bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Aristides Quintilianus
Authors: Gibson Sophie
Published: December 2012

The musical theorist Aristides Quintilianus lived between the first and fourth centuriesCE, and there is a convincing argument for the later date (Mathiesen 1983: 1–57).
Aristotle, biology
Authors: Mouracade John
Published: December 2012

Aristotle (384–322BCE) was both the first, and until Charles Darwin, the most influential biologist.
Aristotle, cosmology
Authors: Zeyl Donald J.
Published: December 2012

Aristotle's account of the constituents and structure of the universe is principally developed in hisPhysics, On the Heavens, andOn Generation and Corruption.
Aristotle, psychology
Authors: Marmodoro Anna
Published: December 2012

Aristotle (384–322BCE), born in Stagira, in the northeast of Greece, was for twenty years a member ofplato'sAcademy in Athens (367–347).
Asklepiades of Bithynia
Authors: Rocca Julius
Published: December 2012

Although none of his works survive, Asklepiades of Cius (Prusias ad Mare) in Bithynia was one of the foremost physicians of the late Hellenistic era.
Berossos of Babylon
Authors: Verbrugghe Gerald P.
Published: December 2012

Berossos (ca. 330–ca. 270BCE) was a Babylonian priest, historian, astronomer‐astrologer, and inventor, who was born in southern Iraq under Alexander the Great.
Cardiovascular system
Authors: Rocca Julius
Published: December 2012

Greek medicine saw the body as containing a number of channels, passages, tubes, and cavities, whether these were the alimentary tract, the heart and vasculature, or the brain and nerves.
Demokedes of Kroton
Authors: Oberhelman Steven M.
Published: December 2012

Demokedes of Kroton (
fl
. sixth century
BCE
) was a famous physician, whose life, if we can trust Herodotus account (3.125–37), yields valuable information on early doctors in the Greek world.
Diagnosis, Greek and Roman
Authors: Hulskamp M. A. A.
Published: December 2012

Gr.diagnosis>diagignoskein; Lat.dignotio>dignoscere“to discern” – determination of the nature of the pathological condition from which a patient suffers.
Diocles of Karystos
Authors: Cronier Marie
Published: December 2012

Diocles of Karystos, in Euboea, was one of the most important Greek physicians in antiquity (ca. 400–300BCE), often known as “a younger Hippocrates.”
Dioscorides
Authors: Scarborough John
Published: December 2012

Dioscorides of Anazarbus (fl. ca. 70
CE
) is the author of a five‐book, enormously influential treatise in Greek on drugs and pharmacology, the all‐inclusive
Peri hules iatrikes
(Latinized as
De materia medica
).
Embryology
Authors: Kapparis Konstantinos
Published: December 2012

More than a dozen studies have survived in the corpus of ancient Greek medical authors dedicated to the study of prenatal life, the processes of fertilization, fetal development, and pregnancy.
Empedocles
Authors: Zeyl Donald J.
Published: December 2012

Empedocles (ca. 492–432
BCE
) was a Presocratic philosopher who, in response to Eleatic monism, postulated a plurality of ultimate constituents that make up the world.
Empiricism, medical
Authors: Rocca Julius
Published: December 2012

The Empiricists (
empeirikoi
) were so named as they stressed the value of experience (
empeiria
) over what they regarded as fruitless efforts to investigate the hidden causes of disease.
Enuma Anu Enlil
Authors: Loisel Anne‐Caroline Rendu
Published: December 2012

Enuma Anu Enlil (EAE) “When Anu and Enlil…” is the opening line with which the major series of celestial and atmospheric omens was known and named in ancient Mesopotamia.
Epidemic disease
Authors: Sallares Robert , Hirt Alfred
Published: December 2012

Descriptions of diseases are rare in texts from Pharaonic Egypt.
Eupalinos of Megara
Authors: Rihll T. E.
Published: December 2012

Eupalinos, son of Naustrophos, appears only once in the sources, in Herodotus 3.60. Here he is credited with the construction of the aqueduct which brought water from a constant spring on the north side of Mount Ampelos (now Kastro) to the city of Samos on its south side.
Geometry, Egyptian
Authors: Imhausen Annette
Published: December 2012

Within the Egyptian mathematical texts, it is not clear if “geometry” existed as a separate mathematical category.
Geoponica
Authors: Littlewood A. R.
Published: December 2012

The
Geoponica
is the sole surviving manual in Greek of agricultural and animal husbandry (and to a much lesser extent of horticulture).
Herakleides of Pontos
Authors: Bowen Alan C.
Published: December 2012

Herakleides of Pontos was an intellectual of the fourth centuryBCE, known and admired in antiquity for his literary writings, specifically for his dialogues which, so far as one can tell, were replete with myths and miracles.
Herophilos
Authors: Rocca Julius
Published: December 2012

Herophilos of Chalcedon (ca. 330 – ca. 260
BCE
), together with his younger contemporary Erasistratus, effectively helped lay the foundations for medicine as a scientific discipline.
Incommensurability
Authors: Heidlebaugh Nola J.
Published: December 2012

Incommensurability was originally a concept introduced by ancient Greek mathematicians to signify geometric findings like those described by Kuhn (1983: 679): “The hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle is incommensurable with its side or the circumference of a circle with its radius in the sense that there is no unit of length contained without residue an integral number of times in each member of the pair. There is thus no common measure.”
Kleomedes
Authors: Bowen Alan C.
Published: December 2012

Kleomedes was a philosopher, teacher, and author of theCaelestia, an astronomical digression in a series of lectures covering Stoic philosophy, which does not otherwise survive.
Krateuas
Authors: Scarborough John
Published: December 2012

