bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Uprooted trees facilitate the psychological well‐being of captive chimpanzees
Authors: Maki Susan , Bloomsmith M. A.
Published: June 2005

After the introduction of uprooted trees to their environment, the behavior of 28 socially housed, laboratory chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) was studied for five months. Subjects used the tree during 41.9% of the data points collected during the first day trees were introduced. Thereafter, the mean for tree use dropped to 3.5% and remained fairly consistent. Immature subjects used the trees significantly more than did adult subjects, as measured by the Mann‐Whitney U‐test. No sex difference was detected. The trees elicited a variety of species‐appropriate behaviors. Increasing the similarity between the behavior of captive and wild chimpanzees can be viewed as promoting the psychological well‐being of the captive animals.
Effects of live animals vs. preserved specimens on student learning
Authors: Sherwood Kenneth P. , Rallis Sharon F. , Stone James
Published: June 2005

Fourth‐grade students (292 in all) were tested to determine if handling live animals influences cognitive and affective learning to a greater extent than handling preserved specimens. Live and dried exoskeletons of horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus) and sea stars (Asterias forbesi) were used as contact animals. All students were 1) pre‐ and posttested; 2) participants in a teacher‐directed, “touch‐and‐feel” lecture; and 3) given a “retention” test 6 weeks following contact. Results indicated that short‐ and long‐term cognitive learning took place when students handled either live or dried animals. However, gains in short‐ and long‐term affective learning (measured by changes in attitude) were achieved only when students handled live animals.
Behavioral response of 12 ungulate species in captivity to the presence of humans
Authors: Thompson Valerie Del
Published: June 2005

Twelve species of captive ungulates were studied to determine behavioral responses to the presence of a zookeeper within the exhibit and in front of the exhibit, with and without zoo visitors present. Significant differences in behavior occurred between species for nearly all behaviors observed. A significantly greater occurrence of vigilance and approach behavior was directed toward the zookeeper while within the exhibit relative to when the zookeeper stood in front of the exhibit. A significantly lower occurrence of eating or drinking occurred when the zookeeper was inside the exhibit. Significant differences occurred across size categories in the occurrence of approaching the zookeeper.

The most frequently scored behavior was visual orientation. Statistically significant differences in the occurrence of visual orientation directed by females toward the zookeeper existed across size category, with more vigilance by species with larger body size. A statistically higher occurrence of vigilance toward the zookeeper was directed by female ungulates but not by males when the zoo was closed to the public.

Although no statistical significance was found regarding the intraspecific vigilance of males, data on females revealed significant differences across species and across size categories. When data regarding vigilance toward the public were analyzed, statistically significant differences existed between species for females only. Likewise, when data regarding interspecific vigilance were examined, statistically significant differences were found across size categories for females, but not for males. The potential roles of vigilance in the wild are discussed in reference to its role in captivity.
Reproductive biology of captive and free‐ranging spider monkeys
Authors: Chapman Colin A. , Chapman Lauren J.
Published: June 2005

Records from 42 zoos and from long‐term studies of wild populations were analysed to describe the reproductive biology of spider monkeys (Ateles spp.). Both data sets suggested that spider monkey females typically have their first infant between 7 and 8 years of age with an interbirth interval of approximately 32–36 months. Infant sex ratio for zoo populations was approximately 1 male to 1 female; infant sex ratios from wild populations were variable. Zoo records provided adequate sample size to suggest that interbirth interval was not influenced by the sex of the infant produced, and that the sex ratio and the probability of infant survival did not change with the number of infants the mother had produced. The findings of this study have implications with respect to the conservation of New World primate species. Since spider monkeys take a long time to reach sexual maturity and their interbirth interval is longer than that expected based on their body size, their populations may be slow to recover following disturbances. Thus, particular care should be taken for the protection of these species.
Common ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus peregrinus) as a management model for the Pseudocheiridae: Reproductive scope, behavior, and biomedical values on a browse‐free diet
Authors: Roberts Miles , Phillips Lyndsay , Kohn Frank
Published: June 2005

The purposes of this study were to determine 1) the life history characteristics of a captive colony of the arboreal folivore Pseudocheirus peregrinus maintained on a browse free diet under enhanced laboratory conditions, 2) the direction and magnitude of life history differences from wild population values, and 3) the feasibility of developing captive colonies of this and related species for conservation and research programs. Rates of reproduction, growth, and development; demographic trends; behavioral patterns pertinent to exhibition; and management and medical techniques are reported. Fecundity was 67% greater than that of wild populations and there was an approximate four‐fold increase in the rate of offspring survival to sexual maturity. These trends were due largely to reduced post‐pouch emergence mortality and the decay of reproductive seasonality. The results indicate that a properly designed “artificial” diet can support significantly enhanced reproduction in a trophic specialist. Other demographic, developmental, and behavioral measures found to be consistent with those reported from wild populations indicate that there was no significant life history distortion caused by the management regime. Empirical data are presented showing that the common ringtail is nocturnal, has low rates of activity, and has specific space and substrate preferences. These results suggest ways in which the animals' physical environment can be manipulated to improve exhibition. We conclude that the reproductive rates of other ringtail possum species might also be enhanced under comparable management conditions.
North American orangutan species survival plan: Current status and progress in the 1980s
Authors: Perkins Lorraine A. , Maple Terry L.
Published: June 2005

