bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Aesthetic Works
Authors: Lowrie Walter
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the aftermath of Kierkegaard's courtship with Olsen, as well as his creative processes during a time of fairly prolific writing. During the period covered by this chapter, Kierkegaard had managed to publish a large volume of works, which are touched upon in this chapter. Of note is the publication of Either/Or (1843), which was the biggest book Kierkegaard had ever written and was published in two volumes. The chapter also further explores his experiences in Germany as well as his romantic sentiments regarding Olsen, who had had a marked influence in his works. It also examines his penchant for taking on pseudonyms.
Venturing Far Out
Authors: Lowrie Walter
Published: November 2017

This chapter chronicles a few decisive ventures Kierkegaard had undertaken for various reasons, be it for love or for his work, and details the publication histories for his last few works. It first discusses his plans to publish one of his works, The Point of View for My Work as an Author, which was later published posthumously in 1859, with the aim of ensuring that his works would not be totally misunderstood after his death. The difficulties he felt about publishing his polemical works, however, were further complicated by both his plans to seek a Church appointment and by his thoughts of Regina Olsen. At this time of his life he considered the possibility of a rapprochement with Regina, who had by then married and taken on the surname of Schlegel. Ultimately, however, his attempts in this regard were cruelly rebuffed.
Introduction
Authors: Ewing Adam
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter briefly presents some new perspectives on Garveyism. Though commonly recognized as one of the most important phenomena in the history of the African diaspora, observers of the Garvey phenomenon often struggle to explain it. This chapter (and the book as a whole) attempt to fill in the gaps in Garvey scholarship by characterizing Garveyism as a method of organic mass politics, in which “process” was privileged over “stance”; and a sustained project of diasporic identity building, where “race” according to Marcus Mosiah Garvey was a fixed signifier, connecting peoples of African descent to a single, ancient history, and guiding them to a common destiny. To conclude, the chapter discusses the structure and approach this volume will undertake in studying Garvey.
Broadcast on the Winds
Authors: Ewing Adam
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers how religious practices had acquired a radical visage, an anticolonial posture, at those moments when they offered a viable means of articulating a conflict, a lingua franca within which both colonizer and colonized might revisit the terms of their relationship. For millennial revivals in southern and central Africa, Garveyism provided this very device. Garveyites sustained, facilitated, and amplified a diasporic field of mythmaking that across the region had the unintended effect of offering African prophets and proselytizers a means to claim their independence, to project power, and to articulate their visions of a renewed Africa. Revivalists challenged the authority of the state by linking their millennial visions of deliverance to fantastical rumors about the arrival of African American liberators, who would drive Europeans from the continent and institute a peaceful era of black rule.
The Visible Horizon
Authors: Ewing Adam
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the efforts of a cadre of clerks, ministers, traders, and workers in the central African colonies of Nyasaland (Malawi) and Northern Rhodesia to nurture the Garveyite movement behind a guise of cautious reformism and under the watchful eyes of the state. This group founded “Native Welfare Associations” and independent churches, ostensibly apolitical vessels through which to assist the colonial governments in their project of African “civilization” and “uplift.” Behind this mask of patriotic accommodationism they communicated with the UNIA and the Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union (ICU), distributed their literature, and filtered news of anticolonial politics throughout the region. By participating in the silent work of organization, they joined Garveyites across the continent in exploring the limits of—and opportunities for—African political expression during the dark years of the interwar period.
Muigwithania (The Reconciler)
Authors: Ewing Adam
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the extent to which interwar Kikuyu nationalism was forged in the context of broader African rhythms. In particular, interwar Kikuyu activists joined their brethren throughout the continent in pursuing contacts with Garveyist and other pan-Africanist organizers, absorbing the lessons of African Garveyism, and implementing those lessons in conversation with their particular needs, grievances, and opportunities. After the brief and explosive attempt to organize a pan-African insurgency under the leadership of Harry Thuku in 1921–22, Kikuyu activists pursued a more cautious strategy of fictive unity, consciousness raising, self-help, and separatist institution building that both mirrored the political activism of Garveyism in other parts of the continent and reconstituted it as tribal politics.
Afterword
Authors: Ewing Adam
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter reflects on the success of Garveyism in both the United States, Africa, and the Caribbean. It considers how the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) had offered a powerful ideological and political vehicle for African activists during the dark years of interwar European rule, and how the impact of Garveyism continues to be felt in the continent. In the United States, as in Africa, the efforts of American Garveyites to construct vibrant organizational containers during an inauspicious decade resonated through the years. Finally, in the Caribbean, the return of labor radicalism in the mid-1930s both eclipsed established modes of Garveyist political association and boasted a leadership that had been nurtured within the Garvey movement.
