bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Japan and the United States as Development Models
Authors: CHAN STEVE
Published: March 2007

According to Fernando Fajnzylber, the political economies of Japan and the United States present distinct characteristics in areas such as their consumption patterns, income distribution, trade orientation, and economic dynamism. These characteristics provide a model for emulation by their East Asian and Latin American neighbors, respectively. Although some of the attributions and associations alleged seem obvious, others are more questionable and controversial. This article employs cluster methodology to undertake an empirical analysis with the aim of classifying and delineating the relevant political economies. Contrary to expectation, there is scant support for the proposition that Japan and the United States present two divergent prototypes of a development model. Similarly, the Latin American countries have not followed the U.S. model of development as hypothesized, although they do differ sharply from the East Asian political economies.
A Theory of Government Formation
Authors: LUEBBERT GREGORY M.
Published: March 2007

This article presents a theory of the size and party composition of cabinet governments in multiparty democracies. The object of the theory is to improve our understanding of the causal linkages that exist between the choices politicians perceive and the historically determined political and social structures that give meaning to these perceptions and lead politicians repeatedly to make essentially the same choices. A typology of multiparty democracies is employed to capture the decisive political and social structures that give meaning to these perceptions. The structural attributes, in conjunction with a constellation of bargaining relationships, lead to predictable government formation outcomes.
Applying “Most Different Systems” Designs
Authors: GAYLE DENNIS JOHN
Published: March 2007

In every polity, development policy choices often remain either implicit or largely ignored. Whereas economic growth can be measured with some precision, development policy choices continue to constitute an inadequately defined and residual category. This article compares development policy since the 1970s within two very different policy systems: the southeastern American state of Alabama, and the western Caribbean island of Jamaica. After reappraising the validity of such “most different systems” designs, within the context of state-society structure, it further reviews the ambiguous nexus between economic growth and sociopolitical development. Subsequently, it singles out state policy toward private enterprise, and public-private sector interaction, as primary points of departure for an exploration of comparative development policy choice and implementation.
Income Distribution within Nations
Authors: MAHLER VINCENT A.
Published: March 2007

In recent years a large number of cross-national studies have examined the causes and consequences of income inequality within nations. Unfortunately, few of these studies have attended very carefully to problems of measurement and definitional consistency that can seriously undermine the comparative use of currently available data on income shares. This article offers a discussion of the major theoretical and practical problems that can arise in measuring and comparing patterns of income distribution across nations, focusing on the completeness of income coverage, the unit of analysis, the time period over which income is measured, the scope of population coverage, the underreporting of income, and the effect of public sector fiscal policies. It then assesses major published sources of cross-national data on the size distribution of income in light of these problems. Finally, the article offers several suggestions for minimizing the negative consequences of measurement problems that remain in even the best available data on income shares.
“Democracy by Undemocratic Means”?
Authors: HAGOPIAN FRANCES
Published: March 2007

Why has Brazil failed to develop strong democratic institutions, despite widespread opposition to authoritarianism and support for civilian rule in the 1980s? This article argues that the political pacts bargained by elites that made the regime transition possible limited the extension of democracy. By restoring to old regime elites many sources of their political power as the price for their support for democratization, political pacts left the military with a substantial degree of formal and informal power over civilians, preserved clientelism, and undermined the ability of political parties to transform themselves into genuine transmission belts for nonelite interests. The undemocratic character of the Brazilian state, as embodied by military autonomy, technocratic modes of policymaking, and executive dominance over the legislature, moreover, was reinforced by the defeat of parliamentarism by the constituent assembly in 1988.
Economic Reform and Public Opinion in Peru, 1990-1995
Authors: STOKES SUSAN C.
Published: March 2007

Even if they are confident that prosperity lies just over the horizon, politicians who embark on promarket reforms know they are in for some stormy weather. How will they fare in voters' eyes once the pain is felt? Will voters inevitably turn against politicians who impose painful measures without an electoral mandate to do so? The story of economic reform and public opinion in Peru under Alberto Fujimori (1990-1995) poses just these questions. The author uses monthly public opinion polls and monthly economic data to analyze the impact of economic changes during Fujimori's reform program on opinions of the reforms and the president. The author finds that Limeños withdrew support from the program and the president when employment fell and inflation rose, responses consistent with the findings of the economic voting literature. But when real wages fell, they became optimistic about the future and more likely to support reforms and the government.
Toward a Political Science Discipline
Authors: LAITIN DAVID D.
Published: March 2007

