bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Decreased hormone content of immune cells in children during acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) — Effect of treatment
Authors: Pállinger Éva , Horváth Zsuzsanna , Csóka Mónika , Kovács G. , Csaba G.
Published: March 2011

Histamine, serotonin and triiodothyronine (T3) content of different circulating lymphocyte subsets of leukemic (acute lymphocytic leukemia, ALL) and non-leukemic (control) children were investigated by multicolor flow cytometry. The hormone contents of the cells were followed from the time of diagnosis till the end of treatment. Each hormone could be detected in every time in the investigated cell types, although the amounts of them changed during the treatment.T lymphocytes: Significantly lower amount of serotonin was found in each T cell subsets (Th, Tc and activated T lymphocytes) of leukemic children compared to the healthy control group at the time of diagnosis and it was permanently low during the maintenance therapy. The decreased amount of serotonin could be demonstrated in Tc and Th cells even at one year after the end of treatment. However, there was no alteration in the histamine and T3content of T cell subsets in the time of diagnosis, but significant decrease was detected during the maintenance therapy and after treatment.NK cells: The serotonin and T3contents of NK cells (both NK and NKT subsets) were significantly lower at the time of diagnosis and during the maintenance therapy. Similar decrease was detected in the case of serotonin in B cells. Although there was no difference in the T3content of B cells at the time of diagnosis, significantly lower amounts could be detected during the therapy compared to the healthy control group. The serotonin concentration remained low for years after the end of treatment, both in B and NK cells. These observations might have diagnostic and prognostic importance.
Prevalence of mutations at codon 463 of katG gene in MDR and XDR clinical isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Belarus and application of the method in rapid diagnosis
Authors: Arjomandzadegan M. , Owlia P. , Ranjbar R. , Farazi A. , Sofian Masume , Sadrnia Maryam , Ghaznavi-Rad E. , Surkova Larisa , Titov L.
Published: March 2011

Isoniazid (INH) is a central component of drug regimens used worldwide to treat tuberculosis. In respect to high GC content of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, nonsynonymous mutations are dominant in this group. In this study a collection of 145 M. tuberculosis isolates was used to evaluate the conferring mutations in nucleotide 1388 of katG gene (KatG463) in resistance to isoniazid. A PCR-RFLP method was applied in comparison with DNA sequencing and anti-mycobacterial susceptibility testing. From all studied patients, 98 (67.6%) were men, 47 (32.4%) were women, 3% were <15 and 9% were >65 years old; male to female ratio was 1:2.4. PCR result of katG for a 620-bp amplicon was successful for all purified M. tuberculosis isolates and there was no positive M. tuberculosis culture with PCR negative results (100% specificity). Subsequent PCR RFLP of the katG identified mutation at KatG463 in 33.3%, 57.8% and 59.2% of our clinically susceptible, multidrug resistant TB (MDR) and extensively drug resistant (XDR) isolates, respectively. Strains of H37Rv and Academic had no any mutations in this codon. M. bovis was used as a positive control for mutation in KatG463. Automated DNA sequencing of the katG amplicon from randomly selected INH-susceptible and resistant isolates verified 100% sequence accuracy of the point mutations detected by PCR-RFLP. We concluded that codon 463 was a polymorphic site that is associated to INH resistance (a missense or “quiet” mutation). RFLP results of katG amplicons were identical to those of sequence method. Our PCR-RFLP method has a potential application for rapid diagnosis of M. tuberculosis with a high specificity.
Rapid and simple approach for identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. bovis by detection of regulatory gene whiB7
Authors: Arjomandzadegan M. , Owlia P. , Ranjbar R. , Farazi A. , Sofian Masume , Sadrnia Maryam , Surkova Larisa , Titov L.
Published: March 2011

Identification ofMycobacterium tuberculosisandM. bovisis necessary for the application of adequate drug therapy. PCR amplification is a good tool for this purpose, but choosing proper target is of a great concern. We describe a PCR assay for fast detection ofM. tuberculosisandM. bovis.As a BLAST and BLASTP search we selected regulatory genewhiB7that encodes multi-drug resistance in this bacterium. Thirty clinical isolates ofM. tuberculosiswere sequenced and all the mutations in genewhiB7were detected. The best set of several pairs of primers was selected and used in comparison byrpoBgene for differentiation ofM. bovis, M. avium, M. kansasii, M. phlei, M. fortuitum, M. terrae, seven non-pathogenicMycobacteriumisolates and 30 clinical isolates ofM. tuberculosis.It was proved that only clinical isolates ofM. tuberculosisandM. bovishave positive bands of 667 bpwhiB7. Other non-tuberculous and non-pathogenic isolates did not show any positive sign. Furthermore, 667-bp PCR products ofwhiB7gene were observed for ten positive sputum samples (preliminarily approved to be positive forM. tuberculosisby commercially real-time based method), but no bands were detected in 5 negative sputum samples. RpoBgene could not differentiate non-tuberculous strains and non-pathogenic isolates from pathogenic clinical isolates. We concluded that PCR amplification of the gene coding for the WhiB7 protein could be successfully used as a good tool for rapid identification ofM. tuberculosisandM. bovis. We propose application of this method as a rapid and simple approach in mycobacteriological laboratories.
Zeolitic Host–Guest Interactions and Building Blocks for the Self-Assembly of Complex Materials
Authors: Bein Thomas
Published: March 2011

