bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Identity and Intercultural Communication
Authors: Kim Young Yun
Published: December 2017

Identity has been investigated extensively from a variety of perspectives. The extant literature reveals four main theoretical ideas concerning how an individual's identity orientation influences, and is influenced by, intercultural communication experiences: (a) the collective dimension of identity, or cultural identity, engenders conflict; (b) a unitary identity comprised of both cultural and personal dimensions contributes to conflict as well as affiliation; (c) prolonged experiences of intercultural conflict facilitate identity development beyond the parameters of a single culture; and (d) the resulting complexity of identity fosters intercultural affiliation. Despite differing perspectives and research foci, the existing theories generally converge in suggesting that individuals can help reduce conflict and foster affiliation through an identity orientation that is more individuated and less categorical, more secure and less defensive, more flexible and less resistant to change, and more complex beyond the boundaries of a single culture.
Constructivist Approach to Intercultural Communication
Authors: Bennett Milton J.
Published: December 2017

Constructivism is an epistemology in which knowledge and experience of the world is constructed, not discovered. When intercultural communication is understood in these terms, culture is a dynamic process of collective meaning‐making and intercultural communication is the conscious exercise of empathy with alternative worldviews. This is the constructivist perspective used by Edward T. Hall in his seminal bookThe Silent Language, where the term “intercultural communication” was coined. A constructivist approach to intercultural communication contrasts with purely relativist approaches that stress the incomparability of cultures and with positivist approaches that attribute personality‐like qualities to cultures. The ultimate goal of a constructivist approach is to generate alterative cultural experience that allows one to communicate appropriately and effectively in different cultural contexts. An important part of such intercultural adaptation is ethicality—how one avoids ethnocentric value judgments and handles cultural differences in the assignment of “goodness.”
Cultural Attachment Theory
Authors: Hong Ying‐yi
Published: December 2017

Cultural attachment theory addresses the general question of how individuals experience and find security and comfort in different cultures, be it their own native culture and/or other cultures they have extensive exposure to. The theory postulates that the adaptive solution of acculturation is analogous to infants' attachment to their caregivers, whereby forming secure attachment to the native and/or host cultures can help individuals to cope with anxiety and stress and to gain a sense of safe haven. Cultural attachment theory borrows heavily from the classic attachment theory proposed by John Bowlby, which has underscored the role of infant–caregiver relationships in human development from the cradle to the grave. This entry reviews research evidence that shows that similar processes observed in child attachment can be extrapolated to cultural attachment. Implications and future research directions are discussed.
Cultural Humility
Authors: Hook Joshua N. , Davis Don E.
Published: December 2017

This entry provides an introduction to cultural humility, which is an important aspect of effective counseling with clients from different cultural backgrounds. Cultural humility involves an awareness of one's limitations to fully understand the cultural background and experience of another individual. Cultural humility also involves an interpersonal stance that is other‐oriented (or open to the other) rather than self‐focused in regard to another individual's cultural background and experience. Research linking cultural humility to counseling outcomes is presented, and strategies to work on cultural humility are discussed.
Cultural Schema Theory
Authors: Shahghasemi Ehsan
Published: December 2017

Cultural schema theory holds that human beings employ classification to understand members of other cultures, and add new data to previously available categories. Cultural schema theory is compatible with many well‐known theories and could be applied individually or in combination with other theories. This theory is widely used not only in human and social sciences, but also in interdisciplinary fields like artificial intelligence.
Culture, Definitions of
Authors: Cobley Paul
Published: December 2017

This entry on definitions of culture identifies two broad traditions. In the first, there is a view of culture as an attribute to be attained through artistic processes deemed to be above everyday life; in the second, there is a perspective on culture as a unitary phenomenon which has been at different stages of development in different societies across the globe. The first tradition stems from Matthew Arnold; the second from Edward B. Tylor. Extension of the two broad definitions, along with revisions and criticisms of them, have led to further definitions of culture which sometimes illuminate intercultural communication.
Embodiment
Authors: Cargile Aaron Castelán , Rich Marc D.
Published: December 2017

In a globalized world saturated with voice and messaging technologies, it is easy for scholars to overlook the role of the body in intercultural communication. Even so, we remain constituted by bodies and this simple fact has encouraged continued scholarship in the area of embodied communication. Within the communication discipline, performance studies scholars have provided important insights about the many different roles that bodies play in marking, enacting, understanding, and co‐constructing culture. In addition, an embodied appreciation of human communication and culture has also been cultivated in other disciplines, including anthropology, linguistics, and cognitive science. According to a communicative theory of gesture, the body helps to accomplish thought because gesture and language are one system. The body is thus more than a vehicle for communication; it is also a mode of understanding and cultural production.
English as an International Language
Authors: Sharifian Farzad
Published: December 2017

