bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE 1992 BUDGET FOUR LEGS GOOD; TWO LEGS BETTER
Authors: Currie David , Dicks Geoffrey
Published: January 2008

In framing his Budget, the Chancellor, Mr. Lamont, sought to balance two mutually exclusive goals: the political imperative of establishing the Conservatives as the party of low taxation on the one hand; the deterioration in the financial position of the public sector on the other. Inevitably the Budget fell between these two stools. The net cut in taxes, though cleverly angled towards the low paid, was a modest £2.2bn, 0.4 per cent of GDP, which is unlikely to ‘buy’ many votes on 9 April. This may largely free the Government of the charge of trying to bribe the electorate, yet it still leaves the PSBR at £28bn in the coming financial year, £36bn excluding privatisation receipts, which is equivalent to 6 per cent of nominal GDP. Over the medium term Mr. Lamont reaffirmed the Government's commitment to a balanced budget, though on the Treasury projections this is not achieved by 19967, despite the assumption that growth averages 3.5 per cent a year from 1993 onwards. On our calculations, a return to budget balance is unobtainable even on the Treasury's optimistic growth projections without a move to tighter fiscal policy. The Conservatives' maxim that ‘budget balance is good; budget deficits are bad’ may not have been formally jettisoned, but it is in the process of being re‐written as ‘budget balance is good; budget deficits are better, as long as they are prudent’.
THE UK'S PERSISTENT TRADE DEFICIT
Authors: Dicks Geoffrey
Published: January 2008

The UK current account deficit reached a peak in excess of £20bn in 1989, equivalent to 4 per cent of GDP. In the next two years, as recession took its toll of domestic spending, it shrank quickly ‐ on the latest data the deficit was only £4.4bn last year, 3/4 per cent of nominal GDP. Over the same period the trade gap narrowed front £25bn to £10bn, in each case taking the deficit back to the levels of 1987, before the late 1980s' boom really got under way. Since 1989, therefore, both 011 trade and the current account, there has been a significant reduction in the external deficit. Yet it remains the case that, despite the length of the recession ‐ non‐oil GDP has fallen for six successive quarters ‐ the current account is still in deficit. Moreover, despite there being no concrete data to point to the beginnings of recovery, the shortfall is widening. The low point was the second quarter of last year, with a rare current surplus recorded in June, since when the trade deficit has steadily widened again as the consequence primarily of a 5.5per cent increase in the volume of imports over the last 12 months. Why is it that, in contrast with the experience in the 1980‐81 downturn, this recession has not produced a trade or even a current account surplus? Does this mean that the recovery, when it does come, will inevitably widen the deficit with the possible consequence that ‘balance of payments problems’ will undermine the pound inside the ERM? We conclude that, while it is disappointing that UK producers have not managed to claw back more of the domestic market ‐ in contrast with the experience of exporters in world markets ‐ our forecast of a current account deficit of 0–2 per cent of GDP should be relatively easily financed and will riot therefore cause serious problem for economic policy. This conclusion would riot necessarily hold if the recovery occurs more rapidly than we expect arid sucks in a greater volume of imports. It may be the case that the UK will continue to run a current deficit with Japan in particular as the counterpart to ongoing Japanese direct investment in this country.
A Proposed Framework for Monetary Policy
Authors: GARRATT ANTHONY , HALL STEPHEN
Published: January 2008

Leave the ERM, cut interest rates and let the pound find its own level⃛ it's the cut and run option. The credibility of our anti‐inflationary strategy would be in tatters. And quite soon interest rates would have to go back up again ‐ Norman Lamont, in a speech to the European Policy Forum, July 1992.
The London Business School with Gower Publishing
Authors: Dicks Geoffrey
Published: January 2008

The New Year has started with a burst of enthusiasm in UK asset markets. The stock market has reached an all‐time high and the pound has recovered from the sub‐1.50 and DM2.40 lows that it hit in the aftermath of its exit from the ERM last September. There are external reasons for the buoyant start to 1993, namely the exposure of UK companies to the us economy where recovery seems assured, and the desire to park short‐term funds outside the EMS where renewed turmoil greeted the start of the New Year. But over and above this, hopes have risen that the worst of the UK downturn may be over, that recession is at last ending and recovery beginning. It is this question that we examine here.

We have argued before that the recession will not be over in any meaningful sense until the level of output tops the pre‐recession peak of the second quarter of 1990, output growth returns to its trend rate of 2‐2.5per cent and unemployment starts falling, But in a more limited sense we can ask whether output has stopped falling and whether a recovery in output is under way. Specifically we may ask whether, when the CSO comes to date the trough of the recession, it will be put in 1992 or whether it is still ahead of us in 1993.

