bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Observer Attributions of Depressed Students
Authors: McCaul Kevin D.
Published: March 2007

In two identical experiments, depressed and nondepressed college students made attributions about the causes of another's essay-writing behavior. Half of each depressed group was given information designed to lead to an internal attribution for the essay writing and half was given information designed to lead to an external attribution. The results of both experiments showed that across the attribution conditions, depressed students made more use of the attributional information than did nondepressed students. These data fit with the theoretical reasoning of Pittman and Pittman (1980) that lack of control motivates attributional processing. In addition, the data imply that depressed students, compared to nondepressed students, show more sensitivity in some types of information processing tasks.
Blaming the Booze
Authors: Critchlow Barbara
Published: March 2007

Evidence from historical analyses, legal history, and attribution studies is reviewed as it concerns how evidence of drunkenness affects the attribution of responsibility. The findings are discussed from the viewpoint of attribution theory. Several theoretical issues are discussed, including definitions of responsibility and individual differences. The available information supports the cultural ambivalence toward the use of alcohol.
Altruism and Depression
Authors: Morris Steven J. , Kanfer Frederick H.
Published: March 2007

The present study investigated depressives' level of engagement in altruistic activity. Thirty-three depressed and 114 nondepressed college students indicated whether or not they had recently performed each altruistic and egocentric activity on a checklist. In addition, their standards regarding altruistic behaviors were assessed. Compared to normals, depressives reported a significantly lower level of egocentric activity, but they did not differ from normals in their level of altruistic activity. Depressives exhibited significantly higher altruistic standards. Altruistic standards covaried with altruistic activity level in normals but not in depressives. These results were interpreted from the perspective of a formulation that posits that self-preoccupation in depression tends to reduce the accessibility of altruistic standards and thus diminishes the likelihood of altruistic behavior.
Cultural Influences on the Perception of Interaction Episodes
Authors: Forgas Joseph P. , Bond Michael H.
Published: March 2007

Most of our interactions take place within the frame work of culture-specific c social episodes. The cognitive representations people have about such social encounters should thus reflect the salient characteristics of their surrounding culture. Subjects from two very different cultures, Hong Kong (Chinese) and Australia (Western), provided judgments about their implicit representation of 27 social episodes common in both environments, analyzed using an Individual Differences Multi-dimensional Scaling (INDSCAL) procedure. We found significant differences in the cognitive representation of episodes, which were strongly related to the dominant features of the two cultures (see Hofstede, 1980). In addition, individual demographic, personality, and attitudinal variables were also related to episode perceptions in a culture-specific pattern. These results are discussed in terms of the influence of culture on cognition.
Social Influence Strategies
Authors: Offermann Lynn R. , Schrier Pamela E.
Published: March 2007

Subjects were asked to rate the likelihood of their taking each of 4O actions in order to get their own way in an organizational dispute in which they were either an employee or a supervisor. The 40 strategies clustered into eight factors. Women reported a greater likelihood of using Personal/Dependent and Negotiation strategies than men; men reported a greater likelihood of using Reward/Coercion and Indirect strategies than women. Persons in supervisory roles reported less likelihood of withdrawing and negotiating, as well as a greater likelihood of using Unilateral strategies than persons in employee roles. Attitudes toward power also affected strategy choice, with negative attitudes toward having power associated with a greater usage of Withdrawal and Negotiation and less likelihood of employing Reasoning, Pressure, or Unilateral strategies. Concern about others' power was associated with increased use of Indirect and Withdrawal strategies, and less likelihood of using Reasoning. Women and persons in supervisory roles were more likely to hold negative attitudes toward having power than men and persons in employee roles, whereas men were more likely to hold negative attitudes toward powerful others.
The Knowledge of What Might have Been
Authors: Johnson Joel T.
Published: March 2007

This study examined certain affective and attributional consequences of outcomes and "near outcomes"in the lives of target individuals. A total of 121 subjects read versions of scenarios that systematically differed in the valence of a major life outcome and whether the outcome actually or only nearly happened (the "near outcome"). Results generally indicated that near outcomes as well as actual out-comes had significant impact on the perceived affective consequences of the situation, and that near outcomes also affected trait inferences and predictions regarding the target person. Differences between the perceived affective consequences of positive near outcomes and negative near outcomes were generally a function of differences in the valence of the near outcomes rather than of differences in objective circumstances. Other results also reflected a derogation of the "near winner." The personalities of individuals who narrowly missed experiencing a positive event were rated more negatively; they also were judged as less likely to be successful and less likely to feel positively about their lives in the future. These results are discussed in terms of the suggestions of Kahneman and Tversky (1982) that individuals who learn of a near outcome may simulate its actual occurrence, and that the "simulation heuristic "may shape both inferences and affective states.
The Need for Meaning Following Disaster
Authors: Dollinger Stephen J.
Published: March 2007