Harry Eckstein's 1973 classic article “Authority Patterns: A Structural Basis for Political Inquiry” is critically reviewed. In that article, Eckstein proposes that the scope of politics can be ascertained through a taxonomic exercise that he labels progressive differentiation. In so doing, he delimits political study to the systematic analysis of authority patterns, which he defines as the “set of asymmetric relations among hierarchically ordered members of a social unit that involves the direction of the unit.” This taxonomy is provocative in that it rules out of the discipline's domain standard fare within contemporary political science, concerning exchange among equals (virtually all of economic reasoning) and exchange between states (virtually all of international relations). An alternative delimitation is proposed, building on other insights from Eckstein's corpus but taking off from current research practice. Four subfields—political theory, comparative politics, democratic institutions, and international relations—are defined in such a way as to give coherence to the political science discipline.
Eckstein and the Study of Private Governments
Authors: ROGOWSKI RONALD
Published: March 2007

Harry Eckstein's Theory of Stable Democracy briefly revolutionized thinking about authority structures in nongovernmental organizations but has left little lasting mark. Indeed, the theory failed as an account of stable democracy but, by emphasizing correctly the commonalities between public and private authority, it pointed the way to a general theory of authority in organizations. Such a theory is now emerging, chiefly from work on authority in capitalist firms. It is time for students of politics again to look beyond the state, as Eckstein argued, to the much wider universe of authority relations.
War, the Military Revolution(s) Controversy, and Army Expansion
Authors: THOMPSON WILLIAM R. , RASLER KAREN
Published: March 2007

One school of thought on European state making argues that discontinuous change in weapons and tactics led to the expansion of armies, and, therefore, states. Others argue that decision makers expanded state organizations to make war for its own sake, not simply because the tools of war changed. Although this controversy is not easily resolved, the empirical evidence indicates that major expansions in army sizes over the past 500 years were almost exclusively related to major wars fought over regional and global primacy. Moreover, the leaders in expanding armies were usually the states aspiring to regional hegemony and their principal opponent. This evidence buttresses the argument for drawing a direct relationship between war and state making—instead of emphasizing an indirect relationship between weapons/tactics and army size.
Ethnopolitical Parties and Development Cooperation
Authors: BREUNING MARIJKE
Published: March 2007

What are the effects of ethnopolitical cleavages within the state on its foreign policy? This question has not received much attention in the literature. The coalition participation of ethnopolitical parties in Belgium offers a unique opportunity to empirically evaluate the implications of ethnic politics for a state's foreign policy. Twice, nationalist politicians held the post of minister of development cooperation. The rhetoric and policy behavior of these individuals is compared with that of a “mainstream” minister of development cooperation. The article derives its expectations from the literatures on foreign assistance donor motivation, national identity, consociationalism, and coalition theory. The findings suggest that there is no statistically significant difference between nationalist and mainstream ministers of development cooperation. A potential explanation for this finding is advanced.
Structural Gaiatsu
Authors: PEMPEL T. J.
Published: March 2007

This article contends that key structural changes in Japan's political economy have been the result of Japan's new interactions with world capital markets. A once closed system is now substantially more open to currency fluctuations and enhanced capital movements into and out of Japan. These have led to sweeping systemwide alterations in Japan's prior system.
Understanding Swedish Military Expenditures
Authors: HAGELIN BJÖRN , WALLENSTEEN PETER
Published: March 2007

For most of the 20th century the Swedish policy of non-alignment and neutrality has remained the same. In this, the resources set aside for defence have been an important consideration. An independent ability to defend the country has been seen as an asset for maintaining international credibility. This article presents information on Swedish military expenditures since 1913 using official and comparable indicators for different historical periods. It shows a close association between swings in military expenditures and fluctuations in international tensions. Also, the impact of the creation of an officially encouraged Swedish military industry on military expenditures is discussed. This is a development which began in the late 1930s during a period of increasing international tension. Industrial considerations have been important also during the Cold War. In this period military expenditures were influenced by major arms production projects, although reductions in international tensions could sometimes have been expected to lead to lower military expenditures. The local and regional economic impact of military industrial production is also illustrated and constitutes a significant consideration when debating possible reductions for the future.
World Society in the Chicago Laboratory
Authors: APUNEN OSMO
Published: March 2007

