bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Market signals as adequacy indicators for future flexible power systems
Authors: de Vries Laurens , Sanchez Jimenez Ingrid
Published: February 2022

Existing indicators of electricity system adequacy need to be supplemented with economic performance indicators. As power systems are decarbonized, energy storage technologies are being developed and demand is becoming more flexible. Reliability standards need to reflect the price elasticity of these sources of flexibility. During scarcity situations, this increased demand flexibility may prevent outages, but still lead to high electricity prices. If the average electricity price is well above the average cost of power supply, this can be an indication that the system is not adequate, even if the outage rate does not exceed the current reliability standards.
Documentary Fiction of the Pogroms of the Civil War
Authors: Murav Harriet
Published: February 2022

Itsik Kipnis’s 1926 Yiddish novel Months and Days: A Chronicle, was one of the first literary accounts of the pogroms of the Russian Civil War. Although it reads like fiction, the text includes the names of real-life perpetrators and victims and also provides other factual information about what took place in Slovechno, Ukraine, in July 1919. Kipnis’s novel is not only about facts. It is intensely personal: the young author had just gotten married when the pogroms in his region began. The larger narrative thus consists of two seemingly incongruous components: a love story, and a story of neighborly violence. Kipnis weaves together the emotions of love, tenderness, and care with fear, rage, resentment, and bitterness. What emerges is a deeply experiential account of the history of violence in Eastern Europe after World War I.
Back to Square One
Authors: Ben-Ami Shlomo
Published: February 2022

The demise of the Swedish track set us, Palestinians and Israelis, back to our rigid stance, which was the reason for Barak’s impatience with the US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright’s planned visit to explore whether there was sufficient ground for a summit. The yawning incongruity between Barak’s visionary rhetoric and actual behavior was particularly striking. Surprisingly, even if reservedly, Egypt’s President Mubarak was not taken aback by our peace offers. Jordan’s ambiguous attitude to Palestinian statehood was reflected in King Abdullah’s preference for an Israeli-Syrian peace that would overshadow the Palestinian process. The Palestinians, however, lost patience. Israel’s Byzantine politics served as an impediment to progress, not as a vehicle for it. And Arafat’s dilemma of negotiations or confrontation was looking as immanent to his revolutionary persona, not truly just tactics.
The Rise of English
Authors: Salomone Rosemary
Published: February 2022

Is English a bridge or a barrier to economic advancement and social mobility as it spreads worldwide? To what extent do domestic and global politics determine those outcomes? Who are the winners, losers, and resisters? How are France and China using the “soft power” of language to overtake English, and to what ends? What role do globalization, a knowledge-based economy, and neoliberalism play in these developments? Using education as its lens, this book critically unpacks these and related questions in a sweeping journey across four continents through diverse political and historical settings. It begins in Europe with the European Union and its promotion of multilingualism and with controversies over English-taught courses and programs in universities in the name of internationalization. It then moves to the postcolonial world, where disputes over English in the schools reveal longstanding grievances and the inequities of historically rooted and politically motivated language policies, and where French is losing its hold to English in some former French-speaking colonies. It finally shifts to the United States, where state and local officials and grassroots organizers are addressing the “foreign language deficit” and initiating programs that promote multilingualism. Drawing on a vast store of interdisciplinary research, interviews, court decisions, political commentary, literature, and popular culture from across the globe and in multiple languages, the book makes the case for a common global language (English for now) as a core component of multilingualism in a world that is growing smaller, more diverse, and more politically uncertain by the nanosecond.
Christ as Riddle
Authors: Ward Graham
Published: February 2022

This is the first of three chapters characterizing the nature of the encounter with Christ and arising from Jesus’s question to the disciples ‘Who do you say I am?’ Given Christ is God, then there can be no final grasping at the identity of Christ. We can only participate in the interchange of acknowledgements through encountering Christ and examine the characteristics of those encounters. Christ as riddle is one of those characteristics. It enables us to attempt some answer to the question: Who is Jesus Christ today? This chapter examines the nature and power of riddles in Oedipus Rex and contemporary philosophy working in veins mined by Wittgenstein in order to clarify how, in Christ, the riddles keep the question of identity open but do not result in a tragic understanding of a fatal ignorance.
Christ as Scandal
Authors: Ward Graham
Published: February 2022

Beginning with scriptural exegesis, this chapter explores the character of the scandal that Christ was both aware He caused and aware that He, as God, is. It examines the nature of the scandalous, in particular the kind of visceral response it invokes both in individuals and collectively. In doing so, the Chapter argues for the relation between the scandalous and the disgusting. In Scripture, the scandal is often associated with the miraculous and this connection is developed and analysed. The scandal of Christ experienced in encountering Him is then continued in the Church as the body of Christ - as the early responses to the emergence of Christianity testify. It is an evident aspect of the interchange of acknowledgements in the encounter, and the chapter illustrates this by looking at a short story by Gustave Flaubert.
Faith and the Fall
Authors: Ward Graham
Published: February 2022

