bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Intentionality
Authors: Searle John R
Published: November 2023

The problem of intentionality is second only to the problem of consciousness as a supposedly difficult, perhaps impossibly difficult, problem in the philosophy of mind. Indeed, the problem of intentionality is something of a mirror image of the problem of consciousness. Just as it is supposed to be extremely difficult to fathom how mere bits of matter inside the skull could be conscious, or could through their interactions create consciousness, so it is difficult to imagine how mere bits of matter inside the skull could “refer to” or be about something in the world beyond themselves, or could through their interactions create such a reference. To take an example, I am now thinking that the sun is 93 million miles from the Earth. My thoughts definitely refer to, or are about, the sun. They are not about the moon, my car in the garage, my dog Gilbert, or my next-door neighbor. Now what is it about the thought that enables it to reach as far as the sun? Do I send mental rays all the way to the sun, just as the sun sends light rays all the way to the Earth? Unless there is some sort of connection between me and the sun, it is hard to imagine how my thoughts could reach the sun. And what goes for the sun, goes for just about any object that I can represent in my beliefs, desires, and other intentional states. So for example, if I think that Caesar crossed the Rubicon, then my thought is about Caesar, and it has the content that he crossed the Rubicon. But now, what fact about the stuff inside my skull makes it refer all the way back in history to a specific individual, and a specific river, and ascribe the specific action of the individual crossing the river?
Anaximander and the Riddle of Origin
Authors: Sorensen Roy
Published: November 2023

So goes one of Ludwig Wittgenstein’s philosophical jokes. A beginningless individual borders on contradiction. Yet philosophy itself may have begun by embracing this absurdity. For this is Anaximander’s (ca. 610 B.C.–585 B.C.) solution to the first paradox in recorded history. People are interested in tracing their ancestral lines. Anaximander generalized this curiosity. He notes that each human being begins as a baby who survives only if nurtured. Anaximander infers that the first human beings were cared for by animals. The Greeks knew of sharks that gave birth to live, autonomous young. Anaximander conjectured that the first human beings were born from aquatic creatures who then reared them.
Socrates: The Paradox of Inquiry
Authors: Sorensen Roy
Published: November 2023

Ancient riddle sessions form the trunk of a tree with many branches: Hindu Vedic hymns, acrostic poetry, crossword puzzles. The Socratic method of questioning is another branch. A full understanding of what counts as solving a paradox requires an appreciation of the rules of the game Socrates defined. The Delphic oracle said that no man is wiser than Socrates (ca. 470–399 B.C.). Socrates cited this as a license to question anyone who was reputed to be knowledgeable. If the esteemed individual had knowledge to impart, Socrates would help fulfill the oracle by becoming enlightened. If the wise man did not have knowledge, Socrates would help fulfill the oracle by showing that the examinee was no wiser than he.
The Megarian Identity Crisis
Authors: Sorensen Roy
Published: November 2023

Euclides and his friend Terspion are mentioned as among those who kept company with Socrates on the day he drank hemlock. After Socrates’ death, Plato stayed with Euclides in Megara, which is a day’s walk from Athens. Euclides had learned the art of disputation from the writings of Parmenides. After hearing about Socrates, Euclides moved from Megara to Athens and became one of his most zealous disciples. When Athens and Megara fell into one of their periodic conflicts, the Athenians passed a decree forbidding any Megarian from entering Athens on pain of death. Euclides prudently returned to Megara. However, he still came frequently to Athens to visit Socrates. Euclides traveled at night concealed in a long female cloak and veil.
Pascal’s Improbable Calculations
Authors: Sorensen Roy
Published: November 2023

Inventors put paradoxes into practice. Horseless carriage and wireless telephone were oxymorons before they became terms for commonplace artifacts. These wonders subtract some essential feature. At nineteen, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) subtracted thought from subtraction. In 1651 Pascal built an arithmetic machine to ease his father’s work as tax commissioner. This was a historic feat of engineering. For years, Pascal labored closely with carpenters and experts at gear assembly.
Growing Up With Jazz
Authors: Stokes W Royal
Published: November 2023

A jazz writer for three decades, W. Royal Stokes has a special talent for capturing the initial spark that launches a musician’s career. In Growing Up With Jazz, he has interviewed twenty-four instrumentalists and singers who talk candidly about the early influences that started them on the road to jazz and where that road has taken them. Stokes offers a kaleidoscopic look at the jazz scene, featuring musicians from a dazzling array of backgrounds. Ray Gelato recalls the life of a working class youth in London, Patrizia Scascitelli recounts being a child prodigy in Rome who became the first woman of Italian jazz, and Billy Taylor tells about his childhood in Washington, DC, where his grandfather was a Baptist minister and his father a dentist--and everyone in the family seemed well trained in music. Perhaps most exotic is Luluk Purwanto, an Indonesian violinist who as a child listened to gamelan music in the morning and took violin lessons in the afternoon (on an instrument so expensive she didn’t dare quit). For some, the flame burned bright at an early age. Jane Monheit sang before she could speak and was set on a musical career by age eight. Lisa Sokolov played classical piano, sang opera and choral music, and was in a jazz band--all by high school. But Carol Sudhalter, though born into a very musical family (“a Bix Beiderbecke family”), was a botany major at Smith, and only became a serious musician after college, quitting a government job to study the flute and saxophone in Italy. From Art Blakey to Claire Daly to Don Byron, here are the compelling stories of two dozen top musicians finding their way in the world of jazz.
Modernists
Authors: Stokes W Royal
Published: November 2023

