bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Successful Gas Cycling Of South Louisiana High Pressure Multi-Accumulation Reservoir
Authors: Schnerk George C. , Eckles W.W.
Published: December 2007

The Gillis-English Bayou Field is a multi-pool retrograde gas condensate reservoir. Fourteen years of gas cycling has shown that elaborate engineering-management techniques can deter inter-pool flow, and increase liquid recovery. Recoveries prior to blowdown have exceeded seventy percant for swept portions of this reservoir.

INTRODUCTION

Can multi-pool reservoirs with good communication between pools be gas cycled? The literature abounds with papers written about cycling retrograde condensate reservoirs. The vast majority of these papers deal with simple single zone accumulations or pools. The Gillis-English Bayou Field in Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana is not simple. It consists of four separate sands folded and faulted into nine distinct hydrocarbon pools, all underneath an overlying unconformity. PVT analysis indicated that severe retrograde condensation would occur below 7050 psia (48600 kPa), and gas cycling was initiated.

It soon became apparent the unconformity was a path for gas flow if a pressure difference developed between pools. This was recognized by Sun, and an elaborate reservoir management system was initiated and carried out over a fourteen year period. This has minimized inter-pool flow and resulted in highly successful liquid recoveries.

INITIAL HANDICAPS

The driller's bit first penetrated the Upper Hackberry sands in 1961, at 9000' (2750 m) depths. More than one dry hole established the extremely erratic limits of production. A cross section of the reservoir is shown in figure 1. Four layered sands have an overlying unconformity and plunge down structure to water. The structure map for the Hackberry 1 sand, figure 2, shows separate pools or accumulations for each sand. Figure 3, a vertically, extended diagram, demonstrates the size and shape of nine pools, and the locations of all wells drilled. Some wells cut more than one accumulation, but no pool has over four wells.

Basic reservoir data is shown in table 1. The sands generally have non-uniform permeabilities ranging from 200 to 1800 md. Early PVT data indicated that eight of the nine accumulations were in the gas phase, with dew points ranging from 7050 psia (48600 kPa) to 6645 psia (45800 kPa). The last pool, 1NE, was in the oil phase with a 7290 psia (50300 kPa) bubble point. Initial production from all zones tested about 3500 CF/BBL (62 m3 gas/m3 liq.) gas-liquid ratio.

Further experimentation showed severe retrograde condensation took place when the reservoir pressure was allowed to decrease (table 2). Calculations using laboratory data indicated that only 16 percent of the condensate would be recovered by conventional depletion methods. Production through 1964 had decreased the average reservoir pressure from an initial 7290 psia (50300 kPa) to 7060 psia (48800 kPa), just above the dew point.
Development Of Gachsaran-Kharg Island Pipeline And Oil Handling Facilities At Kharg Island
Authors: Schlabach E.J.
Published: December 2007

1961 Middle East Regional Meeting; Dhahran, March 27–29, 1961

One of the more significant activities in the Middle East and Persian Gulf petroleum industry in recent years has been the planning-development and construction of the Gachsaran Field and Kharg Island Oil Loading Terminal. In fact, few projects rank in scope, magnitude and accomplishment within the entire petroleum industry worldwide over the past several years.

The activity in bringing this project to conclusion officially culminated in its inauguration on 8th November, 1960 by His Majesty The Shah-in-Shah of Iran.

Apart from the physical prominence and range in scope from production facilities, a surface or band pipeline and submarine pipeline, to tank farms, tanker loading facilities and jetty plus supporting facilities the project was characterized by a uniquely organized international construction force made up from a group of construction companies staffed with Iranians Dutch British French and American technicians artisans and laborers. The work performed by this polyglot group was sponsored in turn by a larger group of the worlds leading oil companies known as the Iranian Oil Operating Companies or colloquially as the "Consortium" in cooperation with the National Iranian Oil Company. Few construction projects have ever involved so many nationalities or have been so complex in their organization.
Acid Leach Of Uranium Ore: In Situ Conditions
Authors: Hardwick T.J.
Published: December 2007

Core samples from a property in Wyoming were tested for amenability to in situ leaching by acid ferric sulfate. In tests, about 95% recovery of the uranium was achieved. The ore is fortunately low in carbonate, and sulfuric acid consumption of 15#/T is expected using feed solutions of pH 1.8.

Factors significantly affecting the yield of uranium are temperature and ferric ion concentration in the lixiviant. Acid concentration, within the pH limits 1.5-2, is significant only in the time required to acidify the formation. Flow rate affects the rate of leaching, but such increase in production rate is balanced by the requirement of handling proportionately larger amounts of more dilute production solution.

Some information has been obtained on other ions leached by the process, and an attempt has been made to relate the information to possible changes in clay structures. Certain reactions, such as the conversion of K-feldspar to kaolinite, have been shown to occur very slowly under leach conditions.

