bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pobedonostsev's Conception of the Good Society: An Analysis of His Thought After 1880
Authors: Byrnes Robert F.
Published: August 2009

Established societies as well as revolutionary organizations and movements have always developed, though often only obscurely, a vision of an ideal society, generally located in the future although often also in the romantic past. For established communities, the goal sought by the society has had tremendous significance because faith in the desirability of the end envisioned has been one of the chief binding forces. Perhaps of even greater importance has been the dynamic stimulus the belief in an ideal society has given to rising revolutionary movements, such as those which have led to the great upheavals of history. The ultimate and ideal goal is particularly significant during times of crisis, when the loyalties of men are shaken and when frequently the factors most decisive in determining a citizen's position are his acceptance of and confidence in the final aims of the group to which he belongs. As an eminent English dramatist once said, a map of the world which does not include the ideal society has little interest for man, for it is upon the shores of such societies that man is always landing.

A study of a conception of the good society is not only an analysis of a source of cohesion and power; it can also shed great illumination upon an entire system of thought. The examination of a philosophy from this angle, that of the ultimate, ideal aims to be achieved, is particularly revealing in the case of Konstantine Petrovich Pobedonostsev, who was lay administrator of the Russian Orthodox Church from 1880 until October, 1905, and was one of the most prominent statesmen in Russia during the last third of the nineteenth century. During the 1880's in particular, he was as powerful in determining the direction of Russian domestic policy as Bismarck was for three decades in guiding the German state.
Towards a Fourth Reich? The History of National Bolshevism in Germany
Authors: von Klemperer Klemens
Published: August 2009

National Bolshevism represents a chapter in German-Russian relations since the First World War. As a policy advocating an Eastern orientation for Germany it is a most puzzling and at this day a very acute phenomenon. To those educated to observe the spectrum of political opinions in terms of Right and Left, with the extreme Right at the opposite end from the extreme Left, National Bolshevism seems a paradox. It suggests the meeting of extremes. More concretely the term stands for a rapprochement between German nationalism and Russian Communism. The story of National Bolshevism is the story of two “strange bedfellows.”

In the effort to comprehend this upsetting pattern it might be recalled that modern psychology has in many ways succeeded in breaking down our traditional thinking about human relations. Love, for example, has lost its meaning apart from hate, which has become its alter ego. We might be tempted to translate this finding into political terms, and National Bolshevism would appear as an example of a political love-hate relationship. It might also be suggested that the further we get from the origins and die more insight we gain into die workings of die two twentieth century extremes — Fascism and Communism — the more we are struck by dieir affinities. We grant diat Fascism is nodiing more dian “doctrineless dynamism,” whereas Communism goes back to die solid doctrinaire structure of Marxism. And even through European history since 1917 often threatened to lead up to an ultimate conflict between Fascism and Communism, die “transmutation” through which Marxism has gone in modern Russia has brought it ironically close to Fascism. It has become increasingly evident that die fight between die two was a mere sham battle.
A Key to American Politics: Calhoun's Pluralism
Authors: Drucker Peter F.
Published: August 2009

The American party system has been under attack almost continuously since it took definite form in the time of Andrew Jackson. The criticism has always been dircted at the same point: America's political pluralism, the distinctively American organization of government by compromise of interests, pressure groups and sections. And the aim of the critics from Thaddeus Stevens to Henry Wallace has always been to substitute for this “unprincipled” pluralism a government based as in Europe on “ideologies” and “principles.” But never before—at least not since the Civil War years—has the crisis been as acute as in this last decade; for the political problems which dominate our national life today: foreign policy and industrial policy, are precisely the problems which interest and pressure-group compromise is least equipped to handle. And while the crisis symptoms: a left-wing Thirl Party and the threatened split-off of the Southern Wing, are more alarming in the Democratic Party, the Republicans are hardly much better off. The 1940 boom for the “idealist” Wilkie and the continued inability to attract a substantial portion of the labor vote, are definite signs that the Republican Party too is under severe ideological pressure.
Papal Efforts Toward Protestant Representation at Trent
Authors: Kuttner Stephan
Published: August 2009

It is not within the purpose of this paper to appraise the historical significance which the Council of Trent held for the consolidation of Catholic doctrine on all the points of dogmatic and sacramental theology that had been put into question by the religious innovators. Nor shall we examine the role which its measures of canonical legislation played in the great process of spiritual and disciplinary renewal which eventually determined the position of the Catholic Church in the modern world. We propose rather to turn our attention to the great goal which the Council did not reach: the restoration of the one Respublica Christiana, of the Catholic unity which prior to the sixteenth century had been the only conceivable form of Christian religious existence. To the eye of the historian, it is true, the rift in Western Christendom appears quite obviously prepared by the developments of two centuries preceding Luther's challenge. The exile of Avignon; the great schism; the constitutional unrest of the conciliar epoch of Constance and Basel; the political realism by which Renaissance popes had sought above all to consolidate their position as Italian territorial rulers; the growth of the national states and national sovereignties; the ferment of humanistic ideologies—they all were alarming and distressing symptoms of the radical disintegration of mediaeval unity.
Patriotism and Citizenship in Rousseau: A Dual Theory of Public Willing?
Authors: Barnard Frederick M.
Published: August 2009

