bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Multivariate Analysis of Degree Persistence of Undergraduate Music Education Majors
Authors: Brown Amy , Alley Jayne M.
Published: June 2006

Two hundred one freshmen and transfer students entering the school of music at a major Southeastern state university in the fall terms of 1978 and 1979 and declaring music education as a major served in the study. Data were calculated at the end of the fall term 1981 and included enrollment status, college grade point average (GPA), high school GPA, jury grade at the end of one year of applied study on the principal instrument, score on Aliferis-Stecklein Music Achievement Test, evaluation of a verbal report concerning desire to become a music educator, levels of teaching competence in the first semester of study evaluated by videotaped analysis, and extent of participation in music organizations grouped by type of ensemble. Four stepwise multiple regression analyses grouped according to subjects' year of entry and class revealed college GPA to be consistently ranked as the highest simple correlation across all groups.
Effect of Tempo on Children's Music Preference
Authors: LeBlanc Albert , McCrary Jan
Published: June 2006

This study measured the effect of four levels of tempo on the expressed preference of fifth and sixth grade students for traditional jazz music listening examples. A listening test was administered to 163 students in seven classrooms in south central Michigan. Test reliability was evaluated in terms of common factor concentration, student behavior was observed during the test, and free response data were solicited from students at the end of the measurement procedure as an additional check on results. A one-way repeated measures analysis of variance disclosed a significant effect for tempo, and a priori comparisons showed significant differences between the slowest tempo level and each increasingly faster level of tempo. Students rated each faster level of tempo higher than slower levels. There was a strong positive correlation between increases of tempo and higher preference ratings. This study confirms the effect of tempo suggested in previous studies in the series, which were inconclusive because of interaction between independent variables.
The Effect of Melodic Activity, Tempo Change, and Audible Beat on Tempo Perception of Elementary School Students
Authors: Kuhn Terry Lee , Booth Gregory D.
Published: June 2006

This two-part study was designed to investigate the influence of melodic activity (ornamented and plain) on the perception of tempo. Additional variables were an audible beat (present or absent) in Experiment 1 and the size of the tempo change (92 and 118 beats per minute) in Experiment 2. Subjects, 46 third graders and 49 sixth graders (Experiment 1) and 47 fifth graders (Experiment 2), indicated whether the tempo of the second example in each paired comparison item was faster, slower, or stayed the same. Melodic activity was the only influential variable affecting tempo discrimination.
A Comparison of the Tune Books of Tufts and Walter
Authors: Gates J. Terry
Published: June 2006

Two 1721 Boston tune books, one by Thomas Walter, the other by John Tufts, contain explanatory introductions. Either could be considered the first music education textbook printed in America. The purpose of this study was to compare the musical arrangements of the fifth edition (1726) of Tufts's An Introduction to the Singing of Psalm Tunes (the earliest extant Tufts edition with three-part arrangements) with the tune settings of Walter's The Grounds and Rules of Musicke Explained (1721) and the ninth edition (1698) of The Psalms, Hymns, and Spiritual Songs of the Old and New Testament, commonly known as the “Bay Psalm Book.” These comparisons demonstrated that Tufts's fifth edition and Walter's first edition are musically identical and are therefore more closely related to each other than to other well-known sources. This and other evidence lends incontrovertible support to Irving Lowens's notion that Walter was Tufts's primary musical source for the fifth and later editions. Thus, Walter deserves primacy as the first American music textbook writer. The author also examined the bibliographic issue of whether there was one 1726 Tufts edition or two and determined the existence of one edition in that year. These tune books represent the earliest American attempts to deal with the instructional issue of using nonstandard notation to teach music reading.
Villa-Lobos as Pedagogue: Music in the Service of the State
Authors: Vassberg David E.
Published: June 2006

Heitor Villa-Lobos, Brazil's most famous composer, was also an ardent nationalist. On returning to his own country from Europe in 1930, he designed and organized a nationwide program of music education with a strong emphasis on Brazilian identity and solidarity. Its distinguishing element was the use of canto orfeônico, a technique of mass a capella singing in which the pitches are indicated by the conductor's hands. Despite the prevailing partiality to soccer, Villa-Lobos managed to stage several massive exhibitions and rallies stressing this style of singing, which in 1946 was made obligatory in all Brazilian schools. As head of the Superintendência de Educação Musical e Artística, Villa-Lobos supervised the education of a whole generation of Brazilian music teachers, stressing music as a shaper of national character. The survival of canto orfeônico through the many vicissitudes of Brazilian politics attests to the soundness of Villa-Lobos' original conception.
Judge-Group Differences in the Rating of Secondary School Trumpet Performances
Authors: Fiske Harold E.
Published: June 2006

