bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Ando Clifford , Lavan Myles
Published: September 2022

This chapter offers a synoptic perspective on the significance of Roman citizenship in the long century between the Flavians and the Constitutio Antoniniana. It opens with a discussion of personal and collective statuses in Roman public law and the question of the number and distribution of Romans. It proceeds to survey the different ways in which Roman citizenship was experienced in the second century: the juridical and fiscal effects of legal difference; the effects of Roman law on the behavior of Romans in the family sphere; the links between citizenship and cult; a variety of other practices often entailed by possession of Roman citizenship, including distinctive civic rituals and the use of a distinctive onomastic form; and the complex relationship between citizenship and belonging.
The Onomastics of Roman Citizenship in the Greek East
Authors: Blanco-Pérez Aitor
Published: September 2022

Names are fundamental for assessing the spread of Roman citizenship in the empire. The eastern provinces during the long second century CE saw an increase in the number of Greek-speaking individuals enfranchised—rhetors, athletes, soldiers, and even procurators. This chapter seeks to study both the ways in which Roman nomenclature was locally adopted by the new citizens and how socially significant the display of their names might be in the epigraphic and literary materials of the period. Instead of using onomastics as an index of status to be instrumentalized by historians, the chapter proposes analyzing this phenomenon as a cultural practice that is accommodated to different contexts and helps to illuminate what citizenship meant to some of those who possessed it.
A Hanging
Authors: Delgado James P.
Published: September 2022

Captain Mackenzie and his officers quickly panicked at the thought of a small, crowded ship full of disaffected and angry young men and boys, in a situation exacerbated by a mentally disturbed Spencer, abetted by angry petty officers who saw their “superiors” as inexperienced and likely unfit to command. Mackenzie ordered his officers to conduct a “drumhead” court-martial, and arrested his boatswain, Samuel Cromwell, a dis-rated former petty officer, Elisha Small, and then began to arrest some of the boys whom he and his officers suspected were co-conspirators in what was likely a desired but imaginary “mutiny.” Disapproval of Spencer’s fraternization with boys, some of whom were suspected to be his sexual partners, as well as some of the black crew, also played a role in the affair. In a controversial action, the officers voted, with pressure from Mackenzie, to immediately execute Spencer, Cromwell, and Small and not take them home to New York to stand trial ashore. In front of a weeping crew, the three were hanged and buried at sea. Somers sailed back to New York with additional arrests taking place, and once there, an exhausted Mackenzie turned to his love of words to explain what had happened and why he had done what he had done.
Designing Writing Assignments for Public Health Classes
Authors: Beard Jennifer
Published: September 2022

Public health professionals do many types of writing. Each has its own audience and purpose. Our readers tend to be busy and easily distracted. Public health students at all educational levels need clear instructions about audience, purpose, and genre. The interdisciplinary nature of public health means that students will often be unfamiliar with the types of documents we ask them to write. Chapter 3 offers guidance on designing clear, detailed writing assignments that allow students to practice different types of public health writing for various readers and purposes. Because public health programs draw students from a wide array of disciplines, professional, and cultural backgrounds, professors cannot assume students will know what a determinants analysis or policy brief is, let alone how to write one. At their best, writing assignment instructions suggest outlines and clearly identify both the intended reader and objective of the document.
Caveat Emptor
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , El-Ganainy Asmaa , Esteves Rui , Mitchener Kris James
Published: September 2022

The appetite of investors for foreign government bonds reflected the belief that the projects so funded would yield hard-currency receipts needed to pay the money back. Because foreign finance was devoted to infrastructure investment in the context of an expanding world economy, this expectation was often met. But there also were instances when things went spectacularly awry—where investment projects were ill conceived, bondholders and borrowers were poorly served by banks and promoters, money was squandered, and worse. This chapter presents examples of both outcomes. Japan used its borrowing capacity to foster economic and financial development, succeed on the battlefield, and in so doing lend legitimacy to the state. Other empires, such as China and the Ottomans, were less successful at mastering external debt and were ultimately forced to sacrifice sovereignty as the price of market access.
Managing Problem Debts
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , El-Ganainy Asmaa , Esteves Rui , Mitchener Kris James
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on debt crises in the nineteenth century. Lending to sovereigns, then as now, posed risks, especially when governments defaulted on loans contracted abroad. Foreign investors had limited recourse against the sovereign. Defaults spiked in the 1820s, 1870s, and 1890s. Ultimately, however, the market emerged stronger from each crisis. Existing solutions to deter opportunistic sovereigns were revamped, from pledging collateral to external financial control. New institutions, such as investment banks acting as gatekeepers and bondholder committees representing the interests of investors, further supported the operation of the market. The steamship and telegraph provided improved access to information about foreign countries, which was then digested and disseminated by specialized investment services. Investors learned to diversify away some of the risk in their portfolios, with help from managed investment funds.
Debt to the Rescue
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , El-Ganainy Asmaa , Esteves Rui , Mitchener Kris James
Published: September 2022

