bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Comparative Costs of Low-Technology Shoreline Cleaning Methods1
Authors: Purnell Karen J.
Published: January 2013

This paper examines the trends in costs associated with the various low technology shoreline cleanup methods that were used in the response to the Sea Empress incident, by drawing on information gathered during the response and the subsequent claims for compensation from the local government councils involved. Analysis of the costs allowed the level of effort invested in shoreline cleaning to be quantified and re-enforced the view that the return on effort invested decreases progressively as the level of oiling reduces. The trends also reflect occasions where additional effort had to be expended at a later stage in the cleanup as a consequence of problems generated by some techniques used earlier in the response.
Who Will Pay? Am I Liable? If I Am, When Do I Stop?
Authors: Weiss Steven P.
Published: January 2013

This discussion will focus on how liability for a particular spill is determined, from both a spiller's perspective and from the findings of various investigative bodies. Proactive handling of spill response to minimize and control cleanup costs, and the handling of third-party and damage assessment claims will also be discussed, including how to negotiate with the various parties involved in both public and private sectors.
Estimating Baseline Human-Use Services for Natural Resource Damage Assessments
Authors: Dunford Richard W. , Friesen Jonathan A.
Published: January 2013

Baseline for human-use services (e.g., recreation activities) is the estimated level of human-use services that would have occurred in the absence of an oil spill. The baseline should reflect the non-spill factors that can affect human-use services, such as weather conditions. One approach for estimating baseline human-use services is the prediction approach, which uses attendance data over several years at the injured site to estimate attendance levels in the absence of the spill. The main weakness of this approach is that it often does not take into account the non-spill factors that can affect baseline. The other main approach for estimating baseline human-use services is the reference-site approach, which estimates baseline using attendance data from a nearby site that is sufficiently similar to the injured site with respect to physical characteristics, activities, and users. This approach effectively incorporates the effects of weather conditions and other non-spill influences into baseline, but finding an appropriate reference site can be difficult. Pre-spill actions that could improve the accuracy of baseline estimates of human-use services include identifying recreation sites in areas at high risk for oil spills, determining which recreation activities are popular at these sites, and evaluating possible sources of attendance data for these sites.
Evaluation of Shoreline Cleaning Versus Natural Recovery: The Metula Spill and the Komi Operations
Authors: Owens Edward H. , Sienkiewicz A. Mark , Sergy Gary A.
Published: January 2013

An appropriate oil spill response involves evaluation of the likely consequences of treatment or cleanup on ecological and human resources. Two cases are examined: the first is the Metula spill in the Straits of Magellan, Chile, where surveys over a 24-year period provide data on long-term changes on oiled shorelines that were not cleaned or treated. The consequences of the decision not to clean or treat are minimal as the only remaining oil today is restricted to an asphalt pavement and two marshes. In the second case, the 1995–1996 cleanup that followed the Komi pipeline spills in Russia, the operational objective was to prevent oil from affecting downstream resources and populations. This objective was achieved by containment of the oil near the source but the success of the project must be weighed against the consequential additional oiling and construction damage that resulted from the operations to more than 20 hectares of pristine terrain. These two spills in remote locations provide valuable lessons on some aspects of decision trade-offs and on the consequences of the cleanup decision in the context of the concept of net environmental benefit.
Studies of Emissions from Oil Fires
Authors: Fingas Mervin F. , Lambert Patrick , Li Ken , Wang Zhendi , Ackerman Francine , Nelson Robert , Goldthorp Mike , Mullin Joseph V. , Turpin Rod , Nadeau Royal , Campagna Phil , Hiltabrand Robert
Published: January 2013

Over 35 meso-scale burns were conducted to study various aspects of diesel and crude oil burning in situ. Extensive sampling and monitoring of these burns were conducted at downwind stations, upwind stations, and in the smoke plume.

Particulate samples were taken in air and analyzed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs were found to be lower in the soot than in the starting oil, although higher concentrations of the larger molecular PAHs were found in the soot and residue, especially for diesel burns. Particulates in the air were measured by several means, and were found to be greater than recommended exposure levels up to 500 meters downwind at ground level, depending on the size and type of fire. Diesel fires emit much more particulate matter and have longer exposure zones. Combustion gases, including carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, were below exposure level maximums. Volatile organic compound (VOCs) emissions were measured, but the levels were less than from an evaporating crude oil spill. Over 140 compounds were identified and quantified. Carbonyls, including aldehydes and ketones, were found to be below human health concern levels.

