bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Regulations Establish National Standards for Water Quality
Authors: Burke Michael E.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the history of water quality regulations as documented over the course of 90 years in Journal AWWA. Before 1914 there were few standards or guidelines and treatment objectives were simple, “make the water palatable and treat surface waters to eliminate outbreaks of waterborne disease.” By the turn of the previous century, the use of filtration following by disinfection was found to be successful at controlling waterborne disease. In 1942, the U.S. Public Health Service adopted the first set of National Standards for drinking water quality. The environmental movement of the 1970s, and the advent of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), changed the industry forever. In addition to setting enforceable standards, the SDWA provided states with primacy funding to implement the regulations. The article discusses regulatory actions taken in response to outbreaks of waterborne diseases from microbial contaminants, and chronic health effects from long‐term exposures to low levels of environmental pollutants in the air, food, and water. The article states that the 1996 SDWA reauthorization created a number of new programs to ensure the continued safety of drinking water, which were promulgated in an attempt to provide a more holistic approach to the regulation of drinking water. As for the future, the article predicts more specific regulations on contaminants, and changes in the way potable water is treated to meet specific health objectives while nonpotable water would receive less treatment.
Technology Transformed the Industry
Authors: Roost Randall
Published: February 2018

This article discusses technological advances that have been made in the protection of the public water supply that include: chemical treatment and laboratory analysis techniques for detection of harmful chemicals in the water supply; the manufacture of piping materials that allow for cost‐effectively installing water mains and services with a minimum of environmental disruption; impacts of computer technology on the water industry; water meter technology; supervisory control and data acquisition technology; global positioning systems and geographic information systems technology; and, hydraulic modeling software, spreadsheet, and database technology. The article stresses the importance of sharing technology advancements with small water systems and with developing countries through organizations such as Water For People.
Source Water Protection: 90 Years of Advancements in Policy and Practice
Authors: Standish‐Lee Perri , Loboschefsky Erik , Burgos Steve , Sommers Keane
Published: February 2018

This article outlines the history of source water protection in terms of technical advancements, policies, and practices. The creation of the US Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 and the subsequent passage of the Clean Water Act (CWA) resulted in indirectly improving source water quality by reducing polluted runoff and hazardous/illegal discharges into surface waters. The 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) brought more source protection; the 1986 amendments to the SDWA established the Wellhead Protection Program; and the 1996 Amendments created the Source Water Assessment and Protection Program. The article discusses how watershed protection became part of a multiple‐barrier approach to overall water supply and public health protection.
Why Is Xenobiotics part of our vocabulary?
Authors: Hunsinger Ronald B. , Ongerth Jerry E.
Published: February 2018

This article begins by discussing the history of scientific developments on which the understanding of water quality was based. It mentions how the discipline of bacteriology gradually evolved to microbiology during the first half of the twentieth century, the identification of Giardia in the 1960s, the characterization of Cryptosporidium as an “emerging” organism in the 1980s, the burgeoning of organic chemicals production in the first half of the twentieth century, widespread environmental contamination from the pesticide DDT, the development of the Ames test in 1973 for rapid screening of carcinogenicity in chemicals, the development in the 1980s of gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry analytical technology, the detection of previously uncharacterized hydrophilic categories of organic contaminants such as “xenobiotics” that include endocrinologically active compounds and the PPCPs (pharmaceutical and personal care products). The emergence of molecular epidemiology is mentioned along with the formation of such disinfection byproducts as NDMA, chlorate, and bromate from the recent shift toward combining residual chlorination and alternate disinfectants. The article focuses on source protection as the most practical response to emerging contaminants, and mentions how emerging contaminants may dictate integration of a broader range of components in treatment planning, design, and implementation.
September 11th forever changed the face of security
Authors: Roberson J. Alan , Thompson Ken , Dennis Steve , Linville Thomas J.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how water utilities and state and federal agencies have made swift and significant advances in security over the years, particularly the improvements made to industry security since the September 11th attacks. However, the article points out how much work remains to be done in the following areas: improved terrorist threat intelligence at all levels of government; improved field and laboratory analytical tools to quickly and positively identify contaminants; improved emergency preparation, training, communications, and coordination; improved distribution system monitoring programs; improved security culture in utilities; and, improved cost‐benefit tools.
Are we answering the right questions? Improving CCR communication
Authors: Meyer‐Emerick Nancy
Published: February 2018

