bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: The Opportunities and Challenges of Using Big Data
Authors: Bruckner Matthew Adam
Published: March 2022

In Chapter 4, “Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: The Opportunities and Challenges of Using Big Data,” Matthew Adam Bruckner, Associate Professor of Law, Howard University School of Law, explores the potential offered by Big Data, artificial intelligence, and machine learning in financial services. Using data from fintech lenders such as Lending Club and Upstart, several recent studies suggest that fintech lenders’ use of nontraditional (“alternative”) data present significant opportunities to greatly improve financial inclusion. For example, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau’s analysis of Upstart’s lending data found that “the tested model approves 27% more applicants than the traditional model, and yields 16% lower average APRs for approved loans.” But a recent report from the Student Borrower Protection Center warned that fintech lenders’ use of educational data points may penalize Black and Hispanic borrowers for attending a community college, a historically Black college or university, or a Hispanic-serving institution. Bruckner explains the current regulatory environment, including how certain fair lending rules can foster innovation in credit underwriting and where the use of nontraditional data can violate these legal and regulatory protections. He also outlines key trade-offs regulators need to consider and the limits of building fair artificial intelligence/machine learning–based credit algorithms and underwriting models.
Open Banking and the Economics of Data
Authors: Carrière-Swallow Yan , Haksar Vikram
Published: March 2022

In Chapter 7, “Open Banking and the Economics of Data,” by the IMF’s Yan Carrière-Swallow and Vikram Haksar, provides an economic framework for thinking about the value of individual data and the game-changing implications of data’s unique economic features for the broader economy. The authors explain how data is poorly characterized by the common analogy of being the “new oil.” Due to its nonrival economic characteristic, data can be reused, consumed by multiple parties, transferred across networks, and combined with other data to create new products and services. This piece explores the economics of how data is produced, consumed, and monetized, the implications of data proliferation for the provision of financial services, and discusses key economic questions surrounding open banking as a consumer-centric data policy framework for the financial sector.
Open Banking, Open Data, and Open Finance
Authors: Arner Douglas W. , Buckley Ross P. , Zetzsche Dirk A.
Published: March 2022

Chapter 8, “Open Banking, Open Data, and Open Finance: Lessons from the European Union,” by Douglas W. Arner, Kerry Holdings Professor in Law, Hong Kong University, Ross P. Buckley, KMPG Law and King & Wood Mallesons Chair of Disruptive Innovation, UNSW Sydney, and Dirk A. Zetzsche, Professor of Law, Holder of the ADA Chair, Faculté de Droit, d’Économie et de Finance (FDEF), University of Luxembourg, compares three approaches to open banking. China does not require banks to share data with fintechs, but Alibaba and Tencent have developed two ecosystems that facilitate data-sharing between these BigTechs and the banks they own. These ecosystems are private credit score systems that use social media and purchasing behavior. The Chinese government is now adopting its own social credit score system that will probably use these private scoring systems with other data. High social credit scores could lead to discounts and rewards. Low scores could lead to bans on acquiring plane and train tickets, property, and loans. In contrast, the European Union and India have or expect to adopt data protection and data-sharing laws. Yet the scope varies in the types of sharable data and categories of firms covered. The European Union’s approach covers only payments, while India’s lack of legacy infrastructure has proven advantageous in building a successful, new payments system. Pursuing its principle of “data empowerment,” India ambitiously plans to expand beyond financial inclusion to healthcare and educational services. The authors thematically analyze these different approaches.
The Australian Consumer Data Right: The Promise of Open Data
Authors: Leach Jamie , McKay Julie
Published: March 2022

In Chapter 10, “The Australian Consumer Data Right: The Promise of Open Data,” Jamie Leach, Regional Director of FDATA Australia & New Zealand and Founder of Open Data Australia and Julie McKay, Former Chapter Lead of FDATA Australia & New Zealand and former head of data strategy at Equifax Australia, explore how the Australian Open Banking regime is expected to develop within the broader framework of the Consumer Data Right. Unlike several other open banking countries, Australia is pursuing a read-only way of sharing data that does not allow for payment execution unlike in the European Union, but is pursuing an economy-wide approach to data sharing, beginning with the banking sector, then rolling out to the energy and telecom sectors, prior to possible further extensions. Leach and McKay explain how Australia through its Consumer Data Right intends to ultimately build a national open data economy. The authors explore the origin of open data in Australia and its serious consideration of requiring data reciprocity. They map the process for finalizing details of the open data framework. They also describe how industry is changing in anticipation, including the voluntary uptake of open banking APIs, for instance, in the accounting and bookkeeping sectors. They describe some of the key implementation challenges, including international coordination and also touch on potential opportunities for the Australian economy.
Digital Identity
Authors: Kidd Greg
Published: March 2022

