bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fruit and fibre: the nutritional value of figs for a small tropical ruminant, the blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola)
Authors: Kendrick Erin L. , Shipley Lisa A. , Hagerman Ann E. , Kelley Lauren M.
Published: August 2009

Tropical forests throughout the world are home to a guild of small ruminants that consume fruit as a substantial portion of their diet. Because the rumen is relatively inefficient at digesting nonstructural carbohydrates and only slowly digests cellulose, the feeding adaptations of frugivorous ruminants are enigmatic. We examined the nutritional value of wild figs to blue duikers, one of the smallest and most frugivorous ruminants, through chemical analyses and a series of digestion trials with six species of wild African figs. These figs were high in fat, protein, cell wall, lignin and Ca : P ratios, low in sugar and starch, and high in unextractable, fibre‐bound tannins when compared with many other fruits. The fibre‐bound tannins and protein caused protein digestibility and nitrogen balance to be consistently low or negative. The high fibre content of the figs allowed duikers to only digest 30–60% of energy contained in the figs. However, duikers were able to consume enough digestible energy to maintain body mass during 4‐day trials. Therefore, a ruminant digestive system is beneficial to mammals eating high fibre, high‐tannin tropical fruit like figs, especially if the mammal is small enough to harvest a sufficient amount to meet its daily energy requirements and has adaptations for reducing the effects of tannins on protein digestibility.
Characterization of the methylation status of five imprinted genes in sheep gametes
Authors: Colosimo A. , Di Rocco G. , Curini V. , Russo V. , Capacchietti G. , Berardinelli P. , Mattioli M. , Barboni B.
Published: August 2009

Genomic imprinting is a mammalian developmental process that uses epigenetic mechanisms to induce monoallelic and parental‐specific expression of particular autosomal genes. A crucial epigenetic event consists of DNA methylation of CpG‐islands, which become differentially methylated regions (DMRs) on the maternal and paternal alleles during oogenesis or spermatogenesis (germline DMRs). By contrast, somatic DMRs are acquired after fertilization. While there are several studies referring to methylation acquisition within germline DMRs in the mouse and human, a comparable methylation analysis of orthologous sequences is still lacking in sheep. To identify germline DMRs, this study analysed the methylation status of the available CpG‐islands of five ovine imprinted genes (H19, IGF2R, DLK1, DIO3 and BEGAIN) in mature spermatozoa and in female gametes at different stages of their follicle growth, including in vitro matured oocytes. The 5′‐end CpG‐island of H19 showed a full methylation in spermatozoa and an absent methylation in growing and fully grown oocytes. The intron 2 CpG‐island of IGF2R was unmethylated in male gametes, while it showed a high level of methylation in early stages of oogenesis. The promoter CpG‐islands of DLK1 and DIO3 were found to be unmethylated both in spermatozoa and oocytes. Finally, the exon 9 CpG‐island of BEGAIN was hypermethylated in mature male gametes, while it showed an almost complete methylation only in late stages of oocyte development. Our findings suggest that DNA methylation establishment during early stages of sheep oogenesis and subsequent in vitro maturation is gene‐specific and that, of the five genes investigated, only the CpG‐islands of H19 and IGF2R might represent ovine germline DMRs.
Isolation of Y‐ and X‐linked SCAR markers in yellow catfish and application in the production of all‐male populations
Authors: Wang D. , Mao H.‐L. , Chen H.‐X. , Liu H.‐Q. , Gui J.‐F.
Published: August 2009

Sex controls have been performed in some farmed fish species because of significant growth differences between females and males. In yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco), adult males are three times larger than female adults. In this study, six Y‐ and X‐linked amplified fragment length polymorphism fragments were screened by sex‐genotype pool bulked segregant analysis and individual screening. Interestingly, sequence analysis identified two pairs of allelic genes,Pf33andPf62. Furthermore, the cloned flanking sequences revealed several Y‐ and X‐specific polymorphisms, and four Y‐linked or X‐linked sequence characterized amplified region (SCAR) primer pairs were designed and converted into Y‐ and X‐linked SCAR markers. Consequently, these markers were successfully used to identify genetic sex and YY super‐males, and applied to all‐male population production. Thus, we developed a novel and simple technique to help commercial production of YY super‐males and all‐male populations in the yellow catfish.
Mapping of the lingual immune system reveals the presence of both regulatory and effector CD4+ T cells
Authors: Mascarell L. , Lombardi V. , Zimmer A. , Louise A. , Tourdot S. , Van Overtvelt L. , Moingeon P.
Published: August 2009

Background
Sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) is safe and reduces both symptoms and medication requirements in patients with type I respiratory allergies. Nonetheless, immune mechanisms underlying SLIT need to be further documented.

Objective
A detailed characterization of the lingual immune system was undertaken in mice, to investigate the presence of tolerogenic and pro‐inflammatory mechanisms.

Methods
Immune cells were characterized in lingual tissues from BALB/c mice using immunohistology and flow cytometry. Resident CD4+ T cells were sorted and toll‐like receptor (TLR) expression profiles as well as functional characterization were assessed by RT‐PCR, T cell suppressive assays and cytokine gene expression, respectively.

