bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Syllable Structure
Authors: Rubach Jerzy
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we look at Slovak syllable structure. A general outline is presented in 7.1. We then proceed to investigate the properties of the Syllable Structure Algorithm. Specifically, we address the questions of whether it applies cyclically and whether it is continuous (sections 7.2 and 7.3). In 7.4 we look at the domain of syllabification and conclude that prefixes as well as constituents of compounds constitute separate domains. Glides are discussed in 7.5. We then pursue the problem of how extra-syllabic consonants are treated in various components of phonology. We conclude that some liquids are made syllabic in the cyclic component (section 7.6), while other liquids trigger a post cyclic rule of vowel insertion (section 7.7). The status of v — whether v is a glide or not — is discussed in 7.8. On a more general level, this problem occasions a debate of adjunction and resolving extrasyllabicity by changing the feature composition of a segment.
Postlexical Rules
Authors: Rubach Jerzy
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we look at rules which apply in domains larger than words and which are hence post lexical. In particular, we consider Vowel Vocalization, Voice Assimilation, and Voicing. The first two rules apply both inside words and across word boundaries. On the other hand, Voicing applies exclusively at word edges and is thus a classic instance of a rule whose inputs arise first in the syntax.
The Study of Real Language: Observing the Observers
Authors: Stevenson Patrick
Published: November 2023

The traffic in borrowed words and phrases between English and German is by no means one-way, even if the balance of trade heavily favours English exports into German. Perhaps because of their relative rarity, German words used in English often appear more conspicuous and more exotic: consider, for example, Schadenfreude or Berufsverbot. One of the most recent additions to this inventory is the concept of the Wende (meaning ‘radical change of direction’ or ‘turning point’). In the immediate past, the term Wende was used to refer to the dramatic historical developments in the former GDR in its last days, and it is probably true to say that in virtually everything that has been written about the twelve months between the first pro-democracy marches in Leipzig in October 1989 and the official day of unification in October 1990 the word Wende has appeared, either in its own right or in one of many newly coined compounds (Wendesprache, ‘language of the Wende’; Wenderede, ‘speech about the Wende’, Wendesprüche, ‘Wende sayings or slogans’; Wendehals, ‘turncoat’; etc.).
Language in Intercultural Communication
Authors: Rost-Roth Martina
Published: November 2023

Many people living in Germany today speak a language other than German and consider themselves members of another culture. These people may be ‘Gastarbeiter’ (guest workers), ‘Asylsuchende’ (refugees seeking political asylum in Germany), or ‘Aussiedler’ (former residents of eastern European countries who are of German descent). Not surprisingly, therefore, contact within the German context often entails problems of intercultural communication.
Critical Linguistics and the Study of Institutionar Communication
Authors: Wodak Ruth
Published: November 2023

Many important changes have taken place in the study of language in social context since the first sociolinguistic studies were carried out in the USA and Great Britain in the early 1960s. In this chapter, I shall concentrate on the consequences of two particular developments: first, the shift of emphasis from the sentence or utterance to ‘text in context’, in other words to the study of discourse, which in tum led to the linking of sociolinguistics and discourse analysis; secondly, the more systematic approach to the study of context, which entailed both a more interdisciplinary perspective and a greater emphasis on qualitative (as opposed to quantitative) research. The results of these developments are that sociological, psychological, social-psychological, and historical perspectives have been incorporated into sociolinguistic study, and that the analysis of context has become an important object of study in its own right. In particular, a whole area of research has developed focusing on the study of language use in institutional settings.
Jugendsprachen: Speech Styles of Youth Subcultures
Authors: Schlobinski Peter
Published: November 2023

If one were to believe the statements of linguists thirty years ago, then youth speech is no more than the ‘Jargon einer bestimmten Sondergruppe, der den gro6eren und wertvolleren Teil der Jugend erniedrigt und beleidigt’ (Kupper 1961: 188) (slang of a particular subgroup, which is degrading and insulting to the larger and more reputable section of the young generation). Hartmut Engelmann was no less flattering in a radio programme broadcast by the Hessischer Rundfunk: about ‘young people and their private code’: ‘Das Klotzige, Protzige und Brutale ist wohleines der wesentlichen Charakteristika des Jargons’ (Engelmann 1964: 6) (It is overblown, showy, crude: that is one of the main characteristics of this slang). Those who take this point of view maintain that young people’s speech is directly responsible for the ‘decline of the German language’, and it has been argued that for this reason they should be required to use standard German in school.
Pronunciation
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the standard pronunciation of Russian was considered to be that of educated Muscovites (Košutić 1919: vii; Ožegov 1955: 16; Panov 1967). There was considerable interest in phonetics in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and we are fortunate in having on-the-spot descriptions of this kind of pronunciation, usually referred to as the Old Moscow (OM) pronuncia tion; of these, the best is usually considered to be Košutić (1919).
Syntax
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria
Published: November 2023

