bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Endogenous Innovation and Export Performance in Firms
Authors: Carboni Oliviero Antonio , Medda Giuseppe
Published: March 2023

This study investigated whether export performance is correlated with innovation. We explicitly considered five types of innovation: a) process innovation; b) product innovation; c) process and product innovation; d) product innovation new to the firm; and e) product innovation new to the market. We en-larged the findings of R&D-export and R&D-investment relations using a vast sample of cross-European firms. We considered innovation as endogenous and determined by R&D through a process characterized by the role of the regional technological environment. Our analysis enabled us to propose an integrated model incorporating R&D, innovation and export, in a framework of simultaneous equations which consider their mutual correlations. To the best of our knowledge, this work is the first in recent years to empirically compute the relation between R&D and tangible investment at the micro level. Econometric results showed that product and process innovation are positively linked to the export intensity of European manufacturing firms. The results also showed complementarity effects between the two kinds of innovation. The av-erage effect on export intensity from carrying out process innovation is larger than that found for product innovation, except in cases where the product is new to the market. When both types of innovation have been carried out, a larger effect results than that found for product or process innovation alone. Furthermore, the average marginal effect on export intensity from innovations of any kind among those studied here is highly positive and significant.
Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) in Healthcare
Authors: Hulsen Tim
Published: March 2023

Artificial Intelligence (AI) describes computer systems able to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making, and language translation. Examples of AI techniques are machine learning, neural networks and deep learning. AI can be applied in many different areas, such as econometrics, biometry, e-commerce and the automotive industry. In recent years, AI has found its way into healthcare as well, helping doctors to make better decisions (‘clinical decision support’), localizing tumors in magnetic resonance images, reading and analyzing reports written by radiologists and pathologists, and much more. However, AI has one big risk: it can be perceived as a ‘black box’, limiting trust in its reliability, which is a very big issue in an area in which a decision can mean life or death. As a result, the term Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) has been gaining momentum. XAI tries to ensure that AI algorithms (and the resulting decisions) can be understood by humans. In this narrative review, we will have a look at the current status of XAI in healthcare, describe several issues around XAI, and discuss whether it can really help healthcare to advance, for example by increasing understanding and trust. Finally, alternatives to increase trust in AI are discussed, as well as future research possibilities in the area of XAI.
Access, Disability and Mature Student Opinion on Academic Mathematics Supports
Authors: Mac an Bhaird Ciarán , Mulligan Peter , O'Malley James , O'Neill Rachel
Published: March 2023

In this paper we report on the main themes which emerged from analysis of a survey of students registered with the Access, Disability and Mature Student offices at Maynooth University. The survey focussed on the students’ experiences of mathematics and the mathematics academic supports available to them. The majority of student feedback was positive, for example their engagement with the Mathematics Support Centre, improved understanding of mathematics and the influence of tutors and peers. However, some issues emerged in relation to impact on learning, such as inflexible departmental structures with fixed deadlines and a lack of student awareness of the supports available. In addition to discussing the main results, we outline how the findings will guide the future provision of such supports.
An Updated Show of Hands
Authors: Berrington Helen , Kastis Eleftherios , Karapiperi Anna
Published: March 2023

It is a tried and tested technique to gauge the overall understanding of a class: a multiple-choice quiz with a show of hands for who thinks the answer is a, b or c. Although quick and easy, how much does it really measure the students’ understanding? On top of that, how useful is it as an informal formative assessment? A few students usually dominate the class and less confident students may not put up their hand, or may follow what their classmates are doing, and hence both the learner and educator may never know the individuals’ true answer.Here we discuss “an updated show of hands”, whereby students scan a QR code to take them to a real-time quiz hosted on the Moodle Virtual Learning Environment (VLE), that they can answer on their smart device. All students answer the same question at the same time, and after a set time, the correct answer is revealed and the class results for that question are then displayed to everyone as an anonymous percentage. Whilst this updated method has the obvious advantage of anonymity and the obvious disadvantage of potential technical problems, in this case study we provide a full description of the implementation and an in-depth discussion on the pedagogy and practicalities of the updated show of hands – the real-time smart device quiz.
Potential Utilization of Rock-Based Geopolymers for Oil Well Cementing at Cold Areas
Authors: Khalifeh Mahmoud , Delabroy Laurent , Kverneland Johan
Published: March 2023

Geopolymers are class of inorganic polymers developed from aluminosilicate materials. Application of geopolymers in oil and gas industry has gotten the attention of engineers due to mechanical properties and their durability in corrosive environments. All the experiments conducted are in lab scale and elevated temperatures. However, their performance at low temperatures has not been tested. In this article, properties of rock-based geopolymers, liquid state and solid state, developed for well cementing is measured at 4-30ᵒC whereas called low temperature. Viscosity, consistency, static gel strength, and strength development are among the properties measured.

