bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effect of Conditioning Agents on the Structure of Tempered and Steam‐Flaked Sorghum
Authors: McDonough C. , Anderson B. J. , Acosta‐Zuleta H. , Rooney L. W.
Published: June 2007

Tempering agents affect the pericarp of steamed grain and the endosperm of steam‐flaked sorghum. Examination by environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) clearly showed that β‐mercaptoethanol (BME), sulfurous acid (SA), phosphoric acid, and cellulase significantly altered the structure of the pericarp and endosperm during tempering. Lime and protease had a lesser effect on the pericarp structure of the kernels, and had little effect on the endosperm. Steamed flakes from the SA treatment were more translucent and durable than all other treatments. Flakes with BME were translucent and high in quality, but were more fragile than the SA flakes. Nontempered, water only, and commercial conditioner treatments produced flakes with the lowest quality. Peak, final, and breakdown Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) viscosities were lowest for the SA flakes due to disruption of the starch chains by the weak acid. BME viscosity values were higher than SA, but lower than the water and commercial tempering treatments. The commercial conditioner (15×normal concentration) did not alter kernel structure and did not cause any changes in the RVA profiles over kernels tempered with water alone. Starch gelatinization, measured by enzyme susceptible starch (ESS), was highest in the SA and BME flakes and lowest in the nontempered flakes. Feedlot operators may be able to save money by avoiding the use of chemical additives that do nothing to the grain. By using chemicals proven to have positive effects on flake quality, operators could save money by reducing the processing time and energy needed to produce good quality flakes.
Surface Derivatization of Corn Starch Granules
Authors: Whistler Roy L. , Madson Michael A. , Zhao Jingan , Daniel James R.
Published: June 2007

Commercial corn starch, treated with stearoyl chloride in carbon tetrachloride and triethylamine, is surface‐derivatized without noticeable swelling. Granules that are reacted with chloroacetic acid under similar conditions undergo surface etherification, visibly identified by their color binding with fuchsin. Interestingly, the dye experiment indicates surface‐derivatization as well as derivatization of the granule central interior, suggesting reagent penetration to the granule interior through pores and derivatization of a lower density porous center. Esterification of corn starch granules treated with glucoamylase have five times greater esterification than normal corn starch granules. Placed in water, these and palmitoylated granules have a fatty feel to the fingers. Stearoylated corn and amaranth starches showed indications for use as fat replacers in frozen desserts.
Stress Relaxation and Oscillatory Tests to Distinguish Between Doughs Prepared from Wheat Flours of Different Varietal Origin
Authors: Safari‐Ardi Mohsen , Phan‐Thien Nhan
Published: June 2007

The relaxation properties of flour‐water‐salt doughs prepared from four different flour types (weak, medium, strong, and extra strong) at different water absorption levels from 58 to 66% with protein contents of 10.0, 10.9, 13.2, and 11.8%, respectively, were studied by imposing varying strain amplitudes of 0.1–29%. Oscillatory tests in the linear viscoelastic region of the 66% absorption strong and weak dough cannot distinguish between the two types of dough. The inability to differentiate between dough types also applied to oscillatory tests on 58% absorption weak and 66% absorption strong doughs. However, the relaxation modulus of dough (extending over time) behaved quite distinctively at high strains, where dough samples experience large deformations. At strain amplitudes of ≤0.1% (i.e., in the linear viscoelastic region), different dough types behaved similarly. Likewise, the relaxation modulus completely relaxed at sufficiently long times. The magnitude of the modulus at intermediate‐ and high‐strain amplitudes were in the order: extra strong > strong > medium > weak, indicating a higher level of elasticity in the extra strong dough samples despite its lower protein content. The relaxation times spectrum of the weak flour, extracted from the relaxation modulus data, reveals a broad relaxation process. The stress relaxation data are very reproducible at high‐strain amplitudes (≈1–15% for up to 3 × 103 sec). This work demonstrated, for the first time, the consistency in oscillatory and relaxation measurements for dough. It also clearly showed that linear viscoelastic data, although important in the characterization of time scales in dough, are largely irrelevant in differentiating between dough types. Furthermore, without proper care, a false steady‐state behavior can be obtained with standard viscometric measurements due to slippage at the dough‐plate interface.
Water Vapor Barrier Properties of Zein Films Plasticized with Oleic Acid
Authors: Lai Huey‐Min , Padua Graciela W.
Published: June 2007

Water sorption, water vapor permeability, and tensile properties were evaluated for zein films plasticized with oleic acid. The effect of relative humidity on water vapor permeability and tensile properties of films was investigated. Samples were produced by two different methods: casting from a zein solution and stretching from a zein‐fatty acid resin. Films were also coated with linseed oil. Results indicated that preparation method affected water sorption and permeability of zein films. Resin films showed lower water sorption than cast films, especially at high Aw values. Water vapor permeability was also lower for resin films. Coating with linseed oil further improved water vapor barrier ability of resin films. Permeability was affected by environmental relative humidity; higher relative humidity resulted in increased permeability. Environmental relative humidity also affected tensile properties of resin films. Toughness and elongation were improved when relative humidity increased from 50 to 85% rh. Tensile strength showed a maximum at 75% rh. Coating improved elongation and toughness of films. Maximum elongation and toughness were observed for coated samples at 85% rh. Zein resin films showed good tensile and water barrier properties that were maintained through environmental humidity levels from 50 to 98% rh.
Assay of Dehydroascorbic Acid in Bread and Dough Added as a Crystalline Dimer
Authors: Lu Xiuzhen , Seib Paul A.
Published: June 2007