Emission data from over 30 experimental burns were used to develop prediction equations for over 150 specific compounds or emission categories. These were used to calculate safe distances and levels of concern for a standard burn size of 500 square meters, an amount that would typically be contained in a boom. The safe distance for a crude oil burn of this size is about 500 m and for a diesel burn, much farther.
Treatment of Oiled Sediment Shorelines by Sediment Relocation
Authors: Sergy Gary A. , Guénette Chantal , Prince Roger C. , Owens Edward H. , Lee Kenneth
Published: January 2013

An experimental oil spill in Svalbard, Norway, quantified the effectiveness of selected in situ shoreline treatment options to accelerate natural oil removal processes on mixed-sediment shorelines. A total of 5500 L of IF-30 oil was applied on the upper beach at three experimental sites. Treatment and control plots were established within the continuous stretch of each oiled shoreline. Two of the experimental sites were used to assess the treatment technique of sediment relocation. Monitoring was conducted over a 60-day period to quantify oil removal and to document changes in beach physical character, oil penetration, movement of oil to the subtidal environment, toxicity and oil biodegradation.

Findings demonstrate and quantify that mechanical relocation of oiled sediments significantly accelerated the rate of oil removal. Oil released by sediment relocation treatments did not elevate toxicity in the nearshore environment to unacceptable levels, nor did it result in consequential along shore or nearshore sediment oiling. Microscopic observations and image analyses confirmed that the Oil-Fine Interactions (OFI) process was active and was increased by sediment relocation.
Rehabilitation of Oiled Wildlife: Why Do It?
Authors: Jessup David A. , Mazet Jonna A. K.
Published: January 2013

Although the public's interest in oil spills and similar environmental disasters often focus on the plight of injured animals, animal issues are only a very small part of an oil spill response. The dichotomy between the public's and the media's perception of what is important and what many wildlife biologists feel is important for long-term species conservation has led to conflicts and heated exchanges between proponents and opponents of oiled wildlife care. Additionally, some critics believe that there is a competition for funds between wildlife care and wildlife restoration, and that oiled wildlife care is offered up as a solution to pollution's damage to wildlife populations, or as an alternative to prevention. In California the collection, medical care, and rehabilitation of oiled wildlife is part of a comprehensive program for pollution response and provides data needed for planning, prevention and restoration. It is conducted for specific legal, social, political, and biological reasons. Under these circumstances, oiled wildlife care supports species conservation programs, as well as helping to document injury.
Aligning Expectation and Reality: A Summary of Dispersant Risk Communication Issues
Authors: Scholz Debra K. , Walker Ann Hayward , Kucklick Janet H. , Pond Robert G.
Published: January 2013

The potential and perceived environmental risks associated with dispersant use have been addressed by many scientific studies costing millions of dollars and tens of thousands of research hours. Nevertheless, decision makers still have many diverse and contradictory viewpoints, which can impede their ability to evaluate and reach consensus on the actual risks associated with this countermeasure. In an attempt to resolve the problem in a different way, a new approach was formulated, based on the following hypothesis: The inability to create a solid foundation for dispersant decision support is based not only on limitations to scientific information, but also on the wide differences in the way people understand and interpret this information. In other words, a critical aspect of improved decision making for dispersants is related to good risk communication, not more natural science studies.

In 1994, industry initiated a research project to test this hypothesis and define the critical risk communication factors for dispersant decision making. This paper presents a summary of the identified dispersant risk communication issues. Building upon previous papers which described the project methodology and analytical results, this paper presents the risk communication messages which need to be shared with decision makers and the public. This information promotes a technically sound, clear, and common framework for evaluating the ecological risks associated with dispersant use in marine waters.
Development of PAJ Oil Spill Simulation Model
Authors: Koshikawa Atsushi , Fujii Takashi , Takahata Tetsuo
Published: January 2013

This oil spill simulation model (latest version is 4) is the model which was developed as the part of “Major Oil Spill Response Programme” which the Petroleum Association of Japan (PAJ) has been conducting. This model covers the whole area of Japanese Waters. This model has three major features. First, this model can use the 3km grid wind forecast data that are most sensitive for accuracy of trajectory of an oil slick, provided by the Japan Weather Association (JWA). This data is updated every 12 hours. Secondly, the oil slick trajectory and some physical characteristics of oil can be calculated within about 5 min. Thirdly, this model has been designed for simple operations so that it can be used popularly by people other than computer or simulation experts.

