bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Orders of Economic Harmony
Authors: Ali Saleem H.
Published: June 2022

This chapter starts with a consideration of how social sciences fit within the complexity-uncertainty domain. Economic and social order is high in complexity and high in uncertainty, which necessitates a more deliberative process in its understanding. Urban systems offer a compelling microcosm by which to study and understand social and economic order and its relationship with natural systems. Going through various historical stages in environmental design and planning, this chapter moves on to consider the linkages between environmental degradation and income. Various forms of resource and environmental decoupling are also considered alongside the classic limits-to-growth models.
Elusive Orders of Economic Equilibrium
Authors: Ali Saleem H.
Published: June 2022

Going through the fundamentals of economic theory, this chapter moves on to a discussion of the Five Capitals Framework and its implications for applying value to ecosystems. The ideas of “weak” and “strong” sustainability are developed with examples from the natural resource and service sectors. Thomas Schelling’s seminal work in understanding the disconnect between economic and natural equilibrium, as well as Herbert Simon’s foundational contributions to studies of “bounded rationality,” are considered in detail. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how markets function under conditions of incomplete information and the need for human interventions in such cases to maintain functional order in sync with natural systems.
Empires and Edens
Authors: Ali Saleem H.
Published: June 2022

This first chapter in this section on political order starts off with a discussion of Francis Fukuyama’s work on how nation states organize themselves. The role of democratic institutions in developing functional order is considered through a deep-dive comparison of India and China. The role of special interest groups in potentially subverting democratic order is considered within electoral cycles and economic theory going back to the work of Mancur Olson. Next, the concept of “resource nationalism” is discussed using the J curve concept developed by Ian Bremmer. Economic assemblages of countries such as the G20, as well as political and regional assemblages of political order, provide a backdrop for a final discussion of global indices such as the World Happiness Index, which attempt to link political order to social indicators.
Borders and Functional Political Order
Authors: Ali Saleem H.
Published: June 2022

How do political borders arise, and what should be their role in an increasingly globalized world? While there is clearly a concern about the role of country borders in dissecting ecosystems, borders can also provide resilience in times of crisis by containing flows of harmful products, or indeed pathogens, as has been the case with the COVID-19 pandemic. The principle of subsidiarity is discussed in the context of the European Union’s attempt at balancing individual agency with integration of the bloc. This chapter includes a section on environmental peacebuilding as an emerging mechanism of using natural systems to better define the governance mechanisms around political borders. Finally, the chapter considers the relationship between identities and borders using South Asia as a case study, with special reference to the situation in Afghanistan and Pakistan.
From International to Global Order in the “Anthropocene”
Authors: Ali Saleem H.
Published: June 2022

This chapter considers the role of institutions that are aimed at planetary problem-solving and yet are still bound by a highly restrictive nation-based order. Decisions on international standards such as the international dateline are still dependent on individual states deciding in which time zone they fall. Some of the most acrimonious conflicts in the world cannot be resolved by these international institutions. The case example of the Arab–Israeli conflict is considered in the context of ecological order and the various proposals from powers such as the United States, but also in the light of novel grassroots ideas for redefining political order, such as a Confederation. The chapter concludes with a discussion of “earth systems governance” through the highlighting of networks and feedback loops.
Investment Arbitration and State-Driven Reform
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang
Published: June 2022

This book reviews the first set of investment arbitration awards rendered under a new generation of investment treaties that actively balances investment protection and host state flexibility and finds that state-driven reform is being rolled back through an arbitral backlash as new investment agreements reproduce old interpretive outcomes. Combining robust empirical and computational analysis, new comprehensive datasets on investment treaties and awards, and a range of theories from law and economics to complexity science, this book proceeds in three steps. First, it traces state-driven reforms of investment treaty design over seven decades. Second, it demonstrates that these reforms are undermined in practice as tribunals rely on most-favored-nation treatment clauses, customary international law, and precedent to interpret new treaties like old ones. Third, the book suggests how states can preserve and amplify the impact of state-driven reforms by leveraging forward-looking interpretation, data-driven renegotiation, and tax-style multilateralization to modernize old treaties in light of new ones.
Forward-Looking Interpretation
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang
Published: June 2022

This chapter explores how states can use interpretation to read old treaties in light of new ones. It first argues that contract theory should structure interpretive discretion of arbitral tribunals. When it comes to interpretation, tribunals are the agents of the contracting parties. Tribunals that confront highly complete treaties should interpret these agreements formalistically, since gaps have been filled by the contracting states ex ante. When they confront incomplete treaties, tribunals should fill gaps in light of more complete treaties, which provides the best guess of how the contracting parties would have wanted gaps in their earlier treaties filled. The remainder of the chapter shows how the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) constrains and enables the gap-filling of incomplete treaties in light of more complete ones. Aside from direct subsequent interpretive interventions by the contracting states, the VCLT recognizes that third treaties can shed light on the treaty being interpreted by clarifying ordinary meaning, as a rule applicable between the same parties, or as a subsequent means of interpretation.
Data-Driven Renegotiation
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang
Published: June 2022