The assay of dehydro‐l‐ascorbic acid (DHAA) in dough and bread was done by reduction of DHAA to l‐ascorbic acid (AA) in aqueous dithiothreitol (DTT) at pH 6–7 followed by quantitation of the AA using HPLC with electrochemical detection. At room temperature and pH 6.6, with 4.0 equivalents of DTT, the conversion of DHAA to AA was stoichiometric after 5 min. In mixograms on flour‐water doughs, DHAA added in dimeric form at 200 ppm had no effect on absorption but increased mixing time by 9–19% with the same effects occurring in full‐formula doughs. AA added to doughs did not affect mixing peak time or absorption. Mixing bread doughs with an initial level of 25–200 ppm of AA based on flour (14% mb) produced DHAA in the freshly mixed doughs at concentrations of 20–51 ppm, or from 80 to 26% of AA added. During ≈120 min of fermentation and proofing, the levels of AA in the doughs increased by 4–10 ppm. Mixing bread doughs with an initial level of 25–200 ppm of DHAA produced no AA in the freshly mixed doughs, but the proofed doughs and fresh breads contained 4–10 ppm and 7–49 ppm of AA, respectively. Fresh bread made from dough with 200 ppm of AA retained 66% total vitamin C (110 ppm of AA + 21 ppm of DHAA), whereas bread made with 200 ppm of DHAA retained 9.5% total vitamin C (13 ppm of AA + 6 ppm of DHAA). DHAA was 2–4 times more effective in improving loaf volume than an equal weight of AA in no‐time dough, and 1.5–2 times more effective in straight‐dough. In straight‐dough bread made with a commercial bread flour, increasing concentrations of DHAA markedly improved bread up to ≈20 ppm, beyond which overoxidation occurred rapidly. In contrast, increasing concentrations of AA improved bread up to ≈150 ppm with a broad tolerance up to 200 ppm. The improving action of DHAA was independent of the concentration of air in the mixing bowl, and DHAA was much more heat‐labile than AA.
Use of Aspiration and the Single Kernel Characterization System to Evaluate the Puffed and Shriveled Condition of Soft Wheat Grain
Authors: Gaines C. S. , Finney P. L. , Fleege L. M. , Andrews L. C.
Published: June 2007

Shriveled kernels lower wheat test weight and reduce milling flour yields. Test weight is also lowered by rain‐dry cycles that cause kernels to puff (exhibit, in part, loosened layers of pericarp). A numeric score was developed for degree of puffing and for degree of shriveling based on simple measurement devices. Wheat samples were evaluated for test weight and Single Kernel Characterization System (SKCS) hardness index, SKCS kernel weight, milling flour yield, and kernel density (hexane displacement). Those evaluations were performed before and after samples were air‐aspirated to remove all shriveled kernels. Test weight, SKCS hardness index, and density of aspirated samples were used to develop a puffing score. Changes (resulting from aspiration) in test weight, SKCS kernel weight, and flour yield were used to develop a shriveling score. Higher puffing scores were related to elevated α‐amylase activity. Puffed kernels were softer and were not associated with decreased flour yield. Puffing and shriveling scores were independent (poorly correlated), but together predicted 95% of the variation in original, nonaspirated test weight.
Changes Occurring in Protein Body Structure and α‐Zein During Cornflake Processing
Authors: Batterman‐Azcona Sheri J. , Hamaker Bruce R.
Published: June 2007

Zeins, which comprise the majority of proteins in corn, are located in spherical organelles called protein bodies. Changes in protein body shape and release of encapsulated α‐zeins as a result of cornflake processing (conventional pressed or extrusion flaking) were investigated. Size‐exclusion chromatography, SDS‐PAGE, and protein solubility tests showed that, upon cooking, zein proteins form large, disulfide‐bound polymers, many of which were insoluble in nonreducing solvents. Transmission electron microscopy with immunogold staining revealed that cooking had no effect on protein body structure in corn, but after processing to cornflakes, protein body structure was altered. In conventional pressed cornflakes, the protein bodies were flattened, partially fused together, and α‐zeins were to some degree released, whereas in the extruded flakes, protein bodies were completely disrupted and α‐zeins dispersed. These results suggest that zeins in cornflakes, particularly extruded ones, are not confined to rigid protein bodies but can interact with each other and other components in the system. The disruption of protein bodies, zein release, and the chemical changes that proteins undergo during processing are speculated to be determinants of texture in ready‐to‐eat corn‐based breakfast cereals.
Wet‐Milling Characteristics of Selected Yellow Dent Corn Hybrids as Influenced by Storage Conditions
Authors: Singh V. , Haken A. E. , Niu Y. X. , Zou S. H. , Eckhoff S. R.
Published: June 2007

