bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Society and Culture
Authors: Zamagni Vera
Published: October 2023

Due to Italy’s glorious medieval and Renaissance traditions, the country could boast a greater number of cities and towns than other comparable countries even before industrial development had taken off; the process of industrialization, while leading to the growth of some cities and towns, never really brought about a polarization of industry in one industrial ‘capital’, as happened in many other countries. Between 1881 and 1911, the percentage of the Italian population living in towns with more that 10,000 inhabitants rose from 34 per cent to 42.4 per cent, with a large part of their number being attracted towards towns situated within the ‘industrial triangle’, especially the medium-sized ones.
The New Historiography: Israel and its Past
Authors: Morris Benny
Published: October 2023

On 11 July 1948, the Yiftah Brigade’s Third Battalion, as part of Operation Dani, occupied the Arab town of Lydda. The battalion’s 400-500 troops, supported by a company from the First Battalion, took up positions around the centre of the town; the remaining population, some 30,000 Arabs, shut themselves up in their homes. There was no formal surrender, but the night passed quietly. Just before noon the following day, two or three gun-mounted armoured cars belonging to the Arab Legion, the British-led Trans jordanian army, drove into town. They were either on a reconnaissance mission or were unaware that the town had already fallen into Israeli hands. A firefight ensued, and the scout cars withdrew. But a number of armed townspeople, perhaps believing that the shooting heralded a major Arab counter-attack, began sniping from windows and rooftops at their Israeli occupiers.
Women ‘s Issues: The Second Wave
Authors: Gauthier Anne Hèléne
Published: October 2023

Through their involvement in charities, lobbying groups, and eventually through their representation in Parliament, women played a major role in the pre-World War II period in the development of measures to better support families. Their involvement and effort were not in vain, and led to the adoption of several welfare measures. In the field of family planning and equality in the labour market however, their success was minimal. It was this situation, and its underlying inequalities, which were questioned by women from the 1960s onwards. Freedom, equality, and independence would be the major themes of this second wave of the women ‘s movement. In particular, the battle was to be organized on two fronts: to gain liberal access to contraception and abortion, and to gain equality on the labour market. Once again, this movement was not confined to a single country, but rapidly acquired an international dimension, and was marked by considerable success. The fight for birth-control in the pre-World War II period had led to stricter legislation on contraception and abortion in most countries. This situation was challenged by several parties from the 1960s. Six main groups contributed to the discussion concerning the abortion and contraception question: the international organizations, women ‘s groups, various interest groups, the Churches, the medical profession and experts, and the public. The position and role of each of them are briefly reviewed below.
Innovation in Family Formation: Evidence on Cohabitation in the United States
Authors: Willis Robert J , Michael Robert T
Published: October 2023

Among the many innovations in the structure of family life, cohabitation without marriage is one of the most intriguing. Cohabitation is becoming a more common form of living arrangement in the United States and in Western Europe. The trend towards cohabiting in the United States became notice able only after the 1960s (see Spanier, 1983; Glick and Spanier, 1980). Its incidence grew dramatically during the 1970s, as illustrated in one county in the state of Oregon where analysis of marriage-licence applications revealed that in 1970 only 13 per cent of couples appeared to be living together at the time of application, but by 1980 that percentage had risen to 53 per cent (see Gwartney-Gibbs,1986).
Commercial Policy: An Uneasy Relationship with Market Policy
Authors: Fennell Rosemary
Published: October 2023

Earlier chapters have chronicled the fate of three of the four pillars of the CAP the structural. market, and social elements of the policy as it was proposed in 1960. It is time to return to the fourth pillar—commercial policy I-last referred to specifically in Chapter 2. On a world scale, international trade in agricultural commodities is a residual trade: the bulk of agricultural production never crosses a frontier and that is even more true of raw materials than of the goods manufactured from them. The vast majority of countries rely on their own production for a significant part of their requirements of food and feed. Imports are used to top-up their needs, sometimes seasonally, sometimes year-round, or as the inputs of other agricultural enterprises, such as feed for livestock production. Many countries use export outlets in exactly the same way: as a means of disposing of production which is excess to internal demand. Very few countries are net exporters of agricultural commodities, and even fewer are major players in the international market place.
Unresolved Issues
Authors: Fennell Rosemary
Published: October 2023

