bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CHAPTER 6 The Lesson of Kaplan's Paradox about Possible World Semantics
Authors: Anderson C. Anthony
Published: May 2009

Kaplan has shown that possible world semantics cannot preserve the principle: (A) ∀p◊∀s (Qs ↔ p = s). He has urged that logic should be neutral on metaphysical questions, but this line seems very difficult to follow in general. The additional paradox does not directly turn on possible world semantics but is the Epimenides come back to haunt us. Kaplan proposes ramification to thwart the paradox and to preserve a ramified version of (A). This chapter argues a different course, which has some advantages over ramification.
CHAPTER 7 Possible Worlds Semantics and the Liar
Authors: Lindström Sten
Published: May 2009

This chapter discusses a paradox that, in Kaplan's view, threatens the use of possible worlds semantics as a model‐theoretic framework for intensional logic. Kaplan's paradox starts out from an intuitively reasonable principle referred to as the principle of plenitude. From this principle he derives a contradiction in what he calls naive possible world theory. Kaplan's metatheoretic argument can be restated in the modal object language as an intensional version of the Liar paradox.
CHAPTER 8 The Role of Variables
Authors: Fine Kit
Published: May 2009

Logicians and philosophers generally suppose that we now possess a perfectly good understanding of how variables work in the symbolism of logic and mathematics. Given Frege's account of their syntactic role and Tarski's account of their semantic role, it would appear that nothing more of any significance need be said. However, this common view is mistaken. There are deep problems concerning the role of variables that have never been properly recognized, let alone solved, and once we attempt to solve them, we see that they have profound implications not only for our understanding of variables but also for our understanding of other forms of expression and for the general nature of semantics. This chapter explains what these problems are and how they are to be solved, and indicates the implications for the rest of semantics.
CHAPTER 12 Can Frege Pose Frege's Puzzle?
Authors: Glezakos Stavroula
Published: May 2009

Frege maintains that two name‐containing identity sentences, represented schematically as a = a and a = b, can both be made true by the same object's self‐identity but nonetheless differ in their epistemic profiles. According to Frege, sentences of the form a = a are knowable a priori and uninformative; those of the form a = b are often informative, and cannot always be known to be true a priori. Frege solves his puzzle by locating a source for this purported epistemic difference between the identity sentences: the distinct Sinne, or senses, expressed by the names that the sentences contain. Thus, Frege portrays himself as describing a puzzle that arises independently of any particular theoretical position regarding names, and then solving that puzzle with the theoretical apparatus of Sinn and Bedeutung. This chapter argues that Frege's presentation is problematic. If an attempt is made to characterize the epistemic status of true identity sentences without appeal to Frege's theoretical commitments, then what initially seemed puzzling, largely dissolves. It turns out that, in order to generate his puzzle, Frege must invoke that which he seeks to establish the necessity of: the theoretical account of Sinn.
3 A Feminist Ethics Response to the Skeptic
Authors: Superson Anita M.
Published: May 2009

This chapter examines three responses to the action skeptic offered by care ethicists who reject self‐interest based contractarianism for reasons relating to its assumption of abstract individualism. The most promising retains the traditional picture of the skeptic, but offers an internalist reason for acting morally that necessarily connects a reason for acting in a caring way with acting from the motive of care. The chapter argues that since this motive cashes out under patriarchy in ways that recapitulate women's oppression, we should also reject this attempt to defeat the action skeptic. This chapter challenges the skeptic's endorsement of expected utility because it does not exclude deformed desires as irrational, and questions whether we need to defeat motive skepticism, and whether we need a fuller account of justification than expected utility allows that squares with a richer account of morality than self‐interest based contractarianism.
5 Self‐Interest versus Morality
Authors: Superson Anita M.
Published: May 2009

The traditional model of the skeptic dichotomizes morality with self‐interest, both in the theory of practical reason the skeptic is assumed to endorse and in the motives he believes it rational to have. But there are immoral acts other than self‐interested ones that are at least as much in opposition to morality, and we need to cover these for a successful defeat of skepticism. This chapter argues that privilege covers all these acts which have in common that the agent fails to respect the intrinsic value of another person. It defends an alternative model to that of expected utility, according to which the skeptic's view is that acting in ways that privilege oneself vis-à-vis morality is rationally required. On this broader model, defeating skepticism amounts to showing that it is rationally required, because consistent, to respect the humanity of others. We appeal to reasons of consistency rather than self‐interested reasons to defeat skepticism.
CHAPTER 2 Rank‐Dependent Utility
Authors: Abdellaoui Mohammed
Published: May 2009

