bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Context of State-Level Policy Formation
Authors: Marshall Catherine , Mitchell Douglas , Wirt Frederick
Published: March 2008

To identify the relative power and influence of various state education policy groups, data were collected by elite interviewing as part of a larger study by the authors. This article displays the variation among six states in the ranking of policy groups. The relative rankings show how the configurations of power differ among the states. Using the qualitative data, the article provides short analyses of the policy processes that explain these differences. History, recent political battles, and the action styles of policy actors are part of the context that explains the differences (e.g., showing how teachers’ associations may rank first in one state and twelfth in another). The research explores further the qualitative data to search for policy actors’ sense of the rules that must be followed to gain and maintain power in the cultural state policymaking. The article introduces the theory of assumptive worlds; the common action principles understood by all state policy actors and learned from their socialization in the culture of politics. It concludes by showing how assumptive worlds build cohesion, translate values, and are barometers of change.
Validity of an Assessment Center for the Selection of School-Level Administrators
Authors: Gomez Joseph J. , Stephenson Robert S.
Published: March 2008

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the criterion-related validity of an assessment center for the selection of school-level administrators. The assessment center ratings of 121 subjects were correlated with their subsequent job performance ratings. The results indicated that the assessment center did to a significant degree predict the subject’s job performance. It was thus concluded that an assessment center represents a promising approach in the selection of school-level administrators.
The Role of Public Policy in the Education of Girls and Women
Authors: Klein Susan S.
Published: March 2008

In order to make education more equitable and effective for all, educators need to understand some of the complexities involved in developing public education policies to benefit over half our population which is female. A conceptual framework has been developed to indicate how different types of public policies have intended or unintended positive, mixed, or negative effects on girls and women in education. Examples of public policies that focus on sex equity goals, sex differential goals, and general education goals are followed by recommendations to help educators and policymakers assume responsibility for ensuring that education policies help, instead of harm, females.
Assessing the Impact of a State’s Decision To Move From Minimum Competency Testing Toward Higher Level Testing for Graduation
Authors: Koffler Stephen L.
Published: March 2008

New Jersey was one of the first states to change the scope and rigor of its statewide competency test that students must pass to earn a high school diploma. Beginning in 1982, students had to pass a ninth grade minimum competency test. As of the 1985–86 school year, students have to pass a more rigorous ninth grade test to graduate. The purpose of this paper is to examine the program, especially its impact on education in the state. The paper (a) explains the rationale behind the decisions to change the statewide competency program; (b) discusses the key operational decisions made about the program; (c) evaluates the test results for the first 3 years that the program has been administered; and (d) assesses the impact of the program on curriculum, high school graduation, state compensatory education funding, and district certification.
The Efficacy of Public Preschool Programs and the Relationship of Program Quality to Efficacy
Authors: Barnett W. Steven , Frede Ellen C. , Mobasher Helal , Mohr Patricia
Published: March 2008

As part of more general efforts at school improvement, a number of states have instituted public preschool education programs for disadvantaged children. These new programs have been criticized from several perspectives and their potential effectiveness called into question. This paper presents the initial findings of a longitudinal study of new public preschool programs in South Carolina. Two separate research designs were used to maximize both internal and external validity. Classroom observation was used to measure program quality. The preschool program was found to increase children’s school readiness, if a minimum (and readily achievable) level of quality was maintained.
“Pass to Play” Legislation in California: Vegetables Before Dessert!
Authors: Slater Jana Kay
Published: March 2008

Recent passage in several states of legislation supporting “Pass to Play” policies makes student participation in extracurricular and cocurricular activities contingent upon satisfactory academic performance. This study examined the initial impact of legislation in California which required districts serving grades 7 through 12 to establish “Pass to Play” policies with certain minimum requirements. Major findings were that the majority of districts had “Pass to Play” policies prior to the legislation, although most policies had to be modified to comply. District policies varied widely and most were more stringent than required by the legislation. Superintendents felt that the policies established academic excellence as a priority and increased students’ motivation in academics. Perceived drawbacks included exclusion of low ability students from participation in activities, and the difficulty in providing support services to help students regain their eligibility. While it is too early to uncover the whole picture, it appears that the legislation is having the desired effect in establishing academics as a priority in California.
Using NAEP for Interstate Comparisons: The Beginnings of a “National Achievement Test” and “National Curriculum”
Authors: Ferrara Steven F. , Thornton Stephen J.
Published: March 2008