The SSP program for orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus ssp.) was initiated in 1982. Since that time, the Propagation Group has dealt with issues related to improving captive management of the species. Prior to 1982, most orangutans in North America were managed as a single species, though a number of institutions did house their Bornean and Sumatran specimens separately. However, the determination of race at that time was made largely on the basis of physical appearance, a method subsequently proven imprecise. A major achievement of the SSP has been the refinement of orangutan subspecies determination; SSP‐sponsored karotyping has determined, on a chromosomal level, the true subspecies of virtually every orangutan managed by the SSP. The validity of these results has been confirmed by recent fieldwork, also completed under the auspices of the SSP. Since 1985, as a result of these captive and field data, the SSP has held to the policy that subspecific hybrid orangutans should not be produced; to that end, there is a moratorium on the breeding of hybrid animals. Another significant step taken by the SSP group is the completion of the sophisticated demographic and genetic analyses, leading to the development of a Masterplan for this species and its captive management. Goals for the near future include refinement of the Masterplan analyses and publication of a new international studbook for the species.
Integration of hand‐reared gorillas into breeding groups
Authors: Meder Angela
Published: June 2005

Many zoo‐born gorillas must still be hand‐reared and sooner or later be associated with conspecifics in a breeding group. In this study the introduction and integration of 5 hand‐reared infants at 3 zoos was observed for 2 to 4 years. Results showed that introductions proceed more smoothly if infants are first introduced to a calm and socially competent adult female. Infants should not be much older than 1 year at the start of integration, in order to allow for “adoption.” Adopting females facilitate acceptance by the rest of the group. Problems frequently arise during introductions because of aggressiveness of silverbacks and the social incompetence of hand‐reared individuals. Immature animals may react aggressively to the presence of adults, especially silverbacks, and thus delay the progress of integration. They should be introduced to adults as early as possible in order to facilitate the learning of essential social skills.
Further developments in the breeding population of lowland gorillas at Apenheul
Authors: Kopff Hans Otto , Mager Wim B.
Published: June 2005

In 1987 a second group of lowland gorillas was formed at Apenheul. Aspects of the zoo‐technical management (diet, accommodation, etc.) are described. The management and the development of the population, including mother‐rearing of all offspring, are described. Special attention is given to the formation of a second group by introducing two zoo‐born females and a non‐breeding female from one group to a nonrelated male to form a second group. These transfers of group members resulted rather quickly in pregnancies. The two groups are housed on adjacent islands, and the advantages and disadvantages of such a facility are discussed.
Serum testosterone and musth in captive male African and Asian elephants
Authors: Cooper K. A. , Harder J. D. , Clawson D. H. , Fredrick D. L. , Lodge G. A. , Peachey H. C. , Spellmire T. J. , Winstel D. P.
Published: June 2005

Testosterone concentrations in serum samples collected weekly over a 5‐year period from a young adult male Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and a young adult male African forest elephant (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) were measured by radioimmunoassay. Testosterone profiles during this maturational period were compared between the two species and related to the occurrence of musth, a recurring physiological and behavioral condition exhibited by most mature Asian, and some African, bull elephants. Musth is characterized by secretion from the bull's temporal glands, dribbling urine, and increased aggression. Serum testosterone concentrations in the Asian bull were elevated substantially between April and September each year, coincident with the presence of temporal gland secretion, urine dribbling, and aggressive behavior. Testosterone levels from April through September averaged (± SEM) 41.2 ± 2.8 ng/ml, compared to 7.6 ± 1.0 ng/ml during the rest of the year. In contrast, the testosterone profile of the African bull showed greater variation and lower levels overall, the only pattern being a tendency for levels to be lowest from November to February (avg. 6.8 ± 1.5 vs. 10.3 ± 0.8 ng/ml during the rest of the year). Temporal gland secretion and other signs of musth were first observed in this bull in 1988, at age 17. While his testosterone profile did not show a pattern comparable to that in the Asian bull, average testosterone values were significantly greater in 1988 compared to previous years.

