bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Hahamovitch Cindy
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter is an overview of an emerging, quintessentially modern form of international migrant—the guestworker. Guestworkers are a relatively new form of labor migrant—one designed to balance employers' desire for contingent, less expensive, and presumably pliable foreign labor and native populations' antipathy toward those same workers. Unlike immigrants who stay, settle, and in some countries naturalize, vote, and qualify for social services, guestworkers exist in a no man's land between nations; they provide labor to their host societies but often fall outside the protections of those societies' labor laws. This chapter briefly charts the history of the guestworker phenomenon beginning from World War II's labor demands, and goes on to describe the research methodology used to supply the data for the rest of this volume.
The Evolving Roles and Responsibilities of House Officers in the Antebellum Era
Authors: Jenkins Jeffery A. , Stewart Charles
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the evolving roles and responsibilities of House officers in the antebellum era. An analysis of each of the major House officer positions—mainly the Speaker, but also the Clerk and Printer—reveals that the Speaker's role has varied over time, and that the speakership was not the only House office worth fighting for, especially before the Civil War. The chapter first provides a background on the speakership before the Civil War before discussing two major features of the House of Representatives's formal organization: committees and floor debate. It then explores how the Speaker, Clerk, and Printer positions could bestow significant policy and patronage to the political parties that controlled them. It shows that all three positions were regularly viewed as political resources and that party leaders saw the potential of these resources for helping to solidify the foundation of a party-centered legislative institution.
Organizational Politics under the Secret Ballot
Authors: Jenkins Jeffery A. , Stewart Charles
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the organizational politics underlying speakership and other House officer contests during the period when elections were held by secret ballot—ending in 1837. It begins with a discussion of House organization from 1789 to 1811, a period characterized by weak political parties. In particular, it considers how the increasing partisanship in both House politics and speakership elections overlapped with changing norms of doing business in the chamber. It then looks at House organization during the years 1811–1837, a time when the formal structure of the House became more complex, the role of political parties was transformed, and the value of House offices, including positions like the Printer and Clerk, was much enhanced. The chapter shows that, prior to the use of public roll call votes for electing House officers, organizational politics unfolded around a variety of factors such as party, personality, and region.
Introduction
Authors: Robson Catherine
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter briefly discusses the history of verse recitation and poetry memorization in Great Britain and the United States and how their societies have come to perceive such practices, as well as the role poetry plays within both the British and American imaginary. It also provides an overview of the case studies to be undertaken in this volume, and the ways in which they will be approached for study. In addition, the chapter goes on to embark on brief explorations of the felt, internal aspects of memorized poetry in British and American society. These, as the chapter attempts to show, combine to tell a story that both augments and to an extent challenges the arguments put forward elsewhere in this book.
Introduction
Authors: Fallat Shaun M. , Johnson Charles R.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter is an overview of totally positive (or nonnegative) matrices (TP or TN matrices). Positivity has roots in every aspect of pure, applied, and numerical mathematics. The subdiscipline, total positivity, also is entrenched in nearly all facets of mathematics. At first it may appear that the notion of total positivity is artificial; however, this class of matrices arises in a variety of important applications. Historically, the theory of totally positive matrices originated from the pioneering work of Gantmacher and Krein in 1960. The chapter explores the extant literature on total positivity since then, before proceeding to the definitions and notations to be used in the rest of this volume. It also provides a brief overview of the succeeding chapters.
Bidiagonal Factorization
Authors: Fallat Shaun M. , Johnson Charles R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces and methodically develops the important and useful topic of bidiagonal factorization. Factorization of matrices is one of the most important topics in matrix theory, and plays a central role in many related applied areas such as numerical analysis and statistics. Investigating when a class of matrices admits a particular type of factorization is an important study, which historically has been fruitful. Often many intrinsic properties of a particular class of matrices can be deduced via certain factorization results. For example, it is a well-known fact that any (invertible) M-matrix can be factored into a product of a lower triangular (invertible) M-matrix and an upper triangular (invertible) M-matrix. This LU factorization result leads to the conclusion that the class of M-matrices is closed under Schur complementation, because of the connection between LU factorizations and Schur complements. This chapter focuses on triangular factorization extended beyond just LU factorization, however.
Recognition
Authors: Fallat Shaun M. , Johnson Charles R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the recognition of TN matrices. It touches on one of the many applications for the structure of TN matrices. TN matrices enjoy tremendous structure, as a result of requiring all minors to be nonnegative. This intricate structure makes it easier to determine when a matrix is TP than to check when it is a P-matrix, which formally involves far fewer minors. Vandermonde matrices arise in the problem of determining a polynomial of degree at most n − 1 that interpolates n data points. Suppose that n data points (xᵢ,yᵢ)unconverted formula are given. The goal is to construct a polynomial p(x) = a₀ + a₁x + … + asubscript n − 1xsuperscript n − 1 that satisfies p(xᵢ) = yᵢ for i = 1, 2, …,n.
Other Related Topics on TN Matrices
Authors: Fallat Shaun M. , Johnson Charles R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter reviews a number of subtopics connected with TN matrices; including powers and roots of TN matrices, TP/TN polynomial matrices, subdirect sums of TN matrices, and Perron complements of TN matrices. Given that total positivity as well as TP matrices arise in many parts of mathematics and have a broad history, there have been many facts and properties about TP and TN matrices that neither fit well in another chapter nor are lengthy enough to constitute chapters in their own right. Yet, these topics are worthy of being mentioned and discussed. Hence the need for this final chapter, which represents a catalog of additional topics dealing with other aspects of TN matrices.
Given Enough Time …
Authors: Tyrrell Toby
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines James Lovelock's assertion that the Earth's atmosphere is a biological construct that is distinctly different from any expected abiotic chemical equilibrium. This claim can be broadened to the wider claim that Earth's environment bears the definite and considerable imprint of biological processes and is distinctly different from the environment that would be present if Earth did not possess life. Based on the evidence covered in this chapter, from atmosphere and oceans, Lovelock was clearly correct to claim that the coexistence of oxygen and methane in Earth's atmosphere is evidence of life, and that life can alter the planet. Other examples that could also be used as evidence to prove this point include the effects of vegetation in creating and stabilizing soils, the effects of plant transpiration on the cycling of water, and the fossil evidence for the effects of diatoms on silicon concentrations.
The Puzzle of Life’s Long Persistence
Authors: Tyrrell Toby
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at two separate viewpoints which can be used as a foundation for the consideration of what long-term life persistence means for the evaluation of Gaia. As part of describing one view, it explains why atmospheric CO2 is susceptible to rapid change. As a consequence, the Earth could, in theory, quite easily have shifted to a state of freezing cold or of boiling heat within only a short interval of geologic time. In either case, if the shift was extreme enough, life can be expected to have been completely and irrevocably extinguished. That such a shift never took place, that all life never perished even once over such an immensity of time, seems an improbable outcome. The second view is based on the so-called anthropic principle. In contrast, it cautions that, given that humans are here, life must necessarily have survived.
Relentless Reformer
Authors: Muncy Robyn
Published: November 2017

