bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Comparison of Intra- and Postoperative 3-Dimensional Digital Subtraction Angiography in Evaluation of the Surgical Result After Intracranial Aneurysm Treatment
Authors: Marbacher Serge , Kienzler Jenny C , Mendelowitsch Itai , D’Alonzo Donato , Andereggen Lukas , Diepers Michael , Remonda Luca , Fandino Javier
Published: November 2019

BACKGROUND

Postoperative three-dimensional digital subtraction angiography (3D-DSA) is the gold standard in evaluating intracranial aneurysm (IA) remnants after clipping. Should intraoperative 3D-DSA image quality be equally good as postoperative 3D-DSA, it could supplant the latter as standard of care for follow-up of clipped IA.

OBJECTIVE

To directly compare the quality of assessment of clipped IA by intraoperative and postoperative 3D-DSA.

METHODS

From a prospective cohort of 221 consecutive patients who underwent craniotomy for IA treatment in a hybrid operating room, we retrospectively studied 26 patients who had both intraoperative and postoperative 3D-DSA imaging of their clipped aneurysm. Comparison of intraoperative and postoperative 3D-DSA images (blinded for review) included parameters that affected image quality and differences between the 2 periods.

RESULTS

In the 26 patients with 32 clipped IAs, the mean interval was 11 ± 7 mo between intraoperative and postoperative imaging 3D-DSA examinations. Reconstruction with multiple clips was used in 14 (44%) cases. Of 15 remnants, 9 (60%) were small (<2 mm). In comparing intraoperative and postoperative 3D-DSA, no discordance or discrepancy in assessment of the surgical result was noted for any clipped IA, and overall imaging quality was excellent for both modalities. Factors affecting minor differences in image quality were not identified.

CONCLUSION

Compared with postoperative 3D-DSA, intraoperative 3D-DSA images achieved equally high quality and effective, immediate interpretation of the surgical clipping result. With comparable imaging quality and no discordant findings, intraoperative 3D-DSA could replace postoperative 3D-DSA to become the standard of care in IA surgery.
Decision Making Under Deep Uncertainty
Authors: Klima Kelly
Published: November 2019

Decision making under questions of deep uncertainty can be vague or specific, open-ended or fixed, easy or hard. This chapter very briefly addresses issues and approaches to decision making on adaptation to climate change. Depending on the research question, a complicated set of multiple approaches and tools may be needed. To highlight the types of approaches, this chapter discusses a variety of decision making tools and relates them to a particular problem: a homeowner choosing whether to do nothing, buy insurance, or elevate their home. The chapter culminates in a table summarizing the pros and cons of a variety of approaches.
Curricular Frameworks in Preservice Music Teacher Education
Authors: Doerksen Paul F.
Published: November 2019

A common interest among music teacher educators is the curricula by which they deliver their preparation programs, and through which their preservice candidates qualify for instructional certifications. Music teacher education (MTE) curricula reflect distinct aims and methods. Yet all certification and licensure programs share the challenges of outside mandates and periodic reviews. This chapter examines such matters. Informing the content and structure of MTE curricula are program requirements and recommendations, benefits and challenges from the development process, and diverse approaches to the overall design. Across these broad areas are the topics of past practices, faculty beliefs, program integrity, content pressures, design process, anticipated challenges, standards and guidelines, course requirements and sequence, and degree/nondegree (certificate) options. Additionally—given the significant function of accreditation in MTE curricula—a focus on regional, national, specialized, and state agencies is provided. The chapter concludes with suggested readings.
Musicianship for Teaching
Authors: Taggart Cynthia Crump , Hill Stuart Chapman
Published: November 2019

This chapter considers the broad and versatile musicianship skills that music teachers require to be successful in 21st-century classrooms in which students from a variety of backgrounds bring with them diverse musical interests and needs. After considering how musicianship has been defined in a variety of professional and scholarly literature, the chapter enumerates musical skills that are important for preservice teachers to develop and considers how those skills, which often have been too narrowly construed, can be expanded and reimagined. This includes emphasis on creativity (composition, improvisation, songwriting), as well as exploration of vernacular music and music technology. Consideration also is given to the many structural barriers that limit the way musicianship is conceived, taught, and learned in both K–12 and college/university settings, as well how some adjustments to curriculum, entry requirements, and other structures could open the door to solving the musicianship conundrum that music teachers and music teacher educators face.
Assessing Musical Development
Authors: Russell Joshua A.
Published: November 2019