The Asian bull showed sexual attention to preovulatory (estrous) cows whether in musth or not, and exposure to estrous cows did not appear to alter the highly consistent, annual pattern of musth as evidenced in temporal gland flow.
Ultrasound imaging of reproductive organs and eggs in Galapagos tortoises, Geochelone elephantopus spp
Authors: Robeck Todd R. , Rostal David C. , Burchfield Patrick M. , Owens David W. , Kraemer Duane C.
Published: June 2005

This study demonstrates the efficacy of using ultrasound to determine the presence of ovarian developing, preovulatory, and atretic follicular structures and oviductal eggs in the Galapagos tortoise, Geochelone elephantopus spp. Ultrasound was effective in locating both right and left ovarian structures in 92% (n = 100 ovaries) of the trials. Developing and preovulatory follicles and oviductal eggs were echogenically visualized and had measurements ranging from 18 to 44 mm (n = 93) and 55 to 68 mm (n = 9), respectively. Atretic follicles ranged in size from 10 to 38 mm (n = 10). In one trial with four G. elephantopus, ultrasound observations were validated with the use of laparoscopy. All procedures were accomplished without general anesthesia on a specifically designed restraining table. Ultrasound provides an effective, safe modality for determining the reproductive status of adult female tortoises.
Nonsurgical embryo transfer in the scimitar‐horned oryx (Oryx dammah): Birth of a live offspring
Authors: Pope C. E. , Gelwicks E. J. , Burton M. , Reece R. , Dresser B. L.
Published: June 2005

The objective of this project was to determine if modifications of methods of estrous synchronization, superovulation, embryo recovery, and transfer used successfully in other ungulates, both domestic and nondomestic, could be applied to scimitar‐horned oryx (Oryx dammah). Donors were two parous females and recipients were one parous and two nulliparous females that were given a total of two cloprostenol injections at an interval of 0 and 13 or 12 days, respectively. Donors were treated with follicle‐stimulating hormone (FSH‐P, Schering, Kenilworth, NJ) b.i.d. for 4 days and placed with a fertile male. Seven days after the last FSH‐P injection, nonsurgical uterine lavages were performed on both donors. One good‐quality embryo at the morula stage was recovered and nonsurgically transferred into the right uterine horn of the parous recipient. A healthy female calf born at 247 days post‐transfer represents the first known live birth of scimitarhorned oryx following embryo transfer. These results provide additional evidence that estrous synchronization and embryo transfer techniques used in other ungulates can be applied to endangered antelopes such as the scimitar‐horned oryx.
Behavioral evaluation of exhibit modifications designed to accommodate an aged diana monkey
Authors: Zucker Evan L. , Deitchman Marsha , Watts Eve
Published: June 2005

Modifications in a zoo exhibit were made to increase the arboreality of an aged female diana monkey, and to increase her use of the central portion of the exhibit where a new food shelf had been added. Branches, which formed ramps to this shelf, also were added. Following these changes, the aged female's arboreality increased slightly, and her use of the central portion of the exhibit increased significantly. Changes in habitat use following these modifications also were noted in the other two diana monkeys in the group. These results suggest that zoo habitats can be made more usable for individuals whose behavioral capabilities might be limited due to age or physical disability.
Factors influencing reproductive success in small captive exotic felids (Felis spp.): A multiple regression analysis
Authors: Mellen Jill D.
Published: June 2005

Environmental, genetic, and social factors associated with captive maintenance of small felids (Felis spp.) were systematically examined at eight different zoos to determine which of these factors most closely correlated with successful reproduction. Almost half of all the pairings examined failed to produce offspring. However, at least some representatives of the 20 species examined successfully reproduced, suggesting that failure to breed could not be solely attributed to species specific requirements. Multiple regression techniques revealed an association between number of litters produced and number of medical treatments, latitude range of wild counterparts, group size (all negatively correlated), and a positive correlation with husbandry style. These findings have direct relevance to how small cats are managed in captivity. Specifically, when small felids are maintained in groups larger than a pair (1.1), they are not likely to reproduce. Furthermore, a husbandry style in which keepers spent considerable time talking to, and interacting with, the cats under their care was more likely to result in offspring than one in which these interactions did not occur. These and other results generated suggestions for management techniques necessary to assure the continued survival of small cats in captivity.
Early growth and bone mineralization of the iguanid lizard, Sceloporus occidentalis in captivity: Is vitamin D3 supplementation or ultraviolet B irradiation necessary?
Authors: Gehrmann William H. , Ferguson Gary W. , Odom Ted W. , Roberts David T. , Barcellona Wayne J.
Published: June 2005

The insectivorous, heliophilic iguanid lizard, Sceloporus occidentalis, was used in this study. Eight groups of field‐collected juveniles were subjected to different doses of ultraviolet‐B radiation or were fed crickets maintained on different diets with varying amounts of vitamin D3 and other nutrients. The crickets fed to all groups were dusted with calcium carbonate powder. Snout‐vent lengths and body masses were significantly greater within each group at the end of 10 weeks; however, there were no significant among‐group differences in growth. There were no differences among treatment groups regarding plasma calcium concentration or bone calcium, phosphorus or magnesium concentrations. However, compared to length‐matched field controls, individuals from treatment groups had significantly greater body masses, greater bone calcium concentrations, and lower bone magnesium concentrations. Lizards exposed to ultraviolet radiation exhibited lower plasma phosphorus concentrations relative to several other treatment groups and field controls. In the field sample, bone calcium concentration was positively correlated with body size while bone magnesium and phosphorus concentrations were negatively correlated with body size.
Effects of visitors and cage changes on the behaviors of mangabeys
Authors: Mitchell G. , Herring Fred , Obradovich Stephanie , Tromborg Chris , Dowd Brad , Neville Laurie E. , Field Leslie
Published: June 2005

