bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Filters in Multirate Systems
Authors: Milic Ljiljana
Published: May 2011

The role of filtering in sampling-rate conversion has been considered in Chapter II. The importance of filtering arises from the fact that the sampling theorem should be respected for all the sampling rates of the system at hand. Filters are required to bandlimit the spectrum of the signal to the prescribed bandwidth in accordance with the actual sampling rate. In sampling rate conversion systems, filters are used in decimation to suppress aliasing and in interpolation to remove imaging. Since an ideal frequency response cannot be achieved, the performance of the system for sampling rate conversion is mainly determined by filter characteristics. Obviously, an appropriate filter should enable the sampling rate conversion with minimal signal distortion. The main advantage of a multirate system is the computational efficiency, and therefore, a decimator (interpolator) that implements a high-order digital filter could not be tolerated. The specific role of a digital filter in sampling rate conversion demands high-performance filtering with the lowest possible complexity. To reach this goal one has to concentrate first on the choice of the appropriate design specifications in order to provide minimal signal distortion. Secondly, the multirate filter is to be designed in a manner to satisfy the prescribed characteristics and to provide a low-complexity implementation structure. In this chapter, we discus first the spectral characteristics of decimators and interpolators and introduce three commonly used types of filter specifications. In the sequel, we review the MATLAB functions that are appropriate for the design of FIR and IIR filters to satisfy the specifications. An approach to computation of aliasing characteristics of decimators is given and illustrated by examples. This chapter considers also the analysis of sampling rate conversion for band-pass signals. Chapter concludes with MATLAB exercises for individual study.
Frequency-Reponse Masking Techniques
Authors: Milic Ljiljana
Published: May 2011

The initial concept of the frequency-response masking technique was introduced by Neuvo, Cheng-Yu and Mitra (1984). It was shown that the complexity of a linear phase FIR filter can be considerably reduced by using the cascade connection of an interpolated FIR (IFIR) filter and a properly designed FIR filter. The IFIR filter transfer function is obtained by replacing the unit delay z-1 with the delay block z-M, where M is an integer. In this way, the frequency response of the IFIR filter is made periodic. The FIR filter in the cascade is used to eliminate (mask) the images from the IFIR filter frequency response. Two years later, Lim (1986) proposed a complete approach for the application of frequency-response masking technique in designing narrow-band and arbitrary-band linear phase FIR filters. It was shown that the approach given in (Lim, 1986) results in a linear phase FIR filter with a small fraction of nonzero coefficients, and thus is suitable for implementing sharp filters with arbitrary bandwidths. The arithmetic complexity is considerably smaller in comparison with the arithmetic complexity of an optimal FIR filter having the equivalent frequency response. This approach is applied later to IIR filters by Johansson and Wanhammar (1997, 2000). The overall filter is composed of an IIR periodic model filter and its complementary periodic filter, and FIR linearphase masking filters. In this way, the arbitrary-band filter can be designed. For a narrowband filter, the cascade of a periodic filter and masking filter can be used. The frequency-response masking approach is suitable for digital filters with sharp transition bands. Compared to the classical single-filter design, this technique offers the advantage of lower coefficients’ sensitivity, higher computation speed and lower power consumption. Recently, the application of frequency-response masking approach has been extended to filter banks to achieve a sharp band-separation with reduced computational complexity (Furtado, Diniz, Netto, and Saramäki, T. 2005; Rosenbaum, Lövenborg, and Johansson, 2007). In this chapter, we review the frequency-response masking techniques for narrow-band and arbitrary bandwidth IIR filters. We demonstrate through examples that very selective characteristics can be obtained using relatively low-order sub-filters. In this way, stable, low-sensitive filters are obtained.
Fault-Tolerant Protocols Using Aspect Orientation
Authors: De Florio Vincenzo
Published: May 2011

This chapter resumes our survey of application-level fault-tolerance protocols considering approaches based on aspect-oriented programming. Aspect-compliant programming languages allow a source code to be regarded as a pliable web that the designer can weave so as to specialize or optimize towards a certain goal without having to recode it. This useful property keeps concerns separated, bounds complexity, and enhances maintainability. Aspect programs may be used for different objectives, including non-functional properties such as dependability. To date, it is not known whether aspect-orientation will actually provide satisfactory solutions for fault-tolerance in the application layer. Some researchers believe this is not the case (Kienzle & Guerraou, 2002)—at least for some fault-tolerance paradigm. Some preliminary studies have been carried out (for instance in (Lippert & Videira Lopes, 2000)), but no definitive word has been said on the matter. It is our belief that, at least for some paradigms, aspects may reveal themselves as invaluable tools to engineer the application-level of fault-tolerance services. For this reason their approach is described in this chapter.
Failure Detection Protocols in the Application Layer
Authors: De Florio Vincenzo
Published: May 2011

