bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Field Study of the Clothing Used at Cold Work Places
Authors: Olesen BW
Published: March 2009

At cold places of work like meat packing industries and cold stores, the clothing is an important factor for obtaining an acceptable thermal environment for man. A field study has been performed to investigate what type of clothing people normally are using in cold environments. The study was focused on the meat packing industries and workplaces with a temperature level of 5–10°C. Approximately 300 people participated.

The results showed that there were large individual difference in the thermal insulation of the clothing used, even if activity level and thermal environment were almost the same. The level of insulation varied between 0.6 and 2.2 clo. As an average the clothing selected provided the people with a thermal sensation around neutral. More than one third of the people did not find their clothing acceptable, both due to feeling cold and sweating. The study clearly indicated that it is difficult for people to select the right clothing and that protective work clothing has to be individually adjustable.
New Comprehensive Performance Standards for Chemical Protective Gloves, Boots, and Other Types of Protective Clothing
Authors: Stull JO
Published: March 2009

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is developing new standards on several types of protective clothing. Among these are comprehensive standards for hazardous chemical protective suits, and protective clothing used in emergency medical operations. These standards complement the existing standards published by the NFPA for chemical protective suits. Entailed in the development of each standard is the choice of requirements, methods for measuring material or clothing item performance, and how specific performance levels are established. Each standard, therefore, includes a list of requirements that address the overall performance of the clothing item, material barrier properties to either chemicals or biological agents, material physical properties, and functional or design aspects important to type of clothing being specified. The final selection of these requirements has been based on verification testing on representative products to ensure that the respective requirement simulates the hazard condition and to determine if chosen test methods can accommodate the range of materials products to be tested. Data generated from verification testing is then used to select minimum performance levels when compared to field experience in the use of tested products.
Glove System for Cold/Wet Environments
Authors: Herman DS , Wells LP , Schwope AD , Sawicki JC
Published: March 2009

Certain military operations require handwear that provides warmth, water resistance, and dexterity under cold, wet conditions. These same operations require the glove to be resistant to cut, puncture, abrasion, petroleum products, mold, fungus, heat, and so forth. No current military or commercial glove meets these needs. A multilayer glove system was conceived and prototypes fabricated and tested in the laboratory and the field. The outer glove has a Flexor™-patterned leather shell, a waterproof/moisture breathable insert, insulation, and a Flexor-patterned fabric lining. The inner glove is of knit construction. A sizing system was developed such that the 5th percentile female through 95th percentile male can be fit with five sizes.
Evaluating the Performance of Exhaust Valves for Vapor-Protective and Chemical Protective Dive Suits
Authors: White DF , Greimel TC , Stull JO
Published: March 2009

A critical component of the vapor protective suit is the suit-mounted exhaust valve. The one-way exhaust valve serves to allow the release of excess pressure inside the suit and also to prevent the leakage of hazardous material from the outside in the reverse direction. Failure of the exhaust valve to perform these functions can result in contamination to the wearer, even though the primary garment barrier materials remain intact. Two test methods are described for characterizing the operational performance of exhaust valves: the inward leakage test and the cracking pressure test. Test apparatus design, instrumentation, and operational problems are discussed, and representative results for some commercially available suit-mounted exhaust valves are presented. Additional tests are described to assess the chemical compatibility of an exhaust valve used in a chemical protective dive suit. A liquid penetration test is described, which is based on the concept developed in ASTM Test Method for Resistance of Protective Clothing Materials to Penetration by Liquids (F 903). Penetration of liquid chemical through the valve (in the reverse direction) is observed while the valve diaphragm faced the chemical challenge. Failure analysis and autopsy of valves after testing indicates that proper valve operation depends on the diaphragm and seal surface's ability to retain original physical properties after chemical exposure. Conclusions and recommendations address the utility of exhaust valve testing and possible modifications or improvements to methods.
A Protocol to Measure Physical Performance Degradation During Extended Wear of Protective Clothing
Authors: Dix JK , Weihrer SJ , Rhodes WR
Published: March 2009

A protocol was required that would enable measurement of the effects of new or modified nuclear biological chemical (NBC) protective clothing on physical performance, in controlled but realistic conditions. As such, an extended wear protocol was developed that incorporated 27 hours of continuous protective clothing wear and four separate physical testing sessions within the wear period. Heart rate responses to standardized activities and other physical performance measures were used rather than invasive temperature measurement. In order to assess the effectiveness of the protocol, it was implemented with 8 healthy male subjects using two different protective clothing conditions and one control clothing condition. The test results indicated that the protocol was successful in demonstrating differences between the protective clothing conditions, but that it was not successful in demonstrating progressive performance degradation over the wear period. Based on these results, it was recommended that the protocol be modified to incorporate a higher work to rest ratio and a shorter duration of extended clothing wear.
The Evaluation of Protective Clothing as Chemical Barriers for Mixers/Loaders and Applicators in Agricultural Field Tests Designed to Meet FIFRA GLP Testing Standards
Authors: Oakland BG , Schabacker DJ , Dodd RB , Ross RH
Published: March 2009

