bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Huisbeelden in de moderne Nederlandstalige poëzie - Een cognitieve benadering
Authors: Kalla Irena Barbara
Published: January 2014

This article explores images of the house in Dutch language poetry from the postwar period. On the one hand, the archetypical notion of the house has always had an established place in poetry. It is connected to the meaning of house as a building and especially as an imaginative house or a home. On the other hand, the house is a rich metaphorical concept used for explaining poetical ideas. In a historical survey of modern poetry, different images of the house are presented. The overview shows that the choice of certain metaphorical concepts is connected to literary and extra-literary contexts, and to the poetical ideas of poets. Conceptual integration – Blending Theory – is used in this paper as a theoretical frame. From this perspective a poem is seen as a complex blend, a network of connections which are constructed during the reading and interpreting processes.
Het Nederlandse Hongarije-beeld in de twintigste eeuw in historisch perspectief
Authors: Lukács Gyöngyvér , Marácz László , Thije, ten Jan D.
Published: January 2014

In this paper, we discuss the representation of Hungary and Hungarians in the Netherlands. The focus is on the comparison between two Hungarian historical turning points that received a great deal of attention in the Dutch as well as international press: the Uprising of 1956 and the System Change in 1989-90. The main questions we investigate are: is there a difference in the representation of Hungary and Hungarians in Dutch newspapers between the Uprising and the System Change? How can these differences in the perception of Hungary and Hungarians be traceable? Finally, to what extent does the representation of Hungary and Hungarians in Dutch media change according to the historical contexts in both Hungary and the Netherlands?
Variatie, conventies en verandering - Zeventiende- en achttiende-eeuwse buitgemaakte brieven onder de loep
Authors: Wal, van der Marijke , Rutten Gijsbert
Published: January 2014

This contribution focuses on the historical sociolinguistic research conducted within the Brieven als Buit/Letters as Loot programme at Leiden University (www.brievenalsbuit.nl). At the core of this research are seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Dutch private letters, confiscated by the English during times of warfare. The socio-historical linguistic value of these letters, kept in the National Archives (Kew, UK), will be shown when discussing the autograph status of texts, and examining the specific cases of formulaic language and of forms of address. These three issues are illustrated by presenting two seventeenth-century letters sent from New Netherlands shortly after the historic event of the English taking over. Furthermore, the importance of a reliable electronic corpus, built according to LIP (the Leiden Identification Procedure), will come to the fore. Exploring such a corpus results in unprecedented insights into variation, conventions and in particular, changes of both formulae and forms of address.
Het genus van leenwoorden in het Brussels
Authors: De Vriendt Sera , De Schutter Georges
Published: January 2014

Dans un article paru en 2009, De Schutter et Taeldeman ont analysé le genre des emprunts nominaux dans les dialectes de six régions situées en Belgique. Il apparaît que l’attribution du genre dans la région bruxelloise peut être considérée
comme très hétérogène (instable), par rapport aux dialectes de quatre autres régions, à savoir la Flandre centrale, l’ouest de la province d’Anvers, la zone de transition entre la Flandre Orientale et le Brabant Flamand, ainsi que le Brabant
méridional. C’est aussi le cas des données obtenues dans la région côtière de la Flandre Occidentale, ce qui peut toutefois s’expliquer d’une manière différente. À Bruxelles l’extrême variété
ne semble pas être due à des facteurs intralinguistiques, mais bien uniquement, ou du moins d’une manière prépondérante, à des aspects extérieurs, sociolinguistiques donc, de la situation bruxelloise, à savoir l’ensemble complexe
de relations  des locuteurs bruxellois vis-à-vis des deux langues, la langue d’origine (le français) et la langue d’accueil (le dialecte local). Le présent article porte essentiellement sur la problématique du genre des noms d’emprunt dans
le dialecte bruxellois. L’attribution d’un genre à ces substantifs peut être considérée comme le résultat d’une interaction intense entre divers facteurs internes (aux langues considérées) et externes: d’une part :
la structure du mot (structure syllabique et place de l’accent tonique), les caractéristiques phonotactiques (concernant aussi bien le début que la fin du mot), la similitude ou la différence formelle par rapport au mot dans la langue d’origine, une catégorie
sémantique spécifique (en l’occurrence les noms de plantes)d’autre part des caractéristiques personnelles des locuteurs : leur âge, la langue de l’école qu’ils ont fréquentée, le rôle respectif des langues de
culture (le français, mais aussi le néerlandais) dans leur vie professionnelle et familiale (ce dernier point pouvant expliquer, peut-être, les différences constatées entre informateurs masculins et féminins). Tous ces facteurs peuvent être déterminants
dans la conservation du genre original (français) dans le dialecte récepteur (bruxellois). Il semble bien que ces divers facteurs jouent un certain rôle dans l’attribution du genre aux noms empruntés dans l’ensemble des dialectes brabançons (ce
qui est suggéré, mais n’a pas pu être étudié dans cet article). Il se pourrait que les facteurs intralinguistiques gagnent en importance au fur et à mesure que l’on s’éloigne de Bruxelles.
Observation enhances third-party punishment only among people who were not hot-tempered
Authors: Horita Yutaka , Takezawa Masanori
Published: January 2014

