bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Golf Resorts — Driving into the '90s
Authors: Morse Sarah , Lanier Pamela
Published: March 2007

Golf continues to gain in popularity, especially among well-heeled travelers, and there are many ways to capture a share of that market
Creating a Multi-Processor Environment Through Systems Integration
Authors: Kasavana Michael L. , David Julie Smith
Published: March 2007

An integrated computer system can benefit virtually any operation, and there are several types of computer-system networks from which to choose
Student Expectations of Hospitality Jobs
Authors: Casado Matt A.
Published: March 2007

This study identifies some of the basic expectations of students before being recruited by hospitality companies
A Strategy for Customer Satisfaction
Authors: Barsky Jonathan D. , Labagh Richard
Published: March 2007

A hotel's customer-satisfaction strategy is critical to its being competitive. Here's a simple tool that uses guest information to support strategic decision making
The Medical Model of Delinquency
Authors: Balch Robert W.
Published: March 2007

In spite of its popularity in scientific and correctional circles, the medical model of delinquency is open to question on theoreti cal, practical, and ethical grounds. The medical perspective ob scures the nature of delinquency by neglecting the critical role that social audiences play in defining behavior as delinquent or non- delinquent. It has also hampered preventive and correctional efforts because of the undue emphasis given to the problems of individual delinquents rather than the institutional framework within which delinquency occurs. Finally, the medical model of delinquency raises serious ethical questions about the treatment of "predelinquent" children, the indeterminate sentence, and the individualization of correctional programs—all of which have traditionally been justified by the medical analogy.
A Theor of Prison System's
Authors: Steele Eric H. , Jacobs James B.
Published: March 2007

This paper suggests that scholars and practitioners in correction should turn their attention to the prison system as a crucial unit of analysis. Almost every state has a centralized correctional depart ment with jurisdiction over a variety of institutions ranging from traditional custodial maximum-security warehouses to community- based innovative halfway houses and treatment centers. How pris oners and resources should be distributed among these institutions is the key problem.

The central thesis of this paper is that any prison system can be described and analyzed according to the functional relationships among its institutions. The "hierarchical" system is based on a highly elaborated punishment-reward structure that holds out the incentive of minimum-security living conditions in exchange for cooperation with administration. In this system social control is shifted frcm the individual institution to the system as a whole. The "differentiated" system is designed for the delivery of treat ment services, but it requires a degree of autonomy that correction al systems currently do not enjoy. Finally, the "autonomous" sys tem is made up of small, functionally independent institutions with heterogeneous populations; though attractive because of low cost and moral neutrality with respect to the etiology and treat ment of crime, it is also unstable because the type of institution that evolves depends largely on the warden and the natural his tory of the particular institution.
Shifting Perspectives in Drug-Abuse Policy
Authors: Weiner Ronald I.
Published: March 2007

Beginning with the passage of the Narcotic Addict Rehabili tation Act in 1966, federal drug abuse policy has shifted sig nificantly, in attempts to find alternatives to the traditional punitive model. NARA represented the emergence of a planned, incremental, treatment-centered model for federal offenders. With the advent of the Nixon Administration "law and order" theme, drug policy shifted to a social-control model emphasizing methadone maintenance in local govern mental units as a means of containing street crime. In 1972, Public Law 92-93 authorized a relaxation of the legislative restrictions on NARA and provided greater flexibility in the treatment of federal offenders, including probationers, parolees, and those mandatorily released. Subsequent legisla tion passed by Congress in 1972-73 reflected a desire to merge the treatment-centered model with the social-control model. This paper analyzes these policy trends and raises questions about implications for the administration of justice.
Females under the Law— "Protected" but Unequal
Authors: Armstrong Gail
Published: March 2007

The sex of the offender is a significant determinant of the length and type of the sentence imposed. Many sentencing statutes and judges make sex distinctions that are transmitted into different sentences for male and female offenders found guilty of the same offense. Sometimes this discrimination on the basis of sex works in favor of females before the law; most of the time it works against them; all of the time, whether the sentence is more lenient or more severe than the one imposed on a. male, the misbegotten motive is chivalry or special protectiveness. Our statutes and sentencing practices incorporate a double standard of morality. Males and females are not equal under the law.
Determinate Sentencing
Authors: Manson John R.
Published: March 2007

Parole, an extension of discretion to mitigate sentences for "rehabili tated" offenders, has had some negative consequences. The preponderance of empirical study also shows that parole supervision is not critical in determining community success, is not cost-effective, does not protect the public, and does not provide for the equal administration of justice. The difficulties lie not with personnel but with the criminal justice system.

