bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Church Support as a Predictor of Children's Spirituality and Prosocial Behavior
Authors: Crosby Robert G. , Smith Erin I.
Published: February 2018

Church affiliation has been associated with many developmental benefits for children and adolescents, including higher levels of prosocial behavior; however, research has only minimally explored the mechanisms mediating these relationships. The current study examines the extent to which social support at church (i.e., church support) predicts children's prosocial behavior independent of family religious practices and, subsequently, the extent to which the relationships between family religious practices, church support, and prosocial behavior are mediated by spirituality. Self-report survey data were collected from 279 church-going children between the ages of 6 and 13. Results of a structural equation model (SEM) analysis found that church support independently predicted spirituality and prosocial behavior after controlling for family religious practices. Spirituality partially mediated the relationship between church support and prosocial behavior. On average, boys reported significantly lower levels of church support, which in turn predicted lower levels of prosocial behavior both directly and indirectly via spirituality. Implications for parents and church leadership are discussed.
Intellectual Humility and Forgiveness of Religious Conflict
Authors: Zhang Hansong , Farrell Jennifer E. , Hook Joshua N. , Davis Don E. , Van Tongeren Daryl R. , Johnson Kathryn A.
Published: February 2018

Intellectual humility (IH) involves an accurate view of one's intellectual strengths and weaknesses as well as the ability to negotiate different ideas in an interpersonally respectful manner. The current study examined how IH and perceptions of IH affect responses to a religious conflict. Participants (N = 200) were undergraduate students who filled out online questionnaires about their experience of a religious conflict. Participants rated (a) their own IH toward the offender's religious beliefs and values, (b) their perception of the offender's IH toward the participants’ religious beliefs and values, and (c) their own general humility. Next, they reported their forgiveness of the offender following a religious conflict. Both victim IH and perceived IH of the offender were positively associated with forgiveness, even when controlling for general humility. We conclude by discussing limitations and areas for future research.
Existential Spirituality, Religiosity, and Symptoms of Anxiety-Related Disorders: A Study of Belief in Ultimate Truth and Meaning in Life
Authors: Jang Sung Joon
Published: February 2018

This study proposes a concept called “existential spirituality”–defined as the extent of a person's belief in ultimate truth and meaning in life—and explores the relationship between existential spirituality and distress (with and without controlling for religiosity, which prior research found to be inversely related to distress). To empirically examine these relationships, a structural equation model was estimated based on nationally representative data from the 2010 Baylor Religion Survey. Before religiosity was taken into account, existential spirituality was not significantly associated with the symptoms of anxiety-related disorders. When religiosity was added to the model, however, existential spirituality was positively related to generalized anxiety disorder and the obsessions associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Existential spirituality was also positively correlated with religiosity, as hypothesized. This finding indicates that religiosity was a suppressor for the spirituality-distress relationship. Implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Toward Normative MMPI-2 Profiles for Evangelical Missionaries in Candidate and Clinical Settings: Examining Differences by Setting, Generation, and Marital Status
Authors: Rosik Christopher H. , Slivoskey Meg M. , Ogdon Katie M. , Kincaid Tiffany M. , Roos Ian K. , Castanon Mandalyn R.
Published: February 2018

In order to replicate and expand the work of Dimos (2013), we compiled the largest samples to date of MMPI-2 standard scale profiles among evangelical Christian missionary candidates (n =1227; 530 men and 696 women) and outpatients (n = 1431; 643 men and 788 women). Results indicated our candidate scale scores were remarkably similar to those reported by Dimos and together these datasets appear to converge on a reliable normative profile for this population. We also present a potential outpatient normative profile for our clinical sample. In distinguishing our samples from the MMPI-2 normative sample, we found that validity scale differences were most salient for the missionary candidates and several clinical scales provided the clearest contrasts for missionary outpatients. Potential profile shifts among successive generations were evident in the form of somewhat less defensiveness and, specific to outpatients, slightly more sensitivity and feelings of grievance. Finally, while the profiles of married and single candidates were essentially similar, among the clinical sample married missionaries appeared slightly more guarded and less distressed than their single counterparts.
Losing My Religion: Spiritual Discouragement amongst Christian Therapists due to Spiritual Immaturity in Christian Clients
Authors: Porter Steven L. , Hall M. Elizabeth Lewis , Wang David C.
Published: February 2018

