bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Legitimacy, Democracy, and Justice
Authors: Forst Rainer
Published: December 2017

This chapter attempts to provide a reflexive answer to the question of the relationship between the three basic concepts of political normativity. These concepts are: legitimacy, democracy, and justice. It is commonly assumed that these three concepts are arranged in order of increasing normative content: the concept of legitimacy is thought to involve less extensive normative investments than that of democracy, whereas justice, by contrast, is not only regarded as the highest political good but also seems to be in rivalry with the concept of democracy and to go beyond legitimacy. In addition, “reflexivity” here is taken as the ability to ascertain the ultimate justifying reasons for the claim to normative validity. This is not only a theoretical but also a practical virtue, since practices and institutions can exhibit reflexivity insofar as they adopt a critical stance on their justifiability.
Navigating the Deals World
Authors: Hassan Mirza , Raihan Selim
Published: December 2017

This chapter shows how elite political settlements over time have influenced economic growth in Bangladesh. More concretely, the chapter focuses on the analysis of economic, institutional, and political economy conditions behind structural breaks in economic growth, phases of growth acceleration, and transitions in growth regimes in Bangladesh. This involves analysis of the pattern of structural change in the economy, mapping of the rent generation and rent allocations process in different sectors, discussions on the institutional space (i.e. delineation of the nature of formal and informal institutions that tend to affect a firm’s behaviour), and analysis of the deals environment of the business. The chapter also explores the incentives and ideology/vision of the political, state, and economic elites, the nature of state–business relations, and the influence of de facto growth coalitions to explain the dynamics of current trends and future prospects for growth in Bangladesh.
The Disorder of ‘Miracle Growth’ in Rwanda
Authors: Behuria Pritish , Goodfellow Tom
Published: December 2017

This chapter analyses how Rwanda has achieved near miracle growth rates of above 6 per cent (excluding 2003 and 2013) since 1994. This is due to the country being led by a strong dominant party which has resulted in a stable deals environment within the country. The pursuit of growth has led the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF) to drive for a more open deals space, yet retaining some closed deals space for strategic interests. However, growth maintenance in the country remains dependent on commodity price fluctuations, access to foreign aid, and the maintenance of a stable political settlement. This leaves Rwanda’s growth episodes vulnerable to external shocks and negative feedback loops.
The Stroll, the Trot, and the Sprint of the Elephant
Authors: Sen Kunal , Kar Sabyasachi , Sahu Jagadish Prasad
Published: December 2017

This chapter shows three distinctive growth episodes in India’s recent history. First, a period of slow growth from 1950 to 1992, due to the presence of a dominant political party, a prevalence of powerbrokers, and a disordered closed deal environment which slowly changed in the 1980s. The second period of growth from 1993 to 2002 was spurred by a move to a competitive political settlement, a growing trust between economic and political elites which opened up the deal space, and a move towards more magicians within the economy. The third period of mixed growth was caused by the rise of regional parties, the increased influence of the magicians and powerbrokers within the economy, and a shift to a more closed deals space. This analysis highlights the influence of feedback effects in India, both positive and negative, and how each distinctive period helped shape the next stage of growth.
Reflections on the Concept of Modernity
Authors: Pollack Detlef , Rosta Gergely
Published: December 2017

Part I contains theoretical reflections on the two central concepts of the book: modernity and religion. This chapter on the concept of modernity begins by addressing the main reservations that have been expressed concerning the classic approaches to this concept in sociology. After discussing objections to modernization theory, the chapter presents an outline of a theory of modernity that serves as the basis for the argumentation of the entire book. The theory of modernity proposes three theses. First, that modern societies are characterized by principles of functional differentiation. Second, perpendicular to functional differentiation, which takes place horizontally, there is in modern societies also a form of vertical differentiation. Third, modern societies have established in the economy, politics, science, and other areas forums of competition, markets where different suppliers compete for acceptance. They are the driving forces behind the dynamism of modern societies.
Reflections on the Concept of Religion
Authors: Pollack Detlef , Rosta Gergely
Published: December 2017

There is no definition of religion that is universally valid and generally accepted in religious studies. Increasing numbers of scholars of religion see the attempt to define religion as doomed to failure, and therefore do not even try. A concept of religion is, however, indispensable for staking out the subject area which the sociology of religion and religious studies are concerned with. Defining clearly what is meant by religion is necessary not only to determine the content of the object to be examined and to distinguish it from other objects, but also to detect changes in the field of study. After discussing different approaches that are taken to define religion, the chapter proposes a working definition that combines substantive and functional arguments. The different forms of religious meaning available to mediate between immanence and transcendence can be classified as religious identification, religious practices, and religious belief and experience.
Key Questions and Methodological Preliminaries
Authors: Pollack Detlef , Rosta Gergely
Published: December 2017