Josephine Roche (1886–1976) was a progressive activist, New Deal policymaker, and businesswoman. As a pro-labor and feminist member of Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration, she shaped the founding legislation of the U.S. welfare state and generated the national conversation about health care policy that Americans are still having today. This book offers Roche's persistent progressivism as evidence for surprising continuities among the Progressive Era, the New Deal, and the Great Society. The book explains that Roche became the second-highest-ranking woman in the New Deal government after running a Colorado coal company in partnership with coal miners themselves. Once in office, Roche developed a national health plan that was stymied by World War II but enacted piecemeal during the postwar period, culminating in Medicare and Medicaid in the 1960s. By then, Roche directed the United Mine Workers of America Welfare and Retirement Fund, an initiative aimed at bolstering the labor movement, advancing managed health care, and reorganizing medicine to facilitate national health insurance, one of Roche's unrealized dreams. This book uses Roche's dramatic life story as a unique vantage point from which to examine the challenges that women have faced in public life and to reassess the meaning and trajectory of progressive reform.
“Prophet of a New and Wiser Social Order,” 1929–1932
Authors: Muncy Robyn
Published: November 2017

This chapter details events in Josephine Roche's life from 1929 to 1932. As Roche and the miners at Rocky Mountain Fuel (RMF) implemented their “industrial Magna Carta,” they faced two major threats. One was the Great Depression. The other was the determination of Roche's competitors to drive her out of business because of her labor policy. When Roche took over RMF, the United States and most of the industrialized world were on the brink of the most profound economic downturn of the twentieth century. That global economic contraction made Roche's competitors the more eager to force her out of the coalfields and made it harder for her to maintain high labor standards. Remarkably, she held on, heralded by progressives as a “prophet of a new and wiser social order.” In the process, she established her place within an emerging political elite that would soon dominate national politics and government. Indeed, her work at RMF was one of many threads tying the Progressive Era to the New Deal.
Working with the New Deal from Colorado, 1933–1934
Authors: Muncy Robyn
Published: November 2017

