bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The New Abnormal
Authors: Beenstock Michael
Published: September 2022

The New Normal is a form of political economy, adopted by Japan in 1996 and elsewhere since 2008, in which central banks set their policy rate to zero, finance ministries run large budget deficits, and debt-to-GDP ratios soar. Central banks found a new raison d’ être in quantitative easing, leading to massive expansions in money supply. Nevertheless, inflation remained minimal. The New Normal is very abnormal, hence the New Abnormal. However, the laws of economics have not been suspended. Keynes’ liquidity trap theory explains why expansionary monetary and fiscal policy are not inflationary when the rate of interest is zero. As their debt-to-GDP ratios increase, countries get caught in a debt trap, which impedes the normalization of monetary policy. The unsustainability of the New Abnormal induces existential risk, which depresses investment and perhaps fertility. When the rate of interest eventually becomes positive, countries threaten to crash out of the New Abnormal, generating economic chaos. The thesis in this book is revisionist. Orthodox macroeconomic theory explains the rise of the New Abnormal and how to escape it.
The Japanese Crystal Ball?
Authors: Beenstock Michael
Published: September 2022

Because Japan has been in the New Abnormal since the 1990s, it may serve as a crystal ball for its long-term economic and social consequences. Since the end of the postwar economic miracle in the late 1980s, Japan patched over its need for structural reforms by adopting ZIP in 1996 and then the New Abnormal. The cozy relations between politicians, bureaucrats, and businessmen fostered corruption. After 2000 the Ministry of Finance ran large fiscal deficits to pump-prime the economy, and to pay for the cost of looking after the burgeoning population of pensioners. By 2021, the debt-to-GDP ratio reached 260 percent of GDP. A study by the OECD shows that Japan is caught in an irreversible debt trap. The repeated failure to undertake structural reforms does not result from short-termism in policy making, but from deeply ingrained cultural reasons that are peculiar to Japan.
Topics of Thought
Authors: Berto Francesco
Published: September 2022

This book concerns mental states such as thinking that Obama is tall, imagining that there will be a climate change catastrophe, knowing that one is not a brain in a vat, or believing that Martina Navratilova is the greatest tennis player ever. Such states are usually understood as having intentionality, that is, as being about things or situations to which the mind is directed. The contents of such states are often taken to be propositions. The book presents a new framework for the logic of thought, so understood—an answer to the question: Given that one thinks (believes, knows, etc.) something, what else must one think (ditto) as a matter of logic? This should depend on the propositions which make for the contents of the relevant thoughts. And the book defends the idea that propositions should be individuated hyperintensionally, i.e. not just by the sets of worlds at which they are true (as in standard ‘intensional’ possible worlds semantics), but also by what they are about: their topic or subject matter. Thus, the logic of thought should be ‘topic-sensitive’. After the philosophical foundations have been presented in Chapters 1−2, Chapter 3 develops a theory of Topic-Sensitive Intentional Modals (TSIMs): modal operators representing attitude ascriptions, which embed a topicality or subject matter constraint. Subsequent chapters explore applications ranging from mainstream epistemology (dogmatism, scepticism, fallibilism: Chapter 4), to the nature of suppositional thinking and imagination (Chapter 5), conditional belief and belief revision (Chapter 6), framing effects (Chapter 7), probabilities and indicative conditionals (Chapter 8).
The Rise of Mass Advertising
Authors: Rosenberg Anat
Published: September 2022

This book is a first cultural legal history of advertising in Britain, tracing the rise of mass advertising circa 1840–1914 and its legal shaping. The emergence of this new system disrupted the perceived foundations of modernity. The idea that culture was organized by identifiable fields of knowledge, experience, and authority came under strain as advertisers claimed to share values with the era’s most prominent fields, including news, art, science, and religiously inflected morality. While cultural boundaries grew blurry, the assumption that the world was becoming progressively disenchanted, itself closely related to concepts of boundaries, was undermined as enchanted experiences multiplied with the transformation of everyday environments by advertising. Non-rational ontologies and a play of mystery became apparent, involving possibilities for metamorphoses, magical efficacy, animated environments, affective connections between humans and things, imaginary worlds and fantasies that informed mundane lifed. These disrupted assumptions that the capitalist economy was a victory of reason. The Rise of Mass Advertising examines how contemporaries came to terms with the disruptive impact by mobilizing legal processes, powers, and concepts. Law was implicated in performing boundary work that preserved the modern sense of field distinctions. Advertising’s cultural meanings and its organization were shaped dialectically vis-à-vis other fields in a process that mainstreamed and legitimized it with legal means, but also construed it as an inferior simulation of the values of a progressive modernity, exhibiting epistemological shortfalls and aesthetic compromises that marked it apart from adjacent fields. The dual treatment meanwhile disavowed the central role of enchantment, in what amounted to a normative enterprise of disenchantment. One of the ironies of this enterprise was that it ultimately drove professional advertisers to embrace enchantment as their peculiar expertise.
Puffery
Authors: Rosenberg Anat
Published: September 2022