The subprime and Eurozone crises were the largest peacetime economic disruptions since the Great Depression of the 1930s. Aware of the precedent, governments responded with increases in spending funded by sovereign debt issuance. Central banks, though independent, supported the effort by purchasing government bonds. But even before the crisis had passed, political consensus for deficit spending gave way to the view that a return to austerity was urgent. Additional borrowing, the reasoning went, augured a repeat of the credit cycle behind the earlier crisis, and in any case would be ineffective, threaten the stability of public finances, and burden future generations. In fact, premature austerity and delayed debt restructuring slowed recovery from the crisis. In Europe, this approach put the political and economic stability of the European Union at risk. The silver lining was that the next time the world was faced with an existential crisis, in 2020, these lessons had been learned.
The Coolie MDR (1834–1947)
Authors: Agarwala Rina
Published: September 2022

Chapter 3 details the rise and fall of the Coolie MDR (1834–1947). Contrary to claims that sending-state governments throughout the world (including India) have only recently started to use emigrants to meet domestic development needs, this chapter shows that emigration has been an important state subject in India since the colonial era. The Coolie MDR instituted an overtly racialized development model, whereby the state exploited poor and middle-class Indian emigrants to serve as coolies for the British Empire, advancing economic accumulation in the colonies and ultimately in the United Kingdom. The Coolie MDR also inaugurated India’s first migration state. In response to public pressures, the colonial government gradually built a regulatory framework that empowered the state to not only use, but also control, the global mobility of “free” (as opposed to enslaved) commodified human workers. Underlying this framework was a class-based distinction of Indian emigrants. So successful was this approach that many of the class-based regulations and institutions born during the Coolie MDR continue to guide India’s emigration infrastructure today. Despite the resilience of its class-based regulatory infrastructure, however, the Coolie MDR’s racist model of accumulation eventually mobilized cross-class solidarity among Indian emigrants, who joined forces with Indian independent leaders to resist global racism, British colonialism, and, ultimately, the Coolie MDR itself.
The CEO MDR’s Elite Class Pact of “Global Indians”
Authors: Agarwala Rina
Published: September 2022

Chapter 6 exposes how the CEO MDR has forged an elite class pact of “global Indians” that includes India’s state officials, domestic business leaders, and elites abroad. This celebrated group dominates Indian development and attains material wealth and status in the process. To seal this class pact, the CEO MDR has tapped elite emigrants’ social and ideological contributions to development (in the form of their ideas, ideals, tastes, networks, and technical expertise). It has invited elite emigrants to forge partnerships with Indian businesses, reshape India’s voluntary sector, invest in Indian real estate, and serve in elite policy positions within the government. And it has framed Indian Americans, in particular, as successful, hard-working, private-sector professionals and entrepreneurs whom domestic Indians should emulate. The CEO MDR has not, however, tapped poor emigrants for their social and ideological remittances. Rather, it has tried to cement their consent to elite ideals of privatization, self-sufficiency, and entrepreneurship upon their return. Thus, the CEO MDR has reframed poor emigrants’ identity as members of a cross-class category of “migrant entrepreneurs,” thereby occluding their class differences with elite emigrants and deflecting attention away from wage labor and its underlying structures of exploitation.
Old Testament
Authors: Burnside Jonathan
Published: September 2022

Abstract: Israel’s Torah offers much more than is usually appreciated in modern times in potentially guiding nations in thinking about constitutionalism. Although constitutionalism in the Hebrew Bible is very different from the modern constitution in its emphasis on the sovereignty of God, nevertheless, it shares important similarities. These include its concern for covenantal politics, limited government, separation of powers, federalism, and civic virtue. Accordingly, closer examination of the biblical history of Israel shows that it contains profound political insights concerning good government and the wise constitution. These abiding norms can also be seen to be in long-range continuity with the New Testament’s concerns for political order.
New Testament
Authors: Bertschmann Dorothea H.
Published: September 2022

