bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Utopianism versus Revolutionary Heroism in Bolshevik Policy: The Proletarian Culture Debate
Authors: Mc Clelland James C.
Published: April 2006

Art … is a most powerful weapon for the organisation of collective forces and, in a class society, of class forces.

A. A. Bogdanov

The place of art is in the rear of the historic advance.

L. D. Trotsky

The statements in the epigraph reflect contrasting attitudes toward the question of the possibility, desirability, and urgency of creating a "proletarian culture" during the years immediately following the Bolshevik seizure of power. Even more, they reflect basically opposing priorities concerning the most important and immediate steps to be taken in order to promote the revolutionary transformation of Soviet society as a whole.
Technology and Decision Making: Some Aspects of the Development of OGAS
Authors: Conyngham William J.
Published: April 2006

During the past decade, the most important large-scale effort to expand the decision-making and control capabilities of the Soviet economic management system has been the scientific-technical program for creating an integrated nationwide management information system. Formally designated as the Obshchegosudarstvennaia sistema sbora i obrabotki informatsii (dannykh) dlia ncheta, planirovaniia i upravleniia narodnym khosiaistvom (All-State System for the Collection and Processing of Information for Reporting, Planning, and Management of the National Economy), the system is more happily described by its acronym OGAS.1 It is an outgrowth of the rapid expansion of the systems approach (particularly its cybernetic expression) to the rationalization of management, and has developed into the technological variant of reform and an evident alternative and successor to the ill-fated economic reforms of 1965. As a system, OGAS has been projected as a solution to many of the fundamental economic, social, and organizational problems resulting from Soviet socioeconomic development.
The Soviet Union, the Austrian Communist Party, and the Anschluss Question, 1918-1938
Authors: Low Alfred D.
Published: April 2006

During the interwar period, the leadership of the Soviet Union did a onehundred- eighty degree turn in its policy toward the political link-up between Austria and Germany. The Soviets first denounced the victorious Western powers’ prohibition of the Anschluss. Later they showed outright opposition to the Nazi drive for German unification in Central Europe. The Austrian Communist Party and international communism promptly executed the same turnabout. In accordance with the new line, during and at the end of World War II, the Soviet Union joined the Allies in supporting the restoration of Austrian independence and sovereignty.
Sorrento Photographs: Khodasevich's Memory Speaks
Authors: Bethea David M.
Published: April 2006

The Russian poet Vladislav Khodasevich (1886-1939), who spent the last seventeen years of his life in Western Europe, wrote a total of five books of verse: the first two, Molodost (Youth, 1908) and Shchastlivyi domik (The Happy Little House, 1914), are largely derivative and, by the poet's own admission, immature; the last three, Putem zerna (Grain's Way, 1920), Tiashelaia lira (The Heavy Lyre, 1922), and Evropeiskaia noch’ (European Night, 1927), form the limited body of his mature work. It is on the basis of the last three collections that Khodasevich's modest reputation has been established. It is ironic that the relative obscurity of Khodasevich's best work bears witness to the vagaries of exile about which he often wrote. Indeed, in 1922, the year Khodasevich left Russia, Valéry published Charmes, Proust died while polishing his novel, Eliot founded the journal Criterion and printed The Waste Land in its pages, and Joyce's Ulysses was released in a small Parisian edition.
The Stalinist Mentality and the Higher Learning
Authors: Joravsky David
Published: April 2006

“Mentality” has become a fashionable term among historians, as a supposedly neutral way of pointing to a pattern of beliefs that are typical of a particular group. “Mentality” seems to avoid the metaphysical mystery of phrases like “the spirit of Russia,” or the Marxist anger in the term “ideology,” which carries a charge of grandiose delusion, of self-interest disguised as universal truth. In deference to fashion and to the goal of irenic discourse, let us use the word “mentality,” though we know that new words do not remove old difficulties.

A central difficulty is the facile assumption that ideology and practicality are elemental contraries, that the conflict between them shapes the evolving mentality of communist regimes. This essay on Soviet history rests on a different assumption: that practicality is itself an ideological concept which can be understood only by reference to particular historical contexts. It is an illusion to imagine that practicality can be defined by reference to technics, a supposedly autonomous force that pulls all societies into a single anthill system. That technological fantasy has subverted the grand ideological theories of previous centuries and increasingly undermines even academic theorizing about human beings. Ideologists become servile functionaries — “public relations experts,” as we say in the West — while academics are reduced to other forms of technical expertise and to purely decorative functions. Soviet history presents an extreme version of that characteristic triumph of “pragmatism” in the twentieth century. To a large extent, I shall try to show, such “pragmatism” is mythic self-delusion, a way of avoiding dangerous threeway conflicts of forthright political rule, openly avowed ideological prophecy, and relentlessly quizzical higher learning.
Production Collectives and Communes and the “Imperatives” of Soviet Industrialization, 1929-1931
Authors: Siegelbaum Lewis
Published: April 2006

There cannot be any doubt that the confusion in the minds of individual Party members concerning Marxian socialism and their infatuation with the egalitarian tendencies of agricultural communes are as like as two peas to the petty bourgeois views of our “Leftist” blockheads, who at one time idealized the agricultural communes to such an extent that they even tried to implant the commune in the factories, where skilled and unskilled worker, each working at his trade, “had to put his wages into the common fund which was then shared out equally. We know what harm these infantile egalitarian exercises of our “Leftist” blockheads caused our industry.