The evolution of punishment toward norm-violators has been discussed for understanding a large-scale human cooperation. Recent studies showed that the presence of cues of surveillance makes people concern about their reputation and increase altruistic behavior. Recent study also suggests that explicit cues of observation affect punitive behavior. We examined whether both explicit (being observed by an experimenter) and implicit cues (drawing of stylized eyes) of observation enhance third-party punishment. The results of the experiments with Japanese participants showed that both type of cues of observation increased third-party punishment only among those who did not feel anger toward an unfair allocator. In contrast, the cues suppressed the punishment when participant felt stronger anger toward an allocator. Moderating effect of emotion is interpreted as a cultural norm of emotional expression. Our study suggests that we humans are endowed with the psychological system inducing third-party punishment in response to cues of being observed while its function may be moderated by cultural factors.
An experiment to measure raindrop collection efficiencies: influence of rear capture
Authors: Quérel A. , Lemaitre P. , Monier M. , Porcheron E. , Flossmann A. I. , Hervo M.
Published: January 2014

Abstract. The analysis of radioactive aerosol scavenged by rain after the Chernobyl accident highlights certain differences between the modelling studies and the environmental measurements. Part of these discrepancies can probably be attributed to uncertainties in the efficiencies used to calculate aerosol particle collection by raindrops, particularly drops with a diameter larger than one millimetre. In order to improve the issue of these uncertainties, an experimental study was performed to close the gaps still existing for this key microphysical parameter. In the present article, attention is first focused on the efficiency with which aerosol particles, in the accumulation mode are collected by raindrops with a diameter of 2 mm. The collections efficiencies measured for aerosol particle in the sub-micron range are quantitatively consistent with previous theoretical model developed by Beard (1974) and thus highlight the major role of rear capture in the submicron range.
Estimating the avalanche contribution to the mass balance of debris covered glaciers
Authors: Banerjee A. , Shankar R.
Published: January 2014

Abstract. Avalanche from high head walls dominates the net accumulation in many debris covered glaciers in the Himalaya. These avalanche contributions are difficult to directly measure and may cause a systematic bias in glaciological mass balance measurements. In this paper we develop a method to estimate the avalanche contribution using available data, within the context of an idealised flowline model of the glacier. We focus on Hamtah glacier in Western Himalaya and estimate the magnitude of the avalanche accumulation to its specific mass balance profile. Our estimate explains the reported discrepancy between values of recent glaciological and geodetic net mass balance for this glacier. Model estimate of accumulation area ratio (AAR) for this glacier is small (0.1) even at a steady state. This shows that empirical mass balance–AAR relationships derived from glaciers which do not have a significant avalanche contribution will not apply to a large region containing a significant fraction avalanche fed ones.
Definiciones y espacialidades de barrio -arrabal, parroquia, districto y suburbio- y términos afines. Recife: los barrios centrales y del ‘Conjunto Urbano de Casa Forte’
Authors: Leao Barros Sandra
Published: January 2014

La definición de barrio y las cuestiones que lo limitan corresponden al eje central de este estudio. Los barrios son líneas en un plano, pero líneas llenas de significados que contienen, sobre el casco físicogeográfico, diversas matrices socio-económicas e histórico-culturales que los hacen únicos. Los dos conjuntos de barrios estudiados en esta investigación, son significativos polígonos de Recife, parte de la esencia misma de la ciudad, en un sentido no sólo de identidad íntegra y plena, sino también de complementariedad y solidaridad. Son límites abstractos en un sentido, concretísimos en otro, cuya discusión traspasa, y mucho, el ámbito de una tesis. El barrio siempre es tema del orden del día en el planeamiento urbano actual, es, antes de todo, la escala del cotidiano, del (re) conocimiento del ciudadano delante del espacio que habita.
Explorando el hacinamiento en condominios sociales
Authors: Fuentes Maturana Marco
Published: January 2014

Los condominios sociales, conocidos genéricamente como “block” de departamentos, han ido evidenciando con el paso de los años una serie de deficiencias. Estas se han materializado en ampliaciones irregulares, apropiaciones de terrenos, fallas constructivas, entre varias otras. El presente artículo es parte de una investigación realizada el año 2011, que buscó indagar en los problemas que presenta cierta tipología de condominio social, para posteriormente aportar en la búsqueda de soluciones frente a tales inconvenientes. A continuación, se exponen las principales observaciones rescatadas de dicho proceso, el cual se realizó a través de entrevistas semi estructuradas a habitantes de dos conjuntos sociales de la región metropolitana. Finalmente, y de modo complementario a las conclusiones se reflexiona respecto a ciertas normativas que deberían ser revisadas con el fin de evitar que se repliquen los problemas detectados en los dos casos de estudio.
Effects of Diversification Strategies on US Restaurant Firms' Performance
Authors: Kang Kyung Ho , Lee Seoki
Published: January 2014