This paper outlines the main function of the model with the application for the study on the Diamond Grace incident that occurred in July 1997. The authors also show the validity of the model prediction result through comparison with the drift experiment. The basic model of PAJ oil spill simulation model is not intended only for Japanese waters. However, if the additional data are prepared, the model can be applied to any coastal area.
Assessment and Restoration of a Condensate Spill in the Atchafalaya Basin, Louisiana
Authors: Penland Shea , Thompson Shaw , Milanes Andrew , Thumen Carl , House Chad , Tischer Steve , Finley Heather , Vidrine Tony , Pichler Chris
Published: January 2013

Pioneer Natural Resources USA, Inc. (Pioneer) experienced a gas well blowout on December 5, 1996 at Myette Point within a lacustrine delta in Louisiana's Atchafalaya Basin. For a period of 5 days, gas condensate erupted from the well head, covering the surrounding bottomland hardwood forest. Over the next 6 weeks, oil spill response contractors recovered gas condensate from access canals, distributary channels, and small ponds. The total volume spilled was estimated at 4,700 barrels. The state of Louisiana issued a letter of intent to conduct a Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) to determine a plan of restoration to the impacted bottomland hardwood forest. Pioneer worked cooperatively with Louisiana's Department of Wildlife and Fisheries (lead agency), Department of Environmental Quality, Department of Natural Resources, and the Oil Spill coordinator's Office to conduct a cooperative NRDA. A Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Team (SCAT) survey was conducted to map the surface oiling cover. A classification was developed by the NRDA team defining heavy (>50% cover), moderate (<50% cover), and light (only film) oiling classes. Using GPS technology, the NRDA team surveyed the spill area and mapped 164 acres of oiled forest broken into three classes: 106 acres of light, 29 acres of moderate, and 29 acres of heavy. The natural resource trustees determined the degree of injury based upon plant mortality of 10% for light, 50% for moderate, and 90% for heavy oiling classes during the winter survey (1997) for a total spill mortality of 51.2 acres. Based upon the early summer (1997) NRDA team survey, the mortality of the oiling classes were revised. Pioneer negotiated with the NRDA team and developed a plan to clear cut 30 acres of injured forest and plant a new forest of superior quality trees which was completed during the winter 1998. Pioneer working cooperatively and proactively with the natural resource trustees, started and completed the Myette Point NRDA in 14 months.
Quantification of Net Environmental Benefit for Future Oil Spills
Authors: Lunel Tim , Baker Jenifer M.
Published: January 2013

Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA) is increasingly used as a framework to assess the environmental benefits and disadvantages of a chosen response action. This analysis can be used to account for political and economic impacts as well as the effects on the natural environment. Until recently the discussion has focused on qualitative assessments due to the lack of quantitative information collected at spills. This paper uses examples of best practice of NEBA from different spills around the world to outline the information that should be collected at future spills in order to determine the level of Net Environmental Benefit that has been achieved by the response operation. In the first instance immediate feedback may well provide information which aids decision making at the time of the incident. However, a key role for this information is also to enable responders around the world to establish best practice for a wide range of environmental sensitivities. Case histories of Net Environmental Benefits will provide a basis for the overall contingency planning process, recognising that post-spill decisions are best and most rapidly made in the light of pre-spill analyses, consultations and agreements by all the appropriate organisations.
Integrated Vessel Response Plan Format
Authors: Rogers William C. , Cameron Jean R.
Published: January 2013

Oil shipping companies operating on the West Coast of the United States are subject to international, federal, and state oil spill prevention and response planning regulations. Many companies wrote separate plans for each jurisdiction with the result that tank vessels carried several different plans on board and parent companies faced an administrative burden in keeping plans current. In June 1996, oil shipping company representatives proposed that the States/British Columbia Oil Spill Task Force work with them to develop a format incorporating West Coast states' and U.S. Coast Guard contingency planning requirements. A workgroup comprised of representatives of the Task Force, industry, and the U.S. Coast Guard, working cooperatively, eventually proposed a voluntary integrated plan format based on the key elements of the U.S. Coast Guard Vessel Response Plan. This format allowed correlation with state planning requirements as well as with the Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP) required by international regulations. The U.S. Coast Guard, the Canadian Ministry of Transport, and all West Coast states have subsequently documented their agreement to accept vessel plans in this format, to coordinate review as needed, and to allow references to public documents such as Area Plans.
Response Plans for Arctic Oil and Ice Encounters
Authors: Glover Nick W. , Dickins David F.
Published: January 2013

Ice conditions, in dynamic stages of development and degradation, are present for over 280 days out of every calendar year in the Beaufort Sea adjacent to the operating oilfields on the Alaskan North Slope. Additionally, wind driven ice invasions during the open water season, July through September typically, may also occur for short periods throughout the season. This presence combined with extreme arctic conditions routinely presents a challenge to mounting a safe and effective oil spill response action. In order to overcome this challenge responders must develop response action plans not only with an understanding of the physical environment but also with a basic understanding of the effect this environment will have on the fate and behavior of the spilled oil. Arctic spill response strategies, worldwide, have been developed through years of experience with both offshore and onshore drilling and production operations in all types of sea and ice conditions. North Slope response action plans are based on this experience, intense field training, and ground truthing of related research and development projects.
Financial Liability Requirements for Oil and Gas Activities in Canadian Frontier Areas
Authors: Anderson James D. , Nesbitt Brian W.
Published: January 2013