Three yellow dent corn hybrids (FR1064×LH59, FR600×FR1087, and FR618×LH123HT) from the 1994 crop, one hybrid (FR1064×LH59) from the 1995 crop, and two hybrids (FR1064×LH59 and FR618×LH123HT) from the 1996 crop were used to study the effect of storage time and storage temperature on starch yields. Samples of all of the corn hybrids were stored under one of two conditions: in a 4°C cold room or under a shed exposed to ambient conditions. The hybrids from the 1994, 1995, and 1996 crops were stored for up to 24, 12, and 3 months, respectively. No significant differences were found between starch yields of the hybrids with respect to storage time. However, there was a significant difference in hybrids from the 1994 samples. Starch yields of two of the three corn hybrids (from the 1994 crop) stored in the 4°C cold room were higher when compared to the starch yields of the same hybrids stored at ambient conditions.
Bulk Density of Long‐ and Medium‐Grain Rice Varieties as Affected by Harvest and Conditioned Moisture Contents
Authors: Fan J. , Siebenmorgen T. J. , Gartman T. R. , Gardisser D. R.
Published: June 2007

The effect of harvest and conditioned moisture contents (MC) on bulk density (BD) of rough, brown, and white rice was determined for several long‐ and medium‐grain rice varieties harvested from different Arkansas locations. The results indicated that harvest MC (HMC) significantly affected the BD of freshly harvested and conditioned rough rice. Higher HMC levels resulted in lower BD levels for rough rice over the conditioned MC range from 11 to 29% (wb). There was a strong linear relationship between rough rice BD and conditioned MC for a given HMC. The harvest location had a more pronounced effect on rough rice BD of long‐grain varieties than of medium‐grain varieties. The BD of brown and white rice was less dependent on harvest location and conditioned MC than the BD of rough rice. Rice harvested at low MC level (≈13%) gave a higher BD for both brown and white rice than that harvested at higher MC levels. Medium‐grain varieties showed a higher BD for brown and white rice than did long‐grain varieties.
Optimum Roasting and Extraction Conditions and Flavor Characteristics of Roasted Malt Extract
Authors: Kim Yang , Lee Young Choon , Kim Kwang Ok
Published: June 2007

Malt was roasted at 235, 245, or 255°C and extracted at 75, 85, or 95°C in hot water for 10, 20, or 30 min. Optimum roasting and extraction conditions were chosen using response surface methodology based on sensory and physicochemical properties. Sensory properties of roasted malt extract produced at optimum conditions were compared with those of roasted barley extract and of commercial barley tea using quantitative descriptive analysis. Flavor compounds in roasted malt extract were identified by gas chromatography (GC) and mass spectroscopy (MS). Correlation between sensory and GC‐MS data were calculated. Roasting malt at 240°C and extracting at 75°C for 28 min were found to be optimum conditions for roasted malt extract. The results of sensory and GC‐MS data indicated that the most dominant flavor compounds in roasted barley and malt were aldehydes and pyrazines.
Optimal Geometries for the Development of Rice Quality Spectroscopic Chemometric Models
Authors: Barton F. E. , Windham W. R. , Champagne E. T. , Lyon B. G.
Published: June 2007

Three sample geometries, two different instrument types, and two spectral collection modes (reflectance and transmission) were used to assess rice quality and develop chemometric models for composition and sensory characteristics. Rice samples (120) including three cultivars, two growing locations, five drying treatments, two moisture levels, and two levels of milling were scanned in two locations. Data collected for modeling included amylose, protein, moisture, whiteness, transparency, and milling degree. Taste and texture were determined with the use of separate trained sensory panels. The NIR models show that composition is best modeled in the 1,100–2,500 nm range, while the physical properties of whiteness, transparency and milling degree are best modeled in the 750–1,050 nm range. Additional models were developed using limited data subsets of the spectral data points. In some cases, adequate models were generated with as few as 20 wavelength data points. Results show that no one spectroscopic protocol is best for all analytes in rice and that for any complex food matrix more than one preprocessing or spectral range protocol is needed.
Isolation of Water‐Miscible High‐Oil Fractions from Starch‐Oil Composites
Authors: Knutson C. A.
Published: June 2007

High‐oil fractions were isolated from a series of starch‐oil composites prepared by jet‐cooking mixtures of starch and vegetable oil in water. They consisted of an emulsion of starch, oil, and water. These fractions were miscible in water and nearly immiscible in hexane. Emulsions from composites prepared with 10–40% oil contained 40–75% of the oil found in the original composite. Oil content of the emulsions varied with the oil content of the original composite, but the ratio of water to starch was essentially constant.
Evaluation of the Entanglement Molecular Weights of Maize Starches from Solution Rheological Measurements
Authors: Carriere C. J.
Published: June 2007

The entanglement molecular weights of waxy maize (WM) and normal maize (NM) starches were calculated from solution rheological data. The viscoelastic behavior of both WM and NM starches were measured at several different concentrations and then shifted to produce a master curve for each of the materials. The theory of Doi and Edwards was used to calculate the plateau moduli from which values for the entanglement molecular weights for WM and NM starches were calculated. The entanglement molecular weights were 100 ± 15 kg/mol for WM starch and 96 ± 8 kg/mol for NM starch. These two values were within experimental error of one another and represent the entanglement molecular weight of amylopectin, the major component of WM and NM starches. The entanglement degrees of polymerization for WM and NM starch, using a value of 162 g/mol for the monomer molecular weight of amylopectin, were 617 ± 92 and 592 ± 49, respectively. The values for the entanglement molecular weight and the entanglement degrees of polymerization for WM and NM starch were markedly higher than those quoted for many commercial polymers. This finding indicates that molecular weights of >1 million are required to produce starch‐based materials with consistent physical properties.
Digital Image Analysis Method for Rapid Measurement of Rice Degree of Milling
Authors: Liu W. , Tao Y. , Siebenmorgen T. J. , Chen H.
Published: June 2007