The last of the many times I caught Art Blakey’s Jazz Messengers in action was at the 1987 Jazzfest Berlin, a four-day event that annually began at the end of October. The then sixty-eight-year-old drummer and bandleader would die three years later in that very month. At that booking, the Jazz Messengers’ other members were each about one-third the age of their leader. Blakey estimated toward the end of his life that about two hundred young musicians had passed through his band during the three decades of its existence. Most had gone on to lead their own groups. On that Berlin evening Philip Harper was on trumpet, Javon Jackson was on tenor saxophone, and Benny Green was at the piano.
Stress Testing Principles and Practice
Authors: Ellestad Myrvin H
Published: November 2023

Although the general format of Stress Testing has not been changed in the Fifth Edition, the chapters have been thoroughly revised and updated. ‘Take Home’ messages are sprinkled throughout the book to emphasize major concepts. The chapter on electrocardiographic changes has been completely reorganized to highlight the importance of unconventional markers of ischemia. Two new chapters cover the role of exercise echocardiography and exercise testing in congestive heart failure.
Stress Echocardiography
Authors: Ellestad Myrvin H
Published: November 2023

Although it was recognized by Berberich, Zager, and others, as early as 1981, that observing the M-Mode Echocardiogram before and after exercise had diagnostic potential, it was only widely accepted after digitalized 2-dimensional images came into common usage. Development of a system that could digitize a single cardiac cycle at rest and display the rest and exercise images side by side simultaneously immediately after exercise resulted in the general acceptance of this technology.

Recent technical advances in imaging have improved the accuracy of stress echocardiography. Among the most significant of these is the development of tissue harmonic imaging. Tissue harmonic imaging is an echocardiographic image technique where the ultrasound beam is sent out at one frequency and received back at twice the initial frequency, resulting in a reduction of noise, thus allowing us to use the power or amplitude signal from the myocardial Doppler. Image segmentation techniques now being generated off line may soon add to the ability to better understand myocardial function such as diastolic stiffness. These techniques allow for increased endocardial border section and thereby provide better visualization of wall motion of the various segments of the heart.
Memorial Heart Institute Protocol
Authors: Ellestad Myrvin H
Published: November 2023

The description of the methodology used in our laboratory can be used as a lesson in “How to do it.” For this reason, it will be described in considerable detail.

The protocol has been structured to obtain a maximum amount of information in as short a time as possible. It is used for testing normal subjects who have a sedentary lifestyle or for the evaluation of cardiac patients. By extending the time and the exercise load, one can evaluate trained athletes. By establishing a standard protocol for almost all patients, we have been able to compare the responses of individuals with their previous tests and with the tests of other subjects. Although this has been a practical and useful routine, there is nothing absolute about its design. Most laboratory staffs doing stress testing today use some type of graded continuous system, Bruce being the most popular. The advantages of using an already established protocol will be obvious as we review the procedure.
Exercise Testing in Congestive Heart Failure
Authors: Ellestad Myrvin H
Published: November 2023

The use of exercise testing in congestive heart failure has become fairly common in the last few years and it seems appropriate to include a chapter reviewing the concepts and the practical applications now being applied. It has now become apparent that the usual indices of ventricular function such as ejection fraction, stroke volume or pulmonary wedge pressure do not correlate with the patient’s capacity for exercise. Naughton was one of the first to use exercise testing to obtain an objective measurement of exercise capacity in heart failure, correlating it with total body oxygen consumption. He reported that when a patient’s maximum oxygen consumption was less than 20 milliliters per kilogram per minute they invariably had symptoms that limited their performance (Table 16–1).

Previously, patients with heart failure were classified according to the criteria of the New York Heart Association based on the amount of activity they could sustain without exercise symptoms.
Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation
Authors: Ellestad Myrvin H
Published: November 2023

Although the performances of the fit athlete and the cardiac patient needing rehabilitation lie at opposite ends of the spectrum, many of the concepts in exercise physiology apply to both. Each person is involved in an attempt to improve function using the same basic mechanisms. Coronary patients under the supervision of Kavanaugh and colleagues in Toronto were able to train vigorously enough to complete the Boston Marathon, which dramatically demonstrates that sports and coronary artery disease (CAD) are no longer incompatible.

