bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Paradox of Multistakeholder Collaborative Roundtables
Authors: Turcotte Marie-France , Pasquero Jean
Published: March 2007

This study examines the outcomes of a large-scale Multistakeholder Collaborative Roundtable (MCR) on environmental protection. The findings shed a considerably more realistic light on the concrete outcomes of MCRs than does the image portrayed by the literature and some practitioners. We observed that consensus was achieved, albeit on general principles only. Various types of learning did occur, but they were limited to networking competencies. Problem solving was detected, albeit in the form of incremental innovation only. Overall, the major result of the MCR studied was that it contributed “small wins” to its initial grand objective. The case illustrates the paradox of MCRs. It teaches us that we should be cautious about their real potential to help solve complex collective problems. Yet, it shows that MCRs do serve a useful purpose, that of giving direction to “metaproblems, ” a result that apparently can hardly be attained otherwise.
The Enactment of Envy within Organizations
Authors: Mouly V. Suchitra , Sankaran Jayaram K.
Published: March 2007

This article focuses on uncovering the process bywhich envy, which Melanie Klein has described as the most negative of all emotions, is enacted in organizations, with special reference to peer evaluation mechanisms. The authors do so bydrawing upon the experiences of a high-achieving lecturer in a tertiaryeducational institution in New Zealand. The studyis framed in the context of a broader, long-term investigation into the “tall poppysyndrome” (which is an Australasian “modernism for envy, jealousyand covetousness”) that has been labeled “a notable anti-talent” with regard to the push toward knowledge-based economies in Australia and New Zealand. The authors also relate their findings to Kleinian thinking on envyand to extant literature on the use of peer ratings and scapegoating in groups.
Corporate Environmental Responsiveness Strategies
Authors: Sharma Sanjay , Pablo Amy L. , Vredenburg Harrie
Published: March 2007

This article analyzes the environmental responsiveness strategies of seven companies in the Canadian oil industry over a 15-year period, during which environmental issues gained increasing public and regulatory attention. These within-industry corporate case comparisons serve as the basis for developing an understanding of corporate environmental responsiveness that centers on the relationships between issue interpretations and strategic responses as well as the role of antecedent organizational context elements.
Race, Sex, and Criminal Homicide Offender-Victim Relationships
Authors: Humphrey John A. , Palmer Stuart
Published: March 2007

To understand violence it is necessary to focus on the chain of interactions between aggressor and victim, on the sequence that begins when two people encounter each other and which ends when one harms, or even destroys, the other. Hans Toch (1969: 6)
Compressive Strength of Boron-Epoxy Composites
Authors: Lager John R. , June Reid R.
Published: March 2007

The compressive strength of fibrous composites is strongly de pendent upon the effectiveness of the matrix in supporting the fibers against buckling. Proper support of boron filaments by an epoxy matrix has resulted in average compressive fiber stresses of as high as 1,330,000 psi at failure. Experimental data obtained from two epoxy matrix systems (AF-126 and BP-907) is in good agreement with a modi fied two-dimensional theory for fiber buckling.
Interfacial Delamination of a Layered Composite Under Anti-Plane Strain
Authors: Chen E.P. , Sih G.C.
Published: March 2007

The debonding failure of a laminar composite is modeled by the problem of a number of bonded layers of different materials con taining a finite crack along one interface. The proposed model con sists of two inner layers of finite height and two outer layers of in finite height whose elastic properties are the averages over a large number of layers of the actual laminate. The problem is formulated with each layer of a different material under anti-plane shear and solved by the method of integral transform. Special emphases are placed on the evaluation of a local stress parameter which is indica tive of the force required to delaminate the layered composite weakened by an interface crack. Numerical results for a four-layered composite the elastic properties of which alternate from layer to layer reveal the variation of the amplitude of the local stress field with ratios of shear module, μ1/μ 2 and layer thickness to half crack length, h/a. The special case of a cracked layer sandwiched between two elastic half-planes of another material is also discussed.
Propagation of Stress Waves in Woven-Fabric Composites
Authors: Tauchert T.R.
Published: March 2007

The dynamic moduli and damping coefficients of a selected group of fabric-woven composites were obtained using a resonance technique. The same samples were later subjected to stress pulses. Measured values of the velocity and attenuation of the pulses are compared with those computed from the resonance data based on the assumption of linear viscoelastic be havior. In most instances the agreement is quite favorable.
Effective Stiffness of Randomly Oriented Fibre Composites
Authors: Christensen R.M. , Waals F.M.
Published: March 2007

This paper is concerned with the theoretical derivation of the effective stiffness properties for two types of randomly oriented fibre systems:

(a) A system with completely three-dimensional random orientation of fibres in an isotropic matrix phase;

(b) A system with two-dimensional (planar) random orientation of fibres in an isotropic matrix phase, appropriate to thin sections in a state of plane stress.

