bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Leadership Training with an Emphasis on the United States
Authors: Tucker Pamela D. , Perrone Frank
Published: June 2013

Due to a growing body of empirical research on the influence of quality leadership in schools, the role of school leaders continues to come under the policy spotlight as an important catalyst for school improvement and reform. While classroom teachers have the most direct impact on student learning, educational leaders are able to support and optimize learning through their indirect effect on school and classroom conditions. Critical theorists would challenge these instrumental functions of school administrators and posit a more humane, moral, and democratic view of leadership, which in turn would suggest different forms of training and program evaluation. Despite wide-ranging definitions of leadership, there is a growing awareness and appreciation of leadership effects, and a resulting surge in the scholarship and research focused on leadership training. For the purposes of this article, leadership training has been interpreted to mean the learning process by which individuals are prepared to demonstrate leadership skills and develop those skills over the course of their professional careers. Preparation refers to learning that takes place prior to selection for a formal leadership position, and development refers to learning that takes place while an individual is in a formal leadership position. Both preservice and in-service aspects of training are addressed in the references; however, most of the research addresses aspects of leadership preparation versus leadership development. The body of research on leadership training has been growing substantially since the early 1990s, but it was quite limited prior to this time period. When available, empirically based research studies were selected for inclusion in this article. An effort also was made to include international perspectives on leadership preparation, but the majority of the available literature comes from the United States. Qian, et al. 2017 (cited under General Overviews) notes this dearth of international research in the authors’ overview of the non-US leadership preparation field. As a result of the heavy emphasis on research from the United States, there is a disproportionate sampling of publications focused on university-based training, where most of the administrative preparation takes place due to licensing regulations. Although leadership training is taking place in a variety of venues outside of universities, there is little systematic assessment of its impact on the practices or beliefs of participants.
African American Racial Identity and Learning
Authors: Worrell Frank C.
Published: June 2013

Racial identity is one of the most frequently studied cultural identities in the United States, and it is examined most frequently in relation to African Americans. Racial identity is also examined in European American samples to a lesser extent, and there is a growing literature on the racial identity of biracial and multiracial individuals. Racial identity and ethnic identity are similar constructs, and there are some researchers who do not distinguish between the constructs, using the terms and the measurement instruments interchangeably. However, as the instruments are developed in relation to theoretical models that speak to one or the other construct specifically (i.e., ethnic or racial identity), this perspective is not adopted in this article. Thus this article focuses solely on racial identity as a construct and does not include literature on ethnic identity or studies that used instruments developed to measure ethnic identity. The relationship between racial identity and learning, and more specifically academic achievement, is typically studied in the context of the achievement gap among racial and ethnic groups in the United States, and is most closely associated with the achievement gap between African American and European American students. Thus, studies of the relationship of racial identity to learning typically involve black racial identity but not white racial identity. In most of the scholarship in this area, researchers examine the relationship of black racial identity attitudes to academic achievement or other academic constructs (e.g., motivation). Additionally, two of the preeminent theories of underachievement in African Americans and other underachieving groups—that is, cultural ecological theory and stereotype threat—implicate racial identity as a contributing factor. Although there is a strong belief that racial identity is related to learning, there is still considerable debate about the contexts in which this relationship is manifested and the strength and explanatory power of the relationship, and the evidence in favor of a direct relationship between the racial identity and learning is mixed at best.
Strategic Communication
Authors: Thorson Kjerstin
Published: June 2013

Strategic communication is an umbrella term to describe the activities of disciplines including public relations, management communication, and advertising. However, strategic communication is also increasingly recognized as a developing subfield within communication. As such, it explores the capacity of all organizations—not only corporations, but also not-for-profit organizations (including advocacy and activist groups) and government—for engaging in purposeful communication. The strength of the approach is its emphasis on strategy rather than on specific tactics as well as its focus on communications understood holistically. This approach is particularly valuable given the increasing difficulty faced by organizations in differentiating among communication activities (and results) appropriately “owned” by various functional groups. Further, the increasing complexity of a global, digital society has challenged the capacity for organizations to engage in long-term strategic planning. From both scholarly and practitioner standpoints, key questions explore the extent to which professional communicators within organizations are a part of strategy formulations, the degree to which, if any, communications are aligned with organizational strategy, the effectiveness of communication strategies and campaigns, and the role of organizations and stakeholders in society. Research in strategic communication draws on diverse disciplines, including organizational communication, management, military history, mass communication, public relations, advertising, and marketing. Hallahan, et al. 2007 (see Defining Strategic Communication) notes that “although the term strategic communication has been used in the academic literature for many years, scholars are only now in the process of coherently exploring this in terms of a unified body of knowledge” (p. 4). Works chosen for inclusion in this review are, therefore, drawn from various disciplines, with particular attention to those that attempt to synthesize or explicate links across disciplines.
Visual Communication
Authors: Griffin Michael , Barnhurst Kevin , Craig Robert
Published: June 2013

