bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Arms Control And The Legal Process
Authors: O’Neill Philip D
Published: November 2023

Technological developments in weapons continue to magnify today’s threats and eliminate warning time. Other changes in circumstances implicating force projection, such as the shift in the nature of potential combatants and proliferators from state to nonstate actors, or weapons development outside a treaty regime, seriously challenge the security-based legal processes as well. To meet such challenges, the tendency in modern arms control agreements addressing WMD proliferation has been to focus on agreements of limited scope, coupled with utilization of withdrawal or formal amendment provisions as a safety net. A current example of concern is the “breakout” potential for nuclear weapons development from enrichment activity for “peaceful uses,” as with Iran under the existing Non-Proliferation Treaty. Yet the need to amend or end a treaty relationship due to circumstantial/technological changes has not always been assumed. Rather, there have been myriad alternative legal processes available and utilized in past treaty regimes.
Handbook of: Pediatric Physical and Clinical Diagnosis
Authors: Barness Lewis A , Gilbert-Barness Enid , Fauber Dean
Published: November 2023

Despite the advent of powerful technological advances, the cornerstone of patient care remains the history and physical examination. In this era of lab tests and, in a system dominated by “adult medicine,” the special approach to the unique examination of infants and children is often lost. In the Handbook of Pediatric Physical Diagnosis, the highly respected pediatrician Lewis Barness, and noted pediatrician and pathologist, Enid Gilbert-Barness, present clear descriptions and guidelines for the examination of the pediatric patient in an objective, analytical, and humanistic manner. With concise, clearly written text covering both common and difficult diagnoses, and aided by a wealth of tables, charts, and illustrations, this new edition includes more information on differential diagnosis, and has a new fresh look.
The Modern Uncorporation
Authors: Ribstein Larry E
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses the aftermath of the LLC Revolution discussed in Chapter 6. It presents a detailed portrait of the modern uncorporation as it emerged over the last twenty years after being liberated from tax and regulation that had forced firms to accept the corporate form as the price of limited liability. This portrait includes the modern versions of the traditional general and limited partnership as well as the current version of the new LLC.
Movements
Authors: Sunstein Cass R
Published: November 2023

An understanding of group polarization and cascade effects has implications for all sorts of social beliefs and movements. Let us now consider some examples. For any of them, of course, a whole volume would be necessary to give a full sense of the underlying dynamics. My goal here is not to provide that full sense, but to say enough to suggest that the social influences explored here have played a crucial role.
Introduction
Authors: Sulmasy Glenn
Published: November 2023

It is sometime easy to forget how very close the communist nation of Cuba is to the American homeland. Cuba sits in the Caribbean Sea, a scant hundred miles as the crow flies from Key West to the northern coast of Cuba. Approximately 500 miles from mainland Florida, there is a small U.S. military installation located on both sides of the mouth of Guantanamo Bay on the south eastern tip of Cuba. The forty- five-square-mile naval base was formally established by treaty following the Spanish-American War through an “Agreement between the United States and Cuba for the Lease of Lands for Coaling and Naval Stations.” The agreement was formalized in February of 1903 , under the auspices of Article VII of the Platt Amendment. U.S. Naval Station Guantanamo Bay has remained a United States military installation despite the Cuban revolution in 1959 and the establishment of a communist government under Fidel Castro. It is the oldest U.S. base located in overseas territory; it was obtained after the end of the Spanish-American War. And the lease is perpetual; it may be bro- ken only upon the agreement of both signatories or the abandonment of the base by the United States.
The Legal Landscape after Boumediene
Authors: Sulmasy Glenn
Published: November 2023

By July 2008, almost seven years after President Bush’s Order establishing the military commissions, there had not been a successful prosecution at Guantanamo Bay. The military com- missions achieved only one plea deal, known as a pretrial agreement (PTA) in military law, against an Australian citizen named David Hicks. The first actual “trial” was finally docketed for July 2 2008 and even so, was still expected to have numerous challenges and procedural difficulties. In fact, although the trial had several surprises and some difficulties, it ran smoothly and resulted in the conviction of Hamdan. Hamdan’s sentence was time served with an additional six months. Thus, by December 2008, Hamdan was already released. Other than this one “successful” prosecution, the Department of Defense’s implementation of the Bush Order is best characterized as a disaster. For numerous reasons, the military commissions’ pro- cess is not ideally suited for the twenty- first-century unconventional war the United States is fighting against international terrorism. Although more than ideal for conventional wars against nation- states, and an established component of American military law juris- prudence, the military commissions are clearly not the right forum for trying detainees in the War on al Qaeda.
The National Security Court System
Authors: Sulmasy Glenn
Published: November 2023