The subject-matter of this chapter may be divided into two main parts: syntactic variation and syntactic stylistics. The first is similar to the subject-matter of most of the rest of the book, in that it deals with syntactic variants—different syntactic means of expressing the same meaning—where the choice between the variants impinges on the question of which syntactic forms are admissible in the current standard.
Modes of Address and Speech Etiquette
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria
Published: November 2023

Russian, like nearly all other European languages, has a system of address entailing a choice between pronouns (including other parts of speech agreeing with them), depending on social factors. In Russian the pronominal system involves a choice between TbI (hereafter abbreviated as T) and Bbl (abbreviated as V).
Conclusion
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria
Published: November 2023

One of the intellectual predecessors of this book, Ward (1965), concludes with a summary of tendencies observed in the Russian language throughout the first five decades of the Soviet period. Ward also makes some predictions about the fate of Russian in the later periods as well as its more long-term prospects. The goals of this brief conclusion are threefold: firstly, we will examine Ward’s predictions to see which of them have been borne out and which have not; secondly, we will summarize the main tendencies of the language as discussed throughout this book; and thirdly, we will briefly comment on the latest period in the development of Russian, the period whose beginning roughly coincides with the end of the Soviet regime. In presenting our conclusions below, we will not be able to separate the first and second goals, and they will be treated as intertwined.
Some Confusions about Subjectivity
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

THERE is a certain interrelated batch of confusions connected with the expressions ‘objective’ and ‘subjective’ as used in ethical theory, and with the words ‘objectivism’, ‘subjectivism’, and also ‘relativism’, used to describe types of ethical theory—confusions which I myself saw to be confusions quite near the beginning of my career as a moral philosopher, and thought I could put behind me. I saw that they were confusions, not by any original thought on my part, but because, as it seemed to me, everybody who had thought about the matter had seen that they were confusions. I did not devote more than a few desultory remarks in my own writings to showing that they were confusions, because I thought it unnecessary—instead, I tried to present my views in such a way that the confusions would be avoided. I hoped (naively as it turned out) that they would not continue to muddle moral philosophers in the future as they had in the past.
The Promising Game
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

ONE of the most fundamental questions about moral judgements is whether they, and other value-judgements, can be logically derived from statements of empirical fact. Like most important philosophical questions, this one has reached the stage at which its discussion is bound to proceed piecemeal, in terms of particular examples, arguments, and counter-arguments. This article is intended as a contribution to one such controversy. Professor J. R. Searle (1964) attempts a feat which many before him have thought to perform. His argument, though it seems to me unsound, is both more plausible, and sets a higher moral tone, than that recently supplied by Mr MacIntyre (1959: § v) and repeated in an unimportantly different form by Professor Black (1964). While Searle seeks to demonstrate logically that we ought to keep our promises, Black and MacIntyre seek to demonstrate that we ought to do whatever is the one and only means to achieving anything that we happen to want, or avoiding anything that we want to avoid (see H 1971a).
Some Reasoning about Preferences: A Response to Essays by Persson, Feldman, and Schueler
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

I TAKE the occasion of Schueler’s essay (1984) to discuss, not only some points raised in it, but also other closely related points made in essays by F. Feldman (1984) and I. Persson (1983), all about an argument in MT chs. 5, 6. I must confess that in that book I as usual succumbed to my besetting vice of concision and failed to spell out moves and countermoves in the game which I thought would at once suggest themselves to an alert reader. Obviously there are many more of these than can be discussed in a short book, and in my long experience it is not always of much use to do so, both because, whichever of them one chooses, somebody is bound to pick on others and because, even if one does mention a point, it is often not noticed. The second sentence of the preface to LM still represents my considered policy. However, since even Feldman, whose essay is fuller and more careful than the other essays, misunderstands my argument, it looks as if I did not express myself clearly enough. I shall therefore explain some points which affect more than one of the three essays, leaving aside minor points or those which affect only one of them.
Modal Epistemology and the Rationalist Renaissance
Authors: Bealer George
Published: November 2023

The term ‘modal epistemology’ may be understood in three ways. First, as the theory of modal knowledge—knowledge of what is necessary and possible. Second, as the theory of possible knowledge-what sorts of knowledge are possible. Third, as the intersection of the first two: the theory of possible modal knowledge-that is, of what modal knowledge is possible.
A Geographical History of the Bajo Urubamba
Authors: Gow Peter
Published: November 2023