The dual logic of legitimation and critique of advertising attained a dedicated legal doctrine known as the doctrine of puffery, examined in Chapter 5. Puffery, familiar beyond legal circles from the 1892 case of Carlill v The Carbolic Smoke Ball Company, was and still is usually invoked as a defence argument, by a speaker claiming that their speech was just a puff, for which they cannot be sued. Given the scant literature on the doctrine in Britain, the analysis begins with an account based on primary sources, which shows the doctrine’s roots in the first era of mass advertising. The chapter then examines the doctrine’s role as a legal mode of ridicule, challenging its traditional view as an instance of caveat emptor. In effect, language intended to promote a sale was construed as legally meaningless, on the normative assumption that it was anyway futile and ineffective in the market. The implication was a legal debasement of adverts and a markdown in the cultural capital of advertisers. By licensing advertising and yet treating it as unserious, the doctrine of puffery joined other realms of law in a disavowal of enchantment. Yet, telling consumers that they lacked common sense, or assuming that they were irrational, ignorant, or weak when they responded to adverts, was simply beside the point for those actively seeking transformative miracles in the market.
Peacebuilding Legacy
Authors: Podder Sukanya
Published: September 2022

A fundamental challenge plagues the global peacebuilding community. How can technocratic approaches to peacebuilding that are rooted in short-term, project-based execution of activities further the longer-term transformative outcomes like altering young people’s attitudes and beliefs about peace and violence? In response to this global challenge, in Peacebuilding Legacies, Sukanya Podder addresses an important gap relating to the long-term effects of peacebuilding programmes involving children and young people. Podder unpacks the concept of peacebuilding legacy through the lens of time, transformation, and intergenerational peace. Podder also develops unique qualitative cues for measuring legacy in terms of the institutional, normative, and organizational logics. If norms resonate strongly with the local context, they are likely to encourage strong retention and meaningful adoption over time. Successful institutionalization of project models through planned handover to successor national organizations or government departments holds the key to stronger local ownership. Organizational learning and reflection can support this process through a more strategic approach to programming and through post-exit studies. With regard to attitude change, Podder found that the media and peace education projects that targeted individuals’ ingrained beliefs and values but overlooked the role of group social norms had only limited persuasive effects. To shift the values, practices, norms, and beliefs of the younger generation, the mindset of the older generation must also be targeted. Changes in the legal, political, economic, and other social institutions are critical for long-term and meaningful transformation. This requires adopting an ecological model of peace.
Programming for Change
Authors: Podder Sukanya
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the role of the media and peace education projects in shaping young people’s attitudes to peace. It presents the findings around the interplay between norms, persuasion, and attitude change. The chapter begins with a conceptual discussion on the links between persuasion and attitude change, by delineating the nuances between norm change and attitude change. Thereafter, nine specific second-order learning concepts are analysed in each case. Using Alfred Schütz’s methodology on second-order constructs, these concepts are clustered across the themes of ‘intercultural communication’, ‘quality pre-school education’, and ‘citizenship and ethnic identity’ in Macedonia; and, ‘access and acceptance’, ‘agency and behaviour’, and ‘citizenship and democracy’ in Sierra Leone. Based on the findings from the second-order interpretation of the meta-data, the chapter underlines the importance of adopting an ecological model of child development for precipitating long-term attitude change.
Incomes and Welfare of the Japanese Today
Authors: Flath David
Published: September 2022

This chapter compares the economic well-being of the Japanese today with that of their own forbears and people of other nations. It shows how the national income and product accounts can be used to measure changes over time in the contribution to Japanese well-being of goods produced and traded in the market. The principle of revealed preference is invoked to compare the contribution of market goods to economic well-being in Japan and in other countries. Contributions of nonmarket goods—household production, leisure, environmental amenities—are also shown to be large in Japan, based on their shadow prices. The distribution of income also matters in cross-country comparisons of income person. The more concentrated is the distribution of income, the higher is average income per person relative to the expected income of a person randomly drawn from the population. And income is less concentrated in Japan than in most other nations. Finally, the underground economy—the economic activity beyond the purview of government authorities, and not recorded—is a source of error in the national accounts of Japan as elsewhere.
Economic History, Part 2
Authors: Flath David
Published: September 2022