The formulas derived predict the effective isotropic properties of the composite in terms of the elastic properties of each phase and the volume concentration of the fibre phase. These results provide the theoretical limits with which experimental results can be compared to assess the effectiveness of bonds, dispersion of fibres and any other factors which may affect the performance. In the last section a comparison is made with experimental results. In addition, the relation of the present study to pre vious work on this topic is discussed.
A Boundary Layer Theory - Part II: Extension of Laminated Finite Strip
Authors: Tang S. , Levy A.
Published: March 2007

Using a newly developed boundary layer theory for laminated compos ites, a complete analytical solution is obtained for all the interlaminar shear stresses as well as the normal or "peel" stress of a finite strip in unidirec tional extension. Results obtained by the present analysis are compared to the finite-difference solution of Pipes and Pagano, and to the analytical solution of Puppo and Evensen.
Diffusion With Time-Varying Diffusivity, With Application to Moisture-Sorption in Composites
Authors: Weitsman Y.
Published: March 2007

This paper concerns the diffusion equation when the diffusion co efficient varies with time. It has been agreed that the sorption of moisture in composites is described by the diffusion equation and that the diffusion coefficient is highly sensitive to temperature. When the temperature varies with time, as during a "thermal spike", the diffusion coefficient becomes time dependent.

It is shown in this paper that the above time-variation can be treated simply and efficiently with the aid of a simple transformation. This trans formation permits the utilization of all the available solutions, that were based on a time-independent diffusion coefficient, upon a simple and easy adjustment in the time-scale.
Advanced Composite Constrained Layer Laminates
Authors: Natarajan Raj T. , Lewis Armand F.
Published: March 2007

The properties of laminar structures composed of elastomer constrained between plies of advanced fiber reinforced resin composites are reviewed. These material combinations are found to be lightweight, corrosion resist ant, structural laminar composites with excellent vibration damping prop erties. Experimental results of dynamic mechanical loss factors and storage moduli measurements on these constrained layer laminates obtained using a resonance, forced vibration flexural beam technique are presented. The loss factors are measured as a function of composite laminate orientation (configuration) and composite fiber type. The data are finally analyzed in terms of the classical vibration damping theories for constrained layer laminates.
Residual Strength Degradation Model and Theory of Periodic Proof Tests for Graphite/Epoxy Laminates*
Authors: Yang J.N. , Liu M.D.
Published: March 2007

A fatigue residual strength degradation model has been derived based on the assumption that the residual strength decreases monotonically. The model is verified experimentally by use of Gr/E unnotched laminates under constant amplitude fatigue. The theory of periodic proof tests and reli ability prediction for composites have been established. Experimental data for specimens under periodic proof tests and fatigue loading have been generated. It is shown that the correlation between the experimental results and the theory of periodic proof tests is outstanding.
Fatigue and Residual Strength Degradation for Graphite/Epoxy Composites Under Tension-Compression Cyclic Loadings
Authors: Yang Jann N.
Published: March 2007

A fatigue residual strength degradation model has been generalized to account for the effect of tension-compression fatigue loading. The model is verified experimentally by use of graphite/epoxy unnotched composite laminates. It is shown that the correlation between the experimental results and the theoretical predictions on both the residual strength degradation and fatigue life is very reasonable.
Notched Strength of Composite Materials
Authors: Pipes R. Byron , Wetherhold Robert C. , Gillespie John W.
Published: March 2007

A macroscopic model for predicting the strength of a composite laminate containing a circular notch is introduced. A property, which quantifies the reduction in strength of a given composite material or laminate due to a circular notch, is proposed. The superposition of notched strength data for several important composite material systems and laminate stacking sequences is achieved through development of a notched strength-radius superposition method and the definition of radius shift parameters, ac and am. The superposition allows prediction of the in fluence of laminate stacking sequence upon notched strength. In addition, data for composite material systems or laminates of common stress concen tration factor is shown to superimpose by use of the developed shift parameters.
A Micromechanical Prediction of Initial Yield Surfaces of Unidirectional Composites
Authors: Wakashima K. , Suzuki Yoshio , Umekawa S.
Published: March 2007

For two-phase materials composed of ductile matrices reinforced with plastically nondeformable inclusions, the yield condition that has the same form as Tsai and Wu's phenomenological criterion has been deduced through a micromechanics analysis. Basic assumptions made are that the matrix material obeys the Levy-von Mises flow rule, and that matrix plastic strains are uniform. In general, the shape of the yield surface can be proved to be hyperellipsoidal.

