bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A method to estimate the neutral atmospheric density near the ionospheric main peak of Mars
Authors: Zou Hong , Ye Yu Guang , Wang Jin Song , Nielsen Erling , Cui Jun , Wang Xiao Dong
Published: March 2016

A method to estimate the neutral atmospheric density near the ionospheric main peak of Mars is introduced in this study. The neutral densities at 130 km can be derived from the ionospheric and atmospheric measurements of the Radio Science experiment on board Mars Global Surveyor (MGS). The derived neutral densities cover a large longitude range in northern high latitudes from summer to late autumn during 3 Martian years, which fills the gap of the previous observations for the upper atmosphere of Mars. The simulations of the Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique Mars global circulation model can be corrected with a simple linear equation to fit the neutral densities derived from the first MGS/RS (Radio Science) data sets (EDS1). The corrected simulations with the same correction parameters as for EDS1 match the derived neutral densities from two other MGS/RS data sets (EDS2 and EDS3) very well. The derived neutral density from EDS3 shows a dust storm effect, which is in accord with the Mars Express (MEX) Spectroscopy for Investigation of Characteristics of the Atmosphere of Mars measurement. The neutral density derived from the MGS/RS measurements can be used to validate the Martian atmospheric models. The method presented in this study can be applied to other radio occultation measurements, such as the result of the Radio Science experiment on board MEX.
Velocity structure and composition of the lower mantle with spin crossover in ferropericlase
Authors: Wu Zhongqing
Published: March 2016

The composition of the Earth's lower mantle (LM) is critical in understanding the Earth's interior and dynamics. Previous reports on the composition of the LM are controversial. The composition of LM, constrained here using high‐temperature and high‐pressure data of the velocities and density of minerals from first‐principles calculations, spans a large range: from pyrolite with ~ 15% ferropericlase (Fp) in weight (wt %) to perovskitic‐rich composition with ~ 10 wt % Fp. Any composition well constrained by preliminary reference Earth model (PREM) has a sufficient amount of Fp to exhibit the positive temperature dependence of VΦ (= 
) at the middle LM, leading to the insensitivity of VP to temperature. The depth at which VP is insensitive to temperature variation deepens significantly with increasing temperature because the spin transition in Fp has the positive Clapeyron slope (~17 MPa/K). The Large Low Shear Velocity Provinces below Africa is estimated to be ~ 750 K higher than the ambient mantle.
A neural network‐based method for merging ocean color and Argo data to extend surface bio‐optical properties to depth: Retrieval of the particulate backscattering coefficient
Authors: Sauzède R. , Claustre H. , Uitz J. , Jamet C. , Dall'Olmo G. , D'Ortenzio F. , Gentili B. , Poteau A. , Schmechtig C.
Published: March 2016

The present study proposes a novel method that merges satellite ocean color bio‐optical products with Argo temperature‐salinity profiles to infer the vertical distribution of the particulate backscattering coefficient (bbp).This neural network‐based method (SOCA‐BBP for Satellite Ocean‐Color merged with Argo data to infer the vertical distribution of the Particulate Backscattering coefficient) uses three main input components: (1) satellite‐based surface estimates of bbpand chlorophyllaconcentration matched up in space and time with (2) depth‐resolved physical properties derived from temperature‐salinity profiles measured by Argo profiling floats and (3) the day of the year of the considered satellite‐Argo matchup. The neural network is trained and validated using a database including 4725 simultaneous profiles of temperature‐salinity and bio‐optical properties collected by Bio‐Argo floats, with concomitant satellite‐derived products. The Bio‐Argo profiles are representative of the global open‐ocean in terms of oceanographic conditions, making the proposed method applicable to most open‐ocean environments. SOCA‐BBP is validated using 20% of the entire database (global error of 21%). We present additional validation results based on two other independent data sets acquired (1) by four Bio‐Argo floats deployed in major oceanic basins, not represented in the database used to train the method; and (2) during an AMT (Atlantic Meridional Transect) field cruise in 2009. These validation tests based on two fully independent data sets indicate the robustness of the predicted vertical distribution of bbp. To illustrate the potential of the method, we merged monthly climatological Argo profiles with ocean color products to produce a depth‐resolved climatology of bbpfor the global ocean.
Understanding the formation and evolution of rain‐formed fresh lenses at the ocean surface
Authors: Drushka Kyla , Asher William E. , Ward Brian , Walesby Kieran
Published: March 2016