This paper addresses the spiritual discouragement and religious doubt that can arise in the Christian therapist who repeatedly experiences spiritual immaturity and crisis amongst his or her Christian clients. While Christians certainly aren't perfect, they often fall so far short of that ideal that one can reasonably wonder whether the Christian faith possesses resources that effectively bring about positive growth and change. We contend that witnessing repeated spiritual immaturity, failure, and related crises amongst Christian clients can bring about intrapersonal spiritual struggle for the Christian therapist of those clients. In response to this problem, a religious orienting system is proposed that includes both epistemological and theological features that aid the Christian therapist in navigating the disillusionment and disorientation that can occur from repeat exposure to spiritual immaturity amongst Christian clients.
Religion, Psychology, and Science: Steps toward a Wider Psychology of Religion
Authors: Andrews Allan R.
Published: February 2018

The psychology of religion historically has defined itself with great difficulty, and general psychologists have been reluctant to investigate religious phenomena. General or introductory psychology textbooks, which play a “gate-keeping” role for the discipline of psychology, typically disregard any systematic study of the psychology of religion, as is shown in a small, informal sample of these textbooks. The problem of definition not only plagues the psychology of religion because religion is so elusive a phenomenon; it also exists in mainstream psychology, where a clear definition of the field has been controversial since the formal beginnings of the discipline in the late nineteenth century. It is suggested that the problems of definition in both religion and psychology can be traced to the endemic definition of science. In psychology, science is often narrowly defined and aligned exclusively with experimental methodology. Introductory textbooks are strong in their implications of this narrow view of science, often to the point of dismissing or diminishing religious ways of knowing. A clearer definition of the psychology of religion should emerge from the adoption of a wider definition of science, a definition that recognizes and acknowledges that scientific knowing is a second-order abstraction from the primary reality of human personal experience.
Religiosity and Altruism: Faith without Works?
Authors: Ritzema Robert J.
Published: February 2018

This paper explores the relationship between religiosity and altruistic behavior. By definition, altruism entails behavior displayed in the apparent absence of external reinforcers; thus it must be maintained either by consequences that were not evident to the observer, or in the absence of reinforcement. There are several mechanisms which should enable Christians to display more altruism than nonbelievers, yet several research studies have found no relationship between religiosity and measures of helping behavior. The methodology of these studies is critiqued, and topics for future research are suggested.
Note on the Attribution and Reinforcement Analyses of Altruism
Authors: Paloutzian Raymond F.
Published: February 2018

The attribution of an altruistic motive occurs when we observe prosocial behavior performed in the apparent absence of external controlling contingencies. The process by which this occurs is described, and an attribution analysis of the good Samaritan parable is presented. The limits of the reinforcement analysis of prosocial behavior are discussed, with emphasis on the difficulties inherent in resorting to hypothetical internal reinforcers.
The Prophet Hosea: God's Alternative to Divorce for the Reason of Infidelity
Authors: Small Dwight Hervey
Published: February 2018

Christian divorce counseling requires a biblical perspective — an underlying knowledge of all that the Scriptures bring to bear on the subject. Basically, Jesus taught in answer to questions relating to the Mosaic Law, but He is not recorded as counseling a specific case of divorce (as in the instance of dealing with the woman taken in adultery). In 1 Corinthians 7, Paul responds to specific questions concerning specific cases. God's response to unfaithful Israel, His wife, is depicted in His directions to Hosea in view of Hosea's wife's infidelity. What really occurred is controverted. The thesis defended here is that God did not direct Hosea to divorce Gomer. Divorce is not the only or preferred solution to marital crisis involving infidelity. A counseling model is established, overlaid with the powerful reinforcement of God's own action.
Psychodynamics in Mass Media Society
Authors: Ellens J. Harold
Published: February 2018

Communications systems have become the central organizing framework of Western society as they have progressed from a position of simply serving to unite society to a status of cultural domination. Through an exploration of definition, the complexity of communications is obviated. The very complexity involved is seen as cause for anxiety, leading to a conceptualization of communication as a psychodynamic process of essential importance to human personhood. Attempting to analyze the complexifying factors in the process of communicating, the author presents a six-level “Noetic Continuum” which delineates a variety of psycho-social stages from which the sender and the receiver may come to the communication interaction. A new communications model is then outlined, emphasizing the degree of experience overlap between the sender and receiver and the commonalities of their symbolic vocabularies as critical factors in the successful communication exchange.
Values and Behavioral Change
Authors: Nelson Dirk
Published: February 2018

A primary function of Scripture is the launching of behavioral change. Processing the Word through human experience into changed behavior is an art which few pastors and teachers understand or enable. The recent literature in the field of “values clarification” may provide a needed clue for understanding the process toward biblically-inspired change. A fresh paradigm incorporating information, belief, values, and behavioral change is presented from Scripture. Values are viewed as the pivotal axis around which behavioral decisions are often made. Re-formed values, then, become the chief target for Christian communicators. Modeling by significant persons may be a fundamental source for values re-formation and corresponding behavioral change.
The Theology of Murray Bowen or the Marital Triangle
Authors: David James R.
Published: February 2018