A further analysis is devoted to the case where the inclusions can be treated as identical ellipsoids with corresponding axes aligned. Based on the results, numerical computation of yield strength parameters is carried out for unidirectional boron fiber-aluminum composites subjected to uniform temperature changes prior to external loading. It is shown that yielding cannot take place under certain combined triaxial (not hydrostatic) stresses. Some discussion related to the effect of prior temperature changes is also given.
Resin Flow During the Cure of Fiber Reinforced Composites
Authors: Springer George S.
Published: March 2007

Experiments were performed studying resin flow during the cure of fiber reinforced, organic matrix composites using a system in which the resin was simulated by viscous liquids and the fibers either by layers of thin rods or by layers of porous plates. The flow pattern was observed and the flow rate was measured for different applied pressures. The data were compared to the results of the Springer-Loos model and excellent agreement was found bet ween the data and the model.
In-Plane Thermal Expansion and Thermal Bending Coefficients of Fabric Composites
Authors: Ishikawa Takashi , Chou Tsu-Wei
Published: March 2007

This paper examines the in-plane thermal expansion coefficients and thermal bend ing coefficients of fabric composites. Three physical models have been adopted. The "mosaic model" provides a simple means for estimating these thermal properties. The one-dimensional "fiber undulation model" and the two-dimensional "bridging model" are suitable in particular for analyzing the thermomechanical behavior of plain weave and satin weave composites, respectively. The experimental results on in-plane thermal expansion coefficients of a 5-harness satin composite agree well with the theory.
Evaluation of the Normal Stress Interaction Parameter in the Tensor Polynomial Strength Theory for Anisotropic Materials
Authors: Wu Ru-Yu , Stachurski Zbigniew
Published: March 2007

A simple engineering approximation for evaluating the interaction term in the tensor polynomial strength theory is given. The approximation treats the interaction term under plane stress condition as a parameter which depends on the failure properties parallel with the reference axes. Theoretically, the correct way to obtain the value of the normal stress interaction parameter is by way of tests on 45 ° off-axis specimens. However this method has been found difficult to apply to real anisotropic materials. Various approximations have been proposed of which the most noteworthy is the one of "Tsai and Hahn." A detailed discussion of this and the currently proposed approx imation is included.
Effects of Impactor Size on Impact Damage-Growth and Residual Properties in an SMC-R50 Composite
Authors: Chaturvedi Shive K. , Sierakowski Robert L.
Published: March 2007

An experimental investigation was carried out to study effects of impactor size on the damage-growth and the degree of damage in SMC-R50 composite plates. Plane- ended cylindrical steel impactors of 9.7 mm in diameter were chosen to inflict impact damage in the impact energy range from 15 to 52 N-m using a gas gun facility. The im pact velocity range was adjusted for each impactor corresponding to their sizes (25.4, 38.1 and 50.8 mm long) such that the impact energy levels can be maintained constant. The damage-zone size as well as the tensile strength and stiffness are found to be strongly dependent on the impactor size. Impact energy is found not to be a governing parameter for damage-growth and degree of damage that can take into account the im pactor size.
Compressive Stability of Delaminated Random Short-Fiber Composites, Part I—Modeling and Methods of Analysis
Authors: Wang S.S. , Zahlan N.M. , Suemasu H.
Published: March 2007

The compressive stability of delaminated random short-fiber composites is con sidered. A mechanistic model is introduced for the problem. Both buckling stability and crack stability (i.e., delamination growth) are investigated. Two analytical methods are developed for studying the buckling stability of the delaminated com posites. The first is formulated on the basis of the well-known Rayleigh-Ritz method, including transverse shear in the composite and distorsional deformation in the delaminated ligament. The second method employs a plane-elasticity, finite-element buckling analysis. Both local buckling and coupled global and local buckling are ex amined. A fracture mechanics approach is used to study the possible compressive crack growth at buckling. The validity of the model and the accuracy and efficiency of the methods of analysis are demonstrated and discussed.
Cumulative Damage Models and Multi-Stress Fatigue Life Prediction
Authors: Hwang W. , Han K.S.
Published: March 2007

Cumulative damage during fatigue is studied analytically. Extensive reviews are per formed on the published damage models. Three different cumulative damage models are defined using several physical variables such as fatigue modulus and resultant strain. Proposed model I is defined using fatigue modulus, while models II and III are defined using resultant strains. Proposed models are derived as functions of nor malized applied stress level, r, and number of fatigue cycle, n. It is verified that the proposed cumulative damage model III has better agreement with the two stress level fatigue experimental data than other models.
Glass Fabric Reinforced Bismaleimide Composites: Effect of Elastomer/ Reactive Diluent on Properties
Authors: Varma Indra K. , Sharma Shiromani
Published: March 2007

The paper deals with the effect of additions of amine terminated butadiene/acrylonitrile (ATBN), carboxy terminated butadiene/acrylonitrile (CTBN) elastomers and bismethacryloxy derivative of diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A (vinyl ester resin, VE) on the properties of glass fabric reinforced bismaleimide resin composites. Flexural and interlaminar shear strength of the laminates increased in the presence of these elastomers (3 or 5%). Optimum mechanical properties were observed at — 3 % of VE resin. Glass transition temperatures of laminates were determined by dynamic mechanical analysis.
Boundary Element Study of a Loaded Hole in an Orthotropic Plate
Authors: Mahajerin Enayat , Sikarskie David L.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this paper is to develop an efficient boundary element method (BEM) for use in the analysis of composite structures, principally loaded holes in mechanically fastened composites. The idea is to modify the BEM by an analytical scheme to evaluate boundary stresses and deformations accurately. The validity of the method is verified by computing the stress concentration factor in a double lap joint for different hole sizes and various boundary conditions.
Large Displacement and End Block Effects in the 'DCB' Interlaminar Test in Modes I and II
Authors: Williams J.G.
Published: March 2007