The CAP has come a long way since the early heady days when it seemed to herald a new era in agricultural policy. As was remarked in the Preface, a generation of farmers, who have known no other policy. has grown old with it. What was once innovative and exciting is now familiar and dull. This last chapter provides an opportunity to review some of the major themes to have emerged from earlier chapters and to draw attention to areas of conflict and contradiction which are unresolved. These are relevant to the future of the policy-if indeed it has a future as a separate sectoral policy. In Chapter 11, reference was made to a discussion document issued in 1985 in which the Commission identified priorities for the CAP. They are worth repeating here: the reduction of surpluses; increased diversity of production combined with quality improvements; a more effective and systematic approach to the income problem of small family farms; support for farming for environmental and landscape purposes, and assistance in the maintenance of a viable rural population; promotion of environmental awareness among farmers; and the development of industries which process agricultural raw materials (Commission 1985(d) ). Apart from the reduction of surpluses which has taken place, little of any significance has been achieved in the pursuit of other priorities listed. It is hard to believe that they are not all still valid: When are they going to be addressed?
Comment
Authors: Steigum Erling
Published: October 2023

This paper is a very useful and interesting exploratory analysis of Swedish business cycles based on a unique data set. It is methodologically innovative, and it covers a wider range of macroeconomic time-series data and a longer time span (128 years) than most other studies of this kind in the literature. The strength of this unique data set is that it permits an analysis of similarities and differences between the post-war, inter-war, and pre-war business cycles. The amount of information in the paper is overwhelming, and my comment is, therefore, bound to be selective. I will first comment on the idea that, in some sense, business cycles are all alike, and then on the general approach. After this I discuss some of the broad facts and also a few puzzles which cry out for an explanation. Finally, I would like to comment briefly on the analysis of the post-war relationship between money, prices, and real output.
Prices and Macroeconomic Dynamics
Authors: Miyamoto Matao
Published: October 2023

In this chapter, I will explore the macroeconomic dynamics of the late Edo period, and the process by which the structure of production changed, through an analysis of changes in prices. Statistical data on the macroeconomic trends of the Edo period are virtually non-existent, but the combination of a highly commercialized, money-based economy, and high rates of literacy, with an inveterate penchant for record-keeping, has produced an extensive legacy of excellent data on prices.
The Economy on the Eve of Industrialization
Authors: Shimbo Hiroshi , Saitô Osamu
Published: October 2023

The signs of a new era began well before the Meiji Restoration. They may be traced back to the late-eighteenth century, especially to the years when Tanuma Okitsugu wielded political supremacy, that is, a thirty-year period from the 1750s to the 1780s.
Population and Agricultural Resources in the Developing Countries
Authors: Muhammed Amir
Published: October 2023

Food is the basic human requirement without which no life is possible. It is therefore not surprising that providing sufficient food for the national population has been a priority of governments from time immemorial. Many wars have been fought throughout history by nations seeking to secure adequate food supplies for their people. Although the essential body requirements for energy and nutrients can be fulfilled by eating sufficient quantities of most basic food materials, human popu lations in different parts of the world have developed culinary preferences for special food items. The need for balanced food intake to suit the life- and work styles of people living under different climatic conditions has also been met in various ways, and many raw and semi-processed foods are available in the eco nomically developed countries to suit different tastes and nutritional requirements. Whereas a sizable part of the population in the developing countries is under nourished due to inadequate access to food, the developed countries are concerned with the problem of overeating and diseases resulting from excessive intake of rich foods.
Strategies to Maximize Health and Functioning and Increase Life Expectancy
Authors: Manton Kenneth G , STALLARD ERIC
Published: October 2023

The populations of many developing and developed countries are aging. Infant mortality has fallen and life expectancy has increased in many countries, so that large proportions of birth cohorts survive to age 65. Fertility rates often decline in response, further increasing the average age of the population and the proportion elderly. Population aging also shifts, sometimes rapidly, public health priorities from infectious and infant diseases to chronic disease. In Shanghai, China, birth rates declined from 33.2 to 14.8 per thousand between 1960 and 1980, decreasing the proportion aged 0-4 years from 16 to 7.5 percent; meanwhile cancer mortality rates rose from 23.5 to 142.3 per thousand, making it the first (from sixth) ranked cause of death (Xing-Yuan and Mai-Ling, 1982).
International Population Movements: Imbalances and Integration
Authors: GOLINI ANTONIO
Published: October 2023

Migration has played a fundamental role in the development of most contemporary Western populations and societies. Nevenheless, first-generation immigrants com prise a small fraction of the total population living in any one country. It may seem paradoxical that international migrations, which are the subject of growing concern, even fear, at least in the receiving countries and which, according to all experts, will acquire increasing importance, involve only a small fraction of the world’s popu lation (see Table 23.1). At the beginning of the 1980s the number of persons living in a country in which they were not born-who had therefore emigrated at least once-was on the order of 50 million, that is, one percent of the world’s population (United Nations, 1989b). The overall stock of temporary immigrants must be added to this number. According to Appleyard (1989), this number stood at about 20 rnillion worldwide at the beginning of the 1980s.
Japanese Bureaucrats at Retirement: The Mobility of Human Resources from Central Government to Public Corporations
Authors: Inoki Takenori
Published: October 2023

