bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hyperbolic Manifolds and Kleinian Groups
Authors: Matsuzaki Katsuhiko , Taniguchi Masahiko
Published: November 2023

A Kleinian group is a discrete subgroup of the isometry group of hyperbolic 3-space, which is also regarded as a subgroup of Möbius transformations in the complex plane. The present book is a comprehensive guide to theories of Kleinian groups from the viewpoints of hyperbolic geometry and complex analysis. After 1960, Ahlfors and Bers were the leading researchers of Kleinian groups and helped it to become an active area of complex analysis as a branch of Teichmüller theory. Later, Thurston brought a revolution to this area with his profound investigation of hyperbolic manifolds, and at the same time complex dynamical approach was strongly developed by Sullivan. This book provides fundamental results and important theorems which are needed for access to the frontiers of the theory from a modern viewpoint.
Weyl and the theory of connections
Authors: Scholz Erhard
Published: November 2023

Connections have become a central conceptual tool in modern differential geometry and geometrical field theories of the second half of our century. One of the early contributors who set the stage for this development was Hermann Weyl in his work on differential geometry and physics. This article presents Weyl ‘s most important contributions to this field in the slightly extended decade between 1918 and 1929. It starts with Weyl ‘s introduction of abstract affine connections and of length connections in an appropriate line bundle of his ‘purely infinitesimal ‘ geometry (pp. 264-270). While Weyl initially had strong hopes for immediate physical applications of his theory, which turned out to be premature, he also started to rethink the case early in the years 1920-21 and turned towards a more philosophical argument for the fruitfulness of his new type of geometry. In this context he started to work with general linear connections over differentiable manifolds (pp. 274-277). All these contributions stood in the perspective of a ‘neoclassical ‘ field theoretic approach to matter and geometry in the spirit of general relativity.
Linnaeus’ Philosophia Botanica
Authors: Freer Stephen
Published: November 2023

Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who laid the foundations of modern biological systematics and nomenclature. Inspired by the work of his predecessors and contemporaries, Linnaeus was the first scientist to develop a coherent system for describing, classifying and naming organisms. The method he developed, known as binominal nomenclature, is the classification system still used in botany and zoology today. Philosophia Botanica was first published in 1751. Its publication followed that of several earlier works written by Linnaeus such as his Systema Naturae (1735) and Fundamenta Botanica (1736). Philosophia Botanica is an expanded version of Fundamenta Botanica with added commentary, and represents a critical stage in the evolution of Linnaeus’ ideas and the development of his binominal nomenclature applied to plants. In this new translation of Philosophia Botanica, example pages from Linnaeus’ original Latin text are presented alongside Stephen Freer’s English translation of the complete text. The book contains images of all eleven of the original plates, which illustrate the shapes of leaves and other plant structures and forms. Also included are Linnaeus’ explanations of the effects of soil and climatic conditions on plant growth, plus six short memoranda that describe Linnaeus’ botanical excursions, his ideas for garden lay-out and herbarium construction, and his thoughts on what was required of a botanist and his pupils. The Introduction, dedicated to the memory of Professor William Stearn is by Professor Paul Alan Cox of the National Tropical Botanical Gardens, Hawaii. This beautifully presented translation of Philosophia Botanica, is a valuable resource to botanists, taxonomists, r storians and all interested individuals, who will gain greater access to, and new insights into, the work of Carl Linnaeus, the father of modern systematics.
Probabilistic tools
Authors: Karpinski Marek , Rytter Wojciech
Published: November 2023

In this book we use several (rather simple) facts from probability theory. We state and prove most of them in this chapter and they will be used later to justify the effectiveness of our randomized algorithms. Now we introduce some very basic terminology and formalism. For more details refer to standard textbooks on probability theory, for example [Ch74]. T is a collection of subsets of Q (with Q G 7 and closed under the complement and union). The elements of T are called probabilistic events;
Algebraic tools
Authors: Karpinski Marek , Rytter Wojciech
Published: November 2023

Assume A = [ai,j]1≤i,j≤n is an n x n integer matrix. For a permutation σ (i1, ... , in) define product A((σ) = a1,i  1 • •••·an,in. The permanent and determinant of A are defined as follows:
The Mathematical Foundation of Domain Decomposition Methods
Authors: Quarteroni Alfio , Valli Alberto
Published: November 2023

In this chapter the reader is encouraged to discover the mathematical foundation of domain decomposition methods, which are based on partitions of the computational domain into subdomains with or without overlap.
Voigt function model in diffraction-line broadening analysis
Authors: Balzar Davor
Published: November 2023

