bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Road to U-1
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter describes the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) as an American institution. It explains how the CIA has fared in its seventy-five-year history by considering its precursors from the earliest days of the nation to the twentieth century. It also emphasizes how the manner of the CIA’s creation and its subsequent fate reflected habits acquired and lessons learned over the seventeen preceding decades. The chapter talks about how the CIA was an executive agency wherein the issue of executive secret powers had a pedigree stretching back to the days of the Founding Fathers of America. It mentions President George Washington’s successors in the White House who continued to pay spies from the Contingency Fund and President Abraham Lincoln’s establishment of the nation’s first spy agency in 1865. It evaluates the role of U-1, the central intelligence organism that operated in the presidency of Woodrow Wilson.
The Great Diminishing Reform Act of 2004
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, the biggest structural and mission change for the CIA since 1947. It mentions CIA critics who sought a scapegoat for the Bush administration’s failure to protect American citizens on the day of 9/11. It explains that the search for causation led to the targeting of the CIA, which was charged with dereliction of its duty of preventive intelligence and punished with demotion for offenses it did not commit. The chapter reviews other causes of the 2004 legislation, which include the alleged complicity of the CIA in inventing the myth of Iraq’s “weapons of mass destruction,” which led the United States into a disastrous war. It indicates how the criticism of America’s intelligence performance from both ends of the political spectrum encouraged the Bush administration to reform.
Estimating Anew and a Military Turn
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter explains how the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 marked the end of a longer phase in American history that went back to 1947. It mentions military poaching assisted by intense criticism that threatened to weaken the CIA’s grip on covert action. It also examines common perceptions of what happened to the CIA in Bush’s second term, when the CIA was portrayed as sinking in a mire of ill-fated operations. The chapter deals with the commonly held notion that the 2004 law forced the CIA to yield the analytical high ground in an unsatisfactory manner. It argues that the 2007 Iran estimate nevertheless showed intelligence analysis to be in robust health. It refers to two major characteristics of the Bush years, privatization and militarization.
A Church Militant
Authors: Snape Michael
Published: August 2022

This is a study of the relationship between Anglicans and the armed forces, of the military heritage and history of the Anglican Communion, and of the changing nature of this relationship between the mid-Victorian period and the 1970s. This era spanned a time of imperial expansion and colonial conflict around the turn of the twentieth century, the two World Wars, the Cold War, wars of decolonization, and the Vietnam War. In terms of armed conflict, it was the bloodiest period in the history of humanity and marked the advent of weaponry that had the capacity to extinguish human civilization. This book assesses the contribution of an expansive Anglican Communion to the armed forces of the English-speaking world, examines the ways in which this has been remembered, and explores its challenging legacy for the twenty-first-century Church of England.
‘Marching as to War’
Authors: Snape Michael
Published: August 2022

This chapter surveys the emergence and growth of the Anglican Communion in the latter half of the nineteenth century and the interactions, orientation, and widely touted mission of this Anglophone (and, for many Anglican apologists, emphatically Anglo-Saxon) Communion around the turn of the twentieth century. In light of the ‘Anglo’ and imperial identity of Anglicanism, it examines its close association with the British Army and the Royal Navy, illustrating the historic (even growing) ascendancy of Anglican influence, the vigour of Anglican pastoral work among soldiers and sailors, and the increasing significance of Anglican links with the armed forces at a local level, in the garrison towns of Great Britain and in the missionary context of British India. It examines the gathering strength of ‘Christian militarism’ in the late Victorian period and expressions of military culture within the Church of England and Church of Ireland on the eve of the First World War, reflected in the rise of the Church Army, the St John Ambulance movement, the Church Lads’ Brigade, and the Ulster Volunteer Force. It also discusses how the English Church came to dominate the fledgling military forces of the settler colonies (or Dominions) and elucidates how the Protestant Episcopal Church established its pre-eminent position in the armed forces of the United States. Finally, it draws attention to the importance of Britain’s armed forces as a site for Anglican party conflict, the solutions that were found for this problem, and their consequences following the outbreak of the First World War.
‘Faithful, True, and Bold’
Authors: Snape Michael
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the impact and experience of the First World War on the established Anglican–military nexus, commencing by discussing the usually negative portrayals of the Church of England’s conduct during the war. However, by setting this in the wider context of the Anglican Communion, it presents a very different picture of Anglican interaction with the armed forces of the British Empire and United States. For example, and far from being craven recruiting sergeants or disconnected onlookers, it illustrates the costly sacrifices made by the Anglican clergy across the world—including their lengthy, controversial, but revealing roster of clergy combatants (all of whom were volunteers) and the huge and even paralysing losses sustained by clergy families. It also highlights the scale and effectiveness of Western Anglican support for the armed forces, whether rendered by individual parishes or through the burgeoning wartime work of major Anglican organizations such as the Church Army and St John Ambulance. While critically appraising the contribution of Anglican overseas missions to the war in sub-Saharan Africa, it also reconsiders the much-maligned ministry of Church of England chaplains, especially on the Western Front. Though often overlooked, their methods left a lasting legacy in the form of Royal Air Force chaplaincy and in the post-1920 Chaplain Corps of the US Army. In light of their achievements, the chapter concludes by considering whether the Royal Navy and not the British Army was in fact the scene of the greatest disappointments in Anglican ministry to Britain’s armed forces.
‘’Gainst All Disaster’
Authors: Snape Michael
Published: August 2022