A digital image analysis method was developed to quickly and accurately measure the degree of milling (DOM) of rice. The digital image analysis method was statistically compared to a chemical analysis method for evaluating DOM, which consisted of measuring the surface lipids concentration (SLC) of milled rice. The surface lipid area percentage (SLAP) obtained by the image analysis method and the SLC obtained by chemical analysis had a high coefficient of determination using a quadratic model (R2 = 0.9819) and using a logarithmic model (R2 = 0.9703). The quadratic model and the logarithmic model were validated using the test data set and it received high coefficients of determination (R2 = 0.9502 and R2 = 0.9459, respectively).
Partial Purification of a Water‐Extractable Rye (Secale cereale) Protein Capable of Improving the Quality of Wheat Bread
Authors: Delcour J. A. , Van Haesendonck I. P. , Cleemput G. , Rogers D. E. , Hoseney R. C.
Published: June 2007

Rye water‐soluble extracts contain a protein fraction that, when added at low concentrations to a straight‐dough breadmaking recipe, significantly increased bread volume. Enrichment of the active component is possible by anion‐exchange fractionation with diethylaminoethyl‐cellulose (DEAE), by ammonium sulfate precipitation, or by using rye bran or shorts milling fractions as the starting material. The active material was not bound to DEAE‐cellulose. With ammonium sulfate precipitation, the fractions obtained at 30, 40, and 50% saturation were active in straightdough baking experiments. Iso‐electric focusing revealed that fractions active in breadmaking invariably contained alkaline protein fractions (pI > 7.5). Inactivation of enzyme material by boiling the water‐soluble extract from rye destroyed all breadmaking activity. The activity of the bread improver was additive to that of potassium bromate but not to that of ascorbic acid. It was not counteracted by catalase, showing that it does not work by a mechanism involving the production of hydrogen peroxide. The extract was not able to overcome the detrimental effect on bread quality resulting from mixing dough in a nitrogen atmosphere.
Quality of Hard Red Winter Wheat Grown Under High Temperature Conditions During Maturation and Ripening
Authors: Gibson L. R. , McCluskey P. J. , Tilley K. A. , Paulsen G. M.
Published: June 2007

High temperature during grain filling has been identified as a major factor in the end‐use properties of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Our objectives were to assess the effect of high temperature during maturation on the grain characteristics, milling quality, and flour quality of hard red winter wheat. In three separate experiments, plants of wheat cultivar Karl 92 were subjected to regimes (day‐night) of 20–20, 25–20, 30–20, and 35–20°C from 10 and 15 days after anthesis (DAA) until ripeness, and 25–20, 30–20, and 35–20°C from 20 DAA until ripeness. In other experiments, plants of wheat cultivars Karl 92 and TAM 107 were dried at 20 and 40°C, and spikes of Karl 92 were dried at different temperature and humidity conditions to asses the effects on quality of high temperature and drying rates during grain ripening. Flour yield correlated positively with kernel weight and diameter, test weight, and proportion of large kernels. Flour yield decreased as temperature increased and correlated negatively with hardness index and proportion of small grains. High growth temperatures and rapid grain desiccation decreased mixing time and tolerance of the flours. The greatest damage occurred when high temperature was maintained continuously from early grain filling until ripeness. Weakening of dough properties by rapid desiccation during ripening suggest that temperature, humidity, and possibly soil moisture all contribute to the final quality of bread wheat.
Zein Batch Extraction from Dry‐Milled Corn: Cereal Disintegration by Dissolving Fluid Shear
Authors: Dickey L. C. , Dallmer M. F. , Radewonuk E. R. , Parris N. , Kurantz M. , Craig J. C.
Published: June 2007

Corn particles were extracted in an agitated vessel with a 4:1 mass ratio of 70% ethanol to corn for periods of 1–6 hr at ambient temperature. The extract solution was filtered and centrifuged to remove suspended particles after extraction and then diluted to 40% ethanol to precipitate extracted solute. Measurements of the mass of suspended particles separated by centrifugation indicate that mixing the corn particles with the ethanol dissolves and weakens the protein between cells and between starch granules within cells near the particles' surface. Under the conditions of this study, corn particles release starch granules more rapidly than the protein bodies dissolve, as indicated by analysis of the centrifuged particles. The diffusion coefficient for ethanol solution in corn was estimated and compared with a coefficent derived from a fit of the trend in the rate of release of fine particles from the milled corn. The diffusion coefficient of pure zein in a stagnant 70% ethanol solution was estimated from the measurement of weight loss by a ball of zein. Analysis of the ambient temperature protein extraction rate indicates that 2‐mm particles exhibit more convective mass transfer than 20‐μm particles.
Silica Gel from Rice Hull Ash: Preparation and Characterization
Authors: Kamath Savita R. , Proctor Andrew
Published: June 2007