Child victims of a lightning strike were interviewed to assess their attributions for the incident and to judge the degree of their emotional upset and symptomatology following the tragedy. Those who made any attribution were significantly more upset than those who made no attribution for the incident. Anecdotal data suggest that self-blaming attributions were made by those adults who, by virtue of their roles, had an opportunity to feel more responsibility for the incident; and these were the adults who seemed most emotionally upset (symptomatic) after the incident. The results have importance for the concept of "need for meaning" and for the issue of "when do people make attributions?"
Social Identity and Social Distance among Hong Kong Schoolchildren
Authors: Brewer Marilynn B. , Ho Hing-Kay , Lee Ju-Young , Miller Norman
Published: March 2007

In a study conducted in two Hong Kong schools, two measures of social distance were obtained with respect to descriptions of eight target children who varied systematically in sex and ethnic identity. Results on both measures clearly supported a hierarchical model of category combination in that discriminations among targets based on one category distinction were greater when the targets were members of the respondent's ingroup on the other category dimension than when they were outgroup members. The pattern of categorization effects differed, however, depending on which measure of social distance was used. For a scale of desired intimacy of interaction, target sex appeared to be the primary categorization, with ethnicity effects subordinate to gender. For a measure of perceived similarity to self, the dominance pattern was reversed, with gender effects subordinate to ethnicity. Responsiveness to target sex was not affected by whether children attended a coeducational or sex-segregated school.
Unconscious Influences of Memory for a Prior Event
Authors: Jacoby Larry L. , Kelley Colleen M.
Published: March 2007

We interpret the difference between aware and unaware forms of memory in terms of Polanyi's distinction between tool and object. Aware memory, such as recognition and recall, occurs when memory serves as an object of attention. Unaware memory occurs when memory serves as a tool to accomplish a present task. Both memory-as-tool and memory-as-object can rely on memory for specific prior experiences. Memory used as a tool is a pervasive form of unconscious influence. We present experiments in which memory used as a tool enhances perception, lowers the subjective experience of background noise, increases the fame of nonfamous names, and lowers estimates of the difficulty of anagrams. To escape the pervasive effects of unconscious memory, one must consciously remember the past experience, understand its influence in the present task, and possess a good theory to serve as an alternative basis for behavior. These three criteria may seldom be met.
Perceived Physical Attractiveness of Supporters and Nonsupporters of the Women's Movement
Authors: Klentz Bonnel , Beaman Arthur L. , Mapelli Stephanie D. , Ullrich James R.
Published: March 2007

Two studies were conducted to investigate the supposed physical attractiveness bias against supporters of the women's movement and to test a possible explanation for this reported bias. An attitude-similarity-mediated error (AS-ME) hypothesis was tested that proposes that people rate similar others as more physically attractive than dissimilar others, regardless of the attitudinal issue involved. Experiment I employed Byrne's attraction paradigm and had 235 males and 237females evaluate a same-sex stranger who had either similar or dissimilar attitudes related to either the women's movement or censorship. In Experiment 2, 176 males and 237 females evaluated opposite-sex strangers. The AS-ME explanation was supported in both experiments.
Effects of Parental Authoritarianism and Authoritativeness on Self-Esteem
Authors: Bun John R. , Louiselle Peggy A. , Misukanis Thomas M. , Mueller Rebecca A.
Published: March 2007

The effect of parental authority upon the self-esteem of 230 college students was studied. Authoritarianism and authoritativeness of the mother and the father were found to correlate significantly with self-esteem; authoritarianism was inversely related to self-esteem while authoritativeness was directly related to self-esteem. Permissiveness of the mother and the father were not significantly related to self-esteem. Regression analyses revealed that the proportion of variance in self-esteem that was associated with parental authoritarianism and authoritativeness was over twice as great for females as for males.
Male and Female Raters' Stereotyping of Male and Female Physiques
Authors: Ryckman Richard M. , Robbins Michael A. , Kaczor Linda M. , Gold Joel A.
Published: March 2007

College males and females attributed a variety of personality traits to male and female endomorphs, mesomorphs, and ectomorphs. The data provided strong support for research conducted over the past three decades which shows that individuals possess highly favorable stereotypes of mesomorphs and highly negative stereotypes of endomorphs. However, whereas most of the early research found that individuals have generally negative stereotypes of ectomorphs, they were seen instead in generally favorable terms by subjects in this study. Finally, subjects did make several distinctions between male and female physiques when attributing traits, suggesting the importance of including assessments of both male and female physiques in future body stereotyping research.
Situational Stress as a Consequence of Sex-Stereotyped Software
Authors: Cooper Joel , Hall Joan , Huff Charles
Published: March 2007