Chapter 12, “Digital Identity: Exploring a Consumer-Centric Identity for Open Banking,” authored by Greg Kidd, Founder & CEO of GlobaliD, with an exploration of open banking and digital identity. Customer verification is one of the major challenges in open banking. Kidd explores the concept of digital identity, beginning with the history of identity verification and the different kinds of attestations used today. Then the author describes digital IDs and what problems they can solve. Today, some countries have responded to the need to easily authenticate people in a digital economy by implementing centralized public IDs, such as India’s Aadhaar, Estonia’s e-residency, and Singapore’s Singpass. In fact, India’s Aadhaar is the world’s largest single biometric identity system. Other countries have private models, including Canada’s Verified.Me and Sweden’s BankID and Freja eID+. These private models tend to be more decentralized and can use different kinds of attestation to verify someone’s identity. Using the notion that the individual controls his or her data, Kidd then proposes design principles for self-sovereign digital identities that can be controlled by the individual and examines market challenges for making this a reality.
Decentralized Finance: The Future of Crypto and Open Finance?
Authors: Carter Nic
Published: March 2022

Chapter 13, “Decentralized Finance: The Future of Crypto and Open Finance” by Nic Carter, Partner at Castle Island Ventures, examines decentralized finance (DeFi) and how both cryptoassets and open banking are manifestations of the same DeFi movement. He identifies and dissects common features and objectives shared by both crypto finance and open banking. More intriguing, the author predicts that both phenomena will converge, and he explores the unknown potential of decentralized financing fully powered by blockchain technology (including cryptocurrency such as bitcoin and Dai) and what such an open finance future could look like.
Freedom Has Been Weaponized
Authors: Martinez Raoul
Published: March 2022

This chapter explores how an incomplete definition of freedom has been intentionally weaponized, with negative consequences.
A Structural Vulnerability Understanding of American Poverty
Authors: Rank Mark R.
Published: March 2022

This chapter explains Mark Rank’s poverty paradigm.
Inequalities in the Criminal Justice System at the Intersection of Race and Ethnicity
Authors: Rojas-Gaona Carlos E. , Madero-Hernandez Arelys
Published: March 2022

This chapter explores racial inequalities in the American criminal justice system.
Social Welfare, Democratic Citizenship, and Freedom
Authors: Rose Deondra
Published: March 2022

This chapter explores how government might expand freedom.
Visions of the Buddha
Authors: Shulman Eviatar
Published: March 2022

This book offers a new, groundbreaking approach to the nature of the early discourses of the Buddha, the most foundational scriptures of Buddhist religion. While commonly the early discourses are considered to be attempts to preserve the Buddha’s teachings, this book demonstrates that these texts are full of creativity, aiming to beautify the image of the wondrous Buddha, to tell good stories, to stir the imagination, and to move people emotionally. While the texts surely care for the early teachings and for the Buddha’s philosophy or his guidelines for meditation, and while at times they may relate real historical events, this is not necessarily their main interest. The early discourses are literary masterpieces, which employed a technique of composition defined here as the play of formulas. In the oral literature of early Buddhism, texts were composed of formulas, which are repeated again and again within and between texts. This work shows how new discourses could be created by connecting accepted formulas in new, innovative ways. The formulas, it is argued, are the real texts of Buddhism, and are primary to the full discourses. Shaping texts through the play of formulas resembles building with Legos or bricks—so long as one uses the right pieces, there are many available possibilities to express one’s vision.
Introduction
Authors: Shulman Eviatar
Published: March 2022

This chapter defines the basic approach of the book and suggests that one should think more carefully about what is meant by “text” in early Buddhism. It suggests that the main texts of early Buddhism are the formulas of which texts are composed, rather than the full discourses that one reads today. The chapter introduces the theory of “the play of formulas” through a discussion of the Udumbarika-sutta, and especially of its opening section, a text that has received intense scholarly consideration. All extant versions of this text are discussed in order to show that each version is indeed just that—a version in the strong sense of an idiosyncratic retelling, which does not reduce to a core, original text. The chapter addresses some of the main theoretical questions regarding the nature of the literature, their oral nature, and their relation to performance, and what the term “discourse” may imply.
The Play of Formulas
Authors: Shulman Eviatar
Published: March 2022

This chapter introduces the book’s main theory for the composition of the early discourses, and particularly for the rich narrative materials of the Dīgha and Majjhima Nikāyas. “The Play of Formulas” explains how discourses can be created through patterns of formula combinations, which produce legitimate sequences of textual utterance by the very fact that they are founded on authorized formulas. This theory suggests that formulas are expressive elements that are fit into predesigned narrative trajectories, which can be developed according to the vision of the authors. Texts again emerge as versions and as possible interpretations of the tradition. Formulas are primary to discourses as the fundamental texts of the tradition, and they connect according to a rhizomatic logic of connectivity. These ideas are brought out through case studies of both narrative and doctrinal nature. The historicist approaches still popular in Buddhist studies are critiqued, primarily those of Anālayo.
Conclusion
Authors: Shulman Eviatar
Published: March 2022