This chapter commences by considering the anti-war reaction that swept Western Anglicanism in the inter-war period, arguing that its shallow roots were exposed by Anglican responses to the outbreak and conduct of the Second World War—which showed that underlying attitudes to war and the armed forces remained substantially unchanged. While the relationship between Churchill and Roosevelt symbolized inter-Anglican as well as Anglo-American resolve, the Communion’s leadership was influenced by a strong leavening of First World War veterans, whose experience helped guide Anglican ministry among civilians as well as in the armed forces. In the more challenging context of a longer war, Anglican resourcefulness in supporting the welfare of armed forces personnel was unabated, Anglican mobilization in the mission fields of sub-Saharan Africa was resumed, and even the phenomenon of the combatant clergyman reappeared. Despite a tendency to downplay the religious dimensions of the conflict, as ‘Christendom-type’ societies religious conviction remained vital to morale in Great Britain, the Dominions, and the US. This helps account for the success of Montgomery as the morale-raiser par excellence for the British and Dominion armies. Son of Bishop Henry Montgomery, the leading proponent of imperial pan-Anglicanism at the turn of the twentieth century, and a quasi-ecclesiastical figure in his own right, Montgomery’s standing as the ‘People’s General’ served as a telling foil to William Temple’s celebrity as the ‘People’s Archbishop’, their neglected collaboration and affinities underscoring the abiding Anglican culture of the British military, and the abiding military culture of the Church of England.
Introduction
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona
Published: August 2022

Chapter 1 introduces readers to this comparative study of women’s leadership and the law. The chapter begins by offering the national and global contexts in which women rise to executive office, which is often hindered and slow. With few female presidents and prime ministers around the world, the chapter demonstrates a notable gap in comparative studies that link women’s leadership, legislation and the legacies of those leaders on the lives of fellow women. The chapter then presents the four women presidents—Presidents Aquino and Macapagal Arroyo of the Philippines, President Megawati of Indonesia and President Kumaratunga of Sri Lanka. Common themes are offered, including existing assumptions about the gendered footprint of women presidents and prime ministers, challenges with quantifying executive power, how domestic and international law are brought into this study and what new knowledge on women presidents can be placed on the theory-building table through experiences from Asia.
Measuring the Legislative Footprint
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona
Published: August 2022

Chapter 4 offers readers an overview of the multi-method, quantitative–qualitative data collection techniques used for this study. Three sets of data are presented. Enacted laws were analysed using the Gender Legislative Index (GLI), a world-first legal index that draws on data science and machine learning to evaluate individual provisions of individual laws for their gender-responsiveness. Such laws are evaluated against international women’s rights standards. As such, significant attention is given in this chapter to grounding this analysis in the lived realities of women and to exploring domestic ownership over the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in the three countries. Bi-directional links are drawn between international and domestic law. Second, this research involved interviews in all three countries, foremost with one of the former presidents who is the subject of this study—President Macapagal Arroyo—along with current and former members of parliament and government, national women’s rights institutions, the academy and civil society. Finally, speeches have been a key source of knowledge. Such speeches provide readers the publicly articulated viewpoint of the Woman President’s often carefully conceived political agendas and a sense of how those agendas intersected with legislative processes.
The President and the People
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona
Published: August 2022

