bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
L’entrepreneuriat féminin autochtone : limites des approches existantes et nouvelles perspectives endogènes
Authors: Brière Sophie , Tremblay Maripier , Auclair Isabelle
Published: September 2017

Dans le contexte québécois, le développement entrepreneurial a été mis en avant en tant que stratégie en vue de favoriser l’autonomisation économique des femmes. Cependant, l’entrepreneuriat féminin est un objet de réflexion qui demeure encore sous-exploré, particulièrement en milieu autochtone. Reconnaissant l’importance du contexte dans le développement entrepreneurial et dans l’accès aux ressources et considérant que les Autochtones appartiennent à des communautés diverses issues de milieux, de territoires et de cultures différenciés, les auteures estiment que le manque d’études spécifiques et contextualisées représente une lacune sérieuse. Les auteures ont comme objectif d’analyser et de reconnaître, dans une perspective critique, les impacts du contexte patriarcal et colonialiste ainsi que les enjeux propres aux entrepreneures autochtones. Dans cette perspective, la réflexion apportée permet de dégager des constats relatifs aux obstacles rencontrés par les entrepreneures et pose un regard sur les mesures de soutien qui leur sont offertes. En somme, non seulement les auteures remettent en question les mesures existantes, mais elles poussent leur réflexion en formulant des propositions qui permettront l’élaboration de stratégies novatrices et mobilisatrices, et qui répondront aux besoins émergeant du contexte particulier dans lequel les femmes autochtones développent leur entreprise.
Longitudinal Stability of Cognition in Early-Phase Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis
Authors: Barbu Roxana M. , Berard Jason A. , Gresham Louise M. , Walker Lisa A.S.
Published: September 2017

Background:

Up to 70% of people with multiple sclerosis (MS) experience cognitive impairment. Some remain cognitively intact despite advanced disease. Cognitive reserve (CR) theory postulates that individuals with higher levels of intellectual enrichment can tolerate more pathology than others before exhibiting cognitive impairment.

Methods:

Thirty-two individuals with early-phase relapsing-remitting MS with mild physical disability and disease duration less than 10 years and 32 controls were recruited. At baseline and after 3 years, participants completed neuropsychological tests evaluating several cognitive domains. The CR was assessed via a cognitive reserve index (CRI) using educational levels and North American Adult Reading Test scores. Change in cognition was assessed using a reliable change index.

Results:

At baseline, people with MS performed worse than controls on visual memory. There were no significant group differences on information processing speed, learning, language, and executive functions. Most cognitive domains showed no change over time, and CRI was not a significant predictor in the regression model.

Conclusions:

People with MS performed worse on memory tasks at baseline compared with controls. Cognitive change differed between people with MS and controls in executive functions. Although people with MS and controls improved over time, beyond practice effects, people with MS improved less than controls. Overall, no cognitive deterioration was noted over time, and CR did not predict change in cognition. Sample homogeneity in terms of disease stage and CR may explain these findings.
Validation of the 2-Minute Walk Test with the 6-Minute Walk Test and Other Functional Measures in Persons with Multiple Sclerosis
Authors: Scalzitti David A. , Harwood Kenneth J. , Maring Joyce R. , Leach Susan J. , Ruckert Elizabeth A. , Costello Ellen
Published: September 2017

Background:

Persons with multiple sclerosis (MS) commonly have difficulty walking. The 6-Minute Walk Test (6MWT) assesses functional capacity but may be considered burdensome for persons with MS, especially those with higher disability levels. The 2-Minute Walk Test (2MWT) may be an alternative measure to the 6MWT. The purpose of this study was to investigate the validity of the 2MWT in persons with MS.

Methods:

Twenty-eight ambulatory persons with MS aged 18 to 64 years participated in this cross-sectional study. Participants completed five measures of walking performance (2MWT, 6MWT, usual and fast gait speed, and Timed Up and Go test) and two functional measures (Berg Balance Scale and five-times sit-to-stand test) during a testing session. Participants were classified into two subgroups based on Disease Steps scale classification.

Results:

The 2MWT was significantly correlated with the 6MWT (r = 0.947), usual gait speed (r = 0.920), fast gait speed (r = 0.942), the Timed Up and Go test (r = −0.911), and other functional measures. The 2MWT explained 89% of the variance seen during the 6MWT. The distances completed on the 2MWT and 6MWT accurately distinguished the subgroups.

Conclusions:

This study demonstrated good construct and discriminant validity of the 2MWT in persons with MS, providing an efficient and practical alternative to the 6MWT. Validation of the 2MWT with other functional measures further supports these findings.
Thalamic input to auditory cortex is locally heterogeneous but globally tonotopic
Authors: Vasquez-Lopez Sebastian A , Weissenberger Yves , Lohse Michael , Keating Peter , King Andrew J , Dahmen Johannes C
Published: September 2017

