bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Volunteers at Oil Spill Cleanups: Guidance for On-Scene Coordinator1
Authors: Spears Ray E. , Helton Suzanne E. , Pease Anita L. , Wendel Thearin R.
Published: January 2013

Contamination of waters, beaches, shorelines, and wildlife after oil spills is the subject of increasing public concern, especially in the wake of recent large spills receiving extensive media attention. In many areas, members of local communities have demonstrated their concern by arriving at the sites of oil spills and volunteering to participate in efforts to clean up affected areas. The volunteers often arrive in large numbers and are usually untrained in the mechanisms of oil spill response and cleanup.

The National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP) specifies that a designated federal on-scene coordinator (OSC) coordinate and direct federal activities at the site of certain response and removal actions, including the way in which volunteers will be used. What is crucial to OSCs is distinguishing between those people who fall under the legal concept of “volunteer” and those who are offering to provide gratuitous services. Accepting voluntary services, as opposed to gratuitous services, presents a dilemma in the form of liability to both the government and OSC.

This discussion focuses on statutory requirements that OSCs must follow at the site of an oil cleanup, the difference between “volunteer” and “gratuitous” service, and liability when accepting these services. The NCP specifies that OSCs identify ways in which volunteers be used, and recent oil spill cleanup efforts in three states provide examples of the way in which gratuitous service workers can be used to make significant contributions.
Shoreline Evaluation Methods Developed During the Nestucca Response in British Columbia
Authors: Owens Edward H.
Published: January 2013

The oil from the Nestucca accident that reached the coasts of British Columbia washed ashore sporadically over a three-week period along the 500-km west coast of Vancouver Island. This region has a complex topography and shoreline configuration and few road or air access points. During the first week of the Canadian response, information about the location and degree of oiling was often incomplete and sketchy. An interagency shoreline evaluation team was established to locate stranded oil and investigate oil sightings. This team involved a representative of the on-scene coordinator (the Canadian Coast Guard), Environment Canada, and the local Native Council. A second team was established later to survey the northwest coast of Vancouver Island. These helicopter-supported evaluation teams were supplemented by a ground surveillance team that surveyed the coasts adjacent to the towns of Tofino and Ucluelet. Standard reporting and a set of oil character and oil cover definitions were introduced to provide a consistent information base from which response decisions could be developed.
Trends in Natural Removal of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill in Prince William Sound from September 1989 to May 1990
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Hayes Miles O. , Sexton Walter J. , Gibeaut James C. , Henry Charles
Published: January 2013

As part of NOAA's scientific support of the federal on-scene coordinator, a program was conducted to monitor the changes in the distribution and character of oil spilled by the Exxon Valdez along the various shoreline types of Prince William Sound between September 1989 (when treatment was terminated) and May 1990 (when treatment was to be resumed). The primary objective of the program was to determine the extent of natural removal over the winter and identify the types of treatment problems to be addressed in 1990. Eighteen stations were established in Prince William Sound, including four set-aside sites, where no treatment was conducted. At monthly intervals, the stations were surveyed for changes in the topographic profile, sediment distribution patterns, surface oil coverage, and the concentration and distribution of subsurface oil. Weatherstations were installed at three locations in Prince William Sound to record localized patterns in wind speed and direction for correlation with shoreline changes.

Natural processes during the storm season removed up to 90 percent of the surface oil from exposed and intermittently-exposed shorelines. Even sheltered shorelines showed up to 50 percent surface oil removal. Subsurface oil, the deepest of which occurred on exposed cobble/boulder beaches, was removed by sediment reworking of the top 20 cm on most beaches and deeper at the high-tide berm. However, oil below these depths showed an average 40 percent reduction for the period September 1989 to March 1990. The persistence of this subsurface oil continued to be a major issue during the 1990 treatment activities.
The Interagency Shoreline Cleanup Committee: A Cooperative Approach to Shoreline Cleanup—the Exxon Valdez Spill
Authors: Knorr John R. , Lethcoe Nancy , Teal Andy , Christopherson Sharon , Whitney John
Published: January 2013

Following the spill of 11 million gallons of North Slope crude oil by the Exxon Valdez in Alaska on March 24, 1989, a major cooperative effort to plan for the cleanup of Prince William Sound and the Gulf of Alaska shorelines was undertaken in Valdez, Alaska. All aspects of the spill response—the lightering of oil remaining on the stricken tanker, the containment of free-floating oil, and the unknown miles of remote shoreline to be cleaned up—were much larger than anything in American experience. The event provided unprecedented organizational challenges in shoreline cleanup planning and execution.