The author suggests congruence between Murray Bowen's theory of triangles and Christian marriage. Bowen's triangle theory is provided as a basis for understanding the stabilizing role of Christ as an integral member of the marital triangle. A tacit, underlying assumption is the “impossibleness” of marriage without Christ as a participant.
Humanistic-Experiential Models in Pastoral Counseling: A Critique
Authors: Fatis Michael
Published: February 2018

Humanistic-experiential approaches are extremely popular in the training and practice of pastoral counseling. Training programs employing a humanistic-experiential model for training and practice view training as a period for the personal growth of trainees. Students are taught that the need for pastoral counseling reflects a need for personal growth. Critics of humanistic-experiential methods cite the lack of academic rigor and the proliferation of “half-truths” as evidence that a goal of personal growth is neither an effective training model nor an effective pastoral initiative toward people in need of specific help. It is suggested that training centers may best serve by challenging trainees academically and by teaching specific cognitive-behavioral counseling skills rather than focusing upon trainees' personal growth.
The Task Ahead: Six Levels of Integration of Christianity and Psychology
Authors: Larzelere Robert E.
Published: February 2018

While the integration of Christianity with psychology has made some notable progress in recent years, there has been relatively little growth in psychological research relevant to integration. This article presents a model which attempts to begin correcting this by showing the relevance of psychological research to theories and world views used in psychology. Psychological study is categorized into six levels: World View, General Proposition, Linkage, Specific Proposition, Hypothesis, and Data. Distinct integration tasks are suggested for each level. The importance of the interrelationships among the six levels is also emphasized.
The Search for Truth in the Task of Integration
Authors: Guy James D.
Published: February 2018

The task of integrating psychology and Christian theology can be spoken of as the search for truth concerning the nature of mankind and our existence. God is the source of all truth, and truth is revealed to us through both general and special revelation. The crucial issue is whether or not mankind can fully know and understand this truth. The model for integration proposed by Collins is an example of a system which assumes that we can fully and accurately discover and interpret truth. This assumption leads Collins to imply that one true model for integration may exist as well as one true set of therapeutic assumptions, techniques, and goals. Careful examination of biblical data, as well as recognition of numerous conflicting theories about the truth, may lead one to conclude that we cannot fully discover and understand truth with total accuracy. The implications of this fact for the task of integration are considered in detail.
A Comparison of the Cognitive Restructuring Psychotherapy Paradigm and Several Spiritual Approaches to Mental Health
Authors: Propst L. Rebecca
Published: February 2018

The present article suggests that a parallel exists between the cognitive restructuring paradigm of cognitive therapy and some evangelical and charismatic approaches to counseling. A brief examination of these respective literatures is included as well as a brief report of a psychotherapy outcome study attempting to combine these models. It is suggested that Christian counseling and psychotherapy can legitimately make more use of the techniques coming from within their own traditions.
A Critique of Ruth Carter Stapleton'S Ministry of “Inner Healing”
Authors: Alsdurf Jim M. , Malony H. Newton
Published: February 2018

An examination of the major components of Ruth Carter Stapleton's system of “inner healing” reveals that childhood experiences contribute greatly to her understanding of the origins of emotional imbalance within an individual. These experiences in turn become the foundation for Mrs. Stapleton's healing ministry, despite her inability to recognize their impact. We conclude that only when Mrs. Stapleton clearly resolves the significance of these events for herself will she be able to develop a balanced understanding and methodology of healing. Further, Mrs. Stapleton's failure to provide a thorough theological basis for her healing ministry creates important exegetical problems which tend to distort the interplay between the biblical message of healing and her own system of healing. Finally, the strong reliance which Mrs. Stapleton unwittingly places upon psycho-dynamic principles causes her to look for certain relationships, problems, and explanations for psychological and spiritual imbalance. The result is an obtuse and naive approach to healing.
Paradox, Parables, and Change: One Approach to Christian Hypnotherapy
Authors: Shepperson Vance L.
Published: February 2018

This article attempts an integration of an indirect “Ericksonian” form of hypnotherapeutic suggestion with Jesus’ parabolic style of teaching. A detailed clinical example of hypnosis is presented. This example is followed by an explication of the multiple principles of hypnosis which were operative in that example. The discussion then shifts to a focus on selected aspects of parabolic communication which utilize similar indirect strategies. Finally, a comparison and contrast between the two modes of communication is made.
Myth and its Denial in a Secular Age: The Case of Behaviorist Psychology
Authors: Mckeown Bruce
Published: February 2018