Preliminary studies indicate that Consumer Confidence Reports (CCRs) may not be providing people with the water quality information that they want and can understand. Studies of risk perception and communication suggest that CCRs could be more effective if water suppliers asked their customers about their concerns before issuing a CCR and were allowed to respond to them in the report. The author proposes that rather than continue with the one‐way communication supported by the CCR, utilities should routinely engage their customers in a dialogue about customer questions and concerns. Perceptions of risk, particularly from taste and odor problems, cannot be dismissed. Individuals' perceptions of risk are influenced more by what they experience than by what utility personnel or CCRs tell them. Addressing taste and odor problems through voluntary self‐assessment and improved treatment and distribution will help utilities reduce the public's perception of risk and build the trust that is essential to communicating effectively with their customers. Historically, water providers have not placed a priority on creating regular opportunities for communication with consumers. Ongoing dialogue, however, is useful for both utilities and their customers because it can clarify misunderstandings, allow for feedback, and communicate important information. Many utilities have valid concerns about the efficacy of the CCR. This article offers guidelines for turning the CCR into a vehicle for gaining support and educating consumers, effectively improving the process without necessitating revision of the CCR regulations.
The Art of Prophecy
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr discusses the “State of the Industry Survey” that was sent to more than 10,000 AWWA members holding leadership positions. The objectives were to track critical water industry trends, and to identify significant issues that will need future industrywide attention. The goal of the survey was to provide information that will allow AWWA and its members to plan more effectively for the future. The top five issues identified by the survey are discussed.
Franklin Lakes: Creating a Permanent Solution for a Limited Seasonal Need
Authors: Cartnick Keith , Merwin Richard
Published: February 2018

This article discusses an increasing water demand situation in Franklin Lakes, New Jersey, related to its increased population. Also, seasonal peaks in demand and more rigorous federal water quality standards led to the simple solution of combining the ancient diatomaceous earth (DE) filter media with a modern vacuum‐filter system and enhanced with the newer technology of cationic polymers.
Multibarrier Approach Meets Challenging Water Quality Standards at Bendigo Water Treatment Plant
Authors: Thompson Mark J. , Guendert Dawn
Published: February 2018

This article reports on the Bendigo Water Treatment Plant located in southeastern Australia. It is a 33‐mgd plant that uses a multibarrier approach combining microfiltration, ozonation, and biologically activated carbon (BAC) to meet Bendigo's water treatment challenge that includes: 4‐log reduction for Cryptosporidium; reliable organics removal (algal toxins, color, and taste and odor compounds); and, no commercial contractual relief as a result of unforeseen changes in raw water quality. The article discusses the multibarrier design and how the plant has successfully met some of the most stringent water quality standards in the world.
Aluminum residual control using orthophosphate
Authors: Frommell David M. , Feld Christina M. , Snoeyink Vernon L. , Melcher Barbara , Feizoulof Cuveyt
Published: February 2018

Applying orthophosphate during rapid mix following alum addition is an effective method for reducing residual aluminum concentrations and decreasing the potential for aluminum precipitation in distribution systems. Orthophosphate addition during bench‐scale tests reduced residual dissolved aluminum concentrations by as much as 350 μg/L. The tests involved adding alum and phosphate to Lake Michigan water followed by continuous mixing for up to 8 h. Analysis of filtered samples showed that orthophosphate addition reduced residual aluminum concentrations under all test conditions (pH 7.0–8.0, 4–31oC) except at the lowest temperature, at which aluminum concentrations fell below the detection limit. Orthophosphate loss to floc particles ranged from 22 to 85% of the amount dosed, with greater losses at the lowest pH value tested. Applying orthophosphate before rather than after adding alum resulted in greater phosphate loss to floc particles without improving aluminum removal.
Water's Peculiarities
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr discusses how undervalued our water supply is in today's society. He stresses the need for better communication of the total worth of water service in terms of public health, job creation, fire protection, and standard of living. He states that AWWA's recent report, “Avoiding Rate Shock: Making the Case for Water Rates,” outlines the need to emphasize that safe drinking water must be valued as a vital service and not simply viewed as a low‐cost product.
Whose lawn is it, anyway?
Authors: Thomas Sheldon
Published: February 2018

This article focuses on the customer as being an important player in the daily events of every water utility. Everything a water repair or inspection crew does has a direct impact on a customer somewhere. Sometimes the activity affects whole neighborhoods, sometimes whole cities. Customer service must be one of the first considerations when planning a maintenance activity. The importance of respecting the customer is discussed, along with making sure the customer has a voice in maintenance activities.
Requiring Water Supply Connection Is Within Town's Police Power
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H.
Published: February 2018

The Supreme Court of Rhode Island has ruled that a town's maintenance of a public water supply and its requirement that builders construct extensions to the public water system both fall within the town's police power.
Water‐soluble pesticides in finished water of community water supplies
Authors: Coupe Richard H. , Blomquist Joel D.
Published: February 2018

