bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Post-industrial context of cassava bagasse and trend of studies towards a sustainable industry: A scoping review – Part I
Authors: Serpa-Fajardo José Gabriel , Hernández-Ramos Elvis Judith , Fernández-Lambert Gregorio , Sandoval-Herazo Luis Carlos , Andrade-Pizarro Ricardo David
Published: May 2022

Background: The cassava starch industry is recognized as a source of negative externalities caused by the agroindustrial waste ‘cassava bagasse’. Even though options for bioconversion of cassava bagasse have been introduced, it is also true that hundreds of tons of this waste are produced annually with the consequent negative environmental impact. This agroindustrial context highlights the need for further research in technological proposals aimed at lowering the water contained in cassava bagasse.

Methods: We report a scoping review of studies from 2010–2021 that mention the uses of cassava bagasse, as well as the technological options that have become effective for drying fruits and vegetables. The method used for selecting articles was based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) method. Articles selected were taken from the databases of ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, Scopus and Springer.

Results: This review highlights fruit and vegetable osmotic dehydration and drying studies assisted by the combination of emerging technologies of osmotic pressure, ultrasound, and electrical pulses. Studies that take advantage of cassava bagasse have focused on biotechnological products, animal and human food industry, and development of biofilms and biomaterials.

Conclusions: In this review, we found 60 studies out of 124 that show the advantages of the residual components of cassava bagasse for the development of new products. These studies do not mention any potential use of bagasse fiber for post-industrial purposes, leaving this end products’ final use/disposal unaddressed. A viable solution is osmotic dehydration and drying assisted with electrical pulse and ultrasound that have been shown to improve the drying efficiency of fruits, vegetables and tubers. This greatly improves the drying efficiency of agro-industrial residues such as husks and bagasse, which in turn, directly impacts its post-industrial use.
IL1B gene variants, but not TNF, CXCL8, IL6 and IL10, modify the course of cystic fibrosis in Polish patients.
Authors: Zakerska-Banaszak Oliwia , Gozdzik-Spychalska Joanna , Gabryel Marcin , Zuraszek Joanna , Skrzypczak-Zielinska Marzena , Slomski Ryszard , Dobrowolska Agnieszka , Piorunek Tomasz , Batura-Gabryel Halina
Published: May 2022

Background: The main aim of this study was to evaluate whether selected polymorphic variants in genes from the inflammatory pathway can be predictors of pulmonary or digestive manifestation of cystic fibrosis, as well as of severity of lung disease.

Materials and methods: Using pyrosequencing and sequencing we have genotyped 12 variants in TNF (rs361525, rs1800629), CXCL8 (rs4073, rs2227306, rs2227307, rs188378669), IL1B (rs16944, rs1143634, rs1142639, rs1143627), IL6 (rs1800795) and IL10 (rs1800896) genes in a cohort of 55 Polish patients with diagnosed cystic fibrosis and controls. In our study group, a pulmonary manifestation of disease revealed 44 of subjects (80%), and digestive symptoms dominated in 11 (20%) of analyzed individuals. Severe lung dysfunction has occurred in 20 (36.4%) of patients.

Results: We proved, that two promoter variants of IL1B, rs1143627 (c.-118G > A) and rs16944 (c.-598T > C) are presented significantly more often  in patients with severe character of lung disease compared to mild (82.5% vs. 62.8%, p-value 0.030, and 87.5% vs. 64.3%, p-value 0.008, respectively) in cystic fibrosis course. Haplotype AC formed by both changes had also a higher frequency (80%) in patients with severe course compared to the mild character (61.4%) of disease. However, the frequency of promoter variant TNF c.-308C > T (rs1800629) was presented at a significantly lower level in the patient’s group compared to healthy controls (2.7% vs. 15%, p-value 0.001). Furthermore, the presence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus significantly correlated with the lower FEV1% in patients (p-value 0.01).

Conclusions: Genetic variants, rs1143627 and rs16944, of IL1B are promising candidates as predictors of the severe character of lung disease in Polish patients with cystic fibrosis.
A Machine Learning Approach to Predictive Modelling of Student Performance
Authors: Ng Hu , bin Mohd Azha Azmin Alias , Yap Timothy Tzen Vun , Goh Vik Tor
Published: May 2022

Background - Many factors affect student performance such as the individual’s background, habits, absenteeism and social activities. Using these factors, corrective actions can be determined to improve their performance. This study looks into the effects of these factors in predicting student performance from a data mining approach. This study presents a data mining approach in identify significant factors and predict student performance, based on two datasets collected from two secondary schools in Portugal.

