bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Kingdom Chromista
Authors: Smith T Cavalier
Published: November 2023

The Chromista is one of six ultrastructurally distinct eukaryote kingdoms; all chromists have epiciliary retronemes (formerly called thrust-reversing tubular mastigonemes) and/or chloroplasts located inside the rough endoplasmic reticulum. There is molecular and ultrastructural evidence that the kingdom originated by a single symbiotic event between two eukaryotes very soon after the symbiotic origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts. Dinozoa are not included in the Chromista (or in Chromophyta sensu strictuf) but a phycobilin-containing peridinean, like Amphidinium wigrense, was probably the ancestor of the chromist chloroplast periplastidal compartment, and of the cryptonucleus (nucleomorph). The host cell was probably an early tetraciliate protozoan very close to the common ancestor of all eukaryotes with mitochondria (which I group as the superkingdom Metakaryota in contrast with the more primitive eukaryotes placed in the kingdom and superkingdom Archezoa). Here I will discuss how the ancestral chromist could have (a) originated from a retortamonad-like archezoan, and (b) given rise to the Cryptista (cryptomonads and Cyathomonas) and Heterokonta.
The lichen genus Relicina in Australasia
Authors: ELIX J A
Published: November 2023

The lichen genus Relicina Hale, is characterized by narrow, adnate lobes, marginal bulbate cilia, and usnic acid in the upper cortex. Morphological and chemical evolutionary trends and the geographic distribution of the genus arc discussed. Taxonomic problems arise in several species complexes. The occurrence of overlapping chemo syndromes of medullary metabolites makes accurate chemical deter minations difficult, but of critical importance since there is a high degree of correlation between chemistry and morphological characters. Chemistry is important both as a species character and in the delimitation of evolutionary direction. The discontinuity of Relicina floras of Australasia and Indonesia is discussed, as well as a novel interpretation of the disjunct distribution of R. abstrusa (Australasia and the Caribbean). The majority of species of Relicina are restricted to trunks and canopy branches of tropical mangroves and primary coastal and lower montane rainforests; their major habitat is threatened by logging and forest clearance.
On the importance of botanical gardens for lichens in the Asian tropics
Authors: Arvidsson L
Published: November 2023

The importance of botanical gardens for lichens is discussed. Several factors favour a diverse lichen flora in gardens, such as (1) the presence of forests or groves; (2) a long ecological continuity; (3) the presence of many different habitats and substrates; (4) the presence of surrounding vegetation and bark that to some extent absorbs and buffers air pollution; (5) the presence of rare phorophytes which might house strongly specialized lichens. In areas radically re-moulded by man, gardens represent important refuges and can function as genetic banks for lichens. Cultivation of lichens in gardens is also briefly discussed.
Evolution of aggressive behaviour in the threespine stickleback
Authors: Bakker Theo C M
Published: November 2023

Threespine stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus L., are highly polygynous; a male stickleback may collect as many as 20 clutches of eggs from different females in a single breeding cycle (e.g. Kynard 1978a). In addition, he may complete several breeding cycles during a single season (Wootton 1976, 1984a). We can therefore expect (Trivers 1972) strong competition to occur among male stickleback for access to females and females to be selective in their choice of mates.
The Evolution Of Life Histories
Authors: Stearns Stephen C
Published: November 2023

This book introduces life history evolution to postgraduate students just beginning their research in population biology, ecology, or evolutionary biology. It discusses major analytical tools, gives examples of their applications, and provides problems for discussion at the end of each chapter. It will interest all biologists wishing to understand the evolution of the life cycle and the causes of phenotypic variation in fitness, and it contains the seeds of applications of life history theory to population dynamics, behaviour, and community ecology. Care is taken in Part I to build up the tools needed for a well-rounded evolutionary explanation: demography, quantitative genetics, reaction norms, trade offs and phylogenetic/comparative analysis. Part II discusses the evolution of major life history traits. This is a comprehensive, up-to-date text in a field that holds a central position in modern ecology and evolution.
Trade-Offs
Authors: Stearns Stephen C
Published: November 2023

Trade-offs are the linkages between traits that constrain the simultaneous evolution of two or more traits. The chapter opens with examples of well-documented trade-offs, then distinguishes between physiological trade-offs—energy allocations between two or more functions competing for the same resources within a single individual—and evolutionary trade-offs, defined by manipulation experiments on phenotypes and by the correlated response to selection on populations. Some cautionary remarks are given on the interpretation of evidence. Within one environment, individual variation in energy acquired and in energy allocated can determine whether the phenotypic relation between the two traits is positive or negative. Crossing reaction norms—genotype x environment interactions—can have the same effect when trade-offs are compared between environments.
Discussion Of Part I
Authors: Stearns Stephen C
Published: November 2023

