bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Corporatist Trade‐Off Strategy
Authors: Archer Robin
Published: October 2003

Argues that corporatism enables workers to accumulate incremental increases in control over firms through a series of trade‐offs. If the workers, the capitalists, and the government are rational collective actors, then a single trade‐off will be feasible so long as three conditions are met: the workers must be able to exchange a good that would threaten the profits of the capitalists; the trade‐off must be compatible with the requirements of national economic management, so that it does not undermine the government's ability to win elections; and the corporatist system itself must be compatible with the requirements of national economic management. To repeat these trade‐offs and compound their effect, a further three conditions must be met.
Stagflation
Authors: Archer Robin
Published: October 2003

Shows that the conditions for a control trade‐off were in fact met during the period of stagflation, which lasted from the mid‐1970s to the early 1980s. It examines the need for wage restraint, the impact of corporatism and centralized wage bargaining on unemployment and inflation, and the effect of co‐determination in Germany, the Meidner plan in Sweden, and other efforts to incrementally increase workers’ control. The chapter also shows that a trade‐off would be feasible even if workers were solely concerned with their material well‐being and suggests that increasing workers’ control through pension and other investment funds is a particularly promising strategy in such a period.
Structural Adjustment
Authors: Archer Robin
Published: October 2003

Shows that the conditions for a control trade‐off were also met during the period of structural adjustment, which lasted from the mid‐1980s to the early 1990s and beyond. It examines restrictive work practices, the impact of corporatism on labour market flexibility, skills and training, and the increase in workers’ control required by the growth of quality competitive customized production. The chapter also shows that a trade‐off would be feasible even if workers were solely concerned with their material well‐being and suggests that pursuing greater co‐determination and increasing control over the organization of work and training is a particularly promising strategy during such a period.
Into the Next Century
Authors: Archer Robin
Published: October 2003

Provides a summary of the main arguments of the book and considers whether these arguments will still be tenable in the early twenty‐first century.
Not a Country of Immigration: Germany
Authors: Joppke Christian
Published: October 2003

This chapter investigates the reasons why immigration to Germany continued after the 1973 ban on recruiting guest workers, despite official declarations that Germany was ‘not a country of immigration’. First, judicial decisions supported the right of migrant workers to stay. This was accentuated by further judicial support for family reunification on humanitarian grounds, which was confirmed by legislation in 1990. Finally, the legacy of Nazi‐era guilt has operated to confirm a liberal interpretation of asylum law, which has made Germany the world's major asylum‐granting country.
Conclusion: Resilient Nation‐States
Authors: Joppke Christian
Published: October 2003

This book can be construed from two viewpoints. From a particularizing view, it reveals sharply distinct immigration experiences, with the nation‐state figuring as an independent variable, with unique historical and cultural influences on the integration process. From a generalizing view, however, it presents the nation‐state as a dependent variable, seeing immigration as a manageable challenge to its generic characteristics of sovereignty and citizenship. From either perspective (but importantly from the latter), the analysis shows the resilience of nation‐states in the face of large‐scale immigration. The residual question is, whether such resilience will characterize the emergent European Union.
The Knowledge Economy and Intellectual Capital Management
Authors: Teece David J.
Published: October 2003

The core of management in the knowledge economy is the development and deployment and utilization of intangible assets, the most significant being (tacit) knowledge, competence, and intellectual property. Intangible assets are the main basis of competitive differentiation and successful strategies in many sectors, as manifested in the growing literature on issues such as loyalty, intangible assets, complementary assets, appropriability, and technological know‐how. This chapter discusses some of these important issues, the nature and development of dynamic capabilities, and draws implications for understanding the theory of the business firm.
The Impact of Market Structure and Organizational Factors on Innovation
Authors: Teece David J.
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses the importance of market structure and organizational factors on innovation. In particular, it suggests that the formal and informal structures of the firm, as well as the network of external linkages they possess, have implications on the kind and strength of innovation firms engage in. It presents frameworks for analysing technological change and innovation in building a coherent framework for analysing the factors that influence innovation. These include organizational competences, organizational structure and incentives, internal organizational culture, and external linkages.
Decision Making Processes and the Rate and Direction of Innovation
Authors: Teece David J.
Published: October 2003

