bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Withdrawing From School
Authors: Finn Jeremy D.
Published: March 2008

Research on dropping out of school has focused on characteristics of the individual or institution that correlate with the dropout decision. Many of these characteristics are nonmanipulable, and all are measured at one point in time, late in the youngster’s school career. This paper describes two models for understanding dropping out as a developmental process that may begin in the earliest grades. The frustration-self-esteem model has been used for years in the study of juvenile delinquency; it identifies school failure as the starting point in a cycle that may culminate in the student’s rejecting, or being rejected by, the school. The participation-identification model focuses on students’ “involvement in schooling,” with both behavioral and emotional components. According to this formulation, the likelihood that a youngster will successfully complete 12 years of schooling is maximized if he or she maintains multiple, expanding forms of participation in school-relevant activities. The failure of a youngster to participate in school and class activities, or to develop a sense of identification with school, may have significant deleterious consequences. The ability to manipulate modes of participation poses promising avenues for further research as well as for intervention efforts.
Hawthorne Control Procedures in Educational Experiments: A Reconsideration of Their Use and Effectiveness
Authors: Adair John G. , Sharpe Donald , Huynh Cam-Loi
Published: March 2008

This article reports on a descriptive analysis of research practices and a meta-analysis of effect sizes associated with control groups employed to address Hawthorne effects in educational experiments. The descriptive analysis of 86 studies revealed a diversity of practices designed to control one of three artifact variables: special attention, activity related to the experimental task, or awareness of participation in an experiment. The meta-analysis provided no evidence for a Hawthorne versus no-treatment control difference. Moreover, a detailed analysis of these studies by their control procedure, and subsequently by other moderator variables, also revealed no systematic trends to suggest a specific artifact source. A within-study analysis of the pattern of treatment/Hawthorne/control group effect sizes suggested that the artifact controls were of limited utility. Increased research is urged into other artifacts and alternative control procedures that the educational researcher should consider.
Continua of Biliteracy
Authors: Hornberger Nancy H.
Published: March 2008

Although biliteracy is common worldwide, relatively little scholarly work has attended explicitly to it. This review draws from the literatures on literacy, bilingualism, and the teaching of reading, writing, and second and foreign languages to propose a framework for understanding biliteracy. It argues that the complex array of possible biliteracy configurations can be accounted for by understanding biliteracy in terms of a series of interrelated continua. These continua define the contexts, individual development, and media of biliteracy, and are as follows: micro-macro, oral-literate, monolingual-bilingual, reception-production, oral language-written language, first and second language transfer, simultaneous-successive exposure, similar-dissimilar language structures, and convergent-divergent scripts. An understanding of the intersecting and nested nature of the continua has implications for teaching and research in biliteracy.
Programming Language/Problem-Solving Research: A Review of Relevant Issues
Authors: Palumbo David B.
Published: March 2008

This article addresses several key issues in the research on the potential relationship between programming language instruction and problem solving. Although the computer has been touted as the technology that will effectively develop both the declarative and procedural knowledge needed to establish good problem solvers, research supporting this claim has been slow to materialize. Several reasons for the lack of significant research findings are discussed. Many studies have not been sufficiently grounded in problem-solving theory. The question of expertise and transfer of training is also addressed. Other issues critical to successfully designing programming language/problem-solving research include (a) treatment-related issues, such as the method and duration of programming instruction; (b) language-related issues—that is, selecting the most beneficial programming language; and (c) selection of an appropriate sample.
The Jury Is Still Out on the Effects of Whole Language and Language Experience Approaches for Beginning Reading: A Critique of Stahl and Miller’s Study
Authors: Schickedanz Judith A.
Published: March 2008

In their article, “Whole Language and Language Experience Approaches for Beginning Reading” ( Review of Educational Research, Spring 1989), Stahl and Miller attempted to compare the effectiveness of whole language/language experience with that of basal reader approaches. Because longitudinal data (i.e., third grade and beyond) were not included in the study, however, the significance of the small differences found is unknown. Stahl and Miller also go beyond their data or fail to exploit it for alternative interpretations. Finally, they fail to discuss the broad goals of whole language approaches, which include not only the development of reading but the development of writing.
The Emergence of Legal Composition as a Field of Inquiry: Evaluating the Prospects
Authors: Stratman James F.
Published: March 2008