The Baja Urubamba is that area drained by the Urubamba river from its confluence with the Camisea downstream to where it joins the Tambo (Map 1). Like its western neighbour the Tambo-Ene Apurimac, the Urubamba river rises in the southern Andes of Peru. The two rivers flow northwards, then converge just below Atalaya to form the Ucayali, which continues north to join the Maranan, forming the Amazon mainstream. In terms of relief and vegetation cover, the Baja Urubamba area is a region of low rolling hills densely covered in humid tropical rain forest.1 In this area, the Urubamba is a big river, averaging about 300 metres in width, but often spreading out into a network of channels and islands. In many places, the river cuts into hills, creating tall cliffs, while the large flood plain is flat and covered in a complex of climax tropical forest and a series of successional vegetation associations reflecting the winding migration of the river. The flood plain is the area of most extensive human occupation and landscape modification.
Bosses and Workers: The System of Habilitación
Authors: Gow Peter
Published: November 2023

The commercial economy of the Bajo Urubamba is an extractive-mercantile economy dominated, at the time of my research, by lumbering. The present chapter analyses the local socio-economic system in terms of how, through the system of credit and debt known as habilitación, the local entrepreneurs use a largely native labour force. The native workers mobilize subsistence security independently of their bosses, but rely on the economy of habilitación for the provision of many items they need. The major concern of the local bosses is to maintain their access to the native labour force, while the major concern of the native workers is to maintain their access to credit and therefore to the various commodities they consume.
Introduction
Authors: Gow Peter
Published: November 2023

Native people define themselves as people who eat plantains and manioc, game from the forest and river, and manioc beer, and oppose themselves to rich white people who do not. The production of ‘real food’ engages native people in particular forms of relationship with the landscape, the river, and forest, and thus places them in the system of meanings attached to landscape. The chapters of Part II explore further dimensions of the meanings of ‘real food’ for the native people of the Bajo Urubamba. ‘Real food’ is produced in particular relationships, and its circulation and consumption sets up other relationships. The production of plantains, game, and manioc beer is definitional of gender identity, and the production of ‘real food’ is dependent on the relationship of marriage. The circulation of this food constitutes the relations between kin, as parents feed their children, and as adults respond to the hunger of other kin. The production of food engages people with the forest, making gardens and houses, and this food is sent out to feed others. Native communities focus on the relationships in which food is produced, circulated, and consumed, such that for native people, to live with kin is life itself. Death threatens life, causing the living to abandon the dead, and to live elsewhere. Death defines kinship as life, and life for native people is created and sustained by kinship.
Husband and Wife
Authors: Gow Peter
Published: November 2023

The house and the garden establish the human space of settlement. Both are transformed forest, and both must be constantly maintained in the face of forest regeneration. The house is the locus of most human activity, the place in which meals are prepared and eaten and in which people sleep. The meals are prepared in the kitchen and eaten in the open section of the house, while the enclosed room is used for storing possessions and for sleeping and making love. Almost all the houses and gardens are created and owned in the same way in native communities: they are made by a man and owned by him and his wife. The only exceptions to this pattern are those houses belonging to the widowed, for either a widower will build his own small house, or a widow will have one built for her by her son or son-in-law. These cases are restricted to the old who are reluctant to give up their independence for reliance on younger kin. Younger unmarried people simply do not own either houses or gardens. The houses and gardens of a native community like Santa Clara thus encode the relationships of marriage between men and women.
Landownership
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten
Published: November 2023

GIVEN the central position of farming in Iceland, access to land was of primary social concern, .and land the vital resource of both the economic and the cosmological order. In this chapter I shall deal with landownership, and th’e social categories which were a corollary to the distribution of land.

From the earliest settlements rights in land were central to social thinking. It was when the land was albyggt (‘fully settled’) that Icelandic law was drawn up according to the twelfth-century fslend-ingabok ((islb.) ch. 3). Among other things the law regulated rights in land. The laws were written down in 1II7—18, a few decades before Landndmabok, ‘the book of settlements’.
The Power of Knowledge
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten
Published: November 2023

MAGIC, witchcraft, and healing constitute a field of indigenous explanations of individual success or misfortune. It is worth remembering, therefore, that in the social experience of the Icelanders, death and disaster were recurrent phenomena. Demographic crisis, economic stagnation and decline, worsening climate, and unfavourable trade regulations, all contributed to the Icelandic view of the human condition. From 1400 to 1800 catastrophe always lurked in the background, in Iceland as elsewhere in Europe. Whenever disaster struck explanations were called for, and some were found within the field of popular belief.
Gender and Hierarchy
Authors: Thomas Nicholas
Published: November 2023

Gender is often a primary axis of differentiation in small-scale societies. Together with age, it is often said to provide the basis for whatever limited division of labour exists. Images of this kind of ‘simple’ or ‘small-scale’ societies rest uneasily with what is now known about Melanesia and Polynesia: many societies were localized but specialized, and possessed complex hierarchies which were often unconnected with wider centralized political structures. Both economies and social inequalities in these regions were thus more differentiated than stereotypes and expectations about tribal societies would permit.
Feasting and Warfare
Authors: Thomas Nicholas
Published: November 2023

