bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Signs and symptoms in common colds
Authors: Tyrrell D. A. J. , Cohen S. , Schilarb J. E.
Published: May 2009

The patterns of disease caused by five common viruses which infect the respiratory tract are described. The viruses were strains of rhinovirus types 2, 9, and 14, a strain of coronavirus type 229E and of respiratory syncytial virus. Volunteers were given nasal drops containing a low infections dose of one of the viruses, quarantined from 2 days before to 5 days after inoculation, and examined daily by a clinician using a standard checklist of respiratory signs and symptoms. Only subjects who developed clinical illness accompanied by viral shedding and/or specific antibody production were analysed [n = 116]. The results confirm indication from earlier studies that the main difference between colds induced by different viruses is in duration of the incubation period. Patterens of symptom development were not substantially different with different viruses. Analyses of signs and symptoms in different categories, e.g. nasal symptoms v. coughing, justify treatment with different drugs either successively or simultaneously.
Dengue epidemic in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1990–1: co-circulation of dengue 1 and dengue 2 serotypes
Authors: Nogueira R. M. R. , Miagostovich M. P. , Lampe E. , Souza R. W. , Zagne S. M. O. , Schatzmayr H. G.
Published: May 2009

During 1990 and 1991, dengue fever was detected in the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It occurred in two epidemic waves; one, from January to August 1990, caused predominantly by dengue virus type 1 (DEN-1) the other from October 1990 to May 1991 caused by type 2 virus (DEN-2). Dengue was confirmed by virus isolation and/or IgM capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (MAC-ELISA) in 2109/5964 (35·4%) of the cases. DEN-2 virus was isolated from 180 patients. HAI tests indicated that of these previous infection with DEN-1 had occurred in 130 (72%). The epidemic was classified as dengue fever, but severe and even fatal cases occurred in association with secondary infection.
A model for autumn outbreaks of Legionnaires' disease associated with cooling towers, linked to system operation and size
Authors: Bentham R. H. , Broadbent C. R.
Published: May 2009

Cooling towers have been demonstrated to be amplifiers and disseminators of legionella, the causative organism of Legionnaires' disease. Community outbreaks associated with cooling towers have been reported with several common factors. Small towers (< 300 kW) have predominantly been implicated in outbreaks. Cooling tower-associated outbreaks are most frequent in autumn, and frequently implicated systems have been operated after a period of shutdown.

This paper reports field study data relating system operation to legionella colonization of systems. Operating systems have been shown to be more frequently colonized by legionella than shutdown systems. In some cases operation of systems after periods of shutdown raised legionella concentrations from below detection limits to between 50 and 950 c.f.u./ml within 10 min.

These data and previously reported data relating to biofilm and sediment colonization of the systems, and community outbreaks of Legionnaires' disease, have been used to develop a model explaining the seasonal nature of outbreaks associated with irregularly operated, small cooling tower systems.
The epidemiology and surveillance of visceral leishmaniasis in the Campania region of Italy. The value of zymodeme typing
Authors: Gradoni L. , Pizzuti R. , di Martino L. , Gramiccia M. , Pempinello R. , Gaeta G. B. , Ferrara M. , Scotti S. , Altieri S.
Published: May 2009

Although human visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a notifiable disease in Italy, there is evidence that the actual number of cases is far higher than that notified. A programme for active surveillance of VL in the 14 Italian endemic regions was launched by the Istituto Superiore di Sanità. We report data collected during a 3-year period of active surveillance in Campania, a south Tyrrhenian region covering 4·5% of the Italian territory. Out of 120 clinically suspected cases referred to medical and diagnostic references centres, there were 52 confirmed VL cases (17·3/year), i.e. 10-fold more than previously notified. Most of the infection sites were in rural areas or peripheral districts of towns in hilly parts of Naples province. An epidemic cluster of 10 cases was identified in a microfocus of Caserta province. The biochemical analysis of 23Leishmaniastocks showed a zymodeme composition indicating Campania as an old and well-established focus of VL. The data obtained emphasize that the present notification system for VL in Italy is inadequate.
Mycoplasma pulmonisinfection of the murine oropharynx protects against subsequent vaginal colonization
Authors: Furr P. M. , Taylor-Robinson D.
Published: May 2009

Intranasal inoculation of 12 young adult mice (strain TO) withMycoplasma pulmonisprotected all of them against vaginal colonization when they were challenged intravaginally 60 days later with the same mycoplasmal strain. In contrast, all 15 mice without a respiratory infection became colonized vaginally (geometric mean titre [GMT] 4·6 × 106colour-changing units [c.c.u.]) when challenged in the same way. The GMT of serum antibody, measured by a micro-immunofluorescence technique, prior to challenge was 200 and 8 for the oropharyngeally infected and unexposed mice, respectively. The GMT of antibody in vaginal washings from the two groups was 6 and 3, respectively. All four nude BALB/c mice were susceptible to vaginal colonization (GMT 5·6 × 106c.c.u.) after oropharyngeal infection (GMT 5·1 × 104c.c.u.) resulting from intranasal inoculation, as were all six nude mice (vaginal GMT 1·4 × 107c.c.u.) that had not been inoculated intranasally. In contrast, all ten of their immunocompetent counterparts were resistant to vaginal colonization after oropharyngeal infection (GMT 1·3 × 103c.c.u.), whereas all nine such mice that had not been infected oropharyngeally were susceptible to vaginal colonization (GMT 7·6 × 106c.c.u.). These results show the important role that a respiratory infection has in protecting the vagina against colonization and that protection is dependent on a functioning T-lymphocyte system.
Outer membrane characteristics of Salmonella enteritidis phage type 4 growing in chickens
Authors: Chart H. , Conway D. , Rowe B.
Published: May 2009