Rain falling on the ocean produces a layer of buoyant fresher surface water, or “fresh lens.” Fresh lenses can have significant impacts on satellite‐in situ salinity comparisons and on exchanges between the surface and the bulk mixed layer. However, because these are small, transient features, relatively few observations of fresh lenses have been made. Here the Generalized Ocean Turbulence Model (GOTM) is used to explore the response of the upper few meters of the ocean to rain events. Comparisons with observations from several platforms demonstrate that GOTM can reproduce the main characteristics of rain‐formed fresh lenses. Idealized sensitivity tests show that the near‐surface vertical salinity gradient within fresh lenses has a linear dependence on rain rate and an inverse dependence on wind speed. Yearlong simulations forced with satellite rainfall and reanalysis atmospheric parameters demonstrate that the mean salinity difference between 0.01 and 5 m, equivalent to the measurement depths of satellite radiometers and Argo floats, is −0.04 psu when averaged over the 20°S–20°N tropical band. However, when averaged regionally, the mean vertical salinity difference exceeds −0.15 psu in the Indo‐Pacific warm pool, in the Pacific and Atlantic intertropical convergence zone, and in the South Pacific convergence zone. In most of these regions, salinities measured by the Aquarius satellite instrument have a fresh bias relative to Argo measurements at 5 m depth. These results demonstrate that the fresh bias in Aquarius salinities in rainy, low‐wind regions may be caused by the presence of rain‐produced fresh lenses.
Structure and evolution of flash flood producing storms in a small urban watershed
Authors: Yang Long , Smith James , Baeck Mary Lynn , Smith Brianne , Tian Fuqiang , Niyogi Dev
Published: March 2016

The objective of this study is to examine the structure and evolution of storms that produce flash floods in “small” urban watersheds. The study site is Harry's Brook, a 1.1 km2 urban watershed in Princeton, New Jersey. A catalog of 15 storms is developed for Harry's Brook based on paired observations of streamflow and rainfall. Lagrangian analyses of storm properties are based on storm tracking procedures utilizing 3‐D radar reflectivity observations from the KDIX (Fort Dix, New Jersey) Weather Surveillance Radar, 1988 Doppler. Analyses focus on the storm elements that were responsible for the peak rainfall rates over the watershed. The 22 July 2006 storm, which produced the record flood peak in the catalog (a unit discharge of 26.8 m3 s−1 km−2) was characterized by thunderstorm cells that produced more than 50 cloud‐to‐ground lightning strikes and “collapsed” over Harry's Brook. The 3 June 2006 storm, which produced the third largest flood peak (a unit discharge of 11.1 m3 s−1 km–2), was a “low‐echo centroid” storm with no lightning. We use cloud‐to‐ground flash rate, echo top height, maximum reflectivity, and height of maximum reflectivity as key variables for characterizing convective intensity. Storm motion is examined through a time series of storm speed and direction. The 22 July 2006 and 3 June 2006 storms provide end‐members of storm properties, centering on “convective intensity,” which are associated with flash flooding in small urban watersheds. Extreme 1–15 min rainfall rates are produced by warm season convective systems at both ends of the convective intensity spectrum.
Recovery times of riparian vegetation
Authors: Vesipa R. , Camporeale C. , Ridolfi L.
Published: March 2016

Riparian vegetation is a key element in a number of processes that determine the ecogeomorphological features of the river landscape. Depending on the river water stage fluctuations, vegetation biomass randomly switches between growth and degradation phases and exhibits relevant temporal variations. A full understanding of vegetation dynamics is therefore only possible if the hydrological stochastic forcing is considered. In this vein, we focus on the recovery time of vegetation, namely the typical time taken by vegetation to recover a well‐developed state starting from a low biomass value (induced, for instance, by an intense flood). The analytical expression of the plot‐dependent recovery time is given, the role of hydrological and biological parameters is discussed, and the impact of river‐induced randomness is highlighted. Finally, the effect of man‐induced hydrological changes (e.g., river damming or climate changes) is explored.
Lagrangian temperature and vertical velocity fluctuations due to gravity waves in the lower stratosphere
Authors: Podglajen Aurélien , Hertzog Albert , Plougonven Riwal , Legras Bernard
Published: March 2016

Wave‐induced Lagrangian fluctuations of temperature and vertical velocity in the lower stratosphere are quantified using measurements from superpressure balloons (SPBs). Observations recorded every minute along SPB flights allow the whole gravity wave spectrum to be described and provide unprecedented information on both the intrinsic frequency spectrum and the probability distribution function of wave fluctuations. The data set has been collected during two campaigns coordinated by the French Space Agency in 2010, involving 19 balloons over Antarctica and 3 in the deep tropics. In both regions, the vertical velocity distributions depart significantly from a Gaussian behavior. Knowledge on such wave fluctuations is essential for modeling microphysical processes along Lagrangian trajectories. We propose a new simple parameterization that reproduces both the non‐Gaussian distribution of vertical velocities (or heating/cooling rates) and their observed intrinsic frequency spectrum.
LADEE/LDEX observations of lunar pickup ion distribution and variability
Authors: Poppe A. R. , Halekas J. S. , Szalay J. R. , Horányi M. , Levin Z. , Kempf S.
Published: March 2016