Polynesian societies have long been conceived of as small-scale aristocracies in which the statuses of individuals were defined, prior to their birth, by rank, and particularly by their genealogical proximity to ‘royal’ or chiefly families. The image of a rigid order through which social positions were ‘ascribed’ was qualified in so far as it was recognized that certain people such as warriors could create status through their personal prowess or expertise. Marquesan society did accord with this view to a certain extent: chiefly status was prescribed genealogically, albeit neither finally nor unambiguously, and the way chiefs stood above society and in a sense embodied it was given in a prior, cultural sense. The position of haka’iki derived from genealogy and cosmology, ancestors and deities. When the first-born daughter of a chief came of age, there was no question but that this was an event to be celebrated on a grander and different scale from the puberty of simply any woman. However, Marquesan society was structured by varieties of difference and inequality unconnected with the sanctity of chiefs and chiefly lines. Nor were these simply associated with the individual brilliance of male warriors and craft specialists.
Southern Marquesan Transformations
Authors: Thomas Nicholas
Published: November 2023

On most Polynesian islands, some localities saw much more interaction with Europeans than others. The unevenness of contact and the uneven development of trading has, of course, been a very widespread feature of contacts between global or regional economies and tribal or peripheral groups throughout history. This irregularity has systematically influenced relations of asymmetry or inequality within the peripheral regions: some times an existing hierarchy of places has collapsed; at other times European contact has led to a strengthening of exchange relations or the creation of asymmetry among groups of previously equivalent status. Such developments are not merely outcomes of imperialism, but rather reflect the prior properties of the indigenous regional system. The history discussed here is thus partly an expression of the characteristics of the Marquesan polity described earlier.
Crises and Social Transformations
Authors: Thomas Nicholas
Published: November 2023

We have seen that Marquesan social relations periodically engendered political crises leading to the rejection of ‘akatia or chiefs. In a longer-term systemic sense, these events were connected with more severe and profound crises known to Marquesans—periods of famine (oke or one). Pierre Chaulet listed over twenty plant foods which were resorted to during these periods; most were toxic and had to be leached and cooked extensively before they could be eaten. One of these was putahutahu, the trunk of a banana tree
DENG and Aiwel: Elements of the Prophetic Idiom and Definition of the Moral Community
Authors: Johnson Douglas H
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will examine the broader Nilotic heritage, on which the Nuer have drawn, in order to trace changes in expectation (if not meaning) as the prophetic idiom developed out of the experience of the nineteenth century. We will want to identify those aspects of spiritual activity and power on which the prophets based their own authority, and which acted as precedents for prophetic activity.
Caste and Kinship in a Newar Village
Authors: Ishii Hiroshi
Published: November 2023

Since the studies of Fürer-Haimendorf (1956), Nepali (1965), and Rosser (1966), it is well known that the fundamental elements of Newar society are caste, socio-religious organizations called guthi based on a system of rotation, patrilineal kinship, and the joint family. It is further characterized by the coexistence of Hinduism and Buddhism, and by the importance of residence, seniority, and a high degree of conformity (including that towards caste ideology). Though tolerance of inter-caste marriages and consequent upward mobility are emphasized by Fürer-Haimendorf(1956: 33—6) and Rosser (1966: 90—104), a serious doubt has been raised as to their general applicability by Quigley (1986; forthcoming; Ch. 3 above).
The Social Organization of Rājopādhyaya Brāhmans
Authors: Toffin Gérard
Published: November 2023

Rājopadhyaya Brāhmar.is (or Dyabhāju) are the domestic priests of high-caste Hindu Newars of the Valley of Kathmandu. This means that principally they are the priests of the vast cluster of status groups known collectively as Śrestha, the great majority of whom are traders, shopkeepers, or civil sen·ants by profession.
The Kabyle and the French: Occidentalism in Bourdieu’s Theory of Practice
Authors: Reed-Danahay Deborah
Published: November 2023

The division of labour between those who study the West and those who study the Rest is rarely so strikingly found to reside within the work of a single person as it does in the case of Pierre Bourdieu. Bourdieu has done ethnographic research among the K abyle peoples of Algeria, but has also contributed to the sociological analysis of Western Europe (most notably, by studying those renowned producers of High Culture-the French bourgeoisie). For several decades, Bourdieu has been developing an influential theory of the relationship between culture and power, through an examination of cultural practices and ’common-sense’ understandings of the world.
Maussian Occidentalism: Gift and Commodity Systems
Authors: Carrier James G
Published: November 2023

In Orienta/ism, Edward Said criticizes what he calls the ’textual attitude’ (1978: 92) in Oriental studies, the reliance on texts to define what is authentic and worthy of attention.
The Theory of the Art Nexus
Authors: Gell Alfred
Published: November 2023