The globalization of English has taken the language to many parts of the world. Rather than being a language owned and used mainly by speech communities that claim it as their mother tongue, it is increasingly being used as a language for international and intercultural communication. The notion of “English as an International Language” is a proactive response to this situation and is reconceptualizing English in relevant theoretical and practical domains.
Ethnicity, Definitions of
Authors: van de Vijver Fons J. R.
Published: December 2017

An overview is given of models of ethnicity. The concept has been studied in various disciplines, such as anthropology, sociology, epidemiology, and psychology. Four types of definitions are discussed: primordialist/essentialist, epiphenomenal, situational, and experiential. In the primordialist definition, ethnicity is often used as the historical successor of the concept of race. Recent models of ethnicity emphasize the constructivist, experiential nature of the concept. A model of children's development of ethnicity and race has important similarities with how the concept of ethnicity has been historically used in science.
Identity, Bicultural and Multicultural
Authors: Liu Shuang
Published: December 2017

This entry reviews theories and research on bicultural and multicultural identities. Globally, a sizable population lives in bicultural or multicultural environments. However, research on the relationship between exposure to bicultural or multicultural environments and identity formation has yielded inconsistent findings. Some studies relate multicultural exposure to identity confusion whereas other studies argue that mixed cultural affiliations are conducive to developing intercultural competence. The entry emphasizes that cultural identity is not given and fixed, but rather, it is constantly negotiated and reconstructed.
Identity, Cultural
Authors: Chen Guo‐Ming
Published: December 2017

Cultural identity is a universal problem all human societies must face. It refers to the collective consciousness of a group based on the use of common symbols and the co‐creation of shared meanings among its members. While different cultures may perceive identity in various ways, cultural identity shares five common characteristics across cultures: developmental, spatial, distinct, relational, and multifaceted. However, the development of human society instigated by the convergence of the globalization trend and new media, especially the emergence of the virtual community caused by the compression of time and space, has challenged different aspects of the traditional sense of cultural identity. How to deal with the redefinition and reconstruction of cultural identity in the newly formed global community remains a great challenge for scholars from different disciplines to explore.
Identity Management Theory
Authors: Merrigan Gerianne
Published: December 2017

Identity management theory (IMT) explains how people from different cultures may negotiate a shared relationship identity, by balancing one another's face wants and needs across three phases: trial, enmeshment, and renegotiation. Incompetent communication is presumed at first. So, if the parties cannot balance their face needs over time, they are likely to end their relationship while still in the trial phase. But competent communicators may find appropriate, effective ways to balance their own and the other person's needs. If so, they may develop their own unique relational identity (enmeshment). Over time, they may come to regard their own cultural identities as changed by the relationship, so that their own identities now include some aspects of their partner's culture (renegotiation). Since face is broadly accepted as a universal human need, albeit with culture‐specific norms for face‐giving and face‐threatening behaviors, IMT provides a powerful heuristic for understanding and navigating intercultural interactions.
Identity Negotiation Theory
Authors: Ting‐Toomey Stella
Published: December 2017

Identity negotiation theory (INT) concerns the importance of negotiating sociocultural membership identity and personal identity issues in intergroup communication situations. The term identity refers to an individual's multifaceted identities of cultural, ethnic, spiritual/religious, social class, gender, age, sexual orientation, professional, family, and relational role, and personal images based on mutual meaning‐construction level. Sociocultural identities can include ethnic membership identity to family role conceptions, and personal identities can include any unique attributes that we associate with our individuated self in comparison to those of others. Understanding identity complexity is critical as an individual's polygonal identity shapes her/his social cognition, motivational drive, affective being, and communicative tendencies. Individuals acquire their composite identity through sociocultural conditioning process and their individual lived experiences. The INT emphasizes the dialectical tensions that immigrants and minorities experience as they cross cultural boundaries from the familiar to the unfamiliar.
Intercultural Communication in Families
Authors: Baldwin John R.
Published: December 2017

The intersection of culture, communication, and family occurs in several ways. First, families reflect and pass on the surrounding culture, leading to cross‐cultural differences between families. Family is the place where culture is learned, and families, in a small way, develop their own “cultures.” Second, intercultural communication—that is, communication
between
members of different cultures—can occur in families in several instances: in cases where the parents are from different cultures; when the children learn a different culture from the family, such as in cases of immigration or globalization (through media use etc.); or in colonized or diasporic cultures. And third, culture impacts families through external stigma toward certain familial relationships. Intergroup research considers societal opposition to families or family members which can occur on different grounds: society opposes the ethnic or religious group of the family; society opposes intermarriage between in‐ and outgroup members; or society opposes the type of union (e.g., same‐sex couple).
Intercultural Communication in International Negotiation
Authors: Liu Leigh Anne , Adair Wendi L.
Published: December 2017