This chapter details events in Josephine Roche's life from 1933 to 1934. Roche's experience at Rocky Mountain Fuel primed her for the New Deal. As Franklin Roosevelt's administration began to grapple in 1933 with the devastation caused by the Great Depression, Roche was asked to serve in several capacities. Early on, the most important was in the National Recovery Administration, an attempt to stabilize the U.S. economy through industry-wide economic planning. Shortly after that, Roche broke through yet another gender barrier by running for governor of Colorado. She took this bold step because the sitting state executive refused to cooperate with the relief programs of the New Deal, and Roche wanted Colorado effectively linked with the national government. She did not succeed, but her gubernatorial bid was nevertheless significant. It demonstrated both the centralizing force that Washington exerted through the New Deal and some of the bases for resistance. It also drew a direct line between progressivism in the early twentieth century and progressivism in the New Deal, highlighting a range of tactics for diminishing inequality that New Dealers brought straight from the Progressive Era into the 1930s.
Creating “New Values, New Realities” in the Coalfields, 1948–1956
Authors: Muncy Robyn
Published: November 2017

This chapter details events in Josephine Roche's life from 1948 to 1956. Despite the contraction of her reforming efforts in the late 1940s, Roche had high hopes for her new work at the United Mine Workers of America Welfare and Retirement Fund. She proclaimed in fact that her goal as director of the fund was to “build new values, new realities” in America's coalfields. Remarkably, she did just that. Although initially under siege from many directions, Roche managed to build a private social welfare system that did for one group of workers what she had hoped the New Deal would do for all: guarantee world-class health care and a dignified retirement. This creative work in the private sector did not mean Roche had given up on public policy: she imagined her health program as a template for or component of a larger federal health care program that might develop somewhere down the road. But she also saw her work at the fund as a direct support to the labor movement, which she believed even more crucial now to the task of diminishing inequality.
The Biosocial Politics of Plants and People
Authors: Fullwiley Duana
Published: November 2017

This chapter traces people's networks of care and kin, coupled with the healing practices that these relations engender, through their various interests in fagara within Dakar's health sectors, both formal and informal, before following the plant to Paris, France, to Cotonou, Benin, to Reims, Champagne-Ardenne, and finally back to Senegal. Despite the attention that many people give to fagara, it is important to understand that its effectiveness is contingent upon social networks that render the knowledge and care derived from this traditional plant variable. This both explains why fagara is seen to “work” in Senegal, while it also accounts for the range of less successful attempts to have the plant accepted and embraced in other parts of West Africa and beyond.
Localized Biologies: Mapping Race and Sickle Cell Difference in French West Africa
Authors: Fullwiley Duana
Published: November 2017

This chapter chronicles how, in the 1950s, sickle hemoglobin was tested in the blood of various Senegalese ethnic groups to determine the bounded nature of population-based race and ethnic groupings within the geopolitical terrain of French West Africa (l'Afrique Occidentale Française, the “AOF”). These colonial uses of sickle cell DNA markers to scientifically define group belonging were later interrupted by Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) technology starting in the late 1970s. RFLPs allowed researchers to pinpoint DNA variants around the sickle cell gene and thus provided new ways of measuring and lumping human physiological distinction in terms of unified “national” genetic difference, which were based thereafter on haplotype patterns. In addition, this chapter chronicles how discourses of ethnic population purity continue to drive Parisian scientists' interests in new sickle cell research for which they hope to enlist Senegalese collaborators in the here and now.
Colonial Policies, Middle Eastern War, and City Spaces
Authors: Mandel Maud S.
Published: November 2017

Beginning in 1948 when war in the Middle East caused minor unrest in the city of Marseille, this chapter traces the way in which disagreements over Israel became a way to debate inequities in French minority policies at home and in North Africa. In Marseille, the gathering point for Jewish clandestine migration to Palestine, Algerian Muslims' anger toward what they perceived as French complicity in migration schemes was compounded by frustrations that French officials seemed to be favoring Jewish refugees over newly minted French Algerian Muslim citizens. Conflicts around war in the Middle East thus became an opportunity for politically active Muslims and Jews to negotiate their relationship with the French state, as the former established new parameters for political participation in the aftermath of the Holocaust by pushing the French government to support Israel, and the latter tested the limitations on a citizenship that never made good on its promises.
Palestine in France
Authors: Mandel Maud S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the student uprisings in France in 1968, which brought the story of Muslim–Jewish polarization to France's national conversation as student radicals began to link the occupation of Palestinian territories evermore fully to leftist politics at home. While many Jewish and Muslim leftists worked together in these endeavors, highly visible moments of discord, such as a riot in the Parisian immigrant neighborhood of Belleville in June 1968 and ongoing conflictual encounters between Muslim and Jewish university students, continued to fuel perceptions of polarization. Indeed, paradoxically, even those who emphasized the cultural connections and shared histories binding Muslims and Jews contributed to this process, since in seeking to counter more polarizing rhetoric, they unwittingly legitimized the boundaries of political discourse as it was taking shape: to deny Muslim–Jewish polarization was to acknowledge the problem, thereby reinforcing the very categories they were seeking to dismantle.
Introduction
Authors: Ioannides Yannis M.
Published: November 2017

