bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Charles Sutherland Elton. 29 March 1900 — 1 May 1991
Authors: Southwood Richard , Clarke J.R.
Published: December 2006

Charles Elton is not simply a towering figure in the history of animal ecology; in many respects he deserves to be called its founding father. His interest in natural history, rooted in childhood, was burnished by experience on Arctic expeditions, and on the basis of these firm personal foundations he wrote Animal ecology (1)*. This book, which he records that he wrote in 1926 in 85 days (Elton, mss†), sets out much of the framework of the subject–at the levels of both the population and the community. He outlined the various factors that could potentially regulate populations, the significance of dispersal and many of the key concepts such as the pyramid of numbers and the composition of food chains. The first phase of his research was concerned with fluctuations, particularly regular ones (cycles), in animal populations; the second was devoted to the study of the community in the shape of Wytham Wood near Oxford. From this he derived other concepts such as the inverse pyramid of habitats and the girder system of communities, although these have not achieved the wide credence of his earlier ideas. His foundation of the Bureau of Animal Population in Oxford and of the Journal of Animal Ecology were truly seminal steps in the organizational development of the subject. Nevertheless, the Bureau remained small, and he preferred the small team to the large department and seldom attended national or international meetings.
Sir Otto Herzberg Frankel. 4 November 1900 — 21 November 1998
Authors: Evans Lloyd T.
Published: December 2006

Sir Otto Frankel-whom I shall refer to as Otto because that is how we all addressed him-was a geneticist by training, a plant breeder by occupation, a cytologist by inclination and a genetic conservationist by acclaim. Apart from his personal research, Otto was a highly effective builder and leader of research groups, a Socratic gadfly to the scientific establishment, and a high prophet of the genetic resources conservation movement. His career in science was unusual in that his most widely acclaimed work was done after his official retirement. A man of inexhaustible variety of opinions, he had a complex personality that could be rough or kindly, bored or engaged, impossible or altogether charming by turns, and he did not wish this memoir to paint him otherwise.

Otto refused to write an autobiographical sketch, and did not keep many records. However, two interviews with him about his career were recorded, by Gavan McCarthy (McCarthy 1985) and by Max Blythe (Blythe 1993). Much of the information and views quoted here are from records of discussions that I had with him over many years.
Drummond Hoyle Matthews. 5 February 1931 — 20 July 1997
Authors: White Robert S.
Published: December 2006

Drummond (Drum) Matthews was a leader who gave himself selflessly for the good of his students and science. He is best known for his work with Fred Vine (F.R.S. 1974), then his graduate student, on the seafloor spreading hypothesis, which underpinned the plate tectonics revolution, and for the work done under his leadership by the Cambridge marine geophysics group and the British Institutions' Reflection Profiling Syndicate (BIRPS). But perhaps his most enduring scientific legacy lies in his many former students, now in positions of leadership and responsibility around the world, who continue to make significant contributions to the health of science.
Henry Barcroft. 18 October 1904 – 11 January 1998
Authors: Greenfield A.D.M. , Roddie I.C.
Published: December 2006

Henry Barcroft (H.B.) was born on 18 October 1904 at 92 Chesterton Road, Cambridge. He was the first son of Joseph Barcroft (J.B.), later Professor Sir Joseph Barcroft, C.B.E., F.R.S., and Mary Agnetta (Minnie) Ball (M.A.B.), whom he had married in 1903. He had one brother, Lt.-Col. Robert Ball Barcroft, born in 1909, and no sisters. Both of his parents had distinguished ancestors.
Frank Brian Mercer, O.B.E. 22 December 1927 — 22 November 1998
Authors: Ford Hugh
Published: December 2006

Dr Frank Brian Mercer combined within one man a strong scientific approach with an exceptional imaginative and creative mind that was able to develop the technological and engineering aspects that led on to successful commercial realization of his ideas. It is claimed–with justification–by J.E. Ford of the Shirley Institute that his invention of Netlon was the ninth basic textile process since the dawn of civilization (Ford 1972).
George Joseph Popjàk. 5 May 1914 — 30 December 1998
Authors: Akhtar Muhammad
Published: December 2006

George Joseph Popják was a leading biochemist who introduced radioisotopic techniques to the study of metabolic pathways in the UK, and fully exploited their use in his own researches. His earlier work clarified the origin of triglycerides and cholesterol in the foetus as well as in milk, and paved the way for far-reaching discoveries in these fields. His group was the first to demonstrate that fatty acid biosynthesis occurs not in the mitochondria by the mere reversal of the β-oxidation pathway, but by a new cytosolic enzyme system. With J.W. Cornforth he dominated the field of cholesterol biosynthesis for nearly two decades. Their joint work reached new heights when they made intellectually cunning contributions to the mechanism and stereochemistry of several enzymic reactions involved between mevalonic acid and squalene. His later work was concerned with the understanding of the factors that, under physiological conditions, maintain cholesterol homeostasis and the development of novel strategies that can be used in the treatment of hypercholesterolaemia. Popják's early medical training and his great mastery of chemical enzymology provided a powerful combination for tackling biomedically important problems at a molecular level.
Lionel Edward Aston Rowson, O.B.E. 28 May 1914 — 26 July 1989
Authors: Polge Christopher
Published: December 2006

