bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
8. Applying behaviour
Authors: Wyatt Tristram D.
Published: April 2017

Our behaviour as humans has profound effects on the lives of other animals. ‘Applying behaviour’ explores some of the ways that we can use an understanding of animal behaviour to reduce our conflict with animals as we compete with them for food and space in the global environment. A better understanding of animal behaviour—including mating systems, imprinting, migration, and interactions with other species—can be an important part of attempts to conserve endangered animals. We can also attempt to make life better for our domesticated animals. Every way of studying animal behaviour—from neuroscience, development, learning, to behavioural ecology—can play a part.
4. Shedding light on the clock
Authors: Foster Russell G. , Kreitzman Leon
Published: April 2017

Most circadian clocks make use of a sun-based mechanism as the primary entraining signal to lock the internal day to the astronomical day. For nearly four billion years, dawn and dusk has been the main zeitgeber that allows entrainment. Circadian clocks are not exactly 24 hours. So to prevent daily patterns of activity and rest from freerunning over time, light can reset the clock. ‘Shedding light on the clock’ explains that the main circadian clock has been located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus. This also regulates the activity of the autonomic nervous system, but there are clocks in virtually every cell in the human body. Other zeitgebers include food, physical exercise, and temperature.
2. Nuclear alchemy
Authors: Close Frank
Published: April 2017

‘Nuclear alchemy’ outlines the further discoveries of protons (the carriers of positive charge in atoms) by Ernest Rutherford and neutrons (particles with no electrical charge) by James Chadwick, which led to the further explanation of atomic structure. It also describes transmutation; isotopes; gamma radioactivity; sources of radioactivity; nuclear energy scales and units; the work of Irene and Frédéric Joliot-Curie on induced radioactivity and nuclear fission; and energy waves and resolution. It was in 1932 that John Cockroft and Ernest Walton made the first nuclear particle accelerator and created a practical tool for investigating the structure of the atomic nucleus.
6. Beyond the periodic table
Authors: Close Frank
Published: April 2017

‘Beyond the periodic table’ describes the synthesis of transuranium and super heavy elements. It begins with uranium-235, uranium-238, and the breeding of plutonium in a nuclear reactor. Uranium (with 92 protons) is the heaviest element found copiously on Earth. There are trace amounts of the next six elements, neptunium (Np), number 93, to californium (Cf) at 98. All other known elements do not occur naturally on Earth. Einsteinium (Es) at 99 and fermium (Fm) at 100 were formed during hydrogen bomb tests in the 1950s. As of 2014, the heaviest element synthesised with certainty is number 117, ‘un-un-septium’. It is possible that heavier elements exist in the cosmos in the form of neutron stars.
3. Encyclopaedia, scientia generalis , and the academies of sciences
Authors: Antognazza Maria Rosa
Published: April 2017

The characteristica universalis was intended to provide the key instrument of a scientia generalis leading to the development of a new kind of encyclopaedia of all the sciences. ‘Encyclopaedia, scientia generalis, and the academies of sciences’ describes Leibniz’s plan to undertake the collection and systematic reorganization of all available knowledge into an updated version of Johann Heinrich Alsted’s universal encyclopaedia of all the arts and sciences. The ‘inventive’ or ‘demonstrative’ encyclopaedia could be expounded as a result of the systematic and cross-disciplinary application of relevant principles and methods. Leibniz was aware that this project should be a collaborative enterprise undertaken on a scale that only an enlightened ruler could support.
9. Monads, corporeal substances, and bodies
Authors: Antognazza Maria Rosa
Published: April 2017

‘Monads, corporeal substances, and bodies’ explores the relationship between monads and the extended bodies of the physical world. How Leibniz conceives bodies in his mature metaphysics is one of the most discussed issues in recent decades. In particular, specialists debate whether Leibniz’s metaphysical model allows for genuine corporeal substances. Leibniz writes repeatedly about corporeal substances: the question is how these writings should be interpreted. Are corporeal substances quasi-Aristotelian substances, irreducible to monads, and hence the primary substances of a competing metaphysical model? The problem is that Leibniz never provided a Summa of his philosophy or metaphysics so it is not known whether he had a final settled view.
3. Partition and the ‘all-India’ film
Authors: Rajadhyaksha Ashish
Published: April 2017

India officially became ‘independent’ in 1947 and a Republic in 1950. Neither were easy transitions. The cinema would inherit all of India’s political contradictions. It would soon become apparent that India, once incapable of creating an ‘Empire’ film, was now equally unable to provide the newly free country with a properly nationalist cinema. ‘Partition and the “all-India” film’ describes India’s film industry in Bombay after the war; the arrival of the most famous stars; the success of film music; and the impact of independent auteurs Satyajit Ray, Guru Dutt, and Ritwik Ghatak, who defined local industries as they emerged from out of the shadow of Bombay.
2. Isotopic clocks
Authors: Ellam Rob
Published: April 2017