Strains of Salmonella enteritidis belonging to phage type 4 (SE4) were grown in the peritoneal cavities of chickens, and without subculture on laboratory media examined for inducible in vivo phenotypic characteristics. These bacteria expressed three major outer membrane proteins (OMPs) of 33, 35 and 36 kilodaltons (kDa), and iron regulated OMPs of 74, 78 and 81 kDa. Bacteria growing in vivo did not express flagella, or fimbriae with a subunit molecular mass of 14 kDa (14 kDa fimbriae). Two OMPs of 55 and 23 kDa, expressed during culture in nutrient broth, were repressed during growth in chickens. Possession of a 38 MDa ‘mouse virulence’ plasmid did not influence the expression of OMPs, flagella or fimbriae. It was concluded that strains of SE4 growing in chicken tissues, use an enterobactin mediated iron uptake system to obtain ferric ions, do not express flagella or 14 kDa fimbriae and appear not to express novel OMPs involved in survival in vivo.
The coccoid forms ofHelicobacter pylori. Criteria for their viability
Authors: Bode G. , Mauch F. , Malfertheiner P.
Published: May 2009

The fact thatHelicobacter pylorican revert to a coccoid form has stimulated speculation about its role in transmission and as a possible cause of reinfection in duodenal ulcer disease. Bismuth subcitrate (32 μg/ml), bismuth subsalicylate (64 μg/ml), amoxicillin (0·05 μg/ml) and erythromycin (4 μg/ml) inhibited the growth ofH. pyloriand stimulated the formation the formation of basically respiring but non-culturable coccoid structures. The presence of polyphosphates as energy and phosphorus source permits a certain level of endogenous metabolism to preserve RNA and DNA, as well as structural components like cell wall, cell membrane and cytoplasma for at least 3 months. However, the applied standard laboratory methods were insufficient for regrowth ofH. pyloriout of the coccoid form.
The role of wild animals, other than buffalo, in the current epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease in Zimbabwe
Authors: Anderson E. C. , Foggin C. , Atkinson M. , Sorensen K. J. , Madekurozva R. L. , Nqindi J.
Published: May 2009

Between 1989 and 1992, 7970 wild ungulates, comprising 14 different species, were tested for antibodies to types SAT 1, SAT 2 and SAT 3 foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus. Of these 1·2% were found to be positive and these included impala (Aepyceros melampus), eland (Taurotragus oryx), waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) and sable (Hippotragus niger). All the positive animals were either from the wildlife areas where buffalo (Syncerus caffer) occur or from ranches where clinical FMD had occurred in cattle. The role of these animal species in the current epidemiology of FMD in Zimbabwe is discussed.
Erratum
Authors: Karvonen M. , Tuomilehto J. , Pitkäniemi J. , Saikku P.
Published: May 2009

The epidemic cycle of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in eastern Finland, 1972–1987 Fig 2. For the top right-hand graph of the four shown, the legend should show: urban. … rural, –––; all, ——. The legend for the remaining three graphs is correct.
Epidemic cholera in Ecuador: multidrug–resistance and transmission by water and seafood
Authors: Weber J. T. , Mintz E. D. , Cañizares R. , Semiglia A. , Gomez I. , Sempértegui R. , Dávila A. , Greene K. D. , Puhr N. D. , Cameron D. N. , Tenover F. C. , Barrett T. J. , Bean N. H. , Ivey C. , Tauxe R. V. , Blake P. A.
Published: May 2009

To determine risk factors for cholera in an epidemic-disease area in South America, a case–control investigation was performed in Guayaquil, Ecuador, in July 1991. Residents > 5 years old who were hospitalized for treatment of acute, watery diarrhoea and two matched controls for each were interviewed regarding sources of water and food, and eating, drinking, and hygienic habits. Interviewers inspected homes of case-patients and controls to document water treatment, food-handling, and hygienic practices. Faecal specimens and shellfish were cultured forVibrio choleraeO 1. Isolates were tested for susceptibility to a variety of antimicrobial agents. Drinking unboiled water (odds ratio [OR] = 4.0, confidence interval [CI] = 1.8–7.5), drinking a beverage from a street vendor (OR = 2.8, CI = 1.3–5.9), eating raw seafood (OR = 3.4, CI = 1.4–11.5), and eating cooked crab (OR = 5.1, CI = 1.4–19.2) were associated with illness. Always boiling drinking water at home (OR = 0.5, CI = 0.2–0.9) was protective against illness. The presence of soap in either the kitchen (OR = 0.3, CI = 0.2–0.8) or bathroom (OR = 0.4, CI = 0.2–0.9) at home was also protective.V. choleraeO 1 was recovered from a pooled sample of a bivalve mollusc and from 68% of stool samples from case-patients. Thirty-six percent of the isolates from stool specimens were resistant to multiple antimicrobial agents. Specific prevention measures may prevent transmission through these vehicles in the future. The appearance of antimicrobial resistance suggests the need for changes in current methods of prevention and treatment.
Use of plasmid profile typing for surveillance ofSalmonella enteritidisphage type 4 from humans, poultry and eggs
Authors: Threlfall E. J. , Hampton M. D. , Chart H. , Rowe B.
Published: May 2009

