bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Electromagnetic-wave sintering of alumina ceramics from nano-sized particles: possible material for high-pressure cell for millimeter-wave electron spin resonance
Authors: Nawate T , Yamamoto Y , Kanie Y , Mitsudo S , Fujii Y , Sakurai T
Published: August 2019

Electromagnetic-wave sintering of alumina ceramics using 28 GHz gyrotron has been performed aiming for a high fracture toughness value in order for use as pistons for pressure cells of high-frequency electron spin resonance (ESR) measurements. We have tried to improve the fracture toughness by using nano-sized alumina powder (140 nm in average particle size) having smaller particle size than our previous work (400 nm in average particle size). Rapid densification was observed around the sintering temperature of 1200 °C. We obtained the relative density over 99 % above 1400 °C. It was found that alumina ceramics made in this work at sintering temperatures have smaller grain size and higher density simultaneously as compared to the previous work. These results suggest that alumina ceramics made from powder of smaller particle size sintered by electromagnetic-wave sintering possibly have high fracture toughness which can be used as materials for the pressure cell for ESR.
Startup of expanded granular sludge bed reactor treating undiluted palm oil mill effluent
Authors: Ahmad A , Amri I , Fitrah R
Published: August 2019

A lab-scale Expanded Granular Sludge Bed (EGSB) Reactor was used to the treatment of undiluted Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) with the COD mean value of 53,333.33 mg/l. The startup was done at a mesophilic temperature of 35 ± 2°C for 12 days with two days Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) as a pre-study of enhanced biogas production by mesophilic and thermophilic anaerobic co-digestion of POME with Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB) in EGSB Reactor. The steady state was achieved at 8th to 12th day of continuous operation. The effluent COD at steady state was vary from 10,000 to 11,500 mg/l, COD removal 78.44 – 81.25 %, Methane content was 43.89 % and total biogas volume achieved was 2.760 ml (0.1486 – 0.1503 m3 CH4/kg COD removed). There were several operational problems met in the experiment and corresponding countermeasures were also discussed.
The effect of different α and β gable on stainless steel and TMA segmental T-loop on the resulting force – an in vitro study
Authors: Laviana A
Published: August 2019

Adding more angle to the segmental T-Loop gable can affect the amount of force created to retract the canine on an orthodontic treatment with extraction. In-vitro laboratory experimental design, performed at the Chemistry Laboratory of Faculty of Science, ITB. The samples are 60 segmental T-loop springs with α and β angle of 0°–0°; 0°–45°; 45°–0°; 22.5°–22.5°; 15°–30°; 30°–15°. Force was measured using autograph with retraction distance of 1, 2, and 3 mm, then analyzed using ANOVA statistics analysis with a factorial design of 2x3x6 and 5 replications for each cell. The results of the posthoc Student Newman Keuls and Tukey test show that the added angle to the α and β gables of SS and TMA T-loop will add more resulting force along with the increase of retraction distance. The added angle to the α and β gables of SS and TMA segmental T-loop will add more resulting force along with the increase of retraction distance. The force resulted by the SS T-loop with various α and β gables are significantly different, while the force resulted by the TMA T-loop are not (p-value <0.05), as long as α + β is the same. The force resulted by the SS T-loop with various α and β gables are significantly different. However, on the TMA segmental T-loop, as long as α + β is the same, the force resulted will not be different.
Synthesis of poly-ε-caprolactone/hydroxyapatite composite materials by in situ and mechanical mixing methods and investigation of their physico-chemical properties
Authors: Karaseva S , Botvin V , Filimoshkin A
Published: August 2019

This work is dedicated both to investigation of the influence of different conditions on the molecular weight characteristics of poly- ε-caprolactone (PCL) and to the synthesis of composites based on PCL and hydroxyapatite (HA) by in situ and mechanical mixing methods. It was shown that in situ synthesis is accompanied by chemical interactions between PCL and HA that were confirmed by IR spectroscopy and thermal analysis. The morphology of in situ obtained composites has more homogeneous and regular distribution of HA particles in the polymeric matrix than composites synthesized by mechanical mixing of HA and PCL.
Petroleum Resin Influence on the Relaxation Process of Petroleum Paraffin Solutions Treated in Ultrasound
Authors: Volkova G I , Morozova A V
Published: August 2019

This paper summarizes the experimental work done on the effect of petroleum resins on the process of relaxation the structural and rheological properties of petroleum paraffin solutions treated in ultrasonic field.

