bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
NIMS AND THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM
Authors: Jamieson Gil
Published: January 2013

The way this nation prepares for and responds to domestic incidents is about to change. It won't be an abrupt change; best practices that have been developed over the years are part of this new comprehensive national approach to incident management known as the National Incident Management System (NIMS). But it will change—and for the better.

Developed by the Department of Homeland Security and issued in March 2004, the NIMS will enable responders at all jurisdictional levels and across all disciplines to work together more effectively and efficiently. Beginning in FY 2006, federal funding for state, local and tribal preparedness grants will be tied to compliance with the NIMS.

One of the most important ‘best practices’ that has been incorporated into the NIMS is the Incident Command System (ICS), a standard, on-scene, all-hazards incident management system already in use by firefighters, hazardous materials teams, rescuers and emergency medical teams. The ICS has been established by the NIMS as the standardized incident organizational structure for the management of all incidents.

Although many agencies now use various forms of ICS, there is considerable uncertainty about NIMS ICS and the impact it will have on systems and processes currently in place. These are important questions because one of the FY 2005 requirements for implementing NIMS is “institutionalizing the use of ICS, across the entire response system.”

This paper is intended to provide an historical perspective on the development of ICS, explain how NIMS ICS works, describe how it is different from previous systems, and discuss the future of NIMS ICS training.
ENSURING PROTECTION OF CALIFORNIA'S COASTAL RESOURCES: SENSITIVE SITE STRATEGY EVALUATION PROGRAM
Authors: Price David W. , Klumpp Christopher
Published: January 2013

There are over 400 designated environmentally sensitive sites and associated protection strategies in California(s coastal waters. To meet the challenge of protecting sensitive sites, California Department of Fish and Game's Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR) has developed the Sensitive Site Strategy Evaluation Program (SSSEP).

The SSSEP provides a program to test and evaluate the effectiveness of “protective response strategies”. These strategies have been designed to exclude or divert oil spills away from these sites. Tides and currents, wind, water depth, and obstructions can have dramatic influence on how a strategy is designed and performs. The need to test and evaluate these strategies is critical to ensure that the strategies do work in an actual oil spill emergency to protect sensitive resources.

In California, marine oil facilities, vessels carrying petroleum cargo, and non-tank vessels over 300 tons are required to have an oil spill contingency plan. These contingency plan-holders are required to protect environmentally sensitive sites which may be impacted by an oil spill. Most contingency plan-holders form their plans based upon the response strategies contained in the regional Area Contingency Plans (ACP) and rely upon Oil Spill Response Organizations (OSROs) to supply the needed response resources.

In a cooperative venture, OSPR, the San Francisco Area Committee and OSROs have teamed together to conduct the SSSEP. The OSROs participating are MSRC and NRC Environmental Services. These OSROs provide the vast majority of San Francisco Plan Holders with their spill response services and have volunteered their time and efforts to test the response strategies.

The SSSEP is providing important information on just how effective our strategies are and what we can to do to improve them. OSPR's future goal is to expand the SSSEP into California's other ACP areas, validating and building assurances in sensitive site protection strategies.
EVALUATION OF THE CONSEQUENCES OF VARIOUS RESPONSE OPTIONS USING MODELING OF FATE, EFFECTS AND NRDA COSTS OF OIL SPILLS INTO WASHINGTON WATERS
Authors: French-McCay Deborah P. , Rowe Jill J. , Whittier Nicole , Sankaranarayanan Subbayya , Etkin Dagmar S. , Pilkey-Jarvis Linda
Published: January 2013

Oil spill fate and effects modeling and analysis were performed to evaluate the implications of spill response options being considered by the Washington State Department of Ecology in their rulemaking related to oil spill preparedness (WA State Contingency Plan Rule). The impacts of potential spills in Washington's outer coast, sound and river environments were modeled varying response options and operational timing, including use of conventional mechanical containment and recovery operations; dispersant application with concurrent mechanical containment and recovery; and in-situ burning with concurrent mechanical containment and recovery. US Coast Guard federal response capability standards, current Washington State standards, and potential theoretical higher response capability standards were simulated for scenarios involving spills of crude oil, bunker fuel and diesel into Washington waters (in the Strait of Georgia, Strait of Juan de Fuca, outer coast, and lower and upper Columbia River). The modeling was performed in probabilistic mode, i.e., by randomly varying location along tanker routes, spill date, and time, and so environmental conditions during and after the release among potential conditions that would occur. The model results were analyzed to estimate mean, standard deviation (SD), and 5th, 50th and 95th percentile results for surface water and shoreline oiling, water column and sediment contamination, biological impacts, and natural resource damages (NRD). NRD costs were based on the Washington Compensation Schedule and Oil Pollution Act (OPA) NRD procedures involving compensatory restoration scaling and associated costs. Response costs and socioeconomic damages were evaluated in a companion study by D.S. Etkin (Environmental Research Consulting). The fates, impacts and NRD cost results for two scenarios are presented here: those for the outer coast spills assuming (1) only protective booming and (2) protective booming plus the mechanical removal up to Washington State standards. The results of these and other scenarios are being incorporated into a rulemaking process and cost-benefit analysis by the Department of Ecology.
PREVENCIÓN A CONTAMINACIONES Y PLANIFICACIÓN DE RESPUESTA CONJUNTA ENTRE MÉXICO Y LOS EUA EN LA REGIÓN FRONTERIZA MARÍTIMA. UNA HISTORIA DE ÉXITO EN COOPERACIÓN INTERNACIONAL*
Authors: Pertuz David , Inclán Luis Orozco
Published: January 2013

