bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Resource allocation and program budgeting
Authors: Muston Ray A.
Published: October 2006

Program budgeting systems should be viewed as a comprehensive approach to decision making; they are tools intended to guide the manager through all the essential steps in the planning and resource allocation processes.
Images of learning
Authors: Fairfield Roy P.
Published: October 2006

Static images of teaching and learning restrict creativity. Developmental instruction requires new images of education and a soaring vision of human potential.
Project synergy
Authors: Knott J. Eugene , Daher Douglas
Published: October 2006

Project Synergy helps freshmen to develop college survival skills, improved interpersonal skills, and a clearer sense of themselves as emerging adults.
Self‐science education
Authors: Weinstein Gerald
Published: October 2006

“Education of the Self” is a course that provides students with a setting, time, and structure, including emotional support from faculty and peers, to increase their self‐knowledge.
Conclusions and annotated references
Authors: Fried Jane
Published: October 2006

Developmental instruction makes a significant contribution to the improvement of teaching and learning in higher education.
A preliminary statement on research in science education
Authors: Novak Joseph D.
Published: October 2006

Dr. Novak Prepared his statement on science education research especially for the first issue of the Journal in the hope that it will stimulate thought and discussion by our readers, especially by members of NARST and AETS. Critical responses will be welcomed both by the author and by the Editor. In particular, Dr. Novak solicits comments useful to the NARST Committee on Criteria for Research of which he is currently the Chairman.
Some evaluation problems in a course content improvement project
Authors: Atkin J. Myron
Published: October 2006

Dr. Atkin, who is Co‐Director of the Illinois Elementary‐School Science Project, has long been interested in the evaluation of learning materials and, in particular, the evaluation of the new curricula in science. In this article he brings into sharp focus one of the important issues of the day: the related questions of when, how, and by whom learning goals should be stated in curriculum building and the suitability of traditional procedures for evaluating them. We look forward to publishing reactions to Dr. Atkin's statement.
The degree to which children conceptualize from science experience
Authors: Butts David P.
Published: October 2006

This article was presented as a paper at the 36th Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Washington, D. C., February 20–23, 1963.
A study of team teaching in high school biology
Authors: Pellam Milton O. , Poulos Chris
Published: October 2006

A report of a team teaching experiment in high school biology in Wisconsin carried out under the auspices of the Wisconson Improvement Program. The project assistant was Robert W. White, presently of the Wisconsin State College at Oshkosh.
A concept of matter for the first grade
Authors: Thier Herbert D. , Powell Cynthia Ann , Karplus Robert
Published: October 2006

Some thoughts on science for primary grade children from one of the earliest of the elementary school science curriculum projects.
Science concept achievement and cognitive functions
Authors: Scott Norval C.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of the study reported here was to investigate the relationship of individual differences in cognitive styles to science concept achievement.
Remedial research: Approaches and models for research in education
Authors: Mostofsky David I.
Published: October 2006

A statement of the problems of research design and some suggestions for solving them.
A technique for grade placement in elementary science
Authors: Harris William
Published: October 2006

The author describes one way in which the variable of teacher effectiveness can be handled in an experiment on grade placement, and reports on the effects of “planned instruction” on three types of thinking processes.
Three emphases in teaching biology—A statistical comparison of results
Authors: Yager Robert E. , Wick John W.
Published: October 2006

How important are supplementary materials in instruction? This study suggests that such an approach contributes significantly to the development of critical thinking and science understanding.
Science achievement as it relates to science curricula and programs at the sixth grade level in montana public schools
Authors: Swan Malcolm D.
Published: October 2006

This study deals primarily with the relationship between pupil achievement in science and factors in the science program. An inventory of science attitudes, interests, and appreciations was constructed and administered in connection with an advanced science test to a large sample of sixth graders. Their teachers completed science teaching questionnaires. The results of the study are significant and are a contribution to the field.
The strategy of inquiry and styles of categorization
Authors: Scott Norval C.
Published: October 2006

A report of an experiment employing a method of inquiry in elementary‐school science.
Evaluation and the new curricula
Authors: Herron J. Dudley
Published: October 2006

A comparison of student performance on CHEM Study chemistry and conventional chemistry in terms of certain cognitive abilities.
Referents to scientific literacy
Authors: Pella Milton O. , O'hearn George T. , Gale Calvin W.
Published: October 2006

A report on what characterizes a scientifically literate person.
Junior high school science teacher preparation, teaching behavior, and student achievement
Authors: Perkes Victor A.
Published: October 2006

