bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Archaeology as Anthropology
Authors: Binford Lewis R.
Published: April 2006

It is argued that archaeology has made few contributions to the general field of anthropology with regard to explaining cultural similarities and differences. One major factor contributing to this lack is asserted to be the tendency to treat artifacts as equal and comparable traits which can be explained within a single model of culture change and modification. It is suggested that “material culture” can and does represent the structure of the total cultural system, and that explanations of differences and similarities between certain classes of material culture are inappropriate and inadequate as explanations for such observations within other classes of items. Similarly, change in the total cultural system must be viewed in an adaptive context both social and environmental, not whimsically viewed as the result of “influences,” “stimuli,” or even “migrations” between and among geographically defined units.

Three major functional sub-classes of material culture are discussed: technomic, socio-technic, and ideo-technic, as well as stylistic formal properties which cross-cut these categories. In general terms these recognized classes of materials are discussed with regard to the processes of change within each class.

Using the above distinctions in what is termed a systemic approach, the problem of the appearance and changing utilization of native copper in eastern North America is discussed. Hypotheses resulting from the application of the systemic approach are: (1) the initial appearance of native copper implements is in the context of the production of socio-technic items; (2) the increased production of socio-technic items in the late Archaic period is related to an increase in population following the shift to the exploitation of aquatic resources roughly coincident with the Nipissing high water stage of the ancestral Great Lakes; (3) this correlation is explicable in the increased selective pressures favoring material means of status communication once populations had increased to the point that personal recognition was no longer a workable basis for differential role behavior; (4) the general shift in later periods from formally “utilitarian” items to the manufacture of formally “nonutilitarian” items of copper is explicable in the postulated shift from purely egalitarian to increasingly nonegalitarian means of status attainment.
Additional Notes on Prehistoric Wells at the Clovis Site
Authors: Green F. E.
Published: April 2006

Portions of two recently observed prehistoric wells at the Blackwater No. 1 locality in Roosevelt County, New Mexico, furnish additional data on features first described by Evans (1951). These wells were exposed by gravel-quarrying operations which have removed the last major remnant of ancient pond deposits containing artifacts of the Llano and Folsom cultures and the Portales complex. The time of well-digging occurred during an erosional interval between Beds 3a and 4; and on the basis of comparisons with the Lubbock Reservoir site, this interval is equated with the Altithermal stage of Antevs, and it is suggested that the wells were dug sometime between 4000 and 5000 years ago.
Carbon Dating Prehistoric Soot from Salts Cave, Kentucky
Authors: Benington Frederick , Melton Carl , Watson Patty Jo
Published: April 2006

The interiors of two large Kentucky caves — Mammoth Cave and nearby Salts Cave, both within Mammoth Cave National Park — were much visited and utilized by prehistoric Indians. Large quantities of artifacts and numerous other evidences of human activity are still present in both caves, especially in undisturbed portions of Salts Cave. Most of the remains comprise perishable materials of vegetable fiber and wood, and plants or plant parts carried into the caves by the aboriginal inhabitants of the region. Several collections of artifacts gathered 40 or 50 years ago from the surface in the Mammoth Cave area have recently been examined by D. W. Schwartz of the University of Kentucky. One such collection hints at a village site of the late Archaic-Early Woodland time range somewhere near the entrance to Salts Cave. In 1961, specimens of the black-brown ceiling and wall deposits which are quite extensive in parts of both Salts and Mammoth caves were collected and analyzed. The deposits were found to be soot, presumably from aboriginal torches and hearths whose remains occur plentifully in some areas of the caves. A sample of soot from Salts Cave was submitted for radiocarbon determination; the resulting date is 3075 ± 140 B.P. Two dates had been previously obtained by the National Park Service from artifacts in Mammoth Cave: 2230 ± 40 B.P. and 2370 ± 60 B.P. These three dates support the suggestion of a late Archaic-Early Woodland placement for the prehistoric activity in Salts and Mammoth caves.
Close-Proximity Analysis: A Rapid Method for the Ordering of Archaeological Materials
Authors: Renfrew Colin , Sterud Gene
Published: April 2006

A simple graphical method is presented for the seriation or ordering of archaeological assemblages or types. Like most seriation methods, it requires the tabulation of coefficients of similarity between the units in question. By a consideration, restricted to the most similar neighbors of each unit in turn, a uniquely determined structure usually emerges within a few minutes. When the archaeological material is such that it may be seriated well, this structure compares closely with computer seriations of the same data. The method is illustrated by the reexamination of seriations by other workers and is exemplified by graphical and computer seriation of the Cycladic cemeteries of the Aegean Early Bronze age.
The Importance of Both Analytic and Taxonomic Classification in the Type-Variety System
Authors: Sabloff Jeremy A. , Smith Robert E.
Published: April 2006

