bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sex uden samtykke ̶ udviklingen i islandsk ret
Authors: Bragadóttir Ragnheiður
Published: April 2021

AbstractPenal Code chapters on sexual offences have been revised in all the Nordic countries in recent years. The concept of rape has been changed and is now much more extensive than before.

In Iceland, the Penal Code´s (GPC) provisions on rape and other violations of people´s sexual freedom were revised and changed with Act no 61/2007. These amendments included a new, broad statutory definition of the concept of rape, which was  supposed to cover incidents where the victim did not consent to having intercourse or other sexual interactions with the offender. The concept of consent was not mentioned in the provision, but instead the unlawful act was defined as rape if the perpetrator had intercourse or other sexual interactions with the victim by using violence, any kinds of threats, for example threats on the internet, or other kinds of unlawful coercion, under par. all 1 of Art. 194 GPC. According to par. 2 of Art. 194 GPC, rape also involves the abuse of the situation of a person, who does not have the same capacities as adults generally do to defend themselves against sexual attacks. This can be the abuse of a victim’s permanent condition, i.e. a mental illness or any other type of psychological disability, to have sex with the victim, or the abuse of a victim’s temporary condition which causes the victim to be unable to defend themselves against the offence, e.g. because the victim is drunk, sleeping, or unconscious because of the use of medicines or drugs.

In 2018 the definition of rape under par. 1 of Art. 194 was revised again and consent is now included in the provision. It is considered consent if an individual expresses it of his or her own volition. It is not considered consent if violence, threats, or any other type of unlawful coercion is used. Note, however, that this new definition from 2018, where consent is included in the provision on rape does not constitute a substantive change since lack of consent was already an underlying element of the act as previously written and the methods that exclude consent are the same as the ones in the provison from 2007.

The article addresses these changes from 2007 and 2018 and the effects they have had on judgments in rape cases, as well as in society.
Rettspolitisk mobilisering og strategisk sakførsel mot isolasjon i norske fengsler
Authors: Lohne Kjersti , Rua Marte
Published: April 2021

AbstractSolitary confinement in prison and police detention has been a widespread criminal policy and human rights problem in the Scandinavian countries for decades. However, in recent years, there has been a significant legal mobilization in Norway whereby lawyers individually and collectively have challenged solitary confinement in the courts. This use of strategic litigation has been directed towards solitary confinement in police custody,  remand and during imprisonment. Based on qualitative interviews and documents, we analyze the organizational and legal strategy behind this legal mobilization, along with its effects and preconditions. We find that strategic litigation by lawyers has played an important role in the struggle against solitary confinement in Norway, but that it has benefited from – and played in tandem with – a legal and political opportunity structure consisting of national as well as international actors, processes, and legal frameworks. These findings raise the question of whether lawyers and civil society can contribute in similar ways in the other Scandinavian countries.
Prison ideas and architecture 1850-today:
Authors: Giertsen Hedda
Published: April 2021

AbstractThis article discusses the use of prisons as punishment in Norway during the period 1850 to today. It looks at ideas about prisons and how they manifest themselves in prison sites and buildings. It also investigates the implications of various prison ideas and designs to prisoners and prison policy.Parts of the article are based on an exhibition that took place in Oslo in 2018: Six Norwegian prisons 1850-today: Ideas, spaces, experiences. The exhibition included a total of 20 interviews in which prisoners were asked whether prison ideas and designs were relevant to them. The article ends with a discussion of the implications of architecture for prisons, their purposes, and their effects.

AbstractDenne artikkelen diskuterer fengsel som straff i Norge fra 1850 til i dag. Den ser på fengselsidéer og hvordan de er kommet til uttrykk i  fengselsområder, bygninger og interiør. Artikkelen spør videre om disse endringene, slik fengsler fremstår i dag, har betydning for fanger. Dette leder til en diskusjon om hvilken betydning fengselsidéer og arkitektur kan ha for fanger og for fengselspolitikken.Artikkelen bygger for en stor del på en utstilling i Oslo i 2018: Six Norwegian prisons 1850-today. Ideas, spaces, experiences, som også omfatter 20 fangeintervjuer som formidler kommentarer om disse endringene har betydning for dem, eventuelt på hvilke måter. Artikkelen avsluttes med en diskusjon om hvilken betydning arkitektur kan ha i diskusjoner om fengsler, deres formål og virkninger
Humanisme i crítica en T. S. Eliot i Carles Riba
Authors: Malé Jordi
Published: April 2021

T. S. Eliot i Carles Riba són dos autors amb moltes similituds: tots dos van viure aproxi­madament durant la mateixa època (la primera meitat del segle XX), tots dos van destacar com a poetes i com a crítics, i tots dos van escriure sobre temes literaris semblants, com, per exemple, l’humanisme, i sobre diversos autors de la literatura europea, com Dante, Goethe i Baudelaire. Però les seves diferents circumstàncies biogràfiques i els diferents contextos literaris, socials i polítics van condicionar la seva concepció de l’humanisme i la seva interpretació d’alguns dels principals escriptors de la cultura occidental. L’objectiu d’aquest article és fer un exercici de literatura com­parada per relacionar i contrastar aquestes diferents concepcions i interpretacions d’Eliot i Riba.
Jordi M. Antolí Martínez, «Els verbs de percepció en català antic. Els verbs “veure”, “sentir”, “oir” i “entendre” en els segles XIII-XVI», Alacant/Barcelona, Institut Interuniversitari de Filologia Valenciana / Publicacions de l’Abadia de Montserrat, 2017, 225 p.
Authors: Suïls Subirà Jordi
Published: April 2021