The earliest Christians inherited from their Jewish roots the call to exclusive allegiance to God, the ruler of all and the notion of a “divine constitution” in the sense of a specific way of life God’s people had to adopt. However, these basic tenets are being unfolded in very different ways in the New Testament. Matthew’s Gospel discusses an inherently political Jesus who is introduced as the Messiah. However, the ensuing conflict is between the Messiah and the wayward leaders of God’s people, who refuse to follow the new messianic constitution of the Kingdom of God. The Roman emperor is relegated to the nonessential actors as the question about the tax in Matthew 22:15–22 shows. In Romans 13:1–7 Paul adopts a similar nonchalant way of dealing with temporal rulers. They are installed by God to do some good; the Christians with their demanding love ethics will fulfill civic obligations with ease. They are free to contribute to the state by paying their taxes because of this overlap. In both texts the building up of a new people under the ultimate authority of Christ happens away from the centers of political power. This changes in Revelation, where we have a showdown between the persecuted Christians and an empire that has become demonic in its demand of worship, violence, and injustice. This empire is denounced as direct Anti-Christ (e.g., in Revelation 17). All three texts offer important New Testament configurations of Christ’s Lordship and political power for later theological-political reflections.
Rule of Law
Authors: Thio Li-ann
Published: September 2022

The rule of law is a universally accepted prescription for constitutional government, although what it entails is contested. Formal conceptions focus on clear rules and due process, while “thicker” conceptions espouse some theory of substantive justice, which invites disagreement and controversy. Hellenic and biblical streams of Western legal thought drew explicit links between the rule of law and a higher law beyond state promulgated law. The latter served as the source of substantive justice and an objective reference point from which to evaluate a legal system. The higher law idea has become unfashionable in an age of legal positivism, realism, and postmodernism, driven by metaphysical skepticism and rejection of law’s autonomy from politics. Nonetheless, the rule of law requires a theory of law, whether founded on religious or humanist premises. This chapter asks whether the rule of law can be apprehended and implemented, detached from its sacred roots. It argues that Christianity has much to contribute toward understanding the higher law/rule of law before and after the secularist project of severing law from its religious roots, in addressing questions of legal foundations, the moral content, and the authority of law. This provides the basis for evaluating the rule of law’s humanist “secular shoots” and how this might undermine rule-of-law values and liberties it seeks to secure. In a plural age, it is appropriate to revisit the religious foundations of the rule of law, to present a competing alternative to dominant conceptions that conflate the rule of law with liberalism.
Christology
Authors: Rowland Tracey
Published: September 2022

This chapter proceeds in four parts: first, an outline of the basic principles of Christology as they were framed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451; second, an account of contemporary theological critiques of liberalism, especially of what the twentieth-century political theorist John Rawls called “political liberalism”; third, a section on the theological meaning of the kingship of Christ, including the Pauline concept of “restoring all things in Christ,” which is the most common intersection for reflections on constitutional law and Christology; and finally, the 2016 event of the enthronement of Christ as king of Poland as a case study of postsecular engagements of Christology with constitutional theory. Throughout the chapter the Chalcedonian adverbs (without confusion, change, division, or separation) used to explain the relationship between the divinity and humanity of Christ are applied analogously to the relationship between church and state.
Subsidiarity
Authors: Benson Iain T.
Published: September 2022

Subsidiarity addresses the ordering of relations between the local and the wider aspects—family, community, and state, province, or federation. It addresses the limits of law and policies, acts as a check and balance on the state, and contributes to a preference for the organic and diverse. A constitution ordered by subsidiarity has a better frame for the rule of law and protects against the rule by technology. Subsidiarity is an organizing principle of Roman Catholic social thought but originates in classical philosophy and is found in the Western legal tradition. Explicitly or implicitly, constitutional law orders the reach of law and its influence on the nexus of families and associations that make up civil society. This ordering of law determines in part whether life is viewed as organic or as technological, quantitative, and mechanistic. The principle, along with the related one of solidarity, is more than simply de-centralization and orders a society toward justice and the common good. The principle seeks to ensure larger or less proximate aspects of society assist the smaller and the more local aspects to undertake their proper functions and realize those ends proper to their true natures rather than submerge or control them improperly. The South African Charter of Religious Rights and Freedoms and local governance initiatives in the United Kingdom provide current examples of subsidiarity.
Eschatology
Authors: Farrow Douglas
Published: September 2022

A Christian approach to constitutionalism requires, inter alia, the correlation of law with liberty, authority with modesty, autonomy with theonomy, dignity with vocation, teleology with eschatology. This work of correlation occurs within a context governed by a covenant narrative and by the eucharistic economy of gift and gratitude. Justice is thus ordered to its ground in God and, just so, to the happiness that all humans by nature seek. Pursuit of a well-ordered liberty, liberty capable of proper regard for both body and soul and for the person in community, depends at the constitutional level on linking the rule of law to the supremacy of God and to the grateful acknowledgment of divine gifts. The greater operation of liberty in and through law, it is here argued, is a function of this linkage and acknowledgment.
Revolutionary Contagion and International Politics
Authors: Nelson Chad E.
Published: September 2022