Krateuas (ca. 100–60
BCE
) was famed as personal physician and drug compounder, in service to Mithradates VI of Pontos (120–63
BCE
), cited as the “rootcutter” (
ho rhizotomos
) by Dioscorides (
Pref
. 1 Wellmann) or
ho rhizotomikos
(Fol. 18r Cod.
Anic. Iul
. (512
CE
)).
Largus, Scribonius
Authors: Oberhelman Steven M.
Published: December 2012

Scribonius Largus (
fl
. mid‐first century
CE
), a physician who practiced at the court of the emperor Claudius, was the author of the
Compositiones
, a compendium of pharmacological therapeutics dedicated to the imperial freedman C.
Mathematics, Egyptian
Authors: Imhausen Annette
Published: December 2012

Mathematics must have played a key role in the development of ancient Egyptian culture. The social stratification which made it possible to develop high standards in art, architecture, and other cultural areas was only possible through a tight administration of resources using appropriate mathematical techniques.
Mathematics, Greece and Rome
Authors: Jones Alexander
Published: December 2012

Mathematics, which for early periods may be roughly defined as the manipulation of quantitative and spatial data, took several forms in the Greco‐Roman world. Commerce and public and private administration required some facility with number notations and arithmetic, units of measure, and calculation of areas and volumes. Most of this activity is undocumented, and we know surprisingly little, even about how the most basic arithmetical operations were performed with numbers in the several Greek and Roman numerical notations.
Medicine, Greek and Roman
Authors: Touwaide Alain
Published: December 2012

Greek and Roman medicine were much broader than the strict science (and practice) of human health care. Medicine encompassed a broad spectrum of components, from practical and intellectual activities to the human feeling of pain, well‐being, and other individual bodily and psychological experiences.
Methodism
Authors: Rocca Julius
Published: December 2012

Apart from Soranus'Gynaecologyand Caelius Aurelianus'Acute and Chronic Diseases, Methodism's legacy is fragmentary and embedded in hostile sources ranging, in terms of bias, from Celsus, to Pliny the Elder,, to Galen, for the last of whom all Methodists are arrogant, theoretically ignorant, disdainful of tradition, and boast that they can teach “the method” (hence their name) of medicine to anyone within six months. The strength of such propaganda has colored perceptions of Methodism, but, paradoxically, may reflect its popularity.
Mineralogy
Authors: Harrell James A.
Published: December 2012

The study of ancient mineralogy is concerned with the rocks and minerals used as building stones for temples, palaces, tombs, and city walls; ornamental stones for statues, sarcophagi, shrines, and vessels; gemstones for jewelry, amulets, and seals; and utilitarian stones for tools, weapons, and querns.
Mul.Apin
Authors: Hunger Hermann
Published: December 2012

Mul.Apin is one of the most importantCUNEIFORMtexts for our understanding of early Mesopotamian astronomy. This text (called “Plough Star” from itsincipit) is preserved in copies from the seventh centuryBCEand later, but some of its contents were probably compiled in the fourteenth centuryBCE.
Navigation (science)
Authors: Bay Stephen M.
Published: December 2012

Navigation, the science of maritime way finding, was particularly challenging in the era before the compass. The safest conditions for sailing in antiquity were those which permitted the vessel to travel within sight of land. Voyages during the winter months, when stormy conditions were frequent and daylight hours short, were avoided if possible.
Nikander of Kolophon
Authors: Clauss James J.
Published: December 2012

Nikander of Kolophon is the author of two extant poems:
Theriaca
and
Alexipharmaca
. Unfortunately, ancient testimony regarding his precise dates is contradictory.
Numbers, Egyptian
Authors: Imhausen Annette
Published: December 2012

The earliest evidence for writing from ancient Egypt includes numerical notations. Based on this, one might assume that the invention of script at the end of the fourth millenniumBCEcoincided with the invention of number notations.
Oribasios of Pergamon
Authors: Langslow David
Published: December 2012

Oribasios was a doctor and prolific medical compiler, ca. 320–390/400CE; personal physician to the emperor Julian (r. 361–363), to whose program to restore pagan culture Oribasios contributed (reportedly – but almost certainly not – the recipient of the last prophecy by Apollo's oracle in Delphi); a vital source of information about many lost medical writers.
Paleopathology
Authors: Fornaciari Gino
Published: December 2012

The word paleopathology, derived from the Greekpalaios,pathos, andlogos, meaning literally “study of ancient diseases,” was coined in 1892/3 by the German physicist R. W. Schufeldt and has appeared in theStandard Dictionaryof Funk and Wagnall since 1895. However, it was Sir Armand Ruffer who made the word popular, using it in his extensive studies on Egyptian mummies. Paleopathology can be defined as the discipline that studies the diseases of past populations through the examination of ancient human remains, both skeletonized and mummified.
Phaenomena
, Saving the
Authors: Smith A. Mark
Published: December 2012

The analytic technique of saving the phenomena, or saving the appearances, which supposedly harks back to
PLATO
, involves reducing observed irregularities or anomalies to regularity according to an underlying principle of simple uniformity.
Praxagoras of Kos
Authors: Cronier Marie
Published: December 2012

Praxagoras was a Greek physician from the island of Kos (fl. end of the fourth century–beginning of third centuryBCE).
Pytheas of Massalia
Authors: Kaplan Philip
Published: December 2012

Pytheas (ca. 350–320) was a geographer, an astronomer, and an explorer from the Greek city of Massalia.
Sciences, exact
Authors: Steele John M.
Published: December 2012