Rehabilitation, therefore, is not an appropriate basis of a sentence structure or institutional operation. A flat sentence, with unconditional discharge at its expiration, would invite the prisoner to participate in rehabilitative programs if he was genuinely interested in them, not because he wanted to impress the parole board.
Kids Who Kill
Authors: Sorrells James M.
Published: March 2007

Juvenile homicide has increased markedly in recent years. This study focuses on thirty-one juveniles charged with homicide or attempted homicide over an eighteen-month period in Alameda County, California, and the circumstances of their offenses.

About one-third of the homicides occurred during the commission of a robbery. In about one-fourth of the homicides, the assailant was intoxi cated. About two-thirds of the assailants were carrying the weapon used, suggesting that predisposition to kill or injure may be present without necessary premeditation.

Almost all the assailants were males, and half were sixteen or younger. Two-thirds had prior correctional involvement; the others had never demonstrated antisocial behavior. Some youngsters were anxious or depressed, some were social isolates and overly controlled, and some were hostile and explosive; others seemed quite healthy and well adjusted. In general, this group of juveniles would not be seen as more disturbed than any other delinquent sample.

The families of the assailants were characterized as violent and chaotic, and many of the parents had histories of crime, alcohol abuse, and violence. Only one-third of the youngsters had apparently adequate maternal and paternal figures in the home at the time of the homicide.

These youngsters seem to have been deprived of models for controlling impulses, and their family experience had not generated compelling hopes and goals. In the absence of internal restraints and goals, juvenilfs can be profoundly influenced by popular media, which teach that life must be exciting to be worthwhile. Violence is a cheap form of excitement, and excitement is a cheap form of gratification. For these youngsters, the adults in their families and the adults in popular entertainment usually chose violence over long-term gratification. So did they.
The Clinical Prediction of Dangerousness
Authors: Cohen Murray L. , Groth A. Nicholas , Siegel Richard
Published: March 2007

Laws committing dangerous sexual offenders indefinitely are legitimate only insofar as "dangerousness" can be predicted and treated. The court has relied on the clinician to identify and measure the crucial variables in violent behavior and assign a probability of occurrence. Yet most critical studies have concluded that not only has predictive accuracy not been demonstrated but also that such accuracy cannot be achieved. We argue that any conclusion at this time is premature. There are data indicating the soundness of clinical as opposed to statistical prediction of dangerous ness. Both approaches show high false positive error rates, but the im provement in accuracy of clinical studies over statistical studies cannot be denied.

In examining the success of treatment, the authors present data indi cating that a program of psychological rehabilitation can have a profound effect on the majority of dangerous sexual offenders.

The authors conclude that the indefinite commitment of dangerous offenders is legitimate and appropriate, but the policy carries with it heavy responsibilities. Enforcing such an approach means that the clinician must play an important role in his relationship to the court.
Discretion and the Determinate Sentence: Its Distribution, Control, and Effect on Time Served
Authors: Clear Todd R. , Hewitt John D. , Regoli Robert M.
Published: March 2007

Sentencing reformers have criticized current sentencing practices as abusive and as rooted in untenable assumptions. While many different approaches have been suggested, most reformers agree that changes must (1) reduce or eliminate the discretion available to those responsible for sentencing and (2) reduce or eliminate discrepancies in sentences, while (3) not resulting in an unreasonable increase in prison populations. Recently, the Indiana legislature passed a new penal code which, among other changes, established a determinate sentencing structure. An analysis of this code suggests that the intent of most sentencing reformers may not have been met by this new law. The potential for discretion has not been reduced; in fact, prosecutors may now have more power to manipulate the sanctions imposed. Substantial control over the sentence has been placed in the hands of correctional staff through credit time provisions. And projection of the impact of this penalty scheme indicates that sentences may be almost 50 percent longer for some first-time felony offenders. It is concluded that many of the code's problems could be eliminated by reduc ing the length of prison sentences.
Deterrence or Brutalization
Authors: Bowers William J. , Pierce Glenn L.
Published: March 2007

In this study, we find that in New York State over the period 1907-63 there were, on the average, two additional homicides in the month after an execution. Controls for time trends, seasonality, the effects of war, and adjustments for autocorrelation tend to confirm this finding. Such a "brutalizing" effect of executions is consistent with research on violent events such as publicized suicides, mass murders, and assassinations; with previous studies of the long-term effects of the availability and use of capital punishment; and with a small number of investigations of the short-term impact of executions in the days, weeks, and months that fol low. This suggests that the message of executions is one of "lethal ven geance" more than deterrence. The resulting sacrifice of human life chal lenges the constitutionality of capital punishment.
Capital Punishment and Deterrence
Authors: Espy M. Watt
Published: March 2007

