bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Retaining Quality Teachers
Authors: Certo Janine L , Fox Jill Englebright
Published: February 2007

This study investigated teacher attrition and retention in seven
Virginia school divisions representing urban, suburban, and rural
localities. Focus group interviews of teachers who stay in their school
divisions and telephone interviews of teachers who migrated to another
school division or who left the teaching profession revealed a hierarchy
of organizational influences on teacher attrition and retention. A menu
of state, district and building level recommendations are offered for
retaining quality teachers.
Retaining Alternate Route Teachers: The Power of Professional Integration in Teacher Preparation and Induction
Authors: Jorissen Kathleen Topolka
Published: February 2007

This study describes and assesses factors contributing to the support
and satisfaction of seven graduates of an alternate route program during
their preparation and first two years of teaching. Participating in a
cohort, completing a full year internship prior to assuming teaching
responsibilities, and receiving mentor
support during a full year internship were the most beneficial and
satisfying components of the preparation program. Although colleagues
were identified as an important source of support during the induction
period, the support of the building principal was particularly
critical. The findings imply the importance of formal and informal
structures along the
continuum of teacher preparation and induction to promote professional
integration and
retention.
Teacher-Parent Communication Reforms
Authors: Strom Paris S , Strom Robert D
Published: February 2007

School practices for contacting parents should be modernized because they
lack reliability and are often ineffective. A field-test was conducted
with support from Motorola to assess the potential of new communication
methods. One method allows teachers, using a common set of codes,
to record notable student conduct onto personal digital assistants
(PDAs). The second method enables faculty to notify parents by pager
quickly so they can assume their priority role for corrective guidance
or reinforce reports of good behavior. Fourteen faculty documented the
notable behaviors of 108 high school students and reported to parents
using pagers during one semester. Over 90% of faculty concluded that
PDAs facilitate accurate record keeping and sending pager messages is a
more efficient way of contacting parents than by telephone. More than 90%
of the parents reported that pagers are easy to operate and messages are
simple to interpret by referring to the School Code of Recordable Events
(SCORE). Faculty, parents, and students provided recommendations for
improving the new communication system.
Culturalizing Instruction: Creating a More Inclusive Context for Learning for African American Students
Authors: Parsons Eileen Carlton
Published: February 2007

At a time when the population of school-aged children becomes more culturally diverse and the need for a more highly educated populace to function in this informational, technological and global community more pressing, it is important that all students be actively engaged in an educative process that legitimizes diverse perspectives. One way to address the educational challenges emanating from cultural diversity is to make the teaching-learning context more inclusive by culturalizing instruction. The aims of this article are to explain what is meant by culturalizing instruction, to illustrate culturalized instruction via a case example, and to discuss the implications of culturalizing instruction for "good" teaching.
"Rude Bard of the North": James Macpherson and the Folklore of Democracy
Authors: Bold Valentina
Published: February 2007

This article examines the influence of James Macpherson's Ossianic verse on American
cultural critics and writers. Remarks on the textual history of Macpherson's work in
America--in Scottish, English, and domestic editions--are followed by an exploration
of Macpherson's impact on American culture, including his period as Secretary to the
Governor of British West Florida. By looking at a selection of poetic and political responses
to Macpherson's Ossian, I suggest that the image of the Celt in America is
founded in Macpherson's vision. Furthermore, I propose that Macpherson's folklore of
an idealized, democratic Scotland had an indirect influence on the emergence of an
American national identity.
Some Uses of Eclipses in Early Modern Chronology
Authors: Grafton Anthony
Published: February 2007

Historical chronology is the
discipline that establishes the dates of events and reconstructs the calendars
used in ancient, medieval, and early modern times. Traditional accounts state
that Joseph Scaliger (1540-1609) created this field by combining philological
with astronomical data and techniques. But the celestial phenomena most
relevant to chronology are solar and lunar eclipses. From antiquity onwards,
astrologers saw these as ominous and connected them to great events on earth.
Though Scaliger used dated eclipses in his work, it was a number of relatively
obscure sixteenth-century astronomers and scholars who realized that one could
date events by eclipses and began doing so in a systematic way, without
assigning them any ominous force.
Historical Justifications of Venetian Power in the Adriatic
Authors: De Vivo Filippo
Published: February 2007

This article asks whether a
myth can be collapsed into history by describing the material signs of memory
as "evidence." In a story dear to the Venetian hearts, in 1177 the
Republic of Venice defeated the imperial fleet and brought peace back to Italy.
For centuries, this narrative was recounted and its truth upheld against
growing political and scholarly criticism, first through the ritual display of
evidence, then through its discussion in a large literary production. In the
seventeenth century, it is argued, the notion of evidence was abandoned in
favor of the sheer affirmation of power.
Darwinism, Christianity, and the Great Vivisection Debate
Authors: Preece Rod
Published: February 2007