A combined treatment of petroleum paraffin solutions including 22 kHz ultrasonic exposure and addition of petroleum resins (0.3% 0.6% 0.9% by weight) was carried out. The addition of petroleum resins into the treated solution depresses the crystallization of hydrocarbons and favours the reduction of structural-mechanical characteristics of the system. The transition of the excited state of systems after the removal of the ultrasonic load to an equilibrium state occurs in time, and the nature of the change in the rheological characteristics and microstructure of paraffin crystals depends on the composition of the dispersion medium. It was revealed that trace amounts of resins introduced into paraffin oil systems treated with ultrasound will reduce their viscosity and improve transportation of hydrocarbons for 2 days at minimal cost.
Influence of the composition of the adsorbent “hygroscopic salt/aluminum oxide” on its physicochemical properties
Authors: Budaev Zh B , Livanova A V , Meshcheryakov E P , Isupova L A , Magaev O V
Published: August 2019

The paper presents the research results of physicochemical characteristics, adsorption kinetics and value of adsorption capacity with respect to water vapors of the composite adsorbent “CaCl2 – aluminum oxide”. Sorbent synthesized by centrifugal thermal activation of hydrargillite and its subsequent hydration in mild conditions was used as a carrier. It was shown that, in the studied range of change in the CaCl2 content of the adsorbent (8.6-15.5% mass.), a sample containing 13.8% mass. of CaCl2 was the most promising when used as a desiccant. This sample was characterized by static capacitance that was higher than 20 g/100 g, by quite high dynamic capacitance of 5.8 g/100 cm3 and good mechanical strength of 4.9 MPa.
Method for extraction of gold and silver from technogenic pyrite raw materials
Authors: Sachkov V I , Nefedov R A , Medvedev R O
Published: August 2019

The paper contains the results of hydrometallurgical processing of technogenic pyrite raw materials. The method is based on selective extraction of gold and silver from ore by solution, which contains sodium sulfite and sodium sulfate. The most promising results were obtained utilizing solution with sodium sulfite and sodium sulfate concentration of 25 g/L and leaching time – 1 hour. Under these conditions, the extraction of gold was 67%. The use of sodium sulphate and sodium sulfite allows to extract gold and partially silver from refractory sulfide ores.
High-temperature oxidation resistance of Ti-implanted E110 alloy
Authors: Kashkarov E B , Syrtanov M S , Shevelev A E , Kurochkin A V , Pavlov S K
Published: August 2019

This paper describes the effect of surface modification by high-intensity Ti-ion implantation on the high-temperature oxidation resistance of E110 zirconium alloy. The oxidation tests were performed in air at 873 K for 10 h and in water steam at 1373 K for 10 min. The microstructure, phase composition and depth distribution of elements were analysed using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and glow-discharge optical emission spectroscopy, respectively.
Influence of Calcium-Phosphate Coating on Wettability of Hybrid Piezoelectric Scaffolds
Authors: Zviagin A , Chernozem R , Surmeneva M , Loza K , Prymak O. , Ulbricht M , Epple M , Surmenev R
Published: August 2019

Herein, electrospun biodegradable scaffolds based on polycaprolactone (PCL), poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and polyaniline (PANi) polymers were fabricated. A calcium-phosphate (CaP) coating was deposited on the surface of the scaffolds via an improved soaking process. Influence of the deposition cycles and ethanol concentration in the solution on the relative increase of the scaffolds weight and water contact angle (WCA) are determined. The characterization of the molecular and crystal structure confirmed the formation of CaP phase. Importantly, WCA results showed that the pristine scaffolds have the hydrophobic surface, while the deposition of CaP coating onto scaffolds allows to significantly improve the surface wetting behavior, and infiltration of the water droplets into the CaP-coated scaffolds was observed. Thus, the fabricated hybrid biodegradable piezoelectric scaffolds can be utilized for regenerative medicine.
Soil-concretes from Yakutia’s clay materials
Authors: Mestnikov A E , Fedorov V I
Published: August 2019

The article presents the results of experimental studies on the choice of the optimal technological parameters (the initial moisture of the soil-cement mixture, pressing force, amount of cement) for the preparation of samples of soil-concrete by semi-dry pressing. Research has shown that the predicted strength of the soil-concrete can be obtained not only by varying the amount of Portland cement injected, but also by selecting the pressing force and the initial moisture of the initial mixture. The obtained experimental data allow predicting the construction and operational properties of soil-concretes materials from clay raw materials of a specific field, to clarify the methods of manufacture and the area of their application (foundations of airfields, roads and engineering structures, building products and structures).
Force and current in a contact gap between single highly resistive particles: experimental observations
Authors: Vora Alpesh , Stepputat Jan , Riebel Ulrich
Published: August 2019

In case of electrical conduction through highly resistive dust layers, the generation of electrostatic adhesion force is strongly coupled to the mechanism of electrical (current) transport in the solid. High field strengths lead to a significant increase of the adhesive force. Here, more insight into the underlying mechanisms is given by experiments on the microscopic scale. An experimental arrangement is described which allows to study a particle pair subject to a strong electric field. Both the current and the force between the particles (150μm) can be measured as a function of voltage and gap distance. The results show an extremely complex behaviour of the contact for the case of highly resistive particles. For current transport, both gas discharges and thermionic field emission are observed, depending on the width of the contact gap and the field strength. For both the force and the current across the gap, a strongly non-linear behaviour with pronounced time effects is observed.
Considerations for neonatal and pediatric pain management
Authors: Shah Pooja , Siu Anita
Published: August 2019

Purpose

Current literature and clinical practice guidelines on pediatric pain management are reviewed.