Plasmids were found in 1022 of 1089 (94%) of drug–sensitive strains ofSalmonella enteritidisphage type 4 from humans (sporadic and outbreak cases), poultry (chickens) and eggs in England and Wales in the 5-year period 1988–92 and 25 plasmid profile patterns were identified. Strains characterized by a single plasmid of 38 MDa predominated ( = plasmid profile type SE 38), comprising over 90% of isolates from humans, 70% from poultry and 92% from eggs. Eleven profile types were identified in strains from humans, 21 in strains from poultry and 3 in strains from eggs. Eight of the 11 patterns identified in human isolates were found in strains from poultry and 2 in strains from eggs. In contrast 15 patterns seen in poultry were not found in strains from humans. Four percent of strains from humans and 13% from poultry did not carry the 38 MDa plasmid but all strains from eggs were found to carry this plasmid. The second most common profile type in strains isolated between 1981 and 1988 was not identified in strains isolated from 1988–92. It is concluded that plasmid profile typing is a useful method for rapid differentiation within phage type 4 ofS. enteritidisbut that methods which can discriminate within the predominant profile type, SE 38, are now required.
Bacterial flora of Tasmanian SIDS infants with special reference to pathogenic strains ofEscherichia coli
Authors: Bettiol S. S. , Radcliff F. J. , Hunt A. L. C. , Goldsmid J. M.
Published: May 2009

The general bacterial flora of 38 Tasmanian SIDS infants was examined together with faecal flora of 134 comparison infants ranging in age from birth to 6 months. The microflora of all specimens received was investigated with special emphasis on the toxigenicEscherichia coli(TEC). Samples were examined for verocytotoxigenicE. coli, free faecal verocytotoxin (FVT), heat labile toxin (LT) and heat stable toxin (ST) producers with the use of a Vero cell assay and commercial kits. The findings of this study revealed a high isolation rate (39%) of TEC from SIDS infants as compared to 1.5% from the healthy comparison infants. AtypicalE. colistrains were also identified during the study, includingE. coliA–D. An analysis of the same specimens for rotaviral and adenoviral antigens indicated that 30% of the SIDS cases were positive as compared to 20% in the comparison group.
Immunoglobulin A antibodies directed againstCampylobacter jejuniflagellin present in breast–milk
Authors: Nachamkin I. , Fischer S. H. , Yang X.-H. , Benitez O. , Cravioto A.
Published: May 2009

SUMMAY

We studied the relationship between IgA anti–campylobacter flagellin antibodies in breast milk samples and protection of breastfed infants living in a rural Mexican village from campylobacter infection. There were fewer episodes of campylobacter infection (symptomatic and asymptomatic combined) in infants breastfed with milk containing specific anti-flagellin antibodies (1.2/child/year, 95% CI 0.6–1.8) versus non–breastfed children (3.3/child/year, 95% CI 1.8–4.8; P < 0.01). Infants breastfed with milk that was antiflagellin antibody negative by ELISA also had fewer episodes of infection compared with non-breastfed children, but the difference did not reach statistical significance (1.8/child/year, 95% CI 0.7–3.0 versus 3.3/child/year, 95% CI 1.8–4.8, P > 0.05). Breastfeeding has a protective effect against campylobacter infection and is associated with the presence of specific antibodies directed against campylobacter flagellin.
Measles vaccine: a 27–year follow–up
Authors: Ramsay M. E. B. , Moffatt D. , O'connor M.
Published: May 2009

In 1964, the Medical Research Council undertook a trial of measles vaccine in over 36000 United Kingdom children; 9577 of whom received live vaccine, 10625 received inactivated followed by live vaccine, and 16328 acted as unvaccinated controls. Participants in this study have been followed to determine the long term protection from measles vaccine and follow-up data were available on 4194, 4638 and 274 respectively. During the 5–year period 1986–90, the protective efficacy of live measles vaccine has remained high at 87%, but the 95% confidence interval was wide ( –43 to 99%) due to the small numbers of cases. Between 1976 and 1990, however, the overall efficacy of the live vaccine was 92% (95% confidence interval 86 to 95%) and there was no evidence of a decline in efficacy (P = 0.13) over the 15–year period. This study suggests that the protection from live measles vaccine persists for up to 27 years after vaccination, and that no change in the current United Kingdom measles immunization policy should be made on the grounds of waning immunity.
Long–term survival in trial of medium–titre Edmonston–Zagreb measles vaccine in Guinea–Bissau: five–year follow–up
Authors: Aaby P. , Lisse I. M. , Whittle H. , Knudsen K. , Thaarup J. , Poulsen A. , Sodemann M. , Jakobsen M. , Brink L. , Gansted U. , Permin A. , Jensen T. G. , Andersen H. , da Silva M. C.
Published: May 2009