The reluctance to introduce competency‐destroying innovations may be understood as a product of the decision‐making biases of many large firms; some large firms tend to lose their ability and desire to engage in competency‐destroying innovative activities as they grow because of decision‐making biases associated with their size, asset base, business practices, and organizational structure. There are two key behavioural factors that influence and bias decision making in organizations: bounded rationality (and cognitive biases in general), and inconsistent risk aversion. The interaction of these behavioural aspects with the established capabilities, complementary assets, and administrative and organizational routines in firms intensifies decision‐making biases, thereby limiting radical innovation. Implications for managing innovation and change are considered.
Market Entry Strategies for Innovators: Avoiding Pyrrhic Victories
Authors: Teece David J.
Published: October 2003

The distribution of the profits of innovation (among the innovating firm, imitators and followers, suppliers and customers) is influenced by entry strategies for innovators and conditioned by government policies. This chapter discusses approaches to understanding why (and under which conditions) innovating firms may fail to obtain significant economic returns from an innovation while customers, imitators, and other industry players benefit, focusing in particular on the role of (the ownership of) complementary assets, regimes of appropriability, and the evolution (and paradigmatic character) of industry development (in particular the role of dominant designs). Examples and illustrations from Pilkington, EMI, and IBM (among others) are employed to draw lessons for managing technological innovation.
Party System Change
Authors: Mair Peter
Published: October 2003

This book looks at how the evidence of change and stability in modern political parties and party systems is interpreted. The emphasis is on western European political parties. The primary focus of the book is on processes of political adaptation and control, but it also concerns how parties and party systems generate their own momentum and ‘freeze’ themselves into place. Amidst the widespread contemporary discussion of the challenge to modern democracy and the crisis for traditional forms of political representation, it offers an emphasis on how party systems survive, and on how change, when it does occur, may be analysed and understood. The book has four parts, and the constituent chapters are from various essays reflecting work that has been carried out since the late 1980s. Part I contains an introductory chapter on the freezing of party systems. Part II has three chapters that deal with questions of persistence and change, and with the vulnerability and endurance of traditional parties. Part III has two chapters in which attention shifts to the question of party organization, and to the ways in which the established parties are increasingly coming to invade the state, finding there a new source of privilege and a new means of ensuring their own survival. Part IV has three chapters that focus on structures of competition in western party systems, as well as on the problems associated with the consolidation of the new party systems in post-communist Europe.
Popular Legitimacy and Public Privileges: Party Organizations in Civil Society and the State
Authors: Mair Peter
Published: October 2003

This is the second of two chapters on political party organizations and party systems. It discusses political party organizations in civil society and the state, with reference to western Europe. Although the study of parties and party systems is one of the largest and most active subfields within comparative politics, very little empirically grounded study has been made of parties as organizations, and there are severe limits to the comparative understanding of precisely how party organizations work, how they change, and how they adapt. This chapter looks at some of these issues. The discussion is presented in five sections: (1) New Perspectives on the Development of Party Organizations; (2) Party Democracies and the Problem of Party Decline; (3) Parties and the State; and (4) Changing Parties; and (5) Parties and Their Privileges –– a brief examination of the imbalance between popular irreverence and public privilege cited by Tocqueville as contributing to the downfall of the French ancien regime, but here applied to political parties.
What Is Different About Post‐Communist Party Systems?
Authors: Mair Peter
Published: October 2003

This is the second of three chapters on political party systems and structures of competition, and looks at post-communist party systems in Europe. The author’s intention is to explore some preliminary thoughts on the specific characteristics of newly emerging party systems, and of newly emerging post-communist party systems in particular, and to identify the major reasons why these newly emerging systems may look and perform differently from established party systems. It is suggested that differences in the democratization process, in the character of the electorate, and in the context of competition, together create formidable obstacles in the path of eventual consolidation, and that these also imply a pattern of party competition likely to prove both more conflictual and adversarial than is the case within the established democracies. The approach has been to identify the sort of factors that have encouraged the stabilization and institutionalization of established party systems, and then to turn these on their head in order to hypothesize and speculate about the sort of factors likely to be absent from newly emerging party systems, and from post-communist party systems in particular. The discussion is presented in five sections: (1) Newly Emerging Party Systems; (2) Post-Communist Democratization is Different; (3) The Electorate and the Parties are Different; (4) The Context of Competition is Different; and (5) The Pattern of Competition is Different.
Developing Countries and the Emerging World Order
Authors: Acharya Amitav
Published: October 2003

