bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Aging and the Quality of Faculty Job Performance
Authors: Blackburn Robert T. , Lawrence Janet H.
Published: March 2008

An aging professoriate is said to be a serious problem pervading colleges and universities. This review examines the claims being made about the performance of older faculty and separates supportable from nonsupportable assertions. It also investigates how age is related to numerous factors affecting faculty performance. We first consider four types of aging theories—biological, psychological, sociological, and social psychological—and then draw inferences for faculty behavior. Then assuming a life course perspective, we focus on the empirical evidence regarding faculty performance, especially in their scholarly role, and test prediction against research evidence. Extant research is criticized, especially with respect to its methodology. Last, an effort is made to sort out aging effects from cohort and historical effects.
Graph Theory and Its Applications in Educational Research: A Review and Integration
Authors: Tatsuoka Maurice M.
Published: March 2008

This paper presents a non-technical exposition of graph theory (more particularly, the theory of directed graphs or digraphs), followed by a survey of the literature on applications of graph theory in research in education and related disciplines. The applications include order-theoretic studies of the dimensionality of data sets, the investigation of hierarchical structures in various domains, and cluster analysis. The number of papers applying graph theory was found to be relatively small except in sociology. Possible reasons for the paucity of applications in educational research are discussed, and the value and feasibility of achieving increased use of graph theory in this field are also pointed out.
Family Factors and Intellectual Test Performance: A Reply to Steelman
Authors: Zajonc R. B.
Published: March 2008

In her review of the intellectual effects of family factors, Steelman sought to evaluate the intellectual effects of sibship size and birth order. Her empirical review of these effects is wanting because (a) it is selective and incomplete, (b) it ignores systematic aggregate effects, (c) it imposes linear analysis on non-monotone relationships, and (d) it disregards most of the confounds identified by Steelman herself as crucial. Using nothing more than the results of her meta-analysis of the two family factors, Steelman sought next to assess the validity of the confluence model. Yet the proper evaluation of the confluence model requires not a meta-analysis of family influences but the calculation of predicted values that can be checked against data. This Steelman failed to do. Rather than clarifying the research issues on this important topic, Steelman succeeded only in promoting confusion.
The Tale Retold: A Response to Zajonc
Authors: Steelman Lala Carr
Published: March 2008

In his article in this issue of Review of Educational Research, Dr. R. B. Zajonc takes issue with my review (1985) of the extant literature on the intellectual consequences of sibship size and birth order. He claims that the balanced review that was promised is not delivered. Here I respond to his main criticisms. I show that his remarks do not really alter the conclusions that one would derive from a synthesis of the research that has been conducted on this topic.
Empirical Status of Feuerstein’s “Instrumental Enrichment” (FIE) Technique as a Method of Teaching Thinking Skills
Authors: Savell Joel M. , Twohig Paul T. , Rachford Douglas L.
Published: March 2008

This paper examines reports of empirical research on Feuerstein’s “Instrumental Enrichment” (FIE) as a method of teaching thinking skills and asks what can be concluded from these reports with respect to the following: (a) the nature and statistical reliability of observed FIE effects and, for those effects that are statistically reliable, (b) the “amount” of FIE that appears to be required for these effects to appear.
Qualitative Research Traditions: A Review
Authors: Jacob Evelyn
Published: March 2008

This article illustrates how various qualitative traditions could be used in educational research by describing and comparing the traditions of ecological psychology, holistic ethnography, cognitive anthropology, ethnography of communication, and symbolic interactionism. The analysis shows that qualitative traditions present diverse approaches to research and that each tradition forms a coherent whole, comprising internally consistent assumptions about human nature and society, foci of study, and methodology. Implications of the analysis suggest that qualitative traditions may offer a richer and fuller understanding of education. Educational researchers could conduct either basic or applied research within these traditions, or they could adapt the traditions to address new problems. Moreover, it is suggested that educators who wish to perform qualitative research should seek to employ the totality of a tradition, not just generic assumptions or methods.
The Status of American Rural Education Research: An Integrated Review and Commentary
Authors: DeYoung Alan J.
Published: March 2008