Current plans to use National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) results to compare and rank states may lead to a perception of NAEP as a “national achievement test” representing a “national curriculum.” The coherence of local curricula can be either enhanced or damaged if NAEP assessments are used to compare states. NAEP procedures should be reformulated to (a) preserve and enhance curriculum coherence and encourage instructional improvement and achievement; (b) include extensive participation of local and state educators; and (c) clarify the links between NAEP content and local curricula
A Public Choice Theory of School Board Member Behavior
Authors: Rada Roger D.
Published: March 2008

The study of educational governance has suffered by being insufficiently concerned with axiomatic-deductive theories. It is behind the times. The theory presented in this paper should move things forward. A public choice theory of school board member behavior makes two major contributions to the study of school governance. First, it provides a theoretical framework for microanalyses of school governance, that is, the focus is on each actor and each school district rather than on aggregates of abstract data. Secondly, the theory has the potential to greatly increase the power to predict behavior and events in school governance. A framework for understanding and predicting the micro, as well as the macro, events of school governance is needed. The theory of school governance proposed in this paper provides such a framework.
50-State Analysis of Education Policies on Science and Mathematics
Authors: Blank Rolf K. , Espenshade Pamela H.
Published: March 2008

The Council of Chief State School Officers began a project in 1986 to develop state indicators of the condition of science and mathematics education in elementary and secondary schools. Based on a 50-state survey, the following data summarize current state policies related to science and mathematics in three areas: (a) policies affecting the amount of instruction at elementary and secondary levels; (b) state requirements for the certification of science and math teachers and policy initiatives related to teacher certification; and (c) state testing programs in science and mathematics.
Alternative Teacher Certification: Its Policy Implications for Classroom and Personnel Practice
Authors: Lutz Frank W. , Hutton Jerry B.
Published: March 2008

Alternative certification (AC) of teachers is an issue of interest and discussion within the 1980s education reform movement. Little empirical evaluation is available for formulating policy, however. This research describes an alternative certification program in the Dallas Independent School District. Recruitment programs resulted in 4,000 inquiries and over 1,300 applicants, 691 of whom took the entrance test, 557 who passed, and 110 who were admitted to the program. This research addresses eight topics: (a) characteristics of the program, (b) characteristics of the interns, (c) intern attitudes, (d) comparison of interns and traditionally certified teachers, (e) teaching performance of interns, (f) predictors of AC success, (g) reaction to the program, and (h) consideration of whether AC programs can contribute to the need for teachers. Policy recommendations, based on the above, are formulated.
Toward a Conceptual Framework for Mixed-Method Evaluation Designs
Authors: Greene Jennifer C. , Caracelli Valerie J. , Graham Wendy F.
Published: March 2008

In recent years evaluators of educational and social programs have expanded their methodological repertoire with designs that include the use of both qualitative and quantitative methods. Such practice, however, needs to be grounded in a theory that can meaningfully guide the design and implementation of mixed-method evaluations. In this study, a mixed-method conceptual framework was developed from the theoretical literature and then refined through an analysis of 57 empirical mixed-method evaluations. Five purposes for mixed-method evaluations are identified in this conceptual framework: triangulation, complementarity, development, initiation, and expansion. For each of the five purposes, a recommended design is also presented in terms of seven relevant design characteristics. These design elements encompass issues about methods, the phenomena under investigation, paradigmatic framework, and criteria for implementation. In the empirical review, common misuse of the term triangulation was apparent in evaluations that stated such a purpose but did not employ an appropriate design. In addition, relatively few evaluations in this review integrated the different method types at the level of data analysis. Strategies for integrated data analysis are among the issues identified as priorities for further mixed-method work.
Observations on Building Public Confidence in Education
Authors: Achilles C. M. , Lintz M. Nan , Wayson W. W.
Published: March 2008

Public confidence in education has eroded. The authors discuss conceptual bases for school/community relations and, using data from a national study, describe how administrators of 181 “high-confidence” schools get and hold the public’s confidence in their schools. These administrators do nearly the opposite of what selected literature and studies suggest.
The Struggle for Control of Teacher Education: A Case Study
Authors: Prestine Nona A.
Published: March 2008