We report fortuitous observations of low‐energy lunar pickup ion fluxes near the Moon while in the solar wind by the Lunar Dust Experiment (LDEX) on board the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE). We describe the method of observation and the empirical calibration of the instrument for ion observations. LDEX observes several trends in the exospheric ion production rate, including a scale height of approximately 100 km, a positive, linear correlation with solar wind flux, and evidence of a slight enhancement near 7–8 h local time. We compare the LDEX observations to both LADEE Neutral Mass Spectrometer ion mode observations and theoretical models. The LDEX data are best fit by total exospheric ion production rates of ≈6 × 103 m−3 s−1 with dominant contributions from Al+, CO+, and Ar+, although the LDEX data suggest that the aluminum neutral density and corresponding ion production rate are lower than predicted by recent models.
MafB deficiency accelerates the development of obesity in mice
Authors: Tran Mai Thi Nhu , Hamada Michito , Nakamura Megumi , Jeon Hyojung , Kamei Risa , Tsunakawa Yuki , Kulathunga Kaushalya , Lin Yuan‐Yu , Fujisawa Kumiko , Kudo Takashi , Takahashi Satoru
Published: March 2016

MafB, a transcription factor expressed selectively in macrophages, has important roles in some macrophage‐related diseases, especially in atherosclerosis. In this study, we investigated the mechanism by which hematopoietic‐specific MafB deficiency induces the development of obesity. Wild‐type and hematopoietic cell‐specific Mafb‐deficient mice were fed a high‐fat diet for 10 weeks. The Mafb‐deficient mice exhibited higher body weights and faster rates of body weight increase than control mice. The Mafb‐deficient mice also had a higher percentage of body fat than the wild‐type mice, due to increased adipocyte size and serum cholesterol levels. Reverse transcription‐PCR analysis showed a reduction in apoptosis inhibitor of macrophage (AIM) in Mafb‐deficient adipose tissue. AIM is known as an inhibitor of lipogenesis in adipocytes and is expressed in adipose tissue macrophages. Collectively, our data suggest that Mafb deficiency in hematopoietic cells accelerates the development of obesity.
Mobility, Residential
Authors: Gillespie Brian Joseph
Published: March 2016

The reasons for residential mobility – a change of residence that takes place locally, often within the same city or neighborhood – are many and varied. Some are purely economic, while others are entirely without economic motivation. Some moves are voluntary; others are involuntary. Some are based on household and family conditions, while others reflect individual preferences. Although residential mobility has been declining recently, rates of relocation are still much higher in the United States than in other countries. There are multiple perspectives on why individuals and families choose to move and the consequences of local residential mobility for children and families.
Midwifery
Authors: Kronenfeld Jennie Jacobs
Published: March 2016

Midwifery is an important health‐related profession that provides care to childbearing women during pregnancy, labor, and delivery, and in the postpartum period. In its earlier forms in many countries, and in the United States from the late nineteenth to the early twentieth century, it was a job in which women assisted other women with childbirth. Today, it is one of the health professions with formal training paths and roles in the delivery of babies within the US health care system including hospitals. In many other countries, most deliveries are still carried out by midwives, but in the United States the majority of births are delivered by obstetricians, not midwives.
Helicopter Parents
Authors: Zito Rena Cornell
Published: March 2016

The term “helicopter parents” refers to a parenting style in which well‐meaning but misguided parents provide excessive support for young and grown children that is characterized by overinvolvement in, and micromanagement of, their children's daily affairs. Most popular accounts and empirical studies of helicopter parenting focus on the parenting of college‐aged youth, with media commentators positing that helicopter parenting harms young people by rendering them overdependent and anxiety‐ridden. The term is typically used pejoratively in media outlets, though social scientists have demonstrated that helicopter parenting produces both positive and negative consequences for parents and the young people over whom they supposedly hover.
Youth
Authors: Aldredge Marcus
Published: March 2016

Youth represents a broad stage within the life course and a set of cultural values, ideals, and practices associated with young people. Traditionally the period between childhood and adulthood, youth includes more specific stages such as adolescence, postadolescence, and young adulthood. As the social sciences grew in the early twentieth century, psychology and sociology increasingly examined the stage known as adolescence, while recognizing that the stage doesn't always exist or isn't a cultural universal. Youth culture and subcultures became increasingly more important during the postwar period, but fragmented as the twentieth century passed. Today, this stage is less distinct and is viewed as running later into one's life, containing multiple generations as a whole, but also reflecting divergent and unequal opportunities and lifestyles for people in different segments of society.
Divorce Mediation in the
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Authors: Olmer Ruth M. , Brown Kristina S.
Published: March 2016

