bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Pointsman: Maxwell’s Demon, Victorian Free Will, and the Boundaries of Science
Authors: Stanley Matthew
Published: July 2008

This article discusses the writings of the devout Christian physicist James Clerk Maxwell (best
known for his epochal work in electromagnetism and statistical mechanics) on the concept of
conscious free-will. To Maxwell a correct understanding of free will, as personified in the
example of the railway pointsman, was essential to clear conceptions of both man as a religious
creature and of the limits of science. Understanding human volition, then, was not an end unto
itself. It was a foundation on which one could build reliable theories of man and matter.
A Conversation About Morals and History
Authors: Cotkin George
Published: July 2008

In the April 2008 issue (volume 69, issue number 2) of the Journal of the History of Ideas,
George Cotkin published his article, "History's Moral Turn." Four essays responding to Cotkin's
article, written by Neil Jumonville, Michael O'Brien, James Livingston, and Lewis Perry, were
also published in the April 2008 issue. In this essay, "A Conversation about Morals and
History," Cotkin addresses the critiques of each of these four historians.
On the Ancient Uses of Political Fear and Its Modern Implications
Authors: Kapust Daniel
Published: July 2008

This paper explores political fear in classical thought. Through an analysis of Plato, Aristotle,
Thucydides, and Sallust, I discuss two broad uses of fear: fear as a source of unity and of moral
energy. In addition, the paper addresses the enervating role of political fear in Tacitus’ writings.
The discussion centers on three issues: first, I draw attention to an important and often neglected
set of themes in classical thought; second, I provide a historical resource for contemporary
discussions of political fear; third, I argue that fear’s multiple uses in political theorizing ought to
be a focus of scholarly inquiry.
Joseph M. Levine 1933–2008
Authors: Kelley Donald R.
Published: July 2008

Obituary for Joseph M. Levine, Distinguished Professor of History at Syracuse University.
“Following the Way Which Is Called Heresy”: Milton and the Heretical Imperative
Authors: Myers Benjamin
Published: July 2008

In his prose writings, Milton produces a reinvention of the concept of heresy, and subsequently a
theological reinvention of the nature of English society. He envisions a Protestant society united
by practices of individual piety and by the “heretical imperative” of autonomous choice. While
Milton’s account seeks to eliminate the possibilities of religious violence and state persecution, it
leads finally to the same impasse as the Lockean theory: the grounding of a right to toleration on
subjective piety necessarily excludes those groups who refuse to practice such piety.
Nevertheless, Milton’s unique depiction of a society united by practices of heresy ultimately
points toward modernity in a way that is even more remarkably prescient than Locke’s
influential theory of toleration.
A Virtuoso’s History: Antiquarianism and the Transmission of Knowledge in the Alchemical Studies of Elias Ashmole
Authors: Janacek Bruce
Published: July 2008

This article examines how the seventeenth-century antiquary, Elias Ashmole (1617-1692) used
antiquarian techniques to demonstrate the historical veracity of alchemy. Ashmole published
three alchemical volumes and collected thousands of pages of alchemical manuscripts. He also
wrote several antiquarian treatises and collected manuscripts and printed volumes on astrology,
political and ecclesiastical history, heraldry, medicine, devotional treatises. Ashmole's virtuoso
perspective allowed him to view knowledge as unified, even traditions that appear to be as
discrete as alchemy and antiquarianism. By examining how these two traditions were related to
one another, we also see how knowledge was conveyed from one generation to the next.
Stoic Constructions of Virtue in The Vicar of Wakefield
Authors: Anderson Margaret
Published: July 2008

“Stoic Constructions of Virtue in The Vicar of Wakefield” reconceives the commonplace
account of the opposition between Stoic and sentimental ethics. My examination of the influence
Stoic doctrines had on eighteenth-century moral philosophy regarding universal sympathy,
virtue’s disinterest, and its rewards, informs my reading of Primrose’s trials. I contend that
Goldsmith presents the limitless extension of sympathy as the basis of disinterested industry
within a commercial economy. He thus establishes virtue’s rigor, not its compromise.
Japanese Bridges: A Translation of Yasuda Yojūrō’s “Nihon No Hashi”
Authors: Tansman Alan
Published: July 2008

Yasuda Yojūrō’s 1936 “Nihon no hashi” (Japanese bridges ) was among the most influential essays of its time. A discursive reflection on the place of Japanese bridges in the Japanese cultural imagination, “Nihon no hashi” earned Yasuda, the inspirational center of the Japanese Romantic Movement, the fervent devotion of his readers during the 1930s and the vilification of intellectuals after the war. Yasuda’s aura, projected from this essay as from no other, made him an emblem and embodiment of an age and a spirit. To many of his readers, in essays like “Nihon no hashi” Yasuda provided an antidote to a spiritual and cultural crisis in the beautification of sacrifice and violence; to later critics like Ōoka Makoto, Yasuda and his writing were toxic, to be treated like “radioactive substance disposed of deep in the sea.” This translation of “Nihon no hashi” attempts to give a sense of the power and strangeness of the original work by preserving its slippery and at times maddeningly opaque expository slides.
The Great Kanto Earthquake and the Culture of Catastrophe and Reconstruction in 1920s Japan
Authors: Schencking J. Charles
Published: July 2008

