveyed to incorporate a set of more latent, or covert, values, which are intrinsic to the significance of memes as communicative formats. Her chapter clarifies why the study of memes is an important new area for research on digital communication.
Internet Geographies
Authors: Graham Mark , Ojanperä Sanna , Dittus Martin
Published: September 2019

From the earliest stages of computer-mediated communication, technical change was predicted to undermine the significance of geography and lead to the “death of distance.” This seemed a logical consequence of electronic media enabling people to communicate from anywhere, to anyone, and anytime. However, empirical research, such as that illustrated in this chapter, has challenged this view. The authors argue that the Internet augments everyday places. As such, much like material geographies, the Internet can be spatially mapped. In doing so, the authors uncover significant geographic inequalities that shape how we use, move through, and interact with the world.
Older Adults on Digital Media in a Networked Society
Authors: Quan-Haase Anabel , Zhang Renwen , Wellman Barry , Wang Hua
Published: September 2019

Conventional wisdom holds that the Internet is a technology for the young. However, as this chapter shows, older adults are increasingly adopting digital media, and it is therefore critical to know more about how networks of digital communication are changing their lives in such respects as their interaction with family and friends. The authors draw upon a study using in-depth interviews of older adult residents in East York, a locality in Toronto, Canada. These interviews illuminate the roles that digital media play in managing and strengthening the personal networks of elders. Their findings challenge stereotypes about older adults and their use of the Internet. The chapter makes an evidence-based case that the Internet and related digital media help older adults develop a sense of connectedness versus isolation.
Gender and Race in the Gaming World
Authors: Nakamura Lisa
Published: September 2019

Age is not alone in shaping real and imagined differences in Internet use. Racial and gender-based stereotypes abound and need to be empirically challenged. This chapter explores the relationships between race, gender, sexuality, and digital cultures in one increasingly significant digital domain—gaming. With a review of previous scholarship on race, gender, and gaming, the author shows that we see few signs of a “post-racial” society being brought into being. In fact, gaming is a digital activity where racism and sexism are commonplace. The chapter thus leaves us with questions about why, when the Internet is a potentially powerful leveling tool in the quest for democracy and fairness, does it continue to be defined by egregious sexism and racism?
The Politics of Children’s Internet Use
Authors: Nash Victoria
Published: September 2019

Children’s use of the Internet raises fraught issues, frequently contributing to a media-supported moral panic. Whilst digital technologies offer young people unique opportunities for education, entertainment, and the development of key social, motor, and media-literacy skills, they also pose risks, such as those relating to bullying, adult content, unwanted contact, and a displacement of more meaningful activities, such as reading or physical play. How, or whether, these risks should be minimized is the subject of intense media and policy debate, and often technological solutions are favored over social policies that are messy and uncertain in their effectiveness. Nash sets out the evidence regarding the balance of digital opportunity and risk for young people, and uses this as the context to outline policy measures targeted at them. Her analysis raises questions over whether children’s interests can be well served by policies developed in the context of a risk-focused public debate.
The Unfinished Work of the Internet
Authors: Bray David , Cerf Vinton
Published: September 2019

Vinton Cerf is internationally recognized as “an Internet pioneer”—one of the “fathers of the Internet”—regarding his work with Bob Kahn in co-inventing Internet protocol (TCP/IP). David Bray is Executive Director for the People-Centered Internet Coalition and a champion of positive “change agents” in turbulent environments. For this concluding chapter, we asked Vinton Cerf and David Bray to provide a future-focused perspective on the Internet’s role in shaping media and information. Arguably, over the past twenty years, there has been no greater development shaping global information technology, policy, and practices than the rise of the Internet and related communication technologies such as the Web, social media, and mobile Internet. Looking to the future, will the Internet play as central a role? Their answer is yes, noting that much work remains to be done if the Internet is to remain an uplifting force for both individuals and communities.
The Eye of the Beholder? The Contestation of Values and International Law
Authors: Liese Andrea , Reiners Nina
Published: September 2019

The chapter comments on Tiyanjana Maluwa’s analysis of the contestation of value-based norms. It first, referring to the metaphor of the ‘eyes of the beholder’ and the song by Metallica with the same title, answers the question ‘Do I see what you see?’ Second, it is interested in coming closer to an intersubjective ‘truth’, that is a shared understanding for determining the alleged erosion of international law or the value-based legal norms of the United Nations (UN) Charter. By focusing on one of Maluwa’s case studies, it illustrates how conceptual choices may predetermine findings. In other words, they guide ‘into what you read’. Finally, it argues in favour of being more explicit about these choices to let others ‘see what I see’ and therefore to be transparent about the type and form of contestation one seeks to explain.
Introduction
Authors: Kurki Visa A.J.
Published: September 2019