Chapter 9 considers the role of the Women President in the successes and failings of women’s movements to advocate for the passage of gender-responsive legislation. This chapter uses national-level case studies from across the three countries to offer preliminary reflections on the particular opportunities availed to women’s movements to advance their causes under the tenures of women leaders. Women’s movements are studied in all their forms—feminist movements, conservative women’s organizations, religious women’s affiliations and networks—to see how movements emboldened others to act, primarily the Woman President herself but also those within her administration as well as female legislators, a group of actors generally assumed to be critical players in promoting the interests of marginalized and excluded groups. The five case studies navigate across gender-based violence, gender equality quotas and gender-mainstreaming in national development plans. The strategies employed by movements, such as achieving a united front and exploiting the power of the woman voter are analysed, alongside more typical strategies such as use of the media, balcony parliaments and learning lessons from neighbouring countries. Although discrete, the case studies leave a sense that the presence of women in executive office may mean distinct possibilities, opportunities and expectations when women lead.
Women Leaders in the International Landscape
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona
Published: August 2022

Chapter 10 offers an international lens to the largely domestic picture presented in The Woman President. The chapter responds to questions posed about how women leaders exercise power in the international landscape, whether gender influences a women leader’s response to her foreign policy responsibilities as well as how women leaders respond to each other on the world stage. These questions are largely unexplored in the existing literature. In seeking to provide some answers, the chapter begins by recalling the high visibility of women presidents and prime ministers on the global stage largely because of the low levels of female representation at this level. The chapter then considers how the four presidents exercised their foreign policy responsibilities, before turning its attention to the ways in which women leaders in the international landscape first speak as a collective, such as through the Council of Women World Leaders, second, speak for fellow women and finally speak for the ‘Asian woman’. While the chapter argues that gender was not accorded an explicit priority in articulated foreign policy goals, we simultaneously begin to understand how women leaders may be freer to prioritize gender equality in international dialogues when compared to what the domestic policy landscape may allow.
Conclusion
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona
Published: August 2022

This systematic study of the legislative output and impact of the four women leaders offers new tools—and sharpens old ones—to better understand the different portraits of women’s leadership. Chapter 11 presents several observations and extrapolations. First, gender for the woman president is a second skin that cannot be shed. Moreover, too little has been invested to understand the expectations that the woman leader carries when she enters executive office. Women Presidents walk a difficult tight-rope that involves inherited legacies, societal obligations as wives and mothers and a myriad of expectations from women activists, organisations and movements, alongside the day-to-day presidential norms. Nonetheless, it is clear that women in all three countries—the conservative woman as much the radical feminist woman—enjoyed legislative wins throughout the tenures of the four presidents. Yet, there were evident roadblocks to reforms and while the transitions to democracy, peace and economic development in all three countries had to serve both women and men, the concerns of women were raised by these leaders at the political table, but with different degrees of rigour or sincerity. The chapter concludes by using history to define a gender-responsive, transformational Woman President.
DERIVING NEWTON’S SECOND LAW FROM RELATIVITY PRINCIPLES
Authors: Darrigol Olivier
Published: August 2022

After Huygens’s pioneering derivation of the laws of free fall from Galilean relativity, many authors used this relativity and Newton’s accelerative relativity to derive Newton’s second law of motion (the law of acceleration). In the eighteenth century, Euler and d’Alembert implicitly relied on Galilean relativity in their rational justifications of the laws of mechanical motion. Late in the century, Laplace derived the discrete-impulse version of Newton’s second law from Galilean relativity. Many French writers followed suit in nineteenth-century physics textbooks. A few of them used a principle of accelerative relativity, Bélanger’s “principle of relative motions,” to derive the continuous version of Newton’s second law. Poincaré criticized these derivations, retained Galilean relativity only, and amplified the idea of relativity as an organizing principle. He soon turned Bélanger’s name into “principle of relativity.”
THE OPTICS OF MOVING BODIES
Authors: Darrigol Olivier
Published: August 2022

The optics of moving bodies started with the first measurements of the velocity of light by Rømer and Bradley. The latter employed stellar aberration, which he understood as an effect of the velocity of the earth on the perceived velocity of the light corpuscles. Later in the eighteenth century, it became clear that in Newtonian optics aberration and other optical phenomena depended only on the relative motion of the bodies involved. In the nineteenth century, many experiments confirmed this relativity. In the now dominant wave optics, there were two competing explanations of optical relativity: through Fresnel’s stationary ether, and through Stokes’s fully dragged ether. Toward the end of the century Fresnel’s concept won by means of subtle compensations for the first-order effects of the motion of the earth in the ether. However, it implied second-order effects of this motion, one of which Michelson and Morley disproved in 1887.
MOSTLY EINSTEIN: TO GENERAL RELATIVITY
Authors: Darrigol Olivier
Published: August 2022