Stalin, 1934

Now, brother, we don't toady. Nobody sucks up to the foreman.

N. Pogodin, Bakunin commune, Baltic Shipyards
Subject Nationalities in the Military Service of Imperial Russia: The Case of the Bashkirs
Authors: Baumann Robert F.
Published: April 2006

On 6 July 1874, the government of Alexander II published an edict announcing the formation of a mounted Bashkir squadron in the Orenburgguberniia.The modest scale of the endeavor—a squadron-sized element added little to Russian military strength—belied its historic importance. The Bashkirs, in 1874, stood at a watershed in their long history of military service to Russia marking the divide between decades of irregular frontier duty and inclusion in the ranks of the regular army. The evolution of Bashkir military formations, paralleling the course of social change, offers a most instructive case in little-studied aspects of imperial policy towards subject national minorities and their employment in the armed forces in particular. A virtually forgotten component in Russia's rich military tradition, the contribution of “native” units organized among theinorodtsyof the Caucasus, the Crimea, and Asia was indeed significant.
The Mir and the Military Draft
Authors: Bohac Rodney D.
Published: April 2006

Early nineteenth century military drafts severely tested the cohesiveness of Russia’s peasant communities. Because a conscript served for twenty-five years, he rarely returned to his community. His household lost a family member, a worker, and often part of its land allotment. The threat of such losses heightened the potential for abuse of community rules determining the selection of conscripts. A serf owner observed this problem when visiting his new estate in 1837: “The draft duties were determined by some sort of calculation, that, in spite of all my desire and mental exercises, I could not master. I only knew that it worked to the profit of the village head and to the loss of the peasants”.
Sasha Sokolov's Twilight Cosmos: Themes and Motifs
Authors: Johnson D. Barton
Published: April 2006

Sasha Sokolov is the author of three remarkably different novels. The first, A School for Fools (1976), tells of a schizophrenic adolescent and his attempts to come to terms with the elemental experiences of sex and death in the small world of his special school, his family, and the dacha community where they summer. The second, Between Dog and Wolf (1980), is a complex tale of vengeance and violence. The hero, an elderly, one-legged, itinerant grinder named Il'ia, beats off a supposed wolf with his crutches. The dog, for such it is, belongs to Iakov, a game warden, who in revenge steals Il'ia's crutches. Their feud escalates. The grinder kills two of the gamekeeper's dogs and is eventually drowned by their owner who, unbeknownst to either, may be his son. Sokolov's newest novel, The Epic of Palisandr (1985), relates the adventures of its hero, Palisandr Dal'berg, “Son of the Kremlin.“
The Problem of Social Identities in Early Twentieth Century Russia: Observations on the Commentaries by Alfred Rieber and William Rosenberg
Authors: Haimson Leopold h.
Published: April 2006

Alfred Rieber and William Rosenberg have greatly contributed by their respective commentaries to broadening the scope of the issues addressed in my discussion of “The Problem of Social Identities in Early Twentieth Century Russia” (see Slavic Review [Spring 1988]: 1-20). They have also helped bring out the complexity of the processes involved, after the outbreak of the Revolution of 1917, in the shaping and reshaping of the representations that individuals and groups entertained of themselves, of one another, and of the body politic as a whole.
Vestnik Evropyand the Polish Question in the Reign of Alexander II
Authors: Pogorelskin Alexis E.
Published: April 2006

Writing from Italy in the summer of 1904, the noted jurist V. D. Spasowicz lamented the assassination of the minister of interior V. K. Pleve: “The news of the catastrophe with Pleve has reached us … I regard it … as a pity because at least under him the Polish question could be raised.“

Spasowicz spoke with authority on the Polish question. Himself a Pole, he had closely observed the painful evolution of the issue for fifty years. It was not only a difficult issue to raise, but defenders of Poland in Russian society were rare. The same was true of the Russian press where few publications were willing to support the Poles. The prominent liberal journalVestnik Evropy,for which Spasowicz himself wrote, was an exception. After 1871 it emerged as a critic of the government's program of Russification in the Congress Kingdom.
The Elusive Litvinov Memoirs
Authors: Danielson Elena S.
Published: April 2006

Conflicting accounts about the autobiographical writings of Soviet Foreign Minister Maksim Litvinov have circulated for decades. Some of the confusion can be clarified by an examination of the correspondence of his British wife Ivy Low Litvinov. On 7 December 1941, when Litvinov arrived in Washington, D.C., as the new Soviet ambassador, he was accompanied by Ivy. The American Left, which had lionized him during his previous United States visit to negotiate recognition of the Soviet Union in 1933, welcomed both Litvinovs with high enthusiasm in the 1940s. In the United States for the first time, she renewed acquaintance with various American intellectuals, whom she had met over the years in Moscow. Among them was the writer Joseph Freeman, one of the editors of the radical communist journal New Masses.

