bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mold
Authors: Geller Robert J.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses mold in schools. Mold frequently grows in schools and other buildings when warm, humid conditions are present indoors. Although people with allergies to mold can suffer adverse effects, the ability of mold to cause other human illness remains controversial and not well established. The two main strategies for managing mold are removing the sources of moisture and cleaning up the mold. The extent of mold contamination in an area will determine how extensive the remediation should be and how much it will cost.
Outdoor Air Pollution
Authors: Hricko Andrea
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses outdoor air pollution in school environments. Outdoor (ambient) air pollution presents a number of issues in the school environment, including exposure of children to diesel exhaust from older buses, potential risks for students who play or exercise outdoors on smoggy days, and exposure to emissions from nearby traffic and industrial facilities. There are steps that school administrators can take to protect children and address pollution. These include limiting outdoor activities on high ozone days, keeping students indoors for recess and practices, and contacting the air pollution control authority with any concerns about sources of pollution very close to the school, and discuss the record of the polluting facility.
Pest Control
Authors: Pierce Troy A. , Geller Robert J.
Published: September 2009

Insects, rodents, and other animals frequently cohabit indoor and outdoor human settings. They become pests when they put human health or property at risk. This chapter provides an overview of the various pests found in school environments and their effects on the health of students and staff. It then reviews the health effects of pesticides, discusses concept of integrated pest management (IPM), and explains how it can be implemented in schools.
Cleaning Materials and Methods
Authors: Ashkin Stephen , Ellis Richard
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses green cleaning in schools. Clean schools minimize safety hazards and provide an optimal setting for learning. “Green cleaning” is an approach to cleaning designed to meet three different goals: effective cleaning, preventing discomfort and toxicity among people exposed to the cleaning process, and protecting the environment. The direct economic benefits of a green cleaning program include reductions in chemical use and labor costs. Indirect benefits include improved performance and decreased absenteeism.
Chemical Exposures in and out of the Classroom
Authors: Audi Jennifer , Geller Robert J.
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews some of the toxic hazards that children might encounter in and around their schools. It discusses the ways in which a child might be exposed, as well as the possible effects of the exposures, and reviews strategies to reduce risks and manage the exposures if they do occur.
Safe and Healthy Sports Environments
Authors: Marshall David
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses sports safety in schools. Athletic activities promote good health habits and provide many opportunities for developing social and leadership skills. The inherent risks in outdoor sports participation can be mitigated by careful design and maintenance of playing fields, adequate lighting, and protective fencing. Indoor sports injuries can result from insufficient space allowances or inadequate equipment. Every school should have a general emergency plan that includes communication procedures, presence of an ambulance and emergency medical help at appropriate times, and proper medical equipment.
High-Performance School Buildings
Authors: Eley Charles
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews some material covered in the earlier chapters and introduces some new material, presenting it in the broad context of high-performance schools. High-performance school buildings are designed to be efficient in their use of energy, water, and materials. They are intended to be not only adaptable and easy to operate and maintain but also comfortable, safe, secure, and healthy for teachers and students. The characteristics of a high-performance school building include buildings that are healthy; thermally, acoustically, and visually comfortable; energy efficient, materials efficient, water efficient, and easy to maintain and operate.
Evaluating the School Environment
Authors: Bellomo Angelo J.
Published: September 2009