About one in a trillion atoms of carbon is the radioactive isotope 14C. It is a ‘cosmogenic isotope’ produced by the interaction between atmospheric nitrogen (N) and cosmic rays. The half-life of 14C is 5,730 years, so every 5,730 years the ratio of 14C to 12C will halve. ‘Isotopic clocks: the persistence of carbon’ describes how scientists Willard Libby, Hessel de Vries, Hans Seuss, and their contemporaries established the radiocarbon dating technique. Radiocarbon has become one of the most valuable isotopic tools available to scientists looking to date materials formed over the past 50,000 years or to trace and apportion different sources of carbon.
3. You are what you eat … plus a few per mil
Authors: Ellam Rob
Published: April 2017

‘You are what you eat … plus a few per mil’ explains delta notation and organic isotopic fractionation. An isotopic balance has to be maintained, so the isotopic fractionation into a mineral crystallizing from a fluid will be balanced by a change in the isotopic composition of the remaining fluid. Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and strontium isotope values can be measured through the food chain and in animal and human bones. There is also a geographical oxygen isotope zonation, but this is disrupted by major changes in topography. Isotopic measurements helped in identifying King Richard III’s bones and providing background to the life of the 5,000-year-old ‘Ötzi the Iceman’ found in the Ötztal Alps.
4. Measuring isotopes
Authors: Ellam Rob
Published: April 2017

‘Measuring isotopes: counting the atoms’ explores how isotopes are measured. For stable isotopes, atoms of each isotope are counted using a mass spectrometer. This turns atoms into charged ions and separates them into the different isotopic species using a mass filter. Precise measurements of isotopic abundance can be achieved in a few minutes or hours. Mass spectrometry could be used for radioactive isotopes, but for short-lived isotopes, their low abundance often makes them difficult to detect. The alternative is to use nuclear spectroscopy or counting methods to detect the characteristic energy released by the radioactive decay of a particular isotope, but these can be much longer processes.
10. Probing the Earth with isotopes
Authors: Ellam Rob
Published: April 2017

‘Probing the Earth with isotopes’ shows how, using isotopes, we have come to understand the structure and behaviour of the Earth. The outer few tens of kilometres are divided into continental and oceanic crust. Below the crust, the sub-surface is divided into the mantle and the core. From the base of the crust to about 2,800 km depth, the Earth is rocky and composed of minerals like olivine and pyroxene that are rich in magnesium, iron, and calcium. From about 2,800 km to about 5,100 km depth the outer core is liquid. The remaining 1,200 km or so to the centre of the Earth is solid metal.
2. DNA
Authors: Divan Aysha , Royds Janice A.
Published: April 2017

Another significant milestone was the publication in 2003 of the complete sequence of the human genome—the entire DNA contained within the forty-six chromosomes located in the nucleus of each human somatic (body) cell. Once this was published, further worldwide projects were launched to work out what the functions of these genes and other regions of the genome actually were. ‘DNA’ outlines the components of the human genome and their organization; DNA replication; mutations and correction mechanisms; polymorphisms; and new DNA technologies, including gene cloning, the polymerase chain reaction, and sequencing methods. Finally, bioinformatics and the subsequent issues of privacy and how this information could be used are discussed.
8. Molecular forensics
Authors: Divan Aysha , Royds Janice A.
Published: April 2017

A key challenge for molecular biology is to use research outcomes to meet the demands of modern society. ‘Molecular forensics’ shows that molecular markers are having a substantial impact; from bench to boardroom or even courtroom. DNA profiling plays a role in helping to solve crimes and miscarriages of justice. Although 99.5 per cent of the human DNA sequence is the same for everyone, there are small regions of variability that are specific to each individual giving each person a unique DNA profile, or fingerprint. DNA profile applications are increasing and are now used to identify food counterfeits and contamination of food; to tackle pandemics and epidemics; and in biosecurity measures.
6. The new administrative age
Authors: Theodoulou Stella Z. , Roy Ravi K.
Published: April 2017

Many New Public Management approaches failed to address deeper systemic issues underlying the actual causes of poor performance. As a result, a variety of alternative methods and approaches have been gaining popularity in public administration in recent years. ‘The new administrative age’ introduces reflective practice, which has been gaining a strong foothold in the areas of organizational management, and the characteristics of learning and effective organizations. It goes on to consider another emergent approach—the New Public Service—which emphasizes civic-oriented virtues over business principles. Creating ‘public value’ involves encouraging citizens to get more directly involved in establishing collective goals and then working with them to develop strategies for achieving them.
2. Myth and philosophy
Authors: Segal Robert A.
Published: April 2017

‘Myth and philosophy’ examines the many positions held on the relationship between myth and philosophy: that myth is part of philosophy, that myth is philosophy, that philosophy is myth, that myth grows out of philosophy, that philosophy grows out of myth, that myth and philosophy are independent of each other but serve the same function, and that myth and philosophy are independent of each other and serve different functions. It considers the theories of the Polish-born anthropologist Paul Radin (1883–1959), the German-born philosopher Ernst Cassirer (1874–1945), the German theologian Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976), the German-born philosopher Hans Jonas (1903–93), and the French existentialist writer Albert Camus (1913–60).
4. Myth and ritual
Authors: Segal Robert A.
Published: April 2017