A trial of protective efficacy which compared medium–titre Edmonston-Zagreb (EZ) measles vaccine (104.6 p.f.u.) from the age of 4 months with the standard Schwarz (SW) measles vaccine given from the age of 9 months was started in an urban community in Guinea-Bissau in 1985. Because trials of high–titre measles vaccine have found increased mortality among female recipients, we examined whether EZ medium–titre vaccine was associated with any long-term impact on mortality, suppression of T–cells, or growth. The mortality rate ratio over 5 years of follow–up was 1.12 for EZ children compared with children in the standard group (P = 0.63). Seventy–five percent of the children still residing in the area at 5 years of age took part in an immunological and anthropometric examination. There was no difference in T–cell subsets between the two groups. There was no difference in mid–upper–arm circumference, but EZ children were significantly shorter than the children in the standard group. In conclusion, medium–titre EZ was not associated with reduced survival or persistent immunosuppression.
Allelic variation in theHelicobacter pyloriflagellin genesflaA andflaB: its consequences for strain typing schemes and population structure
Authors: Forbes K. J. , Fang Z. , Pennington T. H.
Published: May 2009

Extensive DNA sequence diversity was noted inHelicobacter pyloriflagellin genesflaA andflaB. PCR amplified sequences from 49 isolates were digested withAluI.HindIII.MboI orMspI, the resultant patterns were compared between the different isolates and these used to differentiate the isolates from each other. Evidence that the extensive diversity that was found in these genes is the result of reassortment of sequences between strains in the bacterial population is presented, such that a comparatively small number of individual sequence mutations can recombine together in random combinations to form a greater number of distinct alleles. Geographical differences in the predominant patterns in theflaA alleles were also observed and could reflect regional differences either in the human host population or in the bacterial population. In view of the genetic complexity of this species, molecular typing schemes designed to identify related strains may falsely associate strains if the methods do not characterize sufficient genetic sites to exclude chance associations of genetic markers in strains which are actually not closely related to each other.
A pilot study of infectious intestinal disease in England
Authors: Roderick P. , Wheeler J. , Cowdex J. , Sockett P. , Skinner R. , Mortimer P. , Rowe B. , Rodriques L.
Published: May 2009

Pilot studies to test methods to determine the incidence, agents, risk factors and socioeconomic costs of infectious intestinal disease (IID) in England were carried out as recommended by the Committee on the Microbiological Safety of Food (the Richmond Committee) by eight general practices. There were case control and enumeration studies of patients presenting to general practice with IID, a population-based prospective cohort study, and a survey of socioeconomic costs of cases of IID. Information on risk factors was obtained by questionnaire (self-administered compared with interview) and a stool sample was requested on all cases and controls. Response rates in the GP case control study were 75% for case questionnaires and 74% for stools; for controls the figures were 70% and 68% respectively. The acceptance rate into the cohort study was 49%; this was significantly higher where phone contact was made. The rate was similar if recruitment was by individual or household. Follow-up of the cohort by negative reporting was complete for up to 6 months. Direct postage by subject was required to obtain fresh stool specimens. Estimates were obtained of presentation rates of IID and the distribution of risk factors which were used to plan the main study. The pilot study demonstrated that it is possible to undertake a national study based in general practice to determine the incidence of IID in the population and presenting to GPs and its agents, risk factors and costs.
Hantavirus infections in The Netherlands: epidemiology and disease
Authors: Groen J. , Gerding M. N. , Jordans J. G. M. , Clement J. P. , Nieuwenhuijs J. H. M. , Osterhaus A. D. M. E.
Published: May 2009

A serological survey for the prevalence of hantavirus infections in The Netherlands was carried out on > 10000 sera, from selected human populations, and different feral and domestic animal species. Hantavirus-specific antibodies were found in about 1% of patients suspected of acute leptospirosis, 10% of patients with acute nephropathia, and in less than 0·1% haemodialysis and renal transplant patients. Among individuals with a suspected occupational risk, 6% of animal trappers, 4% of forestry workers, 2% of laboratory workers and 0·4% of farmers were seropositive. The majority of the seropositive individuals lived in rural and forested areas. The main animal reservoir of the infection was shown to be the red bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus). Epidemiological, clinical and laboratory findings seen in serologically confirmed human cases were similar to those associated with nephropathia epidemica.
Prevalence of human astrovirus serotype 4: capsid protein sequence and comparison with other strains
Authors: Willcocks M. M. , Kurtz J. B. , Lee T. W. , Carter M. J.
Published: May 2009

Astrovirus serotype 4 has increased in relative prevalence in the Oxford, UK area in 1993. The structural gene of human astrovirus serotype 4 has been sequenced and the results indicate that this protein differs substantially from serotypes 1 and 2. In particular, conservation at the C terminus is greatly reduced. However, amino acid substitutions in this region show a strong conservation in character suggesting that structural or functional constraints operate in this region.
Molecular characterization of a virulence-associated epitope on the lipopolysaccharide ofLegionella pneumophilaserogroup 1
Authors: Helbig J. H. , Lück P. C. , Knirel Y. A. , Witzleb W. , Zähringer U.
Published: May 2009

