bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A spherical model for orientation and spatial–frequency tuning in a cortical hypercolumn
Authors: Bressloff Paul C. , Cowan Jack D.
Published: October 2003

A theory is presented of the way in which the hypercolumns in primary visual cortex (V1) are organized to detect important features of visual images, namely local orientation and spatial–frequency. Given the existence in V1 of dual maps for these features, both organized around orientation pinwheels, we constructed a model of a hypercolumn in which orientation and spatial–frequency preferences are represented by the two angular coordinates of a sphere. The two poles of this sphere are taken to correspond, respectively, to high and low spatial–frequency preferences.

In Part I of the paper, we use mean–field methods to derive exact solutions for localized activity states on the sphere. We show how cortical amplification through recurrent interactions generates a sharply tuned, contrast–invariant population response to both local orientation and local spatial frequency, even in the case of a weakly biased input from the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). A major prediction of our model is that this response is non–separable with respect to the local orientation and spatial frequency of a stimulus. That is, orientation tuning is weaker around the pinwheels, and there is a shift in spatial–frequency tuning towards that of the closest pinwheel at non–optimal orientations.

In Part II of the paper, we demonstrate that a simple feed–forward model of spatial–frequency preference, unlike that for orientation preference, does not generate a faithful representation when amplified by recurrent interactions in V1. We then introduce the idea that cortico–geniculate feedback modulates LGN activity to generate a faithful representation, thus providing a new functional interpretation of the role of this feedback pathway. Using linear filter theory, we show that if the feedback from a cortical cell is taken to be approximately equal to the reciprocal of the corresponding feed–forward receptive field (in the two–dimensional Fourier domain), then the mismatch between the feed–forward and cortical frequency representations is eliminated. We therefore predict that cortico–geniculate feedback connections innervate the LGN in a pattern determined by the orientation and spatial–frequency biases of feed–forward receptive fields. Finally, we show how recurrent cortical interactions can generate cross–orientation suppression.
Resurrecting Van Leeuwenhoek's rotifers: a reappraisal of the role of disaccharides in anhydrobiosis
Authors: Tunnacliffe A. , Lapinski J.
Published: October 2003

In 1702, Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to describe the phenomenon of anhydrobiosis in a species of bdelloid rotifer,
Philodina roseola
. It is the purpose of this review to examine what has been learned since then about the extreme desiccation tolerance in rotifers and how this compares with our understanding of anhydrobiosis in other organisms. Remarkably, much of what is known today about the requirements for successful anhydrobiosis, and the degree of biostability conferred by the dry state, was already determined in principle by the time of Spallanzani in the late 18th century. Most modern research on anhydrobiosis has emphasized the importance of the non–reducing disaccharides trehalose and sucrose, one or other sugar being present at high concentrations during desiccation of anhydrobiotic nematodes, brine shrimp cysts, bakers' yeast, resurrection plants and plant seeds. These sugars are proposed to act as water replacement molecules, and as thermodynamic and kinetic stabilizers of biomolecules and membranes. In apparent contradiction of the prevailing models, recent experiments from our laboratory show that bdelloid rotifers undergo anhydrobiosis without producing trehalose or any analogous molecule. This has prompted us to critically re–examine the association of disaccharides with anhydrobiosis in the literature. Surprisingly, current hypotheses are based almost entirely on
in vitro
data: there is very limited information which is more than simply correlative in the literature on living systems. In many species, disaccharide accumulation occurs at approximately the same time as desiccation tolerance is acquired. However, several studies indicate that these sugars are not sufficient for anhydrobiosis; furthermore, there is no conclusive evidence, through mutagenesis or functional knockout experiments, for example, that sugars are necessary for anhydrobiosis. Indeed, some plant seeds and micro–organisms, like the rotifer, exhibit excellent desiccation tolerance in the absence of high intracellular sugar concentrations. Accordingly, it seems appropriate to call for a re–evaluation of our understanding of anhydrobiosis and to embark on new experimental programmes to determine the key molecular mechanisms involved.
Power over reproduction in social Hymenoptera
Authors: Beekman Madeleine , Ratnieks Francis L. W.
Published: October 2003