A National Security Court System (NSCS) offers the United States a “way out” of the Guantanamo fiasco The existing military law tribunal system is simply not meeting the needs of the nation or the West as we battle international terror. Similarly, the current federal civilian courts are not the appropriate forum for adjudicating “war crimes” either. The convergence of law enforcement and warfare embodied in the War on al Qaeda presents new dilemmas and confusion for nations determining which scheme or system to employ. The situation is unprecedented. Not only is the war itself novel but the al Qaeda fighters are unique also—neither warrior nor criminal. They commit, or conspire to commit, acts of international terror and other actions on a massive scale, seeking nothing less than the complete destruction of Western civilization. They do not wear uniforms, they do not carry weapons openly, they have no emblems that distinguish them as members of an organized army, and they fl the law of armed conflict (LOAC) as part of their established doctrine.
Stand Firm Ye Boys From Maine
Authors: Desjardin Thomas A
Published: November 2023

Fought amid rocks and trees, in thick blinding smoke, and under exceedingly stressful conditions, the battle for the southern slope of Little Round Top on July 2, 1863 stands among the most famous and crucial military actions in American history, one of the key engagements that led to the North's victory at Gettysburg. In this powerfully narrated history, Maine historian Tom Desjardin tells the story of the 20th Maine Regiment, the soldiers who fought and won the battle of Little Round Top. This engaging work is the culmination of years of detailed research on the experiences of the soldiers in that regiment, telling the complete story of the unit in the Gettysburg Campaign, from June 21 through July 10, 1863. Desjardin uses more than seventy first-hand accounts to tell the story of this campaign in critical detail. He brings the personal experiences of the soldiers to life, relating the story from both sides and revealing the actions and feelings of the men from Alabama who tried, in vain, to seize Little Round Top. Indeed, ranging from the lowest ranking private to the highest officers, this book explores the terrible experiences of war and their tragic effect. Following the regiment through the campaign enables readers to understand fully the soldiers' feelings towards the enemy, towards citizens of both North and South, and towards the commanders of the two armies. In addition, this book traces the development of the legend of Gettysburg, as veterans of the fight struggle to remember, grasp, and memorialize their part in the largest battle ever fought on the continent. With a new preface and updated maps and illustrations, Stand Fast Ye Boys of Maine offers a compelling account of one of the most crucial small engagements of the Civil War.
Docility and Democracy
Authors: Zakaras Alex
Published: November 2023

I began chapter one by describing a problem: the disparity between what democracy seems to require and what modern citizens seem able to give. I then suggested that this disparity has preoccupied philosophers since (at least) the early nineteenth century. In fact, the broader question is one of the oldest in the history of political thought: will citizens prove virtuous enough to preserve the institutions that guard their freedom? This question took on new implications in the early nineteenth century, with the emergence of democracy on a national scale. Alexis de Tocqueville, one of the most influential early writers on this subject, helped bring these implications into clearer focus. Writing about American democracy as it existed in the 1820s, he expressed the very concerns that would soon thereafter become Emerson’s and Mill’s.

Tocqueville’s anxieties about the modern citizen—and, by extension, about modern democracy—were centered on two related themes, both of which resonate in recent political commentaries. First, he observed that Americans were inclined toward “individualism,” by which he meant withdrawal from public life and general apathy about things political.
The Ideal of Individuality
Authors: Zakaras Alex
Published: November 2023

If docility is the democratic sickness that Mill and Emerson both diagnosed, then individuality is its antidote. Since docility describes a state of mind as well as a habit of inaction, it should come as no surprise that individuality, too, describes a way of thinking. It is a way of thinking, moreover, that citizens must cultivate in spite of the pressures of mass politics. Here lies one of its most daunting challenges: individuality is not produced by the institutions of mass democracy; rather, it must be created and nurtured by citizens acting—at least sometimes—against the grain of their social and political milieu. To those who would argue that civic virtue is impossible without strong institutional support, I answer once again: what choice do we have? At present, we have no such support, and without virtuous citizen-advocates, we have no legitimate way to create it.
Conformity and Subjection
Authors: Zakaras Alex
Published: November 2023

I hope to have shown, in the past three chapters, that the experience of reading Emerson is eclectic and provocative and full of interpretive difficulty. Emerson’s style is impressionistic, alternately playful and didactic, and full of deliberate tension and contradiction. His writing captures diverse moods and points of view without often trying to integrate them. His essays provoke, as much by stark assertion as by surprising omission.

