bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
DNA Lesion and Hprt Mutant Frequency in Rat Lymphocytes and V79 Chinese Hamster Lung Cells Exposed to Cadmium
Authors: Jianhua Zhou , Lian Xue , Shuanlai Zheng , Juan Du , Shuanxi Yang
Published: April 2006

DNA Lesion and Hprt Mutant Frequency in Rat Lymphocytes and V79 Chinese Hamster Lung Cells Exposed to Cadmium: Zhou Jianhua, et al. Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Radiation Medicine and Public Health, Soochow University, China—Cadmium is a potential carcinogenic environmental and occupational pollutant. A wide variety of mutagens have been shown to cause DNA damage, but it is not yet clear whether the DNA damage is relative to inducement of mutations. DNA damage and the formation of mutations at the hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl trans ferase (HPRT) induced by cadmium chloride (CdCl2) were investigated with rat lymphocytes and V79 Chinese hamster lung cells. The hprt mutant frequency (MF) assay was used as the method to measure gene mutation in the rat lymphocytes and V79 cells exposed to CdCl2, and comet assay analysis was performed to detect DNA lesion and repair in CdCl2‐induced V79 cells. The results showed that CdCl2 treatment caused a strong genotoxic effect and a marginal effect on the frequency of gene mutations. The hprt mutant frequencies in the rat lymphocytes and V79 cells exposed to CdCl2 were statistically higher than those of the negative control. There was statistical significance in TL, TD and percentage of comet cell with tails. CdCl2 treatment can induce DNA single‐strand breaks. There was a dose‐dependent increase between CdCl2 and DNA lesion. After cells were treated with CdCl2 and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), the TL and TD declined with repair time increasing, which indicated that DNA damages were repaired gradually. However, DNA repair with treatment of CdCl2 was slower than that of H2 O2 in V79 cells, which suggests that CdCl2 affected DNA repair of damaged cells. The study also showed that the hprt MF and comet assay can be used for genotoxicity testing of heavy metals. DNA damage detected with the comet assay may be relative to mutagenesis.
Ozone and UV Radiation over Southern South America: Climatology and Anomalies
Authors: Diaz S. , Camilión C. , Deferrari G. , Fuenzalida H. , Armstrong R. , Booth C. , Paladini A. , Cabrera S. , Casiccia C. , Lovengreen C. , Pedroni J. , Rosales A. , Zagarese H. , Vernet M.
Published: April 2006

Ozone and UV radiation were analyzed at eight stations from tropical to sub‐Antarctic regions in South America. Ground UV irradiances were measured by multichannel radiometers as part of the Inter American Institute for Global Change Radiation network. The irradiance channels used for this study were centered at 305 nm (for UV‐B measurements) and 340 nm (for UV‐A measurements). Results were presented as daily maximum irradiances, as monthly averaged, daily integrated irradiances and as the ratio of 305 nm to 340 nm. These findings are the first to be based on a long time series of semispectral data from the southern region of South America. As expected, the UV‐B channel and total column ozone varied with latitude. The pattern of the UV‐A channel was more complex because of local atmospheric conditions. Total column ozone levels of <220 Dobson Units were observed at all sites. Analysis of autocorrelations showed a larger persistence of total column ozone level than irradiance. A decreasing cross‐correlation coefficient between 305 and 340 nm and an increasing cross‐correlation coefficient between 305 nm and ozone were observed at higher latitudes, indicating that factors such as cloud cover tend to dominate at northern sites and that ozone levels tend to dominate at southern sites. These results highlight the value of long‐term monitoring of radiation with multichannel radio‐meters to determine climatological data and evaluate the combination of factors affecting ground UV radiation.
The Photochemistry of a bis‐Crown Ether Based on Benzobis(thiazole) and Its Alkaline Earth Metal Cation Complexes
Authors: Fedorov Yu. , Fedorova O. , Schepel N. , Alfimov M. , Turek A. M. , Saltiel J.
Published: April 2006

Irradiation of acetonitrile solutions of the bis‐crown ether E,E‐2,7‐bis[2‐(6,7,9,10,12,13,15,16‐octahydro‐5,8,11,14,17‐pentaoxabenzocyclopentadecen‐2‐yl)vinyl]‐benzo[1,2‐d;3,4‐d′]bisthiazole (hereafter, 1) gives efficient E→Z photoisomerization (initial φtrans°Cis= 0.48), leading to λexc‐dependent quasi‐photostationary states composed primarily of E,Z and E,E isomer mixtures. Further irradiation gives [2 + 2]‐cycloadducts of 1. In the presence of Ba2+ ions, essentially quantitative formation of 2:2 complexes, 12· (Ba2+)2 controls the photochemical outcome. E → Z photoisomerization of the ligand is entirely suppressed and efficient intramolecular [2 + 2]‐photocycloaddition in the complexes leads to cyclobutane dimers of 1 (φCB= 0.26). The reactivity of 1 in the presence of Mg2+ ions for which 1:2 complex formation dominates gives both cis‐trans photoisomerization and enhanced photocycloaddition.
Outcome of Patients with HER2-Positive Advanced Breast Cancer Progressing During Trastuzumab-Based Therapy
Authors: Montemurro Filippo , Donadio Michela , Clavarezza Matteo , Redana Stefania , Jacomuzzi Maria Elena , Valabrega Giorgio , Danese Saverio , Vietti-Ramus Guido , Durando Antonio , Venturini Marco , Aglietta Massimo
Published: April 2006