This chapter considers the other aspect of the paradise myth, the Fall. Again, it is argued, linearity has to be problematized. The Fall as the origin of sin refers to nothing historical. Judaism has no such concept, and the chapter examines that with respect to Paul’s Second Adam Christology. The theological interpretations of the poetic character of the Fall in both Schleiermacher and Tillich are explored before turning to the experiential heart of the doctrine: death, loss, and exile (where all boundaries are transgressed). The work of Heidegger on this constellation of themes provides a way, it is argued, of understanding ‘fallenness’, but, as with Tillich, the ideas rehearsed raise the spectre of tragedy. A theological understanding of fallenness, it is suggested, has to be understood by turning to the crucifixion and this Scriptural scene is explored through the work of the painter Francis Bacon.
Self and Identity
Authors: Merricks Trenton
Published: February 2022

The personal identity literature is fragmented. There is a literature on the normative topic of ‘what matters in survival’. And there is a separate literature on the metaphysics of persons. But in Self and Identity, Trenton Merricks shows that some important claims about personal identity cannot even be articulated, much less evaluated, unless these topics are brought together. Merricks says that what matters in survival is constituted by its being appropriate to first-personally anticipate, and have self-interested concern with regard to, a future person’s experiences. So what matters in survival is not constituted by identity with a future person. So identity is not what matters in survival. But Merricks argues that—given a metaphysics of ‘enduring’ persons—identity with a future person explains why it is appropriate to first-personally anticipate, and have self-interested concern with regard to, that person’s experiences. So identity delivers what matters in survival. Some claim that what matters in survival is delivered not by identity, but instead by psychological continuity. Or by having the ‘same self’, that is, the same values, desires, and projects. Or by narrative connectedness. Or by unity of agency. Merricks argues that these claims—unlike the claim that identity delivers what matters in survival—cannot accommodate all the ways in which personal transformations can be good, or bad, for someone. At the end of Self and Identity, Merricks puts his conclusions about what matters in survival through their paces by applying them to a new topic: personal immortality.
Shallows and Deeps
Authors: Kerr Matthew P. M.
Published: February 2022

This chapter recovers the nineteenth-century milieu for the more focused author studies that follow. It gives a discursive historical account of two marine locations characterized by their uncertain boundaries in the period: the shore-line and the deep sea. This twinned emphasis allows an exploration of the developing capacity to probe further and deeper, limning some specific contours of the marine welter. The chapter draws on mutually influential genres of sea-writing, with key works including Jane Austen’s unfinished novel about sea-bathing; the scientific treatises of Philip Henry Gosse and Charles Wyville Thomson; the popular journalism of Charles Camden (a pseudonym for Richard Rowe); Charles Kingsley’s fiction and creative non-fiction; Thomas De Quincey’s ruminations on drowning; and Rudyard Kipling’s short story ‘“Wireless”’. The discussion introduces a recurring motif: the interrelationship of the sea’s literal and symbolic meanings in the nineteenth-century cultural imaginary.
Taking note of a ‘wondrous time’
Authors: Roth Carla
Published: February 2022

This chapter introduces St Gall, Johannes Rütiner, and his notebooks, the Commentationes. Sixteenth-century St Gall was a small Protestant town on the border of the Swiss Confederacy. Despite its moderate size, it was well known for the abbey in its midst as well as for the production of high-quality linen which was highly sought-after all over Europe. The chapter reconstructs Rütiner’s education in St Gall and Basle as well as his career as a small-scale linen trader and office-holder in his hometown. It then discusses Rütiner’s Commentationes as part of a broader trend in St Gall that saw numerous citizens, and many of Rütiner’s friends, take up writing chronicles around the time of the Reformation. At the same time, the chapter draws attention to the many distinctive features of the Commentationes and their resistance to any conventional categorization. Written in unpolished Latin, lacking chronological order and containing a plethora of unflattering stories about St Gall’s elite—and some of Rütiner’s closest friends—the Commentationes were intended as a private memory aid, not as a chronicle to be handed down to future generations.
Informants and networks
Authors: Roth Carla
Published: February 2022

This chapter exploits one of the most unique features of Johannes Rütiner’s Commentationes, namely the fact that Rütiner named his informants, their sources, and the context in which information was exchanged in over seventy per cent of his notebook entries. Combining these ‘references’ with evidence from St Gall’s rich archives, the chapter offers a reconstruction of Rütiner’s information network and outlines its social and geographical dimensions. The chapter argues that even educated St Gallers like Rütiner relied heavily on their personal, and overwhelmingly oral, networks to supply them with information from all over Europe, and occasionally beyond. Rütiner’s place between two powerful, well-connected and well-travelled, but fairly separate social groups within St Gall—the weavers’ guild on the one hand, and a circle of learned men and Protestant pastors on the other—therefore put him in a prime position for collecting information.
Rumour, news, and trust
Authors: Roth Carla
Published: February 2022