Reading Mill is very different. While he, too, had very catholic interests and sympathies, Mill’s ambitions were more often constructive than perspectival. Mill aspired to fashion unlikely syntheses and to resolve disparate half-truths into philosophical wholes. He thought that he could combine Enlightenment and Counter-Enlightenment into a philosophy that retained the best of both. About the political antagonisms of his day, he claimed to believe that “a better doctrine must be possible; not a mere compromise, by splitting the difference between the two, but something wider than either” (CW 19:373).
Criminal Statutory Liability and Interpretation
Authors: Hanlon James Patrick
Published: November 2023

Criminal laws creating substantive criminal liability that are most frequently used in corporate prosecutions fall into two broad categories: Those contained in the Federal Criminal Code, known as Title 18 offenses, and those contained in subject specific regulatory statutes. It would be impractical to enumerate all potentially applicable federal criminal offenses. As of 2004, there were approximately 4,000 separate criminal offenses covering approximately 27,000 pages of the United States Code. With such a vast array of criminal statutes, it is not difficult for a smart prosecutor to find an offense that can be charged to fit the facts where there has been illicit activity. The federal criminal code has been critically described as “simply an ‘incomprehensible,’ random and incoherent, ‘duplicative, incomplete, and organizationally nonsensical’ mass of federal legislation that carries criminal penalties.”
The Federal Criminal Investigation Process
Authors: Hanlon James Patrick , Lewis Erin Reilly
Published: November 2023

Federal criminal investigations are unique and each is tailored to the specific facts and applicable law. Investigations are initiated by federal agencies, such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Department of Health and Human Services, and then referred to a U.S. Attorney’s Office for further investigation and/or prosecution.
The Process of Defining Charges Against the Individual
Authors: Hanlon James Patrick
Published: November 2023

At the inception of a government investigation into corporate misconduct, a corporation must consider key issues relating to individual employees, including: (1) whether any employees need their own counsel; (2) if individual employees need separate counsel, whether the corporation will pay their attorneys’ fees; and (3) whether the corporation will enter into a joint defense agreement with individuals represented by separate counsel. All of these decisions are critical and depend on the specific facts and circumstances presented by the investigation.
Training for Avoidance of Potential Future Criminal Liabilities
Authors: Lewis Erin Reilly
Published: November 2023

Prosecutors recognize that an “ounce of protection is worth a pound of cure” for regulated organizations, like companies that have federal contracts or handle reimbursement of federal funds. This chapter offers suggestions of what the ounce of prevention should be for your clients. The costs of defending against charges and the potential consequences arising out of a criminal conviction of the organization should lead you to spend the necessary funds for this prevention effort.
Post-Conviction Debarment of Corporations
Authors: O’Reilly Prof. James T
Published: November 2023

When private contractors violate the terms and conditions of their contract or fail to comply with applicable laws in discharging their duties, one of the consequences is the loss of their contract and possibly the “debarment” or exclusion from further contract opportunities. The debarment remedy prevents the contractor from conducting business with the government for a specified period of time or permanently. Similarly, in some federal statutes, application for approval is needed, and debarment from future approvals is a drastic penalty for the affected firm.
Trusts in Latin America
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

The growing interest in investment in Latin America - particularly in commodities production and real estate development - has increased the use of trusts as investment vehicles throughout Latin America. Written for the English-speaking practitioner, the book covers Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, México, Panamá, Paraguay, Perú, Uruguay and Venezuela and provides a practical, clear, and thorough explanation of trusts as legal vehicles for investment in Latin American countries. Trusts in Latin America provides a comprehensive, comparative review of statutes, case law, and examples of trusts in Latin America, and also highlights differences between these countries and common-law systems.
Trusts versus Other Types of Contractual Arrangements and Legal Vehicles
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, the differences and similarities between the trust and other contractual arrangements and legal vehicles in the civil-law tradition will be analyzed. This chapter attempts to impart clearer understanding of the trust and to determine the rules that should be applicable in those hard cases in which there are no specific statutory rules. Furthermore, this chapter should help the reader gain a deeper understanding of the nature of the Latin American trust, and the concept of the trust as a special-purpose patrimony.
Argentina
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

The regulation of the trust in Argentina was established in January 1995, by the Housing and Construction Financing Act (Law No. 24441) which, as its name suggests, had as its main objective the creation of the legal instruments to facilitate the financing of housing construction. The Law created the financial trust as the vehicle of securitization of mortgages and the ordinary trust as the vehicle for small-to-medium-sized real estate projects. The object of Law No. 24441 is to attract capital without any third- party intermediation for producers wishing to develop production and construction projects, facilitating funding, and reducing its cost. This procedure also permitted investment by the public, generally in activities that would otherwise be closed to it. Furthermore, this form of project implementation permitted extension to international capital markets.
Bolivia
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

In Bolivia, just like in most other Latin American jurisdictions, trusts acquire the status of a separate patrimony, distinct from that of the settlor, the trustee, and the beneficiary. However, notwithstanding the fact that the characteristics of trusts render them ideal vehicles to carry out securitization processes, Bolivian legislators did not employ it as the legal mechanism for securitization. To this end, they created securitization companies, which have an ordinary estate (that can be affected by the company’s creditors) and as many special-purpose patrimonies as had been created by means of the transfer of assets of the originating companies (which take responsibility for the rights and liabilities of such patrimonies alone).
Chile
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