Acute pain is commonly present in neonatal and pediatric patients due to underlying disease states or procedures. Especially in institutions with limited pediatric pain services, it is imperative to describe the appropriate management of pain and pharmacotherapy options that are effective and safe in pediatric patients. Despite the knowledge of pain being an important aspect in the management of children, barriers exist, leading to suboptimal treatment. Addressing these barriers through education of healthcare practitioners, families, and patients will lead to optimizing the patient pain experience. Tools for pain assessment vary depending on the type of pain, the child’s age and understanding of pain, and the clinical situation. Pharmacotherapy options for pain management in neonates and pediatric patients include opioid and nonopioid agents. Efficacy and safety data on the use of medications for the treatment of pain in pediatric patients is described. The delivery of medication encompasses patient-specific factors and preferences. Strategies for opioid stewardship and management of iatrogenic withdrawal pose a unique challenge in pediatric patients.

Conclusion

The management of acute pain in neonates and pediatric patients should be a priority for all practitioners caring for these patients. Use of age-appropriate pain assessment tools and understanding of the mechanisms of action and roles in therapy of various nonopioid and opioid therapies can help optimize treatment of pain in neonatal and pediatric patients.
Effect of Publicly Reported Aortic Valve Surgery Outcomes on Valve Surgery in Injection Drug– and Non–Injection Drug–Associated Endocarditis
Authors: Kimmel Simeon D , Walley Alexander Y , Linas Benjamin P , Kalesan Bindu , Awtry Eric , Dobrilovic Nikola , White Laura , LaRochelle Marc
Published: August 2019

Background

Injection drug use–associated infective endocarditis (IDU-IE) is rising and valve surgery is frequently indicated. The effect of initiating public outcomes reporting for aortic valve surgery on rates of valve surgery and in-hospital mortality for endocarditis is not known.

Methods

For an interrupted time series analysis, we used data from the National Inpatient Sample, a representative sample of United States inpatient hospitalizations, from January 2010 to September 2015. We included individuals aged 18–65 with an International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9) diagnosis of endocarditis. We defined IDU-IE using a validated combination of ICD-9 codes. We used segmented logistic regression to assess for changes in valve replacement and in-hospital mortality rates after the public reporting initiation in January 2013.

Results

We identified 7322 hospitalizations for IDU-IE and 23 997 for non–IDU-IE in the sample, representing 36 452 national IDU-IE admissions and 119 316 non-IDU admissions, respectively. Following the implementation of public reporting in 2013, relative to baseline trends, the odds of valve replacement decreased by 4.0% per quarter (odds ratio [OR] 0.96, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.93–0.99), with no difference by IDU status. The odds of an in-patient death decreased by 2.0% per quarter for both IDU-IE and non–IDU-IE cases following reporting (OR 0.98, 95% CI 0.97–0.99).

Conclusions

Initiating public reporting was associated with a significant decrease in valve surgery for all IE cases, regardless of IDU status, and a reduction in-hospital mortality for patients with IE. Patients with IE may have less access to surgery as a consequence of public reporting. To understand how reduced valve surgery impacts overall mortality, future studies should examine the postdischarge mortality rate.
Caregiving and Place: Combining Geographic Information System (GIS) and Survey Methods to Examine Neighborhood Context and Caregiver Outcomes
Authors: Beach Scott R , Kinnee Ellen , Schulz Richard
Published: August 2019

Background

Little is known about the impact of neighborhood context on family caregivers, or how environmental factors combine with individual-level caregiver risk factors to affect caregiver outcomes.

Objectives

To combine Geographic Information System (GIS) and survey methods to examine the effects of caregiver residence in disadvantaged/underserved neighborhoods on caregiver outcomes.

Research Design and Methods

Telephone surveys with 758 caregivers from the Pittsburgh Regional Caregiver Survey geocoded for classification into Environmental Justice Areas (EJAs) and Medically Underserved Areas (MUAs). We examine the impact of EJA/MUA caregiver residence on care recipient unmet needs for care, caregiver depression and burden, and positive aspects of caregiving, adjusting for sociodemographics, caregiving context, care recipient disability level, caregiving intensity, and additional risk factors.

