bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Florilegia
Authors: Hamesse Jacqueline
Published: November 2020

Medieval florilegia are typically compendia of memorable, short citations from authoritative texts, lacking any commentary or remarks of the compiler (whose only job is selection and arrangement). The author distinguishes various types of anthologies and florilegia (e.g. classical, patristic, philosophical), and their purposes and users, and discusses the problems of identifying the contents of florilegia and of editing them.
Text and Gloss
Authors: Dinkova-Bruun Greti
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the relationship between a text and its glosses, using examples from the later Middle Ages. It discusses interlinear glosses, marginal glosses, catena commentaries, as well as the layout of glosses. It argues that medieval glossing represented a new way of thinking and an important method for engaging with the literary and scholarly tradition.
The History of Manuscripts Since 1500
Authors: Hays Gregory
Published: November 2020

This chapter surveys the history of medieval manuscripts and manuscript collections after the year 1500. It examines the role of individual collectors in the preservation of manuscripts, and the establishment of new libraries after the dissolution of monastic libraries. It traces the history of these manuscripts up until the twentieth century, and it also discusses the many dangers that have faced manuscripts over the years in addition to the current efforts to preserve manuscripts digitally.
The Format of Documents
Authors: Guyotjeannin Olivier
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the formats of medieval documents, exploring the visual rhetoric by which the physical characteristics of the documents work in tandem with the content to legitimize the message. Simple details, such as the size and format (portrait or landscape), the ratio of height to width, the number and placement of folds or attachments can be tabulated to identify patterns which correlate to the intended message. Special attention is paid to the practices of sovereign chancelleries, the papal chancery, and private notaries, in particular to the shifts in practices in different periods and regions.
Comparative Codicology
Authors: Beit-Arié Malachi
Published: November 2020

This chapter argues that the study of medieval manuscripts would benefit from the comparative studies of codices written in languages other than Latin and by other cultures in Europe and the Mediterranean. It maintains that comparative codicology demonstrates that medieval codices across cultures share many similarities, and that their study can reveal cross-cultural influences and borrowings, as well as insights into the analysis of various scripts.
Beneventan (South Italian/Langobardic) Script
Authors: Newton Francis
Published: November 2020

This chapter surveys Beneventan script, the distinctive hand of southern Italy which is particularly associated with the most important center of its use, the Abbey of Monte Cassino. Beneventan arose in the late eighth century and continued in common use through the thirteenth--and even later in isolated instances. Distinct calligraphic high points were achieved in various cities, regions, or centers at different periods, including Naples in the tenth century, Monte Cassino in the second half of the eleventh century, and the region of Bari at the same time. Caroline script was used side-by-side with Beneventan at some centers, until Caroline and Gothic scripts finally replaced Beneventan as the standard bookhand in southern Italy.
Early Carolingian
Authors: Gavinelli Simona
Published: November 2020

This chapter surveys the use of Early Carolingian minuscule script in Italy. It discusses the transition from various Pre-Caroline cursive bookscripts to a distinctive Italian variant of the Carolingian hand, which occurred gradually after Charlemagne’s conquest of Italy in 774. The author also evaluates the spread of the script through Northern and Central Italy during the ninth and into the tenth century.
Tironian Notes
Authors: Ganz David
Published: November 2020

Tironian notes are a shorthand writing system revived in the Carolingian period from its use in Late Antique imperial and ecclesiastic bureaucracies. The symbols are preserved in an extensive Carolingian lexicon, the Commentarium notarum Tironianum, and complete books, notably Psalters and a few schoolbooks, were written in Tironian notes in the Carolingian period; the notes continued in this period to be used in chanceries.
Late Gothic
Authors: Zamponi Stefano
Published: November 2020

This chapter surveys Late Gothic scripts of Italy between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries and the major studies of these scripts. The changing uses of textualis, rotunda, and bâtarde scripts at different periods are highlighted, as are the changing forms of these scripts as they adapt to new uses.
Byzantium and the West
Authors: Pade Marianne
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the Humanists and their interest in Greek language from the mid-fourteenth century until the mid-fifteenth. It focuses on key Humanist figures who advanced the study of Ancient Greek in the West, discussing Petrarch’s engagement with Plutarch and Homer, as well as Coluccio Salutati and his appointment of Chrysoloras to teach Greek in Florence. The author also examines the work of Chrysoloras’ students, Leonardo Bruni and Guarino Veronese, and the role of Latin translators in arousing interest in Greek works.
The Waning of Manuscript Production
Authors: Hays Gregory
Published: November 2020