This chapter discusses the general landscape of assessment education in music programs and possible means of incorporating assessment learning in music teacher preparation programs. The chapter outlines a possible sequence of activities that would cover the more pertinent topics of assessment in an instructional sequence that would encompass all 4 years of a typical music education undergraduate program, as well as possible prototypical music education courses in which the topics could be incorporated with the ultimate aim of potentially leading to a more assessment-literate music education profession. The chapter describes steps that music teacher educators can take to help student teachers prepare for what their potential districts may require for teacher evaluation and teacher certification. It also emphasizes the importance of discussing contemporary school legal issues within the student teaching semester, even if students already are required to take a course that covers these issues.
Conducting
Authors: Nápoles Jessica , Rawlings Jared R.
Published: November 2019

This chapter provides a thorough review of the literature related to conducting, including its role in the broader language of nonverbal communication, the relationship between the gesture and sound, comparisons between verbal and nonverbal communication modes, and tools for assessing conducting in preservice music teacher education programs. Following the literature review, there are practical considerations for a research-based approach to conducting pedagogy. Elements for consideration include knowledge and skills for conducting (as well as a possible sequence for teaching them) and the importance of providing preservice teachers with opportunities for conducting, both in prescribed ways in methods and rehearsal technique courses and through ad hoc opportunities. Finally, a musicianship-based framework for preservice music teachers permeates decisions related to conducting instruction. All excellent music educators must also be excellent musicians.
Service-Learning Opportunities for Preservice Music Teachers within Community Music Settings
Authors: Rawlings Jared R.
Published: November 2019

Authentic teaching opportunities are important for all preservice teachers, and service-learning opportunities within community music settings support preservice music teacher development. The purpose of this chapter is to document a service-learning opportunity within a community music school and showcase the benefits and challenges of a partnership between a music teacher preparation program and this school. After defining service learning and describing how it is utilized in music teacher education, the chapter uncovers the following topics: establishing a community music partnership, designing a service-learning opportunity, and evaluating the outcomes of service-learning programs. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the implications of and recommendations for utilizing a multi-tier service-learning program alongside a preservice music teacher curriculum.
The Nature of Music Teacher Preparation Scholarship Through the Lens of the Journal of Music Teacher Education
Authors: Killian Janice N.
Published: November 2019

This chapter examines the Journal of Music Teacher Education (JMTE) from 1991 to 2017, including JMTE’s mission, review processes, and content of 403 articles. Of particular interest are changes in journal size, topic emphases, quantitative versus qualitative methodologies, ratio of research (new data) to interest articles (ideas based on existent data), and collaborative authorships. A review of related research involving trends in journal publication and scholarship of teaching and learning is included, as well as lists of JMTE editors, editorial review board members, and individual author productivity. Relationships between journal growth and strength of the sponsoring professional society (Society for Music Teacher Education Symposium and Graduate Student Research Forum) are discussed. Comparisons between the vitality of JMTE and the demise of Quarterly Journal of Teaching and Learning are explored. Suggestions for future analyses of professional journals conclude the chapter.
Accrediting Agencies
Authors: Aguilar Carla E. , Richerme Lauren Kapalka
Published: November 2019

This chapter provides an overview of two agencies that accredit collegiate music education programs: the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP) and the National Association of Schools of Music (NASM). Examining points of overlap and divergence, it explains that CAEP relies on NASM for recommendations about music content and that the CAEP standards go into greater depth about student teaching and field experience requirements than the NASM Handbook. While music educators must adhere to certain hard policies demanded by these agencies, they have discretion regarding how they create and adjust soft policies in order to meet those ends. The chapter offers that music educators might use accreditation processes to reflect on their values and to spur innovations while resisting standardization across universities.
Gender Identity and Transgender Rights in Global Perspective
Authors: Edelman Elijah Adiv
Published: November 2019

This chapter provides an overview of how gender identity and transgender rights have been defined in an LGBT rights framework, what international and regional organizations and social actors have defined as fundamental trans rights, and, finally, the limitations of applying a homogenizing “trans rights” framework to a vastly disparate array of gender liminal subjectivities and practices. First, the chapter defines the scope and reach of a “trans rights” framework as housed within “LGBT” legal and organizational practices. Next, it outlines the key issues that international and regional trans rights activists, advocates, and academics have outlined as central to addressing their own communities’ needs. Importantly, while the popularity of collapsing sexual and gender minorities into an “LGBT” framework would suggest a coherence of shared identities and practices across cultural and regional experience, this framework may, instead, function to elide profound differences in the formation and application of primarily North Atlantic and Anglophone understandings of “rights” and “needs.” Rather, as discussed in internationally and regionally focused reports, activist needs assessments, and academic work, trans and gender liminal rights have been, regionally, best addressed and met by organizations and groups that are not housed within an “LGBT” framework or organization. Finally, the chapter discusses how approaching “trans rights” through a lens of gender self-determination, rather than as a category of mutually understood and identifiable subjectivities and experiences across different communities of practice, may function to bolster shared rights claims while also, simultaneously, delimiting or delegitimizing overly formulaic understandings of gender experience and expression.
Persuasion and Ballot Propositions
Authors: Bowler Shaun , Nicholson Stephen P.
Published: November 2019

