bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rachipagus conjoined twins: They really do occur!
Authors: Spencer Rowena
Published: June 2005

The myth of rachipagus twins is hereby exploded—the myth, not the rachipagus! In a review of over 1,200 cases of conjoined twins, one classic example of rachipagus was found—two complete infants with dorsal union of the entire head and trunk, with roentgenograms showing clearly visible bony union of the vertebral arches from T6 to L3. After the typical case was discovered, 20 dorsal parasitic twins were reevaluated and reclassified as rachipagus. Two had extensive vertebral fusion and 18 were united in the dorsal midline, all with a meningocele, vertebral anomaly, and/or bony or neural connection. A theory of the embryologic origin of these twins is proposed: two embryonic discs located on diametrically opposing aspects of a single amniotic cavity becoming united in the area of the closing neural folds. This again raises the controversy concerning “fission or fusion” in conjoined twins. © 1996 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Induction of ovulation and successful artificial insemination in a Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor)
Authors: Dresser B. L. , Kramer L. , Reece B. , Russell P. T.
Published: June 2005

Techniques of artificial insemination have not been readily applied to zoo animals. The nonsurgical approach has been unsuccessful in nondomestic felids until the present study where pregnancy was achieved in a Persian leopard. The demonstration of this technique should encourage renewed attempts to artificially inseminate nondomestic felids.
The skulls of Asian rhinoceroses: Wild and captive
Authors: Groves Colin P.
Published: June 2005

Skulls of identified individual Asian rhinos from zoos were compared with wild‐shot skulls of the same species to detect any captivity‐induced changes. Rhinoceros unicornis and Rhinoceros sondaicus are typically stunted by captivity, while Dicerorhinus sumatrensis is not and may even be affected in the opposite manner, becoming giant. The consequences for husbandry are discussed.
Sex and age differences in the avoidance of reptile exhibits by zoo visitors
Authors: Hoff Michael P. , Maple Terry L.
Published: June 2005

Visitors at two zoos were observed as they approached the reptile exhibits at the respective institutions. Both age and sex differences were discovered among several variables designed to measure avoidance behavior. At most ages, females more often refused to enter the exhibits than males. Females also spent less time within the exhibits than males. With respect to age differences, teen aged visitors refused to enter less often and spent more time in the exhibits than did individuals of other ages.
Focal palatine erosion associated with dental malocclusion in captive cheetahs
Authors: Fitch Helena M. , Fagan David A.
Published: June 2005

A severe palatine disorder caused by maloccluded molars was discovered in captive adult cheetahs at the San Diego Wild Animal Park. This defect has been labeled focal palatine erosion (FPE). Subsequently, a total of 59 cheetahs from several institutions have been examined to evaluate the occurrence and etiology of this disorder. Maloccluded lower molars contacting the palatal mucosa appear to be the primary source of irritation. Infection develops when decaying food and grass particles become lodged in the resulting defect. Eventually, complete palatine perforation results which can extend into the nasal passages and eventually lead to systemic disorders.

Of 59 cheetahs studied, 15 displayed various stages of FPE. Examination of 26 museum skull specimens revealed four cases of palatine perforation. These four were from a group of eight animals that were zoo raised.

Focal palatine erosion appears to be a result of dietary factors. All cheetahs with FPE received a commercially prepared soft diet while in captivity. The lack of normal biting, tearing, and pulling action associated with natural prey capture and consumption could result in malocclusion caused by atrophy from disuse of the masticatory apparatus. Improper occlusion could also stem from insufficient wear or unsynchronized development of the opposing dental arches.

All but two cases of FPE were found in cheetahs imported from a limited area in southwest Africa in 1970, or their offspring. Since molar size and jaw structure can be inherited, there may be genetic factors involved but more data are needed to support this idea. Treatment includes changing diet, reducing the height of the offending molar, controlling infection, eliminating irritants, and in some cases, surgical reconstruction.
Xylazine hydrochloride for immobilizing captive white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
Authors: Gibson David F. , Scanlon Patrick F. , Warren Robert J.
Published: June 2005

White‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were immobilized with intramuscular doses of xylazine hydrochloride to facilitate blood sampling. Injection was either remotely by modified dart syringe or manually by hand syringe. In 86 attempts to immobilize female deer (aged 2, 5–6 yr) 73.3% were effectively immobilized for 90 min while 108 attempts to immobilize male deer (aged 2–3 yr) for at least 30 min resulted in 94.4% effective immobilization. Induction times averaged approximately 10 min for both sexes. Treated deer exhibited sedation, hypothermia, reduced respiration rates, anorexia, salivation, tongue paralysis and diarrhea. Deer also showed a loss or partial loss of pedal, palpebral, corneal, and swallowing reflexes during immobilization. Side effects of xylazine and length of immobilization appeared to be dose dependent. Mortality as a result of xylazine immobilization was four male deer out of a total of 194 immobilizing attempts on both sexes. Recommendations are given concerning care of deer during immobilization and recovery.
Seasonal variation in mother‐daughter groupings in Siberian ibex (Capra ibex siberica)
Authors: Horwich Robert H. , Cogswell Stephen J. H. , Burrows Jane , Mitchell Nancy
Published: June 2005