Historical cases of executions carried out in the United States and the events that surrounded them show that, in these instances at least, capital punishment has failed as a means of deterring others from committing capital crimes. The demoralizing effects of execution have far outweighed any conceivable deterrent value.
The Legitimacy of Administrative Influence as Perceived by Selected Groups
Authors: Clear Delbert K. , Seager Roger C.
Published: March 2007

"The findings of this study reveal that educational administrators consistently have a greater desire to initiate influence attempts on teachers than teachers are willing to accept. The findings also provide suggested classifications of teacher behavior within which adminis trators can expect wide or narrow zones of acceptance for influence attempts. Delbert Clear is Assistant Professor of Educational Administration and Director of the University of Wisconsin- Milwaukee Public Schools Triple-T Project. Roger Seager is President of Jamestown Community College, Jamestown, New York.
Content Decision Making and The Politics of Education
Authors: Schwille John , Porter Andrew , Gant Michael
Published: March 2007

This paper reviews the politics of education literature for relevance to research on how teachers make decisions about the content of instruction. It argues that such decisions are political in nature and, therefore, should be the subject of political research.
School Desegregation Doctrine and the Performance of the Judiciary
Authors: van Geel Tyll
Published: March 2007

This article presents a summary and analysis of constitutional doctrine dealing with school desegregation. Also discussed is whether or not the courts have adequately carried out their function of keeping school desegregation law clear and understandable.
Political Consequences of Interest Arbitration Awards
Authors: Nasstrom Roy R. , Walden Everett
Published: March 2007

The impact of interest arbitration awards receives attention in a case study of disputes during the 1970s between the state of Minnesota and the Minnesota Community College Faculty Association. Even when arbitration is non-binding on the government, it structures governmental decisions in allocating funds and creates political problems that extend well beyond the arbitrated cases.
China Spring and the Chinese Alliance for Democracy
Authors: Zhang Juli
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this essay is to analyze the development of China Spring, a dissident monthly journal founded by Chinese students in the United States. The appearance of China Spring is closely related to the political and economic situation in China, and to the growing numbers of Chinese students studying abroad. China Spring is the organ of the Chinese Alliance for Democracy. Mild rather than violent means have been advo cated by the Alliance towards the present government. The points of view of the journal on major issues concerning Chinese politic, such as economic reform, Taiwan, and Tibet, are also introduced.
The periphery in the center: the information age and the 'good life' in rural America
Authors: Calabrese Andrew
Published: March 2007

This paper presents a historical perspective on contemporary development efforts in rural America's communication infrastructure. It is well known throughout the world that urban poverty and decay are lingering problems in America, sometimes leading to com parisons with the Third World. However, it is not as widely known that another "periphery" exists here, namely, the rural poor. This paper examines public discussions and decisions about how to deliver rural America from economic decline through the advances of the information age. Highlighted below are the conflicting interests between the long-term rural residents and the affluent new class which stands to gain as "information highways" enable the latter to live and work in remote areas and enjoy a high-tech "pastoral ideal". While preserving their cosmopolitan connections, affluent newcomers are likely to control the politics and economics of the rural areas into which they move. In contrast to this possibility, the stated and worthy goals of the recent rural development efforts are to empower rural communities, but it is difficult to tell which communities are being empowered. It is argued that in order to gain a true commitment from enterprises deciding to locate operations in rural areas, these companies should match public funds with private funds to construct community owned and controlled telecommunications infrastructures.
Cultural values depicted in Indian television advertising
Authors: Srikandath Sivaram
Published: March 2007

During the last decade, television has diffused rapidly through Indian society. While this television boom has provided ample opportunities for the Indian government to propagate development communication messages, there has also been some concern regarding the impact of television, especially television advertising, on traditional cultural values. The purpose of the present paper is to examine Indian television advertising, focusing on the portrayal of cultural values. A brief historical perspective on the evolution of Indian television and Indian television advertising is provided. We then apply a modified version of Pollay's coding framework to analyse a sample of 200 Indian television commer cials to identify the predominant cultural values that are being transmitted through Indian television advertising. Results of the study indicate that Indian television advertising is to a large extent, if not predominantly, promoting the values of high-technology and moderniza tion, as well as consumerism.
The East German press during the political transformation of East Germany
Authors: Willnat Lars
Published: March 2007

This study presents a first look at the degree of journalistic change which took place in the former East Germany during fall 1989. Specifically, it is asked if, affected by glasnost and sweeping political reforms, East German journalism indeed changed or simply continued to embrace socialist journalistic news values during the last months of 1989. It is also asked to what extent former control mechanisms still existed in the East German print media during 1989 and how journalists coped with the new political situation and sudden journalistic freedom. The findings suggest that most journalistic changes were directed by the government and the SED. Newspapers reacted to political demands from the party and were never at the "forefront" of political change.
All wired up and no place to go: The search for public space in U.S. cable development
Authors: Calabrese Andrew , Wasko Janet
Published: March 2007