A better understanding of the relationship between school conditions and students' academic performance could engender major support for improving the quality of the learning environment. An important step in improving conditions in the learning environment is a routine inspection and evaluation program. Such inspections typically focus on identifying and mitigating risks to the health and safety of school occupants, but the data generated could also be used to examine the relationships between school conditions, students' health and safety, and academic performance. This chapter presents an approach to routine inspections.
Children and Adults with Disabilities
Authors: Gips Kathy , Nodvin Janice , Rubin I. Leslie
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on a wide range of attitudes and design features needed to achieve safe and healthy school environments for everyone, including those with disabilities. Several themes run throughout the chapter. The first addresses inclusiveness, which requires that school facilities be inviting, friendly, and comfortably usable for everyone, including people with disabilities. Second, considering the design needs of people with disabilities yields synergistic benefits for the greater society—the curb cut principle. A third theme is individualization. Just as educational plans must be individualized, sometimes physical accommodations and adaptations must be planned around individual student and staff needs. Tradeoffs represent a fourth theme. Certain environmental changes may work for some people but challenge others.
7 The Assessment of Rational and Irrational Beliefs
Authors: Macavei Bianca , McMahon James
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses a variety of conceptual and methodological issues regarding the assessment of rational and irrational beliefs. It reviews two major ways of identifying and assessing irrational and rational beliefs: (1) psychological instruments and (2) therapy oriented assessment, and discusses state of the science developments in assessment including approaches based on virtual reality.
9 Rational and Irrational Beliefs in Primary Prevention and Mental Health
Authors: Caserta Donald A. , Dowd E. Thomas , David Daniel , Ellis Albert
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews research on the relationship between rational beliefs (RBs) and indicators of emotional wellness, the predictive utility of RBs when identifying healthier adaptive functioning in children, adolescents, and adults; and the current status of RBs in the prevention literature. Research provides evidence for the associations between indicators of rational beliefs and adaptive responses to general negative life events and stressors, such as job-related stress, anticipation of surgery, adolescents' general adjustment in high school, relationship problems, and frustration/anger management, as well as more significant or chronic adversities, including loss of a loved one, imprisonment, management of a disability, and childhood maltreatment. What is less clear is what types of rational beliefs provide psychological protection against what kinds of problems.
10 Rational and Irrational Beliefs: Implications for Mechanisms of Change and Practice in Psychotherapy
Authors: David Daniel , Freeman Arthur , DiGiuseppe Raymond
Published: September 2009

This chapter explores the role of irrational beliefs in stressful and nonstressful situations in health promoting behaviors, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and psychotherapy in general. It argues that irrational beliefs are important causal factors in psychopathology, and that rational beliefs are an important health promoting mechanism. This hypothesis pertains to both cognitive-behavioral therapies and psychotherapy in general.
11 Mindfulness and Irrational Beliefs
Authors: Mellinger David I.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses metacognitions from the vantage points of Buddhist psychology and cognitive behavior theory, and also metacognitive therapy strategies based on CBT and mindfulness practice are described. From the metacognitive perspective, both mindfulness and CBT are metacognitive control strategies; but so are states intrinsic to psychopathology, such as experiential avoidance and perseverative, refractory, and self-focused negative states like rumination and active worry. Mindfulness-based techniques and Buddhist psychology are reshaping and augmenting contemporary cognitive-behavioral therapy in far-reaching ways. Acceptance- and mindfulness-based approaches are increasing the versatility and robustness of CBT. The chapter believes that cross-pollination of process-based cognitive theory with content-based theories shows promise for fortifying the power of cognitive-behavioral therapy to contend with pervasive problems of rumination and active worry.
Physical Activity Versus Heart Attack: a Modern Epidemic
Authors: Morris Jerry
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides a historical perspective: it represents the personal observations of Professor Jerry Morris, describing the circumstances and reasoning behind initial investigations of a link between physical activity and risk of coronary heart disease.
Measurement of Physical Activity and Inactivity in Epidemiologic Studies
Authors: Pettee Kelley K. , Storti Kristi L. , Ainsworth Barbara E. , Kriska Andrea M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents an overview of tools used to assess physical activity and inactivity. These include objective measures of energy expenditure, objective measures of physical activity, objective measures of physical fitness, subjective measures of physical activity, measures of physical inactivity, and considerations for selecting an appropriate assessment tool.
Individual Responses to Physical Activity
Authors: Rankinen Tuomo , Bouchard Claude
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides an overview of the basic study designs and research methods that can be used to investigate the genetic basis of human heterogeneity in the ability to benefit from a physically active lifestyle. It summarizes the key findings regarding the genetics of physical activity levels and responsiveness to regular exercise. It shows that genetic factors contribute to the individual differences in response to regular exercise.
Design of Present-Day Epidemiologic Studies of Physical Activity and Health
Authors: Lee I-Min , Paffenbarger Jr. Ralph S.
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides an in-depth discussion of two large, present-day prospective cohort studies—one in men (the Harvard Alumni Health Study) and one in women (the Nurses' Health Study)—that have published several important findings related to physical activity and health. These two studies will be used as exemplars to illustrate important principles in the design, conduct, and analyses of data from epidemiologic studies investigating physical activity as a predictor of health outcomes. The chapter also discusses other selected ongoing, prospective cohort studies to provide additional illustrations of several of the main principles.
Physical Activity and Cancer
Authors: Sternfeld Barbara , Lee I-Min
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews data on the associations between physical activity and the development of various site-specific cancers. The observed associations will be considered in terms of generally accepted criteria for inference of causality which include: (1) strength of the association; (2) consistency of the association across different studies in different populations; (3) existence of appropriate temporal relations; and (4) existence of a dose-response relationship. The chapter also discusses issues of chance, confounding, and bias as alternate explanations for the observed associations. It briefly reviews evidence suggesting biological plausibility, all of which are additional important criteria for evaluating causality. Finally, it considers the public health significance of current knowledge for reducing the risk of cancer through regular physical activity.
Physical Activity, Fitness, and the Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes
Authors: Hu Gang , Lakka Timo A. , Tuomilehto Jaakko
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews current evidence regarding the role of physical activity and physical fitness in the primary prevention of type 2 diabetes. Epidemiological evidence from prospective cohort studies and clinical trials indicates that thirty minutes/day of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity can reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. Such activity reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes by exerting favorable changes in insulin sensitivity and the metabolic syndrome (including reducing body weight, blood pressure, plasma levels of triglycerides, and inflammation) and increasing plasma levels of HDL cholesterol.
Physical Activity, Fitness, and Musculoskeletal Injury
Authors: Hootman Jennifer M. , Powell Kenneth E.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the potential adverse events associated with increased activity, focusing on population-based studies of sports and recreation injuries from around the world. Examples from studies of competitive athletes or military recruits are used to illustrate select concepts. The chapter covers the epidemiology of sports- and recreation-related injury. It discusses the dose-response relationship between physical activity and activity-related injuries, focusing on the issues surrounding measurement and definitions used in epidemiologic studies of physical activity and injury.
Evolution of Physical Activity Recommendations
Authors: Haskell William L.
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on the scientific rationale and evolution of guidelines and recommendations made by various government agencies or professional organizations regarding the role of physical activity or physical fitness in promoting good health. It emphasizes the development of guidelines in the United States between 1970 and 2005. It also provides a brief overview of the rapidly evolving science of physical activity and health—especially in the United States—during the 1900s that preceded and supported the development of guidelines by major organizations.
Connectionist Models of Development: Mechanistic Dynamical Models with Emergent Dynamical Properties
Authors: McClelland James L. , Vallabha Gautam
Published: September 2009