This entry reviews research on intercultural communication in international negotiations through the perspectives of the individual negotiator, the interactions between and among negotiators, and the phenomenology of culture in the time frames of past, present, and future. Past research has focused on individuals' values and norms, negotiator styles and behavioral adjustment, and culture as a relatively static characteristic that creates clashes and barriers to mutual understanding. Present studies address cognitive schemas and communication experience as well as situational factors at the individual level, negotiation process and consensus building during interactions, and culture as a dynamic influence with many contextual moderators. Future research should include negotiator competence, identity, and improvisation; technology and coalition analysis during interactions; and culture as both a dynamic and multilevel phenomenon.
Intercultural Experience and Creativity
Authors: Cheng Chi‐Ying , Tan Yi Wen
Published: December 2017

Creativity, commonly defined as a production of novel and useful ideas, has long been considered as a type of individual difference that is highly associated with personality traits and intellectual intelligence, which cannot be changed easily. Recently, it has been demonstrated that creativity can occur as a result of cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes that are driven by intercultural experiences, which can be acquired. In line with the creative cognition approach, individuals with direct intercultural experiences exhibit higher individual creativity. Specifically, those who adopt biculturalism as their acculturation strategy and develop a high level of integration between their bicultural identities can reap the creative benefit of their intercultural experiences. Individuals with indirect intercultural experiences also exhibit higher creativity, and the underlying psychological mechanisms are the use of a comparison mindset and perceived cultural distance between the cultures. Advantageous features of intercultural experiences for enhancing individual creativity are discussed.
Intercultural Intimate Relationships
Authors: Wilczek‐Watson Marta
Published: December 2017

As transnational social networks expand, people increasingly form intimate relationships with partners from a different sociocultural background. While intercultural intimate relationships are not a new phenomenon, they have attracted research only recently due to their global proliferation. Scholars are particularly interested in how such mixed relationships communicate and how their interculturality impacts on partners' (and their offspring's) identities. Some studies have been criticized for overemphasizing cultural differences and identification problems of intercultural partners. This depiction of intercultural coupledom as problematic in early research echoed initial societal perceptions of it. Contrastingly, recent works explore how intercultural partners can effectively communicate and negotiate their complex sociocultural repertoires. The hybrid cultural forms and meanings that intercultural couples create are shown as empowering rather than debilitating. This new approach is also reflected in society and the media, which increasingly represent intercultural families in a positive light, gradually normatizing or even endorsing them.
Interracial Communication, Critical Approaches
Authors: Harris Tina M.
Published: December 2017

This entry is an introduction to the different methodological approaches social scientists have used to understand interracial communication. A historical lens is used to provide context for understanding the origins of racial categories and how they were created to maintain a race‐based value system that directly influences inter‐ and intragroup perceptions and interactions. These racial groupings perpetuated a value‐laden racial hierarchy that protected the powerful and preserved systemic oppression through institutionalized racism. Addressing the historical evolution of race involves recognition of the inherent power in a system that differently benefits racial, ethnic, and cultural groups. A perspective is advanced that encourages the acknowledgment of societal privileges that are unequally distributed in society and the need to bring parity to an increasingly diverse multicultural society.
Rhetoric and Intercultural Communication
Authors: González Alberto , Bardhan Soumia
Published: December 2017

This entry describes the connections between rhetorical communication and criticism and intercultural communication. The opportunity for intercultural considerations in rhetorical studies came with the turn away from neo‐Aristotelian models of persuasion. Methodological considerations and critical approaches for intercultural rhetorical criticism are described. Intercultural rhetoric is described from the following research areas: rhetorical criticism, Chinese rhetorical studies, ethnography of communication, whiteness studies, and vernacular rhetoric.
Tourism and Intercultural Communication
Authors: McMullen Melissa
Published: December 2017

This entry begins by describing the importance of studying intercultural communication exchanges that occur in the context of tourism and some of the difficulties in doing so. It then defines and discusses research addressing: first, tourists and challenges faced by tourists; second, cultural hosts and their reactions to tourism; and, third, the sites of interaction between tourists and cultural hosts. This entry concludes with some directions for future research on intercultural communication in tourism.
Intercultural Communication Study in New Zealand
Authors: Rahman Khairiah A. , Brown Adam
Published: December 2017

