bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Adoptive immunotherapy of renal cell cancer
Authors: Chang Alfred E , Li Qiao , Jiang Guihua , Sayre, Donna M , Redman Bruce G
Published: November 2023

The passive transfer of immune lymphocytes into the tumor- bearing host or cancer patient is known as ‘ adoptive immunotherapy’ . The requirements for successful adoptive immunotherapy in animal models involve the ability to generate tumor-reactive cells in sufficient quantities to cause tumor rejection in vivo (Greenberg 1991; Chang and Shu 1992). Compared with other immunotherapeutic modalities, such as cytokines, vaccines, or antibodies, adoptive immunotherapy has been significantly more effective in mediating regression of advanced tumor burdens in animal models (Chou et al. 1988a; Rosenberg et al. 1986). The translation of animal studies to the clinical setting required the development of methods to culture lymphocytes in bulk quantities.
Palliative therapy of advanced renal cell carcinoma
Authors: Fosså Sophie D , Group the MRC Renal Cell Cancer
Published: November 2023

The primary goal of palliative cancer therapy in advanced (metastatic) renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is to relieve existing symptoms. Secondary aims are prevention of symptoms and prolongation of life. Adequate palliative treatment of a cancer patient requires that the physician, the patient, and the patient’ s relatives know and accept that cure is no longer the aim of therapy, but rather symptom relief and, eventually, prolongation of life.
Diagnostic tests of adrenal cortical and medullary function
Authors: Liu Zhenqi , Siragy, Helmy M , Carey Robert M
Published: November 2023

The adrenal glands are paired retroperitoneal organs situated above the upper pole of each kidney and lying lateral to the twelfth thoracic and first lumbar vertebrae. The glands are composed of two distinct structural units. The cortex composes the outer layer and completely surrounds the centrally located medulla. The average weight of the gland in the adult is 4 g irrespective of sex (Studzinski et al. 1963).
Selection of patients with incidentally discovered adrenal masses for operation
Authors: Murai Masaru , Marumo Ken
Published: November 2023

Since the early 1980s, incidentally discovered adrenal masses have become a common clinical problem as a result of the more wide- spread use of computerized tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasonography (US). Although technical advances solve many clinical problems, they may also create new management dilemmas. In patients without a known extra-adrenal primary malignancy, the vast majority of these lesions are benign and non-hypersecretory. The challenge is to identify the rare hyperfunctioning or malignant adrenal tumor that should be removed while avoiding unnecessary testing and surgery in the majority of patients whose adrenal lesion is non-hyperfunctioning and benign.
Pheochromocytoma
Authors: McClellan M mnoeer, , Eisenhofer Grame , Pacak Karel , Linehan W Marston
Published: November 2023

Pheochromocytomas are catecholamine-producing tumors known for their unpredictable and catastrophic course of malignant hypertension. The term pheochromocytoma was first coined by Pick in 1912 to describe an adrenal medullary tumor that developed a black-brown coloration after staining with dichromate- containing fixatives, so-called chromaffin cells. Pheochromo- cytomas can occur anywhere in the sympathetic nervous system— from the glomus jugulare at the base of the skull to the urinary bladder. The majority of pheochromocytomas, however, occur in the adrenal glands.
Acute and chronic interstitial cryotherapy of the adrenal
Authors: Vaughan E Darracott , Ernest Sosa R , Perlmutter Aaron P , Schulsinger David A
Published: November 2023

Unilateral adrenalectomy is indicated for patients with large adrenal lesions or functional tumors. Various open surgical approaches have been utilized. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy has now become an important surgical technique for the management of adrenal lesions (Takeda et al. 1994), including patients with primary aldosteronism (Conn’ s syndrome) or Cushing’ s adenoma, Cushing’ s disease, pheochromocytoma, and nonfunctioning tumors greater than 6 cm in size. Laparoscopy can be performed by transabdominal or retroperitoneal access. The advantage of laparoscopic adrenalectomy is the reduced postoperative discomfort, morbidity, and shorter hospital stay.
Historical background of early intervention in military settings
Authors: Weisceth Lars
Published: November 2023

History deals with the past and is seen by some as a thing of the past. A contemporary military medical historian has, however, stated that doctors of the current PTSD generation are going through the same learning process, as did their colleagues during World War I (WWI) (Shepard, 2000). He points out an apparently recurrent cycle in respect of the war neuroses: ‘At first denied, then exaggerated, then understood and finally forgotten’. This chapter sets out to delineate lessons that can be learned from past experiences by examining the changing conceptualizations of combat stress reaction (CSR) and how early intervention can help resolve these multifaceted reactions.
The Chemical Elements in Biology
Authors: Fraústo da Silva J J R , Williams R J P
Published: November 2023