Framing Democracy with a Certain Indifference, 1921–1936
Authors: Dawisha Adeed
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the democracy and the process of democratization in Iraq. Robert Dahl has identified eight minimal conditions for a functioning democracy: freedom to form and join organizations, freedom of expression, the right to vote, eligibility for public office, the right of political leaders to compete for support and votes, availability of alternative sources of information, free and fair elections, and institutions for making government policies depend on votes and other expressions of preference. However, these “minimal” conditions are only for mature democracies that tend to reside mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. If these “minimal” conditions were to be applied to the developing world, the analyst would be hard put to identify a single democracy, with the possible exception of India. This dilemma is certainly true in the case of Iraq. When set against the rigorous standards of mature Western democracies, monarchical Iraq fell short, indeed way short, of the Western democratic ideal.
The Monarchy’s Political System, 1921–1958
Authors: Dawisha Adeed
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the factors that led to the demise of the monarchy in July 1958. Some of these were structural, embedded in the constitutional arrangements and political relationships inside the country. Others were precipitated by political and ideological developments that gathered momentum in the regional and international arenas, and thus, to a certain extent, were outside the control of Iraq's governing elite. However, the major responsibility for the collapse of the political system can be placed squarely on the shoulders of the palace and the old politicians: their penchant for authoritarianism, their distaste for acceding authority to a younger generation, their petty squabbles among themselves, and their inability to reach out to new constituencies in a rapidly changing political milieu.
Liberalism, Islam, and Egypt’s Political Future
Authors: Rutherford Bruce K.
Published: November 2017

This chapter observes that the path of institutional change advocated by market liberals shares important areas of agreement with the reforms advocated by supporters of liberal constitutionalism and Islamic constitutionalism. Each of these groups favors the creation of a more liberal state with effective constraints on its power, a clear and unbiased legal code, and protection of civil and political rights. However, there is no comparable degree of consensus on the value of broadening public participation in politics. This fact suggests that liberalism and democracy have become de-linked in the Egyptian case. Liberalism is likely to progress steadily in the future, while democracy is likely to advance slowly and unevenly. This trajectory may eventually lead to democracy at some point in the future, particularly if liberalism enhances the private sector's independence from the state and leads to a more autonomous and politically active middle class. However, this outcome is not inevitable.
Justification by Verification: The Scientific Challenge to the Moral Authority of Christianity in Modern America
Authors: Hollinger David A.
Published: November 2017

Historians have observed that Victorian, Edwardian, and Progressive intellectuals embraced science with “religious” zeal. This chapter details the distinctly Protestant style and tone of that zeal. A function of religious images was to enable scientific intellectuals and their supporters to think of science as the practice of exactly the virtues for which Christianity was then most admired by educated citizens of Great Britain and the United States. Thinking of science in these terms enabled them to present scientists as the successors to the clergy as the moral models for modern living. The endlessly repeated assertion that the British agnostic scientist, T. H. Huxley, had enough “real Christianity” in him “to save the soul” of every person in the British Isles is a convenient emblem for this discourse.
James, Clifford, and the Scientific Conscience
Authors: Hollinger David A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a comparative reading of W. K. Clifford's 1877 treatise, “The Ethics of Belief,” and William James' 1897 essay, “The Will to Believe.” It provides an interpretation of each in the distinctive contexts of England in the 1870s and New England in the 1890s. It argues that Clifford displayed more sensitivity than James did to the consequences of belief. This is an ironic reversal of roles in the story of a great pragmatist who insisted that “the whole defense of religious faith hinges upon” the action that faith requires or inspires. James' “The Will to Believe” should be understood not only as an artifact of its author's agony about the fate of Christianity in the age of science, but also as a product of his political complacency. Clifford had a much more modern understanding than James did of the function of belief systems in society and politics.
Communalist and Dispersionist Approaches to American Jewish History in an Increasingly Post-Jewish Era
Authors: Hollinger David A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter develops an analogy between post-Protestant and post-Jewish cultural situations. It does so in the context of identifying and clarifying a vital issue in the study of American Jewish history: to what extent is that field properly focused on communal Jewry and to what extent might its focuses be expanded to take full account of what persons of Jewish origin have done in the world, regardless of the degree of Jewish identity they, themselves, proclaim? The chapter pulls together arguments that the author has offered over the course of thirty-five years of writing about the Jewish experience in twentieth-century America. Thus, it connects After Cloven Tongues of Fire with an earlier collection, Science, Jews, and Secular Culture. A theme of several essays in each of these two volumes is the disruptive effect Jews have had on the cultural hegemony of Protestants in American life.
