bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pathophysiology of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome: The Effect of Recurrent Venous Thrombosis and Inherited Thrombophilia
Authors: Kreidy Raghid
Published: November 2011

Post-thrombotic syndrome is an important chronic complication of deep vein thrombosis. This syndrome can be debilitating to patients and has a major economic impact on health care services. The pathophysiology of post-thrombotic syndrome is currently incompletely understood. Because therapeutic options for post-thrombotic syndrome are extremely limited and results are often disappointing, recognizing of the pathophysiology and risk factors of this syndrome is essential to prevent the disabling consequences of this disease. The present paper focuses on risk determinants of post-thrombotic syndrome after deep vein thrombosis. The contribution of recurrent venous thrombosis and inherited thrombophilia to the pathogenesis of this syndrome is reviewed and discussed in details.
Patients with Severe Poststroke Fatigue Show a Psychosocial Profile Comparable to Patients with Other Chronic Disease: Implications for Diagnosis and Treatment
Authors: Zedlitz Aglaia M. E. E. , Visser-Meily Anne J. M. A. , Schepers Vera P. , Geurts Alexander C. H. , Fasotti Luciano
Published: November 2011

Objective. To obtain a psychosocial profile of patients with poststroke fatigue (PSF), which could aid in optimizing treatment strategies. Methods. Eighty-eight outpatients with severe PSF measured with the Checklist Individual Strength-fatigue subscale (CIS-f) and the Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS) were selected. Depression and anxiety, psychological distress, coping, social support, and self-efficacy of this group were compared to reference groups of healthy controls and patients with other chronic diseases. Associations between psychosocial characteristics and fatigue were calculated. Results. Compared to healthy controls, patients with PSF reported more psychological distress, less problem-focused coping, and more positive social support. Minor or no differences were found in comparison with other chronic patients. The CIS-f correlated with somatic complaints and the FSS with cognitive complaints. Conclusion. Patients with PSF show a psychosocial profile comparable to patients with other chronic disease. Implications for diagnosis and treatment are discussed.
Robot-Assisted Radical Hysterectomy for Cervical Cancer: Review of Surgical and Oncological Outcomes
Authors: Renato Seracchioli , Mohamed Mabrouk , Serena Solfrini , Giulia Montanari , Giulia Ferrini , Giulia Giovanardi , Diego Raimondo , Riccardo Schiavina
Published: November 2011

Robot-assisted procedures are being increasingly incorporated in gynaecologic oncology. Several studies have confirmed the feasibility and safety of robotic radical hysterectomy for selected patients with early-stage cervical cancer. It has been demonstrated that robotic radical hysterectomy offers an advantage over other surgical approaches with regard to operative time, blood loss, and hospital stay. Also initial evidences concerning oncological outcomes seem to confirm the equivalence to traditional open technique. Despite the fact that costs of robotic system are still high, they could be partially offset by several health-related and social benefits: less pain, faster dismissal, and return to full activity than other surgical approaches. The development of robotic technology may facilitate the spread of minimally invasive surgery in gynaecological oncology, overcoming some drawbacks of laparoscopic technique for challenging intervention such as radical hysterectomy. Further studies are needed to evaluate overall and disease-free survival of this technique and associated morbidity after adjuvant therapies.
Affect: origins and Targets of Hate
Authors: Sternberg Karin , Sternberg Robert J.
Published: November 2011

Somewhere in the United States a hate crime is committed every hour — someone is being assaulted on the basis of his or her race, religion, or sexual orientation. Innocent people are being murdered, raped, and intimidated, and their property is being destroyed for no other reason than their affiliation to a group that is disliked, despised, or even hated by the perpetrator
(Crime in the United States, 2007
). Turning one's eyes from the United States to other parts of the world, the situation does not look much better. Worldwide, there are dozens of armed conflicts and wars being fought. Terrorism and counterterrorism are increasing risks to the security of the global community. At the time this article is being written, genocide is being committed in parts of the Sudan. Genocides are nothing new. Past genocides have left many millions of people dead. The causes of the armed conflicts, genocides, terror attacks, and hate crimes are complex and cannot be reduced to one single factor. However, hate toward the target group is one (of the many) antecedents in most of these cases. To date, little attention has been given by psychologists to understanding how hate evolves and is maintained. Only knowledge of these processes will make it possible to devise programs to prevent the development of hate and to intervene effectively in ongoing conflicts.
Aggression
Authors: Miller Norman , Yang Linli
Published: November 2011

Aggression and violence between individuals and groups remains a persistent problem and phenomenon. Verbal attack, slanderous gossip, family abuse, street assault, robbery, rape, and murder are among the aggressive acts that, rather than disappearing with developing civilization, persist as a lingering shadow. Such pervasiveness calls for an understanding of the nature and causes of aggression, as well as means of controlling and reducing it.
Alternatives to Violence
Authors: Nelson Linden I.
Published: November 2011