Ordered nanoscale pore systems such as those represented by zeolites offer many opportunities for the design of complex functional systems via self-assembly.With their large internal surface areas and tunable, well-defined crystalline pore structures that allow molecular sieving and ion exchange, zeolites can be adapted for numerous applications. The nanoscale reactors present in zeolite pore systems have been explored as structural templates for the spatial organization of numerous guests. Examples from various fields are discussed, such as the stabilization of organic dyes for the construction of energy transfer and storage systems, the construction of host–guest hybrid catalyst systems, and the encapsulation of conducting or semiconducting nanoscale wires and clusters. More complex, hierarchical forms of nanostructured matter become accessible when zeolite crystals are used as building blocks for the selfassembly of thin films or three-dimensional objects. A combination of weaker and stronger interactions ranging from dispersive forces, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic interactions to covalent bonding can be used to build functional hierarchical constructs. Several examples and novel applications of such systems will be discussed, including oriented channel systems, chemical sensors, and hierarchical pore systems for catalytic reactions.
Arthur von Hippel: The Scientist and the Man
Authors: von Hippel Frank N.
Published: March 2011

“We will not be intimidated!” is one of the mottos Arthur R. von Hippel lived by. From refusing to salute Hitler to starting a unique interdisciplinary university laboratory–the Laboratory for Insulation Research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology–von Hippel followed his principles, laying the foundations for modern materials research and distinguishing himself as a pioneering scientist, an inspirational mentor, and a devoted family man. This article shows the personal and professional contexts within which von Hippel–the namesake of the Materials Research Society's highest award–emerged as a scientific leader and role model of interdisciplinarity, as seen through the eyes of his son, Frank N. von Hippel, physicist, professor of public and international affairs, and co-director of the Program on Science & Global Security at Princeton University.
Ferroelectricity: The Foundation of a Field from Form to Function
Authors: Newnham R.E. , Cross L. Eric
Published: March 2011

This article highlights the major role Arthur von Hippel and the Laboratory for Insulation Research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology played in the early development of the field of ferroelectricity in mixed oxides with the perovskite structure and, in particular, in the identification of ferroelectricity in barium titanate following its discovery in industrial laboratories in the United States during World War II.Very early optical and x-ray studies highlighted the characteristics of the ferroelectric domain structures in both ceramic and single-crystal BaTiO3, the elimination of domains at the Curie temperature TC, and the salient characteristics of the two low-temperature phase transitions. Perhaps the culmination of this work was the detailed studies of lamella 90° domains by Peter Forsbergh and the gorgeous patterns these could generate. This article also traces the manner in which the early studies contributed to whole industries based on perovskite ferroelectrics. The ceramic capacitor industry is now fabricating sophisticated, cofired multilayer capacitors (MLCs) with up to a thousand 1-µm-thick dielectric layers interleaved with base metal electrodes, addressing a market for some 1013 capacitors per year.

Manufacturers of large piezoelectric transducers depend almost exclusively on perovskite-structure oxide ceramics. Navy sonar systems are major customers, but spinoff has occurred into a wide range of commercial and medical ultrasound systems. The capability of current materials has improved more than tenfold over the original BaTiO3 ceramics as a result of the effective application of molecular engineering, a strong testament to the insight of the founder of this area of study.
Arthur von Hippel and Magnetism
Authors: Goodenough John B.
Published: March 2011

This article examines the role that Arthur von Hippel played in magnetism work in the 1950s.Von Hippel understood that the ferrimagnetic insulators represented by the ferrospinels, magnetoplumbites, and ferrogarnets were critical for the high-frequency technology that was being developed after World War II. At the Laboratory for Insulation Research at MIT, he and his students concentrated on the response of these materials to electric and magnetic excitations over a wide frequency range that extended, with gaps, from dc to the ultraviolet. For magnetic studies, he used microwave frequencies to obtain resonance and relaxation data that could be interpreted because the magnetic spins are relatively loosely coupled to their surroundings. He supplemented these resonance studies with classical magnetometer, transport, and x-ray diffraction measurements on single-crystal samples in order to obtain fundamental information that would aid in the design of materials for technical applications.
Expanding Frontiers in Biomaterials
Authors: Stupp Samuel I. , Donners Jack J.J.M. , Li Liang-shi , Mata Alvaro
Published: March 2011