A finite displacement analysis for the DCB test, including the effects of end blocks, is described. A simple numerical method enables G to be computed for any configuration and examples are given of correction factors for several geometries. It is also demonstrated that if the horizontal distance from the load line to the crack tip is measured then G can be found exactly from the usual expression. Results are given for both mode I and mode II tests.
Modeling Stiffness Reduction of Graphite/Epoxy Composite Laminates
Authors: Whitworth H.A.
Published: March 2007

An investigation has been conducted into the effects of fatigue loading on the stiffness and strength degradation of composite laminates. An experimental test program using graphite/epoxy [±35]2 s laminates has been conducted to generate meaningful data for this evaluation. Based on this investigation, a model is proposed to relate the stiffness degrada tion to the fractional life expended at a given stress level and also to the residual strength degradation. These models are restricted to specimens subjected to constant amplitude fatigue loadings.
Static, Dynamic and Buckling Formulation of a Symmetrically Laminated Plate Finite Element for a Microcomputer
Authors: Chen Alex T. , Yang T.Y.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this paper is to develop a simple yet efficient formulation for a sym metrically laminated composite plate finite element and to adopt some highly efficient numerical algorithms using stand-alone desktop microcomputers for structural analysis and design. It is also the purpose to further develop the numerical procedures for a pre viously developed beam element and to further test it on examples.
Measurements of Matrix Cracking and Delamination Caused by Impact on Composite Plates
Authors: Wu Hsi-Yung T. , Springer George S.
Published: March 2007

Tests were performed measuring the locations and extents of delaminations and matrix crackings in 3 inches by 3 inches Fiberite T300/934 graphite/epoxy plates impacted by 1/2 inch diameter aluminum spheres. Plates with six ply orientations were tested ([0 16], [04/ 908/04], [03/90 10/03], [02/9012/02], [0 4/-454/454/904], and [04/45 4/604/904]). The impac tor speeds ranged from 700 to 1300 in/sec. The plates were inspected by C-scan both before and after impact. The plates were also dissected after impact and examined visually for damage In addition, the longitudinal and transverse tensile, compressive, and shear properties of the material were measured
Calculation of Natural Frequencies of Vibration of Thin Orthotropic Composite Shells by Energy Method
Authors: Lee Dai Gil
Published: March 2007

The transverse shear effect should be included in calculating the natural frequencies of advanced composite material because of its high ratio of elastic modulus to shear modulus. The method which can include the transverse shear effect in calculating the natural fre quencies of thin orthotropic composite shells has been developed using the energy method (Rayleigh-Ritz method). In order to formulate the energy equations, the displacement equations which include the first order and sinusoidal terms w.r.t. the radial coordinate of the shell have been used rather than Kirchhoff-Love hypothesis. Also the Donnell's ap proximations were used in calculating the strains of the shell.
Interlaminar Fracture Behavior and Fiber Bridging of Glass-Epoxy Composite Under Mode I Static and Cyclic Loadings
Authors: Hwang W. , Han K.S.
Published: March 2007

Interlaminar fracture behavior of composite materials under static and cyclic loadings has been studied using a width tapered double cantilever beam specimen. The fracture energy is evaluated by compliance, beam and area methods. The comparison results show that the initial fracture energy could be evaluated either by beam or area method while the crack growth resistance could be calculated by compliance method. Increases in the criti cal load and fracture energy due to fiber bridging are predicted by a power function of fracture area. The interlaminar fatigue crack growth behavior is studied through the con stant cyclic strain energy release rate range test. A modification of Paris' power law is made to interpret fatigue crack growth under the influence of fiber bridging. The predicted fatigue life by the modified power law is reasonably close to the experimental data. Frac tography study shows that the interlaminar failure mechanism of a composite beam in volves fiber breakage, matrix tearing and transverse microcracking as well as the delamination of the layers.
A Theory for Progressive Matrix Cracking in Composite Laminates
Authors: Tan S.C. , Nuismer R.J.
Published: March 2007

The progressive matrix cracking of composite laminates that contain a cracked 90° ply and subject to uniaxial tensile or shear loading is modeled using a fracture mechanics approach and an elasticity theory. Closed form solutions are obtained for lami nate stiffnesses and Poisson's ratio as function of crack density or load level. This analysis only requires some basic mechanical and thermal properties obtained from uniaxial ply testing. Good agreement between theoretical prediction and experimental data is generally acquired from the comparison of laminates with four material systems.
On Isotropic Laminate Configurations
Authors: Fukunaga Hisao
Published: March 2007

