bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of plasma-emulating light emitting diode (LED) versus conventional LED on cytotoxic effects of orthodontic cements as a function of polymerization capacity
Authors: Çörekçi B , Halıcıoğlu K , Irgın C , Hezenci Y , Yavuz MZ
Published: October 2013

Objectives:

The study was aimed at evaluating, in vitro, cytotoxicity of four resin-based orthodontic cements (RBOC) as a function of degree of conversion (DC) and the light curing unit (LCU) employed on mouse fibroblast (L929).

Materials and Methods:

Nine samples were manufactured for each group of cements using plasma-emulating light-emitting diode (LED) and conventional LED. Toxicity was assessed by immersing four specimens to culture medium (24 h/37°C) for extracting residual monomer or cytotoxic substance. Cell mitochondrial activity of L929 cell was evaluated using methyl tetrazolium (MTT) test. DC was evaluated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for five samples.

Results:

Cements, LCUs, and interaction between cements and LCUs were found to play a statistically significant role in cytotoxicity ( p < 0.0001). Opal band cement (OPAL) plasma LED was found noncytotoxic (90–100% cell viability). The other RBOC–LCU combinations were slightly cytotoxic (60–90% cell viability). Cements ( p < 0.01) and LCUs ( p < 0.05) had a statistically significant effect on DC. Conversely, interaction between cement and LCU had no statistically significant role on DC ( p > 0.05). OPAL plasma LED displayed the highest levels of DC. The correlations between cell viability and DC were positive for three RBOCs.

Conclusion:

Therefore, high-intensity LCUs can be said to efficiently affect polymerization, so higher DC rates may achieve higher cell viability rates.

Clinical Relevance:

Cements and LCUs must be matched to each another to result in higher DC and maximal biocompatibility. Dual cure systems presented relatively high cell survival and higher DC, thus expressing superior to single-cure systems with plasma LED.
Prospective Study of Percutaneous Radiofrequency Nerve Ablation for Chronic Plantar Fasciitis
Authors: Erken H. Yener , Ayanoglu Semih , Akmaz Ibrahim , Erler Kaan , Kiral Ahmet
Published: October 2013

Background:

Chronic plantar heel pain is one of the most painful foot conditions and is generally associated with plantar fasciitis. This study reports 2-year follow-up results of radiofrequency nerve ablation (RFNA) of the calcaneal branches of the inferior calcaneal nerve in patients with chronic heel pain associated with plantar fasciitis.

Methods:

After receiving approval from the institutional review board, we prospectively evaluated the results of the RFNA of the calcaneal branches of the inferior calcaneal nerve on 35 feet in 29 patients with plantar heel pain between 2008 and 2011. All of the patients who were treated had been complaining of heel pain for more than 6 months and had failed conservative treatment. All of the patients were evaluated (quantitatively) using the average 10-point Visual Analog Scale (VAS) before treatment, as well as at their 1-month, 1-year, and 2-year follow-up after the procedure. We also evaluated 26 feet in 20 patients with American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society scale (AOFAS) scores before the treatment, as well as at their 1-month, 1-year, and 2-year follow-up after the procedure.

Results:

The average VAS score of the feet was 9.2 ± 1.9 before treatment, 0.5 ± 1.3 at 1 month after the procedure, 1.5 ± 2.1 at 1-year follow-up, and 1.3 ± 1.8 at 2-year follow-up ( P < .001). The average AOFAS scores of the patients were 66.9 ± 8.1 (range, 44-80) before treatment, 95.2 ± 6.1 (range, 77-100) at 1 month after the procedure, 93 ± 7.5 (range, 71-100) at the 1-year follow-up, and 93.3 ± 7.9 (range, 69-100) at the 2-year follow-up. At the 1- and 2-year follow-up, 85.7% of the patients rated their treatment as very successful or successful.

Conclusion:

These findings suggest that RFNA of the calcaneal branches of the inferior calcaneal nerve was an effective pain treatment option for chronic heel pain associated with plantar fasciitis that did not respond to other conservative treatment options.

Level of Evidence:

Level IV, retrospective case series.
Learning racism in the absence of ‘race’
Authors: Svendsen Stine H Bang
Published: October 2013

How do students learn about racism in the absence of ‘race’ as an explanatory concept for current social divisions? This article traces conceptual and affective negotiations of ‘race’ and racism in a Norwegian middle school classroom. Conceptual confusion about ‘race’, racism and lines of inclusion and exclusion in the nation is rife in this educational setting, where the curricular focus is on questions of immigration and integration. Treating ‘race’ as a ‘chameleon-like’ concept that adapts to the cultural context and political situation, the analysis highlights the emotional investments and injuries that discussing race brings forward in the situation through a Kleinian psychoanalytic lens. Working through the affective as well as the conceptual aspects of the classroom’s struggles with ‘race’ and racism, the article argues that racism is enacted in the classroom partly as an effect of the denial of ‘race’ as a current effect of racism. Furthermore, it suggests that the denial of ‘race’ as an explanatory concept veils racial binaries that are enacted through Norwegian ethnonationalism, and facilitates enactment of racist dynamics in education that is intended to prevent racism.
Predictors of effectiveness of multidisciplinary rehabilitation treatment on motor dysfunction in multiple sclerosis
Authors: Liberatore G , Clarelli F , Nuara A , Ungaro D , Gatti R , Rovaris M , Martinelli V , Comola M , Comi G , Rossi P , Martinelli-Boneschi F
Published: October 2013

Objectives:

To identify clinical predictors of effectiveness of a motor rehabilitation treatment in a cohort of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients.

Materials and methods:

We analysed 212 consecutive patients who underwent a short-term (3–7 weeks) intensive (two hours per day, five days per week), individualised, goal-oriented inpatient rehabilitation program. Activity limitation and impairment were measured on admission and discharge of the rehabilitation trial using the motor sub-items of the Functional Independence Measure (mFIM) and the Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) score. Multivariate logistic regression models have been tested to evaluate the role of clinical baseline features on rehabilitation effectiveness.