The reputation of the Christian tradition has fared poorly in the literature on the history of attitudes to nonhuman animals. This is more a consequence of secularist prejudice than objective scholarship. The idea of "dominion" and the understanding of animal souls are almost universally misrepresented. There has been no firmer conclusion than that Charles Darwin's theory of evolution had a profoundly beneficial impact on the recognition of our similarities to, kinship with, and consequent moral obligations to, other species. In reality, Darwinism had no such effect. That there was an essential kinship with, and homologies between, humans and other species had been attested to for centuries. In the first major ethical issue that arose after the publication of Darwin's The Descent of Man -- legislation to restrict vivisection -- Darwin and Huxley stood on the side of more or less unrestricted vivisection while many major explicitly Christian voices -- from Cardinal Manning to Lord Chief Justice Coleridge to the Earl of Shaftesbury -- demanded the most severe restrictions, in many cases abolition. The customary tale of how Christianity hindered the development of sensibilities to animals and how Darwinism occasioned a revolution in animal ethics needs to be rethought and retold.
Desert One and Its Disorders
Authors: Cogan Charles
Published: February 2007

Desert One--largely a Special Forces operation--ended in abject
failure and cost Jimmy Carter a second term as president. It was not only
an organizational failure, due to a splintering of the U.S. armed forces,
but a failure of political will and political appreciation. The U.S.,
confronted virtually for the first time with the new hostile force of
Islamic fundamentalism, in the form of a devilish "soft war" scenario
put together by Imam Khomeini and his lieutenants, reacted tentatively
and with a certain propitiation. When five months later a hostage rescue
operation was finally mounted, it was so conceived that the U.S. could
call it off at any step along the way. Desert One turned out to be the
defining moment that led to a sea-change in American military policy
in the 1980s: the spread of the principle of joint operations for the
U.S. armed forces (Goldwater-Nichols Act), and the companion Cohen-Nunn
Act consolidating Special Forces under a U.S. Special Operations Command.
The 'Ology War: Technology and Ideology in the Vietnamese Defense of Hanoi, 1967
Authors: Pribbenow Merle L
Published: February 2007

The American air campaign against Hanoi in 1967 pushed Vietnamese air
defenses to the brink of disaster. By the spring of 1967, continued
improvements in U.S. tactics and electronic warfare technology had
rendered North Vietnam's SA-2 missiles and radar-controlled anti-aircraft
guns virtually impotent against U.S. Air Force aircraft. The Vietnamese
were able to rise from the ashes of this potential defeat through intense
political indoctrination; research and training; adjustments in the
missions and deployment of North Vietnam's missile, anti-aircraft, and
fighter units; assistance from communist allies; and American hesitancy
and miscalculation.
A Matter of Timing: The Royal Navy and the Tactics of Decisive Battle, 1912-1916
Authors: Sumida Jon Tetsuro
Published: February 2007

In 1912, the Admiralty adopted a secret tactical system that was supposed
to enable a British battle fleet to destroy a German opponent through
five minutes shooting at medium range. The quick destruction of the
Germans was to be followed by a simultaneous turn away by the British,
which would counter the threat of enemy torpedoes. Belief in this scheme
interfered with the development of equipment and methods suitable to
battle fleet action that involved long range and maneuver while shooting,
which set the stage for much that went wrong for the Royal Navy at the
battle of Jutland.
The Supply of Hoplite Equipment by the Athenian State Down to the Lamian War
Authors: Bertosa Brian
Published: February 2007

Prior to the ephebic reform (reform in recruitment) at Athens in
335 BCE, Athenian infantrymen or hoplites were generally expected to
provide their own arms and armour. While their defeat at Macedonian
hands at Khaironeia in 338 caused the Athenians to rethink how to assure
their military preparedness, little was done until Alexander the Great
departed for the Near East in the spring of 335. The resulting ephebic
reform involved a massive increase in the city's hoplite forces, with the
thetes, the poor of Athens, admitted to the hoplite ranks for the first
time. The need to equip all the thetes as hoplites resulted in the likely
adoption of a system of issue-and-return, which was the most economical
one available. Nevertheless, each of the ephebes, the new recruits to the
system, was given a shield and spear at state expense, an uneconomical
and militarily questionable practice that was nevertheless continued,
probably for reasons of tradition.
Machiavelli and the Ideology of the Offensive: Gunpowder Weapons in The Art of War
Authors: Cassidy Ben
Published: February 2007

Historians have often claimed that Niccol� Machiavelli shunned
the use of gunpowder weapons, both field artillery and hand-held weapons,
because of their absence in the ancient world which the Italian loved so
dearly. Machiavelli, however, did not reject the use of gunpowder weapons,
but gave them a secondary role in his military scheme. The reason for
this was that, in Machiavelli's time, reliance on gunpowder weapons
necessitated defensive tactics in battle, while Machiavelli believed
that an army should take the offensive in war, and he prescribed the
role of guns in his army accordingly.
"An Inward Looking Time": The United States Army, 1973-1976
Authors: Lock-Pullan Richard
Published: February 2007

