bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Laboratory Investigation of the Effectiveness of Steamflood Additives in Recovering Viscous Heavy Oil
Authors: Sarma H. K. , Ohno K. , Nakamura S. , Horikawa H.
Published: December 2007

This paper presents a laboratory investigation of the effectiveness of steamflood additives in recovering a viscous heavy oil. The test oil was obtained from the Ikiztepe field, Turkey (API gravity = 9° and a measured oil viscosity = 4190 mPa.s @50°C). All displacement tests were conducted in Berea sandstone cores in a controlled environment. The additives evaluated were: hexane, petroleum benzine and condensate, and the displacement tests were conducted in the following three categories: (i) base-line conventional steamfloods, (ii) steamfloods with each of the three additives, and (iii) conventional steamfloods for a given length of time followed by steamfloods with each of the three additives. Also, three additional steamfloods with varying condensate concentrations as the additive were conducted to investigate the effects of the concentration on the oil recovery, and to determine if there existed an optimum additive concentration.

For each test, the incremental oil recovery due to the additive has been estimated, and compared with the recovery obtained in the base-line conventional steamflood. In all cases, steamfloods with the additive proved superior to the conventional steamflood (i.e., without additives) in enhancing the recovery of the oil. However, results also suggest the existence of an additive concentration at which the recovery is optimum; that is, the effective benefits of increasing the additive concentration become less pronounced above such optimum concentration both in terms of the cost and additive-utilization factor. A simple cost-effectiveness analysis is also provided based on the additive cost. Finally, the experimental data are matched using a thermal simulator, and a sensitivity study is carried out to identify the more important process parameters, and to evaluate naphtha as another potential additive.
Implementation of Reservoir Management Plan - Self Unit, Glenn Pool Field
Authors: Kelkar Mohan , Richmond Dan
Published: December 2007

This project used an integrated approach to improve the water flooding performance of a mature oil field producing over a 90 year period. Even after 90 years of production, only 21 % of original oil in place has been produced. Further, the past history of the field indicates that the field has responded well to different changes in the production strategy. We used geological, geophysical and engineering data to develop a detailed reservoir description. Based on flow simulation studies, we observed that the best strategy to improve the recovery from this unit is to selectively perforate part of the interval and increase the water injection rate.

We have started implementing the reservoir management plan in the field. Seven wells are selectively perforated and completed. The oil production has increased by about 35 bbls/day. We expect that after completion of the implementation, the production will go up by a total of 55 to 75 bbls/day. The economic evaluation indicates that the finding cost of oil is in the range of $ 4.50 to $ 6 per barrel.

The technologies used in our project are cross bore hole tomography, formation micro-resistivity bore hole imaging, geological description based on genetic units, geostatistics, and field flow simulation. We believe that with the exception of cross bore hole tomography, all the other techniques were very helpful in improving the reservoir description.
Effect of Reservoir Connectivity on Primary and Secondary Recovery
Authors: Pawar R. J. , Deo M. D. , Dyer J. E.
Published: December 2007

An earlier reservoir simulation study of the successful water flood application in the Monument Butte Unit (MBU) (Green River Formation, Uinta Basin, Utah) revealed that the primary production and secondary recovery from the unit were affected by the fluvial deltaic nature of the reservoir. The two primary sands in the unit, the D and the B extended well beyond unit boundaries. Geostatistical conditional simulations were performed on a 12-section area around the MBU to assess reservoir connectivity in the region. Reservoir simulations were performed using the resulting geostatistical images. Representing the unit sand bodies on a larger scale did not have a significant impact on production from the unit because of the overall permeability structure in the reservoir.
Building Geostatistical Models Constrained by Dynamic Data - A Posteriori Constraints
Authors: Blanc G. , Guerillot D. , Rahon D. , Roggero F.
Published: December 2007

This paper describes one solution to the problem of constraining geostatistical models by well-test results which has been obtained within the frame of the HELIOS research project conduced by Elf and IFP in the field of reservoir engineering.

To do so, a numerical simulation program devoted to the simulation of well-tests has been coupled with a nonlinear constrained optimization program to make an inversion loop. The resulting software package provides the reservoir engineer with a tool to compute the set of optimal facies or rock-type properties and the well skin which give the best fit between the simulated and the measured well pressure during the test duration. Any petrophysical facies or rock-type property can be assigned either a constant value everywhere or a Gaussian distribution defined by its mean and its standard deviation.

On one hand the numerical program is able to compute not only the pressure and its derivative but also the gradients of this pressure with respect to the petrophysical facies or rock-type properties and with respect to the well skin. The gradients used by the optimization program to control the search algorithm can also be used as a stand alone diagnosis tool to analyze the simulation results.