This article describes cable systems in the United States and the ongoing processes of commercialization and concentration, as well as accompanying critical trends in technological development. Current policy issues are covered as a background to our discussion of issues relating to the nature of public communication in the U.S. The principle issues dealt with in this article are the closely related matters of what defines a public forum in the U.S. context of cable television and whose rights of freedom of expression must be considered in deciding the future structure of the industry.
Factors influencing cross-national news treatment of a critical national event
Authors: Shujen Wang
Published: March 2007

This study is designed to assess four factors which may account for differences in the six countries/areas' media coverage of the 1989 Chinese student demonstrations.

Four major findings emerge from the analysis: (1) political ideology played an important role in the direction, but not necessarily the extent, of the coverage of the events; (2) diplomatic sensitivity played an important role in the direction of coverage, especially for official or government media and even ameliorated differences in political ideology; (3) cultural affinity did not necessarily produce positive news coverage; and (4) geographical proximity did not affect the extent nor the direction of the coverage as much as the political ideology and diplomatic sensitivity did.
Post-martial law media boom in Taiwan
Authors: Rampal Kuldip R.
Published: March 2007

This article, based on observational research in Taiwan in 1994, focuses on the postmartial law media boom on the island. The study notes that newspapers, magazines, and satellite and cable television have experienced tremendous growth in the past six years. The domestic radio and television industry is on the verge of expansion also. Diversity in Taiwan's media and unhampered access to news and information from the outside world have created a truly open media environment on the island, although some problems related to professionalism have also emerged. The article looks at the issue of media freedom and development in the context of the values of Confucian humanism, which have provided legitimacy to democratization in Taiwan.
Images of Africa in news magazines: Is there a black perspective?
Authors: Kenney Keith R.
Published: March 2007

More than 20 years of research confirms the media ignore Africa unless there is a major famine or conflict. Why? Part of the answer is race. A comparison of news of Africa in Emerge, a news magazine for the black middle-class, and Newsweek indicates that the race of journalists and their audience influenced news content. Emerge published more news of Africa and news of more African countries. It published more positive news and reported fewer crisis events. It explained troubles in South Africa in terms of competing economic and political forces rather than tribal conflicts, and it avoided stereotypes. Emerge reported a sense of connectedness between African-American groups and Africa.
The New York Times' construction of the post-cold war Russia: More "false endings"
Authors: Shujen Wang
Published: March 2007

A discourse analysis of the New York Times' coverage of the Russian Parliament crisis of 1993 and the failed Soviet coup of 1991 shows that the construction of the post- Cold War Russia has not changed much from that of the Soviet Union during the Cold-War era. Through linguistic choices, these events were presented as rivalry between hard-core communists and reformers, and between state-controlled and free market economy.
Philippine media in transition: The effect of issue salience on credibility assessments
Authors: Rodriguez Lulu
Published: March 2007

A probability sample of 250 adults in the Philippines' Central Luzon region responded to personal interviews that asked to compare the credibility of today's media system with that which prevailed before the ouster of the Marcos regime in 1986; and to make assessments of how salient the agrarian reform issue is to them and to their families. It was then tested whether these salience estimates had any bearing on judgments of mass media credibility. The data provided support for a curvilinear relationship between extremity of issue salience and credibility of media coverage, but against the hypothesized direction: those who perceived the issue as either highly salient or of no salience to them gave higher credibility ratings to the media than those for whom agrarian reform was moderately salient.
Sex roles in East Asian magazine advertising
Authors: Cooper-Chen Anne , Leung Eva , Cho Sung-Ho
Published: March 2007

This study looked at 3,016 models in 1,972 ads from 12 women's, men's and general-interest magazines. A majority of models in the Japanese, Chinese and Korean ads were female. Most women and men were NOT shown in occupational roles; of those that were, men prevailed over women in the 'high-level business' and 'professional' categories by about 2 to 1. The products most strongly associated with women were cosmetics (Japan) and clothes (Korea and Hong Kong). Men were most strongly associated with clothes (Hong Kong and Korea) and entertainment/ information (Japan). Although Asian culture accords respect to the elderly, almost no Asian women over 50 appeared in the ads studied.
Evaluating effectiveness in health promotion: a case of re-inventing the millstone?
Authors: Learmonth Alyson , Mackie Phil
Published: March 2007