This chapter introduces the reader to the topic of legal personhood. It presents the central concepts, terminology, and legal doctrines pertaining to legal personhood, and explains the relevance of the notion for various contemporary legal debates. The chapter also presents the book’s methodology, which is a version of the reflective equilibrium. It thus lays the groundwork for one of the central theses the book: that the Orthodox View of legal personhood is unable to explain many of the convictions regarding legal personhood that are accepted widely by jurists in the Western world.
A Short History of the Right-Holding Person
Authors: Kurki Visa A.J.
Published: September 2019

The chapter is a historical survey of the genealogy of legal personhood, offering context for how two central notions of modern legal philosophy—personhood and rights—developed. It traces how the Roman notions of personhood inspired Renaissance-era French and German scholars to start using persona in a distinct legal sense that would then, in nineteenth-century Germany, develop into a definition of persons as right-holders. This view was imported into the English-speaking world by John Austin, who had studied in Bonn, Germany. Austin would later influence the works of such influential jurisprudents as John Salmond and Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld.
Epilogue
Authors: Asseraf Arthur
Published: September 2019

The epilogue extends the story to the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62) and beyond to the role of news in independent Algeria and post-1962 France. It summarizes the findings of the previous chapters and ties them together by reconsidering the writings of Frantz Fanon on radio and the development of television in the last years of colonial rule. While nationalists hoped that independence would bring uniformity between the media and the people, no such thing happened. This should lead us to consider whether news under colonialism was particularly exceptional, and when, if ever, the news stopped being electric. It ends by considering what might be a new relationship between the historian and the news.
Why VAT?
Authors: Cnossen Sijbren
Published: September 2019

Chapter 1 shows that in about half of all countries on the African continent, tax revenue as a percentage of GDP (called the tax ratio) is around 15 per cent or less, which is not enough to finance more human and economic development. The instrument for greater domestic resource mobilization is a broad-based consumption tax, such as a VAT. Current VATs, however, are riddled with exemptions, exclusions and zero rates which depress revenue, are highly distortionary and greatly complicate VAT administration. The abolition of exemptions for goods, services, and entities and, more generally, unnecessary design differentiations would reduce the weight and sway of legal opinions and increase the administrative resources available for monitoring compliance with the VAT. Revenue should benefit.
Overview of VATs in Africa
Authors: Cnossen Sijbren
Published: September 2019

Chapter 4 provides an overview of VATs in Africa, noting their broad characteristics and listing the general issues that arise. Countries with VAT are grouped by the particular regional economic community (REC) of which they are members. Salient features pertaining to the year of introduction, the predecessor sales tax, the range of non-standard exemptions, the rate structures, and the coverage of the excises on luxury goods and services are noted and broadly discussed.
Economic Integration and Tax Coordination in Regional Economic Communities
Authors: Cnossen Sijbren
Published: September 2019

Chapter 8 reviews the various stages of economic integration that can be distinguished and discusses VAT (and excise tax) coordination in the presence and absence of border controls. All African countries belong to a regional economic community (REC), and often to more than one. The countries are closely monitoring the remarkable combination of free politics and free economics achieved by the common market (now the single market) of the member states of the EU. Free trade and free competition raise the standards of living in participating member countries. In this setting, tax coordination should ensure that equal conditions for competitors are not distorted by discriminatory tax systems—a criterion that is referred to as tax neutrality. At the same time, however, the participating countries should retain as much tax autonomy as possible in order to be able to pursue their own social and economic policy goals.
Lotteries and Gambling
Authors: Cnossen Sijbren
Published: September 2019

Chapter 15 argues that transactions involved in games of chance should be included in the VAT base, regardless of whether or not lotteries and gambling are subject to externality-correcting excises. The charge should extend to all forms of gaming, except if feasibility considerations (e.g. village cockfights) preclude the effective application of the VAT. The chapter also shows that the reverse-charge approach and the margin method lead to identical outcomes in calculating the VAT liability. To prevent double taxation and diversion of transactions, the VAT paid for the acquisition of non-monetary prizes and awards should be creditable against the VAT on sales of tickets, tokens, and chips. If a casino is part of a larger establishment operated by a registered business, the VAT on a non-monetary prize (say, a night’s stay or meal at a hotel) should be denied to the casino in order to ensure that the prize’s value is taxed once.
The Smell of Drugs
Authors: Tullett William
Published: September 2019

The new consensus that smells were tiny material effluvia emitted by all objects served to demystify odours and some of their former powers were questioned. Where sixteenth- and seventeenth-century writers had believed that odours could be nutritious, by the early nineteenth century medical writers no longer believed this to be the case. In the world of materia medica doubts were also raised about the ability of odours to communicate medical powers and the capacity of smelling to divine the medical efficacy of materials. This was partly encouraged by a new medical marketplace in which, partly to render medicines palatable to all consumers, drugs were marketed as odourless. Smell was separated from medical efficacy. Yet the materiality and agentive nature of smells meant that their social power was rendered far more significant.
Introduction
Authors: Smith Gary , Cordes Jay
Published: September 2019

A 2012 article in the Harvard Business Review named data scientist the “sexiest job of the 21st century.” Governments and businesses are scrambling to hire data scientists, and workers are clamoring to become data scientists, or at least label themselves as such.