This experiment examined the affective consequences of sex-stereotyped educational software on students in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades of a private school. All students worked with the same two experimental programs either in the school computer center or at single computer stations. The results showed that situational stress was an affective consequence of working with cross-gender educational software if the students were asked to perform in the public context of the computer center. This was not true if the student worked in more privacy. It is concluded that such stress in females while using the more predominant male-stereotyped aggressive video game formats in the public, ego-involving environment of the computer center or classroom may be a possible factor in their avoidance of computers as documented in most recent literature.
Self-Serving Interpretations of Motives
Authors: Doherty Kevin , Weigold Michael F. , Schlenker Barry R.
Published: March 2007

Actor-subjects performed a helpful act and later received an interpersonal evaluation that attributed either more positive motives than they originally attributed to themselves, less positive motives, or the same balance of positive and negative motives. As predicted, actors initially attributed their helpfulness primarily to positive motives (e.g., to aid the other) rather than nonpositive motives (e.g., to create a good impression), whereas observer-subjects believed positive and nonpositive motives were equally likely reasons for the conduct. Subsequent reassessments of motives were not influenced b the evaluator's feedback. However, actors sharply denigrated the validity of an evaluation that assigned them less positive motives whereas they regarded more positive and same evaluations as highly valid. Observers, in contrast, regarded all evaluations as valid to an intermediate degree. The results support the view that actors will attempt to construct and protect desired images of self through their interpretations of their motives.
Some Effects of Arousal on Sex Stereotyping
Authors: Paulhus Delroy L. , Martin Carol Lynn , Murphy Gordon Keith
Published: March 2007

When the target's gender is the most salient cue, inferences tend to be gender based; when specific behavioral information is more salient, inferences tend to be trait based. This study examined the effects on sex stereotyping of arousal during recall of these two inference situations. Gender- and trait-based inferences were manipulated by providing subjects with information about four targets: One target of each sex was described with four stereotype-neutral behaviors; another target of each sex was described with three stereotype-neutral behaviors plus one stereotype-inconsistent behavior. Subjects memorized the four descriptions under quiet conditions. Later they rated the targets on various gender-related attributes while arousal was manipulated with soft or loud white noise. Results showed that arousal promoted gender inferences for initially gender-based but not for initially trait-based inferences.
Effects of Expected Communication Target Expertise and Timing of Set on Trait Use in Person Description
Authors: Boudreau Louis A. , Baron Reuben M. , Oliver Peter V.
Published: March 2007

The effects of expecting to convey one's impression of a person to another on the tendency to use traits in person description were examined when the expected recipient of the impression was an expert in peon assessment, a peer, or a grade school child. The communication expectancy set was induced either before or after exposure to impression formation information. Results showed lessened use of traits when subjects expected to report to the expert. Tuning-set timing effects included increased reporting of specific behaviors in the preimpression condition and reduced trait use with the exert in the postimpression condition, but only on a recognition measure. Results have implications for factors affecting the general trait categorization process and for Kruglanski's lay epistemic model of motivational factor in construct formation.
Taking a Closer Look: Reasserting the Role of the Self-Concept in Dissonance Theory
Authors: Thibodeau Ruth , Aronson Elliot
Published: March 2007

In an early revision of Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance, Aronson argued that dissonance was aroused when an important element of the self-concept was violated. More recently, Cooper and Fazio's "New Look" version of the theory maintains that dissonance is the result of feeling personally responsible for an aversive outcome. This article examines the claims of these two positions, ultimately arguing for the superiority of Aronson's formulation. The authors maintain that research findings in support of the New Look can also be explained by the self-concept formulation. In addition, they argue that the twin postulates of the New Look position-personal responsibility and aversive consequences-lack adequate conceptual grounding without reference to the self-concept. Finally, previous research is examined that is incompatible with the New Look, as well as new data suggesting that aversive consequences are not necessary for dissonance arousal.
Reply to Whitley and Reaffirmation of Our Conclusions
Authors: Shaffer David R. , Kerwin Jeffrey
Published: March 2007

Whitley contends that our recent study exploring the role of dogmatism as a moderator of mock Juries' responses to judicial instructions was deficient conceptually, psychometricaly, and statistically, thus leading the reader to draw potentially erroneous conclusions. Although our original presentation left us open to criticism, we argue that our conceptualization and measurement of our group-evel construct (jury dogmatism) were not deficient, and wefurther demonstrate that our original conclusions were quite reasonable and did not capitalize on improper scaling procedures and statistical techniques.
The Structure of Counterfactual Thought
Authors: Roese Neal J. , Olson James M.
Published: March 2007