The findings challenge both practices and prejudices in junior high school science teacher preparation.
A study of teacher‐pupil interaction in high school biology classes. Part II. Description and analysis
Authors: Parakh Jal S.
Published: October 2006

Are the interactions reported typical for all biology classes and for other laboratory disciplines?
Science requirements in earth Science teacher preparation programs
Authors: Mayer Victor J.
Published: October 2006

Useful information on earth science teacher education programs.
Response to a multi‐media system
Authors: Smith M. Daniel
Published: October 2006

Several physics classes followed an integrated multi‐media, multi‐modal teaching‐learning system or schedule, and completed a number of evaluation instruments designed to collect data on both affective and cognitive variables, as well as on the resulting behaviors of teachers and students. The data lead to some tentative conclusions about reactions of students to different media in such a system, effects of media on learning, and the impact of the system on teacher self‐concept. Conclusions relate to the future of such integrated systems and their effects on motivation and learning.
The effects of instructional method upon the acquisition of inquiry skills
Authors: Thomas Barbara , Snider Bill
Published: October 2006

This study investigated the effects of Guided Discovery vs. Didactic methods of instruction upon the acquisition of certain inquiry skills. At the same time, the effects of method on the attainment of factual‐conceptual achievement was assessed. Hypotheses of no interaction of the methods variable with the learner variables—sex, measured intelligence, creativity, interest in science, general scholastic achievement, and science achievement—were also tested. The sample consisted of 140 8th‐grade students. The duration of the experimental unit was six weeks. The subject matter was the same for each, “Early Man in America.” The results favored the Didactic group for the factual‐conceptual achievement and the Guided Discovery for the acquisition of inquiry skills. However, in the latter there was an interaction of method with levels of measured intelligence and achievement.
A test to measure problem‐solving skills in science of children in grades one, two, and three
Authors: Dietz Maureen A. , George Kenneth D.
Published: October 2006

The aim of this study was to develop a reliable and valid group test that would evaluate some of the science problem‐solving skills of children in grades one, two, and three. The primary grade children used in this study were from three different socio‐economic areas: Area I has been described as a low‐income urban section; Area II is characterized as a middle‐income outlying‐urban area; and Area III is a high‐income suburban region. The problem‐solving skills identified for use in this instrument are: (1) the ability to recognize the problem presented; (2) an understanding of science principles needed to solve the problem; (3) the ability to collect data; and (4) the ability to reason with “if‐then” statements. The findings from the preliminary testing were used to clarify ambiguities in test directions and format and to calculate the difficulty and discrimination of each test item. After an item‐by‐item analysis of student performance, a final form of the instrument was constructed. The data from this final form was used to determine time limits, scoring procedures, test validity, reliability, and norms.
Determining the level of inquiry in teachers' questions
Authors: Ladd George T. , Andersen Hans O.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this investigation was to determine if an instrument, originally designed to classify levels of teachers' questions on the basis of logical operations, could be utilized to measure the level of inquiry present in a classroom discussion and to determine if the inquiry questioning behavior of the teacher influenced student achievement. The results of the study show that the modified classification scheme could accurately and reliably measure the inquiry level of teachers' classroom questions. The data also indicated that teachers who ask a greater proportion of high inquiry questions cause a greater change in students as measured by an achievement examination.
The effect of different sources of verbalized information on performance at a science‐related cognitive task
Authors: Ogunyemi E.'Lanre
Published: October 2006

The study simulated some aspects of science classroom verbal interaction and experimentally investigated their cognitive effects on 159 4th graders divided into 12 experimental groups by stratified random sampling. Subject‐determined verbalization of correct information [2 levels] about a science oriented task situation was crossed with subjects' exposure to external sources of verbalized correct information [3 levels] about the task situation in a 2 × 3 × 2 factorial design in which sex was treated as an organismic independent variable. The dependent variable was the subjects' performance at a matrix multiple ordering task. The data were analyzed by a 3‐way ANOVA using .05 alpha level. The results showed that the female subjects significantly profited from teacher‐supplied information. The males seemed to make a better use of information gained directly from the materials. Teachers might therefore use a flexible approach in the classroom that would give the female students verbal hints about materials while training them to be more independent in collecting, organizing and using information.
Evaluation of an attempt to teach scientific inquiry and criticism in a working class high school
Authors: Case Robbie , Fry Cathy
Published: October 2006