Although diversification strategies in the US restaurant industry are actively implemented with strategic importance, research on the effects of diversification on firm value has been rare. This study investigates the individual effect of geographical diversification and brand diversification on firm value in the US restaurant industry context. Furthermore, to investigate the effects of diversification more comprehensively, this study examines whether or not brand diversification moderates the relationship between geographical diversification and the value of US restaurant firms. The study finds an insignificant effect of geographical diversification on firm performance, a negative effect of brand diversification on performance and a negative moderating effect of brand diversification on the geographical diversification–firm performance relationship.
How Do We Help Customers Cope with Freezing Temperatures?
Authors: Turcmanovich Susan
Published: January 2014

Every winter, many homeowners face the expense and inconvenience of frozen water pipes. Utilities can help customers take the worry out of cold weather consequences by communicating a few simple precautions.
La souffrance éthique au travail : L’éthique du care comme cadre d’analyse critique et comme prospective dans le champ de la santé et des services sociaux
Authors: Gonin Audrey , Grenier Josée , Lapierre Josée-Anne
Published: January 2014

Dans le champ de la santé et des services sociaux, la souffrance éthique au travail de bon nombre d’intervenantes ou d’intervenants est un phénomène à présent bien documenté en Amérique du Nord et en Europe. En croisant discussion théorique et analyse de données empiriques, cet article se propose d’une part de montrer en quoi la perspective de l’éthique du care peut être pertinente pour analyser certaines des sources de la souffrance éthique dans le champ de l’intervention sociale et, d’autre part, de montrer comment cette perspective éthique et théorique ouvre des avenues pour repenser et réorganiser les pratiques dans le champ de la santé et des services sociaux.
Effective Project-Oriented Approach for Training Professional Mechanical Engineers in Undergraduate Education
Authors: Cheng Wenming , Wu Xiao , Zhang Zeqiang , Liu Fang , Zhang Min , Guo Peng
Published: January 2014

In order to produce excellent engineers, we focus on developing the practical and innovating ability of senior students in mechanical engineering by using an effective project-oriented approach. At Southwest Jiaotong University, based on university–industry cooperation and professional support, students can be fully involved in ‘real world’ projects within industry. The main pedagogical objectives of this approach are: to improve the practical ability of students; to give them the opportunity to explore and solve problems with a real application; to deepen their understanding of the course; and to promote multidisciplinary work (mechanics, mechanical design, computer science and computer-aided design). The project is carried out by different groups of students and is organized by professors at the university. In order to present the process of the teaching approach, a typical case is reported. With this project-based approach, the various abilities of undergraduate students can be improved, and they can be better adapted to the needs of prospective employers.
A Design Model and Tackles for Systematic Conceptual Design
Authors: Nam Tek-Jin , Childs Peter R. N. , Sohn Minjung
Published: January 2014

Systematic design models are useful in the professional education of both designers and engineers; they also support complex multi-faceted design activities that involve a large number of individuals. This paper introduces a range of design models, but then focuses on the linked node model, which uses nodes to indicate the properties of an outcome and links to show the connections between the nodes. The model is based on the premise that good design serves to generate a harmoniously integrated outcome. The paper also explores a range of tools and ‘design tackles’ that can be used in a systematic approach to design. Finally, it introduces a design project aimed at creating better user experiences in Dongdaemun market in Seoul, Korea.
Do Trichodesmium spp. populations in the North Atlantic export most of the nitrogen they fix?
Authors: McGillicuddy Dennis J.
Published: January 2014

A new observational synthesis of diazotrophic biomass and nitrogen fixation provides the opportunity for systematic quantitative evaluation of these aspects in biogeochemical models. One such model of the Atlantic Ocean is scrutinized, and the simulated biomass is found to be an order of magnitude too low. Initial attempts to increase biomass levels through decreasing grazing and other loss terms caused an unrealistic buildup of nitrate in the upper ocean. Two key changes to the model structure facilitated a closer match to the observed biomass and nitrogen fixation rates: addition of a pathway for export of diazotrophically fixed organic material and uptake of inorganic nitrogen by the diazotroph population. These changes, along with a few other revisions to existing model parameterizations, facilitate more accurate simulation of basin‐scale distributions of diazotrophic biomass, as well as mesoscale variations contained therein. The resulting solutions suggest that the Trichodesmium spp. populations of the North Atlantic export the vast majority of the nitrogen they fix, a finding that awaits assessment through direct observation.
Parallel decadal variability of inferred water temperatures for Northern and Southern Hemisphere intermediate water masses
Authors: Thresher Ronald , Morrongiello John , Sloyan Bernadette M. , Krusic‐Golub Kyne , Shephard Samuel , Minto Cóilín , Nolan Conor P. , Cerna Francisco , Cid Luis
Published: January 2014