Ivy wrote frequently from her embassy quarters in Washington to Freeman, her closest confidant, who lived in New York. Those letters that have been preserved provide a sense of Maksim Litvinov's tenuous position as a diplomat, indispensable for negotiating with the west but also unmanageable within the Soviet leadership.
Lenin and the Question of Private Trade in Soviet Russia
Authors: Ball Alan
Published: April 2006

Few official changes of course in the Soviet Union have been as dramatic as the adoption of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921. Supplanting what had come to be called War Communism (1918-1920)—a boiling mixture of revolutionary euphoria, bitter civil war, foreign intervention, economic collapse, and growing peasant unrest—NEP represented a new departure in many areas of Soviet life. First and foremost, eyewitnesses were struck by the legalization of a considerable amount of private economic activity, in contrast to the harsh measures adopted by the Bolsheviks against the private sector during War Communism.

While this change seemed an improvement to most foreigners on the scene (and undoubtedly to most Russians), revolutionaries of diverse hues regarded the legalization of private trade in 1921 as a clear signal that the Bolsheviks had jettisoned the ideals of the Revolution.
The Cult of Saint Sergius of Radonezh and Its Political Uses
Authors: Miller David B.
Published: April 2006

One hundred years ago, on the occasion of the five hundredth anniversary of the death of Saint Sergius of Radonezh, Vasilii Osipovich Kliuchevskii delivered the principal address to the Moscow Theological Academy. With his first tortuously long sentence the historian created an imaginary continuum, transcending time, between his audience and the saint. His words bear repeating:

While entering the gates of the Sergius Lavra in the midst of a wave of people devoutly crossing themselves, one sometimes wonders: why is there not and has there never been in this monastery some special witness with a serene, immutable gaze, like some old Russian chronicler, to observe and, with an exact, impassive hand to record “who hath sought moral guidance in the Russian land“; to do so in the same manner year in, year out, from century to century as if he were one and the same person, remaining alive for centuries? Such an eternal and immortal observer could tell how for five hundred years people have worshiped at the grave of the Venerable Sergius, what thoughts and feelings they have carried with them when they returned to all corners of the Russian land.
Did Serf Owners Control Serf Marriage? Orlov Serfs and Their Neighbors, 1773-1861
Authors: Bushnell John
Published: April 2006

Historians of the Russian peasantry hold almost unanimously that serfowners routinely intervened in serf marriage: that they generally forbade serf women to leave the estate through marriage or marry at all without permission, commanded serfs to marry young, made compulsory matches when their serfs failed to marry on schedule, and otherwise prevented serfs from exercising free choice in marriage. Equally common is the assumption that the nobles’ interest in serf marriage was the multiplication of human property and the number of duespaying labor units, i.e., married couples. The one exception is Steven Hoch, who found that on the Gagarin estate of Petrovskoe, Tambov province, managers never intervened, at least in first marriages. They never had to, Hoch argues, because the heads of peasant households shared the owners’ interest in early and universal marriage. That was because estate managers allocated land, the only significant economic resource, to married couples on an egalitarian basis. Even Hoch accepts the standard view that, on other estates where different socioeconomic conditions held, estate authorities did have to intervene to ensure that serfs married early and universally.
The Author of Poslanie Mnogoslovnoe: A Fontological Inquiry
Authors: Yanoshak Nancy
Published: April 2006

Poslanie mnogoslovnoe, an example of Muscovite antiheretical polemics, can be analyzed to add to our substantive knowledge of pre-Petrine Russian history and perhaps to refine our methodological tools for a critical evaluation of the sources for this period. Poslanie has long been regarded as a principal source of information about the life and ideas of its presumed author, the midsixteenth century Novgorodian monk Zinovii Otenskii, whose accomplishments as a theologian and publicist of the medieval Russian Orthodox church have traditionally been ranked only behind those of Iosif Volotskii and Maksim Grek. In conjunction with Zinovii's Istiny pokazanie, Poslanie provides our only detailed exposition of the teachings of the runaway slave Feodosii Kosoi, whose alleged criticisms of state and church constitute the most extreme rejection of the established order articulated in medieval Muscovy. In addition to its value for the interpretive study of Russian religious and intellectual history, Poslanie presents us with a methodological problem typical of early Russian documents: The work is anonymous and undated, and basic questions about its authorship, time of composition, and provenance have not been satisfactorily answered. The lack of information on either Zinovii or Kosoi and the contradictions in the pictures of both Zinovii and his heretical opponents presented in Poslanie, Istiny, and other, less detailed works, attributed to the monk, make solving these problems all the more interesting
Terror in Soviet Architecture: The Murder of Mikhail Okhitovich
Authors: Hudson Hugh D.
Published: April 2006

Throughout the 1920s and into the years of Stalinism, progressive architects in the Soviet Union sought to construct new forms of housing and settlement that would offer the best of modern technology and whose design would include provisioning of services that would allow all citizens, especially women, to partake in creative work. Schools, dining facilities, laundries, parks, cinemas, clubs and housing in a choice of styles formed the core of these architectural dreams. In the tradition of the Populists, modernist architects initially saw themselves as teachers but some came to appreciate the necessity of listening and began to learn from worker assessments of housing and urban design. This communication formed the basis for bridging, at least in housing, the cultural gap between revolutionary elites and common people. Inherent in the modernist movement in architecture, as reflected most eloquently in the work of the Association of Contemporary Architects (OSA), was a greater democratization of political and social life.
Orientalist Variations on the Theme "Balkans": Symbolic Geography in Recent Yugoslav Cultural Politics
Authors: Bakić-Hayden Milica , Hayden Robert M.
Published: April 2006