Ressenya sobre el llibre de Jordi M. Antolí Martínez, Els verbs de percepció en català antic. Els verbs veure, sentir, oir i entendre en els segles XIII-XVI, Alacant/Barcelona, Institut In­teruniversitari de Filologia Valenciana / Publicacions de l’Abadia de Montserrat, 2017, 225 p., ISBN: 978-84-9883-882-4.
Antoni Biosca i Bas (ed.), «La “Descendentia regum Sicilie” de Pau Rossell», València, Universitat de València / Universitat d’Alacant, col. «Fonts Històriques Valencianes», 73, 2019, 159 p.
Authors: Rodrigo Lizondo Mateu
Published: April 2021

Ressenya sobre el llibre d'Antoni Biosca i Bas (ed.), La Descendentia regum Sicilie de Pau Rossell, València, Universitat de València / Universitat d’Alacant, col. «Fonts Històriques Valencianes», 73, 2019, 159 p., ISBN 978-84-9134-424-7.
Alexandre Bataller Català, «Jaume de Cèssulis: Libre de les costumes dels hòmens e dels oficis dels nobles sobre lo joc dels escacs. Estudi i edició», Alacant/Barcelona, Institut Interuniversitari de Filologia Valenciana / Publicacions de l’Abadia de Montserrat, 2018, col. «Biblioteca Sanchis Guarner», 89, 303 p.
Authors: Rubio Josep E.
Published: April 2021

Ressenya sobre el llibre d'Alexandre Bataller Català, Jaume de Cèssulis: Libre de les costumes dels hòmens e dels oficis dels nobles sobre lo joc dels escacs. Estudi i edició, Alacant/Barcelona, Institut Interuniversitari de Filologia Valenciana / Publicacions de l’Abadia de Montserrat, 2018, col. «Biblioteca Sanchis Guarner», 89, 303 p., ISBN: 978-84-9191-025-1.
Fernando Ramallo, Estibaliz Amorrortu & Maite Puigdevall (eds.), «Neoha¬blantes de lenguas minorizadas en el Estado español», Madrid / Frankfurt am Main, Iberoamericana/Vervuert, 2019, 195 p.
Authors: Pinto Pajares Daniel
Published: April 2021

Reseña sobre el libro de Fernando Ramallo, Estibaliz Amorrortu & Maite Puigdevall (eds.), Neoha­blantes de lenguas minorizadas en el Estado español, Madrid / Frankfurt am Main, Iberoamericana/Vervuert, 2019, 195 p., ISBN: 978-84-9192-086-1 (Iberoamericana) / 978-3-96456-882-3 (Vervuert).
Joan Vergés Gifra, Francesco Ardolino, Marta Nadal Brunès (eds.), «Maria Aurèlia Capmany. Escriptora i pensadora», Girona, Documenta Universitaria, 2019, 306 p.
Authors: Matas Revilla Meritxell
Published: April 2021

Ressenya sobre el llibre de Joan Vergés Gifra, Francesco Ardolino, Marta Nadal Brunès (eds.), Maria Aurèlia Capmany. Escriptora i pensadora, Girona, Documenta Universitaria, 2019, 306 p., ISBN: 978-84-9984-496-1.
Lineup Instruction Verbiage's Effect on the Accuracy of Eyewitness Identifications: Michigan's Procedure
Authors: BYRD BRITTNEY , BURNETT HARVEY J.
Published: April 2021

Our study examined the effects of biased and unbiased lineup instructions verbiage on the accuracy of eyewitness identification in a suspect-absent photographic lineup. Seventy subjects were randomly assigned to either a biased instruction condition or an unbiased instruction condition where they watched a mocked crime video, solved word-search puzzles for five minutes, completed a suspect-absent photographic lineup, and then completed an online post-witness experience feedback questionnaire. The unbiased condition utilized photographic lineup instructions from the State Bar of Michigan's Eyewitness Identification Task Force recommended policy writing guide. For the biased condition, the instructions alluded to subjects that the suspect was present. Subjects in the unbiased condition answered correctly 45.7% of the time compared to 28.6% of those in the biased condition. Chi-square test for independence indicated no significant association between the lineup instructions verbiage and the accuracy of eyewitness identification rates. Binomial logistic regression found that the confidence level in the identification choice made, ease of making an identification, decision making time, ability to recognize the lineup appeinstructions, and group condition were not significant predictors of subjects correctly identifying the suspect. Our results would suggest that the verbiage of the lineup instructions does not increase accuracy of eyewitness identifications.
How is Brilliance Enacted in Professional Practices? Insights from the Theory of Practice Architectures
Authors: Hopwood Nick , Dadich Ann , Elliot Chris , Moraby Kady
Published: April 2021

