bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Symbolic Battleground: The Culture of Modernization in 1940s León, Guanajuato
Authors: Newcomer Daniel
Published: February 2004

The idea of modernization influenced a reconciliation between advocates of the revolutionary state and its conservative opponents in 1940s León, Guanajuato. Proponents of the Revolution demonstrated the transforming power of the state by advocating projects that expressed modernity. PRM supporters instituted an extensive program of construction that stripped the city of its local orientation, religious iconography, and of its status as the symbolic capital of Catholic Mexico. The eventual endorsement of the modernization ideal by conservatives allowed an ideological, economic, political, and cultural reconciliation between themselves and the PRM that contributed to the longevity of the postrevolutionary government.

En León Guanajuato, la modernización jugó un importante papel en la reconciliación entre los defensores del estado revolucionario y los de la oposición conservadora. Los partidarios de la Revolución sustentaron la capacidad transformativa del Estado mediante proyectos de infraestructura que dejaban claro la modernidad revolucionaria. Adherentes del PRM pusieron en marcha una série de obras públicas que transformaron una ciudad, que otrora, había fungido como el centro del catolicismo mexicano. Igualmente, estos proyectos obfuscaron la iconografía religosa de la ciudad y cambiaron su orientación regional. Al apoyar y sancionar la obra modernizadora de la Revolución hicierion posible una reconciliación ideológica, económica, política, y cultural entre las facciones opuestas, hecho que conllevo a la longevidad del régimen posrevolucionario.
La casada imperfecta: A Woman, A Print, and the Inquisition
Authors: Donahue-Wallace Kelly
Published: February 2004

The article considers the 1767 Mexican Inquisition investigation of Manuela de Candia, who commissioned a seemingly seditious engraving of Saint Josaphat bearing an inscription critical of the recent Jesuit expulsion from Spain and its territories. The article examines Candia's actions as art patron and the inquisitorial response within the discourse of gender that informed colonial culture. The paper reaches the conclusion that she turned to the print in order to exceed the "enclosures" that were supposed to confine Mexican women as recommended in the widely read manual of female behavior, Fray Luis de León's,La perfecta casada (Madrid, 1583).

El artículo presenta un proceso inquisitorial de 1767 contra Manuela de Candia, una novohispana responsable por un grabado sedicioso de San Josafat con una inscripción referente a la reciente expulsión de los Jesuitas de España y sus territorios. Examina las acciones de Candia como patrona de artistas y la respuesta de la Inquisición dentro del discurso de género en la cultura virreinal. La autora concluye que Candia usó al grabado para sobrepasar las "clausuras" que contenían a las novohispanas según las recomendaciones del popular manual de feminidad, La perfecta casada de Fray Luis de León (Madrid, 1583).
Tlatelolco 1968: Paz and Poniatowska on Law and Violence
Authors: Sorensen Diana
Published: February 2004

Examination of two texts generated by the student massacre at the Plaza de Tlatelolco in 1968: Postdata by Octavio Paz, and La noche de Tlatelolco by Elena Poniatowska. Paz's totalizing vision interprets the events as providing answers to the questions about the nation posed in El laberinto de la soledad, and he insists on the need to rewrite Mexico's history under the aegis of a new genealogy. Poniatowska's book, instead, is ruled by fragmentation and plurality, to convey the often dissonant voices of civil society. The analysis scrutinizes literary form as it is made to represent relations between violence, justice and aesthetics.

Examen de dos textos generados por la masacre estudiantil de la Plaza de Tlatelolco en 1968: Postdata de Octavio Paz y La noche de Tlatelolco de Elena Ponioatowska. La visión totalizadora de Paz interpreta el evento como proveedor de respuestas a las cuestiones planteadas acerca de la nación en El laberinto de la soledad, e insiste en la necesidad de reescribir la historia de México bajo el eje de una nueva genealogía. El libro de Poniatowska, en cambio, se rige por la fragmentación y la pluralidad, para transmitir las frecuentes voces disonantes de la sociedad civil. El análisis examina los modos en que la forma literaria representa relaciones entre la violencia, la justicia y la estética.
The Revolution is Dead.¡Viva la revolución!: The Place of the Mexican Revolution in the Era of Globalization
Authors: Gawronski Vincent T.
Published: February 2004

Mexicans have long cherished their revolutionary heritage, but where does the Mexican Revolution now reside in collective memory, and does the idea of the Revolution still have any legitimating power? And what has been the relationship between the PRI's long sequence of legitimacy crises and the Mexican Revolution? Until procedural democracy provides significant substantive and psychological benefits, the recent democratic turn will not fully supplant Mexico's traditional sources of legitimacy.While Mexicans generally see the regime as falling short in achieving the basic goals of the Mexican Revolution, there are indications that the Revolution—understood as collective memory, myth, history, and national identity—still holds a place in political discourse and rhetoric, even if such understandings make little logical sense in the era of globalization.