Inclusive fitness theory has been very successful in predicting and explaining much of the observed variation in the reproductive characteristics of insect societies. For example, the theory correctly predicts sex–ratio biasing by workers in relation to the queen's mating frequency. However, within an insect society there are typically multiple reproductive optima, each corresponding to the interest of different individual(s) or parties of interest. When multiple optima occur, which party's interests prevail? Presumably, the interests of the party with the greatest ‘power’; the ability to do or act. This article focuses on factors that influence power over colony reproduction. In particular, we seek to identify the principles that may cause different parties of interest to have greater or lesser power. In doing this, we discuss power from two different angles. On the one hand, we discuss general factors based upon non–idiosyncratic biological features (e.g. information, access to and ability to process food) that are likely to be important to all social Hymenoptera. On the other hand, we discuss idiosyncratic factors that depend upon the biology of a taxon at any hierarchical level. We propose that a better understanding of the diversity of reproductive characteristics of insect societies will come from combining inclusive fitness theory with a wide range of other factors that affect relative power in a conflict situation.
Invertebrate responses to the management of genetically modified herbicide–tolerant and conventional spring crops. I. Soil-surface-active invertebrates
Authors:   The American Association for Research into Nervous and Mental Diseases, Brooks D. R. , Bohan D. A. , Champion G. T. , Haughton A. J. , Hawes C. , Heard M. S. , Clark S. J. , Dewar A. M. , Firbank L. G. , Perry J. N. , Rothery P. , Scott R. J. , Woiwod I. P. , Birchall C. , Skellern M. P. , Walker J. H. , Baker P. , Bell D. , Browne E. L. , Dewar A. J. G. , Fairfax C. M. , Garner B. H. , Haylock L. A. , Horne S. L. , Hulmes S. E. , Mason N. S. , Norton L. R. , Nuttall P. , Randle Z. , Rossall M. J. , Sands R. J. N. , Singer E. J. , Walker M. J.
Published: October 2003

The effects of herbicide management of genetically modified herbicide–tolerant (GMHT) beet, maize and spring oilseed rape on the abundance and diversity of soil–surface–active invertebrates were assessed. Most effects did not differ between years, environmental zones or initial seedbanks or between sugar and fodder beet. This suggests that the results may be treated as generally applicable to agricultural situations throughout the UK for these crops. The direction of the effects was evenly balanced between increases and decreases in counts in the GMHT compared with the conventional treatment. Most effects involving a greater capture in the GMHT treatments occurred in maize, whereas most effects involving a smaller capture were in beet and spring oilseed rape. Differences between GMHT and conventional crop herbicide management had a significant effect on the capture of most surface–active invertebrate species and higher taxa tested in at least one crop, and these differences reflected the phenology and ecology of the invertebrates. Counts of carabids that feed on weed seeds were smaller in GMHT beet and spring oilseed rape but larger in GMHT maize. In contrast, collembolan detritivore counts were significantly larger under GMHT crop management.
Invertebrate responses to the management of genetically modified herbicide–tolerant and conventional spring crops. II. Within-field epigeal and aerial arthropods
Authors:   The American Association for Research into Nervous and Mental Diseases, Haughton A. J. , Champion G. T. , Hawes C. , Heard M. S. , Brooks D. R. , Bohan D. A. , Clark S. J. , Dewar A. M. , Firbank L. G. , Osborne J. L. , Perry J. N. , Rothery P. , Roy D. B. , Scott R. J. , Woiwod I. P. , Birchall C. , Skellern M. P. , Walker J. H. , Baker P. , Browne E. L. , Dewar A. J. G. , Garner B. H. , Haylock L. A. , Horne S. L. , Mason N. S. , Sands R. J. N. , Walker M. J.
Published: October 2003

The effects of the management of genetically modified herbicide–tolerant (GMHT) crops on the abundances of aerial and epigeal arthropods were assessed in 66 beet, 68 maize and 67 spring oilseed rape sites as part of the Farm Scale Evaluations of GMHT crops. Most higher taxa were insensitive to differences between GMHT and conventional weed management, but significant effects were found on the abundance of at least one group within each taxon studied. Numbers of butterflies in beet and spring oilseed rape and of Heteroptera and bees in beet were smaller under the relevant GMHT crop management, whereas the abundance of Collembola was consistently greater in all GMHT crops. Generally, these effects were specific to each crop type, reflected the phenology and ecology of the arthropod taxa, were indirect and related to herbicide management. These results apply generally to agriculture across Britain, and could be used in mathematical models to predict the possible long–term effects of the widespread adoption of GMHT technology. The results for bees and butterflies relate to foraging preferences and might or might not translate into effects on population densities, depending on whether adoption leads to forage reductions over large areas. These species, and the detritivore Collembola, may be useful indicator species for future studies of GMHT management.
The Drosophila Ste20 family kinase dMST functions as a tumor suppressor by restricting cell proliferation and promoting apoptosis
Authors: Jia Jianhang , Zhang Wensheng , Wang Bing , Trinko Richard , Jiang Jin
Published: October 2003