The use of exercise testing in each case provides us with a way of detecting dysfunction if present as well as a measure of conditioning and a tool for prescribing a subsequent exercise program in evaluating progress. This chapter presents some of the special problems that arise when dealing with each group and suggests guidelines that we have found useful.
Is Consciousness a Brain Process?
Authors: Graham George , Valentine Elizabeth R
Published: November 2023

The view that there exists a separate class of events, mental events, that cannot be described in terms of the concepts employed by the physical sciences no longer commands the universal and unquestioning acceptance among philosophers and psychologists that it once did. Modem physicalism, however, unlike the materialism of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, is behavioristic. Consciousness on this view is either a special type of behavior, “sampling” or “running-back-and-forth” behavior, as Tolman (1932, p. 206) has it, or a disposition to behave in a certain way, an itch for example being a temporary propensity to scratch. In the case of cognitive concepts like ‘knowing’, ‘believing’, ‘under­ standing’, and ‘remembering’, and volitional concepts like ‘wanting’ and ‘intending’, there can be little doubt, I think, that an analysis in terms of dispositions to behave (Wittgenstein, 1953; Ryle, 1949) is fundamentally sound. On the other hand, there would seem to be an intractable residue of concepts clustering around the notions of consciousness, experience, sensation, and mental imagery, where some sort of inner process story is unavoidable (Place, 1954). It is possible, of course, that a satisfactory behavioristic account of this conceptual residuum will ultimately be found. For our present purposes, however, I shall assume that this cannot be done and that statements about pains and twinges, about how things look, sound, and feel, about things dreamed of or pictured in the mind’s eye are statements referring to events and processes that are in some sense private or internal to the individual of whom they are predicated. The question I wish to raise is whether in making this assumption we are inevitably committed to a dualist position in which sensations and mental images form a separate category of processes over and above the physical and physiological processes with which they are known to be correlated.
Applying Ecology: italic>Experts, Pseudoexperts, and How to Tell Them Apart
Authors: Slobodkin Lawrence B
Published: November 2023

There are many kinds of practical ecological problems. Clearly solutions suggested to protect rare species differ from those suggested to alleviate global warming or pollution. However, there are some common features to all good attempts at solutions. Each solution must take into account the full consequences of action or inaction, as far as possible. For example, plans for the use of river water for agriculture must not destroy the usefulness of the same river for shipping, swimming, or drinking. Good applied ecology takes into account all externalities.
Rationality, Imitation, and Tradition
Authors: Boyd Robert , Richerson Peter J
Published: November 2023

When the quality of information is poor, people often rely on tradition in making economic decisions. What is the best retail markup percentage? When should one refinance one’s home? What is the right safety factor in designing a building? Retailers, homeowners, and engineers typically make such decisions using traditionally acquired rules-of-thumb. This tactic has both advantages and disadvantages. It can be useful because solving problems from scratch is difficult and costly. On the other hand, the uncritical adoption of traditional solutions to problems can lead people to acquire outmoded or even completely unfounded beliefs. Peasants sometimes resist beneficial innovations proffered by development agencies and retain traditional agricultural practices; many contemporary Americans maintain the unfounded belief that there are innate differences between the members of different ethnic groups.
Evolution of Phenotypic Robustness
Authors: Hermisson Joachim , Wagner Gunter P
Published: November 2023

Evolutionary biology, in the neo-Darwinian tradition, is based on the study of genetic and phenotypic variation and its fate in populations. Thus, the observation that the genetic variability of a trait is itself influenced by the genotype has obvious theoretical implications [49, 55]. It is in this context that the robustness of phenotypic traits was first conceptualized as canalization and became the focus of a significant research effort (reviewed in Scharloo [39]). With increasing awareness of the intricate molecular mechanisms maintaining the life of cells, the ubiquity of buffering and compensatory mechanisms came into focus [18, 37, 63]. Recent years have seen a confluence of the classical concept of canalization and new research in molecular biology that resulted in a sharp increase in the interest in canalization and related phenomena. One can speak of an emerging field of biological robustness research that is able to draw on a sophisticated arsenal of technical and theoretical tools that were developed over the last ten years [8].
Robustness and the Internet: Design and Evolution
Authors: Willinger Walter , Doyle John
Published: November 2023

The objective of this chapter is to provide a historical account of the design and evolution of the Internet and use it as a concrete starting point for a scientific exploration of the broader issues of robustness in complex systems. To this end, we argue that anyone interested in complex systems should care about the Internet and its workings, and why anyone interested in the Internet should be concerned about complexity, robustness, fragility, and their tradeoffs.
Growth Regulation
Authors: Cohen Pinchas , Rosenfeld Ron G
Published: November 2023