The study of visual communication is inherently multidisciplinary, comprising the wide-reaching and voluminous literature of art history and the philosophy of art and aesthetics; the development and use of charts, diagrams, and cartography; the history and theory of graphic design and typography; the history and theory of photography, cinema, and television studies; the perceptual physiology and cognitive psychology of visual apprehension; the impact of new visual technologies (including digitization, multimedia, and virtual realities); the concepts and teaching of visual literacy; and the boundless social and cultural issues surrounding practices of visual representation. Such an eclectic and newly developing field has reached little consensus about canonical texts. Its boundaries remain indistinct. Even the concept of visual imagery is loose, aggregating everything from mental reproductions of perceptions in eidetic imagery, dreams, and memory to the physical creation of pictorial material. Images are the most obvious of the wide-ranging forms of visual communication, which extend beyond “pictures” or icons into realms of abstract symbols, indexical signals, designs, and ideas humans use to communicate experience. The following bibliography focuses on visual elements and images in communication media. It acknowledges literature from other disciplinary traditions that influenced the rise of visual studies, but centers primarily on the developing visual studies literature within communication as a discipline and field.
The Development of Architecture in New Spain, 1500–1810
Authors: Ratto Cristina
Published: June 2013

During 1519, Hernán Cortés, on behalf of the Spanish Crown, initiated the process of territorial conquest and cultural colonization of a vast area that would come to be known for the three centuries following as New Spain. Mexico City, built on the ruins of Tenochtitlán—former capital of the Mexica Empire—became, from 1521, the political, administrative, economic, and cultural center of an ever expanding territory that, by the outbreak of the pro-independence movement in 1810, ran from Costa Rica to the south of the United States. During this long and complex process of imposition and adaptation, of destruction and construction, both architecture and urban planning played strategic roles. Beyond their primary function, cities and buildings represented instruments of territorial domination and became material expressions of the new culture. Through architecture, fundamental aspects of the social and economic order were implanted; with them, religious practices were arranged and artistic expressions channeled. Thus, for three centuries, architecture and urban planning transformed the natural and cultural space according to a new order. Taking into consideration that the Crown, from the outset, decreed that Spaniards should establish themselves in permanent settlements and that Indians should be incorporated into the European productive system and be subjected to the ways of Christian life, then the importance of understanding the development of viceregal architecture, both in its formal characteristics and in its functions and meanings, is clearly made manifest. Viceregal architecture was dodged once the aesthetic ideals of Neoclassicism started spreading and was considered, after independence, the material expression of Spanish dominance; thus, it remained excluded from every historical and artistic consideration until the end of the 19th century, when different factors contributed to a new appreciation. Romanticism—filled with nationalistic ideals and a fascination with the picturesque—together with the impact of the Arts and Crafts movement, fostered interest in local culture expressions. Added to that, the first forms of a national history started integrating the New Spanish past as part of its national identity, not without conflict. Ever since, New Spanish architecture has been studied in Mexican, American, and Spanish academic circles; to a lesser extent, by European and South American academics as well. Consequently, for the last 130 years, it has largely been defined through diverse historical interpretations, resulting from the crossing of different methods and perspectives. The English version of this article was compiled with assistance from Amanda Zamuner.
Modern Populism in Latin America
Authors: Roniger Luis
Published: June 2013