Results:

According to pre-defined outcome measures, 75.1% of MS patients improved in either activity limitation (≥5 points delta mFIM) or impairment (≥1.0 delta EDSS score if baseline EDSS was ≤5.5, or ≥0.5 if baseline EDSS was >5.5), and 35.4% of MS patients improved in both outcomes. A relapsing-remitting course of disease, a more severe baseline impairment and activity limitation level, a shorter disease duration and a less severe balance dysfunction were predictive of the effectiveness of rehabilitation.

Discussion:

These data confirm that an intensive inpatient rehabilitation program is able to produce a short-term relevant improvement on clinical and functional outcome measures and suggest some clinical features which can be considered as potential predictors of the outcome of rehabilitative intervention.
Divergent pathways to influence: Cognition and behavior differentially mediate the effects of optimism on physical and mental quality of life in Chinese university students
Authors: Ramsay Jonathan E , Yang Fang , Pang Joyce S , Lai Ching-Man , Ho Roger CM , Mak Kwok-Kei
Published: October 2013

Previous research has indicated that both cognitive and behavioral variables mediate the positive effect of optimism on quality of life; yet few attempts have been made to accommodate these constructs into a single explanatory framework. Adopting Fredrickson’s broaden-and-build perspective, we examined the relationships between optimism, self-rated health, resilience, exercise, and quality of life in 365 Chinese university students using path analysis. For physical quality of life, a two-stage model, in which the effects of optimism were sequentially mediated by cognitive and behavioral variables, provided the best fit. A one-stage model, with full mediation by cognitive variables, provided the best fit for mental quality of life. This suggests that optimism influences physical and mental quality of life via different pathways.
Psychotropic medication trends among children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder in the Medicaid program
Authors: Schubart Jane R , Camacho Fabian , Leslie Douglas
Published: October 2013

This study characterized psychotropic medication use among Medicaid-enrolled children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders by examining trends over time, including length of treatment and polypharmacy using 4 years of administrative claims data from 41 state Medicaid programs (2000–2003). The data set included nearly 3 million children and adolescents who were 17 years or younger. Approximately, 65% of children with autism spectrum disorder received a psychotropic medication. The results indicate an increasing overall trend in the use of psychotropic drugs among children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Among the different classes of psychotropic drugs, antipsychotics were the most common. Increasing trends in polypharmacy were observed both within and between medication classes.
Primary care management of infertility
Authors: Riches Nicholas , Arora Mr Rohit
Published: October 2013

Fertility problems are common. Those affected will typically first present to primary care, therefore GPs have a critical role in responding appropriately and in a sensitive manner. A flexible response is required that is dependent on the nature of the presentation and any associated psychosocial stress or relationship tension. At various times this may involve reassurance, investigation or onward referral. Understanding when and how to intervene is fundamental to the provision of effective support.
The Development and Implementation of a Bundled Quality Improvement Initiative to Reduce Inappropriate Stress Ulcer Prophylaxis
Authors: de Leon Noelle , Sharpton Suzanne , Burg Cindy , Gross A. Kendall , Li Fanny , Thompson Ashley , Kobayashi Robin , VanOsdol Sherilyn J , Tsourounis Candy , Tasaka Chelsea , Garwood Charlotte , Bekeart Lynne , Rennke Stephanie
Published: October 2013

Stress ulcer prophylaxis (SUP) with acid suppressive therapy is often inappropriately prescribed in the intensive care setting. Acid suppressive therapy, including proton pump inhibitors and histamine-2 receptor antagonists, has been associated with adverse effects, including increased risk of nosocomial infections. Reduction in the rate of inappropriate use of SUP may mitigate the risk of medication adverse effects and unnecessary health care costs. Our interdisciplinary team executed a bundled quality improvement initiative to reduce inappropriate use of SUP in the ICU, which included ( a) developing evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for use of SUP, ( b) implementing these clinical guidelines with an education intervention targeting ICU health care providers, and ( c) determining provider attitudes regarding SUP use before and after implementation of the bundled initiative. Within 1 month following implementation, inappropriate SUP (per patient hospital day) decreased from 19% to 6.6% ( P = .002). Our multidisciplinary bundled quality improvement initiative reduced inappropriate use of SUP. The program was successfully integrated into the pharmacists’ workflow, thus yielding a sustainable impact on SUP use.
A DNMT3A mutation common in AML exhibits dominant-negative effects in murine ES cells
Authors: Kim Soo Jin , Zhao Hongbo , Hardikar Swanand , Singh Anup Kumar , Goodell Margaret A. , Chen Taiping
Published: October 2013

Key Points

Mouse Dnmt3a R878H (human R882H) mutant protein inhibits wild-type Dnmt3a/Dnmt3b in murine ES cells, suggesting dominant-negative effects.
Isolation of human genomic DNA for genetic analysis from premature neonates: a comparison between newborn dried blood spots, whole blood and umbilical cord tissue
Authors: Rajatileka Shavanthi , Luyt Karen , El-Bokle Manal , Williams Maggie , Kemp Helena , Molnár Elek , Váradi Anikó
Published: October 2013

Background

Genotyping requires biological sample collection that must be reliable, convenient and acceptable for patients and clinicians. Finding the most optimal procedure of sample collection for premature neonates who have a very limited blood volume is a particular challenge. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the use of umbilical cord (UC) tissue and newborn dried blood spot (DBS)-extracted genomic DNA (gDNA) as an alternative to venous blood-derived gDNA from premature neonates for molecular genetic analysis.

All samples were obtained from premature newborn infants between 24-32 weeks of gestation. Paired blood and UC samples were collected from 31 study participants. gDNA was extracted from ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) anticoagulant-treated blood samples (~500 μl) and newborn DBSs (n = 723) using QIAamp DNA Micro kit (Qiagen Ltd., Crawley, UK); and from UC using Qiagen DNAeasy Blood and Tissue kit (Qiagen Ltd., Crawley, UK). gDNA was quantified and purity confirmed by measuring the A260:A280 ratio. PCR amplification and pyrosequencing was carried out to determine suitability of the gDNA for molecular genetic analysis. Minor allele frequency of two unrelated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) was calculated using the entire cohort.

