bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Economic Crunch
Authors: MacFarquhar Roderick
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai's exposition of the economic burdens of his country at the Seven Thousand Cadres Conference. Zhou exposed three major problems, including China's parlous grain-supply situation, the relationship of that problem to the urban population, and the country's external liabilities. His gloomy outline of China's economic condition ensured that the most important immediate result of the conference was to unleash a flurry of activity among senior economic officials.
Mao Changes the Signals
Authors: MacFarquhar Roderick
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the reaction of Mao Zedong to the CCP Central Committee's circulation of a document seeking answers on agricultural policy, particular on the baochan daohu policy of dividing the fields down to the household. It suggests that Mao might have instantly realized upon reading the questionnaire that he could no longer rely upon the man he had placed in the post of General Secretary to ensure the loyalty of the party to himself. It contends that a reversal of opinion on baochan daohu would threaten Mao's whole vision of a collectivist China and had to be resisted. This chapter also discusses Liu Shaoqi's role on the baochan daohu issue.
Mao in Charge
Authors: MacFarquhar Roderick
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines Mao Zedong's reassertion of control over the main lines of foreign and domestic policy in the second half of 1962. During this period, Mao started to form an informal cabinet to assist him, an ad hoc coalition of trusted supporters like Kang Sheng, which would become a truly anti-party group when the Cultural Revolution was launched. The adoption of this extra-bureaucratic approach was based on the belief that the Communist Party's machinery was no longer loyal to Mao and that it no longer shared his vision.
The Socialist Education Movement
Authors: MacFarquhar Roderick
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines Mao Zedong's launch of the Social Education Movement (SEM) in China as a way to prevent revisionism. Under Mao's direction, the CCP stepped up its campaign to oppose revisionism abroad through the activities of Wu Xiuquan on his East European odyssey. Mao no longer saw the Soviet Union as the future China. The launch of the SEM would be the setting for Mao's decisive break with Liu Shaoqi.
The Coming of the Cataclysm
Authors: MacFarquhar Roderick
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the stages in the development of the Cultural Revolution in China. The first stage was set in May 1966 in Beijing where Mao Zedong was working behind the scenes. It was Kang Sheng's wife Cao Yiou who persuaded Peking University teachers to denounce university administrators, which started a series of demonstrations. This was followed by the public appearance of Mao in July 1966, his meeting with leftist leaders, and his decision in the eleventh Plenum to rule without restraint. A crucial tactical element in Mao's game plan was the differential treatment of Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping.
Howard Nemerov: Mimicry and other Tropes
Authors: Prunty Wyatt
Published: October 2011

When we mention mimicry we think “of” a thing imitated, but “of” is a middle term that both holds a thing off and holds it close. It may indicate a point or direction by which one reckons, a derivation, a cause, the constitutive material of a thing, belonging or possession, a separation, an object of some action, the place in time of a particular action. There is both overlap and distance created by the polynomial function that “of” introduces between a subject and its object, or between an object and its copy. The relationship between the contemporary poet who employs synaposematic mimicry and the object imitated involves all these meanings. The poet’s mimicry carries these meanings the way a primitive shepherd’s notched bone was used for reckoning his sheep or the way a Mesopotamian egg-shaped envelope with clay balls inside it was used for the same purpose. At first mimicry carries us through an ordinal sequence of particulars; taken in the aggregate, however, it becomes a cardinal summary that is both inclusive and separative. This chapter first takes Nemerov’s poems on their own terms, and then considers how by synaposematism and other modes of thought they investigate, separate, deflect, make safe, and generate wholeness.
‘Or’ in Opaque Contexts
Authors: Jennings R. E.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the conceptual orbitings of individuals corresponding to lists of noun phrases formed with ‘or’. We should resist the precept that a set-theoretic union must be contrived for every occurrence of ‘or’ in favour of some discourse-theoretical account that codifies the work that ‘or’ does in the punctuation of speech. A succession of sentences composed with ‘or’ is replaced by a succession of forms containing non-assertive occurrences of those sentences either composed with ‘and’ or as separate acts of speech. The discussion of the behaviour of ‘or’ may be taken up in intensional environments where Quine left the subject of the opacity of certain verbs. The degree of particularity of the intentions is reflected in the particularity with which the dative pronoun will permit existential generalization.
The Adverbial ‘Or’
Authors: Jennings R. E.
Published: October 2011