The type-variety system of ceramic analysis, as currently used at many sites in southern Mesoamerica, differs in certain respects, especially in emphasis, from the system outlined by Smith, Willey, and Gifford in 1960. The reports on the pottery from the lowland Maya sites of Mayapán, Yucatán, Mexico and Seibal, Petén, Guatemala, in both their overall formats and the specific formats of their descriptive sections, have combined certain aspects of both taxonomic (typological) and analytic (modal) classification. It is argued that the type-variety system, as employed at these two sites, overcomes many of the objections to typological analyses recently raised by J. V. Wright (1967) and provides an adequate basis for both tight intersite comparisons in southern Mesoamerica and reanalyses of the ceramic data by other archaeologists in future studies.
Human Bone Artifacts from Southern Texas
Authors: Hester Thomas Roy
Published: April 2006

An examination of archaeological materials from the lower Texas coast has revealed the presence of a number of deliberately altered human bones. Modified sections of human long-bone shafts, severed proximal and distal ends of long bones, and sections of ribs have been found with burials in Kleberg, Nueces, and Cameron counties. Single examples of altered human bones have also been found in the interior of southern Texas and on the northern coast of Tamaulipas, Mexico. These unusual bone artifacts are described, and their provenience is noted.
The Caribou/Wild Reindeer as a Human Resource
Authors: Burch Ernest S.
Published: April 2006

The caribou/wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) has been a major resource for many human populations in northern North America and Eurasia for tens of thousands of years. The species is generally represented by prehistorians as providing an ample, easily exploited, and highly reliable resource base for humans. In this paper a number of specific assumptions leading to this view are examined in the light of new data on North American caribou and caribou-hunting Eskimo groups. The conventional picture is found to be largely untenable.
Functional Considerations of Warfare in the Southeast during The Mississippi Period
Authors: Larson Lewis H.
Published: April 2006

During the last purely aboriginal period in the southeastern United States, most, if not all, of the settlements in the interior areas were fortified, implying a cultural pattern of extensive warfare. This paper examines the nature and function of defensive works protecting the sites and advances the hypothesis that warfare at this time resulted from competition for arable land.
The Clovis Blades: An Important Addition to the Llano Complex
Authors: Green F. E.
Published: April 2006

Gravel quarrying operations in 1962 at the well-known Clovis site north of Portales in eastern New Mexico uncovered important new evidence of Early Man. In February, a total of 17 punched blades was found after being mechanically exhumed and, on the basis of inferential evidence, these blades are assigned to the Llano complex that dates back some 11,000 to 13,000 years. The term “Clovis blade” is proposed for this new artifact type, which is discussed in detail. These implements, and the recent discovery of several blade-tools associated with the remains of four mammoths now being excavated by the El Llano Archaeological Society, lead to the postulation of a blade industry for the Llano complex; and evidence which indicates the persistence of the punched-blade technique up through Agate Basin times is presented.

On the basis of technology, distribution, and apparent similarities to Upper Paleolithic blade cultures of the Old World, the classic Paleo-Indian cultures characterized by fluted points are believed to represent a unique, late Pleistocene migration that is temporally, culturally, and spatially distinct from the extremely early cultures of the Pacific coastal regions.
The Burin-Faceted Projectile Point
Authors: Epstein Jeremiah F.
Published: April 2006

A series of Paleo-Indian and Archaic projectile points with burin facets at either the proximal or distal end is described. Most of the points come from Texas. The burin facets appear to be intentional products of the burin technique, used either for the production of burins and burin spalls, or for modifying the shape of the point itself. Paleo-Indian point types with burin facets include Clovis, Cumberland, Folsom, Plainview, Meserve, Angostura, and a number of variant forms. The data suggest that the burin or the burin technique may have been widespread throughout North America during early fluted-point times.
Metallurgical Characteristics of North American Prehistoric Copper Work
Authors: Schroeder David L. , Ruhl Katharine C.
Published: April 2006

The use of native copper in some prehistoric cultures of North America was both extensive and technically skillful. The remains of pits sunk into every major native copper lode in the Lake Superior region (Griffin 1961; Drier and DuTemple 1961: 16; Quimby 1960: 52-63; West 1929) show that the material was mined in quantity. Float copper, found on the surface, was also used. The Indians appreciated some of the properties of copper and made use of these in shaping tools, weapons, and ornaments of high-quality workmanship. Figure 1 shows typical examples of the thousands of beautifully shaped native copper artifacts which have been found in mid-North America. The development of metallurgical techniques is usually supposed to follow a progression of hammering, annealing, melting the native metal, smelting ores, casting, and alloying. Curiously enough, the techniques of copper working in North America evolve only through the hammering and annealing stages, and apparently they remained at this level for centuries. In this paper the authors examine some of the metallurgical properties of the artifacts and the native copper from which they were made.
Feasible Ocean Routes to and from the Americas in Pre-Columbian Times
Authors: Heyerdahl Thor
Published: April 2006

Botany, which once bred the belief that the two oceans surrounding the New World formed a complete barrier for pre-Columbian voyagers, now demonstrates that some form of trans-oceanic contact has taken place. A reappraisal of contact areas seems warranted. Current geographic misconceptions concerning feasible aboriginal sea routes are examined. It is erroneous to believe that hypothetical voyagers from, for example, southern China to Peru can make a short-cut by way of the Pacific equator. The route between these two antipodes is a complete semicircle of equal length in dead miles whether we go by way of the middle Pacific, by way of Hawaii, or even by way of the Aleutian Islands. In traveling distance and time the route north of Hawaii is far shorter due to the flow of the main currents. A true traveling distance is not measurable unless we know the ratio between the surface speed respectively of the vessel and the current. Thus, an aboriginal craft plowing the ocean surface with a speed of 40 miles per day will have to cross about 1000 miles of surface water to get from Peru to the Marquesas Islands, but 7000 miles to get from the Marquesas to Peru.