At first we were confused. The East thought that we were West, while the West considered us to be East. Some of us misunderstood our place in this clash of currents, so they cried that we belong to neither side, and others that we belong exclusively to one side or the other. But I tell you, Irinej, we are doomed by fate to be the East on the West, and the West on the East, to acknowledge only heavenly Jerusalem beyond us, and here on earth-no one.

–St. Sava to Irinej, 13th century

Since the early 1980s, the crisis of Yugoslav society has been brought to public awareness through discussions in the mass media, both within Yugoslavia and outside of the country. While the causes of the crisis were initially analyzed within the framework of the ideology of Yugoslav self-management socialism, the past several years have seen increasing use by politicians and writers from the northwestern parts of the country of an orientalist rhetoric that relies for its force on an ontological and epistemological distinction between (north)west and (south)east
Defining Us and Them: Poles and Russians in the “Western Provinces,” 1863-1914
Authors: Weeks Theodore R.
Published: April 2006

Like other multinational states in Europe, from the middle of the nineteenth century the Russian Empire found itself confronted, indeed threatened, by the growing strength of non-Russian national movements. Unlike other contemporary national “awakenings,” however, the Polish question in the Russian Empire had roots extending beyond the eighteenth century and posed, at least in the minds of Russian administrators, a serious and persistent threat to Russian national interests in the empire’s vulnerable western borderlands. From the 1830s an anti-Polish policy had been pursued in these areas, but only after the 1863 uprising did the Russian imperial state dedicate itself to a policy of radical elimination of Polish influence in the so-called “western provinces,” a fusion (sliianie) of these territories with the Russian interior in terms of administration, economy, culture and nationality.
Political Economy for Workers: A. N. Bakh’s Tsar-Golod
Authors: Pearl Deborah L.
Published: April 2006

“There’s a tsar in the world, a merciless tsar; / His name is—hunger!” These lines, taken from Nikolai A. Nekrasov’s poem “Zheleznaia doroga” (1864), serve as the epigraph for one of the most popular works of Russian revolutionary propaganda literature of the late nineteenth century, the pamphlet Tsar-golod by Aleksei Nikolaevich Bakh, a People’s Will activist of the early 1880s. Nekrasov’s poem vividly depicts the cost in human suffering of the construction of the Moscow to St. Petersburg railroad. As with other works by Nekrasov, the poem arouses the reader’s sympathy for Russian common folk and outrage at their plight. Bakh, when faced with the task of devising lessons for workers’ propaganda circles, picked up the striking image of Tsar Hunger, driving workers to labor and often to death, and used it as a recurring theme, while he transformed the message. Bakh’s brochure, a dissection and analysis of the capitalist system, leaves behind the world of poetry for that of cold reality. The author’s purpose is not simply to inspire sympathy for the people’s suffering, but also to lead his worker audience to understand the economic system that exploited them and to recognize the urgent need for revolution.
Assembling the Square: Social Transformation in Public Space and the Broken Mirage of the Second Economy in Postsocialist Budapest
Authors: Bodnár Judit
Published: April 2006

In early December 1994 in the Hungarian weekly Magyar Narancs, a new category appeared in the Page of Records–a sophisticated guide to the “best” places and services in Budapest: “The Most Unsighdy Square in Europe.” This award went to Budapest's Moszhva tér (Moscow Square). No other contender for this title has yet been found. On the last pages of his monograph on the current architectural transformation of Budapest, art and media critic Péter György reveals in parentheses how the book was inspired by the sight of this area: “I have been crossing the square every day for ten years, and in the last couple of years I would stop ever more frequendy–unable to move on–and fixedly stare at the decay.”
Red Army Opposition to Forced Collectivization, 1929-1930: The Army Wavers
Authors: Reese Roger R.
Published: April 2006

Some years ago, in his biography of Nikolai Bukharin, Stephen Cohen postulated that there was a reservoir of latent support in the Party's rural and urban cadres for Bukharin's moderate alternative to Stalin's rapid industrialization and the forced collectivization of agriculture of the first five-year plan. Cohen did not suspect that potential support for Bukharin and his policies of gradual industrialization and retention of private farming also existed in the Red Army's company and battalion party cells, as well as among some regimental leadership of the political administration of the Red Army (PUR). At first glance, Cohen's seems to have been a natural omission; after all, the army, with its hierarchy of commissars and political officers (politruki) ostensibly dedicated to the general line of the Party, appeared obedient and loyal to the dictates of the party Central Committee. PUR showed apparently little interest in the struggle between Stalin and Bukharin over future industrial policy.
Superego as Literary Subtext: Story and Structure in Mikhail Zoshchenko'sBefore Sunrise
Authors: May Rachel
Published: April 2006

For should we not always consider a work's starting point as a significant “lead” into our interpretation of the work's motivation? Thus…I would have the Decameron read, not as a series of hilarious stories, but as a series of hilarious storiestold during a plague.

