bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Net Environmental - Economic Benefit Analysis Model
Authors: Koops W. , Smit M.G.D. , Vos R. de
Published: January 2013

To be able to compare various response strategies for oil spill response a Net Environmental – Economic Benefit Analysis model (NEEBA) has been developed by TNO. This model consists of an oil behaviour module, a response module and an ecological effect module. In the oil behaviour module a quantitative division of the oil volume over the different compartments (air, water surface and water column) is determined on the basis of spreading, transport and weathering. This module determines also the fate of the remaining oil after one of the response options has been applied. With the ecological effect module the effects on organisms at the water surface, in the water column and on the sea floor are determined. In order to come up with one benefit score a simplified weighing method has been chosen to compare the effects on different species. The NEEBA score is therefore expressed in costs, using the costs of fish as basis. The “costs” of the other organisms in relation to fish are dependent on their place in the food chain. For each step in the food chain a factor ten has been applied. In other words 1 kg of birds equals 10 kg of fish and 100 kg of Zooplankton. To account for seasonal fluctuations the model can be adjusted by changing the densities of the different organisms over the year. The methodology, developed in MS excel, can be used by policy makers and decision takers to assist in choosing the most appropriate response option. The model interface consists of an input window, a default window with several variables and defaults and two output windows. In the input window parameters such as volume, density and viscosity of the oil but also meteorological and hydrological information can be filled in. In the default window parameters like the densities of the different organisms, weighing factors, costs, water type, etc, can be varied. The response option can be varied with respect to mobilization time, number of units deployed and capacity. The NEEBA model is a valuable tool to support decision-making and gives insight in the environmental effects related to a particular response option. The NEEBA model shows that there is a specific role for the different response options. Each option has a window of opportunity in which the use is most optimal. The tool can be used for preplanning as well as during actual spills. The model will be developed further to increase its value and realism
ADDRESSING THE PEOPLE SIDE OF CRISIS PLANNING AND RESPONSE
Authors: Blythe Bruce T.
Published: January 2013

Expectations are high that organizations will not only take reasonable measure to prevent catastrophic incidents, but will also be prepared to respond to them effectively—including attending to their emotional impacts on people. Thus, disaster planning must not only deal with physical issues but also include structured protocols for addressing the “people side” of crisis events. Attention to the people side will accelerate employees' return to pre-incident productivity. It can also have profound long-term positive impact on affected organizations and their constituencies in terms of reputation, resumption of normal activity, and restoration of morale and shareholder value.

Disaster plans should include the establishment of Humanitarian Response Teams, as distinct units within organizational crisis response structures, to focus specifically on the people-side impacts. Their duties might include such issues as, ongoing communications to and from impacted constituents, palliative care to those in need, assistance for families of seriously or fatally injured persons, support for employees involved in recovery and business continuity efforts, facilitating return to work, etc.

The presentation will provide an introduction to the human-side of crisis management, sketching the structural essentials for Humanitarian Response Teams, such as, who should comprise them and how they should be trained, and their operational parameters in actual disaster-response situations. In connection with the latter, a brief overview of the evolving controversy over the standard practice of “debriefing,” and the alternative resiliency-based model of post-crisis support, will be presented. Attendees will leave the session equipped to critique their own disaster planning for its attention to the essentials of humanitarian response.
VOLUNTEERS: BENEFIT OR DISTRACTION? AN INTERNATIONAL PROTOCOL FOR MANAGING VOLUNTEERS DURING AN OIL SPILL RESPONSE1
Authors: Gass Michael R. , Henry R.
Published: January 2013

A large outpouring of citizen volunteers may converge at the scene of a highly publicized, widespread oil spill in a coastal area. A spill response manager may be reluctant to use volunteers due to liability issues, their overwhelming numbers, the short term commitment by the majority of the volunteers, and the uncertain effectiveness of their actions. Given the high motivation of citizen volunteers and the local political climate, it may be unwise or impossible to turn the volunteers away.

An international protocol for managing volunteers and ensuring their safety during an oil spill response is presented. This protocol defines the process of utilizing volunteers in a safe and orderly manner to achieve positive results in mitigating the adverse effects of an oil spill on the environment.

important aspects of the protocol are the assignment of an experienced volunteer coordinator/manager, organization, site supervision, basic training, volunteer support/logistics, and integrated safety management at all levels.
CRIMINAL PROSECUTIONS AND THE MARITIME INDUSTRY – A WORLD-WIDE TREND
Authors: Grasso Jeanne M. , Fennell Allison
Published: January 2013