A pilot test was conducted, with all data generated according to FIFRA GLP standards, to monitor and quantify the barrier efficiency of two disposable test suits for mixers/loaders and applicators in hot, humid weather. The study was performed using AAtrex Nine-O as an example of an herbicide applied to row crops. The two test suits were SMS (spunbonded/meltblown/spunbonded polypropylene fabric) with a repellant finish and Sontara FC (wood pulp/polyester/spunlaced fabric) with a fluorocarbon finish; a 100% cotton chambray suit with a fluorocarbon finish was used as a control. The study design included three workers wearing each suit type for a work cycle of three tank applications. The cycle included mixing/loading the formulation and subsequent ground boom spray application of the formulation. To determine the amount of atrazine residue, twelve outside and twelve inside alpha-cellulose patches were attached to the suits and subsequently analyzed by gas chromatography. The average barrier efficiency against atrazine penetration, formulated as AAtrex Nine-O, was 97% for the SMS suit s compared to 80% for the Sontara FC test and the small cotton chambray control suit.
The Introduction of Fire Resistant Workwear Programs in Alberta
Authors: Smith GR , Clark P
Published: March 2009

In conducting a review of its own protective workwear policy Alberta Occupational Health and Safety recognized that most common workwear fabrics posed a significant threat to those workers who may be exposed to flash fires and explosions. It was found that the severity and extent of burn injuries depended principally on the ignition of workwear during the flash fire. When clothing ignited, life threatening third degree burns were the result.

With the recognition that normal workwear could pose a hazard to workers at worksites which handled flammable liquids and gases, Alberta Occupational Health and Safety, in cooperation with burn survivors, embarked on an education and awareness program aimed at changing the normal workwear worn in hazardous areas. Since the implementation of the program, the norm has changed from the preprogram wearing of flammable workwear to the present when fire resistant workwear has become the norm.
The Effectiveness of Decontamination Procedures Used by Asbestos Abatement Workers
Authors: Jose DJ , Salzenberg CH
Published: March 2009

Asbestos abatement workers are routinely exposed to high levels of carcinogenic fibers in the course of their work. The Occupational Health and Safety Administration mandates a two step defense against the possibility that these fibers will be carried off the job site by the workers, endangering those around them. First, protective clothing is worn to minimize contamination of skin, hair and underclothing. Secondly, workers are required to take decontamination showers and all underclothing is laundered in a specified manner. This study, which evaluated the effectiveness of these decontamination procedures, indicates that these procedures may not be completely effective in asbestos removal.
Physiological Responses While Wearing Protective Footwear in a Cold-Wet Environment
Authors: Endrusick TL , Santee WR , DiRaimo DA , Blanchard LA , Gonzalez RR
Published: March 2009

As part of a continuing effort to improve U.S. Army combat clothing and equipment, four proposed Intermediate Cold-Wet Boots and the standard-issue U.S. Army Cold-Wet Vapor Barrier Boot were evaluated during a controlled chamber study to determine human physiological responses while sedentary and while performing intermittent exercise in simulated cold-wet conditions. The results showed that a dry, rubber, vapor-barrier boot provided increased foot protection while subjects were sedentary in a moderately cold environment. New leather footwear incorporating vapor-permeable, waterproof membranes were incapable of maintaining a dry interior after the boot had been subjected to a prolonged soak in shallow water. This moisture ingression increased boot weight and caused minor, albeit immobilizing injuries during intermittent exercise.
Physiological and Biophysical Properties of a Semipermeable Attached Hood to a Chemical Protective Garment
Authors: Gonzalez RR , Santee WR , Endrusick TL
Published: March 2009

An evaluation was done on a prototype 70-mil permeable hood integrated to a standard 90-mil chemical protective overgarment to verify its potential in reducing heat strain during continuous exercise. Each of 14 subjects (in two groups of seven) did treadmill exercise (heat production, M = 473 W) in six environments: at ambient air temperature (Ta) = 32°C/80 %rh/ V=l m·s-1 and 5m·s-1; T2 = 35°C / 50 %rh / V=1 m·s-1 and 5 m·s-1; and Ta = 43°C / 20 %rh / V=1 m·s-1 and 5 m·s-1. Rectal (Tre), heart rate, 3-site skin temperatures, and head temperature and dewpoint in the skin-air space underneath each hood were recorded continuously. Subjects exercised until Tre reached 39°C and/or heart rates were = 180 beats/min for 5 min. These end-points signified the endurance time limit for each subject. The 70-mil semipermeable hood integrated to a BDO gave no significant advantages compared to the standard BDO + butyl hood in reduction of heat strain, improvement in vapor permeation to a given thermal insulation, and overall extension of endurance times. Present use of a butyl hood with an appropriate respiratory mask is a preferable option because of the reduced thickness of the hood which offers augmented heat transfer at high wind speeds.
Assessment of Ventilation of Firefighter Protective Clothing
Authors: Dukes-Dobos FN , Reischl U , Buller K , Thomas NT , Bernard TE
Published: March 2009