Topographic representation of the receptor surface is a fundamental feature of sensory cortical organization. This is imparted by the thalamus, which relays information from the periphery to the cortex. To better understand the rules governing thalamocortical connectivity and the origin of cortical maps, we used in vivo two-photon calcium imaging to characterize the properties of thalamic axons innervating different layers of mouse auditory cortex. Although tonotopically organized at a global level, we found that the frequency selectivity of individual thalamocortical axons is surprisingly heterogeneous, even in layers 3b/4 of the primary cortical areas, where the thalamic input is dominated by the lemniscal projection. We also show that thalamocortical input to layer 1 includes collaterals from axons innervating layers 3b/4 and is largely in register with the main input targeting those layers. Such locally varied thalamocortical projections may be useful in enabling rapid contextual modulation of cortical frequency representations.
Genomic and functional analysis ofRomboutsia ilealisCRIBTreveals adaptation to the small intestine
Authors: Gerritsen Jacoline , Hornung Bastian , Renckens Bernadette , van Hijum Sacha A.F.T. , Martins dos Santos Vitor A.P. , Rijkers Ger T. , Schaap Peter J. , de Vos Willem M. , Smidt Hauke
Published: September 2017

Background

The microbiota in the small intestine relies on their capacity to rapidly import and ferment available carbohydrates to survive in a complex and highly competitive ecosystem. Understanding how these communities function requires elucidating the role of its key players, the interactions among them and with their environment/host.

Methods

The genome of the gut bacteriumRomboutsia ilealisCRIBTwas sequenced with multiple technologies (Illumina paired-end, mate-pair and PacBio). The transcriptome was sequenced (Illumina HiSeq) after growth on three different carbohydrate sources, and short chain fatty acids were measured via HPLC.

Results

We present the complete genome ofRomboutsia ilealisCRIBT, a natural inhabitant and key player of the small intestine of rats.R. ilealisCRIBTpossesses a circular chromosome of 2,581,778 bp and a plasmid of 6,145 bp, carrying 2,351 and eight predicted protein coding sequences, respectively. Analysis of the genome revealed limited capacity to synthesize amino acids and vitamins, whereas multiple and partially redundant pathways for the utilization of different relatively simple carbohydrates are present. Transcriptome analysis allowed identification of the key components in the degradation of glucose, L-fucose and fructo-oligosaccharides.

Discussion

This revealed thatR. ilealisCRIBTis adapted to a nutrient-rich environment where carbohydrates, amino acids and vitamins are abundantly available.
Phylogeographic investigation and ecological niche modelling of the endemic frog speciesNanorana pleskeirevealed multiple refugia in the eastern Tibetan Plateau
Authors: Wang Bin , Xie Feng , Li Jiannan , Wang Gang , Li Cheng , Jiang Jianping
Published: September 2017

The largest plateau Tibetan Plateau supplied an excellent opportunity to investigate the influence of the Pleistocene events on the high-elevation species. To test for the alternative hypotheses of Pleistocene glacial refugia, we used partial sequences of two mitochondrial genes and one nuclear gene to examine the phylogeographic patterns of the endemic frog speciesNanorana pleskeiacross its known range in the eastern Tibetan Plateau, and conducted species distribution modelling (SDM) to explore changes of its distribution range through current and paleo periods. In all data sets, the species was divided into lineage north occupying open plateau platform and lineage south colonizing the mountainous plateau. The divergence of two major clades was estimated at the early Pleistocene. In mtDNA, lineage north contained northeastern and northwestern sublineages, and lineage south had two overlapping-distributed sublineages. Different lineages possessed distinct demographic characteristics, i.e., subdivision in the northeastern sublineage, historical bottleneck effects and recent expansions in the northwestern sublineage and the southeastern sublineage. SDMs depicted that stable suitable habitats had existed in the upper-middle streams of the Yellow River, Dadu River, Jinsha River and Yalong River. These regions were also recognized as the ancestral areas of different lineages. In conclusion,Nanorana pleskeilineages have probably experienced long-term separations. Stable suitable habitats existing in upper-middle streams of major rivers on the eastern Tibetan Plateau and distinct demographic dynamics of different lineages indicated that the lineages possessed independent evolutionary processes in multiple glacial refugia. The findings verified the profound effects of Pleistocene climatic fluctuations on the plateau endemic species.
Exploring the Links in Monthly to Decadal Variability of the Atmospheric Water Balance Over the Wettest Regions in ERA‐20C
Authors: Nogueira M.
Published: September 2017

Monthly‐to‐decadal variability of the regional precipitation over Intertropical Convergence Zone and north‐Atlantic and north‐Pacific storm tracks was investigated using ERA‐20C reanalysis. Satellite‐based precipitation (P) and evaporation (E) climatological patterns were well reproduced by ERA‐20C. Regional P and E monthly time series displayed ~20% differences, but these decreased rapidly with time scale (~10% at yearly time scales). Spectral analysis showed good scale‐by‐scale statistical agreement between ERA‐20C and observations. Using ERA‐Interim showed no improvement despite the much wider range of information assimilated (including satellites). Remarkably high Detrended Cross‐Correlation Analysis coefficients (ρDCCA > 0.7 and often ρDCCA > 0.9) revealed tight links between the nonperiodic variability of P, moisture divergence (DIV), and pressure velocity (ω) at monthly‐to‐decadal time scales over all the wet regions. In contrast, ρDCCA was essentially nonsignificant between nonperiodic P and E or sea surface temperature (SST). Thus, the nonperiodic monthly‐to‐decadal variability of precipitation in these regions is almost fully controlled by dynamics and not by local E or SST (suggested by Clausius‐Clapeyron relation). Analysis of regional nonperiodic standard deviations and power spectra (and respective spectral exponents, β) provided further robustness to this conclusion. Finally, clear transitions in β for P, DIV, and ω between tropical and storm track regions were found. The latter is dominated by transient storms, with energy accumulation at synoptic scales and β < 0.1 at monthly‐to‐decadal time scales, implying that variability and information creation decrease rapidly with time scale. Larger β values (0.2 to 0.4) were found in the tropics, implying longer‐range autocorrelations and slower decreasing variability and information creation with time scale, consistent with the important forcing from internal modes of variability (e.g., El Niño–Southern Oscillation).
Ammonium Production and Removal in the Sediments of Shanghai River Networks: Spatiotemporal Variations, Controlling Factors, and Environmental Implications
Authors: Lin Xianbiao , Li Xiaofei , Gao Dengzhou , Liu Min , Cheng Lv
Published: September 2017