This chapter attempts to underscore the common ground between connectionist and dynamical systems approaches. Central to both approaches is the emergent nature of system-level behavior and changes to such behavior through development. Topics covered in this chapter include mechanistic and emergent dynamics, examples of activation and weight-change dynamics, short-term emergent dynamics in perceptual classification, and perceptual and semantic learning.
Dynamic Systems, Sensorimotor Processes, and the Origins of Stability and Flexibility
Authors: Smith Linda B.
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents an overview of a dynamic systems account of the A-not-B error in infants. It presents evidence on how the processes that give rise to perseveration in infants are also processes that, in a quite positive way, create coherence and stability. It also presents evidence on how flexibility emerges in this same system and considers the role of sensorimotor processes and implications of this work.
Connectionist Approaches to Perseveration: Understanding Universal and Task-Specific Aspects of Children's Behavior
Authors: Morton J. Bruce , Munakata Yuko
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on case studies of connectionist models of perseveration for understanding infants' reaching behavior and children's rule-guided behavior. These models demonstrate how general connectionist principles (1) provide a unified framework for understanding perseveration across ages, task paradigms, and response modalities, (2) capture important details of children's performance, and (3) lead to novel and testable predictions.
Dynamical Insight into Structure in Connectionist Models
Authors: Tabor Whitney
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on a connectionist model called the fractal learning neural network (FLNN). The FLNN model's account is appealing because it (a) uses a simple learning mechanism and thus corresponds to a theory that links development and learning; (b) predicts stagewise behavior with progressive quantitative changes occurring within the stages, a phenomenon also observed in development; (c) derives phase transitions from the learning, thus predicting, rather than stipulating, the stages; (d) shows highly structured, domain-specific behavior arising from a mechanism which is capable of a wide variety of behaviors, not all of which are highly structured (thus, in some sense, deriving the structure where no structure was apparent); and (e) generalizes beyond its input in a way that is, at least partially, consistent with human generalization in the comprehension and production of recursive sentence structures.
The Robot as a New Frontier for Connectionism and Dynamic Systems Theory
Authors: Schlesinger Matthew
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides an optimistic forecast for the future of connectionism and dynamic systems theory (DST). In particular, it focuses on the idea that regardless of how similar or dissimilar connectionism and DST appear to be at this moment in their development, there are numerous signs that hybridization of the two approaches is not only possible, but also has begun to occur. The chapter begins by reviewing three major, crosscutting themes that are shared by connectionism and DST. It then highlights the evidence for an optimistic outlook by describing recent work in the field of adaptive behavior and robotics, which is illustrated by numerous examples of models that blend elements of connectionism and DST. Finally, it returns to the crosscutting themes and elaborates on each in light of the progress that robotics researchers have made toward a hybrid approach.
Combining Connectionist and Dynamic Systems Principles in Models of Development: The Case of Analogical Completion
Authors: Mareschal Denis , Leech Robert , Cooper Richard P.
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes model of the development of simple analogical reasoning and shows how the model accounts for seven characteristics of children's developing abilities to reason analogically. It argues that the model's success is critically dependent upon principles of both connectionism and dynamic systems theory. Thus, the model demonstrates complementarity between the approaches.
Are Dynamic Systems and Connectionist Approaches an Alternative to Good Old-Fashioned Cognitive Development?
Authors: Oakes Lisa M. , Newcombe Nora S. , Plumert Jodie M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter addresses the question of whether dynamic systems and connectionist approaches are an alternative to good old-fashioned cognitive development (GOFCD). The chapter is organized as follows. The first section discusses what connectionism and dynamic systems bring to the study of cognitive development. The second section examines how connectionist and dynamic systems theories relate to other GOFCD theories of developmental change. The third section evaluates the contribution of connectionism and dynamic systems in more depth by examining explanations of two historically important issues in cognitive development: infants' behavior in the A-not-B task and children's solutions to the balance scale problem. Finally, the chapter considers how well connectionist and dynamic systems approaches address criticisms often leveled at other theories of cognitive development.
Transitions in Cognitive Development: Prospects and Limitations of a Neural Dynamic Approach
Authors: van der Maas Han L. J. , Raijmakers Maartje E. J.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses old-fashioned cognitive development from the point of view of two modern approaches, connectionism and nonlinear dynamical systems theory. The main assertion in both connectionist and dynamic systems approaches is that higher cognitive functioning is largely based on nonsymbolic, graded, and dynamic properties, of which these same approaches provide the best account. The chapter argues that the claim concerning nonsymbolic higher order cognition is overstated and explains its position by focusing on sudden transitions in cognitive development.
Dynamic and Connectionist Approaches to Development: Toward a Future of Mutually Beneficial Coevolution
Authors: Thomas Michael S. C. , McClelland James L. , Richardson Fiona M. , Schapiro Anna C. , Baughman Frank D.
Published: September 2009