This article celebrating Arthur von Hippel's career considers the expanding frontiers in the field of biomaterials, a subject that intrigued him given his interests in the molecular engineering of materials. The interface of materials science and biology started to develop decades ago when synthetic materials were first used to repair parts of the human body. An exciting transformation is now occurring in the field, as advances in biology are used to engineer bioactive materials at the molecular level. The transformation is going further to other frontiers that include the use of sophisticated materials to obtain biological information and learn biology, the creation of materials that imitate biological microstructures and functions, and the manipulation of organisms to create artificial materials.
Sustainability and Energy Conversions
Authors: Benson Sally M. , Orr Franklin M.
Published: March 2011

A sustainable global energy system requires a transition away from energy sources with high greenhouse emissions. Vast energy resources are available to meet our needs, and technology pathways for making this transition exist. Lowering the cost and increasing the reliability and quality of energy from sustainable energy sources will facilitate this transition. Changing the world's energy systems is a huge challenge, but it is one that can be undertaken now with improvements in energy efficiency and with continuing deployment of a variety of technologies. Numerous opportunities exist for research in material sciences to contribute to this global-scale challenge.
Emerging areas of actinide science
Authors: Moore Kevin T. , Marianetti Chris A. , Lander Gerard H.
Published: March 2011

Actinide materials, which are the backbone of nuclear energy, are being examined with growing interest due to the pressing need for carbon-free energy production. Prospects for advanced fuels for next-generation reactors demand a solid understanding of the physical properties of actinide materials, including thermodynamics and quantum mechanics. In this issue of MRS Bulletin, six articles give a broad overview of the current state of actinide science, illustrating current advances and emerging areas of interest in this class of materials, and how this fundamental understanding supports nuclear energy.
Visible-Blind UV/IR Photodetectors Integrated on Si Substrates
Authors: Starikov David , Boney John Chris , Pillai Rajeev , Bensaoula Abdelhak
Published: March 2011

A concept based on structures fabricated using stacked semiconducting layers to obtain a multi spectral photoresponse is investigated. Issues related to III nitride layer growth on thin Si wafers, such as substrate temperature recalibration and mechanical stress due to the lattice mismatch, have been studied. The grown on Si substrate III nitride layers were characterized by using spectroscopic ellipsometry and capacitance measurements. Fabrication of a dual-band UV/IR photodetector with a reasonable responsivity at room temperature has been demonstrated. The integrated device is capable of detecting optical emissions separately in the UV and IR parts of the spectrum. The responsivities of this device are ∼0.01 A/W, at a peak wavelength of 300 nm and ∼0.08 A/W, at a peak wavelength of 1000 nm, respectively. The described dual-band photodetectors can be employed for false alarm-free fire/flame detection and advanced hazardous object or target detection and recognition in several industrial, military, and space applications.
Capital social, gênero e representação política no Brasil
Authors: Sacchet Teresa
Published: March 2011

As mulheres ocupam menos de 10% das cadeiras na Câmara dos Deputados no Brasil, contrastando com uma tendência internacional de aumento na representação política feminina. Este artigo considera fatores culturais, particularmente aqueles relacionados à cultura política e ao capital social para tratar dessa questão. A partir da análise dos dados de um survey nacional de 2006, o artigo analisa como o capital social é estruturado por gênero, e discute suas possíveis consequências para a representação política de homens e mulheres. Os resultados indicam que homens e mulheres participam em diferentes tipos de redes associativas: os homens tendem a se organizar em grupos voltados à esfera pública e as mulheres naqueles que lidam com questões práticas do cotidiano familiar e comunitário.
Participação e pós-materialismo na América Latina
Authors: Ribeiro Ednaldo , Borba Julian
Published: March 2011

Resumo: O artigo procura testar no nível individual e para um grupo de quatro países latinoamericanos a hipótese proposta pelos defensores da teoria do desenvolvimento humano sobre a associação entre valores pós-materialistas e uma postura participativa. Utilizando dados produzidos pela Pesquisa Mundial de Valores procuramos verificar em que medida essa afirmação é pertinente no contexto de nações com questões materiais e economicas não resolvidas e caracterizadas como jovens democracias. Através de técnicas de análise bivariada e multivariada constatamos que entre os públicos desses países a participação é mais influenciada por variáveis relacionadas à centralidade social dos cidadãos do que por mudanças nas suas prioridades valorativas, o que leva à conclusão de que a transposição do modelo explicativo sugerido por Inglehart para o cenário latinoamericano é problemática e deve ser avaliada criticamente.
Tolerancia al quebrantamiento de la norma en el area metropolitana de Medellín, Colombia
Authors: Duque Luis Fernando , Toro Jorge Arbey , Montoya Nilton
Published: March 2011