This article addresses three rationales frequently offered as a basis for denying disciplinary status to the field of legal writing: (a) Legal thinking and writing processes are no different from ordinary critical thinking and writing processes; (b) legal thinking and writing processes are uniquely different from ordinary thinking and writing processes yet because legal thinking processes are so intuitive and vary so greatly from one lawyer to another they cannot be described meaningfully or reduced to teachable procedures and therefore must be learned largely by doing; (c) there is no research evidence to indicate that law school courses in legal writing and analysis improve legal students’ thinking, reasoning, and arguing skills better than traditional substantive recitation courses do. I argue that these rationales are misconceived and reflect an underlying lack of diversity in the research methodologies so far applied to the study of legal writing skill: (a) Recent exploratory process studies of legal argument reading and writing tasks suggest that, in addition to substantive knowledge of law, legal thinking may involve unique social and rhetorical problem-solving skills not required for skill in ordinary argument, (b) The same process studies suggest that lawyers’ thinking and writing processes are as inherently amenable to observation as those of other professional analysts and writers, and that many of the cognitive skills legal writers need are described usefully in terms of the cognitive skills that other writers need, (c) Although no research directly compares the impact of legal writing and analysis courses with the impact of other traditional law courses on students’ legal thinking skills, recent experimental study of the impact of self-controlled reading instruction on first-year law students suggests similar specialized courses in writing could be very beneficial.
Beyond Intent: Reentering College to Complete the Degree
Authors: Spanard Jan-Marie A.
Published: March 2008

This paper proposes a descriptive model illustrating the path of adult problem solving and thinking that leads to reentry, retention, and eventual completion of a college degree. Each stage of the model represents a unique decision point at which action may or may not be taken to achieve the goal of college degree completion. Variables depicting the outcome of each decision point are identified. Intrinsic and extrinsic facilitators and inhibitors to degree completion, theories of motivation, and persistence are explored. The educational program options available to adult learners in the 1990s, the types of choices adults make in the process of reentering higher education, and relevant extant theory contribute to the proposed model. A discussion of implication for policy development that would encourage adult reentry and degree completion is included.
Achievement Effects of Ability Grouping in Secondary Schools: A Best-Evidence Synthesis
Authors: Slavin Robert E.
Published: March 2008

This article reviews research on the effects of ability grouping on the achievement of secondary students. Six randomized experiments, 9 matched experiments, and 14 correlational studies compared ability grouping to heterogeneous plans over periods of from one semester to 5 years. Overall achievement effects were found to be essentially zero at all grade levels, although there is much more evidence regarding Grades 7–9 than 10–12. Results were similar for all subjects except social studies, for which there was a trend favoring heterogeneous placement. Results were close to zero for students of all levels of prior performance. This finding contrasts with those of studies comparing the achievement of students in different tracks, which generally find positive effects of ability grouping for high achievers and negative effects for low achievers, and these contrasting findings are reconciled.
When Children and Adults Do Not Use Learning Strategies: Toward a Theory of Settings
Authors: Garner Ruth
Published: March 2008

Strategies enhance learning. However, children and adults often fail to invoke strategic behaviors. In this article, five reasons for failure to use strategies are discussed: (a) poor cognitive monitoring, (b) primitive routines that yield a product, (c) a meager knowledge base, (d) attributions and classroom goals that do not support strategy use, and (e) minimal transfer. I argue that use and failure to use strategies are not fruitfully studied without consideration of setting. A theory of settings reminds us that, when context varies, the nature of strategic activity often varies as well.
Aspects of an Educational Learning Theory
Authors: Bereiter Carl
Published: March 2008

Contemporary cognitive science has created the possibility of an educational learning theory closely related to existing cognitive theories but operative at a higher level of description. Issues that must be addressed in developing such a theory are: How much of the external world should be included in cognitive descriptions, how to avoid degenerate functionalism, what needs explaining by an educational learning theory, and what its units of analysis should be. It is proposed that a constitutive problem for educational learning theory is the explanation of difficult learning. A unit of analysis called a contextual module is proposed and applied to this problem. An advantage of contextual modules is that they treat environmental situatedness as an emergent property resulting from reasonably well understood processes.
Improving School Science in Advanced and Developing Countries
Authors: Walberg Herbert J.
Published: March 2008

