bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Revitalisation of Postindustrial and Tourist Areas
Authors: Kaczmarek Sylwia , Kowalczyk Andrzej
Published: September 2017

Purpose. The aim of this paper is to characterize the process of revitalization of post-industrial urban areas as well as the tourist areas in the context of the stages of the tourist area life cycle (TALC) and to find the mutual relations between these processes. Method. Theoretical considerations illustrated with examples from different geographical locations in the world. Findings. In the context of revitalization of postindustrial urban areas, the scope and dimension of the process has been analyzed, as well as the relationship between the course and the place it occurs. In addition, the authors stressed the important feature of the revitalization process i.e. the impact on the development of cultural tourism in cities. Additionally, in the context of the revitalization of tourist areas - using examples from different countries and geographical locations in the world – the authors identified the different variants of the process associated with the stages of the tourism area life cycle (TALC). Research and conclusion limitations. An essential element to be taken into account by making comparisons of different geographic locations is the diversity of the space management system and decision-making in urban policy occurring in the individual countries. Practical implications. The article is addressed to practitioners, policy-makers working in different locations in Poland as well as the managers, who are engaged in the process of urban revitalization. Originality. Analysis of the phases of stagnation, rejuvenation or decline in the tourist area life cycle and the the development of cycle tourist areas, as well as the issue of revitalization of postindustrial urban areas in the context of their use for tourism is an innovative element of the work. Type of paper. Developing and modifying existing theories.
Using New Information and Communication Technologies for the Description of Tourism Space
Authors: Majewska Justyna , Napierała Tomasz , Adamiak Maciej
Published: September 2017

Purpose. Presentation of authors’ own method based on ICTs for the description of a tourism space’s attractiveness.

Method. Using ICTs (application Geosearch Integration Engine was developed during the research process) for collecting geographical data on multimedia content published in the Internet and using exploratory methods of spatial analysis and spatial analysis of point data for the description of atourism space’s attractiveness . The study was conducted in July 2016 for the metropolitan area of Kraków based on the multimedia content of Wikimedia Commons.

Findings. The presented method created by the authors’ makes the description and assessment of the attractiveness of a tourism space more complex. Perception of the geographical space by tourists (as a population, not particular people) is enabled. This makes the presented method valuable for both the tourism industry and regional policy. The study showed the significant potential of using ICTs and GIS tools for collecting and processing the data on tourists’ perception and behaviour in tourism space was indicated as the study was conducted.

Research and conclusion limitations. The Geosearch Integration Engine does not allow for the selection of photographs published only by tourists. Thus, all the multimedia and photo files in Wikimedia Commons were investigated based on an assumption of universal nature regarding the attractiveness of a tourism space. Therefore, development of this application is strongly recommended.

Practical implications. Using ICTs for the measurement of tourists’ perception of a tourism space’s attractiveness should enable development of business analytics for tourism enterprises and increase effectiveness of tourism destination management.

Originality. Elimination of the disadvantages of the methods used so far to describe the attractiveness of tourism spaces. The investigated methods based hitherto on static measurement of supply-side elements of tourism spaces (attractions, infrastructure, accessibility). On the other hand, demand-side methods based on imperfect public statistics on the number of tourists hosted in tourist accommodation establishments.

Type of paper. The article presents findings from empirical research.
Blood Microsampling for Complete Blood Count: Take Heed of Preanalytical Errors
Authors: Koscielniak Barbara , Zajac Andrzej , Tomasik Przemysaaw
Published: September 2017

Background: The credibility of the result of a complete blood count is closely connected with the preanalytical phase.
Objectives: This study evaluated accordance of filling of microtubes with manufacturer’s recommendation and assessed the effect of storage of overfilled and underfilled samples on the results of complete blood count.
Design and Methods: Volume of blood samples collected into microtubes in the wards of the University Children's Hospital in Cracow during one month was analyzed. In the stability studies, overfilled and underfilled samples stored at ambient temperature were analyzed at 1, 2, 3 and 12 hours after phlebotomy. The analysis was made using the SYSMEX XT-1800i analyzer.
Results: More than half of the analyzed samples were incorrectly filled. 63% of the samples were filled above the manufacturer's recommended volume and 15% of test-tubes were filled below the recommendation. We observed differences between collected blood volume in accordance to the age of patients (p=0.001). The storage of overfilled and underfilled microtubes for complete blood count for 1,2,3 and 12 h at room temperature had no effect on the results of this test.
Conclusion: Medical staff does not follow the instructions of the manufacturers. It might lead to a decrease of the quality and credibility of the results.
La perspective de l’habitation politique dans Je suis une maudite sauvagesse/Eukuan nin matshimanitu innu-iskueu d’An Antane Kapesh
Authors: Mailhot Amélie-Anne
Published: September 2017