Results
Eosinophils and mast cells were only detected in submucosal tissues. No NK, NK‐T, γ/δ, CD8+ T cells, nor B‐lymphocytes were detected. Potential antigen presenting cells include various subsets of dendritic cells (CD207+ Langerhans cells, CD11b+CD11c+ myeloid cells and 120G8+ plasmacytoid DCs) together with F4/80+ macrophages. Noteworthy, both CD103− and CD103+ CD4+ T cells expressing TLR2 and TLR4 receptors are present along the lamina propria, in vicinity of myeloid CD11b+CD11c± dendritic cells. Such resident lingual CD4+ T lymphocytes comprise both suppressive T cells as well as cells with memory/effector functions (i.e. expressing IFNγ, IL4, IL10 and IL17 genes following stimulation), irrespective of the presence of the mucosal addressing marker CD103.

Conclusion
The sublingual route is pertinent to induce antigen‐specific tolerance, due to (i) limited numbers of pro‐inflammatory cells, rather located in submucosal tissues, (ii) co‐localization of APCs and resident CD4+ T cells with regulatory functions. Since the oral immune system can also elicit pro‐inflammatory effector responses, the cytokine milieu in which allergens are presented by sublingual APCs needs to be controlled during immunotherapy (e.g. with adjuvants) in order to favour tolerance over inflammation.
Functional Properties of Antimicrobial Lysozyme‐Chitosan Composite Films
Authors: Park S.‐I. , Daeschel M.A. , Zhao Y.
Published: August 2009

ABSTRACT: Lysozyme‐chitosan composite films were developed for enhancing the antimicrobial properties of chitosan films. A 10% lysozyme solution was incorporated into 2% chitosan film‐forming solution (FFS) at a ratio of 0%, 20%, 60%, and 100% (w lysozyme/w chitosan). Films were prepared by solvent evaporation. Lysozyme release from the film matrix, the antimicrobial activity of films against Escherichia coli and Streptococcus faecalis, and basic film properties were investigated. The lysozyme release proportionally increased with increasing initial concentration of lysozyme in the film matrix, and the amount of released lysozyme was in natural log relationship with time. The films with 60% lysozyme incorporation enhanced the inhibition efficacy of chitosan films against both S. faecalis and E. coli, where 3.8 log cycles reduction in S. faecalis and 2.7 log cycles reduction in E. coli were achieved. Water vapor permeability of the chitosan films was not affected by lysozyme incorporation, whereas the tensile strength and percent elongation values decreased with increased lysozyme concentration. Scanning electron microscopy images revealed that lysozyme was homogeneously distributed throughout the film matrix. This study demonstrated that enhanced antimicrobial activity of lysozyme‐chitosan composite films can be achieved by incorporating lysozyme into chitosan, thus broadening their applications in ensuring food quality and safety.
The Compounds Contributing to the Greenness of Green Tea
Authors: Wang L.‐F. , Park S.‐C. , Chung J.‐O. , Baik J.‐H. , Park S.‐K.
Published: August 2009

ABSTRACT: Color is one of the determinant sensory qualities for green tea. As cold tea beverages in clear bottles are getting more popular, the traditional evaluation methods are gradually being altered to attach more importance to the tea infusion color. For quality control, experiments were carried out on 10 green tea samples to investigate the compounds influencing the colors of dry tea leaves and infusions. By calculating the coefficients of determination between the greenness (expressed in tristimulus data) and chemical composition, chlorophylls proved to be the influential compounds for the color of dry tea leaves; water‐insoluble chlorophylls were also released from the fragile tea leaves during infusion and increased both the greenness and turbidity of tea infusions. Among the flavonoids (catechins and flavonols) detected in green tea infusions, quercetin was shown to be the most important phenolic compound contributing to the greenness of tea infusion.
Conjugated Linoleic Acid Reduces Lipid Oxidation in Aerobically Stored, Cooked Ground Beef Patties
Authors: Chae S.H. , Keeton J.T. , Smith S.B.
Published: August 2009

ABSTRACT: The effect of direct addition of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on lipid oxidation was studied. CLA and/or fat trim (4% by weight) were added to the lean trim (96%). Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were determined on days 0, 3, and 7 for cooked or raw patties stored aerobically at 4 °C. Addition of CLA during the grinding process increased CLA isomers in both raw and cooked ground beef and decreased TBARS production (P < 0.01). CLA caused a greater reduction in TBARS over storage time in cooked patties than in raw patties (P= 0.006). The concentrations of 18:2n–6 and CLA isomers decreased with storage time. CLA increased 18:2n‐6, whereas most fatty acids were decreased by the addition of CLA. CLA did not affect percentages of fat and moisture, cooking loss, or meat color (L*, a*, b*) (P > 0.60).
Application of a Modified Arrhenius Equation for the Evaluation of Oxidation Rate of Sunflower Oil at Subzero Temperatures
Authors: Calligaris S. , Manzocco L. , Conte L.S. , Nicoli M.C.
Published: August 2009

