bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Recent progress and future aspects of organic solar cells
Authors: Kumar Pankaj , Chand Suresh
Published: August 2011

This article aims to review the recent progress and future aspects of organic solar cells (OSCs). Different device designs proposed for efficient light harvesting and their advancements have been discussed. We have discussed various parameters limiting their efficiency and their possible solutions. Special attention has been paid to understand the device physics and its fundamental facets. Open circuit voltage (Voc) is an important parameter in the determination of their efficiency, but the picture behind the real origin of Voc is not very much clear; therefore, this issue has been discussed in detail. Short lifetime is another important issue; therefore, recent progress in stability and related issues has also been discussed. The progress in roll to roll (R2R) processing and demonstration for large‐area OSCs has been paid particular attention. The areas, where further advances will help in the commercial realization of this technology, have also been discussed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Recent Workshops of the HUPO Human Plasma Proteome Project (HPPP): A bridge with the HUPO CardioVascular Initiative and the emergence of SRM targeted proteomics
Authors: Omenn Gilbert S. , Baker Mark S. , Aebersold Ruedi
Published: August 2011

We hereby provide a two‐year update on the HUPO Human Plasma Proteome Project (HPPP) informed by advances presented at the HPPP sessions at the HUPO World Congresses in Toronto in September 2009 and in Sydney in September 2010.
Quantum chemical investigation on the structure and first hyperpolarizability for N‐substituted [n]cyclacene
Authors: Xu Hong‐Liang , Zhong Rong‐Lin , Yan Li‐Kai , Su Zhong‐Min
Published: August 2011

Six N‐substituted [n]cyclacene (n = 5, 6, 7,…,10) molecules were designed to study the relationship between the structure and first hyperpolarizability. Their static first hyperpolarizabilities (β0) were obtained by MP2/6‐31 + g(d) level. Two interesting relationships between the β0 value and the structure have been found: (1) The β0 value increases with the increase of the number n when n is odd: 3155 ([5]cyclacene) < 48,905 ([7]cyclacene) < < 393,444 ([9]cyclacene), and when n is even: 357,620 ([6]cyclacene) < 618,608 ([8]cyclacene) < 3,513,644 a.u. ([10]cyclacene). (2) The β0 values (in the range of 357,620 ~ 3,513,644 a.u.) of the N‐substituted [n]cyclacene (when n is odd) are much larger (in the range of 3155~393,444 a.u.) than that of the N‐substituted [n]cyclacene (when n is even). Furthermore, their frequency‐dependent β (−2ω; ω, ω) and β (−ω; ω, 0) (ω = 0.005, 0.01, and 0.0239 a.u.) were also estimated by Møller–Plesset perturbation/6‐31 + g(d) level. Among the frequency‐dependent β (ω), [10]cyclacene has the largest β (−ω; ω, 0) and β (−2ω; ω, ω) to be 1.2 × 108 (ω = 0.01) and 2.9 × 107 a.u. (ω = 0.005 a.u.), which are much larger than the static β0 = 3.5 × 106 a.u. by 34 and 8 times. Our present work may offer a new idea in the design of high‐performance tubiform nonlinear optical materials. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
In situ Cu(0) catalyzed SET‐LRP: The first attempt
Authors: Zhang Qin , Zhang Zhengbiao , Wang Wenxiang , Cheng Zhenping , Zhu Jian , Zhou Nianchen , Zhang Wei , Wu Zhaoqiang , Zhu Xiulin
Published: August 2011

In this work, single electron transfer‐living radical polymerization (SET‐LRP) was catalyzed by in situ Cu(0) generated from copper sulphate pentahydrate (CuSO4·5H2O) and hydrazine hydrate (N2H4·H2O) at 25 °C. The polymerization occurred smoothly with moderate controllability: the polymerization rates increased by the increases of N2H4·H2O, and the initiator concentration had an optimal value on the polymerization rate; the number‐average molecular weights (Mn,GPC) increased with monomer conversions and polydispersities were below 1.40. The Mn,GPC deviated much from theoretical ones with about 50% polymer chain‐end fidelities. Some side reactions stemming from the strong reduction performance of N2H4·H2O were responsible for the mildly controlled polymerizations. This polymerization can be conducted in SET‐LRP unfavorable solvents or in bulk, such as toluene and tetrahydrofuran, owing to the H2O contained in CuSO4·5H2O and N2H4·H2O. On account of the utilization of CuSO4·5H2O, an inactive Cu(II) compounds in LRP area, this work confirmed from experimental level that it was Cu(0) which acted as activator and mediator in SET‐LRP. This work provided a first example of in situ Cu(0) catalyzing SET‐LRP with CuSO4·5H2O as a copper source. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem, 2011
Structure and stability of Gyuba, a β‐lactoglobulin chimera
Authors: Ohtomo Hideaki , Konuma Tsuyoshi , Utsunoiya Hiroko , Tsuge Hideaki , Ikeguchi Masamichi
Published: August 2011