« Dans mon livre, il n’y a pas de parole de Blanc » : la première phrase deJe suis une maudite sauvagesse/Eukuan nin matshimanitu innu-iskueu, d’An Antane Kapesh, fait entrer immédiatement dans le projet politique de l’ouvrage, et de l’auteure. Cette Innue a décidé d’écrire, au début des années 70, le récit de son expérience des relations avec le « Blanc » sur son territoire, leNitassinan. L’auteure propose ici de circonscrire une des contributions majeures d’Antane Kapesh à la littérature (post)coloniale des Amériques, soit sa conceptualisation du « Blanc » comme catégorie politique d’habitation. L’habitation politique est entendue comme un complexe de pratiques épistémologiques, géographiques, éthiques et politiques : elle implique des liens avec le territoire, des rapports à la connaissance, des manières d’être en relation avec les autres êtres, humains et non humains, et les articulations entre ces éléments.
L’activisme et l’anthropologie juridique féministe au Mexique
Authors: Hernández Castillo Rosalva Aída
Published: September 2017

L’auteure se base sur son expérience d’élaboration d’expertises anthropologiques, à partir de démarches méthodologiques de recherche-action, pour réfléchir sur les possibilités et les limites de l’anthropologie juridique féministe. Elle analyse plus précisément sa participation à l’élaboration d’une expertise pour la défense d’une prisonnière politique autochtone au Mexique, la commandante Nestora Salgado García de la Coordination régionale des autorités communautaires ‒ Police communautaire (CRAC-PC) de Guerrero, qui a été détenue injustement pour avoir pris part à un système de justice autochtone.
Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor neddylation is regulated by a desmosomal-COP9 (Constitutive Photomorphogenesis 9) signalosome complex
Authors: Najor Nicole Ann , Fitz Gillian Nicole , Koetsier Jennifer Leigh , Godsel Lisa Marie , Albrecht Lauren Veronica , Harmon Robert , Green Kathleen Janee
Published: September 2017

Cell junctions are scaffolds that integrate mechanical and chemical signaling. We previously showed that a desmosomal cadherin promotes keratinocyte differentiation in an adhesion-independent manner by dampening Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) activity. Here we identify a potential mechanism by which desmosomes assist the de-neddylating COP9 signalosome (CSN) in attenuating EGFR through an association between the Cops3 subunit of the CSN and desmosomal components, Desmoglein1 (Dsg1) and Desmoplakin (Dp), to promote epidermal differentiation. Silencing CSN or desmosome components shifts the balance of EGFR modifications from ubiquitination to neddylation, inhibiting EGFR dynamics in response to an acute ligand stimulus. A reciprocal relationship between loss of Dsg1 and neddylated EGFR was observed in a carcinoma model, consistent with a role in sustaining EGFR activity during tumor progression. Identification of this previously unrecognized function of the CSN in regulating EGFR neddylation has broad-reaching implications for understanding how homeostasis is achieved in regenerating epithelia.
PGAM5 promotes lasting FoxO activation after developmental mitochondrial stress and extends lifespan in Drosophila
Authors: Borch Jensen Martin , Qi Yanyan , Riley Rebeccah , Rabkina Liya , Jasper Heinrich
Published: September 2017

The mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt) has been associated with long lifespan across metazoans. In Caenorhabditis elegans, mild developmental mitochondrial stress activates UPRmt reporters and extends lifespan. We show that similar developmental stress is necessary and sufficient to extend Drosophila lifespan, and identify Phosphoglycerate Mutase 5 (PGAM5) as a mediator of this response. Developmental mitochondrial stress leads to activation of FoxO, via Apoptosis Signal-regulating Kinase 1 (ASK1) and Jun-N-terminal Kinase (JNK). This activation persists into adulthood and induces a select set of chaperones, many of which have been implicated in lifespan extension in flies. Persistent FoxO activation can be reversed by a high-protein diet in adulthood, through mTORC1 and GCN-2 activity. Accordingly, the observed lifespan extension is prevented on a high-protein diet and in FoxO-null flies. The diet-sensitivity of this pathway has important implications for interventions that seek to engage the UPRmt to improve metabolic health and longevity.
Removal of inhibition uncovers latent movement potential during preparation
Authors: Jagadisan Uday K , Gandhi Neeraj J
Published: September 2017

The motor system prepares for movements well in advance of their execution. In the gaze control system, the dynamics of preparatory neural activity have been well described by stochastic accumulation-to-threshold models. However, it is unclear whether this activity has features indicative of a hidden movement command. We explicitly tested whether preparatory neural activity in premotor neurons of the primate superior colliculus has ‘motor potential’. We removed downstream inhibition on the saccadic system using the trigeminal blink reflex, triggering saccades at earlier-than-normal latencies. Accumulating low-frequency activity was predictive of eye movement dynamics tens of milliseconds in advance of the actual saccade, indicating the presence of a latent movement command. We also show that reaching a fixed threshold level is not a necessary condition for movement initiation. The results bring into question extant models of saccade generation and support the possibility of a concurrent representation for movement preparation and generation.
Genome-wide identification of theMADS-boxtranscription factor family in pear (Pyrus bretschneideri) reveals evolution and functional divergence
Authors: Wang Runze , Ming Meiling , Li Jiaming , Shi Dongqing , Qiao Xin , Li Leiting , Zhang Shaoling , Wu Jun
Published: September 2017

