bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hope Versus Hypothesis Testing: Expanded Access To Experimental Interventions
Authors: Dresser Rebecca
Published: November 2023

Modem research advocates got their start battling regulations that restricted access to promising experimental interventions. Beginning in the 1980s, activists sought to expand patients’ opportunities to benefit from biomedical research. Advocates thought research policies focused too much on avoiding risks to research participants and the public and too little on promoting research benefits. The rules seemed to impede unnecessarily the development of scientific knowledge and new treatments to aid people in desperate need. Advocates targeted government policies for change and in the process helped construct a research system that places high priority on access.
Research Advocacy Today And Tomorrow
Authors: Dresser Rebecca
Published: November 2023

At the end of the twentieth century, patient advocates were an undeniable presence in biomedical research. Advocates transformed research at all levels. They made individual studies more responsive to research participants and to the patients and communities research was intended to benefit. They helped make experimental innovations more widely available to seriously ill people. They persuaded federal officials to adopt requirements for gender and ethnic diversity in study populations. They convinced Congress to boost funding for biomedical research and had a say in how funds were distributed.
Developmental Stability-Fitness Relationships in Animals: Some Theoretical Considerations
Authors: Clarke Geoffrey M
Published: November 2023

The relationship between developmental stability and individual fitness has been the subject of much interest and research over the last decade. Excluding articles on plants, humans, and sexual selection, a quick scan of the published literature reveals over 100 articles on the topic during the last ten years, with the majority published since 1994. Including the sexual selection, plant, and human studies, this number swells to over 200, again with most of the activity occurring during the last five years. Much of this literature has been formally reviewed in one form or another (Clarke 1995a,b, 1998a; Markow 1995; Leung and Forbes 1996, 1997; M0ller 1997, 1999a,b; M0ller and Swaddle 1997). Perhaps surprisingly, the debate as to the nature and strength of the relationship, or even whether such a relationship exists, has at times been controversial and passionate (see, for example, M0ller 1997, 1999b; Clarke 1998a). Despite the ongoing debate, and the general lack of supporting empirical evidence, a positive correlation between levels of development stability and individual fitness has often been assumed in the literature.
Fluctuating Asymmetry and Sexual Selection: Paradigm Shifts, Publication Bias, and Observer Expectation
Authors: Tomkins Joseph L , Simmons Leigh W
Published: November 2023

Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) describes a specific example of biological asymmetry in which population variation in the size of the left and right pairs of bilateral traits are distributed randomly about perfect symmetry (Van Valen 1962; Palmer and Strobeck 1986). Interest in FA stems from the notion that there is a target state of sym­metry that all individuals are aiming to achieve, and that individuals that fail to develop symmetrically are in some way of poorer quality than those that do achieve symmetry. Rarely in biology has there been such an intuitively attractive and broadly applicable proposition as the concept that deviations from symmetry are the consequence of an inability to cope with environmental or genetic stress. This appeal and applicability has resulted in a rapid rise in the investigation of this type of biological asymmetry with less than ten articles published on the subject in 1988, but over 70 published in 1998 (Palmer 2000).
and Sexual Selection
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Cuervo José J
Published: November 2023

Sexual selection arises from variation in mating success being nonrandomly related to phenotypic characters (Darwin 1871). These characters, socalled secondary sexual characters, may have evolved through intrasexual competition for access to mates (usually male-male competition) or mate choice (usually by females). While antlers, horns, and spurs presumably have evolved by male-male competition, extravagant plumes, vocalizations and pheromones may often have evolved through female choice (Andersson 1994 ). Secondary sexual characters are costly to produce and maintain (Andersson 1994). Although some models of sexual selection suggest that secondary sexual characters are arbitrary traits independent of condition (Fisher 1930; Lande 1981), empirical research suggests that secondary sexual characters often demonstrate condition dependence (Andersson 1994). If secondary sexual characters are more costly for low-than high-quality individuals, such traits may be considered reliable signals of quality (Zahavi 1975; Heywood 1989; Grafen 1990). Consequently, only individuals in prime condition can develop the most exaggerated characters, and cheating by low-quality individuals is prevented. This interpretation is supported by a recent review showing that males with the largest secondary sexual characters generally survive better than males with smaller trait values (Jennions et al. 2001), suggesting that males with the most exaggerated traits indeed are in better condition both before and after development of their secondary sexual characters.
A to Z in Form of Introduction
Authors: Debost Michel
Published: November 2023

Alphabetical order for entries in this book has been chosen for various reasons. The main one is that such a book is not meant to be read like a novel, drink in hand under the lamp. It is a book for lovers of the divine pipe, for those fascinated by actual contact with the flute, with instrumental playing as well as musical function in mind, for its poetic mysteries as well as for its technical secrets. I have been playing the flute for close to sixty years. Yet nothing is indifferent to me that involves the flute. Hopefully it will be so as long as I have a breath, or a tooth, left. I take nothing for granted either, and each day brings new questions and renewed pleasures. Separating into “logical” compartments different aspects of musical art (technique, tone, articulation, interpretation, etc.) seems to me arbitrary. I cannot see the border between questions. The art of the flute is not a chest of isolated little drawers with one aspect of playing locked in each one. Musicality does not start where technique stops, if it ever stops.
Air Speed
Authors: Debost Michel
Published: November 2023