Los mexicanos han tenido un largo cariño por su herencia revolucionaria, pero ¿dónde reside ahora la Revolución mexicana en la memoria colectiva?, ¿todavía tiene poder legitimador la idea de la Revolución? ¿Y cuál ha sido el vínculo entre la secuencia larga de las crisis de legitimidad del PRI y la Revolución Mexicana? Hasta que la democracia procesal proporcione ventajas substantivas y psicológicas significativas, la vuelta reciente a la democracia no suplantará completamente las fuentes tradicionales de la legitimidad en México. Mientras que los mexicanos generalmente entienden que el régimen ha fallado en la realización de las metas básicas de la Revolución mexicana, hay indicaciones que la Revolución—entendida como memoria colectiva, mito, historia e identidad nacional—todavía tiene lugar en el discurso y retórica políticos, incluso si tales conocimientos tienen poco sentido lógico en la época de la globalización.
Emiliano Zapata: Textbook Hero
Authors: Gilbert Dennis
Published: February 2004

Emiliano Zapata (1879–1919) died defeated and, in many quarters, despised. This article traces his resurrection and subsequent career as a textbook hero. It examines portrayals of Zapata in officially sanctioned primary school textbooks from the early 1920s to the 2001–2002 school year. These textbook accounts are considered in a dual context: the external political context in which the books are created and the internal narrative context of Mexican history as presented by official historians.

Emiliano Zapata (1879–1919) murió derrotado y, en algunas partes, odiado. Este artículo traza su resurrección como héroe de libros de texto. En el artículo se examinan las representaciones de Zapata en los libros de texto de escuelas primarias oficialmente supervisados por el gobierno desde los inicios de la década de 1920 hasta el año académico 2001–2002. Los relatos allí presentados son considerados en un contexto doble: el contexto político externo y el contexto interno de la narración de la historia de México que se presenta a través de los historiadores oficiales.
An Exploration in the Veiling of Power: The Politics of Development in Rural West Mexico
Authors: McDonald James H.
Published: February 2004

This article explores the politics of a dairy development project in West Mexico. The project was a response to foreign competition that resulted from the opening of the Mexican economy and sought to organize small-scale dairy farmers to produce higher-quality milk with lower production costs. Local and outside elites who initiated this project embraced a Weberian notion of institutional rationality that cast all development problems as technical—a move that veiled dominant modes of politics and power. Analysis centers on three domains of discourse and practice—milk quality, traditional culture, and communication—that together reveal the contradictions between project goals and local structures of power, patronage, and control that reproduced existing class cleavages and forms of domination.

Este artículo explora la política del proyecto de un desarrollo lechero en el occidente de México. El proyecto fue una respuesta a una competencia extranjera que resultaba de la apertura de la economía mexicana. La meta era organizar a pequeños ganaderos para producir leche de mejor calidad con costos de producción más bajos. Las élites locales y externas que iniciaron este proyecto se atuvieron a una noción de weberiana de raciocinio institucional que visualiza todos los problemas de desarrollo como problemas técnicos—con lo cual se evita señalar los modos dominantes de política y poder. El análisis se enfoca en tres áreas del discurso y la práctica—la calidad de leche, la cultura tradicional y las formas de comunicación—que revelan las contradicciones entre las metas del proyecto y las estructuras locales de poder, patrocinio y control que reproducen viejas hendiduras de clase y formas de dominación.
Fijación de nitrógeno por Cyanoprokaryota en la Reserva Ecológica El Edén, Q.R., México
Authors: Vargas Rodrigo , Novelo Eberto
Published: February 2004

Acetylene reduction assay (ARA) was applied to determine the rate of nitrogen fixation by cyanoprokaryotes in a wetland in El Edén Ecological Reserve. The data obtained throughout a hydrological cycle showed both an increase of fixed nitrogen during wet periods and an important amount of nitrogen rate produced by non-heterocytic filamentous and colonial blue-green algae. The results support the importance of the contribution of algae to nutrient balance in the wetland ecosystem.

Se realizó la prueba de reducción de acetileno para determinar la tasa de fijación de nitrógeno por cianoprokariotes en un humedal tropical de la Reserva Ecológica El Edén. Los datos obtenidos durante un ciclo hidrológico muestran tanto un incremento en el nitrógeno fijado durante el periodo de lluvias como una importante cantidad en la tasa de fijación de nitrógeno producida por algas verdeazules filamentosas no heterocitosas y coloniales. Los resultados respaldan la importancia de la contribución de las algas en el balance de nutrimentos en el humedal.
Origen y domesticación de la chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifoliusMill I. M. Johnst): La espinaca Maya
Authors: Ross-Ibarra Jeffrey
Published: February 2004

Mesoamerica has been one of the most active centers of plant domestication worldwide. Along with the many well-known and economically important plants that originated in Mesoamerica exist a variety of other lesser known domesticated plants many of which remain important on a local or regional scale. One of these lesser known plants is chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, Euphorbiaceae), a shrub cultivated for its highly nutritious leaves. The article presents evidence bearing on the domestication and place of origin of the cultivated varieties of chaya and proposes a model describing the process of their domestication.