–Kenneth Burke

Mikhail Zoshchenko spent his literary life playing discourses off against one another. In his early miniatures, the cacophony of peasant brogue, tradesmen's dialects, propaganda clichés and bureaucratese was controlled and masterful. In his longer works, the mixture of scientific style and mundane or satirical anecdote often seemed to take on a life of its own. Nowhere is this more true than inBefore Sunrise.
From Ethnic Borderland to Catholic Fatherland: The Church, Christian Orthodox, and State Administration in the Chehn Region, 1918-1939
Authors: Sadkowski Konrad
Published: April 2006

In the final diird of the nineteenth century, the Polish-Ruthenian (Ukrainian) borderland in the eastern Lublin and Siedlce gubernias of the Kingdom of Poland became a location of intense ethnic and religious rivalry, a situation not uncommon in numerous borderland regions throughout eastern Europe. At first, Russians and Poles competed for the nationally "malleable" population of the Chelm and Podlasie regions, as this territory was known. After the Russians were evicted from the Kingdom of Poland in 1915, Poles and nationally awakening Ukrainians saw not only distinct portions of the population but also the territory as "theirs."
The Integration of Expellees in Germany and Poland after World War II: A Historical Reassessment
Authors: Ther Philipp
Published: April 2006

When World War II came to an end, vast portions of Germany and Poland lay in rubble. And, as if this were not enough, both countries were immediately inundated by large waves of migrants. In the years from 1944 to 1949, displaced persons, refugees, and expellees made up more than one-fifth of the populations of Poland and Germany. For the purpose of this article, expellees (or forced migrants) are Germans or Poles who had been living in the eastern territories of both countries as defined by their borders in 1937 and who were forcibly and permanently removed from their homelands between 1944 and 1949.
Russians into Iakuts? “Going Native” and Problems of Russian National Identity in the Siberian North, 1870s-1914
Authors: Sunderland Willard
Published: April 2006

As far as the Russian state and most educated Russians were concerned, assimilation in the eastern borderlands of the Russian empire in the late imperial period was supposed to be a one-way street. “Backward” eastern peoples were generally supposed to become more like Russians, while Russians, for their part, were expected to change others while themselves maintaining their language, customs, religion, and overall Russianness. In reality, of course, things were rarely so straightforward. In the mixed settlement worlds of the borderlands, both Russians and non-Russians influenced one another in multiple ways, and Russian influences were not always strongest. In fact, in certain cases, contrary to official and elite expectations, it was not so much the Russians who “Russianized” the “natives” as the “natives” who “nativized” the Russians. By the late imperial period, “nativized” Russians of one kind or another could be found throughout the imperial east. In the northern Caucasus, for example, whole Russian villages looked and lived likegortsy;in the Volga-Ural region, other Russian peasants performed “pagan” sacrifices like Voguls and Maris; on the Kazakh steppe, still others had converted to Islam; and on just about every frontier one came across supposedly “Russian” cossacks who lived according to native ways and preferred to speak native languages.
Moldovan Identity and the Politics of Pan- Romanianism
Authors: King Charles
Published: April 2006

Not since the early eighteenth century, when the Moldovan prince Dimitrie Cantemir was the toast of salon society from Berlin to St. Petersburg, has the existence of a Moldovan state been as widely recognized by the international community.1 Moldova's exit from the Soviet Union on 27 August 1991 and its entry into the United Nations the following year, though, raised the difficult question of the republic's future orientation.
Publics Meet Market Democracy in Central and East Europe, 1991-1993
Authors: McIntosh Mary E. , Iver Martha Abele Mac , Abele Daniel G. , Smeltz Dina
Published: April 2006

The revolutions of 1989 in central and east Europe raise crucial questions for the social sciences. Is it possible to build democracy and capitalism simultaneously in societies that have no real history of either system? Will democracy really take root and flourish in societies without an existing market economy? Or will the monumental task of creating a market economy strain these new democratic governments to the limit and ultimately lead to an authoritarian backlash? Since the transition to democracy from socialism is unprecedented, history can offer little useful data from which to derive well founded predictions.
Rural Ruses: Illusion and Anxiety on the Russian Estate, 1775–1815
Authors: Newlin Thomas
Published: April 2006

Among the scores of unpublished manuscripts in fond 89 (“Bolotovykh”) of the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg is a partially filled album spanning a forty-year period from the early 1780s to the early 1820s. One of the many long-term projects of the multitalented memoirist, landscape designer, and agronomist Andrei Timofeevich Bolotov (1738-1833), the album was initiated at Bogoroditsk, the crown estate where he worked as bailiff from 1776-1797, and continued to garner new contributions for several decades after he retired to Dvorianinovo, his estate and birthplace in northern Tula province. It has been summarized by one of the few scholars who has studied it as “an extremely interesting mirror of provincial byt.” The pretty and seemingly mimetic reflection of rural life that it provides is deceptive on a number of levels, however: for on the Russian estate during this period— and, as it turns Out, on the pages of the album itself—there is a good deal more going on than first meets the eye.
The Giesche Company: Anaconda Copper's Subsidiary in Interwar Poland
Authors: Stone Daniel
Published: April 2006