This review criticizes and summarizes case studies, cost-effectiveness estimates, surveys, and experiments conducted in primary and secondary education in low- and moderate-income countries. It further summarizes research syntheses (meta-analyses) and reviews in advanced countries. Taken as a whole, it suggests that science education in developing countries can be made considerably more effective and productive. Concentrating resources on primary and secondary schools, rather than on vocational and higher education, and employing efficient educational methods would increase the availability and quality of science education which, in turn, would seem likely to lead to greater equality of educational opportunity and higher levels of economic growth. Some research conducted in developing countries on distance education and cost-effectiveness is exemplary and appears to have research and practical implications for both developing and advanced countries.
Problems with the Knowledge-Based Explanation of Memory and Development
Authors: Peverly Stephen T.
Published: March 2008

This article is a critique of the claim that knowledge alone can account for the variance of memory and development. There are two parts: a brief historical sketch of the movement towards a knowledge-based view of memory and development and a discussion of some of its problems. The problems discussed are the equivocal nature of much of the data cited to support the knowledge-based view, the evidence that suggests that domain independent strategies influence memory and development, and the evidence for a domain independent tool of developmental import. Finally, the implications of these problems as they relate to theories of memory and development are discussed.
Do Laboratory Findings on Test Expectancy Generalize to Classroom Outcomes?
Authors: Lundeberg Mary A. , Fox Paul W.
Published: March 2008

We conducted a meta-analysis of both classroom and laboratory studies of the effects of expecting a recall, recognition, essay, multiple-choice or true-false test on students’ subsequent achievement. In laboratory studies, studying with a recall set produced strong positive effect sizes for both discrete and prose materials. However, studying with a recognition set produced no effects with discrete materials and small negative effects with prose materials. In contrast, results from classroom studies indicated that students achieved most when preparing for the type of test they received. These results run counter to standard wisdom in the college study skills area and lead us to challenge the assumption that laboratory studies on expecting tests of recall and recognition provide a useful analog to test expectancy effects involving essay and multiple-choice tests in the classroom.
Questioning in Classrooms: A Sociolinguistic Perspective
Authors: Carlsen William S.
Published: March 2008

This article reviews research on classroom questioning. Analysis focuses on three characteristics of questions: context, content, and responses and reactions by speakers. Studies originating in the process-product and sociolinguistic paradigms are discussed separately, but findings from both research traditions are interpreted from a sociolinguistic perspective. The review argues that research on questioning must acknowledge that the meaning of questions is dependent on their context in discourse, that the content of questions cannot be ignored, and that questions may reflect and sustain status differences in the classroom. Research on questioning has generally failed to recognize that classroom questions are not simply teacher behaviors but mutual constructions of teachers and students.
Coming to Terms: How Researchers in Learning and Literacy Talk About Knowledge
Authors: Alexander Patricia A. , Schallert Diane L. , Hare Victoria C.
Published: March 2008

Terms used to designate knowledge constructs have proliferated in the literature and often seem to duplicate, subsume, or contradict one another. In this article, we present a conceptual framework for organizing and relating terms that pertain to select knowledge constructs. We begin with an examination of the literature. Based on that review, we build a framework that is intended to clarify terms, and the associations among them, and to articulate definitional statements for these knowledge terms. Finally, we consider the importance of this theoretical undertaking for future research in cognition and in learning.
Community Involvement and Disadvantaged Students: A Review
Authors: Nettles Saundra Murray
Published: March 2008

This review discusses the effects of community involvement on students who face multiple impediments to success in schools. The first part of the article conceptualizes community involvement as a typology of four processes of social change: conversion, mobilization, allocation of resources, and instruction. Illustrations of these processes are drawn from research and programmatic literature. The second part of the article considers the effects of the varied forms of involvement in a review of 13 evaluations of interventions implemented with significant input from community entities. Overall, the studies indicate that programs can have positive effects on school-related behavior and achievement as well as attitudes and risk-taking behavior. The concluding section identifies gaps in the research and offers a framework for future studies.
From Whether to When: New Methods for Studying Student Dropout and Teacher Attrition
Authors: Willett John B. , Singer Judith D.
Published: March 2008

Educational researchers studying student dropout and teacher attrition typically ask whether specific events occur by particular points in time. In this article, we argue that a more powerful and informative way of framing such questions is to ask when the transitions occur. We believe that researchers avoid asking questions about time-to-event (“When?”) because of methodological difficulties introduced when members of the sample do not experience the target events during the data collection period. These people—the students who do not graduate or drop out, the teachers who do not quit—possess censored event times. Until recently, statistical techniques available for analyzing censored data were in their infancy. In this article, we show how the methods of survival analysis (also known as event history analysis) lend themselves naturally to the study of the timing of educational events. Drawing examples from the literature on teacher attrition and student dropout and graduation, we introduce a panoply of survival methods useful for describing the timing of educational transitions and for building statistical models of the risk of event occurrence over time. We hope that this nontechnical introduction to survival methods will help educational researchers articulate and explore important substantive questions that they have raised but have yet to answer.
Leader Succession and Socialization: A Synthesis
Authors: Hart Ann Weaver
Published: March 2008

