bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Development of Mainland China's Steel Industry Since 1958
Authors: Hsia Ronald
Published: March 2009

According to Po I-p'o (Chairman of the State Economic Commission), mainland China's steel output in 1960 amounted to 18·45 million metric tons. This output level shows an increase of 245 per cent, over 1957, or an annual average increase of 51 per cent, for the three-year period 1958–60. This latter rate is considerably higher than that achieved hi the First Five-Year Plan period. The purpose of this paper is to examine the major changes hi the steel industry which have made possible a higher growth rate since 1958, and the problems with which the industry has been confronted hi the course of expanding its output.
Peking and the Laotian Crisis: An Interim Appraisal
Authors: Crozier Brian
Published: March 2009

It would be only a mild exaggeration to say that China has been dominating the international conference on Laos. Certainly the weight of the Chinese presence has made itself felt in ways that were not true of the Far Eastern conference held in the same city—Geneva—in 1954. In various respects, indeed, the Chinese seem to have been determined from the start to make an impact on other participants commensurate with their own estimation of China's international stature. To this end, they sent the largest of all the sixteen delegations to Geneva and—though willing on occasion to display a proper co-existential courtesy towards carefully selected other delegations—they have consistently stuck to a line that is, in most respects, markedly more intransigent than the Soviet Union's.
The Struggle for the Unification of Vietnam
Authors: Devillers Philippe
Published: March 2009

For many years, many thousands of Vietnamese patriots have sacrificed themselves for a double objective—the unity and independence of Vietnam—and it was in pursuit of these aims immediately after the Second World War that, first the Viet-Minh, then the anti-Communist nationalists, brought into operation all the means at their disposal, both military and diplomatic. The Geneva Agreements of July 1954 confirmed the independence of Vietnam at international level. Yet, at the same time the country's unity, which for several years had no longer constituted a problem, was destroyed.
Intellectuals, Writers and Artists
Authors: Phong Nhu
Published: March 2009

Of all intellectuals, the most highly respected and appreciated by Vietnamese society are the doctors. Indeed, it is hardly surprising that they should enjoy the esteem of a society the great majority of whose members are uneducated, impoverished, and beset by chronic disease and sickness. However, the reasons are twofold; medical degrees are academically superior to all others, and medicine, of all the professions, is the most useful on the purely practical plane. The doctors themselves are accorded the honorific title of “Thay,” and the medical profession is popularly referred to by the descriptive phrase “savers of people and helpers of life.” This is why, on the thirtieth anniversary of the Indo-Chinese Communist Party and the fifteenth anniversary of the Government of the Democratic Republic of (North) Vietnam, the “Doctor of Doctors,” Ho Dac Di, who is Chairman of the North Vietnamese Medical Association as well as Director of the University and Specialist Colleges, was invited to make a speech. Here is what Dr. Ho Dac Di said on that occasion:

The future of the intellectuals is a glorious one, because their activities bind them closely to the proletarian masses who are the masters of the world, the masters of their own country, the masters of their history, and masters of themselves…. On this, the thirtieth anniversary of the foundation of the Party, all those classes who work with their brains, and the scientists in particular, sincerely own their debt of gratitude to the Party and proclaim their complete confidence in the enlightened leadership of the Party, as well as in the glorious future of the fatherland. They give their firm promise that they, together with the other classes of the people, will protect the great achievements of the revolution.
The Petroleum Industry in China
Authors: Kambara Tatsu
Published: March 2009

Because the Chinese do not publish detailed industrial and economic data, the analysis of the petroleum industry is very difficult indeed. Its defence significance makes it additionally hard to establish a firm picture of the situation. Despite the speculative content of any article on the subject, however, it seems worthwhile attempting to evaluate what information is available on Chinese oil because of the industry's growing domestic and international importance.
On ‘An Interview with Chinese Anthropologists‘
Authors: Sanchez A. R. , Wong S. L.
Published: March 2009

During March and April 1972 members of the Second Friendship Delegation of the Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars visited the People's Republic of China and met Fei Hsiao-t'ung, Wu Wen-tsao and Lin Yüeh-hwa, scholars well known in western sociological and anthropological circles, and who are at present affiliated to the Central National Minorities Institute, Peking. In October 1973 an article by Gene Cooper appeared in Current Anthropology, consisting of a transcript of Fei's remarks to the delegation, a summary of the ensuing discussion, and a translation of the reply written by Fei, Wu and Lin on 11 October 1972 in response to Cooper's sending them a draft copy of the interview report.
The Intellectual and Public Life of Ma Yin-ch'u
Authors: Hsia Ronald
Published: March 2009

