bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Multidimensional Nuclear Magnetic Resonance of Biomolecules
Authors: Craik David J. , Horne James , Scanlon Martin J.
Published: June 2008

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is associated with transitions, induced by radiofrequency (RF) irradiation, between energy levels of nuclei with nonzero spin quantum numbers in a magnetic field. Traditional “one‐dimensional” (1‐D) NMR spectra are presented as a plot of signal intensity versus applied frequency and provide information about the chemical environment of magnetically active nuclei. This is used to deduce information about the chemical structure and dynamics of molecules containing the magnetically active nuclei (most often protons). The frequencies of individual nuclei are referred to as their chemical shifts. Multidimensional NMR encompasses a range of related techniques, based on the application of a variety of precisely timed RF pulses to the sample, which extends traditional 1‐D NMR into two‐, three‐, or four‐frequency dimensions. These additional frequency dimensions may be the same as the first frequency dimension, referred to as homonuclear multidimensional NMR, or different, referred to as heteronuclear NMR. In multidimensional NMR of biomolecules, the most common frequencies correspond to1Hin the directly detected dimension and one or more of1H,13C, or15Nin the additional dimensions. Peaks in such spectra are defined by their intensity and frequency coordinates in two, three, or four dimensions obtained by extrapolation back to the respective frequency axes, which are in turn determined by the nature of the applied RF pulse sequences. The intensity and chemical shifts of such peaks provide information about the chemical environment, molecular connectivity, or spatial proximity of the participating nuclei. Multidimensional NMR has major advantages over 1‐D NMR: reduction of peak overlap and provision of information on connectivity (either through bonds or through space). Multidimensional NMR spectroscopy of biomolecules is usually done for samples in solution at millimolar concentration. Where experiments require the use of13Cor15Nfrequencies, it is usually necessary to isotopically enrich the macromolecule with these nuclei to >90%. This is readily achieved with modern molecular biology techniques and does not present a major limitation. The biggest limitation relates to molecular size, with studies generally limited to macromolecules of less than approximately 35 kDa.
Discrete Event Systems: Untimed Models and their Analysis
Authors: Lafortune Stéphane
Published: June 2008

This article introduces the class of dynamic systems known as discrete event systems, which are characterized by event‐driven transitions over a discrete set of states. The modeling formalism of automata is employed, and their language properties characterized. Parallel composition of automata is defined. Analysis of logical properties of discrete event systems modeled by automata is discussed, with a special focus on partially observed systems and event diagnosis using diagnoser automata.
Geometric Programming
Authors: Jefferson T. R. , Scott C. H.
Published: June 2008

Since its initial appearance more than four decades ago, geometric programming has proved itself to be a powerful means of solving many optimization problems, particularly those that pertain to engineering design. The theory has been generalized to provide a structure for the analysis of any convex programming problem. Here we trace the development of geometric programming from its initial use as a trick for solving certain cost‐optimization problems to its current status as a fully fledged branch of optimization theory. Examples drawn from inventory theory and engineering reinforce and motivate this development.
Kernel
Authors: Denning Peter J.
Published: June 2008

The kernel is the subset of operating system functions that must be executed in privileged mode.
Radiometric Camera Calibration
Authors: Hamey Leonard G.C.
Published: June 2008

Radiometric calibration is a method of capturing digital images and processing the digital image data so that the pixel values represent actual measurements of light. Radiometric camera calibration converts ordinary digital images into radiometric images. Absolute radiometric calibration means that the image pixels are calibrated with reference to physical units such as watts per steradian per square meter (W.sr−1.m−2) or photon counts. Relative radiometric calibration means that the image pixels are calibrated with reference to each other — the ratio of two image pixels is the same as the ratio of the corresponding physical measurements of light. Radiometric calibration, both absolute and relative, has a wide range of applications in science and technology, including astronomy, remote sensing, and machine vision. Methods for radiometric calibration typically involve up to four steps. First, the camera response is corrected to be linear. Second, the camera's black response is subtracted. Third, corrections are applied for spatial variations in the effective aperture of the lens and the sensor sensitivity. This correction yields a relative radiometric calibration. A final step converts the relative calibration to absolute calibration by applying an appropriate scaling factor. This article first explains the basis of radiometric calibration — the additive property of light and the formation of digital images. Techniques for radiometric calibration are then explained, focusing on the four steps of estimating the camera response function, measuring the black response, correcting for vignetting and sensitivity, and using calibration targets. Finally, applications of radiometric imaging are discussed briefly.
Color: Color Models
Authors: Ramanath Rajeev , Drew Mark S.
Published: June 2008