ABSTRACTO

El Plan Conjunto de Continencia entre los Estados Unidos Mexicanos y los Estados Unidos de América sobre Contaminación del Medio Ambiente Marino por Derrames de Hidrocarburos y Otras Substancias Nocivas firmado en febrero del año 2000 por la Guardia Costera de los Estados Unidos y la Secretaría de Marina-Armada de México, ha establecido el inicio de una cooperación bilateral exitosa en la preparación y reacción en caso de incidentes de contaminación que pudieran afectar la región marítima fronteriza de ambos países.

Desde la firma de este acuerdo, comúnmente referido como el Plan MEXUS, las actividades conjuntas realizadas han generado un avance significativo en la cooperación, preparación y respuesta ante incidentes contaminantes de ambos países. Esta cooperación ha sido ratificada por la participación decidida de las dependencias locales, estatales y federales, así como por la gran participación de la industria privada de ambos países. Las actividades conjuntas han incluido: El simulacro Conjunto MEXUS Golf “2002,” patrocinado por la Compañía UNOCAL, realizado en mayo del 2002 en la Isla del Padre, Texas; el simulacro conjunto denominado “SABALO 2003,” patrocinado por la Secretaría de Marina-Armada de México, realizado en agosto del 2003 en Tampico, Tamaulipas; la participación conjunta como parte del simulacro de Derrame de Importancia Nacional California, realizado en abril del 2004 en el sur de California y Ensenada, Baja California; y el simulacro conjunto MEXUS GOLF 2004, patrocinado por la compañía Shell Producción y Exploración y realizado en mayo del 2004 en Matamoros, Tamaulipas. Otras actividades relevantes realizadas en temas afines, incluyen reuniones regionales de los Equipos de Respuesta Conjunta, el entrenamiento del personal y la adopción del “Sistema de Comando de Incidentes” como herramienta común para el manejo de los incidentes.

Adicionalmente con la firma en marzo del 2004 del “Programa Estratégico de Trabajo mediante Metas a Lograr en Cinco Años” se consolida aún más la cooperación bilateral y el éxito en materia de prevención y combate a la contaminación marina; Este documento, describe las actividades a desarrollar y se concentra en obtener resultados claves basados en el objetivo del Plan MEXUS y sus Anexos Geográficos. Además de que sirve como una herramienta para mantener un interés común, un mayor acercamiento, lograr avances, así como identificar y evaluar los resultados de los Equipos de Respuesta Conjunta.
UN ENFOQUE REGIONAL UNIFICADO DE RESPUESTA CONTRA LA CONTAMINACION MARINA POR PETROLEO EN EL PACIFICO NORDESTE
Authors: Díaz Juan Manelia
Published: January 2013

SUMARIO

Dos estrategias regionales aprobadas por los Gobiernos de Centroamérica, son utilizadas para aplicar un enfoque regional a nivel de los países centroamericanos del Pacífico Nordeste, en el combate contra la contaminación marina por petróleo. Una se inscribe dentro del contexto del Programa de Mares Regionales que promueve el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente y es el Plan de Acción para la Protección y Desarrollo Sostenible del Medio Marino y Zonas Costeras del Pacífico Nordeste (PNO), aprobado en Antigua Guatemala, en Febrero de 2002. La otra es la Agenda Ambiental del Transporte Marítimo en Centroamérica (AATM), liderada por la Comisión Centroamericana de Transporte Marítimo (COCATRAM), dentro del contexto del Sistema de la Integración Centroamericana (SICA), la que fue aprobada en el año 2002.

Tanto el PNO como la AATM son elementos que se complementan mutuamente. La AATM es específica a todos los aspectos ambientales propios del transporte marítimo y el PNO considera, dentro de otras fuentes de contaminación marina, las descargas accidentales de petróleo. En ambos elementos los Gobiernos han identificado como acción prioritaria inmediata, el fortalecimiento de la capacidad de respuesta de sus instituciones para prevenir y afrontar sucesos que determinen una contaminación del mar con petróleo, iniciando con el apoyo y cooperación internacional necesarios para la formulación, actualización y complementación, según proceda, de los Planes Nacionales de Contingencia. Además, se proponen en paralelo, llevar a cabo una fuerte acción de capacitación y entrenamiento, todo dentro del marco de una estrategia ampliada para su regionalización, que forma parte tanto del PNO como de la AATM.

