bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Masaryk, Tomas (1850–1937)
Authors: Rossi Michael
Published: September 2017

Dr. Tomas Garrigue Masaryk was the first president of the newly established Czechoslovak state between 1918 and 1935. A distinguished academic, having served as professor in the School of Philosophy at the University of Prague since 1882, and leader of the resistance to Austrian rule during World War I, Masaryk's appointment as president was well received by both Czech and European intellectual circles. He is credited with establishing Czechoslovakia and keeping it firmly within the democratic political realm until the outbreak of World War II.
Masses, The
Authors: Bekken Jon
Published: September 2017

Although published only from January 1911 through December 1917,
The Masses
was perhaps the American left's best‐loved magazine, publishing some of the age's leading artists and writers. In an era when the American socialist press included hundreds of daily and weekly papers, published in the dozens of languages spoken by a largely immigrant working class,
The Masses
and the more agitational
International Socialist Review
were the party's most prominent magazines until they were suppressed during World War I.
Mau Mau Rebellion, 1952–1959
Authors: Mwiandi Mary Ciambaka , Gona George
Published: September 2017

Colonization of Kenya began with Britain's declaration of Uganda and the whole region down to the Indian Ocean as its protectorate in 1895. In the same year, with the approval of the British Cabinet, the construction of the Uganda railway began. British Empire in East Africa was opened to colonial domination with the building of what Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill described as the “political” railway, the symbol of imperial achievement and its intentions to stay (Tvedt 2004).
May Day
Authors: Agee Chris John
Published: September 2017

May Day is International Workers' Day. In what has become a major event celebrated on May 1 of every year in many countries, May Day draws millions of people around the globe to rally for workers' rights. While May 1 protests originally grew out of the late nineteenth‐century American labor movement, festivities spawned around the world and have, at times, included spectacular marches accompanied with cheering crowds, triumphant music, colorful banners, and large placards. Throughout the twentieth century, the event also served as a forum for protests against war and imperialist policies and often culminated in rallies calling for social justice. Despite efforts to undermine the meaning surrounding the event by business, capitalist classes, and conservative governments, May Day festivities and protests continue to be held in countries around the world.
May 1968 French Uprisings
Authors: Ali Tariq
Published: September 2017

A storm swept the world in 1968. It started in Vietnam, then blew across Asia, crossing the sea and the mountains to Europe and beyond. A brutal war waged by the US against a poor Southeast Asian country was seen every night on television. The cumulative impact of watching the bombs drop, villages on fire, and a country being doused with napalm and Agent Orange triggered a wave of global revolts not seen on such a scale before or since.
Mexico, Armed Political Movements, 1960s‐Present
Authors: Weinberg Bill
Published: September 2017

The emergence of armed revolutionary movements in Mexico in the 1960s has its roots in the erosion of the agrarian reform program, a critical gain of the 1910–21 Revolution. As early as the 1940s, the ruling party (in 1946 dubbed the Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI) tilted to the right after land was massively redistributed under President Lazaro Cárdenas (1934–40). Strains emerged in the corporatist system which delivered peasant votes and loyalties in exchange for access to land, water, and credit. Corrupt bureaucrats and political bosses began taking over redistributed lands, known as
ejidos
, leading some among the disenfranchised to break with the system and revive the agrarian revolutionary legacy of Emiliano Zapata (1879–1919). In the 1960s, these rebels were linked to the general revolutionary effervescence of the era, making common cause with radical students. These movements went into retreat with the repressive “dirty war” of the late 1960s and 1970s, but reemerged powerfully with the neo‐liberal reforms of the 1990s, which represented a far more profound threat to the
ejidos
and a virtual end to the corporatist state.
M
exico, Indigenous and Peasant Struggles, 1980s‐Present
Authors: Weinberg Bill
Published: September 2017

The decline of Mexico's populist and corporatist system in the period of neoliberal reform beginning in the early 1980s saw a deepening of poverty in marginal rural areas. This immiseration led to a revival of
campesino
struggles, especially in the impoverished and heavily indigenous south. The new movements often represented a convergence of traditional peasant demands over land rights and farm support, with demands for indigenous cultural autonomy. They also saw a tension between reformist and electoral strategies versus revolutionary imperatives. In the case of Chiapas, and then of those in the Sierra del Sur of Guerrero and Oaxaca states, the resurgence of
campesino
militancy actually led to the emergence of armed revolutionary movements which persist today.
M
exico, Railway Workers' Struggle, 1957–1960
Authors: Sergi Vittorio
Published: September 2017

The movement of the railway workers from 1957 to 1960 marked an important rupture in the corporative economic and political system of post‐revolutionary Mexico. In the first two years of struggle the workers won significant wage increases and political autonomy within the Mexican railway workers' trade union (STFRM). Because of the rise of international anti‐communist politics and its strong political influence on the rest of Mexican society, the movement faced increasing state repression that cut off the independent leadership and discarded its demands in 1959.
Michel, Louise (1830–1905)
Authors: Kuhn Gabriel
Published: September 2017

