bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Global Politics of Jesus
Authors: Saiya Nilay
Published: June 2022

Since the fourth century, Christians have wrestled with how to interact with political authority—what it means to give to Caesar what is Caesar’s and to God what is God’s. The most common view holds that while Christians’ ultimate loyalty rightfully belongs to God, as earthly citizens they also have loyalties to the countries where they live and a moral responsibility to improve the world that surrounds them. Given these realities, it seems natural for the church to fervently engage in political life and cultivate a close relationship with the state. Such beliefs, however, result in a “paradox of privilege.” The church yielding to political power’s seduction—either by allowing itself to be coopted by worldly powers or by seeking to advance the kingdom of God through the machinery of the state—has often worsened the very problems Christians are trying to solve and harmed the church itself in the process. On the other hand, Christians resisting cooptation by the state, contesting the myth of the chosen nation, and demanding an equal playing field for all faith traditions has placed the church in the best position to fight injustice and violence, promote development, and engage in peacebuilding and reconciliation. Using global data and case studies, the book examines the paradox of privilege with respect to some of the most important areas in contemporary global politics: violence and persecution, human rights, foreign policy, and peace and reconciliation. This book also considers what the paradox of privilege means for the church itself.
Holy Humanitarians? Christianity and Human Rights
Authors: Saiya Nilay
Published: June 2022

This chapter deals with the intersection of Christianity and human rights. It argues that support for human rights runs deep in the Christian DNA. The claim that human rights are integral to Christian doctrine raises the important question, though, of why Christians have vacillated in support of them throughout Christian history. This chapter makes the case that Christians have been most supportive of human rights—in particular, women’s rights, racial justice, and religious freedom—when the church has maintained its distance from the state. Thus, in contexts where Christians have insisted on and been given space to act on the most fundamental teachings of their faith, they have been empowered to transform societies for the better in accordance with their understanding of the gospel message by demanding and promoting individual and corporal virtue.
Localized Bargaining
Authors: MA Xiao
Published: June 2022

China’s high-speed railway network is one of the largest infrastructure programs in human history. Despite global media coverage, we know very little about the political process that led the government to invest in the railway program and the reasons for the striking regional and temporal variation in such investments. In Localized Bargaining, Xiao Ma offers a novel theory of intergovernmental bargaining that explains the unfolding of China's unprecedented high-speed railway program. Drawing on a wealth of in-depth interviews, original data sets, and surveys with local officials, Ma details how the bottom-up bargaining efforts by territorial authorities—whom the central bureaucracies rely on to implement various infrastructure projects—shaped the allocation of investment in the railway system. Territorial authorities and their leaders engage in localized bargaining to navigate and forge consensus among the fragmented entities that comprise the central bureaucracy; those who do so effectively gain an advantage for their localities. The book demonstrates in detail how localities of different types invoke institutional and extra-institutional sources of bargaining power in their competition for railway stations. These dynamics have broader implications for our understanding of the institutional arrangements that shape modern-day China and explain such phenomena as its economic miracle and the resilience of the communist government.
Local Ambitions in Central Policymaking
Authors: MA Xiao
Published: June 2022

The chapter begins with a description of the process a local government undertakes in seeking approval for its proposals for rail infrastructure in the locality. The fragmented, interlocking nature of central bureaucratic authorities makes bottom-up solicitation by local governments a primary factor in explaining the variations in central allocative decisions. By studying the daily operation of localities’ Beijing offices, the chapter then examines the strategies local authorities employ to solicit central policy benefits, and the conditions under which such efforts succeed or fail. It finds that local leaders’ willingness and efforts, combined with localities’ ranks in the party-state’s hierarchy, are crucial determinants of the bargaining outcomes. The chapter ends with a survey of 893 Chinese local officials. Survey data on officials’ perceptions of the role of bottom-up policy bargains in determining government resource allocation corroborates findings from the qualitative interviews.
The Power of the Masses
Authors: MA Xiao
Published: June 2022

This chapter examines the strategies of cleric localities, whose peripheral positions within the party-state limit their voice and capabilities in procuring policy benefits through formal channels. In such localities, leaders seek help from actors outside of the party-state, and often through means that are less institutionalized than those cardinal localities use. One such strategy, which I term “consent instability,” is tacit tolerance by local officials of mass mobilizations in which citizens demand policy benefits from above. The chapter shows that protests in the streets help send a costly signal to higher-level authorities that ignoring the demand for resources will put social stability at risk. This has led to over a dozen local “high-speed railway protests” across China in recent years. The chapter specifies the institutional conditions under which such a bargaining strategy emerges by using a detailed case study, and corroborates findings from the case study with a survey of local party cadres.
Conclusion
Authors: MA Xiao
Published: June 2022