A long-standing criticism of voters in direct democracy elections is that they lack informed and stable opinions on policy issues and are therefore highly susceptible to campaigns. Voters are therefore not so much persuaded by substantive arguments to vote in a way that is consistent with fixed policy views but instead are pushed and pulled to vote for and against ballot measures since the foundations of their preferences rest on inconsistent and incomplete ideologies. Voters in ballot proposition contests are, in other words, persuaded all too easily to change their views. This chapter reviews that argument and presents evidence for a counter-argument that voters—at least in the US setting—are less open to persuasion than the literature often suggests.
The Babylonian Empire in the Bible
Authors: Gossai Hemchand
Published: November 2019

The Babylonian Empire appears in multiple manifestations in the Bible. In Revelation 17–18, Babylon is characterized as the “whore of Babylon.” In Genesis 11 the Tower of Babel episode extends the complexity and multifaceted representations of Babylon, while Daniel 3–4 recounts particular episodes of the encounter between Daniel and the Babylonian king. However, the most prominent feature of the Babylonian Empire in the Bible is that of the Babylonian exile. This article approaches the topic of the Babylonian Empire in the Bible broadly regarding themes and and explores several representative texts.
Participation in Global Value Chains
Authors: Luo Xubei , Gereffi Gary
Published: November 2019

This chapter examines the opportunities and challenges brought about by global value chains (GVCs). It first considers how GVCs are (re)shaping geography and transforming the global economy before discussing some of the main risks and opportunities that firms and people face as they participate in GVCs, with a focus on special challenges from the perspective of developing countries. Participation in GVCs creates new opportunities for firms to profit, provides employment and income sources for people, and widens their spectrum of consumption and investment. However, the economic gains of participating in GVCs do not automatically translate into good jobs or stable employment in both developed and developing countries. The extent to which firms and workers can benefit from participation in GVCs depends on their competitiveness. The chapter concludes with an analysis of some policy issues, such as government support for infrastructure improvements to smooth the functioning of GVCs.
Global Megatrends and the Macroeconomics of Gender
Authors: Kochhar Kalpana , Jain-Chandra Sonali , Newiak Monique
Published: November 2019

This chapter examines global megatrends such as demographic shifts, technological progress, globalization, and climate change and emphasizes the important role of gender equality in mitigating their adverse consequences. The chapter first discusses demographic change, globalization, technological progress, and climate change before explaining how the main challenges posed by these megatrends could be offset by increasing gender equality, providing more equal access to economic opportunities for women, and boosting female economic participation. In particular, it considers ways of mitigating the impact of population ageing, harnessing urbanization for growth and gender equity, catalysing change to reduce income inequality, accelerating economic diversification, and mitigating vulnerability to climate change. The chapter concludes with an evaluation of policy options for mitigating the risks posed by megatrends through gender equality, such as unleashing fiscal policy, easing the burden of non-market work, and removing legal discrimination against women.
Economic Transformation in Africa from the Bottom Up
Authors: Diao Xinshen , Kweka Josaphat , McMillan Margaret
Published: November 2019

This chapter examines economic transformation in Tanzania, with a focus on the nature of micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises. Between 2002 and 2012, Tanzania experienced economic growth more rapidly than at any other time in recent history. Labour productivity growth was largely accounted for by structural change and the rest by within sector productivity growth in agriculture. Using data from Tanzania’s Micro, Small and Medium Sized Enterprise Survey (MSME) 2010, the chapter analyses labour productivity, employment growth, and business owners’ self-reported motivations for owning a business, along with the productive heterogeneity and job creation of small firms. It also considers some policy lessons from the Tanzanian case, arguing that policies targeted at the MSMEs with potential for employment and productivity growth may have larger payoffs than blanket policies that offer assistance in the form of business training and access to credit. The chapter concludes with recommendations for policy makers.
The Strength of American Federal Democracy
Authors: Myerson Roger B.
Published: November 2019

This chapter examines the important role played by two basic principles—representative democracy, and a proper division of power between national and subnational governments—in America’s successful development. The discussion begins with background on America’s colonial origins and its establishment as a nation, before turning to the benefits of decentralized democracy. The chapter then considers how American-style democracy has been applied in other countries without decentralization, in contrast to America’s systematic extension of decentralized federal democracy to new territories. It also shows how decentralized democracy empowered immigrants and argues that national elites tend to be biased against federal decentralization. In conclusion, the chapter explains how federal decentralization has benefited Americans in a variety of ways and summarizes lessons that the strength of American federal democracy imparts for global development.
New Developments in the Study of Corporate Social Responsibility
Authors: McWilliams Abagail , Rupp Deborah E. , Stahl Günter K. , Siegel Donald S. , Waldman David A.
Published: November 2019