The goal of this section is to tie together Chapters 2-5 before proceeding to the analysis of life history traits in Part II. To understand a pattern of variation in life history traits, whether interspecific or intraspecific, we need information on phylogenetic effects, phenotypic variation, genetic variation, trade-off structure, and the selection pressures generated by demography. Such a multidimensional analysis of life history evolution has not yet been achieved for any group of organisms. Its strength would lie in the capacity of each approach to generate an alternative view of the same pattern and, through their combination, to weight the effects of adaptation and historical constraint. Despite considerable evidence for phylogenetic effects on life history traits, their evolution can be rapid enough to allow local adaptation. This is no paradox. Some are fixed within lineages and evolve very slowly. Others vary within populations and evolve rapidly. Which traits are ‘slow’ or ‘fast’ depends on the lineage.
The Evolution of Sibling Rivalry
Authors: Mock Douglas W , Parker Geoffrey A
Published: November 2023

One of the main tenets of evolutionary biology is that organisms behave so as to maximize the number of their genes that will be passed on to future generations. Parents often produce more offspring than they can rear in case special opportunities or calamities occur. This frequently leads to deprivations and even death of some offspring. This book is about the evolutionary diversity, importance, and consequences of such squeezes. In it the authors, top in their field, review the theory, field experiments, and natural history of sibling rivalry across a broad sweep of organisms, in a clear and accessible style that should appeal to both academics and natural historians.
Diversity and ecology of soil flagellates
Authors: Foissner Wilhelm
Published: November 2023

About 260 species of heterotrophic and autotrophic flagellates have been recorded from soils world-wide. Published species lists are highly questionable and there is thus an urgent need for improvements in taxonomy in this area. Recent studies indicate that there are autochthonic soil flagellates. Detailed ecological literature on soil flagellates is sparse. Between 0 and 10 individuals per gram of soil have been reported. The biomass of flagellates (0.05 g dry mass m-2) and their annual production (about lg dry mass m-2) are low compared with naked and testate amoebae.
Choanoflagellate diversity with particular emphasis on the Acanthoecidae
Authors: Thomsen Helge A , Buck Kurt R
Published: November 2023

The three choanoflagellate families (Codosigidae, Salpingoecidae, and Acanthoecidae) are distinguished on the basis of differences in periplast structure. Taxonomy at the generic level is chiefly based on periplast details and patterns of colony formation. The majority of the approximately 50 genera characterized here belong to the Acanthoecidae, members of which are characterized by possessing a lorica constructed from silicified rod-like units.
The flagellar apparatus and cytoskeleton of dinoflagellates: organization and use in systematics
Authors: Roberts Keith R
Published: November 2023

Dinoflagellate systematics has relied on the comparison of external morphological characters. Thecal plate tabulation has been one of the primary systematic criteria for years and its use has resulted in at least three distinct hypotheses about phylogeny. The sole use of external morphological characters may be misleading. The conserved characters of the dinoflagellatc flagellar apparatus and cytoskeleton can be used in conjunction with external and cytoplasmic morphological features to examine relationships in the group. In this paper, the nature of the dinoflagellate flagellar apparatus is reviewed and a hypothetical phylogeny based on the study of the flagellar apparatus of 13 taxa is presented. The hypothetical phylogeny is supported by a cladistic analysis of 22 flagellar apparatuses and morphological features.
Biology And Molecular Biology Of Starch Synthesis And Its Regulation
Authors: Preiss Jack
Published: November 2023

Starch is the major reserve carbohydrate of most higher plants and is found as a water-insoluble granule which can vary in size and shape depending on its plant source and on the maturity or stage of development of the plant at the time of isolation of the starch granule. The granule usually contains two different polysaccharides, amylase and amylopectin. Usually, amylopectin constitutes about 65 to 75% of the polysaccharide component of the starch granule. Amylase is mainly found as a linear chain of a-(1-4)-linked a-O-glucopyranosyl residues of about 1000 units long. There are some molecules found in the amylase fraction that are branched to a very small extent {1-6 a-O gluco-pyranose; one per 1,000 glucosyl units). In contrast, amylopectin is more highly branched with about 4 to 5% of the glucosidic linkages being a-1-6.
Nuclear RNA splicing and small nuclear RNAs and their genes in higher plants
Authors: Goodall Gregory J , Tamas Kiss , Witold Filipowicz
Published: November 2023

This review is focused on the splicing of nuclear precursors of messenger and transfer RNAs, and on the synthesis and structure of the U small nuclear RNAs (U- snRNAs), which participate in various RNA processing events in the nucleus. Primary transcripts of all eukaryotic genes undergo a variety of post-transcriptional modifications of which removal of introns is the most complex and perhaps the most interesting.
Seed development and structure
Authors: Harris N , Henderson J , Abbott S J , Mulchrone J , Davies J T
Published: November 2023

Humans differ from other animals that utilize the food reserves of seed and fruits in that they have developed both agriculture for the monoculture production of selected species and also the means to improve selectively the quality and quantity of the crop that is being produced. As well as being consumed directly in the diet, seeds are also used in the production of, for example, cotton fibre, industrial oils, medicines, and drinks such as coffee and beer. The recent advances in genetic engineering offer the potential for the transfer of genetic material between species; this was not generally possible by the older and more conventional methods of plant breeding and selection used by farmers through the millennia. Such potential requires not just a reevaluation of a wider range of seeds and fruits but also analysis of specific, individual components that may confer additional value if they can be transferred between species, organs, or tissues.
Fatty acid synthesis in oilseeds
Authors: Slabas A R , Elborough K , Chase D , Sinden B , Martinez-rivas J M , Brown A P , Swinhoe R , Fawcett T
Published: November 2023

Fatty acids can be simplistically viewed as linear hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group at one end. They differ in the length of the chain and in their degree of unsaturation and substitution. This is shown schematically in Fig. 5.1.
Control of carbon partitioning in plants
Authors: Rees T ap
Published: November 2023

My remit embraces the whole of intermediary metabolism: my intention is to concentrate on the central emerging hypothesis that the control of sucrose metabolism is the key to partitioning in higher plants (Farrar 1992). In this hypothesis sucrose is seen both as the major product of photosynthesis and as the main form in which the non-photosynthetic cells of the plant receive their carbon and energy. Photosynthetic cells are regarded as exerting control over the rest of the plant by regulating the latter’s supply of carbon and energy. The non-photosynthetic or ‘sink’ cells of the plant, in turn, are seen as influencing the photosynthetic cells by an ability of sucrose or its products to diminish the rate of photosynthesis. This inter-relationship could form the basis of the allometric growth of plants illustrated by the constant ratio of the relative growth rates of shoot and root. l shall concentrate on leaf metabolism, as partitioning in sinks has recently been discussed in detail (Pollock et al. 1992).
Setting Objectives for Conservation Evaluation
Authors: Reid Walter V
Published: November 2023

This paper questions whether we have the means of measuring the objective of biodiversity conservation. For decades, the continuum from ‘natural’ to ‘disturbed’ ecosystems has underlain ecological management goals. Now, advances in ecology, paleobiology, and conservation biology are questioning the very meaning of a ‘natural’ ecosystem. Today’s goals of ecological management were developed by ecologists who believed that communities were comprised of relatively stable assemblages of species, that population sizes tended towards equilibrium levels, and that humans played a relatively minor role in shaping the structure of communities. Scientists have now modified or abandoned these assumptions, yet their policy implications remain enshrined in management philosophy. It is time to rethink the fundamental concerns of ecological management. It will be shown that although objectives such as ‘ecological health’ and ‘biological integrity’ serve important political and educational roles, they cannot be formulated into scientifically defensible biological indicators.
Taxonomy and Functional Biotic Measurement, or, will the Ark Work?
Authors: Cousins Steven H
Published: November 2023

Biodiversity is represented differently in systematics and in ecology. This chapter uses hierarchy theory to relate the two approaches. Modifications, based on functional attributes, are made to representations of ecological biodiversity. Taxonomic uniqueness measures are scale independent whereas the functional evaluation tools proposed are different for local, ecosystem, and global scales. Higher taxonomic categories are functionally important for ecosystem analysis and may indicate a shift in the role of taxonomy in ecology. The quantity of life in contrast to the number of types is seen as important at the global scale. The measurement of human interaction strength with the existing biological environment is necessary for conservation evaluation. UK data for birds and mammals are used to exemplify the above points.
Flagella and flagellar roots
Authors: Green C , Hori T
Published: November 2023

Members of the Prymnesiophyceae (division: Haptophyta) typically have two flagella, equal or unequal but similar in form in the subclass Prymnesiophycidae, unequal and dissimilar in the subclass Pavlovophycidae. The basal apparatus in all members of the Prymnesiophyceae typically includes two basal bodies, the haptonematal base, an array of microtubular and fibrous roots, and interconnections between the bases of the appendages and other organelles. In the Prymnesiophycidae there are basically three or four microtubular roots, one having its proximal termination close to the left flagellar base and the haptonema, one terminating ventrally between the basal bodies, and one or two associated with the right basal body. In the Pavlovophycidae there are two microtubular roots associated with the basal body of the left (shorter) flagellum. At present, information on the structure of the basal apparatus supports the separation of the Pavlovophycidae and Prymnesiophycidae as major taxa, but is of little value in the determination of relationships between species.
Life cycles
Authors: Billard C
Published: November 2023

Alternations of morphologically distinct generations are frequent in the Haptophyta, but the existence and place of sexuality, if applicable, often remains unknown. In most Pavlovales a nonmotile stage exists as an alternative to flagellate cells and is assumed to respond to environmental conditions. Similarly palmelloid and motile stages are recorded in the Isochrysidales where the dominant stage is planktonic (lsochrysis) or benthic ( Chrysotila). In the Prymnesiales a complex cycle is suspected for Phaeocystis involving colonial and motile stages, although observations on the nuclear ploidy levels of the different phases are lacking. Except in Platychrysis where amoeboid cells produce swarmers, members of the Prymnesiaceae are flagellates in culture, with resting cysts recorded in Prymnesium. Two motile cell types, with different scales, recently described in Chrysochromulina polylepis cultures could possibly indicate sexuality in Chrysochromulina. Many Coccolithophorales have heteromorphic life histories. In coastal genera (Pleurochrysis, Hymenomonas, Ochrosphaera), diploid coccolith-bearing cells and haploid scale-covered forms alternate, with different patternings on the organic scales of both phases. Life histories combining hetero- and holococcolithophorids are noteworthy: increasing numbers of oceanic holococcolithophorids, previously considered as autonomous species, are now shown to be alternate phases in the life cycle of heterococcolithophorids, but, as often in the Prymnesiophyceae, information on the nuclear cytology is needed.
Robert Robinson
Authors: Williams Trevor I
Published: November 2023

Sir Robert Robinson was among the last of the great organic chemists in the classical tradition, achieving brilliant results with extremely simple apparatus. In this area he may be compared with Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, who revolutionized atomic physics with equipment based on `string and sealing wax'. This biography examines Robinson's long and distinguished career, from his academic achievements to his work in the chemical industry, and illustrates his complex personality.
Agriculture in the national economy
Authors: Antle J M
Published: November 2023

Agriculture played a central role in the national economy of Egypt in the Pharaohs’ time and continues to do so today. Like other developing countries, a large share of Egypt’s national income is generated in the agricultural sector; the state of agriculture is integrally related to the welfare of the Egyptian people and to the national economy. However, in many ways Egypt is unlike other developing countries due to its unique position in geography and history. Egypt’s agriculture along the Nile River and in the Nile Delta has, historically, been one of the most productive in the world, and Egypt’s position as a crossroads for trade has linked its agriculture to developing world markets since the industrial revolution.
Systems of agricultural production in the Delta
Authors: Ward P N
Published: November 2023

The Nile branches just north of Cairo to form a triangular area which extends to the Mediterranean coast; both branches, the Rosetta (western) and the Damietta (eastern) are approximately 240 km long. The Nile Delta is the irrigated area between and around these branches; it consists of some 25 000 km2 and includes nine of the governorates of Egypt (Fig. 13.1). The region is flat, extending from Cairo at 24 m, to Damietta at 1.5 m a.s.l. The cultivated area amounts to some 3.59 million feddans (1.51 million ha), and includes 60 per cent of the area under cultivation in Egypt (El-Tobgy 1974). The Nile Delta is one of the oldest agricultural regions in the world. Much of its area has been under continuous cultivation for more than 5000 years and, until the twentieth century, the economy was agrarian with some exports of cotton, rice, and a few minor crops.
Feedstuffs
Authors: Barker T J
Published: November 2023

In Egypt feeds and feedstuffs are still in short supply particularly in summer when a high proportion of the winter fodder lands are replaced by the cotton crop. In spite of this livestock continues to form a major part of the agricultural economy. It is estimated that livestock production, including animal power and manure, account for as much as one-third of Egypt’s agricultural output. Historically, animals have been kept mainly for draught power-water lifting, land preparation, transport-as well as for meat and milk, but with the advent and increasing use of tractors and diesel water pumps the need for work animals has declined. According to the 1982 census, actual numbers of cattle and water buffalo have increased at a greater rate than the annual government estimates suggested. This emphasizes the growing importance of meat and milk in the economy and therefore of feed and fodder on the farm.
Agricultural education, research, and extension
Authors: Xiaochun Li
Published: November 2023

Agricultural education, research, and extension are carried out in three separate systems, though all are under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, and Fishery (now renamed the Ministry of Agriculture), and quite a number of scientists are engaged in two, and sometimes three of these activities.
Systems of agricultural production in southern Sudan
Authors: Dickie A
Published: November 2023

The large area of southern Sudan, the wide variation in physiography and climate, and the wide variety of peoples have given rise to equally wide variations in the systems of agricultural production found within its boundaries. Underlying this diversity, however, four major factors have affected all farming systems in the south. They are:
Theoretical Models in Biology
Authors: Rowe Glenn
Published: November 2023

This book surveys theoretical models in three broad areas of biology (the origin of life, the immune system, and memory in the brain), introducing mathematical and (mainly) computational methods that have been used to construct simulations. Most current books on theoretical biology fall into one of two categories: (a) books that specialize in one area of biology and treat theoretical modes in considerable depth; and (b) books that concentrate on purely mathematical modes, with computers used only to find numerical solutions to differential equations, for example. Although some mathematical modes are considered in this book, the main emphasis is on stochastic computer models of biological systems, and are likely to be the preferred modelling methods of the future. By considering three different areas in biology, the book shows how several of these modelling techniques have been successfully applied in diverse areas. Put simply, this book is important because it shows how the power of modern computers is allowing researchers in theoretical biology to break free of the constraints on modelling that were imposed by the traditional differential equation approach.
Toxins Are Everywhere
Authors: Lax Alistair J
Published: November 2023