The association of three pairs of mother‐yearling Siberian ibex was recorded by noting the distance between the mothers and daughters at 5‐min intervals for 1–2‐h observation periods for 1 yr at the Brookfield Zoo. Monthly averages of climatological data were obtained. All three pairs showed a seasonal fluctuation of association, with a higher level during spring and fall‐winter and a low degree of sociality in midsummer and late winter. Within the high social periods, short 1–3‐wk periods of low association occurred, which were correlated to actual rut and calving times in individual females. The mother‐daughter associations were most highly correlated to day length and sunrise of the climatological measures. These data seem to support the original hypothesis that these social periods, which began as developmental associations in the infant, aid in keeping the matrifocal herd structure together despite aggression at the times of rut and calving. It seems also that the social cycling, although linked to reproductive cycling, has its own physiological mechanism.
Zoo animal protection in the event of thermonuclear catastrophes
Authors: Maroldo Georgette K.
Published: June 2005

One‐hundred and fifteen zoos in 41 countries (including the United States) were surveyed by questionnaire concerning current and anticipated plans for the protection of zoo animals in the event of thermonuclear catastrophes. Of these, 78 (68.00%) in 23 (56.00%) of the countries responded. The results indicate that 91.00% of these zoos do not have such animal protection. Psychological and philosophical factors are discussed briefly as they allegedly bear on this situation. Preliminary guidelines for a zoo animal defense program are offered in the closing section.
1982 Studbook report on the brown hyena, Hyaena brunnea: Decline of a pedigree species
Authors: Shoemaker Alan H.
Published: June 2005

Brown hyenas became more common in European and North American zoos from 1960 to 1975 and 75 young were born. Survivalship of young was low (45%) and none have been reared in zoos outside of Africa since 1975. Captive females cease reproduction at an unusually early age, reducing the species' fecundity to the point where captive populations have decreased 41% between 1980 and 1983. It is likely that brown hyenas will disappear from captive collections in the near future.
Freeze‐mark techniques applied to mammals at the Santa Barbara Zoo
Authors: Miller David S. , Berglund Jeff , Jay Mike
Published: June 2005

Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2) was evaluated as a means of freeze‐marketing ring‐tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), brown lemurs (L. fulvus), and Parma wallabys (Wallabia parma). Application times of 3–6 sec on unshaven lemurs resulted in successful markings, but the wallabys failed to respond with growth of white hair to application times of 3–10 sec. The freeze‐marking process caused little physical discomfort when applied to fleshy regions, and the marks appear to be permanent.
Managerial strategies in the captive propagation of endangered species
Authors: Beck Benjamin B.
Published: June 2005

A captive propagation manager, committed to the welfare of captive populations of exotic animals, must often make decisions that are risky to individual animals. Innovative decisions that place animals at risk are essential to the progress of captive propagation. Such decisions must be grounded thoroughly on peer consultation, the scientific and zoo literature, and where possible on original applied research targeted specifically to the procedure in question. The management of two closely spaced births in a gorilla group is provided as an example.
The breeding of great apes at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust and a look into the future
Authors: Mallinson Jeremy J. C.
Published: June 2005

Details of breeding orangutans and gorillas at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust are reviewed, with special reference to the diversity of managerial requirements and reproductive parameters for the two species of great apes represented. The importance of recording and publishing as much data as possible to provide important guidelines for others involved with the same or related species in captivity, as well as such information contributing directly to conservation in the wild, is underlined. The Jersey Trust's involvement with cooperative and coordinated breeding programs for the two species on both a national and international basis is reported, and prospects for future long‐term management strategies are outlined.
Mechanical properties of river otter limb bones
Authors: Wilson James H. , Anderson‐bledsoe Karen Lynn , Baker Jerry L. , Scanlon Patrick F.
Published: June 2005

The determination of the bone strengths of wild animals has many potential advantages, which include the ability to estimate age of animals; monitor strengths of bones as influenced by contaminants, particularly lead; provide appropriate data for design of capture, handling, and holding equipment to minimize the possibility for bone fracture in captured animals; and measure effects of nutrition on bone strength. The objectives of of this study were to provide data on the mechanical properties of limb bones of river otters and to consider effects of age and sex on the properties.

Three‐point bending and shear tests were conducted on the radius, ulna, tibia, and fibula. The three‐point bending tests were first conducted on the bones loaded within their elastic limit. These tests were used to evaluate the modulii of elasticity of the bones. The data on the modulii indicated that age and sex did not have significant effects on the values. The four different bones tested had approximately the same modulus of elasticity, with an average value of 14. 1 gigapascal (GPa).