In a genetic screen for mutations that restrict cell growth and organ size, we identified a new tumor suppressor gene, dMST, which encodes the Drosophila homolog of the mammalian Ste20 kinase family members MST1 and MST2. Loss-of-function mutations in dMST result in overgrown tissues containing more cells of normal size. dMST mutant cells exhibit elevated levels of Cyclin E and DIAP1, increased cell growth and proliferation, and impaired apoptosis. dMST forms a complex with Sav and Wts, two tumor suppressors also implicated in regulating both cell proliferation and apoptosis, suggesting that they act in common pathways.
The Antinomies of Collective Political Trauma: A Pre‐Theory
Authors: Vertzberger Yaacov Y. I.
Published: October 2003

Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin's assassination has less of a lasting impact on the Israeli public's political values, beliefs and attitudes than might have been anticipated from the magnitude of the event and intensity of the immediate responses. Why did the assassination have such a short‐lived effect? This article considers the puzzle as a specific case of the broader phenomenon of collective political trauma and its consequences for values, beliefs and attitudes held by the mass public toward issues that it associates with the traumatic event. The article offers six deductively inferred hypotheses that describe, explain and link affective, cognitive and behavioral aspects of collectively experienced trauma. These hypotheses form a pre‐theory explaining the perseverence of core political cognitions, even in the face of a considerable challenge to their validity and relevance.
Between Christian Ethics and Religious Ethics
Authors: Hauerwas Stanley
Published: October 2003

By focusing on questions concerning what kind of training graduate students in theology and ethics and religious ethics should receive, I try to initiate a conversation we need to have about the kind of work the JRE should foster.
Military Service in the Church Orders
Authors: Kreider Alan
Published: October 2003

The debate concerning the approach of the early Christians to the military can be advanced by paying attention to a genre of literature that scholars have largely ignored: the church orders. These documents—the Apostolic Tradition, Canons of Hippolytus, Testament of Our Lord, and Apostolic Constitutions—are illuminating in that they deal with ethics within comprehensive treatments of worship, catechesis and pastoral life. They also are useful in that they, as variations upon a common original, are means of monitoring change across the third and fourth centuries. This article uses the church orders to assess four elements of a “new consensus” (David Hunter) on Christians in the military. By and large it confirms these, but at times it alters emphases and adds nuances. It argues that: (1) the church orders viewed killing as the big problem for Christians in the legions, not idolatry; (2) the church orders confirm that the pre‐Christendom church was divided on Christian participation in the legions; (3) the church orders provide evidence for both discontinuity and continuity on the issue across the centuries, although the deepest continuity, based on John the Baptist's “rule” of Luke 3.14, is between the pre‐Constantinian laity and later theologians; (4) the church orders confirm a regional variation in attitude and practice. The church orders' authority in practice is never clear.
Luther on Unio Cum Christo
Authors: Totten Mark
Published: October 2003

Although often neglected, Luther's concept of unio cum Christo in justification is a fruitful model for integrating faith and ethics. According to this model, the Christian is justified in union with Christ who is present in faith. Since Christ is the incarnation of God's self‐giving love, the Christian united with Christ will in turn love her neighbor. This model of integration reveals an intrinsic connection between faith and ethics. Justification concerns not only the dyad of self and God, but also the self's relations with other persons. For Luther, loving the neighbor completes justification. Nonetheless, in both Luther's writings and for the purposes of constructive ethics, unio cum Christo is best understood not as an exhaustive account of integration, but as a helpful model for illuminating certain theological commitments, especially the importance of neighbor love to the God‐relation.
Idolatry and Future Generations: the Persistence of Molech
Authors: Muers Rachel
Published: October 2003

Drawing on the work of Jewish text scholars and the philosophy of Levinas and Rosenzweig, this article uses the biblical texts on Molech, and issues in their interpretation, as the starting‐point for an analysis of the intergenerational structure of idolatry. In the context of attention to this structure, and to the particular implications of this for Christians as “Gentiles”, the death of Jesus can be read in ways that subvert the patterns of the Molech cult.
Linking Community Initiatives to National Institutions: Ghana
Authors: Cichon Michael , Tumwesigye David , Pal Karuna , Léger Florian , Vergnaud Diane
Published: October 2003