The scope of the shoreline cleanup and the extended cleanup time anticipated, due to geography, weather, logistics, and other factors, required an organization not specifically identified in the National Contingency Plan or the Alaska regional contingency plan. The Interagency Shoreline Cleanup Committee—an interdisciplinary, interagency cleanup planning group—evolved in Valdez concurrently with the larger response organization implemented under existing contingency plans. As a day-to-day working group serving the needs of the federal on-scene coordinator, it included Exxon, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, federal and state land and resource management agencies, Alaska natives, and commercial fishing and environmental groups. The planning model that evolved was refined and streamlined in early 1990 and carried through the remaining cleanup seasons.
Contingency Planning: Implementation Is The Key
Authors: Hollingsworth Wayne
Published: January 2013

The two basic components of oil spill contingency planning are developing the plan and implementing the plan. An organization with an effective oil spill contingency plan will have considered both components.

Armed with thick oil spill contingency plans, companies expect to be able to respond adequately to major oil spills. For several reasons, this expectation may be unrealistic. For example, the plans may incorporate inadequate appraisals of available response assets, they may have been developed merely to satisfy regulatory requirements, or they may fail to consider various spill scenarios. Plans based on unattainable or unrealistic expectations end up on the shelf collecting dust. Thus, one of the first things to consider in contingency planning is what the plan will be expected to do.

Another factor in the effectiveness of a contingency plan is its format. Oil spill contingency plans that are comprehensive and easy to use are essential. It is useful to divide the plan into three major sections: response procedures, background information, and scenario development. The response procedures section should be relatively short and contain step-by-step procedures to be followed during a spill response. The background information section should contain the background information accumulated during the planning period. The scenario development section should contain the scenarios identified for various spill sizes.

An excellent contingency plan is of limited value if it is not effectively implemented. Effective implementation requires that everyone in the response and planning organization know the company's ideas, policies, and strategies regarding oil spill response, understands his or her roles and responsibilities in preparing for and carrying out a response, and is committed to carrying out the program. Implementation is often difficult because it involves changing the organization's way of doing things. When the way an organization does business does not match a new program being implemented, leadership is required to match them, either by changing the way of doing business or by changing the program. Changing a new program could be as simple as making a decision. Changing the way an organization does business is a process and is usually very difficult, especially in a large, complex organization like an oil company.
Fate of Oil and Debris Recovered from Spill Cleanup Operations
Authors: McKinley Audrey A.
Published: January 2013

Although we consider a pollution case closed when the product is sufficiently removed from the environment, the case is far from closed for the on-scene coordinator, project manager, or contractor who must dispose of or otherwise deal with the material. Landfill regulations are tightening, and a barrel of petroleum-contaminated soil can no longer be easily disposed of at the local sanitary landfill.1 This paper addresses the current issues, regulations and problems of petroleum spill cleanup material disposal, and talks about what industry is doing to deal with regulatory requirements, especially in relation to the solid waste crisis facing this country. Innovative, practical, and environmentally sound methods of remediation and disposal are emphasized, and future expectations and technology are explored.
Overview of Bird Search and Rescue and Response Efforts During the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Authors: Holcomb Jay
Published: January 2013

The Exxon Valdez oil spill presented the International Bird Rescue Research Center with a variety of unique and unprecedented challenges. One was the development and management of two search and rescue programs: one in Prince William Sound, with the home base being Valdez, and the other along the Kenai Peninsula, with Seward as home base. Local fishing boats, float planes, and personnel were organized to create two functional search and rescue fleets that combed about 900 miles of coastline in search of live oiled birds and oiled carcasses. This effort resulted in the capture of 1,630 live oiled birds and the recovery of thousands of dead oiled birds and mammals.

During most oil spills only one oiled bird rehabilitation center is needed to care for all the affected birds. Strong currents began moving oil out of Prince William Sound and north along the Alaskan coastline. At the same time, public pressure to save the victims of the spill increased. It became evident that animal care services in even the most remote areas needed to be developed. Four oiled bird care centers and four search and rescue programs were strategically located near the most heavily affected areas to care for live oiled animals.

This paper focuses on how both of the oiled bird search and rescue programs were created and functioned throughout the six-month-long oiled bird rescue and rehabilitation effort. It emphasizes the chronology of planning and decision-making processes during this crisis. Further discussion highlights how the search and rescue fleets coordinated their efforts with the rehabilitation centers for the greatest effectiveness. The paper also discusses the capture and safety techniques used during the actual pursuit of animals and the initial care and transportation of captured birds.
Major Oil Spills Caused by Hurricane Hugo, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands1
Authors: Bills Charles E. , Whiting Daniel C.
Published: January 2013

The destruction caused by Hurricane Hugo in September 1989 resulted in two major oil spills on the island of St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Roughly 10,000 barrels of oil were discharged from damaged storage tanks at the Hess Oil Virgin Islands Corporation (HOVIC), and 14,000 barrels of oil were discharged from the Virgin Islands Water and Power Authority (VIWAPA) facility in Christiansted. Pollution responders overcame the lack of power, water, food, lodging, communications, and transportation to perform an effective cleanup of these spills. This paper presents details of the pollution response effort as coordinated by the federal on-scene coordinator.
Preparation of Marine Pollution Contingency Plans for Small Island Nations
Authors: Brodie Donald
Published: January 2013

Many small and remote nations of the South Pacific depend primarily on subsistence fisheries for their livelihoods. The foreshores of many of these nations are fringed by coral reefs, on which very active marine ecological systems depend. Oil spills in these areas would have a serious effect both on these systems and on the islands’ economic activities.