The shear tests were conducted on the limb bones to failure in order to determine the maximum breaking force and strength of the bones. The shear force of the radius tended to increase with age and there was a significant (P < .001) age effect. The shear force of the ulna for males was significantly (P < .002) higher than that of the females. A similar trend was observed for the fibula (P < .03). The shear strength of the radius increased with age and there was a significant (P < .005) age effect. There was also a significant (P < .001) effect of sex on shear strength of the radius; values for females were higher. There were no significant effects of sex or age found on shear strengths of the ulnae, tibia, and fibulae.
The role of scent marking in Lemur catta agonistic behavior
Authors: Gaspari Margaret K. , Crockett Carolyn M.
Published: June 2005

Certain forms of marking behavior in Lemur catta have been considered to be aggressive in nature but had not been analyzed specifically in this respect. This study examines the relationship between the occurrence of all forms of marking behavior displayed by a captive group of lemurs and their physical and nonphysical aggressive interactions. All forms of marking behavior, especially males' tail mark and tail wave displays, were found to correlate with aggressive behavior including female‐instigated agonism. In comparison, allogrooming, a behavior thought not to have an agonistic component, was not significantly correlated with any marking nor agonistic category. The data suggest that in intersexual interactions male marking behavior is an aggressive but nonphysical substitute for physical aggression toward females who have generally been regarded as dominant to males in this species.
Comparative gross anatomy of ratites
Authors: Cho Patricia , Brown Rosanne , Anderson Marilyn
Published: June 2005

The four most common ratites kept in captivity, emus, rheas, ostriches, and cassowaries, share similar musculoskeletal features based on their common evolution to a flightless form. However, they differ in body size and coloration, wing size relative to entire body size, extent of leg feathering, and number of toes. During necropsies we observed the differences among the birds, which include the shape of tongue and tonsils, a tracheal cleft found only in emus, varied shapes of the thymus, spleen, bursa of Fabricius, proventriculus, duodenal loop, and ceca, different lengths of colon and ceca relative to the entire intestinal length, and different coloration of the gonads. Several of the structural differences reflect the phylogeny of the ratites. Rheas and ostriches share common features in relatively large wings, kidney‐bean shaped spleen, tan gonads, and long ceca, whereas emus and cassowaries have relatively small wings, short ceca, and similar proventriculi. The anatomical variations may reflect their varied diets in the wild and the different behaviors among the groups such as their characteristic vocalizations. Knowledge of the differences may be useful in formulating proper diets for captive birds and is important for the recognition of clinically normal structures in the ratites.
Factors eliminating inbreeding depression in a captive herd of speke's gazelle (Gazella spekei)
Authors: Templeton Alan R. , Read Bruce
Published: June 2005

Inbreeding is commonly associated with a lowering of viability and birth weights—a phenomenon known as inbreeding depression. A severe inbreeding depression was encountered in a captive breeding program for Speke's gazelle. Unfortunately, the solution of simply avoiding inbreeding could not be implemented because the entire herd was descended from one import male and three import females. Because of this founder effect, it was impossible to avoid inbreeding. However, laboratory experiments with fruit flies and basic evolutionary theory indicate that animals can rapidly adapt to inbreeding by the selective elimination of the genes responsible for inbreeding depression. These experimental and theoretical results were translated into a breeding program for the Speke's gazelle. The first goal of the breeding program is a demographic goal: increase the total population size as rapidly as possible to the carrying capacity. The other goals all deal with genetic attributes of either parents or offspring: Both parents and offspring should be inbred, and both parents and offspring should have genes from as many different founding ancestors as possible. In this paper, we document that this breeding program does eliminate the inbreeding depression very rapidly, and moreover that the genetic goals of the program aid this elimination exactly as theory predicts. Furthermore, our analysis clearly shows that the gazelles suffered from an inbreeding depression rather than an outcrossing depression. We conclude that inbreeding depressions can be rapidly and effectively reduced by an appropriate breeding program, and hence an inbreeding depression does not constitute an insurmountable barrier to the long‐term maintenance of a species in which inbreeding cannot be avoided.
The influence of the zoo environment on social behavior of groups of cotton‐topped tamarins, Saguinus oedipus oedipus
Authors: Glatston Angela R. , Geilvoet‐Soeteman Ernie , Hora‐Pecek Eva , Van Hooff J. A. R. A. M.
Published: June 2005

The cotton‐topped, tamarin, Saguinus oedipus oedipus, is a species that is severely threatened in the wild. Thus, if its survival is to be ensured, a self‐sustaining captive population needs to be established. However, the breeding results of cotton‐topped tamarins in zoos are far from optimal; infant mortality is high and the fertility of captive‐born specimens is critically low. The roots of both these problems may be sought in the social behavior of this species in zoos. In order to evaluate the influence of the zoo environment on behavior, a comparison is made between the behavior of a group of tamarins housed in a typical zoo environment and groups of successfully breeding cotton‐topped tamarins housed off public display in the zoo. Significant differences were found between the behavior of the animals in the two different situations. Behavioral differences were correlated with the number of visitors in the zoo environment and with the design of the cage.
Growth and teat ownership in a litter of binturongs
Authors: Schoknecht Patricia A.
Published: June 2005