We use a novel proxy (growth rates of long‐lived deep water fish, orange roughy) to reconstruct inferred water temperatures of intermediate water masses in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres since the mid‐1800s. The data are consistent with instrumental records showing long‐term warming in the Northern Hemisphere but also indicate decadal variability of intermediate depth temperatures that is coherent across the two hemispheres. This variability correlates with the dominant subpolar annular mode in each hemisphere and implies a bihemispheric oceanic response to external forcing that influences the properties of intermediate depth water masses.
Sampling
Authors: Iratzoqui Amaia , Cohn Ellen G.
Published: January 2014

A sample is a subset of elements within a total population of interest to a researcher. Samples are used in research to draw conclusions about the population, without the expense, time and resources required to study the entire population. In order to be effective, sampling procedures that help to ensure that the sample is representative of the population must be used.
Secondary Data Analysis
Authors: B. Perkins Elizabeth
Published: January 2014

Secondary data analysis, the utilization of information previously gathered for other purposes, is one of the most commonly utilized forms of criminological research conducted today. This approach allows research to be conducted effectively, with a relatively small investment of time and money.
School Crime and Violence
Authors: Stansfield Richard
Published: January 2014

Crime and violence are problems that affect virtually every school to some degree or other. In the aftermath of highly publicized school shootings, the perception of imminent danger in the classroom has become commonplace in communities across the United States. Despite the attention paid to mass shootings, weapons, and gangs in schools, students are far more likely to encounter nonlethal violence. School shootings, weapon carrying, and school violence in general have been in decline for a number of years. Nevertheless, as a broad response to low confidence in public school systems, and a more generalized fear of disorder, school security programs have undergone radical change in recent years. Amidst tighter security and strict rule enforcement, disciplinary matters have come to be handled more formally under a zero‐tolerance policy. School violence is undoubtedly a persistent social problem, and measures to ensure safety must be taken. An important step towards this, however, is ensuring that such measures are based on accurate assessment of the true extent of threats to student safety.
Victim/Witness Services in Juvenile Court
Authors: M. Pinchevsky Gillian , M. Wright Emily
Published: January 2014

A separate entity from adult criminal courts, juvenile courts try and pass judgments for crimes committed by children and adolescents under the age of 18. Juveniles processed within these courts are subjected to different procedural and sanctioning practices than their adult counterparts. A description of the history of the juvenile court is provided, followed by a discussion of the victims' rights movement, which expanded the role of victims within both criminal adult and juvenile courts. Finally, a synopsis of the role of victims throughout various stages of the juvenile court process is offered.
Employee Theft
Authors: Smith Brian T.
Published: January 2014

Employee theft is considered a form of white‐collar crime. The concept of white‐collar crime was first introduced by Edwin Sutherland in his 1939 presidential address to the American Society of Criminology. Most scholars now agree that white‐collar crime is presently a very broad subject. Historically, white‐collar crime has been thought of as crimes committed by executives in any corporate setting. This is a common misconception in that theft by employees can occur from any position within an employer's chain of command. Whether an entry‐level worker takes office supplies or a CEO embezzles millions of dollars, both employees have committed employee theft. White‐collar crime is divided into two crime categories, occupational and corporate crime. Presently, scholars regard employee theft as an occupational crime. However, scholars have been unable to accept a universally conclusive definition of employee theft.
Initial Appearance
Authors: Vaughn Robert , Cencich John
Published: January 2014

The initial appearance is a formal stage in the criminal justice process, whereby a defendant is brought before a court of law. This entry explains the purposes of the initial appearance, the difference between an initial appearance and an arraignment, and various implications regarding the timing of the hearing.
Status Offenders/Offenses
Authors: Mahoney Margaret , Farina Katie A.
Published: January 2014

Status offenders are a specific offender group whose illegal behavior is only viewed as illegal because they are under the age of majority. The same actions committed by those above the age of majority would not be viewed as illegal. Truancy, running away from home, incorrigibility (e.g., disobeying parents/guardians), violating curfew, and alcohol possession are the most common status offenses.
Schools
Authors: Donner Christopher M.
Published: January 2014

This entry provides an overview of crime in schools. It discusses the nature of crime in schools, as well as risk factors of school crime and safety measures employed to reduce it. Specific attention is paid to victimization rates and patterns. Also discussed are the roles of bullying, cyberbullying, gangs, fear of crime, and weapon possession. The impact of school resource officers and other security measures at schools is evaluated. The entry concludes with a brief discussion of violence at colleges and universities.
Torture
Authors: D. H. Koeppel Maria
Published: January 2014