This chapter discusses how empirics and technology can turn renegotiation into an efficient tool to reform incomplete treaties in light of more complete ones. The chapter starts by showing that investment treaty renegotiations are a missed opportunity. They are rarely used, employed for the wrong reasons, and concentrated in a few states. While legitimate concerns hold renegotiations back, at least some of these concerns can be addressed by leveraging data and technology. The chapter then shows how a data-driven approach can help identify candidates for renegotiations either by identifying outliers that pose heightened risks of investor-state dispute settlement claims or by revealing treaties whose renegotiation would indirectly modernize many other treaties. A renegotiation of the Energy Charter, for example, could update more than six hundred parallel investment treaties. Technology can also prepare and structure renegotiations. For example, an automated comparison of the past treaty practice of two states can quickly enable negotiators to identify points of normative convergence and anticipate areas of disagreement that would facilitate renegotiation. The final part of the chapter discusses plurilateral investment treaties that are often layered on top of outdated bilaterals rather than used to replace or modernize incomplete treaties in bulk.
War and Peace
Authors: Mulmi Amish Raj
Published: June 2022

This chapter explains the 1792 war between Nepal and China, and how Rasuwa, the site of the war, has emerged as a modern-day physical manifestation of what China’s economic and infrastructural transformation promises mean to Nepal.
Communism Comes by Road
Authors: Mulmi Amish Raj
Published: June 2022

This chapter explores the influence of China's Communist propaganda on South Asia, including how it was propagated via China's development projects such as the Lhasa–Kathmandu highway, and how the Maoists of Nepal were influenced by Maoism to declare an armed revolution against the state.
Ghosts: Tibetan Exiles in Nepal
Authors: Mulmi Amish Raj
Published: June 2022

This chapter is about the Tibetan exile community in Nepal, who were settled in refugee camps after the 1959 Tibetan uprising. It details the armed resistance movement, American complicity, and the issues facing the community due to China’s demands on Nepal.
Between Two Boulders
Authors: Mulmi Amish Raj
Published: June 2022

This chapter breaks down Nepal's historical dilemma of being situated between two warring neighbors, India and China. It discusses how successive Nepali leaders have negotiated the demands of the great power contest.
‘A Friendship Across the Himalayas’1
Authors: Mulmi Amish Raj
Published: June 2022

This chapter details how China changed its approach after Nepal became a republic in 2008, and how Nepali leaders decided to break away from Indian economic dependence after the 2015 blockade and turn towards China, leading to new geopolitical tangles.
Semantic Implementations
Authors: Blome-Tillmann Michael
Published: June 2022

This chapter investigates possible semantic implementations of epistemic contextualism (EC). To begin with, the chapter introduces Kaplan’s distinction between character and content and uses this distinction to illustrate the need for a more detailed semantic account of the context-sensitivity of ‘knowledge’-attributions. Views discussed are fancy contextualism and classical contextualism, which is analysed further into indexicalism and radical contextualism. Indexicalism is then shown to be the version of EC discussed most widely in the literature. Different versions of indexicalism are distinguished—namely, strict indexicalism and so-called hidden variables accounts (scalar indexicalism, quantificational indexicalism, and contrastivism). Section 2.5 concludes the chapter by providing a diagram representing the most important semantic implementations of EC and their interrelations.
Philosophical Objections
Authors: Blome-Tillmann Michael
Published: June 2022

This chapter is devoted to the discussion of philosophical objections to epistemic contextualism. Objections discussed are the view that epistemic contextualism (EC) over-generates—in other words, that its solution to the sceptical puzzle is implausible and unmotivated and can, therefore, implausibly be applied to a variety of unrelated philosophical problems. Another objection discussed claims that EC makes too much of a concession to the sceptic or misconstrues the sceptical argument, and thus doesn’t succeed in resolving the sceptical puzzle. Further objections to EC investigated here are stemming from potential normative connections between knowledge on the one hand and assertion, belief, and practical reasoning on the other, while the final section of the chapter surveys recent discussions of ‘knowledge’-attributions in experimental philosophy.
Problems and Objections
Authors: Blome-Tillmann Michael
Published: June 2022