This book offers a new, groundbreaking approach to the nature of the early discourses of the Buddha, the most foundational scriptures of Buddhist religion. While commonly the early discourses are considered to be attempts to preserve the Buddha’s teachings, this book demonstrates that these texts are full of creativity, aiming to beautify the image of the wondrous Buddha, to tell good stories, to stir the imagination, and to move people emotionally. While the texts surely care for the early teachings and for the Buddha’s philosophy or his guidelines for meditation, and while at times they may relate real historical events, this is not necessarily their main interest. The early discourses are literary masterpieces, which employed a technique of composition defined here as the play of formulas. In the oral literature of early Buddhism, texts were composed of formulas, which are repeated again and again within and between texts. This work shows how new discourses could be created by connecting accepted formulas in new, innovative ways.
Harmony as Virtue in Buddhist Ethics
Authors: Schlieter Jens
Published: March 2022

Several Buddhist texts describe the goal of a harmonious society: nature flourishes; society is integrative and free from disputes, tensions, and disruptions; and all sentient beings live peacefully together. Early Buddhist sources see such a harmonious whole predominantly as an outcome of aiming at moral self-cultivation and self-perfection, especially of the virtue of “great compassion” and the willingness of “excessive giving.” Harmony as virtue can best be grasped in hagiographical narratives of the Bodhisattva. In the Vessantara-Jātaka, it becomes obvious that the goal is, in contrast to “enlightened egoism,” an attempt to overcome dualism. This text can be read with George Bataille’s theory of religion, namely, “pure immanence” and “intimacy” as the core intention of sacrifice. By identifying with the most precious “gift,” these stories insinuate that the Bodhisattva identifies with his offerings and includes them as well as himself in his aim to realize a harmonious whole.
The Concept of Harmony in Islamic Thought and Practice
Authors: Afsaruddin Asma
Published: March 2022

The concept of harmony in Islamic thought and tradition will be discussed from two primary perspectives: (1) harmony as related to the concepts of moderation, balance, and justice; and (2) harmony as an end product of peacemaking and reconciliation among people. The first aspect of harmony is illustrated through a discussion of the Muslim communal self-designation of umma wasat borrowed from the language of the Qur’an (2:43). The second part of the chapter discusses harmony as the result of the conscious cultivation of peaceful reconciliation among Muslims at an interpersonal as well as a communal level. The final section of the chapter focuses on how increasing attention is being paid to these concepts as essential building blocks in the establishment of harmonious relationships among all people, Muslim and non-Muslim, in the contemporary period.
Bizaanate, Bangan, Waanaki
Authors: Noodin Margaret
Published: March 2022

Anishinaabe culture, which has been located for more than five thousand years in the Great Lakes region of North America, defines harmony as a state of peaceful existence described by the terms, bizaanate and bangan, which relate to harmonious ways of being in the world often referred to as minobimaadizi and waanaki. This chapter introduces the culture and language of the Anishinaabe people, proposes a linguistic methodology for examining philosophic concepts, and offers narrative examples of the terms related to Anishinaabe harmony. Framed by poetry and constructed through linguistic analysis, the argument in this chapter demonstrates the value of blending modes of disciplinary inquiry while adding Anishinaabe concepts to global philosophical knowledge.
Construction and the Spread of Status
Authors: Harkness Sarah K.
Published: March 2022

This chapter examines work dedicated to the construction and diffusion of new status characteristics. Beginning with Ridgway’s status construction theory and Berger and Fisek’s spread of status value theory, the chapter delves into two important mechanisms leading to the formation of a new status characteristic: control over differential resources and resulting interactional hierarchies of assertiveness for the former and associations with extant status characteristics for the latter. Thye’s status value theory of power adds to this by showing a way for objects to become imbued with status thereby transforming into valued social rewards. These rewards then affect relative power and profit differences in negotiations. Finally, work by Harkness demonstrates how rewards can create new status characteristics in an immediate setting. The chapter ends by pointing to potential new avenues of research as scholars continue moving this area forward.
Equitable Classrooms
Authors: Lotan Rachel A.
Published: March 2022

Multiracial, multicultural, multilingual classrooms are a global phenomenon. Youngsters in these classrooms have varying levels of academic preparation and proficiency in the language of instruction. Unless steps are taken, such academic, linguistic, and social heterogeneity can result in severe inequities. Developed at Stanford University, Complex Instruction (CI), a practical and effective pedagogical approach, is the outcome of applications of sociological theories and sociocultural frameworks of cognitive development and learning. With sustained collaboration among scholars and practicing educators, CI was designed to create equitable learning opportunities and outcomes for students by ensuring equal access to academic and material resources and by supporting equitable interactions in academically, socially, racially, and linguistically heterogeneous classrooms. Research focused on CI is being done in the United States and other countries.
Status Value of Gender, Age, Race, Parenthood, and Beauty
Authors: Walker Lisa Slattery
Published: March 2022