The analytical element content of cells as we know them today is in some way related to the limitations imposed by the genome, DNA, of the cell. However, the chemistry of a cell including the functioning of DNA and its synthesis only operates in a particular ionic medium and using a particular set of some accumulated twenty elements.
Haem iron: coupled redox reactions
Authors: Fraústo da Silva J J R , Williams R J P
Published: November 2023

Our knowledge of the biochemistry of iron porphyrins is probably more extensive than that of any other metal-factor unit: literally hundreds of proteins from different sources have been examined. The functional value of this cofactor is immediately seen by the diversity of its uses within biology (Table 13.1) and by the amounts of its proteins in a wide variety of cell types. The availability of the proteins has led to very detailed studies of them by chemists and biologists, but this book is not concerned with the detailed physical chemistry of the haem or its proteins.
Sulphur, Selenium, and Halogens: Redox Non-metals
Authors: Fraústo da Silva J J R , Williams R J P
Published: November 2023

Knowledge of the early atmosphere of the planet and of the mineral elements that were present gives rise to the intuitive feeling that sulphur must have been a very important element from the very beginning of life especially at the low redox potentials which pervaded the anaerobic initial states.
Diverticular disease of the colon
Authors: Levitt Michael
Published: November 2023

In the large intestine, a diverticulum is a kind of ‘blow-out’ of the intestinal wall. The thin inner lining of the wall bulges out through a tiny defect in the muscle layer creating what amounts to a ‘bubble’ on the outer surface of the colon. The individual diverticulum is a thin-walled sac or balloon that communicates with the main lumen of the colon.

Diverticular disease describes the occurrence of one or more diverticula of the large intestine. The rectum is never affected, only the colon. And within the colon, it is the sigmoid colon that is generally most severely involved. Hence we often hear this condition referred to as ‘sigmoid diverticular disease’.
Psychiatric Emergencies
Authors: Kelly Chris B , McClelland Roy J
Published: November 2023

For the majority of patients a diagnosis of cancer is both a major psycho logic event as well as a physical one. About one-third will experience some form of adjustment difficulty. As many as 80 percent of breast cancer patients report significant distress during initial treatment. Additional illness-related stresses are treatment with radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and diagnosis of recurrence of the illness. Patient concerns are often multiple and particularly in situations where the illness has progressed, issues other than the cancer or symptom control may come to the fore. Heaven and Maguire reported commonest concerns among hospice patients to be loss of independence and issues surrounding the family. Concerns surrounding life expectancy and death are inevitably raised and issues of an existential nature are common and no less a basis for acute suffering than any of the physical aspects of the disease process or its management. A strong relationship has been found between the number and severity of unresolved concerns and the later development of anxiety or depressive disorder.
Pediatric Emergencies
Authors: Cohen Kenneth J , Helman Lee J
Published: November 2023

All of the oncologic emergencies detailed in this textbook can be seen in the pediatric set- ting. Often, establishing a diagnosis can be complicated by the age of the patient, the inability of the patient to articulate specific concerns, and the subtle presentation of many of these diagnoses in the pediatric patient. In addition, there are a number of diagnoses unique to the pediatric cancer patient that pose specific risks for oncologic emergencies. This chapter attempts to highlight the breadth of emergencies seen in the pediatric setting with particular emphasis on complications related to tumors predominantly seen in children. For the convenience of the reader, when possible this chapter follows the out- line of the book as a whole.
In the consulting room
Authors: Smith Sam
Published: November 2023

My first significant encounter with mental illness was during my student days working as a volunteer in a large mental hospital. Most of the patients with whom I came in contact had been there many, many years. Some seemed to suffer greatly, others not at all. Some appeared to be incarcerated in a mental space devoid of emotional life, endlessly wandering the long corridors in search of cigarette-ends, little if any vestige of former existence or personality remaining. All had at one time been ascribed a diagnosis which the attrition of time, the effects of institutionalization and long-term medication had rendered both indistinguishable and irrelevant. Certainly, whatever they suffered and felt seemed at some remove from the mental and emotional distress of the people I was to encounter later as a general practitioner. Such large institutions are now a thing of the past. Taken as a whole, however, mental illness remains a problem, not simply in terms of its diagnosis and treatment, but also in terms of how we conceptualize and seek to define it. Only recently I returned to this hospital to find it had been converted into up-market homes for the up-and-coming.
Mental illness, general practice and society
Authors: Heath Iona
Published: November 2023