The basic functioning of modern industrial society can be viewed from three analytical angles: how the various roles in society are structured, how human resources are allocated among these roles, and how the resources are compensated or rewarded for the roles they fulfill.1 If human resources are allocated and compensated according to rational principles, to a certain extent the best and brightest in society will flow into those roles that assure the highest economic and/or non-economic compensation. This speculation generally held true in pre-World-War-II Japan where the talented elite went into the public service, which on the average offered them higher salaries than business or politics. Attracting the most capable members of the labor force, who were endowed with intelligence and public virtue, the prewar Japanese bureaucracy was relatively free from corruption, and the morale and morality of government officials were high.
Family Change and the Welfare of Children: What Do We Know and What Can We Do about It?
Authors: Furstenberg Frank F
Published: October 2023

Western nations are still reeling from nearly three decades of unprecedented family flux. Early indications in the 1980s that the pace of change might be lessening now seem premature. Some areas of spectacular change, such as marital instability, have abated; but rates of cohabitation, delayed marriage, and non-marital childbearing continue to rise, creating a strong impression that the vast transformation of the conjugal-based family is not yet completed. The perception that we are still in a state of demographic free-fall has created an ominous sense in many Western nations that the family is in a state of acute crisis (Davis 1985; Davis et al. 1986; Glendon 1989; Popenoe 1988; Skolnick 1991). Almost no one is bullish on the direction of family change these days. As historian Edward Shorter (1975) predicted, the post-modern family seems to be setting a course for the heart of the sun.
EU Manufacturing Industry in Context
Authors: Davies Stephen , Lyons Bruce
Published: October 2023

The primary purpose of this chapter is to provide a broad preliminary context for the more detailed statistical analysis which follows in later chapters. For reasons already given, much of the book is devoted to a snapshot view of EU manufacturing as it stood in 1987. This immediately raises at least three ques tions. How does the EU compare with the rest of the world in the production of manufactured goods? Was 1987 a representative (or peculiar) year? And to what extent is the EU a coherent economic entity, as opposed to a group of very different member states? Of course, these are big questions, for which we cannot provide comprehensive answers, but we can assemble a collection of facts, drawn from existing published sources, which at least provide a setting for our own work in terms of its global, temporal, and member state contexts. The chapter is deliberately confined to existing datasources in order to high light the gaps in our knowledge which remain unanswered by the published statistics on industrial structure in the EU.
Non-EU Multinationals in the EU
Authors: Davies Stephen , Lyons Bruce
Published: October 2023

This chapter deviates from the book’s general treatment of the EU as a single entity by singling out for special attention a subset of firms identified expli citly by their national origin. These are the subsidiaries of firms originating from countries outside of the European Union-’the non-EU-owned multi nationals (MNEs)’. In one sense, these firms are no different from any others on the market share matrix: given they produce, in a leading way, within the EU, they are just as much leading European producers as all other matrix firms. Nevertheless, in terms of ultimate ownership, they are ‘foreign’, and, arguably, geographical origin does matter. Certainly, in popular discussion, they are the subject of special attention, and they do raise additional issues which are qualitatively different, both to the economic theorist and the policy maker. More pragmatically, our database provides the first-ever evidence at this level of disaggregation on the incidence of these firms, and this chapter provides an ideal opportunity for placing that evidence in the public domain even if it fits less snugly than most within the book’s overaU structure.
Conclusions and Applications
Authors: Davies Stephen , Lyons Bruce
Published: October 2023

We opened this book with a statement of our main research objectives con cerning the structure of manufacturing in the European Union. Factually, we wanted to widen the scope, and deepen the detail, of what was already known about individual firms and industries in this key sector. We alsoargued that the definition of ‘structure’ shou1d be sufficiently wide to include dimensions of international trade and corporate strategy, as well as industrial organization. This is necessary if one is torigorously pursue the underlying theoretical thesis of our work, namely, that by observing different elements of structure, we can learn much about the competitive processes which have helped to form that structure. Coming from this perspective, our third aim was to contribute to the current debate about the integration of European industry.
Infant and Child Mortality in the United States and Canada
Authors: Alter George
Published: October 2023

Research on mortality in the United States and Canada has played a small role in the historical debate over the causes of mortality decline and the recent re evaluation of the McKeown thesis (McKeown, 1976; Szreter, 1988). The main problem for historical demographers of North America has been the lack of appropriate data, because of the late development of vital registration in both countries. However, there are good reasons for expecting a larger contribution from American and Canadian research in the future. First, new data sets with information about infant and child mortality have become available. Family re constitution databases which rival those in Europe are now available for Quebec and Utah, and public use samples of the US censuses of 1900 and 1910 contain retrospective questions on child survival. Second, the populations of North America provide many opportunities for comparative studies of ethnic groups, regions, urban and rural areas, and varying governmental responses to the problems of public health.
Infant Vulnerability in Three Cultural Settings in Montreal, 1880
Authors: Thornton Patricia , Olson Sherry
Published: October 2023