Ammonium (NH4+) pollution and associated processes causing environmental problems in aquatic ecosystems have attracted much attention. However, the microbial pathways of NH4+ production and removal and associated influencing factors in the sediments of urban rivers remain unclear. In this study, microbial pathways of NH4+ production and removal were quantified to examine the NH4+ balance in the sediments of Shanghai river networks. The results indicated that potential rates of gross nitrogen mineralization, dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium, and nitrogen fixation ranged from 0.25 to 25.83 μg N g−1 d−1, from undetectable to 3.47 μg N g−1 d−1, and from 0.07 to 3.05 μg N g−1 d−1, respectively. The potential rates of gross NH4+ immobilization, anammox, and nitrification, as the NH4+ removal processes, ranged from 0.24 to 26.27 μg N g−1 d−1, from 0.01 to 7.97 μg N g−1 d−1, and from 0 to 9.62 μg N g−1 d−1, respectively. Temperature, dissolved oxygen, NO3−, NH4+, and total organic carbon had great influences on these NH4+ production and removal processes. In addition, the total amounts of NH4+ production and removal through microbial pathways in sediments of Shanghai river networks were estimated at approximately 2.6 × 105 t N yr−1 and 3.9 × 105 t N yr−1, respectively. Thus, the net sink of NH4+ was 1.3 × 105 t N yr−1, which accounts for 22% of total inputs of nitrogen in the river networks. These results indicate that microbial processes of removal in sediments can eliminate significant parts of NH4+ generated from microbial pathways and/or inputs from anthropogenic activities in urban rivers. Overall, these results improve understanding of NH4+ production and removal and associated influencing environmental factors and highlight the environmental importance of these processes in regulating the NH4+ budget in highly urbanized riverine ecosystems.
Theory for Geosynchronous Spacecraft Charging Index
Authors: Huang Jianguo , Liu Guoqing , Jiang Lixiang , Yang Yong
Published: September 2017

Geosynchronous spacecraft are likely to be charged to several or even tens of thousands of kilovolts due to the high‐energy plasma during substorms (tens of keV), leading to detrimental electronic system anomalies. Recently, a debate on what is the best index for geosynchronous spacecraft charging is opened. Ferguson, D. C. et al. presented that the total thermal electron flux above a certain minimum energy that is well above the second crossover point in secondary electron emission is the best index for spacecraft charging and verified the charging index by comparing Nascap‐2k results with charging and flux measurements on some geosynchronous satellites. In this paper, such a charging index is verified theoretically. Meanwhile, the best minimum energy and the electron flux above it are obtained for both single and double Maxwellian plasmas based on charging threshold theory. The theoretical estimations agree well with Ferguson's results. Such a charging index is important, which will probably make prediction of geosynchronous spacecraft charging simple and convenient in the future.
TheGolgi Apparatus in Mammalian and Higher Plant Cells: A Comparison
Authors: Pavelka Margit , Robinson David G.
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Localization in the Cell

Ultrastructure and Organization

TheGolgi Apparatus and Cell Division

Acknowledgements
Sensing, Signalling, and Control of Phosphate Starvation in Plants: Molecular Players and Applications
Authors: Scheible Wolf‐Rüdiger , Rojas‐Triana Monica
Published: September 2017

The availability of phosphorus (P) often limits plant growth and development. Whilst large amounts of P‐fertilizers are thus used in agricultural production systems, they are a considerable cost factor, and the runoff of excessive P causes environmental damage. Moreover, global P‐reserves may last for only several more generations. Cutting down on the use of P‐fertilizers therefore is important, and to ultimately do so it is crucial to understand how plants sense, signal, respond to and cope with P‐limitation, to determine the genes and molecular mechanisms involved, and to apply the knowledge to improve P‐acquisition and P‐use efficiency (
PAE
,
PUE
) of crop plant species. This chapter provides an overview of the players involved in plant P‐status signalling/sensing, and outlines the approaches used to increase
PAE
/
PUE
on the basis of understanding the plant P‐starvation response and the underlying signalling pathways and networks.
Addiction and Exposure
Authors: Griffiths Mark
Published: September 2017