ABSTRACT: The application of the Arrhenius equation for the prediction of oxidative reaction rate in frozen foods is often precluded because of deviations from linearity. The latter are mainly caused by the occurrence of phase transitions of crystallizing components (that is, water, lipids, sugar). The aim of the present research was to study the temperature dependence of the lipid oxidation rate as affected by its physical state. To this purpose, the physical state and the oxidation rate of sunflower oil was evaluated from −30°C to 60°C. In this temperature range, sunflower oil presents different solid‐liquid ratios because of the crystallization phenomena. A mathematical model accounting for both temperature and physical state was proposed to describe the kinetics of oxidation in the entire temperature range considered.
Model of the Inactivation of Bacterial Spores by Moist Heat and High Pressure
Authors: Rodriguez A.C. , Larkin J.W. , Dunn J. , Patazca E. , Reddy N.R. , Alvarez‐Medina M. , Tetzloff R. , Fleischman G.J.
Published: August 2009

ABSTRACT: Formulae for the prediction of inactivation and accumulated lethality of bacterial spores under moist heat and high pressures were derived on the basis of classic thermodynamic and kinetics principles. The capability of the model to describe the inactivation of bacterial spores was verified using 2 independent data sets corresponding to Clostridium botulinum processed at 60°C to 75°C and Bacillus stearothermophilus processed at 92°C to 110°C. Both sets included pressures between 5 × 108 Pa and 7 × 108 Pa. The equation fit explained more than 86% of the variation of the rate constant data. The developed equations establish a strong foundation on which to compare high‐pressure processing treatments of different systems. This is especially useful because most systems have different transient temperature‐pressure conditions.
Gel Properties of Surimi from Bighead Carp (Aristichthys nobilis): Influence of Setting and Soy Protein Isolate
Authors: Luo Y.K. , Pan D.D. , Ji B.P.
Published: August 2009

ABSTRACT: The effects of setting conditions and soy protein isolate (SPI) on textural properties and microstructures of surimi produced from bighead carp were investigated. The incubation conditions of bighead carp surimi affected the breaking force and distance. The optimum setting conditions were 35 °C to 40 °C for 60 min. When the surimi was cooked after 50 °C incubation for 30 to 120 min, the breaking force and distance were inferior to that of no incubation. The gel structure showed that the incubation conditions affected the bighead carp surimi gel microstructures, thus producing surimi with different gelling properties. Breaking force and distance of surimi gels decreased when the protein ratio of SPI was increased in the total protein at 30 °C and 40 °C for 60 min setting and heating at 85 °C for 30 min, but the breaking force obtained for 90% surimi protein plus 10% SPI protein was higher than surimi alone at 50 °C for 60 min incubation and heating at 85 °C for 30 min.
Effect of Ag‐containing Nano‐composite Active Packaging System on Survival of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris
Authors: Nobile M.A.del , Cannarsi M. , Altieri C. , Sinigaglia M. , Favia P. , Iacoviello G. , D'Agostino R.
Published: August 2009

ABSTRACT: The effectiveness of Ag+‐based antimicrobial film in inhibiting the growth of an Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris strain was assessed. The proposed active film was obtained by depositing via plasma an Ag‐containing polyethylenoxide‐like coating on a polyethylene layer. Tests were conducted at 44 °C, monitoring the viable cell concentration of the investigated microorganism into 2 different media: acidified malt extract broth and apple juice. Results indicate that the investigated active film successfully inhibited the growth of A. acidoterrestris in both media. Results also indicate that the effectiveness of the film depends on the type of medium tested.
Involvement of Volatile Sulfur Compounds in Ionizing Radiation‐induced Off‐odor of Fresh Orange Juice
Authors: Fan X.
Published: August 2009

ABSTRACT:The influences of ionizing radiation on volatile sulfur compounds in fresh Valencia orange juice were analyzed using gas chromatography (GC)‐pulsed flame photometric detection and sensory evaluation. Methyl sulfide (MS) and methanethiol (MT) were induced most, followed by dimethyl disulfide and dimethyl trisulfide. Carbon disulfide was reduced by irradiation, while hydrogen sulfide was not consistently affected. Sensory evaluation indicated that the odor of irradiated juice differed from the nonirradiated samples at 0.5, 1, 2, or 3 kGy. Addition of the 2 major irradiation‐induced sulfur compounds (MS and MT) into fresh juice changed the juice odor, indicating that those 2 compounds were probably involved in the development of irradiation‐induced off‐odor.
Denaturation of Tilapia Myosin Fragments by High Hydrostatic Pressure
Authors: Ko W.‐C. , Hwang J.‐S. , Jao C.‐L. , Hsu K.‐C.
Published: August 2009

ABSTRACT: Hydrostatic pressures (50 to 300 MPa) were applied at 0 °C for 50 min to determine the aggregation and viscoelastic properties of tilapia (Orechromis niloticus) myosin fragments: subfragment‐1 (S‐1) and rod. With pressure lower than 150‐MPa treatment, S‐1 underwent intermolecular interaction to increase its elastic properties. After a 200‐MPa treatment, S‐1 unfolded, aggregated, and decreased its solubility. A turbid solution was obtained after pressurization over 200 MPa. Further, S‐1 transformed to a more elastic gel with pressure increasing. At 200 MPa, S‐1 denatured entirely with no change of enthalpy detected by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). However, all properties of rod did not change during pressurization. This study reveals that S‐1 contributes the initiation of gel formation in myosin, and the role of rod is not clear. Keywords: hydrostatic pressure, S‐1, rod, denaturation
Comparison of Color and Thiobarbituric Acid Values of Cooked Hamburger Patties after Storage of Fresh Beef Chubs in Modified Atmospheres
Authors: John L. , Cornforth D. , Carpenter C.E. , Sorheim O. , Pettee B.C. , Whittier D.R.
Published: August 2009