A particular class of laminated composites is presented where the stiffness characteristics are isotropic with respect to both in-plane and out-of-plane stiffnesses. The paper presents a determining method for isotropic and orthotropic laminate configurations and shows examples of isotropic laminates consisting of 40 plies. Experimental verifica tion by a tension test and a four-point flexure test has been made on a 40-ply isotropic lam inate. Experimental results of elastic properties show almost isotropic properties.
Prediction of the Energy-Absorption Capability of Composite Tubes
Authors: Farley Gary L. , Jones Robert M.
Published: March 2007

A method of predicting the crash-related energy-absorption capability of composite tubes is presented. The method is based upon a phenomenological model of the crushing process exhibited by continuous-fiber-reinforced tubes. A finite element method is used to model the crushing process. The analysis is compared with experiments on Kevlar-epoxy and graphite-epoxy tubes. Reasonable agreement is obtained between the analysis and experiment.
Numerical Analysis of Impact Deformation and Failure in Composite Plates
Authors: Bogdanovich Alexander E. , Iarve Endel V.
Published: March 2007

The analytical problem of transverse impact by a rigid body on a rectan gular composite plate is considered. The calculation of displacements, deformations and stresses in conjunction with the characteristics of impact contact interaction is provided. The analysis of transverse stresses arising under short-time impulse in graphite/epoxy and organic glass/polymeric adhesive laminated plates is performed. The results illustrating dependencies of a contact force on time are given for various levels of mass and velocity of the impactor at the prescribed impact energy. The analysis of impact damage zones in a three-ply and a five-ply graphite/epoxy laminate (particularly, having soft polymeric in terleaves) is presented for the case of 2-2.5 J impact energy and different mass and veloc ity combinations. The changing of the failure mode increasing the impactor velocity (decreasing the mass) is followed up.
Mode-Coupling of Waves in Laminated Tubes
Authors: Kohl T. , Datta S.K. , Shah A.H. , Rattanawangcharoen N.
Published: March 2007

The dispersive and modal behavior of specially orthotropic fiber-rein forced laminated tubes is investigated over a range of frequencies. A wave propagation based method with finite element discretization in the radial direction is used to allow modeling which includes the radial variation of the constitutive properties of such lami nated tubes. Tubes with different numbers of total plies are compared in order to determine at what frequencies the ply lay-up affects the character of the propagating modes and cou pling between these modes. In particular, coupling between predominantly longitudinal (axial-radial and radial-axial) and predominantly torsional modes is examined.
Residual Tensile Strength Prediction on a Ply-by-Ply Basis for Laminates Containing Impact Damage
Authors: Tian Z. , Swanson S.R.
Published: March 2007

Impact loading on composite laminates can cause surface or internal damage in the form of fiber breakage, delamination and matrix cracking. Such damage can reduce laminate tensile strength. In the work presented here, impact damage was modelled as part through-the-thickness damage and laminate residual strength was evaluated by ex amining the behavior of each individual ply of the laminate. A residual strength prediction procedure, proposed previously for laminates containing cut internal fibers, was used here for laminates containing impact damage. The prediction of laminate residual strength was performed based on 3-D finite element results in conjunction with a principal load carry ing ply failure criterion. The predicted residual strength agreed with the experimental data within the bounds of 0.85 to 1.08 times the experimental data, indicating the applicability of the procedure and the damage modelling technique.
Residual Thermal Stresses in Filamentary Polymer-Matrix Composites Containing an Elastomeric Interphase
Authors: Gardner Steven D. , Pittman Charles U. , Hackett Robert M.
Published: March 2007

A three-phase micromechanical model based on the method of cells is for mulated to characterize residual thermal stresses in filamentary composites containing an in terphase between the fiber and the matrix. This is the first such study to incorporate a true three-phase version of the method of cells. The model's performance is critically evaluated using data generated from other micromechanical models. Subsequently, a parametric study is performed to quantify the residual stresses in two hypothetical graphite fiber/epoxy matrix composites: one containing an elastomeric interphase whose Young's modulus is less than that of the fiber and the matrix and one incorporating an interphase whose Young's modulus is intermediate with respect to the fiber and the matrix. The data correlate the residual ther mal stresses in the fiber, interphase and matrix as a function of the interphase thickness and fiber volume fraction within each model composite. The study makes a broad assessment of the stress-attenuating characteristics that each interphase imparts to the graphite/epoxy com posites. Over the range of variables considered, properly dimensioning the elastomer inter phase leads to a more favorable reduction of residual thermal stress.
On the Application of the Statistical Strength Model of Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Authors: Zhu Y.T. , Guisheng Zong
Published: March 2007