Brilliance has been overlooked in studies of professional work. This study aimed to understand how brilliant practices are made possible and enacted in a multidisciplinary paediatric feeding clinic, where professionals from different disciplines work together and with parents and carers of children. The existing literature has thematically described brilliance but not theorised how it is accomplished and enabled. Using video reflexive ethnographic methods, the study involved the video-recording of 17 appointments and two reflexive discussions with the participating professionals, who selected and reviewed five episodes exemplifying brilliant care. These were analysed through three themes: carer-friendly and carer-oriented practice; ways of working together; and problem-solving in actu (in the very act of doing). Using the theory of practice architectures, we explored brilliant practices as complexes of sayings, doings, and relatings, identifying the arrangements that enabled those practices and the forms of praxis involved.
Differential privacy EV charging data release based on variable window
Authors: Qiu Rixuan , Liu Xiong , Huang Rong , Zheng Fuyong , Liang Liang , Li Yuancheng
Published: April 2021

In the V2G network, the release and sharing of real-time data are of great value for data mining. However, publishing these data directly to service providers may reveal the privacy of users. Therefore, it is necessary that the data release model with a privacy protection mechanism protects user privacy in the case of data utility. In this paper, we propose a privacy protection mechanism based on differential privacy to protect the release of data in V2G networks. To improve the utility of the data, we define a variable sliding window, which can dynamically and adaptively adjust the size according to the data. Besides, to allocate the privacy budget reasonably in the variable window, we consider the sampling interval and the proportion of the window. Through experimental analysis on real data sets, and comparison with two representative w event privacy protection methods, we prove that the method in this paper is superior to the existing schemes and improves the utility of the data.
Combining cameras and citizen science to define the distribution and behaviour of dingoes and foxes in New South Wales
Authors: Lunney Daniel , Sonawane Indrie , Shannon Ian , Hope Ben , Crowther Mathew S.
Published: April 2021

We used two survey methods - citizen science for private land and cameras for protected areas - to map the distribution of dingoes/wild dogs and foxes in NSW. Dingo/wild dog records were mostly confined to the east coast and ranges, with scattered locations in western NSW. This contrasts to the distribution of foxes, in which occupancy was high across most of the state. Data from 200 WildCount camera sites within protected areas also showed marked differences in the distribution of the two canid species. At the scale of the state, dingoes/wild dogs are uncommon, with the greatest concentration being in the north-east of the state, as well as a marked presence in the south-east. Foxes are common and widespread within protected areas, but less common in the north-east of the state. The camera data also indicated that feral cats are widespread within protected areas. The second aim of our study was to examine the WildCount data for behavioural patterns of the canid species. Foxes and dingoes/wild dogs significantly separated within two sub-formations of dry sclerophyll forest based on the Keith (2004) classification of NSW vegetation. From species pairwise interactions at sites, we found only limited evidence for significant interactions, and then only for the co-occurrence of fox-rabbit and fox-swamp wallaby, but no avoidance for any of the predators with each other. Camera records of the time of day of being active showed little effect of the presence of dingoes/wild dogs on the times of activity of foxes, but foxes curtailed the activity times of dingoes/wild dogs. From the analysis of inter-animal times at sites where both canids were recorded, there was little difference between the time since the other species was present. Thus, there was no evidence that dingoes/wild dogs or foxes inhibit the other from being at a site. We concluded that at the landscape level, both vegetation type and land tenure play a role in the interactions between dingoes/wild dogs and foxes. We also concluded that citizen science and cameras are complementary, not alternative techniques, especially as they sample different land tenures, and that cameras in protected areas and occupancy from citizen science have produced higher resolution maps and behaviour patterns than have been previously available. We can confirm that foxes are a ubiquitous threat throughout NSW, whereas dingoes/wild dogs are concentrated into a much smaller area of eastern, particularly north-eastern, NSW.
Approaching an Efficient and Feasible Carnot Engine by Carnot Cycle Analysis
Authors: Garcia Ramon Ferreiro
Published: April 2021

Based on the knowledge exhibited in the literature on the Carnot cycle, a preliminary study is carried out on Carnot machines capable of implementing the Carnot cycle at high thermal efficiency. Therefore, two engine structures are proposed: (i) reciprocating single and double-acting cylinder-based thermal engines implemented under a closed processes-based Carnot thermal cycle characterised by a mechanical structure internally coupled, and (ii) similar engines characterised by a mechanical structure internally decoupled.

In order to perform the cycle analysis, however, observational (experimental) evidence confirms on a daily basis the fact that there are two performance criteria: conventional (output net work/input heat) thermal efficiency and output/input energetic-based first law efficiency. Based on such premises, this study investigates both coupled and decoupled Carnot engine structures.

The results confirm that an important fraction of heat can be converted into useful work by configuring a decoupled structure of the Carnot engine.

Indicative results support the use of internally decoupled thermal machines, especially when the heat source has a low or medium temperature. Even at high temperatures, such machines are advantageous in terms of energy efficiency. Furthermore, avoiding internal coupling allows for power regulation without disturbing interactions due to variations in load, thus enabling robust control.
Evaluation of Anti-quorum Sensing Potential of Saraca asoca (Family Caesalpiniaceae) against Chromobacterium violaceum and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA01
Authors: Paliya B. S. , Mathew J. , Singh B. N.
Published: April 2021

Aim: The present study was performed to evaluate the anti-quorum sensing (QS) potential of traditional medicinal herb Saracaasoca (family Caesalpiniaceae) stem bark extract against Chromobacterium violaceum and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA01.

Study Design: First, the test sample (bark extract) was screened for anti-QS activity. Then systematic in-vitro and biochemical tests were performed to evaluate the effect of the test sample on the QS mediated virulence factors.