Failure detection is a fundamental building block to develop fault-tolerant distributed systems. Accurate failure detection in asynchronous systems (Chapter II) is notoriously difficult, as it is impossible to tell whether a process has actually failed or it is just slow. Because of this, several impossibility results have been derived—see for instance the well-known paper (Fischer, Lynch, & Paterson, 1985). As a consequence of these pessimistic results, many researchers have devoted their time and abilities to understanding how to reformulate the concept of system model in a fine-grained alternative way. Their goal was being able to tackle problems such as distributed consensus with the minimal requirements on the system environment. This brought to the theory of unreliable failure detectors for reliable systems, pioneered by the works of Chandra and Toueg (Chandra & Toueg, 1996). This chapter introduces these concepts and the formulation of failure detection protocols in the application layer. In particular a linguistic framework is proposed for the expression of those protocols. As a case study it is described the algorithm for failure detection used in the EFTOS DIR net and in the TIRAN Backbone—that is, the fault-tolerance managers introduced respectively in Chapter III and Chapter VI.
Overview of Grid Computing
Authors: Udoh Emmanuel , Wang Frank Zhigang , Khare Vineet R.
Published: May 2011

This chapter presents a historical record of the advent of Grid with a recourse to some basic definitions commonly accepted by most researchers. It discusses the current and potential users of Grid computing and the expected changes in the user base as it gains popularity. The role of the Internet infrastructure in shaping the grid evolution received detailed treatment. Furthermore, the chapter contrasts grid computing with distributed and peer-to-peer computing and highlighted the salient features. Finally, the chapter discusses the recent advances in Web and Grid service technologies, including international projects, emerging standards and organizations, and the current challenges faced by Grid researchers.
Assisting Efficient Job Planning and Scheduling in the Grid
Authors: Afgan Enis , Bangalore Purushotham
Published: May 2011

Grid computing has emerged as the next generation computing platform. Because of the resource heterogeneity that exists in the grid environment, user jobs experience variable performance. Grid job scheduling, or selection of appropriate mappings between resources and the application, with the goal of leveraging available capacity and imposed requirements is thus at the heart of successful grid utilization. Grid job scheduling can be viewed as a function of resource heterogeneity, resource and application availability, and application options. This chapter presents work that incorporates all of these factors to provision and present individual users with alternative job options in terms of cost and time tradeoffs. Inherently, this leads to more effective scheduling policies. To support these aims, a framework is introduced with a novel scheduling methodology that introduces new user-scheduler interaction levels and a new layer of scheduling that includes application parameter selection and parameter value optimization.
Effective Resource Allocation and Job Scheduling Mechanisms for Load Sharing in a Computational Grid
Authors: Huang Kuo-Chan , Shih Po-Chi , Chung Yeh-Ching
Published: May 2011

Most current grid environments are established through collaboration among a group of participating sites which volunteer to provide free computing resources. Therefore, feasible load sharing policies that benefit all sites are an important incentive for attracting computing sites to join and stay in a grid environment. Moreover, a grid environment is usually heterogeneous in nature at least for different computing speeds at different participating sites. This chapter explores the feasibility and effectiveness of load sharing activities in a heterogeneous computational grid. Several issues are discussed including site selection policies as well as feasible load sharing mechanisms. Promising policies are evaluated in a series of simulations based on workloads derived from real traces. The results show that grid computing is capable of significantly improving the overall system performance in terms of average turnaround time for user jobs.
Adaptive Resource Management in Grid Environment
Authors: Wang Man , Du Zhihui , Cheng Zhili
Published: May 2011

Resource Management System (RMS), which manages the Grid resources and matches the applications’ requests to the proper resources, is one of the most important and complex parts in Grid systems. In fact, because of the complexity of Gird environment, one resource management approach alone cannot satisfy different applications’ requirement. Therefore, a novel Adaptive Resource Management (ARM) mechanism is provided here. This mechanism is based on multidimensional Grid QoS, which dynamically organizes Grid resources into Task Resources for feasible distribution. Moreover, this management mechanism can select appropriate management approach according to different applications’ requirements, which is well adapted to dynamic Grid environment.
On the Pervasive Adoption of Grid Technologies
Authors: Habib Irfan , Anjum Ashiq , McClatchey Richard
Published: May 2011

Due to some barriers to adoption we have not seen a proliferation of Grid Computing technologies throughout e-Science or other domains. This chapter outlines many issues that are a consequence to the existing Grid Middleware based approaches. The authors believe a Grid Operating system, or an operating system with built in Grid computing capability might be able to address the drawbacks of the existing infrastructure, leading to a fault tolerant, flexible and easy to use stack for rapid deployment of Grids. This chapter presents the motivation and issues which lead us to a Grid operating System and outline its design, implementation and evaluation details.
Simulated Events Production on the Grid for the BaBar Experiment
Authors: Andreotti Daniele , Fella Armando , Luppi Eleonora
Published: May 2011

