bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Theoretical principles explain the structure of the insect head direction circuit
Authors: Vilimelis Aceituno Pau , Dall'Osto Dominic , Pisokas Ioannis
Published: May 2024

To navigate their environment, insects need to keep track of their orientation. Previous work has shown that insects encode their head direction as a sinusoidal activity pattern around a ring of neurons arranged in an eight-column structure. However, it is unclear whether this sinusoidal encoding of head direction is just an evolutionary coincidence or if it offers a particular functional advantage. To address this question, we establish the basic mathematical requirements for direction encoding and show that it can be performed by many circuits, all with different activity patterns. Among these activity patterns, we prove that the sinusoidal one is the most noise-resilient, but only when coupled with a sinusoidal connectivity pattern between the encoding neurons. We compare this predicted optimal connectivity pattern with anatomical data from the head direction circuits of the locust and the fruit fly, finding that our theory agrees with experimental evidence. Furthermore, we demonstrate that our predicted circuit can emerge using Hebbian plasticity, implying that the neural connectivity does not need to be explicitly encoded in the genetic program of the insect but rather can emerge during development. Finally, we illustrate that in our theory, the consistent presence of the eight-column organisation of head direction circuits across multiple insect species is not a chance artefact but instead can be explained by basic evolutionary principles.
Neurexins control the strength and precise timing of glycinergic inhibition in the auditory brainstem
Authors: Jiang He-Hai , Xu Ruoxuan , Nie Xiupeng , Su Zhenghui , Xu Xiaoshan , Pang Ruiqi , Zhou Yi , Luo Fujun
Published: May 2024

Neurexins play diverse functions as presynaptic organizers in various glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses. However, it remains unknown whether and how neurexins are involved in shaping functional properties of the glycinergic synapses, which mediate prominent inhibition in the brainstem and spinal cord. To address these issues, we examined the role of neurexins in a model glycinergic synapse between the principal neuron in the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) and the principal neuron in the lateral superior olive (LSO) in the auditory brainstem. Combining RNAscope with stereotactic injection of AAV-Cre in the MNTB of neurexin1/2/3 conditional triple knockout mice, we showed that MNTB neurons highly express all isoforms of neurexins although their expression levels vary remarkably. Selective ablation of all neurexins in MNTB neurons not only reduced the amplitude but also altered the kinetics of the glycinergic synaptic transmission at LSO neurons. The synaptic dysfunctions primarily resulted from an impaired Ca2+ sensitivity of release and a loosened coupling between voltage-gated Ca2+ channels and synaptic vesicles. Together, our current findings demonstrate that neurexins are essential in controlling the strength and temporal precision of the glycinergic synapse, which therefore corroborates the role of neurexins as key presynaptic organizers in all major types of fast chemical synapses.
Evaluation of the Antibacterial Action of Two Resin-Modified Glass Ionomercements After Incorporation of Chlorhexidine: An In vitro Study
Authors: Vanolli Rafael da Silva , Cardoso Poliana Faveri , Ueda Julio Katuhide , Hirata Franciele Carneiro , Braun Graziela , Camilotti Veridiana
Published: May 2024

Aims: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the antibacterial effectiveness of chlorhexidine digluconate (DCHX) when incorporated into two different types of resin-modified glass ionomer cements (CIVMR): Riva Light Cure and Vitremer.
Study Design: This was an experimental In vitro study.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in a controlled laboratory setting during a 24-hour incubation period.
Methodology: Eighty specimens, each 4 mm in diameter and 2 mm thick, were fabricated from two types of CIVMR, each subdivided into four groups based on DCHX concentration (0%, 0.5%, 1%, and 2%). After 24 hours of storage in saline at 37°C, the specimens were tested for antibacterial activity against Streptococcus mutans. The data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's test (p < 0.05).
Results: The Riva Light Cure specimens exhibited a significant reduction in Colony Forming Units (CFU/mL) with the 1% and 2% DCHX concentrations, reducing bacterial counts by over 90%. In contrast, Vitremer showed a statistically significant reduction only at the 2% concentration, with lesser effects at lower concentrations.
Conclusion: The study demonstrated that the incorporation of DCHX at higher concentrations significantly enhances the antibacterial properties of Riva Light Cure glass ionomer cement. However, the effectiveness of DCHX in Vitremer requires higher concentrations to achieve similar antibacterial outcomes. These findings suggest the potential for targeted antimicrobial enhancements in dental restorative materials.
A
bu
S
ayyaf
G
roup (
ASG
)
Authors: Ryan John J.
Published: July 2011

The Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) continues to shift from terrorist organization to criminal enterprise. The more its need for funds grow, the more the group devolves into a criminal gang. ASG is known for its brutal tactics and capitalist spirit. Its goals are more financial and less ideological than they once were. Filipino and U.S. Special Forces have had some success recently against ASG. The group is less capable than it once was and its membership has dwindled.
A
um
S
hinrikyo and
T
he
A
leph
Authors: Sugishimi Masaaki
Published: July 2011