Abstract

Diffraction-line broadening routes are briefly reviewed. Both laboratory and synchrotron X-ray measurements of Wand MgO showed that a Voigt function satisfactorily fits the physically broadened line profiles. The consequences of an assumed Voigt function profile shape for both size-broadened and strain-broadened profiles (‘double-Voigt’ method) are studied. It is shown that the relationship between parameters obtained by the Warren-Averbach approximation and integral-breadth methods becomes possible. Line-broadening analysis of W and MgO is performed by using the Warren–Averbach and ‘double-Voigt’ approaches and results are compared.
Sea Surface Slicks - Surface Chemistry and Hydrodynamics in Radar Remote Sensing
Authors: Scott John C , Thomas Neale H
Published: November 2023

The response of the ocean surface to wind excitation is reduced dramatically by the presence on the surface of an elastic film. Surface-active films arise naturally as a result of biogenic production in the ocean and following molecular diffusion to the surface they form adsorbed monomolecular layers, significantly reducing the surface tension. This reduction is accom panied by adilational elasticity such that the surface resists tangential stress, thereby greatly increasing the attenuation of surface wave motions compared with film-free surfaces. At low wind speeds this creates regions of very low surface roughness, reducing the scatter of ambient light and the backscatter of microwave energy from imaging radar systems. Sensing methodologies and transport mechanisms are reviewed as a summary of applicable knowledge offering opportunities to infer ocean circulations on length scales up to and including the mesoscale.
Lower Semicontinuity And Coerciveness
Authors: Braides Andrea , Defranceschi Anneliese
Published: November 2023

The direct methods of the calculus of variations can be summarized in the equation lower semicontinuity + coerciveness existence, meaning that, in order to obtain the existence of minimizers for a certain functional, it suffices to find a suitable topology in which a compact set can be found where a minimizing sequence lies (coerciveness), and at the same time the functional under consideration is lower semicontinuous. In this chapter we present a general introduction to lower semicontinuity and coerciveness. In Chapters 2-6 these two concepts will be specialized to the case of integral functionals defined on Sobolev spaces of vector-valued functions.
Two applications
Authors: Braides Andrea , Defranceschi Anneliese
Published: November 2023

We consider as an application of Theorem 15.3 the limits of functionals related to Riemannian metrics and show that in the limit we may obtain a Finsler metric.
Iterated homogenization
Authors: Braides Andrea , Defranceschi Anneliese
Published: November 2023

We now consider the case of media with ‘multiple scales of homogenization ‘,

whose microscopic behaviour can be studied by means of functionals

We will see that these functionals, as e→0, behave as a homogeneous integral functional, whose representation can be obtained from the function / by iteration of the homogenization formula.
Regulation of target genes by HLH proteins
Authors: Littlewood Trevor D , Evan Gerard I
Published: November 2023

The activities of bHLH and bHLHZ proteins are modulated by a variety of mechanisms. First, as outlined above, many HLH proteins can dimerize with more than one partner (including themselves), and both the DNA-binding specificity and activity of a particular HLH protein can be influenced by the identity of its dimeric partner. Second, phosphorylation modulates the affinity of DNA binding and the activity of the activation/repression domain( s) of some dimers. Third, there is evidence that the activity of some HLH proteins depends on their ability to recruit accessory factors. These issues are discussed in detail below.
A brief review of calculus
Authors: Acheson David
Published: November 2023

While calculus is the mathematical key to an understanding of Nature, its roots lie really in problems of geometry.
Fluid flow
Authors: Acheson David
Published: November 2023

At the very beginning of the twentieth century one of the major puzzles in dynamics concerned fluid motion.
Instability and catastrophe
Authors: Acheson David
Published: November 2023

One of the most famous examples of instability occurs in an experiment first performed by Osborne Reynolds in 1883.
The not-so-simple pendulum
Authors: Acheson David
Published: November 2023

The pendulum is one of the oldest subjects of scientific inquiry, yet it is still capable of springing surprises.
TIMP sequences
Authors: Woessner J Frederick , Nagase Hideaki
Published: November 2023

Twenty-five amino acid alignments are presented at the end of the book. These are linked to a more complete description of each sequence presented in Table 4. For each item in Table 4 there is a number relating to the line number in the alignment. The sequences in both tables arc in the same order (with a few additional inserts in Table 4) so that matching the items is simplified. The major features of the alignments are the signal peptide, the 12 invariant Cys residues that form six disulfide bridges and the C- and N-terminal domains separated by 1-2 residues between the sixth and seventh Cys.
Specificity requirements of the MMPs
Authors: Woessner J Frederick , Nagase Hideaki
Published: November 2023

Information about the specificity of the various MMPs is gathered in several ways: the site at which the MMPs cleave natural substrates of known sequence can be determined; their action on peptide substrates of defined sequence can be measured (usually be determining the Specificity constant kcar/ Km); synthetic inhibitors can be tested for binding affinity; and the structure of the binding site can be examined by X-ray crystallography and by NMR. In the first two cases, which will be the topic of this section, one is limited to combinations of the 20 known amino acids, whereas further subtleties of the binding pockets can be explored by the last two methods, which will be taken up in their appropriate sections.
A-Posteriori Estimation Of The Error
Authors: Babuška Ivo , Strouboulis Theofanis
Published: November 2023