For decades, the United States has been aggressively enforcing its environmental laws. Beginning in the mid-1990s and continuing through present, this effort has been directed at the maritime industry through the U.S. Department of Justice's “Vessel Initiative.” The U.S. trend is now being felt in Europe, as exemplified by the European Commission ship-pollution directive, focused on criminal enforcement. With this worldwide focus on prosecuting environmental crimes against the maritime industry, companies must take a hard look at their corporate compliance programs to minimize chances of being targeted for criminal prosecution. This paper will identify worldwide trends, discuss recent criminal prosecutions, and make recommendations on how companies can best protect themselves.
SECURITY POLICY CONSIDERATIONS FOR INLAND FACILITIES AND PIPELINES
Authors: Yoshioka Gary , Coder Ellinor
Published: January 2013

Although facilities in the United States have not been subject to major oil spills caused by intentional acts, around the world acts of war and terrorism account for a large fraction of reported major oil spills. The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 requires response plans that address a “worst case discharge;” however, the implementing regulatory agencies did not foresee the possibility of deliberate attacks that could involve multiple storage tanks or several pipeline response zones. In addition, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 highlighted the problems with the current U.S. federal response and contingency plans.

The U.S. Coast Guard published a rule that requires operators of marine-transportation-related oil facilities to implement a variety of security measures. Inland facilities and pipelines are generally exempt from the security regulations; nevertheless, those facilities and pipelines can take steps to increase their own security preparedness by emulating the Coast Guard provisions. Homeland Security Presidential Directive HSPD-7, issued on December 17, 2003, identified critical infrastructure sectors and sector-specific agencies to facilitate vulnerability assessments of the sectors. The U.S. Department of Energy is responsible for coordinating the protection of critical infrastructures in the Energy Sector, which includes the production, refining, storage, and distribution of oil.

In this paper, we discuss recent trends in Federal requirements and current provisions for oil industry security planning. We highlight types of major oil facilities that need to consider the possibility of a terrorist attack, as well as recommendations by industry groups. We conclude with suggested areas for industry planning improvement.
VESSEL DISPERSANT APPLICATION IN OIL SPILL RESPONSE: RESEARCH REVIEW
Authors: Motolenich-Salas Kenneth M. , Clark James R.
Published: January 2013

Dispersants are a proven oil spill response technique. Since effective use of dispersants is often limited to a few days following a spill, timely and effective dispersant application is a major requirement for dispersant use. Despite the advantages of aircraft over vessels in applying dispersant to large or remote spills, vessels do offer certain advantages over aircraft. These include wide and ready availability in port and marine terminal areas, lower cost, ease of deployment, high degree of spray control and accuracy. These advantages often result in vessel platforms being the preferred application method, especially for nearshore, smaller spills. Therefore, vessel-based systems should not be overlooked in contingency planning, as these systems can often be a viable and effective option for sustained dispersant application in certain oil spill situations.

There are three major types of vessel dispersant application systems: (1) spray arm systems; (2) fire monitor systems, which are systems designed to spray water or fire-fighting foam; and (3) single nozzle neat dispersant application systems. The advantages and disadvantages of each system are reviewed and evaluated.

Certain vessel characteristics beneficial for dispersant application also are discussed. To be most effective, vessels generally should (1) have sufficient dispersant payload or the ability to be re-supplied effectively, (2) be rapidly mobilized shortly after dispersant use approval, and (3) be located close enough to the spill scene to arrive within the required time when dispersant use is effective. Finally, the major vessel dispersant application operational guidelines are summarized.
An Analysis Of Underwater Oil Recovery Techniques
Authors: Elliott Jim
Published: January 2013

Historically, once a ship sank below the surface, the oil that remained onboard became inaccessible to responders. In the last few years, however, there has been a significant push by both regulators and salvors to go deeper below the surface to recover oil trapped within a shipwreck. Recent examples in the United States include the recovery of oil from the SS JACOB LUCKENBACH in a water depth greater than 175-feet seawater (fsw) and the attempt to recover oil from the T/V BOW MARINER at a depth greater than 265 fsw.

This technical paper provides an analysis of recent technological advances available to recover oil at depth, from using saturation diving systems and manually connected viscous oil pumping systems to remotely operated vehicles and associated offloading systems. Recent case studies frame the presentation of advances in sub-sea oil recovery equipment and associated safety, logistical and financial considerations.
THE IMO/IPIECA GLOBAL INITIATIVE: OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE PREPAREDNESS
Authors: Micallef Stefan , Thiam Malamine
Published: January 2013

Formally launched in 1996, the Global Initiative (GI) is an umbrella programme under which International Maritime Organization (IMO) and International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA) are working together to encourage/facilitate the development and implementation of contingency plans and increase ratification of related international conventions. Other organizations also participate in and support the GI, including Governments, the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited, the International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds, various regional bodies and local oil industry. IMO, a specialized agency of the United Nations, works closely with member State Governments and the international shipping regulatory community to improve the safety and security of international shipping and to protect the marine environment from shipping-related sources of pollution.