While multiple hormones influence somatic growth, the main regulator of postnatal growth is growth hormone (GH). Growth hormone is secreted in a pulsatile manner from the anterior pituitary primarily as a 22 kD molecule (although other forms may be found). The development of the pituitary gland, as well as GH gene expression, is regulated by the multiple pituitary transcription factors listed in Table 12-1. Pit-I and Prop-I are genes (which thus encode proteins) that are often mutated or deleted in cases of congenital hypopituitarism.
Glucose, Lipid, and Protein Metabolism
Authors: Dobbins Robert L , Cowley Michael A , Foster Daniel W
Published: November 2023

The maintenance of life requires a constant supply of substrates that are used to generate energy and preserve the structure of cells and tissues. The process in principle is quite simple, yet the individual metabolic pathways and the regulation of fluxes through the pathways can be complex. Energy is derived when fuel substrates are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the presence of oxygen, generating adenosine triphosphate (ATP). A portion of the ingested foodstuff is also utilized, either directly or after transformation into other substrates, to repair and replace cell membranes, structural proteins, and organelles. The remainder is stored as potential energy in the form of glycogen or fat. Under normal circumstances, each individual remains in a near-steady state where weight and appearance are stable over prolonged periods. Despite the outward evidence of stability, fuel metabolism changes dramatically several times a day during alternating periods of feeding and fasting. An anabolic phase begins with food ingestion and lasts for several hours. Energy storage occurs during this period when caloric intake exceeds caloric demands. The catabolic phase usually begins 4 to 6 hours after a meal and lasts until the person eats once again. During this phase, utilization shifts from exogenous to endogenous fuels, a change heralded by the mobilization of substrate stored in liver, muscle, and adipose tissue.
Assessment of Health-Related Quality of Life in Individuals with Neural Tube Defects
Authors: Stevenson Jim , Pit-Ten Ineke M
Published: November 2023

The quality of life in people with neural tube defects (NTDs) is an important issue for clinicians and service providers. Decisions that might affect quality of life need to be informed by measurement of the quality of life of those concerned. This chapter will review what is known about the quality of life in individuals with NTDs, evaluate the different types of quality-of-life measures that are available, and highlight what has been learned from a recently conducted large-scale study of the quality of life in children and adolescents with spina bifida and/or hydrocephalus.
Using Models for Species Conservation and Management: An Introduction
Authors: Akşakaya H Reşit
Published: November 2023

Quantitative methods, especially modeling and population viability analysis (PVA) are increasingly important tools in the conservation and management of species. The increase in the use of these quantitative methods has increased the importance of developing and applying models correctly. There are several books on using models in species conservation and management (e.g., Burgman et al. 1993, Akşakaya et al. 1999, Sjögren Gulve and Ebenhard 2000, Beissinger and McCullough 2002, Morris and Doak 2002). However, there is a shortage of examples and case studies, especially for species other than birds and mammals. This book is a collection of case studies of models applied to a variety of species. Each chapter uses one or several models to address conservation and management issues related to a particular species. These models are available on the CD-ROM included with the book. The models are implemented in the population modeling and viability analysis software RAMAS GIS 4.0 (Akşakaya 2002). The CD-ROM contains a demonstration version of the software. An appendix describes how to install the program and open, inspect, and run the models. The chapters are organized into sections based on major taxonomic groups and represent a wide range of life histories. Each section starts with an introductory chapter that discusses the life history characteristics of that taxonomic group from the modeling point of view, and then presents an overview of the chapters in the section. This chapter includes two short introductions—to PVA and modeling and to RAMAS GIS—and discusses limitations of, and alternatives to, these approaches.
Australian Heath Shrub (Epacris barbata): Viability under Management Options for Fire and Disease
Authors: Keith David
Published: November 2023

Southern hemisphere heathlands are characterized by high levels of plant diversity and endemism (Cowling 1983, Hopper et al. 1996). Many of the plant species found in these regions are rare and have small geographic ranges and narrow habitat specificity, although local populations may be large (Rabinowitz 1981). As well as these common patterns of rarity, many southern heathland plants also share a number of life history traits, such as seed dormancy mechanisms, poor propagule dispersal, and the ability of established plants to resprout when burned. With very few exceptions, their life history processes are episodic, driven by recurring wildland fires (Keith et al. 2002). Epacris barbata, an endangered shrub restricted to fire-prone heathland in eastern Tasmania (southern Australia), typifies these patterns of rarity and fire-driven life history. Even though the species’ entire 30-km range is within a conservation reserve and its life history traits are thought to buffer populations against rapid decline under some fire regimes, appropriate management of fire regimes represents a major challenge for its conservation. In addition, diseases caused by alien pathogens pose a new threat to the persistence of E. barbata and many other species in temperate Australia. This chapter describes a model of the impacts of disease on a threatened plant species in a fire-prone environment. The aims are to understand which life history processes have the greatest influence over population dynamics, to quantify the effect of the disease on population viability, and to explore the relative value of alternative management options.
Pacific Herring (Clupea pallasi) in Canada: Generic Framework for Evaluating Conservation Limits and Harvest Strategies
Authors: Fu Caihong , Wood Chris C , Schweigert Jake
Published: November 2023