As in most countries and as included in international treaties regarding oil spills, Canadian law is based on the premise that the “polluter pays” for all costs associated with the response to cleaning up oil spills and settling of all relevant damage claims. The Canada Oil and Gas Operations Act (COGOA) and associated regulations, which are administered by the National Energy Board (NEB), specify the liability requirements which must be met by any applicant which receives approval to carry out oil and gas related activities in Canadian frontier areas. This paper gives a brief history of the development of the liability requirements, outlines the specific requirements under COGOA and describes the process followed by the NEB to administer the liability requirements. All costs referred to in this paper are quoted in Canadian dollars.
The International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds 1971 and 1992
Authors: Jacobsson Måns
Published: January 2013

The international system for compensating victims of oil pollution damage caused by oil spills from tankers is based on two international treaties adopted as a result of the Torrey Canyon incident which occurred in 1967 off the south coast of the United Kingdom, namely the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971 Fund Convention. These Conventions have been amended by Protocols in 1992, resulting in two new Conventions (the 1992 Conventions).

The International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds 1971 and 1992 administer the system of compensation created by the Fund Conventions. Over 80 nations are members of the Funds. In the light of the experience gained in recent years from incidents involving the Funds, it would be appropriate to consider whether the objectives of establishing the international regime have been fulfilled and whether the international regime has given adequate protection to victims of oil pollution damage.

The paper also makes comparison between the international regime and the regime created under OPA 90. While there are differences between the two regimes as regards scope of application, funding, and approach in various aspects, there are significant similarities in respect of administration and claims handling. Some of the differences are due to the fact that the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund works within one nation, whereas the International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds operate worldwide.
Reporting Relationships of a Response Organization with the Responsible Party
Authors: Friendly David A.
Published: January 2013

When a marine oil spill occurs there are critical challenges that fall into four categories—the Four Cs—that face the Responsible Party (RP): the Casualty, the Community, the Corporation, and the Cleanup. In the case of a company that has a corporate response team, it will be charged with the management of all four categories. In Canada, the detailed management of the Cleanup can be delegated to the Certified Response Organization (RO). However, a reporting relationship from the RO to the RP response management team must be established, both to ensure they keep each other informed and to avoid duplication or conflict in cleanup activities. Since the Cleanup is primarily a responsibility of the RP Operations Section, the reporting chain during the Initial Response Phase and Tactical Phase should be from the RO Spill Response Manager to the RP Operations Manager. Once the Cleanup is the only ongoing challenge, the RP team may be disbanded and only re-assembled for progress assessments of the RO work. During this Strategic Phase of the response, the RO Spill Response Manager will report directly to the RP On-Scene Commander or delegate.
Measuring Response: A Balanced Response Scorecard for Evaluating Success
Authors: Kuchin Joseph T. , Hereth Larry L.
Published: January 2013

The success of a response is frequently measured in a variety of ways including initial reaction, public perception, physical and/or monetary damage to the environment, amount spent on the response, effectiveness of restoration efforts and other, often conflicting or contradictory measures. A recent review of responses since the Exxon Valdez reflected many positive organizational and technological advances as well as other areas with unsolved problems. Despite these innovations the authors have found no comprehensive system, agreed upon by the response community, that systematically evaluates the success of the response effort.

This paper proposes a model for response evaluation that highlights six key areas that must be addressed to adequately define success before, during and after a response. The areas are: (1) human health and safety; (2) natural environment; (3) economic impact; (4) public communication; (5) stakeholder service and support; and (6) response organization. Each of these areas has critical success factors. By assessing these critical success factors, as part of a Balanced Response Scorecard, a response organization has the chance to modify actions during the response to ensure the best opportunity for success. Once fully integrated, the response evaluation model could influence the response process and community relations, and lead to increasingly effective response planning and operations.

Minimizing consequences of an incident requires not only a sound management system, good people, and equipment, but also goals that can be measured against agreed upon standards or criteria. This baseline, although driven by the subtleties of each geographic area, will provide the opportunity for response organizations and communities to reach consensus on success, thereby improving our ability to protect our national interests and building an increased sense of shared stewardship.
The Chinese Marine Environmental Protection Law
Authors: Chen Cindy , Hicks Mike
Published: January 2013