Rank‐dependent utility (RDu) is among the most popular generalizations of the standard model of expected utility. It takes into account the main violations of expected utility (Allais paradox, Ellsberg paradox). Furthermore, the replacement of probabilities by decision weights allows us to capture what may be called “chance attitude” in addition to attitude towards outcomes. This chapter aims to bring into focus the main violations of expected utility that opened the way to rank‐dependent utility. Then, it presents the main preference conditions behind rankdependence. The chapter concludes with a few experimental results as regards the elicitation of cumulative prospect theory, the most compelling version of Rank‐dependent utility.
CHAPTER 5 The Normative Status of the Independence Principle
Authors: McClennen Edward F.
Published: May 2009

Some version or other of what is known as the “independence principle” plays a ubiquitous role in the axiomatic derivation of the normative version of expected‐utility theory. The various versions are identified, and the arguments for each are critiqued. The conclusion is that none of the arguments for this or that version of the independence principle are convincing, and thus that the expected‐utility theory, as a normative theory, is itself much less secure than most have taken it to be.
CHAPTER 12 Diversity
Authors: Nehring Klaus , Puppe Clemens
Published: May 2009

The chapter critically reviews the recent attempts to formalize the concept of diversity and its measurement. After discussing measures based on ordinal and on cardinal binary dissimilarity information, we review the multi‐attribute model as a benchmark model and show how several proposals in the literature can be obtained as special cases. We contrast the “absolute” conception of diversity embodied in the multi‐attribute model with the “relative“ conception of diversity used in much of the biological literature, and indicate how these two conceptions could be reconciled in a comprehensive model using sampling. The full development of such a model seems a worthwhile subject for future research.
CHAPTER 15 Freedom of Choice
Authors: Dowding Keith , Van Hees Martin
Published: May 2009

This chapter introduces and reviews the extensive literature using an axiomatic‐deductive approach to the measurement of freedom of choice and suggest some new avenues of research. It presents Pattanaik and Xu's (1990) axiomatic characterization of the simple but counter‐intuitive cardinality rule that the more alternatives in an opportunity set the more freedom the set provides. Within the various discussions of this ranking, we distinguish a diversity and an opportunity issue. The diversity issue concerns the failure of the cardinality rule to incorporate information about differences between alternatives. The opportunity issue concerns incorporating individual preferences over alternatives into the measurement of freedom of choice. Diversity is usually addressed without recourse to preferences and the two lines can therefore also be referred to as non‐preference‐based and preference‐based approaches to the measurement of freedom of choice. After presenting the outlines of these approaches and some proposed measurements, we suggest that they neglect relevant information about the things individuals are not free to do. We subsequently ask whether the literature tries to measure the extent of a person's freedom or its value. If it is the former then the differences between the two types of approach can be explained by their underlying definition of freedom. If it is the latter then important elements are not captured by any of the axiomatic formulations: namely the costs of choice. It concludes the chapter by suggesting some new lines of inquiry.
CHAPTER 18 Rawlsian Justice
Authors: Peter Fabienne
Published: May 2009

Rawls's theory of justice builds on the social contract tradition to offer an alternative to utilitarianism. Rawls singles out justice‐not maximum welfare or efficiency‐as “the first virtue of social institutions”. Economists were quick to realize the relevance of Rawls's theory of justice for economics. Early contributions in welfare economics and social choice theory typically attempted to incorporate Rawls's ideas into a welfarist framework. Current research in normative economics comes closer to Rawls's original proposal of a non‐consequentialist theory of justice. This chapter first introduces Rawls's theory of justice and then addresses some of the debates his theory has triggered in normative economics.
CHAPTER 22 Social Choice in Health and Health Care
Authors: Tsuchiya Aki , Miyamoto John
Published: May 2009

A large part of health economics concerns the methodology of informing the best way to allocate health‐care resources at the social level, and the actual delivery of such information. One typical analytical approach is called the cost per QALY analysis, where health gains are quantified in terms of QALYs (Quality-Adjusted Life-Years). The QALY is a composite measure of the duration of survival and the health‐related quality of life associated with each period of survival. This chapter examines the nature of the QALY as the desideratum; why should we regard the QALY as the desideratum in health care? Two schools of thought are discussed. The welfarist school holds that the QALY is the desideratum because it is a representation of people's utility associated with their own health state. The non‐welfarist school proposes an alternative view and argues that the QALY is the desideratum because this is what publicly funded health‐care systems are set up for. The second part of the chapter looks at different ways in which individual QALYs can be aggregated across the population, in the form of a health‐related social welfare function, in order to facilitate economic evaluations.
CHAPTER 23 The Capabilities Approach
Authors: Schokkaert Erik
Published: May 2009