Results

There was spatial clustering of caregiver depression and burden outside of the disadvantaged/underserved areas, while positive aspects of caregiving were clustered within EJAs/MUAs. Approximately 36% of caregivers lived in EJAs/MUAs, and they differed, sociodemographically, on caregiver risk factors and caregiver outcomes. Multivariable models showed that caregivers residing in EJAs/MUAs were less likely to be depressed and reported more positive aspects of caregiving after adjusting for known individual-level risk factors. Residence in disadvantaged/underserved areas also modified the effects of several risk factors on caregiver outcomes.

Discussion and Implications

Caregiver outcomes show interesting spatial patterns. Unexpectedly, caregivers living in these potentially challenging environments were less depressed and reported more gains from caregiving after adjusting for known risk factors. Results suggest that socioeconomic disadvantage does not necessarily translate into poor caregiver outcomes. Understanding the mechanism for these effects is important to designing effective caregiver interventions. The paper also demonstrates the value of using GIS methods to study caregiving.
Goodlife Foods Ltd v Hall Fire Protection Ltd [2018] EWCA Civ 1371
Authors: Jackson Nicola
Published: August 2019

Essential Cases: Contract Law provides a bridge between course textbooks and key case judgments. This case document summarizes the facts and decision in Goodlife Foods Ltd v Hall Fire Protection Ltd [2018] EWCA Civ 1371. The document also includes supporting commentary from author Nicola Jackson.
19. The EU merger control regime and the treatment of joint ventures
Authors: Marco Colino Sandra
Published: August 2019

This chapter discusses the application of competition law to mergers, focusing on the EU and the EUMR. In the EU, where a merger (‘concentration’) meets the relevant thresholds, it falls within the exclusive competence of the European Commission to examine the merger. Undertakings contemplating such a merger are required compulsorily to notify the Commission. The test of a merger’s acceptance is that of whether it substantially impedes effective competition in the internal market, in particular, but not exclusively, by creating or strengthening a dominant position. Using the powers set out in the Merger Regulation the Commission may authorize, or block, the merger over a two-stage process. Tight time limits apply. Appeals against Commission decisions are to the General Court.
20. The UK merger control regime and the treatment of joint ventures
Authors: Marco Colino Sandra
Published: August 2019

This chapter discusses the application of competition law to mergers, focusing on the UK system. Where a relevant merger situation is created, the Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) has the power to review the merger. Unlike in the EU, notification is not compulsory. The CMA may clear the merger, clear it subject to conditions, or refer it for further consideration to an independent Inquiry Group made up of members of the CMA Panel. The Inquiry Group may clear the merger, clear it subject to conditions, or block it. The test of a merger’s acceptance is that of whether it substantially lessens competition. UK merger decisions may be appealed to the Competition Appeals Tribunal.
Maritime delimitation and associated questions
Authors: Crawford James
Published: August 2019

This chapter discusses international law governing territorial sea delimitation, continental shelf delimitation (including beyond 200 nm), exclusive economic zone delimitation, and the effect of islands upon delimitation.
Maritime transit and the regime of the high seas
Authors: Crawford James
Published: August 2019

This chapter discusses international law governing freedom of the high seas, jurisdiction over ships on the high seas, regimes of transit to and from the high seas, regulation of high seas fisheries, and the seabed and ocean floor beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
Multilateral public order and issues of responsibility
Authors: Crawford James
Published: August 2019

International law has remained imprecise with respect to the scope and consequences of serious, systemic illegality, but there have been developments that have made collective action under law possible. The chapter reviews the objective consequences of illegal acts, covering peremptory norms (ius cogens), the obligation not to recognize a situation as lawful, and the obligation of putting an end to an unlawful situation.
The international minimum standard: Diplomatic protection and protection of investments
Authors: Crawford James
Published: August 2019

This chapter considers two discrete streams of authority – one based on the practice and jurisprudence of diplomatic protection, the other based on the generic standards in over 2,500 bilateral and multilateral investment treaties, as applied in some hundreds of tribunal decisions. The discussions cover the admission, expulsion, and liabilities of aliens; requirements for and standards of diplomatic protection; and breach and annulment of state contracts.
The claims process
Authors: Crawford James
Published: August 2019

This chapter considers preliminary issues, involving both jurisdiction and admissibility, before international courts and tribunals. It discusses prior negotiations, the requirement of a dispute, grounds of inadmissibility, diplomatic protection, and mixed claims.
Third party settlement of international disputes
Authors: Crawford James
Published: August 2019

This chapter discusses the third party settlement of international disputes. It covers arbitration and the origins of international dispute settlement; the idea of judicial settlement of international disputes; the International Court of Justice, interstate arbitration, dispute settlement under UNCLOS, the WTO dispute settlement body, and international investment tribunals.
1. Introduction to copyright
Authors: Karapapa Stavroula , McDonagh Luke
Published: August 2019