This chapter describes the concept of status characteristics. Status characteristics create perceptions of how an individual will perform on a given task. The types of characteristics the theory contains are discussed, as are the mechanisms by which they operate. Numerous characteristics and the research supporting them as status characteristics are presented, and instances of conflicting evidence are noted. The complexities of social life, the interactions between various characteristics, and the finer points of measurement all lead to the conclusion that continued, careful work must be done on the identification and specification of status characteristics. Methodological approaches are highlighted, as are ideas for future work.
Effects of Mental Illness, Veteran, and Criminal Record Labels on Status- and Stigma-Related Outcomes
Authors: Lucas Jeffrey W. , Hipes Crosby
Published: March 2022

This chapter summarizes research that attends to status- and stigma-related outcomes of a range of attributes, particularly mental illness labels, veteran status, and criminal records. All three have high prevalence in U.S. society, and research has indicated links from each to both status generalization and stigmatization. Research also supports status generalization and stigmatization as independent but overlapping processes. This chapter discusses particularly fruitful directions for future research on relationships between status and stigma processes. One is research on the mechanisms associated with stigmatizing attributes operating as status characteristics, and particularly the role of anticipated behavior stereotypically associated with mental illness. Another is the extent to which aggregation of expectations happens in responses to stigmatizing attributes in a process similar or different to how status attributes aggregate in affecting influence. A third is research that addresses how status generalization and stigmatizing processes operate together to affect outcomes relevant to health.
A Better Ape
Authors: Kumar Victor , Campbell Richmond
Published: March 2022

A Better Ape explores the evolution of the moral mind from our ancestors with chimpanzees, through the origins of our genus and our species, to the development of behaviorally modern humans who underwent revolutions in agriculture, urbanization, and industrial technology. The book begins, in Part I, by explaining the biological evolution of sympathy and loyalty in great apes and trust and respect in the earliest humans. These moral emotions are the first element of the moral mind. Part II explains the gene-culture co-evolution of norms, emotions, and reasoning in Homo sapiens. Moral norms of harm, kinship, reciprocity, autonomy, and fairness are the second element of the moral mind. A social capacity for interactive moral reasoning is the third element. Part III of the book explains the cultural co-evolution of social institutions and morality. Family, religious, military, political, and economic institutions expanded small bands into large tribes and created more intense social hierarchies through new moral norms of authority and purity. Finally, Part IV explains the rational and cultural evolution of moral progress and moral regress as human societies experienced gains and losses in inclusivity and equality. Moral progress against racism, homophobia, speciesism, sexism, classism, and global injustice depends on integration of privileged and oppressed people in physical space, social roles, and democratic decision making. The central idea in the book is that all these major evolutionary transitions, from ancestral apes to modern societies, and now human survival of climate change, depend on co-evolution between morality, knowledge, and complex social structure.
Altruism
Authors: Kumar Victor , Campbell Richmond
Published: March 2022

Chapter 1 explains how the altruistic moral emotions of sympathy and loyalty evolved through natural selection in great apes and their ancestors prior to human evolution. Altruism can be biological or psychological. Biological altruism is the sacrifice of fitness by one individual that increases the fitness of another. Its evolution by natural selection seems impossible. The apparent paradox is resolved by explaining how mechanisms of kin selection, reciprocal altruism, and group selection allow biological altruism to evolve. These mechanisms also explain the evolution of psychological altruism, exemplified in sympathy and loyalty, where an altruist is motivated to benefit another for the sake of the other. This altruism can exist alongside egoistic motives, but it is incompatible with hedonism, the view that the ultimate end of all action is pleasure. Altruism explains how morally motivated cooperation existed within ape groups that shared resources, alloparenting, and defense against external threats.
Introduction
Authors: Libby Pat
Published: March 2022

This book is for you and for people like you who aren’t afraid of what they don’t know.

It was written for you, a citizen of this fine country (or, perhaps, an aspiring citizen) on the assumption that you don’t know much, or as much as you’d like, about how laws are made or how public policy is shaped....
Defend Forward and Persistent Engagement
Authors: Corn Gary P. , Goldman Emily
Published: March 2022

In 2018, the Department of Defense (DoD) published a new cyber strategy. Taking account of the persistent, hostile cyber campaigns of the United States’ strategic competitors, the new strategy is anchored in the recognized need to “take action in cyberspace during day-to-day competition to preserve U.S. military advantages and to defend U.S. interests.” Key to this shift in strategic posture is the introduction of the concept of defending forward in cyberspace “to disrupt or halt malicious cyber activity at its source, including activity that falls below the level of armed conflict.” The significance of the Defend Forward concept and the broader shift in US cyber strategy cannot be understated. Like any strategy, to be effective it requires resources, implementing policies, and supporting legal structures. This introductory chapter provides a general overview of the DoD’s strategy shift and the Defend Forward concept.
Defend Forward and Cyber Countermeasures
Authors: Deeks Ashley
Published: March 2022