This chapter summarizes the main findings of the book. Situated in the context of China’s high-speed railway program, the book proposes and tests the argument that the allocation of central policy benefits is shaped by bottom-up, localized bargaining on the part of territorial governments. The findings not only enhance our understandings of policy processes in China, but also contribute to the literature on distributive politics and bureaucracy in general. The chapter then proposes several questions that are related to the subject for future studies. The argument and findings in this book prompt a re-examination of how institutions that facilitate interest articulation and power-sharing contribute to regime resilience in China; It also discusses what recent changes to recentralize power in Chinese politics and the rising popular localism mean for the future of China’s policy process and development.
Introduction
Authors: Lynch Marc
Published: June 2022

This chapter traces the evolution of the field of Middle East political science from its Cold War origins to the present day. The post-2011 renaissance of scholarship on the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) did not emerge in an intellectual vacuum. It built upon several decades of field-building research, which had gradually positioned scholars of the MENA to respond well to the intellectual, policy, and practical challenges posed by the Arab uprisings. In this way, Middle East political science came to transcend long-standing criticisms of being overly insular, methodologically weak, and politically problematic—aspersions that had dogged this field for decades but which are no longer tenable. The chapter then lays out six major contributions to political science made by regional specialists, which cut across the chapters. It concludes with a dissection of the challenges that MENA scholars now face in an era of ethical dilemmas, authoritarian backsliding, and the coronavirus pandemic.
Islam and Islamism
Authors: Masoud Tarek , al-Anani Khalil , Freer Courtney , Mecham Quinn
Published: June 2022

Studies on political Islam have evolved greatly, far outpacing how many other comparative political scientists treat religion in politics. Well before the Arab uprisings, MENA specialists were already making substantive contributions to inquiries about how the sphere of religion interacted with the politics of governance, mobilization, and identity. This chapter examines popular hypotheses that Islam facilitates the persistence of authoritarian regimes over democratic ones, either by inculcating antidemocratic political values and/or explicit preferences for authoritarianism in Muslims or simply because Muslims vote for Islamist political parties. It then turns to the scholarship on Islam and political violence, and specifically addresses debates over the role of Salafi-jihadism in inspiring violence. Finally, the chapter shows how political shifts in the MENA region have opened up new areas of research on the role of religion and religious political actors in multiple sectors of politics.
Conclusion
Authors: Ali Saleem H.
Published: June 2022

Synthesizing the key themes of the book, the Conclusion lays out our current juncture as a civilization in making decisions that may lead toward either a more fragmented or harmonious future order. Five key “take-home” messages from the book’s insights are presented with contemporary examples, including the 2020 US presidential election. Going back to the metaphor of the kaleidoscope with which this book opened, the author presents a coda for “chromatic order” that is partially reminiscent of the balance in society suggested by the ancient Greek polymath Vitruvius, one existing between beauty (venustas), usability (utilitas), and durability (firmitas).
Treaties as Data
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang
Published: June 2022

This chapter uses data science to empirically trace the design change of over 3,300 international investment agreements. The chapter introduces computational legal scholarship that promises to scale empirical legal research. It then applies computational legal tools to inductively study the change of investment treaties. Using the new and comprehensive Electronic Database of Investment Treaties dataset, which covers virtually all investment treaties in force, the chapter lets “treaties speak for themselves” by applying natural language processing to represent treaty texts as data. This treaty data is then investigated through principal component analysis to reveal the most important design difference that runs through the investment treaty universe. The result is a map that tracks treaty design variation over time. This map is then used to distinguish between old- and new-generation treaty design and to assess the investment arbitration case law under the latter, finding that new treaties have largely produced old outcomes.
Change as Gap-Filling
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang
Published: June 2022

This chapter uses contract theory, a branch of law and economics, to characterize the change in treaty design revealed in Chapter 1. It argues that contract theory applied to international investment treaties offers a meta-narrative for the treaty design evolution from incomplete to more complete agreements that accommodates existing accounts of treaty design change such as a drive for greater policy space, precision, and control over adjudicators. It empirically shows that the four gap-filling strategies identified by contract theory (1) more comprehensive contracting, (2) escape clauses, (3) relational contracting, and (4) delegation of gap-filling to third parties correspond to how states have designed ever more complete investment agreements. In addition, contract theory helps to understand why state-driven reform has been met with an arbitral backlash as different gap-filling strategies can be in competition.
All Roads Lead North
Authors: Mulmi Amish Raj
Published: June 2022