Populism is a form of mass politics that claims to represent the common people. As a political phenomenon, it has been present in many areas of the world. In Latin America, it has had a recurrent presence, to the point that some are of the opinion that Latin America has been “long on populist political leaders and short on statesmen” (Gustavo Coronel, p. 1). Unsurprisingly, populism has been used as a term of opprobrium and not of self-reference. Yet, due to its widespread presence, it has increasingly been analyzed by sociologists, political scientists, historians, and economists as one of the most remarkable political phenomena of the region in the 20th and 21st centuries. A few renowned cases of leaders typified as populist in the literature may be mentioned: Juan Domingo Perón, Eva Perón, and Carlos Menem in Argentina; Getulio Vargas in Brazil; Lázaro Cárdenas and Andrés M. López Obrador in Mexico; Juan Velasco Alvarado, Alberto Fujimori, and Alan García in Peru; Arnulfo Arias in Panama; and last but not least Carlos Andrés Pérez and Hugo Chávez in Venezuela. The region has known repeated waves of populist mobilization, although the phenomenon has ebbed and flowed in prominence. The literature on this topic has known various moments of salience and witnessed deep debates, geared to elucidate the shifting significance of populism in the region and analyze some of its contextual and cultural dimensions, the emphasis on leadership or mediating mechanisms, the patterns of mass mobilization, the programmatic orientations and the policies implemented, as well as the more recent revival.
Phonetics
Authors: Ashby Michael
Published: June 2013

Phonetics may be defined as the science of speech. It is concerned with all aspects of the production, transmission, and perception of the sounds of language. According to one’s view of the scope of the term “linguistics,” phonetics may be regarded as an independent discipline alongside linguistics, or alternatively as a component within it, though the second interpretation may imply a narrowing of subject matter to only those aspects considered directly relevant for linguistic analysis and theory. The terms “speech science(s)” or “phonetic science(s)” encountered in book titles or in the names of academic programs and departments are equivalents to phonetics in its wider sense, used to insist on the broad remit and scientific basis of the discipline. The word “phonetic” and its derivatives began to be used in English in the 1840s, and although significant insights in the science of speech can be traced across a range of cultural traditions (and back through history into Antiquity) the modern form of the subject is largely a 19th-century European creation. Contributions from British pioneers A. J. Ellis (b. 1814–d. 1890) and A. M. Bell (b. 1819–d. 1905) were especially important, and the subsequent establishment of phonetics as the basis of linguistic science as a whole can be attributed particularly to the influence of Henry Sweet (b. 1845–d. 1912) and Eduard Sievers (b. 1850–d. 1932). The dominant comparative-historical linguistics of their day has since been overtaken by several changes of paradigm, though phonetics has retained its position as what Sweet called “the indispensable foundation” of language study. Since the mid-19th century, therefore, phonetics has had a continuous and cumulative history as an interdisciplinary field sited at the three-way intersection of biomedical science (at first, mainly physiology), physical science (in the early days, chiefly acoustics), and linguistic science. Each of those areas has undergone radical diversification and development, with the result that the total field of phonetics is now huge. Any attempt at a bibliography must therefore be highly selective.
Ergativity
Authors: Coon Jessica , Abenina-Adar Maayan
Published: June 2013

Ergativity refers to a system of marking grammatical relations in which intransitive subjects pattern together with transitive objects (“absolutive”), and differently from transitive subjects (“ergatives”). This ergative alignment pattern may be manifest, for example, in terms of morphological case marking on nominals, or patterns of agreement on the predicate. This contrasts with the more commonly discussed nominative-accusative–type alignment, in which both transitive and intransitive subjects pattern alike (“nominative”), and differently from transitive objects (“accusative”). This article uses the common abbreviations “A” for transitive subject, or most agent-like nominal; “P” for transitive object, or most patient-like nominal; and “S” for the single argument of an intransitive. While counts vary, some surveys estimate that ergativity occurs as a major alignment type in approximately one-quarter of the world’s languages (see General Overviews). However, as many authors have noted, it often does not make sense to speak in terms of ergative languages but instead in terms of ergative patterns or constructions. This is because ergative languages are frequently “split”: they show ergative in some portion of the grammar but nominative-accusative patterning in another (see Split Ergativity). Even canonically nominative-accusative languages may show ergativity in some constructions, such as nominalizations. Work on ergativity has increased steadily over the years as more research has been conducted on ergative languages, many of which are underdocumented. Important questions arise as to the notion of “subject” in an ergative system, since transitive subjects are treated differently from intransitive subjects, at least at a morphological level. Some morphologically ergative languages also display patterns of Syntactic Ergativity, in which some syntactic operations, for example A-bar extraction, is sensitive to the distinction between ergative and absolutive arguments. Other morphologically ergative languages appear to make no syntactic division between A versus S/P arguments, raising further questions about degrees of ergativity. Other research focuses on the existence of a single “ergativity parameter”; as more languages are investigated, many researchers have converged on the idea that “ergativity” is not a single unitary phenomenon with one underlying source but may instead be better characterized as a pattern arising by various mechanisms.
Friedrich Froebel
Authors: Brehony Kevin J. , Nawrotzki Kristen D.
Published: June 2013

Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel (Fröbel) (b. 1782–d. 1852) was a German-born, child-centered educationalist who is frequently placed in a genealogy of modern child-centered education beginning with Rousseau and containing Pestalozzi, Montessori, and John Dewey. Froebel’s place in this pantheon was secured by his practice as a teacher and by his writing, which both described and justified his pedagogical innovations. While these covered all stages of childhood, he is especially renowned for those writings that bore upon the education of children in their early years, defined as birth to seven years old. For children in this age group, Froebel created the kindergarten—the garden of children. Conceived as filling the gap between home and school, the kindergarten curriculum was intended to foster self-activity; at first in the form of play and later as work of a physical nature. After his death, his ideas and practices were spread to many places in the world by his followers, a phenomenon facilitated by the kindergarten’s universal view of the child and its basis in abstract theory amenable to but not constitutive of religion in diverse forms. Kindergartens thus became institutionalized in private schools and colleges in many parts of the world, and in some instances, such as in the United States, they were incorporated into the public school system. The literature in English relating to Froebel falls into three main periods. First, there are the works he wrote in his lifetime, the various accounts of his life that appeared after his death, and exegetical works, many of which appeared before the main body of his work had been translated. This permitted a wide variety of interpretations, many unhindered by what Froebel had actually said. Second, there are numerous works informed by child study and psychology that appeared from the late 1880s onward and that were critical of much of his notions of child development and early-years education. Finally, there is the scholarship produced from the end of the 20th century onward that is focused on the kindergarten movements and their contribution to early-years education, much of it from a feminist perspective.
Western Europe and Scandinavia
Authors: Brockliss Laurence
Published: June 2013

Childhood in western Europe is obviously a vast topic, and this entry will approach it historically and largely chronologically. The study of childhood is still relatively new, and historians have sometimes struggled to construct a history of childhood, with very few firsthand accounts and limited archives. So many children left very few traces of their lives, and historians have had to piece together their history, not from diaries or archives but from court reports, visual representations, and childcare manuals. They have had to struggle to recapture the world of childhood in eras prior to 1800, when sources are especially limited. They, like others interested in childhood studies, have had to address the issue of how to define a child and what childhood is. They have had to contemplate the different historical meanings of the word child prior to 1600 and to resist the temptation to believe that childhood has inevitably improved through the centuries. They have also had to become aware of the dangers of historicizing a phenomenon that has few stable parameters and, in some cultures, may not even exist at all. In several languages there is no word for child; even in English, the word has drastically shifted its meaning over the centuries. These shifts need to be historicized in order to see both the continuities and the discontinuities between the past and the present that suggest that childhood has always been a time of suffering; children have always been the victims of perilous disease, parental neglect, government policy, war, etc. Concurrently, children have also always been the hope of the future, the focus of special love and attention. A historical perspective on European childhoods brings this insight into sharp focus.
Education: Learning and Schooling Worldwide
Authors: Anderson-Levitt Kathryn M.
Published: June 2013

Colloquially, “education” usually means “schooling,” and thus this bibliography focuses on schooling, but it also considers education more broadly defined. Sections on schooling are limited to pre-primary, primary, and secondary education, excluding postsecondary even though some university students arguably fall on the border between childhood and adulthood. The interdisciplinary field of educational studies is largely an applied field and much of its literature is devoted to efforts to improve schooling; however, this bibliography identifies descriptive studies of actual practices and beliefs rather than prescriptions for reform. An important theme of literature identified here is that schooling has recently become among the most important settings in which children live and develop, meaning that the current global form of schooling as well as variations in schooling “on the ground” have huge consequences for children’s lives and powerful meanings for all of us.
Gender and Childhood
Authors: Duane Anna Mae
Published: June 2013