A group of 15 low SES 14‐year‐olds, who had not yet reached Piaget's stage of “formal operations”, were taught to design controlled experiments and to criticize poorly controlled experiments. As judged by performance on a nonstandardized text, they learned to do this well, and significantly outperformed matched controls. (p <.001). The results were interpreted with reference to Inhelder and Piaget's work on the origins of scientific thinking.
The effects of training on the development of the ability to control variables
Authors: Bredderman Theodore A.
Published: October 2006

Based on a criterion test 27 fifth and sixth grade students were selected who could not control variables. Three groups were formed. The control group received no training; a second group received training relying upon external reinforcement, and the third group, training designed to induce internal cognitive conflict. The groups receiving training did only slightly better than the control group on the posttest. On the retention test one month later, all three groups had almost identical scores. The mean combined retention test score was found to be significantly greater than the pretest score. The improvement of the control and conflict groups supports Smedslund's8 finding that external reinforcement may not always be necessary for behavioral changes to occur.

A further analysis of test scores led to the classification of students according to Piaget's developmental stages. During the course of the study a significant number of students improved in their stage placement. Based on retention test performance nearly half of the students having a mean age 11.8 years could be classed in late formal operations with regard to their ability to control variables. Inhelder and Piaget12 reported that this level was not normally reached until 14 or 15 years of age. In conclusion, the results support the possibility that while development of the ability to control variables can be accelerated by training at the fifth and sixth grade level some children are surprisingly unaffected regardless of whether the training is based on external reinforcement or cognitive conflict procedures.
The Emperor's clothes phenomenon in science education
Authors: Raths James
Published: October 2006

It is with great trepidation that I have come this morning to address scientists about science—especially with the rather condescending title I elected to use in a weak moment. My being here can only be justified on the basis that, analogously speaking, fish are the last to discover water. (How we have the audacity to suggest that fish haven't discovered water is really the crux of my talk).
Differential response to structure of advance organizers in science instruction
Authors: Koran John J. , Koran Mary Lou
Published: October 2006

In an experiment designed to investigate individual differences in learning from written materials preceded by advance organizers, 89 fourth‐grade subjects were randomly assigned to treatment conditions in which programmed material on insects was preceded by one of three introductory passages containing: (1) higher level generalizations and specific examples; (2) higher level generalizations without examples; or (3) a control passage. Membership in treatment groups was determined by random assignment. Criterion performances were immediate and delayed posttest performance and errors during instruction.

Analysis of variance results of treatment effects showed that the three treatments were about equally effective in terms of promoting retention and program errors. Simple regression analysis of Aptitude × Treatment interactions disclosed that Otis‐Lennon IQ scores interacted significantly with instructional treatments for program errors showing a negative relationship between IQ scores and the degree of structure provided by the advance organizers.
An investigation of verbal behamor and learning climate in undergraduate engineerimg clmsrooms
Authors: Hager W. R.
Published: October 2006

The verbal behavioral patterns of twenty university professors instructing undergraduate engineering classes have been investigated utilizing a fourteen category modification of Flanders' system of interaction analysis. On the basis of an internal evaluation criteria, these instructors were divided into three groups: those receiving the highest, middle, and lowest evaluations. The verbal instructional patterns and classroom climates of these three groups are compared. Several significant findings are reported.
Cognitive style and developing scientific attitudes in the SCIS classroom
Authors: Wareing Carol
Published: October 2006

Cognitive style refers to an individual's way of perceiving and processing information. Field‐dependence‐independence is one dimension of cognitive style. Field‐dependence and field‐independence respectively refer to a global in contrast to an analytical way of perceiving.

Global versus analytical cognitive styles have been studied with respect to their differential influence on attitude development in ESS by Walters and Sieben (1974).

The present investigator sought to examine whether a relationship existed between field‐dependence‐independence and scientific attitudes of sixth‐grade students in SCIS. Findings indicate that such a relationship is not statistically significant.
Ability and science learning: A quantitative synthesis
Authors: Boulanger F. David
Published: October 2006

The quantitative relationship of measured ability to measured science learning was synthesized from the reported correlations in 34 studies on grade 6‐12 students over a 16‐year period. The findings indicate a stable central tendency and deviation of correlations across ability and cognitive learning outcome categories and across several study variables such as sample size. Reliability of measures had the greatest and only statistically significant influence on ability‐cognitive outcome correlations. Ability was found to account for an average of 23% of the variance in science learning.
Actual and perceived teacher clarity ‐ relations to student achievement in science
Authors: Land Michael L.
Published: October 2006