Several examples are given which show the efficiency of the various algorithms. These examples also demonstrate the wide range of applicability of the software package to analyze and to interpret well-tests as well as to integrate dynamic data in geostatistical modeling.

As a conclusion, the paper sets forth several new research axes to extend this work toward the inversion of the shape of the geostatistical images themselves.
Capillary Limit Effective Two-Phase Properties for 3D Media
Authors: Ekrann S. , Dale M. , Langaas K. , Mykkeltveit J.
Published: December 2007

The paper describes an approximate method to compute effective relative permeabilities and capillary pressure for 3D heterogeneous porous media. The method is based on the self-consistent approximation, and works in the capillary (quasi-static, low velocity) limit.

The method needs as input data for the individual rock types making up the heterogeneous medium, their relative occurrence, and information related to the ratio between vertical and horizontal length scales of the heterogeneities. No actual realization of the heterogeneous medium is needed. The method is computationally very efficient.

Example effective properties are given, demonstrating capillary trapping, and the tensorial nature of effective relative permeabilities.

The accuracy of the self-consistent approximation is known to be quite satisfactory for most heterogeneity types.

We have also studied the applicability of the capillary limit, using numerical simulation. At typical reservoir rates, the capillary limit appears to be valid only for heterogeneities at the sub-meter scale.
Well Placement Optimisation and Risking using 3-D Stochastic Reservoir Modelling Techniques
Authors: Seifert D. , Lewis J.J.M. , Hern C.Y. , Steel N.C.T.
Published: December 2007

The cost-effective development of small fields requires a thorough description and evaluation of the reservoir, with a strong focus on the estimation of associated uncertainty. This paper describes a new, integrated methodology for defining and risking optimum high-angle development wells as applied to a UKSNS basin-margin gas reservoir. Sequential Indicator Simulation (SIS) realisations of genetic unit distributions were generated for each target reservoir zone, conditioned with relevant geological data derived from the reservoir and the analogue outcrop. The models were "pin-cushioned" with a large variety of well trajectories that varied in terms of inclination, azimuth, length and position within the zone. Genetic unit strings are then extracted from each well trajectory and analysed statistically, resulting in ranked well trajectories. This integrated approach produces ranked and risked well planning options, on which risk-conscious management decisions are readily made.

Introduction

Development decisions are increasingly taken with less data, and the use of minimal facilities requires that optimisation of development wells is more critical than formerly. The planning of development wells in complex reservoir sequences necessitates the detailed integration of data to rank potential well locations and trajectories. Utilisation of hybrid deterministic-stochastic reservoir models, enables this process to be carried out efficiently, with quantification of associated risk. The benefit of optimising the placement of high angle wells is that the risk associated with well placement is minimised and that the maximum volume of the reservoir can be accessed with the least number of wells, which in turn is highly cost effective.

The methodology of this study is outlined in Fig. 1. Detailed quantification of the controls on well performance within the reservoir was followed by the definition of the appropriate genetic units. In parallel, a period of sourcing and appraisal of possible outcrop analogues was followed by a detailed outcrop study which resulted in the derivation of quantitative data of the analogue with relevance to the Frobisher reservoir. Integration of the reservoir specific and outcrop analogue data into a hybrid deterministic-stochastic model provided the basis for determination of the optimum well trajectories and subsequent risking of their success in penetrating pay.

This paper will only briefly introduce the geological analyses of the reservoir and the outcrop analogue but will focus in detail on the generation of the reservoir model and on the determination and risking of the optimum well trajectories.
Relative Permeability Characteristics of Vugular Cores - Their Measurement and Significance
Authors: Ehrlich Robert
Published: December 2007

Carbonate reservoir rock can have a highly developed secondary fracture/vug network in addition to intergranular porosity. Because of this, the multiple phase flow properties are very much different from rocks with wholly intergranular porosity. This paper represents an attempt to characterize the immiscible displacement behavior of fractured and vugular reservoir rock.

An apparatus and method for the determination of relative permeabilities in large vugular cores is presented. The errors associated with this method and with vugular core analysis in general are discussed. To test the significance of relative permeability and other data obtained from core measurements, a mathematical model is proposed for the secondary pore network. This model permits the simulation pore network. This model permits the simulation of cores of unlimited size to predict realistic reservoir flow properties.

It is concluded that water and gas reservoir displacement efficiencies will be underestimated using core measurements where a substantial secondary pore system exists.

Introduction

Dolomitized limestone reservoirs can have a highly developed secondary network of fractures and vugs in addition to a primary (intergranular) pore system. Reservoirs with secondary pore pore system. Reservoirs with secondary pore systems are highly productive and have flow properties quite different from those with wholly properties quite different from those with wholly intergranular porosity.