When do leaders fear that a revolution elsewhere will spread to their own polities, and what are the international effects of this fear? This book develops and tests the domestic contagion effects theory. According to the theory, fear of contagion is driven more by the characteristics of the host rather than by the activities of the infecting agents. In other words, leaders will fear revolutionary contagion when they have significant revolutionary opposition movements that share the same ideological affinity of the revolution. Whether the revolutionary state merely serves as a model for revolution or whether it also acts as a platform, attempting to spread revolution abroad, is not the crucial distinction. When leaders have a fear of contagion, it will have a profound effect on international politics, prompting hostility toward the revolutionary state and cooperation with states that have similar fears, sometimes in contrast to geopolitical pressures. Cases spanning the reaction to the democratic American Revolution and the Dutch Patriot Revolt, the wave of liberal revolutions in Europe in 1820–21, the Russian communist and Italian fascist revolutions, and the Iranian Islamist revolution in the Middle East largely, though not uniformly, support the theory. This book advances our understanding of when, why, and how much states with different domestic ideologies affect international relations. In certain periods in international relations, one simply cannot make sense of international politics—patterns of alliances and wars—without considering the fear of contagion.
Liberal Revolutions and the Concert of Europe
Authors: Nelson Chad E.
Published: September 2022

This chapter contrasts with the previous one. In the cases discussed in both chapters, there were revolutions in states not acting as a platform to spread revolution, but in the cases discussed in this chapter, all the great powers—France, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain—perceived they had a significant revolutionary movement of the same character as the revolutions. As the domestic contagion effects theory expects, there were contagion fears that decisively affected foreign policy: states were hostile toward the revolutions and cooperative with each other. They forswore opportunities to use revolutions in Spain, Portugal, Naples, Piedmont, and Greece as a means to enhance their geopolitical standing in order to prevent possible revolutionary contagion.
Modalities for Community Participation in Implementing the UNESCO ICH Convention
Authors: Aikawa-Faure Noriko
Published: September 2022

The UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICHC) is the first example of an international cultural heritage treaty that acknowledges the need for community involvement to such a high degree. This principle emerged from the landmark 1999 UNESCO/Smithsonian Institution Conference, A Global Assessment of the 1989 Recommendation on the Safeguarding of Traditional Culture and Folklore: Local Empowerment and International Cooperation. It was further endorsed by the Turin Round Table, where experts discussed the definition of the term “intangible cultural heritage” and by the Rio Expert Meeting that identified the priority domain to be included in the future instrument, which was fed finally into the ICHC. This chapter examines how this concept of community involvement in the safeguarding of the ICH was enshrined by the experts at their meetings and how it was subsequently watered down by the representatives of UNESCO member states at the intergovernmental meetings that drafted the ICHC and its operational directives.
The “ICH Movement” in China
Authors: Mei Xiao , Xiao Yang
Published: September 2022

Along with the Kunqu Art (昆曲艺术) and Guqin Art (古琴艺术), over 10 kinds of Chinese traditional music genres have been accepted into the Representative List of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. Considering this a national honor, the central government in China soon established a series of policies for the preservation of ICH. Next, local governments from cities and provinces started to support these policies. The country institutionalized an ICH system from county, city, and province level to state level. Government officials, academics and intellectuals, NGOs, mass media, commercial institutions, and culture bearers began to reconsider musical traditions in terms of their complexity from an ICH perspective, and actively engaged in the safeguarding and promotion of ICH in different ways over the past decade, which we may call the “ICH movement in China.” This chapter focuses on 11 kinds of music genres to observe what role the government played in classifying the extreme abundance of Chinese traditional music forms and qualifying them as ICH at different grades. What are the actual effects of various safeguarding policies and acts that have been carried out by different levels of government? What kind of dynamic relationships exist between the different forces in shaping this ICH movement and the future of traditional music in China? Based on their research data, the authors discuss some sensitive but core issues about Chinese traditional music vis-à-vis the ICH movement.
There Is No Price for That
Authors: Elizabeth Clark Logan
Published: September 2022

An increase in financial activity after UNESCO recognition of the Danza del Rabinal Achí, an Achí-Mayan dance-drama declared a Masterpiece of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2005, elicited concerns from both the dancers and the community of Rabinal, Guatemala, that the resulting increase in economic activity surrounding the dance would desecrate its spiritual essence. This chapter examines the relationship between economic value and social values after UNESCO ICH safeguarding intervention to analyze the resulting changes in the dance and its role in Rabinal. The author employs the action theory of value to consider the value systems of the practitioners of this dance drama, the Guatemalan government, and UNESCO, concluding that UNESCO recognition resulted not in the alteration of local values, but rather in the translation of one type of value to another, and, consequentially, greater agency for the dance practitioners. The author proposes that this process may be used to assess the effectiveness of governmental safeguarding efforts on the terms of the practitioners, rather than from the value structure of the interveners, to determine the necessity (or lack thereof) of outside intervention in future efforts toward cultural safeguarding.
Archives, Technology, Communities, and Sustainability
Authors: Seeger Anthony
Published: September 2022