For many people the concept of addiction involves the ingestion of a drug. However, there is now a growing movement that views a number of behaviors as potentially addictive, including some that do not involve the ingestion of a drug, such as gambling, sex, and exercise (Orford 2001; Griffiths 2005). Increasing research into behavioral addictions has also concentrated on a particular sub‐group that has been termed “technological addictions.” Technological addictions are nonchemical (behavioral) addictions that involve excessive human–machine interaction. They can either be passive (e.g., watching television) or active (e.g., playing video games), and usually contain inducing and reinforcing features, which may contribute to the promotion of addictive tendencies. Possible activities that could be included under this category are such activities as television addiction, computer addiction (e.g., hacking, programming), video game addiction, mobile phone addiction, and Internet addiction (→ Exposure to Communication Content).
Advertising Law and Regulation
Authors: An Soontae
Published: September 2017

The role of → advertising in society continues to expand around the world. In response, many societies face greater challenges in regulating advertising to protect the public from deceptive and unfair business conduct. Many legal sources regulate advertising practices, and the legislative rationale for curbing this unique type of speech has been vigorously debated. Given that all the laws must be consistent with the principles of freedom of speech (→ Freedom of Communication; Freedom of the Press, Concept of), how to define commercial speech and the amount of constitutional protection it should be afforded are key issues. Similarities and differences can be found across countries regarding forms of regulation, restrictions on specific types of ads, and areas of regulatory emphasis.
Fetishization
Authors: Schroeder Jonathan E.
Published: September 2017

Fetishization refers to a process of imbuing an object or idea with power. A fetish object is often associated with sexual gratification, desire, and worship. Fetishization marks a cultural, psychological, and social technique of fetishizing things by making them appear larger than life, animate, or sexually desirable (→ Sexualization in the Media). It is argued that this process has profoundly influenced contemporary consumer culture (Fernbach 2002; Jhally 1987; Schroeder 2002).
Habermas, Jürgen
Authors: Wessler Hartmut
Published: September 2017

Jürgen Habermas (born 1929 in Germany) is one of the leading philosophers of the second half of the twentieth century. He has had and continues to have a decisive influence on communication theory and research internationally through his work on the public sphere and his theory of communicative action, as well as his theory of deliberative democracy and public deliberation.
Interpersonal Communication, Sex and Gender Differences in
Authors: Canary Daniel J. , Babin‐Gallagher Beth
Published: September 2017

Few topics interest lay people and scholars more than how men and women might differ from each other.
Sex differences
refer to behavioral variations between men and women based on biological differences;
gender differences
refer to behavioral variations between people due to cultural, sociological, and/or psychological differences. This entry focuses on the manner in which
sex differences
affect interpersonal communication behavior (→ Gender and Discourse).
Journalism
Authors: Barnhurst Kevin G. , Owens James
Published: September 2017

Journalism is a constellation of practices that have acquired special status within the larger domain of communication through a long history that separated out news sharing from its origins in → interpersonal communication. Telling others about events in one's social and physical surroundings is a common everyday activity in human cultures, and news as a → genre of the interactions has the primary characteristic of being new to the listener. A main difficulty for sharing intelligence is ascertaining truth, or, put the other way round, distinguishing intelligence from gossip (Froissart 2002; → Rumor; Small Talk and Gossip; Truth and Media Content). Telling about events, supplying novelty, and discerning factual truth from the process are the main rudiments that came to define journalism as a cultural practice.
S
aro‐
W
iwa,
K
en (1941–1995)
Authors: Squire Heather
Published: September 2017

Ken Saro‐Wiwa was an author, television producer, and human rights activist from Nigeria. He was the president and spokesperson of the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP), an organization that fought (and continues to fight) for social and environmental justice for the Ogoni, an ethnic minority in the Niger Delta.
Saud, Abd al‐Aziz Ibn (1879–1953) and the Founding of ModernSaudiArabia
Authors: Davidson Lawrence
Published: September 2017

Abd al‐Aziz ibn Saud (hereafter ibn Saud) was born in the city of Riyadh in 1879. Riyadh was the home city of the Saud clan and its ally, the family of Wahhab, which championed the conservative Islamic sect known as Wahhabism. A power struggle with a rival forced the Saudis into exile in Kuwait in 1891. Subsequently, in 1902, ibn Saud led a band of followers back into Arabia in 1902 and retook the city of Riyadh. Saudi power was confined to the area of Riyadh until immediately after World War I. After the war, ibn Saud expanded his area of control and, by 1926, had conquered most of north and central Arabia. Wherever the Saud clan ruled, it introduced the Wahhabi brand of Islam. At Mecca in 1926, ibn Saud was proclaimed King of the Hejaz and Nejd, and in 1932 his lands were unified into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Scottish Reformation
Authors: MacKinnon Dolly
Published: September 2017