In answer to this last question, we find that the trough of the recession may have occurred as long ago as April 1992. If so, the initial recovery phase has been feeble to say the least ‐ there is almost no hard data yet showing a recovery in output. What is evident ‐ and it is on this that market enthusiasm is based ‐ is that (consumer) demand is rising slowly. The hope is that the increase in demand will be sustained, and that a recovery in output will follow.
A Policy for Debt‐Deflation
Authors: PEPPER GORDON
Published: January 2008

As recovery begins, the level of outstanding debt and the weakness of the housing market remain a major constraint on consumer spending. In this invited article Gordon Pepper sets out what is the appropriate policy repsonse to the problem of debt‐deflation. In the Briefing Paper on page 39 Alistair Milne provides a detailed background.
The London Business School with Gower Publishing
Authors: Currie David , Dicks Geoffrey
Published: January 2008

The knives are out for the Chancellor whose opinion poll ratings are at a record low level. He is being personally blamed for the Conservatives' poor showing in this month's elections and, according to newspaper reports, is certain to lose his job in a Cabinet reshuffle, probably in the summer. Mr. Lamont has presided over the UK economy over a difficult period ‐ though many of his policies and problems were inherited from his predecessor (Mr. Major) ‐ and arguably he should have resigned last September following the failure of the ERM policy and the huge cost of intervention. Since then Mr. Lamont, probably on the advice of his Treasury officials, has followed a determinedly non‐populist approach, notably on public spending last autumn, interest rate cuts earlier in the year and tax increases in the Budget. But, as economic recovery becomes better established, and the focus turns to the structural problems of the British economy, it is evident that some very tough choices will have to be made. Over the medium term the balance of payments and public sector deficits are going to have to be tackled which means devoting resources in the first place to exports and investment, not to consumption. This means no more interest rate cuts, higher taxes and public spending cuts, which Mr. Lamont has already shown he is willing to implement, and requires a Chancellor who is able to stand up to the more populist and erratic approach of the Prime Minister. The danger would be that a new Chancellor, seeking to court popularity in a way that Mr. Lamont has not, opts for the easy alternative in the short run ‐ to the longer‐term detriment of the economy. Almost by definition, certainly in the absence of either an independent Bank of England or an external exchange rate constraint, only the Treasury can take the tough line and so the Chancellor has to be unpopular ‐ Nigel Lawson's best received Budget, that of 1988, is now universally damned. Mr. Lamont may be about to be buried but he should be praised for taking the non‐populist line.
THE HOUSING MARKET AND THE RECOVERY
Authors: Nixon James
Published: January 2008

In the run up to the key Christmas period the talk is again of renewed weakness in consumer spending. Last month saw the volume of retail sales rise by only 0.1 per cent, and the annual rate of growth has now slowed to a shade over 3 per cent, down from its peak of 4.4 per cent back in July this summer. This weakness in consumer demand is also clearly being reflected in retail prices; with retailers discounting their prices to boost sales, headline inflation fell to 1.4per cent in October, while the underlying rate dropped to its lowest level for 25 years. This forecast release looks at the wider determinants of consumer spending, especially developments in the housing market. We argue that the slowdown in high street sales is a forbear of sluggish growth to come and that lower interest rates, if they materialise, are unlikely to have much of an impact. While consumer spending has been the driving force out of recession, for the recovery to be sustained, requires that exports and investment spending now take up the running.
THE BUDGET
Authors: Burrell Andrew , Currie David
Published: January 2008

Mr Clarke's first unified budget is politically highly astute. He has skilfully defused the household fuel VAT row. As we predicted in the October Economic Outlook, he has taken advantage of lower inflation and the public pay freeze to cut public spending with tough curbs on social security. This, together with the absence of measures against the pensions industry, has pleased the markets. But it will prove hard, though not impossible, to hit the new public spending targets beyond next year, particularly if inflation picks up. The further reduction in mortgage tax relief, the modest extension of the tax base, the action on tax avoidance and the introduction of road charges all make good economic sense, though the absence of measures to give the Bank of England more freedom for manoeuvre in monetary policy is disappointing. There is still the risk that the large tax increases on consumers bequeathed by Mr Lamont will slow recovery in 1994, but overall this is a budget that is good for the economy and good for Mr Clarke. It paves the way for further interest rate cuts of ½‐1%. In this forecast release we consider the details of the Budget, dissect the Treasury forecast, and consider the plausibility of the spending targets, especially in later years.
Is the UK current account: moving into surplus?
Authors: Nixon James
Published: January 2008

James Nixon and Andrew Sentance argue that the recent improvement in the UK current account indicates a more favourable medium term balance of payments outlook. But despite stronger oil revenues and investment income, a surplus will not quite be achieved unless the world economy grows more strongly than our forecasts suggest.
UK INFLATION: DOWN BUT NOT OUT
Authors: Sentance Andrew
Published: January 2008

The release of the December retail prices index showed a rise in both the headline and the underling rate of inflation. That was not altogether unexpected with higher fuel and tobacco duties feeding through from the Budget. But it provides a reminder that inflation can go up as well as down. Looking ahead, inflation can go up as well as down. Looking ahead, inflation will be subject to conflicting pressures over the remainder of this year. Worldwide, inflationary pressures are weak. But, on the domestic scene, a Mortgage rate cuts which have helped to bring down the headline rate of retail price inflation will be less helpful. Indirect tax increases will push up the RPI directly. And employees may look for some compensation for direct tax increases in the next pay round. This assessment looks at the likely impact of these forces on inflation and the future course of interest rates.
POLAND'S NEW ECONOMIC STRATEGY 1994–97
Authors: Nuti D Mario
Published: January 2008