In 1907, Einstein introduced the principle of equivalence between gravitation and inertial acceleration, thus extending relativity to accelerated frames. He used this principle to derive new electromagnetic effects of the gravitational field. In 1912, he designed a full static field theory through a generalized Minkowski metric with variable velocity of light. Next moving to arbitrary fields, he further generalized the metric formula to include any form compatible with the locally Minkowskian character. His main heuristic requirements were the general covariance of the fundamental equations, and the existence of a stress–energy tensor for the gravitational forces. Having failed to combine both requirements, for almost three years he sacrificed the former to the latter. Finally, in November 1915, he realized he could reconcile his two requirements through a field action based on the Christoffel symbols, and he gave correct predictions for the gravitational redshift, the advance of Mercury’s perihelion, and the gravitational curvature of light rays.
EPILOGUE
Authors: Darrigol Olivier
Published: August 2022

This last chapter briefly discusses the historical conditions (role of experiment, of mathematics, philosophies, theoretical views, etc.) of the developments recounted in this book. It then addresses the ways in which the question of the reference of motion appeared in the previous chapters, the intent being to display conceptual continuities and discontinuities over three centuries of reflections on space, time, and inertia. Lastly, critical attention is given to Einstein’s contention that general relativity derived from a generalized principle of relativity.
Contextual Emergence
Authors: Bishop Robert C. , Silberstein Michael , Pexton Mark
Published: August 2022

Chapter 2 begins with some very preliminary issues that set up defining and explicating contextual emergence (Section 2.2). The chapter then describes the key features of contextual emergence (Section 2.3), followed by a detailed illustration of how it works in a concrete scientific case: Rayleigh–Bénard convection (Section 2.4).
Intertheoretic Relations and Multiscale Modeling
Authors: Bishop Robert C. , Silberstein Michael , Pexton Mark
Published: August 2022

Chapter 3 has two main focuses. First, intertheoretic relations are discussed, and it is shown that contextual emergence helps us make sense of several moves and tensions present in the literature. Second, multiscale modeling in the sciences is discussed. Such modeling does not aim at intertheoretic relations as philosophers of science have traditionally conceived, but is central to scientific practice. It is argued that multiscale modeling is also best understood within the framework of contextual emergence.
Classical and Quantum Physics
Authors: Bishop Robert C. , Silberstein Michael , Pexton Mark
Published: August 2022

Chapter 4 focus on examples from physics because it is often thought of as the home of reductionism and as the reductionistic model for the rest of the sciences. What follows is a series of case studies, some in more detail, some in less, illustrating the pattern of contextual emergence across subdisciplines in physics. The chapter dives into the cases, some of which have been taken to be workhorse examples of successful ontological reductions, such as temperature and chemical potential (Section 4.3), the macroscopic world’s relationship to the microscopic (Section 4.5), and molecular structure (Section 4.6), while others illustrate particular aspects of contextual emergence nicely, such as white dwarf stars (Section 4.4), quantum entanglement (Section 4.7), and renormalization group explanations (Section 4.8). The chapter is rounded out with some briefer miscellaneous examples of contextual emergence.
Ontological and Scientific Implications of Contextual Emergence
Authors: Bishop Robert C. , Silberstein Michael , Pexton Mark
Published: August 2022

The first part of Chapter 7 pursues the claim that modality of all varieties are grounded in extrinsic dispositions and their multiscale relations (Sections 7.2–7.10). The rest of the chapter compares contextual emergence with other accounts of emergence in the philosophy and metaphysics of science, answers common questions, and addresses objections (Sections 7.11–7.13). In doing so, the chapter addresses broader concerns such as causal closure of the physical, the mind–body problem, mental causation, and multiple realizability.
Internationalisation of Universities
Authors: Chankseliani Maia
Published: August 2022

A consensus exists in the region that internationalisation is a key driver in the development of higher education. Former Soviet countries have seen an intensification of cross-border activities since the 1990s. The international flows of policies and practices, students and academics, knowledge and financing have impacted former Soviet universities and the systems in which they operate. This chapter examines various domains of internationalisation, such as the Bologna Process, international student mobility, global academic publications, global university rankings, use of the English medium of instruction, and international institutional partnerships to illustrate how former Soviet universities have transformed into internationally connected institutions in the last three decades. While Western higher education systems appear to be idealised, cross-border links with Russia remain strong across many former Soviet countries, and Central Asia in particular. The chapter also reflects on the global dimension of former Soviet universities and explains how global reputation has become an important aspiration with which international education and research activities are shaped.
Academic Liberation
Authors: Chankseliani Maia
Published: August 2022