β‐lactoglobulin (LG) contains nine β‐strands (strands A–I) and one α‐helix. Strands A–H form a β‐barrel. At neutral pH, equine LG (ELG) is monomeric, whereas bovine LG (BLG) is dimeric, and the I‐strands of its two subunits form an intermolecular β‐sheet. We previously constructed a chimeric ELG in which the sequence of the I‐strand was replaced with that of BLG. This chimera did not dimerize. For this study, we constructed the new chimera we call Gyuba (which means cow and horse in Japanese). The amino acid sequence of Gyuba includes the sequences of the BLG secondary structures and those of the ELG loops. The crystal structure of Gyuba is very similar to that of BLG and indicates that Gyuba dimerizes via the intermolecular β‐sheet formed by the two I‐strands. Thus, the entire arrangement of the secondary structural elements is important for LG dimer formation.
Cultural and linguistic problems in GSD: a simulator to train engineers in these issues
Authors: Monasor Miguel J. , Vizcaíno Aurora , Piattini Mario
Published: August 2011

This paper tackles the need for universities and practitioners to train their students and engineers in the new challenges that global software development entails, which are principally related to communication, collaboration and cultural differences. Teaching the necessary skills requires practical experience. However, training in educational environments is difficult, and some challenging issues must still be confronted. We have focused our work on the development of a virtual training environment that can simulate global software development scenarios involving virtual agents (VAs) from different cultures. The VAs interact with learners, who use typical communication tools to solve predefined problems. This environment considers common problems caused by distance and cultural differences when using English as a means of communication. It allows learners to train at any time, because the VAs are always available, and it also permits them to play different roles in the various stages of the project. In this paper, we depict the design and development of the tool, as well as an initial evaluation. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
In Quest of productive modeling‐based learning discourse in elementary school science
Authors: Louca Loucas T. , Zacharia Zacharias C. , Constantinou Constantinos P.
Published: August 2011

The purpose of this study was to investigate whole classroom discourse during modeling‐based learning in science, seeking to describe the discourse's characteristics, its relation to the micro‐context in which it took place and to the student‐constructed models, and to ascertain when it becomes productive. Additionally, we aimed to describe how whole classroom modeling discourse in science may be better supported by the teacher as well as the role of the modeling tool. In doing so, we analyzed student conversations and student‐constructed models from two groups of 11‐ to 12‐year‐old students. All students used a computer programming environment, namely Stagecast Creator, as a modeling tool. Findings revealed three distinct discourse types (modeling frames): (a) (initial) phenomenological description, (b) operationalization of the physical system's story, and (c) construction of algorithms. Finally, we discuss what we consider productive modeling discourse, as well as the contributions of the software and the teacher in this respect. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 48: 919–951, 2011
Gene expression during activation of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis conidia
Authors: Hernandez O. , Garcia A. M. , Almeida A. J. , Tamayo D. , Gonzalez A. , Restrepo A. , McEwen J. G.
Published: August 2011

This study focuses on gene expression during crucial biological phenomena of the dimorphic fungal human pathogen Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, the conidia‐to‐yeast (C‐Y) transition and the conidia‐to‐mycelia (C‐M) germination. We studied 10 genes involved in different cellular functions: oxidative stress response (alternative oxidase (AOX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), flavodoxin, conserved hypothetical protein (Y20)); cell metabolism (glyceraldehyde‐3‐phosphate dehydrogenase (GADPH), cholestenol Delta‐isomerase (ChDI), glycine dehydrogenase (GDh)) and heat shock response (Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90)), and cell synthesis and wall structure (glucan synthase‐1 (GS‐1), α‐1,3‐glucan synthase (αGS), and mannosyltransferase (MT)). Gene expression was measured during the first 72 h and 96 h of C‐Y and C‐M, respectively, previously shown to be a fundamental time frame for the consolidation of these cellular processes. The gene expression of AOX, GAPDH, HSP90, MT, αGS, and GDh was significantly increased during the C‐Y transition, while SOD, ChDI, GAPDH, MT, GDh, and GS‐1 were increased during C‐M germination. Additionally, some were highly expressed in each process: AOX, HSP90, and αGS during C‐Y; SOD, ChDI, and GS‐1 during C‐M. Altogether, these data add new information regarding gene expression during the C‐Y and C‐M processes. Future research will be targeted to further characterize the true relevance of the studied genes during the morphological transition, either during adaptation to the environment or to the infected host. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Long‐term Outcomes of Extended Proximal Gastrectomy for Oesophagogastric Junctional Tumours
Authors: Khan Omar , Goh Steven , Byrne Ben , Somers Shaw , Mercer Stuart , Toh Simon
Published: August 2011

Background

There is no consensus on the optimum approach for resection of oesophagogastric junctional (OGJ) tumours. We prospectively evaluated the efficacy of transabdominal radical extended proximal gastrectomy with oesophagogastric anastomosis (EPGOG) for selected tumours of the OGJ.

Methods

Between 1998 and 2007, 66 selected consecutive patients with tumours of the OGJ underwent successful EPGOG. Selection was limited to tumours where the maximal proximal extent was 36 cm ab oral. Pre‐, peri‐, and postoperative outcomes together with long‐term survival data for these patients were prospectively collected.