The organization of this bibliography reflects the evolving, often contradictory state of scholarly work on childhood and gender. As in adult scholarship in gender studies, scholars constellate around two different perspectives, even as they acknowledge the points of overlap and exchange between them. Many scholars, particularly in the social sciences and education, are dedicated to charting the powerful and often damaging effects of gender expectations on children. Scholars working in queer and cultural studies often take a different approach, drawing on a host of cultural, literary, and historical sources to illustrate how children are shaped by, but can also transcend, gender norms. This bibliography seeks to acknowledge the productive tensions that are emerging in studies of childhood and gender by including sources that examine gender as it emerges in a variety of fields (e.g., education, literature, and adoption studies) and by including sources under the useful but perhaps problematic division of work into girlhood studies; boyhood studies; and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender studies. As many of the sources cited here indicate, there is a vibrant and valid set of arguments that the study of gender in childhood should remain under the larger rubric of childhood studies. To do otherwise, to separate children out by gender, to draw attention to the workings of gender, runs the risk of imposing the very gendered dualisms on children that scholars seek to undo. Overall, this bibliography includes examples of various permutations of study in childhood and gender, with specific texts focusing on “girl” and “boy” studies that chart the demands of gender indoctrination, as well as more theoretical texts that argue that such binaries simply reinforce damaging stereotypes.
Language Learning
Authors: Paugh Amy
Published: June 2013

The study of language learning is central to understanding how children learn to communicate and become competent members of their communities and social worlds. It is basic to the study of what it means to be human. As such, the body of research on this topic spans multiple disciplines including linguistics, psychology, anthropology, sociology, human development, education, applied linguistics, speech-language pathology, and neuroscience. It entails studies of the acquisition of first and second (third, etc.) languages in monolingual and bi/multilingual contexts, and both typical and atypical language development. Theories and methods used to study this phenomenon vary across academic disciplines. Linguistic and psychological approaches to first-language acquisition have focused more heavily on cognitive processes and development, while research from anthropological and sociolinguistic perspectives tends to examine learning language in its social and cultural context. These differing orientations are reflected in the terms used to refer to the process, for example, language acquisition or language development in linguistic and psychological approaches and language socialization in anthropological approaches. Much research on first-language acquisition has been carried out on English-speaking North American and European populations, but recent years have witnessed increasing analysis of cross-linguistic and cross-cultural data. Studies range in focus, examining theoretical claims or the acquisition of particular linguistic features such as phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and discourse. Researchers investigate the influences on language learning and seek to illuminate the relations of language to human development, cognitive processes, and/or culture. Normally developing children worldwide evidence a high degree of similarity in early language learning; thus it has been possible to summarize general developmental sequences. One of the most fundamental points of rigorous debate concerns the degree of influence played by innate genetic predispositions or mechanisms of language (“nature”) versus the role of the social environment and language(s) children are exposed to (“nurture”). Spurred by this and other debates, the field has exploded since the 1960s. The literature is extensive and multidisciplinary, with each area often very specialized. This bibliography covers a wide range of perspectives, including research that falls on all points of the nature-nurture continuum, but focuses primarily on early childhood and confines itself to reviews, primary case studies, and foundational publications on child language learning in each tradition. The article was compiled with research assistance from Divya Ganesan at James Madison University.
Jewish and Christian Views of Childhood
Authors: Bunge Marcia J.
Published: June 2013

Scholars from a wide range of disciplines are now focusing more attention on children and contributing to the new and burgeoning field of childhood studies. In line with these trends, scholars in diverse areas of religious studies, theology, and ethics are also beginning to focus attention directly on children and childhood. This article is devoted to scholarship regarding children and childhood in Judaism and Christianity and highlights examples of literature from several primary areas of research in religious studies: history, biblical studies, ethics, theology, and spirituality. Literature on children and childhood is growing in all of these areas and is opening up new lines of intellectual inquiry, challenging preconceptions about children, and even reshaping research methodologies. Religious studies of children and childhood concern not only adult perceptions of or behavior toward children and children’s vulnerabilities but also children’s perceptions and experiences and their own capacities. The attention to children’s voices, capacities, agency, and participation has, in turn, prompted scholars to rethink and reshape their own research questions and methods and disciplinary theories and practices, taking into account the ideas and actions of children themselves and the complexities of child–adult relationships. Although there are numerous and outstanding sources regarding Jewish and Christian views of children related to family life and faith formation, this short bibliography focuses on texts that directly and primarily explore the theme of children and childhood in Judaism and Christianity. Since so much is written on ethical perspectives, this article divides the literature on ethics into sections on selected topics that are significant in both traditions and that help illustrate Jewish and Christian thinking about responsibilities of both children and adults.
History of Childhood in America
Authors: Miller Susan
Published: June 2013

