bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The PR-Set7 binding domain of Riz1 is required for the H4K20me1-H3K9me1 trans-tail ‘histone code’ and Riz1 tumor suppressor function
Authors: Congdon Lauren M. , Sims Jennifer K. , Tuzon Creighton T. , Rice Judd C.
Published: January 2014

PR-Set7/Set8/KMT5a is the sole histone H4 lysine 20 monomethyltransferase (H4K20me1) in metazoans and is essential for proper cell division and genomic stability. We unexpectedly discovered that normal cellular levels of monomethylated histone H3 lysine 9 (H3K9me1) were also dependent on PR-Set7, but independent of its catalytic activity. This observation suggested that PR-Set7 interacts with an H3K9 monomethyltransferase to establish the previously reported H4K20me1-H3K9me1 trans-tail ‘histone code’. Here we show that PR-Set7 specifically and directly binds the C-terminus of the Riz1/PRDM2/KMT8 tumor suppressor and demonstrate that the N-terminal PR/SET domain of Riz1 preferentially monomethylates H3K9. The PR-Set7 binding domain was required for Riz1 nuclear localization and maintenance of the H4K20me1-H3K9me1 trans-tail ‘histone code’. Although Riz1 can function as a repressor, Riz1/H3K9me1 was dispensable for the repression of genes regulated by PR-Set7/H4K20me1. Frameshift mutations resulting in a truncated Riz1 incapable of binding PR-Set7 occur frequently in various aggressive cancers. In these cancer cells, expression of wild-type Riz1 restored tumor suppression by decreasing proliferation and increasing apoptosis. These phenotypes were not observed in cells expressing either the Riz1 PR/SET domain or PR-Set7 binding domain indicating that Riz1 methyltransferase activity and PR-Set7 binding domain are both essential for Riz1 tumor suppressor function.
AUF1 contributes to Cryptochrome1 mRNA degradation and rhythmic translation
Authors: Lee Kyung-Ha , Kim Sung-Hoon , Kim Hyo-Jin , Kim Wanil , Lee Hwa-Rim , Jung Youngseob , Choi Jung-Hyun , Hong Ka Young , Jang Sung Key , Kim Kyong-Tai
Published: January 2014

In the present study, we investigated the 3′ untranslated region (UTR) of the mouse core clock gene cryptochrome 1 (Cry1) at the post-transcriptional level, particularly its translational regulation. Interestingly, the 3′UTR of Cry1 mRNA decreased its mRNA levels but increased protein amounts. The 3′UTR is widely known to function as a cis-acting element of mRNA degradation. The 3′UTR also provides a binding site for microRNA and mainly suppresses translation of target mRNAs. We found that AU-rich element RNA binding protein 1 (AUF1) directly binds to the Cry1 3′UTR and regulates translation of Cry1 mRNA. AUF1 interacted with eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3 subunit B and also directly associated with ribosomal protein S3 or ribosomal protein S14, resulting in translation of Cry1 mRNA in a 3′UTR-dependent manner. Expression of cytoplasmic AUF1 and binding of AUF1 to the Cry1 3′UTR were parallel to the circadian CRY1 protein profile. Our results suggest that the 3′UTR of Cry1 is important for its rhythmic translation, and AUF1 bound to the 3′UTR facilitates interaction with the 5′ end of mRNA by interacting with translation initiation factors and recruiting the 40S ribosomal subunit to initiate translation of Cry1 mRNA.
Race and Gender in Philosophy of Psychiatry
Authors: Nissim-Sabat Marilyn
Published: January 2014

This chapter focuses on a critical analysis of particular theoretical frameworks in psychiatry in their interplay with issues of race and gender. (Important sources documenting racism and sexism in psychiatry are cited.) Analysis shows that theoretical perspective is one of the most important factors in play in working toward the goal of eliminating racism and sexism from psychiatry. To this end, four types of theoretical frameworks are considered: naturalism, social constructionism, relativism and antirelativism, and phenomenology. Also considered are efforts to show the compatibility of two different frameworks. Each framework is explored and critiqued regarding its potential to expose and correct racist and sexist attitudes that are incorporated into research and treatment in psychiatry. Included are discussions of the relevance of realism and antirealism in evaluating theoretical frameworks, as well as evaluation of theoretical claims regarding the roles of biology, genetics, the medical model, and culture in either sustaining or counteracting racism and sexism in psychiatry, including psychoanalysis. Finally, Husserlian phenomenology is suggested as a philosophical framework for psychiatry that can transcend the limitations of the other frameworks discussed. Phenomenology enables psychiatry, including psychology and psychoanalysis, to constitute itself as a science that transcends both constructionist relativism and naturalistic reductionism.
Why Psychiatry Should Fear Medicalization
Authors: Charland Louis C.
Published: January 2014