Chapter 3 outlines the key questions of the book and the methodology that the book uses to deal with these questions. The questions are as follows: 1. To what extent are functional differentiation and religion compatible? 2. How does vertical differentiation affect the religious landscape? 3. Does the increasing diversity of the religious have a positive or a negative effect on the vitality of religious communities, organizations and markets? Is there a connection here at all? Can we understand the effects of religious pluralization as the relativization of religious claims to validity? Or does the competition between different religious and ideological providers trigger particular efforts to preserve and expand customer bases? In its methodology, the book relies on special case studies and comparative analyses; it integrates studies from the social sciences and history; it uses statistics and representative survey data; and it includes archival research.
Between Dechurchification and Religious Persistence
Authors: Pollack Detlef , Rosta Gergely
Published: December 2017

The analysis conducted in this chapter of the religious changes undergone by the Federal Republic since its founding considers the religious losses as well as the sometimes astonishing resistance of religious and church entities, but also the observable small religious increases. It addresses the following questions among others: Is it really the case that there has occurred a break in tradition in terms of people’s ties to the church? In which periods was religious change particularly dynamic, and in which periods was it less so? Did this change occur in the Catholic and Protestant churches in parallel? Are there counter-movements when it comes to free churches and small religious communities such as the charismatic churches? How have individualized forms of religiosity developed, especially those of non-church religiosity? The chapter not only describes religious changes in West Germany, but by referring to contextual conditions also explains the main tendencies observable there.
South Korea
Authors: Pollack Detlef , Rosta Gergely
Published: December 2017

In South Korea, the processes of rapid modernization after the Second World War were accompanied by an upturn in the religion that has suffered the heaviest losses in Europe: Protestant Christianity. The analysis shows that the rise of Protestantism in South Korea can be attributed to a number of factors. The provision of support networks of solidarity for individuals exposed to the rapid processes of modernization, industrialization, and urbanization played just as much a role as the productive acceptance of widespread expectations of advancement and prosperity, the link to the traditions of Korean folk religion, the capacity to mobilize resources, and the role-model effect of successful Protestant elites. What may have been most significant, though, is that Protestantism was able to fulfil non-religious functions, too. However, religious growth has clearly reached a limit, since connecting with religious communities to achieve non-religious goals seems to be becoming less necessary.
The Sensory Domain
Authors: Pasnau Robert
Published: December 2017

The history of epistemology displays a long quest for the elusive domain of sensory privilege, the place where sensory indubitability finds vindication in some measure of infallibility. There have been the most dramatic disagreements and reversals and confusions regarding where in the world this domain is to be found, disagreements that in turn fuel the notorious disputes over the cognitive value of perception. The focus of this chapter is on those who take there to be some external locus of sensory privilege, beginning with Aristotle and the surprisingly different story among later Aristotelians, then moving on toward the crisis that emerges when the privileged sensory domain of scholastics philosophers turns out to be illusory. From this crisis emerge the various modern theories of perception: subjective, reductive, and dispositional.
Electrical Power Generation: Hydroelectricity, Tides and Pumped Storage
Authors: Rez Peter
Published: December 2017

Hydroelectricity already contributes to electrical supply in places where it can. What are needed are rivers with adequate flow that can be dammed to provide a significant vertical drop. These are usually found in mountainous regions where runoff from snowmelt provides adequate water supply. Renewables such as solar and wind have low power densities. That means large areas will be needed to meet the electrical energy needs of cities in developed countries. The other problem is that they do not supply power when it is needed. Energy can be stored by pumping water uphill into a reservoir at a higher elevation. All the energy needs of a desert city can be met with solar in places where every day is sunny. Low-density development means there is enough roof area, and there are elevation differences for pumped storage. There are not many places in the world that meet all these conditions.
Materials That Come from the Earth
Authors: Rez Peter
Published: December 2017

Many of the materials used are ultimately derived from things extracted from the earth. There is always an energy-intensive step of converting the oxide as found in the earth’s crust to the element or metal. Since carbon in the form of coke is frequently used in this process, it is inevitable that CO2 is emitted. Another thing to consider is the scarcity of the compound from which the element will be derived—that is, the grade of the ore. A low grade of ore, with little of the element of interest, will mean more energy will need to be used to dig up a greater quantity of material. Practically everything has gone through some form of high-temperature processing that contributes to its embodied energy. The embodied energy can be very high if extreme purity is demanded or if a low-abundance isotope is needed.
Agriculture—Things That Are Grown
Authors: Rez Peter
Published: December 2017