We sought to describe patterns of treatment and clinical outcome in patients with HER2-positive advanced breast cancer progressing on trastuzumab-based therapy. One hundred eighty-four consecutive HER2-positive advanced breast cancer patients received trastuzumab-based therapy between September 1999 and September 2004. Patients were followed up until death or May 2005. For patients progressing on trastuzumab-based therapy, we calculated the response rate (RR) to the first post-progression treatment, overall survival (OS) from the first administration of trastuzumab, time to second progression (TT-SP), and post-progression survival (PPS), according to treatment. At the time of this analysis, 132 patients had progressed on trastuzumab-based therapy, and 89 had died. Of the progressing patients, 21 experienced rapid progression and could not receive additional anticancer treatments;40 patients continued trastuzumab either alone (12 patients with isolated central nervous system progression), with chemotherapy (23 patients), or with endocrine therapy (5 patients); and 71 stopped trastuzumab and received chemotherapy (61 patients) or endocrine therapy (10 patients) as the first post-progression treatment. Excluding patients with rapid progression, clinical outcomes were similar whether trastuzumab was continued or not, in terms of RR (18% and 27%, respectively), OS (31 and 30 months, respectively), TT-SP (6 and 7 months, respectively), and PPS (21 and 19 months, respectively). The clinical outcome of patients with HER2-positive advanced breast cancer progressing during trastuzumab-based therapy might not be influenced by continuing trastuzumab. The optimal therapeutic strategy in this setting of patients needs evaluation in randomized trials.
Chemotherapeutic Approaches for Targeting Cell Death Pathways
Authors: Ricci M. Stacey , Zong Wei-Xing
Published: April 2006

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to: List the multiple cell death pathways that are activated in response to chemotherapeutic agents.Identify signaling molecules involved and morphological changes that occur in the different types of cell death pathways.Describe mechanisms targeted by novel chemotherapeutic agents.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com

For several decades, apoptosis has taken center stage as the principal mechanism of programmed cell death in mammalian tissues. It also has been increasingly noted that conventional chemotherapeutic agents not only elicit apoptosis but other forms of nonapoptotic death such as necrosis, autophagy, mitotic catastrophe, and senescence. This review presents background on the signaling pathways involved in the different cell death outcomes. A re-examination of what we know about chemotherapy-induced death is vitally important in light of new understanding of nonapoptotic cell death signaling pathways. If we can precisely activate or inhibit molecules that mediate the diversity of cell death outcomes, perhaps we can succeed in more effective and less toxic chemotherapeutic regimens.
Burkitt's Lymphoma: Clinicopathologic Features and Differential Diagnosis
Authors: Ferry Judith A.
Published: April 2006

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to: Describe the events leading to the initial identification and description of Burkitt's lymphoma and the discovery of its association with the Epstein-Barr virus.Outline the WHO Classification of Burkitt's lymphoma, including the clinical and pathological variants of this lymphoma.Discuss the treatment strategies used for treating Burkitt's lymphoma.List the criteria for establishing a diagnosis of Burkitt's lymphoma and discuss the entities that may enter its differential diagnosis.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com

Burkitt's lymphoma is a highly aggressive lymphoma identified and described in the last century by Denis Burkitt in Africa, in areas endemic for malaria. Since its description in African children, it has been recognized outside areas with endemic malaria, frequently also in children as well as among individuals with an underlying immunodeficiency. Since its initial designation as Burkitt's lymphoma, this type of lymphoma and lymphomas closely resembling it have received a variety of names in different classifications of lymphomas and leukemias: undifferentiated lymphoma, Burkitt's and non-Burkitt's type in the modified Rappaport Classification, malignant lymphoma, small non-cleaved cell, Burkitt's type in the Working Formulation, Burkitt's lymphoma and high-grade B-cell lymphoma, Burkitt-like in the REAL Classification, and acute lymphoblastic leukemia, L3 type in the FAB Classification. With the publication of the WHO Classification of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tumors, the nomenclature of this lymphoma has come full circle, and it is once again known simply as Burkitt's lymphoma. In recent years, efforts have focused on improving therapy for this rapidly proliferating neoplasm while minimizing, to the extent possible, treatment-associated toxicity. These efforts have led to the development of high-intensity, short-duration combination chemotherapy that has proven extremely effective for a high proportion of Burkitt's lymphoma patients. The differential diagnosis of Burkitt's lymphoma is broad, and precise diagnosis based on histologic, immunophenotypic, and genetic features remains the critical first step in planning appropriate therapy.
The Molecular Perspective: Estrogen Sulfotransferase
Authors: Goodsell David S.
Published: April 2006

Learning Objective

After completing this course, the reader will be able to: Discuss estrogen sulfonation and its potential role in cancer therapy.

Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com
Integrative study of hypothalamus–pituitary–thyroid–immune system interaction: thyroid hormone-mediated modulation of lymphocyte activity through the protein kinase C signaling pathway
Authors: Klecha Alicia J , Genaro Ana M , Gorelik Gabriela , Barreiro Arcos María Laura , Silberman Dafne Magalí , Schuman Mariano , Garcia Silvia I , Pirola Carlos , Cremaschi Graciela A
Published: April 2006

Thyroid hormones play critical roles in differentiation, growth and metabolism, but their participation in immune system regulation has not been completely elucidated. Modulation of in vivo thyroid status was used to carry out an integrative analysis of the role of the hypothalamus–pituitary–thyroid (HPT) axis in T and B lymphocyte activity. The participation of the protein kinase C (PKC) signaling pathway and the release of some cytokines upon antigenic stimulation were analyzed. Lymphocytes from hyperthyroid mice displayed higher T-and B-cell mitogen-induced proliferation, and those from hypothyroid mice displayed lower T- and B-cell mitogen-induced proliferation, compared with euthyroid animals. Reversion of hypothyroid state by triiodothyronine (T3) administration recovered the proliferative responses. No differences were found in lymphoid subset balance. Both total PKC content and mitogen-induced PKC translocation were higher in T and B cells from hyperthyroid mice, and lower in cells from hypothyroid mice, compared with controls. Levels of thyroid-stimulating (TSH) and TSH-releasing (TRH) hormones were not directly related to lymphocyte proliferative responses. After immunization with sheep red blood cells (SRBCs) and re-stimulation, in vitro spleen cells from hyper- or hypothyroid mice showed, respectively, increased or decreased production of interleukin (IL)-2 and interferon (IFN)-γ cytokines. Additionally, an increase in IL-6 and IFN-γ levels was found in hyperthyroid cells after in vivo injection and in vitro re-stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS).

Our results show for the first time a thyroid hormone-mediated regulation of PKC content and of cytokine production in lymphocytes; this regulation could be involved in the altered responsiveness to mitogen-induced proliferation of T and B cells. The results also confirm the important role that these hormones play in regulating lymphocyte reactivity.
Differential expression and regulation of prostaglandin E synthases in the mouse ovary during sexual maturation and luteal development
Authors: Sun Tong , Deng Wen-Bo , Diao Hong-Lu , Ni Hua , Bai Yu-Yan , Ma Xing-Hong , Xu Li-Bin , Yang Zeng-Ming
Published: April 2006

Prostaglandin (PGE) 2 is the most common prostanoid and plays an important role in female reproduction. The aim of this study was to examine the expression and regulation of microsomal (m) PGE synthase (PGES)-1 and cytosolic (c) PGES in the mouse ovary during sexual maturation, gonadotropin treatment and luteal development by in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. Both mPGES-1 mRNA signals and immunostaining were localized in the granulosa cells, but not in the thecal cells and oocytes. cPGES mRNA signals were localized in both granulosa cells and oocytes, whereas cPGES immunostaining was exclusively localized in the oocytes. In our superovulated model of immature mice, there was a basal level of mPGES-1 mRNA signals in the granulosa cells at 48 h after equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG) treatment. mPGES-1 mRNA level was induced by human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) treatment for 0.5 h, whereas mPGES-1 immunostaining was slightly induced at 0.5 h after hCG treatment and reached a maximal level at 3 h after hCG treatment. eCG treatment had no obvious effects on either cPGES mRNA signals or immunostaining. A strong level of cPGES immunostaining was present in both unstimulated and eCG-treated groups. Both mPGES-1 mRNA signals and immunostaining were highly detected in the corpus luteum 2 days post-hCG injection and declined from days 3 to 7 post-hCG injection. cPGES immunostaining was at a basal level or not detectable from days 1 to 7 after hCG injection and was highly expressed in the corpus luteum from days 9 to 15 post-hCG injection. PGE2 biosynthesized through the mPGES-1 pathway may be important for follicular development, ovulation and luteal formation.
Differential involvement of nuclear factor-κB and activator protein-1 pathways in the interleukin-1β-mediated decrease of deiodinase type 1 and thyroid hormone receptor β1 mRNA
Authors: Kwakkel J , Wiersinga W M , Boelen A
Published: April 2006

One of the hallmarks of the sick euthyroid syndrome or non-thyroidal illness is a decrease of serum triiodothyronine, caused mainly by a decrease in liver deiodinase type 1 (D1) mRNA and activity. Proinflammatory cytokines like interleukin (IL)-1β are likely involved in this disease, but are also known to inhibit thyroid hormone receptor (TR)-β1 gene expression, which is of interest as the D1 promoter contains TREs. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether the IL-1β-induced decrease of D1 and TRβ1 mRNA is mediated by the same cytokine signalling pathways in a human hepatoma cell line (HepG2). We observed a downregulation of both D1 and TRβ1 mRNA after 4 h of incubating the cells with IL-1β. Sulfasalazine was used to inhibit the nuclear factor-κB (NFκB) pathway and SP600125, a chemical inhibitor of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase, was used as an inhibitor of the activator protein-1 (AP-1) pathway. AP-1 inhibition did not affect the decrease of D1 and TRβ1 mRNA, but the TRβ1 mRNA decrease was completely abolished after inhibiting NFκB, while D1 mRNA was unaffected. Only simultaneous inhibition of both the NFκB and AP-1 pathways abolished the D1 mRNA decrease. We concluded that IL-1β stimulation of HepG2 cells results in a marked decrease of D1 and TRβ1 mRNA. The decrease of TRβ1 mRNA is exclusively mediated by the NFκB pathway, while the decrease of D1 mRNA requires inhibition of both the AP-1 and the NFκB pathways.
Hepatocyte growth factor modulates in vitro survival and proliferation of germ cells during postnatal testis development
Authors: Catizone A , Ricci G , Del Bravo J , Galdieri M
Published: April 2006

The hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is a pleiotropic cytokine that influences mitogenesis, motility and differentiation of many different cell types by its tyrosine kinase receptor c-Met. We previously demonstrated that the c-Met/HGF system is present and functionally active during postnatal testis development. We found also that spermatozoa express c-Met and that HGF has a positive effect on the maintenance of sperm motility. In the present paper, we extend our study on the germ cells at different stages of differentiation during the postnatal development of the testis. We demonstrate that c-met is present in rat spermatogonia, pachytene spermatocytes and round spermatids and that HGF significantly increases spermatogonial proliferation in 8- to 10-day-old pre-pubertal rats. At this age HGF does not affect Sertoli cells and peritubular myoid cells proliferation. In addition, we studied the effect of the factor on germ cell apoptosis and we show that HGF prevents the germ cell apoptotic process. We also studied the effect of HGF on 18- to 20-day-old and 28- to 30-day-old rat testes. At these ages also the factor significantly increases germ cell duplication and decreases the number of apoptotic cells. However, the effect on programmed cell death is higher in the 8- to 10-day-old rats and declines in the older animals.

In conclusion, we report that rat germ cells (spermatogonia, pachytene spermatocytes and round spermatids) express c-met and that HGF modulates germ cell proliferating activity and apoptosis in vitro. These data indicate that the c-Met/HGF system is involved in male germ cell homeostasis and, consequently, has a role in male fertility.
Expression of urocortin in rat lung and its effect on pulmonary vascular permeability
Authors: Wu Yuqing , Xu Yinyan , Zhou Hong , Tao Jin , Li Shengnan
Published: April 2006

Urocortin (UCN), a newly identified, 40-amino-acid, corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) structurally related peptide, has been demonstrated to be expressed in the central nervous system and many peripheral tissues of rats and man. This study aimed to investigate the expression profile of UCN in rat lung and the effect of UCN on lung vascular permeability. The expression of UCN mRNA was detected by reverse transcriptase PCR (RT–PCR). UCN peptide was measured by immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis. We found that both UCN mRNA and peptide were obviously expressed in rat lung. Immunohistochemistry results showed that UCN peptide is mainly expressed in bronchial epithelium mucosa and alveolar epithelium. We also found that rats receiving inhalation aerosol of UCN had a significant elevation of lung vascular permeability compared with rats receiving vehicle and ovalbumin (OVA) by the Evans blue (EB) technique. UCN aerosol inhalation resulted in obvious pulmonary congestion and edema observed under light microscope by hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining. The nonselective peptide CRH receptor antagonist astressin markedly reduced lung vascular permeability triggered by UCN. Enhanced pulmonary vascular permeability induced by UCN was markedly inhibited by pretreatment with the mast-cell stabilizer cromolyn and histamine-1 (H1) receptor antagonist azelastine respectively, but not by the leukotriene receptor antagonist montelukast. In summary, in the present study, we demonstrated for the first time that UCN is expressed in rat lung and contributes to an increase in lung vascular permeability through activation of CRH receptors. Mast cells and histamine may be involved in this effect of UCN. Peripherally produced UCN in lung may act as an autocrine and paracrine proinflammatory factor.
Reservoir Management Employing Smart Wells: A Review
Authors: Glandt Carlos A.
Published: April 2006

A well equipped with intelligent components is considered "smart" only whenit maximizes its value over the life of the project. The definition of the adequate level of intelligence is the outcome of a multidisciplinary discussion that focuses on the well and reservoir management. To effectively realize the value associated with these technologies, Shell set up a Global Implementation Smart Wells Team at its E&P Technical Center. Jointly with asset teams from around the world, it has reviewed more than 80 projects over the last 3 years. The main result of this work is a faster and more-meaningful implementation effectively realizing the value associated with these technologies. An important by product of this work is a list of identified well and reservoir opportunities in which smart completions can add significant value. This paper reviews these opportunities and provides selected examples.
Competition between Polyphosphate‐ and Glycogen‐Accumulating Organisms in Enhanced‐Biological‐Phosphorus‐Removal Systems: Effect of Temperature and Sludge Age
Authors: Whang Liang‐Ming , Park Jae Kwang
Published: April 2006