To evaluate the effect of the treatment process on pesticide concentration, source water and finished (treated) water samples were collected from 12 community water systems (CWSs) and analyzed for water‐soluble pesticides. The pesticides most frequently detected in the source water were the triazine herbicides (atrazine, cyanazine, prometon, and simazine) and the chloroacetanilide herbicides (acetochlor, alachlor, and metolachlor). Atrazine, metolachlor, prometon, and simazine were detected in the source and finished water of every system sampled. Deethylatrazine, a degradate, was detected in the source and finished water of every CWS but one. The triazine and chloroacetanilide herbicides were usually detected in the finished water after the treatment process, although for most treatment plants the concentrations were significantly less in the finished water. For other pesticides detected in source water—especially the organophosphate insecticides and other sulfur‐containing pesticides (diazinon, chlorpyrifos, malathion, and metribuzin)—the treatment process either removed or degraded the pesticide completely.
Application of the Proposed UVDGM Requirements to an Existing UV Disinfection Installation
Authors: Swaim Paul D. , Jeffcoat Stuart B. , Roberson J. Alan , Via Steve , Pihera Guy , Bellamy William D.
Published: February 2018

The Clayton County (Ga.) Water Authority (CCWA) has installed ultraviolet (UV) disinfection systems at three water treatment plants. The CCWA's projects were designed, constructed, and tested in advance of publication of the proposed Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidance Manual (UVDGM) by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) in June 2003. Onsite validation testing was successfully completed at the three facilities early in 2003. Following the publication of the proposed UVDGM, the UV system configuration and validation results for the CCWA's Freeman Road plant were analyzed under the UVDGM framework. A comparison to the Tier 1 requirements indicated that not all criteria were met, making a Tier 2 analysis necessary. From the Tier 2 analysis, the UV safety factors and dose requirement were reduced by approximately 12% compared with the proposed Tier 1 dose requirement. These analyses showed that the CCWA systems are surpassing all potentially applicable USEPA requirements, and the CCWA is providing enhanced public health protection as intended at project inception. As a result of these analyses, significant comments, focused on simplifying the proposed UVDGM and enhancing its ease of use, were submitted to the USEPA.
Discussion: Modeling for Hydraulic Capacity
Authors: Walski Thomas M.
Published: February 2018

In “Modeling for Hydraulic Capacity” (Boxall et al, April 2004) the authors' key finding is that growth of roughness elements in pipes affects pipes in two ways: it increases the equivalent sand grain roughness; and, decreases the pipe diameter. As stated by the authors, most methods used to account for roughness growth adjust the roughness coefficients alone and do not also decrease the pipe diameter. The authors are indeed correct in stating that both should be adjusted; however, how this effect is quantified should be examined. The relationship depends on the type of flow, the flow velocity, and the diameter of the pipe. In general, a 1‐mm (0.04‐in.) increase in roughness has a much greater effect on head loss than a 2‐mm (0.08‐in.) decrease in diameter. Although a relationship between roughness (or Cfactor) and diameter reduction exists, there are an infinite number of pairs of roughness and diameter values that can reproduce observed head loss. It would take a great deal of testing for a modeler to determine a specific point in any pipe. Such extra work can only be justified on rare occasions.
Pitting Corrosion of Copper Tubes in Soft Drinking Waters: Corrosion Mechanism
Authors: Harrison David B. , Nicholas David M. , Evans Geoffrey M.
Published: February 2018

The pitting corrosion of copper tubes in drinking water systems is a sporadic but persistent problem along the east coast of Australia, New Zealand, and other locations where predominantly soft water is found. Historically, the lack of an adequate theory for localized soft water copper corrosion has made remedial treatments speculative and based only on long‐term field trials. The authors used novel microelectrode electrochemical techniques, supported by field observations and thermodynamic calculations, to propose a new mechanism of copper‐pitting corrosion in soft waters. In this article, the authors also discuss how the theory may be applied to the development of a remedial water treatment strategy and used to calculate the optimum pH and alkalinity set points for a soft water.
Treatment Plant Design for Particulate Removal: Effects of Flow Rate and Particle Characteristics
Authors: Boccelli Dominic L. , Small Mitchell J. , Diwekar Urmila M.
Published: February 2018