This book examines the economic dimensions of social interactions, with an eye towards enriching our metaphors for understanding and modeling the fabric of communities, their neighborhoods, and their consequences for studying larger regional and national economies. To this end, the book considers urban externalities that economists and other social scientists see as instances of social interactions, as well as the location decisions of individuals and firms. Focusing on the city, the book also explores urban structure, industrial specialization and diversification, and urban growth in the context of national economic growth. Finally, it discusses new economic geography, an approach that seeks to integrate urban and regional economics, both in a national and an international context.
Introduction
Authors: Brighouse Harry , Swift Adam
Published: November 2017

Part 2 was supposed to justify the family, which for us means explaining why it’s a good thing that children be raised by parents. Here, in part 3, our back-to-philosophical-basics approach starts to yield more controversial claims. Attention shifts from the question of why it matters that children be raised in families to more familiar, and more contested, questions about what rights parents should have over, or with respect to, their children. What does our theory about why there should indeed be parents imply about the rights of parents? On the proprietarian picture, children belong to their parents, “their” parents are assumed to be their biological progenitors, and those parents are assumed to have extensive rights to control the upbringing of “their” children. By abandoning that picture, and thinking more seriously about the values realized by the institution of the family, we hope to have acquired the intellectual resources needed to approach the topic of parents’ rights in a more nuanced and critical way. Our familial relationship goods account will have implications across a wide range of such questions, but we will focus on two: parents’ rights with respect to the conferral of advantage on their children (in ...
Introduction
Authors: van der Veer Peter
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter examines India and China and the ways in which they have been transformed by Western imperial modernity. The onset of modernity is said to be located in the nineteenth century and is characterized politically by the emergence of the nation-state, economically by industrialization, and ideologically by an emphasis on progress and liberation. The nation-form itself is a global form that cannot be understood as the product of one particular society. It is the dominant societal form today, and India and China have gradually developed into nation-states. For this reason, one can compare India and China at the level of nation-states, although these societies are internally immensely differentiated and the particular nation-form they have taken is historically contingent.
Spirituality in Modern Society
Authors: van der Veer Peter
Published: November 2017