Louise Michel was an unapologetic anarchist agitator and internationalist heroine. Throughout her 74 years, Michel was a fearless warrior and leader of the Paris Commune, a loud voice on behalf of workers, an incorrigible prisoner and defendant (many times over), a libertarian educator, a nemesis of imperialism, and a champion of social revolution. Her poetry and letters (published posthumously), as well as odes and essays written in her honor, are a testament to the profound impact she had on the movements she was a part of.
M
ondlane,
E
duardo
C
hivambo (1920–1969)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

The “father of the Mozambican nationalist struggle,” Eduardo Mondlane gave up an academic career in the United States to help with the formation of the Mozambican Liberation Front (Frente de Libertação de Moçambique, FRELIMO), but was assassinated as the nationalist war in Mozambique intensified.
M
ontessori,
M
aria (1870–1952)
Authors: Stewart‐Steinberg Suzanne
Published: September 2017

In the late nineteenth century Maria Montessori was one of Italy's foremost feminist activists and theorists. She became an international celebrity after 1907 when she opened her first “Children's Home” in Rome and subsequently developed her “scientific pedagogy” for the instruction of children between the ages of 3 and 6. This revolutionary pedagogical method was spelled out systematically in 1909 in her
Method
and was predicated on the idea that 3‐year‐old working‐class children not only could but indeed did – under the dictate of an inner compulsion – become literate and calculating or computing subjects, capable of taking on the requirements and demands of modern, urban culture. Children arrived to this position with the aid of Montessori's didactic apparatus with remarkable speed. Montessori referred to this learning experience as an “explosion,” a choice of language that links her to avant‐garde circles in Rome, including the futurists.
M
oravian Brothers
Authors: Roldan‐Figueroa Rady
Published: September 2017

The Moravians can be traced back to the United Brethren (
Unitas Fratrum
), a branch of the fifteenth‐century followers of John Huss. After the death of the Bohemian reformer on July 6, 1415, the Hussites divided into two main factions. The aristocratic Utraquists had their seat in Prague. They derived their name from the practice of serving communion in both bread and wine (
sub utraque specie
). The radical and more democratic faction was known as the Taborites. Although these factions were divided by bitter strife, they formed a common military front under the leadership of John Zizka.
M
oscow Fire and Protest, 1547
Authors: Bosin Yury V.
Published: September 2017

A major protest broke out against Ivan IV following a large fire that engulfed the city of Moscow over two days in June 1547, killing 4,000 people and displacing many residents. Rumor spread among the urban dwellers that the Glinskiy family, a noble clan in the tsar's entourage, was responsible for setting the fire. Some 42 years earlier, in 1505, Anna Glinskaya, Ivan IV's grandmother, whom many thought had the capacity to transform herself into a bird, was strangled for witchcraft. According to popular mythology, Muscovites believed that on June 21 Anna metamorphosed into a bird, spilling blood that set the city alight. This deep‐seated superstition fueled popular protests for the execution of Glinskiy family members.
Motsoaledi, Elias (1924–1994)
Authors: van der Walt Lucien
Published: September 2017

Elias Motsoaledi was born in Sekhukhuneland, South Africa, in 1924, the third of eight children. Coming to Johannesburg for work at 17, Motsoaledi worked in a leather factory from 1943, joined the Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA) in 1945, the African National Congress (ANC) in 1948, and the Leather Workers' Union in 1949, and was fired for his union work. The ANC, the country's main African nationalist organization, was adopting an increasingly confrontational position and developing into a mass‐based party, and Motsoaledi was one of several CPSA members elected to its Transvaal executive. He was involved in the Council of Non‐European Trade Unions (CNETU): formed in 1941 with 100,000 members, CNETU was led by CPSA activists and reached perhaps 150,000 members by the close of World War II (Alexander 2000). CNETU split in 1947 in the wake of the failed general strike launched by its affiliate, the African Mineworkers' Union, but played an important role in the national day of protest against the Suppression of Communism Act in 1950. Motsoaledi was elected CNETU chairman in 1953. The CPSA meanwhile dissolved, and was replaced by the underground South African Communist Party (SACP) in 1953.
Mozambique, Worker Protests
Authors: Mtyingizana Beata
Published: September 2017

Twentieth‐century colonial and post‐colonial regimes in Mozambique (formerly Portuguese East Africa) have been characterized by authoritarian labor relations that denied ordinary Africans the very modernity and progress they held out. Colonial labor, characterized not just by racially discriminatory laws, but also coercion, forced labor, and paternalism, left a deep imprint on the post‐independence Marxist regime, hampering the rise of an independent labor movement before the liberalization of the 1990s. The roots of this striking continuity between Portuguese colonialism and radical nationalism can be argued to lie deep in the period of mercantilism dating back to the seventeenth century.
Muir, Thomas (1765–1799)
Authors: Davis Michael T.
Published: September 2017

Thomas Muir was a Scottish political reformer and one of the first political transportees to Australia. He was born in Glasgow on August 24, 1765, the son of a Presbyterian grocer and hop merchant. Muir was well educated, beginning his adult education at Glasgow University before completing his studies in law at Edinburgh University. He was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates on November 24, 1787 and embarked on a moderately successful career as a legal practitioner. However, following the outbreak of the French Revolution, Muir's attention was diverted by radical politics. By 1792, he was a leading protagonist in the Scottish democratic movement and a driving force behind the establishment of the Association of the Friends of the People in Edinburgh, a reform society whose membership comprised mainly liberal‐minded middle‐class men and artisans. Muir was soon in the center of Scottish reform activity, promoting the radical cause throughout Scotland and forming links with the United Irishmen.
Muralista Movement
Authors: Campero Leonel Sagahón
Published: September 2017