This chapter focuses on the circulation and reception of news in sixteenth-century St Gall. Through an analysis of sixteenth-century conceptions of fama (rumour, reputation, news) and a series of case studies relating to rumours about witchcraft in the Black Forest, a volcanic eruption in Naples, and an Ottoman–Catholic alliance, the chapter traces the processes by which fama became fact in the eyes of Rütiner and his contemporaries. Since it was usually impossible to verify news independently, St Gallers relied on an elaborate system of ‘source criticism’; a system which often worked in favour of oral news because it made people’s trust in a piece of news conditional on their trust in the messenger. St Gall’s newsmongers, in turn, used the flexibility of oral news to adjust their stories to their audience’s expectations, to present themselves and their sources as trustworthy, to hide their reliance on anonymous printed news, and to discredit their competition on the marketplace of information.
The Politics of Global Competitiveness
Authors: Cammack Paul
Published: February 2022

Marx’s ‘general law of social production’, proposed in Capital (1867), suggests that as the capitalist system of production becomes global, and competition between capitalists becomes more intense, workers are compelled to be versatile (multi-skilled), flexible, and mobile in order to survive. This general law, resulting from scientific and technological innovation and continuous advances in the division of labour generated by competition between capitalists, has given rise to global production chains, ‘zero hours’ contracts, and the breaking down of production processes into smaller and smaller individual steps, increasingly supported by advanced machines and digital platforms. This book identifies the universal policy framework that promotes these developments as the politics of global competitiveness, and shows that the Washington-based World Bank and the Paris-based Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), working together, are its principal advocates. They do not narrowly promote the interests of the advanced capitalist economies, or the ‘West’ and its transnational corporations, but rather the unlimited development of the global capitalist system and the world market as a whole. When their policies are examined together and compared, they reveal a single, shared programme, focused not on the relationship between the developed and the developing world, but on the global relationship between capital and labour. Put at its simplest, their aim is to ensure that as many people as possible across the world have the potential to be productive workers, and to propose reforms to welfare or social protection that will oblige them to offer themselves to capitalists for work.
Popular Protest and Ideals of Democracy in Late Renaissance Italy
Authors: Cohn, Jr. Samuel K.
Published: February 2022

This is the first book to analysis popular protest across the Italian peninsula and the Venetian colonies during the early modern period, 1494 to 1559. From over one hundred contemporary chronicles and diaries, the fifty-eight volumes of Marin Sanudo’s diplomatic dispatches, mercantile letters, and commentary, and 586 collective supplications scattered through archival sources from towns and villages in the Grand duchy of Milan, it has placed these incidents and their patterns in comparative perspectives, first with the late medieval heyday of popular revolt and then with regions north of the Alps. It finds new developments during the early modern period such as an increase in women rebels, mutinies of soldiers, and new tactics of revolts as with shop closures, peaceful demonstrations of strength, and use of religious processions for discussions of tactics and strategies for obtaining logistic advantage. At the same time, these protests show convergences with the medieval Italian past as with leaders coming almost exclusively from the ranks of nonelites, religious ideology playing a surprisingly minor role, and the majority of revolts centring overwhelming in towns and cities. Finally, this book demonstrates that democracies do not just die under duress of military occupation and growing powers of autocratic regimes. Ideals of representation and equality not only persisted; they could emerge in new forms and with greater sophistication.
Three Major Works, 1806‒1808
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: February 2022

This chapter discusses the contents of the three major writings in the early Göttingen years: Allgemeine Pädagogik, Hauptpunckte der Metaphysik, Ueber philosophisches Studium. The discussion of the Allgemeine Pädagogik centers around the problematic unity of the work and its critique of Rousseau. The treatment of the Hauptpunckte der Metaphysik is a commentary on its leading sections and deals with Herbart’s relationship with Kant’s idealism. Ueber philosophisches Studium is Herbart’s first discussion of philosophical method.
Herbart and Prussian Educational Reform
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: February 2022

This chapter considers Herbart’s work as an educator in his Königsberg years. It covers first Herbart’s remarkable relationship with Wilhelm von Humboldt and their work on the reform of Prussia’s educational institutions. It considers Herbart’s various projects to improve education in Prussia, his pedagogic institute, his didactic seminar, and his work on the scientific deputation. It treats Herbart’s attitude toward state intervention in education and his stance toward the repressive Wartburg decrees.
Marriage, Separation, and Divorce in England, 1500-1700
Authors: Kesselring K. J. , Stretton Tim
Published: February 2022