Medicalization in contemporary psychopharmacology is increasingly dominated by commercial interests that threaten the scientific and ethical integrity of psychiatry. At the same time, the proliferation of new social media has altered the manner in which the social groups and institutions that have stakes in medicalization interact. Consumers are at once more powerful than ever before, but also more vulnerable. The upshot of all these developments is that medicalization is no longer simply the professed enemy of anti-psychiatry and its supporters. It is now also an enemy of psychiatry. Once a welcome ally of psychiatry, medicalization appears to have turned into a fearsome enemy.
Technology and Psychiatry
Authors: Phillips James
Published: January 2014

This chapter evaluates the multiple roles of technology in psychiatry, drawing on philosophical resources and mindful of psychiatry's need to benefit from technology without reducing itself to nothing but a technology. It approaches the topic of technology and psychiatry from three perspectives. First, it addresses technology as a way of thinking-technical or instrumental reason-and how technical reason informs psychiatric theory and practice. For this analysis it invokes a philosophical tradition that stretches from Aristotle to Toulmin and Gadamer. Second, it takes up technology as achievement, the most obvious example of which is psychotropic medications. For this dimension of technology in psychiatry it recruits philosopher Albert Borgmann, who has analyzed the tendency of technological products, analyzed as device paradigms, to transmute into commodities. Finally, the chapter takes up technology as instrument of investigation. Philosopher Don Ihde is the guide in this investigation into how the psychiatrically real can become what is revealed through the technological instrument. The final section addresses the overarching question of how to set the right balance between the technological and the non-technological in psychiatry-how psychiatry can make use of technology without losing its humanistic core. It notes that the binary of the technological and non-technology in psychiatry can be mapped onto other binaries: biology and psychology, mind and brain, medication and psychotherapy, diagnosis and patient, theory and instance, general and individual, technical and practical reason. These binaries are not precisely isomorphic with each other, but all contribute to evaluating the role of technology in psychiatry, both in the present and in the desired future.
Other Minds, Autism, and Depth in Human Interaction
Authors: Avramides Anita
Published: January 2014

This chapter suggests that, when considering the philosophical problem of other minds, we distinguish between "thick" and "thin" versions of it. While traditional approaches take the problem to be a thick one, more recent work can be seen as addressing only a thin variant. Dretske, while acknowledging the thick problem, proposes a perceptual model of our knowledge of other minds which addresses only the thin version. The chapter proposes that, in the place of the thick problem, we consider the quality of our interactions with others. Following Wittgenstein, it suggests that where individuals share a nature their interactions exhibit a quality that it calls "depth." Where that nature is not, or is only partially, shared, there one might expect to find the quality of the interaction between persons disturbed. The chapter suggests that this disturbance might explain the impaired quality of interaction between autistic and non-autistic individuals.
Values-Based Practice
Authors: Fulford K.W.M. , van Staden C.W. , Crisp Roger
Published: January 2014

This chapter outlines the origins in ordinary language philosophy of a new skills-based approach to working with complex and conflicting values in medicine called values-based practice. Ordinary language philosophy (as exemplified by Austin and others of the mid-twentieth-century "Oxford school") focuses on our use of words as a (sometimes) useful first step in coming to a more complete understanding of their meanings. The theory of values-based practice was developed by applying ideas from ordinary language philosophy to the long-running debate about the "boundary problem" presented by the concept of mental disorder. Ordinary language philosophy turns this debate topsy-turvy: it shows, (a) that the concept of mental disorder instead of being the target problem is a resource for coming to a more complete understanding of the meanings of concepts of disorder as a whole including the concept of bodily disorder; and correspondingly, (b) that the value-laden nature of mental disorder far from being part of the problem (to be solved either by limitation or outright elimination) points to an evaluative element of meaning in concepts of disorder as a whole, again including concepts of bodily disorder. It is these topsy-turvy results that underpin the development of values-based practice. In a brief concluding section we indicate the potential for further development of values-based practice supported by ordinary language and other philosophies particularly through engagement with non-Western language groups representing diverse traditions of thought and practice in mental health.
Cognitive Science and Explanations of Psychopathology
Authors: Cratsley Kelso , Samuels Richard
Published: January 2014

This chapter examines the core explanatory strategies of cognitive science and their application to the study of psychopathology. In addition to providing a taxonomy of different strategies, the chapter illustrates their application, with special attention to autism spectrum disorder and major depressive disorder. It concludes by considering two challenges to the prospects of a developed cognitive science of psychopathology.
Rationality and Sanity
Authors: Bortolotti Lisa
Published: January 2014

The main objective in this chapter is to examine the role of judgments of rationality in the current understanding of psychiatric disorders. To what extent are the criteria for classification and diagnosis independent of judgments of rationality? The typical symptoms of many psychiatric disorders are described as instances of epistemic, procedural, or emotional irrationality, and references to such forms of irrationality are frequently made in the current classificatory and diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia, dementia, depression, and personality disorders. That said, the chapter defend the view that irrationality is neither necessary nor sufficient for a behavior to be characterized as symptomatic of a psychiatric disorder.
Depression and the Phenomenology of Free Will
Authors: Ratcliffe Matthew
Published: January 2014