Audiovisual archives can contribute significantly to efforts to safeguard, sustain, and revive music and other elements of intangible cultural heritage (ICH), especially in the digital era. But their usefulness is limited by the quality of the documentation in their collections. The “tragedy of Humpty Dumpty” in the title is that different kinds of documents of a performance are almost impossible to “put back together again,” like Humpty Dumpty after he fell off the wall. This chapter discusses weaknesses in the documentation of performances and some of the challenges of repatriating archival collections to their originating communities. Then it describes how digitization and the internet have transformed audiovisual archiving in the twenty-first century. They have enabled a massive growth of community-generated archives that counter hegemonic histories, mobilize communities, and facilitate the sharing of knowledge over long distances on diverse platforms and social media. Although the six traditional aspects of audiovisual archives—institutional affiliation, acquisition, organization, preservation, access, and distribution— remain, the emerging digital opportunities have altered how they function. Online archives, however, face their own specific challenges. For today’s recordings and collections to survive for use by future generations, new digital strategies for preservation and long-term access will need to be developed and implemented so that they may contribute to shaping a musical, archival, and sustainable future for the world’s music and other ICH.
Working Musically Through Crisis
Authors: Dirksen Rebecca
Published: September 2022

Contributors to this volume have been invited to reflect on the theory and practice of music as intangible cultural heritage (ICH)—as conceived and enacted through the 2003 UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage—from various vantage points around the world. Moreover, authors have been tasked with assessing how resulting efforts toward heritage safeguarding can in turn promote music sustainability, however that might be conceptualized in local contexts. Haiti, while considerably less active in UNESCO initiatives than many other nations, offers a particularly fruitful location from which to engage with these conversations, in raising several critical challenges to the Convention’s mission and to applications of heritage management more generally. In this chapter, the author’s objectives in thinking through approaches to ICH safeguarding in Haiti are to briefly (1) cite selected UNESCO-related efforts and observe what has resulted from these missions to date; and (2) consider locally grounded conceptions of patrimony and support for its continuance, particularly as (3) interpreted through two starkly different yet in some ways interlinked case studies that present their own complexities to this conversation: the case of Haiti’s classical music, and the case of Haiti’s drums of Vodou. With this context established, the author reflects more on the political and economic constraints, environmental circumstances, and realities of day-to-day life that make heritage safeguarding both urgent and yet extremely difficult to achieve. The chapter then turns toward broader conceptions of music sustainability and imagines what musically sustainable futures in Haiti—which are reframed in terms of regenerative processes—might be. While the space allotted here is clearly insufficient to examine in great detail Haiti’s ICH and cultural sustainability issues, it is hoped that this chapter will serve as an introduction to assist others in launching more in-depth studies.
Becoming a Cyber Sovereign
Authors: Kokas Aynne
Published: September 2022

Chapter 3 examines how China’s policies around cyber sovereignty, or the sovereign control of data generated in or by a nation, are transforming global data governance. China has implemented numerous domestic data localization policies—in essence, storage requirements forcing data to be stored on government servers. Paired with prohibitive market access requirements, data localization laws incentivize foreign firms to store their data in China. Chinese regulators export these standards through engagement in international organizations such as the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the Wuzhen World Internet Summit, the 3GPP, and others. Through field research, industry interviews, and analysis of policy documents, this chapter demonstrates how Chinese regulations structure the legal trafficking of consumer data and extend Chinese sovereignty beyond the nation’s current borders.
Home
Authors: Kokas Aynne
Published: September 2022