Results

Both whole blood samples and UC tissue provided good quality and yield of gDNA, which was considerably less from newborn DBS. The gDNA purity was also reduced after 3 years of storage of the newborn DBS. PCR amplification of three unrelated genes resulted in clear products in all whole blood and UC samples and 86%-100% of newborn DBS. Genotyping using pyrosequencing showed 100% concordance in the paired UC and whole blood samples. Minor allele frequencies of the two SNPs indicated that no maternal gDNA contamination occurred in the genotyping of the UC samples.

Conclusions

gDNAs from all three sources are suitable for standard PCR and pyrosequencing assays. Given that UC provide good quality and quantity gDNA with 100% concordance in the genetic analysis with whole blood, it can replace blood sampling from premature infants. This is likely to reduce the stress and potential side effects associated with invasive sample collection and thus, greatly facilitate participant recruitment for genetic studies.
Predictors of decline in walking ability in community-dwelling Alzheimer’s disease patients: Results from the 4-years prospective REAL.FR study
Authors: Rolland Yves , Cantet Christelle , Barreto Philipede Souto , Cesari Matteo , van Kan Gabor Abellan , Vellas Bruno ,   the REAL.FR Study group
Published: October 2013

Introduction

The aim of this study was to explore the predictors of decline in walking ability in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD).

Methods

The prospective REseau surla maladie ALzheimer FRançais (REAL.FR) study enrolled six hundred eighty four community-dwelling AD subjects (71.20% women; mean age 77.84 Standard Deviation, SD, 6.82 years, Mini-Mental State Examination 20.02, SD 4.23). Decline in walking ability was defined as the first loss of 0.5 points or more in the walking ability item of the Activities of Daily Living scale (ADL), where higher score means greater independence, during the four-years of follow-up. Demographic characteristics, co-morbidities, and level of education were reported at baseline. Disability, caregiver burden, cognitive and nutritional status, body mass index, balance, behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia, medication, hospitalization, institutionalization and death were reported every six months during the four years. Cox survival analyses were performed to assess the independent factors associated with decline in walking ability.

Results

The mean incident decline in walking ability was 12.76% per year (95% Confidence Interval (CI) 10.86 to 14.66). After adjustment for confounders, the risk of decline in walking ability was independently associated with older age (Relative Risk, RR = 1.05 (95% CI 1.02 to 1.08)), time from diagnosis of dementia (RR = 1.16 (1.01 to 1.33)), painful osteoarthritis (RR = 1.84 (1.19 to 2.85)), hospitalization for fracture of the lower limb (RR = 6.35 (3.02 to 13.37)), higher baseline ADL score (RR = 0.49 (0.43 to 0.56)), and the use of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (RR = 0.52 (0.28 to 0.96)).

Conclusions

The risk of decline in walking ability is predicted by older age, increased dementia severity, poor functional score, and orthopedic factors and seems to be prevented by the use of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors medication.
IL-29 enhances Toll-like receptor-mediated IL-6 and IL-8 production by the synovial fibroblasts from rheumatoid arthritis patients
Authors: Xu Lingxiao , Feng Xiaoke , Tan Wenfeng , Gu Weijuan , Guo Dunming , Zhang Miaojia , Wang Fang
Published: October 2013

Introduction

We previously reported that IL-29, a newly described member of interferon (IFN) family, was overexpressed in blood and synovium of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients and triggered proinflammatory cytokine IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA expression in RA synovial fibroblasts (RA-FLS). This suggests that IL-29 has an important role in synovial inflammation. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) also activate RA-FLS to produce inflammatory mediators including tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and IL-1β in RA-FLS. Since the TLR family plays an early role in the innate immune response and the subsequent induction of the adaptive immune response, we hypothesize that IL-29 interacts with TLRs in RA inflammation. This study aimed to investigate the effect of IL-29 on TLR-mediated proinflammatory cytokine production in RA-FLS.

Methods

The mRNA level of IL-29 receptors (IL-28Rα and IL-10R2) in RA-FLS was determined by semi-quantitative RT- PCR. IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA expressions in RA-FLS were evaluated by real-time PCR after pre-incubation with IL-29 and subsequent stimulation with peptidoglycan (PGN, TLR2 ligand), or polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C), TLR3 ligand), or lipopolysaccharide (LPS, TLR4 ligand) . The production of TLR2, 3, and 4 in RA-FLS after IL-29 stimulation was also assessed by real-time PCR and flow cytometry. IL-29 mRNA and protein expression in RA-FLS after stimulation with PGN, poly(I:C), or LPS were measured by real-time PCR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively.

Results

The IL-29 receptor complex (IL-28Rα and IL-10R2) was identified in RA-FLS. IL-29 enhanced TLR-mediated IL-6 and IL-8 expression in RA-FLS. IL-29 upregulated expression of TLR2, 3 and 4 in RA-FLS. Exposure to PGN, poly(I:C) or LPS triggered IL-29 production by RA-FLS.

