bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hilma Granqvist: A Scholar of the Westermarck School in its Decline
Authors: Suolinna Kirsti
Published: March 2007

Hilma Granqvist was educated at Helsinki University in the tradition of the Westermarck School. The topic of her dissertation 'Women in the Old Testament' led her to carry out fieldwork in Palestine. Between 1925 and 1931 she carried out fieldwork in the village of Artas, in all a 3-year period. Her radical decision to study only one village and thereby restrain from wider comparisons severed her relationship with her supervisor. Consequently she could not present her thesis at Helsinki University. Westermarck allowed her to defend it at Åbo Akademi University in January 19 32. He acted as her opponent even though he was just retiring from his professorship there. In Granqvist's dissertation on marriage conditions in Artas, as well as in her other publications, methods that combined statistics, participant observation and commentaries by local people were used. This combination made her able to distinguish between the ideal and the actual. Hilma Granqvist became the victim of a stagnating scientific school. Her academic career was totally blocked in Finland. Although she received international recognition, she had to work alone without support and encouragement.
Sociology and Normative Power: The Heritage of Torgny T. Segerstedt
Authors: Sohlberg Peter , Sohlberg Peter
Published: March 2007

Torgny T:son Segerstedt (1908-99) was the first duly appointed professor of sociology in Sweden. With a background in philosophy, early in his career Segerstedt was occupied with questions of symbolic communication and normative structures. From Segerstedt's understanding of social life follows the importance of social control and symbolic power whose most condensed expression in his perspective are norms. Segerstedt's focus on symbolic and normative structures gave him an early social constructivist perspective, applied, e.g. in research concerning travellers. Segerstedt advocated an empirical approach of sociology but considered a theoretical framework necessary for guiding research and making 'facts' intelligible. The basic social unit in Segerstedt's conception of sociology is the social group, constituted to a high degree by shared norms and common norm sources. Segerstedt was interested in the consequences of changing group structure and changing functional structure in modern society.
Kaare Svalastoga: The Unceasing Positivist
Authors: Gundelach Peter , Gundelach Peter
Published: March 2007

Kaare Svalastoga (1914-97) was born in Norway. After World War II he received a PhD in Sociology from the USA and in 1950 he became professor of Sociology at the University of Copenhagen. He founded the Department of Sociology, making it possible for the first time in Denmark for students to obtain degrees in sociology. His most important publications were devoted to social stratification. His scientific point of view was positivistic and he believed that sociology should resemble the natural sciences as closely as possible. This point of view led to strong conflicts between Svalastoga and those scholars who took the approach of Marxism, an approach that became very popular at the Department in the 1970s. Ultimately Svalastoga became isolated within the Department he had founded. Despite the turn of events he maintained strong ties with scholars in his field in countries around the world.
The Moderate Approach to Sociological Functionalism
Authors: Rose Jerry D.
Published: March 2007

A critique of the moderating approach to functionalism taken by Merton in his essay on "Manifest and Latent Functions" is presented. The focus is on the alternatives proposed by Merton to the prevail ing postulates of functionalism: the postulate of functional unity, the postulate of universal function alism, and the postulate of indispensability. In each instance it is indicated how the moderating alternative suggested in no way resolves the problems inherent in functionalism. It is alleged that Merton's criticism instead of being a positive refinement of functional analysis introduces greater inconsistencies into the inherent logic of functionalism.
On Ideology
Authors: Huaco George A.
Published: March 2007

One of the central concerns of sociology is the study of ideology. In this paper I shall analyze the ways in which this notion is used by contemporary sociologists. This analysis will disclose a dual usage. I shall argue that this usage is restrictive and fails to do justice to all the aspects of ideology. Ideological phenomena include a minimum of three separate and distinct elements or factors. It follows that any two-factor conception of ideology is necessarily inadequate.
Voting, "Sounding Out", and the Governance of Modern Organizations
Authors: Olsen Johan P.
Published: March 2007

An attempt is made to provide a theoretical framework by which one can understand variations in the procedures used in organizational decision-making. Two types are presented; a procedure of confrontation, where the use of voting is emphasized and preliminary discussions are missing, and a sounding out procedure, where voting is avoided and values and beliefs are synthesized indirectly or implicitly through social interaction. The analytical framework is a model of rational choice taking into consideration costs and benefits related to (a) the substantive goods at stake, (b) the effects upon the organization and the wider social system of which it is a part, and (c) the participants' use of time and energy (treating time as a scarce resource). Some specific hypotheses are offered concerning the conditions under which each choice-procedures will be used.
The Revolutionary Potential of the 'Private' : A Critique of the Family as a Revolutionary Force Position
Authors: Peterson Abby
Published: March 2007