GI has been active since 1996 and its achievements are encouraging; countries have made significant progress in both elaboration and further development of national response systems and strategies. GI also assists in efficiently targeting donor agency funds and in leveraging such funds. It is important to recognise that the GI is a long-term process.
ENHANCED OIL SPILL SURVEILLANCE, DETECTION AND MONITORING THROUGH THE APPLIED TECHNOLOGY OF UNMANNED AIR SYSTEMS
Authors: Allen John , Walsh Brian
Published: January 2013

Many leading edge technologies that are conceptualized, developed, tested, refined and applied as military defense technologies evolve into useful applied technologies in other public and private sectors. Unmanned Air Systems (UAS) and the rapidly evolving Small Unmanned Air Vehicle (SUAS) are finding operational applications in scientific research, wildlife, law enforcement, security, natural disaster, and environmental surveillance, detection and monitoring. This paper will review the use of UAS in operational oil spill surveillance, monitoring and assessment.

UAS show particular potential for shoreline, coastal and inland surveillance and monitoring of remote areas with limited accessibility. Numerous international oil companies have sponsored UAV demonstrations focused on facility and pipeline inspection, surveillance and monitoring. Governmental agencies, including the U.S. Coast Guard and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency, have incorporated UAS into oil spill response exercises and test applications. Currently, many areas of high risk to pollution and high environmental sensitivity are monitored daily by costly manned aircraft surveillance; UAS can replace or augment these manned air vehicles, providing a cost effective alternative that also reduces human risks.

UAS technology is continually evolving to achieve broader application:On-water launch and in-water recovery;Payload Integration - video, still daylight and nighttime IR imaging, image processing, and hazardous material air plume sensing and mapping;Command, Control and Communications (C-3) - real-time data link to the Incident Command Post;Platform Improvements - greater reliability, minimized size and weight, portability, longer operational flight time and extended range, and improved power sources;GPS positioning - pre-programmed flight patterns and break-away vectoring; andSimulation & Training - train effectively, maintain proficiency, and evolve tactics, techniques and procedures.
FINDING COMMON GROUND IN GLOBAL TRAINING STANDARDS ON THE BAKU-TBILISI-CEYHAN PIPELINE
Authors: Cosgrove Patrick E.
Published: January 2013

Training responders in a remote area on a new pipeline presented many challenges. Language barriers, cultural differences and remote locations required students and instructors to adapt both in the classroom and on equipment deployment exercises. This paper will illustrate issues and detail methods used to overcome initial differences in perception between instructors and students. It will also present field activities used to define responder qualification in an effort to standardize training and realize full potential.
RESPONDER QUALIFICATIONS - KEEPING IT SIMPLE
Authors: Majors Lee , Huhndorf Tracey
Published: January 2013

Many spill response organizations have encountered problems when requesting personnel resources during a spill event. Besides a HAZWOPER certification, how do you determine the proper training level and communicate this to the outside resource providers.

Alaska Clean Seas developed a simplified catagorization for spill response personnel. The catagories are:

General Laborer

Skilled Technician

Team Leader

Vessel Operator- Nearshore

Vessel Operator- Offshore

Each of these catagories have minimum training requirements. The regulatory agencies in Alaska approved the catagories for use in describing responder needs in member company contingency plans. The State of Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation adopted the catagories in the development of their Spill Tactics for Alaska Responders (STAR) manual. This manual was developed with input from the OSRO'S in Alaska and the catagories were approved by all of them.

With these spill responder catagories, ACS is able to train the North Slope volunteer spill response teams, the Village Response Teams, and the Auxilliary (contract) Response Teams to these levels to meet member company contingency plan requirements. ACS is also able to request personnel during drills and events in a quick and efficient manner.

Of course, these levels do not meet all the proficiencies needed during an event. ACS has also developed proficiency checks (PC'S) for each piece of equipment. These check lists provide the method for someone to demonstrate they now how to start and operate a piece of equipment such as skimmers, pumps, boom, etc. Some of the equipment is more complicated and requires a higher level of competency such as bobcats, front end loaders, airboats, etc. The PC'S for these types of equipment have 3 levels: Level 1 familiarization; Level 2 competent operator; Level 3 instructor qualifed.

Other qualifications are regulatory driven such as Bird Hazing, Bear Hazing, and Wildlife Capture and Stabilization.