When discussing citizenship Rousseau insists on the primacy of instrumental and discursive reasoning, whereas when discussing patriotism he accords primacy to intrinsic reasons of sentiment. The essay explores the different meanings of the two concepts and points to their inherent tension as well as to the possibility of their coming into conflict. It finds that Rousseau, evidently doubting the adequacy of instrumental reasons as explanations or justifications of political commitment, tends to elevate intrinsic sentiment above discursive rationality. Implicit therefore in Rousseau's position on patriotism and citizenship, the essay concludes, is not merely the potential of a dual theory of political willing and political rationality but also the potential of a threat to rational discourse as a mode of determining and accounting for political action.
Alternative Pluralisms: Israeli and American Constitutionalism in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Jacobsohn Gary J.
Published: August 2009

Constitutional transplantation, the process by which the constitutional practice of one society becomes an important source for the legal development of another, has figured importantly in the institutional evolution of new politics. In this article, I examine the constitutional experience of Israel and the United States, two societies that share a language of jurisprudential discourse while differing significantly in a number of polically relevant ways. In particular, the fact that both societies can be described as pluralistic only conceals the fact that they represent alternative models of pluralism that may render problematic the the transferablity of constitutional outcomes from one place to another. Thus, the literature of modern constitutionalism, which has tended to emphasize the rights-based liberal ethic of individualism, is arguably more compatible with an American model in which the principles of the “procedural republic” are more unproblematically embraced. To pursue this question, I look at two issues—the advisability of adopting a bill of rights and the appropriate stance of the regime on the question of free speech—that allow us to reflect upon the limits and possibilities of constitutional transplantation.
Antifoundationalism and Plato's Phaedo
Authors: Stern Paul
Published: August 2009

The claim made by antifoundationalist thinkers such as Nietzsche, Heidegger, and more recently Richard Rorty is that the search for a standard or foundation for our moral and political judgments inevitably arrives at a distorting reductivism. This radical claim, if true, makes dubious the very possibility of political philosophy understood as the rational investigation of human affairs. A response to this claim which merely adduces the potentially harmful consequences of such a view is inadequate; our manifest need for such a standard in no way guarantees the existence of such a standard. An adequate response requires that we meet the premise of the antifoundationalist view. That premise resides in a certain understanding of Platonic thought, an understanding which I here undertake to show is mistaken.
Introduction to “Law and Liberty” by Yves R. Simon
Authors: Crosson Frederick J.
Published: August 2009

Yves R. Simon was a French-born philosopher who studied with Jacques Maritain, came to America just before the Second World War, taught at the University of Notre Dame and then at the University of Chicago. He died in 1961. Perhaps his best known work is the Philosophy of Democratic Government, published in 1951 and still in print.
Newman on Freedom and Authority
Authors: Tillman Mary Katherine
Published: August 2009

It is indeed fitting that the centennial year of the death of Cardinal John Henry Newman (1801–1890) should be marked by new attention to the life and writings of this remarkable man of letters who dominated the intellectual and religious life of nineteenth-century England and whose significance as a thinker transcends his time and culture. A brilliant definitive biography by Ian T. Ker is the new polestar without which no future scholarship on Newman will be undertaken, while Ker's satellite works, thematic and focused, translate to the broadest possible readership a Newman never before so fully and realistically portrayed in personality, achievement and genius.
The University of Chicago and the World, 1929–1951
Authors: Nef John U.
Published: August 2009

In April 1929 the trustees of the University of Chicago, in the midst of an unprecedented boom on the stock exchange, chose Robert Maynard Hutchins, the thirty-year-old dean of the Yale Law School, to be the fifth president. During the twenty-two years that followed, Hutchins made an impression upon the organization and the life of the young university of a kind such as his sponsors for the office and the newspaper public, which enjoyed the spectacle of a youthful rising star, hardly expected. He made this impression as a student, a thinker and a teacher. He made it not, as the times prompted him to do, by trying to keep the University abreast of the morning newspaper, which is dead the next day, but by trying to raise it toward the philosophical heights of Aristotle and the poetic heights of Homer, whose ideas and words are as fresh now as more than two millenniums ago.
Democracy Limited: Irving Babbitt's Classicism
Authors: Kariel Henry S.
Published: August 2009

When in 1930 Henry Seidel Canby scrutinized the neo-classic philosophy of Harvard professor Irving Babbitt, his article was considered a final examination by the editors of the Saturday Review Literature. They entitled it “Post Mortem.” But Babbitt's views, known as the New Humanism, have been tough enough to outlive than one literary critic's autopsy. Older than his rhetoric, Babbitt's philosophy remains vital today. It is more than a mere obstacle to Ph.D. candidates in English literature or political science. assumes a pressing relevance as Americans toward the middle century seek peace of mind in an armed and inexplicable world nations far from united.
De Valera's Formula for Irish Nationhood
Authors: Bromage Mary C.
Published: August 2009