Timber has the lowest embodied energy of any of the construction materials. Paper production from trees requires much more energy. There is some energy saving in recycling, as recycled paper substitutes for pulp derived from wood chips. Growing crops for food also requires energy. The energy required for plants to grow comes from the sun, but there are additional energy inputs from fertiliser and farm machinery to speed up the growth process and vastly improve crop yields. If grains are used as animal feed, then the energy inputs are much larger than the dietary energy output—the larger the animal and the longer it is fattened up before slaughter, the more inefficient the process. The use of crops to make fuel for electrical power generation or for processing into liquid fuels is horribly inefficient. The problem is simple—the plants do not grow fast enough!
Embodied Energy and Energy Return on Investment
Authors: Rez Peter
Published: December 2017

It is nearly always the case that the energy used to make the materials dominates, whereas the energy used in shipping either the raw materials or the finished product is usually small in comparison. For most things that we use, the embodied energy is much less than the energy consumed in operational use. When considering energy generation, there are two energy costs that should be considered. There is the energy needed to build the system, which can be thought of as a ‘capital’ or investment energy, and the energy needed to provide the fuel. For fossil fuels, the energy needed to provide the fuel dominates; for renewables, the fuel is free, so there is only an investment energy. The investment energy for nuclear power is greater than the energy needed to make the fuel, but only by a factor of about 4.
Separationism
Authors: Kirchin Simon
Published: December 2017

The main aim of this chapter is to describe in detail separationism: its core aspects, its motivations, its advantages, and its weaknesses. In doing so two broad forms of separationism are detailed and contrasted. ‘Simple separationism’ is developed using the work of Simon Blackburn. ‘Complex separationism’ was expressed in a paper by Daniel Elstein and Thomas Hurka and is extended in this chapter. As well as showing how these two forms of separationism contrast and their advantages and disadvantages, this chapter highlights the desiderata that any account of thin and thick concepts much satisfy and lists four worries that one may have with nonseparationism.
Essentially Evaluative?
Authors: Kirchin Simon
Published: December 2017

This chapter continues the account of thick concepts defended in Chapter Six by arguing that such concepts are essentially evaluative. This is opposed to the view that thick concepts are merely nonevaluative concepts that happen, every so often, to convey evaluation through linguistic and other contingent conventions. This opposing view has been best articulated by Pekka Väyrynen. This chapter presents and considers Väyrynen’s arguments for his claim, and the assumptions that lie behind both his own account of thin and thick concepts, and his overall view of evaluation. This chapter ventures that his arguments against nonseparationism do not work and that, in addition, his own position is suspect.
Pragmatics’ Place at the Table
Authors: Wilson Mark
Published: December 2017

Physical events that transpire across many size scales require significant data compression for their successful handling. A popular remedy practiced within modern multiscalar methods breaks a descriptive task into sub-problems focused upon dominant behaviors that arise on different length scales. Each localized form of description employs the same language in different ways. This contextualization requires that these localized veins of description share data with one another in non-standard ways. We employ allied techniques in everyday life as well and philosophical confusions arise when the underlying strategic architecture is not properly recognized. Nine general morals concerning language usage are abstracted from this examination.
Semantic Mimicry
Authors: Wilson Mark
Published: December 2017

Reasoning patterns can look superficially alike, yet differ significantly in their supportive underpinnings. Paradoxically, the progress of science is sometimes aided by these inferential pretenders, in spite of the conceptual confusions upon which they rely. Two puzzling developments of this character are studied from this perspective: the “little plates” of the aircraft engineer and the incoherent infinitesimals of Physics 101 instruction. The proper semantical foundations of both notions weren’t unraveled satisfactorily until the mid-twentieth century, when the challenges posed by the finite element revolution within computing were squarely addressed by mathematicians. Their results teach a valuable lesson in how our classificatory vocabularies sometimes divide descriptive duties amongst themselves in very intriguing patterns of cooperative allocation.
A Brief History of Cosmology
Authors: Iliopoulos John
Published: December 2017

We present the evolution of our ideas concerning the history of the Cosmos. They are based on Einstein’s theory of General Relativity in which E.P. Hubble and G. Lemaître brought two fundamental new concepts: the expansion of the Universe and the model of the Big Bang. They form the basic elements of the modern theory of Cosmology. We present very briefly the observational evidence which corroborates this picture based on a vast amount of data, among which the most recent ones come from the Planck mission with a detailed measurement of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation. We show that during its evolution the Universe went through several phase transitions giving rise to the formation of particles, atoms, nuclei, etc. A particular phase transition, which occurred very early in the cosmic history, around 10–12 seconds after the Big Bang, is the Brout–Englert–Higgs (BEH) transition during which a fraction of the energy was transformed into mass, thus making it possible for most elementary particles to become massive.
Symmetries
Authors: Iliopoulos John
Published: December 2017