The structure of counterfactual thoughts (evaluations of past outcomes based on 'might have been" alternatives) was investigated. Subjects read stories describing a student preparing for an exam, with the outcome (success vs. failure) and past record of the student (good vs. poor) manipulated. Subjects then 'undid" the outcome by altering (mutating) events that preceded it. Outcome valence significantly predicted the structure of counterfactual alternatives, such that subtractive structures (which delete elements to reconstruct reality) were more likely after success whereas additive structures (which add new elements to reconstruct reality) were more likely after failure. Additive structures were even more predominant when the failure was framed by a history of past failures. No main effect of outcome valence was found on the total number of counterfactual thoughts recorded. These findings point to the utility of differentiating counterfactuals on the basis of structural types.
The Structure of Group Cohesion
Authors: Cota Albert A. , Evans Charles R. , Dion Kenneth L. , Kilik Lindy , Longman R. Stewart
Published: March 2007

Group cohesion is an important construct in understanding the behavior of groups. However, there has been ongoing controversy on how to define and measure this construct. Central to this debate is the structure of cohesion. The authors critically review the literature on unidimensional and multidimensional models of cohesion and describe cohesion as a multidimensional construct with primary and secondary dimensions. Primary dimensions are applicable to describing the cohesiveness of all or most types of groups, whereas secondary dimensions are applicable to describing the cohesiveness of specific types of groups. Viewing group cohesion as consisting of primary and secondary dimensions is discussed.
Psychological Importance of the "Big Five": Impression Formation and Context Effects
Authors: Willams John E. , Munick Marci L. , Saiz Jose L. , FormyDuval Deborah L.
Published: March 2007

In Study 1, university students rated the 300 items of the Adjective Check List for "psychological importance. " Adjectives representing the factors Extraversion (E) and Agreeableness (A) were judged more important than adjectives representing Emotional Stability (S), Conscientiousness (C), and Openness (0). In Study 2, graduate faculty members rated hypothetical applicants described with adjectives representing different combinations of the five factors. Contrary to predictions, applicants described with E and A adjectives were viewed less positively than applicants described with C and 0 adjectives, who were not viewed differently from applicants described by all five factors. In Study 3, university students rated the 300 adjectives for psychological importance in one of two contexts: working relationships or personal relationships. The results suggested that the unexpected results of Study 2 were obtained because the graduate faculty members viewed the applicants in the context of working rather than personal relationships.
The Differential Impact of Gender Ratios on Women and Men: Tokenism, Self-Confidence, and Expectations
Authors: Cohen Laurie L. , Swim Janet K.
Published: March 2007

The results show that female subjects who anticipated being tokens-the only woman in the group were more likely than nontoken women to prefer a different group, to desire a change in the gender composition of the group, and to expect to stereotype others. These effects were stronger for token women with less confidence about an upcoming task. In contrast, token and nontoken male subjects did not differ in their responses to these measures. Yet potential female and male tokens, regardless of confidence, were both more likely to anticipate stereotypic evaluations from their group members. The authors discuss the relevance of these results to career choices by women in nontraditional careers.
The Influence of Motor Processes on Attitudes Toward Novel Versus Familiar Semantic Stimuli
Authors: Priester Joseph R. , Cacioppo John T. , Petty Richard E.
Published: March 2007

Recent research has suggested that the motor processes elicited by upper arm isometric flexion and extension can subtly influence attitudes. Specifically, ideographs evaluatively categorized while performing isometric upper arm flexion were subsequently preferred to ideographs evaluatively categorized while performing isometric upper arm extension. The present research sought to replicate this attitudinal effect with semantic stimuli and to examine a theoretical boundary condition posited by the elaboration likelihood model (ELM). Subjects categorized either neutral words or pronounceable nonwords while adopting the isometric positions. Results indicated that motor processes influenced subsequent attitudes toward stimuli with few associations (i.e., nonwords) more than toward stimuli with many associations in memory (i.e., familiar words). These results are consistent with a growing literature on the possible influence of nondeclarative (e.g., procedural) knowledge on attitudes.
Behavioral Consensus Information Affects People's Inferences about Population Traits
Authors: Windschid Paul D. , Wells Gary L.
Published: March 2007

Because people often do not moderate trait inferences when consensus is manipulated, it has been concluded that people neglect consensus information. Use of a Bayesian model, how ever, shows that there is no logical imperative that behavioral base-rate information must moderate trait inferences for a target's behavior. Instead, changes in consensus information can be accommodated by changes in the assumed prevalence of relevant traits in the population. Across two scenarios (N= 84), consensus manipulations had no effect on participants' trait inferences from the target's behavior but had robust effects on participants' assumptions about traits for the average person in a relevant population. Although attributors are unlikely to be using a Bayesian reasoning process, their responses do not violate Bayesian reasoning, and they clearly are not neglecting consensus information. A distinction is drawn between neglecting consensus information and using consensus information in a manner consistent with a dispositional bias.
Individual Differences and Attitudes Toward Rape: A Meta-Analytic Review
Authors: Anderson Kathryn B. , Cooper Harris , Okamura Linda
Published: March 2007