England is well known as the only Protestant state not to introduce divorce in the sixteenth-century Reformation. Only at the end of the seventeenth century did divorce by private act of parliament become available for a select few men, and only in 1857 did the Divorce Act and its creation of judicial divorces extend the possibility more broadly. Aspects of the history of divorce are well known from studies which typically privilege the records of the church courts that claimed a monopoly on marriage. But why did England alone of all Protestant jurisdictions not allow divorce with remarriage in the era of the Reformation, and how did people in failed marriages cope with this absence? One part of the answer to the first question, this book argues, and a factor that shaped people’s responses to the second, lay in another distinctive aspect of English law: its common-law formulation of coverture, the umbrella term for married women’s legal status and property rights. The bonds of marriage stayed tightly tied in post-Reformation England in part because marriage was as much about wealth as it was about salvation or sexuality, and English society had deeply invested in a system that subordinated a wife’s identity and property to those of the man she married. To understand this dimension of divorce’s history, this study looks beyond the church courts to the records of other judicial bodies, the secular courts of common law and equity, to bring fresh perspective to a history that remains relevant today.
Resisting an Alien Invasion of Principles
Authors: Kapoor Ria
Published: February 2022

This chapter examines the anti-colonial nationalist led Indian government’s decision to remove itself from international humanitarian bodies and covenants addressing refugee relief and rehabilitation in the 1940s, as a result of the experiences of the Second World War. Instead, all aliens, regardless of their circumstances, were flattened into a single umbrella category by legal instruments like the 1946 Foreigners Act. The decision rested on a particular understanding of how the self-determination and the rights it guaranteed were in tension with a more universalist notion of human rights adopted in the 1940s. It thus explores the nature of rights, humanitarianism and the establishment of the self-determined nation-state in India, and how the figure of the refugee was caught in between these, at the immediate moment of India’s transition from colony to nation-state.
Refugees to (Re)Build the Nation
Authors: Kapoor Ria
Published: February 2022

The rehabilitation of refugees after Partition was formative for the Indian state, connected with issues of citizenship, of politics and parties, of Kashmir and Hyderabad, and the very development of the Indian state. This chapter explains how refugee rehabilitation was intrinsically intertwined with the Nehruvian state’s efforts to (re)construct the Indian state after the events of the 1940s, while actions in the name of these same refugees became a way to challenge the Nehruvian vision too. The Indian government exerted more control over the refugees than any other citizens, recovering as both the state and the displaced were from the loss of Pakistan. The contradictions of establishing the secular, planned, developmentalist state in a place where the two-nation theory and ethno-religious division had recently caused a mass migration left the refugees of Partition as the site at which the tensions of Indian citizenship, state-building, and consolidation played out.
A Nation-in-Exile in the Age of Non-Alignment
Authors: Kapoor Ria
Published: February 2022

The arrival of Tibetan refugees along with the Dalai Lama in 1959 saw India reframe its understanding of the refugee away from that of the citizen figure of Partition to one more closely resembling the international, UN, one, even relabelling ‘returning’ diasporic Indians from Burma as repatriates where they had previously been called refugees. The Tibetans were granted partial rights by India, as part of that state’s sovereign right to grant asylum, effectively turning the decision into a matter of Indian sovereignty rather than trying to paint this as an international censure of China’s violation of human rights in the bipolar atmosphere of the Cold War. In keeping with a non-aligned stance, India’s leaders debated the place of human rights as self-determination for the Tibetan people, with a resulting impact on how humanitarian aid offered by the international community, for a group that met the UN definition even though India rejected such recognition, was handled. The relationship both with China and with Burma, in the handling of the ‘refugees’ and the ‘repatriates’ reflected the Cold War and regional tensions inherent in the Afro-Asian bloc as anti-colonial solidarities were transformed by postcolonial state-building.
War and Modern Taxation
Authors: Frizell Jakob
Published: February 2022

The chapter analyses the effect of war on tax modernization across world regions. By the example of the Angolan civil war, it questions the conventional wisdom according to which warfare is a distinctly European pathway to fiscal development. It argues that the fiscal exigencies of war are near-universal and lead to similar tax policy reactions irrespective of geographical area. This is equally true for civil as for interstate wars. The availability of natural resource rents or external finance may mitigate the immediate effect of war, but does not neutralize it. The argument is supported by a series of logit regressions estimating the effect of war on the probability of permanently introducing any of six modern taxes in a global sample of countries covering the two last centuries. The sole diverging case is Latin America, where the link between war and taxation is weak at best. Latin America thus represents the exception from the ‘bellicist’ rule of fiscal development.
The Historical Roots of Post-Communist Taxation
Authors: Todor Arpad
Published: February 2022