This introductory chapter provides an overview of copyright protection. It discusses how United Kingdom copyright law has developed from the mid-16th century onward. The purpose of giving this account is to highlight two recurring themes: firstly, the law's struggle to keep up with changing technology; and, secondly, the effect of external influences on domestic law. The chapter then looks at the theoretical justifications for copyright and the extent to which they accord with the current law, and the principal characteristics of copyright, including the crucial difference between protecting an idea and protecting the expression of that idea. There are a number of aspects of copyright that do not apply to other intellectual property rights like patents and trade marks. Understanding these differences will help one in distinguishing between the different types of intellectual property right.
8. Passing off
Authors: Karapapa Stavroula , McDonagh Luke
Published: August 2019

This chapter explores the tort of passing off which protects the goodwill of a trader from misrepresentation. In the United Kingdom, there is no obligation to register a trade mark. Protection has always been available at common law for marks in use, by means of the action for passing off. There are three elements of passing off. First a trader must establish that the trader has a goodwill or reputation attached to the goods or services which the trader supplies. Second, the trader must demonstrate that the defendant has made a misrepresentation leading or likely to lead the public to believe that the goods or services offered by the defendant are the goods or services of the claimant. Lastly, the trader must demonstrate that the trader has suffered or is likely to suffer damage by reason of the erroneous belief caused by the defendant's misrepresentation. These three elements are interdependent.
14. Defences to trade mark infringement
Authors: Karapapa Stavroula , McDonagh Luke
Published: August 2019

This chapter looks at the various defences against trade mark infringement and the way in which the courts have interpreted them. A defendant's principal argument will be to deny that there has been any infringing conduct, and/or that what has been done is not within the scope of protection given to the registered mark. There are, however, a number of statutory defences. These defences span from the use of one's own name to a framework outlining the conditions of comparative advertisement and the role of exhaustion of rights as a defence to an action for trade mark infringement, including the ways in which the intellectual property owner can object to the parallel importation of non-European Economic Area (EEA) goods.
19. Breach of confidence: Trade secrets and private information
Authors: Karapapa Stavroula , McDonagh Luke
Published: August 2019

This chapter studies breach of confidence. In the United Kingdom, the area of breach of confidence has traditionally been used to protect ideas and information, including trade secrets. The doctrine of breach of confidence is judge-made law, rooted in equitable principles. In consequence, it has developed in a piecemeal, and sometimes contradictory fashion, so that the rationale for the action has not always been clear. Nevertheless, the law of confidence is broad enough in the United Kingdom to encompass: the common definition of a trade secret (commercial, usually technical information); personal, private information which may also have a commercial value (including information which may be protected under the right to privacy under Art. 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)); and information protected by the state. The chapter then looks at the role of trade secrets in intellectual property law and considers the EU Trade Secrets Directive.
20. Designs
Authors: Karapapa Stavroula , McDonagh Luke
Published: August 2019

This chapter discusses the law on designs. The underlying idea behind the law on designs is that it involves two distinct elements: an article or product and some added ingredient, a design feature, which enhances the appearance of the article. It is the design feature, the added matter, which receives legal protection, not the product itself. The chapter then deals with the five principal means available to protect the appearance of a product: UK registered design; UK unregistered design right; UK copyright; EU registered design; and EU unregistered design. Thus, a designer who wishes to acquire protection for the appearance of an article under UK and/or EU law has several options. To add to the complexity, various aspects of the design can be protected by registered designs, unregistered designs, and copyright. The outcome is that a designer could end up with several different layers of protection.
22. Civil and criminal remedies
Authors: Karapapa Stavroula , McDonagh Luke
Published: August 2019

This concluding chapter explores the means available to the owner of an intellectual property (IP) right — whether a patent, trade mark, design, or copyright — to obtain redress for infringement. The law's exclusionary effect typically occurs by means of the claimant IP owner obtaining one or more remedies from a court against the defendant(s). Common remedies include injunctions and monetary compensation in the form of damages/accounts of profit. It is crucial to comprehend that the court, when granting remedies, attempts to strike a balance between the IP holder's rights and the principles of free competition. The chapter then considers the contexts in which IP rights are enforced and what remedies are available to a claimant before the full trial occurs, and what remedies are available to a successful claimant after there has been a substantive court ruling on infringement. It also looks at the problem of counterfeiting.
The Politics of the Police
Authors: Bowling Benjamin , Reiner Robert , Sheptycki James W E
Published: August 2019