Actualmente algunos de los países de la región tienen Planes Nacionales de Contingencia articulados con Planes locales, otros están en proceso. Sin embargo, aún ninguno está aprobado por una normativa específica, sino que están conectados con los sistemas nacionales de prevención y atención de desastres. El presente documento informa sobre el estado actual de esos Planes de Contingencia y de las medidas consideradas para la regionalización de una respuesta unificada en contra de derrames de petróleo, en la forma como fue percibida e informada por una reunión de expertos de Autoridades Marítimas de la región y órganos equivalentes que tienen a su cargo los Planes Nacionales de Contingencia, convocada por COCATRAM con apoyo del Programa de Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente (PNUMA) a finales del mes de Abril del 2004.
DETERMINATION OF THE LIMITING OIL VISCOSITY FOR CHEMICAL DISPERSION AT SEA
Authors: Colcomb Kevin , Salt David , Peddar Malcolm , Lewis Alun
Published: January 2013

Many previous studies using laboratory test methods have shown that the ability to disperse spilled oils depends on several factors including: spilled oil properties (and how these change with oil weathering), the mixing energy, and the dispersant-to-oil ratio (DOR). There appears to be a ‘limiting oil viscosity’ value that, when exceeded, causes a sharp reduction in the effectiveness of a dispersant. The results obtained in laboratory tests are relative and not absolute, and it has therefore proved very difficult to correlate dispersant effectiveness results from these laboratory tests with dispersant performance at sea. A series of small-scale dispersant tests were conducted at sea in the English Channel in June 2003. Several small test slicks of residual fuel oils of different viscosity grades were laid on the sea and immediately sprayed with different dispersants at different DORs. Observers used a simple ranking system to visually assess the degree of dispersion that occurred when a cresting wave passed through an area of the dispersant-treated oil. Collation of the results showed that there were obvious and consistent differences in the degree of effectiveness observed with different combinations of oil viscosity, dispersant and treatment rate.
STATISTICAL ESTIMATES OF SHORELINE OIL CONTACT IN THE GULF OF MEXICO
Authors: Johnson Walter R. , Ji Zhen-Gang , Marshall Charles F.
Published: January 2013

As steward of the Federal offshore lands known as the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS), the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI), Minerals Management Service (MMS), is responsible for balancing the Nation's search for commercial oil and gas with protection of the human and marine environments. The MMS regulates the development of mineral resources in an environmentally safe manner by analyzing environmental consequences of the OCS program prior to lease sales or approval of industry's plans. The Oil-Spill Risk Analysis (OSRA) model was developed by the DOI for the analysis of possible oil-spill impact from offshore oil and gas operations.

The OSRA model produces statistical estimates of hypothetical oil-spill occurrence and contact from projected OCS operations. The model generates an ensemble of sea surface oil-spill trajectories by initiating thousands of oil-spill simulations at hypothetical spill locations to statistically characterize oil-spill risk in areas of prospective drilling and production and along projected pipeline routes.

The hypothetical spills are initiated every day and move at the velocity of the vector sum of the surface ocean currents plus an empirical wind-induced drift of speed equal to 3.5% of the local wind speed, with a wind-speed-dependent direction (Samuels et al., 1982). The model generates oil-spill trajectories by integrating interpolated values of the wind and ocean current fields at intervals short enough to use the full spatial resolution of the ocean current and wind fields. The OSRA model, as applied to the Gulf of Mexico, uses 3-hourly ocean current fields over 7 years (1993–1999) generated by the Princeton Regional Ocean Forecast System (PROFS) (Oey et al., 2004). The PROFS is driven by synoptic winds, heat flux, and river flows. The wind field is based on the European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts surface winds enhanced by observations from meteorological buoys and Coastal-Marine Automated Network stations. The same wind field used to force the ocean model is used to move the oil in the spill trajectories.

As an example of environmental assessment, the OSRA model was used to estimate the spreading of oil spills by simultaneously modeling fractions of each spill, referred to as spillets. The spillets were used to calculate additional statistics, in particular, the length of coastline contacted by a large spill. The coastline was divided into equal length segments. Assumptions were made regarding what fraction of the spill (i.e., the number of spillets) that contacted a land segment would constitute a contact larger than the “level of concern.” Sensitivity of the analysis to key assumed parameters, such as the number of spillets and the level of concern, were tested.
INDUSTRY COOPERATION IN AN EMERGING REGION
Authors: Taylor Peter M. , Landin Kjell T. , Duckworth Tim , Pietersz Jan
Published: January 2013

During the 1990s, the Caspian Sea, Black Sea and Central Eurasia region emerged as one of the most important new sources of world oil supply, attracting development and providing vital new export revenue. With more growth and investment certain, the countries of the region are able to rely increasingly on the benefits arising from uninterrupted exports. As more oil is handled in the region, the shared desire is to eliminate any spills from these operations. Further to a strong commitment to apply preventive measures, a group of energy companies—working in cooperation with governments—also believe it is prudent to undertake actions that can significantly reduce the consequence of any such incidents. In 2002–03 these companies undertook a comprehensive study and detailed analyses of the state of oil spill preparedness in region.

The study found that governments, companies, institutions and stakeholder groups widely agreed on the need for improved response capability. Beyond the significant economic and business risks posed by spills, there is universal concern to better protect the environment and the public. A poor spill response could harm the regions ecology, affect local business and the industry's reputation, with serious repercussions.

In line with recommendations from the study, the oil industry launched an initiative to support the efforts of governments and promote regional response capability in mid 2003—the Oil Spill Preparedness Regional Initiative (Caspian Sea—Black Sea—Central Eurasia)—known as OSPRI.