Introduction

A site potentially suitable for in situ leaching of uranium from sandstone was selected from various candidates. Core samples were obtained and blended to give a composite considered representative of the ore. Care was taken to avoid exposure of the ore to oxygen, but subsequent experience showed this precaution to be unnecessary. All tests were performed on this composite sample.

GEOLOGY AND MINEROLOGY

The ore zone consists of a fluvial sequence of arkosic sandstone and silty claystone, and lies well below the local water table.

The majority of the uranium occurs as uraninite, with minor amounts of coffinite. It is believed that the uranium was desposited by the reducing action of humic acid released by compacted sediments. Most of the uranium occurs in hematitic coarser sandstone faces that once contained organic carbon. Its location is related to lithological changes particular to scour and fill environments.

The dominant clay is a vermicular kaolinite, with occasional concentrations of chlorite, illite, and montmorillonite. In some areas, kaolinite can be seen altering to illite.

APPROACH

The leach experiments were primarily designed to provide practical information on stream concentration-history to be expected in field operation using a recycling system. Whenever possible, measurements to elucidate mechanisms were carried out.

Inevitably, hindsight has shown a number or desirable measurements not made, but the series of experiments has allowed a definition of a schedule to be followed in testing a uraniferous sandstone ore for its potential for acid ferric sulfate leach. Many auxiliary experiments delineating the behavior of clays, can be suggested; they are particularly necessary to define programs required for studies in site restoration.

TECHNIQUES FOR LEACHING

The most difficult decision is the kind of experiment to perform.
Practical Application Of Non-Newtonian Transient Flow Analysis
Authors: Ikoku Chi U.
Published: December 2007

Recent studies on the transient flow of non-Newtonian fluid in porous media have proposed new well test analysis techniques for non-Newtonian injection wells. This paper extends these new techniques to non-Newtonian injection well falloff testing. The practical use of this well test analysis method is practical use of this well test analysis method is demonstrated. The limitations of the techniques also are addressed. Examples of field data are used to demonstrate how this analysis can aid in well test interpretation and provide data and insight for the design and operation of enhanced oil recovery projects. projects

Introduction

The transient pressure behavior in wells receiving non-Newtonian fluids is of considerable interest because of the large number of enhanced oil recovery projects now in operation. As a result of a number of studies over the past 2 or 3 years, an increased understanding of non-Newtonian fluid behavior in petroleum reservoirs has been obtained. It is generally believed that most of the non-Newtonian fluids used in enhanced oil recovery processes are pseudoplastic in nature and their processes are pseudoplastic in nature and their rheology can be approximated by a power-law model.

Pressure falloff testing is probably the most common well testing method. This is true particularly when tertiary recovery projects are being particularly when tertiary recovery projects are being considered or are in progress. When injection wells receive expensive fluids like polymer solutions, micellar solutions, and surfactant solutions, their ability to accept these fluids uniformly for a long period of time is important to the economics of the period of time is important to the economics of the tertiary recovery project. The mobilities of these fluids are important parameters in flood design. Also, wellbore damage must be monitored and corrected.

Refs. 1 and 2 provide detailed studies of the theory behind the non-Newtonian flow model to be used in this paper. These references also present new well test analysis techniques for non-Newtonian injection well pressure-buildup testing. The purpose of this paper is to extend this analysis to non-Newtonian injection well falloff testing, provide necessary engineering forms for use of the non-Newtonian flow results, and illustrate applications.

FALLOFF TEST ANALYSIS

The principles of superposition enable us to analyze changing rates of flow from the solution of a constant terminal rate case. The partial differential equation describing the flow of a slightly compressible power-law fluid in an ideal radial system is given in dimensionless form as

(1)

where

(2)

(3)

(4)

and

(5)
Gas Storage Problems And Detection Methods
Authors: Knepper Glenn A. , Cuthbert J.F.
Published: December 2007

The use of underground reservoirs for the storage of natural gas during the warm months, for delivery to users during the winter, has grown from a single experiment in 1915 to an extensive industry. Today, gas-storage reservoirs supply on peak winter days more than half the natural gas consumed by a given area. Because of the large seasonal variations in gas pressure in these reservoirs, the wells are subjected pressure in these reservoirs, the wells are subjected to severe stresses. The early detection of problems in storage wells has therefore become a critical need of the industry. The use of case-hole logs, together with inventory-control procedures and careful monitoring of well pressures, is serving to detect many of the common problems. problems. This paper surveys these methods and describes a study of the problems observed in wells of a gas storage system, how they were detected using the above methods, and how they were corrected.
Water Injection, Arab-D Member, Abqaiq Field, Saudi Arabia
Authors: Malinowski R.
Published: December 2007

PUBLICATION RIGHTS RESERVED

This paper is to be presented at the 36th Annual Fall Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME in Dallas, October 8–11, 1961, and is considered the property of the Society of Petroleum Engineers. Permission to publish is hereby restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words, with no illustrations, unless the paper is specifically released to the press by the Editor of JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the Executive Secretary. Such abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is granted on request, providing proper credit is given that publication and the original presentation of the paper.

Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers office. Such discussion may be presented at the above meeting and considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines with the paper.

A peripheral water injection system was begun in the Abqaiq Field of Saudi Arabia in 1956. The initial system consisted of gravity injection into three nose wells. Following the completion of the flank installations and electrification in 1958, injection rates were increased to the present rate of 30 to 40 MBD per well. The field water injection rate is approximately 300 MBD. The volumetric effectiveness of injected water is 50 per cent and is expected to increase to 70–80 per cent.

The water supply source, the Wasia formation, is a prolific aquifer containing non-potable water of 8,000 ppm total dissolved solids. The water is corrosive, however, corrosion is controlled by inhibitor injection. The Wasia water injection system is a closed pressure system.

A temporary sea water injection system was installed to evaluate the problems of a sea water injection project. The results of this project are presented.

FIELD HISTORY

The Abqaiq field was discovered in 1940, but full-scale development did not begin until 1946.

Figure 1 is a structure contour map of the Abqaiq field. For analytical purposes the field has been divided into two areas designated A and B as shown on the map.

At present there are 61 producible wells in the field. They are drilled on a contour pattern and the average spacing is about 5,000 feet.

Initial pressure at -6,500 feet datum was 3,395 psig and the bubble point of the reservoir fluid is 2,545 psig. The reservoir was undersaturated at discovery.

Average solution gas-oil ratio is 850 scf/STB. There has been essentially no change in producing gas-oil ratio. Separation is done at centralized separator plants of which there are three: one, in Area B and two in Area A. The crude goes through separation stages of 500, 250, 50 and 2 psig.
Evaluation Of The Slope Of Oil/Water Interface And Its Changes With Time
Authors: Hilmi Samara
Published: December 2007

1961 Middle East Regional Meeting; Dhahran, March 27–29, 1961

The slope of the oil/water interface in edge water drive reservoirs is investigated. Equations of motion of the interface and their boundary conditions are presented, with possible computational techniques to solve these equations numerically. These equations are solved in some detail, especial emphasis being placed on the change of the angle of tilt with time, in two special cases: the first assuming no cross flow perpendicular to the bedding plane, the second assuming that there is maximum cross flow in that direction.

INTRODUCTION:

Theoretical analysis, laboratory investigation, and field observation all show that the advance of edge water in a water drive reservoir tends to distort the oil water interface. Pressure gradients caused by oil production and subsequent pressure drop in the producing area vary along the oil/water interface, thus causing the water to move with varying speeds in the different parts of the reservoir. This results in the distortion of the oil water interface.

Distortion of the interface as a result of oil production can be divided broadly into two categories local and field wide. These correspond to the pressure drawdowns in the reservoir, which can also be divided into bottom hole pressure differentials limited to the vicinity of the producing well, and to an overall pressure decline in the reservoir. We can picture the overall pressure decline at any time as a smooth curve varying from point to point in the reservoir. The bottom hole pressure differentials can be thought of as localized 'sinks' superimposed on this curve.
The Effect of Nitrogen on the Phase Behavior and Physical Properties of Reservoir Fluids
Authors: Vogel John L. , Yarborough Lyman
Published: December 2007

Nitrogen can be produced from air separation plants at considerably less cost than the value of an equal volume of natural gas. For this reason, nitrogen has been considered for pressure maintenance operations in gas condensate and oil reservoirs. However, the possibility that significant changes in phase equilibria and physical properties could occur in the reservoir fluid has hindered its acceptance as an injection gas.

Experimental laboratory tests were conducted in which gas condensate and black oil reservoir fluids were contacted by nitrogen at reservoir conditions. The results showed that the dew point pressures of gas condensates would significantly increase and retrograde liquid could condense where the nitrogen mixes with the reservoir gas. Additional contact by nitrogen revaporized a significant amount of the condensed retrograde liquid.

The results also showed that the oil formation volume factor and solution gas-oil ratio decreased, and the oil density and viscosity increased when a black-type oil was contacted by nitrogen.

The experimental tests were simulated using a modified Redlich-Kwong equation of state. The results showed that this equation of state can be tuned to reliably predict the effects of nitrogen on phase equilibria and physical properties of reservoir fluids. This equation of state could subsequently be used in compositional reservoir simulators to predict overall effects of nitrogen injection on reservoir performance.
A Report on the Old Luling (Edwards Limestone) Field, Caldwell and Guadalupe Counties, Texas
Authors: Davis Phillip , Goode O.N.
Published: December 2007

The history of the Old Luling (Edwards Limestone) field, Caldwell and Guadalupe counties, Tex., is briefly reviewed from the date of discovery through the year 1946.

