Capacity Fade Analysis of Sodium-Ion Batteries Considering Calendar Ageing in Electric Vehicles
Authors: Nilugal Manjunath Lingappa , Ramadesigan Venkatasailanathan 
Published: December 2024

Sodium-ion batteries are emerging as a prominent candidate among next-generation energy-storing devices. These batteries are characterised by their similar architecture to lithium-ion batteries. The significant advantage of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) is their abundant raw material and “drop-in” technology to the existing lithium-ion battery manufacturing units.1 SIBs are anticipated to have their utility in microgrid systems and low-speed electric vehicles.2 The primary concern with these batteries is capacity fade during charge-discharge cycling, limiting their life. Several degradation mechanisms occur in SIBs, such as solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer formation and sodium plating.3 The SEI layer is formed due to the continuous electrolyte decomposition, leading to its cumulative growth, as shown in Figure 1(a).4 Sodium plating is another degradation mechanism caused due to the insufficient intercalation sites leading to sodium aggregates on the anode pores.5 The modelling and simulation of these degradation mechanisms using physics-based models will give insights into the battery’s internal dynamics that affect their performance. This work focuses on the analysis of sodium-ion battery degradation for electric vehicles, considering calendar ageing, using the PyBaMM software package.6

A pseudo-2-dimensional electrochemical model developed for SIB is coupled with the different degradation models to analyse the internal dynamics of the battery.7 The SEI layer growth is captured using the ethylene carbonate reaction-limited model, which assumes that the diffusion rate of electrolyte solvent ethylene carbonate is a prominent cause for the SEI layer formation.8 The charge transfer kinetics of sodium plating and stripping are expressed in the form of the Butler-Volmer equation.7 The sodium-ion chemistry used in this study uses a hard carbon anode, sodium vanadium fluorophosphate cathode and 1M NaPF6 in EC0.5:PC0.5 (w/w) solvent as an electrolyte.9 This study uses the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) drive cycle for low-duty vehicles for city driving conditions.10 The electrochemical model, degradation models, and UDDS drive cycle are used to assess the battery performance for electric vehicle applications for one year. The simulation replicates real-time commuting between home and office, followed by the charging phase.11 The quantities, such as total capacity loss, SEI layer thickness and sodium inventory loss, were estimated and will be discussed as shown in Figure 1(b). The effect on surface kinetics and overall cycle life due to the electrolyte diffusive flux will be analysed. Strategies for the improvement of battery lifespan will be discussed.

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Figure 1