Wearing protective garments under various combinations of environmental conditions and work intensities may result in excessive heat stress. Maintaining thermal balance depends among others on the ventilation of the garment worn. Ventilation is the amount of ambient air that flows under the garment after passing through the fabric and through designed openings. A gas dilution technique was used to assess ventilation of firefighter protective ensemble. The cuffs of the sleeves and pants, and the collar and front closure of the turnout coat were opened and closed to determine the effect on ventilation. In addition, the effect of using a belt or suspenders to hold the pants was examined. The gas dilution technique provided quantitative data on the increase in garment ventilation due to various combination of the openings and suspension of the pants. The greatest effect resulted from opening the collar and pant cuffs along with the use of suspenders.
Some Ergonomics Issues in the Design of Personal Protective Devices
Authors: Abeysekera JDA
Published: March 2009

The use of personal protective devices (ppd) is an important method to safeguard workers from occupational hazards both in industrialized and developing countries. Surveys have indicated that majority of those exposed to hazards are reluctant to use ppd because they are uncomfortable for such reasons as hotness, heaviness, ill fit, inconvenient, etc. Investigations have revealed that user-centered designs which satisfy the human factors needs of ppd, can reverse this trend and make ppd more acceptable. Because a questionnaire survey has shown that manufacturers are more inclined to adhere to standards, developing ergonomic standards seems to be a feasible method to persuade the manufacturers to provide the user needs in the design. Any unavoidable discomforts in ppd can be controlled by adaptation of users to ppd wearing.
Movement Analysis as the Basis for the Development and Evaluation of a Protective Coverall Design for Asbestos Abatement
Authors: Ashdown SP , Watkins SM
Published: March 2009

Movement analysis is a useful procedure for designers of protective apparel, both as a source of information needed to design more mobile apparel and as a means of judging the performance of various apparel models. This study focused on the development of a movement analysis test for the investigation of movement problems associated with disposable coveralls used as protection for asbestos abatement workers. The test was based on a technique developed by Crow and Dewar in which a honeycomb pattern of slashes made over the surface of a garment could be observed to open in response to the pressure exerted by the body as the wearer moved. (Crow and Dewar, 1986) [1] This allowed the location, direction, and degree of stress to be seen and recorded on videotape. A new coverall design was developed based on information from the movement analysis test. The test was also used to evaluate the performance of the new design compared to the original design. The results of the movement analysis test and the results of a field test of the two coverall styles both supported the conclusion that the redesigned coveralls provided workers with greater mobility than the original style of coverall.
An Evaluation of Fit of Protective Coveralls Manufactured to a Proposed Revision of ANSI/ISEA 101
Authors: Keeble VB , Prevatt MB , Mellian SA
Published: March 2009

This study evaluated the fit of protective coveralls produced to a proposed revision of ANSI/ISEA 101 developed for a unisex garment. Coveralls from 3 manufacturers which meet the Standard were evaluated with 166 men and women. Garments in the mid range of the sizing standard fit better than the extreme small or large sizes. Subjects wearing the extra small size found them too large and there were problems with the fit of the extra extra large sized garments. For satisfactory fit the dimensional specifications for those sizes need to be adjusted to fit men and women.
Energy as Performance Criterion for Chain Saw Protective Clothing
Authors: Arteau J , Turcot D
Published: March 2009

In North America, the performance of chain saw protective leggings and footwear is actually evaluated by measuring the threshold stopping speed (TSS) of a gas-powered chain saw. The TSS is an index value that permits a rating of the performance of the protective clothing. The TSS is the greatest chain or motor speed at which no cut-through occurs, measured before the cutting action of the chain takes place. The speed could be related to the power of the motor but the speed is changing rapidly as is the power. Thus, it is difficult to calculate the energy dissipated by the protective clothing.

In order to improve the testing method and to calculate the energy supplied by the motor, a test rig has been perfected. It consists of an electric chain saw (1,4 kW), a support for protective footwear and an electronic data acquisition system. The following data are collected: voltage, current, speed of the motor and cut-through time if any cut-through. All tests are monitored on a high speed video camera.