Conclusions

We show for the first time that IL-29 enhances TLR-induced proinflammatory cytokine production in RA-FLS via upregulation of TLRs.
Post-Disaster Recovery and Economic Impact of Catastrophes in China
Authors: Wu Jidong , Li Ning , Xie Wei , Zhou Yang , Ji Zhonghui , Shi Peijun
Published: October 2013

This paper implements a temporal–spatial recovery measurement of the catastrophic 1976 Tangshan earthquake using available statistical data. The results show that the gross regional product (GRP) level of the Tangshan region achieved a new normality after seven years. During this recovery process, net indirect losses totaled RMB3.7 billion and net indirect gains totaled RMB3.9 billion at the 2007 price level. The area surrounding the Tangshan region benefited from the disaster, both in terms of GRP level and per capita GRP level, at least in the short term. The sector-level economic recovery process seems longer. The production level of the construction sector was 0.9 to 2.5 times that of the pre-disaster level during its 11-year recovery period. The per capita GRP level of the Tangshan region was 1.7 times that of pre-earthquake 30 years later. This quantitative disaster recovery analysis is critical for validating or initializing economic loss estimation models.
Practice Patterns and Long-Term Survival for Early-Stage Rectal Cancer
Authors: Stitzenberg Karyn B. , Sanoff Hanna K. , Penn Dolly C. , Meyers Michael O. , Tepper Joel E.
Published: October 2013

Purpose

Standard of care treatment for most stage I rectal cancers is total mesorectal excision (TME). Given the morbidity associated with TME, local excision (LE) for early-stage rectal cancer has been explored. This study examines practice patterns and overall survival (OS) for early-stage rectal cancer.

Methods

All patients in the National Cancer Data Base diagnosed with rectal cancer from 1998 to 2010 were initially included. Use of LE versus proctectomy and use of adjuvant radiation therapy were compared over time. Adjusted Cox proportional hazards models were used to compare OS based on treatment.

Results

LE was used to treat 46.5% of patients with T1 and 16.8% with T2 tumors. Use of LE increased steadily over time (P < .001). LE was most commonly used for women, black patients, very old patients, those without private health insurance, those with well-differentiated tumors, and those with T1 tumors. Proctectomy was associated with higher rates of tumor-free surgical margins compared with LE (95% v 76%; P < .001). Adjuvant radiation therapy use decreased over time independent of surgical procedure or T stage. For T2N0 disease, patients treated with LE alone had significantly poorer adjusted OS than those treated with proctectomy alone or multimodality therapy.

Conclusion

Guideline-concordant adoption of LE for treatment of low-risk stage I rectal cancer is increasing. However, use of LE is also increasing for higher-risk rectal cancers that do not meet guideline criteria for LE. Treatment with LE alone is associated with poorer long-term OS. Additional studies are warranted to understand the factors driving increased use of LE.
Quantification of Casein Fractions and of Some of Their Genetic Variants in Phosphate Buffer by near Infrared Spectroscopy
Authors: Marinoni Laura , Monti Lucia , Barzaghi Stefania , de la Roza-Delgado Begoña
Published: October 2013

Milk casein and casein fraction contents have a great influence on milk rennet properties and cheese yield so that the selection of dairy cattle with genetic characteristics suitable for milk transformation is of great interest to dairy farms and firms. The possibility of a rapid and accurate determination of these parameters would be very useful to predict milk aptitude to cheese making. This work aimed to determine casein fractions and their genetic variants content using near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy in reconstituted casein samples by comparing the performance of different NIR equipment (a monochromator instrument and a Fourier transform instrument) and different modes of measurement (reflectance and transflectance) in order to evaluate the best operative conditions for this application. Fifty-eight raw milk samples, collected from different farms in the Asturias region, Spain, were analysed for protein (TP%) and non caseinic nitrogen (NCN%) content using the Kjeldahl method. Casein content was calculated as the difference between TP and NCN content. Casein fractions (αs0-, αs1-, αs2-, κ-casein) and genetic variants of β-casein (βB- βA1-, βA2-casein) were determined by a capillary electrophoresis system. Samples were ultra-centrifuged to obtain native casein and then reconstituted in phosphate buffer (pH = 6.8) at the same original milk concentration, previously determined by the Kjeldahl method. Spectra were collected at 37°C with a FT-NIR instrument in transflectance mode and a monochrometer in both transflectance and reflectance mode. Partial least square (PLS) analyses performed on transflectance spectra showed good prediction ability for all variables—(min R2 = 0.80 for κ-casein; max R2 = 0.94 for βA2–casein), with the exception of αs2-casein. NIR spectroscopy has the ability to determine and quantify casein genetic variants and could be used to select milk for its final purpose and to predict the aptitude of milk to cheese-making.
The spreading of the non-native caprellid (Crustacea: Amphipoda) Caprella scaura Templeton, 1836 into southern Europe and northern Africa: a complicated taxonomic history.
Authors: ROS CLEMENTE M.
Published: October 2013

Caprella scaura, originally described by Templeton (1836) from Mauritius and later reported as several subspecies from numerous areas of the world, was found for the first time in the Mediterranean in 1994. Since this report, the species was found in several Mediterranean locations. To explore the current distribution of C. scaura in the Iberian Peninsula and adjacent areas, we surveyed marine fouling communities from 88 marinas along the whole Iberian Peninsula and North Africa, 3 from Italy, 1 from France, 1 from Malta and 1 from Greece between June 2011 and June 2012. The results of this survey report the first confirmed record of C. scaura in Corsica (France), Creta (Greece) and Morocco, and confirm an extensive distribution of C. scaura along the Spanish Mediterranean coast and the Strait of Gibraltar. The species was absent in the north Atlantic coast of Spain and the upper distribution limit in the eastern Atlantic coast is the locality of Cascais, in the south coast of Portugal. All populations studied belong to the same morphological form, with match with the subspecies C. scaura typica from Brazil and C. scaura scaura from Mauritius, suggesting that these two subspecies could correspond to the same “variety”.
Decapod crustaceans associated with an artificial reef (Adriatic Sea)
Authors: SANTELLI A. , PUNZO E. , SCARCELLA G. , STRAFELLA P. , SPAGNOLO A. , FABI G.
Published: October 2013