This chapter discusses popular objections to epistemic impurism (EI) and focuses on the question whether the Arguments from Principle and the Argument from Cases can in fact motivate EI. The chapter begins by considering popular cases that are widely thought of as counterexamples to the knowledge-action principles that the defenders of EI rely on heavily. The next section is then devoted to further problematic cases—namely, to High-Attributor/Low-Subject Stakes cases, in which EI makes predictions that are, on the face of it, incompatible with our truth-value intuitions. The remainder of the chapter discusses the question whether there really are practical factor effects, investigates further linguistic objections to EI, and finally summarizes additional objections to EI from the literature.
Epistemic Relativism
Authors: Blome-Tillmann Michael
Published: June 2022

This chapter is devoted to the discussion of epistemic relativism (ER), the view that ‘knowledge’-attributions only have truth-conditions relative to a context of assessment. According to this type of relativism ‘knowledge’-attributions resemble ascriptions of predicates of personal taste, such as ‘is tasty’ or ‘is fun’ in being assessment sensitive. The chapter first outlines the view by emphasizing the analogy to predicates of personal taste and then discusses its motivation, which mostly rests on so-called retraction data. The chapter then turns to a discussion of criticisms of the view in the literature by first focusing on the notion of faultless disagreement and then by noting that ER seems to come with equally problematic commitments concerning intuitive truth-value predictions as its main competitors. The final section then outlines an objection to ER that calls into question the retraction data that defenders of ER have cited as the main evidence in support of their view.
Psychological Invariantism
Authors: Blome-Tillmann Michael
Published: June 2022

This chapter discusses psychological invariantist explanations of the Bank Case data. According to the first view examined here, the relevant data can be accounted for by postulating a lack of belief. This view, however, is found to be implausible for a number of reasons. The remaining sections of the chapter are then devoted to views according to which our truth-value intuitions in the Bank Case (and related cases) are the result of general patterns of cognitive error or bias. The chapter takes a closer look at three different versions of this view—namely, at versions seeking explanations of the mentioned data by means of the Availability Heuristics (Williamson), Egocentric Bias and Epistemic Angst (Jennifer Nagel), and Epistemic Focal Bias (Mikkel Gerken).
Pragmatic Invariantism
Authors: Blome-Tillmann Michael
Published: June 2022

This chapter is devoted to pragmatic invariantism, according to which the relevant data in the discussion of the semantics of ‘knowledge’-attributions must be accounted for by pragmatic mechanisms such as conversational implicatures. Views discussed are Sceptical Pragmatic Invariantism—the view that ‘knowledge’-attributions are usually false but trigger a true conversational implicature to the effect that one is, in the context at hand, close enough to ‘knowing’ for practical purposes. The second family of views discussed here falls under the label of Moderate Pragmatic Invariantism. On this type of view, we usually satisfy ‘knows p’ in everyday contexts, but our truth-value intuitions in the high-standards version of the Bank Case (and in related cases) are to be accounted for by conversational implicatures. Both families of views are introduced and critically discussed. The final section of the chapter provides a map of positions.
On the ‘Meaning’ of the Ascetic Ideal
Authors: Clark Maudemarie
Published: June 2022

This paper offers a new interpretation of the third treatise of the Genealogy. According to Nietzsche, the ascetic ideal involves a ‘monstrous manner of valuation’, since it treats human life as devoid of all value. When viewed through the evaluative lens of the ascetic ideal, natural human existence becomes ‘a bridge’ to a different mode of existence, which is taken to be of value precisely because it is the opposite of our mode of existence. According to ‘the standard interpretation’, GM III’s titular question—‘What do ascetic ideals mean?’—asks: what motivates humans of each of the different types Nietzsche distinguishes to accept the ascetic ideal? This paper argues that this is a misinterpretation. The question of GM III’s title concerns not the cause or underlying motivation for accepting the ascetic ideal, but rather what the value of the ascetic ideal is for each of the human types Nietzsche distinguishes (artists, philosophers, scholars, women, the majority of mortals, priests, and saints).
Affirmation, Admirable Overvaluation, and the Eternal Recurrence
Authors: Huddleston Andrew
Published: June 2022

This paper critically discusses several prominent interpretations of Nietzsche’s doctrine of eternal recurrence. A key point of debate upon which the paper focuses is about the range of what is to be affirmed. Specifically, is one, in affirming the eternal recurrence, thereby to affirm each and every thing? Or is something less demanding called for? The author distinguishes between two competing interpretations: what he calls ‘the deflationary approach,’ according to which, we should reject the emphasis on affirming each and every element in life and in existence; and ‘the vindicatory approach,’ according to which, we should seek to preserve the idea that one actually does need to affirm everything. The author argues that both readings face problems both philosophical and textual before offering an alternative reading which combines the best elements of these two approaches: we should respect the demand—characteristic of the vindicatory strategy—that in affirming the eternal recurrence, one must thereby affirm each and every thing, but should give up the task of trying to make sense of this stance as Nietzsche’s own considered evaluative position.
Who—or What—Says Yes to Life?
Authors: Janaway Christopher
Published: June 2022