Temperature and sludge age were found to be important factors in determining the outcome of competition between polyphosphate‐accumulating organisms (PAOs) and glycogen‐accumulating non‐polyphosphate organisms (GAOs) and the resultant stability of enhanced‐biological‐phosphorus removal (EBPR). At 20°C and a 10‐day sludge age, PAOs were dominant in an anaerobic/aerobic (A/O) sequencing‐batch reactor (SBR), as a result of their higher anaerobic‐acetate‐uptake rate and aerobic‐biomass yield than GAOs. However, at 30°C and a 10‐day sludge age, GAOs were able to outcompete PAOs in the A/O SBR because of their higher anaerobic‐acetate‐uptake rate than PAOs. At 30°C and a 5‐day sludge age, GAOs coexisted with PAOs in the A/O SBR, resulting in unstable EBPR performance. At 30°C, reducing the sludge age from 5 to 3 days improved the EBPR efficiency drastically, and the EBPR performance was stable. The maximum specific‐anaerobic‐acetate‐uptake rates of GAO‐enriched sludge were affected by temperature with the Arrhenius temperature coefficient θ of 0.042 (°C−1) between 10 and 30°C. The effect of sludge age (5 and 10 days) on the maximum specific‐anaerobic‐acetate‐uptake rates of GAO‐enriched activated sludge, however, was not significant. For the PAO‐enriched activated sludge, the maximum specific‐anaerobic‐acetate‐uptake rate did not change significantly between 20 and 30°C, but significantly increased from 0.38 to 0.52 mmol‐C/mmol‐C/h as the sludge age decreased from 10 to 3 days at 30°C.
The Effect of Wastewater Cations on Activated Sludge Characteristics: Effects of Aluminum and Iron in Floc
Authors: Park Chul , Muller Christopher D. , Abu‐Orf Mohammad M. , Novak John T.
Published: April 2006

Wastewater samples collected from seven wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) were characterized to assess the impacts of wastewater cations on the activated sludge process. The cations included in this study were sodium (Na+), potassium, ammonium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum (Al), and iron (Fe). Among the selected cations, Al and Fe were of most interest to this study because their role in bioflocculation has not been extensively studied and remains largely unknown. The data showed that WWTPs contained highly varying concentrations of Na+, Al, and Fe in the wastewater and that these cations were responsible for differences between WWTPs as to sludge dewatering rates and effluent quality. In general, a high influent Na+ concentration caused poor sludge dewatering and effluent characteristics. However, when sufficient Al and Fe were present in floc, the deleterious effects of Na+ were offset. The data associated with Al further revealed that waste activated sludge with low Al contained high concentrations of soluble and colloidal biopolymer (protein + polysaccharide), resulting in a high effluent chemical oxygen demand, high conditioning chemical requirements, and poor sludge dewatering properties. These results suggest that Al will improve activated sludge effluent quality by scavenging organic compounds from solution and binding them to floc.
Disinfection of Secondary Effluents Using Tin Oxide Anodes
Authors: Loge Frank J. , Inouye Trevor , Watts Richard J.
Published: April 2006

Direct current applied to a tin oxide anode submersed in water has the potential to generate hydroxyl radicals, a strong chemical oxidant. Tin oxide anode systems, which may represent a viable alternative disinfectant, were investigated for the disinfection of secondary effluents. Coliform bacteria in the effluent were effectively inactivated in a bench‐scale tin oxide disinfection system. The number of anodes in the tin oxide disinfection system influenced the steady‐state concentration of hydroxyl radicals and, consequently, the contact time necessary to achieve a specified dose. The life expectancy of the anodes was greater than 30 days and no appreciable loss of tin was observed over a 5‐day period. A preliminary estimate of the capital and operating costs of a pilot‐ or full‐scale tin oxide disinfection system designed to meet a discharge requirement of 23 most probable number/100 mL at a 3 785‐m3/d (1‐mgd) facility was comparable to UV and chlorination/dechlorination facilities. Based on this preliminary assessment, tin oxide disinfection systems are a promising alternative disinfectant for secondary effluents.
Cultural Continuities and Discontinuities in Southeast Asia
Authors: Sharp Lauriston
Published: April 2006

In 1961 our Association President, Norman Brown, discussed with us the problem of the content of cultural continuity in India. He pointed out that in spite of many variations in time and local differentiations in space, the highly developed civilization of India from the third millennium B.C. to the present offers to the student a picture of a continuing entity, a kind of moving picture in which the successive events of a plot seem to be informed and given a special character and vitality by some pervasive element running through the story, an element which might be sought, it was concluded, in the particular perdurable values basic to many Indian behavior patterns.
Japan's Indecision During the Boxer Disturbances
Authors: Nish I. H.
Published: April 2006

Japan's actions during the Boxer crisis which resulted in the siege of. The foreign legations in Peking from June 20 to August 14, 1900, are the subject of debate among historians. Some argue that Japan's actions were “generally sound in dealing with the difficult international circumstances of the time; considering Japan's mission today as a bridge between east and west, they may be regarded as a historical fact of which the Japanese can be very proud.” Those who take this view would claim that Japan tried to balance her sympathy with China with her responsibilities to the powers and that she generally succeeded. On the other hand, others hold that while “Japan played a singularly conscientious role in the allied relief expedition to Peking to rescue the legation staffs in the summer of 1900, … the Tokyo cabinet was certainly not indifferent to its opportunities.” They would argue that, while Japan did not acquire territory in China during the Boxer disturbances, she thought of doing so and took steps to that end. The published archives of the Japanese ministry of foreign affairs show the extent to which she acted in line with the expansive temper of the powers in China at the time. This paper will consider the projects which were undertaken by the Japanese, the motives for them, and the reasons why they were not followed through.
Status, Achievement, and Education in Ceylon
Authors: Ryan Bryce
Published: April 2006