This chapter illustrates how in the nineteenth century the category of spirituality received a global modern meaning. It became part of an alternative modernity in different places around the globe. In India and China indigenous forms of spirituality were invoked as alternatives to Western imperialism and materialism. Spiritual superiority became part of Pan-Asianism in the writings of some Indian and Chinese intellectuals. At the same time state-centered religious ideologies as well as nation-centered ideologies focused on spirituality as part of national character. These ideologies are crucial even today in China, India, Taiwan, and Singapore. The chapter then moves to a discussion of spirituality in India, focusing on figures like Gandhi and Tagore, and in China, focusing on figures like Taixu and Chen Yingning.
Conversion to Indian and Chinese Modernities
Authors: van der Veer Peter
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at conversion to Christianity and the impact of missionary movements in India and China. Christian missionaries have played a major role in the creation of modern vocabularies and modern attitudes in India and China. Reform movements, but also popular resistance movements, derive much of their discourse from Christianity. The chapter traces the missionary project in India and China in the nineteenth century, and emphasizes the imperial and anti-imperial aspects of it in contrast to the earlier Jesuit efforts in China and India. The main argument is that Christian missionaries played an extraordinary role in setting things in motion in education and medicine, but most importantly in anti-imperialist protonationalism within a range of non-Christian reform movements.
Economics: The Last Bastion of Rationality
Authors: Saint-Paul Gilles
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the assumptions underlying economic theory lead to a presumption of laissez-faire, and why this apparatus is fragile because those assumptions are not grounded on empirical observations but on methodological requirements instead. Many people traditionally think of economists as advocates of laissez-faire, that is, letting the free operation of markets determine how resources are allocated throughout society. This presumption comes from some central results of economic theory which predict that, in some sense, free markets lead to desirable outcomes from the point of view of global efficiency. Essentially, these results come from two observations. First, competitive markets allow all voluntary transactions to take place. Second, all voluntary transactions are mutually advantageous and therefore increase the welfare of both parties.
Rewards 2: The Biology of Nectar
Authors: Willmer Pat
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the biology of nectar, the main secondary floral reward in an evolutionary sense. As a commodity, nectar is easy for plants to produce and easy for animals to handle; its sugars are simple to metabolize and thus to use as a readily available fuel for an animal’s activities. Nectar is a crucial factor in determining the interactions of flowers and their visitors. The chapter first provides an overview of how floral nectar is produced in a nectary before discussing nectar secretion, the chemical composition of nectar, and nectar volume. It then considers nectar concentration and viscosity, nectar as a sugar and energy reward, and nectar as a water reward. It also explores daily, seasonal, and phylogenetic patterns of nectar production, how flowers control their nectar and their pollinators, and problems in measuring and quantifying nectar. The chapter concludes with an analysis of the costs of nectar gathering.
Pollination by Butterflies and Moths
Authors: Willmer Pat
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on pollination by butterflies and moths, which belong to the order Lepidoptera. Lepidopterans are split into four suborders, but all the flower visitors occur in about sixteen families within the largest of these, Ditrysia. Ditrysia incorporates many superfamilies, mostly consisting of large moths and yet more micromoths, but two contain the evolutionarily more recent butterflies. The chapter first provides an overview of the feeding apparatus of moths and butterflies before discussing their sensory and behavioral capacities. It then considers the butterfly flower syndrome known as psychophily and the general moth syndrome termed phalaenophily, along with sphingophily involving hawkmoth flowers. It suggests that butterflies and moths are reasonably effective as flower pollinators, with some more specialist and probably more effective examples among the larger and partially endothermic sphingid species.
Pollination by Bats
Authors: Willmer Pat
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on pollination by bats, or chiropterophily. Bats are classified as two distinct and separately evolved orders, Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera. They are primarily nocturnal, and as flying endothermic mammals have extremely high energy demands. Furthermore, their flower visits often require hovering for short periods; this increases their energy demand further, albeit not by much. However, having rather large body masses, in practice the bat species that visit blossoms for a major part of their diet are linked with some unusual and very high-reward flowers. The chapter first provides an overview of the bat’s feeding apparatus, sensory capacities such as olfaction, and foraging behavior and learning before discussing different types of bat-pollinated flowers.
Syndromes and Webs: Specialists and Generalists
Authors: Willmer Pat
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the core issues raised by critiques of pollination syndromes and alternative approaches to characterizing pollination in communities, in the context of floral and pollinator specialization. It first considers theoretical arguments against syndromes and specialization before discussing practical evidence against syndromes, along with proposed alternative approaches, focusing in particular on ecological models of specialization and generalization. It then explores some problems with pollination webs, several key issues relating to specialization and generalization, and selection for specialization in flower–pollinator interactions. It also compares patterns of generalization and specialization in different ecosystems and asks whether generalization can be reversed. The chapter concludes with some reflections on the debate over generalization, specialization, and pollination syndromes.
Matrix Properties, Fundamental Spaces, Orthogonality
Authors: Eshel Gidon
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an introduction to linear algebra. Topics covered include vector spaces, matrix rank, fundamental spaces associated with A ɛ ℝM×N, and Gram–Schmidt orthogonalization. In summary, an M × N matrix is associated with four fundamental spaces. The column space is the set of all M-vectors that are linear combinations of the columns. If the matrix has M independent columns, then the column space is ℝM; otherwise the column space is a subspace of ℝM. Also in ℝM is the left null space, the set of all M-vectors that the matrix’s s transpose maps to the zero N-vector. The row space is the set of all N-vectors that are linear combinations of the rows. If the matrix has N independent rows, then the row space is ℝN; otherwise, the row space is a subspace of ℝN. Also in ℝN is the null space, the set of all N-vectors that the matrix maps to the zero M-vector.
The Algebraic Operation of SVD
Authors: Eshel Gidon
Published: November 2017