The chapter investigates whether and how communist and pre-communist legacies have shaped post-communist taxation in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. It starts with a literature review showing that post-communist tax outcomes are usually explained by post-communist political, institutional and economic variables. Historical legacy effects are largely ignored. The chapter then provides a short historical overview of the spread of modern taxes in Eastern Europe and Central Asia before the rise of Communism. It reconstructs breaks and continuities in national tax systems during Communism. Finally, it uses regression analysis to gauge the influence of pre-communist and communist legacies on post-communist tax systems. It shows that the timing of income tax introductions before Communism and the role of income taxation during Communism have shaped post-communist taxation in important ways.
“Like a Phoenix from Her Ashes”
Authors: Levy Daniel S.
Published: February 2022

This chapter discusses the aftermath of the New York’s Great Fire of 1835. At precisely 9 AM on the morning of December 17, 1835, New York Herald editor James Gordon Bennett headed out to look at what quickly became known as the “Burnt District.” What he found was “heart rending in the extreme.” Not only were buildings destroyed, but boxes, bales, desks, safes, and dry goods as well as the remains of frozen fire hoses were scattered everywhere. In human terms, the damage was comparatively light; because the area served primarily as the city's business sector, only two people died. Yet the city needed to recover, and Mayor Cornelius Lawrence quickly summoned the Common Council to figure out how to safeguard the exposed property. Lawrence also formed a number of fire-related committees; there were to be inquiries to determine the cause of the fire, suggestions as to what alterations should be made to city streets, and what modifications needed to be carried out for building construction. Philip Hone and others formed a group that planned to appeal to the Albany legislature for financial aid. Unsurprisingly and inevitably, the losses sorely taxed insurance companies. Nevertheless, New York quickly got back to business, and within a year much of the damage seemed to be swept away as merchants rebuilt.
Covering the Waterfront
Authors: Levy Daniel S.
Published: February 2022

This chapter describes how, at the end of the 1840s, New York was responsible for half the U.S. imports and a third of U.S. exports. Alexander Stewart had a lot to do with this. In 1846 he opened his Marble Palace on Broadway, and set a new standard for merchants. As more people flocked to the city, the roadways became crowded. To deal with the increase in foot and vehicle traffic into the city, there was a growing need for hotels. Food preparation also boomed in the city. Oysters were a New York staple, oyster harvesting developed into a big business, and oyster cellars lining the city’s streets beckoned customers. The arrival of California gold further spurred New York's economy. Throughout, workers filled the shoreline and extended the land, harbor construction continued at a furious clip, and new docks and piers stretched into the rivers. With so much activity, businessmen needed to know what was going on, so papers such as the New York Sun and the New York Herald ran news, social notices, crime reports, gossip, accounts of slave conspiracies, and literature, along with ads for everything from ship dockings to auctions for house sales.
The Croton River Flows into the City
Authors: Levy Daniel S.
Published: February 2022

This chapter studies the construction of the Croton Aqueduct. In the late 1830s, engineer John Jervis devised a masonry conduit that brought water from the Croton River to Manhattan. Water pipes were laid in the streets, and the massive Murray Hill Distributing Reservoir was constructed at Fifth Avenue and 42nd Street on the site where the main branch of the New York Public Library now stands. The water supply’s health benefits, in a city that had recently suffered through a devastating outbreak of cholera, became clear from the start. Jervis’ Croton system revolutionized New York and spurred its continued growth, as water flowed to homes, businesses, even fountains at hotels. Not surprisingly, and perhaps inevitably, people started to take the water supply for granted, and soon the city had to start to look for new supplies to satisfy the city’s growing thirst.
“A Burial Can Scarcely Take Place without Disturbing a Previous One”
Authors: Levy Daniel S.
Published: February 2022

This chapter discusses how high mortality in New York affected both the wealthy and the poor, though of course it was higher in the latter, who had less access to proper sanitation and clean water. With so many deaths, New York was constantly a place of funerals. Yet while some of the dead were buried in the yards of fine churches, others ended up in potter’s fields. The city's lax sanitary laws meant there were few rules regulating burials and the upkeep of sites. And in a city obsessed with expansion, the dead were seen as lying in the way of progress. The truncating and closing of cemeteries, and the moving of bodies to make way for new streets and buildings, was thus a regular event in the city in the first half of the 19th century. By 1850, facing overcrowded burial places, mounds of manure, and general filthiness, the city had no choice but to look into ways to clean up. However, the creation of a uniform sewer system was a slow process. It would take until the turn of the 20th century for much of New York City to properly flush away a large amount of its filth.
A Rural Retreat in the Gridded City
Authors: Levy Daniel S.
Published: February 2022

