bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Informant
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes how agents Larry Bonney and Richard Farley followed through on the tip from Detroit detective Robert Krichke despite their initial skepticism. Both agents tracked down James Petty in Michigan and interrogated the man for a few hours before Petty admitted to Martin McNally’s hijacking stunt. Under the orders of agents, Petty was able to gather more information about McNally, who gullibly shared details of his crime. McNally said he expected his next hijacking attempt would be easier and would not result in losing money. The chapter explains the agents’ attempts to trace McNally’s missing gun before receiving positive identification on the hijacker.
Fingerprints
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes how fingerprints led to the confirmation of Martin McNally’s identity. FBI agents searched the plane at Chicago’s O’Hare Airport. Agent Richard Stilling found pieces of notes that belonged to the hijacker. Following the interview of Jim Petty, Larry Bonney asked about the evidence and received the name Martin McNally. He figured that if McNally had been arrested before, his fingerprint documents would be in the FBI’s files. Fingerprint examiner Carl Collins confirmed that the fingerprint on the hijack note belonged to Martin Joseph McNally and sent a teletype to the St. Louis FBI office, with copies to Detroit, Chicago, and Indianapolis.
Evidence
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter covers the evidence surrounding Martin McNally’s hijacking of American Flight 119. Since the FBI still did not have a search warrant, four agents were assigned to watch McNally’s house to ensure that no one tampered with the site. After receiving the proper search warrant, agents collected evidence from the garage and the house and took it to the FBI lab in Washington. McNally’s father, Walter McNally, attempted to help his son, but the son refused to see him. The chapter explains that the evidence was circumstantial but was consistent with eyewitness accounts. It also details how the FBI arranged a lineup and flew in the pilots and stewardesses to identify Martin McNally.
How It Began
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks into the origins of airline hijacking. It starts with Antulio Ramirez Ortiz, who called himself El Pirata Confresi, who was part of the first wave of US airline hijackings that increased slowly throughout the 1960s. In August 1961, the US Senate voted to make airplane hijacking subject to the death penalty. The hijacking trend died down after the Cuban government began arresting hijackers, returning US planes, and treating their crews and passengers as if they were on vacation. The chapter highlights how hijacking was more of an adventure than a capital crime, but that changed in 1968.
Ransoms
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the ransoms paid to airline hijackers. It starts with Arthur Barkley, who demanded a ransom of $100 million after the threat of a gun, a razor, and gasoline in his arsenal. Even though Barkley shot two FBI agents, he was found innocent by reason of insanity. Over time, airline-hijacking movies became darker, reflecting the new realities of air piracy. The chapter also describes the hijacking experience of James Bennett, who boarded Eastern Air Lines Flight 30 after getting his idea of hijacking from the movie Doomsday Flight. It also references the release of the movie Skyjacked.
Finding D.B. Cooper
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter tackles the theories on the fate and the identity of hijacker D.B. Cooper, which primarily rely on circumstantial evidence or alleged confessions. It acknowledges the daring of Cooper’s parachute jump. FBI agent Ralph Himmelsbach and others in the FBI were convinced at the time that Cooper died when he hit the ground. The assumption hindered the search for Cooper and, subsequently, the manhunt for Martin McNally as well. Cooper likely had an accomplice who drove him to the Portland Airport and was on call to pick him up on the ground. The chapter considers the debates surrounding Cooper’s identity and where he may have landed.
Black Security and the Conundrum of Policing
Authors: Bell Monica C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter frames a thick conception of Black security as a corrective in political and legal debates over policing. As demonstrated here through qualitative interview data, Black Americans who live in dispossessed urban neighborhoods have rich and complex beliefs, experiences, and hopes with respect to policing and security. Yet those perspectives are often flattened and misconstrued by policymakers, journalists, activists, and other stakeholders in public safety debates. To combat this tendency, this chapter suggests engaging in a more careful reading of public opinion data on policing, an expansion of metrics used in studies on policing, and a more parsimonious understanding of the appropriate roles for social science in moral and political debates over safety.
The Making of the Tabernacle and the Construction of Priestly Hegemony
Authors: MacDonald Nathan
Published: September 2023

How did the Jerusalem high priests go from being cultic servants in the sixth century BCE to assuming political supremacy at some point during the third or second century? The Making of the Tabernacle and the Construction of Priestly Hegemony explores how the conditions were created for the priesthood’s rise to power by examining the most important ideological texts for the high priests: the description of the wilderness tabernacle and the instructions for the ordination ritual found in the biblical books of Exodus and Leviticus. Although neglected by most modern readers, who often find them technical and repetitive, the tabernacle accounts excited considerable interest amongst early scribes and readers as is evidenced by the survival of them in no fewer than four versions. Untangling the intricate compositional history helps shed light on how these chapters shaped—and were shaped by—the perception of the priesthood’s powers and competencies during the Persian and early Hellenistic periods. The hierarchy portrayed is more nuanced and multifaceted than previously appreciated with Israelite artisans, community leaders, Levites, and women incorporated into a complex vision of society. The ordination ritual was also transformed by scribal elites during the Persian period appearing in no fewer than five variant forms as the role of the high priesthood was negotiated. Using a broad, pluralistic methodological approach that incorporates insights from sociology, ritual studies, textual and literary criticism, early interpretation, manuscript studies, and philology, MacDonald’s study shines new light on the historical development, theology, and ideology of priestly texts.
Introduction
Authors: MacDonald Nathan
Published: September 2023