Capabilities and functionings are new and attractive concepts for assessing the well‐being and advantage of individuals. Functionings refer to a person's achievements, i.e. what she manages to do or to be. Capabilities refer to her real opportunities and incorporate the idea of freedom. The chapter discusses how recent theoretical and empirical work has improved our insights in some of the key questions of the approach. How should we measure opportunities and how balance freedom and responsibility? How can we formulate a list of capabilities which can be used to analyze changes over time and differences between different societies without being open to manipulation? How can we construct an overall index of well‐being and what should be the relative role of a priori ethical evaluations and the opinions of the individuals themselves? What is the relationship between measures of well‐being and advantage at the individual and at the aggregate level? To make further progress it is crucial, first, to estimate structural models with individual data, analyzing the link between individual achievements, the socioeconomic and environmental background of the persons concerned and the specific features of the individual processes of choice and decision‐making; and, second, to integrate the insights from these models into a coherent ethical framework specifying the role of individual preferences and the limits of personal responsibility.
A Superior–Subordinate Relationship Between the Accused and Those Who Committed the Underlying Offences
Authors: Mettraux Guenael
Published: May 2009

This chapter discusses the first constitutive element of the doctrine of superior responsibility, namely, the requirement that there must exist a relationship of authority between the accused and those who committed the underlying offence in such a way that the accused (as superior) was able to control those subordinates and was able to prevent or punish their crimes. The concept, relevance, and importance of a vertical chain of command between the superior and the perpetrator; the nature and scope of that relationship (de jure or de facto); and the issue of the time at which such a relationship of subordination must be established are discussed.
A Culpable State of Mind
Authors: Mettraux Guenael
Published: May 2009

This chapter discusses each and every aspect of the relevant mens rea or state of mind relevant to the doctrine of superior responsibility both under customary international law and in the Statute of the International Criminal Courts. It reviews the three different categories of knowledge which, depending on the applicable law, would suffice to render a superior liable under that doctrine: ‘knew’, ‘had reason to know’, and ‘should have known’. It further makes it clear that knowledge of crimes committed by subordinates is not itself sufficient to engage a superior's criminal responsibility and that it would have to be established that he intentionally failed to fulfil his duties thereby demonstrating his acquiescent with the crimes. Simple negligence on his part would not be sufficient to engage his responsibility; only gross negligence would.
Breach of a Duty and Consequential Failure to Prevent or to Punish Crimes of Subordinates
Authors: Mettraux Guenael
Published: May 2009

This chapter discusses the third element of command responsibility, namely, a grave and culpable failure on the part of a superior to adopt necessary and reasonable measures to prevent or punish crimes of subordinates. It discusses further the type and gravity of those instances of dereliction of duty that are capable or have the potential to engage the superior responsibility of a military or civilian leader.
Concluding Remarks: A Workable Standard of Liability for Superiors
Authors: Mettraux Guenael
Published: May 2009

This concluding chapter reviews the somewhat chaotic short history of the doctrine of command responsibility from its contentious beginning to today's state of the law. It discusses the outstanding challenges facing that body of rules, principles, and prohibitions. It reviews the ‘philosophical’ fight over the content and scope of the doctrine. It delineates the scope of that doctrine under customary international law through its main elements, providing for a workable and clear definition of the modern doctrine of superior or command responsibility.
The Definition of ‘Conflicts of Norms’
Authors: Vranes Erich
Published: May 2009

This chapter argues that the narrow definition of conflict prevailing in international law is problematic in legal terms. It submits that an adequate definition of conflict of norms firstly has to be a wide one that includes incompatibilities between permissions and obligations, permissions and prohibitions, and obligations and prohibitions; and secondly should to rely on a ‘test of violation’. Additionally, this chapter clarifies misunderstandings in panel practice and academic writings relating to WTO Appellate Body rulings which have not in fact addressed the issue of conflicting norms of conduct, but the problem of inconsistent norms granting competences. In conclusion, the definition of conflict of norms in legal theory, in any given legal fields and in international law should read: There is a conflict between norms, one of which may be permissive, if in obeying or applying one norm, the other norm is necessarily or potentially violated.
The Role of International Law Conflicting with WTO Law in WTO Proceedings
Authors: Vranes Erich
Published: May 2009

This chapter deals with the concepts of jurisdiction and applicable law in WTO dispute settlement. It argues that international law in conflict with WTO law must, under certain circumstances, be recognized as superseding WTO law even within WTO proceedings. The central thesis is that substantive WTO obligations essentially being reciprocal, WTO Members should be regarded as being in a position, in principle, to modify such rights and duties inter partes. Given that the jurisdiction of WTO adjudicating bodies is claim-specific, their competence may lapse also due to inter se modifications of substantive WTO law (i.e., the legal grounds on which claims can be brought). This requires panels to take account of such non-WTO norms that are invoked as a defence, if the latter have to be regarded as lawful modifications of WTO law and as being meant to prevail over WTO law by the WTO Members bound by them.
Non-Discrimination and Justification in the GATT
Authors: Vranes Erich
Published: May 2009