Place and Duration of Study: All the experimental works were performed in Lab 311, pharmacology division, CSIR-NBRI Lucknow from June 2019 to October 2019.

Methodology: The samples of Saraca asoca stem bark were washed, dried and extracted using 70% methanol. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the prepared Sarca asoca bark extract was determined using the Alamar blue assay, and the anti-QS activity was screened using standard agar overlay method against CV 12472 at subinhibitory concentrations 100, 200 and 300 µg (< MIC value). SAE effect on biofilms formation was assessed by growing biofilms on glass slides in a static culture of PA01. Anti-virulence effect of SAE on the production of QS-regulated virulence factors such as Pyocyanin, proteases, elastases, rhamnolipid and alginate in Pseudomonas aeruginosa was determined using the supernatant of a 24 hours old broth culture of PA01 supplemented with SAE. Using the agar plate technique, the swimming and swarming motility assays were conducted on 0.3% and 0.5% agar plates respectively. One-way ANOVA was used to analyze the data, presented as mean ± SD (standard deviation) of three independent experiments.

Results: Preliminary screening results showed significant QS inhibition against CV 12472 in an agar overlay disk diffusion assay in a concentration-dependent manner. Data from the biofilm assay showed loose, distorted, irregular PA01 biofilm formation at 200 µg (48%) and 300 µg (65%). SAE caused a significant drop in virulence factor production, with maximum reduction in pyocyanin (58%), proteases (67%), elastases (52%), rhamnolipid (53%), and alginate (44%) observed at 300 µg concentration. At SAE sub-lethal concentrations (200 and 300 µg), both the swimming and swarming motility of PA01 were significantly inhibited.

Conclusions: The present study demonstrates the broad-spectrum anti-QS potential of SAE, reported for the first time, suggesting that SAE could be considered as an alternative herbal source to develop antimicrobial agents which can be either solitary or synergistically with conventional antimicrobial drugs.
Screening of Common Potential Inhibitors against Periodontitis and Alzheimer's Disease
Authors: Khan Mahvish , Khan Saif , Lohani Mohtashim , Alhobeira Hazza A. , Mirza Shadab , Haque Shafiul
Published: April 2021

Introduction: As the amyloid precursor protein performs a remarkable part in chronic periodontitis and the progression of Alzheimer's disease growth, discoveryof novelactive inhibitors of this protein can be of great standing in the treatment of periodontitis. Chronic periodontitis is one of the causative factors and metabolic stressor for diabetes control. In chronic periodontitis and Alzheimer's disease, some molecules have been proposed to inhibit proteins in past.

Methods: This study was planned to find present potent inhibitors,A library of KDM compounds was obtained from Chem Div Database. Here, all complexes with goodglide score were short listed for analysis of protein-ligand interaction. Calculations were carried out to estimate the interaction of the ligands selected in complex with the beta amyloid protein.

Results: Five top hits were found considering Curcuminas reference. Five small molecules have been proposed as possible inhibitors of this protein. Here in this study, we have focused on small molecule lead inhibitors for identification of Chronic Periodontitis and Alzheimer's disease.
Evolution of the Mutation Rate in Sexual Species
Authors: Romero‐Mujalli Daniel , Tiedemann Ralph
Published: April 2021

Mutations are the ultimate source of genetic variation. A question that has repeatedly arisen is, whether the mutation rate undergoes evolutionary change, depending on the environmental conditions, such that evolvability is enhanced. In asexual unicellular organism, elevated mutation rates arise under stressful conditions and are among the factors that facilitate, for example, the evolution of antibiotic resistance. In asexual species, all genetic loci are linked and therefore, those loci producing genetic mutations can hitchhike to high frequency with beneficial mutations at other loci. This does not occur in sexual species, where recombination quickly detaches mutator alleles from their effects. In sexual species, the mutation rate is expected to evolve to its lowest value, given by the drift limit and the cost of fidelity. Elevated mutation rates in sexual species may arise when populations under stressful conditions are composed of maladaptive individuals with difficulties allocating resources to repair and proofreading mechanisms.

Key Concepts

Mutations are the ultimate source of genetic variation.

The model of slightly deleterious mutations holds that most mutations are deleterious, some are neutral, and very few, beneficial.

Though most mutations effects seem to be detrimental, mutations are nevertheless necessary.

Intraspecific variation in repair and proofreading mechanisms enable evolutionary change in the mutation rate.

Drift imposes a lower limit to the evolution of the mutation rate.

The need of adaptive mutations and the cost of fidelity push the value of the mutation rate upwards, while detrimental effects and the need of replication fidelity keep the value as low as possible.

Adaptive elevations of the mutation rate are not expected in sexual species, independently of habitat conditions, because of the process of recombination.

Recombination separates mutator alleles from their effects.

Elevated mutation rates may arise in sexual species because of critical phenotypic conditions in stressed populations.
Bone, Stem Cells and Regeneration: Tissue Engineering Approaches
Authors: Yu Hongqiang , Grigoriadis Agamemnon E
Published: April 2021

The potential for regenerating bone and cartilage for cell‐based therapies has increased markedly in the past decades primarily due to advances in the understanding of molecular controls of embryonic skeletal development, in identification of refined stem cell/progenitor populations that are suitable for tissue regeneration, and in the discoveries of novel biomaterials that can mimic tissue architecture. In particular, modelling how the embryo makes the appropriate molecular decisions to fine tune the development of specific bone and cartilage subpopulations that form the complex skeleton has provided a platform upon which regenerative strategies can be translated to the clinic. It is, therefore, imperative to understand the basic biology of bone and skeletal tissues and apply lessons from developmental biology to identify the unique and appropriate cell populations that have potent regenerative potential when combined with optimal biomaterials.