How did the high priesthood go from being an important, but subordinate, office in the kingdom of Judah to being the principal source of authority in the Hasmonean period? Answering this question has been hampered by deficient theoretical reflections on the nature and exercise of power, and by a failure to consider the full range of relevant texts from the Persian and early Hellenistic periods. After highlighting these problems, this chapter draws on Foucault and Gramsci to provide a better theoretical basis for thinking about power and makes the case for analysing the tabernacle account and related texts in the Pentateuch.
Four Versions of the Tabernacle
Authors: MacDonald Nathan
Published: September 2023

The tabernacle accounts of Exodus (Exod 25–31, 35–40) have been preserved in four versions preserved in late antique and medieval manuscripts: two Hebrew versions—one Masoretic and one Samaritan—an Old Greek and an Old Latin version. In this chapter, the best four manuscript exemplars of each version are described and analysed. Attention is given not only to the text of Exodus, but also the paratextual features that were transmitted along with it and helped guide ancient readers. The existence of four versions of the same text demonstrates the importance of the tabernacle account for early scribes and readers.
The Tabernacle and Its Gloriously Attired Priest
Authors: MacDonald Nathan
Published: September 2023

The original priestly document concludes with the tabernacle account of Exodus, where the tent sanctuary is presented as a fitting and comfortable abode for Israel’s God. This chapter argues that the climax of the original priestly document is not the richly decorated tent, but the glorious garments of the priest Aaron. Whilst the text is reticent to describe the significance of the tent and its furniture, each item of Aaron’s wardrobe is described in considerable detail and attributed instrumental significance. Aaron’s vestments are designed both to blend into the environment of the tabernacle, but also to ensure that God is attentive to the inscribed items of Aaron’s dress which ensures he represents the people as he enters the tent.
The High Priest and the Priests
Authors: MacDonald Nathan
Published: September 2023

The extant versions of the tabernacle account have a more complicated portrayal of the sanctuary and its priesthood than the original priestly document. The original priestly document spoke only of Aaron who represented the priesthood, but the developed portrayal has Aaron as the high priest with a larger priesthood that assists him. The integration of the great atonement ritual in Lev 16 plays a significant role in creating that complexity. This chapter examines how the perspectives of Lev 16 were incorporated in at least two distinct stages which resulted in a transformation of the tabernacle account’s presentation of the priesthood.
Craftsmen and Community
Authors: MacDonald Nathan
Published: September 2023

The compliance account in Exodus 35–40 presents a roster of characters, including master craftsmen, Israelite artisans, men, women, leaders, and Levites. All are involved in the construction and maintenance of the tabernacle. This extensive cast seems surprising given the focus in the instructions of Exodus 25–31 on Moses as the one to construct the sanctuary. The presentation of these additional characters produces a complex social hierarchy which emphasizes paradoxically both equality within the community and the pre-eminent status of the priests. This chapter examines how the compliance account disseminates power and competencies as part of a strategy that affirms priestly supremacy.
Inauguration and Violation
Authors: MacDonald Nathan
Published: September 2023

The celebrated inauguration of the tabernacle is followed immediately by catastrophe when Nadab and Abihu offer ‘strange fire’. Aaron’s two sons are consumed by divine fire. The nature of their infraction is a famous interpretive puzzle as is the failure to punish their brothers, Eleazar and Ithamar, for not consuming the sin-purification offering. This chapter examines these two interpretative cruxes and argues that they serve to resolve tensions within the portrayal of the competencies of the high priest and the rest of the priesthood. Some of these tensions had arisen from the inclusion of the sacrificial legislation in Lev 1–7.
Leaders, Levites, and a Kingdom of Priests
Authors: MacDonald Nathan
Published: September 2023

Within the larger expanse of the Pentateuch, there are two further reprises of the ordination ritual. One is found in Num 7–10, where a deformation of the Pentateuch’s narrative progression allows for the inauguration of the tabernacle to be retold one further time with a focus on the leaders and the Levites. The dedication of the Levites parallels the ordination of the priests in several respects, but in a way that highlights the ways in which the Levites differ from the priests. The second reprise of the ordination ritual is found in Exod 24, where a blood ritual occurred at the foot of the mountain which involved dashing the people and an altar with blood. This fulfils the promise in Exod 19 that the people will be a kingdom of priests.
Civil Wars and Interregnum
Authors: Morrill John
Published: September 2023