My work as a general practitioner is based on an attempted articulation of clear distinctions between concepts of illness, disease and health (Heath 1995). Illness describes the patient ‘s subjective experience. It is the first vague feelings of something being not quite right and it is, and was always, the starting point of the whole end eavour of medicine. In illness, the body makes its presence felt in a way that does not happen in health. No one notices his or her throat until it is sore. Illness is necessarily lonely because no one can share the direct experience of a symptom, and almost all illness carries implicit fear of a diminished life or untimely death. Disease is quite different and is the stuff of biomedical science. It is a theoretical construct and the means by which humanity has tried to control and make sense of the experience of illness. Each disease is a reified abstraction developed by a process of describing patterns of both symptoms and physical signs, which different patients appear to have in common. As these patterns are refined, the patients come to be described as suffering from the same disease. Thus, bio- medical science is based on a series of relatively crude generalizations, which we recognize as diseases.
Training for GPs
Authors: Sackin Paul
Published: November 2023

It must be apparent thus far that working on mental health in primary care is not just about understanding mental illness. Human relationships, in all their complexity, are absolutely central to the work of general practitioners. The training and continuing education of GPs need to take this into account. The curriculum needs to cover far more than preparing GPs to follow evidence-based guidelines or complete a list of consultation tasks, important as these might be. This chapter is about how GPs can become prepared to work in the emotional world of general practice. These emotions include not just those surrounding sick patients, but also members of the primary care team and, as Jane Milton (see the previous chapter) has so powerfully shown, the GP herself. These factors are important at all levels of GP training—undergraduate, vocational training, and continuing—though the emphasis may be different.
Eating disorders
Authors: Schmidt Ulrike
Published: November 2023

Let us start with a problem. We are bombarded daily by images of emaciated supermodels and other media images of thin women; unsurprisingly, weight and shape concerns, and dieting are the norm among young women. This preoccupation with appearance provides a fertile breeding ground for eating disorders, in particular for bulimia nervosa (British Medical Association 2000). The incidence of bulimia nervosa presenting to primary care has recently tripled (Turnbull et al. 1996), whereas that of anorexia nervosa has remained stable. The average general practitioner in the UK will have about two patients with anorexia nervosa and about 18 patients with bulimia nervosa on their list, but that does not mean that he or she will necessarily be aware of these cases. In primary care-based surveys of eating disorders the GP was not aware of the diagnosis in up to 50% of cases discovered by the researcher (King 1989; Whitehouse et al. 1992). Yet individuals with eating disorders consulted their general practitioner significantly more frequently over the 5 years prior to the diagnosis of the eating disorder than control subjects (Ogg et al. 1997).
Trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder
Authors: Adshead Gwen
Published: November 2023

For part of the week, I work in a clinic in the middle of London that offers a service for survivors and victims of trauma, and we try to work closely with GPs and other members of primary care teams who ‘carry ‘ our patients between appointments. From this perspective, I want to explore the impact of traumatic events on individuals and on communities as a whole, and look at what this may mean for providers of primary care. Traumatic stress experiences are common in ‘everyday ‘ life and mental health professionals need to think about the impact of trauma on mental health in order to understand their patients ‘ complaints. It may also be useful to draw on disability, rather than disease models in order to appreciate some of the difficulties of survival after trauma.
The Course of the disease
Authors: Matthews Bryan , Rice-Oxley Margaret
Published: November 2023

One of the most remarkable facts about MS is the astonishing variability in both its course and severity. Some variation is natural in chronic disease. Rheumatoid arthritis, for example, may be either mild or severe throughout its course or show great fluctuations, including complete remission. Some chronic infections, such as tuberculosis, may remain dormant for many years before eventually causing overt disease. Parallels can therefore be drawn from other diseases, but none approaches the vagaries of the natural history of MS that never cease to surprise the neurologist even after a lifetime of experience. The course of MS varies from that of an obviously grave disease to a literally imperceptible condition discovered accidentally after death from unrelated causes in old age. Most cases fall between these extremes but even so there is great variation in speed of progress, severity of symptoms, and eventual outcome.
Teaching different group sizes
Authors: Hartley Sarah , Gill Deborah , Carter Frances , Walters Kate , Bryant Pauline
Published: November 2023

When you are initially planning your session you will have thought about the number of students you will be teaching. This will be a key factor in deciding the objectives you might be able to achieve, the teaching methods you will use, and how you might check whether learning has happened.
Fatigue, sleep, and hormones
Authors: Waterhouse J M , Minors D S , Waterhouse M E , Reilly T , Atkinson G
Published: November 2023

So far, we have concentrated on the rhythm of body temperature. This is mainly because it is comparatively easy to measure accurately, repeatedly, and cheaply — ideal attributes for research work! Also, it illustrates clearly some of the principles of circadian rhythms. However, those rhythms with more obvious effects are of more general interest. Amongst these, the rhythms of fatigue and sleep are very important.
Night work — advice
Authors: Waterhouse J M , Minors D S , Waterhouse M E , Reilly T , Atkinson G
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 12, we considered, and explained where possible, the problems that are associated with night work. We have also discussed those factors that might affect the ease with which individuals can adjust to it. On the basis of this evidence, we can now offer advice with respect to the least troublesome types of shift schedule involving night work, and the means by which a worker can deal best with a particular schedule. This advice is for the workers, their partners, families, and friends, as well as their colleagues at work. It also concerns the kind of work undertaken at night, and the facilities provided at that time.

First, we must consider if there are medical grounds that might cause a worker to take professional advice before working at night.
Conformal Field Theory
Authors: Evans David E , Kawahigashi Yasuyuki
Published: November 2023

From a lattice model one may obtain a field theory by taking a continuum or scaling limit; letting the lattice spacing ε → 0, whilst simultaneously approaching the critical temperature. As the scale or correlation length becomes infinite one obtains a scale invariant or conformal invariant theory. (Belavin et al.1980) suggested that the scale invariance at a critical point is enhanced to conformal invariance or using conformal invariance to understand scale invariance of special critical points. Conformal invariance is understood via representations of the Virasoro algebra, and a knowledge of the representations that appear tells us something about the statistical mechanical model, and the nature of the critical point. In this chapter we look at some of the basic principles of the theory, particularly with respect to those aspects of most interest to the operator algebraic approach to statistical mechanics and quantum field theory. We look in detail at the Ising model where many, but of course not all, the features are present and can be analysed explicitly. This means that we also emphasize the viewpoint of conformal field theory from critical statistical mechanical models, although there are other important aspects to the theory, particularly because conformal field theories describe the ground states of string theory.
Topological Quantum Field Theory (Tqft) and Paragroups
Authors: Evans David E , Kawahigashi Yasuyuki
Published: November 2023

It was the discovery of the Jones polynomial of links in (Jones 1985) which opened an entirely new era for three-dimensional topology. In this chapter, we study ‘quantum’ topological invariants in three-dimensional topology using the subfactor theory.
New Developments in Numerical Weather Prediction
Authors: Davies T , Hunt J C R
Published: November 2023

The essential procedure for numerical weather prediction (NWP), first set out by Richardson in his 1922 book ‘Weather Prediction by Numerical Process’ (26] and similar to that followed in many branches of computational fluid dynamics (CFD), is (a) to divide the atmosphere into flat grid ‘boxes’ (that are shallow near the ground and deep in the stratosphere), (b) using the differential equations and thermodynamics to estimate average values of physical quantities (such as pressure and velocity) within these boxes; and (c) using the equations again, to calculate how these average quantities change with time, which, like space, is divided into discrete intervals.
Developing an Integrated Atmospheric Environment Modelling System
Authors: Staniforth A , CôtMé J , Gravel S , Méthot A , Patoine A , Roch M
Published: November 2023

Numerical modelling of the atmosphere has a relatively long and rich history. It dates back to Bjerknes [4], who argued that weather forecasting is basically an initial-value problem in mathematical physics where the governing equations are to leading order those of a rotating fluid. Bjerknes recognised that closed form solutions to this highly nonlinear system of partial differential equations (except for overly-simplified sub-systems) are not known, and that furthermore the equation set is incomplete. During and following the First World War, L.F. Richardson established the basis for the numerical approximation and solution of these equations. To illustrate the procedure he made a very-inaccurate 6 hour forecast by laboriously performing many hand computations. Despite this disappointing result, he nevertheless had the courage and foresight to publish both the method and his forecast in a seminal monograph [23]. Lynch ([15], [16]) has recently reappraised this work, and has shown that the principal reason for the inaccurate forecast was the lack of a procedure to put the initial conditions into dynamic balance prior to commencing the numerical integration. He convincingly demonstrated, using Richardson’s dataset, that addressing this deficiency (by digital filtering) leads to a much more realistic forecast devoid of the spurious large-amplitude gravitational oscillations that plagued Richardson’s. The advent of the digital computer in the late 1940’s then led to the breakthrough paper of Charney et al. [5], finally rendering Richardson’s approach practical. The modern era for the numerical modelling of the atmosphere was thus born. The goals of the present paper, following this very brief historical introduction, are twofold: to summarise how the atmosphere is simulated using geophysical fluid dynamics (GFD); and to describe the ongoing development of a comprehensive atmospheric modelling system for Canada. The first of these recognises the diverse interests of conference participants and serves as an introductory background to the second.
An Automotive Application on Unstructured Adaptive Grids
Authors: Wierse M
Published: November 2023