During the June 2020 territorial dispute over Kalapani, India blamed tensions on a newly assertive Nepal’s deepening relations with China. But beyond the accusations and grandstanding, this reflects a new reality: the power equations in South Asia have been redrawn, to make space for China. Nepal did not turn northwards overnight. Its ties with China have deep historical roots built on Buddhism, dating to the early first millennium. While India’s unofficial 2015 blockade provided momentum to the rift with Delhi, Nepal has long wanted deeper ties with Beijing, to counteract India’s oppressive intimacy. With China’s growing South Asian and global ambitions, Nepal now has a new primary bilateral partner--and Nepalis are forging a path towards modernity with its help, both in the remote borderlands and in the cities. All Roads Lead North offers a long view of Nepal’s foreign relations, today underpinned by China’s world-power status. Sharing never-before-told stories about Tibetan guerrilla fighters, failed coup leaders and trans-Himalayan traders, Nepal analyst Amish Raj Mulmi examines the histories binding mountain communities together across the Sino-Nepali border. Part history, part journalistic account, Mulmi's is a complex, compelling and rigorously researched study of a small country caught between two neighbourhood giants.
Traders on the Silk Road
Authors: Mulmi Amish Raj
Published: June 2022

This chapter looks at the history of Newar trans-Himalayan traders from Kathmandu valley, and how such trade came to an end with the 1962 India–China war. The chapter dwells on Kathmandu as the historical center of trans-Himalayan trade, and the socio-cultural and familial relations that developed out of such trade. Finally, it looks at the decline of Kathmandu valley as an entrepot due to British imperialism.
Epilogue
Authors: Mulmi Amish Raj
Published: June 2022

As the Covid-19 pandemic brought things to a halt, Nepal–China relations witnessed significant changes, especially politically. This chapter breaks down the post-Covid geopolitical situation in Nepal, and how both India and China have responded to the pandemic vis-à-vis Nepal.
Ressentiment, Power, and Value
Authors: Reginster Bernard
Published: June 2022

This paper presents an interpretation of the attitude of life-denial as an extreme form of ressentiment and offers a sketch of the role played by ressentiment in the genesis of life-denial. In particular, it is suggested that identifying ressentiment as the source of the ascetic ideal enables Nietzsche to explain how it can both ‘seduce’ and yet end up being a life-denying force. The adherent to the ascetic ideal is ‘inept at living’ and in particular at securing the satisfaction of their most basic natural needs. This inability to satisfy one’s most basic needs not only arouses ressentiment but also elicits a feeling of impotence. The paper advances the view that the negative valuation of what is natural and instinctual, or the ends the agent feels unable to realize, is motivated by ressentiment and aims at restoring in him the ‘feeling of power’ that has been injured by his repeated failures.
Veps
Authors: Grünthal Riho
Published: June 2022

Veps is geographically the easternmost of the Finnic minority languages in north-west Russia. The Veps speech community has rapidly decreased since the 1930s owing to assimilation, migration, low birth-rate, and political and economic changes. Veps phonology and morphology are clearly distinct from those of other Finnic languages, whereas there are only minor differences between the three major dialects, northern, central, and southern Veps. The morpheme order is word + number + case, whereas possessive suffixes are used very rarely. Verbs have two conjugations, the subjective and the reflexive conjugations. The tense system is shifting towards a two-tense pattern consisting of present and past, instead of four tenses. The basic word order SVO is flexible and may change in terms of topicality and discourse functions. Literary language and spoken varieties differ considerably from one another. The latter displays ample code-switching and Russian vocabulary, whereas literary Veps has been influenced by Finnish.
Samoyedic
Authors: Wagner-Nagy Beáta , Szeverényi Sándor
Published: June 2022

The Samoyedic branch now consists of the following languages indigenous to Western Siberia: Nenets, Enets, Nganasan, and Selkup. Two Southern Samoyedic languages, Mator and Kamas, are extinct, and also the remaining Samoyedic languages are severely or critically endangered. This chapter describes the characteristics of Samoyedic languages and their background in the reconstructible Proto-Samoyedic. All Samoyedic languages are predominantly agglutinative, but Northern Samoyedic (Enets, Nenets, Nganasan) shows a high degree of fusion in the marking of case and number. In addition to singular and plural, Samoyedic languages have a dual number. Similarly to Ugric and Mordvin, their verbal inflection includes a distinct objective conjugation (object-agreement paradigm). As concerns their syntax, the Samoyedic languages are characterized by PRO-DROP and diverse types of non-finite subordination.
Kamas
Authors: Klumpp Gerson
Published: June 2022

Kamas is an extinct Samoyed language of Southern Siberia, most closely related to Selkup. In the extinct Sayan Samoyedic group it is the only language of which proper documentation survives. Its last speaker, Klavdia Plotnikova, died in 1989. Kamas was documented starting from the eighteenth century. Over centuries it had been in close contact with South Siberian Turkic languages, from the nineteenth century on also with Russian. There are two main dialects, Kamas proper and Koybal. The chapter provides an introduction into the grammar of Kamas, based on the main sources from the mid-nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century. The chapter also addresses morphosyntactic parallels with Siberian Turkic, as well as the differences between traditional Kamas as documented until 1914 and terminal Kamas, documented in the 1960s and 1970s.
Management Divided
Authors: Vidal Matt
Published: June 2022