After the turbulence of the anti-rightist movement of 1957 which silenced those who held different views from the Communist Party line, Ma Yin-ch'u, then Dean of Peking University, refusing to yield to pressure, continued to express his “unorthodox” views and accepted a challenge to defend them against some two hundred critics. He stated in November 1959, “Although I am nearly eighty years old and outnumbered, I shall accept this challenge [to defend my position] and fight single-handed till I die. I shall not yield to those critics who resort to force rather than reason.” Professor Ma's integrity and courage in defending his beliefs command our respect and would justify the following biographical account even if he were not one of China's leading intellectuals.
Ferment Down Under
Authors: Mayo-Wren I. G.
Published: March 2009

Among the minority of Communist Parties supporting China at the Moscow Conference last November was the Australian party. The feuds that have riven that Party since then illustrate the most damaging result for the Communist movement of the Sino-Soviet dispute—the end of the era of unique ideological authority.
Report on the AAAS Symposium
Authors: Feinberg Betty
Published: March 2009

The AAAS Symposium on the Sciences in Communist China covered pretty thoroughly all of the scientific literature from that isolated land that is available in the Western world. The amount of such literature turns out to be substantial, but the scientists analysing it are faced with the problem of sorting out facts from propaganda, real achievements from grandiose claims. That there has been a great deal of real achievement in the ten years of Communist rule emerges beyond doubt. China, for years torn with external war and internal revolution, began the decade of the fifties with no systematic programme in science, no schools capable of training scientists and technicians at an advanced level, and only a handful of scientists—mostly Western trained—capable of doing the research, planning and building needed to get industrialisation under way, while at the same time taking on the enormous task of educating the new generations of scientists and technical specialists required to operate an industrialised economy.
Legal Aspects of the Sino-Indian Border Dispute
Authors: Green L. C.
Published: March 2009

The present dispute between India and the People's Republic of China concerning the frontier between those two countries was, to a great extent, touched off by the developments in relations between Tibet and China, although there had been certain recriminations concerning alleged frontier crossings as early as 1954. Furthermore, a large part of the dispute relates to the boundary as established in accordance with the so-called McMahon Line, resulting from the alleged “treaty” of Simla between the United Kingdom and Tibet of 1904. It is therefore advisable to examine the legal status of Tibet itself.
The Urban Communes
Authors: Luard D. E. T.
Published: March 2009

The early development of the Chinese communes was intimately linked with the decentralisation of the industrial and administrative machinery, foreshadowed at the Eighth Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in 1956 and carried out during 1957. The rural communes provided the most efficient unit for the management of small-scale industry set up under this scheme, for mobilising manpower in irrigation, implementing repair and other capital works in agriculture, and for generating the internal savings needed to finance investment. Further, they could be used to free women from housework, through the communal facilities they provided, so as to supplement the labour force needed for such undertakings.
The Reform of Agricultural Marketing in China Since 1978
Authors: Watson Andrew
Published: March 2009

With the proclamation of Document 1, 1983, reform of marketing became one of the major targets of agricultural policy in China. This official emphasis on the need to liberalize the marketing system was, however, little more than a confirmation of a process which was already taking place. The initial reforms of labour management and prices in 1978 had led to a decentralization of economic authority to the household level. The commune system was in decline and the number of small-scale free markets was increasing rapidly as peasants took advantage of their new-found freedom to trade their surplus production as they wished. Responding to the economic stimulus offered by the new structure of prices and to the organizational flexibility offered by the decentralization of management, some households began to plan at least part of their production for sale on the market, there by initiating a process of specialization and commercialization. Once begun, this process fed backwards into production by encouraging further specialization and diversification and forwards into marketing by stimulating the emergence of longdistance trade carried out by specialist merchants and traders. In effect, the free market began to act as an engine of economic change, shaping both the structure of agricultural production and employment and the network of new economic linkages through the emerging hierarchy of market centres.
Unequal Chances, Unequal Outcomes: Pension Reform and Urban Inequality
Authors: Davis Deborah
Published: March 2009

Since the Third Plenum of the 11th Party Congress in December 1978 China's leaders have moved decisively to restructure the nation's economy. However, it now appears that while the decollectivization of agriculture has dramatically reoriented rural society, entrenched urban bureaucracy prevents a comparable change in the cities. Analysis of personnel policy, and in particular examination of expanded pension programmes, further articulates the nature of these entrenched interests, revealing in detail why post-Mao urban reforms have maintained, even intensified, privileges which rural reforms have transcended or eliminated.
Strategic Weapons and Chinese Power: The Formative Years
Authors: Lewis John Wilson , Litai Xue
Published: March 2009

China entered the nuclear and space age as a result of a crusade that began almost as soon as the People's Liberation Army (PLA) had completed the conquest of the mainland. In this article we will comment on some aspects of the entire nuclear programme over the past 30 years as it has affected the strategic role of the PLA.1
Party Rectification in the People's Liberation Army, 1983-87
Authors: Johnston Alastair I.
Published: March 2009