The Aum Shinrikyo, which perpetrated the Tokyo sarin incident, pursued and attempted to deliver biological weapons on a number of occasions. Agents of primary interest were
Bacillus anthracis
and botulinum toxin. The Aum experience with these and other agents demonstrated the difficulties inherent in attaining a biological weapons capability, particularly in the successful acquisition of deadly pathogens or toxins and the development of effective means of delivery.
Bioregulators
Authors: Pilch Richard F. , Masimova Nazrin
Published: July 2011

Bioregulators are bioregulatory peptides produced naturally in the human body that are essential for normal physiological homeostasis, from regulation of such vital functions as heart rate and blood pressure to mediation of pain, fear, and aggression. When present at abnormally increased levels, however, bioregulators may exert toxic effects that may incapacitate or even kill, suggesting their potential misuse as weapons of terrorism or war. This entry provides on overview of bioregulators, discusses the eroding technical hurdles to their development as weapons, and provides a historical content for such illicit pursuits.
Bioterrorist Attack: Stages and Aftermath
Authors: Zilinskas Raymond A.
Published: July 2011

In essence, a biological attack is comprised of three overlapping stages. In the preattack stage, a terrorist acts to acquire a biological weapon with the intent of using it against a target population in order to gain some perceived benefit. In the attack stage, the terrorist activates the deployed biological weapon. In the attack management stage, casualty presentation, triage, treatment, epidemiological and police investigation, and possibly quarantine occur. A detailed discussion of each stage is provided as relevant to biological attacks utilizing aerosols.
CDC
Category
A
–
C
Agents
Authors: Longmire Michelle , Elrod Sarah
Published: July 2011

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) Category A‐C agents consist of biological agents that have the potential to cause devastating rates of morbidity and mortality. The threat of their use by terrorist groups or other entities poses great risk to the health and wellbeing of U.S. citizens, requiring special attention and action for public health preparedness.
D
epartment of
H
ealth and
H
uman
S
ervices: Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response
Authors: Muldoon Anna
Published: July 2011

The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) has a number of programs and departments addressing bioterrorism and medical countermeasures. It is also a main funder of grant programs for development of countermeasures and programs preventing or treating infectious diseases as a whole. This entry looks at the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response.
Department of State
Authors: Katz Rebecca
Published: July 2011

The U.S. Department of State is the executive branch department responsible for implementing foreign policy, conducting international relations and diplomacy, and representing U.S. interest around the world through embassies, missions and consulates. There are a multitude of offices across the department working to preventing biological threats, be it bioterrorism, biological warfare or naturally occurring disease, and supporting diplomatic efforts to improve global attention and capacity building on these issues.
Dual‐Use Equipment and Technology
Authors: Butera Robert
Published: July 2011

Dual‐use is a term that refers to technologies that have both peaceful and military applications. This entry reviews the public and state concerns about dual use biological technologies, the difficulty in defining such technologies, and the dilemma that is particularly acute in the biological sciences. It also outlines strategies taken by state parties, multinational organizations, as well as individuals and non‐governmental organizations to contain the threats posed by such technologies.
Food‐ and Water‐Borne Pathogens
Authors: Dembek Zygmunt F. , Noah Donald L.
Published: July 2011

Food and waterborne pathogens are listed by the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention as Category B agents, of second highest priority in terms of public health and national security. These agents generally represent what is considered the “high probability, low impact” threat, as opposed to such “low probability, high impact” threats as the smallpox virus or Ebola virus. Their acquisition, production, and delivery are relatively straightforward, but their effects are primarily limited to incapacitation. Regardless, a natural or deliberate outbreak could still be severe in terms of economic and social impact. The major food and waterborne pathogens are reviewed.

Food and waterborne diseases are significant causes of illness. Purposeful introduction of the pathogens that cause illness into food or water could be used as a weapon of bioterrorism. Many of these agents are considered Category B diseases by CDC, in that they are moderately easy to disseminate, result in moderate morbidity and low mortality rates, and require specific enhancements of CDC's diagnostic capacity and enhanced disease surveillance. Study of the occurrence and epidemiology of these pathogens can help determine their potential for deliberate use, and thereby prepare the biodefense of our food and water supplies.
Fort Detrick and the
U
.
S
.
A
rmy
M
edical
R
esearch
I
nstitute of
I
nfectious
D
iseases
Authors: Miller Jacqueline E.
Published: July 2011

Fort Detrick, located in Frederick, Maryland, is home to the United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (USAMRMC), the National Cancer Institute (NCI‐Frederick), and 37 mission partners focusing on biomedical research and development, medical materiel management, and global telecommunications. The U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) reports to USAMRMC and is the lead laboratory for the U.S. Biological Defense Research Program.
A
rmed
I
slamic
G
roup: A Case Study
Authors: Staff Monterey WMD‐Terrorism Database , Kornblet Sarah
Published: July 2011