ABSTRACT: Cooked meat color is an important quality attribute for consumers. This study compared color and thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values of cooked ground beef (internal temperatures of 49 to 79 °C), after storage of raw product in atmospheres of 0.4% carbon monoxide (CO), 80% oxygen, or vacuum at 2 °C for 7 to 21 d. Premature browning, observed as a brown cooked color at internal temperatures as low as 49 °C, was found in patties made from meat stored in 80% oxygen. At all cooking temperatures, samples stored in high oxygen had less internal red color, higher myoglobin denaturation values, and were more rancid with higher TBA values than CO or vacuum‐packaged ground beef. Raw ground beef held in 0.4% CO modified‐atmosphere packaging (MAP) remained bright red throughout the 21‐d storage period. Premature browning and high TBA values in cooked patties were avoided by use of this packaging system. However, internal patty color remained somewhat red even at the highest internal cooking temperature of 79 °C. The persistent pink color observed in CO‐treated patties cooked to 79°C internal temperature was likely due to development of heat‐denatured CO‐hemochrome, rather than the presence of undenatured CO myoglobin. The problems of PMB and high TBA values of cooked patties were also avoided by vacuum packaging. However, the development of dark purple color associated with vacuum packaging of raw beef limits the use of this packaging method for products in retail display. Keywords: beef, packaging, carbon monoxide, oxygen
The phenology mismatch hypothesis: are declines of migrant birds linked to uneven global climate change?
Authors: Jones Tim , Cresswell Will
Published: August 2009

1. Migrant bird populations are declining and have been linked to anthropogenic climate change. The phenology mismatch hypothesis predicts that migrant birds, which experience a greater rate of warming in their breeding grounds compared to their wintering grounds, are more likely to be in decline, because their migration will occur later and they may then miss the early stages of the breeding season. Population trends will also be negatively correlated with distance, because the chances of phenology mismatch increase with number of staging sites.

2. Population trends from the Palaearctic (1990–2000) and Nearctic (1980–2006) were collated for 193 spatially separate migrant bird populations, along with temperature trends for the wintering and breeding areas. An index of phenology mismatch was calculated as the difference between wintering and breeding temperature trends.

3. In the Nearctic, phenology mismatch was correlated with population declines as predicted, but in the Palaearctic, distance was more important. This suggests that differential global climate change may be responsible for contributing to some migrant species’ declines, but its effects may be more important in the Nearctic.

4. Differences in geography and so average migration distance, migrant species composition and history of anthropogenic change in the two areas may account for the differences in the strength of the importance of phenology mismatch on migrant declines in the Nearctic and Palaearctic.
From mTOR to cognition: molecular and cellular mechanisms of cognitive impairments in tuberous sclerosis
Authors: Ehninger D. , De Vries P. J. , Silva A. J.
Published: August 2009

Background  Tuberous sclerosis (TSC) is a multi‐system disorder caused by heterozygous mutations in the TSC1 or TSC2 gene and is often associated with neuropsychiatric symptoms, including intellectual disability, specific neuropsychological deficits, autism, other behavioural disorders and epilepsy.

Method  Here, we review evidence from animal models of TSC for the role of specific molecular and cellular processes in the pathogenesis of cognitive, developmental and epilepsy‐related manifestations seen in the disorder.

Results  Recent evidence shows that, in animal models, disinhibited mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) signalling substantially contributes to neuropsychiatric phenotypes, including cognitive deficits and seizures. We discuss potential pathogenetic mechanisms involved in the cognitive phenotypes of TSC and present implications regarding mTOR inhibitor‐based treatments for TSC‐related neuropsychiatric features.

Conclusions  Results suggest that reversing the underlying molecular deficits of TSC with rapamycin or other mTOR inhibitors could result in clinically significant improvements of cognitive function and neurological symptoms, even if treatments are started in adulthood.
Cryofixation rapidly preserves cytoskeletal arrays of leaf epidermal cells revealing microtubule co‐alignments between neighbouring cells and adjacent actin and microtubule bundles in the cortex
Authors: BARTON D.A. , OVERALL R.L.
Published: August 2009