This article examines the initial stages of the rebuilding undertaken
by the U.S. Army after the Vietnam War. It emphasizes how the ending
of the draft, rather than the lessons of the Vietnam War, shaped and
drove the key changes during this period. It stresses the central role
of General William E. DePuy in developing a trained, value-based, and
doctrinal Army focused on the European Central Front, influenced by the
lessons drawn from the 1973 Arab-Israeli War. It highlights how important
the initial period of reform was to the later developments that aided
the prosecution of the Gulf War.
Jim Crow and Uncle Sam: The Tuskegee Flying Units and the U.S. Army Air Forces in Europe During World War II
Authors: Percy William Alexander
Published: February 2007

This article discusses the nature of race relations in the U.S. Army
Air Forces during the Second World War. America's first all-black
flying units, the 99th Fighter Squadron and the 332nd Fighter Group,
trained at segregated Tuskegee Army Air Field in Tuskegee, Alabama,
carried out tactical and strategic missions over North Africa and
southern Europe in the last two years of the war. While overseas, the
black airmen experienced both positive and negative racial relationships
with other fighter and bomber units of the Army Air Forces, relationships
which often affected the morale and combat effectiveness of the 99th and
332nd. The wartime success of the "Tuskegee Experiment" gave impetus to
President Harry S. Truman's integration of the U.S. armed forces in 1948.
"Now a Major Motion Picture": War Films and Hollywood's New Patriotism
Authors: Wetta Frank Joseph , Novelli Martin A
Published: February 2007

The "New Patriotism" that has appeared in recent Americans films is
not a revival of older, reassuring versions of patriotic fervor and
ideological conviction. In actuality, the "New Patriotism" can be seen as
a repudiation of sentimental and ideological concepts that put nation and
cause ahead of individual survival. The "New Patriotism" celebrates, in
essence, loyalty to one's comrades in battle, the ability to survive the
horrific face of modern hyper-lethal weaponry and warfare, and the shared
experience of battle. Films such as The Patriot, Saving Private Ryan,
We Were Soldiers, and Black Hawk Down do not revive patriotism
so much as turn it inside out so that the private motivations and goals
of the individual soldier superscede any stated or understood national
or public rationales for whatever war is being fought.
Escape from Andersonville: A Study in Isolation and Imprisonment
Authors: Davis Robert Scott
Published: February 2007

Civil War Camp Sumter, the notorious Confederate prison popularly
known as Andersonville, became the world's first great concentration
camp. Almost one third of the some 40,000 federal prisoners who entered
its gates remain there today in its cemetery. The National POW Museum,
representing all of America's wars, is part of the modern national park
and cemetery on the site.
The volumes of material in print about this prison do not, until
now, include an in depth discussion of the subject of escape. Contrary
to popular myth only some two dozen men broke out of Andersonville and
successfully reached Federal lines. And despite legends to the contrary,
almost none of them escaped by tunnel.
This article uses statistics and personal narratives to explore
how isolation thwarted efforts to flee the high mortality rate
of this prison. Although the article covers many factors unique to
Andersonville, such as POWs helped by slaves, it also compares fleeing
this prison to generalities about escapes from confinement in later
wars.
Japanese Defense of Bataan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, 16 December 1944-4 September 1945
Authors: Mann B. David (Bernard David)
Published: February 2007

The Filipino-American defense of the Bataan peninsula in 1942 finally
collapsed under Japanese might as the United States suffered the most
devastating defeat in its history. This article describes the Japanese
defenses, weapons, and tactics used when the Americans liberated Bataan
in February 1945. Utilizing the key terrain feature of the peninsula,
ZigZag Pass, through which wound the only road connecting Subic Bay
with Manila and Clark Field, the undermanned Japanese fought with
aggressiveness, tenacity, determination, and bravery for eighteen days
before withdrawing to central Bataan to engage in guerrilla warfare
until the war's end.
Anna M. Rosenberg, an "Honorary Man"
Authors: Nelson Anna Kasten
Published: February 2007

In November 1950, Defense Secretary George C. Marshall announced the
appointment of Anna M. Rosenberg as Assistant Secretary of Defense for
Manpower. Apart from the startling fact that he had chosen a woman,
Mrs. Rosenberg was also an immigrant, Jewish, and an ardent supporter
of the New Deal. This article is about Rosenberg's career, her uncanny
ability to solve problems, and the events that propelled her into the
Pentagon. It is also about a woman who eschewed the feminine networks to
hang her hat with men of power. Looking beyond her politics and gender,
Marshall's choice was a brilliant one.
Pakistan's Predicament
Authors: Constable Pamela
Published: February 2007

The military regime of General Musharraf has been less repressive than many had feared, but there is little sign that it is overcoming the deep-seated problems that led to the failure of Pakistani democracy.
Fighting Authoritarianism in Zimbabwe
Authors: Sithole Masipula
Published: February 2007