The concept of symmetry plays a central role in our understanding of the fundamental laws of Nature. Through a deep mathematical theorem due to A.E. Noether, all conservation laws of classical physics are related to symmetries. In this chapter we start from the intuitively obvious notions of translation and rotation symmetries which are part of the axioms of Euclidian geometry. Following W. Heisenberg, we introduce the idea of isospin as a first example of an internal symmetry. A further abstraction leads to the concept of a global versus local, or gauge symmetry, which is a fundamental property of General Relativity. Combining the notions of internal and gauge symmetries we obtain the Yang-Mills theory which describes all fundamental interactions among elementary particles. A more technical part, which relates a gauge symmetry of the Schrödinger equation of quantum mechanics to the electromagnetic interactions, is presented in a separate section and its understanding is not required for the rest of the book.
Spontaneously Broken Symmetries
Authors: Iliopoulos John
Published: December 2017

In this chapter we present the solution to the problem of mass. It is based on the phenomenon of spontaneous symmetry breaking (SSB). We first give the example of buckling, a typical example of spontaneous symmetry breaking in classical physics. We extract the main features of the phenomenon, namely the instability of the symmetric state and the degeneracy of the ground state. The associated concepts of the critical point and the order parameter are deduced. A more technical exposition is given in a separate section. Then we move to a quantum physics example, that of the Heisenberg ferromagnet. We formulate Goldstone’s theorem which associates a massless particle, the Goldstone boson, to the phenomenon of spontaneous symmetry breaking. In the last section we present the mechanism of Brout–Englert–Higgs (BEH). We show that spontaneous symmetry breaking in the presence of gauge interactions makes it possible for particles to become massive. The remnant of the mechanism is the appearance of a physical particle, the BEH boson, which we identify with the particle discovered at CERN.
Introduction
Authors: Ostade Ingrid Tieken-Boon van
Published: December 2017

Usage guides are an extremely popular genre, as is evident from new titles being published year after year and established ones being revised and reprinted. They are a marketable product, as both writers and publishers know. The genre did not start with Fowler, despite what many people think; it has a long history going back to the late eighteenth century. Usage advice today is also found online, while it was already the subject of satire in Punch during the nineteenth century. Yet how many usage problems there are is something authors—journalists, writers, but also linguists—show no consensus on. Usage problems come and go, and attitudes to them, expressed both by the general public and by usage guide writers, are found to change over the years. Some works remain remarkably conservative, which appears to be what is desired by readers who often feel insecure about what exactly proper English is.
The lexicography of English usage
Authors: Peters Pam
Published: December 2017

The lexicography of English usage is often discussed as being prescriptive or descriptive, but only rarely is it analysed in terms of how usage writers use language evidence in exploring issues of current and changing usage, and whether their methodology is empirical or otherwise. This chapter discusses two twenty-first-century approaches to the use of evidence in usage writing: the selective, a priori use of citations by Bryan Garner to support his ‘Language Change Index’ in Modern American Usage (3rd edn, 2009); and the wealth of data contained in the GloWbE corpus (2012) and others created by Mark Davies, available to quantify usage trends worldwide. Corpus evidence on the assimilation of Latin borrowings, e.g. use of data in singular agreement, shows this is relatively less advanced in the US than elsewhere, which aligns with its stigmatization in American academic discourse.
Why does the BBC need a style guide?
Authors: Allen John
Published: December 2017

Britain has no formal arbiter of language. There is no British equivalent of the Académie Française. Almost by default, responsibility in this area has fallen to the BBC. All over the world, audiences look to the Corporation to maintain high standards, and are quick to complain if they perceive any failure to meet their expectations. It is a responsibility the organization has acknowledged since its inception. For a BBC journalist, good writing is not a luxury; it is an obligation. It is part of the BBC’s contract with the licence fee payer. The style guide was designed to remind journalists of their responsibilities and to offer advice and encouragement on how to address their audiences, whether it be on television, radio, or across an ever increasing range of digital outlets.
Becoming Religious Foreigners
Authors: Hoffmann George
Published: December 2017

French reformers shared language, culture, and tradition with their unreformed neighbors. To distinguish themselves, they began by caricaturing Roman rites as foreign: imported from Italy, they proved arcane, superstitious, and pagan. In an era of overlapping jurisdictions when “foreign” did not possess the clear cut it does today, reformers fashioned a stark sense of “outsider” culture through reworking the terms of barbarian, savage, stranger, and exotic. The fantastic voyage device coordinated all these elements, but it also worked to make the reformer ultimately a stranger in a strange land. Reformers’ own sense of themselves as foreigners in France deepened their investment in the Pauline imperative to be “in the world but not of it,” thus creating a lushly imaginative experience of spiritual alienation.
Pilgrims of Satire: To Go Home
Authors: Hoffmann George
Published: December 2017