This chapter discusses the gradual decline of manuscript production after the invention of the printing press in the 1450s, focussing on the transitional period in which both printed and hand-written books coexisted. By the end of the fifteenth century, even as manuscript production was declining, professional scribes were still producing manuscripts for wealthy patrons, in a wide variety of scripts. Also treated are the continued production of “subprint” manuscripts, which were texts whose nature or content were unfeasible or unsuitable for printing (personal books, banned books, documentary texts).
Sustainable Education, Employability, and Job Prospects for Next Generations in the Digital Era
Authors: Quendler Erika , Lamb Matthew James , Driouech Noureddin
Published: November 2020

Enabling employability, the next generations’ employment and job prospects is crucial in achieving meaningful lives of equal dignity within the current digital era and beyond. Not only have the responsibilities associated with major drivers become crucial in our lives but also the issue of a transformation to a development that is sustainable is taking increasing precedence in our daily routines. One of the key factors in achieving a meaningful life that is sustainable is education in its capacity to empower the next generations. The role of education with regard to the people’s capability and human needs is multiple and complex. This chapter offers an understanding of the focus on “capabilities” from the humanistic and holistic perspective in education. The inspiration behind such a vision is based on the concept of a just and equitable future for the next generations on a stable and resilient planet and is particularly pertinent in view of the recent COVID-19 pandemic. In this context, sustainable employability today as well as in the future depends as much on employment prospects as on “capabilities.” Although “capabilities” in concrete terms are not yet an integral part of education for sustainable employability, they should not only enable the next generations to do their job, seize job opportunities, and cope with changes but should also enhance the said future. Finally, this chapter looks forward at further areas of research that will spur researchers to examine the topic in more detail in future empirical work.
Australia’s Federal Framework
Authors: Aroney Nicholas
Published: November 2020

Australia’s federal framework is fundamental and pervasive. This chapter explains the federal logic of the Australian Constitution, discusses the evolution of the federal system in light of the constitutional framework, and critically evaluates attempts to reform the system. It is argued that, while the Constitution was designed to allow a degree of flexibility in the operation of the federal system, the constitutional, legislative, and administrative changes that have been introduced, frequently supported by the High Court’s centralizing interpretations, have sometimes contributed to problems in the practical functioning of the system rather than ameliorating them. The result has been a path dependency that makes it difficult to institute reforms that would improve the operation and effectiveness of Australian federalism.
The Monster That Hid Under A Desk? Zimbabwe and the West
Authors: Gallagher Julia
Published: November 2020

Zimbabwe’s diplomatic relations with Britain became exceptionally fractious from about 2000. Britain’s New Labour government publicly criticized the ruling Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) party for its violent seizure of white-owned commercial farms, political violence, and rolling back of democracy. ZANU-PF countered the British government’s accusation, describing it as unwarranted interference in Zimbabwe’s domestic affairs by an ex-colonial master. Such highly charged accusations between government elites of both countries have tended to animate scholarly debates about the nature of Zimbabwe–-Britain relations. This chapter does something different: it examines understandings of Zimbabwe–Britain relations, drawing on research interviews with Zimbabwean non-elites. The chapter argues that Zimbabwean and British political elites instrumentalized the diplomatic quarrel in order to position themselves as honourable wardens of their respective countries and particular norms such as human rights and sovereignty. However, the chapter further contends, non-elites’ comprehensions of the diplomatic argument reveal the limits of this instrumentalization and reflect the complicated and ambivalent appreciations of Zimbabwe–Britain relations. The diplomatic argument attained popular resonances and dissonances, which reflect a multifaceted existential entanglement with roots in the colonial era. Ideas of the expulsion of white farmers as a representation of ‘real independence’ and the display of the shortcomings of a post-colonial order on the other end, impress particular self-understandings and identities.
Introduction: Identifying Greece
Authors: Featherstone Kevin
Published: November 2020

Identifying ‘Greece’ has often challenged scholars from different disciplines. Modern Greece has been equated with Europe’s south, the Balkans, or the Near East, whilst the weight of its historical inheritance has more generally placed it at the very core of understandings of what constitutes ‘Europe’ or, indeed, the ‘West’. It has been a case to define the divisions of the Cold War and, latterly, the vulnerabilities of the ‘eurozone’. Defining it from within or from without has elicited contestation. So, how might Greece be identified in the present? To introduce the volume, this chapter adopts a broad, comparative perspective. Firstly, it briefly outlines why Greece is of a wider interest to scholars, highlighting aspects of its history where it has appeared of larger significance than its size might normally warrant. Secondly, it proceeds to identify Greece’s development along a set of dimensions that serve to place it within comparative frames, addressing the question, ‘What type of case is Greece?’. To draw these different aspects together, the third section attempts to identify ‘imbalances’ within the Greek system that give it its distinctive character and to sketch how these aspects are, in fact, interlinked. Their complementarities sustain a set of constraints that structure the system’s developmental path. The latter has been of continuing international interest: its capacity to reform and to exit the recent debt crisis has been the subject of much debate. The Conclusion reflects on this comparative perspective for future research on Greece.
The Electoral System
Authors: Dinas Elias
Published: November 2020