US consumers are addicted to low-cost products, especially those sold by Chinese companies. However, low-profit-margin consumer products often lack reliable data security. Using case studies of connected (or “smart”) devices ranging from sex toys and home security systems to refrigerators and baby monitors, Chapter 9 argues that cheap consumer products lead to international data security failures. Such “data accidents,” as these failures are often portrayed, emerge from the tightly interconnected, fast-moving, low-margin US-China consumer products landscape, which leaves consumers and their most intimate data vulnerable to exploitation by US firms, Chinese firms, and the Chinese government. With the advent of platform-driven consumer products, new standards for data privacy and security are emerging through national and international standards-setting bodies, corporate standards-setting, and industry associations; however, broader transformations to the consumer landscape are necessary to thwart data trafficking through data accidents.
Episcopian Divinity in Restoration Cambridge
Authors: Fornecker Samuel
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers a refinement of the historiographical tradition identified in Chapter 1. In this perspective, the long tenure of Joseph Beaumont as Regius Professor of Divinity at Cambridge from 1674 to 1699 serves as evidence for an Anglo-Dutch Arminian convergence, which allegedly came to characterize English Arminian views by the close of the century. However, through an analysis of Beaumont’s Latin manuscript lectures on Christian liberty, this chapter shows that Beaumont’s portrayal as an exemplar of a developing Anglo-Dutch Arminian convergence is deeply problematic. Beaumont’s treatment of Episcopius brims with disdain—a point made all the more noteworthy given Beaumont’s adherence to key tenets of an Arminian soteriology. Beaumont’s association of Episcopius with radical dissent thus serves to confirm that an Arminian conformist rejection of Episcopian divinity was in full force at the highest tier of theological discourse in England by the mid-1670s.
The Trojan Horse Unboweled
Authors: Fornecker Samuel
Published: September 2022

This chapter analyzes a previously unexamined Latin correspondence between the Remonstrant, Jean Le Clerc, and an important mediating figure between the academic, political, and theological worlds of Edwards and Waterland, William Nicholls. Nicholls’s Defensio Ecclesiæ Anglicanæ (1708) precipitated a range of transmarine correspondences, among which can be found an exchange between Nicholls and Le Clerc. That exchange sheds significant light on the main lines of anti-Remonstrant sentiment which found expression among the lower clergy. Furthermore, this correspondence yields surprising insights into the anti-Remonstrant campaign fueled, in the Lower House, by the polemical activity of Jonathan Edwards. Given that Nicholls’s Defensio was a work later commended, by no less a figure than Daniel Waterland, as a preservative against Remonstrant errors, the Nicholls–Le Clerc exchange opens a fascinating window onto divergent trajectories of English and Dutch Arminian traditions, and reveals the surprising transmarine alignments that were facilitated and reinforced by English anti-Remonstrant polemic.
The Gun Dilemma
Authors: Spitzer Robert J.
Published: September 2022

Contemporary gun controversies are deeply rooted in our history, yet much of that history is unknown, ignored, or distorted. This is all the more important because a new gun rights movement is pressing to expand the definition of gun rights well beyond the standard set by the Supreme Court in its landmark, controversial Heller ruling from 2008. This “gun rights 2.0” movement has spread to a series of contemporary gun controversies. Their efforts have found a receptive audience among a new generation of very conservative federal judges cultivated in part for their professed adherence to the doctrine of constitutional Originalism and fealty to an expansive reading of gun rights. Drawing on new information sources, this book examines those gun controversies in the light of our gun history and contemporary policy environment, covering gun policy areas including assault weapons, ammunition magazines, silencers, public gun brandishing and display, and the emergent Second Amendment sanctuary movement. Revealing and illuminating as that history is, the author argues that we should not be straitjacketed by that history, but rather informed by it as the nation struggles with how to frame its gun policies.
The Sound of Silencers
Authors: Spitzer Robert J.
Published: September 2022

The author’s experience with a silencer-fitted weapon provides the introduction to the history and consequences of gun silencers, also called “suppressors.” A little-noticed but concerted effort to roll back state and federal silence regulation frames this examination of the history, justification, and consequences of silencer regulation, which spread across the states from the time of its invention in the early 1900s, culminating in a nationwide registration system enacted in 1934. Deregulation advocates argue for less regulated access to silencers as a means to protect the hearing of shooters and bystanders. Yet firearms noise also serves a safety function. Also excavated is the seemingly lost history behind the movement to regulate silencers from a century ago. Various means for protecting shooter hearing are examined in the light of this debate.
Religious Ideological Fixation
Authors: Gat Azar
Published: September 2022

Premodern ideologies were predominantly “religious”. Like all ideologies, they combine factual claims about the world with prescribed codes of proper behavior in it. The chapter unravels the various threads that are woven together in the making of the religious phenomena. First, the religious phenomena were built around pervasive beliefs in occult forces and hidden agencies, which had to be dealt and negotiated with. Second, in larger-scale and complex agricultural and state societies, religion expanded into and merged with morality. Third, religion is a deeply collective phenomenon, because of the innate human conformity to socially inherited ideas and practices, and because of religion’s close connection to group identity and survival. Adherence to the traditionalist mythical narratives of the religious system is attributable to their warm emotional resonance, evocative archetypes and narrative forms, and other human cognitive proclivities or biases. Individuals and societies can be more or less religious, with modernity in particular marking a real and deep turning point in this regard. However, the religious phenomena—in traditionalist, modernist or “New Age” forms—appear to have sufficiently deep roots in the human psyche to render Nietzsche’s proclamation of the Death of God somewhat exaggerated.
Nature or Nurture?
Authors: Gat Azar
Published: September 2022