The aim of this study is to increase the knowledge on the distribution of decapod crustaceans associated with an artificial reef positioned on sandy-mud bottoms in the central Adriatic Sea. The reef is constituted of concrete modules assembled in pyramids and concrete poles. Hard and soft bottom samples were collected from 2001, just after reef construction, to 2005 (4 surveys per year). Regarding the soft seabed, three sites close to a pyramid, three inside the reef area at a distance of 10-15 m from the structures, and three 200 m outside the reef (control sites) were randomly sampled during each survey. At the same time, three pyramids (vertical and horizontal walls) and three poles were also investigated. After taxonomical analysis, decapod crustaceans were analysed using abundance and species richness. Sites and years were compared using a balanced, fixed effect, 2-way ANOVA and PERMANOVA. In addition, SIMPER analysis was performed to identify those species typifying each community inhabiting both the soft bottom and the artificial substrates. The results showed that the artificial reef induced an increase in both abundance and diversity of the decapods of the natural habitat. In fact, man-made substrates may offer new available space for biological colonization and allow the settlement of new species usually living on hard bottoms, thus increasing the complexity of the original benthic communities.
A new species of Cyllorhynchites Voss from Libya (Coleoptera: Rhynchitidae)
Authors: Biondi Silvano , Colonnelli Enzo , Ringenbach Jean-Claude
Published: October 2013

Cyllorhynchites sarahae sp. nov. is described upon some specimens recently collected in Cyrenaica (Libya). The genus Cyllorhynchites Voss is new for the Mediterranean Basin: it was so far known only from Asia.
Hvenær verður minnihluti atkvæða að meirihluta fulltrúa? Tengslin milli atkvæðahlutfalls og stjórnarmeirihluta í skoðanakönnunum og í bæjarstjórnarkosningum 1930-2002
Authors: Harðarson Ólafur Þ. , Indriðason Indriði H.
Published: October 2013

Fylgi flokka í kosningum og skoðanakönnunum er jafnan reiknað í prósentum af gildum atkvæðum. Þegar upp er staðið er það hins vegar fulltrúafjöldinn sem skiptir mestu máli, enda byggir meirihlutamyndun á honum. Þessi grein fjallar um tengsl atkvæðahlutfalls og fulltrúafjölda, einkum í tengslum við íslenskar sveitarstjórnarkosningar. Athugað er hversu algengt það hefur verið að einn flokkur fái meirihluta fulltrúa út á minnihluta atkvæða í bæjarstjórnum á tímabilinu 1930-2002. Jafnframt er athugað hvort það hefði einhverju breytt ef reikniregla St. Laguë hefði verið notuð í stað reiknireglu d'Hondt. Loks er sýnt hvernig bæta má upplýsingagildi skoðanakannana með því að meta líkurnar á því hversu marga fulltrúa hver flokkur fái miðað við tiltekna niðurstöðu könnunar. Reikniregla kennd við d'Hondt hefur lengst af verið notuð til þess að skipta fulltrúum á flokka eftir atkvæðamagni á Íslandi, bæði í hlutfallskosningum til sveitarstjórna og Alþingis. Helsta undantekningin er að kjördæmasætum til Alþingis var skipt samkvæmt reglu stærstu leifar (Largest Remainder-Hare) í kosningum frá 1987-1999 (Ólafur Þ. Harðarson 2002). Regla d'Hondt hefur þann eiginleika að hún er hagstæð stórum flokkum, einkum þegar fjöldi fulltrúa er lítill. Reglan felst í því að deilt er í atkvæðatölu hvers flokks með tölunum 1, 2, 3, 4 o.s.frv. - og hæstu útkomurnar gefa fulltrúa, jafnmarga og kjósa á.
What features determine mall states’ activities in the international arena? Iceland’s approach to foreign relations until the mid-1990’s
Authors: Þórhallsson Baldur
Published: October 2013

The aim of this paper is to analyse the features that have determined Iceland’s international activity and to what extent Iceland has been an active participant in the international system. The paper focuses on the period from the time Iceland took full charge of the conduct of its foreign policy from Denmark in 1940 until 1994, fifty years after Iceland became a Republic and joined the European Economic Area (EEA). At the time of Iceland’s entry to the United Nations (UN) in 1946, it had the lowest population of all UN member states. Iceland soon joined most of the international organizations created in Europe and internationally after the Second World War. Iceland’s neighbouring states, the Nordic states, became pro-active within the UN and other international institutions, and the interesting question is to what extent Iceland, as a small newly-independent state, became involved in the international community.
Jöfnuður og sanngjörn skattlagning
Authors: Gissurarson Hannes Hólmsteinn
Published: October 2013

Því er stundum haldið fram að skattabreytingar síðustu sextán ára hafi aukið ójöfnuð á Íslandi, ekki síst lágur fjármagnstekjuskattur. En það er misskilningur að fjármagnstekjuskattur sé 10% og tekjuskattur á atvinnutekjur 36%. Fjármagnstekjuskattur er 26,2% á eigendur fyrirtækja, auk þess sem þeir verða að reikna sér endurgjald og greiða af því tekjuskatt. Fjármagnstekjuskattur er rösk 36% á þá sem njóta vaxta- eða húsaleigutekna. Söluhagnaður af eignum er ekki reglulegar eða eiginlegar tekjur og ætti ekki að vera skattskyldur. Tekjuskattur á atvinnutekjur er vegna skattleysismarka breytilegur eftir tekjum, árið 2007 0% upp að 90 þús. kr. mánaðarlaunum, 18% þegar mánaðarlaunin eru 180 þús. kr. og hækkar síðan með tekjum, en nær aldrei alveg 36%. Eini hópurinn sem greiðir hærra hlutfall af tekjum sínum en eigendur fyrirtækja eru þeir sem hafa hærri laun en nemur meðaltali. Það er líka rangt að tekjuskipting á Íslandi sé ójafnari en annars staðar á Norðurlöndum. Hún er tiltölulega jöfn samkvæmt alþjóðlegum mælingum. Ýmis rök eru gegn stighækkandi tekjuskatti, sem sumir vilja taka upp. Hann flækir í fyrsta lagi skattlagningu. Önnur rök eru að hann eykur ábyrgðarleysi, þegar einn hópur getur velt þungum byrðum á annan með afli atkvæða. Hin þriðju eru að við hann dregur úr verðmætasköpun. Lítil sneið af stórri köku getur verið stærri en stór sneið af lítilli köku, eins og samanburður Sviss og Svíþjóðar sýnir og einnig reynsla síðustu ára á Íslandi. Þótt skattar hafi verið lækkaðir jafnt á fyrirtæki og einstaklinga, hafa skatttekjur ríkisins stóraukist. Leiða má rök að því að með frjálsara og opnara atvinnulífi hafi jöfnuður frekar aukist en minnkað á Íslandi.
Skattastefna Íslendinga
Authors: Ólafsson Stefán
Published: October 2013