It was the purpose of this study to determine whether trumpet performances adjudicated by a group of seven competent brass specialists are rated differently from the same performances adjudicated by a similar group of nonbrass specialists. Its purpose also was to determine whether the performances are rated differently when the same judges were reassigned to judge groups as wind specialists and nonwind specialists. The trait terms used by the judges included intonation, rhythm, interpretation, technique, and overall. The results showed no significant differences for any of the traits when brass judges were compared with nonbrass judges. One trait, technique, was found to be rated significantly different when wind judges were compared with nonwind judges. In addition, technique was also found to be the most distinct trait when the groups of judges were combined into a single judge group and the five rated traits were intercorrelated.
Applied Music Teaching Behavior as a Function of Selected Personality Variables
Authors: Schmidt Charles P.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate relationships among applied music teaching behaviors and personality variables measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Subjects ( N = 43) were college-level applied music instructors in the areas of woodwinds, brass, strings, voice, and keyboard. The following teacher behaviors were examined as dependent variables: (a) approvals, (b) disapprovals, (c) reinforcement rate, (d) teacher talk, (e) teacher models, (f) teacher questions, and (g) pace. Multivariate tests of significance indicated that the main effects of extraversion/introversion (EI) and sensing/intuition (SN) were statistically significant, while thinking/feeling (TF) and judging/perceiving (JP) were nonsignificant. EI × JP was the sole significant two-way interaction effect. Univariate F tests indicated significant differences between (a) E and I subgroups on reinforcement rate and approvals and (b) S and N subgroups on rate of reinforcement, approvals, teacher models, and pace. A significant EI × JP interaction effect was found for rate of reinforcement, approvals, and pace.
A Field Study of Sixth-Grade Students' Creative Music Problem-Solving Processes
Authors: DeLorenzo Lisa C.
Published: June 2006

In this qualitative research study, the author examined the creative problem-solving processes of sixth-grade students in the general music class. Eight creative problem-solving activities were videotaped at four school sites. Starting with the assumption that problem solving involves a series of choices, the author analyzed the student's chain of music decisions from problem perception through problem solution. Findings demonstrated that highly involved problem solvers explored and organized sound for its musical expressiveness, while uninvolved problem solvers rarely based their decision making on musical concerns. In addition, the problem structure and the student's perception of the problems relevance seemed to influence the problem-solving process. The author concluded that structured exploratory experiences with related discussion, as well as problems that encourage students to determine their own forms in music, may facilitate higher levels of musical thinking.
Rehearsal Organizational Structures Used by Successful High School Choral Directors
Authors: Cox James
Published: June 2006

Methodology textbooks disagree as to the most effective type of organizational structure to be used in choral rehearsal. Previous research, while supporting the use of rehearsal structure, added little support to any of the advocated designs. The author of this study sought to determine the type of rehearsal organizational structure used by successful Ohio high school choral directors. Relationships between rehearsal structure and either teaching style or student attitude were investigated. Results indicated that one rehearsal organizational structure was used predominantly. Results also indicated that a positive attitude toward chorus surfaced among students of all directors included in the sample, regardless of rehearsal structure used. In addition, some commonalities were found in perceived teaching style. Implications for both teacher training and choral rehearsal design are discussed.
Development and Validation of a Music Education Competency Test
Authors: Beazley Herschel V.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to develop and validate a competency test in music education. The resulting Music Education Competency Test (MECT), pilot form, provided information on a student' s proficiency in selected singing, conducting, key board, and rehearsal skills. Three validity studies were conducted in order to obtain evidence on the relationship of MECT scores to (1) the student' s course grades, academic status, and teacher rating; (2) students entering as freshmen as opposed to those entering as transfer students; and (3) students with piano as the principal instrument as opposed to voice or orchestral instruments. One hundred and twenty-five undergraduates at the University of Illinois took one of the test forms. Results indicated that: (1) seniors score better than freshmen on the singing and conducting subtests; (2) instrumentalists score better than vocalists on the conducting subtest; and (3) students' scores on the conducting and diagnostic rehearsal skills subtests correlate significantly with instructors' ratings in corresponding areas.
Verbal Identification of Music Concepts
Authors: Hair Harriet I.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine (1) what terminology from their own vocabulary subjects would use to label music concepts and (2) if consistent terminology would be selected by children in grades two, three, and four, and by college students majoring in elementary or music education. A group-listening test was administered to the subjects. One music concept was varied in each of the 10 presentations of a well-known melody. Subjects were asked to write a word that described the characteristic change in each playing. When correctly describing music concepts, subjects of all ages used consistent and traditional terminology. However, when incorrect terms were chosen, there was little similarity in vocabulary between children and adults.
Factors Influencing Pop Music Preferences of Young People
Authors: Boyle J. David , Hosterman Glenn L. , Ramsey Darhyl S.
Published: June 2006