In the year 1946, the field was in an advanced state of depletion. The operator of a majority of the field undertook an intensive work over, drilling-deeper, new well, and modernization program extending through the year 1955. This program, which involved the use of diamond coring, radioactive and electric logs, the application of cementing techniques new to the Luling field, correlation of underground zones of porosity in the Edwards Limestone, and the disposition of large volumes of salt water, is reviewed in detail. Oil productions which had reached a low of 1.5 million bbl/year in 1946, was increased to 2.5 million bbl/year by the end of 1955, and during the year 1956 showed the first decline after the program was started. Replacement of equipment in use for 25 years in a sour crude field is discussed. A better understanding of the geology and the nature of the accumulation and how it is affected by faulting was obtained by the program. In several instances, virgin or undrained reservoirs were developed.

Introduction

The Old Luling field is located in Caldwell and Guadalupe counties, Tex. It is approximately 5 miles northwest of the city of Luling and 1.1 miles southeast of the town of Prairie Lea, Tex. The specific geographical location is shown in Fig. 1.

Some time after the discovery of the Luling field, the name was changed to the Luling-Branyon field.
Alternate Slugs of Gas and Dilute Surfactant for Mobility Control During Chemical Flooding
Authors: Lawson Jimmie B. , Reisberg Joseph
Published: December 2007

Studied was a novel technique for mobility control during chemical flooding, namely, the injection of alternate slugs of inert gas and surfactant solution. This method of reducing mobility offers a possible alternative to polymer thickened water.

Performance was investigated in consolidated sandstone and carbonate. Sandstone included cores, and large slabs of rock oriented so as to maximize gravity segregation of gas.

Reported data suggest that, for mobility control in laboratory rocks, performance of alternate slugs of gas and dilute surfactant compares favorably with water soluble polymers, without the many disadvantages of the latter.

During experiments in large sandstone slabs, excessive foam drainage, and gravity segregation of gas, did not occur.
A Progressive Approach to Marginal Field Development in S.E. Asia
Authors: Milton Alan
Published: December 2007

No operator will knowingly decide to develop a marginal field uniess for research and development purposes.

Having said this, it is obvious, from the amount of publicity given to marginal discoveries, that there are such things as marginal fields.

This paper seeks to establish a definition of a marginal field, and the factors resulting in that definition.

Methods of improving the financial viability of such fields are described, using the particular qualities of flexible flowlines, floating production and storage facilities, and subsea completion or "tieback" technology.

The concept outlined is called progressive for the simple reason that the equipment used, because it is designed on a modular basis, allows the development of the field to progress from the initial testing or early production phase through to the final system, without significant interruption, irrespective of what the final system is.
An Assessment Of Grouting Materials, Placement Methods, Monitoring Equipment, And Flotation Equipment For Offshore Structures
Authors: Knox L. Carter , Sutton David L. , Callis Cliff
Published: December 2007

Current grouting technology is reviewed emphasizing some of the latest developments. Main topics covered are grouting materials, grouting methods, grout monitoring techniques, recent grouting related improvements, and structure flotation equipment.

Grouting materials to promote faster and higher strengths, help prevent self-desiccation, and offer increased expansions are discussed. Grouts are classified according to use and typical examples are given.

A new type of lightweight admixture has been developed which can be used to formulate low density (12.5 lb/gal, 1.5kg/dm3) grouts with final strength approaching that of normal (15.6 lb/gal, 1.87 kg/ dm3) density grout. Because of the vastly improved strength of this grout as compared to other low density grout, the use of such low density grouts to facilitate placement procedures warrants reevaluation.

Discussion of grouting methods covers five different techniques and their application. Several of these methods involve the use of new generation high pressure packers and flow control valves. With this new equipment, packer inflation/ grouting manifolds can be devised which enable multiple packer inflation through a single line and grout placement into multiple ports through a single line.

Improved leg plugs, conductor pipe plugs, and j-tube plugs have made structure flotation a simpler, more trouble-free operation. The plugs offer unprecedented economy and dependability. The leg plugs and conductor pipe plugs are mechanically set, retrievable, and reusable.
Power-Law Flow And Hydrodynamic Behaviour Of Biopolymer Solutions In Porous Media
Authors: Teeuw Dirk , Hesselink F. Theodore
Published: December 2007

Aqueous biopolymer solutions have been investigated for their flow behaviour in porous media. A flow equation for these power-law fluids has been derived taking into account the effect of tortuosity on both shear stress and shear rate. A comparison has been made with previous equations (Christopher et al, Bird et al).

The equation was applied in flow experiments in Bentheim sandstone rock. Approximately the same flow behaviour exponent n was observed in core flow as in measurements with a rotation viscometer. It was found, however, that the flow coefficient K in core flow is about a factor of 2 lower than observed in a viscometer. This observation is given a plausible theoretical explanation on the basis of a model of a porous medium, consisting of a system of dilatations and constrictions.