Because infant mortality is a recognized indicator of environmental conditions and standard of living, we selected it as a potentially meaningful measure of the human costs of inequality in Montreal in the second half of the nineteenth century. Like other Victorian cities undergoing rapid growth and industrialization, Montreal was powerfully stratified by social class and divided into three major cultural communities-French-speaking Catholic (over half the population), English-speaking Protestant, and Irish Catholic. Other groups amounted to less than 2 per cent. The several social classes and cultural communities occupied distinct spaces and habitats. As we shall show in this paper, the several communities had distinct demographic characteristics and, by 1880, somewhat distinctive demographic behaviours.
Income Distribution and Growth
Authors: Bergström Villy
Published: October 2023

A third strand of literature focuses on the relation between income distribution and growth. Needless to say, this is not a new topic in economics. What characterizes the new contributions is their close connection with the new theories of endogenous growth, and a focus on previously neglected links from income distribution to growth, rather than from growth to income distribution.
The Catching-up Effect
Authors: Bergström Villy
Published: October 2023

The notion of a catching-up effect can be traced back (at least) to Gerschenkron (1952), who maintained that, where a country’s growth prospects are concerned, an advantage may lie in ‘relative backwardness’. The catching-up hypothesis states that when the productivity level is substantially higher in one or more countries as compared with a number of other countries, it is possible for the countries in the latter group to start a catching up process by adopting more advanced production technology from the more developed countries. More advanced technology should be seen in a broad sense. The growth potential of laggard countries is not large solely because of the possibility of replacing obsolete capital with best-practice equipment. In addition, there is a chance to adopt advanced management practices, better marketing strategies etc. As a result, we ought to expect technologically less developed countries to experience faster growth than the technologically leading countries.
Limitations of Our Study: A Brief Discussion
Authors: Bergström Villy
Published: October 2023

One limitation of our study is that it does not take into account the effect of domestic innovations on productivity growth. This problem is less severe for developing countries, where it is reasonable to expect that most of the new technology is transferred in one way or another from industrially more advanced countries. This means that much of the technological change in those countries is of a catching-up character, that is, it consists of assimilating and adopting technology originating from more developed countries. In the OECD countries, on the other hand, a significant share of technological progress and productivity growth is a result of the respective countries’ own research efforts. Coe and Helpman (1995) have found that in the larger OECD countries (the G7), in particular, the domestic R&D stock is important for growth in TFP, whereas foreign R&D capital has a strong effect on TFP growth in the small open OECD countries.
Literature
Authors: Bergström Villy
Published: October 2023

The neoclassical growth model (Solow 1956) implies that, in equilibrium, output growth will equal population growth and the exogenously given rate of technological progress. Government policies and institutions can only affect growth temporarily in the transition from one equilibrium to the other. The neoclassical model also implies that if capital is mobile, cross-country convergence should occur over time with richer countries growing slower and poorer ones ‘catching up’. By postulating socially non-diminishing returns to some productive factor, endogenous growth models open up the possibility of policies and institutions having a longer-term or even permanent influence on economic growth.’ There is also the potential for persistent non-convergence due to cross-national policy differences. These models provide the intellectual foundation for the explosion of empirical work exploring the relationship between governance and growth.
Data and Basic Model
Authors: Bergström Villy
Published: October 2023

The economic data used here come from Summers and Heston and cover the 1950-88 period. In order not to throw away information by over-averaging, I take five-year averages of the data, giving eight observations on each country. Since the data stop in 1988, the last observation for each country is a three-year average. Dropping this last time period does not substantively change any of the results reported below. The dependent variable in this study is real total GDP growth in 1985 international prices.
Centralized Bargaining and Economic Growth
Authors: Bergström Villy
Published: October 2023

In this section, I examine the Calmfors-Driffill (CD) hypo thesis in the context of the statistical model introduced above. Rather than actually using some index variable that imputes falsely precise differences between countries in my regression analysis, I take a simpler, dummy variable approach. Given that CD argue that either extremely decentralized or extremely centralized countries will do better, I define a dummy variable that equals 1.0 for the four most centralized and the four least centralized countries according to CD. They are: Austria, Norway, Sweden and Denmark (most centralized), and Canada, USA, Switzerland and Japan (least centralized). I also use separate dummy variables for high centralization and low centralization.
The Economic Logic of State Interventionism
Authors: Bergström Villy
Published: October 2023