Church People and Others
Authors: Hollinger David A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents the author's account of the intensely Protestant atmosphere in which he had grown up. He calls attention to a methodological and ethical concern that he picked up from a youthful encounter with the work of the sinologist Joseph R. Levenson. His describes how Levenson had projected so much of his own preoccupations onto China that his interpretation of Chinese history, for all its architectural and prose grandeur, was highly idiosyncratic and often simply wrong. This cautionary tale has stayed with the author and was especially on his mind when writing about American Protestantism and about the post-Protestantism of which he is an example. He asks: When does a personal frame enable a historian to see historical realities that others might not see, and when does it become, instead, a bias?
Religious Ideas: Should They Be Critically Engaged or Given a Pass?
Authors: Hollinger David A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the role of religion in politics. It expresses frustration with the trap that many faith-affirming politicians have increasingly sprung on doubters: “If elected to office I will act in keeping with my religious faith, but any journalist or rival politician who asks a skeptical question about my faith is biased against religion.” Religious ideas are thus sheltered from the public, critical scrutiny to which other ideas are commonly subject. The chapter also pushes religious liberals to argue more forthrightly than is common nowadays with rival voices within their own communities of faith. Perhaps religious liberals could diminish the standing of ignorant and obscurantist ideas, and encourage faiths consistent with modern standards of cognitive plausibility.
Covering in the Public Eye
Authors: McLarney Ellen Anne
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the life and writings of three main personalities who contributed to shaping an aesthetics of veiling in disparate but analogous ways. In their writings and their performances of a public self, these writers construct a sense of the psychic space that the outward sign of the veil helps cultivate. This psychic space, this spiritual interiority, is created by veiling but also by the words, discourses, narratives, and images of the veil in public culture and public circulation. Each writer has been profoundly invested in the politics of performance—in television (Kariman Hamza), film (Shams al-Barudi), and theater and cultural criticism (Safinaz Kazim). These three early exemplars were pivotal in formulating the ideological and conceptual contours of the genre. They set down motifs and described psychic transformations that would become classic signposts on the path to veiling. Their narratives envisioned new kinds of Islamic media in which the visual signifier of the veil would become ascendant.
Building an Encompassing Community of Fate and Winning Consent
Authors: Ahlquist John S. , Levi Margaret
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the development of a formal model that specifies the relationships between leaders and members. Organizational leaders can develop reputations for effectiveness; this reputation makes possible leadership rents, which expand cooperation and compensate the leader when information acquisition and communication are costly. Members agree to contribute to the leader's compensation up to a point. The form these rents take, whether monetary or political, affects the scope of union activities. Since these outcomes are only a few of many possible, the chapter introduces the concept of organizational governance institutions that embody the union's solution to the equilibrium selection problem. As in all formal models, particularly those intended as part of an analytic narrative, the study lays out the paths not taken as well as the one followed.
Provoking Preferences
Authors: Ahlquist John S. , Levi Margaret
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that, while some people have specific and deeply held political commitments, most appear to hold only vague or ill-formed beliefs. People revise and act on them only when challenged to do so in particular contexts, and most have not had such an opportunity prior to joining the union. Presenting members with a specific demand to act jointly and coherently forces them to crystallize their preferences and generates information about their own political and industrial efficacy. The chapter presents interview and oral history evidence to document self-reported changes in political beliefs among the International Longshore and Warehouse Union and Waterside Workers' Federation rank and file as a result of their union experiences.
Political Attitudes and Behavior among ILWU Members
Authors: Clayton Amanda B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter illustrates an original survey of rank-and-file International Longshore and Warehouse Union (ILWU) members. It begins with a specific puzzle: though ILWU members clearly have benefited from increased international trade, the union has maintained a consistent stance opposing trade liberalization for several decades. Interviews with ILWU leaders show that the union's stance appears to be sincere, based on the belief that current international trade rules unfairly benefit multinational corporations while imposing costs on the workers and the environment in both rich and poor countries. The chapter finds that ILWU members are more likely to have strong political opinions; they are more likely to support trade restrictions; and they are more likely to engage in politics, including turning out to vote, protest, and donate to political causes.
What Is Political Authority?