Chapter 4 discussed the eigenvalue/eigenvector diagonalization of a matrix. Perhaps the biggest problem for this to be very useful in data analysis is the restriction to square matrices. It has already been emphasized time and again that data matrices, unlike dynamical operators, are rarely square. The algebraic operation of the singular value decomposition (SVD) is the answer. Note the distinction between the data analysis method widely known as SVD and the actual algebraic machinery. The former uses the latter, but is not the latter. This chapter describes the method. Following the introduction to SVD, it provides some examples and applications.
The Gray World of Practical Data Analysis: An Introduction to Part 2
Authors: Eshel Gidon
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an overview of the second part of the book. This part is the crux of the matter: how to analyze actual data. While this part builds on Part 1, especially on linear algebra fundamentals covered in Part 1, the two are not redundant. The main distinguishing characteristic of Part 2 is its nuanced grayness. In the ideal world of algebra (and thus in most of part 1), things are black or white: two vectors are either mutually orthogonal or not, real numbers are either zero or not, a vector either solves a linear system or does not. By contrast, realistic data analysis, the province of Part 2, is always gray, always involves subjective decisions.
Regression and Least Squares
Authors: Eshel Gidon
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on linear regression, the process of identifying the unique model that best explains a set of observed data among a specified class of general models. Regression thus occupies a uniquely important position at the very interface of modeling and data analysis. Regression arises very often, in various guises, in handling and analyzing data. Since it is one of the most basic, useful, and frequently employed data analysis tools, and since some understanding of regression is needed in later sections, regression will be discussed in some detail. Topics covered include setting up the problem; the linear system Ax = b, least squares, special problems giving rise to linear systems, statistical issues in regression analysis, and multidimensional regression and linear model identification.
The Fundamental Theorem of Linear Algebra
Authors: Eshel Gidon
Published: November 2017

This chapter summarizes pictorially some of the linear algebraic foundations discussed thus far by revisiting the fundamental theorem of linear algebra, the unifying view of matrices, vectors, and their interactions. To make the discussion helpful and informal yet rigorous, and to complement the slightly more formal introduction of the basic ideas given in an earlier chapter, here the theorem’s pictorial representation is emphasized. The discussions cover the forward problem, when A ɛ ℝM×N maps an x ɛ ℝN from A’s domain onto b ɛ ℝM in A’s range, how A transforms x into b; and the inverse problem, discussed in detail in chapter 9, section 9.4.1.
Empirical Orthogonal Functions
Authors: Eshel Gidon
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs). One of the most useful and common eigen-techniques in data analysis is the construction of EOFs. EOFs are a transform of the data; the original set of numbers is transformed into a different set with some desirable properties. In this sense the EOF transform is similar to other transforms, such as the Fourier or Laplace transforms. In all these cases, we project the original data onto a set of functions, thus replacing the original data with the set of projection coefficients on the chosen new set of basis vectors. However, the choice of the specific basis set varies from case to case. The discussions cover data matrix structure convention, reshaping multidimensional data sets for EOF analysis, forming anomalies and removing time mean, missing values, choosing and interpreting the covariability matrix, calculating the EOFs, projection time series, and extended EOF analysis.
The Svd Analysis of Two Fields
Authors: Eshel Gidon
Published: November 2017

Chapter 11 discussed one of the many methods available for simultaneously analyzing more than one data set. While powerful and useful (especially for unveiling favored state evolution pathways), the extended empirical orthogonal function (EEOF) procedure has some important limitations. Notably, because the state dimensions rapidly expand as state vectors are appended end-to-end, EEOF analysis may not always be numerically tractable. For analyzing two data sets, taking note of their cross-covariance but not explicitly of individual sets’ covariance, the singular value decomposition (SVD) method is the most natural. This chapter discusses SVD analysis of two fields. SVD analysis can be thought of as a generalization of EOF analysis to two data sets that are believed to be related.
Adaptive Diversification Due to Resource Competition in Asexual Models
Authors: Doebeli Michael
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on evolutionary branching in niche position due to frequency-dependent competition. When the majority phenotype of a population is competing for one type of resource, selection may favor minority phenotypes that consume different types of resources, which could result in phenotypic differentiation and divergence. The idea of divergence due to competition is also the basis for the well-known concept of ecological character displacement, although here the focus is not so much on the origin of diversity arising in a single species, but rather on the evolutionary dynamics of existing diversity between different and already established species. Ecological character displacement embodies the possibility that competition between species can drive divergence in characters determining resource use. However, there are alternative evolutionary scenarios for phenotypic diversification. In the context of resource competition, one such alternative is that individuals diversify their diet by evolving a wider niche.
More Examples: Adaptive Diversification in Dispersal Rates, the Evolution of Anisogamy, and the Evolution of Trophic Preference
Authors: Doebeli Michael
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores three more examples that all arise in the context of fundamental ecological and evolutionary questions to further illustrate the diversifying force of frequency-dependent interactions. The first example concerns the dynamics of spatially structured populations and serves as an excellent case study for illustrating the feedback between ecological and evolutionary dynamics. The second example concerns the evolution of asymmetry in gamete size between the sexes, which sets the stage for the “paradox of sex.” Finally, the third example concerns the fundamental question of the evolution of trophic levels in food webs, that is, the evolution of complexity in ecosystems.
Jim and Jap Crow
Authors: Briones Matthew M.
Published: November 2017