The phrasealternatives to violenceis often used in the context of conflict resolution or peacemaking to refer to nonviolent options that are available to individuals and decision‐makers for responding to conflict. The notion that human beings can choose whether to respond to conflict violently or nonviolently is central to peace psychology and related disciplines. The field of conflict resolution is largely concerned with describing, analyzing, and promoting alternatives to violence. Conflict resolution education and peace education are sometimes defined as efforts to increase awareness of alternatives to violence and to teach competencies and attitudes that enable and motivate people to use alternatives to violence.
Apologies and Forgiveness
Authors: Blatz Craig W. , Ross Michael
Published: November 2011

Following conflict and injustice, leaders of formerly antagonistic groups sometimes apologize for the harms that their groups perpetrated. For example, in 2002 the Irish Republican Army (IRA) apologized for slaying non–enemy combatants in their violent campaign for Irish independence. Government leaders occasionally apologize decades and even centuries after an injustice. Recently, for example, the Canadian and Australian governments apologized for abuse of Aboriginal populations in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, seven American states apologized for their role in transatlantic slavery, and British prime minister Tony Blair apologized for the Irish Potato Famine. Some scholars argue that apologies, even belated ones, help heal the wounds of the past and promote reconciliation. Others oppose government apologies, arguing that they are ineffective and sometimes harmful. Politicians apologize for many kinds of transgressions, but no apologies generate the same degree of controversy as those for historical injustices. Below, we summarize the existing research on apologies, focusing on political apologies for historical injustices.
Appreciative Inquiry
Authors: Cobb Sara
Published: November 2011

Reducing violence and promoting peace are the overall goals of peace and conflict studies; typically, research has focused on the
barriers
to peace or the
causes
of violence, both of which derive from a problem‐focused orientation. Because of the power of language and the way that narratives constrain action, as well as imagination, this orientation can, paradoxically, reproduce the very problems that are the targets of change and limit the way in which persons can reframe their conditions and create new futures. Moving beyond a problem orientation, “appreciative inquiry” (AI) is a change technology that has been transferred, in recent years, from the organizational context where it was born, to peace and conflict studies. This essay reviews the theoretical commitments of AI, explores its application to peace and conflict studies, and then offers reflections on some of the issues arising from its transfer from organizational studies to a context where deep hatred and extreme violence mark the terrain in which conflict resolution may be practiced. Drawing on narrative theory, these reflections are intended to provide a cautionary note to practitioners, as well as, potentially, advance the practice of AI within peace‐building and conflict resolution, as a practice of
appreciating
the contours of violence and marginalization.
Buddhism and Peace Psychology
Authors: Dockett Kathleen H.
Published: November 2011

Buddhism is one of the world's oldest religions. It is the fastest growing and among the most influential in north america and Europe today. There are many types of Buddhism, with goals that range from personal self‐enlightenment to movements for social reform and world peace. Most fundamentally Buddhism is a philosophy of life with practical prescriptions for how to over‐come the sufferings of existence. It offers the prospect of inner peace, fulfillment, and ultimately release from suffering, simply through the exercise and control of one's own mind. at its core, Buddhism is about developing a universal wisdom rooted in compassion for all living things.
Children, Peace and Aggression in
Authors: Christie Daniel J. , Knoll Sarah
Published: November 2011

The literature on peaceful children has the usual kind of bias we see in the field of psychology. Most of the research examines children through a psychopathology lens, testing hypotheses on the origins of aggression and ways to reduce aggressive behavior. Moreover, most of the published research that bears on aggression has been conducted in the West, thereby limiting generalizations. With these limitations in mind, this article looks at what we know about the psychosocial causes of aggression, ways to reduce aggressive tendencies, and how to encourage peaceful thoughts, emotions, and actions in children.
Children and Political Violence
Authors: Merrilees Christine E. , Cairns Ed
Published: November 2011

Experts have noted the increase in the number of wars/conflicts breaking out within (as opposed to between) states beginning in the second half of the twentieth century. This form of conflict puts children and families in danger of experiencing political or ethnic violence within their communities and even in their homes. Intrastate, political wars hit close to home and threaten multiple environments in which children develop. In many of these conflicts, people on opposing sides of the conflict often share contested territory, providing frequent reminders of the conflict and opportunities to participate in the tensions between the conflicting groups. As of 2006, the United Nations estimated that over 2 million children had been killed and 6 million had been disabled due to armed conflict (United Nations General Assembly, 2006). Although it is difficult to fully estimate the total number of children directly or indirectly affected by political violence, it is well known that civilians are increasingly at risk as victims of war, and many of these victims are young people.
Children's Exposure to Violence
Authors: Slone Michelle
Published: November 2011