To construct such a theory it is first of all necessary to define certain theoretical entities (terms) and relations. Just now, I suggested that such a theory would ‘look like’ familiar anthropological theories, such as the theory of exchange, or the theory of kinship, but that it would replace some of the terms of such theories with ‘art objects’.However, this raises immediate difficulties, in that ‘art objects’, ‘works of art’, or ‘artworks’ may form a readily identifiable class of objects in some art systems, but this is hardly true of all of them, especially not in anthropological contexts. In effect, if we make ‘the ,work of art’ the corner-stone of the anthropological theory of art, the theory itself becomes instantly otiose, for reasons which have already been alluded to.
The Origination of the Index
Authors: Gell Alfred
Published: November 2023

The fact that I have chosen to employ a single graphic symbol, an arrow, could be taken to imply that ‘agency’ has some quintessential, generic form, of which the various types of agency so far mentioned are species. This inference would be incorrect; the agency arrow implies no particular kind of agency, only the polarity of agent/patient relations. I set no limit , whatsoever to the type of ‘action’ involved. Sometimes this action is psychological; for example, the ‘action’ of an index in impressing a spectator with its technical excellence, or arousing the spectator erotically; while at other times the action may be physical, as happens, for instance, if the index is a holy icon which cures the rheumatism of the one who kisses it, rather than merely looks at it.
Aspects of Organization
Authors: Laidlaw James
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter introduced Shvetambar Jainism by looking at its most salient symbols and schemas. This chapter sketches the social organization of the practices which generate and transmit them, and identifies some of the relationships on which religious life is built.
A Theology of Interdiction
Authors: Laidlaw James
Published: November 2023

In Jain temples, in addition to idols of the Tirthankars and other great Jain saints of the past such as the Guru Devs, there are several other kinds of sacred representations. There are usually a few of the many named gods and goddesses who are devotees and protectors of the Tirthankars, known respectively as yakshas and yakshis (also as shasan devs and shasan devis). Like those of many of the high gods in the Hindu pantheon, these are anthropomorphic statues, sometimes with animal heads and many arms. The goddesses, especially, are popular figures in Jain temples. Today the most commonly found, in the form of small statues which, like those in Vaishnava Hindu temples, are dressed in gowns of sequinned and gilded cloth, are the patronesses respectively of the first and twenty-third Jinas, the goddesses Cakeshvari and Padmavati.
Social Dimensions of Jain Identity
Authors: Laidlaw James
Published: November 2023

Just outside the city wall in Jaipur is a Muslim neighbourhood. It is immediately apparent as such: people dress differently, the shop signs are in Urdu, and, more important from the Jain point of view, there are several butchers’ shops and the road is often partially blocked by sheep. Often I had cause to go through this area with a Jain friend, usually on a rickshaw, and whoever it was would mark the passage in some way or other: by putting a handkerchief to their nose, or by remarking on the impending fate of the animals. On one occasion my companion, a devoutly religious young man, suddenly asked the driver to stop and scurried over towards one of the shops. I waited, perplexed. After a few minutes he returned, climbed in, and told the driver to go on. Obviously pleased with himself, he waited for me to ask what he had been doing and then explained that today was a Hindu religious holiday, one of a number of days in the year when the government requires butchers’ shops to remain closed. He had spotted one that looked open, and had gone to check. ‘They pull their shutters almost down, hoping no one will notice,’ he said. ‘Tomorrow I shall report them.’ I congratulated him on his vigilance and he offered to give me a list of the days on which this ban operated, so that I could do the same. I must have looked horrified, for he added, ‘Yes, I suppose you’re right. The police would never listen to you.’
Acts Which Are Not
Authors: Laidlaw James
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter I described how and why the adoption of the five anuvrat vows plays such a limited role in Jain religious life. I tried to specify just what that place is, and why the vows’ being limited to a very few people is central to their meaning and import. The simple fact that so few people take them has of course been noticed by authors who nevertheless offer these vows as a summary of lay Jainism.
Constitutional Monarchy: The Prerogative Powers
Authors: Blake Robert
Published: November 2023

A constitutional monarchy is one where the head of state is a hereditary figure who reigns but does not rule. It is a peculiarly British invention. Or rather a peculiarly British development, since there is no particular moment when it was invented. It is not like the American presidency, whose origins can be precisely dated; this is true, too, of successive French, German, and Italian presidencies, and also of the Spanish monarchy as re-created after the death of General Franco. There is a definite time when they came into being and a written constitution defining their role.
Geoffrey Marshall and Public Law: The Early Years
Authors: Griffith John
Published: November 2023