Three feasible routes of aboriginal oversea arrivals to the New World, and two of departure, are suggested and named after European voyagers who initiated the route in historic times.
Some Recent Radiocarbon Dates for Western Venezuela
Authors: Rouse Irving , Cruxent José M.
Published: April 2006

Two recent series of radiocarbon analyses, from Muaco and Rancho Peludo in western Venezuela, would seem at first glance to provide the oldest dates in the New World for stone projectile points and for pottery respectively. However, both series raise problems of interpretation. The Muaco dates may refer to one of several pre-projectile-point complexes, rather than to the El Jobo complex, which has projectile points; and the earliest Rancho Peludo dates may pertain to an occupation of that site by Paleo-Indians of the Manzanillo complex, prior to the ceramic occupation.
Dating Early Plain Buttons by Their Form
Authors: Olsen Stanley J.
Published: April 2006

Very little has been published to date relating to the manufacture of early buttons. This is particularly true of plain, nonmilitary buttons which lack makers' names on their backs. Enough evidence has been assembled from dated garments or excavations to warrant a description of basic button styles, particularly when these styles can be assigned dates of manufacture to aid the archaeologist in the interpretation of his sites.
The Archaeology of the Cave of the Owls in the Upper Montana of Peru
Authors: Lathrap Donald W. , Roys Lawrence
Published: April 2006

Collections from an unusual cave site in the Peruvian Montaña near Tingo María are placed on record along with the circumstances under which they were obtained. The ceramic materials seem to represent two components. The more common of these, designated Cave of the Owls Fine Ware, would appear to have been contemporary with Kotosh II in the Huánuco Basin and with Late Tutishcainyo of the long ceramic sequence established for Yarinacocha near Pucallpa. A date of around 200 or 300 B.C. is suggested. The other ceramics, designated Monzón Coarse Ware, show strong similarities to the later part of the Yarinacocha sequence and probably date after A.D. 1000.
Carrying Capacity and Dynamic Equilibrium in the Prehistoric Southwest
Authors: Zubrow Ezra B. W.
Published: April 2006

A model of carrying capacity as a dynamic equilibrium system is generated and made operational in order to test a series of hypotheses relating population and settlement patterns. The development of populations in marginal resource zones is shown to be a function of optimal zone exploitation in the Hay Hollow Valley. MacArthur's deviation amplifying model is presented as an alternative to the model's diminishing resource curves as a possible explanation of the extinction of Hay Hollow population by A.D. 1400. Finally, the effects of population excess disequilibriums as defined by the model are examined in relationship to the settlement pattern variables of population aggregation, spatial aggregation and residential area.
A Quantitative Comparison of Efficiency between a Stone Axe and a Steel Axe
Authors: Saraydar Stephen , Shimada Izumi
Published: April 2006

A comparison of the efficiency of a stone axe and steel axe showed that the stone axe takes over six times as long and requires over five times as much energy to accomplish the same work as does the steel axe.
History and Distribution of the Cultivated Cucurbits in the Americas
Authors: Cutler Hugh C. , Whitaker Thomas W.
Published: April 2006

All species of Cucurbita (which includes squashes, pumpkins, and the common, small, yellow-flowered gourds) are native to the Americas. Their center of origin lies in Mexico where most of the 26 wild and cultivated species still grow. Chilicayote (C. ficifolia), a perennial and probably the oldest cultivated species, is grown from Mexico to Bolivia and known archaeologically only from coastal Peru (3000 B.C.). Oldest archaeological cucurbits are C. pepo and Lagenaria siceraria, the bottle gourd. Specimens of these species were recovered from Tamaulipas in cave material dated 7000-5500 B.C. Pepo and Lagenaria spread over most of the United States probably with the advent of agriculture. Cucurbita moschata appeared in coastal Peru at the same time as C. ficifolia (3000 B.C.), but it does not occur in the Ocampo Cave cultures until 1400-400 B.C. when pottery and village life entered, and corn, cotton, pepo, and beans (common, lima and jack) were being grown. While the earliest dates for moschata in southwestern United States are about A.D. 1100, it probably entered the same time as cotton, perhaps as early as A.D. 700. Cucurbita mixta, the cushaw, is the most recent of the cultivated species. It is found mainly in Mexico and in post-A.D. 1000 sites in the southwestern U.S. Prehistoric C. maxima is known only from Peru and to the south and east in Chile and Bolivia. Its ancestors probably were carried there by man from the Mexican center, and the weedy C. andreana may have been taken along at the same time.