The turning in the long road which brought Ireland to her independence was found by a hard-minded, persistent leader given to apparent paradoxes who, strange to say, dropped from the vanguard before his country reached her present status as a Republic. Eamon de Valera, soldier, prisoner of three governments, President, insurrectionist, opposition chieftain and Prime Minister, exercised a dominating influence during the determining state of Anglo-Irish relations in this century. Tagged as an extremist, he was rejected die extremists. Saddled with the moderation of authority, he was overthrown by the moderates. Acclaimed as King of Ireland and decried as a trimmer, he held a leadership fraught with superficial inconsistencies.
Philosophical Values and the Future of Civilization
Authors: Nef John U.
Published: August 2009

In An article published in the July 1942 number of the Review of Politics, I suggested that contemporary learned men who deny the existence of truth, virtue, or beauty, are led into a dilemma. Either they must confine truth to positive science, where the results are always tentative and incomplete with respect to the universe in which human beings have to move, or else they must believe that people generally will be inclined towards good and wise actions even though learning refuses to admit the existence of standards, apart from the rules of conduct that can be derived from positive science. The second view, we suggested, involves the admission that impersonal standards do exist, independent of positive science. We might conclude that the nourishment of these standards by means of the intellect, and with the help of results obtained by science, ought to be the supreme task of learning.
The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia
Authors: Gurian Waldemar
Published: August 2009

“Russian policy is a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma,” Winston Churchill stated. But Joseph Stalin claimed: “Our policy is simple and clear.” These statements which apparently contradict each other can be reconciled. For the mysterious character of the Russian foreign policy is the result, precisely, of the apparent clearness of its principles. Since its birth, the Soviet regime has always described itself as the standard-bearer of the Marxian doctrine and the Communist world revolution; yet this aim has always permitted the use of the most varied methods. Glaring contradictions in practice were defended by the same slogans and formulas. On the one hand, the Soviet regime, apparently sacrificed Russia to the world revolution; on the other hand, it seemed to put the world revolution into the service of the proletarian fatherland. The Soviet regime utilized the German opposition to the status quo created by the treaty of Versailles as well as the French fear of German imperialism and of Germany's attempts to obtain mastery in Europe and throughout the world. The Soviet regime for years regarded moderate Socialists as its most hated enemies, but later it tried to cooperate with them in the anti-Fascist Popular Front. The leaders of the Soviets sometimes proclaimed that the world revolution was around the corner but that belief has not prevented them at other times from regarding it only as a remote possibility in a far distant future.
The Catholics in France Since the Armistice
Authors: Vignaux Georgette
Published: August 2009

We Shall describe first the attitude of the hierarchy towards the Vichy regime just after the armistice, secondly the political and religious resistance of a certain number of lay Catholics to this regime, and finally how this will to temporal independence by Catholic citizens (with the exception of some Catholic leaders who did not grasp the significance of the Pétain government) resulted in a general opposition to the totalitarian pretensions of the “French State.”
Bad Attitudes: The Consequences of Survey Research for Constitutional Practice
Authors: Brigham John
Published: August 2009

Following World War II, survey researchers taught a generation of Americans that ordinary people were not to be trusted on fundamental rights because their attitudes were reactionary, intolerant, and generally bad. The article examines this research and its influence on constitutional politics. It proposes that this attitude perspective fostered elite domination in matters of fundamental right and an orientation away from economic rights. The article also suggests that by turning from public opinion to public knowledge we may reclaim a democratic constitutional practice.
Change in the Soviet Political System: Limits and Likelihoods
Authors: Byrnes Robert F.
Published: August 2009

The Soviet Union confronts grave needs for reform because it achieved impressive progress upon old foundations, struggles with a systemic economic slowdown, faces fundamental social and spiritual infrastructured problems, wrestles with a costly overextended empire, and must adapt to the age of knowledge that challenges its centralized control. Soviet leaders recognize the need to restructure the economic and political system, but they consider innovation an ideologically unacceptable hazard to its values, and its control. Change would threaten the primacy of the military share of economic resources, the high priority foreign policy receives to provide legitimacy, and control of Eastern Europe. Only corrections and minor repairs in the economy are likely in a system that lacks a reform mechanism.
Nietzsche's Ethics of History
Authors: Berkowitz Peter
Published: August 2009

In On the Uses and Disadvantages of History for Life Nietzsche sets forth prescriptions for placing history in the service of human excellence. Nietzsche's prescriptions are based on a substantive metaphysical doctrine and a definite conception of human needs and capacities. Contrary to the dominant trends in recent scholarship that depict Nietzsche as primarily a teacher of antifoundationalism, historicism, and perspectivism, in his major thematic statement on the matter Nietzsche views history as a means to discover and to display nonhistorical and enduring knowledge about human nature and the rank order of desires, human types, and forms of life. For Nietzsche, the task of the “genuine historian” is nothing less than the transformation of history into poetry in the effort to defend wisdom, to distinguish nobility from baseness, and to establish the love of truth as a resplendent vice and noble faith. Nietzsche's account of the right use of history suggests an underappreciated unity in his writings by raising the possibility that in his several histories Nietzsche wrote from the perspective, and assumed the responsibility, of the genuine historian.
Socially Constructed Conceptions of Distributive Justice: The Case of Affirmative Action
Authors: Lockhart Charles
Published: August 2009