This paper represents the beginning of an attempt to characterize the relative permeability and immiscible displacement behavior of fractured and vugular reservoir rocks. It is concerned specifically with reservoirs in the Acheson-Homeglen-Rimbey D-3 Reef Trend in Western Canada, but should be at least qualitatively applicable to similar formations.

The D-3 formation is a series of bioherm reefs whose primary biological structure has been obliterated by dissolution and dolomitization processes. The rock contains vugs of various processes. The rock contains vugs of various sizes interconnected by minute shrinkage cracks. There are also larger fractures of mechanical origin. The permeability of the formation ranges from about 100 md to about 3000 md2. The primary porosity is very tight, with only about 0.01 md to porosity is very tight, with only about 0.01 md to 0.1 md permeability.
The Resurgence of ECP's at Prudhoe Bay/North Slope
Authors: Gai H. , Walz G. , Nakamura D. , Burnham M.
Published: December 2007

This paper reviews historical and current ECP (External Casing Packer) applications by BP and ARCO in Alaska. The potential of the tool together with its reliability and effectiveness is critically evaluated. The "success rate" so far has been variable but it is believed that the reasons for this have not been properly investigated and understood up to now. Problems (related to equipment, procedures, job design, and so on) which caused various failures have been identified and analysed in detail. Case studies are presented to demonstrate why some failures occur and how they could be avoided. Procedures and proposals to combat the identified problems are recommended.

Because the associated application environment and problems are better understood and the lessons learnt are better communicated, and ECP technology is being renewed at a pace not seen before, it is believed that the ECP is a viable completion tool if used properly.

Introduction

To obtain a better understanding of ECP's performance and to improve their effectiveness for the increasing challenges in zonal isolation in horizontal and multilateral wells, a comprehensive internal study was carried out in 1994/5 within BP world-wide and ARCO Alaska and with the cooperation of some major ECP manufacturers. This paper concentrates on part of the results relating to ECP applications in Alaska.

Basics of ECP's and Setting Tool Operations

It is intended here to provide some basic principles which are necessary to understand the operations and the associated problems discussed later.

Principles of ECPs. ECPs or by other names such as CAPs (Casing Annulus Packer) or ACPs (Annulus Casing Packer), are made of a metal mandrel (a [pup] joint of casing) and an external elastomer tube bladder with an inflation valve system. This elastomer tube is always reinforced by typically metal ribs either continuously or only at the end sections. Both ends of the rubber tube are sealed and secured to the steel collars which have the nominal OD of the packer to protect the rubber element in the middle to a certain extent. Note conventionally the ECP is identified by the casing OD/weight/grade and the seal element length. The OD of the ECP has to be specified separately. One of the collar contains the valve system, which connects and controls the inflation fluid from inside the mandrel (the central hole) to the outside to expand and inflate the bladder and then shuts, all controlled by shear-pin-determined differential pressures.

The valves are shear-pinned to predetermined pressure values to control the function of the inflation port, depending on the differential pressure between the central hole and the annulus. There are typically 2 main valves: one to open (e.g. Lock Shut Valve "LSV" or Delay Open Valve "DOV") the inflation port and the other to close it (Inflation Control Valve "ICV") once the internal pressure has reached the pre-set level. There may be some minor check valves in the system. P. 83
Technique to Estimate Fluid-Loss and Fracture Geometry of Fracture Acidizing with Foamed/Non-Foamed Acid
Authors: Fagang Gu. , Shuquan Ren. , Ziguang Yuan.
Published: December 2007

A technique to estimate fluid-loss, hydraulic fracture geometry and acidized fracture geometry is developed for fracture acidizing with foamed or non-foamed acid on the basic of PKN fracture model1,2. The treatment processes are simulated during injecting and the practical bottom hole pressures after shut-in are matched with the predicted bottom hole pressures in this technique. The corresponding models to simulate fluid temperatures, pressures and flow in a fracture after shut-in are established and the models to calculate bottom hole pressures after shut-in from tested wellhead pressures while a foamed fluid is used as a overflush fluid are presented.

The study indicates the flow rate in fracture is a variable during injecting and continuous flow into fracture exists after shut-in because of thermal expansion and compressibility when foamed acid is adopt in treatments. The bottom hole pressures are overestimated without consideration of warming up and continuous flow. The comparison study of two wells shows that the fluid-loss is underestimated with not considering the thermal expansivity and compressibility of fluids, CO2 produced by acid-rock reaction and the heat of acid-rock reaction. The influence of thermal expansion is most significant in the two well investigations and is more pronounced in treatments with foamed acid.
High-Quality Foam Fracturing Fluids
Authors: Harris Phillip C. , Heath Stanley J.
Published: December 2007

A recent research project was conducted to determine whether a stable, fine-textured, 95% gas content foam could be made. The viscosities of 95-quality N2 foams were measured in a recirculating flow loop viscometer.