This chapter compares the experiences of Catholics across the three Stuart kingdoms during the Civil Wars and Interregnum. Distinguishing between the experiences of the laity and clergy, it explores how this tumultuous period impacted different groups within the Catholic community. The chapter examines the different strategies adopted by Catholics at both national and local levels to mitigate the effects of persecution and expropriation, and how violence, both against Catholics and by Catholics, impact events in other kingdoms. It is suggested that the internal division amongst and between Catholics in England, Wales, and Scotland had longer term consequences than external pressures did, with the reverse being true in Ireland. The chapter also explores the different responses from Rome to events in each kingdom.
The Catholic Moment
Authors: Devlin Eoin
Published: September 2023

This chapter covers the reign of James II & VII, from his long anticipated and much contested accession in February 1685 to his flight in the winter of 1688‒9. It examines the reign in two phases, with a coda on James’s long exile in France after his flight from Ireland in 1690. The first phase is one of relative moderation down to the spring of 1687. The second saw accelerating Catholicization and aggressive Counter-Reformation in the remaining eighteen months before the insurrection which ended James’s reign, seeing him defeated by the political elites first in England, then in Scotland, and finally in Ireland. The chapter offers a distinctive portrait of the King himself and offers a fresh evaluation of his relations with the Court of Rome, and indeed of Rome’s problems with James himself.
Empire and Overseas Missions
Authors: Glickman Gabriel
Published: September 2023

The international context of British and Irish Catholicism extended beyond Europe. By the later seventeenth century, Catholics from England and Ireland were actively involved in the colonial and commercial expansion of the Stuart realm. A growing cohort from Scotland participated after the Act of Union in 1707. Catholics worked within the empire as governors, soldiers, and traders. Missionary clergymen operated on the territorial frontiers, and major enclaves of Catholic settlement were established in Maryland and parts of the West Indies. This chapter shows how the growth of empire influenced the political strategies and ideological development of Catholic communities in Britain and Ireland. The colonial arena created opportunities for power, profit, and public office-holding in places far beyond the dictates of parliamentary penal laws. Service of the expanding realm offered ways for Catholics to advertise loyalist credentials and make a case for extending civil and religious liberties to their co-religionists at home. As these activities registered in colonial politics, however, the Catholic presence created divisions that added to the strains on emergent settlements and echoed back to raise domestic controversies over the management of the overseas dominions. While overseas expansion was justified publicly and rhetorically as a Protestant enterprise, the Catholic contribution spoke to a more conflicted and contentious relationship between the confessional and colonialist interests of the early modern English kingdom.
Missionary Activity and Religious Houses
Authors: Binasco Matteo , Thomas Hannah
Published: September 2023

This chapter begins by examining the extent to which missionary links between the Holy See and the British Isles developed and changed between 1688 and 1745. It explores how the papal curia sought to elaborate and carry out different missionary strategies for the problems which affected England, Ireland, and Scotland. The chapter will examine some of the thorny matters—like the poor quality of the clergy—which had a negative impact on the missionary networks developed between the colleges in Rome and the English, Irish, and Scots Churches. It then moves on to explore the development and, in many cases, expansion of religious houses within the English, Welsh, Scottish and Irish Catholic diaspora up to 1745, surveying the activities of the regulars, seculars, and women religious, all of whom expanded or consolidated their presence.
Religious Houses
Authors: Walker Claire
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the range of spiritualities practised in British and Irish religious houses and their context. It begins by considering the religious houses’ spiritual traditions, as articulated in books and objects. It explores the rich range of spiritual methods practiced across the British and Irish exile diaspora, as well as popular spiritual literature and spiritual practices preserved in manuscript material. The second section investigates points of difference and conflict regarding spiritual prayer and meditation, with most dissension centred on the place of Jesuit spiritual practices in orders belonging to older monastic traditions. Finally, the third section explores how the tropes of dislocation, persecution, and martyrdom featured in many religious houses’ spiritualities, as well as the persistence of a common goal: the restitution of Catholicism in their homelands.
Anti-Popery
Authors: Morton Adam
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers the place of anti-popery in British culture between the Civil Wars and Jacobite Rebellions. It outlines Britain’s hostility to Catholicism but shows that this hostility was far from the only reason for the prevalence of anti-popery in early modern culture. ‘Popery’ often encompassed groups of Protestants who were deemed to be too sympathetic to the Roman Church, or who were damned as a corrupt influence on Britain’s Churches and State. Anti-popery was therefore as concerned with intra-Protestant hostilities as it was anti-Catholic othering—it was a language of debate between Laudian and Puritan, Episcopalian and Presbyterian, royalist and parliamentarian, Whig and Tory, and many more. The chapter shows that anti-popery was a central feature of political debate during the three crises of the Stuart monarchy (1640‒2, 1678‒82, and 1688‒91), in response to the invention of Britain in 1707, and during the Jacobite challenge. In doing so, it underscores that anti-popery was far from a straightforward phenomenon, exploring its tensions and inconsistencies to show that it was a contested ideology.
Political Theology
Authors: Gillett Christopher P.
Published: September 2023