This article explores the Great Kanto Earthquake as a window into Japan of the 1920s and examines how this disaster was interpreted and used for political, ideological, and social ends. I suggest that a wide cross-section of commentators described the disaster as an act of divine punishment to admonish Japan’s subjects for leading what many claimed were self-centered, immoral, and extravagant lifestyles. I further argue that the disaster nurtured a strong sense that Japan possessed an unparalleled opportunity not only to rebuild Tokyo to reflect and reinforce new values but also to reconstruct the nation and its people. In doing so, the 1923 calamity fostered a culture of catastrophe and reconstruction that amplified discourses of moral degeneracy and national renovation in interwar Japan.
Failure to Protect Refugees?: Domestic Institutions, International Organizations, and Civil Society in Japan
Authors: Flowers Petrice R.
Published: July 2008

This article explores why Japanese government policies, despite major reforms, still do not comply well with international norms of protecting refugees. There has been great progress in the growth of nongovernmental organizations and civil society, the strong presence of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in Japan, and the reduction of structural constraints on the ability of organizations to influence government policy. Despite these steps, lack of access to the Ministry of Justice and ideational constraints have hindered efforts by nonstate actors to reform refugee policies toward greater compliance with international norms of protection.
Japan’s “War Orphans”: Identification and State Responsibility
Authors: Efird Robert
Published: July 2008

In the chaotic aftermath of Japan’s loss in the Asia-Pacific War, thousands of Japanese infants and children were stranded in northeast China and remained there for decades as the foster children of Chinese households. Subsequently, more than two thousand of these “war orphans” have belatedly returned with their families to Japan, where they have faced tremendous difficulties adjusting to Japanese society. This article critically examines the reasons for the Japanese government’s failure to expeditiously repatriate and successfully resettle the war orphans in Japan and considers the war orphans’ grievances in light of their recent compensation lawsuits against the government.
Lessons of the Winter War: A Study in the Military Effectiveness of the Red Army, 1939–1940
Authors: Reese Roger R.
Published: July 2008

The Soviet war against Finland (1939–40) is generally seen as a fiasco because the U.S.S.R. failed to conquer and absorb Finland, as Joseph Stalin had planned; and the Finns inflicted losses on the Red Army that were far out of proportion to the small size of their army and their own casualties. Access to fresh sources, archival and memoir, suggest that although the Soviets fell short of their political goals and performed dismally in combat, the Red Army was far more militarily effective than was appreciated by the Soviet military and political leadership, the German armed forces high command, and contemporary observers.
A Chaplain’s Diary: Reverend Victor Laketek, O.S.B., 1942–1946
Authors: Flint Fr. James
Published: July 2008

As an Army Air Forces chaplain during the Second World War, Father Victor Laketek, O.S.B., experienced homesickness, boredom, and all the seeming futility of isolated military bases far from the front. What he saw little of, at the locations where he served in Maine, Florida, California, and Canton Island, was anything like the spiritual renaissance some supposed was being brought about by the conflict. The diary he kept during these years offers a corrective to the “no atheists in foxholes” phenomenon sometimes reported by the popular press.
The “Electronic Battlefield” in the Vietnam War
Authors: Deitchman Seymour J.
Published: July 2008

By mid-1966 the North Vietnamese army had built an elaborate system of truck roads and personnel trails through Laos to support and reinforce some 435,000 communist troops and guerrillas attacking South Vietnam. Interdicting movement on that system was a high priority for U.S. forces helping to defend the South. By arrangement with Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, the Jason group of scientists proposed a networked system of sensors and aircraft for the purpose. That system, although not totally successful, significantly affected the course of the war and presaged key aspects of the equipment and operation of America’s armed forces today.
Zhao Chongguo: A Professional Soldier of China’s Former Han Dynasty
Authors: Dreyer Edward L.
Published: July 2008

Zhao Chongguo (137–52 BC), who rose to the rank of general in service to the emperors of China’s Former Han Dynasty (206/202 BC–9 AD) and became one of the greatest soldiers in Chinese history, is best remembered for his “strategy of military farms ( tuntian ),” evolved during his famous victorious campaign of 61–60 BC against the Qianq people, presumed ancestors of the Tibetans, on the western frontier of China. Although future Chinese official historians would claim that this strategy of using infantrymen to grow crops on frontier lands was intended to solve the problem of supplying troops on distant campaigns with food and fodder, the article which follows, based on a careful reading of Zhao Chongguo’s memorials to his emperor, demonstrates conclusively that the general’s real reason for establishing the military farms was to deny crop and grazing land to China’s frontier foes and thus “subdue the enemy without fighting,” in the words of Sun Zi. A close examination of the career of this famous soldier also has much to tell us about civil-military relations in ancient China and the strategy and tactics evolved by China’s soldiers in order to contain and ultimately defeat the formidable nomadic enemies on its frontiers.
The Meaning of a Name: The Rise of the National Guard and the End of a Town Militia
Authors: Stentiford Barry M.
Published: July 2008