Only foam prepared from 2% of an anionic surfactant with plain water had uniform, fine-bubble structure (texture) at 95 quality. All other combinations of additives or other foamers (nonionic, amphoteric or anionic, and/or 0.24% guar) produced unstable foams at 95 quality and stable foams at lower quality.

Foams that were unstable at 95 quality typically contained large slugs of N2 gas within the foam structure. Unstable, high-quality foams did not invert phases to form a mist. Instead, such foams were mixtures of very small and very large bubbles. The net viscosity and stability of those fluid systems were lower than that of a uniform, fine-textured foam.

Yield points were measured for fine-textured foams at 70 to 95 quality. These new yield points were higher than yield points in earlier data.
Advanced Technologies for Producing Massively Stacked Lenticular Sands
Authors: Kuuskraa Vello A. , Prestridge Andrew L. , Hansen John T.
Published: December 2007

The massively stacked, lenticular sands of the Piceance, Green River, and Uinta basins have been judged, by the USGS, to be the largest undeveloped gas resource in the U.S. Past attempts to produce natural gas from these formations have been, in the main, disappointing. Six advances in technology offer potential for unlocking a portion of these gas resources and turning them into near-term, low cost gas reserves:–Natural fracture detection to find "sweet spots",–Advanced well log analysis to target productive pay,–Advanced well completion and stimulation to connect pay to the wellbore,–Intensive infill development for efficient drainage,–Recompletion of old wells to add reserves, and–Best practices to reduce costs.

Field case studies at Rulison Field, Piceance Basin show how each of these technologies have been applied. The package of technologies presented in this paper may help producers develop stacked, lenticular sands in other basins.

This assessment is part of a Gas Research Institute (GRI) research project examining technology improvements for lowering the costs of future gas supplies.

Introduction

Improved well siting and completion practices have revived a previously discovered, but commercially condemned tight gas play in the southern Piceance Basin of Colorado. Here, the target is the massively stacked, lenticular sands (and coals) of the Mesaverde Group, Williams Fork Formation stretching upward for several thousand feet from the top of the Rollins, through the Cameo coal and sand interval, to the gas and water transition zone below the Wasatch Formation. The bulk of the activity has been at the Rulison and Grand Valley/Parachute fields, where Barrett Resources is drilling, infilling and recompleting wells, and at Mamm Creek where Snyder Oil is active. Chevron, Occidental, and the DOE/NOSR are other participants in this gas play.

The Williams Fork lenticular sands gas play was discovered in 1959 by the Juhan #1 Fee well. The well had strong early gas flow rates giving rise to high expectations. When subsequent wells showed poor reserves (0.2 to 0.5 Bcf per well), this gas play was relegated to a low productivity, high cost natural gas resource. Still, these lenticular tight sands were judged to hold massive gas resources in-place of 100 to 300 Tcf, as estimated by the National Petroleum Council and the USGS. Four events have combined to revive this gas play and make it economically competitive, even during the past several years of low gas prices:Improved well siting and well completion practices have significantly improved the productivity of this gas play.

P. 505
Reassessment of Cook Inlet Platform Facilities
Authors: Visser Robert C.
Published: December 2007

This paper presents a methodology for performing an audit on a group of platforms to verify that the platform wells and topside facilities are being operated in conformance with current industry standards. The specific risk management audit described in the paper involved the fifteen platforms in Cook Inlet, Alaska. The paper describes the simplified procedures that were developed for the system safety reassessment. The selected procedure included, (1) the preparation and review of a database of well and process safety systems of all platforms, (2) a statistical comparison of Cook Inlet facility incidents with experience in other areas, and, (3) a more detailed review of the system safety of the wells and process facilities of three selected platforms. Fourteen of the platforms were installed in the mid-sixties, when standards for the design and operation of topside facilities did not exist. Operators, however, have, over the years, updated the facilities and no significant deviations from the industry process safety standards were found. As a result of the study the capacity of the relief and vent systems on a number of platforms are being reviewed to assure that they have adequate capacity.
An Investigation Into The Use of High Pressure Nitrogen Breakdown Treatments Prior to Hydraulic Fracturing
Authors: Pearson C. Mark , Reinbold Eric W.
Published: December 2007

SPE Members

The use of high pressure nitrogen for overbalance perforating and reservoir stimulation has been gaining favor in the industry. In some cases favorable results have been reported in using the technique prior to hydraulic fracturing. This paper reports on an investigation of using high pressure nitrogen breakdowns at the Kuparuk River Field. At the DS-1Y Infill Development project, four of eleven wells were selected for a test of the effectiveness of high pressure nitrogen perforation breakdown as a tool to aid in placing better fracture treatments. Results are presented Comparing treatment success/placement, well productivity, and the results of Pressure Buildup tests run on the wells after fracturing.