Seven types of protective footwear and three types of protective pads have been tested. The energy supplied by the motor ranges from 6 joules to 870 joules. The measurement of energy allows a better classification because the relative range of the values (6 to 800 joules) is larger than the one of TSS (10,7 to 13,5 m/s). The energy having a defined zero, integrating TSS and cut-through time criteria and being continuously measurable seems to be a better performance criterion.
The Effect of Wear and Laundering on Flame-Retardant Fabrics
Authors: Mäkinen H
Published: March 2009

Information on the time-related criteria of the degradation of protective clothing materials after wear and laundering is lacking. The materials were obtained from three sources in the evaluation of the material changes due to wear and laundering. The materials consisted of FR wool, aramid, FR viscose blend and FR cotton. The flammability, behavior of the material when exposed to radiant heat, water repellency, water penetration, oil repellency, air permeability, mass per unit area, thickness, tensile strength and tear strength, abrasion resistance, and dimensional stability of the fabrics were tested. The coefficient of variation was high for all measured properties. This is an indication of uneven wear and tear in use. No obvious unexpected latent alteration was seen in the old garments, with the exception of long afterglow and afterflame times in aramid fabrics. Dirtiness and age were cofactors for unfulfilled requirements in the flammability tests. Wear and a few launderings can change the materials to the same extent as several launderings in the laboratory. Mere laundering does not give sufficient information about the effect of wear.
The Durability of Flame Resistant Fabrics in an Industrial Laundry Environment
Authors: Loftin DH
Published: March 2009

Flame resistant (FR) protective apparel must provide protection, comfort, and cost-effectiveness through the anticipated wear life of such garments. Flame retardant treated cotton apparel is known to be comfortable, moderate in cost, satisfactory in wear life, and durable to laundering. Yet, extensive literature on wash durability has not overcome concerns of industrial launderers about performance of the finish under exposure to heavy soiling and at the severe wash conditions of temperature and alkalinity used in their processing. Questions of FR cotton garment life and finish durability compared to inherently flame resistant synthetics, such as Nomex III® have restricted to some degree overall use of FR apparel by industrial launderers.

A new treatment for 100% cotton fabrics based on PROBAN® flame retardant was recently introduced as INDURA® fabric. This finishing technique significantly extends FR durability under industrial laundering conditions.

This study examined INDURA PROBAN cotton and comparable Nomex III fabrics under conditions of heavy soil processing found in industrial laundries. Levels of fabric tensile and tear strength and flex abrasion resistance were tested after extended controlled launderings representing the expected service life of garments. Additionally, vertical flame and thermal protective performance (TPP) tests were conducted to measure flame and thermal resistance.
A Technique to Determine Chemical Contamination in Chemical Protective Clothing
Authors: Carroll TR , Schwope AD , McCarthys RT
Published: March 2009

Chemical protective clothing (CPC) may be contaminated with chemicals during routine and emergency response operations. The contamination may be located on the surface or absorbed into the matrix of the plastic, rubber or fibrous components of the clothing. This study was undertaken to develop a cost-effective means for assessing the presence of chemical contamination in CPC. The procedure that was developed is based on a volatilization technique utilizing length-of-stain (detector) tubes as the method of detection. Swatches of a material, with their back and edges sealed, are placed in intimate contact with a garment. The swatches are exposed and decontaminated in-situ and then removed for analysis. The swatches are placed in a closed chamber at an elevated temperature and the air inside the chamber is analyzed using a detector tube. The feasibility of the technique was demonstrated in the laboratory and the field using more than 15 chemical/material combinations. A technique called dynamic thermal stripping was used to validate the laboratory results. The procedure is simple, applicable to essentially all protective materials and hundreds of chemicals and mixtures.
The Use of Bleach Pre-Treatments in Chlorpyrifos Residue Removal from Cotton Workwear
Authors: Perkins HM , Rigakis KB , Crown EM
Published: March 2009

The effectiveness of chlorine and oxygen bleach soak pre-treatments in removal of chlorpyrifos from cotton was examined. A 0.5 mL aliquot of chlorpyrifos (1.0% a.i., emulsifiable concentrate) was pipetted onto fabric specimens cut from 100% cotton. Laundering treatments included: no pre-treatment/one and two washes; Spray ‘n Wash® pre-treatment/one and two washes; oxygen bleach soak/1 wash; and chlorine bleach soak/one wash. Analysis of variance indicated significant differences (p < 0.001) in percent residue remaining among laundry treatments. The most effective laundry protocol included a 0.4% chlorine bleach 3-hour soak at 50°C (0.03% residue remaining), followed by the 2.5% oxygen bleach 12-hour soak at 50°C (3.3% residue remaining). The least effective was a single wash with no pre-treatment (44.7% residue remaining). Specimens subjected to 0, 5, 10 and 25 chlorine bleach soak/washes became progressively weaker, but users may accept workwear with lower durability in exchange for low residues of chlorpyrifos when the chlorine bleach pre-treatment is used.
The Efficiency of Cold Water Machine Washing in Removing Glyphosate from Work Garments
Authors: Samuel O , Guillot J-G
Published: March 2009

The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of washing with cold water to eliminate glyphosate residues absorbed on work garments.