College students (N = 41) were randomly assigned to one of two groups defined by the teacher's clarity in the lesson, i.e., high‐clarity versus low‐clarity presentation on genetics. After the lesson the subjects completed a test on the contents of the lesson and then rated the lesson presentation. Students in the high‐clarity group achieved more (although not significantly) than students in the low‐clarity group. Students perceived the high‐clarity lesson as significantly clearer than the low‐clarity lesson. These findings are discussed in relation to previous research on teacher clarity.
Sex‐role stereotyping by high school females in science
Authors: Vockell Edward L. , Lobonc Susan
Published: October 2006

Although the participation by females in upper‐level occupations and positions has expanded considerably in recent years, science is still considered a masculine career field. The results of this study show that only the physical sciences in particular (not science in general) are clearly viewed as masculine academic areas. Furthermore, the results suggest that the perception by girls of the physical sciences as masculine is much more likely to occur in coed classes than in all‐female classes. The results can best be explained by two factors: (1) the attitudes conveyed by teachers and by society may predispose students toward a greater acceptance of women in biology than in the physical sciences; and (2) when girls perceive themselves as a deviant minority in physical science classes, their performance and preference for the physical sciences is reduced, perhaps because of competition and comparison with males. In all‐female classes, however, girls are not a deviant minority, and therefore they are able to perform and develop preferences without inhibition.
Correlation between performance in physics and prior mathematics knowledge
Authors: Hudson H. T. , Rottmann Ray M.
Published: October 2006

The final grade of 1403 students enrolled in the first semester of the introductory, pre‐professional physics course has been correlated with performance on a precourse diagnostic test of mathematical skills. The students were from a total of eight different sections taught by six separate instructors over a three year time span. The student population has been separated into two groups, those who completed the course (913 students) and those who dropped (490 students). The drops were assigned a “projected final grade”based on performance up to date of withdrawal. The Pearson product‐moment correlation for students who completed the course is 0.418 and correlation for the drops is 0.232. Both correlations are significant at the p < 0.001 level. This study suggests that prior mathematical ability is a primary influence on performance in the course, and has a secondary influence on the tendency to drop out of the course.
The effects of a problem solving strategy on the achievement of earth science students
Authors: Russell J. Michael , Chiappetta Eugene L.
Published: October 2006

A review of the stated goals for education reveals a consistent emphasis on problem solving. Problem solving is compatible with the investigative nature of science and with higher order thinking. Consequently, a problem solving strategy was developed to improve the achievement of eighth grade students enrolled in earth science. The sample consisted of 287 eighth grade students randomly assigned to fourteen sections taught by four teachers. This resulted in seven control sections and seven experimental sections. The students in the treatment groups received approximately six weeks of instruction with the experimental groups receiving a variety of problem solving activities. A forty item posttest consisting of four subtests was administered to all students. The results indicate that the problem solving approach was useful in improving the overall achievement of students. It was particular effective in facilitating application of earth science subject matter. This problem solving approach appears to be a feasible strategy to use in most secondary science classrooms.
How do college students solve proportion problems?
Authors: Thornton Melvin C. , Fuller Robert G.
Published: October 2006

Problems which could be solved using proportional reasoning were administered nationwide by college faculty to their own science classes during a three year period. The reasoning of more than 8000 students covering three sections of the country was classified as concrete, transitional, or formal using Piagetian categories. Data from the West closely replicated that from the Midwest on similar metric conversion tasks. Student performance changed noticeably with a different problem format. The percentages of students using a ratio formula, ratio attempt, or intuitive methods of solution held approximately constant over time, task, and section of the country. The data shows the use of additive and conversion methods of solution depends upon the problem presentation.
Hypothesis testing in students: Sequences, stages, and instructional strategies
Authors: Moshman David , Thompson Pat A.
Published: October 2006

Six sequences in the development of hypothesis‐testing conceptions are proposed, involving (a) interpretation of the hypothesis; (b) the distinction between using theories and testing theories; (c) the consideration of multiple possibilities; (d) the relation of theory and data; (e) the nature of verification and falsification; and (f) the relation of truth and falsity. An alternative account is then provided involving three global stages: concrete operations, formal operations, and a postformal “metaconstructive”stage. Relative advantages and difficulties of the stage and sequence conceptualizations are discussed. Finally, three families of teaching strategy are distinguished, which emphasize, respectively: (a) social transmission of knowledge; (b) carefully sequenced empirical experience by the student; and (c) self‐regulated cognitive activity of the student. It is argued on the basis of Piaget's theory that the last of these plays a crucial role in the construction of such logical reasoning strategies as those involved in testing hypotheses.
The effects of teacher anxiety and modeling on the acquisition of a science teaching skill and concomitant student performance
Authors: Koran John J. , Koran Mary Lou
Published: October 2006