Mesoamérica ha sido uno de los centros de domesticación más activos a nivel mundial. Junto con las muchas plantas económicas y conocidas de origen Mesoamericana, existen varias plantas domesticadas no tan conocidas, que sin embargo siguen siendo importantes a un nivel local o regional. Una de estas últimas es la chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius,Euphorbiaceae), un arbusto cultivado por sus hojas nutritivas. Se presenta aquí evidencia de la domesticación y lugar de origen de las variedades cultivadas de la chaya, y se propone un modelo para describir su processo de domesticación.
Household Welfare in Four Rural Mexican Communities: The Economic and Social Dynamics of Surviving National Crises
Authors: Hamilton Sarah , Dewalt Billie R. , Barkin David
Published: February 2004

During the past two decades, national economic and political crises have threatened livelihoods and localities in rural Mexico. However, household-level data from agrarian reform communities studied in 1984 and 1996 show substantial improvement in standards of living. Increased remittance flows provided liquidity for investment in local production as well as household consumption. Increased labor force participation by women and community activism also sustained livelihoods and welfare improvements. Despite deepening structural inequalities, rural people invested in a future for local production. Recommendations center on realizing the economic and social potential demonstrated in such communities through increased public investment in rural infrastructures.

Durante los últimos dos decenios, las crisis económicas y políticas han amenazado a los medios de supervivencia y los pueblos del México rural. Sin embargo, datos hogareños en ejidos estudiados en 1984 y 1996 muestran mejorías sustanciales en los niveles de vida. Aumentos en los flujos de remesas ofrecieron la liquidez para la inversión en la producción local y el consumo. Las mujeres contribuyeron a los ingresos y al bienestar mediante una mayor participación laboral y activismo comunitario. A pesar de crecientes desigualdades estructurales, la población rural invirtió en la producción local para el futuro. Las recomendaciones se centran en aprovechar el potencial social y económico demostrado en estas comunidades mediante mayores inversiones en infraestructura rural.
The Bi-Social Oscar Wilde and "Modern" Women
Authors: Stetz Margaret Diane
Published: February 2004

Oscar Wilde was important not only to late-Victorian men but to women as well, especially to those middle-class professional women and feminists who defined themselves as "modern." As an editor, advisor, and advancer of women's careers, Wilde demonstrated that he had learned well the lessons taught by his mother, a working author. His ability to move between the homosocial masculine world and the world of women made him almost uniquely "bi-social." Yet Wilde's concept of friendship - based on a performance-oriented model of high-spot moments and grand gestures, rather than on endurance and dependability - also offended some women writers of his circle and provoked them to create satirical portraits of him. By looking to the now little-known works by "modern" women of the 1890s, we can get a new and more complete view both of Wilde himself and of his relation to the development of feminism at the fin de siècle.
The White Blackbird: Miscegenation, Genre, and the Tragic Mulatta in Howells, Harper, and the "Babes of Romance"
Authors: Rosenthal Debra J.
Published: February 2004

In this essay I construct a literary genealogy that situates William Dean Howells in the middle of a call-and-response literary conversation with popular women writers about race, gender, and genre. Since Howells correlated racial questions with realism, his only novel that treats intermarriage, An Imperative Duty (1891), offered Howells an opportunity to deploy his presumably objective, scientific, realist knowledge about race in order to challenge women's romantic miscegenation plots found in Margret Holmes Bates's The Chamber over the Gate (1886) and Alice Morris Buckner's Towards the Gulf (1887), two novels that he had recently read and reviewed. Yet the tragic mulatta stereotype, a stock figure of romanticism and sentimentality that was resistant to scientific discourse, ruptures Howells's goal of representing the figure according to the tenets of realism. In Iola Leroy (1892), Frances Ellen Watkins Harper cunningly recasts the tragic mulatta stereotype both to critique Howells's project and to represent the potential of black womanhood. Knowledge of Bates and Buckner can change critical conversation about the influence of women writers on Howells, the understanding of the role of the racialized woman in his fiction, and his conception of the link between the romantic mulatta and realist representation. Likewise, Harper takes issue with Howells's supposed ironic sophistication about race, and in Iola Leroy she rewrites many of his views in order to show the ways that miscegenation is at once a novelistic and a national problem.
Sighing for a Soldier: Jane Austen and Military Pride and Prejudice
Authors: Fulford Tim
Published: February 2004

This essay is a study of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice (1813) in the context of the social and political debates and scandals surrounding the militia and the regular army in England in the period from 1790 to 1813. I argue that Austen's novel contains a vein of reference to these debates, and that in portraying Wickham she was making a detailed commentary on the new culture of social and sexual mobility that the militia spread across the nation. I argue further that Austen's critique of the militia and its habits drew her into alliance - on this issue at least - with the Whig and radical writers and campaigners whom she is normally thought to have opposed: Cobbett, Leigh Hunt, Coleridge, and Wordsworth. In conclusion, I suggest that the militia helped Austen formulate her discriminating account of the changing gender roles and sexual mores of the Regency period.
"Broken Idols": Mark Twain's Elegies for Susy and a Critique of Freudian Grief Theory
Authors: Bush Harold K.
Published: February 2004