Many colleges and universities now offer data science degrees, but their curricula differ wildly. Many businesses have data science divisions, but few restrictions on what they do. Many people say they are data scientists, but may have simply taken some online programming courses and don’t know what they don’t know. The result is that the analyses produced by data scientists are sometimes spectacular and, other times, disastrous. In a rush to learn the technical skills, the crucial principles of data science are often neglected....
Confusing Correlation with Causation
Authors: Smith Gary , Cordes Jay
Published: September 2019

There is a hierarchy of predictive value that can be extracted from data. At the top of the hierarchy are causal relationships that can be confirmed with a randomized and controlled experiment or a natural experiment. Next best is to establish known or hypothesized relationships ahead of time and then test them and estimate their relative importance. One notch lower are associations found in historical data that are tested on fresh data after considering whether or not they make sense. At the bottom of the hierarchy, with little or no value, are associations found in historical data that are not confirmed by expert opinion or tested with fresh data. Data scientists who use a “correlations are enough” approach should remember that the more data and the more searches, the more likely it is that a discovered statistical relationship is coincidental and useless.
System Failures
Authors: Rouse William B.
Published: September 2019

This chapter focuses on the operations and maintenance of new product and service offerings once they have been deployed; in particular, it addresses dealing with system failures. Addressing system failures is an important aspect of operating and maintaining complex systems, particularly when laced with behavioral and social phenomena. Despite advances in technology and automation, humans will inevitably have roles in addressing failures when detection, diagnosis, and compensation cannot be automated. Human problem-solving involves a mix of pattern recognition and structural sleuthing based on mental models for taskwork and teamwork. Training and aiding can enhance human problem-solving performance by fostering problem-solving strategies and tactics, as well as team coordination.
Health and Well-Being
Authors: Rouse William B.
Published: September 2019

This chapter focuses on the health and well-being of people, looking at how health services are provided in the U.S. delivery ecosystem. Not surprisingly, the emphasis of this chapter is on model-based approaches to support decision-making. Computational modeling can substantially contribute to exploring possible futures for health and well-being. Patient, provider, and payer data sets can be used to parameterize these computational models. Large interactive visualizations can enable a wide range of stakeholders to participate in exploring possible futures. Policy flight simulators can enable projecting likely impacts of policies, for example, alternative payment schemes, before they are deployed. There is enormous variety in healthcare, including patients, providers, and payers, as well as the economic and social circumstances in which they operate. Computational models can be invaluable for projecting the impacts of this variety and considering how both system designs and policy designs should be tailored.
Introduction: The Metaphysical Society in Context
Authors: Marshall Catherine , Lightman Bernard , England Richard
Published: September 2019

The introduction covers a history of the Metaphysical Society, including its aims and membership, role and legacy. After reviewing the previous scholarship on the Society, it lays out the structure of the volume, and introduces some of the figures who formed the membership of the Society, and their widely divergent views on such matters as, miracles, determinism, evolutionary ethics, liberalism. empiricism, intuitionism, and even metaphysics itself. It also discusses how the collection moves beyond past scholarship and draws directly on the papers presented at the Society, detailing the major concepts examined by the contributors, and offering a more detailed analysis of the Society’s inner dynamics and its wider impact on British society and culture. The contributors to this collection include scholars from different fields and different countries.
Cause, Nature, and the Limits of Language
Authors: England Richard
Published: September 2019

James Martineau and Frederick Maurice sought to show that naturalism was philosophically incoherent by showing the inadequacy of its fundamental terms, such as ‘force’, ‘cause’, and ‘nature’. Maurice argued that historical and contemporary uses of ‘nature’ rested on assumptions that required an agency beyond nature. Martineau claimed that the phenomena that suggested ‘cause’ to observers ultimately rested on that which is beyond the senses. Both claimed that the study of nature alone is insufficient to an understanding of the basic language of scientific investigation, and that there must be a realm beyond the physical. These papers show the importance to theists of Kantian categories and an idealist approach to nature. While Maurice and Martineau used epistemological arguments against naturalistic metaphysics, they did not claim that there were additional intuitions that granted access to truths beyond nature.
Actions concerning land
Authors: Baker John
Published: September 2019

This chapter contains thirteenth-century cases (and one from 1334) relating to the early ‘real’ actions and petty assizes for the recovery of land. They show how questions of title could be raised by pleading even when they were not indicated by the standardized formulae of writs which may have been designed for more limited purposes.
Uses, wills and trusts
Authors: Baker John
Published: September 2019