In a study designed to explore the effects of teacher anxiety and modeling on acquisition of a science teaching skill and concomitant student performance, 69 preservice secondary teachers and 295 eighth grade students were randomly assigned to microteaching sessions. Prior to microteaching, teachers were given an anxiety test, then randomly assigned to one of three treatments; a transcript model, a protocol model, or a control condition. Subsequently both teacher and student performance was assessed using written and behavioral measures. Analysis of variance indicated that subjects in the two modeling treatments significantly exceeded performance of control group subjects on all measures of the dependent variable, with the protocol model being generally superior to the transcript model. The differential effects of the modeling treatments were further reflected in student performance. Regression analysis of aptitude‐treatment interactions indicated that teacher anxiety scores interacted significantly with instructional treatments, with high anxiety teachers performing best in the protocol modeling treatment. Again, this interaction was reflected in student performance, where students taught by highly anxious teachers performed significantly better when their teachers had received the protocol model. These results were discussed in terms of teacher concerns and a memory model of the effects of anxiety on performance.
Pupil engagement in learning tasks: A fertile area for research in science teaching
Authors: Capie William , Tobin Kenneth G.
Published: October 2006

This synthesis of research in academic engagement addresses studies in several academic areas. A general relationship of teacher performance and student engagement in learning tasks is noted. More importantly, a substantial relationship between degree of engagement and achievement has been reported in numerous studies. The paucity of engagement studies in science is surprising given the variation in engagement rates in science classrooms. Numerous research questions are suggested for science education researchers. A particularly fertile area for investigation is the categorization of engagement.
Qualitative and quantitative differences in learning associated with multiple‐choice testing
Authors: Fisher K. , Williams S. , Roth J.
Published: October 2006

This study assesses some effects of the Computer‐Assisted Self‐Evaluation (CASE) system of frequent multiple‐choice testing with immediate computer feedback; it is part of a larger project aiming to combine the principal strengths of individualized instruction with lecture teaching (Fisher, 1979). Learning and retention are examined in two equivalent groups of undergraduates enrolled in an upper division science course. One group (N =34) received 24 CASE quizzes with immediate feedback and the other (N=30) received two CASE‐generated midterms with delayed feedback. Quiz students significantly outperformed Midterm students on the posttest; the Quiz section scored nine percentage points higher on rote items and fourteen points higher on meaningful items. Quiz students also had more positive attitudes toward and were more involved in the course. On a retention test given two years later, the Quiz Group scored eight percentage points higher than the Midterm Group on meaningful items. This study suggests that, contrary to popular opinion, multiple‐choice questions promote meaningful learning at least as well as, and possibly better than, rote learning. The CASE system appears to be about as effective as other forms of frequent testing and immediate feedback in enhancing learning, and it provides a simple, cost‐effective means of individualized testing in large lecture classes.
Evaluating an individualized science program for community college students
Authors: Tuckman Bruce W. , Waheed Mohammed A.
Published: October 2006

Two classes of community college students having less than the usual minimal preparation required for admission were taught half of a basic science course using individualized instruction and half using traditional instruction. The course was divided into chemistry and physics segments and random halves of each class received the individualized treatment in one segment and the traditional treatment in the other. The individualized treatment was found to yield superior achievement gains and more positive attitudes toward science than the traditional treatment while both resulted in equivalent student satisfaction. No differences between segments were obtained. Of the four treatment‐segment combinations, individualized physics appeared to yield the greatest achievement. Individualized instruction was concluded to be effective.
Volume, conservation and instruction: A classroom based solomon four group study of conflict
Authors: Rowell J. A. , Dawson C. J.
Published: October 2006

The research reported is an attempt to widen the applicability of Piagetian theory‐based conflict methodology from individual situations to whole classes. A Solomon four group experimental design augmented by a delayed posttest, was used to provide a controlled framework for studying the effects of conflict instruction on Grade 8 students' ability to conserve volume of noncompressible matter, and to apply that knowledge to gas volume. The results, reported for individuals and groups, show the methodology can be effective, particularly when instruction is preceded by a pretest. Immediate posttest differences in knowledge of gas volume between spontaneous (pretest) conservers and instructed conservers of volume of noncompressible matter were no longer in evidence on the delayed posttest. This observation together with the effects of pretesting and of the instructional sequence are shown to have a consistent Piagetian interpretation. Practical implications are discussed.
An analysis of prospective science teachers' understanding of the nature of science
Authors: Ogunniyi M. B.
Published: October 2006

