bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Potentially Economic Concentrations of Rare Earth Elements and Gold in Power Plant Coal Combustion Products (Far East, Russia)
Authors: Dugin Sergey V. , Sorokin Anatoly P. , Kuz’minykh Valery M. , Konyushok Andrey A.
Published: February 2022

The distribution of rare earth elements (REE) and gold (Au) in fly ash released during combustion of brown coal from the Pereyaslavskoye (Siberia) and Erkovetskoye (Far East) deposits has been investigated. Coal combustion was carried out in two locations: the boiler unit of the Blagoveshchenskaya coal-fired power plants (CFPP), equipped with an electrostatic precipitator (ESP); and at the Amur Experimental and Technological Complex (ETC) with the aim of separating the combustion products (slag, fly ash, sludge). It was found that in both processes the highest contents of REE (400 and more ppm) and Au (up to 0.29 ppm) are concentrated in fly ash. These characteristics of coals were used as the basis for the author's calculation of the predicted resources of REE and Au under the conditions of the annual operation of firstly one boiler unit, and then five, equipped with an ESP. Further research by the authors will be aimed at improving the degree of recovery of concentrates through the development of technologies at pilot plants such as ETC “Amur”.
Asian American Resistance to Selecting Teaching as a Career: The Power of Community and Tradition
Authors: Gordon June A.
Published: February 2022

In the face of noticeably low interest in K-12 teaching among young Asian American students, interviews first were conducted with undergraduate Asian American students in teacher education programs and then those same students conducted interviews themselves with a variety of Asian Americans in several California communities. Findings suggest the pivotal influence of the traditional Chinese role of teachers in undermining the confidence and interest needed for the choice of a K–12 teaching career by Asian Americans. The main sources of resistance to teaching as a career were identified as: intense pressure from parents to strive for positions perceived as having higher status, greater financial rewards, and stability; a sense of personal inadequacy due to standards set by Chinese culture for what it means to be a teacher; and fear of working outside a comfort zone defined by language, diversity, respect, responsibility for other people's children, and separation of private from public selves. The majority of informants saw race-matched teaching as not valuable or necessary. Differences in American and Chinese traditions of K-12 education are discussed.
Reforming Teacher Preparation and Licensing: What is the Evidence?
Authors: Ballou Dale , Podgursky Michael
Published: February 2022

Using professional self-regulation in medicine as a model, the National Commission for Teaching and America's Future has proposed sweeping changes in the way teachers are trained and licensed. The commission claims that these reforms are well-grounded in a strong base of research. However, a balanced reading of the literature finds far less support for these reforms than the commission has claimed. In many cases the research is misrepresented. Since the commission's proposals would transfer considerable regulatory power out of the public domain into private education organizations, the burden of proof is on the commission to make a convincing case that such changes promote the welfare of the public and not just the interest of the profession. This burden has not been met.
Community Colleges and Contract Training: Content, Origins, and Impact
Authors: Dougherty Kevin J. , Bakia Marianne F.
Published: February 2022

Over the last three decades, most community colleges have broadened their economic development role to include contracting with employers to train current or prospective employees in job and academic skills. This article describes the main contours of the community college's involvement in contract training, explains how this involvement arose, and analyzes its impact on the community college. This analysis is based both on national data on the general prevalence and form of contract training and on case studies of the forms it takes in twenty community colleges in five states servicing five quite different industries. Contract training is sometimes quite elaborate, as in the case of the entry-level training of skilled workers in auto manufacturing, auto repair, and construction. Here the training often involves multiyear apprenticeships, combining both classroom and on-the-job training, with labor unions exercising a major role. But contract training often is much briefer and dominated by the wishes of companies. The origins of contract training lie in a combination both of business pressure and of initiative by community colleges and government bodies pursuing interests and values of their own. Contract training has broadly affected community colleges in such areas as enrollments, revenues, external relations, governance, internal relations, curriculum and pedagogy, and institutional mission. It has brought more students, revenues, and political clout, but also greater business involvement in community college governance and possibly a major redefinition of institutional mission away from education (especially transfer education) toward training.
Opening Classrooms and Improving Teaching: Lessons from School Inspections in England
Authors: Grubb W. Norton
Published: February 2022