The search for a conceptually sound and practically useful evidence base for health promotion is one of the more pressing needs in health promotion research. This would allow health promotion within the NHS to break free of the constant need to justify specialist health promotion budgets to cash-strap ped commissions. It has been argued that approaches, to health promotion effectiveness should include: consideration of the quality of the intervention undertaken; rigorous criteria for evaluating qualitative methods; organ isational impact as well as individual health-behaviour change; consideration of the effectiveness of different approaches to health promotion across topic boundaries. In this paper, it is argued that simply applying the paradigms of social and behavioural science is not a sufficient response to this challenge. This contention is illustrated with reference to a study undertaken to address these four points, using local evaluation reports. If health promotion is to avoid re-creating the type of millstone which has arisen from accepting a quantitative, outcomes-based view of effectiveness, then greater thought needs to be given to the type of model which should be used. The multi-disciplinary nature of health promotion must be reflected in its approach to evaluating effectiveness. One model is discussed which uses reflective-practice techniques to move beyond efforts at evaluation in the traditional framework of input- process-impact-outcome.
A review of substance use education in fifty secondary schools in South Wales
Authors: Bishop J. , Whitear B.A. , Brown S.
Published: March 2007

Objective To review substance use education in secondary schools in four local authority areas in South Wales to identify good practice and to explore the barriers to good practice.

Design Qualitative and quantitative observational study.

Setting Secondary schools in South Wales.

Method Semi-structured interview with teachers responsible for coordinating substance use education in 50 (100 per cent) secondary schools in four local authority areas.

Results All 50 schools (100 per cent) provided substance use education but only 21 (42 per cent) had a written policy. All schools delivered substance use education at key stage 3 and 46 (92 per cent) at key stage 4 with the time allocated varying from 30 minutes to 6 hours per year at key stage 3 and one and a half hours to 7 hours at key stage 4. Models of delivery varied considerably from form tutor based programmes to stable teams of Personal and Social Education Programme (PSE) staff. PSE coordinators' confidence in programme delivery was greater in those schools with stable PSE teams than in those with other delivery models. Guest speakers were invited to contribute to programmes in 37 (74 per cent) schools.

Conclusion The lack of a clear overall philosophy and written policy underpinning the delivery of substance use education in many schools limits the ability of these schools to achieve the maximum potential from the time invested. There were wide variations in the time allocated, training of teachers delivering the programme, and age of introduction of topic areas. Schools frequently relied on guest speakers to deliver their programme. The implications for a co-ordinated approach to substance use education and the provision of further guidance are discussed.
The profile, motivations and challenges for volunteers on health walks schemes based in primary care
Authors: Ashley Andrew , Steel Maggie , Bartlett Helen
Published: March 2007

Objective Volunteers are often needed to be employed in community- based health projects to ensure the viability of such schemes. This paper describes their important role in an exercise promotion scheme 'Health Walks', where they lead community walks. The aim of the study is to determine why people volunteer as walk leaders, what challenges they face, why they are committed to the scheme and whether they fit a particular demographic profile. This information will be useful in order for future schemes to understand and support their work.

Design The research design consisted of a simple questionnaire, sent to all the volunteers who were part of the walking programme.

Setting Community based.

Method The survey was mailed to all 29 walk leaders. A prepaid response envelope was included along with a covering letter informing them of the project aims and a request to take part in the study. A total of 22 people (76 per cent) completed the survey.

Results Similarities were found between the traditional volunteer demographic profile and those of the walk leaders, who were middle- aged and previously worked in managerial or professional occupations. However, the motivations of the leaders were more related to self-interest or enjoyment than altruism.

Conclusion In order to maintain volunteers' commitment to the scheme, future walking programmes must support their efforts, by showing appreciation and by giving them opportunities for ownership.

Key words: walking, volunteers, leaders, health walks
Peer-delivered health promotion for young people: A systematic review of different study designs
Authors: Harden Angela , Oakley Ann , Oliver Sandy
Published: March 2007

Objective To examine the effectiveness and appropriateness of peer- delivered health promotion for young people.

Design Systematic review of experimental studies assessing impact on health outcomes and 'qualitative' studies evaluating intervention processes.

Methods Studies were sought by searching electronic databases and hand searching. Those which met the review's inclusion criteria were assessed for methodological quality. Outcome evaluations were reviewed for four methodological qualities. Process evaluations were mapped according to criteria commonly used to establish the reliability and validity of 'qualitative' studies.

Results Four hundred and thirty reports relevant to the topic area were identified. Two hundred and ten reported evaluations of peer-delivered interventions with 64 (49 outcome evaluations and 15 process evaluations) meeting the inclusion criteria. Only 12 (24 per cent) of the outcome evaluations were judged methodologically sound. Of these, seven found the method to be effective for at least one behavioural outcome.