Three groups of golden‐bellied mangabeys were studied to determine the effects of visitors and cage changes on their aggressive displays, grooming and sexual behavior, and play. Assessments of changes in behavior were made by comparing categorized observer comments. Animals moved to cages having more visitors increased their aggressive displays toward people, decreased their aggressive displays toward other species in neighboring cages, and increased their withingroup aggression. On the other hand, grooming, sexual behavior, and play increased after cage changes regardless of numbers of visitors. The view that it is the pattern of behavior changes in enrichment that is important in assessment of attempted enrichment was supported. Aggressive and affiliative behaviors are affected quite differently by different environmental stimuli in the zoo.
Body mass and food intake in captive, breeding bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus
Authors: Cheal Alistair J. , Gales Nicholas J.
Published: June 2005

Body mass (BM) was recorded regularly during pregnancy in four female Indian Ocean bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Daily food intakes were recorded for each animal before and after parturition. BM increase occurred variably between 2 and 5 months of gestation, and at parturition mass increases averaged 41.2% of initial prepregnancy mass. Changes in mass can thus be used as an early indicator of pregnancy. During the 12 months of pregnancy, no significant changes occurred in the amount of food ingested compared with previous years. Daily food intake during lactation (X = 13.2 kg, 8% of BM) proved significantly higher (P < 0.001) than during pregnancy (X = 8.7 kg, 5.2% of BM).
Declines in sociosexual behavior in golden monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana): Associated environmental and social variables
Authors: Ogden Jacqueline J. , Olson Tamara L. , Miner Victoria
Published: June 2005

Between February 22 and August 10, 1986, 200 h of systematic observation were conducted on a male and female golden monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) at Seattle's Woodland Park Zoo and Portland's Washington Park Zoo. The pair was moved to Portland on May 6, and on July 24 the female unexpectedly gave birth to a male infant, the first such birth in the United States. Dramatic behavioral changes occurred immediately after the pair was moved to Portland, the midpoint of the female's pregnancy, including the disappearance of sexual behavior and a sharp decline in time spent in contact. Explanations for these changes are discussed.
Effects of early rearing experience on subsequent adult sexual behavior using domestic cats (Felis catus) as a model for exotic small felids
Authors: Mellen Jill D.
Published: June 2005

Zoo professionals generally believe that maternal rearing of zoo animals is preferable to human/nursery raising. The lack of consistent reproductive success in small captive exotic felids has been partially attributed to an excess of human‐raised individuals. To investigate experimentally the effects of human/nursery rearing on adult sexual behavior, domestic cats were used as a model for small captive exotic felids. Three groups of female domestic cats were reared under three different conditions (intended to mimic typical zoo rearing situations) and then paired at sexual maturity with sexually experienced males. Cats in Condition 1 were Human‐Raised Alone, i.e., had no physical or visual contact with con‐specifics until sexual maturity; cats in Condition II were Human‐Raised with a Sibling, i.e., had no physical or visual contact with any conspecifics except their respective sibling until sexual maturity; cats in Condition 3 were Maternally Raised with a female sibling, but had no other physical or visual contact with other conspecifics until sexual maturity. Individuals in Condition 3 copulated significantly more often than did the individuals in Condition 1. The individuals in Condition 1 were distinguished by the extreme aggression they displayed toward both the males with which they were paired and their human‐caretakers. Data suggest that human‐reared female cats are less likely to reproduce than are their maternally‐reared counterparts. These results suggest that, whenever possible, nursery‐raising of small exotic felids should be avoided.
Visitor‐directed aggression among the Gibraltar macaques
Authors: Fa John E.
Published: June 2005