With all of these catagorizations and tracking, ACS is able to easily identify response personnel for the tasks required.
EMSA'S POLLUTION RESPONSE NETWORK: A PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP
Authors: Bluhm Bernd , Molloy Fionn C. , Encabo Santiago
Published: January 2013

In addition to its other tasks, the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) has been active, in the field of marine pollution preparedness and response since mid-2004. The role of EMSA as a European Agency is to provide added value support to EU Member States and the European Commission. This paper provides the context in which the Agency carries out its range of spill response activities with regard to information, co-operation and co-ordination as well as operational support. Within this last category of activities, the paper details the main considerations and challenges of setting-up and maintaining a stand-by oil recovery vessel service available at short notice to all EU coastal states.1 Regulation (EC) No 1406/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 June 2002 establishing a European Maritime Safety Agency2 EMSA Work Programme (updated annually) is available from www.emsa.europa.eu
FREQUENCY OF DISPERSANT USE WORLDWIDE
Authors: Steen Alexis , Findlay Abigail
Published: January 2013

Chemical dispersant use has been regarded in some areas of the world as a non-traditional response option for open water marine spills. This view is based on the historical prevalence of mechanical response and the additional regulatory or permitting requirements placed on organizations which wish to use dispersants. While such requirements may be a deterrent, the response community underestimates the actual frequency of dispersant use. Based on response reports for maritime spills, the frequency of worldwide dispersant use is summarized over the last four decades. Information is also summarized by the geographic region where the dispersant was applied and using any reports on effectiveness. Effectiveness reports are uneven in quality and, in many cases, absent. This situation underscores the importance of knowing if an oil is dispersible beforehand and monitoring the performance of a dispersant on a spilled oil afterward.
COLONIZATION OF A VIRGIN SHORELINE IN PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND, 2000 TO 2007, COMPARED TO RECOVERY OF OILED AND CLEANED SHORELINES
Authors: Mearns Alan , Shigenaka Gary , Whitney John
Published: January 2013

A new landslide-created shoreline in Prince William Sound offered an opportunity to monitor colonization of virgin rock and to compare that colonization with that of nearby oiled and cleaned sites monitored during the early 1990'S. The intertidal zone of six well-separated vertical landslide surfaces were photographed annually from 2001 to 2007 and the photos used to estimate changes in cover of conspicuous intertidal seaweeds. Colonization by rockweed (Fucus sp.) was rapid and by 2003 appeared to converge with density comparable to adjacent undisturbed (control) shoreline. Percent cover of Fucus declined in 2005, then increase again in 2006 and 2007. This pattern of evolving zonation, and rapid increase and then decrease in Fucus cover, was nearly identical to the patterns observed at oiled and cleaned sites in the early 1990'S suggesting that what was seen then was an entirely normal process of intertidal colonization. Additional monitoring would be useful to determine (1) the development of the supra-littoral black lichen (Verrucaria) zone and (2) if variation in the cover, patchiness and zonation at the landslide sites parallels the longterm variation at reference sites.
PLANNING FOR SPILL RESPONSE TACTICS SURROUNDING AN ACTIVE WETLANDS RESTORATION PROJECT
Authors: McFarland Barry A
Published: January 2013

The Bolsa Chica Lowlands Restoration Project is located in Orange County, California adjacent to active oil production areas. The purpose of the project is to restore portions of the wetland ecosystem of the Bolsa Chica lowlands. The project area covers about 1,247 acres and will restore tidal influence from the Pacific Ocean to about half of this area to reinvigorate the wetland ecosystem. To achieve the biological benefits of tidal restoration, a direct connection to the Pacific Ocean was reestablished through the creation of a new tidal inlet that cuts through Bolsa Chica State Beach and under the Pacific Coast Highway near the Huntington Mesa. Construction began in October, 2004 and was completed in 2006, and minimizes impacts to fish and wildlife resources, coastal traffic, and beach recreation. The challenges for the oil production company include planning for a significant change in operations. Portions of the field were abandoned to construct the tidal basin. Continued surrounding operations of the oil field required preemptive spill response planning and preparation to ensure operational integrity at a high level. A Tactical Response Manual was developed in response to the changing conditions at the facility. This paper details the pre-planning for response to an active project. Unlike many spill response planning efforts, real time conditions could not be monitored to provide accurate information critical to developing the plan. In this case planning was required before the construction of the tidal basin was completed. The paper also details lessons learned from the process and evolving tactical response strategies based on changing conditions at the site.
DEVELOPING AN UNDERSTANDING OF “NEW GENERATION” EMULSIFIED FUELS
Authors: Gunter Paul , Carmichael Nancy
Published: January 2013

Previous research and development on emulsified fuels has essentially concentrated on the fate & behaviour, environmental impacts and response techniques for the specific trademarked fuel ORIMULSION®. However, it is recognised that this is just one example from the wider family of emulsified fuels, and they may not all necessarily behave in the same way due to differences in formulation/composition. A considerable database exists for this particular emulsion but as “new generation” emulsified fuels are developed and commercialised it will be necessary to gain an understanding of how similar (or different) they are in terms of their behaviour, potential impacts and appropriate mitigation measures.