The experiments were performed on work trousers and overalls using both technical glyphosate and the commercial formulation VISION™. During these experiments, the glyphosate concentrations were determined in the wash and rinse water and also on the contaminated pieces of fabric. For the last two experiments, glyphosate concentrations were measured in the soak water. All washes were carried out using cold water in a domestic washing machine. The results indicate that glyphosate was quickly removed from the clothing, and generally, was not detected in the rinse water. Subsequent measurements of residual glyphosate on garments show that the effectiveness of washing in cold water is generally greater than 95%. As appears from this study, cold water washing or a prolonged soaking efficiently removes glyphosate from work garments.
Statistical Fit Models of Methyl Parathion Decontamination from Applicator Clothing
Authors: Laughlin JM
Published: March 2009

Temperature of washing, detergent type, detergent concentration, prewash product use, and level of water hardness were evaluated for completeness of methyl parathion residue removal from unfinished and repellent finished cotton/polyester fabrics during laundering. The objective was testing of models of detergent type, concentration and mineral content of water with temperature of refurbishment. As level of water hardness increased, residue removal was less complete; however, use of a prewash product was effective in off-setting the decreased cleaning efficiency. Refurbishment was more effective at the elevated temperature, but detergent concentration was seen to compensate for lower refurbishment temperature.
Residue Removal of Granular Formulation Atrazine and its Dust from Workers' Protective Clothing by Laundering
Authors: Kim CJ , Wang Q
Published: March 2009

During manufacturing and application, pesticide granules and dust can adhere to and be caught by portions of work clothing such as pockets, collars, cuffs, or other wrinkled areas. Laundering may remove some of the residues; however, when incompletely cleaned clothing comes in contact with the skin the pesticide residue can be absorbed into the body, causing potentially serious health hazards. Appropriate after-use care methods need to be identified to reduce the risk of pesticide exposure. Both warm and hot wash water with a commercial heavy-duty liquid detergent removed at least 99% of atrazine in granular or dust formulation from an initial 0.9 g contamination. The main mechanism of pesticide removal was by atrazine dissolution in water. Hot wash at 60°C was more effective than warm wash at 49°C. The amounts of atrazine residue did not differ significantly by agitation, drying method, or atrazine formulation. A considerable amount of residue transferred to swatches washed together with contaminated swatches.
Personal Protective Equipment Decontamination for Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response
Authors: Mansdorf SZ
Published: March 2009

Decontamination of personal protective equipment requires knowledge of the contaminant, methods of detection for contamination, and use of effective materials and procedures for decontamination. Contamination can be of a surface, matrix, or pore type. Each must be handled differently to achieve effective decontamination. Tests for contamination range from simple visual methods to destructive, complex, and very expensive analytical protocols. Methods of decontamination can be either physical or chemical. In general, physical methods can be effective for surface contaminants that can be mechanically dislodged or dissolved. Heating and hot air washing can be effective for volatiles as surface and matrix contaminants. Chemical methods are usually effective for a limited number of surface contaminants. Pore contaminants are extremely difficult to decontaminate by any nondestructive method. The best approach to decontamination is to minimize the need to perform it. This is accomplished by minimizing workers and equipment in hazardous areas and avoiding the use of porous equipment and materials.
Selection and Development of Chemical-Resistant, Flame-Resistant Protective Gloves for U.S. Navy Shipboard Use
Authors: Stull JO , White DF , Heath CA
Published: March 2009

The U.S. Navy currently uses several kinds of chemical protective gloves for protecting personnel in the shipboard environment. Navy shipboard work environments present potential exposure to various acids, bases, organic solvents, can a variety of specialty chemicals, fuels and lubricants. Navy personnel must routinely handle these substances in the course of their duties, and hand protection must be provided. To meet this need, the Navy maintains a large inventory of different gloves rated for specific chemical handling applications. The U. S. Navy Clothing and Textiles Research Facility has sponsored a research study with the goal to develop a single glove which is resistant to flame exposure as well as the priority chemical substances found in the shipboard environment. Certain minimum physical property requirements have also been defined. The experimental work to support this effort has been carried out by TRI/Environmental, Inc., Austin, Texas.