Results

Median theatre time was 242 min (range = 120–480), with a median blood loss of 300 ml (range = 50–1720). Eighty‐nine percent of patients were extubated in theatre; major complications occurred in 9 (14%) patients, with an overall in‐hospital mortality rate of 8%. Thirty‐five (53%) patients had nodal disease and the median lymph node yield was 13 (range = 4–36), with an R0 resection rate of 80%. In terms of long‐term outcomes, the 2‐ and 5‐year actuarial survival rates were 54 ± 6% and 41 ± 6%.

Conclusion

Extended radical proximal gastrectomy with oesophagogastric anastomosis for selected junctional tumours is a feasible technique which does not compromise oncological principles as evidenced by an excellent long‐term survival rate.
Allograft Use in Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction
Authors: Jost Patrick W. , Dy Christopher J. , Robertson Catherine M. , Kelly Anne M.
Published: August 2011

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction is one of the most common procedures performed by orthopedic surgeons. While autograft reconstruction remains the gold standard, allograft tissues have become a controversial option for ACL reconstruction. No data currently exist regarding recent trends in graft choices, and no consensus exists over which graft type is most appropriate for which patient. In this article, we examine trends in ACL graft choice at our institution, and review the pertinent information a surgeon must consider when making this decision. We reviewed operating room records from 2002 to 2008 to determine trends in graft choice for primary single bundle ACL reconstruction. Total number of procedures performed, graft choices, and patient ages were recorded. Patients were divided into the following age groups: less than 16, 16 to 20, 21 to 30, 31 to 40, 41 to 50, and over 50. Percent of ACL reconstructions using allograft was calculated for each year, as well as for each age group. Data were analyzed for trends in ACL graft choice over this time period as well as for trends in graft choice by age. We hypothesized that the rate of allograft use in primary ACL reconstruction had increased over time and that allograft use was associated with higher patient age. We also review the risks, safety, and standards for tissue procurement. Allograft use increased significantly ( p < 0.001) from 2002 (17%) to 2008 (46%). There was also a significant difference ( p < 0.001) in average age of patients receiving allografts (40.4 years) and autografts (26.4 years). Allograft use was significantly associated with higher patient age ( p < 0.05) and increased with each successive age group from a rate of 9.9% in patients under 16 to 79.9% in patients over 50. Our study found that allograft use in primary ACL reconstruction has significantly increased from 2002 to 2008 and is significantly more common in older patients.
Debating the Route of the Qin Direct Road (Zhidao): Text and Excavation
Authors: Sanft Charles
Published: August 2011

The most famous road built during the Qin dynasty was the Zhidao, literally, the Direct Road. The Direct Road connected Ganquan, near the capital, with the northwest corner of the empire, and historians have discussed it since ancient times. Yet the earliest sources do not give any information about the Direct Road’s specific route, leaving this question open to debate. In recent decades, there has been a controversy among historical geographers and archaeologists about the path the Zhidao took, and numerous articles have been published proposing variations of two main possibilities. This article gathers relevant historical materials, reviews the scholarship on both sides of the debate, and discusses the difficulties that emerge when scholars seek to integrate history and archaeology.
The Transnational World of Chinese Entrepreneurs in Chicago, 1870s to 1940s: New Sources and Perspectives on Southern Chinese Emigration
Authors: Ling Huping
Published: August 2011

This article contributes to an ongoing dialogue on the causes of migration and emigration and the relationship between migrants/emigrants and their homelands by investigating historical materials dealing with the Chinese in Chicago from 1870s to 1940s. It shows that patterns of Chinese migration/ emigration overseas have endured for a long period, from pre-Qing times to today’s global capitalist expansionism. The key argument is that from the very beginning of these patterns, it has been trans-local and transnational connections that have acted as primary vehicles facilitating survival in the new land. While adjusting their lives in new environments, migrants and emigrants have made conscious efforts to maintain and renew socioeconomic and emotional ties with their homelands, thus creating transnational ethnic experiences.
Knowing That, Knowing How, and Knowing to Do
Authors: Refeng TANG
Published: August 2011

Ryle’s distinction between knowing that and knowing how has recently been challenged. The paper first briefly defends the distinction and then proceeds to address the question of classifying moral knowledge. Moral knowledge is special in that it is practical, that is, it is essentially a motive. Hence the way we understand moral knowledge crucially depends on the way we understand motivation. The Humean theory of motivation is wrong in saying that reason cannot be a motive, but right in saying that desire is essential for motivating us. The right response to the Humean theory of motivation is to see that moral knowledge is desire-related rationality or thought-related desire. Moral knowledge is neither knowing that nor knowing how but rather a third species of knowledge which we may call “knowing to do.” Knowing to do is to be rationally disposed to do the right thing. This understanding of moral knowledge is exactly what we can learn from Aristotle’s ethics.
Disjunctivism and Skepticism
Authors: Huaping WANG
Published: August 2011