No production benefit is found from the nitrogen pretreatments. These results are reviewed in the context of the completion design and perforating schedules employed in the Kuparuk River Field. No high pressure perforation breakdowns have been carried out in the Kuparuk River Field since the results of these tests.

Introduction

Located in the Alaskan arctic, the Kuparuk River Field is one of the United State's largest producing oil fields (300,000 barrels oil per day), and covers an area of approximately 115,000 acres. The field was discovered in 1969, but was not deemed economic for development until 1977, after completion of the Trans Alaska Pipeline. Figure 1 shows the field location on the North Slope of Alaska. Field development was started in 1979 using gravel pads as central drill sites from which deviated wells are drilled to drain a four section area (4 square miles). Initial development is on 160 acre well spacing with some 80 acre infill locations.

The Kuparuk reservoir is a sandstone at approximately 6000 feet subsea with solution gas drive as the primary production mechanism. The majority of the field is under secondary recovery receiving pressure support through a combination of waterflood and water alternating immiscible and miscible gas injection. Previous reports have documented both the geological description and the reservoir mechanisms of the field.

Production occurs from two horizons within the Kuparuk sandstone. An upper sandstone interval, referred to as the C Sand, is present over most of the southern half of the field and consists of very coarse to very fine grained siderite and sandstone.

P. 713
Computing Realistic Effective Porosity and Fluid Saturations from Total Porosity and Fluid Saturation Calculations in the 26R Sand, Stevens Zone in the Elk Hills Field, California
Authors: Shiflett D.W. , Murphy J.R.
Published: December 2007

A graphical method is presented for computing effective porosities from total porosities. This method references hydrocarbon pore volume. The conventional. method of defining shale properties was determined to be inappropriate and one which led to errors in computing effective porosity. The goal of the graphical method is to have a numerical representation of effective porosity that preserves the hydrocarbon pore volume component of the reservoir. The results are effective porosities adequate to contain the hydrocarbons from the total porosity, fluid saturation determination.

Petrophysical evaluation of 26R Sands in the Elk Hills oil field in California to determine porosity and water saturation uses the Juhasz Normalized Waxman Smits routine. The porosity and water saturation results are expressed in terms of total porosity and total water saturation. Reservoir engineering and geostatistical analyses of voidage, recovery efficiency and reservoir distribution require effective porosity and water saturation.

A conventional shale porosity determination was used in the conversion of calculated total porosity and fluid saturation to effective porosity and effective fluid saturation. The resulting effective porosity and effective water saturations did not compute the same hydrocarbon pore volume as computed from the total porosity, total water saturation computations.

The equation selected for computing effective porosity () from total porosity is as follows:

where = Effective porosity

= Total porosity

= Volume of shale

= Porosity of shale

Volume shale (Vsh) is computed using an average of the resistivity and SP curves. The results were consistent with the geologic model for turbidite overbank splays in a shale matrix. A conventional determination of shale porosity was used based on the mean value of a distribution of shale porosities in intervals with over 80% shale volume. This method assumes that shale properties within a sand interval are identical to shale properties in adjacent shale beds. This assumption is not always correct, as the deposition of clastic material generally is a random process. The shale porosity from this method generates too large of a reduction of total porosity to effective porosity. The results of this excess porosity reduction is negative effective water saturations, which are rounded to values of zero for water saturation.
Obtaining Real Improvement in Health & Safety Performance Requires Force
Authors: Powell T. A. F.
Published: December 2007

The paper compares how the US and UK governments have attempted to encourage employers to integrate the mangement of health & safety into the overall management of the E&P business rather than continuing to treat safety as an add-on, and where compliance with detailed government rules is the overarching H, S & E goal. It describes the 2 regimes, particularly through! the period when the industry was rocked by a number of large scale fatal accidents and explains the drivers which forced both regulators, at the start of this decade, to want to see big changes in the management of safety.

It explains how the US MMS, without modifying its statutory regime, encouraged industry to develop a programme for undertaking voluntary formal safety assessments under the lead of API subcommittees 75 & 14J. It also explains how the UK took a different course by sweeping away virtually all of its regulations and introducing a tough new statutory code. The paper attempts to make sense of these different positions.