The BaBar experiment uses data since 1999 in examining the violation of charge and parity (CP) symmetry in the field of high energy physics. This event simulation experiment is a compute intensive task due to the complexity of the Monte-Carlo simulation implemented on the GEANT engine. Data needed as input for the simulation (stored in the ROOT format), are classified into two categories: conditions data for describing the detector status when data are recorded, and background triggers data for noise signal necessary to obtain a realistic simulation. In this chapter, the grid approach is applied to the BaBar production framework using the INFN-GRID network.
Accessing Grid Metadata through a Web Interface
Authors: Scifo Salvatore
Published: May 2011

This chapter focuses on the efforts to design and develop a standard pure Java API to access the metadata service of the EGEE Grid middleware, and provide at the same time a powerful object oriented framework to allow engineers and programmers to embed metadata features inside their own application, using a standard approach based on design patterns. A specific web interface is built on top of this framework that permits users and administrators to manage the metadata catalog, from any platform and everywhere, according to their own X.509-based credentials.
Visual Data Mining Based on Partial Similarity Concepts
Authors: Kulikowski Juliusz L.
Published: May 2011

Visual data mining is a procedure aimed at a selection from a document’s repository subsets of documents presenting certain classes of objects; the last may be characterized as classes of objects’ similarity or, more generally, as classes of objects satisfying certain relationships. In this chapter attention will be focused on selection of visual documents representing objects belonging to similarity classes.
Blogging in Foreign Language Education
Authors: Carney Nat
Published: May 2011

This chapter gives a comprehensive overview of blogs in Foreign Language Education (FLE) through reviewing literature, critically analyzing potential benefits and concerns about blogs, and suggesting research needed to better understand blogging’s influence on language learning. The chapter begins with a discussion of Web 2.0’s potential impact on FLE and a detailed description and definition of blogs. Following this a comprehensive literature review of blog use in FLE and a critical examination of blogging’s potential benefits and problems in key areas of FLE is offered. Finally, future trends for blogs and further research areas are suggested. Though blogs are a tool that have received relatively minimal attention in FLE literature to date, this chapter argues that blogs can be an important hub of learning in Web 2.0.
Internet Technologies and Language Teacher Education
Authors: Elliott Darren
Published: May 2011

This chapter looks at the ways in which teacher training and teacher development are taking place online. It seeks to address the ways in which teachers learn to teach and considers how “Web 2.0” applications and other collaborative, interactive technologies may transform teacher education. In an overview of teacher development theories, including social constructivism and critical reflection, the chapter attempts to situate current practices in relation to research in teacher learning. The second part of the chapter focuses on blended and distance learning, Computer Mediated Communication, and the applicability of Web 2.0 applications to teacher development. It is hoped that the chapter will provide a useful summary for teacher trainers and classroom practitioners who are hoping to use technology for developmental purposes. At the same time, it may assist those who are working with technology but are less familiar with the context of how teachers learn.
Personal Learning Environments for Language Learning
Authors: Guth Sarah
Published: May 2011

This chapter discusses the potential of social software and Web 2.0 tools to enhance language learning in a blended learning context. It describes an English as a Foreign Language course that introduces students to several Web 2.0 tools with the aim of helping them develop their own Personal Learning Environment. As students become familiar with the almost endless opportunities for accessing and participating in authentic language on the Web today, they must also learn to find appropriate resources, filter unsuitable materials, manage this information overload, and decide which tools best suit their own learning style. The chapter argues that accompanied with the right pedagogical approach, these tools enhance learning by allowing students to engage in self-directed learning and gain skills and resources that are transferable to their informal, lifelong language learning.
Mobile 2.0 and Mobile Language Learning
Authors: Wang Shudong , Heffernan Neil
Published: May 2011

This chapter introduces the concept of Mobile 2.0, a mobile version of Web 2.0, and its application to language learning. The chapter addresses the following questions: What is Mobile 2.0? How is it relevant to the concept of Web 2.0? Is Mobile 2.0 ready for language learning analogous to that of Web 2.0? How is the efficacy of m-learning using Mobile 2.0 technology compared to PC Web 2.0? If Mobile 2.0 is appropriate for language learning, then how does one go about setting up a Mobile 2.0 site? Is Mobile 2.0 leading to a transformation of mLearning? Are there any limitations in using Mobile 2.0 for language learning? Finally, is Mobile 3.0 already emerging for learning? These issues will be discussed, and the relevant data will be presented to support the claims made in this chapter. Furthermore, specific examples of Mobile 2.0 and the empirical data of specific uses of mobile phones for educational purposes, especially for language learning in Japan, will be delineated. This chapter suggests that knowledge of Mobile 2.0 will strengthen and reinforce language teaching and allow students to learn more ubiquitously, more effectively, and in a way that is more at ease with their learning styles.
Next Generation Access Networks and their Regulatory Implications
Authors: Gonçalves Ricardo , Nascimento Álvaro
Published: May 2011