Despite ever‐growing calls for peace and the proliferation of peacekeeping initiatives, many areas in the world continue to be violent environments in which children develop, often struggling to survive amid frightening conditions and destruction. Wars, terrorism, social conflicts, and political violence are man‐made disasters. Perhaps one of the most tragic consequences of modern warfare is that present global conflicts are mostly prosecuted as a prolonged series of violent events by irregular forces and within civilian cities and communities. This implies that the horrors of war extend beyond traditional battlefields to places where children live, implicating them both as direct and indirect victims.
Cognitive Complexity
Authors: Conway Lucian Gideon , Gornick Laura Janelle
Published: November 2011

Imagine that you are trying to choose a picnic spot with a good friend. Your friend wants to sit underneath a pagoda; you want to sit by the river. Unfortunately, there are no pagodas by the river. Indeed, it is clear from your initial discussion that you don't like pagodas, and your friend doesn't like rivers. You seem out of luck. How can you deal with this dilemma? Perhaps you might say to your friend, “I am going to sit by the river, and you can come if you like, but if you don't come, you'll be by yourself.” That is, you can present a simple ultimatum:Join me or don't join me, but that is your choice.That sort of thing may work in the short term — your friend may give in to your ultimatum — but it doesn't usually build long‐term peaceful relationships.
Collective Efficacy
Authors: Louis Winnifred R
Published: November 2011

Collective efficacy refers to group members' perceptions of a group's competency to complete a task to achieve its goals (Bandura, 1986). Two major branches of this literature are summarized here and reviewed in detail below. The dominant branch is a continuation of earlier work on individual‐level self‐efficacy and sits within a broader literature emphasizing the value of perceived control. Researchers in this tradition see low levels of collective efficacy as leading to the breakdown of group functioning, and the buildup of collective efficacy (and its core components, trust and informal social control of conflict) as a critical means by which to safeguard against violence. Collective efficacy is conceptualized as a property of the group or collective, generalizing across different behaviors.
Comparative Case Studies
Authors: Zartman I. William
Published: November 2011

“Case” is used here to refer to the story of instances of peacemaking, either as a single set of encounters or as a number of successive instances. Comparative case studies can probe similarities and difference among a number of individual cases or within successive instances of a single case, or can analyze individual cases against a generic collection of cases summarized as concepts and hypotheses. Comparative case studies are the best way of combining empirical data with theory and concepts on conflict reduction. Analysis begins with the identification of the element to be explained and the selection of cases that are salient and relevant to that explanation. Comparisons can be chosen according to either the most differences or the most similarities models, in a search for either basic principles or explanations of differences. Case studies can be exploratory or confirmatory providing inductive ideas for generalized explanations or deductive testing of logical constructs.
Conflict Management, Resolution, and Transformation
Authors: Tint Barbara S.
Published: November 2011

Within the last few decades the field of peace psychology and the transdisciplinary field of peace and conflict studies have experienced rapid growth in the terminology used to represent theory and practice. The concepts of conflict and conflict interventions have been central to the development of theory and practice in both fields. While we attempt to articulate the distinct ways in which conflict interventions take place, it is recognized that these interventions are not mutually exclusive or linear and depend on a variety of factors including the stage, context, and history of the conflict as well as the resources and the philosophy of the interventionist.
Conflict, Asymmetric
Authors: Mccauley Clark
Published: November 2011

The nature of political violence is changing. War between states is becoming rare, but political violence between states and non‐state groups — asymmetric conflict — is growing more common. The origins of this trend are many, but increases in state power, at least for some states, is probably a crucial source of the problem. As modern states dispose of an increasing share of the gross national product (GNP) within their borders (Tullock, 2002), any subgroup getting less than its share of government spending — or believing that it is getting less — is falling behind. Increased government spending means that government reaches deeper into everyday lives to affect education, housing, healthcare, employment, marriage, and even the very definitions of life and death. The values expressed in state power are reinforced, and the survival of cultural groups without state support may be in danger.
Conflict, Ethos of
Authors: Bar‐Tal Daniel , Oren Neta
Published: November 2011

Each society consists of a collective of people who have at least some feeling of belonging, share some societal beliefs (defined as widely shared cognitions that address themes and issues with which society members are particularly occupied and which contribute to their sense of uniqueness) (Bar‐Tal, 2000), experience solidarity, coordinate some activities, and have a sense of common identity. Of special importance is the system of beliefs that society members share. Talcott Parsons (1951) argued that “the sharing of common belief systems is a condition of the full integration of a system of social interactions” (p. 352). These societal beliefs contribute to the sense of uniqueness of society members as being distinct from members of other societies, while they allow a psychological connection of society members to their own society.
Conflict: Levels of Analysis
Authors: Zelizer Craig M. , Cui Ling
Published: November 2011