Further research was done on the previously reported unidirectional fiber- reinforced composite tensile strength model so as to overcome the mathematical difficul ties in its application. A computer program was developed to calculate the composite strength based on the composite strength model. With this computer program, the com posite tensile strength can be directly calculated once certain basic fiber and matrix prop erties are known. Comparisons with several other composite strength models showed that this model has the best agreement with experimental data and is relatively easy to use. Ap plications of this model to the composite strength design were also discussed.
A Plastic Potential Function Suitable for Anisotropic Fiber Composites
Authors: Chen J.L. , Sun C.T.
Published: March 2007

A 3-D plastic potential function was proposed to describe nonlinear be havior in anisotropic fiber composites following classical plasticity theory. The assump tion that uniform dilatational strains do not contribute to plastic deformation was used. Further simplification was obtained by ignoring the plastic deformation along the fiber direction which is an acceptable assumption for most advanced fiber composites. The va lidity of this plastic potential was examined by employing finite element micromechanical analysis.
A Constant-G Double Cantilever Beam Fracture Specimen for Environmental Testing
Authors: Sloan Forrest
Published: March 2007

Straight-sided double cantilever beam (DCB) fracture specimens have been used previously for long-duration environmentally assisted crack growth (EACG) testing. However, the applied strain-energy release rate G decreases with crack extension. In this study the width taper required to achieve constant-G during crack growth in a dou ble cantilever beam (DCB) fracture specimen is determined for the case of general load ing. The width taper b( a) is a function of the initial specimen compliance, C o, the crack length, a, and the stiffness of the loading frame, κ. The compliance of DCB specimens tapered for testing under three loading conditions were verified experimentally. These were constant-load (κ → 0), constant-strain (k → ∞), and critical spring loading ( κCo → 0.5). Specimens designed for critical spring loading are suggested for use in long-term (EACG) experiment,, Limitations on the proposed test method related to nonlinear material behavior (e.g., crack bridging) are discussed.
The Effect of Social Interaction on Conservation of Spatial Relations
Authors: Mackie Diane
Published: March 2007

The performance of 114 New Zealand children (60 of Europen descent and 54 of Polynesian descent), half of whom initially performed at a nonconserving level and half at a partially conserving level on spatial relations tasks, was examined following their interaction with another child of either the same or different cognitive level. Nonconservers gained more benefit from interaction relative to no interaction than did partial conservers. Polynesian nonconservers played more pasive roles in interaction, and the extent to which both Polynesian and Pakeha nonconservers participated actively in the interactions depended on the cognitive level of their partners. Both the extent of participation and the presentation of more advanced solutions affected posttest performance for the nonconservers, but not for partial conservers.
Psychosocial Correlates of Alienation
Authors: Nicassio Perry M.
Published: March 2007

The major purpose of this investigation was to study the relationship between several measures of psychosocial adjustment and social alienation in a sample of Indochinese refugees residing in the United States. Based on interviews with 460 Indochinese heads of households, the results indicated that alienation was negatively related to socioeconomic status, English proficiency, the number of American acquaintances and friends, and refugees' self-perception. Moreover, alienation was positively correlated with the degree of perceived difference between refugees and Americans. Laotian and Vietnamese refugees showed evidence of a more favorable adjustment than Hmong and Cambodian refugees on several measures.
Evaluative Reactions to Accented English
Authors: Callan Victor J. , Gallois Cynthia , Forbes Paula A.
Published: March 2007

A sample population of 48 Anglo-Australian and 49 Greek-Australian male and female high school students made personality evaluations of standard Australian English and Greek-Australian-accented English. Ratings were along two dimensions (status and solidarity), and each speaker was rated on three passages representing an achievement-oriented, public context (school), a situation of intimacy and friendliness (home), and a friendly interaction in a public context (bus stop). On the status dimension, Greek-accented speakers were evaluated more negatively than Australian-accented speakers by both Anglo-Australian and Greek-Australian students. Greek-Australian female subjects were more extreme in their ratings than were Anglo-Australians or Greek-Australian males. On the bus stop passage, however, Greek-Australian subjects did not distinguish on the basis of accent. Finally, female subjects of both ethnic groups favored female speakers in the home context, while male subjects favored Anglo-Australian female speakers in the two public settings.
The Study of Television in a Cross-Cultural Context
Authors: Salomon Gavriel
Published: March 2007

It is argued that the ways in which different cultures (and individuals within them) experience television, and not television per se (as a static variable with equal stimulus value), will lead to more meaningful and contextually accurate interpretations of how television is to be studied and interpreted cross-culturally. The culture-mediated subjective experience of television interacts with cognition and behaviors, and these variables form a "reciprocally deterministic" or "interactionistic" relationship that can only be understood against a backdrop of expectations and experiences within each culture. This invited commentary uses other articles in this special issue to highlight certain themes.
Ranking of Crime Seriousness in Papua New Guinea
Authors: Wuillemin Dianne , Richardson Barry , Moore Dennis
Published: March 2007