When a state suffers an internationally wrongful act at the hands of another state, international law allows the injured state to respond in a variety of ways. Depending on the nature, scope, and severity of the initial wrongful act, lawful responses can range from a demand for reparations in response to a low-level violation to a forcible act of self-defense in response to an armed attack. Countermeasures offer an additional way for a state to respond to an internationally wrongful act. Countermeasures are acts that would in general be considered internationally wrongful but are justified to address the wrongdoing state’s original international law violation. As states increasingly employ cyber tools to commit hostile acts against their adversaries, countermeasures are poised to play a growing role in interstate relations. This chapter explores the role that countermeasures can play in the US cyber strategy known as Defend Forward.
La Nijinska
Authors: Garafola Lynn
Published: March 2022

La Nijinska: Choreographer of the Modern is the first biography of ballet’s premier female choreographer and a pioneer of the modern tradition in ballet. Overshadowed in life and legend by her brother Vaslav Nijinsky, Bronislava Nijinska had a far longer and more productive career. An architect of twentieth-century neoclassicism, she experienced the transformative power of the Russian Revolution and created her greatest work—Les Noces—under the influence of its avant-garde. Many of her ballets rested on the probing of gender boundaries, a mistrust of conventional gender roles, and the heightening of the ballerina’s technical and artistic prowess. A prominent member of Russia Abroad, she worked with leading figures of twentieth-century art, music, and ballet, including Stravinsky, Diaghilev, Poulenc, Alexandra Exter, Natalia Goncharova, Frederick Ashton, Alicia Markova, and Maria Tallchief. She was also a remarkable dancer in her own right with a bravura technique and powerful stage presence that enabled her to perform an unusually broad repertory. Finally, she was the author of an acclaimed volume of memoirs in addition to a major treatise on movement. Nijinska’s career sheds new light on the modern history of ballet and of modernism more generally, recuperating the memory of lost works and forgotten artists, many of them women. But it also reveals the sexism pervasive in the upper echelons of the early and mid-twentieth-century ballet world and the barriers that still confront ballet’s women choreographers.
Back from the Future
Authors: Garafola Lynn
Published: March 2022

In Vienna, Nijinska finds her brother catatonic at the Steinhof Sanatorium, a mental hospital; he does not recognize her. When her relationship with Romola Nijinsky breaks down, Nijinska is left penniless and takes a job dancing in a cabaret to support her family. After nearly four months in Vienna, she rejoins Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes, both as a dancer and a choreographer, her first assignment being updating The Sleeping Beauty (renamed The Sleeping Princess by Diaghilev) to make it appealing to a postwar Western audience. The work is hailed by many because of its superb display of classical dance talent, but also because of the ballet’s associations with monarchy, the St. Petersburg myth, and the French Grand Siècle. Nijinska is dismayed by the anti-Soviet feeling she encounters in the company, disappointed at Diaghilev’s artistically conservative turn, and frustrated at his unwillingness to present her new choreography. After a brief rapprochement, she and Kochetovsky agree to divorce.
Where Is Home?
Authors: Garafola Lynn
Published: March 2022

In 1922, as Diaghilev seeks to counter the failure of The Sleeping Princess by steering the Ballets Russes in a new direction, Nijinka becomes his resident choreographer. In Paris, where the company plays back-to-back seasons at the Paris Opéra and Théâtre Mogador, she creates several new ballets, including Le Renard to music by Stravinsky, and Aurora’s Wedding, a distillation of dances from The Sleeping Princess. She reclaims her old Fokine roles and adds several ballets choreographed by Léonide Massine to her repertory, including his version of The Rite of Spring, in which she is cast as the Chosen Maiden. Finally, she dances a number of male roles, including her brother’s in L’Après-midi d’un Faune. Although praised for infusing new life into the Ballets Russes, she dreams of returning to Kiev and continuing her choreographic experiments, but is urged by friends there to stay in the West. After plans to re-establish the School of Movement in Vienna fall through, she arranges for a handful of her male students to leave Kiev and join the Ballets Russes.
A Choreographer for Russia Abroad
Authors: Garafola Lynn
Published: March 2022

During the next several years, as the effects of the Great Depression deepen, Nijinska takes whatever freelance jobs offer themselves. She works at the Paris Opé ra, for director Max Reinhardt in Berlin, and the Vienna State Opera, where she walks out after only six weeks. But most of her jobs are for “Russia Abroad,” especially the Opéra Russe à Paris, which sponsors evenings of her ballets (including a revival of Petrouchka and the definitive version of her Bach ballet Etude) and which she views, mistakenly, as the nucleus of a new company under her direction. After nineteen years of adoring him from afar, she finds herself in physical proximity with the Russian singing star Fedor Chaliapin. Her obsessive love for him, which she links to her creativity as an artist, becomes the dominant theme of her diaries. In 1930 she publishes her treatise “Movement and the School of Movement” in the Austrian dance journal Schrifttanz.
On the Road
Authors: Garafola Lynn
Published: March 2022