The removal of particulate matter is central to the drinking water treatment process. An integrated model for describing contact, direct, and nonsweep conventional filtration is incorporated into an optimization framework to determine least‐cost treatment configurations and design parameters that satisfy hydraulic and effluent concentration constraints. Various influent particle concentrations, size distributions, and size ranges under different flow rates and particle densities are explored to illustrate the importance of size distribution characteristics, flow rate, and particle density on design decisions. In general, contact filtration and conventional filtration are the predominant treatment processes, with direct filtration used sparingly for waters with higher concentrations of small particles. The results illustrate that the volume average diameter is not sufficient to characterize the treatment performance; rather, the particle size range and distribution shape are also needed to determine the appropriate treatment configuration. Increasing the design flow rate (2, 10, and 75 mgd [7.57, 37.85, and 283.88 ML/d]) and particle density (1.05, 1.20, and 2.40 g/cm3) both lead to a preference for contact filtration over conventional filtration.
Temporal and Spatial Variability of DBPs in a Chloraminated Distribution System
Authors: Pereira Vanessa J. , Weinberg Howard S. , Singer Philip C.
Published: February 2018

Assessments of disinfection by‐product (DBP) exposure to consumers of drinking water currently are based on infrequent measurements at the point of entry (POE) to, and a few points in, the distribution system. In this article the authors report considerable short‐term temporal variability in the DBP levels (measured in terms of trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, and total organic halide) at the POE to a chloraminated distribution system that appears to be related to the control of the addition of ammonia at the treatment plant. Samples collected every few hours over several consecutive days from the POE and from several distribution system points showed that this temporal variability at the POE most likely was dampened in the distribution system because of a combination of innate storage within the system and dynamic mixing behavior induced by variations in flow and demand. The variations in measured DBP concentrations in the system are relatively small and appear to be normally distributed, whereas the variations in measured DBP concentrations at the POE are much larger. The mean of the measured DBP concentration values in the system matches the mean of the measured values leaving the treatment plant. This suggests that more accurate characterization of weekly DBP concentrations throughout the distribution system for purposes of exposure assessment can be obtained from the analysis of a single grab sample collected during the daytime at a representative point in the chloraminated distribution system rather than from the POE to the distribution system.
Texas City's Legal Immunity Waived by State Land and City's Own Charter
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H.
Published: February 2018

The Court of Appeals of Texas has ruled that the City of Houston's charter had clearly and unambiguously waived the city's immunity from a breach of contract suit that had been brought by the operator of a water purification plant.
Enhance Security and Operations With Remote Monitoring
Authors: Haught Roy C.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses remote monitoring of water quality in distribution systems as an essential tool to effectively respond to deliberate or accidental contamination events. It also describes further benefits of remote monitoring that include: improved customer relations; reduced labor costs; and, better regulatory record keeping and reporting. The article mentions that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) is currently testing and evaluating performance and response criteria to determine the abilities of commercial off‐the‐shelf instrument technologies to monitor water quality by using sensors. Design and cost considerations are discussed.
Scottsdale adsorbs total organic carbon problem
Authors: Vernon William , Waer Mark
Published: February 2018

This report discusses a case study where the City of Scottsdale, Arizona, will be impacted by the proposed Stage 2 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule (D/DBPR) in its treatment of Salt River Project (SRP) water. The SRP water is a combination of moderate total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations, high water temperature, and free chlorine which creates high levels of chlorinated disinfection byproducts, especially trihalomethanes. Because chilling the water would be very costly and replacing free chlorine as the distribution system residual disinfectant would present other problems, Scottsdale decided that removal of TOC was the best way to meet the requirements of the Stage 2 D/DBPR. This report discusses the selection of microfiltration/ultrafiltration (MF/UF) followed by granular activated carbon (GAC) as the process configuration at its new Chaparral Water Treatment Plant. To maximize the effectiveness of GAC, the project team also evaluated such factors as type of GAC, contact time, configuration, and replacement frequency.
2004 State of the Industry Report
Authors: Murphy Maripat
Published: February 2018

When AWWA members asked for more trend information about where the drinking water industry was headed, the association responded with the State of the Industry (SOTI) survey. The objectives of this first survey were to begin the process of recognizing and tracking significant trends within the water industry; to identify critical concerns, especially emerging issues and those not being adequately addressed; to establish a baseline of information that would facilitate tracking these trends from year to year; to gauge water professionals' perception of the relative health of the industry; to collect specific data that could help the industry prioritize programs and services, and to expand on the association's role as a source of information and a facilitator of an industry‐wide forum addressing essential water issues. In April 2004, surveys were mailed to more than 10,000 AWWA members, and responses were received from more than 1,500 utility personnel, service providers, and individuals. When asked which issues were the most critical facing the water profession, respondents cited five areas of concern: regulatory factors, security, business factors (especially funding), source water supply, and water storage/distribution. Despite the major challenges confronting them, however, survey respondents rated the industry relatively sound overall. Although this inaugural survey provides a wealth of information, the real value of the SOTI study will only become apparent in years to come. By conducting the survey on an annual basis, AWWA will be able to track trends, create a yearly snapshot of where the industry has focused its resources in the past 12 months, and help determine where those resources would be most effectively directed in the future.
Riverbank Filtration: Induced Infiltration and Groundwater Quality
Authors: Gollnitz William D. , Whitteberry Bruce L. , Vogt Jeffrey A.
Published: February 2018