This chapter offers a thematic overview of the contours of British and Irish Catholic political theology between 1640 and 1745, a period in which fundamental questions of political and ecclesiastical authority were hotly contested in both Catholic and Protestant contexts. It examines how Catholics drew on older traditions, such as Christian dualism, when considering the relationship between spiritual and temporal authority. These traditions intersected with a range of competing understandings about the vexed issue of papal authority. As strict papalists continued to lose political influence during this period, a variety of moderate and anti-papalist positions proliferated. Blackloism was one such anti-papalist position, but others emerged throughout Britain and Ireland as Catholics struggled to come to agreement about a mutually acceptable alternative ecclesiology and referred to contemporary Continental European political theologies, including Gallicanism, Jansenism, and Quietism. Ecclesiological matters had implications for how Catholics interacted with the Protestant State, both in terms of demonstrating political loyalty and in terms of contending with that State’s jurisdiction over interior conscience. These interrelated issues were encapsulated in Catholic attempts to secure liberty of conscience by revising the Oath of Allegiance. This chapter examines how Catholics conceptualized the individuality of conscience in the period and deployed moral theologies, like Probabilism, to negotiate their relationship with Protestant authorities. It demonstrates that political theology was not solely the preserve of abstract theory, but was enmeshed in British and Irish Catholic political projects, and consequently offers insight into how Catholics informed events in the ‘mainstream’ political narrative of the period.
Architecture
Authors: Devlin Eoin
Published: September 2023

Catholic architecture in the century after 1641, and more emphatically in the sixty years after the accession of James II & VII in 1685, shows a growing willingness by Catholic families to introduce the latest styles from Catholic Europe, often from Rome, and especially the assertive and ornate baroque style that originated there from the end of the sixteenth century. The development of a significant number of royal chapels, not only by James but by his mother, wives, and sister-in-law, set the trend and was much imitated in many private domestic chapels across the three kingdoms and in some public churches in Ireland. During the 1680s, the royal chapels were much visited not only by devout Catholics but by curious Protestants and indeed although paintings and furnishings tended to be by Italian artists, the buildings themselves tended to be designed by English architects such as Sir John Vanbrugh, and there was some crossover between otherwise hostile Catholic and Protestant aesthetics when it came to architecture.
Vernacular Catholic Literature
Authors: Craith Mícheál Mac , January-McCann James , Stiùbhart Domhnall Uilleam
Published: September 2023

This chapter traces the development of Catholicism in Welsh, Irish Gaelic, and Scottish Gaelic vernacular literature. In Ireland, the outbreak of hostilities in 1641 dealt a major blow to the catechetical, hagiographical, and historical projects of the Irish Franciscans in Leuven, leading to a petering out of their influential publishing programme. The chapter explores Irish responses to major events, such as the Confederate Wars and the rise of Jacobitism, in Gaelic literature in the period, and how these events featured in literary representations of Ireland’s past, present, and future. In Wales, there was a marked reduction in the amount of material published in Welsh in the period compared to pre-1640 activity. The chapter surveys the work of the two Catholic authors writing during this period, John Hughes and Gwilym Puw, and places their work in wider contexts. It analyses the way in which what they wrote, and how they wrote it, can be viewed as indicative of the fortunes and aspirations of the Welsh Catholic community at the time. Finally, the chapter offers an appraisal of surviving references to Catholicism in early modern Scottish Gaelic vernacular literature. The multi-confessional nature of the Scottish Highlands led the poet Iain Lom (John MacDonald) to play down his Catholic adherence even in his most polemical compositions. The sharpening of denominational animosities during the Jacobite era, however, saw the composition of a series of strongly Catholic poems—some imparting doctrine, others expressing personal devotion—by Sìleas na Ceapaich (Julia MacDonald).
Jacobitism, Loyalty, and the State, 1746–1766
Authors: Brown Carys
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores changes in the relationship between Catholics, the State, and the Protestant populations of Britain and Ireland in the twenty years following the Jacobite Rebellion of 1745–6. It highlights three key developments which contributed to an adjustment in the position of Catholics in this period. First, it shows that the waning threat of Jacobitism and the loosening of its association with Catholicism had relieved Catholics of some suspicions of disloyalty by the end of the period. Second, it examines Catholic efforts to demonstrate their loyalty, highlighting how war and international diplomacy had begun to change the receptiveness of the British State to the idea of Catholic loyalty. Third, it shows how demographic and economic developments in some ways favoured Catholic communities during this period. However, the chapter ends by cautioning against a picture that is too positive. Emphasizing the strength of popular anti-Catholicism across the British Isles, and the day-to-day discrimination that Catholics faced, it emphasizes that any wider adjustments in the fortunes of Catholics during this period would not necessarily have been obvious to those living through it.
Breakthrough
Authors: Kelly James
Published: September 2023