In October 1983 the secretary-general of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), Hu Yaobang, formally announced the beginning of a two-stage, three-year Party rectification. The first stage, from November 1983 to around December 1984, would concentrate on the rectification of Party committees (dangwei) and leading offices at the Centre and in the provinces, major municipalities and autonomous regions. The second stage, from early 1985 to the end of 1986, would focus on rectification of Party organizations below provincial level. In fact, however, rectification was not officially ended until May 1987.
Birth Control in China: Local Data and Their Reliability
Authors: Bianco Lucien
Published: March 2009

In 1979, at about the same time that the birth control campaign received renewed impetus, China released impressive data on demographic trends. If these and other more recent data are reliable, the decline of the natural increase rate has been both belated and spectacular. Contrary to what has been assumed the birth rate would seem to have reached its peak during the 1960s (43·6 per 1,000 in 1963). After a secondary peak in the late 1960s, it then declined precipitously during the 1970s, declining by almost half (46·7 per cent) over nine years (33·59 per 1,000 in 1970; 17·9 per 1,000 in 1979). The natural increase rate was, for its part, more than halved during the same period (25·95 per 1,000 in 1970; 11·7 per 1,000 in 1979).
Reading Notes: The Chinese Wage System
Authors: Korzec Michel , Whyte Martin King
Published: March 2009

These reading notes are based upon an initial close reading of an important compilation of documents on the Chinese wage and fringe benefit system previously unavailable in the west and entitledLaodong Gongzi Wenjian Xuanbian (Selected Documents on Labour Wages; cited hereafter as LGWX: date of original document: page number). This volume is over 700 pages long, contains more than 390 documents and regulations on wages and fringe benefits spanning the years 1949 to 1973, and was published in 1973 by the Planning Commission of the Fujian Provincial Revolutionary Committee. The introduction states that some of the documents were included for historical reference only, but most were still being applied in 1973 and thereafter. In this respect it is interesting to note that over half of the documents included were issued in the years 1962–65. Furthermore, although published in Fujian, the great majority of the documents (over 300) were not issued in that province, but by national authorities, particularly the State Council, the Ministry of Labour and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Some of the documents included, such as those on the 1956 wage reforms, labour insurance regulations, and holidays and holiday travel leaves, have previously been available in openly-published documents.
The Role Of Nanjing University In The Nanjing Incident
Authors: Louie Genny , Louie Kam
Published: March 2009

The death of Zhou Enlai a few months earlier gave the Qing Ming Festival in 1976 a special significance. The festival marks the traditional time to mourn the dead, and Zhou had been widely revered. It was generally felt that he had played a moderating role in the leadership, particularly in the turbulent period of the Cultural Revolution. His death created a political vacuum and the position of premier was left vacant. Conflict in the upper echelons of the Party had increased after the Fourth National Peoples’ Congress in January 1975 adopted as official policy Zhou Enlai's call for a concerted effort to modernize China's industry, agriculture, defence, science and technology. Opposition from those who believed that stressing economic goals would undermine political ones began to be reflected in the media as 1975 progressed. By the end of the year an attack had been launched on “the Right–wing deviationist wind.” Fears were aroused that if the left gained power, China might again face a period of chaos and disruption.
To Utopia and Back: A Cycle in the History of the Chinese Communist Party
Authors: Schram Stuart R.
Published: March 2009

On 1 July 1981 the Chinese Communist Party celebrated the sixtieth anniversary of its foundation. To mark this occasion, the Party itself issued a statement summing up the experience of recent decades. It seems an appropriate time for outsiders as well to look back over the history of the past 60 years, in the hope of grasping long-term tendencies which may continue to influence events in the future.
The Sixth Plenum of the 11th Central Committee of the CCP: Look Back in Anger?
Authors: Goodman David S. G.
Published: March 2009

The Sixth Plenum of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) met in Beijing from 27 to 29 June 1981. On its agenda were two items: changes in the highest-level leadership of the CCP, and the “ Resolution on certain questions in the history of our party since the founding of the People's Republic of China.” ‘ Though the Plenum's decisions to a large extent confirmed and made official trends and policies that had become apparent during most of the previous year, they were nonetheless remarkable. The western press has, not unsurprisingly, focused on the replacement of Hua Guofeng by Hu Yaobang as Chairman of the CCP's Central Committee. However, the Plenum's reassessment of the Party's history since 1949; of the roles of Mao Zedong, Hua Guofeng and other CCP leaders; and of the nature of Mao Zedong Thought, are undoubtedly of greater significance in terms of the development of the People's Republic of China (PRC): as indeed is the fact of Hua Guofeng's demotion rather than his outright dismissal or “ purge.”
Economic Growth in China and the Cultural Revolution (1960—April 1967)
Authors: Perkins Dwight H.
Published: March 2009

Just as China's economic programme seemed to be settling into a predictable and reasonably successful pattern of growth, politics in the form of the “great proletarian cultural revolution” again reared up to cloud the future. Although most of the details of China's economic performance during 1966 and the first three months of 1967 remain obscured, enough is known to make at least a partial assessment.
Chinese Communism and the Canton Soviet of 1927
Authors: Tso-Liang Hsiao
Published: March 2009