Classroom observation is one mechanism for making teaching visible and enhancing instruction. In Great Britain, different methods of school inspection based on observations have been in place since 1839, and they provide information about how such instruments of school reform could work. This paper examines English school inspection prior to 1993 reforms, inspection since 1993, the observation procedures that a few individual schools have adopted, and those of further education colleges (like our community colleges)—all quite different in their procedures and consequences. In particular, the balance of accountability (or control) and support for improvement varies depending on the details and culture of inspection. In the United States some experiments with inspection are now taking place, and several school reforms depend on the quality of teaching. In these cases the lessons from England can help in developing appropriate methods of observation.
Creating a “Connected” Community? Teachers’ Use of an Electronic Discussion Group
Authors: Selwyn Neil
Published: February 2022

As information and communications technology (ICT) becomes more commonplace in educational settings the use of computer mediated communication (CMC) between teachers is increasingly being seen as a valid form of professional dialogue and support. Indeed, the promotion of online discussion groups as “virtual meeting places” for teachers has formed a central part of the UK government's £1 billion drive to make ICT use part of day-to-day practice in British schools. However, amidst the enthusiasm for creating “virtual communities” of teachers, little is known about how educational professionals are using such resources in practice. To this end the present paper reports on a study of UK teachers’ use of an established online discussion group over a two-year period. It shows that, although the online forum was widely being used both as an information and empathetic exchange resource, many of the claims of establishing collectively focused virtual communities of teachers remain exaggerated as the forum was limited by a number of caveats associated with CMC groups in general.
Sliding the Doors: Locking and Unlocking Possibilities for Teacher Leadership
Authors: Silva Diane Yendol , Gimbert Belinda , Nolan James
Published: February 2022

This case study describes the experience of three teacher leaders who attempt to lead from within their classroom. Interview and biographical data were collected and analyzed both within case and across cases. The cases individually describe the experiences of teacher leaders and the cases collectively help us define the components of teacher leadership along with the barriers and facilitators that teacher leaders face. The results of these analyses identify the following assertions: teacher leaders navigate the structures of schools, teacher leaders nurture relationships, teacher leaders model professional growth, teacher leaders help others with change, and teacher leaders challenge the status quo by raising children's voices. These assertions suggest the need for rethinking organizational structures that inhibit as well as facilitate teacher leadership from within the classroom.
Changing Selves: Multicultural Education and the Challenge of New Identities
Authors: Dolby Nadine
Published: February 2022

The concept of identity provides a key framework for multicultural education. Dependent on the idea of the Enlightenment subject, the practices of multicultural education presume a unitary, naturalized self with a stable core. This article questions this formulation of identity and argues that the field must embrace a more dynamic and nuanced notion of self. Using data collected during a one-year ethnographic study of a multiracial high school in Durban, South Africa, I demonstrate how students actively produce self and other relationally. Identity and difference are constituted not through naturalized categories, but instead through practices that have the potential for constant reformation. In conclusion, I examine the implications of these students’ practices for multicultural education, arguing that “difference” must be engaged as a changing, not reified, formation.
Teacher Education and Knowledge in “the Knowledge Society”: The Need for Social Moorings in Our Multicultural Schools
Authors: Grant Carl A. , Wieczorek Kim
Published: February 2022

The idea of knowledge within the field of teacher education is constituted by certain arguments. Our concern is that the discussions of knowledge within teacher education do not include issues of race, class, gender, or power relations. Within this article, we examine pervasive ideas about knowledge, briefly addressing perceptions in popular media, and then move on to discuss the professional literature and especially the idea of a knowledge base for teacher candidates. We look at the idea of a knowledge base for the gaps and ideas that are missing, especially in the area of questioning the effects of social, cultural, and historical movements as well as power relationships. Questioning such discussions about knowledge for teacher educators requires a tool for making connections between such academic discussions and social movements and we present social mooring as such a tool.
Empowering Pedagogies that Enhance the Learning of Multicultural Students
Authors: Ball Arnetha F.
Published: February 2022

In this article, I lay out the tenets of a critical pedagogy and present the details of a study designed to investigate the presence of those tenets within the discourse patterns and pedagogical practices observed in community-based classrooms, which serve as alternative sites of urban multicultural education. Through analyses of the discourses and pedagogies used in the classrooms of three African American female teachers, I investigate the degree to which these teachers are able to challenge their students to consider alternative life possibilities, to become critical thinkers, and to consider transformation of their current life situations and the life situations of others. Through depictions of everyday activities and discourses that occur in these community-based classrooms, I illustrate how, although the overt rhetoric of these organizations is one that often says, “follow the rules… don't challenge lines of authority,” the covert communicative messages in these community-based classrooms were often geared toward encouraging students to develop higher levels of consciousness and the skills needed to take control of and perhaps even transform their existing life experiences. Based on the findings of this investigation, I advocate for the conscious creation of dialogic, multiculturally sensitive classrooms where empowering, dynamic constructions of knowledge can become a reality by expanding upon the strategic uses of discourse patterns and pedagogical practices observed in the classrooms of these African American female teachers.
Motivating People from Privileged Groups to Support Social Justice
Authors: Goodman Diane J.
Published: February 2022