D. Mario Nuti reviews the policies of the left‐wing coalition that came to power in Poland in September 1993. There has been no change in target model, transition speed or fiscal stance. Changes in policy trade‐offs and instruments ‐ though important ‐ are within the bounds of party alternation in any democracy. Economic recovery is strong in spite of adverse political developments.
Housing: the challenge for policy
Authors: Barker Kate
Published: January 2008

In this article, Kate Barker, Chief Economic Advisor to the CBI, argues that housing market policies need to adapt to reflect the changing nature of the UK economy. In a flexible labour market with more job insecurity, a stronger rented sector is likely to be needed. But while policies have recently shifted away from supporting owner‐occupation ‐ in particular by reducing mortgage tax relief ‐ there has been a lack of a coherent approach to encouraging affective forms of tenure. The article discusses a number of different policies which meet the two objectives of stimulating a stronger supply of rented housing, while reducing the volatility of the owner‐occupied sector.
The rise of Asia and structural change in the world economy
Authors: Sentance Andrew
Published: January 2008

In this article, Andrew Sentance describes the growing economic importance of Asia and discusses the impact on the world economy. He argues that Western economies face a problem of structural adjustment not only to low‐cost competition from newly industrialised countries but also because of technological changes. Macroeconomic shocks, Single Market restructuring and labour market inflexibility have made this process more difficult in Europe.
THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE LIVER OF TEREDO, THE SHIPWORM
Authors: POTTS F. A.
Published: January 2008

(i) The liver of the Teredinidae is shown to consist of three regions, the physiological relations of which have not been fully elucidated:

A. A “digestive” region in which the cells are phagocytic and nearly always contain minute fragments of wood. The phagocytic cells are mostly free in the lumen of the liver which also contains enormous quantities of wood. They are probably derived from the epithelium of the liver, which is also often phagocytic, containing wood fragments. Where this is not so the epithelium is ciliated internally.

B. In other lobules the liver wall is thickened locally and the lumen contains ciliated cells and cell aggregates, which are colourless, with small granular inclusions, and never contain wood.

C. An “excretory” region consisting of cells, also typically ciliated, containing large quantities of highly refringent, resistant granules whose chemical nature is not known but which are probably excretory. The lumen contains similar free cells.

(2) Glycogen has not been demonstrated in the liver but occurs in large quantities in the mantle and elsewhere. Fat globules are found in the epithelium of region A.

(3) The stomach, coecum and liver lumen contains no other recognisable organic material beside wood and only very occasional diatoms are found in the intestine. The gills of Teredo, though much modified, collect solid particles by ciliary action and forward them to the mouth. When kept in a suspension of Indian ink, the ink is found in the gut and the liver and even in the liver cells. In natural conditions material, which could have been so collected, is not recognised in those situations. Other evidence is given to indicate the shipworm's practical independence of plankton organisms.
ON REMAINS OF EXTINCT PROBOSCIDEA IN THE MUSEUMS OF GEOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE PART I. ELEPHAS ANTIQUUS.
Authors: COOPER C. FORSTER
Published: January 2008

It appears that the Barrington and Haverhill Elephas is somewhat distinct from other forms of antiquus by its higher laminar frequence. As far as is known it was a form with small molar teeth. The fact that there is no great variation in size may be due to the small number of specimens measured but is none the less interesting. The light they throw on the geological level of the beds in which they occur is obscure, but on the whole the period seems to be early rather than late and may be placed provisionally near the top of the Pliocene.

The Whittlesea forms appear to be equivalent in their general stage of evolution to those from Clacton, etc. Even in the few specimens discovered there is a wide range of variation in size which would include ausonius at one end and approach the largest and latest forms of antiquus at the other. Certain of them however are not unlike ausonius so that the value of this form as a time mutation appears to be somewhat impaired.
A LEAF INDEX AS A HELP TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF POTATO VARIETIES
Authors: SALAMAN REDCLIFFE N.
Published: January 2008

The first lateral leaflet on the left of the mid‐rib of each leaf is measured, and its index breadth/length X 100 calculated.

The Leaf Index of a variety must be ascertained from adult leaves on a healthy plant.

The younger leaves where the long axis is less than two‐thirds its final length will have a somewhat higher index than the normal.

Leaves of secondary growth have, at first, a higher index.

Leaves affected with slight mosaic mottling have a reduced index.

The variation of the index within any given variety is a normal one and represented by a normal frequency curve.

The mean value of the p.e. for one observation when 36 varieties are examined of each of which a minimum of 20 leaves have been measured = 2·36.

The p.e. of the difference of two means of 20 each is 74. A difference of two units in the Index may be considered as indicating odds of about 18: 1 against the two varieties being the same, and a difference of 3 units as being almost certain evidence of such distinction, the odds being over 140: 1.