When we play a wide interval, say, wider than a fourth, our first reflex is to move the chin or the lips to shift the angle of attack of the air brush. If it works for you, even when you are out of shape or nervous, of course, do it. My problem with that process is its relative unreliability at the wrong moment, under stress. No doubt the lips provide guidance, but the energy comes from the strong aircolumn muscles. We need to give more or less speed to the air, and to involve the whole body in the playing process. When we rise in the range of the flute, instead of messing with the embouchure only, we should, as it were, sink into the ground. We feel very heavy, the shoulders are low, and the abdominal belt is firm thanks to the strong leg muscles. The higher you play, the lower your center of gravity should be. When you want to descend with an equivalent interval, you relax the abdominal belt before lipping and jawboning.
Blowing Long Phrases
Authors: Debost Michel
Published: November 2023

There is no answer to the sophistic question, “Which came first, the chicken or the egg?” For us it translates to: “Which is first: blowing or breathing?” Breathing, of course, and yet it is the blowing that creates a sound. If you don’t know how to blow, your breathing will be just an organic act, a vital but musically void necessity. Still, it seems that most of us are worried more by the intake of air than with the management of its release. Examples of breath management problems abound in our solo repertoire: the first three movements of Bach’s Partita in A Minor, BWV 1013; the opening solo in Mozart’s Concerto in D Major, K. 314; and in Poulenc’s Sonata, the opening phrase of the Cantilena. We find it in the orchestral repertoire also: among other places, in Ravel’s Bolero and the beginning of Beethoven’s Fourth Symphony. The latter is never mentioned, but it was my personal nightmare: one single Bb held for what seems like hours by one flute (no second to help out), two clarinets, and two bassoons over three octaves. The more famous the conductor, the slower the tempo. . . . Pitch problems, breath management problems, attack problems. I preferred some of the technically “difficult” excerpts.
Circular Blowing
Authors: Debost Michel
Published: November 2023

This is also called, somewhat improperly, circular breathing. Labeled a “contemporary” technique, it is probably as ancient as wind instrument playing itself. Its use can be witnessed at all latitudes— Africa and Asia, for instance. In its principle, it is comparable to the bagpipes of the British Isles, to the biniou of Celtic French Brittany, and to the various similar instruments of the European continent. Here, air is periodically stocked by mouth into a sheepskin or goatskin bag compressed by the player’s arm. One of the circular blowing techniques reproduces this principle. The air bag is the blown-out cheeks. A reed independent of the mouth replaces the embouchure. The Muslim world’s rajta9 players use this technique, recommended also by some present flutists.10 I have never been able to use this blown-out cheek process without considerably altering the sound. I recommend another way. It calls for the mouth cavity’s air projection through a quick forward movement of the tongue without cheek inflation. To get used to this technique, it is necessary, first, to educate the respiratory reflexes without the flute through the steps described in the following diagram.
Dynamics
Authors: Debost Michel
Published: November 2023

Do not judge your dynamics by your efforts but by what you are hearing. You might think you are playing pianissimo because you’ve stopped supporting, but you hear an approximate sound with a doubtful intonation. Or you are blowing like mad but your sound is narrow and forced. Teachers rarely explain their request to play louder or softer. Hence flutists have a tendency to do what is evident: push to play loud and disintegrate to play soft. For once, our natural reflexes are totally deceptive. The problem with dynamics is that they never exist by themselves. They are like the painter’s palette. They are useless if they don’t relate to the musical content as much as to objective conditions of instrumental playing. What to make of an orchestral instrumentalist who plays so softly that we can’t hear him or her? Or of another who blasts so loud (acoustically or electronically) that he or she drowns out all the rest? When a crooner whispers a tender ballad to a crowd, ten thousand listeners perceive him as sweet and intimate. His amplifiers are anything but that. In contrast, in the middle of a hundred-strong orchestra, a lonely nonamplified flute plays the first phrase of Ravel’s Bolero. As the first step of a seemingly endless crescendo, it must start very, very softly and still be heard at the back of the hall. The listener’s impression should be: “How can the flutist play pp so mysteriously and magically and still project?” The listener’s reaction should not be: “I can’t hear the flute. The flutist must be playing pp!” Soft dynamics cannot project and stay in tune if a half-inflated carnival balloon, without support or energy, plays them. On the contrary, a forced tone and an air volume big enough to bend a tree will not always produce a “big sound.” What I call “turbo-sound” is precisely that: an enormous quantity of air without timbre or focus.
Embouchure
Authors: Debost Michel
Published: November 2023

