bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Social Issues
Authors: Miller Kenneth P.
Published: August 2020

More than any other policy area, social issues have polarized Texas and California and the camps they represent. These topics provide fodder for the nation’s culture wars. Many such issues are framed in the language of rights and are difficult to resolve through normal political give-and-take. After briefly discussing the range of social issues that divide the two states, the chapter narrows its focus to three: abortion, guns, and LGBT rights. Texas and California have polarized on these topics and, to the extent permitted by federal law, have translated their opposing views into sharply contrasting policies. The states’ discretion on these topics has been limited, however, by Supreme Court interpretations of federal constitutional rights. The chapter concludes by discussing the alternatives for addressing social issues that divide the nation along ideological and sectional lines, comparing the options of uniformity and pluralism.
State of the Rivalry
Authors: Miller Kenneth P.
Published: August 2020

The closing chapter assesses the rival models and looks to the future of the competition. The Texas Model has achieved great success stimulating broad-based economic growth and opportunity, yet may not be able to meet the basic needs of a diversifying population. Conversely, the California Model has advanced progressive goals, but has imposed heavy costs on residents and businesses and may not be sustainable. Looking forward, the nation’s political polarization will likely persist for some time, with Texas and California remaining on opposite sides of the partisan divide. Texas’s political future is increasingly uncertain, but its underlying conservative political culture will likely prevent it from aligning with the national Democratic Party. If so, the two states and their respective allies will continue to pursue divergent policy agendas. The book concludes with a discussion of the value of diverse models and a call for a respectful approach to the rivalry.
“The Elephant’s Tail”
Authors: Pinckney Jonathan C.
Published: August 2020

This chapter presents the first of three case studies of civil resistance transitions (CRTs) and the impact of the challenges of mobilization and maximalism in CRTs. The case examined is the transition in Nepal following the 2006 Second People’s Movement that overthrew the Nepali monarchy. The case study shows that while the Nepali transition had high levels of social mobilization, its high levels of maximalism have undermined the consolidation of new democratic institutions and led to Nepal’s transitioning to a fractious semi-democracy. Nepal’s various political forces have used revolutionary goals and tactics to undermine each other’s power position and prevent the establishment of new democratic institutions. As a result, a new democratic regime has been slow to appear and is fragile to authoritarian reversal.
Enacting Integrity
Authors: Herdt Jennifer A.
Published: August 2020

A person of integrity is someone who stands virtuously for her commitments. We receive some direct moral instruction, but the process of developing integrity gets underway in earnest when we glimpse, however dimly, the special goodness of this particular virtue and desire to instantiate it. Exemplars are studied and emulated. One’s own successes and failures in emulation are scrutinized. The role of trusting relationships and supportive communities is essential, even as insulation from critique short-circuits the development of integrity. The account developed here clarifies how it can be the case that admiration and emulation play such a key role in the acquisition of a virtue like integrity, despite the fact that integrity has to do with a willingness to stand for one’s own commitments and therefore for one’s own best judgments.
Introduction: Why Military Adaptation?
Authors: Barno David , Bensahel Nora
Published: August 2020

The US military plans and thinks incessantly about wars and conflict—yet, like many organizations, it inevitably fails to foresee what comes next. That means that it must be able to successfully adapt to unforeseen circumstances in order to prevail on the battlefield. This introduction identifies the central question of this book: Is the US military adaptable enough to prevail in the wars of the 21st century? In order to answer that question, Part I of the book defines the term adaptation, identifies the three critical components of wartime adaptability, and illustrates those components through historical examples. Part II assesses US military adaptability in the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, including some key failures that have not yet been widely addressed. Part III argues that the US military is not sufficiently adaptable for the future conflicts it may face, and offers many recommendations for improvement.
Technological Adaptation in Iraq and Afghanistan
Authors: Barno David , Bensahel Nora
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores the role of technological adaptability during the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. At the tactical level, it examines how soldiers in Iraq developed “hillbilly armor” to try to protect their vulnerable vehicles from roadside bombs, and how Apache helicopters were successfully adapted to conduct close air support missions in Afghanistan. It also argues, however, that technological adaptability at the institutional level involved disastrous failures. In Iraq, virtually all senior Pentagon officials repeatedly resisted providing adequate numbers of life-saving vehicles called MRAPs to deployed soldiers facing grave threats from improvised explosive devices. And in Afghanistan, the army stubbornly supported its poorly performing intelligence analysis system, called DCGS-A, for more than a decade, despite overwhelming evidence that commercially available software from Palantir would work better and save the lives of more soldiers.
Tactical Leadership Adaptation in Iraq and Afghanistan
Authors: Barno David , Bensahel Nora
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores the role of leadership adaptability at the tactical level during the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. It examines how Colonel Sean MacFarland and his US Army brigade successfully adapted to conditions in Ramadi, and dramatically reduced the very high levels of violence in this critical Iraqi city in 2006. It also examines the remarkable adaptability of Captain Mark Nutsch and his 12-man team of US Army Special Forces soldiers, known as the Horse Soldiers, during the opening weeks of the war in Afghanistan in 2001. Their strikingly creative efforts helped achieve a critical strategic objective in the campaign to remove the Taliban from power.
US Military Adaptability Today
Authors: Barno David , Bensahel Nora
Published: August 2020