Riverbank filtration relies on the streambed and aquifer matrixes to reduce pathogens under varying conditions of induced infiltration resulting from changes in river stage and flow velocity. The Greater Cincinnati (Ohio) Water Works monitored hydrologic parameters and water quality at its Charles M. Bolton well field during a comprehensive flowpath study. The study determined the frequency of occurrence of high river–stage events from historical data and monitored hydrologic parameters to estimate the potential unit infiltration rate. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, algae, spores, particle counts, and turbidity were also monitored. The project investigated potential pathogen/surrogate breakthrough during several high river–stage and infiltration events. High‐stage events occurred less than 4% of the time. Giardia and Cryptosporidium were not detected in any groundwater samples. Increases in surrogate concentrations were minimal and maintained >3.5‐log reduction. The streambed and aquifer have the ability to buffer water quality effects from major increases in the infiltration rate.
Evaluating GAC Performance Using the ICR Database
Authors: Bond Rick G. , Digiano Francis A.
Published: February 2018

The US Environmental Protection Agency Information Collection Rule (ICR) included a nationwide assessment of the technical feasibility and costs to remove natural organic matter disinfection by‐product (DBP) precursors by granular activated carbon (GAC) and nanofiltration. The resulting database represents the most extensive evaluation available today of GAC efficacy for control of DBPs under real‐world conditions. The purpose of this study was to extend the analysis of the ICR database to establish relationships between GAC service life and the following key factors: source water type, feedwater quality, GAC particle size, and empty bed contact time.
Tabletop exercises: HOW YOU CAN USE THEM TO PREPARE FOR water system incidents
Authors: Moyer Jack
Published: February 2018

Simulating a response to a hypothetical disaster scenario through a tabletop exercise can help prepare water system managers, operators, and emergency preparedness personnel for the real thing. The purpose is not to solve the scenario, but rather to increase understanding and familiarity, develop communications and confidence, and fine‐tune emergency plans. This article provides an overview of the basics necessary to conduct a water system incident tabletop exercise including establishing objectives, identifying key participants, and formatting the exercise, and it offers logistical recommendations. The article also includes a sample scenario broken out by hour. Much of the methodology that applies to a water system incident tabletop exercise can be utilized for conducting tabletop exercises for other emergency scenarios, as well.
Lead leaching from inline brass devices: A critical evaluation of the existing standard
Authors: Dudi Abhijeet , Schock Michael , Murray Nestor , Edwards Marc
Published: February 2018

The American National Standards Institute/NSF Standard 61, Section 8, is intended to protect the public from inline brass plumbing products that might leach excessive levels of lead to potable water. Experiments were conducted to examine the practical rigor of this test. Contrary to expectations, the test was not highly protective of public health. In fact, results indicated that small devices made of pure lead—which pose an obvious public hazard—can easily pass the leaching protocol. Reforms are needed to help prevent such unacceptable outcomes in the future. Brass devices passing the test can contribute to lead levels at the tap in residences, schools, and other buildings.
Anxiety
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his monthly column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr discusses the “epidemic of anxiety” that is spreading from health‐risk information consistently reported by the media to the public and the need for non‐contradictory “good science” standards of reporting.
City of Pomona takes a forward‐looking approach to leveraging local water resources
Authors: Taylor Jim
Published: February 2018

This article describes how the City of Pomona, California, dealt with increasing water demands by upgrading their ion exchange (IX) treatment technology. The Pomona City Council approved an agreement with Basin Water, Inc., to provide for the treatment of high‐nitrate groundwater to comply with drinking water standards. Basin Water's compact, wellhead‐based treatment system was viewed as a way to bring remote wells into compliance and help ensure a reliable, economical, local source of drinking water for Pomona, the fifth largest city in Los Angeles County.
Meeting Customer Expectations: In A Fluid Utility Environment
Authors: Patrick Roger , Means Edward G.
Published: February 2018

The increasing pressure on water utilities to meet growing regulatory expectations is well‐known. Customers are also clamoring for utilities' attention, demanding service, safety, and taste and creating pressure from a different direction. Utilities' primary competition is the bottled water industry because of a public perception of greater safety and better taste. In the service arena, water utilities are rated about the same as the average private sector organization and slightly higher than the average federal agency. This article is the third in a series on trends and their implications for water utilities. The authors examine how customers rate the service of water utilities compared with other utilities, and discuss how decision‐makers and much of the general public are largely unaware of or misinformed about environmental and other issues affecting the water industry. The authors go on to discuss how simply providing high‐quality water and engineering excellence are not enough to ensure customer satisfaction and public support, and they provide ideas for improving customer service and satisfaction and countering media misinformation.
Mixing it up: Integrated disinfection scenarios in drinking water treatment
Authors: Long Bruce W. , Hulsey Robert A. , Neemann Jeff J.
Published: February 2018