The economic ideas that permit a positive interpretation of the successful late industrializers’ experiences include the modern ideas of externalities and endogenous growth on the one hand and the theories of distributional conflicts in corporatist economies on the other. Supposing that one is willing to buy the set of assumptions of modern theories of endogenous growth, there are important implications for positive and normative theories of politics and political economy. Modern theories of growth are based on assumed externalities related to the returns of investment in education or to the spread of technical innovations. These assumptions contradict the usual neoclassical assumptions and lead to the conclusion that an economy’s growth performance can be enhanced by, say, subsidized education or public support for investment in new technologies. They also lead to models of non-convex growth and increasing returns to scale.
An Empirical Overview of State Intervention
Authors: Bergström Villy
Published: October 2023

Many of the suggested empirical counterparts can indeed be found in the country cases. There is no doubt about the degree of state involvement in the four countries. In all of them, the state has actively participated in the process of investment and capital accumulation. The menu of policy measures has been rich. The four countries have in varying degrees used:
Introduction to Part One
Authors: Rostowski Jacek
Published: October 2023

Chapter 2 was written at a time when it was generally assumed that communist parties would continue to govern, however weakened, in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union for some time to come. The aim was to show that macroeconomics made the reformist communist goal of ‘full employment market socialism’ unattainable. This goal was, incidentally, shared by Solidarity, the only powerful anti-communist opposition movement in the region at the time of writing.
Hyperinflation and Stabilization in Serbia--Montenegro, 1992-1994
Authors: Rostowski Jacek
Published: October 2023

The Serbo-Montenegrian hyperinflation of 1992-4 is the second fastest in history. In January 1994, the culminating month of the hyperinflation, consumer prices increased 310 million per cent per month, compared with a maximum monthly rate of 30 thousand per cent per month in the great German hyperinflation of 1923. The average monthly inflation rate was 1,660 per cent exceeding Greece, 1943-4 (1,070 per cent) and Germany, 1922-3 (320 per cent), and second only to Hungary II, 1946 (360,000 per cent per month).
Private Sector Development, Structural Change and Macroeconomic Stabilization: The Case of Poland 1988-1993
Authors: Rostowski Jacek
Published: October 2023

Changes in the ownership structure in Poland-which have occurred mainly as a result of private sector development rather than privatization of state owned enterprises (SOEs) have been a key part of the economic transition in that country. The usual tendency to concentrate either on macroeconomic variables or on the progress of privatization of SOEs, fails to take into account what has been the most important part of the transformation in Poland. Key aspects of this process can be formulated as four simple propositions: This rapid growth of the private sector would not have occurred in the absence of generalized liberalization of the whole economy (and not just of the private sector itself), as we can see by comparing the relatively slow private sector growth of 1989 in Poland with that in subsequent years.
Implications of the Theoretical Analyses
Authors: Rauscher Michael
Published: October 2023

This final chapter of this book summarizes the general findings of the theoretical inquiry and attempts to derive some policy implications. In the previous chapters a large number of results have been derived from different models some of which have been very specialized. These many results add up to a more general perspective on the links between international economic relationships and the environment and on the problems associated with these links. After the summary of the main findings., policy implications of the theoretical analysis will be discussed. This will be done in two parts. The first part is devoted to policies, i.e. the determination of emission taxes, tariffs, and interventions into capital markets. The second part deals with institutions that define the frame works in which trade and environmental policies are made. We look at national institutions and at supranational ones. In particular, we will be interested in how the delicate issue of green trade conflicts can be settled in the framework of international trade and environmental agreements.
Three Decades of Research on Population and Health: The ORSTOM Experience in Rural Senegal, 1962-1991
Authors: Garenne Michel , Cantrelle Pierre
Published: October 2023

When African countries became independent in the late 1950s and early 1960s, research on population was virtually non-existent in tropical Africa. At this time, modem demography was emerging as a new science. Until then, demography had focused mostly on population genetics and on mathematical models aiming at describing population dynamics. Modem epidemiological and statistical methods, now widely used throughout the world, were largely ignored in the field of population studies. Anthropologists paid little attention to demographic and health processes. Their focus was on local myths, religions, and social structure. Little attention was devoted to the cultural factors of population and health in tropical Africa. The concept of multidisciplinary research was not yet fashionable, and most researchers were working isolated in their own field.
Bandafassi:A 25-Year Prospective Community Study in Rural Senegal, 1970–1995
Authors: Pison Gilles , Langaney Annabel Desgrees Du Loo,Andre
Published: October 2023