Color models are used to quantify how to capture colors accurately and how to display them across disparate media. Most importantly, they are used to relate color stimuli to the human experience of color in a meaningful fashion. In this article, we will examine several color models that are commonly used in the field of computational color science.
Choice Uncertainty Principle
Authors: Denning Peter J.
Published: June 2008

The choice uncertainty principle says that it is impossible to make an unambiguous choice between near‐simultaneous events under a deadline. This principle affects the design of logic circuits in computer hardware, real‐time systems, and decision systems.
Throughput
Authors: Denning Peter J.
Published: June 2008

The throughput of a system is the number of jobs, tasks, or transactions the system completes per unit time. It is often used as a figure of merit, with higher values indicating better performance.
Swapping
Authors: Denning Peter J.
Published: June 2008

Swapping is a general term for exchanging blocks of program code or data between main and secondary memory.
Overhead
Authors: Denning Peter J.
Published: June 2008

Overhead is the cost of general functions of an operating system that cannot be conveniently associated with any user task.
Monitor
Authors: Denning Peter J. , Tichy Walter F.
Published: June 2008

The term monitor denotes a control program that oversees the allocation of resources
among a set of user programs.
Longitudinal Data
Authors: Li Hung‐Ir
Published: June 2008

Longitudinal data have been the focus in various research such as economy, social science, public health, and biomedical research in the past few decades. These data comprise outcome measures or responses prospectively collected or naturally accrued repeatedly from the same subjects across multiple time points along with subject characteristic measures. In some observational studies in epidemiology/public heath, the data accrued over a long period of time as recorded in medical charts and are retrospectively retrieved. The data are used to answer questions regarding the change or progression of the disease over time and/or potential risk factors for the disease. Although in other studies, the existing data could be used to identify subgroups with different background characteristics or traits. The identified groups are then followed up for their health conditions for a certain period of time prospectively. The data from these groups are then compared with answer questions set out for the studies. In the clinical research and development settings, most of the longitudinal data are collected via prospectively designed clinical trials in order to assess the changes in efficacy and/or safety of certain medical intervention, drug, biologics, or devices. The longitudinal data from clinical trials in phase III of product development are intended to confirm that the clinical benefit or desired changes over time are primarily due to the target product, can be maintained for an adequate amount of time, and are applicable to a well‐defined population before regulatory approval is granted and the product is registered for public use. This article provides a summary of the definitions, features, and various types of longitudinal data resulting from clinical trials in phase III medicinal product development. The respective characteristics and the related issues along with the rules of thumb in the selection of the statistical methods for the analyses will also be provided.
Population Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Methods
Authors: Bulitta Jürgen B , Holford Nicholas H G
Published: June 2008

Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic models are widely used to provide the quantitative basis for understanding the clinical pharmacology of pharmaceuticals. These models are used to describe both the average behavior in the population and differences between individuals. Pharmacokinetic models describe the time course of absorption, distribution, and elimination of a drug and any metabolites. Pharmacodynamic models describe the relationship between drug concentration and biological response. The pharmacokinetic‐pharmacodynamic model often has to account for a delay between the time course of concentrations and the time course of pharmacodynamic effect. Statistical models can describe the predictable and the unpredictable variability between and within subject variability in response. Predictable variability is most commonly understood for drug elimination processes and typically uses subject factors such as weight, renal function, and other medications to account for between subject differences. Unpredictable variability is usually larger than predictable variability. A wide variety of software has been developed for implementing these pharmacological and statistical models; of these, NONMEM (GloboMax LLC, Hanover, MD) is the most widely used. Newer algorithms are actively being developed. Model building and parameter estimation are often computationally intensive. Population models are used by drug developers to create a rationale framework for development, by regulatory health authorities to evaluate clinical trials and enhance product labels and by clinical researchers to understand human biology and disease progression.
Non‐Compartmental Analysis
Authors: Bulitta Jürgen B. , Holford Nicholas H. G.
Published: June 2008

Non‐compartmental analysis (NCA) is the most commonly used technique of pharmacokinetic data analysis for studies with frequent sampling. We present the assumptions and basic applications of NCA and provide guidelines for performing a standard NCA and for choosing appropriate sampling times.
Interrater Reliability
Authors: Kraemer Helena Chmura
Published: June 2008