One of the more challenging aspects of multicultural education is engaging people from dominant social groups (e.g., men, whites, heterosexuals) in promoting equity. This article presents a theoretical perspective for understanding what may motivate people from privileged groups to support diversity and social justice. The three main sources of motivation discussed are empathy, moral and spiritual values, and self-interest. The complexities and limitations of each are considered. A model is also proposed that broadens the conception of self-interest. Educational strategies are suggested to address these different sources of motivation. By better understanding what motivates someone to support diversity and equity, educators can more intentionally choose approaches that will engage individuals, and thus more effectively promote personal and institutional change.
Building a Plane While Flying It: Early Lessons from Developing Charter Schools
Authors: Griffin Noelle C. , Wohlstetter Priscilla
Published: February 2022

There has been a rapid increase in past years in both the number of charter schools in the United States and the enthusiasm for the concept among legislators, educators, and the general public. Although high quality teaching and learning have always been key goals of those who have designed and supported charter schools, most research about charter schools has not addressed the instructional and organizational issues associated with creating high quality educational programs. For this article, the authors investigated 17 charter schools focusing on key instructional and organizational practices that charter schools established in their start-up years. The authors identified three major categories of issues the schools dealt with that cut across all sample charter schools: developing curricular and instructional programs, developing a meaningful accountability system, and developing management/leadership systems. In each of these areas, charter schools displayed both strengths that supported their development and challenges that seemed to impede their progress. The authors conclude with recommendations for further research.
The Enduring Effects of Small Classes
Authors: Finn Jeremy D. , Gerber Susan B. , Achilles Charles M. , Boyd-Zaharias Jayne
Published: February 2022

The purpose of this investigation was to extend our knowledge of the effects of small classes in the primary grades on pupils’ academic achievement. Three questions were addressed that have not been answered in previous research: (1) How large are the effects of small classes relative to the number of years students participate in those classes? (2) How much does any participation in small classes in K–3 affect performance in later grades when all classes are full-size? (3) How much does the duration of participation in small classes in K–3 affect the magnitude of the benefits in later grades (4, 6, and 8)? Rationales for expecting the continuing impacts of small classes were derived in the context of other educational interventions (for example, Head Start, Perry Preschool Project). The questions were answered using data from Tennessee's Project STAR, a statewide controlled experiment in which pupils were assigned at random to small classes, full-size classes, or classes with a full-time teaching assistant. Hierarchical linear models (HLMs) were employed because of the multilevel nature of the data; the magnitude of the small-class effect was expressed on several scales including “months of schooling.” The results for question (1) indicate that both the year in which a student first enters a small class and the number of years (s)he participates in a small class are important mediators of the benefits gained. The results for questions (2) and (3) indicate that starting early and continuing in small classes for at least three years are necessary to assure long-term carryover effects. Few immediate effects of participation in a class with a full-time teacher aide, and no long-term benefits, were found. The results are discussed in terms of implications for class-size reduction initiatives and further research questions.
John Dewey's Conundrum: Can Democratic Schools Empower?
Authors: Schutz Aaron
Published: February 2022

Developed at the end of the 1900s, largely in his short-lived Laboratory School at the University of Chicago, John Dewey's vision of democratic education has remained influential for over a century. Yet, as he grew older Dewey himself increasingly lost faith in the ability of schools, alone, to create a more democratic society. Drawing on data available from the Laboratory School, this paper expands upon Dewey's concerns. Ultimately, I argue that Dewey's educational approach failed to equip students to act effectively in the world as it was (and still is), and, further, that Dewey's model of democracy, while extremely useful, is nonetheless inadequate to serve the varied needs of a diverse and contentious society.
Academic-Occupational Integration as a Reform Strategy for the Community College: Classroom Perspectives
Authors: Perin Dolores
Published: February 2022