This handbook reflects recent developments in the study of corporate social responsibility (CSR), incorporating new psychological and organizational perspectives on this important, interdisciplinary topic. In this chapter, we introduce several areas of research that add significantly to our understanding of the motivations and ramifications of CSR. These sections include: Micro/HR issues, the Environment and Sustainability, Entrepreneurship, Strategy and Governance, and Business Ethics and Responsibility. Each section contains chapters by leading scholars across the globe. After briefly motivating the topic in each section, we summarize the chapters, highlighting the contributions of each.
A Researcher’s Guide to Business and Society Archival Datasets
Authors: Shahzad Ali , Bartkoski Nicholas , McManus Brandi K. , Sharfman Mark P.
Published: November 2019

Given the tremendous growth in empirical inquiries into Business and Society (BAS) phenomenon, the use of archival datasets in BAS research is pervasive. A sizeable portion of this research involves measurement of BAS constructs using data. The purpose of this chapter is to review the more commonly used datasets in BAS research. The intent is to provide researchers with sufficient information to choose the most appropriate database for their projects. We review key methodological issues such as measurement error, validity, and reliability affecting most archival datasets. We then provide overviews of some of the most effective and commonly used databases in BAS research plus citations to several articles that have used them. In our review, we address coverage, areas of inquiry, size of the database, and other relevant factors. Finally, we tabulate the database we reviewed including our assessment of their strengths and weaknesses.
A Brief Moral History of Psychotherapy
Authors: Tjeltveit Alan C.
Published: November 2019

To grasp its moral history, psychotherapy’s profoundly and pervasively moral dimensions, its inextricable sociocultural connections, critics’ challenges to moral claims, the historical origins of moral ideas and practices, and some key historical trajectories of psychotherapy are addressed. Connections among professions, professional ethics, and morality (construed broadly); moral understandings of psychological problems and goals; and moral considerations concerning therapy techniques and relationship styles are emphasized. Finally, some changing interrelationships among psychotherapy, the self, society, and morality are reviewed.
Ethical Considerations in Emotion-Focused Therapy
Authors: Kramer Ueli , Elliott Robert
Published: November 2019

This chapter discusses ethical principles underlying Emotion-Focused Therapy (EFT). It shows that the six intervention principles of EFT—empathic attunement, therapeutic bond, task collaboration, differential emotional processing, emotional deepening through work on therapeutic tasks, and self-development—are grounded in the more basic ethical requirements of psychotherapy and counseling, in particular beneficence and non-maleficence. There is an overall tension in EFT between providing a productive therapeutic relationship and task facilitation. As examples, this chapter discusses three specific key ethical dilemmas of EFT: (a) necessary emotion arousal versus risks on the path to core pain, (b) transient emotional dysregulation versus protection of the self, and (c) freedom to choose versus process-guiding or control. It illustrates with clinical examples, and discusses research implications.
Relationship between Religion, Spirituality, and Psychotherapy: An Ethical Perspective
Authors: Plante Thomas G.
Published: November 2019

Spirituality and religion are typically a critically important element of most people’s lives. They offer an overarching framework for making sense of the world and a strategy to cope with life’s stressors. They provide a community and a way to wrestle with life’s biggest questions regarding meaning, purpose, and suffering. Mental health professionals are mandated to behave in an ethical manner defined by their codes of ethics. These codes typically understand religion and spirituality a multiculturalism issue. Professionals need to be respectful and responsible and pay close attention to potential implicit bias, boundary crossings, and destructive beliefs and practices. Working with religious professional as helpful collaborative partners also achieves ethically minded best practices. Numerous resources are now available to help professionals develop and maintain their skills in ethically minded clinical practice with spiritual and religious clients. This chapter highlights these issues and offers suggested guidelines toward high quality professional practice.
Banking
Authors: Berger Allen N. , Molyneux Philip , Wilson John O. S.
Published: November 2019

A lot has happened in the ten years since the global financial crisis. This chapter starts with a summary of key regulatory and operational issues that have impacted banks in Europe, the US and elsewhere. Banks are much more heavily regulated than pre-crisis, their performance in the US and Europe has been subdued although there are signs that those in the former have turned the corner. There continues also to be ongoing discussion as well as regulatory efforts to improve banking system stability with new rules on capital, liquidity, bailouts, and bail-ins to be fully completed. These issues are covered in the first part of the chapter. We then move on to discuss emerging research themes covering areas including: banks and their impact on the real economy; capital, liquidity, and tax regulation; systemic risk; unconventional monetary policy; FinTech; bank governance and culture; financial consumer protection and financial literacy; and finally financial inclusion. The final part of the chapter provides summaries of all the chapters in the Handbook.
Payments
Authors: Humphrey David
Published: November 2019