The Armed Islamic Group (GIA) is an Algerian Islamic fundamentalist group with anti‐government, anti‐secular, and anti‐West policies. Its stated goal is to replace the secular Algerian government with an Islamic state ruled by Islamic law. While its major efforts was to carry out terrorist activities in Algeria and throughout Europe in the 1990s, the GIA was suspected of seeking to acquire botulinum toxin in Belgium. The group's current membership is unknown and it is now largely defunct. Nevertheless, it remains designated as a foreign terrorist organization by the U.S. Department of State.
Hamas
Authors: Silverbrook Julie
Published: July 2011

The Islamic Resistance Movement (IRM), Hamas (Harakat al‐Muqawama al‐Islamiya) was founded in the Gaza Strip in December 1987 after the outbreak of the first Palestinian intifada (1987‐1993). Its declared goal and strategic objective is the destruction of the State of Israel and its replacement with a Palestinian Islamic State. In 2000, the CIA reported that Hamas was interested in acquring chemical toxins, poisons, and gases to enhance the lethality of its suicide attacks.
H
izballah
Authors: Silverbrook Cheryl
Published: July 2011

Hizballah is a Lebanese‐based, Shia Muslim group founded in the ideologies of the Ayatollah Khomeini and the Iranian Revolution. Hizballah has a very strong alliance with Iran. It has claimed responsibility for attacks targeting both Americans and Israelis. Some security analysts consider Hizballah as the world's most technologically capable terrorist organization.
I
nternational
C
ooperation and
B
ioterrorism
P
reparedness
Authors: Roffey Roger
Published: July 2011

The global nature of biological risks has been demonstrated by outbreaks of SARS, avian and swine influenza and the potential risk of pandemics. To this can be added the increasing risks involved with international terrorism. There is a need to enhance and better coordinate international cooperation if the fight against bioterrorism is to be successful. This includes such aspects as intelligence sharing, rapid alert and response systems, training, planning, R&D, intervention teams, and medical preparedness. It is also crucial to limit the proliferation of knowledge, equipment, and personnel that could be misused for illicit purposes by organizations or states. Ongoing activities in a number of international forums (e.g., EU, NATO, WHO, OIE, FAO, BWC) are reviewed.
Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
Authors: Zerwekh Tyler , Emery Robert
Published: July 2011

Laboratory response to bioterrorism is used to describe a single laboratory or network of laboratories equipped to quickly and efficiently identify biological agents (bacteria, viruses, or toxins) that might be used in a bioterrorism event. To respond to such an event, laboratories rely on rapid diagnostic techniques such as microscopy, agglutination, culturing, antibiotic susceptibility, and polymerase chain reaction. The necessity for a systematic cohesive response is critical for a successful response to an attack. Rapid laboratory recognition and confirmation of bioterrorism agents expedites the medical response. Not much attention was paid to develop a laboratory response to attacks until 2001 and the anthrax letters incidents. It was then that the conceptual need for a rapid laboratory response became a reality. This article gives details on the basic types of laboratories, categories of biological agents, laboratory response network, and the importance of early detection and surveillance.
Media and Bioterrorism
Authors: Warrick Joby
Published: July 2011

The first deadly bioterrorism attack in U.S. history in late 2001 caught many news outlets, and public officials, unprepared. Early news coverage of what became known as the “Amerithrax” case was frequently alarmist in tone and included inaccurate information that likely contributed to a climate of confusion and fear. Since then, media interest in the topic has expanded because of the federal government's controversial investigation of the crime, as well as questions about a massive expansion of programs and spending to prepare for future biological attacks. Early missteps in coverage highlighted the need for a thoughtful approach to bioterrorism reporting that emphasizes planning, training and restraint.
M
etropolitan
M
edical
R
esponse
S
ystem
Authors: Scantlebury Kari
Published: July 2011

The Metropolitan Medical Response System is the first and longest running federal investment program that provides support to locally developed, owned, and operated mass casualty response systems (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2002). The program aims to coordinate first responders (fire/EMS), law enforcement personnel, public health officials, emergency management personnel, medical and mental health services providers on the local level in order to mitigate the impact and consequences of a mass casualty event during the initial phase of the response until additional State and Federal assets become available and operational (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2002).
Palestinian Islamic Jihad
Authors: Silverbrook Cheryl
Published: July 2011

Palestinian Islamic Jihad is a group composed of several loosely affiliated factions that ascribe to radical Sunni Islam. The group is based out of the Gaza Strip. Although not a Shia group, PIJ still has strong financial and political ties to Iran. This relationship raises concerns about the group's ability to access and use biological and chemical weapons.
Al‐Qa'ida
Authors: Ryan John J.
Published: July 2011