An overview discusses (a) the importance of rape attitudes, (b) the major rape attitude measures, and (c) the applicability of four theoretical frameworks of hostility toward women to rape attitude maintenance. Findings from 72 studies of rape attitudes and individual differences were quantitatively synthesized. The meta-analysis revealed more rape acceptance for men, older people, and people from lower socioeconomic status backgrounds. For men, cognitive predispositions toward perpetrating rape were strong predictors of rape acceptance. For women, experience as and exposure to rape victims were associated with slightly less rape acceptance. Consistent with some theoretical predictions, traditional gender role beliefs, adversarial sexual beliefs, needs for power and dominance, aggressiveness and anger, and conservative political beliefs predicted rape acceptance. Implications for rape education programs and research are discussed.
An Individual Difference Measure of Motivation to Control Prejudiced Reactions
Authors: Dunton Bridget C. , Fazio Russell H.
Published: March 2007

The present research examines the assertion that individuals differ in the extent to which they seek to control the expression of prejudice. The authors developed the Motivation to Control Prejudiced Reactions Scale to assess this individual difference. Psychometric properties of the scale are reported, including its stable two-factor structure across samples. In addition, evidence regarding predictive validity is presented. The expression of racial prejudice on self-report measures was moderated by the extent to which respondents reported being motivated to inhibit prejudiced reactions. Specifically, the authors observed interactions between unobtrusive estimates of racial attitudes based on automatic attitude activation and scores on the Motivation to Control Prejudiced Reactions Scale when predicting self-reported evaluations. Motivated individuals expressed less prejudiced responses even if their unobtrusive estimates revealed automatically activated negativity in response to Blacks. In contrast, the less motivated provided self-reports consistent with their automatically activated attitudes.
Social Ostracism by Coworkers: Does Rejection Lead to Loafing or Compensation?
Authors: Williams Kipling D. , Sommer Kristin L.
Published: March 2007

A new theoretical model and research paradigm are introduced to investigate the phenomenon of social ostracism-being ignored by others who are in one's presence. The authors examined the effects of social ostracism on individuals' subsequent contributions to a group task. Social loafing Optically occurs on collective tasks. However; to regain their sense of belonging to the group, the authors expected ostracized individuals to socially compensate-to work harder collectively than coactively. Participants were asked to generate as many uses as they could for an object, either coactively or collectively with two others who had either ostracized or included them in an earlier ball-tossing exchange. Ostracized females socially compensated, whereas nonostracized females neither loafed nor compensated. Ostracized and nonostracized males socially loafed. Based on these data and the accompanying attributional and nonverbal analyses, the authors surmised that males and females interpret and respond to social ostracism differently.
Eminence Rankings of Personality Psychologists as a Reflection of the Field
Authors: Mayer John D. , Carlsmith Kevin M.
Published: March 2007

The eminence of scholars within a given field can reveal which conceptual work and scientific methods in the field are most prized and valued. The authors follow procedures employed in other disciplines to calculate the eminence of personality psychologists for the first time. The top 60 individuals are classified according to rank, years of productivity, and type of research. The authors found two distinct rankings of eminent individuals depending on the type of textbook surveyed and found that the ranking of eminence overlaps clinical psychology more than social psychology. These and other results are used to discuss the nature of personality psychology today.
What is Beautiful is Culturally Good: The Physical Attractiveness Stereotype has Different Content in Collectivistic Cultures
Authors: Wheeler Ladd , Kim Youngmee
Published: March 2007

A total of 157 university students in Korea rated photos of other Korean students at three levels of attractiveness on dimensions included in meta-analyses of the physical attractiveness stereotype as shown in North America. Consistent with predictions based on the greater tendency in collectivistic cultures to stress harmonious relationships, participants did not perceive attractive targets as higher in potency, as North American participants do, and did perceive attractive targets as higher in integrity and in concern for others, as North American participants do not. It is argued that all cultures stereotype on the basis of physical attractiveness but that the content of the stereotype depends on cultural values. An explanation for attractiveness stereotyping is offered that is applicable to any culture.
Leakage Beliefs and the Correspondence Bias
Authors: Lord Charles G. , Scott Karen O. , Pugh Marilyn A. , Desforges Donna M.
Published: March 2007