Accurate preservation of microtubule and actin microfilament arrays is crucial for investigating their roles in plant cell development. Aldehyde fixatives such as paraformaldehyde or glutaraldehyde preserve cortical microtubule arrays but, unless actin microfilaments are stabilized with drugs such as m‐maleimidobenzoyl N‐hydroxysuccinimide ester (MBS), ethylene glycol bis[sulfosuccinimidylsuccinate] (sulfo‐EGS) or phalloidin, their arrays are often poorly preserved. Cryofixation, used primarily for electron microscopy, preserves actin microfilaments well but is used rarely to fix plant cells for optical microscopy. We developed a novel whole‐mount cryofixation method to preserve microtubule and microfilament arrays within Tradescantia virginiana leaf epidermal cells for investigation using confocal microscopy. Cortical microtubule arrays were often oriented in different directions on the internal and external faces of the epidermal cells. A number of arrays were aligned in several directions, parallel to microtubules of neighbouring cells. Actin microfilaments were particularly well preserved possibly due to the speed with which they were immobilized. No transverse cortical microfilament arrays were observed. On occasion, we observed co‐aligned microfilament and microtubule bundles lying adjacent to the plasma membrane and positioned side by side suggesting a potential direct interaction between the cytoskeletal filaments at these locations. Cryofixation is therefore a valuable tool to investigate the interactions between cytoskeletal arrays in plant cells using confocal microscopy.
On the Central Mechanism Underlying Ghrelin’s Chronic Pro‐Obesity Effects in Rats: New Insights from Studies Exploiting a Potent Ghrelin Receptor Antagonist
Authors: Salomé N. , Hansson C. , Taube M. , Gustafsson‐Ericson L. , Egecioglu E. , Karlsson‐Lindahl L. , Fehrentz J. A. , Martinez J. , Perrissoud D. , Dickson S. L.
Published: August 2009

In the present study, we explore the central nervous system mechanism underlying the chronic central effects of ghrelin with respect to increasing body weight and body fat. Specifically, using a recently developed ghrelin receptor antagonist, GHS‐R1A (JMV2959), we investigate the role of GHS‐R1A in mediating the effects of ghrelin on energy balance and on hypothalamic gene expression. As expected, in adult male rats, chronic central treatment with ghrelin for 14 days, when compared to vehicle‐treated control rats, resulted in an increased body weight, lean mass and fat mass (assessed by dual X‐ray absorptiometry), dissected white fat pad weight, cumulative food intake, food efficiency, respiratory exchange ratio and a decrease of energy expenditure. Co‐administration of the ghrelin receptor antagonist JMV2959 suppressed/blocked the majority of these effects, with the notable exception of ghrelin‐induced food intake and food efficiency. The hypothesis emerging from these data, namely that GHS‐R1A mediates the chronic effects of ghrelin on fat accumulation, at least partly independent of food intake, is discussed in light of the accompanying data regarding the hypothalamic genes coding for peptides and receptors involved in energy balance regulation, which were found to have altered expression in these studies.
Daily light exposure profiles in older non‐resident extreme morning and evening types
Authors: STAPLES VICTORIA S. L. , ARCHER SIMON N. , ARBER SARA , SKENE DEBRA J.
Published: August 2009

Differences in daily light exposure profiles have been reported, with younger M‐types shown to spend more time in bright light, especially in the morning, compared with E‐types. This study aimed to investigate how patterns of daily light exposure in older non‐resident M‐types and E‐types compare. Sleep diaries were kept during actigraphic measurement of activity and light using the Actiwatch‐L for 14 days in 12 M‐types [eight females, mean ± standard deviation (SD) Horne–Östberg Morning–Eveningness Questionnaire (HÖ MEQ) score 75.2 ± 1.6] and 11 E‐types (seven females, HÖ MEQ 41.5 ± 4.8), over 60 years old, living in their own homes. Light data were log‐transformed, averaged over each hour, and group × time analysis of covariance (ancova) performed with age as a covariate. M‐types had significantly earlier bed and wake time than E‐types, but there was no significant difference in sleep duration, sleep efficiency or time spent in bed between groups. Daily exposure to light intensity greater than 1000 lux was compared between the two groups, with no significant difference in the duration of exposure to >1000 lux between M‐types and E‐types. Twenty‐four‐hour patterns of light exposure show that M‐types were exposed to higher light intensity at 06:00 h than E‐types. Conversely, E‐types were exposed to higher light intensity between 22:00 and 23:00 h than M‐types. These findings show that differences in daily light exposure patterns found previously in younger M‐types and E‐types are also found in older M‐types and E‐types, but at an earlier clock‐time, confirming the tendency to advance with ageing.
Host–parasite determinants of parasite population structure: lessons from bats and mites on the importance of time
Authors: MCCOY KAREN D.
Published: August 2009

By definition, parasitic organisms are strongly dependant on their hosts, and for a great majority, this dependence includes host‐to‐host transmission. Constraints imposed by the host’s spatial distribution and demography, in combination with those of the parasite, can lead to a metapopulation structure, where parasite populations are highly stochastic (i.e. prone to frequent extinctions and re‐colonizations) and where drift becomes a major force shaping standing genetic variation. This, in turn, will directly affect the observed population structure, along with the ability of the parasite to adapt (or co‐adapt) to its host. However, only a specific consideration of temporal dynamics can reveal the extent to which drift shapes parasite population structure; this is rarely taken into account in population genetic studies of parasitic organisms. The study by Bruyndonckx et al. in this issue of Molecular Ecology does just this and, in doing so, illustrates how a comparison of host–parasite co‐structures in light of temporal dynamics can be particularly informative for understanding the ecological and evolutionary constraints imposed by the host. More specifically, the authors examine spatial and temporal population genetic data of a parasitic mite Spinturnix bechsteini that exclusively exploits the Bechstein’s bat Myotis bechsteinii and consider these data in relation to host–parasite life histories and the population structure of the host.
Helminths and malignancy
Authors: VENNERVALD B. J. , POLMAN K.
Published: August 2009