The bottle gourd is most variable in the Old World. It probably originated there, and was carried to the New World in pre-agricultural times by ocean currents. A number of other cucurbits and the tree gourd, Crescentia cujete, not a true gourd but a member of the family Big-noniaceae, are briefly mentioned. Parts useful in identifying the cultivated cucurbits are the fruit stem or peduncle, seeds, rind, and leaves. A list of the collections of Cucurbita and Lagenaria which have been studied is given, with estimates for the date of each site.
The Zoned Bichrome Period in Northwestern Costa Rica
Authors: Coe Michael D. , Baudez Claude F.
Published: April 2006

In an attempt to establish an archaeological chronology for northwestern Costa Rica, excavations were carried out in 1959-60 in the coastal region and Tempisque River drainage of Guanacaste Province. Four periods have been defined: Zoned Bichrome, Early Polychrome, Middle Polychrome, and Late Polychrome. These are roughly equated in the Maya sequence with Late Formative, Early Classic through the beginning of Late Classic, the latter part of the Late Classic through the early Postclassic, and late Postclassic, respectively. The Zoned Bichrome period has been established on the basis of three geographically separate but coeval phases: Chombo on the Santa Elena Peninsula, Monte Fresco in the Tamarindo Bay zone, and Catalina on the middle Tempisque. All three phases are linked to each other through trade pottery; a radiocarbon date on Monte Fresco is within the first century of the Christian era. Outstanding characteristics of the period are bichrome zoning, dentate rocker-stamping, wavy black lines produced by a multiple brush, engraving, and incising. Considerable fishing and hunting was carried out, and intensive maize agriculture is inferred. These village materials indicate that lower Central America was participating in at least some of the trait diffusion which linked remote areas of Nuclear America in Formative times.
The Relative Value of Fragmentary Mammalian Remains
Authors: Olsen S. J.
Published: April 2006

The diagnostic value of animal remains from archaeological sites is discussed in the following order of importance of the various osteological elements which can be used for interpreting the fauna they represent: teeth, skull fragments, articular ends of limb bones, foot bones, portions of the pectoral and pelvic girdles, and vertebrae.
A Radiocarbon Date for the Macon Earthlodge
Authors: Wilson Rex L.
Published: April 2006

A radiocarbon date of A.D. 1015 for the Macon Earthlodge, Ocmulgee National Monument, has recently been determined. The material dated was part of a charred roof beam. This date, and another from the Brown's Mount component, agrees with generally accepted dates for the Macon Plateau period in central Georgia.
Mechanical Basis of Percussion Flaking
Authors: Speth John D.
Published: April 2006

The total variability in archaeological material derives from at least 4 different sources: technological, functional, stylistic, and random variation. Different attributes may be needed to quantify each aspect of the total variability, and the particular attributes that the archaeologist singles out for analysis will determine, to a large extent, the utility and validity of any subsequent typology. At present, there is relatively little theory to aid in the selection of the attributes most appropriate for a particular archaeological problem. In the analysis of prehistoric flake stone tools, the technology of flake production falls largely within the realm of the natural sciences; thus, technological variability is perhaps that aspect of the total variability for which suitable theory may be most readily developed.

Flake production can be divided into 2 distinct processes, percussion flaking and pressure flaking, on the basis of the duration of the applied force. The fracture processes involved in these 2 types of flake production are sufficiently different to warrant a separate treatment of each. Attention is focused specifically on percussion flaking because this process appears to have been the predominant mode of flake production throughout most of human prehistory and, at present, it remains poorly understood.

It is found that a percussion flake is detached from a core largely by a process known as spalling, the fracture produced by the reflection of a stress wave at the free surface of the core adjacent to the striking platform. The thickness of a flake is a function largely of 4 impact parameters and 2 constants of the material: the shape, intensity, and wavelength of the stress wave emanating from the point of impact, the angle of incidence of the stress wave on the free face of the core, the critical impact strength of the material in tension, and an elastic property of the material. Other attributes of flake size such as the length, width, area, weight, and volume are also influenced by these parameters. Several other factors affecting the size of a flake are discussed, and areas where further research is needed are outlined. It is concluded that the various attributes of flake size are highly and predictably interrelated.
Settlement Patterns in Two Regions of the Southern Maya Lowlands
Authors: Voorhies Barbara
Published: April 2006

The Izabal zone is a physiographic region located near the southeastern frontier of the southern Maya lowlands. Its environment is compared with that of northeast Peten, a second region of the same culture area. Prehistoric settlement patterns of the 2 regions are compared and differences in distribution of settlements, estimated population densities and types of settlements are noted. These differences are related to various environmental and cultural factors.
An Archaeological Survey on the Xoxocotlan Piedmont, Oaxaca, Mexico
Authors: Mason Roger D. , Lewarch Dennis E. , O'Brien Michael J. , Neely James A.
Published: April 2006