Al‐Qa'ida continues to pose the most virulent terrorist threat to the United States and its allies. The September 11, 2001 attack against the United States remains the most lethal terrorist act in world history. The U.S. military combats al‐Qa'ida forces directly in both Iraq and Afghanistan, and security services worldwide fight al‐Qa'ida across the globe. Al‐Qa'ida has evolved from its once centralized structure into a worldwide movement; which has made it difficult, if not impossible, to eradicate.
Rajneeshees
Authors: Carus W. Seth
Published: July 2011

In 1984, the religious cult, the Rajneeshees, employed the biological agentSalmonella typhimuriumagainst the inhabitants of The Dalles, a small town in Oregon. Public Health officials estimated that 751 people became sick because of the attack. No one died, but four dozen people were hospitalized.
Ricin and Abrin
Authors: Poli Mark A.
Published: July 2011

Ricin and abrin are plant‐derived protein toxins that are potent inhibitors of cellular protein synthesis. Although never used, ricin was included in the biological weapons programs of several countries, including the United States, during the first half of the 20thcentury. Both toxins are now causing concerns as potential agents of bioterror. The sources, toxicity, mechanisms of action, and detection of these toxins are briefly discussed.
Biological Simulants
Authors: Kosal Margaret E.
Published: July 2011

Simulants are non‐pathogenic microbes or biological substitutes used as model organisms in place of more lethal biological agents. Simulants, or surrogates, have been widely used in the past to study potential biological weapons scenarios. Current use of simulants is for defensive biological purposes, including biomolecular studies and as model organisms for detector, protection, decontaminant, and other passive defensive countermeasure development.
Staphylococcal Enterotoxins
Authors: Poli Mark A.
Published: July 2011

Many cases of human food‐borne illness throughout the world are caused by enterotoxins produced by various strains of
Staphylococcus aureus.
While oral exposure to these toxins commonly results in the traditional food‐poisoning symptomatology, nonenteric exposure can cause much more serious, even life‐threatening sequelae. From the standpoint of biological warfare and biological terrorism, SEB is considered the serotype of greatest import. It is a versatile agent, as it can be an effective incapacitating agent at very low inhaled doses. At only slightly higher doses, it can be lethal. The toxicity, mechanism of action, and detection of these agents are briefly discussed.
Suicide Terrorism
Authors: Dolnik Adam , Silva Sara De
Published: July 2011

In recent years, suicide bombings have become the most lethal and popular operational method for terrorist groups worldwide. Over the last 30 years, society has witnessed more then 1500 suicide bombings carried out by at least 28 different terrorist organizations in 31 different countries, and counting. The scope of advantages of suicide terrorism for tactical as well as strategic purposes is vast, as the act itself combines an ultimate demonstration of commitment, a pragmatic military tactic, the prevention of interrogation, and an unignorable form of protest into a single operation. This entry focuses on providing the background on definitions, motivations, history, and operational characteristics of modern suicide terrorism, followed by an assessment of the potential use of suicide bombers as delivery vehicles for biological agents in the future.
Christian Identity
Authors: Bale Jeffrey M. , Muldoon Anna
Published: July 2011

Several Christian Identity groups and individual adherents have been involved in or suspected of bioterrorism incidents. The entry examines the ideological characteristics of the movement and known incidents.
Typhus, Epidemic (
Rickettsia Prowazekii
)
Authors: Eremeeva Marina E. , Dasch Gregory A.
Published: July 2011

Rickettsia prowazekii
has been weaponized and is well known for its explosive epidemic potential in populations infested with body lice. The taxonomy, disease, biological warfare history and weaponizaton, and properties of the organism are briefly reviewed. Finally, aspects of the transmission and epidemiology of epidemic typhus, its diagnosis and treatment, and prevention and control are discussed relative to both the natural history disease context and to the nefarious use of
R. prowazekii
as a bioweapon agent.
A
l‐
A
qsa
M
artyrs
B
rigade (
A
l‐
A
qsa
M
artyr's
B
attalion)
Authors: Silverbrook Cheryl
Published: July 2011

The al‐Aqsa Martyr's Brigade is a terrorist group based out of Palestine, which formed as an outgrowth of Yassir Arafat's Fatah party in 2000. The group is highly disjointed; however, it has successfully carried out several small arms attacks against Israeli interests. In 2006, it was reported, but not confirmed, that Al‐Aqsa had developed chemical and biological weapons.
Anthrax
Authors: Turnbull Peter
Published: July 2011

Anthrax is caused by the endospore‐forming bacterium,Bacillus anthracis.It is primarily a disease of herbivorous animals but, although more resistant, omnivores, carnivores and avian species can be infected. Humans generally acquire the disease through contact with infected livestock or contaminated animal products. From the standpoint of potential agents of bioaggression (biological warfare and bioterrorism), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) rateB. anthracisvery highly in terms of posing threats to public health and national security. This reflects the lethality of the disease, the ability of anthrax spores to survive processes of delivery to a target and adverse conditions en route, the ease with which the spores may be produced in large quantities in the laboratory and the ability of humans to create dose exposures vastly exceeding what can occur naturally, readily overcoming the fairly high natural resistance of humans to infection. Disease can occur in three forms depending on the route of infection. Of primary concern in a bioaggressive context is the inhalational form, caused by respiratory exposure to aerosolized spores. Lethality with this form of the disease is very high in individuals not treated at a very early stage of infection.
A
sbat al‐
A
nsar
Authors: Ryan John J.
Published: July 2011