This study examines a governance conflict between the University of Wisconsin—Madison and the state education agency for control of the teacher education program. Using in-depth and focused interviews, document analysis, and participant observation, data were collected and analyzed for this case study. Factors identified as significant included internal institutional variables (the role of the organizational saga, the isolation and insularity of the University, the pluralistic nature of the School of Education, and the effect of decentralization on University response), external environmental forces (the prevailing general public mood, the formation of a successful coalition of external interest groups, and the role of the State Superintendent), and political processes. Conclusions of the data analysis are discussed in terms of their implications for governance of higher education.
External Standards and Good Teaching: The Pros and Cons of Telling Teachers What to Do
Authors: Porter Andrew C.
Published: March 2008

Telling teachers what to do through state and district standard setting policies is seen as antithetical to empowering teachers and strengthening the teaching profession. Policies for empowering teachers are less well articulated; teacher autonomy is often thought to be the automatic product of an absence of external constraints and guidelines. An analysis is provided of whether good teaching of worthwhile content to all students is better served by standard setting initiatives or through leaving teachers alone. There are other alternatives, of course, and they may ultimately prove to be more attractive. The analysis sheds light on that possibility, too.
School Size and Program Comprehensiveness: Evidence From High School and Beyond
Authors: Haller Emil J. , Monk David H. , Bear Alyce Spotted , Griffith Julie , Moss Pamela
Published: March 2008

The demand for school improvement has increased concern over the ability of small high schools to offer comprehensive programs and has raised anew the pressure for consolidation. However, although large schools clearly offer more courses than do small ones, it is less clear that they offer more comprehensive programs. In this study we use the High School and Beyond data to address three questions, (a) Are the math, science, and foreign language programs of large schools more comprehensive than those of small ones? (b) For any given school size, are these programs equally comprehensive? (c) Is there some point on the school size continuum beyond which comprehensiveness shows little change? We find that although large schools offer more comprehensive programs than do small ones, there is substantial variation in comprehensiveness among the three programs at any given school size, and there is no common point where the programs of smaller schools approximate the comprehensiveness of larger ones.
School Competency Testing Reforms and Student Achievement: Exploring a National Perspective
Authors: Winfield Linda F.
Published: March 2008

This study investigates the relationship between school-level minimum competency testing (MCT) programs and student reading proficiency as measured by the 1983–1984 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). Comparisons of student-level proficiency out-comes within race/ethnic groups (White, Black, and Hispanic) were made after adjusting for individual and school-level variables for the 4th-, 8th-, and 11th- grade NAEP samples. In general, results indicated a higher level of proficiency among students in Grades 8 and 11 attending schools with MCT programs compared with their counterparts in schools without such programs. No advantage of attending such schools was identified for students in Grade 4.
A Systematic Test of the Effective Schools Model
Authors: Witte John F. , Walsh Daniel J.
Published: March 2008

This article presents cross-sectional data on the relation between school achievement and measures of school environment, particularly “effective schools” characteristics. The data are for 38 high schools, 32 middle schools, and 134 elementary schools, across 22 districts in the Milwaukee metropolitan area. The achievement measures include standardized test data in math and reading, as well as dropout rates. In addition to a wide range of school characteristics, key measures of school environment were collected through lengthy mailed surveys of 5,500 teachers in the districts. In addition to an effective schools index, we analyze the effects of parental involvement and variation in teacher control of key decisions in schools. The findings offer support for the notion that school environment has an effect on achievement. They also show that the complex of environmental variables that are significantly related to achievement are themselves highly intercorrelated and very much affected by the location of the school (city or suburbs) and the student population in the schools. These results lead us to question the direction of causality and thus the certainty of success of intervention programs along current effective schools lines.
Transformation and Accommodation: A Case Study of Joe Scott
Authors: Wiemers Nancy Jennings
Published: March 2008

This article is a case study of a self-described “traditional” teacher’s approach to implementing a state-wide mathematics reform. It examines his beliefs and knowledge about mathematics, and his commitment to the success of his students in the context of the state’s attempt to introduce innovations in both the goals and strategies of mathematics instruction. The goals of the reform include emphasis on conceptual understanding, cooperative learning, and practical applications of mathematics; this teacher emphasizes memorization, rules, and competition. The article explores the interplay between these two orientations: the teacher’s adoption of the reform’s implementation strategies, particularly the textbook, and his interpretation of the reform’s goals in terms of his own interest in teaching applications of mathematics. The teacher’s sense of accountability to his students and his commitment to their success is explored in the context of the state’s change in the principal vehicle of instruction, the textbook, and the state’s definition of success. The article raises the issue of what kind of change can occur in these circumstances and asks whether change that manifests itself in adoption of the implementation strategies of the reform will result in fundamental change in teachers’ beliefs and knowledge about mathematics.
Relations Between Policy and Practice: A Commentary
Authors: Cohen David K. , Ball Deborah Loewenberg
Published: March 2008