Surface survey on the piedmont near the present village of Xoxocotlan, Oaxaca, Mexico, has revealed the pattern of prehistoric settlement around an irrigation canal that distributed water from a dammed reservoir located on the flanks of Monte Alban. Intensive systematic collection techniques have permitted quantitative statements to be made about the density of occupation and the contribution of the irrigation system to the food supply of Monte Alban.
Identification of a Sinagua Agricultural Field by Aerial Thermography, Soil Chemistry, Pollen/Plant Analysis, and Archaeology
Authors: Berlin G. Lennis , Ambler J. Richard , Hevly Richard H. , Schaber Gerald G.
Published: April 2006

Aerial thermograms of an area in north-central Arizona immediately to the north of Merriam Crater have revealed the existence of parallel arrays of alternating ridge and swale linear features in the ashfall zone of Sunset Crater. The patterns are not easily identified on simultaneously acquired panchromatic photographs. Pollen and soil analyses confirm the highly geometric pattern to be a previously unrecognized prehistoric agricultural field. Recovery of Sinagua sherds of known age found at nearby living sites and in the field indicates that the farming activity occurred between A.D. 1065 and 1250. After 700 years of abandonment, local plant succession for the field has not yet fully re-established the probable former shrub community, apparently due to differences in physical and chemical properties existing between field and nonfield soil areas, related perhaps to prehistoric agricultural practices.
An Experimental Study of the Morphological Characteristics of Tool Marks
Authors: Walker Phillip L. , Long Jeffrey C.
Published: April 2006

Experiments were performed to establish correlations between the edge characteristics of a series of tools and the marks they produce when applied to bone. Pressure and angle of application, length of blade, and motion used during the cutting stroke, were found to be important variables that affect the shape of tool marks. Using cross sections of butchering marks from archaeological sites, it was possible to establish associations between various classes of tools and specific tasks.
The Effect of Temperature on Protein Decay in Bone: Its Significance in Nitrogen Dating of Archaeological Specimens
Authors: Ortner Donald J. , vonEndt David W. , Robinson Mary S.
Published: April 2006

The inability to control for variables which affect protein decay is the major problem limiting the use of nitrogen as a chemical method of dating archaeological bone specimens. Of these variables, soil pH, ground water, and temperature are the major factors. In laboratory simulation experiments, we determined the effect of temperature on the time dependent decay rate of bone protein. In this research, 100 mg samples of ground cow bone were sealed in test tubes containing 5 ml of water and heated at temperatures varying from 100 degrees C to 140 degrees C for time periods up to 5 hr. Nitrogen concentration for each sample was determined using a modified micro-Kjeldahl method developed in our laboratory. Using standard regression analysis, we determined the decay rates of nitrogen for each temperature. By extrapolation from these data, we were able to show that differences in mean annual temperature between archaeological sites can have a substantial effect on the decay rate of bone protein.
A Computer Coding System for Archaeological Faunal Remains
Authors: Gifford Diane P. , Crader Diana C.
Published: April 2006

Archaeologists dealing with large faunal samples have all faced the problem of recording and retrieving masses of data regarding animal bones. This paper presents a comprehensive computer coding system for all vertebrate skeletal parts. The system utilizes alphabetic abbreviations that can be automatically translated into a fully hierarchic numerical code. The format is readily learned and can be used in conjunction with standard canned computer programs available at many institutions.
The Processes of Farming Diffusion in the Southwest and Great Basin
Authors: Winter Joseph C.
Published: April 2006

Dietary, paleoclimatic, and ethnohistoric evidence indicates that alterations in regional systems of exploitation and selective pressures were associated with the diffusion of farming in unrelated periods of Southwestern and Great Basin cultural development. Artifacts and coprolite/macrofloral remains from the Clydes Cavern and Hogup Cave Fremont sites suggest that the spread of maize farming coincided with: (a) the development of grass collecting; (bj the expansion of a grassland environment; (c) outside cultural contacts; and (dj genetic modifications in corn. Ethnohistoric evidence indicates that the diffusion ofNuma horticulture in the early historic period also occurred in a context of environmental change. However, unlike the Fremont example in which natural environmental modifications were present, the spread of Numa farming occurred as a result of disruptions to the native plant communities and the seed gathering cycle caused by external cultural pressures. Both examples demonstrate that while the specific reasons for the adoption and growth of farming differed depending upon the regional situation, the overall pattern of horticultural diffusion in the Southwest and Great Basin may have been favored by selective pressures involving environmental alteration, population expansion and contact influences.
Classic Maya Obsidian Trade
Authors: Sidrys Raymond V.
Published: April 2006

The obsidian artifact distribution in some 13,000 m3 of excavated fill from 17 Maya sites is analyzed. Large regional centers, characterized by abundant monumental art and architecture, have five times more obsidian per capita than do smaller centers. Central place redistribution, rather than central place market exchange (Rathje 1971), appears to be the best organizational mode for this long-distance trade. That is, obsidian in the Late Preclassic-Early Classic was a status good reflecting religious and political behavior. Its everyday use was largely restricted to elite households. By the Late Classic increases in transport efficiency may have permitted a more widespread usage of obsidian.
Demographic Correlations of the Wari Conquest of Junin
Authors: Browman David L.
Published: April 2006