Disjunctivism is the view that perceptual experience is either constituted by fact in the world or mere appearance. This view is said to be able to guarantee our cognitive contact with the world, and thus remove a crucial “prop” upon which skepticism depends. This paper has two aims. First, it aims to show that disjunctivism is a solution to Cartesian skepticism. Cartesian skepticism is an epistemological thesis, not an ontological one. Therefore, if there is an external world, we may well undergo a veridical experience, and thus we can take advantage of disjunctivism to adopt an anti-evidential-skepticism strategy to counter Cartesian skepticism. Second, this paper argues that disjunctivism fails to solve Pyrrhonian skepticism. To counter Pyrrhonian skepticism, one has to give reasons both for his belief and for his believing. But disjunctivism can only account the former, that is, the reason for the content of perceptual belief. Given that one’s experience in good case and bad case is subjectively indistinguishable, one cannot just use his experience to justify his believing. This shows that disjunctivism cannot meet the requirement to provide an adequate account for reflective knowledge.
Abduction and Metaphor: An Inquiry into Common Cognitive Mechanism
Authors: Cihua XU , Hengwei LI
Published: August 2011

Abduction and metaphor are two significant concepts in cognitive science. It is found that the both mental processes are on the basis of certain similarity. The similarity inspires us to seek the answers to the following two questions: (1) Whether there is a common cognitive mechanism behind abduction and metaphor? And (2) if there is, whether this common mechanism could be interpreted within the unified frame of modern intelligence theory? Centering on these two issues, the paper attempts to characterize and interpret the generation and evolution of scientific metaphors from the perspective of the cognitive mechanism of abductive inference. Then it interprets the common cognitive mechanism behind abduction and metaphor within Hawkins’ frame of intelligence theory. The commonality between abduction and metaphor indicates the potential to further explore human intelligence.
Percutaneous Fasciotomy for the Treatment of Dupuytren's Disease—A Systematic Review
Authors: Salhi Saoussen , Cardin-Langlois Etienne , Luc Mario
Published: August 2011

Background

Dupuytren's disease is described as a thickening of the palmar fascia. It typically affects men of Northern European descent in their fifties. The disease process starts as a nodule at the distal palmar crease that progressively gives rise to a cord invading distally toward the finger. Historically, different treatments have been described. Our purpose was to perform a meta-analysis of the evidence published on the percutaneous fasciotomy (PCF) treatment.

Methods

We searched Medline, PubMed, and the Cochrane Library for articles evaluating the use of PCF for Dupuytren's disease. No study was excluded based on quality.

Results

The search yielded nine studies. Because of their different methodologies, a meta-analysis could not be performed. However, we were able to extract common qualitative conclusions. PCF is an effective treatment modality for patients in whom general anesthesia is contraindicated, with a good outcome especially at the metacarpophalangeal joint, a low recurrence rate in the short term, and few complications.

Conclusions

Similar conclusions were reached by all the articles under study. Nevertheless, there remains the need for a prospective study with a higher statistical power and standardized clinical evaluation and surgical methods in order to achieve more objective quantitative results. It would also be pertinent to compare the outcomes and complication rates of PCF with the new collagenase treatment.
Changing Trends in Pediatric Upper Extremity Electrical Burns
Authors: Talbot Simon G. , Upton Joseph , Driscoll Daniel N.
Published: August 2011

Background

Upper extremity electrical burns are a cause of major morbidity and disability in affected individuals. Anecdotally, we have noted changes in the presentation of cases to our institution. We sought to compare current data on upper extremity electrical burns in children with our previously published historical data.

Methods

Using the Shriners Hospital Boston and American Burn Association databases, we retrospectively analyzed electrical upper extremity burns in patients aged 21 years or younger. Data regarding demographics, etiology, and reconstruction were collated and analyzed.

Results

In our institutional cohort, patients were most commonly males (37/48, 77%) aged 10–15 years (19/48, 40%). We have seen a rise in the proportion of female, younger patients, with burns attributed to domestic wiring, indicative of a reduction in the number of high-voltage injuries in males due to demonstrations of bravado. High-voltage injuries correlate with severity of injury and tended to be transferred to our institution from foreign countries (9/48, 19%). We have also seen a reduction in the need to amputate extremities.

Conclusions

Changes in upper extremity electrical burn demographics and etiology since the 1970s may be indicative of effective education and safety campaigns. Consequently, reconstructive requirements have also changed. We hope that similar ongoing efforts in the developing world may bring about comparable positive results.
Redefine Literature through Chinese Culture: On the Development of Chinese Literature and World Literature in the Age of Globalization
Authors: Fa ZHANG
Published: August 2011

Literature, in the age of globalization, has gradually been marginalized with the blossoming of electronic art, while its position as an icon of culture has been highlighted. The tension between these two tendencies currently cannot be relieved by maintaining the mainstream Western definition of literature (literature as fiction, poetry and drama), but alternatively, the definition of literature in Chinese culture (literature as the beauty of language) may provide a better solution. Thus the redefinition of literature through Chinese culture is necessary and essential for literary development in the global age.
Flow visualization using reflective flakes
Authors: Goto Susumu , Kida Shigeo , Fujiwara Shohei
Published: August 2011