The origins of the Scottish Reformation comprised a constellation of religious, political, social, and economic factors that resulted in a Calvinist kirk. The precursors to, and consequences of, Scotland's break with Roman Catholicism in 1560 were rooted both in the internal politics of the Scottish nobility and issues of succession regarding the monarchy, and in the nation's role and importance in the political, religious, and dynastic contests of certain European powers. The stability of the Scottish monarchy was also tested by periods where regents governed during the minority of James V (1513–28) and Mary (1542–61). During the sixteenth century, the dynastic ambitions of France and England played a part in the political and military incursions on Scottish soil, as is typified by the Rough Wooing (1544–45), the Treaty of Berwick (1560), and the Treaty of Edinburgh (1560). Religion proved to be just another mechanism through which to lever power. The outbreak of Protestant iconoclasm in 1557 was followed by the return to Scotland in 1558 of John Knox. The return of Mary, as a Catholic Queen of Scotland, in 1562 further fueled religious conflicts and tensions. The Scottish Reformation was a radical and dramatic event, but one that had had a long buildup and would have far‐reaching implications for Scotland.
Second Wave Feminism
Authors: Sharlach Lisa B.
Published: September 2017

The first wave of feminism in the US was an outgrowth of the nineteenth‐century abolitionist movement, and the second wave was an offshoot of the civil rights movement of the early 1960s. In both cases, women activists, disheartened by the male dominance of these struggles, decided instead to agitate for their own rights. As in the first wave of the prior century, the founders of the second wave movement were mostly, but not exclusively, white, middle‐class women. Likewise, just as in the century prior, the movement divided into moderate and radical factions.
Serrati, Giacinto Menotti (1872–1926)
Authors: Stampacchia Mauro
Published: September 2017

Giacinto Menotti Serrati was a prominent socialist leader in the 1919 general election that ushered in an era known as the Biennio Rosso (Two Red Years). Serrati headed a fraction of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) that merged into the Partito Comunista d'Italia (Communist Party of Italy, PCd'I). Serrati was born in Spotorno in the Ligurian coastal region of northwest Italy on November 25, 1872. His father was a devotee of Garibaldi and mayor in Oneglia, the family home town, where the younger Serrati became organizer of the first socialist league.
Sha'rawi, Huda (1879–1947)
Authors: Badran Margot
Published: September 2017

Egyptian feminist leader Huda Sha'rawi was born on her father's estate in Minya in Upper Egypt. Her father, Sultan Pasha, was a wealthy landowner and a provincial administrator, and a member of the national Chamber of Deputies. Her mother, Iqbal Hanim, was a young woman of Circassian origin brought from Turkey to Egypt as an infant.
Sharp, Granville (1735–1813)
Authors: Swaminathan Srividhya
Published: September 2017

When Granville Sharp stumbled over the injured body of Jonathan Strong in 1765, he discovered a newfound respect for liberty and an utter abhorrence of slavery. Strong had been severely beaten and then turned out into the streets of London by his slavemaster. He had come to Sharp's brother, William, who was a doctor, in hopes of treatment for his wounds. Not only did Sharp see the cruelties of enslavement on Strong's body, he witnessed extreme injustice when, after two years, Strong's master tried to reclaim him as a runaway slave. Though he had no formal legal training, Sharp represented Strong's case and discovered that English law supported the claim of property rights by a master in the body of his slave. Offended by this gross violation of natural rights, Sharp began an exhaustive two‐year study of English law that culminated in the Somerset decision of 1772. His experience with Strong initiated his involvement with the anti‐slavery cause that would span his lifetime.
Shays' Rebellion
Authors: King Nathan
Published: September 2017

Shays' Rebellion reflects early America's continued disdain for taxes and the emerging debate over the expansion of the federal government. The rebellion partially grew out of a response to the lack of representation of western agrarian Massachusetts in the Constitution of 1780 and the extreme economic distress created by the American Revolution. In the aftermath of the war, Massachusetts veterans returned home to disturbing conditions. They were unpaid for their wartime service, their crops yielded little money, and they faced outrageous taxes. By 1786 the situation was out of control and elected officials were not offering any sign of relief for their constituents. Rural residents began gathering in taverns and citing their common grievances against the state government. In August 1786 a long list of resolutions, including the abolition of the Court of Common Pleas, the end of payments to the federal congress, and the issuance of new paper money, was sent to the state government in Boston. The conservative state government under Governor James Bowdoin gave no reply.
Shiva, Vandana (b. 1952)
Authors: Menser Michael
Published: September 2017

Vandana Shiva was born November 5, 1952 in the Himalayan forests of India. She is a worldrenowned environmental thinker and activist known for her third world feminist critique of capitalism and science and her vision of a community‐based democratic politics that promotes ecological and cultural diversity. In 1993, Shiva was the recipient of the Right Livelihood Award (known as the Alternative Nobel Peace Prize). Her most influential works include
Staying Alive, Ecofeminism
(with Maria Mies),
Monocultures of the Mind, Biopiracy
, and
Earth Democracy
. Among the fields where Shiva has contributed intellectually and through activist campaigns are intellectual property rights, ecological and biodiversity, biotechnology, bioethics, water conservation, and participatory or “earth” democracy. She has assisted grassroots organizations on five continents and is a longtime member of the International Forum on Globalization.
Shlyapnikov, Alexander Gavrilovich (1885–1937)
Authors: Allen Barbara C.
Published: September 2017

Alexander Shlyapnikov, a Russian communist (Bolshevik) and metalworker, participated in the 1905 and 1917 Russian Revolutions and the Russian civil war. Chairman of the Russian Metalworkers' Union (1917–21), he led the Workers' Opposition (1919–21), a movement of communist trade unionists that advocated trade union control of the economy and an influx of workers into Communist Party leadership organs.
Silesian Uprisings
Authors: King James M.
Published: September 2017