MADS-boxtranscription factors play significant roles in plant developmental processes such as floral organ conformation, flowering time, and fruit development. Pear (Pyrus), as the third-most crucial temperate fruit crop, has been fully sequenced. However, there is limited information about theMADSfamily and its functional divergence in pear. In this study, a total of 95MADS-boxgenes were identified in the pear genome, and classified into two types by phylogenetic analysis. Type IMADS-boxgenes were divided into three subfamilies and type II genes into 14 subfamilies. Synteny analysis suggested that whole-genome duplications have played key roles in the expansion of theMADSfamily, followed by rearrangement events. Purifying selection was the primary force drivingMADS-boxgene evolution in pear, and one gene pairs presented three codon sites under positive selection. Full-scale expression information forPbrMADSgenes in vegetative and reproductive organs was provided and proved by transcriptional and reverse transcription PCR analysis. Furthermore, thePbrMADS11(12)gene, together with partnersPbMYB10andPbbHLH3was confirmed to activate the promoters of the structural genes in anthocyanin pathway of red pear through dual luciferase assay. In addition, thePbrMADS11andPbrMADS12were deduced involving in the regulation of anthocyanin synthesis response to light and temperature changes. These results provide a solid foundation for future functional analysis ofPbrMADSgenes in different biological processes, especially of pigmentation in pear.
Biochemical and structural characterization of a novel arginine kinase from the spiderPolybetes pythagoricus
Authors: Laino Aldana , Lopez-Zavala Alonso A. , Garcia-Orozco Karina D. , Carrasco-Miranda Jesus S. , Santana Marianela , Stojanoff Vivian , Sotelo-Mundo Rogerio R. , Garcia Carlos Fernando
Published: September 2017

Energy buffering systems are key for homeostasis during variations in energy supply. Spiders are the most important predators for insects and therefore key in terrestrial ecosystems. From biomedical interest, spiders are important for their venoms and as a source of potent allergens, such as arginine kinase (AK, EC 2.7.3.3). AK is an enzyme crucial for energy metabolism, keeping the pool of phosphagens in invertebrates, and also an allergen for humans. In this work, we studied AK from the Argentininan spiderPolybetes pythagoricus(PpAK), from its complementary DNA to the crystal structure. ThePpAK cDNA from muscle was cloned, and it is comprised of 1068 nucleotides that encode a 384-amino acids protein, similar to other invertebrate AKs. The apparent Michaelis-Menten kinetic constant (Km) was 1.7 mM with akcatof 75 s−1. Two crystal structures are presented, the apoPvAK andPpAK bound to arginine, both in theopenconformation with the active site lid (residues 310–320) completely disordered. The guanidino group binding site in the apo structure appears to be organized to accept the arginine substrate. Finally, these results contribute to knowledge of mechanistic details of the function of arginine kinase.
Topography of the Overriding Plate During Progressive Subduction: A Dynamic Model to Explain Forearc Subsidence
Authors: Chen Zhihao , Schellart Wouter P. , Duarte João C. , Strak Vincent
Published: September 2017

Overriding plate topography provides constraints on subduction zone geodynamics. We investigate its evolution using fully dynamic laboratory models of subduction with techniques of stereoscopic photogrammetry and particle image velocimetry. Model results show that the topography is characterized by an area of forearc dynamic subsidence, with a magnitude scaling to 1.44–3.97 km in nature, and a local topographic high between the forearc subsided region and the trench. These topographic features rapidly develop during the slab free‐sinking phase and gradually decrease during the steady state slab rollback phase. We propose that they result from the variation of the vertical component of the trench suction force along the subduction zone interface, which gradually increases with depth and results from the gradual slab steepening during the initial transient slab sinking phase. The downward mantle flow in the nose of the mantle wedge plays a minor role in driving forearc subsidence.
Accuracy
Authors: Danielian Lucig H.
Published: September 2017

Journalists operate under an ethic that includes a respect for truth as demonstrated by the accuracy of the information delivered to the public (Sartori 1987). On the basis of that accuracy, it is assumed, public opinion is formed in a democracy. Accuracy is closely related to the journalistic norms of fairness and objectivity and to the credibility of producers of news (→ Fairness Doctrine; Objectivity in Reporting; Journalists, Credibility of). The “mirror” metaphor for the journalistic norm of the accurate reflection of facts may be popular among journalists, but every mirror reflects some distortion (Romano 1986; Ettema and Glasser 1998). In news production, deadlines and time constraints can distort accuracy (→ Reality and Media Reality).
Action‐Implicative Discourse Analysis
Authors: Agne Robert R.
Published: September 2017