As new democracies consolidate, so do their accompanying party systems. A key factor contributing to this process is the establishment of rigid electoral laws that set the rules of the game. With seven reforms since its inauguration in 1974, the Greek electoral system has been an exception to this rule. Although change has been sometimes incremental and other times short lived, it has kept the electoral system in the political agenda. In this article I review the trajectory of the electoral law in Greece and look at the way the discussion over electoral reform developed along the process of party-system maturation. In so doing, I try to shed light on what seems to be an interesting paradox: the electoral system in Greece appeared most robust exactly in the same period in which the party system was most volatile, amidst the debt crisis. The political turmoil which the crisis generated seems to have shaped Greek politics and party competition in many aspects apart from the otherwise fluid electoral system.
The Centre
Authors: Rizas Sotiris
Published: November 2020

The Centre originated from the Liberals, led by Eleftherios Venizelos, who embarked on a project of Greece’s modernization in the early twentieth century and the interwar period. After 1945, parties of the Centre were pressed in between the resurgent royalist Right and the communist Left, but in the 1960s, under George Papandreou’s ‘Center Union’, took centre stage in Greek politics. Since the 1974 transition to democracy, the Centre supported Europeanism and social democracy, but was overshadowed by the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK). The new Centre of the twenty-first century emerged in the form of various, relatively small and short-lived parties, such as ‘To Potami’ (the River party). It was a progressive ‘bourgeois’ force, reminiscent of its liberal legacy, which aspired to relieve the Greek economy from statism and support Greece’s anchoring on the eurozone. Its political profile was constructed in opposition to SYRIZA, the radical Left party claiming to have inherited the once PASOK-dominated Centre-Left. Overall, the Centre is a political space in the making and consists of politicians who may attract the vote of segments of the middle classes earning incomes above the median line and possessing skills suitable for a globalized economy.
The Socialists
Authors: Lyrintzis Christos
Published: November 2020

This chapter deals with the political trajectory of the Greek socialist party PASOK, from its foundation in 1974 until its electoral demise during and after the sovereign debt economic crisis of the 2009–15 period. The analysis of the Greek socialists starts with a brief discussion of the manner in which PASOK was founded, its organizational and ideological features, its electoral base and the new elements it brought into Greek politics. It continues with the presentation of the party’s performance in power during the 1980s and the 1990s. Next, follows a discussion of the period 2004–09 when PASOK was in opposition, and the management of the economic crisis during the period 2009–12 when the party was again in power. Finally, the role of populism in Greek politics is discussed in relation to the current problems PASOK is facing in an era of economic crisis.
The Developmental Trajectory of the Greek State
Authors: Kalyvas Stathis N.
Published: November 2020

Greece’s historical development gives credence to two competing narratives. The first identifies Greece as a small and vulnerable nation, one marked by crises and failure. The second narrative acknowledges the success of nation-building—indeed, the metamorphosis of Greece—having come through exceptional challenges. To reconcile these two narratives, I draw upon neo-Marxist political economy—which stresses its ‘semi-peripheral’ position in the global economy—and build on recent studies that focus more on the domestic institutional constraints on development. I disaggregate Modern Greek history into seven, intertwined, political and economic ‘boom, bust, and bailout’ cycles. Greece is an ‘early late modernizer’, to borrow Seymour Martin Lipset’s formulation. As one of the early ‘new nations’ on the European stage, Greece attempted a number of highly visible and risky modernization leaps intended to reduce the gap that separated it from the more advanced states of the continent. Predictably, these leaps and their failures attracted considerable global attention, way out of proportion to the country’s size, resources, or strategic importance. They did so due to the perception that its modernization effort was deeply intertwined with processes of much broader historical and global significance; the stakes were high, hence the need for some sort of intervention. That these foreign interventions ultimately turned out to be favourable to Greece should not detract from the fact that they were often perceived negatively in Greece. The recent debt crisis is part of a similar pattern and a Greek recovery would validate this interpretation.
Social Movements
Authors: Simiti Marilena
Published: November 2020