Viscosity of the slurry was increased as temperature was reduced. The lower the temperature the longer the setting time. When the slurry started to set, static gel strength development was relatively fast. The geopolymer developed strength at low temperatures and the right-angle-set properties was remained. Strength development does not have linear relationship with temperature.
Drill String Failure Prediction Methodology Using Data Analytics for Real Time Well Engineering
Authors: Thakur Bharat , Chokshi Vishrut , Patel Kushan , Samuel Robello
Published: March 2023

Vibration signals in the form of real-time accelerations recorded downhole often contain strong noise, making it difficult for fault or failure diagnosis during drillstring. Vibration signals include noise from sources, such as motors, bit and drillstring interactions with the borehole, rugged boreholes, and similar interactions. Sometimes, this noise is stronger than the underlying signal, which might lead to false alarms or misrecognition. This paper discusses a novel approach to diagnose failure in real-time, which is also robust to noise.

Existing methods for fault or failure diagnosis are based on threshold values of peak and average vibrational signals. This paper introduces a hybrid method of combining signal demodulation with spectral analysis to predict drillstring failure. This method deconvolutes the signal with the help of minimum entropy deconvolution (MED) and Teager-Kaiser energy operator (TKEO) to remove ambiguity as a result of noise. Then, the signal is decomposed into various intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) that have the highest correlation with the original signal and can be used for failure diagnosis.

This paper also discusses how spectral analysis can be applied on selected IMFs by comparing the IMF’s impact frequency with the system’s natural frequency so its harmonic drillstring failure can be diagnosed more precisely.
Automatic Drill Bit Dull Grading Report Generation to Address the Revised IADC Dull Grading Schema
Authors: Chu Jian , Ashok Pradeepkumar , Chen Dongmei , van Oort Eric
Published: March 2023

The current IADC bit dull grading process has served the drilling industry well for over 30 years, and it has helped the industry achieve significant improvements in drill bit selection and design. With rapid development of computational techniques such as computer vision and machine learning, the general consensus is that the previous grading process can now be updated to capture additional information about the bits that was previously discarded to enhance the grading process and the information is delivers while keeping it simple. An IADC committee is currently working on finalizing this new schema.

In comparison to the previous bit dull grading process, more details about the drill bit such as cutter damage type have been added to the new schema. Additionally, capturing pre-run and post-run bit images is recommended to enable detailed bit forensic analysis into root causes of observed damage. For the bit dull grading process at rig site, a preliminary grading report needs to be filled out and rig site bit photos also need to be captured.

The objective of the work reported here was to develop an algorithm to automatically analyze 2D bit images and quickly generate are port that fulfills the new IADC dull grading requirements. Several deep learning models and classic machine learning algorithms were developed to automate the bit dull grading process. Given a set of high-quality bit images, the proposed set of algorithms will process and analyze the images automatically and generate a dull grading report. Different sets of bit images were tested with the proposed algorithms, and the results show that they are able to achieve good performance under standard scenarios. A discussion on hurdles that remain to be tackled is also included.
Development of Guidepost Based Wellhead Load Relief System (GP-WLR)
Authors: Fuhr Geir Gundersen , Stangeland Jone , Reinås Lorents , Oppedal Bjørn Birger , Sæther Morten
Published: March 2023

This paper describes the development of a novel wellhead load relief system improving operational aspects and wellhead fatigue management achieved by an unconventional utilization of existing equipment. The objective is to provide insight in a newly developed technology for Wellhead Fatigue mitigation with the potential to become a future element in fatigue management. The operational aspect is appealing as this system is effective with remotely operated hook-up and a minimum of additional equipment needed. The development of the system started in 2015 during planning of several exploration wells and have continued as a cooperation between the drilling and subsea disciplines within Equinor.

The Guidepost Well Load Relief (GP-WLR) seeks to be a load reduction and operational effective wellhead load relief system through integration of WLR functionality with existing BOPs and redirecting well load thru guideposts and subsea structures already present. The GP WLR system is modular which provides for flexibility in finding a way of adding it to legacy equipment. The basic idea of such a system is explained and then how the development has evolved internally in Equinor from idea, concept, prototype, and implementation. At this stage the GP-WLR technology has been used in operations by a subsea drilling Blow Out Preventer (BOP) and a Work Over stack. The effect and use of the system will be discussed in an operational perspective. The operation of the GP-WLR system is using remote access. Experiences gained during prototype testing and first-time use have shown that the GP-WLR system have worked as intended.