The state authority model of governance, inherited from the Soviet Union, went through various transformations. The majority of former Soviet universities frame their identity as ‘classical’, which is often identified with the Humboldtian model. Yet, Humboldtian academic self-governance has been dormant in most contexts and the central tenets of the Humboldtian model—academic freedom and institutional autonomy—have acquired peculiar interpretations. Academic freedom is often seen as the freedom of universities to design courses in response to labour market needs, or the freedom of academics to choose between face-to-face and online modes of teaching during the Covid-19 pandemic; it is rarely understood to be the broader freedom of enquiry and expression within academia. The one-man management principle is the most widespread approach to university governance across former Soviet universities, the majority of which remain largely state-centred, sometimes government-run institutions. At the top of most university governance structures is a heavy-handed, powerful rector who is often intimately connected with the ruling party. Marketisation and internationalisation processes have led to the adoption of market models of university governance which curiously co-exist with the state-centred model. Degrees of academic freedom and university autonomy vary considerably in the region, with universities in the Baltics offering the practices closest to the academic self-rule model. At the other end of the spectrum are Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Belarus—countries where universities and academics continue to dance in shackles.
Conclusion
Authors: Chankseliani Maia
Published: August 2022

Soviet universities, similar to all other Soviet institutions, experienced considerable turmoil in the period following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. This was a time of revolutionary change across the region and brought about a radical break from the traditional Soviet university model in a number of countries. State withdrawal was used as an opportunity by universities to open up to market forces by introducing student fees, increasing student numbers, and engaging in commercial activities. Yet, in most contexts, the liberalisation was temporary, and newly formed states soon imposed various controls on their universities. Since the late 1990s, most of the changes at former Soviet universities have been evolutionary. This concluding chapter brings different thematic threads together and consolidates some of the key ideas pertaining to change and continuity as well as different types of change. It looks at the aspects of the Soviet university that experienced more prominent change and those that have changed less. All in all, these universities have remained flagship institutions in many contexts and demonstrated a remarkable capacity to regain equilibrium while undergoing incremental adaptations. The transformations have influenced the purposes and functions of universities, and shaped them as national institutions. While the Soviet university did not quite succeed in perpetuating the Soviet order for longer than 70 years, some of its characteristics remained resilient in the decades that followed the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Introduction
Authors: Whidden Seth
Published: August 2022

Presenting the tensions present to the very notion of prose poetry as a crucial element of Baudelairean modernity, this Introduction broaches the much-used representational devices of the visual, the spoken, and formal subversion to create fertile ground from which to analyze Baudelaire’s prose poems. The deconstruction and analysis of these different elements allows for a better understanding of the representational limitations of poetic expression which are primary factors of poetic modernity in the Baudelairean imaginary, both formally and thematically. In presenting prose poetry as a means of pushing beyond tradition in order to access and create modernity, this introductory chapter deconstructs traditional poetic tools and Baudelaire’s use of them.
Inebriations and Irritations
Authors: Whidden Seth
Published: August 2022

The relationship between the complexities of modern life and poetic modernity is shown to be characteristic of the construction of the prose poem, and a factor in the continuing subversion of Baudelaire’s prose poems. In this way, poetic discovery, by surpassing the present, requires a metamorphic transcendence that in turn contributes to a deeper, fuller level of understanding of the reality which the poet seeks to go beyond representing. Exceeding the limitations of human experience is seen as a crucial catalyst for poetic invention, represented as a drug akin to alcohol or hashish. A comparative analysis of Charles Cros’s poem “Distrayeuse” reinforces the role played by poetry in escapism and in exceeding the limits of human experience.
How Fantasy Means
Authors: Attebery Brian
Published: August 2022

Abstract and hidden realities are best revealed through the mechanisms of fantasy, which invites us to throw out common-sense assumptions and to look to the mysteries of riddles, metaphors, and myths. Despite its disavowal of direct representation, fantasy can reveal and convey truths about experience in three main ways: by reference to traditional myths and supernatural legends from various cultures, by literalizing metaphors, and by setting up parallels to the underlying structures, rather than the surface details, of reality. These structures include the components of the self, the shape of change (in an individual or a culture), and cognitive mappings of the categories through which we understand the world. Such mappings take concrete form in images such as doppelgangers, enchanted forests, and haunted mansions.
How Fantasy Means and What It Does
Authors: Attebery Brian
Published: August 2022

This chapter recasts all the main ideas of the book in the form of a set of testable propositions about fantasy’s functions and ways of generating meaning. The ninety-five propositions are spread among the nine chapters, to which they constitute immediate access points.
Citizens, Elites, and the Legitimacy of Global Governance
Authors: Dellmuth Lisa , Scholte Jan Aart , Tallberg Jonas , Verhaegen Soetkin
Published: August 2022