For identification of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-associated epitopes ofLegionella pneumophilaserogroup 1, LPS of strain Philadelphia 1 was investigated using monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). The O-specific chain of LPS is a homopolymer of 5-acetamidino-7-acetamido-8-O-acetyl-3,5,7,9-tetradeoxy-D-glycero-L-galacto-nonulosonic acid. At least four immunoaccessible epitopes were recognized by different MAbs on the intact LPS. AfterO-deacetylation of LPS, the reactivity of one of the MAbs (MAb 3/1) was lost, indicating thus that the corresponding epitope is associated with the 8-O-acetyl group. Since the reactivity pattern of the MAb 3/1 is identical with those of the MAb 2 which was considered as a virulence marker for serogroup 1, this epitope may be involved in mediating virulence inL. pneumophila. Four MAbs specific to strains of serogroup 1 other than the monoclonal subtype Philadelphia recognized epitopes on theO-deacetylated LPS of strain Philadelphia 1 and, therefore, the virulence-associated epitope blocks recognition of the immunodeterminants that are accessible on the intact LPS of the strains lacking this epitope.
Interpretation of serological surveillance data for measles using mathematical models: implications for vaccine strategy
Authors: Gay N. J. , Hesketh L. M. , Morgan-Capner P. , Miller E.
Published: May 2009

Serological surveillance of measles immunity has been carried out in England since 1986/7. Results from sera collected in 1989–91 revealed that the proportion of school age children who were susceptible to measles was increasing, following the introduction of the measles, mumps and rubella vaccination programme in October 1988. Mathematical models are used to interpret these data and determine whether this increasing susceptibility is sufficient to allow a resurgence of disease from the low levels achieved by 1993. The models summarize serological profiles by a single parameter, the reproduction number R, which quantifies the level of herd immunity in the population. Results showed that there was cause for concern over the levels of susceptibility to measles, with an epidemic of over 100000 cases likely in 1995/6. These predictions are consistent with trends in the incidence and age distribution of measles and have enabled the planning of a major vaccination campaign.
Serological evidence for the reservoir hosts of cowpox virus in British wildlife
Authors: Crouch A. C. , Baxby D. , McCracken C. M. , Gaskell R. M. , Bennett M.
Published: May 2009

The reservoir host of cowpox virus in Western Europe is not known, but epidemiological evidence from human and feline infections indicates that the virus is probably endemic in small wild rodents. Therefore, serum and tissue samples were collected from a variety of wild British mammals and some birds, and tested for evidence of Orthopoxvirus infection. Antibody reacting with cowpox virus was detected in 9/44 (20%) bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus), 8/24 (33%) field voles (Microtus agrestis), 17/86 (20%) wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) and 1/44 house mice (Mus musculus), but in no other animal species tested. Although virus was not isolated from any animal, this serological survey, together with other evidence, suggests that bank and field voles and wood mice are the main reservoir hosts of cowpox virus in Great Britain.
An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in South London: what value the p value ?
Authors: Maguire H. C. , Holmes E. , Hollyer J. , Strangeways J. E. M. , Foster P. , Holliman R. E. , Stanwell-Smith R.
Published: May 2009

An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis which affected 44 people in January and February 1991 was identified through local surveillance at a South London Public Health Laboratory. Preliminary enquiries revealed that more than half the patients were adult and that there were no common factors other than geographical association. A case-control study showed a significant association between illness and consumption of tap water supplied by a particular water company, as well as a dose response effect. There were no apparent breaches or irregularities in the water distribution system and no indication of a problem through routine monitoring indices. This incident demonstrates the problems of establishing the source of cryptosporidiosis outbreaks in the absence of evidence of environmental abnormality, as well as possibly indicating that water conforming to current treatment standards may occasionally contain sufficient numbers of Cryptosporidium oocysts to cause sporadic cases or clusters.
Poliomyelitis in the Netherlands: a review of population immunity and exposure between the epidemics in 1978 and 1992
Authors: Rümke H. C. , Oostvogel P. M. , Van Steenis G. , Van Loon A. M.
Published: May 2009

An overview of serologieal and virological studies on poliomyelitis in the Netherlands between two epidemics in 1978 and 1992 is given. Three unvaccinated patients acquired poliomyelitis abroad. In the Netherlands vaccination coverage with quadruple DPT–IPV vaccine is very high. The strong immunogenicity of inactivated poliovirus vaccine was confirmed in a cohort of children, reflected in age-stratified antibody profiles of the population. Adults born in the pre vaccination era appeared in general protected, but 10–25% of persons born between 1930 and 1945 lacked neutralizing antibodies. Revaccination induced a booster type of antibody response in 75–90% of such persons, indicating immunological memory and protection.

Virological studies on adopted children from other countries, patients with indications for viral examination, and river waters showed that the Netherlands was regularly exposed to polio virus (PV), without signs of indigenous transmission. Persons found to carry PV or their close contacts had travelled to a PV endemic country. Most of 557 isolates were vaccine-derived, only 8% were wild type viruses. Despite their presence, up to 1992 the well-known susceptibles for PV in the Netherlands were shielded by the herd immunity of the Dutch population.
Laboratory rearedAmblyomma hebraeumandAmblyomma variegatumticks differ in their susceptibility to infection withCowdria ruminantium
Authors: Mahan S. M. , Peter T. F. , Semu S. M. , Simbi B. H. , Norval R. A. I. , Barbet A. F.
Published: May 2009