This chapter describes the development of Central Park. In 1857, Frederick Law Olmsted was hired as the park’s new superintendent. He explored the land and organized the workers, and his efforts suitably impressed the commissioners. By this point, architect Calvert Vaux's agitation for a new design for the park had worked, and on October 13, the commissioners announced a public competition and called for proposals. This was the first significant landscape competition in the country. Olmsted and Vaux formed a partnership and set out to create a beautiful, harmonious park. They titled their proposal the “Greensward Plan,” since it contained large grass-covered areas. There were 33 submissions, and the partners were awarded first prize. With Vaux and Olmsted now in charge, work got underway, and ultimately, Central Park became the nation's biggest public works project.
An Ungovernable Metropolis
Authors: Levy Daniel S.
Published: February 2022

This chapter studies how 19th-century New York lacked a social safety net for the poor and dispossessed. Poverty was especially widespread among African Americans. The boom and the inequalities meant New York was a chaotic place, and much happened on the streets. A good many, native-born New Yorkers and immigrants alike, eked out a living as peddlers and hawkers. A dearth of reputable work also meant that many women found themselves forced into prostitution. The chapter then looks at the work of the reform movement, focusing on those like Charles Loring Brace who established homes for homeless newsboys. It likewise considers the formation of the City Reform League in 1852 in response to the rapacious ways of William Tweed and his fellow aldermen. Finally, the chapter highlights Fernando Wood's ascension as mayor of New York City, much of which was made possible by his control of the city's Municipal Police force and the support of street gangs such as the Dead Rabbits. His rule would lead to major riots along the city’s streets.
Maelstrom
Authors: Levy Daniel S.
Published: February 2022

This chapter examines New York during the American Civil War. Northern support for the South almost immediately evaporated following the bombing of Fort Sumter, and many citizens who had previously backed that region's interests joined the Union cause. Democrats like William Tweed and those in Tammany Hall who supported the struggle became known as “War Democrats.” Meanwhile, “Peace Democrats” like Mayor Fernando Wood couched their backing of the federal government with talk of negotiation and reconciliation with the South and the continuation of slavery. After the initial shock to New York's economy, the city, like the nation, geared up for war. Indeed, New York was transformed into a military industrial juggernaut that stoked the Union Army's arsenal. Enlistment stations popped up around town, with various regiments preparing and veteran corps organizing. Men soon headed for war. Some departed not long after Fort Sumter's surrender, and fought in the First Battle of Bull Run. However, what many believed would be a brief and splendid war ended up being anything but.
The Place of Punishment
Authors: Beckett Katherine
Published: February 2022

The continued use of prisons and jails at historically high levels in rural and suburban areas is sustaining mass incarceration. Although urban counties have far higher crime rates, criminal legal authorities in suburban and rural counties send a much greater share of the people who are arrested on felony charges to prison. Counties with higher levels of social disadvantage, more conservative electorates, and larger Black populations have higher prison admission rates after controlling for crime-related problems. Even after taking all of these factors into account, however, rural and suburban counties have comparatively high prison admission rates. If rural and suburban counties matched urban counties in terms of their use of prison, prison admissions would be reduced by roughly one-third. While geographic variation in the propensity to punish increasingly falls along urban/nonurban lines, it is made possible by the existence of tough sentencing laws that enable zealous prosecutors and judges to impose severe penalties.
The Limits of Recent Drug Policy Reforms
Authors: Beckett Katherine
Published: February 2022

Judging by historical standards, it appears that the drug war is alive and well. This chapter identifies several factors that explain why recent drug policy reforms have had such a modest impact on drug arrests and incarceration. First, state lawmakers have focused overwhelmingly on reducing penalties for drug possession, but people who were convicted of this specific offense comprise a very small share (3.5 percent) of the prison population. Second, while reducing the use of confinement in cases involving drug distribution could have a more meaningful impact on the scale of incarceration, policy is moving in the opposite direction. Third, the ongoing commitment to drug war practices in rural and suburban areas is sustaining high drug arrest rates and incarceration. Finally, one of the most pervasive kinds of drug policy reforms—reliance on drug courts—is likely increasing rather than reducing drug arrests and incarceration. There is also evidence that drug courts enhance racial disparities in drug case outcomes.
A White Man’s World
Authors: Byman Daniel
Published: February 2022

Abstract: For most of the post-Reconstruction era, whites enjoyed political, social, and economic dominance in America, and lynchings and other brutality was common. When challenges arose from immigration and, especially, civil rights, white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan arose to combat them. Such groups, however, saw themselves as defenders of the social order and often worked with law enforcement or with its tacit approval. The civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, however, shattered white dominance. Through peaceful resistance, it transformed American politics and led to outrage against once-tolerated white supremacist violence. This, in turn, led to political pressure on the U.S. government to end the violence, and the FBI, at times working with and through state officials, began a devastating crackdown against various Klan chapters and like-minded groups. Government lawsuits and those of civil society organizations like the Southern Poverty Law Center impoverished many white supremacist organizations, creating new strains on the overall movement. Together, such efforts reduced the political influence of white supremacists and would make them more radical, opposed to the order they once championed.
Strategies of White Supremacy and the Weaknesses of the Cause
Authors: Byman Daniel
Published: February 2022