‘Myth and ritual’ explores the myth-ritualist theory, which proposes myth does not stand by itself, but is tied to ritual. Myth is not just a statement but an action. Whatever the tie between myth and ritual, the myth-ritualist theory differs from other theories of myth and from other theories of ritual in focusing on the tie. The arguments for and against this theory are examined, as is its application to literature. For literary myth-ritualists, myth becomes literature when myth is severed from ritual. Myth tied to ritual is religious literature; myth cut off from ritual is secular literature. Literary myth-ritualism is a theory not of myth and ritual themselves, but of their impact on literature.
1. Ageing, a brief history
Authors: Pachana Nancy A.
Published: April 2017

How has the construct of ageing, and attitudes towards it, changed over time? How have human beings from various historical epochs, cultures, and perspectives viewed ageing? What impact have these views about ageing had on individuals and our broader society? ‘Ageing, a brief history’ considers these questions and shows that from the ancient world to the modern there have been conflicting views on ageing. It examines historical trends in longevity and lifespan, and factors influencing life expectancy and ageing. We are now at a point in history where the number of individuals over the age of 65 will surpass those aged 5 and under, across the developed and developing world.
4. Social and interpersonal aspects of ageing
Authors: Pachana Nancy A.
Published: April 2017

How we interact with others, with the physical and social environment, as well as how well we cope with life events, role changes, and positive and negative stresses all affect how we age. Later life is also intimately connected to, and affected by, circumstances and decisions earlier in life. Social support and engagement are critical for physical and emotional well-being. ‘Social and interpersonal aspects of ageing’ explores ageing in a social and societal context. The ways in which older adults engage with younger cohorts and their contribution to their family, communities, and society more broadly have changed over time and have also been affected by social and technological advances.
6. Reflections on ageing and future directions
Authors: Pachana Nancy A.
Published: April 2017

‘Reflections on ageing and future directions’ considers some of the new directions in geriatric research and clinical practice; exciting developments in healthcare and technology, including personalized medicine; and new, promising models of aged care, such as the Green House nursing homes in the USA and Small Group Living homes in the Netherlands. It also looks at what we are learning from the growing number of supercentenarian studies. The very end of life, with attendant fears about death and dying, as well as potential positive gains to be made through cognitive training and other ‘brain games’, are also considered.
1. Privacy in peril
Authors: Wacks Raymond
Published: April 2017

Electronic and aerial surveillance, biometrics, closed circuit TV (CCTV), identity cards, radio frequency identification (RFID) codes, online security, encryption, the Google ‘right to be forgotten’ controversy, interception of email, the monitoring of employees, DNA, cloning, stem cell research, the ‘war on terror’—to mention only a few—all raise fundamental questions about privacy. Reports of the fragility of ‘privacy’ have, of course, been sounded for at least a century. In respect of the future of ‘privacy‘, there can be little doubt that the questions are changing before our eyes. And if, in the flat-footed domain of atoms, we have achieved only limited success in protecting individuals’ privacy, how much better the prospects in our binary universe? An account of some of the major forms of intrusion is provided, and controls over their use proposed.
6. The death of privacy?
Authors: Wacks Raymond
Published: April 2017

Privacy is under attack from several quarters. The ‘war on terror’ has amplified this pressure. The Internet, increased surveillance, and sensationalist journalism seriously undermine individuals’ control over their private lives. Many advocates believe that the protection of privacy stands in need of urgent renewal. Has the Internet sounded privacy’s death knell? The rapid advance of information technology, especially the Internet, has generated widespread concern about protection of personal data, with many jurisdictions adopting data protection legislation. Ironically, technology generates both the malady and part of the cure. While the law is rarely an effective tool against the dedicated intruder, advances in protective software, along with fair information practices of the European Directive and laws of several jurisdictions, afford a rational and sound normative framework for the collection, use, and transfer of personal data. Some of these questions—likely to dominate 21st-century discussions of privacy—are considered in this concluding chapter.
Babylonian society through the perspective of Hammurabi’s Laws
Authors: Bryce Trevor
Published: April 2017

An imposing stone stele (pillar) discovered during excavations of the ancient city of Susa in ad 1901–2 depicts Shamash, god of justice, and the Babylonian king, Hammurabi. It is also inscribed with a series of laws that largely define Hammurabi’s role as the shepherd of his people, and the protector of the weak and vulnerable among his subjects. ‘Babylonian society through the perspective of Hammurabi’s Laws’ outlines the nature and content of these laws and describes the information they provide about social hierarchy in Babylonia. In practice, Hammurabi’s Laws were not prescriptive rulings, but a set of guidelines—embodying important principles of justice—for the good governance of society.
The Kassites: (c.1570–1155 bc)
Authors: Bryce Trevor
Published: April 2017