The history of childhood and youth is a relatively new field in American history that has grown exponentially in size and sophistication over the past twenty years. Befitting a burgeoning field, historians are currently engaged in all areas of scholarship—compiling anthologies, creating reference works, and crafting both monographs and comprehensive synthetic overviews. Located within the larger interdisciplinary arena of childhood studies, as well as alongside complementary subfields of American social history, the history of youth attracts a range of scholars with training in a diversity of disciplines, including (but certainly not limited to) the history of education and the family, folklore, American studies, and children’s literature. Both the emerging nature of the field and the genre-challenging creative scholarship of its creators have guaranteed that key historiographical questions and assumptions about periodization are very much open to debate. Scholars grapple with how concerns familiar to social historians—race, ethnicity, religion, social class, gender, and sexuality—differently affect the lives of young people, even as they consider issues particular to youth, such as the coherence of an age cohort, the effects of generational influence, and the impact of accepted norms of child rearing and scientific “truths” on the realities of children’s lives. As historians write the experiences of youth into the narratives of American history, they have also identified some important methodological challenges. How to uncover children’s voices, while remaining critical of the presumed authenticity of such sources? What are the benefits and limitations of memoirs in reconstructing the experience of youth? How to balance the realities of a category of historical inquiry defined by certain biological and development distinctions with an understanding of the historical construction of childhood? How to locate the historical child within complex and evolving ideologies of childhood?
Philippe Ariès
Authors: Heywood Colin
Published: June 2013

It is common currency in the early 21st century that childhood is an invention of modern society, that parents during the medieval period did not love their offspring, and that during that period children were treated as “miniature adults.” Diverse sources, such as newspaper articles, museum catalogs, scientific papers even, routinely take these ideas as a given from history—despite long-standing reservations among historians. The ideas can be traced back directly to Philippe Ariès (b. 1914–d. 1984) and his book Centuries of Childhood. This is a work that was published back in 1962 (or 1960 for the original French version, L’Enfant et la vie familiale sous l’Ancien Régime), yet its startling originality evidently still casts its spell. There is no doubting that Centuries launched the history of childhood and the family in its present form. It inspired numerous historians to follow up its ideas with detailed research projects, as well as influencing scholars in other disciplines. It was a work that very much reflected the concerns of the late 20th century, as historians took a growing interest in cultural history. More specifically, Ariès himself was acknowledged as a leading practitioner of the “history of mentalities.” For much of his career, Ariès appeared unlikely ever to scale such heights. He twice failed his agrégation, the conventional route into teaching, which meant that he spent most of his working life as director of documentation for an agricultural institute. Until late in life he was an historien du dimanche—his neat way of describing his amateur status—depriving him of the institutional support available to professionals in the universities. Moreover, his firm commitment to the extreme right in politics, as a Catholic and a Royalist, distanced him from most other French historians and their identification with the Republic. Yet it may be that this position as a rank outsider encouraged his ambition and adventurousness as a researcher. Happily for him, the eventual success of Centuries paved the way for a rapprochement with his fellow historians. He remained a controversial figure, and indeed most of the hypotheses presented in the book have not stood up well to further research. This bibliography traces the long trajectory of his rise and decline as an influence on the history of childhood.
Hispanic Childhoods (U.S.)
Authors: Brice Alejandro E.
Published: June 2013

Hispanics or Latinos are the largest minority in the United States. Hispanic children make up 34.5 percent of the Hispanic population under nineteen years of age. The Latino and Hispanic student population growth between 1996 to 2016 increased from 8.8 million to 17.9 million students. The United States has been and continues to undergo a language and cultural shift as a result of changing demographics. Hispanic births from Mexican American parents have overtaken Mexican immigration. The largest concentration of Hispanics consists of Mexicans, Puerto-Ricans, Salvadorans, Cubans, Dominicans, and others. Consequently, multiple factors today are affecting Hispanic children (immigration, US births, education, socio-economic status, culture, upbringing, etc.). Therefore, information regarding Hispanic childhoods is of great concern for all professionals who serve this population. Hispanic or Latino children in the United States experience difficulties that are unique and different from white children, African American (i.e., or Black children), other ethnically diverse children, and mostly children from middle socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds in the United States. These differences arise from childcare differences, family and cultural differences, health related issues, language differences, poverty issues, and factors associated with schools and classrooms. It cannot be stressed enough that all of these inter-related factors contribute to Hispanic Childhoods in the United States.
Critical Approaches to Children’s Work and the Concept of Child Labor
Authors: Bourdillon Michael
Published: June 2013