In Chapters 3 and 4, we analyzed the properties of the Finite Element Method. We have shown that the finite element solution converges to the exact solution by establishing asymptotic estimates for the energy norm, the L2 norm, and various other norms of the error.
Proteins interacting with PPlases
Authors: Galat Andrzej , Riviere Sylvie
Published: November 2023

Specific interactions between PPiases (immunophilins) and various intracellular proteins are summarized in this chapter. PPiases are important factors for in vivo protein folding and assembly of infectious particles of HIV-2 and HIV-1, and they may be involved in the transcription of the HIV genome [400]. Some PPiases function as ‘foldases’ and are associated with other protein components of the cellular machinery for translocating proteins from the cytosol to the lumen of the ER, folding of proteins in the mitochondria and secretion of gene products to the extracellular space [384, 401, 415, 419]. PPiases are involved in the assembly of steroid receptors and they control functioning of certain channels [365, 386]. These important cellular processes may sometimes be altered in the presence of immunosuppressants.
Network analysis of molecular interactions
Authors: Kanehisa Minoru
Published: November 2023

The central dogma of molecular biology summarizes the flow of genetic information expression at the sequence level:

DNA → RNA → Protein

In a traditional view, the thermodynamic principle and the structure-function relationship together establish an additional flow of genetic information expression for a single protein molecule:

Sequence → Structure → Function

The additional flow is spontaneous under proper physiological conditions; thus, the genome (DNA) contains virtually all necessary information for protein function.
General Theorems
Authors: Hill R
Published: November 2023

The function g(ai;) defining the ratios of the components of the plastic strain-increment (equation (22) of Chap. II) is known as the plastic potential.

Now, if a polycrystalline element is strained, one of a number of possible systems of five independent glide directions must be active in each crystal grain, conceived as deforming uniformly. Such a glidesystem demands for its operation a state of stress in which the critical shear stress is attained in these five directions and is not exceeded in any others. The glide-system determines both the ratios of the components of the strain-increment and also the ratios which the components of the applied stress must bear to the critical shear stress. It is likely, therefore, that there is a relation, from a statistical average over possible orientations of the grains in a polycrystal, between the plastic potential and the function f(σij) defining the yield locus. It is not yet known what this should be, theoretically, for any particular metal.
Plastic Anisotropy
Authors: Hill R
Published: November 2023

There are certain important and striking phenomena which cannot be described by the theory constructed in Chapter II. The assumption that every material element remains isotropic is an approximation that becomes less good as the deformation continues. Individual crystal grains are elongated in the direction of the greatest tensile strain and the texture of the specimen appears fibrous. Now it is a consequence of the glide process that a single crystal rotates during the straining so that it approaches an orientation characteristic of the particular strain-path. For example, when hexagonal single crystals are stretched in tension, the basal planes gradually turn towards positions parallel to the direction of the applied load. Similarly, the grains of a polycrystal tend to rotate towards some limiting orientation (not necessarily equivalent to that in a single crystal, owing to the mutual constraints between the grains); thus, in face-centred cubic metals compressed between lubricated plates, face diagonals tend to align parallel to the direction of compression.
The Geodesics in the Kerr Space-Time
Authors: Chandrasekhar S
Published: November 2023

This chapter is devoted to the study of the geodesics in the Kerr space-time. We are devoting an entire chapter to this study for several reasons: apart from the fact that the delineation of the geodesics exhibits the essential features of the space-time (as for example, the relevance of extending the manifold to negative values of the radial coordinate r), the separability of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation (discovered by Carter) was the first of the many properties which have endowed the Kerr metric with an aura of the miraculous. Besides, the study discloses the possibility (discovered by Penrose) of extracting energy from the Kerr black-hole, thus revealing the existence of physical processes one had not contemplated before. At the same time the study of the geodesics in the Kerr space-time directed attention to certain quite unexpected properties of space-times of Petrov type-Din general. We begin, in fact, with the establishment of one of these properties.
elementary mathematical ‘fheory of statical electricity
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

63.] We have seen that the properties of charged bodies are such that the charge of one body may be equal to that of another, or to the sum of the charges of two bodies, and that when two bodies are equally and oppositely charged they have no electrical effect on external bodies when placed together within a closed insulated conducting vessel. We may express all these results in a concise and consistent manner by describing an electrified body as charged with a certain quantity of electricity, which we may denote bye. When the charge is positive, that is, according to the usual convention, vitreous, e will be a positive quantity. When the charge is negative or resinous, e will be negative, and the quantity -e may be interpreted either as a negative quantity of vitreous electricity or as a positive quantity of resinous electricity.
Mechanical Action Between two electrical system.
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