The Hittite sack of Babylon around 1595 ended the Old Babylonian Kingdom and left a political power vacuum in the region. It was not until the arrival of the Kassites from the Eurasian steppe lands that the kingdom became politically stable. ‘The Kassites’ outlines how, despite few written and archaeological sources, the Kassites took control of the region and bestowed the greatest benefit on Babylonia in the form of nationhood. Their respect for the traditions and customs of their subjects provided a peaceful, secure environment within the land, which helped ensure that the arts and sciences flourished, in such fields as literature, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, music, art, and architecture.
The Neo-Babylonian empire: (626–539 bc)
Authors: Bryce Trevor
Published: April 2017

In 626, Babylon’s throne was seized from Assyrian control by Nabopolassar. Weakness and instability in the heartland of the Assyrian kingdom, which followed the death of Assyria’s last great king, Ashurbanipal, were exploited by the vigorous new Babylonian leader to throw off the shackles of Assyrian overlordship and establish a new independent kingdom in the south. ‘The Neo-Babylonian empire’ describes Nabopolassar’s reign before considering the defining figure of the Neo-Babylonian era: his son, Nebuchadnezzar II. Militarily, Nebuchadnezzar established the most powerful and the most far-reaching empire of any Babylonian king. The last ruler of the empire was Nabonidus, who spent much of his reign in Tayma in northern Arabia.
Production and people
Authors: Whiteside Alan
Published: April 2017

‘Production and people’ examines the socioeconomic impact of AIDS, predicted to decrease economic growth. Yet many countries have nonetheless continued to grow. The effect on the private sector depends on a region’s industry and the scale of its epidemic, but there are more options to combat economic effects than in the public sector. The majority of people in high prevalence countries live in rural areas and primarily depend on subsistence agriculture; AIDS is adversely affecting agriculture, predominantly through its impact on labour. It is at the household level that AIDS is most destructive, creating stress and destroying families—becoming impoverished by their burden of care.
1. From Newton to Einstein
Authors: Clifton Timothy
Published: April 2017

Gravity is the weakest of nature’s four fundamental forces, yet over large distances it dominates. This is because gravity, unlike the other forces in nature, is only ever attractive. The gravitational force between objects always increases as they become larger and have more mass. Despite the efforts of Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein, gravity remains an enigmatic puzzle. ‘From Newton to Einstein’ considers the pre-history of gravity including the ideas of Aristotle and Galileo. It describes Newton’s theory of gravity, first published in 1687. It finally explains Einstein’s theory of gravity, which supplanted Newton’s theory, and explains that is the curvature of space-time that is responsible for it all.
2. Gravity in the Solar System
Authors: Clifton Timothy
Published: April 2017

By observing the motion of planets and other objects in the Solar System (e.g. comets, asteroids, moons, and man-made spacecraft), we can learn a great deal about the behaviour of gravity. ‘Gravity in the Solar System’ reviews the experiments that have been undertaken to probe the foundational assumptions of gravity theories, including Newton’s law and Einstein’s theory. These foundational assumptions include the fact that the rest mass of an object should be independent of its position, and independent of its motion with respect to other bodies; the idea that the speed of light should be the same in every direction; and that all objects should fall at the same rate.
2. The future multiplied
Authors: Gidley Jennifer M.
Published: April 2017

What if there is not one future that can be colonized and controlled, but many possible futures that can be imagined, designed, and created collaboratively? In everyday language we speak of a singular future, which has both conceptual and political implications. ‘The future multiplied’ outlines early future research—influenced by scientific positivism—with its predictive-empirical approach, then discusses pluralism in the social sciences and the shift to multiple futures thinking. Pluralizing the future opens it up for envisioning and creating alternative futures to the status quo. The chapter concludes with a variety of methods used in multiple futures research approaches, including the four-step Swinburne methodology used in strategic foresight applications.
3. Guru Granth Sahib
Authors: Nesbitt Eleanor
Published: April 2017

For day to day guidance, Sikhs turn to the Guru Granth Sahib. Does the guidance provided by the Guru Granth Sahib have the same relationship to Guru Nanak and his successors as a guidebook has to its author, or is the Granth a guide in some other, non-comparable way? Sikhs believe that the Guru Granth Sahib is the last of the Gurus in the line from Guru Nanak. ‘Guru Granth Sahib’ looks at how the sacred volume is venerated by Sikhs as uniquely authoritative and how it is seen as central to their lives. What is the message of the Guru Granth Sahib? How were the scriptures compiled? What do Sikhs read from the scriptures?
3. Through the looking glass
Authors: Cottrell Geoff
Published: April 2017

The magnifying property of glass lenses has been known about since antiquity, but telescopes were first made in the 16th century, and in the early 17th century Galileo created a telescope powerful enough to see stars sixty-four times fainter than with unaided eyes. ‘Through the looking glass’ outlines the key features of the two main types of telescopes: reflectors and refractors. In order to see deeper into our cosmos, bigger and bigger telescopes have been needed. Three great reflector telescopes are described: George Hale’s 60-inch (1.5 m) Cassegrain Telescope from 1908, the 100-inch Hooker Telescope from 1917, and the 200-inch Hale Telescope that has played a leading role in astronomy and cosmology for at least three decades.
5. Instruments of light
Authors: Cottrell Geoff
Published: April 2017