White supremacists have employed a variety of means to increase their influence on society and impose their hateful agenda. In the post–civil rights era, avowedly white supremacist candidates have failed in elections, especially in the United States, though some of their ideas have moved toward the mainstream. Because peaceful politics have largely failed, white supremacists have tried to foster a race war, use violence to spark an uprising, accelerate what they see as the inevitable collapse of a multiracial system, intimidate minorities, and create a separate homeland. Many white supremacists fall back on leaderless resistance, which makes violent individuals harder to identify and arrest but compounds the movement’s strategic problems. Although they fall short of their most ambitious goals, white supremacists have nevertheless proven able to shape political discourse and otherwise increase their influence in smaller ways.
Institutionalizing a Partisan-Gender Identity
Authors: Wineinger Catherine N.
Published: February 2022

Chapter 4 examines the collective action of Republican congresswomen. Through case studies of the Congressional Caucus for Women’s Issues (CCWI) and the Republican Women’s Policy Committee (RWPC), the chapter demonstrates how institutional and political changes over time have shaped the recognition and mobilization of a partisan-gender identity among Republican women. The first half of the chapter examines the evolution of CCWI membership, focusing on Republican women. It shows how ideological differences, party loyalty, and institutional changes have affected Republican congresswomen’s decisions to work within the bipartisan women’s caucus. The second half of the chapter discusses how this partisan-gender identity would gradually become institutionalized as the RWPC. Through an analysis of the formation of the RWPC, it shows how ideological cohesion, interparty competition, and changes in the political environment have resulted in opportunities for women to organize collectively within the GOP. Chapter 4 also reveals the various challenges faced by Republican congresswomen and the significance of male party leaders as gatekeepers.
Amplifying a Collective Voice
Authors: Wineinger Catherine N.
Published: February 2022

Chapter 5 focuses on the experiences of three female Republican Conference leaders: Susan Molinari, Jennifer Dunn, and Cathy McMorris Rodgers. Through in-depth case studies, the chapter highlights similarities and differences in each woman’s pathway to office and gendered strategies and priorities. The chapter also shows how female Republican Conference leaders have operated as critical actors for women’s representation within their party. That is, they have attempted to use their positions of power to draw attention to Republican women’s institutional interests and priorities, despite their small numbers. In particular, the chapter demonstrates how personal, political, and institutional factors allowed Cathy McMorris Rodgers to leverage and perpetuate the existence of a partisan-gender identity among Republican women. Despite this, male party leaders continue to value Republican women primarily as loyal party messengers.
Risk Thinking and the Enduring Structure of Vicissitudes
Authors: Bandopadhyay Saptarishi
Published: February 2022

Chapter 6 offers a genealogy of risk thinking during the mid- to late eighteenth century and shows how the resulting instincts, rationalizations, and techniques continue to inform technocratic risk management today. Modern conceptions of risk emerged in European maritime insurance contracts designed to guard commercial investments against “chance.” Chapter 6 shows how merchants, gamblers, lawyers, and mathematicians, pursuing a variety of interests and compulsions, developed metrics for predicting natural hazards and human choices alike. In time, rulers and reformers used these insights to regulate human behavior and guide social reforms toward a “right” society. The move toward probabilistic risk assessment recoded European state formation politics. Commercial prosperity and security of rule were animated by objective, scientific calculations that produced “normal” characterizations of deviance, risk, resilience, and progress. Chapter 6 reveals the continuities between early modern risk management and the methods and imperatives of cost-benefit governance in our time.
Anti-Racist Metamorphoses in Du Bois’s Classical References
Authors: Withun David
Published: February 2022

W. E. B. Du Bois’s increasing engagement with the ancient history of Africa and Africans in the classical world exemplifies a series of reversals of accepted interpretations. In addition to alluding to this history in his novels and essays, Du Bois published several monographs discussing Africa’s history. In these and other works, Du Bois uses the ancient history of Africa in relation to the classical history of the Mediterranean world to advance his argument for the intellectual and cultural equality of African people with Europeans. By positioning the classical period as a time before racism, by calling attention to the presence of Black people in Antiquity, and by subverting traditional interpretations of classical myths and ideas, Du Bois metamorphosed claims of white superiority that drew on the heritage of classical Greece and Rome into arguments against modern racism.
The History of the “Darker Peoples” of the World
Authors: Withun David
Published: February 2022