Contemporary society has witnessed major growth in global governance, yet the legitimacy of global governance remains deeply in question. This book offers the first full comparative investigation of citizen and elite legitimacy beliefs toward global governance. Empirically, it provides a comprehensive analysis of public and elite opinion toward global governance, building on two uniquely coordinated surveys covering multiple countries and international organizations. Theoretically, it develops an individual-level approach, exploring how a person’s characteristics in respect of socioeconomic status, political values, geographical identification, and domestic institutional trust shape legitimacy beliefs toward global governance. The book’s central findings are threefold. First, there is a notable and general elite–citizen gap in legitimacy beliefs toward global governance. While elites on average hold moderately high levels of legitimacy toward international organizations, the general public is decidedly more skeptical. Second, individual-level differences in interests, values, identities, and trust dispositions provide significant drivers of citizen and elite legitimacy beliefs toward global governance, as well as the gap between the two groups. Most important on the whole are differences in the extent to which citizens and elites trust domestic political institutions, which shape how these groups assess the legitimacy of international organizations. Third, both patterns and sources of citizen and elite legitimacy beliefs vary across organizations and countries. These variations suggest that institutional and societal contexts condition attitudes toward global governance. The book’s findings shed light on future opportunities and constraints in international cooperation, suggesting that current levels of legitimacy point neither to a general crisis of global governance nor to a general readiness for its expansion.
Mapping Elite Legitimacy Beliefs
Authors: Dellmuth Lisa , Scholte Jan Aart , Tallberg Jonas , Verhaegen Soetkin
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines levels and patterns of elite legitimacy beliefs. It draws upon data from the LegGov Elite Survey. This survey covers 14 global governance institutions of various types (intergovernmental, transgovernmental, and private), six diverse countries (Brazil, Germany, the Philippines, Russia, South Africa, and the US), and six elite sectors (business, civil society, government bureaucracy, media political parties, and research). The discussion first examines elite legitimacy beliefs toward global governance in the aggregate and then disaggregates the data by organization, by country, by organization within each country, and by elite sector. Overall, the survey results suggest that contemporary elites hold moderately high levels of legitimacy beliefs toward global governance institutions. Regarding specific institutions, elites tend to give higher approval to human security international organizations as compared to economic international organizations, and to older intergovernmental agencies as compared to newer institutional designs. Elites in Brazil, Germany, the Philippines, and the US generally ascribe more legitimacy to international organizations than elites in Russia and South Africa. In general, bureaucratic, research, and business elites show higher legitimacy beliefs toward international organizations than media, party-political, and civil society elites.
Mapping the Elite–Citizen Gap
Authors: Dellmuth Lisa , Scholte Jan Aart , Tallberg Jonas , Verhaegen Soetkin
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the size and patterns of a gap between elite and citizen legitimacy beliefs toward international organizations. It compares citizen and elite data regarding six international organizations in five countries. Public opinion data is taken from the seventh wave of the World Values Survey, and elite data is taken from the simultaneously fielded LegGov Elite Survey. The discussion first examines the elite–citizen legitimacy gap in the aggregate, combining all international organizations and countries. Then the data are disaggregated to identify variation in the size of the gap by international organization, by country, by organization within country, by elite sector, and by international organization within the elite sector. A notable difference does indeed exist between average elite confidence and average citizen confidence vis-à-vis global governance. The gap arises in the aggregate data, as well as separately in respect of each of the six international organizations, four of the five countries, and each of the six elite sectors. That said, the elite–citizen gap is generally larger in respect of international organizations working on human security than those working on economic issues. Regarding countries, the gap is largest in Brazil and negative in the Philippines, where the average citizen score is higher than the average elite score. Regarding sectors, the gap with citizen legitimacy beliefs is larger for bureaucratic, research, and business elites than for media, partisan-political, and civil society elites.
Explaining Citizen Legitimacy Beliefs
Authors: Dellmuth Lisa , Scholte Jan Aart , Tallberg Jonas , Verhaegen Soetkin
Published: August 2022

This chapter assesses four individual-level explanations of citizen legitimacy beliefs toward global governance, using data from the seventh wave of the World Values Survey. The four explanations relate respectively to socioeconomic status, political values, geographical identification, and domestic institutional trust. Regression analyses examine the sources of citizen legitimacy beliefs in the aggregate (covering all international organizations and countries), as well as disaggregated by international organization, by country, and by organization within each country. The results show that citizen legitimacy beliefs toward international organizations most consistently relate to domestic institutional trust, while socioeconomic status, political values, and geographical identification also have some explanatory power. The explanatory power of these individual-level logics varies across international organizations and (especially) countries, suggesting that organizational and societal contexts also matter in shaping citizen legitimacy beliefs toward global governance.
Legitimacy and the Future of Global Governance
Authors: Dellmuth Lisa , Scholte Jan Aart , Tallberg Jonas , Verhaegen Soetkin
Published: August 2022