The Bandafassi Study was initiated in 1970 as a research project on population genetics. Its objectives were to describe the genetic structure of an African population, to measure the genetic micro-differentiation between subgroups of this population (e.g. villages, lineages), and to examine which mechanisms were the more important ones: genetic selection, genetic drift, founder effects, marriage patterns, or past history of migrations. Information would be gathered from census, genealogies, and blood types. The population chosen for the study was the Mandenka Niokholonko, a small population of about 1,000 in the département of Kedougou in Eastern Senegal. The existence of a larger multidisciplinary project of the Musee de l’Homme of Paris for studying the entire populations of this department made the choice easy.
Japan’s Economic Diplomacy with China, 1945-1978
Authors: Soeya Yoshihide
Published: October 2023

This book is a comprehensive study on Japan's postwar relations with China up until the end of the 1970s, i.e. prior to Deng Xiaopin's reform and open-door policies. The study is particularly strong on the detailed account of Japan's deep economic involvement with China initiated by a complex group of pro-China Japanese. This is an important aspect of continuity in Sino-Japanese relations for three decades despite several profound fluctuations in political relations, the 1972 diplomatic normalization among others. The study also stands out in analytically placing this unique aspect of the postwar history of Sino-Japanese relations in an overall political context of Japanese diplomacy, depicting its structure as a combination of compliance, autonomy, and independence policy courses.
Homophobia and the Ethnoscape of Sex Work in Rio de Janeiro
Authors: Larvie Patrick
Published: October 2023

The ethnographic ‘scene’ of cosmopolitan urban centres like Rio de Janeiro is per haps characterized more by the rapidity of social change, the physical movement of people, and constant shifts in the directions and modalities of cultural, polit ical, and ethnic affiliation than by anything else. Exactly what constitutes the object of study for ethnographers interested in ‘culture’, ‘subcultures’, or ‘local’ knowledge becomes increasingly difficult to define and operationalize in such contexts. The application of ethnographic methodologies to the study of popu lations in movement necessarily requires a redefinition of some basic concepts in anthropology (Appadurai, 1990, 1991; Abu’Lughod, 1990, 1991). Ethnographic research in urban areas must take into account the scales of distance and speed at which change occurs without losing sight of the social and cultural institutions which serve to ground these shifts in the activities of everyday life. The ‘red light’ districts of Rio de Janeiro are linked to globalized systems of commerce and migration and at the same time they are embedded within the institutions of urban life in Brazil. In the case of male sex workers, homophobia is one of the cul tural elements which links social and physical spaces, structuring movement between and within them. Sex workers in Rio de Janeiro live and work in a space which is bounded as much by social and cultural practices that traverse national boundaries as by demarcations of neighbourhoods, cities, or countries. This essay will address the relationship of individual sex workers, male prostitutes in the cases I will examine, with a complex of cultural systems which simultaneously instigates and curtails their movement both within and across national borders.
The Reichsbank 1876–1945
Authors: James Harold
Published: October 2023

At the moment of its birth, the Reichsbank stood unambiguously for progress as the mid-nineteenth century conceived it. It was progress, most immediately in terms of new institutional monetary arrangements, which swept away a multiplicity of complicated and limiting regulations and special monetary standards, and created a fairly transparent monetary regime which provided an adequate basis for dynamic economic growth; progress, in commitment to internationalism, and to the gold standard as an international rule; but also progress in domestic politics, in which legislation could be shaped rationally by the participation of greater numbers of people in factual and apolitical debates about public policy. The creation of a German central bank came about as a coincidence of liberal pressure from the South German states, and from liberal leaders in the Reichstag, forcing concessions from a Prussian government initially opposed to the institutional innovation. Its realization in fact marks a high point in the legislative achievement of mid-nineteenth century German liberalism. The resulting institution would be rule-based and thus blind to particular pressures and interests, and not dependent on the personal preconceptions, or involvements, or whims of its managers.
The Bundesbank and the Process of European Monetary Integration
Authors: Bernholz Peter
Published: October 2023

Since the collapse of the gold exchange standard during the Great Depression in the 1930s, the international monetary system has been governed by the discretionary manipulation of paper currencies by central banks. The Bretton Woods system conceived after the Second World War implied a return to a watered-down version of the gold exchange standard, since it reserved the convertibility of US dollars into gold at Fixed parities only for monetary authorities. As it held the bulk of the world’s gold reserves, however, the United States was not forced to adhere to the rules of a gold exchange standard. President Nixon abandoned limited gold convertibility in 1971 as soon as the decline of gold reserves started causing problems for the domestically oriented US monetary policy of the time. It follows that the Bretton Woods era was also characterized by the interaction of discretionary national monetary systems, particularly as revaluations and devaluations were expressly envisaged in the statutes of the International Monetary Fund.
What Do We Now Know about Fertility Transition?
Authors: Caldwell John C , Caldwell Pat
Published: October 2023