A tension has existed between connectionism and dynamic systems theory (DST), and this chapter considers why this should be the case. The chapter argues that much of the tension arises from a tenet that the two approaches share: they both rely on the explicit, quantitative instantiation of ideas in mathematical or computational models. The use of such models is responsible for much of the theoretical progress generated by connectionism and DST beyond the theories of good old-fashioned cognitive development (GOFCD). But the use of explicit, quantitative models brings with it a new set of problems. The chapter discusses several consequences of the use of such models and considers three points of apparent disagreement between connectionism and DST.
Moving toward a Unified Theory While Valuing the Importance of the Initial Conditions
Authors: Spencer John P. , Dineva Evelina , Schöner Gregor
Published: September 2009

This chapter seeks to articulate and clarify cases of perceived differences between dynamical systems theory (DST) and the connectionist (CN) approaches that are not real, as well as cases of perceived differences that are real. It discusses the implications of efforts to integrate the two approaches for developmental science more generally. Clarifying similarities/differences between approaches offers far more that just technical clarity for co-called modeler types; it offers a vision of a new, integrative, developmental theory.
The Law and the Public's Health: The Foundations
Authors: Gostin Lawrence O. , Thompson F. Ed , Grad Frank P.
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents the foundations of the integral relations between law and public health practice, including definition, infrastructure, constitutional underpinnings, and powers. It examines the fundamental aspects of the field of public health. It argues that law is a means to achieving better health in a society, while simultaneously limiting the extent to which individual rights are sacrificed for the common good. By crafting a consistent and uniform approach, carefully delineating the mission and functions of public health agencies, designating a range of flexible powers, specifying the criteria and procedures for using those powers, and protecting against discrimination and invasion of privacy, the law can become a catalyst, rather than an impediment, to reinvigorating the public health system.
Integrating Genetics into Public Health Policy and Practice
Authors: Clayton Ellen Wright , Rothstein Mark A.
Published: September 2009