The last chapter shows the use of ‘or’ as an adverb. The discourse-adverbial view invites us rather to think of each clause as formulaically giving permission rather than asserting permissibility. Discourse adverbial uses of ‘or’ may be regarded as the most primitive uses. The invention of logic, or rather the many inventions of logic, for it has been invented many times, has always involved the suspension of some regularities governing the uses of ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘not’, ‘if, ‘possibly’, and so on in favor of others. Traditional grammar and its late offspring represent one possible way of describing and representing discourse, howsoever fragmentarily. Our understanding of discourse ought to be measured, not in our understanding of that isolated path, but in the multiplicity of other possible paths that we are also capable of recognizing.
Junction
Authors: Ayers Edward L.
Published: October 2011

The chapter discusses the state of the South in the 1880s just after the depression and the end of the Reconstruction era. Publications talk about a “New South”. The most prevalent occupation was working on the railroads but it was considered extraordinarily dangerous. The rail system can also be credited for the division of the country in to four time zones with the purpose of operating the system uniformly, efficiently, and safely. The chapter also discusses the economic condition of the freedpeople in the post-Reconstruction South. Cotton production was the prevalent occupation. This chapter also touches on the beginnings of segregation citing that the railroads became the scenes of the first statewide segregation laws throughout the South.
Trade, Ottoman Merchants, and Western Goods: Rise of the Commercial Bourgeoisie
Authors: Göçek Fatma Müge
Published: October 2011

The chapter studies the effects of the developing commerce with the Western world on the Ottoman social structure during the 18th and 19th centuries. Emerging as a principal social group to form social resources, Ottoman minority merchants challenged the sultan's control. The chapter analyzes the spread of Western goods and demonstrates how the urban populace increased their accumulation of these goods at the expense of officials and their households. A sample of the inheritance register of Ottoman officials, military, and populace in this chapter reveals a difference in their tendency to own Western goods at the time of their death. While the tendency of officials and military did not change throughout the 18th century, the tendency of the urban populace increased greatly. The data signify how the social group of Ottoman religious minorities entered the protection of Western powers and formed an independent economic resource—the Ottoman commercial bourgeoisie.
Conclusion: The Emergence of a Bifurcated Ottoman Bourgeoisie
Authors: Göçek Fatma Müge
Published: October 2011

The demise of the Ottoman empire was due to internal and external factors and the emergence of a bifurcated bourgeoisie. The empire had changed to office-households that developed their own power bases and challenged the sultan's control. To arrest this, the sultan introduced a Western-style educational system to train a new corps of officials that would be loyal to him. Due to the Western-style education and their Enlightenment ideas these officials formed a group against the sultan. The Ottoman bureaucratic bourgeoisie created social networks, acquired Western scientific expertise, and formed social resources that the sultan was unable to wrest away from them. The Ottoman commercial bourgeoisie increased trade with the West and forged Western political protection to extract economic resources away from the sultan. Finally, the book argues that had the Ottoman bureaucratic bourgeoisie not become nationalistic and eliminated the minority commercial bourgeoisie, then Turkey might today find itself closer to the center of the world order.
The Police des Noirs, 1776–1777
Authors: Peabody Sue
Published: October 2011

Louis XVI issued the third and final major piece of legislation regulating the entry of black subjects to the kingdom of France on August 9, 1777, known as the Police des Noirs. This royal declaration varied considerably from the Edict of October 1716 and the Declaration of December 15, 1738, since this prescribed actions based on skin color alone, rather than the slave status. The Police des Noirs was also registered by the Parlement of Paris. Minister of the Marine Sartine intentionally advocated the use of racial language as a way to avoid the parlement's opposition to legislation with the word slave. The Police des Noirs was prompted by court cases in which slaves sued for their freedom.
Scotto and Gardano: Marketing a Musical Repertory
Authors: Bernstein Jane A.
Published: October 2011

The musical repertory printed by Scotto and Gardano not only expressed the catholic taste of cosmopolitan Venice, but also reflected the interests of a wide-ranging international audience. The Italian madrigal, as might be expected, dominated the output of both printers. Like their respective repertories, Gardano and Scotto appear, on the surface, to have paralleled each other in their publishing careers: they were almost exact contemporaries; both lived in Venice and both produced an impressive output of over 400 music publications. Yet despite these obvious similarities, many differences set these two great music publishers apart from each other.
The Early Years (1538–1553)
Authors: Bernstein Jane A.
Published: October 2011

The 1540s must have been a heady time for the two Venetian music presses. Practically overnight the single-impression method of music typography transformed the Venetian music-printing industry into an international enterprise. The size and type of repertory issued by Scotto and Gardano increased dramatically as the decade progressed. During their first years of operation, the two firms turned out about twenty music editions per year, representing about four times the total output of the Venetian printers from the preceding decade, and nearly ten times the number of editions Petrucci issued at the beginning of the century. In order to keep up production, Scotto and Gardano had to implement a variety of schemes in the marketing of their music books.
Toward a Theory of Disproportionate American Jewish Liberalism
Authors: Levey Geoffrey Brahm
Published: October 2011