Although inclusion into the National Guard brought uniformity, professionalism, and better equipment to state militia, it weakened the vital bonds of some militia companies with their communities. In the nineteenth century, the Richardson Light Guard of Wakefield, Massachusetts, thrived under generous patrons, a supportive town, and a relatively wealthy state government, but after it became part of the National Guard in 1916, the deep links with its home community steadily weakened, then broke. What had once been an institution of the town passed to the state, then to the federal government. Increased federal involvement helped an elite militia company become an average National Guard company.
Mahan and the “English Club” of Lima, Peru: The Genesis of The Influence of Sea Power upon History
Authors: Ferreiro Larrie D.
Published: July 2008

Alfred Thayer Mahan formulated his concept of sea power while reading a history book in an English gentleman’s club in Lima, Peru. This concept became the foundation for his celebrated The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1680–1783 . However, Mahan never properly identified the “English Club” in his autobiographical writings. This note briefly describes the Phoenix Club (its proper name) and portrays the situation in Peru when Mahan first envisioned his concept of sea power.
Electric Torpedoes in the Confederacy: Reconciling Conflicting Histories
Authors: Wolters Timothy S.
Published: July 2008

This article investigates a long-standing historical debate over the development of electric torpedoes in the Confederate States of America. It analyzes the contributions of five individuals - Hunter Davidson, Beverley Kennon, Stephen Mallory, Matthew Maury, and Gabriel Rains - and concludes that Maury was the Confederacy’s most persistent advocate of electric torpedoes. An examination of new archival material also clarifies Maury’s relationship with fellow torpedo pioneers Davidson and Kennon. More broadly, the article explores linkages between memory, history, and technology. It argues that claims of technological priority matter, that memories are influenced by a multiplicity of factors (not all of which are easily discernible), and that technical source material can assist greatly in efforts to reconcile conflicting histories.
“A perfectly logical and sensible thing”: Billy Mitchell Advocates a Canadian-American Aerial Alliance against Japan
Authors: Perras Galen Roger , Kellner Katrina E.
Published: July 2008

In 1923 Brigadier General Billy Mitchell made a short and hitherto-ignored trip to Canada to meet with prominent Canadian officials. Mitchell’s report to his superiors made clear that Canada, as an air-minded Anglo-Saxon nation, was ideally suited to join with the United States in an aerial alliance, centered on Alaska, designed to bomb Japan into submission in any future war. Although Mitchell’s plan, which was the logical culmination of his air power notions, appealed to neither American nor Canadian officials, he pushed the alliance notion until his death in the mid-1930s, as did his air power acolytes in the Army Air Corps.
Latin America: Eight Lessons for Governance
Authors: Mainwaring Scott , Scully Timothy R.
Published: July 2008

This article suggests eight lessons regarding democratic governance during the third wave of democratization in Latin America. First, creating effective democratic governance has proven far more difficult than analysts anticipated in the early 1990s. Second, the outcomes in democratic governance in contemporary Latin America have varied widely. Third, effective states are important for successful democratic governance. Fourth, institutionalized party systems facilitate effective democratic governance. Fifth, no set of formal institutions is clearly superior to others for promoting successful democratic governance. Sixth, although historical legacies shape the prospects for the subsequent success of democratic governance, countries have opportunities to break from the past and to establish new regime dynamics. Seventh, in the post-1990 period in Latin America, positive and negative outcomes have tended to go together. Finally, effective democratic governance does not always satisfy popular aspirations.
Islamist Parties and Democracy: Why They Can’t Be Democratic
Authors: Tibi Bassam
Published: July 2008

Abstract: This article makes a case of the basic distinction between Islam and Islamism and presents three central arguments: 1. through religious reforms and a rethinking of the Islamic doctrine, the cultural system of Islam can be put in harmony with democracy, 2. this (first) argument does not apply to Islamism (political Islam) for the simple reason that its end is an Islamic system of government. These two arguments lead to the third, namely that democracy is not simply a voting procedure, but also and above all a political culture of pluralism, individual human rights and civil society, all based on secular values. Unlike jihadist Islamists, institutional Islamists approve democracy, however, only in terms of balloting, not as a political culture of pluralism. Those Islamists who truly consent to democracy abandon the idea of a shari’a -based rule of God (the Hakimiyyat ) and then are no longer Islamists, but democrats.
Islamist Parties and Democracy: Three Kinds of Movements
Authors: Wittes Tamara Cofman
Published: July 2008

Abstract: This conventional categorization of Islamist groups as “moderate” or “radical” is unhelpful in understanding what the existence of such groups means for democratic politics throughout the Arab world. The author proposes a three-part typology for classifying Islamists, one that sheds light on how these diverse groups approach democratic politics. The first category comprises the takfiris , groups such as al-Qaeda that embrace the use of violence in pursuit of their objectives and reject democracy as a denial of God’s sovereignty; the second includes militant and nationalist Islamist groups such as Hezbollah and Hamas that are willing to use violence but maintain involvement in the formal political process; the third, and the most relevant for the democratic politics, are those groups that reject violence and revolution as a means to achieve their goals. Time will reveal which Islamist groups can evolve into constructive players in a pluralist political arena and which cannot.
South Korea’s Miraculous Democracy
Authors: Chaibong Hahm
Published: July 2008