The debate over the political role of the nuclear family has recently expanded ' to include a position that regards the family as a revolutionary force in that the family is regarded as the counterweight to the welfare state This position is criticized and found inadequate. Instead it is submitted that in locating the revolutionary potential of everyday life, a political theory that focuses upon the new social movements provides a more feasible analysis Various aspects of such a political theory are counterpoised to the viability of the family as a revolutionary force position.
The State, the Market and the Individual. Politics, Economy and the Idea of Man in the Works of Thomas Hobbes, Adam Smith and in Renaissance Humanism
Authors: Nielsen Torben Hviid
Published: March 2007

Thomas Hobbes, the father of modern state theory. regarded the loss of the self-government of the individual as a pre-condition of peace. the achievement of which the state was a necessary instrument Adam Smith. the father of political economy, similarly regarded the loss of the versatility of the individual as the price for that growth and prosperity, the achievement of which the division of labour and the market were necessary instruments However, the self-government and versatility of individuals were also the decisive characteristics of the ideal man of renaissance humanism. Are the state and the market as institutions, politics and economics as means of directing them compatible with the ideal man of humanism? What effect has the simultaneous growth of the state and the market since the renaissance had on the types of individuals and the crisis of governability in society?
University Career Opportunities for Women in Finland in the 1980s
Authors: Luukkonen-Gronow Terttu
Published: March 2007

In Finland the proportion of women in university posts has ceased to grow during the 1980s whereas their numbers as doctorate recipients still show an increasing trend. University career opportunities for women are affected by the decreased growth rates of university institutions occasioning harder competition for the few positions that become vacant. Other factors having an effect on women's opportunities for university careers, including career and family role incompatibility and mechanisms of invisible discrimination, are also scrutinized in the paper Family role has many facets for the woman The family is a liability, but also a resource for the woman The higher productivity rates of married researchers, both women and men, and data on time-use indicate that, as such, family responsibilities are not incompatible with a research and university career The notion of incompatibility draws attention away from other factors that impede women's careers in science and scholarly work These include discriminatory practices and attitudes towards women researchers The paper analyses them within the framework of women representing a symbolic minority in science. Examples are supplied by data of solicited letters from women scientists.
Squeezed between Capital and Technology: On the Participation of Labour in the Knowledge Society
Authors: Leydesdorff Loet , Van den Besselaar Peter
Published: March 2007

Can trade union, act upon the development of science and technology (S&T) in our types of society? Some major political programmes aiming at the development of a labour-oriented technology are analysed and assessed in terms of their impact on S&T The results of a survey of grass-roots initiatives ('workers' plans') and two questionnaires among experts suggest that no progress has yet been made in the attempts to develop an interface with S&T. This conclusion leads to some reflection on the conditions of a policy which would allow the workforce to take part in the processes of technological innovation
Colonization of Urban Civil Society
Authors: Tonboe Jens Christian
Published: March 2007

Colonization of the urban civil society is a double process First, there is the increasing economic, functional and social strain on the households originating from more widespread and intensive participation in the labour market. More and more urban households are breaking down - or shrink ing' - for various reasons, while others are apparently thriving successfully, at least materially The primary networks are breaking down, at the same time as the secondary are being withdrawn with the welfare state, and the tertiary, the grassroots, are losing their basis This diversification is leading to an increased spatial segregation in the large cities which forms the basis for the secondary form of colonization , This is the so-called network activity in large social housing areas as a new part of Danish social policy The aim is replacement of the traditional secondary service networks with new quarternary social networks aimed at preventing and solving social problems, e.g violence, vandalism, isolation, etc. The objectives of improving the economy of the housing companies and of reducing the public weltare budget are paramount, and the strategy might develop into a 'cheap' alternative to former times welfare strategy The problem, however, seems to be that such a selective social network strategy cannot work permanently without massive, and sometimes also authoritarian, network activity, which involves definition, stimulation and control from above. Experiences and examples of this are discussed.
Market Forces, Trade Union Ideology and Trends in Swedish Wage Dispersion
Authors: Hibbs Douglas A.
Published: March 2007