A good, stable, and flexible embouchure position should be the same for all registers. Chin and lip gymnastics are counterproductive, especially under stress. Flute sound is created by the air brush hitting the outside wall of the embouchure hole. Turbulence is created as part of the air brush’s energy is transformed into vibration, which resonates according to the length of the tube. The rest of the air stream escapes out of the embouchure hole. Below the outside rim of that hole is the wall, whose height is critical. Its measurements and the shape of the head-joint tube constitute the art of head-joint making. The material of the chimney, also referred to as the riser, and the undercutting of the lip plate are flute makers’ trade secrets and the object of endless speculation among flutists. A thorough discussion of all embouchure-making matters is beyond the scope of this work. There are some acoustically objective elements, and, to be sure, as many preferences as there are flute players.
Fingerings
Authors: Debost Michel
Published: November 2023

Only finger-activated keys for the second note of each triplet are shown. The first note of each group is not indicated and is always “normal” fingering. The facilitating principle is that fingers move in the same direction, not antagonistically. These scales, where only the left hand is active, can be played in the normal position or with hands crossed to demonstrate stability, as illustrated in the chapters on beginners and stability. Only fingered keys are shown. Black means finger down, white means finger up, and gray means the key is optional. Half black, half white key: finger is either on the rim of the key or pulled back to show the open ring, the key being depressed (French-system flutes).
Interpreting Accents
Authors: Debost Michel
Published: November 2023

An accent is a punctual concentration of musical energy that highlights or stresses the tension of a moment. It can be of a different nature: acoustical, harmonic, or expressive. An fp or ffp requests a very fast drop, on one note, from the loud to the soft. It is as much an accent as an effect, frequently used since Beethoven. The flutist must go from a very sustained sound to nothing, as if the blowing had stopped. Played by the strings, it becomes visually explicit: the bow almost stops. The player must convey the impression that this note burns. An sf (sforzando) must not be misread for an fp. It also affects one note only, or, more precisely, one sound: if the note is long or carried over bar lines with slurs, the “reinforcing” applies to the duration of that note. There can be many sf in a general p: the sf brings the prevailing dynamic to the next level (p to mp, mf to f, etc.).
Paris Conservatoire and French School
Authors: Debost Michel
Published: November 2023

Although in the 1970s the French republic created another Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musique in Lyon, on an equal standing with Paris, the model for most musical institutions of Europe was the Paris Conservatoire. Founded in 1784 as École Royale de Musique, in 1795 it assumed its present title. Past directors include Luigi Cherubini, Ambroise Thomas, Theodore Dubois, Gabriel Fauré, and Marcel Dupré. Among its professors were Hector Berlioz, Anton Reicha, Paul Dukas, Jules Massenet, Charles-Marie Widor, Charles Tournemire, Marcel Dupré, Olivier Messiaen, and Nadia Boulanger. Until 1977, there was only one flute class. Paul Taffanel, Philippe Gaubert, Marcel Moyse, and Jean-Pierre Rampal were some of its professors. Adolphe Hennebains and Crunelle, although not as highly profiled or as well known, also left their mark, as did William Kincaid, Joseph Mariano, and Julius Baker in the United States. There are no private lessons with the professor. All teaching is done in front of the whole class, who must in theory attend twelve hours of master classes a week. Private lessons are the responsibility of the associate professor. staffed with the professors and best students of the Conservatoire. For a century, it was associated with the school only in name. To this day, the Paris Conservatoire has very high standards, but the history of French orchestras, unfortunately, has not, for many reasons, lived up to the reputation of one of the world’s best music schools.
Practicing
Authors: Debost Michel
Published: November 2023

When I was a child, my mother laid down the law. There were two vital things I had to do before turning in for the night: brush my teeth and say my prayers. To this day, I have not figured out which was the most important. I still have my own teeth, and I hope I am not yet on my way to a flutist’s hell. Practicing has some of that ambiguity. Some feel guilty if they have not done their “long tooones.” Others have a thing about warm-ups. I confess that I am partial to the Scale Game. Most musicians feel that insufficient practice time is an explanation or an excuse for not performing up to standards. Some say: “I practice four or five [or more] hours a day,” and yet the result leaves something to be desired. The quality of the work is more important than the time spent. The clock gives us an alibi with which to pacify our guilt machine. “It worked perfectly during practice.” Actually, in practice you are not so conscious of your flaws, because you are not under stress, whereas on stage or at your lesson, you blow the slightest imperfection out of proportion. For example, listen to friends and colleagues: with or without stress, they sound to you about the same as they always do. Hence, the same with you; it is the nervous perception that, in your mind, exacerbates your shortcomings.
Quodlibet
Authors: Debost Michel
Published: November 2023