The history of American education has been primarily an urban history. School reform movements of the mid-19th century were targeted at the particular problems brought on by the Industrial Revolution. Early 20th-century school administrators, and later progressive educators, defined the majority of America’s educational problems in terms of school-based occupational and community living skills that city dwellers needed in modern America. Finally, school reforms of the 1950s–80s have been targeted primarily at such concerns as the plight of minorities in inner cities, national defense needs, and now occupational skills necessary to compete internationally. Such reforms have had the net effect of continuing the century-long bias of much educational policy, scholarship, and research toward urban-based issues and concerns. On the other hand, a variety of research and policy initiatives have emerged in rural America, typically sponsored by state departments of education in primarily rural regions of the country and by numerous grass-roots organizations. Similarly, there has begun to emerge an interesting yet diverse literature on issues and problems in rural education. Themes such as education for economic development, problems with achieving educational equity in rural America, issues in appropriate school size, the role of the school in community life, problems with the training and rewarding of professional staff in rural schools, and so forth have begun to draw serious attention from a new wave of rural education researchers. The purpose of the following literature review is to elaborate on historical and contemporary reasons why scholarship on rural education has been relatively underdeveloped in this country, to briefly survey current initiatives in emerging rural education scholarship, and to speculate on the possibilities and dilemmas this field faces in its future evolution.
Organization, Instruction, and the Effects of Ability Grouping: Comment on Slavin’s “Best-Evidence Synthesis”
Authors: Gamoran Adam
Published: March 2008

Slavin’s best-evidence synthesis of ability grouping research is a competent and useful summarization of existing research. But the synthesis is limited by the conceptual inadequacy of the studies it reviews. This comment argues that ability-grouping researchers must distinguish between school and classroom organization, on the one hand, and classroom instruction on the other. Instruction may serve as a key mechanism through which ability grouping has its effects. Other mediating conditions also need to be considered. Knowledge of intervening circumstances is essential in order to measure and understand the effects of ability grouping.
This Is 1987, Not 1980: A Comment on a Comment
Authors: Secada Walter G.
Published: March 2008

A comparison of Baker and de Kanter (1981 , 1983) and Willig (1985) on three points relevant to current policy debates in bilingual education shows that issues driving the original report are moot in 1987 and that Willig provides more useful information, adheres more closely to accepted terminology, and restricts itself to a more relevant body of literature than does Baker and de Kanter. Baker’s “Comment” (1987) that Willig failed to replicate the original study misses the point; Willig represents a conceptual and methodological advance over that study. Moreover, in the years since Baker and de Kanter was issued, a new body of more technically sound research has been produced that is more relevant to current debates.
The Status of Historical Research on Chicano Education
Authors: Miguel Guadalupe San
Published: March 2008

In the mid-1960s, researchers began conducting studies that explored the historical dimensions of the Chicano educational experience in the Southwest. The following essay discusses the status of this new literature and examines some of its major themes and arguments. The emphasis of this new historiography is on providing a historical description and interpretation of the quality of public school opportunities for children of Mexican descent in the Southwest; its interpretative framework is largely one of social control. From this review, the author concludes that this field of professional study is still in its infancy and suggests possible areas of research for future study.
Research on the Supervision of Counselors- and Teachers-in-Training: Linking Two Bodies of Literature
Authors: Kagan Dona M.
Published: March 2008

This paper begins with the assumption that the process of supervising counselors-in-training is analogous to that of supervising student teachers. Although the field components in each field are not comparable in terms of length or context, each is a form of professional apprenticeship during which the generic trainee-supervisor relationship is of crucial importance. Fifteen years ago, a shift occurred in the research on counselor education, as researchers turned their focus to the process of supervising trainees. What emerged is a cohesive body of empirical literature that used a common set of instruments and theoretical models. No comparable research initiative can be found in the field of teacher education. Instead, we have an unwieldy set of studies that span 20 years and are difficult to distill, because of their lack of consistent focus and instrumentation. A collaborative research agenda, described in detail, would enhance our understanding of professional preparation in each of these fields.
Variables Influencing the Acquisition of a Generic Teaching Skill
Authors: Gliessman David H. , Pugh Richard C. , Dowden Dale E. , Hutchins Trevor F.
Published: March 2008

In an initial attempt to identify the variables influencing the acquisition of teaching skills, the results of 26 studies addressing acquisition of the generic skill of questioning were synthesized through meta-analysis. The variables considered were general effect of training, training method, length of training period, specific training time, number of practice sessions, teaching experience of trainees, academic and certification levels of trainees, practice setting, and students used as pupils in practice. Interactions among selected variables were also assessed. Of the preceding variables, general effect of training, academic level of trainees within training method, consistency of trainee certification level and pupils taught in practice, and consistency across practice and criterion teaching settings were found to have significant effects. The findings are discussed with reference to research-based views as well as traditional views about the variables influencing the acquisition of teaching skills. Implications of the limitations of the studies reviewed for future research are discussed.
Concepts of Ability and Effort in Japan and the United States
Authors: Holloway Susan D.
Published: March 2008