The authors believe GP-WLR to be a significant contribution to the wellhead fatigue mitigation toolbox while reducing the risk for damage to equipment and personnel.

GP-WLR will be a significant contribution to the wellhead fatigue management and allows optimizing drilling schedule while also reducing the risk for damage to equipment and personnel.
Environmentally Compliant Flexible Cement System Achieves Customer Zonal Isolation Objectives: A Case History from the Norwegian Continental Shelf
Authors: Akhmetov Talgat , Barreiro Jose , Johnson Carl , Knowles John
Published: March 2023

An operator had a need to cement a 13⅜-in. casing to act as a secondary barrier against a reservoir with the top of cement 100 m above a sand formation. In a subsequent section, the operator required installing and cementing a 9⅝-in. liner as the primary barrier element prior to drilling into the reservoir and placing the top of cement up to the 13 ⅜-in. casing shoe. The operation required placing a minimum 30 m of isolating cement in the cemented interval, where verification of the barrier was to be obtained by using logging tools.

To comprehend the operating environment the cement would experience, it was necessary to determine an optimal cement system for the anticipated pressure and temperature cycles in the well. The service company performed a cement integrity evaluation using specialized cement sheath stress analysis software. The simulation software determined which cement system was best suited for exposure to the anticipated pressure and temperature cycles during injection and production. Based on the simulation results, the operator decided to use an environmentally compliant flexible (ECF) cement system. This novel system also significantly reduced the CO2 emissions (CO2e) footprint vs. conventional cement.

The operator drilled the 17½-in. open hole to 1888 m measured depth (MD) without any issues using a proprietary flat rheology drilling fluid system. A total of 18.9 m3 of 1.60 specific gravity (SG) ECF cement slurry was pumped. During displacement, no losses were observed as the spacer entered the annulus, and consistent lift pressure was observed as the cement entered the annulus. The job signature pressure match conducted using proprietary zonal isolation software indicated that the openhole size was near gauge hole. The 12¼-in. open hole was drilled, and the 9⅝-in. liner was successfully run to total depth without incident. A total of 16.1 m3 of 1.60 SG ECF cement slurry was pumped. No losses were observed during the cementing operation, and consistent lift pressure was recorded during displacement.

The liner was logged using ultrasonic imaging tools, with the top-of-cement bond identified at the 13⅜-in. casing shoe with a total 248 m of isolating cement. The operation achieved the required isolation to install the cemented liner as the primary barrier element prior to drilling into the reservoir, in addition to the exceptional logging results. The ECF cement system provided outstanding bond quality from 1882 to 2130 m. Remarkably, as an energy transition technology when compared with a conventional foamed cement system, the ECF cement system reduced CO2 emissions by 44% and simplified the operation by eliminating the use of foamed cement. Furthermore, the ECF cement is environmentally rated as PLONOR (poses little or no risk) and eliminates the use of polymeric materials to impart flexibility.
Utilizing Electronic Data Captured, at the Bit, in Combination with Automated Bit Dull Grading, to Improve Bit Design Features, Dull Condition, and Ultimately, Drilling Performance
Authors: Galarraga Carlos , Gusey Gabe , Wade Derek , Allen Andrew
Published: March 2023

Historically, downhole vibrations at the drill bit have been difficult to determine and measure. In addition, oilfield personnel has dull graded bits through visual inspection, which introduces subjectivity into the assessment of the dull condition. Tools to measure dysfunctions at the bit to help understand the root cause of bit failure, and a digital bit imaging system for reliable dull grading, have been a gap in understanding drill bit performance. This paper presents a field study where downhole measurements and automated dull grading were utilized in tandem to improve performance.

In the Permian Basin, one of the most challenging applications is the production Vertical+Curve+Lateral section, due to interbedded transitions while drilling, the inability to track tangents, and building curves. The type of vibrations at the bit and their sources were unknown, and determining bit wear location and the type of cutter damage was also a challenge in this case.

A sensor at bit to measure downhole dysfunctions, in combination with a digital imaging system that calculates the bit damage, was used to carry out a comprehensive engineering analysis to determine the bit design changes needed for enhanced drilling efficiency.

The high-frequency data recorded at the bit showed lateral events of high magnitude that indicated formation-related issues. The automated dull grading system showed catastrophic damage in the cone, along with breakage and delamination of the cutters in the lower shoulder and gauge areas, due to cutter overloading during the lateral vibration events while drilling through hard stringers. The vibrations at the bit were studied to understand how they were generated and how we can mitigate them. The recorded electronic bit data and the outputs of the digital bit dull grading system were analyzed together to determine drill bit features that need to be improved.