The susceptibility of laboratory reared ZimbabweanAmblyomma hebraeumandA. variegatumticks to infection with geographically distinctCowdria ruminantiumstrains was investigated by feeding both species simultaneously on individual sheep infected with one of the four strains (Crystal Springs [Zimbabwe], Ball 3 [South Africa]. Gardel [Guadeloupe] and Nigeria [Nigeria]).A. hebraeumticks demonstrated a high susceptibility to infection with all fourC. ruminantiumstrains. In comparison.A. variegatumwere less susceptible to infection with the Crystal Springs and Ball 3 strains (P< 0·001), but showed a similar susceptibility to the Gardel and Nigeria strains. The differences in susceptibility ofA. variegatumto infection with the four strains ofC. ruminantiumcorrelated with the origin of these strains. The consistently higher susceptibility ofA. hebraeumticks to infection with geographically differentC. ruminantiumstrains may be one explanation for the observation that heartwater is a more serious problem whereA. hebraeiunis the vector of the disease.
An epidemiological study ofVibrio choleraeO1 in the Australian environment based on rRNA gene polymorphisms
Authors: Desmarchelier P. M. , Wong F. Y. K. , Mallard K.
Published: May 2009

Since 1977,Vibrio choleraeO1 has been isolated from the Australian aquatic environment and periodically cholera cases have occurred following exposure to these environments. To study the relationships between clinical isolates and environmental isolates from rivers and aquatic life, widely distributed throughout the country, a wide range of molecular typing methods were employed. In this paper we report the analysis of the 180 Australian isolates (10 clinical and 170 environmental) using ribotyping. Seven ribotype patterns were observed among the Australian inaba isolates, 2 of which included all clinical inaba isolates and 84% environmental inaba isolates collected from 9 rivers and creeks in eastern Australia during an 8-year period. Isolates from epidemiologically related clinical cases, asymptomatic household contacts and sewage were indistinguishable. The ogawa isolates were more diverse, with 9 ribotypes observed among 24 isolates from 8 rivers during the same period. Ribotype patterns were not shared between the serotypes with the exception of one ogawa isolate which could be distinguished using PFGE. Ribotyping has been useful in confirming an association between epidemiologically related clinical isolates and the aquatic environment and the persistence of several clones of the O1 serovar in the Australian environment during an 8-year period.
Isolation of enterotoxigenicEscherichia colifrom British troops in Saudi Arabia
Authors: Willshaw G. A. , Cheasty T. , Rowe B. , Smith H. R. , Faithfull-Davies D. N. , Brooks T. G. J.
Published: May 2009

Specimens from 181 patients with diarrhoea were examined by a Military General Hospital in a 3-month period during deployment of troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990/1. DNA probes for heat labile (LT) and heat stable (ST) enterotoxin genes identified enterotoxigenicEscherichia coli(ETEC) in 47 of the specimens (26%) and 49 ETEC strains were isolated. The majority (55%) belonged to a novel ETEC serotype having the O-antigen 159 and a flagellar antigen designated as a provisional new type. They produced ST and the coli surface associated antigen (CS)6. Strains of serotype O6:H16 represented 22% of the ETEC examined. They produced ST, LT and CSS together with either CS1 or CS2. The remaining ETEC belonged to seven O:H serotypes. Overall, ST was the only enterotoxin gene identified in 73% of the ETEC and 67% of the strains expressed CS6 in the absence of other colonization antigens. Resistance to three or more antibiotics was observed in 53% of the ETEC, including most of the O159 strains.
Adhesion ofAeromonassp. to cell lines used as models for intestinal adhesion
Authors: Kirov S. M. , Hayward L. J. , Nerrie M. A.
Published: May 2009

Adhesion to HEp-2 cells has been shown to correlate with enteropathogenicity forAeromonasspecies. Such adhesion is thought to reflect the ability of strains to adhere to human intestinal enterocytes, although HEp-2 cells are not of intestinal origin. In this study strains ofAeromonas veroniibiotype sobria isolated from various sources were investigated in parallel assays for their ability to adhere to HEp-2 cells and to an intestinal cell line (Caco-2). Quantitative assays showed identical adhesion values were obtained with both cell lines. Adhesion was best when bacteria were grown at 22 °C compared with 37 °C and 7 °C. Some environmental isolates showed greater adhesion when grown at 7 °C than when grown at 37 °C. Filamentous structures on these strains are also optimally expressed under the above conditions (reported elsewhere). Mechanical shearing or trypsin treatment to remove surface structures from several adhesive strains grown at 22 °C decreased adhesion to cell lines by 50–80% providing further indirect evidence that filamentous adhesins may play a role in cell adhesion for thisAeromonasspecies.
Faecal contamination on children's hands and environmental surfaces in primary schools in Leeds
Authors: Kaltenthaler E. C. , Elsworth A. M. , Schweiger M. S. , Mara D. D. , Brauxholtz D. A.
Published: May 2009

Gastro-intestinal diseases continue to be a major health problem in primary schools in the UK. This study, which took place in 20 primary schools in the Leeds area, investigated the presence of faecal indicator bacteria on children's hands and environmental surfaces. Faecal streptococci were used as an indicator of faecal contamination.