Reflects on the relevance and role of the Third World in the emerging world order; more specifically, it examines the extent to which the end of the cold war affected the insecurity and vulnerability of the Third World countries and the state of the North–South divide as it relates to the prospects for global cooperation and maintenance of order in the post‐cold war era. The discussion is in three parts. The first looks at the question of whether the end of the cold war will increase or dampen instability and conflict in the Third World. This is followed by an assessment of emerging areas of North–South tension over world order issues, especially those that are associated with the North's ill‐defined vision of a ’New World Order’. The third part examines the changing role of Third World platforms and institutions, both global and regional, in addressing the political, security, and economic concerns of the developing countries.
Latin America
Authors: Heine Jorge
Published: October 2003

Examines the reasons for the remarkable turnaround since the end of the cold war in Latin America's development in economic and political spheres, which has resulted in it becoming the fastest growing region in the world (after East Asia), and in the rejuvenation of its democratic institutions. Various aspects are analysed of: (1) the manner in which liberalization (i.e. economic reform), democratization, and the new security challenges of the 1990s have been handled in the region, (2) the impact that these changes have had on Latin America's social and political structures, and (3) the conditions they have created (or failed to create) to put the region on the road to self‐sustaining economic development and political stability.
Africa After the Cold War
Authors: Somerville Keith
Published: October 2003

The end of the cold war removed what Acharya (in Ch. 4) has called a 'structural element in the international framework facing the developing countries’, i.e. the global competition between the superpowers and the consequent search for allies/proxies in the developing world. But the end of competition meant a decisive change in Western policy towards developing countries, particularly the poorest of the poor in Africa: they could no longer expect to be able to use their strategic position, mineral resources, or political support in regional conflicts as bargaining chips with the superpowers. Against the background of these structural changes the effects are examined of the end of the cold war on three specific areas, which profoundly effect Africa's current political, economic, and social development: (1) the international environment within which African states operate; (2) the effects of structural change in this environment on the evolution of African political systems; and (3) the consequences of the changes for continental and regional security and the prevention or solution of regional conflicts.
South Asia After the Cold War
Authors: Kumaraswamy P. R.
Published: October 2003

Looks at the different levels of change in the countries of South Asia (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) since the end of the cold war, and attempts to determine how, and to what extent, the end of the cold war has been a long‐term determinant in defining the region's foreign and domestic policies. The different sections of the chapter address: the security dimension (including consideration of the effect of Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan); democratization; and economic liberalization and regional cooperation.
Conclusion
Authors: Fawcett Louise
Published: October 2003

The aim of this concluding chapter is to gather together some of the threads of the thematic and regional chapters and to identify some common ground as well as some obvious differences of opinion that have emerged. An attempt is made to rethink the place of the Third World in the international system, both from the inside out and the outside in: in other words, how have Third World countries come to perceive themselves and how are they perceived by the rest of the world? Different sections of the chapter address: Democratization: the political level; Liberalization: the economic level; Democratization and liberalization: implications for the security level; and Third World images. A final section looks at how mainstream theories of international relations and of development have fared in helping to explain and understand the progress of Third World countries ’beyond the cold war’.
The Problems of Communitarian Politics
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2003

Offers a detailed critical analysis of the ideal of ‘community’ in politics. Traces elements of the idea of community in a number of social, philosophical, and political contexts over the last century, exploring how these have been and continue to be articulated in recent political and public policy debates. ‘Community’ is invoked as a justification for reorganization of state institutions, as the source of care and support for individuals, and as an entity that is valuable in its own right and must therefore be sustained and defended. In community development, community action, community care and community politics, the tensions and contradictions within the concept are invariably felt. Community is both inclusive and exclusive, both organized and unstructured, both hierarchical and egalitarian. The book argues that analysis of the concept ‘community’ reveals the role of ideas and ideals in shaping political action, the barriers to the realization of community in practical contexts, and ultimately the untenability of the ideal itself.
Communitarianism, Philosophical and Political
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2003

The ideal of community has been prominent in practical politics since the 1970s. Explores the tenuous links between the philosophical communitarian critique of liberalism and more recent elaborations of ‘political communitarianism’, although other intellectual and political sources for political communitarianism are also traced. Political communitarianism is analysed using a technique of discourse analysis, and some theoretical problems in the discourse—in particular, with inferences that are commonly drawn from its conceptual structure—are discussed.
The Concept ‘Community’
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2003