OSPRI embraces an overall vision, set out as … Industry and the region's governments work cooperatively to promote proven, credible, integrated, sustainable oil-spill response capability. OSPRI is action-oriented and brings a consistent, aligned approach for industry in its relationship with international and national partners when developing effective preparedness. OSPRI avoids piecemeal approaches and is encouraging planning processes based on clear command and control frameworks, the tiered response philosophy and response policy based on net environmental benefit (IPIECA 2000). This is making a significant contribution towards helping governments and operators achieve best practice in their contingency planning.
STRUCTURAL MODELLING OF OIL SPILL CONTAINMENT BOOMS BY THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Authors: Boushaba Farid , Nouchi Serge , Boulerhcha Mohammed , Muttin Frédéric
Published: January 2013

The first objective of this paper is to model the antipollution floating boom by considering it in the three different forms: the form of cables, the form of assemblies of articulated body, and in the form of membrane bodies. and then we make a comparison of its three different configurations.
THE USE OF SURFACE DRIFTING FLOATS IN THE MONITORING OF OIL SPILLS. THE PRESTIGE CASE
Authors: García-Ladona Emilio , Font Jordi , Río Evilio del , Julià Agustí , Salat Jordi , Chic Oscar , Orfila Alejandro , Alvarez Alberto , Basterretxea Gotzon , Vizoso Gonzalo , Piro Oreste , Tintoré Joaquin , Castanedo Sonia , Coto Miguel Gil , Herrera José Luis
Published: January 2013

On November 13th, 2002 the 26 year old tanker Prestige reported an emergency off the North Western Spanish coast (Galicia). The ship was carrying 77,000 tons of heavy fuel oil that started to be spilled while the vessel was towed away from the coast, affecting more than 900 km of shoreline. The location and the way the accident occurred implied a great challenge for the organization and coordinaton of actions to fight against the oil pollution. The site, just off the Finis terre cap, is a complex region from the oceanographic point of view and weather conditions, and this facilitated the fuel transport and spread over a great area. In order to take rapid preventive actions, it was crucial to have accurate spill trajectory forecasts covering direction and coastal impact. Under the coordination of public agencies and Spanish academic and research institutions, an operational monitoring system was built including wind and wave forecast, oil spill dispersion models, and visual inspection flights. Although the use of lagrangian floats was made in other incidents in the past (i.e Erika tanker) the characteristics of the Prestige accident indicated the need to deploy a relative great number of buoys as a major novelty respect to similar accidents in the past. The purpose of this contribution is to describe the operational actions performed during this particular accident, and to show the use of Lagrangian floats as an efficient procedure to improve the management and advice for such catastrophic events.
CORRELATING WAVE TANK DISPERSANT EFFECTIVENESS TESTS WITH AT-SEA TRIALS
Authors: Belore R.C. , Trudel B.K. , Lee K.
Published: January 2013

Two important questions facing oil spill responders, planners, and researchers are:What is the limiting viscosity of oil for dispersant use; andHow well do results from dispersant effectiveness tests performed in laboratory apparatus and experimental wave tanks reflect dispersant performance at sea?

In order to begin addressing these questions, a series of at-sea dispersant effectiveness trials were completed in the UK in the summer of 2003 to estimate the viscosity of spilled fuel oils that limits dispersant effectiveness under conditions of moderate sea states (Beaufort Sea states 2 to 4) (Lewis 2004). Two well-characterized marine fuel oils (IFO 180 and IFO 380) with viscosities of 2000 and 7000 cP were spilled, sprayed with dispersants, and dispersant effectiveness was assessed. Several types of dispersants and a range of dispersant dosages were tested. These tests are currently being repeated using a variety of laboratory and meso-scale dispersant effectiveness apparatus to determine how well the results of these various test methods correlate with dispersant performance at sea.

Dispersant effectiveness tests in the SL Ross wave tank, using the identical oils and dispersants from the UK offshore trial, were the focus of this study. The goal of the work was to determine if the dispersant effectiveness test results from this tank are similar to results measured in the offshore.

The tank testing indicated that the IFO 180 oil (viscosity of 2000 cP at the test temperature of 16 °C) is readily dispersible with Corexit 9500 and Superdispersant 25 when applied at dispersant-to-oil ratios (DORs) exceeding 1:75 for Corexit 9500 and 1:50 for Superdispesant 25. The IFO 380 fuel oil (viscosity of 7000 cP at the test temperature of 16°C) was 53% dispersed when treated with Corexit 9500 at a DOR of 1.30. The IFO 380 oil can be dispersed, but larger quantities of dispersant must be applied to achieve significant results.

The tank test dispersant effectiveness results measured for the Corexit 9500 dispersant were similar to the UK field test trends for the IFO 180 oil and were somewhat higher than the field results for the IFO 380 oil. The tank test results for Superdispersant 25 were slightly higher than the field trial trends for the IFO 180 oil and slightly lower for the IFO 380 oil. The limited data available for the Agma DR379 dispersant suggests that the tank test results were similar to the offshore trial results for the IFO 180 oil and lower for the IFO 380 oil.