The research reported in the cases suggests that California’s new policy has affected instructional practice. Many teachers have tried to change their mathematics teaching, and some have made significant changes. But practice also has had a profound influence on the new policy. The teachers in the cases did not simply assimilate new texts and curriculum guides. They enacted new instructional policies in terms of their inherited beliefs, knowledge, and practices. Hence when teachers changed in response to the policy, they did so in terms of their pre-existing practice, knowledge, and beliefs. They reframed the policy in terms of what they already knew, believed, and did in classrooms. The result in many classrooms was a remarkable melange of old and new math teaching. This may be only the beginning of the story of the California math framework. It remains to be seen whether the reform will continue, and, if it does, whether the California system will be able to support this reform adequately.
Investigating the Context of State-Level Policy Formation: A Case Study of Arizona’s Bilingual Education Legislation
Authors: Sacken Donal M. , Medina Marcello
Published: March 2008

This study presents the application of a set of concepts devised by Mitchell, Marshall, and Wirt (1985) for investigating the distinctive cultures of state educational policy-making. In this study, an interpretation of the events leading to the passage in 1984 of Arizona’s new bilingual education legislation is developed, primarily from interviews with key actors. The central question addressed is whether a more comprehensive or mandatory law could have been achieved in Arizona.
Accountability Mechanisms for State Education Reform: Some Organizational Alternatives
Authors: Wohlstetter Priscilla
Published: March 2008

A major challenge facing state policy makers who are demanding a high level of accountability in education is to design an accountability mechanism to track the progress of education reform. This article examines the structure and uses of eight exemplary approaches to accountability to find out what makes each mechanism work. Emerging from the analysis is a common set of design characteristics for state accountability mechanisms that form the beginnings of a new theory about state governance in education.
Professionalism or Bureaucracy? Redesigning Teaching
Authors: Firestone William A. , Bader Beth D.
Published: March 2008

This study looks at three districts that redesigned teaching, two with career ladders and one with shared governance. The reforms took two directions—professional and bureaucratic—that had important consequences for the process and the outcomes of the redesign of teaching. Many factors were encompassed in the direction taken, including how districts addressed certain dimensions of job and organizational design—that is, authority and autonomy, collegiality, rank and remuneration, task variety, and organizational shape. Political factors that shaped the direction of development included the state program, the support of the board, the vision of the superintendent, and the interactions of board, superintendent, teachers, and teachers’ associations.
An Interstate Cost-of-Living Index
Authors: Nelson F. Howard
Published: March 2008

This research describes a simple way to generate an interstate cost-of-living index from market basket data collected at the standard metropolitan statistical area (SMSA) level. Models were developed for each of four regions to explain differences in the cost of living among more than 180 SMSAs. The regression coefficients were then used as weights and combined with comparable state level data to establish a state cost-of-living index. Finally, the state cost-of-living index values were normalized so that 100 represents the national average for all states weighted by their population. In the concluding section, the 1988–1989 average teacher salary for each state is divided by the interstate cost-of-living index to calculate an adjusted average salary.
Response to Kutscher’s Comment
Authors: Bishop John H. , Carter Shani
Published: March 2008

Recent studies of trends in relative wage rates and unemployment rates are reviewed. These studies conclude that real wages of recent college graduates rose substantially during the 1980s while the wages of recent high school graduates fell, contradicting the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) claim that college graduates were oversupplied during the 1980s. The BLS approach to measuring the supply–demand balance for college graduates by counting the number of college graduates who say they are working in “nontraditional” occupations is dismissed as invalid because of the unreliability of Current Population Survey coding of occupation and education and the lack of attention to mismatches of the opposite kind such as the more than 5% of physicians, lawyers, and high school teachers who report having fewer than 16 years of schooling.
Lessons From the Field: Case Studies of Evolving Schoolwide Projects
Authors: Winfield Linda F.
Published: March 2008