Inter‐rater reliability indicates how interchangeable are the ratings from multiple raters in assessing the results of a randomized clinical trial. Lack of reliability results in attenuation of power in statistical testing, attenuation of effect sizes, and consequently the need for much larger sample sizes to achieve credible conclusions.
National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (
NIHSS
)
Authors: Ortiz Gustavo A. , Sacco Ralph L.
Published: June 2008

The National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) is a systematic assessment tool designed to measure the neurological deficits most often seen with acute stroke. It assesses level of consciousness, gaze, visual fields, facial weakness, motor performance of the extremities, sensory deficit, coordination (ataxia), language (aphasia), speech (dysarthria), and hemi‐inattention (neglect). For all parameters, a value of 0 is normal; so, the higher the score, the worse the neurological deficit (the highest possible score is 42). The scale was designed to be done quickly and easily at the bedside to provide a rapid and standardized assessment of neurological function in the early periods after a stroke. It has been validated and has been shown to be reliable, even when performed by non‐neurologists and non‐physicians.
DNA
Bank
Authors: Sivakumaran Theru A , Iyengar Sudha K
Published: June 2008

Most diseases are multifactorial and are caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Similarly, the way a person responds to a drug is also a complex trait that is influenced by many different genes. Paradigms to identify causative genetic variants responsible for disease or response to drugs are well described in the literature, and the following essential elements are required for successful completion of such studies: (
1
) rapid detection of genetic variation; (
2
) large number of samples of high quality with well‐characterized clinical data from participants, which includes longitudinal follow‐up for effect of treatment; (
3
) advanced informatics for storage and retrieval of samples and data; and (
4
) establishment of correlation between clinical and genetic data through modern statistical techniques. Although the basic conventions for sample collection in gene mapping were already established, it was only after completion of Human Genome Project and the initiation of the International HapMap Project that the need for large databases of well‐phenotyped study participants collected under unified protocols with DNA available was expressed. These endeavors resulted in the establishment of national and international DNA banks aimed initially at mapping specific disease entities, but later encompassing more global undertakings. Establishment of these DNA biobanks has not been without ethical, legal, and personal controversies, although their value to the biomedical research community is indisputable. The overall outcome of these initiatives is that the promise of personalized medicine is nearby, particularly for identification of the genetic variations responsible for drug response. We anticipate that clinical trials could perform genetic prescreening to exclude people who are unresponsive to treatment, which reduces side effects and increases the effectiveness of the drug for particular subgroups. This model is already being implemented for the P450 class of drugs, with the hope of more to come.
Statins
Authors: Wilson Peter F.
Published: June 2008

The roles of statins to decrease blood cholesterol levels and to reduce risk for cardiovascular disease in the blood are described. Mechanism of action, safety, efficacy, drug interactions, and results from major randomized clinical trials are the major topics discussed. Recent data are summarized and provide an understanding of the clinical role of use of statins as agents for primary and secondary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Recent comprehensive reviews have identified no relative risk differences for statins in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases for persons <65 years versus >65 years, men versus women, treated hypertension versus no hypertension, history of diabetes mellitus versus no diabetes mellitus, LDL‐C at baseline <135 mmol/L versus ≥135 mg/dl.
Clinical Data Management
Authors: McBride Ruth
Published: June 2008

Clinical data management is data management systems and process focused on providing clean, current and reliable data to support clinical research, especially for clinical trials. Computerized systems have been used since the early 1960's. Current clinical data management systems vary. Many, but not all clinical trials use electronic data capture to collect data from clinical research sites. Efforts are underway to standardize the way clinical data are organized.
Poisson Regression
Authors: Glimm Ekkehard , Branson Michael
Published: June 2008

Poisson regression is a method to model the frequency of event counts or the event rate, such as the number of adverse events of a certain type or frequency of epileptic seizures during a clinical trial, by a set of covariates. The counts are assumed to follow a Poisson distribution with an intensity rate that is modeled as a function of the covariates. The Poisson regression model is a special case of a generalized linear model (GLM) with a log link. Consequently, it is often presented as an example in the broader context of GLM theory.
European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC)
Authors: Piccart‐Gebhardt Martine , Meunier Francoise
Published: June 2008