This study examined self-reported reasons by students at various grade levels for their pop music preferences. In addition, it compared responses of students in grades five, seven, nine, eleven, and college, as well as responses of students with different experience and background characteristics. Results revealed that characteristics such as the melody, mood, rhythm, and lyrics of a selection were the most important reasons for preference. Sociocultural variables generally were viewed as less important. Specific differences were noted in the importance of several variables for different grade levels. Similarly, there were some differences in response according to some student back ground characteristics.
Sex-role Associations of Music Instruments and Occupations by Gender and Major
Authors: Griswold Philip A. , Chroback Denise A.
Published: June 2006

Undergraduate music majors and nonmajors rated the names of 17 music instruments and two related occupations on a scale from most feminine to most masculine. The harp, flute, and piccolo had high feminine ratings; the trumpet, string bass, and tuba had high masculine ratings. Multivariate analysis indicated that instrument ratings were significantly different for major, but not for gender.
Effects of Tempo and Context on Transfer of Performance Skills
Authors: Duke Robert A. , Pierce Michael A.
Published: June 2006

The present study examined the effects of melodic context and performance tempo on the I ability of advanced-level instrumentalists to perform previously learned music passages in novel settings. Twenty-seven graduate and undergraduate music majors practiced nine one-measure target tasks until achieving a specified performance criterion and subsequently performed the same measures at different tempi and in different melodic contexts that varied in level of complexity. Performances were evaluated on the bases of tempo accuracy, rhythm accuracy, and pitch accuracy. Results indicate a significant multivariate effect attributable to performance tempo, p < .006. Subjects' tempo accuracy and pitch accuracy were adversely affected by differences between the tempo at which specific passages were originally learned and the tempi at which they were subsequently performed. Although the multivariate effect of melodic context was statistically nonsignificant (p > .10), there were important differences in subjects' tempo accuracy among the three melodic context conditions.
Temporal Discrimination of Modulated Intensity in Music Excerpts and Tones
Authors: Geringer John M.
Published: June 2006

This study was designed to investigate listener discrimination of modulated intensity. Synthesizer music, previously recorded music excerpts, and electronic tones with gradual increases, decreases, or no change in intensity were presented to 108 subjects, 54 musicians and 54 nonmusicians. The total amount of stimulus modulation for both increase and decrease conditions was 12 dB(A) at the rate of 1 dB per second, well above the relative threshold level The time (in seconds) necessary for correct judgments of intensity change served as the dependent measure.

Musicians did not differ from nonmusician subjects in the number of correct discriminations nor in latency of correct responses. An analysis of response time demonstrated a significant effect of modulation direction. Subjects correctly discriminated intensity modulation decreases sooner than intensity increases. There were, however, significant interactions between stimulus examples and modulation conditions. Results are discussed in relation to a series of studies concerning temporal modulations within musical contexts.
Preferences of Undergraduate Music Majors for Sequenced versus Performed Piano Music
Authors: Wapnick Joel , Rosenquist Mary-Jo
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine whether musicians would evaluate sequenced piano music recorded from a sampling synthesizer differently than they evaluated commercially recorded performances by concert pianists. Subjects, 40 undergraduate music majors, of whom 17 were piano majors, listened to four performances each of four different piano pieces: one performance of each piece was sequenced; the other three were commercial recordings. Subjects consistently rated the quality of recording higher for sequenced excerpts than for commercial excerpts. This was likely a consequence of using long-playing recorded performances as opposed to compact disc recordings, however. Also, there was a tendency for subjects to rate the tone quality of the piano lower for the sequenced excerpts than for the commercial excerpts. There were no significant differences between ratings of sequenced and commercial excerpts for technical merit, artistic merit, and overall impression. These three ratings were highly correlated with each other, corroborating earlier research demonstrating the unidimensionality of performance evaluation. Also, tempo affected technical merit ratings: faster performances of the same piece were rated higher than slower ones. Results from this study imply that the use of sampled sounds and sequencers, in certain circumstances, might enable musicians lacking the technical skills of concert artists to create recorded performances equal in technical and artistic merit to recorded performances of concert artists.
Effects of Hand Signs, Syllables, and Letters on First Graders' Acquisition of Tonal Skills
Authors: Martin Beverly A.
Published: June 2006

In this study, I investigated the contributions of tonal syllables, hand signs, and letter representations of tonal syllables, as well as high and low levels of tonal aptitude and school readiness, to the development of verbal and symbolic tonal syllable skills of first-grade students. During Part 1 (17 weeks), all groups echoed tonal patterns with tonal syllables during the first 9 minutes of every class meeting—normally three per week. Group 1 echoed the patterns with tonal syllables only, whereas Groups 2 and 3 echoed and used hand signs; Group 3 also viewed letter representations of the patterns on cards. The patterns, randomly chosen from a 378-item list of three- and four-note tonal patterns, used the syllables do, re, mi, sol, and la; a range from C4 (middle C) to A4 was always used. During Part 2 (17 weeks), all groups echoed tonal patterns but also saw them written in noteheads on a staff. Every other class meeting Group 3 viewed letter representations on the staff instead of note-heads.