This chapter addresses the non-discrimination disciplines of the GATT (most-favoured-nation treatment and national treatment) and related issues, notably justification on non-economic grounds under Article XX of the GATT. It argues that the term ‘like products’ in Articles I and III of the GATT should primarily be understood to mean products that are in a sufficiently close competitive relationship. It argues that the so-called ‘aim and effects’ test is legally flawed. It then examines the concept of ‘less favourable treatment’ in Article III of the GATT, showing that WTO scholarship has often misunderstood the concept of indirect (de facto) discrimination. The chapter then examines the role of the wording ‘so as to afford protection’ in Article III. Finally, it thoroughly examines Article XX, the concepts of necessity and proportionality, the so-called ‘new necessity test’, and the appropriate margin of appreciation.
Climate Protection and WTO Law
Authors: Vranes Erich
Published: May 2009

This chapter examines the legal relationship between WTO law and domestic climate protection measures that are taken in line with the international climate change regime, which is set up through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol. It uses climate protection measures taken in EU law as practical examples for examining and illustrating the impact of WTO law on domestic climate protection measures. In particular, it addresses ecodesign requirements for energy-using products, voluntary life-cycle labelling (climate labelling), voluntary agreements with the industry, mandatory carbon-dioxide labelling, fiscal measures in the car sector (tax differentiation on the basis of CO2 emissions and fiscal promotion of biofuels). Correcting a frequent misunderstanding, this chapter submits inter alia that process-based (PPM-based) environmental labels are not per se prohibited under WTO law.
2 The Tools of Thinking
Authors: Quinlan Michael
Published: May 2009

This chapter notes that, beyond 1945, we have no direct evidence at all about the operational use of nuclear weapons and how conflict involving them might develop. This means that we have to rely on concepts not fully validated by experience; and that in turn calls for a degree of intellectual humility in pronouncements about such issues, even though the worldwide effort over sixty years to explore and clarify them, especially in the West, has been impressive. This chapter warns that special care is needed about the handling of metaphors like ‘nuclear threshold’ and ‘escalation’; about terms of art like ‘first use’ and ‘first strike’; about descriptions like ‘strategic’ and ‘tactical’; and about the scope of the concepts of deterrence and dissuasion.
3 Deterrence
Authors: Quinlan Michael
Published: May 2009

This chapter explores the meaning and functioning of deterrence, and its salience in the nuclear age. It recalls that deterrence nevertheless extends beyond nuclear weapons, and that an effective deterrence structure must have more than just a capacity for vast destruction—that it needs, for example, some range of options, and evident clarity about what will be regarded as intolerable. Several misunderstandings are reviewed about how the logic of deterrence works, such as that it requires exceptional rationality among the parties, or an implacable determination to use weapons, or a prospective equality of suffering as between the parties. Finally, this chapter discusses whether this can still work in the post‐Cold-War world, and suggests that deterrence may in future need to be more broadly and flexibly constructed than it was during the Cold War.
4 Nuclear Deterrence in NATO
Authors: Quinlan Michael
Published: May 2009

This chapter reviews how NATO, amid the tensions and complexities inevitable in a diverse alliance, sought to tackle the task, within its strategic concept of flexible response, of constructing an agreed and credible deterrence framework incorporating nuclear weapons. It records the establishment of the Nuclear Planning Group, and explains how the use of this instrument managed to tease out acceptable approaches to the problems about nuclear weapons posed in the European setting in face of the Warsaw Pact. It recalls the evolution of NATO's nuclear armoury away from an inventory of excessive size with numerous categories of ‘tactical’ weapons of doubtful utility. It notes the value placed on having other members of the Alliance sharing with the United States some of the costs and responsibilities of the nuclear role. It recognizes, nevertheless, that some of the theory and provision during the Cold War may have become needlessly elaborate.
5 The Ethics of Nuclear Weapons
Authors: Quinlan Michael
Published: May 2009

This chapter examines the acute moral problems which the existence of nuclear weapons poses for all possible ethical viewpoints. Against the background of the Just War tradition of analysis, it notes the difficulties which the possession of nuclear weapons, and willingness ultimately to contemplate their use, must entail—especially about jus in bello criteria—but sets alongside these the different but no less severe problems which any other basic moral position, renouncing unconditionally any possibility of use, must confront. It argues, in face of the inescapable choice among these positions, that nuclear possession and use in extremis cannot be condemned absolutely, but it recognizes that the severity of the dilemmas underscores the need to take seriously the aspiration eventually to escape from them all by the abolition of nuclear armouries.
7 Proliferation
Authors: Quinlan Michael
Published: May 2009

This chapter considers why the spread of nuclear weapons to new possessors has been generally recognized as dangerous, and then notes the array of instruments, centred upon the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), that has been built up to prevent this. It discusses problems about the asymmetrical character of the Treaty, and brings out that the Treaty embodies three main bargains of which disarmament by the tolerated nuclear-weapon possessors is only one. It acknowledges nevertheless that such disarmament needs to be taken further if whole-hearted support for the Treaty-centred regime, pressure upon problem states like North Korea and Iran, and acceptance of the burdens and constraints which the regime entails are to be maintained, and if the need is to be acted upon, preferably at the 2010 Treaty review conference, to remedy regime weaknesses concerning verification, the right of withdrawal, and reconciling the prevention of wider weapon-proliferation potential with the likely spread of nuclear energy.
13 The Practical Agenda
Authors: Quinlan Michael
Published: May 2009