A certain number of edicts prevailing in the flute playing world have been transmitted and deformed through oral tradition, much like tribal taboos. My purpose is to poke fun at them, with no desire to offend anyone. Most of these axioms refer, like many canons of morality, to deceased prophets who cannot disagree: the gospel according to Gaubert, to Taffanel, to Kincaid, to Barrère, to Moyse, or to Tabuteau (for oboists). Modern-day gurus such as Rampal, Nicolet, Baker, Jaunet, Kujala, Gilbert, and others would be very amused by the final misinterpretations of their teachings. Anybody is entitled to say today the opposite of what they stated yesterday. Politicians, conductors, and students do it, so why should professors be exempt? Nobody is infallible, especially not the writer of these lines. I dedicate this to the memory of my predecessor at Oberlin, Tom Nyfenger, whose book made fun of flutistic mannerisms and whose fundamental self doubts brought about his own tragic end, ten years ago.
Embracing the East
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: November 2023

As exemplified by Madame Butterfly, East-West relations have often been expressed as the relations between the masculine, dominant West and the feminine, submissive East. Yet, this binary model does not account for the important role of white women in the construction of Orientalism. Mari Yoshihara's study examines a wide range of white women who were attracted to Japan and China in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century and shows how, through their engagement with Asia, these women found new forms of expression, power, and freedom that were often denied to them in other realms of their lives in America. She demonstrates how white women's attraction to Asia shaped and was shaped by a complex mix of exoticism for the foreign, admiration for the refined, desire for power and control, and love and compassion for the people of Asia. Through concrete historical narratives and careful textual analysis, she examines the ideological context for America's changing discourse about Asia and interrogates the power and appeal--as well as the problems and limitations--of American Orientalism for white women's explorations of their identities. Combining the analysis of race and gender in the United States and the study of U.S.-Asian relations, Yoshihara's work represents the transnational direction of scholarship in American Studies and U.S. history. In addition, this interdisciplinary work brings together diverse materials and approaches, including cultural history, material culture, visual arts, performance studies, and literary analysis.
Racial Masquerade and Literary Orientalism: Amy Lowell’s “Asian” Poetry
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: November 2023

As “Asia” came to occupy an increasingly visible and important place in America’s cultural vocabulary, it became a representational tool with which to express not only American ideologies about U.S.-Asian relations but also changing cultural norms and social anxieties in the domestic context. The American engagement with Asian cultures manifested in material culture, visual arts, and performing arts also had a significant impact in American letters, particularly in literary modernism.
Concerning Compositions With Humorous Secular Texts, But Not in Set Verse Patterns, Such as Dialogues, Canzonas, Canzonettas, and Arias
Authors: Praetorius Michael
Published: November 2023

Those such as the previously-mentioned sonnets (cantilena or cantio in Latin, which are generic terms; chanson in French) are actually secular or courting songs that are sung. Their style varies from poet to poet, and they do not have the same number of stanzas or lines, nor are they always in the same form, almost like the hymns of Pindar or the odes of Horace. The following is an example from Petrarch
Concerning Free-Standing Preludes, Such as Fantasies, Fugues [Fugen], Sinfonias, and Sonatas
Authors: Praetorius Michael
Published: November 2023

A capriccio or improvised fantasia is when one undertakes to execute a fugue [Fugam] of one’s choosing but dwells on it only for a short time, soon changing to another fugue [ fugam] as it strikes him. For since no text is permitted with proper fugues [Fugen], one is not bound by words; one may make as many or as few digressions, additions, abridgements, twists, and turns as one wishes. Such fantasies and capriccios are especially suited for demonstrating one’s skill and artistry; one may employ without further hesitation anything that is permissible in music, such as suspensions, proportions, etc., as long as the mode and melody are observed and remain within their bounds. More will be said on this in another place, God willing.
Concerning the Dances Not Arranged According to Certain Paces and Steps, Such as the Branle, Courante, Volta, Allemande, and Mascherada
Authors: Praetorius Michael
Published: November 2023

Branle is a French dance, perhaps from bransler, which means “tremble,” “bestir,” “stir,” or “move.” The movement in this dance is not so violent as in the galliards and courantes, and is only in the knees and rather smooth without jumps. The differences between the branles and other French dances receive further attention in the preface to my Terpsichore Musarum Aoniarum.
Concerning the Thoroughbass or Continuo
Authors: Praetorius Michael
Published: November 2023

The meaning, treatment, and usage of the thoroughbass, basso continuo, or bassus prorgano and other important issues including (a) what is desirable in an organist, lutenist, harpist, and (b) how each of them should use their instrument according to its character. The Bassus generalis or continuo is so called because it continues from the beginning of the piece to the end and, as principal part, contains within itself the entire motet or concerto. It is quite common in Italy, especially in the works of the outstanding composer Lodovico Viadana, the superb creator of this new art, who devised and published the method of having one, two, three, or four voices sing to the sole accompaniment of an organ, regal, or other fundamental instrument. It is therefore necessary that such a thoroughbass and continuo part for the organist or lutenist, etc. be available as a foundation.
Instruction for Choirboys [Instructio Pro Symphoniacis]
Authors: Praetorius Michael
Published: November 2023