The European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) is a pan‐European nonprofit cancer research organization that develops conducts, coordinates, and stimulates high‐quality translational and clinical research to improve the standards of cancer care. Founded in 1962, the EORTC has since developed into a vast network of cancer research expertise and infrastructure with more than 2500 scientists and clinicians who collaborate across over 200 affiliated institutions and academic centers in 30 countries. Cancer clinical trial research carried out by the EORTC has contributed to improvements in the quality of life and survival of cancer patients, extended the definition of standards for cancer patient care, advanced the practice of organ preservation as well as minimal and nonmutilating cancer surgery, and established diagnostic and treatment guidelines that aid clinicians in the treatment decision‐making process. The EORTC has also contributed to the advancement of cancer research through its educational programs and activities for scientists, clinicians, young researchers, patients, and the public. The EORTC has undertaken organizational and strategic initiatives throughout the years and continues to adopt novel strategic approaches to meet the challenges of the rapidly changing cancer research environment. Additional breakthroughs in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer in the current era of molecular biology will be accomplished primarily through translational research projects, efficient drug development, and the conduct of translational research‐guided large prospective randomized multicenter clinical trials. The EORTC has been a leader in cancer research for over 45 years and will continue to devote its energy and expertise to high‐quality clinical cancer research throughout the twenty‐first century to improve the standards of cancer care, advance the scientific understanding of cancer as a disease, and address pivotal strategic therapeutic questions.
Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT)
Authors: Eberly Lynn E. , Stamler Jeremiah , Kuller Lewis H. , Neaton James D.
Published: June 2008

The Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT) was a randomized controlled trial on primary prevention of coronary heart disease (CHD) death in men with elevated blood pressure (BP), serum cholesterol, and/or smoking habit. In all, 361,662 men were screened in 18 U.S. cities; 12,866 men were randomized to multifactor Special Intervention (SI) or Usual Care (UC). With a 7 year average follow‐up, the CHD death rate was 7.1% lower for SI than UC [relative difference in proportion dead; 90% CI (−15%, 25%)]. UC men made more extensive risk factor reductions than anticipated in trial design, and the number of UC deaths was substantially smaller than expected. This result led to an underpowered comparison. Post‐hoc assessments showed significantly lower rates of combined morbidity/mortality outcomes for SI than UC. Other findings from MRFIT substantially changed the treatment of hypertension, and long‐term epidemiologic follow‐up of all 361,662 screenees yielded important findings of great impact on major public health and medical care issues.
Data Standards
Authors: Helton Edward , Kush Rebella
Published: June 2008

The “globalization” of clinical research over the past two decades has stressed routine paper‐based processes and the associated regulatory guidelines. A slow but steady trend has occurred toward electronic clinical trials within the industry and electronic regulatory submissions by regulatory authorities. This trend has in turn encouraged the development and adoption of data standards to facilitate exchange of clinical research information among partners (i.e., interoperability among computer systems). Standards to support clinical research from protocol development through analysis, reporting, and archive of electronic data are now available through the Clinical Data Interchange Standards Consortium (CDISC). A concurrent commitment has been made to harmonize these clinical research standards with those healthcare standards through Health Level Seven (HL7) since 2001; the rationale is to pave the way for the use of electronic health records for research and safety reporting, in addition to patient care, to improve the workflow associated with clinical research for investigative site personnel. CDISC standards are now being implemented and adopted globally. In addition, the FDA has participated in pilot projects with CDISC to identify best practices for implementation. More work must be done to augment the base standards; all stakeholders in clinical research are encouraged to become involved in influencing and extending this collaborative work.
Efficient graph‐theoretical force method for two‐dimensional rectangular finite element analysis
Authors: Kaveh A. , Koohestani K.
Published: June 2008

In this paper an efficient method is developed for the formation of null bases of finite element models (FEMs) consisting of rectangular plane stress and plane strain elements, corresponding to highly sparse and banded flexibility matrices. This is achieved by associating special graphs with the FEM and selecting appropriate subgraphs and forming the self‐stress systems on these subgraphs. The efficiency of the present method is illustrated through three examples. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Design of oilseed extractors. I. Oil extraction
Authors: Karnofsky George
Published: June 2008

A calculation method is presented that predicts, from laboratory data, retention time and miscella concentrations in commercial oil extractors. The method is based on the finding that rate of solution of oil largely determines retention time, and that resistance to diffusion of oil at the boundaries of the flakes is relatively small.
Design of oilseed extractors. II. Multicomponent extraction
Authors: Karnofsky George
Published: June 2008

Extraction of carbohydrates from white flakes with aqueous ethanol is used to illustrate some generalizations about extraction of any multicomponent solute. Since commercial design must be based on a laboratory simulation, a preferred simulation is presented.
Changes in physical and chemical properties of shortenings used for commercial deep‐fat frying
Authors: Smith L. M. , Clifford A. J. , Hamblin C. L. , Creveling R. K.
Published: June 2008