The tragic death of his daughter Susy became a crucial event of the final fourteen years of Mark Twain's life—as a parent, as an author, and as a public persona. I make this claim based on an analysis of recent theories of parental bereavement and "continuing bonds" with the dead put forth by researchers, such as Dennis Klass, Margaret S. Stroebe, Paul C. Rosenblatt, and Robert A. Neimeyer, who are providing the vanguard of contemporary opinion in grief theory. As Stroebe notes, "contemporary opinions tend to agree . . . that bonds [with the dead] can be continued without the detrimental effects that were originally claimed and that [continued bonds with the dead] play a role in . . . the 'resolution' of grief." As such, today's leading grief theorists focus on a constructivist model of bereavement, clearly eschewing much contained in the modernist theories of grief of the early and middle twentieth century (dominated by Freud), especially their tendency to label extended and grueling patterns of mourning as "pathological." In this essay I analyze Mark Twain's two elegies for Susy, "In Memoriam" (written 1897) and "Broken Idols" (written 1898), with the latest and most influential recent research on parental bereavement in mind. This essay also marks the first publication of the entire poem "Broken Idols."
Material Interiority in Charlotte Brontë's The Professor
Authors: Cohen William A.
Published: February 2004

In The Professor (1845– 46) Charlotte Brontë dwells on the paradox of a material human body containing immaterial essences, such as mind, self, and soul. The novel at once dramatizes and estranges the condition of human embodiment by portraying these ethereal inner qualities with images of enclosure in a rigid carapace. Paying particular attention to sensory experiences, The Professor presents the body as the vehicle through which the exterior world and human interiors come into contact. By construing interiority in material terms, Brontë emphasizes aspects of human experience ordinarily considered dirty and degrading, involving debased bodily functions, including masochistic sexuality. The novel invites a rethinking of prevailing approaches to masochism because it insists on the fleshy materiality of psychological entities (such as desire and conflict) that psychoanalysis usually treats as abstractions. For Brontë relations between people are embodied even before they are gendered; the male first-person narrative voice she adopts in this work affords her the opportunity to consider the strangeness of the idea of inhabiting any body at all. The novel's vaunted attention to surveillance is consequently better understood as bodily penetration than as subjective domination.
Homosociality and the Aesthetic in Henry James'sRoderick Hudson
Authors: Mendelssohn Michèle
Published: February 2004

In Henry James's Roderick Hudson (1875), the connection between art and life is made manifest by the relationship between the sculptor Roderick Hudson and his repressed, psychically split patron, Rowland Mallet. In this essay I explore the heretofore unnoticed connections between the dynamics of same-sex desire and the aesthetic concerns of James's novel. I argue that the novel's aesthetic is mirrored in its representation of homosocial bonds and Catholicism. For Rowland Mallet aestheticized Catholicism and the homoeroticized patron-artist relationship are means of palliating his psychological and sexual fragmentation. Patronage allows the idle Rowland to become a creator at a remove and to consummate his aesthetic desires. Moreover, patronage confers a socially and contractually sanctioned "right to sight," whereby Rowland can satisfy his scopophilic tendencies by watching his ward and his works. The patron-artist relationship in the novel can therefore be read as a same-sex enactment of the myth of Pygmalion and Galatea, a motif that James had rehearsed in stories preceding Roderick Hudson.
Liszt's Musical Monuments
Authors: Rehding Alexander
Published: February 2004

The music topic of "apotheosis" is examined in the context of Liszt's artistic biography. While the effect of the final apotheosis is familiar as a standard procedure in his symphonic poems, a prominent critical strand suggests that the overwhelming effect of the apotheosis may merely conceal a fundamental vacuity. Nietzsche in particular develops an incisive critique of this kind of monumentality, which he links with a historiographic model of what he calls "monumental history." Nietzsche's historical model is probed against an episode from Liszt's career, in which the apotheosis topic first entered his orchestral music: the Cantata for the inauguration of the Bonn Beethoven monument (1845). In this cantata, Liszt chooses a quotation from Beethoven's "Archduke" Trio for the apotheosis. In this way, the cantata pits a musical kind of monumentality against the physical Beethoven movement, not dissimilar from attempts by Schumann and Jean Paul to theorize nineteenth-century monumentality. Moreover, with this "secular sanctus" Liszt forges an artistic link between the dead composer and himself. This episode, by means of which Liszt succeeded in consolidating his fame as Beethoven's rightful heir, turns out to be crucial for his subsequent career when he settled in Weimar as a self-consciously great composer (and wrote his symphonic poems). The events surrounding Liszt's engagement in the Beethoven monument are used as an exemplar of a notion of nineteenth-century musical monumentality that thrives on the interplay between the musical structure, the events amid which the performance took place, and the biographical background of the (genius-)composer.
Source Criticism and the Reconstruction of Reality A Reply to Brigitte Schoen and Hubert Seiwert
Authors: Hexham Irving , Poewe Karla
Published: February 2004