Animal parks and exhibits which offer visitors the option of close interaction with the animals displayed have been very successful with some species, including primates. However, there is always an element of risk to the visitor who enters another species' environment and interacts with its members. This risk factor may cause particular concern when the exhibit animal is a nonhuman primate because of the transmission of various zoonoses. The Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) at Queen's Gate, Gibraltar, attract large numbers of tourists who are permitted to feed them. This animal‐human contact sometimes results in monkeys biting visitors. Bite frequency data from hospital records for 1980–1989 and direct observations (July 1990–June 1991) form the basis of this study. Biting is a density‐dependent phenomenon since monkey‐visitor aggression rates increase with visitor numbers. Time of day affects bite rates, more people being bitten in the afternoon—the main visitation time. Likewise, more bites are recorded during summer months when visitor numbers are higher. A tendency towards acclimatization of the monkeys to the very large number of visitors appears after 1985. Rank correlation coefficients between visitor numbers and bites per month fall from 1985 to 1989, reflecting a drop in visitor density response. Analysis of visitor profiles indicates a negative correlation between visitor age and likelihood of being bitten. However, women are bitten significantly more than men. Average age of people bitten also varies between months. Recorded aggression levels are generally low despite no control over animal‐visitor interactions, but are much higher than in similar Barbary macaque enclosures in France and Germany. The Gibraltar troop's small home range and high visitor density may explain recorded bite levels. Effective visitor education can significantly lower biting incidence.
Urinary monitoring of adrenal responses to psychological stressors in domestic and nondomestic felids
Authors: Carlstead Kathy , Brown Janine L. , Monfort Steven L. , Killens Richard , Wildt David E.
Published: June 2005

The potential of assessing adrenal responses to psychological stressors through the radioimmunoassay of free cortisol in urine was examined in the domestic cat (Felis catus) and in three nondomestic felid species (Felis geoffroyi, Felis bengalensis, and Felis concolor). To determine the approximate clearance rate of an acute increase in glucocorticoid secretion, serial plasma and bladder urine samples were collected from eight domestic cats after a 0.125 mg adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) challenge. Within 30 min of administration, mean serum cortisol concentrations increased tenfold. Urinary cortisol concentrations increased twofold by 2 hr post‐ACTH and were correlated with the serum responses. Also, 16 domestic cats were anesthetized, injected with 0.125 mg ACTH, and serially bled for 3 hr. All urine was collected for 24 hr post‐ACTH. Urinary cortisol concentrations were significantly elevated compared to pretreatment concentrations and were correlated to the serum cortisol response (net area under the response curve). In another experiment, urine was collected daily for a 7‐day baseline period from 16 domestic cats housed in standard laboratory cages. Subsequently, 8 cats were subjected to 8 consecutive days of “stress,” consisting of relocation, physical restraint, and jugular venipuncture. The other 8 cats were‐neither moved, nor handled, nor bled for the same period of time. Two patterns of response were observed among the “stressed” cats: urinary cortisol concentrations either increased or decreased between baseline and treatment periods. These response profiles differed from those of controls, which remained basal and unchanged over time. A fourth experiment involved relocating a female Geoffroy's cat, 4 leopard cats, and 2 pumas to a novel environment for 8–10 days. Urinary cortisol concentrations rose on the first day of relocation and remained elevated above baseline for 5–7 days. Overall, these data suggest that adrenal responsiveness to psychological stressors in these four felid species can be assessed noninvasively by measuring coritsol in 24‐hr urine samples. This research strategy may be useful for optimizing captive habitats to improve overall animal welfare and/or reproductive performance. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Nesting behavior in a flock of Chilean flamingos
Authors: Stevens Elizabeth Franke , Beaumont James H. , Cusson Emma W. , Fowler John
Published: June 2005

After 2 years in captivity, a flock of wild‐caught Chilean flamingos successfully produced chicks in 1989 and in 1990. Pair fidelity between years was high. The majority of laying pairs in 1990 laid multiple clutches. Over 80% of the eggs laid in both years were broken or rolled off the nest. The role of aggressive interactions in egg loss was investigated. Birds on neighboring mounds were found to have the highest rates of aggression when compared to the rate of aggression between a bird on a mound and a bird passing by. Anecdotal evidence suggests that egg loss occurs during displacements of one pair by another at a nest mound. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Flock size and breeding success in flamingos
Authors: Pickering Simon , Creighton Emma , Stevens‐Wood Barry
Published: June 2005

Using data on flocks of flamingos in Britain and Ireland, the relationship between flock size and breeding in captive flamingos was examined. Breeding flamingo flocks were significantly larger than nonbreeding flocks and larger flocks bred more frequently than smaller flocks. All Chilean flocks containing more than 40 birds have bred successfully; however, one flock of only 4 Chilean Flamingos has reared at least one chick. All Caribbean flocks over 20 birds have successfully reared a chick, yet the smallest flock to rear a chick was one of 14 birds. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss Inc.
Z‐chromosome dimorphism in eagle owls
Authors: Rebholz Wilhelmus E. R.
Published: June 2005

Chromosomal variation within bird species has been rarely studied. Having studied three individuals, I report a difference in the length of Z‐chromosomes in one male eagle owl (Bubo bubo) and use C‐ and R‐banding to study the variation between these Z‐chromosomes. Absence of non‐centromeric heterochromatin in one Z‐chromosome is the cause of the difference in length. The presence of two types of Z‐chromosome in this eagle owl may reflect hybridization of animals from different subspecies, or might be caused by a spontaneous deletion of C‐band positive DNA. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss Inc.
Environmental and social influences on enclosure use and activity patterns of captive sloth bears (Ursus ursinus)
Authors: Forthman Debra L. , Bakeman Roger
Published: June 2005