In general, the SL Ross tank test results matched the trends in the offshore results reasonably well. Variations in sea states and DORs during the sea trials, insufficient data points for direct comparison and the lack of resolution in the 4-point visual assessment system do not permit a more definitive comparison of the results of the test programs.
MODELING DEEPWATER OIL SPILLS WITH NEAR FIELD AND FAR FIELD MODELS
Authors: Ji Zhen-Gang , Johnson Walter R. , Marshall Charles F. , Price James M.
Published: January 2013

As a Federal agency within the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI), the Minerals Management Service (MMS) maintains a leasing program for commercial oil and gas development on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). Oil and gas activities in deep water (areas deeper than 340 meters) have proceeded at an unprecedented rate, and have led to concerns regarding the accidental release of oil near the seafloor. As production increases, the potential for an oil/gas spill increases. In addition to the environmental impacts of the oil spilled, major concerns from a deepwater oil/gas spill include fire, toxic hazard to the people working on the surface installations, and loss of buoyancy by ships and any floating installations. Oil and natural gas releases in deep water behave much differently than in shallow water, primarily due to density stratification, high pressures, and low temperatures. It is important to know whether oil will surface and if so, where, when, and how thick the oil slick will be. To meet these new challenges, spill response plans need to be upgraded. An important component of such a plan would be a model to simulate the behavior of oil and gasses accidentally released in deep water. This has significant implications for environmental impact assessment, oil-spill cleanup, contingency planning, and source tracing.

The MMS uses the Clarkson Deepwater Oil and Gas Blowout (CDOG) plume model to simulate the behavior of oil and gas accidentally released in deepwater areas. The CDOG model is a near field model. In addition, MMS uses an adaptation of the Princeton Ocean Model called the Princeton Regional Ocean Forecast and Hindcast System for the Gulf of Mexico (PROFS-GOM). This model is a far field model and is employed to provide three dimensional current, temperature, and salinity data to the CDOG model.

The PROFS-GOM model and the CDOG model are used to simulate deepwater oil spills in the Gulf of Mexico. Modeling results indicate that the two models can provide important information on the behavior of oil spills in deepwater and assist MMS in estimating the associated environmental risks. Ultimately, this information will be used in the pertinent environmental impact assessments MMS performs and in the development of deepwater oil-spill response plans.
HYDROCARBONS DETECTION IN A COASTAL LAGOON IMPACTED BY AN OIL SPILL IN SÃO SEBASTIÃO CHANNEL, SÃO PAULO STATE, BRAZIL1
Authors: Carneiro Maria Eulália Rocha , Picado Rogério Migueis , Masumoto Cinthia , Mansor Leonardo Mitidiero , Bícego Märcia Caruso , de Sousa Eduineti Ceci Pereira Moreira , Raehid Bauer
Published: January 2013

An operational problem involving the loading arms occurred at São Sebastião Oil Terminal of PETROBRAS, located in the Brazilian Southeastern coast, during the oil transference from the tanker to the Terminal, resulting in the spill of approximately 26.0 m3 of crude Marlin-33 oil on 3 June 2003. The spilled bulk oil was transported by wind-driven currents to the north of São Sebastião Channel where skimmer vessels and booms collected the product. In spite of all contingency actions, some of the oil reached a coastal lagoon.

The Environmental Monitoring Program, involving sampling a week and four months after the event, included chemical analysis for benzene, toluene, ethybenzene and xylenes (BTEX), petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), aliphatic compounds (n-alkanes), polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAH), unresolved complex mixtures (UCM) and total organic carbon (TOC); toxicological tests for water using the Microtox system and Lytechinus variegatus embryo test, and for sediment using the Nitokra copepod test; and hydrocarbon detection in mussel tissue, related to local aquaculture.

The coastal water PAH concentrations after the spill ranged from 0.14 to 1.92 μg/L in chrysene equivalents. For the lagoon water analysis, the concentrations of PAHs ranged from 1.54 to 9.66 μg/L. The total PAH concentrations in lagoon sediment ranged from 5.6 to 359.2 ng/g with perilene prevalence. The total PAH concentrations in mussel tissue samples ranged below the detection limit to 110.0 ng/g; the aliphatic hydrocarbon concentrations varied between 11.02 to 21.36 μg/g and total n-alkanes between 4.80 to 6.21 μg/g, showing no influence of petroleum hydrocarbons. The toxicity results were not conclusive: by means of acute tests, no toxicity was observed in the lagoon water. However, the chronic tests indicated toxicity in some samples including in the controls located in non-affected places.
INJURY TO MUSKRATS (ONDATRA ZIBETHICUS) FROM THE CHALK POINT OIL SPILL, PATUXENT RIVER, MARYLAND1
Authors: Greer Richard , McGowan Peter , Michel Jacqueline , Meade Norman
Published: January 2013