South Korea’s 2007 presidential elections marked a watershed in the country’s democratic development, an event that came about on the force of four key developments. First, turn-taking in governance has turned political figures and factions into “responsible stakeholders.” Second, the inclusion of leftists and progressives has produced a flexible, open, and liberal political system. Third, “elite pact-making” between various political factions and figures has smoothed transitions between governments with radically different ideological orientations. Finally, even major internal and external shocks contributed to the consolidation of the democratic system each time they were successfully overcome.
Islamist Parties and Democracy: A Boon or a Bane for Democracy?
Authors: Hamzawy Amr , Brown Nathan J.
Published: July 2008

Abstract: What role do mainstream Islamist movements play in Arab politics? With their popular messages and broad social base, would their incorporation as normal political actors be the best hope for democratization or democracy’s bane? For too long, we have tried to answer such questions solely by speculating about the true intentions of the movements and their leaders. Islamists in the Arab world are increasingly asked about their true intentions. To hear them tell it, leaders of Islamist movements in the Arab world are democrats without democracy: they are firmly committed to the outcome of clean and fair electoral processes. It is rulers and regimes that should be pressed on their democratic commitments, not their oppositions.
Islamist Parties and Democracy: Going Back to the Origins
Authors: Haqqani Husain , Fradkin Hillel
Published: July 2008

Abstract: Until recently, the very idea of an Islamist political party would have appeared a contradiction in terms. Hassan al-Banna, founder of Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood and one of the forebears of Islamism, was cautious to refer to his group as movement rather not a party; for him, political parties and even nation-states were Western inventions that could have no place in the global Islamic polity (the umma ). But how much does the modern Islamist party represent a departure from traditional Islamism versus a tactical retreat in the face of powerful secularist regimes? Whether Islamists will accept an authority separate from shari‘a and how they will define the minimum qualifications of candidates for public office promise to be decisive issues.
The Remarkable Story of Somaliland
Authors: Kaplan Seth
Published: July 2008

The chaos in Somalia has obscured a remarkable political development in the country’s north. Somaliland, the secessionist northwestern slice of Somalia which declared its independence in 1991, has held three consecutive competitive elections since 2001, has a parliament controlled by opposition parties, and boasts a burgeoning economy propelled by the private sector. The key to its success—the integration into politics of traditional Somali models of governance by consultation and consent—provides a contrast to the standard development paradigm in the West.
The Real Causes of the Color Revolutions
Authors: Way Lucan
Published: July 2008

Analysis of the second wave of democratic transition in Eastern and Central Europe’s “color revolutions” has tended to focus on causal variables such as regional diffusion, leadership strategy, and popular protest. Yet it may be inaccurate to describe the postcommunist authoritarian turnovers the region has witnessed as part of a “wave”; longer-term variables such as state and party capacity and the strength of a country’s connection to the West may held shed light on why certain countries have experienced such revolutions while others have not.
Islamist Parties and Democracy: Are They Democrats? Does It Matter?
Authors: Masoud Tarek
Published: July 2008

Abstract: The journalistic and policy communities have been alive with speculation as to whether Islamist groups involved in politics—including Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood and Palestine’s Hamas— are true believers in democracy or calculating pragmatists who, in Steven Cook’s words, are “seeking to use democratic procedures in order to advance an antidemocratic agenda.” This article suggests that instead of focusing on the credibility of such groups’ democratic aspirations, we would do better to consider the ways in which democratic institutions in Middle Eastern countries can be fortified and liberal democratic parties freed from the grip of the authoritarian regimes throughout the region.
The Orange Revolution and Beyond
Authors: Yushchenko Kateryna
Published: July 2008

Ukraine gained its independence with the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, but it did not gain its freedom until the Orange Revolution in 2004. Yet even freedom did not bring change, as Ukraine’s first lady Kateryna Yushchenko notes, but the opportunity to achieve change. On the foundation of the Orange Revolution, the formidable task of building democratic institutions, economic growth, rule of law and civil society, begins.
ASEAN’s “Black Swans”
Authors: Emmerson Donald K.
Published: July 2008

In November of 2007, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) celebrated its fortieth birthday at a gathering of the organization’s ten member states in Singapore. It was a celebration eclipsed by news of the military junta’s brutal repression of protests in Burma, an ASEAN member. The task of plotting a way forward for ASEAN has been punctuated by this and other improbable events, such as the March 2008 electoral losses of Malaysia’s ruling coalition and the catastrophic upheaval unleashed by Cyclone Nargis in Burma. Yet these “black swans” have unexpectedly produced opportunity for reform and democratization in the region.
Islamist Parties and Democracy: Turkey’s AKP in Power
Authors: Dagi Ihsan
Published: July 2008