Contrasting approaches to the political philosophical technique of ‘conceptual analysis’ are discussed. The concept community as it is constructed and deployed in recent social and political theory is analysed by way of examination of the examples of ‘community’ therein, by the contrasts explicitly or implicitly drawn, and by using an interpretive method and representing in diagrammatic form the elements of and the structure of the concept. The intention here is not to provide a definition but rather to illustrate the concept's indefinition; not to legislate for the concept, but to show why it is contested.
Communitarianism, Interpretation and Politics
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2003

Communitarianism in political theory has been connected with interpretivism and the hermeneutic tradition: the nature of this relationship, epistemological, metaphysical, methodological, and ethical, is explored. Disputes about the method of interpretation, and about issues of validity, are discussed. Communitarians have tended to emphasize the theme of ‘agreement’ and co‐membership of community as the ground for interpretation. An alternative analysis of interpretation emphasizes disagreement and indeterminacy, and the role of political power. Thus it is suggested that there is a pronounced tension between communitarianism and interpretation.
Social Constructionism
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2003

Communitarians have often embraced one form or another of ‘social constructionism’, but social construction of what and how is often unclear. ‘Social constructionism’ is treated to interpretive, conceptual analysis, and the relationship between social constructionism and communitarianism further explored. In particular, the role of political power in any constructionist project is emphasized.
Community, Locality, and Politics
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2003

Communitarian politics has emphasized the importance and the value of locality and in spite of recent acknowledgements that local relationships can be problematic from the point of view of justice and efficiency, an emphasis on locality constantly creeps back into communitarianism. The same contradictions and problems recur in public policy initiatives focused on locality and community. The value of locality, therefore, needs to be critically analysed in detail.
Divided Government in Finland: From a Semi‐Presidential to a Parliamentary Democracy
Authors: Paloheimo Heikki
Published: October 2003

Divided government in the case of Finland has resulted not just from its ‘semi‐presidential’ division of power between the president and the government, but also from the frequency with which the electorate has failed to return decisive majorities. The frequency of minority governments and the qualified majorities who needed to pass legislation have often made it necessary to establish a ‘cohabitation’ arrangement between the government and the legislature.
Divided Government in Germany: The Case of the Bundesrat
Authors: Sturm Roland
Published: October 2003

The problem of divided government in Germany is aggravated by the presence of the Λανδερ within the federal system, and by the consequent relationship between the Bundesrat and the Bundestag.
Order, Globalization, and Inequality in World Politics
Authors: Woods Ngaire
Published: October 2003

Defines inequality and traces its changing position on the world political agenda. Traditional conceptions of world order tend to entrench inequality as a necessary concomitant of stability, but the 1970s saw the emergence of a normative challenge based on economic justice and a growing awareness of global poverty. With the advent of globalization in the 1990s, the problem of inequality has acquired new dimensions, requiring solutions that threaten to intrude on domestic jurisdictions. The present dilemma for powerful states is whether to accept the loss of some of their power in order to gain the benefits of stronger international institutions, or to maintain traditional power hierarchies even at the cost of threatened instabilities.
Sovereignty and Inequality
Authors: Kingsbury Benedict
Published: October 2003

Elaborates on the way in which inequality is entrenched within the existing international order, examining the way in which sovereignty and inequality are inseparably linked in international law. The principle of state sovereignty has long relieved international lawyers from having to think about inequality, by adopting a mask of formal equality and leaving actual inequalities to be treated as the responsibility of individual states. Begins by examining the relations between sovereignty and inequality within the mainstream tradition of international law. It then assesses the extent to which challenges of globalization, democratization, and privatization have forced adaptations of the traditional concept of sovereignty, and whether the mounting criticisms of that concept might soon lead to the replacement of its present normative basis by a functional basis, speculating on the possible consequences for the management of inequality. Concludes that a radical change in the international law concept of sovereignty will be hazardous if not accompanied by development of adequate alternative means to manage inequality.
Resources, Environmental Degradation, and Inequality
Authors: Redclift Michael , Sage Colin
Published: October 2003

Identifies four critical dimensions of inequality that are relevant to any consideration of environment and resource degradation: first, the unequal distribution of historical responsibilities for environmental change, notably climate change; second, the fact that global changes have unequal impacts on different regions and peoples of the world; third, the degree to which inequalities of interest promote different environmentalist agendas; fourth, the extent to which distributive problems lie at the heart of the failure to undertake effective and concerted action of the type envisaged at 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. Begins by exploring the way in which environmental problems are constructed, both through structural processes, such as trade and technology transfer, and through attachment to cultural ‘models’ of development, disseminated on television screens and illustrated by new patterns of consumption. This social construction of environmental problems forms the backcloth against which the chapter analyses global inequality and the effects of economic globalization on the environment.
Globalization, Liberalization, and Inequality: Expectations and Experience
Authors: Stewart Frances , Berry Albert
Published: October 2003