Community colleges play an important role in educating the nation's workforce, and many students go to these institutions for occupational instruction in order to enter or advance in the labor market. However, community college occupational programs have been criticized for being narrow and insufficiently concerned with literacy and critical thinking. At the same time, academic instruction has been characterized as being irrelevant and unmotivating to students preparing for careers. Integrating occupational and academic instruction may help overcome these problems. A case study examined curriculum and pedagogy in integrated classrooms in seven community colleges in several states. Interviews with faculty and administrators identified purposes, advantages, and disadvantages of this approach. Drawbacks such as the large amount of effort needed to integrate instruction appeared to be outweighed by increases in student learning and faculty motivation. Classroom observations indicated variation in strength of integration, extent of student-centeredness, and explicitness of teaching. Findings suggest that integrated instruction has potential as an educational reform in community colleges but needs to be systematically evaluated. Further, the purposes of academic-occupational integration appear to overlap with those of remediation, suggesting that integrated instruction may be a productive way of addressing literacy weaknesses that are ubiquitous in community colleges.
From High School to Teaching: Many Steps, who Makes It?
Authors: Vegas Emiliana , Murnane Richard J. , Willett John B.
Published: February 2022

In this paper, we focus on the roles that race, ethnicity, and academic skills play in predicting whether high school students persist along each of the various steps of the path into teaching. We show that the challenge of creating a racially and ethnically diverse teaching force is not primarily one of influencing the occupational decisions of minority college graduates. Instead, the critical challenge is to increase the high school graduation, college enrollment, and college graduation rates of minority youth. We use a sequence of four samples originating in the sophomore cohort of High School and Beyond (1992). We explore high school sophomores’ career transitions along each step of the path into teaching—high school graduation, entry into college, college graduation, and entry into teaching.
Frameworks of State: Assessment Policy in Historical Perspective
Authors: Mazzeo Christopher
Published: February 2022

This paper uses archival and secondary sources to examine the early history of state student assessment in the United States. While it is generally accepted that school evaluation and accountability are the raison d'être of assessment policy making in the United States, between 1865 and 1965 an accountability model for state testing failed to take hold, despite numerous attempts. In accounting for these policy developments, this paper stresses the role that institutionalized clusters of normative and causal ideas play in educational policy making. These idea structures—called policy frameworks—define the core principle or principles that animate state action, the legitimate aims served by intervention, and the manner in which these ends are to be achieved. Three frameworks—examination, guidance, and accountability—play a prominent role in the history of assessment policy making in the United States.
Constructing Failure, Narrating Success: Rethinking the “Problem” of Teen Pregnancy
Authors: Schultz Katherine
Published: February 2022

In this article I argue that either the anticipation or the reality of pregnancy and motherhood shaped young women's participation in their senior year in a multiracial urban high school. In my interviews and analyses of public writing and classroom talk, I discovered frequent references to motherhood as young women made ambitious plans for their futures at the same time they worried about children. The article contrasts the discourses of adolescent pregnancy in the mainstream press to the narratives of low-income young women of color in my study. There is a paradox in the narratives I collected: Females without children claimed they could only succeed if they managed to avoid becoming pregnant. Young mothers in the same peer group explained their success or persistence in school as due, in part, to their children. These stories belie simple explanations of the success or failure of females of color living in poverty. The media contentions that these youth don't care, that they have resorted to drugs, babies, and dropping out, fail to acknowledge the complexity of the identities of adolescents living in poverty. In their lives, these young women are actively turning others’ constructions of them as failures into their own narratives of success. I suggest that educators and policy makers use students’ conceptions of the role that pregnancy and motherhood play in their school careers and futures to rethink the “problem” of teen pregnancy and to reimagine and redefine the opportunity structures available for young women in high school and beyond.
Why Education is So Difficult and Contentious
Authors: Egan Kieran
Published: February 2022

This article proposes to explain why education is so difficult and contentious by arguing that educational thinking draws on only three fundamental ideas—that of socializing the young, shaping the mind by a disciplined academic curriculum, and facilitating the development of students’ potential. All educational positions are made up of various mixes of these ideas. The problems we face in education are due to the fact that each of these ideas is significantly flawed and also that each is incompatible in basic ways with the other two. Until we recognize these basic incompatibilities we will be unable to adequately respond to the problems we face.
Emotional Geographies of Teaching
Authors: Hargreaves Andy
Published: February 2022

This paper introduces a new concept in educational research and social science: that of emotional geographies. Emotional geographies describe the patterns of closeness and distance in human interactions that shape the emotions we experience about relationships to ourselves, each other, and the world around us. Drawing on an interview-based study of 53 elementary and secondary teachers, the paper describes five emotional geographies of teacher-parent interactions—sociocultural, moral, professional, physical, and political—and their consequences.
A Different Kind of Child Development Institution: The History of After-School Programs for Low-Income Children
Authors: Halpern Robert
Published: February 2022