Key Concepts

Bone/cartilage tissue engineering requires interaction between stem cells and biomaterials.

Choosing the appropriate stem cell populations is extremely important and depends on the biological application studies.

The use of directed differentiation of pluripotent stem cells that mimic developmental processes is an important advance in tissue engineering.

Choosing the appropriate biomaterial with specific tunable properties is essential for supporting stem cell differentiation.

Three‐dimensional approaches for tissue formation are important for translational studies.

Defined preclinical models are necessary for screening stem cell/biomaterials constructs.
Specific Neural Connection Formation in the Developing Nervous System
Authors: Chithran Aarya V , O'Connor Timothy P
Published: April 2021

To construct a properly functioning nervous system, neurons must form precise and specific connections during embryonic development. A number of mechanisms have been proposed to explain how connectivity is established, including the concept of ‘chemoaffinity’, ‘labelled pathways’ and ‘segmental pathfinding’. It is well accepted that each of these mechanisms is best explained by guidance cue and receptor interactions at the growing tip of the neuron, the growth cone. Guidance cue‐receptor signalling in the growth cone modifies its steering behaviour resulting in the establishment of specific neural connections. The main families of guidance cues include netrins, ephrins, slits and semaphorins, although morphogens such as bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP) and sonic hedgehog (SHH) also have guidance cue roles. It is the complex arrangement of these cues that directs axon extension through a series of intermediate targets before growth cones recognise their final target, cease migration and structurally change to form a synapse.

Key Concepts

Historical theories of connectivity can be explained by the expression and action of guidance cues and their receptors upon growth cone behaviour.

Growth cones are the sensory and motile apparatus of an axon that are required for proper target identification and formation of functional connections.

Disruption of connectivity due to alterations in guidance cue expression during development can result in severe disorders.

Guidance through inhibition is the predominant form of growth cone directional control.

Some proteins traditionally known for their roles in pattern formation can also have important roles as axonal guidance cues.
XenopusEmbryo: Mesoderm Induction
Authors: Dale Leslie , Wardle Fiona C
Published: April 2021

During early embryogenesis, the three germ layers (mesoderm, endoderm and ectoderm) must form in the correct positions for normal development to proceed. In the amphibian embryo, mesoderm is induced at the late blastula stage, in the equatorial marginal zone of the spherical embryo, by signals emanating from the vegetal hemisphere. Later, during gastrulation, mesoderm is further patterned by signals from the dorsal organiser. Vegetal mesoderm inducing signals are members of the transforming growth factor‐beta (TGFβ) family, which are transcribed in response to vegetal localised maternal transcription factors. Limiting mesoderm induction to the marginal zone is controlled by TGFβ inhibitors in the animal hemisphere. Mesoderm is maintained in the marginal zone by FGF signals and patterned, during gastrulation, by BMP signals.

Key Concepts

Mesoderm is induced the marginal zone of theXenopusblastula stage embryo in response to signals secreted from the vegetal hemisphere.

Mesoderm is induced by members of the Nodal/Activin subfamily of the transforming growth factor‐beta (TGF‐β) family of secreted signalling factors.

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family members maintain mesoderm.

Mesoderm induction is limited to the marginal zone of the embryo by TGF‐β signalling inhibitors expressed in the animal hemisphere .

Maternal transcription factors, such as VegT and β‐catenin, activate expression of TGF‐β genes.

Mesoderm is further patterned during gastrulation through both activation and inhibition of BMP signalling.
Synapses
Authors: Harrigan Jenna , Schweizer Felix E
Published: April 2021

Synapses are the connection sites between nerve cells and their targets, either other nerve cells or effector cells such as muscle. The transfer of information across synapses, called synaptic transmission, is a tightly regulated and modifiable process. Information is sent along axons in the form of electrical signals, called action potentials. Action potentials are rapid changes in the cell membrane that can propagate long distances. These changes in potential occur in response to ions that flow across the cell membrane. At electrical synapses, ions can pass directly into the postsynaptic cell through gap junctions and thus change the postsynaptic membrane potential. At chemical synapses, the electrical signal is converted to a chemical signal by triggering the release of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic cell. This neurotransmitter then binds to receptors on the postsynaptic cell to induce an appropriate reaction. The strength of a synapse can vary over time, a process called synaptic plasticity.

Key Concepts

Intercellular signalling between neurons is achieved at synapses.

At electrical synapses, current flows directly from one neuron to another through channels called gap junctions.

At chemical synapses, a neurotransmitter is released from the signal‐providing (presynaptic) neuron onto the signal‐receiving (postsynaptic) neuron.

Neurotransmitter molecules are concentrated in vesicles that fuse with the presynaptic membrane, either spontaneously or in response to a trigger, and release neurotransmitter.

Synaptic transmission is modulated by several cellular and biochemical pathways and neuronal network properties, and this plasticity of synapses underlies brain functions such as learning.