This chapter describes the economic history of Japan in the twentieth century up to 1945. It explains Japan’s World War I boom, the rise of the business groups called zaibatsu, the economic malaise of the interwar period, Japan’s surprisingly strong economic performance in the 1930s, and the turn finally toward military government and war, first with China and then with the western alliance after having joined the Axis powers. Japan’s World War I boom was fueled by the spike in world interest rates from which it profited by becoming a net lender. The zaibatsu came into prominence about this time, though most Japanese economic activity remained outside the zaibatsu orbit. The 1920s, Japan’s decade of government by political parties and cooperation with the West, brought financial crises and slowed growth, both exacerbated by the 1923 Tokyo earthquake and the misguided policy of returning to the gold standard at the pre-war parity. The two years in which Japan succeeded in re-establishing the gold standard, January 1930–December 1931, coincided with the start of the world-wide depression. Fiscal and monetary expansion under the guidance of the famous finance minister Takahashi Korekiyo effected a rapid recovery but could not forestall the hijacking of the Japanese government by a military bent on war. From the outbreak of war with China in 1937, Japan’s economy was placed on a war footing, which entailed a widening web of government command and control, a dramatic departure from the essentially laissez-faire regimes of the immediate past.
International Finance
Authors: Flath David
Published: September 2022

This chapter covers all aspects of Japan’s foreign exchange rates and cross-border borrowing and lending. It begins with an elaboration of Japan’s balance of payments accounts based on the 2014 revamping of terminology and presentation by the IMF. The chapter then examines the movements in Japan’s current account balance and net lending from 1885 to 2019, noting spikes and dips corresponding to historic events. The focus then shifts toward exchange rates, how they are defined, what they measure, and how they are determined. The relation between Japan’s nominal exchange rates, real exchange rates, and terms of trade are explained, and their movements described with reference to purchasing power parity, interest parity, the Balassa–Samuelson effect, and exchange rate overshooting in response to monetary policy shocks. The effect of autonomous movements in real exchange rates on the Japanese current account balance is also considered, which brings to the fore the Marshall–Lerner condition, the J-curve phenomenon, hysteresis, and incomplete pass-through of exchange rate movements to import prices.
Industrial Policy
Authors: Flath David
Published: September 2022

This chapter describes and evaluates Japanese industrial policy from the Meiji era to the twenty-first century. It begins with a basic definition of industrial policy—essentially industrial targeting—and lays out the arguments supporting such a policy. Some of the widely invoked criteria for industrial targeting are specious such as having high value-added or high value-added per worker, but others are not. The valid criteria include contribution to national defense, Marshallian externality, coordination failure, and possibilities for collecting oligopoly rent from foreign trade. The chapter goes on to detail the content of Japanese industrial policy from the mid-nineteenth century to the present day—what industries were targeted and what policy tools were used. Early instances of industrial policy can be discerned in the Meiji model factories, government enterprises, subsidies of coastal shipping, and government banks. But it was not until the outbreak of war with China in 1937 that Japan attained a comprehensive industrial policy that amounted to a controlled system for shifting resources toward the production of munitions. The wartime controls survived into the Occupation Period but ended with the Dodge line only to resurface after the occupation ended. The ensuing “high-growth” period, 1953–1964, was the zenith of Japanese industrial policy, in which MITI played the lead role in allocating foreign exchange, controlling access to subsidized loans, and awarding tax credits and antitrust exemptions. These policies targeted coal mining, steel, shipbuilding, and petrochemicals—politically influential industries that contributed little to Japan’s economic growth and development.
Environmental Policy
Authors: Flath David
Published: September 2022

This chapter is devoted to the environmental policy of Japan, broadly defined. It first describes the four environmental crises of the 1950s and 1960s that prompted government action—the mercury poisoning in Minamata and Niigata, the cadmium poisoning in Toyama, and the industrial pollution in Yokkaichi. The response was the 1973 law for compensation of pollution-related health injuries, which taxed polluters to compensate those harmed. The taxes included a sulfur oxide emissions tax and automotive tonnage tax. To these were joined k-class controls that imposed maximum allowable emissions of sulfur oxides. These measures represented a command-and-control approach to pollution abatement, as opposed to a market-based system relying on tradeable permits for example. The discussion in the chapter then turns to fundamental concepts on which economic analysis of environmental policy rests. The core concept is Coase’s law, the principle that if property rights are fully tradeable, market exchange will allocate them to their highest valuers. Externalities (or spillovers) can only arise if there are impediments to trade. Tort cases, such as those in Japan involving the right to sunshine, assign tradeable rights to one party or another and are followed by trade which leads to the efficient outcome. Many externality problems in Japan and elsewhere are resolved by extension or exercise of private property rights rather than by government administration. The chapter offers several examples including rules set by private landlords and by proprietors of private restaurants and rules and customs among fishermen that curb overfishing.
Technology
Authors: Flath David
Published: September 2022