Based on the bit data recorded and digital dull bit analyses, an advanced bit profile and cutting structure layout with a more impactful placement of depth-of-cut (DOC) control elements were used to develop a fit-for-purpose drill bit design combined with a new generation of PDC cutters. As a result, a complete drill bit design solution was developed to drill longer runs with better dull condition and very consistent performance across the basin.

This paper describes the nature of downhole vibrations at the bit and their consequences of damaging the bit through poor drilling performance. A new digital, automated dull grading system accurately determined the detailed location, on the bit, and type of wear produced by the vibrations, and it offered practical recommendations for improving performance. Detailed field data from different runs, showing where bit design changes reduced the failures and resulted in longer intervals drilled, will be presented.
Improve Well Integrity Using an Annular Barrier AI tool
Authors: Time Eirik , Berg Eirik , Mishra Siddharth
Published: March 2023

The Assisted Cement Log Machine Learning (ML) tool – or Annular barrier AI tool - developed by Equinor - is being used to interpret cement logs by predicting a predefined set of annular condition codes used in the cement log interpretation process. (Reference to SPE paper: Assisted Cement Interpretation project).

Annular conditions are usually separated into High, Medium and Low probability for hydraulic isolation. The internally developed annular condition code descriptions at Equinor are separated into 30 specific classes, which supports more nuanced and objective expert interpretations. The paper will discuss how this framework has positively impacted the performance of the trained ML model.

In addition, we report how this tool is being used to speed up and increase consistency in the log interpretation process, and how it can be used to efficiently share expert knowledge when training new professionals into Equinor's Cased Hole Logging Group. Furthermore, the paper will discuss ongoing research to improve the capabilities of this tool, like supporting the use of cement logs from additional service vendors, and how it could be potentially expanded to extract relevant information from historical reports to improve formation bond predictions.

The ML model is trained using selected and calculated features from cement logs, and the tool predicts an annular condition code according to the cement classification system for each depth segment in the log. Training and prediction are done in the cloud and accessible through an Application Programmable Interface (API) which makes it convenient to integrate the tool with any cement log interpretation software. Through the API, the interpretation software uploads a cement log and swiftly receives predictions for the complete log, including hydraulic isolation probabilities and confidence curves, which are used as decision support for the final expert interpretation. The ML model is regularly retrained with an ever-growing data set from real operations performed by Equinor. The uploaded data undergoes an automatic quality assurance before it is used as training data, and the model's performance is evaluated at each retraining.

To improve the cement log interpretation consistency in the industry and to ensure that our work can benefit the industry as widely as possible, the results will be made available as open source. This paper will discuss the challenges making such an ML tool open source, and the how the idea of Federated Learning could be used to share this solution in the industry.
Record-Breaking Reservoir Drilling and Openhole Gravel Packing With Cesium Formate Fluids in a High-Pressure, Marginal Mud Window Environment at Martin Linge
Authors: Nilsen Simen Jøsang , Obrestad Hanne Undheim , Kaarigstad Håvard , Mansurova Nadia , Solvoll Tom Are , Løchen Johan , Howard Siv , Abrahams Ben , Busengdal Christian
Published: March 2023

This paper describes how high-density cesium/potassium (Cs/K) formate fluids were successfully utilised from reservoir drilling to upper completion installation in five productive Martin Linge high-rate gas wells. Four wells were completed with openhole gravel pack and one with standalone sand screens.

The gravel packing operation marks what is considered to be the highest density carrier fluid openhole gravel pack successfully completed worldwide, with SG 2.06. A complex operation under near-high-pressure/high-temperature (HP/HT) conditions, including managed pressure drilling (MPD), overbalanced screen running and openhole gravel packing, was simplified by utilising the same fluid throughout the operation.

Cs/K formate reservoir drilling fluid and screen-running fluid were designed with biopolymeric additives and minimal calcium carbonate bridging particles. Clear Cs/K formate brine (i.e., without biopolymeric additives and particles) was chosen as gravel pack carrier fluid. The use of Cs/K formate fluids for all stages of the operation reduced the complexity of transitioning between the operational stages. In addition, the reservoir was only exposed to one filtrate without application of damaging weighting solids.

The drilling fluid contributed to successful MPD and delivered wells with very good hole quality in the reservoir, which consisted of interbedded sandstone, coal stringers and shale. The shale stabilising properties of concentrated formate brine–based fluids provided acceptable conditions for extended openhole time and allowed additional logging runs, including pore pressure measurements, under near-HP/HT conditions before running the screens. One bottom-up cleanout was conducted before the screen-running fluid was circulated in and the screens installed. The spurt and seepage losses were low throughout the drilling and screen running phases. No breaker treatment was required in any of the wells. All wells have proven to have good initial productivity and high well productive efficiency as expected.