This concluding chapter recapitulates the overall findings of the book and discusses their broader implications for research and policy. The central findings are threefold. First, the analysis reveals a significant and consistent elite–citizen gap in legitimacy beliefs toward global governance. While elites overall hold moderately high levels of confidence toward the studied international organizations, the general public on the whole has relatively lower assessments. Second, evidence strongly supports the importance of individual-level factors in explaining legitimacy beliefs toward global governance. All of the analyses provide substantial verification of four theorized individual-level drivers of legitimacy beliefs: socioeconomic status, political values, geographical identification, and domestic institutional trust. Third, variation in patterns and sources of legitimacy beliefs across international organizations and countries suggests that organizational and societal contexts condition attitudes toward global governance alongside the individual factors. The final part of the chapter focuses on broader implications of these findings, making four larger points. First, this book shows how the notoriously elusive concept of legitimacy can become empirically tractable through carefully designed survey research. Second, the findings suggest that existing research sets up false debates when presenting explanations of legitimacy beliefs toward global governance as competing, when they tend to be complementary. Third, the book’s results fuel debates on whether global governance confronts a problem of democratic accountability and representation, as the elites who have most influence in global governance accord notably more legitimacy to IOs than the affected public at large. Fourth, the book’s findings shed light on future opportunities and constraints in international cooperation, suggesting that current levels of legitimacy point neither to a general crisis of global governance nor to a general readiness for its expansion.
Truth (and Goodness) in Painting
Authors: Rudd Anthony
Published: August 2022

The chapter starts with a brief review of the philosophical tradition which—from Neoplatonism to Hegel—has held that painting can convey philosophically significant truth. This depended on a broader metaphysics of value which has been challenged by the modern ‘disenchantment’ of the world. It defends the claim that painting can convey important truths and that because such truths are not paraphrasable—expressible in any other form—art is not (as Hegel had claimed) ultimately dispensable as a means of conveying truth. But it also argues that the truthfulness of painting can only explain its value, if the truths it makes known to us are worth knowing. Here it looks to Iris Murdoch’s Platonic defence of art against the Platonic critique—her argument that great art is an instance of the truthful, attentive perception of reality that she also sees as fundamental to ethics.
Expression and Form
Authors: Rudd Anthony
Published: August 2022

The disclosive theory developed so far is a modified descendant of the classic representational theory of painting in that it is concerned with the relation of a painting to its subject matter. This chapter further develops the theory by drawing on insights from the traditional alternatives to representationalism—expressivism and formalism. In regard to expression—here still drawing on Merleau-Ponty, but also on Jacques Maritain—the chapter argues that disclosure is never a matter of revealing the object absolutely, but, rather, as it resonates with the sensibility of the particular artist. Moreover, this expressive disclosure always takes place through the organization and deployment of formal elements—colour, line, etc. In the context of discussing formalism (and also expression) the chapter argues that this account does apply to non-representational painting, and that, although in non-representational painting formal elements become particularly prominent, it is also always both expressive and disclosive.
Introduction
Authors: Duttlinger Carolin
Published: August 2022

This chapter reflects on the etymologies of attention and distraction in both English and German to map out the field of this study, which ranges from visual to aural engagement, from voluntary to involuntary forms of attention. It emphasizes that the two concepts must be understood as umbrella terms for the much wider, multi-shaded field of human experience, which ranges from dispersed alertness to inward-looking contemplation. While existing studies have tended to focus on either attention or distraction, this book treats them as inextricably intertwined. Although debates about (in)attention often highlight historical, cultural, or ideological differences, these mental states cannot be confined to one particular period or context but cut across any such divides. The Introduction ends with a survey of the ensuing chapters, where author-based case studies alternate with explorations of wider cultural fields and social practices.
Psychotechnics
Authors: Duttlinger Carolin
Published: August 2022