The shift from llama pastoralism to potato agriculture in the Jauja-Huancayo basin of highland Peru has previously been considered a result of the Wari conquest. An alternative hypothesis, based on population pressure, is suggested here. As an adjunct to the description of population distribution, the concepts of an exploitable territory threshold model and of site catchment as a part of central place theory are explored.
On the Orientation of Precolumbian Buildings in Central Mexico
Authors: Aveni Anthony F. , Gibbs Sharon L.
Published: April 2006

A tendency for many precolumbian buildings to align east of north is examined for possible astronomical motives. Stellar and solar phenomena are suggested as possible influences. The importance of clearly establishing the relative positions of observer and point of reference in any archaeo-astronomical analysis is emphasized. Certain misconceptions concerning chronological correlations of alignments and a new dimension in establishing orientations are discussed.
Some Aspects of Eastern North American Prehistory: a Review 1975
Authors: Dragoo Don W.
Published: April 2006

Eastern North American was the scene of significant and complex cultural developments which go back to man’s earliest penetration into mid-continent through the ice-free corridor from Alaska probably more than 30,000 years ago. The most extensive remains of Early Man’s culture in the New World are in the Southeast where several stages of development can be demonstrated. Following the Wisconsin Glacial period the descendants of the Early Lithic hunters-gatherers began the gradual adjustment to a variety of ecological environments that gave rise to distinctive regional or zonal Archaic complexes in the East. By late Archaic times burial ceremonialism was a prominent feature of several complexes scattered from the Northeast into the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. The Woodland cultures of the East such as Adena and Hopewell developed upon a local Archaic base without new and different populations bringing exotic cultural ideas to the East. The major new traits of the Woodland period may be seen as developing internally or as the result of independent diffusion at various times from outside stimuli. The changes from Woodland cultures to those of the Mississipian Late Prehistoric reflect a reorientation of sociocultural institutions resulting from an improved economic base and an increased population. Recent studies document the former existence of extensive trade among various peoples over a long time but especially prominent during the Hopewellian or Middle Woodland period. Increased information on settlement patterns often indicates complex adaptations in habitation and living patterns to insure maximum utilization of natural resources. Clearly much remains to be done in eastern North American archaeology. We are far from knowing the answers to many complex problems in this highly important area. New methods and techniques now being used will greatly increase the efficiency of our data collecting and the inferences that may be drawn from these data.
The Anomalous Ixil-Bypassed by the Postclassic?
Authors: Colby Benjamin N.
Published: April 2006

The Ixil differ from other Mesoamerican societies in their extensive ancestor worship and their absence of a belief in animal companion spirits. The historical and archaeological evidence shows Ixil continuity with the lowland Classic Maya with comparatively little change during the Postclassic. The conclusion is tentatively drawn that the lowland Classic Maya were ancestor worshipers, and that the predominant characteristic of those Postclassic changes outside IxU country which led to the demise of Classic ceremonial centers in some areas and the later fragmentation of political units in others, derived from a basic religious change which was reflected in a change in the use of the 260-day ritual calendar. The new religion opposed ancestor worship and introduced a depersonalized soul belief system.
Design Analysis of Painted Pottery
Authors: Watson Patty Jo
Published: April 2006

This paper comprises a survey of selected publications describing various kinds of design analyses applied to pottery from two regions of the world that are relatively well known archaeologically: the U.S. Southwest and the Near East. My purpose is simply to demonstrate some progress, some problems, and some potentialities of this form of archaeological analysis as it has been used in these two geographic areas where painted pottery makes up a large and significant proportion of the prehistoric record.
The Identification of Sources of Chert Artifacts
Authors: Luedtke Barbara E.
Published: April 2006

Trace element analysis is a widely used procedure for determining the original source of archaeological materials. Although many articles have discussed analytical procedures and archaeological applications of the results, comparatively little attention has been given to the intermediate step of determining the appropriate procedure for assigning an artifact to a source once the trace element composition of both is known. This paper discusses several different procedures for assigning artifacts to sources and compares these procedures on the basis of their accuracy and the types of identification errors they make. Special attention is paid to discriminant analysis, which appears to be the best procedure for identifying sources of chert artifacts.
Aspero, Peru: A Reexamination of the Site and Its Implications
Authors: Moseley M. Edward , Willey Gordon R.
Published: April 2006

The large preceramic site of Aspero, on the central Peruvian coast, was explored in the past by Uhle and by Willey and Corbett; however, these investigators did not recognize the presence of sizable artificial platform mounds or “corporate labor structures” at the site. In spite of its preceramic status, Aspero was a sedentary community, and the corporate labor structures suggest the beginnings of a complex, non-egalitarian society. The hypothesis is advanced that such a society was “pre-adapted” toward corporate labor activity and that this “pre-adaptation” expedited the rapid transference from a marine economy to an agricultural one at the close of the Cotton Preceramic period (about 2000-1800 B.C.).
The Earliest Lowland Maya? Definition of the Swasey Phase
Authors: Hammond Norman , Pring Duncan , Wilk Richard , Donaghey Sara , Saul Frank P. , Wing Elizabeth S. , Miller Arlene V. , Feldman Lawrence H.
Published: April 2006