Fishery managers often ask how low the abundance of a population can go without causing irreversible harm. The concept of a minimum viable population size is problematic, particularly for pelagic fishes like herring that exhibit high variation in productivity and abundance. However, it should be feasible to determine a conservation limit for population size (N)L that would satisfy stated conservation criteria. For instance, we could choose NL high enough to ensure acceptably low probabilities of triggering World Conservation Union (IUCN) listing criteria (Mace and Stuart 1994) or of falling below a threshold or quasi-extinction level of abundance in the long term. A population reduced to N  L should also have an acceptably high probability of recovery to a sustainable target level within a shorter time period. For example, the U.S. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act specifies a legal requirement for recovery within 10 years or as soon as possible (Restrepo et al. 1998) and Johnston et al. (2000) propose a limit to allow recovery within a single generation. Similarly, it should be feasible to determine a corresponding conservation limit for harvest rate (μL). NL and μL values that satisfy these requirements can be determined in Monte Carlo simulations by evaluating outcomes for a wide range of population sizes and harvest rates.
Golden-Cheeked Warbler (Dendroica chrysoparia) in Texas Importance of Dispersal toward Persistence in a Metapopulation
Authors: Alldredge Mathew W , Hatfield Jeff S , Diamond David D , True C Diane
Published: November 2023

The golden-cheeked warbler (Dendroica chrysoparia) is a neotropical migrant songbird whose breeding range is currently restricted to fewer than 35 counties in the Edwards Plateau region of central Texas (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1996). Breeding habitat consists of Ashe juniper (Juniperus ashei) along with a variety of deciduous tree species (Wahl et al. 1990). Wintering range consists of high-elevation pine (Pinus) and oak (Quercus) woodlands located in Honduras, Guatemala, and Mexico (Pulich 1976, Vidal et al. 1994, Rappole et al. 2000). The golden-cheeked warbler was listed as endangered in 1990 by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), primarily because of the high rate of breeding habitat loss (USFWS 1992) due to clearing of Ashe juniper for range improvement and commercial harvest (Kroll 1980) and for urbanization (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1996). Currently, efforts are being made by public and private organizations to acquire or protect golden-cheeked warbler breeding habitat for the continued survival of the species. However, it is unclear how these lands should be acquired in relation to lands already managed for this species in terms of spatial distribution and size.
Narrative Medicine
Authors: Charon Rita
Published: November 2023

Narrative medicine has emerged in response to a commodified health care system that places corporate and bureaucratic concerns over the needs of the patient. Generated from a confluence of sources including humanities and medicine, primary care medicine, narratology, and the study of doctor-patient relationships, narrative medicine is medicine practiced with the competence to recognise, absorb, interpret and be moved by the stories of illness. By placing events in temporal order, with beginnings, middles and ends, and by establishing connections among things using metaphor and figural language, narrative medicine helps doctors to recognise patients and diseases, convey knowledge, accompany patients through the ordeals of illness – and according to Rita Charon, can ultimately lead to more humane, ethical and effective healthcare. Trained in medicine and in literary studies, Rita Charon is a pioneer of and authority on the emerging field of narrative medicine. In this important and long-awaited book she provides a comprehensive and systemic introduction to the conceptual principles underlying narrative medicine, as well as a practical guide for implementing narrative methods in health care. A true milestone in the field, it will interest general readers and experts in medicine, humanities and literary theory.
Cultural Patterning in Language and Womans Place
Authors: Tannen Deborah
Published: November 2023

I ambled into the sphere of Robin Lakoff—and of linguistics —in the summer of 1973. A teacher of remedial writing named Debby Paterakis, I knew nothing of linguistics except that it was a way of studying language —and language had always been my passion. Nearly everything I have written about conversational style —and about language and gender, which to me is a subcategory of conversational style —was seeded by the course I took with Lakoff at the 1973 Linguistic Institute at the University of Michigan.
The Good Woman
Authors: Eckert Penelope
Published: November 2023

So who is this woman who inhabits the pages of Language and Womans Place? Is she me? Is she women? Clearly not. She is an ideological artifact—a stereotype. And what makes the book important is that this stereotype is there to invoke. It is not a stereotype of women, but of a particular kind of woman —a woman who strives to be refined and superpolite, who mitigates her stances and exaggerates positive affect. The simple existence of that kind of woman at one end of the array of kinds of woman one can be is definitional —it is the main thing that makes women different from men.
Linguistic Discrimination and Violence against Women; Discursive Practices and Material Effects
Authors: Ehrlich Susan
Published: November 2023

The introduction to Robin Lakoff’s Language and Womans Place (LWP) (1975) sets out the book’s primary purpose — “to provide diagnostic evidence from language use for one type of inequity that has been claimed to exist in our society: that between the roles of men and women” (LWP 39). While much of Lakoff’s text describes instances of linguistic discrimination, her goals go beyond a description of discriminatory language use.
Natural Selection
Authors: Wade Michael J
Published: November 2023