The orator’s job is not just to decorate his speech with beautiful, pleasing, and lively words and marvelous figures, but also to articulate clearly and to move the emotions by speaking now with a rising voice, now a falling one, now more loudly, now more softly, now with fullness of voice. In the same manner, the singer cannot merely sing, but must sing artfully and engagingly, so that the heart of the listener is touched and his emotions are moved, thus allowing the piece to achieve its intended purpose. The singer must not only be endowed by nature with an excellent voice, but he must be experienced and possess a good intellect and an extensive knowledge of music. It is important for him to have good judgment to place accents skillfully and to incorporate an appropriate number of runs or coloraturas (called passaggi by the Italians) at the right time and in suitable places so that in addition to the loveliness of the voice, the overall artistry can also be properly appreciated. Yet those singers who are equipped by God and nature with an especially lovely, vibrant, buoyant, or pulsating voice and a well-developed neck and throat suitable for diminutions are not to be praised if they disregard the rules of music by exceeding the recommended limits through the use of far too much ornamentation and thereby disfigure the piece so much that no one has any idea what they are singing. Neither the text nor the notes (as set by the composer, who bestows upon the piece the best embellishment and appeal) can be perceived, much less understood.
Purity and Desire
Authors: Berry Stephen W
Published: November 2023

In the summer of 1855, William Elliott traveled to Paris to deliver an address before the Imperial Agricultural Society. Elliott was a South Carolina planter, a noted authority on the cultivation of cotton, and an enthusiastic hunter. He is remembered, if at all, for a series of hunting sketches of some sublimity entitled Carolina Sports by Land and Water (1859). “I think that if anything I have written will live after me,” Elliott correctly predicted, “it will be these ‘Sports. ‘ “ On August 26, 1855, William Elliott was one of a throng of men and women gathered outside the Fine Arts Exhibition in Paris, hoping to catch a glimpse of Queen Victoria and her escort, the emperor of France.
Importance Of Aromatic Hydrocarbons In The Chemistry Of Ozone Generation In The Urban Atmosphere
Authors: Calvert Jack G , Atkinson Roger , Becker Karl H , Kamens Richard M , Seinfeld John H , Wallington Timothy J , Yarwood Greg
Published: November 2023

Organic compounds are important trace constituents of the atmosphere that originate from many different natural and man-made sources. The atmospheric reactions of organic compounds influence other atmospheric trace constituents. In particular, reactions of volatile organic compounds (Voes) with nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the presence of sunlight can lead to the formation of ozone, other oxidants, and particulate matter (PM), commonly referred to as “smog” (see, e.g., Warneck, 1988; Seinfeld and Pandis, 1998; Finlayson-Pitts and Pitts, 1999). In many urban areas, emissions of voes and NOx, when combined under meteorological conditions that favor smog formation, can lead to the formation of ground-level ozone and PM at harmful levels. In some areas, such as the eastern United States, ozone and PM are a “regional-scale” as well as an “urban-scale” problem because significant atmospheric transport of pollutants occurs between urban and rural areas, or between neighboring urban areas. Similar situations have been observed in Europe. As mentioned above, formation of ground-level ozone is not the only harmful consequence of the atmospheric reactions of voes.
Reactions Of O(3P) Atoms With Aromatic Compounds
Authors: Calvert Jack G , Atkinson Roger , Becker Karl H , Kamens Richard M , Seinfeld John H , Wallington Timothy J , Yarwood Greg
Published: November 2023

Reactions of 0(3P) atoms with aromatic compounds are of little importance in the ambient atmosphere, but may be significant in laboratory irradiations of NOX aromatic-air mixtures and possibly also in plumes containing elevated concentrations of NO 2. As with most other classes of atmospheric reactions, there is a substantial database concerning the kinetics of the reactions of 0(3 P) atoms with aromatic compounds, but relatively few product studies have been performed. Analogous to the OH-and NO rradical reactions reviewed in previous chapters, reactions of the 0(3P) atom with aromatic compounds proceed mainly by initial addition of the 0(3P) atom to the carbon atoms of the aromatic ring (Sloane, 1977; Sibener et al., 1980). The measured room temperature rate coefficients increase with the number of alkyl-substituent groups attached to the aromatic ring (see table V-B-1); the positions of the substituent groups also have an effect on the rate coefficients (with m-xylene and 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene being the most reactive xylene and trimethylbenzene, respectively). This behavior is very similar to that observed for the OH-radical reactions (chapter II). Grovenstein and Mosher (1970) showed that formation yields of the phenolic products (formed by rearrangement of the initially formed biradical) are consistent with electrophilic addition, with alkyl-substituent groups activating the ortho and para positions.
Reactions Of Non-Aromatic Products Of Aromatic Compound Oxidation
Authors: Calvert Jack G , Atkinson Roger , Becker Karl H , Kamens Richard M , Seinfeld John H , Wallington Timothy J , Yarwood Greg
Published: November 2023