Recent excavations in Belize have resulted in the discovery of an earlier period of sedentary occupation than has hitherto been documented in the Maya Lowlands. The Swasey phase is stratigraphically antecedent to occupations of the early Middle Formative, the earliest horizon located until now, and associated radiocarbon dates suggest a persistence from 2000–1000 b.c./2500–1300 B.C. The ceramic and lithic material culture of the phase are described, together with architectural construction and burial practice, and the overall cultural identity is recognized as ancestral to the known Maya Lowland Formative. External contacts of the Cuello site are documented by exotic minerals, and the possible external antecedents for the Swasey ceramic tradition are canvassed.
Some Comments on the Use of Mathematical Models in Anthropology
Authors: Read Dwight W.
Published: April 2006

It has become increasingly apparent that mathematical models may play a significant role in anthropological methodology. Less apparent is the fact that such models have an important place in formulation of theory as well. At the same time, many errors appear in attempts to use mathematical models. This paper attempts to indicate the nature of such errors and a methodology by which they can be avoided. A case study is presented showing the relationship of mathematical models to anthropological theory.
The Social Context of Trash Disposal in an Early Dynastic Egyptian Town
Authors: Hoffman Michael A.
Published: April 2006

The study of trash, although long in the forefront of actual archaeological research, has seldom been conducted in such a way as to emphasize the social and cultural context of the rules governing trash disposal. Evidence from the Early Dynastic town site of Hierakonpolis in Upper Egypt is used to support the contention that a knowledge of human patterns of trash disposal can be a valuable tool in the study of the composition and functioning of "urban" centers, as well as of general use in interpreting archaeological remains.
The Methodology of Microwear Analysis: A Comment on Nance
Authors: Keeley Lawrence H.
Published: April 2006

In a recent report, J. D. Nance, on the basis of a microwear analysis, proposed that serrated Stockton points were not projectile points but were used as sawing and whittling implements. The present note suggests that the microwear traces upon which Nance based his conclusions were the result of manufacturing techniques rather than utilization, and that his conclusions must, in any case, be regarded as doubtful since his approach was not firmly based on hypothesis testing and did not use adequate experimental controls. The writer stresses that these omissions by Nance are only too common in many recent microwear studies, and until a proper experimental approach has been developed the potential of microwear studies will not be realized.
What Can Systems Theory Do for Archaeology?
Authors: Salmon Merrilee H.
Published: April 2006

This paper examines the relevance of systems theory to archaeology. General Systems Theory and Mathematical Systems Theory are considered. Although it is important for archaeologists to look at the materials they study as components of a larger cultural and ecological context, neither version of systems theory can offer archaeologists much help in constructing archaeological theories or in providing models of archaeological explanation.
Revolutionary Developments in Carbon-14 Dating
Authors: Pavlish L. A. , Banning E. B.
Published: April 2006

The conventional carbon-14 method relies on the accurate measurement of a beta-ray decay rate to determine the age of the sample. The new method instead uses an ultrasensitive mass spectrometer to count the individual carbon-14 atoms in a sample. The advantages of this approach are many. The problem of cosmic ray background does not arise. Shorter counting times on samples 1,000 times smaller will be possible. One result will be the production of more accurate age determinations. The new method will permit a great expansion in the types of archaeological materials that can be dated because only milligram samples will be required. Research on the design of a dedicated carbon-14 atom counting machine is presently in progress.
Gallinazo Maize from the Chicama Valley, Peru
Authors: Bird Robert McK. , Bird Junius B.
Published: April 2006

A large sample of Gallinazo cobs from Huaca Prieta is classified using a set of five variables. Some types of Gallinazo maize recovered there seem to have been new to the Peruvian North Coast; some types of the preceding Salinar phase are not known from this site. Further changes occur in the Chicama-Viru area when Moche influence appears. In several ways Gallinazo maize seems more related to maize occurring today further north and east than to modern highland or coastal maize to the southeast.
X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of Pictograph Pigments From Toquima Cave, Central Nevada
Authors: McKee Edwin H. , Thomas David H.
Published: April 2006

X-ray diffraction analysis of red, yellow, white, and black pigments from pictographs in Toquima Cave in central Nevada reveals that gypsum was used as a binder in all colors; ocher (hematite and goethite) and carbon (charcoal) formed the coloring agents. Gypsum and ocher are not found in or near the cave, so the paint mixtures were made from ingredients found elsewhere and then transported to the site of the paintings.
Preparation of Faunal Specimens
Authors: Friedman Edward
Published: April 2006

A method is presented for preparing animal skeleton collections while in the field.
A Reexamination of the Cotton Remains from Huaca Prieta, North Coastal Peru
Authors: Stephens S. G.
Published: April 2006