In the field of peace and conflict studies one of the key aspects of effective research and practice is determining the appropriate level of analysis. Given the interdisciplinary nature of the field, which includes diverse disciplines such as psychology, sociology, law, conflict resolution, international relations, and more, to date there is no consensus regarding the core levels of analysis. Moreover, within particular disciplines, such as psychology, there are often widespread differences among the models or assumptions of analysis levels that scholars and practitioners may find appropriate. To some the group may be an appropriate unit of analysis, separate from individuals, while others would disagree. To a large degree the level of analysis that scholars or practitioners use is based on their respective disciplinary training. Despite the differences in levels of analysis, most scholars believe that a multi‐level approach is needed to develop a deeper understanding of conflicts. In this article we provide a brief review of the basic steps involved in peace and conflict studies research and practice. Then, we explore key models of analysis.
Conflict, Reduction of Intergroup
Authors: Cohen Taya R. , Insko Chester A.
Published: November 2011

A hotel and its employees have a dispute regarding wages, so the employees go on strike. Republicans and Democrats cannot come to terms on a health care bill, so the legislation languishes in Congress. Two countries have ideological and political disagreements, so they decide to go to war. All of these are examples of destructive intergroup conflict. In this chapter we outline several approaches to reducing intergroup conflict grounded in psychological research. The conflict reduction methods we discuss include the consideration of future consequences, reduction of group influence, and reconciliation of underlying interests. Our hope is that the strategies we outline can and will be implemented by group members, leaders, and facilitators seeking to reduce intergroup conflict.
Conscientization
Authors: Montero Maritza
Published: November 2011

Conscientization is the liberating process of consciousness‐mobilization that enables critical thinking about how we live and how the world we live in is ordered. This dynamic process is political because it is meant to transform the person into an ethically conscious citizen. It uncovers the effects of oppression and exclusion, and increases awareness of unjust circumstances, events, and relations that have been ignored and normalized or considered part of daily life. Persons who undergo a conscientization process arrive at a different understanding of the world, of their selves, and of their roles and possibilities. Conscientization includes the processes of problematization, de‐ideol‐ogization, and de‐alienation, from which a nonfractioned consciousness regarding social situations is constructed and reconstructed, allowing a new understanding of the lifeworld, and of the circumstances configuring this lifeworld.
Conservative Ideology
Authors: Zabel Keith L. , Christopher Andrew N.
Published: November 2011

There is no single definition of conservative ideology; rather, conservative ideology encompasses a variety of beliefs, all centered on the foundation of resistance to change and adherence to traditional and established behavior, both at the individual and group level. Indeed, conservative ideology is associated with an intolerance for ambiguity. Conservative individuals believe the world is a predictable place in which there are clear outcomes for individuals based on which groups they belong to, how well they follow traditional and established rules, and the extent to which they do the “right” things in life. For that reason, conservative ideology has been almost exclusively studied in relation to negative outcomes, most notably prejudice towards perceived outgroups. Based on the characteristics of the ideology and level at which it occurs (group vs. individual), conservative ideology can be broken down into smaller facets of social dominance orientation, right‐wing authoritarianism, and belief in a just world.
Corporate Social Responsibility: Applying Contact Theory and Mediation
Authors: Ralph Natalie
Published: November 2011

Potential roles for business to support peace in conflict situations have provided a new area for research, sometimes termed peace entrepreneurship, peace through commerce, peace business, or corporate peacemaking. In this essay, the term “business” encompasses microbusinesses, small and medium‐size businesses, and transnational corporate social responsibility: applying contact theory and mediation corporations (TNCs). As a key economic actor which impacts national economies, employment, investment, natural resources, and media, business can strengthen structural and cultural peacebuilding for conflict prevention and postconflict reconstruction. The potential also exists for business to support peacemaking under conditions of direct violence. Business can do this by initiating or supporting interventions such as mediation or by providing resources and administrative and logistical support for such interventions.
Counterterrorism, Psychological Aspects of
Authors: Kruglanski Arie W. , Boyatzi Lauren M.
Published: November 2011

In order to define counterterrorism, it is first well to understand terrorism, which counterterrorism aims to oppose. Though the definition of terrorism has varied widely, most scholars agree that terrorism includes aggression against noncombatants and is directed toward influencing an audience rather than fulfillment of a specific political goal (Schmid, 1983).
Critical and Radical Psychology
Authors: Fox Dennis
Published: November 2011

Psychology's secession from philosophy in the nineteenth century required new approaches to speculation and investigation to clarify and shape its modern scientific identity. The emphasis on predicting and controlling human behavior, which marginalized phenomena unsuited for quantitative data production, generated techniques that proved especially useful to government, military, and corporate bureaucracies. At least as useful were explanatory models compatible with Western individualistic values. As psychology's influence and reputation in the public imagination expanded, psychologists working as researchers, therapists, teachers, and consultants became central to thepsy complex,the set of professionals from psychiatrists and guidance counselors to teachers and social workers who aim to modify the behavior of others.
Cyberbullying
Authors: Lodge Jodie , Frydenberg Erica
Published: November 2011

Cyberbullying is a particularly invasive form of bullying and one from which it can be difficult to escape. Cyberbullying is now a global problem, with many incidents reported in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, Japan, and Scandinavia.
Dehumanization, Infrahumanization, and Naturalization
Authors: Holtz Peter , Wagner Wolfgang
Published: November 2011

For most human beings, it is close to inconceivable to do harm or kill other humans unless there is the threat of being attacked. Yet the atrocities of war crimes against innocent civilians and the cruelties of genocide or ethnic cleansing are ubiquitous. The question arises: How can people commit such crimes? In the majority of cases it is ordinary people who commit these deeds; ordinary people, whose values and personality traits do not differ much from most other humans. So how can ordinary humans behave so inhumanely in certain situations?
Dispute Resolution, Online
Authors: Balvin Nikola
Published: November 2011

Online dispute resolution (ODR) refers to alternative dispute resolution (ADR) processes such as mediation, negotiation, and arbitration, conducted with the assistance of online information and communication technologies (ICTs). ODR typically uses tools such as e‐mail, instant messaging, and bulletin boards, but some theorists expand the definition to include video‐ or telephone conferencing and even communication via mobile phones and community radio. Online information management that is part of a dispute resolution process, such as e‐filing of court documents, is also considered ODR. ODR can be used to resolve disputes that occur in the online world, such those over purchases on eBay, and also those that arise in the offline world, such as business or family disputes. However, websites that simply provide information about ODR are not included in the definition, because ODR necessitates that some resolution of the dispute is attempted. This essay briefly reviews the history and different applications of ODR and delineates some of the key topics in the literature, including legal and regulatory issues, trust, communication, efficiency, culture, and the applicability of ICTs in different regions of the world.
Drama Theory
Authors: Bryant Jim
Published: November 2011

Drama theory provides a general model of human interaction. Its basic proposition is that each interaction presents a person with a unique set of disquieting dilemmas and an individual will look for ways of rationalizing their elimination of these dilemmas in an emotionally led response. This search is idiosyncratic and unpredictable, quite possibly involving a radical reframing of the situation and communication with the other parties involved. Nevertheless, the whole process is one that can be represented and tracked using drama theory. Drama theory explains how people use reason and emotion to exert pressure upon others within the context of a confrontation.
Emotional Appeals, Mobilizing through
Authors: Snyder Mark , Dwyer Patrick C.
Published: November 2011

Volunteerism, voting, and other forms of citizen participation are important ingredients in a healthy society. The actions of citizens, working alone and working in concert, have been instrumental in bringing about social change and addressing a wide range of social problems. In fact, it has been argued that instances in which individuals and groups take action in order to respond to society's needs are not merely helpful, but play an essential role in combating the problems that face the world (Snyder, 1993).
Emotions in Violence and Peace, Intergroup
Authors: Leach Colin Wayne , Kang Jessica Jeahae
Published: November 2011

The twentieth century was one of the most violent in history. It has been estimated that war killed an average of over a hundred people an hour. Thus far, the twenty‐first century has continued this trend, due in part to violence in Colombia, Sudan, Iraq, Gaza, and elsewhere. Perhaps because intergroup violence rarely seems to offer any lasting reward to those who perpetrate it, many observers view such violence as an example of passion overwhelming reason. However, this view misinterprets the role of emotion in at least two ways. First, people are not slaves to irrational passion. Second, passion is just as important to the pursuit of peace as it is to violence.
Empathy, Intergroup: Regarding the Suffering of Others
Authors: Čehajić‐Clancy Sabina
Published: November 2011

Articles in this encyclopedia have addressed various questions related to the causes, consequences, and implications of intergroup conflict, peacebuilding, justice, and reconciliation. This article will discuss the phenomenon of empathy conceptualized as an emotional reaction or an emotional response to knowing about the suffering of others. The question of how people tend to react to knowledge about the suffering or killing of others and why empathy is a desired reaction will be analyzed. First, however, it is necessary to define what empathy is and what it is not. Then it will be explained why it is important to be emotionally moved by others' suffering. Finally, the article will attempt to shed some light on the question as to why some people feel empathy while others feel nothing at all.
Empathy Training and Listening Skills
Authors: Coburn Clare
Published: November 2011