Teat ownership has been hypothesized to reduce competition among littermates and has been documented in several species. This study was conducted at the Conservation and Research Center to determine if competition and ownership occurred in the binturong (Arctictis binturong). One litter of four cubs was observed for 2 h, three times per day for 16 wk. Cubs showed definite teat preferences, but no exclusive ownership. Competition, as measured by teat fighting, occurred most frequently for the inguinal pair of mammae. The cubs that suckled most frequently on the inguinal teats had a faster growth rate after day 45. Thus, based on suckle frequency, fight frequency, and growth rates, binturong cubs prefer the inguinal pair of teats.
Applications of microsurgery to reproduction in domestic and exotic mammals
Authors: Williams Timothy J.
Published: June 2005

Microsurgery and embryo transfer of mammalian embryos have many possible uses for propagation of domestic and endangered species. Techniques and applications of embryo splitting, chimeric cloning, and production of fetal‐placental chimeras are discussed, with an emphasis on interspecies transfers.
Hematological acs serum chemistry values for captive suni (Neotragus moschatus zuluensis)
Authors: Goebel A. M. , Whitmore D. H. , Raphael B. L.
Published: June 2005

Hematological and serum chemistry values were determined on single samples from 15 clinically healthy captive suni antelope (Neotragus moschatus zuluensis) in order to help establish the boundaries of normal physiological variation for this species. Statistically significant age‐related variations were found for the numbers of red and white blood cells, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, phosphorus and alkaline phosphatase. Differences related to sex included chloride, serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase, and glucose. Comparisons of pregnant females to nonpregnant females revealed differences in creatinine and thyroxine. Phosphorus was significantly lower in nonlactating females when compared to lactating females. Mean values and coefficients of variation of suni data were compared to those of other artiodactylid species. Factors known to influence serum values—age, sex, and pregnancy—are discussed in relation to acceptable limits of variation.
Techniques for hand‐rearing tree‐shrews (Tupaia belangeri) from birth
Authors: Tsang W. N. , Collins P. M.
Published: June 2005

In captivity, Tupaia belangeri (Thailand tree‐shrew) frequently show aberrant patterns of maternal care which result in the death of offspring. In order to maximize the potential of the tree‐shrew as an animal resource for experimental studies we have developed a program for hand‐rearing tupaiidae from birth. Newborn tree‐shrews were removed from mothers with a history of poor parental care to a nursery maintained under conditions of controlled relative humidity (70 ± 10%) and temperature (25 ± 1°C) on a 12 h dark: 12 h light cycle. The young tree‐shrews were fed on a liquid formula until the eyes opened (Day 18–23) and for the subsequent 10 days on a transitional diet until they could feed themselves on solid food. Our hand‐rearing protocol appears to conform to the natural weaning pattern of tupaiids. Food consumption during the liquid diet phase was linearly related to age and the increase in body weight in both sexes. The initial growth rate of male and female hand‐reared tree‐shrews was slower than that of maternally reared animals during the liquid diet phase. The growth rate accelerated subsequently and the body weight of hand‐reared tree‐shrews eventually reached that of maternally reared animals of the same sex. Various developmental changes occurred during the same period in artificially and naturally reared animals. In both hand‐reared and maternally reared groups, the growth rate of male tree‐shrews exceeded that of females from about Day 40 onward. The accelerated growth rate of male tree‐shrews was in apparent association with an increase in androgen secretion at the onset of puberty. The high fecundity of tree‐shrews in captivity reinforced with a program for hand‐rearing the young make T belangeri a potential alternative to more conventional laboratory species in specific areas of biomedical research.
Regurgitation/reingestion and coprophagy in captive gorillas
Authors: Akers Jean S. , Schildkraut Deborah S.
Published: June 2005

The behavior of wild animals can be significantly affected by captivity. Among the least documented adaptations are (1) the regurgitation and reingestion of food and (2) coprophagy. This paper reviews the occurrence of the two phenomena in captive lowland gorilla populations. In addition, data and speculations based on wild populations are discussed. Data from a preliminary study at the Stone Zoo are reported, and several causal relationships are explored.
Utilization of space by adult and juvenile groups of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Authors: Traylor‐Holzer Kathy , Fritz Paul
Published: June 2005

A systematic analysis of space utilization in the home enclosures of four adult and three juvenile social groups of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) was conducted at the Primate Foundation of Arizona. The locations of all members of each group (excluding nursing infants) were recorded several times per week over a 3‐month period. Adult chimpanzees were observed significantly more often in small vs large cages, on upper vs lower levels, and near cage perimeters vs cage centers. Analyses of sex differences in adults revealed that adult females are largely responsible for these space use patterns; adult males show only a significantly higher usage of perimeter areas. Individual differences were found in the habitual use of certain enclosure sites. Juveniles show no spatial patterns with regard to the above parameters but appear to evenly use all available space. Both adults and juveniles were observed to be in contact with mesh barriers more often than with solid walls. These findings suggest important elements that should be incorporated into the caging design of captive chimpanzee facilities.
Design and perception: Making the zoo experience real
Authors: Coe Jon C.
Published: June 2005