Greece has a sustained political tradition of social movement activity. From the restoration of democracy in 1974 to the recent financial crisis Greece has experienced numerous episodes of collective action, ranging from peaceful demonstrations to violent protests. This chapter delineates the trajectory of major social movements (the student, feminist, ecological, alter-globalization movements, the anti-austerity protests, the Greek Indignados as well as the urban disruption of December 2008) underlining that social protest has not been pacified in contemporary Greek society. Even though protest is a normal and ubiquitous aspect of political life, social movement activists have not retreated from the use of confrontational protest, nor has political conflict become more institutionalized. On the other hand, the Greek social movement sector has also witnessed significant long-term shifts since 1974, including the diminishing influence of political parties on movements, the transnationalization of contention, and the increased heterogeneity and fluidity of collective identities, as well as the proliferation of non-state-centric forms of political activism. The chapter concludes with some reflections on future challenges for social movement studies in Greece.
The Media
Authors: Papathanassopoulos Stylianos
Published: November 2020

This chapter describes the structure and development of the media sector in Greece. It explores the relationship between media, political elites, and vested private interests. It examines the major features of the Greek media system, characterized by: a) low levels of newspaper circulation; b) a tradition of advocacy reporting; c) instrumentalization of privately owned media; d) tight governmental control of the public broadcaster; e) politicization of media regulation, and f) limited development of journalism as an autonomous profession. Furthermore, it argues that the Greek state has played a decisive role in the development of the media sector either as legislator, owner, or ‘sponsor’. Within this framework, it explores the closing-down and re-opening of the public broadcaster, the development of digital television in Greece, and the attempts of the government to grant licences to the TV sector. Finally, it discusses whether the Greek media landscape has entered a new era of ‘interplay’ between media owners and politicians in the digital age, while the citizens, especially the younger generations, have turned heavily to social media for their daily political information and commentary.
Terrorism
Authors: Kassimeris George
Published: November 2020

The chapter places Greek terrorism in a broader political and cultural perspective in order to explain why it has become a permanent fixture of Greek contemporary life. Revolutionary terrorism in Greece resulted from a complex series of political conditions and longstanding cultural influences that drew politically active individuals towards the utopian world of revolutionary protest and violence. These conditions and influences provided the foundations upon which extreme Left terrorism took firm root in the mid-1970s and are analysed in depth and placed within the wider context of the evolution of the Greek political culture within the last forty years, especially the years following the Civil War and the collapse of the Colonels’ dictatorial regime in 1974. The chapter also brings up to date the trajectory of Greek terrorism, by analysing the country’s new generation of urban guerrilla groups and defining what these new groups and their leaders seek to achieve, what motivates them, and how they compare with their predecessors.
State–Society Relations in Greece
Authors: Sotiropoulos Dimitri A.
Published: November 2020

This chapter analyzes the process of destabilization of state–society relations in Greece, owing to the recent economic crisis. To analyze this process, the chapter covers the period between the 1974 transition to democracy and the aftermath of the crisis, putting state–society relations in Greece in historical and comparative perspective. The chapter uses A. O. Hirschman’s analytical framework of ‘exit, voice and loyalty’. Before the crisis erupted, a minimum loyalty of Greek society to the state was discernible for as long as the state could selectively distribute resources to citizens and interest groups relating to the state through political party linkages. In the wake of the post-2010 crisis, societal actors, subjected to harsh austerity measures, withdrew their loyalty. They turned against the state through large-scale mobilizations (‘voice’). Later on, informal groups and networks of social solidarity supplanted the state in the provision of goods and services to the victims of the economic crisis. In this phase, without completely abandoning ‘voice’, citizens opted out in favour of an ‘exit’ from the state, not understood in the literal sense of the word, but in terms of disaffection and alienation from the state.
The Politics of the Public Finances
Authors: Rapanos Vassilis T. , Kaplanoglou Georgia
Published: November 2020

Greece has often attracted negative attention in terms of the state of its public finances. The chapter shows that the lack of effective fiscal institutions and the weak monitoring of public finance developments are major factors that did not prevent fiscal derailment even within the context of the EU fiscal rules. It outlines the basic legal framework for fiscal policy in Greece, with respect to, for example, the legislature’s role in budget approval, the in-year parliamentary oversight of budget execution, problems of audit and accountability and, until recently, the lack of alignment of budgets with medium-term government fiscal targets. The chapter explores how these weaknesses have been reformed within the EU fiscal framework and, more recently, as a result of the impact of external intervention. Sound fiscal management is necessary, not only to prevent unsustainable fiscal deficits, but also for the more efficient allocation of resources and to enhance democratic control. Further developments on this front hinge directly on efforts to build up institutional capacity on the fiscal front domestically and on the outcome of recent debates at the EU level regarding the legitimacy and enhancement of democratic control of its institutions.
Poverty and the Social Safety Net
Authors: Matsaganis Manos
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines how the social safety net (the welfare state’s anti-poverty armour) evolved since the mid-1970s, and how it responded to, and was transformed by, the social emergency of the 2010s. Its structure is as follows. The first section discusses the state of Greek welfare before the financial crisis broke out. The second section considers the social implications of the Great Recession, focusing on the effects on family incomes of job losses, falling earnings, and higher taxes. The third section provides an account of policy responses under austerity, and the fourth section reviews the evidence on changes in poverty and social exclusion. The chapter concludes that the Greek welfare state, even though no longer chronically underfunded, was structurally unfit to cope with any serious economic downturn, let alone the deep and protracted crisis that hit the country in 2010. Moreover, the system of social protection emerging from the recession and the austerity differ significantly from the situation that preceded it: it is certainly leaner, considerably less robust in core policy areas such as pensions and health, but also probably more effective in protecting vulnerable individuals and households against poverty than at any time in the country’s history.
Education
Authors: Exadaktylos Theofanis
Published: November 2020