Brutal forms of interrogation and punishment are nothing new to the criminal justice system. This article examines the different ways various cultures have used torture during interrogations over the millennia. Amongst the most prominent examples in Western culture are the Salem witch trials and the Spanish Inquisition. Rather than being a remnant of the ancient world, countries still use torture during interrogations, as witnessed by the authorization of waterboarding of terrorist suspects by the United States in the years following 9/11.
Police Patrol
Authors: Wu Ling
Published: January 2014

This entry briefly discusses the original source of patrol and its “watching” function in history, as well as the ways in which patrol functions have expanded to make patrol a multipurpose system in modern times. The specific tasks that form patrol work, such as random patrol and handling calls for services, are then described. Emphasis is placed on the significance of patrol work to the business of policing and to every police officer's career. Important developmental stages of patrol are finally reviewed; these include the dramatic change of traditional patrol due to new technologies (especially automobiles and two‐way radios), the revival of foot patrol in the context of community policing, and the recent innovation of hot spots patrol.
Overcriminalization
Authors: Shackelford Kyrstin L.
Published: January 2014

Overcriminalization is becoming a topic of significant social concern. Criminal justice professionals do not unanimously agree on a definition for overcriminalization, but agree that it is a term that is better understood in specific scenarios. The lack of an universal definition is attributed to the complex nature of the topic. This complexity is attributed to a variety of factors and offenses that include: overlapping offenses, ancillary offenses, inchoate offenses, vicarious liability offenses, and judicially mistaken offenses. Further instances of overcriminalization are attributed to the uncontrollable creation of new criminal law. While no specific solution has been determined, criminal justice professionals have offered a variety of solutions to addressing the issue of overcriminalization that include: decriminalizing certain offenses, utilization of the principal of proportionality, utilizing the doctrine of desuetude, and utilizing a cost‐benefit analysis when creating new legislation. Although solutions have been proposed, a general lack of empirical evidence indicates that further research needs to be conducted before a more accurate solution to the issue of overcriminalization can be found and utilized.
Professionalism in Corrections
Authors: McConnell Elizabeth H.
Published: January 2014

The profession of corrections is characterized by practices and standards for its improvement and maintenance, and the dissemination of knowledge. This entry examines the history, characteristics, development, and contributions of correctional professionalism. It also evaluates the role of professional associations such as the American Correctional Association, the American Probation and Parole Association, and the American Jail Association.
Intermediate Sanctions
Authors: Homant Robert J.
Published: January 2014

Intermediate sanctions are corrections options that are less restrictive than a normal jail or prison sentence but more restrictive than standard probation or parole. The most common intermediate sanctions are intensive supervision, electronic monitoring, and boot camp. These options were first developed in the early to mid 1980s as a response to prison overcrowding. There is some concern that rather than reducing prison populations, intermediate sanctions have resulted in increasing the number of offenders under correctional supervision. Although some net‐widening has occurred, some authorities see this as beneficial. Intermediate sanctions have succeeded in providing a broader range of sentencing options, some cost savings, and has not diminished deterrence.
Rampage Killings
Authors: Bonner Mkay
Published: January 2014

Rampage killings involve multiple murders, usually in a short interval of time. This entry presents rampage killings as mass murder. Workplace shootings and school shootings are included. Personality characteristics of the killers are identified. Some examples of rampage killings are presented.
Crime Victims and the Media
Authors: Peelo Moira , Soothill Keith
Published: January 2014

Knowledge about being a crime victim comes through a variety of sources: personal experience, official crime statistics, victim surveys and, most extensively, via mediated accounts. Crime is a popular theme for fiction, film, TV drama as well as news reporting, and media representations of crime either contain or refer to constructions of victimhood. It is the role of researchers to unpack the images and assumptions implicit in media narratives and to test how much they help us to understand crime, justice, and the experience of victims.
Terrorism, Domestic
Authors: Rabe‐Hemp Cara
Published: January 2014

While the United States has suffered less than the United Kingdom, Spain, Israel, and Italy from international terrorism, it has suffered a significant amount of terrorism in the past half‐century, most of which has been domestic. Terrorist attacks in the United States have involved limited violence by small ideological groups, political extremists, and foreign nationals. These groups range along the classical ideological continuum from extreme right‐wing groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan, the Order, the Aryan Nations, and the Christian Identity Movement, to the left‐wing ones represented by the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), Weather Underground, and Black Panthers. From 1954 to 2000, domestic terrorism accounted for about 80% of all terrorist incidents and 88% of all fatalities. However, since September 11, 2001, most domestic terrorism has gone unnoticed. There are several potential reasons for the lack of notoriety in addressing domestic terrorism, including the debate in defining domestic terrorism, complicated official record‐keeping, and a new‐found focus on international terrorism by the Homeland Security Department. It is important to understand past threats to counter modern domestic terrorist attacks.
Policy Research
Authors: Lamphere Renee , Clevenger Shelly
Published: January 2014