In the eye, detection is done by the retina. In telescopes operating in different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, light interacts with matter in different ways, and so a variety of detectors is used. ‘Instruments of light’ describes how, first, photographic, and then electronic light detectors have greatly increased the sensitivity of telescopes, and made it possible to record the state of the sky, as well as obtain information on the physical properties of stars and galaxies. It describes photometry, the quantum efficiency of light detectors, charge-coupled devices, and high-energy proton detectors, and explains the processes of diffraction grating and spectroscopy. Telescopes and their detectors are now inseparable.
2. The importance of place
Authors: Fox Michael Allen
Published: April 2017

Home is a place, so when thinking about home, our concept of place needs to be stretched in order to accommodate quite different dimensions of meaning. ‘The importance of place’ considers the range of home sizes; the concepts of embeddedness and placelessness; and the impact of landscapes, ecosystems, and bioregions in shaping inhabitants’ lives and cultures. The momentousness of place in shaping human evolution, history, the distinctiveness of cultural groups, present-day political realities, and the character of individual lives cannot be overestimated. What we think of a place and enjoy or lament about it is determined by a great many factors, which shape our sense of what and where we call home.
3. Dwelling and dwellings
Authors: Fox Michael Allen
Published: April 2017

Dwelling is both an activity and a location in which that activity takes place. ‘Dwelling and dwellings’ considers some of the many types of abodes in which dwelling has occurred or does so today, and reflects further on the deep significance that may be attached to dwelling. It looks at the shape and function of areas of the home and how previous dwellers of a home may affect the dwelling for future inhabitants. It also discusses the transient accommodation of nomadic peoples. It concludes that homes provide ways of connecting with one another, with our surroundings, and with the history of the place we are in.
3. Culture
Authors: Balserak Jon
Published: April 2017

In the judgement of many Calvinists, culture is profoundly important. Calvinism speaks of God’s kingship or will in two distinct ways: God’s ‘will of decree’ and God’s ‘will of precept’. But what is God’s plan? ‘Culture’ outlines the two-kingdoms doctrine where Calvinists distinguish between God’s governing of the world and his governing of the church. Calvinists and Neo-Calvinists both affirm God’s lordship over every sphere of life, but their thoughts diverge on God’s plans for these spheres and particularly on whether the cultural sphere is a part of his redemptive plans. To understand their position we need to address Calvinist understandings of culture and common grace. Calvinism’s cultural legacy is also discussed.
1. Economics and behaviour
Authors: Baddeley Michelle
Published: April 2017

Why is there so much interest in behavioural economics and how is it different? ‘Economics and behaviour’ explains how behavioural economists bring economics together with insights from other disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, neuroscience, and evolutionary biology. Using this multidisciplinary approach, behavioural economists enrich our understanding of economic and financial behaviour, without necessarily abandoning the analytical power often associated with conventional economics. Behavioural economists assume there are some limits to rational decision-making and draw on the concepts of bounded, ecological, and selective rationality. Behavioural economists also need to find relevant and reliable data including experimental and neuroscientific data. Natural experiments and randomized controlled trials are explained.
5. Pharmaceuticals and medicinal chemistry
Authors: Patrick Graham
Published: April 2017

One of the most important applications of organic chemistry involves the design and synthesis of pharmaceutical agents—a topic defined as medicinal chemistry. ‘Pharmaceuticals and medicinal chemistry’ describes the pathfinder years of the 19th and 20th centuries before considering the development of rational drug design from the 1960s. It explains the identification of a drug target; how drug testing and bioassays work; the identification of lead compounds, structure activity relationships, and pharmacopores; and drug optimization. It outlines the processes of drug development through preclinical trials, clinical trials, and regulatory affairs. Finally, it looks to the future and outlines some of the challenges ahead as well as considering veterinary drugs and drugs of abuse.
8. Polymers, plastics, and textiles
Authors: Patrick Graham
Published: April 2017

Over the last fifty years, synthetic materials have largely replaced natural materials such as wood, leather, wool, and cotton. Plastics and polymers are perhaps the most visible sign of how organic chemistry has changed society. ‘Polymers, plastics, and textiles’ explains that polymerization involves linking molecular building blocks (termed monomers) into long molecular strands called polymers and describes the two general approaches to preparing polymers: addition polymers and condensation polymers. The various health, environmental, ecological, and economic issues are considered before looking at the processes of recycling and depolymerization and recent efforts to develop biodegradable plastics and bioplastics. It ends with exciting new developments of new polymers with novel applications.
Literary compositions of the scrolls collections
Authors: Lim Timothy H.
Published: April 2017