The ILO has developed an innovative concept of global solidarity for social security — the Global Social Trust — which supports the development of national social protection systems through international financing. The concept is ready to be tested nationally and the present paper proposes a pilot project for Ghana. The paper considers the virtues and weaknesses of developing‐country social security healthcare systems and community‐based voluntary insurance schemes, their lack of informal sector coverage on the one hand and their financial disequilibria on the other. It outlines the socio‐economic and macro‐policy context of Ghana and the current health policy environment. It argues for a fusion of the social health insurance and mutual health organization concepts in Ghana, thus linking community initiatives to national institutions, enhancing coverage and the quality of services for all. The paper outlines a basic model that could apply to Ghana, its organizational structure, practical functioning, financing arrangements and expected outputs. In particular it seeks to develop a model for the cross‐subsidization of insurance premiums for the poor. It describes a concept that would combine local ownership initiatives with national responsibility and financing, arguing for a truly interrelated network of social protection. The authors welcome feedback and comments from the wider social security audience.
Basic Income, Self‐Respect and Reciprocity
Authors: Mckinnon Catriona
Published: October 2003

Why should I let the toad work

Squat on my life?

Can’t I use my wit as a pitchfork

And drive the brute off?

Six days of the week it soils

With its sickening poison —

Just for paying a few bills!

That's out of proportion.

From Philip Larkin, ‘Toads’.

ABSTRACT This paper mounts a Rawlsian argument for unconditional basic income on the grounds that it maximins the distribution of income and wealth understood as a social basis of self‐respect. The most important objection to this argument available to Rawlsians is that basic income violates the demands of reciprocity, where reciprocity in any scheme of distribution is a requirement of justice. The second half of the paper addresses this objection. It is argued there that even if the objection can be made successfully by Rawlsians (and this is not clear), it is not sufficient to divest them of a commitment to basic income, given some practical considerations about the implementation of alternatives to basic income.
Book Reviews
Authors: Crook Seth
Published: October 2003

Books reviewed:

Wayne Ouderkirk and Jim Hill, (eds), Land, Value, Community: Callicott and Environmental Philosophy

John Meyer, Political Nature: Environmentalism and the Interpretation of Western Thought

Val Plumwood, Environmental Culture: The Ecological Crisis of Reason

David Schmidtz and Elizabeth Willott, (eds), Environmental Ethics: What Really Matters, What Really Works
The Virtual Studio
Authors: Brown Stephen , Cruickshank Iona
Published: October 2003

Like many other Higher Education institutions, De Montfort University in Leicester has been experimenting with the use of virtual, on‐line learning and teaching delivery and support in response to by now familiar pressures. These include growth in student numbers, widening access, reduction in unit costs, increased need for flexibility of provision and constructivist ideas about learning. This paper reports on one of these experiments in detail: the creation of a simulated, online photography studio. The move to a virtual simulated studio entailed a radical rethink of the module learning outcomes and activities. Evaluation of the virtual studio reveals that while a very high investment of time and commitment was required by staff, significant savings have been achieved in delivery and student support costs without a reduction in student performance or satisfaction levels. Additional, less tangible, benefits include increases in staff skills and a strong positive impact on academic/technical staff working relationships.
Psychological Mechanisms in Hyperactivity: I Response Inhibition Deficit, Working Memory Impairment, Delay Aversion, or Something Else?
Authors: Kuntsi Jonna , Oosterlaan Jaap , Stevenson Jim
Published: October 2003

This study tested the predictions of three different theories of hyperactivity: response inhibition deficit, working memory impairment, and delay aversion. A sample of 51 pervasively hyperactive children and 119 control children, identified by screening a general population sample of 1316 twin pairs, were assessed on tests relating to each of these theories. The hyperactive group performed worse than the control group on the delay aversion measure and some of the working memory tasks. Controlling for IQ removed the significant group differences on the working memory measures, however. There were no significant group differences on the inhibition variables derived from the stop task. However, there was evidence of a pattern of responding on the stop task that was strongly characteristic of hyperactivity: hyperactive children were variable in their speed, generally slow and inaccurate in responding. This pattern of responses may indicate a nonoptimal effort/ activation state. Hyperactive girls were indistinguishable from hyperactive boys in their performance on the tasks.
Exploring the Cognitive Phenotype of Autism: Weak “Central Coherence” in Parents and Siblings of Children with Autism: II. Real‐life Skills and Preferences
Authors: Briskman J. , Happé F. , Frith U.
Published: October 2003