The purpose of this paper is to encourage the application of theories of human behavior to zoo design so that zoo visitors are environmentally predisposed to learn from and enjoy what they experience. The ultimate goal is to increase public awareness and appreciation of the importance of habitat and its protection to wildlife conservation and to present zoo animals in such a way that their reason for being and rights to existence are intuitively self‐evident to viewers. Many of the concepts and guidelines presented appear to be suitable subjects of behavioral research, whose findings would assist designers and other zoo professionals in continued improvement of the zoo visitor's experience.
The species survival plan and the conference on reproductive strategies for endangered wildlife
Authors: Conway William
Published: June 2005

The application of advanced reproduction technology to the breeding of vanishing species in captivity, as planned by the Species Survival Plan (SSP) of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, may be crucial to practical longterm propagation of some species. However, current techniques are usually specific to domestic animals and man. Major modifications and new approaches, on a species‐specific basis, will be required for broad application to specialized wild animals. Prerequisites include basic studies of unique species' physiology and basic care requirements. The current SSP program needs a major research component.
Management‐related stress in the red‐shouldered hawk
Authors: Patton Kevin T. , Croonquist Mary Jo , Crawford Walter C.
Published: June 2005

Disturbance stress can prevent or disrupt successful management of captive birds of prey. Using heart rate as an indicator of stress, two female red‐shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus) were monitored via radio telemetry. Spontaneous heart rate fluctuations in response to stressors involved in management‐related activities, as well as some in response to naturally occurring activities, were recorded. In nearly every case, stressors caused dramatic increases in the heart rate of each bird, the magnitude of which was directly related to the degree of human contact involved. The increased heart rates occurred in response to stressors whether or not any behavioral stress symptoms were exhibited. Under the conditions of this study, the use of a falconer's hood did not completely eliminate stress in restrained hawks.
Regional (north american) studbook for the Geoffroy's tamarin, Saguinus geoffroyi
Authors: Skinner C. A. , Vitantonio M. N.
Published: June 2005

A regional (North American) studbook of Saguinus geoffroyi, Geoffroy's tamarin, is presented. Supplemental information regarding range, habitat, status in the wild, taxonomy, husbandry, level of inbreeding, and international holdings is included. Living animals are cross‐indexed by holding institution.
Husbandry and breeding of the Puerto Rican toad (Peltophryne lemur) with comments on its natural history
Authors: Miller Tracy J.
Published: June 2005

The methods used in the breeding and rearing of Peltophryne lemur along with comments on reintroduction efforts are described. Breeding was induced by injections of leutinizing releasing hormone, and fertile eggs were produced. Eggs hatched in approximately 24 h. Newly hatched tadpoles were small (5.0 mm) and delicate. Metamorphosis occurred in 20–30 days, and newly metamorphosed toads grew evenly and quickly to maturity in about 1 yr. Seventy‐five 20‐mm young were returned to Puerto Rico in May 1983. These toads were released at a pond where adult and young P lemur were seen. The successful maintenance and breeding of this species indicate it can survive in captivity. Future work on P lemur should concentrate on its status and survival in the wild.
Effects of manipulatable objects on the activity of captive capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)
Authors: Westergaard Gregory Charles , Fragaszy Dorothy Munkenbeck
Published: June 2005

The aim of this study was to evaluate simple behavioral enrichment procedures for a captive group of tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). We examined the effects of providing a manipulatable substrate (straw) and a variety of portable objects in the monkeys' home cage. The animals were observed across three conditions in two replications: 1) No portable objects were present; 2) a set of six identical portable objects was present; and 3) a set of six varied portable objects was present. The cage floor was bare in the first replication; straw was uniformly spread on the cage floor in the second replication. An 18‐month period of qualitative note taking followed completion of the initial data collection phase.

The presence of straw and portable objects affected patterns of affiliation by decreasing quiet contact and close proximity. Providing additional manipulative opportunities affected both the form and frequency of object‐directed activities. Object contacts were directed toward a greater variety of targets, and some objects were spontaneously used as tools. Manipulation of provided objects and use of objects as tools have become routine activities in this group of monkeys. We conclude that providing straw and portable objects in an already well equipped cage is an effective means of long‐term behavioral enrichment for captive capuchin monkeys. Enabling captive capuchins to express species‐typical manipulative tendencies is apparently conducive to the monkeys' optimal physical and psychological well‐being as well as interesting to the human observer.
Intra‐ and interspecies comparison of sperm migration through polyacrylamide gel as an index of spermatozoal viability
Authors: Hall Laura L. , Bush Mitchell , Howard Jogayle , Wildt David E.
Published: June 2005