Between 1957 and 1981, Geoffrey Marshall on my count contributed over fifty separate pieces to Public Law, as assistant editor. Mostly these were short articles in the Comment section and book reviews. Their range was considerable and included police powers, working of Parliament, official secrets, maladministration, the Commonwealth constitutions, the judiciary, and broad jurisprudential questions. Their value in keeping the quarterly alive and well was immense, especially during the later years of my editorship (1956–81).
The Origins of Vowel Systems
Authors: Boer Bart de
Published: November 2023

This book addresses the question of how the properties of human vowel systems can be explained. Though it is found that vowel systems of human languages are optimal for communicative purposes, it is not clear who is doing the optimization. If children learn a language, they learn to produce sounds that are as close as possible to those used by their parents and peers. The hypothesis is put forward that the optimization is the result of self-organization in a population of language users. Self-organization is the emergence of order on a global scale in a system where there are only local interactions. It is a phenomenon that appears in many natural systems from purely physical ones, such as crystals, to systems composed of living organisms, such as colonies of insects. Recent developments in linguistics indicate that self-organization might also play an important role in language. The theory is put to the test by implementing it as a computer model. This computer model simulates the interaction in a population of artificial 'agents' that can each produce and perceive vowels in a human-like way. The vowel systems that emerge from the computer simulations closely resemble human vowel systems. It is also shown that many simple variations on the basic system can be investigated, thus providing valuable insight into the dynamics of systems of speech sounds. The ultimate aim of the book is to provide insight into how language has evolved. It turns out that the mechanism of self-organization can make it easier to explain the evolution of language, since it provides an alternative mechanism for the emergence of certain linguistic structures.
Universal Tendencies of Human Sound Systems
Authors: Boer Bart de
Published: November 2023

Most human languages use sound as their primary medium for conveying meaning. Only sign languages use vision, and although sign languages are as complex and interesting as spoken languages, this book will focus on the properties of speech sounds. There are different ways of studying the sounds used in human languages. The field of science that studies the physical properties is called phonetics. Phonetics is ideally concerned with properties of speech sounds that are objectively measurable. These properties can be either acoustic (studied in the subfield of acoustic phonetics) or articulatory (studied in the subfield of articulatory phonetics). In order to write down the sounds they observe, phoneticians use the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). To show that the symbols represent physically measurable signals or actions, they are always placed between square brackets [ ].
Self-Organization
Authors: Boer Bart de
Published: November 2023

Self-organization, as the term is used in this book, is the emergence of order on a large scale in a system through interactions that are only on a local scale. Through its use by many different researchers in many different fields, and through the fact that there is no precise mathematical definition of the term, self-organization has become a rather illunderstood concept. The term (Nicolis and Prigogine 1977) might even have a slightly negative connotation for some researchers, not least because the notion of selforganization has been taken over by a number of followers of the New Age Movement (a book by the founder of the study of self-organization, Prigogine, and the philosopher Stengers (1988) has been published by a New Age publisher). That this has happened has to do with the fact that self-organization implies in a sense that ‘the total is larger than the sum of its parts: but the New Age understanding of this concept is no more sophisticated than its understanding of the concept of particle-wave duality it has so eagerly adopted from quantum physics. In fact, self-organization is a phenomenon that occurs when a system’s global behaviour depends not only on the behaviour of the constituent parts, but also on the interactions between these parts. Many natural systems are of this kind and in fact self-organization occurs in many different systems in nature. In physics, an example is the regular convection cells that emerge in so-called Rayleigh-Benard convection. In this type of convection, a thin layer of fluid is heated from below. As the hot liquid below is less dense than the colder liquid above, it starts to rise, but it is hampered by the viscosity of the fluid. If the temperature gradient is small, the fluid stays motionless, and heat is transferred through thermal conductance. Once the gradient becomes large enough, the fluid starts to move. However, the movement is not random; a number of regular cells appear, arranged in a hexagonal grid.
Implications for Other Parts of Language
Authors: Boer Bart de
Published: November 2023

The main contribution of the work described in this book has been to show that vowel systems with the same universal tendencies as human vowel systems can emerge as the result of self-organization in a population of agents. The agents do not have an innate disposition towards learning and using certain vowel systems, nor do they explicitly optimize their vowel systems. Rather, the universal tendencies seem to be an unavoidable outcome of the articulatory and perceptual constraints of the agents as well as their participation in numerous repeated interactions in which they have only limited information and in which errors can occur. Even if the parameters of the system, or the rules of the game, are slightly changed (for more details see de Boer 1999), the same kinds of vowel systems emerge. From a dynamic systems perspective these results can be explained as follows. The perception, production, and learning of the individual agents, together with their interactions, form a complex dynamic system. This system shows self-organization in the sense described in Chapter 3. In such a system there are attractors, that is, a limited (but usually not extremely small) number of states to which the system will tend to evolve over time. The dynamics of the system cause certain configurations of vowels to be stronger attractors than others. An attractor is stronger if there are more initial states from which the system will evolve towards it. Therefore, starting from an initial random configuration, the system will tend to evolve most often towards the strongest attractors.
What is Sentential Complementation?
Authors: Deutscher Guy
Published: November 2023