This study describes changes that occurred in one of the nation’s largest urban school systems on the East Coast following passage of the Hawkins-Stafford Amendments. Case study methods were used to describe the central office and system role and changes at the elementary school level in selected sites. A major emphasis of central office framework for school wide projects (SWPs) was school-based management and instructional frameworks based on effective schools research. The primary type of instructional intervention at the school level was reduction of class size during reading and math instruction. School wide projects offer the potential for improving learning outcomes of disadvantaged students but require coordinated and direct support from the central office and district
When Public School “Choice” Is Not Academic: Findings From the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988
Authors: Sosniak Lauren A. , Ethington Corinna A.
Published: March 2008

Public schools of choice are fast becoming part of national educational debate and practice. This article presents an empirical test of the claim that choice encourages something other than standardized education. We draw our data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988. Our analyses center on questions at the heart of curriculum studies: What knowledge is of most worth and what principles of practice govern work with curricular content? Using multiple measures of curriculum content and of the procedures governing work with that content, we find little support for the argument that public school choice, as currently implemented, is an inventive mechanism for altering the academic lives of students and teachers.
Teacher Empowerment Under “Ideal” School-Site Autonomy
Authors: White Paula A.
Published: March 2008

Few systematic studies have been conducted to determine how school decentralization works, how authority is allocated, and how school decentralization affects teachers. Over 100 personal interviews with teachers and administrators provide the base for this detailed analysis of teacher empowerment in several highly decentralized school districts. This study examines three questions: how teachers respond to opportunities for more influence, how these opportunities affect their teaching, and how these opportunities affect teachers’ work life and sense of efficacy.
The Education and Employment of Low-Income Black Youth in White Suburbs
Authors: Kaufman Julie E. , Rosenbaum James E.
Published: March 2008

This study examines education and employment outcomes of Black youth whose families moved from mostly Black urban housing projects to either mostly White suburbs or other mostly Black urban areas. The study examined high school retention, grades, track placement, college attendance, employment, wages, job prestige, and job benefits. Despite concerns about disadvantages due to discrimination and competition with White peers, the suburban youth did significantly better than urban youth in practically all areas. In the suburbs, mothers and youth pointed to positive effects of higher educational standards, additional academic help, greater access to information about college enrollment, and positive role models.
The Influence of State-Mandated Testing on Teachers of Literature
Authors: Zancanella Don
Published: March 2008

This study investigated the influence of state-mandated tests on the thoughts and actions of three middle school-junior high school literature teachers. Case studies revealed that the changes the tests caused in their teaching were a function of two factors: (a) the fit between the teacher’s preferred approach to teaching literature and the conception of literature embodied in the state tests, and (b) the amount of “curricular power” the teacher held—that is, the teacher’s place in the curricular decision-making structure of the school. The conclusions suggest that a subject such as literature, for which several competing conceptions currently exist, presents special problems during a time when tests are being used to influence classroom practice.
Education Productivity Research: An Update and Assessment of Its Role in Education Finance Reform
Authors: Monk David H.
Published: March 2008

This article begins with a critical review of alternative strategies currently in use to study educational productivity. These unfolding research programs are considered in the light of increasing public demands for improvement of productivity in education. A critique is offered of the dominant conception of the education production process that undergirds many of these studies, and alternative conceptions are offered. The effects of efforts to improve productivity are examined in the context of each of these different conceptions. The article concludes by advocating a new line of research designed to generate insight into more fundamental aspects of education production processes. This new type of productivity research places greater emphasis than is customary on the classroom as the unit of analysis.
Examining the Evidence: Have States Reduced Local Control of Curriculum?
Authors: Tyree Alexander K.
Published: March 2008

This article analyzes New York, California, Texas, and Florida curriculum policies in light of their potential to control local practice. Four characteristics—consistency, prescriptiveness, authority, and power—are used to assess the ability of these policies to influence local decisions about what and how to teach. Findings indicate that state policies may have reduced, but have not eliminated, local curriculum control.
Teachers’ Professional Development in a Climate of Educational Reform
Authors: Little Judith Warren
Published: March 2008