Research on concepts of ability and effort in Japan and the United States is reviewed, and three major findings are reported. First, a growing body of research conducted in both countries suggests that effort is identified as the primary determinant of achievement in Japan, whereas it receives relatively less emphasis in the U.S. in comparison to ability. Second, the concepts of ability and effort appear to differ between the two countries, along dimensions that have implications for achievement motivation. Third, Japanese homes and families appear to foster task involvement by fostering interpersonal cooperation rather than competition, avoiding salient performance evaluation, and eschewing authoritarian forms of control. These social structural arrangements may be responsible for the attributional patterns found among Japanese children.
The Interaction of Domain-Specific and Strategic Knowledge in Academic Performance
Authors: Alexander Patricia A. , Judy Judith E.
Published: March 2008

This paper presents the results of an extensive review of the literature that relates to the interaction of domain-specific and strategic knowledge on academic performance. Our objectives in this review were to: (a) provide a critical analysis of that literature, (b) present hypotheses about the interaction between domain-specific and strategic knowledge as presented in the research, and (c) offer recommendations for future investigations on the interaction of domain-specific and strategic knowledge.
Teaching as Clinical Problem Solving: A Critical Examination of the Analogy and Its Implications
Authors: Kagan Dona M.
Published: March 2008

In 1974, when research on teachers’ cognitions became a major focus of inquiry, teaching, like the practice of medicine, was described as a form of clinical problem solving. The concept of clinical problem solving was invoked primarily in terms of its traditional definition: the diagnosis and treatment of dysfunction. Today, after 14 years of studying teachers’ cognitions, educational researchers are beginning to provide models of classroom teaching that reflect a very different, hierarchical kind of clinical problem solving. Empirical models of each kind of clinical problem solving (diagnosis/treatment vs. hierarchical) are described and compared, as a means of evaluating the distance researchers of teachers’ cognitions have traveled. The author suggests that the transition from the initial to the newer model represents a shift in perspective that has effectively moved teaching farther from science and closer to art. The implications of this shift are discussed in terms of how pre- and inservice teachers are evaluated and trained.
Models for Understanding
Authors: Mayer Richard E.
Published: March 2008

What can be done to empower students to be creative when they are faced with problems? One promising instructional technique for improving students’ understanding of scientific explanations is the use of conceptual models. This review examines three predictions concerning the effects of conceptual models on students’ understanding of scientific prose: that models improve recall of conceptual information, decrease verbatim retention, and increase creative solutions on transfer problems. In a review of 20 studies involving 31 separate tests, results consistently indicated that models can help lower aptitude learners to think systematically about the scientific material they study.
Whole Language and Language Experience Approaches for Beginning Reading: A Quantitative Research Synthesis
Authors: Stahl Steven A. , Miller Patricia D.
Published: March 2008

To examine the effects of whole language and language experience approaches on beginning reading achievement, a quantitative synthesis was performed on two data bases: the five projects conducted as part of the United States Office of Education (USOE) first grade studies and 46 additional studies comparing basal reading approaches to whole language or language experience approaches. The results of both analyses suggest that, overall, whole language/language experience approaches and basal reader approaches are approximately equal in their effects, with several exceptions. First, whole language/language experience approaches may be more effective in kindergarten than in first grade. Second, they may produce stronger effects on measures of word recognition than on measures of reading comprehension. Third, more recent studies show a trend toward stronger effects for the basal reading program relative to whole language/language experience methods. Fourth, whole language/language experience approaches produce weaker effects with populations labeled specifically as disadvantaged than they do with those not specifically labeled. Finally, studies with higher rated quality tend to produce lower effect sizes and the lowest effect sizes were found in studies that evaluated existing programs, as opposed to newly implemented experimental programs. These results are discussed within a stage model of reading that suggests that whole language/language experience approaches might be most effective for teaching functional aspects of reading, such as print concepts and expectations about reading, whereas more direct approaches might be better at helping students master word recognition skills prerequisite to effective comprehension.
Mathematics and the Gender Gap: A Met-Analysis of Recent Studies on Sex Differences in Mathematical Tasks
Authors: Friedman Lynn
Published: March 2008