In its fifth edition, The Politics of the Police has been revised, updated, and extended to take account of recent changes in the law, policy, organization, and social contexts of policing. It builds upon the previous editions’ political economy of policing to encompass a wide global and transnational scope, and to reflect the growing diversity of policing forms. This volume explores the highly charged debates that surround policing, including the various controversies that have led to a change in the public’s opinion of the police in recent years, as well as developments in law, accountability, and governance. The volume sets out to analyse what the police do, how they do it and with what effects, how the mass media shape public perceptions of the police, and how globalization, privatization, militarization, and securitization are impacting on contemporary police work. It concludes with an assessment of what we can expect for the future of policing.
3. Out of the blue: the establishment and diffusion of the modern police from the French Revolution to the twentieth century
Authors: Bowling Benjamin , Reiner Robert , Sheptycki James
Published: August 2019

The chapter outlines the development of modern police institutions around the world from the eighteenth century until the early twentieth. The discussion unfolds under five headings. The first is policing in Europe prior to the French Revolution and in the wake of the Napoleonic Empire. Next the evolution of the police under the common law in England up to the early nineteenth century is discussed. The third heading concerns the independent evolution of policing in the USA from independence to the First World War. European colonial and imperial police are the fourth consideration. Lastly, efforts to build modern police institutions in Iran, Japan, China, and Russia are considered. The chapter discusses a number of recognizable models for thinking about the politics of the police. It also considers contemporary concerns about the relationship between democratic and totalitarian policing, high and low policing, between police force and service.
5. The police role, function and effects
Authors: Bowling Benjamin , Reiner Robert , Sheptycki James
Published: August 2019

This chapter explores some of the political myths about police and policing by reviewing the research evidence on police practice. It considers the police role in theory and practice by focusing on three questions: what is the police role? what do the police actually do? and how well do they do it? It explores the original historical purpose of the police, the governmental authority on which it is based, the role of public opinion, why people call the police, the role and effectiveness of the police in crime control, and in broader social functions. The chapter concludes that the core function of the police is best analysed not in terms of any of their social functions but rather the special character of the means the police can bring to bear. Underlying the diversity of situations to which the police are called is the core capacity to use legitimate coercive force.
6. A fair cop? Policing and social justice
Authors: Bowling Benjamin , Reiner Robert , Sheptycki James
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines fairness in policing with reference to issues of race and gender. It first defines the terms of debate—justice, fairness, discrimination—then considers individual, cultural, institutional, and structural theories and applies these to various aspects of policing. It considers the histories of police discrimination in relation to the policing of poverty, chattel slavery, racial segregation, colonialism, religious conflict, and ethnic minority communities, to understand their contemporary legacy. The chapter then examines spheres of police activity where allegations of unfairness and discrimination are particularly salient, including the response to women crime victims of rape and domestic violence, the use of ‘racial profiling’ in stop and search powers, and the use of deadly force. It examines the experiences of people from ethnic minorities, women, gay men, and lesbians within police forces. Through an exploration of the historical and contemporary literature, the chapter draws conclusions on whether or not the police act fairly in democratic societies.
9. The politics of global policing
Authors: Bowling Benjamin , Reiner Robert , Sheptycki James
Published: August 2019

This chapter explores the impact of globalization on the architecture of policing, its organizational culture, priorities, and practices. Following a discussion of the context of the globalization of the economy, communications, and governance, the chapter examines the growth in the power and scope of transnational policing and its emergence as a field of study. The chapter explores the development of global policing organizations (such as Interpol and UNPOL), regional policing agencies (such as Europol), and the development of national hubs (such as the UK National Crime Agency). It explores the role of foreign police agencies acting abroad, the emergence of the overseas liaison officer as a policing specialism, and how global developments are shaping local policing. The chapter concludes with an assessment of the impact of globalization on debates about national and local police capacity, accountability, and control.
10. Police and media
Authors: Bowling Benjamin , Reiner Robert , Sheptycki James
Published: August 2019

This chapter synthesizes a theoretical view of police and media which considers not only media content, but also how different kinds of media technologies function as tools in the hands of different kinds of institutional actors. It also considers police-media relations in the light of neo-liberal market conditions. Relations between police and media have traditionally been conceptualized between two poles of argument, on the one side the orthodox/hegemonic and on the other the revisionist/subversive. However, the social fragmentation of ‘postmodern conditions’ at the cusp of the millennium troubled this binary. A common question in thinking about the police and media concerned the manufacture of consent and the creation of socially integrative conditions for policing by consent of the governed. This chapter argues that social conflict and dissensus are functional symptoms of neo-liberal social order in which security has become a commodity. The social disintegration accompanying an over-mediatized society does not inhibit market relations, but it does make policing more difficult.
3. Criminal law values
Authors: Horder Jeremy
Published: August 2019