This paper responds to criticism of our earlier work on the German anticult debate by Ms. Schoen and Prof. Dr. Seiwert. In it we argue that Schoen misunderstood and misread our article as a result of her obsession with published texts. Both Schoen and Seiwert underestimate the importance of history in creating the ethos that shapes the German debate about new religions.
"Denomination" as a Label for Some Islamic Phenomena?
Authors: Shepard William E.
Published: February 2004

This response to Mark Sedgwick's article on "Sects in the Islamic World" focuses specifically on the word "denomination," both for those groups that Sedgwick so labels and for those that I consider might be so labeled. For the Sunni/Shi'i distinction, I do not find the word "denomination" appropriate. Depending on the context, I suggest "division," "establishment," or "religious minority." The label "denomination" can be useful for either tariqas (Sufi orders) or madhhabs (schools of jurisprudence) , particularly if we want to emphasize the fact of mutual acceptance by various tariqas or madhhabs and their relatively low tension with society. It fits least well if we are concerned with the internal organization of madhhabs or tariqas. Since the term tariqa is fairly well known, there seems little point in replacing it with "denomination." For cross-cultural studies, however, "denomination" well be appropriate for both tariqa and madhhab .
Falun Gong and the Law: Development of Legal Social Control in China
Authors: Edelman Bryan , Richardson James T.
Published: February 2004

In 1999 the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) labeled Falun Gong an "evil cult" and began a campaign to eliminate the qigong movement of which it was a part. The West was quick to condemn the PRC's action as a violation of human rights. In response, the PRC government criticized the West for interfering in its internal affairs, and using "human rights" as an excuse to impose its will upon the PRC. Rather than formulating an attack on the PRC government using Western principles of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law, this article analyzes the legality of the PRC's campaign against Falun Gong within the framework of the legal and political systems developed in the PRC Constitution, other relevant documents and international treaties to which the PRC is a signatory nation. It is argued that the PRC government acted outside of its constitutional authority, violated citizens' basic rights, and overstepped its own boundaries in its war against Falun Gong and its practitioners.
Perspectives for a Study of African American Religion: From the Valley of Dry Bones
Authors: Callahan Allen Dwight
Published: February 2004

In "Perspectives For a Study of African American Religion," Charles Long wrote of "three interrelated perspectives for the study of black religion": "Africa as historical reality and religious image," "the involuntary presence of the black community in America," and "the experience and symbol of God." I essay to show how Long's categories illumine a celebrated instance of African American biblical appropriation, the prophet's vision of dry bones in Ezekiel 37:1-14, as emblematic of the perspectives of symbolic African absence, involuntary American presence, and collective theological experience of the slaves and their descendents.
Introduction: African American Religion Symposium
Authors: Pinn Anthony B.
Published: February 2004

This essay introduces five articles in a Nova Religio symposium focusing on African American Religion. The essays provide some means for re-imagining the study of African American religion in ways that allow for a much better understanding of African American participation in traditional and new religious movements.
Field Notes: The Swedenborgian Church in South Africa
Authors: Williams-Hogan Jane
Published: February 2004

The Swedenborgian Church, also called the New Church, was established in South Africa among English-speaking settlers in 1850. It is based on the theological writings of Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772). Swedenborg's "new" Christianity emphasizes, among other things, the internal meaning of the Bible, life after death, and the special spiritual qualities of black Africans. These field notes are based on a trip to South Africa in August 2000, and examine how the two primary types of Swedenborgian churches are adjusting to post-apartheid South Africa today. The English-speaking New Church is associated with the General Church of the New Jerusalem headquartered in the United States. Also affiliated with the General Church are a number of Zulu and Sotho congregations. The General Church has a hierarchical structure, a male priesthood, and primarily white leadership. One of the English-speaking societies has a school from preschool through eighth grade, and a Zulu-Sotho congregation sponsors a preschool. The New Church was established among black Africans independently from the General Church in 1909. Today that group is called the New Church of Southern Africa. It is congregationally structured, has a male priesthood, but a strong Women's League
Ijun in Hawaii: The Political Economic Dimension of an Okinawan New Religion Overseas
Authors: Reichl Christopher A.
Published: February 2004

With reference to an Okinawan new religion called Ijun and its branch on the island of Hawaii, this article analyzes the international expansion of new religious organizations from the perspective of political economy. I develop questions concerning the flow of capital and the relationship between central church and branch by the application of a center-periphery model. I argue that the development of an international organization allows the Okinawan group to become a center with respect to its overseas branches, replicating the centern
"A Dynamic, Not a Static Conception": The Conservation Thought of Roderick Haig-Brown
Authors: Keeling Arn
Published: February 2004