This chapter explores the complex patchwork of federal and state laws applicable to the evolving relation between genetics and public health practice. It focuses on two major genetics-associated challenges for public health law and public health agencies at all levels. The first challenge involves the ability of the medical and public health sectors to assess the effect of genetic variation on health—a task made more difficult by tensions between the government's need for information and the public's concerns about privacy, confidentiality, and discrimination. The second challenge is ensuring the appropriate translation of genetic discoveries into the clinical setting.
Vaccination Mandates: The Public Health Imperative and Individual Rights
Authors: Malone Kevin M. , Hinman Alan R.
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes the impact of vaccines in dramatically reducing infectious diseases in the United States, the role of legally mandated vaccination in achieving and sustaining that impact, and the constitutional basis for those mandates. It also includes a brief overview of the federal role and its legal foundations in immunization practices.
Control of Foodborne Diseases
Authors: Kux Leslie , Sobel Jeremy , Fain Kevin M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses legal and policy interventions for food safety. Topics covered include legal authorities, legal issues and controversies, public health practice considerations, and emerging issues. Public health and food-safety regulatory agencies face many challenges in ensuring the safety and security of the U.S. food supply. The emergence of new pathogens and sources of transmission, the rapidly changing practices for food production and distribution, the practical difficulties in responding to foodborne disease outbreaks, and the concern about the possibility of deliberate contamination of food are issues that federal, state, and local government agencies must address in protecting the public health. As food-safety challenges evolve, so must agencies' legal authorities, along with their scientific and administrative capabilities.
Bloodborne and Sexually Transmitted Infections
Authors: Richards III Edward P. , Birkhead Guthrie S.
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on legal tools for controlling sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and certain related bloodborne infections for which sexual transmission is important. It focuses on the public health and legal response to four selected STIs that also are associated with significant bloodborne or perinatal transmission: HIV, gonorrhea, syphilis, and HBV. Together these pose the key legal questions common to all STIs.
Prevention and Control of Chronic Diseases
Authors: McGowan Angela K. , Brownson Ross C. , Wilcox Lynne S. , Mensah George A.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the legal and policy interventions for preventing and controlling chronic disease. It describes legal authorities and controversies, then covers practice considerations in relation to three examples: cardiovascular health, diabetes, and physical activity. The chapter concludes by briefly discussing several emerging issues that should be considered as this topic continues to evolve.
Prevention and Control of Diseases Associated with Tobacco use through Law and Policy
Authors: Daynard Richard A. , Gottlieb Mark A. , Sweda, Jr Edward L. , Friedman Lissy C. , Eriksen Michael P.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the legal and policy interventions for preventing and controlling tobacco use. It reviews legal authorities that affect tobacco use at the federal, state, and local levels, and considers key developments in tobacco litigation. The chapter discusses legal issues and controversies such as reducing youth access to tobacco, reducing exposure to second hand smoke, and the regulation of tobacco advertising and promotion.
Reproductive Health
Authors: Anderson Bebe J. , Macaluso Maurizio , Wilcox Lynne S.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the legal and policy interventions for reproductive health. It outlines the law governing reproductive health in the United States, with particular emphasis on the federal Constitution, statutes, regulations, and case law. It considers legal issues and controversies such as issues related to reproductive health services generally or to services other than abortion, issues related solely to abortion, and legal issues relating to payment for services.
Injury Prevention
Authors: Stier Daniel D. , Mercy James A. , Kohn Melvin
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on legal tools for preventing and controlling unintentional injuries and injuries resulting from interpersonal violence. Broadly speaking, laws—including administrative rules authorized by legislation—can be used to prevent injuries by providing legal authority to engage in the public health practice of injury prevention and control, including injury surveillance and injury-prevention programming; and to regulate personal behaviors or environmental factors that cause injury, and imposing liability for injuries. Because the field of injury prevention and control is so broad, application of the law to injury is illustrated through selected examples.
Occupational Safety and Health Law
Authors: Rischitelli Gary , Silverstein Michael A.
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on the statutory and administrative legal systems that regulate occupational safety and health in the United States. It also reviews important judicial interpretations of the law governing occupational safety and health. Topics discussed include the development of occupational health and safety regulation in the U.S., legal authorities, legal issues and controversies, practice considerations, and emerging issues.
Perspective: Law and Great Public Health Achievements
Authors: Moulton Anthony D. , Goodman Richard A. , Parmet Wendy E.
Published: September 2009