The current paper describes the typical characteristics of the emulsified fuel called MSAR™ (Multiphase Superfine Atomised Residue), and outlines the approach and early findings from an Environmental Studies Programme that has been initiated for this fuel. In order to provide a baseline and context this paper looks at similarities and differences compared to ORIMULSION® and Group V oils. Information is also provided on the general approach being adopted to better understand these emulsified fuels.

Initial work investigating the likely fate and behaviour of MSAR™ spills has shown many similarities compared to ORIMULSION®. Both fuels are initially highly dispersible but, depending on the circumstances that prevail at the time of the spill, some coalescence can be expected to occur. Some potential differences are also highlighted between the two fuels, and the significance and implications will be taken into account in a planned on-going Environmental Studies Programme.
Cause Lawyering
Authors: Agrikoliansky Eric
Published: January 2013

All social movements have, at one point or another in their development, been confronted with the question of legality. This may come about either because the movement aims to change the law, or because it is itself facing legal repression. In addition, this could reflect that “the state usually acts through law, the state can be constrained by law” (Abel 1998: 69). However, the use of law, and the legal system, as tools of protest is not an easy task, and there are indeed a number of limits to legal strategies of protest. The field of critical legal studies has emphasized that the legal system has an underlying tendency to treat disadvantaged groups less fairly and, above all, that legal decisions are insufficient on their own to bring about changes in the economic and social order (see, for example, Rosenberg 1991). However, this position has been challenged in recent years by a number of pieces of work which have reconsidered the importance of contentious uses of law.
Charisma
Authors: Andreas Joel
Published: January 2013

Charisma was introduced as a social scientific concept by Max Weber, who used the term to identify one of three types of legitimate authority. In Weber's framework, bureaucratic (or legal‐rational) authority is based on respecting rational rules, traditional (or patriarchal) authority is based on following traditional ways, and charismatic authority is based on challenging existing rules and traditions. The first two, he wrote, are conservative in that they underpin existing institutions, while charismatic authority is revolutionary in that it challenges the legitimacy of existing institutions. Weber used social movements as examples of the power of charismatic authority and following his logic all social movements that challenge some aspect of the status quo must rely on charismatic authority.
Class Consciousness: The
M
arxist Conception
Authors: Crossley Nick
Published: January 2013

Within the Marxist tradition “class consciousness” refers to the awareness of itself as a class which the dominated class within capitalism, the proletariat, is predicted to arrive at, historically. When the proletariat become aware of themselves as a class and of their collective strength, Marx claims, they will rise up in revolution and overthrow their bourgeois masters.
Collective Memory and Social Movements
Authors: Zamponi Lorenzo
Published: January 2013

The widespread interest in the processes of construction of collective identities, typical of the most recent scholarship on social movements (Polletta & Jasper 2001), focusing on the symbolic dimension of collective action, has been the bridge across which collective memory entered the study of social movements.
Consensual Decision‐Making
Authors: Polletta Francesca
Published: January 2013

Consensual decision‐making requires that all participants agree on an option before it is adopted. Consensual decision‐making can be contrasted with nonparticipatory forms of decision‐making (i.e., by representatives or experts) and with majority voting. In a typical consensus process, an issue is introduced and discussed and a proposal is formulated; then the facilitator or a participant calls for consensus. Participants may signal their agreement with the proposal, may “stand aside” if they do not agree but do not want to block the proposal's adoption, or may voice objections to the proposal. Participants discuss dissenters' concerns and may amend the proposal before calling for consensus once again. The process may continue until participants reach consensus or decide to table the issue. In some processes, a single veto may prevent the adoption of a proposal; in others, near but not complete unanimity is required.
Co‐Operative Movement
Authors: Forno Francesca
Published: January 2013

The co‐operative movement first emerged in Europe during the nineteenth century. Although scholarly research remains in disagreement about exactly where the movement began, many trace its origins back to a number of cooperative experiences that developed in Britain and France in the eighteenth century, especially in the farming industry and consumer organizations (Holyoake 1908).
Demobilization
Authors: Fillieule Olivier
Published: January 2013

We know little about the mechanisms governing the decline of social movements and the varied forms of individual or collective demobilization that prompt this decline or end it. Indeed, as Verta Taylor emphasizes, “scholars generally are more interested in movements undergoing cycles of mass mobilization and have done little research on movements in decline or equilibrium” (1989: 772; see also McAdam 2005: 67). Yet, the logical counterpart of the initial recruitment and mobilization processes is clearly collective demobilization and individual disengagement.
Democracy and Social Movements
Authors: della Porta Donatella
Published: January 2013