Unlike all the other Latin American countries in this book, Chile has no trust regulations. There is no such legal plan that allows the creation of a special-purpose patrimony, separate from the property of the grantor, the trustee, and the beneficiary. Although the Chilean Civil Code regulates “trust property” in book II, title VIII regarding “limitations to ownership and primarily trust property,” encompassing articles 732 through 763, this trust property does imply the creation of a special-purpose patrimony. Therefore, there are no clear rules regarding the legal actions for the fulfillment of the grantor’s intent or the beneficiary rights. Furthermore, it is not clear whether the trust assets can be attacked by the trustee’s creditors. Thus, the trust property regulated by the Chilean Civil Code is a completely different concept than the one prevailing in the common-law system.
Colombia
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

In Colombia, there are five legal structures that must be considered when analyzing trusts. All of them are included under “Fiduciary Transactions” (Negocios Fiduciarios), which are defined as those fiduciary acts whereby a person delivers to another one or more assets, transferring or not ownership, for the latter to accomplish a specific purpose with them, either in benefit of the settlor or of a third person. These five legal structures are Civil trust property (propiedad fiduciaria) regulated by the Colombian Civil Code sections 794 to 822 (this chapter will refer to it as “Civil Trust Property” to avoid any confusion). The Colombian Civil Code section 794 provides that “it is called Civil Trust Property [to the property] that is subject to the burden of transferring it to a third person for the sole fact of the accomplishment of a condition. The creation of Civil Trust Property is called trust. This name is also given to the asset under Civil Trust Property. The transfer of the Civil Trust Property to the beneficiary is called restitution (restitución).” The Civil Trust Property, as in Chile and Ecuador, is not a separate patrimony but only some sort of limitation or burden over property transferred to a person (who is the civil trustee), who can use the property as an owner, but only until a condition is accomplished, when the property shall be transferred to the beneficiary. If the condition fails, the “civil trustee” becomes the full and sole owner of the property without any kind of burden or limitation on his or her ownership.
Guatemala
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

The trust was first regulated, without defining it, in the National Constitution of the Republic of Guatemala in 1945 (not in force today), which in its section 28 established that Anyone can freely dispose of his assets, as long as doing so does not contravene the law. The fiduciary substitutions (vinculaciones) are totally prohibited, as any mort-main institution, with the exception of the foundations destined to charity, artistic or scientific establishments or purposes, which must be approved by the government. The creation of trusts is authorized which do not last in excess of 25 years; in all cases carried on by a bank or credit institution authorized to do business in the Republic. This authorization does not extend in any form to religious or monastic congregations, nor to priests or ministers of any religion. The term can only be extended when it is in favor of the incurably sick or the legally incapable.
Honduras
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

Honduras included the trust in its legislation in 1950 with the entrance into force of the current Commercial Code. Trust regulations were based on the Mexican law that was in force in the same year. Trusts were not used at all for several decades, but they are growing and are being used as collateral (guarantee trusts), as legal vehicles of real estate developments, and as part of project finance schemes in infrastructure projects. Currently, it is estimated that there are more than 300 trusts with assets estimated in more than US$1 billion (out of which, approximately one-half are guarantee trusts), the trust activity growing at a fast pace.
Panama
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

Although Panama boasts Latin American’s first trust law (Law No. 9 of 1925, written by Ricardo J. Alfaro, replaced by Law No. 17 of 1941, which was in turn replaced by current trust Law No. 1 of 1984), it was not until the enactment of the current law in 1984 that the trust began to be actually used.
Peru
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

The first Civil Code of Peru (1852) did not contain any reference to trusts. The reason could be, just like in other Latin American contemporary civil codes, the confusion of trusts with the “fiduciary substitutions” expressly prohibited by the Napoleonic Civil Code (the main source of most Latin American Civil Codes). Furthermore, the Civil Code of 1936 equally ignored trusts, and the same occurred with the one currently in force since 1984.
Writing It Down
Authors: Baron Dennis
Published: November 2023

In Plato’s Phaedrus, the earliest and best-known critique of writing, Socrates warns his companion Phaedrus that writing will only make human memory weaker: This invention will produce forgetfulness in the minds of those who learn to use it, because they will not practice their memory. Their trust in writing, produced by external characters which are no part of themselves, will discourage the use of their own memory within them. (Plato 1925, 274e–275a) We remember this, of course, because Plato wrote it down. Plato’s problem with letters goes beyond the worry that the new technology of writing will sap our ability to recall. The philosopher, keen to distinguish between reality and its shadow, saw the written word as only a representation of the spoken: for him, writing can never be as real as speech.
TeknoFear
Authors: Baron Dennis
Published: November 2023