The 1840s was perhaps the most volatile period in the post‐Napoleonic age. Though the old regime could not be entirely reestablished, the restored international order of European society, too, was about to falter. Liberal nationalism was sweeping through Europe and set off various revolts in the 1820s and 1830s, only to culminate in the revolutions of 1848. Often involved in these revolts were united groups of peasants, workers, and merchants demanding an end to outdated institutions, such as feudal dues.
S
ilva,
L
uiz
I
nácio
L
ula
da
(b. 1945)
Authors: McCullough Michael F.
Published: September 2017

Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, popularly known as Lula, was elected president of Brazil in 2002 and reelected in 2006. Lula rose to national prominence in the late 1970s and early 1980s while leading a series of labor union strikes in defiance of the country's military dictatorship. After co‐founding the leftist Workers' Party in 1980, he helped build the party into a national political force during the transition from military rule. As president, Lula has tended to pursue policies more typical of the centrist government that preceded him than of the leftist movement that launched his political career.
S
ingh,
B
hagat (1907–1931)
Authors: Chattopadhyay Kunal
Published: September 2017

Bhagat Singh was born on September 26, 1907, at Lyallpur, Punjab. His paternal uncle, Sardar Ajit Singh, was a leading radical nationalist, once deported to Mandalay, while another uncle, Swaran Singh, was hanged. In 1916–17, his father moved to Lahore. In 1923, Bhagat Singh joined the National College, Lahore, a nationalist alternative to government‐run schools. Nationalist teachers taught about Mazzini and Garibaldi, about Irish nationalism, and about the Russian Revolution. By the age of 16, Bhagat Singh was completely dedicated to the cause of national liberation.
S
lovenian National Liberation Front (Osvobodilna Fronta), 1941–1944
Authors: Zadnikar Darij
Published: September 2017

On April 6, 1941 Nazi Germany and the Axis powers attacked Yugoslavia, which surrendered on April 17, 1941. Slovenian territory was divided among Germany, Hungary, and Italy, which had already occupied significant parts of Slovenia and Croatia since the end of World War I. The most capable political force organizing the resistance was the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (YCP) led by Josip Broz Tito, who had previously been the most organized and experienced in opposing the oppressive monarchist regime that preceded occupation. The YCP leaders were also a trained military cadre with experience in the Soviet Union and the Spanish Civil War.
S
lovo,
J
oe (1926–1995)
Authors: Ness Immanuel
Published: September 2017

Joe Slovo, a South African of Lithuanian decent, was instrumental in shaping a united front among working‐class opponents of the South African apartheid government. He rose to the position of general secretary of the South African Communist Party (SACP) and formed a strategic alliance with the African National Congress (ANC), the leading African nationalist resistance movement against the South African racially segregated system known as apartheid. In 1948, the Nationalist government of South Africa established apartheid (separateness) to prevent the African majority from gaining political and economic power. Apartheid was used to divide and marginalize the African majority through the creation of segregated territories known as Bantustans.
S
mith,
A
dam (1723–1790)
Authors: Webb Todd
Published: September 2017

A Scottish moral philosopher and political economist, Adam Smith laid the groundwork for the modern conception of the capitalist marketplace in his
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
. In this work he offered a critique of the established economic, political, and social order that became a potent weapon in the hands of radical groups before being coopted by the forces of conservatism in the 1790s and afterward.
Society for Cheap Lodgings
Authors: Larocca Giuseppina
Published: September 2017

From the second half of the nineteenth to the beginning of the twentieth centuries, Russia was affected by sudden capitalistic development. This abrupt process fostered economic growth and private enterprise. It also led the women of Russia to found charitable organizations devoted to helping poor people. Three Russian women, Maria Trubnikova (1835–97), Anna Filosofova (1837–1912), and Nadezhda Stasova (1822–75), organized the Society for Cheap Lodgings in St. Petersburg during the spring of 1859. The goal was to provide needy families, especially fatherless ones, with inexpensive places to live.
Sofia Demonstrations, 1989
Authors: Paraskevov Vasil
Published: September 2017

In the late 1980s the Bulgarian dissident movement took on a new form. It had been largely made up of intellectuals who were striving to expand political freedom but were relatively unconcerned with social issues. In 1988–9, however, several new dissident organizations emerged: Ekoglasnost, the independent trade union Podkrepa, the Social Committee for Ecological Protection of Russe, and the Club for Support of Glasnost and Preustroistvo in Bulgaria (the Club). They emphasized problems such as environmental pollution, human rights, and minority rights. Among the most prominent dissidents were Blaga Dimitrova, Zhelyu Zhelev, Radoi Ralin, and Nikolai Vasilev.
S
ohyo
Authors: Inoue Masao
Published: September 2017

Sohyo, the General Council of Trade Unions of Japan, was formed in 1950 and dissolved in 1989 in the process of the formation of a new national federation of labor unions, Rengo. It was the biggest national federation of labor unions in Japanese labor history. Sohyo activities over 40 years ranged from improvement of working conditions to the organization of opposition movements to important political issues. Sohyo was the foremost opposition power to a ruling political and economic system in Japan, functioning effectively until around 1970. However, in the following 20 years, it was unable to exert its power sufficiently due to factors such as changes in the political economic environment and in workers' consciousness.
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frica, African Nationalism and the ANC
Authors: Ndlovu‐Gatsheni Sabelo J.
Published: September 2017