The fertility transition has a claim to be the most important happening of our time. It has changed the nature of the family and the relationships between old and young as well as guaranteeing that the advances against mortality can be maintained. It has altered whole societies. We have found that research in this area can be fulfilling over a lifetime. Research on the origins and nature of this phenomenon are of profound intellectual interest. But much of the recent research has been funded with more practical aims, such as the guiding of policies and programmes. This might be a fitting time to examine whether fundamental research in this area has given us the truth about ourselves, and also whether it has given adequate guidance for efficient programmes. We wish to concentrate on five themes about areas where we believe there are problems of interpretation.
The Proper Role of Culture in Demographic Explanation
Authors: Kertzer David I
Published: October 2023

The problem of culture—lamented by some demographers, championed by others, and until recently ignored by most—just will not go away. The issue of culture goes to the heart of the explanatory problems faced in demographic research. Indeed, the demographer’s quandary can serve as a model of the problem faced by all who attempt to explain social behaviour.
Underinvestment in Children: A Reorganization of the Evidence on the Determinants of Child Mortality
Authors: Basu Alaka Malwade
Published: October 2023

The pace of the mortality transition in much of the contemporary developing world will be determined by the pace of improvements in child survival. Not only are levels of child mortality relative to adult mortality high in comparison with historical populations with similar life expectancies at birth, they are also affected by a much more complex set of factors than the traditional influences on adult survival. In particular, research seems to suggest that reductions in child mortality require strong will as much as material resources.
Poverty and AlDS The Vicious Circle
Authors: Basu Alaka Malwade
Published: October 2023

The connection between poverty and HIV/AIDS is not, at first sight, as obvious as that between poverty and poor health in general. When the epidemic first hit the world, it seemed to be the case that the better-off groups in a population were more susceptible to getting the infection. In the industrialized world, for example, it was perceived as an illness of the rich and famous, as a number of individuals from the world of the arts and entertainment succumbed to it. In other regions, too, a similar pattern prevailed-the better-off seemed also better able to afford the lifestyle that first seemed to be the chief transmitter of the infection. For instance, among 5,900 male employees of a textile factory in Zaire, the seroprevalence rate rose with the status of the job from 2.8 per cent among workers to 4.5 per cent among foremen and 5.3 per cent among executives (Ainsworth and Over 1994).
Reconstructing Society: Liang Shuming and the Rural Reconstruction Movement in Shandong
Authors: Thøgersen Stig
Published: October 2023

The Rural Reconstruction Movement (RRM) initiated by Liang Shuming stands out as an ambitious and visionary alternative to more bureaucratic government-sponsored modernization drives, as well as to the Communist revolutionary mode) for social change. The RRM and its work in Zouping county, Shandong province, between 1931 and 1937 was just one expression of the growing attention paid to the villages by Chinese reformers and revolutionaries from the later half of the l920s. What makes Liang’s experiments particularly relevant for the discussion of the relationship between state and society in the modern transformation of China, however, is his firm belief in the potentials of rural society, and his articulate aversion to state intervention and coercive measures. Liang conceived of the drama of modernization and rural reconstruction as a triangular relationship between village communities. intellectuals, and the state. His aim was to reconstruct rural society through the establishment of village schools (cunxue) which should play the double role of administrative organs and community centres. The state should only accept and assist this process, not dominate it, while the intellectuals should contribute with new ideas and knowledge. The implementation of these ideas in Zouping was no unqualified success, however, and even before the Japanese invaded the area in 1937 Liang was forced to admit that village China resisted this remodelling more than he had imagined.
Ghana’s Management of a Temporary Windfall: The Cocoa Boom of 1976-77
Authors: Wetzel Deborah
Published: October 2023

The production and export of cocoa has been an integral part of the Ghanaian economy since the turn of the century. Until recently cocoa production accounted for about 10% of GDP and 60% of exports. The government has also relied on the cocoa export tax as a major source of revenue. With the exception of the early 1980s and very recent years, it has provided between 25% and 40% of total government revenues annually. For many years Ghana was the world’s largest producer and exporter of cocoa. During the 1970s, however, (official) cocoa production declined dramatically, despite a quadrupling of world prices from 1975 to 1977. During this period, the economy entered a downward economic spiral from which it did not begil, to recover until the mid-1980s.
The Diamond Boom, Expectations and Economic Management in Botswana
Authors: Hill Catharine , Knight John
Published: October 2023

Botswana has acquired a mineral economy over the last two decades. Mining and quarrying account for over half of GDP, and diamond exports for over two-thirds of total exports. Mineral revenues of one sort or another make up more than two-thirds of government recurrent revenue. Botswana is now the highest value producer of diamonds in the world. But diamonds are potentially a risky, uncertain commodity, and so this heavy dependence on diamonds poses macroeconomic management problems.
Cameroon
Authors: Shanta Devaraj
Published: October 2023