This chapter argues that the US military is not adaptable enough for the challenges of future warfare discussed in Chapter 9. In the area of doctrine, excessive amounts hinder creativity and flexibility, revision processes are too slow, and flawed training provides too little opportunity to practice adaptability. In the area of technology, few of the problems identified in Chapter 6 have been addressed, because of the structural tension between the services and the combatant commanders, and the broken acquisition system. In the area of leadership, adaptability is hindered by the generational legacy of the recent wars, problems with the system of professional military education, and a growing tendency toward risk aversion that threatens the principle of mission command.
Adapting Relevance Theory to Accommodate Visual Communication
Authors: Forceville Charles
Published: August 2020

On the basis of relevance theory’s claim that the relevance principle underlies all forms of communication, Chapter 3 examines how the RT model can be applied to communication involving visuals, and what adaptations are called for to achieve this goal. After reflecting on what constitutes visual communication, and showing how static visuals often combine with written language to create multimodal meaning, all of the RT concepts discussed in Chapter 2 are reconsidered with reference to their pertinence to analyzing visuals. This reconsideration will not only benefit visual and multimodal theories but will also provide new angles on classic RT. Whereas many RT concepts function without any problem when applied to visuals, there are others that cannot straightforwardly be “translated” to the visual realm and therefore need adaptation. The problematic issues mainly result from the fact that visuals typically have a structure and depicted entities, but no grammar and vocabulary. This leads to the questions of whether visuals can nonetheless be “coded”—which in turn has consequences for their possible underlying “logical form”—and whether information in visuals is necessarily always to be inferred or is sometimes actually decoded. Several examples are discussed to clarify these issues. In the final sections, there is a brief discussions of the relation between RT and Blending Theory, and of RT’s problematic take on metaphor.
Case Studies–Political and Non-Political Cartoons
Authors: Forceville Charles
Published: August 2020

The genre of political cartoons purports to present a wittily critical visual or visual-plus-written-verbal commentary on politicians and states of affairs in the world. The genre is thereby of high interest for critical discourse analysts, as it lays bare a community’s ideological assumptions and does so in a pithy, easily accessible form. Moreover, the genre can get away with proposing ideas that, when presented in the verbal mode, would be unacceptably offensive or crude. From an RT perspective, it is clear that since cartoons typically appear in specific newspapers and magazine, cartoonists have a fairly precise idea of the target audience to whom they want to be optimally relevant. The chapter outlines the conventions of the cartoon genre in some detail, then examines four political and two non-political cartoons in the light of their communicative and informative intentions, aspects of reference assignment, implicated premises, and explicatures and implicatures. Other aspects that are briefly addressed are cartoons’ artist-dependent style, need for stereotypical depiction and caricaturization, deployment of metaphors, and loose use of visuals.
Case Studies–Comics
Authors: Forceville Charles
Published: August 2020

The antecedents of the genre of comics and graphic novels could be dated as far back as Christ’s Stations of the Cross in numerous churches, but the genre of “sequential art’ ” (Will Eisner 2006 [1985]) really took off in the late 19th century and was baptized the “ninth art” in the course of the 20th. It typically consists of visuals combined with written language. Comics sport a number of visual elements that are to be decoded rather than inferred by the reader-viewer, such as pictograms, balloons, and motion and emotion lines. Moreover, the audience of comics is expected to be familiar with meaning-generating mechanisms such as onomatopoeia and the “gutter,” and to understand how to navigate from panel to panel. Comics artists help their audience achieve relevance by tapping into these readers/viewers’ knowledge of narrative codes and conventions. These include the three classic mechanisms of surprise, suspense, and curiosity, and the distinction between omniscient (or external) narrators and character-narrators. The case studies include panels or sequences from work by Hergé, Shaun Tan, Peter de Wit, Lewis Trondheim, Guy Delisle, Johanna Sinisalo and Hannu Mänttäri, and Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons, as well as IKEA instructions on a do-it-yourself (DIY) package. The chapter shows how achieving relevance requires appropriate reference assignment, enrichment, broadening or narrowing assumptions, processing loose visuals, correctly adducing implicated premises, and generating explicatures and implicatures.
Linguistic Chaos
Authors: Maree Claire
Published: August 2020