This richly evidenced study of American manufacturing documents how one of the central dynamics shaping organizations today is a contradiction managers face between ensuring workforce discipline and harnessing worker creativity. This contradiction has been intensifying over the last four decades as employee involvement has become increasingly important in response to rapid technical change, requirements for flexibility, and demands for continuous improvement. Global best practice in manufacturing includes lean production with substantive worker empowerment: cross training in enlarged tasks and inclusion in problem solving and decision making. Yet, facing conflicting pressures, many managers satisfice by training workers in narrow tasks and using them exclusively for manual labor. Vidal presents a synthetic theory called organizational political economy, integrating concepts from organization theory—institutional logics, organizational fields, managerial satisficing, and operational routines—into a classical marxist framework. Rather than theorizing managers as preoccupied with controlling labor to maximize exploitation, the theory emphasizes how contradictory developments—conflicting pressures and competing logics of labor management—lead management to be divided. Some managers adopt best practice by substantively empowering their workforce while others settle for good enough. Capitalist management is increasingly a source of organizational inefficiency. The argument is not limited to manufacturing or to lean production. Managers experience contradictory pressures—for standardization versus discretion, deskilling versus upskilling, and routine manual versus abstract cognitive labor—in a wide range of occupations, including social services, education, healthcare, office and administrative support, and software development.
The Emergence of Catalan Nationalism
Authors: McRoberts Kenneth
Published: June 2022

With the 1880s, a coherent nationalist ideology, Catalanism, emerged in the hands of a conservative Catalan intelligentsia. Rather than formal independence, Catalanism sought Catalonia’s self-government within a federal Spain, as well as the modernization of the Spanish state. Catalanist pressures resulted in the Mancomunitat, Catalonia’s first self-government. However, by the 1930s the Catalan nationalist movement had become firmly leftist, while remaining committed to Catalan self-government rather than outright independence. The Catalan Generalitat, created in 1932, was undermined by the rejection of Catalan nationalism by the Second Republic Spanish state, as well as by divisions in Catalonia between nationalists and anarchists.
After the UDI
Authors: McRoberts Kenneth
Published: June 2022

The Catalan parliament’s declaration of independence had a profound and enduring impact, even if it did not result in the creation of an independent state. More than four years after it had been adopted, the declaration continued to polarize the politics of Spain and Catalonia. The chapter explores political developments in Catalonia, and Spain, in the wake of the failed secessionist attempt, assessing the halting efforts of the Spanish government to fashion a political accommodation of Catalonia and tracing how this effort has been undermined by forces within the state that remain loyal to the ideal of a single Spanish nation.
The Polish Campaign and the Winter War 1939‒1940
Authors: Moore Bob
Published: June 2022

For many years, the Katyn massacre dominated the discussion of Polish prisoners during the Second World War but this masked how the majority were caught up in both German and Soviet schemes for ethnic cleansing, mass deportation, and economic enslavement. This chapter charts how German and later Soviet military successes in September and October 1939 led to the incarceration of hundreds of thousands of Polish soldiers. It goes on to record the German steps made to civilianize them in the interests of the wider war effort—thus arbitrarily excluding them from the protection of the Geneva Convention. Many thousands of men were deployed from 1940 onwards as forced labour in agriculture, even inside Germany itself, a step that seems to have been taken despite the Nazis’ desire to defend ideas of racial purity within the Reich. The Soviets also took substantial numbers of prisoners, dividing the officers from the other ranks, with some of the former being subjected to political indoctrination campaigns. Their largely unresponsive response led to the large-scale liquidations of these men in the Katyn forest and elsewhere—a crime uncovered by the Nazis in 1943 but not acknowledged by the USSR until 1990. The chapter also examines the fate of all the other remaining Polish prisoners, both as forced labourers inside the Soviet Union and then subsequently their recruitment into Anders’ Army and its transfer to the West. Finally, it looks at the fate of Soviet and Finnish prisoners in the Winter War and Continuation War, 1940‒4.
The Western Allies and their German Prisoners 1939‒1945
Authors: Moore Bob
Published: June 2022