Natural selection causes change in the phenotypic composition of a population through the differential birth and death of its members. Natural selection can operate simultaneously at many different levels in the hierarchy of biological organization, from the cellular (gametic selection) to the individual (Darwinian or mass selection), to the population (kin, group, and interdemic selection) as well as to the species or community level. That is, we can consider populations of gametes, cells, individuals, populations (called “metapopulations”), communities, and species as collections of biological entities whose members persist, reproduce, and die as a result of differences in phenotype. Differences in the direction or strength of natural selection at different levels in the biological hierarchy contribute to the origins of biodiversity.
The Hope, Hype, & Reality of Genetic Engineering
Authors: Avise John C
Published: November 2023

An introductory tour into the stranger-than-fiction world of genetic engineering, a scientific realm inhabited by eager researchers intent upon fashioning a prodigious medley of genetically modified (GM) organisms to serve human needs.
Negotiating Middlemarch
Authors: Eermarth Elizabeth Deeds
Published: November 2023

The broad point of this essay is to bring back into focus how original and innovative George Eliot”s work was in Middlemarch, how forward looking philosophically and practically. Before she attempted fiction she thought through problems that have yet to dawn on some of her interpreters and that inform not just the local concerns of Middlemarchers but the strategies of the novel. The medium is the message in Middlemarch, as in all George Eliot”s works; she is an artist first, and art is a matter of the “how,” not the “what.” How the text unfolds is far more important a key to understanding it than any statements from this or any text, however explicit, because the method reveals the philosophical biases and assumptions of the text, whether they are explicitly acknowledged or not. This is true of every writer; what may be unique to George Eliot is her philosophical adequacy and the degree to which that adequacy has been thoroughly translated into art.
Oblique Muscle Dysfunction
Authors: Plager David A
Published: November 2023

The inferior and superior oblique muscles can cause strabismus by either underacting or overacting. It may be more precise to call these eye movement abnormalities overelevation in adduction, underdepression in abduction, and so on, stressing the result, not the cause, but the terms underaction and overaction to describe oblique muscle dysfunction are so ingrained in our lexicon that these clinically descriptive terms are used in the chapter. These underactions and overactions are usually graded relative to the duction of the opposite eye and are conventionally termed either primary or secondary-to paresis or restriction of ipsilateral antagonist muscles or dysfunction in the opposite eye.
Restrictive Strabismus
Authors: Buckley Edward G
Published: November 2023

Treating strabismus secondary to a restriction is challenging because both the muscle and the surrounding tissue are involved. Since the cause in most cases is multifactorial, the treatment options are often complex and unpredictable. The preoperative evaluation should include an assessment of the degree of restriction (forced duction), muscle function (force generation), and the condition of the surrounding tissue.
Reoperation Strategies
Authors: Plager David A
Published: November 2023

After strabismus surgery, a reoperation may be needed due to undercorrection, overcorrection, or a new strabismus problem that may or may not be related to the prior surgery. Rates of reoperation are difficult to determine and are related to myriad factors, including the complexity of the original problem, the patient’s level of binocular sensory function, the patient’s age, the development of new problems related to either the original surgery or the underlying diagnosis, and the skill and experience of the surgeon.
Posttraumatic Infections of the Central Nervous System
Authors: Tunkel Allan R , Turtz Alan R
Published: November 2023

Infections that occur following trauma to the central nervous system (CNS) are associated with high morbidity and mortality if not recognized, diagnosed, and treated promptly. Even apparently minor trauma can lead to significant infection that may result in death. The aim of this chapter is to review the acute infectious complications following trauma to the CNS with emphasis on meningitis, brain abscess, and subdural empyema. Bacterial meningitis may follow varying degrees of trauma, ranging from relatively minor injuries to penetrating injuries of the skull. The incidence of acute bacterial meningitis after head trauma ranges from 0.2% to 17.8%. The presence of a leak of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), manifested clinically as rhinorrhea or otorrhea, generally leads to an increase in the incidence of posttraumatic bacterial meningitis. Rhinorrhea and otorrhea most often occur after a basilar skull fracture and are definite signs of a dural and arachnoid tear.
Iatrogenic Complications of Spine Surgery
Authors: Nanda Anil , Rudrappa, Satish , Vannemreddy Prasad
Published: November 2023

Spine surgery is changing with introduction of newer imaging techniques, diagnostic protocols, and treatment methods including biocompatible implants. With refined diagnostic methods and surgical techniques, the spine surgeon is now faced with a rapidly changing educational substrate. In the United States alone, 400,000 lumbar surgeries are performed annually and an estimated $3 billion was spent on spine fusion procedures in 2003. From time to time, different series are published describing complications following spinal surgery in varied contexts. Spine surgeons need constant updates on the topic of complications encountered with newer and evolving techniques. In this chapter, we will discuss iatrogenic complications related to all spine surgeries. The complications common to all levels of the spine are presented first, followed by some problems specific to different spinal segments (Table 42.1). The secondary iatrogenic complications of spine surgeries such as deep vein thrombosis, thromboembolism, pneumonia, and so on are not included in this chapter.
Validity in dietary assessment methods
Authors: Gibson Rosalind S
Published: November 2023