However, five sound studies directly compared the effectiveness of peers to other providers and found contradictory results. The majority of process evaluations examined the implementation ( n=9, 60 per cent) and acceptability of the method ( n=10, 67 per cent) and their findings provided insights into possible reasons for success or failure. Common methodological problems within studies included unclear details of sample and methodology suggesting that their conclusions may not be reliable.

Conclusion The evidence for the effectiveness of peer-delivered health promotion for young people is not yet clear. Whilst the current evidence- base is able to suggest possible reasons for success or failure of this method, more systematic research into the conditions under which peer- delivered health promotion is effective in comparison to other methods of health promotion is needed. Integrating the evidence from experi mental studies and qualitative studies is complicated by the lack of standards for assessing reliability and validity in qualitative research.
A survey of teachers' health lifestyles in Cyprus
Authors: Fontana David , Apostolidou Martha
Published: March 2007

For health education in schools to be effective, it is desirable that teachers set examples of good health lifestyles.

Objective The present research aimed at gathering data on lifestyles among Cyprus teachers, investigating the effect of these lifestyles on their perceptions and attitudes towards health education and examining these lifestyles in relation to their role as health educators.

Design The study uses a questionnaire developed with the help of experts and designed to sample teachers' lifestyles. It contains 38 statements relating to four health lifestyle variables (smoking, sleep habits, alcohol consumption and exercise), together with questions on attitudes to health matters.

Setting Greek-speaking schools at all levels of Cyprus education (pre- primary, primary, secondary and special).

Method After piloting, the 38 lifestyle statements were circulated to a representative sample of 1000 teachers in pre-primary, primary, secondary and special education Greek-speaking schools, with a response rate of 65 per cent.

Results A sex-related imbalance in the sample reflected the pre ponderance of women teachers at all levels of Cyprus schooling. Significant sex differences emerged, with women proportionately more represented in the 'good' lifestyle group than men. Analysis of variance and Scheffé post hoc analysis revealed that teachers with good health lifestyles were significantly much more positive both about the desirable effects of health education on children's lifestyles and about their own desire to teach the subject. A factor analysis of attitudes to health matters revealed five factors describing important health lifestyle dimensions. Several implications for teacher education emerged.

Conclusion Teachers with 'good' lifestyles proved more positive towards health education and more prepared to teach the subject. The paper Concludes by drawing from the data a number of suggestions for teacher training.
Psychological reactance in health education and promotion
Authors: Dowd E. Thomas
Published: March 2007

This paper discusses the phenomenon of resistance and psychological reactance in medical and health education/promotion settings. The theoretical background of resistance and reactance and the differences between the two is first described. The core meaning structures behind it as well as personality and developmental characteristics associated with it is then described. The research on reactance and Type A behaviour in health and medical situations is then discussed. Finally, strategies for reducing reactance in medical and health promotion settings is presented.
Representations of health risks: What social psychology can offer health promotion
Authors: Joffe Hélène
Published: March 2007

This paper proposes that health promotion may benefit from a social psychological theory that maps the contents and evolution of lay `logic'. Social representations theory forms the focus, since it facilitates entry into people's meaning systems regarding risks, as well as into the functions served by such meanings. The theory is assessed once the assumptions of the more commonly used, contrasting perspective of risk perception is examined. Cognitive theories of risk perception tend to focus on an ideal of rational information processing and assume that people are averse to harm. They are unified in their centre of attention being the intrapersonal level. Having looked at studies of lay responses to childhood vaccination, diabetes and smoking, the paper demonstrates that such assumptions can be challenged. Social representations theory is summoned as a unifying rubric in which to conduct studies that operate from wholly different assumptions: the history and symbols held dear within particular social networks fashion their representations of the health issues they face. These are difficult to change because they serve an identity protective function, rather than being products of faulty information processing which can be rectified by way of a dose of'reality'. However, at least by mapping the evolution and contents of such representations one can help health promoters in starting with where audiences are located, rather than operating from models of behaviour change that are underpinned by assumptions that have limited validity.
Reducing cancer mortality: Does health promotion work? A discussion paper
Authors: Charlton Anne , Coyne Ann-Marie , Horsley Stephen
Published: March 2007

Objectives To examine cancer mortality in the period 1988 to 1992 in relation to health education (HE) and health promotion (HP) in 1976 and 1986.

Design Self-completion questionnaires on HE/HP returned by mail. Incidence and mortality data from reliable published sources for comparison.

Setting The EC-funded Standing Committee of the Hospitals of the European Union (HOPE) Project.