A handwashing knowledge score was developed for each child. Those children with good hygiene knowledge had less faecal contamination on their hands (relative risk: 1·4. 95% CI = 1·09–1·81,P =0·005). Those schools with higher hand counts were more likely to have had a reported outbreak of gastroenteritis in the past. Values of the Townsend Deprivation Index, an indicator of deprivation, were compared with the hand results and those schools in high deprivation areas had higher hand counts. Of the swabs taken from surfaces in the toilet areas and classrooms, the carpets in the classrooms were the most frequently contaminated surfaces.
Characteristics of gonococci isolated from men with urethritis in Dubai
Authors: Al-Hattawi K. , Ison C. A.
Published: May 2009

Neisseria gonorrhoeae were collected from men attending out-patient clinics in Dubai. The susceptibility to a range of therapeutic antibiotics and their auxotype and serotype was determined. The plasmid content of all penicillinase-producing strains was also analysed. Thirty-six strains of N. gonorrhoeae were isolated from specimens collected from 79 patients over a 24-day period. Of the 36 isolates, 9 (25%) were penicillinase-producing N. gonorrhoeae (PPNG) and 15 (42%) were chromosomally resistant N. gonorrhoeae (CMRNG). CMRNG exhibited higher levels of resistance to cefuroxime, chloramphenicol, tetracycline and erythromycin than PPNG. All isolates were susceptible to ceftriaxone and spectinomycin. Three (8%) isolates showed reduced susceptibility (MIC, ≥ 0·25 mg/1) to ciprofloxacin. Six isolates of PPNG carried the 4·4 MD and three the 3·2 MD penicillinase encoding plasmid. The total gonococcal population was phenotypically diverse, with 12 serovars, 6 auxotypes and 21 A/S classes. Gonorrhoea was found to be a major cause of urethritis in Dubai and the strains exhibited high levels of resistance to penicillin.
Nutritional status and delayed mortality following early exposure to measles
Authors: Aaby P. , Andersen M. , Knudsen K.
Published: May 2009

Community studies in Guinea-Bissau have found that exposure to measles prior to 6 months of age is associated with delayed mortality later in childhood. In an attempt to understand the underlying mechanism, we examined the role of pre-exposure nutritional status and the impact of exposure to measles on growth and subsequent mortality in these outbreaks. Though exposed children were lighter than controls, there was no association between pre-exposure weight-for-age and subsequent mortality adjusting for age. Although exposure was strongly associated with excess mortality, it did not have a negative impact on growth. Adjustment for state of nutrition did not alter the mortality ratio (MR) between 6 and 59 months of age for exposed children and controls; exposed children examined anthropometrically between 6–17 months had a MR of 3·70 compared with controls. This trend was the same for anthropometric measurements obtained at 18–59 months of age. Among the controls, there was a significant association between weight-for-age and subsequent mortality to the age of 5 years. However, for exposed children there was no association; the relation between weight-for-age and subsequent mortality was significantly different for exposed children compared with controls (tests for interaction between exposure and anthropometric measurements at 6–17 months:P= 0·05). Growth faltering as a consequence of early exposure to measles does not explain the marked excess mortality among these children. Further studies of the process underlying delayed mortality after early exposure to measles are warranted.
Bacteriophage 604: a marker phage for multi-resistantStaphylococcus aureusin Australia
Authors: Inglis B. , Heding I. , Merrylees M. , Stewart P. R.
Published: May 2009

Of 28 multi-resistant isolates ofStaphylococcus aureuscollected during 1986 from hospitals in major cities around Australia, 27 were found to contain the same prophage (denoted phage 604). Hospital isolates carrying three or fewer resistance markers, and community isolates carrying one or no resistance markers, did not carry this prophage. Phage 604 does not confer antibiotic resistance on its lysogens, nor does it increase virulence in chick embryo assays. Phage 604 appears to be a correlate of antibiotic multi-resistance inS. aureusin Australia, and may provide a molecular marker for incipiently epidemic strains of this bacterium in Australian hospitals.
Plasmid profile typing can be used to subdivide phage-type 49 ofSalmonella typhimuriumin outbreak investigations
Authors: Threlfall E. J. , Frost J. A. , Ward L. R. , Rowe B.
Published: May 2009

Plasmid profile typing has been used to subdivide phage-type 49 ofSalmonella typhimurium, the most common phage type in humans in England and Wales since 1985. Twenty profile patterns have been identified in 350 strains examined.

Four profile patterns have been identified in 143 isolates from patients infected in 33 epidemiologically unrelated incidents and two patterns have predominated, ST49:62 and ST49:62,1. These patterns were also common amongstS. typhimuriumphage-type 49 isolated from cattle and poultry; however ST49:62 was more common in bovines whereas ST49:62,1 predominated in poultry.S. typhimuriumphage-type 49 with a different profile pattern, ST49:62, 3, was responsible for a large outbreak in London in 1988 which was traced to mayonnaise made from eggs supplied by one producer. Plasmid profile typing can now be regarded as a method of supplementing phage typing in investigating outbreaks caused by this organism.
Environmental sanitation, food and water contamination and diarrhoea in rural Bangladesh
Authors: Henry F. J. , Huttly S. R. A. , Patwary Y. , Aziz K. M. A.
Published: May 2009

This study examined the role of food and water contamination in a health impact evaluation of a water and sanitation intervention project. Although lower diarrhoea rates were found in the improved area no consistent difference in food and water contamination was observed between areas. Furthermore, no relationship was found between contamination and diarrhoea in either area, even after controlling for the nutritional status of children. These results imply that other vehicles of transmission might be more important than food and water in diarrhoeal transmission. The focus of interventions should therefore be on changing behaviours to improve overall hygiene.
Surgical repair in neonatal life of cardiac haemangiomas diagnosed prenatally
Authors: Sharma Jayendra , Hirata Yasutaka , Mosca Ralph S.
Published: May 2009

Although cardiac tumours are rare, such tumours are increasingly being diagnosed with increasing frequency and great accuracy by antenatal ultrasound. Cardiac haemangiomas account for less than one-twentieth of all primary cardiac tumours, with most being diagnosed in the neonatal period. We report 3 instances of successful neonatal resection of cardiac haemangioma subsequent to prenatal diagnosis. Such diagnosis is important in perinatal management, since early surgical intervention provides a good prognosis.
Conrad and the American Empire
Authors: Candreva Debra
Published: May 2009

Joseph Conrad offers some of the most notoriously contested writing on imperialism in nineteenth-century literature. In this article, I use two of his stories (“An Outpost of Progress” andHeart of Darkness) to argue that his critique of imperialism is as relevant today as it was in his own time.