Divorce mediation is an alternative approach to resolving conflict between two divorcing parties that is facilitated by a third, impartial person. The use of divorce mediation has been growing since the early 2000s as a result of the increase in divorces and the supported effectiveness of mediation in reducing conflict and increasing postdivorce satisfaction. Divorce mediation can address many different issues between divorcing parties, including financial and custody disputes, through a structured approach to open discussion. The entry provides a general description of divorce mediation before discussing divorce mediation trends, the mediation process, and the mediators' training.
Family Cohesion
Authors: Porta Nick J. , Brown Kristina S.
Published: March 2016

The emotional bond between family members is called family cohesion. Mary E. Richmond originally coined the phrase in 1917 when she discussed the power of this emotional connection. The circumplex model of marital and family systems and the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale IV (FACES IV) are used today to understand and assess a family's level of cohesiveness. Too little or too much cohesiveness may be problematic for family members, and these assessment tools are used to help professionals identify unbalanced and potentially problematic families. Balanced levels of cohesion can vary by the stage of family development and culture.
Fecundity
Authors: Rodriguez Cassaundra
Published: March 2016

Fecundity is defined as the ability to produce children, and is thus important to any discussion concerning reproduction and family size. While couples may have the ability to produce children, fecundity can be constrained by both fertility intentions and broader social forces, such as marital trends and labor force attachment. Alongside these factors, researchers are increasingly interested in factors negatively impacting biological fecundity. Couples who attempt to but do not become pregnant within a year of time to pregnancy are considered subfecund or fecundity‐impaired.
Mothering Styles
Authors: Skott Beth Pamela
Published: March 2016

Mothering is something women are expected to do, and do well. Diana Baumrind identified three primary styles of mothering which vary in their degrees of warmth, support, and control, and found that mothers tend to follow one primary style in most situations but will let elements from the others infiltrate their mothering when necessary.
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alaysia, Families in
Authors: Juhari Rumaya
Published: March 2016

Malaysia is a multiethnic, multireligious country with Islam as the official religion and Malays as the major ethnic group. This multicultural setting is one of the unique features of the country. Families from different racial/ethnic groups live in harmony, practicing their diverse ethnic and religious belief systems and way of life. Tolerance of the differences across and within the races/ethnic groups is instilled and upheld. Malaysian families come in various forms and structures which are governed by different cultural principles and family laws. While mate selection is very much based on personal choice, arranged marriages still take place in a few exceptional cases. Monogamy is the dominant marital type; polygamy is legal for Muslims but not for non‐Muslims.
Parental Roles
Authors: Hunt Andrea N.
Published: March 2016

Parental roles refer to tasks associated with childrearing such as providing the daily care for children and socialization. Parental roles are often associated with gender roles as parenting is equated with mothering. This is an extension of the separate spheres ideology. This ideology and decisions regarding parenting are embedded within larger historical changes over time in work and family.
Marital Satisfaction
Authors: King Mary E.
Published: March 2016

Marital satisfaction can be defined as the attitude an individual has toward his or her own marital relationship. Understanding marital satisfaction has major implications for researchers studying relationships and pragmatic implications for married couples and the professionals who work with them. Among the many contributing factors to marital satisfaction, three main facets are: how marriages normally progress through the relational lifecycle and the resulting fluctuation of satisfaction; enacting routine relational maintenance behaviors; and the role of conflict styles as contributing factors to overall marital satisfaction.
Family Boundaries
Authors: King Mary E.
Published: March 2016

For families, managing boundaries and shared information can be a challenging and rewarding endeavor. Negotiating patterns of disclosure is an important communicative function for subsystems within families and for the family unit as a whole. This entry explores boundary management, coordination, and turbulence within the family.
Marital Quality
Authors: Lucas Amy
Published: March 2016

Marital quality is a subjective assessment of the relationship between spouses. Commonly, marital quality is measured by examining interactions within relationships or respondents' feelings about and evaluations of their relationships. Marital quality is often considered to be multidimensional, and can be measured on both positive (i.e., satisfaction, happiness) and negative (i.e., conflict) dimensions.
Familism
Authors: Davis Alexandra N. , Streit Cara , Carlo Gustavo
Published: March 2016

Familism values have been linked to the social behaviors of parents and children. Ethnic minority groups in the United States tend to endorse familism values to a greater degree than European American families, but research has especially focused on the role of familism in Latino families. Familism serves as a protective factor for Latino youth and is related to positive adjustment outcomes. The entry focuses on the role of familism in parenting behaviors and youth adjustment. Limitations and future research directions are also explored.
Flexible Scheduling
Authors: Leschyshyn Ashley , Minnotte Krista Lynn
Published: March 2016

This entry defines flexible scheduling and explores the social context underlying its importance. It describes the many positive outcomes associated with flexible scheduling, along with factors that help to explain the availability of flexible scheduling within workplace organizations and explains what leads some workers to use flexible scheduling policies and others to avoid doing so. The entry also highlights the importance of workplace social support in shaping the use of flexible scheduling.
Filter Theory
Authors: Fitzpatrick Jacki
Published: March 2016