Nietzsche uses the expression ‘saying Yes’ frequently and in a variety of contexts. This paper examines the range of such uses in an attempt to determine what Yes-saying might be, and how it might occur. In particular, the paper addresses the following questions: What can be the subject, and what the object, of the attitude (or attitudes) that Nietzsche calls ‘saying Yes’? And what kind of process or processes may be involved in the occurring or pertaining of a ‘saying Yes’ attitude? The author notes that it is typically of persons that we predicate the attitude of Yes-saying. But Nietzsche also ascribes ‘Yes-saying’ to cultural institutions, cultural products, or sets of values. This chapter accepts that the cases where Yes-saying is predicated of institutions and practices may be construed as rhetorical devices in which the attitude in question is really being ascribed to human beings. But it goes on to argue that there are some cases where some sub-personal item is evoked. In such cases, it is argued, some state of the person is to be explained by a state in which an element of themselves stands in an ‘affirming’ or ‘negating’ relation to something.
The Uralic minorities
Authors: Pasanen Annika , Laakso Johanna , Sarhimaa Anneli
Published: June 2022

The chapter provides an up-to-date overview of Uralic minority languages in Russia, the European Union, and Norway. The focus is on the current state of Uralic minorities, and the main goal is twofold. Firstly, this chapter will shed some new light on the sociolinguistic and ethnolinguistic aspects of the severe endangerment and the imminent extinction that certain Uralic varieties face today. Secondly, this chapter will focus on successful revitalization measures, especially among the Aanaar Saami, as well as on the forms and achievements of ongoing empowering efforts. Of special interest here are minority languages whose status has until quite recently been contested by diverse political or even linguistic arguments, such as Karelian in Finland, Meänkieli in Sweden, and Kven in Norway.
Graphization and orthographies of Uralic minority languages
Authors: Laakso Johanna , Skribnik Elena
Published: June 2022

This chapter provides a concise overview of the standardization of Uralic languages, focusing on the Uralic minority languages and their orthographies. While the first attempts at creating a written form for the Saami languages were prompted by the Reformation in Scandinavia, most Uralic written standards have only come into being in the twentieth century, and in Russia, these processes were typically part of the ambitious ethnopolitics of the early Soviet period. The Saami and Finnic orthographies are mostly Latin-based. In the Soviet Union, alongside Cyrillic or Cyrillic-based alphabets such as the Molodcov alphabet for Komi, Latin-based experimental alphabets were introduced for some Uralic languages in the 1930s; today, most Uralic languages of Russia employ the Cyrillic alphabet, and for representing phonological phenomena unknown to Russian, various orthographic solutions have been developed. The chapter also briefly describes the most important linguistic transcriptions, in particular, the Finno-Ugric Transcription (FUT).
South Saami
Authors: Ylikoski Jussi
Published: June 2022

South Saami, an indigenous language spoken in the central regions of Norway and Sweden, is the westernmost variety of the westernmost (Saami) branch of the Uralic language family. Despite its long history in the immediate neighbourhood of Scandinavian languages, many of the core features of South Saami stand out as constituting a typologically unusual mixture that distinguishes the language from most western Uralic languages. Such features include, for example, a predominantly SOV word order and the marginal role of the copula. Within the Saami language chain in particular, the most remarkable feature of South Saami morphophonology is the complex metaphony in nominal and verbal inflection, while the consonant gradation typical of other Saami languages is absent in that language.
North Saami
Authors: Ánte Luobbal Sámmol Sámmol , Ylikoski Jussi
Published: June 2022

North Saami (known as “Norwegian Lappish” in older literature) is an indigenous language spoken by probably more than 25,000 people in Norway, Sweden, and Finland. North Saami today has an international standard form which is also used in literature, in the media, and in the education system, in areas with Saami majorities even in public and official interaction. Of the endangered Saami languages, North Saami is thus the most vigorous one; it also has a relatively strong research tradition. Taxonomically and geographically, North Saami is situated at the eastern end of the Western Saami subgroup. It is characterized by rich and complex phonology and morphophonology and considerable dialectal variation, which makes the relationship between the standard orthography and pronunciation very complicated. In this chapter, the main features of the structure, grammar, and lexicon of North Saami are briefly described. The chapter ends with a glossed text example.
Skolt Saami
Authors: Koponen Eino , Miestamo Matti , Juutinen Markus
Published: June 2022