Asbat al‐Ansar is a small terrorist group operating out of Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon. The group targets the secular government and Western interests within Lebanon. There has been little Asbat al‐Ansar activity in recent years. This is likely an attempt at self‐preservation, as Lebanese forces have had success in combating Asbat al‐Ansar's main rival, Fatah al‐Islam. The group shares ties to al‐Qa'ida and has sent members to fight coalition forces in Iraq.
BioSense and Public
H
ealth
S
urveillance
Authors: Siegrist David W.
Published: July 2011

BioSense is a program led by the Centers for Disease Control that provides a national outbreak surveillance network through which health care organizations, public health, Health Information Exchanges (HIEs), and other national health data sources are able to contribute to the common operational picture of the health of the nation. It does this by applying analytics and data visualization techniques to health data automatically provided by its partners. The program is currently being updated and improved.
Botulinum Toxin (Clostridium Botulinum)
Authors: Pilch Richard F. , Bray Mike
Published: July 2011

Botulinum toxin is classified as a Category A agent of bioterrorism because of the ability of an extremely small dose to interrupt cholinergic nerve transmission, leading to paralysis and death. Treatment is currently limited to the carefully supervised administration of equine antitoxin after early symptom onset, an approach that would be inadequate in the event of a massive botulism outbreak. Efforts to develop new therapies applicable to a mass‐casualty situation focus on blocking specific steps in pathogenesis and speeding the recovery of neuronal and muscular function. This entry first reviews basic features of botulinum toxin, sources of poisoning, the clinical syndrome, current approaches to diagnosis and management, and the potential of the toxin as a bioterrorist weapon. It then presents the steps in the pathogenesis and recovery from botulism at the molecular level, accompanied by a description of current research efforts aimed at developing specific therapeutic measures.
Brucellosis and Bioterrorism
Authors: Nicoletti Paul
Published: July 2011

Brucellosis is perhaps the most widespread zoonosis in the world. The major impacts are losses in animal production and negative effects on human health.
Brucella
spp have long been considered and studied as potential bioterrorism agents. Their impact, as which many others, would depend upon exposure and resistance of the target population and methods available for control of an outbreak. The characteristics of brucellosis in both animals and humans appear to make
Brucella
spp as inferior to several other agents as candidates for bioterrorism. The long and variable incubation period, low mortality (less panic), difficulty of exposure to large populations of humans and available treatment are some factors leading to this conclusion.
Human Poxviruses
Authors: Jahrling Peter B. , Kuhn Jens H.
Published: July 2011

The familyPoxviridaeincludes important and well‐known human pathogens, such as cowpox virus and vaccinia virus. Its most important member is variola virus (VARV), the etiological agent of smallpox, which is highly stable, highly infectious, and highly contagious. In the 20th century alone VARV caused ≈500 million human deaths (Tucker, 2001). Although VARV, which can only infect humans, was eradicated by 1980 via a World Health Organization (WHO) global eradication campaign (Henderson, 2009), the virus remains a top research priority in the biodefense community because (1) general vaccination against smallpox was abandoned worldwide in the late 1970s; (2) earth's human population, including the number of immunosuppressed individuals, has grown and its mobility increased; (3) the virus still exists (officially in two laboratories in the United States and in Russia; unofficially possibly in other countries (Miller et al., 2001)); (4) the virus could potentially be reconstructed from available sequence data or from reisolated from dried scabs, which can maintain infectious virus for decades (Huq, 1976); and (5) because the virus was successfully weaponized by the Soviet Union's clandestine offensive biological warfare program before and after its eradication (Alibek and Handelman, 1999; Henderson et al., 1999). A relative of VARV, monkeypox virus (MPXV), is an emerging virus in Africa and was inadvertently imported into the United States in 2003 (Reed et al., 2004). Like VARV, MPXV was weaponized in the Soviet Union (Alibek and Handelman, 1999), suggesting that close relatives of VARV could be developed as weapons by bioterrorists or other aggressors.
Identifying State‐RunBWPrograms
Authors: Nordmann Brian
Published: July 2011

Identifying and understanding possible state‐run biological weapons programs is a critical element for national security. Several agencies within the United States Government provide information useful to such a threat analysis. A full 19 countries are beleved to have had BW programs in the 20th century and the early part of the 21st century. The true status of any of these programs is largely unknown.
I
nternational
O
rganizations
Authors: Roffey Roger , Joliat Jacqueline N.
Published: July 2011