Rice hulls, a waste coproduct of the rice industry, is composed of 20% silica. The objectives of this study were to develop a method to recover silica from rice hull ash and produce silica gel, and to determine the physical and chemical properties of the rice hull silica gel (RHSG) relative to Trisyl 300, a commercial silica gel. Rice hull ash consisting of 61% silica and 36% carbon was dispersed in sodium hydroxide to dissolve the silica and produce a sodium silicate solution. The latter was titrated to pH 7 with 1M sulfuric acid to obtain a gel at neutral pH. The RHSG was aged, washed, and dried under specific conditions to get a final product that was slightly basic and had a moisture content >65%. Energy dispersive X‐ray spectrometry indicated that silicon was the most abundant element present in RHSG and Trisyl 300. Elemental analyses by inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy indicated a greater concentration of sodium and sulfur in RHSG relative to that in Trisyl 300. RHSG surface area was 258 m2/g, which was slightly more than half that of Trisyl 300 particles; the particle pore diameter was 121 Å, which was more than twice that of Trisyl 300. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed similarities in chemical structures for both the silica gel samples with respect to siloxane bonds, surface silanol groups, and adsorbed water. X‐ray diffraction patterns for both the samples showed a broad peak between 15 and 35° 2θ diffraction angle indicating their amorphous nature. Scanning electron micrographs revealed that RHSG particles ranged in sizes from <5 to >40 μm, whereas Trisyl 300 particles were smaller, ranging in sizes from <5 to 25 μm and had a more uniform appearance. Silica gel production from rice hull ash alleviates the ricehull waste disposal problem and creates a commercially viable value‐added product. RHSG has wide‐ranging applications in a variety of industries, such as vegetable oil refining, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and paints.
Caroubin: A Gluten‐like Protein Isolated from Carob Bean Germ
Authors: Feillet Pierre , Roulland Thérèse Marie
Published: June 2007

In 1935, Bienenstock and coworkers claimed the presence of gluten‐like material in the germ of the carob seed. The viscoelastic properties of the water‐insoluble proteins isolated from carob germ, which we propose to call caroubin, have been confirmed by dynamic (G′ and G″) and static rheological measurements (texture profile analysis, viscoelastogram). Biochemical analyses showed important similarities (high glutamic acid content, size‐exclusion HPLC profile, PAGE patterns of reduced and unreduced proteins) as well as large differences (high arginine and low cysteine and proline content of caroubin, carbohydrate composition) between caroubin and wheat gluten. Besides potential new industrial uses of carob seed, caroubin could be a valuable material to help us understand the physicochemical basis of the viscoelastic properties of plant protein complexes like wheat gluten.
Effects of Extrusion Variables and Chemicals on the Properties of Starch‐Based Binders and Processing Conditions
Authors: Pan Z. , Zhang S. , Jane J.
Published: June 2007

The effects of extrusion variables (moisture, screw speed, and temperature) and chemicals (urea and sodium bicarbonate) on the properties of starch‐based binders (water absorption, bulk density, binder yield, expansion ratio, solubility, pH) and processing conditions (die temperature and pressure, feed rate, and specific mechanical energy) were studied using a central composite design. All quadratic regression models, except the models for bulk density and pH, were significant at the P ≤ 0.06 level. These models can predict the binder properties and processing conditions when extrusion variables and the chemical concentrations are known. Optimum combinations of the chemical concentrations (g/100 g of starch) and extrusion variables to achieve high water absorption in the binders were 15–20 g of urea /100 g of starch, 0–4 g of sodium bicarbonate/100 g of starch, 35–40 g of moisture/100 g of starch, 100–120 rpm screw speed, and 185–215°C barrel temperature. The molecular degradation of the starch occurred during extrusion, especially when the moisture content of starch was <30 g/100 g of starch.
Effect of Shortenings Containing Stearic Acid on Blood Lipids and Fat Digestibilities in Hamsters
Authors: Ranhotra G. S. , Gelroth J. A. , Leinen S. D. , Ricklefs T. W.
Published: June 2007

Tristearin (TS), a stearic acid‐rich hard fat, and soybean oil (SO) were blended in different ratios to produce four functional shortenings (blends) for use in foods. Groups of hamsters were then fed diets containing TS, SO, and the four blends for four weeks. After four weeks, serum total cholesterol (CH) levels were measured: the group fed SO had 219 ± 19 mg/dL, and the groups fed four blends had a range of 214 ± 14 to 222 ± 15 mg/dL. Thus, TS in the blends exerted no hypercholesterolemic effect; it even lowered serum triglycerides (SO vs. blends). Liver CH levels were significantly lower only in the group fed the blend containing the highest level (60%) of TS. While SO was nearly completely digested (97.7%), digestibility of TS in the blends was low with a range of 10.2–26.3%, which was inversely related to the level of TS in the blend. Thus, functional shortenings produced by blending TS with edible oils may not only not raise blood CH levels, but they would be free of trans fatty acids and may be classified as reduced‐calorie fats.
Bread Crumb Grain Development During Baking
Authors: Hayman D'Anne , Hoseney R. C. , Faubion J. M.
Published: June 2007

Scanning electron microscopy was used to study gas cell size, shape, and distribution throughout the breadmaking process. Flours that produced bread with a relatively good grain and a relatively poor grain were used. Micrographs of the dough samples were taken at mixing; before and after each of two punches; before and after panning; after proofing; and after 12, 18, and 24 min (complete) of baking. No differences were found between the two flours at any dough stage. However, after 12 min of baking, the cell distributions were different between the doughs. These results suggest that the crumb grain differentiates during the early stages of baking. The changes documented during this time, i.e., cells becoming larger and the cell walls thicker, indicate that some gas cells coalesce during the early stages of baking and that this is reflected in the crumb grain of the bread.
Effect of Pressure (Crust Formation) on Bread Crumb Grain Development
Authors: Hayman D'Anne , Hoseney R. C. , Faubion J. M.
Published: June 2007