Policy research is a process in which researchers explore social problems within a society. The ultimate goal of policy research is to provide suggestions and recommendations for policy makers on ways to lessen these social problems. While theoretical and policy research are different in many ways, they do overlap with each other in an important way: theoretical research may be used to uncover potential policy implications, and policy research may be informed by theoretical frameworks.
Corrections Officers
Authors: Osborne Kimberly T.
Published: January 2014

Correctional officers, often referred to as prison guards or jailers, work in correctional institutions such as jails and prisons. They are similar to law enforcement officers as they are responsible for enforcing rules and policies of correctional facilities. Correctional officers' main duties are to control, manage, and watch over the inmates incarcerated in correctional facilities. In recent years duties and responsibilities of correctional officers have greatly increased. Their responsibilities continue to include discipline and management of inmates; however, now it is necessary for correctional officers to actively aid in the rehabilitation of prisoners. Correctional officers find themselves in numerous roles throughout their careers, such as therapist, diplomat, caretaker, and disciplinarian.
Victim–Offender Relationship
Authors: M. McQuade Kate
Published: January 2014

A significant amount of crime consists of acquaintance or family crime and interpersonal crime. The relationship between offenders and their victims has been looked at in many contexts, including proximity to home, duration of stalking, method of homicide, and fear of rape or sexual assault. Research has found that the degree of intimacy that exists between victims and offenders has traditionally been seen as a major variable in the outcome in cases of violent crimes in the criminal justice system.
Disproportionate Minority Contact
Authors: Adams Benjamin
Published: January 2014

Disproportionate minority contact (DMC) refers to the overrepresentation of minority youth in the juvenile justice system. Overrepresentation does not necessarily imply discrimination; however, it does denote situations where a larger proportion of one group is present than would be expected based on its proportion in the general population. Overrepresentation may result from disparities in the juvenile justice system where demographic groups experience different probabilities of receiving the same outcome. Several reviews of existing literature have found that minority youth are overrepresented at most stages of the juvenile justice system; however, individual studies are not entirely consistent in identifying causes or factors that contribute to DMC or the strategies to effectively reduce it. While the US Congress made DMC a national policy issue in the late 1980s by mandating that states address minority overrepresentation in the juvenile justice system, some argue that federal efforts have yielded few tangible results. It is without question that efforts to address racial and ethnic disparities have increased in recent years and with them the research and practice literature has grown considerably.
Judicial Training
Authors: Walker Bahiyyah A.
Published: January 2014

This entry provides a brief overview of the process by which US judges are professionally trained and educated, some of the challenges faced in creating current and comprehensive training programs, and what new developments and technologies are being created to assist judges in their duty as fair and impartial adjudicators.
Group Homes/Foster Care
Authors: Schall Victoria L.
Published: January 2014

Because of a variety of issues, both current and historical, youths involved in the child welfare system (referred to as “dependent children”) and sent to out‐of‐home placement face a variety of problems. Due to maltreatment, foster care institutions, and developmental disruption, many of these youths become dually involved in the juvenile justice system, and face long‐term problems.
Indeterminate Sentencing
Authors: Paratore Jason M. , Bowman Jourdan E.
Published: January 2014

An indeterminate sentence is one in which judges specify both a minimum and maximum length of a sentence. This allows administrative agencies, usually probation or parole, to release rehabilitated offenders anytime between the minimum and maximum sentence dates. Indeterminate sentencing, integral to the medical model, allowed for individualized treatment and rehabilitation of offenders. It replaced many determinate sentences, also known as fixed or flat sentences. Sentencing disparity is one criticism of indeterminate sentences; however, proponents believe it motivates offenders to participate in rehabilitation and allows officials authority to release offenders when judged rehabilitated.
McKay,Henry
Authors: Prior Nicole
Published: January 2014

Henry Donald McKay is most famous for his work with Clifford Shaw at the University of Chicago's Institute for Social Research and the development of social disorganization theory. The two scholars are credited with establishing the Chicago Area Project, which assisted residents in community improvement efforts to lower crime.
Driving Under the Influence
Authors: Conley Timothy B.
Published: January 2014

Each year, millions of Americans are arrested and many of them convicted for the crime of driving under the influence (DUI), variously referred to by state and jurisdiction as operating under the influence (OUI); driving while intoxicated (DWI); operating while impaired (OWI); operating a motor vehicle intoxicated (OMVI); driving under the combined influence of alcohol and/or other drugs; driving under the influence per se, or drunk in charge of a vehicle. Less common acronyms include operating a vehicle (while) impaired (OVI), and Driving While Ability Impaired (DWAI). Laws regarding impaired driving originally targeted only alcohol as this was the most predominant problem, but more recent statutes have been enacted to address the growing concern with impairment due to other legal and/or illegal drugs including prescription medications. Currently, prescription drug abuse is on the rise and newer detection methods, laws, and penalties are developing to keep pace. Detection of the medication impaired driver is more difficult than for the alcohol impaired driver as medications do not register on breath scans, requiring more invasive and expensive blood tests.
Deviance
Authors: ROBERTSON Jessica L.
Published: January 2014