The term “filter theory” has been used to describe the processes by which individuals select romantic partners for long‐term relationships, such as marriage or nonmarital cohabitation. The theory was based on implicit assumptions that individuals are aware of their relational needs and have specific preferences for partner features, such as appearance or personality traits. Instead of relying on fate‐based beliefs about finding one “true love” mate, the theory assumes that individuals can find many potential partners who are as highly attractive. In this context, individuals make rational choices to narrow their options from many eligible partners to a single partner. During the twentieth century, researchers' attention to this theory declined as other theories gained prominence. However, the general principles of filter theory seem relevant to some processes in current couple/family dynamics, such as technology‐based searches for romantic partners or matching processes for adoptive parents and children. This theory might be worthy of renewed consideration for modern family studies.
Racial Socialization in the
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Authors: Csizmadia Annamaria
Published: March 2016

Racial socialization refers to the process by which parents teach their children coping strategies and about the social constructions of race, instill pride in their race, prepare them for biases, and emphasize values, such as work ethic, honesty, and fair play while de‐emphasizing racial differences. Depending on environmental demands and child and family characteristics, parents use diverse strategies, including cultural socialization, preparation for bias, instilling racial mistrust, egalitarianism, and silence about race. All families transmit messages regarding race to children, although racial socialization is most prevalent among families of color. Families of color have the added responsibility to prepare children to function in the face of race‐based adversity. Racial socialization affects youth development in areas such as ethnic identity, self‐esteem, coping with discrimination, psychosocial well‐being, and academic achievement. Most research to date has been done on black and, to a lesser extent, Latino families.
Divorce Divide in the
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Authors: Grether Scott , Manzoni Anna
Published: March 2016

In the United States, divorce rates have been increasing for the poor and low‐educated while they have been decreasing for the wealthy and high‐educated since the 1990s. These divergent trends in divorce rates by education and social class are referred to as the divorce divide. Explanations for the divorce divide have been linked to educational homogamy, an increase in age at first marriage, and changes to the institution of marriage, including the decoupling of childbearing from marriage. The perpetuation of socioeconomic inequality, class differences in family formation, boundary maintenance between social groups, and the intergenerational transmission of social and genetic traits are some of the implications of the divorce divide.
Conflict Tactics Scale
Authors: McLaren Rachel M.
Published: March 2016

Because violence usually happens in private, researchers and clinicians have had difficulty studying and diagnosing abusive relationships. The most popular and widely used measure of intimate violence in couples and families is the Conflict Tactics Scale, a self‐report measure where respondents are asked to indicate whether they or their partner have engaged in certain behaviors over a specific time, such as the past year. The Conflict Tactics Scale is beneficial because it requires little time to complete, is easy to administer, and is a reliable measure. There is also a version for measuring maltreatment in parent–child relationships, the Conflict Tactics Scale Parent Child.
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igeria, Families in
Authors: Akinyemi Akanni Ibukun
Published: March 2016

Nigeria, Africa's most populous country, is composed of more than 250 ethnic groups and largely dominated by three major dominant ethnotribal conglomerations – Yorubas, Hausas, and Igbos – divided along religious, cultural, and geographic boundaries. Despite these diversities, there are some common family orientations toward a patrilineal system of male dominance. Also, there are distinct features of the family system across the tribal, ethnic, and geographic divides. The changing social order has impacted significantly on the family which has resulted in shifting boundaries and identities within the family structures in Nigeria.
G
hana, Families in
Authors: Kpoor Albert
Published: March 2016

In the recent past the family in Ghana has undergone structural modifications and functions as a result of increasing social change brought about by urbanization and by economic, social, and legal changes. Notable among these changes is the reduction in the number of families that are extended. This reduction has given rise to nuclear family types such as two‐parent families and single‐parent families. Social change has also brought about a reduction in the number of polygynous families. Irrespective of family type, Ghanaian families perform the general functions of procreation, socialization, and maintenance of members. Even though there have been modifications in the family structure in Ghana, the traditional extended family still persists.
Covenant Marriage
Authors: Alphonso Carla
Published: March 2016

Three states (Louisiana, Arizona, and Arkansas) have covenant marriage provisions which allow for a second type of legal marriage contract. Covenant marriage is a legal strategy associated with the marriage reform movement to bolster marriage in an era of high divorce rates. Covenant marriage laws require premarital counseling as well as counseling during a marriage should problems arise. These laws also revert to a fault‐based divorce system. Few couples choose the covenant marriage option. Among those who do, researchers find that covenant married couples demonstrate higher levels of religiosity and of support for traditional gender roles.
Family Size
Authors: Zito Rena Cornell , Constantine Panayiotis
Published: March 2016

Family size drives, and is driven by, social factors operating on the societal and individual levels. Societal trends in family size concern researchers and policymakers who seek to anticipate and address global and local population pressures. As such, determinants of family size receive ample scholarly attention. Noteworthy determinants include family size intentions, cultural norms, rural residence, religiosity, and women's education and age at partnership. Family size, in turn, can affect a number of societal and individual outcomes, including children's educational attainment, parental health and labor force participation, and support for older generations. The extent to which family size has a causal effect on children, parents, and broader communities is contested, with some positing resource dilution or confluence models, and others arguing that the effect is driven by birth order or other factors.
Sex Ratio
Authors: Edmond Mary Bond
Published: March 2016

A sex ratio is defined as the number of men relative to the number of women in any given population. Unequal sex ratios have sociological causes and consequences, which are tightly linked to family formation, marriage quality, and gender inequality in general. Scholars have predicted the consequences of unequal sex ratios through theories of social exchange, evolutional psychology, and tokenism. Further, examples of the impacts of unequal sex ratios are evident from around the world, including delayed or forgone marriage, and marital disillusionment. Future research should further examine the consequences of unequal sex ratios, their causes, and policy interventions.
Intercountry Adoption to the
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Authors: Zhang Yuanting
Published: March 2016

In contrast to domestic adoption, intercountry adoption (ICA) is usually governed by international guidelines and is impacted by foreign policies. Following the humanitarian aid‐driven era after World War II, ICA entered a market‐driven era. This entry identifies ICA trends and related policy concerns.
Othermothers
Authors: McCandless N. Jane
Published: March 2016

Assisting biological or adoptive mothers in the care and socialization of their children, othermothers have, for generations, played an important role in a child's socialization process. The role of the othermother has a long and rich history within African American families. During these many years of mothering, othermothers not only had a positive impact on the children within a community, but their impact extended to the larger community as they often became political advocates for these same children and mothers. More recently the role of the othermother has emerged within new family forms, including lesbian‐headed families. Within these families the role of othermothers is, once again, being refined and recognized for the valuable part they have always played in the lives of children within the family, the neighborhood, and the larger community.
Polyamory
Authors: Schubert Katie A.
Published: March 2016

Polyamory is the practice and acceptance of having more than one open and loving relationship at a time. Polyamorous relationships are built on five main principles: self‐knowledge, radical honesty, consent, self‐possession, and privileging love and sex over other emotions and activities such as jealousy. It is estimated that over half a million openly polyamorous families reside in the United States. The popularity of the polyamory movement can be traced back to the free love and feminist movements, as well as American's disillusionment with monogamy.
Work–Family Policies in the
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Authors: Steinour Heidi
Published: March 2016

The significant increase of mothers in the US labor force has prompted questions regarding how employers and government agencies can assist families in balancing work–family expectations. Paternal leave, flexible work schedules, child care, and cultural discourses about family and work are all important considerations in this debate. Considering the push for paternal involvement in children's lives, researchers have continually analyzed the role of paid work and how it factors into the distribution of household and child care responsibilities. European solutions for these concerns are also discussed.
Rape
Authors: Bell Kristin A.
Published: March 2016

Rape is often referred to as a form of gender‐based violence, or as “violence against women,” given that women suffer disproportionately from these types of abuse. Many challenges exist in defining and measuring the crime of rape. Over time, definitions of rape have shifted from force‐based definitions to a consent‐based approach, which is now giving way to coercion‐based definitions. In terms of measurement, rape mythology and rape narratives impact reporting of sexual violence by victims as well as how the crime is measured. Other factors, including stigma, victim‐blaming, and secondary victimization also play a role.
Domestic Partnerships in the
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Authors: Willetts Marion C.
Published: March 2016

Increasingly, and often in response to both shifting public opinion and changes in how relationships are formed, maintained, and dissolved, local municipalities in the United States and numerous states have implemented registered domestic partnership and other nonmarital coupling policies that provide legal recognition to the unions of intimate couples. While these policies are often designed specifically with couples in same‐sex unions as their focus, legal recognition of the nonmarital unions of different‐sex couples has also increased. The unions legally recognized by these nonmarital policies often are stigmatized as being deficient in some respects relative to legal marriage; however, they have also had the effect of increasing both public approval of and access to legal marriage for same‐sex couples. These policies also demonstrate, however, that marriage retains its status as the most desirable method by which to attain legal recognition of an intimate union.
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reland, Families in
Authors: Neville Patricia
Published: March 2016