As part of the International Maritime Organization technical assistance program for Pacific Island nations, the Australian government has carried out a number of missions to develop marine pollution contingency plans. This paper discusses the essential issues for these plans, which are often based on an assumption of low risk, but need to recognize the severe effect that a pollution incident would have on the community and the environment. The linking of national plans with effective regional assistance arrangements is also discussed.
Response to the Presidente Rivera Major Oil Spill, Delaware River1
Authors: Wiltshire Glenn A. , Corcoran Lewis
Published: January 2013

On June 24, 1989, the Uruguayan tankship Presidente Rivera grounded in the Delaware River south of Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania. The grounding resulted in the discharge of over 300,000 gallons of “high pour” No. 6 oil into the river. This paper discusses the actions taken by the various involved parties to respond to the spill and to remove the oil from the river and its shorelines. Cleanup operations were especially difficult because of the tar-like consistency of the oil, the nonavailability of appropriate containment and recovery equipment, and the accessibility and environmental sensitivity of areas affected by the oil. Nontraditional methods, including clamshell bucket dredges and hopper barges, had to be used to contain and remove the oil from the water. The paper also addresses some of the political issues faced by the federal on-scene coordinator during this response and cleanup.
The Mega Borg Fire and Oil Spill: A Case Study
Authors: Leveille Thomas P.
Published: January 2013

On June 8, 1990, an explosion and fire disabled the tankship Mega Borg during lightering 57 miles off the Texas coast in the Gulf of Mexico. The Mega Borg drifted, leaking burning oil, for several days before the fire could be extinguished and the vessel taken in tow. The ensuing response brought into action more than 50 commercial vessels and two Coast Guard cutters, with more than a dozen skimmers. A variety of aircraft were also used, including the Coast Guard's AirEye side-looking airborne radar system, helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft for visual surveillance, and C-130 transports equipped to apply dispersants. Good weather and the accident's distance from shore prevented all but a small amount of oil from coming ashore. Communications problems arose throughout the response, which had to rely largely on cellular telephones for lack of standardized radio frequencies. Media relations for this serious accident were a major organizational challenge.
Coast Guard Response to the Volgoneft 263 Oil Spill
Authors: Fagoe Thomas E.
Published: January 2013

On the morning of May 14, 1990, a collision occurred between the Soviet tanker Volgonef 1263 and the West German dry cargo ship Betty off the south coast of Sweden. One Coast Guard air surveillance aircraft and one oil spill recovery ship arrived at the site less than two hours after the collision.

The Coast Guard considered the threat to the marine environment to be serious and therefore ordered not only the most effective Swedish oil spill recovery resources to the place, but also requested assistance from U.S.S.R., F.R.G., Denmark, and Finland.

After less than 48 hours, 26 Coast Guard, Naval, and foreign ships were fighting the spill. The operation lasted for 13 days and practically all the oil was recovered before it reached shore. The operation showed that using modern oil spill recovery equipment it is possible to recover practically all the oil at sea and also showed that international cooperation can be quick and efficient, if, as in this case, an agreement of cooperation has already been reached.
A Pipeline Spill into the Mersey Estuary, England
Authors: Taylor Peter M.
Published: January 2013

On the 19th of August 1989 at 2:30 p.m., a fracture occurred in a pipeline carrying Venezuelan crude oil from a shipping terminal at Tranmere to the Shell (U.K.) Ltd. oil refinery at Stanlow, on the Mersey Estuary, England. 150 metric tons of oil were released into the estuary before the pipeline was sealed; tidal currents widely distributed the oil within a tidal cycle. The Mersey Estuary is heavily industrialized and urbanized but does retain extensive areas of salt marsh and intertidal mud flats which are internationally important for wildfowl and wading birds.

Cleanup operations were coordinated by the two local fire brigades whose areas of responsibility included impacted shoreline. Input to the response came from government, local authorities, specialist consultants, and various other interested parties. The occurrence of the spill on one of the highest spring tides of the year and under favorable weather conditions served to lessen the environmental impacts.