‘Literary compositions of the scrolls collections’ shows that the literary nature of the scroll collections would suggest that they originally belonged to one or more libraries rather than to archives for storing documents. The term ‘library’ is unsuitable, however, as a descriptor of a collection made up of texts from different sources. The corpus of scrolls comprises a heterogeneous collection of writings: from the sectarian to those belonging to Second Temple Judaism. Certain texts, such as the Genesis Apocryphon that gives more information on Abram and Sarai’s journey through Egypt, provide new interpretations of scriptural accounts. The targum of Job was an Aramaic translation of the Book of Job.
The communities of the Dead Sea Scrolls
Authors: Lim Timothy H.
Published: April 2017

‘The communities of the Dead Sea Scrolls’ assesses what we know about the social structure and daily lives of the Qumran community. Early estimates of the community’s size suggested thousands of members, but it was more likely dozens. Vermes describes a monastic brotherhood living in the desert with a strict penal code and stratified hierarchy. A parallel urban community lived nearer to Jerusalem. This group shared many beliefs with the brotherhood but attended Temple and raised families. Debates rage about the communities’ origin. The Damascus Document suggests they predate the Maccabaean period, but this does not tally with our knowledge of their adversaries. The Groningen Hypothesis is a viable alternative.
A recent field
Authors: Passingham Richard
Published: April 2017

The field of cognitive neuroscience was born in the late 1970s, but was transformed over the next two decades with the development of techniques such as positron emission tomography and functional magnetic brain imaging, which have allowed the activity of the brain in healthy people to be visualized while they carry out psychological tasks. ‘A recent field’ considers the importance of understanding and interpreting brain images and how they can be used to answer psychological questions. Imaging can advance psychology in three ways: by trying to account for human capacities, by considering human limitations, and by providing an explanation for the psychological effects of disorders of the nervous system.
Remembering
Authors: Passingham Richard
Published: April 2017

How can we explain amnesia for the past, yet retention of knowledge learned at school? Why do we begin to forget people’s names when we are in our fifties? Why do people with Alzheimer’s disease have difficulty in finding their way? ‘Remembering’ considers these questions and looks at the difference between ‘episodic’ and ‘semantic’ memories and the importance of the hippocampus region of the brain. Episodic and semantic memories depend on distinct anatomical systems: a medial system remembers events in our life, and a ventral and lateral system is for knowledge concerning objects. The effects of ageing, dementia, and Alzheimer’s disease on memory are also discussed.
Deciding
Authors: Passingham Richard
Published: April 2017

Why do we sometimes make absent-minded mistakes? Why do we choose immediate rewards rather than longer-term rewards that are larger? What is the basis for moral reasoning? While considering these questions, ‘Deciding’ shows that the prefrontal cortex is in a unique position in the processing hierarchy. It has access to information about the current situation, information about the current needs and aims, and access to the motor system. The prefrontal cortex is critically involved in preparing, deciding, and planning for the future. Human ability to plan in the head and imagine outcomes both for themselves and others is also dependent on this area of the brain.
4. In the service of the faith
Authors: Rady Martyn
Published: April 2017

Ferdinand II’s reign is regarded as a turning point in Habsburg history. He rebuilt Habsburg power in Central Europe and changed decisively the region’s religious and political complexion. He restored Catholicism to a large part of his dominions and broke the power of the diets and nobility in the Austrian and Bohemian lands. ‘In the service of the faith: 17th and 18th centuries’ outlines his rule and the work of his immediate successors. It also describes the ‘Thirty Years War’ (1618–48), the Peace of Westphalia that ended the conflict, and the end of the Habsburgs’ global empire with the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700.
4. Byzantium and Islam
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: April 2017

By the end of the 7th century, a new superpower was applying pressure on the East Roman Empire. ‘Byzantium and Islam’ describes the rise of Arab power and the evolution of Islam. The Damascus-based Umayyad dynasty ruled over the Islamic empire from the late 7th to the middle of the 8th century and directed the jihad against Constantinople and gave greater definition to Islam. The priorities of the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad in the 8th century lay to the east, easing pressure on Byzantium. The subsequent fragmentation of the Islamic world allowed Byzantium’s revival through the 9th and 10th centuries. By the early 11th century, Byzantium was once again the greatest power in Christendom.
7. The military judiciary
Authors: Fidell Eugene R.
Published: April 2017

Judicial independence is such a given in democratic countries that it tends to be taken for granted, but judicial independence is even more vulnerable in the context of military justice because of the inherently insular nature of such systems. ‘The military judiciary’ considers the issues that may affect judicial independence. A key issue is terms of office, or lack of them. Another aspect that can influence the independence of military trial judges is the fundamental question of who appoints them. Should they be appointed by the armed forces or the defense ministry or should they be appointed by civilians outside the defense establishment? The appellate review system is also discussed.
7. De revolutionibus
Authors: Gingerich Owen
Published: April 2017