L.E.A. Rowson was always known as Tim to his family, friends and colleagues alike. He was a veterinary surgeon who made important contributions to research in reproductive physiology in farm animals and its application to animal breeding. In particular, he was a pioneer of artificial insemination (AI) and embryo transfer, which have become two of the most important technologies for livestock improvement in modern times.He was appointed Director of the first AI centre for cattle breeding in Britain, established at Cambridge in 1942, and played a leading role in the application and rapid growth of this technology. In 1952 he contributed to the development of successful methods for the freezing and long-term storage of bull semen at very low temperatures. This had far-reaching consequences for the future of AI and cattle breeding worldwide.For thirty years he also worked at the Animal Research Station in Cambridge on methods for embryo transfer in sheep and cattle and their use in research and breeding. This culminated in the 1970s with the development of effective methods for collection and transfer of cattle embryos by non-surgical means. The birth of the first calf after transfer of a deepfrozen embryo in 1973 was another landmark, and these advances led quite quickly to the commercial application of embryo transfer in cattle breeding.Tim Rowson is generally regarded as the founder of embryo transfer in farm animals, but important contributions were made by many collaborators. He always considered that he was privileged during his early years to have worked with Dr John (later Sir John) Hammond, F.R.S., who maintained that the function of applied science was to synthesize the detailed knowledge gained from fundamental research into a constructive whole so that it could be used for a specific purpose. Tim was a true disciple of this philosophy and always tried to relate a fundamental approach to a practical outcome.
Sir John Carew Eccles, A.C. 27 January 1903 – 2 May 1997
Authors: Curtis David R. , Andersen Per
Published: December 2006

Sir John Eccles, internationally recognized for his remarkable and outstanding impact on the neurosciences for more than six decades, died on 2 May 1997 at the age of 94. He performed his research in Oxford, Sydney, Dunedin, Canberra, Chicago and Buffalo from 1927 until 1975 (73)*. His numerous scientific papers and books, arising from pioneering experimental studies of synaptic mechanisms and the organization of neurons in the mammalian central nervous system, continue to have a major influence on brain research. Furthermore, his writings on the mind-brain interaction generated wide interest and debate. Eccles also made his mark as an administrator, particularly at the Australian National University and the Australian Academy of Science, of which he was a Foundation Fellow and the second President.
William David Ollis. 22 December 1924 — 13 June 1999
Authors: Blackburn G.M. , Sutherland I.O.
Published: December 2006

David Ollis was one of the most influential and significant members of the group of British chemists who rose to prominence during the 1950s and 1960s. In common with other members of this group, he made important and lasting contributions to both the theory and the practice of his chosen discipline. Although the growth of natural product chemistry was less dramatic during the 1970s and beyond, he transposed his activities increasingly into mechanistic studies and so remained one of the leaders of chemistry in the UK. He occupied the Chair of Organic Chemistry at Sheffield University from 1963 to his retirement in 1990, and thereafter continued to be involved in chemistry through an honorary appointment at Birmingham University until his death in 1999.
Sir (Thomas) Angus Lyall Paton, C.M.G. 10 May 1905 – 7 April 1999
Authors: Burdekin F.M.
Published: December 2006

Thomas Angus Lyall Paton was born in Jersey on 10 May 1905, a descendant of a family of flaxspinners from Montrose. His father was a journalist and author with a classics degree from Oxford University. His mother was the daughter of a civil engineering contractor named Easton Gibb and his uncle was Alexander Gibb, founder of the firm of consulting engineers bearing his name, with which Angus Paton spent his whole working career.
Michael Smith. 26 April 1932 – 4 October 2000
Authors: Astell Caroline R.
Published: December 2006

Michael Smith was born on 26 April 1932 in Blackpool, England, and died after a brief illness on 4 October 2000. He leaves his family, his wife, Helen Smith, from whom he was separated, and three children, Tom, Ian and Wendy, and his partner, Elizabeth Raines.
Sir (Cyril) James Stubblefield. 6 September 1901 – 23 October 1999
Authors: Whittington H.B.
Published: December 2006

Cyril James Stubblefield was an internationally renowned palaeontologist who, in his long career in the Geological Survey of Great Britain, rose to become its Director, and who was elected to be the leading geologist in the country as President of the Geological Society of London. A tribute to Sir James Stubblefield–as he became–by Dr M.A. Calver (1981), a colleague and Chief Palaeontologist, Institute of Geological Sciences, celebrated Sir James's 80th birthday and gave a list of his publications. H.E. Wilson's lively history (Wilson 1985) of the 150 years of the British Geological Survey, as the Institute of Geological Sciences was renamed in 1984, has much information on the years spanning Sir James's career. The personal tribute by Dr R. Casey, F.R.S. (Casey 2000), gives a unique insight into service in the Geological Survey during those years. Here I have supplemented the account by Calver, using autobiographical notes compiled by Stubblefield, and the complete bibliography includes publications (additional to those listed by Calver) compiled by Dr P.A. Sabine, formerly Deputy Director of the Institute.
Douglas Hugh Everett MBE. 26 December 1916 – 25 June 2002
Authors: Ottewill Ronald
Published: December 2006