Authors: Chan Joseph
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers early Confucian views on the nature, purposes, and justifications of authority. Rejecting an interpretation of Confucianism that treats authority as an ownership right to be possessed by the monarch or the people, the chapter proposes a Confucian perfectionist perspective that takes the well-being of the people and their willing acceptance of political rule as fundamental to the legitimacy of political authority. The Confucian perfectionist perspective makes two connections between authority and the good life. First, authority instrumentally serves the well-being of the people. Second, the constitutive mutual commitment of the governing and governed is an ethically valuable and satisfying relationship that contributes to the good life.
Monism or Limited Government?
Authors: Chan Joseph
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines a paradox—although early Confucianism endorses the idea that authority exists to serve the people and that authority cannot be based on arbitrary will, it embraces the notion that authority must be monist and supreme and not be subject to any higher legal constraints. The chapter argues that the notion of monist and supreme authority must be given up if Confucian political thought is to have any potential today. Instead of hoping for the appearance of a godlike figure to assume a position of utmost power, Confucians should adopt a political system that brings together people with flawed but above-average levels of virtue and intelligence in positions of power, allowing them to check among themselves, and also be checked by the people.
Confucian Political Perfectionism
Authors: Chan Joseph
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter evaluates the Confucian political perfectionism and explains how perfectionism runs through the reconstruction of this philosophy. Taken as a whole, Confucian political perfectionism makes a radical departure from European and American liberal democratic theory, although it makes use of certain liberal democratic institutions to cope with nonideal problems. In Confucian political perfectionism, the concept of democracy still means rule by the people, but it is not justified by the idea that people are sovereign. Rather, it is justified by its service to the people and by a perfectionist view of a political relationship of mutual commitment and trust between the people and those they have elected to govern.
Statutory Provisions and Higher Court Interpretations
Authors: Kaplow Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines competition law's doctrine on horizontal agreements. It begins by addressing the U.S. statute, Sherman Act Section 1. The chapter then turns to the leading Supreme Court precedents on Section 1. These are the primary source of U.S. antitrust law in general and specifically in delineating what constitutes a horizontal agreement. Here, there is more conflict than meets the eye. Finally, the corresponding provision in the European Union, Article 101, is examined. Because the underlying questions and the relevant economic theory of oligopolistic coordination are the same, it is natural to expect similar challenges to arise, and they do.
Unilateral Market Power
Authors: Kaplow Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines unilateral market power. The exercise of such power sometimes constitutes a competing explanation for price elevation in oligopolistic industries. This possibility raises three questions: whether exercising unilateral market power is also usually socially undesirable and thus should be prohibited by competition law; if it is not, how one can distinguish it from coordinated price elevation; and how one should err in cases of uncertainty. Analysis focuses both on industries with homogeneous goods and on those with differentiated products, the former of which are more relevant for present purposes because coordinated pricing is generally thought to be difficult when differentiation is substantial.
Rational Expectations and Inflation
Authors: Sargent Thomas J.
Published: November 2017

This collection of essays uses the lens of rational expectations theory to examine how governments anticipate and plan for inflation, and provides insight into the pioneering research for which the author was awarded the 2011 Nobel Prize in economics. Rational expectations theory is based on the simple premise that people will use all the information available to them in making economic decisions, yet applying the theory to macroeconomics and econometrics is technically demanding. This book engages with practical problems in economics in a less formal, noneconometric way, demonstrating how rational expectations can satisfactorily interpret a range of historical and contemporary events. It focuses on periods of actual or threatened depreciation in the value of a nation's currency. Drawing on historical attempts to counter inflation, from the French Revolution and the aftermath of World War I to the economic policies of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan, the book finds that there is no purely monetary cure for inflation; rather, monetary and fiscal policies must be coordinated. This fully expanded edition includes the author's 2011 Nobel lecture, “United States Then, Europe Now.” It also features new articles on the macroeconomics of the French Revolution and government budget deficits.
Rational Expectations and the Reconstruction of Macroeconomics
Authors: Sargent Thomas J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the rational expectations reconstruction of macroeconomics. In particular, it examines how the hypothesis of rational expectations has been used to develop econometric models that take into account that people's behavior patterns will vary systematically with changes in government policies—the rules of the game. The chapter looks at two examples that illustrate the general presumption that the systematic behavior of private agents and the random behavior of market outcomes both will change whenever agents' constraints change, as when government policy or other parts of the environment change. The first example deals with investment decision, and the second concerns the inflationary effects of government deficits. The chapter also considers the implications of the rational expectations approach for the ways in which policymakers and their advisers think about the choices confronting them.