Abstract: Field Report. The stunning defeat of a draft constitution backed by President Robert Mugabe and the opposition's unexpectedly strong showing in the June 2000 parliamentary elections may have marked the beginning of the end of ruling-party hegemony in Zimbabwe.
Insights from India
Authors: Gill Manohar Singh
Published: February 2007

The controversy over the vote count in the U.S. presidential election
gripped the attention of the world. Six leading election experts from
the United States and abroad discuss the causes of the debacle and offer
some remedies.
A Peaceful Turnover in Ghana
Authors: Gyimah-Boadi Emmanuel
Published: February 2007

With longtime ruler Jerry Rawlings obeying constitutional term limits, the opposition won a narrow electoral victory, bringing Ghana its first peaceful transfer of power since independence.
Cracks in the Middle Kingdom
Authors: Waldron Arthur
Published: February 2007

A review of Bad Elements:Chinese Rebels from Los Angeles to Beijing, by Ian Buruma.
What Is Liberal Islam? The Elusive Reformation
Authors: El-Affendi Abdelwahab
Published: February 2007

Abstract: While Islam as traditionally understood may not favor liberalism, the more “liberal” interpretations of Islam are not democracy friendly either, mainly because they lack wide popular support. The search for an “elusive” Islamic Reformation may not thus be right way to approach the democracy question. Even if such a “Reformation” were to materialize, it is likely to be divisive and disruptive in the short and medium terms. Meanwhile, the liberal movements with the most promising democratic potential appear to be those which have bypassed the theological question altogether and worked to build broad pro-democracy coalitions by agreeing to bypass divisive issues politicians are not equipped to solve.
Latin America's Lost Illusions: Brazil's New Direction
Authors: Hunter Wendy
Published: February 2007

Abstract: Does the presidential inauguration of Workers' Party candidate Luis Inácio “Lula” da Silva signal a historic shift in Brazilian politics? What are the implications of a Lula-led government for democracy in Brazil? This article interprets the 2002 elections in the context of a broader assessment of the state of Brazilian democracy. It highlights important aspects of change while acknowledging significant points of continuity, and affirms the stability of Brazil's political system while underscoring its deficiencies in quality. In conclusion, it assesses the prospects of the current Brazilian administration.
Political Freedom, Economic Liberty, and Prosperity
Authors: Roll Richard , Talbott John
Published: February 2007

Across the countries of the world, annual GNI/capita varies by a factor
of almost 100, from $440 in Sierra Leone to $41,230 in Luxembourg (in
1999.) Past literature has often associated country wealth with culture,
geography, history and religion, but nothing can be done about such
influences over a short horizon, and probably little can be done over
generations. We seek instead to uncover the "deep" determinants of wealth;
i.e., those macroeconomic, structural, political and in stitutional
conditions realistically amenable to change. We find surprisingly
good news; more than 80 percent of the international variation in
GNI/capita can be explained by mutable determinants. Fourteen candidate
determinants are examined over five recent years (1995-99 inclusive)
utilizing a principal components approach to minimize the effects of
interdependence. Property rights (+) and black market activity (-) have
the highest levels of significance. Also contributing to the explanation
are regulation (-), inflation (-), civil liberties (+), political rights
(+), press freedom (+), government expenditures (+) and trade barriers (-)
(but not trade levels). To check that these variables represent causes
and are not the effects of high income, we also trace the trajectories
of GNI/capita before and after political liberalizations or dictatorial
retrenchments over the past half-century. Liberalizations are, on average,
followed by dramatic improvement in country income, while substantial
reductions in growth typically follow anti-democratic events. We conclude
that countries can develop faster by enforcing strong property rights,
fostering an independent judiciary, attacking corruption, dismantling
burdensome regulation, allowing press freedom, and protecting political
rights and civil liberties. These features define a healthy environment
for economic activity.
Making Sense of the EU: The Challenge for Democracy
Authors: Dahrendorf Ralf
Published: February 2007

Abstract: In an interview with Italian journalist Antonio Polito, Ralf Dahrendorfâthe renowned German sociologist, member of Britainâs House of Lords, and former commissioner of the European Unionâcautions against overly optimistic assessments of the prospects for democracy at the European level. At its origins with the European Community, the EU was designed not primarily to be democratic but to be an efficient mechanism for decision making. Integration has subsequently produced political institutions and practices that are intrinsically not democratic. As the process continues, and as the world in general advances beyond the nation-state, we must revisit the principles of democracy and ask ourselves how they can be applied in the new situation.
Can Democracy Be Taught?
Authors: Finkel Steven E
Published: February 2007

This paper examines the effects of adult civic education programs on
political participation, civic competence, and support for democratic
values in three developing democracies, the Dominican Republic, Poland
and South Africa. I show that participation in civic education programs
conducted by NGOs in each country had meaningful impact on local-level
political participation in all three countries, and modest impact
on individuals' knowledge, efficacy and support for values such as
political tolerance. The effects of the programs were sharply increased
when individuals were trained more frequently and with more active,
participatory teaching methods. The results have important implications
regarding the extent to which democratic political orientations can be
"engineered" through civics training conducted by civil society groups,
as well as important policy implications regarding how such programs
should best be structured and implemented in practice.
Electoral Systems: A Primer for Decision Makers
Authors: Horowitz Donald L
Published: February 2007