In the derivation of flow equations it is usually presumed that the diameter of the dissolved particles in the flowing medium is negligible compared to the diameter of the flow channels. This presumption is not valid for polymer solutions. Consequently, the velocity profile of the polymer particles differs from that of the associated brine molecules, so the polymer tends to lead the brine. This hydrodynamic phenomenon provides a more satisfactory explanation for the so-called inaccessible pore volume effect than the concept that water flooding polymers do not occupy all of the connected pores. This has been illustrated in core flooding experiments in the absence and presence of oil. It also complicates the determination of adsorption/retention characteristics of polymer on rock in dynamic experiments.
Hydrocarbon Gels Of Alumino Alkyl Acid Orthophosphates
Authors: McKenzie Lee F.
Published: December 2007

Partial aluminum salts of alkyl orthophosphates (AAAO) are effective gelling agents for hydrocarbons. The simplified chemical model of AAAO gel presented in this paper is used to describe mechanisms for breaking AAAO gels in oil field applications. The preferred method of breaking is with acid. By selecting an appropriate acid system, delayed action breaking with a predetermined amount of viscosity reduction can be obtained.
Application of Low Solids Mud in Cotton Valley Drilling
Authors: Miller James D.
Published: December 2007

This article discusses the practical application of low solids non-dispersed drilling fluid related to Cotton Valley drilling operations. A low solids system is briefly defined and proper solids control equipment and maintenance techniques are discussed. In conclusion the paper discusses mud related Cotton Valley drilling problems and presents examples of field data showing the favorable results achieved with a low solids mud system in several Cotton Valley wells.
Cotton Valley Completion Equipment
Authors: Vonk Lawrence
Published: December 2007

The purpose of this paper is to describe the downhole completion equipment presently being used by operators in East Texas to complete wells producing from Cotton Valley formations. Particular emphasis is placed on the factors that influence these operators in their downhole completion equipment decisions.
Inflation in the Oil Industry in the 1970 - 1980 Decade, and its Significance
Authors: Garde-Hansen Hans
Published: December 2007

The oil industry has seen inflation on both sides of the balance sheet well above that experienced by the general consumer, not only in increased costs, but in the difficulty of finding new reserves, and arbitrary government imposed tariffs. Figures presented will show that the high profits reported by many oil companies are misleading and still do not leave adequate funds for reserve replacement costs. Conclusions are drawn that governments must leave adequate and more funds with companies for future development.
Source Limitations on LNG Trade
Authors: Hardy Edwin F. , Jensen James T.
Published: December 2007

Although worldwide reserves of natural gas are huge, there are a series of source nation limitations to potential international trade in LNG which currently reduce exportable volumes to about one-third of the total reserves. In addition to the technical and economic limitations on reserves availability for export, there are potential market limitations resulting from emerging pricing policies of gas exporters.
Automatic Pump-Off Control for the Variable Speed Submergible Pump
Authors: Divine David L.
Published: December 2007

The Variable Speed Submergible Pump has been used for several years to match a submergible pump's characteristics to a well's production capability. Past applications have included those where a bottom hole pressure measuring device was used to control the pump speed and therefore the pump intake pressure. The automatic pump-off controller, discussed in this paper, allows an operator to maintain minimum pump intake pressure without a bottom hole pressure sensor. The controller also uses special speed variation techniques to prevent or possibly break a gas lock condition.

This paper will discuss the development of the controller and the physical principles which it is based on. Operational tests will be described along with the problems encountered. Finally, the future use of this controller in new applications, such as with wells which produce sand, will be presented.
The Use of Horizontal Drainholes in the Empire Abo Unit
Authors: Stramp Ryan L.
Published: December 2007

ARCO Oil and Gas Company has drilled two horizontal drainhole wells in the Empire Abo Unit – A horizontal drainhole well is one in which the wellbore is turned from vertical to horizontal in a short radius and the horizontal hole is then drilled out some distance into the formation. These wells were drilled to evaluate the mechanical feasibility of the drilling process and to examine the effect producing through the drainholes would have on the well's tendencies to form gas cones. Although several problems were encountered while drilling the drainholes, the drilling technique used does seem to be mechanically sound. The wells have not been on production long enough to fully evaluate their gas coning performance as compared to conventionally completed wells.

This paper will briefly examine the gas coning problem in the Empire Abo Unit, discuss some of the techniques used to limit gas coning in the Unit, and review ARCO's experience with horizontal drainholes.
North Sea And Netherlands Gas Reserves And Their Impact On Free World Energy
Authors: Wright M.A. , Priestman G.D.
Published: December 2007

Introduction

It is a pleasure to be with you here in Dallas this afternoon to discuss a subject that has caught the imagination not only of oil men but of the general public as well.

The spark that ignited this interest was the gas discovery in the Groningen province of Holland in 1959. Subsequent exploration has indicated it to be one of the largest gas fields in the world. What has quickened and held public interest, of course, is its potential significance to free Europe's energy supply.