As the conflict deepened in France, reformers found themselves forced to adopt a more clandestine posture. Satires consequently grew more obscure as they increasingly served as an in-joke for a beset coterie. So, although outlandish satire did continue, it retreated from public dispute and acquired a tragic undertone of martyrdom. The fondness for allusions to the Odyssey betrays French reformers’ conflicted feelings over their exilic aspirations figured in references to Exodus. Satire remained one of the ways in which they could indulge nostalgia for their unreformed past, even as they demarcated themselves from it. The uneasy conjunction of Odyssey and Exodus combines into the unlikely figure of the reformer as “pilgrim,” a spiritual traveler who might one day return home.
No Place Anywhere: Observation as Worship
Authors: Hoffmann George
Published: December 2017

Though often read as proto-ethnographic documents, French reformed accounts of the New World reveal their indebtedness to the exoticizing tropes of satiric literature. A growing sensitivity to custom as a function of place and to reformers’ own mobility, both geographical and mental, led to a precocious notion of universality—church could be anywhere one joined one’s hands in prayer. Far from merely disdaining “local” customs, reformers practiced keen forms of observation whose debt to traditional disciplined observance makes them count as a mode of worship, not an anticipation of scientific empiricism. Finally, satiric defamiliarization predisposed French reformers to accept their diasporic destiny.
The Legacy of French Reformation Satire
Authors: Hoffmann George
Published: December 2017

Although the schismatic and iconoclastic sensibilities visible in French reformed satires doomed the movement in France, a number of attitudes explored through the fantastic-voyage device spread into French culture generally. Montaigne illustrates how the French, exposed to such ideas earlier in their lives, assimilated their conclusions even as they rejected the Reformation. Montaigne’s celebrated essay “Of Cannibals” turns both the surface imagery and the deeper structure of Reformation satire toward a new form of “inner distance” where one entertains considering oneself a stranger. Responding to reformers’ emphasis on the contingency of custom and their new procedures of observation, the essay defamiliarizes the Mass through implicit comparison with the ceremony of cannibalism. Finally, Montaigne avails himself of “stranger sociability” in elaborating a new form of anonymous intimacy with his reader. France may have remained confessionally Catholic, but it became culturally reformed.
The thin ice of simplicity in environmental and conservation assessments
Authors: McClellan Moana , Davies Ian
Published: December 2017

This chapter asks whether environmental and human health are well served by the creation and use of simple indices, such as the California Communities Environmental Health Screening Tool and the Environmental Performance Index. Reducing vast complexity to a single number offers the possibility of helping to communicate complex science to the public and to decision-makers. Indices are appealing because they are quantitative, have the appearance of being data-based, and seem objective. However, the biases and potential errors inherent in simplifying multidimensional data can result in misleading or incorrect conclusions. This chapter details some problems inherent to environmental indices, examines how these issues have led wellintentioned studies astray, and offers solutions to navigate the indices landscape.
Introduced species are not always the enemy of conservation
Authors: Schlaepfer Martin A.
Published: December 2017

This chapter tells the story of how a few biologists came to question whether non-native species were being objectively evaluated with regard to their threat to biodiversity and ecosystems. The chapter examines the criteria that are commonly used to evaluate whether species should be labeled as invasive aliens, and suggests there is merit in assessing both the positive and negative contributions of species. Because invasion biology is a heavily value-laden field in which logic does not always reign, there is resistance to considering the benefits that might accrue from non-native species. Now is the time to think hard about which species are likely to cause clear harm so that management interventions can be aimed where they are most needed, and limited resources are not squandered on relatively harmless ecological invasions.
From Silent Spring to The Frog of War
Authors: Skelly David K.
Published: December 2017

This chapter presents two examples to demonstrate that natural history is the necessary basis of any reliable understanding of the world. More than a half century ago, Rachel Carson revolutionized the public’s view of pesticides. The foundation of her success was the careful use of natural history data, collated from across North America. The examples she assembled left little doubt that DDT and other pesticides were causing a widespread decline in birds. More recently, the case for the impact of atrazine on wildlife was based on laboratory experiments, without the advantage of natural history observations. For atrazine, natural history observations now suggest that other chemical agents are more likely to be responsible for feminization of wildlife populations. Developing expectations for scientists to collect natural history information can help to avoid over-extrapolating lab results to wild populations, a tendency often seen when those lab results conform to preconceptions about chemicals in the environment.
How a mistaken ecological narrative could be undermining orangutan conservation
Authors: Meijaard Erik
Published: December 2017