Behaviorist psychology, especially as expressed in the philosophical and social psychological writings of B. F. Skinner, has consistently rejected traditional social values, such as freedom and autonomy, because they interfere with the development, acceptance, and application of a technology of human behavior. This article critiques the metapsychology of behaviorism from the perspective of myth and fiction. In spite of its contributions to social analysis and behavioral therapy, behaviorist psychology substitutes another set of myths and fictions for those it rejects. By denying traditional myths and symbols behaviorism becomes totalitarian and thus symbolic of a secular age. Its secularism is enhanced because it disregards its own historical nature, reifies its immanent status, and commits the fundamental error of idolatry by taking its own mythology as absolute. Efforts at integrating “methodological behaviorism” (as separate from behaviorism as a philosophy of science) before addressing the fundamental issues of the metapsychology are seen as encroachments of post-Christian thought upon the liberating message of historic Christianity.
The Call of Abram: A Systems Theory Analysis
Authors: Rogers Martha L.
Published: February 2018

Systems theory was presented as a potential tool for integrating scriptural and empirical understandings of humankind, since its basic concepts appear inherently in Scripture and also utilize natural levels of organization in the world, for example, physical, chemical, biological, familial, social, and cultural systems levels. Antecedents of systems theory were briefly reviewed; major concepts were defined with examples provided. The call of Abram by God to leave his land, kindred, and father's house was then analyzed from a systems theory perspective, contrasting the cultural religious milieu from which he came with the changes which became evident in his life space as an outflow from his commitment to Jehovah. While the ancient Near-East pantheon was created by and dependent upon humans, the emerging Jewish culture became increasingly dependent upon and shaped by its religious belief system, based upon the Lord's covenant relationship with his people. Abram, by making himself open and vulnerable to God, participated in a new system which included the Lord as an essential component, making true change possible for himself and his descendents. It was suggested that the elements of the Covenant can be reframed from a systems perspective as well.
Values Differentiation as Stage Transition: An Expansion of Kohlbergian Moral Stages
Authors: Young Richard G.
Published: February 2018

Within the past few years psychology has become concerned with the issue of moral development. One theory that has received considerable attention is the cognitive-developmental approach of Lawrence Kohlberg. Unfortunately, Kohlberg does not deal convincingly with the mechanism of stage transition. A paradigm is suggested that explains the particularly crucial transition between conventional and post-conventional morality. Specific suggestions are generated from this values differentiation paradigm for Christian educators who are interested in facilitating moral development in their students.
Imago Dei, Creation as Election: Foundations for Psychotherapy
Authors: Vanderploeg Rodney D.
Published: February 2018

The Imago Dei as established by God's creative and elective work is examined as to what it reveals of human ontology and teleology. God's election is seen as at the core of the Imago Dei, as beginning at creation, as a fundamental theme uniting the Scriptures, and as God's calling his creation, human beings, into relationship with himself and each other. In this way, election is viewed as a universal phenomenon, distinct and different from redemption. The discussion provides a basic foundation for psychology which becomes an underlying assumption in psychotherapy. In an article to appear in the next issue, the Imago Dei, as understood in this article, will be examined as to its implications for the process of psychotherapy.
Jung and Assagioli in Religious Perspective
Authors: Kopas Jane
Published: February 2018

As representatives respectively of humanistic and transpersonal psychologies, Jung and Assagioli reflect orientations that are concerned with self-transcendence. This article examines whether they do justice to the kind of self-transcendence to which religion points. Each of their psychological positions on the structure of the psyche and the internal dynamism to become liberated from narrow and inhibiting standpoints is examined and related to certain aspects of a Christian perspective. Their analyses are found to be helpful in expanding conceptions of the self, but they tend to absorb religious values into their perspectives in such a way that they fail to give an adequate account of the full dimensions of the quest for self-transcendence.
Imago dei as Foundational to Psychotherapy: Integration versus Segregation
Authors: Vanderploeg Rodney D.
Published: February 2018

In the last issue (Vanderploeg, 1981), the concept of the Imago Dei was shown to be central to being human and as establishing human beings as essentially relational, called to relationship with God and with each other. God's election was seen as at the core of the Imago Dei and hence as a universal phenomenon. In the present article, the intrapsychic aspect of personality is also discussed as a third important relational aspect of the Imago Dei. The Imago Dei is seen as foundational to psychotherapy, providing both a ground for therapy and a mandate. The therapeutic relationship is understood as covenantal and as an affirmation of God's election, as it is a relationship in which clients are universally supported in enhancing their relationships, that is, the Imago Dei. The transpersonal, God-person relationship is also discussed, both as to how it manifests itself in therapy and how it can be dealt with therapeutically. Throughout, the focus is on questions which help therapists intergrate their faith with their vocation rather than segregating the two by imposing one on the other.
Affirming Diversity in the Task of Integration: a Response to “Biblical Authority and Christian Psychology”
Authors: Guy James D.
Published: February 2018