This essay posits a problem of fit among five streams of reform and prevailing configurations of teachers’ professional development. It argues that the dominant training-and-coaching model—focused on expanding an individual repertoire of well-defined classroom practice—is not adequate to the conceptions or requirements of teaching embedded in present reform initiatives. Subject matter collaboratives and other emerging alternatives are found to embody six principles that stand up to the complexity of reforms in subject matter teaching, equity, assessment, school organization, and the professionalization of teaching. The principles form criteria for assessing professional development policies and practices.
On-the-Job Improvements in Teacher Competence: Policy Options and Their Effects on Teaching and Learning in Thailand
Authors: Raudenbush Stephen W. , Eamsukkawat Suwanna , Di-Ibor Ikechuku , Kamali Mohamed , Taoklam Wimol
Published: March 2008

On-the-job teacher learning is vital to the success of reforms aimed at improving the quality of primary education in the developing world. In this study, we consider two policy options for improving the competence of the incumbent teacher: providing in-service training and encouraging regular classroom supervision. The results, based on a nationwide sample of small rural primary schools in Thailand, indicate that a teacher’s experience in in-service training courses predicts neither instructional quality nor student achievement. In sharp contrast, intensity of internal supervision significantly predicts both instructional quality and student achievement, after controlling for a variety of covariates measured at the school, teacher, and classroom levels. The supervision effect, similar in magnitude to the preservice education effect, is quite large. Intensive fieldwork in carefully selected rural schools suggests that, for effective principals, teacher supervision is a critical component in a larger strategy designed to create and sustain an “ethos of improvement” in academic teaching and learning
Meeting the Educational Needs of At-Risk Students: A Cost Analysis of Three Models
Authors: King Jennifer A.
Published: March 2008

This article provides cost comparisons of three comprehensive models aimed at bringing at-risk students to grade level during their elementary school years: Robert Slavin’s Success for All schools, Henry Levin's Accelerated Schools, and James Comer’s School Development Program. Although the models share common goals, they use different approaches that have implications for program costs. The first part of the article examines the major concepts underlying each of these reform models. The second section uses a cost analysis to evaluate the three alternatives. The cost estimates developed show the Slavin model to be the most costly in additional expenditures and the Levin model to be the most costly in additional time requirements placed on existing school staff. Comer's model ranks second in the above categories and leads in additional time requirements for parents. The article concludes with a discussion of policy implications, focusing on the variation of program costs among implementation sites.
Notes: Classifying Research Questions Addressed in Published Evaluation Studies
Authors: Smith Nick L. , Mukherjee Prachee
Published: March 2008

All question and answer propositions from 25 education and 38 health evaluation studies published between 1976 and 1987 were categorized by means of a 29-category scheme reflecting the logical operation of the evaluation questions. Results of this analysis were compared with a prior classification of questions addressed in empirical educational research. The findings suggest how evaluators may be translating stakeholder concerns into empirical questions and the relationships between evaluation questions and choice of methods. Limitations of this form of analysis are also discussed.
The Legal Rights and Educational Problems of Homeless Children and Youth
Authors: Rafferty Yvonne
Published: March 2008

This article summarizes the educational rights of homeless children and youth afforded by the Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act. It also describes the educational problems they confront, including academic underachievement and poor school attendance. Factors that exacerbate these outcomes of homelessness are delineated: barriers to accessing schooling and appropriate services; multiple movements between schools; insensitivity of school personnel; barriers to parental involvement; and difficulties in obtaining school clothes and supplies. The extent to which existing laws adequately address identified needs, problems, and barriers is discussed. Gaps in policies and practices are identified and recommendations for social policy changes presented.
Where Do Head Start Attendees End Up? One Reason Why Preschool Effects Fade Out
Authors: Lee Valerie E. , Loeb Susanna
Published: March 2008

This study investigates the relationship between preschool experience and the quality of schools subsequently attended as young adolescents. In particular, we differentiate the characteristics of middle-grade schools attended by eighth graders who earlier experienced Head Start, other preschool programs, or did not attend preschool. School quality is defined in terms of social composition, academic rigor, safety, and social relations. After accounting for family background and demographics, we find that former Head Start attendees are educated in middle-grade schools of significantly lower quality than their counterparts who did not attend preschool, and particularly compared to peers who attended other preschools. No matter how beneficial Head Start was initially for its young participants, such benefits are structurally undermined if students are subsequently exposed to schooling of systematically lower quality. The low quality of middle-grade schools attended by former Head Start participants explains, in part, why Head Start effects fade over time.
The Challenge of Developing New Educational Indicators
Authors: Williams J. Douglas , Kerckhoff Alan C.
Published: March 2008