Four adult sloth bears (Ursus ursinus) at the Los Angeles Zoo were studied for 13 months to quantify the influence of environmental and social variables on enclosure use and activity. Observations were conducted in 1‐hr samples, using 1‐min scans, for a total of 150 hr distributed across two seasons and three time periods. Data were then subjected to chi‐square and log‐linear analyses. These showed that the bears' enclosure use and activity patterns were conditional on variations in the physical and social environments. Individual rearing history also influenced activity, as hand‐reared bears showed significantly higher frequencies of self‐directed and stereotyped behaviors than did mother‐reared animals. Changes in group composition significantly affected the behavior patterns of the two females, which were most social when exhibited with a familiar male. Social behavior and nonsocial activity also decreased in the presence of an unfamiliar male. Further evaluations of exhibit design and management practices are encouraged to identify variables that increase the reproductive success, physical well‐being, and educational value of captive sloth bears. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Findings from a feeding study of the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus adustus) at the San Francisco Zoo
Authors: Zoidis Ann M. , Markowitz Hal
Published: June 2005

The feeding behavior of four captive adult koalas was investigated at the San Francisco Zoo. This study examined the correlations between koala preference for selected Eucalyptus species and the nutritional and chemical components of those species. The total grams of Eucalyptus leaves consumed daily per animal were not significantly different, averaging 400 grams. There were significant differences (P < 0.05) in consumption of the nine different Eucalyptus species across the 16‐day feeding study. Significant differences in chemical composition (percent) were found among all Eucalyptus species examined. There was a significant positive correlation (P = 0.04) between quantity of a given Eucalyptus species consumed and crude protein level. A significant negative correlation was found between consumption and ADF (P = 0.01). No overall group pattern of correlation emerged between koala consumption and Eucalyptus essential oil content, although there were associations between individual koalas and certain essential oils (including cineole). The results suggest that it may not be the amount of an oil that determined Eucalyptus selection by the koalas, but rather the presence of a single oil or a combination of oils in the leaves. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Captive breeding of cheetahs in North American Zoos: 1987–1991
Authors: Marker‐Kraus Laurie , Grisham Jack
Published: June 2005

From 1987 to 1991, the North American captive cheetah population increased by 38% (to 266 animals), due to importation and captive breeding. This population constitutes 26% of the world's captive cheetahs and 36% of all reproductively successful animals. Since 1956, 33% of all cubs born in North America occurred during this 5‐year period. Because of importation of animals from breeding programs abroad, East African (A. jubatus raineyi) genes have been introduced into the North American cheetah population, and 39% of all cubs born during 1987‐‐1991 were South African/East African hybrids. Also during this time, the breeding population and effective breeding population increased by 86% and 72.6%, respectively. The incidence of infant mortality decreased from 37% (last recorded for the years 1956 to 1986) to 28% (averaged over 5 years), although infant mortality during the latter period ranged from 15% (for unrelated parents) to 41% (for related parents). Management recommendations implemented to increase fecundity and population size appear to be successful, although the founder base of the population still has only been increased from 52 cheetahs in 1986 to 72 animals in 1991. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Behavioral solutions to breeding cheetahs in captivity: Insights from the wild
Authors: Caro T. M.
Published: June 2005

Knowledge of cheetahs' behavior is increasingly seen as the key to solving the mystery of cheetahs' poor breeding performance in captivity. In the absence of zoos' maintaining systematic records of individuals' behavior during introductions, behavior of free‐living animals can be informative. In the wild, most female cheetahs probably mate with males living in small groups or coalitions; thus, zoos may benefit from replicating these social conditions, provided injuries can be minimized. Relations between free‐living coalition members are amicable, and escalated aggression was never witnessed during 4 years of observation. Some antagonism was seen in newly formed trios, although this had disappeared in longer established coalitions. Minor aggression occurred over carcasses, being greater at small and intermediate sized kills than at large ones. In the presence of females, mild intramale aggression was only seen within 1 of 7 coalitions. Free‐living females showed similar rates of behavior in the presence of different numbers of males, aside from more frequent growling at large groups. These findings suggest that captive institutions should be less nervous about housing male cheetahs together and introducing females to groups of males for purposes of breeding. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Early maternal behavior of wild cheetahs: Implications for captive husbandry
Authors: Laurenson M. Karen
Published: June 2005