Methods – In this study, two datasets  are augmented to increase the sample size by merging them.  Following that, data pre-processing is performed and the features are normalized with linear scaling to avoid bias on heavy weighted attributes.  The selected features are then assigned into four groups comprising of student background, lifestyle, history of grades and all features. Next, Boruta feature selection is performed to remove irrelevant features. Finally, the classification models of Support Vector Machine (SVM) , Naïve Bayes (NB) , and Multilayer Perceptron (MLP)  origins are designed and their performances evaluated.

Results - The models were trained and evaluated on an integrated dataset comprising 1044 student records with 33 features, after feature selection. The classification was performed with SVM, NB and MLP with 60-40 and 50-50 train-test splits and 10-fold cross validation. GridSearchCV was applied to perform hyperparameter tuning. The performance metrics were accuracy, precision, recall and F1-Score. SVM obtained the highest accuracy with scores of 77%, 80%, 91% and 90% on background, lifestyle, history of grades and all features respectively in 50-50 train-test splits for binary levels classification . SVM also obtained highest accuracy for five levels  classification  with 39%, 38%, 73% and 71% for the four categories respectively. The results show that the history of grades form significant influence on the student performance.
DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS IN PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE IN CONDITIONS OF COMORBIDITY
Authors: Kozlov Evgeny V. , Derevyannich Evgeny V. , Balashova Natalia A. , Yaskevich Roman A. , Moskalenko Olga L.
Published: May 2022

The purpose of the study. To study the features of depressive disorders in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in conditions of comorbidity with arterial hypertension (AH).

Materials and methods. The study included 92 male patients with COPD. Of these, 63 patients with COPD in combination with hypertension. The diagnosis of COPD verified and the severity assessed in accordance with the GOLD criteria. The CES-D scale used to identify depressive disorders.

Results. It found that men with COPD in conditions of comorbidity with hypertension characterized by statistically significantly higher values of the average depression score on the CES-D scale. In this group of examined people, significantly more people with depression indicators corresponding to a severe degree on the CES-D scale and less often people who do not have depressive disorders. Among men with COPD of the IV st., persons with depression indicators corresponding to a severe degree on the CES-D scale were significantly more common, and persons without depressive disorders were less common.

Conclusion. Among men with COPD in conditions of comorbidity with hypertension, persons with depression indicators corresponding to a severe degree on the CES-D scale are significantly more common, and persons without depressive disorders are less common.
Conceptual and Categorical Approach of Personnel Qualification
Authors: Bayda N.
Published: May 2022

The article considers approaches to the concept of qualification, defines its constituent parts. The characteristic of the differences between the qualifications of graduates and the qualifications of employees is given. The findings confirm the need to amend the regulatory framework in the field of labor relations and education in terms of clarifying the content of the concepts considered "qualification", "professional qualification". The results can be further used in the development of the methodology of the national qualifications system, taking into account of various sectors of the economy, as well as improving the regulatory framework.
The digital transformation of football clubs based on the example of social media
Authors: Metelski Adam , Leszczyński Marcin
Published: May 2022

Purpose: Digital transformation has significant growth potential for countries and organizations, and this also applies to sports. One of the examples of digital transformation is the use of social media by football clubs. Their goal is to arouse interest and maintain relationships with as many fans as possible. The article aims to present the significance of social media in football clubs, as well as to identify factors that may affect the number of clubs’ followers.

Design/methodology/approach: The article presents which football clubs are the most popular on social media today, and on the example of FC Barcelona, Juventus F.C., and Paris Saint-Germain F.C. shows how the number of followers has changed in last few years. What's more, on the example of the top Polish football league – Ekstraklasa, it was checked what factors affect the number of clubs’ followers.

Findings: In the analysed clubs, the highest increase in followers was recorded among Instagram users. The study based on Ekstraklasa, showed that there is a significant correlation between sports results and the number of followers. This means that a better position in the league is associated with more followers on social media. The example of the Ekstraklasa also showed that the club's city population is strongly positively correlated with the number of its followers.

Research and practical limitations/implications: The limitation of the study is that it focuses only on football and selected clubs. Accordingly, in some countries or sports may occur different dependencies.