The elementary question, ‘what is complementation?’, may seem a strange way to start this study. Sentential complements, as is well known, are clauses embedded as subjects or objects of verbs, like the italicized clause in the sentence ‘he believes that the world is round’. A closer look, however, will quickly reveal that the issue is much less simple than it may appear at first sight. Although the aim of this study is not a theoretical examination of the nature of complementation, even the practical concerns of a diachronic study soon lead to serious difficulties. In the following sections, therefore, I highlight the main problems with the traditional concept of sentential complementation, and suggest how they can be resolved.
The Functional Domain of Complementation in Babylonian
Authors: Deutscher Guy
Published: November 2023

This study makes a strict division between structural change (in Part II), and functional change (in this Part). Part II followed the emergence of new structures: finite complements and the quotative construction. This Part examines functional replacement: the changes in the functional roles of different structures. The following three chapters trace the changes in the relative roles of the various structures in the FDC throughout the historical period. Chapter 7 will examine the structures used with knowledge, perception, and speech verbs; chapter 8 will describe verbs of manipulation and modality; and chapter 9 will describe the structures used in the ‘wh-functional domain’. This chapter offers a brief introduction to the Functional Domain of Complementation in Babylonian. It surveys first the range of verbs in the FDC (§6.1), and the range of structures used with them (§6.2). Section 6.3 then explains the difference between subordinate and independent clauses in Babylonian. Finally, section 6.4 examines briefly the relation between syntax and semantics in the choice of structures in the FDC.
How heavy is the vacuum?
Authors: Rowan-Robinson Michael
Published: November 2023

The eighth number of the cosmos, the cosmological constant, A (lambda), was introduced by Einstein in 1917 in order to permit a static model of the universe. The idea is that a repulsive force, whose strength increases with distance, operates on the cosmological scale and prevents the universe from falling together under gravity. Recall (p. 25) that Newton, in his discussions with Richard Bentley, could not decide what the fate of a uniform, smooth, infinite universe would be, and argued that as the matter would not know which way to fall it would remain in its place. Quite apart from the question of the stability of such an infinite, static Newtonian universe, the issue is settled in Einstein’s general theory of relativity. An infinite, uniform universe could not be static without the addition of the cosmological repulsion.
How do galaxies form?
Authors: Rowan-Robinson Michael
Published: November 2023

We have seen how the shape of the distribution, or spectrum, of primordial density fluctuations over a wide range of scales is a powerful probe of the cosmological scenario and of the nature of the dark matter in the universe. However, even if we knew the form of this spectrum exactly we would still not know how galaxies form and evolve because this depends on the detailed physics of the formation of stars, how they interact with the surrounding interstellar gas, and how they lose mass at the end of their lives.
Introduction
Authors: Tanford Charles , Reynolds Jacqueline
Published: November 2023

In September 2000, about the time that the manuscript for this book was being completed, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, part of the US National Institutes of Health, launched the largest explicit molecular project of all time, aiming to solve the three-dimensional structures of 10 000 proteins. The goal is to do this not for just any 10 000 proteins, but to select ones that would represent identifiable protein families, each family representing a group with similar physiological function and/or gene similarities—proteins expected to be sufficiently closely related so that knowledge of one structure can be expected to allow pre- diction of structures for other members of a family on the basis of much less information than rigorous atom-by-atom measurements. The project is known as the ‘structural genomics initiative’. The work is to be split among seven regionally based research groups. The cost to the institute over the first five years will be $150 000 000 (£100 000 000).
The Peptide Bond
Authors: Tanford Charles , Reynolds Jacqueline
Published: November 2023

By 1900 it was understood that protein molecules are mainly built up from amino acids and most of the constituent amino acids had been identified—a huge change in the frame of reference compared to 1840, the year of Mulder’s elemental analyses, when only glycine and leucine had been known. The rest had gradually appeared over the years, isolated from protein hydrolysates and chemically characterized. Emil Fischer, one of the two principal figures in this chapter, himself added two to the list, namely proline and valine, first isolated in his laboratory in 1901. One could not know at the time what the ultimate total would be, but in fact only three remained to be discovered—five if we count asparagine and glutamine. Actual dates are given in Table 3.1.
Electricity and biological signals
Authors: Magee Patrick , Tooley Mark
Published: November 2023