Following Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the U.S. government rounded up more than one hundred thousand Japanese Americans and sent them to internment camps. One of those internees was Charles Kikuchi. In thousands of diary pages, he documented his experiences in the camps, his resettlement in Chicago and drafting into the army on the eve of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and his postwar life as a social worker in New York City. Kikuchi's diaries bear witness to a watershed era in American race relations, and expose both the promise and the hypocrisy of American democracy. This book follows Kikuchi's personal odyssey among fellow Japanese American intellectuals, immigrant activists, Chicago School social scientists, everyday people on Chicago's South Side, and psychologically scarred veterans in the hospitals of New York. The book chronicles a remarkable moment in America's history in which interracial alliances challenged the limits of the elusive democratic ideal, and in which the nation was forced to choose between civil liberty and the fearful politics of racial hysteria. It was an era of world war and the atomic bomb, desegregation in the military but Jim and Jap Crow elsewhere in America, and a hopeful progressivism that gave way to Cold War paranoia. The book looks at Kikuchi's life and diaries as a lens through which to observe the possibilities, failures, and key conversations in a dynamic multiracial America.
The FBI’s Aggressive Filing and Long Study of African American Writers Was Tightly Bound to the Agency’s Successful Evolution under Hoover
Authors: Maxwell William J.
Published: November 2017

Retracing some of the main lines of FBI history, this part demonstrates how Bureau counterliterature was stamped by four distinct phases of the institution's developing Hoover era, altogether long enough to form a kind of police Mesozoic. It examines the glamorous and violent phase of Bureau history between the New Deal and the early 1940s. It then analyzes the changing shape of Bureau counterliterature during World War II, and does the same for the McCarthy period. Finally, it reviews the creative upheaval in Bureau counterliterature during the Black Power 1960s and 1970s. Author files and adjoining documents disclose that Hoover's FBI, the principal custodian of “lit.-cop federalism,” angled during all these phases to enlarge the state's ability to determine aesthetic value, scheming and networking like some National Endowment for Artistic Gumshoes. But these documents likewise show that his Bureau pursued changeable, art-educated enhancements of police tactics, converting varying currencies of literary capital into novel forms of criminological capital. Through both types of meddling, the Bureau paved the way to this book's second thesis, of necessity its most historically sprawling: The FBI's aggressive filing and long study of African American writers was tightly bound to the agency's successful evolution under Hoover.
The FBI Is Perhaps the Most Dedicated and Influential Forgotten Critic of African American Literature
Authors: Maxwell William J.
Published: November 2017

This part illuminates the interpretive assumptions of Bureau ghostreading against the backdrop of the best-documented entanglement of American criticism with American espionage: namely, the firsthand stamp of the New Criticism on the counterintelligence branch of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Section 1 explores CIA-endorsed formalism, its high-wire, Yale-rooted history, which was eventually integrated into FBI critical practice. Section 2 confirms that the Bureau ghostreaders cobbled together a distinct mode of FBI reading decades before the CIA's creation, a didactic yet meticulous biohistoricism in sympathy with academic schools of the late 1910s, 1920s, and 1930s. Section 3 looks into the background and outlook of the FBI agents tasked with criticizing Afro-modernism. Finally, section 4 assesses the impact of FBI ghostreading on an interested non-Bureau audience: the self-appointed model citizens who turned to Hoover as a literary-critical wise man and potential literary-critical collaborator. This part proposes the third and thus far most literary of the five theses: The FBI is perhaps the most dedicated and influential forgotten critic of African American literature.
An Introduction to Complex Networks
Authors: Bascompte Jordi , Jordano Pedro
Published: November 2017

Mutualisms can involve dozens, even hundreds, of species and this complexity has precluded a serious community-wide approach to plant–animal interactions. The most straightforward way to describe such an interacting community is with a network of interactions. In this approach, species are represented as nodes of two types: plants and animals. This chapter provides the tools and concepts for characterizing mutualistic networks and placing them into a broad context. This serves as a background with which to understand the structure of mutualistic networks. The discussions cover a network approach to complex systems, measures of network structure, models of network buildup, and ecological networks.
Consequences of Network Structure
Authors: Bascompte Jordi , Jordano Pedro
Published: November 2017

This chapter reviews the consequences of network structure for community robustness in front of perturbations such as species extinctions, habitat loss, and biological invasions. The nested, heterogeneous structure of mutualistic networks allows a higher number of coexisting species, a higher robustness to perturbations, and a higher rate of return to equilibrium. In spatially extended models, such network architecture increases spatial heterogeneity. When looking at species identities, however, there is a phylogenetic signal on network patterns. This implies that coextinction cascades following species extinctions tend to involve phylogenetically similar species, therefore leading to a higher loss of taxonomic diversity and a biased pruning of the evolutionary tree. Regarding the implications of network structure for coevolution, models suggest that even very infrequent pairwise coevolutionary events might trigger evolutionary changes in other species, increasing the cohesiveness of the interaction network.
Epilogue
Authors: Bascompte Jordi , Jordano Pedro
Published: November 2017