Less than two weeks after the spill, Shell (U.K.) and Cheshire County Council set up the Mersey Oil Spill Project Advisory Group, with a membership drawn from independent scientific groups, which would monitor the environmental effects of the spill and publish its findings. The primary report of the advisory group is a detailed historical record of the spill incident, the response to it, and the coordination of that response, as well as the lessons learned by the involved parties. Further studies consider the persistence of the oil, and its effects on birds, invertebrates, vegetation, and algae.

Recommendations have already led to a review of the local contingency plan and the commissioning of work to produce specific cleanup guidelines and sensitivity maps for the region.

In February 1990, a court action brought by the newly formed National Rivers Authority led to Shell (U.K.) Ltd. being fined £1 million due to the pollution arising from this incident.
The Federal On-Scene Coordinator's Role in the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill1
Authors: Ciancaglini R. Adm. D. E.
Published: January 2013

On March 24, 1989, the role of the federal on-scene coordinator took on its greatest challenge when the tank vessel Exxon Valdez grounded on Bligh Reef. The vessel discharged 11 million gallons of crude oil into Prince William Sound. The oil eventually spread over a 600-mile area, fouling the shorelines and waters of some of the most pristine and unforgiving coastal areas of the United States. The Exxon Valdez spill quickly developed into a spill of national significance. Its overwhelming size required the mobilization of hundreds of vessels, aircraft, and a large variety of oil spill response equipment operated, managed, and monitored by more than 12,000 industry and agency personnel. The duration of the response (which is still proceeding) required the federal on-scene coordinator (FOSC) to develop an organization to address the operational challenges; the concerns of federal agencies, the state, native Alakans, communities, and private land owners; and the challenges created by the intense political and media interest. The OSC organization which evolved over the course of the response was based on federal authority and incorporated a decision-making process that ensured that “environmental due process” was provided.
Santa Barbara to Mega Borg and Beyond: A Review of Api's Spill Program and Priorities
Authors: Gould Jack R. , Lindstedt-Siva June
Published: January 2013

The oil spill programs sponsored by the American Petroleum Institute began after the Santa Barbara spill in 1969 and have focused on prevention, contingency planning, development of countermeasures, and research on the fate and effects of spills and various response methods. This paper presents an overview of the program, including some of its general conclusions. It also presents the API priorities for future research.
U.S. Oil Spill Policy Hampers Response and Hurts Science
Authors: Lindstedt-Siva June
Published: January 2013

The Exxon Valdez oil spill and others that followed it triggered major legislation at state and federal levels and reexamination of every phase of spill prevention and preparedness throughout industry and government. Will all of this effort and expense make a difference, i.e., will it reduce the environmental impacts of the next big spill? There will certainly be more equipment available and greater liabilities for spilling oil. However, unless certain policy issues are resolved, the changes are unlikely to reduce the ecological impacts of the next spill. Three fundamental policy initiatives are needed: (1) a national goal for spill response, i.e., to minimize the ecological impacts of the spill, (2) strengthened contingency planning that allows more decisions to be made in advance of an emergency, and (3) a streamlined management system during spill emergencies that will allow the goal to be achieved. This includes making sure that legal matters such as Natural Resource Damage Assessments do not compromise the effectiveness of response activities during the emergency or the free exchange of information.
The use of Defensible Analytical Chemical Measurements for Oil Spill Natural Resource Damage Assessment
Authors: Sauer Ted , Boehm Paul
Published: January 2013

Scientific research on and natural resource damage assessments (NRDA) of oil spill incidents require the appropriate selection and application of analytical chemical and data interpretation techniques. Estimates of injuries to natural resources (surface waters, geological resources, biological resources), determinations of pathways of exposure, and assessment of recoverability and recovery of injured resources should, in part, be based on methods that are scientifically. defensible and acceptable in their application to the regulatory and legal communities.

Recent spill incidents underline the need for significant revision of regulatory methods (such as EPA-approved procedures), so as to target the spilled material (petroleum) and its specific chemical composition. Standard operating procedures for the determination of the saturate and aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations and compositions (normal alkanes and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons) of environmental samples have been drafted for use in oil spill assessments. These methods rely on the use of gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) methods that target specific indicators of source material composition and weathering processes. These proposed methods for analysis of oil spill assessment environmental samples are contrasted with EPA methods such as EPA Method 418.1 (total petroleum hydrocarbons), EPA Methods 625 and 8270 (GC/MS analyses of semivolatile priority pollutant organics), and other methods.