Spill-associated mortality from the Chalk Point oil spill to muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) was estimated using habitat and oiling extent data, muskrat population and home range estimates, local expert opinion, and hut count indices for three impacted creeks. Most of the 70 dead muskrats were collected from Swanson Creek. Muskrat density in this creek was estimated by local experts, and extrapolation from densities reported at a nearby wildlife refuge. Muskrat habitat acreage within Swanson Creek was determined using digitized aerial photography. Acreages of oiled marsh habitat for Swanson, Indian, and Trent Hall Creeks were estimated using spatial analysis. Oiling of muskrats likely occurred to those whose home ranges overlapped the spill area. Radius of a muskrat home range was reported to be 30 meters, and 30 meter buffers were circumscribed along borders of the oiled areas for these creeks. Exposure zone acreages were determined by summing the 30-meter buffers and oiled areas for Swanson, Indian, and Trent Hall Creeks, totaling 75.02, 19.55, and 9.12 acres, respectively. Muskrat population exposure within Swanson Creek was estimated by multiplying exposure zone acreage by muskrat density (4.2 per acre), totaling 315 individuals. Muskrat populations for Indian and Trent Hall Creeks were quantified using hut count indices and comparisons to the count index and population estimate for Swanson Creek. Muskrat exposures in Indian and Trent Hall Creeks were determined by multiplying estimated muskrat density by the exposure zone acreage for each creek. The exposed population was calculated to be 32 and 29 for Indian Creek and Trent Hall Creek, respectively. Assuming 100% mortality for muskrats potentially exposed to oiled marsh habitat, the total acute mortality in the spill area was estimated to be 376 individuals (i.e., 315 in Swanson Creek, 32 in Indian Creek, and 29 in Trent Hall Creek). Total muskrat years lost are calculated, and the strengths and uncertainties of this approach are discussed.
RECENT BIOREMEDIATION RESULTS ON OIL SPILLED DURING THE 1991 GULF WAR1
Authors: Baca Bart , Al-Sarawi Mohammad , Kana Timothy W.
Published: January 2013

Over thirteen years ago, Iraqi soldiers caused the release of over 10 million barrels of oil into Arabian Gulf waters from various sources. The oil impacted the majority of the western Gulf shoreline, estimated at over four hundred miles. Coastal development is having to deal with oil which was buried, stock-piled, or otherwise left in place. One such development is underway at Al Khiran (southern Kuwait) where oil is within planned construction areas for public beaches,

housing lots, a marina, and channels. Although the oil is weathered and generally considered non-toxic (based on chemical analyses below), expanses of it pose physical and esthetic problems for construction and human use of the areas. Tests were performed using various means of treating this oil, and the results are given herein.

A variety of bioremediation methods was tested, including the use of products from four companies, selected at random from the oil spill chemical industry (U.S. and abroad). All four were bacterial powders, with nutrients included or added separately, applied according to manufacturers' specifications. Test plots were on mildly contaminated soil (33 mg/kg total hydrocarbons) which had oil mixed throughout. Plots were located in the upper intertidal zone, where they were exposed to minimal (<30 cm), diurnal, high tide flooding, and the research site was protected from wave and wind action by a levee. Extreme conditions at the sites included high temperatures, lack of rainfall, and flushing by high salinity seawater (40 parts per thousand salt).

Sites were sampled before treatment, and at various times beginning 44 days after treatment. Composite samples were collected from each test plot and analyzed for total petroleum hydrocarbons (TRPH), and for three hydrocarbon ranges: C8–C10, C10–C28, and C28–C40. Results showed no significant reduction in total hydrocarbons by any product, compared to pre-treatment levels. Aggressive physical tilling of contaminated soils at a second site provided some reduction in total hydrocarbons during this period. Various methods were tried in the next phase of testing, including additional product exposure time, increased tilling, and screening. The results provide guidelines for the use of chemical products and physical treatments, in extreme coastal conditions, for the treatment of weathered hydrocarbons.
EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF A NATURAL HOLLOW HYDROPHOBIC-OLEOPHILIC FIBER FOR ITS POTENTIAL APPLICATION IN NAPL SPILL CLEANUP1
Authors: Huang Xiaofeng , Lim Teik-Thye
Published: January 2013

Non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) spills on water and land are of major environmental concern. One of the most economical and efficient means for the removal of the spilled NAPL is to use hydrophobic-oleophilic sorbents. Natural, agricultural products have potential to be a substitute for commercial synthetic absorbents in NAPL pickup and recovery. One of these natural agro-products that have excellent oil sorption capacities is Kapok (Ceiba pentandra), a cellulosic silky-cotton fiber.

This paper presents the sorption capacities of Kapok, the reusability of Kapok and its hydrophobicity-oleophilicity for various NAPLs. Both loose and packed Kapok assemblies were examined. The NAPLs investigated were tetrachloroethylene (PCE), diesel and HD-30 engine oil (HD-30).

The NAPL sorption capacities of packed Kapok assemblies were found to be 75, 55 and 45 g/g for PCE, HD-30 and diesel, respectively. Two-thirds of the sorption capacities of virgin packed Kapok assemblies could be retained even at the 8th reuse cycle. Oil sorption capacities of the loose Kapok assembly reached 115 and 45 g/g for HD-30 and diesel, respectively, on dynamic water surface. No thin oil film on water surface was observed after NAPL sorption, when initial oil added in water was less than 30 g/500 mL and 1 g loose Kapok assembly was used.
SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANS: FOR INTERNATIONAL REGIONAL COOPERATION
Authors: Sawano Nobuhiro
Published: January 2013

Offshore oil and gas developing projects have been started on the Sakhalin shelf and the sea of Okhotsk. These large scale developing projects require multi-national cooperative spill response, then agreements for emergency occasions have to be ratified between neighbor countries under international schemes such as Northwest Pacific Action Plan (NOWPAP) initiated by United Nations Environmental Progamme.