Leader succession research presents intriguing evidence that leader succession affects school performance. Organizational socialization provides equally tantalizing evidence that leaders are shaped in their organizations. Socialization illuminates processes through which the outcomes of succession can be improved by successors and their superiors. The dynamic interactions among social and personal factors examined by socialization theories, however, are underemphasized by traditional succession frameworks. This omission leaves important gaps in knowledge about leader succession processes and outcomes. A synthesis of traditional succession and socialization research frameworks provides an enriched view of leader succession that can be applied to the study of principal succession, role change, and reform in schools. The literature in organizational socialization and professional socialization applicable to this synthesis is reviewed and compared with earlier succession reviews. Research issues raised by the socialization perspective are discussed.
Review of Practices and Problems in the Evaluation of Bilingual Education
Authors: Lam Tony C.M.
Published: March 2008

The quality of evaluation studies of the effects of bilingual education for language minority students, similar to the quality of educational evaluation in general, has been generally poor. This conclusion is based on the finding that, for the eight studies that reviewed the literature on the effectiveness of bilingual education, the mean percentage of evaluation or research reports which were judged methodologically acceptable for inclusion in these studies was 10% (median = 6%). A review of past and present publications, and federally funded projects, shows that some national efforts have been devoted to the improvement of bilingual education evaluation but that such efforts have apparently been unsuccessful. This article argues that the lack of sound and practical guidelines and materials, which precludes adequate technical assistance, is one cause of the inferior quality of evaluation practices. Other contributing factors are incompetent program evaluators, misinformed local administration, inappropriate state and federal policies, and the complex issues involved with bilingual education itself.
Expectations, Impressions, and Judgments of Physically Attractive Students: A Review
Authors: Ritts Vicki , Patterson Miles L. , Tubbs Mark E.
Published: March 2008

This article examines the effect of students’ physical attractiveness on a variety of judgments made in educational settings. This review discusses the following issues: (a) methodology for studying physical attractiveness in the classroom; (b) teacher judgments, expectations, and impressions of physically attractive students; and (c) the influence of moderator variables such as gender, race, conduct, and physical attractiveness effects. A descriptive and a meta-analytic review of the research indicated that physically attractive students are judged usually more favorably by teachers in a number of dimensions including intelligence, academic potential, grades, and various social skills. The potential influence of moderator variables—such as, student gender, race, and past performance on the physical attractiveness bias—is also examined. Finally, the possible mechanisms responsible for the attractiveness effect and the limitations of this research are discussed.
Averaging Untransformed Variance Ratios Can Be Misleading: A Comment on Feingold
Authors: Katzman Steven , Alliger George M.
Published: March 2008

Studies involving gender differences in cognitive ability have almost exclusively examined mean differences. In a recent article, Feingold (1992a) addressed this deficiency in the literature with an examination of variability differences between males and females on several cognitive test batteries. His analyses consisted of calculations of variance ratios: dividing male variances by female variances. Averaging these variance ratios, however, can yield misleading conclusions. The creation of log-transformed variance ratios is a simple solution to this problem.
Caution on the Use of Variance Ratios: A Comment
Authors: Shaffer Juliet Popper
Published: March 2008

In basing results on ratios of properties of two groups, it would be undesirable for conclusions to be affected by the arbitrary choice of which group’s properties should be the numerator and which the denominator. From this point of view, using means of ratios is undesirable; medians are somewhat better, and mean logarithms seem the best choice. The geometric mean is a descriptive statistic that shares the desirable properties of the mean logarithm in that it is not adversely affected by the arbitrary choice of numerator.
Toward a Knowledge Base for School Learning
Authors: Wang Margaret C. , Haertel Geneva D. , Walberg Herbert J.
Published: March 2008

The purpose of this article is to identify and estimate the influence of educational, psychological, and social factors on learning. Using evidence accumulated from 61 research experts, 91 meta-analyses, and 179 handbook chapters and narrative reviews, the data for analysis represent over 11,000 relationships. Three methods—content analyses, expert ratings, and results from meta-analyses—are used to quantify the importance and consistency of variables that influence learning. Regardless of which method is employed, there is moderate to substantial agreement on the categories exerting the greatest influence on school learning as well as those that have less influence. The results suggest an emergent knowledge base for school learning. Generally, proximal variables (e.g., psychological, instructional, and home environment) exert more influence than distal variables (e.g., demographic, policy, and organizational). The robustness and consistency of the findings suggest they can be used to inform educational policies and practices.
Exploring the Link Between Giftedness and Self-Concept
Authors: Hoge Robert D. , Renzulli Joseph S.
Published: March 2008