The pattern in an image of flow visualizations using reflective flakes stems from their non-uniform orientation rather than their spatial accumulation. It is shown, based on the assumption that flakes are infinitely thin elliptic discs without inertia, that the temporal evolution of their orientations is identical to that for infinitesimal material surface elements. In general, bright regions in a visualized image are the superposition of those where the flake (i.e. the material surface element) orientation is isotropic and those where flakes tend to align in the direction for which the incident rays are reflected into the line of sight. A non-trivial example of the visualization of a steady flow in a precessing sphere is given to verify these conclusions.
THE INVARIANTS FIELD OF SOME FINITE PROJECTIVE LINEAR GROUP ACTIONS
Authors: CHEN YIN
Published: August 2011

Let Fq be a finite field with q elements, V an n-dimensional vector space over Fq and 𝒱 the projective space associated to V. Let G≤GLn(Fq) be a classical group and PG be the corresponding projective group. In this note we prove that if Fq (V )G is purely transcendental over Fq with homogeneous polynomial generators, then Fq (𝒱)PG is also purely transcendental over Fq. We compute explicitly the generators of Fq (𝒱)PG when G is the symplectic, unitary or orthogonal group.
EFFECT OF ORGANIC FERTILIZERS ON NITRATE ACCUMULATION IN VEGETABLES AND MINERAL NITROGEN IN TROPICAL SOILS OF MOROGORO, TANZANIA
Authors: BAITILWAKE MARCELINA A , DE BOLLE SARA , SALOMEZ JOOST , MREMA JEROME P , DE NEVE STEFAAN
Published: August 2011

Nitrogen (N) nutrition is a key factor for vegetable growth and yield. However, different rates of nitrogen fertilization may trigger different responses to vegetables. A survey was conducted to investigate the effect of soil fertility management practices on nitrate concentration in vegetables. The survey results were used to plan experiments on the effect of chicken and cattle manures on nitrate levels in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa) and amaranthus (Amaranthus cruentus) grown in Tanzania and the patterns of mineral nitrogen in soils under open field conditions. Chicken or cattle manure at 200, 300 kg N ha−1and 170 250 kg N ha−1for Chinese cabbage and amaranthus respectively, and control were compared in a randomized complete block design. We observed a higher nitrate content in fertilized Chinese cabbage at day 30 than at day 44 after sowing, ranging from 3243 to 4993 mg kg−1fresh matter regardless of the N source and rates. Only application of manures at high levels (250 kg N ha−1) induced significantly (p< 0.05) higher nitrate contents in amaranthus at day 28 after sowing, although there was a clear indication of nitrate accumulation even at 170 kg N ha−1application. Soil NH4+-N + NO3−-N in both Chinese cabbage and amaranthus plots were increased with increasing N application rates and differences between control and amended soils were significant (p< 0.01). There was a positive relationship between NO3−concentration in vegetables and NO3−-N in the rooted top soil layer (0–15 cm). However, higher NH4+concentrations depressed NO3−build up in crops and a significant negative relationship between soil (NH4+-N)/(NO3−-N) ratio and crop NO3−content was found. It is concluded that low manure application rates result in similar yields to high rates but reduces nitrate accumulation in vegetables and excess mineral nitrogen in soils.
Vitamin D and immune function: an overview
Authors: Hewison Martin
Published: August 2011

Immunomodulatory actions of vitamin D have been recognised for over a quarter of a century, but it is only in the last few years that the significance of this to normal human physiology has become apparent. Two key factors have underpinned this revised perspective. Firstly, there are increasing data linking vitamin insufficiency with prevalent immune disorders. Improved awareness of low circulating levels of precursor 25-hydroxyvitamin D in populations across the globe has prompted epidemiological investigations of health problems associated with vitamin D insufficiency. Prominent among these are autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes and Crohn's disease, but more recent studies indicate that infections such as tuberculosis may also be linked to low 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels. The second factor expanding the link between vitamin D and the immune system is our improved knowledge of the mechanisms that facilitate this association. It is now clear that cells from the immune system contain all the machinery needed to convert 25-hydroxyvitamin D to active 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, and for subsequent responses to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. Mechanisms such as this are important for promoting antimicrobial responses to pathogens in macrophages, and for regulating the maturation of antigen-presenting dendritic cells. The latter may be a key pathway by which vitamin D controls T-lymphocyte (T-cell) function. However, T-cells also exhibit direct responses to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, notably the development of suppressor regulatory T-cells. Collectively these observations suggest that vitamin D is a key factor linking innate and adaptive immunity, and both of these functions may be compromised under conditions of vitamin D insufficiency.
Unlocking the encoded English vocabulary in the Japanese language
Authors: Barrs Keith
Published: August 2011