Subjects Representatives of 15 EU Member States.

Main outcome measures Coordination, cancer focus, approaches and content of HE/HP, services and legislation relating to cancer risk reduction in 1976 and 1986. Age standardised incidence and mortality data for the five year periods 1973 to 1977,1978 to 1982,1983 to 1987,1988 to 1992. Results The following characteristics of HE/HP were found to be associated with reduced mortality from cancers between 1973-77 and 1988-92 and with the lowest cancer rates in 1988-92: an established programme in 1976; coordination of the programme by an alliance between government, a national health agency and cancer society; year- long programmes with a specific focus backed by short, intensive campaigns; communication by the multi-stage process, namely authoritative sources followed by a personalised letter or word-of-mouth to individuals; cognitive, affective and behavioural elements in the programme, that is information together with skills- and self-efficacybuilding and behaviour change techniques; a community-wide approach; regular tax increases on cigarettes; bans on tobacco advertising; control of asbestos and carcinogens in industry; and a cervical and breast- screening service backed by personalised health education.

Conclusion Cancer HE/HP established in 1976 was reflected in reduced mortality in 1988/92. By 1986, most of the countries had developed such programmes with the characteristics listed above and allowing for the latent period of most cancers, the effect on mortality might be expected in the first decade of this century.
Physical Activity and the Common Cold in Undergraduate University Students: Implications for Health Professionals
Authors: Vossen Deborah P , McArel Heather , Vossen Jeffery F , Thompson Angela M
Published: March 2007

Objective The common cold, known as upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), is the world's most prevalent illness. The purpose of this study was to determine if physical activity is linked to the incidence and/or duration of the common cold.

Method Undergraduate university students (n=200) were asked to complete two questionnaires. The Paffenbarger Physical Activity Questionnaire (PPAQ) estimated physical activity levels of participants in the previous year. The second questionnaire required participants to record the number and length of URTIs experienced over the previous year. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were used to analyse the relationships between physical activity (kcal/week) and the incidence and duration of URTIs.

Results There was no relationship between the number of kilocalories expended per week through physical activity and the incidence ( r=-0.042, p=0.304) or duration (r=-0.014, p=0.434) of URTIs.

Conclusion In the specific population of undergraduate university students, physical activity was not significantly related to the incidence or duration of the common cold.
Child sexual abuse reporting behaviour by school counsellors and their need for further education
Authors: Goldman Juliette D G , Padayachi Usha K
Published: March 2007

Objective To examine a statewide sample of school counsellors' reporting behaviour of suspected cases of child sexual abuse, and their need for further education in this area.

Design A questionnaire using four hypothetical vignettes on child sexual abuse requested information on the degree of suspicion, reporting behaviour and familiarity with the reporting procedures for child sexual abuse in state schools in particular, and the state in general.

Setting Although school counsellors in Queensland, Australia have been delegated with responsibilities regarding child sexual abuse, little is known about whether or not they have the appropriate reporting behaviours to fulfil these roles, and their training needs.

Metliod Some 283 questionnaires were mailed to all school counsellors employed by the Department of Education across Queensland. The final sample of 122 counsellors consisted of 52 males (43 per cent) and 70 females (57 per cent); a ratio comparable to the membership of the state Counselling Association.

Results There was a tendency for school counsellors to under-report their suspicions of child sexual abuse. School counsellors were more likely to suspect abuse than report cases to the appropriate authorities. A considerable proportion of school counsellors in Queensland also believe they have little knowledge of the symptoms that identify cases of child sexual abuse, lack counselling skills and procedures to work with sexually abused children, and do not have the necessary training and knowledge to act as resource persons. All school counsellors expressed interest in attending in-service education programmes addressing knowledge, detection, intervention, prevention and treatment of child sexual abuse and other forms of child abuse.

Conclusion School counsellors are in a unique position to aid in the battle against child sexual abuse. However, the results of the present study suggest that they lack confidence in their ability to identify and work with children who have been sexually abused. Consequently, the develop ment and implementation of training programmes to increase school counsellors'skills and knowledge of child sexual abuse seem to be crucial in fighting this crime against children. Because of the significant deficits found here in counsellors' professional responses to child sexual abuse, it seems necessary, then, for future research to address the type, nature and duration of support school counsellors need in this area, including emotional factors, which may well intervene in the process. Research could also address the range of policies that could identify quality of relationships and inter-professional partnerships with other helping professionals and government organisations such as the Department of Families, Department of Health, Children's Commission, police, social workers, private counsellors, and, of course, school teachers, in order to promote whole school approaches to enhancing the welfare of all children.
Free Discussion Groups in Work
Authors: Gillespie James J.
Published: March 2007