Security concerns about housing German prisoners in the United Kingdom led to their wholesale removal to Canada between 1940 and 1944—so that the dominant narrative is of Canadian captivity until the war in NW Europe saw Germans being brought to the UK in large numbers. This chapter charts the incarceration of the so-called ‘fur trappers’ in camps across several Canadian provinces and how the dominion authorities met their responsibilities as a detaining power. This includes an assessment of Canadian views on carrying out Churchill’s reciprocal shackling of prisoners 1942‒3, the economic value of the prisoners, and the attempts made to re-educate them. Although far from home, this did not deter some determined individuals from trying to escape to the (then neutral) United States with one man making it all the way back to Germany via South America. Even after December 1941, escapes remained a common occurrence—more to inconvenience their captors than with any realistic chance of success. The chapter also discusses German and Italian prisoners in the continental United States.
Conflict in the Balkans
Authors: Moore Bob
Published: June 2022

Axis campaigns in the Balkan region involved many different types of enemy formations. The war against the Yugoslav state was over in a matter of weeks and its captured forces underwent very different treatment, with Croats released to join the nationalist forces of their new state, other nationalities released, and only the Serbs remaining in captivity. Thereafter, the Germans and Italians were faced with irregular forces (Chetniks, partisans, etc.) who were initially treated as francs-tireurs and executed if caught. Over time, this seems to have undergone a degree of change as Axis troops were captured in numbers and there was some limited amelioration and prisoner-taking. There is also an examination of the situations in Albania and Greece where defeat of the latter led to Greek forces being demobilized and sent home. In conclusion, the chapter looks at the German responses to irregular forces more generally and highlights the continuing hard line against Soviet partisans with the compromises reached with the Free French and the Polish Home Army in 1944‒5.
Continuing Captivity
Authors: Moore Bob
Published: June 2022

The Soviets developed their own prisoner of war regime to cope with increasing numbers of captured Axis prisoners as the Red Army advanced through Eastern Europe. Once the war ended, the USSR also acquired many more prisoners and their immediate plans involved keeping them as manpower for the Soviet economy for anything up to fifteen years. This stance was soon moderated, and plans were formulated to meet the agreement to repatriate all prisoners by December 1948. This left a limited number of men still in Soviet camps whose continued captivity was ‘explained’ by their conviction as ‘war criminals’. Precise numbers remained unknown and it undoubtedly true that many thousands died in captivity or in labour camps. While there were periodic releases in the post-war years, the last prisoners were not returned home until 1955‒6.
The Power of Digital Advocacy Organizations
Authors: Hall Nina
Published: June 2022

Digital advocacy organizations challenge many existing accounts of advocacy in international relations (IR). IR scholars tend to assume that advocacy organizations have issue expertise, long-term commitment to a cause, and professional staff who will select campaigns. However, new digital advocacy organizations are issue generalists and their staff have expertise in digital campaigning, but rarely in specific issue areas. These organizations campaign in rapid-response mode: starting, stopping, and switching campaigns frequently. Furthermore, they use digital analytics to test their campaigns and identify which are more likely to be popular with their members. Advocacy organizations’ ability to mobilize people rapidly online and offline should be theorized as a source of power, alongside expertise and moral commitment to a cause.
The Purposes of a Transnational Network
Authors: Hall Nina
Published: June 2022

The Online Progressive Engagement Network (OPEN) has enabled cooperation across a close-knit, global network of digital activists. OPEN has organized summits, staff secondments, training, and the sharing of digital technologies. OPEN organizations have also assisted the establishment of new organizations through mentoring and financing. This chapter analyses the forms of transnational solidarity that digital activists participate in, and those they do not. There are tensions within OPEN about what it should be: a platform for transnational campaigning and/or a forum for exchanging tactics and technologies. It finds that digital activists frequently share tactics, framing, and technology, but rarely develop collective campaign plans.
Staff or Member-Driven?
Authors: Hall Nina
Published: June 2022

In a purely member-driven organization, decisions are left to the will of the majority, and it can be harder to campaign on minority rights. In response, Online Progressive Engagement Network (OPEN) organizations have developed a staff-stewardship logic. Staff choose campaigns based on progressive values, and may commit for several years to campaign on a particular issue. They may choose an issue which has little initial support and stick with it, despite a little support from their members. Over time, they will seek to shape their members’ interests, and even shape who becomes a member of the digital advocacy organization. This contrasts with the typical member-driven model, where staff react to members’ preferences. I illustrate the member-driven and staff-driven logic with case studies of campaigns for: Māori rights, refugee rights, and against the Transatlantic Trade and Intellectual Property Agreement.
Diffuse X-ray Scattering and Models of Disorder
Authors: Welberry T.R.
Published: June 2022