Electoral systems do not simply reflect voter preferences, social
cleavages, or the political party configuration of a given society. All
electoral systems shape and reshape these features. The choice of
one electoral system or another involves a decision about what goals
decision-makers wish to foster. The present article enumerates six
possible goals of electoral systems and then explains how various systems
foster or derogate from these goals. In all cases of electoral-system
choice, there are tradeoffs. A system may fulfill one objective but make
it difficult to attain another. Clarity of objective and attention to
the details of system choice are, therefore, necessary.
Making Sense of the EU: Competing Goals, Conflicting Perspectives
Authors: Plattner Marc F.
Published: February 2007

Abstract: Although in many ways the European Union has been remarkably successful, it is a profoundly ambiguous creation Competing interpretations view it as an essentially intergovernmental organization that remains a creature of its member state; as the germ of an emerging federal state; as some kind of middle ground between these two; or as a novel kind of political entity that is variously characterized as a âpostmodern,â âneomedieval,â âpost-state,â or ânonstateâ polity. It has been able to advance despite this ambiguity, but with EU enlargement and the drafting of a Constitutional Treaty by a European Convention chaired by ValÃ©ry Giscard dâEstaing, it will face new challenges. A key question is whether the EUâor any international organizationâcan succeed in democratizing itself without becoming a state.
Making Sense of the EU: Democracy in Europe and Europeâs Democratization
Authors: Schmitter Philippe C.
Published: February 2007

Abstract: While democracy in Europe took a very long time to consolidate, the democratization of Europe has only just begun and remains a rather remote prospect. As for the democratization of Europeâs primary supranational institution, the European Union or EUâthat has remained a project which has yet to capture the imagination of its peoples or overcome the resistance of its politicians. The impact of the nondemocratization of the EU upon democracy in Europe is a processânot (yet) an outcome. There are at least two good reasons why it may be timely to begin experimenting with continental democracy sooner rather than later.
Single Motherhood and Maternal Employment in Divided Germany: Ideology, Policy, and Social Pressures in the 1950s
Authors: Heineman Elizabeth D.
Published: February 2007

Patterns of housewifery, single motherhood, and maternal employment
were similar in the two Germanys in the 1950s. Yet the social climate
began to change in that decade. This article argues that, despite their
short-term failure to change women's mothering and labor force behavior
via public policy, the German states strongly influenced the social
pressures women faced by shaping the discursive environment. With
the major political parties of West Germany unanimously preferring
housewifery and the East German Socialist Unity Party acknowledging
the value of housewifery, although it promoted alternatives to it, the
results were ironic. The strictly controlled academy and media of East
Germany supported tolerance for a wider range of models of motherhood
than did the uncensored media and scholarly community in the western
state. In exploring the ways capitalist liberal democracy and state
socialism structured women's roles, historians must look beyond policies'
material effects on women's labor force and mothering choices.
"Are Women. .. All Minors? Woman's Rights and the Politics of Aging in the Antebellum United States
Authors: Field Corinne T
Published: February 2007

In the antebellum United States, law and public opinion defined
adult independence as a stage of life specific to white men,
while classifying white women as perpetual dependents. In response,
woman's rights activists used age-based schedules of human development
to challenge laws and social customs that treated women like minors, and
to claim rights and opportunities for women as they entered adulthood
and grew old. This analysis of antebellum political discourse revises
the history of aging in two ways. First, it demonstrates that, while
the ages at which people left school, married, and began work remained
widely variable, age twenty-one nonetheless was defined as a
significant transition to independence for white men, though not for
white women. Second, it shows that state governments used chronological
age to regulate the transition to independent citizenship long before
the development of other age-based programs such as child labor laws
and social security.
Greying in the Cloister: The Ursuline Life Course in Eighteenth-Century France
Authors: Klassen Sherri
Published: February 2007

The life course of the eighteenth-century nun, and the assumptions
behind it, contrasts the growing acceptance that age, like gender,
was a natural definer of human differences. The obituaries of
the Ursulines of Toulouse, France, show that although the lives and
experiences of the nuns changed as they grew older, the women did not
anticipate aging. Instead, the records presented nuns' lives as static
snapshots of lives without progression. Experience rather than age
afforded older Ursulines authority, and the nuns did not consider age
to be an indicator of role and status.
Young Women in France and England, 1050-1300
Authors: Stoertz Fiona Harris
Published: February 2007