The first-generation products formed from the atmospheric reactions of aromatic compounds, discussed in sections II-D, III-D, and IV-D, can also react in the atmosphere with OH radicals, N 03 radicals, and 03, and may photolyze. The available rate coefficient data for ring-retaining products are reviewed and evaluated in sections 11-B, 111-B, and IV-Band photolysis is considered in chapter VII. The available rate coefficient data concerning the reactions of non-aromatic reaction products with OH radicals, N 03 radicals, and03 are dealt with in this chapter. VI-A. Kinetic Data for Reactions of OH Radicals, NO3 Radicals, and Ozone with Non-Aromatic Products of Aromatic Compound Oxidation The format of this section is similar to that of sections 11-B, III-B, and IV-B, and the same abbreviations (see tables 11-B-0, IV-B-0) are used in the tables below for the experimental techniques. The available kinetic data for the OH radical, N03 radical, and 03 reactions are all presented here.
Summary
Authors: Calvert Jack G , Atkinson Roger , Becker Karl H , Kamens Richard M , Seinfeld John H , Wallington Timothy J , Yarwood Greg
Published: November 2023

Aromatic hydrocarbons are released into the atmosphere of an urban community from sources involving the combustion of fossil fuels (e.g., exhaust of internal combustion engines), solvent use, or other sources. During the daylight hours they react rapidly, often within hours, with OH radicals. When these reactions occur by attack on the aromatic ring, the ultimate result is, in large part, rupture of the aromatic ring and generation of a variety of multifunctional carbonyl com­ pounds. These are reactive both photochemically and toward OH radicals, and they form a variety of peroxy radicals (R02) . The attack of the OH radical on an alkyl side chain attached to the aromatic ring may also occur, with the generation ofbenzylperoxy-like radicals (e.g., C6H5CH202) . The dominant fate of the peroxy radicals is reaction with NO, which proceeds in two channels; the main channel gives RO radicals and N02, while the minor channel gives organic nitrates RON02: R02 (H02) + NO ș+ RO (OH) + N02; R02 + NO ș+ RON02.
Friends And Foes Early Recruits and Freedom’s Cause, 1861–1862
Authors: Nelson Scott Reynolds , Sheriff Carol
Published: November 2023

By all measurable indications, the Union should have won the war handily. At the conflict’s outset, the Northern states had thirty-three times as many fire-arms as the South, produced seventeen times as much cotton cloth and woolen goods, and had 70 percent of the nation’s railroad track—which, taken together, meant that the Union was much better positioned to arm, clothe, and transport its soldiers.1 The Union entered the war with far superior naval capabilities, and it alone had the industrial capabilities to build additional armored ships. When it came to manpower, too, the Union had the definitive edge. Its initial pool of eligible soldiers (white men) was four times larger than the Confederacy’s, a gap that would only increase midwar when the Union began enlisting African American soldiers (it had always enlisted black sailors) while also stepping up its campaign to recruit foreign-born servicemen.
Union Occupation And Guerrilla Warfare
Authors: Nelson Scott Reynolds , Sheriff Carol
Published: November 2023

By the summer of 1862, the American Civil War was changing, but not in the places where anyone expected it. General George McClellan had captured headlines in April in an attempt to bring a hundred thousand Union soldiers up the Virginia Peninsula in a traditional siege of Richmond. But McClellan fought a traditional war with infantry, cavalry, and artillery. McClellan failed to use slaves and former slaves to his advantage. Rather than trust black scouts, as Generals Lane and Hunter had, McClellan established balloon corps to fly above Confederate lines. (Confederates quickly pitched thousands of tents, convincing McClellan he was outnumbered.) Rather than use black spies, he used a bumbling force of “Pinkerton Detectives” that proved useless at reconnaissance. Rather than use black laborers, he detailed untrained soldiers to build bridges, producing the most rickety bridges in the Western world. (Confederates, meanwhile, impressed road crews of trained black carpenters to cover retreats.) When considering friends and foes, McClellan failed to see the social revolution developing around him, failed to use the slaves who could have helped him, and failed to take Richmond. Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia stopped him in the Seven Days Battle (June 25–July 1, 1862).
We Need Men Union Struggles over Manpower and Emancipation, 1863–1865
Authors: Nelson Scott Reynolds , Sheriff Carol
Published: November 2023

Tally Simpson and Caleb Blanchard, both enlisted men, observed the war from very different vantage points. Simpson, the son of a prominent slaveowning family, had left college immediately after Fort Sumter to join the Third South Carolina Volunteers. Blanchard, a twenty-nine-year-old married carpenter from Connecticut, waited more than a year before mustering into the Union army. In the winter of 1863, the two men encamped at opposite ends of the Confederacy. Simpson’s Confederate regiment was biding its time near Fredericksburg, Virginia, while Blanchard and his comrades occupied New Orleans. Yet as far apart as these men stood from one another—figuratively and literally—they agreed on one fundamental point: The Confederacy’s greatest hope for victory rested in the Union’s internal discord.
The Impact of HIV/AIDS on the Development of Public Health Law
Authors: Burris Scott , Gostin Lawrence O
Published: November 2023