A three-way analysis of variance of data from the Metropolitan Readiness Tests, the Primary Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA), and three singing tests showed no method to be significantly better for any group as a whole nor for a specific aptitude group. Only tonal aptitude, as measured by PMMA, had a significant effect on test scores.
Demonstration and Recognition of High and Low Contrasts in Teacher Intensity
Authors: Madsen Clifford K. , Standley Jayne M. , Cassidy Jane W.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate teacher intensity, the global attributes of enthusiasm combined with an astute sense of timing in relation to classroom management and effective subject presentation and delivery. The authors also tried to ascertain whether high and low contrasts in teacher intensity could be taught to and then demonstrated by prospective music education student teachers ( n = 20) and whether other music education majors untrained in the concept of intensity could recognize these contrasts (freshmen, n = 23; seniors, n = 22; and graduate students, n = 29). Results of the study indicated that intensity as a concept could be operationally defined, easily taught to prospective student teachers, ably demonstrated, and recognized with an extremely high degree of reliability across levels of sophistication within the music education major.
Children's Age-Related Intellectual Strategies for Dealing With Musical and Spatial Analogical Tasks
Authors: Nelson David J. , Barresi Anthony L.
Published: June 2006

The authors of this study sought to determine whether there is an age-related, common level of logic underlying responses to musical and spatial analogical tasks and to characterize these levels of logic in terms of similar intellectual strategies. Children ( N = 128) ranging in age from 6.5 to 12.5 years old were individually tested using author-designed Spatial Analogy Tasks (SANTs) and Musical Analogy Tasks (MANTs). Analyses of results indicated that (a) a sequential nature exists in a child's development of musical intellectual strategies; (b) this sequential development in music seems to parallel an age-related sequence in other areas of understanding (i.e., spatial concepts); and (c) a parallel, rather than identical, sequence between musical analogical reasoning and spatial analogical reasoning may be due to the complexity of musical concepts. That is, the musical tasks may have created a conceptual “overload” for this population of subjects.
Elementary School Children' s Vocal Range
Authors: Wassum Sylvesta
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to examine the vocal range of the elementary school child over a five-year period. Vocal range is the total span of the child' s capacity to produce phonated sounds. Children were tested for range by singing ascending and descending major scale patterns on a neutral syllable. Results indicated that the mean ranges progressed from the interval of a ninth in first grade to nearly two octaves in sixth grade. Two-way analysis of variance showed no significant sex differences. Development of range was significantly related to maturation at the .05 level. At every grade level, 50% or more could sing an octave or more; the number singing two octaves or more increased progressively from 9.7% in first grade to 52.2% in sixth grade. Ranges of elementary children' s voices are both higher and greater in span than has been previously reported. Presence of three distinct vocal registers is noted and maturation levels described.
Relationship Between Creative Behavior in Music and Selected Variables as Measured in High School Students
Authors: Webster Peter R.
Published: June 2006

The major intention of this study was to define music creativity and to develop procedures for measurement of music creativity that were sensitive to the music process. Three modes of creative behavior in music (composition, improvisation, and analysis) were identified and compared to selected variables. The sample consisted of 77 high school students who had participated in school music groups but who had had no systematic training in creative skills in music. Univariate and multivariate analyses of the data revealed that: (1) music achievement correlated significantly with all modes of creative behavior and was the single best predictor of each mode, (2) figural creativity correlated significantly with improvisation and analysis creativity and was a significant predictor when used with other variables, (3) verbal creativity was significantly correlated with analysis creativity but was shown not to be a good predictor when combined with other variables, (4) IQ and sex were significantly related to improvisation creativity but not to other modes, and (5) age, grade level, performance medium, and piano lesson background did not relate significantly with any of the modes.
Generic Style Music Preferences of Fifth-Grade Students
Authors: LeBlanc Albert
Published: June 2006