Compression of the distribution of relative wages was an important goal of Sweden's central confederation of blue-collar trade unions (LO) from the mid-1960s up to the breakdown of effective central wage formation in the early 1980s. In this article I analyze LO's success in achieving its ideology of wage equality in the market by companng observed wage dispersion trends to (i) the time path of human capital dispersion and (ii) the time path of wage dispersion built into the central framework wage agreements. I interpret the results of the comparisons as yielding strong evidence that egalitarian trade union ideology exerted powerful influence on the course of Swedish wage distribution.
Gender Inequality in the Labor Market
Authors: Rosenfeld Rachel A. , Kalleberg Arne L.
Published: March 2007

While women earn less, on average, than men in all advanced industrialized countries, countries vary in the size of the gender earnings gap We use data from nine advanced industrialized democracies to investigate the extent to which the ratio of women's to men's income is associated with sex segregation, labor's power and inclusiveness, leftist parties' strength, family policies, labor demand, and relative human capital levels. In general, labor's ability to bargain collectively explains more of the gender gap, directly and indirectly, than other factors.
Individual or Family? Results from Two Approaches to Class Assignment
Authors: Erikson Robert , Goldthorpe John H.
Published: March 2007

With the individual approach to class assignment, every person is assigned a class position in accordance with his or her own employment, whereas with the conventional approach members of a family are all assigned the same class position according to the employment of the family head. It has recently been claimed that the conventional approach is outmoded because of the increasing numbers of married women entering the labour market and that the individual approach should therefore be used. In this paper it is shown that in several nations employed married women's class identification and political partisanship are more closely associated with their spouse's class than with their own, as determined by the individual approach. It is concluded that those who prefer this latter approach must in turn accept that women tend to have a weaker class consciousness than men and likewise have lower levels of class voting. On the basis of the results reported, we suggest that the conventional approach still provides a more valid account of the class positions of men and women than does the individual approach.
Classes, Countries and Consumption Between the World Wars
Authors: Toivonen Timo
Published: March 2007

This article focuses upon three problems in the comparative analysis of consumption in three culturally and geographically closely related countries, Estonia, Finland and Sweden. The first problem concerns the comparison of consumption structures. The second problem confronted in the study concerns the comparison of changes in con sumption structures in the three countries. Finally, an attempt is made to ascertain whether differences between social classes were greater than differences between coun tries. Although the results reveal remarkable differences between classes in each country, national differences in consumption structures were usually even more pronounced.
The Dynamics of Secession
Authors: Hechter Michael
Published: March 2007

This paper presents an analysis of secession based on rational choice premises. From these premises, secession is seen to be the outcome of a series of collective decisions made by regional leaders and populations, and by the leaders and populations of host states. This emphasis on collective decisions serves to differentiate secession from another process that leads to the formation of political units — the fragmentation of host states The analysis explains why secession has been such a rare outcome in modern history and suggests that it will continue to be rare in the foreseeable future.
The Weberian Ideal-type: Development and Continuities
Authors: Lindbekk Tore
Published: March 2007

Max Weber's concept of ideal-types is presented against a background of the meth odological controversies at the turn of the century and the conceptions of some recent authors. The changes in Weber's ideal-type approach from his early studies of medieval trading companies to Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft and his studies of world religions are pointed out. It is argued that Weber's methodology was integral to his project to disclose the roots and central contents of modem Western civilization.
Class, Prospects and the Life-cycle: Explaining the Association between Class Position and Political Preferences
Authors: Evans Geoffrey
Published: March 2007

This paper examines the role of promotion prospects in explaining class differences in political preferences at different points in the life-cycle. The argument contains four main propositions. First, that present resources are often discounted in favour of future rewards when making political choices. Second, that the extent of future rewards is a key distinguishing characteristic of social classes Third, that differential perceptions of future opportunities for rewards will lead to individuals in different classes preferring parties that are at different points along a left-right continuum. Fourth, that with age there is a diminishing utility of future rewards and increasing importance is therefore attached to present resources, which reduces the discounting of present for future rewards when making political choices. These hypotheses are tested using British national survey data The evidence, although of a limited nature, supports all four propositions. It is concluded, tentatively, that class differences in left-right partisanship among young people are primarily a result of class differences in expectations concerning future occupational rewards. Among older respondents, however, present resources are of considerably greater importance in explaining political divisions between classes. Empm cal support is therefore obtained for the role of prospective rewards in providing individuals in different classes with divergent interests, but this role diminishes in importance as the future foreshortens.
The Politics of Radwaste Management in Sweden
Authors: Lidskog Rolf
Published: March 2007