This entry presents the development of cultural diversity in New Zealand and reviews key research areas in intercultural communication study in the country. There are significant contributions in the areas of indigenous and diaspora theories of identity, othering and stereotypes, media representations, intergenerational cultural differences within migrant communities, cultural adaptation between host and home cultures, intercultural communication competence, and cultural intelligence. These research areas are multidisciplinary and span the fields of education, psychology, communication, media, language, culture, and healthcare. Researchers supported by the local universities and research centers adopted qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methodologies using positivist, interpretive, constructivist, and critical approaches.
Intercultural Communication Study in Russia
Authors: Klyukanov Igor E.
Published: December 2017

This entry starts by noting a number of issues related to the study of intercultural communication and then presents the main historical developments leading up to the current state. A state‐of‐the‐art overview of the intercultural communication field in Russia follows, including the degrees conferred, academic professional organizations and groups, conferences, and journals. Next, major theoretical and methodological approaches are discussed, with a special note on the relationship between theory and method. A separate section is dedicated to key themes and topics, including emerging trends in intercultural communication research and education. The entry concludes by noting that, while intercultural communication research and education in Russia are vibrant and diverse, they still face methodological and theoretical challenges, with the pressing task of bringing conceptual coherence to the field.
Cross‐Cultural Experimental Research
Authors: Pfundmair Michaela
Published: December 2017

Cross‐cultural experimental research is a methodological tool to reveal differences between cultures and identify cause and effect relationships. Any consideration of research designs starts with the development of cultural competence. When constructing an experiment, cultures of interest have to be considered and independent and dependent variables have to be adapted to ensure methodological equivalence. Before collecting data, sampling strategies and ethical considerations have to be taken into account. When interpreting cross‐cultural findings, the researcher has to adjust for culture‐specific response biases and consider adequate statistical measures. To help identify underlying cultural variables, specific methods like unpackaging, cultural priming, or situation sampling can be applied. Optimally, cross‐cultural differences are captured in multiple studies using divergent methods.
Cultural Value Dimensions
Authors: Bhawuk Dharm P. S.
Published: December 2017

Cultural value dimensions are constructs created by researchers to understand and predict human behavior in the cultural context and to compare human behaviors across two or more cultures. Interest in identifying cultural patterns goes back a hundred years, and the interest continues to grow with the discoveries of new dimensions by using values, beliefs, social exchange, and other aspects of subjective human culture. The value dimensions found are abstractions, and are useful in using as a starting point in intercultural communication. However, if a person from a certain culture does not fit the dimension, it is best not to try to fit the person in the cultural dimension.
Emic and Etic Research
Authors: van Oudenhoven Jan Pieter
Published: December 2017

Within the field of intercultural behavior there are two research approaches: the etic approach and the emic approach. Etic researchers are quantitatively oriented, look for causal explanations of cultural behavior, and are interested in discovering universal patterns of behavior. By keeping a certain distance from the object of study the researcher more easily discovers differences but also similarities between cultures. The alternative to etic research is offered by the emic approach, an interpretivist approach. The emic approach usually leads to a more profound understanding of a particular culture. Both approaches can strengthen one another. Knowing how cultures differ and also discovering similarities promotes understanding of other cultures and facilitates intercultural communication.
High‐ and Low‐Context Cultures
Authors: McKay‐Semmler Kelly L.
Published: December 2017

This entry provides an introduction to Edward T. Hall's high‐/low‐context continuum, some of its research applications, as well as critiques and future directions for research on these concepts. Hall theorizes that cultures vary in the emphasis they place on implicit versus explicit message content in daily communication activities. High‐context cultures privilege messages in which meaning resides largely within knowledge of the context of the interaction, including the setting and participants. In low‐context cultures, most of a message's meaning is conveyed in the explicit verbal code. Hall's continuum provides a communication‐based perspective on cultural variation, and his work is widely acknowledged for popularizing the early study of intercultural communication.
Monochronic and Polychronic Time
Authors: Kaufman‐Scarborough Carol
Published: December 2017

The constructs of monochronic and polychronic time originated in the social science literature and were introduced by the late anthropologist and cultural researcher Edward T. Hall. Much of Hall's work took place in the field setting and his research extended across the cultures of Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Time perceptions and use were found to vary as one of what Hall called “silent languages.” For instance, people in some cultures prefer to focus on one activity, with a decided preference for monochronic time use. In contrast, persons in other cultures may be more likely to use time polychronically, with customary activity patterns including two or more activities within the same block of time. The study of monochronic and polychronic time spans numerous disciplines, including anthropology, business, management, marketing, organizational behavior, and sociology.
Communication Modes,Mexican
Authors: Covarrubias Patricia O.
Published: December 2017