Whether an outbreak is initiated deliberately or naturally, the international implications are significant. In either case, large‐scale infection could have the potential to cause massive casualties, stress emergency response capabilities, diminish workforces, impair economic activities, slow or halt trade and travel, and possibly strain diplomatic relationships. The international community's increased appreciation of these implications in recent years has lead to improved efforts in infectious disease surveillance, detection, and reporting, and enhanced international coordination and cooperation in dealing with these threats. These improvements, which were largely intended to be used for natural disease outbreaks, also provide the global networks and infrastructure necessary to detect and respond to bioterrorist threats or attacks with international cohesion. The threat of infectious disease—whether initiated by a bioterrorism event or a natural outbreak—is clearly a global one, by nature and in scope, meaning that international cooperation is integral to adequately defending against it. This entry will provide an overview of some efforts by international organizations that are currently underway to address the global infectious disease threat.
Laboratory Biosecurity
Authors: Salerno Reynolds M. , Salazar Carlos A.
Published: July 2011

Since the tragic events of September 2001 and the subsequent dissemination of
Bacillus anthracis
through the US postal system, the international community has begun to focus more intently on the threat of transnational terrorist groups, and, in particular, on the frightening prospect of large‐scale biological terrorism. Various strategies are being applied to combat the biological threat. Most strategies are reactionary in nature. They focus on improving the ability to detect and respond to a biological attack after it has occurred. The international community has also begun employing preventive strategies. One of the principal strategies in this category is laboratory biosecurity, which is defined as the protection of dangerous pathogens and toxins against theft and misuse. By reducing the risk that potential bioterrorists and others could acquire certain dangerous biological materials, biosecurity provides the first line of defense against biological attacks. There are several unique challenges posed by microorganisms that differentiate biosecurity from other forms of high security, and an effective biosecurity effort must take these into account. The first step towards implementing biosecurity is conducting a laboratory risk assessment. Security risk assessments help reduce risks in bioscience laboratories because they prioritize a wide range of risks, and direct management efforts toward the most effective risk reduction measures for the highest risks. Different techniques can be used to mitigate risks in different circumstances to improve security in bioscience laboratories. Although laboratory biosecurity cannot prevent biocrimes or bioterrorism, it is appropriate to take steps that reduce the likelihood that dangerous pathogens and toxins could be stolen and misused from bioscience facilities.
National Laboratories of the National Nuclear Security Agency:
L
awrence
L
ivermore
N
ational
L
aboratory,
L
os
A
lamos
N
ational
L
aboratory,
S
andia
N
ational
L
aboratories
Authors: Cleland Cathy , Lindner Duane L. , Rakestraw David , Resnick Gary
Published: July 2011

The three National Laboratories administered by the Department of Energy's National Nuclear Security Agency each have broad and comprehensive activities in support of national biodefense. The laboratories' programs address all aspects of biodefense in the areas of
Threat Awareness, Prevention and Protection, Surveillance and Detection
, and
Response and Recovery
. These efforts are supported by vigorous multidisciplinary research efforts at the labs. Many important national biodefense capabilities are the result of the laboratories' ability to draw upon their diverse technical capabilities to form multidisciplinary teams that can drive leading edge science and from it provide real world solutions
N
ational
S
cience
A
dvisory
B
oard for
B
iosecurity (
NSABB
)
Authors: Joliat Jacqueline N.
Published: July 2011

The National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity (NSABB) is an advisory committee that is managed and supported by the Office of Biotechnology Activities within the Office of Science Policy at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), an operating division of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Its purpose, according to its Charter, is to “provide advice, guidance, and leadership regarding biosecurity oversight of dual‐use research, defined as biological research with legitimate scientific purpose that may be misused to pose a biologic threat to public health and/or national security.” This entry covers the creation of NSABB, its responsibilities and charges, and an overview of its meetings, publications, and other activities in the 5 years since its inception.
National Strategy for Biological Threats
Authors: Miller Jacqueline E.
Published: July 2011

The
National Strategy for Countering Biological Threats
(Strategy) is a high‐level document outlining the areas where the Obama Administration intends to focus its efforts to reduce the accidental or intentional spread of biological agents. The Strategy is meant to complement other frameworks already in place that address biological threats, emergency preparedness, and emergency response; it is not meant to implement any particular program or direct that any particular action be taken.
N
ations of
C
oncern:
T
he
R
epublic of
K
urdistan
Authors: Nelson Gail H.
Published: July 2011

The Kurdish people live in a region that straddles the international boundaries of Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria without national sovereignty or nation‐state recognition. The Kurdish aspiration for an independent Kurdistan is the source of protracted insurgency throughout the Kurdish‐populated region but in particular eastern Turkey, northern Iraq, and western Iran. Kurdish extremism will remain a source of regional instability but it is unlikely the separatists will pursue WMD and bioterrorism as a means to achieve its political ends.
N
ations of
C
oncern:
S
yria
Authors: Binder Markus K.
Published: July 2011