Originality/value: Nowadays, the number of social media followers is an indicator of a club’s popularity and commercial appeal, all of which is directly related to the finances of a club. Therefore, identifying the factors that may affect the number of football clubs’ followers seems to be important from the perspective of the whole professional sport.
The Spirit within Me
Authors: Newsom Carol A.
Published: May 2022

This book examines changing models of the self in ancient Israel and Second Temple Judaism. Although all humans possess certain neurophysiological structures and processes that underlie the sense of “self,” significant cultural variation exists in the ways in which personal experience of the self and the social significance of the self are construed. Many of the assumptions about the self and its agency identifiable during the period of the monarchy persisted into later periods. But strikingly new ways of representing self and agency begin to occur in the Persian and Hellenistic periods, including novel ways of representing inner conflict, introspection, and concern about moral agency. While the causes and motives for these changes were complex and plural, one major factor was the cultural attempt to come to grips with the collective trauma of the destruction of Judah by the Babylonians in 586 and the Exile. The destruction was generally seen as a catastrophic failure of moral agency, and many of the subsequent innovations in models of self and agency began as attempts to reground the possibility of reliable agency. In a variety of creative ways agency was displaced from the person to God, who then transformed the person. What began as a response to trauma, however, seems to have taken on other functions. The changing assumptions about self and agency permitted the development of new and powerful forms of spiritual intimacy with God that are attested particularly in prayers and liturgical poetry.
The Hodayot of the Maskil and the Subjectivity of the Masochistic Sublime
Authors: Newsom Carol A.
Published: May 2022

A number of the Thanksgiving Prayers (Hodayot) from Qumran develop a radical understanding of anthropology in which humans are created by God with no moral agency, characterized by abhorrent moral pollution. This view is grounded on an interpretation of Gen 2-3 and the creation of humankind from “dust.” Using a network of intertextual associations, dust is connected with moral pollution. This radical anthropology undergirds the sectarian understanding of their elect status. They are the ones whom God has re-created according to the model established in Ezekiel for the transformation of Israel. This transformation does not merely restore them to human functionality but fits them to be part of the heavenly assembly. The dynamic, which consists of a plunge into the horrors of recognition of one’s moral abhorrent nature, followed by a realization of one’s transformation by divine spirit, can be described as a spirituality of the “masochistic sublime.”
In Thucydides’ Wake
Authors: Deluermoz Quentin , Singaravélou Pierre
Published: May 2022

This chapter talks about “What-if” history, which did not originate in the provocative minds of a few Anglo-American historians at the beginning of the millennium, nor from the pen of some nineteenth-century novelist. The approach was adopted early on by historians and then by researchers in other social sciences who defended very different, even contradictory interpretations of counterfactual analysis. The chapter probes historical depths by presenting some of the most famous cases, such as the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. It highlights a familiar strangeness that characterizes what is called today as counterfactual or “what-if” history. Counterfactual argumentation was employed early on as a kind of digression.
From Delhi to Vienna
Authors: Deluermoz Quentin , Singaravélou Pierre
Published: May 2022

This chapter reviews the debates within the English language approach and those to which it has given rise, Considering their importance in the circulation and reception of counterfactual practices. It mentions Robert Fogel's cliometry, which has become an entire subfield within the discipline of economics and has now been institutionalized in the form of chairs, specific journals, and teaching positions. The counterfactual approach has established a coherent set of propositions, techniques, and analytical schemes that spread far beyond the sole field of economic history. The chapter traces the first areas of dissemination that included regions under British and the US influence, either for historical, economic, or political reasons. It examines works of counterfactual history that have been produced in the former British dominions or colonies, where their influence remains strong on an intellectual level.
Interlude
Authors: Deluermoz Quentin , Singaravélou Pierre
Published: May 2022

At this stage, a more general epistemological question may be posed: Does counterfactual reasoning belong to a “non-Popperian” realm of social scientific reasoning as elaborated by Jean-Claude Passeron?1 Let’s briefly introduce the key elements of the problem at hand. For the philosopher of science, Karl Popper, induction is a myth in the realm of science. Refutability is the central characteristic that allows one to distinguish between science and pseudoscience; theory must precede observation. The key issue is that the status of history and the social sciences is not entirely clear in this framework. On the one hand, history and social sciences can claim to be scientific under certain conditions (the establishment of facts based on a critique of sources), but on the other hand, and notably in their efforts toward generalization, they cannot deliver on this claim. The domain of the social sciences does not obey the laws of the physical sciences (laws that are true always and everywhere), and this is the essential point: thanks to this condition, the liberty of human action is preserved. Predicting the future, Popper argues, the futures of the present as well as of the past, is an unfounded and dangerous ambition that supposes that human reality is subject to immutable laws. ...
Political Uses of Counterfactual History
Authors: Deluermoz Quentin , Singaravélou Pierre
Published: May 2022

This chapter determines whether counterfactual history has an ambiguous relationship to politics as it attempts to imagine possible worlds by positioning itself in relation to established facts. It stresses how counterfactual history may valorize contingency or determinism, mathematical probabilities, and literary creativity, which has served Marxists, radicals, liberals, and conservatives. This particular form of reflection on what has happened and what was possible possesses a fundamentally political dimension. The chapter talks about a counterfactual researcher who is forced to intervene explicitly in the narrative that must recognize the specificity of his or her point of view. He or she must begin by deconstructing the historical narrative, setting aside turning points, reformulating the question of causality, reinterrogating sources, and developing a strong awareness of the effects of the new narrative.
Conclusion
Authors: Deluermoz Quentin , Singaravélou Pierre
Published: May 2022

This chapter emphasizes how the counterfactual approach and analysis of possible futures open a gap, wherein one can easily get lost. One may consider it too risky, detect a certain vacuity, or proceed with some precaution. It reviews counterfactual history and uchronia that have developed in response to a certain zeitgeist, whose characteristics were highlighted as the end of ideologies, modification of the relationship between reality and fiction, and a sense of uncertainty in a globalized world. The chapter discusses the emergence of a tremendous diversity in the variations of counterfactual history and uchronia, an inventiveness in the forms it has taken, a popular curiosity with regard to virtual history, and a vigorous debate that has animated the historical community. The counterfactual approach and the analysis of possible futures are a form of reasoning that may be added to a series of intellectual operations.
Christ, the Fatherland, and the Company
Authors: Parker Charles H.
Published: May 2022

This chapter provides an integrated overview of the Reformation in the Netherlands and its commercial empire from the revolt against Spain to the fall of the Republic to French forces in 1795. It discusses the interwoven threads of political revolt, religious reformation, and commercial empire that shaped the history of the Dutch Republic. A society that rejected the religious coercion of the Hapsburgs and that made room for dissenters at the margins adopted Calvinism, a creed not known for accommodation, as the public faith. The chapter explores how Calvinists set out to throw open the doors of Protestant Christianity to peoples in Asia, America, and Africa, though cleaving to theological exclusivism. Empire was the Dutch engine of commerce, just as commerce was the raison d'être of empire.
Church and Colonial Society
Authors: Parker Charles H.
Published: May 2022

This chapter examines the ways in which overseas ministers and church figures in the Netherlands both collaborated with empire building initiatives and conflicted with them. It describes a Calvinist identity that mixed easily with a republican, commercial, and anti-Hapsburg ethos in the seventeenth century to animate the aspirations and ambitions of the East India Company (VOC) and West India Company (WIC). Ministers sought to spread the cultural and religious influence of Dutch Calvinism within the geopolitical framework of commerce and empire. The chapter talks about church leaders and company officials who cooperated extensively in the ordering of colonial societies despite the divergent visions of mission and empire. Predikanten and governors drew from Dutch structures and customs to address their most pressing social problems.
Educating the Senses
Authors: Hickman Clare
Published: May 2022

This chapter focuses on the roots of botanic knowledge within the medical curriculum and considers the use of gardens for education, sensory approaches to knowledge creation and dissemination, as well as the importance of trained gardeners as botanical assistants. It explores the role of the senses in botanical knowledge dissemination and how this related to the creation and use of botanic collections as well as a wide range of other media in teaching. It also focuses on Hope and the Leith Walk garden in Edinburgh. The chapter considers the problems encountered when trying to teach botany without a well-resourced garden, as demonstrated by the example of the University of Glasgow. It looks at the pedagogical methods shared by anatomy and botany and explores the common nature of these disciplines when the lens is focused on the science of the classroom.
For Dulce and Utile
Authors: Hickman Clare
Published: May 2022

This chapter mentions Sir Richard Jebb, who obtained the seeds of a plant that is best described as a cross between a turnip and a beetroot known as the mangel-wurzel. It details how Jebb presented a number of these seeds to the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce and from there the committee sent them out to members who expressed interest in trialing the new plants. Among this number was Dr. John Coakley Lettsom, who threw the seed into some light earth placed in a hot-house. The chapter discusses the use of an experimental space for agricultural and ornamental plants that blurs the boundaries of farm and garden. It suggests that the scientific nature of the space was not confined solely to botanical experimentation.
Epilogue
Authors: Hickman Clare
Published: May 2022

This chapter considers how the historical approach to thinking about the use and experience of gardens could be applied in heritage interpretation, thereby offering fresh insights into the bridging of theory and practice. It argues that the heritage sector can only be enhanced by historical work, which unpacks cultural assumptions and moves beyond traditional garden history approaches. It also discusses the process that should be a two-way movement in which research questions are opened and shaped by practical interpretation and engagement goals, rather than being seen as two separate enterprises. The chapter notes how researchers tended to overlook the complex ways in which gardens were used by contemporaries, as arenas of social display and recreation, and as statements of social identity. As John Wylie has written, research on landscapes to date has generally focused on a particular visual mode of observing and knowing.
Introduction
Authors: Richardson David
Published: May 2022

This chapter examines the changing interpretations of British slave trade abolition since the contemporary activist Thomas Clarkson published his study of the same in 1808. Clarkson’s view, with its emphasis on religiously inspired humanitarianism and on personal and parliamentary inputs in the process, dominated the intellectual landscape until the 1940s, when it was challenged by new interpretations associated with the rise of industrial capitalism as well as revolutionary change abroad. The chapter surveys the strengths and weaknesses of both traditional and more recent interpretations, emphasizing the need to transcend the binary division between humanitarian and economic impulses implicit in such interpretations; to understand the factors that transformed British abolitionism into a social movement of exceptional nationwide appeal and resilience; and to recognize the complexity of the politics of achieving abolition at a time of national and violent international change.
Finding “a Pathway for the Humanities”
Authors: Richardson David
Published: May 2022

Abolitionists understood that public outrage might induce Parliament to reconsider the status of British slaving, but that ultimately building a legislative majority for intervention was pivotal to their success. The chapter reveals the obstacles they faced, noting the political influence of “slave power” in Britain, the opposition of sections of government to change, and radical shifts in international politics associated with revolutions in France and its slave colony of Saint-Domingue in 1789–91 and political fallout in Britain from wars from 1793 with revolutionary and later Napoleonic France. It tabulates the unsuccessful legislative moves to win parliamentary support for slave trade abolition through 1804 before discussing its successful achievement in 1806–7. That success owed much to adjustments to abolitionists’ political strategy at a time of changing imperial and international circumstances that prompted them to give precedence to arguments about national security over morality in driving abolition. One key change was Saint-Domingue’s establishment in 1804 as the Republic of Haiti, an event seen to pose risks to British West Indian security and thereby urging slave trade abolition on grounds of national interest.
Made in America
Authors: Shovlin John
Published: May 2022

This chapter refers to a free-trade revolution that occurred in the Americas between the 1760s and the 1780s. Territories long held in closed commercial empires were opened up to a greater measure of interimperial and international trade. The chapter mentions the French colonies in the Americas in 1750 that were governed under the terms of the Exclusif, which prohibited trade with competing empires. It cites the navigation laws that regulated Britain's colonies in North America and the Caribbean and channelled commerce through British ports and on British ships. By 1785, a much freer trade characterised commercial relations in the Western Hemisphere as an independent United States welcomed ships from all nations to its harbours.
Conclusion
Authors: Shovlin John
Published: May 2022