In the disciplinary history of the study of international relations, the methodological experiments of Charles Merriam, Quincy Wright, Harold Lasswell and others in the University of Chicago since the early 1920s argued for a scientific approach as distinct from the traditional wisdom outlook. Textual interpretation of the Chicago School's writings is intended to show how these early conceptions may be mediated in the methodological fabric of the present research orientations. In analysing the historical meaning of these early texts, the organizing concepts and epistemic codes are related to their contemporary contexts and discursive practices. The Chicago School absorbed methodological principles from current debates concerning evolutionary theories, Social-Darwinism and Pragmatism. Their principal research object was urban community and the evolutive relationship between personality, society and environment. This scheme was supposed to apply from local communities to world-wide structures. In this sense, the Chicago School argues for a unified base for policy studies. In the history of international relations as a discipline, the Chicago School represents early attempts to define international relations in terms of reductive methodologies, participatory research, democratic institutions and pluralistic conceptions of politics. The textual interpretation shows that the Chicago School is mediating to the present two fundamental methodological issues: (a) as a research outline it takes for granted some social and political setting, a context of interpretation and prescription; (b) the scholar must imagine a position and justification for his own activities between this context and the organized body of knowledge he is supposed to represent in contemporary discourses.
A Balancing Act
Authors: RYNNING STEN
Published: March 2007

In June 1994 Russia agreed to sign NATO's Partnership for Peace framework document (PFP). From the time the PFP concept was proposed, in October 1993, the Russian government has had to probe NATO's intentions, clarify its own ambitions, and adjust its foreign policy to domestic political processes. The balancing act eventually succeeded. This article investigates the path that led to the June 1994 agreement, rocky as it was. By assessing the domestic Russian factors underpinning the government's position, and how the balance between them shifted, the study tracks the formation of the Russian position. This position was intimately linked to the international bargaining, and the article subsequently probes the strategies pursued in this domain, as well as the corresponding position of NATO. Throughout the analysis the potent linkages between the domestic Russian scene and the international arena are illuminated. Capturing the driving forces underlying Russian foreign policy and successful bargaining strategies, the study explores implications for Russian foreign policy within a European security context.
Enlarging the European Union
Authors: MILES LEE , REDMOND JOHN
Published: March 2007

The objective of the article is to assess the impact of past and future enlargements of the European Union (EU) on the development of federalism within the EU in its historical, current and likely future context. After briefly considering the problems of defining federalism and establishing a number of key criteria on which the impact of various accessions on the popularity of federalism can be judged, the article then applies these criteria to past and future enlargement phases. The final section summarizes the evidence and argues that, in practice, enlarging the EU has incorporated a majority of `dissident' members who are resistant to the development of a federal EU and that, to some extent, intergovernmental tendencies have been reinforced. Its general conclusion is that a multi-speed EU, with a hard core essentially based around the original six (and more federal inclined) founding members is looking an increasingly likely scenario for the future.
Sweden and the Intergovernmental Conference
Authors: MILES LEE
Published: March 2007

Since joining the European Union in January 1995, Sweden has been confronted with a relatively dynamic EU agenda — a situation complicated by the fact that the country has a generally EU sceptical population. This study examines Swedish perspectives on the 1996-7 Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), which culminated in the June 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam. It explores the relevance of Miles's `Membership Diamond' through the application of two IGC-related case studies — openness and transparency and the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) — both of which were central platforms of Swedish proposals for the conference. The author argues that whilst some revisions are necessary the Diamond provides a useful conceptual framework and supplementary vehicle to theories of `twolevel' games.
Leadership Profiles for the New Millennium
Authors: Greger Kenneth R. , Peterson John S.
Published: March 2007

Interviews with six top lodging industry operators and a leading consultant reveal the nature of leadership and provide a foundation for the authors' profile of hospitality leadership. The participating CEOs agreed that a leader needs to develop and communicate a vision, but to do it in a way that encourages everyone in the company to participate in that vision. While there's no doubt that technology has and will continue to alter the business, the leader's responsibility is to determine how to apply that technology for the purpose of better guest and employee service. Most of the CEOs noted that their job is to support their company's employees, by encouraging them with personal contacts, by providing training, and by offering opportunities for promotion. The CEO's position will remain challenging because it requires a total personal commitment, but successful CEOs will need to maintain a balance between their work duties and personal responsibilities, or their company will suffer. On balance, the legacy that all wanted to leave is only that their colleagues and employees believe that the CEOs did a good job.
Marketing Challenges for the Next Decade
Authors: Dev Chekitan S. , Olsen Michael D.
Published: March 2007

A 1998 think tank that examined marketing issues facing the hospitality industry for the next decade concluded that the information-technology function should be merged with marketing. The idea would be to create a knowledge-based marketing effort that assesses how and why customers purchase a service. While hospitality companies capture considerable data about their customers, those data are not always assembled into the necessary profiles that are useful for marketers. The knowledge-based marketing effort will also require more-educated employees, particularly since hospitality companies should be in constant contact with customers. Spiraling distribution costs are particularly nettlesome for hospitality firms, and the think-tank participants recommended better control over the distribution channels, while at the same time recognizing that customers might want direct access to inventory.
International Hospitality Management
Authors: Kriegl Ursula
Published: March 2007