Democracy is usually defined as a specific method of decision making, in which elected representatives are accountable to the citizens through regular elections. Social movements have always been concerned with democracy, keeping governors accountable, but also in many cases advocating and practicing alternative conceptions of democracy than the dominant, representative ones.
Democratization and Democratic Transition
Authors: della Porta Donatella , Federico M. Rossi
Published: January 2013

Social movements are increasingly considered as relevant actors in theorizations about democracy. Recently, an empirical linkage between movements and democratization processes has also been established. On the one hand, many of the processes that cause democratization generally promote social movements and “democratization as such further encourages people to form social movements” (Tilly 2004: 131). On the other, “under some conditions and in a more limited way, social movements themselves promote democratization” (Tilly 2004: 131). When looking at the impact of movements on democracy, the evidence is however mixed. First, some social movements support democracy, but some do not. Second, their relevance in democratization processes is discussed: while a “populist” approach to democracy emphasizes participation from below, with movements as important actors in the creation of democratic public spheres, the “elitist” approach considers democratization as mainly a top‐down process.
Discourse Analysis and Social Movements
Authors: Johnston Hank
Published: January 2013

The discourse of a social group or community is the whole of its verbal and textual production. It represents its communicative repertoire and the symbolic space and structure of that repertoire. Regarding social movements, it is common that oppositional discourse draws upon the conflicts, struggles, and divisions of the broader social, political, and cultural environment, and articulates these elements to make the ideas it expresses both challenging to opponents and familiar to potential supporters. Analysts sometimes use the plural form,
discourses,
to emphasize that what is being discussed and acted upon is never unanimous, but often challenged and negated by opposing groups. These researchers sometimes stress the emergent and agentic character of textual production, variably called the rhetorical approach (Billig 1995), the rhetorical turn (Simon 1990), or the dialogic perspective (Steinberg 2001). These approaches treat meaning as context‐specific, multifaceted, ever evolving, and contested, which is widely recognized to be true. The operative question, however, is if these qualities make traditional social‐science analysis that focuses on the measurement of causal variables and relationships suspect.
Discursive Fields
Authors: Snow David A.
Published: January 2013

The concept of “discursive fields” is used to conceptualize an aspect of the context in which discourse and meaning‐making processes, such as framing and narration, are generally embedded. Discursive fields, like the kindred concepts of multiorganizational fields and identity fields, are constitutive of the genre of concepts in the social sciences that can be thought of as “embedding” concepts in that they reference broader enveloping contexts in which discussions, decisions, and actions take place. Discursive fields evolve during the course of discussion and debate, sometimes but not always contested, about relevant events and issues, and encompass cultural materials (e.g., beliefs, values, ideologies, myths) of potential relevance and various sets of actors (e.g., targeted authorities, social control agents, countermovements, media) whose interests are aligned, albeit differently, with the issues or events in question, and who thus have a stake in how those events and issues are framed and/or narrated.
Dramaturgy and Social Movements
Authors: Benford Robert D.
Published: January 2013

Social movements are replete with drama. Indeed, some observers have suggested that social movementsaredramas. Benford and Hunt (1992) define social movements as dramas in which protagonists and antagonists clash as they seek to affect audiences' interpretations of power relations in various institutional domains (e.g., religion, politics, economy, etc.). Drawing on Goffman's (1959) dramaturgical perspective in which the theater provides a metaphor for analyzing everyday life, social movement scholars have examined how movement activists construct and communicate grievances in a fashion that maximizes their potential impact on social change. Often that entails deploying dramatic tactics that capture the attention of media, targets of change, bystander publics, and potential recruits. The US civil rights movement, for example, consistently employed a variety of nonviolent direct action tactics including lunch‐counter sit‐ins, boycotts, freedom rides, marches, and other forms of civil disobedience in defiant protest of racial segregation. As the civil rights leaders intended, many of these tactics elicited a violent response from their opponents (McAdam 1996). The movement's disruptive actions and the repressive actions of local authorities yielded dramatic news coverage and hence increased popular and political support for their cause.
Feminism and Social Movements
Authors: Rupp Leila J. , Taylor Verta
Published: January 2013

Feminist movements, in the broadest sense, are collective efforts to improve the situation of women, and they have emerged in most parts of the world, beginning in the mid‐nineteenth century and continuing into the present. Feminism has also influenced other social movements, such as the peace, environmental, global justice, reproductive rights, and gay/lesbian movements, through its ideologies, collective identities, tactics, and organizational forms. Scholarship on feminist movements has focused on their origins; different waves or cycles; feminist ideologies, collective identities, tactics, and organizational forms across time and place; and the impact of feminism on other social movements.
Initiator and Spin‐Off Movements
Authors: McAdam Doug
Published: January 2013