As of the moment, there are no diplomatic agreements concerning with oil spill response between stakeholder counties, then custom clearance and other international migration procedure will be an obstacle for exchanging both materials and professionals. A comparative analysis of oil spill contingency plans of Russia, Korea and Japan resulted in some clear differences in these countries approaches. The Korean National Contingency Plan explicitly determines the roles of an ‘on-scene coordinator’ who is a unique organizer for oil spill response. On the other hands, the same kind of Japanese plan does not even contain a word of such ‘on-scene coordinator’. For the Russian case, they have U. S. like Federal Emergency Management Agency, but allocation of roles between this agency and Ministry of Transport are still ambiguous.
BIODEGRADATION AT A LAND-FARMING SITE AT 14,000 FEET IN THE HIGH BOLIVIAN ALTIPLANO
Authors: Jauna Patricia Beltrán , Henshaw Antony
Published: January 2013

Approximately 30,000 m3 of contaminated soil recovered from cleanup operations after a 29,000 barrel oil spill in the Desaguadero River (January 2000) was stored in temporary pits. Waste disposal plans explored several options for final disposal, including incineration and land farming. Initial concerns about the ability to landfarm the contaminated soil centered on the biodegradation potential at altitudes of 14,000 ft (4,300 m) and in a region with seasonally low day and nighttime temperatures. The Bolivian Altiplano has a semiarid climate where daily fluctuations of 15°C in temperature are common while average temperatures range between −6 C (July) and 21.0°C (November).

The technical experts at the Bolivian Ministry of Sustainable Development were reluctant to grant permission for Land Farming to be used at high altitude and instead insisted that all the contaminated soil be sent by truck across Bolivia to lower altitudes where the proposed a Land Farm was to be created. As an operational response a series of experiments was set up to demonstrate that indeed Land Farming was possible at high altitude. This paper presents the results of these experiments but it should be clearly noted that the testes were conducted under operational conditions without the rigour normally found in laboratory or scientific experiments.

Results showed that it was not only possible to deplete the total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) content from 40,000 ppm to below 1,000 ppm required by Bolivian law, but that it also could be completed within 4 months under specific technical conditions of the biodegradation process. Previous studies documented the formation of oil-mineral aggregates (OMAs) in the contaminated soils from the Rio Desaguadero spill1. We hypothesized that OMA formation and presence of aluminum polysilicate would provide an effective combination to increase the biodegradability of the soils under specific control conditions. This paper explains the high-altitude biodegradation process and the results of monitoring tests from the land farming under operational field conditions.

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TERRORISM, OIL SPILLS AND CRIMINAL SANCTIONS: THE HAMMER AND THE ANVIL
Authors: Hobbie Richard H. , Garger Andrew J.
Published: January 2013

The Water Quality Insurance Syndicate has offices in lower Manhattan in New York City, and the events of September 11th remain vivid. However, in its aftermath it was difficult to envision the broad reaching ripple effects resulting from the event. Among the effects is the clash of two major issues: the increasing use of criminal sanctions in reaction to spills of oil and hazardous substances, and the practical and emotional consequences of both possible and actual terrorist events.

For the past several years, the responsible party and its insurer have faced the use of criminal sanctions when a spill occurs. Criminal sanctions are typically used to combat intentional environmental misconduct. In the realm of oil spills, common actions may include the deliberate dumping of oil and negligence or unintentional conduct leading to a spill.

In the post 9–11 United States, the first question presented at an oil spill is not how much oil has been spilled, but rather was the spill caused by an act of terrorism?. Government officials may treat the location of an oil spill as a crime scene, which will transform and complicate a pollution event.

A recent explosion on a gasoline barge at an oil and gas storage facility in Staten Island, New York illustrates the point. A leading national newspaper devoted the first five paragraphs of its lead story on the explosion to a discussion of whether or not there was a terrorist attack

Was the clean up of that spill hampered because of the terrorism investigation? We will probably never know, because the gasoline that escaped from the barge quickly evaporated so the cleanup was minimal. The next spill, however, might be a crude oil spill where every minute in response time counts. While the shipowner is trying to minimize the spill, the F.B.I, might have already taken control of the spill scene to conduct an investigation and effectively locked out the spill responders and their equipment, greatly increasing the cost and complexity of the cleanup, the environmental damage that is done, and the possibility that the shipowner's actions are found to be insufficient, increasing the possibility of criminal sanctions.

The threat of terrorism is real. But we must now work to integrate our response to the terrorism threat to our existing spill response infrastructure that has been developed under OPA, and not unnecessarily increase a shipowner's exposure to criminal liability.
PROVIDING TOTAL NOAA SCIENTIFIC SUPPORT TO THE USCG FOR REMOTE OIL SPILL LOCATIONS – THE M/V SELENDANG AYUINCIDENT IN ALASKA
Authors: Scott Carven , Albanese Sam , Whitney John
Published: January 2013

The NOAA Emergency Response Division (ERD aka Hazmat) provides a complete set of scientific assistance and support to the U.S. Coast Guard in response to an offshore oil spill. Historically NOAA National Weather Service (NWS) has provided the operational weather support component for ERD in the form of forecasts and observations. The dearth of conventional weather data in remote locations provide unique challenges for providing weather support for Hazmat events in locations such as the Aleutian Island Chain of Alaska. Weather support for Hazmat events in Alaska are further complicated during the storm season from October through March due to the frequency and intensity of storms in Alaska combined with the vast distances to reach the scene. Such was the case when the M/V Selendang Ayu grounded on Unalaska Island in the Aleutian Islands, 800 miles southwest of Anchorage, within the AOR of NWS Weather Forecast Office Anchorage.