The early life stages of elite women in high medieval France and
England were shaped by marriage to a considerable degree. Marriage
prospects influenced their early education and place of residence,
and the ceremony itself served as a symbolic rite of passage into
"adulthood," something reflected in the vocabulary used to describe
elite women. Nevertheless, since elite women generally married around the
age of puberty or even earlier, contemporaries often showed consideration
for the youth of recently married women, introducing them only gradually
to adult sexual and social responsibilities and providing special
caregivers for their protection and guidance. Full social adulthood
for these women thus could arrive at different times, depending on each
woman's age at marriage, early education, social position, motherhood,
personality, and other factors.
Maternal Strategies: Irish Women's Headship of Families in Gilded Age Chicago
Authors: Kelleher Patricia
Published: February 2007

Conventional interpretations explain the prevalence
of female-headed
families among nineteenth-century Irish immigrants in the United States
as a sign of social failure attributable to Irish men's high mortality
rates and propensity to desert their wives. This article argues that
women's different maternal strategies and styles of mothering better
explain ethnic patterns of female family headship. This exploration of
the Irish pattern points to broader generalizations about all women's
lives during the Gilded Age. This study challenges two common assumptions
about Victorian social realities: that there was a simple and direct
relationship between marital disruption and female headship of families,
and that female-headed families betokened social failure.
Theoretical Issues: Gender Economics in Action: Rural Women's Economic Citizenship in Finland during the Twentieth Century
Authors: Niskanen Kirsti
Published: February 2007

This article addresses a central puzzle in the history of rural
women: Why have women on family farms, despite their equal partnership in
production and conduct of farming business, fallen short of " economic
citizenship"? By means of a unique data set, this study demonstrates that
on Finnish family farms between the 1920s and 1950s, women worked longer
hours than men. At the same time, and concurrently with mechanization
and commercialization of production, social and cultural notions of
women�s work were primarily reduced to dealing with reproductive work
and consumption rather than production. In the eyes of census takers and
economists, women's agricultural work was rendered invisible and their
household work devalued. Farm women, subsequently, were not considered
to be part of the economic sphere that laid the groundwork for civil
and social rights in the post-World War II welfare society.
Broken Reeds and Competent Farmers: Slaveholding Widows in the Southeastern United States, 1783-1861
Authors: Wood Kirsten E
Published: February 2007

"Broken Reeds and Competent Farmers" explores the gendered work and
self-representations of slaveholding widows in the southeastern United
States during the early nineteenth century. Often associated with
Margaret Mitchell's fabled character Scarlett O'Hara by nonacademics,
these widows illuminate the flexibility of elite southern

gender roles and undermine the region's reputation for maintaining
unusually rigid and static forms of patriarchy. Throughout Virginia, the
Carolinas, and Georgia, slaveholding widows brought recognizably feminine
attributes, like wifely obedience, maternal devotion, domesticity, and
widows' weeds--the all-black costume of first mourning-- into the
normatively male arenas of agricultural production and financial
management. Doing so enabled widows to negotiate not only with slaves,
overseers, and relatives, but also with complex and contradictory notions
of the duties and the identities appropriate to women of their class
and race. Neither "masters" nor "deputy husbands," slaveholding widows
derived a range of powers--from authority to coercion --from their
status as independent inferiors in the white man's world of household
management.
Rethinking Women's Politics in the 1970s: The League of Women Voters and the National Organization for Women Confront Poverty
Authors: Chappell Marisa
Published: February 2007

Women's politics in the 1970s reached beyond self-defined
feminists, as "traditional" women's organizations tackled problems
of import to women's everyday lives. A comparison of the positions
and actions on welfare reform taken by the League of Women Voters and
the National Organization for Women in the early 1970s challenges the
assumption that all middle-class white women ignored the problems of poor
women and highlights a critical turning point in American liberalism. The
League's activism reveals the depth and breadth of liberal commitment
to eradicating poverty in the late 1960s and early 1970s, but economic
changes and feminist challenges undermined the family wage assumptions
upon which that commitment was built. NOW's poverty activism increased
during the decade, and the League eventually joined the feminist call for
a welfare state geared toward overcoming women's economic disadvantage
through employment.
Taming the Female Politician in Early-Nineteenth-Century England: John Bull versus Lady Jersey
Authors: McCord James N
Published: February 2007

The relationship of aristocratic women, the state, and the
polity in late-eighteenth- and early-nineteenth-century Great Britain
has been the subject of several recent works, but scholars have paid
less attention the formidable opposition these women sometimes faced. A
revealing episode can be found in the activities of Sarah Sophia Villiers,
fifth countess of Jersey (1785-1867) during the infamous "Queen Caroline
affair" of 1820-1821. Lady Jersey became the most prominent female
supporter of Queen Caroline, King George IV's estranged wife, but her
partisan Whig politics made her the object of attack by the loyalist or
ministerial press, particularly by John Bull, the most successful and
widely circulated contemporary loyalist newspaper. Lady Jersey's behavior,
including her libel suit against John Bull, in which she charged the
newspaper with attacking her honor, demonstrates the interactions of
gender, class, and party politics. The episode also shows how political
opponents manipulated the notion of separate spheres in an effort to
undermine the legitimacy of aristocratic female political activities. This
article thus advances scholars' understanding of women's involvement in
politics in late-Georgian Great Britain, sheds new light on the Queen
Caroline affair, raises questions about the meaning of female honor,
and places the concept of separate spheres into a partisan political
context.
The Creation of a Subversive Feminist Dominion: Interracialist Social Workers and the Georgia New Deal
Authors: Wilkerson-Freeman Sarah
Published: February 2007