Douglas Everett made major contributions to the study of thermodynamics, and in particular to acid-base equilibria, porous media, physical adsorption of gases on solids, adsorption from solution and colloid stabilization. He was also instrumental in setting up in Bristol University a highly acclaimed Research School in Surface and Colloid Science.
Max Ferdinand Perutz OM CH CBE. 19 May 1914 – 6 February 2002
Authors: Blow D.M.
Published: December 2006

Scientists will remember Max Perutz for his outstanding analysis of the molecular structure, properties and allosteric mechanism of haemoglobin, but his wonderful clarity and simplicity in writing on the widest range of topics has made him famous far beyond the haemoglobin fraternity. He left many autobiographical essays on different events in his life, and his writings are quoted frequently in this memoir. Indeed, to a large extent, it is written by Max Perutz himself!
Alan Frederick Williams. 25 May 1945 – 9 April 1992
Authors: Crumpton Michael J.
Published: December 2006

Alan Williams is noted for his seminal contributions to the field of leucocyte membrane glycoproteins (that is, differentiation antigens). He played a leading role in the development of approaches to the purification and structural analysis of cell surface antigens. His comprehensive characterization of the structure of the rat Thy–1 antigen, as well as the application of monoclonal antibodies to the designation and subsequent isolation of multiple new leucocyte antigens, were exemplary. His discovery that Thy–1 is structurally related to immunoglobulin led directly to the concept of the immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily, which embraced a spectrum of cell surface molecules involved in a variety of cell recognition systems. He was a very strong advocate in support of the rat as a model animal in the study of immunological phenomena. He was energetic and courageous, as well as radiating enthusiasm for immunological research, inspiring others, critically analysing accepted dogmas and setting high standards. In short, he was a brilliant research scientist.
Dynamics of killer T cell inflation in viral infections
Authors: Wodarz Dominik , Sierro Sophie , Klenerman Paul
Published: December 2006

Upon acute viral infection, a typical cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response is characterized by a phase of expansion and contraction after which it settles at a relatively stable memory level. Recently, experimental data from mice infected with murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) showed different and unusual dynamics. After acute infection had resolved, some antigen specific CTL started to expand over time despite the fact that no replicative virus was detectable. This phenomenon has been termed as ‘CTL memory inflation’. In order to examine the dynamics of this system further, we developed a mathematical model analysing the impact of innate and adaptive immune responses. According to this model, a potentially important contributor to CTL inflation is competition between the specific CTL response and an innate natural killer (NK) cell response. Inflation occurs most readily if the NK cell response is more efficient than the CTL at reducing virus load during acute infection, but thereafter maintains a chronic virus load which is sufficient to induce CTL proliferation. The model further suggests that weaker NK cell mediated protection can correlate with more pronounced CTL inflation dynamics over time. We present experimental data from mice infected with MCMV which are consistent with the theoretical predictions. This model provides valuable information and may help to explain the inflation of CMV specific CD8+T cells seen in humans as they age.
A gas calorimeter
Authors: Boys Charles Vernon
Published: December 2006

In the report of the gas section of the Electrical and Gas Exhibition held at the Crystal Palace in 1884, there is an illustrated account of a gas calorimeter devised by Mr. F. W. Hartley for the purpose of testing the calorific value of the gas used in the cooking and heating apparatus shown in the exhibition. This report, which is rather inaccessible, may be seen in the library of the Patent Office in Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, and its catalogue number is 15,262. In this instrument the gas to be examined is passed through a delicate meter and governor, after which it is burned in a Bunsen burner in the instrument. The heat is taken from the products of combustion and the unchanged air by means of a stream of water, the rate of flow and rise of temperature of which are determined. From these observations the calorific value of the gas can be deduced. Mr. Hartley considered the very small corrections due to the effluent gas being slightly different in temperature from the surrounding air, also corrections due to adventitious loss or gain of heat, and to the change in the specific heat of water with temperature. The paper unfortunately occupies only five pages, and the construction of the details of the instrument can only be inferred from the figure.
The determination of the osmotic pressures of solutions by the measurement of their vapour pressures
Authors: Berkeley Randal Thomas Mowbray Rawdon , Hartley E. G. J.
Published: December 2006

In May, 1903, we described, in a preliminary paper, some experiments by which we had measured directly the osmotic pressures of strong solutions of cane sugar in water. Since then a repetition of the experiments with an improved apparatus has been carried out, the results of which we hope to publish very shortly. As these results depart widely from the theoretical gas laws, it was deemed advisable to obtain the osmotic pressures of the same solutions by an independent method; and an experimental investigation of the well known connection between the “lowering” of the vapour pressure of a solution and its osmotic pressure seemed suitable.
The Bakerian lecture - The anomalous specific heats of crystals, with special reference to the contribution of molecular rotations
Authors: Fowler Ralph Howard
Published: December 2006