The term “exact sciences” is defined in theOxford English Dictionaryas “those which admit of absolute precision in their results; esp. the mathematical sciences.”
Stephanus ofAthens
Authors: Touwaide Alain
Published: December 2012

Greek manuscripts contain medical works ascribed to a Stephanus qualified asAthenianorphilosophos(and in one of them (Ambros.L 110 sup.) as philosopher and physician without reference to an origin).
Timocharis
Authors: Evans James
Published: December 2012

Timocharis was a Greek astronomer, active at Alexandria from 295–272
BCE
. His observations, cited by Ptolemy in the
Almagest
, are the oldest extant, dated observations by a Greek astronomer, except for the summer solstice of 432
BCE
observed by Meton and Euctemon.
Transportation technology
Authors: Koloski‐Ostrow Ann Olga
Published: December 2012

Within the last fifty years or so there have been some revolutionary discoveries in Greek and Roman transportation technologies. Throughout the Greek and Roman periods, the need to move farm products and animals, people, and goods from one place to another encouraged considerable innovation over time.
Age
Authors: Timmer Jan
Published: December 2012

Age is always both a universal physical process and a social construct. In the former sense, age, like gender or ethnicity, serves as a common starting point for social inequality and as a criterion for classifying communities; in the second, perceptions and evaluations of age, as well as the social roles associated with different stages of life, vary between different societies and across history (Hoppe and Wulf 1997).
Ancestors, worship of
Authors: Walter Uwe
Published: December 2012

Venerating the memory of the ancestorsin the sphere of home and family is a significant feature of Greek and Roman aristocracies.
Associations, Greek and Roman
Authors: Liu Jinyu
Published: December 2012

Many associations were voluntary and private organizations of some durability, with formal structural features such as a name, magistrates, member lists, by‐laws, admission requirements such as entrance fees, some sort of common treasury, meeting places calledschola, domus, templum, oikos, and so on, and benefactors and/or patrons.
Bread
Authors: Rohde Dorothea
Published: December 2012

Bread was a staple food that, together with wine, formed the basis of the daily diet.
Brother–sister marriage
Authors: Huebner Sabine R.
Published: December 2012

The avoidance of sexual relationships between full siblings is considered by sociobiologists to be a universal cultural norm across societies.
Bulla
Authors: Bobou Olympia
Published: December 2012

The
bulla
was a hollowed‐out round amulet suspended by a leather cord or a fabric band. Originally Etruscan, it was worn around a free‐born child's neck in the Roman period. It had two functions, magical‐protective and symbolic. The amulet could contain various protective spells or charms, which would safeguard the child's health during the early years of his or her life. It could also serve as a visible marker of a child's social (freeborn) status, thus protecting him or her from violence and sexual predators.
Burial clubs
Authors: Liu Jinyu
Published: December 2012

Burial clubs can be a misnomer in ancient social history. Very few ancient associations were founded for the sole purpose of performing burials.
Cannibalism
Authors: Warburton David A. , Felton Debbie
Published: December 2012

The archaeological and literary evidence from antiquity for human cannibalism (anthropophagy, the consumption of the flesh of other humans) suggests varying practices and attitudes. Despite many references to cannibalism in surviving writings, archaeological evidence from antiquity remains slim. Although archaeological work has provided sporadic indications of ritualistic cannibalism over the millennia, such scarce physical evidence is viewed as indecisive, especially because of both its rarity and the derogatory views of cannibalism expressed in ancient texts.
Cognates, cognatio
Authors: Harders Ann‐Cathrin
Published: December 2012

Cognates are related to each other by common descent on the father's or on the mother's side.Cognatiois bilateral as opposed to unilateralagnatiowhich privileges patrilineage.
Corporal punishment
Authors: Rohmann Dirk
Published: December 2012

Corporal punishment was a common form of penalty in ancient criminal law, particularly with regard to the lower strata of society.
Dextrarum iunctio
Authors: Müller Sabine
Published: December 2012

In Rome, the joining of the right hands of two parties, known as
dextrarum iunctio
, was a flexible motif with several connotations. Besides the themes of meeting and parting, the handclasp signified harmony, affinity, friendship, and loyalty (Tac.
Hist
. 1.54.1, 2.8.2). As the right hand was consecrated to the deity of fidelity, in scenes of a political nature the handclasp represented political concord at the conclusion of a contract.
Dominus(master of the house)
Authors: Naerebout Frederick G.
Published: December 2012

The original meaning of the worddominuswas “master of the house,” derived fromdomus, “house.” The position of the male head of a household, itsdominusor Paterfamilias, was enshrined in Roman law and custom.
Doppelurkunde
Authors: Yiftach‐Firanko Uri
Published: December 2012

The double document is the earliest standardized type of Greek legal document from Egypt, dating to the late fourth centuryBCE.
Dreams, Greece and Rome
Authors: Macalister Suzanne
Published: December 2012

At one and the same time, the Greeks and Romans viewed dreams as both external entities and internal processes, both significant and insignificant with regard to the unknown.
Extranei
Authors: Isaac Benjamin
Published: December 2012

“
Extranei
” is used here as a term to describe those who were not considered to be a part of the
populus Romanus
during the Principate and later Roman Empire.
Familia Caesaris
Authors: Müller Sabine
Published: December 2012

The members of thefamilia Caesariswere the slaves, freedmen, and freedwomen in the service of the emperor in Rome and the Roman provinces.
Femininity
Authors: Hallett Judith P.
Published: December 2012