The focus in this chapter is on the values the criminal law seeks to protect, through criminalization. First, key ‘intrinsic values’ are considered, such as bodily integrity and sexual autonomy. Secondly, an analysis of ‘public goods’ is provided. Public goods are goods in which we have no individual right or share, but which benefit us in common with others. The criminal law protects public goods as part of its role in supporting our many different lives in common, as consumers, employees, users of roads and of public transport, and so on. The security of the state, openness and integrity in corporate governance and public life, and the common pool resource of a welfare system are all very different examples of public goods in this sense.
11. Financial crime
Authors: Horder Jeremy
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines three major examples of financial crime: fraud, bribery, and money laundering. The importance of financial crime, and of vigorous prosecution policies in relation to it, should not be underestimated. Fraud accounts for no less than one third of all crimes captured by the Crime Survey for England and Wales. The European Union Parliament has estimated that corruption costs the EU between €179 and €990 billion each year. Finally, the Home Office estimates that the impact of money laundering on the UK economy is likely to exceed £90 billion. An understanding of these crimes, and in particular the way that they reflect corporate activity, is nowadays essential to the study of criminal law.
7. Certainty
Authors: Penner JE
Published: August 2019

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. A declaration of trust must be ‘certain’, meaning that a settlor must declare the terms of the trust with sufficient ‘certainty’ or precision for the trustees to know what they must do, or the intended trust fails. This chapter discusses the ‘three certainties’, following Knight v Knight (1840): certainty of intention; certainty of subject matter; and certainty of objects, in both the traditional family and commercial contexts. The first concerns the question whether what the putative settlor did or said amounts to a declaration of a trust over his property. The second requires that the property that is to form the trust corpus is identifiable. The third requires that the intended beneficiaries, the ‘objects’ of the trust, are identifiable.
13. Gathering data
Authors: Finch Emily , Fafinski Stefan
Published: August 2019

This chapter discusses the main approaches used by criminologists to gather data. It explains different methods of gathering data, such as interviews, focus groups, questionnaires, and observation, and how each of these methods can be used in criminological research. It also explains the strengths and weaknesses of each method. Discussion on selecting a sample for research, the different methods of sampling, and how to select the right sampling methods for a particular research study are also included.
16. Dissertations and research reports
Authors: Finch Emily , Fafinski Stefan
Published: August 2019

Many criminology students will be required to produce a dissertation or research report in their final year. This chapter distinguishes between these two pieces of work and offers practical advice on the requirements of each. It addresses skills such as selecting a workable research question and developing an effective relationship with supervisors, and also provides guidance on how to organize workload and create a suitable structure for a dissertation or report.
6. The Doctrine of Judicial Precedent
Authors: Holland James , Webb Julian
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines the use of case law to solve legal problems. In the study and practice of law we seek to analyse legal principles; and the ‘principles’ in English law are derived from pure case law or from case law dealing with statutes. The discussions cover the idea of binding precedent (stare decisis); establishing the principle in a case; the mechanics of stare decisis; whether there are any other exceptions to the application of stare decisis to the Court of Appeal that have emerged since 1944; whether every case has to be heard by the Court of Appeal before it can proceed to the Supreme Court; precedent in the higher courts; other courts; and the impact of human rights legislation.
11. European Legal Method
Authors: Holland James , Webb Julian
Published: August 2019

Since 1973, the English legal system has been radically affected by what is now called ‘EU law’. EU law takes precedence over all national laws, including legislation. This chapter explains the basic structure and relevance of EU institutions, legislation, and case law, and how these affect the methods of legal analysis we employ. The discussions cover the sources of EU law; the institutions of the EU and their increasingly important role in our law-making; the main analytical techniques employed by European lawyers; and the legal method employed in the Court of Justice of the European Union and the effect of EU law on the drafting and interpretation of UK Legislation.
20. Equity: doctrines and remedies
Authors: Watt Gary
Published: August 2019