The Ethic that produced a Ben Franklin or a John D. Rockefeller has imbued relatively few persons in Ceylon. There is no doubt that Ceylonese are as ambitious as other peoples, but their historic value systems have been quite different from that of Western society. Their status-achievement-work value matrix has been nurtured by institutions of government, education, marriage, social class, and caste—particularly by education in modern times. The major characteristics of this set of values are: (1) Employment in government service is of higher status than equivalent work in private enterprise; (2) Neither work itself nor idleness has much moral flavor, i.e., productive employment is not a value in and of itself; (3) Except for agriculture, manual employments of any type are denigrated, as are, to a lesser extent, entrepreneurial activities; (4) Thrift and savings are typically viewed as serving the purposes of consumption rather than of investment; (5) Wealth in land is more highly esteemed and secure than is any alternative form of investment. Although elements of this value set are shared by Sinhalese and Tamils, the present analysis has more explicit reference to the Sinhalese.
Local Government in the Mongolian People's Republic 1940–1960
Authors: Ginsburgs George
Published: April 2006

The twenty years which have elapsed since the adoption of the 1940 Constitution of the Mongolian People's Republic have witnessed important social, economic, and political transformations in the life of the Mongol nation and in the structure of its public authority, especially in the field of local government. All these changes have in a direct way affected the substantive rights and duties of the mass of the citizenry and are intimately tied to the continuing progression of the Mongol society, under the paternalistic guidance of Moscow and its native disciples in Ulan-Bator, along the socalled “non-capitalist path of transition to socialism.” As reflected in the organizational evolution of the instrumentalities of local rule, the record of the legislative and governmental reforms of this period furnishes valuable evidence on the prospective course of the country's future development following the promulgation on July 6, 1960, of a new, “socialist-inspired” Constitution and the inauguration of an era of fundamental reorientation in all areas of public and private activity in pursuance of an official campaign to complete the building of “socialism” in Outer Mongolia.
Buddhism and Animism in a Burmese Village
Authors: Brohm John
Published: April 2006

John Fee Embree some time ago remarked that “… we can never learn the nature of a religion simply by a perusal of the sacred texts, i.e., written words, torn from their social context; nor will a life of Buddha and a study of his original teachings in 500 B.C. tell us much of the nature of religion in contemporary Japan.” This statement from a decade and a half ago is as applicable to religious behavior and belief in a modern Buddhist country like Burma as it originally was to pre-war Japan. There is a good deal of literature which purports to be descriptive of Burmese religion and Burmese religious behavior. Much of this literature takes as an initial premise that Burma is one of the most actively Buddhistic countries in the world and that we may therefore gain the most intimate understanding of Burmese religious behavior through a perusal of the sacred canons of that faith. This approach is not without merit, and it would be foolhardy indeed to take as a premise that Burmese religion is not Buddhistic and that the Pali scriptures are worthless as explanatory points of reference. Such an alternative would be unrealistic, and would be infinitely shocking to Burmese, who certainly regard themselves as Theravada Buddhists. At the same urne, the imported nature of the Buddhist faith in Burma is well understood, and its historic superposition upon a more ancient substratum of customs and beliefs is appreciated, even though descriptive details in the matter may largely be lacking. All objective reporters speak, in greater or lesser detail, of residual elements in Burmese religion which owe little or nothing to Buddhism.
The Origins of the Korean Communist Movement (I)
Authors: Scalapino Robert A. , Lee Chong-Sik
Published: April 2006

The Korean Communists face a troublesome problem in recording their hiswtory. The first years of the Korean Communist movement are now regarded as a gigantic skeleton in the closet. Official party publications brush over them in a few paragraphs. Individual Communist leaders are almost all identified as petty bourgeois intellectuals, sectarians, deviationists, or factional wreckers. The Communist movement itself is recorded as a “failure” and a “disgrace” by contemporary Kim Il-sŏngists. When praise is meted out, it generally goes to the broader nationalist movement, and the only truly “good guys” turn out to be “the people.” Only when the omniscient Kim arrives on the scene in 1931, do Korean Communist historians begin to panegyrize their past.
Early Christian Colleges in China
Authors: Liu Kwang-Ching
Published: April 2006

In the thirty years since the appearance of K. S. Latourette's A History of Christian Missions in China the published materials in this vast field have been accumulating at a good pace, and an increasing number of mission-society archives have been opened to research. However, very little such research has been done. While Professor Latourette's work provides a matchless foundation for further contributions, few aspects of the subject have received thorough monographic treatment.
Wrongful Treatment of Prisoners: A Case Study of Ch'ing Legal Practice
Authors: Harrison Judy Feldman
Published: April 2006

A Study of the Ch'ing legal system, the culmination of the experience of many dynasties, provides clues to the understanding of Chinese political behavior before extensive Western contact. For this period, the decisions of the Board of Punishments (hsing-fu) recorded in the collection of cases known as theHsing-an hui-lanform an important body of law. Of these, the cases pertaining to the illegal punishment of prisoners by government officials are particularly interesting. An analysis of thirty of these cases suggests answers to the following questions: 1) Did the Board of Punishments have the attributes of an independent law court? 2) Was the law which the Board of Punishments applied internally consistent and capable of growth ? 3) Was protection from official brutality adequately guaranteed by law?