Of 65 varieties of which the index was measured, the value of the latter varies between 50 and 72.

Neither the place of origin of the seed tubers, nor the locality where the plants are raised have any effect on the Leaf Index, always providing that the plants are healthy.

The Leaf Index is a constant for each variety.

There is some correlation between early varieties and a low index, and late varieties and a high index.

The Leaf Index has given valuable evidence as to the identity of suspected synonymous stocks growing for trial at Ormskirk.
ON CHLOROCRUORIN. I
Authors: FOX H. MUNRO
Published: January 2008

1. Chlorocruorin, the red‐green pigment dissolved in the blood of certain polychaetes, exists in an oxidised and a reduced form, which have different absorption spectra. Chlorocruorin is a respiratory pigment in that the oxidised form can be reduced (a) by a vacuum, and (b) by living tissue, and then reoxidised by air.

2. Blood of Spirographis, containing chlorocruorin, gives off on the addition of potassium ferricyanide one‐third of the volume of gas given off by my own blood.

3. The absorption bands of oxychlorocruorin and reduced chlorocruorin resemble those of oxy‐ and reduced haemoglobin shifted towards the red end of the spectrum.

4. The oxychlorocruorin spectrum differs from that of oxyhaemoglobin in the relative heights of the a and β bands and in the presence of a third much smaller band.

5. Reduced chlorocruorin resembles the reduced haemoglobin of Arenicola in that the spectrum varies with the reducing agent employed.

6. The band of reduced chlorocruorin has a summit with a buttress on either side. Thus it differs from the simple summit of the mammalian and the double apex of the Arenicolan haemoglobin band.

7. The spectra of metachlorocruorin and chlorocruorohaematin differ considerably from those of methaemoglobin and haematin.

8. Chlorocruorochromogen closely resembles haemochromogen spectroscopic‐ally. The bands of the former are further towards the red than those of the latter, but the shift is less than in the case of oxy‐ and reduced chlorocruorin relative to oxy‐ and reduced haemoglobin.

9. The porphyrin prepared from chlorocruorin is either identical with haemato‐porphyrin or very closely resembles the latter.

10. Chlorocruoroporphyrin, like haematoporphyrin, has a brilliant red fluorescence.
THE THEORY OF FIELDS OF RESTITUTION, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE PHENOMENA OF SECRETION
Authors: HIRSCH By G. C.
Published: January 2008

1. The term restitution is suggested for the repetition of irreversible processes. I have tried to show the biological meaning of this in secretion, regeneration and growth.

2. A definition is given of the terms evasion, accumulation, secretion, as three ways of elimination of material from the inside to the outside of protoplasm.

3. Reception of material, formation of pre‐secretion, formation and migration of granules are outlined as different processes of restitution during secretion.

4. The origin of “basal granules” in topographical connection with mitochondria in the pancreas and the influence of X‐rays on this origin is described; likewise the role of the nucleus and the ergastoplasm in other glands.

5. The building up of clear‐cut granules occurs in connection with colloids of the Golgi field.

6. During these processes some signs of metabolism in the cell are observed.

7. Certain physiological unities responsible for restitution are called fields of restitution.

8. The size of these “fields” may be the size of microscopical particles, of cells, or of organs. Some examples of this are given.

9. An outline is given of what may be the qualitative differences between the various kinds of “fields.”

10. The question is answered as to how often a field of restitution is able to work. Polyphasic and monophasic systems are distinguished. The polyphasic and monophasic working of the different fields is explained in this connection.

11. The secretion quotient is in function of time. If this quotient is 1, the working of a field is arhythmical. If the quotient is smaller than 1, the working must be rhythmical. The value of this quotient is given for certain cellular and organ fields.

12. Various examples for synchronous and asynchronous action of cells are given.

13. Two different causes for synchronous working of secretory cells are demonstrated: an abbreviation of the cycle of processes, and rhythmical mitosis.

14. The relation of the “theory of fields of restitution” to growth, regeneration and the theory of “Teilkörper” (Heidenhain) is outlined.

15. The influence of X‐rays on different stages of restitution is described and compared with regeneration and growth.

16. The question of autonomic and heteronomic factors in the different fields of restitution is considered.
RHAETIC FLORAS
Authors: HARRIS T.M.
Published: January 2008

1. The Rhaetic Pteridophytes mainly belong to living families.

2. Several isolated families of seed plants existed in the Rhaetic. A large proportion of the genera of the Rhaetic seed plants are still incertae sedis.

3. The structure of the cuticle of the leaf is held to be an important aid to the classification of Rhaetic seed plants.

4. Two zones are distinguishable in the plant‐bearing Rhaetic and Lower Lias of Europe and Greenland—the Thaumatopteris Zone, corresponding approximately to the Hettangian, and the Lepidopteris Zone, corresponding approximately to the Rhaetic.