Chapter 4 illustrates how, as an enregistered style, queerqueen talk is co-opted into popular culture. It analyzes the Mori Mori Cooking segment of the animated series The World of GOLDEN EGGS (Plus Heads, Inc.) which is hosted by Rose and Mary—animated characters and mascot-like queen-personalities who traverse into the hyper-connected world of media-mix products. The sonic qualities of the okama (fag)-twins as embodied by twins Osugi and Peeco in the late 1970s, and the transformational powers of the queen-personality emanating from makeover genres of the early 2000s are laminated onto the voice performances of Rose and Mary. The highly stylized ventriloquism of queerqueen talk is emblematic of the chaotic language that permeates the Golden Eggs series. Within its multi-platform incarnations, the queerqueen mascot functions as a conduit of knowledge and culinary skills who looks onto the “real world live action” of cooking yet consistently flaunts the dictates of contemporary television broadcasting.
Bleeping Deluxe
Authors: Maree Claire
Published: August 2020

Chapter 5 examines the visual and sonic mapping of excess onto the queerqueen figure through layering of censorship tropes such as redaction characters (fuseji) and pixelization onto audiovisual media. Censorship tropes index complex histories of the use of language and images in the public sphere. Manipulation of censorship tropes exposes discourses of discrimination that shape language use in the media. This chapter analyzes the use of censorship beeps in the late-night television show Matsuko no heya (Matsuko’s Room; Fuji Television Network) hosted by Matsuko Deluxe, a contemporary queerqueen superstar who gained mainstream popularity in the early 2000s. The show pivots on staged (im)politeness and a pretense of low-cost production and minimal editorial effects. In Matsuko no Heya, self-censorship edited into the footage (re)creates Matsuko’s image as a sharp-tongued, honest-speaking, entertaining personality. It simultaneously (re)creates Matsuko’s linguistic performance of gender and sexuality as that which already exceeds the limits of respectability.
Insincere Discourse Strategies
Authors: Heffer Chris
Published: August 2020

This chapter sets out a framework for analyzing insincere discourse strategies. Though not equivalent, there is sufficient overlap between insincerity and deception to begin by considering typologies of deception based on Grice’s Cooperative Principle and the speaker’s communicative intentions and goals. However, the chapter argues for an approach to insincere discourse based on a number of communicative variables relating to pursuit of inquiry. Accordingly, the underlying insincere discourse strategy is considered to be withholding (failing to disclose what you believe you should disclose), while misleading involves linguistically leading the interlocutor astray with regard to that concealed knowledge either by suggestion (misleading without lying) or explicit assertion (lying). The insincere discourse strategies may be realized through sub-strategies (e.g., omitting, evading, and blocking) or more general pragmatic tactics (e.g., equivocating and falsely implicating). Insincere discourse becomes unethical or wrong when it is willful (i.e., it breaches trust and is not justifiably suspended).
What Can Science, Technology, and Innovation Offer in the Achievement of Sustainable Development Goals?
Authors: Adenle Ademola A. , Chertow Marian R. , Moors Ellen H.M. , Pannell David J.
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses the many ways that science, technology, and innovation (STI) can bolster the global agenda of the United Nations (UN) toward meeting the sustainable development goals (SDGs). It shows how STI applications can make multiple contributions to the achievement of SDGs. It is particularly important for developing countries to harness STI, while managing resulting trade-offs, to deliver sustainable development effectively. The SDGs simultaneously touch upon environmental, social and economic aspects of development but integrating these aspects into the implementation of the SDGs is challenging for both policymakers and researchers. To meet its SDG targets, the global community must mobilize STI across multiple sectors, support new investments in innovation, and contribute to policy design that addresses a range of barriers.
The Role of Development-Focused Health Technology Assessment in Optimizing Science, Technology, and Innovation to Achieve Sustainable Development Goal 3
Authors: Bouttell Janet , Grieve Eleanor , Hawkins Neil
Published: August 2020