This paper is a meta-analysis of studies that have taken place between 1974 and mid-1987 on sex differences in mathematical tasks. The methods used are estimations of (a) parameters for a random effects model and (b) coefficients for a linear regression equation, all based on effect sizes calculated from each study. These results are compared with meta-analyses of the studies on quantitative skill collected by Maccoby and Jacklin. These comparisons, together with ad hoc comparisons of Scholastic Aptitude Test effect sizes over the years, yield two conclusions. First, the average sex difference is very small; a confidence interval for it covers zero, though the interval lies mainly on the side of male advantage. Second, sex differences in performance are decreasing over the years.
Social Influences in Standard Setting: The Effects of Social Interaction on Group Judgments
Authors: Fitzpatrick Anne R.
Published: March 2008

This paper reviews research from social psychology on the effects of group discussion and of exposure to the opinion positions of other group members on the decisions that groups make. The paper describes this research and its findings and outlines current explanations for these findings. Then the pertinence of this research to standard-setting practices used in educational contexts is considered, and its implications for the design of standard-setting procedures are explored.
Human Intelligence: An Introduction to Advances in Theory and Research
Authors: Lohman David F.
Published: March 2008

Recent advances in three research traditions are summarized: trait theories of intelligence, information-processing theories of intelligence, and general theories of thinking. The discussion of trait theories of intelligence focuses on the theory of fluid and crystallized abilities, particularly recent elaborations of this theory proposed by Horn (1985) and by Snow (1981) : Their work provides a convenient framework for the discussion of information-processing theories of intelligence. I summarize attempts to build process theories of the major ability factors identified in Horn’s (1985) version of this ability model: mental speed, verbal-crystallized abilities, fluid-reasoning abilities, and spatial-visualization abilities. I discuss Sternberg’s (1985) recent attempts to develop a comprehensive theory of intelligence and ask how a theory of intelligence might be derived from the sort of general theories of thinking currently advanced in cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence (AI). The paper concludes with some speculations about the meaning of the construct intelligence and some suggestions for research on it.
Functions, Graphs, and Graphing: Tasks, Learning, and Teaching
Authors: Leinhardt Gaea , Zaslavsky Orit , Stein Mary Kay
Published: March 2008

This review of the introductory instructional substance of functions and graphs analyzes research on the interpretation and construction tasks associated with functions and some of their representations: algebraic, tabular, and graphical. The review also analyzes the nature of learning in terms of intuitions and misconceptions, and the plausible approaches to teaching through sequences, explanations, and examples. The topic is significant because of (a) the increased recognition of the organizing power of the concept of functions from middle school mathematics through more advanced topics in high school and college, and (b) the symbolic connections that represent potentials for increased understanding between graphical and algebraic worlds. This is a review of a specific part of the mathematics subject mailer and how it is learned and may be taught; this specificity reflects the issues raised by recent theoretical research concerning how specific context and content contribute to learning and meaning.
On Combining Apples and Oranges: A Response to Stahl and Miller
Authors: McGee Lea M. , Lomax Richard G.
Published: March 2008

In responding to Stahl and Miller’s article, “Whole Language and Language Experience Approaches” ( Review of Educational Research, Spring 1989), we argue that Stahl and Miller misrepresented concepts related to emergent literacy and inadequately defined whole language. We further argue that whole language approaches of the 1980s and language experience approaches of the 1960s and 1970s are not equivalent. Therefore, results of studies showing a superiority of basal approaches over language experience approaches cannot be used to make inferences about a superiority of basal approaches over current whole language approaches as Stahl and Miller do in their discussion. Finally, the studies included in Stahl and Miller's meta-analysis have insufficient information about the nature of instruction to draw the conclusion (as Stahl and Miller do) that there is a need for a more systematic approach to decoding than whole language provides.
Ways of Evaluating Teacher Cognition: Inferences Concerning the Goldilocks Principle
Authors: Kagan Dona M.
Published: March 2008

Although research on teacher cognition is no longer in its infancy, it has largely failed to affect the ways in which programs and teachers are evaluated. In accordance with what Raths and Katz (1985) call the Goldilocks Principle, the notion of teacher cognition may simply be “too big” (too general and vague) for mundane application. This review was designed to compare alternative approaches to the evaluation of teacher cognition and to consider ways in which the literature of this subfield may be discouraging its application. Teacher cognition is defined as pre- or inservice teachers’ self-reflections; beliefs and knowledge about teaching, students, and content; and awareness of problem-solving strategies endemic to classroom teaching. This paper describes and critiques five different approaches to the evaluation of teacher cognition: (a) direct and noninferential ways of assessing teacher belief, (b) methods that rely on contextual analyses of teachers’ descriptive language, (c) taxonomies for assessing self-reflection and metacognition, (d) multimethod evaluations of pedagogical content knowledge and beliefs, and (e) concept mapping. In the final section, ambiguities and paradoxes inherent in this literature are discussed, particularly the continued use of rhetoric associated with process–product research. Questions regarding the ecological validity of measurement tools and tasks are raised. A suggestion is made that it may be politically exigent to begin relating measures of teacher cognition to valued student outcomes.
Phases of Meaningful Learning
Authors: Shuell Thomas J.
Published: March 2008