A summary of the author's approach to the integration of psychology und theology is followed by a response to Lawrence J. Crabb's article. “Biblical Authority and Christian Psychology,” which appeared in (he Volume 9, Number 4 issue of the Journal of Psychology and Theology. In this response it is suggested that biblical inerrancy does not necessarily result in inerrant theological formulations. It is also suggested that the Bible's unique purpose, as described by Crabb, may not require that theology be given authority over psychology. Finally, it is pointed out that what Crabb refers to as the proportional form of the Bible may not eliminate errors in conceptualizing its revealed truth. A brief discussion of the implications of this position follows, with special emphasis upon affirming the diversity which exists today among Christian mental health professionals.
Toward a Biblical Approach to Masturbation
Authors: Johnson James R.
Published: February 2018

Evangelical viewpoints regarding the almost universal phenomenon of masturbation range from unqualified acceptance to unqualified rejection, yet there is little evidence of a thorough biblical foundation for these views. To help meet this need, this study evaluates the issue of masturbation within the corneal of six major objections employed by those who condemn it on biblical grounds. These objections are found to provide limiting principles, but they do not support universal condemnation. A key biblical text is proposed to support a relatively neutral attitude toward masturbation. A fully biblical approach must consequently include both tolerance and the limitations imposed by God's Word.
Preferences of Conservative and Moderate Christians for four Christian Counselors’ Treatment Plans
Authors: Dougherty Suzanne G. , Worthington Everett L.
Published: February 2018

Conservative Christians, who comprise up to one-third of the total population in the United States, are often reluctant to seek counseling from nonreligious counselors. Consequently, counselors taking an explicitly Christian approach have developed a number of treatments designed to appeal to this population. In general, such treatments have not been examined experimentally. Participants (n = 45) from Protestant denominations completed questionnaires that investigated the effects of moderate and conservative religious beliefs on (a) preferences for Christian versus secular counseling and (b) preferences among four published approaches to Christian counseling –- those of Clyde M. Narramore, Jay E. Adams, Lawrence J. Crabb, Jr., and Andre Bustanoby. Participants completed the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS), then read a case history of a fictitious client, and four 1200-word structured treatment plans that represented each counselor's approach. It was found that for Christians, especially conservative Christians, there is a reluctance to seek secular psychological help, and a preference for counseling theories that are perceived as being congruent with their own religious beliefs. This desire for congruent religious beliefs was hypothesized to be a stronger determinant of preferences among the approaches than psychological factors such as emphasis on insight versus behavior change.
Pretraining Variables in the Prediction of Missionary Success Overseas
Authors: Britt William Gordon
Published: February 2018

A set of twelve variables was obtained statistically in order to predict missionary success from a combination of pretraining data which included elements of personality, interpersonal skill, attitudes, and bio-graphical information. This data was gathered from structured interviews, open-ended references, and psychological tests available from each subject's application file. A screening sample of 111 vocational missionaries who had served overseas a minimum of one year was used to derive the predictors, and a calibration sample of 42 missionaries with the same qualifications was used for cross-validation purposes. The twelve significant variables selected account for 56 percent of the variance of the criterion (success). Cross-validation yielded mixed results.
Religious Values and Client-Therapist Matching in Psychotherapy
Authors: Mcminn Mark R.
Published: February 2018

A recent debate on the roles of religious values in psychotherapy has focused on global issues rather than more meaningful issues of client-therapist matching. This debate is reviewed and the concept of religious value matching is introduced. As an example of the systematic variation in one's values as a function of religion, guilt accepting (G+) and guilt repressing (G-) values are considered. The four possible client-therapist matching categories are discussed and outcomes are considered from a tripartite model. Finally, recommendations for religious value matching and ethical implications are discussed.
A Comparison of Secular and Religious Versions of Cognitive Therapy with Depressed Christian College Students
Authors: Pecheur David Richard , Edwards Keith J.
Published: February 2018

This study was designed to answer two related questions: (a) Could Beck's cognitive-behavioral treatment of depression be efficaciously employed in a religious population, and (b) would the efficacy of Beck's cognitive-behavioral treatment of depression be enhanced if it was integrated with the subjects’ religious beliefs? A multiple cutoff procedure was utilized in the selection of subjects for a secular cognitive behavior modification group, a religious cognitive behavior modification group, and a waiting list control group. The results indicated that the secular and the religious cognitive behavior modification groups were significantly more effective than the waiting list control group in alleviating depression. No significant differences were found between secular and the religious cognitive behavior modification groups. The reductions in depression were maintained at a one-month follow-up. The results relevant to Beck's cognitive-behavioral therapy of depression and to the treatment of religious patients are discussed.
Personality Factors of Men and Women Pastoral Candidates Part 1: Motivational Profiles
Authors: Ekhardt Bonita Neville , Goldsmith W. Mack
Published: February 2018