The Japanese linguistic landscape is a dynamically vibrant area with words and phrases appearing in a vast array of locations written in a wide range of scripts, fonts, sizes and colours, and all serving a complex and interconnected array of functions. This visual landscape of shop signs, street signs, advertising posters, information boards and vending machines is complemented by a similar vibrancy and dynamism in more private domains such as restaurant menus, product packaging, clothing, newspaper articles, magazine stories and TV advertising. Immediately striking an observer of these contexts is the fact that, although the Japanese language has a highly complex writing system incorporating an admixture of logographic, syllabic and alphabetic characters, a great many of the words and phrases in Japanese social contexts are transcribed in Latin alphabet characters. Because the vast majority of these lexical items are either direct imports of words from the English language (often termed ‘loanwords' or ‘borrowings') or domestic creations based on English vocabulary (often termed ‘wasei eigo'/‘Japan-created English'), those who are familiar with the English language are assisted in their orientation around Japan by this pervasive use of English-based vocabulary.
Spelling and simulated shibboleths in Nigerian computer-mediated communication
Authors: Ifukor Presley A.
Published: August 2011

Since its coinage by Hiltz and Turoff (1978) the term computer-mediated communication (CMC) has been adapted and broadly conceptualised asinteractive communicationby and amonghuman beingsvianetworkedcomputers and mobile devices. Several definitions of CMC have been offered in the literature but Herring's (2007) definition of CMC as ‘predominantly text-based human–human interaction mediated by networked computers or mobile telephony’ is adopted in this article because it stresses the textual aspect of the communicative interaction and accommodates all forms of textual language use mediated by the Internet, the World Wide Web and mobile technologies. This approach to CMC focuses on the production, transmission and exchange of naturally-occurring text-based human language and highlights the fact that human beings (as opposed to automated or artificial systems) are both the agents or initiators and recipients of the communication under investigation. Although communication is not unique to humans, the ability to use human language for meaningful social interactions is the exclusive preserve of the human species. Thus the perspective human beings bring to virtual interactions is accounted for in CMC. Internet interlocutors (also known as online interactants,netizensortextizensin the case of regular SMS texts composers/senders) employ textual data to convey and exchange their thoughts, opinions, observations, feelings as well as messages from other people or sources (Ifukor, 2011). These interactive possibilities make CMC a technology, medium, and engine of social relations (Jones, 1995:11) and language use is at the core.
Non-standard features in English in Anglophone Cameroon New Writing: dilemmas for the education system
Authors: Ayafor Miriam
Published: August 2011

One of the ways a language is learned, especially a foreign language, is by personal extensive reading. When people read widely, they are exposed to the linguistic structure of what they read and so learn it consciously or unconsciously. What they come across in their reading remains in their minds and adds to their general knowledge. This includes knowledge of the language they read. General wide reading reinforces the language students have been formally taught in their language classes. Exposure to grammatically correct language would improve their language skills. On the other hand, exposure to incorrect language would negatively affect the language skills of foreign learners and cause them to use wrong language comfortably, not knowing that they are erroneous in their usage.
Recent developments which affect spelling
Authors: Yule Valerie
Published: August 2011

Recent developments in English language include the rise of many Englishes throughout the world and home dialects appearing in broadcasting, which are increasing in salience rather than diminishing with globalisation; huge increases in the international vocabulary held in common by modern languages, particularly technical and scientific words; and the increases in alternatives in communication. Two restricted English vocabularies as a way to increase the accessibility of English language have received publicity; both are called Globish, one by a Frenchman, Jean-Paul Nerrière, of 1500 words (2009), and one by an Indian of 4000 words with an accompanying Indianised spelling (Gogate, 2002).
Risk factors for Salmonella prevalence in laying-hen farms in Japan
Authors: SASAKI Y. , MURAKAMI M. , MARUYAMA N. , TSUJIYAMA Y. , KUSUKAWA M. , ASAI T. , YAMADA Y.
Published: August 2011

Human salmonellosis cases, particularly those caused by Salmonella Enteritidis, have been closely linked to egg consumption. This epidemiological survey was conducted to determine the baseline Salmonella prevalence and identify the risk factors for Salmonella prevalence in laying-hen farms in Japan. Caecal excrement samples and dust samples were obtained from 400 flocks in 338 laying-hen farms. Salmonella was identified in 20·7% of the farms and 19·5% of the flocks. The prevalence of Salmonella was significantly higher in flocks reared in windowless houses than in those reared in open houses. In addition, the risk of Salmonella presence was significantly higher when the windowless house farms implemented induced moulting or in-line egg processing. Efforts to reduce human salmonellosis in Japan should continue to focus on the establishment of control measures in laying-hen farms, especially those with windowless houses implementing induced moulting and equipped with in-line egg processing.
YAHYA OULD HAMIDOUNE the Mauritanian mathematician 1948 – 11 March 2011
Authors: Plagne Alain
Published: August 2011

Yahya ould Hamidoune passed away in Paris on 11 March 2011 after a brief illness, leaving insufficient time for his friends and colleagues to express their indebtedness to him for his kindness and generosity, both in mathematics and in everyday life. Yahya was a discreet individual, always looking for the essential rather than the superficial, and certainly did not receive the recognition he deserved. May this modest testimony render justice to this singular man.
Household preferences for municipal water services in Nicaragua
Authors: Vásquez William F. , Franceschi Dina , Van Hecken Gert T.
Published: August 2011