Let E1 and E2 be two electrical systems the mutual action between which we propose to investigate.
Forms of the equipotential surfaces and lines of induction in simple cases
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

117.] WE have seen that the determination of the distribution of electricity on the surface of conductors may be made to depend on the solution of Laplace’s equation

V being a function of x, y, and z, which is always finite and continuous, which vanishes at an infinite distance, and which has a given constant value at the surface of each conductor.
Theory of electrio images and electric inversion
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

155.] We have already shewn that when a conducting sphere is under the influence of a known distribution of electricity, the distribution of electricity on the surface of the sphere can be determined by the method of spherical harmonics.

For this purpose we require to expand the potential of the influenced system in a series of solid harmonics of positive degree, having the centre of the sphere as origin, and we then find a corresponding series of solid harmonics of negative degree, which express the potential due to the electrification of the sphere.
The electric current
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

230.] We have seen, in Art. 45, that when a conductor is in electrical equilibrium the potential at every point of the conductor must be the same.

If two conductors A and B are charged with electricity so that the potential of A is higher than that of B, then, if they are put in communication by means of a metallic wire 0 touching both of them, part of the charge of A will be transferred to B, and the potentials of A and B will become in a very short time equalized.

231.] During this process certain phenomena are observed in the wire 0, which are called the phenomena of the electric conflict or current.
Conduction and resistance
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

If by means of an electrometer we determine the electric potential at different points of a circuit in which a constant electric current is maintained, we shall find that in any portion of the circuit consisting of a single metal of uniform temperature throughout, the potential at any point exceeds that at any other point farther on in the direction of the current by a quantity depending on the strength of the current and on the nature and dimensions of the intervening portion of the circuit. The difference of the potentials at the extremities of this portion of the circuit is called the External electromotive force acting on it. If the portion of the circuit under consideration is not homogeneous, but contains transitions from one substance to another, from metals to electrolytes, or from hotter to colder parts, there may be, besides the external electromotive force, Internal electromotive forces which must be taken into account.
Linear, electric currents,
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

Any conductor may be treated as a linear conductor if it is arranged so that the current must always pass in the same manner between two portions of its surface which are called its electrodes. For instance, a mass of metal of any form the surface of which is entirely covered with insulating material except at two places, at which the exposed surface of the conductor is in metallic contact with electrodes formed of a perfectly conducting material, may be treated as a linear conductor. For if the current be made to enter at one of these electrodes and escape at the other the lines of flow will be determinate, and the relation between electromotive force, current and resistance will be expressed by Ohm’s Law, for the current in every part of the mass will be a linear function of E. But if there be more possible electrodes than two, the conductor may have more than one independent current through it, and these may not be conjugate to each other. See Arts. 282 a and 282 b.
A Treatise On Electricity And Magnetism
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

Described by Einstein as “the most important event in physics since Newton's time,” the discovery by James Clerk Maxwell that a vast array of phenomena could be united by four elegant formulas remains one of the greatest successes of modern physics. This book, based on the third originally published in 1891, presents the original work which underpins the electronic revolution in the 20th century and which inspired both Lorentz’s theories on the electron and Einstein's theory of relativity. Volume II covers magnetism and electromagnetism.
On energy and stress in the electromagnetic field
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

The energy of the system may be divided into the potential energy and the kinetic energy.

The potential energy due to electrification has been already considered in art. 85. It may be writtenw = ½ Σ (e Ψ), (1)Where e is the charge of electricity at a place where the electric potential is Ψ, and the summation is to be extended to every place where there is electrification. If f, g, h are the components of the electric displacement, the quantity of electricity in the element of volume dx dy dz is
Comparison of the electrostatic with the electro magnetic units
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

The absolute magnitudes of the electrical units in both systems depend on the units of length, time, and mass which we adopt, and the mode in which they depend on these units is different in the two systems, so that the ratio of the electrical units will be expressed by a different number, according to the different units of length and time.
Magnetic action on light
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

The most important step in establishing a relation between electric and magnetic phenomena and those of light must be the discovery of some instance in which the one set of phenomena is affected by the other. In the search for such phenomena we must be guided by any knowledge we may have already obtained with respect to the mathematical or geometrical form of the quantities which we wish to compare. Thus, if we endeavour, as mrs. Somerville did, to magnetize a needle by means of light., we must remember that the distinction between magnetic north and south is a mere matter of direction, and would be at once reversed if we reversed certain conventions about the use of mathematical signs. There is nothing in magnetism analogous to those phenomena of electrolysis which enable us to distinguish positive from negative electricity, by observing that oxygen appears at one pole of a cell and hydrogen at the other.
Theories of action at a distance
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

on the explanation of .amp ère’s formula given by gauss and weber. The attraction between the elements ds and ds’ of two circuits, carrying electric currents of intensity i and i’, is, by ampere’s formula,
Thermohydrodynamic Lbe Schemes
Authors: Succi Sauro
Published: November 2023