Hér er fjallað um skattastefnu Íslendinga með hliðsjón af þróun skattastefnu annarra vestrænna ríkja á síðustu áratugum. Gerð er grein fyrir þremur ólíkum leiðum í skattheimtu: heildstæðum skattkerfum (Comprehensive Income Taxation-CIT), tvíþættum skattkerfum (Dual Income Taxation-DIT) og kerfum með flatan skatt (Flat Income Taxation-FIT). Þróun heildarskattheimtu á Íslandi er skoðuð í samanburði við OECD-ríkin og einnig skattbyrði af ólíkum tegundum skatta (svo sem tekjusköttum einstaklinga og fyrirtækja, neyslusköttum, eignasköttum og fjármagnstekjusköttum). Þá er breytt tekjuskattbyrði ólíkra tekjuhópa sýnd og skýrð sem og ýmis einkenni íslenska skattkerfisins. Allir alþjóðlegir mælikvarðar á heildarskattbyrði sýna að skattbyrði hefur aukist mikið á Íslandi síðan 1995 og raunar á Ísland heimsmet í aukningu skattbyrðarinnar á tímabilinu frá 1995 til 2005. Þessi aukning heildarskattheimtu er nær eingöngu vegna aukinnar tekjuskattheimtu af einstaklingum og fjölskyldum, sem lagðist með mestum þunga á fólk úr lægri tekjuhópunum, lífeyrisþega og ungar barnafjölskyldur. Skattbyrði þess tíunda hluta þjóðarinnar sem hafði hæstar tekjur lækkaði hins vegar mikið, mest hjá þeim allra tekjuhæstu. Skattbyrði lágtekjufólks og meðaltekjufólks jókst vegna rýrnunar skattleysismarkanna og þrátt fyrir að álagningarhlutfall skatta hafi lækkað. OECD hefur staðfest þessa þróun með afdráttarlausum hætti í nýlegri skýrslu sinni um efnahagsmál á Íslandi árið 2005 (Economic Survey: Iceland). Ísland hefur mörg sérkenni í skattastefnu sinni og víkur með afgerandi hætti frá helstu skattkerfum vestrænna þjóða. Raunar virðist Ísland nú nálgast það að mega teljast skattaparadís fyrir fjárfesta og eigendur fyrirtækja um leið og skattbyrði þorra almennings er mikil, meðal annars vegna ofangreindrar aukningar á skattbyrði.
Private Sector Investments from Small States in Emerging Markets: Can International Financial Institutions Help Handle the Risks?
Authors: Hilmarsson Hilmar Þór
Published: October 2013

The private sector plays an important role in the economic reconstruction of emerging market economies, and international financial institutions (IFIs) increasingly work in partnership with the private sector to increase economic growth and reduce poverty in those economies. IFIs, for example, offer: (i) equity financing and/or loans for private sector projects, (ii) investment guarantees against political risks (or non-commercial risks), (iii) technical assistance, and (iv) advisory services, etc. This article will briefly discuss the services that IFIs offer the private sector in emerging markets and cases in which these services could be useful for Icelandic companies. The institutions discussed are (i) the World Bank Group, (ii) the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), (iii) the Asian Development Bank (AsDB), (iv) the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), and (v) the African Development Bank (AfDB). A few Icelandic firms already have plans for relatively large projects in emerging market economies, especially in the energy sector, some of them in countries that could be classified as being risky. The ongoing economic crisis in Iceland will make project financing in emerging markets more problematic than before and therefore investments in partnership with international financial institutions could be an option that Icelandic firms will increasingly need to consider if they intend to invest abroad. However, increased private sector and IFI partnerships will not happen without government action. Iceland is a member of only two of the above-mentioned IFIs: the World Bank Group and the EBRD. The decision for Iceland to become member of the AsDB, IDB and AfDB rests solely with the government. Further government inaction in this area could become an impediment for foreign direct investment from Iceland to emerging markets and increase risks when the Icelandic private sector invests in those economies. Unnecessary risks might not only hurt Icelandic companies but also put Iceland’s economy in jeopardy. This is especially the case with large energy investments with long repayment periods. In addition to the specific case of Iceland, the discussion in this article could also be relevant to other small states which do not have the same leverage as do large states in the event of a dispute with the host governments, making partnership with IFIs more feasible in emerging markets.
Vinnulöggjöfin (lög nr. 80/1938) í 70 ár
Authors: Aðalsteinsson Gylfi Dalmann
Published: October 2013