Using data from three recent oil spills as examples, this paper examines the current “approved” methods for the analysis of environmental samples, and contrasts the scientific rigor and defensibility of the recommended GC (saturated hydrocarbons) and GC/MS (polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclics) methods for oil spill chemical analyses in NRDA programs. The approaches presented are recommended as important elements of future technical guidance documents relating to the NRDA federal regulations, in contrast with the inappropriate methods now suggested for use in the existing regulations.
U.S. Coast Guard Oil Spill Contingency Planning
Authors: Epler G. F.
Published: January 2013

Contingency plans have been an effective tool for responding to major pollution incidents for many years. In fact, section 300.210 of the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP) goes so far as to require that the U.S. Coast Guard on-scene coordinator (OSC) develop a contingency plan for all areas of the coastal zone. However, before the Exxon Valdez oil spill, most contingency plans, federal and state included, simply addressed a response to the largest spills that, historically, had occurred in the areas. The idea of a catastrophic oil spill the size of the Exxon Valdez spill was not considered. This, of course, all changed shortly after midnight on March 24, 1989.

This paper discusses the guidance that was provided by U. S. Coast Guard Headquarters to each Coast Guard OSC for reviewing and revising their local contingency plans (LCPs). This guidance delineated certain areas of the planning process that require special attention (such as hazard identification, risk assessment, response times, and required equipment), specific criteria to be used while reviewing the LCPs, and guidelines to be used for determining response resource needs and shortfalls.
Development of Corexit 9580—A Chemical Beach Cleaner
Authors: Fiocco Robert J. , Canevari Gerard P. , Wilkinson John B. , Jahns Hans O. , Bock Jan , Robbins Max , Markarian Ralph K.
Published: January 2013

Chemical beach cleaners can facilitate cleanups of oiled shorelines by improving the efficiency of washing with water. The improvement is a result of reduced adhesion of the oil coating, which makes it easier to remove from shoreline surfaces, thereby reducing washing time and lowering the temperature of the wash water needed to clean a given area. The criteria established for use of chemical beach cleaners in the Exxon Valdez spill cleanup included demonstrating enhanced cleaning with low levels of toxicity to marine biota and with minimal oil dispersion. Since no commercially available products satisfactorily met these criteria for use in Alaska, a new product, Corexit 9580, was specifically developed in response to this need. This paper describes the successful development of this chemical, including both laboratory testing and field testing in Prince William Sound.
Factors Controlling Initial Deposition and Long-Term Fate of Spilled Oil on Gravel Beaches
Authors: Hayes Miles O. , Michel Jacqueline , Noe David C.
Published: January 2013

Several major oil spills of record (including the 1974 Metula spill, the 1978 Amoco Cadiz spill, and the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill) occurred along shorelines with abundant gravel beaches. Observations of these spills help in understanding factors controlling the initial deposition and long-term fate of spilled oil in such locations.

Gravel beaches are most common on rocky, glaciated coasts (Holocene and/or Pleistocene). For example, leading-edge coastlines in subpolar to polar regions, of which the Alaska coast is a prime example, may have gravel beach deposits along more than 50 percent of their length. Spilled oil coming onshore in such gravel areas is likely to remain for a long time (up to decades), because of the potential for deep penetration and burial of the oil in the coarse sediments.

The detailed, three-dimensional configuration of gravel beach deposits is affected by the internal characteristics of the waves shaping the beach (reflective or dissipative). Reflective waves typically produce steep, coarse, cuspate berms, which allow for deep penetration and burial in the beach face/berm areas. Dissipative waves typically build intertidal swash bars that may move landward and bury oil deposits, such as asphalt pavements. It would be useful for future contingency mapping projects to include this distinction on maps of gravel beaches.

The formation of armoring (structural strengthening) of a gravel beach surface impedes erosion and sediment transport. Therefore, such beaches are likely to retain buried oil longer than those without armoring.

Gravel beaches, because they are commonly located along plate margins, are usually subject to tectonic readjustment. The Exxon Valdez spill occurred along a shoreline out of equilibrium as a result of the 1964 earthquake. Uplift and downwarp is on the order of 1 to 3 meters throughout most of the area of the spill. Almost every coastal location affected by the spill is undergoing readjustment, causing many site-specific interpretive problems related to burial, penetration, and hydraulic flushing. For example, in many areas, a thin gravel veneer of armor overlies uplifted rock platforms and/or fine-grained bay bottom, or downwarped soil horizons, which served as either zones of oil accumulation or pathways of hydraulic flushing, depending on local conditions.
The Fate of Diesel Fuel Spilled by the Bahia Paraiso in Arthur Harbor, Antarctica
Authors: Kennicutt Mahlon C. , Sweet Stephen T. , Fraser William R. , Culver Mary , Stockton William L.
Published: January 2013