Validity describes the degree to which a dietary method measures what it is intended to measure (Block and Hartman, 1989). Dietary methods designed to characterize usual intakes of individuals are the most difficult to validate because the “truth” is never known with absolute certainty. Even if the actual food intake, monitored from the results of unobtrusive weighed observations, compares favorably with results obtained from food records maintained by the subjects during the same period, there is no guarantee that the records represent the subjects’ true usual food intake (Block, 1982). To detect any changes in usual intake during the study, observations of actual food intake during, and either before or after the study period should be compared. Such a procedure attempts to measure absolute validity, but it is very time consuming and presents overwhelming practical difficulties. Consequently, absolute validity is generally determined in dietary studies that involve a limited number of subjects or only cover a relatively short time frame.
Assessment of protein status
Authors: Gibson Rosalind S
Published: November 2023

The body of the adult 70 kg reference man contains about 11 kg of protein (i.e., 16%) which is widely distributed throughout the different tissues of the body, as shown in Table 16.1. Most of the body protein is present in the skeletal muscle (about 43%) and in the smaller visceral protein pool. Visceral protein is made up of serum proteins, erythrocytes, granulocytes, and lymphocytes, as well as the solid tissue organs such as the liver, kidneys, pancreas, and heart. The skeletal muscle protein (termed somatic protein) and the visceral protein pool together comprise the metabolically available protein known as the “body cell mass” (Section 14.4). The other major protein components of the body are found in the extracellular connective tissue and constitute the noncellular structural proteins of the cartilaginous, fibrous, and skeletal tissues. Such noncellular structural proteins are not readily exchangeable with other body pools of protein. Hence, although alterations may occur in both the somatic and visceral protein components during protein malnutrition and disease, much of the protein in the extracellular connective tissue cannot be mobilized to counteract these changes (Phinney, 1981).
Assessment of the status of vitamins A, D, and E
Authors: Gibson Rosalind S
Published: November 2023

The three vitamins A, D, and E are similar, with a structure based on the isoprene unit: [–CH2–C(CH3)=CH–CH2)–]. They are all fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamin A and E can be stored in the body, mainly in the liver and adipose tissue, respectively. In contrast, very little vitamin D is stored, but it is readily synthesized by the action of ultraviolet light on a precursor of vitamin D present in the skin.
Assessment of chromium, copper and zinc status
Authors: Gibson Rosalind S
Published: November 2023

Trace elements occur in the body in small or “trace” amounts, typically milligrams or micrograms per kilogram body weight; they generally constitute < 0.01% of the body mass. Certain trace elements have been identified as essential for life, and these are listed in Table 24.1. Of these, chromium, copper, and zinc are reviewed in this chapter; iron was discussed in Chapter 17. Iodine and selenium are considered together in Chapter 25 in view of the interactions that occur between these two trace elements.
Clinical assessment
Authors: Gibson Rosalind S
Published: November 2023

Conventionally, clinical assessment consisted of a routine medical history followed by a physical examination to detect and record symptoms (manifestations reported by the patient) and physical signs (observations made by a qualified examiner) associated with malnutrition. These assessment procedures are most useful during advanced nutritional depletion, when overt disease is present. Some specific nutrient deficiencies, along with protein-energy malnutrition, are known to be associated with loss of immune function, muscle weakness, impaired strength, mobility, and cognitive dysfunction (Jeejeebhoy 1998; Windsor and Hill, 1988). Increasingly, therefore, in hospitalized patients and in institutionalized and independently living elderly tests designed to assess deficits in physiological and cognitive function are included as additional components of clinical assessment. These assessment procedures are used both in clinical and community studies. Protein-energy undernutrition still occurs among medical and surgical hospitalized patients (Coats et al., 1993; McWhirter and Pennington, 1994; Wyszynski et al., 1998; Sullivan et al., 1999; Edington et al., 2000) and among institutionalized elderly in several industrialized countries (Keller, 1993; Ham, 1994; Morley, 1998; Azad et al., 1999). Micronutrient deficiencies also develop among hospital patients with multiple disease states but are less common. Increasingly, obesity and cases of micronutrient toxicity induced by excessive use of dietary supplements are gaining importance in clinical assessment.
Classic nonlinear models built into Prism
Authors: Motulsky Harvey , Christopoulos Arthur
Published: November 2023