Resumen: El presente artículo analiza la tolerancia al quebrantamiento de la norma en Medellín y municipios del Área Metropolitana a partir de los datos obtenidos del estudio sobre la magnitud, distribución y factores asociados a la violencia en el Área Metropolitana que se realizó en 2004 a los diez municipios que la integran, por el cual se estimó la magnitud que se tiene en la sociedad de este importante factor de riesgo para la violencia. De los resultados se destaca que los indicadores estandarizados de anomia y de legitimación del quebrantamiento de la norma son asombrosamente altos en todos los municipios del Área Metropolitana de Medellín, tanto en hombres como en mujeres, aunque con mayor prevalencia entre los hombres, y entre los menores de edad y los jóvenes. Se presentan discusiones sociológicas que aportan elementos para explicar la presencia y las características de este fenómeno y los factores que motivan a un individuo a ocasionar un incidente que contribuye a dicho fenómeno. Entre los elementos explicativos se mencionan tanto los valores inadecuados o falta de ciertos valores culturales, fruto de condicionantes de índole sociocultural y económica en el Área Metropolitana, como la racionalidad individual.
Disputas, ajustes e acomodações na produção da agenda eleitoral: a cobertura jornalística ao Programa Bolsa Família e as eleições de 2006
Authors: Biroli Flávia , Mantovani Denise
Published: March 2011

Resumo: Este artigo apresenta uma análise da cobertura jornalística ao Programa Bolsa Família durante as eleições presidenciais de 2006. A pesquisa abrange um total de 166 textos que mencionaram o Programa, publicados pelos jornais O Globo, O Estado de São Paulo, Folha de São Paulo e Valor Econômico entre os dias 1º de setembro e 31 de outubro de 2006. Discutimos a dinâmica de produção da agenda eleitoral, observando as disputas, ajustes e acomodações que constituem a cobertura. A análise conjunta das vozes e dos enquadramentos presentes no material permite observar aspectos relevantes das interações entre os campos da mídia e da política no contexto em que a cobertura foi realizada. As conclusões ressaltam a baixa pluralidade do noticiário, associada a representações das eleições de 2006 e da democracia brasileira que têm como aspectos centrais a estigmatização dos eleitores de baixa renda e dos beneficiários de programas sociais.
Effects of riparian vegetation on the structure of the marginal aquatic habitat and the associated fish assemblage in a tropical Brazilian reservoir
Authors: Beltrão Gabriel de Barros Moreira , Medeiros Elvio Sergio Figueredo , Ramos Robson Tamar da Costa
Published: March 2011

Riparian zones represent areas of strong biological, physical and chemical interaction between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. These areas are usually typified by high diversity of fauna, flora and environmental processes. The present study evaluates the littoral habitat structure and its fish fauna related to associations between presence and absence of natural riparian vegetal cover, in a reservoir in northeastern Brazil. Sampling was performed on marginal areas where riparian vegetation was present and where it had been removed for the plantation of sugar cane. For each type of marginal area three replicate sites were sampled during the wet season. Data on the habitat structure (submerged elements and substrate composition), fish and water quality were collected. The data was analyzed using Shannon-Wiener's diversity index and Pielou's equitability. Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling and the Multi-Response Permutation Procedure were used to evaluate similarities between sites. The structure of the habitat was more diverse in sites were natural riparian vegetation was still present. Muddy substrate was more abundant in areas with riparian vegetation whereas sandy substrate was more abundant in areas where riparian vegetation had been removed. Measured physico-chemical parameters and nutrients remained nearly constant across all sites. Metynnis lippincottianus and Crenicichla menezesi were more associated with the habitat in areas where riparian vegetation was removed, whereas Cichlasoma orientale and Cichla ocellaris were strongly correlated to forested areas.
Mountains and Pit Bulls: Students' Metaphors for College Transitional Reading and Writing
Authors: Paulson Eric J. , Armstrong Sonya L.
Published: April 2011

In this article, we describe an approach to uncovering learners' literacy‐oriented conceptualizations while they are enrolled in transitional, or developmental, reading and writing classes in a college context. This approach entailed eliciting and then analyzing the metaphors for academic literacies produced by students in 15 sections of a mandatory paired reading and writing course. We examine major themes that emerged from our analysis en route to promoting and discussing the utility of short stem prompts as being beneficial to instructors for understanding their students' conceptualizations of reading and writing for their own pedagogical purposes. We conclude with an extended pedagogical implications section, wherein we provide narrative descriptions of the use of metaphors in a college transitional reading class as practical suggestions for how such prompts can be used in classroom settings to support students' apprenticeships into academic literacy practices.
Meeting the Reading Challenges of Science Textbooks in the Primary Grades
Authors: Bryce Nadine
Published: April 2011

Four primary grade teachers overcame challenges of textbook‐based science reading through a focus on reading strategies and an emphasis on making meaning. Teachers used whole‐class and small‐group guided reading instruction to focus students on organizational and textual features of the science textbooks. They also used teacher‐guided talk and student‐to‐student turn‐and‐talk strategies to focus on meaning. Children acted out concepts found in the textbook and used technology as a tool to enhance content area learning. Science reading using textbooks poses challenges that teachers can overcome with specific attention to reading comprehension and innovative approaches that promote reader engagement.
FACTORS IMPACTING EMERGENCE OF BEHAVIORAL CONTROL BY UNDERSELECTED STIMULI IN HUMANS AFTER REDUCTION OF CONTROL BY OVERSELECTED STIMULI
Authors: Broomfield Laura , McHugh Louise , Reed Phil
Published: March 2011