This study of 51 hotel-school graduates working overseas determined that most felt somewhat ill-prepared for those job assignments. When asked to rate the personal and professional attributes of greatest importance for Skills international management, they gave the highest scores to cultural sensitivity, interpersonal skills, managerial flexibility, adaptive leadership, motivation and interest, intercultural competence (including etiquette), the ability to work with limited resources, and understanding of international business. Yet few had actually received any formal training along those lines. In fact, there was a negative correlation between importance and development of management skills: the more important a skill was perceived by this study's particpants, the less frequently it was developed by prospective overseas managers. The participants indicated that the most-effective training activities preparatory to international assignments were internships abroad, second-language studies, and study overseas.
Competencies Required for Club Managers
Authors: Perdue Joe , Ninemeier Jack , Woods Robert
Published: March 2007

A survey of 114 managers of private clubs developed ranked lists of competencies that the managers considered to be important and those they used most frequently. The survey comprised 127 competencies. To get an indication of which competencies are at once important and frequently used, the researchers weighted those two factors to get a consolidated list of competencies that are both important and frequently used. Topping the list were competencies in accounting and finance, F&B management, and human and professional resources. On the other hand, the competencies at the bottom of the list (least important, least used) were in the areas of club building and facility management and external and governmental influences. Competencies in general club management fell both at the top and bottom of the lists. At the top were professional demeanor and working with a board of directors, while at the bottom of the general-management list was golf-facility management (because club managers generally can delegate golf-course responsibilities to superintendents).
Surprising Partners —
Authors: Ayala Hana
Published: March 2007

In Panama, a leading-edge union of hospitality, science, and conservation is revolutionizing the meaning of hotel stewardship.
Meeting Plantners' Perceptions of Hotel-chain Practices and Benefits
Authors: Weber Karin
Published: March 2007

While the physical features of a given meeting or convention hotel are important, of greater interest are the practices or activities that a hotel uses to support the meeting. Using an innovative web-based survey, members of the Professional Convention Management Association indicated which practices and features are most important to them before, during, and after a meeting. Additionally, the PCMA members indicated how well the convention hotel (of three chains) to which they were most loyal functioned against those factors. The chains-Hilton, Hyatt, and Marriott-earned high marks from the planners, but each one, nevertheless, needed to address specific performance factors. For all properties, the planners rated two practices-prompt follow-up on calls and faxes and flexibility of the property to accommodate the specifics of the eventas most important prior to the event. Not surprisingly, the most important attribute during the event was a hotel's ability to deliver services as promised, as well as employees' effectiveness at resolving problems. Finally, accurate billing is a key factor after the meeting is concluded.
George C. Tilyou
Authors: Ford Robert C. , Milman Ady
Published: March 2007

George Tilyou developed or perfected many of the managerial practices for amusement parks that are still in use today. In developing and operating Coney Island's Steeplechase Park, Tilyou had to solve the problems of attracting and holding people's attention, maintaining decorum and security, and keeping the crowd moving from attraction to attraction. While he did not invent the concept of an enclosed park, he used that concept to full advantage, for example, by offering a ticket that allowed customers to take each ride once (and thus keep them moving along) and by giving free tickets to off-duty policemen (thus effectively retaining a security force). A natural-born promoter, Tilyou knew the importance of constantly updating his park with ever-more-spectacular rides. Moreover, he implicitly understood such service-management concepts as giving tangible status to the intangible. For example, to set the tone of his park, he required his employees to wear uniforms, and he identified his park as an amusement park, rather than just a place for rides. Thus, people thought of it as a place to go for the day for fun, even if they weren't going on many rides.
Economic Development and Public Policy: Tourism as an Alternative
Authors: Eyster James J.
Published: March 2007

In this article, the author surveys the available literature on tourism development and offers some prescriptions for the orderly formula tion of public policy in developing countries.
Taking Another Look at Accuracy in Menus
Authors: Bilon John J.
Published: March 2007

Despite the wide dissemination of information on truth in menus, illegal substitutions are still common
Corporate Recruiters: What Do They Want?
Authors: Ley David A. , Sandler Mel
Published: March 2007

A recent study looks at how campus recruiters from hospitality corporations make their employment decisions and finds that good looks count more than good grades
The U.S. and the U.K.
Authors: Baum Tom
Published: March 2007