The primary intent of this study was to find fifth-graders' most preferred generic music style and identify the critical competitors of that style, if any existed. A short listening test was developed to measure preference for different generic styles of music. Ambient sound was employed as a reference point to anchor the response scale. The test was administered to 278 students of varying socioeconomic status and ethnic background in 11 fifth-grade classrooms in the greater St. Louis area. Test reliability was evaluated in terms of stability of preference responses over time. Naturalistic behavioral observation was employed during test administration to secure a rough confirmation or denial of the truthfulness of student preference responses. Easy-listening pop music was the most preferred generic style and five other generic styles earned preference ratings that would qualify them as critical competitors. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted on preference responses and four factors were obtained and interpreted in an oblique solution.
Self- Expressed Adult Music Education Interests and Music Experiences
Authors: Bowles Chelcy L.
Published: June 2006

This study assessed self-expressed music education interests and described the music experiences of prospective participants in adult music education. Questionnaires were mailed to a sample of 800 music-performance attenders. Of the 275 people who returned questionnaires, 183 indicated positive responses toward participation and 92 indicated negative responses. Among adults who expressed interest in music participation, piano was the instrument most frequently chosen for private study, followed by voice and guitar. Choral organizations ranked highest among preferred performance organizations, and aural analysis and introductory music history courses ranked highest among preferred areas of academic study.

Most of the previous formal experiences of prospective participants comprised private lessons and participation in performance organizations; a surprising amount of self-directed music experience and learning was reported. Results indicated several significant relationships between course preferences and prior experiences with similar music activities. Positive attitude toward participation was found to be significantly related both to current involvement and to early participation in classroom general music. Parents and home were the most frequently cited positive influences in developing music interests.
Predicting Performance Achievement and Retention of Fifth-Grade Instrumental Students
Authors: Klinedinst Richard E.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the ability of 11 variables to predict performance achievement, teacher rating of musical achievement and progress, and retention of beginning instrumentalists. The study involved 205 fifth-grade beginning instrumental music students and consisted of data collection, student instruction, and achievement assessment. At the conclusion of 7 months of instruction, student performance achievement was evaluated by three independent judges, teacher rating of student progress was obtained, and student retention was tabulated. Results indicate that scholastic ability, reading achievement, and math achievement had the strongest relationship to both adjudicator and teacher ratings of student performance achievement. Student retention was best predicted by socioeconomic status, self-concept in music, reading achievement, math achievement, and scholastic ability. The five variables predicted retention with 97% accuracy.
Samuel McBurney: Australian Advocate of Tonic Sol-fa
Authors: Stevens Robin S.
Published: June 2006

In a publication issued to commemorate the jubilee year of the tonic sol-fa movement in 1891, Samuel McBurney (1847–1909) was accorded the title of “the Stanley of Sol-fa” in recognition of his pioneering work in propagating the tonic sol-fa method in Australia. Born in Scotland, where he received his early musical training in tonic sol-fa, McBurney emigrated to the colony of Victoria in the southeast of mainland Australia, where he commenced a lifelong propagation of the tonic sol-fa system. On a return visit to Britain he qualified for a doctorate in music from the University of Dublin to prove that tonic sol-fa could be applied to the highest levels of musical scholarship and was subsequently appointed as inspector of music for Victorian state schools. He contributed significantly to music education through his teaching activities and his numerous publications, including textbooks, songbooks, choral compositions, journal articles, and a kindergarten music teaching method. However, McBurney's principal contribution was to lay the foundations for music teaching by the tonic sol-fa method in Victorian schools.
Measurement, Prediction, and Training of Harmonic Audiation and Performance Skills
Authors: Humphreys Jere T.
Published: June 2006

The main purposes of this study were to test music majors' abilities to harmonize notated melodies and recorded melodies with chord symbols, and to perform harmonic accompaniments to recorded melodies; measure the effectiveness of a harmonic audiation and performance training program; and measure the predictive power of eight independent variables on harmonic audiation and performance skills. Six subtests were administered in a pre-post design to 45 instrumental music education majors, 22 of whom received training via the taped training program in the interim. The results suggested that the training program was effective in improving subjects' abilities to harmonize simple melodic patterns; that melodic echo-playing ability was highly correlated with and predictive of harmonic audiation and performance; that keyboard study had particularly weak relationships with harmonic audiation and performance; and that subjects were much better able to represent harmony implied by notated melodies than to represent or perform harmony implied by taped melodies.
Effect of Ratio of Positive to Negative Instances on Efficiency of Musical Concept Learning
Authors: Jetter June Thomsen , Wolff Joseph L.
Published: June 2006