This chapter talks about Isaac de Pinto, who proposed an intimate alliance among Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Dutch Republic to freeze the current distribution of extra-European resources. The chapter emphasizes how the accord would stabilise and pacify Europe. The trading nations might prevent a rupture among Prussia, Austria, and Russia, which are powers construed as more aggressive because less invested in commerce. The chapter mentions how Pinto called on the French monarchy to accept British domination of North America and India, and to concentrate instead on exploiting its advantages in fashion manufacturing and wines. These resources were another Peru that France could never lose in war.
Who—Really—Was Harry White?
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter considers Harry White as a bit mysterious, citing one of John Maynard Keynes's biographers that regarded White as a remarkable figure that should be accorded an honourable place in British annals. In the United States, the FBI agents who investigated White extensively could not figure out whence his parents had emigrated, or what the family name had been. It mentions how White did little to dispel the mysteries, recounting how he never publicly explained the roots of his middle name that he took on himself as a teenager. The chapter recounts how Harry immediately enlisted in the U.S. Army and applied for enrollment in the Officers' Reserve Corps when the United States declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary on April 6, 1917. The army sent Harry to Plattsburg Training Camp in upstate New York.
A Brief Academic Career
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter traces Harry White's completion of his education and the end of his time at Harvard in 1932, just as the Great Depression was reaching its nadir. Despite Harry's sterling academic achievements at Harvard, his prospects in that year of national misery did not look promising. It highlights Harry's search beyond Harvard as early as 1930, when he corresponded with the U.S. Tariff Commission in Washington about possible employment. The chapter details how Harry accepted an offer from Lawrence College in Wisconsin as only few jobs of any kind were available in the depths of the Depression. The chapter talks about Wisconsin, which had a long-standing appeal for Harry because of its progressive politics. Wisconsin was the home state of Robert M. La Follette Sr., whom Harry had supported as a presidential candidate in 1924.
Settling into Morgenthau’s Treasury, 1934–36
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter recounts how Harry White got a one-year appointment with the Tariff Commission as the U.S. Treasury did not have a slot available for him in September, managing it with help from a reference letter from Frank Taussig. It details Harry's return to the Treasury as principal economic analyst in the Division of Research and Statistics after just one month at the commission. As an expert on international finance, Harry filled an important niche in the bureaucracy. The chapter talks about how Harry's job in the Division established him in the government hierarchy and ultimately got regularized, noting that the Treasury would be his professional home for the next eleven and a half years. At work, Harry's first task in his new post was to pursue the policy implications of the work he had done during his summer internship.
Rising into a Position of Influence, 1936–38
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter reviews how Harry White was beginning to rise through the ranks as he had shown his independence and had gained a more important patron, Secretary Henry Morgenthau, by 1936. Harry had become the U.S. Treasury's point man on all issues relating to international financial policy. It outlines the issues that were increasing in importance, as the U.S. economy gradually recovered from the Depression while Europe and Asia were languishing economically and drifting toward war. The chapter talks about Morgenthau's promotion of Harry to assistant director of the Division of Research and Statistics on October 1, 1936, with an annual salary of $6,500. However, the Treasury post was not allocated within the regular budget and his salary was still being paid from the emergency Depression-fighting fund.
Planning for a Stable Postwar Recovery, 1941–42
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter recounts the U.S. entry into World War II in December 1941, which intensified Harry White's work in a direction that ultimately became the great purpose for his life. For the next four years, he devoted himself to two interrelated tasks: organizing the financing of the Allies' war effort and planning for economic and financial stability once the war was over. The chapter highlights that the main elements of international wartime finance involved designing and producing financial support for the Grand Alliance members and shoring up relations with Latin America to insulate the region from Axis influence. It details the main elements of postwar planning, which involved designing and generating support for the institutions that would become the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. They would exact an overwhelming toll on Harry's health, but he would ultimately succeed on all fronts.
Negotiating with Keynes, 1942–43
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter mentions John Maynard Keynes, who was developing a British plan to secure continuing American financial support and preserve Britain's prewar colonial system. At the same time, Harry White was developing the American plan for postwar financial cooperation and stability. The chapter emphasizes how the purposes and structures of Keynes and Harry were similar enough to lead ultimately to a successful compromise, although the motivations were strikingly different. The chapter looks at the separate plans developed by White and Keynes that were reconciled and amended in a lengthy process that culminated in the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in July 1944. As this process evolved, Keynes was occasionally appalled at Harry's crude and undiplomatic behavior, but he praised his contributions.
The Path to Bretton Woods, 1943–44
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter discusses the dominance of the White Plan over the Keynes Plan and the unveiling of the proposal to create new global institutions that brought Harry White into the media glare for the first time. This formerly obscure federal bureaucrat began to get serious public attention, which was generally admiring. The chapter describes how Harry's natural persona gravitated toward work over relaxation, noting his inner need to take control and his responsibilities in trying to create a system of global finance. It recounts how Harry was making solid progress in winning support for his proposed stabilization fund and world bank by mid-1943. The crucial set of meetings for developing a joint plan took place in Washington from September 13 through October 11, 1943.
The Bretton Woods Conference, 1944
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter refers to more than seven hundred people from forty-five countries that descended into a New Hampshire valley below Mount Washington and about four miles north of the Crawford Depot train station on July 1, 1944, where most of the delegates arrived. The crowd included 167 official delegates, observers from international organizations, a large conference secretariat, other staff and hangers-on, and nearly one hundred accredited journalists. It talks about Harry White's fear that finance ministers would have to share rooms did not materialize, but many lower-ranking officials had to stay in other hotels at some distance from the Mount Washington. The chapter describes the valley that had once been part of a plantation granted by British King George III in 1772 to Sir Thomas Wentworth. In the twentieth century, the name had survived only as a postal address, but it was about to become synonymous with international financial cooperation.
At the International Monetary Fund, 1946–47
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter covers the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt in April 1945, the resignation of Henry Morgenthau as Treasury secretary in July, and the end of World War II in August, which meant that Harry White's job at the U.S. Treasury was effectively completed. The chapter discusses how Harry White developed a negative view of both Fred M. Vinson and Harry S. Truman. Harry found that Truman always used good words but never did anything, or if he did act, he acted weakly or on the wrong side. The chapter refers to the American journalist I. F. (“Izzy”) Stone, who came to see Harry at his office in the Treasury building on Pennsylvania Avenue in the spring of 1946. Stone, who had just returned from an extended trip through Eastern Europe and Palestine documenting the plight of Jewish refugees, was an admirer of Harry and his work.
Freelance Consultant, 1947–48
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter recounts how Harry White's health forced him to retire from the International Monetary Fund in April 1947 at just fifty-four years old. His damaged heart was still a secret, but his rapidly thinning hair and decaying teeth revealed a body ravaged by overwork, prematurely beyond its peak, and no longer vigorous. The chapter describes that Harry's reputation was at its apex, but he had to start over professionally and try to lead a quieter and less-stressful life. The chapter reviews Harry's entire career to that point had spanned just fourteen years, citing how his dilemma to maintain a comfortable would require him to find some form of employment consistent with his newly limited physical fitness. Harry decided to hang a shingle as an independent consultant to governments, offering advice on economic and financial policies.
Second Afterlife
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter recounts Herbert Brownell's 1953 attack on President Truman and Harry White, which rekindled interest in Harry for a brief time and led to further investigations by state officials in New Hampshire, the FBI, and the Senate Subcommittee on Internal Security. It mentions the newly elected attorney general of New Hampshire, Louis C. Wyman, who was prompted by Brownell's speech and sent two officials to Blueberry Hill in in November 1953, where Harry's wife still lived in the summer. The chapter highlights that the June hearing dealt exclusively with the Morgenthau Diaries, which contained no information relevant to possible espionage but which included many excerpts detailing Harry's influential role in the U.S. Treasury. The subcommittee's general counsel, J. G. Sourwine, introduced each excerpt with a short statement aimed at making Harry seem like a dangerous infiltrator.
Epilogue
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter summarizes Harry White's Washington career as being brief but intense. It highlights his prescient view of the potential benefits of an active economic role for the federal government that brought him to the attention of senior officials in Washington. Once secured in the corridors of the U.S. Treasury, he made his mark by advocating effectively both for anti-Depression activism and a concerted effort to support potential allies against the growing threats from the Axis powers. The chapter discusses Harry's strong position in preparing the United States to assume the dominant role in postwar political and economic affairs when he became a senior official himself by the onset of World War II. In a little more than twelve years as a professional economist, Harry directed and oversaw several major achievements.
Herding People
Authors: Lander Brian
Published: May 2022

