bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Global trend analysis of the MODIS drought severity index
Authors: Orvos P. I. , Homonnai V. , Várai A. , Bozóki Z. , Jánosi I. M.
Published: January 2015

Abstract. Recently, Mu et al. (2013) have compiled an open access data base of a remotely sensed global drought severity index (DSI) based on MODIS satellite measurements covering a continuous period of 12 years. The highest spatial resolution is 0.05° × 0.05° in the geographic band between 60° S and 80° N latitudes (more than 4.9 million locations over land). Here we present a global trend analysis of these satellite based DSI time series in order to identify geographic areas where either positive or negative trends are statistically significant. Since a DSI value conveys local characterisation at a given site, we argue that usual field significance tests cannot provide more information about the observations than the presented analysis. We are fully aware of the fact that 12 years are too short for establishing any link to global climate change, however a series of severe droughts or inland inundation on a scale of a decade might have devastating consequences for affected human communities.
Climate and hydrological variability: the catchment filtering role
Authors: Andrés-Doménech I. , García-Bartual R. , Montanari A. , Marco J. B.
Published: January 2015

Abstract. Measuring the impact of climate change on flood frequency is a complex and controversial task. Identifying hydrological changes is difficult given the factors, other than climate variability, which lead to significant variations in runoff series. The catchment filtering role is often overlooked and thus may hinder the correct identification of climate variability signatures on hydrological processes. Does climate variability necessarily imply hydrological variability? This research aims to analytically derive the flood frequency distribution based on realistic hypotheses about the rainfall process and the rainfall–runoff transformation. The annual maximum peak flow probability distribution is analytically derived to quantify the filtering effect of the rainfall–runoff process on climate change. A sensitivity analysis is performed according to typical semi-arid Mediterranean climatic and hydrological conditions, assuming a simple but common scheme for the rainfall–runoff transformation in small-size ungauged catchments, i.e. the CN-SCS model. Variability in annual maximum peak flows and its statistical significance are analysed when changes in the climatic input are introduced. Results show that depending on changes in the annual number of rainfall events, the catchment filtering role is particularly significant, especially when the event rainfall volume distribution is not strongly skewed. Results largely depend on the return period: for large return periods, peak flow variability is significantly affected by the climatic input, while for lower return periods, infiltration processes smooth out the impact of climate change.
Non-local deformation effects in shear flows
Authors: Popova A. V. , Sheremetyeva O. V. , Bobrova M. E. , Perezhogin A. S.
Published: January 2015

Abstract. The method for detection of clusters on the basis of event space–time dependence is classically applied for foreshock–mainshock–aftershock sequences for which event connectedness is generally accepted. In the paper, this approach is used to investigate the whole event catalogue of foreshock and aftershock sequences filtered from the events with small magnitudes, in which connected events are also determined. The space scale is extended due to the inclusion of the parameter of seismic event connectedness in the direction of dislocation shift that allows us to consider the obtained connected events as clusters in a shear flow. A statistical model of the shear flow was constructed by catalogue decomposition into timescales and space scales defined analytically. A modelling algorithm of the shear flow was developed and its stability to initial condition change was investigated. Shear flow structure and arising non-local deformation characteristics which may be the criteria for dynamic process activity in the considered subduction zone of the Kuril–Kamchatka island arc were analysed.
Chemical Weapons and the International Criminal Court
Authors: Zimmermann Andreas , Şener Meltem
Published: January 2015

When the contracting parties to the Rome Statute establishing the International Criminal Court met in Kampala in 2010 to discuss possible amendments to the statute, the main focus was, and has thereafter remained, on the crime of aggression. In addition to amending the statute to include the crime of aggression, however, the contracting parties amended Article 8 of the statute to include a broader range of war crimes in noninternational armed conflicts over which the ICC can have jurisdiction—inter alia, by including the use of chemical weapons. Although the latter amendment received much less attention from both the Kampala drafters and outside observers than the former, it is the use of chemical weapons that has come most quickly into play in world events. In particular, the use of chemical weapons by Syrian government forces in 2013 (and perhaps subsequently) has acutely raised questions concerning the extent of the ICC’s treaty-based jurisdiction, both under the unamended text of the Rome Statute or in situations where the amendment to Article 8 applies. These events have also provoked consideration concerning the Security Council’s legal powers to extend the ICC’s jurisdiction to certain crimes involving chemical weapons that would otherwise be beyond its subject matter jurisdiction. These questions are considered in this Note.
Investigación acción en cadenas de valor y mercados para el Fortalecimiento de la pequeña empresa en Nicaragua
Authors: Ramón López Mario
Published: January 2015