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a ‘state of the art’ contribution about education in Greece, reviewing recent developments and reforms. As a policy area, education remains highly controversial in Greece from developing new curricula to the politicization of higher education. The chapter reflects on the pedagogical and political debates of the recent decades focusing on issues of policy implementation. It highlights the most recent round of reforms since 2011 including those resulting from the advent of Syriza to power, and looks at the period of the financial crisis to discuss issues of funding, the bailout agreements, and neoliberal ideas behind higher education. The chapter concludes by offering some suggestions for future research and sets out some of the respective challenges.
Greek Foreign Policy Since the Metapolitefsi
Authors: Economides Spyros
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines Greek foreign policy since the metapolitefsi through three broad characteristics. First, it argues that since 1974, a central defining feature of Greek foreign and security policy has been the search for an external guarantor of interests and provider of security which has seen Greece gradually shift away from American tutelage to that of the European Union. Second, is the idea that Greece’s external environment has had a determining influence on its foreign policy and security policy: it is argued that much of Greek external relations can be explained and understood through Greece’s position regionally and internationally at any given point in time in the Cold War or post-Cold War geopolitical context. Third, this chapter argues that we need to look more closely at the domestic sources of decision-making to gain a better understanding of how and why Greek foreign policy is formulated. In sum, the chapter aims to overcome piecemeal approaches to examining Greek foreign policy since 1974 by providing a more holistic understanding of the drivers of Greek foreign policy.
Andreas Papandreou
Authors: Pantazopoulos Andreas
Published: November 2020

This study is concerned with the political discourse and practice of Andreas Papandreou both as prime minister of Greece (1981–9, 1993–6) and as the founder and ‘charismatic leader’ of PASOK (Panhellenic Socialist Movement). More specifically, it discusses Papandreou’s political discourse and critically presents the PASOK administrations’ work with a view to identifying and evaluating the ideological–political orientation and modalities of the ‘modernization’ experiment that took place in Greece, particularly in the 1980s. The study is thus focused on the ‘populist character’ instilled in PASOK by Andreas Papandreou: to begin with, it offers a critical overview of the formative ‘moments’ of Papandreou’s approach to the Greek ‘political problem’, as formulated first before 1974 and then during PASOK’s years in opposition (1974–81). The discussion of the governmental populist decade 1981–9 (and the three years between 1993 and 1996)—in terms of both the so-called ‘social issue’, the state, and nationalist rhetoric—examines Papandreou’s political legacy, as well as some possible continuities and discontinuities between an oppositional ‘before’ and a governmental ‘after’. Moreover, it proposes a comparative analysis of the Greek case against a setting of social-democratic politics and populist mobilization, aimed at offering an overall understanding of the particular phenomenon. Viewing Αndreas Papandreou as a ‘charismatic’ national-populist leader, the study presents the general directions and internal tensions of his political discourse between ‘populism’ and ‘modernization’.
Alexis Tsipras
Authors: Tsakatika Myrto
Published: November 2020

This chapter follows the evolution of Alexis Tsipras’ radical Left political leadership in its shift from an inclusive to a personalized model as well as from a maverick to a mainstream style. Drawing on an institutionalist approach to leadership, it analyses the historical factors that shaped Tsipras’ ideas and actions as well as the structural constraints that circumscribed his attempt to put forward and implement his progressive policy programme. The policy project he pursued is argued to have become broader over time, as Tsipras was transformed from figurehead of alternative youth politics to representative of the interests of the wide array of social strata that lifted SYRIZA to government power. A brief attempt to discuss Tsipras’ legacy highlights his contribution to Greece’s party system and democracy as well as the consequences of his leadership for the future of the international left.
Church, State, and Hellenism
Authors: Kitromilides Paschalis M.
Published: November 2020