Abstract: The Justice and Development Party (AKP), Turkey’s democratically-elected ruling party since 2002, brings to the philosophical debate on Islamist parties and democracy a unique source of data: a track record. Emerging from the “national view” party via the Virtue Party, the AKP broke from its traditional Islamist predecessors under the leadership of Recep Tayyip Erdogan. Public opinion research into voter behavior suggests that support for the AKP does not equate to support for Islamism per se. Instead, it seems that practical issues such as economic policy performance far outweigh religious and ideological appeals in the minds of the Turkish people. All in all, the AKP appears less as an Islamist party and more as one that is pro-Western, pro-Market, and populist.
The Crisis in Kenya
Authors: Kiai Maina
Published: July 2008

The article examines the key reasons why Kenya, which had avoided the major conflicts that afflict Africa and considered as one of Africa’s more stable States, so quickly descended into violence and anarchy “in the typical African way” after disputed elections in 2007. While many were shocked that a country that has held regular elections since independence in 1963 and with the trappings of a functional democracy—a parliament, a judiciary and a vibrant civil society—could tread the path of failed states, this article argues that democracy is not just about holding elections but the mechanics and procedures of accountability in between elections. The article thus examines the deadly consequences of impunity, unchecked corruption, and woefully bad governance in Kenya, and how all these factors combine to feed and fuel inequality and injustice. In seeking answers to what went wrong in Kenya the article provides practical steps to making democracy work in the context of Kenya’s long search for equilibrium.
A New Look at Ethnicity and Democratization
Authors: Beissinger Mark R.
Published: July 2008

Political scientists have long believed that ethnic diversity and strongly-held national identities work against the cause of democratic consolidation, yet new evidence reveals that this need not be so, and even suggests that these factors can, under certain conditions, work in its favor. And while there is evidence that ethnic diversity correlates with poor government performance, lower rates of aggregate economic growth, and ineffective provision of public goods, these relationships are subject to qualification. A diverse set of cases suggest that institutional choices are a crucial factor in determining whether ethnic diversity and national identity work for or against democratic consolidation. In the case of three unambiguously successful postcommunist democracies—Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania—ethnic nationalism was crucial in the transition to free self-government.
Islamist Parties and Democracy: Participation Without Power
Authors: Zeghal Malika
Published: July 2008

Abstract: The debate on the compatibility of Islamism and democracy has tended to focus on two main scenarios. In the first, Islamist political parties become agents for democratization through their participation in freely held elections. In the second, Islamists use the democratic process to gain control and establish an antidemocratic regime—the feared “one man, one vote, one time” scenario. This article argues that focus on these outcomes may be unwarranted; the first assuming too much about the inevitability of democratic transition, and the second being too broad and abstract to be useful. The case of the PJD in Morocco provides evidence that participation does not always equate to power and underscores the need for clarification of the relationship between the Islamist party and the state.
Has the Northern Ireland Problem Been Solved?
Authors: Coakley John
Published: July 2008

The installation of a new power-sharing government in Northern Ireland in May 2007 was widely welcomed as bringing to an end almost 40 years of intercommunal conflict, and as filling a long-standing political vacuum with a set of new democratic institutions. This article explores the nature of the problem that the new institutions were designed to tackle, outlines the complex blueprint (the Good Friday agreement of 1998) that was designed in response, and assesses the capacity of this constitutional master plan to offer political stability, to prevent a return to paramilitary violence, and to provide a stable channel of expression for the political aspirations of the two communities.
Islamist Parties and Democracy: Institutions Make the Difference
Authors: Kubba Laith
Published: July 2008

Abstract: Political Islam is often cited as the key challenge to democratization in Muslim nations, but deep currents of authoritarianism may prove more of an obstacle. Traditions of monarchy, military rule, and weak civic institutions block the path of democratic transition throughout the Muslim world. Political Islam does of course present challenges of its own, such as the ambiguity of the Koran on the ideal political order, the vagueness of modern constitutions on the relationship between Islam and the state (particularly as regards the application of shari‘a ), and the potential for religious appeals to provoke destructive internecine conflicts. Yet with clear democratic rules and gradual strengthening of state and civil society institutions, Islamist groups will come to realize that they must choose between moderation and marginalization.
Public Power in the Eisenhower Administration
Authors: Wells Wyatt
Published: July 2008

In 1953, Dwight D. Eisenhower entered the White House determined to reverse twenty years of federal policy toward electric utilities. His predecessors, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman, had aggressively expanded public power, but Eisenhower considered this “creeping socialism,” and he intended to restrict it.
The Interstates and the Cities: The U.S. Department of Transportation and the Freeway Revolt, 1966–1973
Authors: Mohl Raymond A.
Published: July 2008