The concept of marine environmental protection and its development was introduced to the People's Republic of China in the 1980s. This followed the enactment of the Environmental Protection Law (1979, 1989), a revision to the Constitution, and the adoption of international environmental laws. The Chinese Marine Environmental Protection Law (MEPL) was promulgated in 1983 after China signed the 1982 U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea. Both national environmental laws and various international conventions and agreements influenced the MEPL. For example, the MEPL closely follows provisions outlined by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) and other international treaties. China has concerns about marine pollution not only within its own territory but outside its jurisdiction as well. Thus, the MEPL explicitly states that the provisions of the law apply to areas beyond China's territorial sea. As provided by the MEPL, China has the right to assert jurisdiction over foreign vessels beyond its territorial sea when they engage in activities that cause pollution to China's environment. However, questions arise as to China's coastal state jurisdiction. China's view on sovereignty is a controversial issue, and it is unclear whether the MEPL can be invoked to confer liability in waters outside of China's jurisdiction. Despite uncertainty over the jurisdiction issue, the MEPL is a significant and comprehensive law for marine protection. It regulates five major sources of marine pollution: coastal construction projects, off-shore oil exploration and exploitation, land-source pollutants, vessel pollution, and the dumping of wastes at sea. The purpose of this paper is to provide a brief comparison of the MEPL and relevant international laws and an understanding of critical issues covered by the MEPL.
Rapid Operational and Scientific Response to the Idoho-Qit Pipeline Spill, Nigeria
Authors: Olagbende O. T. , Ede G. O. , Inyang L.E.D.
Published: January 2013

The 12 January 1998 rupture of a 24-inch pipeline from the IDOHO platform to the Mobil Qua Iboe terminal resulted in the release of approximately 40,000 bbl of light Nigerian crude oil. Because of rapid westerly transport, dispersants were the method of primary response, with approximately 250 barrels being applied. Also, because more than 90% of the oil was dispersed offshore, heavy shoreline oiling was limited and localized. However, due to westward transport by nearshore currents, remnants of the spill tracked 5–10 km offshore from the spill source were observed at Lagos harbor, about 900 km away. Oiling of interior sensitive mangrove habitats was limited to a few locations. Exposed sand beaches self-cleaned within 2–3 weeks. Cleanup of heavily impacted shoreline areas recovered approximately 1000 bbl of oily waste. A national and international team of scientists was activated within 24 hours and directed toward measuring impact on environmental resources important to local human activities. Elements of the scientific program were (1) offshore components, including fisheries, benthos, chemistry, microbiology; and (2) riverine/estuary, including extensive water analysis to detect any spill input to water resources used by local settlements and chemical analysis of local fish market samples. Preliminary results indicated that any initial environmental effects were limited and localized. Based on the initial program, a larger follow-up program is planned involving offshore studies, a shoreline fate and effects program, impact to mangrove habitats, and a study of any socioeconomic and human health effects.
Remediation of Brine-Contaminated Soils Using Atriplexspp. (Chenopodiaceae)
Authors: Keyes Kendal L. , Mott Joanna B. , Barnes Steven S. , Jensen David A.
Published: January 2013

The ability of some halophytes to accumulate salts may make them helpful in remediating soil contaminated with produced water and drilling mud from oil and gas exploration and production. Three inland halophytes, Atriplex acanthocarpa (two accessions) and A. canescens, were grown in pot culture in salt-contaminated soil, soil contaminated with salt and hydrocarbons, and uncontaminated soil collected from a Webb Co., Texas, gas production site. Electrical conductivity and soluble sodium of the soil extract were determined prior to planting and re-analyzed following harvest. Total sodium content in mature leaves was determined following harvest. Mature plant survival for all species in all soils ranged from 90–100%. In the salt-contaminated soil, post-harvest electrical conductivity and soluble sodium were significantly lower in the planted soils than in the unplanted soil. For each accession, biomass and plant mortality were greatest in the salt-contaminated soil. In both contaminated soils, the local ecotype of A. acanthocarpa had the highest concentration of tissue sodium and produced the greatest decrease in both electrical conductivity and soluble sodium. Field studies are necessary to determine the effectiveness of in situ application.
Evaluating The Addition of Fine Particles To Enhance Oil Degradation
Authors: Lee Kenneth , Cobanli Susan E. , Gauthier Johanne , Pierre Sylvie St. , Tremblay Gilles H. , Wohlgeschaffen Gary D.
Published: January 2013

Natural biodegradation rates of oil within the marine environment are partly controlled by surface availability, as microbial attack primarily occurs at the oil-water interface. Therefore, increasing the surface area of residual oil by the addition of fine oleophilic particles may prove to be an effective bioremediation strategy. Considering commercial availability and cost, heat-treated peat was identified to be a promising particle source as it has high oil absorption properties and does not compete with oil as an alternative carbon source to oil-degrading bacteria.