This paper describes interim results of this study, which has been divided into four major phases: (1) surveying existing glove materials likely to meet Navy criteria; (2) identifying new glove candidate materials, (3) evaluating candidate materials; and (4) fabricating prototype gloves. No one glove or glove material was identified which could provide the broad chemical resistance required by the Navy, while also having adequate physical properties. Furthermore, nearly all commercial gloves tested lacked sufficient flame resistance. The project team pursued an approach which combined flame resistant elastomer gloves with film-based glove products, utilizing the film-based glove as an inner liner. The combination was shown to have the potential to overcome both the traditional lack of ruggedness for film gloves and the lack of broad chemical resistance offered by elastomer gloves. Initial prototype efforts have focused on methods to “marry” the two gloves into a single unit, providing a higher level of protection with improved tactility and dexterity for the wearer.
Selection and Development of Protective Clothing for Fire Fighters -- A Case Study for Users' Assessment of Standards, Tests and Performance Requirements
Authors: Rotmann MF
Published: March 2009

Effective use and care of fire fighter's protective clothing and equipment entails a whole system of selection, application and assessment needs. Users - fire departments and fire fighters expect those selecting and designing equipment to understand protection requirements and limits of design criteria and tests. Selection of some limits and material properties may present variations and constraints on protective performance. Observations outline some efforts in technical literature, field trials and user experience to interpret and assess tests, designs, and standards for protective clothing.
Selection and Use of Molecular Parameters to Predict Permeation Through Fluoropolymer-Based Protective Clothing Material
Authors: Hansen CM , Billing CB , Bentz AP
Published: March 2009

Simple molecular parameters, describing affinity and size, are shown to model permeation of Challenge 5100R and Challenge 5200R materials (fiber-reinforced fluoropolymers). Solubility parameter eodels based on permeation test data are described, and shown to be very similar for the two materials. Figures combining both solubility parameter affinities and size parameters are presented as potential predictive models for the barrier effectiveness of the materials. The size parameter and the presence of double bonds are shown to have a profound influence on permeation. The results from this model are described, and evaluated using data obtained before and after model development. The model is compared with a different empirical model developed by Arthur D. Little, Inc. (ADL). The ADL model uses a rule system to predict permeation through the fluoropolymer materials based on the structure and size of the challenge chemical. Both approaches correctly describe the permeation behavior in about 90% of the cases in the present data set.
A Suggested Strategy to Increase Employee Use of Protective Clothing
Authors: Burns DJ , Nelson CN
Published: March 2009

The use of protective clothing by employees is often required for their personal safety. Willingness to use protective clothing, however, is not consistent across individuals, being affected by a myriad of factors including one's perception of risk and need for sensation. Suggestions for strategies to increase use of protective clothing based on one's level of need for sensation are presented.
A Computer System to Predict Chemical Permeation Through Fluoropolymer-Based Protective Clothing
Authors: Goydan R , Powell JR , Bentz AP , Billing CB
Published: March 2009

Emergency spill response activities often require protective clothing that is an effective barrier to a wide range of chemicals and chemical mixtures. The U.S. Coast Guard Chemical Response Suit uses fluoropolymer film-based Challenge® materials as the encapsulating suit material to achieve high barrier. The results of over 300 permeation tests previously conducted by the U.S. Coast Guard indicate that these materials are excellent barriers to many chemicals and mixtures, however, several chemicals do permeate them. An empirical model or rule system was developed using this data set to predict whether permeation will be detected within three hours at 25°C at a detection sensitivity of 0.05 μg/cm2-min. The model predicts permeation based on the structure and size of the chemical, and when applied to the existing data base, correctly predicts the permeation behavior for 93% of the chemicals tested. A computerized version of the permeation data base and prediction model was developed for Macintosh® computers using SuperCard® for use by personnel with minimal permeation or chemistry training. The computer system provides capabilities to search the existing permeation database and make predictions using the empirical model.
Activities of CEN TC 162 WG2: Clothing for Protection Against Heat and Flame
Authors: Cole R
Published: March 2009

European Economic Community directive 89/686 is intended to harmonise Safety at Work legislation throughout Europe. It sets out basic Health and Safety requirements and standardised certification procedures. CEN TC 162 was established in April 1989 with the task of producing the necessary standards for protective clothing by 1992. WG2 of TC 162 deals with Clothing for Protection against Heat and Flame. It has, as far as possible, adopted existing ISO test procedures as a basis for the new performance requirements. However, there are problems with the interpretation of the requirements of the directive in terms of precise standards.
Protective Clothing Standards Development in China
Authors: Gao F , Xu M , Zhao Y , Xu S
Published: March 2009

In China, State Standards in the field of occupational safety and health are organized, dawn up and managed by the Bureau of Occupational Safety and Health Supervision under the Ministry of Labour. They are issued and supervised by the State Bureau of Technical Supervision. The Chinese National Standardizing Committee for Personal Protectors was organized in 1987 and is responsible for stipulating standard of personal protection. By the end of 1990, China had promulgated 144 State Standards for occupational safety and health, ten of which are related to body protection. China is keenly interested in cooperating and exchanging ideas with ISO TC 94, ASTM F-23 and other overseas counterparts to enhance the development of protective clothing and promote the safety for the Chinese people.
Ecological Hazard Evaluation and Risk Assessment Under EPA's Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA): An Introduction
Authors: Zeeman M , Gilford J
Published: March 2009