Sustainable development goal 3 (SDG3) seeks to ensure health and well-being for all at every stage of life. It aims to bring about the end of some of the world’s major epidemics, enable access to essential health services and technologies, and calls for more research and development (R&D) on new medicines, diagnostics, and vaccines. This chapter outlines how science, technology, and innovation (STI) can contribute to the achievement of SDG3. The authors then explain what health technology assessment (HTA) is and show how it contributed to the achievement of health-related millenium development goals. Development-focused HTA is introduced, and the authors show how it can be used to improve decision-making regarding how and whether specific new technologies should be developed. The authors show how HTA analysis can potentially improve the return on investment in new technologies by improving the efficency of the research prioritization and development processes while ensuring the needs of vulnerable populations are met. This will ultimately increase the accessibility of affordable and effective health technologies. The chapter first examines the role STI may play in achieving SDG3, then defines HTA and distinguishes development-focused HTA from the more familiar use-focused form. The authors then look at analytic tools of development-focused HTA and how these may be applied in assessing technologies in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Finally, a case study illustrates how some of these methods may be used to assess a proposed low-cost point-of-care diagnostic currently in development.
Making Scale Work for Sustainable Development
Authors: Wigboldus Seerp , Klerkx Laurens , Leeuwis Cees
Published: August 2020

Scaling generalizable solutions delivered through science, technology, and innovation has become a dominant paradigm for achieving the sustainable development goals. In many cases, organizations articulate theories of change that are intended to support the strategic design and guidance of agricultural research and innovation to contribute to impact at scale. How scaling beyond the immediate research and innovation context is expected to happen, however, is often poorly elaborated in theories of change. The question of how scaling could happen—that is, a theory of scaling—tends to remain a black box of unarticulated assumptions. Similarly, policymakers often lack a governance sense-making framework to consider the appropriateness of a multitude of scaling initiatives in light of societal goals. Recent studies have drawn attention to the fact that scaling processes involve greater complexity than is generally taken into account. This chapter addresses this situation by unpacking what is in that black box and translating this into a guidance framework along the lines of a theory of scaling as a dedicated component of a wider theory of change. The objective is to support researchers, management decision-makers, and policymakers in engaging more effectively and responsibly with scaling initiatives.
European Catholicism (1500–1700)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

The long Catholic Reformation, which lasted from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, is one of the most active, intense, and expansive in the history of Christian conversion. This chapter begins with an examination of the conversions of two profoundly influential Catholics from the Iberian Peninsula (Ignatius of Loyola and Teresa of Ávila) and then considers efforts by the religious orders to re-Catholicize Europe. With the Jesuits leading the way, the Church evangelized the masses, drawing them into a personal relationship with God by encouraging the very things Protestants condemned: cults of intercession, pilgrimages, concern with purgatory, feast days, adoration of Christ in the Eucharist, and devotion to the saints. The chapter then moves to a discussion of conversion in the context of religiously mixed communities (Catholics and Protestants) in the Low Countries and France and ends with a discussion of Pierre Bayle’s defense of free conscience as the basis of true conversion.
The Rise of Evangelicalism (1675–1750)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

This chapter considers expressions and views of conversion in two major evangelical movements in two locales—Pietism in Germany and Methodism in England. Pietism, whose spirituality informed nearly all aspects of British and American evangelicalism, emerged in the seventeenth century as one of the most important Protestant renewal movements after the Reformation. Pietists stressed that assent to formal doctrine fell far short of true Christianity. Critical of “nominal” religion and dissatisfied with the way that Lutheran pastors preached and carried out their pastoral duties, Pietists located true religion in the heart. Their language of “rebirth,” “regeneration,” and the “new man” stressed the experiential, emotional, even mystical side of the faith. In England, the conversions of John and Charles Wesley were indebted to the influence of Pietist Moravians. John’s itinerating preaching, and organizing skills and Charles’s hymn-writing would profoundly shape England’s Evangelical Revival.
Puritans and the Great Awakening in America (1630–1790)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the necessity and nature of conversion from the earliest Puritan communities in New England through the colonies-wide Great Awakening. It begins with the conversionary views of Thomas Shepard, examines briefly the phenomenon of the Great Awakening, and ends with an extended discussion of the centrality of conversion in the life and writings of Jonathan Edwards. Despite the awakening’s many variations, the unifying theme that transcended denominational boundaries was its attention to “heart-centered,” conversion-oriented religion. Indeed, the legacy of the awakening—what makes it truly “great”—was the formation of a distinctively American evangelical culture whose touchstone was the conversion experience and whose influence has stretched into our own time and expanded around the world.
The Church of the East and the First Catholic Missions (635–1840)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

This chapter opens with a broad survey of Christianity’s initial appearance in West Asia and the several papal-sponsored sending missions of a handful of friars that followed. It then moves to a more extended treatment of the first organized and subsidized effort by the Church to penetrate China with the gospel—the first Jesuit mission of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Particular attention is given to the conversionary efforts of Matteo Ricci, the conversion of Xu Guangqi, and European missionary attempts to convert rural people and villagers. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of the homegrown variety of Christianity that survived during the period when Christianity was officially outlawed in China as a heterodox and “perverse sect.”
Upper-Caste Conversions (1500–1900)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