5. No flora outside this area can yet be satisfactorily correlated with the Rhaetic.
THE EFFECT OF GENES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF SIZE AND FORM
Authors: SINNOTT E. W. , DUNN L. C.
Published: January 2008

1. Genetics has concerned itself almost entirely with an analysis of the hereditary constitution of organisms in terms of genes. For a complete understanding of hereditary differences, however, it is important to determine how genes control the processes of development so that specific characters are produced. Traits of size and form lend themselves most readily to studies of this sort, and in a few instances direct evidence of changes in development brought about by specific genes has been obtained from both animals and plants. This evidence is briefly reviewed.

2. The influence of genes in determining size has been clearly demonstrated. Instances are described in which these genes produce their effects by a control of cell size and of cell number, and also, as is perhaps more generally the case, by determining in early stages a developmental schedule in which these two elements of growth are co‐ordinated in a specific fashion.

3. The size of parts seems often to be genically determined independently of body size, but in the few cases which have been critically analysed local size differences are found to be due to general effects upon growth occurring at such a stage of development that a particular part is more affected than the rest of the organism.

4. Characters of shape and form, either of the body as a whole or of its parts, have been shown in a number of cases to be determined by genes, which evidently operate through a control of the relative rates of growth in specific directions or dimensions.

5. The underlying mechanisms by which genic control of the development of size and form is brought about are as yet unknown. In a search for them, however, it is important to recognise two general concepts which developmental genetics has established: (1) Genic balance, or the dependence of a given character upon the interaction of all the genes rather than upon a single one, each gene producing its effect not alone but by virtue of its activity as a part of the whole genic complement. (2) Correlation of growth rates in development, by which the rates of specific processes, known in many cases to be genically controlled, are so interrelated in a definite schedule or pattern that development becomes a unified and orderly process.

6. The necessity is pointed out of obtaining a much broader basis of the facts of development in genetically analysed material before generalisations of importance can be made.
ARGINASE
Authors: BALDWIN ERNEST
Published: January 2008

I. Arginase is a highly specific intracellular enzyme and requires that both the carboxyl and the guanidine groups shall be free if the substrate molecule is to be activated. The kinetics of arginase and its behaviour towards activators and inhibitors are very briefly discussed in the text.

2. Arginase is abundantly present in the liver of ureotelic vertebrates; small amounts are present also in the kidney and testis, but little or none elsewhere. In uricotelic vertebrates it is mainly confined to the kidney.

3. Male animals always contain about 50 per cent, more arginase than females; a sudden increase in the arginase content of the testis at puberty suggests a possible specific relation between sex and the distribution of arginase.

4. Arginase is widely distributed among invertebrates, usually in small amounts. But the terrestrial gastropods contain as much of the enzyme as do the ureotelic vertebrates.

5. The synthesis of urea by ureotelic vertebrates takes place by a cyclical mechanism involving arginase. This system is present in mammals, chelonian reptiles and Amphibia, but not in birds. It is very probably present in the elasmobranch fishes also, and the possibility that it is present in the teleosts remains open.

6. Although arginase is not concerned in the production of uric acid by uricotelic vertebrates it does account for such urea as is excreted by these forms. Its main function in the birds is that of supplying ornithine for detoxication.

7. Many invertebrates resemble the birds in possessing small amounts of arginase, which probably suffice to account for the urea which they excrete. In the terrestrial gastropods it is possible that metabolism is primarily ureotelic as in the mammals, but that urea is secondarily converted into uric acid as an adaptation to xerophilous life.

8. Although many bacteria are capable of breaking down arginine they probably contain no arginase but only guanidinodesimidase. This enzyme appears to be absent from vertebrate tissues.

9. Arginase is present early in embryonic life and is soon capable of discharging its adult function. But there exists a correlation between a high growth rate and a high content of arginase, phosphatase and nuclease, which suggests a specific association between arginase and the processes of growth.
THE INTERPRETATION OF THE FLOWER: A STUDY OF SOME ASPECTS OF MORPHOLOGICAL THOUGHT
Authors: ARBER AGNES
Published: January 2008

In the introduction to this study, the chief phases in the interpretation of the flower, from Goethe's day onwards, are briefly indicated in their historical sequence. Goethe's theory of the equivalence of the vegetative shoot to the flower, in the angiosperms, is then discussed and an attempt is made to evaluate the evidence for it. It is shown that this theory, if understood in a broad sense, harmonizes with the modern holistic trend in morphology. It is suggested that the flower is comparable with a vegetative shoot in a condition of permanent infantilism. Special emphasis is laid upon the inflorescence as offering, in some respects, an intermediate term between the vegetative shoot and the flower.

After a brief consideration of bracts, sepals, petals and stamens, the Candollean theory of the carpel is discussed, and it is concluded that it has been peculiarly successful in providing a framework for the vast plexus of facts which it is its task to correlate. Some of the difficulties which have been felt in regard to this theory are considered, with special reference to recent work on the gynaeceum structure of the Papaveroideae. The stigma and “transmitting tissue” are then discussed, and it is concluded that there is nothing in the behaviour of this tissue which is out of harmony with the Candollean theory of the carpel.