This entry is inspired by Mexican Nobel laureate Octavio Paz's description of the Mexican self in social interaction as one that oscillates between intimacy and withdrawal to discuss key particulars of Mexican communication. Using the contrasting communication codes ofrespetoandconfianzaas cultural bases for interpersonal relationships, verbal and nonverbal elements are shown to be deployed artfully by Mexican interactants to enact social rapprochement and distancing. Specifically,respetoandconfianzaare shown to mediate the quality and quantity of speech, pronominal configurations, uses of titles, and other verbal and nonverbal strategies. Moreover, Mexican communication is discussed within the context of dominant historical underpinnings that influence contemporary Mexican communication. Mexican turn‐taking practices also are explained as representative of particularly problematic communication loci when they occur in intercultural contexts.
Communication Modes,SouthAfrican
Authors: Mesthrie Rajend
Published: December 2017

South Africa offers a rich site of enquiry into multilingualism, multiculturalism, language hierarchies, discrimination, and opportunities for change. This entry details the linguistic and sociopolitical background necessary to understand the intercultural and communicative diversity and change in the country. Most studies have focused on the effects of discrimination in apartheid society on intercultural communication, and conversely the contribution of intercultural miscommunication to reinforcing negative stereotypes. Changes in the postapartheid order have still to be felt in the sphere of intercultural communication. Newer studies point to a lack of change in the domains of education and the law, where former hierarchies are largely entrenched.
Bi‐ and Multilingualism
Authors: de Groot Annette M. B.
Published: December 2017

The terms
bilingualism
and
multilingualism
refer to the presence of two or more than two languages within an individual and within a society. This entry deals with individual bi‐ and multilingualism. It presents a number of dimensions along which individual bilinguals are classified and discusses the popular but also questioned idea that to ultimately command multiple languages at nativelike levels one should be exposed to them during a bounded period early in life. In addition, it presents the notion of language‐nonselective activation in bilingual memory and discusses how bilingualism may affect the content of lexical concepts and various aspects of nonverbal cognition.
Prejudice and Discrimination
Authors: Awad Germine H. , Rackley Kadie R.
Published: December 2017

Classic and contemporary definitions of prejudice and discrimination are presented. An updated definition that incorporates Gordon Allport's original conceptualization is offered. Discussion of the four levels of discrimination including individual, organizational, institutional, and cultural is presented. Different conceptualizations of prejudice are organized by explicit versus implicit forms such as old‐fashioned prejudice, modern‐symbolic prejudice, benevolent or paternalistic prejudice, aversive prejudice, ambivalent prejudice, and color‐blind ideology. Forms of discrimination are discussed such as microaggressions, blatant discrimination, subtle discrimination, and covert discrimination. Finally, a discussion of the contact hypothesis is offered.
Cultural Diversity Training in Organizations
Authors: Wilkinson Louise C.
Published: December 2017

Cultural diversity training in organizations addresses problems and possibilities that arise when people from different social and cultural groups come together. Designed to reduce misunderstanding and conflict, and to build understanding, cultural competence, and inclusion, organizations use training to help improve their use of diversity to support organizational effectiveness. The contemporary field of cultural diversity training generally originates from two historical training traditions: equity‐oriented and culture‐based training. Each contains important threads woven into the field today. Most training includes imparting knowledge about key topics and developing both internal and external skills. The field continues to evolve.
Training for Expatriates
Authors: Feitosa Jennifer , Salas Eduardo
Published: December 2017

This entry develops the state of science in regards to training for expatriates. Expatriates are those individuals who go to a foreign country to complete an assignment. Unfortunately, they often return early or change jobs upon their repatriation. Although there is little consistency regarding the content and methods used to train these individuals in the most effective way, consensus exists that more resources should be allocated for adequate training. Given the high level of failure as well as the growth made possible by relying on expatriates for global competitiveness, this entry highlights 10 themes along with training considerations for each. Future research agendas include the criterion problem, methodological challenges, and the changing nature of these temporary assignments.
Training for Immigrants
Authors: Smith L. Ripley
Published: December 2017

Immigration is one of the defining population characteristics around the globe today. The topic of immigration/immigrants is one of the unique intercultural fields of inquiry that is directly impacted by government policy decisions. In addition, the vast majority of immigrant training is conducted by a combination of government‐funded practitioners and community partners. As immigrants transition from their country of origin to their new host country there are numerous demographic, sociological, and personal implications. Training immigrants in various professional and life skills is critical for successful adjustment in the new host culture. Research in this area has emphasized pragmatic skills like language and vocational training in order to improve economic mobility, while deemphasizing contextual factors and cultural intelligence.
Ambivalence
Authors: Durante Federica
Published: December 2017