This chapter explores how the particular conditions in which conservation biologists conduct their studies can provide a narrow and possibly misleading view of endangered species. Orangutans are a good example. Generally viewed by scientists as ecological specialists of primary rainforests with limited human influence, orangutans may in fact be ecologically and behaviorally adapted to human disturbance, shaped by 60 000 years of co-existence with modern humans. Orangutan scientists have been slow in embracing these views, which has hampered the development of more effective approaches to conservation management, such as the protection of orangutans in selectively logged forests. Also, a narrow focus on habitat loss has hampered efforts to address other important threats such as hunting. This chapter urges young scientists to remain open-minded about their study objectives, question any long-held beliefs, and learn to view species and systems in the broadest context possible.
Science communication is receiving a lot of attention, but there’s room to improve
Authors: Masuda Yuta J. , Scharks Tim
Published: December 2017

This chapter highlights communication failures in conservation. The environment is a secondary consideration to most of the American public, with the fraction of the US population that identifies itself as environmentalists shrinking year by year. This reflects the ineffectiveness of the conservation community at communicating why people should care about the environment, much less what they should do about it. This chapter outlines five failures in environmental and conservation communications. Three failures are well enough understood that they could and should be avoided. These failures are assuming the problem is simply an information deficit, misreading the audience’s values, and using fear to motivate. Two challenges remain that no one yet knows how to overcome: addressing psychological distance and overcoming compassion fade.
Overfishing
Authors: Hilborn Ray
Published: December 2017

This chapter calls into question the veracity of stories, often seen in the scientific literature and popular media, describing the collapse of fish stocks and predicting a soon-to-be-seen dramatic decline in food production from the ocean. In fact, detailed scientific analyses suggest that fish stock abundance is globally stable, and much of the decline in fish catch has been due to more stringent management of fisheries in many countries. This has led to a polarization between those who look at abundance trends, and argue that improving fisheries management is the solution, and those who look at catch and argue that fisheries management does not work and marine protected areas are needed. Data clearly support the effectiveness of fisheries management, whereas remarkably little data demonstrates the impact of marine protected areas outside of the closed areas. This chapter argues the actual impacts of MPAs need to be evaluated much more intensively.
Replacing underperforming nature reserves
Authors: Fuller Richard A. , Watson James E. M.
Published: December 2017

This chapter discusses a radical solution to the problem that many protected areas are not in the right places to achieve maximum conservation benefit. The radical solution involves replacing underperforming protected areas with new ones that achieve more for conservation. Such a system revision was successfully undertaken in Bhutan as long ago as 1993. This chapter argues that designing robust policies and processes around reserve replacement will (i) force a thorough assessment of the role of protected areas against a clear set of conservation objectives, (ii) upgrade a poorly performing system of protected areas into a system that achieves better conservation outcomes for the same, or even a lower, overall budget, and (iii) allow for sober, transparent, and effective decision-making when parts of existing protected areas are under threat from development.
Corporations valuing nature
Authors: Molnar Jennifer L.
Published: December 2017

This chapter highlights the importance of not just focusing on win-wins for nature and business, but also where nature doesn’t provide economic benefits, in order to build a stronger case for companies to invest in conservation. Using the collaboration between The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and the Dow Chemical Company as a case study, it describes how a “negative” result in one pilot—where coastal habitats did not provide sufficient storm risk reduction benefits for a Dow site in Texas—helped raise the credibility of naturebased solutions. For engineers and planners to consider using nature-based strategies, they need evidence on where and how they are effective and where they are not. By not overselling nature, TNC gained trust from Dow. It was both the economical solutions found in other pilots and confidence in the objectivity of the analyses that helped make a case for Dow’s corporate-wide commitment to valuing nature.
Business as usual leads to underperformance in coastal restoration
Authors: Silliman Brian R. , Hughes Brent B. , Zhang Y. Stacy , He Qiang
Published: December 2017

This chapter shows that coastal wetland projects are underperforming because of confirmation bias. Despite two decades of work showing that top-down control can be essential to marsh restoration, the potential role of top predators is typically ignored by those responsible for restoring or maintaining marshes. Similarly ignored are experiments that indicate positive interaction between marsh plants and can enhance the pace and success of restoration. By planting marsh plants at higher densities, marsh restoration success can double, and seagrass restoration can succeed in the face of increasing drought and eutrophication effects. Continued failure to integrate top-down control and facilitative species interactions into coastal restoration designs will result in widespread underperformance of wetland conservation projects and unrealized generation of important ecosystem services.
Corruption and Anticorruption in Democratic Athens
Authors: Taylor Claire
Published: December 2017