This chapter offers a phenomenological account of impaired agency in depression. It begins by briefly considering some first-person descriptions of how depression affects the ability to act, which point to an altered "experience of free will." Although it is often assumed that we have such an experience, it is far from clear what it consists of. The chapter argues that this lack of clarity is symptomatic of looking in the wrong place. Drawing on themes in Sartre'sBeing and Nothingness, it is suggested that the sense of freedom associated with action is not-first and foremost-an episodic "quale" or "feeling" that is experienced as internal to the agent. Rather, it is embedded in the experienced world; my freedom appears in the guise of my surroundings. This makes better sense of what people with depression consistently describe-a diminished ability to act that is inextricable from a transformation of the experienced world. In addition to illuminating an aspect of the experience of depression, the chapter aims to illustrate something more general: how phenomenology and psychiatry can interact in a fruitful way.
Delusion
Authors: Sass Louis A. , Pienkos Elizabeth
Published: January 2014

This chapter offers an overview of the phenomenological approach to delusions, emphasizing what Karl Jaspers called the "true delusions" of schizophrenia. Phenomenological psychopathology focuses on theexperienceof delusions and the delusional world. Several features of this approach are surveyed, including emphasis on formal qualities of subjective life (e.g., mutations of time, space, causality, self-experience, or sense of reality) and questioning of standard assumptions about delusions as erroneous belief (the traditional doxastic view, or "poor reality-testing" formula). The altered modalities of world-oriented and self-oriented experience that precede and ground delusions in schizophrenia, especially the experiences of revelation that Klaus Conrad termed the outer and innerapophany, are then discussed. The chapter first considers the famous "delusional mood" (feelings of strangeness and tension, and a sense of tantalizing yet ineffable meaning ), then the role of ipseity-disturbance (altered minimal or core self, of the basic, pre-reflective sense of existing as a unified and vitalsubjectof experience). In both cases it is explained how delusions can develop out of these distinctive alterations of perception and feeling. The classic question of the understandability or comprehensibility of schizophrenic delusion, together with the related issues of wish-fulfillment and rationalizing motives are then considered. The chapter addresses the crucial but neglected issue of the felt reality-status of delusions or the delusional world, discussing derealization, "double bookkeeping" (in which the patient experiences delusional reality as existing in a different ontological domain from everyday reality), and "double exposure" (merging of two perspectives on reality, with the potential for confusion this implies). The chapter concludes by discussing delusions typically found in paranoid and affective psychoses, and monothematic delusions found in certain organic conditions.
Natural Kinds
Authors: Cooper Rachel
Published: January 2014

Paradigmatically, natural kinds are the kinds of thing or stuff that are classified by the natural sciences. The periodic table provides perhaps the best example of the potential importance of natural kinds for science. In the philosophy of psychiatry, debates over whether mental disorders can be natural kinds emerge because kinds of mental disorder are manifestly different from chemical kinds in various ways. While chemical kinds are precise, psychiatric kinds are fuzzy. While chemical kinds are objective, the identification of psychiatric kinds is value-laden. Psychiatric classification involves classifying people, and unlike chemical elements, those people can respond to being classified in various ways. This chapter goes through these differences, one-by-one, and argues that despite them, mental disorders may be natural kinds.
Psychopathology and the Enactive Mind
Authors: Colombetti Giovanna
Published: January 2014

According to the "enactive" approach in philosophy of mind and cognitive science, mental states are neither identical with, nor reducible to, brain activity. Rather, the mind is enacted or brought forth by the whole situated living organism in virtue of its specific structure and organization. Although increasingly influential in cognitive science, the enactive approach has had little to do with psychopathology so far. This chapter first outlines this approach in some detail, and then illustrates its conceptual and methodological connections to psychopathology. It also provides some indications on how to develop a more explicitly "enactive psychopathology."
Responsibility without Blame
Authors: Pickard Hanna , Ward Lisa
Published: January 2014

Effective treatment of disorders of agency presents a clinical conundrum. Many of the core symptoms or maintaining factors are actions and omissions that cause harm to self and others. Encouraging service users to take responsibility for this behavior is central to treatment. Blame, in contrast, is detrimental. How is it possible to hold service users responsible for actions and omissions that cause harm without blaming them? A solution to this problem is part conceptual, part practical. This chapter offers a conceptual framework that clearly distinguishes between ideas of responsibility, blameworthiness, and "detached" and "affective" blame. It argues that affective blame is detrimental to effective treatment. And it suggests that affective blame can be avoided by attention to service users' past history, which directly evokes compassion and empathy. Finally, the chapter briefly considers whether the clinical stance of responsibility without blame should be adopted in non-clinical interpersonal and social contexts.
Being Unconscious
Authors: Askay Richard , Farquhar Jensen
Published: January 2014