The record-breaking openhole gravel pack operations performed with the high fluid densities required in Equinor's Martin Linge field have set a new standard for completing in challenging high-pressure environments.
Damping Identification from Subsea Logger Axial Riser Response Data
Authors: Lim HyeongUk "Harry" , McNeill Scot , Kluk Daniel , Stahl Matthew , Puskarskij Konstantin , Hansen Kristian
Published: March 2023

For decades, it has been known that, as drilling riser deployment depths increase, the potential for excessive hook load response will also increase. Using data collected from a drilling riser deployed to a record-setting water depth, nearly 12,000 ft, this paper provides insight that significantly reduces uncertainty about the severity of this resonant response.

The typical drilling riser and blow-out preventer (BOP) stack, disconnected from the well head, has its first axial resonant period at approximately one second for each 2000 feet of deployed length, thus five seconds for 10,000 feet, six seconds for 12,000 feet, etc. Therefore, vessel heave response can incite a significant, adverse axial resonant condition in very deep water. Damping reduces resonant response. Historically, the true amount of damping has been uncertain and therefore conservatively assumed to be less than 1% of critical. The resulting uncertainty in dynamic hook load response can produce significant restrictions on riser configuration (running weight) and sea state for BOP stack deployment as well as storm hang-off of the riser and LMRP.

A recent drilling riser deployment to the record-setting water depth of 11,903 ft produced a unique opportunity to collect high-quality data that reduces the damping uncertainty. This paper describes damping ratio and natural frequency identification for the first few axial riser modes for this deployment. The data was collected during deployment and retrieval using Subsea Vibration Data Loggers (SVDLs) installed on the BOP stack, drillship, and riser.
Mud Motor Digital Maintenance with an Industry-Unique PHM Solution
Authors: Belov Dmitry , Rocchio Sergio , Zhang Zhengxin , Chen Wei , Ba Samba , Liland Eimund , Kolyshkin Anton , Shen Yuelin , Scribbins Josh , Massie Henry , Phillips Kent
Published: March 2023

The ability to analyze drilling data to obtain continuous monitoring statistics of the drilling process and make prompt decisions are two important elements of a successful drilling operation. A mud motor is one of the important components of the downhole assembly, which enables the drill bit to penetrate the rock during drilling a well. Correctly predicting mud motor failure and the remaining useful life of the components are essential for obtaining drilling efficiency, avoiding costly operational expenses, and achieving timely maintenance. The remaining useful life indicator with low uncertainty identifies the life cycle of mud motors by preventing redundant maintenance and costly drilling operation failures.

This paper presents an industry-unique prognostics and health-management (PHM) solution for monitoring and maintaining the mud motor condition. This solution combines three algorithms, including a power section PHM algorithm, lower-end critical connections PHM algorithm, and mud motor degradation algorithm. The workflow solution allows for obtaining valuable information about the mud motor condition at the system and component levels.

The power section PHM algorithm, based on a remaining useful life prediction for the mud motor's power section, provides information about the elastomer condition inside of the stator as a percentage of the remaining life cycle. The lower-end critical connections PHM algorithm estimates the remaining useful life of the mud motor's lower-end connections. Both algorithms are component level; i. e., they help to improve managing the life cycle of the appropriate components. The mud motor degradation algorithm is a system-level algorithm. This algorithm uses drilling data to compute the severity of mud motor degradation; thus, identifying possible problems with the mud motor as a complete system.

The PHM solution helps to prevent expensive mud motor failure. Furthermore, the solution provides the opportunity to perform additional drilling runs before the motor components must be retired or removed for maintenance. The significant advantage of applying the PHM solution is it only makes use of existing drilling measurements and does not require any special downhole equipment.

The mud motor PHM solution is currently in use by one of the biggest oil & gas service company worldwide. In addition to presenting the three algorithms, this paper presents field application case studies that demonstrate the commercial value and efficiency gains achieved by their use. Significant sustainability benefits have been achieved by using the power section and mud motor degradation algorithms due to their assistance in drilling applications.
Improving Performance – Electrification of Well Control Equipment
Authors: Beim Samantha , Givens Matthew , Boulanger Bruce , Olson Matthew
Published: March 2023

Conventional BOP systems have used hydraulic operation for decades which limits both the performance and provides limited feedback on operational conditions. Electrically actuated BOP systems replace these complex hydraulic circuits with simplified components that improve overall system reliability. This paper will discuss the ambition to pivot from conventional hydraulic BOP systems to electrically enabled ones, with specific focus on the development of an electric bonnet for ram BOPs.