When the United States was struck by a serious epidemic of HIV/AIDS in the early 1980s, public health law was an all but abandoned field. For decades, communicable disease had been in decline, and with it the use of various powers the law had long ago given to health agencies charged with controlling those diseases. In a world in which chronic noncommunicable diseases, accidents, and environmental toxins dominated the health concerns of the U.S. public and policymakers, and in which the few residual communicable diseases were susceptible to treatment and largely untroubling to society, there was little occasion for the use or renewal of a body of law whose time was thought to be past—if, indeed, it was thought about at all.
Aldo Leopold and the Value of Nature
Authors: Kellert Stephen R
Published: November 2023

When questions arise about the value of healthy natural systems to human well-being, they are typically framed in the context of economic and some­ times ecological benefits. This is not surprising given our market-driven and scientifically oriented society. There is a tendency for issues of environmental concern to be decided on the basis of empirical evidence and other quantifiable, presumably objective, measurements of value. This prevailing emphasis on quantifiable and economic benefits tends to obscure those difficult-to-quantify, personal relationships to the natural world that have traditionally shaped the human experience. Moreover, the value of nature is seen as independent of human culture and history.
Nauvoo, 1838–46
Authors: Bushman Claudia Lauper , Bushman Richard Lyman
Published: November 2023

The setbacks that Joseph Smith suffered before his move to Missouri in 1838 would likely have broken a less resilient man. But the expulsion of the Saints from Independence, the defection of his closest followers in Kirtland, and his personal sorrow when twins born to Emma died at birth-none of these blunted his resolve. At Far West, in Missouri, he laid plans for yet another Mormon city, selected a site for a temple, and called the Saints to gather at still another place of refuge.
Building the Kingdom, 1847–69
Authors: Bushman Claudia Lauper , Bushman Richard Lyman
Published: November 2023

Left to their own preferences, the thousands of Mormon migrants who trekked to Utah would never have chosen that barren and treeless region as their home, with its salty lake, sagebrush, crickets, lizards, and rattlesnakes. Harriet Decker Young, one of Brigham’s wives, recorded that on her arrival “my feelings were such as I cannot describe; everything looked gloomy and I felt heart sick.” At least, the Mormons thought, no one would bother them there.
Multiphoton Microscopy in Neuroscience
Authors: Helmchen Fritjof , Wang Samuel S -H , Denk Winfried
Published: November 2023

Since the first report more than 10 years ago of two-photon excited fluorescence microscopy (Denk et al., 1990), multiphoton microscopy (MPM) has found uses in many research areas. Multiphoton microscopy has had a particularly strong impact on life sciences because several of its properties provide special advantages for studying living cells in intact tissue (for reviews see Denk and Svoboda, 1997; Piston, 1999; König, 2000; So et al., 2000; Helmchen and Denk, 2002). In this chapterwe focus on applications in neuroscience.

The cerebral cortex in human contains about 1010 neurons with about 1014 synaptic connections among them (Braendgaard et al., 1990; Tang et al., 2001). To understand the integrated function of these structures, it is necessary to study them in their native configuration. Multiphoton microscopy has helped to reveal neural signaling in near-intact living tissue at levels ranging from individual synapses to entire neural networks (fig. 3.1 [Garaschuk et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2000b]). It has been used to investigate development, structural plasticity, modulation of excitability, and synaptic integration. Multiphoton microscopy has proved particularly powerful when used in conjunction with advances in fluorescent tissue labeling techniques, electrophysiology, and molecular biology.
Detection of Brain Activity by Near-Infrared Light
Authors: Gratton Enrico , Toronov Vlad , Wolf Ursula , Wolf Martin
Published: November 2023

There is a series of outstanding questions regarding the detection of brain activity in measurements made at the head surface and regarding the origin of the observed changes in the optical parameters of tissues. In this chapter we review the information generated so far and discuss the evidence available about the origin of the effects observed. Because the field is still controversial and rapidly advancing, we mainly focus on our own work and a few otherstudies that we chose to illustrate ouropinions.

Numerous studies show that neuronal activity can be detected optically. Basically, there are two lines of evidence: one based on optical studies of exposed cortex and another based on measurements through the skull. Although the measurements on exposed cortex directly visualize areas of neuronal activation, the spatial resolution that can be achieved by imaging through the skull is insufficient to delineate the columnar areas of cortical activity. It is also likely that the optical contrast mechanism could be different for the two types of approaches resulting from the different ways light interrogates the tissue. In the direct exposed cortex measurement, the contrast is given by the changes of reflectivity, resulting from either changes in absorption or scattering of the brain surface. In the through-the-skull measurements, we must make some hypothesis about the path that the photons follow through the bone and through the brain and back out. Most of the controversy about the noninvasive optical measurements arises from the particular model used to describe light propagation throughout the head. Although we have quite an accurate theory to describe light propagation in multiple scattering media, the problem of applying this theory to the intact head is that we need to know the details of local anatomy and details of the optical parameters of each tissue element. Probably the most successful approach has been that of considering only average tissue properties, segmenting different tissues with a coarse resolution, on the order of centimeters.
Emerging Infectious Diseases: A Key Role for Conservation Medicine
Authors: Daszak Peter , Cunningham Andrew A
Published: November 2023

Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are diseases that have recently increased in incidence, have recently expanded in geographic or host range, are newly recognized, or are caused by newly evolved pathogens (Lederberg et al. 1992; Morse 1993; Daszak et al. 2000a). The term “emerging” was first used widely for human diseases in the 1970s (Sencer 1971; Moore and Robbs 1979), but achieved notoriety in the late 1980s following the discovery of a group of highly pathogenic diseases that included AIDS, hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, Legionnaire ‘s disease, toxic-shock syndrome, multidrug-resistant bacterial infections, and Lyme disease (Krause 1992).
Biodiversity and Human Health
Authors: Chivian Eric , Sullivan Sara
Published: November 2023

The extinction of species may be the most destructive and permanent of all assaults on the global environment, for it is the only one that is truly irreversible (Wilson 1989). While species stocks may recover following mass extinction events over the course of millions of years of evolution (Myers et al. 2000), and may fill ecological niches that had once been occupied, it must be understood that these replacing species are new ones and that the unique information encoded by the DNA of the lost species is gone forever. This fact adds to the gravity of the current extinction crisis, the first that is the result of human activity.
Vector-Borne Infections and Health Related to Landscape Changes
Authors: Molyneux David H
Published: November 2023

The major vector-borne infections and the diseases caused by them are focused in the tropics; there is a significant overlap between the distribution of the majority of important vectors of human and animal diseases and the richly biodiverse tropical rain forest ecosystems, woodland savannas, and the edges of these ecosystems between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
Introducing Ecosystem Health into Undergraduate Medical Education
Authors: Rapport David J , Howard John , Lannigan Robert , McMurtry Robert , Jones Douglas L , Anjema Christopher M , Bend John R
Published: November 2023

The concept of health is ancient. While the notion of health intuitively may apply to the well-being of any complex system (e.g., the economy, a community. the oceans. a coral reef. the planet; Somerville 1995), for much of history its context has been limited to the physical condition of the individual (at first humans and later other biota-both plants and animals).
The Nature of American Health-Care Entitlements
Authors: Jost Timothy Stoltzfus
Published: November 2023

What exactly is a health-care “entitlement”? More specifically, what are the legal ramifications of entitlement status? Yet more specifically, how does the concept of entitlement apply to the three programs with which this book is primarily concerned—Medicare, Medicaid, and the tax exclusions that are available for subsidizing employment-related health insurance?

The dictionary defines the verb entitle as “to furnish with a right or claim to something.” The noun entitlement, therefore, is a claim or right that has been furnished. In the context of Medicare and Medicaid, the claim or right is obviously that of the beneficiary or recipient to health-care goods and services. By extension, providers may also have a claim or right to be paid for goods or services that they provide to recipients. Employers and employees have a legal claim to tax exclusions and deductions for employment-related health insurance. Employees have legal rights against the programs employers adopt because of these subsidies. What is the nature of these claims or rights, however? And by what means are they “furnished”?
Experiments with Privatization: Medicare and Medicaid Managed Care
Authors: Jost Timothy Stoltzfus
Published: November 2023

THE emergence of managed care is certainly one of the most important developments in our public health-care entitlement programs over the past two decades. One of the central goals of the Medicare and Medicaid programs at their creation was to bring elderly and impoverished Americans into the mainstream of American medical care. In 1965, of course, this meant fee-for-service medicine. At the outset, therefore, Medicare and Medicaid were strictly fee-for-service programs. In the early twenty-first century, Medicare remains largely a fee-for-service program. But fee-for-service medicine is no longer mainstream medicine in the United States. Most insured individuals in the private sector are covered through managed care. Recent attempts to encourage the expansion of managed care within the Medicare and Medicaid programs, therefore, are in a sense consistent with the historic philosophy of the program.

While the growth of managed care in Medicare and Medicaid arguably represents simply the “normalization” of these programs, it also has been a step toward their privatization. Those who argue for privatization of public programs—a form of disentitlement discussed at length in Chapter 6—contend that public programs could be operated more efficiently, perhaps even more equitably, through private insurers and managed-care organizations.
Expanding America
Authors: Crist Elizabeth B
Published: November 2023

Although Statements for Orchestra was not finished until the summer of 1935, Copland had started the piece as early as 1932 while living at Yaddo, the estate of Katrina and Spencer Trask. In June he wrote to friend John Kirkpatrick that composition on the Short Symphony was “being upset by the fact that I’ve started still a newer [piece] and am working on the two simultaneously. The newest piece will have 4 or 5 short movements. I have one of these already.” Rough sketches for Statements dated “Yaddo, June ‘32” show Copland at work on the shape of the piece and drafting tides for its various movements. He continued to compose both the Short Symphony and Statements during the fall of 1932 while in Mexico, where he also first conceived El Salon Mexico. The Short Symphony was eventually finished in 1933, and during the summer of 1934 Copland completed five of the six Statements for Orchestra as well as a two-piano version of El Salon Mexico.