This chapter argues for a rapprochement between Heidegger and Freud to gain a more unified, comprehensive, and holistic account of the human condition. While doing so, it explores the impact of Heidegger's philosophy on existential analysis and therapy by considering his global critique of Freudian psychoanalysis, and more specifically Freud's concepts of the Unconscious and the body. After a brief synopsis of his philosophy and its relevance for existential analysis, the chapter delineates Heidegger's critique of Freud's unconscious and considers how Binswanger, Boss, and Richardson try to preserve Freud's insights within the context of Heidegger's philosophy. The exploratory process then leads us to see bodily being as pivotal for the development of a truly holistic account of human existence. The chapter argues that Heidegger's humanism and neglect of the ontological primordiality of bodily being ultimately led him to a dualism he ubiquitously fought to avoid.
Cognitive Behavior Therapy
Authors: Gipps Richard G.T.
Published: January 2014

Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) theorists propose that disturbances in cognition underlie and maintain much emotional disturbance. Accordingly the cognitive addition to behavioral therapy typically consists in collaboratively noticing, restructuring, de-fusing from, and challenging these cognitions by the therapist and the patient. With the right group of problems, patients, and therapists, the practice of CBT is well known to possess therapeutic efficacy. This chapter, however, primarily considers the theory rather than the therapy of CBT; in particular it looks at the central significance it gives tocognitionin healthy and disturbed emotional function. It suggests that if "cognition" is used to mean merely ourbelief and thought, then CBT theory provides an implausible model of much emotional distress. If, on the other hand, "cognition" refers to the processing ofmeaning, then CBT risks losing its distinctiveness from all therapies other than the most blandly behavioral. The chapter also suggests: (a) that the appearance, in CBT's causal models of psychopathology, of what seem to be distinct causal processes and multiple discrete intervention sites may owe more to the formalism of the theory than to the structure of the well or troubled mind; (b) that CBT theorists sometimes unhelpfully assimilate the having of thoughts to episodes of thinking; (c) that CBT models may sometimes overemphasize the significance of belief and thought in psychopathology because they have unhelpfully theorized meaning as belonging more properly to these, rather than to emotional, functions; (d) that CBT approaches can also misconstrue the nature and value of acknowledgement and self-knowledge-thereby underplaying the value of some of the CBT therapist's own interventions. The theoretical and clinical implications of these critiques is discussed-such as that there are reasons to doubt that CBT always works, when it does, in the manner it tends to describe for itself.
The Origins and the Evolution of Language
Authors: Mufwene Salikoko S.
Published: January 2014

This chapter is a selective comparative and critical survey of speculations/hypotheses, since Antiquity, on the phylogenetic emergence of language in mankind. It highlights topics and explanations that have been recurring, how some of them have been refined and/or enriched by modern thinking about hominin evolution since Charles Darwin’s account of the process by natural selection under specific ecological pressures. It also shows how some questions have been shaped by the manifold evolution of linguistics itself since the nineteenth century, including variation on what counts as language, and by intellectual exchanges between linguistics and other disciplines such as primatology, neurology, and paleontology. It concludes with an itemization of accomplishments, after articulating a long list of question-begging accounts and still unanswered questions.
The History of Writing as a History of Linguistics
Authors: Daniels Peter T.
Published: January 2014

Every writing system represents a “native-speaker analysis” of a language, and as such at every stage of its development it reflects what its users consciously “know” about their language. The histories of the developments of writing systems on the one hand, and the categories represented by writing systems on the other, reveal that “knowledge” and thus are keys to the “folk linguistics” of written languages, and also provide insight into the mental representations of language.
History of the Study of Gesture
Authors: Kendon Adam
Published: January 2014

Interest in “Gesture” in the West is surveyed from Antiquity to the present day. First discussed as a part of rhetoric, from the seventeenth century gesture was seen as a possible universal language and as the form in which language first arose. The expansion of anthropology in the nineteenth century brought accounts of elaborate gesture use in many different cultures, including North America and Australia, where forms of sign language were observed. Sign language among the deaf also began to be studied. In the twentieth century interest in gesture declined, but was revived from about 1980, when it became of interest for cognitive psychology, the study of language acquisition, and for its role in communication in co-present interaction. Gesture study is thought to be relevant for understanding symbolic expression and conceptual processes. Its intimate involvement with speaking has implications for conceptions of language.
Nineteenth-Century Study of Sound Change from Rask to Saussure
Authors: Burridge Kate
Published: January 2014

This chapter presents an overview of the major developments within historical linguistics during the nineteenth century. It addresses some of the general thoughts on the nature of language and language structure, but with a focus on phonological change, the genetic relationship between IE languages and the comparative method. While scholars of earlier periods had addressed these concepts to some degree, it is the linguists of this century who are credited with their discovery; certainly they gave coherence to these ideas and their major breakthroughs and achievements remain part of everyday linguistic knowledge today.
A History of Sound Symbolism
Authors: Magnus Margaret
Published: January 2014