The correspondence bias involves attributing an actor's behavior to his or her disposition, even when the actor's behavior was constrained. The bias occurs in part because perceivers believe that an actor behaves in ways that reflect both the constraint and the actor's true traits or attitudes, which "leak "from the constrained behavior Students in three studies demonstrated significant leakage beliefs in their expectations for constrained essay writers' true traits and attitudes. The greater an individual's leakage beliefs (in Study 3), the greater that individual's correspondence bias. The results support previous conceptual analyses of the correspondence bias and emphasize the importance of individual differences to understanding the phenomenon.
Attention-Grabbing Vocal Signals: Impact on Information Processing and Expectations
Authors: Bugental Daphne Blunt , Lin Eta K.
Published: March 2007

Adults listened to children's verbalizations that differed in fundamental frequency (fo) or pitch, a vocal quality that has potential attention-eliciting properties. Undergraduate women listened to child messages in anticipation of a teaching interaction. As predicted, higher recall was shown for child messages accompanied by high fo than low fo; this advantage was, however, limited to younger children. Additionally, listeners showed differential expectations for their teaching success on the combined basis of child fo and their own perceptions of perceived social control (PC). As predicted, low-PC teachers expected that interactions with high-fo children would be relatively unsuccessful, whereas interactions with low-fo children would be relatively easy. Results are interpreted as reflecting differential reactions to the demands of dependent others based on cognitive representations of such relationships.
Experimental Induction of Biased Systematic Processing: The Directed-Thought Technique
Authors: Killeya Ley A. , Johnson Blair T.
Published: March 2007

The concept of biased systematic processing is usually introduced after the fact to explain deviant persuasion patterns. In contrast, the authors introduce the directed-thought technique, an experimental way to examine induced biased systematic processing. Supporting the efficacy of this technique, two experiments found that directions to think positively or negatively attenuated the effects of the quality of the message on persuasion, even when involvement was high and regardless of whether the message was pro-or counterattitudinal. Instructions to concentrate on negative thoughts also produced negative attitudes, whereas instructions to concentrate on positive thoughts produced positive attitudes. These results confirm a causal role for the valence of cognitive responses in persuasion, which prior research has suggested less directly. The authors make recommendations for the future use of the directed-thought technique, especially regarding its use in understanding the circumstances that can overcome positive or negative message recipient biases.
Relations between Affect and Personality: Support for the Affect-Level and Affective-Reactivity Views
Authors: Gross James J. , Sutton Steven K. , Ketelaar Timothy
Published: March 2007

A consensus has emerged that neuroticism is associated with negative affect and extraversion is associated with positive affect. However, it is unclear whether these personality traits are associated with magnitude of affective reactions (Affective-Reactivity view), with levels of tonic affect (Affect-Level view), or with both. To assess these views, affective state was manipulated using film clips, measured at multiple time points and related to measures of neuroticism and extraversion (H. J. Esyenck) and dispositional negative affect and positive affect (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen). Results supported both Affective-Reactivity and Affect-Level views, and this support was more robust for neuroticism and extraversion than for dispositional negative affect and positive affect.
The Effect of Response Options on Decisions and Subsequent Behavior: Sometimes Inaction is Better
Authors: Cioffi Delia , Garner Randy
Published: March 2007

An active decision can result in more extreme self-inference than a passive decision. In the present study, however, induced inaction had the greatest effect on later behavior Students were asked to indicate their intentions about donating blood the following week. The rate of nonresponding to this request was highest when the only provided response option was to actively convey an intention not to donate, and the actual blood donation rate among these nonresponders was high. Recipients of this response option may have suspended a decision about donation, a suspension which in turn could have increased the probability of eventual donation through one or more social and self perceptual pathways. The behavioral effect of response option frames can be significantly modified by specific features of the request situation.
Alternative Response and Scoring Methods for Multiple-Choice Items: An Empirical Study of Probabilistic and Ordinal Response Modes
Authors: Poizner Sharon B. , Nicewander W. Alan , Gettys Charles F.
Published: March 2007

Binary, probability, and ordinal scoring proce dures for multiple-choice items were examined. In a situation where true scores were experimentally controlled by the manipulation of partial informa tion, it was found that both the probability and or dinal scoring systems were more reliable than the binary scoring method. A second experiment using vocabulary items and standard reliability estimation procedures also showed higher reliability for the two partial information scoring methods relative to binary scoring.
Predicting the Impact of Simple and Compound Life Change Events
Authors: Wainer Howard , TimbersFairbank Dianne , Hough Richard L.
Published: March 2007

A scale of impact for 95 life change events was determined from a sample of 4 ethnic groups. Fifty- one of these events fit a Rasch model and had the same impact in all four groups (sample free item calibration). The differences among the groups were characterized by individual parameters called "stabilities." A second study was performed that estimated a linear transformation of the impacts to yield an impact scale with ratio properties.
The Use of Structural Equation Models in Interpreting Regression Equations Including Suppressor and Enhancer Variables
Authors: McFatter Robert M.
Published: March 2007