Skolt Saami is an indigenous language originally spoken on both sides of the present-day Norwegian-Russian border. Today, almost all of the 200–300 remaining speakers live in Finland, especially in the municipality of Inari; they are resettled evacuees from the Petsamo region (which was ceded to the Soviet Union in 1944) or their descendants. Skolt Saami is highly endangered, despite promising attempts at revitalization. The written standard, created in the 1970s, is taught at local schools and has some public use. The typology of Skolt Saami has developed from the relatively agglutinative structure of Proto Saami to a rather high degree of fusionality, and its morphology involves complex stem and suffix alternations. In this chapter, the structure of the present-day Skolt Saami and its historical background are briefly presented. The chapter ends with a glossed text example.
North and Standard Estonian
Authors: Metslang Helle
Published: June 2022

Estonian belongs to the southern branch of the Finnic languages. Standard Estonian, now the sole official state language of Estonia, was developed mainly on the basis of North Estonian dialects. Estonian has been in contact with many languages and has especially been influenced by German. It has several features that are spread in the Circum-Baltic area. Estonian phonetics and phonology are characterized by three quantity degrees, palatalization, and lack of vowel harmony. The morphology combines agglutinative features with fusional. Existential, possessive, experiential, and resultative sentences display non-canonical subjects. Differential subject and object marking are conditioned by various semantic and syntactic features of the sentence. In addition to inherited and borrowed stems, Estonian language planning has created many completely new word stems.
North Mansi
Authors: Bakró-Nagy Marianne , Sipőcz Katalin , Skribnik Elena
Published: June 2022

The highly endangered North Mansi is the only surviving dialect of the four main dialect groups and the basis of the literary language. It is spoken on the western tributaries of the Ob river (North Sos’va, Lyapin, Sos’va, and Upper Loz’va); the census of 2010 gives 938 speakers out of 11,873 ethnic Mansi. North Mansi has a rich agglutinating morphology, especially verbal (including subject and subject-object agreement paradigms, evidentials / miratives and a very unusual passive voice). It’s an SOV language, the clause combining is based on the usage of non-finite verbal forms (infinitives, converbs, and participles with case markers and postpositions). North Mansi has an elaborate system of information structuring, combining the strategies of obligatory topic promotion to subject (discourse topic, passive voice) and object (secondary topic, “dative shift” plus object agreement) with zero anaphora. The chapter includes a glossed text example.
Hungarian
Authors: Kenesei István , Szécsényi Krisztina
Published: June 2022

Hungarian is spoken in Hungary and the surrounding countries and has a number of mutually intelligible dialects. The language was standardized in the early nineteenth century. The chapter gives a concise description of the language, focusing on its phonology, morphology, and syntax. Hungarian phonology is characterized by an intricate system of vowel harmony. It is an agglutinating language with complex derivational and inflectional morphology. The finite verb agrees with the subject in person and number and the definiteness of the object. Hungarian word order is based on the discourse and scope properties of constituents, is mostly rigid in the preverbal field, and free in the postverbal domain, leading to the following template: Topics>Quantifiers>Negation>Focus>Verb>Other. Aspect can be expressed with the combination of word order and verbal modifiers. Embedded clauses can be both finite and non-finite, with a number of non-finite forms to choose from, including inflected infinitives in certain constructions.
The Enets languages
Authors: Siegl Florian
Published: June 2022

Tundra and Forest Enets, indigenous languages spoken on the Taimyr Peninsula in Northern Siberia by several dozen elderly multilingual individuals, are the smallest Samoyedic languages and severely endangered. Until recently, both languages have been classified as dialects of a single language (in older sources also known as "Yenisey Samoyed"), but against recent data, they are better analysed as separate languages, as there are marked differences in phonology, morphology, morphosyntax, and the lexicon. Apparently, syntactic differences are to be expected too, but owing to the scarcity of published Tundra Enets data, this section inevitably remains impressionistic. As Tundra Enets is insufficiently covered, the description will inevitably focus on Forest Enets. Wherever possible, individual language differences will be addressed given that sufficient data is available.
Nganasan
Authors: Wagner-Nagy Beáta
Published: June 2022

Nganasan (in older literature also known as "Tavgy Samoyed") is an indigenous language in northernmost Siberia, now acutely endangered. It is characterized by some interesting morphophonological processes such as a highly complex consonant gradation and suffix harmony. This chapter briefly describes Nganasan phonology, morphology and syntax, with special respect to typologically interesting features such as the rich verb inflection (subject and object agreement, four morphologically marked tenses and fourteen moods), word order, and negation. One of the numerous interesting characteristics of Nganasan is the presence of two different copulas for different types of existential sentences. Predicative possession can be expressed either with a ‘have’ verb or with an existential-like construction.
Palatalization
Authors: Bakró-Nagy Marianne
Published: June 2022