The fundamental paradox underlying the field of sound symbolism is this: on the one hand, if the form of a word affects its meaning, we should be able to understand a word just by hearing it, and on the other, since this is not true, we would expect the relationship between the sound of a word and its meaning to be arbitrary. But it has been demonstrated repeatedly on a large scale in many unrelated languages that the relationship between the sound and the meaning of a word is not arbitrary. This chapter views the history of sound symbolism as the evolution of our attempts to resolve this paradox.
East Asian Linguistics
Authors: Chung Karen Steffen
Published: January 2014

The story of the development of linguistic thought in the major cultures of East Asia centers to a great extent on each country’s response to influence from a respected non-related language. In the case of China before the period of European influence, it was Sanskrit, the language of the Buddhist scriptures; for Korea and Japan, it was Chinese, and to a lesser degree also Sanskrit. Both Korean and Japanese borrowed vocabulary extensively from Chinese, as well as the Chinese writing system, and in more recent times, Chinese has borrowed heavily back from Japanese, reflecting the ebb and flow of power between the countries. Korea and Japan later developed their own writing systems, both of which show strong influence from Chinese and Sanskrit. In all three cultures, the formal study of grammar does not begin until the nineteenth century, under European influence.
Linguistics in India
Authors: Scharf Peter M.
Published: January 2014

A strong tradition of linguistic analysis developed in India associated with the composition and preservation of the ancient Vedic hymns in the first millennium BCE and continued uninterrupted to modern times. Fields of metrics, lexicography, phonetics, and grammar were recognized first. By the early fourth century BCE, Pāṇini composed a complete grammar of Sanskrit that generates utterances from basic elements under semantic and co-occurrence conditions. The grammar utilizes sophisticated techniques of reference, a formal meta-language, and abstract principles of rule precedence. The long tradition of grammatical commentary investigated subtleties of verbal cognition in discussion with well-developed philosophical disciplines of logic and ritual exegesis. Linguistic analysis of Sanskrit inspired similar analysis of middle Indic and early modern Indian languages.
General or Universal Grammar from Plato to Chomsky
Authors: Maat Jaap
Published: January 2014

This chapter offers an overview of the history of philosophical, or universal, or general grammar, in the Western tradition. Proceeding chronologically, the chapter first sketches the contributions of Plato, Aristotle, and ancient grammarians to this tradition. Next, the medieval theory of modistic grammar is surveyed, and the work of Scaliger and Sanctius in the sixteenth century. Moving on to the seventeenth century, the chapter discusses several universal grammars, notably the Port Royal grammar, as well as schemes for a universal and philosophical language made by Dalgarno, Wilkins, and Leibniz. Eighteenth-century work is reviewed by looking at the grammairiens-philosophes in France, works by Harris, Priestley, Monboddo, and Horne Tooke in Britain, and ideas on universal grammar of Wolff and Meiner in Germany. The chapter concludes with a brief look at twentieth-century theories proposed by Chomsky and Montague.
European Linguistics since Saussure
Authors: Graffi Giorgio
Published: January 2014

The chapter firstly deals with Saussure, then with the scholars most directly influenced by Saussure’s linguistic thought, the schools of Geneva, Prague, and Copenhagen, and finally with other European linguists essentially independent from it, but who are nevertheless labeled as “structuralist”: the Frenchmen Guillaume and Tesnière, and the London school. Saussure’s views are summarized by means of his four classical “dichotomies” (langue vs. parole, synchrony vs. diachrony, signifiant vs. signifié, associative vs. syntagmatic relations). They were differently developed by Saussure’s followers: the Geneva school (Bally, at least) and the Prague school choose a functionalist approach. The Prague school also aimed at overcoming the synchrony/diachrony dichotomy, especially in the domain of phonology, where its most important contributions lie (by Trubetzkoy, Jakobson, and Martinet). On the other hand, the Copenhagen school (whose leader was Hjelmslev) adopted a strictly formal approach. Guillaume’s and Tesnière’s approaches differ from those of the just mentioned schools by focusing on syntax rather than on morphology and phonology. The London school (especially its leader, Firth) worked out a particular approach to phonology (“prosodic phonology”).
Lexicography from Earliest Times to the Present
Authors: Hanks Patrick
Published: January 2014

A dictionary is an inventory of the words of a language, with explanations or translations. All major languages and many others have dictionaries. This chapter traces the development of dictionaries for over 2,000 years, starting with China, India, Persia, classical Greece, and Rome. Arabic and Hebrew dictionaries in the Middle Ages were of comparable cultural importance. A major impact was the invention of printing. During the Renaissance, the Latin dictionaries of Calepino and Estienne set standards for future lexicography. The prescriptive aims of European Academies during the Enlightenment are contrasted with Johnson’s descriptive principles. The historical principles of OED are contrasted with the synchronic principles of dictionaries intended as a collective cultural index and dictionaries as aids for foreign learners. In Russia (unlike America), lexicography developed harmoniously with linguistics. The relationships between dictionaries and language development in different countries are discussed. The chapter concludes with a summary of the impact of computer technology, corpora, and changing business models on lexicography.
Post-structuralist and Cognitive Approaches to Meaning
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk
Published: January 2014