This epilogue summarizes key themes and presents some final thoughts. This book examined one of the most intriguing and central components of biodiversity: ecological interactions. The analysis has revealed some patterns in the structure of mutualistic networks that pervade their organization despite the variable environmental settings where they occur. Network theory describes an intermediate scenario to the extremes of highly specific one-on-one coevolution and largely intractable diffuse coevolution. Network theory also provides useful tools aimed at the identification of the key elements supporting these complex networks. Understanding the modular structure of the interaction networks is central to identifying the basic coevolutionary units.
An Empirical Analysis of Labor Immigration Programs in Forty-Six Countries
Authors: Ruhs Martin
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the key features of labor immigration programs in high and middle-income countries in practice. After providing an overview of existing academic and policy literature that comparatively discusses labor immigration policies in different countries, the chapter constructs and analyzes two separate indexes that measure the openness of labor immigration programs in forty-six high- and middle-income countries to admitting migrant workers, as well as the legal rights (civil and political, economic, social, residency, and family reunion rights) granted to migrant workers admitted under these programs. The empirical results show that labor immigration programs that target the admission of higher-skilled workers are more open and grant migrants more rights than programs targeting lower-skilled workers. Among programs in upper-high-income countries, labor immigration programs can be characterized by a trade-off between openness and some migrant rights.
The Ethics of Labor Immigration Policy
Authors: Ruhs Martin
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the ethics of labor immigration policy, moving the discussion from a positive analysis of “what is” to the equally important normative question of “what should be.” If high-income countries' labor immigration policies are characterized by a trade-off between openness and some rights for migrant workers, the chapter asks what rights restrictions—if any—are acceptable in order to enable more workers to access labor markets in high-income countries. It proposes a pragmatic approach that takes into account existing realities in labor immigration policymaking and gives more weight to the interests of migrants and countries of origin than most high-income countries currently do when designing labor immigration policies. Based on this approach, the chapter asserts that there is a strong normative case for tolerating the selective, evidence-based, temporary restriction of a few specific migrant rights under new and expanded temporary migration programs that help liberalize international labor migration.
Hidden Markov Processes
Authors: Vidyasagar M.
Published: November 2017

This book explores important aspects of Markov and hidden Markov processes and the applications of these ideas to various problems in computational biology. It starts from first principles, so that no previous knowledge of probability is necessary. However, the work is rigorous and mathematical, making it useful to engineers and mathematicians, even those not interested in biological applications. A range of exercises is provided, including drills to familiarize the reader with concepts and more advanced problems that require deep thinking about the theory. Biological applications are taken from post-genomic biology, especially genomics and proteomics. The topics examined include standard material such as the Perron–Frobenius theorem, transient and recurrent states, hitting probabilities and hitting times, maximum likelihood estimation, the Viterbi algorithm, and the Baum–Welch algorithm. The book contains discussions of extremely useful topics not usually seen at the basic level, such as ergodicity of Markov processes, Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC), information theory, and large deviation theory for both i.i.d and Markov processes. It also presents state-of-the-art realization theory for hidden Markov models. Among biological applications, it offers an in-depth look at the BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Technique) algorithm, including a comprehensive explanation of the underlying theory. Other applications such as profile hidden Markov models are also explored.
Markov Processes
Authors: Vidyasagar M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with Markov processes. It first defines the “Markov property” and shows that all the relevant information about a Markov process assuming values in a finite set of cardinality n can be captured by a nonnegative n x n matrix known as the state transition matrix, and an n-dimensional probability distribution of the initial state. It then invokes the results of the previous chapter on nonnegative matrices to analyze the temporal evolution of Markov processes. It also estimates the state transition matrix and considers the dynamics of stationary Markov chains, recurrent and transient states, hitting probability and mean hitting times, and the ergodicity of Markov chains.
Introduction to Large Deviation Theory
Authors: Vidyasagar M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an introduction to large deviation theory. It begins with an overview of the motivatio
n for the problem under study, focusing on probability distributions and how to construct an empirical distribution. It then considers the notion of a lower semi-continuous function and that of a lower semi-continuous relaxation before discussing the large deviation property for i.i.d. samples. In particular, it describes Sanov's theorem for a finite alphabet and proceeds by analyzing large deviation property for Markov chains, taking into account stationary distributions, entropy and relative entropy rates, the rate function for doubleton frequencies, and the rate function for singleton frequencies.