Mexican muralism is an artistic movement that spans the first half of the twentieth century. It is characterized by the decoration of the walls of public buildings with figurative and realist paintings that have a social and ideological content and marked didactic intentions. According to the principle that art would act as an educational medium to teach the “people” and thus strengthen national identity whilst complying with the ideals of the revolution, the movement began during the post‐revolutionary period and successfully constructed the nationalist image with which Mexico embraced modernity. Thus, with art sponsored by the state, at the time considered revolutionary, the movement exalted the nation's indigenous origins and illustrated the epic events of national history while proclaiming the continuation of the ideals of the Mexican Revolution under Marxist ideology, an ideology which nevertheless formed no part of the revolution, or the resulting state.
Mutualism
Authors: Shantz Jeff
Published: September 2017

Mutualism is a social and economic theory, most often associated with anarchism, which traces its roots to the writings of Pierre‐Joseph Proudhon. Proudhon, in turn, borrowed the name “mutualism” from a Lyon workers' association, the Mutuellistes, seeing in their practices the principle of a society that would accord labor its true value. As a means towards that end, in place of political parties or trade unions, Proudhon advocated economic organizations based upon principles of equal exchange, such as cooperatives and “People's Banks.” The consequences of this reorganization of social life include the limiting of constraint, the reduction of repressive methods, and the convergence of individual and collective interests (Proudhon 1989: 91–2). This Proudhon calls “the state of total liberty” or anarchy, and suggests that it is the only context in which “laws” operate spontaneously without invoking command and control (Proudhon 1969: 92). Mutualists follow Proudhon in envisioning future social organizations as economic rather than political. They see society as organized around free federations of producers, both rural and urban. Any coordination of efforts must be voluntary and reasoned.
Naxalite movement, 1967–1972
Authors: Gupta Shatarupa Sen
Published: September 2017

The Naxalite movement loosely refers to a series of tribal and peasant uprisings based on which Maoism in India took on an organized shape in the late 1960s and early 1970s, with a sizeable following among urban youths. The name is derived from Naxalbari in the Darjeeling district of North Bengal, where an uprising was considered to mark the beginning of a revolution.
Nechaev, Sergei (1847–1882)
Authors: Shantz Jeff
Published: September 2017

Sergei Gennadiyevich Nechaev stands as an influential Russian anarchist who was controversial, and repudiated by many. Born under conditions of extreme poverty in Ivanovo, Russia in 1847, as a young adult Nechaev moved to Moscow, where he emerged in anarchist circles as a radical with charismatic appeal. For a short time, Russian anarchist leader Mikhail Bakunin found Nechaev's fervor, energy, and revolutionary zeal appealing. More nihilist than anarchist, Nechaev's most influential work is his notorious pamphlet of 1869, the
Catechism of a Revolutionary
, a primer on political violence and assassination.
Negri, Antonio (b. 1933)
Authors: Murphy Timothy S.
Published: September 2017

Antonio Negri has been a prominent and controversial political philosopher and activist, as well as a cultural critic, for over 40 years. Born August 1, 1933 in Padua, Italy, the younger son of a militant communist couple, he excelled in school, completing his doctorate and earning an academic post in “state doctrine”(equivalent to the Anglo‐American field of philosophy of law) at the University of Padua by age 25. Along the way he studied philosophy in the UK, France, and Germany, lived on a kibbutz in Israel for a year, and became politically active in the Catholic Youth Action movement and the Italian Socialist Party (PSI). His doctoral thesis became his first book,
Stato e diritto nel giovane Hegel
(State and Right in the Young Hegel) (1958); this was soon followed by other works on German philosophy and social theory. Negri's overall project in these early works up to and including
Political Descartes
(1970) was to demonstrate how the disciplines of philosophy, law, and social science had legitimated the capitalist state from the seventeenth to the twentieth centuries.
Nenni, Pietro (1891–1980)
Authors: Grassi Francesco
Published: September 2017

Pietro Nenni was one of the most influential leaders of Italian socialism and the left for almost six decades. He was born in Faenza, in the anti‐monarchist region of Romagna, on February 9, 1891, the son of a landowner's bailiff. In 1908 he joined the Italian Republican Party (PRI), distinguishing himself with his radical attitude. In October 1911 he was one of the main organizers of the general strike against the Libyan war in nearby Forlì, and in June 1914 played a prominent role during the
Settimana rossa
(Red Week). At the outbreak of World War I Nenni sided with the interventionists, and wrote some articles for (pre‐fascist) Mussolini's pro‐intervention newspaper
Il Popolo d'Italia
; when Italy entered the conflict in May 1915, Nenni volunteered for the front line.
N
epal, People's War and Maoists
Authors: Dhar Sushovan
Published: September 2017