The headline in the 15 August 1937 issue of the Great Falls Tribune proclaimed, “Montana Families Have Their Own Colony in Poland.” This colony of eight American families constituted the upper management of the Giesche Mining Company of Katowice, Silesia. Owned by Americans since 1926, the Giesche Company was Poland's largest zinc mining company and one of Poland's largest coal producers. The newspaper article described the beautiful wooded site where the Americans lived, the nearby golf course, the good winter skiing, the numerous Hollywood films available at the local movie house, and the Americans' Polish language lessons.
The Hague Conventions and Arms Control
Authors: Vagts Detlev F.
Published: April 2006

The Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907, and the conventions they produced, opened the doors—just barely—to the era of arms control. But they did so in a way that would not have been expected. Arms control can be understood as having two main branches—the quantitative and the qualitative. “Quantitative”refers to controls that permit a given category of weapons—such as batdeships, nuclear warheads, and andballistic missile systems—but restrict the number that each of the participating powers may hold. “Qualitative” refers to prohibitions on the use of specified items—such as explosive bullets, poison gas, and bacteriological weapons. Curiously, it was the matter of quantitative control—the desire to check the costs of the arms race—that led to the calling of the Hague Conferences, but their only arms control outcome concerned qualitative limitations. One can trace influences of the Hague experience in this regard on both sides of the arms control movement after World War I and more faintly after World War II, though its descent is less clear than that of the prisoner-of-war conventions and other law of war rules. The inclination of scholars and policymakers to neglect the arms control efforts made between the two world wars has tended to obscure the indirect influence of the Hague Conferences.
The Fifty-Sixth Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights
Authors: Dennis Michael J.
Published: April 2006

The fifty-sixth session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights took place in Geneva from March 20 to April 28,2000, under the chairmanship of Ambassador Shambhu Ram Simkhada of Nepal. The delegations of fifty-three member states and ninety-one observer states werejoined by 1760 representatives of 224 nongovernmental organizations. The Commission ultimately adopted one hundred resolutions and decisions, three-fourths of them by consensus.
Isozyme diversity in Iris Cristata and the threatened glacial endemic I. Lacustris (Iridaceae)
Authors: Hannan Gary L. , Orick Michael W.
Published: April 2006

Iris cristata and I. lacustris differ markedly in geographic distribution, glacial history of current ranges, and ecology. We hypothesized that I. cristata, a widespread species of unglaciated regions of eastern North America, would exhibit genetic diversity typical of other widespread plant species, whereas the threatened I. lacustris, which occupies glaciated habitats on Great Lakes shorelines, would display little genetic variation. Iris lacustris lacked detectable polymorphisms in 18 isozyme loci, although we found evidence of possible incomplete gene silencing in four additional loci in some populations. In contrast, I. cristata was polymorphic at 73% of 15 loci examined, with an average of three alleles per locus. Genetic diversity (He) was 0.231. All species‐level and population‐level estimates of genetic diversity were higher than averages for plants having comparable life history traits. Nearly 98% of the total genetic diversity in I. cristata was apportioned within populations, and heterozygosity and fixation estimates suggest a high level of outcrossing in this species (t = 1.265). The long‐lived perennial habit and high outcrossing rate in stable populations are proposed as factors contributing to high genetic diversity in I. cristata. The data are consistent with an hypothesis of a recent origin of I. lacustris from a very limited I. cristata gene pool exacerbated by repeated bottlenecks and founder effects as I. lacustris populations were displaced by lake‐level changes over the past 11 000 yr.
Herbivory could unlock mutations sequestered in stratified shoot apices of genetic mosaics
Authors: Marcotrigiano Michael
Published: April 2006

Many higher plants have shoot apical meristems that possess discrete cell layers, only one of which normally gives rise to gametes following the transition from vegetative meristem to floral meristem. Consequently, when mutations occur in the meristems of sexually reproducing plants, they may or may not have an evolutionary impact, depending on the apical layer in which they reside. In order to determine whether developmentally sequestered mutations could be released by herbivory (i.e., meristem destruction), a characterized genetic mosaic was subjected to simulated herbivory. Many plants develop two shoot meristems in the leaf axils of some nodes, here referred to as the primary and secondary axillary meristems. Destruction of the terminal and primary axillary meristems led to the outgrowth of secondary axillary meristems. Seed derived from secondary axillary meristems was not always descended from the second apical cell layer of the terminal shoot meristem as is expected for terminal and primary shoot meristems. Vegetative and reproductive analysis indicated that secondary meristems did not maintain the same order of cell layers present in the terminal shoot meristem. In secondary meristems reproductively sequestered cell layers possessing mutant cells can be repositioned into gamete‐forming cell layers, thereby adding mutant genes into the gene pool. Herbivores feeding on shoot tips may influence plant evolution by causing the outgrowth of secondary axillary meristems.
Diversification of the North American shrub genus Ceanothus (Rhamnaceae): conflicting phylogenies from nuclear ribosomal DNA and chloroplast DNA
Authors: Hardig Terry M. , Soltis Pamela S. , Soltis Douglas E.
Published: April 2006