The revolution in the legal, socioeconomic, and sexual condition of women during the twentieth century has been one of the most astounding developments of modernity. This, however, does not mean that natural differences between men and women do not exist, on average, and influence behavior and choices; nor does it mean that such differences do not interact with, and are reconfigured by, changing historical-cultural conditions; nor does it entail that they should impact the quest for legal and social equality and equal opportunity for women. The role of nature was greatly overestimated and that of social conditions hugely underestimated by previous generations, whereas the opposite has been true in much of the feminist rhetoric and theory. Any suggestion of gender differences provokes very strong emotions in the current liberal ideological discourse, with its postulate of equality. This is the nature of an ideological discourse, which is principally not about accuracy of explanation but about social change and getting things done.
Descartes on Dreamers, Madmen, and Amputees
Authors: Scribano Emanuela
Published: September 2022

In the Fourth Meditation, Descartes’ theory of error holds the bad use of free will responsible for erroneous judgments. However, in certain conditions—such as infancy or illness—the mind cannot suspend judgment because the alteration of the brain necessarily dictates a judgment, which is often mistaken. The most dramatic cases of this kind are madness and the amputee’s phantom-limb syndrome, which necessarily induce the mind to make erroneous judgments that lie beyond correction. Madness is not just an extreme case of the false representation of the world: in the Dioptrique, madness is a crucial case study for understanding the physiological mechanisms of perception—and the case of the amputee confirms the conclusions it leads to. Therefore, the very way in which sense perception normally works makes it hard to prove that external bodies and one’s own body exist, as Malebranche will realize.
Specificity and Prosperity
Authors: Brown Adam R.
Published: September 2022

States with lengthier constitutions experience higher unemployment, reduced income per capita, greater income inequality, and reduced policy innovativeness generally. These effects arise among the American states even though so much economic and monetary policy comes out of the nation’s capital. Importantly, past constitution length predicts future performance, but past performance does not predict future constitution length. High constitutional amendment rates do not ameliorate these negative effects of constitution length on state performance. These findings constitute the book’s empirical core, demonstrating that constitutional specificity harms ordinary citizens by impairing the state’s ability to adapt to changing conditions. Lengthy constitutions bind states.
Studying Spells: A New Unit of Analysis, Measure, and Model
Authors: Davenport Christian , Appel Benjamin J.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 2 introduces our new measure of repressive spells which we defined as the duration of time government behavior existed above a certain threshold (i.e., a particular level of severity and size of the targeted population). When repression moves above this threshold, a spell begins. As long as repressive action stays above this level, it continues. Once repression falls below the designated level, the spell terminates. And, if, after having gone through a spell already, repressive behavior once again rises above the designated threshold, it is said to recur. Throughout the chapter we provide overviews of what the specific spell component look life. Chapter 2 also provides information about the diverse variables/policies that are employed in the world to reduce/stop repression and examined in empirical models. The chapter concludes with a description of our analytic strategy.
Starting Spells
Authors: Davenport Christian , Appel Benjamin J.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 3 provides one of the first empirical investigations of what (if anything) impacts the start of a repressive spell. It first identifies the influence of the standard variables employed within the literature. Following this, the chapter moves to explore those variables that emerge from the domestic context (i.e., those used by actors within the territory in question) and those variables that emerge from the international context (i.e., those used by actors outside of the territory in question). In an effort to facilitate clarity, the chapter offers evaluations of substantive effects as well as alternative specifications. The big findings here include pacifying influences of electoral democratization and democracy, economic development, and preferential trade agreements but inflammatory influences of civil conflict, population, and neutral military interventions. Another important contribution involves an analysis of what drives the variable/policy that wields the biggest impact on onset: political democratization. Chapter 3 ends (as all empirical chapters) with an evaluation of what has been learned about spell onset.
Freedom and Change
Authors: Berridge Willow , Lynch Justin , Makawi Raga , de Waal Alex
Published: September 2022

This chapter dissects the original revolutionary moment of December 2018–April 2019, situating it with Sudan's broader history and the specific dynamics of class, nationalist politics, and urban-rural divides. It explores the background and emergence of the Sudan Professional Association, which spearheaded a number of the protests in Khartoum and beyond, observing how it moved from focusing on salary reform to prioritizing regime change. It also explores the variety of rebel movements, civil society organizations and political parties that signed the Declaration of Freedom and Change, leading to the formation of the Forces of Freedom and Change. The chapter also looks at the formation of the famous sit-in at Khartoum's military headquarters and its contribution to the toppling of al-Bashir on 11 April 2019.
Reaping the Whirlwind
Authors: Berridge Willow , Lynch Justin , Makawi Raga , de Waal Alex
Published: September 2022