Most theories of movement emergence treat movements as independent of one another. The popular convention of naming individual movements reflects this view as well. So we refer to movements—for example, the women's movement, the civil rights movement, the environmental movement—as separate and discrete phenomena.
Journalism and Social Movements
Authors: Mattoni Alice
Published: January 2013

When looking at journalism from a social movement perspective, there are two possible viewpoints. On the one side, the journalistic field, its rules and values, routines and practices, is external to the social movement milieu. On the other side, the very notion of journalism has always intertwined with grassroots communities of activists that rethink and reshape journalistic practices from a bottom‐up perspective. In the first case, scholars investigate the interactions between social movements and journalism at large, where journalism denotes mainstream journalistic practices. In the second case, conversely, scholars research the development of so‐called alternative and grassroots journalistic practices within activist communities and networks.
Master Frame
Authors: Benford Robert D.
Published: January 2013

The term “master frame” was originally conceptualized in order to account for the empirical observation that
cycles of protest
occasionally emerge in the absence of a favorable political opportunity structure (POS). Given that POS had been theorized as the engine driving cycles of protest, an alternative explanation was sought from the social movement framing perspective to account for those instances when a number of movements clustered together during a period even though the structural conditions did not appear conducive for widespread mobilization. Under such conditions a cycle of protest could be attributed in part to the development of a
resonant
master frame. A master frame refers to a generic type of
collective action frame
that is wider in scope and influence than run‐of‐the‐mill social movement frames (Snow & Benford 1992). Whereas most collective action frames are context specific (e.g., drunk driver frame, cold war frame, exploited worker frame, environmental justice frame, etc.), a master frame's articulations and attributions are sufficiently elastic, flexible, and inclusive enough so that any number of other social movements can successfully adopt and deploy it in their campaigns. Typically, once a social movement fashions and espouses a highly resonant frame that is broad in interpretive scope, other social movements within a cycle of protest will modify that frame and apply it to their own cause. For example, once the US civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s experienced a number of successes based on an equal rights and opportunities frame, several other movements, including the American Indian, women's, gay and lesbian, Chicano/a, and Gray Panthers, adopted and proffered a similar frame to their specific movement campaigns.
Mechanisms
Authors: Tarrow Sidney
Published: January 2013

A intellectual movement has been growing in the social sciences around the adoption of mechanism‐based explanations, as complements to, or even substitutes for, variable‐based explanations (Bunge 1997). In sociology, Arthur Stinchcombe recently emphasized studying causal mechanisms as part of a larger repertoire of methods of sociological research (2005). Peter Hedström and Richard Swedberg, working in the rationalist tradition, moved in the same direction (1998). John Campbell has identified a number of common mechanisms in social movement and organizational research (2005).
Micro‐Meso Mobilization
Authors: Boekkooi Marije , Klandermans Bert
Published: January 2013

Social movement events do not spontaneously occur, they need to be organized and mobilized. This involves two steps of mobilization: mesomobilization followed by micromobilization. Mesomobilization refers to the efforts of an initiator(s) of a campaign, trying to mobilize other organizers to jointly set up and organize the event (Gerhards & Rucht 1992), while micromobilization refers to the joint effort of the organizers to mobilize participants for the event (McAdam 1988). The mobilization process thus involves two steps: the mobilization of other organizers by the initiators and the mobilization of participants by the organizers.
Organizations, Community‐Based
Authors: Walker Edward T.
Published: January 2013

Community‐based organizations (CBOs) are local organizations, active in low‐ or moderate‐income communities, which mobilize individual community members in order to develop the civic and political power of local residents. They do so mainly through canvassing rather than building upon pre‐existing community institutions. Although the term “community organizing” refers to a broad range of organizations (McCarthy & Walker 2004), the focus here is not on organizations that use congregations as recruitment blocs. CBOs have become an important part of our national civic and political discourse, especially as the 2008 election of Barack Obama brought community organizing into the national spotlight.
Pacifism
Authors: Alcalde Javier
Published: January 2013

The term “pacifism” was first used in 1901, although the idea can be traced back to the beginning of recorded human history across all cultures. Anglo‐American pacifism opposes war and other forms of violence by combining advocacy of personal nonparticipation in war with a commitment to use nonviolent means of resolving conflict. From the European perspective, pacifism would include the efforts to achieve international peace and mutual understanding. Whether pacifism is expressed through a political movement or as a specific ideology, it can be based on moral, religious, or pragmatic principles. From a strictly rational perspective, pacifists are aware of the costs of war and violence and therefore believe in other ways of resolving conflicts.
Precipitating Events and Flashpoints
Authors: Owens Peter B.
Published: January 2013