This column discusses the quandry water utilities face when attempting to concurrently achieve higher levels of pathogen disinfection and lower levels of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Integrated disinfection, one such strategy utilities can use to achieve this goal, is the focus of this article. Two case studies, examples of integrated disinfection, are also discussed: Evaluation of chlorine dioxide and ozone; and, evaluation of ozone and ultraviolet (UV) light.
2005 Update on Water Industry Consolidation Trends
Authors: Maxwell Steve
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the ongoing consolidation trend in the water industry, from major players such as General Electric (GE) and Siemens of Germany, to emerging players such as Danaher Corp. and 3M Corp. A table detailing key recent water transactions between companies is also included.
Planning for the future: AMR installation enhances economic development
Authors: Segrest Brandon
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the transition to an automated meter reading (AMR) system by the Department of Utilities for the city of Fountain, Colorado. The system combined radio frequency handheld devices and mobile units capable of reading both water and electric meters, coordinated through a single route‐management software. The reasons for the conversion as well as the benefits that resulted from it are discussed.
Consideration of Economic Factors Possible in Reissuing NPDES Permits
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H.
Published: February 2018

The Supreme Court of California has ruled that regional water quality control boards may take economic factors into account when imposing pollutant restrictions that are more stringent than those required under federal law.
Camp Creek Water Reclamation Facility gets a new lease on life
Authors: Porter Joseph
Published: February 2018

This article discusses an expansion to Fulton County, Georgia's Camp Creek Water Reclamation Facility (CCWRF), and the public‐private procurement method known as design‐build‐operate (DBO) that was used.
Authentic Intelligence: Automated Decision‐Making Through GTSM
Authors: Wodraska John (Woody) , Hampson Jack
Published: February 2018

Standard water industry tools, such as supervisory control and data acquisition and modeling programs, collect and store data that are currently unrelated to time and space. With a new tool, geospatial time‐series management (GTSM), water managers can consider anything that moves or changes through time, such as rainfall, reservoir levels, treatment flows, and natural stream flow. GTSM transforms data into a predictive decision‐making tool by translating the information into the correct units and format to operate within a single geographic information system‐driven resource. This delivers time‐varying, location‐specific data instantaneously to all staff, resulting in improved decision‐ making. With GTSM, water managers can help offset the loss of institutional knowledge supplied by now‐retiring experienced employees, thereby maximizing technology investments. The tool has applications in water resource and watershed management, National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System contaminant tracing, treatment system optimization, modeling calibration, and many other aspects of the drinking water industry.
Formation of Pb(IV) oxides in chlorinated water
Authors: Lytle Darren A. , Schock Michael R.
Published: February 2018

Recent research has shown that Pb(IV) oxides play a significant geochemical role in drinking water distribution systems. However, most of the guidance for lead control in drinking water is based on the presumption that Pb(II) solids control lead solubility. Therefore, a better understanding of the chemistry of Pb(IV) in water is needed. Long‐term lead precipitation experiments were conducted in chlorinated water (1–3 mg/L Cl2) at pH 6.5, 8, and 10, with and without sulfate. Results showed that two Pb(IV) dioxide polymorphs—plattnerite (β‐PbO2) and scrutinyite (α‐PbO2)—formed over time, as long as a high suspension redox potential was maintained with free chlorine. Neither mineral formed spontaneously, and the rate of formation increased with increasing pH. Hydrocerrusite and/or cerrusite initially precipitated out and over time either disappeared or coexisted with PbO2. Water pH dictated mineralogical presence. High pH favored hydrocerrusite and scrutinyite; low pH favored cerrusite and plattnerite. Along with a transformation of Pb(II) to Pb(IV) came a change in particle color from white to a dark shade of red to dark grey (differing with pH) and a decrease in lead solubility. If free chlorine was permitted to dissipate, the aging processes (i.e., mineralogy, color, and solubility) were reversible.
A sacrificial anode retrofit program for existing cast‐iron distribution water mains
Authors: Klopfer Danny J. , Schramuk Jeff
Published: February 2018