This chapter describes the development of semantics (with an emphasis on lexical semantics) after structuralist semantics. After an introductory sketch of the main lines of development of post-structuralist semantics, the main part of the chapter is devoted to the two main theoretical trends of late twentieth century and early twenty-first century lexical semantics: neostructuralist approaches on the one hand, cognitive and functional ones on the other. The chapter closes with an overview of contemporary trends, with an emphasis on current corpus-based methodological developments.
Computational Linguistics
Authors: Hirst Graeme
Published: January 2014

Computational linguistics grew out of early projects in machine translation. Initially it was conceived of as a branch of artificial intelligence with the goal of complete human-like language understanding, and was concerned with symbolic methods of parsing and semantic analysis. In recent years, because of more powerful computers, the development of machine-learning algorithms, and the rise of the World Wide Web, computational linguistics has taken an empiricist view of language processing that is based on corpora and statistical methods. It emphasizes practical applications with a tolerance for some degree of error.
Du Bellay and Shakespeare’s Sonnets
Authors: Prescott Anne Lake
Published: January 2014

Shakespeare’s Sonnets relate intriguingly to Joachim Du Bellay’s Antiquitez, probably through Spenser’s Ruines of Rome as well as to Du Bellay’s La vieille courtisanne (translated by Gervase Markham) and his ‘J’ai oublié l’art de petrarquizer’. Drawn to the discourse of ruination, as witness also passages in his Lucrece, Shakespeare would have found in Du Bellay’s poetry a vocabulary with which to lament the depredations of time, images of the human body as a vulnerable city, the ambiguities of anti-Petrarchan satire that exploits the same vocabulary it renounces, and the paradoxes of a nothing, a zero, that is also an all, a globe or Globe. That a ruined abbey makes a mystifyingly anachronistic offstage appearance in Titus Andronicus is also a reminder of the two writers’ shared interest in a city whose collapse both created tragedy and cleared room for later writers and nationhoods.
Finding Your Footing in Shakespeare’s Verse
Authors: Smith Bruce R.
Published: January 2014

The ‘feet’ in poetic rhythm really do involve feet. The connection was made originally perhaps because people beat out the rhythm they heard with their feet or because many forms of Greek and Latin poetry—odes are an example—were based on dance rhythms or, in some cases, actually danced. Rhythmos in Greek means ‘balanced movement’. This chapter invites readers today to find their footing in Shakespeare’s verse by trying out five forms of movement that 16th- and 17th-century readers knew first-hand—or rather first-foot: (1) riding horses, (2) running, (3) dancing, (4) moving onstage in sync with rhythmic cues in scripts, and (5) habitually hearing rhythm with their bodies as they read. Our challenge, confronted with a poem on paper or within a virtual window, is to find our footing, through hearing what we see.
Shakespeare and the Arts of Cognition
Authors: Read Sophie
Published: January 2014

This chapter offers a reading of some of Shakespeare’s verse that brings the newer methodologies of cognitive poetics into conversation with the discourse of classical rhetoric. It explores how we understand those moments in Shakespeare’s poems and plays that seem to make sense straight away, but get more difficult the closer we look: the intricate quick-thinking, often characterized by punning and wordplay, that dramatizes thought in language. The chapter starts with a glance at Macbeth, before moving on to the Sonnets; it attempts to demonstrate that the difficulties we find in Shakespeare’s verse are not an obstruction to our understanding, but rather an important method of meaning. It argues that rhetorical obscurity helps us to experience the emotional complexity that gives rise to it.
Shakespeare’s Popular Songs and the Great Temptations of Lesser Lyric
Authors: Newman Steven
Published: January 2014

This chapter investigates how Shakespeare exploits the possibilities of popular song to foreground lyric’s capacity to condense affect, to model the absorption of his audiences, and to engage with conflicts over ‘the common’—the push of the common-as-vulgar and the pull of the common-as-universal. At the same moment that song collections are attempting to sort out elite lyric from low broadside, Shakespeare repeatedly draws on these lesser lyrics to ask his audiences what they share and what they do not with these singers and songs, and the warrants, real and fantastical, for those identifications and distinctions. These lyric dynamics are most apparent in the comedies (A Midsummer Night’s Dream and Twelfth Night) but also play a key role in history (2 Henry IV), tragedy (Hamlet), and romance (The Winter’s Tale).
Song in Shakespeare
Authors: Alexander Gavin
Published: January 2014