This chapter interprets al-Bashir's downfall in the context of his decreasing ability to manage Sudan's political marketplace. One of the core themes is the competition between the various security actors, including the Sudan Armed Forces, Rapid Support Forces, National Intelligence and Security Services, and Popular Defence Forces. The chapter analyses the buildup to the revolution through the framework of political economy, highlighting the significance of the shift from oil to gold as Sudan's principal export commodity in the wake of the secession of South Sudan in 2011 and its role in enabling the rise of Hemedti as the dominant actor in the political marketplace.
Political Business as Usual
Authors: Berridge Willow , Lynch Justin , Makawi Raga , de Waal Alex
Published: September 2022

This chapter covers the first year of Abdalla Hamdok's tenure as prime minister of Sudan following the TMC-FFC accord. It explores the clash between his vision for a development and the “business as usual” political marketplace approach adopted by general Hemedti and the other prominent security actors. Burhan and Hemedti played an increasingly dominant role in both Sudan's internal peacemaking process and the efforts to repair relations abroad, through the process of normalizing ties with Israel and removal from the US list of designated State Sponsors of Terror. Meanwhile, Hamdok faced mounting crises due to disputes over subsidy reform accompanied by the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Not the Last Chapter
Authors: Berridge Willow , Lynch Justin , Makawi Raga , de Waal Alex
Published: September 2022

This chapter surveys events after General Burhan's counter-revolutionary coup of 25 October 2022. It situates them within the broader themes of the book, including the clash between civicness and transactional politics, the politics of anti-corruption, and the respective political role of the regions and urban centers. The coup resulted from Hamdok's efforts to challenge the military's business interests, and led to his being placed under house arrest. However, his subsequent effort to reconcile with Burhan through the 21 November deal lost him his legitimacy on the street, and ushered the revolution into a new phase as protestor renewed their calls for madaniyya, and rejected any further compromise with the military.
Introduction
Authors: Moore Daniel
Published: September 2022

This chapter surveys the need for a book on offensive cyber operations (OCOs). All too frequently they are misjudged and incorrectly applied, both by those who seek to employ them and those who observe from the sidelines. The introduction then provides an overview of the book's structure and messaging. The book commences with a conceptual discussion of what constitutes cyber-warfare and what does not, and then explains how offensive cyber operations evolved from previous incarnations of similar intangible warfare. The third and fourth layers of analysis include an assessment of the complexities of executing an OCO, and the military advantages of doing so. The theoretical analysis is followed by case studies on the unique capabilities of Russia, the United States, China and Iran, before culminating in some cautious future-gazing.
Charting Intangible Warfare
Authors: Moore Daniel
Published: September 2022

Cyber operations as observed today are an evolution of pre-existing aspects of modern warfare. The child of signals intelligence and electronic warfare, offensive cyber operations represent the increasing importance of targeting information systems and networks in pursuit of military objectives. The explosive rise of computing power, interconnected military and civilian networks, and the insatiable hunger of the modern military for sensory inputs all created new vulnerabilities. This chapter dissects how cyber is not an altogether new phenomenon, but rather the latest iteration of counter-innovation warfare designed to defeat modern advantages and capitalize on new vulnerabilities. The analysis cycles between World War Two, the Cold War, Network Centric Warfare, information operations, and modern cyber warfare while observing lessons learned through each. By understanding the history of cyber-warfare, we can then observe why some countries are better disposed than others to be successful at it.
Tuning in to Pavement Radio
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François
Published: September 2022

This article is an attempt to describe and define a phenomenon known all over Africa, for which there is no really satisfactory term in English, but which is summed up in the French term radio trottoir, literally "pavement radio". The article contends that radio trottoir is a phenomenon worthy of observation and study by scholars, for two reasons. First, in a continent where the news media is often unreliable and elections of dubious quality, pavement radio provides a space for government critique, and may serve to support or undermine incumbent governments, a kind of populist restraint on government. Second, pavement radio provides an important insight into popular opinion and concerns. As such, it should be thought of as a window on modern African society, a form of contemporary oral history.
Rumour and Power in Togo
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François
Published: September 2022

The chapter describes some of the main political events that took place in Togo in the second half of 1991, when the power of President Gnassingbé Eyadéma faced more serious opposition than at any time since his claim to the presidency twenty-four years earlier, and examines how these events were represented during a popular discussion in Lomé. By analyzing certain aspects of the power struggle during this period and popular perceptions about it, the chapter aims to shed light on the cultural mechanisms by which Eyadéma was able to maintain himself in power and by which his power could be contested.