The Canton rising of December 1927 was an event of international significance in Chinese Communist history. In order to understand it in proper perspective it is necessary to trace Comintern policy on rural and urban revolutions in China from 1920 to 1927. From the beginning the Comintern approach to the revolution in the East was different from that in the West. In the West the revolution was one of the industrial proletariat against the bourgeoisie with the rural toilers as the auxiliary revolutionary force. In the East, where there was almost no industrial proletariat or where, in some relatively advanced countries the industrial proletariat was just beginning to grow up, the Comintern supported the native bourgeoisie temporarily and the peasantry permanently in its grand strategy against “capitalist imperialism” and “feudalism” represented chiefly by landlords. While Comintern support for the bourgeoisie of the East was not expected to hinder future communist work against the native bourgeois democratic tendencies, Comintern support for the peasantry was so complete that no communist programme was considered possible in the pre-capitalist countries if it was not based on the peasant movement. The proletarian revolution was not a problem in the East at the outset.
Chinese Communist Assessments of a Foreign Conquest Dynasty
Authors: Farquhar David M.
Published: March 2009

Chinese Communist evaluations of China's foreign conquest dynasties, like those of earlier Chinese historians, have been hostile, at least on the most vulgar level of historical writing. This comes as no surprise, for the conquest dynasties occupied all or part of China by military force and often governed badly. For the Chinese Communist historians these conquerors carry the additional onus of being feudalists, or worse, feudalists who allowed the feudal economy to stagnate. This attitude is particularly marked in the treatment of the more recent foreign dynasties, the Khitan Liao dynasty (916–1124), the Jurchen Chin dynasty (1115–1234), the Tangut Hsi Hsia dynasty (1032–1227), the Manchu Ch'ing dynasty (1644–1911) and the one discussed here, the Mongol Yüan dynasty (1220–1367).
Pre-1949 Development of the Communist Chinese System of Justice
Authors: Leng Shao-Chuan
Published: March 2009

Before establishing the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese Communists through the years had instituted revolutionary laws and courts in areas under their control. Many features of “socialist legality” in Communist China today have their roots back in the early years of the revolution. In this article I shall attempt to examine the pre–1949 development of the system of “people's justice” through: the Soviet period, 1927–34, the Yenan period, 1935–45, and the post-war period 1945–49.
Rural Guangdong's “Second Economy,” 1962–74
Authors: Burns John P.
Published: March 2009

While social scientists have examined in some detail the income earning activities of Chinese peasants in communes, the primary focus of these studies has been to describe the general pattern of peasant behaviour – the orthodox, legitimate, legally sanctioned methods for increasing collective (and household) income. What these studies ignore, however, is the existence of a “second economy” in rural China, characterized by a wide range of informal, extra– or illegal strategies also designed to enhance collective income. In Guangdong from 1962 to 1974 these included: altering the size of production units; speculation; fraudulent loan applications; corruption; theft; withholding goods or services; false reporting; and violence or demonstrations. While acknowledging that these activities did not represent the norm, nonetheless, a systematic discussion of informal and perhaps deviant behaviour, highlighting time and participant variations, is necessary to form a more accurate picture of Chinese peasant behaviour.
Law on Display in China
Authors: Eliasoph Ellen R. , Grueneberg Susan
Published: March 2009

One of the major tasks facing the post- ”gang of four“ leadership of China is that of developing and consolidating a legal system. Success in this endeavour depends in great part upon the establishment of the people's faith in legality. The popular press often refers to the Cultural Revolution years as a time of absolute lawlessness1 in which arbitrary arrests and imprisonment, procedural violations, and baseless slander were the order of the day. Personal accounts of those years tend to confirm this view. They tend also to indicate that many people have little faith in the law and are cynical about the prospects for the success of legality in China. Undoubtedly, this cynicism stems from fresh memories of the types of abuse referred to in the press. And, because it overlays the traditional Chinese distrust of law as a method of resolving social disputes, it is a peculiarly intractable cynicism.
Political Power and Authority in Recent Chinese Literature
Authors: Clarke Donald C.
Published: March 2009

One of the major changes in Chinese Government policy since the death of Mao Zedong has been the new emphasis on the need for stability and regularity in everyday life, to be achieved by the systematic codification of laws and the strengthening of institutions for administering them. Since 1978 much legislation has been enacted with this end in mind, but the significance of this legislation is not self-evident. What the new laws minimally represent is a set of rules promulgated by the government which purport to govern social relationships in specified areas. Whatever else they might mean – that is, what social effects will follow from the declaration of particular rules – needs to be understood through a study of the individuals and institutions that will have to deal with these rules. Fundamentally, this is a matter of asking whether and why violations of “the law” should matter, and who has the power to find a violation and to remedy it.
Rural Violence in Socialist China
Authors: Perry Elizabeth J.
Published: March 2009