Ambivalence is generally defined as holding simultaneously positive and negative evaluations toward the same object. The literature distinguishes among three types of ambivalence: cognitive, emotional, and cognitive‐affective. Studies have shown that ambivalence impacts many aspects of attitude (temporal stability, resistance to persuasion, information‐processing, reliability in predicting intentions and behaviors), but there is disagreement about the mechanisms underlying such effects, as well as about the best way to measure ambivalence. The concept of ambivalence has been used to investigate many different topics (e.g., politics, health, drugs, alcohol) and social targets, which is particularly relevant for intercultural communication given the role of intergroup attitudes in shaping social interactions. Interestingly, within two theoretical frameworks, ambivalence toward gender and societal groups is conceptualized as functional to the maintenance of the status quo. Clarifying the origins of attitudinal ambivalence remains an important challenge for future studies.
Black Masculinity
Authors: Jackson Ronald L. , Elmore Branden
Published: December 2017

Masculinity is a social descriptor that travels. What it means to be masculine may vary by continent, country, tribe, and even family. This one adjective might also refer to one who identifies as cis male, cis female, androgynous, transgender, bigender, agender, pangender, transsexual, gender questioning, intersex, and so forth. The complexity of gender in the 21st century is almost mind‐numbing. So this entry tries to simplify this by addressing mainstream notions of masculinity, and then applying those notions to what it means to be black in the United States. There have been entire books written about this, so this brief explanation simply whets the appetite so the reader may find additional works by scholars such as Judith Butler, Brenda J. Allen, bell hooks, Riche Richardson, Mark Orbe, Michael Messner, Michael Kimmel, Mark Hopson, Robert Staples, Jeffrey McCune, Michael Eric Dyson, and others.
Cultural Contracts Theory
Authors: Jackson Ronald L. , Elmore Branden
Published: December 2017

It is evident that every aspect of social life from language to social roles (e.g., parent, sibling, professional) to orientation or attitude (e.g. political affiliation or opinion about myriad social issues such as immigration, birth control, capital punishment, etc.) peers into our unavoidable need to not only participate in but also make sense of the world around us. Identities in and of themselves cannot stand alone. We must do something with them. It is not enough to simply be a woman or be a member of a particular racial group; we are compelled to juxtapose “woman” with “man,” “black” with “white,” and “I” with “Other.” At the moment this comparative act of juxtaposing groups takes place, identity negotiation begins. It is not immediately clear what is meant by the term “identity negotiation”; hence cultural contracts theory was developed to explain the negotiation process.
Cultural Intelligence, Postcolonial Critique
Authors: Dutta Debalina , Dutta Mohan J.
Published: December 2017

Cultural intelligence (CQ) taps into a person's ability to adapt into new cultural contexts and is conceptualized by its proponents as a key characteristic of the manager operating in transnational contexts. A postcolonial critique of CQ examines the ways in which the concept serves as an instrument of new colonialism, on the one hand as a tool of surveillance and on the other hand by co‐opting culture as an instrument for extending the reach of transnational capital. The location of CQ at the intersections of knowledge and politics shapes the function of the concept within the ambit of transnational capitalism.
English Hegemony
Authors: Tsuda Yukio
Published: December 2017

“English hegemony,” or the dominance of English, causes a number of problems of inequality and discrimination in communication all around the world. The problems include linguicism, linguicide, Americanization of culture, information control, mind control, and English divide. “English divide” has created the English‐language‐based class system where people are hierarchized according to their ability in English, thus reproducing inequality.
Standpoint Theory
Authors: Allen Brenda J.
Published: December 2017

Standpoint theory contends that humans produce knowledge through power relations that construct and divide social groups into dominant and nondominant categories. Experiences within those categories produce different, unequal opportunities that cultivate distinct ways of knowing and being. Nondominant group members can provide more complete knowledge about reality than dominant ones because they understand the world from both perspectives. The theory originated in analyses of power dynamics in master–slave relationships and labor roles and progressed to feminist studies about gender relations. Feminist standpoint theory maintains that subordinate group members achieve standpoints through consciousness‐raising about power relations. Critical researchers use feminist standpoint methodology to gain insight from oppressed groups about resisting power to effect social change. Feminist standpoint theory has expanded beyond gender to encompass categories such as race and social class. Recent scholarship calls for studying standpoints of Third World groups in Western societies and marginalized groups in international contexts.
Transculturality
Authors: Pahor Marija Jurić
Published: December 2017