Prospective science teachers involved in this study did not endorse viewpoints about the language of science associated with any philosopher of science to the exclusion of others. Their preference, however, appeared to be with Hempel. Although to some degree, both prospective science teachers and science majors subscribed to an inductive notion of science, the former leaned more towards the currently acceptable deductive notion of the nature of science after offering a science methods course emphasizing that logic.
The relationship between attitudes toward science and science achievement
Authors: Hough Linda W. , Piper Martha K.
Published: October 2006

This study investigated the relationship between elementary pupils' attitudes toward science and their science achievement. Residualized gain scores were used to analyze the data. By using residualized gain scores, the effects of individual differences can be minimized. In addition to controlling for these differences, residualized gain scores do not possess the measurement errors that are normally associated with simple change scores. The subjects of this study were 583 intermediate elementary pupils. The average class size was 21. A pretest‐posttest design was used. To insure consistency in the teaching of the lesson, each teacher was given an identical detailed science lesson that included all the instructions and materials needed for the activity. The pupils were pre‐ and posttested. The pupils' science achievement was assessed by a test, the “Hough Pupil Process Test.” It consisted of multiple choice and fill‐in questions. The attitude instrument, the “Hough Attitude Inventory,” was given to the elementary pupils involved in this study. It was field tested and found to discern attitudes. The instrument consisted of six statements to which the subjects responded by circling either yes, I don't know, or no. The analysis revealed that there was a significant relationship between the pupils' residualized gain scores on the “Hough Pupil Process Test” and their residualized gain scores on the “Hough Attitude Inventory” (r = 0.45).
The role of diagrammatic representation in learning sequences, identification and classification as a function of verbal and spatial ability
Authors: Winn William
Published: October 2006

Grade 9 subjects learned the evolutionary sequence of dinosaurs and to classify them by type. Instruction was by menas of flow diagrams that showed the evolutionary sequence running across the page either from left to right or reversed from right to left, with or without drawings of dinosaurs. It was found that subjects seeing left‐right ordered diagrams scored better on tests of sequence and classification than those seeing reversed diagrams. Also, the addition of drawings helped subjects identify dinosaurs by type. Verbal ability predicted learning as a function of treatment. Spatial ability did not. However, some evidence was found that high‐spatial low‐verbal subjects could classify the animals equally well from normal‐order or reversed diagrams, while high‐verbal subjects who were also low‐spatial could classify them better if they had seen normal‐order diagrams. These results suggest that diagrams provide different types of information and that learners may process each type differently.
Relationships between formal reasoning ability, locus of control, academic engagement and integrated process skill achievement
Authors: Tobin Kenneth G. , Capie William
Published: October 2006

Twelve pupils from each of thirteen middle school science classes participated in the study. Measures were obtained for each pupil on nine engagement modes. Two engagement measures, attending and generalizing, together with formal reasoning ability, were related to process skill achievement and retention. Formal reasoning ability was the strongest predictor of process skill achievement and retention, accounting for approximately 36% of the variance in each case. Formal reasoning ability and locus of control were each correlated with specific engagement modes. Formal reasoning ability was positively related with rates of generalizing and comprehending. Locus of control was significantly related with rates of attending and total engagement.
Cognitive preferences and creativity: An exploratory study
Authors: Tamir Pinchas , Penick John E. , Lunetta Vincent N.
Published: October 2006

Cognitive preference, a cognitive style acquired through life and learning experiences and representing a distinct orientation to the processing of information, is related to creativity in this study. Significant correlations were observed between cognitive preference and verbal creativity but not with figural creativity as measured by the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking.
Naturalistic case studies exploring social‐cognitive mechanisms, and some methodological issues in research on problems of teachers
Authors: Easley J. A.
Published: October 2006

The argument is advanced that research could be more effective for use by teachers and simultaneously more scientific, in the sense that it would emulate the historical process of the development of quantitative science, if it were (1) of the form referred to as naturalistic case studies and (2) oriented toward discovering the cognitive and social interaction mechanisms that underlie the learning processes in classrooms. The limitations of individual case studies of children with difficulties learning in school are examined and some practical approaches to interventionist case studies done in classrooms are considered. It is proposed that the standard view of quantitative research in the social sciences derives from the physics curriculum rather than from the history of physics. This view also mistakenly places higher priority on finding predictive linear relationships among measurements rather than qualitative understanding of mechanisms, which could guide researchers toward useful quantitative research.