Jews have risen to become one of the best-educated and most economically secure ethno-religious groups in the United States. Some of the existing theories explain why American Jews are, or have been, liberal; others help explain variance among American Jews in the degree of their liberalism. This chapter seeks to advance a new approach to explaining the disproportionate liberalism of Jews in America. Specifically, it rejects the standard assumption that American Jews are predisposed by their experience among non-Jews in wider society—whether considered in terms of marginality, minority status, or political interests—to be especially politically liberal. The central argument advanced here is that the pronounced liberalism of American Jews is best understood in terms of dynamics and tensions in their relation to the Jewish community as a religious body politic rather than in their relations with non-Jews or with non-Jewish society.
The Impact of the Women's Movement on American Jewish Life: An Overview After Twenty Years
Authors: Lipstadt Deborah E.
Published: October 2011

Jewish feminism began to take shape in America in the late 1960s when Jewish women began to examine critically both their status within the Jewish tradition and the political and social structure of the Jewish community. Some Jewish women, particularly those who were active in the feminist movement and who often did not have a strong Jewish communal attachment, attacked the cultural and social norms that they believed had shaped them. Among women who were active in Jewish communal affairs, there was a similar feeling that all was not right regarding the distribution of power in the Jewish communal world. These women demanded credit for the work they had already done and greater access to decision-making. At the same time, other women addressed the Jewish religious tradition, focusing their energies on winning women a greater role in traditional Jewish life.
Psychological and Symbolical Theories of Magic
Authors: Glucklich Ariel
Published: October 2011

Illness is a cultural concept that travels poorly across boundaries. Even simple notions such as moodiness and depression, not to mention complex ideas like schizophrenia or paranoia, are bonded to our Western views on the self and the person, on material causality, and on the nature of scientific explanation. Possession and exorcism lend themselves too easily to psychological interpretation. Sigmund Freud had a different kind of magical rite in mind when he reduced magic to infantile neurosis. Freud argued that primitive people possessed an immense belief in the power of their own wishes. Carl Jung claimed that magic brings together the psyche and sacred realities, but did not refer to supernatural revelation in a theological sense. The sacred, he argued, consists of the forms of the collective unconscious with its psychic archetypes. Jung asserted that God is one such archetype of the collective unconscious, and so are Christ and Buddha. As archetypes that surfaced in human history, they have become symbols for the integration of the self with the sacred.
Introduction
Authors: Stowasser Barbara Freyer
Published: October 2011

The insights gathered on this exploration are a clearer understanding that the Qur'anic stories about the women of the sacred past are Islamic as to nature, setting, theological doctrine, moral teaching, and the like. These Qur'anic narratives belong strongly to their particular Qur'anic context; they “tell themselves and bear a larger cosmic message at the same time.” Research on the narratives' development offered a clearer picture of the historical significance in Bible-related traditions to Islamic commentary. The texts proved an important point of the debate on sociopolitical questions since religious philosophers past and present aim to apply Qur'an women narratives in these terms.
The Women of Noah, Lot, and Abraham
Authors: Stowasser Barbara Freyer
Published: October 2011

In scripture, as well as in interpretation, Noah's and Lot's wives are proofs of rebelliousness against God and His chosen one. They acted falsely toward their husbands, both servants of God; these prophets, then did not help them in the final judgment before God, and these two sinners were punished in hell. The central theme of Sura 66 is the female rebellion in a prophet's household and its corresponding punishment. The first five verses of Sura 66 pertain to a particular crisis in the Prophet Muhammad's household. Verses 6 and 7 of Sura 66 speak of the punishment of hell, a warning to the believers and ordained requital for those non-believers.
The Chapter of Mary
Authors: Stowasser Barbara Freyer
Published: October 2011

The image of Mary, mother of Jesus, appears very large in Qur'anic scripture, scriptural exegesis, and popular Muslim piety. In the Qur'an, Mary is the only woman identified by the name, and her name appears more frequently in the Qur'anic text than in the New Testament. Her name is also the title of Qur'anic Sura (Sura 19). From birth she was surrounded by miracles of divine favor. She received the angelic annunciation of a child from God's spirit, whose name was Christ Jesus, chosen to be one of God's righteous prophets. And the Qur'anic revelation cites Mary as “an example for the believers” because of her chastity, faith, and obedience.
Evidence for a Final Redaction
Authors: Trobisch David
Published: October 2011