The materials in this chapter relate to the early history and legal recognition of ‘uses’ of land, and to the legislation designed to prevent them from harming others, particularly by depriving the king and lords of their feudal incidents. The legal background to the Statutes of Uses (1536) and Wills (1540) is revealed from miscellaneous sources. Subsequent cases show the survival of equitable interests in the form of ‘trusts’ created by means of the ‘use upon a use’. The post-1535 trust was recognized judicially in The Duchess of Suffolk’s Case (1560), printed here in translation for the first time.
Covenant
Authors: Baker John
Published: September 2019

The writ of covenant lay to enforce agreements, but it came to be restricted by formality. This chapter is principally devoted to the evolution of the rule requiring a deed - a written document under seal - to evidence a covenant. There was no clear rule before 1321, and it was at first possible to wage law in covenant actions, or to refer them to a jury. From 1292, however, there are signs of a nascent principle, of uncertain scope, that a plaintiff might fail unless he had written evidence of the covenant in the form of a sealed deed. The reports are all of exceptions to this principle – which is not directly explained – until in 1321 it was clearly stated as a general rule of evidence. It was a rule which applied only in the royal courts and did not, therefore, import any narrow understanding of what a covenant was. And the deed did not preclude a plea of performance, since it was evidence only of the covenant, not of its breach.
Assumpsit for misfeasance
Authors: Baker John
Published: September 2019

The principal species of action on the case in the fourteenth century was that brought for a non-forcible wrong causing physical damage, such as negligence by a carrier or surgeon. The cases in this chapter contain discussions of the distinction between such actions on the case for ‘misfeasance’, actions of trespass for battery with force, and actions of covenant for breaking a promise. The boundaries were important for practical reasons. Although the actions were seen to rest on undertakings – assumpsit means ‘he undertook’ - it was important for plaintiffs that they should be trespassory in form; this meant that the plaintiff did not have to produce a sealed document as proof, as in the action of covenant, and that the defendant could not wage his law.
Assumpsit against executors for money
Authors: Baker John
Published: September 2019

The decision in Slade’s Case (1602) that the action of assumpsit could be brought for not paying a debt left open the question whether it would lie against a debtor’s executors. Executors had been immune from actions by writ of debt, unless there was a sealed acknowledgment of indebtedness, since they could not wage their testator’s law; but wager of law was not relevant in assumpsit. This chapter shows how the availability of assumpsit against executors, to recover debts from a deceased debtor’s estate, was a controversial question between the King’s Bench and Common Pleas, and how it was finally settled in 1611 in favour of allowing the action.
Consideration and privity
Authors: Baker John
Published: September 2019

This chapter shows how the doctrine of consideration emerged as an amalgam of the factors which would justify bringing an action of assumpsit for nonfeasance. The principal factors were a benefit conferred on the promisor (the essence of a bargain) and a detriment suffered by the promisee (the essence of a tort founded on reliance). Though lacking coherence, consideration was the closest approach to a basic substantive principle of contract law. Closely connected with it was the doctrine of privity. There was much debate over this, and in particular whether it was necessary for a plaintiff to be privy both to the consideration and to the promise. The reported arguments show how far it was thought possible for parties to make enforceable contracts for the benefit of others.
Actions on the case for deceit
Authors: Baker John
Published: September 2019

This chapter is concerned with the action on the case for deceit, chiefly in the context of false warranties made by sellers of goods. The availability of the action was at first contested on the ground that a warranty was a covenant, and therefore required written evidence, or perhaps a writ of covenant. But it became well established before 1400, and the next difficult question was how to distinguish a warranty, for this purpose, from a misdescription. The general principle was ‘caveat emptor’, but this did not apply in the case of food and drink or in cases where a buyer was unable to ascertain the facts for himself. A major debate in 1606 over the sale of a stone misdescribed as a ‘bezoar’ confirmed that, in the absence of a warranty (or guarantee) at the time of sale, the buyer of a misdescribed object had no legal redress.
Actions on the case for conversion
Authors: Baker John
Published: September 2019

The action of detinue was unsatisfactory for plaintiffs in that defendants could escape by waging law, and indeed could truthfully deny a detainer of goods if they had destroyed or parted with them. The action on the case offered a solution. This chapter shows how it was first used against bailees who converted goods by damaging or destroying them. The extension to finders, including constructive ‘finders’, by a subtle shift in the meaning of ‘conversion’, provoked a controversy between the King’s Bench and the Common Pleas similar to that over the use of assumpsit to replace debt. It was resolved in favour of allowing the action, but with the qualification that not every detainer was a conversion. In its settled form, ‘trover and conversion’ was an action to try the relative title of the parties rather than an action in tort based on fault.