The effects of three ratios of positive to negative instances in a musical concept learning task were studied using 36 second-grade classrooms. The ratios studied were 5:1, 2:1, and 1:2 positive to negative instances. The concepts studied were ascending melody, even duration, and bassoon. No significant effects on gain scores were found for ratio or concepts, and the amount of gain due to learning was less than 1 item on a 24-item test. It was concluded that current methods of teaching elementary musical concepts, like those examined in the present study, are ineffective and should be rethought.
Excusing Elementary School Students from Regular Classroom Activities for the Study of Instrumental Music: The Effect on Sixth-Grade Reading, Language, and Mathematics Achievement
Authors: Kvet Edward J.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to ascertain whether significant differences exist in sixth-grade reading, language, and mathematics achievement between students who are excused from regular classroom activities for the study of instrumental music and students not studying instrumental music. Four public school districts from a major metropolitan area were used in the study. The study employed a single-sample multivariate matched-pairs design. Hotelling's T2 for correlated samples was applied to the sixth-grade achievement data from the districts individually and computed with the Finn Multivariance program. Results from these analyses indicated that T2 was not significant at the .05 level in all four school districts. Therefore, it was concluded that there was no significant difference in sixth-grade reading, language, and mathematics achievement between students who are excused from regular classroom activities for the study of instrumental music and students not studying instrumental music.
Operant Preference for Vocal Balance in Four-Voice Chorales
Authors: Killian Janice Nelson
Published: June 2006

The investigation was designed to determine preference for balance in four-voice chorales. Choral conductors ( n = 35) and high school choral students ( n = 52) verbally stated their balance preference and then listened individually to SATB chorale excerpts. Subjects were instructed to manipulate the loudness controls of a four-channel tape recorder as an operant measure of preferred balance. The tape recorder allowed regulation of the loudness of a single voice without affecting the other three. Subjects heard two equally balanced trials and eight unbalanced trials (one voice 9–13 dB louder than the other three). Analyses indicated: (a) subjects preferred significantly less bass; (b) subjects could discriminate when a single voice was unbalanced; however, the unbalanced voice was adjusted significantly louder relative to balanced trials, indicating an initial perception effect; and (c) there were no significant differences between students and conductors. Further results are discussed in terms of application to music education and implications for future research.
Discrimination of Modulated Beat Tempo by Professional Musicians
Authors: Kuhn Terry Lee
Published: June 2006

Thirty professional musicians were presented with 12 stimulus examples consisting of beats produced on a metronome. Initial beat tempo rate (60, 90, 120, and 150 beats per minute) and tempo modulation direction (Decrease, Increase, and Same) comprised the independent variables. Two dependent variables, number of correct responses on modulation directions and time required to discriminate a tempo change, measured the effect of tempo rate and modulation. Subjects correctly identified significantly more Decrease and Increase examples than Same examples ( F = 8.92; df = 2,58; p < .01). More Decrease examples were correctly identified than Increase examples; however, that difference was not significant. Decrease examples were identified in significantly less time than Increase examples ( F = 24.09; df = 1,29; p < .01). Time differences attributable to tempo rates and interactions were not significant. A replication of this experiment by Randall S. Moore using high school music students as subjects yielded markedly similar results.
Music Listening Preferences of Elementary School Children
Authors: Greer R. Douglas , Dorow Laura G. , Randall Andrew
Published: June 2006

Nonverbal tests using an episodic reinforcement device were conducted to ascertain the music preferences of children in elementary grade levels. The tests also provided data on listening attention span in these grades. Results indicated a growing preference for rock music over nonrock music with advancing grade level, with a critical change observable between third and fourth grade levels
Electromyographic Analysis of Embouchure Muscle Function in Trumpet Playing
Authors: White Elmer R. , Basmajian John V.
Published: June 2006

A review of the pedagogical brasswind literature revealed that the varying and contradictory opinions concerning embouchure function are based primarily on theory or conjecture. The physical and physiological functions involved have received very limited attention from researchers. This experimental study investigated the possible effects of register, intensity, and subjects' proficiency level on electromyographic potentials (a measurement of muscle activity) from four facial muscles of 18 trumpeters. Electromyograms were made simultaneously of the muscles of the upper and lower lips and the levator and depressor of the mouth corner using Basmajian's indwelling, fine-wire electrodes during 51 trumpet performance tasks. Statistical analyses of the data revealed several interesting differences between advanced and beginning trumpeters concerning muscle activity preceding and following the tone, between upper and lower lips, between in-the-lips and out-cf-the-lips muscles and during the playing of several musical or technical passages.
Effect of Melodic Parameters on Ability to Make Fine-Tuning Responses in Context
Authors: Swaffield William Robert
Published: June 2006