Palatalization as a phonological feature occurs in most Uralic languages, but its conditions and phonetic realizations vary. Moreover, all varieties of Uralic are not yet properly described from this point of view, owing also to the scarcity of adequate data and the fact that in many Uralic varieties in Russia, the system may be undergoing a change owing to the strengthening impact of Russian. In this chapter, first a typological classification of the Uralic languages is presented, based on their distribution of palatal and palatalized consonants, and then, the secondary phonological and morphonological palatalization processes are surveyed.
Case
Authors: Kittilä Seppo , Laakso Johanna , Ylikoski Jussi
Published: June 2022

All Uralic languages have cases, but the size of case inventories varies greatly. In some languages, the so-called grammatical cases are used to express not only grammatical roles such as Agent, Patient, or Recipient, but also definiteness or boundedness, the Finnic partitive vs accusative variation being one of the best-known examples. Semantic cases, in turn, are commonly known for multiple tripartite (‘from’—‘at’—‘to’) local case systems in Finnic and Hungarian. However, typological and pan-Uralic perspectives to these topics show that that the partitive vs accusative variation, for example, can be seen as cross-linguistically common types of Differential Object Marking. As regards semantic cases, many branches of less commonly known Uralic languages display an overlooked array of local cases such as prolatives ‘through, along’ and terminative ‘up to’.
TAM and evidentials
Authors: Bradley Jeremy , Klumpp Gerson , Metslang Helle
Published: June 2022

Uralic TAM categories, although their markers are often etymologically related, display a wild diversity. Tense systems can be quite simple with just two values (e.g. past and non-past in Northern Mansi) or include also analytic forms with specific temporal or aspectual nuances (in e.g. Finnish). In some languages evidential oppositions are built in only in the past-tense indicative (e.g. direct vs indirect perception in Udmurt), in others they build a separate subsystem (e.g. evidential tenses in Northern Mansi, coded by the finite use of non-finite forms) or interact in a specific way with separate forms of epistemic modality (in e.g. Nenets). Aspect as a systematic morpholexical category is typically not present in Uralic, but morphological means (either suffixes traditionally described as part of word formation, or prefixes/preverbs as an innovation in some Uralic languages) are used to express actionality, in ways which have not yet been systematically described.
Negation and negatives
Authors: Miestamo Matti
Published: June 2022

A characteristic feature of the Uralic language family is the widespread use of negative verbs. This chapter gives a comprehensive typologically oriented overview of the expression of negation in the family. Within clausal negation, attention is directed to standard negation—i.e. basic declarative clauses, the negation of non-declaratives—especially imperatives, the negation of non-verbal predicates, and negation in dependent clauses. Non-clausal negatives such as negative replies, negative indefinite pronouns, as well as negative derivation and case marking, are also addressed. Finally, some further aspects of negation are discussed: the scope of negation, negative polarity, case marking under negation, emphatic negation, and negation in complex sentences. The overview is based on a systematic questionnaire-based survey of negation in Uralic. The perspective is synchronic but some diachronic notes are also made.
Existential, locational, and possessive sentences
Authors: Laakso Johanna , Wagner-Nagy Beáta
Published: June 2022

Existential sentences (sentences stating something about the existence or non-existence of something or someone) are non-canonical and typically consist of three major elements: a pivot NP whose existence or non-existence is stated, a verb (‘be’, ‘have’, or a special verb of existence), and, possibly, a phrase expressing the location or condition of the existence or non-existence. In most but not all Uralic languages, predicative possession is expressed with a similar construction. In typological literature locative predication has usually been treated together with existential sentences. Both sentence types contain the same elements, but in locative elements the pivot NP is usually definite. In Uralic, only Hungarian can express definiteness with a definite article; other Uralic languages use other means, such as word order or case marking.
Clause combining
Authors: Skribnik Elena
Published: June 2022

Clause combining in Uralic languages shows strong areal differences, mostly due to the language contact. The original Uralic strategy was most probably monofinite (a finite predicate in the main clause, a non-finite in the dependent clause). The languages of the western periphery (Finnic and Hungarian) developed in the long-standing contact with Indo-European languages the bifinite strategy with analytic connectors (conjunctions, relative pronominal connectors, and such). The languages of the eastern periphery retain the monofinite strategy, enriched by additional analytic components (postpositions and particles). The languages of the Volga-Kama areal show influences from Turkic languages in the South (especially in complement clauses built with connectors grammaticalized from the verb of speaking) and Russian.
Basics of electrodynamics of continuous media
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