Over the past decade politicians and policy makers, the media, child development professionals, and parents have focused increasing attention on the after-school hours of children aged 6 to 14, coming to view this daily time period as one of unusual “risk and opportunity” (Hofferth 1995). Attention to the after-school hours has led in turn to renewed interest in a longstanding child development institution, after-school programs, particularly those serving low- and moderate-income children. This article examines the historical development of after-school programs serving low-income children, including objectives and practices in each era, formative influences, implementation challenges, and role in children's lives. In a final section. the author discusses the current pressures facing the after-school field and suggests an appropriate set of purposes and expectations for the coming years.
Is There a Place for Me? Role Models and Academic Identity among White Students and Students of Color
Authors: Zirkel Sabrina
Published: February 2022

Role models have long been thought to play an important role in young peoples’ development. The present study explores the ways that race- and gender-matched role models can provide young people with a greater sense of the opportunities available to them in the world. A longitudinal study of young adolescents (N = 80) revealed that students who reported having at least one race- and gender-matched role model at the beginning of the study performed better academically up to 24 months later, reported more achievement-oriented goals, enjoyed achievement-relevant activities to a greater degree, thought more about their futures, and looked up to adults rather than peers more often than did students without a race- and gender-matched role model. These effects held only for race- and gender-matched role models—not for non-matched role models. Finally, the results held irrespective of the educational achievements of the specific role model. Data are discussed in terms of their implications for our understanding of the ways that young people become invested in academic pursuits and the means by which we might be able to assist goal development among young people.
Stakeholder Salience: Business and Educational Policy
Authors: Mcdaniel Julie E. , Miskel Cecil G.
Published: February 2022

With the advent of the current school reform movement, an increasing number of interest groups have claimed stakeholder status and have tried to influence educational policy. The purpose of this study is to employ a stakeholder framework to examine the changing salience levels of a state business group as it tried to shape educational policy during a 5-year period of intense state-level reform. Using case study methods, we address the relationship between the changing salience of the group and the dynamic environment of educational policy making.
Globalization and Women in Southeast Asian Higher Education Management
Authors: Luke Carmen
Published: February 2022

This paper draws on data from a group case study of women in higher education management in Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand. I investigate culture-specific dimensions of what the Western literature has conceptualized as “glass ceiling” impediments to women's career advancement in higher education. I frame my argument within recent debates about globalization and “glocalization” to show how the push–pull and disjunctive dynamics of globalization are experienced in local sites by social actors who traverse global flows and yet remain tethered to local discourses, values, and practices. All of the women in this study were trained in Western universities and are fluent English speakers, world-class experts in their fields, well versed with equity discourses, and globally connected on international nongovernment organization (NGO) and academic circuits. They are indeed global cosmopolitans. And yet their testimonies indicate that so-called Asian values and religious-cultural ideologies demand the enactment of a specific construct of Asian femininity that militates against meritocratic equality and academic career aspirations to senior management levels. Despite the global nature of the university and increasing global flows of academics, students, and knowledge, the politics of academic glass ceilings are not universal but always locally inflected with cultural values and norms. As such, the politics of disadvantage for women in higher education require local and situated analyses in the context of global patterns of the educational status of women and the changing nature of higher education.
Local Theories of Teacher Change: The Pedagogy of District Policies and Programs
Authors: Spillane James P.
Published: February 2022

This paper examines district officials’ theories about teacher learning and change, identifying and elaborating three perspectives—behaviorist, situated, and cognitive— based on a study of 9 school districts. The behaviorist perspective on teacher learning dominated among the district officials in the study. The author also considers whether the prominence of the behaviorist perspective on teacher learning among district officials may be cause for concern when it comes to the classroom implementation of the fundamental changes in instruction pressed by state and national standards.
Defining Reflection: Another Look at John Dewey and Reflective Thinking
Authors: Rodgers Carol
Published: February 2022