Payments, paper-based or electronic, are essential for efficient economic exchange. For retail payments, debit and credit cards have been replacing cash and checks for point of sale transactions. Cards and automated clearing house (US) and giro networks (Europe and elsewhere) have replaced cash and checks for bill payments and employee disbursements. Daily retail payments have relatively small average values but number in hundreds of millions of transactions. Daily wholesale wire transfer transactions are in the thousands but their value is in the trillions. They are used to make large-value business, government, and financial market transactions, along with settling payments made over other networks. To be widely adopted, a retail payment instrument has to have lower cost and greater convenience. Cost is also emphasized for wholesale payments but this has generated risk. Reducing risk has raised costs. The issues associated with retail and wholesale payments are quite different; they are discussed separately in this chapter.
Securitization
Authors: Casu Barbara , Sarkisyan Anna
Published: November 2019

Securitization, a structured process involving the transformation of illiquid assets into marketable securities, experienced an exponential growth in the 1990s and early 2000s. After a prolonged period of rapid expansion, securitization markets froze in 2008, as investors lost confidence in structured products. This chapter charts the rise and fall of securitization and attempts to map the future of the market by identifying the key issues that need to be addressed: (i) alignment of incentives; (ii) reduction of complexity; (iii) increase in transparency; and (iv) improvements in the use of credit ratings. Despite its controversial role during the financial crisis, the economic importance of securitization is undeniable. Several policy interventions at the national and international levels have recently been enacted to accelerate the recovery of the market by promoting simple, transparent, and comparable (STC) securitization, as there is an emerging consensus that the benefits of high quality securitization outweigh the costs and that this technique can play a key role in fostering economic recovery and growth.
Modern Central Banking
Authors: Mishkin Frederic S.
Published: November 2019

This chapter examines how central banking has evolved in recent decades by looking at two main areas of central bank activities: monetary policy and financial stability policy. It starts by describing a set of nine basic scientific principles derived from theory and empirical evidence that now guide thinking at almost all central banks, which is referred to as the science of central banking. Then the essay discusses how the science of monetary policy provides a framework for understanding central bank governance and how modern central banks conduct monetary and financial stability policies. Central banking has entered a brave new world in which challenges have become greater and the conduct of policy has become more complex.
Lender of Last Resort
Authors: Freixas Xavier , Parigi Bruno M.
Published: November 2019

The global financial crisis and the sovereign debt crisis in Europe have redefined the functions of the lender of last resort (LOLR). First, they have placed the LOLR at the intersection of monetary policy, fiscal policy, supervision, and regulation of the banking industry. Second, they have given regulatory authorities the additional responsibility of monitoring the interbank market. Third, they have extended the LOLR role to cover the possible bailout of non-bank institutions, including sovereign countries. This chapter explores the link between the theoretical models of the banking industry and the unprecedented policies displayed in the aftermath of the crisis. We begin by examining the justification of LOLR in a simplified framework where only liquidity shocks arise, to move to a setting where liquidity shocks cannot be disentangled from solvency ones. We then study contagion in the interbank market and systemic risk, two pathologies due to the imperfections of the financial markets, and we discuss the issues raised by the implementation of the LOLR policy within the safety net.
Bank Capital Requirements after the Financial Crisis
Authors: Van Der Weide Mark E. , Zhang Jeffrey Y.
Published: November 2019

Regulators responded with an array of strategies to shore up weaknesses exposed by the 2008 financial crisis. This chapter focuses on reforms to bank capital regulation. We first discuss the ways in which the post-crisis Basel III reforms recalibrated the existing framework by improving the quality of capital, increasing the quantity of capital, and improving the calculation of risk weights. We then shift to the major structural changes in the regulatory capital framework—capital buffers on top of the minimum requirements; a leverage ratio that explicitly accounts for off-balance-sheet exposures; risk-based and leverage capital surcharges on the largest banks; bail-in debt to facilitate orderly resolution; and forward-looking stress tests. We conclude with a quantitative assessment of the evolution of capital in the global banking system and in the US banking sector.
Banking and Real Economic Activity
Authors: Cetorelli Nicola , Blank Michael
Published: November 2019