The English abstract noun “femininity” has no counterpart in Classical Greek or Latin.
Foreigners, Greece and Rome
Authors: Isaac Benjamin
Published: December 2012

Attitudes toward foreigners were markedly different in Greece and Rome, and in both cases a distinction must be made between the responses to foreigners actually living among the Greeks and Romans, that is, Immigrants and minorities, and foreign peoples, that is, those from neighboring and more distant provinces.
Graffiti
Authors: Hahn Johannes
Published: December 2012

The term is derived from the Italian word
sgraffiato
(“scratched“), and conventionally used for any kind of text or drawing scratched, scrawled, painted, or marked in any manner on material not primarily designed for writing (such as wax tablets) with a sharp object – although sometimes chalk, coal, or paint were used (
dipinti, tituli picti;
their inclusion is sometimes questioned, but practical and analytical reasons would suggest their use).
Household, head of
Authors: Pudsey April
Published: December 2012

Head of household is an important role within the family and society and has a number of demographic, socioeconomic, and cultural implications; the obligations and relevance of this role can be seen in the textual, archaeological and epigraphic materials from the societies of the ancient Near East, Han China, and the Greco‐Roman world.
Honores
Authors: Rohmann Dirk
Published: December 2012

Honores
(plural of the Latin word
honor/honos, “
honor”) usually refers to Roman magistrates who were honorary both in the sense that these titles conferred a high degree of honor, and that they were limited to, and affordable for, wealthy citizens only.
Imagines
Authors: Severy‐Hoven Beth
Published: December 2012

Imagines, orimagines maiorum, “images of elders,” were Roman masks of ancestors who had achieved high public office.
Kinship terms, used metaphorically
Authors: Harders Ann‐Cathrin
Published: December 2012

In every human society, kinship is one of the most basic principles of social organization.
Matchmaker
Authors: Noy David
Published: December 2012

The Greek termpromnestria(occasionallypromnestris,proxenetria) normally refers to a female matchmaker. Her role included making tentative approaches on behalf of a family seeking to arrange a marriage, recommending and reporting on potential spouses, and carrying out negotiations between families.
Midwife
Authors: Kleibl Kathrin
Published: December 2012

Midwifery and obstetrics are two distinct but overlapping fields of medical practice and knowledge which focus on the care of pregnant and parturient women.
Misogyny
Authors: Watson Patricia
Published: December 2012

Throughout Greek and Roman literature, there is a persistent strain of misogyny, in the form of either generalizing negative statements about women, or attacks on women for inappropriate behavior: prominent themes include adultery or practices which were considered conducive to adultery, such as drinking to excess or displaying too keen an interest in self‐adornment (seeAdultery; Cosmetics, Greece and Rome).
Pacta dotalia
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno
Published: December 2012

The
pacta dotalia
were agreements between both
coniuges
, or their
patres familias
, which modified particular elements of the dowry.
Pornography
Authors: Clarke John R.
Published: December 2012

The word “pornography” in ancient Greece and Rome existed, but with a very different meaning from our own: the wordpornographosdesignated a “whore‐writer,” a man who wrote about famous prostitutes.
Pregnancy
Authors: Baker Patricia A.
Published: December 2012

The existing Greco‐Roman literature on pregnancy is limited in comparison to related subjects, such as embryology, procreation, and childbirth.
Race and racism
Authors: Isaac Benjamin
Published: December 2012

There used to be a consensus that racism originated in modern times; conventional wisdom denied that there was any race hatred in the ancient world.
Scribes, Greece and Rome
Authors: Haines‐Eitzen Kim
Published: December 2012

In a world characterized by low levels of literacy and an increasing employment of writing – in, for example, public administration and governance, legal transactions, private correspondence – scribes were both ubiquitous and unremarkable.
Sculpture, Greece and Rome
Authors: Masséglia Jane E. A.
Published: December 2012

For Classical archaeologists, “sculpture” describes any intentionally modeled image, whether carved, engraved, molded, or struck.
Sex and sexuality, Greece
Authors: Deacy Susan
Published: December 2012

“Everyone who reads an ancient Greek text,” Halperin explains, “and certainly anyone who studies ancient Greek culture, quickly realizes that the ancient Greeks were quite weird, by our standards, when it came to sex” (2002: 2).
Ulpianic life table
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno
Published: December 2012

The Ulpianic life table is mentioned in an enigmatic fragment of theDigest(Dig. 35.2.68 pr.; Macer (third centuryCE) 2ad leg. vic her. = Paling. 1.571) excerpted from the third‐century commentary of Aemilius Macer on thelex Iulia de vicessima hereditatum(which was enacted under Augustus in the first centuryCE, around year 6).
Wet‐nurse, wet‐nursing
Authors: Hin Saskia
Published: December 2012

Wet‐nurses (Latin:
nutrices
; Greek:
trophoi
) and wet‐nursing are well attested for the Greco‐Roman world, and their use seems to have been a cultural norm. Both documentary sources (papyri, inscriptions) and literary evidence testify of the entrusting of infants to wet‐nurses (or dry‐nurses; our sources rarely distinguish between the two). Their primary task was to feed the young child or children handed over to their care. Initially they did so by giving the breast; after six months, other “dry” foods could be given in addition.
Mimus
Authors: Puk Alexander
Published: December 2012

The
mimus
, designating both a theatrical genre and its performer, is attested by a huge number of testimonies in literary works, inscriptions, papyri, or image carriers for over 1,500 years (e.g., Bonaria 1965: 169–274; Roueché 2002).
Adad‐
n
irari
III
Authors: Cogan Mordechai
Published: December 2012