Taking as its point of departure a conceptualization of society as compnsing three interdependent spheres - civil society, the state and the economy - the article focuses on Swedish policy for radwaste management. Nuclear power policy in Sweden was elaborated in cooperation between the state and the industry, but came in for lively discussion and politicization dunng the 1970s The problem of radioactive waste was an essential part of the critique of nuclear power, but despite that radwaste management has been depoliticized, and today it is the responsibility solely of the nuclear companies themselves. Sweden, like many other countries, will dunng the 1990s start to decide where to locate the repository for spent nuclear fuel. However, basically because of the possibility of local opposition, the siting of such facilities is anything but unproblematic, and therefore the attitude of the civil society to a site is an essential factor to be taken into consideration. This attitude has to do with circumstances that are more or less specific to each locality. Hence, when it comes to the siting of radwaste, the role of the municipality becomes crucial, situated as it is at the interface between civil society, the state and the economy.
Wages and Organizational Factors
Authors: Barth Erling
Published: March 2007

In a market-clearing view of wage formation it is claimed that only external factors, namely the conditions in the labor market, affect wages for a given type of labor in any one firm. However, there are several non-market-clearing theories in which importance is given also to firm-specific variables. In this article the effects of organizational factors on the wage level of the firm are studied Using a data set with several observations from each establishment, it is possible to distinguish within-establishment and between- establishment differences. Organizational factors such as establishment size, the presence of a personnel officer and managers' ownership are found to create wage differentials across establishments. The results are consistent with implications from several non- market-clearing theories.
Selection Methods in US Establishments
Authors: Marsden Peter V.
Published: March 2007

Data on a nationally representative sample of US establishments reveal that letters of reference are the most common approach to screening and selecting applicants for employment. Physical examinations, skills/proficiency tests, and tests for drug and/or alcohol use are used by substantial minorities of workplaces; very few draw on intelligence/personality tests. Multilevel analyses demonstrate that organizational, environmental, and occupational properties are related to the five staffing methods Organizations display clear propensities to rely on a given method for selecting employees for different occupations, but there are substantial occupational variations in selection practices as well Differences are especially strong for physical examinations and drug/ alcohol tests, which are apt to be required in large, formalized establishments within multisite complexes; in unionized workplaces, and in non-managerial occupations In addition, drug tests are more often required when an establishment has a separate personnel/labor relations department, and when a large percentage of the employees in an occupation is male.
Review Essay : Establishing a Discipline: The Impact of Society on the Development of Icelandic Sociology
Authors: Gunnlaugsson Helgi , Bjarnason Thoroddur
Published: March 2007

The economic, social and cultural transformation of Icelandic society in the 20th century has had a profound impact on the development of Icelandic sociology Sociologists have focused on social conditions, both in terms of historic and emerging social processes and in the vanous social and cultural problems associated with the development of Icelandic society. The surprising diversity found within the small Icelandic sociological community suggests that the fragmentation of sociology on the international level does not stem from the growing number of sociologists, but reflects the multiparadigmatic nature of the sociological discipline Icelandic sociologists tend to work in dialogue with prac titioners and enthusiasts in their field of study, researchers from other disciplines working in the same area and, on the international level, within specific sociological research paradigms Moreover, they have had close contacts with the general public through the popular media, which has in turn made sociology highly visible and recognized in the wider society. As Icelandic sociology matures, we expect to see a stronger theoretical emphasis and a shift towards more longitudinal and comparative research.
Review Essay : Law as an Autopoietic System
Authors: Michailakis Dimitris
Published: March 2007

The concept of autopoiesis connotes the idea that the constituent elements of social systems are communications. This makes society a self-reproducing system of communication. Particular modes of communication crystallize within the social system and form autonomous subsystems. A system's specific mode of communication makes it a normative closed system against the environment. Law is one such self-reproductive system which organizes and conceptualizes influences and demands from the environment in terms of its norms legal/illegal.
Repression, Revolution and Ambivalence: The Sexual Life of Three Generations
Authors: Haavio-Mannila Elina , Roos J.P. , Kontula Osmo
Published: March 2007