Perhaps one of the most contested social institutions in the Republic of Ireland is that of the family. While early anthropological research treated rural Irish families as something of an oddity, the Irish Free State saw fit to transform the Irish family into an ideal. As a result, the hetereosexual marital family unit was written into the nationalist narrative as well as the Irish Constitution. Consequently, only this type of family is recognized and supported by the state. Census data continues to affirm the prevalence of this conventional nuclear family. However, recent social and economic change, such as the introduction of divorce and the social acceptance of single motherhood, has facilitated the emergence of different family forms which have been accepted by Irish society.
Jumping the Broom
Authors: Christ Stephen R.
Published: March 2016

During the time of slavery in the United States, many enslaved Africans were not able to marry in churches or courthouses. As a result, the custom of “jumping the broom” emerged as a nontraditional wedding ceremony which functioned as well as a wedding license among free individuals in the South. While this wedding ceremony was once forced on couples, the act has experienced a revival in recent years among African Americans wishing to connect with the lived experiences of their ancestors.
Gender Roles
Authors: Neimand Annie
Published: March 2016

This entry defines and differentiates sex and gender, followed by gender roles as understood within the social sciences. The sociological perspectives of gender roles are outlined. Specifically gender roles are examined within structural functionalist, symbolic interactionist, social role theory, conflict theory, and feminist theory frameworks. Further, the dominant breadwinner–homemaker family model and narrative is considered, with a focus on changing gender roles and their relationship to culture and history.
Custody Disputes
Authors: Elizabeth Vivienne
Published: March 2016

Custody disputes have increased in number since the early 1980s. A significant factor in this increase is a change in the social expectation of fathers toward higher levels of involvement in their children's lives, together with a change in attitudes by separated and divorced fathers toward residence and contact, in a social context where mothers typically remain the primary parents. Central to many disputed cases of child custody are allegations of domestic violence, child abuse, and/or parental alienation. Fathers' rights groups claim that allegations of domestic violence and/or child abuse are false and are being used tactically to restrict contact. However, research indicates that false allegations of violence and abuse are rare and that minimization or false denials are more commonplace.
Family Crisis in the
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Authors: Randles Jennifer
Published: March 2016

Many scholars, policymakers, and pundits argue that a family crisis exists because most people now deviate from traditional family formation patterns that put lifelong marriage at the center of family and social life. Excessive individualism is blamed for undermining marriage as a social institution. Compared to mid‐twentieth‐century family trends, Americans now marry at older ages, have more children outside marriage, divorce and remarry more, and are more likely to live in a stepfamily. Other family and marriage scholars who challenge the claim that the United States is in the midst of a family crisis argue that marriage is not deteriorating but simply changing to accommodate changing gender roles, economic restructuring, and growing social acceptance of different family forms, including single‐parent and same‐sex families.
Hooking Up in the
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Authors: Wood Claire , Perlman Daniel
Published: March 2016

This entry defines the concept of hooking up; identifies historical and contemporary factors fostering a hookup culture; indicates the prevalence of hooking up as well as demographic and other correlates (e.g., situational factors and personality attributes) associated with hooking up; considers hooking up before, during, and after college; looks at young adults' motives for hooking up; and discusses the feelings individuals experience after hooking up. Although it is not a universal pattern for all students, hooking up has become an important and widespread phenomenon on US college campuses today.
Family Policies
Authors: Hengstebeck Natalie D. , Helms Heather M. , Crosby Danielle A.
Published: March 2016

Family policy is a type of public and social policy aimed at promoting, protecting, and strengthening families across five domains of family functioning: family creation, partnership support, economic support, childrearing, and caregiving. Between‐ and within‐county variation across existing political institutions, party leadership over time, religious traditions, public opinion, social organization, and policymakers' attitudes about changing family dynamics have resulted in divergent patterns of family policies. This entry discusses six divergent family policy regimes and examines how they differ in the inclusion of family diversity, gender equality, and indicators of family well‐being, and in the types, accessibility, and comprehensiveness of benefits. The entry concludes with factors that facilitate the effectiveness of family policies and implications for future research.
Place of Residence Rules
Authors: Blume Amelia , Shuker Zeinab F. , Abrutyn Seth
Published: March 2016

Place of residence rules can take on multiple meanings, linked to either kinship‐based patterns of residence or legal and survey definitions of residence used to measure families and living arrangements. Kinship‐based patterns are associated with the cultural, economic, and social conditions of a given group. These rules of residence delineate where family units, namely husband–wife, physically reside. Worldwide, the most common place of residence is patrilocal (virilocal) residence, where kinship networks are formed as a part of patrilineal descent groups. Along with descent rules, place of residence rules contribute to group identities; political, trade, and economic alliances; and the maintenance and passing down of property and land (Lee 1979). In western countries residence rules are used with legal implications, such as the collection of census data in the United States.
Cambodia, Families in
Authors: Eng Sothy
Published: March 2016