Deviance can be a hard word to define because the concept is used in many different contexts. Many sociological theories define the theory of deviance, but these definitions differ. Deviance was first clearly defined by Lemert. Since then, the term has been defined in various ways and is still commonly used in fields such as criminology and sociology. With respect to criminology, deviance occurs when someone engages in conduct that is against norms, values, or laws. Because this definition of deviance is culture‐dependent, it is difficult to reach an objective consensus as to what conduct is actually deviant. Unfortunately, this lack of definitional consensus has led to various problems in the legal system, as well as in policy.
White‐collar Crimes
Authors: Brightman Hank J.
Published: January 2014

The study of violent crime is rooted in several hundred years of theological, biological, sociological, and psychological theories. Explanations for such behaviors range from persons being possessed by evil spirits to an abnormality in the brain's prefrontal cortex. In contrast, research into white‐collar criminality is a relatively new endeavor—scarcely more than 70 years old. It is grounded in the work of Edwin Sutherland and those he directly influenced, including Donald Cressey and Marshall Clinard.
Psychological Theories of Crime
Authors: Lewis J. Scott
Published: January 2014

The various theories that make up the psychological approach to explaining crime begin with the assumption that individual differences in personality, biology, or social interactions predispose certain people to criminal acts. These theories are usually expressed in developmental terms and rooted in motivational and learning processes. Many psychological theories of crime also attempt to explain the development of inhibiting factors—for instance the development of conscience, or the internalization of normative rules.
Prisons, Privatization of
Authors: Parsons‐Pollard Nicolle , Moriarty Laura J.
Published: January 2014

This entry on the privatization of prisons provides a thorough overview of private prisons. It focuses on the strengths and weaknesses of moving from a public forum to a private enterprise, as well as on the impetus for moving from public to private; it evaluates the literature regarding the success (i.e., cost savings) of the movement; and gives some examples of private companies that have moved into the public domain.
Criminal Identification, History of
Authors: Mauck Ryan Melissa
Published: January 2014

This entry highlights the advances in criminal investigation over the past 250 years. The author traces these advances to the crime problems wrought by urbanization and the industrial revolution in England. Some techniques such as fingerprinting can be traced back to antiquity, while most are the result of advances in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Racial Profiling
Authors: Bratina Michele P.
Published: January 2014

Racial profiling of individuals in US society has occurred since the inception of modern policing, and has been institutionalized as a systemic aspect of police culture. Allegations of racial profiling by law enforcement personnel need to be scientifically investigated. This entry delineates some of the methodological issues and challenges involved in scientifically investigating claims of racial profiling, including (often) unreliable and inaccurate police data, determining the types of data most appropriate for analysis, the use of quantitative and qualitative analyses, the determination of appropriate benchmarks against which police behavior can be evaluated, and the possible causes of racial disparities in the data. Comprehensive studies of racial profiling should take these methodological issues and challenges into account, so as to produce a more complete representation of the racial dynamics that occur during police‐citizen interactions.
Legal Profession, History of
Authors: Nolasco Claire
Published: January 2014

From the early colonial period to the end of the seventeenth century, the American legal profession was hampered by lack of a stable body of law and lack of adequate training facilities within the colonies. The end of the seventeenth century was marked by reforms in legal education and stricter requirements for admission to the bar. Dean Christopher Langdell's casebook method introduced in the Harvard Law School and adopted in most law schools nationwide led to the formalization of legal education. The development of state and national bar associations further led to the professionalization of the legal industry.
Entrapment
Authors: Popojas Dennis
Published: January 2014

Entrapment is an affirmative defense to criminal charges based on policy restricting the government from engaging in improper activity to prompt a criminal act by a defendant who lacks the predisposition to participate in criminal activity. The use of entrapment is most often seen in vice cases, undercover drug operations, and bribery cases.
Smuggling of Cultural Artifacts
Authors: Balcells Marc
Published: January 2014

The smuggling of cultural artifacts, as a form of criminality against art and cultural heritage, implies the looting of archeological sites with a disregard for the correct proceedings of the archaeological method, and subsequent illicit trafficking with the goal of obtaining a commercial gain. Although it is very difficult to assess the extent of these attacks on cultural artifacts, research indicates the vast number of archaeological items being trafficked and the estimated revenues from this form of traffic. A very important aspect of these smuggling operations is the markets where the cultural artifacts end up, which differ from other markets for trafficked goods. Examples of the smuggling of cultural artifacts illustrate the global magnitude of this criminal enterprise.
Dark Figure of Crime (Problems of Estimation)
Authors: Penney Terry L.
Published: January 2014