In 1988, Richard Tas analyzed the competencies required of college graduates entering management training programs in the U.S. This article reports on the replication of that study in the U.K. and compares those results with Tas's. Both studies give high ratings to human-relations competencies. Other priorities involve technical, financial, and business-planning competencies. These industry needs, it seems, are influenced by similar cultural and structural factors. The main discrepancy between the two studies involves legislation and regulation. U.K. hoteliers cited competency in those areas as more important than did their U.S. counterparts. The studies point to the desirability of an internationally transferable "core" curriculum for hotel-management programs.
The View from the Helm
Authors: Greger Kenneth R. , Withiam Glenn
Published: March 2007

If you ask 18 top hotel executives for their views on the current and future situation of the industry, you might expect to get 18 different perspectives. This article, based on interviews conducted over the past two years, shows that, on the contrary, hotel executives have similar views on many topics. For example, they agree that customer satisfaction and employee satisfaction are both essential to the success of their enterprises. Moreover, they agree that the industry's current downturn is temporary and that the future holds considerable opportunity. At the same time, however, each executive offered a slightly different approach for taking advantage of that opportunity, based primarily on the market segment served by his hotel chain. But virtually all the operators agreed that a narrow focus on selected targets is essential.
Preservation and Rehabilitation
Authors: Conner Fred L.
Published: March 2007

A look at nine New York City hotels shows a host of reasons for investing in renovation, preservation, and creative new construction. The hotels considered are: the Algonquin, the Drake, the Empire, Loews New York, the Embassy Suites Times Square, the Essex House, Sheraton Hotel and Tow- ers, Sheraton Manhattan, and the St. Regis. Some of these properties closed for months or years to renovate, while others scheduled construction around day-to-day operations. The Essex, Loews, and St. Regis chose to reduce the num- ber of guest rooms in favor of larger ones while the Sheraton Towers added floors and rooms. All the hotels upgraded their amenities for business travelers, including the traditionally residential Drake and the artful Empire. In every case, the hotels looked for a hook on which to hang their identity: the Loews, for instance, has been positioned as an athletes' haven while the Algonquin continues to bank on its reputa- tion as home to the Round Table.
Here Comes thee ADAAre You Ready? (Part I)
Authors: Woods Robert H. , Kavanaugh Raphael R.
Published: March 2007

This article and the one that follows report on the issues and implications of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Part I focuses on how the ADA affects workers, employers, and the public. Jobs must be analyzed to determine their "essential functions," and whether there's a "reasonable accommodation" that will allow a disabled person to perform those essential functions without imposing an "undue hardship" on the employer. To prepare for the ADA, employers should: completely review all job descriptions; establish and maintain a record of their handicapped employees; develop an "ADA expert" in the human-resources department; revamp hiring practices; begin a review of their health-insurance and benefits plans; and plan or implement training programs designed to educate managers about compliance and how to deal effectively with handicapped employees in the workplace. This article includes sources of additional information.
Bankruptcy and Hospitality Operations
Authors: Urdang Bruce S.
Published: March 2007

Hospitality operations that seek protection from creditors under U.S. bankruptcy laws have the opportunity to "reorganize"; that is, to restructure their existing debt while staying open for business. Reorganization is possible only if (1) there is reasonable likelihood that the operation can meet its revised obligations, and (2) the majority of the debtor's creditors agree to the reorganization plan. But the bankruptcy code also includes a system dubbed "cram down," which refers to a court's determination to provide secured creditors with cash payments over time of a total amount not less than the present-day (depreciated) value of the property. Only by electing special status can a creditor hope to participate in the future appreciation of the operation (and recoup the full value of its loan), but in doing so its ability to reject the reorganization plan may be jeopardized.
Creating a Technological Circle of Service
Authors: Palmer John , Kasavana Michael L. , McPherson Ronald
Published: March 2007

Computer-based pre-checking systems currently establish electronic communication between the dining room and kitchen. If expert-system software can be devised to emulate the task-routing and scheduling functions of the dispatcher, direct communications between order entry and kitchen production staff can be established. Such an application may provide greater worker productivity with voice-synthesis communication, multilingual translation, and advanced-training features. Additionally, productivity may be further enhanced through the measurement of individual task production times and quality measurements. An expert-system application in the area of food-service pre-checking, combined with process-control technology, can be applied selectively to produce the optimal mix of automation and manual efforts.
Shidō-sei
Authors: Cichy Ronald F. , Aoki Takashige “Teddy” , Patton Mark E. , Hwang Kerry Y.
Published: March 2007