The new electric components are designed to be backwards compatible, such that major components like ram blocks and ram BOP bodies do not need to be replaced. The electric BOP system features a battery powered control skid that replaces traditional accumulators, while electrically actuated BOP components replace the conventional hydraulic versions. Verification and validation of this new technology includes shear modeling, system simulation, and laboratory testing. The equipment is designed to meet the intent and exceed the performance requirements of the latest industry and regulatory standards.

During development of the electric bonnet, the design team has shown that electric actuation of BOPs will provide equivalent shear force to existing hydraulic bonnets. The controlled actuation results in a more consistent and efficient shearing action. This improved shearing performance is achieved in the same BOP footprint as existing hydraulic BOPs. Additionally, the electric bonnet can perform as both a shear ram bonnet and a pipe ram bonnet which simplifies customer maintenance and spares stocking plans. As a result of these efforts, the electric BOP system development will provide greater operational latitude to meet a broader range of shearables, improve reliability, lower total cost of ownership, and reduce size and weight of the BOP system.
Transient Modeling of Tripping Operations Enables Closed-Loop Limit Control of Tripping Processes to Reduce ILT While Maintaining Wellbore Safety
Authors: Arevalo Pedro , Becker Gerald , May Roland , Forshaw Matthew , Grymalyuk Sergiy , Houghton Glen , Lien Morten , Hovda Sigve , Evensen Kim , Reber Randi
Published: March 2023

Tripping operations can take up a significant portion of well construction time and the associated cost. In the last decade, there has been extensive development and deployment of real-time tripping applications to optimize tripping parameters while maintaining formation integrity. This paper presents a system that utilizes transient modeling of tripping behavior to determine the optimum parameters that safeguard the integrity of the formation and the mechanical equipment at the rig site. The system delivers tripping boundaries to automated drilling control systems (ADCS) for every stand.

A digital twin of the wellbore, equipped with physics-based transient models, estimates the permissible axial velocities and accelerations developed when running drillstring in and out the wellbore. These motions develop pressure waves which travel along the wellbore and which can compromise formation integrity. The digital twin, prepared in the planning phase and deployed in the real-time drilling environment, uses smart triggering algorithms to automatically update the models and refine simulation results. Automation systems consume the predicted limits via an aggregation layer to refine fit-for-purpose tripping applications. The automation system finds optimum proposals of tripping limits and updates them directly in the rig control system in real-time.

The trip monitoring system automatically and continuously publishes optimum velocity and acceleration tripping limits per stand and transmits them as set points to the ADCS to define a safe operating envelope (SOE). This approach can greatly reduce the overall tripping time in comparison to non-automated deployments. Furthermore, the reduction of invisible lost time (ILT) takes place while maintaining the integrity of the formation, and the integrity of the surface equipment. Finally, reduction of the energy required to perform the tripping process consequently decreases the amount of carbon emissions involved in the process.

A set of case studies confirm the effectiveness of the approach and illustrate its benefits. A case study addresses the topic of adoption of drilling automation applications such as the tripping advisor. Another case presents the concept of interoperability using as example a deployment on a rig simulator setup in Europe to perform closed-loop control using the tripping application to write velocity and acceleration limits continuously to the ADCS.
Deployment of a Hybrid Machine Learning and Physics Based Drilling Advisory System at the Rig Site for ROP Optimization
Authors: Behounek Michael , McKenna Kirt , Thetford Taylor , Peroyea Trey , Roberts Michael , Pearce Julie , Hickin Gary , Ashok Pradeepkumar , Yi Michael , Ramos Dawson
Published: March 2023

During well construction, automatic monitoring of the sensor signals for drilling dysfunction detection through pattern recognition algorithms is key to improving rate of penetration (ROP) and preventing tool failure. The addition of physics-based models can enable further improvement, but often one is limited by the contextual data needed by these models, as well as the computational power available at the edge. This paper details the successful field deployment of a system that address these challenges.

The dysfunction tracking algorithms used were built using Bayesian networks as base models and validated using downhole data. Physics based models in the advisory system are used to compute the first five modes of natural frequencies for axial, torsional and lateral vibration. The contextual data required for the calculations consists of the bottom hole assembly (BHA) and survey data. Scripts were deployed to transfer this data directly from the operator's database to rig site.

This system has been deployed on rigs in the US for over 4 years now, and the fact that they are being actively used to this day is a testament to its success. A key enabler here is the automatic transfer of contextual data from the office database to the rig site. The contextual data used in the model is something the crew have to input into the office database outside the needs of the advisory system. So, a process was already in place to properly record this information, and that worked to the advantage of the system. Eliminating the need to re-enter this data at the rig site was key to the success of this advisory system. Using the physics-based model, critical RPM bands are plotted on the drilling advisory screen to alert the driller whenever they are near an RPM that needs to be avoided. Visual indicators on a weight on bit (WOB)-RPM grid provide guidance to the driller on which direction to move the parameters to avoid dysfunctions and optimize drilling.