This study evaluated some of the changes that occur in shortenings used for commercial deep‐fat frying in fast‐service restaurants. Foods cooked in partially hydrogenated soybean oil were battered chicken parts and french fries. Sixty‐five samples of fresh and used shortenings were collected from nine restaurants on three occasions over a three‐month period. Frying periods varied from 0 to 300 hr, and most samples were taken just before the used fat was discarded. For fresh shortenings, percentages of polar materials, free fatty acids (FFA), materials not eluted by gas chromatography, and fatty acid profiles differed only slightly. For used samples, there were marked variations in these analyses and in increases of dielectric constant measurements. Frying times were highly correlated with increases in dielectric constant, polar materials and FFA. The greatest change in fatty acid profiles occurred intrans‐C18 monoenes which decreased from over 40% to as low as 13%. Due to lipid exchange with chicken fat, both oleic and linoleic acids increased in the shortenings with hours of use, whereas stearic acid decreased. There were high correlations, among increases in dielectric constant, percentages of polar materials and FFA, demonstrating that each of these methods could predict degradation of the shortening. However, the increase in dielectric constant, as measured by a Foodoil Sensor (FOS), was the most convenient for quality control in restaurant situations. In most cases, used shortening was discarded before 100 hr of frying time; and only a few of these samples had FOS readings near 4.0, FFA over 1.00%, or percentages of polar materials over 27%. These values have been suggested as discard criteria. However, a number of samples used between 100 and 300 hr exceeded these limits. There is a need to specify suitable limits, related to quality and health factors, to determine at what point a cooking fat should be discarded.
Effects of varied substrates on aflatoxin production byA. parasiticus
Authors: Farag R. S. , El‐Leithy M. A. , Basyony A. E. , Daw Z. Y.
Published: June 2008

Sterilized and nonsterilized wheat kernels, soybean seeds, sesame seeds, peanut and faba bean were infected byA. parasiticus. The chemical composition, aflatoxin content and fatty acid patterns of the seeds were determined. The aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 were detected, and the amounts of the unsaturated toxins (B1 and G1) were greater than the respective dihydro derivatives (B2 and G2). Sterilized seeds infected by the fungus contained greater amounts of aflatoxins than those infected without previous sterilization. the highest and lowest toxicity indices were recorded for sterilized wheat and soybeans, respectively. Sesame, peanut and soybean exhibited intermediate toxicity indices. The toxicity of the aflatoxins produced was related significantly in every instance to the carbohydrate and lipid:protein ratio, and not to the polyunsaturated fatty acids of the seeds.
Heterogeneous catalytic hydrogenation of canola oil using palladium
Authors: Hsu N. , Diosady L. L. , Graydon W. F. , Rubin L. J.
Published: June 2008

The hydrogenation of canola oil was studied using palladium black as a potential catalyst for producing partially hydrogenated fats with lowtrans‐isomer content. Pressure (150‐750 psig) appeared to have the largest effect ontrans‐isomer formation. At 750 psig, 90 C and 560 ppm metal concentration, a maximum of 18.7%trans isomers was obtained at IV 53. A nickel catalyst produces about 50%rans isomers at the same IV. For palladium black, the linolenate and linoleate selectivities were 1.2 and 2.7, respectively. The maximum level oftrans isomers observed ranged from 18.7% to 42.8% (150 psig). Temperature (30‐90 C) and catalyst concentration (80‐560 ppm) affected the reaction rate with little effect ontrans‐isomer formation and selectivities. At 250 psig and 50 C, supported palladium (5% Pd/C) appeared to be twice as active as palladium black. At 560 ppm Pd, 5% Pd/C produced 30.2%trans (IV 67.5), versus 19.0%trans for palladium black (IV 68.9). Respective linoleate selectivities were 15 and 6.6, while linolenate selectivities were approximately unity. Analysis of the oil samples by neutron activation showedapproximately a 1 ppm, Pdresidue after filtration.
Headspace volatile analysis to evaluate oxidative and thermal stability of soybean oil. Effect of hydrogenation and additives
Authors: Snyder J. M. , Frankel E. N. , Warner K.
Published: June 2008