Attitudes toward unconventional and casual forms of sexuality and toward extramarital relations as well as the appearance of parallel (extra) sexual relationships are studied in three sexual generations. These are constructed on the basis of sexual norms and practices prevailing at the time of the sexual initiation of their members. The following sexual generations are distinguished: the sexual generations of repression born 1917-36, revolution born 1937-56, and ambivalence born 1957-73. The persistence of the sexual morals and behaviour patterns adopted in youth clearly emerges from large national surveys conducted in Finland in 1971 and 1992. The generation of sexual repression appears as the most restrictive in its attitudes toward unconventional and casual forms of sexuality. It has least often engaged in parallel relationships. The generation of sexual revolution is consistently most permissive in its sexual attitudes and behaviour. The youngest cohort, the sexually ambivalent generation, is permissive toward unconventional and casual forms of sexuality but family-oriented in attitudes toward marital fidelity. Nevertheless, it is free in its own sexual behaviour. Compared to young people twenty years ago, its members more often report parallel sexual relations. The findings are interpreted by referring to current sociological discussions on individualization in (post)modern society.
The Transformation of Childhood: Children and Families in Postwar Norway
Authors: Frønes Ivar
Published: March 2007

The title 'Transformation of Childhood' relates to the structural and cultural changes in childhood and families in the period following the Second World War. Modern childhood is closely related to the evolution of the post-industrial educational society. This has permeated both family life and the culture in general, transforming the landscape of childhood through the creation of a new family structure, daycare systems, organized leisure activities, and extensive schooling. At the core of these changes in family patterns, as well as the changes in the ideology of parenting and family policies in Scandinavia, is the educational level of parents, especially mothers. Another factor is the ideology of equality between the sexes, and the changing structure of modern professional life. The 1990s period sees girls being more successful than boys during the years of mandatory schooling, and being dominant among students in higher education. They also appear to hold a stronger position in the child culture in general, and in relation to the predominant youth scenes. This development is rooted partly in the structure of modern childhood, providing fertile ground for social and cultural innovation. Through generational exchange, the childhood of one historical period influences the family patterns of the next one, restructuring the childhood of the next generation of children.
Scandinavian Neighbours with Different Character? Attitudes Toward Immigrants and National Identity in Norway and Sweden
Authors: Knudsen Knud
Published: March 2007

This article takes up a theme of growing importance in the European and Scandinavian context, namely national sentiments and reactions toward new immigrants. More specifically, I analyse possible links between aspects of national identity and fear of foreigners - or xenophobia - in Norway and Sweden. Such ideas involve hypotheses at different levels and imply a step-by-step approach, analytically and empirically. It is argued that the concept of national identity could be specified within at least two dimensions: national chauvinism and system legitimacy, and it is further hypothesized that these factors affect xenophobia in a nuanced manner. The empirical analyses build and test a proper measurement model for the three concepts (chauvinism, legitimacy and xenophobia), later developed into a complex causal model. These analyses rely on recent advances in structural equation modelling (SEM) for the treatment of ordinal data and the handling of different covariance as well as mean structures. Data for Norway and Sweden come from the new national identity module collected in 1995 by ISSP. Results from various LISREL analyses support the crucial notion of a common measurement model for the two samples, making comparisons within and between countries more meaningful than otherwise. Findings demonstrate similar attitude structures for Norwegians and Swedes. Furthermore, the extended causal analysis shows that chauvinism and legitimacy clearly affect xenophobia on the individual level, partly also explaining national differences. However, even when differences of such sentiments are taken into account Norwegians still stand out as the more xenophobic, thus pointing toward the need for supplementary interpretations.
Another Look at Culture and Nature: How Culture Patterns Influence Environmental Orientation among Norwegian Youth
Authors: Skogen Ketil
Published: March 2007

To what extent are young people's attitudes toward environmental issues part of broader culture patterns? Based on a survey of 3,810 Norwegian young people aged 15-22, four culture profiles were identified through factor analysis. Environmental orientation was measured by means of the New Ecological Paradigm scale, the importance ascribed to sustained economic growth and to fighting pollution, and membership in environmental organizations. Different aspects of environmental orientation turned out to be tied to different culture profiles, and through these profiles also to class and gender. Two extremes emerged. A 'critical' environmental perspective (resembling a 'deep ecology' position) was closely tied to a culture profile labelled 'radical counterculture', which had its basis within the 'humanistic social intermediate strata'. Anti-environmental attitudes were closely tied to a culture profile labelled 'redneck', based within the manual working class. However, no culture profile emerged as exclusively 'environmentalist', in that three profiles (all except 'redneck') were tied to some 'environment friendly' attitudes. The findings point to the importance of avoiding simplistic interpretations of environmental concern as a unidimensional phenomenon ranging from strong to weak.
On Getting a Straight Answer in Tropicana
Authors: Scigliano Robert
Published: March 2007

Some new Asian nations, such as "Tropicana," our pseudonymic subject, have been remarkably inventive in providing obstacles for foreigners in search of informa tion and opinions. These obstacles, along with the more inevitable problems of linguistic barriers and evaluation, foster a large degree of patience, perserverance, and mental flexibility on the part of any successful American researcher.
Democracy and Destructiveness
Authors: Leites Nathan
Published: March 2007