This chapter explores how states formed in East Asia and how they gradually improved their capacity to extract surplus resources from larger territories and populations. The chapter recounts how the formation started in the Longshan period, when walled towns first formed and clear signs of class divisions emerged. The city of Erligang, modern Zhengzhou, was the first indisputable state in East Asian history, flourishing between 1500 and 1300 BCE, its influence extended across an enormous area. The chapter reviews how the city of Erligang was succeeded by the Shang dynasty at Anyang, which is famous as the first site with writing, horses, and chariots. In 1046 armies led by the king of Zhou conquered much of the Yellow River valley and established a hierarchical alliance of polities across the region.
Introduction
Authors: Richards Joan L.
Published: May 2022

This chapter explains the construction of the family of reason, which is matrilineal and hence so does not have a single name that carries across generations. The biological tie that binds the group lies in the women; the ideological one is a commitment to following the tenets of reason as laid out by John Locke both in his philosophical and his religious writings. They took from Locke a literalist view of reason, in which the truth of essential texts was to be found through close readings. The shape of their lives differed both because of their individual differences and the changing landscape of the world between the middle of the eighteenth to the end of the nineteenth century, but their commitment to following the truth as it was revealed through careful reading remained constant.
Breaking Away
Authors: Richards Joan L.
Published: May 2022

Theophilus and Hannah Lindsey were both deeply committed to ministering to the people of their parish. Hannah was an accomplished herbalist, Theophilus a powerful preacher, and the two of them taught literacy to the parish children in one of England’s first Sunday School. At the same time, the couple’s discomfort with what they saw as the unreasonable demands of the Anglican Church continued to fester. The particular focus on their concern was the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, which is not to be found in the Bible. An encounter with Joseph Priestley, who was a dissenter and therefore not required to subscribe, shook them to their core, and convinced them that their position in the Anglican Church was untenable. Blackburne joined them in crafting the Feather’s Tavern Petition that they submitted to parliament in 1772 in an attempt to remove the subscription requirement. When that effort failed, Blackburne was content to return to his life in the church and wait for the next opportunity for reform, but the Lindseys found that they were unable to take this approach. In 1773, two years after the failure of their petition, the Lindseys broke with Blackburne, resigned from the Anglican Church and moved to London. Priestley joined the couple there, and five months later Lindsey began sharing his message of a reasoned, non-Trinitarian Christianity in rented rooms on Essex Street in London. Within five years, the Lindseys were at the center of a movement to establish a reasoned religion rooted in a literalist reading of the Bible. People labelled them Unitarian because they denied the Trinity, but the men and women who were drawn to the Essex Street Chapel saw themselves as pure Christians, who were using the reason God had granted them to come to a true understanding of the religion Jesus preached.
Education of an Anglican
Authors: Richards Joan L.
Published: May 2022