Conrad's critique of imperialism is twofold. First and most simply, he condemns it as an economically exploitative endeavor. Second, and more importantly, he rejects the “idealistic” claim often invoked to justify imperialism as the bearer of progress, enlightenment, and other supposedly universal liberal values. This second critique causes Conrad the most difficulty, largely because his rejection of idealism is only partial. I argue that the most controversial aspects of his work are manifestations of a philosophical struggle between universalistic idealism on the one hand, and relativistic skepticism on the other. In this, Conrad contends with a problem that historically has challenged both liberalism and its conservative critics alike. Moreover, it continues to challenge both perspectives today, particularly in the debate over so-called American imperialism.
Trucking Country: The Road to America's Wal-Mart Economy. By Shane Hamilton. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008. 344p. $29.95.
Authors: Lowndes Joseph E.
Published: May 2009

In this timely new book, Shane Hamilton offers a compelling account of the politics of long-haul trucking in the postwar United States and, in particular, its contribution to the rise of economic conservatism by the end of the 1970s. This work, exhaustive in its research, explains a range of critical developments in twentieth-century political economy from the perspective of trucking: from the struggles within and between various federal agencies over farm, labor and consumption policies; to advances in truck design, highway construction, refrigeration, and food packaging technologies; to the cultural development of a trucking genre within country music and Hollywood films.
Response to Joseph E. Lowndes' review of Trucking Country: The Road to America's Wal-Mart Economy
Authors: Hamilton Shane
Published: May 2009

Joseph Lowndes questions whether the independent truckers I write about were “central to the rise of the Right.” He suggests that truckers were mere dupes of “the architects of the modern Right,” who “selectively appropriated various forms of discontent in the land and turned it to their own purposes.” I disagree for at least three reasons.
State Failure and Challenges to Democratization in Africa
Authors: Fearon James D.
Published: May 2009

When Things Fell Apart manages to be wonderfully concise but still compelling. The thing Robert Bates seeks to explain is the secular trend in sub-Saharan Africa toward civil war, although he often characterizes this in broader terms, as a trend toward “political conflict” or “political disorder.” He explains the trend as follows: Public revenues fell in the 1970s and 1980s as a result of commodity price declines, effects of the second oil shock, and bad economic policy choices that overtaxed farmers so that politicians could dispense patronage to smaller, politically more important urban constituencies. The decline in public revenues led elites to become more predatory, which caused an increase in political conflict by mobilizing opposition. Popular demands for political reform, along with increased international pressure for the same at the end of the Cold War, heightened elite insecurity and led to more predation. This had the effect of “provoking their citizens to take up arms” (p. 109). Further, state decline and national-level conflicts exacerbated simmering subnational conflicts, typically in the form of land disputes between locals and migrants from other tribes.
Dilemmas of cultural legality: a comment on Roger Cotterrell’s ‘The struggle for law’ and a criticism of the House of Lords’ opinions in Begum
Authors: Mikhail John
Published: May 2009

In Orientalism, Edward Said’s seminal critique of Western discourse on the Arab and Islamic world, Said begins with an epigram from Karl Marx: ’They cannot represent themselves; they must be represented‘ (Said, 1979, p. xiii, quoting Karl Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte). Said then argues that Marx’s statement captures a basic reality about Western representations of ’Oriental‘ societies, which is that they often rest on a pattern of cultural hegemony. The dominance of European colonial powers, primarily Great Britain and France, over their subjugated populations is what allowed the latter to be depicted in a way that reinforced ‘the idea of European [superiority] in comparison with. . .non-European peoples and cultures’ (p. 7). For example, in Gustave Flaubert’s popular novels, ‘Flaubert’s encounter with an Egyptian courtesan produced a. . .model of the Oriental woman. . .[who] never spoke of herself. . .[and] never represented her emotions, presence or history. He spoke for and represented her. . .telling his readers in what way she was typically Oriental’ (p. 6, emphasis original). Moreover, Flaubert’s superiority in relation to her ‘was not an isolated instance. It fairly stands for the pattern of relative strength between East and West, and the discourse about the Orient that it enabled’ (p. 6).
Subspace-based estimation of time of arrival and Doppler shift for a signal of known waveform
Authors: Latyshev V.V.
Published: May 2009

The subspace-based technique is used for the estimation of the time of arrival and Doppler shift of a signal of known waveform. The tool to find required subspaces is a special orthogonal decomposition of received data. It allows one to concentrate Fisher information on the desired parameter in just a few of the first terms of the decomposition. This approach offers a low-dimensional vector of sufficient statistics. It leads to computationally efficient Bayesian estimation. Besides, it results in expansion of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) range for effective maximum likelihood (ML) estimation. Finally, we can obtain independent time arrival and Doppler shift estimations based on generalized eigenvectors.