Action‐implicative discourse analysis (AIDA) is an approach to analyzing talk or text in a social context. It is a relatively new method of → Discourse Analysis, developed by Karen Tracy in 1995. AIDA views communication as composed of different practices in which communicators are problem‐solvers. People reflect on what they did do (or would do) in interaction and respond to interactional problems and challenges they experience (or anticipate experiencing) with the aim of working toward what they think would create the best situation. AIDA is conducted in close relationship to grounded practical theory (Craig & Tracy 1995), a view of inquiry that contrasts with scientific perspectives that seek to describe, predict, and control “what is” in the world. AIDA, as well as practical theory more generally, is concerned with providing opportunities to discuss what “ought to be.”
Action‐Implicative Discourse Analysis
Authors: Agne Robert R.
Published: September 2017

Action‐implicative discourse analysis (AIDA) is an approach to analyzing talk or text in a social context. This method of → discourse analysis, developed by Karen Tracy in 1995, views communication as composed of different practices in which communicators are problem‐solvers. People reflect on what they did (or would do) in interaction, and they respond to interactional problems and challenges they experience (or anticipate experiencing) with the aim of working toward what they think would create the best situation. AIDA is conducted in close relationship to grounded practical theory (Craig & Tracy 1995), a view of inquiry that contrasts with scientific perspectives that seek to describe, predict, and control “what is” in the world. AIDA, like practical theory more generally, is concerned with providing opportunities to discuss what “ought to be.”
Activist Media
Authors: Huesca Robert
Published: September 2017

Activist media are radio, television, and other media practices that aim to effect social change and that generally engage in some sort of structural analysis concerned with power and the reconstitution of society into more egalitarian arrangements. Many activist media practices are also committed to principles of communication democracy, which place at their core notions of popular access, participation, and self‐management in the communication process. These dual characteristics – structural analysis and democratic communication practice – often create a tension that some activist media projects are unable to negotiate successfully (→ Development Communication; Media Democracy Movement).
Advertising, History of
Authors: McFall Liz
Published: September 2017

Advertising is a tenacious form. Originating in the commercial impulse to promote sales, versions of what might loosely be termed → “advertising” can no doubt be traced to wherever and whenever surplus product has needed to be disposed of. The proverb “good wine needs no bush,” for instance, is at least 2,000 years old. It refers to the vintner's practice, common until well into the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, of hanging shrubs or ivy around the door to indicate wine or beer available for sale within. The sense of the practice contained within the proverb is quite familiar – good products need no extra promotion.
Advertising Law and Regulation
Authors: An Soontae
Published: September 2017

The role of → advertising as a pervasive communication continues to expand around the world. In response, many societies face greater challenges in regulating advertising in a manner that shields the public from deceptive and unfair conduct. Many legal sources regulate advertising practices, and the legislative rationale for curbing this unique type of speech has been vigorously debated. Given that all the laws must be consistent with the principles of freedom of speech (→ Freedom of Communication; Freedom of the Press, Concept of), how to define commercial speech and the amount of constitutional protection it should be afforded are key issues among scholars and legal professionals.
Advocacy Journalism
Authors: Jensen Robert
Published: September 2017

The term
advocacy journalism
describes the use of journalism techniques to promote a specific political or social cause. The term is potentially meaningful only in opposition to a category of journalism that does not engage in advocacy, so‐called
objective
journalism (→ Objectivity in Reporting).
Aging and Message Production and Processing
Authors: Kemper Susan , Schmalzried Ralynn
Published: September 2017

Aging affects many aspects of → message production and processing. The nature of conversation changes: unlike young adults, dyads of older adults mix talk about the past with talk about the present which may help them achieve a shared sense of → meaning and personal worth. Conversations with older adults are often marked by “painful self‐disclosures” of bereavement, ill health, immobility, and assorted personal and family problems which may maintain “face” by contrasting personal strengths and competencies with past problems and limitations, and coping with personal losses and difficulties. Older adults tend to adopt a “not‐listening,” “disapproving,” or “over‐protecting” style when interacting with young adults. Older adults are perceived as more rigid and negative in their speech, which may provide a reason for avoiding conversations with older adults (Nussbaum & Coupland 2004; → Intergenerational Communication).
Amateur Photography and Movies
Authors: Chalfen Richard
Published: September 2017

While the invention of the camera and advancement of → Photography are best known in the contexts of the history of technology or the emergence of a new art form, cameras have been used for more than commercial concerns, scientific interests, or artistic work. From the earliest use of the camera and the emergence of consumer models of camera technology, nonprofessional photography has had an important parallel history. Ordinary people have taken their cameras home to produce the most frequent of all photographic imagery on a worldwide basis, namely the personal, nonprofessional production and use of personal pictures including snapshots, family albums, home movies, home video, and, more recently, family websites and even personal camera phone images. Amateurs have played a significant role in advancing the visual documentation of the everyday, of the private features of family life. Results have been highly valued in personal ways but far less so in commercial or scholarly contexts.
American Convention on Human Rights
Authors: Mendel Toby
Published: September 2017