This chapter reviews insights about how the banking system affects real economic performance. After arguing that the causality debate—the high-level question of whether the characteristics of a banking system have causal consequences for the real economy—has essentially been settled, we evaluate the specific channels through which banking activity may exert real effects. We focus on the rich empirical literature spawned by the theoretically ambiguous impact of greater banking competition, which has found concentration of the banking system to be a significant determinant of the structure and health of non-financial industries. We also discuss how, after the 2007–9 financial crisis, there has been revitalized interest in modeling the role that financial intermediaries play in amplifying aggregate shocks and initiating crises. We conclude by noting the importance of accounting for the changing institutional, structural, and technological properties of the financial sector in understanding the interplay between financial and real activity.
Bank Failures, The Great Depression, and Other “Contagious” Events
Authors: Calomiris Charles W.
Published: November 2019

Deposit withdrawal pressures on banks, which sometimes take the form of sudden runs, have figured prominently in the discussion of public policy toward banks and the construction of safety nets such as deposit insurance and the lender of last resort. This chapter examines historical evidence from the Great Depression, and other episodes, on the factors that prompted withdrawals, the discussion of contagious runs, and the public policy implications. The historical evidence is presented in detail and is connected to the debate over the proper roles of deposit market discipline via the threat of withdrawals, the insurance of deposits, and lender-of-last-resort support for banks facing withdrawal pressures.
Private Information and Risk Management in Banking
Authors: Allen Linda , Saunders Anthony
Published: November 2019

In this chapter we describe the risk management challenges faced by financial institutions. The very nature of the banking business requires that financial firms become experts at risk assessment in order to manage their own inventories of risk, obtained during day-to-day business transactions with bank customers. Banks are exposed to interest rate risk, currency risk, liquidity risk, credit risk, and operational risk. The first step in a risk management program is accurate risk measurement. A useful risk measurement tool is the Value at Risk (VaR) model. The 99% VaR model produces predictions such as the worse loss that may occur 1 in every 100 days (or years). In contrast, the 99% Expected Shortfall denotes the average of all losses that occur with a one percent probability. We show that the roots of the global financial crisis of 2007–8 can be found in the failure of financial intermediaries to measure and manage risk properly.
Population and Epidemics North of Zacatecas
Authors: Cramaussel Chantal
Published: November 2019

The development of demography for northern New Spain in recent years has relied on parochial archives that are the most accurate records for estimating the incidence of epidemics. Included here is a general survey of the studies on demographics of the North of New Spain, specifying the methodology chosen to track disease episodes and determine their routes of propagation. The impact of epidemics was not the same in the different northerly regions. In fact, the chronology of outbreaks shows that the Northwest and the Northeast did not face the same calamities as the North Central area. However, the mobility of the population and the forced transfers of Indians toward mining centers complicate the research because population growth may not be due necessarily to endogenous causes. In addition, the appearance of epidemics may be underreported, especially those outbreaks affecting peoples beyond the Spanish domination.
Borderlands of Bondage
Authors: Reséndez Andrés
Published: November 2019

This essay explores the historiography of Indian slavery in various borderlands of the hemisphere and argues that even though the Spanish Crown prohibited Indian slavery after 1542, several coercive labor arrangements akin to enslavement allowed owners to retain mastery over indigenous workers while formally complying with the law. These labor arrangements, including encomiendas in certain circumstances, repartimientos, convict leasing, debt peonage, and other forms of coercion, continued to function until the end of the colonial period and beyond. This chapter employs comparative methods and a wide range of empirical data to make a preliminary attempt to quantify the number of Indians held in bondage in different regions of the New World from the fifteenth through the nineteenth centuries.
“Indian Friends and Allies” in the Spanish Imperial Borderlands of North America
Authors: Levin Rojo Danna A.
Published: November 2019

This chapter provides an overview of research produced since the 1950s on Indian allies who actively shaped the successive borderlands north of Mexico-Tenochtitlan after 1521, as well as an in-depth discussion of sixteenth-century instances based on primary sources. The emphasis is placed on Otomí allies in the sixteenth-century conquest of central Mexico and the area that came to be known as the Gran Chichimeca; Nahuas and Purépechas who went to the Tierra Nueva of Cíbola under the command of Francisco Vázquez de Coronado (1540–1542), and the many groups of different ethnic origins who took part in the Mixtón war (1541–1542) and the conquest of Nueva Vizcaya in the early 1560s. The Indians’ mixed motivations to get involved in conquest and colonizing campaigns alongside Spanish individuals, besides the privileges and material benefits they obtained and the threats of Spanish authorities and encomenderos—or the desire to escape Spanish oppression—were also determined by local and regional articulations of native politics that predated the arrival of Europeans. Therefore, their participation as conquerors must be understood as integral to a complex realignment process rather than as a mere reaction to colonial imposition.
Monarchy and Law in the Pre-Exilic Period
Authors: Russell Stephen C.
Published: November 2019