It concludes with an assessment of the potential for success and the liklihood for ineffectiveness of the 2 approaches, from a UK perspective.
Standards for Local Medical Support, E & P Forum Report No 6.44/222
Authors: Dawson D. G. , Barbey A. , Burke N. , Dahl-Hansen E. , Gilbert M. J. , Howe W. , Keech J. , McCready D. , Rodier J. , Thomas I.
Published: December 2007

This set of standards has been developed for use by health professionals in assessing local medical support facilities. The assessment, which is part of a Health Management System, is in essence a checklist for assessing the suitability of an existing medical facility in a proposed area of operation. The assessment describes the standards required for non-life threatening situations (non-time critical) and life threatening situations (lime critical) covering outpatient and inpatient consultation and treatment in each instance. Evaluation of centers for preventative care (occupational health) is also covered. Each section deals with health professionals qualifications and experience, recommended equipment, building standards, administration details and logistics involved in patient transportation.
Use of Photochemical Models to Assess the Ozone Impacts and Need for Controls for Petroleum Production Sources: Two Case Studies
Authors: Ziman Stephen D.
Published: December 2007

Many areas in the United States are not in attainment of the National Ambient Air Quality Standard for ozone. These areas include some with petroleum production operations, such as Kem County, California. In addition, major OCS development and production sources in the Western Gulf of Mexico are located offshore of the Houston and Beaumont/Port Arthur nonattainment areas. EPA requires that states implement a planning (SIP) process to develop strategies to achieve the federal ozone standard. These plans have the potential to result in significant control requirements for the production facilities. Potential impacts from different source types can be assessed through use of photochemical modeling of ozone precursor emissions (hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxides) from all anthropogenic (man made) sources. This modeling information can be used to: 1) identify whether specific types of sources contribute to the ozone nonattainment problem, and 2) develop a set of control measures to reduce ambient ozone levels.

This paper will examine two photochemical modeling case studies which assessed the impact of petroleum productions sources in the Bakersfield and Houston nonattainment areas. The San Joaquin Valley SIP modeling showed that additional controls of NOx emissions from heaters, boilers and internal combustion engines located on the west side of the Valley were not necessary to meet the federal ozone standard by 1999. In the case of the assessment of OCS impacts on Houston, modeling showed that at times and locations where the federal ozone standard was exceeded, OCS contributions were minimal. This finding not only removes the probability of controls, but also greatly limits any probability of transfer of jurisdiction for OCS air quality from Minerals Management Service to EPA.

Recommendations on how to develop and implement a modeling assessment program will be presented to aid those who may be involved in similar planning processes in the future.
The Effect of Ventilation and Gas Cloud Sizes on Explosion Overpressures
Authors: Moros A. , Tam V. , Webb S. , Paterson K. , Coulter C.
Published: December 2007

Gas cloud build up from releases in offshore process modules which could eventually lead to an explosion depends on the air flow in the module and the equipment arrangement. In any offshore operation it is also necessary to estimate the frequency of gas cloud sizes in a module. These in turn affect the explosion frequency which ultimately has an impact on the Individual Risk (IRPA) and Temporary Refuge Impairment Frequency (TRIF).

In this paper we describe the overall methodology of how to estimate a gas cloud frequency from a specified release and the models available for predicting ventilation and gas dispersion in offshore operations.
Emerging and Re-Emerging Infections The Fall and Rise of Disease
Authors: Shaw Robert
Published: December 2007

Mankind has been battling infectious diseases for thousands of years. Parasites were the first communicable disease agents to be recognized, followed by bacteria and most recently viruses. The impact of this ongoing battle between man and microbes has been significant. A massive epidemic of plague swept across Western Europe in the Middle Ages, reducing the population at that time by almost 25%. The discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus in 1492 provided a fertile ground for transmission of infectious disease beyond the European continent. The importation of European measles to the Western Hemisphere caused significant mortality among native American tribes. (1) By the start of the 18th century, a number of diseases that previously had been transmitted regionally became distributed throughout the world by population growth and immigration. These included malaria, smallpox, yellow fever, typhoid fever, tuberculous, syphilis, plague and cholera.

The potential for worldwide infectious disease transmission that began centuries ago continues unchecked today. In 1918, epidemic influenza swept the world, killing more than 20 million people in less than one year. In the nearly 70 years since that epidemic, dramatic advances in medical knowledge and treatment have been made in mankind's ability to battle infectious agents.

With all the medical magic being developed in the second half of this century, there was a time, not so long ago, when infectious diseases were viewed as having been conquered. Indeed, in 1969, the U.S. Surgeon General stated it was time to close the book on infectious diseases. (2)
Food Sanitation: A Health Planning Component of Remote Oil and Gas Exploration and Development Projects
Authors: Balge M. Z. , Krieger G. R.
Published: December 2007

The development of food sanitation programs is a critical health planning component of oil and gas exploration and development projects. Herein is presented practical methodologies to enhance health at minimum costs by maximizing benefits of food sanitation programs at remote work camps.