The LBE discussed thus far did not address the issue of a self-consistent coupling between temperature dynamics and heat transfer within the fluid flow. Fully thermohydrodynamic LBE schemes represent a standing challenge to LBE research and despite several brilliant attempts, to date, a consistent thermodynamic LBE scheme working over a wide range of temperatures is still missing. The difficulty is that heat and temperature dynamics require more kinetic momenta and consequently they probe the discrete space–time ‘fabric’ of the lattice more keenly than isothermal flows. At the time of writing, this is one of the most challenging issue left with (basic) LBE research. In this chapter we shall give an account of this important ongoing topic.
A comparative approach to the study of microsatellite evolution
Authors: Amos William
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines microsatellite evolution in the light of comparative and empirical data. Sources include limited numbers of germline mutations from humans and birds, large numbers of human allele frequency distributions, studies where loci cloned from one species are amplified in related species and data from studies on a wide range of taxa which yield mean microsatellite lengths and frequency per kilobase of genome. These data are used to examine a range of microsatellite characteristics including: the bite size of the mutation process, whether mutations are biased in favour of expansion, whether heterozygotes are more likely to mutate than homozyogtes, whether maximum repeat number is constrained by an absorbing or reflecting boundary and the extent to which the length and frequency of microsatellites in the genome can be predicted from a species' characteristics.
Mutation and migration in models of microsatellite evolution
Authors: Feldman Marcus W , Kumm Jochen , Pritchard Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Dynamic and statistical properties of generalized stepwise mutation models are described, and used to compare data on human di-, tri-, and tetranucleotide polymorphisms. The time-dependent behaviour of an island model with stepwise mutation is analysed, and its equilibrium properties used to estimate the product Nm of the population size and the migration rate. Population statistics are derived from the complete equilibrium analysis of the model, and these are combined to give an estimate of Nm that is related to Slatkin's 1995 estimate which used RsT· When this new statistic is applied to a set of 85 human microsatellite polymorphisms, the resulting population clusters match those in the original tree of Bowcock et al. (1994).
The coalescent and microsatellite variability
Authors: Donnelly Peter
Published: November 2023

The coalescent captures the genealogical relationships amongst DNA sequences at a locus within a population. We motivate and describe its probabilistic structure in a variety of demographic scenarios, and discuss models for microsatellite mutations. The paper outlines applications of coalescent methods for microsatellite data, an urn scheme for simulating samples is given, qualitative and quantitative insights are described, and statistical methods for multilocus estimation and testing of demographic scenarios, and likelihood-based inference, are highlighted.
Microsatellites, a neutral marker to infer selective sweeps
Authors: Schloitterer Christian , Wiehe Thomas
Published: November 2023

In recent years microsatellites have become popular as a highly variable neutral marker. In natural populations, microsatellite variability is determined by new mutations, genetic drift, and selection at linked chromosomal regions. In this chapter. we focus on the consequences of directional selection on observed microsatellite variability in natural populations. A test statistic is introduced that permits the identification of such 'selective sweeps'. The test is designed to detect reduced genetic variation in a specific locus-population combination from a data set of several microsatellite loci in multiple populations. Theoretical considerations, however, predict that selective sweeps may only be detected where microsatellites have a mutation rate which is below a certain threshold.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Spatio-Temporal Inference
Authors: Genovese Christopher R
Published: November 2023

With ever greater computational power at our fingertips, statisticians can now approach problems of unprecedented complexity, both in terms of the mechanics of modeling and the substantive content of inferences to be drawn from models. One class of such problems, of particular relevance in many current applications, is modeling and drawing inferences from data derived from a spatio-temporal process. This paper illustrates some of the new challenges that can arise in this context, using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) as an exemplar. The paper begins with a detailed description of a hierarchical model for fMRI data that focuses on the temporal structure only. The model is applied to fMRI data from a recent neuroscientific study of the eye-movement system in the human brain. The discussion then extends to cover a selection of open problems that are of vital interest to neuroscientists. In fMRI, each of these problems can be approached by extending or applying the hierarchical model in different ways. However, these problems can also be abstracted beyond fMRI and indeed exemplify broader methods that can be useful in a wide range of applications.
Bayesian Model Choice: What and Why?
Authors: Key Jane T , Pericchi Luis R , Smith Adrian F M
Published: November 2023