The Maoist strategy of a people's war in Nepal combined guerilla attacks and negotiations. During nationwide Maoist attacks in July 2001, over 60 police personnel, specifically in the Banke and Rolpa districts of West Nepal, were killed, injured, or abducted, eventually forcing the resignation of Prime Minister Koirala. The newly appointed prime minister, Sher Bahadur Deuba, called upon the Maoists on July 25, 2001 to end violence and negotiate an end to their six‐year insurgency.
Neruda, Pablo (1904–1973)
Authors: Squire Heather
Published: September 2017

Pablo Neruda was a Chilean poet, activist, communist, and diplomat. His poetry – which has sold millions of volumes in many languages and earned him the 1971 Nobel Prize in Literature – took on many forms and subjects, but became patently more political in the 1930s as a result of his encounters with radical leftists during the Spanish Civil War. Neruda's provocative and passionate verses have inspired resistance and love, supported struggles against capitalism and for justice, and elucidated the suffering and oppression of poor people throughout the world.
N
ew
C
aledonia, Protest and Revolt
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

Since annexation by France in 1853, New Caledonia, an island chain in Melanesia, east of Australia, has experienced a tumultuous history of protest and rebellion rooted in the struggle for indigenous rights and the French use of the island to exile prisoners for punishment to a penal colony. Situated in the Pacific Ocean, New Caledonia was formally annexed by the French on September 24, 1853, with France eager to take the islands before the British. In 1862, after nine years of the island being controlled by commandants, the French appointed their first governor, Charles Guillain, but New Caledonia remained under military control for the rest of the nineteenth century.
Newport Rising,Wales, 1839
Authors: Frank Christopher
Published: September 2017

An unsuccessful Chartist revolt, the Newport rising of 1839 was the last large‐scale armed action of citizens against the state in mainland Britain. It occurred during the evening and morning of November 3–4, 1839, when approximately 5,000 miners and ironworkers from communities throughout southwest Wales descended upon the town of Newport. On arrival, the rebels, many of whom were armed, surrounded 30 soldiers who had positioned themselves and their Chartist prisoners inside the Westgate hotel. A brief gun battle ensued, killing 22 Chartists, wounding 50, and dispersing the rest. After the rising, over 200 participants were arrested. Most were soon released or convicted on minor charges, but 21 were charged with treason. The three principal leaders, John Frost, Zephania Williams, and William Jones, were convicted and sentenced to death. The sentences were later commuted to transportation. The nature and intent of the Newport rising are shrouded in mystery and have been the subject of debate, but the current historical consensus suggests that the rising was not a protest or demonstration, but a planned insurrection, and one that might have had loose ties with similar plots for rebellion that were developing in other parts of the country.
N
ietzsche,
F
riedrich (1844–1900)
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

Born in 1844 in the small town of Ruecken, Prussia, Friedrich Nietzsche would challenge the normative forces of morality in the dawn of the twentieth century. Through his thesis on the death of God, Nietzsche sought to identify the complicity between morality and Christianity that perpetuated the denial of life. As a child, Nietzsche's life would be altered, at the age of 4, by the death of his father, who had been a Lutheran minister. The event seemed to spark what would later result in his questioning the existence of God, initiating an important philosophical anti‐religious current in the nineteenth century that burnished the value of individual rights.
N
ieuwenhuis,
F
erdinand
D
omela (1846–1919)
Authors: Altena Bert
Published: September 2017

Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, founder of the Dutch socialist movement and of the Internationale Anti‐Militaristische Vereeniging (International Anti‐militarist Association) (IAMV), was born into a well‐to‐do family. In 1870 Domela Nieuwenhuis became a Lutheran clergyman, but soon expressed very latitudinarian convictions. Having lost two wives, he became agnostic, drawn towards social reform and socialism. In 1878 he considered himself a socialist. Leaving the church, he founded his own journal,
Recht voor Allen
(Equal Rights for Everyone, 1879), which later became the journal of the Dutch socialist movement. As the intellectual and political leader of the Dutch socialists, Domela Nieuwenhuis preached socialism throughout the country. At the end of 1886 he was sentenced to a year in prison for
lèse majesté
. In 1888, half a year after his release, he became the first socialist member of parliament, serving until 1891.
N
igeria, Protest and Revolution, 20th Century
Authors: Omobowale Ayokunle Olumuyiwa
Published: September 2017

Like most societies under European occupation, Nigeria has experienced violent protests and revolts from the colonial to post‐independence era. The history of the colonization of Nigeria is marked by a history of militant conflict and European occupation and subjugation that precluded the capture and surrender of some local authorities, including the Sokoto Caliphate, the Ijebu, and Benin Kingdom.
O
axaca Uprising, 2006
Authors: Rénique Gerardo
Published: September 2017