The deployment of Next Generation Access networks (NGAs) is likely to have a significant impact on the telecommunications’ value chain and, consequently, on the necessary regulatory remedies. In particular, unlike existing telephone networks, NGAs present regulators with a dilemma, in so far as the possibility of regulatory intervention after network deployment (negatively) affects investment incentives for such a deployment. We review the current discussion surrounding NGAs and discuss some of the main regulatory challenges it presents.
Digital Convergence and Home Network Services in Korea
Authors: Han Hyun-Soo , Lee Heesang , Sawng Yeong -Wha
Published: May 2011

In this chapter, we proposed managerial implications and strategic alliance opportunities of the home network service providers in Korea. Based on in-depth analysis of recent industrial status of home network services in Korea, we first analyzed business models of each interested parties participating converging services of home network industry. Next, in order to complement the weakness of participant’s business models, strategic business alliance opportunities and managerial implications were drawn upon resource-based view (RBV) theories. Subsequently, strategic propositions for the success of the home network are suggested at the firm level, with respect to three main converging home network services. Finally, we offer future directions and considerations to expedite home network service evolution. The findings and propositions suggested in this study could be exploited for further research on other digital convergence services.
The Role of Organizational Culture to the Management of Telecommunication Companies
Authors: Kargas Antonios D. , Varoutas Dimitris
Published: May 2011

This chapter analyzes the importance of organizational culture through a set of strategies and enterprising practices in order to emphasize the culture’s necessity for the effective management of any organization and especially for the management of telecommunication companies. Moreover, the way culture affects the success and failure of a series of enterprising practices, such as mergers, acquisitions, strategic alliances and joint ventures is presented. All these create a rather interesting framework in which organizational managers should cultivate and implement the appropriate organizational culture in order to keep their organization competitive and well managed. Finally, case studies from the telecommunications industry will be presented, a field where culture plays a dominant role in either changing procedure or in developing new enterprising practices.
Adoption of VoIP Applications in Public and Private Organizations
Authors: Corrocher Nicoletta , Fontana Roberto , Parlanti Claudia
Published: May 2011

We provide evidence on the determinants of diffusion of Voice over IP (VoIP) applications in a sample of public and private organizations in Italy. We first review the recent developments in the technology in order to identify the current trends and the costs and benefits of VoIP adoption. Second, we discuss the recent policy efforts at the European level toward the implementation of the technology. Third, we present an empirical investigation. Our results suggest that organizations become more likely to adopt as time goes by, and that the decision to adopt is mostly affected by size and availability of financial resources. Organizations can benefit from IP communications systems, because they offer cost savings and enhanced applications facilitating network management and on-line transactions. However, technical shortcomings, established habits and practices, and legacy network investments can inhibit adoption. This explains why firms are more likely to adopt as time passes and why small organizations are more inclined to adopt than larger ones.
Planning of Wireless Community Networks
Authors: Farkas Károly , Szabó Csaba A. , Horváth Zoltán
Published: May 2011

The objective of this chapter is to discuss the applications, state-of-the-art technologies, planning methods and business models for wireless community networks and provide an integrated presentation of these essential parts with examples. After a short introduction we give an overview about the stateof- the-affairs of wireless community networks presenting the driving forces, stakeholders, services and built upon applications in some carefully selected projects. Then, we discuss the technological aspects and suggest a design methodology for planning wireless community networks. The application of this methodology is illustrated via an ongoing digital city project in Hungary. After this we analyze the relevant business models. And finally, before concluding the chapter we give a short outlook discussing the future trends of the area.
Towards QoS-Inferred Internet
Authors: Boucadair Mohamed , Levis Pierre , Morand Pierrick
Published: May 2011