The effect upon fine tuning of four contextual melodic factors: timbre, intensity, duration, and variable stimulation, has been examined. Students listened to 108 ascending scale passages followed by an extended tone which they tuned to the implied tonic of the passage. It was concluded that all four contextual factors have significant effects on tuning, and that there is a strong tendency for subjects to be influenced by the initial frequency of the tuning tone. It was also found that higher intensities produce tunings of lower frequencies and that horn timbre is easiest to tune accurately and violin is the most difficult.
Testing Music Hearing in Right and Left Ears of Children Ages Ten, Eleven, and Twelve
Authors: Gollnick Doris J.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine if musically experienced children recognize simple melodies better with the right ear or the left ear. The subjects, students from grades four and five, were divided into two groups and assigned to either a musically sophisticated or musically unsophisticated group. They were tested individually with separate tests for right or left ear. These short, melodic tests were administered and scored in a randomized manner in an attempt to determine if any ear dominance existed. The only significant difference found was between grades; the fifth grade students scoring slightly better than the fourth grade students. All other comparisons—by sex, sophistication, or grade by sophistication-resulted in no differences.
Intersensory and Intrasensory Transfer of Melodic Contour Perception by Children
Authors: Olson Gerald
Published: June 2006

This study investigated the ability of first-grade students to manipulate intersensory and intrasensory transfer between and within the visual and aural sensory modes. Subjects were asked to judge whether stimuli perceived initially in either of the modes were the same or different as stimuli matched in the opposite mode (VA or AV). In addition, subjects matched stimuli within the aural sensory mode (AA). Stimuli consisted of short melodic phrases and contour-line graphs. The results indicated that aural to aural intrasensory transfer (AA) was significantly more easy than either intersensory task (VA or AV). No significant differences were found between the VA and AV intersensory tasks, nor in the position of the tasks in the test sequence.
The Aural Perception of Nontxaditional Chords in Selected Theoretical Relationships: A Computer-Generated Experiment
Authors: Gibson Don B.
Published: June 2006

The nontraditional chords in this study represent relationships defined by Allen Forte and Charles Lord. These relationships may be viewed as various degrees of similarity in pitch and interval structure between two chords. This experiment attempted to determine any correlation that may exist between theoretical and aural relatedness. The PLATO computer system presented subjects ( N = 198) a randomly ordered series of 39 experimental items. In each item, two pairs of chords were presented with one pair theoretically more similar. Listeners were asked to choose “which pair sounds more alike.” Chi-square calculations demonstrated nonsignificant differences in responses by subjects with varied backgrounds and levels of education. Confidence intervals, calculated for each item, demonstrated five significant levels of response, three of which were in accord with the theories. The results suggest that intervallic characteristics, a principal basis for the pedagogy of atonal music, are not a primary attribute in our perception of atonal music.
Computer-Assisted Instruction in Pitch and Rhythm Error Detection
Authors: Deal John J.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to determine whether the Computer-Assisted Program in Error Detection (CA-PED) was an effective method for developing that skill in college music education majors through a comparison with an effective error detection program, the Program in Error Detection (PED). The computer program, written for the Apple II + microcomputer, is an interactive, programmed-instruction format that utilizes four-voice examples of published band literature. The results indicated significant gains in error-detection skill for both groups, but no significant difference ( p < .05) between treatment groups on the Test in Error Detection (TIED) in each of three analyses of covariance, utilizing TIED pretest, Aliferis-Stecklein Music Achievement Test, College Midpoint Level (AS), and combined TIED pretest and AS as the covariates, respectively.
The Effects of Group Breath-Control Training on the Singing Ability of Elementary Students
Authors: Phillips Kenneth H.
Published: June 2006

This study investigated the effectiveness of group breath-control training in teaching children to sing. Forty-four subjects in grades 2,3, and 4 were randomly assigned within each grade to the two treatment groups, which met twice weekly in half-hour sessions for 18 weeks. The experimental group received training in breath control in addition to the singing of songs. The control group's instruction was that of the traditional song approach. Pre- and posttraining data for each subject on four dependent variables (vocal range, vocal intensity, tonal duration, and pitch accuracy) were analyzed for the effects of the training variable (reflected in measures of abdominal and thoracic movement and vital capacity) between groups and among grade levels. Data were subjected to a two-way multivariate analysis of covariance on each dependent variable considered separately but as a “set” with each covariate breathing measure. Results of the study showed that breath-control training significantly differentiated between groups, but not among grade levels. The subjects in the experimental group responded to training in such a way as to reflect a change in breathing from “chest” or clavicular to abdominal-diaphragmatic-costal breathing, with a corresponding improvement in vocal range, vocal intensity, and pitch accuracy.
Observation of Approval/Disapproval in Music: Perception Versus Actual Classroom Events
Authors: Madsen Clifford K. , Duke Robert A.
Published: June 2006