We explored three broad issues in the article. First, do gifted and nongifted children differ in their self-concepts? Second, what are the effects on the self-concept of labeling the child as gifted? Third, are there any effects on self-concept of placing a child in special programs for the gifted? The review begins with a discussion of theoretical and methodological issues associated with the self-concept and giftedness constructs. This is followed by a meta-analysis of studies bearing on the three issues. Two types of studies are reviewed: (a) cases where gifted and average students are compared in terms of the self-concept and (b) studies in which gifted children are exposed to differential programming and the effects on self-concept explored. The studies indicated generally higher academic self-concepts for gifted students, but otherwise the results of the investigations were highly variable. The article concludes with a discussion of research and practical implications.
Restructuring the Classroom: Conditions for Productive Small Groups
Authors: Cohen Elizabeth G.
Published: March 2008

Moving beyond the general question of effectiveness of small group learning, this conceptual review proposes conditions under which the use of small groups in classrooms can be productive. Included in the review is recent research that manipulates various features of cooperative learning as well as studies of the relationship of interaction in small groups to outcomes. The analysis develops propositions concerning the kinds of discourse that are productive of different types of learning as well as propositions concerning how desirable kinds of interaction may be fostered. Whereas limited exchange of information and explanation are adequate for routine learning in collaborative seatwork, more open exchange and elaborated discussion are necessary for conceptual learning with group tasks and ill-structured problems. Moreover, task instructions, student preparation, and the nature of the teacher role that are eminently suitable for supporting interaction in more routine learning tasks may result in unduly constraining the discussion in less structured tasks where the objective is conceptual learning. The research reviewed also suggests that it is necessary to treat problems of status within small groups engaged in group tasks with ill-structured problems. With a focus on task and interaction, the analysis attempts to move away from the debates about intrinsic and extrinsic rewards and goal and resource interdependence that have characterized research in cooperative learning.
On Examinee Choice in Educational Testing
Authors: Wainer Howard , Thissen David
Published: March 2008

Throughout our society, individuals are compared on summaries of diverse measures. Often the measures are neither the same for all competitors nor selected randomly from a universe of measures. In fact, comparisons often are based on a mixture of measures in which the competitors choose some or all of the elements of the mixture; applicants to colleges choose some of the courses they take in high school, which extracurricular activities they participate in, and (to some extent) which entrance exams they take. What are the consequences of any selection procedure, if such choices are allowed? How can the adverse consequences be minimized? This article summarizes results from tests that have allowed examinee choice heretofore and provides a basis for a fuller discussion of these issues.
Knowledge Taught in School: What Is Remembered?
Authors: Semb George B. , Ellis John A.
Published: March 2008

Popular belief holds that much of what is taught in classrooms is forgotten shortly thereafter. However, there is evidence from numerous studies that long-term retention for knowledge taught in school is substantial. These studies are reviewed, and several variables that affect the ability to remember are discussed. The article concludes that (a) students retain much of the knowledge taught in the classroom; (b) retention decreases over time as a function of the length of the retention interval but the forgetting curves for knowledge taught in school do not decline as rapidly or asymptote as low as the curves observed in traditional laboratory studies; (c) increasing the level of original learning differentially affects retention performance; (d) both instructional content and assessment tasks affect learning and retention, with one of the most consistent effects being that recognition tasks are retained at higher levels than recall tasks; (e) most instructional strategies that promote higher levels of original learning do not result in differentially better retention (however, several exceptions are discussed); and (f) while higher ability students learn and remember more than lower ability students, there is no evidence for differential forgetting. Implications for research and teaching are discussed.
A Framework for Developing Cognitively Diagnostic Assessments
Authors: Nichols Paul D.
Published: March 2008