IP networks are the federative transport networks for a large set of emerging services. These services demand hard guarantees in term of the service availability, experienced Quality of Service (QoS) and robustness. Moreover, to be able to reach customers on a large scale, most of these services should be deployed with an Inter-domain scope. In order to meet QoS requirements of these services in an interdomain context, several issues should be solved. This chapter focuses on two issues: provider-to-provider agreements and enhancements to inter-domain routing protocol to convey QoS-related information. A concept called Meta-QoS-Class is introduced together with an enriched version of Border Gateway Protocol. This chapter provides a framework suitable for the promotion of QoS-enabled services with an inter-domain scope: the Parallel Internet. This concept is a viable way for the management of IP resources so as to deliver end-to-end QoS-enabled services.
Open APIs and Protocols for Services and Applications in Telecoms
Authors: Tselikas Nikolaos D. , Kapitsaki Georgia M. , Makris Dimitrios G. , Venieris Iakovos S.
Published: May 2011

The role of open Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) and protocols for advanced service provisioning and the corresponding state of the art are the main subject of this chapter. Specifically, the role and the trade-offs in modern telecoms between open APIs and Protocols, that is, OSA/Parlay APIs, JAIN APIs and SIP, are discussed. A technical implementation analysis for each solution is presented, based on a call-related service, in order to set a common basis for the aforementioned technologies, since “voice” is a common denominator for a Fixed or Mobile Operator or an Internet Service Provider. A performance evaluation study regarding the implemented services is also presented and the chapter is summarized by interesting conclusions and related future trends.
Network Planning and Dimensioning for Broadband Access to the Internet Regarding Quality of Service Demands
Authors: Hartleb Franz , Haßlinger Gerhard , Kempken Sebastian
Published: May 2011

An ongoing challenge in telecommunication is the integration of a variety of services on broadband access platforms at increasing transmission speed. Traditional Internet services like file transfer, email and web browsing, are carried on the same multi service IP platforms with voice, video and television over IP, online gaming, peer-to-peer and grid networking etc. While broadband access is established as a standard equipment for homes, the networking capacities in the access and the backbone are steadily extended to keep pace with higher traffic volumes. Together with the spectrum of services, the traffic mix on the aggregation levels becomes increasingly versatile with different demands for end-to-end transport in terms of throughput, loss and delay sensitivity. The chapter focuses on planning and traffic engineering for link bandwidth and buffers as main resources in communication platforms based on measurement and statistical properties of traffic growth and variability. We summarize quality of service demands of main Internet applications and mechanisms to control and stabilize the performance of ISP network platforms on different time scales. Load thresholds for link dimensioning are derived with regard to quality of service (QoS) demands and the variability in source and aggregated profiles. Finally, link level and network wide traffic engineering is addressed together with load balancing techniques.
Designing a New Service Overlay on a Carrier Network Using the Efficient Frontier
Authors: Chinburg Susan J. , Scheets George
Published: May 2011

The network carrier must utilize the full potential of existing physical infrastructure before any new investments can be considered. Much work has been done to develop optimal design methodologies that generate a “best” design but designs often have to be changed to meet operational considerations, potentially mitigating any optimization benefits. This work proposes to expand the optimal network design process by applying a process borrowed from Finance and Operations Research/Management Science literature known as the Efficient Frontier or production frontier analysis. Using this idea, a portfolio of designs differing in cost, and number, size and location of nodes will be developed and from that the efficient frontier will be defined. By comparing any subsequent design to the frontier, the network designer can have an understanding of the impact of changes in the design strategy to the long-term cost effectiveness.
Trends, Optimization and Management of Optical Networks
Authors: Skorin-Kapov Jadranka , Skorin-Kapov Darko
Published: May 2011

Due to the enormous proliferation of internet traffic, including video on demand and transfer of datarich documents, the use of optical networking is mandatory, resulting with high capacity and speed as needed. In this chapter we review optical networking, its current issues, trends, and ways to efficiently design and manage a wide range of optical networks. We address the following: an overview of optical networking (including its current capabilities, virtual versus physical topology, optical node components), placement of “special equipment” nodes and components, and design of network topology. Efficient management and utilization of geographically different networks (such as wide area networks, metro networks, and access networks) present different optimization problems dealing with the placement of special optical equipment. We summarize current algorithmic approaches and suggest possibilities for further research.
Aging and Online Learning
Authors: Boechler Patricia M.
Published: May 2011

In response to changes in demographics and technology, education in North America is undergoing a transformation. Dorin (2007) summarizes several critical factors in demographic trends that will significantly impact the development of the educational landscape in North America. First, as baby-boomers age there is a dramatic shift in the composition of our population, that is, a greater percentage of the entire population will be represented by those 65 and older. Second, older adults will remain productive in the workforce. Third, life expectancy will increase, adding again to a greater percentage of our population falling into the older adult category.
The Benefits for Faculty Teaching in Online and F2F Environments
Authors: Russell Alicia , McCarron Cathleen
Published: May 2011