The withdrawal in 1766 of papal recognition of the Stuarts’ claim to the throne of Britain and Ireland paved the way for the repeal of the penal laws. Irish Catholics were better organized than their British equivalents in the 1760s, but enduring anti-Catholic sentiment, animated by a combination of historical memory and contemporary events, ensured no progress was made until the early 1770s when the Irish and Westminster parliaments approved measures—an Oath of Allegiance and the Quebec Act most notably—that held out the promise that legislation to repeal the penal laws might soon follow. Military and political calculations, spurred by the exigencies of the American War of Independence provided the context for breakthrough acts in 1778 but the contrasting reactions of public opinion in both jurisdictions determined what was to follow. In Ireland, optimistic hopes that an era of religious toleration and political accommodation beckoned resulted in additional relief measures in 1782, but efforts to extend the franchise to Catholics in 1783–4 aroused atavistic fears for the Protestant constitution that ensured no further relief was forthcoming during the 1780s. In Great Britain, meanwhile, opposition in Scotland to the reliefs agreed at Westminster in 1778 prompted an outbreak of ‘no popery’, peaking in the Gordon Riots in London in June 1780. This underlined the enduring strength of anti-Catholic sentiment there and, by encouraging a much chastened Catholic leadership to rethink its approach, exposed divisions within Catholic ranks.
British and Irish Catholics in the Era of the French Revolution, 1789–1800
Authors: Elliott Marianne
Published: September 2023

The French Revolution seemed to mark the triumph of Enlightenment thinking, in religious as in political life, and a grant of full Catholic emancipation appeared imminent. However, the Revolution’s progressive attack on religion abruptly stopped Catholic relief, with particularly serious consequences in Ireland. Perversely, such developments also accelerated the revival of the Catholic Church as an institution, particularly in Britain, newly nourished by the arrival of French émigrés and increasing numbers of Irish Catholics. The middle-class reformers who had dominated the Catholic committees of the eighteenth century were progressively sidelined by the return of clerical supremacy.
Catholic Literature and Print Culture in English
Authors: Tomko Michael
Published: September 2023

In the long eighteenth century, the years leading up to Catholic emancipation in Britain and Ireland have often been characterized as a ‘silent’ period in Catholic literature and culture. This is reflected in John Henry Newman’s ‘second spring’ sermon as well as in scholarly accounts of the modern Catholic literary revival and early modern recusant writing. A closer formal and historical examination, however, reveals that, in addition to literary achievements by John Dryden and Alexander Pope, Catholic writing in English during this period underwent a much more complex, extensive, and experimental development in two ways. First, beginning with John Gother’s turn to popular books of devotional instruction after the 1688 Revolution, there emerged an important print network of texts that helped disparate Catholics constitute what Joshua King has termed an ‘imagined spiritual community’. Second, despite often eschewing literary genres such as plays and novels, these devotional, apologetic, historiographic, and instructional works experimented with narrative and dramatic techniques to form a proto-literary tradition of imaginative writing. These efforts were marked by a complex ‘two-fold’ consciousness of writing as a religious minority that had been misrepresented and misread in Protestant Britain. This essay tracks these developments from Gother through Bishop Richard Challoner and into the years preceding Catholic emancipation, when Catholic writing not only adapted new print media such as the periodical and gained more literary notoriety but also became increasingly divided over how to represent the Catholic community’s past, present, and future to the nation at large.
Catholic Literature and Literary Culture in Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, and Irish
Authors: Muircheartaigh Peadar Ó
Published: September 2023

A range of religious literature—in both manuscript and print—was composed, transmitted, and consumed in Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, and Irish in the period between the Battle of Culloden and Catholic emancipation. This chapter is concerned with that religious literature and the broader culture(s) which sustained it. Each of these three languages was marginalized, to varying degrees, within a consolidating and centralizing Anglophone British State, so too does the extent and nature of Catholic literary production vary greatly from language to language. They can, nonetheless, be usefully examined together. Common threads include the important early role of Continental colleges in the education of priests and the cultivation of literature, the popularity of vernacular translations from English Catholic authors, and comparable or overlapping networks of printers and patrons. Of the three languages examined, the most voluminous and varied Catholic literary output is to be found in Irish while the evidence for Welsh is scant is contrast. Notably in this regard, and in contrast with Irish, the volume of printed Catholic literary output in both Scottish Gaelic and Welsh is a very small proportion of the volume of printing in those languages more generally.
This Side of the Alps
Authors: Blanchard Shaun
Published: September 2023