Adad‐nirari III, son of Shamshi‐Adad V and Sammuramat (the Semiramis of Greco‐Roman legend), was king of Assyria (r. 810–783
BCE
).
Adapa
Authors: Sasson Jack
Published: December 2012

Adapa was one of seven
apkallus,
primordial and antediluvian sages in cuneiform lore who came out of the sea to instruct humankind and remained in Mesopotamian consciousness for over two thousand years.
Ahab of Israel
Authors: Cline Eric H.
Published: December 2012

Ahab ruled the northern kingdom of Israel from about 873–852BCE. The son of Omri, an army commander who had seized the throne a decade or so earlier, Ahab was detested by the later writers of the Hebrew Bible though not necessarily by the people of Israel.
Amarna letters
Authors: Mynářová Jana
Published: December 2012

The Amarna letters are a collection of Cuneiform tablets discovered in the ruins of ancient Akhetaten (“The Horizon of the Sun‐disc” or “The Horizon of Aten”; modern Tell el‐Amarna, in Middle Egypt.
Anitta
Authors: Beckman Gary
Published: December 2012

In the late eighteenth centuryBCE, Anitta, ruling from his capital at Kanesh (Nesa), established a large territorial state in centralanatolia.
Aššur‐uballit I
Authors: Cancik‐Kirschbaum Eva
Published: December 2012

Aššur‐uballiṭ I (whose name means “(the god) Aššur (Ashur) has kept alive”), succeeded his father Erība‐Adad I on the Assyrian throne and reigned from 1353/2 to 1318/7
BCE
.
Beer, ancient Near East
Authors: Homan Michael M.
Published: December 2012

Beer, a fermented beverage produced from malted wheat or barley, water, and yeast, was a dietary staple in most ancient Near Eastern civilizations. Malting the grains, whereby the starches transform to sugars, increased the caloric value of the harvest, and because the alcohol killed many bacteria, beer was safer to drink than water. In antiquity, beer was often flavored with fruits and spices, though hops, today an essential ingredient in beer, were absent, as they did not grow in the Near East.
Chariotry, ancient Near East and Egypt
Authors: Raulwing Peter , Burmeister Stefan
Published: December 2012

The ancient Near Eastern chariot is defined as a light, two‐wheeled, horse‐drawn vehicle with spoked wheels and a D‐shaped floor, permitting a chariot driver and charioteer to stand abreast. It was used mainly for warfare, but also for hunting and ceremonial occasions. Chariot racing, which played a significant role in Greek and Indo‐Iranian cultures, is hardly in evidence in the ancient Near East.
Ecbatana (Hamadan)
Authors: Stronach David
Published: December 2012

An agreeable summer climate, plentiful water supplies, and a strategic location on the east‐west highroad linking the Iranian Plateau with Mesopotamia have combined to make Hamadan one of Iran's most enduring cities.
Ekallatum
Authors: Villard Pierre
Published: December 2012

The name Ekallatum was borne by at least two towns. The best known was situated in the Tigris Valley, about 20 or 30 km north of Ashur, according to an itinerary of the Old Babylonian period (early second millennium
BCE
).
Enheduanna
Authors: Michalowski Piotr
Published: December 2012

Enheduanna, daughter of Sargon Of Akkad (ca.2300
BCE
), was high priestess of the moon god Nanna (see Sin (Nanna)) in the city of
UR
.
Eshnunna
Authors: Reichel Clemens , Hirt Alfred
Published: December 2012

The ancient city of Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar) on the lower Diyala River flourished during the third and early second millennia
BCE
; its tutelary deity was Tishpak.
Gilgamesh, Epic of
Authors: Worthington Martin
Published: December 2012

In Mesopotamian tradition, Gilgamesh was an ancient, part‐divine king of Uruk. He is listed in this capacity in the Sumerian king list. The name “Gilgamesh” is almost always spelled in Sumerograms; that Akkadian speakers pronounced it thus is known from sources outside the
Epic
. The Sumerian form of the name is BILGAMESH.
Gudea
Authors: Lafont Bertrand
Published: December 2012

Gudea ruled the city‐state of, in the south of Sumer, as the principal member of what is conventionally called the second Dynasty of Lagash. He reigned during the period between the collapse of the empire of (ca. 2150BCE) and the rise of the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2100;.
Hanigalbat
Authors: Wilhelm Gernot
Published: December 2012

Hanigalbat was the name used for the Kingdom of Mittani in Akkadian sources, especially during the late phase of its history.
Hattusili I and his dynasty
Authors: Beckman Gary
Published: December 2012

Considered by later Hittite kings the founder of their line, Hattusili I (late seventeenth centuryBCE) was in actuality preceded by at least two earlier, poorly documented generations of rulers in his family.
Ishbi‐Erra and the Isin Dynasty
Authors: Garfinkle Steven
Published: December 2012

Išbi‐Erra (Ishbi‐Erra) was a general who served under the last king of the Ur Iii Dynasty (ca. twenty‐first century bce).
Kizzuwatna
Authors: Miller Jared L.
Published: December 2012

Kizzuwatna was a land corresponding approximately to Iron Age Qu(w)e (seeQue) and classicalCiliciain southeasternAnatolia, that is roughly the drainage area of the Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers (Hawkins and Symington 2007).
Labarna
Authors: Goedegebuure Petra
Published: December 2012

Labarna, with its variant Tabarna, was a royal title borne by all Hittite kings, with the exception of Suppiluliuma I and Mursili II.
Lugalzagesi
Authors: Schrakamp Ingo
Published: December 2012