This chapter describes Japan’s research and development spending, patent system, and technological innovation. It presents data showing the research spending in Japan broken down by source of funds, whether it is for basic research or for commercial applications, and in which industries, and compares government funding of research in Japan and other nations. The chapter then describes how the returns to research spending are estimated and summarizes the results of such estimates. Features of the Japanese patent system that promote early revelation of new discoveries and also promote their licensing and wider diffusion are identified. The last part of the chapter discusses specific technological innovations of Japan, the development of hybrid varieties of crops early in the twentieth century, and the perfection and diffusion of the Toyota production management system which includes its finely calibrated arrangements with subcontractors.
Appearance and Reality I
Authors: Hill Christopher S.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 2 is concerned with the traditional problem of appearance and reality. There is tension between the appealing idea that visual experience puts us in touch with objective reality and the doctrine of perceptual relativity, the claim that experience varies with such factors as distance, lighting, and angle of view. The chapter presents arguments for relativity, and then goes on to propose that in view of relativity, we should believe that the properties presented to us in visual experience are appearance-properties—that is, properties of external objects that are relational and viewpoint-dependent. More specifically they are “Thouless properties”—viewpoint-dependent properties that are more stable than properties of retinal images and also more ephemeral than the objective properties that cause such images. This doctrine raises the question of how we manage to successfully navigate environments that are defined by the viewpoint-independent properties. The chapter offers an answer with several parts.
The Epistemic Role of Perception
Authors: Hill Christopher S.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 9 studies the roles that perceptual experiences play in providing epistemic justification and rational support for beliefs. In much of the chapter the focus is on the doctrine that epistemic justification is determined by the reliability of the processes that produce beliefs, where the reliability of a process is measured by the probability that the beliefs it produces are true. The chapter offers fresh motivation for this view. It then proceeds to develop an account of how perceptual experiences figure in reliable belief-forming processes. After presenting this proposal concerning epistemic justification, the chapter moves on to consider whether experience figures in other support or justification relations to beliefs, and, in particular, whether it contributes to rationality, where rationality is understood to be independent of truth. The answer is yes, but reflection shows that rationality is a weak virtue of beliefs, one that pales in importance in comparison with justification.
Host manipulation by parasites: From individual to collective behavior
Authors: Godfrey Stephanie S. , Poulin Robert
Published: September 2022

One of the most captivating aspects of host–parasite interactions is the ability of some parasites to manipulate host behavior to increase the parasites’ own fitness. This chapter examines the behavioral targets of manipulation, and how these may manifest in terms of two newer fields of study; animal personality and animal social networks. Effects on personality include changes in individual traits (e.g., increased boldness) and variation in traits (e.g., homogenizing behavior), and the uncoupling of behavioral syndromes. Changes to social behavior (e.g., increased aggregation) may alter the structure of animal societies, as well as the transmission pathways of other parasites or diseases, leading to feedbacks between infection and behavior. Most research has focused on the manipulation of discrete behaviors, but newer fields of study are highlighting how parasite manipulation of host behavior may lead to wider effects on host–parasite systems.
Emerging frontiers in animal behavior and parasitism: Integration across scales
Authors: Guindre-Parker Sarah , Tung Jenny , Strauss Alexander T
Published: September 2022

Research on animal behavior and parasitism is intrinsically interdisciplinary. This chapter explores potential expansions to the frontiers of this research from additional perspectives, transcending three scales of biological organization. Focusing on the disciplines of organismal biology, molecular ecology and genomics, and ecosystem and community ecology, the chapter identifies tools and concepts that can help answer outstanding questions about parasites and behavior (e.g., by improving the ability to survey whole parasite communities) or provide novel and powerful framing for grappling with their consequences (e.g., by embedding hosts and parasites within larger food webs). The chapter also highlights the importance of parasite-mediated behaviors for understanding ecology and evolution more broadly. Together, the chapter envisions a future for studies of parasites and behavior that is increasingly integrative and interdisciplinary.
Leader Depositions
Authors: Kokkonen Andrej , Møller Jørgen , Sundell Anders
Published: September 2022