Over the past decade or so, a growing number of writers have argued that cognitive science and psychometrics could be combined in the service of instruction. Researchers have progressed beyond statements of intent to the hands-on business of researching and developing diagnostic assessments combining cognitive science and psychometrics, what I call cognitively diagnostic assessment (CDA). In this article, I attempt to organize the many loosely connected efforts to develop cognitively diagnostic assessments. I consider the development of assessments to guide specific instructional decisions, sometimes referred to as diagnostic assessments. Many of my arguments apply to program evaluation as well—assessments that reveal the mechanisms test takers use in responding to items or tasks provide important information on whether instruction is achieving its goals. My goal in this article is to characterize CDA in terms of the intended use of assessment and the methods of developing and evaluating assessments. Towards this goal, I (a) outline the societal trends that motivate the development of CDA, (b) introduce a framework within which the psychological and statistical aspects of CDA can be coordinated, and (c) summarize efforts to develop CDA in a five-step methodology that can guide future development efforts. Finally, I address some of the issues developers of CDA must resolve if CDA is to succeed.
On the Limited Presence of African American Teachers: An Assessment of Research, Synthesis, and Policy Implications
Authors: Cizek Gregory J.
Published: March 2008

This article responds to a recent review essay by King (1993) on the limited presence of African American teachers in American elementary and secondary education. The purpose of this response is twofold. First, it is suggested that the original work leaves some of the issues surrounding attracting and retaining elementary and secondary school teachers unaddressed, leaves some conflicting empirical work unsynthesized, and provides interpretations and policy suggestions that do not necessarily directly follow from the empirical evidence. Second, this response highlights an emerging problem in educational research. It suggests that a productive and worthwhile area of inquiry would be one in which educational researchers examine how “crises” in education emerge, how they are defined and constructed both within and outside the field of education; and how educational researchers respond to educational crises. It is hoped that these substantive and policy concerns will begin to receive additional attention from educational researchers and policymakers.
Beyond a Two-Goal Theory of Motivation and Achievement: A Case for Social Goals
Authors: Urdan Timothy C. , Maehr Martin L.
Published: March 2008

Research on academic achievement motivation has increasingly focused on students’ goals. Most of that research has focused on two particular types of achievement goals: task goals and ability goals. In this review, we propose that a more thorough understanding of motivation and achievement in schools can be developed if we examine social goals—defined as perceived social purposes for academic achievement—in addition to task and ability goals. We review research on achievement goal theory, social goals, social motives, and social influences on students’ school-related attitudes and behaviors to develop hypotheses about the antecedents and consequences of social goals. In addition, we discuss ways in which the learning environment may influence students’ social goal orientations. We conclude with a discussion of seven areas for future research on the nature and function of social goals.
Feedback and Self-Regulated Learning: A Theoretical Synthesis
Authors: Butler Deborah L. , Winne Philip H.
Published: March 2008

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is a pivot upon which students’ achievement turns. We explain how feedback is inherent in and a prime determiner of processes that constitute SRL, and review areas of research that elaborate contemporary models of how feedback functions in learning. Specifically, we begin by synthesizing a model of self-regulation based on contemporary educational and psychological literatures. Then we use that model as a structure for analyzing the cognitive processes involved in self-regulation, and for interpreting and integrating findings from disparate research traditions. We propose an elaborated model of SRL that can embrace these research findings and that spotlights the cognitive operation of monitoring as the hub of self-regulated cognitive engagement. The model is then used to reexamine (a) recent research on how feedback affects cognitive engagement with tasks and (b) the relation among forms of engagement and achievement. We conclude with a proposal that research on feedback and research on self-regulated learning should be tightly coupled, and that the facets of our model should be explicitly addressed in future research in both areas.
By All Available Means: Cameron and Pierce’s Defense of Extrinsic Motivators
Authors: Kohn Alfie
Published: March 2008

Cameron and Pierce’s meta-analysis (1994), which purports to demonstrate that extrinsic rewards may not undermine intrinsic motivation, is unpersuasive by virtue of its methodology, its tendency to ignore important distinctions, and its failure to include certain evidence.
The Effect of School Resources on Student Achievement
Authors: Greenwald Rob , Hedges Larry V. , Laine Richard D.
Published: March 2008

A universe of education production function studies was assembled in order to utilize meta-analytic methods to assess the direction and magnitude of the relations between a variety of school inputs and student achievement. The 60 primary research studies aggregated data at the level of school districts or smaller units and either controlled for socioeconomic characteristics or were longitudinal in design. The analysis found that a broad range of resources were positively related to student outcomes, with effect sizes large enough to suggest that moderate increases in spending may be associated with significant increases in achievement. The discussion relates the findings of this study with trends in student achievement from the National Assessment of Educational Progress and changes in social capital over the last two decades.
Why Do Parents Become Involved in Their Children’s Education?
Authors: Hoover-Dempsey Kathleen V. , Sandler Howard M.
Published: March 2008