In 1934, Nijinska travels to Hollywood to choreograph the ballets in Max Reinhardt’s legendary film A Midsummer Night’s Dream. The following year, in London, she choreographs Les Cent Baisers (The Hundred Kisses) for the de Basil company, a success that reintroduces her to the city’s ballet community. Tragedy strikes on the return to Paris, when her son is killed and her daughter seriously injured in a car accident that leaves Nijinska and her husband, who was driving, unharmed. Returning to professional life, she stages Les Noces to acclaim in New York, although de Basil, bowing to pressure from Massine, pulls it from the London season, a bitter disappointment for her. After a brief engagement with the Markova-Dolin Ballet, she becomes artistic director of the Polish Ballet, a government-sponsored organization for which she creates several Polish-themed works, including Legend of Cracow and Chopin Concerto, the first of many plotless or semi-plotless ballets to Romantic music, but is replaced by Leon Woizikovsky. When World War II breaks out in Europe in 1939, Nijinska sails with her family to New York.
Sciences
Authors: Denver Dee
Published: March 2022

The sixth chapter begins work on the book’s second objective, scientific analysis of Buddhist teachings, by briefly reviewing the history of scientific philosophy and the scientific method, along with consideration of pseudoscience. The distinctions between inductive and deductive reasoning are explored. Contributions from key shapers of Western scientific thought, from Aristotle to Karl Popper, are highlighted to frame the upcoming hypothesis-guided analysis of Buddhist principles and DNA. The distinctions between science, non-science, and pseudoscience are discussed using the Community of Knowledge Disciplines model as a framework. The chapter concludes with the development and final expression of three specific Buddhist hypotheses, focused on DNA as the analytical target.
Aristotle on Sexual Difference
Authors: Deslauriers Marguerite
Published: March 2022

Aristotle on Sexual Difference examines Aristotle’s conception of sexual difference—the differences between male and female, men and women—both in his biological works and in his political philosophy. For Aristotle, the problem of sexual difference emerges from the tension between his assertions that the female is imperfect relative to the male and that men by nature should rule over women, and his commitment to two other claims: (1) that sex is a division in the matter and not in the form of the genus animal—so there is no difference in essential form between the male and female members of a sexually differentiated species, and (2) that sexual difference, and therefore the existence of sexed individuals, is good, both for generation and for the political life characteristic of human beings. This book analyzes how Aristotle would describe both the physiological and the psychological defects of women, and then asks how those defects might also be benefits on his account, and how the different defects might be causally connected. It has three aims. The first is to provide a comprehensive analysis of Aristotle’s conception of sexual difference in animal bodies and in political life. The second is to demonstrate that Aristotle takes sexual difference to be valuable to an animal species as well as to the city-state. The third is to establish the link between the explanation Aristotle offers for the deficiencies of the female body and his justification of distinct roles for the sexes in the household and the city.
Introduction
Authors: Asal Victor , Phillips Brian J. , Rethemeyer R. Karl
Published: March 2022

Why do insurgent organizations sometimes kill civilians? This chapter provides an introduction to the book, starting with historical examples of insurgent organizations attacking civilians—but noting that some organizations do so more than others. Examples discussed include Palestinian Islamic Jihad, Boko Haram, and ISIS. The chapter defines the key concepts of insurgent group, civil conflict, and civilian targeting. It then reviews the state of the growing research on the topic of civilian victimization by insurgent groups, noting that common explanations include group weakness and operating in democratic countries. Shortcomings in the literature are discussed. The chapter concludes with an outline of the rest of the book, summarizing each of the subsequent chapters.
Why Do Some Insurgent Groups Attack Journalists?
Authors: Asal Victor , Phillips Brian J. , Rethemeyer R. Karl
Published: March 2022

This chapter discusses an understudied subset of civilian targeting: attacks on journalists. Violence against journalists is not simply violence against civilians but also a threat to communication and knowledge, including about governance and conflict. As with attacks against schools, given the relative rarity of such violence, it is somewhat difficult to identify explanatory factors. With regard to violence against journalists, interorganizational alliances are one of the few variables that seem to help explain this type of bloodshed. This is perhaps due to organizations learning about tactics from their peers. In addition, regime type seems to be important because insurgent groups in more democratic countries are more likely to attack the news media.
The Best Beloved Thing is Justice
Authors: Kloppenberg Lisa
Published: March 2022