Diffuse X-ray scattering is a rich source of local structural information over and above that obtained by conventional crystal structure determination (crystallography). The main aim in the book is to show how computer simulation of a model crystal provides a general method by which diffuse scattering of all kinds and from all types of materials can be interpreted and analysed. Part I gives a description of the experimental methods used to obtain diffuse scattering data including recent improvements both in synchrotron and neutron facilities and latest detectors that are now available. Part II describes a number of stochastic models of disorder, which allows various concepts to be established and enables simple examples to be generated to illustrate key principles. Part III describes example studies of a wide variety of real materials. These examples not only document the development of computer simulation methods for investigating and analysing disorder problems but also provide a resource for helping future researchers recognise the kinds of effects which can occur and for pointing the way to tackling new problems which are encountered. Part IV describes more recent studies in which the increased computational power, coupled with improvements in the quality and quantity of data that is now obtainable, has allowed more quantitative and detailed analyses to be undertaken.
Disorder in higher dimensions
Authors: Welberry T.R.
Published: June 2022

The basic differences from 1D that a higher dimension imparts are discussed by exploring a simple 2-dimensional growth model. In this model – a simple extension of the 1D Markov chain – a point is added to the lattice depending on its nearest predecessors in two directions. Comparison of the growth and Ising formulations has allowed analytical solutions to be found in some special cases. Of particular interest is the fact that disordered distributions having the same 2-point correlations but different 3-point or 4-point correlations can be generated. The Ising formulation is more general than the growth formulation and these extra degrees of freedom can be explored using Monte Carlo simulation. A modulation wave approach for directly synthesizing a disordered distribution of diffuse scattering is also described.
Interactions between occupancies and displacements
Authors: Welberry T.R.
Published: June 2022

A general description of diffuse scattering is described that allows for both short-range compositional (chemical) order and associated local atomic distortions. This leads to the concept of diffuse intensity components – short-range order (SRO), size-effect, thermal diffuse scattering (TDS) and Huang scattering. An Ising-like model that incorporates both occupations and displacements is described and is used to demonstrate the meanings of the different components. The effect of local distortions on systems with multi-site correlations is discussed.
p-chloro-N-(p-methyl-benzylidene)aniline (MeCl)
Authors: Welberry T.R.
Published: June 2022

MeCl is one of a number of para disubstituted benzylidene anilines that have been of interest to theoretical chemists studying the way in which molecular shape and conformation influences the crystal structure of a compound. The molecular site in the structure contains molecules in one of four different orientations related by end-to-end and side-to-side flips. The complex diffuse scattering pattern has been successfully reproduced using a Monte Carlo simulation model in which 4 independent sets of random variables were used. These were binary variables for the side-to-side and end-to-end flips and Gaussian displacement variables for displacements parallel and perpendicular to the length of the molecule. (105 words)
Mullite
Authors: Welberry T.R.
Published: June 2022

Mullite is an important material since it is a major component of all alumino-silicate ceramics. It has a stability field intermediate in composition between sillimanite Al2SiO5 and alumina Al2O3. Diffuse scattering data display a rich diversity of detail. In order to carry out analysis it was assumed that only the distribution of oxygen vacancies is important and that the shifts of neighbouring cations follow directly from these. Then it was possible to treat the system as a simple disordered mixture of two different molecular motifs and carry out analysis using only the SRO component of the scattering equation. SRO parameters describing the distribution of vacancies could then be extracted from the X-ray data by simple Fourier inversion.
Wüstite
Authors: Welberry T.R.
Published: June 2022

A study of the non-stoichiometric oxide wüstite, Fe1−xO is described. Though the average structure is simple the rock-salt type the diffraction patterns are complex. It is shown how the diffraction patterns can be explained by a model in which clusters of defects occur on a paracystalline lattice of spacing ~2.7a where a is the cubic cell spacing. The clusters comprise a combination of vacancies (V) forming a tetrahedron on neighbouring Fe2+ sites and Fe3+ on interstitial (T) sites. Clusters of different sizes, V4T, V13T4 and V16T5 are considered and it is concluded that a combination of the latter two are needed to satisfy the overall composition. Strong size-effect relaxation around each defect is indicated. The diffraction also indicates that the paracystalline lattice is not complete but covers only a certain volume fraction of the crystal.
Cubic stabilised zirconias
Authors: Welberry T.R.
Published: June 2022

Cubic stabilised zirconias (CSZs) have an extremely simple average structure (the fluorite CaF2 structure) but they exhibit extremely complex diffuse X-ray diffraction patterns. Y-CSZ is used as a pedagogical example to show how various simulation methods together with knowledge of basic diffraction theory can be used to give insight into this complex diffraction problem. Zr and Y differ in atomic number by only one and their X-ray scattering factors are practically identical. Consequently the observed X-ray patterns are dominated by the displacements of the cations and must therefore be described by scattering components I2 and higher. A model is developed which involves local ordering of O vacancies with size-effect relaxation of the cations around these defects. Finally the vacancy-ordering model is modified to take into account what is observed in electron diffraction. (132 words)
Disorder involving multi-site interactions
Authors: Welberry T.R.
Published: June 2022