Stimulus overselectivity occurs when only one of potentially many aspects of the environment controls behavior. Adult participants were trained and tested on a trial‐and‐error discrimination learning task while engaging in a concurrent load task, and overselectivity emerged. When responding to the overselected stimulus was reduced by reinforcing a novel stimulus in the presence of the previously overselected stimulus in a second trial‐and‐error discrimination task, behavioral control by the underselected stimulus became stronger. However, this result was only found under certain circumstances: when there was substantial overselectivity in the first training phase; when control by the underselected stimulus in the first phase was particularly low; and when there was effective reduction in the behavioral control exerted by the previously overselected stimuli. The emergence of behavioral control by the underselected stimulus suggests that overselectivity is not simply due to an attention deficit, because for the emergence to occur, the stimuli must have been attended to and learned about in the training phase; but that a range of additional learning factors may play a role.
THE EFFECTS OF A LOCAL NEGATIVE FEEDBACK FUNCTION BETWEEN CHOICE AND RELATIVE REINFORCER RATE
Authors: Davison Michael , Elliffe Douglas , Marr M. Jackson
Published: March 2011

Four pigeons were trained on two‐key concurrent variable‐interval schedules with no changeover delay. In Phase 1, relative reinforcers on the two alternatives were varied over five conditions from .1 to .9. In Phases 2 and 3, we instituted a molar feedback function between relative choice in an interreinforcer interval and the probability of reinforcers on the two keys ending the next interreinforcer interval. The feedback function was linear, and was negatively sloped so that more extreme choice in an interreinforcer interval made it more likely that a reinforcer would be available on the other key at the end of the next interval. The slope of the feedback function was −1 in Phase 2 and −3 in Phase 3. We varied relative reinforcers in each of these phases by changing the intercept of the feedback function. Little effect of the feedback functions was discernible at the local (interreinforcer interval) level, but choice measured at an extended level across sessions was strongly and significantly decreased by increasing the negative slope of the feedback function.
RAPID ACQUISITION OF CHOICE AND TIMING AND THE PROVENANCE OF THE TERMINAL‐LINK EFFECT
Authors: Kyonka Elizabeth G. E. , Grace Randolph C.
Published: March 2011

Eight pigeons responded in a concurrent‐chains procedure in which terminal‐link schedules changed pseudorandomly across sessions. Pairs of terminal‐link delays either summed to 15 s or to 45 s. Across sessions, the location of the shorter terminal link changed according to a pseudorandom binary sequence. On some terminal links, food was withheld to obtain start and stop times, measures of temporal control. Log initial‐link response ratios stabilized within the first half of each session. Log response ratio was a monotonically‐increasing but nonlinear function of programmed log terminal‐link immediacy ratio. There was an effect of absolute terminal‐link duration on log response ratio: For most subjects, preference for the relatively shorter terminal‐link delay was stronger when absolute delays were long than when absolute delays were short. Polynomial regressions and model comparison showed that differences in degree of nonlinearity, not in sensitivity to log immediacy ratio, produced this effect. Temporal control of stop times was timescale invariant with scalar variability, but temporal control of start times was not consistent across subjects or terminal‐link durations.
THE DYNAMICS OF SUCCESSIVE INDUCTION IN LARVAL ZEBRAFISH
Authors: Staddon J. E. R. , MacPhail R. C. , Padilla S.
Published: March 2011

Charles Sherrington identified the properties of the synapse by purely behavioral means—the study of reflexes—more than 100 years ago. They were subsequently confirmed neurophysiologically. Studying reflex interaction, he also showed that activating one reflex often facilitates another, antagonistic one: successive induction, which has since been demonstrated in a wide range of species, from aphids to locusts to dogs and humans. We show a particularly orderly example in zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae; the behavior (locomotion) of larvae is low in dark and intermediate in light, but low in light and substantially higher in dark when dark followed light. A quantitative model of a simple dynamic process is described that readily captures the behavior pattern and the effects of a number of manipulations of lighting conditions.
Application of IHACRES rainfall-runoff model to the Wadi Dhuliel arid catchment, Jordan
Authors: Abushandi Eyad H. , Merkel Broder J.
Published: March 2011

With increasing stress on water resources in Jordan, application of rainfall-runoff models can be part of the solution to manage and sustain the water sector. In this paper, the metric conceptual IHACRES model is applied to the Wadi Dhuliel arid catchment, north-east Jordan. Rainfall-runoff data from 19 storm events during 1986 to 1992 have been used in this study. Flood estimation was performed on the basis of daily scales and storm events scales. The model was extended for snowfall in order to cope with such extreme events. Although the best performance of the IHACRES model on a daily basis is poor, the performance on storm events scale showed a good agreement between observed and simulated streamflow. Apart from model parameter values, the principal reasons for IHACRES model success in this region are thought to be based on antecedent soil moisture conditions, rainfall duration and rainfall intensity before and during each storm. The model outputs were likely to be sensitive when the monitored flood was relatively small. The optimum parameter values were influenced by the length of calibration data and event specific changes.
Angiogenesis and Gastrointestinal Cancer
Authors: Ellen Kossoff  , Wen W. Ma
Published: March 2011