The Cambodian family is predominantly male‐headed and strictly traditional, consisting of husband, wife, and children, and is usually large, with an average of 4.7 persons per family. It is also common that the family includes extended family members such as first cousins, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews, parents, or grandparents. Same‐sex couple families are prohibited by law. To maintain the family reputation or “good face,” each member of the family must conform to social norms and expectations and behave accordingly. Unfavorable behavior among children can reflect badly on their parents as it is seen as a manifestation of poor discipline, whereas great morality and academic or career success can enhance the “face” of the family.
Gender Socialization
Authors: Neimand Annie
Published: March 2016

Questions regarding gender roles, behavior, and expectations tend to be situated in the nurture versus nature debate. Scholarship is unsettled as to the ways in which genes, biology, and psychosocial experience interact to shape gender differences. However, most science scholarship focuses on the role of the social environment, with gender conceptualized as a social construct composed of roles, behaviors, and expectations rather than being biologically innate. This entry defines and explains socialization and gender socialization. It then examines the agents of socialization – family, education, peers, and media – as sites of gender socialization.
Child Neglect/Abandonment
Authors: Laplant Katie M.
Published: March 2016

Child neglect is the most prevalent form of child maltreatment; it is unique as neglect is an act of omission rather than an act of commission. Scholars have developed several categories of neglect including physical, medical, educational, and emotional. Parents who neglect their children have distinct characteristics that are risk factors contributing to their lack of care or endangerment of their children. Children of neglect present with a variety of negative effects including attachment issues and school difficulties and are at risk of continuing the cycle of the neglectful family pattern.
Fathering Styles in theUnitedStates
Authors: Steinour Heidi
Published: March 2016

The cultural shift in gender, family, and work expectations in the United States has fostered a lively discussion about the role of men in families, as workers, and as fathers. Men are expected to take on more childrearing practices, be more involved in domestic labor, and develop a more engaged and interactive approach to parenting. Considering this shift, research on fathers' paternal identities is critical in exploring how family structure, cultural narratives of fathering, paternal involvement, race, class, biological ties, and procreation influence men and their children.
Intimate Partner Violence,USCriminal Justice Response to
Authors: Leisenring Amy
Published: March 2016

The efforts of the battered women's movement in the 1960s and 1970s to draw attention to the problem of domestic violence (more recently identified as intimate partner violence, or IPV) led to dramatic reforms to the way that the criminal justice system handles the abuse of women from their partners and ex‐partners. In most jurisdictions in the United States, laws exist that encourage both police officers and prosecutors to approach IPV cases aggressively. However, for a variety of reasons, these policies have been the center of much debate and controversy. Largely, many researchers, practitioners, and victims' advocates question whether they serve the best interests of women who experience IPV. Empirical research on the effectiveness of such policies have had mixed findings. Future societal response to IPV may involve a more collaborative community effort.
Thailand, Families in
Authors: Foster John D.
Published: March 2016

Families in the Southeast Asian country of Thailand have experienced significant changes in recent years as a result of the effects of industrialization and urbanization since the 1960s. Meanwhile, widespread support for the use of contraception has helped to decrease the fertility rate substantially, while advancements in medicine and health care delivery have increased life expectancy. Although Thai families benefit from an increase in per capital income, low unemployment, and greater access to modern technologies, major challenges loom on the horizon. One issue is Thailand's growing elderly population, who have fewer children to care for them than previous generations. While some issues arising from the process of modernization are comparable to other nations, other challenges are unique to Thailand.
K
insey Reports on Human Sexuality
Authors: Speice Travis D.
Published: March 2016

Alfred Kinsey's reports on human sexual behavior have been revolutionizing the ways in which individuals think about sexuality and sexual behaviors. More than 18,000 individuals participated in the separate studies on men and women, where sexual histories were collected and later analyzed. Most notably, Kinsey discovered that there was a wide range of sexual behaviors that were in fact common, including masturbation, premarital sex, and extramarital sex. He also catalogued the frequencies with which individuals participated in these activities and noted variation based on age, geographic location, social position, religiosity, and so on.
Marriage Promotion Policy
Authors: Avishai Orit , Heath Melanie , Randles Jennifer
Published: March 2016

Marriage promotion is a controversial US antipoverty policy that emerged as part of the 1996 Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act, which sought to end dependence on government benefits by promoting marriage and self‐sufficiency and making work‐related activities mandatory to receive aid. Marriage education and promotion activities have been supported by federal welfare funds through the Healthy Marriage Initiative (2002–2011) and the Fatherhood, Marriage, and Family Innovation Fund (2011–2015). Supporters of this policy argue that single parenthood is a cause of poverty and that encouraging and strengthening marriage through relationship education services is a plausible poverty‐reduction strategy. Critics argue that marriage promotion is an ideologically driven policy that obscures the structural causes of poverty and diverts funds from programs that directly benefit families living in poverty. Marriage promotion activities are being funded through 2015. Their longevity suggests that they have become established public policy.