In the last quarter-century Americans have carried on a lively argument over the nature of distributive justice, equality of opportunity and particularly the appropriateness of affirmative action. Indeed two distinct conceptions of equality of opportunity, drawing on conflicting underlying visions of distributive justice and adopting different stances toward affirmative action, have emerged in both academic and popular circles. Thompson, Ellis and Wildavsky's Cultural Theory can be applied to explain the form and focus of this argument as a struggle between the conflicting preferences of rival—individualistic and egalitarian—ways of life. This analysis shows how the longevity and intractable character of the argument are consequences of the social embedding of preferences. That is, individualists and egalitarians cannot further their preferred ways of life with respect to these issues without engendering this conflict. The irreconcilable character of this clash is further underscored by Cultural Theory's capacity to illuminate oversights in the most sophisticated of extant efforts to bridge these opposing views.
More Platonism
Authors: Opanasets Nicholas
Published: August 2009

Raphael Hythlodaeus, the philosopher of Thomas More's Utopia, is generally considered to be an uncompromising and inflexible political idealist. However, Raphael may be more subde and complex than he is usually thought to be. Raphael may be capable of practical, prudent political advice, and may even desire to give such advice in some way, as long as his active participation in politics is not required. If this is true, then his real fault or blindness could be his lack of awareness of how vulnerable he is to the accusation that he is avoiding his public duty and not political idealism.
On a Certain Critique of “Straussianism”
Authors: Tarcov Nathan
Published: August 2009

This article examines a certain critique of what I will take the liberty of calling “Straussianism,” a critique which raises questions I believe are worth discussing, especially by all those interested in the work of Leo Strauss. This particular critique appeared in a review of a book on Platonic political philosophy, a review by a young scholar who had published only a couple of articles on classical political philosophy himself.

This reviewer aptly characterizes the author as one who, “thoroughly dissatisfied with modern philosophy in all its forms, and unwilling to take refuge in Thomism … turns back to classical philosophy, to the teaching of Plato and Aristotle, as the true teaching” (p. 326). According to this perceptive critic, the author considered the quarrel of the ancients and the moderns “definitely settled in favor of the classics. After having disposed of this fundamental question, which as such is a theoretical question, he can pursue a practical or political intention on the foundation of the classical teaching.”
A Return to Classical Political Philosophy and the Understanding of the American Founding
Authors: Bruell Christopher
Published: August 2009

What is the significance for the understanding of the American Founding of Leo Strauss's efforts toward the recovery of classical political philosophy? That this is a legitimate question to address to Strauss's work is suggested by the claims which he made in the introductions to a number of his most famous books (among other things). He opened his study on Natural Right and History, for example, by raising the question whether our nation “in its maturity still cherish[es] the faith in which it was conceived and raised,” that is, whether it still holds the fundamental proposition of the Declaration of Independence to be true. In doing so, he gave warrant to the expectation that that study, which may be said to culminate in a treatment of classical natural right and make a case for its superiority to all alternatives, would contribute to the strengthening or restoration of our Founding faith.
Leo Strauss and American Democracy: A Response to Wood and Holmes
Authors: Schaefer David Lewis
Published: August 2009

Although Leo Strauss spent the better part of his scholarly career in the United States, his name remained essentially unknown in this country during his lifetime outside the rather restricted academic circles of political science and Judaic studies. Only in recent years — owing, positively, to the best-selling status achieved by a book by one of his students, Allan Bloom's Closing of the American Mind; and negatively, to several critical reviews of his thought and influence in the semi-popular media —has Strauss's name been publicized to a somewhat wider audience. This article is a response to two of the critiques: Gordon Wood's relatively moderate “The Fundamentalists and the Constitution,” published in the New York Review of Books (18 February 1988), and Stephen Taylor Holmes's less restrained “Truths for Philosophers Alone?”, which appeared in the Times Literary Supplement (1–7 December 1989)
Strauss Read from France
Authors: Lachterman David R.
Published: August 2009

Leo Strauss has long had a “scholarly” presence among French orientalists and medievalists, thanks to his fundamentally important works on the falasifa and Maimonides, two of which were published in France in the 1930's. To French political “thinkers,” caught as they were for so long, like Laocoon, in the serpentine toils of Stalinism, Maoism and other variants of “Marxism,” including its decadently ironic postmodern negations, Strauss seems to have been a largely unknown name. Some interpreters of the history of modern political philosophy have, of course, taken note of his analyses of Machiavelli, for example, and the French translation of Natural Right and History was in fact first published in 1954.
Contemporary Ethnicity: The Moral Dimension in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Armstrong John A.
Published: August 2009