The chapter examines a major corruption scandal that involved the Athenian orator Demosthenes and an official of Alexander the Great. This episode reveals how tensions between individual and collective decision-making practices shaped Athenian understandings of corruption and anticorruption. The various and multiple anticorruption measures of Athens sought to bring ‘hidden’ knowledge into the open and thereby remove information from the realm of individual judgment, placing it instead into the realm of collective judgment. The Athenian experience therefore suggests that participatory democracy, and a civic culture that fosters political equality rather than reliance on individual expertise, provides a key bulwark against corruption.
The Problem of the Personal
Authors: Watts John
Published: December 2017

This chapter starts by linking corruption with what the author calls the “gray areas of public life” (or the ambiguity between public and private resulting from power-sharing and the competition of personal interests) and explains why they were complicated by the growth of royal government and the rules it produced. The chapter then moves on to describe the two main types of corruption in the period and examines the measures used to address them and how they changed over time. Finally, the chapter argues that corruption crises and the anticorruption measures they engendered were a simplification, at once a reflection of the deep malfunction of the political system and an opportunity to relieve the tensions that threatened political order.
The Paradox of “A High Standard of Public Honesty”
Authors: Kennedy James , Kroeze Ronald
Published: December 2017

This chapter takes as its starting point the contemporary idea that the Netherlands is one of the least corrupt countries in the world; an idea that it dates back to the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. In this chapter, the authors explain how corruption was controlled in the Netherlands against the background of the rise and fall of the Dutch Republic, modern statebuilding and liberal politics. However, the Dutch case also presents some complexities: first, the decrease in some forms of corruption was due not to early democratization or bureaucratization, but was rather a side-effect of elite patronage-politics; second, although some early modern forms of corruption disappeared around this period, new forms have emerged in more recent times.
Corruption and Anticorruption in the Romanian Principalities
Authors: Olar Ovidiu , Academy Romanian
Published: December 2017

This chapter evaluates the changes that have been held responsible for the emergence of a modern, historically informed interpretation of corruption, by analyzing three case studies that are exemplary of the practices of, and debates about, corruption and anticorruption in the Romanian Principalities from the seventeenth until the nineteenth centuries. The term corruption is reinterpreted in terms of its relation to networks of patronage, solidarity and trust. In this chapter, the author discusses whether a transition took place in this period, and concludes that no decisive break can be established based on the sources available, arguing that the change was actually slow and convoluted.
State, Family and Anticorruption Practices in the Late Ottoman Empire
Authors: Agmon Iris
Published: December 2017

This chapter employs the nexus of state and family as a lens for examining the question of anticorruption in the later Ottoman Empire. More specifically, the chapter focuses on how the government sought to prevent corruption in the department that handled property inherited by orphans—thereby shining a light on the involvement of the state in the private sphere of the family. While stressing the global nature of the modernization undergone by the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century, the author also demonstrates the unique features of a political culture that shaped these processes as well. On the one hand, she emphasizes how the reforms transformed the empire into a modern centralized state and that preventing corruption was a major issue on the reformers’ agenda; but, on the other hand, she claims that anticorruption measures were also an important matter in earlier periods, albeit embedded in different historical circumstances.
Lockheed (1977) and Flick (1981–1986)
Authors: Kroeze Ronald
Published: December 2017

This chapter concentrates on two large political corruption scandals—Lockheed and Flick—in two countries that are commonly seen as relatively corruption-free: the Netherlands and Germany. It argues that these corruption scandals were taken very seriously in these countries, but were handled in different ways from what current anticorruption policies would suggest. In both instances, the existing law was regarded as inadequate and the political elites tried to keep the scandals subdued by balancing refusal of formal prosecution against intense public debate, with the aim of maintaining the stability of the political system in the longer run. In illuminating the overlapping interests of political and financial elites, this chapter stresses the value of pragmatic as opposed to morally unbendable approaches to anticorruption.
Liberty and Feminism in Early Modern Women’s Writing
Authors: Detlefsen Karen
Published: December 2017

This chapter shows how Mary Astell and Margaret Cavendish can reasonably be understood as early feminists in three senses of the term. First, they are committed to the natural equality of men and women, and, relatedly, they are committed to equal opportunity of education for men and women. Second, they are committed to social structures that help women develop authentic selves and thus autonomy understood in one sense of the word. Third, they acknowledge the power of production relationships, especially friendships among women, in cultivating fulfilling lives for women. All three forms of feminism promote greater liberty for women. Moreover, the chapter establishes that many of these conclusions are especially forceful given Cavendish’s use of the genre of literature, and given the method that literature allows, namely that of presenting alternate points of view.
Diagnosing and Treating the Pained Body
Authors: King Daniel
Published: December 2017