The American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR) is the leading Organization of American States (OAS) human rights treaty. Adopted in 1969, it came into force in 1978. It guarantees, among other things, the right to freedom of expression (→ Freedom of Communication; Communication and Law). The ACHR was preceded by the OAS Charter, the founding document of the OAS, which includes only limited guarantees of human rights, and the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, both adopted in 1948. The latter provides a simple guarantee for the right to freedom of “expression and dissemination of ideas, by any medium” (Article IV).
Animation
Authors: Lent John A.
Published: September 2017

History has belied the field of animation with misplaced emphases and ethnocentric retellings. First, animation did not start with Walt Disney and Mickey Mouse; the first animated show was
Pantomimes lumineuses
, produced in Paris in 1892 by Emile Reynaud. Second, the pioneers were not solely the Americans James Stuart Blackton, Winsor McCay, John Randolph Bray, or the Fleischer brothers; others were animating in Argentina, where Quirino Cristiani made the world's first feature‐length film,
El Apóstol
(The Apostle), in 1917; and in the UK, Spain, Russia, Germany, France, Italy, and Scandinavia, and parts of Asia, such as India, Japan, and China. Early in the twentieth century, the German avant‐garde film community took to animation through the experiments of artists such as Hans Richter, Walther Ruttmann, Viking Eggeling, and Lotte Reiniger, and in France, Emile Cohl and Georges Méliès added much to the quality of early animation; Cohl with his graphics, Méliès with his ability to blur the line between live action and animated cinema.
Artifacts
Authors: Asa Berger Arthur
Published: September 2017

Artifacts are generally understood to be simple objects that show human workmanship. They are important to scholars for the role they play in reflecting a society's level of technological development and aesthetic taste, among other things. Archaeologists analyze artifacts and other aspects of everyday life from ancient civilizations and try to reconstruct these civilizations from the artifacts they have left behind. Sociologists and other social scientists, as well as culture critics, are also interested in artifacts – in the broadest sense of the term – using them and other aspects of material culture to gain important insights into values, beliefs, and ideological aspects of the society or culture being studied (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts). The study of artifacts can be approached from a number of disciplines. In recent years, scholars have expanded the definition of artifacts to include foods, fashion objects, and relatively simple machines.
Audience Commodity
Authors: Meehan Eileen R.
Published: September 2017

The audience commodity is the main product produced by media that earn their primary revenues from advertisers. Traditionally, advertiser‐supported media have included → Newspapers, → magazines, and commercial forms of → Radio, broadcast → Television, and → cable television. Advertiser‐supported media are often contrasted with media whose primary sources of incomes are audiences: → books, recorded music, and films. Depending on which source is the principal source of revenue, a media company will tailor its content to satisfy the demands of either advertisers or audiences (→ Commercialization of the Media; Commodification of the Media; Cost and Revenue Structures in the Media).
Audiences, Female
Authors: Ross Karen
Published: September 2017

Notions of “the audience” have changed significantly from the early days of audience research when they were regarded as both “mass” and passive, forever in thrall to the propagandist tendencies of governments and big business. The audience then was conceived of as an active “user” of media for their own “gratifications.” Now, however, the more contemporary view positions audiences as essentially atomized (the individual consumer/producer), both using and producing media (“produsage”) as active agents of their own media behavior (Nightingale 2013). But this idea of agency is sometimes rather less active and powerful than some supporters suggest. Although there are certainly many people who do indeed vote contestants offBig Brotheror write blogs (→ Blogger) or tweet (→ Twitter) – if we consider all these activities as examples of “engagement” – there are significantly more who watch TV or listen to the radio or read an online newspaper for mere entertainment or infotainment, exerting no more agency than changing channels with the remote control or clicking through a dozen websites. Another major shift in the way we think of and research audiences as both groups and individuals is a focus on differentiation and, in particular, the ways in which gender is implicated in consuming and producing media (→ Development, Gender, and Communication). While most research which takes sex‐based differences as a starting point for media analysis has tended to look atwomenas primary subjects, especially women's interest in and reception of genres that are (allegedly) produced especially for them (e.g., chick lit, the rom‐com, women's magazines), there has also been a timely development of studies looking at masculinity and sexuality (MacKinnon 2003; Moss, 2012; Ross 2012; → Masculinity and the Media). However, this entry focuses only on work which has looked at women.
Citizens' Media
Authors: Rodríguez Clemencia
Published: September 2017

Citizens' media is a term used by communication and media scholars to refer to electronic media (i.e., → Radio, → Television, → Video) and information and communication technologies (i.e., text messaging, cellular telephony, → Internet) that are controlled and used by citizens and collectives to meet their own information and communication needs. As an academic term, citizens' media belongs to a large family of concepts that, among others, include community media, alternative media, autonomous media, participatory media, and radical media (→ Activist Media; Communication Technology and Democracy; Community Media; Participatory Communication).
Communication Skill Acquisition
Authors: Greene John O.
Published: September 2017