Lugalzagesi, prince of Umma who became king of Uruk, was the last independent Sumerian ruler before Sargon of Akkad conquered Sumer around the turn of the twenty‐fourth century
BCE
.
Marduk
Authors: Oshima Takayoshi
Published: December 2012

Marduk was the god of Babylon, and his main temple was Esagil (House Whose Top Is High). The Ziqqurrat of Babylon, Etemenanki (House, Foundation Platform of Heaven and Earth), was probably the inspiration for the biblical Tower of Babel.
Meluhha
Authors: Crawford Harriet
Published: December 2012

The toponym Meluhha is found in cuneiform texts of the mid‐ to late third millennium
BCE
. An inscription of King Sargon of Akkad states that the boats of Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha docked at the quays of Akkad.
Mursili I
Authors: Beckman Gary
Published: December 2012

Still a child when he succeeded his adoptive father Hattusili I as king of Hatti, Mursili I (early sixteenth centuryBCE) was at first apparently guided in rule by the Hittite assembly and perhaps by his uncle(?) Pimpira.
Nebuchadnezzar I
Authors: Abraham Kathleen
Published: December 2012

Nebuchadnezzar I (Nabû‐kudurrī‐uṣur, “Nabû, protect my heir!”), king of Babylon (r. 1125–1104
BCE
), was the fourth and most important ruler of the 2nd Dynasty of Isin (ca. 1157–1026).
NebuchadnezzarII
Authors: Joannès Francis
Published: December 2012

Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562BCE), who succeeded his father Nabopolassar as king of Babylon, began his career as chief administrator in the temple of Ištar of Uruk.
Purušhanda
Authors: Veenhof Klaas R.
Published: December 2012

Purušhanda is the name of an ancient city in Anatolia that is attested from ca. 1950–1200.
Que
Authors: Mora Clelia
Published: December 2012

Que is the name the Assyrian sources give to the Cilician plain starting in the reign of Shalmaneser III in the ninth centuryBCE.
Shubat‐Enlil
Authors: Villard Pierre
Published: December 2012

The city of Shubat‐Enlil, or Sehna (modern Tell Leilan), is situated on the Wadi Garra, an eastern tributary of the upper Habur, about 30 km southeast of the modern town of Qamishliya.
Sippar
Authors: Leick Gwendolyn
Published: December 2012

Sippar was an important city in central Mesopotamia, built on the Euphrates at the point where the “Land between the Rivers” attained its narrowest width, as the Euphrates and Tigris approach within 40 km of each other.
Tiglath‐pileser I
Authors: Cancik‐Kirschbaum Eva
Published: December 2012

Tukulti‐apil‐Ešarra I, the biblical version of whose name (meaning “my support is the heir of Ešarra,” that is, the god Ninurta) is anglicized as Tiglath‐pileser, ruled as king of Assyria from 1114–1076BCE.
Uruinimgina
Authors: Schrakamp Ingo
Published: December 2012

Uruinimgina (or Urukagina, Irikagina, Iri'inimgina; see Frayne 2007: 245f.) ruled Lagash for eight years in the late twenty‐fourth centuryBCE, before he was defeated by Lugalzagesi of Umma, who was in turn vanquished by Sargon of Akkad.
Zimri‐Lim of Mari
Authors: Sasson Jack
Published: December 2012

A contemporary of Hammurabi of Babylon, Zimri‐Lim ruled at Mari (Tell Hariri) for fourteen years (ca. 1775–1761BCE).
Shalmaneser III
Authors: Cogan Mordechai
Published: December 2012

Shalmaneser III, son of Ashurnasirpal II, was king of Assyria (859–824BCE)
Umman‐manda
Authors: Raulwing Peter
Published: December 2012

The Akkadian compound Umman‐manda (literally “troops of Manda”), one of cuneiform literature's stock of ethnographic terms, is used in various ancient Near Eastern texts, including omens and historical compositions, from the second and first millennia
BCE
.
Diet and dental topography in pitheciine seed predators
Authors: Ledogar Justin A. , Winchester Julia M. , St. Clair Elizabeth M. , Boyer Doug M.
Published: December 2012

Pitheciines (Pithecia,Chiropotes, andCacajao) are a specialized clade of Neotropical seed predators that exhibit postcanine teeth with low and rounded cusps and highly crenulated occlusal surface enamel. Data on feeding ecology show thatPitheciaconsumes proportionally more leaves than other pitheciine species, and comparative studies demonstrate its greater molar relief and relative shearing potential. However, data on pitheciine food mechanics show thatPitheciamasticates seeds with greater crushing resistance than those preferred byChiropotes. This variation predicts an opposing morphology characterized by low and more rounded occlusal surfaces inPithecia. We build on previous research using new methods for molar surface shape quantification by examining pitheciine second molar shearing crest length, occlusal relief, surface complexity, and surface curvature relative to nonseed specializing platyrrhines and within the context of the observed interspecific variation in pitheciine feeding ecology. Consistent with the previous analyses, our findings demonstrate that pitheciine molars exhibit low shearing, relief, and curvature compared with nonseed predators, independent of phylogeny. Pitheciines also exhibit highly “complex” occlusal topography that promotes the efficient breakdown of tough seed tissues. Overall,Pithecia,Chiropotes, andCacajaoshare a similar topographic pattern, suggesting adaptation to foods with similar structural and/or mechanical properties. However,Cacajaodiffers in surface complexity, which reflects some variation in its feeding ecology. Contrary to the predictions,PitheciaandChiropotesdo not differ in any of the topographic variables examined. The range of demands imposed on the postcanine teeth ofPitheciamight therefore select for an average topography, one that converges on that ofChiropotes. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Probiotics as potential biotherapeutics in the management of type 2 diabetes – prospects and perspectives
Authors: Panwar Harsh , Rashmi Hogarehalli Mallappa , Batish Virender Kumar , Grover Sunita
Published: December 2012