Lögin um stéttarfélög og vinnudeilur eða vinnulöggjöfin eins og hún er oftast kölluð var lögtekin árið 1938. Vinnulöggjöfin mótar samskipta- og leikreglur á íslenskum vinnumarkaði. Helsta markmið hennar er að tryggja vinnufrið í landinu, lögin eiga að tryggja að vegna árekstra sem kunna að skapast á milli aðila vinnumarkaðarins hljótist sem minnst tjón fyrir atvinnulífið í landinu. Verkalýðshreyfingin hefur ekki séð ástæðu til breytinga á vinnulöggjöfinni í gegnum tíðina og hefur ekki sýnt frumkvæði í þá veru og mótmælt veigamiklum breytingum harðlega. Reynslan hefur sýnt að tilraunir til meiriháttar breytinga á vinnulöggjöfinni án samráðs við verkalýðshreyfinguna hafa ekki skilað tilætluðum árangri. Þegar breytingar hafa staðið fyrir dyrum hefur verkalýðshreyfingin ætíð kallað eftir víðtæku samráði aðila vinnumarkaðarins. Verkalýðshreyfingin hefur alltaf staðið einhuga um að verja sinn helgasta rétt, verkfallsréttinn, og staðið vörð um tilvistargrundvöll sinn, réttinn til félagsstofnunar og réttarstöðu gagnvart viðsemjendum sínum. Vinnuveitendur á hinn bóginn hafa alla tíð kallað eftir breytingum á vinnulöggjöfinni, sérstaklega eftir að atvinnu- og þjóðfélagshættir breyttust en löggjöfin breyttist ekki í takti við þær breytingar. Vinnuveitendur hafa í gengum tíðina viljað bæta aðferðafræði og verklag við gerð kjarasamninga, gera samningaviðræður skilvirkari og setja lágmarksreglur um atkvæðagreiðslur um kjarasamninga og verkfallsboðun. Í seinni tíð hafa vinnuveitendur lagt á það áherslu að breyta ákvæðum Félagsdóms í þá veru að hægt væri að áfrýja málum til æðra dómstigs. Í þessari grein er fjallað um vinnulöggjöfina, aðdraganda að setningu hennar, afstöðu verkalýðshreyfingarinnar og vinnuveitenda ásamt þeim tillögum sem fram hafa komið um breytingar á löggjöfinni. Sérstaklega er rætt um breytingarnar sem gerðar voru árið 1996.
Studying Judicial Activism: A Review of the Quantitative Literature
Authors: Jónsdóttir Svandís Nína
Published: October 2013

This article reviews the quantitative literature on judicial review and judicial activism, focusing on the conceptualization and the operationalization of the concept. Judicial activism has primarily been debated and discussed in an abstract, normative form, with no clear meaning attached to it. This has posed problems in quantitative analyses and comparative research, where clear, unambiguous concepts are necessary. This paper argues that traditional judicial scholarship that favors behavioralistic (e.g. individual level variables) accounts of the individual, constitutional judge are giving way to studies that have a larger legal and institutional connotation to it.
"Neyðarlögin" og stjórnsýsluréttur
Authors: Kristjánsdóttir Margrét Vala
Published: October 2013

Í grein þessari er fjallað um ákvarðanir Fjármálaeftirlitsins og stöðu skilanefnda þess á grundvelli laga nr. 125/2008, um heimild til fjárveitingar úr ríkissjóði vegna sérstakra aðstæðna á fjármálamarkaði. Staða skilanefnda Fjármálaeftirlitsins gagnvart reglum stjórnsýsluréttar er ekki jafnskýr og skyldi. Markmið umfjöllunarinnar er að draga fram skýrari mynd af stöðu þeirra að þessu leyti og varpa ljósi á það hvort þær teljast stjórnvöld eða einkaaðilar og hvort og þá á hvaða grundvelli reglur stjórnsýsluréttar eiga við um störf þeirra. Í greininni er gerð stutt grein fyrir gildissviði stjórnsýsluréttar, hvernig orðið geta til "grá svæði" m.t.t. reglna á þessu réttarsviði og hvernig sú umfjöllun snertir spurningar um stöðu skilanefnda fjármálaeftirlitsins. Fjallað verður um lagagrundvöll skilanefndanna og lögbundin hlutverk þeirra. Á grundvelli þessarar umfjöllunar er það niðurstaða greinarinnar í fyrsta lagi að skilanefndir Fjármálaeftirlitsins séu stjórnvöld og lúti sem slíkar reglum stjórnsýsluréttar, hvort sem litið er til stjórnarhlutverks þeirra eða framkvæmdar ákvarðana Fjármálaeftirlitsins. Það er einnig niðurstaða greinarinnar að stjórnsýslulög, nr. 37/1993, gildi um þær ákvarðanir skilanefndanna sem teljast stjórnvaldsákvarðanir í skilningi laganna, að því marki sem reglur þeirra laga eru ekki "teknar úr sambandi" með lögum nr. 125/2008. Loks er áréttað að þegar stjórnsýslulögum sleppir gilda meginreglur stjórnsýsluréttar um ákvarðanir og athafnir skilanefnda Fjármálaeftirlitsins. Þær eru því bundnar af meginreglum stjórnsýsluréttar um t.d. jafnræði, meðalhóf og málefnaleg sjónarmið við framkvæmd lögmæltra verkefna sinna á grundvelli laga nr. 125/2008.
Ákvarðanataka skipulagsheilda. Samanburður einkafyrirtækja og opinberra stofnana
Authors: Eðvarðsson Ingi Rúnar , Sigurðardóttir Ása Líney
Published: October 2013

Markmið greinarinnar er að skoða ákvarðanatöku stjórnenda hjá opinberum stofnunum og svara þeirri spurningu hvort munur sé á ákvarðanatöku þeirra saman borið við stjórnendur einkafyrirtækja. Viðtöl voru tekin við stjórnendur hjá þremur einkafyrirtækjum og þremur opinberum stofnunum. Niðurstöður leiða í ljós að stjórnendur opinberra stofnana og einkafyrirtækja virðast beita svipuðum aðferðum við ákvarðanatöku. Munurinn felst fremur í stærð fyrirtækjanna en eignarformi en eftir því sem fyrirtækin eru stærri taka fleiri þátt í ákvarðanatökuferlinu. Greining sýnir að stjórnendur í minni opinberum stofnunum hafa minna umboð til ákvarðanatöku en í einkafyrirtækjum, sérstaklega hvað varðar stefnumarkandi atriði. Að öðru leyti er lítill munur milli smáfyrirtækja og lítilla opinberra stofnana - stjórnendur þeirra beita iðulega skynsemislíkani og takmarkaðri skynsemi við úrlausn vandamála. Ferli ákvarðana er mjög áþekkt í stærri einkafyrirtækjum og opinberum stofnunum. Ákvarðanir taka lengri tíma hjá opinberum stofnunum í stærri málum eins og nýbyggingum og stefnumótun og þá einkennist ferlið af áfangaákvörðunum þar sem málamiðlanir milli ólíkra hagsmunaaðila eru algengar. Enn fremur má geta þess að margvísleg lög, eins og jafnræðislög, starfsmannalög, stjórnsýslulög og stefna sveitarfélaga, takmarka ákvarðanavald opinberra stjórnenda, sem ekki á við um stjórnendur einkafyrirtækja. Afleiðingar hrunsins í efnahagslífinu höfðu mun meiri áhrif á ákvarðanatöku stjórnenda opinberu stofnananna en hjá stjórnendum einkafyrirtækjanna, en þó hafði hrunið töluverð áhrif hjá stærsta einkafyrirtækinu.
The European Citizens’ Initiative: Transnational Democracy in the EU at last?
Authors: Conrad Maximilian
Published: October 2013