The first part of the chapter is intended to give the reader an introduction sufficient to understand the electronics and signal processing sections.BasicrulesOhm’s law states that the current (I) measured in amperes flowing through a conductor of resistance (R) measured in ohms (D) is proportional to the electro-motive force (voltage, V) measured in volts. For a constant voltage, V = IR.
Vaporization and vaporizers
Authors: Magee Patrick , Tooley Mark
Published: November 2023

A liquid can be thought of as incompressible; at a molecular level it is because the molecules are so close together that very little further approximation of them is possible. If these molecules are given sufficient energy in the form of heat, they acquire more kinetic energy as shown by an increase in temperature. The molecules near the surface of the liquid are thus able to loosen themselves from the attractive forces of neighbouring molecules and leave the liquid surface with their excess kinetic energy.
Ultrasound and Doppler
Authors: Magee Patrick , Tooley Mark
Published: November 2023

Ultrasound has many uses in the areas of medicine associated with anesthesia. It is used for imaging, therapy and, together with the Doppler effect, for measurement of flow velocity. Real-time information can be obtained with ease and with the low energies used, diagnostic equipment exposures are not thought to be a safety issue, either for the operator or the patient. The discussion that follows is concerned only with medical ultrasound.
Blood gas analysis
Authors: Magee Patrick , Tooley Mark
Published: November 2023

A blood gas machine has electrodes to measure pH, pCO2, and pO2 and often measures Hb and some bio-chemistry as well (King and Campbell 2000). Derived values from such a device include O2 saturation, O2 content, bicarbonate, base excess, and total CO2.pO2 electrodeThis is the Clarke electrode described in the previous section on gas analysers and is therefore suitable for both respiratory and blood O2 analysis.
Aids to intubation
Authors: Magee Patrick , Tooley Mark
Published: November 2023

This device was invented by Sir Ivan Magill and Sir Robert MacIntosh to visualize the vocal cords to aid intubation. The curved blade of the MacIntoshlaryngo scope is still popular as the standard and its design has been reshaped in recent years to reduce the biomechanical forces on the teeth (Bucxet al. 1994, 1997). The straight blade of the Magill laryngoscope can make the view easier under some circumstances, as can modern variants (Henderson 1997).
Breathing systems
Authors: Magee Patrick , Tooley Mark
Published: November 2023

An anaesthetic breathing system is a means of transfer-ring the breathing gas mixture from the anaesthetic machine common gas outlet to the patient. It is also the means of transferring the exhaled gas from the patient to the outside world, usually via a scavenging system; alternatively, after the carbon dioxide is absorbed from the exhaled gas, the unused fresh gas components of the exhaled gas are recirculated back to the patient. In general, a breathing system consists of a fresh gas limb, an inspiratory and expiratory limb, an expiratory valve, and a reservoir bag and may also incorporate one or more unidirectional valves and a carbon dioxide absorber.
Intravenous pumps and syringe drivers
Authors: Magee Patrick , Tooley Mark
Published: November 2023

Many infusions are given by gravity-assisted drip sets, which give a flow rate dependent on the height of the reservoir above the patient, the length of the tubing, the bore of the intravenous cannula, the density and viscosity of the fluid being delivered, and the patient’s venous pressure. However there is an increasing tendency to use programmable volumetric intravenous pumps and syringe drivers to deliver intravenous anaesthesia, fluids, patient-controlled anaesthesia, epidural infusions, and other drugs.
Imaging and radiation
Authors: Magee Patrick , Tooley Mark
Published: November 2023

This chapter covers the background to the physics of imaging using standard X-rays, computed axial tomography (CT), nuclear medicine, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It covers the basics of ionizing radiation and also discusses lasers, which are a form of nonionizing radiation.
Support
Authors: Tyson K W , Yemm R , Scott B J J
Published: November 2023

The first question we should ask is how do the teeth and mucosa support the denture, after all, the remaining teeth have only supported themselves in the past and the mucosa is not well adapted to withstand masticatory loads. The mucosa or really the mucoperiosteum covering the residual ridges, although not accustomed to carrying occlusal loads, can withstand reasonable intermittent loading. The policy here, then, is to cover as great an area as possible with the denture base to spread the load, so reducing the load per unit area on the tissues.
Connectors
Authors: Tyson K W , Yemm R , Scott B J J
Published: November 2023

Once you have decided on the teeth you are going to replace, and how the saddles are to be supported, it is time to determine how you are going to join the saddles together. In this section we are going to deal with rigid connectors which will hold the parts of the denture together without distortion.
Designing For Kennedy Class Iii Dentures
Authors: Tyson K W , Yemm R , Scott B J J
Published: November 2023

This is generally straightforward, although it is worth- while to consider a fixed prosthesis (bridge) if the ‘saddle ‘ is short and the abutments periodontally sound. If the oral hygiene and dental condition are adequate, a cast metal connector is to be preferred (high strength, minimum bulk and least tissue coverage). In this case selection can be made from the range of options as shown on the next two pages: