bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Population Pyramid
Authors: Witt Vinetta Goodwin
Published: March 2016

A population pyramid is a graphic presentation of a population distribution. The shape of the graph illustrates the age structure of the population. The age structure is determined primarily by the fertility rates and mortality rates within the population. Population pyramids can provide an indication of the status of a nation's level of development and enable predictions of the transitions in the population.
Nonmarital Births in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Mitchell Katherine Stamps
Published: March 2016

Nonmarital fertility has increased dramatically since the 1960s. About 41 percent of US children are born to unmarried parents. There is substantial variation in the nonmarital birth rate by age, race/ethnicity, income, and educational attainment. On average, couples who have children outside marriage are more disadvantaged than couples who marry before their children are born. The majority of nonmarital births today occur within cohabitation. The rise in nonmarital births has accompanied other family changes, such as delayed marriage and growing cohabitation, which together constitute the second demographic transition. Children born to unmarried parents are more likely to experience family structure instability and poor economic outcomes compared to children born to married parents.
Marriage Rates
Authors: Silva Diogo , Goulart Pedro , Obreshkova Evgeniya
Published: March 2016

Marriage rates have shown short‐term and long‐term fluctuations over time. Particularly since the early 1980s, a decreasing pattern of marriage rates in most developed western societies seems to be emerging. Nevertheless, marriage still exerts an important influence in people's lives, particularly in less developed societies. This entry reviews some of the factors behind the decrease in marriage rates. It is suggested that women's educational levels and work opportunities, cultural factors, cohabitation, and imbalanced sex ratios have played a major role in the decline of marriage rates.
T
imor‐
L
este, Families in
Authors: Seixas Paulo Castro
Published: March 2016

This entry presents an overview of the family in Timor‐Leste, a young country with a rich history and a culture in the process of social change. Within the alliance system of families in Timor‐Leste, marriage is a continuous negotiation between traditional and modern views, the latter of which focuses more on the conjugal relationship. The first demographic transition is just emerging, as reflected in changes in fertility and in the significance of children in the family context. The place of women is also being reevaluated and the roles of single, separated, divorced, and widowed women being reconsidered. The family in Timor‐Leste is a core area of negotiation, through which a plurality of traditions are being transformed to accommodate modernity through a process of cultural translation.
Islam and Families
Authors: Hussein Nashaat
Published: March 2016

The image of families in Muslim countries is mainly the outcome of both the way family relationships are portrayed in Islam and the cultural specificity of individual Muslim countries. The Quran and Sunna present a holistic vision of the main constituents of family relations and specified gender‐based roles, and define the obligations of parents to their children. Given the important role played by the family in defining the main derivatives of the Islamicum'ma(nation), Islam places a fundamental emphasis on marriage and marital obligations.
Middle Childhood
Authors: Blume Libby Balter , Rosario‐Perez Shirley
Published: March 2016

Middle childhood is the developmental period between early childhood and adolescence. Because the physical, social‐emotional, and cognitive developmental abilities of children of school age are qualitatively different from those of children who are either younger or older, understanding middle childhood is relevant both for family professionals and for parents and other adults raising school‐age children. Although some scholars consider middle childhood a distinct developmental stage, recent researchers more often conceptualize middle childhood as a transitional period that predicts successful outcomes in adolescence and adulthood. Researchers who focus on middle childhood have found that the most important developmental contexts include family, school, peer group, and the local neighborhood. Contemporary school‐age children live in diverse family constellations, including dual‐career families, single‐parent families, same‐sex parent families, stepfamilies, and transnational families; however, parent–child and sibling relationships are the focus of most of the research on family relations during middle childhood.
Sexual Aggression
Authors: Papazoglou Konstantinos , Andersen Judith P.
Published: March 2016

Sexual aggression is defined as the offenders' act to impose his or her sexual will over another, nonconsenting, person using behaviors such as threats, intimidation, drugs, or physical force. Sexual aggression may happen to any person regardless of his/her socioeconomic status, education, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, and so forth. Historically, women have been treated by men as “property” and, thus, sexual aggression against a woman was an act against the man (e.g., father, husband) who “owned” her. Sexual aggression may take place in a family environment or in a romantic relationship and it may be “condoned” by some fundamentalist religious laws. Sexual aggression often has a negative impact on victims' mental and physical health. Even though 9.1 percent of women in the United States have been forced to have their first sexual intercourse, this number is relatively low compared to other places (e.g., 40 percent in Peru). Over the years different theories (e.g., feminist, social learning) have proposed explanations as to why sexual aggression is common. Further, a number of techniques have been developed to attempt to treat sex offenders.
Refugee Families
Authors: Akinyemi Akanni Ibukun , Sanya Lily , Omoyeni Sunday Tunde
Published: March 2016

By the end of 2010, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimated that around 43.7 million people worldwide had been forcibly displaced. Many of these refugees are isolated from their families while others move with their families. These movements have serious implications and consequences for the families. These challenges take different forms and vary from culture to culture within a broader context of integration and assimilation in the destination country. Refugees are also a very important development issue, given their implications for other family members both through the support provided by remittances or by opening up the possibility for other family members to migrate, in what is known as chain migration.
Stay‐at‐Home Fathers
Authors: Finley Gordon E. , Schwartz Seth J.
Published: March 2016

Stay‐at‐home fathers has become a critically important topic because of reversals in the traditional male dominance in education, occupation, and income. Given the increasing prevalence of women in higher education and in higher status occupations, and their increased earnings, especially in the younger generation, the traditional assignment of males to the breadwinner role and females to the caretaking and homemaking role has come into question. Although existing research indicates that such a reversal – where women work and men stay home and take care of the children – would be good for children, it remains unclear how men and women in these nontraditional roles would fare over the long term and what effects a nontraditional fathering role would have on the couple relationship over time.
Unpaid Family Workers
Authors: Akinyemi Folashade Oyeyemi , Kupoluyi Joseph Ayodeji , Akinyemi Akanni Ibukun
Published: March 2016

Unpaid family workers are a heterogeneous group within the family whose work is categorized as marginal and is not included in paid income for the family. Across countries and cultures, unpaid family workers include housewives, elder caregivers, and children engaged in economic activities that are not remunerated. In Africa and Asia, the proportion of unpaid family workers is quite large and is mostly involved in subsistence agriculture.
Gender and
M
uslim Families
Authors: Velayati Masoumeh
Published: March 2016

Some of the beliefs of Muslims are controversial to secular audiences, who may not draw on religious beliefs to mediate cultural norms. Gender in Muslim family structure is one of them. The Islamic framework articulates the complementary gendered roles in conjugal relationships as religious duties. In this system, at least according to the rhetoric, men and women have equal value associated with two separate spheres. However, spatial divisions, in addition to men's lack of comprehension of religious moral principles, exacerbate and maintain gender inequalities and the control of female sexuality within the Muslim tradition. Men become prone to abuse their financial privilege and spatial division, taking their privileged position for granted as their right in terms of power, authority, and hierarchy. Contesting the unequal treatment of women and promoting their rights and priorities, Muslim women challenge the conservative gender discriminations wrongly associated with Islam. Some do this within the Islamic ethical framework.
Love
Authors: Yeager Erica Owens
Published: March 2016

Love is a complex emotional state that can be used to describe relationships between family members, friends, or romantic partners. Love‐like states that are not, strictly speaking, love are often confused with love and are termed “love” by those who experience them. There are several major theories that explain how romantic love develops and is maintained, each of which helps to shed light on how the experience of love varies from person to person, from relationship to relationship, and even within a relationship. Romantic love is idealized in some cultures, and marriage without love is deemed shameful or unthinkable. Love is generally seen as a requirement when one is choosing one's own mate, though historically this was not always the case. Love as a motivation for marriage is a relatively recent phenomenon, made reasonable by increases in life expectancy. Love also seems to be a physiologic state, capable of causing visible difference in reactions on magnetic brain imaging.
M
arx and
E
ngels on the Family
Authors: Garlitz Dustin
Published: March 2016

Social philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote on the family several times throughout their careers, the most notable cases being Engels's
The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State
, and Marx and Engels's coauthored
The Holy Family
. In
The Origin of the Family
, Engels used the term “family” to denote the social organization of reproduction and production of daily life at all stages of human society. Beyond
The Origin of the Family
and
The Holy Family
, Marx and Engels paid scholarly attention to the family in their coauthored
Communist Manifesto
and in
The German Ideology
, both functioning as intellectual efforts to support the program of Marxism from anthropological and dialectical (philosophical) points of view. Marx often used discussions of the family to critique the philosophy and logic of his early influence G. W. F. Hegel. Engels's work involving the history and organization of the family exerted a substantial influence in late nineteenth‐century intellectual thought and has since enjoyed a revival among contemporary socialists and feminists.
Childhood, History of
Authors: Rago Marina
Published: March 2016

Childhood in history depends on historical perspective, observed social context, and available documents. There are many direct historical sources (like letters, diaries, testaments, etc.) and various indirect historical sources (like pictures, artifacts, portraits, etc.). The concept of childhood as a distinct stage of life has changed over the ages. In the Middle Ages, the early years of a person's life were not considered to be different from any other age, and children were not considered as different from older people. Infanticide was rampant. In the early modern period, the affection that parents had for their children was influenced by economic interests. In the Enlightenment period, children were recognized as being unique, with their own developmental needs, and education became compulsory. At the time of the Industrial Revolution, children worked in factories and coal mines. In contemporary, postindustrial societies, childhood has become recognized as an important stage of life and children are cherished. A “new” sociology of childhood has challenged the academic approach to children. Children are increasingly being viewed as active rather than as passive agents of family life.
Postpartum Depression
Authors: Davidson Michele R.
Published: March 2016

Postpartum depression (PPD) occurs when persistent depressive symptomology occurs for more than two weeks following childbirth. While the majority of women experience the “baby blues” as a result of hormonal fluctuations, postpartum depression symptoms persist, are more severe in nature, and require medical intervention. Baby blues are characterized by mood lability and sudden crying but most commonly last a few days and then resolve. Up to 70 percent of women experience a few days of baby blues which then resolves completely. Most women with PPD develop symptoms within four weeks of giving birth, though symptoms can occur anytime within the 12 months following delivery. Approximately 15 to 25 percent of women experience PPD following childbirth. Postpartum depression can occur as a result of a live birth, spontaneous abortion, elective termination, or a fetal demise. In the United States 2 million new mothers experience PPD annually. Certain factors reduce the risk of PPD, including adequate social support, regular sleep patterns, and breastfeeding.
Guardianship in the
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nited
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tates
Authors: Bullock Angela N.
Published: March 2016

In the context of foster care, guardianship does not require the termination of parental rights, nor does it require the suspension of kin relationships. However, it does involve the physical and legal placement of children with someone other than a parent in cases where the parent is unable to care for a child. Essentially, a guardian receives legal custody of a child and becomes responsible for the care of the child, which includes the authority to make decisions about a child's medical treatment, education, and employment. The concept of guardianship has evolved over time and, in an effort to find permanency for children, guardianship is a proposed means for children to exit foster care. Subsidized guardianship, in particular, is being examined as an alternative for children who may not have the opportunity for adoptive placement.
Multipartnered Fertility
Authors: Evenhouse Eirik , Reilly Siobhan
Published: March 2016

Multipartnered fertility (MPF), or multiple‐partner fertility, refers to bearing or fathering children by more than one partner. Multipartnered fertility can occur in the context of serial monogamy or through polygamy. Estimates of MPF rates vary widely, and, due to data deficiencies, are accurate at the national level for only a few countries. In US data, MPF is linked to reduced well‐being among mothers and children and is strongly associated with remarriage, low education, low income, nonmarital birth, and early motherhood. Despite an increase in nonmarital births and divorces, MPF does not appear to be trending upward owing to other, offsetting, demographic changes.
Marital Conflict
Authors: Theiss Jennifer A. , Leustek John
Published: March 2016

Conflict is a common and necessary aspect of marital life. As spouses attempt to integrate their lives, they will inevitably face differences in opinion, barriers to personal goals, and disruptions to individual routines that are likely to elicit conflict. Married couples approach conflict in a variety of ways. Scholars have identified typologies of marital conflict that categorize couples as validating, volatile, and avoiding or as traditional, independent, and separate. Research on conflict in marriage has also uncovered interaction patterns associated with conflict in marriage, most notably the demand–withdraw pattern of marital conflict. Finally, spouses may have a variety of diverse cognitive and emotional reactions to conflict that can have implications for conflict resolution and for marital quality.
Couples' Counseling
Authors: Jeffries Cody , Poppy Aaron , Halpin Jennifer , Brown Kristina S.
Published: March 2016

Couples counseling parallels many of the ideas and approaches of marriage counseling which has its origins in the 1920s in the United States. Theory dominated the emergence of family counseling, and many of those theories parallel those for working with couples, such as cognitive behavioral couples therapy, Bowenian couples therapy, emotionally focused couples therapy, solution‐focused couples therapy, and narrative couples therapy. Common presenting issues in couples counseling include treatment of affairs, separation and divorce, physical aggression, alcoholism and drug abuse, depression, borderline personality disorder, and sexual dysfunction.
Journal of Comparative Family Studies
Authors: Kurian George , White James M.
Published: March 2016

The
Journal of Comparative Family Studies
(
JCFS
) is a peer‐reviewed academic journal devoted to social scientific research on the family. More particularly, the journal focuses on cross‐cultural comparisons of family form and processes. It publishes four issues per year and is the only academic journal specifically dedicated to the comparative study of the family.
Polygamy in
A
frica
Authors: Diop Mame Kani , Stewart Pearl E.
Published: March 2016

Polygamy was common and widespread in the ancient world and widely practiced among some religious groups. The reasons for its existence and persistence are varied and have been a source of fierce debate. Africa, in particular western Africa, has established itself as a region where polygamy is viewed as the norm. This entry explores the trends in polygamous marriages in western African countries and examines the factors contributing to the practice and maintenance of polygamy, such as the slave trade, with its impact on the sex ratio, and traditional, sociocultural, and economic factors. The effects of education on attitudes toward polygamy are also examined, as is the influence of polygamy on the lives of women and children.
Familicide
Authors: Whiteley Mark , Terrell Nathan , Bodman Denise Ann
Published: March 2016

Familicide is the killing of a spouse or significant other and their children. It is a predominantly male phenomenon. Suicide or attempted suicide is also a frequent feature of familicide. Antecedents of familicide include substance abuse, mental health issues, job loss, threat of separation by significant other, and previous domestic violence. Guns are the most commonly used weapon. Familicide has been categorized into four types: despondent husband, spousal revenge, extended parricide, and diffuse conflict. The lack of standard definitions and of adequate theory hampers the study of family killings.
Sport, Leisure, and Family Life
Authors: Cohen Diana Tracy
Published: March 2016

The role of sport in family life has been the focus of sociological investigation for over 40 years. One of the most powerful institutions in the world, sport offers a variety of unique contexts for family bonding. Some parents use sport as a mechanism for instilling skills and traditions related to health and fitness in their children; this is referred to as generative parenting. When, where, and how sport and family life intertwine depend on a number of factors. These factors include spatial and temporal privacy, desired visibility of the activity, economic resources, and gendered beliefs about childrearing practices.
Abortion, Rates, in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Cody‐Rydzewski Susan
Published: March 2016

Abortion rates in the United States have fluctuated since
Roe v. Wade
(1973), reaching a record low in 2011. It is argued that improved contraception has played a role in lowering the rate of surgical abortion. The rate of medicinally induced abortion may be on the rise. Contrary to conventional wisdom, women in their twenties – not teenagers – have the highest rate of abortion. In addition, white women and women with lower incomes experience higher rates. Access to abortion remains an ongoing concern as the vast majority of counties in the United States have no provider. Further, lower income women face additional barriers such as lack of healthcare options and unreliable transportation. Women may underreport the incidence of abortion because of problems with recall as well as the social stigma attached to abortion.
Frequency of Sexual Relations in Marriage
Authors: Theiss Jennifer A.
Published: March 2016

Sexual intimacy is a central feature in marital relationships, but the frequency of sexual intercourse peaks during the early years of marriage and declines steadily during the later years of marriage. There are a variety of individual and relational factors that can affect the frequency of sexual relations between romantic partners, such as habituation, age, physical health, psychological well‐being, and relationship quality. Declines in sexual frequency can have consequences for the strength of romantic relationships and is predictive of relationship dissatisfaction and dissolution. Promoting open communication, encouraging a communal orientation toward sex, and breaking the cycle of anxiety and avoidance can help strengthen sexual relations for long‐term married and cohabiting couples.
Marriage & Family Review
(Journal)
Authors: Schumm Walter R.
Published: March 2016

Marriage & Family Review
is a peer‐reviewed academic journal founded in 1978 by Marvin Sussman. The journal specializes in a diversity of research methods (e.g., qualitative and quantitative research), review articles, topics involving family measurement, novel methodologies, theory development, relationship development, and preventive or educational interventions to support new relationships, but considers manuscripts involving a wide variety of topics, including studies involving international families.
Council on Contemporary Families
Authors: Risman Barbara J. , Cowan Carolyn Pape , Cowan Philip A.
Published: March 2016

This entry gives a brief historical description of the Council on Contemporary Families, a national nonprofit organization whose mission is to bring new research and clinical expertise to public conversation. The entry traces the council's growth from its birth in 1995 through its early years and its growth, when it began to be housed in university settings. The entry ends with a discussion of where the Council on Contemporary Families is today and its future plans.
Family Values in Global Perspective
Authors: Khazaie Razieh Giti
Published: March 2016

Deep changes in the societal and cultural contexts of society in the last fourth of the twentieth century has led to changes in family structure. The development of diverse attitudes toward family and sexual patterns has resulted in changes which some have considered as the breakdown of family values. These changes have prompted questions regarding the status and the scope of family values in modern family life today. Understanding changes in family values and family values in different cultures is attracting research in family studies. In the modern era family values have been changed in the legislative domain as well as attitudinally, although different cultures hold to different family values.
Family Science
Authors: Hamon Raeann R.
Published: March 2016

Family science is committed to the study of families, with special attention to their internal workings. Employing a systems perspective, family science focuses on the study of relationships, particularly those between family members. As a relatively new discipline, family science seeks to discover, verify, and apply knowledge about families in order to enhance family functioning and to build family strengths. While related academic disciplines contribute useful supporting information, family science affords a more holistic vision of how families operate.
Paternity Leave
Authors: Yeung Wei‐Jun Jean
Published: March 2016

Paternity leave was first initiated in Europe with the objective to help fathers achieve a balance between work and family, to increase gender equity at home and in the workplace, and to strengthen the father–child relationship and thus improve the well‐being of children. More recently, some Asian countries have also reviewed their family policies in response to the sociodemographic challenges related to population aging, low fertility rates, and declining marriage rates. Paternity leave entitlements vary widely across different countries along two main dimensions: leave duration and level of income replacement. Despite inconclusive results, some studies suggest that paternity leave has a positive impact on fathers' involvement with children and on children's development.
Demographic Transition
Authors: Dai Wenqian
Published: March 2016

Demographic transition describes population change over time from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates, with a lagged decline in birth rate which leads to a larger population. At the end of the transition, population approaches homeostasis. The second demographic transition has taken place in many western nations since the late 1960s. During this transition, fertility falls below replacement level, and people tend to postpone marriage and parenthood and to choose more flexible partnerships. Globalization contributes to the second demographic transition by creating an unprecedented level of uncertainty. Demographic transition is a set of interrelated massive structural changes in mortality, fertility, age, migration and family. Demographic transition theory is a macro‐level theory that attributes mortality and fertility decline to industrialization. The reformulation of demographic transition theory adds ideational factors to explain fertility decline, including rational choices embodied in the supply–demand framework, the diffusion of innovative fertility restriction perspective and the theory of demographic change and response.
Co‐Sleeping
Authors: Wilder Jeffrianne
Published: March 2016

Co‐sleeping is the practice of infants and young children sharing the same sleeping space with their parents and/caretaker. There are many benefits associated with co‐sleeping – from the promotion of breastfeeding, strong parent–child bonds, and increased independence and maturity of children. However, there are several commonly known risks of co‐sleeping as well, including sudden infant death syndrome and strained family relations. Recently, the practice of co‐sleeping has been widely debated in the academic and medical communities and the current research is centered on supporting and/or challenging this increasingly common child care activity.
Pregnancy
Authors: Fransisco Kara
Published: March 2016

Pregnancy is the time in which an embryo, and then fetus, develops inside the uterus of a female. Gestation is discussed in medically and socially constructed measures of time known as trimesters. While most women in the United States continue to use an obstetrician as a primary care provider during pregnancy, other women opt for midwives. Midwives are typically associated with high quality of care and excellent birth outcomes. Pregnancy outcomes vary among sociodemographic factors, with age‐ and race‐related disparities existing. Pregnancy and birth can be positive or negative experiences, with social support and a sense of agency and control being vital components of better experiences.
Assisted Reproductive Technology
Authors: Fransisco Kara
Published: March 2016

Assisted reproductive technology (ART), is defined differently by many agencies, but is generally understood to be the handling of sperm and eggs outside the human body. This technology, which is an infertility service, began rapid development in 1978, ushering in a new era for reproductive health, family formation, and family structure. With this ever‐growing technology comes considerations, particularly of the legal, ethical, and moral variety. In a largely unregulated industry, buyers and sellers can exchange genetic material, or in some cases borrow wombs, often without legally binding contracts.
Disabilities and Families
Authors: Taylor Morgan Sanchez
Published: March 2016

The spread of the social model of disability has prompted questions about how disability experiences are shared with family members. These experiences are often complex and engender a continuum of benefits and challenges for the individuals with disabilities and their families. Early intervention for all members of the family system results in more positive disability experiences. Courtesy stigma remains a challenge for families with disabilities, especially for members whose disability is invisible. Families with strong social support who redefine disability outside negative cultural meanings perceive more positive family adjustment.
Child Maltreatment
(Journal)
Authors: Feiring Candice
Published: March 2016

Child Maltreatment
is a quarterly journal that focuses on providing rigorous data‐based approaches to the understanding, treatment, and prevention of child maltreatment.
Child Maltreatment
's 2013 impact factor was 2.706 and it ranked second out of journals in the Family Studies (2/39) categories. It publishes work relevant to physical and sexual abuse, neglect, psychological maltreatment and the experience of multiple maltreatment. The journal values understanding child maltreatment in the context of related individual, family and, community risk factors and outcomes.
Elder Care in theUnitedStates
Authors: Colvin Alex D. , Bullock Angela N.
Published: March 2016

The aging of American society, particularly the emergence of an aging Baby Boomer population has prompted questions regarding how to provide care for this ever expanding group. In 2012 there were more than 43.1 million people aged 65 and older in the United States. Of the 43.1 million people aged 65 and older, 5.1 million, or about 13 percent, were aged 85 and older. As the increases in longevity and life expectancy of elderly persons expand, so too will their presenting chronic health conditions, which will also impact the need for elder care in the years ahead.
Grandparent–Grandchild Relationships
Authors: Bates James S. , Taylor Alan C.
Published: March 2016

Grandparent–grandchild relationships are complex because at least three generations are involved in forming, nurturing, and maintaining the relationship. Research conducted over the past 50 years has provided important insights into the demographic and personal characteristics of those involved in this relationship, about the behavioral and psychological dynamics occurring within the relationship, and the outcomes for grandparents, grandchildren, and the family as a result of engagement in the relationship.
Turkey, Families in
Authors: Copur Zeynep
Published: March 2016

Turkey is an upper middle‐income country with stable institutions and widespread public services. Turkey has been undergoing rapid social and economic changes including demographic transition. Its relatively recent and rapid urbanization and industrialization have been accompanied by increased economic and cultural ties to Europe and North America. Marriage is almost universal and practically all births occur within marital unions, whether they be civil or religious marriages. Because of traditional and religious values, sexual relationships and extramarital births are very rare in rural areas, but they have been increasing in urban areas. As a result, the great majority of children live with both natural parents
Parent–Child Alienation
Authors: Scharp Kristina M.
Published: March 2016

Parent–child alienation occurs when parents persuade their children to reject or distance themselves from the other parent. First introduced as a syndrome, scholars interested in parental alienation have shifted diagnostic focus from children's symptoms toward parents' alienating behaviors. This phenomenon is of importance particularly to members of the justice system who must make informed decisions about custody arrangements.
Interracial Marriage
Authors: Grether Scott
Published: March 2016

Interracial marriages comprise people from different racial or ethnic backgrounds. The number and overall acceptance of these marriages has reached an all‐time high in the United States. Possible explanations for why people marry outside their race are linked to exchange theory and educational homogamy. Scholars argue that interracial marriages are a measure of social distance between races, contribute to the growth of a colorblind society, and may represent the future of marriage in the United States. Research on the lived experiences of these couples presents a more nuanced understanding of how race continues to impact the lives of individuals in interracial marriages.
Singapore, Families in
Authors: Street Debra , D'Amuro Kriston Thomas
Published: March 2016

Families in Singapore have been transformed with unprecedented speed since nationhood was achieved in 1965. Modern Singapore is characterized by family composition that reflects trends including: low and declining fertility, postponed marriage and maternal age at first birth, increased rates of singlehood and divorce, and a rapidly aging population. Despite a series of pro‐marriage and pro‐natalist policies, Singapore's contemporary families are smaller and include more single adults and fewer children, putting the capacity for Singaporeans to maintain the traditional form of the family value of filial piety at risk.
Family of Orientation
Authors: Woszidlo Alesia
Published: March 2016

The family of orientation refers to the family in which a person is raised. Although this generally includes one's parents and siblings, it may also include grandparents or other relatives. The family of orientation is one of many family forms and has been thought of as one of the primary platforms for which one encounters early socialization experiences. Attitudes and beliefs can be learned from all members of the family and, according to research, can leave a lasting imprint on child as he/she matures into an adult.
Open Marriage
Authors: Vellinga Haley C.
Published: March 2016

Open marriage altered perspectives toward matrimony and relationships in the United States. Polyamory and swinging are two nonmonogamous relationship styles that emerged from the creation of open marriage. Western culture once viewed polyamory and swinging with disdain that is attributed to lack of knowledge and understanding. Limited research and growing dissonance toward marriage propelled the dissemination of knowledge about alternative life choices. Polygyny, polyandry, and swinging involve complex relational dynamics that researchers are beginning to analyze.
Child Mortality Rates
Authors: Guseh James S.
Published: March 2016

Child mortality rate, also called under‐5 mortality rate, is the probability of dying under age 5, per 1000 live births. The child mortality rate is a good indicator of the level of child health and a nation's overall development. Since 1990, the worldwide child mortality rate has declined through the prevention of infectious diseases, malnutrition and maternity‐related complications, and the provision of safe water and sanitation. In 2000 the United Nations adopted the Millennium Development Goals to reduce the under‐5 mortality rate by two‐thirds between 1990 and 2015. Many countries, except some in the developing world, have made significant progress in meeting this target. Leading causes of under‐5 mortality are pneumonia, maternity‐related complications, diarrhea, malaria, and meningitis. Cost‐effective measures to reduce child mortality include vaccines, antibiotics, insecticide‐treated bed nets and improved family care and breastfeeding practices.
Honor Killings
Authors: Kellett Peter M.
Published: March 2016

Honor killings predominate in collectivist, or high‐context, cultures where there is a heightened emphasis on the power of honor and public shame as it pertains to the name and reputation/face of a family. In such cultures where there is high pressure for conformity to custom and tradition, where women are routinely regarded as the property of the family and/or community, and where killing is believed to expel dishonor and restore honor, these three broad factors can intersect to create violent and deadly practices such as honor killings. Girls and women are usually targeted, though boys and men may also be victims.
Childhood: A Journal of Global Child Research
Authors: Alanen Leena , Cook Daniel Thomas , Hanson Karl , Morrow Virginia
Published: March 2016

Childhood: A Journal of Global Child Researchis a major international peer‐reviewed journal and a forum for research relating to children in global society that spans divisions between geographical regions, disciplines, and social and cultural contexts.Childhoodpublishes theoretical and empirical articles, reviews and scholarly comments on children's social relations and culture, with an emphasis on their rights and generational position in society.
Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health
Authors: Likis Frances E.
Published: March 2016

The
Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health
(
JMWH
) is the official journal of the American College of Nurse‐Midwives (ACNM). This peer‐reviewed journal presents new research and current knowledge across a broad range of clinical and interdisciplinary topics including maternity care, gynecology, primary care for women and newborns, public health, health care policy, and global health. With a focus on evidence‐based practice,
JMWH
is dedicated to improving the health care of women throughout their life span and promoting excellence in midwifery.
Journal of Family Nursing
Authors: Bell Janice M.
Published: March 2016

The
Journal of Family Nursing
is a peer‐reviewed journal that publishes scholarly work on nursing research, practice, education, and policy issues related to families in health and illness. Its mission is to extend understanding about the relationships between families, health, and illness with a goal of transforming practice with families by nurses and other health care professionals.
C
anada, Families in
Authors: Dun Tim , Duffy Ann
Published: March 2016

Separated from the United States by the world's longest nonmilitarized border, Canada's 35.5 million people are heavily impacted by their much more populous neighbor. Although Canadian society and families are influenced by the dominant beliefs, values, and attitudes that characterize the United States, Canada is distinctive in both its history and some of its current social arrangements. For example, divorce rates, frequency of teen mothers, and the availability of government‐funded maternity leave differ. Canada, once typically approached by social researchers in terms of its anglophone and francophone divide, is becoming much more diverse. The shifting ethnic and cultural landscape and global economics contextualize the evolving Canadian family. Family size is decreasing, while the diversity in family forms grows. Marriage is delayed or avoided, with common‐law unions becoming a viable alternative to marriage. Other trends include more children living with common‐law parents, grandparents, and lone parents.
International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family
Authors: Eekelaar John
Published: March 2016

The
International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family
is a peer‐reviewed journal that publishes manuscripts on families from an international and legal perspective.
Divorce Law
Authors: Train Kelly Amanda
Published: March 2016

As long as marriage has existed, couples have sought divorce. In hunting and gathering societies, both women men had the right to end a marriage. With the emergence of early farming societies, the erosion of women's rights included the elimination of women's right to divorce. Until the nineteenth century, divorce laws worldwide were governed by religion. Under Judaism and Islam, only men had the right to divorce their wives. Under Hinduism and Christianity, divorce was impossible. After the nineteenth century, divorce became secularized and therefore available to the masses, but only in some western countries. In many western societies in the early twenty‐first centuries, both men and women have the right to end a marriage.
Child Custody:
US
Historical and Legal Contexts
Authors: Doubledee Rachael R. , Coleman Marilyn , Ganong Lawrence H.
Published: March 2016

Following parental separation, child custody decisions determine the legal responsibilities of each parent to the child or children. The increase in parental separation in the United States since the second half of the twentieth century for reasons other than death has lead to greater visibility of child custody decisions. There are two types of child custody: legal and physical. Legal child custody refers to decision‐making regarding the child's health and welfare. Physical child custody refers to shared parenting time; physical custody arrangements include joint, sole, split, alternating, and third party. Child custody decisions have implications for family life, parental involvement, child visitation, and child support obligations.
Substance Abuse, Families, and Social Workers in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Bowers Jessica M.
Published: March 2016

In the United States, alcohol and drug abuse have steadily increased since the early 1990s. The lifestyle of individuals abusing substances is often characterized by fear, chaos, and unpredictability. As a result, child abuse is more likely to occur in homes where drugs and alcohol are misused by caregivers. Parental substance abuse has many negative impacts on children, and social workers face numerous challenges when helping families to recover from substance abuse. Often, addicted caregivers experience increased barriers to accessing treatment. Families that struggle with addictions may experience legal and financial problems, social isolation, family violence, past trauma, and mental health issues. Unfortunately, substance abuse treatment is not always available to families. Many social workers are advocating for an increase in drug and alcohol prevention, education, and treatment programs, as well as other supportive services in an effort to diminish the risks of child maltreatment.
Journal of Family Issues
Authors: Shehan Constance L.
Published: March 2016

The
Journal of Family Issues
is an interdisciplinary social science journal that publishes empirically based papers pertaining to families, households, and intimate relationships.It was first published in 1980. It publishes research based on qualitative as well as quantitative methods of data collection and analysis. It has a long history of publishing feminist research about families and intimate relationships. It also features international research and scholarship. It is published 16 times each year by SAGE.
C
hristianity and Families
Authors: Dollahite David C.
Published: March 2016

Christianity has influenced millions of families for over two thousand years and continues to exert some influence on the family life of about two billion adherents. Christianity sanctifies marriage and family relationships, encouraging many to devote significant attention to their spouses and families. Christianity has contributed to family life by raising the status of marriage, promoting trust and loyalty in marriage, promoting marital stability by discouraging divorce, increasing the status of children in society, improving the quality of marital and family processes, countering cultural trends that harm families, helping to resolve relational problems through pastoral counseling, and promoting human life and health. Religion also has had some negative effects on marriage and family life, including justifying corporal punishment, discouraging and disallowing divorce even in situations involving abuse, and sanctifying gender inequity and oppression. Christians manifest great diversity in beliefs and practices regarding marriage and family issues and policies.
Recent Progress of Microfluidics in Translational Applications
Authors: Liu Zongbin , Han Xin , Qin Lidong
Published: March 2016

Microfluidics, featuring microfabricated structures, is a technology for manipulating fluids at the micrometer scale. The small dimension and flexibility of microfluidic systems are ideal for mimicking molecular and cellular microenvironment, and show great potential in translational research and development. Here, the recent progress of microfluidics in biological and biomedical applications, including molecular analysis, cellular analysis, and chip‐based material delivery and biomimetic design is presented. The potential future developments in the translational microfluidics field are also discussed.
The Dam Bursts for Porous Liquids
Authors: James Stuart L.
Published: March 2016

In 2007 the idea was put forward that, through careful molecular design, it should be possible to synthesize liquids which contain permanent, well‐defined molecule‐sized cavities (pores). Such “porous liquids” could be a kind of liquid zeolite, or liquid MOF (metal–organic framework), exhibiting the size and shape‐selective sorption (or dissolution) associated with microporous solids as well as the fluidity of liquids – a new and potentially useful combination of properties. However, these materials remained essentially hypothetical until recently. In 2014 and 2015 three papers were published which describe convincing examples of porous liquids, and studies have shown that they do exhibit some remarkable properties, such as very fast gas diffusion and high gas solubilities. The examples reported so far are almost certainly only the tip of the iceberg. Now that porous liquids are ‘real’, a new area of materials science may open up, with clear potential for long‐term applications in chemical processes.
Correlating Material Properties with the Wear Behavior of Sol–Gel Derived Superhydrophobic Films
Authors: Dyett Brendan , Lamb Robert
Published: March 2016

Superhydrophobic films are routinely prepared utilizing sol–gel chemistry; however, their application toward self‐cleaning or antifouling is limited by low mechanical strength. To distinguish which material properties are required to improve wear resistance, sol–gel superhydrophobic films are prepared utilizing a breadth of polymer matrices. Through surface analysis and tribology considerations, the wear behavior of these films is then able to be correlated to the material properties of the polymer matrices. The results demonstrate crosslinking to be highly effective at improving wear resistance and display a distinct correlation to plasticity index, Ψ and property ratios Hardness (H)/Young's modulus (E) and H3/E2. The latter two parameters should be maximized to provide longevity of superhydrophobicity against wear.
Tuning the Electron‐Acceptor Properties of [60]Fullerene by Tailored Functionalization for Application in Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells
Authors: Cristofani Michele , Menna Enzo , Seri Mirko , Muccini Michele , Prosa Mario , Antonello Sabrina , Mba Miriam , Franco Lorenzo , Maggini Michele
Published: March 2016

The synthesis of a series of fullerene derivatives designed to act as photoactive acceptor materials in polymer:fullerene photovoltaic blends has been reported. DFT calculations, which provide the LUMO energy values as a function of the fullerene substitution pattern, were employed in the design of these compounds. The functionalizations focused on the type of addition (1,2‐ or 1,4‐addition) and electronic properties of the addends. Cyclic voltammetry determined the LUMO energies to be in good agreement with the calculated values. The photovoltaic efficiencies of the solar cells, composed of poly(3‐hexylthiophene) (P3HT):fullerene blends, were measured. EPR spectroscopy was used to characterize the magnetic interactions and symmetry properties of radical anions and the excited triplet states of the derivatives. An explanation of the observed LUMO energy shifts based on the symmetry change in the frontier orbitals of the derivatives has been proposed.