Sperm migration distance through a polyacrylamide gel mimicking cervical mucus was compared among seven species: dog, cat, goat, ram, clouded leopard, dorcas gazelle, and Eld's deer. Freshly collected spermatozoa were evaluated microscopically and then assayed for migration distance in gel‐filled capillary tubes in raw or diluted concentrations or after longevity declines in sperm motility and progressive status. Sperm count per milliliter of ejaculate and sperm percent motility ratings varied (P < 0.05) among selected species. Undiluted ejaculated spermatozoa from all species, except the clouded leopard, penetrated the polyacrylamide gel. Migration distance (mm) was different (P < 0.05) among species and not clearly correlated to concentration or motility factors. Although sperm concentrations in the dog and Eld's deer were similar, average migration distance of deer sperm was more than fourfold greater (P < 0.01) than that of dog sperm. The sperm motility rating for the gazelle was greater (P < 0.05) than that for the cat; however, penetration distance in the cat was more than twice as great (P < 0.05) as that in the gazelle. Species also varied in migration response after altering sperm concentration: Halving the sperm count of the dog, gazelle, and Eld's deer had no effect, but the same procedure decreased (P < 0.05) penetration distance in the goat and ram. No migration was observed in any species at a sperm concentration of 25 × 106 cells or less. Within species a decline in sperm percent motility‐progressive status ratings was correlated (P < 0.05) to a subsequent decrease in penetration distance. These results provide a comparative assessment of sperm cell migration through a synthetic cervical mucus and suggest that this test may be a useful adjunct in evaluating reproductive potential. However, the assay is specific in interpretive merit, as sperm penetration distance within a single batch of gel is markedly variant among species and in some species dependent on sperm concentration. This interspecies specificity in sperm migration through a homogeneous gel suggests intrinsic species variance in sperm cell‐cervical mucus interaction, suggesting that this assay could be valuable in future studies of the mechanism of sperm transport.
Social dominance in female bighorn sheep
Authors: Bennett Beth
Published: June 2005

A group of six individually identified bighorn ewes (Ovis canadensis canadensis) in the Denver Zoo, Denver, Colorado, was studied to determine the existence of a dominance hierarchy. Using success in displacement interactions as an index to rank, a very linear, age‐related hierarchy was found.
The Bielefeld teaching program in zoo biology
Authors: Immelmann Klaus , Volger Katrin
Published: June 2005

The teaching program in zoo biology of the University of Bielefeld offers a 4‐week course that aims at providing special knowledge of zoos and zoo animals from theoretical, educational, and applied points of view. The course includes 1 week each of seminar‐type lectures, a 1‐week visit to one particular zoo, “comparative” 1‐day visits to different zoos, and reports and seminars to be given by the participants. During the “zoo week” the students are required to select one of the exhibits and to make full‐day behavioral observations of the animals. Requirements include seminar talks, a protocol about the observations, and the design of a label.
Enclosure utilization, activity budgets, and social behavior of captive chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) during the rut
Authors: Quick Debra L. Forthman , Pappas Todd C.
Published: June 2005

An observational study of chamois behavior during the rut was conducted at the Los Angeles Zoo. The herd consisted of an adult male, two adult females, two subadult females, and two kids (1.1). During the 13‐week study, observers collected scan data on all animals and recorded all occurrences of selected social behaviors during interactions which involved the adult male. Scan observations showed that open areas of the enclosure close to the public were the least preferred, and areas with good rest places were used most. Overall the herd spent 73% of their time stationary, 13% foraging/feeding, 6% moving, and less than 5% each in object investigation, maintenance, play, and social behavior. The adult male rested and fed less, and stood vigilant and engaged in social behavior more frequently than the others. Nearest neighbor data showed clear patterns of kin association beyond the mother‐last kid bond. The adult male interacted most often with the regular keepers, the subordinate female and the oldest subadult female. Interactions with the females consisted mostly of herding and sexual behaviors, while those with keepers were almost exclusively competitive/aggressive. While most findings paralleled those from studies of wild chamois, no study has previously reported long‐lasting associations among kin.
Objective evaluation of a behavioral enrichment device for captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Authors: Bloomstrand M. , Riddle K. , Alford P. , Maple T. L.
Published: June 2005

A quantitative evaluation was made of a food puzzle designed to be a behavioral enrichment device for captive chimpanzees. Subjects were two social groups of chimpanzees housed in semifree‐ranging conditions at the University of Texas Science Park in Bastrop. Subjects used the device for a mean of 91.6 minutes after it was filled with peanuts. Group levels of agonistic interactions, displays, coprophagy, regurgitation, excessive grooming, and consumption of wood were not significantly altered by the use of the peanut box. However, the data indicate that some of these categories of behavior were significantly increased or decreased in individual animals. Although the food puzzle box appears to be a promising behavioral enrichment tool, the necessity of recognizing individual differences in response to environmental manipulations must be emphasized.
Effects of housing differences upon activity budgets in captive sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi)
Authors: Macedonia Joseph M.
Published: June 2005

Activity budgets of captive sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi coquereli and Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi) were assessed from 500 hours of observational data obtained at the Duke University Primate Center (Durham, NC). Data were examined for behavioral differences according to gender, availability of intergroup contact, subspecies, indoor/outdoor housing, and enclosure size. Results showed few differences between the activity budgets of males and females. Several differences found in conjunction with availability of intergroup contact appeared to relate more to subspecific, than to contact, differences. Sifakas housed outdoors were more active, spending less time resting and more time in locomotion, feeding, and playing than sifakas housed indoors. The findings of this study implicate outdoor housing as a primary factor in stimulating activity in these rare prosimian primates.
Commerson's dolphin (Cephalorhynchus commersonii): A discussion of the first live birth within a marine zoological park
Authors: Joseph Brian E. , Antrim James E. , Cornell Lanny H.
Published: June 2005