The chapter examines the formation of a Greek national Church and its role in the political life of the country. The emergence of an independent (autocephalous) Orthodox Church in the kingdom of Greece is considered in connection with the issue of autocephaly in canon law and the debates it provoked. It is pointed out that Greek autocephaly set a precedent for the subsequent emergence of other autocephalous churches in the Orthodox communion as part of the nation- and state-building projects of the respective national societies. The multiplicity of ecclesiastical jurisdictions in the Greek state are discussed as a record bearing the traces of the unification and national integration of Greece. Penultimately, the role of the Orthodox Church of Greece as national Church and the interplay of ecclesiastical and secular politics is examined. The close connection of Church and politics in Greek society is illustrated by pointing out that periods of political instability and subversion of constitutional government in twentieth-century Greece have provoked ‘archiepiscopal questions’ in ecclesiastical life. Lastly, the main issues in Church–State relations in post-1974 Greece are surveyed and appraised.
The Prime Minister and the Core Executive
Authors: Featherstone Kevin , Papadimitriou Dimitris
Published: November 2020

In recent years, significant attention has focused on the reform ‘failures’ of Greece in the context of its European Union membership and the implementation of its bailout commitments. Systemic public-policy constraints are increasingly recognized, but our understanding of how the senior echelons of the Greek government are able to coordinate the policy process remains rather incomplete. This chapter examines the evolution of the Greek core executive since the transition to democracy in 1974 and offers an appraisal of the efforts of successive Greek prime ministers to manage government business. The main argument put forward is that the extensive formal powers afforded to the prime minister by the Greek Constitution have not materialized in an effective system of governance at the top of the government. In reality, the structure is one of a ‘solitary centre’ amidst a ‘segmented government’ in which the prime minister lacks the necessary resources to effectively coordinate and control its direction. The chapter discusses the reasons behind this discrepancy by reference to both structural and agency-driven explanations.
Mass Culture
Authors: Hung Jochen
Published: November 2020

‘Mass culture’, understood as popular commercialized cultures, existed in Germany from the late nineteenth century as part of its modern, industrialized society. After 1918, the expansion of leisure time, technological innovations, the growth of new and existing audiences, and new regulatory frameworks led to an expansion and diversification of these cultures. One of the most important characteristics of Weimar-era mass cultures was the central role of the modern mass media in their dissemination: the 1920s saw the development of a tightly integrated media ensemble comprising sound film, radio, popular recorded music, the mass press, and book clubs, which remained stable until the proliferation of television in the 1960s. Many observers interpreted this as the growth of a homogeneous ‘mass culture’, produced on an industrial scale and sold like a common commodity, evoking fears of cultural erosion and mind control. This chapter uses this term in the plural to avoid such generalizations, putting a focus on the importance of gender, class, ethnicity, and location in the production and consumption of mass cultures.
Grand Challenges, Industrial Policy, and Public Value
Authors: Mazzucato Mariana , Kattel Rainer
Published: November 2020

Policymakers are increasingly embracing the idea of using industrial and innovation policy to tackle societal ‘grand challenges’ such as the climate emergency. In this article we argue that challenge-led policies require a new conceptual and analytical framework that has at its core the idea of confronting the direction of growth—growth that is, for example, more inclusive and sustainable. Such framework should focus on public value creation through market co-shaping rather than simply fixing market failures. This is both a question of theory as well as of policy practice. In theory, challenge-driven industrial and innovation policy questions both established neoclassical as well as evolutionary concepts. In policy practice, directed policies require rethinking what is meant by vertical industrial policies. In this article we argue that through well-defined goals, or more specifically ‘missions’, that are focused on solving important societal challenges, policymakers have the opportunity to determine the direction of growth by making strategic investments and coordination actions across many different sectors and nurturing new industrial landscapes.
Technical Change, the Shifting ‘Terrain of the Industrial’, and Digital Industrial Policy
Authors: Andreoni Antonio
Published: November 2020