The primary purpose of this lecture is to describe a tentative theory, which I have recently tried to improve, of the contribution that molecular rotations may make to the specific heats and in general to the equilibrium properties of crystals. The occasion of the Bakerian lecture, however, seems a fitting one for a general survey rather than for the detailed exposition of a particular theory, which at best is still far from a final state. I shall spend most of my time therefore in such a general survey of the theory of the specific heats of crystalline solids. Strictly speaking, the theory is not so much a theory of the specific heat as a theoretical construction of the free-energy function of the solid in terms of an assumed model for the atoms or molecules constituting its crystal lattice. From this free energy, the total energy content, specific heat, equation of state and other related equilibrium properties of the solid can of course be deduced by differentiation, and specific heats provide the most striking property easily submitted to comparison with experiment.

When we set out to construct theoretical free-energy functions in this way, using the methods of statistical mechanics, the function that we actually construct is the partition function, the quantum mechanical generalization of Gibb’s phase integral ∫
e

-E/
k
T

d
Ω over the phase space of solid or other system. The free energy is merely -
k
T log (partition function).

My first object is therefore to describe the present state of the theory of the partition functions of solids and their success or failure in describing the observed facts. This will lead us on naturally to the discussion of various types of anomaly in the specific heat curves not provided for by the simpler versions of the theory, and so to a description of attempts that have been made to explain them, among which the theory of molecular rotations in solids finds its natural place.
Results of calculations of atomic wave functions IV—Results for F
-
, Al
+3
, and Rb
+
Authors: Hartree Douglas Rayner
Published: December 2006

In three previous papers, results of calculations of atomic wave functions, carried out by the method of the self-consistent field to a fairly high degree of numerical accuracy (for work of this kind), have been given for a number of atoms. The present paper gives further results of this kind for F
-
, Al
+3
, and Rb
+
. Similar calculations are in progress for Ag
+
, and the results of the preliminary stages of the calculation have been given by Miss Black. The results here given are presented in the same form as in previous papers, namely:― (1) Unnormalized radial wave functions P, and the values of the normalization integral ∫
0
∞
P
2
dr
, and of the energy parameter ε in the one-electron radial wave equation, for each function P; also values of P/
r
l + 1
for small
r
.
Acid catalysis in non-aqueous solvents. II—The rearrangement of N-bromacetanilide in chlorobenzene catalysed by trichloracetic acid
Authors: Bell R. P. , Levinge R. V. H.
Published: December 2006

It was shown in a previous paper that the reaction C
6
H
5
. NBr. COCH
3
→
p
. Br. C
6
H
4
. NHCOCH
3
is catalysed by a number of acids in non-dissociating solvents, and follows a unimolecular course. A few measurements at 15° and 25°C gave temperature coefficients of 2.0-2.4 per 10°, corresponding to heats of activation of about 12,000-15,000 calories per gram-molecule, and it was shown that on this assumption only a small fraction. The present paper describes a more detailed study of the temperature coefficient of catalysis by trichloracetic acid in chlorobenzene solution, in the course of which new features in the kinetics of the reaction were discovered.
Cathode ray oscillography of gas adsorption phenomena II-Durations of an absorbed state of oxygen on tungsten
Authors: Johnson M. C. , Vick F. A.
Published: December 2006

The adsorption of oxygen on incandescent tungsten, at gas pressures of the order of 10
-6
mm Hg is known to result in a layer of extreme stability, only capable of removal by simple evaporation at temperatures above 2000° Abs or by formation of the comparatively volatile WO
3
when attacked by excess oxygen. Langmuir and Villars estimated the heat of adsorption of the oxygen as 162,000 calories per gram atom, which is so much greater than the heat of dissociation as to make extremely plausible the view that this stable layer is monatomic. Langmuir and Villars's calculation, however, was based on an indirect method, in which the adsorbed oxygen acted as a cement in attaching a layer of caesium to the underlying metal; the effect of the caesium on the thermionic emission from the tungsten in turn served as an indicator of the presence of the oxygen. A cathode-ray oscillographic method of measuring transient gas phenomena at a thermionic surface, developed in Part I, offers a simple means of investigating directly the evaporation of this oxygen layer without having to rely on the unknown variables involved in its effect upon a third substance such as caesium. The method consists essentially of photographing the track of the oscillograph spot as it responds to the variations in potential across a high resistance carrying the thermionic current from a pure filament, before, during, and after the latter's exposure to an adsorbable gas. Since an oxygen layer greatly reduces the normal electron emission from tungsten, the oscillograph traces with a delay of less than 10
-6
seconds any changes occurring in the oxygen covering of the filament surface. The special methods devised for giving accurately repeatable time traverse to the oscillograph spot are described, with an analysis of the time lags inherent in the study of high-velocity reaction, in the paper referred to. Sample photographs of the thermionic changes accompanying evaporation of oxygen and of oxide are also there included. The contrasting stabilities appear in a volatilization of oxide within a second at a temperature low enough for the oxygen itself to be retained on the metal for many minutes.
Measurements of the absorption of wireless waves in the ionosphere
Authors: Farmer F. T. , Ratcliffe John Ashworth
Published: December 2006