Information on everyday life activities and preferences in both social and nonsocial domains was obtained from parents and children who had taken part in an experimental study of central coherence. Comparisons were made between parents who had a son with autism, parents with a dyslexic son, and families without a history of developmental disorder, as well as the male siblings in these families. Data on everyday preferences and abilities were elicited by means of an experimental questionnaire. Significant group differences in social and nonsocial preferences were found, suggesting that some parents showed similarities with their son with autism, in preference for nonsocial activities and ability in detail‐focused processing. A similar experimental questionnaire, completed by parents on behalf of their sons, discriminated between autism group probands and controls, but did not differentiate sibling groups. The relevance of the nonsocial items to central coherence is discussed in the light of the findings in Part I: autism parents who reported more autism‐related nonsocial (but not social) preferences, tended to show a piecemeal processing style on the experimental tasks.
Activity‐Based Pricing in a Monopoly
Authors: Narayanan V. G.
Published: October 2003

abstract

In this article, I study the interaction between cost accounting systems and pricing decisions in a setting where a monopolist sells a base product and related support services to customers whose preference for support services is known only to them. I consider two pricing mechanisms—activity‐based pricing (ABP) and traditional pricing—and two cost‐accounting systems—activity‐based costing (ABC) and traditional costing, for support services. Under traditional pricing, only the base product is priced, whereas support services are provided free because detailed cost‐driver volume information on the consumption of support services by each customer is unavailable. Under ABP, customers pay based on the quantities consumed of both the base product and the support services because detailed cost‐driver volume information is available for each customer. Likewise, under traditional costing for support services the firm makes pricing decisions on cost signals that are noisier than they are under ABC. I compare the equilibrium quantities of the base product and support services sold, the information rent paid to the customers, and the expected profits of the monopolist under all four combinations of cost‐driver volume and cost‐driver rate information.

I show that ABP helps reduce control problems, such as moral hazard and adverse selection problems, for the supplier and increases the supplier's ability to engage in price discrimination. I show that firms are more likely to adopt ABP when their customer base is more diverse, their customer support costs are more uncertain, their costing system has lower measurement error, and the variable costs of providing customer support are higher. Firms adopt ABC when their cost‐driver rates for support services under traditional costing are noisier measures of actual costs relative to their cost‐driver rates under ABC and when the actual costs of support services are inherently uncertain. I also show that cost‐driver rate information and cost‐driver volume information for support services are complements.

Although the prior literature views ABC and activity‐based management (ABM) as facilitating better decision making, I show that ABC and ABP (a form of ABM) are useful tools for addressing control problems in supply chains.
Interactional Context and Feedback in Child ESL Classrooms
Authors: Oliver Rhonda , Mackey Alison
Published: October 2003

This article reports on an empirical investigation of the role of interactional context in exchanges between teachers and learners in ESL classrooms. The teacher–learner exchanges were categorized as being primarily focused on content, communication, management, or explicit language. Results suggest that the context of the exchange affected both teachers' provision of feedback and learners' modifications to their original utterances following feedback. Teachers were most likely to provide feedback in exchanges that were focused on explicit language and content; learners were most likely to use feedback provided in explicit language‐focused exchanges. Feedback was seldom used in content exchanges and never in management contexts. This study suggests that the importance of the interactional context should not be underestimated when discussing feedback in second language classroom settings.
Bidirectional Information Transfer: An Imperative for Network and Marketing Integration in a Canadian Telecommunications Firm
Authors: Lapierre Jozée , Hénault Brigitte
Published: October 2003

Market intelligence helps ensure that R&D efforts are focused on customer needs. In turn, R&D supplies the information necessary for gaining competitive advantage through advances in product and process technology. However, improved R&D–marketing integration means more than simply involving additional marketing personnel in product development. We must focus on identifying and achieving the desired level of integration.

Jozée Lapierre and Brigitte Hénault present the results of a study examining the R&D–marketing interface in a large Canadian telecommunications company. Their study explores managers' perceptions of interfunctional integration during the planning and implementation of new services. The goal of this study is to identify the critical integration areas and managers' satisfaction with the organization's current level of integration.

Network (i.e., technical) and marketing managers differ substantially in their perceptions of the required level of integration. However, they agree on the five most important areas of interfunctional integration: marketing involvement in establishing service development schedules; information transfer from marketing to network on competitors' moves; information transfer from marketing to network on customer requirements for new services; information transfer from network to marketing on network availability for providing evolved services; and information transfer from network to marketing on network restrictions affecting performance, after‐sales servicing levels, and service pricing. In other words, network and marketing managers view information transfer between their groups as requiring the highest integration level. Both groups agree that their budgeting activities do not require as much integration as other activities.