Although an organized reporting system exists that includes the UCR, NIBRS, NVCS and self‐reports, an even greater number of unreported crimes form the dark figure of crime. The term “dark figure of crime” was first used by the Belgian mathematician and sociologist Adolphe Quetelet in 1832. The dark figure of crime is crime that is neither reported nor recorded by law enforcement agencies. The dark figure includes criminal incidents/occurrences that meet the definition of recordable crime that are not recorded in official statistics.
Loansharking
Authors: Mayer Robert
Published: January 2014

Loansharking is the popular term for extortionate credit transactions in which an unlicensed lender uses criminal means to collect an expensive or usurious debt. It is a form of blackmarket credit often associated with organized crime. When the debtors fall behind in their payments, the Mob lenders may threaten to beat or kill them as a way to compel repayment. This entry explains how loansharking first emerged in the United States, how it was transformed into a criminal enterprise, and how these transactions have been typically conducted. It also explains why this type of illegal credit has diminished in scope in recent decades.
Subcultural Theories of Crime
Authors: Black Pamela
Published: January 2014

Subcultural theories of criminality view criminal behavior asnormallearned behavior. Cultural or subcultural theories of crime focus on the content of learned behavior rather than the process of learning that behavior. For example, Miller used lower‐class culture to explain delinquent behavior amongst lower‐class youths, stating that deviance is normative in lower‐class cultures. Akers' social learning theory focuses on the process by which individuals internalize deviant norms (e.g., when and why do people elect to adopt norms favorable to deviance?). Subcultural theories tend to focus on class and ethnic cultures, including lower social class, inner‐city communities, and even rural southern subcultures.
Transnational Gangs
Authors: M. Boyd Lorenzo , Joseph Janice
Published: January 2014

Traditionally, gang activities have been a localized phenomenon. However, in recent years some gangs have transformed themselves into international gangs. With the massive and rapid expansion of technology, the free movement of people across national and international borders, and increased use of the media, gangs have become globalized. This entry examines the nature and extent of transnational gangs, and their activities. It also examines some of the counter‐gang strategies that have been employed by governments to control the spread of these gangs.
Careers in Corrections
Authors: Blevins Kristie R.
Published: January 2014

The field of corrections offers a wide range of employment opportunities for individuals looking to work in the criminal justice system. Some of the positions, such as correctional officer, warden, probation officer, and parole officer, are unique to the discipline of corrections. Other options, however, are positions that are found in the free community but catered to fit the needs of offenders in the correctional system. For example, there are prison physicians (sometimes called medical officers), nurses, dentists (often referred to as dental officers), dental hygienists, chaplains, counselors, psychologists, and psychiatrists.
Private Police Services
Authors: Dennis Lee Heeuk
Published: January 2014

The number of people working in private security is greater than the number of individual officers engaging in public law enforcement; however, private police and security have generally escaped the notice of policing literature. Private security is clearly the nation's primary protective resource, and private security officers focus more on crime prevention than on crime fighting to protect people, records, merchandise, money, and equipment. However, there has been a lack of personnel standards and training for private security employees. Private police personnel will be required to prove that the members' knowledge and skill in the development of security policies and procedures have improved. Many researchers suggest upgrading employee quality, requiring mandatory training, increasing police knowledge of private security, and expanding the interaction between police and private security providers in order to improve the quality of private police services.
Ethics and Criminal Justice Professions
Authors: Hodge Susan S. , Walker Taurean
Published: January 2014

This article examines the different conceptualizations of ethical versus unethical behavior, how history has defined ethics over time, and why social scientists and practitioners alike should continue to understand the pros and cons of ethical and unethical behaviors. It takes a first‐hand look at the different types of ethical and unethical behaviors practiced by adjudicators and enforcers of the law. Lastly, it takes an in‐depth approach that analyzes the future implications of how the three main components of the criminal justice system dictate the definition of ethics for policy makers of the future.
Cressey, Donald
Authors: J. Greife Matthew
Published: January 2014

Donald Cressey's work established his position as one of the most prolific criminologists in the United States. His long partnership with Edwin Sutherland ingrained a certain adherence to supporting Differential Association theory throughout most of his career. Cressey is recognized as a leading scholar in the areas of corporate, white‐collar, and organized crime. His work on prison and treatment is a benchmark for innovative avenues to inmate reform.
Crime Mapping
Authors: Hakan Can Salih , Sahapattana Prapon
Published: January 2014

Mapping crime has become a routine function of police departments throughout the world. All segments of the criminal justice system use aspects of crime mapping in their daily routine. In addition, crime mapping has been used to advance criminological theory.