As the final redaction of the New Testament was never introduced, an impression exists that the New Testament never underwent such editing. The author first clarifies the term canonical edition to pertain to how this edition is identified by the history of its reception or how a certain community has construed the book for better understanding, and the term final redaction to refer to the anthologies involved in its modifications. Textual and nontextual elements that imply the occurrence of a final redaction can be identified by their dates, unifying functions, and consistent editorial structures. Such evidence can be seen through nomina sacra or sacred names, the use of codices, and the arrangement and number of writings, and the titles seen in the five documents illustrated in this chapter.
The Editorial Concept
Authors: Trobisch David
Published: October 2011

An anthology's final redaction would always indicate a particular editorial concept. Editors would want the readers to reflect on the particular clues provided within a redactional structure, although the meanings construed may or may not be fixed within the traditional material. As each book of the New Testament entails a title and information about the author, in this chapter the author attempts to illustrate the Canonical Edition's editorial concept through using the following perspectives: examining redaction signals from the reader's viewpoint, analysing the macrostructure used to serve as a guide to the readers, and through looking into the perspective of the traditional material. Also, the chapter also takes on what is meant by the “New Testament” and how this possesses both combining and distinguishing functions.
Outlook
Authors: Trobisch David
Published: October 2011

Because making modifications to the original texts of the New Testament was not thought of as something unethical, there is a chance that the New Testament we are familiar with today does not possess the same wordings as the Greek manuscripts. More importance, however, is given to the other features of the Canonical Edition than to the exact text wordings. While these features can be observed in new printed editions of the bible, modern contextual criticism is employed to come up with an edition that signifies the editio princeps of the Canonical Edition. As the author believes that the original intent of the texts should be considered for the redactional design, he suggests that several changes, like the ones discussed in this chapter, be integrated in modern versions of the Christian Bible.
Interlude
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

Shortly after meeting George Schuyler Josephine visited her family to celebrate Christmas with them. The family's Negro servants, who had influenced Josephine's development intensely, were also there. Josephine felt tormented throughout the holiday season because she sensed the tremendous risk she would be taking by marrying a Negro. She could see that marrying George would result in the separation of the bond she had with her family, disinheritance, and isolation. Yet her passion and love for George won out and she decided to marry him.
All-American Newsreel
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

This chapter talks about the genius of Philippa, well-known at a very young age as the “three-year-old colored kid in Harlem”, because at her age she could already read, write, and spell words. Lincoln Barnett had also written an article for the New York Herald Tribune about how intelligent she was. In 1934, Philippa was first introduced to the typewriter and then the piano and she would spend hours playing melodies and scales on one keyboard, then typing poems and short stories on the typewriter. Philippa made the news in 1935 for being the youngest American to spell the biggest and longest word in the English language, the word pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis. NYU tested Philippa's EQ and IQ and the results were 200 and 179 to 185, respectively proving her gift. At the age of four and ten months Philippa took part in her first musical competition and she was one of the seven winners.
Godowski, Et Al.
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

Philippa began her singing and composition classes during the summer of 1937 at the Covenant School, at this time she also had her first normal interaction with other children her own age. She also attended Durlach and Emerson, a school for gifted children, for several afternoons from the first quarter of 1938. But when Philippa turned seven, the law required her to enrol in education full time, Josephine and George let her decide on which school she preferred to go to and she chose the Convent's Annunciation School. However, her musical education was somehow problematic, because Josephine constantly wanted the best for her daughter, thus making almost everyone out to be not qualified for her standards. And in early July, she received an invitation from the legendary Leopold Godowski, asking for Philippa to play for him. But the visit was a disaster when Josephine scolded Philippa, who refused to stop playing when Godowski's lawyer arrived.
Scrapbooks
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

After her 13th birthday, all the fourteen scrapbooks faithfully kept by her parents were shown to Philippa making her to be aware that she was treated like a puppet, a manipulated human being. Her parents collected not only clippings and letters but also page after page of notes, clinical and philosophical, tracing her development. The books revealed the story of a brave genetic and behavioural experiment, designed to create an extraordinary child. Some of it was of course known to Philippa, since many reports and reviews were being published about her. All this made her realize to what extent her existence had been manipulated. Her musical career also acquired a different meaning, before she used to enjoy every time she could play for others, but after reading the scrapbooks, she felt a heavy responsibility with each performance. Philippa was also haunted during her sleep, having a recurrent nightmare about committing suicide.
The Lion of Judah
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

During the autumn of 1955, at the age of twenty-four, Phillippa went to the African continent for the first time. ANTA had also agreed to sponsor her concerts in Cairo and Addis Ababa, where she performed for the Lion of Judah, Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia. During these commitments, her mother organized for her another European tour. In early October, in a decidedly captious mood, Philippa left for Europe stopping in Iceland, where she gave three concerts. Philippa continued traveling in Europe, recording solo recitals for radio in Hamburg, Munich, and Frankfurt then she went on to Brussels. She also performed solo recitals in the Netherlands and Germany to much success, however, Egypt had been a disappointment.
Tour du Monde
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