Natural and man‐made toxicants that disrupt neurotransmission via diverse synaptic targets are important tools in drug development and biological research.
Plant Endoplasmic Reticulum
Authors: Sparkes Imogen A
Published: April 2021

The plant endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is responsible for the synthesis and often storage of a large group of proteins and lipids that enter the secretory pathway. This multifunctional organelle, which also represents one of the calcium storage compartments in plant cells, has currently received considerable attention from the research community because of features unique to plants that make it particularly interesting for biotechnology. Here, the principles behind ER dynamics and interactions between the ER and organelles in plants, and the molecular factors that control the rapid remodelling and network configuration of the organelle are discussed. Correlations between ER morphology and function indicate the potential to enhance protein storage by merely increasing the capacity of the organelle through altering its shape.

Key Concepts

The endoplasmic reticulum in plants rapidly changes ‘shape’.

The ER is composed of a polygonal network of tubules and cisternae (sheets) that readily interconvert.

ER morphology is controlled by several molecular components; membrane shaping proteins, reticulons (RTNs), affect ER curvature, root hair defective 3 (RHD3) controls tubule fusion and is affected by lunapark.

ER network movement is driven by actin and myosin in plants.

The ER is physically connected to several organelles in plant cells.
Genome Organisation: Human
Authors: Kass David H , Batzer Mark A
Published: April 2021

The human nuclear genome is organised into a highly complex arrangement of two sets of 23 chromosomes comprised of various types of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequences. With less than 2% of the human genome consisting of protein‐encoding DNA sequence, the remainder of the 3 × 109 bp of the haploid genome consists of a multifaceted assortment of DNA sequence classifications. At the broadest level, the genome can be divided into single‐copy protein‐encoding genes, repetitive sequences and spacer DNA. Notably, the categories of repetitive sequences are profoundly intricate and may be further classified into functional or functionally related groups such as gene families and superfamilies, or groups with no known function such as satellite DNA and transposable elements. Their genomic organisation may be dispersed, within localised regions, and/or tandemly repeated. The generation of repetitive sequences results from a variety of mechanisms continually promoting a genome that is highly dynamic.

Key Concepts

The human genome is highly complex and dynamic.

Only 2–4% of the three billion base pairs of the human genome consists of protein‐encoding genes, of which only a portion of that is translated into amino acids with some of the sequence being involved in regulation of gene expression.

The human genome consists of single or low‐copy genes, moderately repetitive sequences and highly repetitive sequences initially determined utilising reassociation kinetics, with all three categories of DNA found throughout the genome.

G‐band staining of chromosomes yield karyograms that define characteristic properties and organisation of the genome.

Repetitive DNA sequences comprise a large proportion of the genome and may be dispersed and/or in tandem arrays.

The repetitive sequences in the genome may be functional or serve no known function. Functional repetitive sequences may encode protein or RNA molecules.

A large fraction of DNA sequences in the human genome have been generated via mechanisms such as unequal crossing over yielding either functional, or nonfunctional pseudogene, copies typically adjacent to each other, as well as by reverse transcription which yields retrocopies dispersed throughout the genome.

Functional tandem repeats of DNA sequences are localised in certain chromosomal regions, for example the rRNA genes within nucleolar organiser regions (NORs), providing numerous copies of genes typically having general functions (e.g. protein synthesis).

Telomeres are the sequences at the ends of the chromosomes that consist of tandemly repeated sequences associated with stability and maintenance of chromosome size after cell division.
Prostate Cancer
Authors: Mason Matthew M , Evans Christopher P
Published: April 2021

The prostate is a walnut‐sized gland located between the bladder and external urinary sphincter through which the urethra passes. The primary function of the prostate is to produce a slightly alkaline fluid that protects spermatozoa from the acidic environment found within the vaginal tract; hence, it is important in reproduction. Adenocarcinoma of the prostate is the second most commonly diagnosed cancer in men worldwide, with approximately 99% of cases occurring in men over the age of 50. Improvements in screening techniques and aggressive treatment have led to markedly improved survival rates over the past two decades. Treatment‐related side effects and ‘overtreatment’ of prostate cancer, however, have significantly impacted prostate cancer survivors and thus ignited a significant amount of controversy regarding prostate cancer screening.

Key Concepts

Prostate cancer is among the most frequent causes of cancer in men.

Hereditary prostate cancer has been associated with inherited mutations in many different genes including
BRCA1
,
BRCA2
,
ATM
and
CHEK2
.

Prostate‐specific antigen can be used to detect early‐stage prostate cancer and monitor response to treatment.

Treatment decisions for localised prostate cancer are complex and must take into account patient age, life expectancy, overall medical condition and patient preferences.

Treatment of localised prostate cancer mainly consists of active surveillance, radical prostatectomy or radiation therapy with androgen deprivation therapy.

Additional treatment modalities are being actively studied including cryosurgery, brachytherapy and high intensity focused ultrasound.
Trypanosomiases
Authors: Gibson Wendy
Published: April 2021

The human trypanosomiases are vector‐borne tropical diseases that occur in tropical Africa and South America and are caused by parasitic protozoa. Human African trypanosomiasis (or sleeping sickness) is caused by two subspecies of
Trypanosoma brucei
and is transmitted by the bite of the bloodsucking tsetse fly. Chagas disease occurs in Latin America and is caused by
Trypanosoma cruzi
. This parasite is transmitted by triatomine bugs, which acquire infection by feeding on infected blood, but pass the parasites on to the next host via their infected faeces. The human trypanosomiases are zoonoses and a range of wild and domestic mammals can act as reservoir hosts for the parasites. There are no vaccines for these diseases and control relies on drug treatment and limiting opportunities for transmission.