El presenta ensayo aborda la pregunta de cómo la metodología de investigación acción se está relacionada con el enfoque de cadena de valor y los mercados en el contexto de la Economía Agropecuaria de Nicaragua y al mismo tiempo observar cómo están posicionados las pequeña empresas en el contexto de rural del país. Se ha realizado una revisión bibliográfica, y se ha retomado el enfoque vivencial - participativo de cursos de enseñanza sobre comercialización agrícola en el departamento de economía agrícola. Se concluye que hay una variedad conceptual en el ámbito rural con respecto a las nociones de cadenas y que al respecto se puede afirmar que las instituciones de los diferentes actores gubernamentales y académicas y agencias de cooperación internacional están tratando de crear e implementar plataformas de interacción donde la investigación y la acción colectiva en las cadenas de valor tienen espacio y pueden articular la ciencia, el desarrollo rural y la educación en Nicaragua y lo que es más importante es identificar los actores que pueden jugar el papel de gestores de la innovación DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5377/reice.v2i4.1726 REICE Vol. 2, No. 4, julio-diciembre 2014: 57-69
Sustainable Integrated Approach for Management of Fusarium Wilt of Tomato Caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (Sacc.) Synder and Hansen
Authors: Singh Ravindra , Biswas S. K. , Nagar Devesh , Singh Jaskaran , Singh Morajdhwaj , Mishra Yogesh Kumar
Published: January 2015

Integration of different methods for sustainable management of Fusarium wilt of tomato revealed that all the treatments were able to significantly reduce the disease severity over control. Among the treatments, the minimum disease severity was recorded in the T3 treatment where treatment was given as seed treatment with T. harzianum + soil application of neem cake powder + foliar spray of carbendazim, representing the value 4.82, 8.23, 12.37 and 16.37 per cent against 10.75, 14.84, 20.00 and 25.75 per cent in case of control at 30, 45, 60 and 75 days age of plant, respectively. Integrated approach has also been able to increase shoot length as 27.00, 42.15, 54.98, and 65.07 cm at 30, 45, 60 and 75 days age of plant, respectively whereas in case of control it was 18.60, 25.70, 34.63 and 44.29. Similarly, fresh and dry shoot and root weight have also been found increased in case of integrated approaches. Biochemical analysis of the treated plants revealed that highest soluble protein and total phenol content is observed in T3 treatment (Seed treatment with T. harzianum + soil treatment with neem cake powder and foliar spray with carbendazim), showing 37.85, 36.78 and 35.76 mg/gm of fresh leave of protein and 2.40, 2.14 and 2.04 mg/gm of fresh leave of phenol at 30, 45 and 60 days age of plant. As per yield is concerned, it has found that the maximum yield was obtained per plant from the treatment given as seed treatment with T. harzianum + soil treatment with neem cake powder + foliar spray with carbendazim, showing the value of 500 g per plant which was followed by the treatment given as seed treatment with T. harzianum + soil treatment with neem cake powder + foliar spray with neem leaf extract showing 470 g per plant.
A Costly Endeavor: Addressing Algae Problems in a Water Supply
Authors: Dunlap Catherine R. , Sklenar Karen Seligman , Blake Laura J.
Published: January 2015

Algal blooms in drinking water supplies can result in unpalatable flavors in tap water, human health concerns, and increased treatment costs. This study estimated the costs associated with treating algae and algal by‐products in the Waco, Tex., drinking water supply during 2002–2012. During that period, the city incurred an estimated cost of $70.4 million in addressing tap water taste and odor problems and potentially lost between $6.9 million and $10.3 million in revenue, partly as a result of decreased water sales to neighboring communities. Waco's average cost for providing tap water to its residents exceeds the national average for similar‐size water treatment systems, and a higher proportion of its drinking water production costs are attributed to advanced treatment compared with the national average. This analysis is intended to help water utility managers understand the costs associated with dealing with elevated nutrient loading and algal blooms in drinking water supplies.
The Accountancy Profession
Authors: Anderson‐Gough Fiona
Published: January 2015

This article explores the contextual factors that we need to explore if we are to understand the nature of the accountancy profession at any particular time, in any particular place. It draws on historical sources and sociological framings and is set within an understanding of the profession as a powerful institution. The author provides general information on the nature of professionalism and supplements this with more detailed information about the UK situation. Professionalization is presented as a constantly active process which requires that the constituent members of the profession manage their legitimacy in terms of commerciality, public interest, competence, ethics, and their relation to the State. Although the large international firms embody the contemporary corporate ideals and structures of other corporate entities it is noted that certain aspects of professionalism relating to education and relationships with academia remain influenced by the historical origins of the profession.
Taxation as Social and Institutional Practice
Authors: Gracia Louise , Oats Lynne
Published: January 2015

This article introduces readers to an emergent, critical, and interpretive tax literature. This strand of scholarship contributes important knowledge about the practice of taxation as a situated, social, and institutional practice that is lacking from much of the mainstream tax literature. Studies that explore aspects of taxation as a social practice, mediated by the individuals and institutions it pervades, are central to developing fuller understandings of the multidisciplinary nature and influence of the field of taxation.
Reporting Assumptions
Authors: Abdel‐khalik A. Rashad
Published: January 2015

The domain of accounting consists of several areas that differ primarily in function and purpose.
Budgetary Participation
Authors: Brownell Peter
Published: January 2015

Budgetary participation (BP) is the process by which managers whose performance evaluation is at least in part budget‐based are
involved
and are
influential
in the setting of those budgets.
Advanced Manufacturing Technologies
Authors: Balachandran Kashi R. , Callen Jeffrey L.
Published: January 2015

Milgrom and Roberts argue that modern manufacturing practices are mutually complementary and their adoption is a profit‐maximizing response on the part of firms.
Analytical Procedures in Auditing
Authors: Benis Martin
Published: January 2015

Analytical procedures consist of evaluations of financial information made by an auditor of plausible and expected relationships among both financial and nonfinancial data.
Auditor's Report
Authors: Abdolmohammadi Mohammad J.
Published: January 2015

Upon completion of the audit process, the auditor issues a report rendering an opinion regarding the financial statements taken as a whole.
Conservatism and Accounting Earnings
Authors: Giner Begoña , Penalva Fernando
Published: January 2015

The article refers to accounting conservatism and its relation with accounting earnings. After providing the conceptual background of the prudence concept, which is the basis of accounting conservatism, the paper introduces some more empirically testable concepts, known as conditional and unconditional conservatism. It also explains the economics behind this accounting practice, mainly associated to contracting due to the asymmetric information between managers and external stakeholders, but also linked to litigation risks, taxation, political and regulatory processes. After providing a brief explanation of the empirical measures of conservatism, it gives a summary of the vast empirical research that has evidenced the widespread use of conservatism in financial reporting and, in particular, the so‐called conditional conservatism, which suggests that bad news is included in accounting earnings in a more timely fashion than good news.
The Use Of Earnings And Dividend Information In Valuation: Survey Evidence
Authors: Barker Richard , Imam Shahed
Published: January 2015

Earnings and dividends can both provide useful information in equity valuation.
Employee Compensation
Authors: Forker John
Published: January 2015

Expense recognition for share‐based compensatioin is controversial as the FASB anf IASB mandates expense regognition for equity settled compensation in the absence of a cash transaction. Currently the weight of professional opinion and academic research favours liability classification irrespective of the method of settlement. Adoption of this basic ownership model of the reporting entiy will be challenging for the accounting profession.
Financial Accounting Theory and Research
Authors: Ronen Joshua
Published: January 2015

Financial accounting emerged in response to managers' need to communicate to owners whether the latter's capital has been preserved intact and whether investments have yielded income, and, if so, how much.
Foreign Currency Accounting
Authors: Ayres Frances L.
Published: January 2015

Foreign currency transaction and translation reporting issues are discussed here. US and International standards are similar regarding foreign currency accounting. Transaction gains and losses occur when purchases or sales of goods are made in one currency and the payments or receipts of payments are in another. Transaction gains and losses other than those resulting from hedged purchase commitments and long term investments in foreign countries are usually included in current earnings. Translation gains and losses result from a need to prepare consolidated financial statements in the functional or primary currency of the consolidated entity. Companies with international operations may have subsidiaries that prepare reports in the currency where the operations are located. Yet the consolidated financial statements must report in one currency. Translation gains and losses are not reported in current earnings, but are reported in stockholders' equity as part of other comprehensive income.
Information Cues and Accounting Judgment
Authors: Simnett Roger
Published: January 2015

In a world of numerous sources of potentially relevant and reliable information, it is important for the accountant or the auditor to use their judgment as to what information to collect and report and for the auditor to identify the evidence that allows them to most efficiently and effectively attest the veracity of the reported information. This article first identifies general guidelines for identifying the reliability of information cues as a form of audit evidence. It then examines the potential biases that may arise when selecting information cues, followed by a review of the various strategies of the decision maker may use when selecting a set of information cues from a population in order to make a choice between competing alternatives. Factors affecting information cue selection are then categorized under decision‐maker cue, task and environmental characteristics. The article concludes with an examination of the research evidence involving information cues impacting accounting and auditing judgments.
Manipulation of Accounts
Authors: Breton Gaétan , Stolowy Hervé
Published: January 2015

Many “accounting” scandals have cast some doubts about the truthfulness of the financial statements. After reviewing broadly some theoretical aspects of the question, noticeably the transfer of wealth potentially resulting from an incorrect assessment of the market value of the firm, we look at the principal currents of research in this domain. Firstly we consider researches onEarnings managementinterested mainly by the level of actual accruals to be compared with a level of “normal” accruals obtained from a predictive model. Another approach consists in estimating thresholds in the distribution of revenues below which the managers will not want to go back. We also look at income smoothing, identified by a variation in the profit inferior to the variation of the sales, or, more simply, to predict a trend expected by the market and see if the profit figure will fall within this limit. Big bath accounting is simply the cleaning of the balance sheet after a change of CEO, for instance. Finally, we look at other approaches to accounts manipulation like those calledwindow dressingorcreative accounting, nearer from the professional way of thinking.
Market for Audit Services
Authors: Meuwissen Roger H. G.
Published: January 2015

There are several ways in which auditing research can be classified.
Narrative Accounting Disclosures
Authors: Aerts Walter
Published: January 2015

Narrative accounting disclosures are an integral part of the corporate financial reporting package. They are deemed to provide a view of the company “through the eyes of management”. The narratives represent management's construal of corporate events and are largely discretionary. Research in accounting narratives examines informational and presentational aspects of narrative financial reporting. Narrative accounting disclosures are studied from an informational perspective through usefulness surveys, predictive ability research, and thematic and readability studies. Presentational studies are related to impression management and primarily focus on selectivity and bias in the content patterns of the narrative disclosures. In addition, contextual factors affecting the content of the narrative disclosures have been investigated. Cross‐sectional and temporal variation in narrative accounting disclosures may originate from internal sources (e.g., performance changes, the establishment of routines, and corporate governance structures) and external forces (e.g., analyst following, regulatory monitoring, and litigation risk).
Pension Accounting
Authors: Klumpes Paul , Li Yong
Published: January 2015

This article summarizes recent developments in the research related to pension accounting and reporting, and critically evaluates the underlying behavioral assumptions concerning recognition, risk disclosure, and measurement properties of the sponsoring firms' reported pension exposures.
Performance Measurement in the Public Sector
Authors: Modell Sven
Published: January 2015

This article reviews different strands of research on performance measurement in the public sector and some recent, emerging research trends in the area. Particular attention is paid to research adopting a social constructivist approach, especially studies informed by institutional theory. Some major contributions of this research and implications for future research in the area are outlined.
Profit Center Performance, Measurement Of
Authors: Haka Susan
Published: January 2015

Companies create business units and delegate decision‐making authority to business unit managers.
Researching Accounting in the Public Services
Authors: Broadbent Jane , Laughlin Richard
Published: January 2015

This article summarises the extensive management changes, broadly and generically referred to as the New Public Management (NPM), or, the New Public Financial Management (NPFM) reforms as they are more accurately described, that have been occurring in the public services in the United Kingdom and other developed countries across the world. It demonstrates not only the diversity and increasing intensity of these NPFM changes but also the centrality of accounting, in its many different forms, to not only enable these changes but also to define and shape their nature. The article also demonstrates the power and significance of a range of qualitative and interpretive accounting research, which goes beyond seeing accounting as little more than a technology, to provide contextually‐rich understandings of the central role of accounting in defining and enabling these NPFM changes.
Accounting‐Based Estimates of the Expected Rate of Return on Equity Capital
Authors: Easton Peter
Published: January 2015

The reintroduction of the residual income valuation model by Ohlson and the development of the abnormal growth in earnings model by Ohlson and Juettner‐Nauroth (hereafter, OJ, 2001) have been theimpetusfor a burgeoning empirical literature that reverse‐engineers these models to infer markets' expectations of the rate of return on equity capital.
Accounting for Human Capital
Authors: Livne Gilad
Published: January 2015

This article discusses the conceptual problems involved in the recognition of human capital as intangible asset in financial statements of corporations. It then reviews some empirical literature that attempts to quantify human capital and assess its value. The article concludes with an overview of accounting regulation that is applicable to human capital, such as accounting for training and quality of labour force.
Financial Ratios and Equity Valuation
Authors: Penman Stephen H.
Published: January 2015

This article presents a systematic scheme of financial statement analysis that comprehensively analyzes all aspects of the financial statements that inform about a valuation. The analysis flows from the residual earnings valuation model but applies as well to other valuation methods such as discounted cash flow valuation and earnings capitalization. The financial statement analysis hierarchy breaks residual earnings down into its financial statement drivers which, in turn, attach to the activities of the firm that generate its value. A key aspect is the separation of operating activities from financing activities, with operating activities then subject to a detailed analysis that maps into value.
Market‐Based Accounting Research (MBAR)
Authors: Walker Martin
Published: January 2015

This article provides an overview of market based accounting research, building on the important survey paper of Lev (1989).
Principal–Agent Analyses And Management Accounting
Authors: Stark Andrew W.
Published: January 2015

The work on optimal contracting and use of information within a principal–agent framework and management accounting and control settings is voluminous.
Social Accounting, Historical Perspective
Authors: Gallhofer Sonja , Haslam Jim
Published: January 2015

Within the discourse and practice of social responsibility and accounting, one can find alternative definitions or delineations of social accounting.
Asset and Liability Measurement in Financial Statements
Authors: McGeachin Anne
Published: January 2015

A major issue in financial reporting is the question of how to measure assets and liabilities. Under
International Financial Reporting Standards
(
IFRSs
) issued by the
International Accounting Standards Board
(
IASB
) assets and liabilities are measured in many different ways, most of which require a significant level of judgment and estimation on the part of management. The IASB has set an objective for financial reporting of being providing information, that is, decision useful to investors. There is evidence that the measurements of assets and liabilities that are used under IFRSs are found to be relevant but it is unclear what measurements users would find most decision useful.
Experimental Research in Accounting
Authors: Arikan Ozlem
Published: January 2015

Experimental accounting research is a broad field which examines the accounting communication between managers, auditors, information intermediaries, investors and tax payers. By using theories from psychology and economics and by the use of experiments, it disentangles variables that are confounded in natural settings and measures the processes in judgment and decision making of actors who are involved in using or preparing accounting information.
Faith and Work
Authors: Buckeye Jeanne
Published: January 2015

This article briefly describes the Judeo Christian roots of the “faith and work” movement and traces its more modern development through the industrial revolution and early twentieth century political/economic dynamics. Protestant and Catholic religious influences from the late nineteenth century through the present, as well as soul‐searching occasioned by 9/11, have helped articulate questions about the meaning of work, the “Sunday–Monday” gap, business as a vocation. Religiously diverse working environments simultaneously encourage reflection on the relationship between faith and work and a concern for respectful caution in discussing the topic in a managerial context.
Collective Responsibility
Authors: Corlett J.A.
Published: January 2015

This article discusses the extent to which collectives are/could be held morally liable of untoward actions. Two opposing views of collective responsibility are examined regarding whether collectives should be fundamentally reduced to individuals or should have a collective responsibility of the whole.
Disclosure
Authors: Sack Robert J.
Published: January 2015

Disclosure is a tool we use to reduce information asymmetry between individuals, corporations, or societal groups. Disclosure can be a useful tool for creating fairness in our relationships, but it has its limitations.
Exploitation
Authors: Taylor Jesse
Published: January 2015

On the practical and existential status of exploitation.
Feminist Ethics
Authors: Koehn Daryl
Published: January 2015

This article describes the nature and goal of feminist ethics.
Globalization
Authors: Enderle Georges
Published: January 2015

As globalization has become a widespread and hotly debated topic, the article first identifies multiple approaches to globalization and distinguishes the descriptive‐analytical and the normative‐ethical perspectives. Second, key features of economic globalization are discussed. Third, the importance of global institutions and rules is highlighted. Fourth, the responsibilities of the actors in the global arena are emphasized against the backdrop of emerging global initiatives for regulations. Fifth, a growing literature is presented, which explores the need for universal ethical standards and a common ethical ground.
Israel, Business Ethics in
Authors: Schwartz Mark S.
Published: January 2015

While there is room for improvement, the tiny nation of Israel has a come a long way in terms of formal business ethics activity. The entry will briefly outline the Israeli cultural context for business, the role of government and other institutions, corporate ethics programs, academic research, and business ethics teaching.
Labor Unions
Authors: Castro Barry
Published: January 2015

Labor unions arise in response to perceived imbalance of power between employees and employers, but their existence is never merely a matter of preferences within one organization or industry. Society, whether local or national, are inevitably affected by the activity of union leaders and business leaders in labor‐management disputes, negotiations and agreements. The advantages and disadvantages of unionization can be assessed from several vantage points: individual employees; individual businesses; laborers in general (skilled or unskilled); society at large; psychological and social impacts; economic outcomes; the distribution of power, money and political influence; etc. Purposes and outcomes of union activity depend heavily on the motivation and skills of leaders, and upon the ethical principles of all parties involved, but especially the principles of union leaders and corporate leadership.
Leadership
Authors: Rothausen Teresa J. , Christenson Sara M.
Published: January 2015

This article provides an overview of the research on leadership from the disciplines of management and industrial and organization psychology, and highlights several important debates about the field, including what “good leader” means, management versus leadership, whether leaders are born or made, and whether there is any “meta theory” that explains leadership. The primary activities that result in leader development are also reviewed. The organizational research overview is organized into sections that overview theories and research on the leader, on followers and the process of leadership, on contextual and situational factors, and on ethically oriented approaches. The effects of power, influence tactics, and gender on leadership are reviewed. Important approaches to leadership are overviewed, including trait theory, consideration of task and relationship, the importance of followers and followership, emotional intelligence, contingency approaches, leader‐member exchange, cross‐cultural leadership, ethical leadership, servant leadership, spiritual leadership, authentic leadership, positive leadership, and values‐based leadership. It is suggested that ethically oriented approaches be used as foundational in leader development, with other approaches to leadership being adopted or applied as appropriate to the leader, followers, and situation in which leadership occurs.
Legal Issues for Business and Business Ethics
Authors: Dunfee John W. , Fort Timothy L.
Published: January 2015

One can argue that most legal issues that affect business have some ethical component. One can break the legal issues affecting business and business ethics into three categories: constituional, regulatory, and private. The Constitution is a restiction of the power of government not business, but through Congress laws can be passed that affect business. Regulatory principles represent a major attempt for societal regulation of business. Private law in the common law system has deep roots in judical development of doctrines that protect people from actions of busines and has been amplified in many legislative reforms. These bodies of law, rules have been established to punish wrongdoing.
Media, Ethics of
Authors: Elliott Deni
Published: January 2015

Ethics of media may seem to be an oxymoron, particularly to anyone who has felt misused by media. But “media” refers to a diffuse collection of corporations. These include for‐profit and not‐for‐profit companies and companies that take as their primary description one of three basic thrusts: news/information, persuasion in the form of public relations or advertising, and entertainment. Each kind of company has its own social function and the resulting moral responsibilities. “Media” also include two major divisions in medium – print and electronic – that impact on their capabilities and methodologies, though not necessarily on their responsibilities. Broadcasting live events, for example, raises questions of appropriateness of material for the audience as well as questions of privacy for the individuals involved. These two areas encompass ethical issues for news coverage by print media as well, but they rarely require the split‐second decision making required in “live” broadcast coverage. Sometimes, charges of unethical behavior are based on a misunderstanding of the specific media role rather than on actual malfeasance; other times, lowered expectations of a particular medium derail the analysis needed. As different kinds of media have different social functions, understanding those functions is vital to making judgments concerning the ethics of practitioners' actions. In any profession, acting in a morally acceptable way means meeting one's moral obligations and not causing unnecessary harm in the process–for example, by recognizing the special problem of enforcement in media ethics and realizing that blurred distinctions create hybrid moral problems.
Moral Imagination
Authors: Werhane Patricia H.
Published: January 2015

The idea of moral imagination derives historically from the work ofAdamSmith andImmanuelKant. In business ethics, moral imagination is defined as the ability in particular circumstances to discover and evaluate possibilities not merely determined by that circumstance, or limited by its operative mental models, or merely framed by a set of rules or rule‐governed concerns. In management decision making, moral imagination entails perceiving norms, social roles, and relationships entwined in any situation. Developing moral imagination involves heightened awareness of contextual moral dilemmas and their mental models, the ability to envision and evaluate new mental models that create new possibilities, and the capability to reframe the dilemma and create new solutions in ways that are novel, economically viable, and morally justifiable.
Reflective Equilibrium
Authors: Nielsen Kai
Published: January 2015

Reflective equilibrium is a widely used method for explaining and justifying judgments in a variety of disciplines. The method attempts to forge a number of judgments into a coherent whole. This whole should harmonize with other reasonably held and generally accepted beliefs and judgments in the relevant societies in question.
South Africa, Business Ethics in
Authors: Rossouw Gedeon J.
Published: January 2015

The article provides an overview of the development of Business Ethics in post‐apartheid South Africa. It demonstrates how the unique landscape of South Africa's transition from a society marred by historical racial injustices impacted on the development of Business Ethics. The role that the three King reports on corporate governance as well as various legal reforms have played in shaping Business Ethics as field of study and as business practice are discussed. An overview of recent developments in academic teaching and research is also provided. Finally institutes and centres with a partial or exclusive focus on Business Ethics are identified.
Practical Ethics
Authors: Callahan Joan C.
Published: January 2015

This article distinguishes among theoretical, applied, and practical ethics, with practical ethics being of direct service to deciding questions of moral importance in the lived world. It articulates the goals of doing practical ethics and suggests a very specific process for approaching problems in practical ethics.
character
Authors: Hartman Edwin M.
Published: January 2015

The concept of character is foundational for virtue ethics. For it is agents' character that enables them to assess situations correctly and to choose appropriate courses of action. Organizations can (within limits) help to shape and support the development of agents' character.
Consent
Authors: Simmons A. J.
Published: January 2015

Consent is a concept of central importance in moral, political, legal, and economic contexts.
Defense Industry, Ethical Issues In The
Authors: Kurland Nancy B.
Published: January 2015

In light of numerous scandals in the defense industry, the federal government responded in several ways: passing the amended False Claims Act of 1986 (which was further amended in the Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act of 2009), proposing mandatory ethics programs, and creating a blue ribbon commission to investigate the scandals.
Due Process
Authors: Werhane Patricia H. , Radin Tara J.
Published: January 2015

A means by which one can appeal a decision in order to get an explanation of that action and/or a disinterested, objective, or fair judgment of its rightness or wrongness.
E‐business
Authors: Dunfee John W. , Fort Timothy L.
Published: January 2015

During the e‐commerce fervor of the late 1990s, it often seemed that the Internet might be ushering in an entirely new set of ethical issues for business. With the passage of time, it is more accurate to say that there were many old issues that were dressed in a new form and that there were some technologically driven issues that, if not entirely new, were strangely enough presented to have the effect of raising new ethical issues for business.
Property, Public and Private
Authors: Mack Eric
Published: January 2015

Property, public and private refers both to (i) a normative relationship between agents and things, and (ii) the things that stand in that normative relationship to agents. In the paradigm case of property, an individual is related to some physical object by having an exclusive right to use that object as he chooses (i.e., it is the property of that agent to do with as he sees fit). In the paradigm case, the property holder's right of disposition is only subject to the constraint that he not dispose of his property in ways that violate others' rights. Many instances of property diverge in one or more respects from this basic paradigm. An agent's property need not be a physical object, but can instead be a more abstract. Distinct agents may have property in different aspects of the same thing; for example, one may have the usual land ownership rights, while another may hold the subsurface mineral rights. Distinct agents may jointly own particular things (e.g., “community” property). Is private property morally justified? The case discussed by Harold Demsetz and like narratives suggest a consequentialist vindication. But many have opposed private property regimes because they undercut communal or public life.
Property Rights and Ownership
Authors: Kipnis Kenneth
Published: January 2015

Property rights are a complex, socially‐constituted bundle of obligations and permissions. It is a common mistake to think of property as one thing and the rights that attach to it as another. Ownership is best understood as package of claim‐rights, liberties, powers, and immunities.
Virtue Ethics
Authors: Koehn Daryl
Published: January 2015

A virtue ethic, like any ethic, describes human character and action in an evaluative manner.
Agency Theory
Authors: Mitnick Barry M.
Published: January 2015

The theory of agency seeks to understand the problems created when one party, theagent, is acting for another, theprincipal. Agency has two sides: The activities and problems of identifying and providing services of “acting for” (agent side), and the activities and problems of guiding and correcting agent actions (the principal side). Because all actions and corrections have costs, it often does not pay the principal (or the agent) to insist on, or provide, perfect agency. But social institutions must routinely manage such imperfect conditions. By instructing the agent to perform as perfectly as possible for the principal, thefiduciary normhelps solve the institutional dilemmas of ensuring trustworthy behavior. The article describes the basic arguments of agency theory, its origins, and the varieties of work being done. The best known application of the theory of agency applied the economic theory of agency to the theory of the firm, though agency theory, including the more general institutional theory of agency, has applications throughout social science. The institutional theory of agency is not constrained by assumptions embedded in economic theory or to the modeling of the corporation alone.
Auditing, Ethical Issues In
Authors: Gaa James C.
Published: January 2015