A growing number of faculty teach courses online in addition to teaching traditional face-to-face (F2F) classes. Faculty developing course materials for both environments find they are investing more time learning about how students learn. Learning to teach online can be time consuming (Stern, 2004), and achieving mastery in both modes is quite demanding. To teach effectively in both environments, instructors must think about how to improve student learning outcomes irrespective of the particular setting. Skills needed to help ensure good student learning include the following: selecting effective and emerging pedagogical methods; drafting clear, written materials for students; designing activities that foster active learning; and using principles of sound instructional design, such as the ADDIE model (analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation; Dick & Carey, 1978). Faculty who begin their careers in the classroom are refashioning their optimal teaching methods from the F2F environment for use in online courses. As these faculty gain experience online, they often turn the strategy around, refashioning methods that succeed in the online environment to enhance their F2F instruction. For instance, faculty can integrate innovative online activities into traditional courses. (McQuiggan, 2007) The overall process is akin, both in its challenges and benefits, to mastering a foreign language. What results from this synergistic process is more versatile educators who are able to reach students—and more fully realize their own potential as teachers—by using complementary modes of instruction that interanimate each other.
Build an Online Program Consortium
Authors: Kennedy Tom , Brozovich Mary
Published: May 2011

The Online Consortium of Independent Colleges and Universities (OCICU) was launched in January 2005 after several years of successful classroom-based partnerships, a failed attempt at a previous online collaboration effort, and extensive market research. Beginning in 1990, New Ventures of Regis University formed partnerships with independent, notfor- profit (NFP) colleges across the country. These partnerships focused on helping colleges develop and implement classroom-based, accelerated degree programs for working adults based on the experiences of the Regis adult education programs which had been established in 1979 (Husson & Kennedy, 2003). In all, New Ventures assisted over thirty colleges to launch or improve their adult education programs.
Challenges for E-Learning and Adult Students in Higher Education
Authors: Correia Ana Maria R. , Sarmento Anabela
Published: May 2011

The development and promotion of the strategic goal of the European Union to become a competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy and society (Lisbon European Council, 2000) can only be achieved with the relevant technological infrastructures together with people equipped with the necessary skills and competences (European Commission, 2002). As stated in the European Council (2005, p. 7), “human capital is the most important asset for Europe.” This human capital must be supported by a well-structured initial education, constantly updated by a continuous lifelong learning program, so that people can face the challenges of a series of new jobs, maybe separated by spells of shortterm contracts or even unemployment. This continuous education program should be available to all citizens, regardless of their age and social or economic status.
A Checklist for a New Millennium School Science Department
Authors: Hessler Ed
Published: May 2011

My focus is both narrow and incomplete, for it is limited to a single area of learning: science, and it is in the form of a working list, a beginning of things one might write down, not in any particular order—so that they might be remembered and edited over time, with colleagues. Improving schools, teacher preparation, and professional development are important national priorities as we enter a new millennium. Past emphasis on targeted innovations in the short term are now conceptualized into the idea of continuous improvements that are connected in the long term. Today, the idea of improvement itself is being challenged. “Improvement,” the term of the technocrat, is being recast in the context of student learning—that is, how can we educate our young or learners of any age?
Cognitive Apprenticeship and Writing in Distance and Online Learning
Authors: Dennen Vanessa P. , Burner Kerry J.
Published: May 2011

As online learning has matured, it has increasingly used Web-based technologies to support communication and interactions among participants (e.g. students, instructors, and mentors) in addition to content delivery. Many online learning experiences depend heavily on text-based interactions to support learning, practice, and assessment activities. Threaded discussions forums are particularly useful learning activities, as is the exchange of word-processed documents for formative and summative assessments. These activities are a natural result of the desire to connect people via technology while taking advantage of asynchronous communication’s convenience.
Cognitive Profiling in Life-Long Learning
Authors: Lin Taiyu , Kinshuk  , Kinshuk
Published: May 2011

Statistics indicate that the information stored in the world doubles every 2.8 years (Keegan, 2000). The problem every country faces now is not how to create more information, but how to locate and utilise the available information. This amazing phenomenon brings on the dawn of a so-called knowledge economy within which market transactions are facilitated or even driven by knowledge that is acquiring more of the properties of a commodity (Houghton & Sheehan, 2000). Corporations like General Electric (GE) spend $500 million on training and education every year, and overall $62.5 billion was budgeted for formal training by U.S. organisations in 1999 alone (Keegan, 2000). Corporations and individuals are more and more required to absorb and keep updated the new information through on-the-job or private training in order to stay competitive. Thus, lifelong learning has become a common practice for a wide range of careers ranging from engineers to sales representatives and doctors to farmers. Technology-based instruction, within which electronic learning, e-learning, is the largest component, was predicted to have 60 to 75% of share attributed to the corporate training market in 2004 (Keegan, 2000). One of the main advantages of e-learning over traditional instructor-led training is its ability to provide individualisation and adaptivity to suit the learner’s need. Adaptive learning systems can adapt the learning content and presentation according to the characteristics of the learners (Beaumont, 1994; Costa, et al., 1991; Jonassen & Wang, 1990), and they aim at providing individualised courses similar to having the one-to-one privilege from a private tutor.
Collaboration Among Multicultural Virtual Teams
Authors: Cagiltay Kursat , Bichelmeyer Barbara A. , Evans Michael A. , Paulus Trena M. , An Jae Soon
Published: May 2011