Angiogenesis is now a proven therapeutic cancer target. Approaches targeting the vascular endothelial growth factor and receptor (VEGF/VEGFR) axis have yielded success in gastrointestinal cancers. Bevacizumab is a humanized recombinant monoclonal antibody against VEGF and is the first antiangiogenic drug to enter clinical practice. Bevacizumab was approved for the treatment of advanced colorectal cancer by US FDA in 2004 in combination with fluorouracilbased chemotherapy. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the next gastrointestinal cancer where angiogenesis proved to be of therapeutic importance. Sorafenib is a multi-kinase inhibitor of VEGFRs and Raf protein, and demonstrated anticancer effects in a subgroup of HCC patients. There are currently a number of antiangiogenic agents targeting the VEGF/VEGFR axis, which can be broadly categorized as monoclonal antibodies and tyrosine kinase inhibitors. These agents are being evaluated in a number of gastrointestinal cancers.
TGF-β Signaling Dictates Apoptotic and Angiogenic Response During Prostate Cancer Progression
Authors: Natasha Kyprianou  , Joanne Collazo
Published: March 2011

A number of reports implicated targeting TGF-a as a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of many types of cancer including prostate cancer. This cytokine not only have the ability to suppress cancer cell growth and proliferation during the early stage of cancer but to promote tumor progression and metastasis during the advance stage of disease. The elucidation of mechanism responsible for the TGF-a switch for a tumor suppressor to tumor promoting cytokine is critical for implementation of TGF-a as a promising therapeutic target for advanced stage of cancer towards tumor progression and metastasis.
Relevant Probability Concepts
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

Future floods cannot be predicted accurately. With our increased knowledge, epistemic uncertainty on floods can be reduced, but aleatory uncertainty is not reducible. Hence probability theory is the foundation for flood risk assessment and management. Floods can be treated as random variables with certain probability distributions.
Statistics in Hydrology
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

The true probability distribution for floods at any catchment is unknown and has to be estimated. It is assumed that future floods will follow the same flood patterns as those in the past and we could derive the flood probability distribution based on the past flood records. Statistics is a branch of mathematics that helps us estimate flood frequency parameters.
Flood Frequency Analysis
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

Floods can be characterised by peak flow, flood volume with a defined duration, or other attributes. They are considered as independent and identically distributed. Empirical flood frequency provides the basis for analytical flood frequency estimation. Computer software helps to speed up the frequency analysis process.
Regional Frequency Analysis
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

Regionalisation is a useful approach in dealing with data poor catchments. A set of catchment attributes are used to select hydrologically similar catchments in order to overcome the data shortage problem.
Ungauged Catchments
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

To estimate flood frequency at catchments without river flow records, there are several approaches available (catchment descriptors, data transfer, rainfall runoff modelling and channel dimensions). They have varied accuracies and multiple approaches may be explored to derive reasonable flood estimates.
Areal Rainfall
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

Rain gauge networks have limited spatial resolutions. Conventional methods such as Thiessen Polygon method, Isohyetal method and Reciprocal-distance-squared method are easy to use but unable to provide information on uncertainties. Geostatistical methods such as Kriging are able to provide point rainfall estimation and catchment average rainfall, as well as uncertainty information on the estimated values.
Rainfall Runoff Modelling
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

Due to their relatively low costs, there are more rain gauges than river flow stations. In addition, rainfall records are usually much longer than river flow records. As a result, rainfall runoff modelling helps flood engineers to convert rainfall records into river flows.
Rainfall Frequency Analysis
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

Like flood frequency analysis, individual rainfall event has a return period attached to it. Rainfall has two important attributes: depth and duration, hence rainfall frequency analysis involves the depthduration- frequency model (DDF). A DDF can be used to estimate design rainfall or to assess rarities of observed rainfall events.
Probable Maximum Precipitation and Probable Maximum Flood - PMP and PMF
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

In flood risk management, it would be useful to know the upper limit for the maximum precipitation at a specific site. It may be estimated by storm models, maximisation of actual storms or generalised charts. The maximum flood and maximum storm can be derived from the maximum precipitation. Since we are not very sure about these estimates, it is important to prefix ‘probable’ to the terms to emphasise the significant uncertainties with these values.
Flood Hazard Mapping
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

Flood hazard maps provide very useful information for the general public and flood risk management professionals. They are constructed from inundation maps of a defined return period. If flood vulnerability information is available, a flood hazard map may be converted into a flood risk map.
Nonstationary Time Series
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