This final chapter considers what action might be taken, short of the at-best-distant abolitionist goal, to constrain the risks and costs and to optimize the peace-maintaining contribution of nuclear armouries while they continue to exist. Drawing largely upon earlier chapters, it summarizes what needs to be done in the non-proliferation field both over problem countries and in remedying wider systemic weaknesses. It reviews the potential for further steps, especially though not only by the United States and Russia, on nuclear disarmament and related issues such as transparency and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). It notes the scope for improving doctrines and postures, for example, by clarifying the ‘no first use’ issue and by ending any remaining arrangements for holding nuclear forces at short notice to launch. Finally, it recalls that though this direct nuclear-weapon agenda is still important, the central path to dependable peace and security must still be primarily a matter of basic political advance in resolving disputes and improving structures for managing them.
An operational system for automatic school identification on multibeam sonar echoes
Authors: Trygonis Vasilis , Georgakarakos Stratis , Simmonds E. John
Published: May 2009

Trygonis, V., Georgakarakos, S., and Simmonds, E. J. 2009. An operational system for automatic school identification on multibeam sonar echoes. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66: 935–949. A system for identifying and tracking fish schools is demonstrated, based on the analysis of multibeam sonar data obtained by a Simrad SP90 long-range sonar. Fish-school detection and identification techniques are similar to those commonly used for vertical echosounders, further enhanced with innovative processing algorithms applied to successive multibeam echograms, increasing the certainty that the identified objects are fish schools. Additionally, analysis of school dynamic parameters facilitates the classification of targets into certain groups, here discriminating the fish aggregating device-natant fish complex from tuna. Statistical analysis of selected tracks quantifies the spatio-temporal variability of the school descriptors, which are used retrospectively to select appropriate analysis thresholds. The algorithms are implemented in an acquisition, visualization, and processing software platform that is flexible regarding sonar characteristics (beam width and number of beams) and can be extended easily to track school echotraces in a three-dimensional mode.
The Importance of Reporting New Host-Fungus Records for Ornamental and Regional Crops
Authors: Dugan Frank M. , Glawe Dean A. , Attanayake Renuka N. , Chen Weidong
Published: May 2009

Accurate and timely reports of new host-fungus records are essential for diagnostics and identification, management, and prevention of plant diseases. Important also are venues to publish these reports in a timely manner and the ability to rapidly search for the information contained in these reports. Presented herein are examples of first reports of fungal pathogens on regional crops, including ornamentals and turf grasses, which illustrate how first reports contribute to preparedness, accurate diagnostics, and knowledge of biogeography and host range. We provide a guide to sources of host-fungus records, discuss venues for publishing new records, and review the information important in a new record, including deposition of voucher specimens. We appeal to plant health professionals to increase their efforts of discovering, documenting, and reporting new records.

Accepted for publication 13 March 2009. Published 12 May 2009.
Characterization and Survival of Cercospora sojina in Ohio
Authors: Cruz C. D. , Dorrance A. E.
Published: May 2009

Frogeye leaf spot (FLS) of soybean, caused by Cercospora sojina, has increased in incidence and severity during the last 3 years in Ohio and caused substantial economic losses for the first time during 2006. FLS is common in the southern United States but has only recently been reported to cause losses in the north-central region. This study evaluated several traits of the fungus which may have contributed to the increase in disease incidence such as: the ability of C. sojina to overwinter and sporulate on infested soybean debris; optimum temperatures for mycelial growth; races (pathotypes) present in Ohio; and pathogenicity on cultivars with Rcs gene(s) for FLS resistance. Conidia of C. sojina were recovered from soybean debris collected at two locations from December to May 2007-2008. The optimum temperature for mycelial growth of all isolates evaluated in this study including those from Louisiana and southern Illinois was 25°C. The 50 isolates of C. sojina collected in Ohio were able to infect a mean of 4.9 of 12 differentials and had a total of 20 different pathotypes. The Rcs3 gene conferred resistance to all of the Ohio isolates. Survival of C. sojina in the field during the winters of 2005 to 2007 contributed to the increase of C. sojina during the 2005, 2006, and 2007 production seasons in Ohio.