A large and ever‐expanding literature emphasizes the importance of communication skills for occupational success and personal well‐being. Moreover, it is generally recognized that message production and processing skills are developed and refined over time. These two essential points lie at the heart of organizational training programs and university courses in public speaking, → journalism, → interpersonal communication, and numerous other communication skill domains. The study of skill‐acquisition processes, then, has direct implications for enhancing the design and implementation of such training and instructional programs (→ Communication Skills across the Life‐Span; Interpersonal Communication Competence and Social Skills).
India: Media System
Authors: Shrivastava K. M.
Published: September 2017

India, with a population of more than 1.25 billion, is a multiethnic, multilingual, multireligious, pluralistic society. Politically, it is a union of states (29 states and 7 union territories) and a sovereign, secular, democratic republic with a bicameral, multiparty, parliamentary system of government based on a universal adult franchise. It is governed by a written constitution, adopted by the Constituent Assembly on November 26, 1949, which came into force on January 26, 1950.
Issue Management in Politics
Authors: Kiousis Spiro
Published: September 2017

Issue management in politics refers to the process by which politicians, campaigns, parties, and other groups identify, prioritize, develop, and convey positions on key political issues. A fundamental early step in effective political issue management involves formative research where groups investigate the perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors of target audiences/stakeholders concerning policy preferences and problems. Some of the major research techniques used to gather such information include → surveys, focus groups, content analysis, and in‐depth → interviews (→ Content Analysis, Qualitative; Content Analysis, Quantitative; Interview, Standardized; Interview, Qualitative; Research Methods). These same approaches are also used to evaluate the success of communication efforts for issue management purposes.
Journalism: Legal Situation
Authors: Davidson Sandra
Published: September 2017

“Knowledge is power,” said English lawyer and philosopher Francis Bacon (1561–1626). But sometimes journalists have the knowledge while government has the power. This can lead to clashes that, unfortunately for journalists, can sometimes lead to imprisonment and even death (→ Violence against Journalists). While civil libel suits against journalists remain media's biggest financial danger, that danger pales in comparison to loss of freedom or life (→ Libel and Slander).
Journalists' Role Perception
Authors: Donsbach Wolfgang
Published: September 2017

An important concept to apply in describing how journalists in different cultures and media systems understand their work and its social function is
role perceptions
. These can have a strong influence on journalists' professional behavior and thus can explain differences between news cultures (Zelizer 2005). The term “role” originates from theater, and sociology adopted the term to designate the whole set of expectations that other people have of the holder of a certain social position. Those expectations then create the perceptions that the holders of the roles have in their social environment and accept as legitimate, and consequently their perceptions guide their attitudes and behaviors. Thus, journalists' role perceptions can be defined as generalized expectations which journalists believe exist in society and among different stakeholders, which they see as normatively acceptable, and which influence their behavior on the job.
Objectivity in Reporting
Authors: Hackett Robert a.
Published: September 2017

The concept of “objectivity” connotes a set of practices and ideas, such as a stance of → neutrality or → balance in relation to the people and events being reported. It is a central ethos in journalism, especially in the Anglo‐American liberal democracies (→ Ethics in Journalism). It is also acquiring global significance as journalists seek new roles and institutional supports within the “transition societies” of formerly communist and third world dictatorships. What objectivity means in practice, however, and whether it is a desirable and achievable goal for reporting in a democratic society are questions very much debated.
Open Access Journals
Authors: Rowlands Ian , Nicholas David
Published: September 2017

Open access (OA) refers to a publishing practice in which users are granted rights of free access to digital content. Anyone, regardless of their institutional or personal status, can read and download OA materials without charge. OA is an invention of the
digital era
and only feasible because of the Internet and the world wide web. These technologies make it possible to separate the fixed costs of producing an article from the marginal cost of its distribution, which is effectively zero. This separation is critical to understanding OA business models (→ Information and Communication Technology, Development of).
Organizational Structure
Authors: McPhee Robert D. , Canary Heather
Published: September 2017

Organizational structure is the set of formally stipulated rules and regulations that regulate and legitimate the organization's work processes, communication, and other activities. An organization's structure constrains interaction processes and biases the style and content of interaction; also, since organizational structure is the framework of any organization, it is the focus of → Discourse about organizational change.
P2P
Networking
Authors: Dini Paolo , Krause Paul
Published: September 2017

The emergence of peer‐to‐peer (P2P) networking shows that technological determinism can be turned on its head: rather than socio‐economic systems being determined by technological developments, sometimes technology can be determined by its users. Although in general the coupling goes both ways, P2P networking culminates the progression in computer architectures from mainframes through minicomputers, workstations, PCs, and client–server architectures, as information and communication technology (ICT) gradually adapted over a 50‐year span to the needs and behavior of its users (→ Communication Networks). In contrast to the master–slave or client–server architecture, in a P2P network each node has the same status and can issue requests to or respond to requests from any other node.
K
uroń,
J
acek (1934–2004)
Authors: Linch Amy
Published: September 2017