The Ends of Four Big Inflations
Authors: Sargent Thomas J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines several dramatic historical experiences that are consistent with the “rational expectations” view but that seem difficult to reconcile with the “momentum” model of inflation. The idea is to identify the measures that successfully brought drastic inflations under control in several European countries in the 1920s, namely: Austria, Hungary, Germany, and Poland, all of which experienced a dramatic “hyperinflation” in which, after the passage of several months, price indexes assumed astronomical proportions. The experience of Czechoslovakia is also considered. Within each of Austria, Hungary, Poland, and Germany, there occurred a dramatic change in the fiscal policy regime, which in each instance was associated with the end of a hyperinflation. Czechoslovakia deliberately adopted a relatively restrictive fiscal policy regime in order to maintain the value of its currency.
United States Then, Europe Now
Authors: Sargent Thomas J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows that predicaments facing the European Union today are reminiscent of constitutional decisions the United States faced not once, but twice. It begins with a simple expected present value model for government debt and explains how Hansen and Sargent (1980) used rational expectations econometrics to render this model operational. It then presents a case study that illustrates how the constitutions of the United States have influenced the government net-of-interest surplus process and therefore the value of government debt. Drawing on the unpleasant arithmetic of Sargent and Wallace (1981), the chapter argues that a responsible fiscal policy makes it easy for a monetary authority to sustain low inflation, whereas a profligate fiscal policy has the opposite effect.
Richard Nixon’s Black Cabinet
Authors: Wright Rigueur Leah
Published: November 2017

This chapter talks about how Richard Nixon's classist appeals for minority enterprise mirrored a theme central to black Republican thought and action. As previously seen, African American party members consistently proposed variations on a single core agenda, wedding liberal appeals for racial equality with a belief in traditional Republican principles. In particular, they had long called for the creation and implementation of a movement for economic civil rights, as an alternative means of reaching full equality. A June 1968 article in Time highlighted the prominent position of this centerpiece of black Republican thought, noting that all three Republican presidential primary candidates had incorporated the concept into their campaign rhetoric. The chapter shows how even as prominent white politicians echoed black Republicans' ideas, blacks themselves were divided about those same politicians.
Introduction
Authors: Wengrow David
Published: November 2017

This book explores the relationship between image and cognition in the context of the first age of mechanical reproduction. Linking these various interests is the theme of “monsters,” a term that will be replaced with “composites” to better capture the essence of what the book is interested in. The book focuses on a body of theory called “epidemiology of culture” in order to probe the boundaries of analytical fields that claim to be addressing a common problem: the unified understanding of culture as a product of both history and cognition. It considers—from various perspectives—how the distribution of composite figures in the visual record offers fertile testing ground for an “epidemiological” approach to culture, and ultimately forces a revision of some of its central assumptions. In doing so, the book offers a number of general observations about the relationship between image, cognition, and early state formation in the western Old World.
Materials for an Epidemiology of Culture
Authors: Wengrow David
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines composite animals as counterfactual images by focusing on a school of evolutionary psychology called the “epidemiology of culture.” Experimental studies show that the cognitive processing of animal forms is highly sensitized to part-whole relations, such that a total presence may be inferred from quite limited visual cues. Pictures of animals—even when jumbled, distorted, or incomplete—may therefore activate neural pathways attuned to the recognition and differentiation of living kinds. Such observations make it possible to build bridges between the cognition of images and theories of cultural transmission. The chapter introduces a number of comparative observations on the status of composites in the visual arts of hunter-gatherers.
The Hidden Shaman
Authors: Wengrow David
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the case for a much earlier beginning to the composite's story, among the hunter-gatherers and villagers of remote prehistory. It has been suggested that “imaginary animals,” “monsters,” and composite figures are found throughout the Upper Paleolithic art tradition that flourished among hunter-gatherers of the last Ice Age, between around 40,000 and 10,000 years ago. That tradition, or better complex of traditions, is most richly documented across a broad swath of southern Europe, on what were then the fringes of a vast steppe bordering the zone of maximum glaciation. The chapter first examines the frequency of composites among the surviving corpus of Paleolithic art, along with the significance of such images in the ritual life of prehistoric societies, before discussing the development of pictorial art in the later Neolithic of the Near East. It also describes animal figures in predynastic Egypt.