The Board of Punishments, one of the six ministries of the central government, was the formal organ most responsible for the administration of justice. In judicial matters, it served as a buffer between the provincial authorities on the one hand and the emperor on the other.
Unity and Diversity of Russian and Chinese Industrial Wage Policies
Authors: Schran Peter
Published: April 2006

While Russian and Chinese wage and distribution policies in general differ from each other in terms of specific provisions and regulations, they are also generically very similar, if not identical. To provide some insight into the nature of this unity and diversity of policy, it seems best to discuss first the distributive implications of their common ideological reference, i.e. Marxist-Leninist doctrine.

Distributive Strategy and Tactics

Both the Russians and the Chinese deal with any human action as a process of material transformation, and consequently view the totality of man's actions as a chain of material transformation processes, conditioned by the distribution of ownership of the means of production as the determinant of social relations of production. Both hold that while human action is governed objectively by material and social nature and its laws, it is determined subjectively by man's technical and social awareness and thus by man's technical and social experiences. Both assert that man's increasing comprehension of nature and its laws manifests itself in increasing accumulation and in enlarged reproduction, i.e., in economic growth. Both aim for the unity of objectivity and subjectivity, i.e., for the complete reproduction of nature by man at the earliest possible moment, and both strive therefore for the most rapidly enlarging accumulation over time.
Sanskrit and Sanskritization
Authors: Staal J. F.
Published: April 2006

Language, culture, and society can be studied from various points of view. Classical Indology and Indian anthropology have different points of departure, but deal sometimes with the same material; the difference in background has generally prevented close collaboration. Classical Indologists tend to look upon Indian anthropologists as mainly interested in almost inaccessible hill tribes, in village superstition, and sometimes in contemporary affairs; moreover a synchronistic bias in methodology has often limited the potential richness of their studies. Anthropologists who study India, on the other hand, are often inclined to view classical Indologists as busy with case endings and etymological derivations, or as discussing obscure and long-forgotten doctrines. Yet neither field has been able to dispense with concepts traditionally handled by the other; for instance, anthropologists talk about language, and classical Indologists about culture. A recent example is the concept of Sanskritization, introduced by anthropologists with obvious reference to Sanskrit, the language to which the main attention of classical Indologists has always been directed. As a student of Sanskrit and classical Indology, I offer some reflections on Sanskritization with the hope that I am not altogether blind to the problems occupying anthropologists.
The Humanistic Disciplines: Will Sinology Do?
Authors: Levenson Joseph R.
Published: April 2006

To use a word from the K'ai-feng dialect, a title like mine must seem a classic expression of chutzpah. “Will Sinology do?” indeed! What could possibly excuse the pursed lips, the nanny-ish condescension to his betters, on the part of someone who has not even gone through the Sinological mill? I should say at the start, then, that “Sinology,” in my reading, is something of a straw man. He is not Maspero. He is not Fritz Mote. But I am not sure (mumbling) that he is not Paul Pelliot, in some of his work. The Sinology that means control of texts is a wonderful means but a weak end. It was a healthy corrective to free-floating literary chinoiserie. Yet, if we may now take the professional standing of the Chinese field as granted, the time is past for texts to be used for spiritual athletics, ascetic proofs of honesty, and thoroughness in the abstract. We need to be honest and thorough not in marching and counter-marching through the literature “because it is there,” but because it relates to intellectual problems, to more than methodology.
Chinese History and the Historical Vocation
Authors: Wright Mary C.
Published: April 2006

I Want to address myself to two points: why I think the study of China requires the study of its history, and why I think the proper practice of the historical profession in general requires some awareness of the history of China. I would argue that the study of change in time is the heart of the historical approach, and that for this reason, history's contribution to the study of China is intellectually legitimate and quite different from that of the more specialized disciplines; and conversely, that the general problems which historians find exciting are nowhere offered in such profuse and interesting combinations, with such abundant documentation, as in the history of China.
What the Study of China Can Do for Social Science
Authors: Skinner G. William
Published: April 2006

In recent years the cry has gone up: Sinology is dead; long live Chinese studies! And in this apothegm, by contrast with its prototype, a fundamental change is implied. Whereas old-time Sinology was given shape by its tools, so that Sinological skills defined the field and became an end in themselves, Chinese studies is shaped by its subject matter and Sinological skills are but means to analytic ends. Whereas traditional Sinology fostered uncritical immersion in a single civilization, modern Chinese studies brings at least that degree of impartial detachment which the comparative method implies. Whereas Sinology focused on China's “great tradition” and strove to capture the very ethos of the literati whose works it studied, Chinese studies today attempts to encompass the entire society and cultural product of China, to study its regional “little traditions” along with the “great,” and to empathize for heuristic purposes with nonélite social groups as well as with the literati. Sinology, a discipline unto itself, is being replaced by Chinese studies, a multidisciplinary endeavor with specific research objectives. As Professor Wright has suggested, what is text for the Sinologist becomes, for the disciplinary student of China, evidence.
The Case for the Integrity of Sinology
Authors: Mote Frederick W.
Published: April 2006

Sinology, and the case for theintegrityof it: the one key word in that phrase has been as hard to define as the other has been to achieve in practice. If we can scarcely define it, and if there is no hope of achieving it for the masses, why then talk about it at all in the year 1964?