Proposals for national assessments of educational performance provide opportunities to develop valuable social indicators, but they also pose important problems of methodology and interpretation. Researchers in the U. S. have emphasized the importance of analyzing and reporting indicator data at the school level, mainly because much of the variation in schooling outcomes is at the school level, and because findings at this level are particularly relevant to policy and practice. We do not refute this, but contend that indicator data should be analyzed and reported also at state and district levels. We present an analysis of British data that shows there is important variation at higher levels of the system, and that it is possible to examine whether this variation is related to national or district-level policies. The article discusses the issues involved in conducting analyses at higher levels. We identify three kinds of indicators: gross productivity, net productivity, and inequality. Our analysis indicates the degree of interdistrict variation in Great Britain on all of these measures and the extent to which organizational features of the districts’ programs help explain that variation. Recommendations are made regarding the necessary features of any educational assessment if it is to produce useful social indicators.
Measuring the Effectiveness of a Career Academy Program from an Employer’s Perspective
Authors: Linnehan Frank
Published: March 2008

Using data collected from 254 participants, I examined the effectiveness of a career academy program. Previous research on adolescent school-to-work transition programs has measured effectiveness using academic outcomes such as grades, graduation rates, and high school credits earned. This study measures the effectiveness of an academy program using outcomes relevant to employers, that is, job performance and work attendance. School outcomes of grades and attendance were found to have a direct effect on postsecondary work outcomes of performance and attendance. Results indicated that the program’s positive effect on high school attendance had a positive impact on work attendance. Implications for public policy, business, and the academic communities are discussed.
Does an Extra Year Make Any Difference? The Impact of Early Access to Algebra on Long-Term Gains in Mathematics Attainment
Authors: Smith Julia B.
Published: March 2008

This study investigates the lasting impact of taking algebra before high school on students ‘subsequent mathematics attainment in high school. Using a nationally representative sample of high school students, I explore the effects of early access to algebra on students’ access to advanced mathematics courses and subsequent high school math achievement. Results demonstrate that early access to algebra has an effect beyond simple increased knowledge measures and, in fact, may “socialize” a student into taking more mathematics, regulating access both to advanced coursework and increased achievement in high school. Implications for broader curriculum policy changes concerning early access to algebra are discussed.
An Examination of the Relationship Between Minimum Competency Test Performance and Dropping Out of High School
Authors: Griffin Bryan W. , Heidorn Mark H.
Published: March 2008

Many states now require students to demonstrate basic skills as a requisite for high school graduation, and this often means students must achieve passing scores on a minimum competency test (MCT). Educational researchers have speculated that increased academic standards for graduation, as manifested in MCTs, will have adverse effects on students, particularly at-risk, disadvantaged students. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between MCT performance and high school dropout behavior. The results indicated that failure on an MCT provided a statistically significant increase in the likelihood of leaving school, but only for students who were doing well academically. Students with poorer academic records did not appear to be affected by MCT failure; similarly, minority students did not demonstrate an increased likelihood of leaving school as a result of failing an MCT.
The Cost of Science Performance Assessments in Large-Scale Testing Programs
Authors: Stecher Brian M. , Klein Stephen P.
Published: March 2008

Estimates of the costs of including hands-on measures of science skills in large-scale assessment programs are drawn from a field trial involving more than 2,000 fifth- and sixth-grade students. These estimates include the resources needed to develop, administer, and score the tasks. They suggest that performance measures are far more expensive than typical multiple-choice tests for an equal amount of testing time, and the cost increases even further for an equally reliable score on an individual student. Because of the complexities of equipment and materials, hands-on measures in science are about three times more expensive than open-ended writing assessments. Alternative approaches to development and administration (such as using less expensive equipment and having the tasks administered by classroom teachers rather than trained Exercise Administrators) could reduce costs by up to 50%, but these practices may reduce the quality of the data obtained. However, including performance assessments in a state’s testing program may have many positive effects, including fostering standards-based educational reform and encouraging more effective teaching methods. The challenge is to determine whether these potential benefits actually exist and if they do, how they can be realized within the budget constraints of most testing programs.
Teacher Compensation and Organization
Authors: Kelley Carolyn
Published: March 2008