Unalaska Island has a handful of permanent observational platforms, all in the vicinity of Dutch Harbor. However, the M/V Selendang Ayu was foundering on the west side of the island, in a different meteorological and oceanographic regime. WFO Anchorage developed a plan that included siting a land-based weather station near the wreck, a specialized processing of Synthetic Aperture Radar Satellite (SARSat) passes, and a Selendang Ayu event web portal populated with tailored products for the event within 24 hours.

Given the significance of the event within a highly vulnerable ecosystem, one of the first actions that the ERD Alaska Scientific Support Coordinator initiated was to exercise an agreement with the NWS to bring their Incident Meteorologist on scene as part of the NOAA Scientific Support Team. The NWS response was immediate and effective. Within a week the first Incident Meteorologist (IM) was on scene providing regional and localized weather reviews and forecasts for the IC Post as well as weather briefings on request for helo pilots and boat skippers. On scene IM support continued for the next two months. Weather support through the spring and summer was provided via phone and web by the Anchorage Forecast Office.
OIL SPILLS, SEABIRDS, AND NRDA: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN U.S. WEST, EAST, AND GULF COASTS
Authors: Helm Roger C. , Ford R. Glenn , Carter Harry R.
Published: January 2013

Oil released into the marine environment killed millions of seabirds in the twentieth century and every year tens of thousands of sick, debilitated, moribund, and dead oiled seabirds are beached or sink at sea (Piatt et al. 1990a, Camphuysen & Heubeck 2001, Wiese & Ryan 2003). In the U.S., hundreds to thousands of birds are killed each year by oil released from pipelines, platforms, and vessels (Burger & Fry 1993, Carter 2003, USFWS 2005). Huge oil spills from tankers have killed tens to hundreds of thousands of seabirds in a single event (e.g., Exxon Valdez, Prestige) and even relatively small volumes of oil released from a vessel at sea can kill thousands of seabirds (Page et al. 1990, Piatt et al. 1990b, Burger 1993).

Prior to the March 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska, little attention was paid to the loss of seabirds from oil spills and damage claims for injury to natural resources, such as seabirds, were rare. Since the Exxon Valdez spill, and the subsequent passage of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90), the pursuit of damages for injury to natural resources has become an expected element of the overall cost of an oil spill. This paper discusses: (1) how the enactment of OPA 90 appears to have affected the oil and marine transportation industries in the U.S., especially along the west coast, (2) how, following the Exxon Valdez spill, natural resource damage (NRD) claims for injury to seabirds have become commonplace, but distinctly different when comparing U.S. west coast oil spills with those on the U.S. east and Gulf of Mexico (hereafter “gulf”) coasts, and (3) predictions on the future source of vessel spills and the changing nature of NRD claim resolution nationwide. An earlier version of this manuscript was provided in Helm et al. (2006); this updated version is similar but provides more details on certain points.
OIL SPILL SIMULATIONS IN THE AFTERMATH OF TANKER ACCIDENT AT THE TANKER ROUTES IN THE MARMARA SEA
Authors: Basar Ersan
Published: January 2013

Marmara is a small inland sea in Turkey, connected to the Black Sea by the Istanbul Strait (Bosporus) and to the Aegean Sea by the Canakkale Strait (Dardanelles), separating the continents of Europe and Asia; area 11,140 square km/4,300 square mi. In parts it reaches depths of over 1,200 m/3,936 ft. International importance of the Sea of Marmara stands in the forefront even though it is an inland sea of Turkey and it deals with increasing ecological problems for the last 50 years. The Pollution in the Sea of Marmara which threatens all living species cause dramatic falling in fishing potential. Increase in the volume of maritime traffic on the Strait and the Sea of Marmara have increased the risk of the maritime accidents over the years and since 1948 the number of ship accidents have been recorded as around 700. Furthermore, being on the transportation way of hazardous and dangerous materials, pose environmental and safety hazards for the Bosphorus Strait and the Marmara Sea with the surrounding residential areas. The increasing sea traffic also causes considerable congestion on the northern entrance of the Bosphorus Strait. Increase in the volume of maritime traffic on the Bosphorus and Marmara Sea heightens the risk of maritime accidents.

In the present work, the risky region of Marmara Sea is chosen for simulation studies. It is assumed that 1000 tonnes of medium crude oil is spilled in the aftermath of a tanker accident. The distribution of oil spill is then determined with respect to time and space by considering 2 different wind directions and scale. The simulation code GNOME™ version 1.2.7 is utilized to generate the oil spill scenarios. As a result of these runs, spillage areas were identified as risky areas and necessary actions to minimize the effect of spill were discussed in the Marmara Sea.