Accepted for publication 11 April 2009. Published 12 May 2009.
Enabling cutting-edge semiconductor simulation through grid technology
Authors: Reid Dave , Millar Campbell , Roy Scott , Roy Gareth , Sinnott Richard , Stewart Gordon , Stewart Graeme , Asenov Asen
Published: May 2009

The progressive scaling of complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) transistors drives the success of the global semiconductor industry. Detailed knowledge of transistor behaviour is necessary to overcome the many fundamental challenges faced by chip and systems designers. Grid technology has enabled the unavoidable statistical variations introduced by scaling to be examined in unprecedented detail. Over 200 000 transistors have been simulated, the results of which provide detailed insight into underlying physical processes. This paper outlines recent scientific results of the nanoCMOS project and describes the way in which the scientific goals have been reflected in the grid-based e-Infrastructure.
Standards-based network monitoring for the grid
Authors: Nowell Jeremy , Kavoussanakis Kostas , Palansuriya Charaka , Piotrowski Michal , Scharinger Florian , Graham Paul , Dobrzelecki Bartosz , Trew Arthur
Published: May 2009

As large grid infrastructures, such as Enabling Grids for E-sciencE, mature, they are being used by scientists around the world in their daily work, running thousands of concurrent computational jobs and transferring large amounts of data. The successful and sustainable operation of such grid infrastructures is only possible through the use of monitoring tools. The underlying networks upon which grid infrastructures are built are critical to their operation; therefore, network monitoring becomes an important part of the overall grid monitoring strategy. In this paper, the design and implementation of a set of tools for providing access to federated network monitoring data are presented, based on standards developed within the Open Grid Forum Network Measurements Working Group (NM-WG). These tools give access to data collected by heterogeneous, NM-WG compliant network monitoring tools.
Validation of high rates of nucleotide substitution in geminiviruses: phylogenetic evidence from East African cassava mosaic viruses
Authors: Duffy Siobain , Holmes Edward C.
Published: May 2009

Whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses are major pathogens of the important crop cassava in Africa. The intensive sampling and sequencing of cassava mosaic disease-causing viruses that occurred in the wake of a severe outbreak in Central Africa (1997–2002) allowed us to estimate the rate of evolution of this virus. East African cassava mosaic virus and related species are obligately bipartite (DNA-A and DNA-B segments), and these two genome segments have different evolutionary histories. Despite these phylogenetic differences, we inferred high rates of nucleotide substitution in both segments: mean rates of 1.60×10−3and 1.33×10−4 substitutions site−1 year−1for DNA-A and DNA-B, respectively. While similarly high substitution rates were found in datasets free of detectable recombination, only that estimated for the coat protein gene (AV1), for which an additional DNA-A sequence isolated in 1995 was available, was statistically robust. These high substitution rates also confirm that those previously estimated for the monopartite tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) are representative of multiple begomoviruses. We also validated our rate estimates by comparing them with those depicting the emergence of TYLCV in North America. These results further support the notion that geminiviruses evolve as rapidly as many RNA viruses.
Genetic and epidemiological characterization of Stretch Lagoon orbivirus, a novel orbivirus isolated from Culex and Aedes mosquitoes in northern Australia
Authors: Cowled Chris , Palacios Gustavo , Melville Lorna , Weir Richard , Walsh Susan , Davis Steven , Gubala Aneta , Lipkin W. Ian , Briese Thomas , Boyle David
Published: May 2009

Stretch Lagoon orbivirus (SLOV) was isolated in 2002 from pooled Culex annulirostris mosquitoes collected at Stretch Lagoon, near the Wolfe Creek national park in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Conventional serological tests were unable to identify the isolate, and electron microscopy indicated a virus of the genus Orbivirus, family Reoviridae. Here, a cDNA subtraction method was used to obtain approximately one-third of the viral genome, and further sequencing was performed to complete the sequences of segment 1 (viral polymerase) and segment 2 (conserved inner-core protein). Phylogenetic analysis showed that SLOV should be considered a new species within the genus Orbivirus. A real-time RT-PCR test was designed to study the epidemiology of SLOV in the field. Six additional isolates of SLOV were identified, including isolates from four additional locations and two additional mosquito species. Horses, donkeys and goats were implicated as potential vertebrate hosts in a serological survey.
Zebrafish embryo extracts promote sphere‐forming abilities of human melanoma cell line
Authors: Na Yi‐Rang , Seok Seung‐Hyeok , Kim Dong‐Jae , Han Ju‐Hee , Kim Tae‐Hyun , Jung Hyoun , Park Jae‐Hak
Published: May 2009

Sphere‐forming abilities in culture condition are considered a hallmark of cancer stem‐like cells, which represents tumor cell invasiveness and stem‐like characteristics. We aimed to show that the sphere‐forming subpopulation of human malignant melanoma cell line WM‐266‐4 acts differently to zebrafish embryo extracts compared with their bulk counterpart. Spheres were maintained in neural stem cell culture conditions. The embryos of zebrafish at specific developmental stages were collected and the extracts were purified under 100 kDa. Spheres were treated with embyo extracts and proliferation assay and immunocytochemistry were conducted. Spheroid cells expressed nestin and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) but not melanoma antigen recognized by T‐cells (MART)1, indicating their stem‐like character. Zebrafish embryo extracts at 50% epiboly stage inhibited melanoma bulk cell proliferation in a dose‐dependent manner. However, sphere‐forming abilities were significantly enhanced under 1 µg/mL concentration of 50% epiboly stage embryo extract treatment. Our findings implicate that we should consider cell subsets of a different character from the tumor origin that can respond differently to exogenous substances or tumor microenvironments. We suggest that cancer research should consider both minor stem‐like subpopulations and the other major bulk tumor cells. (Cancer Sci 2009)
Engineered therapeutic antibodies with improved effector functions
Authors: Kubota Tsuguo , Niwa Rinpei , Satoh Mitsuo , Akinaga Shiro , Shitara Kenya , Hanai Nobuo
Published: May 2009