A preliminary laboratory experiment conducted with a respirometry system demonstrated the feasibility of nutrient and peat additions to enhance the metabolic activity of bacteria within oil-contaminated sand beach sediments. Field trials were conducted with similar peat and nutrient concentrations in a north-temperate beach environment with weathered Scotian Light crude oil over a 138-day period. The rates of microbial respiration and productivity were enhanced significantly above unoiled and oiled control sediments with the addition of inorganic nutrients with and without peat amendments. Treatment of sediments with inorganic nutrients and peat did not increase the toxicity of the residual oil. Gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy analysis was used to quantify bioremediation success by normalizing the loss of individual components to the conserved marker 17?(H), 21?H)-hopane. While there is evidence of a stimulatory effect with the addition of peat, results suggest that nutrient availability in the interstitial water limited optimal rates of oil bioremediation.
The Influence of Microorganisms On Oil-Mineral Fine Interactions In Low-Energy Coastal Environment
Authors: Jézéquel Ronan , Merlin François-Xavier , Lee Kenneth
Published: January 2013

When spilled in the environment, oil frequently interacts with fine mineral particles to form aggregates. This process contributes to the natural shoreline restoration process as the residual oil remains mobile and becomes more accessible to oil-degrading biota. Studies have been undertaken to accelerate this mechanism of natural oil dispersion as an oil spill countermeasure (e.g., surf-washing). Mixing energy (waves) has been considered a key factor controlling the formation of oil-mineral fine aggregates. While most laboratory studies have used strong mixing energy to induce the formation of oil-mineral fine aggregates, they have also been observed to occur in the environment under moderate levels of agitation.

To test this hypothesis, experiments were undertaken in mesocosms, recreating a sandy shoreline environment subject to identical levels of moderate wave activity and tidal movement. Microcosm experiments with oiled sediments amended with nutrients and bacteria have been conducted over a 4-week period with and without the addition of clay. Results and observations show positive influence of microbial activity on the formation of oil-mineral fine aggregates, which subsequently accelerates the rate of oil removal from the sand by the tide.
Participation of Insurers in the Unified Command System in the United States
Authors: Garger Andrew J. , Hobbie Richard H.
Published: January 2013

The introduction and adoption of the Unified Command System (UCS) /Incident Command System (ICS) under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (Public Law 101–380, as amended) (OPA 90) has been largely effective, the ongoing training of Federal On-Scene Coordinators (FOSC) by the Coast Guard's Marine Safety School has raised the quality of spill response management, and the development of Spill Management Teams (SMT) by the private sector has also significantly improved the effectiveness of spill response. However, the role that a Responsible Party's (RP) insurance plays in an event is an aspect of marine casualty response that is not adequately addressed in the ICS or by the FOSC. More often than not, the true financial stakeholder during a casualty is not the RP under OPA 90 but rather its multiple insurers. The failure to consider multiple stakeholder interests in the ICS/UCS may result in a delayed, inefficient response or even paralysis on the part of the RP Many RP's do not have the financial resources to fund the potentially high cost of a spill response and it is only through the cooperation and prompt funding by the insurer that the RP is able to respond at all. Yet the system and organization of the response recognizes the RP, but it does not properly involve the insurers as the true stakeholders. It also fails to recognize the complexities and implications of multiple insurers.

Creating a mechanism within the framework of the ICS/UCS that recognizes the insurance stakeholder interests, and requires some level of participation by insurers, would improve casualty and spill response. This paper will examine the foregoing issues and discuss why the insurer stakeholder should be included in the ICS/UCS decision making process.
Chronic Oil Spills At Junk Yards Make Future Brownfields1
Authors: Powers Ross E.
Published: January 2013

Chronic oil spills at junkyards are being overlooked, but they can cause serious economic and environmental problems. Long considered non-hazardous, motor oils, automobile fluids, industrial waste oils and solid wastes are spilled daily at scrap metal yards across the nation. These chronic spills can carry heavy metals and toxic wastes off site through surface drains, soil penetration, and track out. Intermixed with oil, these wastes are complex and costly to clean up. Superfund cleanup actions at former junkyards are only part of the economic burden to the public. Quality of life and property value problems add to the host community's roadblocks to redevelopment, and also to their list of brownfields. Relaxed attitudes in handling liquid and solid wastes at these sites, along with ignorance of environmental rules, seem to be at the root of the problem. It is suggested that local agencies get involved in monitoring waste management practices, as well as try outreach efforts to educate junkyard operators in oil spill prevention and waste management.
How About Farms and Ranches?
Authors: Wolf Martha A.
Published: January 2013

During the past several years it has become apparent that farms and ranches have been delinquent in compliance regarding oil pollution prevention planning and practices. Some deaths have been caused by practices used at these aboveground oil storage tanks. These facilities store smaller quantities of oil, but they can be a great concern for human health and the environment. Some farmers and ranchers store large quantities of oil for the fueling of farm equipment. Yet others have tanks located directly on the shores of lakes and rivers in order to run the pumps needed to irrigate of crops. These tanks are often moved to adjust for rising and lowering of the water level. Region VIII has worked with the state of Montana and several tribes to increase awareness of the need for following spill prevention practices. The initial results have been mixed. There are many farmers and ranchers who work with the state or tribe and come into compliance, while others prefer to take their chances on being selected for a random inspection.
Deriving Drinking Water Resources for Unusually Sensitive Areas
Authors: Halls Joanne N. , Hayes Miles O. , Michel Jacqueline , Sames Christina
Published: January 2013