This chapter explores the place of song within Shakespeare’s plays. It also considers Shakespeare’s songs as texts, because their ontological oddity—the way they raise questions about what they are doing in their dramatic setting—is bound up with various kinds of textual oddity. Songs in As You Like It, Othello, Measure for Measure, and Twelfth Night are examined closely and related to the classical rhetorical theory of prosopopoeia or personation. Song is used by Shakespeare to explore the ways we understand and perform identity. The characters in a song, the characters in a play, the actors who played them, the writers and musicians, the scribes and printers, the oral and literary traditions that produced the plays as written, as variously performed in Shakespeare’s day, and as printed—all determine and inflect the words of Shakespeare’s songs. We must situate the personae that speak or sing in his songs between all these various agencies.
The Poetics of Feminine Subjectivity in Shakespeare’s Sonnets and ‘a Lover’s Complaint’
Authors: Sanchez Melissa E.
Published: January 2014

This chapter explores how we might be compelled to alter our understanding of the emergence of gendered identifications and hierarchies if we were to borrow some of the rethinking of sexuality that queer theory has done with regards to same-sex desire and apply it to other non-normative sexualities—in this case, female promiscuity. Modern scholars have largely rejected the stigma attached to homoerotic desire and practice, and they have thereby been able better to understand and contest the cultural privileges accorded to heterosexual relationships. Similarly, by rejecting the stigma attached to female promiscuity, we as critics can examine how this stigma works to sustain gendered hierarchies. Shakespeare’s Sonnets and A Lover’s Complaint dramatize the power of the discourse of promiscuity to shape the horizons of female identity and male prerogative.
Yves Bonnefoy and Shakespeare as a French Poet
Authors: Kristal Efraín
Published: January 2014

Yves Bonnefoy is a key figure in the French literary reception of Shakespeare. This essay explores his interpretations and translations of Shakespeare’s plays and poems, informed by his own poetic vision, anchored in a literary tradition whose high points include Baudelaire and Rimbaud. Bonnefoy argues that Shakespeare finds his poetic voice after experimenting with the sonnet—a genre Bonnefoy considers staid and prone to cliché when Shakespeare took it up. For Bonnefoy Shakespeare begins to come alive as a great poet in As you Like It and Romeo and Juliet; and his supreme achievement is The Winter’s Tale, a play which encompasses the scope of the entire oeuvre and resolves some underlying concerns of the major tragedies while offering a refined appraisal of the relationship between art, nature, and existence apposite to Bonnefoy’s own views about poetry.
Navigating the Self in Diverse Work Contexts
Authors: Roberts Laura Morgan , Creary Stephanie J.
Published: January 2014

Navigating the self is critical for working in a diverse world, in which different identities interact in social space. This chapter presents five theoretical perspectives on how individuals navigate the self in diverse organizational contexts—social identity, critical identity, (role) identity, narrative-as-identity, and identity work. We review these five prominent theoretical perspectives on identity processes in diverse contexts to explicate various ways in which individuals actively participate in the co-construction of their identities in diverse contexts. As a next step in research, identity, diversity, and relationship scholars are encouraged to inquire into the generativity of proposed tactics for navigating the self in order to identify pathways for cultivating more positive identities in diverse work settings. The examination of positive relational identities is considered a promising path for further inquiry in this domain.
Diversity as Knowledge Exchange: The Roles of Information Processing, Expertise, and Status
Authors: Phillips Katherine W. , Duguid Michelle , Thomas-Hunt Melissa , Uparna Jayaram
Published: January 2014

As part of an effort to understand diversity’s influence on group processes and performance, some researchers have explored diversity from an information processing perspective. This perspective suggests that because individuals in heterogeneous groups have a broader range of knowledge, skills, and abilities than homogeneous groups, they will also have greater access to a variety of task-relevant information and expertise, which can enhance group decision making. This chapter summarizes the findings of empirical research from this perspective and extends the tenets of this perspective, acknowledging the limitations of the original formulation. Included in the review is research on minority and majority influence processes and the integration of expert knowledge in groups. Finally, the chapter integrates this new information processing view with work that focuses on the effect of status differences on the processing of information in diverse environments.
Understanding How Context Shapes Team Diversity Outcomes
Authors: Joshi Aparna , Roh Hyuntak
Published: January 2014

The study of diversity context offers many opportunities and also represents many challenges. In this chapter we present a research agenda that exploits some opportunities and attempts to overcome the challenges in conducting contextualized diversity research. We offer a tripartite definition of diversity context comprising its structural, relational, and normative components, and discuss a theoretical framework for identifying the effect of context on categorization and elaboration-based processes within work teams. We conclude by suggesting directions for future research that we hope will be a road map for future research in this area.
Considering Diversity as a Source of Competitive Advantage in Organizations
Authors: Richard Orlando C. , Miller Carliss D.
Published: January 2014