This chapter argues that rational Greek medicine was underpinned by its understanding of pain experience. It focuses especially on the nature of diagnosis and therapy in the Imperial period, showing that this combined specific anatomical thought about the body with a more holistic view of the patient. Employing tools from medical anthropology, this chapter shows that a central (and hitherto downplayed) aspect of the diagnostic process was the narration and explanation of symptoms and experiences: diagnosis and therapy were embedded in narrative practices of Imperial society. The way in which pain is described moulds its significance for Imperial medicine, allowing it to be effectively integrated into medical knowledge and understanding and treatment.
Galen
Authors: King Daniel
Published: December 2017

Galen develops a robustly aetiological approach to diagnosis and therapy which centres on the differentiation of pain perceptions throughout the body. He develops a specific definition of pain as the perception of overwhelming and contrary-to-nature change which links the perception of pain with his understanding of disease. Throughout On Affected Parts, he argues for pain terminology and descriptions that facilitate the communication of experiences and perceptions between doctor and patient. Galen promotes, in this context, a type of ‘common language’ in which familiar terminology communicates effectively the common experiences of doctor and patient: modern categories of subjective and objective language are not effective tools to help understand this complex approach to pain description. Galen’s control of language in this context is mirrored by his attempts to control his patients’ narration of pain symptoms, which moulds their experiences to fit Galen’s understanding of pain, disease, and the body.
Diagnosis and Pain
Authors: King Daniel
Published: December 2017

This chapter concludes the discussion of Greek rational medicine. It draws together some of the ways in which pain experience constituted one of the fault lines of Imperial medical culture, helping to define and solidify doctors’ understanding of themselves and their profession in a crowded marketplace of ideas and practices. Both Galen and Aretaios start from a notion of the physical perception of pain, in which patients perceive changes in their body; they then integrate this sense of physical perception into a broader sense of embodied pain experience. While Galen and Aretaios demonstrate very different approaches to this issue, what is consistent across both authors is their understanding of the relationship between pain and language, their need to navigate the way in which pain is incorporated into the clinical scenario, and the importance of understanding the experience of pain from a holistic perspective.
Sacred Pain in Ailios Aristeides
Authors: King Daniel
Published: December 2017

This chapter treats the most sophisticated collection of narratives concerning one’s own pain to survive from the ancient world, Aristeides’ Sacred Tales. Aristeides’ texts presents a complex and complicated combination of different generic connections—epic, aretology, medical case history, etc.—which helps construct a multifaceted understanding of his pain experience. Although Aristeides does not develop a theory of perception like the medical writers of Part 1, his focus on pain symptoms and sensations draws on common language and pain terminology and then moulds this into a broader sense of hardship and suffering. Central to this is his manipulation of language and narrative, in which he co-opts and redirects much of the language of contemporary medical culture to recast his experience of pain in heroic and amazing terms.
Ekphrasis, Trauma, and Viewing Pain
Authors: King Daniel
Published: December 2017

This chapter treats the connection between trauma and pain which developed in the description of physical violence in Imperial rhetoric. In a medical context, at least, physical trauma was often associated with pain. By reformulating how one views trauma and physical violation, however, writers explored and criticized this assumed connection. Ekphrasis was used by different authors to explore the nature of one’s pain experience by focusing on how viewing context might inflect the presence of pain in the body. It was also used to develop emotional and intellectual engagement from the viewing audience: ekphrasis was a key tool in enabling viewers to imagine (or ignore) the pain felt by another and determining how they should react to it.
Philostratos’ Prurient Gaze
Authors: King Daniel
Published: December 2017

This chapter analyses the Imagines of Philostratos, which are underpinned by a desire to teach readers how to view art and how to speak about viewing images. An important aspect of this is teaching what those who feel (among other things) pleasure and pain might look like. This interest in pleasure and pain is reflected in a number of important tableaux in which Philostratos presents images of physical trauma and violation. In these instances, Philostratos explores the relationship between pain and trauma, showing how it is influenced by, and helps to mould, the individual’s emotional context, the physical beauty of the protagonists, and the reader’s pleasure at the image.
Viewing Trauma in Plutarch
Authors: King Daniel
Published: December 2017

This chapter investigates Plutarch’s On Flesh- Eating. This work, which contains two logoi, is traditionally taken as a highly rhetorical and ‘youthful’ piece which reflects Plutarch’s views on animal welfare and vegetarianism. This chapter argues that it investigates the ways in which one views another’s pain: it uses the torture of animals and our capacity to imagine this to interrogate questions about human society. On Flesh-Eating presents man as someone whose sensory organs and capacity for imagining another’s pain have been undermined by constant exposure to violence and inappropriate sights. Plutarch sets out to remedy this by forcing the reader to confront the distressing elements of animal consumption and, in so doing, to come to imagine the pain of the ultimate ‘other’.