Key Concepts

Human African trypanosomiasis and Chagas disease are both caused by insect‐borne, parasitic trypanosomes, but the diseases and the parasite life cycles are completely different.

Control of the trypanosomiases relies on treatment of human patients and reduction of transmission, largely achieved through killing the insect vectors.

The human trypanosomiases are zoonotic diseases and a range of wild and domestic mammals act as reservoir hosts for the parasites.

Vector‐borne diseases with animal reservoirs have complex epidemiology and are difficult to control.

Elimination of Human African trypanosomiasis as a public health problem in sub‐Saharan Africa seems likely if current treatment, surveillance and tsetse control measures are maintained.

Animal reservoir hosts are more important in maintaining Human African trypanosomiasis in East Africa than West and Central Africa.

Eradication of Chagas disease is thwarted by the longevity of infection in humans, circulation of the parasite in a wide range of animal reservoir hosts and transmission by routes other than the insect vector.
Symmetry‐Broken Au–Cu Heterostructures and their Tandem Catalysis Process in Electrochemical CO2 Reduction
Authors: Jia Henglei , Yang Yuanyuan , Chow Tsz Him , Zhang Han , Liu Xiyue , Wang Jianfang , Zhang Chun‐yang
Published: April 2021

Symmetry‐breaking synthesis of colloidal nanocrystals with desired structures and properties has aroused widespread interest in various fields, but the lack of robust synthetic protocols and the complex growth kinetics limit their practical applications. Herein, a general strategy is developed to synthesize the Au–Cu Janus nanocrystals (JNCs) through the site‐selective growth of Cu nanodomains on Au nanocrystals, which is directed by the substantial lattice mismatch between them, with the assistance of judicious manipulation of the growth kinetics. This strategy can work on Au nanocrystals with different architectures for the achievement of diverse asymmetric Au–Cu hybrid nanostructures. Of particular note, the obtained Au nanobipyramids (Au NBPs)‐based JNCs facilitate the conversion of CO2 to C2 hydrocarbon production during electrocatalysis, with the Faradaic efficiency and maximum partial current density being 4.1‐fold and 6.4‐fold higher than those of their monometallic Cu counterparts, respectively. The excellent electrocatalytic performances benefit from the special design of the Au–Cu Janus architectures and their tandem catalysis mechanism as well as the high‐index facets on Au nanocrystals. This research provides a new approach to synthesize various hybrid Janus nanostructures, facilitating the study of structure‐function relationship in the catalytic process and the rational design of efficient heterogeneous electrocatalysts.
Ohmic Dissipation‐Assisted Complex Amplitude Hologram with High Quality
Authors: Cheng Yang , Li Yongfeng , Wang He , Chen Hongya , Wan Weipeng , Wang Jiafu , Zheng Lin , Zhang Jieqiu , Qu Shaobo
Published: April 2021

Tailoring the phase and amplitude of electromagnetic waves has drawn great attention in the microwave, terahertz, and even optics domains. However, the existing method for simultaneous control of these two essential properties suffers from inadequate efficiency and narrow bandwidth, especially for microwave devices. Here, a strategy of overcoming this difficulty is proposed by introducing the ohmic sheet into a Fabry–Pérot‐like cavity. The arbitrary phase modulation can be realized by changing the geometric parameters and the orientation of elliptical split resonance ring; via changing the intensity of ohmic dissipation, the amplitude can be continuously adjusted from 0 to 1. Its most significant advantage is arbitrary wide‐band complex‐amplitude modulation without introducing cross‐polarization crosstalk and backward scattering field interference. To verify its feasibility, three phase‐amplitude holographic imaging ​prototypes at 12, 14, and 16 GHz are designed. Both the simulated and measured results manifest the excellent performances of the proposed metasurface, demonstrating the excellent performances with a remarkable signal‐to‐noise ratio and low root‐mean‐square error. This proposed strategy provides an alternative method to control the phase and amplitude arbitrarily, which not only realizes high‐quality holography but also paves a way for random beamforming and so on.
The Trityl‐Cation Mediated Phosphine Oxides Reduction
Authors: Laye Claire , Lusseau Jonathan , Robert Frédéric , Landais Yannick
Published: April 2021

Reduction of phosphine oxides into the corresponding phosphines using PhSiH3 as a reducing agent and Ph3C+[B(C6F5)4]− as an initiator is described. The process is highly efficient, reducing a broad range of secondary and tertiary alkyl and arylphosphines, bearing various functional groups in generally good yields. The reaction is believed to proceed through the generation of a silyl cation, which reaction with the phosphine oxide provides a phosphonium salt, further reduced by the silane to afford the desired phosphine along with siloxanes.