Dorothy Wright Nelson was a prominent federal judge on the level just below the U.S. Supreme Court for over 40 years. One of the early tenured female law professors and one of the rare female deans in the U.S. legal academy in the 1960s and 1970s, her expertise was in reforming courts to make them more just and accessible for all people. When she became a federal judge in 1980, she helped to make the federal courts more efficient and provide litigants with alternatives—including mediation and arbitration—to resolve cases without greater expense and delay. An ardent believer in more peaceful resolution of conflicts, Judge Nelson educated judges around the world on conflict resolution and the rule of law, often while engaging quietly in human rights advocacy for persecuted Bahá’ís. Her Bahá’í Faith also inspired her judicial opinions providing more equality and due process for the marginalized, including the poor, racial minorities, immigrants, mentally ill, and the powerless. Dorothy and her husband, a state court judge, balanced their professional achievements with their personal commitments in a manner unusual for their time. They devoted considerable energy to raising their two children, spending time with their extended family, and engaging in Bahá’í activities (including world travel, youth camps, weekly Sunday School, and “firesides” in their home). This book captures the life story of an extraordinary female leader and trailblazer in a highly traditional, male-dominated profession, unafraid to challenge the status quo in her pleasant, optimistic, determined, and collegial manner.
Life on the Bench
Authors: Kloppenberg Lisa
Published: March 2022

This chapter covers Dorothy Wright Nelson’s transition to the federal bench. A proponent of merit selection, she worked with national leaders to open the doors for more women and minorities to become federal judges before President Carter appointed her as one of the early female federal appellate judges in the United States. She relished the opportunity to employ her ideas about court reform and alternatives to litigation at the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. She won awards for her progress in making mediation and other alternatives available in the federal courts. She improved efficiencies within the Ninth Circuit, helping to reduce a significant backlog of cases. She became a leader among the judges, building community within the Ninth Circuit because of the way she treated judges, lawyers, law clerks, and civil servants and the opportunities she brought them.
The Knowledge Polity
Authors: Djupe Paul A. , Sokhey Anand Edward , Smith Amy Erica
Published: March 2022

The Knowledge Polity advances a holistic view of knowledge production in the social sciences. The familiar publication pipeline metaphor stresses the individual; we move beyond such a conception, offering a vision of academics as members of a knowledge polity where citizenship comes with rights and responsibilities. Knowledge production does not just mean research, but encompasses teaching, reviewing, blogging, commenting, and other activities, which together signal its communal, civic nature. Our explanation for knowledge production situates academics in institutional and social contexts, including the family, while maintaining individual agency. We search for inequalities in scholarly output, service and resources by gender and racial/ethnic identification, but are careful to consider the changing compositions of disciplines and different situations (e.g., faculty rank) when making comparisons. Data come from our Professional Activity in the Social Sciences (PASS) study, which sampled academic departments in sociology and political science in 2017. Roughly 1,700 faculty responses were linked to data on lifetime publications, Twitter activity, and Google Scholar/other data sources. Across eight empirical chapters, we offer a comprehensive view of these disciplines, documenting inequalities and providing estimates of behaviors that have long been shrouded in anecdote. The volume’s wide-ranging analyses enable scholars and academic communities from across the social and behavioral sciences to make empirically-grounded decisions about their individual and collective futures.
The Institutional Context
Authors: Djupe Paul A. , Erica Smith Amy , Edward Sokhey Anand
Published: March 2022

In this chapter we look at how both department characteristics, as well as family and home responsibilities, influence rates of scholarly productivity. We find largely similar dynamics for political scientists and sociologists: being in a more prestigious department does not track neatly with rates of productivity, while academic rank and department type (PhD- vs. MA-/BA-granting) do much to explain the variation we see in estimates of time spent on research and in reported submissions (both in terms of quantity and in terms of where people submit—i.e., top-journals vs. other outlets). With respect to family and home responsibilities, we find a nuanced story: many respondents report spending some portion of their typical workdays on such obligations, though we see little evidence—both for male and female respondents—that commitments like having children, doing housework, and performing other caregiving activities affect rates of teaching and research appreciably.
The Publication Pipeline
Authors: Djupe Paul A. , Erica Smith Amy , Edward Sokhey Anand
Published: March 2022

We provide a rare beginning-to-end look into the publication pipeline, reviewing how long article projects take from conception to first submission, how many rejections they have received, and what turnaround times look like after rejections. The average project takes about five years from conception to journal acceptance. Early-career scholars take about the same time to first submission, but face stiffer rejection rates, and sociologists tend to take longer to submit their articles (controlling for methodological specialization). The typical project acquires comments from just under four people, though individuals vary in how much of that commentary they process, with women and the conscientious following more. A majority of scholars target the journal they believe is likely to accept work rather than starting high. Coauthored manuscripts are quicker to first submission, correct for the variance introduced by individual dispositions, and tend to be aimed at higher-ranked journals.
Introduction
Authors: Garson Justin
Published: March 2022