The researcher who has not yet penetrated the world of the individuals being studies is in no firm position to begin developing predictions, explanations, and theories about that world.
Using concrete materials and peer interaction to enhance learning in chemistry
Authors: Howe Ann C. , Durr Beulah
Published: October 2006

A teaching strategy based on the use of manipulative materials as models and analogs of chemical entities, combined with structured peer interaction, was found to enhance learning of two chemistry concepts for both formal and nonformal operational students. Instruction in the control class was based on lectures, CHEM Study laboratories, and individual work. Both cognitive and affective outcomes were more positive in the experimental class.
Attainment of skill in using science processes. I. Instrumentation, methodology and analysis
Authors: Berger Carl F.
Published: October 2006

Instrumentation, methodology, and analysis techniques were developed to measure changes in adolescent skills in the estimation of linear distance. Microcomputers were used to present and control the amount of information available to assist students in estimation. Three different levels of difficulty in estimating were developed and students estimated ten positions of a point on a vertical line within each level of difficulty. Strategies used by students to estimate were found, and a model was developed using regression analysis to allow for the separation of variance of trend and individual skill differences. This model was used to predict decreases in number of estimates and decreases in average time per estimate. The number of estimates per position decreased rapidly and a limit was soon achieved. Thus average time per estimate was used as a measure of skill. Students improved performance within the first two levels, but not within the most difficult level. Across levels, average performance improved in spite of increasing difficulty, and a transfer effect appeared to occur over time. It was concluded that micro‐computers were a valuable instrument for gathering and recording data. The model using regression analysis was an effective tool to study estimation. Students used effective strategies and improved their estimation skill quickly. Learning did occur, but the level of difficulty of information or practice effect available while solving an estimation problem may limit the extent of improvement.
Factors involved with qualitative syntheses: A new focus for research in science education
Authors: Yager Robert E.
Published: October 2006

This article describes the nature of qualitative syntheses and reports such efforts as a new focus for research in science education. It uses Project Synthesis as conceived by Norris Harms as an example of a Qualitative Synthesis. It identifies four features for such research efforts: (1) They involve research teams structured to provide a variety of perspectives and viewpoints. (2) They involve a wide variety of data sources, including massive sets of data from a variety of sources and perspectives. Much of these data are qualitative and often gathered initially for a variety of purposes. (3) They include at least one conceptual scheme for accomplishing a synthesis. Most include a set of goals as one organizer and a set of critical incidents as another. Studies involving more than two such dimensions provide even more meaningful and useful synthesis. (4) They conclude with an analysis of meaning, a formulation of an overarching scheme, and a new model to be used for further thinking, research, and analysis. Such synthesis efforts also end with a set of recommendations for action and/or hypotheses to be tested.
The convergent validity of the cognitive preference construct
Authors: Van Den Berg Euwe , Lunetta Vincent N. , Tamir Pinchas
Published: October 2006

As a part of a series of construct validity studies this study was designed to assess the convergent validity of the cognitive preference construct. Three measures of cognitive preference were administered to 71 college students and to a small sample of tenth graders. One instrument was a conventional cognitive preference test, the other two were designed to assess cognitive preference in common learning settings using student responses to a science reading and teacher ratings of relevant classroom behavior respectively. Correlations between the science reading and the conventional test showed strong convergence of the Q (questioning) mode of cognitive preference but rather weak convergence of the R (recall), P (principles), and A (applications) modes. A subgroup of students with significantly discrepant R, P, Q, and A score patterns, thus a distinct cognitive preference, showed higher correlations between instruments than the total sample, as one would expect in case of construct validity. Apparently the cognitive preference construct is a more valid descriptor for the cognitive style of some people than for others.
Relationships between attitude and achievement among college biology students
Authors: Mitchell Harold E. , Simpson Ronald D.
Published: October 2006