Technical change is a major driver of structural transformation and industrial mutations within and across sectors of the economy. We show how, by deploying different concepts of sector—commodity/product, production/technology, or location-based taxonomies—we can better capture the heterogeneity of production activities, shifting sectoral boundaries, industrial mutations, sources of technical change, and non-linear patterns of structural change. These are important dimensions for industrial policy targeting. We analyse these technological dynamics with an industrial ecosystem framework structured around several sectoral value chains underpinned by different technology platforms. Within this framework, we highlight the role of digital technologies alongside other key enabling technologies and discuss technological change trajectories and cross-sectoral diversification patterns. Against this background, we discuss the specific challenges of deploying digital technologies effectively faced by developing countries. To address these challenges and capture windows of digital opportunity, industrial policy must be articulated along both sectoral and cross-sectoral mission-oriented strategies.
Technological Disruptions, GVCs, and Industrial Policy
Authors: Bailey David , De Propris Lisa
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the impact of technological change on global value chains (GVCs) and what initiatives and instruments governments in advanced economies can deploy to support firms and people during the transition. Drawing on an emerging debate on de-globalization, we discuss how global production is slowly shifting from being organized in GVCs to continental platforms with shorter and geographically closer relationships as firms seek to co-locate manufacturing and innovation activities. This offers regions and places the opportunity to upgrade and transform their economies and thereby to anchor high-technology industries, leveraging industrial legacy with frontier technologies. We will discuss the implications for a transformative place-based industrial policy that aims to connect embedded industries to new technologies; to repopulate embedded industries with new firms and start-ups, and to use regulation and procurement to create new markets and allow exploration.
Industrial Policy and Industrialization in South East Asia
Authors: Rasiah Rajah
Published: November 2020

The latecomer industrialization thesis has acted as a powerful instrument in promoting industrialization. However, there is little explanation in the literature as to why some economies that attempted to industrialize are facing premature de-industrialization. This chapter provides an assessment of industrialization in the South East Asian market economies of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, examining policies that spurred either strong or little technological upgrading. Driven by an agile state, Singapore managed to become a developed economy through strong industrial upgrading. Malaysia launched upgrading policies, while Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand introduced ad hoc strategies to support technological upgrading. Foreign transnational corporations have played a major role in stimulating manufacturing expansion in these economies. However, while all five countries have begun to experience de-industrialization, Singapore’s de-industrialization has been accompanied by strong technological upgrading, while the remaining four countries remain stuck in the middle-income trap owing to a lack of technological upgrading.
National Champions, Reforms, and Industrial Policy in China
Authors: Li Chen , Chen Muyang
Published: November 2020

China’s economic reforms since the late 1970s have been characterized by a combination of market-oriented transition and persistent practices of statist industrial policy. A key dimension of China’s industrial policy is to transform and consolidate the backbone of its large state-owned enterprises sector into a group of globally competitive big businesses. The rise of China’s ‘national champions’, defined here as the giant central state-controlled corporations, business groups, and financial institutions in the ‘commanding heights’ sectors, has reshaped the landscape of China’s business system. This chapter reviews the origin and evolution of China’s national champions industrial policy. It examines how the Chinese state has restructured the core assets and enterprise units from the socialist command economy into a set of large state-controlled corporations and business groups viable in a predominantly market-oriented environment. This process has been driven by continuous organizational learning and capability building at both the government and enterprise levels. The current governance regime of China’s national champions can be characterized as a networked hierarchy that interweaves multiple mechanisms of institutional bridging and reciprocal control. Despite their remarkable size and growth, China’s national champions are still at an early stage of developing their international competitiveness.
Latin American Industrial Policies
Authors: Ocampo José Antonio , Porcile Gabriel
Published: November 2020

This chapter analyses the evolution of industrial policy in the four largest Latin American economies—Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, and Colombia—using Korea as a benchmark. Three phases in industrial policy and industrial transformation are identified: a period of state-led industrialization between the end of the Second World War and around 1980, which came to an end with the debt crisis of the 1980s; the 1990s, when the region abandoned industrial policy and embraced the structural reform agenda; and the commodity boom after 2004, when the region witnessed a timid return of industrial policy, while at the same time world demand favoured the reprimarization of its export structure. The outcomes of these policies in terms of building technological capabilities and diversifying the industrial sector towards knowledge-intensive activities, are analysed using different indicators. The importance of the interactions between structural change, industrial policy, and macroeconomic policies (especially exchange rate and capital account management) are highlighted.
Phases and Uneven Experiences in African Industrial Policy
Authors: Whitfield Lindsay , Zalk Nimrod
Published: November 2020

The chapter examines the challenges of implementing industrial policy in selected sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries with a particular focus on raising the capabilities of locally owned firms. Under hyper-globalization, entry even into the lowest rungs of global value chains is challenging, as reflected by Ethiopia’s efforts to enter apparel production and Kenya’s and Rwanda’s experience with global value chains in knowledge-based services. Nigeria and Ethiopia succeeded in establishing domestic cement industries dominated by local firms, but face constraints in domestic demand and challenges with oligopolistic structures in domestic markets, which can produce challenges for regulating markets and redistributing wealth. South Africa reflects a case of middle-income de-industrialization and efforts at re-industrialization. Industrial policies in automotive and apparel sectors have had some positive impact but have been constrained by mutually reinforcing forces of disengagement of large business groups from diversified manufacturing and rising corruption exacerbated by unsupportive macroeconomic policy.
Industrial Policies, Patterns of Learning, and Development
Authors: Cimoli Mario , Dosi Giovanni , Yu Xiaodan
Published: November 2020