During the summer and fall of 1958, Philippa had lots of engagements, but most of her time was spent preparing for her first around-the-world tour. She had performed on four continents, but she had never circled the globe for consecutive engagements. The journey began in December 1958 and finished at the end of March 1959, covering over forty thousand miles. Philippa was fascinated by the Orient but the next stage of her journey exemplified the pressures and hardships she had to bear so often. Philippa stayed in Elisabethville only forty-eight hours and then she travelled to the Belgian Congo and later on to French Brazzaville. Then her last stop was again on the continent of Africa.
“Je meure pour un homme”
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

Life without a man bothered Philippa deeply, but she refused to admit that it did often saying to newspaper reporters that she found young men very jealous of her music and citing that she was single since as a concert pianist she had to spend much time on tour. On the contrary, Philippa was desperate to marry because she was already twenty-seven and she was particularly interested in Andre Gascht. Convinced that she wanted to settle in Europe and marry a European, she wanted to spend some time with her friends in Belgium, Holland, and France but her mother greatly opposed such a trip. But in the year 1960, Philippa was emotionally devastated when she and Andre broke up. Ironically, this was also one of her most productive years.
L'Affaire Raymond
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

After her concert in Freiburg, Philippa was paid in cash and it had been too late to convert the cash into a traveller's check. A man watched her while she was paying for a glass of milk she ordered in one restaurant and continued to stalk her when she left. While changing trains in Frankfurt on her way back to Rome, Philippa was robbed. The only person who came to her aid was a good looking young Frenchman by the name of Maurice Raymond, who lived in Lyons and was a chemical engineering graduate. It was a fast-paced romance, and although Philippa had known Maurice for less than four months, she decided to marry him. But during the day itself, Philippa and Raymond encountered some problems leading to Philippa filing a case against him.
Dennis Gray Stoll
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

Distressed by the Raymond affair, Philippa's practicing turned erratic, resulting in mediocre reviews for her performance at her fourth Town Hall concert. However, as her musical creativity was reborn, she worked on her African Rhapsody, and began performing a piano concerto entitled Nile Fantasy, commissioned five years earlier by the United Arab Republic government. Late in that year, Philippa flew to London for a few days and on her second night there she was invited to an informal cocktail party and there she met Dennis Gray Stoll, who was amazed with Philippa's performance. Dennis, who was in his fifties and educated at Cambridge, invited Philippa to have tea with him the following day. They saw each other a great deal during the next few weeks but she was still lacerated by the Raymond experience. They both referred to their relationship as a “partnership”.
Sic Transit
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

By 1966, the Felipa Monterro sham had run its course, proven an unsuccessful gambit into the white classical-music milieu of America, and her relationship with Dennis also came to an end. Philippa's tour of Africa was for the most part difficult because she was caught in the crossfire of three coups, in Nigeria, Ghana, and Dahomey. Philippa flew to North Carolina for a concert the following afternoon. In the spring of 1966, Philippa was invited by Henry Cabot Lodge and by the U.S. ambassador to perform for wounded soldiers in South Vietnam. Since she had never visited Vietnam before, she took the invitation and William Loeb engaged her as his paper's foreign correspondent.
Semantical Underdeterminacy
Authors: Atlas Jay David
Published: October 2011

Dogma refers to the notion of how language is divided into two categories: one that is figurative or literary and that is widely used metaphorically, and the other concerns standard or ordinary language which is taken to refer to things literally. Dogma plays no small part in the study of literary style in the twentieth century and in studies of the philosophy of language. The fact that this notion is believed to have not been established with a reliable basis entails two effects — a revision of Fregean semantics that veers away from the idea that meaning determines reference and that literal meaning is definite, and the dissolution of the distinction between the linguistic life and linguistic art. This chapter focuses on the distinctions between the different functions of language and how these were systematically imposed during the period between the 1920s and the 1930s.
The Post-Gricean Theory of Presupposition
Authors: ATLAS JAY DAVID
Published: October 2011

While this chapter attempts to explain the construction of one kind of post-Gricean presupposition pragmatic theory, it also looks into the possible substantive problems that may be encountered regarding issues on presupposition. In doing so, the author focuses on one type of post-Gricean theory of pragmatism and extracts the aspects of entailment and generalized conversational inferenda from the notion of presupposition. Also, the author attempts to explore Grice's endeavor to come up with the same reduction through making use not of the notion of semantical nonspecificity but of the notion of ambiguity. Lastly, the author discusses his belief that Stalnaker and Grice altered the use of the concept of common ground, and that “accommodation” may pave the way for the reconstruction of theories that concern presupposition.
Assertibility Conditions, Implicature, and the Question of Semantic Holism
Authors: Atlas Jay David
Published: October 2011