I believe we can try to define Sinology, and we can point to some who have achieved it in practice. It might have seemed wisest to ask someone who has at least come close to achieving the Sinological ideal to be its spokesman on this panel. And, in fact, I urged that course upon Mr. Skinner when he first asked me to participate. He ruled that out, not so much perhaps for fear that we'd have to import one, or that such a one could be expected to speak in an unintelligible accent and would read footnotes in seven languages from original sources only—but perhaps, anomalous as it is, from the justifiable fear that the real Sinologist might speak in a way that would confuse his own green and well-worked fields with the entire province, or his own home province with the whole realm. And integrity is what we are here to talk about. For it is thatintegralityof the whole realm, or world, of Chinese studies that I think should define Sinology. Therefore, let someone who thinks he sees a meaningful and universal ideal, but who does not expect the ideal to be judged by himself, discuss it with the freedom that can come from having nothing personal to defend. Otherwise, it would be indeed presumptuous for me to appear here as the spokesman for Sinology; this dilemma of the spokesman vis-à-vis his subject today clearly is one that does not afflict my colleagues on this panel (for reasons at least partially nattering to them all).
Discussant Remarks
Authors: Murphey Rhoads
Published: April 2006

The leitmotiv of the panel as a whole may be found in Mrs. Wright's phrase: “All history is implicitly comparative.” This particular apothegm should be pasted into the hats of all students of China. Mrs. Wright's hat clearly needs no such adornment, but it may well be the best way of distinguishing between a Sinology that is indeed not enough (in Mr. Levenson's sense) and a body of learning which should rightly stand at the very head of scholarship. Mr. Skinner tells us that “there is nothing particularly exceptional about Chinese villages when compared to those in other peasant societies. …” But surely the exceptional quality of the Chinese village is the fact of its incorporation within a greater whole, in cultural terms, which is, at least in degree, without parallel anywhere. Is this not part of the point, and a most convincing and important one, of Mr. Skinner's argument? I can only echo and applaud Mr. Freedman's final sentences, and commend their eloquence: “Cooperation which amounts to ingestion is cannibalism. The usefulness of social science to Chinese studies depends on its being allowed to be itself.” Amen. The point of no return in the care and feeding of scholars who concern themselves with China can be determined only by a very nice measure, to which I can provide no key—but I would emphasize that it is indeed a critical measure, and that it is just as critical for other disciplines as for anthropology.
The Fetish of the “Disciplines”
Authors: Schwartz Benjamin
Published: April 2006

The following represents an amplification of some rather poorly expressed remarks made at the panel on Chinese Studies and the Disciplines at the recent meeting of the Association for Asian Studies.

The essential point (banal but nevertheless true) is that whatever a man's discipline, the broader and deeper his general culture—his “general education,” the more willing he is to bring whatever wisdom he has to bear on the subject he is treating. Whether this wisdom derives from the “methodology” of his discipline or not, it increases the likelihood of his saying something significant. Conversely, the mechanical application of an isolated “discipline” narrowly conceived in terms of a selfcontained “model” or “system” to a culture (whether contemporary or “traditional”) which has not been studied in any of its other aspects by a person of limited culture may lead to sterile and even preposterous results.
Agricultural Development in Taiwan under Japanese Colonial Rule
Authors: Myers Ramon H. , Ching Adrienne
Published: April 2006

Studies of Asian agriculture have argued that land-tenure systems have often retarded agricultural development, in that unequal land distribution and widespread tenancy have given peasants little power to resist landlord efforts to squeeze and rack-rent them. Because landlords have been disinclined to devote their wealth and energies to improving the land, agriculture has stagnated and peasants have became poorer. A conspicuous weakness in this argument is that it begs the question whether a land-tenure system of more or less equal holdings best promotes agricultural development. The land-tenure system influences income distribution in agriculture, but it is impossible to say how a given income distribution influences landlord consumption, saving, and investment decisions unless more is known about the social and political institutions of a given rural society.
Area Planning in Rajasthan
Authors: Potter David C.
Published: April 2006

The general purpose of the Community Development Programme in India is to induce village communities (through extension methods and offer of financial and technical assistance) to participate actively, and to take initiative ultimately, in matters which directly concern their welfare. The approach to community development administration has been to create within each district separate administrative units for rural planning and development called blocks; to give each block a unified organization consisting of government personnel specially trained to work with village people; to provide each block with assured funds according to the provisions of schematic budgets formulated by the Government of India; to establish it as the common agency for all development departments working in rural India; and to ensure its efficient working through a series of co-ordinating committees and controlling authorities at the district, state, and national levels. National objectives have been stated in the five-year plans in terms sufficiently flexible to allow adjustment within each state to suit local circumstances.