It is shown that the usual interpretation of "sup pressor" effects in a multiple regression equation assumes that the correlations among variables have been generated by a particular structural (causal) model, namely, Conger's (1974) two-factor model. A distinction is drawn between the technical definition of "suppression," which is more fittingly labelled enhancement, and suppression as the appropriate interpretation of a regression equation exhibiting enhancement when that equation has been gen erated by the two-factor model. It is demonstrated that a number of models can generate enhancement but cannot sensibly be interpreted in terms of the measuring, removing, or suppressing of irrelevant or invalid variance. How a regression equation is interpreted thus depends critically on the structural model deemed appropriate.
Dominance, Information, and Hierarchical Scaling of Variance Space
Authors: Krus David J. , Ceurvorst Robert W.
Published: March 2007

A method for computation of dominance rela tions and for construction of their corresponding hierarchical structures is presented. It is shown that variance can be computed from the squared pair- wise differences between scores and that dominance indices are actually linear transformations of vari ances. The interpretation of variance as a quantita tive measure of information is suggested and con ceptual partition of variance into components as sociated with relational spaces is proposed. The link between dominance and variance allows in tegration of the mathematical theory of information with least squares statistical procedures without re course to logarithmic transformations of the data.
A Comparison of an Actuarial and a Linear Model for Predicting Organizational Behavior
Authors: Frank Blake A.
Published: March 2007

Using an actuarial and a linear model for pre dicting organizational behavior, employee sub groups were identified through a hierarchical and convergent clustering of assessment variable profiles in a validation sample (N = 2,899) and cross-val idated by assigning a holdout sample (N = 2,899) to the original subgroups on the basis of a min imum distance qualifier. Subgroup membership in both samples was significantly associated with cur rent employment status and job performance. A linear discriminant function analysis of employment status and a linear regression analysis of job per formance also yielded significant results. A com parison of the two models in terms of predictive ac curacy indicated that the two models were essential ly equivalent. However, it was concluded that the actuarial model was superior to the linear model, since a descriptive and behavioral taxonomy based on stable, homogeneous employee subgroups could be developed.
A Test of Graphicacy in Children
Authors: Wainer Howard
Published: March 2007

A test of graphicacy was developed, administered to third- through fifth- grade schoolchildren, and scored using the Rasch model with Gustafsson's conditional maximum likelihood estimation meth od. After removing children with scores at or below chance, the model fit well. It was found that of the four types of displays used (tables, line charts, bar charts, pie charts), the line chart was inferior to the others, which were all equal. There was some in teraction between the kind of question asked and the display technique. Third-grade children were much poorer at reading graphs than fourth- or fifth- grade children, but the differences between these latter two groups were modest.
Reliability of Test Scores and Decisions
Authors: Traub Ross E. , Rowley Glenn L.
Published: March 2007

A criterion-referenced test can be viewed as testing either a continuous or a binary variable, and the scores on a test can be used as measurements of the variable or to make decisions (e.g., pass or fail). Recent work on the reliability of criterion-refer enced tests has focused on the use of scores from tests of continuous variables for decision-making purposes. This work can be categorized according to type of loss function—threshold, linear, or quad ratic. It is the loss function that is used either ex plicitly or implicitly to evaluate the goodness of the decisions that are made on the basis of the test scores. The literature in which a threshold loss function is employed can be further subdivided ac cording to whether the goodness of decisions is as sessed as the probability of making an erroneous decision or as a measure of the consistency of deci sions over repeated testing occasions. This review points to the need for simple procedures by which to estimate the probability of decision errors.
Comparison of Three Techniques to Assess Group-Level Beta and Gamma Change
Authors: Schmitt Neal , Pulakos Elaine D. , Lieblein Amy
Published: March 2007

Alpha, beta, and gamma change concerning student attitudes toward a college course were assessed before and after the first examination in that course for an ex perimental and control group. Three methodologies were used to assess change. Those proposed by Ter borg, Howard, and Maxwell (1980) and Schmitt (1982) produced reasonably similar conclusions con cerning change, while the methodology suggested by Zmud and Armenakis (1978) produced relatively dif ferent conclusions. The relative advantages and limita tions of the procedures are discussed. The major con clusion is that much additional use and comparison of these methodologies for assessing change is necessary before researchers or practitioners can interpret the practical significance of beta and gamma change or the relative utility of various approaches to the measure ment of beta and gamma change.
Estimating Measures of Pass-Fail Reliability From Parallel Half-Tests
Authors: Woodruff David J. , Sawyer Richard L.
Published: March 2007