Have state policies under socialism radically and irrevocably transformed the Chinese countryside? Or do traditional attitudes and behaviour persist, fuelled by rural social structures that remain tenaciously vigorousdespitenew socialist imperatives? These questions have shaped much of the inquiry and debate on contemporary China over the past few decades. More recently, however, another promising line of argument has gained some currency. This approach does not pose the relationship between state control and traditional social structure as a “zero-sum conflict” in which the ascendancy of one is necessarily a loss for the other. Rather, it sees state and society as interacting in a more complex manner; a manner which is not always conflictual, and sometimes even quite complementary. By this view, certain policies of the Chinese state have contributed (albeit often unwittingly) to the survival and strengthening of traditional patterns of activity.
The Reign of Virtue: Some Broad Perspectives on Leader and Party in the Cultural Revolution
Authors: Schwartz Benjamin I.
Published: March 2009

One of the most arresting aspects of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution has been the confrontation between Mao Tse-tung (or the Maoist group) and the Chinese Communist Party. There is, to be sure, an area of vagueness and uncertainty concerning this whole matter. Have the Maoists attacked the party as such? What indeed is the party as such? The party may be conceived of as the sum total of its actual members—of its human composition. It may be conceived of in terms of its organisational structure—its “constitution,” rules and established mechanisms. To any genuine Marxist-Leninist, it is, of course, more than its cells and anatomy. It is a metaphysical organism which is more than the sum of its parts. The “soul” of this collective entity incarnates all those intellectual and moral capacities which Marx had attributed to the industrial proletariat.
Blücher's “Grand Plan” Of 1926
Authors: Solecki Jan J. , Wilbur C. Martin
Published: March 2009

The role played by the Soviet Union in the early days of the Chinese communist movement has always been shrouded in mystery. Recently some of this mystery has been dispelled as the Soviet Union has begun to publish a number of books and articles about the experiences of Soviet advisers in China.
Urban Population Growth and Urbanization in China Since 1949: Reconstructing a Baseline
Authors: Chan Kam Wing , Xu Xueqiang
Published: March 2009

China's urbanization patterns and policies since 1949 have been the focus of a good deal of attention. The main elements of this “Chinese Model” have been the massive “rustication” movements, the recruitment of large numbers of city dwellers to work in rural areas, strict controls on rural-urban migration through food rationing and household registration, and the expansion of rural employment through the development of rural industries. While controlling urban population growth has been problematic to most governments of developing countries, it has been widely accepted that China, particularly in the Maoist era, has been successful in this sphere. The “Chinese Model”, therefore, may offer such countries great promise as an alternative approach.
After Comradeship: Personal Relations in China Since the Cultural Revolution
Authors: Gold Thomas B.
Published: March 2009

The year 1985 marks the 20th anniversary of the publication inThe China Quarterlyof Ezra F. Vogel's classic article, “From friendship to comradeship: the change in personal relations in communist China.” The present article examines personal relations in China in the wake of the intervening two decades of Cultural Revolution (CR) and modernizing reforms. I will describe the major dimensions of personal relations in 1985 and offer a sociological explanation for them. My argument is that these relationships represent a re-emergence of certain traditional patterns as reshaped by both the CR and the current restructuring of state-society relations.
The Troubled Life and After-life of a Guangxi Communist: Some Notes on Li Mingrui and the Communist Movement in Guangxi Province Before 1949
Authors: Hutchings Graham
Published: March 2009

For the most part, the history of Communist Party activity in Guangxi before 1949 is one of modest success in difficult circumstances. Guangxi was the home base of one of the most formidable military factions of the Kuomintang. In association with Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi), provincial leaders Li Zongren, Bai Chongxi and Huang Shaoxiong – the “Guangxi Clique” – played a major part in planning and executing the April 1927 Party purge and thereafter, throughout the Republican era, proved bitter opponents of communism.
The Zigs and Zags in the Treatment of Intellectuals
Authors: Goldman Merle
Published: March 2009

The Chinese Communist Party's economic reforms have at times slowed down and have even halted, but they have not deviated from their course of loosening government controls, moving towards a more market-orientated economy, and opening up to the outside world. The Party's policy towards the intellectuals, whose skills are crucial to economic modernization, have generally followed the shifts in the economic sphere, but the shifts in the intellectual sphere have been more extreme and have at times deviated from the course. This was the case in the autumn of 1983 with the campaign against western spiritual pollution. Although the campaign quickly dissipated in the economic realm and scientific community, it continued on into 1984, specifically against those intellectuals who were influenced by such western thinkers as Sartre, Freud, Kafka and Euro-Marxists. The Party charged them with causing ideological confusion and questioning of the Party and socialism.
Economic Aspects of Land Reform in Kiangsu, 1949–52
Authors: Ash Robert
Published: March 2009