Diabetes mellitus is a looming epidemic worldwide, affecting almost all major sections of society, creating burdens on global health and economy. A large number of studies have identified a series of multiple risk factors such as genetic predisposition, epigenetic changes, unhealthy lifestyle, and altered gut microbiota that cause increased adiposity, β‐cell dysfunction, hyperglycemia, hypercholesterolemia, adiposity, dyslipidaemia, metabolic endotoxemia, systemic inflammation, intestinal permeability (leaky gut), defective secretion of incretins and oxidative stress associated with type 2 diabetes (T2D). Recent studies have proposed multifactorial interventions including dietary manipulation in the management of T2D. The same interventions have also been recommended by many national and international diabetes associations. These studies are aimed at deciphering the gut microbial influence on health and disease. Interestingly, results from several genomic, metagenomic and metabolomic studies have provided substantial information to target gut microbiota by dietary interventions for the management of T2D. Probiotics particularly lactobacilli and bifidobacteria have recently emerged as the prospective biotherapeutics with proven efficacy demonstrated in various in vitro and in vivo animal models adequately supported with their established multifunctional roles and mechanism of action for the prevention and disease treatment. The dietary interventions in conjunction with probiotics – a novel multifactorial strategy to abrogate progression and development of diabetes – hold considerable promise through improving the altered gut microbial composition and by targeting all the possible risk factors. This review will highlight the new developments in probiotic interventions and future prospects for exploring probiotic therapy in the prevention and control of lifestyle diseases like T2D. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Applicability of near‐infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) for determination of crude protein content in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) leaves
Authors: Towett Erick K. , Alex Merle , Shepherd Keith D. , Polreich Severin , Aynekulu Ermias , Maass Brigitte L.
Published: December 2012

There is uncertainty on how generally applicable near‐infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) calibrations are across genotypes and environments, and this study tests how well a single calibration performs across a wide range of conditions. We also address the optimization of NIRS to perform the analysis of crude protein (CP) content in a variety of cowpea accessions (n = 561) representing genotypic variation as well as grown in a wide range of environmental conditions in Tanzania and Uganda. The samples were submitted to NIRS analysis and a predictive calibration model developed. A modified partial least‐squares regression with cross‐validation was used to evaluate the models and identify possible spectral outliers. Calibration statistics for CP suggests that NIRS can predict this parameter in a wide range of cowpea leaves from different agro‐ecological zones of eastern Africa with high accuracy (R2cal = 0.93; standard error of cross‐validation = 0.74). NIRS analysis improved when a calibration set was developed from samples selected to represent the range of spectral variability. We conclude from the present results that this technique is a good alternative to chemical analysis for the determination of CP contents in leaf samples from cowpea in the African context, as one of the main advantages of NIRS is the large number of compounds that can be measured at once in the same sample, thus substantially reducing the cost per analysis. The current model is applicable in predicting the CP content of young cowpea leaves for human nutrition from different agro‐ecological zones and genetic materials, as cowpea leaves are one of the popular vegetables in the region.
Extranodal marginal zone B‐cell lymphoma of the lung: experience with fludarabine and mitoxantrone‐containing regimens
Authors: Zinzani Pier Luigi , Pellegrini Cinzia , Gandolfi Letizia , Casadei Beatrice , Derenzini Enrico , Broccoli Alessandro , Quirini Federica , Argnani Lisa , Pileri Stefano , Celli Monica , Fanti Stefano , Poletti Venerino , Stefoni Vittorio , Baccarani Michele
Published: December 2012

Bronchial‐associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) lymphoma is an extranodal primary pulmonary lymphoma. The optimal therapy for this rare disease is still debated, and few heterogeneous data are available in literature. The aim of our study was to critically review data of patients with BALT lymphoma treated in first‐line therapy with fludarabine and mitoxantrone‐containing regimens (with or without rituximab) to investigate the effectiveness and the safety of this approach and patients' survival. An observational retrospective study was performed on homogenous clinical data from 17 patients with biopsy‐proven diagnosis of BALT. All the patients were treated with fludarabine and mitoxantrone‐containing regimen therapy. Radiological findings were also reviewed to assess the role of 18fluoro‐deoxyglucose positron emission tomography in the initial assessment and in the monitoring of this extranodal lymphoma. A high percentage of response was observed: 82.3% of patients achieved a complete response, 11.8% a partial response. Furthermore, a very remarkable progression‐free survival (71%) and overall survival (100%) were estimated at 14 years. No relevant toxicities were registered. Our results support the use of fludarabine and mitoxantrone‐containing regimens as first‐line therapy in the treatment of BALT lymphoma even if further data are necessary to consolidate our findings. Positron emission tomography scanning may provide additional valuable information in the assessment of BALT lymphoma. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Histamine synergistically promotes bFGF‐induced angiogenesis by enhancing VEGF production via H1 receptor
Authors: Lu Qian , Wang Chong , Pan Rong , Gao Xinghua , Wei Zhifeng , Xia Yufeng , Dai Yue
Published: December 2012