Uncertainty about the succession often translates into coups and depositions. The authors document these patterns in the context of their sample of medieval and early modern polities and also show how monarchs in states that practiced primogeniture sat more securely on their thrones than monarchs in states practicing other succession orders such as elective monarchy or agnatic seniority. This, it is argued, is because of the ‘shadow of the future’ cast by anticipated crises of succession, as well as the incentives of potential successors. When rulers started to enjoy longer tenures, their time horizons also increased, encouraging investment in and development of states.
The Development of Parliaments
Authors: Kokkonen Andrej , Møller Jørgen , Sundell Anders
Published: September 2022

The politics of succession also affected power-sharing and the development of representative institutions in Europe. A large literature has studied the development of parliaments and generally portrayed these institutions as a concession to subjects demanding representation for taxation and/or as a way to control the same subjects and raise revenue. While this chapter does not dispute these accounts, it adds that successions, representing moments of weakness in royal authority, also spurred parliamentary activity. Parliamentary meetings were frequently called to legitimize heirs and avoid internal conflicts in the wake of successions. They were also convened more often in the wake of problematic successions, such as when the successor was underage and unable to rule on his own or when the prior king had been deposed. However, the chapter also shows that primogeniture mitigated this need to politically stabilize successions.
Family and Dynasty
Authors: Kokkonen Andrej , Møller Jørgen , Sundell Anders
Published: September 2022

To ensure that the state lived on, the monarch had to provide the regime with an heir, and hereditary succession arrangements are only as credible as the monarch’s biological ability to produce offspring. However, in an era when politics was based on personal relationships in general, and blood ties in particular, family also mattered in other ways. Daughters and sisters could, for example, be married into important domestic and foreign families to shore up the monarch’s alliances, whereas sons and brothers could be used as trusted governors of distant parts of the realm. This chapter shows that monarchs who had many children and siblings were less likely to be deposed. Female relatives reduced the risk of depositions from both outside and from within the family, whereas male relatives primarily reduced the risk of outside depositions (and of civil wars breaking out). Finally, the chapter shows how primogeniture created political stability by prolonging dynasties.
Public Policy to Reduce Inequalities across Europe
Authors: Cairney Paul , Keating Michael , Kippin Sean , St Denny Emily
Published: September 2022

There is a broad consensus across European states and the EU that social and economic inequality is a problem that needs to be addressed. Yet inequality policy is notoriously complex and contested. This book approaches the issue from two linked perspectives. First, a focus on functional requirements highlights what policymakers think they need to deliver policy successfully, and the gap between their requirements and reality. We identify this gap in relation to the theory and practice of policy learning, and to multiple sectors, to show how it manifests in health, education, and gender equity policies. Second, a focus on territorial politics highlights how the problem is interpreted at different scales, subject to competing demands to take responsibility. This contestation and spread of responsibilities contributes to different policy approaches across spatial scales. We conclude that governments promote many separate equity initiatives, across territories and sectors, without knowing if they are complementary or contradictory. This outcome could reflect the fact that ambiguous policy problems and complex policymaking processes are beyond the full knowledge or control of governments. It could also be part of a strategy to make a rhetorically radical case while knowing that they will translate into safer policies. It allows them to replace debates on values, regarding whose definition of equity matters and which inequalities to tolerate, with more technical discussions of policy processes. Governments may be offering new perspectives on spatial justice or new ways to reduce political attention to inequalities.
In Praise of Skepticism
Authors: Norris Pippa
Published: September 2022

A culture of trust is usually claimed to have many public benefits, by lubricating markets, managing organizations, legitimating governments, and facilitating collective action. If so, any signs of eroding trust are, and should be, a matter of serious concern. But the broader perspective developed in this book recognizes that trust has two faces, not one. Confidence in anti-vax theories has weakened herd immunity. Faith in Q-Anon conspiracy theories triggered violent insurrection. Disasters flow from gullible beliefs in fake Covid-19 cures, Madoff pyramid schemes, Putin’s claim to denazify Ukraine, and the Big Lie denying President Biden’s legitimate election. Trustworthiness involves an informal social contract by which principals authorize agents to act on their behalf in the expectation that they will fulfill their responsibilities with competency, integrity, and impartiality, despite conditions of risk and uncertainty. Skeptical judgments reflect reasonably accurate and informed predictions about agents’ future actions based on their past performance and guardrails deterring dishonesty, mendacity, and corruption. We should trust but verify. Unfortunately, assessments are commonly flawed. Both cynical beliefs (underestimating performance) and credulous faith (overestimating performance) involve erroneous judgments reflecting cultural biases, poor cognitive skills, and information echo chambers. These conclusions draw on new evidence from the European Values Survey/World Values Survey conducted among over 650,000 respondents in more than 100 societies over four decades. In Praise of Skepticism warns that an excess of credulous trust poses serious and hitherto unrecognized risks in a world full of seductive demagogues playing on insecurities, lying swindlers exploiting greed, and silver-tongued conspiracy theorists manipulating the darkest fears.
Access to Power
Authors: Naqvi Ijlal
Published: September 2022