Explores the effects of moves from dirigiste to laissez‐faire policies (liberalization) on income distribution within countries, and also to consider briefly its impact on inter‐country inequality. The emphasis is on inequality within countries because this is where world inequalities have been most exacerbated over the past two decades. In itself, this represents an important change in inequality in world politics. The gap between rich and poor has long been the major source of inequality among people in the world. Yet this gap has, if anything, closed slightly over the past couple of decades. In particular, the chapter demonstrates that over the 1980s inequalities within countries generally tended to worsen—more so than in any previous post‐WW2 decade—and argues that if intra‐country distribution had remained the same over the 1980s, inter‐country inequalities would have been reduced.
Justice and Global Inequality
Authors: Miller David
Published: October 2003

Argues that the mere demonstration of inequality (e.g. the difference in average life expectancy between West Germany and Uganda) is not of itself sufficient to prove injustice. One needs to go further, examining why the inequality has occurred and clarifying the moral basis for condemning it as unjust. Not all inequality in international relations can be so described, and this chapter criticizes two of the prominent types of arguments used to demonstrate that existing inequalities are unjust. First, it dismisses the idea of a ‘global community of states’ in which equality implies recognition and respect. Second, it rejects arguments based on a notion of an equal right to natural resources. Instead, the chapter offers two alternative reasons for regarding inequalities as unjust: first, were they do actually involve the violation of ‘basic rights’, and second, where the inequalities have arisen from ‘exploitative’ transactions based on inequality of bargaining power.
Mapping Political Support in the 1990s: A Global Analysis
Authors: Klingemann Hans‐Dieter
Published: October 2003

The main goal of this chapter is to use an extensive body of comparative survey research to map patterns and forms of political support across a wide range of political conditions. While the goal is primarily descriptive, at least two themes emerge: first, there are no major trends suggesting a decline in support for democracy as a form of government in the abstract or as applied to existing democratic experience, and certainly, no evidence of a crisis of democracy; second, the fact of dissatisfaction does not imply danger to the persistence or furtherance of democracy. A significant number of people around the world can be labelled ‘dissatisfied democrats’, they clearly approve of democracy as a mode of governance, but they remain discontented with the way their own system is currently operating. This chapter exploits the resources of the World Values Surveys to map certain key elements of political support among the mass publics in established, consolidating, and non‐democracies. Specifically, it develops indices fitted reasonably well to three forms of support: for the political community; for regime principles or democracy as an ideal form of government; and approval of the regime's performance. Attitudes towards these three dimensions are examined through cross‐national surveys.
Down and Down We Go: Political Trust in Sweden
Authors: Holmberg Sören
Published: October 2003

In Scandinavia, as demonstrated by the analysis of the World Values Survey in Ch. 2, people remain highly positive towards the political community and democratic principles; nevertheless, support for the remaining three levels of measure—regime performance, political institutions, and politicians—is more problematic. This chapter therefore focuses on how trust in politicians has evolved over the last twenty to thirty years in Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Netherlands, Sweden, and Finland all established, parliamentary, multi‐party, unitary, welfare state democracies. The analysis starts at the bottom level—trust in politicians—since that is where the greatest change over time might be expected, and where there is access to some of the longest measured time‐series in the Scandinavian countries. Subsequent sections of the chapter analyse support for Swedish political institutions (parties, elections, the Rikstag, and the Cabinet), and democratic processes too. Considers explanations for trends in trust in politicians and regime institutions over time.
The Democratic Culture of Unified Germany
Authors: Fuchs Dieter
Published: October 2003

Taking the example of unified Germany, this chapter examines how a democratic culture can develop among people who have lived for decades in an autocratic state. The first section outlines the theoretical framework, starting with the concept of political support, and going on to consider various normative models of democracy in order to understand what type of democracy people in West and East Germany ultimately prefer. Discusses the formation of democratic attitudes within state‐socialist systems, comparing demonstration and socialization hypotheses on the influence of the social structure on political attitudes. On this basis, expectations about attitudes towards democracy among the East German population are formulated. Develops the empirical analysis further by examining trends in democratic attitudes among West and East Germans—including the commitment to democratic values and principles, support for democratic institutions, and satisfaction with democratic performance. The conclusion summarizes the most important findings and considers their consequences for the prospects of democracy in a unified Germany.
Tensions Between the Democratic Ideal and Reality: South Korea
Authors: Rose Richard , Shin Doh C. , Munro Neil
Published: October 2003