Previous work showed that the critical changes in crumb grain occurred during the early stages of baking. Oven spring and crust formation also occurred during this time. To determine whether the stress caused as a result of expansion during oven spring was related to the deterioration of crumb grain, doughs were baked at different heating rates to produce different expansion rates in an electrical resistance oven (ERO). The heating rate did not affect crumb grain, thus showing that the stress developed during oven spring are not related to changes in crumb grain. Therefore, two flours were selected that produced bread of different crumb grains when baked conventionally. However, when the two flours were baked in the ERO they gave similar (and fine) crumb grains. The ERO produces bread with no crust. This suggests that pressure in the dough resulting from crust formation during baking is one factor that affects the crumb grain of bread. Adding weight to the surface of the loaf to simulate crust formation caused the grain to change from good to poor as the weight was increased. Results from subsequent ERO baking studies suggest that the temperature range over which the gas cell walls of a wheat flour dough are most susceptible to coalescing is 60–70°C.
Effects of Starch Isolation, Drying, and Grinding Techniques on Its Gelatinization and Retrogradation Properties
Authors: Grant L. A.
Published: June 2007

The effects of two different methods of starch isolation, drying, and grinding on gelatinization and retrogradation properties were investigated. Starch was isolated from whole wheat and flour of four hard red spring wheat cultivars. Portions of each starch isolate were freeze‐dried or air‐dried and portions of each dried starch were ground using a mortar and pestle or a Wiley Jr. mill. Less starch damage was obtained for freeze‐dried starch regardless of isolation method or grinding technique and for all starches derived from whole wheat. Highest starch damage was obtained for air‐dried starch isolates. Wiley‐milled starch isolates showed higher water‐binding. Whole wheat starch isolates had higher peak, lower trough, and lower final viscosities, as determined by starch paste viscosity analysis, than did starch isolates derived from flour. Major effects of all treatments on differential scanning calorimetry gelatinization properties showed lower onset temperature for flour starch isolates, lower peak temperature for freeze‐dried starches, and no effects due to grinding. Endotherms of all starches after refrigerated storage and freezethaw cycling were lower than those for gelatinization.
Factors Affecting Expansion of Corn Meals with Poor and Good Expansion Properties
Authors: Zhang Wei , Hoseney R. C.
Published: June 2007

Two corn meals, one with good and one with poor expansion properties, were used to study the critical factors responsible for poor expansion during corn curl extrusion. Screening tests revealed that the corn meal with poor expansion had a slightly larger particle size. This sample also had a larger proportion of opaque particles compared to the corn meal with good expansion. Extrusion of coarse corn grits showed that larger particle size alone could cause poor expansion. Water diffusion tests showed that the sample containing more opaque particles was more competitive for water. As a result, in corn that contained both opaque and vitreous particles less water was available to the vitreous particles. The underplastisized (dry) vitreous particles remained glassy (unmelted) during extrusion, resulting in reduced expansion of the extrudates. The results suggest that addition of water to the conditioning cylinder of the extruder would overcome poor expansion.
Quantitative Determination of Gluten Protein Types in Wheat Flour by Reversed‐Phase High‐Performance Liquid Chromatography
Authors: Wieser Herbert , Antes Susanne , Seilmeier Werner
Published: June 2007

A combined extraction‐HPLC procedure was developed on a microscale to determine the amounts of the different gluten protein types (ω5‐, ω1,2‐, α‐ and γ‐gliadins; high molecular weight [HMW] and low molecular weight [LMW] glutenin subunits) in wheat flour. After preextraction of albumins and globulins from flour (100 mg) with a salt solution (2 × 1.0 mL), extraction of gliadins was achieved with 60% aqueous ethanol (3 × 0.5 mL). Subsequently, the glutenin subunits were extracted under nitrogen and at 60°C with 50% aqueous 1‐propanol containing Tris‐HCl (0.05 mol/L, pH 7.5), urea (2 mol/L) and dithioerythritol (1%). The separation and quantitative determination of gliadins and glutenin subunits was then performed by reversed‐phase HPLC on C8 silica gel at 50°C using a gradient of increasing acetonitrile concentration in the presence of 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid. The flow rate was 1.0 mL/min, and the detection wavelength was 210 nm. Temperature and flow rate were modified for the quantitation of single underivatized HMW subunits. To determine the absolute amounts of protein types, different protein standards (gliadin, LMW and HMW subunits, bovine serum albumin) with known protein contents were compared to HPLC absorbance areas. The calibration curves were almost identical and linear over a broad range (20–220 μg). This extraction‐HPLC procedure allows an accurate, reproducible, sensitive, and relatively fast quantitative determination of all gluten protein types in wheat flour, and can be applied to quality evaluation of cereals as raw materials or in processed products.
Starch‐Water Relationships in the Sugar‐Snap Cookie Dough System
Authors: Donelson J. R. , Gaines C. S.
Published: June 2007