An attempt is made to arrive at a more precise notion of the meaning to be attached to correspondence, equivalence and homology, when these terms are used in connexion with Goethe's comparison of the vegetative and reproductive parts. It is suggested that these terms are best translated into the language of modern thought by the word parallelism, thus avoiding the use of Goethe's type concept, which cannot be safely employed unless its abstractness is constantly borne in mind.

The nineteenth‐century phase, in which morphological ideas were lifted bodily into an historical setting, is then discussed, and emphasis is laid upon the danger of thus confusing two irreducible worlds of thought. Certain attempts which have been made to relate the flower of the angiosperm to the reproductive organs of plants of earlier geological periods are briefly criticized.

In the concluding sections, attention is drawn to the current reaction against phylogenetic morphology, and in favour of the purely comparative morphology contemplated by Goethe. A slight sketch is given of Delpino and Troll's theories of the flower, in which “form” is considered as distinct from “organization”. Whether these views are accepted or not, the “Gestaltlehre” is at least an indication that the morphological ideas, which Goethe initiated before the end of the eighteenth century, may even to‐day suggest fresh approaches to the problem of the interpretation of the flower.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN PLANTS
Authors: PETRIE A. H. K.
Published: January 2008

The final stages in the formation of protein, rather than the formation of amino‐acids, are discussed. The approach is physiological rather than biochemical. After reviewing the present state of knowledge of the structure of proteins various suggestions as to the substances used in the formation of the protein are considered. The evidence seems to be in favour of the formation by condensation of amino‐acids rather than by the polymerization of some simple unit. This leads to a consideration of the various seats of synthesis in the cell and to the mechanism by which the proteins are formed from their constituent parts. The article concludes with a discussion of the interrelation of nitrogen metabolism and respiration and of the factors governing amino‐acid formation and protein synthesis.
TIMBER DECAY*
Authors: CARTWRIGHT K. ST G. , FINDLAY W. P. K.
Published: January 2008

After a brief historical introduction, attention is drawn to the importance of the correct sylviculturaj management of woodlands in the production of clear, disease‐free timber. Methods for the identification of the organisms which cause decay in timber are discussed, and the importance of pure culture methods is stressed. The principal contributions to the general descriptive work on timber decay in various countries are referred to, and it is pointed out how the usefulness of much of this work has been enhanced by the publication of books and monographs collating this scattered information. In a discussion of the physiology of wood‐rotting fungi the temperature relations and nutritional requirements, growth in relation to pH, and moisture content of the substratum are considered. The unsatisfactory state of present‐day knowledge of the enzymes of wood‐decaying fungi is mentioned. Recent work on the metabolic products of wood‐rotting fungi is referred to briefly. The effects of decay on the physical properties of wood are described, i.e. on the density, strength and optical properties, etc. The mechanical strength of timber, especially the toughness, may be appreciably affected in a very early stage of decay before any measurable loss in weight has occurred. The chemical changes brought about during the decomposition of wood are discussed. Rot of timber can be classified chemically into two main types: brown rots, in which only hydrolysis of cellulose and other polysaccharides occurs, and white rots, in which all the constituents of the wood, including the lignin, are attacked in varying degrees and in which oxidizing as well as hydrolysing enzymes are present. The effect of fungal attack on the microscopic structure of wood is described, and the theories put forward to explain the penetration of the cell walls by hyphae are critically examined. Methods of determining the natural resistance to decay of timber in the laboratory are referred to, and the basis of natural durability in wood is shown to lie mainly in the nature of the chemical ‘extractives’ present in the wood. Recent advances are described in the use of water‐soluble wood preservatives which become fixed in the wood by the addition of a chromate to the treating solution, and the establishment of a British Standard method of test and the use of field tests are noted. Finally, attention is drawn to the great lag in the application to practice of recent advances in the study of timber decay and its prevention.
TAXONOMIC PROBLEMS IN THE EUGLENINEAE
Authors: PRINGSHEIM E. G.
Published: January 2008

The Euglenineae form a well‐defined natural group comprising a great number of species, the subdivision of which into families is difficult to make.

Among taxonomic features, the basic shape of the cell body is fusiform but often irregular and twisted, with periodical tapering towards the posterior end. It may be concealed by morphological aberrations. The metaboly of many species and the occurrence of dimensional varieties render the use of shape and size as specific features sometimes rather equivocal. Other features have to supplement them for the identification of the species.

The shape of the nucleus is sometimes characteristic, but the structure of the plastidome and the presence or absence of pyrenoids are of much greater taxonomic importance. These features vary greatly in the species of Englena, while the other green genera have almost uniform chromatophores. By plastid and other characteristics Trachelomonas and Colacium are related to certain species of Euglena, while Phacus and Lepocinclis are nearer to others.

The flagellar apparatus of the Euglenineae is tentatively considered as being composed of two flagellar units throughout the group, the length alone varying according to the genus. Eutreptia with two equal or more or less unequal flagella would be nearest to the hypothetical ancestral form. The other green genera would be derived from it by a further shortening of the minor flagellum. Its near convergence to the long active flagellum gives the impression of bifurcation.