Food sanitation programs should be incorporated in the project planning phase, and can either provide offensive or defensive measures. Used offensively, the program can result in healthy food products with corresponding economic benefits realized through less down time due to food-borne illness. An effective program addresses these areas: 1) food supplies, protection, storage, preparation, display and transportation, 2) food handler’s health, personal cleanliness, clothing and work practices, 3) equipment and utensil cleaning, sanitization and storage, 4) water supply, plumbing, and toilet facilities, 5) insect and rodent control, 6) construction and maintenance of physical food service facilities, and 7) work practice evaluations. Work practice evaluations are an essential component of an effective program since the prevention of enteric (diarrheal) diseases by their nature, involve behavioral change. Food sanitation programs are necessary for these projects because enteric diseases, especially diarrhea, are among the most severe health problems in the developing world where extensive oil and gas exploration now occurs. Intestinal parasites are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the areas, affecting over three billion people. A subset of this population includes those workers who are employed as food handlers and food service managers at remote work camps housing oil exploration and production workers in Latin and South America, Sub-Sahara Africa, and Asia- Pacific.1

The incorporation of food sanitation standards in the request for proposals (RFP) process for camp facilities contractors clarifies up front the corporate expectations in this area. Standards are contractually specified and are easier to measure and manage. The implementation of an effective food sanitation program will create both short term improvements in camp operations (prevention of short term morbidity) and sustained improvements over the long term due to higher overall workforce productivity.
Friendly Forests
Authors: Miller John A.
Published: December 2007

Removal of releases of petroleum hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons from soil and groundwater has been a nationwide effort since the mid-1980s. Successes have been rare. Mechanical removal systems have been found to require an inordinate amount of time. Bioremediation has used existing, added, or altered microorganisms to metabolize or biodegrade hydrocarbons. Problems with delivering the microorganisms directly to the hydrocarbon and specific site factors have combined to thwart or slow bioremediation.

Phytoremediation uses plants to biodegrade shallow soil contamination in the rhizosphere. Trees are used to extract groundwater from aquifers and simulate a pumping system for contaminated groundwater plume control. Simultaneously, the trees create a rhizosphere biodegradation zone and extract hydrocarbons through uptake in the transpiration stream. Phytoremediation is proposed for environmental cleanup of historical contamination as a method that will occur in place, at a reasonable cost, and require little maintenance.

The initiative of one major oilfield service company at a Louisiana site is described. The effort commenced in June 1995 with the planting of 92 hybrid poplar trees for the purposes of (1) controlling groundwater movement, (2) uptaking constituents from soil and groundwater, and (3) enhancing bioremediation of soil and groundwater in the rhizosphere. Results to date are reported.

Introduction

Hydrocarbons in soil and groundwater have been the subject of thousands of laboratory experiments in search of removal and destruction techniques or technologies. To control the parameters that require analysis and monitoring, these experiments usually focus on one or a few specific hydrocarbons and use a consistent soil and water matrix. These ideal conditions are not duplicated in an actual site containing soil that is horizontally and vertically heterogeneous. If the site also has point sources of hydrocarbons, the range of concentrations can be orders of magnitude in both soil and groundwater.

One step up from laboratory pilot tests are bench tests that analyze the remediation techniques and new technologies on representative samples drawn from the actual site. The mere process of soil removal from the site can change the compaction of the sample. Combined with the greater surface area exposed to air or water in the laboratory column, the bench tests frequently produce more optimistic remediation time periods and greater destruction or removal efficiencies.

Aromatic hydrocarbons and chlorinated aliphatic compounds are some of the most common groundwater contaminants. Many aromatics are the more soluble components of gasoline, such as benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, and xylene. Together with diesel components, they constitute the compounds normally found from leaking underground storage tanks and connecting fuel service lines or from overfills and spills.

The chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds were commonly used as degreasing solvents for truck and automobile repair and for pipe cleaning. P. 717
Floating Production System: An Environmentally Sound Alternative Production Facility
Authors: Nour M. H. , Thompson I.
Published: December 2007

The use of floating production systems ( FPS ) in offshore oil and gas developments is proliferating around the world The Zaafarana Oil Field, which was discovered in late 1990 is located in approximately 60 meters of water, 7 kilometers off the west coast of the north Gulf of Suez. Egypt The field consists of a conventional not normally manned wellhead/drilling platform tied into a floating production, storage and offloading facility (FPSO). Processing, storage and offloading of the oil is conducted on a dedicated tanker, the ‘A1 Zaafarana', which is permanently located in the field

This paper shows, in a systematic way, the management approaches, process design considerations, field operations and other environmental practices utilized to implement a proactive Environmental Management System (EMS) for the FPSO operations The EMS comprises the elements listed below which will be discussed in details through this paper

The Environmental Policy

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental Design Features and Process

Environmental Risk Assessment and Contingency

Planning

Field Environmental Management

The results presented in this paper illustrate that :

Through efficient environmental management acceptable environmental standards can be achieved for a FPS facility, such as the ‘A1 Zaafarana’

It was necessary to use modem assessments methods to determine the environmental hazards and demonstrate that the FPS was a controllable facility producing acceptable environmental risks compared with other production development options.