Transculturality does not view cultures as homogeneous, self‐contained entities, emphasizing instead how they transgress borders, overlap, and intermingle. Reappearing in the 1990s in Wolfgang Welsch's work in particular, the concept was first coined in 1940, as
transculturación
(transculturation), by Fernando Ortiz. Starting out in Cuba, it first spread to Latin America and Francophone Canada before emerging in the United States and Europe in the 1990s. It is considered to be the key concept in postcolonial studies. Transculturality and transculturation differ in their focus, and offer numerous opportunities for alignment with contemporary thought on notions of hybridity, contact zones, and third space.
Cultural Assumptions in
I
ndia and the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Bhawuk Dharm P. S.
Published: December 2017

The United States and India are two of the largest democracies of the world. The United States is the largest economy in the world, and India is the seventh largest economy and the ninth largest trading partner of the United States with goods and service trade of US $110 billion. India has an ancient culture with linguistic and cultural diversity, next to the continent of Africa, whereas the United States is a young immigrant nation with one official language. Both countries have nuclear weapons. There is a need to understand their values comparatively to help understand intercultural communication between people of these countries.
Interpersonal Argumentation across Cultures
Authors: Cionea Ioana A.
Published: December 2017

The study of interpersonal argumentation across cultures examines the connections between intercultural or cross‐cultural communication and the practice of interpersonal argumentation and arguing. This entry briefly reviews the tradition of argumentation and its connections to other areas of communication study, such as rhetoric, persuasion, or conflict. The entry then explains the concept of arguing and conceptualizations of culture, indicating what the study of interpersonal argumentation across cultures entails, based on these definitions. The main portion of the entry is dedicated to highlighting thematic groupings of key issues in argumentation across cultures, with examples from studies available in the literature, and suggestions for possible areas of investigation.
Design of C3‐Alkenyl‐Substituted 2‐Indolylmethanols for Catalytic Asymmetric Interrupted Nazarov‐Type Cyclization
Authors: Wang Cong‐Shuai , Wu Jia‐Le , Li Can , Li Lin‐Zhi , Mei Guang‐Jian , Shi Feng
Published: December 2017

The C3‐alkenyl‐substituted 2‐indolylmethanols have been designed as a new class of substrates for catalytic asymmetric interrupted Nazarov‐type cyclizations. In the presence of chiral phosphoric acid as a mild chiral Brønsted acid, the interrupted Nazarov‐type cyclization of C3‐alkenyl‐substituted 2‐indolylmethanols with nucleophiles occurred smoothly to construct cyclopenta[b]indole frameworks in generally excellent diastereo‐ and enantioselectivities (up to >95:5 dr, >99% ee).

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Determination and correlation of solubility and dissolution thermodynamics of m‐toluic acid and isophthalic acid in binary (water plus ethanoic acid) solvent mixtures
Authors: Lyu Quanming , Zhang Wenbo , Sun Weizhen , Xu Zhimei , Zhao Ling
Published: December 2017

The solubilities of m‐toluic acid (m‐TA) from 313.2 to 383.2 K, as well as those of isophthalic acid (IPA) from 373.2 to 463.2 K in water, ethanoic acid, and their mixtures were measured by the steady‐state method. The modified Apelblat equation was used to correlate the experimental solubilities of m‐TA, as well as those of IPA. The F‐test shows that the modified Apelblat equation is suitable to model the solubilities of m‐TA and IPA, respectively. Based on the determined solubility data, the thermodynamic parameters including the apparent molar enthalpy and entropy concerning solute dissolution were further calculated. We hope that the solubility data and related thermodynamic parameters can provide valuable insights into the design and optimization of the industrial manufacture of IPA.
B cell‐specific protein FCRLA is expressed by plasmacytoid dendritic cells in humans
Authors: Reshetnikova Evdokiya , Guselnikov Sergey , Volkova Olga , Baranov Konstantin , Taranin Alexander , Mechetina Ludmila
Published: December 2017

Background

Fc receptor‐like A (FCRLA) is a unique member of a family of Fc receptor like‐molecules that lacks a transmembrane region and is an ER‐resident protein. In mice and humans, FCRLA has been known as a B cell specific protein. We report here that, in humans, FCRLA is also expressed in a subpopulation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs).

Methods

Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), splenocytes, and tonsillar cells were stained for lineage markers followed by fixation/saponin permeabilization and intracellular staining for FCRLA, and then analyzed by flow cytometry with CD123 and CD303 used as pDC markers.

Results

We conducted an extensive flow cytometric analysis of a rare population of CD19‐FCRLA+ cells found for the first time in human lymphoid tissues that we assigned to pDCs as they were lin‐/CD123+/CD303+. FCRLA expression in human pDCs was further confirmed by the RT‐PCR analysis of cDNA of pDCs isolated from the peripheral blood of a healthy donor. FCRLA‐positive pDCs expressed a lower level of HLA‐DR than their FCRLA‐negative counterparts.