In most of the investigation which have been made on wireless waves reflected from the ionosphere the experiments have been so designed as to provide information concerning the ionization density at different levels. The experimental data sought in such cases are usually critical penetration frequencies and equivalent heights of reflection. If, however, the amplitude of the downcoming waves is also observed, and the total absorption measured, it is possible to obtain information about the frequency of collision between electrons and molecules at different heights in the ionosphere. The measurements described in the present paper have been made so as to provide the latter type of information, and in particular to give evidence concerning the location of that part of the ionosphere which is of importance in producing absorption. For this purpose it is necessary to measure the absolute value of the absorption suffered by the wave, so that results on different wave-lengths may be compared. The methods which we have employed in making these measurements are described in § 2 and the results are discussed in § 4. The theoretical results which are used in § 4 are reviewed shortly in § 3. Most of the measurements discussed in this paper have been made on wave-lengths less than 200 m; a few measurements made with longer waves are discussed in § 6.
Statistical theory of turbulence IV-Diffusion in a turbulent air stream
Authors: Taylor Geoffrey Ingram
Published: December 2006

It was pointed out in Part I that experiments on the spread of heat from a line source (
e.g
., an electrically heated wire) in a turbulent air stream may be expected to give two elements of the statistical specification of turbulence. If the spread is measured near the source the value of the mean transverse component of velocity √¯
v
2
or
v
' in the notation of Part I, can be found. If the spread is examined further down-stream it should be possible to analyse the results to find the correlation function R

η

, which is the principal element of the representation of turbulence in the Lagrangian system. Spread of heat nearer line source Recently the spread of heat from a heated wire in a wind tunnel has been measured at points near to the source by Schubauer. The stream was made turbulent by means of grids of round bars arranged in square pattern. Their diameters were 1 /5 of the mesh length and M varied from 5 inches to 1/2 inch. The width of the heat wake was found by measuring the angle subtended at the source by the two positions where the temperature rise was half that in the centre of the wake. This angle, denoted by α, depends partly on the amount of turbulence and to a less extent on the spread of heat due to the thermal conductivity of the air. By assuming that the effect of turbulence is to communicate to the air an eddy conductivity β, which is additive to, and obeys the same law as, true thermal conductivity, a virtual angle α
turb
can be deduced by the relation α
2
turb
= α
2
— α
2
0
,
The production of radiation and ionization from helium atoms by potassium positive ions
Authors: Davies Ann Catherine
Published: December 2006

The production of ionization and radiation by collision of relatively slow positive ions with neutral atoms constitutes a less completely explored field of investigation than that of the absorption of ions by scattering, neutralization, and retardation. Many of the apparent discrepancies among the earlier results of investigations of the disappearance of ions from a beam on passing through a gas have now been reconciled by an appreciation of the important part played by the geometry of the apparatus, but as regards the production of ionization and radiation by slow positive ions many of the results are still somewhat conflicting. Investigations of this problem are beset with difficulties because of the relative inefficiency of the process and the necessity of eliminating the effects of other processes of a comparable order of magnitude. Experiments on the ionization of the rare gases by alkali metal positive ions, some of which include the ionization of helium by K
+
ions, have been carried out by Sutton, Mouzon, an d Beeck, and by Frische, and Nordmeyer. The method employed in all these investigations consisted in the measurement of the current due to the electrons produced in the gas by the positive ions, the electrons being driven to the collector by an electric field which urged them in the opposite direction to that in which the beam of positive ions was travelling.
The λ 2530 band of NH
Authors: Lunt R. Winstanley , Pearse R. W. B. , Smith E. C. W.
Published: December 2006

A previous communication by the authors described the use of a hollow cathode discharge in rapidly streaming ammonia for the excitation of a new band system of NH having its (0, 0) band at λ 4502. Observations of the spectrum obtained under these conditions have now been extended to the ultra-violet region. With an improved hollow cathode capable of carrying heavier currents, in addition to the well-known bands of the
3
Π →
3
∑ and
1
Π →
1
∆ systems of NH, a band is obtained at λ 2530 identical with that reported bx Hori. Hori used a 40 kV transformer discharge in a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen between a wire and a cup-shaped electrode of tungsten, the cup containing sodium or lithium. The intensity of the band was extremely weak compared with that in the hollow cathode discharge, which is such that the band max be photographed on a Hilger E1 quartz spectrograph with exposures of from 1 to 2 hours. The examination of the band as seen under higher dispersion than that used by Hori confirms his assignment of the band to the molecule NH; it also allows the authors to correct certain details of Hori's analysis, and to relate the band to bands of NH which are already known. Table I contains all the lines measurable in the region of the band. The strong lines are nearly all accounted for by the P, Q, and R branches of the λ 2530 band, the (0, 0) band of the system. A number of the remaining weaker lines have been assigned to the P, Q, and R branches of the (1, 1) band, as indicated in italics in the table.
The electronic structure of some polyenes and aromatic molecules VI-Phenylethylene, stilbene, tolane and the phenylmethyl radical.
Authors: Penney William George , Kynch G. J.
Published: December 2006