Managers from both groups are generally dissatisfied with the current level of interfunctional integration. Marketing managers are far more dissatisfied than network managers in most areas of integration explored in this study. However, network managers are more dissatisfied than their marketing colleagues in all areas involving the transfer of information from marketing to network.
The Difficult Path to Lean Product Development
Authors: Karlsson Christer , Åhlström Pär
Published: October 2003

Lean product development holds the promise of dramatically improving a company's competitive position. Its implementation offers the potential for faster product development with fewer engineering hours, improved manufacturability of products, higher quality products, fewer production start‐up problems, and faster time to market. Of course, all of this improves the likelihood of market success.

As Christer Karlsson and Pär Åhlström point out, however, a company attempting to implement lean product development must overcome numerous obstacles. By spending more than 2 years observing and facilitating one company's efforts to make this transition, they were able to identify various factors that either hinder or support the implementation of lean product development.

Lean product development comprises numerous interrelated techniques, including supplier involvement, cross‐functional teams, concurrent engineering, integration (as opposed to coordination) of various functional aspects of each project, the use of a heavyweight team structure, and strategic management of each development project. However, a company does not achieve lean product development simply by implementing some of these techniques. A successful move toward lean product development requires approaching these interrelated techniques as elements of a coherent whole.

As observed in the subject company, several factors can hinder attempts to achieve lean product development. For example, managerial overemphasis on R&D in development projects hampers efforts to achieve cross‐functional integration. In other words, creating a team with members from various functions is easier than achieving a cross‐functional focus throughout an organization. Similarly, a cross‐functional team cannot perform effectively if a sequential view of the development process persists.

Factors that support the transition to lean product development include: tight development schedules, which contribute to a must‐do attitude; close cooperation with a qualified customer, who can provide vital information as well as challenge the development team; highly competent engineers; and, most important, the active, ongoing support and participation of top management. Most participants in the process examined in this study seemed interested in the possibilities of lean product development, which suggests that motivation to change may not pose a significant problem in similar efforts.
New Product Development Structures: The Effect of Customer Overload on Post‐Concept Time to Market
Authors: Datar Srikant , Jordan Clark , Kekre Sunder , Rajiv Surendra , Srinivasan Kannan
Published: October 2003

In corporate policy statements, seminars, journal articles—even in television commercials—the message comes through loud and clear: To remain competitive, we must do a better job of listening to our customers. Through close contact with customers, designers can more accurately identify market requirements, quickly refine product specifications, and thus reduce time to market. However, too much customer input can create confusion and duplication of effort, which ultimately increases time to market. In other words, some firms run the risk of over‐listening to their customers.

In a study of three global players in the electronic component industry, Srikant Datar, Clark Jordan, Sunder Kekre, Surendra Rajiv, and Kannan Srinivasan explore the effects of having too much input from customers. Specifically, they examine the relationship between a company's new product development structure and the volume of customer input, which in turn can affect time to market.

The high‐tech, fast‐cycle firms examined in this study employ two distinct new product development structures: concentrated and distributed. A concentrated structure locates all product designers in one facility. This facilitates cross‐product learning among designers, but limits designers' contact with customers and process engineers. A distributed structure disperses new product development among numerous manufacturing sites, giving designers close contact with customers and process engineers. However, a distributed structure limits designers' opportunities for cross‐product learning.

Analysis of 220 new product efforts reveals that the distributed structure offered a time‐to‐market advantage as long as these firms efficiently managed the level of customer interaction. When designers received input on the product design from no more than 25 customers, the distributed structure provided shorter time to market than the concentrated structure. Beyond the 25‐customer level, time‐to‐market performance of the distributed structure degraded quickly and at an increasing rate. In such cases, more effective management of customer interaction might allow firms employing a distributed structure to enjoy the benefits not only of customer input, but also of improved coordination between product designers and process engineers.
PDMA Success Measurement Project: Recommended Measures for Product Development Success and Failure
Authors: Griffin Abbie , Page Albert L.
Published: October 2003

Success is not just elusive; it is also multifaceted and difficult to measure. A firm can assess the success or failure of a development project in any (or all) of many terms, including customer satisfaction, financial return, and technical advantage. To complicate matters, success may be measured not only at the level of the individual project, but also at the program level. With so many variables to consider and so many stakeholders involved, managers face a difficult challenge just deciding which measures are useful for measuring product development success.