Public water utilities face a significant economic burden created by the deterioration of their water distribution systems. Applying cathodic protection (CP) can extend the life of an existing water distribution main system. This report discusses how, in 2003, the Des Moines (Iowa) Water Works (DMWW) implemented an in situ sacrificial anode retrofit program to reduce main breaks and extend the life of its system. The results of a 2003‐2004 pilot program show that a 20‐year life extension can be achieved at less than 10% of the replacement cost of the piping. Implementation of a full‐scale program should prove to be a viable economic alternative to either repairs or water main replacements in the coming years. A CP anode installation technique is discussed and economic analysis of CP versus main replacement/main break repairs is given.
Minneapolis Water Works' Ultrafiltration Plant Gets Off to a Big Start
Authors: Pressdee Jonathan , Rezania Shahin , Hill Chad
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the planning, design, and startup of a large‐scale membrane plant, integrated with existing infrastructure. The Minneapolis Water Works (MWW) plant produces drinking water for Minneapolis, Minnesota, residents and draws water directly from the Mississippi River, which has posed challenges in the past because of rapid water quality changes. An exhaustive study and pilot project identified suitable treatment technologies that met MWW's goals and ensured that anticipated changes to water regulations could be met. Ultrafiltration (UF) was selected as the best technology for the plant. Careful planning, good communication, and continuous pilot‐testing and assessment of design feasibility were key to the successful integration of membrane technology into the plant, now the largest UF plant in North America.
A review of Cryptosporidium removal by granular media filtration
Authors: Emelko Monica B. , Huck Peter M. , Coffey Bradley M.
Published: February 2018

This article consolidates and updates available information on Cryptosporidium removal by filtration, with a focus on optimal and suboptimal filtration performance. Emphasis was placed on integrating various strategies for optimizing filtration processes with the most current information regarding pathogen removal by filtration. As this review underscores, in response to regulations such as the Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR) and the Long Term 2 ESWTR, there is a need to develop methods to compare the relative effectiveness of treatment alternatives and to understand the most significant operational effects on filter performance. In many cases, filters operated at or near optimal conditions can achieve in the vicinity of 3‐log (or better) removal of Cryptosporidium. Operational conditions such as coagulant upsets and end‐of‐run (early breakthrough) filtration may significantly decrease oocyst removal by drinking water filters, even when filter effluent turbidities are low (<0.3 ntu).
Establishing Service Levels—the Driving Force of a Utility
Authors: Urquhart Tony P. , Sklar David C.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the ultimate objective of good utility management: achieving desired service levels within defined cost and business constraints. The article defines service levels as the performance goals of the utility, and as such they serve as the driving force of a utility. Four basic categories of service levels are discussed, along with establishing achievable service; obtaining senior‐level commitment; assessing and prioritizing business drivers; analyzing current capabilities, performance, and requirements; defining measures and setting targets; continuous measurement and improvement; and, using service levels to guide asset management.
Leveraging diversity: a customer service strategy
Authors: Wood Stephanie
Published: February 2018

This article discusses reluctance by some businesses to embrace workforce diversity. The article suggests that the strategy companies should use to gain buy‐in from all employees is to accept and leverage the differences of all employees as being mutually beneficial. Topics discussed include valuing diversity by building a foundation of respect, and the relationship between diversity and superior customer service.
Lignite versus bituminous GAC for biofiltration— a case study
Authors: Najm Issam , Kennedy Michael , Naylor William
Published: February 2018

The city of Wilmington, N.C., initiated a study to compare lignite granular activated carbon (GAC) to bituminous GAC for biofiltration at the city's surface water treatment plant. The plant uses conventional filtration with preozonation and intermediate ozonation to treat water from the Cape Fear River. For this study, the existing GAC media in two of the plant's full‐scale dual‐media filters was replaced—one with lignite GAC and the other with bituminous GAC. The two new filters and one control filter containing the original GAC were operated and monitored for 13 months. The first three months were used to exhaust the adsorptive capacity of the new GAC and biologically acclimate it. During the subsequent 10 months, water quality samples were collected from various points throughout the treatment plant and from the effluent of each of the three filters. The samples were analyzed for various physical, chemical, and biological constituents. Quarterly GAC samples were also collected from each filter and analyzed for biomass content. The results indicated that the two types of GAC performed equally well in terms of removing turbidity, dissolved organic matter, color, assimilable organic carbon, and total aldehydes. The bacterial counts in the effluent of the two filters and on the GAC were also similar.
Impact of biomass on the stability of HAAs and THMs in a simulated distribution system
Authors: Baribeau Hèléne , Krasner Stuart W. , Chinn Russell , Singer Philip C.
Published: February 2018