The aim of this project in collaboration with an automotive company is to simulate the flow in a two-stroke engine. The question of interest is the dependence between the form of the cylinder and the quality of exchange between burnt and fresh gas, the main problem of the two-stroke engine. This complicated process is simplified as follows: we start moving the piston after the combustion took place and stop when the piston is back at this position. The initial data and time-dependent boundary data are chosen from a one-dimensional simulation program [11]. The velocity of the piston moving down and up is prescribed. In the first step of this project we solved the three-dimensional compressibl nonstationary Euler equations in the time-dependent geometry and the future work will be to extend this program to the compressible Navier-Stokes equations. The half of the model cylinder considered is depicted in the following picture; it consists of a cylinder where three inlets and one outlet are fixed.
An Efficient Cell Vertex Method for Unstructured Tetrahedral Grids
Authors: Crumpton P I
Published: November 2023

This paper introduces an efficient Euler solver for large tetrahedral grids (6.7 x 106 cells). The underlying method is a cell vertex finite volume formulation with a Lax–Wendroff pseudo time-stepping update. This is used as a smoother in an unstructured multigrid method, which requires a sequence of non–nested tetrahedral grids. Fast solutions are achieved by using a a distributed memory parallel computer.
Modelization of Instabilities for Polymerization Fronts
Authors: Garbey M , Taïk A , Volpert V
Published: November 2023

Propagation of reaction fronts can be accompanied by different types of instabilities. We can mention the hydrodynamical instability which appears because of the heat expansion of the medium near the reaction zone, or the thermodiffusional instability resulting from the competition between the chemical reaction and diffusion processes (see [12], [13] and references there). External forces, such as gravity, can influence the dynamics of the front propagation and can also cause an instability.
Optimal Recovery Based on Radial Basis Functions in Finite Volume Approximations for Hyperbolic Conservation Laws
Authors: Sonar T
Published: November 2023

Essentially non-oscillatory (ENO) finite volume approximations to hyperbolic conservation laws rely on the distinct treatment of data recovery and data evolution. While the data evolution usually is accomplished by means of an approximate Riemann solver the data recovery step involves the reconstruction of the numerical solution from given cell averages. Starting from the early work of Harten et al. [6] polynomial recovery seems to be exclusively used for this algorithmic step.
Sensitivity Derivatives for Non-smooth or Noisy Objective Functions in Fluid Design Problems
Authors: Valorani M , Dadone A
Published: November 2023

Design problems involving flows may require the calculation of many computationally expensive flow analysis. It is thus vital to make the optimization strategy as more efficient as possible. The convergence of standard optimization techniques is however severely compromised, or even prevented, when the objective functions are noisy or non-smooth, as it may be the case when the flow solutions are found numerically. Noise can be caused both by changes in the computational mesh (as for example in problems with free boundaries), or by poor convergence properties of the numerical scheme (as occurs when using flux limiters in shock capturing schemes). Non-smoothness may be created by the presence of flow discontinuities, such as shock waves, contact discontinuities, and slip lines, since these are to be represented on a discrete computational mesh. When these discontinuities are accurately represented, a change in some design parameters may force them to move from one cell to another and, in doing so may create a large change in the objective function.
Hybrid Fourier-MultiGrid Pressure Solution for Navier-Stokes Simulations
Authors: Voke P R , Yang Z
Published: November 2023

The discrete Poisson equation for pressure occurs frequently in computational fluid dynamics. A popular strategy in the numerical solution or simulation of incompressible fluid flow is to extract an equation for the pressure p by taking the divergence of the Navier-Stokes equations.
The misadventures of wanderers and victims of trauma
Authors: Pankratz Loren
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses the problems created by two categories of patients: wanderers and victims of trauma. Both present a risk when they engage in deception-wanderers usually because they withhold information about their history and victims of trauma when they distort their history, manufacture a history, or make false attributions about the cause of their symptoms. All of these patients are successful in deceiving clinicians because they weave false stories into the fabric of their lives so seamlessly. This chapter reviews the texture of their clinical presentation, some current research, and the implications of their successful deceptions on the health care system.
When the quantity of mercy is strained: US physicians’ deception of insurers for patients
Authors: Wynia* Matthew K
Published: November 2023