The European Union’s Lisbon Treaty, in force since December 2009, introduced the European Citizens’ Initiative (ECI) as a means of strengthening citizen involvement in EU decision making. A minimum of one million citizens from at least seven of the EU’s current 27 member states can request that the European Commission submit a legislative proposal on the issue of the initiative. But the ECI is not only a means of strengthening participatory democracy in the EU. It also bears the potential for a more fundamental transformation of democracy, namely in the direction of transnational participatory democracy. Starting with a short introduction to how the ECI will work in practice as well as a brief history of participatory democracy in the EU, this article therefore examines the ECI from the perspective of democratic theory. How profound an impact will the ECI have on democracy in the European Union?
Iceland and Cyber-threats: Is it more than fear of fear?
Authors: Ragnarsson Jón Kristinn , Bailes Alyson J.K.
Published: October 2013

The challenge of cyber-threats is a modern reality from which no state, including Iceland, can hope to escape. Cyber-attacks can cause major damage remotely, at minimal cost and while concealing the culprits. Groups and individuals can carry them out as effectively as states, reversing traditional power calculations and making deterrence especially difficult. Individuals can use the Net both for mischief and to escape from authoritarian controls; groups such as terrorists and criminals can target states, commerce and individuals; and states can attack other states both directly and by proxy. The complexity of possible online conflicts was seen clearly in the events triggered by Wikileaks disclosures against the USA in 2010 and 2011. Among other recent developments, an attack on the Pentagon and the ‘Stuxnet’ virus used against Iranian nuclear plants have shown how even the smallest devices can penetrate high-security systems, and that computer-driven infrastructures are no longer immune. Iceland, for its part, acknowledged the relevance of cyber-threats in its 2009 risk assessment, and recently decided to set up a coordinating team for protection; but it has lagged behind its Nordic neighbours in this field and should take full advantage of cooperation with them now. Vulnerable states also have an interest in international regulation and restraint on the use of cyber-weapons, but the context for this is complex and viable proposals are slow to emerge. Iceland can and should contribute to new thinking, and perhaps also assist poorer states: but it needs to put its own house in order first.
Stefnumótun í íslenskum skipulagsheildum
Authors: Eðvarðsson Ingi Rúnar , Steinþórsson Runólfur Smári , Gestsson Helgi
Published: October 2013

Markmið greinarinnar er að kynna niðurstöður könnunar um stefnumótun í íslenskum fyrirtækjum og stofnunum sem framkvæmd var seinni hluta ársins 2007. Könnunin, sem var netkönnun, náði til rekstrareininga með fleiri en fimm starfsmenn. Svör bárust frá 222 æðstu stjórnendum fyrirtækja og stofnana (46% svörun). Könnunin hefur þá sérstöðu að ná til lítilla og meðal stórra fyrirtækja, auk stórfyrirtækja. Niðurstöður eru þessar helstar: Flestir stjórnendur í könnuninni telja að framtíðarsýn þeirra varðandi reksturinn sé mjög skýr. Í 57% fyrirtækja fer fram formleg stefnumótun og þar kom fram munur eftir stærð fyrirtækja og menntun stjórnenda: Stefnumótun er algengari í stærri fyrirtækjum og í fyrirtækjum og stofnunum sem er stýrt af háskólamenntuðum stjórnendum. Í liðlega 70% fyrirtækja og stofnana er stefnumótun sífellt í gangi eða var í gangi þegar könnunin átti sér stað. Stjórn og stjórnendur koma helst að mótun stefnu í fyrirtækjum í könnuninni. Ekkert mat á árangri stefnumótunar fer fram í 19,3% fyrirtækja og stofnana, en í 41,2% þeirra er bæði huglægt og hlutlægt mat. Flest fyrirtækin nota mælikvarða um ánægju starfsfólks og hluthafa.
Sameiginlegt mat á umhverfisáhrifum
Authors: Kristjánsdóttir Margrét Vala , Haraldsdóttir Kristín , Theodórsdóttir Ásdís Hlökk
Published: October 2013

Í greininni er fjallað um ákvæði um sameiginlegt mat á umhverfisáhrifum í 2. mgr. 5. gr. laga nr. 106/2000 um mat á umhverfisáhrifum. Meginmarkmið ákvæðisins er að upplýsa um heildaráhrif framkvæmda á umhverfið áður en ákvarðanir um þær eru teknar. Vegna álitaefna sem upp hafa komið í tengslum við framkvæmd ákvæðisins er í greininni leitast við að skýra tilurð þess og efni með hliðsjón af lögskýringargögnum, framkvæmd þess og reglum tilskipunar 85/337/EBE eins og hún hefur verið tekin upp í EES-samninginn. Í greininni er komist að þeirri niðurstöðu að skilyrði fyrir beitingu ákvæðisins hafi skýrst í framkvæmd. Framkvæmdin veki jafnframt spurningar um hvort ná megi markmiðum ákvæðisins jafn vel, með einfaldari leiðum sem samræmast tilskipun 85/337/EBE eins og hún hefur verið skýrð af framkvæmdastjórn Evrópusambandsins.