Distigma would be the apoplastidic counterpart of Eutreptia, Astasia that of Euglena. All green Euglenineae and some colourless ones have an eye‐spot and opposite to it a thickening of the active flagellum or flagella not found in the species without an eye‐spot.

The striation of the periplast varies greatly, without correlation to the degree of cell metaboly. A first attempt at classifying the different types of metaboly is made. Envelopes differ from the periplast by being exudations of inorganic substances.

While the distinction between the phototrophic and the saprotrophic Euglenineae seems gradually to disappear, the holozoic forms are more distantly derived. There are no indications as to their evolution, as no zootrophic green Euglenineae are known, and some are similar to saprotrophic forms. The entire class of the Euglenineae is rather uniform, and a rational and at the same time natural classification has not yet been attained.
DEVELOPMENTAL ANALYSIS OF SCYPHOMEDUSAE
Authors: BERRILL N. J.
Published: January 2008

The eggs of the scyphomedusae vary in size from 0–03 to 0–3 mm. diameter, a variation of a thousand‐fold in volume. Type of gastrulation is correlated fairly closely with egg size, the smallest eggs gastrulating by unipolar ingression, the largest by complete or partial invagination, while eggs of intermediate size gastrulate by a combined process of ingression and invagination. The nature of the subsequent development is equally correlated with egg size and type of gastrulation. The smallest become vermiform planula larvae incapable of constituting a polyp directly, the intermediate‐sized eggs form planulae which become polyps or scyphistomae, larger eggs may occasionally form actinula larvae and so form a polyp without having had an active planula existence, while the largest eggs develop directly into the ephyra‐medusa, omitting the scyphistoma stage entirely. In the case of the smallest, and of the smaller intermediate types, the blastula and planula stages have the capacity to grow as such without accompanying progress in differentiation. Budding may occur even at the planula stage.

The scyphistoma develops four, sometimes six, gastric pouches, and forms tentacles from the rim of the oral disc, usually in the order 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, and by further addition of fours to attain sometimes as many as 32. It consists of a head and a stalk, though either part may be much the longer. Outgrowths from the body wall near the junction of head and stalk may form either pedal stolons for attachment, or buds. Buds may be liberated as free‐swimming pseudo‐planulae, may develop attached to the parent and then liberated, or may develop at the ends of long stolons. Buds of a statoblast function may be formed successively beneath the pedal disc. Tentacles of a fully grown scyphistoma may constrict off, move away as pseudo‐planulae and give rise to new polyps. There are regional differences in the capacity of pieces of the body wall to regenerate whole or partial polyps. Isolated endoderm has no capacity to reconstitute a polyp. Isolated ectoderm from any level can reconstitute a perfect whole.

The type of strobilation depends upon the size and shape of the scyphistoma head or column. When the head is shallow and the stalk long, strobilation is usually monodisc, resulting in one, sometimes two ephyrae. When the head is large and more or less columnar, segmental constrictions appear, and strobilation is typically poly‐disc. Isolated segments of a polydisc strobila do not necessarily develop into ephyrae, but may reconstitute themselves into scyphistomae and become reattached as typical polyps. In polydisc forms at least, the initiation of strobilation depends upon the attainment of a large size, accumulation of food reserves, and a certain critical low temperature. Most ephyrae are liberated with eight lappets, but the first ephyra formed, that is, from the oral disc, usually has more than eight, while the last to be formed may have smaller numbers. The initial number, with their corresponding rhopalia, persists as the final number in the mature medusa.
THE HISTOCHEMISTRY OF LIPOIDS IN ANIMALS
Authors: CAIN A. J.
Published: January 2008

1. The available methods for histochemical analysis of lipoids having been reviewed, the following are regarded as valid for the substances or groups indicated: Sudan black: all liquid or grease‐like lipoids.

Nile blue sulphate: ‘acidic’ lipoids (lipines, chromolipoids and free fatty acids) as against ‘neutral’ ones (hydrocarbons, triglycerides, higher alcohols, waxes, steroids, carotenoids, etc.).

Fluorescence (without the addition of sulphuric acid): a rapidly fading green is due to vitamin A.

Presence of spherocrystals: lipines, cholesteryl esters (and perhaps other sterol esters as well).

Osmium tetroxide, primary blackening only: for active unsaturated bonds, most usually ethylenic linkages in fatty acid radicles and probably in carotenoids, but also for aldehyde groups (in plasmal), and for various other strong reducers which are not lipoid.

Acid haematein test: phospholipines (possibly acetalphosphatides as well).

Feulgen's plasmal test (not the Feulgen‐Verne test): acetalphosphatides by means of the aldehydes liberated from them.

Schultz's method I (modification of Liebermann's reaction): cholesteryl group. Schultz's method II (modification of Lifschiitz's reaction): without a previous oxidation, for certain ill‐defined oxidation products of sterols, with a previous oxidation (by light and air, or by ferric compounds) for the cholesteryl group.