The Personality Research Form E and Bern Sex Inventory were administered to 37 males and 54 females planning careers in pastoral ministry. Subjects were students in 11 Protestant seminaries. It was hypothesized that male and female seminarians would have more similar profiles of motivational needs than men and women in the general population, and that they would combine masculine and feminine traits more in their personality profiles. Both hypotheses were supported. Implications were discussed for the placement and acceptance of women as pastors.
Dyadic Trust and Generalized Trust of Secular versus Christian-College Students
Authors: Larzelere Robert E.
Published: February 2018

It was correctly hypothesized that students at a conservative Christian college would be less trusting than secular-college students toward people in general (generalized trust), replicating Wrights man (1964), but (hat Christian-college students would be higher in dyadic trust toward a dating partner than would be the case for students at a secular college. Differences in dyadic trust were smaller for more advanced stages of courtship, suggesting that greater initial trust by Christians toward their religious partners accounted for the dyadic trust effect. Data from a religious subsample from the secular university supported the conclusions that the dyadic trust differences were associated with religiosity while the generalized trust differences were associated with selection of college. The results were also related to trust patterns for minority groups in general- The study illustrates (he potential of using differences between prevailing Christian versus psychological conclusions to stimulate research contributions to psychology and to theology.
Personality Factors of Men and Women Pastoral Candidates, Part 2: Sex-Role Preferences
Authors: Goldsmith W. Mack , Ekhardt Bonita Neville
Published: February 2018

Bern Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) data were collected from 90 male and 114 female seminarians in Master of Divinity programs at 11 Protestant seminaries and from 26 male and 52 female Masters of Education students at two secular universities. Results indicated, first, that the seminarians, assumed to be deeply religious, differed from the Education students in responses to many BSRI items. Thus, the BSRI may be biased when used with religious subjects. Second, the original form of the BSRI was compared factorially with Bern's (1981) shortened revision; the new form is psychometrically superior. Third, the male seminarian BSRI responses did not differ from the female ones. However, male seminarians were higher in femininity and female seminarians higher in masculinity than the college men and women, respectively, tested by Kimlicka, Wakefield and Friedman (1980). These findings suggested a hypothesis that seminarians would be more androgynous and less same-sex typed than their Education peers. This hypothesis was confirmed.
Varieties of Approaches to Psychotherapy: Options for the Christian Therapist
Authors: Jeske J. Oscar
Published: February 2018

The multitude of existing approaches to psychotherapy can place Christian therapists in a dilemma as to which approach to use with their clients. It also makes it difficult for the students of psychotherapy to decide which approach best merits the investment of their time and energy in training. The problem is further aggravated by the Christian therapist's concern for the acceptability of the approach to therapy on scriptural grounds. While attempts have been made to create therapeutic approaches based strictly on scriptural principles, or on those aspects of secular systems for which a biblical justification can be found, or on a psychologically and theologically integrated theory of personality, no single approach appears to be adequate for all disorders, all persons, and all situations. Since our knowledge is at best partial and since truth often cannot be contained in unilateral concepts but appears to have a paradoxical quality, a structured eclectic rather than an integrated approach is a better choice for the Christian counselor. The Christian integrity of psychotherapy is ensured by the therapist's identity and by the treatment objectives rather than by a commitment to a specific counseling approach.
The Counseling Activities and Referral Practices of Canadian Clergy in British Columbia
Authors: Wright Phillip G.
Published: February 2018

The present research examined self-reported counseling activities and referral practices of Canadian clergy in Vancouver and surrounding areas in British Columbia. It was found that the clergy spend an average of about seven hours per week in counseling, dealing primarily with marriage and family or emotional problems. The median number of clients seen in the past six months was found to be 28. Almost 80% of the clergy reported referring at least one client to a mental health setting during the past year (median number of referrals = 2.6). The clergy's major community contacts were found to be social workers and physicians, although referrals were made to mental health centers, psychologists or psychiatrists. Communication between the clergy and the community tended to flow in one direction, from the pastor to the community. Years of education, positive attitudes towards community mental health, and recent workshop attendance were found to correlate positively and significantly with measures of the clergy's involvement in mental health. Denominational affiliation and theological fundamentalism were found to be poor predictors of the clergy's counseling and referral activities. Results are discussed in terms of their significance for the role of the clergy in community mental health.
The Development of the Spiritual Leadership Qualities Inventory
Authors: Townsend John S. , Wichern Frank B.
Published: February 2018