During its first two decades of independence, Cameroon had the reputation of being a conservatively managed and moderately successful economy. Per capita income grew steadily at an annual rate of over 4%. The country avoided both high inflation and fiscal and current account deficits. The discovery of oil in 1975, and its production starting in 1978, stood to alter this pattern of development. On the one hand, the windfall oil revenues, if invested wisely, had the potential to propel the economy onto a more rapid growth path. On the other hand, if the experience of other oil exporters is a guide, these revenues could have turned out to be a mixed blessing, leaving the economy mired in debt and inflation and ill-prepared for the post-oil era.
Does the Labour Market Explain Lower Female Schooling? Evidence from Three African Countries
Authors: Appleton Simon , Hoddinott John , Krishnan, Pramila , Max Kerry
Published: October 2023

Human capital formation is rece1vmg increasing attention from both policy-makers and academics interested in promoting economic development. Models of endogenous growth stress the importance of investment in knowledge, including basic education and training, as critical factors in the expansion of GDP. Proponents of basic needs and capability approaches have long argued that education should form a principal component of development strategy. Many authors have stressed that investments in the education of women lead to better child health, lower fertility and reduced maternal mortality. Consequently, attention is increasingly focused on the means of achieving higher levels of human capital formation.
Keynes On Population
Authors: Toye John
Published: October 2023

The topic of population is treated only lightly in the major modern biographies of John Maynard Keynes, yet Keynes himself had strong - if varying - views on the subject. For many years he maintained a neo-Malthusian view of population, based on a postulated link between population growth and deteriorating terms of trade. This led him to take up a militant stance towards 'overpopulated' countries, notably India, China, and Egypt. Keynes on Population publishes two of John Maynard Keynes's manuscripts not published in the Collected Writings: his Cambridge lectures on population and 1914 Oxford lecture on 'Population'. It provides a detailed commentary on the text of 'Population' and discusses the extent of Keynes's engagement with the Social Darwinist doctrine of the 'rapid multiplication of the unfit' and with eugenics. It then traces the subsequent vicissitudes of his views on population and his interventions in the contemporary politics of population. These include his part in the 1920s campaign for birth control, the reversal of his neo-Malthusianism, and his eventual support for family allowances.
Introduction
Authors: Toye John
Published: October 2023

This is a book, one more book in the great torrent of books, about John Maynard Keynes, the world-famous economist and one of the most talented people of his generation. J. M. Keynes was born in Cambridge in 1883, the eldest child of John Neville Keynes, a Cambridge University Lecturer in economics and, later, its senior administrative officer, and his wife, Florence Ada Keynes, who herself became in middle life the Mayor of Cambridge. He was educated first at preparatory school in Cambridge and then at England’s most famous public school, Eton College, where he did well and was a popular pupil. In 1902, he entered King’s College, Cambridge as an undergraduate. He read Mathematics and took a first-class degree in 1905, although without being at the top of the list.
Introduction
Authors: Boeri Tito
Published: October 2023

The economics of transition is no longer the topic. The transformation of formerly planned economies into market economies is a much less fashionable area of operation for ‘research commuters’ than it was just a few years ago. Some of the ‘gods’ (an expression used at the Ukrainian Ministry of Finance the day before a famous Western economist landed in Kiev), flying in daily to dispense policy advice to the new governments of Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet republics, have since long abandoned the region. There are far fewer articles in the newspapers devoted to the issue, and fewer large conferences organized around the world with big names on the agendas. This is, no doubt, an ideal scenario to carry out serious research on transition.
Safety Nets, Earnings Inequalities and Reallocation
Authors: Boeri Tito
Published: October 2023

The previous chapter shed some light on the factors leading to the stagnancy of transitional unemployment, on the failure of the policy experiments carried out with the reforms of non-employment benefits, and hence on the appropriate timing of these reforms. An attempt was made to develop some theory framing (and possibly explaining) the time-series properties of job reallocation in each country under consideration, as well as the evolving borderline between unemployment and inactivity.
Theory and Reality in Asia and the Pacific
Authors: Massey Douglas S , Arango Joaquín , Hugo Graeme , Kouaouci Ali , Pellegrino Adela , Taylor J Edward
Published: October 2023

Over the past two decades geographic mobility within the Asia Pacific region has grown dramatically and the outlines of a new system of international migration have emerged, one that is quite different from the systems prevailing in North America, Western Europe, and the Persian Gulf. Perhaps the most salient feature of the system is its newness. The Asia Pacific system only assumed form during the 1980s, and its structure is still very much evolving. Our description is thus tentative and subject to likely modification by rapidly changing social, economic, and demographic circumstances throughout the region.