South Africans fought the longest national liberation struggle that stretched from 1912 to 1994. This protracted national liberation struggle has been marked by several critical turning points characterized by imbibing and deployment of various ideological resources. Nelson Mandela, who emerged as the iconic figure of this struggle having spent 27 years in prison, correctly summed it up as “the long walk to freedom.” In this “long walk” African nationalism provided a broad and overarching framework within which the struggle was conducted and a post‐apartheid nation was imagined and contested. African nationalism became loosely understood to mean all political actions and ideological elements that were deployed in the struggle to realize African rights and eventually the rule of the black majority as opposed to minority white settlers. Historical interpretations diverged on the meaning and connotation of South African nationalism. Donovan Williams understood African nationalism to be a form of evolution of African consciousness of belonging to a common race, with a common heritage including long years of defensive measures against white domination. Lord Hailey preferred the term “Africanism” as clearly encapsulating African struggles for “attainment … of a government dominated by Africans and expressing in its institutions the characteristic spirit of Africa and interpreted by modern Africa.” “Africanism” was only one strand of African nationalism among many others.
SouthAfrica, African Nationalism and the ANC
Authors: Ndlovu‐Gatsheni Sabelo J.
Published: September 2017

Africans in South Africa fought from the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, and throughout the Republic, established in 1921, to the country's first non‐racial democratic elections in 1994. This national liberation struggle for Africans was marked by a number of critical ideological and organizational turning points. Nelson Mandela (b. 1918), the iconic figure of this struggle who spent 27 years in prison, spoke of it as “the long walk to freedom” (Mandela 1994). Throughout the “long walk,” African nationalism provided a central means of conducting the struggle, and of imagining and contesting the nature of a post‐apartheid nation.
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frica, Labor Movement
Authors: Ulrich Nicole , van der Walt Lucien
Published: September 2017

The union movement in twentieth‐century South Africa operated in a context in which capitalist relations were built upon relations of colonial domination. The persistent use of state power against labor movements, heavy‐handed intervention in the supply and control of labor, and close linkages between the state apparatus and private business help explain the persistent tendency of the labor movement to break out of the bounds of bread‐and‐butter issues, and fight battles around civil and political rights.
SovietUnion, Fall of
Authors: Mandel David
Published: September 2017

The fall of the Soviet Union, one of the two superpowers, caught the world by surprise. Even the experts had not foreseen the event, let alone its rapidity and largely non‐violent character. As late as 1983, peering into the future, a leading American specialist of the USSR concluded: “I anticipate no fundamental changes during this decade.”
Springbok Rugby Tour Protests, 1981
Authors: Squire Heather
Published: September 2017

The Springbok rugby tour protests were a series of anti‐apartheid protests that broke out across New Zealand in 1981, lasting 56 days and involving some 150,000 protesters. The protests were the longest‐sustained anti‐apartheid protests involving civil disobedience and direct action, and were met with the largest showing of police power that New Zealand had ever experienced.
Student Movements,Europe
Authors: Christiansen Samantha M. R.
Published: September 2017

Europe has a long tradition of student activism and protest activity. Student movements in Europe have been formative in the development of significant political reforms and social change in a wide range of European national and transnational environments over two centuries.
Student Movements, Global South
Authors: Christiansen Samantha M. R.
Published: September 2017

There is a long tradition of student movements in the Global South. Student movements in Asia, Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East have varied greatly, but have had significant and lasting effects on the political and social landscapes in which they operated. As the earliest educational institutions were formed in the Global South, so too were the earliest student movements. While many nations, such as China in particular, have been the sites of student resistance and agitation dating as far back as the first century, student movements in the modern conception are most clearly present beginning in the late nineteenth century.
Student Movements,
K
orea
Authors: Young‐su Won
Published: September 2017

The Korean student movement has been a leading force in anti‐dictatorship and anti‐imperialist struggles. It is well known for its role in the April Revolution of 1960, which toppled the corrupt anti‐communist dictatorship of Rhee Syng‐man. Under subsequent military regimes, students relentlessly organized anti‐dictatorship protest, culminating in the Kwangju uprising of 1980 and the June uprising of 1987.
Sturm und Drang
Authors: Benjamin Mary
Published: September 2017

Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress) was an intellectual movement in German literature that lasted from 1760 to 1780. Its name originated from the title of a play by Friedrich Maximilian Klinger. The movement was characterized by an exuberant outburst of youthful energy. A group of young men including Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Johann Gottfried Herder, and Friedrich Schiller led the literary movement that exalted freedom and individuality. They challenged the conventions of what seemed to them the narrow minded society of the Enlightenment, rejecting strongly the Enlightenment's rigid class barriers, stiff norms, and denial in the earthly life.
Sudanese Protest in the Turko‐Egyptian Era
Authors: Taha Fadwa
Published: September 2017