With the aid of a few figures, I should like to do four things this afternoon:

First, comment on the European energy picture and outline the pattern that this new source of energy will be fitting into.

Second, describe the Groningen field and the way it is being developed.

Third, give you some idea of exploration problems in the North Sea area.

And fourth, speculate briefly on the impact which discoveries in these areas could have on European energy consumption.

Obviously, each of these topics deserves more attention than I will have time to give it, but I will touch on the essential points of each.

EUROPEAN ENERGY PICTURE

Fig. 1 compares free European energy consumption during 1964 with that of the United States and the Free World, in terms of oil equivalent. First this chart shows the energy consumption in Europe was some 16 million B/D. This is two-thirds of the U. S. consumption of 24 million B/D, and 30 per cent of the Free World total of 52 million B/D.

Fig. 1 also illustrated the considerable differences in the types of energy used in Europe and the U. S. For example, coal supplies 44 per cent of Europe's energy, twice that of the U. S. (22 per cent), while natural gas supplies less than 2 per cent of European energy as opposed to 29 per cent in this country. You will note that in both areas oil has a similar share of the energy market — some 45 per cent.

Another significant factor in the European energy pattern is that 42 per cent of the requirements are imported, as compared to 8 per cent in the U. S. Although everyone knows that most of Europe's petroleum must be imported, it is of interest to note that nearly 10 per cent of the coal consumed is also imported.

Finally, the over-all growth rate of energy consumption in Europe in the past 10 years has been 4.3 per cent a year, and is predicted to be 4.0 per cent a year in the foreseeable future. These figures are significantly higher than growth rates in the U. S.

Europe's rapid growth in energy demand and dependence upon imports offers many problems involving security of supply, balance of payments, etc.

P. 13^
Making The Organization Plan Work
Authors: Watson Douglas
Published: December 2007

Introduction

Six to eight months ago, when Ernie Miller first talked to me about meeting with you this afternoon, he mentioned that the Management and General Interest Committee was concerned with the problems of organization. As a result of these discussions and my substantial interest in the subject, I found myself agreeing to be here today. Little did I think that simple conversation with Ernie would cause so much introspection on my part.

I determined early in the game that just another talk or discussion on the principles of organization would be redundant to most of you and not very helpful in this complex world in which we live. Accordingly, I took the license of retitling my discussion today, "Making the Organization Plan Work", and it is to this portion of the topic that I would like to address myself.

A SUCCESS STORY

Let me draw a picture for you that indicates why I feel it is important that we consider this aspect of the organizational problem.

Recently, a large transportation company with which I am familiar attracted substantial headlines in that, for the first time in several years, it recorded an attractive operating profit. Indeed, it went to its customers and proposed a rate reduction. This is something almost unheard of in this day of rising prices. And yet, this is a company that for the last 10 or so years has seen an increasingly difficult operating circumstance accompanied by unattractive return on its substantial investment.

What is the secret ingredient of this success? The turning point here is in the personality of the new chief executive. This chief executive, with a small corps of devoted subordinates, literally single-handedly turned this large organization around. True, there was a sense of crisis, but the important thing here was that there was felt a sense of desire, a real motivation.
The Role of Step-Rate Injectivity Testing in Liquid Dominated, Highly Fractured Geothermal Reservoirs
Authors: Allen Terry S. , Baza John R.
Published: December 2007

A step-rate injectivity testing program was designed to obtain additional operating parameters and reservoir data of the Roosevelt Known Geothermal Resource Area (KGRA), Beaver County, Utah. The testing program consisted of injecting fresh water at rates varying between one half (0.5) BPM and sixty (60) BPM into four producers and one injector. The rates, wellhead pressures and subsurface pressure data collected was used to size injection equipment for future field development, verify the highly fractured reservoir and cross check previous permeability calculations by using the multiple rate transient technique.1
Field Evaluation of Method to Control Gas Flow Following Cementing
Authors: Watters Larry T. , Sabins Fred L.
Published: December 2007

Gas flow following cementing has hindered the completion of wells for a number of years. Research of this problem has indicated many solutions which have been either partially successful or unsuccessful in controlling gas flow following actual cementing operations.

A theory describing the cause of this problem and a novel solution to the problem were presented in SPE 8257.1 This paper summarized the results obtained during a fifteen-month field application of the control method. Results of 250 cement jobs performed world-wide are summarized and specific examples are discussed in detail.
Water for Oil - A Rational and Regional Approach of Water Supply Problems for Secondary Recovery in Hassi-Messaoud Field, Algeria
Authors: Ghalem Tahar , Delhomme Abdelkader , Lagarde Andre
Published: December 2007

When water is needed for water injection in oil fields of an arid country, far from sea, the water supply is facing various technical and economical problems. The only solution is to find underground waters unattractive for any other possible use. In the selection of water sources, oil exploration is a big chance for underground aquifer surveys and knowledge. This paper shows how it has been used in defining the best way to provide the oil industry water needs and in evaluating possible interferences with other uses such as regional agricultural development plans.