Audits are examinations of information for the purpose of evaluating its reliability. The information in question may be financial or nonfinancial, and may be intended for users of information who are either internal or external to the organization. The objective of external auditing is to increase the confidence of external stakeholders regarding the quality of the financial information produced by organizations. The globalization of capital markets has had an impact on the ethics of auditing, because cultural diversity presents major issues regarding appropriate international ethical standards, and because of increased attention by capital market regulators to the inter‐jurisdictional aspects of auditing. Auditors have an obligation to make in the interest of external stakeholders and in the public interest. The central problem is that, for auditing to be an important factor in capital markets, auditors must be independent of their clients. However, there are built‐in factors that make solving this conflict of interest difficult. One of the fundamental principles of accounting and auditing is confidentiality. Recent developments internationally involving unethical and illegal acts of companies have caused regulators and ethics standard setters to consider the conditions under which confidentiality may be or should be breached.
Bluffing and Deception
Authors: Carson Thomas L.
Published: January 2015

Deception can be defined as intentionally causing someone to have false beliefs. Bluffing in negotiations involves attempting to deceive others about one's intentions or negotiating position. In the United States it is common, often a matter of course, for people to misstate their intentions during business negotiations. For example, suppose that Bob is selling a house and tells a prospective buyer that $350,000 is absolutely the lowest price that he will accept, when he knows that he would be willing to accept as little as $320,000 for the house (in this case $320,000 is his “reservation price”). Arguments for and against the view that this is permissible are considered.

In sales and negotiations sellers often provide prospective buyers information about the goods or services being sold. Ths legal principle of caveat emptor permits sellers to withhold information about the products they serve, but forbids lying and deception about this. Few defend lying or deception in sales, but the permissibility of withholding information about the nature of the goods and services one sells is the subject of some debate.
Bourgeois Virtue
Authors: McCloskey Deirdre N.
Published: January 2015

Bourgeois virtues refer to the moral excellence of business people, such as responsibility, honesty, prudence, and enterprise.
Canada, Business Ethics In
Authors: Poff Deborah C.
Published: January 2015

Some might argue it is unnecessary to specify a particular nation‐state when speaking about business ethics. While Canadian history makes the discussion of business ethics somewhat culture‐specific, the Canadian future may include the erosion of such specificities through free‐trade agreements, information highways, and a globalized economy that diminishes the importance of national boundaries and the strength of autonomous nation‐states.
Economics and Ethics
Authors: Buchanan Allen
Published: January 2015

Economics is frequently defined as the science of choice, where choice is understood to be the selection of one course of action from among a set of options, on the basis of weighing costs and benefits. Essential to the economic conception of choice is the recognition that every choice involves costs. Ethics is sometimes understood to refer to a code of conduct, but in the literature of contemporary ethics generally and of business ethics in particular it is more often understood to be a practical activity – a reflective and self‐critical process of making decisions about which acts are right, wrong, or permissible. Economics appears to recognize only one reason for acting – namely, that doing this rather than that will maximize one's expected utility. Ethics, in contrast, not only offers a variety of considerations (human welfare, individual autonomy, fairness, etc.), but also requires that individuals sometimes act contrary to their own interests. Economists are expanding what has traditionally been regarded as the proper subject matter of economics to include moral behavior, not just self‐interested behavior. In doing so, they are recognizing a more complex and mutually enriching relationship between economics and ethics.
Finance, Ethical Issues in
Authors: Aggarwal Raj
Published: January 2015

Ethical issues are ubiquitous and important in finance. According to Adam Smith a capitalistic pursuit of self‐interest must be constrained by expectations of moral behavior. Ethics act as important and cost‐effective constraints on self‐serving and other undesirable behavior by parties to a contract such as agents, (such as managers), who have preferential information and who are responsible for the management of assets that belong to others (principals). Ethics in finance are especially important as it is impractical for laws, regulations, and corporate rules of behavior to cover every contingency in financial transactions.
Information, Right to
Authors: Mossholder Kevin W.
Published: January 2015

In the information age, organizational stakeholders should have fair and open access to relevant information so they can contribute in ways that both benefit the organization's vibrancy and protect stakeholders' decision‐making capacities. Through clear and appropriate information rights, stakeholders can better participate and discharge the accountability shared by parties involved in explicit and implied organizational exchanges.
Liberty
Authors: Brenkert George G.
Published: January 2015

Liberty is one of the fundamental values of Western society. Discussions of liberty frequently distinguish between negative liberty and positive liberty. The former exists when one is not subject to constraint of various kinds. The latter occurs when one enjoys a form of self‐determination or autonomy. Each form of liberty has important implications for political states as well as for businesses. Proponents of negative liberty are wary of constraints imposed on citizens and employees. Defenders of positive freedom seek to ensure that individuals have adequate measures of self‐determination through such measures as forms of participation in society or the workplace.