There were various objectives behind the decision of the Chinese Government to launch a land reform movement in 1950. In political terms, it served to eliminate a serious obstacle to the consolidation of its authority by depriving the landlord class of the roots of its power. In economic terms, the redistribution of essential resources (draft animals, seed, tools and buildings as well as land) promised to release rural forces of production. In terms of social welfare, too, the change in land relations was likely to be beneficial if it were accompanied by a more equitable distribution of agricultural output.
An Interview with Chinese Legal Officials
Authors: Lamb Franklin P.
Published: March 2009

The following consists of extracts from a transcript of a tape recording of an interview which took place on 17 November 1974 at the Min–ts Hotel in Peking, between myself and Professor Yang, chairman of the Revolutionary Committee of the Faculty of Law, Peking University and Judge Wu, member of the Supreme Court of China. The interpreter was Comrade Kuang of Lü–hsing–she, Peking Branch.
Mao's Cultural Revolution: The Struggle to Consolidate Power
Authors: Bridgham Philip
Published: March 2009

In his keynote political report to the Ninth Party Congress, Lin Piao discussed at some length the history of the “great proletarian cultural revolution” from its formal inception at a May 1966 Central Committee work conference to its nominal conclusion at the Party Congress in April 1969. Although he listed the objectives of the Cultural Revolution as ideological, political and economic in character, Lin stressed that “the fundamental question in the current revolution” is “the question of political power, a question of which class holds leadership.”
Foodgrains Output in the People's Republic of China, 1958–1965
Authors: Swamy Subramanian , Burki Shahid Javed
Published: March 2009

This article has two purposes. Firstly, to indicate that the currently available statistics on foodgrains output for the years 1958–65 appear to have little internal consistency and even less plausibility. Second, to place before the reader alternative estimates for this period. The new series, unlike the estimates it seeks to replace, is not derived from secondary data; it, in fact, incorporates a set of figures provided by Chinese officials to Mr. Burki, a member of a Pakistani delegation that went to China in July 1965, to study the communes. The series presented in this paper was given in response to a questionnaire submitted to the officials of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Bureau of Commune Management.* By then the delegation had visited seven communes in north and north-east China, and all the communes visited had provided output data along with statistics of major inputs. It was with the purpose of checking the performance of these communes and those to be visited later, that the members of the delegation sought to obtain output and input data for all Chinese agriculture.
From the 10th Party Congress to the Premiership of Hua Kuo-Feng: The Significance of the Colour of the Cat
Authors: Starr John Bryan
Published: March 2009

The unexpected events in China during the spring of this year - the abrupt dismissal of Teng Hsiao-p'ing following his surprisingly rapid return to a position of power, and the accompanying demonstrations, apparently on his behalf, in the streets of Peking - necessitate at least an interim reassessment of political developments in the People's Republic over the course of the last several years. In the pages which follow I shall attempt to summarize domestic political events in China during the period August 1973 through April 1976, incorporating both those events which were made public at the time and those which have been revealed or subjected to re-interpretation subsequent to Teng's dismissal. During this summary and in the section which follows it, I shall review some of the interpretive and analytical literature. dealing with these political events, focusing this review particularly on the question of the appropriate ways to group participants in the political process in China for analytical purposes. In conclusion I shall attempt to explore the ways in which the material critical of Teng suggests that our interpretations of contemporary Chinese politics may need to be revised and our assessments of future trends may require alteration.
The Second Rise and Fall of Teng Hsiao-p'ing
Authors: Rice Edward E.
Published: March 2009

The delivery of the eulogy on Premier Chou En-lai by Vice-premier Teng Hsiaa-p'ing at the memorial service held in Peking on 15 January was described by one China-watching correspondent as “ an impressive demonstration that he is now in charge in China,” As is well known, that was the occasion of Teng’s last official appearance – last, this is, unless his career were to take one more unexpected turn. If subsequent developments caught that correspondent by surprise, he had much company – in official as well as in non-official circles. Indeed, well-placed commentators have asserted that on the occasion of his most recent visit to China, Dr Kissinger had been assured on the highest authority that Teng Hsiao-p’ing would remain in power after Chou En-lai’se xpected demise. Dr Kissinger’s trip to China took place in December 1975, the highest authority in China is Mao Tse-tung, and Dr Kissinger had accompanied President Ford on the occasion of his call on Chairman Mao.
The Exit Pattern from Chinese Politics and its Implications
Authors: Oksenberg Michel
Published: March 2009