After tracing the early Christian presence in India and discussing the nature of the caste system, this chapter profiles individuals—well-known upper-caste nineteenth-century converts from Hinduism. As in China, the missionary presence in India was a necessary but not sufficient factor in Christianity’s spread. Missionaries initiated the first conversions, but within a generation or two, Indian Christians became the primary instruments for the spread of the gospel. Communication never flowed in one direction, from missionary to Indians. Increasingly, Indians converted on their own terms and adapted Christianity to meet their own particular concerns and to indigenize their faith by separating Christ from the trappings of Western, colonial Christianity. Converts discussed include Krishna Mohan Banerjea, Baba Padmanjee, Krishna Pillai, Narayan Vaman Tilak, Pandita Ramabai, and Brahmabandhab Upadhyay.
Lower-Caste Conversions (1530–Present)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

Beginning in the 1860s and 1870s, in separate regions of India, Protestants witnessed explosive growth through group conversions among the “depressed classes.” Forced to revise their understanding of conversion as an individual commitment made by one person at a time, Christians discovered that their future success lay in the conversion of the outcastes and tribal groups. By 1933, an estimated one-half of the Roman Catholics in India were descendants of mass-movement converts and at least 80 percent of the Protestant converts had also come via this route. This chapter considers group conversions or mass movements, primarily among nineteenth- and twentieth-century depressed classes and tribal peoples, who currently represent over 50 percent and 15 to 20 percent, respectively, of Christians in India. Groups discussed include the Shanars of Tirunelveli, the Chuhras of Punjab, and the Mizos of northeast India. The chapter concludes with an examination of recent conversion controversies.
The Age of the Prophets (1900–1930)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

This chapter begins by examining the relationship between Christianity and colonialism in sub-Saharan Africa and assessing Christianity’s explosive growth in the twentieth century. Indeed, accounting for conversion to Christianity in Africa has been a much-discussed topic among historians, sociologists, anthropologists, missiologists, and theologians. The chapter then moves to consider the conversion and converting mission of William Wadé Harris, the single greatest evangelist in African history and the quintessential representative of numerous prophet-healing movements in West Africa in the first decades of the twentieth century. Crucial to the extension of the gospel and conversion of the Dida people of the southern Ivory Coast was the composition of hymns to the Christian God. As typified the Christianization process throughout a largely illiterate Africa, neither text nor catechism but song became the village people’s theology.
Conclusion
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

The concluding chapter provides summary observations of the book’s themes that highlight the complex, multifaceted dimension of conversion throughout twenty centuries of Christian history. These include the convert’s cognizance of divine presence; the crucial importance of historical context (political, religious, institutional, and socioeconomic factors); continuity and discontinuity (how much of the new displaces the old in conversion?); nominal, incomplete, and “true” conversions; personal testimonies and narratives (the autobiographical impulse attests to the converted life); the role of gender; identity and the self; agency (are converts actors or are they being acted upon?); the mechanisms behind and the motivations for conversion; the body as a site of conversion; the role of music; conversion as event and process; coercive practices; and forms of communication in the converting process.
Diasporas as Agents That Sometimes Make States
Authors: Burgess Katrina
Published: August 2020

Chapter 7 links patterns of diaspora-making to repertoires of migrant engagement and the extent to which they reinforce or challenge the state’s narratives and agendas. With a few notable exceptions, it finds that Dominicans and Mexicans are more likely to follow the lead of homeland authorities, which translates into partisan mobilization in the Dominican Republic and nonelectoral engagement in Mexico. By contrast, Turkish and Filipino migrants are more likely to challenge the state’s diaspora-making projects, although for different reasons. In the Turkish case, migrants from minority groups not only vote from abroad but also engage in counter-mobilizations outside the electoral arena. In the Philippine case, migrant organizations regularly challenge the depoliticizing discourse of the state by forming their own political parties and, like their Turkish counterparts, using the nonelectoral arena to advocate for change.
Becoming Archaeologist
Authors: Cobb Hannah , Croucher Karina
Published: August 2020

This chapter introduces the theoretical concepts at the heart of our argument, beginning with a discussion of critical pedagogy, then demonstrating how archaeology requires its own pedagogic principles. It discusses the material components of archaeological teaching and learning, emphasizing how archaeological learning takes place in multiple locations and through different experiences, and argues that these are not disconnected, but that each feeds into and shapes one another. The chapter then argues that archaeology’s material turn provides a useful place to start re-thinking the materiality of archaeological pedagogy, and new materialist developments within archaeology are reviewed. Also discussed is the broader pedagogic literature, such as rhizomatic learning and the notion of ‘becoming’ in pedagogy. The chapter finally sets out the theoretical framework for the book, arguing that viewing the multiple assemblages of teaching and learning as composed of a range of material and human constituents, we produce a new understanding of processes of archaeological education.
The Past in the Present
Authors: Cobb Hannah , Croucher Karina
Published: August 2020