In the nineteenth century the Sudan was subjected to a Turko‐Egyptian invasion. At the time of the invasion, the Funj and the Fur Kingdoms were the two strongest political organizations in Eastern and Central Bilad Al‐Sudan. The Funj Kingdom, with its capital in Sinnar, had since the midnineteenth century witnessed political struggles that had weakened its influence, and it became evident that the kingdom's fall was imminent.
Sudanese Women's League
Authors: Cynn Christine
Published: September 2017

The Sudanese Women's League (Rabitat al‐Nisa’ al‐Sudaniyyat) was founded in 1946 by women members of the Sudanese Communist Party (SCP) in Omdurman, a city on the western bank of the Nile River, across from Khartoum. Founded primarily by middle‐class urban women under Dr. Khalda Zahir as president and Fatima Talib as secretary, the League sought to improve the economic and social status of women through focusing on education. The League organized literacy classes, taught sewing and home economics, and gave lectures on women's social problems and health. It also opened a nursery, which eventually became a primary school for girls.
Sun Yat‐Sen (1866–1925)
Authors: Bhattacharyya Amit
Published: September 2017

Dr. Sun Yat‐Sen, the “frustrated patriot” and “Father of Modern China,” was a political and revolutionary leader in the early twentieth century who is still highly regarded in China and Taiwan as a uniting figure, in spite of his long history of political failures. Although he did not live to see Manchu despotism overthrown or a political consolidation in post‐revolutionary China, he initiated and nurtured a movement that would succeed many years later.
Swaziland, Nationalist and Economic Protests
Authors: Dlamini Nhlanhla
Published: September 2017

Protest and resistance have been manifested in Swaziland since at least the sixteenth century, when the Dlamini rulers started to assert their hegemony over the resilient peoples of the area. In this context, contestations centered on the alliances and rivalries that were set up either in support of, or in competition with, Dlamini domination. During the time of Mswati II's reign in the nineteenth century, major forms of protest emanated from competing rivalries contending the throne. This was the case, for example, when rebellions were staged by the king's brothers, Malambule, Fokoti, and Somcuba. Ultimately, Dlamini hegemony had been firmly established by the time of Mswati II's demise in 1865.
Swedish Revolution of 1809
Authors: Block Marcelline
Published: September 2017

King Gustavus III of Sweden (r. 1771–92) was a so‐called enlightened despot who not only ushered in an age of culture and prosperity in Sweden, but also imposed absolutism during a coup d'état in 1772. Previously, Sweden had been ruled by a parliamentary system under the Riksdag of the Swedish Estates. In 1792 Gustavus III was assassinated at a masquerade ball by a conspiracy of nobles angered by his absolutist stance.
Swing Riots
Authors: Griffin Carl J.
Published: September 2017

Starting with the concurrent destruction of threshing machines in the Elham Valley area of east Kent and a wave of incendiary fires in the vicinity of Sevenoaks in the late summer of 1830, the so‐called “Swing Riots” went on to engulf most of rural southern, central, and eastern England. Whilst the destruction of labor‐sapping threshing machines became, retrospectively, the hallmark of the movement, Swing took many forms including incendiarism, “mobbings,” political demonstrations, attacks on migrant laborers, food riots (in Cornwall), and enclosure riots (at Otmoor, Oxfordshire). Notwithstanding the deployment of such seemingly disparate weapons of rural resistance, Swing protests universally sought to improve the living standards of the rural worker, whether through eliminating unemployment (attacking threshing machines) or increasing wages and poor relief payments.
Swiss Peasants' War of 1653
Authors: Deem Lynette M.
Published: September 2017

During the Thirty Years' War, Swiss peasants had, generally, profited from the wartime economy, exporting goods at higher prices than ever before. After peace was secured in 1648 the quick recovery of the southern German economy led to a sharp decline in Swiss exports. Swiss peasants, therefore, began to face sudden financial problems.
Tajikistan, Protests and Revolts
Authors: Bhattacharya Nandini
Published: September 2017

Tajikistan is a modern Central Asian state first created by the Bolshevik Soviet regime as part of its revolutionary experiment during the 1920s. However, the Tajiks first emerged as a distinct Persian‐speaking ethno‐linguistic group in the eighth century during the Arab conquest and Islamization of Central Asia. Between 1860 and 1900 Tajikistan underwent a divided existence, with the north under tsarist Russian rule and the south under the Emirate of Bukhara.
Taliban, 1996–2007
Authors: Bosin Yury V.
Published: September 2017

The Taliban emerged in Pakistan in the spring of 1994 as a movement built on radical Islam and Pashtun nationalism. Essentially, the Taliban accumulated the protests and dissatisfaction raging against the anarchy and violence that plagued Afghanistan under the rule of competing Mujahedeen (holy warrior) factions who had come to power with US assistance against the Soviet Union. With implicit Pakistani sponsorship, the Taliban forces grew rapidly and by fall 1994 had reached 1,500 followers, recruited mostly from among Afghan religious students. Headed by Mullah Muhammad Omar, a Mujahedeen veteran, the Taliban army captured Qandahar, and by fall 1995 reached Herat. In September 1996 the Taliban seized Kabul and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. During the next two years, Taliban rule expanded over 90 percent of the Afghan territory, with small pockets of regional resistance.