Historians and philosophers often view the history of madness as a clash between proponents of a biological perspective and proponents of a psychological perspective. This chapter provides an overview of a very different way of reading the history of psychiatry, namely, in terms of the distinction between madness-as-strategy and madness-as-dysfunction. The first perspective sees madness as having a purposeful, teleological, or functional character. The second sees madness as a dysfunction, defect, or disease. The chapter clarifies that the book is, in the final analysis, neither an exercise in the history of science nor a conceptual genealogy, but a recovery mission. It seeks to recover the madness-as-strategy tradition in order to provide an alternative to madness-as-dysfunction. The chapter also gives a synoptic overview of the major figures and texts the book treats.
Hippocrates and the Magicians
Authors: Garson Justin
Published: March 2022

This chapter revisits the ancient clash between the Hippocratic physicians and the “magicians, purifiers, charlatans and quacks” whom they opposed. What, precisely, is the nature of this schism? Some scholars frame the divide as one between naturalism and supernaturalism. But classical scholarship puts this reading into question, for the Hippocratics, too, invoke divinity, purification, and prayer. The chapter suggests that we frame the clash as one between dysteleology and teleology. The Hippocratics were wedded to the idea that madness, and disease generally, happens when something inside of a person cannot perform its correct function. The magicians and purifiers, in contrast, thought of madness as embodying a divine strategy, and more specifically, a punishment for offending the gods. Hence, the tension between madness-as-dysfunction and madness-as-strategy is already prefigured in the classical era. In a sense, this book can be read as a long-overdue apologia for the magicians and purifiers.
An Infinitely Wise Contrivance
Authors: Garson Justin
Published: March 2022

The early eighteenth-century physician George Cheyne accepted the Renaissance view that madness, and particularly melancholy, represents a punishment for sin as well as an opportunity for redemption. For Cheyne, however, unlike Robert Burton, the sin that looms largest in his thinking is the sin of intemperance, that is, immoderation in food and drink, or gluttony. We can understand his peculiar fixation with intemperance if we read Cheyne’s masterpiece, The English Malady of 1733, in the context of his monumental works of natural theology. For Cheyne, God has given to the peoples of the globe exactly the sorts of food and medicine that they need to flourish, given the region where God has placed them. Intemperance represents a rejection of God’s place-based providence. Hence, melancholy has the purpose of warning us against the perils of immoderation.
A Temporary Surrogate of Reason
Authors: Garson Justin
Published: March 2022

One of the clearest expressions of madness-as-dysfunction is Kant’s youthful essay of 1764, “Essay on the Maladies of the Head.” There, Kant argues that each form of madness represents a defect in a corresponding faculty of reason. Since there are only three faculties of reason (experience, judgment, and reason), there are only three forms of madness, corresponding to the breakdown of each. Kant gives voice to what was to become a basic protocol for nineteenth-century medical psychiatry: to understand madness, we must first survey the faculties of the sound mind, and then identify the forms of madness as so many different ways that those faculties break. It is astonishing, then, that in his Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View of 1798, Kant rediscovers teleology inside of madness. Some forms of madness are bestowed upon us by the “wisdom of nature” in order to protect reason or motivate ethical behavior.
The Mountebanks of the Mind
Authors: Garson Justin
Published: March 2022

John Haslam, apothecary to Bedlam hospital at the beginning of the nineteenth century, embraced Kant’s dysfunction-centered model of madness. For Haslam, each form of madness represents a breakdown in a faculty of the sound mind. Haslam, however, identifies a new principle of madness: duplicity or dissimulation. The mad person dissimulates reason in order to evade institutionalization. The theme of dissimulation is on display in his 1810 manuscript, Illustrations of Madness, in which he considers the case of James Tully Matthews and a “remarkable difference in medical opinion” over whether Matthews was, in fact, mad. Ultimately, Haslam concludes that the mad person understands but rejects the claims of reason. In a sense, all madness has a purposeful character insofar as its goal is to deceive others by dissimulating reason. This creates a new challenge for the physician: one role of the physician is to outwit the mad person.
The Miracle of Sanity
Authors: Garson Justin
Published: March 2022

A fascinating and neglected nineteenth-century theorist of madness was Arthur Ladbroke Wigan, author of A New View of Insanity: The Duality of the Mind of 1844. Wigan’s thesis is that each hemisphere of the brain is in fact a distinct brain and also a distinct mind. For Wigan, madness happens when one brain is healthy and the other brain is sick, and the healthy brain starts to trust the aberrant reports of the sick brain. The various forms of madness are simply ways that the healthy brain relates to the sick brain: the healthy brain can rebuke the sick brain, it can be deceived by the sick brain, or it can acquiesce to the sick brain. He also considers whether and how religion promotes madness. Although Wigan was sometimes likened to phrenologists like Spurzheim or Gall, his vision of the mind as consisting as two distinct persons was quite original.