This equation describes the equilibrium binding of a ligand to a receptor as a function of increasing ligand concentration. X is the concentration of the ligand, and Y is the specific binding. Bmax is the maximum number of binding sites, expressed in the same units as the Y-axis (usually radioactive counts per minute, sites per cell, or fmol of receptor per mg of tissue). Kd is the equilibrium dissociation constant, expressed in the same units as the X-axis (concentration). When the drug concentration equals Ki, half the binding sites are occupied at equilibrium.
Putative Brain Mechanisms of the Various Memory Functions
Authors: Dash Pramod K , Runya JAson D , Blum Sonja , Hebert April E , Simos Panagiotis G , Papanicolao Andrew C
Published: November 2023

As was noted in the previous chapter, a distinction may be drawn between memories (mnemonic phenomena) on the one hand and memory functions or operations on the other. The latter may be conceived as sets of procedures or algorithms embodied in and expressed by neuronal activity in different sets of brain structures, referred to as mechanisms of the respective functions. In this chapter, we will review the putative mechanisms of the basic functions of primary and secondary memory. First, the gross anatomical units constituting these mechanisms and their interconnections will be presented. Second, the “microscopic” biochemical events, starting with those constituting neurotransmission and including those that partake in operations like encoding, consolidation, and retrieval of memories will be discussed.
Traumatic Amnesia
Authors: Kosmidis Mary H , Giazkoulidou Aikaterini , Bozikas Vasilis P , Papanicolaou Andrew. C
Published: November 2023

Any impact of sufficient magnitude to result in even momentary alteration in consciousness constitutes a traumatic brain injury (TBI). A blunt injury with no penetration of the skull is considered a closed head injury. Due to the nature of the mechanical forces involved in a closed head injury, the associated pattern of cognitive deficits is distinct from that observed in penetrating head injuries. Closed head injuries generally result in pervasive and diffuse deficits in addition to any focal impairment. In contrast, penetrating injuries (e.g., from a gunshot wound) may or may not lead to alteration or impairment of consciousness, depending on the severity and the location of the trauma. In this chapter, we will primarily discuss the impact of closed head injuries, as these are both more prevalent and more likely to affect memory.
Imprinting: The Hidden Genome
Authors: Ashe Alyson , Whitelaw Emma
Published: November 2023

Even in diploid organisms, many genes are expressed in a monallelic fashion, as if the organism were haploid at that locus. In some cases, such as the expression of one allele at the immunoglobulin locus, monoallelic expression enables a cell to experience direct selection based upon the properties of the expressed allele. Perhaps the most intriguing example of monoallelic expression is the silencing of many alleles in a parent-of-origin specific manner. Parental imprinting effectively leaves the affected loci “hidden” for a generation. The understanding of parental imprinting will require a more thorough understanding of the role of chromosomal context and of epigenetics in control of gene expression.
Autopsy of a Suicidal Mind
Authors: Shneidman Edwin S .
Published: November 2023

Autopsy of a Suicidal Mind is a uniquely intensive psychological analysis of a suicidal mind. In this poignant scientific study, Edwin S. Shneidman, a founder of the field of suicidology, assembles an extraordinary cast of eight renowned experts to analyze the suicidal materials, including a ten-page suicide note, given to him by a distraught mother looking for insights into her son's tragic death. The psychological autopsy centers on the interviews conducted by Shneidman with Arthur's mother, father, brother, sister, best friend, ex-wife, girlfriend, psychotherapist, and attending physician. To gain some understanding of this man's intense psychological pain and to examine what may have been done to save his tortured life, Shneidman approached the top suicide experts in the country to analyze the note and interviews: Morton Silverman, Robert E. Litman, Jerome Motto, Norman L. Farberow, John T. Maltsberger, Ronald Maris, David Rudd, and Avery D. Weisman. Each of the eight experts offers a unique perspective on Arthur's tragic fate, and the sum of their conclusions constitutes an extraordinary psychological autopsy. This book is the first of its kind and a remarkable contribution to the study of suicide. Mental health professionals, students of human nature, and persons whose lives have been touched by this merciless topic will be mesmerized and enlightened by this unique volume. An epistemological tour de force, it will speak to anyone who is concerned with human self-destruction.
An Atheist’s Fundamentalism
Authors: Tappenden James
Published: November 2023

I am an atheist. In particular, I don’t accept the truth of the Christian religion. Nor do I believe any other doctrine positing the existence of a supremely powerful intelligent being that intervenes in the course of nature, but I will be solely concerned with Christianity here. In fact, when I consider the truth of (say) the story of the resurrection as a factual question to be assessed according to the canons of evidence we use with more worldly questions of fact, I find it hard to take the question seriously. That’s not, however, what this essay is about. The essay is about a different point that I learned about myself, somewhat to my surprise: I am a fundamentalist. What I mean by that is that I have a firm, though not altogether clear, conception of what it is that I am refraining from believing when I refrain from belief in the Christian religion. My aim in this essay is to indicate why I think it is important to pay Christianity the respect of rejecting precisely that conception rather than some hermeneutically cleansed, ecumenical surrogate.