Six adult Commerson's dolphins (Cephalorhynchus commersonii) have been housed at Sea World, San Diego, since 1983. Details of their husbandry at Sea World are briefly presented. Pregnancy was determined in one of the females by means of radioimmunoassay, following observations of copulation. Food consumption of the pregnant female decreased beginning 5 days prior to parturition and ceased entirely 6 hours prior to delivery. A single male calf, 55–65 cm in length and weighing 4.5–5.5 kg, was delivered after 35 minutes of labor. Details of the delivery, calf's appearance, suckling behavior, and early respiratory pattern are presented. Similarities between the birth of the Commerson's dolphin calf and previous births of bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) calves are discussed. The successful propagation of new species, such as Commerson's dolphins, permits documentation of the event with greater detail and accuracy than is possible in the wild. Details of growth and reproduction thus gained may provide information applicable to the natural history and proper management of the species in question.
The pronghorn (Antilocapra americana): A review as a model for development of a “Species Management Plan” format, Part I
Authors: Moore Don
Published: June 2005

A format is suggested for a “Species Management Plan”; the model for this presentation is the pronghorn (Antilocapra americana). By using the Species Management Plan format, the captive maintenance of pronghorn is analyzed in relation to habitat and microhabitat needs, behavioral requirements, and nutritional needs. A strategy for captive maintenance of pronghorn in relatively wet climates is presented. It is suggested that development of a Species Management Plan is necessary before any new species is acquired for captive maintenance and reproduction.
Pregnancy diagnosis in zoo animals by estrogen determination in feces
Authors: Safar‐Hermann Nina , Ismail Mohammed N. , Choi Han Sun , Möstl Erich , Bamberg Elmar
Published: June 2005

Estrogen concentration in feces was investigated in five different herbivorous species of zoo animals. Using a nonspecific estrogen radioimmunoassay, in four species (red buffalo, yak, Grevy's zebra, and Nubian ibex) pregnancy was revealed by measuring estrogen concentration in feces. In hippopotamus, the levels of fecal estrogens were not different between pregnant and nonpregnant animals.
Effect of outbreeding on weight and growth rate of captive infant rhesus macaques
Authors: Smith David Glenn , Lorey Fredrick W. , Suzuki Juri , Abe Masamitsu
Published: June 2005

The introduction of unrelated conspecifics into captive groups of primate species is desirable to inhibit inbreeding. However, for many species, such groups increasingly represent highly inbred isolate populations that are analogous to regionally isolated populations of the same species among whom the effects of outcrossing on fitness are unknown.

A study of potentially adverse effects of cross‐breeding between regionally isolated populations of rhesus macaques was conducted to assess the maximum advantage or disadvantage to be expected for cross‐breeding such populations of other cercopithecoid primates. For this purpose, the infant weights and rates of growth of hybrid Chinese/Indian rhesus macaques were compared to those of their nonhybrid Indian peers and to those of consanguineously inbred Indian rhesus macaques from several other captive breeding groups.

Neither adverse nor advantageous effects of such hybridization were detected, suggesting that outcrossing between isolates of other cercopithecoid primates with a similar social structure and mating pattern should not affect the fitness of resulting offspring. Since levels of inbreeding are roughly inversely proportional to levels of genetic diversity within populations, such outcrossing should be intensified by zoos and other captive breeding centers to ensure the continued survival of captive species, especially those that are endangered or otherwise irreplaceable.
Undergraduate animal behavior program: Teaching and research
Authors: Daniel Stephen A. , Perelle Ira B.
Published: June 2005

The purpose of this paper is to present strategies for teaching animal behavior within a mixed traditional and nontraditional format. Based on our experience, it is very useful to use zoological parks as convenient locales for observational studies. Students gain many valuable experiences in a nontraditional course such as this. Various suggestions are made for animal behavior courses and student projects. Some of the potential pitfalls and problems associated with an animal behavior course are also discussed. Finally, future directions are suggested.
In vitro capacitation of Siberian tiger spermatozoa
Authors: Byers A. P. , Hunter A. G. , Hensleigh H. C. , Kreeger T. J. , Binczik G. , Reindl N. J. , Seal U. S. , Tilson R. L.
Published: June 2005