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. In general, the leading cases on equitable doctrines and remedies are very old. Originally developed by the old Court of Chancery in constructive competition with the common law courts, equity is now applied by the unified Supreme Court of England and Wales. This chapter looks at particular doctrines and remedies that have been developed over many centuries to help predict the way in which equity will operate in various types of case. It first discusses the distinction between different doctrines of equity before turning to the requirements for the various equitable remedies, the likelihood of success when applying for an equitable remedy and the on-going significance of equity to modern commercial life. The chapter also examines the doctrines of conversion, reconversion, satisfaction, performance and election, along with the discretionary nature of equitable remedies, injunctions, rescission, rectification, account and subrogation.
14. Branding, trademarks, and domain names
Authors: Murray Andrew
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines the role of trademarks in the creation of brand portfolios online, including internet addresses or domain names. It first provides an overview of branding and trademarks in the global business environment, trademark characteristics, and the distinction between registered and unregistered trademarks, and then looks at domain names as address tools and brand identifiers. The chapter also considers early disputes over rightful ownership of trademarks and domain names, examining the development of cybersquatting case law before the UK and US courts. It discusses the allocation of new generic top-level domains under the New gTLD procedure and examines the legal safeguards for trademark holders under the procedure. The primary focus of the chapter is the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) Uniform Domain Name Dispute Resolution Policy and its domestic counterpart in the UK, the Nominet Dispute Resolution Service.
17. Electronic payments and cryptocurrency
Authors: Murray Andrew
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines online payment methods, including the use of tokens, in electronic commerce. It first provides an overview of token payments before looking at alternative electronic payment systems including debt substitution, payment by credit cards, and fund transfer. The chapter reviews the failure of the European Commission’s Electronic Money Directive 2000 and examines whether the current law, found in the 2009 Electronic Money Directive, is likely to provide a better legal environment for electronic money to flourish. It spends considerable time looking at the development of cryptocurrencies, including bitcoin and how blockchain is used to establish trust in cryptocurrency transactions, before concluding with an analysis of the law in relation to cryptocurrency.
19. Computer misuse
Authors: Murray Andrew
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines computer misuse, a collective term for a number of criminal offences committed by means of a computer, often through access to the internet, including computer hacking (unauthorized access), denial-of-service attacks, and the creation and distribution of computer viruses and other malware. It first discusses hacking, focusing on employee hackers and external hackers, and then looks at the political debate surrounding the UK’s Computer Misuse Act 1990, and extradition centred on the cases of hackers Gary McKinnon and Laurie Love. The chapter also considers ‘digital criminal damage’ associated with the creation and distribution of computer viruses, along with cases of web defacement and mail-bombing.
20. Obscenity in the information society
Authors: Murray Andrew
Published: August 2019

This chapter, which examines pornography and obscenity on the internet, first provides an overview of the UK common law standard known as the Hicklin principle and the Obscene Publications Acts. It then discusses the UK standard and US statutory interventions on pornography, the impact of the case ACLU v Reno on the regulation of sexually explicit content on the internet, pseudo-images, and images depicting child abuse as the most extreme form of pornographic image, and the policing of pseudo-images in the UK and internationally. The chapter also considers the law on non-photographic pornographic images of children, along with private regulation of pornographic imagery and the new Age-verification code for adult websites.
2. Parliamentary Sovereignty in a Changing Constitutional Landscape
Authors: Elliott Mark
Published: August 2019

Parliamentary sovereignty is often presented as the central principle of the United Kingdom’s constitution. In this sense, it might be thought to be a constant: a fixed point onto which we can lock, even when the constitution is otherwise in a state of flux. That the constitution presently is—and has for some time been— in a state of flux is hard to dispute. Over the last half-century or so, a number of highly significant developments have occurred, including the UK’s joining— and now leaving—the European Union; the enactment of the Human Rights Act 1998; the devolution of legislative and administrative authority to new institutions in Belfast, Cardiff and Edinburgh; and the increasing prominence accorded by the courts to the common law as a repository of fundamental constitutional rights and values. Each of these developments raises important questions about the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty. The question might be thought of in terms of the doctrine’s capacity to withstand, or accommodate, developments that may, at least at first glance, appear to be in tension with it. Such an analysis seems to follow naturally if we are wedded to an orthodox, and perhaps simplistic, account of parliamentary sovereignty, according to which the concept is understood in unyielding and absolutist terms: as something that is brittle, and which must either stand or fall in the face of changing circumstances. Viewed from a different angle, however, the developments of recent years and decades might be perceived as an opportunity to think about parliamentary sovereignty in a different, and arguably more useful, way—by considering how the implications of this still-central concept are being shaped by the changing nature of the constitutional landscape within which it sits. That is the task with which this chapter is concerned.
3. Human Rights and the UK Constitution
Authors: O’Cinneide Colm
Published: August 2019

UK law relating to civil liberties and human rights has undergone radical transformation over the last few decades, in part because of the influence exerted by the European Convention on Human Rights (‘the ECHR’) on British law. The Human Rights Act 1998 (‘the HRA’), which incorporates the civil and political rights protected by the ECHR into national law, now plays a key role in the UK’s constitutional system. It complements legislative mechanisms for protecting individual rights—such as the Equality Act 2010 —and imposes significant constraints on the exercise of public power. However, the current state of UK human rights law is controversial. The HRA is regularly subject to political attack, while leading politicians bemoan the influence exerted by the ECHR over UK law: yet no consensus exists as to how human rights should best be protected within the framework of the British constitution. It remains to be seen whether Brexit will change the dynamics of this debate.