In the early twentieth century, the methods of experimental psychology filtered through into everyday life. One response to the cognitive strains of modern life was ‘psychotechnics’, a system of aptitude testing and behavioural training devised by William Stern and Hugo Münsterberg. First used during the First World War, psychotechnics was rolled out across Germany civilian society to increase the productivity of a depleted workforce. Though relatively short-lived, the movement was vast in its scope and ambition, and its methods, which were also used in advertising, education, and mass entertainment, met with almost universal acclaim. One lone voice of dissent was Siegfried Kracauer, whose pioneering study The Salaried Masses (1930) uncovers the corrosive impact of psychotechnics on Weimar society, where it was used to select and exclude, to reshape behaviour and stifle critical dissent.
The Art of Concentration
Authors: Duttlinger Carolin
Published: August 2022

The social imperative to improve one’s attention was not limited to the workplace but also invaded people’s private lives. Complementing the roll-out of psychotechnics, self-help guides promising their readers enhanced powers of concentration boomed in the interwar years. This chapter looks at three very different examples of this genre. While Reinhard Gerling offers a ten-week course of exercises designed to control body and mind, Karl Otto Schmidt recommends a programme of meditation inspired by autosuggestion and the spiritualist New Thought movement. Finally, Philipp Müh’s guide advocates a piece of innovative hardware, the ‘Konzentrator’, as the ultimate, cybernetic tool of cognitive self-enhancement. As the chapter concludes, Weimar self-help literature continues the tradition of Enlightenment hygiene literature with a modern, secular inflection. The ultimate goal is no longer moral self-improvement but heightened mental capacity as the ultimate tool in the modern struggle of all against all.
Introduction
Authors: Sommerer Thomas , Agné Hans , Zelli Fariborz , Bes Bart
Published: August 2022

This chapter of this volume begins by laying out the rationale of the book and its main research questions: what is required for something to count as a global legitimacy crisis, and which are the different forms that such crises can take? When and how do global legitimacy crises affect multilateral governance? As multilateralism has come under severe political stress in recent years, these questions have deep implications for the viability of international organizations (IOs) in the future. According to the conventional wisdom in research on legitimacy, legitimacy crises will drain organizations of their resources, reduce willingness of their actors to participate in collective decision-making, and dismantle their authority in the first place. This chapter presents illustrations of empirical anomalies for the conventional view and spells out how and why the authors reconsider conceptualizations, theories, and research designs that have been prevalent in earlier research on legitimacy. It presents the empirical research strategy that is based on a comparative mixed-methods design and highlights the theoretical argument and empirical contributions of this book.
Explaining the Consequences of Legitimacy Crises in Multilateral Governance
Authors: Sommerer Thomas , Agné Hans , Zelli Fariborz , Bes Bart
Published: August 2022

This chapter presents a theoretical framework to explain the effects of legitimacy crises of international organizations (IOs). It posits that legitimacy crises imply the activation of specific audiences of an IO and that this activation entails behaviors by these and other audiences that will eventually have various consequences, either supportive or detrimental to the IO experiencing a crisis. This activation primarily depends on the type of protesting audience (for example, governments or civil society actors, formal members or nonmembers of the organization) but also on some features of the IO that is targeted by the protests, such as its formal power and the domestic regimes of its members. This chapter argues that these arguments for expecting either positive or negative effects of legitimacy crises apply to different dimensions of an IO’s capacity to rule: the quantity of resources, the volume of decisions, and the range of authority held by the organizations. Significantly, this chapter shows that the consequences of legitimacy crises will not only materialize in measurable properties of the IO itself, but also through the establishment, support, or obstruction of other institutions that operate in the same global governance field.
The Consequences of IO Legitimacy Crises
Authors: Sommerer Thomas , Agné Hans , Zelli Fariborz , Bes Bart
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides a quantitative test of the explanatory framework. The analysis of 32 international organizations (IOs) reveals both the negative and positive effects of legitimacy crises on three dimensions of an IO’s capacity to rule: material capacity, institutional capacity, and decision-making capacity. It also finds that crises, under some conditions, have no effect at all. The likelihood and direction of effects depend on the features of the targeted organizations, on the type of legitimacy crises as distinguished by different audience conceptions, and on the precise type of consequence under study. Specifically, the chapter confirms the negative effect on the material and decision-making capacity of IOs when legitimacy crises are constituted by state and nonstate actors, constituent and external actors. In addition, it shows that resource cuts are more likely to be made when members of both elites and masses join forces to challenge an IO, and that a downturn in decision-making is related to crises years in which member state representatives dominated public critique. However, the chapter also confirms the positive effects related to particular types of legitimacy crises. The heterogeneity of legitimacy audiences is linked to a higher likelihood of a growing institutional capacity and decision-making in the long term. The statistical analysis also supports the expectation that several IO characteristics, such as pooling, transnational access, and the scope of the mandate, positively affect the likelihood of growth in its capacity to rule in the wake of a legitimacy crisis.