The purpose of this chapter is to briefly summarize the basics of electrodynamics. Maxwell equations are written using a classical and microscopic description of matter. The potentials and their connection to the longitudinal and transverse fields are then introduced. In section 3, a spatial averaging procedure is used to derive macroscopic fields from the microscopic fields. It is shown that these averaged fields obey macroscopic Maxwell equations where additional terms (polarization and magnetization) appears as a result of the spatial average of the microscopic charge and current densities. The key concepts about energy conservation of electromagnetic fields are then introduced as well as the reciprocity theorem. The chapter ends with the description of a few generic topics: radiation treated in chapter 2, propagation and diffraction treated in chapter 4, reflection and transmission treated in chapter 5, scattering treated in chapter 12.
Electrodynamics in material media: Constitutive relations
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

The interaction of electromagnetic waves and material media can be characterized by many different phenomena such as absorption, scattering, reflection, etc. Of course, these effects are strongly dependent on frequency and on the nature of the materials. Visible light will be reflected by a metal and transmitted by glass. Glass is transparent in the visible but opaque in the infrared, etc. To account for these effects, it is necessary to include in Maxwell equations the relevant information concerning the materials. This takes the form of a relation connecting the polarization and the magnetization of the material with the electric and magnetic fields. These relations contain all the information of the absorption processes and the dispersion effects. Typical models describing metals, crystals and gases are introduced.
Propagation
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

In its simplest one-dimensional form, propagation describes the transformation of a spatial field f(x) at time t=0 over time as a function of time in the special form f(x-vt) where v is the wavevelocity. In this chapter, we generalize this elementary definition to include propagation in a three-dimensional vacuum and discuss the connection with diffraction. We also introduce the concept of evanescent waves. We then consider propagation in a dispersive and lossy medium. This leads to the introduction of a complex refractive index in the frequency domain and to the introduction of a dispersion relation. We discuss several definitions of the velocity. We finally introduce the quasinormal modes in lossy media.
Reflection and refraction at an interface
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

In this chapter, we deal with reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves at a planar interface between two homogeneous media described by a linear and isotropic permittivity and permeability. We will derive the general form of the fields in both media and derive the form of their complex amplitudes, namely the Fresnel reflection and transmission factors. We use complex refractive indices in order to include in the discussion the losses.
Guided modes
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

Waveguides are basically a device (‘a guide’) for transporting electromagnetic energy from a source to another defined point, through a structure that is invariant in one or two directions without any loss in wave intensity. The chapter is intended to provide an introductory self-contained treatment of optical waveguide theory. The slab guide serves as a textbook example to examine fundamental concepts such as the discrete modes and their effective indices. The basis of modal structure decomposition is then underlined: mode orthogonality, mode normalization, role of reciprocity. Several complements introduce more subtle aspects, such as the different group and energy velocities and mode orthogonality in lossy/amplifying cases. The elementary case of the perfect metal walls is also discussed, as well as multimode waveguide applications encountered in integrated optics.
Basics of resonators and cavities
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

The chapter encompasses a rigorous approach to model the non-Hermitian resonators that leaks energy in open spaces, as well as a simplified phenomenological approach valid in the limit of weak leakage. The rigorous treatment relies on the concept of normalized quasinormal modes. It is detailed for the intuitive example of a Fabry-Perot cavity. The relationship to the key LDOS concept – the local density-of-states – is given. The phenomenological model has an attractive simplicity to describe coupling phenomena through time constants. It addresses a variety of issues such as weak, strong and critical couplings. The correspondence with the classical textbook Fabry-Perot physics and related concepts such as finesse and quality factors is also outlined.
Semiconductors and quantum wells
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

The chapter aims at introducing students to the basic of electronic wavefunctions and energy bands in semiconductors. The Bloch mode is the key point, with the band edges and the bandgap. The Fermi-Dirac statistics based on the Fermi level is introduced to account for the population with the help of the relevant density-of-states. Doping is explained. The optical transitions, their rule and their dynamics are outlined. The focus is then more on heterojunctions, notably double heterojunctions and quantum wells, circumventing the textbook description of space charges, as they are suppressed in injected devices. Quantum wells are discussed in relation with laser diodes anr their threshold current, showing why the separate confinement heterostructure (SCH) combining a guide with quantum wells, stands as an early nanophotonic device design. The confinement factor of the optical mode relates this chapter to that on guided modes. Silicon and III-V semiconductors are contrasted throughout.
More confined electrons: Quantum dots and quantum wires
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

This chapter aims at introducing structures where the electron is confined in two or three dimensions, the so-called quantum wires and quantum dots. The basics of the density-of-states are explained, as its strong structure distinguishes these systems from higher-dimensional ones, in addition of the large interface/volume ratio. Fabrication routes of different nature are presented, either self-organised or epitaxial, and the tunability of photonic properties that result from variable size and shape is underlined. The semiconductor families and the applications of each route are presented. The emblematic case of InAs growth on III-V substrates provides the key phenomena of interest. The II-VI colloidal quantum dots are the other emblematic case, leading to the evolving uses of quantum dots, e.g. in displays or as nanoprobes. The description of porous silicon as a lower-dimensional version of silicon is used to introduce the reader to more subtle interplays of electronic and photonic properties.
Fundamental concepts of near-field optics
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