In much of human history, and in the majority of the world today, children participate in the work activities of the communities in which they are growing, and thereby learn to become productive members of the societies in which they live. Relatively recently, the principal work of children has switched from productive work to schoolwork, a change that has created conceptual problems for understanding the continuing importance of children’s work outside school. An attempt to divide children’s work into harmful “labor” and benign “work” fails to account for the vast majority of children’s work, which combines potentially positive and negative elements. References to harmful work and exploitative conditions can be found in the Oxford Bibliographies article on Child Labor. More positive accounts of children’s work in different cultural contexts appear in the article on Children’s Work and Apprenticeship, which focuses on unpaid work in the family context and work associated with learning. Neither article defines its topic in relation to the other. This indeterminate division leaves gaps, omitting some literature on children’s work that does not easily fall into either category, such as the benefits that children can derive from employment and how to assess costs and benefits in children’s work. This article, therefore, has two roles: it points to publications that provide a more comprehensive view of children’s work and it fills some of the gaps left by the other two articles.
Feral and "Wild" Children
Authors: Newton Michael
Published: June 2013

The term feral children has been taken as applying to those who have endured three very different kinds of childhood experience. In one case, the term covers “children of nature,” that is, those who have lived in a solitary state in the countryside. Closely related to such individuals are those children who have been reared for a while by animals, most notably wolves or bears, though there are also tales of children suckled by gazelle, pigs, sheep, cows, and so on. Yet, the phrase has also been applied to children who have been confined to long periods of isolation within human society, locked up in rooms or dungeons. The common denominator in these tales is the experience of an absolute solitude, the absence of caring human parents, and, very often, the deprivation of language that results from that solitude. As such, for centuries these children have been an object of fascination to philosophers interested in human development, the inception of the political realm, and the origin of language. In more recent times, they have been the subject of study by linguists, anthropologists, and sociologists. Whether “wild children” have truly existed is a matter of some interest; more important here is what they stand for, the ideas and philosophies they evoke, and the fantasies that their supposed existence nurtures. Outside the English-speaking world, the idea of feral children is especially important in French- and German-language texts. However, this bibliography limits itself to sources in English, including translations of Arabic, Latin, French, and German works. Feral children have been central to a number of literary works, from William Shakespeare’s The Winter’s Tale (1610–1611) to Thomas Day’s The History of Little Jack (1788), and from Rudyard Kipling’s The Jungle Books (1895–1896) to Edgar Rice Burroughs’s Tarzan of the Apes (1914). Authors have in several instances turned true stories of feral children into fiction, as with Jakob Wassermann’s Caspar Hauser (1908), Catherine Mary Tennant’s Peter the Wild Boy (1939), and Jill Dawson’s novel based on the Wild Boy of Aveyron, Wild Boy (2003). Similarly, several excellent films have been produced on the subject, such as François Truffaut’s L’Enfant sauvage (1970), Werner Herzog’s Jeder für sich und Gott gegen alle (1974), and a number of other successful works, such as Michael Apted’s Nell (1994) or even the Disney-animated classic, The Jungle Book (Wolfgang Reitherman 1967). It is beyond the scope of this bibliography to make full mention of these works; however, it is clear that they demonstrate that a fascination with feral children goes beyond the limits of academic discourse.
The Imperial Japanese Army in the World War II Era
Authors: Ford Douglas
Published: June 2013

The vast majority of the English language sources on the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) concentrate on its activities during the Pacific War of 1941–1945, with a small but nonetheless valuable collection of works written on its earlier campaigns against China and Russia in the late 1930s. The availability of quality academic works has been significantly limited by the language barrier, which has meant that scholars face considerable difficulties in translating Japanese texts and documentary sources. Nevertheless, when one includes the historical works on the Allied experiences in combating the IJA during the Pacific War, one is able to access a rich array of literature. The existing historiography explains many of the key factors relating to the Imperial Army, including its role in the Japanese political system and its wartime strategy, the development of its tactics and weapons technologies, and the state of morale and combat motivation among its troops. Recent works have covered some contentious issues, including the Japanese army’s policies regarding the treatment of POWs and the motivations which lay behind the war crimes that its officers carried out during the course of the conflict. The army’s role in maintaining domestic law and order in wartime Japan is also a subject of sustained academic interest.
Yugoslavian Civil War, 1991–1999
Authors: Van Hook Laurie
Published: June 2013