Utilizing a FPS incorporating a reliable environmental management system has been a challenge both on technical and managerial grounds.
Implementation of E & P Forum Health, Safety and Environmental Management
Authors: Nyvik Reidar O. , Bogwald Stein
Published: December 2007

E&P Forum Guidelines for the Development and Application of Health, Safety and Environmental Management System (HSEMS) has been used as a tool for several companies within the Oil Industry. This paper describes the various elements used by Saga Petroleum ASA, Norway. It contains the basic elements addressed in the guidelines and in addition how various aspects have been operationalized in the company. It also outlines the ongoing implementation and inter-relationship with the European Foundation of Quality Management, and some results achieved during the last years.

The Company

Saga Petroleum was founded in 1972. The company now plays a central role in Norwegian Oil Industry.

Use of the E&P Forum Guidelines 6.36/210

All elements of the HSEMS model were addressed in 1994 during a revision of the company's standards concerning HSE. The various paragraphs listed below gives the reader a brief understanding how the company has implemented the basic elements in the guidelines.

Management and responsibility

The company's management shall ensure a strong and visible management of HSE and of the resources required to develop HSE activities according to the Company's strategies and objectives. The management's involvement shall ensure achievements in:–a conscious and agreed management involvement in HSE at all levels–a credible company objective of continuous improvement of HSE–good communication about HSE horizontally and vertically in the company and with contractors and suppliers–an increased understanding of; and involvement in, HSE by all employees–continuity in the follow-up of HSE–optimal utilization of the company's technical HSE resources–acceptance of individual responsibility for, and involvement in, HSE work–the desired results.

Policy and strategic goals

The Company is to be among the leaders in the HSE matters. Objectives and goals are set accordingly.

The aim is that all company activities are to be carried out without personal injury, damage to the environment or loss of property.

However we have to accept that the Company's activities always involve a possibility of incidents occurring. In order to manage this risk, acceptance criteria must be established.

The aim is that the overall working environment, i.e., the physical, working, safety and inter-human conditions, shall have a positive effect on the well-being and motivation of the individual employees.

Health, Safety and Environmental considerations shall be included in plans and business strategies. Costs associated with the maintenance of HSE are to be regarded in a long-term perspective, in which considerations of a high HSE level shall not be weighed against short-term economic savings.

Parameters must be defined which enables the Company to measure HSE results against the results achieved by other companies in the industry. We must identify the best HSE practice within our fields of activity and set our objectives accordingly.

The Company shall appear as a Health, Safety and Environmentally conscious company.

P. 93
It's Not Easy Being Green: Environmental Legal Challenges and Strategies for International Oil and Gas Exploration and Production
Authors: Armstrong K. E.
Published: December 2007

International oil and gas E&P companies are being exposed to a steady proliferation of policies, laws, guidelines and other standards applicable to their activities. These are accompanied by expanded potential for legal and other liability. There are a number of treaties and other international agreements potentially relevant to F&P activities. National laws are the primary source of environmental law of concern to companies. However, guidelines developed by international governmental, financing, industry and other organizations arc establishing standards to which companies may be held legally accountable. A number of key' environmental issues and trends are influencing the development of environmental laws and generating areas of legal exposure for companies. Many basic company activities which involve lawyers are potentially affected. Companies can and should undertake a variety of activities to manage the environmental legal risks they face. Lawyers and negotiators for companies will play an essential role in developing and implementing such risk management programs.
In-Situ Burning - One Method of Effective Oil Spill Response in the South China Sea
Authors: Boben Mark E. , Yanting Yue
Published: December 2007

Phillips Petroleum International Corporation Asia (PPICA) is the operator of the twin Xijiang Oilfields in the South China Sea. The very special characteristics of the Xijiang crude demanded that innovative means of cleanup be employed in the event of a major oil spill. The Xijiang crude has a very high wax content and high pour point. The crude must be heated to flow. In the event of a major oil spill, clean up would require non-traditional means of response. During the laboratory analysis it was discovered that if a specific thickness of crude could be contained on the surface of the water that it could be ignited and burned. The potential effectiveness of the bum was ascertained to be 95-98%. A decision was made in 1992 during the design engineering phase to utilize in- situ burning as the primary means of response in the event of a major oil spill.

During April 1995 the first ever demonstration of in-situ burning was conducted in Shekou, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China by Phillips Petroleum International Corporation Asia. This exercise clearly demonstrated the effectiveness of in-situ burning on the Xijiang crude.