When construction began on the urban expressways of the new Interstate Highway System in the late 1950s, homes, businesses, schools, and churches began to fall before bulldozers and wrecking crews. Entire neighborhoods, as well as parks, historic districts, and environmentally sensitive areas, were slated for demolition to make way for new expressways. Highway builders leveled central city areas where few people had cars so that automobile owners from other places could drive to and through the city on the big, new roads. As one analyst of postwar America put it: “The desire of the car owner to take his car wherever he went no matter what the social cost drove the Interstate Highway System, with all the force and lethal effect of a dagger, into the heart of the American city.” In response, citizen activists in many cities challenged the routing decisions made by state and federal highway engineers. This Freeway Revolt found its first expression in San Francisco in the late 1950s, and eventually spread across urban America. By the late 1960s, freeway fighters began to win a few battles, as some urban expressways were postponed, cancelled, or shift ed to alternative route corridors.
“Buying Our Boys Back”: The Mass Foundations of Fiscal Citizenship in World War II
Authors: Sparrow James T.
Published: July 2008

Just after 8:00 in the morning on Tuesday, September 21, 1943, the singer and radio star Kate Smith addressed her national audience with a personal story that set the tone for the marathon bond drive she would conduct over the next eighteen hours. In her usual self-effacing manner, she began by recounting the words of a man whose speech at a recent bond rally in Utica, New York, held special meaning for her audience:

You know, friends, when we buy War Bonds, we're not buying tanks and guns and shells and planes. What we're really doing is buying our boys back … bringing them home to us, safe and sound once again. Now I know there isn't a person listening to me who wouldn't give everything he has to buy his boy back. … I'd give anything … all my money, or my health, or my own life … to buy my boy back from the War. But I'm afraid I can't do that now. You see, I got a telegram from Washington this morning. My boy isn't coming back.
Can Bureaucracies Change Policy?
Authors: Lowry William R.
Published: July 2008

In the 1990s, policymakers at Yellowstone and Banff National Parks enacted two of the most controversial programs in the history of protected lands. At Yellowstone, the U.S. National Park Service (nps) and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (fws) personnel reintroduced wolves into the Yellowstone ecosystem. This program restored a crucial element to the park ecosystem that had been eliminated decades before and not returned since extermination. At Banff, federal authorities imposed strict limits to growth of the town of Banff. This action reversed a policy dating to the park's establishment in the late nineteenth century of allowing and encouraging growth and development of the town within Banff. How did these policy changes occur?
Reefs–Santa Cruz as Oceanic: Evidence from the Verb Complex
Authors: Næss Åshild , Boerger Brenda H.
Published: July 2008

Recent research has shown that the long-standing assumption that the Reefs– Santa Cruz languages have a non-Austronesian substrate is unlikely to be valid: the languages do show regular sound correspondences with Proto-Oceanic (Ross and Næss 2007), and the alleged noun classes cannot felicitously be analyzed as such (Næss 2006). This paper addresses the third argument given in previous work for a non-Austronesian substrate: the complex verb structures. Presenting data from both Natügu (Northern Santa Cruz) and Äiwoo (Reefs), we show that while some of the verb morphology has clear cognates in Proto-Oceanic, other parts can be understood as deriving from an earlier productive process of verb serialization followed by reduction of the forms found in such serialized constructions. Given that both verb serialization and grammaticalization of elements of serializing constructions are well known in Oceanic languages, this leaves no linguistic evidence for a non-Austronesian substrate in Reefs–Santa Cruz.
Possession in Irarutu
Authors: van den Berg René , Matsumura Takashi
Published: July 2008

This short paper offers a description of possessive constructions in Irarutu, an Austronesian language spoken in Indonesian Papua, which belongs to the South Halmahera–West New Guinea subgroup. Possession in Irarutu follows a typical East Malayo-Polynesian pattern distinguishing alienable and inalienable possession, but some of the morphology used to code possession is unusual, including what appears to be possessive infixation.
A Typology of First Person Dual Pronouns and Their Reconstructibility in Philippine Languages
Authors: Liao Hsiu-chuan
Published: July 2008

This paper provides an overview of the distribution of first person dual pronouns in Philippine languages and addresses the issue as to whether or not first person dual pronouns can be reconstructed for the ancestral language of all Philippine languages. Based on data from different microgroups of Philippine languages, the following conclusions are reached. First, no first person dual pronouns can be reconstructed for the parent of the Philippine languages. Second, the wide distribution of first person dual pronouns in different microgroups of Philippine languages is due to drift rather than direct inheritance from the parent of the Philippine languages.
Typology, Areality, and Diffusion
Authors: Donohue Mark , Wichmann Søren , Albu Mihai
Published: July 2008

Dunn et al. (2007) state that their typological comparisons do not demonstrate genealogical relatedness in the usual sense, but that the technique does accurately recapitulate trees established by the comparative method. We demonstrate that the signal picked up by their method is areal, rather than genealogical, and suggest that the method, when tested on known language families, will also show a high sensitivity to the effect of diffusion.
Transitivity Discord in some Oceanic Languages
Authors: Margetts Anna
Published: July 2008