The perspective presented in this chapter illuminates the central role of law in contemporary public health; distills important themes from the practice of public health law; and projects the heightened role law is likely to play in public health practice in the coming decades. It begins with an overview of the contributions of law to selected public health advances in the United States during the 20th century by examining three of ten such achievements identified by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). It then comments on foundational powers and five themes in law and public health that emerge from that history. It concludes with an examination of factors that could strengthen the role of law as a tool for improving the health of the public during the 21st century.
Childhood Sexual Abuse Experienced by Gay and Bisexual Men: Understanding the Disparities and Interventions to Help Eliminate Them
Authors: Purcell David W. , Patterson Jocelyn D. , Spikes, Jr. Pilgrim S.
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides a systematic review of the prevalence and correlates of childhood sexual abuse among gay and bisexual men in the United States. It begins by describing the prevalence of childhood sexual abuse among men and compares rates between gay and bisexual men and heterosexual men. It assesses methodological and theoretical issues that affect estimates of the prevalence of childhood sexual abuse. Of particular importance is the in-depth examination of the effects of childhood sexual abuse in adulthood, which include harmful effects related to mental health, substance use, sexual victimization, and sexual risk behavior. The chapter reviews what is known about interventions to prevent childhood sexual abuse and its early effects in children as well as secondary prevention interventions that are designed to reduce the later effects of childhood sexual abuse that are experienced in adulthood. It concludes with recommendations for future research.
HIV Infection among Gay and Bisexual Men
Authors: Sullivan Patrick S. , Wolitski Richard J.
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes HIV prevalence and incidence among gay and bisexual men in the United States. It details disparities in HIV rates relative to heterosexual men and draws particular attention to the substantial disparities experienced by African American gay and bisexual men. The chapter reviews the large research literature on the factors associated with HIV transmission among gay and bisexual men. Critical opportunities to prevent HIV transmission among gay and bisexual men are discussed. The chapter also identifies key challenges to HIV prevention among gay and bisexual men, and identifies key gaps in prior research on this issue.
Social Discrimination and Health Outcomes in African American, Latino, and Asian/Pacific Islander Gay Men
Authors: Díaz Rafael M. , Peterson John L. , Choi Kyung-Hee
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides a thorough review of the evidence regarding disparities that differentially affect the health of African American, Latino, and Asian/Pacific Islander gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men. These disparities are based in multiple forms of social discrimination including homophobia, racism, and gender nonconformity. Particular attention is given to the unique experiences of African American, Latino, and Asian/Pacific Islander gay men that affect their mental health, substance use and abuse, and HIV risk. The chapter concludes by identifying gaps in prior research and suggesting future research and prevention efforts.
Counterrevolution
Authors: Kunitz Stephen J.
Published: September 2009

The idea of holism emerged in the second half of the 19th century, but it became pervasive in Europe and North America between the two world wars. It implied, among other things, a concern with the adaptation of whole systems to change, whether environmental or social. This chapter discusses the diffusion and use of the idea of holism in medicine, epidemiology, and public health.
The Standard of Living
Authors: Kunitz Stephen J.
Published: September 2009

This chapter addresses explanations that have been offered for the decline of mortality in both the 19th and 20th centuries, and makes the argument that while it would be foolish to reject the importance of a rising standard of living, too often the role of purposeful intervention has been denigrated. The first explanation attributes the improvement to a rising standard of living due to economic expansion, generally understood to mean industrial development and improved agricultural productivity. The second explains the decline as the result of purposeful human agency: the application of a variety of public health interventions to the problems of water, food, and airborne infectious diseases. A third less-common explanation invokes the biological selection and adaptation of human hosts and/or microorganisms.
Globalization
Authors: Kunitz Stephen J.
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the association between openness to international trade—measured as imports plus exports as a percent of gross domestic product (GDP)—and its consequences for the health of populations, as well as on the debates about its beneficial and harmful effects. It argues that openness to trade is not incompatible with good health of the population affected, but neither is it a guarantee. Much of the difference in mortality among countries depends upon the strength and policies of their governments and the degree to which they can protect their populations and communities from the vicissitudes that openness involves, while still benefiting from its positive effects.
Masterful Images
Authors: Kunitz Stephen J.
Published: September 2009