Thinking, particularly reflective thinking or inquiry, is essential to both teachers’ and students’ learning. In the past 10 to 15 years numerous commissions, boards, and foundations as well as states and local school districts have identified reflection/inquiry as a standard toward which all teachers and students must strive. However, although the cry for accomplishment in systematic, reflective thinking is clear, it is more difficult to distinguish what systematic, reflective thinking is. There are four problems associated with this lack of definition that make achievement of such a standard difficult. First, it is unclear how systematic reflection is different from other types of thought. Second, it is difficult to assess a skill that is vaguely defined. Third, without a clear picture of what reflection looks like, it has lost its ability to be seen and therefore has begun to lose its value. And finally, without a clear definition, it is difficult to research the effects of reflective teacher education and professional development on teachers’ practice and students’ learning. It is the purpose of this article to restore some clarity to the concept of reflection and what it means to think, by going back to the roots of reflection in the work of John Dewey. I look at four distinct criteria that characterize Dewey's view and offer the criteria as a starting place for talking about reflection, so that it might be taught, learned, assessed, discussed, and researched, and thereby evolve in definition and practice, rather than disappear.
Muffled by the Din: The Competitive Noneffects of the Cleveland Voucher Program
Authors: Hess Frederick M. , Mcguinn Patrick J.
Published: February 2022

School choice proponents have hypothesized that market-based education reform will compel traditional public schools to become more effective. We explore this hypothesis by examining how the introduction of the Cleveland voucher experiment in 1995 affected the administration and leadership of the city's public schools. As of the summer of 2001, the program had produced virtually no visible effects. The voucher program has been relatively unthreatening during this time period because of its small size, its uncertain legal prospects, and certain institutional features—some of which are unique to Cleveland and others that characterize most urban school systems. We conclude that choice-based reform may not spur improvement in urban school systems, at least in the short term or when the programs are heavily restricted. The central lesson of the Cleveland case, however, is not that competition cannot cause urban school systems to change; it is that the timing and degree of such changes will be largely a product of the particular educational, political, and organizational context as well as the design of choice programs themselves.
Observation in Teaching: Toward a Practice of Objectivity
Authors: Bulterman-Bos Jacquelien , Terwel Jan , Verloop Nico , Wardekker Wim
Published: February 2022

Because most informal classroom assessment is based on the observation of students by teachers, the purpose of the present study is to construct a view of this assessment that is consistent with the practitioners’ perspective. To find out how teachers frame observation, we analyzed stories of 25 Dutch teachers about teaching diverse learners and focused on what they said about the observation of students. Most attempts to improve observation have recommended the separation of subject and object in an effort to eliminate teachers’ personal frameworks. The present study, however, shows that observation is embedded in the action of teaching. Thus, the realities of the classroom do not allow teachers to separate themselves from what they are observing. An alternative view of objectivity is presented. This transactional view shows that the quality of teachers’ personal frameworks is important and should not be eliminated: The supposition of being neutral and detached hampers the teaching of diverse learners. To prevent self-fulfilling prophecies from influencing student achievement in a negative way, pedagogical craftsmanship is essential. Starting from this view, the reliability and the validity of observation for classroom assessment are reframed in a nonstatistical way. According to this view, social practice plays an important role in deciding whether observation deserves a quality warrant. Apart from an alternative view of concepts such as objectivity, a practice of objectivity requires new ways of constructing theories and mentoring teachers to sharpen their perceptive faculty.
Continuity in how We Think
Authors: Stanic George M. A. , Russell Dee
Published: February 2022

Prawat (2000, 2001) claims that a major discontinuity appeared in John Dewey's thinking in 1915, when Dewey moved away from the thinking of William James to that of Charles Peirce. The change is described as a “dramatic” and “stunning about face” in Dewey's views. We look at one crucial part of Prawat's evidence of discontinuity, the 1910 and 1933 versions of How We Think. Prawat cites passages from the 1933 version to make his case for discontinuity when, often, very similar (even identical) text can be found in the 1910 version. Focusing on Dewey's views on the role of the teacher, the place of aesthetics and ethics in inquiry, the form of concepts, and the generation of ideas, we conclude that Prawat's hypothesis of discontinuity cannot be sustained. The role of the imagination did become more explicit and important in Dewey's work over time, but Prawat fails to see the imagination in Dewey's early work and miscasts development and reconstruction as discontinuity.
Ravitch and Reform: Should Left Back be Left Back?
Authors: Goetz William W.
Published: February 2022