Some Oceanic languages have clause types that feature intransitive verbs cooccurring with what looks like an object argument. Such constructions are sometimes described as noun incorporation, but there is evidence for two distinct constructions: noun incorporation, and clauses with what I will call transitivity discord, featuring intransitive verbs and object nouns. Such discord constructions have transitive and intransitive features that are manifested on different structural levels and they can be described as showing a mismatch between verb-level and clause-level transitivity. They share features with noun incorporation, but they are structurally different in that the object noun has syntactic independence rather than being part of the verb.
Is there a Bima-Sumba Subgroup?
Authors: Blust Robert
Published: July 2008

For some seven decades a number of Austronesian languages in the Lesser Sunda islands of eastern Indonesia have been assigned to a "Bima-Sumba" subgroup. No evidence has ever been presented for this group, yet through sheer repetition it has come to be accepted by many scholars. A comparative analysis of "Bima-Sumba" languages shows clear support for a Sumba-Hawu group, and limited evidence for a larger genetic unit that includes many or all of the languages of western and central Flores. However, there is no support for a more inclusive subgroup that incorporates Bimanese, unless it also includes languages that were not assigned to the original Bima-Sumba group.
Yet More on the Position of the Languages of Eastern Indonesia and East Timor
Authors: Donohue Mark , Grimes Charles E.
Published: July 2008

The line dividing the Austronesian languages into Western Malayo-Polynesian (WMP) and Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian (CEMP) is drawn east of Sulawesi and through the middle of Sumbawa. A number of phonological or semantic changes are claimed as forming the basis of this distinction, as well as the typological profile of the languages to the east being different from those to the west, and a number of lexical items being attested only east of the line. We examine the phonological and semantic innovations, as well as the erratic morphological ones, showing that none of them define the CEMP line, but indicate that (a) the Central Malayo-Polynesian (CMP)–area languages do not convincingly meet the criteria commonly accepted for a subgroup or even a linkage, (b) some of the WMP-area languages exhibit more of the same features found in at least some of the CMP-area languages than do others, and (c) many of the traits ascribed to the CMP- or CEMP-area languages can be found in more conservative WMP-area or Formosan languages as well.
The Undergoer Focus ma - in Kavalan
Authors: Huang Shuping , Sung Li-May
Published: July 2008

This study aims to explore the functions and grammatical status of the Kavalan preverbal affix ma -. In addition to agent focus, locative focus, and referential focus (mainly used to focus the instrumental or benefactive case), Kavalan ma - is found to mark specific sentential focus. This marker behaves like agent focus in terms of its grammatical behavior, and is mainly used in two scenarios: spontaneous events, when the event is conceived of as happening spontaneously without an extraneous causer; and anticausatives, when the patient is the focus and the agent is conceived of as insignificant. In some limited cases, ma - is also used for naturally collective/reciprocal events. In ma -marked clauses, the clausal subject is typically conceived of as a spontaneously affected role, and this marker is therefore termed "undergoer focus" in the present study. Similar grammatical devices are found in two other Formosan languages, Paiwan and Amis, both of which share semantic and syntactic similarities with Kavalan ma -. It has been suggested by Evans and Ross (2001) that the same form ma - is commonly found in Oceanic languages, with different functional manifestations cross-linguistically. Further investigation into the manifestations of similar devices in other genetically related languages may help us to gain a better understanding of internal relationships within the Austronesian language family.
Ceramide Is Responsible for the Failure of Compensatory Nerve Sprouting in Apolipoprotein E Knock-Out Mice
Authors: Maysinger Dusica , Holmes Michael , Han Xianlin , Epand Richard M. , Pertens Evi , Foerster Anne , Barlas Cia , Holtzman David M. , Diamond Jack
Published: July 2008

Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is a key transporter of the cholesterol and phospholipids required for membrane synthesis and nerve growth. We now report a virtual absence in apoE knock-out (KO) mice of normal nerve growth factor (NGF)-driven compensatory sprouting of undamaged cutaneous nociceptive nerves. In contrast, NGF-independent regeneration of crushed axons was unaffected. Essentially similar results came from aged wild-type mice. In apoE KO mice, the endogenous sprouting stimulus was suspect, because NGF administration induced normal sprouting; nevertheless, NGF increased normally in denervated skin, transported normally in the axons, and led to phosphorylation of trkA, erk1, and erk2. However, sprouting was restored in apoE KO mice (although not in aged mice) by fumonisin B1, an inhibitor of ceramide synthesis. A shotgun analysis revealed a wide array of changes in individual ceramide species in DRG neurons of apoE KO mice, and the changes for ceramide species OH_N15:0 made it a candidate inhibitor of sprouting (increased in apoE KO mice and normalized by fumonisin B1). Nevertheless, the unknown effects of individual ceramide species on sprouting, as well as the variability of their changed levels in apoE KO mice and how these were affected by fumonisin B1, support a different conclusion. We suggest that absence of apoE expression alters the balance among ceramide species to one that collectively inhibits compensatory sprouting, whereas fumonisin B1 establishes a new balance that allows sprouting. Nontoxic ceramide modulators might usefully promote sprouting and circuitry repair in neurodegenerative disorders in which ceramide species are perturbed, adding to the benefits of reducing ceramide-induced neuronal apoptosis.
Influence of Reward Delays on Responses of Dopamine Neurons
Authors: Kobayashi Shunsuke , Schultz Wolfram
Published: July 2008