Physicians sometimes are faced with patients needing care that may not be covered by health insurers. This chapter reviews physicians’ deception of insurers to help their patients obtain coverage for these services. Recent studies show that the great majority of US physicians do not believe that ‘gaming the system’ for patients is generally ethical. Still, more than one-third of American physicians report exaggerating patients’ severity of illness, miscoding diagnoses, and/or recording signs or symptoms that patients do not actually have in order to provide necessary but uncovered care to their patients. Studies suggest that some available policies might reduce how often physicians resort to the use of deception, but other common policies actually encourage physicians to use deception in service to their patients.
Neuropsychological tests and techniques that detect malingering
Authors: Frederick Richard I
Published: November 2023

Certain classes of examinations for neuropsychological disability are likely to include feigned presentations of impairment. Clinical judgment alone is typically insufficient to discriminate true disability from malingered or exaggerated impairment. Psychological tests and techniques have been designed to improve detection of malingering. The strategy of ‘symptom validity testing’ involves comparing performance on tasks that require a discrimination between two choices to that which would have occurred by guessing. ‘Floor effect’ and ‘atypical performance’ strategies compare test performance with that of genuinely impaired individuals.
Economic issues related to antimicrobial resistance
Authors: Laxminarayan* Ramanan
Published: November 2023

The rise of antimicrobial resistance in recent times poses a serious threat to our ability to treat infectious diseases successfully (Cohen 1992; Levy 1992; Office of Technology Assessment 1995). Selection pressure resulting from increasing antimicrobial use has been identified as a primary causal factor, and is strongly influenced by the behaviour of individuals and institutions. More specifically, this increase is blamed on the overuse and misuse of antimicrobials by patients, physicians and the farm animal industry. From an economic perspective, antimicrobial resistance is a result of the absence of sufficiently strong incentives for individuals, physicians and drug manufacturers to consider the cost of resistance associated with antimicrobial use (Laxminarayan 2003). In this chapter, an economic perspective is used to characterize the resistance problem in both hospital and community settings, and to describe policy responses to encourage judicious use of antimicrobials. Incentives faced by patients, physicians, hospital administrators and the pharmaceutical industry with respect to antimicrobials are discussed.
Risk assessment models, economic analysis and food safety policy
Authors: Roberts Tanya
Published: November 2023

Risk assessment models are important tools in economic analysis of infectious disease. Risk assessment is the science of identifying and understanding hazards (unwanted events), of estimating the likelihood of these events occurring and of estimating the consequences if they do occur. Disease outcome tree models can organize medical data to estimate the probability of lifetime outcomes due to food-borne pathogens. Economists can then estimate public health costs for these outcomes. If the damage to society is significant, a cost-benefit analysis of public and private control options can be conducted. After the options for controlling pathogens in food production and distribution are determined, scenario models can be combined with probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) models to estimate quantitatively the impact of alternative risk-reducing options. Both individual companies seeking to control pathogens better and the public regulators setting priorities among food-borne hazards can use these risk assessment models. The ‘market failure’, due to limited information about the presence of pathogens in food, has a strong impact on economic incentives. Some remedies to the information problems are suggested. How economic incentives affect investment in both short- and long-term control options is also discussed. The various risk assessment models presented here are applicable to economic analysis of any infectious disease.
Basic Thermodynamics
Authors: Carrington Gerald
Published: November 2023

It is well known that thermodynamics presents students with particular difficulties. They find the concepts evasive and the methods obscure. These problems arise because it is traditional to emphasize at the outset how general thermodynamics is. Unfortunately, when ideas are introduced in an unspecific context they fail to make contact with the student's experience - such ideas do not become part of the physical intuition of the student. In this introductory text the subject is developed in stages beginning with the basic notions, which are illustrated using an ideal gas as a model system. The generalization of these concepts is achieved first using the classical laws of thermodynamics and second using the formalism of Gibbs to provide a systematic introduction to the thermodynamic potentials. Work processes on polarizable media subject to electric and magnetic fields are discussed and transformations of matter, including phase change processes and chemical reactions, are treated in detail. The book contains many worked examples, and approximately 250 questions, which are keyed to the text. The questions include traditional and applied topics, and longer questions have been programmed to guide the student.
Bohr and Einstein
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

Bohr and Einstein were in their early and late sixties respectively when I first met them. Since I am one (perhaps the last) of those who knew both men rather well personally in their later years it is hardly surprising that I have been asked off and on how, in my view, they compared. That question used to make me mildly uncomfortable and in the past I have tended to respond evasively, simply because the better one believes one understands people the more superficial and hopeless comparisons tend to become. That remains true today, but by now I am at least in a position to reply to my questioners: read this book and my earlier Einstein biography, note not only facts but also nuances contained therein, and you will have the best answer I am capable of giving.
Of sad events and of major journeys
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