Recognizing that no single measure suffices for gauging the success of every product development project, Abbie Griffin and Albert L. Page hypothesize that the most appropriate set of measures for assessing project‐level success depends on the project strategy. For example, the objectives (and thus, the success criteria) for a new product that creates an entirely new market will differ from those of a project that extends an existing product line. Similarly, they hypothesize that the appropriate measures of a product development program's overall success depend on the firm's innovation strategy. For example, a firm that values being first to market will measure success in different terms from those used by a firm that focuses on maintaining a secure market niche.

To test these hypotheses, product development professionals were presented with six project strategy scenarios and four business strategy scenarios. For each project strategy scenario, participants were asked to select the four most useful measures of project success. For each business strategy scenario, participants were asked to choose the set of four measures that would provide the most useful overall assessment of product development success.

The responses strongly support the idea that the most appropriate measures of project‐level and program‐level success depend on the firm's project strategy and business strategy, respectively. For example, customer satisfaction and customer acceptance were among the most useful customer‐based measures of success for several project strategies, but market share was cited as the most useful customer‐based measure for projects involving new‐to‐the‐company products or line extensions. At the program level, firms with a business strategy that places little emphasis on innovation need to focus on measuring the efficiency of their product development program, while innovative firms need to assess the program's contribution to company growth.
Changing Patterns in Industrial R&D Management
Authors: Gupta Ashok K. , Wilemon David
Published: October 2003

A successful R&D manager is, in many ways, an agent of change. R&D managers must respond effectively to changes in domestic and global competition, product and process technologies, customer requirements, regulatory matters, and senior management's perception of the role R&D plays in a firm. The responses to these changes flow downstream from R&D to other parts of the organization, in the form of new materials, methods, processes, and products.

To help us understand the changes facing R&D management, Ashok K. Gupta and David Wilemon present the results of a study that examines the ideas and experiences of 120 R&D directors from technology‐based companies. The study explores the major changes that R&D management has undergone in recent years, the changes R&D managers expect to encounter during the next few years, and the causes of those changes. The respondents also identify the skills and knowledge they view as necessary for effective R&D management, and they assess their organizations' capabilities in those areas.

According to the respondents, major changes that R&D has encountered include increased emphasis on such issues as cross‐functional teamwork, R&D's contribution to both short‐ and long‐term business results, R&D's capability to quickly bring to market new products that customers value, efficient use of R&D resources, and R&D alliances. Other changes noted by respondents include greater pressure to find new markets, increased attention on the effective management of technical personnel, and increased regulations and sensitivity to environmental issues.

The knowledge domains that the respondents highlighted as having the greatest effect on R&D performance include such capabilities as understanding customer needs, monitoring market developments, commercializing new technologies, building cross‐functional teams, managing multiple R&D projects, and accelerating new product development. According to the respondents, the largest gaps between required and current capabilities exist in several of the areas listed as being most important to effective R&D management, including monitoring market developments that can affect R&D activities and overall business performance, maintaining a spirit of inquiry while ensuring that R&D contributes to overall corporate performance, developing technology commercialization capabilities, fostering mutually profitable strategic alliances, and accelerating the development and commercialization of new products.
Distributed New Product Development Project Based on Internet and World‐Wide Web: A Case Study
Authors: Hameri Ari‐Pekka , Nihtilä Jukka
Published: October 2003

The deluge of hype about the wonders of the Internet, Intranets, and the World Wide Web continues unabated. At the same time, we hear numerous tales about endless streams of busy signals, broken connections, and painfully slow response times. Surveying the apparent gap between the promise and the often‐painful reality, a skeptical manager might reasonably question whether this technology can satisfy the rigorous demands of business users such as product development project teams.

In a case study of a large, geographically distributed product development project, Ari‐Pekka Hameri and Jukka Nihtila find that Web‐based applications can play an important role in new‐product development (NPD) efforts. Particularly when projects involve numerous teams from various locations, such tools can provide effective media for communicating and disseminating information. The case study also suggests that these networked information technology (IT) applications can offer important benefits in terms of project and process management.

The project described in this study involves a major NPD collaboration, with several independent subprojects and hundreds of team members from various research institutes and companies. The Internet and the World Wide Web provide the media for managing and disseminating project data. Using hypertext links, the Web‐based system gives team members easy access to engineering drawings, 3D models, parameter lists, prototype test results, and other engineering information. The point‐and‐click interface also allows team members to access information about the project structure and schedules, as well as meeting notes, newsgroups, and electronic bulletin boards.