The research literature is examined for evidence suggesting that in complex, meaningful learning the learner passes through a series of stages or phases during which the learning process and the variables influencing it change systematically. After discussing various conceptual and methodological issues, phase theories in both simpler and more meaningful forms of learning are reviewed. Finally, the initial, intermediate, and terminal phases of learning are discussed. It is suggested that during the initial phase of learning the individual typically acquires isolated facts that are interpreted in terms of preexisting schemata and added to existing knowledge structures. Gradually, the learner begins to assemble these pieces into new schemata that provide him or her with more conceptual power until a level of automaticity is achieved.
Social Competence at School: Relation Between Social Responsibility and Academic Achievement
Authors: Wentzel Kathryn R.
Published: March 2008

This article reviews the literature on social responsibility and academic achievement. Both theoretical and empirical work suggest that student social responsibility is not only a valued outcome in and of itself but that it can be instrumental in the acquisition of knowledge and the development of cognitive abilities. This review describes research on the value of social responsibility for parents and teachers and on how it is promoted within the classroom. It is proposed that social responsibility can facilitate learning and performance outcomes by promoting positive interactions with teachers and peers and, from a motivational perspective, by providing students with additional incentives to achieve.
The Instructional Effect of Feedback in Test-Like Events
Authors: Bangert-Drowns Robert L. , Kulik Chen-Lin C. , Kulik James A. , Morgan MaryTeresa
Published: March 2008

Feedback is an essential construct for many theories of learning and instruction, and an understanding of the conditions for effective feedback should facilitate both theoretical development and instructional practice. In an early review of feedback effects in written instruction, Kulhavy (1977) proposed that feedback’s chief instructional significance is to correct errors. This error-correcting action was thought to be a function of presentation timing, response certainty, and whether students could merely copy answers from feedback without having to generate their own. The present meta-analysis reviewed 58 effect sizes from 40 reports. Feedback effects were found to vary with control for presearch availability, type of feedback, use of pretests, and type of instruction and could be quite large under optimal conditions. Mediated intentional feedback for retrieval and application of specific knowledge appears to stimulate the correction of erroneous responses in situations where its mindful ( Salomon & Globerson, 1987 ) reception is encouraged.
Moving From the Old to the New: Research on Reading Comprehension Instruction
Authors: Dole Janice A. , Duffy Gerald G. , Roehler Laura R. , Pearson P. David
Published: March 2008

This article is an attempt to integrate findings from research about comprehension processes, comprehension strategies, and teaching strategies in order to inform instructional practice in reading comprehension. The article begins with a discussion of traditional views about reading and how those views have shaped the current comprehension curriculum in American schools. A view of comprehension based on recent models of the reading process is presented next as a basis for reconceptualizing the comprehension curriculum as a set of five effective comprehension strategies. From research on teaching comes a foundation for establishing a new view of instruction, one that focuses on the negotiation of meaning among students and teachers through teachers’ instructional actions. Instructional recommendations, based on the research synthesized in this article, and questions for future research bring the article to a close.
Habermas and Education: A Comprehensive Overview of the Influence of Habermas in Educational Literature
Authors: Ewert Gerry D.
Published: March 2008

Jürgen Habermas is a dominant figure in social theory. His work addresses the whole of society, not merely one aspect of it. As a result of this comprehensiveness, his work is used internationally in philosophy, political science, sociology, and education. This article reviews specific aspects of his work that are used in the English language educational literature. I made a comprehensive survey of English language articles that cite Habermas from January 1972 to June 1987 in the Social Science Citation Index (SSCI). The focus of my review was on: (a) identifying those aspects of Habermas’s work that have implications for education and (b) analyzing those implications and the applications of them to educational topics and issues.
Equity and Computers in the Schools: A Decade of Research
Authors: Sutton Rosemary E.
Published: March 2008