For almost six months in 2006, an unstructured coalition of workers, students, peasants, women, youth, indigenous peoples, and urban poor brought the government of the southern Mexican state of Oaxaca to a virtual standstill. Their massive campaign of non‐violent civil disobedience – the biggest urban uprising in Latin America in the last 20 years – was sparked by outrage at the June 14 police offensive against an encampment (
plantón
) which striking teachers had set up three weeks earlier in the capital city's historic central square. Following the attack, Oaxacans came together to demand the resignation of Ulises Ruiz Ortíz, the latest in a series of famously corrupt governors from the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Although the Oaxacan resistance was galvanized by the police offensive, distrust of Ruiz had been building since his appointment by the PRI‐dominated state legislature, following an election in which federal electoral authorities had found clear evidence of fraud. His first year in office was marked by an aggressive campaign of political containment in which at least 36 opposition, community, indigenous, and grassroots leaders and activists were assassinated.
Ogé'sRevolt, 1790
Authors: King Stewart R.
Published: September 2017

The 1790 rebellion of the free people of color of the northern province of Saint‐Domingue (the modern Haiti) was the first organized outbreak of violence in what became the Haitian Revolution. The rebels were led by Vincent Ogé, a prominent free person of mixed race, living in Cap Français, Saint‐Domingue, before the outbreak of the war. He was a merchant and landowner. Another important rebel leader was Jean‐Baptiste Chavannes, a free mixed‐race planter from the nearby canton of Sainte‐Suzanne.
O
ke‐
O
gun Uprising
Authors: Ojoawo Mofeyisra Oluwatoyin
Published: September 2017

Prior to the advent of colonial rule, the system of government prevailing among contemporary Yoruba of southwestern Nigeria was rooted in reciprocity between rulers and subjects. A standard system of accepted forms of checks and balances prevailed. Within this system, many towns in the Yoruba kingdoms were considered superior politically and received homage from lesser villages. Colonialism set the normative system of stratification into disarray, bringing into the system several changes which were alien and not accepted by the people of the region. The introduction of indirect rule and the institution of a new court system after the amalgamation of Nigeria, denying and marginalizing some chiefs, resulted in the uprising of Oke‐Ogun (especially at Okeho and Iseyin) between 1916 and 1917. The uprising was brutally suppressed.
Partito di Unità Proletaria‐Democrazia Proletaria
Authors: Mangano Attilio
Published: September 2017

Partito d'Unitá Proletaria (Proletarian Unity Party, PdUP) and Democrazia Proletaria (Proletarian Democracy, DP) were two party organizations created in the 1970s in Italy as part of the process of transforming Italian new left movements into political organizations that sought to create a stable political space in the political system.
People's Liberation Front of
S
ri
L
anka (
JVP
)
Authors: Skanthakumar Balasingham
Published: September 2017

The Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (People's Liberation Front) (JVP), Sri Lanka's largest self‐defined left party and third largest parliamentary bloc, led two armed insurrections of Sinhala youth in 1971 and 1987–9. Both uprisings were brutally crushed with enormous loss of life, but the JVP has been described as “phoenix‐like” and “hydra‐headed” for its astonishing capacity to regenerate itself thereafter. Its origins lie in the schism within the Ceylon Communist Party in 1963 provoked by the Sino‐Soviet dispute as well as tensions over the parliamentary road to socialism and accommodation to the “national‐bourgeois” Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP).
Peoples' Global Action Network
Authors: Lewis Simon L.
Published: September 2017

Peoples' Global Action Network (PGA) is a global‐scale network of grassroots groups, social movements, and trade unions. It was formed in 1998 to oppose neoliberal policies and institutions such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) using extraparliamentary action. Estimates are that 1,500 organizations have participated in PGA‐inspired days of action and conferences (Wood 2002). The participants are mostly large peasant/ farmer organizations and indigenous peoples' movements from income‐poor countries, and autonomous, environmental, and direct action‐oriented groups from income‐rich countries.
P
hilippines, Colonial Protests During the Spanish Era
Authors: Rousset Pierre
Published: September 2017

At the end of the nineteenth century, the Philippines was the first country in Asia to be liberated from colonial power. The first anti‐colonial revolt against Spanish rule occurred from 1896 to 1898, further extended by the resistance to the American conquest. Ultimately, at the turn of the twentieth century, the US replaced a defeated Spain, initiating a new colonial cycle.
Pi y Margall, Francisco (1824–1901)
Authors: Prichard Alex
Published: September 2017

Francisco Pi y Margall, born in the Spanish region of Catalonia in 1824, became the president of the first Spanish Republic in 1871. Despite the strong separatist and nationalist character of its leading politicians, Pi never fully identified with the Catalan cause. Pi was a federalist, but a doctrinaire one. His ideas were formed by two main figures, Georg Hegel and Pierre Joseph Proudhon, and by 1875 he had translated four of the latter's works into the Spanish language. Inevitably, his federalism retained many of Proudhon's key ideas about history, society, justice, and order, and the moral conviction with which he expressed his federalist vision echoed throughout the times in which he lived. Pi was a scholar rather than a cunning politician; leading Spanish politics was a matter of principle and doctrine, and while he met with some success, his vision was never realized. Still, his ideas inspired Cuban and Peruvian revolutionary politics in the late nineteenth century, and Philippine anti‐colonialism against Spain.
Pinelli, Giuseppe (1928–1969)
Authors: Bertolucci Franco
Published: September 2017