As the foremost conservationist in British Columbia from the late 1940s to the late 1960s, the internationally known fishing writer, magistrate, and naturalist Roderick Haig-Brown (1908-1976) fought conservation battles and promoted ecological ideas during a period of aggressive industrial expansion into the province'sresource frontier. This article explores Haig-Brown's conservation ideas and argues that they defy the often sharp categorization by historians of the philosophies underlying conservation and environmentalism. It identifies and discusses three phases in his conservation thought: the modern sportsman ethic, critical resourcism, and ethical conservation. Although he was born and raised in England, Haig-Brown developed his philosophy in the particular social, cultural, political, and environmental context of the mid-century Pacific Northwest. Subsequent readings of Haig-Brown as simply a romantic conservative ignore the dynamic quality of his ideas as they changed during his career. Like the American ecologist Aldo Leopold, Haig-Brown transcends the earlier, utilitarian conservation ideas and the ethical, nonmaterial values associated with environmentalism. This examination of his ideas suggests that the analysis of these movements as ideologically distinct or linearly developed obscures the importance of local variants and historical context.
Repositioning Indianness: Native American Organizations in Portland, Oregon, 1959–1975
Authors: Rosenthal Nicolas G.
Published: February 2004

This article examines the processes of community building among American Indians who migrated to Portland, Oregon, in the decades following World War II, contextualized within a larger movement of Indians to the cities of the United States and shifts in government relations with Indian people. It argues that, during the 1960s, working-and middle-class Indians living in Portland came together and formed groups that enabled them to cultivate "Indianness" or to "be Indian" in the city. As the decade wore on, Indian migration to Portland increased, the social problems of urban Indians became more visible, and a younger generation emerged to challenge the leadership of Portland's established Indian organizations. Influenced by both their college educations and a national Indian activist movement, these new leaders promoted a repositioning of Indianness, taking Indian identity as the starting point from which to solve urban Indian problems. By the mid-1970s, the younger generation of college-educated Indians gained a government mandate and ascended to the helm of Portland's Indian community. In winning support from local, state, and federal officials, these leaders reflected fundamental changes under way in the administration of U.S. Indian affairs not only in Portland, but also across the country.
The Imperial Republic: A Comparison of the Insular Territories under U.S. Dominion after 1898
Authors: Thompson Lanny
Published: February 2004

The doctrine of incorporation, as elaborated in legal debates and legitimated by the U.S. Supreme Court, excluded the inhabitants of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam from the body politic of the United States on the basis of their cultural differences from dominant European American culture. However, in spite of their shared legal status as unincorporated territories, the U.S. Congress established different governments that, although adaptations of continental territorial governments, were staffed largely with appointed imperial administrators. In contrast, Hawai'i, which had experienced a long period of European American settlement, received a government that followed the basic continental model of territorial government. Thus, the distinction between the incorporated and unincorporated territories corresponded to the limits of European American settlement. However, even among the unincorporated territories, cultural evaluations were important in determining the kinds of rule. The organic act for Puerto Rico provided for substantially more economic and judicial integration with the United States than did the organic act for the Phillippines. This followed from the assessment that Puerto Rico might be culturally assimilated while the Phillippines definitely could not. Moreover, religion was the criterion for determining different provincial governments within the Phillippines. In Guam, the interests of the naval station prevailed over all other considerations. There, U.S. government officials considered the local people to be hospitable and eager to accept U.S. sovereignty, while they largely ignored the local people's language, culture, and history. In Guam, a military government prevailed.
Phoebe Apperson Hearst's "Gospel of Wealth," 1883–1901
Authors: Nickliss Alexandra M.
Published: February 2004

In response to the critics who charged that his money was tainted, Andrew Carnage devised an ideology that came to be known as the "Gospel of Wealth." Carnegie's "gospel" mostly helped the ambitious, young white men. But wealthy women like Phoebe Apperson Hearst also played a major role in redefining the "Gospel of Wealth." The goal of this article is to define and explain Hearst's "gospel" and show how it made her the complementary equal of such men as Carnegie. Hearst's "gospel" declared that leisure women had a sacred duty to give to causes, especially progressive education and reform, that would benefit their communities and help those excluded or marginalized from America's mainstream, as well as advance these women's careers as reformers and political leaders. While Hearst's approach helped those left out by Carnegie's style of philanthropy, namely women, it also was a reasoned but intuitive plan to advance her career and status, silence her critics, obtain and wield the power to define political issues, and realize reform goals. As such, Phoebe Apperson Hearst became the complementary equal of prominent, powerful men like Andrew Carnegie.
Alcatraz, Wounded Knee, and Beyond: The Nixon and Ford Administrations Respond to Native American Protest
Authors: Kotlowski Dean J.
Published: February 2004