The surge of national assertion in the USSR, generally unanticipated by American decision-makers, focusses attention on ethnic issues worldwide. But the moral dimension of ethnicity has rarely been examined in a comparative context, especially from the religious point of view. Issues now critical in the Soviet Union, such as justification for educational and occupational quotas for disadvantaged minorities, and the right of vulnerable ethnic collectivities to preserve their cultures by limiting immigration, have major implications for Third World and European countries, which are briefly surveyed. In the United States, concern for producing a united national culture based on the ideal of equal opportunities for individuals has usually precluded attention to preservation of ethnic collectivities distinct from the majority culture. Since most of these collectivities have been traditionally Catholic, their preservation has been especially sensitive to changes in American Catholicism.
Gravity and Piety: Machiavelli's Modern Turn
Authors: Peterman Larry
Published: August 2009

It has recently been suggested that in Machiavelli's appreciation of what is grave and what is ridiculous “can be recognized … the spirit of modernity in its early phases, when it was fresh, bright, and eager.” This admittedly problematical assertion draws attention to Machiavelli's transformation of the premodern perception of gravity, wherein gravity and piety are closely associated. In this article, we consider how Machiavelli changes men's approach to gravity and piety by examining in particular his treatment of Dante, a representative of the premodern point of view. We find that Machiavelli discards the old view of gravity and piety because of its utility to the church and because Christian gravity is a safeguard against too readlly taking oaths, one of the things critical for Machiavelli's enterprise.
Law, Politics, and Judicial Review
Authors: Kuic Vukan
Published: August 2009

The confusion surrounding the current debates on the nature and scope of judicial review is compounded by the failure of the contending parties to relate their positions to a defensible general theory of law and politics. But these debates may also aid in reconstructing such a theory. After a brief survey of four different stands with regard to judicial review, this article concludes by suggesting how the prevailing interpretations of law and politics need to be revised, if judicial review is to be to the Constitution what the practice of government of law is to its theory.
After Politics: John Howard Yoder, Body Politics, and the Witnessing Church
Authors: Weaver Alain Epp
Published: August 2009

This article analyzes John Howard Yoder's vision of the church as a polis which, through its embodiment of particular practices, serves as an analogical anticipation of God's Kingdom, and thereby offers an alternative to utilitarian and agonal understandings of politics. After describing Yoder's ecclesiologically based vision of politics and examining prominent critiques of Yoder's ecclesiology, the theological framework for Yoder's understanding of the state is discussed. Placing the state within the Pauline cosmology of “principalities and powers,” Yoder outlined a Christian relationship to the state marked both by subordination as well as by occasional disobedience, a disobedience which included participation in nonviolent direct action.
The Crisis in Church-State Relationships in the U.S.A.
Authors: Murray John Courtney
Published: August 2009

In this memorandum four points will be briefly made.

First, a grave danger confronts the Church in the United States, because the Church is the object of a newly intense fear, distrust, and hostility. At the same time a new apostolic opportunity is being offered to the Church, because the Church is now the object of a new interest, curiosity, and sympathy.

Second, one great obstacle hinders the Church in coping effectively with the danger confronting her. And the same obstacle also blocks her from making full use of the opportunity offered to her. This obstacle consists in the present state of development of the Church's doctrine on Church-State relationships. This doctrine has not yet been vitally adapted to modern political realities and to the legitimate democratic aspirations, especially as they have developed in the United States.
Comments on “The Crisis in Church-state Relationships in the U.S.A.”
Authors: Connell Francis J.
Published: August 2009

The author seems to have no regard for the supernatural life and vigor of the Catholic Church. He proposes as the most necessary means of protecting the Church from grave harm in the United States something natural—the “adaptation” of a traditional Catholic doctrine to a naturalistic concept of the State. The truth is that the most effective means toward preserving the Church from harm and promoting its apostolic activity will be found in a more ardent zeal on the part of bishops and priests and in a more faithful observance of God's law by Catholics. It should not be forgotten that Christ has promised to abide with His Church and to sustain it, so that the gates of hell shall never prevail against it. The author does not take this promise into consideration.
Rousseau on Self-Love: What We've Learned, What We Might Have Learned
Authors: Cooper Laurence D.
Published: August 2009

Whereas traditionally self–love was considered a moral evil, Rousseau contended that some self–love is benign—and not only benign, but morally necessary and even praiseworthy. The following article offers an interpretation of Rousseau's criteria for distinguishing between good self–love and bad. The distinction between good and bad self–love is neither as simple as many readers think—it does not correspond exactly to the distinction between amour de soi and amour–propre—nor as blurry as many others think. It is, rather, both subtle and coherent. And it might well prove useful in our current efforts to inculcate pride and self-esteem without encouraging complacency or exploitation, efforts which themselves owe much to Rousseau's influence.
Alfarabi on the Prudence of Founders
Authors: Colmo Christopher
Published: August 2009