In order to examine the issues that perpetuate inequalities in archaeology in higher education and their consequences, this chapter addresses the areas of gender, sexuality, ethnicity, disability, and socioeconomics, in both the global demographic profile of the profession, and in archaeological research and practice. It begins by considering these areas separately, but ultimately argues that these categories are inextricably entwined and interrelated. The chapter reflects on ways that using an assemblage approach to teaching and learning can create a more equitable system for students, lecturers, and all involved in archaeological pedagogic assemblages, including research, professional practice, and the heritage sector more broadly. At the heart of the argument presented in this chapter is the notion that training, research, and practice all intersect to play a vital role in the wider assemblages of teaching and learning in archaeology.
A Thousand Learning Assemblages
Authors: Cobb Hannah , Croucher Karina
Published: August 2020

Chapter 8 highlights how scales of global, local, personal, and political are relevant in the assemblages of becoming archaeologists and therefore of teaching, learning, and doing archaeology, arguing that an assemblage approach is required to understand the intersection of these different scales, whilst avoiding the reductionism arising from privileging one specific scale. Pedagogically, the benefits are: it allows a move from linear banking models towards a more critical, politically situated pedagogy; it provides an alternative to the neoliberal path of simply reversing the banking model to make the student active; it emphasizes the diversity of learners; and reframes the affective nature of all non-human entities in the learning process, and their connection to multiple scales, in an ontologically equal manner. Consequently, we argue that taking a multi-scalar assemblage approach to pedagogy enables the simultaneous achievement of intersectionality advocated in Chapter 6 and the challenge to neoliberal values presented in Chapter 4.
Scope Limitation or Affirmative Defence?
Authors: Henckels Caroline
Published: August 2020

Despite their increasing prevalence in investment treaties, the purpose and role of exception clauses is not well understood. Inconsistent interpretations of exception clauses by investment tribunals and annulment committees has created uncertainty about the nature of states’ treaty commitments to foreign investors and the way exceptions to those commitments should be dealt with in investor–state dispute settlement. This chapter argues that exceptions should be understood as limiting the scope of the substantive investment obligations such that those obligations do not apply to measures that come within the exception, and not as affirmative defences that operate to justify what would otherwise be prohibited by the treaty; and that, as such, security exceptions are conceptually distinct from the customary defence of necessity and are not lex specialis manifestations of the defence.
Introduction
Authors: Watson Gabrielle
Published: August 2020

Respect is a value whose importance in contemporary criminal justice many would endorse in principle. It is well established that every person, by virtue of his humanity, has a claim to respect that need not be negotiated and cannot be forfeited. Rich and ongoing debates about respect beyond criminal justice—notably, in philosophy and elsewhere in the social sciences—indicate that scholarly interest in respect surpasses disciplinary boundaries, that it is of considerable explanatory and normative scope, and that it matters. It is curious, then, that despite academic interest in the democratic design of penal institutions in recent decades, respect is more akin to a slogan than a foundational value of criminal justice practice.
Stop and Search as a Respectful Encounter
Authors: Watson Gabrielle
Published: August 2020

In this chapter, there is a shift in focus to the statutory power of the police to stop and search, the controversial status of which is not new. Less well documented, however, is that stop and search is highly relevant to the study of respect, since the practice tends to undermine the value, if not render it conspicuously absent. The chapter is organised as follows. The opening section explores how we might sharpen our critique of stop and search by framing it in terms of respect. Stop and search—a common form of adversarial contact between the police and the public—taps into deep and ingrained tensions between preventive policing, the exercise of coercive state authority, due process, and crime control. Among the most incisive criticisms of the power are its disproportionate and discriminatory exercise in relation to minority ethnic groups, its role in eroding police legitimacy, and the invasion of privacy and violation of bodily integrity necessitated by the search itself. The next section assesses three prominent proposals for the reform of stop and search—procedural justice training for police officers, tighter legal regulation of the power, and abolition—in terms of respect.
Respect at Prison Mealtime
Authors: Watson Gabrielle
Published: August 2020

This chapter continues to subject a series of unexamined beliefs on respect and criminal justice to critical scrutiny and challenge. There is a shift in focus to prison mealtime, whose pivotal role in shaping the experiences of prisoners has been considerably understated. The chapter is prefaced with a short commentary on prison mealtime in historical context. It is then structured around three key stages of contemporary prison mealtime—preparation, consumption, and resistance—which I propose as organising categories for critiquing the practice. When the authorities treat respect as a weak side-constraint on the pursuit of instrumental outcomes rather than a foundational value of the regime itself, it undermines those responsible for preparing food, degrades prisoners who have no choice but to consume it, and exacerbates the experiences of those who—for reasons of religious belief, physical or mental ill-health, or in protest—resist or refuse it.
Roman Law and the Western Tradition
Authors: Watson Sethina
Published: August 2020