The greater the gap between democratic ideals and reality, the greater the resulting tension. This chapter presents a model of tension in a new democracy and applies it to the Republic of Korea (South Korea), drawing on survey data from the 1997 New Korea Barometer. South Korea is particularly suitable for intensive analysis, since the level of mass education is high and commitment to democratic ideals is also high, yet the introduction of free elections in 1987 has produced a succession of presidents whose actions in government have fallen well short of the democratic ideal, leading to convictions on corruption charges. The political fallout of the abuse of power for personal gain was exacerbated in 1997 when the government faced the national humiliation of relying on the biggest International Monetary Fund loan in history to avoid financial collapse and the chapter concludes by considering demand‐driven pressure for reform.
The Economic Performance of Governments
Authors: McAllister Ian
Published: October 2003

A major conclusion of this book is that there are few consistent trends in popular support for the political community but there is high and perhaps even growing support for democratic values and declining support for regime institutions and political leaders. Earlier chapters have traced these patterns with respect to democracy worldwide, and, in particular, regions of the world. This one focuses specifically on the role of public policy in shaping popular support for democratic institutions among OECD countries. The data are aggregate indicators across twenty‐four of the twenty‐nine member countries of the OECD in 1997, as well as individual‐level data from the same twenty‐four countries based on the 1990–1 World Values Survey. The different sections of the chapter are: Explaining Institutional Confidence; Evidence for Trends in Institutional Confidence; The Role of Democratic Experience; Policy Outputs and Confidence: A Macro Analysis; Policy Outputs and Confidence: A Micro Analysis; and Discussion and Conclusions.
Postmodernization Erodes Respect for Authority, But Increases Support for Democracy
Authors: Inglehart Ronald
Published: October 2003

Presents an analysis of the reasons for the post‐modern shift to declining respect for/deference to authority among the publics of advanced industrial societies, and of the accompanying growing support for democracy. The early sections discuss: the changing emphasis on key aspects of life during the shift from modernization to post‐modernization; the authoritarian reflex that occurs in periods of rapid change and insecurity—in contrast to the greater emphasis on individual autonomy and diminishing deference to authority under conditions of prosperity and security that occurs in the post‐modern shift; and declining confidence in hierarchical institutions in post‐modern societies. The later part of the chapter examines predicted and observed changes in cross‐national norms concerning the authority using data from the three waves of the World Values Survey (1981–1997). Using these same data, it also examines the decline of confidence in the most hierarchical institutions of the survey countries over this time period—i.e. the armed forces, the police, and the church, and looks at support for strong leadership in relation to percentage priority to post‐materialist goals.
Justice and Punishment
Authors: Matravers Matt
Published: October 2003

This book attempts to answer the challenge of showing that morality is not a confidence trick or a fetish. It does so by arguing that moral norms are those that rational, self‐interested people could accept. The problem is approached by asking by what right some people punish others, and by comparing recent developments in theories of distributive and retributive justice. The first part of the book considers retributive, utilitarian, and mixed theories of punishment. In the second part, recent theories of distributive justice, especially those of Rawls and Gauthier, are examined. It is argued that these theories cannot give an adequate account of punishment. In the final part, an argument is offered for a genuinely constructivist account of morality—constructivist in that it rejects any idea of objective, mind‐independent moral values and seeks instead to construct morality from non‐moral human concerns; genuinely constructivist in that, in contrast to Rawls, it does not take as a premise the equal moral worth of persons. The conclusion is that a genuine constructivism will show the need for, and justification of, punishment as intrinsic to morality itself.
Retributivism II: Resentment, Guilt, and Censure
Authors: Matravers Matt
Published: October 2003

The recent revival of retributive theory has been led by Michael Moore's claim that retributivism has moral worth, and by communicative and expressive theories of punishment that emphasize guilt and censure. It is argued that retributivism captures an important truth about punishment's backward‐looking nature, but that no retributive theory can adequately answer the question of by what right some people punish others.
Justice as Mutual Advantage
Authors: Matravers Matt
Published: October 2003