Dr. Nathan Leites of the RAND Corporation, author of The Operational Code of the Politburo and other works, is presented here in an article, written in 1949 but hitherto unpublished, on same dynamics of human nature as they relate to democratic beliefs. Dr. Leites asserts, first, that too many discussions of democ racy, including many learned ones, neglect or refuse to put forward their ulti mate preferences for a certain kind of man and society. Ultimate preferences about human nature cannot be challenged by logical empiricism. Ultimate gen eralizations about human nature can be challenged by the so-called scientific method and tested for conformance to events.

Secondly, given ultimate preferences about human nature, which are compatible with the scientifically tested limitations of human nature, one may build a "demo eratic" system—that is, a system wherein the environment is guaranteed, to put it exaggeratedly, to produce democratic people conforming to the ultimate preference.

Thirdly, the contributions of political scientists to our knowledge of late environ ment, and that of psychologists to early environment, help to tell what is neces sary to adjust men to a society which permits democratic human activities as defined by the irreducible, ultimate preferences on which we may agree!

Dr. Leites asserts in conclusion that democracy may be threatened, not only by communist aggression, but by uncontrolled destructiveness or badly controlled destructiveness that results in moral uncertainty and dysfunctions of conscience.
Editing The Universal Encyclopedia
Authors: Ashmore Harry S.
Published: March 2007

The Editor in Chief o f the Encyclopaedia Britannica explains the economics and mechanics of encyclo pedias as they impinge upon writing, revision, and
The Idea of an Encyclopedia
Authors: Van Doren Charles
Published: March 2007

An analysis of a great modern encyclopedia permits Mr. Van Doren to establish several themes and ideals of the encyclopedist : teaching over informing, art over reference, human over scientific-literary, the "curious average man" target, reformism over the intellectual and social status quo.
N Power and N Ach in China
Authors: Gupta Krishna Prakash
Published: March 2007

In the early 'slxties, Americans saw in China a model of totalitarian consolidation of power, In the early 'seventies, they see only growth and achievement there. Between these two perceptions, neither has China's internal reality changed drastically nor have American eval uations suddenly become more real istic. But the new material basis of Sino-American relations has gradually transformed reciprocal images. The evidence for this transformation is examined symbolically through the shifting American interpretations of a story prescribed for elemetary schools in China.
Eastern Europe- Integration, Hegemony, Empire
Authors: Sanness John
Published: March 2007

This article is a response to Mr. Klaus Törnudd's contribution to the Nordic seminar on prob lems of integration held in Aarhus, Denmark, in June I966 (Cooperation and Conflict, No. 2 (I966)). It is based on notes from the seminar discussion which have been already been pub lished in the Norwegian journal Internasjonal Politikk.
Neutrality and the Common Market: the Soviet View
Authors: Tarschys Daniel
Published: March 2007

The Soviet doctrine on the legal implications of neutrality is liberal with regard to the non-aligned nations in the third world but rigid with regard to the neutral states in Western Europe. On the one hand, Soviet jurists defend the right of neutral countries to pursue a highly active foreign policy. On the other, they contend that neither mem bership nor association with the Common Market is compatible with Swedish, Austrian, or Swiss neutrality. This inherent tension in the Soviet theory of neutrality is not resolved at the level of abstract definitions of neutrality and neutralism where the liberal interpretation tends to prevail.
A Qualitative Comparison of Two Soviet News Items in the Finnish Services of Radio Moscow and the BBC
Authors: Varis Tapio
Published: March 2007

This study is a qualitative analysis of how the 24th Congress of Representatives of the Soviet Communist party was reported in the Finnish news services of Radio Moscow and the BBC. The study is designed to find out if and how the different ideologies distorted the reporting of the Congress and how the refined propaganda was used, either consciously or unconsciously. Brief analysis is also made of the reporting of the unsuccessful landing of the Soviet spacecraft 'Soljuz II' to compare how a negative event is presented. It was found that both stations reported the main issues of the Congress in a businesslike manner but differences occurred in their telling of international reactions to the Congress and of policy implications. The explicit reference to the Czechoslovakian crisis in 1968 is the only aspect that was not reported by Moscow in the same context as by the BBC but there was much material reported by Moscow ignored by the BBC. The author also examines what is meant by 'objective' news reporting.
Australian Foreign Policy under the Labor Government
Authors: Richardson James L.
Published: March 2007

This article discusses the foreign policy of Australia's new government, in particular the extent to which its policies, as is widely suggested, represent a sharp break with the past.