The preceding three chapters have been devoted to Bohr’s role in science in the 1930s. I now turn to more personal aspects of his life in that period. In broad terms, two facts stand out. In those years Bohr had to suffer the loss of several family members and close friends. Also, it was the decade during which he made more major journeys than before or after. I must begin with moments of deep sadness.
‘We are suspended in language’
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

After having encountered Bohr as creator of new physics, director of research, institute builder, fund raiser, helper of refugees, orchestrator of experimental science, and world traveller, we shall meet him next as one of the major twentieth century philosophers. In that respect Bohr came into his element from the late 1920s onward, when he began his elaboration of complementarity in physics and its extension to other disciplines. We shall see, however, that his strong interest in philosophical issues dates back as early as his student days.
Fission
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

On 10 December 1938 Fermi received a Nobel Prize in physics ‘for his demonstration of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons’.
Bohr, pioneer of ‘glasnost’
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

World War II will be remembered above all for the human suffering it caused. On a more abstract level it was the physicists’ war, won by radar and ended by the atomic bomb. This chapter deals with Bohr’s experiences during those bitter years.
Mammals—individual species accounts
Authors: Lovegrove Roger
Published: November 2023

Public attitude can be wayward and capricious. Nowadays the Hedgehog is high on the list of popular and idealized wild creatures. In the wildlifeenlightened years of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, Britain abounds with Hedgehog rescue centres, Hedgehog hospitals, Hedgehog Preservation Societies, etc. Fierce campaigns have even been waged to prevent the necessary control, as opposed to translocation, of Hedgehogs unwisely introduced to Hebridean islands. In the preceding centuries, however, the animal was vilified, hunted, hounded, and killed in thousands throughout the country. The slaughter was sometimes of almost unimagined proportions. In Bunbury parish (Ches) in the late seventeenth century, for example, some 8,585 were killed in a mere 35 years. The main charges against it were twofold.
Random graphs
Authors: Barbour A D , Holst Lars , Janson Svante
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we indicate how the general results of Chapter 2 can be used in problems involving random graphs. In Section 5.1 we consider the number of copies of a small graph G contained in Kn,p. Three cases are distinguished, counting all copies of G, induced copies of G and isolated copies of G, illustrating different ways of applying the basic Stein–Chen method. Counts of the numbers of vertices of specified degrees are considered in Section 5.2. It proves advantageous at times, when counting the vertices of degree m form large, to introduce couplings which are rather more complicated than those so far employed, necessitating the use of extensions of Stein’s method to multivariate distributional approximation along the lines described in Chapter 10. Then we study some graph colouring problems, including a general birthday problem, and questions arising therefrom concerning different versions of dissociation. Finally, we investigate two models where independent random variables are associated with the edges of a large complete graph, and random directed graphs are constructed as functions of these random variables. Related results and references on random graphs can be found in Barbour (1982), Bollobas (1985) and Janson (1986, 1987).
Poisson process approximation
Authors: Barbour A D , Holst Lars , Janson Svante
Published: November 2023

Another reason for wishing to do so comes from the study of the extremes of a sequence of random variables. In this context, it is interesting to know not only when exceptional values occur but also how big they are, and the natural framework for the description of such phenomena is the marked point process of exceedances. It is often useful to know that the exceedance process can be reasonably approximated by a Poisson process on an appropriate space, and finding bounds for the error in such an approximation is therefore of considerable interest. A further reason is provided by multivariate Poisson approximation, as for instance when approximating the joint distribution of the numbers of cycles of lengths 1, 2 and 3 in a random permutation. Since a finite collection of independent Poisson random variables can be thought of as a Poisson process on a finite set, multivariate approximation can be regarded as a special case of Poisson process approximation.
Criteria of optimality
Authors: Atkinson A C , Doney A N
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we describe the more important special cases of the design criterion Ψ { M(ξ)} of Chapter 9 and give the derivative functions </J(x, () for the particular General Equivalence Theorems analogous to (9.10).
Multiple levels of nesting
Authors: Longford Nicholas T
Published: November 2023

A natural extension of the one-way (two-level) nesting design studied in Chapters 2 and 4 is obtained when the clusters, say families or, generally, units at level 2, are further clustered into districts, areas, or, in general, into units at level 3. Such designs arise in clustered sampling. For instance, in an educational survey students are sampled within schools, schools within districts, and districts are sampled from the districts of the country.
Factor analysis and structural equations
Authors: Longford Nicholas T
Published: November 2023