Analysis of the file‐transfer activities between the Web server and the project groups highlights several important points regarding networked IT applications, information sharing, and project management. First, the system used in this project serves primarily for disseminating information, rather than for fostering collaboration between different groups. Increased collaboration among networked team members probably requires more sophisticated version‐ and configuration‐management capabilities. Second, file‐transfer activities typically come in bursts around project milestones; this highlights the essential role that project milestones play in coordinating the work of distributed team members. The electronic media enhance not only the work leading up to milestones, but also the dissemination of decisions made at each milestone.
A Causal Model of the Impact of Skills, Synergy, and Design Sensitivity on New Product Performance
Authors: Song X. Michael , Souder Wm. E. , Dyer Barbara
Published: October 2003

Notwithstanding the best efforts of outstanding managers, project team members, researchers, and consultants, no product development plan can guarantee success. Every new products organization will experience its fair share of failures, but a firm can take steps to ensure that its failures do not outweigh its successes. By benchmarking the competition, a firm can gain insight into best practices–the factors that lead most directly to new product success.

To help identify these best practices, X. Michael Song, William E. Souder, and Barbara Dyer develop and test a causal model of the relationships among the key variables leading to new product performance. The proposed model identifies five factors that lead to marketing and technical proficiency: process skills, project management skills, alignment of skills with needs, team skills, and design sensitivity. According to the model, marketing and technical proficiency directly determine product quality, and ultimately lead to new product success or failure.

The causal model was tested using information on 65 completed projects–34 successes and 31 failures–from 17 large, multi‐divisional Japanese firms. The study participants develop, manufacture, and market high‐technology consumer and industrial products. These firms judged the success or failure of the projects in this study by using seven criteria: return on investment, profit, market share, sales, opportunities for technical leadership, market dominance, and customer satisfaction. These firms generally assigned the greatest importance to customer satisfaction, opportunity creation, and long‐term growth.

For the most part, the responses from these firms support the relationships presented in the causal model. According to the respondents, marketing proficiency and product quality have a strong, positive influence on their new product performance, as do process skills, project management skills, and alignment of skills and needs. The responses highlight the importance to these firms of responsiveness to customer wants and needs, as well as ensuring a close fit between project needs and the firm's skills in marketing, R&D, engineering, and manufacturing. Somewhat surprisingly, the responses do not support the model's suggested relationships between skills/needs alignment and technical proficiency or between technical proficiency and product quality.
Alliances, External Technology Acquisition, and Discontinuous Technological Change
Authors: Lambe C. Jay , Spekman Robert E.
Published: October 2003

A new paradigm, a radical innovation, the next killer application–the terms differ, but they all point to the same thing: a major change in the technology base for a mature industry. A discontinuous technological change (DTC) poses a significant challenge for the companies operating in the affected industry. The technology at the foundation of their products and markets has changed, and they must find a way to adapt to that change. To maintain their competitive standing, they must master the new technology and ensure that their products and processes fully exploit it.

Noting that alliances offer an increasingly popular means for meeting the challenges that a DTC presents, C. Jay Lambe and Robert E. Spekman explore two issues related to alliances and DTC. First, why does DTC motivate companies to use alliances as a means for acquiring technology? And second, how do these motivations change during the various stages of the DTC life‐cycle? By understanding the relationship between DTC and technology sourcing alliances, a firm can increase the likelihood of success for its alliances and thus improve the effectiveness of its product development efforts.

When faced with a DTC, an established firm has three options for obtaining the new technology: merging with or acquiring a company that already possesses the technology; developing the required capabilities by using existing resources; or entering into some form of alliance. Because of time‐to‐market pressures and industry uncertainty, alliances often take precedence over the other two options for acquiring the new technology. However, the attractiveness of alliances also varies as a result of changes in the levels of urgency and uncertainty throughout the DTC life‐cycle.

The advent of a radical innovation is marked by a relatively low sense of urgency and high levels of industry uncertainty. Firms are not yet certain how the new technology will affect the industry, and they may not feel compelled to enter into technology sourcing alliances. As the new technology takes hold–and the levels of urgency and uncertainty peak–the motivation for entering into a technology sourcing alliance also reaches its highest level. Firms must move quickly to secure a position of market leadership, and the right alliance can jump‐start those efforts. During the latter stages in the DTC life‐cycle, the technology and the market requirements become more stable, the levels of urgency and industry uncertainty decrease, and firms often shift their focus from alliances to internal development and acquisitions.