This chapter sketches Catholic Enlightenment in Britain and Ireland, with special attention paid to the final quarter of the eighteenth century. The first section introduces Catholic Enlightenment in Britain and Ireland as a pluriform phenomenon while the next three sections consider three distinct yet overlapping ‘streams’ of enlightened Catholicism: the scholarly, the theological/devotional, and the ecclesio-political. The most radical ‘stream’ of enlightened Catholicism was the third, the ecclesio-political, and in Britain and Ireland it manifested in the Cisalpine movement that came into conflict with the vicars apostolic and other conservative forces, including some ex-Jesuits. This chapter argues that a uniting and overriding preoccupation both in Britain and in Ireland was proving to Protestant-dominated societies that Catholicism was not inherently bigoted, superstitious, or treasonous, and that Catholics therefore should be integrated into the political and cultural mainstream. For this reason, Britain and Ireland are particularly fertile terrain for the study of Catholic Enlightenment because Catholics there had such strong vested interests in publicly portraying themselves as rational, useful, and tolerant people worthy of the blessings of the British Constitution. This contrasts strongly with almost every over Catholic Enlightenment milieu; on the Continent, ‘enlightened’ ideas and policies were often promoted or even imposed by Catholic kings, bishops, or governments.
Warriors' Wives
Authors: Bridges Emma
Published: September 2023

Warriors’ Wives: Ancient Greek Myth and Modern Experiences compares the representations of soldiers’ wives in ancient Greek epic poetry and tragic drama with the experiences of modern-day military spouses. In examining the figures of Penelope, Clytemnestra, Andromache, and Tecmessa—as represented by Homer and the fifth-century-bce Athenian tragedians—alongside contemporary evidence for the lives of women who are married to service personnel, it sheds fresh light on the effects of war on those who are left behind. It traces significant aspects of the lives of the women who are married to soldiers from the moment of farewell, through periods of separation and the challenges they bring, to the reunion and in some cases the traumatic aftermath of war. In doing so, it considers the ways in which key elements of the experience of the waiting wife are shaped, today just as much as in the ancient world, by expectations about gender roles, and it renders visible the stories of military spouses who have traditionally been given less attention than their serving partners.
Introduction
Authors: Bridges Emma
Published: September 2023

This chapter outlines key issues relating to the representation and experiences of ‘military spouses’ in ancient Greek myth and in the modern world. It reflects on the history of scholarly work done so far to compare the human impact of war in ancient and modern contexts, noting that previous scholarship has focused primarily on male combatants, rather than on the women who live alongside them. The chapter sets out the focus and structure of Warriors’ Wives: Ancient Greek Myth and Modern Experience: the book compares the representation of soldiers’ wives in the mythical stories of the Trojan War with the experiences of women who are married to military personnel in the modern world. The ancient texts on which the book will focus are the epic poems of Homer (the Iliad and Odyssey), and Athenian tragedies by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The representations of the mythical characters of Penelope, Andromache, Clytemnestra, and Tecmessa are the focus for the comparisons that will be drawn.
Infidelity
Authors: Bridges Emma
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the issues of spousal fidelity and infidelity among military couples as depicted in Homeric poetry and Athenian tragic drama, as well as in contemporary representations of military marriages. It considers the Odyssey’s representation of the figure of Penelope as the archetypal faithful wife, whose fidelity is threatened by the presence of the predatory suitors in Odysseus’ palace, as well as the character of Clytemnestra (in Homeric poetry as well as in Athenian tragic plays by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides), who is often represented as Penelope’s immoral opposite. It also considers the existence of gendered double standards, discussing the ways in which male infidelity in military marriages tends to be viewed more leniently than adultery committed by soldiers’ wives.
Aftermath
Authors: Bridges Emma
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers some of the ways in which women—and in particular those whose husbands have been killed in war—are affected by traumatic events in wartime, including physical brutality, sexual violence, displacement, and enslavement. It outlines the realities of wartime violence against women both in ancient Greek society and contemporary conflicts before focusing on three Athenian tragedies which portray the traumatic experiences of Andromache and Tecmessa—both of them survivors of enslavement and rape—in the aftermath of the Trojan War: Euripides’ Trojan Woman, which depicts the women of Troy immediately after the sack of their city; Euripides’ Andromache, which imagines Andromache’s fate as the enslaved captive of Neoptolemus several years after the war; and Sophocles’ Ajax, in which Tecmessa, as Ajax’s forced concubine, witnesses her partner’s mental breakdown and suicide.
The Break with Rome and the Early Reformation
Authors: Marshall Peter
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses changes wrought on Catholicism in England, Wales, and Ireland up to 1553 by Henry VIII’s break with Rome, and the reforming policies pursued by Henry and the government of his son Edward. Contrary to earlier historical assumptions, Catholicism was in a healthy condition in all three nations prior to 1534, with considerable evidence of devotion to the papacy, though the Irish Church was fractured along ethnic and linguistic lines. Henry presented rejection of Rome as a matter of obedience not faith. Initial opposition in England was muted, though the Kildare Rebellion in Ireland adopted papalism as a political ideology. Official campaigns against shrines and pilgrimage were implemented more effectively in England than in Ireland, where ‘Catholicism without the pope’ proved generally palatable. Government patronage helped ensure acceptance of reform among Welsh elites, but less so in Ireland. Majorities in all three nations remained broadly ‘Catholic’ in 1547, split between conformists and smaller groups of dissident Romanists. Potential for the development of a coherent ‘Henrician Catholicism’ was ended by the overtly Protestant policies of Edward VI, which produced rebellion in England and resistance from previously conformist bishops in Ireland. The chapter concludes by noting that the nature of Catholicism was not fixed but in flux throughout these decades.
Mission or Church, 1570–1640?
Authors: McCoog Thomas M.
Published: September 2023