The article discusses Syria's biological weapons capability, its support to terrorism, and finally the possibility that Syria might provide biological weapons‐related materials or information to terrorist groups. Based on the available information, the article concludes that Syria does not possess an offensive biological weapons capability even though it may possess the technical wherewithal to develop, produce, and deploy biological weapons. The article also concludes that in spite of its support to terrorism in the region, Syria has not transferred any biological weapons‐related information or material to terrorist groups and is highly unlikely to do so in the future.
Pathogens Causing Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers
Authors: Kuhn Jens H. , Radoshitzky Sheli R. , Jahrling Peter B.
Published: July 2011

Viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) are clinically similar syndromes with often high case‐fatality rates in mammals caused by taxonomically diverse viruses. Vaccines exist only for the prevention of a few VHFs, and specific antivirals are virtually absent. VHF pathogens were part of the former offensive research bioweapons programs of both the US and USSR and a few were weaponized by Soviet scientists. Here we discuss the properties of and threats posed by the major human VHF pathogens of biodefense concern.
U
nited
N
ations
S
ecurity
C
ouncil
R
esolution 1540 (2004)
Authors: Woodward Angela
Published: July 2011

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540 requires all UN Member States to take legislative and other national measures to prohibit and prevent the proliferation of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons to non‐state actors, particular terrorists and to report on implementation to the United Nations 1540 Committee.
Department of Defense
Authors: Sandor Kristofer
Published: July 2011

The Department of Defense (DoD) plays a critical role in the U.S. strategy for bioterrorism defense, and is heavily engaged in every aspect of the field. DoD activities and programs have increased significantly in scope and complexity in response to both Cold War‐era biological threats and, more recently, rising terrorist interest in biological weapons. Such efforts also recognize that advances in science as well as the natural evolution of diseases pose a continued threat to both the U.S. public and its military. After nearly two decades of steady increases in funding and resources, the full scope of the Pentagon's activities are spread over several dozen separate DoD agencies and centers, and include joint efforts with civilian universities, other U.S. agencies, foreign governments, international organizations, and the private sector. This entry takes a brief, yet comprehensive, look at all aspects of DoD's bioterrorism defense strategy—including those elements traditionally overlooked—and provides a breakdown of the hierarchy of DoD bioterrorism defense. The current level of efforts indicates that the White House and Congress acknowledge the importance of bioterrorism defense and the Pentagon's role in it. Furthermore, the level of coordination between DoD entities and their counterparts in academia and public health both at home and abroad signify an understanding that bioterrorism defense is multi‐faceted, and needs to be addressed by all communities around the globe.
Department of Defense Policies on Force Health Protection: Medical Defense Against Biological Warfare Agents
Authors: Lebeda Frank J.
Published: July 2011

Force health protection (FHP) defines the medical defense approaches to maintain the health of the men and women who serve in the U.S. Armed Forces, to minimize or eliminate casualties, and to provide superior casualty care. Medical defense against biological warfare (BW) agents, whether encountered on a battlefield or as a result of bioterrorism, forms an important part of this strategy. Today, FHP related to biodefense primarily involves developing effective countermeasures against BW agents, performing appropriate surveillance, performing occupational and environmental health risk assessments, and providing medical training. These and other aspects of FHP are discussed.
Maltreated Children's Memory of Stressful Removals from Their Biological Parents
Authors: Baugerud Gunn Astrid , Melinder Annika
Published: July 2011

The effects of stress on memory were examined through a study of 33 3 to 12‐year‐old maltreated children removed from their biological parents by the Child Protective Services because of an emergency (acute) or normal (planned) care order. Children's stress levels were rated by a researcher present during the removal and children's memory of the removal investigated at a later time. The type of removal significantly predicted children's level of stress. ‘Acute removal’ children remembered more from high‐stress phases of the removal than the ‘planned removal’ children. All children had more accurate memories of the low‐stress phases. Details remembered were rated as central or peripheral; more central information was recalled than peripheral information. The ‘acute removal’ children recalled more peripheral information from the high‐stress phases of the removal than the low‐stress phases, a difference, which was not present for the ‘planned removal’ children. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Association analyses of MAOA in Chinese Han subjects with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Family‐based association test, case–control study, and quantitative traits of impulsivity
Authors: Liu Lu , Guan Li‐Li , Chen Yun , Ji Ning , Li Hai‐Mei , Li Ze‐Hua , Qian Qiu‐Jin , Yang Li , Glatt Stephen J. , Faraone Stephen V. , Wang Yu‐Feng
Published: July 2011

Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) plays a critical role in the metabolism of monoamine neurotransmitters including serotonin (5‐HT), norepinephrine (NE), and dopamine (DA). Genetic studies have found an association between MAOA and attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), especially impulsivity. However, there has been inconsistency among studies which may be due to the complexity and heterogeneity of ADHD, including its sexual dimorphism and the presence of several subtypes. We conducted transmission disequilibrium tests (TDTs) in 1,253 trios and found no association between five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of MAOA with ADHD in general or in the predominantly inattentive (ADHD‐I) or combined types (ADHD‐C), but with the predominantly hyperactive/impulsivity type (ADHD‐HI). The association with MAOA was restricted to males, especially males with ADHD‐HI. Logistic regression analyses of data from 1,824 cases and 957 controls did not indicate any association. We used analysis of covariance to analyze the association between MAOA genotype with the “inhibit” factor of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) in 640 probands and performance on the Stroop test in 810 probands. Probands homozygous for risk alleles found in the TDT test had higher “inhibit” scores on the BRIEF scale which represents more severe impulsivity; this results also was restricted to males. No association was found with Stroop test performance. In conclusion, our results provide some evidence that MAOA may be associated with the ADHD‐HI subtype and support the association between MAOA and impulsivity, which may be a potential endophenotype of ADHD. However, the results were strongly influenced by gender. © 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Synthesis of Some Pyrazolines and Pyrimidines Derived from Polymethoxy Chalcones as Anticancer and Antimicrobial Agents
Authors: Rostom Sherif A.F. , Badr Mona H. , Abd El Razik Heba A. , Ashour Hayam M.A. , Abdel Wahab Abeer E.
Published: July 2011

The synthesis of a series of certain polymethoxy chalcones and some derived pyrazole, pyrimidine, and thiazolopyrimidine ring structures is reported. Eleven compounds 4, 6, 9, 11, 14–17, 22, 24, and 25 were selected by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) to be screened for their in‐vitro anticancer activity, whereas all the synthesized compounds were evaluated for their in‐vitro antimicrobial activity. Compounds 4, 6, and 11 were found to possess a significant broad spectrum antitumor potential against most of the tested subpanel tumor cell lines. The pyrazolines 4 and 6 displayed remarkable growth inhibitory activities (GI50 MG‐MID values of 2.10 and 1.38 µM, respectively), together with moderate cytostatic effects (TGI MG‐MID values of 47.9 and 42.7 µM, respectively). Meanwhile, the pyrimidin‐2‐one 11 showed a noticeable overall tumor growth inhibitory activity, together with high cytostatic and cytotoxic efficacies (GI50, TGI and LC50 MG‐MID values of 3.39, 17.4, and 61.7 µM, respectively). On the other hand, compounds 3, 4, 13, 15, 19, 20, and 23 were found to be the most active antimicrobial members in this investigation with a broad spectrum of activity. Compound 23 was four times superior to ampicillin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The best antifungal activity was demonstrated by compounds 4, 5, and 11 which possessed almost half the activity of clotrimazole against Candida albicans. Collectively, the obtained biological results suggest that compound 4 could be considered as a possible dual antimicrobial‐anticancer agent.
The bioenergy and water nexus
Authors: Gheewala Shabbir H. , Berndes Göran , Jewitt Graham
Published: July 2011

Promotion of energy from biomass for reducing greenhouse gas emissions has led to increased usage of freshwater, especially during the cultivation of biomass. This has raised concerns about the increase in water stress, particularly in countries that are already facing water shortages. Attempts are being made to characterize the effect of water demand induced inter alia by increased bioenergy usage. Also, alternatives are being developed to mitigate such impacts by improved management so that bioenergy can be beneficially utilized. Future studies on bioenergy will need to take into consideration the water aspect so that the trade‐offs between climate change mitigation and water stress are addressed. © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
Water quality assessment of bioenergy production
Authors: Diaz‐Chavez Rocio , Berndes Göran , Neary Daniel , Elia Neto André , Fall Mamadou
Published: July 2011

Water quality is a measurement of the biological, chemical, and physical characteristics of water against certain standards set to ensure ecological and/or human health. Biomass production and conversion to fuels and electricity can impact water quality in lakes, rivers, and aquifers with consequences for aquatic ecosystem health and also human water uses. Depending on how the bioenergy system is located and managed, it can lead to both water quality deterioration and to improvements. This review focuses on the effects of bioenergy on water quality, on ways to quantify these effects, and on options for reducing negative impacts. © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
Synthesis of novel taspine diphenyl derivatives as fluorescence probes and inhibitors of breast cancer cell proliferation
Authors: He Huaizhen , Zhan Yingzhuan , Zhang Yanmin , Zhang Jie , He Langchong
Published: July 2011

Two novel taspine diphenyl derivatives (Ta‐dD) were designed and synthesized by introducing different coumarin fluorescent groups into the basic structure of Ta‐dD. The main advantage of these two compounds is that they can be used as fluorescence probes and inhibitors simultaneously. In the present study, the fluorescent properties of the probes were measured and their inhibition of four breast cancer cell lines was tested. Different concentrations of the fluorescence probe were added to MCF‐7 breast cancer cells for fluorescence imaging analysis under normal conditions. The results suggested that both of the new compounds have not only fluorescence but also the ability to inhibit effects on different breast cancer cell lines, which indicates their possible further use as dual functional fluorescence probes in tracer analysis. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.