Three experiments were designed to determine optimum conditions for capacitation of Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) sperm in vitro using the zona‐free hamster egg sperm penetration assay (SPA) as a verification of capacitation. Sperm collected from a 9‐year‐old captive Siberian tiger were subjected to different in vitro washing conditions, preincubation times, and temperatures to induce capacitation. Sperm were able to penetrate zona‐free hamster ova after 2 hours preincubation at 37°C but not at time 0. Preincubation at room temperature was not sufficient to prepare sperm for fertilization. The presence of seminal plasma during the 2‐hour, 37°C preincubation did not affect the ability of tiger sperm to penetrate zona‐free hamster eggs. The SPA can provide a means for evaluation of in vitro capacitation of Siberian tiger sperm.
Descriptive accounts of the behavior of breeding and nonbreeding pairs of golden‐bellied mangabeys (Cercocebus galeritus chrysogaster)
Authors: Mitchell G. , Soteriou Susan , Towers Steve , Kenney Lynne , Schumer Cara
Published: June 2005

Four adult heterosexual pairs of golden‐bellied mangabeys (Cercocebus galeritus chrysogaster) were observed at the Sacramento Zoo. The behaviors of the pairs differed with the histories of the individuals involved, degrees of swelling of the females, presence of offspring in their cages, and the nature of distractions near their enclosures. Young wild‐born adults without a nursing‐aged infant displayed sexual behavior and observer‐directed threats. Experienced wild‐born breeders with nursing‐aged infants and older juveniles showed intense interest in the sexual behavior of the young pair. These breeders displayed mild aggression, both protective and punitive, toward the juveniles and the infant living with them. Captive and abnormally behaving adults displayed self‐biting, bizarre postures, and other stress‐related behaviors as well as large amounts of visitor‐directed aggression. An experienced breeder male paired with the captive female was unable to achieve copulation. To reduce stress in these and other relatively aggressive primate species, careful attention should be paid to housing location, social history, stage of estrus, and presence of offspring.
Golden‐bellied mangabeys (Cercocebus galeritus chrysogaster) at the Sacramento Zoo: Adult heterosexual pairs
Authors: Mitchell G. , Soteriou Susan , Kenney Lynne , Towers Steve , Schumer Cara , Dillin Lisa , Gusé Kevin
Published: June 2005

The behaviors of three different adult male–adult female pairs of golden‐bellied mangabeys (Cercocebus galeritus chrysogaster) were compared. Correlates of restricted social conditions and of the presence of offspring on adult behavior and direction of aggressive behaviors were noted. A captive pair displayed self‐biting and other aberrant behaviors, a lone wild‐caught pair showed redirected aggression related to sex, and a pair housed with its offspring showed close social proximity and protection of an infant. The implications of housing and experience for space and visitor exposure are discussed. Observer‐ vs. visitor‐directed displays are seen as important measures of group and visitor effects.
Comparative sex‐related differences of excretory sex steroids from day‐old Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) and peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus): Non‐invasive monitoring of neonatal endocrinology
Authors: Bercovitz Arden Bryan , Sarver Patricia L.
Published: June 2005

Sex‐related differences in excretory steroids were monitored by radioimmunoas‐say (RIA) from allantoic egg waste samples of day‐old Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) and peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus). Total immunoreactive estrogens (ET), estradiol isolated by chromatography (E2C) or by estradiol‐specific (E2S) antibody, estrone isolated by chromatography (E1C), total androgen (TT), or chromatographed testosterone (TC) were measured by RIA. All estrogenic concentrations were higher (P < 0.04) in females than in males of both species. Female condor ET and E2C levels were each fivefold greater than males; female condor E1C data were twofold greater than in males. Female peregrine falcon ET concentrations were only 25% greater than males; female falcon E2S data were 70% greater than in males. Excretory androgen (TT) concentrations from condors were half as large in females (P < 0.03) than in males; falcon TT levels were not sexually distinct (P > 0.05). Reliable prediction of sex in both species (P < 0.05) was accomplished by estrogen:androgen ratio evaluation, which also eliminated discrepancies in absolute hormone concentration differences between samples for each species.
Improving the feeding of captive felines through application of field data
Authors: Lindburg D. G.
Published: June 2005

The tactics employed by large felines in food‐getting in the wild are contrasted with the conditions which prevail in captivity. While zoos cannot recreate a completely natural existence, there are points at which nature's ways can guide management in improving the quality of life for zoo animals. Equating an adequate diet with good nutrition leads to dietary substitutions which ignore non‐nutritive requirements. Among the issues discussed are substitute activities, oral health in relation to food texture, and the psychological aspects of feeding.
Captive breeding of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) in North American zoos (1871–1986)
Authors: Marker Laurie , O'Brien Stephen J.
Published: June 2005

The African cheetah has been bred in North American zoological facilities since 1956. The captive population has since grown to around 200 animals because of a combined increase in importation plus captive births. From 1982 to 1986, the captive birth rate declined by 50%, primarily because of a low frequency of breeding individuals in the population. The 1986 population had an effective breeding size of 28.1 in a total population of over 193 cheetahs. The incidence of infant mortality has been high (36.7%) relative to other zoo‐bred species, perhaps as a consequence of the previously observed genetic impoverishment of the species. The combination of low fecundity, high infant mortality, and population dynamics indicates that the North American captive cheetah population is neither a self‐sustaining nor a theoretically “viable population” as defined by Soule et al. [ZOO BIOLOGY 5:101–114, 1986]. Possible recommendations for improving captive cheetah propagation are discussed.