Robert Graves and Alan Hodge, in their work called The Reader over Your Shoulder: A Handbook for Writers of English Prose, state that one of the illustrated Principles of Clear Statement involves how doubt should not exist regarding issues of how long and how much. As such, Graves and Hodge were able to give their opinions about the use of almost and not quite. The use of these two words not only entails the importance of some logical ordering, but also points out that there are certain degrees of success that can be comparable and are utilized on understanding the notion of approximation. This chapter examines the use of conjunctions in the context of contradiction, and includes a discussion about “post-Gricean pragmatics.”
Motivation
Authors: Lehmann Andreas C. , Sloboda John A. , Woody Robert H.
Published: October 2011

This chapter tackles motivation and its crucial role in the development and improvement of musical skills. The manifestations of motivation are treated as behaviors, and its sources are identified and classified as either intrinsic or extrinsic. The chapter also presents the results of research on the topic. First, it is found that music is intrinsically motivating and that the support of parents and mentors are vital in generating and sustaining this motivation. The next point revealed is that a musician's social standing among his peers, coupled with his own self-perceptions of ability and success, help to strengthen his commitment to the art. Lastly, motivation in music is linked to the musician's own reaction towards challenges. Musicians who aim for mastery in their field have been found to exert all necessary efforts in achieving this end result, which allows them to enjoy otherwise repetitive and tedious practice activities.
Expression and Interpretation
Authors: Lehmann Andreas C. , Sloboda John A. , Woody Robert H.
Published: October 2011

This chapter applies science to unravel the seemingly indefinable elements of nuance, expression, and interpretation in music. Nuance is first defined as a subset of expression and is the manipulation of sound parameters to create music that sounds alive rather than flat and mechanical. Scientific research reveals that the majority of expressive behavior is governed by simple rules that convey both structural and emotional information. The unique power of musical expression is then found to be rooted in instinctive brain mechanisms and is able to engage experiences of anticipation and surprise among listeners. Interpretations—though capable of being reliably reproduced through learning and preparation—are also subject to improvement and improvisation and are dependent on the musician's own unique history and personality. The last section presents the impact of technology—through computers and powerful software like the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface—in analyzing musical performance.
The Performer
Authors: Lehmann Andreas C. , Sloboda John A. , Woody Robert H.
Published: October 2011

This chapter augments the musical skills identified in the previous chapters—which are individual and personal—and provides insights into how a musician can become a more accomplished performer, especially in a group setting. It presents several often overlooked points in being a performer. First, the performer's physical appearance and behavior on stage has an impact on how the audience perceives and hears the musical performance. Second, a musician's gestures and body language during the performance can be effective communication tools that cue the audience to the performer's emotional intent. Third, the success of an ensemble performance depends on the group dynamics and the collaborative problem-solving abilities of the individual members. Fourth, group performance involves a special set of musical skills which have to be learned. The last point reiterates that a musician's enjoyment and fulfillment is closely tied to his ability to manage the inherent stresses involved.
The Listener
Authors: Lehmann Andreas C. , Sloboda John A. , Woody Robert H.
Published: October 2011

The third musical role, the listener, is discussed in this chapter. The opening section describes the physiological aspect of listening and reveals it to be a complicated process that transforms acoustical stimuli into images or notions that can be experienced. This musical experience is then shown to be influenced by various factors which exhibit the inherent malleability of a person's internal representation of music. Composers and musicians enable listeners to experience music emotionally through the use of musical structures that are recognized and understood by them. Another section discusses the skills of judging and critiquing music, which are shown to be difficult to acquire and easily disrupted. Throughout the chapter, several musical phenomena, including hearing color, having a tune “stuck in the head,” and the recall of biographically important songs, are explained though the sciences of physiology and psychology.
The User
Authors: Lehmann Andreas C. , Sloboda John A. , Woody Robert H.
Published: October 2011

This, the last chapter, discusses the fourth musical role, that of the user. Two related approaches to music and musical experiences are then discussed. The traditional “work-focused” approach considers a musical composition as independent of performance and context. On the other hand, the “person-based” approach asserts that music cannot be divorced from its social and human context. Another section discusses the idea of cultural needs being the driver of musical development and provides examples throughout history. Several uses and functions of music are then identified and discussed, which can be divided into social, cultural, and individualistic. The succeeding sections contrast classical music settings with other less traditional modes through the distinct roles of the performer and the traditional listener, the “ideal” setting and accessories, and the technical perfection and adherence to the composer's intent. The last part of the chapter presents the implications of cultural change and movement for the classical performer.
Ecological Intelligence
Authors: Gigerenzer Gerd
Published: October 2011