Soon after his return to Wittenberg, Rheticus was appointed dean of the university. This delayed his travel to the printer in Nuremberg, but after a year of teaching he was granted leave. By early spring of 1542, the printing of the six books of De revolutionibus began, with Rheticus acting as a full-time copy reader until his appointment to a new professorship in Leipzig, when he was replaced by Andreas Osiander, a local clergyman well trained in Latin, Greek, and mathematics. ‘De revolutionibus’ outlines the complicated printing process involved with the technical material and the structure and breakdown of the six volumes.
8. The book nobody read
Authors: Gingerich Owen
Published: April 2017

An anonymous introductory essay was added to De revolutionibus. Rheticus was outraged by this unauthorized addition—later attributed to Andreas Osiander—as it suggested Copernicus’s work could be a safe recipe book for computing the positions of planets but should not be considered as actual physical reality. ‘The book nobody read’ describes the reactions of readers of the book, including Johannes Kepler and Galileo, who began to campaign for the Catholic Church to maintain an open position with respect to the heliocentric cosmology. The Vatican responded by placing De revolutionibus on the Index of Prohibited Books. It was not until 1835 that the Catholic ban on the book would be lifted.
2. The circulation of the atmosphere
Authors: Dunlop Storm
Published: April 2017

‘The circulation of the atmosphere’ outlines the general model of the movement of air around the Earth. There are three circulation cells either side of the equator: the Hadley cell (nearest to the equator) and the polar cell, driven by specific temperature and pressure gradients, and the Ferrel cell between them. It describes global pressure patterns and the Coriolis effect, which results in south-westerly trade winds in the northern hemisphere and north-westerly trade winds in the southern. Also described are the Intertropical Convergence Zone, the polar easterlies, the westerlies, and how air moves around high- and low-pressure regions. The action of the surface winds also produces the various ocean currents.
6. Weather in the tropics
Authors: Dunlop Storm
Published: April 2017

‘Weather in the tropics’ considers the weather systems between the two subtropical anticyclones, lying at approximately latitudes 30 °N and S. The trade winds consist of air that flows out of the subtropical anticyclones towards the equatorial trough. They are strongest in the winter season, tending to weaken during the summer. The northern and southern hemisphere trade winds converge at the Intertropical Convergence Zone, whose position is variable. The South Pacific Convergence Zone is closely associated with the changes involved in the Walker Circulation and El Niño events. The convergence zones over the Indian Ocean show major changes in location during the northern summer, and these are related to seasonal monsoons.
2. What is blood?
Authors: Cooper Chris
Published: April 2017

‘What is blood?’ describes the constituent parts of blood: a fluid called plasma in which three different cell types are carried—red cells, white cells, and platelets. Red cells are dominated by the red protein haemoglobin that plays the key role in transporting oxygen from the lungs to the tissue. A lack of red blood cells is called anaemia. A lack of iron is the main cause, iron being required to make a functional haemoglobin protein. White cells, or leucocytes, perform many and varied roles in the body, but all are related to immune defence against pathogens. Platelets have only one function: the prevention of excess bleeding through coagulation.
7. Theories and neurobiology of development
Authors: Goswami Usha
Published: April 2017

‘Theories and neurobiology of development’ defines what a theory is and examines how the theories of two famous psychologists, Piaget and Vygotsky, have aided the current understanding of child development. Classically, theories of child development were based on observations of child behaviour. Piaget focused on the growth of logical thinking and Vygotsky looked at the influence of culture and language on child development. More recent ideas from neurobiology, particularly in brain imaging and genetics, are changing the way we look at child psychology. However, information from neuroscience will never replace the importance of understanding child development at the psychological level.
5. The constitutional peace
Authors: Richmond Oliver P.
Published: April 2017

‘The constitutional peace’ recounts the history of peace that emerges from the use of law, institutions, rights, and prosperity rather than enforced military power. This idea was born out of the Enlightenment and was partly in response to violent excesses of elite and state power. This type of peace is more stable than one dependent on victory from conflict. Its advantage is that it is seen as being based on a desire to balance the interests, needs, and rights of a population. It therefore makes the international order more sustainable because it is based on a positive version of peace.
9. Hybrid forms of peace
Authors: Richmond Oliver P.
Published: April 2017

‘Hybrid forms of peace’ describes types of peace which lie beyond liberal peace frameworks. These are emerging in diverse locations around the world today and are neither strictly liberal nor local. They are hybrids, formed through political contestation involving a range of actors, their preferences, and security interests. These forms of peace can be either negative or positive. The issues that those aiming at peacebuilding and statebuilding face raise the question of how contributions to peace from a range of informal local actors may be understood and externally supported.
3. Metatheatre and modernity
Authors: Shepherd-Barr Kirsten E.
Published: April 2017

The period 1920–40 saw the flowering of high modernism, involving radical innovation and experimentation across literature and the arts including the theatre. Dramatists in these decades stretched audiences’ expectations and imaginations as never before, and introduced ever more daring subject matter and characterization. ‘Metatheatre and modernity’ discusses some of the key figures in modern drama, including Bertolt Brecht and Luigi Pirandello. Both playwrights wanted to provoke their audiences, but where Pirandello’s aesthetic was philosophically inclined, Brecht’s was informed by ideology, politics, and the desire to change society. This period also witnessed a surge of new plays by women—many dealing with feminist concerns—as well as the emergence of political theatre and surrealism.
4. Salesmen, southerners, anger, and ennui
Authors: Shepherd-Barr Kirsten E.
Published: April 2017