The Bulgarian playwright and novelist Georgi Markov was a marked man. He had defected to Britain in 1971 and was hated by the uncompromising communist junta that ruled his native country for his out-spoken broadcasts against them. It was Thursday 7 September 1978, the birthday of Todor Zhirkov, the Bulgarian leader, when the fatal blow was struck. It was at least the third attempt to kill him, and after the previous failed attack he had heard that the next attempt would be ‘special’. Markov was standing at his usual bus stop on Waterloo Bridge on his way to the BBC for his afternoon broadcast. He felt a sharp pain at the back of his right thigh.
Where Is Toxinology1 Going Now?
Authors: Lax Alistair J
Published: November 2023

It has been pointed out that humans have more or less dealt with the larger animals on the planet, so the lions and bears and wolves are no longer much of a threat. That leaves the most dangerous animal of all, man, and the microbes to cope with. Whether humans can survive without using their own clever technology to kill their own race is impossible to tell. Of the microbes, many would see the viruses as the greatest threat. Horrifying as the AIDS epidemic is becoming, it is unlikely to lead to worldwide extinction unless its mode of transmission changes. Viruses such as Ebola, flu, and smallpox are potentially more worrying.
In a World at War
Authors: Wilkins Maurice
Published: November 2023

Through 1939, the British people wondered when their war would begin. Then, on I September, Hitler launched a great mechanized offensive that rapidly advanced into Poland. Appeasement was over, and Britain declared war. Reaching the north of Poland, the German army neared the frontier with Russia. The Red Army was said to have moved across its border into Poland, where it met the Germans on 17September.
Semantics and Lexicography
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna
Published: November 2023

For years, I have argued that semantics as a scholarly discipline must prove itself in lexicography. “Lexicography needs linguistics, and linguistics needs lexicography. As Zgusta (1971: 111) points out, for the treatment of meaning in dictionaries to be radically improved, preparatory work has to be done by linguists” (Wierzbicka 1987a: 1-2). I believe that during the two decades which have elapsed since Zgusta made this comment, much of this preparatory work has in fact been done. In this chapter I will try to show that, as a result of this work, the treatment of meaning in dictionaries can indeed be radically improved.
Semantics and Ethnobiology
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna
Published: November 2023

It is widely agreed today that “culture ‘does not consist of things, people, behavior, or emotions’, but the forms or organization of these things in the minds of people” (Frake 1962: 85, with reference to Goodenough 1957). The question which mightcause disagreement is this: How can the organization of “these things” in the minds of people be discovered?
Lesson XV
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

THIS verb is used as an auxiliary with verb stems. It is never used alone.
Lesson XVII
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

COMPOUND verbs are composites of verb stems with one of a small number of auxiliary verbs; their basic meaning is that of the verb stem, modified or made specific in some sense by the particular auxiliary used.
Lesson XX
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

SOME subordinate conjunctions (words identifying subordinate clauses) have been given and their use in complex sentences illustrated in Lessons XIV and XVI.
Lesson XXI
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

THE main uses of the subjunctive, apart from those in subordinate clauses, are noted or recapitulated here.
Dramaturgs and literary managers
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

Adramaturg is literally a drama-worker or -maker, from Greek drama+ ‘i:pyov, ergon, ‘work’, and in antiquity probably incorporated the modern ideas of playwright and director. The earliest English use of the word is in 1787, shortly after the tenure of G. E. Lessing, the first official modern dramaturg, at the German National Theatre, Hamburg, 1767-9. Lessing’s collection of theatre-criticism, Hamburg ische Dramaturgie (1768-9),1 roused considerable interest, and the word dramaturgy, ‘the structural composition of a drama’ and ‘a collection of writings about drama’ as well as ‘the activity of a dramaturg’, followed in 1801.
Critics
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

Theatre-critics review performances and write on contemporary theatre. They may be journalists writing for the daily or weekly press, or academics usually writing for quarterlies and annuals, but though there are differences in the length of pieces (and in the UK of ‘social status’) the distinction is not in itself significant. Theatre-criticism is distinct from theatre-theory and theatre-history, but a good critic needs to know about both.
Editors
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

Since the eighteenth century some critics have also been editors, initially of Shakespeare but then of any playwright of scholarly or pedagogic interest. Before the professionalization of literary criticism in the late nineteenth century and the development of the enormous student-market there were no necessary qualifications, and what editors actually did varied widely. The modern consensus is that early texts need modernization and glossing both for students and for a general market, but it is increasingly clear that both didactic and popularizing interventions characteristically overstep their marks.
Existence and Identity
Authors: Bostock David
Published: November 2023