In this chapter two systems are described in which a treatment in terms of ‘pair-interactions’ is clearly not appropriate. In these, a simple model involving a multi-site interaction is able to explain the really quite complex diffraction patterns. For the oxyfluoride, K3MoO3F3, a 6-site energy term involving the sum of the dipole moments of the cluster of six (MoO3F3)3– octahedra that surround each KX6 octahedron, is sufficient to reproduced the observed scattering. For bismuth zinc niobate (BZN), which is of the conventional cubic A2B2O6O′ pyrochlore structure type, most of the observed diffuse scattering comes from the disorder of Zn and Bi in the corner-connected tetrahedra of the O’A2 substructure. Bond-valence requirements dictate that each tetrahedron should contain 3Bi and one Zn. This is essentially a 4-site energy constraint.
Miscellaneous examples
Authors: Welberry T.R.
Published: June 2022

In previous chapters it has emerged that Monte Carlo (MC) simulation has assumed a place of some importance as a tool for aiding both the interpretation and the analysis of diffuse scattering from a wide variety of different materials that exhibit an equally wide variety of different scattering effects. In this chapter a number of miscellaneous examples are described which have not readily fitted into the discourse to date but which are interesting in their own right and add to the diversity of the systems for which computer simulation and MC simulation in particular has provided useful insights. These are: the defect structure of the zeolite mordenite; the defect structure of sodium bismuth titanate (NBT); and ‘size-effect’-like distortions in quasicrystalline structures.
Polymorphs of benzocaine, C9H11O2N
Authors: Welberry T.R.
Published: June 2022

The drug benzocaine is bimorphic at 300K. Form (I) is monoclinic and form (II) is orthorhombic. Both show highly structured diffuse scattering. X-ray data were analysed using MC modeling, assuming the scattering to be purely thermal in origin. This indicated the presence of highly correlated molecular motions. In both forms broad diffuse streaks were observed in the 0kl section indicating longitudinal displacement correlations extending over ~50 Å. In the hk0 section streaks between Bragg peaks indicate correlated motions of hydrogen-bonded coplanar pairs of chains forming molecular ribbons. The main difference between the two forms is in the dynamical behaviour of these ribbons and how they are able to slide relative to each other. For form (I) a model involving harmonic springs was able to describe the motion satisfactorily but for form (II) inclusion of anharmonic effects was necessary. These proved to be precursors of a new low temperature phase, form (III).
Lead perovskite relaxors, PZN and PMN
Authors: Welberry T.R.
Published: June 2022

This chapter details the progress made in developing a model for the relaxors PZN and PMN that satisfactorily accounts for their distinctive diffuse scattering patterns. A simple first model used sets of harmonic springs to represent effective interactions and was based on the supposition that the Pb ions are displaced away from the centres of their coordination polyhedra. This was able to account qualitatively for the observed diffraction features. The diffraction evidence points to a structure in which the Pb displacements align themselves in thin plate-like domains normal to each of the six <110> directions. More recently an atomistic shell model was developed that used a potential based on density functional theory (DFT) calculations. A similar potential has been used to study BaTiO3 where molecular dynamics simulation allowed dynamical information to be investigated.
The Imperial Afterlife of Roman Republican Coins and the Phenomenon of the Restored Denarii
Authors: Woytek Bernhard E.
Published: June 2022

Chapter 1 explores one special aspect of the behaviour of Roman Republican coinage in circulation: its longevity. As is well known, there is evidence for the circulation of pre-imperial coins into the third century AD; however, the specific regional and chronological patterns are unclear up to now. Several new research projects, currently under way, may be expected to shed new light on these problems. In the meantime, some basic questions should be asked: What were the main stages of development of the Roman coinage in an economic perspective? Was there a neat division between ‘Republican’ and ‘Imperial’ coins? And do the chronological categories commonly used in the analysis of Roman hoards of the Principate help us to understand their structure?
The Strange Case of the Package Deal
Authors: Elkins Zachary , Hudson Alexander
Published: June 2022

As the constitutional referendum has become central to the life and work of scholars, politicians, and the voting public alike, arguments about the best use of the devices have proliferated. Until recently, we have lacked basic historical information about both the incidence of such votes and their outcomes. In this chapter we fill this void and focus on some curious differences between votes on replacements (new constitutions) and those on amendments. We introduce a dataset of 644 elections covering the period 1789–2016. A striking finding is that there is a reasonable chance (39%) that voters will reject a proposed constitutional amendment but very little chance (6%) that they will reject a full constitutional proposal. We describe these historical patterns and develop a theory of bundling that explains this divergence. We conclude with an exploration of what we call initialing, which combines a single vote for the bundle together with line-item votes and exhibits some favorable properties.
Discretionary Referendums in Constitutional Amendment
Authors: Albert Richard
Published: June 2022