The ability to listen to a different perspective and to choose a new response is at the heart of conflict resolution and peacebuilding. Empathy and listening are interrelated, as deep listening fosters empathy and understanding, and empathy requires the capacity to receive the communication from others in order to be active. Theorists and practitioners in psychology, peace studies, organizational development, and conflict resolution have explored these capacities and emphasized the need to develop the requisite self‐ and other‐awareness in order to enact them. (See
cognition: creeative versus dogmatic
.)
Equity Theory
Authors: Hatfield Elaine , Rapson Richard L. , Bensman Lisamarie
Published: November 2011

On June 4, 2009, President Barack Obama delivered his now well‐known Cairo speech, in which he proposed “a new beginning.” He pointed out that Israelis and Palestinians had suffered terribly from religious wars and conflict. The Israelis, subjected to centuries of persecution, faced annihilation as a people in the Holocaust. The Palestinians, victims of colonialism and Cold War policies, had faced the daily humiliations of occupation for more than a half‐century. Although these grievances, social injustices, horrors, and deaths could never be forgotten or forgiven, it was, he argued, time to start anew. In the end – whether the peace process took 1 year, 10 years, or 1,000 years – Palestinians and Israelis must find some way to share the Holy Land.
Gender and International Relations
Authors: Stephenson Carolyn M.
Published: November 2011

The conceptualization of gender in international relations is relatively new. International relations as a field of study was one of the most reluctant to acknowledge the relevance of gender, with articles in major journals not appearing until the late 1980s and early 1990s. The majority of scholars in international relations, and especially international security studies, are male, reflecting the gender balance in the practice of international relations. While women were always a part of international relations, as Cynthia Enloe showed with her landmark book
Bananas, Beaches and Bases
(1989) they had largely been invisible. Initial feminist concerns focused on discrimination against women and on increasing the inclusion of women in political, economic, and social structures.
Gendering Peace Psychology
Authors: Schroer‐Hippel Miriam
Published: November 2011

Gender perspectives are central to peace psychology. This may be argued from the point of view of gender and conflict studies, a growing interdisciplinary field of research. Thorough analyses of gender relations and their intersections with other categories, such as ethnicity, sexuality, and class, have contributed substantially to understanding the dynamics of violent conflict. From this point of view, any discipline concerned with the study of peace and conflict cannot do without a gender analysis. Besides this, the relevance of gender perspectives to peace psychology may be argued from a normative stance. Most definitions of peace psychology emphasize a normative commitment towards negative and positive peace, towards ending direct violence and achieving social justice. It was mainly feminist scholars and activists who pointed out that this should apply to both menandwomen. In a broad debate, feminist definitions of peace, conflict, and security have been developed. They account for diverse forms of violence against women and men, including violence in the so‐called private sphere of the home, and define gender equality as an inseparable part of peace. Three threads of gendering peace psychology will be discussed in this article: (1) gendered experiences in peace and conflict, (2) gendering methods of conflict management, and (3) gender theoretical analysis of the formation of war and peace.
Globalization and Conflict
Authors: Pilisuk Marc , Pellegrini Gianina
Published: November 2011

Globalization refers to a complex set of cultural, economic, political, and environmental changes. They reflect a transfer from diverse, separate, and local options to standardized, interconnected, centralized, and global ones. At the onset of the twenty‐first century globalization is perhaps the most potent force affecting human behavior and experience. Many symbols are recognized globally, goods and information cross borders instantaneously, and we have exciting opportunities to know about others. Globalization affects what we wear, what we eat, who shall have enough to eat, the safety of our air and water, where we reside, our options for employment, the availability of human services, the shaping of values by which we assign meaning to life, how we shape and are shaped by technologies, the potential for financial stability and equity in the world, the possibilities for survival of an endangered planet, and the arena in which individuals and communities retain a measure of control over their lives. Globalization also affects the physical composition of the planet and the selection of which forms of life are to survive and which to be eliminated. Globalization includes vast changes in the power to make economic decisions at every level. It is the economic side of globalization that is strongly linked to conflict and which assumes relevance to each individual's own work, home and community life, and political participation. The purpose here is to examine the pathways that constitute the increased global interconnectedness, the forces that are creating and using these pathways, and the consequences to quality of life and distribution of wealth and of power.
Grounded Theory
Authors: Madill Anna
Published: November 2011