The characteristics of food-service leaders in Japan are directly related to the unique aspects of the national culture. Among the important beliefs of Japan's culture are amae (sweet dependency), anshinkan (peace of mind), and kaizen (continuous improvement). A survey of Japanese food-service leaders reinforced the importance of those cultural factors. The leaders were asked to comment on the aspects of leadership found in current management literature. They agreed that such factors as communication skills, trust, and perseverance were essential, as was self-awareness. Their comments also focused on the importance of having a vision and communicating that vision to employees.
Richfield's Management
Authors: Gilbert Bob
Published: March 2007

America's largest third-party hospitality-management company, Richfield Hotel Management, provides management services to over 150 hotels and resorts under more than 20 different chain affiliations, as well as to independent hotels. This article discusses Richfield's marketing strategy (including the appropriate franchise flag), its yield-management system, its management of franchises, and its approach to developing people.
Burnout in Full-Service Chain Restaurants
Authors: Reynolds Dennis , Tabacchi Mary
Published: March 2007

This study of managerial burnout in restaurants found that a higher percentage of assistant managers (AMs) than general managers (GMs) had high emotional exhaustion, experienced high depersonalization, and fell into the high-burnout category on personal accomplishment. AMs perceive far less personal accomplishment than GMs. The percentage of single, never-married AMs in the high-burnout range was high. That group exhibited the most emotional exhaustion while married AMs showed the most depersonalization. More female than male AMs suffered from emotional exhaustion and reported receiving exceptional support from their GMs, but more female than male AMs also reported receiving minimal support.
Thailand
Authors: Meyer Robert A. , Geary Thomas
Published: March 2007

While Thailand is characterized as a “land of smiles,” that cultural asset does not necessarily translate into a population of natural hospitality workers, as some Westerners would hope. Instead, the smile often reflects the Buddhist desire for inner balance. Indeed, the number of trained hospitality workers is not sufficient for the current demand. Thailand has seen tremendous increases in its tourist traffic, which has overwhelmed its existing infrastructure and encouraged environmental degradation at its two most popular destinations, Bangkok and Pattaya. Although other destinations are opening, notably Phuket and Chiang Mai, operators must realize that each venue requires an individual approach. Relatively progressive, Thailand is still under control of its military, at least in the background. In sum, while the opportunities clearly exist, hotel operators entering Thailand (or any Pacific Asia nation) must be aware of local conditions and cultures or risk failure.
How Ritz-Carlton Applies “TQM”
Authors: Partlow Charles G.
Published: March 2007

In the fall of 1992, Ritz-Carlton became the first hotel company to win the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award. Ritz-Carlton implemented total quality management (TQM) as a means of winning the award and improving its service. Patrick Mene, corporate director of quality, explains issues concerning application of TQM to the hotel industry and applying for the Baldrige award. Measurement was a difficult hurdle, because the industry does not have service-quality benchmarks. Team building was also a time-consuming effort. Ritz-Carlton is now requiring its vendors also to apply TOM or a similar process.
China's Tourism Service Failure
Authors: Cai Liping A. , Woods Robert H.
Published: March 2007

When China opened its doors in 1978, it encouraged international tourism. The government strongly encourages all such tourists to travel with guides, whose ability to provide excellent service is key to a successful tour. After an initial burst of foreign travelers in the early 1 980s, the growth rate in tourist traffic gradually leveled off through the decade, even before the Tiananmen Square massacre. Government investment in infrastructure and facilities in the mid-'80s failed to reinvigorate foreign tourism. The authors suggest that the failure lies in the erratic service standards found in the nation's tour guides. As support for that notion, the authors explain the government's overall failure to support the guides and maintain their morale.
Hospitality Faculty
Authors: Chesser Jerald W. , Ellis Taylor , Rothberg Robert
Published: March 2007

Administrators can motivate hospitality-faculty members as a group through concern for higher-order needs. Consideration of the individual's goals and values is a cornerstone of an effective motivational plan, especially as experience, age, and job security increase. There are stages in the career development of the hospitality-faculty member. Individuals in the new-faculty stage should move to the authority-congruence stage, where they are expert in the knowledge and skill required. The undesirable authority-incongruence stage comprises expert faculty members whose performance has diminished. Such faculty members may either be revitalized or they may function as persons who are ready to exit, that is, who are “on-the-job retired.”
Developing a Market Plan
Authors: Link Carl K.
Published: March 2007