This article focuses on a group of southern female social
workers who, in the midst of extreme racial intolerance during the 1920s
and 1930s, experimented with interracialist approaches to public service
in an effort to combat the systemic problems of poverty and ignorance
that plagued the region. In the aftermath of World War I, black and
white social workers gained a significant foothold in state government
and municipal public welfare programs in several southern states. As the
nation experienced an economic depression, unprecedented federal relief
efforts in the South enabled these women, as state agents, to advance
a model of social service that challenged policies that gave "whites"
greater access to government services. Their controversial approach was
opposed by Georgia's Governor Eugene Talmadge who tried to use federal
funds and programs for patronage purposes and obstructed relief efforts,
especially among blacks. These women succeeded in convincing federal
relief officials to federalize the Georgia New Deal, a move that gave
them extraordinary administrative powers to execute relief rhetoric of
"maternalism," that characterized women's public welfare reform movements,
to see how female social workers creatively used and shaped state power
in their struggles against fierce political and ideological opposition.
The Rural Batrachka (Hired Agricultural Laborer) and the Soviet Campaign to Unionize Her
Authors: Farnsworth Beatrice
Published: February 2007

This article explores the Soviet campaign in the mid-1920s to unionize the poorest women in rural villages: hired, agricultural laborers known as batrachkas. The goal was to make them literate, class-conscious workers who saw themselves not as peasants but as the vanguard of a rural proletariat. The mobilization movement met with little success--the majority of batrachkas remained outside the union--in part because the Soviet regime was ambivalent toward recruiting women and in part because it was ill-prepared materially to reach an often isolated and largely temporary work force. Moreover, the predominantly urban communists did not understand the needs or cultural assumptions of female agricultural laborers. Poor peasant women tended to rely on traditional village structures and were reluctant to risk losing the meager bene�ts they derived from the "bosses" by joining a union that seemed mainly to make promises.
Women Coffee Sorters Confront the Mill Owners and the Veracruz Revolutionary State, 1915-1918
Authors: Fowler-Salamini Heather
Published: February 2007

When the Mexican Revolution(1910�1920) erupted, seasonal women coffee sorters like permanent workers were forced to defend their economic livelihood in the face of rampant in�ation. This article examines the discourse and strategies of Veracruz women coffee workers, anarchosyndicalist organizers, agro-industry, and the revolutionary state as they negotiated with each other. The embryonic revolutionary state and the trade union activists had different objectives linked to controlling working-class mobilization. As a result, the coffee sorters' discourse can best be framed within the context of women's responsibility for preserving the family and their struggle to ful�ll that obligation.
Sanitized for Your Protection: Medical Discourse and the Denial of Incest in the United States, 1890-1940
Authors: Sacco Lynn
Published: February 2007

This article examines medical discourses from 1890 to 1940, when
physicians and reformers uncovered, and then dissembled, evidence that
white, middle- and upper-class American men were sexually abusing their
daughters. Doctors had long recognized that children could acquire
gonorrhea, but they believed that infections were confined primarily
to poor and working-class girls who had been sexually assaulted. In the
1890s, doctors began to incorporate new technologies into the diagnostic
process and they were shocked to discover that gonorrhea infection was so
common among girls that they feared it was epidemic. Doctors claimed that
concurrent infections in fathers and daughters from "respectable" white
families were particularly vexing. Although they could neither explain nor
prove how else these girls became infected, doctors refused to consider
the possibility of incest. Persistently ignoring the obvious, health
care workers and reformers revised their views about the susceptibility
of girls to infection, not incest. By 1940, medical textbooks relied
on untested speculation to declare that most girls acquired gonorrhea
from nonsexual contacts with other females or contaminated objects: their
mothers, other girls, or toilet seats. "Scientific advances," ironically,
obscured rather than illuminated the source of girls' infection.
"Once in a Republic Can It Be Proved That Science Has No Sex": Marie Elizabeth Zakrzewska (1829-1902) and the Multiple Meanings of Science in the Nineteenth-Century United States
Authors: Tuchman Arleen
Published: February 2007