Grounded theory methodology evolved during Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss's (1965) seminal study on the awareness of dying. Grounded theory represented a radical, qualitative alternative to the quantitative sociology of the time and sought to provide a way of capturing lived experience. It was also developed as a method for bridging the gap between theory and empirical research in the social sciences. Glaser and Strauss (1967) outline the
constant comparative method
as a procedure for generating theory from qualitative data (texts such as observations, interviews, and documents) in terms of four iterative stages.
Humiliation and Dignity
Authors: Lindner Evelin G.
Published: November 2011

Humiliation and dignity are of crucial significance for peace, and for the field of peace psychology. Already the very definition of peace is deeply interwoven with humiliation and dignity. In a normative frame defined by human rights, peace is conceptualized as successful dialogue embedded in mutual respect for every participant's equality in dignity. In contrast, throughout history, peace often meant calm and quiet achieved through success in inflicting humiliation on one's population. Still today, the latter definition of peace reigns in large parts of the world. Both definitions are mutually exclusive, and both camps tend to feel insulted and humiliated when criticized by the other, something that, in turn, can be disruptive of peace.
Identity Conflicts, Managing Intractable
Authors: Fiol C. Marlene , O'Connor Edward J.
Published: November 2011

Intergroup conflicts are ubiquitous. Sometimes they stem from differences in how groups fundamentally define themselves, and from threats to their identity. When identities are implicated in a conflict, it tends to escalate to encompass an ever widening number of issues, leading parties to become trapped in an ongoing negative spiral from which it is difficult to escape.
Image Theory
Authors: Bilali Rezarta
Published: November 2011

The concept of image was introduced by Boulding (1959) as “the total cognitive, affective, and evaluative structure of the behavioral unit, or its internal view of itself and its universe” (pp. 120–121). This definition is inclusive of images of self and others. Each state might be motivated to project a positive self image by portraying itself in a positive light while avoiding negative portrayals. For instance, policymakers might take actions such as saving face or showing good will and prestige to present their nation in a positive light (Jervis, 1970). Images of others, on the other hand, can be considered as mental representations of those nations. As such, an image is a belief about the goals, intentions, and character of an actor in international relations. The function of international images is to simplify a complex international environment and guide perceptions and responses toward other nations. Knowledge of images serves to help us to understand and predict states’ behavior. Due to the importance of images in predicting foreign policy decisions, most work in this area has examined images of masses and elites of one nation about another, rather than images of one's own nation.
Intergroup Violence and Psychosocial Interventions, Cycles of
Authors: Christie Daniel J.
Published: November 2011

As the number of interstate wars has diminished in recent years, peace scholars and practitioners have redirected their attention to three kinds of intergroup violence: (1) structural violence, (2) terrorism, and (3) cycles of intergroup violence. Structural violence is a pernicious form of violence that is built into the structure of a society and generates enormous inequalities in power, wealth, and overall well‐being. Structural violence occurs when there are enough resources for everyone in a society but some segments of the society remain deprived of need satisfaction. The result is disproportionately high levels of infant mortality and shorter life spans for groups that are oppressed. Terrorism has been defined in a number of ways but usually refers to acts committed by nonstate actors who seek to target and kill civilian noncombatants with the purpose of advancing a political, religious, or ideological agenda. The current article addresses the third type of violence, cycles of intergroup violence. Three phases of the cycle will be identified and psychosocial intervention strategies that are most appropriate for each phase will be presented.
Just War Theory
Authors: Moseley Alexander
Published: November 2011

War unleashes deadly violence and destruction and inverts the normal codes and conventions of society: killing, maiming, and injuring become justifiable; damage to land, resources, and buildings a normal occurrence; and the seizure of people and property a regularity. Following a century that has accustomed us to think about war in terms of totalitarian effects and total consequences, of genocidal campaigns, of the obliteration of cities and the threat of mutually assured destruction with atomic weapons, it may seem an arcane proclamation that war's reach and vehemence ought to be restrained. Yet that is what the just war conventions seek to explore and to uphold as guides to human action. While the pacifist rejects war absolutely and thereby contends that all acts within war are immoral and inexcusable and the militarist declares that in war (as in love) all is fair (Holmes, 1989), the just war theorist takes a middle position, acknowledging that should war break out, a range of considerations concerning its justification and the procedures that soldiers follow ought to be maintained as guides to ensure, in effect, that some sanctuaries from war's evils are acknowledged (Clark, 1988; Norman, 1995; Walzer, 1977).
Media and Peace: Emerging Technologies
Authors: Kuriansky Judy , Mountcastle Catherine
Published: November 2011