Pakistan would desperately like to produce enough electricity, but it usually doesn’t. This is the rare issue on which government and private sector can unite, and it is the cause of suffering for rich and poor alike across the entirety of the country. Despite prioritization by successive governments, targeted reforms shaped by international development actors, and featuring prominently in Chinese Belt and Road Investments, the Pakistani power sector still stifles economic and social life across the country. This book explores state capacity in Pakistan by following the material infrastructure of electricity across the provinces and down into cities and homes. It argues that the national challenges of budgetary constraints and power shortages directly result from conscious strategic decisions that are integral to Pakistan’s infrastructural state. Electricity shortages are one of the many poor governance outcomes characteristic of low- and middle-income countries. Standard development thinking points to an absence of institutions in comparison with an idealized and distant other country, with governance reform programs formulated accordingly. However, an orientation toward what Pakistan is not takes us away from how it actually functions and to whose benefit. Electricity governance in Pakistan reinforces relations of power between provinces and the federal center, contributes to the marginalization of subordinate groups in the city, and orients citizens toward a patronage-based relationship with the state through encounters with street-level bureaucrats. Looking through the lens of the electrical power sector reveals how Pakistan works, and for whom.
The Administration of Losses
Authors: Naqvi Ijlal
Published: September 2022

Electricity transmission and distribution losses are the portion of electricity supplied to a distribution system that are not billed to consumers. Losses are an important feature of a distribution system that can be analyzed in multiple ways related to the infrastructural state. Most straightforwardly, they are important to the cash flows of the sector for all the reasons discussed in Chapter 2. The unevenness of the electricity sector across the entirety of Pakistan reflects a long history of uneven development as practiced by the federal government. This chapter focuses on the unevenness of the infrastructural state within four districts centered on the city of Lahore through a statistical analysis of operational data from the Lahore Electric Supply Company (LESCO). As governance is so uneven in these core areas, reliance on formal written institutions or adjustments to them are unlikely to produce the desired governance outcomes.
Negotiating Formality in Islamabad’sKatchi Abadis
Authors: Naqvi Ijlal
Published: September 2022

Securing access to infrastructure is a central theme in the lives of the urban poor in the Global South. This is most evident in the large—and growing—squatter settlements, where the absence of property ownership is typically grounds for denying basic services such as electricity⁠ to residents. The politics of squatter settlements are invariably bound up in their fight to secure those services. Multilateral and bilateral development actors have embraced neoliberal approaches to poverty reduction that work from the principle that poverty reduction can be pursued by bestowing formal and secure property rights for the poor. Consequently, it is common to see programs that propose the relocation of squatters from urban centers and offer secure tenure on compensatory plots as an incentive for relocation. This chapter challenges the widespread assumption that more formal rights are always and necessarily better for the urban poor.
Conclusion
Authors: Naqvi Ijlal
Published: September 2022

This chapter concludes the book and has four major objectives. It first summarizes the key points of the book by building up from the individual level of analysis to the national challenges. Second, it brings the apex field of national power into the picture of this book’s study of the state in Pakistan. Third, it provides some original ideas toward addressing key challenges of the power sector. Finally, it discusses the recent influx of Chinese investments in the Pakistani power sector as part of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which is the flagship effort leading the rollout of the Belt and Road Initiative.
Citizenship and Its Alternatives
Authors: Bryen Ari Z.
Published: September 2022