Giuseppe Pinelli was a railroad worker and an anarchist. He fell from the fourth floor of the Milan police headquarters on December 15, 1969. He was illegally held during investigations for the Piazza Fontana bombing, which was originally blamed on anarchists who were later cleared of all charges.
P
oland, Student Movement, 1968
Authors: Kemp‐Welch A.
Published: September 2017

Activist Adam Michnik, veteran of 1968, later reflected to a fellow‐radical, Daniel Cohn‐Bendit, that “the late sixties were interesting because a few friends and I managed to function as a legal opposition group within a system that didn't admit the existence of a legal opposition. It's thanks to the University [of Warsaw] that we were able to exist.” Students debated and argued at the Club of Seekers after Contradictions and sang songs of the Russian “dissidents” Galich and Okudzava. Sometimes they sallied forth to ask difficult and embarrassing questions at meetings of their elders: about the Ribbentrop‐Molotov Pact or the fate of Polish soldiers at Katyn. As the Prague Spring emerged, they chanted: “Poland demands its own Dubĉek.”
Proal, Herón (1881‐?) and Red Revolutionary Tenants
Authors: Müller Frank I.
Published: September 2017

Herón Proal was a founder of the Veracruz Revolutionary Syndicate of Tenants. Born in Tulacingo, Hidalgo, on October 17, 1881, Proal joined the Mexican Communist Party and co‐organized rent strikes during the early post‐revolutionary period. His agitation fused the tenants' direct actions into a movement that demanded radical housing reform.
Qin Bangxian (1907–1946)
Authors: Pantsov Alexander V.
Published: September 2017

Qin Bangxian was an important early leader of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). He was born on June 24, 1907 in the city of Wuxi, Jiangsu. He studied at the suzhou special Industrial school and was chairman of the suzhou student union. In 1925 he was one of the publishers of the patriotic magazine
Wuxi pinglun
(Wuxi Review). That same year he joined the CCP.
Radical Reconstruction, United states, Promise and Failure of
Authors: Burton Orville Vernon
Published: September 2017

The story of Reconstruction has been told ably and often, but historians have basically bookended American history with the Civil War, ignoring the fact that Reconstruction cannot be separated from the war any more than sectional Conflict can. Reconstruction is part and parcel of the whole era. In south Carolina, men who were too young to fight in the Civil War but who fought in terrorist paramilitary groups to overthrow and then maintain white Democratic Party control in 1876 and 1878 even applied for the state's Confederate War pension. Clearly, they believed Reconstruction was part of the Civil War. While most textbooks date the end of Reconstruction with the 1876 presidential election, or the withdrawal of federal troops stationed in the south, in the lives of those at the time, Reconstruction did not end and should not be considered over until 1896 withPlessy v. Fergusonand the adoption of former Confederate state constitutions legally disfranchising and segregating African Americans. Put in this frame, Reconstruction can be understood more accurately as part of “the long Civil War.”
Raditsela, Andries (1956–1985)
Authors: Ulrich Nicole
Published: September 2017

Andries Raditsela's early life, including his place of birth, is not well documented. He became an active member of the Chemical Workers' Industrial Union (CWIU), an affiliate of the Federation of south African Trade Unions (FOsATU), in 1982. At this time he was working for the Dunlop factory in Benoni on the eastern Witwatersrand.
R
ampa
R
ebellions in
A
ndhra
P
radesh
Authors: Chattopadhyay Kunal
Published: September 2017

Andhra Pradesh is a large state in south India. In colonial times it was divided between the princely state of Hyderabad and the Madras Presidency ruled by the British. The Agency Area of Andhra Pradesh included the districts of srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, East and West Godavari, Khammam, Adilabad, Warangal, and Mahaboobnagar. In 1961 there were 4,346
adivasi
(tribal) villages. In all,
adivasis
formed a small part of the population, but were historically the most exploited. Major groups among them, both in the Agency Area and in the plains, included Gonds, Koyas, Hill Reddis, savaras, Valmikis, Yerukalas, and Yanadis. Over half the
adivasi
population consist of Koyas, Gonds, Yanadis, and Yerakalas.
Reform Acts, Britain and Ireland, 1832
Authors: Pentland Gordon N.
Published: September 2017

Three Reform Acts (for England and Wales; Ireland; and Scotland) were passed between June and August 1832 and made fundamental changes to the structure of the political system in the United Kingdom by altering both the distribution of parliamentary seats and the qualifications for voting in parliamentary elections. They were only passed after a long parliamentary struggle and a sustained extraparliamentary agitation for reform. Debate has tended largely to focus on both the causes and the consequences of the legislation.
R
odríguez,
S
imón (1769–1854)
Authors: Weinzierl Karolin
Published: September 2017

Simón Rodríguez was a philosopher and pedagogue who advocated progressive education. He is perhaps best known as the mentor of Simón Bolívar and author of a revolutionary concept of education for postcolonial Latin America.
R
ussia, Temperance Movement, 1858–1860
Authors: Bosin Yury V.
Published: September 2017

Before 1712, the Russian alcohol market operated under state monopoly for the benefit of large agricultural interests. Peter the Great annulled the state monopoly and alcohol concessions became an exclusive mechanism of alcohol supply and retail for more than 150 years to 1863.
S
andino,
A
ugusto
C
ésar (1895–1934)
Authors: Sierakowski Robert
Published: September 2017