Traditionally, teacher compensation has been viewed in isolation from other components of organizational reform. This paper examines changes in the conceptualization of schooling over time using an organizational lens, and considers how compensation systems might be better designed to match alternative organizational designs. Four different organizational designs are considered: scientific management, effective schools, content-driven, and high standards/high involvement. Implications of each design are considered for the development of compensation models which better mesh with current conceptualizations of schools and teachers.
Course-Taking, Equity, and Mathematics Learning: Testing the Constrained Curriculum Hypothesis in U.S. Secondary Schools
Authors: Lee Valerie E. , Croninger Robert G. , Smith Julia B.
Published: March 2008

This study investigated how the organization of the mathematics curriculum in U.S. high schools affects how much students learn in that subject. The study used data on the background and academic proficiency of 3,056 high school seniors in 123 public high schools from the 1990 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in mathematics. These data were linked with information from students’ high school transcripts and with information from their high schools about courses offered during that period. To accommodate the nested structure of the data and research questions, we used Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) methods, including a subroutine (HLM2PV) that simplifies the proper use of multiple plausible values estimates for NAEP proficiency scores. Results provide support for our hypothesis about curriculum constraint: Students learn more in schools that offer them a narrow curriculum composed mostly of academic courses. Difficulties in conducting school effects studies using NAEP proficiency score outcomes, particularly the procedures for estimating plausible values, are discussed.
Assessing the Effects of School Resources on Student Performance: An Update
Authors: Hanushek Eric A.
Published: March 2008

The relationship between school resources and student achievement has been controversial, in large part because it calls into question a variety of traditional policy approaches. This article reviews the available educational production literature, updating previous summaries. The close to 400 studies of student achievement demonstrate that there is not a strong or consistent relationship between student performance and school resources, at least after variations in family inputs are taken into account. These results are also reconciled with meta-analytic approaches and with other investigations on how school resources affect labor market outcomes. Simple resource policies hold little hope for improving student outcomes.
Uneasy Allies: The Evolving Relationship of School and State
Authors: Loveless Tom
Published: March 2008

The American school originated as an extension of fundamental social units: families, churches, and communities. Repeated waves of reform succeeded in fully institutionalizing public schooling, and schools came to operate under a formal system of public authority. Founded as an institution independent from state and federal control, the school has been transformed into an institution wedded to multiple layers of government—local, state, and federal. This essay explores the historical evolution of the school-state relationship, how educational reform movements of the past 30 years may undermine the alliance of school and state, and the challenges this development poses for analysts of education policy.
Work-Based Learning: Student Perspectives on Quality and Links to School
Authors: Stasz Cathleen , Brewer Dominic J.
Published: March 2008

Programs that incorporate work-based learning (WBL) experiences in connection with school activities are proliferating, yet we know very little about their quality as learning experiences for young people or the costs associated with participating in them. This article examines two programs operating in the same school district, where students receive course credit for participating in WBL. One program provides unpaid internships each year of high school; the other provides paid work experience for one semester. We contrast the kinds of learning opportunities each offers to students, as measured by a student survey and a case study of program operations. We focus on two issues: the quality of students’ work experiences in these programs and the relationship between program participation and school learning, including effects on school work and social experiences. We find that students perceive the quality of their work experiences to be very similar across the programs despite differences in the type of work involved and in several structural features of the programs. We find that both programs have weaknesses in establishing connections between school and work and that the number of hours students work negatively affects some aspects of school performance, such as having time to do homework and the desire to stay in school. Our findings raise questions about the value added of WBL, given costs associated with the program design and delivery and, in some cases, with participation.
Opportunity to Learn: The Impacts and Policy Implications
Authors: Wang Jia
Published: March 2008

This study investigated the relationship between students’ opportunity to learn (OIL) and their science achievement. The data are of 623 8th-graders enrolled in five public schools in Los Angeles, California. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to analyze OTL variables at two levels of instructional processes: the classroom level and the student level. Students’ science test scores are based on a written test and a hands-on test. OTL effects on these two test scores were studied to see whether the effects differ depending on how science achievement is measured. It was found that OTL variables were significant predictors of both written and hands-on test scores even after students’ general ability level, ethnicity, and gender were controlled. The OTL effects varied by test format (written test and hands-on test). Content exposure was the most significant predictor of students’ written test scores, and quality of instructional delivery was the most significant predictor of the hands-on test scores. In conclusion, OTL variables are not unitary constructs; they are multidimensional, and different dimensions of OTL should be measured simultaneously to properly document the OTL-achievement relation.