Small free discussion groups meeting regularly in paid time with participation by all primary workers* within a business are suggested as a remedy for the lack of personal significance and self expression experienced by these workers in modern business organisations; while serving this purpose, the discussion groups are a likely way of healing the breach between work life and leisure life, and of solving the problem of relationships in work. The practice in a number of companies is described, and examples of group work are quoted.
■ Health Education in General Medical Practice
Authors: Tyser P.A.
Published: March 2007

MY SUBJECT is of considerable importance and one to which James Dundas Simpson, one of our founding fathers, would have given a high place in the order of medical priorities.
Health education in the doctor's waiting room
Authors: Clarke W.D. , Engel C.E. , Jolly B.C. , Meyrick R. Li
Published: March 2007

IT IS not easy to define Health Education, indeed Tyser (1975) in a survey of Health Education in General Medical Practice, put forward the view that "a definition is neither desirable nor necessary, because health education is and must remain a loose description applied to a whole group of activities which can be readily understood irrespective of the precise meaning ascribed to health".
Health education and the smoking habit
Authors: Baric Leo
Published: March 2007

THE effects on health of smoking are generally known in Britain. This knowledge is based on a great number of research projects carried out during the past few decades and needs no further elabora tion. Cigarette smoking is associated with an increased risk from a number of diseases, most of which are serious and even lethal. At tempts are constantly being made to eliminate this habit and stop people from smoking, which have so far met with very little success. This fact has attracted the attention of researchers. In trying to find out why these attempts have in most cases failed, the researchers have examined several factors: some believed that the answer lies in finding the difference between smokers and non- smokers ; some have looked at the reasons for starting to smoke; others have looked at the physiological aspects of smoking, and so on.

In general, one can say that most research so far has con centrated on smoking, that is on the problem, whereas very little has been done to study the solution, or attempts to solve the problem, and why they have so often been failures. This paper is con cerned mainly with the various aspects of the solutions to the problem of smoking, and outlines several new ap proaches which, if followed up, could provide us with a better insight into some more successful solutions.

In the first place a dis tinction is drawn between the prevention of an illness and of a behavioural habit. Ciga rette smoking is considered to be a habit, with most of the smokers in need of behavioural treatment. Pre vention, by means of health education, however, needs to concentrate on the non- smokers in the first place, and only secondly on smokers. Consequently the target population for health educa tion in smoking consists of the healthy population who as yet have not acquired this habit.

The methods to be used are based on a Social Interven tion Model (SIM) which I have been developing, design ed to emphasise preventive aspects and concentrate on a positive approach, stressing the rights of the non-smoker instead of the duties of smokers. This new concep tualisation of the smoking problem will require health education of two kinds: those skilled in influencing social norms and using the societal approach; and those who have a recognised profes sional status and have the skills of helping individuals to give up this habit and who will be involved in behav ioural treatment on an indi vidual basis, under approp riate contractual arrange ments. In some cases the two categories may overlap.

In summary, the paper stresses the consequences of such an approach for the health education services as well as the need for changes in research policy with greater emphasis on studies con cerned with various solutions instead of the problem of smoking; changes will be required in the conceptua lisation of the whole problem area, and in the evaluation of new methods and the training of a new type of health educator, be it a health educa tion officer or any other pro fessional active in this field.
Sexual instruction for the mildly retarded and normal adolescent
Authors: Watson Geoffrey , Rogers Rex Stainton
Published: March 2007

RESEARCH into sex edu cation in schools for the mildly educationally subnor mal (ESNM) was achieved by studies, children and parents, together with comparisons with control groups from comprehensive schools. ESNM children were found to be conservative in atti tude, and lacking in know ledge. However, knowledge improved from contact with teaching. Analysis of questionnaires from ESNM schools indicated a variety of approaches, with consider able involvement in sex edu cation. Interviews with 93 parents of ESNM children indicated that 88 per cent approved of the school giving sex education, and a partic ular request was made for the teaching of contraception.
A comparison of the coverage of immunisation by Britain's quality and popular press
Authors: Harding Christina M
Published: March 2007

THE attention given to and the quality of information provided on the topic of immunisation by Britain's quality and popular press were compared. The hypothesis that the availability of information in these two groups of newspapers would follow the same pattern as class inequalities in the take-up of vaccination was shown to be incorrect. In fact, although the level of information and general coverage were poor, the popular press tended to display a more responsible attitude towards vaccination. Hence there was no evidence to suggest that press coverage of immunisation might be one socio-economic factor which might account for the differences in vaccination levels between the different social classes. The implications of these results are discussed with reference to proposals that progress in reducing inequalities in health could be made by encouraging health education.