It is often the case that certain critical events can have enormous impacts on the dynamics of collective action. When such events appear to “trigger” or “spark” collective action by convincing potential participants that action is necessary or desirable, or mark a critical turning point in the dynamics of a particular pattern of mobilization, they may be thought of as precipitating events. These events will tend to fall along a varied range of characteristics. Some may be violent and traumatic, such as an assassination or an instance of police brutality, while others may be relatively civil or even celebratory, such as the election of a supported political candidate or the victory of a sports team. Some events may appear to be relatively isolated and singular, while others may occur in a cumulative pattern over time. An event might be planned and executed by movement participants, or be completely unexpected. One event might trigger explosive episodes such as riots, while others might lead to long‐term changes in a cycle of protest, such as shifts in a movement's strategy. Despite such variation, the defining feature of a precipitating event is that it serves as some form of social‐cognitive “trigger” that defines, in part, the forms of collective action that occurs in its wake.
Public Opinion and Movements
Authors: Vráblíková Kateřina
Published: January 2013

Although public opinion would seem to be a crucial factor for achieving a large‐scale mobilization and impacting politics and public policy, it has not yet received much attention in the social movement literature. There are probably a number of reasons for this lack of attention: (1) data on public opinion suitable for social movement scholars are not usually covered in publicly available opinion surveys and to gather them is costly; (2) requirements for data gathering would be even more demanding than for standard surveys because more developed research designs going beyond one survey at one time, such as public opinion across geographical units or longitudinal data, are needed; (3) public opinion is frequently studied by political science, while social movements are a primary focus of sociology. The following will first define what public opinion is, and how social movements can influence it, and then present two ways in which public opinion can play a significant role for social movement activism.
Quotidian Disruption
Authors: Borland Elizabeth
Published: January 2013

Quotidian disruption refers to the breakdown or interruption of everyday practices, routines, and expectations which leads to a heightened likelihood of the emergence of collective action. The word “quotidian” means the routines of daily life, and encompasses the everyday practices we all take for granted. A modern variant of breakdown theory, the central argument of the quotidian disruption model, proposed first by Snow and colleagues (1998), is that actual or threatened disruption of the quotidian is the key element which connects social breakdown to movement emergence.
Radicalism
Authors: Cross Remy
Published: January 2013

The term “radicalism,” as used within the milieu of political and social movements, can have several different usages. Primarily there are three ways of looking at it: as a process, as a practice, or as a set of beliefs. It is a process in the sense that radicalism, whatever its form, is rarely born whole cloth. Rather, it is usually a journey from a nonradical state towards a more radical state. The practice of radicalism is most commonly associated with a set of tactics and strategies that lie outside the bounds of accepted political or religious protest, often verging on illegality. Radical beliefs, or ideologies, typically hold that the potential for desirable change lies outside the realm of legitimate modes of challenge and expression within the targeted institutional arena.
Social Control Errors
Authors: Gamson William A.
Published: January 2013

Social movements that are unhappy with the choices of authorities must be handled in some fashion. The most basic distinction in how authorities respond to movement pressure is between (1) changing their decisions and policies, and (2) making some effort to control the social movement. The former response deals with the content of the unhappiness by modifying outcomes; the latter deals with controlling the source of the pressure for change. If social control is successful, there will be no need for outcome modification.
Tactics
Authors: Doherty Brian
Published: January 2013

When we refer to the tactics used by social movements we mean forms of action that have been deliberately chosen with the aim of influencing or coercing one or more of opponents, the general public, and fellow movement activists. These features are so central to the nature of social movements that consideration of movement tactics inevitably entails an understanding of other aspects of social movements, including strategy, the nature of protest, and movement identity, all of which affect how tactics are understood. Yet, as many have noted, while accounts of tactics used in particular protests are ubiquitous, conceptual analysis of tactics per se and especially of how movements choose their tactics is relatively rare (Taylor & Van Dyke 2004; Smithey 2009). There are a number of reasons for this. First, if tactics are deliberate choices made by groups it is often difficult to ascertain who made the choices and how: Activists interviewed after the event may give self‐serving and inaccurate accounts of how decisions emerged. Second, movement tactics are relational in that their effects depend on the response of others outside the movement and they cannot always be sure how their opponents, and, where different, the authorities and even their adherents will react. Particular tactics may be determined by an expectation of their likely impacts on the behavior of others, but these expectations may be misplaced and opponents may counter movement tactics successfully.