Observation and theory agree that the internuclear separation of two carbon atoms linked together in a molecule may be anything between 1·54 A, a distance characteristic of the single bond, and 1·20 A, the triple bond distance. Deviations from the single, double and triple bond distances are especially to be expected when neighbouring carbon-carbon links in the molecule are of different order. An approximate method of calculating lengths of linkages in such molecules was given by Pauling, Brockway and Beach (1935), who also applied their theory to links involving atoms other than carbon. Lennard-Jones (1937
a
), Lennard-Jones and Turkevitch (1937
b
), and Penney (1937), in papers I, II and III of the present series, have gone into the particular matter of carbon bonds more thoroughly, and have considered in detail the molecules of benzene, butadiene, hexatriene, biphenyl and napthalene, and the crystal graphite. Unfortunately, extensive comparison with experiment was not possible because of the lack of measurements, but in those cases where it could be made, namely benzene and graphite, the agreement was excellent. Very recently, Robertson and Woodward (1937) have made careful X-ray analyses of crystals of stilbene and tolane, and have succeeded in determining with great accuracy the dimensions of the stilbene and tolane molecules. Their results are very interesting from a theoretical point of view because they offer the first possibility of a stringent test for the theory.
The rotational energy-levels of a diatomic molecule in a tetrahedral field
Authors: Cundy H. M.
Published: December 2006

The rotation of molecules in fields with octahedral symmetry, which is an approximation to the fields in certain crystals, has been investigated by Devonshire (1936), in a paper in which he shows the types of the wave-functions for the general field of octahedral symmetry, and then obtains energy-levels for a particular field of this type. In this paper we shall use Devonshire’s method to determine the form of the wave-functions and energy-levels for the similar case when the potential field has not octahedral, but only tetrahedral symmetry, or complete (
A
1
) symmetry of the four-point group

T
d

. We shall again take a special form for the potential field, and show how the rotational levels split up as the field is increased, and also how the field modifies the wave-functions corresponding to the various levels.
The nature of the penetrating component of cosmic rays
Authors: Blackett Patrick Maynard Stuart
Published: December 2006

The measurements by Neddermeyer and Anderson (1937) of the absorp­tion of cosmic-ray particles of low energy by metal plates differ in certain respects from those by Blackett and Wilson (1937). The former results showed that, in the energy range 1∙2 x 10
8
to 5 x 10
8
e-volts, two types of particles exist, an absorbable group assumed to behave as theory predicts of electrons and a much more penetrating group, attributed provisionally to heavier particles. On the other hand, we found that all the rays with energy under 2 x 10
8
e-volts were absorbed like electrons, while for rays of greater energy the average energy loss was very much less. Though a very few energetic particles were found to have a high energy loss, insufficient evidence was then available to justify classifying them as of a nature distinct from the less absorbable rays. Thus we obtained definite experimental evidence that the energy loss of the great majority of the rays varies rapidly with their energy. We concluded, therefore, that the energy loss of a normal electron varies with its energy. We now believe this to be probably false, since the success of the cascade theory of showers, in explaining the transition curve in the atmosphere, and a large part, at any rate, of the phenomena of the transition curves of showers and bursts, has provided fairly strong evidence that there must be a very few energetic rays at sea-level, which have the full radiation loss of electrons, even in heavy elements. It follows that the great majority of the rays, for which the energy loss certainly varies rapidly with energy, are probably not normal electrons. We therefore agree with the view of Neddermeyer and Anderson that it is likely that there are two types of particles present, though the difference in behaviour only exists for energies over 2 x 10
8
e-volts.
Significance tests when several degrees of freedom arise simultaneously
Authors: Jeffreys Harold
Published: December 2006

1. If a set of observations are analysed for a new parameter
a
, which is initially as likely as not to be zero, and the possible range of whose values is
s
if it is not zero, we can denote the proposition that it is 0 by
q
, and the proposition that it is not 0 by ~
q
. Then the prior probabilities of
q
and ~
q
are given by
P
(
q
|
h
) =
P
(~
q
|
h
) = ½, (1) and the posterior probabilities on data
θ
are shown, by an approximate argument (Jeffreys 1937
b
, p. 250), to be given by
K
=
P
(
q
|
θh
)/
P
(
~q
|
θh
) /
P
(
q
|
h
)/
P
(
~q
|
h
) =
s
/√(2
π
) σ

α

exp( -
α
2
/2σ

α

2
), (2) where
α
is the maximum likelihood solution for
a
and σ

α

its standard error. Since
s
is initially fixed and σ

α

decreases like
n
-½
when
n
, the number of observations, increases, the outside factor is proportional to √
n
. If
K
is less than 1, the observations support the introduction of the new parameter; if
K
is more than 1 they do not. In the cases so far examined the critical value of
α
/σ

α

ranges from about 1·8 to 3 as the number of observations rises from 5 to 5000.
The disintegration of boron by slow neutrons
Authors: O'Ceallaigh C. , Davies W. T.
Published: December 2006