The Bahia Paraiso spilled an estimated 600,000 liters of refined product (diesel fuel arctic, DFA) into Arthur Harbor, Antarctica, in January 1989. Water, organisms, and sediments within a two-mile radius of the wreck were contaminated to various degrees for at least one year after the spill. The DFA contained about one percent toxic aromatic hydrocarbons, including naphthalenes, fluorenes, and phenanthrenes. Intertidal areas were most directly affected, but all components of the harbor ecosystem were contaminated during the first few weeks of the spill. DFA was detected in tissues from birds, limpets, macroalgae, clams, and bottom feeding fish as well as water and sediments collected over a six-week period. During the most intense phase of the spill, total polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons reached levels as high as 125,147 and 1,723 ppb (dry weight) in limpet tissues and sediments, respectively. The high-energy environment, the relatively small volume of material released, and the volatility of the refined product helped to limit toxic effects over time and space. Most of the spilled material evaporated, and the rest was diluted and swept from the area by winds and currents. Sedimentation, biological uptake, microbial oxidation, and photo-oxidation accounted for removal of only a minor portion of the spill.
Estuarine Oil Spill Effects in the Context of Dispersant use Changes
Authors: Little D. I. , Little A. E.
Published: January 2013

Surveys of rock, cobble, gravel, and salt marsh shores, intertidal macrobenthos, hydrocarbons, and estuarine bird populations were carried out over twelve months following the El Omar spill of 3 December 1988, when 100 metric tons (t) of Iranian light crude oil were spilled in Milford Haven, United Kingdom. Although small, this incident resulted in more widespread shoreline oiling than any previous spill in 30 years of operations at Milford Haven. About 20 t of chemical dispersant were used in the lower estuary. Dispersants were not used where there was a danger of oil and dispersant mixtures impinging on fish farms.

Rock/cobble shores have been studied since the arrival of the oil industry in 1960 and spill impacts were, therefore, discernible at some sites against the baseline data. Serious impacts occurred locally due to excessive oiled algae and substrate removal. On gravel and salt marsh study sites, natural removal of oil was an efficient cleanup option. Some evidence was detected, however, that oil deposited on seed heads of Spartina was later transferred to the sediment surface as part of the litter fall. The marsh vegetation recovered by the end of the 1989 growing season, confirming the resilience of this community to single oil spills, provided intrusive cleanup is not attempted. The increase in aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations found in the surface sediments of the salt marsh was found also in mudflats adjacent to heavily-oiled areas, although no biological effects on the infauna of the inner estuary were detected (compared to a macrobenthic and hydrocarbon survey of 1984). No significant impacts were recorded on the population of 20,000 waders, wildfowl, and gulls present at the time of the spill. This is believed to be partly fortuitous due to the mild 1988/89 winter.

The arrival in Milford Haven of intensive fish farming means that the previously routine use of chemical dispersants in the oil port will now be increasingly challenged. From the El Omar, it may be predicted that, in future spills, more oil will become stranded in marshes and rock and cobble shorelines. Not only are guidelines and scientific advice during shoreline cleanup essential, but also it is recommended that scientific monitoring, which lapsed in the early 1980s, be reinstated. These data would help make the important tradeoff between commercial and conservation interests in future spills.
Shoreline Surveys at the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: The State of Alaska Response
Authors: Gundlach Erich , Pavia Eugene A. , Robinson Clay , Gibeaut James C.
Published: January 2013

The state of Alaska needs information on the shoreline impacts of the Exxon Valdez incident to determine the linear extent of affected shoreline and the degree of oil penetration into the beach versus surface coverage, to assist the shoreline treatment effort, and to monitor oil persistence.

Three principal methods were used to obtain data. Low-altitude helicopter surveys were made repeatedly during the first months of the incident to define shoreline impacts as heavy, moderate, light, and “no observed oiling.” A total of 140 ground stations in Prince William Sound, and over 60 stations in the Kenai and Kodiak areas, were set up to make specific measurements of surface coverage, oil penetration, and oil thickness along a topographic profile. An extensive (more than 1,400 km) walking survey was mounted after the 1989 treatment season to determine the extent of oil remaining and to guide the 1990 cleanup effort. More than 160 km of shoreline remained moderately to heavily oiled in the three regions at the end of 1989. Collected data were entered into the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation geographic information system to enable map production, database queries, and report creation. On an as-needed basis, data derived from these surveys were presented to the state on-scene coordinator, other state and federal agencies, and the cleanup operation.
Results of 12 Years of Research in Spilled Oil Bioremediation: INIPOL Eap 22
Authors: Ladousse Alain , Tramier Bernard
Published: January 2013

Oil biodegradation is a natural but slow process, limited mainly by the scarcity of nitrogen and phosphorus. To enhance hydrocarbon breakdown by indigenous microbial communities, a fertilizer formulation that would keep nutrients in contact with oil was sought. A research project established for this purpose 12 years ago has resulted in the development of an oleophilic fertilizer known as Inipol EAP22. The product is an oil-soluble fertilizer formulated as an oleophilic microemulsion. It contains not only nitrogen and phosphorus, but also an easily biodegradable carbon source.