Ceanothus comprises ∼55 morphologically and ecologically diverse species of woody perennials endemic to North America. Interpretations of the natural history of Ceanothus have served as a general model of evolution for woody perennials with simple entomophilous pollination systems, but these interpretations lacked explicit phylogenetic context. We used cladistic analysis of sequences of the chloroplast‐encoded matK and the internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and 5.8S coding region of nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) to reconstruct the phylogeny of Ceanothus. The nuclear and organellar phylogenies exhibited very low levels of both topological and character congruence. Subgenera Ceanothus and Cerastes are monophyletic sister taxa in both phylogenies, but both data sets suffer from a lack of resolution below the level of subgenus. Lack of taxonomic congruence between the two data sets may be a result of introgression and/or lineage sorting. The ITS tree was accepted as the better estimate of a species phylogeny for Ceanothus, on the assumption that nuclear markers are less prone to introgression. Three of five polytypic species in the ITS data set were paraphyletic, and four of six polytypic species in the matK data set were paraphyletic. This study demonstrates the degree to which matched independent data sets can produce conflicting summaries of evolutionary history.
A unique pollen wall mutation in the family Compositae: ultrastructure and genetics
Authors: Jackson R. C. , Skvarla J. J. , Chissoe W. F.
Published: April 2006

During a routine screening of pollen fertility in the n = 2 chromosome race of Haplopappus gracilis, a spineless pollen wall mutation was discovered that renders the otherwise functional pollen grains completely unrecognizable as Compositae pollen. Normal Haplopappus pollen is characterized by an outer layer, the ektexine, consisting of large spines supported by a roof (tectum), which in turn is supported by collumellae that are joined basally. A large cavity (cavea) stretches from aperture to aperture and separates columellae bases from the final ektexine unit, the foot layer. The spines, tectum, columellae, and columellae bases are filled with perforations (internal foramina), while the foot layer is without them. Immediately underlying the foot layer is a thickened, lamellate, disrupted, internal foramina‐free second exine layer, the endexine. In contrast, the mutant pollen ektexine is a jumble of components with randomly dispersed spines as the only clearly definable unit. The endexine layer is similar to the endexine in normal pollen. The mutation apparently disrupts only the organization of ektexine units, and mutant pollen appears to be without the caveae and foot layer characteristic of normal pollen. In genetic tests, the mutant allele is recessive. There is a simple Mendelian pattern of inheritance of the mutant gene, and its phenotype is under sporophytic control.
Allozyme and morphological variation in two subspecies ofDryas octopetala(Rosaceae)in Alaska
Authors: Max Karen N. , Mouchaty Suzette K. , Schwaegerle Kent E.
Published: April 2006

The Alaskan endemic shrubDryas octopetalassp.alaskensisand its circumpolar conspecific ssp.octopetalaare adapted to closely adjacent habitats in alpine areas of Alaska. These alpine areas form geographically disjunct “islands” among which there are limited opportunities for gene flow. Allozyme electrophoresis and a common garden experiment were used to examine genetic variation between subspecies and among disjunct populations of each subspecies. Overall, allozyme variation inD. octopetalais low with little differentiation among populations or between subspecies. Morphological differences, however, are greater between subspecies than among populations within subspecies. Divergence for a few morphological and life‐history characters has apparently occurred in response to strong selection, but without divergence at allozyme loci. The ancestors of both subspecies ofD. octopetalain Alaska were isolated during the Pleistocene in the glacial refugia of Alaska and Yukon, which may explain low overall variation.Dryas. o. alaskensisis thought to be a Pleistocene derivative of ssp.octopetala,which may account for the low allozyme divergence between subspecies. Recent restriction to alpine areas may explain the low differentiation among disjunct populations.
Sem studies on vessels in ferns. 12. Marattiaceae, with comments on vessel patterns in eusporangiate ferns
Authors: Carlquist Sherwin , Schneider Edward L.
Published: April 2006

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of tracheary elements of roots of five species from four genera of Marattiaceae and of the rhizome of one species revealed vessel elements present in all. The secondary wall framework of perforation plates is the same as that of lateral wall pitting for vessel elements in all species. Thus, no specialization is present in perforation plates of Marattiaceae compared to the simplified morphology of perforation plates of some leptosporangiate ferns (e.g., Dryopteridaceae, Polypodiaceae, and Pteridaceae). The difference between lateral wall pitting and perforation plates in tracheary elements of Marattiaceae cannot be seen by light microscopy (in which pit membranes are transparent), but is evident with SEM. Diversity in structure of perforation plates (especially the alternation of wide and narrow perforations within a plate) and presence of web‐like pit membrane remnants are evident. Vessels are widespread in both leptosporangiate and eusporangiate ferns, although specialization in perforation plates (e.g., bars few and more widely spaced in lateral wall pitting of a given vessel element) is to be expected only in ferns of habitats with marked fluctuation in water availability. Vessels of Marattiaceae lack such specializations and are thus are correlated with the mesic habitats characteristic for the family.
A test of the reserve meristem hypothesis using Verbascum thapsus (Scrophulariaceae)
Authors: Lortie Christopher J. , Aarssen Lonnie W.
Published: April 2006