Even though the public isn’t scooping up the computer-in-a-refrigerator, people aren’t about to give up their computers (emphasis on the plural) any time soon. But not everyone is enthusiastic about these cranky, high-tech typewriters. Computers make enemies as well as friends: not just those who disparage computers because they think that the machines are too hard to figure out, but true enemies who fear that computer technologies will destroy life as we know it. These computerphobes are convinced that the machines will corrupt our writers, turn books into endangered species, and litter the landscape with self-publishing authors. In addition, computers will rot our brains, destroy family life, put an end to polite conversation, wreak havoc with the English language, invade our privacy, steal our identity, and expose us to predators waiting to pervert us or to sell us things that we don’t need.
What Law Applies to the War on Terror?
Authors: Corn Geoffrey S
Published: November 2023

on September 11, 2001, the legal framework for the regulation of armed conflict, the framework that guided military lawyers and that influenced decisions made in reliance on their advice, was thrown into disarray. Until that day of infamy, these lawyers applied an “either/or” law-triggering paradigm that dictated when the law of armed conflict (LOAC) applied to U.S. operations: either those operations involved hostilities against the armed forces of another State so as to qualify as international armed conflicts; or they involved hostilities against insurgent forces within a State on whose behalf the United States had intervened, thereby falling into the alternative category of internal armed conflict. Derived from Common Articles 2 and 3 of the Fourth Geneva Convention (1949), this law-triggering paradigm was a genuine article of faith for U.S. military lawyers trained in the LOAC at their respective introductory and advanced military law courses. These lawyers and the forces they supported were not, however, unfamiliar with military operations that fell outside inter/intra-state armed conflict paradigms. Such operations, they were taught, were regulated by U.S. military policy that dictated compliance with LOAC principles even if those principles did not apply as a matter of law.
The Social Experiences of a Countrywoman in Soviet Russia
Authors: Malysheva Marina , Bertaux Daniel
Published: November 2023

The real history of Russia’s women under the Soviet regime remains almost entirely to be written; and within it, the specific history of women. But the Soviet case presents specific difficulties. In Western democracies, feminist historians can rely on an already well-established tradition of grounded historiography, and use reliable sources—archives and oral testimonies—to complement its blind spots. Furthermore, they receive support from a well-developed body of feminist ideas and studies, whose legitimacy has eventually been recognized, and which allows them to argue for the ‘gendering’ of history as a whole.
Introduction
Authors: Zedner Lucia
Published: November 2023

In Victorian England women made up a far larger proportion of those known to be involved in crime than they do today. During the second half of the nineteenth century over a fifth of those convicted of crime were women-today they make up only an eighth. And whilst a hundred years ago women made up 17 per cent of the daily average local and convict prison population, today the figure is less than 4 per cent. Unsurprisingly then, female criminality attracted considerable attention in the nineteenth century and preoccupied those trying to provide for women within the penal system. This book explores how the Victorians perceived and explained female crime, and how they responded to it-both in penal theory and prison practice.
Normal And Deviant Women
Authors: Zedner Lucia
Published: November 2023

Nineteenth-century writings about criminal women can only be understood within the more general framework of Victorian morality. Criminal women were perceived and judged against complex, carefully constructed notions of ideal womanhood. This chapter begins by examining early Victorian models of femininity and exploring the relationship between these ideal types and women’s roles at all levels of society. We explore the implications of deviation from these ideals and seek to provide a basis for understanding contemporary reactions to female crime.
Explaining Female Crime
Authors: Zedner Lucia
Published: November 2023

The attempt to define and evaluate women’s crimes naturally led investigators back to consider the root causes of female delinquency. Interpretations of these causes can be slotted into various broad groups, for example, ecological, moral, economic, biological, and psychological. None was exclusive, each overlapped and occasionally merged with other interpretations. Equally the views and findings of one body of investigators often contradicted and occasionally refuted those of another. To treat them, therefore, as discrete and coherent schools of thought would be to underestimate the intricate intertexture of nineteenth-century criminological theory. At the risk of overstating their heterogeneity, I present them here under separate headings for the sake of convenience.
Habitual Drunkenness and the Reformatory Experiment, 1898-1914
Authors: Zedner Lucia
Published: November 2023