‘Justice as mutual advantage’ theorists argue that moral norms are those that rational, self‐interested persons would accept in regulating the pursuit of their self‐interest. Taking David Gauthier's theory as an exemplar of this approach, it is argued that justice as mutual advantage cannot close the gap between morality and self‐interest. The conclusion is that the value of morality cannot be only that it furthers self‐interest, although this is an important part of any moral theory that is to have an adequate account of moral motivation.
A Constructivist Theory of Moral Norms
Authors: Matravers Matt
Published: October 2003

The argument is that agents have reason, although not a decisive reason, jointly to make the existential commitment needed to ground morality. These reasons appeal to psychological evidence about well‐being. There are important sources of well‐being that cannot be tapped without making the commitment to live together with others on moral terms. The nature and scope of the moral community understood as the product of such joint commitment is examined.
The Moral Community, Justified Coercion, and Punishment
Authors: Matravers Matt
Published: October 2003

Having established the nature of the moral community, this chapter examines the part played in that community by punishment. The right to punish is shown to be justified as intrinsic to morality itself. Punishment is shown to secure the conditions of moral flourishing, to communicate to the offender the wrongs that he has done to his victim and to the community, and it tries in so doing, to reinforce in the offender his commitment to morality. Punishment is thus shown to be needed for its consequences, but also to be of an offender for an offence.
Reinterpreting the Resource‐Capability View of the Firm: A Case of the Development‐Production Systems of the Japanese Auto‐Makers1
Authors: Fujimoto Takahiro
Published: October 2003

An analysis is made of a firm's evolutionary capabilities using the car industry in general, and Toyota in particular, as an example. The resource view of the firm is extended to look in detail at how capabilities change over time, and attempt to explain inter‐regional and inter‐firm differences. However, instead of applying the concepts of resource‐based theories or capability theories on the firm as a unit, the analysis is applied at the operational level. In the process, the author makes an argument for not only interpreting capabilities as something directly affecting the level of competitive performance and the improvements of performance but also as the accumulation of these static and improvement capabilities; in other words, successful firms are not only competitive and know how to improve to stay competitive, they also know how to sustain these skills over time. The chapter goes on to explore, in some depth, this novel interpretation of evolutionary capability as a firm‐specific ability to acquire both static and improvement capabilities, and includes a table summarizing the evolution of selected production–development capabilities at Toyota, to accompany the discussion in the text.
Localized Technological Change and the Evolution of Standards as Economic Institutions1
Authors: Antonelli Cristiano
Published: October 2003

Argues that localized technological change cannot be seen in isolation from national systems of innovation and the firm itself. It is shown how the often‐misunderstood role of standards as economic institutions plays an important part in the dynamics of technological change. Far from being only something of a public good, the adoption of standards poses a dilemma for an individual firm: should it stick to the local, monopolistic position built on proprietary knowledge or should it adhere to standards for better dissemination? There is also a cost for the firm associated with adopting standards. The author incorporates the emergence of standards into a formal model of a standardization club with both switching costs and network externalities, which then yields incentives for cooperative behaviour among firms for the adoption of standards.
A Three‐Dimensional Model of Changing Internal Structure in the Firm
Authors: Hagström Peter , Hedlund Gunnar
Published: October 2003

Looks at the limits of hierarchy in the internal structure of a firm and suggests an explanation as to why the concept of a simple hierarchy has been so readily accepted and is so seemingly successful. The authors argue that the historically successful hierarchy has actually hidden a different underlying structure that is only now being revealed. Hierarchy ensures relative efficiency in a known, stable situation, but these are hardly the salient characteristics of the modern competitive environment, and firms are found to experiment with ways to deal with these new pressures in changes that range from ad hoc measures to radical structural transformations. The fundamental trade‐off here is one of (flexible) efficiency today and of positioning for tomorrow; one‐dimensional hierarchy could achieve that yesterday. The authors conclude that, in effect, there are, and always have been, three structural dimensions at play, namely position, action, and knowledge; these dimensions have coincided (or misalignments have not been apparent) in the past, but that is seen to be less and less the case nowadays, and nowhere is this more apparent than in the modern multinational corporation; this theoretically and historically derived three‐structural‐dimensions model is tried out on an illustrative firm case (Oticon A/S in Denmark).
A Theory of the Firm's Knowledge‐Creation Dynamics
Authors: Nonaka Ikujiro , Takeuchi Hirotaka
Published: October 2003