It has been estimated that chronic infections with viruses, bacteria and parasites contribute to 17·8% of the global burden of cancer, although only a relatively small proportion of the infection‐related cancers can be attributed to helminth infections. These are important because of the high number of people who are exposed or infected worldwide. Carcinogenesis associated with helminth infections is a complex process, which may involve several different mechanisms, but chronic inflammation is a key feature. Host immune responses and immunopathological processes mediate inflammatory responses and any failure in the control of the immunological components involved in this response can lead to chronic inflammation. This may generate a microenvironment that might be conducive to the initiation and development of cancer. Inflammatory cells generate free radicals and nitrogen species, which can oxidize and damage DNA and lead to genetic instabilities and malignant transformation. Physical damage caused by the parasites, their eggs or secreted products leads to restorative hyperplasia of the damaged tissue. This may promote the propagation of cells, in which genotoxic damage and pre‐malignant change has taken place. Three helminth infections have been classified as definitely carcinogenic to humans (group 1 carcinogens), namely Schistosoma haematobium, which is associated with cancer of the urinary bladder and the food‐borne liver flukes Clonorchis sinensis and Opisthorchis viverrini associated with cholangiocarcinoma of the liver. Reducing the level of infection and the risk of getting (re)infected will reduce the risk of cancer development later in life. Helminth infections are thus a preventable cause of cancer, emphasizing the need for sustainable helminth control in endemic areas coupled with health education, especially in relation to food‐borne liver fluke infections.
Mitochondrial and nuclear markers support the monophyly of Dolichopodidae and suggest a rapid origin of the subfamilies (Diptera: Empidoidea)
Authors: LIM GWYNNE SHIMIN , HWANG WEI SONG , NARAYANAN KUTTY SUJATHA , MEIER RUDOLF , GROOTAERT PATRICK
Published: August 2009

Abstract.The Dolichopodidae is a species‐rich dipteran group with almost 7000 described species. The monophyly of the subfamilies and their relationships remain largely unknown because the polarities of key morphological characters are unclear and molecular data are available only for 9 of the 19 proposed subfamilies. Here we test whether molecular data from two nuclear (18S, 28S) and four mitochondrial (12S, 16S,Cytb, COI) genes can resolve the higher‐level relationships within the family. Our study is based on 76 Oriental species from 12 dolichopodid subfamilies and uses eight species of Empididae and Hybotidae as outgroups. Parsimony and likelihood analyses confirm the monophyly of the Dolichopodidae, as well as the monophyly of five of the ten subfamilies represented by more than two species [Sympycninae, Sciapodinae, Dolichopodinae, Hydrophorinae (excluding tribe Aphrosylini), Neurigoninae]. There is strong support for restoring the tribe Aphrosylini as a separate subfamily Aphrosylinae. The monophyly of Medeterinae, Peloropeodinae and Diaphorinae is dependent on which tree reconstruction technique is used, how indels are coded, and whether the fast‐evolving sites are excluded. Overall, we find that our sample of Oriental species is largely compatible with the subfamily concepts that were developed for the northern temperate fauna. However, our data provide little support for relationships between the subfamilies. Branch lengths, saturation, and distance plots suggest that this is probably the result of the rapid origin of dolichopodid subfamilies over a relatively short time. We find that genera that are difficult to place into subfamilies based on morphological characters are generally also difficult to place using molecular data. We predict that a dense, balanced taxon sample and protein‐encoding nuclear genes will be needed to resolve the higher‐level relationships in the Dolichopodidae.
A molecular phylogeny of the Odonata (Insecta)
Authors: DUMONT HENRI J. , VIERSTRAETE ANDY , VANFLETEREN JACQUES R.
Published: August 2009

Abstract. We estimated the phylogeny of the order Odonata, based on sequences of the nuclear ribosomal genes 5.8 S, 18S, and ITS1 and 2. An 18S‐only analysis resolved deep relationships well: the order Odonata, as well as suborders Zygoptera and Epiprocta (Anisoptera + Epiophlebia), emerged as monophyletic. Some other deep clades resolved well, but support for more recently diverged clades was generally weak. A second, simultaneous, analysis of the 5.8S and 18S genes with the intergenic spacers ITS1 and 2 resolved some recent branches better, but appeared less reliable for deep clades with, for example, suborder Anisoptera emerging as paraphyletic and Epiophlebia superstes recovered as an Anisopteran, embedded within aeshnoid‐like anisopterans and sister to the cordulegastrids. Most existing family levels in the Anisoptera were confirmed as monophyletic clades in both analyses. However, within the corduliids that form a major monophyletic clade with the Libellulidae, several subclades were recovered, of which at least Macromiidae and Oxygastridae are accepted at the family level. In the Zygoptera, the situation is complex. The lestid‐like family groups (here called Lestomorpha) emerged as sister taxon to all other zygopterans, with Hemiphlebia sister to all other lestomorphs. Platystictidae formed a second monophylum, subordinated to lestomorphs. At the next level, some traditional clades were confirmed, but the tropical families Megapodagrionidae and Amphipterygidae were recovered as strongly polyphyletic, and tended to nest within the clade Caloptera, rendering it polyphyletic. Platycnemididae were also non‐monophyletic, with several representatives of uncertain placement. Coenagrionids were diphyletic. True Platycnemididae and non‐American Protoneurids are closely related, but their relationship to the other zygopterans remains obscure and needs more study. New World protoneurids appeared relatively unrelated to old world + Australian protoneurids. Several recent taxonomic changes at the genus level, based on morphology, were confirmed, but other morphology‐based taxonomies have misclassified taxa considered currently as Megapodagrionidae, Platycnemididae and Amphipterygidae and have underestimated the number of family‐level clades.
Influence of genetic architecture on contemporary local evolution in the soapberry bug,Jadera haematoloma:artificial selection on beak length
Authors: DINGLE H. , CARROLL S. P. , FAMULA T. R.
Published: August 2009