Augusto César Sandino led the guerilla struggle against the US occupation of Nicaragua between 1927 and 1933. He was born in 1895, the illegitimate son of a local landowner and a peasant woman, in Niquinohomo, in the department of Masaya. From a young age, the contrast between his father's wealth and the condition of his mother and the rest of the population struck him as unjust. The Nicaragua in which Sandino grew up was a country under occupation; from 1912, the US Marine Corps ran Nicaragua as a virtual protectorate. In his youth, Sandino traveled in order to find work in the export plantations of Honduras and Guatemala, later arriving in Mexico to work as a mechanic at an oil company. The Mexico Sandino experienced during the 1920s was the direct outcome of the Revolution (1910–21), and the importance of labor unions, peasant organizations, and political debate left a lasting impact on him.
Sands,Bobby (1954–1981)
Authors: Williams Howell
Published: September 2017

Bobby Sands was a member of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) who organized a protest against the British government while incarcerated in Maze prison in Northern Ireland from 1976 to 1981. He was the first of ten prisoners to die on hunger strike in the course of that protest. During his brief life, Sands was elected to the British parliament, galvanized the republican cause, and by his martyrdom earned entry into the pantheon of Irish nationalist heroes.
S
ankara,
T
homas (1949–1987)
Authors: Adeniran Adebusuyi I.
Published: September 2017

Thomas Sankara was a revolutionary military officer, humanist, and committed Marxist who was president of Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) from August, 4, 1983 to October 15, 1987. During his rule Sankara implemented social programs oriented toward the masses, especially directed at the emancipation of women and children. He implemented these programs even as various elitist groups were directly opposed to his high‐profile social change. Consequently, Sankara challenged entrenched vested interests during his period in office and was overthrown and murdered by a former ally, Blaise Compaore, who succeeded him on October 15, 1987.
Saw, U (1900–1948)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

U Saw, also known as Galon U Saw, was an ambitious nationalist politician in the colonial period in Burma (now Myanmar), and was the deputy chairman of the Executive Council from September 1940 until January 1942. He was later involved in the assassination of independence leader Aung San (1915–47).
Sepé Tiarajú (1722/3–1756)
Authors: Ferreira da Silva Newton
Published: September 2017

Sepé Tiarajú was the principal leader of the Brazilian resistance movement against the implementation of the Madrid Treaty during the years 1754–56. He became a symbol of courage to the indigenous population in South America struggling for their own land.
Serbia, Protests against Milošević 1991–2000
Authors: Karamanić Slobodan
Published: September 2017

Two opposing sides configured the political scene of the 1990s in Serbia: on the one side, Slobodan Milošević's power bloc–the authoritarian nationalist regime that led Serbia in direct confrontation with other Yugoslav republics and the “international community”–and, on the other, the so‐called “pro‐democratic” bloc, which included various and heterogeneous political parties, movements, civic groups, and NGOs, opting for a democratic and European Serbia. This political struggle within Serbia took different forms: from inner parliamentary struggle, propaganda and counter‐propaganda, peaceful protests and demonstrations, to direct and violent conflicts.
Sexuality and Revolution
Authors: Hamilton Carrie
Published: September 2017

While there is a proliferation of research on the gender politics of revolution, less systematic attention has been paid to the relationship between revolution and sexuality. Yet most of the major political revolutions from the late eighteenth century through the end of the twentieth century have been informed by a set of ideas about sexuality and have also been accompanied by changes in sexual behavior and values. Moreover, on the level of discourse, sexual metaphors are often used to legitimate revolutionary movements and governments and to repudiate enemy regimes or classes.
Shakers Utopian Community
Authors: Goff Richard
Published: September 2017

The most durable utopian communities have been those motivated by faith. Since the Rule of St. Benedict in AD 540, Christian communalism has provided a relatively effective model that fuses a sense of mission and social justice with practical economic decision‐making. In the United States, Christian utopian communities have typically been millennial in orientation and have derived their communal values from the New Testament, specifically Acts 2:44–45, which states “And all who believe were together and had all things in common; and they sold their possessions and goods and distributed them to all, as any had need.” Beyond this ascetic communalism, Christian utopian experiments vary dramatically in their interpretation of the gospel and in their mission.
Sharp, Gene (b. 1928)
Authors: Polese Abel
Published: September 2017

Gene Sharp is a senior scholar at the Albert Einstein Institution of Boston, which he founded in 1983 to encourage research on non‐violent action methods to fight dictatorship and oppression in the world and promote democracy. Strongly influenced by Gandhi's organized labor strikes and boycott, Sharp has codified non‐violent action methods and elaborated a complete theory of power in which he clearly argues that the population is the only source of power of the authorities; thus, the most natural way to get rid of authoritarian rule is to stop supporting the ruling elites. His 1973
The Politics of Nonviolent Action
is an extensive description of the theory of power that inspired protest movements in most countries with authoritarian regimes. His books have been published in an extremely wide range of languages, from Chinese to Khmer to Farsi and Tibetan, and are behind most non‐violent protest strategies all over the world. The desire to elaborate a strategy accessible and easy to transmit prompted Sharp to write the book
From Dictatorship to Democracy
(1993). This book became the proverbial Bible for non‐violent revolution movements and in particular for the organizers of “color revolution” movements which occurred in post‐socialist spaces from 2000 on.
Sierra Leone, Protest and Revolution
Authors: Ojoawo Mofeyisra Oluwatoyin
Published: September 2017