This chapter attempts to provide a model for connecting the history of personal status with the history of governmentality. It traces a process that begins with intrusions of Roman citizens into the eastern provinces and ends, perhaps paradoxically, with provincial subjects asserting their rights. The two processes, the chapter argues, are connected, though not in the ways that current scholarship on citizenship might lead one to expect. The Roman state, largely for pragmatic and fiscal reasons, was highly concerned with the inequities that emerged from waves of privileged citizens acquiring large amounts of wealth and, perhaps more important, engaging in brutal behavior with respect to subject populations. Subject populations were similarly concerned and developed, in collaboration with Roman governors, a robust language for protecting their rights—the language of subjecthood.
Roman Citizenship, Marriage, and Family Networks
Authors: Lavan Myles
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the legal regime governing the status of children of Romans and non-Romans and considers its role in shaping family networks in the provinces. The first section reviews two key principles of Roman law: the rule established by the lex Minicia that the offspring of a mixed union took the status of the “inferior” partner and the ban on testation to peregrines. The second section traces the evolution of these rules over the long second century, stressing the modest scale of efforts to mitigate their prejudicial effects on mixed unions. The two principles remained intact at the time of Caracalla’s grant. The third section supplements the legal analysis with concrete examples from inscriptions and papyri of peregrine children of Roman parents, proving the operation of the first principle through to the end of the second century. The fourth section examines the effects of the legal regime on the structure of family networks in the provinces. It presents evidence that Roman law did have the expected effect of promoting endogamy among Roman families in non-Roman communities; there are mixed unions but fewer than we would expect. The chapter ends by noting the paradox that the strict rules about the transmission of status and property made Roman citizenship a potentially burdensome constraint but also, indirectly, an advantageous status, insofar as it gave preferential access to a network of families that had disproportionate access to patronage and control of capital.
Manumission, Citizenship, and Inheritance
Authors: MacLean Rose
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the social contexts in which formal manumission (manumissio iusta) distinguished citizens from non-citizens in the provincial West. In the absence of reliable onomastic criteria, testation and heirship are used as markers of citizenship among epigraphically attested liberti/ae, with some important exceptions. Patterns of testation to freed citizens are analyzed in a corpus of 466 Latin inscriptions from the Danube that document testators with identifiable heirs. Non-Roman civilians and auxiliary soldiers almost never appear with freed heirs. Veterans appear with at least one freed heir more frequently than do citizen soldiers and Roman civilians (24 percent vs. 12 percent and 17 percent, respectively). Among twenty-eight freed testators, nearly half instituted another freed person as heir. These epigraphic phenomena can be explained by a combination of social, juridical, and cultural factors
Documenting Roman Citizenship
Authors: Dolganov Anna
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines Roman state documentation practices with regard to Roman citizenship—and, more generally, civic and legal status—in the empire before the Constitutio Antoniniana. In the story of the apostle Paul, a Hellenized Jew traveling far from his home province makes claims of Roman citizenship that are accepted by Roman officials. How did the inhabitants of the empire go about asserting and proving claims of privileged status? To what extent were Roman administrators capable of verifying the civic and legal status of individuals? Documents from Roman Egypt suggest new answers to these questions. A confrontation of papyrological sources with evidence from other provinces points to the progressive development of a differentiated, centralized, and, by premodern standards, remarkably functional system of retrievable records that gave imperial and local officials an effective means to verify status claims and regulate membership in fiscally privileged status groups. The functionality of Roman record-keeping institutions has been greatly underestimated, and their impact and implications await further investigation.
Romans, Aliens, and Others in Dynamic Interaction
Authors: Ando Clifford
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines structures, policies, and situations in which the citizen–alien distinction was regularly confounded, as well as persons whose lives the discourse of citizenship systematically effaced. Particular attention is given to minority populations within city-states that were granted limited rights to observe their own norms. The best attested such populations are local communities of Judaeans. Also examined are rituals that Romans and locals performed alongside one another, most particularly the swearing of the annual loyalty oath to the emperor, as well as court systems, where Romans and others often found themselves on the opposite sides in a dispute—and also together constituting single juries.
Debt in Service of the State
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , El-Ganainy Asmaa , Esteves Rui , Mitchener Kris James
Published: September 2022

The authors begin their discussion of sovereign debt with the role of debt in state building and survival. This chapter covers the period from the earliest evidence of sovereign borrowing (in Classical Greece) to the sixteenth century. Throughout this period, the main purpose of state borrowing was to finance warfare, especially in Europe, a continent where war was endemic. War being risky, sovereigns had to devise ways of convincing creditors to part with their money: from forced loans to pledging collateral. Small Italian city-states, which were organized as creditors’ republics, had an early advantage here, but this was later replicated by modern nation-states. The chapter describes how debt once closely held by bankers came to be traded more widely, and how the emergence of markets for trading debt securities invigorated private finance and fostered commercial and economic development.
Cycles of Debt
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , El-Ganainy Asmaa , Esteves Rui , Mitchener Kris James
Published: September 2022