The concept of evanescent waves, which plays a key role in the description of the electromagnetic field at the nanoscale, is introduced in the first section. The second section offers an alternative introduction to near-field optics by examining the radiation of an electric dipole. These two sections can also be viewed as a discussion of the concepts of near field either in Fourier space (evanescent waves) or in direct space (dipole radiation). In the third section, we establish a connection between the quasi-electrostatic and quasi-magnetostatic approximations familiar in the regime of low frequencies and the near-field regime used in optics for TE and TM polarization. Finally, in the last part of the chapter, we highlight some particular properties of the near field. It will be seen that the familiar concepts of phase, Fresnel reflection factor, field structure, polarization need to be revisited in the near field.
Propagating surface plasmons
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

This chapter deals with surface waves propagating along a metallic interface called surface plasmon polaritons. We first introduce the concept of polariton, a mixed light-matter excitation of solids which has remarkable properties in order to confine electromagnetic energy. We discuss in detail its dispersion relation. We then discuss gap surface plasmon polaritons propagating between two parallel metallic planes with subwavelength separation. We finally briefly introduce plasmons on graphene, surface phonon polaritons and discuss the contribution of surface polaritons to the local density of states.
Propagation in periodic media (II): Photonic crystals
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

Chapter 16 focusses on the properties of photonic gaps and band edges. We introduce the gap modes with a complex-valued propagation constant. With a simplified two-wave approach, we give analytical expressions of the essential features of bandgaps in one-dimension, e.g. the gap width and the penetration depth that is related to the effective indices of evanescent Bloch modes. The presentation is complemented by a discussion of various flavours of slow light propagation, occurring typically but not exclusively near band edges.
Periodic waveguide
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

Periodic Waveguides are an important building-block of modern photonics, combining waveguides and gratings. They are logical candidates to implement miniature photonic functions, either in-plane or to couple guided waves with extended waves of the outer space. Their operation is quite conceptually complex, as they support guided modes like the classical waveguides (chapter 6) as well as resonant modes with finite lifetime. The chapter attempts to emphasize the underlying physical processes, stressing conceptual aspects, and develop the mathematical analysis to parallel the physical intuition. It also provides a comprehensive description of several illustrative optical components whose principle of operation fundamentally relies on the coupling between free-space and an almost confined electromagnetic field, with a complement on light extraction from LEDs.
Metamaterials and metasurfaces
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

In the last three decades, the advent of nanotechnology has enabled the fabrication of materials and surfaces patterned with meta-atoms with dimensions slightly smaller than the optical wavelength. This scale, which is too coarse for the medium to be considered as homogenous, is very rich in various exotic physical effects. The latter have enabled a plethora of new functionalities and applications, from artificial media with both negative indices, ‘perfect’ lenses, to metasurfaces offering a complete control of the phase and polarisation. In spite of the need to account for a substantial diversity, the chapter scope is also to highlight the fundamentals, by connecting to anterior works on the one hand, and the main applications, by considering the limitations and forces of metallic or dielectric nanostructures on the other hand.
Controlling light–matter interaction at the nanoscale with cavities and nanoantennas
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

We consider light-matter interaction processes such as emission, absorption, elastic or inelastic scattering and fluorescence by a quantum object such as an atom, a molecule or a quantum dot. The idea of controlling these processes with a resonator (a cavity or a resonant nanoantenna) is to use an intermediate structure which is coupled both to plane waves in vacuum and to the emitters. In this chapter we use a unified approach to discuss any type of resonator using the concept of Green tensor. We review different models to deal with spontaneous emission with the aim of clarifying the connection between classical and quantum points of view. After this analysis of spontaneous emission, we discuss different light-matter interaction processes such as Raman Scattering and Fluorescence both in the linear regime and in the saturation regime. Finally, we discuss how to optimize absorption and introduce the concept of impedance for an optical nanoantenna.
The Postfordist Field in American Manufacturing
Authors: Vidal Matt
Published: June 2022

This chapter sketches the transition from a single logic of production under fordism (mass production with scientific management) to two complementary but distinct logics under postfordism (lean production and worker empowerment). It then presents an overview of the study. The analysis of the field begins with a description of its organizational ecology and a demonstration that a highly specified model of lean production has been institutionalized, along with a substantive model of worker empowerment, as best practice. Then, using qualitative data fortified by statistical data from a sample of the same field, the chapter explains how the postfordist field has been institutionalized in a way that permits substantial variation in organizational performance, including a small number of highly efficient firms and a large number of relatively inefficient firms.