In this review, the research conducted during the 1980s on race/ethnicity, gender, and social class differences in K–12 educational uses of computers is summarized in terms of access, processes, and outcomes. First, gender, social class, and racial inequalities in access to computers are documented. Second, equity in four aspects of process is considered: type of use, teachers’ attitudes towards equity and equality, curriculum content, and interactions among students. Third, the literature on three outcome variables is considered: student attitudes, computer-related competence (literacy and programming), and traditional achievement measures using computer-aided instruction. Finally, implications from the decade of research are drawn. These include the conclusions that the use of computers maintained and exaggerated inequities, that equity issues are complex and future research should reflect this, that between-school differences in equality should be examined, and that much more research on poor and minority children is a priority.
What Is Competent Beginning Teaching? A Review of the Literature
Authors: Reynolds Anne
Published: March 2008

What does it mean to be a competent beginning teacher? This review melds findings from the literature on effective teaching with those of learning to teach in order to answer this question. It begins with a discussion of problems encountered in interpreting these bodies of research. Next, differences between beginning and experienced teachers are discussed in three broad domains of teaching tasks: preactive, interactive, and postactive. In the conclusion, recommendations are offered regarding what should be measured in performance-based assessments for teacher licensure.
Framing a Theory for Social Studies Foundations
Authors: Saxe David Warren
Published: March 2008

In a field plagued by a lack of identity, I argue that practitioners and theorists are prevented from articulating viable perceptions of social studies’ purpose, theory, and practice because they lack basic understandings of the original historical underpinnings of social studies. As found in recent literature, three origin myths of social studies have emerged that hinder needed curricular research as well as mitigate against further development of social studies as a field of study. This review identifies and provides examples of these myths. In addition, while discounting each myth, I present a review of the field’s origins, as first developed in the 19th century social welfare movement and later refined by like-minded members of the National Education Association’s 1916 Committee on Social Studies ( Dunn, 1916 ).
The Nature of Knowledge in Composition and Literary Understanding: The Question of Specificity
Authors: Smagorinsky Peter , Smith Michael W.
Published: March 2008

Psychologists have long debated the extent to which people transfer knowledge from context to context. This debate has emerged in the study of literacy where researchers of composition and literary understanding have begun to examine the extent to which different tasks require particular knowledge and the extent to which different interpretive communities require specific understandings. This article reviews issues related to transfer and knowledge specificity as articulated in psychology and then examines theory and research in composition and literary understanding which parallel the debate in psychology. The authors identify three positions that have emerged in literacy debates: the case for general knowledge, the case for task-specific knowledge, and the case for community-specific knowledge. Each position carries with it certain assumptions about learning and transfer, and each has clear implications for curriculum and instruction. The authors delineate the positions and the assumptions that drive them and detail their instructional consequences, arguing that researchers and teachers need an articulated understanding of their assumptions about knowledge and transfer in order to establish a clear and coherent relationship between theory and practice.
Achievement Effects of the Nongraded Elementary School: A Best Evidence Synthesis
Authors: Gutiérrez Roberto , Slavin Robert E.
Published: March 2008

A nongraded elementary program is one in which children are flexibly grouped according to performance level, not age, and proceed through the elementary school at their own rates. Popular in the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s, the nongraded plan is returning today. This article reviews research on the achievement effects of nongraded organization. Results indicated consistent positive achievement effects of simple forms of nongrading generally developed early: cross-grade grouping for one subject (median ES = + .46) and cross-grade grouping for many subjects (median ES = + .34). Forms of nongrading making extensive use of individualization were less consistently successful (median ES = + .02). Studies of Individually Guided Education (IGE), which used nongrading and individualization, also produced inconsistent effects (median ES = + .11). The article concludes that nongraded organization can have a positive impact on student achievement if cross-age grouping is used to allow teachers to provide more direct instruction to students but not if it is used as a framework for individualized instruction.
Science for Students With Disabilities
Authors: Mastropieri Margo A. , Scruggs Thomas E.
Published: March 2008

A comprehensive literature review revealed 66 reports involving science education for students with disabilities. These investigations were subdivided into (a) instructional strategies—including, instructional variables, mnemonic techniques, and text adaptations—and (b) science curriculum evaluation or comparison reports and involved students of all disability areas. Overall, it was found that (a) instructional variables including study guides and text adaptations exhibited a positive effect on student learning, behavior, and motivation; (b) mnemonic strategies were very effective in facilitating verbal knowledge of scientific phenomena; and (c) activities-oriented science curricula generally were effective in facilitating knowledge of science content, manipulative skills, and science process skills. These reports support previous recommendations for science education for students with disabilities based on documented characteristics of these students. Findings are discussed with respect to the overall goals of science education as well as future research directions for science instruction for students with disabilities.
The Role of Anomalous Data in Knowledge Acquisition: A Theoretical Framework and Implications for Science Instruction
Authors: Chinn Clark A. , Brewer William F.
Published: March 2008