Two striking features of Alfarabi's Book of Religion remind us of Machiavelli's Prince. Alfarabi is very much concerned with what Machiavelli would call a new prince, the founder of a political order. Like Machiavelli, Alfarabi emphasizes the extent to which the founder needs prudence, understood as the faculty by which political men make sound determinations about particular circumstances. The status of prudence is enhanced by the pervasiveness of change over time as Alfarabi sees it. The pervasiveness of change entails that any political founding will require repeated, and prudent, renewal. For Alfarabi, as for Machiavelli, the varying dictates of prudence in response to specific political situations pose a challenge to the universal rules or laws found in religion. Alfarabi differs from Machiavelli in carefully distinguishing prudence from mere cunning or cleverness, depending on whether or not the end sought is morally good.
Salmonella entericaserotypes and antibiotic susceptibility in New Zealand, 2002–2007
Authors: BROUGHTON E. I. , HEFFERNAN H. M. , COLES C. L.
Published: August 2009

We analysed the serotypes and antibiotic susceptibility of 1560 human and 1505 non-humanSalmonellaisolated in New Zealand (NZ) between 2002 and 2007. The most common serotypes in humans wereSalmonella entericaserovar Typhimurium,S. Enteritidis,S. Brandenburg andS. Infantis. Over the 6-year period human cases due toS. Agona andS. Enteritidis increased and cases due toS. Typhimurium decreased. The most common serotypes from non-human sources wereS. Typhimurium,S. Brandenberg,S. Hindmarsh andS. Infantis, and there were no significant changes over time. More isolates were non-susceptible to streptomycin than to any other antibiotic. Almost all isolates were susceptible to ciprofloxacin and gentamicin. There were significant trends of increasing non-susceptibility to streptomycin and sulfonamides in isolates from human and non-human sources, while ampicillin, tetracycline and multidrug non-susceptibility also increased in human isolates. Despite these increases, rates of antibiotic non-susceptibility inSalmonellain NZ are still lower than in many international settings.
Geographical heterogeneity of dengue transmission in two villages in southern Vietnam
Authors: THAI K. T. D. , NAGELKERKE N. , PHUONG H. L. , NGA T. T. T. , GIAO P. T. , HUNG L. Q. , BINH T. Q. , NAM N. V. , De VRIES P. J.
Published: August 2009

This study was performed to test the hypothesis that there are ‘hotspots’, i.e. geographical heterogeneity, of dengue transmission. Data from two repeat serosurveys in two villages in Vietnam were used to identify incident infections and to relate these to prevalence at baseline and thus assess geographical heterogeneity, i.e. clustering, in dengue transmission. A total of 400 households were surveyed; serological data from 521 children at baseline and from 119 children at follow-up were included in a spatial analysis. Geographical heterogeneity of dengue transmission was explored using a permutation null distribution test. This showed for the first time evidence of clustering of dengue virus transmission at the household level in asymptomatic children. Risk areas could be identified by seroprevalence surveys combined with mapping. Control of dengue virus transmission could be supported by identification and control of hotspots.
The ultimate cataclysm: the orbital (in)stability of terrestrial planets in exoplanet systems including planets in binaries
Authors: Pilat-Lohinger Elke
Published: August 2009

There is no doubt that stability studies are of great importance in the fascinating research of extrasolar planetary systems. Even if most of the more than 300 extrasolar planets orbit their host stars as single giant planet and build simple two-body systems, we should not exclude the possibility that these systems could host other (small) planets that have not yet been detected due to obsevational limits. Another aspect to carry out stability studies is the growing interest in the search for extraterrestrial life in the universe. The long-term stability of a planetary system is one of the basic requirements for the evolution of life on a terrestrial planet. In this paper the dynamical behaviour of Earth-like planets will be discussed in single-star single-giant-planet systems, multi-planet systems and binary systems.
Clusteranalytische Bestimmung von Patchworkertypen sowie deren quantitative und qualitative Validierung
Authors: Raeder Sabine , Mutz Rüdiger , Widmer Nina , Wittekind Anette , Grote Gudela
Published: August 2009

In der vorliegenden Studie wurden Patchworker, das heißt Personen mit mehreren Beschäftigungsverhältnissen, in einer Fragebogenerhebung und nachfolgenden Interviews untersucht, um diese Personengruppe anhand einer Typenbildung näher zu beschreiben. Mithilfe der Kriterien „Gründe für Patchwork“, „Bevorzugung einer anderen Form der Erwerbstätigkeit“ und „Selbstkontrolle“ erfasst durch die Kombination von Beschäftigungsverhältnissen wurden mittels Clusteranalyse drei Typen von Patchworkern gebildet. Diese Typen werden „zufriedene Teilselbstständige“, „Selbstverwirklicher“ und „unfreiwillige Patchworker“ genannt. Die Typen wurden mit den Sekundärvariablen Selbstwert und Burnout varianzanalytisch überprüft und anhand von Interviews qualitativ validiert. Die Typenbildung wird durch die qualitativen Ergebnisse gestützt, aber die Typen unterscheiden sich nicht hinsichtlich der Sekundärvariablen. Die untersuchten Patchworker sind wenig burnoutgefährdet und berichten einen hohen Selbstwert. Möglicherweise erlaubt die Arbeitsform Patchwork, eine belastende Stelle durch andere Beschäftigungsverhältnisse auszugleichen.
Psychometric Properties of the Greek Version of the Feelings Toward Group Work Questionnaire
Authors: Goudas Marios , Magotsiou Evmorfia , Hatzigeorgiadis Antonis
Published: August 2009