As W. E. B. Du Bois’s knowledge of the history of Africa increased, his engagement with the history of Africa shifted to an appreciation of African history on its own terms rather than merely in relation to the history of the classical civilizations of the ancient Mediterranean. Du Bois’s turn toward cosmopolitanism represents a turning point in the history of African American engagement with the classics. With Du Bois, African American thinkers began to turn away from a focus on the knowledge of Latin and Greek languages and literatures as well as attempts to associate modern African Americans with ancient Nilotic civilizations as a means of race vindication. Instead, Du Bois now turned toward a greater focus on the history of non-European peoples. In so doing, Du Bois presents these non-European civilizations as worthy of appreciation, thereby undermining ideas of racial inferiority.
Introduction
Authors: Arthur John W.
Published: February 2022

The introduction contextualizes the four themes of health, economy, ritual, and technology related to beer. This chapter discusses how the processing of grains into beer by early brewers may have initiated early food production and state development. The author introduces how a serendipitous discovery that he made while conducting ethnoarchaeological research in southern Ethiopia led him to realize the importance of beer in past and present societies throughout the world. At the end of the chapter comes a description of each of the remaining chapters.
The Diversity of Beer Production
Authors: Arthur John W.
Published: February 2022

Chapter 2 surveys the past and present, revealing the diversity of beer production methods and ingredients. The array of production techniques, technologies, and ingredients indicates that brewers through the ages shared many production methods but also provided their own unique visions of beer. Over time and by region, technologies, gender roles, and ingredients have been constantly changing and in some regions ceased because of the adoption of new religions.
Africa
Authors: Arthur John W.
Published: February 2022

Chapter 4 focuses on African ancient and contemporary cultures. The chapter begins by examining how African grains were collected and processed before their domestication. After domestication, beers were produced along the Nile as part of the most iconic state societies. New archaeological evidence of Egyptian breweries suggests that the early Egyptian state organized beer production and over time household brewers controlled beer production. Beer’s long history in Africa continues today, with beer playing a critical part in today’s societies from South Africa to Nigeria to Ethiopia. The chapter also highlights the author’s own beer research in southern Ethiopia.
Introduction
Authors: Rahmani Masoumeh
Published: February 2022

This chapter lays the conceptual foundation for this book. It begins with an introduction to Goenka’s Vipassana movement, a description of a standard ten-day Vipassana course and the field site at which ethnographic research for this book was conducted. Next, the chapter introduces the participants involved in this research and provides an overview of some of their shared perspectives including their conception of categories such as religion and spirituality. Finally, the chapter reflects on the recent developments in conversion studies and situates this book within this field. Most notably, it includes a conception of conversion and outlines the linguistic approach I have adopted to achieve the objectives of this book.
Tacit Conversion
Authors: Rahmani Masoumeh
Published: February 2022

This chapter introduces the concept of tacit conversion as an analytical framework for conceptualising the process of personal transformation and increased commitment to Goenka’s Vipassana movement. This chapter is based on a detailed examination of an old student’s language and his performance of the role of a Vipassana meditator. By paying attention to the content of speech, as well as other modalities of communication, including the inflections, tonalities, and the delivery of the narrative, the chapter illustrates that committed old students essentially perform a narrative that in many ways resemble what have been categorised as ‘conversion narratives’ in other traditions. This chapter also outlines several themes that are central to the participants’ experience of self-transformation such as self-acceptance, agency, and the mind-body relationship.
Pragmatic Leaving
Authors: Rahmani Masoumeh
Published: February 2022

This chapter explores the narratives of pragmatic leavers, which represent the accounts of those individuals who disengaged prior to developing commitment and therefore had minimum exposure to this movement. Because empirical studies on leaving religion are primarily built upon the experience of those individuals who leave a movement after long periods of intense devotion and commitment, this chapter prioritised a descriptive approach in order to adequately depict this phenomenon. It argues that pragmatic leavers are (to some extent) experience seekers, and their narrative plots were amenable to the types of meditative experiences they had. The chapter presents three interrelated themes that characterised the language of these disengagement narratives—(1) pragmatism, (2) dualistic discourse, and (3) ambivalence—and demonstrates how each narrative differs based on a particular dynamic between these features.
Watching National Policies Fail
Authors: Johansen Robert C.
Published: February 2022

US national security managers have not aligned US power wisely to meet desirable security goals. Their policies have undermined US security, sustainable peace, and international human rights. They have focused on maximizing US military power rather than constraining the role of military power for all states in the international system; maximizing economic gain for the wealthy rather than eliminating poverty and improving economic well-being for all; slowing multilateral initiatives for environmental protection, economic equity, and international economic integration; expressing indifference toward or opposition to multilateral legal and judicial processes aimed at deterring crimes and protecting human rights; and opposing initiatives in international lawmaking, enforcement, and more effective global governance. US policies have ignored possibilities for new constraints on nuclear weapons, drones, and other military technology and refused to strengthen multilateral institutions or to join the International Criminal Court even though these could have helped bridle some dangerous states and non-state actors.