Conclusions

FCRLA has long been viewed as a B cell specific protein, and this is the first time its expression has also been shown in human pDCs. © 2017 International Clinical Cytometry Society
Headband‐Type Near‐Infrared Spectroscopy Device for Measuring Oxyhemoglobin in Frontal Cortex
Authors: MIYAKE YASUHIRO , HISAKA MASAKI , KITA MITSUHIRO , MATSUMURA MASAFUMI
Published: December 2017

Near‐infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is an important technique that percutaneously and noninvasively monitors the changes in hemoglobin concentration of cerebral blood flow. We have developed headband‐type NIRS devices using a light‐emitting diode (LED) power source and a photodiode detector (PD) to reduce the burden in diagnosis preparation and the price of the NIRS module. The 10‐channel non‐real‐time headband‐type NIRS device with PD and one‐package three‐wavelength LED as well as the two‐channel real‐time wireless NIRS headband that is controlled using a tablet PC were manufactured in‐house. The two developed headband NIRS devices were evaluated using an existing LABNIRS system using a verbal fluency task, and they exhibited the same tendency with NIRS signals of the different levels at the rest and task stages. The measurement of the real‐time NIRS signals revealed that the voice and breath caused the source of low‐frequency fluctuations superimposed on the NIRS signals.
Hazard assessment of the pesticides KRAFT 36 EC and SCORE in a tropical natural soil using an ecotoxicological test battery
Authors: de Menezes Oliveira Vanessa Bezerra , de Oliveira Bianchi Miriam , Espíndola Evaldo Luiz Gaeta
Published: December 2017

Pesticides are widely used in agricultural fields to control plant diseases, weeds, and pests; however, the unforeseeable consequences of releasing these compounds into the soil and their effects on terrestrial invertebrates are matters of grave concern. The aim of the present study was to determine the direct impact of 2 pesticides, KRAFT® 36 EC (an insecticide; a.i. abamectin) and SCORE® (a fungicide; a.i. difenoconazole), on nontarget terrestrial invertebrates. Ecotoxicological tests were performed to evaluate the chronic and acute toxicity of these compounds to a potworm (Enchytraeus crypticus), a collembolan (Folsomia candida), and a mite (Hypoaspis aculeifer). The results showed that, for both pesticides, the collembolan F. candida was the most sensitive species, followed by the enchytraeid E. crypticus and the mite H. aculeifer. Effect concentrations at 50% of organisms’ reproduction calculated for F. candida, E. crypticus, and H. aculeifer were 0.06, 2.8, and >32 mg of abamectin/kg dry weight soil and 28.9, 125, and 145.5 mg of difenoconazole/kg dry weight soil, respectively. Environmentally relevant concentrations of both pesticides significantly affected the collembolan species. The existence of a potential risk from abamectin and difenoconazole for soil invertebrates even at recommended doses could be identified. Environ Toxicol Chem 2018;37:2919–2924. © 2017 SETAC
In vivo imaging the motility of monocyte/macrophage during inflammation in diabetic mice
Authors: Shi Rui , Feng Wei , Zhang Chao , Yu Tingting , Fan Zhan , Liu Zheng , Zhang Zhihong , Zhu Dan
Published: December 2017

Diabetes, as a chronic metabolic disease, can impair the immune function of monocytes/macrophages (MMs). However, it is unclear how MM immune response to inflammation with the development of diabetes, and whether immune response around the inflammatory foci depends on the depth in tissue. Footpad provides a classical physiological site for monitoring cellular behavior during inflammation, but limited to the superficial dermis due to the strong scattering of footpad. Herein, we used confocal microscopy to monitor the motility of MMs in deeper tissue around inflammatory foci with the development of type 1 diabetic (T1D) mice through a switchable footpad skin optical clearing window. Delayed‐type hypersensitivity (DTH) model was elicited on the footpad of T1D. Results demonstrated that progressive T1D led to the gradually potentiated MM recruitment and increased expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein‐1 during DTH, but MM migration displacement, motion velocity and motility coefficient were significantly attenuated. Besides, MMs from the deeper dermis had a much larger migration displacement than those from superficial dermis at early stages of DTH but an opposite tendency at late stages for non‐T1D, while progressive T1D obscured this difference gradually. This study will be helpful for investigating the influences of progressive metabolic diseases on immune response. MM motion trajectory at depth of superficial dermis and the deeper dermis at AOVA (heat‐aggregated ovalbumin)—4 hours and AOVA—72 hours on non‐T1D (A) and T1D—4 weeks (B). Mean motility coefficient (C) at the 2 depths. Data were pooled from 6 mice per group. *P < .05 and **P < .01 compared among different T1D disease durations. #P < .05 compared between different depths.