Psychological and microeconomic studies have shown that outcome values are discounted by imposed delays. The effect, called temporal discounting, is demonstrated typically by choice preferences for sooner smaller rewards over later larger rewards. However, it is unclear whether temporal discounting occurs during the decision process when differently delayed reward outcomes are compared or during predictions of reward delays by pavlovian conditioned stimuli without choice. To address this issue, we investigated the temporal discounting behavior in a choice situation and studied the effects of reward delay on the value signals of dopamine neurons. The choice behavior confirmed hyperbolic discounting of reward value by delays on the order of seconds. Reward delay reduced the responses of dopamine neurons to pavlovian conditioned stimuli according to a hyperbolic decay function similar to that observed in choice behavior. Moreover, the stimulus responses increased with larger reward magnitudes, suggesting that both delay and magnitude constituted viable components of dopamine value signals. In contrast, dopamine responses to the reward itself increased with longer delays, possibly reflecting temporal uncertainty and partial learning. These dopamine reward value signals might serve as useful inputs for brain mechanisms involved in economic choices between delayed rewards.
TRPA1 Channels Mediate Cold Temperature Sensing in Mammalian Vagal Sensory Neurons: Pharmacological and Genetic Evidence
Authors: Fajardo Otto , Meseguer Victor , Belmonte Carlos , Viana Félix
Published: July 2008

Cold thermoreceptors have been described in different territories of the vagus nerve. Application of cold temperature to these visceral afferents can evoke major protective reflexes and thermoregulatory responses. However, virtually nothing is known about the transduction mechanisms underlying cold sensitivity in vagal afferents. Here, we investigated the effects of cold stimulation on intracellular calcium responses and excitability of cultured vagal sensory neurons in the rat nodose ganglion. A large fraction of vagal neurons were activated by cold, with a mean threshold of ∼24°C. Cooling was accompanied by development of a small inward current and the firing of action potentials. Most cold-sensitive neurons were also activated by heat and capsaicin, suggesting a nociceptive function. The pharmacological response to TRPM8 and TRPA1 agonists and antagonists suggested that, unlike results observed in somatic tissues, TRPA1 is the major mediator of cold-evoked responses in vagal visceral neurons. Thus, most cold-evoked responses were potentiated by cinnamaldehyde, menthol, icilin, and BCTC [4-(3-chloro-pyridin-2-yl)-piperazine-1-carboxylic acid (4-tert-butyl-phenyl)-amide], agonists of TRPA1, and were inhibited by ruthenium red, camphor, and HC03001 [2-(1,3-dimethyl-2,6-dioxo-1,2,3,6-tetrahydro-7H-purin-7-yl)-N-(4-isopropylphenyl)acetamide]. Results in mouse nodose neurons revealed a similar pharmacological profile of cold-evoked responses. Furthermore, experiments in TRPA1 knock-out mice showed a large reduction in the percentage of cold-sensitive neurons compared with wild-type animals. Together, these results support an important role of TRPA1 channels in visceral thermosensation and indicate major differences in the transduction of temperature signals between somatic and visceral sensory neurons.
Estratégias apontadas pelos docentes para o desenvolvimento das competências nos diferentes níveis de formação superior em enfermagem
Authors: De Domenico Edvane Birelo Lopes , Ide Cilene Aparecida Costardi
Published: July 2008

Trabalho de pesquisa qualitativo realizado com 22 docentes de uma instituição pública de ensino superior, utilizando-se um questionário semi-estruturado para a coleta de dados. O objetivo foi identificar as estratégias de ensino adotadas pelos docentes para a construção de competências nos alunos dos diferentes níveis de formação superior em enfermagem. A análise de conteúdo revelou a tendência de adoção do modelo construtivista e a intenção de promover mudanças pedagógicas, na busca de uma formação educacional diferenciada por níveis de complexidade.
Estratégias gerencias na implantação do Programa de Saúde da Família
Authors: Dias Mônica Aguilar Estevam , Cunha Fátima Teresinha Scarparo , Amorim Wellington Mendonça de
Published: July 2008

Estudo que trata do processo de implantação de equipes do Programa Saúde da Família (PSF) em uma comunidade no bairro de Santa Cruz, zona oeste do município do Rio de Janeiro, caracterizada por alto risco social e sanitário e marcada pela violência. Tem por objetivos: (1) identificar as estratégias utilizadas pela gerência local na implantação de oito equipes de PSF em uma comunidade no bairro de Santa Cruz; (2) descrever os mecanismos de participação comunitária no processo de implantação do PSF e, (3) analisar a inserção do Enfermeiro na coordenação deste processo. Dentre os achados ressalta-se a importância do controle social no processo de legitimação da estratégia PSF junto à comunidade; a função gerencial do Enfermeiro na construção da autonomia local das equipes de Saúde da Família e as abordagens utilizadas pela gerência local ao introduzir o PSF em comunidades marginalizadas.