We shall use ‘a=b’ as short for ‘a is the same thing as b’. The sign’=‘ thus expresses a particular two-place predicate, and since we generally write a predicate-symbol in front of the name-letters that fill its gaps, you might have expected the same here. Very occasionally this can be convenient (Exercise 8.1.2), but it is confusing to have the same sign’=‘ appearing in these two roles. So let us say that officially the letter ‘I’ is the identity predicate, and it is to have just the same grammar as the familiar two-place predicate letters.
Hume on Liberty and Necessity
Authors: Botterill George
Published: November 2023

Hume was certainly tackling a ‘long disputed question’ under his heading ‘Of Liberty and Necessity’. If our actions are causally determined, can we still maintain that we are capable of acting freely? Or does our deeply rooted commitment to regarding other people as morally responsible agents also commit us to regarding them as exceptions to the general order of nature and, at some level, somehow exempt from the operation of causal laws? By now this has been disputed even longer, whether we call it the Problem of Free Will and (or versus) Determinism, or the topic of Moral Responsibility and Causal Determination. The basic issue is familiar enough to be referred to as an ‘old chestnut’-which, in my view, implies we ought to have cracked it by now.
Cantor’s Approach to the 2 Class Paradoxes
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

Cantor was the first to discover class paradoxes, but they did not strike him as paradoxical. Rather, he took them to confirm a view he had come to years before, that some totalities cannot be treated as objects of mathematical study. In the course of developing the theory of infinite sets, in particular the theory of infinite ordinal and cardinal numbers that he had created,1 he naturally reflected on the totality of ordinal numbers and the totality of cardinal numbers, and he came to view them as importantly unlike other infinite totalities. It had been traditional to distinguish between finite and infinite, the former being increasable by addition, the latter not. Cantor challenged this tradition. Instead of a simple division into finite and infinite, Cantor’s theory led him to a tripartite classification: finite, transfinite, and absolutely infinite. A transfinite number is unlike a finite number in having infinitely many predecessors; but it is like a finite number in being increasable.
The Definability Paradoxes and the Vicious Circle Principle
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

Although the type restrictions block the class paradoxes, Russell did not think that the source of those paradoxes was just ignorance about types. Why not? Russell learned of other apparently logical paradoxes that are not blocked by the type restrictions, known as paradoxes of definability. Preferring a univocal explanation, he concluded that both the class paradoxes and the paradoxes of definability have their source in the violation of a single principle, which he called the Vicious Circle Principle. Let us first look at three definability paradoxes, before turning to Russell’s diagnosis.
The Search for Certainty: A Reckoning
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

Godel’s Underivability Theorems mark a watershed. Once they and related theorems were fully assimilated, Hilbert’s Programme was not pursued, and no other foundational programme quite so ambitious replaced it. As the iterative conception of sets became more widely appreciated, the worry that set theory might be inconsistent quite reasonably abated, as did the sense of urgency that informed foundational work. None the less, basic epistemological questions remained. We cannot be certain of the reliability, regarding finitary consequences, of much mathematics.
Mind and Soul
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

The area of philosophy that underwent the most significant development in the early modern period was the philosophy of mind. This was due above all to the work of Descartes. Whereas Cartesian physics had a short and inglorious life, Cartesian psychology was widely adopted and to this day its influence remains powerful in the thinking of many who have never read his work or who explicitly reject his system. Descartes redrew the boundaries between mind and body, and introduced a new way of characterizing the mental. Since his time it has been natural for philosophers and scientists to structure psychology in a way quite different from that employed by his Aristotelian predecessors in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. This has affected even everyday thinking about human nature and about the natural world.
Philosophy in the Modern World
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

Sir Anthony Kenny tells the fascinating story of the development of philosophy in the modern world, from the early nineteenth century to the late twentieth century. Alongside (and intertwined with) extraordinary scientific advances, cultural changes, and political upheavals, the last two centuries have seen some of the most intriguing and original developments in philosophical thinking, which have transformed our understanding of ourselves and our world. In the first part of the book Kenny offers a lively narrative introducing the major thinkers in their historical context. He then proceeds to guide the reader lucidly through the nine main areas of philosophical work in the period, offering a serious engagement with the ideas and arguments. Among those we meet are the great figures of continental European philosophy, from Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche to Heidegger and Sartre; the Pragmatists who first developed a distinctively American philosophical tradition; Marx, Darwin, and Freud, the non-philosophers whose influence on philosophy was immense; Wittgenstein and Russell, friends and colleagues who set the agenda for analytic philosophy in the twentieth century. Philosophy in the Modern World brings to completion Kenny’s magisterial New History of Western Philosophy. The four volumes have been designed to dovetail with each other: they offer a unified overview of the entire development of philosophy, allowing readers to trace themes through the centuries, from antiquity to the present day. The story is illuminated by a selection of intriguing and beautiful illustrations.
The Dustbin Theory of Mind: A Cartesian Legacy?
Authors: Nolan Lawrence , Whipple John
Published: November 2023