Three related themes have run through this book: (i) the role that inherited ideas about the consequences of social and economic change and of causes of disease have had on explanations of the social determinants of the health of populations; (ii) the way these inherited ideas have been assimilated into different political ideologies that influence the choices we all make of the evidence we accept and ignore; and (iii) the importance of particular contexts—including, but not limited to, political institutions—for understanding the health of populations. This concluding chapter draws together these themes, first by using debates about HIV-AIDS for illustrative purposes, and then by returning to the issues raised at the beginning of the book: (i) the significance of the distinction between the cognitive styles of hedgehogs and foxes, and (ii) the importance of anomalies and what they can tell us about the generalizability of theories about the social determinants of death and disease.
The Host of Witnesses
Authors: Wills Sr Richard Wayne
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers how King’s formative influences contributed to the theological development of his image of God conception by providing a detailed explanation as to why he considered that chosen position theologically tenable. It discusses the theological influences of King’s childhood and the insights gained during his eleven years of academic preparation at Morehouse College, Crozier Theological Seminary, and Boston University, as a means of exploring how his earlier exposure to his father’s so-called biblical fundamentalism and later introductions to strands of neo-orthodoxy and liberalism ultimately solidified his interpretation of image of God. Additionally, it considers King within the context of 20th-century African American thought and the rich milieu occupied by its various theologians and activists
King among the Theologians
Authors: Wills Sr Richard Wayne
Published: September 2009

This chapter locates and identifies King’s theological anthropology within the larger doctrinal spectrum while revealing the extent to which his image of God conception accounted for similar and/or divergent anthropologic conclusions. This chapter, therefore, considers the ways in which King’s anthropology identifies with that of earlier thinkers who also sought to address these essential questions, thereby rendering responses that either heightened or lowered their respective sense of expectation insofar as the issue of human capacity was concerned. At bottom, it clarifies the degree of King’s expectation regarding humanity’s capacity to progress socially and where he finally weighs in on the question of image of God, given the richness of this vast theological tradition.
The People’s Health Center: Building Primary Health Care in Bangladesh
Authors: Chowdhury Zafrullah , Bachman Sarah L.
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents an account of the establishment of primary health care in Gonoshasthaya Kendrai, Bangladesh. It describes experiences in a medical team that arrived in Bangladesh to provide medical care to wounded freedom fighters and refugees, and their eventual training of girls to become paramedics. The paramedics at GK provided various services from basic health care to family planning to surgical operations. Since most of them were from the community, they knew the local language, dialects, and pronunciations. They also understood how the community mind works. As a result, they were often more effective in the field than doctors.
An Orphan Disease in Mozambique
Authors: Cliff Julie
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents an account about konzo, an epidemic of spastic paralysis in Mozambique caused by cyanide poisoning from inadequately prepared cassava. It chronicles the examination of patients and efforts to identify the cause of the disease. If the people could stop their dependence on bitter cassava, there would be no more cases of konzo, the chapter states. However, this was not a problem that was easily solved because cassava was tied to the fundamental economics of the region.
Beijing + 5: What Can International Conferences Achieve for Women’s Health?
Authors: Hodoglugil Nuriye Nalan Sahin
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents some thoughts about the significance of the United Nations Beijing +5 Conference. In 1995, when the Fourth World Conference for Women was held in Beijing, women came from all over the world to discuss pertinent issues such as health, economic and political power, and violence and oppression. The final document produced at this conference was the Platform for Action, which described the overall status of women internationally based on these issues. The Beijing +5 meetings was organized by the UN's Division for the Advancement of Women to assess the current situations of women globally and to make relevant changes to the Platform for Action while also reaffirming commitment to the original document.
Applying Global Health Lessons to Syracuse, New York
Authors: Lane Sandra D.
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes efforts to bring lessons from international health back to Syracuse, New York. It describes Syracuse Healthy Start (SHS), which brought together over thirty agencies to coordinate and enhance the care of pregnant women and families with infants throughout Syracuse. The chapter states that SHS has been successful in three key areas. First, pregnant inmates receive high-quality prenatal services and integrated case management, helping many to give birth to healthy infants. Second, pregnant and parenting teens in Syracuse have generally good birth outcomes and lower rates of infant death than adult women. Third, adult women who had not graduated from high school and were served by SHS were found to have significantly lower rates of postneonatal infant death than comparable women who were not SHS participants.
“Returned to Sender”: Corruption in International Health in Nigeria
Authors: Mbakwem Benjamin C. , Smith Daniel Jordan
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes corruption through the story of public health work in Nigeria and in particular of their experiences with international and local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Their perspective is that corruption is a real problem for the successful implementation of public health programs but that it is also widely misunderstood. The obsession with the “problem” of corruption obscures the extent to which western donor organizations and the expatriates who work for them in places like Nigeria are among the primary beneficiaries of these international health programs.
Basic Features of Pension Systems
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