Physics based models nicely complement data-based ML models in an advisory system, but real-world application of such combined systems are limited due to reasons such as timely availability of contextual data at the rig-site, or the need for contextual data that is not readily measured. In this paper, we demonstrate how the problem can be solved, and provide guidance for larger adoption of the process followed by team.
Downhole Trajectory Automation of RSS Tools: Autonomous Drilling Becomes Reality
Authors: Ignova Maja , Mantle Katharine , Brovko Katerina , Abe Vincent , Gorodnov Andrey , Li Ling
Published: March 2023

The ultimate goal of automated drilling is to be able to drill a well with any trajectory autonomously, and any human involvement being purely supervisory.

This goal is evolutionary and began 20 years ago with the introduction of hold-vertical and inclination-hold modes. Since then, hold the inclination and azimuth mode for both push-the-bit and point-the-bit rotary steerable system (RSS) tools was developed and is widely used. More recently, downhole hold-the-curve mode has been introduced for push-the-bit RSS tools. The next in the line for automation is hold-the-curve mode for the point-the-bit RSS tools. This mode is currently in field testing phase with very successful results so far.

This paper presents the path hold-the-curve technology transfer and firmware implementation has taken from one RSS system to another, from concept study to introduction to the field. The automation technology transfer is not a straightforward task because the two RSS systems are different in steering mechanism, the type and noise level of the sensors, the positions of the direction and inclination sensors, their filtering characteristics, and the current downhole control system implementation for both.

The technology transfer and firmware implementation process was accelerated compared with the previous introduction to the field of the downhole automation module because the field has already drilled wells with this type of automation module albeit on a different RSS system. It was easy to transfer the knowledge of how the automated system works and the field personnel learned about the technology on the job, understood it well, and adopted it quickly. The field personnel were confident in using the automated system independently on the first field test and continued to drill the entire section to total depth in this mode.
Applying a Downhole Drilling Mechanics Tool to Improve Operational Procedures and Rig Operating Systems in Horizontal Wells
Authors: Fonseca Isaac S , Isbell Matthew , Groover Austin
Published: March 2023

Managing drilling dysfunction is key to safely drilling horizontal wells in harsh environments. However, extended horizontal wells with long open-hole intervals complicate identifying and addressing dynamic drilling problems using surface measurements. The latest generation downhole drilling mechanics tool uses high-frequency measurements to characterize drilling patterns and dysfunctions in turn, is used to improve rig operational practice and drilling system design.

This paper describes how to capture and analyze downhole drilling data sets, identify areas for improvement, and address them by improving operational rig processes and the drilling system design. The approach is applied with two different operators using two different rig operating systems with two different contractors in two different basins with varying systems of drilling and muds. The drilling process is characterized in different ways, and energy management is closely evaluated using surface and downhole measurements for a comprehensive system perspective.

The authors break down operational activities into processes and apply process improvement concepts to improve drilling outcomes regarding safety, quality, delivery, and cost. The process improvements are sustained by a combination of drilling system design improvement and drilling operation process automation. Examples of the processes improved throughout a well are the repetitive activities completed during drilling a stand of drill pipe (typically about 95’ in length)), an on-bottom transition with the drilling assembly, rotary drilling, and slide drilling operation with conventional steerable systems, and an off-bottom transition. The improvements have saved a trip for two- and three-mile horizontal sections where multiple runs are typical.

This paper describes and demonstrates a repeatable approach to using the drilling rig system, downhole drilling system, and body of operational practice to break down the drilling of an interval into processes for improvement. Using a downhole drilling mechanics sub to characterize energy management and qualify operational practice allows a process improvement approach to managing downhole behaviors with drilling rig control systems.
Real-Time Directional Guidance Through Cloud-Based Well Path Optimization
Authors: Joshi Deep R. , Kamyab Mohammadreza , Cardoso Braga Daniel , Cheatham Curtis Alan
Published: March 2023

This paper shares an implementation of a cloud-based framework that tracks the well position and, in real-time, recommends corrective actions to ensure that the well efficiently follows the well plan. This directional guidance framework can differentiate between vertical, curve, and lateral sections and modify the recommendations accordingly. This paper will share the methods and results from the case studies to validate the directional guidance framework.

This cloud-based directional guidance workflow kicks in as soon as the drilling starts. In real-time, the system tracks the bit position and identifies the active section (vertical, curve, lateral, tangent) for the well. Vertical and lateral sections use recommendations previously reported using particle swarm optimization in SPE-206170 (Cardoso Braga et al., 2021). Equations for curve sections are provided that fit the proposed wellbore trajectory to a 3D spheroid using the current motor yield as calculated using the three most recent slides. A real-time assessment of the estimated actual landing point is presented, and warnings of missing the planned landing point are provided.