The distintegration of boron by neutrons has been studied by a number of workers, and it has been estabblished that it may take place in accordance with two equations
5
B
10
+
0
n
1
→
3
Li
7
+
2
He
4
+
Q
1
, (1) →
1
H
3
+
2
He
4
+
2
He
4
+
Q
2
. (2) From the values of the nuclear masses at present accepted, it may be calculated that the energy release
Q
1
is 2.99 X 10
6
e-volts, while
Q
2
is only about 0.4 X 10
6
e-volts. Observed disintegrations, if caused by slow neutrons, must therefore be of the two-particle type described by equation(1).
A new form of resorcinol. I. Structure determination by X-rays
Authors: Robertson John Monteath , Ubbelohde A. R.
Published: December 2006

At about 74º C. ordinary resorcinol (α-resorcinol) undergoes a transformation into a denser crystalline modification, called
β
-resorcinol (Ubbelohde and Robertson 1937), and a comparison of these two structures is of considerable general interest for the problem of intermolecular bonding in hydroxylic compounds. The crystalline structure of α-resorcinol has already been fully determined (Robertson 1936), and the present paper gives a corresponding X-ray determination of the structure of
β
-resorcinol. The comparatively open structure of α-resorcinol, which is apparently maintained by the directive power of the hydroxyl bonds, is replaced in
β
-resorcinol by a more parallel and compact arrangement of the molecules, reminiscent of many hydrocarbon structures. Several different factors are involved in this transformation, and it is accompanied by some deformation of the resorcinol molecule. The results are discussed more fully in relation to the thermodynamic properties of resorcinol in the following paper (Part II).
Hearing. II. The physical basis of the action of the cochlea
Authors: Gold Thomas , Gray James
Published: December 2006

An attempt is made to discover the physical processes in the cochlea which would yield results in agreement with observations. It is shown that the assumption of a ‘passive’ cochlea, where elements are brought into mechanical oscillation solely by means of the incident sound, is not tenable. The degree of resonance of the elements of the cochlea can be measured, and the results are not compatible with the very heavy damping which must arise from the viscosity of the liquid. For this reason the ‘regeneration hypothesis’ is put forward, and it is' suggested that an electromechanical action takes place whereby a supply of electrical energy is employed to counteract the damping. The circumstantial evidence for such a process is considered, and it appears that the cochlea microphonic potential, hitherto, an unexplained by-product of the action, forms an important link in the chain of events. Some implications of the theory are discussed, and ways of testing it are suggested.
Studies on the genetic and antigenic basis of tumour transplantation Linkage between a histocompatibility gene and 'fused' in mice
Authors: Gorer Peter Alfred , Lyman S. , Snell G. D. , Haldane John Burdon Sanderson
Published: December 2006

Inoculation of mice from appropriate crosses with two strainAtumours and onedba(sub­line 2) tumour showed close linkage of such a gene with the locus for ‘fused’. With theAstrain it was shown that the gene was identical with that for antigen II present in the erythrocytes. The gene is therefore labelledH2. Of sixty-nine backcross mice tested, both serologically and by tumour inoculation, sixty-five gave concordant results, four discordant results. In general, it appears that serological tests are preferable to tumour inoculation in the identification of genotypes. On serological grounds it is suggested that thedbagene is an allele of the above and should be calledHd2. It is possible that there is a long series of alleles at this locus. The indicated genotype of the strains used is as follows:A,H2H2;dba,Hd2Hd2;CBA,C57 andP,h2h2;CA,Fuh2/fu h2. Further tests may show differences in theh2allele in the last four strains. It is uncertain whether any cross-overs occurred in 257 backcross mice tested.
Using models to identify routes of nosocomial infection: a large hospital outbreak of SARS in Hong Kong
Authors: Kwok Kin On , Leung Gabriel M , Lam Wai Yee , Riley Steven
Published: December 2006

Two factors dominated the epidemiology of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) during the 2002–2003 global outbreak, namely super-spreading events (SSE) and hospital infections. Although both factors were important during the first and the largest hospital outbreak in Hong Kong, the relative importance of different routes of infection has not yet been quantified. We estimated the parameters of a novel mathematical model of hospital infection using SARS episode data. These estimates described levels of transmission between the index super-spreader, staff and patients, and were used to compare three plausible hypotheses. The broadest of the supported hypotheses ascribes the initial surge in cases to a single super-spreading individual and suggests that the
per capita
risk of infection to patients increased approximately one month after the start of the outbreak. Our estimate for the number of cases caused by the SSE is substantially lower than the previously reported values, which were mostly based on self-reported exposure information. This discrepancy suggests that the early identification of the index case as a super-spreader might have led to biased contact tracing, resulting in too few cases being attributed to staff-to-staff transmission. We propose that in future outbreaks of SARS or other directly transmissible respiratory pathogens, simple mathematical models could be used to validate preliminary conclusions concerning the relative importance of different routes of transmission with important implications for infection control.
Food web dynamics affect Northeast Arctic cod recruitment
Authors: Hjermann Dag Ø , Bogstad Bjarte , Eikeset Anne Maria , Ottersen Geir , Gjøsæter Harald , Stenseth Nils Chr
Published: December 2006