This study was designed to assess subjects' perceptions of teacher approval/disapproval given to elementary students compared to the actual responses of the teacher. Subjects were 109 graduate and undergraduate music therapy ( n = 50) and music education ( n = 59) majors enrolled in classes in behavioral techniques that constituted parts of teacher/therapist training programs. Subjects viewed a 23-min videotape of an ongoing kindergarten music class involving listening, movement, and rhythm instrument performance activities. Subjects were instructed to write as many succinct statements as possible while observing the tape concerning the setting, teacher behavior, teacher/student interactions, lesson organization, and students' musical and social behaviors. Following the viewing, subjects evaluated various aspects of the approval and disapproval, using seven-point semantic differential scales, and also estimated the percentages of teacher time spent giving approval, disapproval, and instruction. All subjects inaccurately estimated the amount of teacher time devoted to approval and disapproval. There were significant differences between the two groups regarding the perceived use of teacher time, with music education students estimating a significantly greater amount of time devoted to approval ( p < .01). Both groups indicated that there was “too little” approval given by the teacher; however, the music therapy subjects expressed this more strongly ( p < .02). There were no significant differences between the two groups across other semantic differential scales. All subjects considered approval and disapproval to be generally “good,” “meaningful,” “beneficial,” “valuable,” and “effective.” A significant difference between music therapy and music education majors was found in the number and content of written statements.
Changes in Musical Attitudes, Opinions, and Knowledge of Music Appreciation Students
Authors: Price Harry E. , Swanson Pamela
Published: June 2006

In this study, the changes in musical attitudes, opinions, and knowledge of undergraduate students ( N = 135) enrolled in a music appreciation course were investigated. At the beginning and end of the 10-week course, students' attitudes toward composers were assessed by a free-recall survey on which the students were asked to list and rank-order their 10 favorite composers and to give information about recording ownership. Students then completed a test composed of excerpts about which they were asked their opinion and questions about their knowledge of era, composer, and title. Students exhibited a significant gain in knowledge about the works on the test ( p < .01); however, there was no significant difference in their opinions of these same works between the pretest and the I posttest ( p > .10). Students listed significantly more composers of the formal tradition on the attitude survey following the course ( p < .01). Moderate relationships were found between the gain in the number of formal composers listed on the attitude survey, recordings reportedly purchased ( p < .01), and grades earned ( p < .05).
Review and Survey of MENC Research Training Institutes
Authors: Nelson Carl B. , Williams David Brian
Published: June 2006

The Music Education Research Council (MERC), the governing body of the Society for Research in Music Education, has taken the position that providing training in research procedures for MENC is an effective means of stimulating and encouraging growth within the music education profession. In tracing the evolvement of MERC training projects, this review underlines the fact that most participants seem to evaluate the importance of research training primarily as a means to resolve their professional problems. Members of SRME support the notion of research training and are willing to pay for such instruction. The survey indicates that variables such as the members' professional status and formal training are important factors to consider in planning research training workshops. Data gathered in the survey show that members of SRME are of two well-defined populations, each of which has distinctive needs and interests.
The Effect of Teacher Approval/ Disapproval Ratios on Student Music Selection and Concert Attentiveness
Authors: Dorow Laura G.
Published: June 2006

An application of learning theory to the study of music teacher behavior was made in order to obtain evidence regarding student music selection behavior and concert attentiveness as influenced by ratios of teacher approval to disapproval. Seventy-six fourth- and fifth-grade students were pretested and posttested. The number of seconds subjects selected from three sound contingencies (piano music, rock music, and white noise) on an episodic reinforcement device and student off-task concert behaviors were measured. Subjects were taught piano excerpts under teacher high and low approval/disapproval conditions. Approval ratios were controlled by hand signals (approval/disapproval cues) given to the teacher at predetermined time intervals.
Perceptions of Role Expectations and Performance of the Music Coordinator
Authors: Heller Robert W. , Quatraro John A.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to examine the general conceptual relationship between role expectations and perceived performance of the music coordinator. Dimensions of these concepts focused on the functional components of: administration (routine and staffing), and program (curriculum/research and evaluation). The design of the study included development of the Role Expectation Behavior-Evidenced Questionnaire (REBE). An independent panel of five music experts each attested to the validity of the content and construct of the items on the final form of the REBE, which was administered to a stratified sample of 153 school districts in New York State having music coordinators. The subjects included the chief school officer, the school board president, the music coordinator, and two randomly selected music staff members from each of the participating school districts.

The research instrument proved effective in discriminating among perceptions held for role expectations and job performance of the music coordinator by the four referent groups studied. Analysis of the data revealed statistically significant disagreement among the four respondent groups in their respective perceptions of the role of the music coordinator. These differences suggest an apparent lack of clear definition and understanding of the role, responsibilities, and authority of the music coordinator. Throughout all analyses, the significant differences realized among the respondent groups served only to underscore the conflicting levels of expectation and performance established for the music coordinator.