This chapter reconstructs royal legal history in Iron Age II Israel and Judah. It notes the biblical, inscriptional, and archaeological evidence available to the legal historian, commenting especially on the challenges of working with material in the Books of Samuel and Kings. It treats five major aspects of monarchy and law that emerge from the source material and that have been debated among scholars: constitutional authority, judicial administration, land rights, international relations, and cultic reform. In treating these and some additional minor legal topics, the chapter offers a portrait of the ideal Israelite and Judahite king as both guarantor of justice for his people and himself law-abiding. At several junctures, the chapter observes discrepancies between legal practice and legal ideals that were sometimes widely shared and at other times more narrowly programmatic.
Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic Reform
Authors: Hagedorn Anselm C.
Published: November 2019

This chapter assesses the role of Deuteronomy as a document of reform. This is done by looking at the literary development of the book from a document advocating cultic centralization to a theological program that shapes Israelite identity. Deuteronomy transforms the way biblical Israel thinks about law and religion. By creating a concept of a community which enters into a quasi-contractual relationship with the deity, Deuteronomy takes the first steps toward a sovereign people. As a result, law and justice are no longer the duties of the “state” but of each individual who subscribes to the creed in Deuteronomy 6:4. The issues addressed and regulated in Deuteronomy work toward the creation of a book-oriented religion that ensures the survival of the community.
The Decalogue
Authors: Rom-Shiloni Dalit
Published: November 2019

Although phrased in semi-legal apodictic style, the Decalogue is not a legal code per se but more of a covenant document, which defines the borders of affiliation between the Israelite people and their God. The following discussion highlights the significance and uniqueness of the Decalogue, surveys the different methodological approaches to its study, and focuses on but two major angles within the broad study of the Decalogue, the theological and ideological scope of the first five commandments, and the place the Decalogue captures within the biblical corpus from the very first stages of the history of its reception.
Covenant
Authors: Joosten Jan
Published: November 2019

No ancient Near Eastern parallels exist for the presentation of civil and criminal law as clauses attaching to a covenant, established between a God and a people or nation. In the Hebrew Bible, this conception is widespread. In particular, the Covenant Code (Exod. 21–23), the Holiness Code (Lev. 17–25), and the Deuteronomic Code (Deut. 12–26) all—though in different ways—pretend to draw their force from a covenant between YHWH and Israel. The present chapter explores the notion of covenant and the various elaborations of covenant theology. It is suggested that the combination of law and covenant was first established in Exodus 19–24, and that the other law codes adopted the idea, together with an important number of laws (more in the case of Deuteronomy than in the Holiness Code), from there.
Rabbinic Law
Authors: Moscovitz Leib
Published: November 2019

Rabbinic law contains legal rulings and analysis, and deals with both practical and theoretical issues. It includes ritual, civil, criminal, and marital law. Its sources include rabbinic biblical exegesis, custom and tradition, rabbinic legislation, and various types of logical reasoning. Rabbinic law is distinguished from earlier Jewish legal writings in its great detail, systematization, and preoccupation with legal matters. Affinities exist between rabbinic law and ancient Near Eastern law, Greek-Hellenistic law, and Roman and Iranian law. Nevertheless, it is generally difficult to speak of influence. Numerous specific disputes and general differences in approach obtain between rabbinic law and Qumran law. The nature and scope of rabbinic legal authority in rabbinic times are hotly debated. Rabbinic law is characterized by pluralism; a primarily case-based approach to law; and the frequent use of analogy in legal reasoning. Rabbinic law is often formalistic, although many rabbinic rulings were apparently based on policy considerations.
The Law and the Gospels, with Attention to the Relationship Between the Decalogue and the Sermon on the Mount/Plain
Authors: Averbeck Richard E.
Published: November 2019

According to the Gospels, Jesus kept of the law of Moses, but he considered the expansionist teachings of the “traditions of the elders” accepted by many of the Jewish leaders and teachers of his day to be overly pedantic, burdensome, and sometimes not even in accord with what the law itself intended. This gave rise to the controversies between him and many of the Jewish teachers in his day, as testified to in the Gospels, and the ongoing debates over Jesus’s view of the law from the beginning of the church up to the present day. Jesus saw himself as a prophetic teacher of the law in line with the prophets in the Hebrew Bible, which is the reason he often emphasized his absolute commitment to the truth and ongoing application of “the law and the prophets” in the kingdom of heaven.
Law in the Persian Period
Authors: Botta Alejandro F. , Simonson Brandon J.
Published: November 2019