Human color vision is adapted to the spectral properties of natural sunlight. More generally, the perceptual system has been shaped by the environment in which human ancestors evolved, the environment often referred to as the “environment of evolutionary adaptiveness”, or EEA. This chapter proposes that human reasoning processes, like those of color constancy, are designed for information that comes in a format that was present in the EEA. It focuses on a class of inductive reasoning processes technically known as Bayesian inference, specifically a simple version thereof in which an organism infers from one or a few indicators which of two events is true.
The Modularity of Social Intelligence
Authors: Gigerenzer Gerd
Published: October 2011

The social intelligence hypothesis is both stimulating and vague. It is stimulating because it reminds one that whenever psychologists study intelligence and learning in humans or animals, it is almost invariably about inanimate objects: symbols, sticks, and bananas. It is vague because the nature of the intelligence it invokes is largely unclear, and as a consequence, the mechanisms of social intelligence have not yet been specified. The modular version of the social intelligence hypothesis proposed here assumes that social intelligences come in the plural, as do nonsocial intelligences. The notion of modularity is the thesis that social intelligence is modular is motivated by two reasons: the shortsightedness of natural selection and the combinatorial explosion of intelligent systems. Natural selection works without a big plan but results in specific adaptations accumulated over generations.
Surrogates for Theories
Authors: Gigerenzer Gerd
Published: October 2011

The most important thing is to define candidate hypotheses before starting the business of hypothesis testing. Null hypothesis testing encourages theoretical laziness. To use it, one does not need to specify one's research hypothesis or a substantive alternative except “chance”. This scant requirement allows surrogates for theories to grow like weeds. This chapter addresses two questions: What are the surrogates for theory in psychology? And what institutional forces perpetuate reliance on these surrogates? The examples used are drawn from the best work in the areas discussed: the psychology of reasoning, judgment, and decision making.
A Random Order Placement Model of Price Formation in the Continuous Double Auction
Authors: Farmer J. Doyne , Gillemot László , Iori Giulia , Krishnamurthy Supriya , Smith D. Eric , Daniels Marcus G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the development of a model of a double auction trading mechanism in which “zero intelligence” agents interact in order to see what sorts of price and trading patterns emerge; interestingly, patterns appear to be empirically sensible. A microscopic dynamical statistical model is used for the continuous double auction under the assumption of IDD random order flow. The analysis is based on simulation, dimensional analysis, and theoretical tools based on mean-field approximations. The model makes testable predictions for all the basic properties of markets, including price volatility, the depth of stored supply and demand, the bid-ask spread, the price impact function, and the time and probability of filling orders. In most cases, the order size, which can be cast as a nondimensional granularity parameter, is a more significant determinant of market behavior than tick size.
Reappropriating H. Richard Niebuhr's
Authors: Stackhouse John G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines H. Richard Niebuhr's Christ and Culture in the context of how Jesus Christ could relate to society and culture. It suggests that Niebuhr's book can help the reader to see that different aspects of the same culture can prompt different stances by different Christians. It also recommends a kind of hybrid types IV and V of Niebuhr's odd type IV, which is the “Christ in paradox with culture”.
C. S. Lewis
Authors: Stackhouse John G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines author and theologian C. S. Lewis' thoughts on the relation between Jesus Christ and society. It discusses insights from Lewis' preaching and highlights key aspects of his practice or life choices. It analyzes Lewis' encoding of so many of his values in his imaginative fiction and explores his parables to confirm the main lessons that can be learned from his works. It also discusses a picture of social harmony in his The Chronicles of Narnia.
Reinhold Niebuhr
Authors: Stackhouse John G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines American theologian Reinhold Niebuhr on Christian realism. Analyses of Niebuhr's works suggest that he offered almost no reflection on how the church as an institution could best involved itself in public life. Niebuhr's lack of attention to the church was at least partly a function of his liberalism in that “his God did not act in history”. God's action in the Biblical narratives and even the career of Jesus Christ was not clear in Niebuhr's writing in regard to what can be called its historical faculty.
Dietrich Bonhoeffer
Authors: Stackhouse John G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the thoughts and views of German theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer on the role of Jesus Christ and the Church in society. Bonhoeffer maintained that he and his fellow Christians must not only focus on resolving the current crisis and alleviating their current distress but they must also build for the future on behalf of those who would succeed them. Though he retained the emphasis upon discipleship from his earlier writings, he has also moved beyond the model discipleship as simple obedience to Christ's commandments he advocates particularly in Discipleship.
Piety, Penitence, and Praise: The Dresden Textual Repertoire
Authors: Frandsen Mary E.
Published: October 2011