Antimony trichloride, and glycerol dichlorhydrin: a transient blue or blue‐green is specific for carotenoids.

2. Some of the above tests are subject to interference by certain rare substances; the plasmal test and Schultz's method I may possibly give positive results with certain toad poisons.

3. The following tests are rejected as definitely invalid, insufficiently investigated, or superseded by more satisfactory techniques:

Fischler's technique for fatty acids;

Casanova's reaction;

Ciaccio's methods I and II for ‘lipoids’

The Smith‐Dietrich method for phospholipines;

Romieu's method for lecithin;

The Feulgen‐Verne technique for plasmal;

Bennett's method for ketosteroids.
THE VERTICAL MIGRATION OF PLANKTONIC CRUSTACEA
Authors: CUSHING D. H.
Published: January 2008

There are four methods of analysing the vertical migration of plankton in the field:

(a) One day and one night observation at the surface.

(b) One day and one night observation at depths between surface and the bottom.

(c) Observations at long time intervals at all depths during day and night.

(d) Observations at short time intervals at all depths during day and night.

The last method, using horizontal closing tow‐nets with flow meters at measured depths, shows that migration consists of four parts: (a) ascent from the day depth; (b) midnight sinking; (c) dawn rise; (d) descent to the day depth.

This pattern has been shown to be modified by wind (or state of sea), rain, sun on a calm sea, extremes of temperature, age of the individual animal and possibly by phytoplankton concentrations.

These different parts of migration have been examined in detail and linked together in a single and continuous process. Ascent in the evening and descent in the morning become the continuous change of day depth with the changing penetration of light; the midnight sinking is assumed to be due to a passive state in full darkness; the dawn rise is a return by the animals to the mean optimum light intensity for the population. This is supported by the fact that the order in time of arrival at the surface for some fresh‐water species is the same as the order in depth of these species in full daylight.

Theoretical interpretations of migration are reviewed. It is argued that the most likely theory has as its basic assumption the idea of an optimum light intensity.

Experiments on migration are divided into three parts: (a) those showing that randomly oriented movement can take place; (b) those showing that the speeds of individual animals can vary with varying light intensities; (c) those showing that animals in full darkness will move at minimal speeds or not at all.

It is concluded that the vertical migration of planktonic Crustacea is mediated by the change in light penetration throughout the day. Animals aggregate in an optimum band of light intensity. They have the capacity of moving phototactically, i.e. moving at constant speed towards or away from light; they also have the capacity of moving photokinetically, i.e. moving at speeds that vary with varying light intensity. In full darkness they move probably at minimal speeds. Migration between periods of full darkness may be operated by phototaxis, photokinesis or by a combination of these mechanisms.
THE PHYLOGENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANGIOSPERMS
Authors: SPORNE K. R.
Published: January 2008

The ideal classification of a group of organisms is one which takes account of all that is known about the group. It should, therefore, include information about its evolution. There are two aspects of evolutionary theory, (1) that which concerns the past history of the group and which can only be known with certainty from the fossil record, (2) that which concerns present‐day organisms and is expressed in the differences between advanced and primitive types. As regards angiosperms, there is only faint hope that their history will ever be known in sufficient detail for it to be made the basis for a phylogenetic classification. The extent to which the second aspect of evolutionary theory can be incorporated into classification depends on the ability of botanists to assess relative advancement.

The first step in deciding which organisms are primitive is to discover which characters are primitive. For this purpose, a number of doctrines have been employed, often without due consideration of their philosophical justification. The doctrines of ‘conservative regions’, of ‘recapitulation’, of ‘teratology’ and of ‘sequences’ are unreliable, since their application is entirely subjective; in the absence of evidence from some other source, it is impossible to judge whether they are appropriate to the structures concerned. The doctrine of’ association’ is unsatisfactory because of the assumptions which have to be made before it can be applied. The doctrine of ‘the basic ground plan’, if applied in the strict sense, is relatively unprofitable; if applied loosely it is dependent on subjective judgement and if applied in the ‘Gestalt’ sense leads only to figments of the imagination. The doctrine of ‘correlation’ has been applied with success to the evolution of secondary wood in dicotyledons and to other characters, both floral and vegetative. Its results are of value since the subjective element is reduced to a minimum and, by its means, it is possible to assess the relative advancement of present‐day taxa.

There have been many attempts to represent in two dimensions the phylogenetic classification of the angiosperms, but most of these are at fault because of a misconception of the tree of evolution. The ideal representation is visualized as resembling a target whose concentric rings correspond with relative advancement. On this are disposed the various families in such a way that closely similar ones are close together within circles of affinity, while, at the same time, their radial position corresponds to their relative advancement. In this way the second of the two aspects of evolutionary theory is catered for, and the classification may, therefore, be described as a phylogenetic one. The history of the group, if it becomes known from the fossil record, may then be inserted as a tree of evolution in a plane (corresponding to evolutionary time) which is perpendicular to that of the present‐day classification.