In the past decade, more than 20 therapeutic antibodies have been approved for clinical use and many others are now at the clinical and preclinical stage of development. Fragment crystallizable (Fc)‐dependent antibody functions, such as antibody‐dependent cell‐mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC), complement‐dependent cytotoxicity (CDC), and a long half‐life, have been suggested as important clinical mechanisms of therapeutic antibodies. These functions are primarily triggered through direct interaction of the Fc domain with its corresponding receptors: FcγRIIIa for ADCC, C1q for CDC, and neonatal Fc receptor for prolongation of the clearance rate. However, current antibody therapy still faces the critical issues of insufficient efficacy and the high cost of the therapeutic agents. A possible solution to these issues could be to engineer antibody molecules to enhance their antitumor activity, leading to improved therapeutic outcomes and reduced doses. Here, we review advanced Fc engineering approaches for the enhancement of effector functions, some of which are now ready for evaluation of their effectiveness in clinical trials. (Cancer Sci 2009; 100: 1566–1572)
Short‐term mortality of Australian bass, Macquaria novemaculeata, after catch‐and‐release angling
Authors: HALL K. C. , BUTCHER P. A. , BROADHURST M. K.
Published: May 2009

Abstract  Australian bass, Macquaria novemaculeata Steindachner, is angled in large numbers from coastal impoundments and rivers throughout south‐eastern Australia. Many are released in the belief that most survive with few negative short‐term impacts. This assumption was investigated in three experiments involving a range of conventional angling scenarios. A total of 313 Australian bass were angled and then released along with appropriate controls into either land‐based tanks or floating cages, where they were monitored for up to 5 days. No controls died. Short‐term mortalities of angled fish were low (0–6%) and attributed to the effects of bait type, hook location and fish size (P < 0.05). Specifically, fish that ingested hooks or were caught with natural baits were more likely to die than those that were mouth‐hooked or caught on lures. Mortality negatively correlated with fish size. The results supported previous assertions that Australian bass is a resilient, hardy species that should tolerate short‐term impacts associated with catch‐and‐release angling. However, other sublethal physiological impacts that could contribute towards delayed mortalities or reduced reproductive output warrant further investigation, particularly in relation to native populations in coastal rivers that form gauntlet fisheries during their annual spawning season.
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic integration of orbifloxacin in Korean Hanwoo cattle
Authors: ELIAS G. , LEE J.‐S. , HWANG M.‐H. , PARK Y.‐S. , CHO K.‐H. , KIM Y.‐H. , PARK S.‐C.
Published: May 2009

The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of orbifloxacin were studied in six clinically healthy Hanwoo cows after intravenous (i.v.) and intramuscular (i.m.) administration at a dose of 3 mg/kg. Orbifloxacin concentrations were determined by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Steady‐state volume of distribution and clearance of orbifloxacin after i.v. administration were 0.92 L/kg and 0.24 L/h·kg, respectively. Following i.m. administration, a slow and complete absorption with absolute bioavailability of 101.4%, and a maximum concentration (Cmax) of 1.17 μg/mL at 1.04 h were observed. The in vitro serum protein binding was 14.76%. The in vitro antibacterial activity of orbifloxacin against a pathogenic strain of Mannheimia haemolytica (M. haemolytica), Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) was determined. The ex vivo activity of orbifloxacin against M. haemolytica strain was also determined, and these data were integrated with the ex vivo bacterial counts to establish AUC24h/MIC values producing bacteriostatic action, bactericidal action and elimination of bacteria. Mean values were 32.7, 51.6 and 102.6 h, respectively. From these data, we predict that orbifloxacin, when administered i.m. at a dosage of 2.5–5 mg/kg once a day, would be effective against bovine pathogens, such as M. haemolytica. Additional studies may be needed to confirm its efficacy in a clinical setting, and to evaluate the penetration of the drug in diseased tissues.
CVP2‐ and CVL1‐mediated phosphoinositide signaling as a regulator of the ARF GAP SFC/VAN3 in establishment of foliar vein patterns
Authors: Carland Francine , Nelson Timothy
Published: May 2009