The period from 1969 to 1977 saw both unprecedented civil disobedience by Native American activists and breakthrough initiatives to advance Indian rights. This article argues that grass-roots protest helped push the executive branch to respond sympathetically to Native American concerns, replacing the policy of termination with one of tribal self-determination. After the seizure of Alcatraz Island (1969), Nixon's aides began work on a presidential statement repudiating termination and legislation to advance self-determination for Native Americans. Following the standoff at Wounded Knee (1973), Congress began to pass the President's agenda. Continuing Native American unrest kept Ford's White House on the course charted by Nixon. Whatever their shortcomings, both Presidents deserve high marks for redirecting Indian policy and for avoiding bloodshed during their many standoffs with American Indians.
Pilgrims at the Golden Gate: Christian Scientists on the Pacific Coast, 1880–1915
Authors: Swensen Rolf
Published: February 2004

There has never been a social history of Christian Science, a distinctive and controversial new religious group that emphasized metaphysical healing. The group appeared in the United States in the 1870s and 1880s under the leadership of Mary Baker Eddy. This article examines the early rapid growth of Christian Science on the Pacific Coast, for the religion flourished to a greater degree in this health- conscious and socially fluid region than in any other section of the world. Analysis of the occupations of more than 1,000 members and spouses of six Christian Science churches in California, Oregon, and Washington for the years 1905-1907 provides detailed conclusions at variance with previous conjecture. The new evidence shows that Christian Scientists on the Pacific Coast were an ethnically homogeneous, uprooted, and energetic lot from all social levels, with a surprisingly large contingent from the working classes.
Operation Smallbridge: Chester Ronning, the Second Indochina War, and the Challenge to the United States in Asia
Authors: Preston Andrew
Published: February 2004

In 1966 Canadian diplomats and politicians sought to bring the United States and North Vietnam to the negotiating table. Canada's secret search for peace, code-named Operation Smallbridge, was led by retired diplomat Chester Ronning, who twice traveled to North Vietnam. Although Ronning's first mission convinced him that Hanoi was willing to discuss terms, U.S. escalation of the war continued. On his second mission, Ronning discovered that Washington's rejection of Hanoi's overture had hardened the official attitude in North Vietnam. Ronning may have exaggerated the breakthrough from his earlier visit, and his efforts may have unrealistically raised expectations for a settlement. Instead of bringing the adversaries closer together, Operation Smallbridge inadvertently made the Vietnam conflict and its belligerents more intractable and the prospects for a peaceful political solution more unlikely.
Movement and Adjustment in Twentieth-Century Western Writing
Authors: Wrobel David M.
Published: February 2004

Western American literature in the twentieth century has effectively mirrored life in the region. The West has for centuries seen more geographic movement, and accompanying cultural adjustment, than other American regions. These themes of movement and adjustment have dominated western writing. Literary historians' frameworks for categorizing and analyzing this writing have emphasized a tidy process of organic development in western writing, from "frontier fiction" to more mature "regional writing," or from frontier to regional to post-regional literature. Such models underestimate the degree to which movement and adjustment continued to shape western writing in the twentieth century and tend to separate literature produced by white Europeans from that of other cultural groups. This essay suggests that the more fluid movement and adjustment model can better illuminate the connections between ostensibly separate cultural literary streams.
Of Markets and Missions: The Early History of the Universal Fellowship of Metropolitan Community Churches
Authors: Wilcox Melissa M.
Published: February 2004

“It seems to me, now,” reflected Troy Perry, four years after founding a successful new Protestant denomination, “that it must have been a matter of timing, and I think that it was fate, too! God chose me for my mission at a time when He knew the world would respond, once the need was made clear.” While the question of divine ordination is a bit outside the scholar's jurisdiction, the question of timing is a crucial one for historical inquiry, and Perry's remarks show an insightful awareness that the success of the Universal Fellowship of Metropolitan Community Churches (UFMCC) was due in large part to timing. As with any successful religious group, however, the seeds of the UFMCC germinated, sprouted, and grew as a result of a multitude of interconnected factors, including both external back-ground factors in American society at large and internal factors within the UFMCC itself. This article relates the history and early growth of the UFMCC to this constellation of factors in order to gain a clearer understanding of both the denomination itself and the social changes of which it was an integral part.
Curious Gentiles and Representational Authority in the City of the Saints
Authors: Eliason Eric A.
Published: February 2004

The erection of a State of the Union whose population consisted of Turks or Afghans would not be a worse blunder fraught with more dangerous consequences than the creation of a State composed of Mormons.

— C. E. Dutton, an American geologist who surveyed Utah several times during the 1870s.