A comprehensive analysis of the recent past must start with an understanding of the major, interrelated issues currently confronting China's leaders. These include- a wide range of economic, national security, and cultural concerns. Another key area involves personnel management. Were the officials removed during the Cultural Revolution justly treated or ought their verdicts be reversed? If so, should all officials be returned or just some? And which ones? More generally, should a regular promotion ladder be established, or should young, exuberant but inexperienced cadres continue to be rapidly, promoted, as during 1966–69? Should service in the bureaucracy and exit from it be made more predictable? This essay focuses on vthe origins and implications of these personnel issues. For, while other issues have also been important, crucial points of debate and struggle since 1969 have been over the rehabilitation of cadres who were removed during the Cultural Revolution and over the role to be assigtfcd to those who rose to power at their expense.
Economic Aspects of Land Reform in Kiangsu, 1949–52
Authors: Ash Robert
Published: March 2009

The first part of this article consisted of a documentary analysis of the implementation of land reform in North and South Kiangsu between 1949 and 1952. What emerged most strikingly were the contradictions inherent in the multiple objectives of the institutional changes taking place and the impossibility of disassociating their economic and non-economic consequences. Specifically, the requirements of restoring production in the industrial sector, where many enterprises were under the control of landlords, while simultaneously redistributing landlords' agricultural land and other resources, gave rise to a serious dilemma which was reflected in different policy emphases during the campaign. Even if this dilemma could have been resolved, there remained a further contradiction: between the social and political desirability of allocating the maximum amount of land to the poorest peasants and the economic benefits to be gained from allowing the middle peasants to share in the fruits of expropriation. The situation was also complicated by the need to protect the efficient rich peasant economy, even at the expense of encouraging “capitalist” development.
Yü P’ing-po and the Literary Dimension of the Controversy over Hung lou meng
Authors: Bonner Joey
Published: March 2009

On 30 September 1954 an article criticizing Yü P’ing-po’s “ Hung lou meng chien-lun” appeared in the Wen-yi pao. 10 days later an article highly critical of Yü’s Hung lou meng yen-chiu, a revised edition of that scholar’s earliest work on the novel, Hung lou meng pien appeared in the Kuang-ming jih-pao. With the publication of these two articles by Li Hsi-fan and Lan Ling, recent graduates of Shantung University, the first attack in over 30 years was launched on what Mao Tse-tung at the time termed “the erroneous views of a so-called authoritative writer in the field of study of the Dream of the Red Chamber.”
Recent Provincial Population Figures
Authors: Aird John S.
Published: March 2009

Since September 1976 new provincial population figures have been appearing in news items from the People's Republic of China, most of which are much larger than those previously available for the same provinces. The figures seem to point to a new order of magnitude for the total population of China that is well above most current estimates.
China's Rural Industries: Self-reliant Systems or Independent Kingdoms?
Authors: Riskin Carl
Published: March 2009

In the wake of the Cultural Revolution, a dramatic surge of rural industrialization occurred in China. Thousands of small-scale enterprises using intermediate technologies were set up in the rural hsien and communes.
The Short Story in the Cultural Revolution
Authors: Pollard D. E.
Published: March 2009

The history of Chinese Communist literature up to this point has been one of ever-contracting boundaries, and all efforts on the ground to push back the frontiers or mark out reserves for tolerance have only fortified that trend, by defining what become yet other heresies to be avoided. The process had been uneven until the Cultural Revolution came along; then the presses shut down, the board was swept clean, and a unique opportunity offered itself to create a literature cleansed of historical impurities, impeccable in doctrine (given the new vetting procedures), and immaculate in conception (the lure of personal gain and fame being banished). Positively the new art had to guide it communist thought sharpened by the struggle between the two lines, negatively the treacherous ground has all been freshly sign-posted. It is the purpose of this paper to show what was made of this opportunity in the field of the short story. It will first be necessary to review briefly the central literary dogma and the interdictions established by case-law in the few years prior to the Cultural Revolution.
The Rise of Wang Tung-hsing: Head of China's Security Apparatus
Authors: Chang Paris H.
Published: March 2009

Wang Tung-hsing occupies a very important position in Chinese politics today. His political influence has increased enormously in the past year, and since the 11th Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in August 1977, he has become one of the four vice-chairmen of the Central Committee (CC) of the Party.
The Great Union of the Popular Masses
Authors: Tse-tung Mao
Published: March 2009

The decadence of the state, the sufferings of humanity, and the darkness of society have all reached an extreme. Where is the method of improvement and reform? Education, industrialization, strenuous efforts, rapid progress, destruction and construction are, to be sure, all right, but there is a basic method for carrying out all these undertakings, which is that of the great union of the popular masses.
Revolution in Retrospect: The Paris Commune through Chinese Eyes
Authors: Bryan Starr John
Published: March 2009

“What is the Commune, that sphinx so tantalizing to the bourgeois mind?” asked Marx as he began to offer his answer to the riddle his question implied. From the plethora of discussion evoked over the course of the ensuing century by the events in Paris during the 72 days from 18 March until 29 May 1871, it seems clear that Marx's explanation notwithstanding, the Commune has proven sphinx-like and tantalizing not only to the bourgeois mind, but to the socialist and communist minds as well.
Communism and Ethnic Revolt: Some Notes on the Chuang Peasant Movement in Kwangsi 1921–31
Authors: Lary Diana
Published: March 2009