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Chemoselective Peptide Backbone Diversification and Bioorthogonal Ligation by Ruthenium‐Catalyzed C−H Activation/Annulation
Authors: Song Liangliang , Ojeda‐Carralero Gerardo M. , Parmar Divyaakshar , González‐Martínez David A. , Van Meervelt Luc , Van der Eycken Johan , Goeman Jan , Rivera Daniel G. , Van der Eycken Erik V.
Published: April 2021

The field of peptide derivatization by metal‐catalyzed C−H activation has been mostly directed to modify the side chains, but poor attention has been given to the peptide backbone. Here we report a ruthenium‐catalyzed C−H activation/annulation process that can chemoselectively modify the peptide backbone producing functionalized isoquinolone scaffolds with high regioselectivity in a rapid and step‐economical manner. This strategy is characterized by racemization‐free conditions and the production of fluorescent peptides, and peptide conjugates to drugs, natural products and other peptide fragments, providing a chemical approach for the construction of novel peptide‐pharmacophore conjugates. Mechanistic studies suggest that amide bonds of peptide backbone act as the bidentate directing group to promote the C−H activation/annulation process. This report provides an unprecedented example of peptide backbone diversification and bioorthogonal ligation exploiting the power of ruthenium‐catalyzed C−H activation.

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Carbon‐Coordinated Single Cr Site for Efficient Electrocatalytic N2 Fixation
Authors: Song Wei , Fu Ling , He Chaozheng , Xie Kun
Published: April 2021

Electrocatalytic nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR) is a very promising method for ammonia (NH3) synthesis under ambient conditions, which can provide alternative routes to the traditional Haber–Bosch process and realize green NH3 synthesis. In this study, the electrocatalytic performance of chromium (Cr) atom anchored to graphyne (Cr@GY) is systematically investigated using density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The results show that Cr@GY is an efficient NRR electrocatalyst which can activate the inert N≡N bond sufficiently. In particular, the enzymatic mechanism is considered as the most positive catalytic pathway with the limiting potential of −0.52 V. More importantly, Cr@GY can restrict a competitive hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). The electronic properties including Bader charge, the charge difference density (CDD), the partial density of states (PDOS) and the crystal orbital Hamilton population (COHP) have been analyzed in detail. In addition, the co‐doping of B and N atoms in GY is beneficial to reduce the energy barrier of the potential‐determining step (PDS) and promote the smooth progress of the NRR. This work can provide theoretical guidance for the experimental synthesis of the single‐atom catalysts (SACs) with high activity and stability.
Ultramicroporous carbons featuring sub‐Ångstrom tunable apertures for the selective separation of light hydrocarbon
Authors: Du Shengjun , Wang Xingjie , Huang Jiawu , Kent Kirlikovali , Huang Baolin , Karam Idrees , Li Zhong , Xiao Jing
Published: April 2021

Separations of both C3 alkene/alkane and C4 alkadiene/alkenes are of great commercial significance as propylene and butadiene represent important feedstock chemicals, but the full extraction of them using carbon‐based separating agents has yet to be fully realized. Herein, derived from low‐cost starch precursors, we report a series of ultramicroporous starch‐based carbon materials (SC‐M; M = Na, K, Rb), with sub‐Ångstrom tunable ultramicropore apertures to separate the targeted gases with high purity. Among these materials, potassium derivative SC‐K can deliver high uptake capacities of propylene and butadiene (up to 2.20 and 2.36 mmol/g, respectively, at 100 kPa and 298 K) and superior selectivities due to a molecular‐sieving effect, as evidenced through adsorption isotherms and breakthrough experiments. Low heats of adsorption enable regeneration of SC‐M under mild conditions. To our knowledge, SC‐K represents the sole example of a porous carbon material that demonstrates potential for highly selective sieving‐driven separation of both C3 alkene/alkane and C4 alkadiene/alkenes.
Heterozygous missense variant in TRPC6 in a boy with rapidly progressive infantile nephrotic syndrome associated with diffuse mesangial sclerosis
Authors: Hanafusa Hiroaki , Hidaka Yoshihiko , Yamaguchi Tomomi , Shimojo Hisashi , Tsukahara Takanori , Murase Tsubasa , Matsuoka Daisuke , Chiba Nao , Shimada Shun , Morokawa Hirokazu , Omori Norio , Minoura Hironori , Nagano China , Takano Kyoko , Nakamura Katsuya , Wakui Keiko , Fukushima Yoshimitsu , Uehara Takeshi , Nakazawa Yozo , Iijima Kazumoto , Nozu Kandai , Kosho Tomoki
Published: April 2021

Transient receptor potential channel C6 encoded by TRPC6 is involved in slit diaphragm formation in podocytes, and abnormalities of the TRPC6 protein cause various glomerular diseases. The first identified pathogenic variant of TRPC6 was found to cause steroid‐resistant nephrotic syndrome that typically developed in adulthood and then slowly led to end‐stage renal disease, along with a renal pathology of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. Here, we report a patient with rapidly progressing infantile nephrotic syndrome and a heterozygous missense TRPC6 variant. The patient, a 2‐year‐old Japanese boy, developed steroid‐resistant nephrotic syndrome at age 11 months. His renal function deteriorated rapidly, and peritoneal dialysis was introduced at age 1 year and 6 months. His renal pathology, obtained at age 1 year and 1 month, was consistent with diffuse mesangial sclerosis (DMS). Clinical exome analysis and custom panel analysis for hereditary renal diseases revealed a reported heterozygous missense variant in TRPC6 (NM_004621.5:c.523C > T:p.Arg175Trp). This is the first report of a patient with a TRPC6‐related renal disorder associated with DMS.