In foliar organs of dicots, veins are arranged in a highly branched or reticulated pattern for efficient distribution of water, photosynthates and signaling molecules. Recent evidence suggests that the patterns rely in part on regulation of intracellular vesicle transport and cell polarity in selected cells during leaf development. The sorting of vesicle cargos to discrete cellular sites is regulated in yeast and animal cells by the binding of specific phosphoinositides (PIs). We report here that, in the plant Arabidopsis, specific PIs guide the vesicle traffic that is essential for polarized and continuous vein pattern formation. Mutations in SFC/VAN3, an ADP‐ribosylation factor GTPase‐activating protein (ARF GAP) with a PI‐binding pleckstrin homology domain, result in discontinuous vein patterns. Plants with mutations in both CVP2 and CVL1, which encode inositol polyphosphate 5′‐phosphatases that generate the specific PI ligand for the pleckstrin homology domain of SFC/VAN3, phosphatidylinositol‐4‐monophosphate (PI(4)P), have a discontinuous vein phenotype identical to that of sfc/van3 mutants. Single cvp2 or cvl1 mutants show weak and no discontinuous vein phenotypes, respectively, suggesting that they act redundantly. We propose that these two 5′‐phosphatases regulate vein continuity and cell polarity by generating a specific PI ligand for SFC/VAN3.
Drought Tolerance in Cotton: Involvement of Non‐enzymatic ROS‐Scavenging Compounds
Authors: Yildiz‐Aktas L. , Dagnon S. , Gurel A. , Gesheva E. , Edreva A.
Published: May 2009

Compounds with reactive oxygen species (ROS)‐scavenging ability were studied. High‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) pattern of polyphenols, contents of proline and carotenoids, and antiradical (AR) capacity were determined. The malonyldialdehyde (MDA) level was also assessed. Tolerant and sensitive cotton genotypes were compared, grown in the Aegean region of Turkey at normal (field capacity) and limited (1/3 field capacity) water supply. Chlorogenic acid isomers and flavonoids were identified in HPLC pattern of polyphenols. At normal water supply, the tolerant genotype was distinguished by a higher content of all polyphenol types, higher proline, carotenoids and AR capacity and lower MDA level compared with the sensitive genotype. In plants subjected to water deficit, a decline of all polyphenol compounds, carotenoids and AR capacity was observed. However, this response was less pronounced in the tolerant than in the sensitive genotype, i.e. despite the stress conditions imposed, the tolerant plants maintained a more effective defence system. The data are corroborated by the weaker structural membrane damage in the drought‐exposed tolerant vs. sensitive genotype, according to the MDA test. Hence, diverse chemical types are involved in the non‐enzymatic ROS‐scavenging system of cotton plants and can be related to the drought tolerance of this important crop.
Corpus luteum Function and Pregnancy Outcome in Buffaloes during the Transition Period from Breeding to Non‐Breeding Season
Authors: Russo M , Vecchio D , Neglia G , Pacelli C , Prandi A , Gasparrini B , Zicarelli L , D’Occhio MJ , Campanile G
Published: May 2009

Contents

The aim in this study was to investigate corpus luteum function and embryonic loss in buffaloes mated by artificial inseminations (AI) during the transitional period from breeding to non‐breeding season. The study was carried out using 288 multiparous Italian Mediterranean Buffalo cows at 110 ± 4 days in milk. The buffaloes were mated by AI after synchronization of ovulation by the Ovsynch‐TAI protocol 25 days after AI buffaloes underwent trans‐rectal ultrasonography to assess embryonic development. Pregnancy diagnosis was confirmed on Days 45 and 70 after AI by rectal palpation. Buffaloes pregnant on Day 25 but not on Day 45 were considered to have undergone late embryonic mortality (LEM), whilst buffaloes pregnant on Day 45 but not on Day 70 were considered to have undergone foetal mortality (FM). Corpus luteum size and blood flow were determined by real‐time B‐mode/colour‐Doppler on day 10 after AI in 122 buffaloes. The resistive index (RI) and pulsatility index (PI) were recorded at the time. Milk samples were collected on Days 10, 20 and 25 after AI in all inseminated buffaloes for the assay of whey P4 concentrations. Data were analysed by anova. Pregnancy rate on Day 25 after AI was 48.6% (140/288) and declined to 35.4% (102/288) and 30.6% (88/288) by Day 45 and Day 70 respectively. The incidences of LEM and FM were respectively 27.1% (38/140) and 13.7% (14/102). Pregnant buffaloes had greater (p < 0.01) whey concentrations of P4 from Day 20 onwards than buffaloes which showed LEM, whilst P4 in buffaloes that showed FM did not differ from the other two groups on Day 10 and Day 20. Corpus luteum blood flow on Day 10 after AI showed higher RI (p < 0.05) and PI (p = 0.07) values in buffaloes that subsequently were not pregnant on Day 25 compared with pregnant buffaloes. Buffaloes that were not pregnant on Day 45 also had a higher (p = 0.02) RI value on Day 10 than pregnant buffaloes, whilst PI values on Day 10 did not differ for the two groups of buffaloes. It was concluded that blood flow to the corpus luteum on Day 10 after AI influences corpus luteum function as judged by P4 secretion and also embryonic development and attachment in buffaloes.