Wichem's (1979) Spiritual Leadership Qualities Inventory (SLQI) was developed to provide an objective biblically-based assessment instrument which would facilitate church leadership evaluation and selection. Since its origination, the SLQI has undergone revision. The purpose of this study was to replicate Wichern's (1979) investigation, using the revised Inventory of 19 spiritual leadership traits with an expanded subject pool of 71 elders, deacons and non-Christians. The SLQI was found to significantly discriminate between church leaders and non-Christians (p < .05), but it did not discriminate between elders and deacons. Additional analysis provided a 19 × 19 correlation matrix of traits with 152 of 171 (88.9%) significant correlations (p < .05) and significant test-retest reliabilities (p < .05) for all traits. Implications for the further development and use of the SLQI are discussed.
Ambiguity in Neuropsychology: A Response to Wong
Authors: Ashbrook James B.
Published: February 2018

The author responds to Wong's (1984) critique and caution about what is “known” in neuropsychology as the basis for correlating empirical and theological understandings. The issue of insufficient caution, the nature of the evidence, definitions and supporting data, and the recommendation to ignore lateral differences are examined in light of what is known and how it is interpreted. Wong's critique permits the author to qualify the interpretation more carefully and to indicate his own convictions about faith.
Empirical Studies of Christian Prayer: A Review of the Literature
Authors: Finney John R. , Malony H. Newton
Published: February 2018

Christian prayer is a central religious practice which has received scant attention in psychological research. The two major types of prayer are verbal and contemplative prayer. A review of the empirical studies of prayer suggests that the work done in this area can be divided into four categories: (a) developmental studies of conceptions of prayer; (b) research on motivations for praying; (c) studies of the effects of verbal prayer; and (d) studies of the effects of contemplative prayer. The studies on the development of the concept of prayer generally have found patterns consistent with Piaget's stages of moral and cognitive development. Regarding motives for prayer, Welford (1947) supported the hypothesis that prayer is not just a neurotic flight from anxiety. Elkins et al. (1979) found verbal prayer to be generally ineffective in anxiety reduction. Parker and St. Johns (1957) demonstrated that a program of spiritual development that includes verbal prayer can be effective as a therapeutic intervention. The findings of Sacks (1979) suggest that contemplative prayer may facilitate ego development. Opportunities for further research on prayer are discussed.
Carl Rogers and the Christian Virtues
Authors: Roberts Robert C.
Published: February 2018

This article is a conceptual evaluation of the therapeutic theory and practice of Carl Rogers, using as critical vantage point the personality theory suggested in the various New Testament virtue-concepts. The topics discussed are Rogers’ concept of the self, the power of unconditional positive regard, integrity as congruence, the absence of transcendence in Rogers’ thought, and Rogers’ concept of autonomy. The verdict is mixed Features compatible with Christian psychology and useful in the formation of the Christian virtues are discerned, but the limits of this usefulness are delineated.
Christian Reflections on Stress Management
Authors: Beck James R.
Published: February 2018

An enormous volume of literature has emerged in the past decade regarding stress and its management. As the Christian views this literature in psychology, an immediate impression is gratefulness for the contribution these advancements have made to Christ's Church. In addition, one has some reservations regarding the almost value-free environment surrounding some of the literature as well as the tendency of a few authors in this field to expand stress management techniques into an all-embracing philosophy of life. It is helpful for Christians to understand stress and its management in the context of the more familiar death and dying spectrum of truth. Learning from stress may be more appropriate for the Christian than simply managing or reducing it.
Dangers of Psychologism: The Place of God in Psychology
Authors: Kemp Hendrika Vande
Published: February 2018

The author offers a philosophy of science intended to inform the task of integration by delimiting the scope of psychological inquiry. An etymological survey of the term psychology clarifies the changing meanings of this term and related changes in the locus of the discipline. Psychologism as a philosophical problem is explored historically in order to clarify the various epistemological and ontological errors entailed in the improper demarcation of psychology. These problems are then examined from the perspective of twentieth-century psychologists of religion. The author suggests that “placing God in the heart of psychology” is a futile attempt to restore psychology to its original theological servant status, and that we cannot turn to psychology to decrease the immensity of the leap of faith.
Neither/Nor: A Response to Haule and Kelsey
Authors: Griffin G. A. Elmer
Published: February 2018

The author responds to John R. Haule (1986) and Morton Kelsey (1986), who have written reactions to his article, Analytical Psychology and the Dynamics of Human Evil. While tempted to defer to their expertise, the author attempts to clarify three main objections to the use of Jung's works as a platform for the integration of psychology and theology.
Cross-Cultural Counseling in Theological Context
Authors: Ridley Charles R.
Published: February 2018

Cross-cultural counseling is a specialty concerned with improving therapeutic effectiveness when the counselor and client represent different cultural or ethnic backgrounds. Unfortunately, consideration of cross-cultural issues has been greatly neglected in the Christian psychology literature. In response to the neglect, this article examines western cultural assumptions and four salient cross-cultural counseling themes: conceptions of mental health, goals of treatment, techniques of treatment, and roles of therapeutic participants. Five theological implications with respect to these issues are discussed.
The Presence and Absence of God in Object Relational and Theological Perspectives
Authors: Underwood Ralph L.
Published: February 2018