One of the most influential thinkers and activists in Eastern Europe, Jacek Kuroń was a leader of the democratic opposition to the People's Republic of Poland from the mid‐1950s until its demise in 1989. He co‐founded the Worker's Defense Committee, was both organizer and intellectual advisor to Lech Walesa and Solid‐arnosc (Solidarity), and played a pivotal role in the Round Table negotiations that paved the way for democratic governance in Poland. During the 1990s Kuroń was twice Poland's minister of labor and social policy. Through his official capacity and as a private citizen he worked to alleviate the economic impact of the transition to market capitalism on the poorest members of society.
L
a
C
eiba
U
prising of 1924
Authors: Burkert Olga
Published: September 2017

The La Ceiba Uprising of 1924 was the revolutionary overthrow of President Antonio López Gutiérrez by several Honduran generals and politicians. López Gutiérrez had been the leader of an armed movement against former President Francisco Bertrand and was elected president in 1919 for the Liberal Party (Partido Liberal de Honduras, PLH). As the 1923 elections ended with no clear winner, López Gutiérrez imposed a state of emergency and installed himself in power as a dictator.
Labor Revolutionary Currents,
U
nited
S
tates, 1775–1900
Authors: Le Blanc Paul
Published: September 2017

Revolutionary currents in the labor movement of the United States can be identified in several different ways. One involves strong influences on organized workers flowing from the American Revolution and the Second American Revolution (the Civil War). Another involves self‐consciously revolutionary currents – led by various socialist, communist, and anarchist elements – which at times played an essential role in the struggles to advance the interests of the working class in the United States. Yet another involves revolutionary challenges inherent in the nature of the labor movement, which sometimes finds reflection even in some of the more conservative elements of organized labor.
L
abuda,
B
arbara (b. 1946)
Authors: Materka Edyta V.
Published: September 2017

Barbara Labuda is one of the most outspoken second wave feminist voices in Polish politics. Known for her role in the overthrow of the communist Polish government in the 1980s, Labuda remained actively involved in partisan politics in the post‐1989 transition period, when most women were excluded. In an interview conducted by Shana Penn in 1991, Labuda remarked, “Women did not have real equality under communism. And yes, the opposition treated women like inferior beings.”
L
aos, Protest and Revolution, 19th and 20th Centuries
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

Traditionally, Laos had been dominated by neighboring Siam (modern‐day Thailand). From the late eighteenth century the Siamese conquered large parts of the kingdom of Wieng Chan (Laos), installing Chao Anou, a Lao prince who had been educated in Bangkok, as the “King of Wieng Chan,” and a vassal of the king of Siam. However the Vietnamese were also emerging as a powerful military state, and Emperor Gia Long managed to get Chao Anou to pay him tribute as well. In the 1820s Chao Anou led a revolt against the Siamese, expecting Vietnamese support. However, this did not materialize and the Siamese armies invaded, sacking Wieng Chan, and also the nearby kingdoms of Luang Prabang and Champasak (Champassac), which had maintained a degree of independence. The prisoners taken by the Siamese were sold off as slaves, and it became clear to most Laotians that domination by the Siamese was inevitable.
L
azare,
B
ernard (1865–1903)
Authors: Horrox James
Published: September 2017

Lazare Marcus Manassé Bernard, better known as Bernard Lazare, French‐Jewish literary critic and political journalist, was a prominent figure in the Dreyfus Affair and a philosopher of Jewish national renaissance. He became involved in the Symbolist movement in Paris in 1886, co‐editing avant‐garde magazine
Entretiens Politiques et Littéraires
(Political and Literary Discussions). Active in French anarchist circles, he contributed regularly to libertarian newspapers, notably Jean Grave's
La Révolte
, and openly defended anarchism in the mainstream press.
L
e
D
uan (1908–1986)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

Le Duan was a founding member of the Indo‐chinese Communist Party in 1930, and took over from Ho Chi Minh as the first secretary of the Vietnamese Communist Party in 1960. He became general secretary in 1976, a position he retained until his death 10 years later.
L
eague of
R
evolutionary
B
lack
W
orkers
Authors: Goldfield Michael , Hamlin Mike
Published: September 2017

The League of Revolutionary Black Workers (1967–71) organized and mobilized a movement of hundreds of in‐plant caucuses of African American workers, one of the most significant cutting‐edge militant worker actions of the 1960s and 1970s in the United States. The League (LRBW) was part of the worldwide struggle of radical, Marxist‐oriented autoworkers, including those in France (culminating in the 1968 French general strike), Italy (centered at Fiat), and in South Africa, among many other locations. The LRBW was also a revolutionary, black nationalist movement in the US, influencing the course of civil rights struggles, labor struggles, and politics in general. Like other such movements throughout US history, the LRBW has been either omitted or marginalized in most historical accounts, accounts which tend to eliminate the real impact of revolutionary groups and working‐class militancy on US society.
L
ebanese Insurrection of 1958
Authors: Patrick Alexander Kristian
Published: September 2017