This article reviews psychological theory and research critical to understanding why parents become involved in their children’s elementary and secondary education. Three major constructs are believed to be central to parents’ basic involvement decisions. First, parents’ role construction defines parents’ beliefs about what they are supposed to do in their children’s education and appears to establish the basic range of activities that parents construe as important, necessary, and permissible for their own actions with and on behalf of children. Second, parents’ sense of efficacy for helping their children succeed in school focuses on the extent to which parents believe that through their involvement they can exert positive influence on their children’s educational outcomes. Third, general invitations, demands, and opportunities for involvement refer to parents’ perceptions that the child and school want them to be involved. Hypotheses concerning the functioning of the three constructs in an additive model are suggested, as are implications for research and practice. Overall, the review suggests that even well-designed school programs inviting involvement will meet with only limited success if they do not address issues of parental role construction and parental sense of efficacy for helping children succeed in school.
Constraints or Guideposts? Developmental Psychology and Science Education
Authors: Kuhn Deanna
Published: March 2008

Metz ( 1995 ) criticizes “developmentally based” science curricula as inappropriately constraining science instruction to activities that bear little resemblance to authentic scientific inquiry, which she recommends as a more productive model for science education. Here, I reflect on Metz’ recommendations, consider whether research and theory in developmental psychology stand to inform science educators’ pursuit of directions of the sort Metz advocates, and propose a “guideposts “ rather than “constraints “ model of how developmental psychology might inform science educators’ efforts.
The Parameters of Affirmative Action: Equity and Excellence in the Academy
Authors: Tierney William G.
Published: March 2008

This article provides a historical, philosophical, and theoretical analysis of affirmative action in higher education. It begins with the historical basis for affirmative action and the rationale for why it has been needed. The author outlines the philosophy behind affirmative action and its legal ramifications. The article then evaluates the success of affirmative action, outlines the criticisms that have been made of it, and considers alternatives. It is argued that affirmative action goes to the heart of what we mean by public higher education and what we mean by “merit.” Although the policy has not succeeded in creating dramatic improvements, it has been consistent with basic assumptions about the meaning of academic community.
Thinking Aloud and Reading Comprehension Research: Inquiry, Instruction, and Social Interaction
Authors: Kucan Linda , Beck Isabel L.
Published: March 2008

This is a review of research on thinking aloud in reading comprehension that considers thinking aloud as a method of inquiry, a mode of instruction, and a means for encouraging social interaction. As a method of inquiry, the analysis of verbal reports provided by readers thinking aloud revealed the flexible and goal-directed processing of expert readers. As a mode of instruction, thinking aloud was first employed by teachers who modeled their processing during reading, making overt the strategies they were using to comprehend text. Subsequently, instructional approaches were developed to engage students themselves in thinking aloud. Such endeavors revealed facilitation effects on text understanding. Current efforts to engage students in constructing meaning from text in collaborative discussions seem to indicate a new direction for thinking aloud research, one in which social interaction assumes increased importance.
Culturally Sensitive Parent Education: A Critical Review of Quantitative Research
Authors: Gorman Jean Cheng , Balter Lawrence
Published: March 2008

The recent growth of culturally sensitive parent education programs necessitates an evaluative look at their effectiveness. This article critically reviews the quantitative literature on culturally sensitive parent education programs, discussing issues of research methodology and program efficacy in producing change among ethnic-minority parents and their children. Culturally sensitive programs for African American and Hispanic families are described in detail Quantitative studies of culturally sensitive programs are critiqued against existing literature on the effectiveness of traditional parent education programs. Main conclusions include the prevalence of flaws in research methodology, which may contribute to the finding of somewhat lower efficacy of these programs in comparison to standard programs. Although efficacy studies of programs for Native American and Asian American parents could not be found, efforts to serve these populations are also described. Recommendations for future research are proposed.
Inscriptions: Toward a Theory of Representing as Social Practice
Authors: Roth Wolff-Michael , McGinn Michelle K.
Published: March 2008