This is a review essay of Diane Ravitch's recent work, Left Back: A Century of Failed School Reforms (Simon & Schuster, 2000). I note in the introduction the impact that educational historians can have on policy making by establishing the historical context for contemporary debate. Relying on my experience in the schools during the reform eras of the century and accompanying sources, I call attention to the tendentiousness of Left Back, the limitations of its documentation, the neglect of important reform movements, and its troubling accusation that there is an elitist attitude in public education that has historically been detrimental to the underprivileged. I argue that public education, including its reformist and experimental elements, have provided unique opportunities for upwardly mobile segments of society without making the humanities the only focus of the school curriculum. I conclude that Left Back is wittingly or unwittingly a part of the contemporary culture wars in which public education is an important battleground. It, therefore, deserves an in-depth analysis and commentary.
The Ambiguity of Test Preparation: A Multimethod Analysis in One State
Authors: Firestone William A. , Monfils Lora , Camilli Gregory , Schorr Roberta Y. , Hicks Jennifer E. , Mayrowetz David
Published: February 2022

We studied test preparation activity among fourth-grade math and science teachers in New Jersey, using a survey of almost 300 teachers and observations of and interviews with almost 60. New Jersey uses a mix of open-ended and multiple-choice tests; links few stakes to test results, except for publication of scores; and offers limited professional development to teachers. New Jersey teachers are adopting specific techniques associated with more inquiry-oriented instruction, but their basic approach does not appear to be changing. Teachers do teach the content on the test with a new wrinkle. When more students are passing a test in one subject area than in another, emphasis shifts to the area with low scores. We found more direct instruction in lower socioeconomic districts but not less inquiry-oriented instruction. Finally, principal support has more influence on the test preparation strategies teachers use than does pressure to comply.
“I Had Never Been Exposed to Teaching like That”: Progressive Teacher Education at Bank Street during the 1930s
Authors: Grinberg Jaime Gerardo Alberto
Published: February 2022

What happens in a teacher education program when control is neither exercised by formal professional or state standards nor by traditional dominant “disabling” market influences (Labaree, 1994)? To answer this question, the focus of this paper is on looking at teacher education through the lenses of pedagogical practices and discourses not in traditional institutions such as normal schools, colleges, and universities but in an alternative institution. Thus, this paper presents detailed accounts and analyzes the practice of the preparation of teachers in a progressive program during the 1930s in New York at Bank Street College of Education. Mostly, these accounts are grounded in the participants’ perspectives, providing data about how this progressive teacher-education program was experienced, and in particular on Lucy Sprague Mitchell's teaching based on data especially composed to describe two courses: (1)Environment (a mix of what today can be called social foundations and social studies methods) and (2)Language (mostly about the writing process).

Bank Street, initially called the Cooperative for Student Teachers and intrinsically connected with experimental schools and a well-known institution among practitioners and progressive educators, was formed in 1930, which were times with heavy ideological discussion given the social and economic American and international contexts. Teaching at Bank Street centered on making experience a subject matter of study, while making connections between learning about children, the self, the world (the social contexts), and schooling, to foster progressive practices in the classroom. This case about pedagogical practices suggest a need to pay closer attention to the teaching of progressive teachers as an important aspect of learning to teach and teacher education improvement beyond dominant discussions about standards, organization, regulations and control of teacher education. This paper shows that it was possible to have a highly intellectual and inquiry-oriented teacher-education program, with a rigorous study of experience, with passion to understand children, subject matter, social contexts, and the self, and with a commitment to justice.
Patriotism, Pedagogy, and Freedom: On the Educational Meanings of September 11th
Authors: Apple Michael W.
Published: February 2022

In this essay I wish to focus on the most local of levels: the complicated ways in which 9011 was experienced phenomenologically by teachers such as myself and the little-known effects it had on pedagogy and on the urge to have schools participate in a complicated set of patriotic discourses and practices that swept over the United States in the wake of the disaster.
Theorizing Feminist Transformation in Higher Education
Authors: Safarik Lynn
Published: February 2022

Over the past several decades, academic feminisms, like other emancipatory knowledges (Bensimon, 1994) that have gained legitimacy in the academy have contributed to a transformation on American campuses that is challenging traditional norms, values, and assumptions across the disciplines in an effort to build communities centered on differences. As a new paradigm for inquiry, feminist scholarship has addressed the relationship between knowledge and its social uses and how patriarchal values have shaped the content and structure of knowledge. Through an in-depth exploration of nine feminists’ worldviews and approaches to teaching and research, this study examined the meaning of transformation for diverse feminists in the setting of a large, urban research institution. Three types of feminism were identified: liberal, critical, and dialogic. Beyond providing rich descriptions of how these different feminists enact a feminist culture, insights about the process of institutional transformation are revealed. The transformative role of internal differentiation and the dialogic process in this feminist community and the significance of an emerging dialogic, feminist discourse have important theoretical implications for understanding how the transformation of an institution is sustained over time.
Knowledge Management for School Leaders: An Ecological Framework for Thinking Schools
Authors: Petrides Lisa A. , Guiney Susan Zahra
Published: February 2022