The Lebanese crisis of 1958 is widely viewed as an ideological struggle causing polarization between Lebanese nationalism and growing pan‐Arabism. President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt became the symbol of pan‐Arabism after the 1956 Suez Crisis and the 1958 merger of Egypt with Syria to form the United Arab Republic. He had a great influence on Lebanese Muslims, while Christians were set on maintaining the country's autonomy and cooperation with the West. The conflict also demonstrated the fragility of the National Pact of 1943, an unwritten agreement between the two most prominent Christian and Muslim leaders, Khuri and Sulh. The National Pact was based on the basic principle that Lebanon was to be a completely independent state, specifying that the Christian community would cease to closely identify with the West and, in return, the Muslim community would give up its desire to merge with any Arab state. The 1958 conflict between Christians and Muslims in Lebanon reinforced the notion that sectarian affiliation was politically significant, thereby hindering the development of an overarching national identity.
L
emba,
S
ebastian (d. 1547)
Authors: Miiller Frank I.
Published: September 2017

Sebastian Lemba was a Maroon leader in the first Spanish colony of Hispaniola, the island that from the nineteenth century on would be divided between the independent states of Haiti and Santo Domingo. With a force of approximately 150 fighters, Lemba raided nearby villages and plantations. Troubling the exploitative slavery system, the rebels faced permanent expeditions of colonial forces which in September 1547 finally captured and killed the leader. Yet the Spanish crown never managed to raze the whole community of insurgent Maroons.
Lesbian, Gay, Transsexual, Bisexual Movements
Authors: Adam Barry D.
Published: September 2017

Sexual themes intersect with social movement organizations on various fronts. Women's movements, for example, have had profound influence on the development of sexuality, especially through activism around reproductive rights, gender relations, contraception, and abortion. Conservative and fundamentalist movements seek to confine sexuality to traditional social arrangements, or to restrict it to idealized visions of life as it never really was. But perhaps the central nexus between social movements and sexuality occurs among people who have organized around the implications of sexual difference. Here the focus is primarily on gay and lesbian movements, and the many subsequent related identities (bisexual, transgendered, queer, and so on) that have emerged with them.
Lesotho, Popular Protest and Resistance
Authors: Nyeko Balam
Published: September 2017

From the moment of European intervention during the late nineteenth century through the colonial period up to contemporary times, Lesotho (formerly Basutoland), a tiny southern African kingdom completely surrounded by the modern state of South Africa, has experienced popular resistance of one kind or another. While the earlier phase of this resistance tended to be spearheaded by Basotho chiefs wishing to protest the erosion of power by colonial rule, the later period was marked by growing popular, frequently spontaneous, action by the general population.
Lovett, William (1800–1877)
Authors: Pickering Paul A.
Published: September 2017

William Lovett was born in Penzance, Cornwall. His father, a sailor, drowned before William was born, and his Methodist mother ensured a strict religious upbringing and a rudimentary education for her son. At age 21 Lovett removed to London to find work as a cabinet maker and soon began attending evening classes at the Mechanics Institute. This experience sparked a lifelong commitment to the promotion of education as a tool for social advancement. Here he also met supporters of radical reform in matters of church and state and became a strident advocate of civil and religious liberty. He was also introduced to the cooperative ideas of Robert Owen and became an active member of the London Co‐operative Trading Association. Subsequently, Lovett worked in the Association's store and in 1828 became secretary of the British Association for the Promotion of Co‐operative Knowledge.
Lowell Female Labor Reform Association
Authors: Mattina Anne F.
Published: September 2017

The Lowell Female Labor Reform Association (LFLRA, 1845–7) is counted among the earliest organized efforts by American women to enact social change. In response to oppressive working conditions worsened by the Panic of 1837, many operatives in the country's premier industrial city sought redress through organization and petition, primarily aimed at enacting a state law mandating a ten‐hour workday. In December 1844, five operatives met to discuss the situation at Anti‐Slavery Hall and the LFLRA emerged. Sarah Bagley, a native of New Hampshire and a veteran operative, served as president. By January 1846, the group claimed 600 members.
Lu Xun (1881–1936)
Authors: Thompson Michael J.
Published: September 2017

The Chinese writer Lu Xun (born Zhou Shuren: Lu Xun was his pen name) is a central figure not only in the history of modern Chinese literature, but also in the political and cultural identity of the revolutionary period in China during the first half of the twentieth century. His literary work is characterized by an insistence on the need for cultural transformation in China, one which provides a rational humanist confrontation with the traditions and customs of what he viewed as China's backward society. He set himself to transform the cultural and spiritual values of Chinese society through the power of literature and saw that literature had the ability to play a revolutionary role in China through its capacity for questioning commonplace traditions and customs.