Frequency analysis assumes that extreme rainfall and flood values are generated from independent and identically distributed random variables. If a data series is nonstationary with trend or step change, the fundamental assumption for frequency analysis will be seriously challenged, and this will have tremendous implications for probability assessments of the magnitude and frequency of future floods. There are several statistical tests available for identifying the nonstationarities in the rainfall or flow records.
Weather and Climate Change
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

Human activities could have important impacts on weather and climate at local, regional and global scales. However, it is also important to realise that climate has always been naturally changing with time. Modelling global climate change is very difficult and subjective. The techniques used and results obtained in climate modelling provoke controversy, therefore there are huge uncertainties with the ’predictions‘ provided from all the existing climate modelling systems.
Self Test Questions
Authors: Dawei Han
Published: March 2011

The questions described in this chapter may be used by readers to check your levels of understanding of this book and the related reading materials. You should be able to attempt all the questions (each with 20 marks) within 3 hours and the full mark for this exercise is 100. A formula sheet is appended on the last page for a quick reference.
Epigenome and Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants
Authors: Kapoor Sanjay , Kapoor Meenu
Published: March 2011

Epigenome refers to the genomic content of a cell layered with all the covalent/noncovalent
modifications on the DNA and histones. Remodeling of the chromatin is induced by these changes in response to
environmental or developmental signals without any change in the underlying nucleotide sequence. These
modifications are stably inherited through mitotic and meiotic divisions. Every differentiated cell type possesses a
characteristic epigenome that is dynamic and differs from the epigenome of neighboring cell type, while the
genotype of the cells remains constant. DNA methylation, histone modifications, inclusion of histone variants in
the nucleosomes, small RNAs and their effector molecules all contribute towards changing the landscape of the
epigenomes. Valuable insights into genomic distribution of methyl groups has been obtained by employing
various high throughput technologies. Orchestered changes in the epigenetic landscape also occurs in response to
abiotic stress. Plants respond to these stresses by modulating the expression of stress-regulated genes through
covalent/noncovalent modifications of chromatin. This chapter highlights the contribution of epigenetic
modifications in shaping the epigenome and mediating gene regulation in response to abiotic stress.
Nitric Oxide, S-Nitrosoproteome and Abiotic Stress Signaling in Plants
Authors: Kaur Abat Jasmeet , Deswal Renu
Published: March 2011

S-nitrosylation, is a PTM (post translational modification of NO (nitric oxide). Abiotic stress
conditions lead to NO evolution and SNO (s-nitosothiols, the cellular NO pool) accumulation. Recently, research
on NO and nitrosylation with respect to stress has gained momentum. Partial S-nirosoproteome of Arabidopsis,
K. pinata and B.juncea are identified following BST, affinity purification and mass spectometric identification. In
this chapter a snapshot of the relevance of NO and nitrosylation in abiotic stress is presented.
Why Study Primitive Cultures?
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

In this chapter we discuss a number of interlinked topics about what we can gain from a study of
primitive cultures. What are their patterns of behavior or ways of thinking about life? A principle theme is that
the modern mind is fundamentally primitive. We will compare the “primitive” world view with our “modern”
counterpart, and come to understand the fundamental richness of primitive cultures. Explanation of the term
“primitive.” Primitive mentality sheds light on how our minds work. Many of the practices are still current and
can help us understand our own, parallel patterns of living. Discussion of what is meant by “culture,” and “human
nature.” Discussion of prevalence of communal lifestyle and social cooperation, conformity to norms, non-market
economies, food-sharing, ancestral worship, social atomism of some primitive cultures (i.e., lack of central
leadership), prevalence of custom over law, reliance on myths and magical thinking, animistic connection to the
environment. We will discuss the trend toward acculturation, the tendency of some indigenous populations to
exist side-by-side with the dominant culture, the tension between the pressure to adopt new customs and the pull
to retain the old. The desire to resist assimilation into the dominant group, and the inevitability of cultures
changing within themselves. We will discuss the downside of acculturation: colonial imperialism, imposition of
paternalistic laws outlawing traditional practices, dispossession of lands, deprivation of political power,
resettlement, resulting in a demoralized population, trend of making amends for mistreatment of indigenous
people in the past. We will discuss the prevalence of nativistic movements to revive and preserve traditional
cultural practices.
Animism
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

The idea behind animism takes mana one step further and proposes that all of nature is animated, that
is, imbued with consciousness, or with life, that all phenomena of nature, including rocks, caves, mountains rain,
thunder, lightning, stars, etc., are imbued with a life essence or soul. Animism is a kind of environmental
philosophy-that not only are people to be respected, but all of creation must be respected. A good deal of the
ceremonies as well as practical guidance in primitive cultures pertain to communication with the spirits of
animals, of plants, and of objects of nature. Many modern day superstitions are animistic in orientation (e.g., if a
black cat crosses your path, this means bad luck). Soothsayers, medicine men, and fortune-tellers use animistic
means to forecast the future (e.g., interpreting signs from the clouds or the cries of animals). Animism accounts
for the reverence accorded animals in many cultures (e.g., tuna reverence, bear reverence, totemic protection of
certain animal species). People of all cultures will talk to their plants to influence their growth. Indigenous
populations have great attachment and reverence to their land, which they believe have sacred properties and
healing energies. Even idols and figureheads on ships are thought to possess protective and communicative
powers (e.g., touching or kissing the statute will impart a certain blessing). Sacred ceremonial objects, such as the
shaman’s drum, are thought to be potent vehicles for connecting between the human and spirit worlds. Children
of all cultures are particularly prone towards animistic beliefs and practices (e.g., endowing personality to dolls,
attributing consciousness to other inanimate objects). The idea of artificial intelligence borrows animistic ideas.
Magic, Sorcery and Witchcraft
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