Bayesian approaches to model choice are reviewed from an historical perspective and then discussed in terms of possible desiderata and principles. Particular focus is given to issues of conformity with a decision-theoretic formulation and to the issue of model choice when none of the available models is regarded as true.
Bayesian Analysis of Cepheid Variable Data
Authors: Jefferys William H , Thomas G Barnes
Published: November 2023

Cepheids are a type of variable star that play a key role in establishing the astronomical distance scale. These objects undergo regular pulsations, shrinking and expanding as their luminosities and colors vary in synchronism. It has long been known that the period of the pulsation is related to the luminosity of the star (the Period-Luminosity relationship), and therefore these objects become ‘‘standard candles” that allow us to estimate the distances of objects once we measure their periods and the flux from the stars received on Earth. Calibrating the zero-point of the Period-Luminosity relationship therefore becomes a critical measurement that has repercussions throughout astronomy. These stars are very luminous, and therefore can be seen to rather large distances, which makes them very valuable as standard candles; however, most of them are out of reach of the most direct distance measurements, and even the nearest can only be measured with rather large errors. We have been investigating another approach to determining the distance to these objects that depends upon a detailed study of both photometry and radial velocity information. Analysis of such data has up until now been rather ad hoc’, we have been exploring Bayesian methods in order to systematize the technique. Among the features with which a fully Bayesian analysis of these data must contend are: Model selection (the light curves and velocity profiles need to be modeled accurately yet parsimoniously), and errors-in-variables. We will describe several approaches, one due to Gull, and another using the program BUGS by Spiegelhalter et. al. We are particularly interested in learning ideas that may assist us in carrying out our program.
A Bayesian Analysis of Stochastic Unit Root Models
Authors: Jones Christopher R , Marriott John M
Published: November 2023

Many types of unit root model are used for modelling macroeconomic time series. Recent interest has centred on nonlinear models that exhibit nonstationary behaviour. Granger and Swanson (1993) introduced the stochastic unit root (STUR) model in which the inclusion of a time-varying coefficient in a first order autoregressive model accommodates stationary or explosive behaviour away from a unit root. The STUR model extends the more usual approach adopted in economics for which first differences of the data are used when a classical test of the null unit root, or difference stationary, model cannot be rejected.
Optimal Design for Quantal Bioassay via Monte Carlo Methods
Authors: Kuo Lynn , Soyer Refik , Wang Fei
Published: November 2023

In quantal bioassay, different levels of a stimulus are applied to the subjects (experimental units) to learn about the distribution of their tolerance. The response is usually assumed to be dichotomous. The design issue is to determine the levels of the stimuli and to allocate the subjects to different levels of stimuli. We adopt a nonparametric Bayesian approach and assume a Dirichlet process prior on the potency curve. The optimal design solution is derived from a preposterior analysis. When the number of stimuli increases, it becomes more and more difficult to carry out an analytic solution to the preposterior analysis. A simulation-based approach as in Muller and Parmigiani (1995) becomes quite useful. This approach replaces the exact preposterior analysis by a curve-fitting-based optimization procedure that uses Monte Carlo samples simulated from the joint parameter/sample space. We illustrate the implementation of the method by several examples.
Living together
Authors: Maynard Smith John , SzathmáRy EöRs
Published: November 2023

One of the themes of this book is that complex organisms depend on a division of labour between their parts. But this end result can evolve in two very different ways. Compare, for example, an elephant and a plant cell. An elephant depends on co-operation between different kinds of cells—epithelial cells, muscle cells, neurones, and so on. These cells have essentially the same genes. They are derived during development by the division of a single fertilized egg. In evolutionary time, they are all descended from the same single-celled ancestor. The differences between them arise not from possessing different genes but because influences external to the cells cause different genes to be active in different cells. The division of labour in human society, or between castes in an insect colony, is analogous. Humans, although not genetically identical, are very similar, and have a recent common ancestor. The differences between a carpenter and an electrician are caused not by their genes but by their training. The evolution of such systems—multicellular organisms, and animal and human societies—is not discussed in this chapter: it is the topic of the remainder of the book.
The amygdala and associative learning
Authors: Gallagher Michela
Published: November 2023