We argue for a new theoretical perspective on representations. This perspective has its roots in recent scholarship in social studies of science and technology and is centered around the notion of inscriptions, graphical representations recorded in and available through some medium (e.g., paper, computer monitor). Methodologically, researchers have begun to investigate the construction and development of inscriptions, the transformations they undergo, the roles they play in social situations, and the (rhetorical) purposes for which they are deployed. As a result of this research, the social practices of inscription users came into focus, and individual mental activity was deemphasized. Inscriptions and inscription-related practices highlight aspects of representations and representing not captured by other theoretical frameworks. This framework has considerable implications for thinking about representations and representing, organizing classroom learning environments, and designing curriculum materials.
Peer Assessment Between Students in Colleges and Universities
Authors: Topping Keith
Published: March 2008

A definition and typology of peer assessment between students in higher education is proposed, and the theoretical underpinnings of the method are discussed. A review of the developing literature follows, including both process and outcome studies. This indicates that peer assessment is of adequate reliability and validity in a wide variety of applications. Peer assessment of writing and peer assessment using marks, grades, and tests have shown positive formative effects on student achievement and attitudes. These effects are as good as or better than the effects of teacher assessment. Evidence for such effects from other types of peer assessment (of presentation skills, group work or projects, and professional skills) is, as yet, more limited. Computer-assisted peer assessment is an emerging growth area. Important factors in successful implementation are summarized, and recommendations for future research and practice are made.
Supervising Evaluation Practicum and Intern Students: A Developmental Model
Authors: Brown Robert D
Published: March 2008

Several professional areas, such as counseling and psychotherapy, have found a developmental perspective useful in understanding student professional and training needs. A developmental perspective on supervising evaluation practicum students suggests that students go through developmental stages as they enhance their evaluation skills. A three-stage model adapted from counseling training theory developmental perspective is illustrated for eight developmental tasks: competence, emotional awareness, autonomy, professional autonomy, purpose, motivation, individual differences, and ethical competence. Implications for research and further application of a developmental perspective are discussed.
Benefit-Cost Analysis of the Perry Preschool Program and Its Policy Implications
Authors: Barnett W. Steven
Published: March 2008

Benefit-cost analysis is applied to the Perry Preschool Program and its long-term follow-up in order to examine preschool education as a social investment. Economic values are estimated for program cost, child care provided, later education cost reductions, increased higher education cost, delinquency and crime cost reductions, earnings increases, and welfare cost reductions. The net present value of benefits and costs is positive, indicating that the program was a profitable social investment. Analysis of the distribution of effects revealed that taxpayers obtained most of the economic benefits and that their benefits exceeded costs. Generalizability of the findings and their implications for public policy are examined.
Assessing National Data on Education
Authors: Plisko Valena White , Ginsburg Alan , Chaikind Stephen
Published: March 2008

Efforts to improve education may be misdirected without adequate data to monitor developments and elucidate key issues. This assessment evaluates some 35 data bases, federal and privately sponsored, that report national education statistics in terms of their potential for informing policy deliberations. It argues that for all the national data collected, information is largely lacking on several major concerns, often inadequate statistically, and sometimes contradictory. From this evaluation, various improvements are proposed to upgrade the collection of policy-oriented data.
Naturalistic Evaluation: Potential Conflicts Between Evaluation Standards and Criteria for Conducting Naturalistic Inquiry
Authors: Williams David D
Published: March 2008

Although the use of naturalistic methods in educational evaluation is growing, the practical implications of this practice are unclear. Through a description and comparison of standards for evaluation and criteria for judging naturalistic inquiries, a few potential conflicts are identified. Analysis of the problems evaluators could encounter while using naturalistic methods suggests that compromises in the use of evaluation standards and criteria for naturalistic procedures are usually necessary. However, it is argued that when the evaluation needs warrant the use of naturalistic techniques, cautious flexibility in using the few standards and criteria in potential conflict seems well justified.
On the Trail of the Omnibeast: Evaluating Omnibus Education Reforms in the 1980s
Authors: Grossman Pamela L. , Kirst Michael W. , Schmidt-Posner Jackie
Published: March 2008

In this study we investigate curricular changes in California comprehensive high schools from 1982–83 to 1984–85. During this period a number of educational reforms occurred, all aimed at bolstering the academic demands of secondary schools. Senate Bill 813 mandated more extensive statewide graduation requirements for high schools, while California state universities and the University of California altered their entrance requirements. In addition, a number of national reports found America’s high schools lacking in academic rigor. Although it is difficult to ascertain the precise causes of change, we find changes in the course offerings of a sample of 20 California comprehensive high schools. In almost all cases, our data mirror statewide curricular changes documented in California Basic Education Data System data. The general pattern in both sets of data involves increased offerings in academic areas, particularly in math, science, and advanced placement, and decreased offerings in industrial arts, home economics, and business education.