The previous discussion of Johann Georg's strongly suspected leanings toward Rome leads quite naturally into an examination of the texts of the musical repertoire presented in the court chapel under his watch, for the musical settings of the sacred concertos and motets that he established as part of his liturgies offered the greatest potential for the introduction of Catholic dogma into the Lutheran Gottesdienst. Most of the extra-liturgical compositions of Johann Georg's Catholic Kapellmeisters involved free (nonscriptural, nonliturgical) Latin texts that displayed striking differences from the texts of the Spruchmotetten and scripture-based sacred concertos composed by Schütz and other Lutheran composers of his generation. Instead, these texts were now very similar in style and content to those regularly performed during Masses in Italy. Yet the introduction of these texts did not result in a musical repertoire that stood in contravention of Lutheran doctrine. On the contrary: the vast majority of the texts set by these Catholics posed no challenges to that doctrine, and, perhaps more important, were fully consonant with the body of devotional literature developed by and for Lutherans from the middle of the previous century. Thus, regardless of their origins, many of the ideas expressed in these texts can be located securely within seventeenth-century Lutheran thought.
Johann Georg’s Vision for Worship
Authors: Frandsen Mary E.
Published: October 2011

Virtually upon taking his seat at the Saxon helm, Johann Georg II initiated a program of musico-liturgical reform that would take six years to bring to full fruition, and which would culminate in his Kirchen-Ordnung (“church order”), the codification of both the schedule of feasts and liturgical forms that would remain in use in the chapel until his death in 1680. His program of reform, which was doubtless undertaken in consultation with court preacher Jacob Weller, advanced in three basic stages: the establishment of the number and nature of services to be celebrated on feast days throughout the liturgical year; the musical enhancement of the various liturgies; and finally, the promulgation of his Kirchen-Ordnung and its realization in the chapel liturgies.
Two Problems about Human Agency
Authors: Bratman Michael E.
Published: October 2011

This chapter distinguishes agential authority from subjective normative authority, argues that a theory of strong forms of human agency needs to provide a coordinated treatment of both, and explains how an appeal to higher-order self-governing policies aims to do this. A basic role of self-governing policies is to support the cross-temporal organization of the deliberation and action of temporally persisting agents like us. A recognition of such policies, and of their role in the temporally extended structure of agency, is a key to a plausible account of kinds of agency and deliberation central to our lives. This chapter explores how one can be led to these ideas by reflection on two interrelated problems in the philosophy of action, and on recent work on these problems by Harry G. Frankfurt and Christine Korsgaard. The first problem concerns deliberation while the second deals with the metaphysics of agency.
Nozick on Free Will
Authors: Bratman Michael E.
Published: October 2011

The idea of a reflexive self-governing policy that can be underdetermined by value judgment, and that plays a role in Lockean identity, is similar in important respects to Robert Nozick's idea of a “self-subsuming decision that bestows weights to reasons.” Nozick develops this idea in his work, Philosophical Explanations, in which he explores some of the deepest issues in philosophy. Nozick examines fundamental questions about, among other things, personal identity, knowledge, free will, value, and the meaning of life. This chapter comments on Nozick's discussion of free will and incompatibilism. The Appendix argues that there remains a serious issue, within Nozick's discussion, about how to explain agential authority and about the precise philosophical work that can be done by appeal to the very idea of a decision.
A Desire of One's Own
Authors: Bratman Michael E.
Published: October 2011

In his 1971 article, “Freedom of the Will and the Concept of a Person,” Harry G. Frankfurt pointed to a deep problem in the philosophy of action and sketched an attractive proposal for a solution. The problem arises when we take seriously the idea that you can sometimes have and be moved by desires that you in some sense disown. As Frankfurt put it, though you do what you want you do not act of your own free will. What we have learned from Frankfurt is that our response to this problem has significant implications for our overall view of human agency and autonomy. This chapter addresses a Platonic challenge to a Frankfurt-type hierarchical theory of desire ownership and identification. It aims to block this challenge by emphasizing important ways in which identification may be underdetermined by value judgment.
Autonomy and Hierarchy
Authors: Bratman Michael E.
Published: October 2011

This chapter explores multiple philosophical pressures in the direction of conative hierarchy as an element in autonomous agency. A central idea is that there is, in autonomy, a certain transparency of relevant psychological functioning of self-governing policies to their content. So the self-management function of self-governing policies leads to a hierarchical content of those policies. This might seem in tension with the idea that it is the role of self-governing policies in Lockean cross-temporal organization—not a content that is explicitly about one's identity—that is central to their agential authority. But this tension is only apparent. Even in a case of autonomy in which its own role in Lockean identity is internalized in the content of the self-governing policy, it is not this content but this role that grounds the agential authority of that policy (though this content may contribute to this role). And an attitude whose content was a self-conception, but which did not play this role, would not have agential authority.