While traditional forms of media have been useful in promoting peace, the current article examines advances in technology and instant digital communication that have greatly expanded platforms for mass media. As a result, there is greater communication between individuals and groups, and new possibilities for public awareness, social movements, and peace efforts. Internet and computer technologies are being applied to peace efforts through formats like dialogue forums, grassroots movements, and educational training programs, allowing people to interact and comment, and to form virtual communities. Greater accessibility to information and educational tools for intercultural cooperation is shifting power from political and corporate elite to grassroots civil society, and giving disenfranchised people a greater voice while motivating activism. At the same time, some potential dangers must also be recognized.
Military Psychology
Authors: Beech Deanna
Published: November 2011

Military psychology is most often assumed to mean the use of psychology in the effort to treat the wounds of war. However, this application is only the most visible aspect of a fertile and multifaceted field. Over the course of its history this discipline has expanded to the extent that it is now described as the application of all forms of psychology to the military context (Society for Military Psychology, 2009). Historically, the concept of “military context” was clearer. War was fought between two or more governments and, for the most part, it was fought by soldiers. However, with the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT) the scope of the military context has been stretched and psychological applications are rapidly stretching with it.
Mindfulness
Authors: Blumberg Herbert H.
Published: November 2011

Being mindful may help people who are embedded in a variety of situations related to peace psychology. Instructive publications by Thich Nhat Hanh and others explain the view that nonviolent social action and personal growth focused on behavioral and contextual awareness can readily potentiate each other rather than being incompatible choices or at best independent ones. Experimental research by Langer and colleagues supports the idea that mindfulness training can lessen prejudicial behavior against outgroups. Principles of mindfulness are, moreover, potentially applicable to all of the major areas of peace psychology.
Monitoring Human Rights in Educational Settings
Authors: Greene Michael B.
Published: November 2011

The first internationally recognized statement of modern‐day human rights is embodied in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Ratified without objection by the United Nation General Assembly in 1948, the UDHR recognizes the “inherent dignity” and “equal and inalienable rights” of all persons. The UNHR and two subsequently adopted international human rights documents — the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966) — comprise the International Bill of Rights (IBR). In addition, the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1989, incorporates an unprecedented array of civil, political, social, cultural, and economic rights that accrue specifically to children. Together, the IBR and the CRC, supplemented by official commentaries, represent the most widely endorsed set of articulated fundamental human rights that can serve and have served to inform and direct educational policies and practices.
Moral Exclusion
Authors: Opotow Susan
Published: November 2011

Morton Deutsch has defined the scope of justice as follows: “The narrower one's conception of one's community, the narrower will be the scope of situations in which one's action will be governed by considerations of justice” (Deutsch, 1985, p. 37).
Narrative Analysis
Authors: de la Rey Cheryl
Published: November 2011

Narrative analysis does not fit neatly within any one scholarly field; it is intrinsically interdisciplinary. Narrative research is conducted across disciplines such as psychology, sociology, and history. Generally, the term “narrative analysis” refers to the interpretation of some form of storytelling derived from long interviews, biographies, journals, and diaries.
Native Peacemaking
Authors: Walker Polly O.
Published: November 2011

“Peacemaking is … a way of thinking and living in respectful relations with others.” This definition of Navajo peacemaking shared by Robert Yazzie (2004, p. 112), Chief Justice of the Navajo Peacemakers Court, also describes the peacemaking traditions of many other Native peoples in Canada and the United States. Native peacemaking seeks to maintain and restore balance and harmony to vast networks of relationships among living humans, ancestors, generations to come, and the natural world. It also seeks to restore balance within each individual, seeking to bring harmony to the spiritual, emotional, intellectual, and physical aspects of human experience. Native peacemaking might be described as processes which assist people to live in harmony with the flux and patterns of the natural world.
Negotiating Strategies and Processes, Psychological Aspects of
Authors: Olekalns Mara Olekalns , Olekalns Philip L.
Published: November 2011

One of the first decisions a negotiator makes is whether to adopt a broadly cooperative or broadly competitive approach. This decision is critical because it affects the boundaries that negotiators set (the range of acceptable outcomes), where they start the negotiation and their willingness to make concessions. It also shapes how negotiations unfold because it shifts negotiators' tactical preferences to more heavily emphasize either problem‐solving, collaborative behaviors or contentious, power‐oriented behaviors.
Nonviolent Democratic Transitions
Authors: Montiel Cristina Jayme
Published: November 2011

Nonviolent democratic transition refers to the use of peaceful means to dismantle an authoritarian structure and create a more open political system by increasing the distribution of political power among larger human pluralities. The nonviolent collective action generates political pressure through successful organization and mobilization of large numbers of prodemocracy groups, making manifest previously latent, hidden, or underground mass movements that challenge the status quo power arrangement. Antigovernment initiatives are thus able to remain contentious and coercive
vis‐à‐vis
the authoritarian state (Bond, Jenkins, Taylor, & Schock, 1997) without the employment of direct violence.