Subjects, 46 male and 41 female Papua New Guineans who resided in Port Moresby and its suburbs, ranked 19 crimes according to relative seriousness. These ranks were compared with a ranking of the same crimes according to the penalties prescribed by the Papua New Guinean legal system and with data previously obtained from rural subjects. The overall urban mean ranks correlated significantly with legal ranks as did the male and female urban ranks separately. Urban subjects more closely approximated the legal ranks than did rural subjects, and these two sets of ranks were also more in agreement than were rural and legal ranks when the crimes were considered in 4 categories-against people, against property, sexual crimes, and victimless crimes. The ranking of crimes changed with increased exposure to urban culture, most particularly for victimless and sexual crimes which were ranked less disparately in relation to the law as a function of longer residence in an urban area. The greatest mean differences in ranks between the law and rural subjects occurred for adultery and indecent exposure. These differences were maintained for subjects with minimal exposure to urban culture (1-5 years), but were not found for urban dwellers of longer standing. Those who had resided in an urban area for more than 10 years provided ranks which differed most from the legal ranks for shoplifting and drunk driving. Factors that may have contributed to this shift in attitude towards relative crime with urbanization are discussed.
East Asians' Responses to Western Health Items
Authors: Park Kwang B. , Upshaw Harry S. , Koh Soon D.
Published: March 2007

A consistent disparity has been found between interview and self-report data on East Asian mental health. Two hypotheses, incomparability of item content and cultural differences in the social desirability of items, were raised as plausible explanations for the disparity. An empirical test rejected the hypothesis of cultural differences in the social desirability of questionnaire items. With somewhat less confidence, the content incomparability hypothesis was also rejected.
Policy Substitutability in Complex Humanitarian Emergencies
Authors: McGinnis Michael D.
Published: March 2007

Complex humanitarian emergencies involve population movements on a massive scale, driven by drought, famine, or war. The international community may respond with humanitarian aid or peacekeeping operations but local responses to international intervention may exacerbate the emergency. Combatants divert aid to finance coercive activities, and peacekeeping operations are resisted by those who benefit from social disruption. This article develops a rational choice model that shows how individuals' choices among their options of production, coercion, and relocation affect the aggregate supply and demand of food in ongoing conflicts. This model demonstrates that humanitarian aid and peacekeeping operations have complementary strengths and that the international community can best achieve its goals by carrying out both kinds of operations. This simple model captures important aspects of the policy substitutability and alternative trigger effects in complex humanitarian emergencies, and suggestions for future research are outlined.
Conceptual and Selection Bias Issues in Deterrence
Authors: Danilovic Vesna
Published: March 2007

Three critical issues involved in quantitative analysis of deterrence are addressed: the criteria for identifying deterrence cases, the problem of selection bias, and understanding the nature of deterrence outcomes. The criteria for establishing the presence of immediate deterrent threats are refined to allow for a more robust selection of cases, and deterrence outcomes are revised to include compromise as a midpoint between success and failure. A new data set of extended-immediate deterrence for the 1895-1985 period is presented and compared to previous data sets. Hypotheses about the effects of relative power and alliances on deterrence outcomes are developed to rectify the problem of selection bias due to unobservable prior beliefs. Alliances are shown to be a more reliable predictor of behavior than previously assumed. The results support theoretical expectations about the consequences of selection bias that more powerful states are less likely to acquiesce. The inclusion of compromise proves significant because only this outcome is strongly associated with the balance of power.
Threat and Decision Making
Authors: Gordon Carol , Arian Asher
Published: March 2007

This article explores the relationship between threat and information processing in various conflict situations and extends the analysis to an examination of the relationship between affective and cognitive components of decision making about policy under conditions of high and low threat. Elements of threatening situations are measured using public opinion surveys done mainly in Israel regarding the Arab/Israeli conflict and the conflict between religious and secular Jews. Some data from surveys done in the Palestinian Authority regarding support for the peace process and support for armed attacks against Israeli targets, and in the United States regarding the social crises of neighborhood crime out of control and the threat of loss of Social Security and Medicare benefits are included as two other illustrations of the relationship between threat and policy. The article focuses on how feelings of threat relate to decisions about how to deal with the situation and under what conditions those decisions will either be inflammatory or conciliatory. Data are presented demonstrating that feelings of threat correlate with policy choices regarding the threatening situation or group, and often at very strong levels. Specifically, the more threatened people feel, the more their policy choice tends to maintain or intensify the conflict—that is, the more incendiary the policy choice is—and vice versa—the lower the threat the more subdued the policy choice is. Our data analysis leads us to the proposition that when people feel very threatened—the decision making process about policy is dominated by emotion—not by logic or rational considerations. On the other hand, under conditions of low threat, both emotions and logic have a role in the process of deciding policy.
Mediating International Crises
Authors: Wilkenfeld Jonathan , Young Kathleen , Asal Victor , Quinn David
Published: March 2007