Before the central control of local prisons in 1877, the failure of imprisonment to deter or to reform could readily be attributed to the lack of uniformity throughout the system, to the inefficiencies of unreformed prisons, or to the inadequacies of staff, buildings, or regime. However, after nationalization and the consequent development of a unified network of tightly ruled, efficiently run institutions, the continuing failures of prisons were less easy to explain or accept. Towards the end of the nineteenth century there was a serious loss of faith in prisons at both local and convict levels. They were condemned as inflexible, unduly repressive, and, most damningly of all, they were seen to engender, even nurture, a hardened class of recidivists. As we saw in previous chapters, the most hopeless class of these confirmed prison habitués were women. Many were not serious or dangerous criminals so much as petty offenders, social inadequates, and outcasts incapable of surviving in outside society. To continue to commit them to prison, time and time again, was clearly both inappropriate and unproductive of any but the most short-term good. As a result, their very presence in prison was increasingly seen to indict the whole regime. These prison failures attracted the attention both of specialists, interested mainly from a medical perspective, and increasingly of the wider public, who saw them as a major social threat.
Evangelicalism in the Age of Atonement
Authors: Hilton Boyd
Published: November 2023

The first half of the nineteenth century has been called ‘The Age of Improvement’. But it was also an ‘Age of Atonement’, because improvement, like virtue, was not then thought of as its own reward, merely as terrestrial fumbling towards public and private salvation. This book examines the mind of the middle and upper classes during a period of social and economic upheaval. It is not an easy mind to characterize, for there was no consensus, but rather a ‘war of ideas’ which left most thinking men ambivalent, or torn between ‘incompatible opposites’. Yet there does seem to have been a dominant mode of thought, an amalgam of enlightenment rationalism and evangelical eschatology, and its core or ‘hinge’ was the Christian doctrine of the Atonement.
Western Medicine
Authors: Loudon Irvine
Published: November 2023

Covering all periods from Ancient Greece to the present day, this richly illustrated history of medicine offers information and insight on a wide variety of topics. The great milestones of medical history - among them the discovery of the circulation of the blood, vaccination against smallpox, the invention of the X-ray, the development of penicillin - are charted. They are set against the social context of medicine, with accounts of more neglected areas such as patterns of epidemics, the emergence of the medical profession, the history of nursing, unorthodox medical practice, the spread of western medicine beyond Europe and the US, and the patient's viewpoint. Authoritatively and accessibly written by a team of twenty distinguished medical historians and including a helpful glossary, a chronology, and a full index, this is a fascinating introduction to medicine in the west from its beginnings to the present day.
Europe and Islam
Authors: Savage-Smith Emilie
Published: November 2023

So Geoffrey Chaucer wrote in his Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, naming the great physicians of the past that his fourteenth-century audience could be expected to recognize. In the list are five Greek figures: Aesculapius (or Ascle pius), the focus of a Greek healing cult; Hippocrates (or ‘Ypocras’, as Chaucer called him}, a fifth- to fourth-century BC physician whose name is associated with a fundamental collection of medical writings; Rufus of Ephesus in Asia Minor, a physician of the first century AD who composed over sixty Greek med ical treatises; Dioscorides, whose treatise on medicinal substances written about AD 77 formed the basis of pharmaceutics for centuries; and, of course, Galen of the second century AD, arguably the most influential figure in the his tory of medicine.
Medicine in the Latin Middle Ages
Authors: MCVAUGH MICHAEL R
Published: November 2023

THE Latin Middle Ages are sometimes explained as the gradual fusion, in the wake of a vanishing Roman Empire, of three cultures or traditions: classical, Christian, and Germanic. If the last of these is broadened to refer to a ‘folk’ or empiric element, the same analysis works not too badly as a characterization of medieval medicine, and helps us to understand the remarkable changes that medicine began to undergo about the middle of the eleventh century, when the classical medical tradition began to overshadow the other two.

From Rome (and so Greece) the early Middle Ages inherited first of all the

sense that medicine was a rational art, so that diseases could be ‘searched through to their causes in the light of reason’, an achievement that Isidore of Seville (d. 636) credited first of all to Hippocrates. They inherited, too, a small collection of medical literature in Latin: Cassiodorus (d. 583) recommended that his community at Vivarium study ‘the herbarium of Dioscorides ... Hip pocrates and Galen in Latin translation, namely Galen’s Therapeutics written for the philosopher Glauco ... Aurelius Caelius De medidna, Hippocrates Deher bis et curis, and other works concerned with the art of healing’.
Medicine, politics, and the state
Authors: lewis Jane
Published: November 2023