The present study examined the psychometric properties (factor structure, internal and test-retest reliability, convergent and criterion-related validity, social desirability effect, and experimental validity) of the Greek version of the Feelings Toward Group Work questionnaire. Results from exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses showed a clear three-factor structure, identical with the English version. Also, the results showed adequate internal and test-retest reliability, predicted correlations with self- and peer ratings of the Multisource Assessment of Children Social Competence, nonsignificant correlations with Social Desirability Scale, and significant pre- and posttest differences from the application of a cooperative learning program. Overall, the results showed that the Greek version of the scale is a valid and reliable instrument that can be used for research in cooperative learning with Greek samples.
Mitigation and exploitation of the ionosphere: A military perspective
Authors: Cannon Paul S.
Published: August 2009

The ionosphere is a critical element in the design and operation of many military RF systems. While judicious engineering choices, such as transmission frequency, can mitigate many ionospheric effects, the research scientist and engineer are being asked to meet ever more demanding operational requirements. These, in turn, require ever more sophisticated situational awareness, mitigation, and exploitation techniques, which are being variously realized against a backdrop of evolving ground‐ and space‐based instrumentation. The latter, in combination with improved modeling and assimilative techniques, promises a new generation of more capable real‐time ionospheric models. Through examples this paper describes the benefits and problems associated with the ionospheric medium. HF communications and space radar systems are discussed as exemplars, and an emphasis is placed on the need to understand the engineering details of those systems if ionospheric research and development is to provide its full benefit.
A magnetized, spherical plasma expansion in an inhomogeneous plasma: Transition from super‐ to sub‐Alfvénic
Authors: Brecht Stephen H. , Hewett Dennis W. , Larson David J.
Published: August 2009

In this letter the transition of a strong 3‐D collisionless shock into sub‐Alfvénic waves is numerically. The transition occurs due to changes in the background plasma parameters. The Alfvén speed eventually exceeds the shock speed; the shock does not run out of energy. At this velocity transition, the shock disassembles into two types of waves: the usual compressional Alfvén wave and a left‐hand polarized electromagnetic shear Alfvén wave. This latter wave shows remarkable 3‐D coherence, and preliminary analysis suggests that there are two possible sources of energy: one is coupling to the strong electromagnetic waves that exist within the collisionless shock and the other is the density and magnetic field gradients at the interface.
A recent ice age on Mars: Evidence for climate oscillations from regional layering in mid‐latitude mantling deposits
Authors: Schon Samuel C. , Head James W. , Milliken Ralph E.
Published: August 2009

Two end‐member hypotheses have been proposed to account for the emplacement and distribution of ice in the near‐subsurface of Mars at mid to high latitudes during recent spin‐axis/orbital variation‐induced climate change. In the first, diffusion of atmospheric water vapor into and out of a porous regolith forms ice‐cemented soils whose latitudinal stability migrates as a function of orbitally controlled climatic conditions. In the alternative hypothesis, atmospheric deposition of ice, snow, and dust produces dusty ice‐rich layers during periods of higher obliquity. New image data reveal meters‐thick layered deposits exposed on mid‐latitude pole‐facing slopes supporting the latter hypothesis. These observations suggest that the near surface ice detected by the GRS instrument suite and the Phoenix lander at high latitudes is linked to thick, buried ice that was atmospherically deposited during recent ice ages and that significant amounts of subsurface ice may remain today in the 30–50° mid‐latitude regions where fresh craters, imaged by HiRISE, expose abundant ice.
Searching for better flu surveillance? A brief communication arising from Ginsberg et al. Nature 457, 1012-1014 (2009)
Authors: Olson Donald , Baer Atar , Coletta Michael , Deyneka Lana , Gentry Ryan , Ising Amy , Murray Erin , Paladini Marc , Pendarvis Justin , Soetebier Karl , Konty Kevin , Schulmann Jill , Engel Jeffrey , Gunn Julia , Rolfs Robert , Mostashari Farzad
Published: August 2009

Through retrospectively analyzing billions of internet search queries, Ginsberg et al. identified a collection of specific searches that track the course of influenza-like illness (ILI) reported by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prospective monitoring during 2007-2008 found high correlation between Google estimates and CDC-reported ILI, with next-day timeliness compared to the 1-2 week delay reported in traditional CDC ILI surveillance. The assertion by Ginsberg et al., however, that internet search term estimates enable public health officials to respond better to seasonal and pandemic influenza does not take into account the current practice of public health, or the state of the art in electronic disease surveillance.
Nitric oxide stimulates myoglobin gene and protein expression in vascular smooth muscle
Authors: Rayner Benjamin S. , Hua Susan , Sabaretnam Tharani , Witting Paul K.
Published: August 2009