Numerous experiments, in both laboratory and field, have shown that, even in cold climates, application of this fertilizer increases the number of hydrocarbon-degrading organisms and the extent and rate of biodegradation. Kinetic studies show that the amount of nitrogen and phosphorus in the fertilizer is sufficient to allow the indigenous bacteria to consume all of the carbon source contained in Inipol EAP22. Once this carbon is consumed and the number of hydrocarbon degrading bacteria has increased, oil biodegradation can begin. In addition, adding fertilizer has a marked effect on the oil's consistency and increases its bioavailability.

The recent large bioremediation project in Alaska has shown that it is possible to enhance the biodegradation of oil on shorelines through the application of such a fertilizer.

Enhanced oil biodegradation can be considered today as a new tool in oil spill cleanup, to be used in conjunction with other treatments.
Oil Spill Simulation in Rivers
Authors: Yapa Poojitha D. , Shen Hung Tao , Daly Steven F. , Hung Stephen C.
Published: January 2013

Computer models recently have been developed for simulating oil slick transport in rivers, including the connecting channels of the Great Lakes, the upper St. Lawrence River, and the Allegheny-Monongahela-Ohio River system. In these models, a Lagrangian discrete-parcel algorithm is used to determine the location and concentration distribution of the oil in the river as well as the deposition of oil on the shore. The model for the Great Lakes connecting channels (ROSS) is a two-dimensional surface slick model which considers advection, spreading, horizontal diffusion, evaporation, dissolution, and shoreline deposition. The model is applicable to both open water and ice covered conditions. Models for the St. Lawrence River and the Ohio River System are developed based on a two-layer scheme (ROSS2) which considers vertical mixing and emulsiflcation processes in addition to the processes considered in the surface slick model. All of these models are implemented on microcomputers and can be used as integral parts of oil spill response programs to assist cleanup actions.
Aerial Videotape Shoreline Surveys for Oil Spill Reconnaissance, Documentation, and Mapping
Authors: Owens E. H. , Reimer P. D.
Published: January 2013

Aerial video surveys have been conducted by the authors to assist in the preparation of spill response plans or to map oiled shorelines on more than 40,000 km of coast over the past 10 years. This technique is applicable for sensitivity mapping, response and operational planning, and mapping oiled shorelines. A wide range of field and editing equipment exists to meet most requirements, in terms of image quality, image resolution, and final production format. Field techniques are a vital factor in recording high-quality images. Poor camera work may result in poor resolution and subsequent attempts at accurate mapping or analysis may prove to be of little value. A simultaneous commentary by the camera operator provides a greater level of detail and information than can be recorded by the camera alone, and this audio component is an integral element of data gathering.
Cameo SSC and CAMEO MSO: New Tools for Planning and Initial Response
Authors: Hielscher Allen L. , Froelich Karl A. , Dale Dean H.
Published: January 2013

The Hazardous Materials Response Branch (HMRB) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has added two new members to the CAMEO (Computer-Aided Management of Emergency Operations) family of planning and response computer software. CAMEO SSC has taken some of the tools and capabilities from previous CAMEOs and applied them to assist the network of Scientific Support Coordinators (SSC) that HMRB maintains in coastal regions of the United States. CAMEO MSO shares several modules with CAMEO SSC and was designed to be used by U.S. Coast Guard Marine Safety Offices for planning and for the first stages of oil spill response. These tools can be made available on high-end IBM-compatible machines operating under the Windows environment. This paper describes and demonstrates the principal modules that make up the programs and discusses possible future directions.
Sweden Seeking New Technology to Combat Oil Spills
Authors: Jansson Bernt , Johansson Jarl
Published: January 2013

Due to the special circumstances of the Baltic Sea—brackish water, low temperatures, ice, and widespread archipelagos—special oil spill response and cleanup methods and equipment have proven to be necessary. The Swedish Government therefore commissioned the Swedish National Board of Technical Development to establish a research and development program involving the six authorities that are responsible for the country's environmental protection.

The first step in this program was a common document, Policy Guidelines for Swedish Maritime Oil Spill Protection in the 1990s, with high-priority strategies according to which all subsequent development has been carried out. The program has produced methods and systems ranging from those for handling oil spills at sea and from leaking wrecks, to protection against and deflection of oil from sensitive areas, and cleanup operations in the beach zone.
Recent Results from Oil Spill Response Research
Authors: Tennyson Edward
Published: January 2013

Recent large oil spills from tankers have reaffirmed the need for continuing technology assessment and research to improve oil-spill response capabilities. The Minerals Management Service (MMS) remains a lead agency in conducting these studies. This paper discusses MMS concerns, as reinforced by the acceleration of its research program in 1990. It briefly assesses the current state-of-the-art technology for major aspects of spill response, including remote sensing, open-ocean containment, recovery, in-situ burning, chemical treating agents, beach-line cleanup, and oil behavior.