Against a background of poor breeding success and cub survival in captive cheetahs, a knowledge of the early maternal behavior in the wild may yield useful information for comparison with the captive situation. This paper documents the types of lair sites used by mothers to conceal their newborn cubs in the wild situation, and details patterns of maternal behavior observed during this period. Four kinds of lairs were used by cheetah mothers, and the amount of protection from the elements and predators was assessed for each. Lair type appeared to have little effect on cub survival. Cubs were concealed in lairs for 8.2 weeks on average, although larger litters tended to leave lairs earlier. During this period, cubs were moved to new lairs approximately every 5.6 days. Cubs were left for an average of 9.6 hours while their mothers went hunting, but mothers virtually always returned to them around nightfall, even if they failed to catch any prey. Maternal neglect and cub abandonment, which account for many cub deaths in captivity, are abnormal in the wild, except when prey is very scarce. Improved husbandry techniques, such as the provision of multiple, secluded nest boxes, and remote monitoring conditions should promote breeding success in captivity. In addition, noise and human disturbance should be minimized.
Fertility assessment of cheetah males with poor quality semen
Authors: Lindburg D. G. , Durrant B. S. , Millard S. E. , Oosterhuis J. E.
Published: June 2005

Reports on semen quality of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) indicate that high percentages of abnormal morphs and sperm concentrations, 10 times lower than in domestic cats, are found in all populations. These characteristics are believed to result from unusual genetic homozygosity, hypothesized to have been caused by passage of the species through one or more population bottlenecks during its recent history. In a sample of 12 captive‐living males, we found semen characteristics to be equal or inferior to those previously reported for males living in other captive facilities. Ten of these males (83.3%) nevertheless produced pregnancies. Seventeen of 19 pregnancies resulted from matings during a single estrus. This examination of the reproductive potential of males having comparatively inferior ejaculate quality supports the suggestion that husbandry programs may be more significant than physiological impairment in causing the low birth rates of captive cheetahs. These results also have implications for ascertaining fertility thresholds in mammalian populations undergoing increased levels of inbreeding as a consequence of habitat deterioration. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Behavioral and adrenocortical responses to environmental changes in leopard cats (Felis bengalensis)
Authors: Carlstead Kathy , Brown Janine L. , Seidensticker John
Published: June 2005

Indicators of environmental adequacy relevant to the well‐being of small felids are developed by examining, in 4 captive leopard cats, interrelationships between behavioral and adrenocortical responses to changes in housing conditions. Singly housed cats were moved from their barren home cage (Cage 1, baseline) sequentially to 2 new, barren housing situations (Cages 2 and 3; ≈ 10 weeks/cage). Urinary cortisol concentrations, stereotypic pacing, and hiding frequencies were transiently increased for 1 week after translocation to Cage 2. After translocation to Cage 3, cortisol concentrations and hiding also were increased for the first week. However, conditions in Cage 3 were determined to be aversive to the cats, as evidenced by cortisol concentrations that remained chronically elevated for the entire 10‐week period. Exploratory behavior was suppressed during this period. When Cage 3 was enriched with a complex of branches and hiding places, urinary cortisol concentrations and stereotypic pacing decreased, and exploration increased. Concealment locations that camouflage were more often used for lying down when urinary cortisol was elevated. These results suggest that reduced exploratory behavior is an indicator of chronic exposure to aversive environmental conditions. Stereotypic pacing may not necessarily increase when adrenocortical activity increases. The results also suggest that enrichment facilitates coping with aversive stimulation by providing behavioral options to confined felids. To promote the welfare of small felids, appropriate camouflaged hiding places should be provided and enrichment programs developed to stimulate exploratory behavior. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Inbreeding and fitness in captive populations: Lessons from Drosophila
Authors: Miller Philip S. , Hedrick Philip W.
Published: June 2005

The avoidance of inbreeding is a primary goal of endangered species population management. In order to fully understand the effects of inbreeding on the fitness of natural and captive populations, it is necessary to consider fitness components which span the entire life cycle of the organism. Using Drosophila melanogaster as a model organism for conservation genetics studies, we constructed 18 experimental lines derived from wild‐type stocks which were homozygous for chromosome 2 (this chromosome constitutes 38% of the genome or is equivalent to F = 0.38). For six of these lines which exhibited a reduced homozygous fitness, we estimated the relative values of fitness components operating at both the juvenile stage (pre‐adult viability) and adult stage (female fecundity and male‐mating ability) of the life cycle. Males in these lines showed a markedly reduced mating ability, while viability and female fecundity were much less affected. Equilibrium values of the wild‐type chromosomes in these lines were accurately predicted using a model that incorporated into it these independently estimated fitness components. These results emphasize the importance of studying all fitness components directly to determine overall fitness. A reduced mating ability among inbred males of a captive population can have serious consequences for its future sustainability, and can further jeopardize reintroduction efforts; consequently, a program to carefully monitor the reproductive success of individual males, as well as other fitness components, is recommended. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Preference for structural environmental features in captive lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)
Authors: Ogden Jacqueline J. , Lindburg Donald G. , Maple Terry L.
Published: June 2005