Prime starch was extracted from soft and hard wheat flours and ballmilled to produce 100% damaged starch. Small amounts of the ball‐milled starch or a pregelatinized starch were added to sugar‐snap cookie formulations. Other cookie doughs were produced from prime starch only (no flour) with small amounts of the ball‐milled starch added. Starch damages of the resulting substituted soft and hard wheat flours and soft and hard wheat prime starches were determined and compared to diameters of sugarsnap cookies produced from the control and treatments. Soft wheat flour and starches produced larger diameter cookies than their hard wheat counterpart at all levels of damaged starch. Both sources of damaged starch (ball‐milled or pregelatinized starch) had similar effects on cookie diameter. Cookies produced from all starch (no flour) were similar to their respective flour controls at ≈8% damaged starch. To produce the same size cookie as that produced by soft wheat flour and starch, hard wheat flour and starch cookie formulations required less damaged starch and had lower alkaline water retention than did the soft wheat flour and starch cookie formulations. Other flours were treated with chlorine gas to pH 4.8. Pregelatinized starch (≈5%) was required to reduce the cookie diameter as much as chlorine treatment did. Results suggest unique quality differences between soft and hard wheat starch as they function in sugar‐snap cookie baking. The functional results of those differences are not adequately quantified by the estimation of damaged starch level.
Composition, Microstructure, Water Imbibition, and Thermal Properties of Abraded Barley
Authors: Klamczynski A. , Baik B.‐K. , Czuchajowska Z.
Published: June 2007

Barley, nonwaxy hull (cvs. Crystal and Meltan) and waxy hull‐less (cvs. Merlin and Waxbar), was abraded at 10, 20, and 40% of kernel weight on a laboratory scale and commercially abraded at two levels: fine and coarse. In 40% abraded kernels of Crystal, protein, ash, and free lipids contents decreased by 1.6, 1.4, and 1.4%, respectively, and starch and β‐glucans contents increased by 16 and 1.2%, respectively, compared to nonabraded kernels. Merlin showed smaller changes in the levels of these components, except for proteins. Changes in starch and protein in laboratory abraded barley were used to estimate the level of barley abrasion on a commercial scale. Scanning electron microscope pictures revealed that in nonwaxy barley at 10% abrasion the hull and part of the seed coat were absent, whereas waxy barley lost all of the seed coat and most of the aleurone layer. Maximum water imbibition of 40% abraded waxy barley was reached after 5 hr of soaking, whereas nonwaxy barley needed 8 hr to level off. Nonwaxy barley kernels at 20% abrasion and cooked for 10 min required 52 N to compress to 50% thickness, whereas waxy barley needed only 28 N. Changes in chemical composition and microstructure due to abrasion had a strong effect on the thermal properties of kernels during cooking. The extent to which barley starch was gelatinized during cooking was evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry. Crystal and Merlin showed significant decreases in enthalpy value for 40% compared to 10% abraded barley. These results indicate that when a large portion of the outer layer of barley is removed, water and heat penetrate more quickly into kernels during cooking, causing more starch to be gelatinized. The results obtained in this study indicate that changes in composition and microstructure due to abrasion affect the rate of water imbibition, hardness of cooked kernels, and enthalpy value of starch. Composition and properties of laboratory abraded barley could be used to predict the level of abrasion and properties of barley abraded on a commercial scale within the same cultivar.
Iron‐Enriched Bread with Karkade (Hibiscus sabdariffa) and Wheat Flour
Authors: Hayashi Machiko , Seguchi Masaharu
Published: June 2007

Karkade (Hibiscus sabdariffa) was blended with wheat flour to make bread. When 0.5% Karkade was blended with wheat flour, maximum bread height and specific volume (cm3/g) were obtained (pH 4.8–5.0); these properties gradually deteriorated with increased Karkade. The pH of the bread crumb decreased with increased Karkade, reaching pH 3.35 when blended with 10% Karkade. The pH of Karkade alone was 2.5, which was adjusted to ≈5.0 by the addition of alkali just before blending with wheat flour and making bread. Control of the Karkade pH resulted in bread height and specific volume recovering to the original optimal levels. In addition, the deep reddish purple color (513 nm) of the bread crumb changed to a brownish color crumb. The Fe content was 0.14 mg of Fe/gram of dry crumb, or 6.22 mg of Fe/60 g of fresh bread when 5% Karkade was blended with wheat flour.
Preparation and Solubility of Phosphorylated β‐Cyclodextrins
Authors: Lee Sang‐Ah , Lim Seung‐Taik
Published: June 2007

β‐Cyclodextrin (CD) was phosphorylated with phosphoryl chloride in aqueous alkaline media at different temperatures and pH values. The phosphorylated cyclodextrin (PCD) were characterized by phosphorus contents and positions of substitution as determined by 31P‐NMR spectroscopy. Reaction of CD with equivmolar POCl3 for 3 hr at pH 12 and 45°C yielded in a PCD with a phosphorus content of 5.67%. The ratio of monoand diphosphate esters increased when the reaction temperature was raised from 25 to 60°C. The monoesterified phosphate groups were mainly located at C‐6 of the anhydroglucose units when the reaction pH was 11 or 12. Reactions at pH 10, however, led to a higher degree of substitution at C‐2 than at C‐6. Phosphorylation enhanced the water solubility of CD. Solubility of a PCD (5.65% phosphorus) was 35% at pH 8 and 25°C. Simultaneously, solubility of the PCD in 25% ethanol in water was much greater than unsubstituted CD (22.3 vs. 2.8%). The PCD enhanced the water solubility of nonpolar compounds, such as β‐carotene.
Image Analysis of Grain and Chemical Composition of the Barley Plant as Predictors of Malting Quality in Mediterranean Environments
Authors: del Moral L. F. García , Sopena A. , Montoya J. L. , Polo P. , Voltas J. , Codesal P. , Ramos J. M. , Molina‐Cano J. L.
Published: June 2007