The amygdala complex is composed of a heterogeneous collection of nuclei that possess widely different interconnections with other brain regions. By combining behavioural studies with a neural systems analysis, a subset of these nuclei, including the lateral, basolateral, and central nuclei, have been tied together to form a functionally unified system necessary for the acquisition and expression of conditioned fear (Davis, 1992; LeDoux, Chapter 7). This chapter considers more broadly studies of associative learning that have shown a dependence on the integrity of the amygdala complex, which include aversive and appetitive paradigms as well as both Pavlovian conditioning and instrumental learning. This review supports the perspective that the central nucleus and basolateral complex, along with their diverse interconnections with both brainstem and forebrain systems, form a largely integrated substrate for the use of associative information in the control and guidance of adaptive behaviour.
The amygdala in conditioned taste aversion: it’s there, but where
Authors: Lamprecht Raphael , Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Conditioned taste aversion (CTA) is a unique type of innately predisposed (‘prepared’) learning, in which the subject associates a tastant with malaise over long delays. Multiple studies, involving neuroanatomical lesions, cellular recordings, and molecular analysis, point to the involvement of components of the amygdaloid complex in CTA. However, the contribution of the amygdala to discrete phases in CTA behaviour and to identified operations of CTA-subserving circuits has not yet been established. It is also as yet unclear whether the amygdala is always obligatory for successful CTA in the intact animal. Based on the current data, the central (CeA) and the basolateral (BLA) amygdaloid nuclei are among the prime candidates for fulfilling a role in CTA. In the rat, the CeA is regarded by some as an autonomic-projecting motor region of the striatum, the anterior BLA as an extension of the claustrum for the temporal and frontal lobes, and the posterior BLA as a component of the central olfactory system.
Differential involvement of amygdala subsystems in appetitive conditioning and drug addiction
Authors: Everitt Barry J , Cardinal Rudolf N , Hall Jeremy , Parkinson John A , Robbins Trevor W
Published: November 2023

We review data from appetitive conditioning studies using measures of Pavlovian approach behaviour and measures of the effects of Pavlovian conditioned stimuli on instrumental behaviour, including the Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer effect and conditioned reinforcement. These studies consistently demonstrate double dissociations of function between the basolateral area and the central nucleus of the amygdala. Moreover, these data show marked parallels with data derived from studies of aversive (fear) conditioning, and are consistent with the idea that these subsystems of the amygdala use different associative representations fonned during conditioning, as part of a larger limbic corticostriatal circuit. We suggest that the basolateral amygdala is required for a conditioned stimulus to gain access to the current value of the specific unconditioned stimulus with which it has been paired, while the central nucleus is responsible for conditioned motivational responses using a simpler stimulusresponse representation. Though these systems normally operate together, they modulate ongoing behaviour in distinct ways. We illustrate this by considering the contributions of both systems to the process of drug addiction, using second-order schedules of intravenous drug self-administration.
Reinterpreting the behavioural effects of amygdala lesions in non-human primates
Authors: Baxter1 Mark G , Murray2 Elisabeth A
Published: November 2023

Advances in neurosurgical methods that permit selective damage to the cell bodies of the amygdala, sparing the adjacent temporal cortex and white matter, have improved our understanding of the cognitive functions controlled by this structure. In this chapter, we attempt to summarize and integrate recent work with previous findings based on less selective removals of the amygdala. Recent anatomical and behavioural studies suggest that many behavioural impairments associated with removal of the amygdala by surgical aspiration can be accounted for by disconnection of inferior temporal cortex from its medial thalamic and prefrontal cortical targets rather than by damage to the cell bodies of the amygdala. Based on the currently available evidence, the amygdala appears to play little role in stimulus memory, a relatively restricted role in stimulus-reward associations, and a significant role in emotionality and stimulus-affect association.
Jules Henri Poincare (1854-1912)
Authors: Ewald William
Published: November 2023

Henri Poincare, Professor of Mathematics at the University of Paris from 1881 until his death, was the most prolific and influential mathematician of his generation. Although he was only 58 when he died, his technical articles fill eleven large volumes; he also published four volumes of philosophical essays on the foundations of mathematics and physics. His technical writings cover large tracts of pure and applied mathematics: algebraic topology, non-Euclidean geometry, Lie groups, number theory, differential equations, the theory of functions, algebraic geometry, mathematical physics, celestial mechanics.
Godfrey Harold Hardy (1877-1947)
Authors: Ewald William
Published: November 2023

G.H. Hardy, the most eminent British mathematician of his generation, was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected to a fellowship in 1900; he remained at Trinity as a lecturer in mathematics until 1919, when he was appointed Savilian Professor of Geometry at Oxford.
Nicholas Bourbaki
Authors: Ewald William
Published: November 2023

The following article describes the methodology of Bourbaki’s celebrated attempt to provide a unified exposition of all the basic branches of mathematics. The Bourbaki programme began in the early 1930s. Having in the 1920s been educated almost exclusively in the French tradition of complex analysis, the young Bourbaki was unaware of the mathematics that had been developed outside France since 1914.
Application To Physical Sciences
Authors: Slavyanov Sergei yu. , Lay Wolfgang , Seeger Alfred
Published: November 2023

Having presented a theory of linear ordinary second-order differential equations generating the classical and the higher special functions in the preceding chapters, here we give several examples illustrating how the studied equations are involved in physical problems. This comprises their emergence from a separation of variables, central connection problems, confluence processes. and the calculation of exponentially small effects.
Scope and Limits of Implicit Memory in Amnesia
Authors: Verfaellie Mieke , Keane Margaret M
Published: November 2023