Urban Creations
Authors: Wengrow David
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the cultural ecology of composite animals. Paleolithic and Neolithic societies sometimes created durable images of composite beings, and the few surviving candidates have often been accorded great prominence in modern interpretations. Yet they remain strikingly isolated. If the popularity of minimally counterintuitive images is to be explained by their core cultural content and its appeal to universal cognitive biases, the question that arises is: Why did composite figures fail so spectacularly to “catch on” across the many millennia of innovation in visual culture that precede the onset of urban life? Much hinges here upon our conceptualization of the “counterintuitive” and its role in cultural transmission. To determine what kind of “cultural ecology” the composite animal belongs to, the chapter examines composites in early dynastic Egypt before discussing the relationship between the spread of urban civilization and the widespread transmission of images depicting composite beings.
Counterintuitive Images and the Mechanical Arts
Authors: Wengrow David
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on counterintuitive images and the mechanical arts. For much of their early prehistory, the relationship of composite figures, including animals, to humans was largely one of avoidance. They remained generally very rare and special kinds of animals, only occasionally seen, even by those few people who became experts in their patterns of behavior. All of this changed with the emergence of a new and complex type of ecology, around 6,000 years ago. Urban and state-like societies offered a setting in which composites could, for the first time, thrive and multiply in significant numbers, leaving a clear and striking taphonomic imprint on the archaeological record. The chapter examines the processes through which composites spread among different regions and the frequency with which they moved across cultural frontiers. It also considers the relationship between the limited counterintuitiveness of these images and their cultural catchiness by describing a recent discovery at Tiryns.
Conclusion
Authors: Wengrow David
Published: November 2017

This book concludes with a discussion of the emergent properties of cognition. It first considers an essay published in 1942 by Rudolph Wittkower entitled “Marvels of the East: A Study in the History of Monsters,” which documented the transmission of a particular style of ethnographic description (and depiction) from its earliest known sources in hand-copied manuscripts of the fourth century BC to the age of the printing press. The monsters in question fall mostly under this book's definition of “composites.” The book proceeds by examining how the counterfactual properties of composite figures were offset against two distinct forms of intuitive knowledge, one universal and the other historically contingent. It suggests that the specific distribution of composite figures in the visual record must be situated within the institutional dynamics of elite culture, and within particular strategies of governance that first took root during the Bronze Age, including the dissemination of officially sanctioned images through mechanical reproduction.
The Meanings of Property
Authors: Pravilova Ekaterina
Published: November 2017

This chapter traces the history of property relations in Russia. It examines how Russian rulers came to respect private property as a bulwark of autocracy and what this respect meant for property in the context of Russian monarchal rule. Topics covered include the reign of Catherine the Great and the invention of absolute private domain; the issue of expropriation; the scope and the legal status of state possessions; and initial attempts to introduce the notion of “public property,” which focused on Russia's natural treasures, such as the forests granted by Catherine the Great into the unlimited ownership of the nobles.
Writers and the Audience
Authors: Pravilova Ekaterina
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the development of copyright in Russia, focusing on one aspect of the debates—the balance of the private interests of the author (as a producer of material and immaterial values) and the interests of society. These debates involved people of different professions—lawyers, journalists, economists, publishers, and literary critics—and encompassed a wide range of problems—cultural reform and Russia's backwardness, the role of intellectual capital in social development, the value of individual freedom, the state's role in the provision of cultural goods, and the importance and protection of private property. It shows that Russian discussions of copyright often masked attempts to provoke significant political and cultural shifts.
Introduction
Authors: Erikson Emily
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents the volume's main argument: that a decentralized organizational structure—constructed through the combination of private and Company trade—was the central pillar of the English East India Company's continued expansion and adaptability over nearly two centuries as a predominantly commercial operation. It delves into the history of the English East India Company and the reasons for its success. Additionally, the chapter also looks at alternative explanations for the success of the company. Finally, this chapter lays out the study's theoretical approach: by considering the micro-level behavioral patterns and opportunity structures that allowed for the development and transformation of the English Company and, through it, larger patterns of global trade.
The European Trade with the East Indies
Authors: Erikson Emily
Published: November 2017

This chapter undertakes a comparative analysis of the organizational characteristics of the English East India Company, highlighting the firm's record of sustained innovation through the incorporation of new markets, and the extent to which this may be explained by the degree of militarization in the Company, relations with the state, and the management of employees' private trade. While setting up a comparative argument for why individual-level trading decisions (associated with the private trade) are important to understanding the differences between the English and other East India companies, this chapter also provides the organizational background necessary to understanding why employees of the English Company would engage in certain patterns of behavior.