Australia long accepted the role of 'junior partner', first of Britain, then of the United States. The change of government in December 1972 coincides with changes in the international system which necessitate a basic reassessment. It is argued that in the fields of national security policy and regional cooperation these have been changes of emphasis rather than of fundamental priorities, whereas new themes have been in troduced on racial and colonial issues and in economic diplomacy. The changes are overdue and offer some prospect of a more relevant and constructive Australian role in the emerging international system.
The UN Conference on the Law of the Sea —
Authors: Vindenes Helge
Published: March 2007

The article gives a survey of the basic problems which will be before the forthcoming UN Conference on the Law of the Sea - as seen from a Norwegian point of view. In examining the interrelationship between these problems, the author arrives at the con clusion that the only feasible solution would be a 'package deal' covering all the main issues. The juxtaposition of priorities of the various interest groups at the Conference- a majority of coastal states for whom the rights to the resources in an area adjacent to the territorial sea is the most burning issue, and a minority of maritime powers for whom the question of freedom of navigation is more important - indicates the nature of the possible overall compromise solution. Such a solution would, it seems, have to consist of a package deal which must reconcile and accommodate, the interests of maritime freedom on the one hand with on the other hand, the increasing need for management powers, both for the coastal state and for international regulatory bodies. The main elements of such a package would probably have to be the following: Firstly, a territorial sea limited to a maximum distance of twelve nautical miles from the baselines along the coast. There is already with the exception of a few Latin-Amer ican countries, broad agreement that a territorial sea limited to twelve nautical miles should constitute one of the main elements in the solution.

Secondly, guaranteed rights of passage inside the territorial sea, including a special right of free or unimpeded passage through straits used for international navigation. Thirdly, extensive resource management rights for the coastal state in an adjacent area outside the territorial sea. In this adjacent area, which would be called the eco nomic zone and which would extend to a maximum of 200 nautical miles, the juris diction of the coastal state would be limited to matters pertaining to the exploitation of the area's natural resources - both its seabed resources and its fisheries resources. The coastal state would also have certain well-defined rights in the zone where mea sures to combat pollution are concerned, and the right to regulate scientific research. There would be freedom of navigation inside the zone.

In addition to an overall package solution along the lines mentioned above, the new con vention will have to establish a legal regime for the exploitation of the natural resour ces on the seabed and ocean floor in areas outside national jurisdiction. It will also have to establish an international organization for the implementation of this legal regime. The author emphasizes the need for equipping the international organization with broad regulatory powers, in accordance with the basic approach taken by the UN General Assembly in 1970, when declaring the international seabed area as 'the common heritage of mankind'.
Strength and Impotence. The Developing Countries and the Development in New Territories
Authors: Østreng Willy
Published: March 2007

This article examines the possible political and economic effects of large-scale mineral extraction from the seabed. The findings presented indicate that development in new territories may conceivably serve to exacerbate existing conflict dimensions, notably the North/South dimension in global politics. Because of the developed countries' monopoly on know-how and economic capability, exploration and exploitation of the inorganic resources of the ocean floor has de facto been the exclusive domain of these countries. On the basis of this the author shows that if large-scale production of seabed resources should become a reality in the near future, the underdeveloped countries will be forced to watch it from the sidelines. As a consequence, the exploita tion of offshore raw materials will probably contribute to the further widening of the gap between developed and underdeveloped countries. Further commenting on the fact that the latter today are the main producers of the most promising seabed resources, the author expresses the view that exploitation will have a detrimental effect on the economies of the Third World countries, since it might lead to overproduction and price reductions.
Swedish and Norwegian Attitudes Towards the United States
Authors: Grothe Peter
Published: March 2007

This study, based on a paper given to the 1975 annual convention of the American Political Science Association, gives the results of questionnaires filled out by more than 2,800 Swedes and Norwegians. Swedes and Norwegians who had been to the United States were compared with control groups of their fellow countrymen who had not been there regarding their perceptions of America. Further, those who had been to the United States were asked about their perceptions of their own countries. The data showed that on most - but not all - indicators, those who had been to America were more positive than the control groups who had not been there. Scandinavians who had been to America were particularly positive about American personality charac teristics but were negative about the perceived lack of a comprehensive social welfare system in the U.S. Scandinavians who had been to America seemed to return home both more appreciative and more critical of some aspects of their own countries.
One for All or Four for the Fifth: Standardization and the F-16 in Europe
Authors: Hagelin Björn
Published: March 2007