Having sketched the shape of the hospital in Carolingian Francia and Lombardy, the investigation now moves earlier, to uncover the legal foundations of welfare, as fostered under Roman law. This chapter redefines the tradition for welfare facilities in Roman law and identifies a distinctive Western legal model. It reappraises two extracts from Julian’s Epitome in the Collectio capitularium of Ansegis of Saint-Wandrille, the only evidence for Justinianic law in the West regarding hospitals. These are found not to relate to Carolingian welfare and new light is shed both on the palace’s use of these Roman law extracts and on the possible character of Ansegis’s book 2, on Louis the Pious’s ecclesiastical laws. The chapter then uses Justinian’s collections of law to explore the long development of welfare foundations in Roman law, finding them first accommodated under testamentary law. It argues that this basic testamentary model was moulded in the East, via the ‘pious promise’, into an institution under divine or public law. In the West, however, the early testamentary form was developed via the documentary practices that characterized Roman law in the West, c.400–800. These practices reveal a distinctive Western approach, which enshrined not the institution but the right to institute; that is, the right of the testator to prescribe and fix acts of human charity. A final section offers a new account of the development of welfare institutions in early Christianity, as East and West diverged and the West developed a vernacular Christian practice, one that was not owned by the church but enacted and developed by testators.
Effective Field Theory with Nambu–Goldstone Modes
Authors: Pich Antonio
Published: August 2020

These lectures provide an introduction to the low-energy dynamics of Nambu–Goldstone fields, which associated with some spontaneous (or dynamical) symmetry breaking, using the powerful methods of effective field theory. The generic symmetry properties of these massless modes are described in detail and two very relevant phenomenological applications are worked out: chiral perturbation theory, the low-energy effective theory of QCD, and the (non-linear) electroweak effective theory. The similarities and differences between these two effective theories are emphasized, and their current status is reviewed. Special attention is given to the short-distance dynamical information encoded in the low-energy couplings of the effective Lagrangians. The successful methods developed in QCD could help us to uncover fingerprints of new physics scales from future measurements of the electroweak effective theory couplings.
Conversational Pressure
Authors: Goldberg Sanford C.
Published: August 2020

This book aims to explore the scope, sources, and nature of the normative expectations that are generated by participants in speech exchanges. Such expectations, I argue, are warranted by the performance of speech acts: the performance of these acts entitles an audience to expect certain things of the speaker, even as these performances also entitle the speaker to expect certain things of her audience. The account I propose postulates two fundamental types of normativity involved in these expectations: epistemic normativity, wherein subjects are expected to live up to certain epistemological standards, whether in the production of or in the reaction to speech acts; and interpersonal normativity, wherein subjects are expected to live up to certain standards of interpersonal conduct (including but not limited to the standards of ethics). In the course of defending the account, the book explores such topics as the normative significance of acts of address, the epistemic costs of politeness, the bearing of epistemic injustice on the epistemology of testimony, the normative pressure friendship exerts on belief, the nature of epistemic trust, the significance of conversational silence, and the evils of silencing.
Accommodation to Injustice
Authors: Marušić Berislav
Published: August 2020

Suppose we suffer or witness an injustice. Often we will respond with a combination of anger, grief, resentment, indignation, or horror. And it seems that this is how it should be: the injustice is the reason for our emotional response. However, it is a striking fact that our anger, grief, or horror will diminish over time, often fairly quickly, even if the injustice persists. We accommodate ourselves to the injustice. Indeed, this is good for us, and it may even seem appropriate; it is often wrong to dwell on a wrong. But how could accommodation be appropriate if the injustice remains unchanged? And how could we make sense of accommodation when we anticipate it? This chapter argues that accommodation to injustice poses an insurmountable problem for understanding our emotional response to injustice and reveals something incomprehensible at the heart of our moral outlook.
Replies to Part I Frege and Logicism
Authors: Wright Crispin
Published: August 2020

This chapter presents a reply to the chapters that constitute Part I of this book. It looks at each contribution and provides analysis and argument based on the ideas presented in those chapters. It looks in detail at Frege’s theorem and also (neo-)logicism and higher-order logic.
Reply to Part IV The Epistemology of Metaphysical Possibility
Authors: Wright Crispin
Published: August 2020