From 1940 to 1960 some of modern drama’s most famous plays were staged: Tennessee Williams’ A Streetcar Named Desire (1947) and Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman (1949), attaining a new kind of tragedy and a particularly American brand of realism; and, in London, Beckett’s Waiting for Godot (1955) and John Osborne’s Look Back in Anger (1956), introducing, respectively, the ‘theatre of the absurd’ and a new linguistic and emotional brutality, inaugurating an era of ‘kitchen sink’ realism. ‘Salesmen, southerners, anger, and ennui’ shows how these radically different dramas expanded plays’ subject matter as well as their formal and linguistic properties; in particular, they changed forever the way language (and silence) worked on stage.
2. Scepticism
Authors: Nagel Jennifer
Published: April 2017

When you start to get self-conscious about what you know, even the simplest fact, something you usually think you could verify at a glance, can start to seem like something you don’t really know. ‘Scepticism’ describes the historical roots of scepticism beginning with the two distinct sceptical traditions: Academic and Pyrrhonian. A central worry of both schools of ancient scepticism concerns the ‘criterion of truth’ or the rule we should use to figure out what to accept, assuming that knowledge requires not just accepting things randomly. Modern approaches to scepticism from philosopher G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell's ‘Inference to the Best Explanation’ to Hilary Putnam's Semantic Externalism and the brain-in-a-vat hypothesis are discussed.
3. Rationalism and empiricism
Authors: Nagel Jennifer
Published: April 2017

‘Rationalism and empiricism’ considers the different ways of thinking about nature that emerged in the Early Modern period, illustrated by René Descartes' rationalism and John Locke's empiricism. How did they come to produce such different theories of knowledge? In the Meditations, Descartes takes a first-person approach: his guiding question is ‘What can I know for certain?’. Locke adopts a third-person approach, drawing on his observations of others alongside himself. The question Locke aims to answer is ‘What do human beings know?’. In modern terminology, the choice between taking a first-person or a third-person approach is the choice between ‘internalism’ and ‘externalism’.
8. Foreknowledge and freedom (Boethius and Gersonides)
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: April 2017

Most people take it for granted that some future events are contingent, but ‘Foreknowledge and freedom (Boethius and Gersonides)’ considers the ‘problem of prescience’, which arises when an omniscient God is added to the picture. After more than 2,000 years of discussion, this problem of prescience still exercises philosophers of religion. The Aristotelian way of conceiving contingency and necessity, and about compatibilism and incompatibilism, is discussed before considering the views of Boethius, Abelard, Aquinas, Duns Scotus, Avicenna, Averroes, and Maimonides. It concludes with Gersonides’ solution to the problem. Perhaps Gersonides’ bold idea that humans exercise their God-given freedom outside divine providence, and even divine awareness, needs no explaining away.
3. Desire
Authors: Sousa Ronald de
Published: April 2017

Love essentially involves desire. But what is desire? And what sorts of desire are characteristic of love? ‘Desire’ explains that some of the things lovers want are features desirable in any friendly relationship: trust, intimacy, emotional resonance, companionship, concern for one another’s welfare. Erotic love adds more specific desires. The full cycle of desire and pleasure has five stages: (1) desire motivates us to pursue a goal; (2) pursuit secures the object of desire; (3) the object of desire causes pleasure; (4) pleasure triggers the reward mechanism; and (5) that mechanism reinforces the desire. The curse of satisfaction, the altruists’ dilemma, and two types of desire—reason-based and reason-free desire—are also considered.
1. History, genre, text
Authors: Allen William
Published: April 2017

‘History, genre, text’ introduces this overview of classical literature, a period spanning over 1,200 years (c.750 bc to ad 500) and explains how these texts survived to this day. The conventional periodization of classical literature — archaic, classical, Hellenistic, and imperial for Greek literature; Republican and imperial for Latin — mirrors the familiar chunks of ancient history. A striking aspect of classical literature is its highly developed sense of genre. But what is genre? Classical literature is characterized by a hierarchy of genres, from ‘high’ forms such as epic, tragedy, and history to ‘low’ forms such as comedy, satire, mime, and epigram.
3. Lyric and personal poetry
Authors: Allen William
Published: April 2017

‘Lyric and personal poetry’ focuses on a wide range of poetry, from early Greek lyric to Roman love elegy. These various forms are united in their basis in the world of the speaker (the ‘I’ of the poem), whose ideas and experiences come to the fore. Greek lyric poetry embraces all early Greek poetry that is not epic or drama, and is sub-divided into smaller genres — iambus, elegy, and lyric poetry proper, both solo and choral. The main performance venues for these different forms of poetry were the symposium and the public festival. The lyric poetry of Sappho, Pindar, Ovid, Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, and Horace is discussed.