In 1975 Holland, Belgium, Norway and Denmark agreed to combine to manufacture the American F-16 fighter aircraft on license. Among other things it was labeled the arms deal of the century, and a milestone along the road to Alliance standardization. It was also regarded as an example of how American industry dominates the European market. There is no simple equation by which the decision can be evaluated. This article tries to analyze why. One conclusion is that it might be said of the arms deal of the century what was once said about the Year of Europe in 1973 - that it was, but not the way it was planned.
Structures of Détente and Ecological Interdependence: Cooperation in the Baltic Sea Area for the Protection of Marine Environment and Living Resources
Authors: Rytövuori Helena
Published: March 2007

In comparison with the more general structural features in the Baltic region, a special kind of functional system with the participation of all the Baltic states has been created for the protection of the marine environment and living resources in the Baltic Sea area. The questions posed by the author are: What is the function of this particular 'system' in the context of the more general systemic structures of the region? Is it relatively isolated from, or linked to, other more politicized issue-areas? What are the possibilities for, and limits to, further cooperation? Two approaches could be taken to evaluate these matters. First, such cooperation could be considered in instrumental terms, i.e. we could focus on its contribution to the creation, strengthening and diversification of the structures of détente at a sub-regional level; the forms of cooperation discussed could be regarded as prime examples of such manifold multilateral cooperation between states representing different socio-economic systems, the promotion of which is encouraged in the Final Act of the CSCE at an all-European level. However, a different approach, turning the functionalist formulation upside down and asking to what extent the politicization of technical coopera tion limits advancement of collaboration in these fields is considered more relevant in this context. It is concluded that the process of détente cannot be said to have generated the cooperation, and that the cooperation that has evolved is likely to function despite certain political impediments and deadlocks.
Semi-Domestic Politics: Policy Diffusion from Sweden to Fin land
Authors: Karvonen Lauri
Published: March 2007

This article presents the main results of a research project on policy diffusion from Sweden to Finland from about 1947. Sixty innovative Swedish policies are compared in detail with Finnish policies introduced later. One-fourth of these cases display more or less identical policies in the two countries. Half of these cases of 'probable diffusion' are then subjected to detailed case study analysis. It turns out that the similarities are indeed results of diffusion from Sweden to Finland, i.e. involve a conscious introduction of Swedish modeis into Finnish politics. No one pattern of diffusion can be observed, but the author suggests that there are four typical kinds of diffusion: political, bureaucratic, corporative and cumulative. In a discussion of implications for further research the author stresses that more attention should be paid to purely domestic factors in the study of Nordic relations. He suggests an increased use of policy analytical methods and perspectives in this enterprise.
'Not Valid for Oil': The Petroleum Dilemma in Norwegian Foreign Policy
Authors: Bergesen Helge Ole
Published: March 2007

Bergesen, H. O. 'Not Valid for Oil': The Petroleum Dilemma in Norwegian Foreign Policy. Cooperation and Conflict, XVII, 1982, 105-116.

In this article traditional Norwegian foreign policy ideals are compared with the problems Norway is facing as an oil-exporting country. It is the basic thesis of the article that in the latter capacity the country is confronted with a global situation very different from the international environment it is familiar with and from the ideals on which its foreign policy is based. This is most clearly seen with regard to the vision of a future international legal order including close political cooperation across the North-South cleavage — the globalization of the Scandinavian model. This ideal is a world apart from the insecure, unstable oil system with its high economic stakes, political risks, and high tension. The article explores how the Norwegian foreign policy leadership has reacted to this discrepancy. The analysis shows that it is hard to discern any overall, dominating trend in the formulation of Norwegian foreign oil policy. We seem to be confronted with, not a coherent government position, but several separate policies that coexist in spite of their inconsistency.
Disarmament, Development, Dual-purpose Technologies and the Like-minded Countries
Authors: Dolman Antony J.
Published: March 2007

Many important fields of technology serve a dual purpose: they have significant military and peaceful applications. This article argues that a stronger focus on dual-purpose technologies might serve to simultaneously promote the causes of disarmament and development. Six areas of dual-purpose technology are examined. It is found that the international regulation of these areas is either imperfect or non-existent. The author suggests that the debate should be taken up by the 'like-minded' countries, particularly The Netherlands and the Scandinavian states. They have credibility in the eyes of the Third World, they are active in the disarmament field, and they may need new issues to strengthen their internal cooperation.