This chapter provides a reply to Chapter 10 which is in Part IV of this book. This chapter agrees with the arguments of that chapter that Kripke’s argument on the challenge to physicalism concerning the mental comes short. The interesting question is exactly why it comes short. It’s a question that takes us to the heart of one central issue concerning the epistemology of the metaphysical modalities. The chapter starts by looking at Kripke’s challenge. It analyses the Chapter 10’s thoughts on the topic and presents a different response by way of conclusion.
A Study in the Acquisition of Language
Authors: Shipley Elizabeth F. , Smith Carlota S. , Gleitman Lila R.
Published: August 2020

This study reports an experiment concerning the spontaneous responses of young children to commands differing in structural format and semantic content. The results indicate that syntactic comprehension exceeds production in “telegraphic” speakers. Based on these results, conjectures are offered about the techniques which a child might use in coping with his linguistic environment
Beyond Herodotus
Authors: Feldman Heidi , Goldin-Meadow Susan , Gleitman Lila R.
Published: August 2020

Deaf children who are unable to acquire oral language naturally and who are not exposed to a standard manual language can spontaneously develop a structured sign system that has many of the properties of natural spoken language. This communication system appears to be largely the invention of the child himself rather than that of the caretakers
When We Think About Thinking
Authors: Papafragou Anna , Cassidy Kimberly , Gleitman Lila R.
Published: August 2020

Mental-content verbs such as think, believe, imagine and hope seem to pose special problems for the young language learner. One possible explanation for these difficulties is that the concepts that these verbs express are hard to grasp and therefore their acquisition must await relevant conceptual development. According to a different, perhaps complementary, proposal, a major contributor to the difficulty of these items lies with the informational requirements for identifying them from the contexts in which they appear. The experiments reported here explore the implications of these proposals by investigating the contribution of observational and linguistic cues to the acquisition of mental predicate vocabulary. We demonstrate that particular observed situations can be helpful in prompting reference to mental contents, specifically contexts that include a salient and/or unusual mental state such as false belief. We then compare the potency of such observational support to the reliability of syntactic information. In tasks where children and adults hypothesize the meaning of novel verbs, we find that syntactic information is a more reliable indicator of mentalistic interpretations than even the most cooperative contextual cues. The findings support the position that the informational demands of mapping, rather than age-related cognitive deficiency, can bear much of the explanatory burden for the learning problems posed by abstract verbs.
Similar, and Similar Concepts
Authors: Gleitman Lila R. , Gleitman Henry , Miller Carol , Ostrin Ruth
Published: August 2020

This paper analyzes English symmetrical predicates such as collide and match. Its point of departure is an analysis of the concept “similar” from Tversky (1977) that appears to show that similarity is psychologically asymmetrical. One basis for this claim from Tversky is that the sentences “North Korea is similar to Red China” and “Red China is similar to North Korea” are assessed as differing in meaning by experimental subjects; this seems to imply that the symmetrical entailment R(x,y) ↔︎ R(y,x) fails for this concept. Five experiments are presented that show (1) the apparent asymmetry of similar is reproduced for 20 predicates that are intuitively thought to be symmetrical, (2) unique linguistic-interpretive properties hold for these symmetrical words, such as reciprocal interpretation when they appears intransitively, (3) the asymmetrical interpretation of subject-complement constructions containing the symmetrical words is a consequence of general linguistic-interpretive principles. On the basis of the experimental findings, we offer an analysis of symmetrical predication. One major claim of the analysis is that symmetry is a property of lexical items and has no special syntax. A second claim is that the structural positioning of Noun Phrases in sentences containing symmetricals—rather than inherent semantic properties of the Noun Phrases themselves—sets their status as Figure and Ground in the comparison, even if the nouns are nonsense items. Finally the behavior of symmetrical predicates is shown to vary as a function of their differing lexical class assignments and collateral semantic designations, such as activity vs. state. Most generally, it is claimed that a deeper understanding of symmetrical terms comes from analyzing the semantics of syntactic structures in which they appear.
Anorectal Disorders
Authors: Hancock Kevin J. , Gajjar Aakash H.
Published: August 2020

Anorectal disorders can have overlapping symptoms, which sometimes can make it difficult to establish a diagnosis. Obtaining a detailed history and performing a physical examination are vital to establish the correct diagnosis and to outline appropriate treatment for anorectal disorders. Obstetrician–gynecologists often are the primary care providers and may be the only medical professional a woman sees; therefore, they should be knowledgeable regarding anorectal pathology, recommended dietary and lifestyle changes, and appropriate referral guidelines. This monograph reviews benign and malignant anorectal conditions to aid obstetrician–gynecologists in diagnosis and management of anorectal disease and to provide guidance regarding a referral to a gastroenterologist or a colorectal surgeon.