In its examination of early personal development, psychoanalytic object relations theory contributes to an understanding of the presence of God in human experience. This contribution is analyzed with reference to the object relational explanations of creativity, person or object centered motivation, and reality experienced as otherness. From the perspective of early human development, object relations theory helps to clarify and confirm Terrien's (1978) interpretation of the presence of God as elusive. Implications of object relations theory for pastoral and clinical practice are briefly noted.
A Reaction to Lawrence
Authors: Guy James D.
Published: February 2018

Lawrence's (1987) article on the treatment of narcissism is discussed, with special attention paid to the theoretical and resultant clinical questions which are inherent in her position.
Adult Development Periods and Protestant Mole Clergy: A Descriptive Framework
Authors: Steele Les
Published: February 2018

There has been great interest generated in the past 10 years over the idea of developmental periods in adulthood. There has been some interest in research on clergy but the majority of this research has been clinical in nature. This article explores both adult developmental psychology' and studies of clergy in an attempt to describe the young adulthood and middle adulthood periods in protestant male clergy. It is hoped that by doing so the parameters will be established for further research with clergy.
Clergy's Knowledge of Self-Help Groups in a Large Metropolitan Area
Authors: Jason Leonard , Goodman Daniel , Thomas Nathaniel , Iacono Georgeann , Tabon Daniel , Baxter Amy Todd
Published: February 2018

Religious leaders were surveyed concerning their attitudes toward self help groups. Of the 154 respondents, 70% had made at least one referral to a self-help group, and the religious leaders had generally positive feelings toward these groups. Although the religious leaders fell that self-help groups would be helpful with many of the problems brought to them by their congregation members, for only 59% of those problems did they know of specific self-help groups to which referrals could be made. A consultation session was provided for a sample of the religious leaders who had never made a referral to a self-help group. Following consultation, an increase in activities involving self-help groups was observed. This study suggests that mental health professionals can play a unique role in providing community gatekeepers, such as the clergy, with information and resources about self-help groups in their communities.
In Thy Father's House: Self-Report Findings of Sexually Abused Daughters from Conservative Christian Homes
Authors: Gil Vincent E.
Published: February 2018

This study explores the childhood sexual abuses of 35 adult women who were raised in conservative Christian homes. These women, self-defined as victims of father-daughter incest, completed a structured questionnaire and were selectively interviewed about their abuse histories. Analyses of these date revealed that the sample shared many of the features of incestuous abuse found in the general population, but differed in the higher prevalence of sexual abuse by biological fathers (66%) rather than by stepfathers (34%). Natural fathers exhibited a broader range of sexual contacts with their daughters than did stepfathers, the nature and severity of these varying along with their denominational affiliation. Overall, stepfathers were less likely to seriously abuse their stepdaughters. This trend did not vary along with their religious affiliation. Collectively, fathers and stepfathers were viewed as emotionally problemed, legalistic, or coping with stresses external to the home. Such external factors correlated significantly to the styles of communication in the home, particularly between fathers and daughters as these perceived it; to the religious climate of the home; and to the general stress felt in the home itself. Implications drawn suggest that external stressors and internal communications combine with legalistic orientations to significantly influence the abuse dynamic. Suggestions for mediation and therapy are offered.
Christian Group Therapy: Sitting with Job
Authors: Siwy James M. , Smith Carole E.
Published: February 2018

A practical and theoretical account is presented of an ongoing adult psychotherapy group that has met weekly for over 2 years at the Atlanta Counseling Center. As co-therapists, the authors have developed a psychological and spiritual perspective of their experience, drawing upon the thinking of object relations theorists (e.g., Winnicott), group therapists (e.g., Yalom), and theologians (e.g., Bonhoeffer and Nouwen). The central theme is the rediscovery of Christian community through the establishment of a hospitable holding environment where hostility can be transformed into hospitality and alienation into hope. Included are practical aspects of beginning and maintaining a group in a private practice selling and discussion of the uniqueness of group therapy that is “Christian.”
“The Case for Theological Literacy in the Psychology of Religion”: Introduction to a Theme Issue
Authors: Hunter William F.
Published: February 2018

The Editor introduces a theme issue of Journal of Psychology and Theology on “The Case for Theological Literacy in the Psychology of Religion,” based on symposium presentations at the 1986 SSSR annual meeting. From diverse religious and theological vantage points, the lead articles make the case for theological sophistication in the Psychology of religion. Four responses, one from the symposium and three which were sought by the editor, contribute to the issues from evangelical and psychological perspectives.