Choice models and a referendum format contingent valuation survey are used to investigate household preferences for improved water services and decentralization levels (actual departmental administration vs. further decentralization to the municipality) in urban Matiguás, Nicaragua. Choice models suggest that households prefer the current departmental administration over municipal provision for service and capacity, but believe that the municipality would be more interested in improving services. Results also indicate that households are willing to pay an increment of at least 112 per cent above their current monthly water bill for reliable and safe drinking water services, regardless of administration type.
Is natural openness or trade policy good for the environment?
Authors: Yamarik Steven , Ghosh Sucharita
Published: August 2011

In this paper, we estimate the individual effects of natural openness and trade policy on air pollution. Natural openness is the component of the trade share (imports and exports as a percentage of GDP) attributable to population, geography and factor endowment differences. We find that natural openness reduces air pollution, while trade policy has a limited impact. The implication is that ‘natural’ geographic and endowment differences play a more important role than deliberate trade policy decisions in explaining the trade and environment link.
WHY JOIN A CURRENCY UNION? A NOTE ON THE IMPACT OF BELIEFS ON THE CHOICE OF MONETARY POLICY
Authors: Ravenna Federico
Published: August 2011

We argue that a fixed exchange rate can be an optimal choice even if a policy maker could commit to the first-best monetary policy whenever the private sector's beliefs reflect incomplete information about the policy maker's dependability. This model implies that joining a currency area may be optimal for its impact not on the behavior of the policy maker, but on the beliefs of the private sector. Monetary policies are evaluated using a new Keynesian model of a small open economy solved under imperfect policy credibility. We quantify the minimum distance between announced policy and the private sector's beliefs that is necessary for a peg to perform better than an independent monetary policy when the policy maker can commit to the first-best policy.
Using organizational economics to engage cultural key masters in creating change in forensic science administration to minimize bias and errors
Authors: COWAN EVERARD JAMES
Published: August 2011

The administration of the forensic science process falls into the hands of supervisors, local administrators, and prosecution attorneys and police agencies. In the current structure, the police and prosecution are the principal and the forensic scientists the agent. I identify changes that must be made in that relationship to eliminate biases and to determine the major obstacles that stand in the way of creating the necessary changes. I focus on the ‘middle managers’ – the supervisors and laboratory directors – as the cultural key masters. I recommend: mechanism design principles to enable laboratories to report to a board of directors, rather than the prosecutor and police; for the development of compensation plans for middle managers to build a culture of learning based on error tolerance rather than error punishment; and for the use of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to facilitate the identity changes of cultural key masters.
Surface Science Studies Relevant for Metal-catalyzed Biorefining Reactions
Authors: Will Medlin J.
Published: August 2011

The objective of this contribution is to review mechanistic surface science studies aimed at elucidating the unique features of heterogeneous catalysis in biorefining processes. The main objective of surface science studies is generally to develop a detailed understanding of surface reaction mechanisms using spectroscopic (and, increasingly, computational) techniques. The rationale for such investigations, which are typically conducted on model surfaces under very low pressures, is that detailed structure-property relations will enable design of improved catalysts. We begin by discussing recent contributions made to the understanding of more traditional, vapor-phase chemical reactions that do not involve high oxygen functionality in the reacting species. A few examples are provided to illustrate the utility of surface reaction mechanism development in the design of improved catalysts. We then discuss some of the key reaction processes involved in biorefining operations to frame more specific questions related to heterogeneous catalysis. This is followed by a description of some of the major tools used in surface science investigations as well as the advantages and limitations of the surface science approach.
Dilute Acid and Hydrothermal Pretreatment of Cellulosic Biomass
Authors: Tanjore Deepti , Shi Jian , Wyman Charles E.
Published: August 2011

Biomass pretreatment remains one of the most pressing challenges in terms of cost-effective production of biofuels. We present a short summary of pretreatments that re based on dilute acid and water. Water-only and dilute acid pretreatments can be effective in producing sugars from hemicellulose along with a solid residue enriched in cellulose that can be digested to glucose with high yields. Generally speaking, dilute acid is often favored because it realizes higher yields than water alone and produces mostly monomeric sugars, but water-only pretreatment can reduce the consequences of hydrolyzate conditioning to remove inhibitors, employ lower cost reaction vessels, and avoid the challenges of adding acid. The performance of water-only systems correlates well with the severity parameter, while the modified severity parameter is an effective tool in analyzing dilute acid performance. Kinetic models have also been applied to describe sugar release profiles from dilute acid pretreatments, with the parameters fit to match the data, but the models are not robust in terms of a’ priori predictions of performance. Feedstock features can have a significant effect on performance, with lignin amounts and makeup and mineral contents having potentially large effects. Economic studies clearly show that pretreatment is an expensive operation with pervasive impacts on the costs of other steps. Thus, although dilute acid and water-only pretreatments appear to be frontrunners currently, much more must be done to understand and advance pretreatment technologies to realize really low costs and high yields that are essential to production of commodity products.
Advances in Gasification for Biofuel Production
Authors: Shaddix Christopher R.
Published: August 2011