The unexpected results of recent referendums around the world have concealed an important similarity among many of them: the popular votes were not constitutionally required. For example, the Constitution of the United Kingdom did not require a referendum to authorize Brexit nor did the Colombian Constitution require a plebiscite to ratify the FARC peace pact. Yet in both cases constitutional actors felt compelled by political imperatives to bypass the legal rules of constitutional reform in order to bring their constitutional change proposals directly to the people. This is not a rare practice: historically and recently, constitutional actors have often had recourse to popular votes by choice rather than constitutional obligation as part of a larger strategy to legitimate a major constitutional change. In this chapter, I draw from non-obligatory referendums held around the world to develop a typology of discretionary referendums in constitutional amendment. I also examine why constitutional actors use discretionary referendums to amend the constitution and I situate their use against the backdrop of an increasingly observable phenomenon in democracies: the circumvention of formal amendment rules. This occurs when constitutional actors deliberately circumvent the formal rules of constitutional change to amend the constitution, with recourse not only to referendums but to other modalities of constitutional change.
Referendums in Federal States
Authors: Tierney Stephen
Published: June 2022

This chapter addresses the use of referendums in federal constitutional systems. Federalism is under-theorised within constitutionalism and so the chapter also revisits federal thought in light of recent advances in constitutional theory. A particular focus today for constitutional scholars is the issue of constitutional amendment in a world of ever more elaborate constitutions. The concern with constitutional stability and the use of constitutions to promote particular values has led to innovations such as eternity clauses, unamendable constitutional provisions and the further empowerment of the judicial branch. A key question in contemporary debates is how best to reach the appropriate balance between open democratic decision-making on the one hand and constitutional entrenchment on the other. Into this mix the referendum has emerged as a potentially explosive element, raising the question of the extent to which ordinary citizens should be involved in processes of constitutional change. The chapter seeks to adapt important theoretical questions raised by direct democracy to the context of federalism. How does the existence of multiple governments and a foundational constitutional commitment to territorial and societal pluralism complicate further the issue of the demos, in particular when it is called upon to produce constitutional change through the mobilisation of ‘the people’? The chapter focuses upon situations where federalism reflects strong societal or demotic differences; here the use of the referendum has been particularly challenging. How should the referendum as a mechanism of constitutional change be accommodated within federal thought and federal practice, given the commitment of federalism to a carefully-crafted balance of power among the polity’s constituent territories?
Brexit and Two Roles for Referendums in the United Kingdom
Authors: Trueblood Leah
Published: June 2022

The 2016 referendum on the United Kingdom’s membership of the European Union is a textbook example of how not to conduct a referendum. Further, the BREXIT referendum was not an isolated democratic failing. It reflects a deeper structural weakness in the use of referendums in the United Kingdom. For decades in the United Kingdom before BREXIT, referendums were used in an ‘unplanned’ and ad hoc way when it was politically convenient. This chapter will argue that the unprincipled use of referendums in the United Kingdom, at least in part, reflects an underlying disagreement about what referendums are for and their relationship with democracy. There are, broadly, two different accounts of the relationships between referendums and democracy in the United Kingdom. On the first view which this chapter calls the ‘referendums as limits’ approach, referendums are a way for voters to act as a check on the actions of their representatives. The second approach is to see referendums as a way of temporarily substituting voters for representatives. On this view, drawing on the civic republican tradition, referendums are deliberative processes of expressing popular sovereignty. Call this latter view ‘referendums as substitutions.’ This latter view of referendums is increasingly reflected in law in the United Kingdom. This chapter argues that the ‘referendums as limits’ approach is the better view both in theory and in practice.
The Global Lab
Authors: Fejerskov Adam
Published: June 2022

The introductory chapter opens up the book’s aim of exploring the interplay between global forces, ideas, and local circumstance and consequence, addressing questions of what experimentation looks like today in the Global South, who practises it, and to what ends? What types of progress are imagined through it, and who benefits from these futures? The chapter explores the global historical legacies of laboratories and experiments, showing how these are not just vehicles for open-ended explorations of scientific issues, but rather vested with strategic interests and purpose, delivering knowledge, carrying value, and producing authority. Methods are alive and beyond its practicality of scientific technique, experimentation is a structuring way to perceive the world’s being and our understanding of it, not only shaping and producing science, but social, economic, and political life. The chapter shows how treating the real world as a laboratory fit for experimentation often works to exacerbate existing power dynamics, helping to retain the Global South as a laboratory of inequality where subjects are easily accessible and legitimated by scientific aims. Trials become the only available medical treatment for disadvantaged groups, and experiments in one country suddenly structure access to education and health in another radically different context. The chapter takes the reader through the essence of the key concepts at play by exploring the interplay between experimentation, race, bodies, and technology, preparing the reader for what is to come.