It is part of the lore of Descartes’s philosophy that he subscribed to what might be termed the ‘Dustbin Theory of Mind’. According to this traditional picture, Descartes’s conception of the mental was determined by his prior conception of matter as pure extension, shorn of the various sensible qualities familiar from our ordinary experience of the physical world. Having banished these qualities from nature, and finding no other place to locate them, Descartes swept them into the dustbin of the mind. The mind thus became a repository of heterogeneous items— colours, sounds, odours, heat and cold, pains, beliefs, intellections, etc.
Some Cautionary Remarks On The ‘ Is’/’ Teaches’ Analogy
Authors: Malcolm John
Published: November 2023

Ancient Greek thinkers, notably Parmenides, Plato, and Aristotle, are regarded by some as having been led into error through a failure to recognize the difference between two uses of (their equivalent of) the verb ‘to be’: the incomplete or copula, and the complete or existential.1 They allegedly acted as if ‘X is F’ entailed ‘X is’, i.e. ‘exists’. Not everyone is convinced by this. I shall consider two responses. The one I favour is to grant that a rigid existence/copula distinction is a legitimate tool for the interpretation of these philosophers. Furthermore, I suggest that their reasoning may be understood in a way that does not leave them as vulnerable to the charge of this confusion as is sometimes supposed.
What is motor neuron disease?
Authors: Talbot Kevin , Marsden Rachael
Published: November 2023

Motor neurons are specialized nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord which transmit the electrical signals to muscles for the generation of movement. Two sorts of cells are required and, although it is an oversimplification, one can think of these as being like two switches in an electrical circuit (Fig. 1.1). The upper motor neuron starts at the top of the brain in an area called the motor cortex and travels down to the spinal cord to connect at different levels with the cells known as lower motor neurons. These cells in turn travel out of the spinal cord (e.g. along our arms and legs) and connect to muscle. If motor neurons are damaged or die, the main consequence is difficulty with voluntary movement.
Processing Syntax and Morphology: A Neurocognitive Perspective
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

This book reviews interdisciplinary work on the mental processing of syntax and morphology. It focuses on the fundamental questions at the centre of this research, for example whether language processing proceeds in a serial or a parallel manner; which areas of the brain support the processing of syntactic and morphological information; whether there are neurophysiological correlates of language processing; and the degree to which neurolinguistic findings on syntactic and morphological processing are consistent with theoretical conceptions of syntax and morphology. The authors describe the outcomes of methods in neurophysiology (for example, functional magnetic resonance imaging), behavioural psycholinguistics, and neuropsychological lesion studies, and provide brief introductions to the methods themselves. They extend basic findings at the word and sentence level by considering how the mental processing of syntax and morphology relates to prosody, discourse, semantics, and world knowledge. They have divided the work into four parts concerned with word structure, sentence structure, processing syntax and morphology at the interfaces, and a comparison of different models of syntactic and morphological processing in the neurophysiological domain. The book is directed at graduate students and researchers in theoretical linguistics, psycho- and neurolinguistics, neurophysiology, and psychology.
Inflectional Morphology
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

Recall from Chapter 3 that inflectional morphology appears to play an important role in shaping the neural responses to the processing of diVerent word categories. Thus, the correlation between left inferior frontal regions and verb processing may be crucially mediated by the presence of verbal inflectional (Longe et al. 2007; Tyler et al. 2004a). Interestingly, Tyler and colleagues in fact went one step further in their own interpretation of their results: they suggested that the increased left IFG activation for inflected verbs should be attributed to the presence of regular verb inflectional and that this cortical region may therefore be responsible for the morphological decomposition of regular verb forms (Tyler, Randall, and Marslen-Wilson 2002b).
Derivational Morphology
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

In comparison to the vast number of studies on the processing of inflectional morphology, only comparatively few neurocognitive investigations have concerned themselves with derivational morphology. This discrepancy appears somewhat surprising in view of the fact that the earliest psycholinguistic discussions on morphological processing were in fact centered around derivational issues. For example, Taft and Forster’s influential model of word recognition (Taft and Forster 1975) posited that morphologically complex words undergo obligatory decomposition. This assumption accounted for the observation that pseudowords which were stems of existing words (e.g. juvenate, from rejuvenate) or composed of existing morphemes (e.g. dejuvenate) took longer to classify than pseudowords that were not stems (e.g. pertoire, from repertoire) or involved a non-existing stem (e.g. depertoire).1
Some Models of Phylogenetic Tree Shape
Authors: Mooers Arne Ø , Harmon Luke J , Blum Michaël G B , Wong Dennis H J , Heard Stephen B
Published: November 2023