Little is known about the influence of genetic architecture on local adaptation. We investigated the genetic architecture of the rapid contemporary evolution of mouthparts, the flight polymorphism and life history traits in the soapberry bugJadera haematoloma(Hemiptera) using laboratory selection. The mouthparts of these seed‐feeding bugs have adapted in 40–50 years by decreasing in length following novel natural selection induced by a host switch to the seeds of an introduced tree with smaller fruits than those of the native host vine. Laboratory selection on beak length in both an ancestral population feeding on the native host and a derived population feeding on the introduced host reveals genetic variance allowing a rapid response (heritabilities of 0.51–0.87) to selection for either longer or shorter beaks. This selection resulted in reverse evolution by restoring long beaks in the derived population and forward evolution by re‐creating short beaks in the ancestral bugs. There were strong genetic correlations (0.68–0.84) in both populations between beak lengths and the frequency of flight morphs, with short beaks associated with short wings. The results reveal a genetically interrelated set of adaptive multivariate traits including both beak length and flight morph. This suite of traits reflects host plant patchiness and seeding phenology. Weaker evidence suggests that egg mass and early egg production may be elements of the same suite. Reversible or forward evolution thus may occur in a broad set of genetically correlated multivariate traits undergoing rapid contemporary adaptation to altered local environments.
Body size as a primary determinant of ecomorphological diversification and the evolution of mimicry in the lampropeltinine snakes (Serpentes: Colubridae)
Authors: ALEXANDER PYRON R. , BURBRINK F. T.
Published: August 2009

Evolutionary correlations between functionally related character suites are expected as a consequence of coadaptation due to physiological relationships between traits. However, significant correlations may also exist between putatively unrelated characters due to shared relationships between those traits and underlying variables, such as body size. Although such patterns are often dismissed as simple body size scaling, this presumption may overlook important evolutionary patterns of diversification. If body size is the primary determinant of potential diversity in multiple unrelated characters, the observed differentiation of species may be governed by variability in body size, and any biotic or abiotic constraints on the diversification thereof. Here, we demonstrate that traits related to both predatory specialization (gape and diet preference) and predatory avoidance (the development of Batesian mimicry) are phylogenetically correlated in the North American snake tribe Lampropeltini. This is apparently due to shared relationships between those traits and adult body size, suggesting that size is the primary determinant of ecomorphological differentiation in the lampropeltinines. Diversification in body size is apparently not linked to climatic or environmental factors, and may have been driven by interspecific interactions such as competition. Additionally, we find the presence of a ‘key zone’ for the development of both rattle‐ and coral snake mimicry; only small snakes feeding primarily on ectothermic prey develop mimetic colour patterns, in or near the range of venomous model species.
Gastrointestinal Morphology of the Crowned Lemur (Eulemur coronatus)
Authors: Schwitzer C.
Published: August 2009

I provide measurements of the gastrointestinal tract of a captive female Eulemur coronatus, obtained at necropsy, and describe its morphology. The small intestine, caecum and colon were short when compared with those of other lemur species. The ratio of intestine length to body length was low. Distinct sacculations were present in the caecum, but not in the colon. The results suggest that E. coronatus is able to digest a certain amount of structural polysaccharides as contained in plant cell wall. The main fermentation chamber seems to be the caecum. Its digestive morphology implies that E. coronatus relies on a diet higher in energy‐rich cell contents than those of other lemur species of similar body size.
The infectivity and host range of Orgyia anartoides nucleopolyhedrovirus
Authors: Markwick N. P. , Glare T. R. , Hauxwell C. , Li Z. , Poulton J. , Ward J. M. , Young V. L. , Ward V. K.
Published: August 2009

The painted apple moth (PAM), Teia anartoides (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) made a recent incursion into New Zealand. A nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV), Orgyia anartoides NPV (OranNPV), originally isolated from PAM in Australia, was tested for its pathogenicity to PAM and a range of non‐target insect species found in New Zealand, to evaluate its suitability as a microbial control for this insect invader. Dosage‐mortality tests showed that OranNPV was highly pathogenic to PAM larvae; mean LT50 values for third instars ranged from 17.9 to 8.1 days for doses from 102 to 105 polyhedral inclusion bodies/larva, respectively. The cause of death in infected insects was confirmed as OranNPV. Molecular analysis established that OranNPV can be identified by PCR and restriction digestion, and this process complemented microscopic examination of infected larvae. No lymantriid species occur in New Zealand; however, the virus had no significant effects on species from five other lepidopteran families (Noctuidae, Tortricidae, Geometridae, Nymphalidae and Plutellidae) or on adult honeybees. Thus, all indications from this initial investigation are that OranNPV would be an important tool in the control of PAM in a future incursion of this species into New Zealand.
Infections and exercise in high‐performance athletes
Authors: Friman Göran , Wesslén Lars
Published: August 2009