Due to the increasingly widespread use of various information and communication technologies (ICT), individuals from different countries and cultures are able to learn and work collaboratively in virtual environments (Mowshowitz, 1997). Electronic communication tools, such as chat, e-mail, and the World Wide Web, now make it possible for students and employees to communicate and problem solve with colleagues irrespective of geographical location (Scott, 2000). One of the major downsides of this form of collaboration, though, is that members of a virtual team do not have the advantage of face-to-face interaction and communication. Instead they must rely solely upon an assortment of computer-supported cooperative-learning and class-work tools and strategies—some planned, some ad hoc—to coordinate resources (Bichelmeyer, Cagiltay, Evans, Paulus, & An, 2004). Unfortunately, little research has been conducted to systematically investigate the dialectic between culture and computermediated communication (CMC). There is currently an insufficient understanding of how individual learning and work, cultural features, and CMC mutually influence one another in a purposeful, virtual setting.
Collaborative and Cooperative Learning
Authors: McInnerney Joanne M. , Roberts Tim S.
Published: May 2011

The last few years have seen massive changes in how undergraduate and postgraduate courses are delivered. It is now expected that much, or perhaps all, of the course content will be made available online. This change to online Web-based forms of delivery would seem to provide the ideal circumstances for non-traditional methods of teaching and learning to be re-examined. Online collaborative and cooperative learning techniques are not widely practiced in undergraduate tertiary education, despite their many widely recognized advantages – see for example Panitz (2000). However, interest in such techniques is increasing, as evidenced by the biennial Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) conferences and recent books on the topic by Barkley, Cross, & Major (2003) and Roberts (2003, 2004). An examination of the literature suggests that some authors writing about online collaborative learning are actually writing about online cooperative learning, and vice versa. This conflation of terms can make research results hard to assess. It, therefore, seems important to attempt to ascertain the similarities and differences between the two, so that theoretical and empirical research into their application in an online environment can be properly carried out and assessed.
Collaborative Learning in a Contribution-Oriented Pedagogy
Authors: Collis Betty , Moonen Jef
Published: May 2011

Collaborative learning is a specific approach within the broader context of pedagogy. Collaborative learning encourages student participation via peer interaction in the learning process. It encompasses a set of approaches to education, sometimes also called cooperative learning or small-group learning (NISE, 1997; Collis, 1994). Collaborative learning creates an environment “that involves students in doing things and thinking about the things they are doing” (Bonwell & Eison, 1991, p.2). Collaborative learning involves communication. From the early availability of computer-mediated communication (CMC), questions of appropriate and adequate pedagogies using such technologies were put forward; in particular, when students are working together in collaborative learning (Kaye, 1992; Turoff, 1991). Collaborative learning can also be connected with other computer technologies, such as educational software (Wegerif, 1996) and intelligent collaboration learning systems (McManus & Aiken, 1996), or serve as a mechanism to integrate; for instance, computer conferencing with live lectures on the Internet (Eisenstadt, Brayshaw, Hasemer, & Issroff, 1996). Olson and Olson (1996) are among those who study the use of collaborative technologies to facilitate the work of groups. Referring to the widespread tools based on network or Internet technologies (World Wide Web, computer conferencing, groupware or tools for computer-supported collaborative work – CSCW), Dillenbourg and Schneider (1995) emphasize that often the appearance of new technologies “reactivates the belief that technology per se enhances education, which repeatedly has shown to be wrong in the history of educational technology”. In this context, Romiszowski and Ravitz (1997) state that, “one of the most important areas for tactical research at the moment is to investigate the potential applications and specific methodologies for collaborative learning” (p. 758). Therefore, the question about how to use computer and network technologies in education, and in particular in the context of collaborative learning, is still very relevant. In this chapter, the authors respond by suggesting a specific approach making use of Web-based tools and collaborative learning within a contribution-oriented pedagogy.
Communication and Media Theory
Authors: Berg Gary A.
Published: May 2011