We have explored the possibility of predicting the malting quality of barley grain, indicated by malt extract yield, by characteristics measured either on plants at anthesis or in mature dry grain by image analysis. To produce barley samples with varying levels of all the characteristics studied, we used grain from an experiment designed to study the influence of lowinput husbandry practices on malting quality of barley by growing five malting genotypes at each of four environments (site × season) and with two different agronomic treatments (N fertilization and herbicide‐mechanical roguing of weeds). The results showed that nitrogen content in the plant at anthesis was a good predictor of grain protein content, this characteristic in turn being positively correlated with embryo size and grain volume, as estimated by image analysis, and negatively correlated with nonstructural carbohydrate content in the plant at anthesis. Extract yield was positively correlated with Kolbach index (ratio of soluble to total wort protein) and negatively correlated with wort viscosity and barley grain protein content. Thus, the only practical predictor of malt extract was grain protein content.
Thermal Behavior of Whey Protein Concentrate Treated by Heat and High Hydrostatic Pressure and Its Functionality in Wheat Dough
Authors: Kadharmestan Christy , Baik Byung‐Kee , Czuchajowska Zuzanna
Published: June 2007

Solutions of commercial whey protein concentrate (CWPC, 82% protein) at 5, 10, 20, and 30% were treated with heat at 90°C or with high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) at 85 Kpsi (Kpsi = 6.9 MPa) for 30 min. A CWPC solution at 20% also was treated for 30 min with heat at 60, 70, 80, and 90°C and HHP at 20, 40, 60, and 85 Kpsi. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermograms of untreated CWPC (82% protein) showed two endothermic peaks: the first had an enthalpy value of 4.72 J/g between 57 and 86°C, and the second had an enthalpy value of 2.36 J/g between 120 and 143°C. The first enthalpy peak disappeared after heat treatment at 90°C for 30 min and HHP treatment at 85 Kpsi for 30 min, whereas the second peak remained, independent of concentration. The results indicate that HHP treatment caused changes in the protein of CWPC, and the changes were comparable to those caused by high‐temperature treatment. Differential scanning calorimetric analysis of CWPC, heat treated at 60°C, showed an enthalpy value for the first peak of 3.34 J/g, ≈1.41 J/g lower than for untreated CWPC. A sharp decrease in enthalpy to 0.52 J/g for the first peak was observed at 70°C, with complete disappearance at 80°C. The second enthalpy peak was present at all temperatures studied, with significantly higher enthalpy values at 90°C than at lower temperatures. DSC value for the first enthalpy peak for CWPC decreased significantly as HHP treatment level increased from 20 to 85 Kpsi. CWPC treated with HHP at 20 Kpsi had an enthalpy value for the first peak that was ≈2 J/g higher than for the untreated sample. It can be postulated that low HHP treatment of 20% of CWPC solution for 30 min promotes the formation of covalent or noncovalent cross‐links and strong protein‐protein interactions, hence the higher enthalpy values. Scanning electron micrographs showed that spray‐dried, untreated CWPC was a globular form, whereas heat‐ and HHP‐treated CWPC was a solid glasslike, porous or spongy form. Incorporation of 10% untreated CWPC into wheat flours decreased mixograph water absorption, extended mixing time, and caused rapid breakdown of gluten after optimum dough development. Incorporation of 10% heat‐ or HHP‐treated CWPC significantly increased mixograph water absorption and extended mixing time compared to the control but decreased mixing time compared to dough fortified by untreated CWPC. Mixing tolerance of dough was restored by both heat‐ and HHP‐treated CWPC.
Effects of Calcium Hydroxide and Processing Conditions on Corn Meal Extrudates
Authors: Martínez‐Bustos F. , Chang Y. K. , Bannwart A. C. , Rodríguez M. E. , Guedes P. A. , Gaiotti E. R.
Published: June 2007

The effects of added calcium hydroxide (0.0, 0.15, 0.25, and 0.35%) and processing conditions, feed moisture content (mc) (16, 18, and 20%) and barrel temperature (130 and 150°C) on characteristics of corn meal extrudates were studied. Extruder screw speed was maintained at 130 rpm. Corn meal was extruded with a single‐screw extruder (Brabender model GNF 1014/2) with a screw compression ratio of 3:1. The highest values (P < 0.05) for radial expansion and the lowest values for density and breaking force of extrudates were found for the treatment with 0.00% calcium hydroxide extruded at 16% feed mc and 130°C barrel temperature. This treatment was statistically different from the other treatments. Best values for radial expansion of samples extruded with added calcium hydroxide were for the samples with 0.15% calcium hydroxide at 18% feed mc and 130°C barrel temperature, followed by the sample with 0.35% calcium hydroxide at 16% feed mc and 130°C barrel temperature. Water absorption index and water solubility index were affected by calcium hydroxide and extrusion conditions evaluated. Extrudates had large numbers of flattened and sheared granules. Increases in calcium hydroxide increased extrudate yellowness. The combined action of calcium hydroxide and extrusion conditions completely modified the organized structure of the starch and suggest the formation of a starch‐calcium complex (crystalline region). The texture of the extruded products was crispy after puffing.