This chapter serves as a research framework for academics and practicing managers interested in understanding the conditions in which diversity, especially visible attributes such as race, gender, age, and nationality, positively or negatively affects organizational performance. This chapter differs from previous articles and books with a predominantly micro approach because the focus shifts from the individual, dyadic, and team diversity levels of analysis to diversity in large groups, subunits, and organizations. The key assumption throughout this chapter is that diversity represents a unique and valuable resource for organizations. The chapter concludes with suggestions for future research on other contextual factors that might aid in unleashing a “diversity advantage.”
The Origins and Effects of Corporate Diversity Programs
Authors: Dobbin Frank , Kalev Alexandra
Published: January 2014

Corporations have implemented a wide range of equal opportunity and diversity programs since the 1960s. This chapter reviews studies of the origins of these programs, surveys that assess the popularity of different programs, and research on the effects of programs on the workforce. Human resources managers championed several waves of innovations: corporate equal opportunity policies and recruitment and training programs in the 1960s; bureaucratic hiring and promotion policies and grievance mechanisms in the 1970s; diversity training, networking, and mentoring programs in the 1980s; and work/family and sexual harassment programs in the 1990s and beyond. It was those managers who designed equal opportunity and diversity programs, not lawyers or judges or government bureaucrats, thus corporate take-up of the programs remains very uneven. Statistical analyses of time-series data on the effects of corporate diversity measures reveal several patterns. Initiatives designed to quash managerial bias, through diversity training, diversity performance evaluations, and bureaucratic rules, have been broadly ineffective. By contrast, innovations designed to engage managers in promoting workforce integration—mentoring programs, diversity taskforces, and full-time diversity staffers—have led to increases in diversity in the most difficult job to integrate, management. The research has clear implications for corporate and public policy.
Leadership in a Diverse Workplace
Authors: Chrobot-Mason Donna , Ruderman Marian N. , Nishii Lisa
Published: January 2014

Although there is a significant need to understand the implications of increasing demographic diversity for leadership, surprisingly little research has been conducted on the topic. In this chapter, we review the extant research in this area. We organize our review into three sections: how leaders lead themselves, others, and the organization. In the first section, we discuss issues related to social identity, and how leaders’ social identities interact with those of their employees in influencing what may be required for effective leadership. In the second section, we discuss the qualities that leaders are likely to need when managing employees from diverse backgrounds. We focus on developing quality relationships, cultivating an inclusive climate, spanning boundaries, and framing of diversity initiatives. In the last section, we discuss research related to the role leaders play in setting their organization’s diversity strategy, implementing diversity practices, managing conflict, responding to diversity crises, and measuring progress. We end with suggestions for future research.
Effective Diversity Training
Authors: Roberson Loriann , Kulik Carol T. , Tan Rae Yunzi
Published: January 2014

Diversity training is an important and widely used component of organizational diversity management initiatives. This chapter reviews theory and research on diversity training design, delivery, evaluation, and effectiveness. The review suggests that in the past 10 to 15 years of research, advancements have been made on several fronts. The research literature on diversity training includes frameworks for pretraining needs assessment, learning models to guide diversity training design choices, and empirical evidence of diversity training’s impact on training outcomes. However, the review also notes two major shortcomings. First, research has emphasized diversity training’s effect on short-term changes in trainees’ knowledge and attitudes, neglecting longer-term changes in their skills and behavior. Second, research has emphasized diversity training’s effect on individual-level learning outcomes, neglecting its impact on team- and organization-level outcomes. These shortcomings are unlikely to be addressed unless scholars and practitioners engage in more collaborative field-based research on diversity training.
Work–Life Interface and Flexibility: Impacts on Women, Men, Families, and Employers
Authors: Konrad Alison M.
Published: January 2014

Traditional organizational cultures pressure workers to prioritize the paid work role and to sacrifice participation in other life domains. However, performance in the paid work role affects and is affected by other roles the worker considers important. Multiple roles often conflict, but they also create positive synergies whereby workers utilize skills, ideas, and resources gained in different domains to enhance performance in all of them. Supportive organizational cultures and work–life flexibility practices help workers manage the interface between paid work and other life domains, and evidence suggests that they enhance work attitudes and performance. Given that multiple roles enhance workers’ performance, commitment, and resilience, organizational structures and cultures that support employees’ participation in multiple life domains are likely to generate positive benefits for firms as well as employees. The chapter ends with a theoretical model intended to stimulate future research in this area.
Methods and Methodologies
Authors: Ackerly Brooke , True Jacqui
Published: January 2014

This article explores the various methods and methodologies used by feminist scholars for studying gender and politics, focusing on the methodological demands of the study of gender and politics and how feminist scholars met these demands. It introduces feminist methodological reflection and locates the methodologies and methods of the study of gender and politics within the context of the research questions they can address. This is followed by a section on the influences of how people understand feminist methodology as a field and the enumeration of three ways of thinking about feminist research. The article concludes with a discussion on several methods feminists use and examples of them.