Although there has been a great deal of recognition in the business world that information and knowledge management can be vital tools in organizations, it is only recently that educational administrators and teachers have begun to look at how they might use information systems to assist in creating effective learning environments. In the business research environment, the evolution from data to information and from information to knowledge plays a leading role in shaping how organizations develop strategies and plans for the future. Using examples from schools, this paper illustrates how knowledge management can enable schools to examine the plethora of data they collect and how an ecological framework can be used to transform these data into meaningful information.
What Happens during the School Day? Time Diaries from a National Sample of Elementary School Teachers
Authors: Roth Jodie L. , Brooks-Gunn Jeanne , Linver Miriam R. , Hofferth Sandra L.
Published: February 2022

The education literature contains many studies of what happens in schools and classrooms, but no documentation of what actually happens to children during an entire school day in a nationally-representative sample of students in the US. This study presents data collected from a nationally-representative sample of teachers of first through fifth graders (N = 553). Teachers completed a time diary, recording exact beginning and ending times for all the target student's school activities for a randomly selected day. We examined students’ total time in school and their activities while there. We found wide variation in the length of the school day based on the student and classroom characteristics. Students attending school for the longest day were significantly more likely to be White and have fewer special needs, and to have smaller classes with a larger percentage of White students and a smaller percentage of students of other races than students attending for less time daily. We grouped students’ activities at school into four categories that accounted for all but 9 minutes of the school day: academic, enrichment, recess, and maintenance activities. We found variations in how students spent their time based on student, family, and classroom characteristics. Teachers of African American students reported spending more time on academic subjects, and less time on enrichment and recess activities than teachers of white students. The same pattern emerged for teachers of more advantaged students, and classrooms with a larger percentage of White students. Results are discussed in terms of school reform efforts and inequality issues.
Reconciling the Pedagogical Goal and the Measurement Goal of Evaluation: The Perspectives of Teachers in the Context of National Standards
Authors: Bulterman-Bos Jacquelien , Verloop Nico , Terwel Jan , Wardekker Wim
Published: February 2022

The intense conflict about whether standardized tests and national standards are appropriate is related to the goals one ascribes to student evaluation: a measurement goal for selection decisions or a pedagogical goal to support the learning process. This study focuses on how teachers balance these two goals. We interviewed 25 teachers who work in a context in which national standards in the final year are combined with classroom evaluation in the first years. The teachers’ perspectives show that both goals can coexist. The national standards cause classroom evaluation to have a measurement function, but many teachers use it to implement a pedagogical goal. Teachers adjust classroom evaluation to encourage better performance in the long run. Referring to the literature, we discuss first whether this practice is appropriate from a pedagogical perspective and then from a measurement perspective. We found that national standards may function as a common reference point when developing a qualitative framework necessary for the interpretive measurement of higher order skills. The side effect of discouraging low achievers is counterbalanced by the use of adjustment strategies to circumvent failing grades. At the same time, national standards counterbalance grade inflation and cause the function of evaluation in stimulating student effort to be retained. This shows that it is possible to reconcile the advantages of the measurement approach and the pedagogical approach to a large extent.
A Manifesto for Instructional Technology: Hyperpedagogy
Authors: Dwight Jim , Garrison Jim
Published: February 2022

We believe hypertext and hypermedia solidify bold and original ideas having the power to open new realms of creative possibility. Unfortunately, we find the new tools encrusted within concepts borrowed from traditional curriculum theory and instructional design. Our goal in this paper is to liberate hypertext; doing so requires challenging Western metaphysics. We rely on the philosophy of John Dewey to disclose this metaphysics and propose an alternative. The paper reviews dominant models of curriculum, especially Ralph Tyler's, revealing their concealed metaphysical assumptions. Our efforts are greatly aided by Herbert M. Kliebard's critique of the Tyler rationale, exposing the fact that, in spite of its inflated claims, all there is to Tyler's rationale is “the philosophical screen.” That is also all we think there is to all the dominant models of curriculum. We show that the philosophical screen is largely comprised of a concealed metaphysics before concluding by showing how hypertext and hypermedia, freed of dogmatic metaphysics, may yield what we call hyperpedagogy, based upon theories of emergent pedagogy and transactional metaphysics.