Du RING the twentieth century, the domestic issues that we might loosely categorize as ‘welfare’ issues-matters concerning employment and unem ployment, health, housing, and education-have become the stuff of’high pol itics’. This has happened gradually. In the UK, the government spent more time discussing the problems of ruling India in the 1930s than it did mass unemployment. But post-war elections have been won and lost on social poli cies. Health care has become both big business and a major political issue. The National Health Service (NHS), set up in the UK in 1948, is one of Europe’s largest employers, and while it was no secret that, while Prime Minister during the 1980s, Margaret Thatcher wished radically to change its form, the political threat anysuch action would have posed to the Conservative Party allowed the NHS to survive as a universal, tax-based service, free to all at the point of deliv ery. In the USA of the 1990s, it was widely accepted that health-care reform could make or break the Democratic Presidency. The spectacular growth in size and complexity ofWestern health-care systems has been underpinned by the fundamental assumption that personal health care delivered by a doctor to a patient, especially in the hospital, is a worthy endeavour that should be widely available. In Europe, one of the hallmarks of the post-war welfare regimes was the way in which the relationship between economic growth and social provision was seen as positive.
The Patient’s View
Authors: Digby Anne
Published: November 2023

Traditionally, the history of medicine neglected the past experience of patients and sufferers in favour of the history of institutional development, the control and conquest of diseases, and the achievements of medical practi tioners. Since the 1970s the patient as a forgotten element in the history of Western medicine has been succeeded by the patient as an increasingly researched, but problematical, part of a more complex analysis. There is no overall shortage of material on past patients, since recorded lay perceptions and experiences of sickness are legion. But uneven coverage amongst different social groups has left the top and bottom of the social hierarchy much better served than those of the middling groups.
Science, the Universities, and the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century Scotland*
Authors: Wood Paul
Published: November 2023

Long a staple of the folklore of higher education, the study of the relations between town and gown has only comparatively recently moved beyond the merely anecdotal to raise serious historical questions about the interaction of universities with their urban milieux. Typically, scholars working in this area have been interested in reconstructing the sometimes colourful details of student life, the often lurid machinations of political patronage, or the occasionally ambivalent place of higher education within the fabric of civic culture. In this essay, however, I want to explore the subject of the eighteenth-century Scottish universities in their urban setting from a rather different angle, by considering their role in the creation of what Jurgen Habermas has called the ‘public sphere’, that is, the republic of letters (encompassing the world of coffee houses, clubs, voluntary societies, and the literary market-place) generated by the rise of commercial capitalism in which individuals articulated their relations with one another and with the State through rational discourse and criticism.
Engineering Students at Brunswick Institute of Technology during the Period of Industrial Expansion, 1862-1914
Authors: Fiedler Gudrun , Pollmann Klaus Erich
Published: November 2023

The German technological institutes were established in the 1860s and 1870s, mainly developing from commercial and building schools. Civil engineering and architecture, mechanical engineering and, from the 1880s onwards, electrical engineering were only available at the technological institutes, whereas natural sciences were offered at the universities as well as at the technological institutes. The arts and social sciences, law, and economics were only available at the technological institutes to a minimal extent as supplementary subjects. As part of the drive to achieve equality of status with the universities, the entrance requirements, which had initially been lower than those of the universities, were raised. In the 1870s, the entrance requirement was usually a grade in the secondary school leaving certificate (available after ten years). From 1900 onwards, after technological institutes were given the right to award doctorates, and engineering diplomas had been generally recognized as academic qualifications, the grammar school leaving certificate (obtainable after thirteen years) became the requirement. The improvement in the entrance qualifications of the students was at the same time the precondition for the recognition of the final examinations as being equivalent to university degrees; initially in the 1870s they were only the equivalent of the state examinations for the construction and mechanical engineering industries and of the preliminary examination for the higher grades of the civil service. In Brunswick, pharmacy was also one of the subjects offered by the technological institute. The pharmacy examination, which gave one the right to become a dispensing chemist, was conducted by the board of senior health officers (Medical Act of 1865).
Tunnel Vision and the Error of the Parallax: Cape Town’s Views of the University of Cape Town, 1918-1948
Authors: Phillips Howard
Published: November 2023

In writing a general history of a university, one invariably espies intriguing topics which cannot adequately be followed up in a work of that nature. One such subject is the changing image of the university held by local townsfolk. This aspect of the modern towngown symbiosis is not one which has received systematic treatment by either historians of universities or urban historians; yet, at least in the case of the University of Cape Town (UCT), the oldest university in sub-Saharan Africa, the institution’s public image was crucial in determining public behaviour, and even state policy, towards it. To a very large degree, therefore, impressions counted.
Research Note
Authors: Boynton Lindsay
Published: November 2023

John Gambold (1711—71) was a prominent personality in the eighteenth-century religious revival, both in this country and in Germany. An Oxford graduate who lived as a country parson within a few miles of the city during the years 17351 to 1742, he was well placed to report on the intellectual state of the university, and on its religious affiliations and controversies, especially those concerning the evangelical revival. That he did so in an international rather than an insular or parochial context adds to the interest of this letter, which is remarkable for its clarity and detachment.
Essay Review
Authors: Spatz Nancy
Published: November 2023