Understanding how science students respond to anomalous data is essential to understanding knowledge acquisition in science classrooms. This article presents a detailed analysis of the ways in which scientists and science students respond to such data. We postulate that there are seven distinct forms of response to anomalous data, only one of which is to accept the data and change theories. The other six responses involve discounting the data in various ways in order to protect the preinstructional theory. We analyze the factors that influence which of these seven forms of response a scientist or student will choose, giving special attention to the factors that make theory change more likely. Finally, we discuss the implications of our framework for science instruction.
Sex-Equity Legislation in Education: The State as Promoter of Women’s Rights
Authors: Stromquist Nelly P.
Published: March 2008

This study examines core federal legislation addressing gender inequalities in education (Title IX of the Educational Amendments Act of 1972, the Women’s Educational Equity Act [WEEA], and several vocational education acts). It discusses the objectives of these laws and assesses the influence of this legislation on six elements of the educational system, ranging from educational access to the presence of women in administrative positions. The evidence indicates that women made significant gains in access to educational institutions as students rather than as educational administrators or university professors. Field of study choices still reflect unequal gender distributions; curriculum content and teacher training have been mildly affected. While it is difficult to isolate impacts of legislation from those of parallel social forces over a period of 20 years, shortcomings common to each of these equity-focused laws, such as their limited funding, weak enforcement, and reliance on voluntary efforts by educational institutions, have hindered the achievement of dramatic shifts toward the anticipated goals. As a key mediator between women’s demands and the practices of educational institutions, the federal government has played a reluctant and primarily symbolic role in efforts to attain gender equity. The study concludes with an identification of the types of studies, along with their methodologies and research designs, that remain to be conducted to further explicate the role of the State in gender structuring and sexual politics.
Schooling in the Course of Human Lives: The Social Context of Education and the Transition to Adulthood in Industrial Society
Authors: Pallas Aaron M.
Published: March 2008

This review examines the role of schooling in the life course of individuals, focusing on the timing and sequencing of schooling in the transition to adulthood. First, I examine conceptual issues in the study of schooling and the life course, drawing heavily on the sociological literature. I then consider the timing and sequencing of schooling in the transition to adulthood in the United States, and the consequences of variations in the timing and sequencing of schooling for adult social and economic success. I then discuss the role of social structure, norms, and institutional arrangements in the transition to adulthood, with special attention to cross-national comparisons with the U. S. and historical changes within countries. I conclude with speculations regarding trends in the role of schooling in the life course, and some directions for future research on this topic.
Motivation in African Americans
Authors: Graham Sandra
Published: March 2008

Close to 140 studies comprising an African-American empirical literature on motivation were reviewed. The review was organized around five topics subsumed under three broader assumptions about the relationship between ethnic minority status and motivation. First, research on the achievement motive was reviewed to examine the belief that African Americans lack certain personality traits deemed necessary for achievement strivings. Second, the empirical literatures on locus of control and causal attributions were summarized to investigate the assumption that African Americans are less likely to believe in internal or personal control of outcomes, the belief system that theoretically should accompany high achievement-related behavior. And third, research on expectancy of success and self-concept of ability was reviewed to examine the hypothesis that African Americans have negative self-views about their competence. None of these assumptions was supported in the review. In fact, African Americans appear to maintain a belief in personal control, have high expectancies, and enjoy positive self-regard. Some of the conceptual and methodological limitations of this research were discussed. The article concludes with six suggested principles of a motivational psychology for African Americans that might serve as guides for future research.
Mapping Out Geography: An Example of Epistemology and Education
Authors: Gregg Madeleine , Leinhardt Gaea
Published: March 2008

Geography has recently emerged as a topic of considerable interest among educators, but there is little consensus about either content or pedagogy in the precollegiate geography curriculum. However, geography education is essential if students are to develop a sense of “geographic literacy” and an ability to reason spatially. A major problem is that many teachers who never studied geography are now being asked to teach it. This literature review discusses the epistemology of geography and the rationale for including it in the curriculum. Research about geography learning and teaching is then reviewed. Finally, a previous, unsuccessful attempt to reinstate geography into the high school curriculum is examined in the light of today’s geography education reform efforts. Without an understanding of both the core epistemological themes and concepts of geography and the problems that students face as learners, the five themes currently being proposed for use in the K–12 curriculum are of limited use.
Reinforcement, Reward, and Intrinsic Motivation: A Meta-Analysis
Authors: Cameron Judy , Pierce W. David
Published: March 2008