Magic, sorcery and witchcraft-terms often used interchangeably-fulfill many emotional and practical
needs in many cultures. Chiefly, magical thinking is a way of coping with uncertainty-to help abate anxiety by
seeking the aid of supernatural forces to help solve problems. Magical ceremonies-for healing, to alter the
weather, to produce good crops or a successful hunt, to punish wrongdoers, and so on-are part and parcel of the
work of shamans, medicine-men and other healing practitioners. When illness strikes, shamans or other healers
will invariably determine, before anything else, whether the patient has been subjected to witchcraft. Magical
techniques are omnipresent in conventional religions of the world-gifts, offerings, or sacrifices, lighting candles,
kissing icons. Magic is rightly feared because it can be used for antisocial or disruptive purposes-to cause illness,
death, accidents or misfortune in others. Often the mere threat of sorcery or making known that sorcery has been
practiced makes it surprisingly easy to settle a quarrel. A magical spell is said to work through the law of
contagion-involving some “essence” or bodily residue of the victim, such as nail clippings, hair, food leavings, an
article of clothing, etc. The spell works through the particular medium utilized so as to affect the victim. In many
cultures people take great care not to leave nail clippings, hair or food leftovers where any enemy might utilize
them for sorcery. It is commonly thought that the victim of witchcraft may well “deserve” the hex as just desserts
for some transgression, such as refusal to pay a legitimate debt, unprovoked aggression, or a breach of charity or
neighborliness. Accusations of witchcraft in cases of death or illness, may lead to a feud between the victim and
the sorcerer, resulting in countermeasures or blood revenge. During the witchcraft trials of Europe, England and
the American colonies, people believed that witches were in liege with the Devil, who in turn granted them
powers to harm others. In many cultures, vampires and zombies are thought to be real entities. The belief in
witchcraft is widespread in modern cultures-people will seek potions, candles and spells to help produce financial
success, jobs or other good luck, or one can hire a witch or sorcerer for various intentions such as to attract love,
to mend family problems, to cure addictions, to offer help in business, etc. Occult supply stores are found in every
urban center selling magical robes, potions, herbs, books, incense, and talismans. In the Southern United States a
“hexing culture” is widely prevalent.
The Placebo Effect
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

The phenomenon of death by suggestion, so often seen in primitive cultures, is linked to the modern
notion of the placebo effect. The role of suggestion in treatment-whether it is folk healing, shamanism, or other
practices-cannot be underestimated. In the placebo effect, almost any treatment will work, though medically inert,
so long as the patient is convinced that it has efficacy. The idea that a placebo pill will cure patients of illness is
so well established a phenomenon that in clinical trials control groups receive a placebo to compare their outcome
with those receiving the trial drug. The success rate of the placebo is in some cases as good as that of the genuine
drug. Shamans, witch-doctors and folk healers often rely on the patient’s strong belief that the cure will be
effective. The placebo effect may be an explanation for the apparently miraculous healings that sometimes occur
through prayer or other religious practices.
Child Rearing and the Treatment of Children in Primitive Cultures
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

There is great diversity among cultures in the way children are reared and treated as they grow up. In
many cultures there is a strict taboo prohibiting any contact or communication between brother and sister, so as to
avoid incest. In some cultures mothers tend to hold their children away from them, avoid eye contact, and
generally minimize emotional responses of their infants. In other cultures people avoid punishing children for fear
that their sensitive little souls may leave them and they will die, whereas in some cultures even young children
are severely punished if they cry too much. It is not uncommon for parents to arrange marriages while their
children are still very young. Among the Druze people, it is believed that the soul of the deceased reincarnates
into a newborn baby almost immediately. Among the Beng people, infants are thought to be capable of
understanding all languages spoken to them. Until recent times, in primitive cultures it was the custom to sacrifice
the first-born child of a family. This seems to have been a kind of sympathetic magic in which the parents offered
their firstborn in exchange for favors bestowed by the gods. Among the Berawan people it is the custom for
parents to give up their babies for adoption if certain bad omens occur during the mother’s pregnancy. The
custom of couvade still exists in many parts of the world, whereby the father of a newborn child must lie in bed
for at least a month, with the child by his side, while the mother carries on her usual activities.
APPDENDIX
Authors: Alan Cohan John
Published: March 2011

Full text available