Of all the soviets established in China in the late 1920s, none have received less attention than the Right and Left River Soviets in Kwangsi. Their brief lives, their minor local impact and their relative unimportance in the development of the CCP explains this neglect. But there are two aspects of these two soviets, especially of the Right River Soviet (Yu Chiang Su-wei-ai), which are of interest. The first is the ethnic composition of much of the soviet membership; the second is the way in which these soviets related to the Party Centre, and how they reflected, and suffered from, the shifts in Li Li-san's policies towards soviets in general. The question of relations between Li and the major soviets, and between Li and the Comintern, has been discussed at length (notably by Richard Thornton, in The Comintern and the Chinese Communists, and by Hsiao Tso-liang, in Power Relations within the Chinese Communist Movement, 1930–1934) and needs no further comment here. The aim of this article is to describe the relations between Han Chinese and minority peoples within the soviet movement, and to show how the Centre at Shanghai behaved towards a soviet over which it had a far greater degree of authority than was the case with most of those established in the late 1920s.
Woman Revolutionary: Xiang Jingyu
Authors: McElderry Andrea
Published: March 2009

Xiang Jingyu was executed in 1928 at the age of 33 and has since been enshrined as a communist martyr in China. Historically her life is of interest both as the record of an individual woman and of a specific group within a particular generation who embraced Marxism-Leninism as the solution to warlord–imperialist power in China. As a result of her martyrdom, however, it is not easy to separate the actual record of her life from her posthumous persona. This consideration is especially significant with regard to her position in the early Chinese Communist Party, and since she was charged with responsibility for building a communist women's movement, it is equally important in understanding aspects of the woman question in relation to early Party history. Careful examination of Xiang's activities tends to support the conclusion that the women's movement was accorded a low priority and that Xiang's position in the Party reflected this in spite of her posthumous elevation to high status.
The National CCP Conference of September 1985 and China's Leadership Changes
Authors: Goodman David S. G.
Published: March 2009

The National Conference of Delegates of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which met in Beijing from 16 to 23 September 1985, was a rare, but not a unique, event. According to official pronouncements, both before and after the conference, it was convened to consider two major issues. The first was the draft proposals for the Seventh Five-Year Plan to be introduced in 1986. The second was described as “organizational re-adjustment” – the question of changes in the membership of the CCP's leading political and administrative organizations.
The Limits of Cataclysmic Change: Reflections on the Place of the ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution‘ in the Political Development of the People's Republic of China
Authors: Schram Stuart R.
Published: March 2009

Few episodes in history have been the object of such widely divergent interpretations as the events of Mao Zedong's last decade. For the sake of convenience, I shall refer to the movement launched in 1966 by the name Mao gave it, but disputes have raged since the beginning as to whether it was in fact either cultural or revolutionary, let alone proletarian.
From ‘Revisionism’ to ‘Alienation,’ from Great Leaps to ‘Third Wave’
Authors: Brugger Bill
Published: March 2009

The China of the 1980s seems so very different from that of the mid 1960s: the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution is now widely denounced, seemingly both for the mid 1960s' diagnosis of the ills afflicting Chinese society and for the remedies chosen at the time to cure them. Today few would wish to defend the treatment meted out by Red Guards, but a condemnation of past actions is no substitute for an understanding of what happened and why.
Policy Oscillations in the People's Republic of China: A Reply
Authors: Winckler Edwin A.
Published: March 2009

Professor Nathan's pungent essay raises important issues for the politics of development in general and for drawing comparative conclusions from the Chinese case in particular. His cleansing scepticism demolishes some positions which may be held by authors in the China field and reminds others that the unstated assumptions in their models need better articulation. However he goes too far. What needs to be re-established is that clear and modest formulations of short-term recurrence, interdependence among policies, and two-sided policy disagreement are not avoidable errors but indispensable heuristic devices in the conceptual repertoire of China watchers. In fact it would be a great disservice to stùdies of contemporary China and to comparative study of the Chinese case if Professor Nathan were allowed to succeed in his attempt to identify all such analyses with hisreductio ad absurdumof some of them. Let us try to rescue the possibility of constructive social science modelling of the three principal issues Professor Nathan raises.
Food Consumption and Peasant Incomes in the Post-Mao Era
Authors: Kueh Y. Y.
Published: March 2009

One of the most dramatic changes in rural China in the post-Mao era has been the abrupt increases in peasant incomes and consumption since 1978. These were deliberately brought about by an overall reorientation in economic policy which aimed at improving peasant incentives, so as to boost farm output and ease the agricultural supply constraint on industrialization – the government's long-run goal. The new development strategy has already resulted in a considerable modification of the Soviet-style agriculture-industry dichotomy, in favour of the Chinese peasants.