A marketing plan is an essential “road map” for management to assess a hotel property's position and chart its course in attracting guests. The marketing plan discussed in this article comprises two parts, a situation audit and a discussion of strategic directions. To illustrate how a marketing plan is developed, the plan for a real hotel (with a disguised identity) is explained. The “Inn at Plum Creek” is in a relatively remote location in the Canadian Rockies. The property is in an economic zone that enjoys both business and tourist traffic. One particular tourist group to target is persons over 60 years old, who enjoy both educational and sightseeing opportunities. By offering such activities as wildlife-education seminars, the inn should be able to tap this market. Sport fishing and winter activities are two other considerable tourist-demand generators. With those targets determined, the inn's communications program would involve an informational advertising campaign, as well as a sales effort at trade shows. In any marketing plan, the chief consideration should be building the hotel's business by meeting customers' needs.
Sex-Based Price Discrimination
Authors: Sherry John E.H.
Published: March 2007

Is it sex discrimination when bars or taverns offer a "ladies-night" beverage discount to women only? The Supreme Court of California has ruled that such discounts constitute sex stereotyping prohibited by California's Unruh Civil Rights Act. The court found that a violation of the Act was in and of itself injurious, making it unnecessary to prove actual damages. Moreover, the court ruled that sex-based price discounts tend to perpetuate harmful sex stereotypes. The court made reference to scholarly commentary and the decisions of other states' courts in similarly finding such discounts to violate their respective civil-rights acts.
Selecting and Monitoring Hotel-Management Companies
Authors: Rainsford Peter
Published: March 2007

As hotel owners closely monitor their investments and apply strict criteria to selecting and evaluating management companies, management contracts are being rewritten to be performance-based. This article sets forth the criteria established by owners and asset managers to select and monitor third-party hotel-management companies (including chains), and details the type and timeliness of information (reports) expected of management companies. A survey of 43 owners using management companies showed that the selection and evaluation processes give leverage to owners. Management companies are being held accountable and pressured to focus their efforts on a particular asset to satisfy owners or risk losing contracts.
Recovery Marketing
Authors: Durocher Joe
Published: March 2007

Tourism recovery after a natural disaster depends on the extent of damages, the efficiency with which facilities are brought back on-line, and the effectiveness of marketing to advertise the destination's status. Several valuable lessons can be learned from the way tourism partners reacted during the first critical months after Hurricane Iniki struck Hawaii: be flexible; plan for action; see the big picture; get the word out as soon as possible when you're open and ready for business; install a telephone hot line; keep members of the media informed; update travel agents and other travel partners on the status of the recovery effort; and make sure travel agents and the media get to see the extent of the recovery.
Tourism and the Transformation of Cuba
Authors: Macaulay James F.
Published: March 2007

Isolated by a United States embargo and no longer able to rely on the Soviet Union, its former trading partner, Cuba is now looking at tourism as a generator of hard currency. Already hotel chains based in Canada and Europe have expanded their operations in Cuba, and tourism arrivals have been growing steadily. Serious problems remain, however. The island will require substantial investment to build up an infrastructure that has suffered from 30 years of neglect. The economy is in disrepair; salaries for many professionals are effectively lower than those of tipped employees in the travel industry. Worse, many people have turned to prostitution to earn the hard currency needed to survive. Nevertheless, through careful development of its natural areas, Cuba could become an example of Caribbean ecotourism. Moreover, it seems unlikely that the U.S. embargo will continue in the face of international competition for Cuba's business.
Chain-Restaurant Strategic Planning
Authors: Lombardi Dennis J.
Published: March 2007

A survey of 37 U.S. restaurant chains found that the respondents' strategic plans covered an average of 3.5 years and that virtually all plans were developed by teams. Most plans included such items as a mission statement, measurable goals, a statement of specific strategies, and an identification of critical issues and assumptions. Survey respondents stated that the benefits of strategic planning included focusing top management's attention on long-term issues, setting management priorities, and giving the management team more control over the company's future. In the end, the most effective plans are those that address the most important issues in a direct manner.
Food Distribution in the 1990s
Authors: Norkus Gregory X. , Merberg Elliot
Published: March 2007

The mechanics and finances of food distribution are obscure to many food-service operators. Many operators order their supplies from one or more broad-line vendors. Others have developed a primary-vendor (program) relationship with one supplier (while using others for a small percentage of orders). Some multiunit operators have contracted with systems specialists, firms that purchase and transfer items according to the operators' agreements with manufacturers and vendors. Finally, some firms are "self-distributors" and run an in-house distribution business. Food distributors' profits are now largely dependent on food manufacturers' rebates and other price incentives that are often invisible to restaurant operators.
The Geodemographics of Restaurant Development
Authors: Muller Christopher C. , Inman Crist
Published: March 2007