The paper reports on specific research projects that have begun to yield information that will improve detection and at-sea equipment performance. The first detection project, for which MMS has patent pending, involves the use of shipboard navigational radar to track slicks at relatively long range. The second project involves the use of conventional containment and cleanup in a downwind mode, which is contrary to the traditional procedures.

The paper also discusses current research projects, including the development of an airborne, laser-assisted fluorosensor that can determine whether apparent slicks contain oil. Additional projects involve the development of improved strategies for responding to oil in broken-ice conditions, for gaining an improved understanding of the fate and behavior of spilled oil as it affects response strategies, and for reopening and operating the oil and hazardous materials simulated environmental test tank (OHMSETT) facility in Leonardo, New Jersey. Recent progress on the development of safe and environmentally acceptable strategies to burn spilled oil in-situ is also discussed. The OHMSETT facility is necessary for testing prospective improvements in chemical treating agents and to develop standard procedures for testing and evaluating response equipment.
Ship-Source Oil Pollution Fund: 20 Years of Canada's Experience1
Authors: Troop P. M. , C. Q. , S. Capt. M.
Published: January 2013

The Ship-source Oil Pollution Fund (SOPF) had its origins in amendments to the Canada Shipping Act passed in 1971. At that time, there was no legal right compensation available to recover the costs and expenses incurred as a result of two oil spill incidents on Canada's east coast. These amendments established the Maritime Pollution Claims Fund (MPCF), which was financed by a levy on every ton of oil imported or exported from Canada.

Operational experience dictated further legislative changes in 1987. To strengthen Canada's legal regime in pollution cases, the oil MPCF was transformed into the SOPF, and Canada acceded to the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971 International Fund Convention. An additional level of compensation over that of the conventions, to a current maximum of Can$105.5 million per incident, was provided.

The SOPF also meets claims not covered by the conventions, such as mystery spills, damage caused by ships other than laden tankers and claims beyond the territorial sea but in Canada's fishing zones. Speedy recourse is provided to fishermen so that they do not suffer undue hardship. A unique feature of the SOPF is that Canada's contributions to the International Fund are made directly by the SOPF and not by the individual oil companies. As of April 1990, the balance in the fund was some Can$164 million.
Claims for Oil Pollution Damage—Arbitration and Alternative Dispute Resolution
Authors: O'Donovan Patrick
Published: January 2013

It is clear that there is a role for arbitration and alternative dispute resolution in the context of oil pollution, as recognized by the arbitration provisions in the TOVALOP and CRISTAL agreements (compare the International Conventions which provide for court proceedings). An example is given of an arbitration under TOVALOP.

The suitability of arbitration in the context of marine pollution disputes is analyzed and the main centers of existing maritime arbitration and conciliation are identified. Various international conventions provide for resolution of disputes by arbitration or some other form of alternative dispute resolution; these are noted and discussed.
Seaway Emergency Response Plan
Authors: Hung Stephen C.
Published: January 2013

An Emergency Response Plan (ERP) is developed to serve as a directive for corporation personnel in the event of an oil spill in the St. Lawrence River. A computerized database for resource and personnel inventories is incorporated in the plan. A computer simulation model for oil slick transformation is developed to predict oil slick movement at any part of the river under various flow and weather conditions. Initial training for oil boom deployment, for corporation personnel and local response teams, has been provided. Annual updates of the plan and the training exercise are scheduled.
Airborne Detection of Winter Oil Spills—A Presentation of the Swedish Coast Guard's Build-Up of Response Resources and Operational Manuals
Authors: Sandkvist Jim , Forsman Björn , Thorell Dan
Published: January 2013

A substantial part of the total transport in Swedish waters takes place during wintertime. Ice, darkness, and rough weather increase the risk of accidental spills and reduce the possibilities of detecting deliberate spills. These factors stress the importance of forming an oil spill response organization, also effective in operations in wintertime.

The Swedish Coast Guard, which is responsible for spill recovery operations in Swedish waters, has initiated a number of projects due to the build-up of effective spill response resources for winter spills. Spill recovery operations in Swedish ice-free waters are performed effectively by airborne detection support, built up by the Swedish Space Corporation.

Airborne detection techniques of oil in ice-covered waters are now studied in order to define ice and oil spill conditions that offer opportunities for successful detection operations. Developing manuals containing spill response strategies and operational tools requires combining knowledge concerning oil properties in cold water, oil and ice behavior, and ice conditions with resources such as weather forecasting, drift models, and strike forces. A manual, primarily aimed at rescue commanders and the Coast Guard OSCs for operations in winter spills, is set up, based on these combined disciplines and the best use of available tools.

The progress of the work will be presented as well as a version of the spill detection manual for operations in ice conditions. A suggested oil properties classification code for winter spills is also included as a part of this project.