The thesis that the apparent success of Japanese firms rests on their ability for creation of organizational knowledge is explored. The Japanese experience is taken as a launching pad for a proposed more general theory of how knowledge is, and can be, created in organizations. Two simultaneous knowledge spirals are identified as evolving over time: first, knowledge is created and expanded through the social interaction between tacit and explicit forms of knowledge in a process that is called knowledge conversion—the different modes and requisite enabling conditions that maintain this knowledge spiral are traced; second, another spiral describes how knowledge created at the individual level is transformed into knowledge at the organizational level through a phased process. As the spirals interact over time, innovation is seen to emerge. Clearly, there is a certain normative bent to this view of knowledge creation, and it implies some important lessons for non‐Japanese firms.
Dynamics of Overlapping Networks and Strategic Actions by the International Firm
Authors: Mattsson Lars‐Gunnar
Published: October 2003

Stresses the embeddedness of the individual firm in the network of firms with which it necessarily has ties; this ‘markets‐as‐networks’ approach interprets the generic governance structure for production systems to be multidimensional exchange relationships between actors, typically firms. A key notion here is one of coordination and interdependence in these long‐term—but by no means static—relationships, but in turn, it is argued, there are dynamic, indirect, and direct interactions between such relationships, and in a fundamental way, the relationships determine the constraints and opportunities under which the firm operates. The markets‐as‐networks approach is thus designed to incorporate both change and stability. The issue of different types of overlap between networks is singled out for scrutiny, especially as it relates to the international context. Applying these constructs, the author finds the approach to be especially well suited to improve understanding of the dynamic interaction between the international firm, and the international markets and industries.
The Globalization of Technology: What Remains of the Product Cycle Model?
Authors: Cantwell John
Published: October 2003

Two of the central hypotheses associated with earlier versions of the product life‐cycle model are called into question. First, on the basis of 100 years of US Patent Office data on the patents granted to large European and American industrial firms, the author rejects the hypothesis that innovations almost always originate in the home country of the parent company; internationalization of industrial research is found to be neither insignificant nor a new phenomenon. The second hypothesis, that international investment is led by technology leaders, fares better, being consistent with the data. However, the author makes an extended interpretation in order to take account of more recent trends toward a much wider range of firms being engaged in internationalization, suggesting that technology leaders are now ahead in the globalization of technology, and that these firms would be most competent in exploiting the locationally differentiated potential of foreign centres of technological excellence. Technology leadership can then be said to manifest itself in superior management of internal international networks with multiple locations for innovation, rather than just in a wider geographical dispersion of investments.
An International Political Economy Perspective
Authors: Strange Susan
Published: October 2003

Embraces a broad canvas of political economic issues, first offering a timely reminder that, in our attempts to assess the consequences of globalization on the role of national governments, we should not neglect its wider implications for the global economic system. Second, in a discussion of the notion of power, the author argues that although economic wealth has become less concentrated in the hegemonies of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, this does not mean that the power that remains is of no consequence. However, she envisages that the structural sovereignty of the nation state—the freedom of national governments to pursue independent lines of action—is likely to be eroded as a result of deepening cross‐border integration (globalization), and illustrates this contention by referring to three areas of macroeconomic management (counter‐cyclical policy, monetary stability and the financing of state budgets), and three of macro‐organizational management (industrial and competition policy, labour relations, and crime protection). Strange goes on to assert that, although most consequences of globalization are favourably viewed by firms (and particularly by MNEs ), others (notably the instability of the international finance system and exchange rates) are not. Last, she suggests that, to most people, the effects of globalization are more ambiguous than those facing firms or governments, as they embrace a range of social and ethical, as well as economic issues; she outlines three such issues often neglected by scholars—family life and flexible working systems, consumer protection, and provision for retirement and old age.
Australia
Authors: Hill Hal , McKern Bruce
Published: October 2003

This case study on the impact of globalization on Australia is organized into six main sections. Sect.1 and Sect. 2, provide a general overview of Australia's international integration from a comparative perspective. Sects. 3–5 place Australia's growing internationalization in context. The policy reforms of the 1980s are described and assessed in Sect 3, and related to a range of macroeconomic performance indicators in Sect 4; these two sections provide essential background information since the reforms were crucial in shifting Australia towards a much more international orientation, and the macroeconomic setting (in particular the country's low saving rate) is important, for it has the potential to nullify many of the significant reform achievements. Sect 5 develops the internationalization theme further by examining trends in equity capital flows and technology effort, and Sect 6 provides another building block in the argument by analysing the development of ever stronger ties with East Asia. Sect 7 takes a more microeconomic perspective by examining the impact of the major changes discussed earlier on business enterprises.