Proper management of ecosystems requires an understanding of both the species interactions as well as the effect of climate variation. However, a common problem is that the available time-series are of different lengths. Here, we present a general approach for studying the dynamic structure of such interactions. Specifically, we analyse the recruitment of the world's largest cod stock, the Northeast Arctic cod. Studies based on data starting in the 1970–1980s indicate that this stock is affected by temperature through a variety of pathways. However, the value of such studies is somewhat limited by the fact that they are based on a quite specific ecological and climatic situation. Recently, this stock has consisted of fairly young fish and the spawning stock has consisted of relatively few age groups. In this study, we develop a model for the effect of capelin (the cod's main prey) and herring on cod recruitment since 1973. Based on this model, we analyse data on cod, herring and temperature going back to 1921 and find that food-web effects explain a significant part of the cod recruitment variation back to around 1950.
Detecting kin selection at work using inclusive fitness
Authors: Grafen Alan
Published: December 2006

A recent model shows that altruism can evolve with limited migration and variable group sizes, and the authors claim that kin selection cannot provide a sufficient explanation of their results. It is demonstrated, using a recent reformulation of Hamilton's original arguments, that the model falls squarely within the scope of inclusive fitness theory, which furthermore shows how to calculate inclusive fitness and the relevant relatedness. A distinction is drawn between inclusive fitness, which is a method of analysing social behaviour; and kin selection, a process that operates through genetic similarity brought about by common ancestry, but not by assortation by genotype or by direct assessment of genetic similarity. The recent model is analysed, and it turns out that kin selection provides a sufficient explanation to considerable quantitative accuracy, contrary to the authors' claims. A parallel analysis is possible and would be illuminating for all models of social behaviour in which individuals' effects on each other's offspring numbers combine additively.
A critique of comparative studies of brain size
Authors: Healy Susan D , Rowe Candy
Published: December 2006

In recent years, there have been over 50 comparative analyses carried out in which social or ecological variables have been used to explain variation in whole brain size, or a part thereof, in a range of vertebrate species. Here, we review this body of work, pointing out that there are a number of substantial problems with some of the assumptions that underpin the hypotheses (e.g. what brain size means), with the data collection and with the ways in which the data are combined in the analyses. These problems are particularly apparent in those analyses in which attempts are made to correlate complex behaviour with parts of the brain that carry out multiple functions. We conclude that now is the time to substantiate these results with data from experimental manipulations.
III. On the development of the arteries of the abdomen and their relation to the peritoneum
Authors: Lockwood C. B.
Published: December 2006

The paper begins by explaining that it records an endeavour to elucidate the course and relations of the abdominal blood-vessels upon developmental grounds. The earliest stages of the development of the midgut and its mesentery are first 'described; and it is shown that vessels extend at very frequent intervals from the dorsal aorta to the intestine, reaching the latter by way of the mesentery.
II. On the structure and rhythm of the heart in fishes, with especial reference to the heart of the eel
Authors: McWilliam John Alexander , Sharpey-Schafer Edward Albert
Published: December 2006

The pulsation of the eel’s heart can easily be seen externally on the ventral surface of the body a short way behind the pectoral fins. There are no rigid structures of any kind between the integument and the heart. W hen the very tough and resistant skin is cut through and the great lateral muscles are separated from each other, the pericardium is seen, loosely adherent to the surrounding tissues. The pericardial cavity being laid open, the various parts of the heart, abundantly lubricated with fluid, come into view.
VIII. The physical properties of vulcanised India-rubber
Authors: Mallock Arnulph Henry Reginald , Strutt John William
Published: December 2006

Considering the wide use now made of india-rubber, it seems curious that the elastic constants which define its properties should not be as well known as the corresponding quantities for iron or brass. The only published quantitative measure, however, with which I am acquainted, relating to the subject, is contained in a paragraph of Thomson and Tait’s ‘Natural Philosophy’ (p. 230, Part II, New Edition), where the resilience of vulcanised india-rubber,
i. e.
, the amount of work restored by the substance when allowed to return to its equilibrium form, after having been stretched to a maximum short of rupture, is stated to be equivalent to its own weight raised through 1200 metres.
The third elliptic integral and the ellipsotomic problem.
Authors: Greenhill Alfred George
Published: December 2006

The elliptic integral of the third kind, which makes its appearance in a dynamical problem, is of the circular form in Legendre’s classification, and thus the Jacobian parameter is a fraction of the imaginary period, so that the expression by-means of the theta function can no longer be considered as reducing the variable elements from three to two. Burkhardt has given a series rapidly convergent for the numerical calculation of such cases; but the object of this memoir is to develop the exact expression by means of an idea of Abel, given in the first volume of ‘Crelle’s Journal,’ 1826, “Ueber die Integration der Differential-Formel (1)
ρdx
/√R, wenn R and
ρ
ganze Functionen sind."