The problem of within-cluster correlation of observations is by no means restricted to linear regression. Random sampling design, or independence of the observations, is a central assumption in many other routinely applied statistical methods, and independence of the observations is often the prime target of model criticism and diagnostic procedures. This chapter describes the extensions of factor analysis and of structural equation models for two- level data.
The Structure of an African Pastoralist Community
Authors: Pennington Renee , Harpending Henry
Published: November 2023

This book is about the ecology and population dynamics of a group of cattle and goat herders in the northern Kalahari Desert ofthe Ngamiland district of Botswana. Although the Herero arrived in this region less than a century ago as destitute refugees, these staunchly traditional Bantu speakers have established themselves as a prominent and prosperous tribe in a pocket of the Kalahari previously occupied almost exclusively by Kung-speaking foragers. Their rise to economic prominence in Botswana has been accompanied by dramatic decreases in mortality and increases in fertility, and a resurgence of tribal ethnicity. The demographic data were collected through intense ethnographic interviews of over 700 Herero living north-western Botswana. Studies such as this illustrate the trade-offs between large-scale censuses that traditional demographers are comfortable with and small qualitative studies familiar to anthropologists and sociologists. Statistics from large national or regional studies that blur distinctions among genetically, historically, and economically different groups may not reveal much about the processes that generated them because differences within groups are confounded by differences between groups. For example, Herero mortality rates are low by the national standards of Botswana, yet those of their neighbours the Kung Bushmen are relatively high. Neither the difference between the ethnic groups nor their causes is apparent from the census data alone. The methods of study and the use of traditional Herero names allowed the authors to date with confidence the years of birth of informants and the years of vital events of their family members in a part of the world where this information is generally unknown.
Saddlepoint Approximations
Authors: Jensen Jens Ledet
Published: November 2023

Although introduced more than 60 years ago it is only during the last 15 years that there has been a systematic development of saddlepoint approximations. These approximations give a highly accurate expression for the tail of a distribution, not only in the centre of the distribution but also for very small tail probabilities. The price for this is a more cumbersome formula, the evaluation of which sometimes requires the use of a small personal computer. This book explains the ideas behind the saddlepoint approximations as well as giving a detailed mathematical description of the subject. The emphasis is two- fold. One is on popularizing the formulae through many worked out and ready to use examples. The second is on giving a comprehensive mathematical background for further research in the field. Some of the major subjects treated are uniformity of the approximations, tests in exponential families, and compound sums with applications in insurance mathematics.
Model building
Authors: Lindsey J K
Published: November 2023

Parametric statistical inference is concerned with the construction and interpretation of models as applied to empirical data. It is inference because it involves making statements about particular observed phenomena which we hope will have more general import for a larger universe. It is statistical because the models used will have to describe random variability in the data as well as systematic effects. It is parametric because the models will have assumed functional forms, generally based on prior theory, but contain parameters whose values are unknown. (Scientists often have some idea of what these values may be, but seek independent empirical confirmation.) Thus, inference should provide the means for distinguishing the relative suitability of different model functions and, then, ways of providing a range of plausible values of those parameters involved, distinguishable fom the ambient random variability. A model informs us about the universe, and hence about the functioning of the phenomenon under study, but also allows us to check if its functional form, itself, is adequate to the purpose for which it is employed.
Exponential family of probability distributions
Authors: Lindsey J K
Published: November 2023

Many of the models commonly used in statistics are based on probability distributions which have special characteristics in common. These can be grouped into a number of families, the most important of which is called the exponential family, originally introduced by Fisher (1934). As well, this family has a number of important statistical properties which have given it a central role in statistical inference.
Likelihood
Authors: Lindsey J K
Published: November 2023

In the preceding two chapters, we have looked at various aspects of probability theory and of statistical model building. In that context, we assume that we have a reasonable model, and explore what predictions can be made about the possible events which might occur. This model formulation is the first step in solving a problem, as well as an an ultimate goal of any model construction process. However, in order to develop such models, we must also be able to integrate information from the real world: which models describe well what we have observed and what can we learn from them. Thus, statistical inference is classically concerned with the reverse process as compared to Chapter 2 and Appendix B: instead of assuming a model and predicting events, we know that certain events have occurred and attempt to discover what can be said about the probabilistic process which might have produced them. As we proceed to study ways of making such inferences, we shall also introduce, as examples, some of the more common statistical models which are based on this probability theory, and, in particular, on the families that we studied in Chapter 2. Measure theory is important in the development of statistical models, as we can see from Appendix B and Section 2.8. Nevertheless, it will play little role in our presentation of statistical inference, because the observable values of all random variables are discrete (see, however, Chapter 8).