One of the most striking examples of knowledge without awareness is seen in patients with global amnesia. Typically, these patients are unable to recall day-to-day experiences and they forget information encountered only minutes before. For many years now, these deficits have been studied experimentally, with the aim of elucidating the nature of the underlying processing deficits. In the context of this effort, Larry Weiskrantz and his colleague, Elizabeth Warrington, made the startling discovery that, given appropriate retrieval cues, amnesic patients can exhibit memory for the very information they cannot retrieve consciously (Warrington and Weiskrantz, 1968, 1970). This finding, counter-intuitive and controversial at the time, spawned three decades of research into the nature and the scope of preserved memory in amnesia.

It is now well established that a number of different forms of memory are preserved in amnesia. These include skill learning, classical conditioning, and repetition priming, which refers to the bias or facilitation in processing a stimulus that results from prior exposure to that same or a related stimulus (Squire et al., 1993). These different forms of memory have in common the fact that knowledge can be expressed without awareness of the episode in which learning took place. By contrast, tasks which elicit severe impairments in amnesic patients, such as traditional tests of recall and recognition, do require awareness of the learning episode, as subjects are asked to retrieve information that occurred within a particular learning context. The distinction between forms of memory that are impaired and preserved in amnesia is captured by a number of taxonomies, each highlighting a different aspect of the dichotomy. Graf and Schacter (1985) introduced the terms implicit memory and explicit memory to emphasize the different ways in which memory is expressed. Focusing on the associated states of awareness, Jacoby and Witherspoon (1982) used the terms memory with awareness and memory without awareness. Finally, highlighting the nature of the information that is remembered, Squire (1992) introduced the terms declarative memory and non-declarative memory.
Conscious and Unconscious Processing of Emotional Faces
Authors: Van Honk Jack
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides an overview of a line of studies elaborating on the dual-pathway model of LeDoux (1996), by investigating conscious and unconscious aspects of the neurobiology of approach-and-withdrawal-related human emotion. Findings reveal a dichotomic heuristic approach–withdrawal framework, wherein, supporting LeDoux’s notion, a cortical or conscious pathway intersects a subcortical or unconscious pathway. In this theoretical framework, approach and withdrawal is illustrated by the classic fight–flight response, which is largely initiated in limbic affective circuits and modulated by hormones such as cortisol and testosterone. In humans, more flexible behavioural tendencies have evolved wherein the cerebral cortex is strongly implicated. The left and the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortices are involved in these consciously controlled (and thus more sophisticated) forms of behavioural approach and withdrawal, respectively. Nevertheless, a subcortical affective shortcut, the thalamic–amygdala pathway, is still functional in humans and provides for the biologically prepared emotional response, unaffected by conscious control. Finally, the orbitofrontal cortex bears strong afferent and efferent connections with cortical and subcortical brain structures, and acts as an affective control and relay station. Evidence for this framework comes from neurobiological studies using emotional faces in a paradigm which selectively taps into the cortical and subcortical processing stream. It is demonstrated that the steroid hormones cortisol and testosterone are implicated in the subcortical stream, whereas repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the prefrontal cortex influences the cortical stream exclusively.
Bandstructure engineering
Authors: Singleton John
Published: November 2023

The idea of making artificial solids with bandstructures tailored to particular applications has long fascinated condensed matter physicists. In this chapter, we shall explore some of the ways in which bands with desired properties can be engineered using what has been termed ‘chemical architecture’. A very simple example of this is the use of semiconductor alloys, in which a wide-gap semiconductor and a narrow-gap semiconductor are combined to give a substance with a desired intermediate band-gap. A second example is the semiconductor superlattice or heterostructure; here, very thin layers of different semiconductors are superimposed. A third approach is to use small organic or inorganic molecular units to build up solids with desirable metallic, semiconducting or even superconducting properties. We shall treat each of these cases in turn, starting with the semiconductor systems.
Between the wars: foundations examined
Authors: Gray Jeremy J
Published: November 2023

After the First World War, the shattered nations of Europe tried to rebuild. Germany was forced to pay massive compensation to the victorious Allies, who blamed it for starting the war and causing so many deaths. This deepened the collective sense of failure and defeat brought to a nation that, as late as Spring 1918, had thought it could still win the war. Turmoil to the east, in the newly formed and revolutionary Soviet Union, spilled over into violent social unrest from Right and Left in Germany, and when that stabilised the Weimar Republic had to ride out several years of hyper-inflation. Germany’s relations with its neighbours were poisoned by the war for many years. Many international organisations, especially those with a strong French component, sought to exclude or marginalise Germany, and the country was not admitted to the League of Nations.