The first thing one notices while perusing the three volumes of this work published to date is their quality as publications. It is true from a formal point of view, for the reader is attracted to the material’s quality, the bookbinding, and the illustrations. However, what especially captures the reader’s attention is the publisher’s care in having elegantly integrated the iconography with the written text.
Give him the White Cow: Notes and Note-Taking in the Universities in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries*
Authors: Burnett Charles
Published: November 2023

‘Give [him] the white cow,’ writes a student about a colleague who cannot understand a mathematical problem inserted at the beginning of the tenth book of Euclid’s Elements. This problem comes ‘from the wallet of Reginald’, writes another. ‘A man of Adelard’s intelligence will not fail to grasp this’, adds a third. This paper deals with the evidence for note-taking by masters and students in the context of the early stages of European universities, and the form in which these notes were written. It may be asked whether masters lectured from notes, and whether students took notes during the lectures anyway. In the Middle Ages, after all, people had much better memories than we have, and all sorts of methods to improve their memories.
Corruption of the Examination Process at the University of Florence*
Authors: Davies Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Corruption in the awarding of degrees has a long history. In 1250 Cardinal Legate Ottaviano Ubaldini told the doctors of law at Bologna of his astonishment that the approval of doctorands had become dependent upon the giving and receiving of bribes, and he called for the complete abolition of this improper practice. In 1252 Pope Innocent IV supported complaints made by the guild of students at Bologna against masters who demanded and extorted gifts from those wishing to receive doctorates, exercising the papal right to regulate the awarding of doctorates which had been asserted by the Third Lateran Council in 1179. During the late thirteenth century, however, papal opposition to the malpractice at Bologna weakened, and in 1291 Pope Nicholas IV sent a letter of remission which absolved the celebrated jurists Accursius and Franciscus Accursii for receiving bribes from doctorands. It is difficult to gauge the spread of corruption beyond Bologna. However, newly-found evidence reveals that in the mid-fifteenth century irregularities in the awarding of doctorates occurred at the University of Florence, the Studium fiorentinum. This study describes those irregularities and discusses possible reasons for their development.
The Triumph of the Colleges in Late Medieval Oxford and Cambridge: The Case of Peterhouse
Authors: Lovatt Roger
Published: November 2023

On the Vigil of the Epiphany 1461 the peace of the small community of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, was disturbed by a violent quarrel between two of the fellows, Richard Bracher and Thurstan Heton. So serious was the matter that the Master, with the consent of the other fellows, himself intervened, not only warning the two men that any recurrence of the dispute would lead to the deprivation of their fellowships but also making a formal record of the warning and transcribing it for future reference in his memorandum book of important college transactions. Yet when one of the participants in the quarrel, Richard Brocher, came to make his will he retained nothing but favourable memories of his college. He bequeathed to it a landed endowment for the maintenance of a bible clerk, and he also left the sum of 6s. 8d. to the Master and each of the fellows. No doubt passions had by then cooled. Bracher drew up his will more than a quarter of a century after the quarrel had taken place. His adversary, Thurstan Heton, had long since left the college. Nevertheless the paradoxes inherent in these events provide a central, if often neglected, theme in the history of the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge during th period.
The Enemy of Society
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

Society’s most obvious enemies are victims of the law. Suicides have already been met in judicial records among persons accused, arrested, or hunted for crime. Court records were naturally interested in criminals and it is fair to ask whether, being forensic, they give this type of suicide a false prominence. The answer must be, not entirely, for an association of suicide with crime is confirmed by miracula .A few of these have already been told. Agnes’s family tragedy, after all, made her also a criminal. We know her motives because the Devil numbers them off (perhaps, as I suggested, because the woman herself had confessed them to a Dominican friar from whom the details had leaked through to the narrator). And among these motives, together with Agnes’s private feeling of wretchedness and her shame in the face of her relations, was fear of execution. She was an infanticide, exposed to burning alive. The same must have been true of another of those family tragedies, that of the matricide of Bury St Edmund’s. That one had no Devil to itemize her motives. We are only told her crime, and that she would not confess to a priest. We might have known her thoughts if she had. But it would be surprising, especially in the light of Agnes’s example, if one factor in the matricide’s desperation had not been fear of execution. Those two family stories, in other words, give us an idea of what to look for among enemies of the law.
The Sick and Melancholy
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

Man being a social animal, it follows that a shock to his domestic or social existence will cause emotional shock, which when severe can trigger suicidal feelings. But the immediate occasion of suicide does not have to be external. The social animal is also a microcosm, a world in himself, full of hopes and memories. This fact is reflected in the deposit of miraculaabout suicide. A whole category of them, quite as circumstantial as the others, concerns suicidal impulses due directly to a person’s own private condition, physical or spiritual.