The elite athlete has a potentially increased sensitivity to respiratory infections, rendering protective measures particularly important. Some other infections that may appear in clusters in the sports setting, such as gastroenteritis, leptospirosis, herpes simplex and viral hepatitis, also require special precautionary attention. Strenuous exercise during ongoing infection and fever may be hazardous and should always be avoided. In addition, early symptoms of infection warrant caution until the nature and severity of the infection become apparent. Because myocarditis may or may not be accompanied by fever, malaise or catarrhal symptoms, athletes should be informed about the symptoms suggestive of this disease. Although sudden unexpected death resulting from myocarditis is rare, exercise should be avoided whenever myocarditis is suspected. Guidelines are suggested for the management and counselling of athletes suffering from infections, including recommendations on when to resume training. Acute febrile infections are associated with decreased performance resulting from muscle wasting, circulatory deregulation and impaired motor coordination, which require variable amounts of time to become normalized once the infection is over.
Overview: Exercise immunology
Authors: Gleeson Maree
Published: August 2009

The review articles in this special feature reflect the current status of knowledge in the field of exercise immunology, with a focus on how exercise affects the human immune system and the health implications for resistance to infections and neoplastic diseases. In an Olympic year, the emphasis of exercise immunology research tends to be on elite athletes and the prevention of infections in the quest for optimum performance. However, research presented in this issue also covers recreational athletes, as well as highlighting the benefits of exercise for our ageing population.
Exercise effects on systemic immunity
Authors: NIEMAN DAVID C
Published: August 2009

Heavy exertion has acute and chronic influences on systemic immunity. In the resting state, the immune systems of athletes and non‐athletes are more similar than disparate with the exception of NK cell activity, which tends to be elevated in athletes. Many components of the immune system exhibit adverse change after prolonged, heavy exertion. These immune changes occur in several compartments of the immune system and body (e.g. the skin, upper respiratory tract mucosal tissue, lung, blood and muscle). Although still open to interpretation, most exercise immunologists believe that during this ‘open window’ of impaired immunity (which may last between 3 and 72 h, depending on the immune measure) viruses and bacteria may gain a foothold, increasing the risk of subclinical and clinical infection. The infection risk may be amplified when other factors related to immune function are present, including exposure to novel pathogens during travel, lack of sleep, severe mental stress, malnutrition or weight loss.
Overtraining effects on immunity and performance in athletes
Authors: MacKinnon Laurel T
Published: August 2009

Overtraining is a process of excessive exercise training in high‐performance athletes that may lead to overtraining syndrome. Overtraining syndrome is a neuroendocrine disorder characterized by poor performance in competition, inability to maintain training loads, persistent fatigue, reduced catecholamine excretion, frequent illness, disturbed sleep and alterations in mood state. Although high‐performance athletes are generally not clinically immune deficient, there is evidence that several immune parameters are suppressed during prolonged periods of intense exercise training. These include decreases in neutrophil function, serum and salivary immunoglobulin concentrations and natural killer cell number and possibly cytotoxic activity in peripheral blood. Moreover, the incidence of symptoms of upper respiratory tract infection increases during periods of endurance training. However, all of these changes appear to result from prolonged periods of intense exercise training, rather than from the effects of overtraining syndrome itself. At present, there is no single objective marker to identify overtraining syndrome. It is best identified by a combination of markers, such as decreases in urinary norepinephrine output, maximal heart rate and blood lactate levels, impaired sport performance and work output at 110% of individual anaerobic threshold, and daily self‐analysis by the athlete (e.g. high fatigue and stress ratings). The mechanisms underlying overtraining syndrome have not been clearly identified, but are likely to involve autonomic dysfunction and possibly increased cytokine production resulting from the physical stress of intense daily training with inadequate recovery.
Exercise‐induced modulation of macrophage function
Authors: Woods JA , Lu Q , Lowder T
Published: August 2009

Macrophages are important effector cells involved in phagocytosis, microbial killing and antitumour activity. Macrophages also display accessory cell function, in that they can present antigen to foster the development of T lymphocyte‐mediated immunity. Recent work, including studies from this group, has demonstrated that acute and chronic exercise can affect many facets of macrophage biology. Manifestation of these effects depends on exercise intensity and duration, the function measured, the timing of measurement in relation to exercise and the concentration of the macrophage‐activating stimulus. Exercise has potent stimulatory effects on phagocytosis, antitumour activity, reactive oxygen and nitrogen metabolism, and chemotaxis. Indeed, it has been shown that exercise training can increase macrophage antitumour activity in mice of different ages. However, not all functions are enhanced by exercise. Exercise‐induced reductions in macrophage MHC II expression and antigen‐presentation capacity have been documented. These findings bring up the possibility that exercise, and perhaps other stressors, activate macrophages for effector functions while downregulating accessory cell functions. To a large extent, the mechanisms responsible for the exercise‐induced changes in macrophage function remain unknown, but may depend on exercise‐induced changes in neuroendocrine factors. Future studies need to explore the effects in a mechanistic way and provide documentation as to their physiological significance.