The drilling guidance algorithm was tested for individual sections (vertical, tangent, curve, lateral) on three wells. The recommendations were evaluated to ensure they met each section's optimization goals. The optimization goals for the straight sections are to maximize the ROP, maximize the footage in the window, and minimize tortuosity. Weighting factors for each goal adjust the optimum recommendations based on user requirements. The optimization goals for the curve section are to minimize the distance between the planned landing point and the recommended landing points Then, the guidance system was tested on the complete wells to ensure that the algorithm could correctly identify the section and use the appropriate method. The recommendations from all three wells were evaluated to confirm that the recommendations met the specific criteria applied. Close attention was paid to the transition zones between various sections. The directional guidance workflow resulted in real-time recommendations throughout the well profile for all sections. It was consistently able to output specific steps that the directional driller can take to optimally get closer to the plan.

This paper follows up on the previous publications on directional guidance by the authors (SPE 206170 (Cardoso Braga et al., 2021) and SPE 204065 (Cardoso Braga et al., 2021).). It completes the loop on automated directional guidance by adding the missing piece of directional guidance in the curve section and handling transitions between straight (vertical, lateral, tangent) and curve sections. This enables cloud-based automated directional guidance for the entirety of the drilling process.
Learnings from Successful Drilling in Heavily Depleted HPHT Reservoir with Up to 460 Bar Depletion
Authors: Heggheim Trond , Andrews Jamie
Published: March 2023

Gudrun is a high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) field on the Norwegian Continental Shelf which has been in production since 2014. The initial development called for predrilling of the producers prior to commencement of production through depletion drive. In 2020 a second drilling campaign was initiated where the goal was to drill several infill producers and two water injection wells. The issue of drilling in heavily depleted reservoirs was highlighted as a major risk since depletion in some of the layers was expected to be in excess of 450 bar. The operational window was small and uncertain, and several risks were anticipated. Differential depletion in this highly layered reservoir, with the potential for penetrating both heavily depleted layers and non-depleted layers, meant that drilling and completion operations required wellbore pressures in excess of the minimum stress in the heavily depleted layers. There was thus a significant risk for lost circulation and escalation to possible well kick/underground blowout events. To mitigate these risks several actions were taken including Managed pressure drilling (MPD), splitting reservoir drilling into several sections, drilling of near vertical reservoir intervals and the use of active Wellbore Strengthening (WBS)/ Lost Circulation Material (LCM) particles in the mud. The use of optimal background WBS particles was complicated in the first two wells due to risk of plugging of lower completions upon production and so compromises were required to the particle sizes that could be used. This paper summarizes the experience from the successful drilling of these infill wells. It confirms that the use of WBS particles is critical in providing a robust drilling window against losses when the Fracture Gradient (FG) is reliant on near wellbore processes and elevated hoop stress around the wellbore to support downhole pressures that exceed minimum stress deeper in the "body" of the depleted layers. The experience on Gudrun also suggests that the FG is sensitive to the temperature of the mud when drilling the stiff Gudrun layers. The influence of depletion on the minimum horizontal stress, as determined from this drilling campaign, is also discussed and this is related to rock mechanical tests performed on core plugs from the field.
Software-Based Three-Dimensional Scan of a Drill Bit; Advances in Technology and Applications
Authors: Chatar Crispin , Mulchandani Kishore
Published: March 2023

The ability to create a digital avatar of real-world equipment opens the possibility to create various levels of digital and virtual twins. Pairing these with real-time data can be a powerful tool to understand the life cycle, track operations, and collect data to predict the health of equipment. We have been testing new software methods to enable the use of existing technology to generate avatars for equipment. While many companies are also doing this with complex hardware, we have been using new software methods so that hardware requirements could be as simple as a common cell phone. We have applied these techniques to drill bits. The result is an application that creates a three-dimensional reconstructed model of a bit. This creates an avatar of the drilling bit that can be used for many purposes including equipment tracking and data extraction.

Results from the three-dimensional reconstruction and the automating of a simple linear pipeline that converts bit videos to three-dimensional models is demonstrated. The renderings were compared to photos at the same locations and the results were virtually indistinguishable. The models can then be used for virtual twin generation. Multiple scans over the lifespan of the drill bit will allow access to a new way of thinking about virtual twins. One example is the ability to update a model with a snapshot in time and use AI to infer the life of the bit. These models can also be used to run additional analysis since the model can be infused with some contextual information.