First geological studies from oil exploration or development wells allowed to reach a good definition of aquifer extensions and thicknesses. Then water well tests first led to a good knowledge of hydrogeo-logical characteristics. Finally, mathematical models were specially built to define the aquifer delivera-bilities, the best water well schemes and the regional consequences on water levels.

Combined use of the two deep aquifers, confined turonian aquifer at an average of 850 meters below ground level with very salty water and artesian albian-barremian aquifer at an average depth of 1400 meters below ground level with fresh water, has been shown necessary to satisfy oil injection water needs and local industrial and domestrical water consumption that together will reach about 1 m /s during the next ten years.
Demonstration of Massive Hydraulic Fracturing, Piceance Basin, Colorado
Authors: Strubhar Malcolm K. , Fitch John L. , Medlin W. Louis
Published: December 2007

Demonstration of massive fracturing to provide gas production from tight gas sands in the Piceance Basin was the objective of this work by Mobil. The project was partially funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. During the period 1974-1979 two wells were drilled, tested and fractured. Encourging results were obtained from the second well.

The first well, Brush Creek Unit 1-25, located near Collbran, Colorado, was drilled to 10,330 ft. Three Mesaverde formation intervals were tested and two of these were fractured. Results were discouraging because of low formation conductivity which ranged from 0.005 to 0.15 md-ft in the three zones. The second well, Piceance Creek Unit 31-13, located near Rio Blanco, Colorado, was drilled-to 10,800 ft. Nine intervals were tested in the Mesaverde and Fort Union formations and six fracturing treatments were performed. Combined flow from all of these zones began at 3.2 MMSCF/day and declined to 1.7 MMSCF/day in 207 days.

Details of drilling, testing and completion are given in this paper along with estimates of fracture effectiveness. Preliminary economics are also given, based on the short production history available.
A Post Analysis of Field Development Projects
Authors: Franzen Donald M. , Whittenburg Larry A. , Sawyer David N.
Published: December 2007

The objective of this study was to determine the reliability of original estimates made for forty offshore field development projects.

From the results of the study, we conclude that a bias exists in estimates of field development events, e.g. project time, anticipated drilling schedules, initial production rates. There was no significant bias in recoverable reserves due to large variance in data. A statistical analysis was performed to determine the magnitude of the bias in each event and the 95% confidence limits.
Improved Well Testing in the Denver Unit
Authors: Neely A. B. , Bridges G. L. , Ganus P. G.
Published: December 2007

A computer pump-off control system is in operation in the Denver Unit of the Wasson Field. The system and its major advantages have been previously reported by Hunter et al.1 An unexpected benefit of the system has been the improved reliability of well testing that has occurred. The ability to monitor pumping hours and downhole pump action gives independent data for comparison with the periodic well tests. This comparison spotlighted the weakness in some of our well test equipment and maintenance procedures. Upgrading of some of the equipment and improved maintenance procedures has occurred. All equipment maintenance for the 34 test stations is now done by one small specialized crew.

Prior to these changes, runs from the field averaged about five percent below the sum of the well tests. Over the past six months, this difference has dropped to less than two percent. We believe this improvement represents a combination of more accurate tests and increased production due to quicker realization of a drop in production on a well.
Reservoir Simulator Employing a Fine-Grid Model Nested in a Coarse-Grid Model
Authors: Graham Michael F. , Smart G. Thomas
Published: December 2007

This paper describes a reservoir simulator that uses a fine-grid model nested in a coarse-grid model for areal simulation representing a reservoir in communication with a large pressure-supporting aquifer. It discusses the motivation for using such a simulator and describes how the simulator was implemented.
Computer Analysis of Drilling Fluids
Authors: Sampey James A. , Cottingham Richard
Published: December 2007

A computer program has been developed which analyzes drilling fluids by using the information given on the standard API Drilling Mud Report. The program incorporates the latest drilling fluid engineering technology, coupled with years of field experience. A simple, straightforward style of input, combined with the use of portable terminals linked to a central computer, allows the program to be used by anyone wherever telephone communications exist. It has proved effective in the onsite analysis and treatment of drilling fluids, as well as in simultaneous monitoring of a number of different operations from a central office.
Waterflood Operations, Loudon Pool, Illinois
Authors: Fox M.E.
Published: December 2007

Discovered in 1937 and now one of the nation's larger waterflood developments, the Loudon pool, Ill., has a history of practical application of advanced conservation techniques. Careful spacing analysis, multiple horizon completions and gas partial pressure maintenance were all part of primary depletion history. Primary recovery of 180,000,000 bbl from 24,500 productive acres of Chester sands will be greatly enhanced by the current waterflood operation. Waterflood exploitation was begun in 1950. After flood ability was demonstrated, an expansion program was begun and by June 1, 1957, the flood covered an area of 13,700 acres. Current planning indicates the flood area will total 19,000 acres when fully developed. Water flooding has increased total pool production 21,000 B/D during the past four-year period. Because of the flood program size, unique problems have been encountered in maintaining an adequate supply of water for injection. Waterflood behavior of the reservoirs has been carefully analyzed as a guide to optimum ultimate results.