Mb (myoglobin) is a haemoprotein present in cardiac, skeletal and smooth muscle and is primarily responsible for the storage and ‘facilitated transfer’ of molecular oxygen from the cell membrane to mitochondria. Also, Mb plays a role in regulating •NO (nitric oxide) homoeostasis through (i) binding •NO (Mb–NO complex); (ii) oxidation of •NO to nitrate; and (iii) formation of vasoactive S-nitroso-Mb [Rayner, B.S., Wu, B.-J., Raftery, M., Stocker, R. and Witting, P.K. (2005) J. Biol. Chem. 280, 9985–9993]. Pathological •NO concentrations affect mitochondrial function and decrease cell viability through inducing apoptosis. Treatment of cultured rat VSMCs (vascular smooth muscle cells) with cumulative doses (0.1, 1 or 10 μM) of •NO from the donors diethylamineNONOate or spermineNONOate (N-[2-aminoethyl]-N-[2-hydroxy-3-nitrosohydrazine]-1,2-ethelenediamine) yielded a time-dependent increase in Mb gene expression. Concomitant transcriptional activation increased the concentration of Mb within cultured rat or primary human VSMCs as judged by Western blot analysis and indirect immunofluorescence microscopy. Cell viability did not decrease in these cells at the •NO doses tested. Importantly, sub-culturing isolated rat aortic segments for 7 days in the presence of L-arginine at 37 °C stimulated •NO production with a parallel increase in Mb in the underlying VSMCs. Overall, exposure of VSMCs (either in cell culture or intact vessels) to pathological •NO promotes an up-regulation of the Mb gene and protein, suggesting a feedback relationship between •NO and Mb that regulates the concentration of the potent cell signalling molecule in the vessel wall, similar to the role haemoglobin plays in the vessel lumen.
Effect of interface barrier between carbon nanotube film and substrate on field emission
Authors: Chen L. F. , Song H. , Cao L. Z. , Jiang H. , Li D. B. , Guo W. G. , Liu X. , Zhao H. F. , Li Z. M.
Published: August 2009

The influence of interface barrier on field emission of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) was investigated theoretically and experimentally. A double-potential barrier model was proposed to calculate the electron tunneling probability through the interface and surface barriers. The calculation result reveals that the difference of the electron tunneling probability through the two barriers is responsible for the nonlinearity of the Fowler–Nordheim (FN) plots for the field emission of the CNTs. To verify this model, a series of the CNTs were synthesized on the Si substrates covered with different thicknesses of SiO2 layers as the interface barrier. Based on their field emission properties, it was found that the FN plots of the field emission of these CNTs deviated from the FN law when the applied electric fields were over a critical value, which was strongly dependent on the thicknesses of the SiO2 layer. Therefore, the interface barrier has an important role in determining the field emission property of the CNTs. The experimental results are consistent with the calculation result based on the double potential model.
Mechanism of laser and rf plasma in vibrational nonequilibrium CO–N2 gas mixture
Authors: Lou Guofeng , Adamovich Igor V.
Published: August 2009

This paper investigates the mechanism of plasma created by focused CO laser and rf electric field. The plasma is created in a CO/N2 environment, at a total pressure of 600 torr. Ionization of the gases occurs by an associative ionization mechanism, in collisions of two highly vibrationally excited molecules. These highly vibrationally excited states are populated by resonance absorption of the CO radiation followed by anharmonic vibration-vibration (V-V) pumping. Moreover N2 also becomes vibrationally excited due to collisions with vibrationally excited CO. The coupled rf reduced electric field E/N is sufficiently low to prevent electron impact ionization that may create plasma individually, so when a subbreakdown rf field is applied to the plasma, collisions between the free electrons heated by the field and the diatomic species create additional vibrational excitation both in the region occupied by the CO laser beam and outside of the laser beam region. The numerical results show plasma created in both regions (in and out of the CO laser beam region) with the associative ionization mechanism. This suggests a method for creating a stable nonequilibrium plasma. The calculation result is verified by comparison the synthetic spectrum to a measured one.
Trapping of particles by the leakage of a standing wave ultrasonic field
Authors: Liu Yanyan , Hu Junhui
Published: August 2009

This paper presents a method of trapping particles by the acoustic leakage from a low frequency standing wave ultrasonic field. The standing wave ultrasonic field is generated in a triangular air gap between two vibrating V-shaped metal strips. Particles are trapped to the lower outlet of the standing wave ultrasonic field. The acoustic radiation force acting on the particles in this method is opposite to the direction of the acoustic leakage. Particles such as medicine pills with a weight up to 256 mg per particle can be trapped. A physical model is developed to analyze the trapping phenomena. The effects of the vibration displacement amplitude at the tip of the V-shaped metal strip, particle’s shape and weight, and size of standing wave ultrasonic field on the trapping capability are investigated theoretically and experimentally.