While many observers speculated that Yugoslavia escaped the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 because of its long-term “special path,” its subsequent demise in the 1990s proved more violent and prolonged. With its collapse came the argument of ancient hatreds between its constituent peoples as an explanation for the bloody disintegration of the country. But that was an oversimplification. Indeed, to understand the wars of Yugoslavia 1991–1999 requires a knowledge of its past, especially since 1878 when the “Eastern Question” dominated Great Power politics. As Yugoslavia emerged at the end of World War I (known as the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes until 1929), it struggled to balance competing views of identity in a troubled interwar period that witnessed the failure of nascent democracies. During World War II, Tito emerged as a national hero as his Partisans resisted the Axis. But he was not a non-controversial leader, and the system he established suffered cracks during his lifetime. The decade between his 1980 death and the country’s 1991 collapse again saw competing views of national identity, with more virulent notions popularized by the political elites in the dominant republics gaining influence. Thus, the wars of Yugoslavia brought to the forefront ethnic issues, with the international community unable to stay ahead of the country’s collapse. The failure of the United Nations, European Community, and Contact Group (United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Russia, and Italy) to stop war and find a peaceful solution finally prompted NATO, as it searched for a purpose in a post–Cold War world, to intervene. The Dayton Peace Accords brought a modicum of stability to the region in 1995. But trouble continued to brew in the southern area of the rump Yugoslavia. The 1999 Kosovo war prompted a longer NATO air campaign. Peace ultimately prevailed, but issues continued into the next decade as Milosevic fell from power and faced trial in The Hague, while Kosovo sought full independence, and Macedonia struggled to stave off full war. In the post-9/11 world, the example of Yugoslavia prompted a wider debate about the justification of international military intervention on humanitarian grounds as well as the fate of the successor states. Literature on Yugoslavia can be detached, persuasive, or polemical. The citations in this article seek to avoid the polemical while describing where a debate exists. Diacritics have been omitted for the sake of consistency as many works no longer utilize them.
Wars of Balkan Liberation, 1878–1913
Authors: Hall Richard C.
Published: June 2013

Revolts against Ottoman rule erupted in the Balkans in 1875 and in 1876. Wars in which Montenegro, Romania, Russia, and Serbia fought against the Ottoman Empire broke out soon thereafter. While the Montenegrins and Serbs soon suffered defeat, the Russians overcame Ottoman forces on Bulgarian battlefields. The Treaty of San Stefano of 3 March 1878, imposed by the Russians on the Ottomans, proved to be controversial. In an effort to resolve the national issue of southeastern Europe and to replace the contentious Treaty of San Stefano, the European great powers met at Berlin to forge a new settlement. The Treaty of Berlin of 13 July 1878 established a Bulgarian principality under Ottoman suzerainty. Although the Treaty of Berlin satisfied none of the Balkan countries, rivalries among the Balkan peoples over the disposition of Ottoman territories prevented the formation of a united effort against the Ottomans. After the turn of the 20th century, intra-Balkan rivalries intensified, especially over Macedonia. At the same time, Albanians, Muslim Slavs, and Turks sought to effect reforms within the Ottoman Empire. The seizure of power by the Committee for Union and Progress (Young Turks) in Constantinople and their stated intentions to reform the Ottoman Empire initiated a series of events that led to general conflict. In the immediate aftermath of the Young Turk coup, the Austro-Hungarian government announced the formal annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Concurrently, Bulgaria made a formal declaration of independence. Concerns that Ottoman reform would thwart their nationalist aspirations led many Albanians to revolt in 1910. Two years later, similar apprehensions led the Bulgarians and the Serbs to put aside their rivalries over Macedonia and conclude an anti-Ottoman alliance. The Greeks and Montenegrins subsequently joined this Balkan League. In October 1912, the Balkan League went to war against the Ottoman Empire. The Balkan armies triumphed on all fronts. On 30 May 1913, the Balkan allies signed a preliminary peace with the Ottomans in London. Shortly thereafter, the Balkan alliance collapsed due to disputes over the disposition of Ottoman territory. On 30 June, the Bulgarians attacked their former Greek and Serbian allies in Macedonia. The Ottomans entered the fray against Bulgaria to regain lost Thracian territory, and the Romanians invaded Bulgaria to seize southern Dobrudja (Dobrudzha). Attacked on all sides, the Bulgarians were forced to sue for peace. These wars left Bulgaria with a sense of national frustration and the Balkan allies and Romania with a feeling of inflated national success. Within three years, all the participants in the Balkan Wars would again be at war.