William Frend was the fourth of eight children born to George Frend, a successful cloth merchant in Canterbury. After William finished the King’s School, he rebelled against his family’s expectation that he would go into business. Instead he enrolled in Christ’s College, Cambridge, where William Paley was tutor. The two men only overlapped for a couple of terms, but Frend vividly remembered Paley introducing him to the philosophy of John Locke. He also studied the Newtonian mathematics that served as a model for the literalist view of reason. After three years, Frend placed second in his class on the final examination or Tripos. Within a year of this triumphant result, Frend became a fellow and mathematics tutor at Jesus College, a deacon of the Anglican church and in 1783, was named the vicar of the small neighbouring parish of Long Stanton.
Reasoning among the Stars
Authors: Richards Joan L.
Published: May 2022

In 1831, Francis Baily’s hopes realized when the Astronomical Society was elevated to Royal Astronomical Society (RAS). In the same year De Morgan became honorary secretary, and he, Richard Sheepshanks, and George Biddel Airy came together as an “equitanacious triangle” of reasoned mathematical astronomers. Sophia and Augustus first began to notice each other in the context of RAS parties at Baily’s house, in which wives and sisters lightened the intensity of the men’s interactions.
In 1835, the return of Halley’s comet severely tried RAS claims for the power of their work. As they scrambled to trace its orbit, William Frend contributed his observations from the countryside while Sophia and the other women poked fun at the men with parlor plays.
Conflicts about the nature of astronomy continued in the form of a protracted legal battle between Sir James South and Edward Troughton, the instrument maker he hired to mount and object glass. The equitenacious triangle worked to bring South down, while the women wrote parlor plays extolling their heroism.
Expanding Consciousness
Authors: Richards Joan L.
Published: May 2022

In the spring of 1836, Harriet Frend died. Her father turned to the bible for solace. Sophia was not satisfied with his conventional Christian approaches and began developing a theory in which death was a step of spiritual consciousness. At the same time, De Morgan was developing new interpretations of the mathematical symbols of calculus. Their subject matters were different, but in their shared conviction that truth was to be found in uncovering the meanings of words and symbols Sophia and Augustus were both laying the groundwork for an expansive vision of a transcendental view of mind that could be uncovered through reason.
Rearing Young Seedlings
Authors: Richards Joan L.
Published: May 2022

The De Morgan family continued to grow with the addition of George Campbell in 1841; Edward Lindsey in 1843; Anne Isabella in 1845. As she was raising her brood, Sophia’s interest in larger forms of consciousness played out in the practice of mesmerism, which was in some ways a reaction against contemporary medical practice. Snug in his library, De Morgan wrapped up his investigations of algebra, and set out to incorporate logic into his literalist view of reason. He built on ideas of logic as reason that were first proposed by Richard Whately. William Whewell acted as a sounding board for his ideas, while the Scottish philosopher William Hamilton was a fierce opponent.
Expanding Reason
Authors: Richards Joan L.
Published: May 2022

The De Morgan family reached its full size with the birth of Helena Christiana in 1847 and Mary Augusta in 1850. Their parents continued to thrive. Sophia was instrumental in the founding of the Bedford School for Girls, which Alice attended and in which Augustus taught. She acted as a catalyst for the circulation of the abolitionist Stafford House Letter, and her investigations into the relations of the matter and consciousness expanded into table-turning and spiritualism. De Morgan supported all of her efforts, while developing parallel ideas about matter and form in on-going investigations into logic.
Beyond ‘platformisation’
Authors: Cornet Maxime , Le Ludec Clément , Wahal Elinor , Joulin Mandie
Published: May 2022

The transformations brought by the digitisation of work and the emergence of platform labour have deep implications for working conditions. However, researchers face difficulties studying platformised work. Workers’ invisibilisation and the lack of physical co-presence renders field access difficult. How can the variety of platforms, their organisational systems and the working conditions they offer be accounted for? In this article, we propose a mixed-methods methodology to study platforms in all their diversity by articulating the macro level – the market structure revealed through a multiple correspondence analysis – and the micro level – detailed studies of targeted platforms carried out using desk research. We apply this method in two projects, and, in each case, a typology emerges that supports the need for a diversification of the concept of ‘platform labour’ when related to working conditions.