The purposes of this study were to (1) study changes in attitude toward science, school, and academic self among college biology students, and (2) to examine relationships between attitudes and achievement in an introductory college course in biology. The three attitude variables were assessed at the beginning and end of the study. Each of the three constructs was measured by the semantic differential and one additional instrument. One cognitive measure, biology achievement, was taken at the beginning and end of the study. This was accomplished by using the Nelson Biology Test. Another cognitive measure, grade in the course, as given by the instructor, was recorded at the end of the course. Normative data and correlation coefficients among pre‐ and postadministrations were calculated for each institution and the composite sample as well. An analysis of variance showed that while gains in scores on the Nelson Biology Test were significant beyond the 0.01 level of probability, changes in attitude scores were not. Correlations were calculated between the attitude and cognitive variables in this study. Relationships between academic self‐concept and achievement in biology were the strongest. Data from this study show that while student cognitive behavior was changed during an introductory college biology course, selected attitudes either stayed the same or became slightly more negative. Affective as well as cognitive gains would appear to be desirable goals in college courses. As we learn more about relationships that exist between cognition and affect, science educators at all levels will become better equipped to improve learning in science.
An example of the teacher expectation effect in mixed ability teaching
Authors: Matthews G. P.
Published: October 2006

Much interest has been shown recently in teacher expectation or “self‐fulfilling prophecy” effects, despite the difficulty of making objective observations of the phenomenon. The present case study concerns a population of twelve mixed‐ability chemistry classes in a comprehensive school in the U.K. The poor behavior of one of the groups led to a stigma being attached to it by staff, and for various doubtful reasons, this became associated with another class as well. A statistical analysis of examination marks shows that neither reputation was justified in terms of academic achievement, and quantifies possible teacher expectation effects arising from the situation. The findings demonstrate the ease with which academic achievements can be hampered unwittingly by the prejudices of a teacher even in a well‐structured learning situation.
Training chemistry students to ask research questions
Authors: Hartford Fred , Good Ron
Published: October 2006

In previous studies, science students have been trained to ask more and better questions through intensive instruction apart from the ongoing academic program. Cognitive strategies (such as questioning) are developed best, however, within the framework of an academic subject. In the current study, questioning skills were taught to high school chemistry students in the context of their laboratory experiments. Since both intellectual development and questioning skills are causally related to problem solving, the effect of intellectual development on the learning of questioning skills also was investigated. The Piagetian model of intellectual development was chosen for its demonstrated effects on many important aspects of science instruction. The number and quality of student research questions was measured by the Science Inquiry Assessment Instrument. The student's level of intellectual development was measured by the Classroom Test of Formal Operations. The twelve‐week experimental treatment involved printed lessons which taught students to ask research questions in response to unanticipated observations in their regularly scheduled laboratory experiments. The pretest exaggerated the effect of this treatment. This effect, however, was significant among unpretested students, accounting for 14% of the post‐test score variance. The level of intellectual development has no effect on these post‐test scores. These important questioning skills can be acquired within the framework of the regularly scheduled classroom activities by high school chemistry students, irrespective of their level of Piagetian intellectual development.
The effect of teacher intervention on object manipulation in young children
Authors: Heath Phillip A. , Heath Pearl
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of limited oral and physical teacher intervention on object manipulation by preschool and early elementary children. The population consisting of 70 children, three, four, five, and six years old from two preschools and two kindergarten classes were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups. Children were observed as they manipulated magnets in classroom settings. Experimental students had the objects placed in their hands and were orally invited to explore. Results showed that there were significant differences between the groups in total time spent with the objects, number of activities performed, and cognitive level of operation. No significant differences were found in the number of contacts or in the interactive effects of treatment and testing day. The findings suggest that teacher roles may have an effect on student exploration and quality of interaction with unfamiliar objects.
Characteristics of male and female science teachers
Authors: Welch Wayne W. , Lawrenz Frances
Published: October 2006

The characteristics of 273 male science teachers were compared with 72 female science teachers randomly selected from a fourteen‐state region in the USA. A multivariate analysis of variance found differences between the two groups significant at the p ⩽ 0.0005 level. Female teachers were higher on measures of interest in science and receptivity to change. Males scored higher on science knowledge indicators and on their perceptions of the teaching support they received. No differences were noted on measures of professional development or their perceptions of teaching effectiveness, curriculum, workload, or facilities. The implications of the findings are discussed in terms of science career selection by women.
Developing the wasp: Wareing attitudes toward science protocol
Authors: Wareing Carol
Published: October 2006

Affective development has long since been cited as one of the main components of scientific literacy. According to Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia, attitudes, emotions, and values that are manifested as preferred choices, appreciations, and interests comprise the affective domain. Such attitudes, emotions, and values are neither immutable nor necessarily transferable from one discipline to the next. In an effort to identify and measure scientific affect and to later assess its impact on achievement, the author set out to develop and validate an attitude instrument in the form of a Likert‐type scale. Following test construction, reliability was calculated according to several split‐half methods, using a sample of 806 students in grades 4 through 12. The result was a most satisfactory reliability range of 0.91–0.94.