This chapter examines several key historical aspects of law in the Persian period in order to define the role and function of law in Persian provinces. First, the Persian dāta, translated “law” and at times “regulation,” illustrates how royal law advanced the interests of the Persian king. Second, narratives of imperial “authorization” and “codification” demonstrate that Persian support of the development of local law was primarily a political act intended to cultivate loyalty amongst the local elite and to facilitate the timely collection of tribute. Third, the Elephantine legal papyri provide a succinct example of the development of local legal traditions in a Persian period context, where local jurists drew from both Mesopotamian and Egyptian sources to create law. In the end, these historical aspects of law in the Persian period reveal an era defined by a distinct change in imperial policy toward the development of local legal traditions.
Ritual Law
Authors: Amihay Aryeh
Published: November 2019

The juncture of time, place, and performance was the gestation arena of the development of Israelite ritual and theology. The discussion in this chapter will therefore begin with an elucidation of distinct times and then proceed to examine the sacrificial system. The holy days include the Sabbath, pentateuchal festivals, New Moon, Purim, and miscellaneous festivals mentioned in passing. Each is explored with reference to its name, origins, and rituals. Passover is highlighted as the origin of national festivals and institutional sacrifice. Its mythic narrative as the formation point for the nation of Israel thus preserves an obscure historical truth. The sacrificial system is then presented through its pre-institutional origins, its development in the Covenant Code and Deuteronomy, and its standardization in the priestly writings. Major issues discussed include the centralization of the cult and the issue of profane slaughter, the principal types of sacrifice, and the manifold function of the cultic system in Israelite worship. Both the holy days and the sacrifices are analyzed, with broad reference to scholarly debate, for their theological, social, and legal aspects, concluding with their joint significance for Israelite religion. They bestowed relevance for every major event in the individual Israelite’s life, on joyous and distressful occasions alike, in a unified experience of mediation between the individual and the deity, as well as solidification of relationships between individual and community.
Women, Children, Slaves, and the Law in the New Testament Period
Authors: Hylen Susan E.
Published: November 2019

In the first and second centuries ce, the legal status of women, children, and slaves varies due to factors like location, social status, and wealth. This chapter identifies three factors that complicate the description of these groups’ status under the law: the nature of law as both written law and custom; the breadth of the Roman empire and the practice of self-rule in the provinces; and tensions within the existing historical evidence. It goes on to describe central laws and customs pertaining to marriage and divorce, adoption and care of children, and slave ownership and manumission. Although scholars often contrast Christian practice with Roman or Jewish law regarding women, children, and slaves, the chapter argues that the groups had a good deal in common. Within each group, law and custom are not always in agreement, but they make possible a range of legal actions.
Social Justice in Early Christianity
Authors: Doerfler Maria E.
Published: November 2019

Scripture, early Christians agreed, instructed believers not only how to worship God but how to live rightly with their neighbors. Christians nevertheless pursued social justice only selectively. Concern for the poor and for strangers became an early and lasting preoccupation in Christian discourse. By contrast, many Christians remained partial to the violent entertainment of circus games, and did not consistently advocate for the empire’s least regarded members. While homilists might instruct Christians to treat well their own slaves, slavery as an institution remained unchallenged by even the most socially conscious Christian writers. By the fourth century, the increasing Christianization of the empire led to Roman legal support for clergy’s efforts to ensure social justice. The care of prisoners and orphans and, increasingly, the resolution of conflict among particularly the empire’s Christian population were tasks that had long been part of bishops’ roles and that now enjoyed imperial support.
Offenses Against Human Beings in Private and Public Law
Authors: Otto Eckart
Published: November 2019

This chapter deals with the legal functions of law of different literary genres in the Hebrew Bible and their legal historical development within their societal “settings in life. It concentrates on laws of bodily injuries and homicide in a comparative approach with ancient Near Eastern law and asks for the influence of religion on the legal history of the biblical law of offenses against human beings and for trends of correlating law and narrative in the Pentateuch. Special attention is given to the origins of talionic retaliation in cuneiform law and to the efforts in biblical law already in the Covenant Code to check and repeal the talio.
Development of Face-Processing Ability in Childhood
Authors: Anzures Gizelle , Quinn Paul C. , Pascalis Olivier , Slater Alan , Lee Kang
Published: November 2019

Faces are arguably the most significant visual stimuli in children’s social environment. Much of children’s adaptive social functioning relies on their success in extracting crucial information from the faces of their social partners. In this chapter, we provide an exhaustive review of both classic and current research on the development of face processing from infancy to adolescence. The topics covered range from the processing of facial attractiveness to face categorization and recognition. In addition to behavioral studies, we also review the most recent developmental neuroscience findings regarding the neural mechanisms underlying the development of face-processing ability. Major theoretical issues and future directions of research are discussed.