This article looks at the life and work of Marie Elizabeth Zakrzewska,
one of the most prominent female physicians in the nineteenth-century United States. She is best known among historians of medicine
as an advocate of science and a critic of sentimentality at a time when
most women argued that their sentimental nature legitimized their entry
into the medical field. Born in Berlin in 1829, Zakrzewska received her
M.D. in 1856 from Western Reserve College in Cleveland, Ohio. Six years
later, she founded the New England Hospital for Women and Children in
Boston, one of a handful of all-female institutions that offered clinical
training to women. To understand the roots of Zakrzewska's unusual stance
on science and sentimentality, this article argues for the necessity of
abandoning a dichotomy scholars often have created between femininity,
subjectivity, and morality, on the one hand, and masculinity, objectivity,
and science, on the other.
The Impact of Reinventing Government on State and Federal Parks
Authors: Lowry William
Published: February 2007

Over the last dozen years of the twentieth century, one major change affecting many American public policies consists of increased demands for efficiency. As a result, the demands on bureaucratic agencies responsible for delivery of public goods and services are daunting. Political authorities prescribe economic goals of efficiency and self-sufficiency for agencies while not reducing demands for attainment of political goals like efficacy and equity. Public officials have used techniques encouraging efficient behavior such as downsizing and evaluation through performance-based standards to make government more streamlined while still being effective. Have these changes occurred in different ways at different levels of the federal system? How can we explain those differences? Does the impact on the delivered goods and services vary significantly by level of government?
The First Federal Campaign Finance Bills
Authors: Mutch Robert E.
Published: February 2007

Early in 1839, a congressional investigation into campaign fund-raising at the U.S. customhouse in New York first brought to public attention a problem in democracy that we still are trying to solve: Who should pay for our politics? By 1839, the deferential political system of the colonial era, in which government was the almost exclusive province of the old mercantile and landed elites, was well on its way out, at least in the North. Under that system, the upper classes provided the great majority of candidates for elective office and candidates paid their own campaign expenses. The transition to a more democratic system—of broader suffrage, organized parties, and professional politicians who did not have personal or family wealth—required a new way of financing campaigns. As politicians were no longer people who had money, they had to raise money.
The Party of European Socialists: Networking Europe's Social Democrats
Authors: Ladrech Robert
Published: February 2007

Most discussions regarding the fate of the democratic left in Europe focus on individual parties in national political systems. Beyond this level, individual political figures have strode across the (West) European stage symbolizing the principles and values of social democracy; one thinks, for example, of Willy Brandt or Olaf Palme. By and large, though, when the health of the democratic left is assessed, it is done so by counting the number of parties in European governments. This “counting game” does not evaluate the ideological attraction of these parties, but rests solely on the outcomes of competitive elections, which does not necessarily attest to the popularity of the winning party, and in many cases reflects on the deeds of the incumbent party. Nevertheless, the main point is that measuring the prospects for the democratic left has always implied a focus on the individual national political system. At the beginning of the twentieth-first century, it is now possible to speak of an emerging European left, that is, a political presence representing a common set of issue preferences actively trying to influence the decision-making process of the European Union. One of the organizational nodes of this political presence is the Party of European Socialists (PES). This essay aims to explore the PES—its background, organizational development, and capability to influence the challenges to social democracy. The attempt to form a European-level social democracy represents one of the possible futures for the democratic left in Europe. This is because the intensity of the European integration process has permeated so many areas of national policymaking. Indeed, “more so than at any point in history the fate of social democracy and European integration have become interlinked.”
Drang Nach Osten: Bernard Bailyn, the World-Island, and the Idea of Atlantic History
Authors: Coclanis Peter A.
Published: February 2007

This essay attempts at once to perform three interrelated tasks: to provide a brief sketch of the development of the field of Atlantic history; to document and assess Bernard Bailyn's monumental contributions to this field; and to issue a respectful but spirited critique of Atlantic history from a global perspective.
Is Humpty Dumpty Back Together Again?: The Revival of Imperial History and the Oxford History of the British Empire
Authors: Peers Douglas M
Published: February 2007

In 1984 the prognosis for imperial history was decidedly bleak; fifteen years later interest in the British empire was reaching new heights, as witnessed in the publication of the five-volume Oxford History of the British Empire (1998-1999). Many of the reasons for this renewed attention will be familiar to those working in world history. While imperial history and world history are not synonymous, there is certainly much overlap between them, especially when we seek to identify the origins of what would become global exchanges of ideas, institutions, and commodities. While it cannot be said that the Oxford History of the British Empire is the definitive word on the British empire--for the field is still preoccupied with a number of very heated debates including those raised by feminist and postcolonial historians--the 150 chapters that comprise this series offer unique opportunities to take stock of the field.
The Persian Gulf in Late Antiquity
Authors: Daryaee Touraj
Published: February 2007

The following article discusses the importance of the province of Fars/Persis as an important province and the Persian Gulf as an important entrep�t. The essay seeks to demonstrate that because of the Perso-Byzantine rivalry the amount of trade on the silk roads was reduced and consequently the amount of sea trade via the Persian Gulf was increased by the fifth and sixth centuries C.E. The campaign for controlling trade in silk and spices was taken to the seas, and Persian colonies were established as far away as Sri Lanka. Administrative seals and Sasanian silver coins also indicated a lively exchange of commodities and the presence of Persians in East Asia.