R T. Barnum, the great circus promoter, came to Salt Lake City to meet Brigham Young. The Church President jokingly asked Barnum, “Well, how much money do you think we could make if you were to put me on display back East?” Barnum answered, “Mr. President, I guarantee you half the receipts which will be in excess of $200,000 a year because you would be the greatest show in town.”
“My God and My Good Mother”: The Irony of Horace Bushnell‘s Gendered Republic
Authors: Edwards Mark
Published: February 2004

The impact of Horace Bushnell on American religion has been well documented, but the cultural significance of his life and thought has not been fully appreciated. A Congregationalist and pioneering ecumenist, Bushnell has been cast as the father of evangelical liberalism by theologians and religious historians. His numerous published sermons and treatises on child nurture, religious language, and the atonement were widely read during the nineteenth century and made him a celebrated and often controversial figure. Though vehemently opposed to Darwinian naturalism later in life, he nevertheless oversaw the collapse of Calvinist transcendence into the confines of historical and cultural development—which has been the definitive characteristic of liberal Protestant spirituality since the 1870s. Yet, during an age of social transformation, is Bushnell better understood as a laissez-faire liberal or an organicist social conservative? Better still, how might we characterize the relationship between his mediating theology and ambiguous social thought?
Mission to America: The Reform Movement’s Missionary Experiments, 1919–1960
Authors: Berman Lila Corwin
Published: February 2004

In 1938, Jerome Folkman, a Reform rabbi from Grand Rapids, Michigan, attended a dinner party hosted by one of his congregants. The guests had finished eating and were settling into typical after-dinner chatter, when the audacious “Mr. R.” broke the rhythm and declared, “We should send missionaries to the gentiles and try to win converts to Judaism.” Side conversations halted and the guests, all Jewish, curiously peered at Mr. R. as he continued: “Why aren't we more aggressive? Why don't we ask others to join our ranks?” The guests tittered. Some giggled nervously, others muttered that Jews just don't do that. A pragmatist interrupted—the suggestion, in his mind, was only as good as its actual consequences. “Do you think we would get any converts?” he asked. Rabbi Folkman, who later divulged he, too, had toyed with the idea of Jews becoming missionaries in America, tried to clarify the kernel of wisdom behind Mr. R.'s shocking statement.
Mildred Pierce, Warner Bros., and the Corporate Family
Authors: Jurca Catherine
Published: February 2004

Mildred Pierce (1945) has frequently been read as an exemplary instance of feminine repression within classical Hollywood cinema generally, and as a powerful critique of the independent working mother in particular, whose unprecedented welcome in the World War II workplace was coming to an end. But critics who are predisposed to make patriarchal oppression the bottom line of Hollywood film have seriously underestimated the value that is placed on Mildred's labor and as a result have miscast the meaning of that labor in relation to her maternity. This essay argues that Mildred Pierce responds to the most basic reconversion crisis faced by every American industry in the postwar period: not how to get women back into the home but, rather, how to effect the smooth transition from a frenetic economy of government spending and debt to a robust civilian economy fueled by pent-up consumer desire. With Mildred Pierce, Warner Bros. imaginatively fostered an economic substitute for war by giving corporate culture some of the sentimental credibility of home. Mildred's career in the restaurant business, which begins in the home to which she is supposedly to be returned, evaporates the standard capitalist dichotomy between domestic and commercial spheres and, like the Warner Bros. studio itself, between family members and business partners: because business is so obvious and necessary, it is what mothers and brothers do. Unlike other melodramas of the period, the home is not represented as why we fight but as the reason we go into business. The disciplinary function of the controversial film noir segments is thus not to punish Mildred as a bad mother but to liberate her and the nation from the economically destructive daughter,Veda, an irresponsible consumer who embodies the threat of inflation. Mildred's otherwise preposterous failure to prevent Veda's confession in the final moments can only be explained in terms of Mildred's commitment to a different kind of sacrifice on behalf of constructive economic expansion.
''John Bull, pit, box, and gallery, said No!'': Charles Macklin and the Limits of Ethnic Resistance on the Eighteenth-Century London Stage
Authors: Goring Paul
Published: February 2004

THIS ARTICLE EXAMINES REPRESENTATIONS of Irishness on the eighteenth-century London stage as a basis for reconsidering the theater's role as a site of interethnic contest and negotiation. Ethnic interaction is thematized in numerous eighteenth-century plays - a tendency that highlights the function of the stage as a mediator of the social and cultural shifts that followed urban expansion, the growth of the British empire, and, with immigration, the increasing multiculturalism of Britain and particularly London. The theaters of the period have consequently been presented as spaces in which minority ethnic groups were able to express forceful antihegemonic resistance - both from the stage and from the auditorium. That such resistance typically inspired vigorous counterresistance has received minimal critical attention. The article examines several Irish-themed plays, particularly those by the celebrated Irish actor-playwright Charles Macklin (1699?-1797), and it investigates their reception by the heterogeneous London public. Exploring issues of both authorship and reception - and presenting previously unpublished writings by Macklin - it uncovers a dialogue between ethnic resistance and counterresistance, and thus it interrogates the radicalism attributable to London theaters as sites of ethnic negotiations. It argues that the ethnic voice gained only circumscribed legitimacy during the eighteenth century, and that, despite the efforts of writers such as Macklin, traditional modes of representing Irishness were not radically overturned.