The civil war in Sierra Leone, which started in 1991 and lasted until 2002, was a result of the power struggle between the ruling All Peoples' Congress (APC) and those who viewed themselves as revolutionaries, represented mainly by the Revolutionary United Front (RUF). The effect of this decade‐long struggle was massive destruction of social, political, economic, biological, and religious environments of the country. By 2002, when the war was brought to an end, things had drastically fallen apart in Sierra Leone, with deplorable consequences for women and children especially.
Sieyès, Abbé (1748–1836)
Authors: Takeda Junko
Published: September 2017

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès was a Catholic clergyman, a French revolutionary, a political philosopher, and a statesman who played key roles in initiating both the French Revolution and the imperial government of Napoleon Bonaparte that followed. Sieyès was the author of two of the Revolution's seminal documents,What Is the Third Estate?and theDeclaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.
Sihanouk, Norodom (b. 1922)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

Prince Norodom Sihanouk has been the most prominent figure in Cambodian politics from his accession to the Cambodian throne in 1941. He was involved in a large number of protest movements to the early twenty‐first century and was an opponent of armed struggle until 1970.
S
inn
F
éin
Authors: Glenn Karen C.
Published: September 2017

Sinn Féin, “We Ourselves” or “Ourselves Alone” in Gaelic, was created by Arthur Griffith in 1905, and began as a nationalist political party whose goal was to create an Irish republic free from British control. The party entered the centuries‐old conflict between the majority Irish Catholics of southern Ireland and the minority Protestant groups of northern Ireland at a time when the idea of home rule, or Irish self‐rule, was being hotly debated in Britain's parliament.
S
lovakia, Štúr Generation
Authors: Kirschbaum Stanislav J.
Published: September 2017

In the nineteenth century, when many Central European nations were asserting their cultural identity and developing their national consciousness, the Slovak nation owed its own cultural “awakening” to a group known as the Stúr generation (Stúrovci). The group was led by L'dovít Stúr (1815–56), a scholar, teacher, Lutheran pastor, and politician. His contribution to Slovak national life was twofold: he is credited with the final codification of the Slovak literary language, and he led the political movement that set the Slovaks on a course of national self‐determination over the next century and a half. Stúr entered Slovak literary and political life in 1828 when he became one of the founding members of the Czecho‐Slav Society, a student organization committed to fighting the Hungarian government's policy of the forced assimilation of non‐Magyar peoples through language suppression called Magyarization. On April 24, 1836, he led a group of students to Devín castle, where they pledged to dedicate themselves to the Slovak nation. He also published an almanac called
Plody
(Fruits), which marks the appearance of the Stúrovci in Slovak literary and political history. The Stúrovci were people who accepted Stúr's codification of the Slovak language and participated in his socialization project through
drobná práca
or “menial tasks,” which consisted of the creation of reading circles, temperance clubs, credit unions, and self‐help groups. In addition to raising the consciousness of the Slovak population, this group fought Magyarization and participated in the revolution of 1848–9.
Socialism,
B
ritain
Authors: King Nathan
Published: September 2017

In the early years of the first industrial revolution, a variety of socialist writers and activists grappled with the rapidly changing social and economic conditions within Britain. Approaches ranged from the utopian socialism of Robert Owen, to the Christian socialism of Frederick Denison Maurice, to the aesthetic socialism of John Ruskin. Marx and Engel's scientific communism, which found expression in the Londonbased Communist League, found little support until the 1880s. While philosophically significant, these socialist theorists and experimenters had little immediate influence on the British masses. This role was played by the Chartists, a coalition of working‐class reformers that sought, among other things, universal male suffrage. While ostensibly not socialist, the sympathies of the Chartists favored socialist‐style reforms. For example, one of the Chartists' most active leaders, Bronterre O'Brien, wrote in an 1841 critique of property that an “enlightened Government… would place commerce and manufactures upon a different footing from the present, and make the land the common property of all the inhabitants” (Mather 1980: 93).
S
ouza,
J
oão
F
rancisco
de
(1944–2008)
Authors: Amador Zulma
Published: September 2017

João Francisco de Souza was a popular educator, sociologist, academic, and activist. He was born in Timabaúba, Pernambuco, in the Brazilian Northeast. He dedicated his life to teaching and learning about popular education as a means of humanization around the world. Souza defended the idea that education must be a social praxis, with responsibility for raising historical, political, and cultural issues in context and seeking social transformation. For him, education was a cultural activity for cultural development in the postmodern era, characterized by cultural diversity and social inequality. His actions ranged through popular social movements, pluriculturalism, multiculturalism, democracy, teacher training, and education of youth and adults who did not complete formal education. At the time of his death, he was an important reference figure in the field of young adult school leavers' education both in Brazil and throughout Latin America. All of his theoretical and practical reflections on popular education were and continue to be seen as a general critical theory of education.