Ecological hazard and risk assessment methods have been developed by the U.S. EPA to systematically evaluate new chemicals, existing chemicals, and genetically engineered microorganisms (OEMs) regulated by the Office of Toxic Substances (OTS) under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). About 70 000 existing chemicals are already on the TSCA Inventory, with thousands of new chemicals being assessed each year for their eventual manufacture and placement on this inventory. New chemicals have little or no ecological test data to evaluate. This lead to the development and regular use by OTS of Quantitative Structure Activity Relationships (QSARs) to evaluate the potential hazards of new chemicals to aquatic organisms. The estimates of hazard for existing chemicals and OEMs are mostly based upon test data supplied by industry. Over the last decade, OTS has identified several test endpoints of ecological concern, developed a scheme for the tier-testing of chemicals, provided guidelines on the methods for performing such tests, and evaluated and/or developed ecological data used in the assessment of thousands of chemicals. Estimates of aquatic and terrestrial hazards are compared with the concentrations of substances expected in the environment and an evaluation of the potential risk made. Ecological risk methods vary from the simple comparison of the potential hazards with the estimated exposure (that is, the quotient method) to simulation modeling.
Interaction Assessment III: Predicting Population-level Impacts of Toxicants and Pesticides
Authors: Emlen JM
Published: March 2009

Wildlife toxicology has made outstanding progress in predicting the impacts of xenobiotic chemicals on mortality, physiological health and, to a lesser degree, fecundity for both animals and plants. It has been less successful, so far, in addressing the impacts of these chemicals on the viability of populations. From the perspective of an ecologist, or an environmentalist concerned with preserving species diversity, the endpoint of concern is clearly population viability. This article suggests a means (Interaction Assessment Analysis, or INTASS) by which lexicological data can be incorporated into an ecological context. The goal is to provide a method whereby effects of xenobiotics can be assessed at the population level and, given input on individual population consequences, to address community-wide ramifications. The INTASS approach involves, 1. Collecting field data on species of concern along with information on microhabitat variables of consequence to that (those) species and microhabitat-scale measures of toxicant concentrations. 2. Fitting the data, based upon an assertion of adaptive dispersion, to a specified model.

The results provide explicit quantitative expressions for the per capita population growth rates of species of interest written as functions of physical and biotic variables as well as toxicant concentrations. Manipulations of these expressions provide the wherewithal to predict consequences of cleanup or other alterations in toxicant levels, or the results of other environmental alterations on the long-term population central tendencies of whole communities.
A Microcosm Using Naturally Derived Microbial Communities: Comparative Ecotoxicology
Authors: Pratt JR , Bowers NJ , Balczon JM
Published: March 2009

Natural microbial communities are species-rich assemblages that display ecosystem properties in the laboratory. Chemical perturbations are expected to alter species richness, standing crop biomass, nutrient pools, and community primary production and respiration. Experiments using microcosms developed from natural microbial communities on artificial substrata and continuously dosed toxicants (including heavy metals, simple organics, and pesticides) and complex mixtures (effluents) showed that microcosm variability was sufficiently low to detect adverse effects on species richness, standing crop biomass, and measures of ecological function. Experiments assessing heavy-metal toxicity, including effluent mixtures with heavy metals, showed adverse effects at toxicant levels at or below current water quality criteria. For example, copper reduced species richness and biomass at 10 to 20 μg/L in microcosms; zinc reduced chlorophyll biomass at <10 μg/L. Microcosm responses to toxicants differed both quantitatively and qualitatively from responses of standard test species and showed that compensatory mechanisms in complex assemblages sometimes prevented the expression of toxic effects, especially when degradable toxicants affected communities. Zinc toxicity elevated the rate of microbial phosphate recovery. Low levels of atrazine (<100 μg/L) stimulated species richness and standing crop biomass, but oxygen production did not increase. Chlorpyrifos did not affect microcosms even when concentrations exceeded water quality criteria by three orders of magnitude. Trinitrotoluene (TNT) only affected microcosms at >400 μg/L although provisional water quality criteria predicted chronic effects at 40 μg/L. Microcosms were sensitive to chlorine in the laboratory (6 μg/L) but were insensitive to a nutrient rich, chlorinated effluent (>400 μg/L), which was acutely toxic to daphnids. Reference toxicant experiments showed that effects on naturally derived microcosms are repeatable within and between ecosystems. Differences between microcosm responses and expected toxicity based on standard bioassays are a result of complex interactions including toxicant degradation, the interaction of toxicants and nutrients, and the lack of species sensitive to some toxicants, and these interactions allow microcosms to display a range of ecological responses not predictable from single species tests.
Applications of the Neutral Red Cytotoxicity Assay to Risk Assessment of Aquatic Contaminants: An Overview
Authors: Babich B , Borenfreund E
Published: March 2009

The neutral red (NR) in vitro cell viability assay is a cytotoxicity test, initially developed for use with mammalian cells to evaluate the acute toxicities of chemicals. It has been adapted for aquatic ecotoxicity tests by the use of cultured fish cells as the bioindicator system. This assay is based on the binding of neutral red, a weakly cationic, supravital dye, to the lysosomal matrix of viable cells after their incubation with toxic agents. Spectrophoto-metric quantitation of the extracted dye at 540 nm with a scanning microtiter well reader was shown to be linear with the number of surviving, undamaged, viable cells. This assay with fish cells as the targets has been applied to five areas of ecotoxicity testing and risk assessment: (1) the ranking of the test agents according to their potencies; (2) the study of metabolism-mediated cytotoxicity; (3) the analysis of structure-activity relationships for series of related chemicals; (4) the determination of chemical toxicity as a function of temperature; and (5) the evaluation of chemical interactions as they relate to toxicity.
A Laboratory Evaluation of the Use of Stress Proteins in Fish to Detect Changes in Water Quality
Authors: Dyer SD , Dickson KL , Zimmerman EG
Published: March 2009

The stress-protein response is a conserved and ubiquitous protective mechanism that enables cells to tolerate a wide variety of environmental insults. This response involves the decreased translation of “normal” genes and the increased translation of stress protein genes, resulting in the preferential synthesis of suites of proteins of different molecular weights. These proteins perform a variety of functions such as protein folding and renaturation, multimeric protein assembly, steroid receptor binding, and heme catabolism.

To evaluate the potential use of this protective response as a biomonitoring tool, we used a stepwise plan that proceeded through various in vivo laboratory chemical exposures. Brain, gill, and striated muscle tissues of fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) exposed to arsenite, chromate, lindane, and diazinon were found to elicit the stress protein response (SPR) at environmentally realistic concentrations. Data accumulated from all experiments suggest that the SPR has potential as an indicator of both general stress and chemical specific exposure. Briefly, a 70-kD protein (sp70) was found to be induced by all four chemicals, whereas 20- and 30-kD proteins were indicative of metal exposure. Moreover, increased stress responses occurred in target tissues in relation to chemical mode of action. The potential utility of the SPR as a tool for assessing water quality is discussed.
Morphometric and Histologic Changes in Brains of Great Blue Heron Hatchlings Exposed to PCDDs: Preliminary Analyses
Authors: Henshel DS , Cheng KM , Norstrom R , Whitehead P , Steeves JD
Published: March 2009

Throughout the United States and Canada the polychlorinated di-benzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) released in kraft pulp effluent have become a matter of intense public and regulatory concern. The central nervous system (CNS) is known to be one organ that is sensitive to environmental toxins. Although several studies have demonstrated biochemical changes in various regions of dioxin- and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)-exposed brains, no one has yet characterized the specific cellular nervous system changes due to dioxin exposure. To this end, we have begun to analyze the CNS of heron hatchlings contamined in the wild in ovo with a mixture of PCDDs and PCDFs. We used histologic and morphometric techniques to examine differences in the cell density of specific nuclei and the gross differences in the shape of different parts of the brain. Preliminary analyses indicated the following: a) the brains of heron hatchlings from contaminated colonies exhibited a gross morphometric intercerebral asymmetry, and such asymmetry was associated with the level of TCDD contamination in eggs; and b) there was an increased cell density and overall medial-to-lateral width in the pyriform cortex of the brains of hatchlings from a contaminated versus a relatively uncontaminated colony.
Status and Applications of Echinoid (Phylum Echinodermata) Toxicity Test Methods
Authors: Bay S , Burgess R , Nacci D
Published: March 2009

The use of echinoderms for toxicity testing has focused primarily on sea urchins and sand dollars (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, Arbacia punctulata, Lytechinus pictus, and Dendraster excentricus, for example). The status and relative sensitivity of various test methods are described. The most frequently used test methods consist of short-term exposures of sea urchin sperm or embryos; these tests can be easily conducted at all times of the year by using species with complementary spawning cycles or laboratory conditioned populations of a single species. Data from reference toxicant and effluent toxicity tests are summarized. Information on the precision and sensitivity of echinoid test methods are limited and preclude rigorous comparisons with other test methods. The available data indicate that the sensitivity and precision of these methods are comparable to short-term chronic methods for other marine invertebrates and fish. Recent application of the sperm test in toxicity identification evaluations (TIEs) and studies of effluent toxicity decay and sediment toxicity illustrate the versatility of this rapid (10 to 60 min exposure) test method. Embryo tests typically use a 48 to 96 h exposure period and measure the occurrence of embryo malformations. Most recent applications of the embryo test have been for the assessment of sediment elutriate toxicity. Adult echinoderms are not frequently used to assess effluent or receiving water toxicity. Recent studies have had success in using the adult life stage of urchins and sand dollars to assess the effects of contaminated sediment on growth, behavior, and bioaccumulation.