Phylogenetic trees represent the evolutionary histories of lineages and so bear the impression of the evolutionary forces that gave rise to those lineages. Advances in molecular and computational techniques continually increase the number and size of our phylogenetic estimates. In the 1990s, both we [41] and Purvis [52] surveyed the two main aspects of phylogenetic tree pattern: variation in realized diversification rate among contemporaneous lineages, and changes in realized diversification rates through time. The techniques highlighted in these reviews have been used very successfully (see, e.g. [4, 10, 11, 62, 63]).
Introduction
Authors: Holmes Edward C
Published: November 2023

Viral diseases, particularly the exotic and the fatal, hold a unique fascination to scientists and the general public alike. Because of books like The  Hot  Zone (Preston 1994), which glamorizes outbreaks of highly virulent filoviruses, the public image of RNA viruses is a complex combination of the frightening and the alluring. While this has certainly given them name recognition, the accounts of RNA viruses that are increasingly commonplace in the popular media are also frustratingly inaccurate, as they are often given capabilities that could never have arisen through evolution by natural selection.
Epilogue
Authors: Holmes Edward C
Published: November 2023

A combination of good theory, rigorous experimentation, and wide-ranging comparative analyses have dramatically improved our knowledge of the patterns and processes of RNA virus evolution. This book, which I hope is at least timely, serves as an attempt to summarize many of the insights that have stemmed from this research programme, albeit with an unashamed bias towards phylogenetic studies. Although I will not repeat my arguments of earlier chapters, it is worth stressing again that so much of the evolutionary biology of RNA viruses, from the number of progeny they produce, to the way their genomes are organized, and even their propensity to jump species barriers, seems to be a function of what I consider to be their defining feature: a remarkably rapid rate of mutation. Of course, this generality hides much of the idiosyncratic biology of individual viruses that we would be foolish to ignore.
Persona Sometimes Grata: On the Appreciation of Expressive Music
Authors: Ridley Aaron
Published: November 2023

Several writers have discussed the possibility that, in hearing pieces of music as expressive, listeners imaginatively construct for themselves a musical ‘persona’ whose affective states the music is then heard as expressing. This thought has polarized opinion: Jerrold Levinson, for instance, claims that the construction of such a persona is always necessary if music is to be heard as expressive (1996); Stephen Davies, by contrast, claims that it is never necessary (2003). Apparently floating around in between, I have suggested that the construction of a persona is sometimes necessary, sometimes not (Ridley 1995). I want to defend that view here.
Phi-Agree and Theta-Related Case
Authors: Rezac Milan
Published: November 2023

Case and Agree are technical terms meant here in the framework of Chomsky (1000 et seq.), and the investigation is pursued in that framework, but the issue is by no means internal to it. I use the term theta-related Case for all morphological case marking whose identity depends on the local relationship of a DP to its selector, whether canonical for a theta-role or idiosyncratic (Woolford’s (2006) lexical and inherent Case). It stands in contrast to structural Case, which is assigned to a DP by a functional head that does not select it, often at a potentially unbounded distance. The hallmark of theta-related Case is that it does not alternate with the embedding of an argument selector under different functional architectures such as raising and ECM, and that it cannot be borne by non-thematic elements such as there type expletives, unlike structural Case.
Real time and the concept of time
Authors: Jaszczolt K M
Published: November 2023

The big questions to be addressed in this chapter are the following. On the one hand, we know even from a basic understanding of physics and from popular knowledge of Einstein’s theory of relativity that time is not absolute: it varies depending on the frame of reference, the velocity with which objects are moving. On the other, we have a very robust and deep-seated conviction, grounded in everyday experience, that there is something we can unequivocally call the past, the present, and the future.
Time in Default Semantics
Authors: Jaszczolt K M
Published: November 2023

As is well acknowledged, a satisfactory theory of discourse meaning should provide representations of discourse that have a status of mental representations, supported by a formal account of a compositional semantic structure. At the same time, as is evident from the discussion of temporality in Chapter 2 and of the semantic equivalent of a situation in Chapter 3, the theory has to provide a level of representation of meaning to which information from various sources would contribute, to mention only the lexicon, grammar, world knowledge including frequently encountered scenarios and predictable conversational behaviour, as well as context-driven pragmatic inference.
Future developments in osteoporosis management
Authors: Black Alison J , Sandison Rena , Reid David M
Published: November 2023

The last 15–20 years have been exciting times for osteoporosis management. As indicated elsewhere in this book, the techniques for diagnosing people at risk of osteoporosis have increased dramatically, and the quality of the risk assessment has been also markedly improved. New treatments have become available with good evidence that they reduce fractures, the important consequence for many who develop osteoporosis. As indicated elsewhere, hip fractures are the most expensive and devastating type of fracture, and methods to prevent these are particulary needed.