Increased interest in the behavioral effects of captive environments and advances in zoo design have resulted in a proliferation of “naturalistic” animal habitats. Although scientists have demonstrated that such exhibits have some positive effects on behavior, very little is known about the complex relationships between these specialized environments and behavior. This study sought to determine preferences for structural environmental features, such as slope and trees, exhibited by captive lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). An average of 496 location scans were collected on each of 23 gorillas, housed in 6 groups. The results indicate that enclosure usage was significantly associated with the features of slope, nearness to holding facility, and presence of environmental components additional to substrate (e.g., tree or rock). In particular, areas with flat ground that were near the holding building and that included at least one component additional to substrate were preferred by all animals. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Behavioral budgets of captive sea otter mother–pup pairs during pup development
Authors: Hanson M. Bradley , Bledsoe Lewis J. , Kirkevold Barbara C. , Casson C. J. , Nightingale John W.
Published: June 2005

Instantaneous sampling of eight behavior categories for a captive mother sea otter (Enhydra lutris) and her four pups was conducted continuously during the first three months following each pup's birth. Initially, pup‐grooming and rest occupied the largest proportion of the mother's time. Despite a steady decline in the amount of time the mother spent pup‐grooming, the mother continued to groom the pup a substantial amount of time three months after the pup's birth. The proportion of time the mother spent resting, self‐grooming, or swimming did not change significantly over the study period, suggesting that these behaviors are important to the mother's self‐maintenance.

The newborn pups' behaviors were initially limited to rest, active, and nursing, with large proportions of time spent resting and nursing. A significant increase in self‐grooming occurred regularly by week 2, followed by increases in swimming (week 3), diving (week 6), and feeding (week 7). Three months after birth, the pups' behavior budgets were similar to their mother, with the exception that pups self‐groomed substantially less than their mother self‐groomed. The lower proportion of pup self‐grooming may be due to the continued close proximity to their mother in captivity, which afforded extended association, and allowed the mother to continue to perform this complex behavior for the pup. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Endocrine profiles during the estrous cycle and pregnancy in the Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii)
Authors: Brown Janine L. , Citino Scott B. , Shaw Jackie , Miller Chriss
Published: June 2005

Serum samples were collected 1–3 times weekly from two Baird's tapirs (Tapirus bairdii) for 6 months in 1987–1988, and for more than 3 consecutive years beginning in 1989 to characterize hormone patterns during the estrous cycle and pregnancy. Based on serum progesterone concentrations, mean (±SEM) duration of the estrous cycle (n = 20) was 30.8 ± 2.6 days (range, 25–38 days) with a luteal phase length of 18.1 ± 0.4 days (range, 15–20 days). Mean peak serum progesterone concentrations during the luteal phase were 1.35 ± 0.16 ng/ml, and nadir concentrations were 0.19 ± 0.03 ng/ml during the interluteal period. Distinct surges of estradiol preceded luteal phase progesterone increases in most (14/20) cycles. Gestation length was 392 ± 4 days for three complete pregnancies. Mean serum progesterone concentrations increased throughout gestation and were 1.83 ± 0.13, 2.73 ± 0.13, and 4.30 ± 0.16 ng/ml during early, mid‐ and late gestation, respectively. Serum estradiol concentrations began to rise during mid‐gestation, increasing dramatically during the last week of pregnancy. Patterns of serum estriol and estrone secretion during pregnancy were similar to that observed for estradiol. In contrast to progesterone and estrogens, serum cortisol concentrations were unchanged during pregnancy or parturition. Females resumed cycling 16.2 ± 2.0 days after parturition (n = 4) and, on two occasions, females became pregnant during the first postpartum estrus. These data suggest that the tapir cycles at approximately monthly intervals and that increases in serum progesterone are indicative of luteal activity. The interluteal period is relatively long, comprising approximately 40% of the estrous cycle. During gestation, progesterone concentrations are increased above luteal phase levels, and there is evidence of increased estrogen production during late gestation. The absence of increased cortisol secretion at the end of gestation suggests that this steroid does not play a major role in initiating parturition in this species. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Provisioning by captive yellow‐tufted honeyeaters (Lichenostomus melanops gippslandicus) acting as foster parents for helmeted honeyeater chicks (L. m. cassidix)
Authors: Miller M. A.
Published: June 2005

A captive breeding program is being conducted with the endangered helmeted honeyeater (Lichenostomus melanops cassidix). Establishment of breeding stock involved cross fostering helmeted honeyeater chicks to breeding yellow‐tufted honeyeaters (Lichenostomus melanops gippslandicus). Data were collected on provisioning rates and food preferences of the foster parents in feeding chicks of the helmeted subspecies. Feeding rates varied from 5–6 each hour per chick in the first week to 8–10 per chick in week 3 and were similar for both one‐ and two‐chick broods. Chicks were considered independent by 6 weeks. Provisioning by the foster parents was evenly divided between the sexes. Insects were the main food item fed to nestlings (89.9%). Moths and mealworms were the two most frequently selected items and were the two largest items available. The continued increase of the captive population may provide individuals for release to the wild population, and techniques developed through captive management will help conserve wild populations. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.