Between 1945 and the 1970s, the advanced economies underwent a long period of debt consolidation, facilitated by economic growth, fiscal restraint, and financial repression. Rapid productivity gains in the United States and catch-up growth elsewhere resulted in “thirty glorious years” of growth. Capital controls, credit regulation, and accommodating central banks created a captive market for government debt. Since interest rates remained below growth rates, governments could reconcile social spending with budget balance. Overall, debt-to-GDP ratios fell by more than two-thirds from their postwar highs. The oil shocks of the 1970s then inaugurated a period of slower growth, larger budget deficits, and rising debts. Developing countries, in contrast, started out with lower debt ratios and borrowed more modestly, until the oil shocks reversed these trends. From this point, developing nations borrowed heavily abroad, from money-center banks that recycled petrodollars. This debt cycle ended in tears, with a Latin America debt crisis, painful deleveraging, and poor growth for a decade.
Oil and Water
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , El-Ganainy Asmaa , Esteves Rui , Mitchener Kris James
Published: September 2022

This chapter describes how emerging economies rebounded from the late 1980s and reentered the global debt market, building on their experience with Brady bonds. However, the 1997–98 East Asian crisis was a brutal reminder that external borrowing had to be carefully managed. Among the lessons from the crisis was a realization that currency and maturity mismatches exposed governments and banks to serious risks in the event of capital flight. Following the crisis, policymakers in emerging economies accumulated foreign exchange reserves and sought to create local-currency markets for public debt. This addressed some structural fragilities but ignored others, such as excessive dependence on domestic banks, a problem that would return with a vengeance in the new millennium.
Missed Opportunities
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , El-Ganainy Asmaa , Esteves Rui , Mitchener Kris James
Published: September 2022

The two decades preceding the Global Financial Crisis are known as the “Great Moderation.” Over its course, most advanced countries made progress on debt consolidation. Debt ratios came down, mainly as a result of concerted efforts to run budget surpluses. In Europe, qualifying for the single currency added extra incentive, since membership in Europe’s monetary union required a country to keep its deficit low and to reduce its debt. An exception to the trend was Japan, where a real estate bubble and unfavorable demographics resulted in stagnation and the largest-ever peacetime increase in public debt. Fiscal prudence then receded in the 2000s, when debt started piling up again. In hindsight, this pro-cyclicality was ill-advised. When the subprime crisis hit, governments lacked fiscal space.
COVID-19
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , El-Ganainy Asmaa , Esteves Rui , Mitchener Kris James
Published: September 2022

The fiscal response to COVID-19 was striking for not just its scale but also its speed. Six months into the pandemic, G20 governments had committed $15 trillion in fiscal support. Central banks again played a crucial part by backstopping the market in public debt. The crisis also challenged long-held German debt aversion and upended the impasse over debt mutualization in Europe. More uncertain was the prognosis for developing nations, some of which came out of the crisis with unsustainable debt burdens. Although questions were understandably raised about how economies emerging from the pandemic would deal with elevated debt burdens, COVID-19 once more highlighted the role of debt in enabling governments to meet existential crises.
Introduction
Authors: Nelson Chad E.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 1 sets the book in the larger context of the debate over whether ideological differences between states, differences in how rule is legitimated domestically, affect their relations. While an “ideological” tradition insists on the importance of these differences, much of international relations scholarship explicitly or implicitly rejects this. The chapter argues that a better question is why ideological differences matter, when, and how much. One key mechanism for ideological differences mattering is when leaders fear that an opposing ideology will spread to overtake their own polity. The domestic contagion effects theory in this book explains when this is salient and what the international effects are.
Communist and Fascist Revolutions in Europe
Authors: Nelson Chad E.
Published: September 2022

This chapter applies the domestic contagion effects theory to the Russian communist revolution and the Italian fascist revolution. It finds a significant socialist movement in France, Germany, and Italy, with Britain somewhat ambiguous. Most great powers were hostile toward the Bolsheviks, but Germany was more complicated. Regarding the Italian Revolution, only Germany had a significant fascist movement, but even in that case, there was little concern about contagion—rather, states focused on the threat from the left rather than the right. Although there are some anomalies for the theory, contagion effects explain important aspects of the period that otherwise would be puzzling.
The Islamic Revolution and the Middle East
Authors: Nelson Chad E.
Published: September 2022

This chapter applies the domestic contagion effects theory to the response of the leading powers in the Middle East to the Iranian Revolution. The author finds that there was a significant Islamist revolutionary movement in Iraq, Syria, and Egypt, but not in Saudi Arabia at first. Correspondingly, there were contagion concerns in Iraq, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia when they had a significant revolutionary movement there, which prompted hostility toward the revolutionary state and cooperation with each other. This did not apply to Syria, however. In addition, Iran’s actions as a platform were significant in causing the Iran-Iraq War.