This chapter asks: was the post-Reformation Catholic Church in the British Isles and Ireland a continuation of the medieval Church? Or was it created as it were ex nihilo out of the ruins of an institution destroyed by the Protestant reformers? The absence of a hierarchy in England meant that the Jesuit superior was the highest-ranking ecclesiastic in England. Attempts to restore bishops encountered strong resistance from the Jesuits who considered England a mission comparable to China and Japan that demanded flexibility and freedom unhindered by episcopal control. The campaign for English bishops emerged victorious as King James I negotiated a marriage between Prince Charles and a Spanish princess. Would the victory become short-lived as the diplomacy failed?
Catholicism and Separatism, Conformity and the State
Authors: Questier Michael
Published: September 2023

After the Elizabethan settlement of religion, those who failed to comply with the law were subject to a range of penalties for not satisfying the conformist standards required by the State in matters concerning public religion. They were referred to as recusants, that is, if they went into stubborn separation from the Church of England; and they were liable to fines and sequestrations, and a number of these people might even find themselves in gaol. But the codification of recusancy was primarily a response to a very specific set of political circumstances and in fact, in the 1580s, moments of political crisis, when the Queen’s government appeared to be on the brink, as it were, faced with the threat from Mary Stuart and from Spain. When those circumstances changed, and especially after the accession of King James in 1603, the enforcement of the law on conformity against Catholic separatists became controversial for new reasons. Eventually, the execution of this branch of the criminal law could even become a coded critique of royal authority, that is, when it appeared royal government / the monarchy seemed no longer to regard separatist Catholics as the threat that they had once been taken to be, and some Protestants still thought that they were.
Material Culture
Authors: Walsham Alexandra
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the evolution of Catholic material culture between 1530 and 1640. It traces the iconoclastic destruction and defacement of objects and physical structures in the wake of the Reformations in England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. It explores the afterlives of medieval religious artefacts, investigating how they were concealed and preserved by conservatives and the important role they played in Catholic devotion in a context of proscription and persecution. It also demonstrates that the Counter-Reformation promoted a resurgence of Christian materiality that played a critical part in the missionary movement to reclaim the British Isles from ‘heresy’ and ‘schism’. In the process, relics, sacramentals, and other items increasingly became emblems of confessional allegiance, resistance, and subversion. These developments fostered an intense Protestant hostility towards ‘popish’ objects as sources of superstition, sin, and idolatry that has shaped attitudes towards material culture in centuries since.
English and Irish Women Religious at Home and Abroad, c.1530–c.1640
Authors: Bowden Caroline , McShane Bronagh Ann
Published: September 2023

Henry VIII’s legislation of the 1530s dissolving religious houses effectively ended religious life for women in convents in both England and Ireland, with most of the former nuns passing into a secular existence on rather small pensions. A few women stayed together in an attempt to follow a communal religious life in domestic surroundings: others, both English and Irish, moved to the Continent to enter indigenous houses. By the end of the sixteenth century groups of women were forming on the Continent intent on creating new convents specifically for Englishwomen. In addition to the enclosed communities approved by the Council of Trent, such as Benedictines and Augustinians, a new form of religious life for women based on an Ignatian model was established by Mary Ward. The new institutions were successful in attracting members willing to undertake illegal and dangerous journeys to enter religious life. A few Irish women professed in English convents, but the Iberian Peninsula was a more significant destination for them in the seventeenth century, particularly after the opening of the Dominican convent of Bom Sucesso in Lisbon in 1639. These new foundations formed the bedrock of the movement which kept religious life alive for English and Irish women in the exile period: only one of the convents closed before the French Revolution.
Catholic Education in Britain and Ireland
Authors: Parker Stephen G.
Published: September 2023