The reserve meristem hypothesis predicts that latent meristems may act as a bet‐hedging strategy given high‐cost, predictable herbivory. Under this hypothesis, damage to a plant should elicit greater branching. This prediction was tested in Verbascum thapsus with three experiments manipulating the intensity and type of damage to reproductive tissue. In the first experiment, seed set was prevented in the treatment group by stigma excision and lanolin application to 80% of the flowers of each plant. In the second experiment, a minimum of two mating pairs of weevils were added to treated plants prior to the onset of flowering. In the third experiment, all fruits were sliced lengthwise twice. All three treatments significantly reduced seed set. In the first two experiments, treated plants significantly increased degree of branching (branch number and total branch length). This supports the reserve meristem hypothesis as an explanation for greater branching in larger plants of V. thapsus. Interestingly, the fruit destruction experiment failed to elicit a branching response, which suggests that the timing of damage is important.
Competitive abilities of three narrowly endemic plant species in experimental neighborhoods along a fire gradient
Authors: Quintana‐Ascencio Pedro F. , Menges Eric S.
Published: April 2006

We conducted field experiments manipulating lichens, shrubs, and herbs along a time‐since‐fire gradient and assessing effects on three endemic herbaceous species of Florida scrub: Eryngium cuneifolium, Hypericum cumulicola, and Polygonella basiramia. Responses included seed germination, survival, biomass, and fecundity. Transplants into recently burned patches generally had higher survival, larger biomass, and greater reproductive output than transplants into long‐unburned patches. Open areas and sites near oaks frequently were more favorable than sites near Florida rosemary. Ground lichens did not affect germination but increased mortality rate of seedlings. Neighboring small shrubby and herbaceous species did not affect the performance of these species. Of the three species, naturally occurring E. cuneifolium were farthest from large shrubs, and their microhabitats had the least ground lichens and shrubs. Eryngium cuneifolium and H. cumulicola are capable of forming persistent seed banks and their recruitment after fire depends mostly on these dormant seeds. Polygonella basiramia relies on seed dispersal and immediate seed germination to colonize recently burned patches. Management for these species should involve variable fire regimes to allow all three species to persist along with many other scrub endemics.
Mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA‐based phylogeny of Pelargonium (Geraniaceae)
Authors: Bakker Freek T. , Culham Alastair , Pankhurst Clive E. , Gibby Mary
Published: April 2006

Overall phylogenetic relationships within the genus Pelargonium (Geraniaceae) were inferred based on DNA sequences from mitochondrial(mt)‐encoded nad1 b/c exons and from chloroplast(cp)‐encoded trnL (UAA) 5′ exon–trnF (GAA) exon regions using two species of Geranium and Sarcocaulon vanderetiae as outgroups. The group II intron between nad1 exons b and c was found to be absent from the Pelargonium, Geranium, and Sarcocaulon sequences presented here as well as from Erodium, which is the first recorded loss of this intron in angiosperms. Separate phylogenetic analyses of the mtDNA and cpDNA data sets produced largely congruent topologies, indicating linkage between mitochondrial and chloroplast genome inheritance. Simultaneous analysis of the combined data sets yielded a well‐resolved topology with high clade support exhibiting a basic split into small and large chromosome species, the first group containing two lineages and the latter three. One large chromosome lineage (x = 11) comprises species from sections Myrrhidium and Chorisma and is sister to a lineage comprising P. mutans (x = 11) and species from section Jenkinsonia (x = 9). Sister to these two lineages is a lineage comprising species from sections Ciconium (x = 9) and Subsucculentia (x = 10). Cladistic evaluation of this pattern suggests that x = 11 is the ancestral basic chromosome number for the genus.
Floral development in Tribe Detarieae (Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae): Amherstia, Brownea, and Tamarindus
Authors: Tucker Shirley C.
Published: April 2006

Floral development was compared among three taxa in caesalpinioid tribe Detarieae sensu lato: Amherstia nobilis and Tamarindus indica have racemose, helically arranged inflorescences, while Brownea latifolia has cauliflorous capitate flower clusters that arise as racemes. All have acropetal flower order; initiation and development are sequential in all except Brownea, which is synchronous. All have paired persistent showy bracteoles. Floral symmetry is dorsiventral (zygomorphic) in all except Brownea, with radial symmetry at anthesis. Sepals initiate helically on a circular floral apex, starting with a median abaxial sepal, in all. Petals are initiated helically in Brownea, and unidirectionally in Amherstia and Tamarindus. Stamens are initiated unidirectionally in each stamen whorl in all except Amherstia, in which the outer whorl is bidirectional. The carpel initiates concurrently with the petals in Brownea, and with the outer stamens in the other taxa. The two upper (adaxial) sepal primordia become fused during development in all, so that the calyx appears tetramerous. Some reduced petals occur in Amherstia and Tamarindus, and some reduced stamens occur in all. All produce a hypanthium by zonal growth, and all except Tamarindus have the gynoecium attached adaxially to the hypanthial rim.