An analysis of cotton remains from Huaca Prieta on the north Peruvian coast, dating from circa 2500 B.C. to circa 750 B.C., indicates that they were probably primitive forms of G. barbadense L. and similar in most features to those previously examined from sites in the Ancon area of the central coast (Stephens and Moseley 1974). As in the Ancon materials, there is a tendency for seed size, boll size and fiber width to increase from the earlier to later levels. Most of the Ancon materials belonged to the Preceramic Period, while at Huaca Prieta both Preceramic and Initial Periods are represented. Only fuzzy seeds were found among the Ancon materials and among the Preceramic materials recovered from Huaca Prieta. Tufted seeds first appear during the Initial Period at Huaca Prieta; it is the prevailing type among present-day cultivars, and may have been favored under human selection because their fibers are much more readily removed from the seeds by hand. It is believed that fuzzy seeds represent the more primitive condition; it is the prevailing type among present-day wild forms of G. barbadense. It remains a question whether the tufted seeds at Huaca Prieta originated as mutants in the locally cultivated fuzzy seeded types, or whether they were new forms, introduced along with pottery and other crop plants from elsewhere. None of the cotton materials so far examined from Peruvian coastal sites show affinities with cottons still extant in the Amazon Basin, and no wild, or apparently wild, forms of G. barbadense have yet been found east of the Andes.
The Archaeological Evidence for Manioc Cultivation: A Cautionary Note
Authors: DeBoer Warren R.
Published: April 2006

In the humid tropics of the Americas, where preservation of plant materials is unlikely, archaeological evidence for manioc cultivation largely consists of artifacts which are similar to artifacts associated with manioc cultivation in the ethnographic record and which, by analogy, were similarly used in the prehistoric past. The validity of this inference by analogy is examined in terms of ceramic platters and stone grater teeth, two of the most commonly cited evidences for manioc cultivation.
An Archaeological Indicator of Matrilocal versus Patrilocal Residence
Authors: Ember Melvin
Published: April 2006

The growing willingness among archaeologists to draw inferences about cultural behavior is offset by the almost total lack of research that shows how ethnographic and archaeological phenomena are correlated. If ethnologists and archaeologists are to do complementary research on the same problems of cultural process and variation, we must try to explore, systematically and comparatively, how the behavioral and material realms may be correlated. The present paper offers an example of such research. I describe the design and results of a cross-cultural study that suggests an archaeological indicator of matrilocal versus patrilocal residence. Briefly, it appears from 2 separate random samples of ethnographically described societies that matrilocal versus patrilocal residence can be simply and accurately predicted from the living floor area of the average house in the society.
Trilobal Eccentrics at Teotihuacan and Tula
Authors: Stocker Terrance L. , Spence Michael W.
Published: April 2006

M-shaped eccentrics at Teotihuacan and Tula are interpreted as being the trilobal element, a symbol for water and blood. This element, represented in chipped stone, mural art, and low relief carving at both sites, argues for considerable cultural continuity between Teotihuacan and Tula. Not only the symbol, but to some degree its socio-ideological context, must have persisted from Teotihuacan times into the late Toltec period.
Arrowheads and Atlatl Darts: How the Stones Got the Shaft
Authors: Thomas David Hurst
Published: April 2006

An ethnographic and archaeological sample of 142 stone-tipped arrows and atlatl darts has been analyzed from several points of view. The raw data provide some quantitative measures against which unknown archaeological specimens can be compared. Several assumptions regarding projectile points are examined, and statistical analysis determines how much can be reasonably inferred about the entire artifact, given only the stone tip. Discriminant analysis further indicates how these 2 groups differ, and classification equations have been derived to classify unknown points as arrowheads or dart points. While separation is not perfect, the results indicate that arrowheads can be quantitatively distinguished from dart points with some degree of accuracy.
Formative Period Occupations in the Highlands of Northern Ecuador: Rejoinder to Athens
Authors: Myers Thomas P.
Published: April 2006

Athens’ attack is based upon the fact that I did not cite an unpublished manuscript in my possession. In fact, the paper has little bearing upon the temporal argument. The radiocarbon dates which it contains should not be applied to the material in question. However, the paper does contain information which supports my hypothesis of contacts between the Coast and the Highlands. Such contacts help to account for the ceramic similarities between the two regions. New dates from the La Chimba site are internally inconsistent so that they cannot be used to support either point of view. However, the stratigraphic position of Espejo Phase ceramics beneath resist painted pottery is consistent with a Formative Period dating for the Espejo Phase.
Archaeological Use and Abuse of Ecological Concepts and Studies: The Ecotone Example
Authors: Rhoades Robert E.
Published: April 2006

Despite a continuing heavy reliance on general ecology and allied subfields for analytical models and empirical findings, ecological anthropologists remain reluctant to critically evaluate potential pitfalls of borrowing from other disciplines. Through an examination of how archaeologists have superficially and selectively applied the concepts of ecotone and edge effect, it becomes evident why anthropologists must take a closer, critical view of cross-disciplinary terms and studies.