Communications theory dates to the Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle, but became a recognized academic field in the 1940s during World War II (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, & Russell, 1996). Media theorists have analyzed the development of new media and how they are connected to broader social evolution. These theories are useful to examine in regard to understanding computer learning environments as a new medium because they place it in a larger historical context. A tradition of scholarship focusing on communications effects led to research on media industries and military uses. Many scholars concentrate simply on the short-term effects of media (Klapper, 1960). However, others look at media more broadly, particularly in terms of the transmission of ideology. An important influence on media theory was the Department of Sociology at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s, where a theory showing the importance of communication in social life using ethnographic research methods to explore complex social interactions emerged.
Communities in Technology-Enhanced Environments for Learning
Authors: Pöysä Johanna , Lowyck Joost
Published: May 2011

The contemporary society addresses complex, interrelated, and interactive global situations to be faced by its citizens. Instead of pursuing solitary actions, this post-modern turn requires its actors to develop capacities to resituate their activities in collective unities and to successfully communicate their actions within these multiple local and global communities. Also in education, the concept of community continues to possess a positive image and the optimistic premises of how communication technologies may enable communities to grow have been widely discussed. For example, in higher education, educational practices (e.g. Virtual University) are more often fixed around Web-based collaborative learning environments, based on the broad frame of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) approach. It is put forward in this chapter that in higher education, technology-enhanced learning communities, if seen as an extension of the idea of Web-based collaborative learning environments, could be welcomed as timely and innovative educational practices - as relevant paths to successful collaborative learning.
Computer Assisted/Aided Language Learning
Authors: Laghos Andrew , Zaphiris Panayiotis
Published: May 2011

This entry provides a thorough introduction to computer- assisted and -aided language learning (CALL). It starts by providing the definition and history of CALL and associated relevant terms. Then, an existing CALL methodological framework is presented and discussed. This is then followed by an overview of the current state of CALL by citing some representative examples of its uses and discussing advantages and disadvantages of current CALL systems. The chapter concludes with a discussion of present and future research and commercial directions of CALL.
The Cooperation Solution for Universities
Authors: Knust Michaela , Hagenhoff Svenja
Published: May 2011

E-learning gained a significant foothold in the field of higher education in the US and Europe during the last decade of the 20th Century. For the last couple of years, media-based teaching has increasingly supplemented university lessons. However, the production and further development of e-learning materials have significant cost potentials, which are much higher than face-toface lectures (Seibt, 2001). Due to the lack of financial resources, state-run universities, in particular, need to find ways to finance the development and maintenance of such expensive, high-quality e-learning materials. Charging tuition fees is one commonly used method of financing higher education throughout Europe and the US (Eicher & Chevaillier, 2002b). In Germany, however, students do not have to pay tuition fees for their primary academic education at state-run universities. Only further education comes at a cost. Given the high demand for further education, we assume that we can potentially cross-subsidize the primary academic education with proceeds from further educational products and study programs.1 However, when considering intensified activities in the further education sector, one needs to verify whether the existing university structures are able to meet the challenges involved.
Cost-Effectiveness
Authors: Fisher Saul
Published: May 2011

Online education offers strong intrinsic potential for advancing and augmenting teaching and learning through broadening and deepening access. Proponents of online education further claim extrinsic potential – that it should be less costly and just as effective as traditional education, if not more so. They consider the instruction equally or more effective relative to such factors as the depth of course content presented, student outcomes and breadth of access (Duderstadt, 2000; Allen & Seaman, 2003; Gomory, 2001).1 Are these claims accurate? How would we gauge their accuracy? What data would we collect? How would we make sense of that data? As in medicine and other social domains, there is a long-standing tradition in research on education of measuring the comparative costs and benefits of different interventions or modes of operation. Prominent examples of such interventions as assessed in this manner have included curricular reform, personnel restructuring, special programs, infrastructure improvements and class size innovations. The goal of these measurements is to identify the best course of action by gauging the relative ratio of cost to benefit. Policy may then be informed by the results of those measurements. Cost-benefit (C/B) studies include a range of research that may focus on effectiveness, efficiency, utility or simply overall benefits. Policy concerns and other constraints on (or drivers of) research may favor one sort of C/B study over another. Nowhere is this clearer than in the case of online learning and technology, which by its nature is an excellent candidate for cost-effectiveness (C/E) research.
Creating an Electronic Student Teaching Portfolio
Authors: Shaw Patricia A. , Slick Susan
Published: May 2011

Over time, student and teacher portfolios have taken several forms for a variety of purposes. Initially, portfolios were created in many educational settings to document learning. Portfolios were used as one means of assessment in course work or for senior graduation exhibitions. As calls for educational reform continued to be heard in forums ranging from local school board offices to the Oval Office, teacher accountability has become an issue of paramount importance. Parents and politicians alike want assurance that the most competent teachers are providing quality educational experiences for students. Thus, teacher assessment has become a “hot” political topic throughout our country.