This article addresses the biostability of trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) in simulated distribution systems (annular reactors). The annular reactors were placed in two parallel trains at the effluent of a full‐scale treatment plant: one train received chlorinated water, and the other received chloraminated water. Each train was composed of two annular reactors in series. The upstream annular reactor received water with a disinfectant residual, and the downstream annular reactor received dechlorinated or dechloraminated water. In warm water (17–22°C) and in the absence of a disinfectant residual, the dihalogenated HAA species degraded in the downstream annular reactors of both trains (by ~75% in the chlorinated train and ~60% in the chloraminated train). These HAAs were not degraded, however, in cold water (12–14°C) or in the presence of a disinfectant residual. The THMs and the trihalogenated HAAs were not observed to degrade under the experimental conditions (i.e., 12‐h retention time in each annular reactor).
The Politics of Public Health
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr talks about how politics has always influenced public health. In particular, he focuses on the Omnibus Energy Bill that calls for a phase‐out of methyl‐tertiary‐butyl‐ether (MTBE) that has been used in the past as a gasoline additive to reduce tailpipe emissions, but has been found to be an extremely damaging water pollutant that leaches into the groundwater. The Energy Bill grants immunity (”safe harbor”) from product liability lawsuits to the MTBE manufacturers for water contamination. Hoffbuhr urges all public health professionals to get involved in blocking the bill so that the $29 billion in cleanup costs will not be transferred from the polluters onto the public tax burden.
How Healthy are Your Utility's Financial Fundamentals?
Authors: Hoover Howard W. , Raftelis George A.
Published: February 2018

Three areas that utilities should address in order to improve their financial strength include: financial planning and management, effective pricing, and affordability. This article discusses these areas, as well as their benefit and importance in encouraging effective planning and preparation for utilities to meet future challenges. First, financial planning and management involve an iterative process through which strategic business planning, capital planning, and financial planning are considered. Second, effective pricing is a key component to help utilities realize their goals and objectives through an equitable rate structure. Third, affordability and factors affecting the affordability of water and wastewater service offer insights into circumstances and limitations that may affect the revenue‐earning potential of utilities. By addressing these areas, utilities are further enhancing their financial strength. With water rates increasing at a rate nearly twice that of the consumer price index, affordability is becoming an increasingly important, as well as challenging, issue. The steady upward climb of water rates, and the associated challenges that will likely come with this trend, will make sound financial planning one of the more important issues to be faced by utilities in the coming decade.
The Value of Water: What It Means, Why It's Important, and How Water Utility Managers Can Use It
Authors: Raucher Bob
Published: February 2018

Many utilities face difficulties in raising rates to accommodate the costs associated with infrastructure renewal, enhanced security precautions, and other necessities. Contributing to this issue is a general under‐appreciation of the value a utility provides to its community. At the core of this problem is the value of water. This value, the commodity itself and the service provided, must be communicated to customers and factored into utility decisions. But in order to do so, we must first understand the term. This article clearly defines what value means in quantitative and qualitative terms, factoring in ethical and moral considerations, as well, and provides information on how large some estimated values are. In the context of public discussion and decision making, values must reflect what is important to appointed and elected officials, customers, stakeholders, and the public. This article offers managers suggestions for how to tap values when making decisions and seeking customer and/or political support.
Biostability characterization in a full‐scale hybrid NF/RO treatment system
Authors: Hong Seungkwan , Escobar Isabel C. , Hershey‐Pyle Julie , Hobbs Colin , Cho Jaeweon
Published: February 2018

The objective of this study was to quantify the assimilable organic carbon (AOC) in processing water at several stages of a full‐scale nanofiltration (NF) water treatment plant. The NF membrane plant investigated was a 45,400‐m3/d (12‐mgd) water‐softening facility in Plantation, Fla. The average AOC concentration of raw feedwater was estimated at 158 μg/L acetate‐C. After pretreatment (acid and antiscalant addition), AOC levels increased by 12.7% (p‐value = 0.055), suggesting that pretreatment chemicals used to control scaling may enhance bacterial growth potential on the membrane surface. The results also demonstrated that the membrane system was capable of effectively removing 63.4% of AOC and showed a decrease in membrane productivity over time (declined linearly at a rate of approximately 1.2 times 10‐4 L/m2/h ÷ kPa [4.9 times 10‐4 gfd ÷ psi] per d). This decrease could be attributed to biofouling, as observed by a steady increase in differential pressure during operation, and to natural organic matter fouling, as shown by the composition of the organic matter in the feedwater (54.9% hydrophobic and 18.1% hydrophilic neutral compounds).
Water is Cheap—Ridiculously Cheap!
Authors: Maxwell Steve
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the real value of water versus the average price of water relative to the other necessities and various luxuries of life. It also makes key comparisons regarding the price of water and states the inevitability of having to pay more for water. The article provides three tables that list the average price of water by country, price comparison of water versus other widely used consumer goods, and total U.S. spending on water versus other products and activities.