Decentralization, Corruption, and Market Structure
Authors: Erikson Emily
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides further analysis of organizational incentive structures, linking the behavior of individuals to the larger macro structure of trade. The analysis here explores the unintended consequences of the private trade allowances. The unique private trade allowances of the English Company had created a perverse incentive for the captains and crew. Those who were engaged in the private trade (which was most employees) had an incentive to illegally extend their voyages in the East and seek out new commercial opportunities. Company officials condemned this practice; however it had an unexpected impact on the firm. While “losing the season” to extend their voyages, captains took the risks necessary to directly link distant markets within the Company network. Through opportunistic and malfeasant behavior, they wove the many regions and ports into one multilateral commercial network.
Eastern Institutions and the English Trade
Authors: Erikson Emily
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents systematic evidence that decentralized, commercially sophisticated ports were preferred by the English Company. The data on Company trading voyages show that they spent more time in and had longer trading partnerships with ports that were already set up to accommodate the commercial interests of both the Company and employees. These data also cast doubt upon theories that English trade patterns in Asia were driven by the presence of other Europeans. The central finding, however, is that Asian merchants and the commercial institutions they had created before the arrival of the British played a vital role in the expansion of England into the East through their support of decentralized market exchange. Thus the institutional context of the organization in the societies with which it came into contact must also be considered in order to understand the full range of options for individual-level actions.
Conclusion
Authors: Erikson Emily
Published: November 2017

This chapter uses the case of the English East India Company to reflect on existing knowledge about overseas trade expansion, decentralization within organizations, the importance of context in the emergence and interpretation of networks, and the centrality of micro-to macro-level phenomena in historical change. The English East India Company played an important role in spurring the development of Europe and Britain in particular. Its success generated a tremendous amount of wealth, handed the British government the foundation of a global empire, and permanently altered the trade and economies of Britain and Asia. As such, the Company serves as an example of the importance of overseas trade.
The Challenge Dance
Authors: Masten April F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the transnational origins of the challenge dance, a distinctly American tradition of brag dancing, and the ways in which Irish and African dance forms converged and collided in the taverns of New York City in the early nineteenth century. Part theater, part sport, challenge dances emerged in the antebellum era alongside boxing. Dance matches were the product of the intersecting diasporas and cultural exchange of Irish and African emigrants moving through the Atlantic world. The chapter first considers the compatibilities in African and Irish dance traditions before discussing the genealogy of challenge dancing. It then looks at challenge dance competitions held on streets and in taverns as part of white and blackface shows. It also describes a cultural space and moment in which working-class blacks and whites saw enough likeness in their dance traditions to frame a space of public, popular competition.
Knowledge in Motion
Authors: Smith Pamela H.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on “itineraries of matter,” or objects as traveling carriers of cultural practices and meanings, in the early modern world. It examines the role of red in the transmission of knowledge back and forth among European vernacular practitioners and text-oriented scholars in their production and reproduction of knowledge about natural things. To this end, the chapter takes us to the heat and dangers of vermillion production in early modern Europe: the hours of firing, stirring, stoking, hammering, chemical manipulation, and anxious waiting that produced the red pigments highly valued by painters and illuminators to bring blood to life. Vermillion production was dangerous and exacting, and yet its underlying techniques traveled rapidly across early modern Europe (and beyond) together with the webs of interlinked homologies—an entourage of lizards, blood, gold, alchemical formulas, and vernacular knowledge—which formed the foundations of early modern science.
Fashioning a Market
Authors: Wickramasinghe Nira
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the role of the Singer sewing machine in fashioning a consumer market in colonial Lanka, now known as Sri Lanka. More specifically, it narrates the fashioning of a market imaginary, which indexed modernity as desire installed through the Singer machine. The chapter first provides an overview of the Singer Sewing Machine Company and the market for sewing machines before discussing the company's global expansion. It then considers the Asian market for the Singer sewing machine and the Singer Company's venture in Ceylon/Lanka. It also analyzes the diffusion of the Singer sewing machine in Lanka and the marketing strategies used by Singer in the country. Finally, it explores how the Singer sewing machine intersected with the issue of race and the civilizing mission and how the market imaginary was exposed in circuits of communication such as advertisements, discourses of Sinhalese modern nationalism, and the economy of the machines itself.