This article reviews research on the effects of reinforcement/reward on intrinsic motivation. The main meta-analysis included 96 experimental studies that used between-groups designs to compare rewarded subjects to nonrewarded controls on four measures of intrinsic motivation. Results indicate that, overall, reward does not decrease intrinsic motivation. When interaction effects are examined, findings show that verbal praise produces an increase in intrinsic motivation. The only negative effect appears when expected tangible rewards are given to individuals simply for doing a task. Under this condition, there is a minimal negative effect on intrinsic motivation as measured by time spent on task following the removal of reward. A second analysis was conducted on five studies that used within-subject designs to evaluate the effects of reinforcement on intrinsic motivation; results suggest that reinforcement does not harm an individual’s intrinsic motivation.
Paradigms of Knowledge and Instruction
Authors: Farnham-Diggory S.
Published: March 2008

The theme of this essay is that there are only three core instructional paradigms and that within the framework of these paradigms, only five types of knowledge can be acquired. The instructional paradigms (behavior, development, and apprenticeship) are defined by how novices are distinguished from experts and by the nature of the mechanism of transformation (from novice to expert). The knowledge typology is derived from contemporary cognitive science and from the precognitive experimental paradigms of learning. The types of knowledge are: declarative (verbal learning), procedural (skill learning), conceptual (concept attainment), analogical (one-trial learning), and logical (problem solving.) A number of examples are provided, including the contents of a journal issue. This classification system clarifies the theoretical history of research projects, reveals commonalities that underlie different terminologies, helps resolve controversies, and provides guidelines for educational research that will advance the field.
Perpetuation Theory and the Long-Term Effects of School Desegregation
Authors: Wells Amy Stuart , Crain Robert L.
Published: March 2008

For the last 30 years, the bulk of research on school desegregation has focused on the short-term effects of this policy on the achievement, self-esteem, and intergroup relations of students in racially mixed versus segregated schools. These research foci reflect a more psychological approach to understanding the goals and purposes of school desegregation, viewing it as a policy designed to save the hearts and minds” of African-American students and teach children of all races to get along. This article brings together, for the first time, a smaller body of literature on the long-term effects of school desegregation on the life chances of African-American students. In this article, we argue from a sociological perspective that the goal of desegregation policy is to break the cycle of segregation and allow nonwhite students access to high-status institutions and the powerful social networks within them. We analyze 21 studies drawing on perpetuation theory, a macro-micro theory of racial segregation.
Integrating Social and Personal Theories of Achievement Striving
Authors: Weiner Bernard
Published: March 2008

Empirical research clearly documents that attributions of failure to lack of ability result in less punishment from others than do ascriptions to lack of effort. In addition, personal attributions of failure to lack of ability result in worse subsequent performance than do ascriptions to an absence of effort. This paper provides a conceptual analysis of these empirical findings. The interpretation is guided by a taxonomy of causal thinking and by presuming that emotions mediate between causal thinking and action. In addition, a distinction is drawn between a process versus a functional understanding of achievement strivings.
The Space Factor in Mathematics: Gender Differences
Authors: Friedman Lynn
Published: March 2008

The relationship of spatial and mathematical skills has been the subject of both speculation and empirical investigation. A meta-analysis of correlations of spatial and mathematical skills has found that these are not high, and that correlations of verbal and mathematical skills are higher. Many researchers have suggested that the space-math relationship may be gender-specific. The further meta-analytic results reported here show that in selected samples, math-space correlations are higher in females than in males, with the difference becoming more pronounced with greater selectivity. Because these samples are of gifted or college-bound youth, explanations which emphasize career-directed attitudes in the interplay of spatial and mathematical skills are suggested.
ANOVA: A Paradigm for Low Power and Misleading Measures of Effect Size?
Authors: Wilcox Rand R.
Published: March 2008

Over 30 years ago, Tukey made it evident that slight departures from normality can substantially lower power when means are compared, and that a popular measure of effect size can be highly misleading. At the time there were no methods for dealing with the problem raised in Tukey’s paper, and some of the more obvious and seemingly intuitive solutions have since been found to be highly unsatisfactory. Today there are practical methods for not only dealing with the problem raised by Tukey, but also achieving more accurate confidence intervals and control over the probability of a Type I error. More generally, there are many robust and exploratory ways of comparing groups that can reveal important differences that are missed by conventional methods based on means, and even modern methods based solely on robust measures of location. This article reviews these new techniques.