Histamine, a major mediator present in mast cells that is released into the extracellular milieu upon degranulation, is well known to possess a wide range of biological activities in several classic physiological and pathological processes. However, whether and how it participates in angiogenesis remains obscure. In the present study, we observed its direct and synergistic action with basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), an important inducer of angiogenesis, on in vitro angiogenesis models of endothelial cells. Data showed that histamine (0.1, 1, 10 µM) itself was absent of direct effects on the processes of angiogenesis, including the proliferation, migration, and tube formation of endothelial cells. Nevertheless, it could concentration‐dependently enhance bFGF‐induced angiogenesis as well as production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) from endothelial cells. The synergistic effect of histamine on VEGF production could be reversed by pretreatments with diphenhydramine (H1‐receptor antagonist), SB203580 (selective p38 mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) inhibitor) and L‐NAME (nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor), but not with cimetidine (H2‐receptor antagonist) and indomethacin (cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitor). Moreover, histamine could augment bFGF‐incuced phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα, a key factor accounting for the activation and translocation of nuclear factor κB (NF‐κB) in endothelial cells. These findings indicated that histamine was able to synergistically augment bFGF‐induced angiogenesis, and this action was linked to VEGF production through H1‐receptor and the activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), p38 MAPK, and IκBα in endothelial cells. J. Cell. Biochem. 114: 1009–1019, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Risk of waitlist mortality in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis and bacterial cholangitis
Authors: Goldberg David S. , Camp Amanda , Martinez-Camacho Alvaro , Forman Lisa , Fortune Brett , Reddy Rajender K.
Published: December 2012

Patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) are at increased risk for bacterial cholangitis because of biliary strictures and bile stasis. A subset of PSC patients suffer from repeated episodes of bacterial cholangitis, which can lead to frequent hospitalizations and impaired quality of life. Although waitlist candidates with PSC and bacterial cholangitis frequently receive exception points and/or are referred for living donor transplantation, the impact of bacterial cholangitis on waitlist mortality is unknown. We performed a retrospective cohort study of all adult waitlist candidates with PSC who were listed for initial transplantation between February 27, 2002 and June 1, 2012 at the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Colorado–Denver. During this period, 171 PSC patients were waitlisted for initial transplantation. Before waitlisting, 38.6% (66/171) of the patients had a history of bacterial cholangitis, whereas 28.0% (44/157) of the patients with at least 1 Model for End-Stage Liver Disease update experienced cholangitis on the waitlist. During follow-up, 30 patients (17.5%) were removed from the waitlist for death or clinical deterioration, with 46.7% (14/30) developing cholangiocarcinoma. Overall, 12 of the 82 waitlist candidates (14.6%) who ever had an episode of cholangitis were removed for death or clinical deterioration, whereas 18 of the 89 candidates (20.2%) without cholangitis were removed (P = 0.34 for a comparison of the 2 groups). No patients were removed because of bacterial cholangitis. In multivariate competing-risk models, a history of bacterial cholangitis was not associated with an increased risk of waitlist removal for death or clinical deterioration (subhazard ratio = 0.67, 95% confidence interval = 0.65–0.70, P < 0.001). In summary, waitlist transplant candidates with PSC and bacterial cholangitis do not have an increased risk of waitlist mortality. The data call into question the systematic granting of exception points or referral for living donor transplantation due to a perceived risk of increased waitlist mortality.
A mechanism for the addition of ethylene to nickel bis‐dithiolene
Authors: Shibl Mohamed F. , Dang Li , Raju Rajesh K. , Hall Michael B. , Brothers Edward N.
Published: December 2012

Density functional theory calculations predict a new lower energy route for the formation of the desired interligand addition product from the reaction between ethylene and nickel bis(dithiolene). The new route involves the initial binding of ethylene along the nickel–sulfur bond. The barrier heights for adding ethylene along this bond for the neutral and anionic nickel complexes are compared to each other as well as to a previously published previous mechanism. Selected structural parameters of the studied species have been analyzed to highlight the structural change on specific reactions. It was found that the ethylene/nickel bis‐dithiolene reaction occurs preferably via the nickel–sulfur bond of the neutral species, forming a complex which then rearranges to a desired interligand adduct via a low barrier. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Cleanliness of Low Carbon Aluminum‐Killed Steels during Secondary Refining Processes
Authors: Yang Wen , Wang Xinhua , Zhang Lifeng , Shan Qinglin , Liu Xuefeng
Published: December 2012

Efficient secondary refining process is necessary for massive and stable production of low carbon aluminum‐killed (LCAK) steels. Plant trials were performed to investigate the cleanliness of steels. Characteristics of composition, cleanliness, and inclusions of LCAK steel during different secondary refining processes, including LF, CAS, RH‐LIT, and RH, were studied and compared. The results showed that CAS, RH‐LIT, and RH processes had better control of low carbon, silicon, and nitrogen than LF process. High cleanliness of LCAK steels could be achieved by all the mentioned refining processes. It was concluded that the total oxygen (T.O.) should be <35 ppm to reduce the amount of inclusions and reach the level of clean steels. The removal rate of inclusions during RH‐LIT and RH processes was much higher than that of LF and CAS. The T.O. content and the amounts of inclusions during CAS, RH‐LIT, and RH could be quickly decreased to a low value within 10 min. The results showed that CAS and RH‐LIT as well as RH refining processes can produce LCAK steels that meet the requirements of high efficient, low cost, clean, and stable production, while LF is more suitable for the heats with poor control of end point of BOF, and for the process with calcium treatment to control sulfur content and lower the clogging of Submerged Entry Nozzle during thin slab continuous casting.