Speed Metal, Slow Tropics, Cold War
Authors: Sheller Mimi
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the production and marketing of aluminum as a carrier of uneven global modernities, thus highlighting the ways in which mobility and immobilization were simultaneously created in the world of traveling commodities, transport systems, and tourism. More specifically, it considers the role of aluminum, the “speed metal,” in modernization by linking the North American world of mobility, speed, and flight to the heavier, slower Caribbean world of bauxite mining, racialized labor relations, and resource extraction. The chapter first looks at the emergence of U.S. air power in the early twentieth century before discussing the cultural motions of Caribbean modernity and the complex constellations of mobility and immobility that structure transnational American relations. It also discusses the role played by companies like Alcoa in promoting innovation in the United States in the use of aluminum and imagining the light modernity of the future.
The True Story of Ah Jake
Authors: Ngai Mae M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the issues of language, labor, and justice intertwined in the murder trial of Ah Jake, a Chinese gold miner in nineteenth-century California. The focus is on the transcript of the Sierra County court's hearing in October 1887, on whether to bring the charge of murder against Ah Jake for the killing of another miner, Wah Chuck. Much of the hearing took place in pidgin, or Chinglish. The chapter first tells the story of Ah Jake and how he came to stand trial for murder before discussing the cross-cultural relations between Anglo, Mexican, and Chinese workers in the gold fields of nineteenth-century California. It suggests that the traces of history that can be gleaned from Ah Jake's trial and pardon, when considered within the frame of transpacific circulations of people, language, and organization, produce new knowledge about social relations in the late-nineteenth-century California interior.
Itinerancy and Power
Authors: Raman Bhavani
Published: November 2017

Abstract and Keywords to be supplied.
From Cultures to Cultural Practices and Back Again
Authors: Reimitz Helmut
Published: November 2017

This book concludes with two afterwords, the first of which argues how centering itinerancy as concept and method enables a reconsideration of scale in the historian's craft. It emphasizes the book's focus on itinerant matter and cultural practices, from music and musicians to body movements, pidgin, gift-giving, and aluminum, that traverse vast spaces—oceans, regions—or centuries, or both at the same time. The second afterword draws on the work of the German sociologist Niklas Luhmann to reflect on the culture concept itself and the ways in which it needs to be implicated in the moving practices explored by the book. It also considers how cultural processes extending backward past European modernity raises new questions about the history of how the modern concept of culture was itself established in Europe.
Introduction
Authors: Yarhi-Milo Keren
Published: November 2017

This book explores the question of how policy makers gauge their adversaries’ intentions and the implications of such intentions assessment for international relations and world affairs. It advances a framework called the selective attention thesis and compares it to three well-known explanations of perceived intentions: the capabilities thesis, strategic military doctrine thesis, and behavior thesis. All four theses are tested using three cases: British assessments of Nazi Germany’s intentions in the period leading to World War II; U.S. assessments of Soviet intentions under the administration of Jimmy Carter; and U.S. assessments of Soviet intentions in the years leading to the end of the Cold War during the second administration of Ronald Reagan. Drawing on these historical episodes, the book considers which indicators are used or ignored by decision makers and intelligence organizations when making intentions assessments.
The British Intelligence Community’s Assessments of Nazi Germany’s Intentions
Authors: Yarhi-Milo Keren
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the evolution in the stated beliefs of Britain’s intelligence organizations about the nature and scope of Nazi Germany’s foreign policy plans along with its perceptions of the Germans’ willingness to wield their military capabilities. It evaluates how well the predictions of the selective attention thesis and the competing theses fit the evolution in perceived intentions. It shows that the evolution of the British intelligence community’s collective intentions assessments is most consistent with the predictions of the capabilities thesis and organizational expertise hypothesis. The evidence is inconclusive as to the predictions of the past and current actions hypotheses of the behavior thesis.
Indicators of Soviet Intentions and the End of the Cold War, 1985–88
Authors: Yarhi-Milo Keren
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the indicators used by the Reagan administration to assess the intentions of the Soviet Union between 1985 and 1988. Ronald Reagan assumed the presidency in 1981 after an election campaign that expressed alarm over a “window of vulnerability” that endangered U.S. national security. Reagan's national security strategy featured schemes such as the Strategic Defense Initiative, the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, and the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty. The chapter considers U.S. perceptions of Soviet military capabilities, military doctrine, and behavior during the period based on predictions derived from the selective attention thesis, capabilities thesis, strategic military doctrine thesis, and behavior thesis. It also explores how, when, and to what extent U.S. perceptions of Soviet intentions changed in order to elucidate the broader changes that eventually led to the end of the Cold War.