Of all of the conversion processes of biomass into fuels, the gasification process gives the widest breadth of potential products, ranging from gaseous fuels, such as hydrogen or syngas, to liquid fuels such as methanol, ethanol, dimethylether (DME), gasoline, or diesel. The gasification process is also one of the most flexible conversion processes in terms of acceptable feed material. The key ingredients of this fuel production route include the gasifier, where one or more oxidizing agents are reacted with the biomass feedstock at elevated temperatures in a fuel-rich environment, the syngas cleanup stage, where harmful contaminants of the gasifier product gas are removed or converted to acceptable chemical species, and the fuel synthesis step, where cleaned, compressed syngas is converted to liquid fuels by reacting over an appropriate catalyst. This chapter summarizes the current status and prospective areas for improvements in the biomass gasification process itself. The gasification process is a key component of a wide range of production routes for both gaseous and liquid biofuels. Improvements in the efficiency, capital effectiveness, and availability of the gasification process will have important impacts on the overall cost effectiveness of these thermochemical routes of biofuels production and may therefore play a significant role in the anticipated expansion of biofuels production in the future. The chapter begins with a discussion of the diverse range of biomass feedstocks appropriate for use in gasification processes and then progresses to the core topic∶ the current state-of-the-art in biomass gasification.
Natural Polymers: Introduction and Overview
Authors: Williams Peter A.
Published: August 2011

This chapter introduces the aim and scope of the book and presents an overview of the subject of natural polymers, mainly polysaccharides and proteins, but also microbial polyesters and nucleic acids. Details of the types, names and functions of individual polysaccharides and proteins are provided together with examples of their structural and physicochemical characteristics. It also highlights the main functional properties of these polymers including their rheological behavior, mechanisms of gelation, emulsification characteristics and film formation. The main applications of polysaccharides and proteins in medical and industrial sectors are also outlined with market size and trends.
Alginates: Existing and Potential Biotechnological and Medical Applications
Authors: Draget Kurt I. , Skjåk-Bræk Gudmund
Published: August 2011

The present chapter on alginates in biotechnology and medicine comprises a description of traditional uses where alginates have been used as devices in e.g. wound dressings, as well as an in-depth introduction to possible future applications. The latter area is based on new scientific information on the immunostimulating properties of certain alginate sequences, as well as on the popularity gained by the alginate as immobilization matrix for cells. The latter opens up the use of alginate encapsulated cells for specific cell transplantation provided that the properties of the capsules are properly understood and controlled.
Pectins: Production, Properties and Applications
Authors: Endress H.U.
Published: August 2011

This chapter presents a comprehensive treatise on pectins, namely heteropolysaccharides rich in galacturonic acid, their sources, production and applications as health food and related medical uses. It describes the main sources of raw materials including apple pomace, sugar beet pulp and citrus peels for industrial production of pectins, and their physical properties, molecular weight, viscosity, chemical stability and enzymic degradation. Then follows a systematic review of patent and open literature on the applications of pectin as health food and related medical uses, including its effects on cholesterol (and lipids generally), on glucose and insulin in diabetics, on digestive enzymes and hormones, on atherosclerosis, in weight management, on short bowel and gut syndromes, in acute intestinal infections, as antidote in metal poisoning, as soluble dietary fibers, on mutagens and pathogens (for possible reduction of cancer risks). It also highlights the use of pectins in skin care products, controlled and targeted drug delivery to the colon, and a wide range of related studies and claims.
Nucleic Acid Polymers and Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology
Authors: Holt Ian , N. Pham Y. Chan
Published: August 2011

This chapter presents a concise introduction to nucleic acid polymers and the general techniques and applications of recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) technology. It describes the chemical structure of DNA which consists of a backbone of repeating pentose sugar rings, bridged with phosphate groups and with one of four possible bases (bicyclic purines or monocyclic pyrimidines) covalently attached to each sugar. The location and properties of DNA are described including how the basic chemical sequence determines the amino acid structure of proteins. Methods described include the synthesis of oligonucleotides, the polymerase chain reaction and the cloning of genes, which may be introduced into a cell or organism so that identical copies of the foreign DNA are perpetuated in the host. The use of these technologies in research and in industries such as health and agriculture is highlighted. The first self-replicating bacterial cell with a totally synthetic DNA genome is described, with the expectation that the new era of “synthetic biology” will allow complete control over design of the genome and the subsequent traits of the resultant organism. Progress and innovation in DNA sequencing indicates that cheap, rapid and high quality sequencing of individual genomes is achievable. This information could be included in health records and form part of a personalised health care system. As sequencing techniques continues to progress, along with improved interpretation of the sequences, individual health records may consist of multiple personal genomes to reflect the “mosaicism” that may occur in different tissues and in different populations of cells.