The Research and Special Programs Administration (RSPA) of the Department of Transportation is required to identify areas that are unusually sensitive to environmental damage in the event of a hazardous liquid pipeline accident, in accordance with pipeline safety laws (49 U.S.C. Section 60109). Accordingly, workshops were held with regulatory agencies, pipeline operators, and the public during which a process was developed to identify “unusually sensitive areas” (USAs) for drinking water resources. This process, which has been adopted by RSPA, consists of first identifying environmentally sensitive drinking water resources and other primary concerns, and then applying the following five filtering criteria to determine which of the drinking water source locations should be USAs:, Filter Criterion #1. If the public water system is a Transient Noncommunity Water System (TNCWS), the water intakes shall not be designated as USAs.

Filter Criterion #2. For Community Water Systems (CWS) and Nontransient Noncommunity Water Systems (NTNCWS) that obtain their water supply primarily from surface water sources, and do not have an adequate alternative source of water, the water intakes shall be designated as USAs.

Filter Criterion #3. For CWS and NTNCWS that obtain their water primarily from ground water sources, where the source aquifer is identified as a Class I or Class IIa, as defined in Pettyjohn et al. (1991), and do not have an adequate alternative source of water, these wells shall be designated as USAs. The wellhead protection area for each well will be used to define the area of the USA.

Filter Criterion #4. For CWS and NTNCWS that obtain their water primarily from ground water sources, where the source aquifer is identified as a Class IIb, IIc, III, or U, as defined in Pettyjohn et al. (1991), these wells shall not be designated as USAs.

Filter Criterion #5. For CWS and NTNCWS that obtain their water primarily from ground water sources, where the source aquifer is identified as a Class I or Class IIa, as defined in Pettyjohn et al. (1991), and the aquifer is designated as a sole source aquifer, these wells are also USAs, an area twice the wellhead protection area shall be designated as a USA.
Developing a Technological Tool for Managing Complex Environmental Incidents1
Authors: Wischmann Steve , Thomas Lome , Gynther Jim
Published: January 2013

This paper will discuss the U.S. Coast Guard's response to the need for technological solutions to the incident management challenges posed by oil spills and hazardous material releases. Additionally, this paper will examine some of the difficulties presented by technology itself; that is to say, technological tools come with both implicit and explicit ramifications that must be understood and overcome in order to fully harness the potential contained within such capabilities.

With the advent of both the public and Congress demanding increasingly effective spill response and fiscal conservancy, the Coast Guard has sought technological innovations to enhance its ability to coordinate and manage complex, multi-agency response operations. Through the development of the On-Scene Command and Control (OSC2) system, the Coast Guard intends to bring the potential leverage of computer-based technology to the Incident Command System (ICS) by harnessing the advantages of large-screen display, relational databases, and a Geographic Information System (GIS) for mapping response resources and activities. The decision-support and resource tracking advantages produced by OSC2 are expected to contribute mightily to improve performance within the Unified Command/ICS organization.

However, the challenges posed by the implementation of OSC2 cannot be ignored. Factors ranging from human resource inhibitions and training requirements to blending individual technical components into a seamless whole must be considered when technological tools are designed, developed, and employed. Technology is not inherently good or bad, but remains always contextual—it is dependent on the intervening factors introduced by the human condition in which it is imagined and then utilized. This paper will discuss these issues and describe the key elements in achieving the success of OSC2 as one of the Coast Guard's spill response management tools.
ICS-It's More Than a Two-Dimensional System
Authors: Hillman Sharon O.
Published: January 2013

Spill management is a critical component in successful response to any incident. Today's world of response utilizes variations of the Incident Command Systems (ICS) to successfully perform this piece. The success of spill management is based, in part, on detailed contingency planning and in size, responding time frames, and potential complexity of the incident command organization brought together for the event. There are specific requirements for the regulatory and response teams to accomplish, but what is not well described is how these team systems work together.