Pensions differ in the way they are financed, in the relationship between contributions and benefits, and in how both are adjusted as the economic and demographic environment changes. Some features are generally found only in public pension systems; others are common to both public and employer-based systems. The chapter then introduces a recent development, notional defined-contribution pensions, which combine some of the traditional features in a novel way. Finally, the chapter briefly delineates the main areas of controversy with respect to the choices among these features.
Pensions and Labor Markets
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

This chapter starts with an overview of the impacts of pension systems on the labor market, in particular the important role of labor mobility, and the balance between mandatory and voluntary pensions. The next two sections examine the implications of these impacts for pension design. The chapter then discusses pension design in the accruals phase, that is, how a person builds up an entitlement to pension benefits during working life, and the chapter also considers how benefits are determined once a person starts to receive a pension. The chapter assumes a pension system in financial balance. Finally, the chapter discusses how to adjust a pension system over time in the face of any imbalance. The chapter also discusses some analytical errors.
Redistribution and Risk Sharing
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

Pension systems have powerful redistributive effects, which may or may not be intended and may or may not be desirable. They can redistribute within a generation. Pension systems can also redistribute across generations. A system with less than full funding inescapably makes choices about redistribution across generations; so does a move toward funding that increases national saving. All pension systems face risk. A central question, discussed in the latter part of the chapter, is how these risks can be shared and how widely they should be shared—questions with implications for both efficiency and equity.
Chile: The Pension System
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes and assesses the post-1981 pension system in Chile (that is, the arrangements prior to the 2008 reforms). That system is based on mandatory saving in individual accounts, with competition among providers both for the savings element and for annuities.
China: The Pension System
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes the pension system in China, including the basic pension and funded individual accounts. The chapter offers a brief discussion the pension system's antecedents, and assesses its strengths and weaknesses, including fragmentation, system deficits and problems with individual accounts.
Field Epidemiology
Authors: Gregg Michael
Published: September 2009

This book has a mission of describing the application of basic epidemiologic principles in real time, place, and person to solve problems of an urgent or emergency nature. Based on decades of experience in both infectious and non-infectious diseases at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, this book describes the distinct approach, tasks, and actions needed for successful field investigations. Guidance is given on such issues as how to perform surveillance, manage, and execute field investigations, collect and analyze data, perform surveys, adapt a personal computer for field use, and communicate the findings. Specific advice is also given on such subjects as dealing with the media; investigations in health care, day care, and international settings; and the legal aspects of field studies. An entire chapter covers the proper collection, handling, and testing of infectious and non-infectious agents in the field. This text is a new edition of the book and the book contains new chapters on environmental investigations and immunization practices for the field epidemiologist. The book is based both on science and experience. It deals with real problems, real places, and real people: nature's experiment rather than carefully designed studies in a laboratory or clinical setting.
Surveillance
Authors: Thacker Stephen B. , Birkhead Guthrie S.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the acquisition of information for use in the public health arena, called surveillance. Public health surveillance is a basic tool of the field epidemiologist, providing the scientific and factual database essential to informed decision-making and to the conduct of public health prevention and control programs. Surveillance is based on morbidity, mortality, and risk factor data, often from multiple sources. Some data, such as vital statistics, are collected primarily for other uses; other data, such as behavioral risk factors, are collected specifically for the surveillance system.
Conducting a Field Investigation
Authors: Gregg Michael B.
Published: September 2009

This chapter explains how to perform an epidemiologic field investigation. It focuses on a presumed point source (common source) epidemic, recognized and reported by local health authorities to a state (provincial) health department. Although the context is one of an acute infectious disease epidemic in a community, the epidemiologic and public health principles apply equally well to noninfectious disease investigations.
Designing Studies in the Field
Authors: Dicker Richard C.
Published: September 2009

The two most common types of observational studies conducted by field epidemiologists are cohort studies and case control studies. Conceptually, a cohort study, like an experimental study, begins with exposure and looks for differences in disease incidence among different exposure groups. In a case control study, enrollment is based on the presence (“case”) or absence (“control”) of disease, and the frequency of exposures is compared between the cases and controls. Each type of study has its strengths and limitations, but each has an important place in field investigations. This chapter provides an overview of these two study designs, emphasizing methodological considerations in the field.