Introduction

The Loudon pool is located in south-central Illinois on the northwest flank of the Illinois basin. Its location in relation to other producing pools in the basin is shown in Fig. 1. Since discovery of the field in 1937, development and production operations at Loudon have been characterized by use of the best conservation practices which were applicable. The latest and most significant of these techniques is the water flood program which by June 1, 1957, covered 13,700 acres, involving the properties of 40 operators. The water flood is expected to increase pool ultimate recovery by 140,000,000 bbl.

Development and Production History

The producing horizons under flood at Loudon are four Mississippian Chester sand reservoirs, the Weiler, Paint Creek, Bethel and Aux Vases, encountered at subsurface depths ranging from 1,400 to 1,600 ft. Productive areas of these four reservoirs are outlined in Fig. 2. The Weiler, Paint Creek, and Bethel sands contribute the principal oil reserves.
Mobilization Of An Oil Drop Trapped In A Noncircular Pore Throat Upon Contact With Surfactants
Authors: Arriola Alfredo , Willhite G. Paul , Green Don W.
Published: December 2007

Results are described for an experimental study to identify mechanisms by which an oil drop, trapped in a noncircular pore throat, is mobilized upon contact with surfactants. Experiments were done in a square capillary (100 μm × 100 μm) cell with a pore throat (11 μm × 11 μm) drawn at one end of the capillary. Mobilization was investigated by conducting a series of displacement experiments in the capillary cell. In each experiment, an oil drop about 890 am in length was trapped at the constriction by brine (10,100 ppm NaCl) flowing at an average pore velocity of 1.3 ft/day. A chemical slug containing surfactant was injected into the capillary cell and displaced toward the trapped oil drop by the brine. The mobilization process was observed through a microscope. High speed movies and 35 mm photographs were taken through the microscope to record fluid interactions.

Five different surfactant systems were studied. These included two microemulsions containing brine, nonane, IPA and TRS 10-80. A third system was similar but contained no nonane. The fourth system was a dilute solution of TRS 10-80 in brine, and the fifth was a macroemulsion produced from a displacement experiment in a Berea core using one of the microemulsion systems. Nonane was the oil phase except for the dilute surfactant displacement which utilized octane.

Data from the experiments allowed two mechanisms to be identified which cause mobilization of a trapped oil drop when contacted by surface active agents. In mechanism I, minute quantities of the surfactant and/or co-surfactant were carried ahead of the main surfactant slug by brine which bypassed the slug. This reduced the interfacial tension between the oil and brine. The oil drop moved further into the constriction and a snap-off process ensued. Mechanism II occurred when a "sharp" interface of the surfactant slug contacted the trailing edge of a nonane drop which was either trapped or in a snap-off process. A series of events which mobilized the drop occurred over a very short time period (< 4.0 sec). The events included rupture of the drop interface, rolling motions inside the drop with resulting emulsification, and passage of the emulsified drop through the pore constriction without snap-off. The emulsification reflected hydrodynamic instabilities, i.e. a Marangoni effect.
Applying New Technology to Optimize Mature Oil and Gas Fields
Authors: Stefanescu D. P. , Serrano G. , Wegemer K. , Stolk W.
Published: December 2007

Laslau Mare is a gas field developed by Romgaz (an exploration and production company) 30 years ago. This field reached its maximum production capacity during 1981, after which production decline began. In general, innovation costs in mature oil and gas fields seem high due to the declining production. It is well known though, that the application of new technology greatly improves quality, making the "high price" well worth the cost. Over a year ago Romgaz and Schlumberger (an integrated services company) have developed a new business model where risk and rewards are shared to overcome these obstacles.

With the only objective of rejuvenating declining gas assets, Romgaz and Schlumberger built a multidisciplinary field optimization team. Initially the project took over Laslau Mare field operations in order to obtain a good base to measure and quantify success. The multidisciplinary approach started by identifying the local current technology, equipment and process’ and integrated them with new technology to make the project as cost effective as possible. The result has been the improvement of the complete system, from reservoir to sand face to wellbore, to surface/transmission facilities.

During the initial stage, some areas for critical development were identified. Vital improvement was needed in surface facilities de-bottlenecking and subsurface data compilation and analysis. The application of new technologies to such areas helped identifying new opportunities, which have been a key factor in the rehabilitation of the field. After 10 months of constant improving and monitoring, success has been measured and the project has achieved a 40% altering the declining slope and stretching the life of the field