This study focuses on mediation as a means for mitigating or at least minimizing the potentially turbulent and violent consequences of international crises. Two main research questions are explored: (1) Does mediation in general affect the dynamics and outcomes of crisis negotiations? and (2) Does the impact of mediation vary in accordance with mediator style? Data are drawn from the International Crisis Behavior data set and from ongoing experimental work with human subjects. The historical data reveal that mediated crises are more typically characterized by compromise among crisis actors, are more likely to end in agreements, and show a tendency toward long-term tension reduction. The experimental research confirmed the relationship between mediation and the achievement of agreement and also revealed that mediation leads to crises of shorter duration and to greater satisfaction by the parties with the outcome. A manipulative mediation style is more likely to yield favorable crisis management outcomes than is a more restrictive facilitative style.
From Bosnia to Sarajevo
Authors: Sabrosky Alan Ned
Published: March 2007

This paper undertakes a comparative case study of the relationship between the onset of interstate crises and the incidence of war. Findings obtained from several different studies are integrated and extended into an analysis of changes in the major-power subsystem between the Bosnian Crisis of 1908-1909 (which was resolved without war) and the Sarajevo Crisis of 1914 (which escalated into the First World War). The outcomes of these crises are examined in the context of the changing pattern of major-power alliances, the distribution and the shift in distribution of major-power capabilities, and the pre-1914 arms race. The author finds a transformation in the major-power subsystem between 1905-1910 which significantly altered the existing European balance of power in favor of the Triple Entente. During the Sarajevo Crisis, the behavior of the decision makers on both sides reflected that transformation. The implications of these findings for conflict theory are summarized.
Soviet Strategic Doctrine and Limited Nuclear Operations
Authors: Richelson Jeffrey T.
Published: March 2007

In January 1974, Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger announced a reorientation of U.S. nuclear targeting strategy to incorporate a set of Limited Nuclear Operation (LNO) options into U.S. war plans. This doctrine, which is diametrically the opposite of announced Soviet doctrine, produced a chorus of criticism from both U.S. and Soviet commentators. This paper attempts, using metagame theory, to determine U.S. and Soviet incentives for misrepresenting their attitudes concerning the use of LNOs and the likely reaction of each to a firm adoption of a particular strategy by the other.
A Reassessment
Authors: Oppenheimer Joe
Published: March 2007

The theory of collective (or public) goods has proven of great value to the understanding of politics. Based on assumptions of rational and (usually) self-interested behavior, for political applications one of the central theorems to the theory is that unorganized groups supply themselves suboptimal amounts of any collective good. A number of areas of application of the theory have been ill-advised. In particular, these theorems are not directly applicable to most problems of international politics, if states are taken as the actors. The eager political scientist might feel the positive explanatory role of the theory could be disavowed while the "normative" findings of suboptimality are maintained. But this too will be argued to be fallacious. Indeed, the applicability of the theory is argued to be less grand than originally postulated. Rather than an intuitively obvious applicability of collective good theory to institutions and group activities in general, the domain is restricted to groups which have members whose preferences can be rationally aggregated and expressed by their social decision procedures. Further, the normative claims of suboptimality are shown to have limitations independent of the group's social decision process.
A Cognitive Analysis of Japan's 1941 Decision for War
Authors: Levi Ariel , Tetlock Philip E.
Published: March 2007

Previous studies have found that the cognitive performance of government decision-makers declines in crises that result in war. This decline has been attributed to crisis-produced stress which leads to simplification of information processing. The present study tested the disruptive stress hypothesis in the context of Japan's decision for war in 1941. Two content analysis techniques, integrative complexity coding (Schroder et al.,) and cognitive mapping (Axelrod, 1976) were used to analyze the translated records of statements by key Japanese policy-makers. Comparisons between statements made in the early and late periods of the 1941 crisis yielded only weak evidence of cognitive simplification. Interestingly, however, the social context in which statements were made significantly affected the complexity of cognitive performance: Statements made in Liaison conterences (in which policies were formulated) were significantly less complex than statements made in Imperial conferences (in which policies were presented to the Emperor for approval). Theoretical and methodological implications of the results were discussed.
A Probability Model of Credibility
Authors: Cioffi-Revilla Claudio
Published: March 2007

Credibility plays a central role in the classical theory of strategic nuclear deterrence, as well as in many types of social and international relations. This article presents probability models of credibility for survival-retaliation, Wohlstetter-type, and generalized “chain” deterrent threats. Both scenario and systems analysis of these models indicate that (1) only moderate credibility occurs even when very high levels of performance are insured in actions necessary to implement the threat; (2) variations in performance levels induce a destabilizing, more than proportional, amplified variation on overall credibility; and (3) this hyperweakening effect is largest in complex threats. In sum, intuitive estimation of deterrence credibility is severely unreliable, since credibility is weaker than the weakest link in a deterring chain of events. The models are extended and generalized to calculate the credibility of complex systems of deterrent threats, such as the “strategic nuclear triads” deployed by the United States, USSR, United Kingdom, and France, as well as other general deterrents having “serial” and/or “parallel” systems of threats. Special “bottleneck effects” induced by the National Command Authority (NCA) on C3I are emphasized.