ICS components are practiced in large drills and real responses by Alyeska Pipeline Service Company for its crisis management and implementation of the Prince William Sound Tanker Oil Discharge Prevention and Contingency Plan. This type of spill training plays an important role in validating the viability of ICS. The exercises showcase a multifaceted ICS organization that can best be described in three dimensions. Understanding the interrelationship of these dimensions to the overall ICS management team and response operations is critical for success. This paper describes the ICS system as used for the Prince William Sound crude oil TAPS trade and employed by Alyeska; the multi-dimension of a large working system and provides some examples of interactions that might occur.
Tap-Noaa's Statistical Spill Trajectory Model: A New Approach To Spill Planning
Authors: Parker-Hall Heather A. , Dreyfus Nathalie
Published: January 2013

TAP (Trajectory Analysis Planner) is an interactive spill planning software that allows planners to assess the threat to specific sensitive sites from spilled pollutants within a geographical region, based on statistical analysis of many possible spill scenarios. TAP is ready to use, preloaded with a large database of thousands of spill trajectories initialized with a range of possible wind, weather, and tidal conditions representing the climatology and expected transport processes for a particular region. TAP users choose from countless spill sources with the movement of the ship-shaped cursor throughout the mapped water body. The threat to each of the predetermined sensitive sites, marked as shoreline segments on the map, is represented by colors, corresponding to the probability of pollutant impact from the selected spill site.

Planners can also provide cost or consequence values to sites. TAP will use these along with the database of probabilities to calculate various estimates of spill significance relative to the user's specific concerns, such as feet of boom required to protect a site, or number of birds impacted at each site. TAP also helps users account for pollutant that is removed from the spill zone (skimming, booming, dispersants, etc.). The user can then easily see changes in threat to each site of concern from the reduced amount of pollutant, along with the resultant change in the cost or consequence to protect or clean each threatened site.

TAP is a departure from the single-scenario, hard-copy trajectory model output traditionally used for the area planning process. TAP affords a much stronger statistical scenario base for regional planning. It is an interactive database that allows users, with minimal training, to rapidly evaluate numerous spill scenarios, examine particular sites of concern and the changes in threat to those sites with scenario changes. TAP also allows planners to modify cost factors to reflect interests of their individual organizations.
Area Contingency Plan Scorecard
Authors: Ott Gary L. , Haynes David C.
Published: January 2013

Area Contingency Plans (ACPs) are generally evaluated using basic checklists designed to ensure completeness rather than to evaluate content. This approach encourages an increase in plan size, not plan quality, since only a plan that omits something is likely to be rejected (Abordaif, 1997). If an AC? is in the required format and contains masses of miscellaneous information, the prevailing method of assessment deems the plan a success. However, based on a review of a number of ACPs, many plans do not prepare the response community to accomplish tasks that are critical to success during a complex spill.

The poster presentation proposes that the planning process should be focused on what we call “Critical Success Factors.” Critical success factors are described as the “things that must be done for the response to be considered a success.”
The Alaska Clean Seas Technical Manual
Authors: Lukin James , Hocking Ron , McAdams Fred , McKenzie Bruce , Cocklan-Vendl Mary , Schuyler Alan
Published: January 2013

Alaska Clean Seas (ACS), the oil industry spill response cooperative on Alaska's North Slope, has prepared a new core response plan to give ACS operations staff the tactical information they need during a spill response and to allow ACS members to prepare streamlined response plans for facilities. The project grew from the work of the joint agency/industry North Slope Spill Response Project Team, which re-evaluated North Slope response capability. The ACS Technical Manual allows operators to concentrate on spill prevention and overall response strategies. The manual is innovative in that it is based primarily on the operational needs of the responder rather than regulatory demands—although it addresses the regulations, too.

Volume 1, Tactics Descriptions, is the heart of the plan and was prepared primarily by ACS operations personnel. These tactics provide building blocks for facility scenarios and contain diagrams; descriptions; equipment, personnel, and support requirements; and operational considerations. Text is minimal in the tactics descriptions, which comprise mainly graphics and tables. The tactics cover safety, containment, recovery/storage, tracking/surveillance, burning, shoreline cleanup, wildlife, disposal, logistics/equipment, and administration. The manual's other volumes provide a facility and environmental map atlas and an Incident Management System manual.
EMDROPS: An Integrated Tool for Risk Analysis and Response Planning
Authors: Skåtun Helge Mohn , Uzzell Jesse , Gravir Gjermund
Published: January 2013

It has been pointed out that one of the pitfalls associated with using a combination of computerised oil spill planning tools is the general lack of integration between the different sub-tasks. Det Norske Veritas (DNV) has been developing and using the EMDROPS tool for Environmental Risk Analysis, Response Analysis, and Contingency Planning. EMDROPS employs the MIRA method for Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA), adopted by OLF, the Norwegian Oil Industry Association, thus the results from the ERA can be put directly into the Response Analysis/Response Planning, using the same oil spill and environmental data as used for the ERA.

EMDROPS is integrated into a standard GIS (ArcView) which allows the different modules (Oil Spill Modelling, Vulnerable Resources, Environmental Risk Assessment, and Response Planning) to be used in a seamless manner. Some of the data available to the user is the Norwegian Marine Resources Database (MRDB) and an oil spill equipment database which is used by the Environmental Risk Analysis and response effectiveness analysis.