This work discusses the role of industrial policies within an evolutionary view of innovation and learning as drivers of economic development. Building on the notions of technological paradigms and trajectories, it links the processes of catching up with the dynamics of capability accumulation within and across firms. Technological paradigms provide a structure to the knowledge embodied in individual and, even more importantly, in organizational problem-solving procedures and routines, which collectively define the technological and organizational capabilities of firms and whole countries. The improvement of such capabilities is at the core of the process of development and catching up, well beyond sheer capital accumulation. In turn, such processes are embedded in broader national systems of innovation in which industrial policies play a pivotal role.
Neoclassical Economic Perspectives on Industrial Policy
Authors: Weiss John
Published: November 2020

Conventional welfare economics has always recognized that the real world is characterized by market imperfections, which provide a rationale for policy intervention. The early analysis of this focused on tax-subsidy solutions and the implications of domestic ‘distortions’ for the case for free trade. The full implications of market imperfections for policy were brought out clearly in the early 1970s by Corden’s concept of the ‘policy hierarchy’. Any given distortion could be addressed in a variety of ways, the preferred policy being that which minimized by-product costs. In practical terms this translated into interventions that aimed directly at the source of the distortion and did not discriminate between possible beneficiaries. Whilst un-influential during the structural adjustment era, this type of framework underlay the revival of a neoclassical perspective on industrial policy in the early 2000s. This chapter reviews this literature and the planning techniques and policy recommendations arising from it.
Shang Bronze-Casting Technology and Metallurgy Issues
Authors: Zhang Changping
Published: November 2020

This chapter analyzes two major phases documenting the evolution and advances in bronze-casting technology, one identified with the late Erligang phase (Late Erlingang to Early Yinxu P1 culture), and the other with the late Yinxu phase (Late Shang Yinxu 2 to Early Western Zhou culture). The first phase witnessed balancing the position of handles and protomes of vessels in coordination with each other. By the Yinxu Phase 1 bronze workers cast legs of vessels as solid rather than hollow, with clay cores as a means of increasing functionality. The latter was adopted for all other vessel attachments and parts in creating a new “blind core” technology. By the late Yinxu phase décor is all-important in witnessing three new stages of development: (1) a growing complexity of mold divisions, (2) a composite mold set, and (3) casting-on and pre-casting technology.
Cultures and Styles of Art during the Springs and Autumns Period
Authors: Wu Xiaolong
Published: November 2020

This chapter surveys the major archaeological discoveries of the Chunqiu (Springs and Autumns) period, which belongs to the first half of the Eastern Zhou period (770–256 bce), and includes some recent finds not yet known in English publications. The discussion focuses on the material cultures of the different regions affiliated with the Zhou culture, including cities, tombs, and sacrificial sites, and addresses their roles in constructing political power and cultural identity. This rich set of material is organized both geographically and chronologically to show diversity and homogeneity, change and continuity. The content and styles of bronzes and their functions and meanings are one of the major topics throughout the discussions of various regional cultures, such as Chu and Qin. This chapter demonstrates that the Springs and Autumns is a diverse, dynamic, and transformative period in China that witnessed profound social changes and the emergence of a shared cultural identity.
The Army, Wars, and Military Arts during the Warring States Period
Authors: Galvany Albert
Published: November 2020

This chapter provides a comprehensive discussion about the transformation of warfare in the Warring States period, when the previous aristocratic way of managing military affairs characteristic of the Springs and Autumns period was abandoned, and a completely new model of combat based on large-scale armies of conscripted infantry soldiers emerged. The Warring States period was defined by a new type of total warfare, characterized by military campaigns in which the whole population participated. In this new context victory meant survival, while defeat meant annihilation of the whole state. The chapter also presents an overview of the origins and the development of specialized and technical military writings in ancient China, touching upon key texts including Sunzi’s Art of War, among others.
Confucius, Mencius, and Their Daoist-Legalist Critics
Authors: Roberts Moss
Published: November 2020

Warring Kingdoms thought divides into a humanist tradition (Analects and Mencius), a naturalist tradition (Daoism), and an institutional tradition (Mohism and Legalism). The humanist tradition is based on charismatic leadership with a strong moral (de, virtue) content. The Naturalists situate the social in the biological and subordinate it to the biological, emphasizing the concepts of ziran and wanwu (all things created by Dao, each one of which must fulfill its own unique nature). The institutionalists place human society under a rule of bureaucratic law (fa) guided by an administrative rather than a charismatic leader.