The combination of demographic and geographic information can be applied to identifying locations for restaurant units. By analyzing restaurant-density patterns, an operator can determine the number and types of restaurants in a market area. Next, the operator can acquire computerized street-level maps showing business generators and traffic patterns for existing restaurants. Finally, the operator can identify potential locations for new restaurants. As an example, the analysis of a neighborhood in Boston shows a location that would likely support a new casual-theme restaurant.
Destination Maintenance
Authors: Bergstrom Jim , Yu Lawrence , Medweth Edgar
Published: March 2007

Destinations rise and fall in popularity, and that pattern has given rise to the theory of the destination life cycle, which posits that each destination will enjoy a period of great growth followed by a period of stability and then one of decline. The decline occurs for many reasons, but improper maintenance of that destination is certainly one of them. On the other hand, maintaining the attractions of a destination would allow that destination to extend its popularity. A case in point is Schnebly Hill Road, a popular picnic spot amid the beautiful and dramatic scenery near Sedona, Arizona. Already experiencing degradation, Schnebly Hill will cease to be attractive to most visitors unless it is accorded some kind of protection. Moreover, the damage done to Schnebly Hill will reflect negatively on Sedona and the entire area.
Elegant Survilvors
Authors: Hart W. Allison
Published: March 2007

An examination of hotels in and around Portland, Oregon, demonstrates the advantages and challenges of rehabilitating historic properties. Advantages include the fact that the building is already standing and many community people support the idea of restoring existing properties. Modern-day building codes and operating standards make restoration a challenge, however, since rooms are usually smaller than standard size and bathrooms are scarce and small. Many historic buildings lack the flexibility necessary to allow structural changes as guests' needs change. Solutions include buying or leasing existing adjacent buildings, constructing additions, or combining small rooms to create guest suites and other facilities. Many travelers have grown tired of predictably anonymous hotel accommodations and a limited number of guests will put up with the inefficiencies of old buildings in their quest for the serendipity of historic hotels. Another concern is the possibility that tax incentives will evaporate (they have already been reduced). The economics of much historic renovation depends at least in part on protecting the property from escalating property taxes. Nevertheless, a developer who reclaims a historic property will probably benefit from operating in a unique market niche.
Community Service and the Hospitality Curriculum
Authors: Berger Fliornce , Ackerman A. Marc
Published: March 2007

Students in a required human-relations course at Cornell's School of Hotel Administration were assigned the responsibility of "volunteering" in a local humanservices agency. The students chose their assignments, which included visiting with residents in nursing homes, tutoring at-risk children, and serving in soup kitchens. The students gained information about the effects of cutbacks in government programs for the disadvantaged and insights into their own motivations and the effects of interpersonal interaction. Ironically, although students agreed that volunteerism is important, none continued their volunteer assignments in subsequent semesters.
Newcomer So cialization
Authors: Kennedy David J. , Berger Florence
Published: March 2007

A contributing factor to employee turnover in hotels seems to be the one-dimensional focus of their orientation programs. Employees encounter feelings of uncertainty about the unknown whenever they accept promotions or transfers, but the greatest stress and uncertainty come when they accept a job with a new employer. For that reason, orientation programs should deal with both the emotional and the informational needs of new hires. A look at the orientation programs of six hotels found many similarities among the programs. Their initial component extended from one-and-a-half to five days in length, with a few programs having additional orientation follow-up after 12, 60, or 90 days. All but one included specific information about the new employee's department along with general information about the organization. But only one property had the express purpose of reducing new employees' anxiety and thereby reducing turnover.
Price Recollection and Perceived Value in Restaurants
Authors: Kiefer Nicholas M. , Kelly Thomas John
Published: March 2007

Quantitative methods are used to determine how restaurant clients' recollection of their check amounts depends on the perceived value of their dining experience. Original survey data are collected and analyzed. Although recollections of amounts paid are unbiased-errors on the high side offset errors on the low side-there is substantial variation, and the amount of error is correlated with perceived value. Although the typical customer averages only slightly on the high side, those who consider the experience to have had a low value err to a greater extent than those who consider the experience to have had a high value.
Human Resources as a Strategic Partner in Multiunit-Restaurants
Authors: Fulford Mark D. , Enz Cathy A.
Published: March 2007

A strategic approach to human-resources management is warranted as part of a firm's overall strategic planning. In this study, however, the researchers found that both unit managers and human-resources managers themselves see human-resources managers as having an impact only on issues directly related to employees. As a result, chain-restaurant organizations are missing important competitive opportunities that would otherwise be available if human-resources managers were viewed as strategic partners. To establish the human-resources department as a strategic partner, top management should involve human-resources managers in other functional areas' planning decisions and train human resources managers in marketing, finance, and so on. Finally, the career path to human resources should go through operations.