Two methods are derived for estimating measures of pass-fail reliability. The methods require only a sin gle test administration and are computationally simple. Both are based on the Spearman-Brown formula for estimating stepped-up reliability. The non-distribu tional method requires only that the test be divisible into parallel half-tests; the normal method makes the additional assumption of normally distributed test scores. Bias for the two procedures is investigated by simulation. For nearly normal test score distributions, the normal method performed slightly better than the non-distributional method, but for moderately to se verely skewed or symmetric platykurtic test score dis tributions the non-distributional method was superior. Test results from a licensure examination are used to illustrate the methods. Index terms: Cohen's kappa, licensure examinations, pass-fail reliability, reliability, Spearman-Brown formula.
Measuring Change By Means of a Hybrid Variant of the Linear Logistic Model With Relaxed Assumptions
Authors: Formann Anton K. , Spiel Christiane
Published: March 2007

The linear logistic model with relaxed assumptions (LLRA) was developed for measuring changes in quali tative data. It assumes item-specific person parameters and thus does not require homogeneous items to be presented to the persons at two points in time. The hybrid variant of this model maintains the multidimen sionality of the person parameters, but it allows for different sets of items each of which is presented only once. In the model, a Rasch homogeneous item at t2 with possibly differing difficulty corresponds to each item at t1. A short description of both models is fol lowed by a first application of the hybrid LLRA to em pirical data from a study on text comprehension. This example not only serves to demonstrate possible re sults when applying the LLRA, but is also used to out line the principle of hypothesis testing and model con trols. Index terms: dichotomous data, linear logistic model, measuring change, Rasch model, text compre hension.
Analyzing Homogeneity and Heterogeneity of Change Using Rasch and Latent Class Models: A Comparative and Integrative Approach
Authors: Meiser Thorsten , Hein-Eggers Monika , Rompe Pamela , Rudinger Georg
Published: March 2007

The application of unidimensional Rasch models to longitudinal data assumes homogeneity of change over persons. Using latent class models, several classes with qualitatively distinct patterns of develop ment can be taken into account; thus, heterogeneity of change is assumed. The mixed Rasch model inte grates both the Rasch and the latent class approach by dividing the population of persons into classes that conform to Rasch models with class-specific param eters. Thus, qualitatively different patterns of change can be modeled with the homogeneity assumption re tained within each class, but not between classes. In contrast to the usual latent class approach, the mixed Rasch model includes a quantitative differentiation among persons in the same class. Thus, quantitative differences in the level of the latent attribute are dis entangled from the qualitative shape of development. A theoretical comparison of the formal approaches is presented here, as well as an application to empirical longitudinal data. In the context of personality de velopment in childhood and early adolescence, the existence of different developmental trajectories is demonstrated for two aspects of personality. Rela tions between the latent trajectories and discrete exogenous variables are investigated.
Computer-Assisted Test Assembly Using Optimization Heuristics
Authors: Luecht Richard M.
Published: March 2007

Numerous algorithms and heuristics have be en in-troduced that allow test developers to simultan eously generate multiple test forms that match quali tative constraints, such as content blueprint s, and titative targets, such as test information func tions. A variation of a greedy algorithm is presente d here that can be used in a wide range of test as sembly problems. The algorithm selects items to have a locally optimal fit to a moving set of average criterion values. A normalization procedure is used to allow the heuristic to work simultaneously with numerous qualitative and quantitative constraints. A complex sample application is demonstrated.
The State of Regional Economics: A Note on the French Contribution
Authors: Vermot-Desroches Bernard , Joyal André
Published: March 2007

Richardson's article on the state of regional economics, recently published in this review, refers almost exclusively to English language literature. This note emphasizes the principal original ideas contributed by French regional economics, which is steering an increasingly solitary course. This brief survey deals with location, market areas, spatial interaction, and regional theory and economic policy.
Testing for Causality in Regional Econometric Models
Authors: Green R. Jeffery , Albrecht Gary R.
Published: March 2007

One of the most common features of regional econometric models is the specification of national variables as exogenous to the regional model. Often these variables appear as distributed lags in the structural equations. Concepts and tests for statistical causality can be used to determine whether this procedure is appropriate in a particular case. This paper discusses these tests and illustrates them with an example from a model being developed of the state of Indiana. It is our view that such tests can be a useful step in the specification of a regional econometric model.
Regional Disparities in China
Authors: Lakshmanan T. R. , Hua Chang-i
Published: March 2007

This article is an attempt to define the dimensions and spatial patterns of regional disparities in China, to interpret their origins, and to speculate about their likely evolution. If reform in China is to be guided by efficiency considerations, changes in the incentive system must be supplemented by coherent proposals related to organizations, assets, and external linkages. The systematic nature of the reform process must be recognized, and the need for broader approaches to conceptualizing system change and transition are needed.