This chapter surveys developments in Catholic education in Britain and Ireland across the twentieth century and draws upon remembered experiences of the faith to augment predominantly institutional histories of Catholic education. In bringing together changes to religious education in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, it offers a unique survey of the place of Catholicism in shaping and responding to economic forces, shifting government agendas, and profound social changes. Unpacking the theological triad of home, parish church, and Catholic school in socialization and transmission of the faith, the prominent English clerical catechist Francis Drinkwater offers a case study illustrating the influence of psychology and child development theory on progressive religious education initiatives before (and after) the Second Vatican Council. The impact of growing religious pluralism on policy debates about faith schooling, as well as renewed demands to articulate its distinctiveness, point to an uncertain future for Catholic education across both islands into the twenty-first century.
Ireland’s Missions and Missionaries in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Bateman Fiona
Published: September 2023

The modern missionary movement emerged as an important Catholic project in twentieth-century Ireland. Public support for the ‘foreign missions’ to convert ‘pagans’ was presented as evidence of the strength of Catholic faith in Ireland; the missionaries became popular heroic figures. Saint Columbanus and Ireland’s Golden Age were cited as proof that the Irish had a natural aptitude for missionary work. New Irish missionary organizations led to fundraising campaigns in schools and parishes to support the missions and develop new vocations. Male and female religious travelled to China, India, and various African countries to open schools and hospitals, and save souls, often ill-prepared for the cultural differences they encountered. In later decades, a new missiology emerged with more focus on humanitarianism and social justice, and less emphasis on conversion. However, the older discourse had lasting impact and Africa remains associated with ‘Pennies for Black Babies’ in the Irish imagination.
Introduction
Authors: O’Brien Susan , Mangion Carmen M.
Published: September 2023

This introductory chapter begins by taking stock of significant strands in the post-emancipation nineteenth-century Catholic history of Britain and Ireland, using the Crimean or Eastern War (1854–6) to illustrate the interplay between questions of religious and national identity, separation, and integration for the peoples of Britain and Ireland. It then outlines the themes and structures of the volume. Lastly, it addresses the developing historiography of nineteenth-century Catholicism, highlighting national trajectories and shifting preoccupations; referencing major historians and their contributions; and pinpointing the unevenness of research across these two islands and four nations. It identifies the gaps in the scholarship and concludes by positing the need for engagement with new methodological approaches.
Catholic Revivals in Britain and Ireland
Authors: Mangion Carmen M.
Published: September 2023

This overview chapter emphasizes an era of Catholic revivalism in Britain and Ireland through the interconnections between Catholics in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. The globalizing, transnational forces at work in the Church further augmented and deepened this connectivity. First, the chapter identifies the demographic, geographic, ethnic, and social-class dimensions of Catholicism in each of the four nations, tracing their evolution over the long nineteenth century. Next, the legal and ecclesial structures that frame the Catholic revivals are examined. A third section explores the laity as co-producers and consumers of this revival through associational cultures and the development of a Catholic periodical press. The chapter concludes with the Church-wide theological and ecclesiological characteristics of this era, often summarized as ultramontane Catholicism, and the importance of membership in the Universal Church to Catholic identities across the United Kingdom.
Episcopal Leaders and Leadership
Authors: Doyle Peter
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains how episcopal leadership came to be firmly established in Britain and Ireland after 1830 through examining the three hierarchies of Ireland, Scotland, and England and Wales. It explores the means and the culture through which clerical authority more broadly was exercised with increasing vigour, noting at the same time where it was more limited. The role of synods and episcopal meetings in the definition of pastoral leadership is explored while the growing importance of loyalty to the figure of the pope and acceptance of an expanded papal authority was a significant unifying force within a practice of leadership which was varied at both individual and national levels. While challenges and limits of episcopal control continued to be a reality on the ground, the direction of travel was one of increased lay deference and increased control, as is shown, for example, in relation to religious orders and congregations.
Catholics, Politics, and the State in Britain
Authors: McClelland V. Alan
Published: September 2023

After the Relief Act of 1829, Catholics in Scotland, England, and Wales became active in local and national politics in new ways. Those bishops, priests, and individual Catholics who took part in political life did so to improve the place and status of Catholics, to protect Catholic interests, and, at times, as a wider moral and social undertaking. Although Catholic loyalty to the State was questioned, this chapter charts the change brought about in the status and agency of the Church. The parliamentary presence of Catholics, the position taken by different groups of parliamentarians, and the leadership given by individual archbishops is assessed. Particular attention is paid to the political philosophy and activism of Cardinal Henry Manning in relation to Irish Home Rule, labour rights, education legislation, and collaboration with the Established Church along with the establishment of State-supported Catholic schooling as the focus for Catholic engagement in civic life.