Headspace gas chromatographic analysis of heated soybean oil was investigated as a tool to determine what effect hydrogenation and additives have on the formation of total and individual volatile components. Soybean oil was hydrogenated to varying linolenate (Ln) contents with either nickel (Ni) or copper catalysts. Oils were stabilized with citric acid (CA) or a combination of CA with tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ) and/or methyl silicone (MS). Volatiles were analyzed with a capillary gas chromatography equipped with a headspace sampler positioned on the injector. Oxidative stability was determined after storage of the oils at 60 C. To study thermal abuse and frying performance of oils, samples were heated for several, hours with prolonged bread frying. The deterioration of the oil was accelerated further by static heating in air within the headspace sampler. All hydrogenated oils produced less total volatiles than the unhydrogenated control oil after prolonged heating and bread frying. Static heating at 190 C for one hr showed that the oil hydrogenated with Ni to 0.4% Ln was the most stable. MS decreased the formation of volatiles in all samples and was particularly effective, in stabilizing the hydrogenated oils. However, MS had little effect on volatiles in the oil hydrogenated to 0.4% with Ni. Unique volatile compounds identified included 2,4‐heptadiental in nonhydrogenated soybean oil and 2‐nonenal in most hydrogenated oils. On heating, the amount of 2‐heptanal decreased significantly in the Ni hydrogenated oils compared to the control. Hexanal, on the other hand, decreased in all hydrogenated oils compared to the control.
The effects of surfactant concentration and crystal size on the olein yield from the detergent fractionation of tallow
Authors: Glassner David A. , Grulke Eric A.
Published: June 2008

The surfactant concentration, the electrolyte concentration, the detergent solution to tallow weight ratio and the crystal surface area affect the olein yield from the detergent fractionation of tallow. Three crystal sizes were produced by using various rates of cooling for the partial crystallization step. The amount of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) needed to maximize olein yield was proportional to the surface area of the crystals. The olein yield of the separation increased with increasing detergent solution to tallow weight ratio and increased with increasing electrolyte concentration up to their optimum levels.
Understanding How Participation in a Consumer‐Run Organization Relates to Recovery
Authors: Brown Louis D. , Shepherd Matthew D. , Merkle Edgar C. , Wituk Scott A. , Meissen Greg
Published: July 2008

The goal of this study was to examine how different types of participation in a consumer‐run organization (CRO) are related to recovery. More specifically, this study uses structural equation modeling to examine the relative impact of empowering and socially supportive participation experiences on progress towards recovery among 250 CRO members from 20 CROs. An empowering participation experience refers to involvement in leadership roles and contribution to organizational functioning. A socially supportive participation experience refers to social involvement in mutually supportive friendships with intimacy and sharing. Results indicate that both types of participation are associated with recovery, although a socially supportive participation experience maintains a stronger relationship with recovery than an empowering participation experience. Findings are consistent with the idea that CROs should encourage both types of participation. Drawing from over ten years of experience supporting CROs, the discussion section explores several strategies CROs can use to foster empowering and socially supportive participation experiences.
Benefits and Changes for Family to Family Graduates
Authors: Lucksted Alicia , Stewart Bette , Forbes Courtney B.
Published: July 2008

Family members of people with serious mental illnesses (SMI) need information and support to cope with the considerable stresses they experience. The Family to Family Education Program (FtF) is a structured, peer‐led, 12‐week information and support self‐help class for such individuals. Previous research by Dixon et al. (2004) shows reduced subjective burden and increased empowerment among graduates. The present study sought to understand what processes take place during FtF participation that might lead to these benefits, as a first step in building a conceptual model of how FtF causes its effects, using semi‐structured interviews with 31 FtF graduates. Qualitative data analysis suggested that new factual and emotional information from FtF shifts interviewees' understanding of their situation and that skills acquired through FtF then allow participants to incorporate these new perspectives into more adaptive behaviors. These changes led to both proximal and distal benefits for the FtF participants interviewed. The results are discussed in the context of self‐help, stress‐and‐coping, and trauma recovery theories.
Soil penetrability as a key factor affecting the nesting of burrowing birds
Authors: Heneberg Petr
Published: June 2008

Soil penetrability resistance was found to be crucial for nest site selection of all three Central European burrowing bird species—Sand Martins (Riparia riparia), European Bee‐eaters (Merops apiaster), and Eurasian Kingfishers (Alcedo atthis). Soil penetrability resistance measurements were used to find out whether increased hardness of unexcavated banks is the key factor affecting the presence of burrowing birds. All three species avoided banks composed of too compact or too loose soils. Birds discriminated not only between high‐ and low‐quality breeding banks, but also between different soil strata within banks. In banks with generally low penetrability resistance, Sand Martins preferred soil strata with the highest available penetrability resistance and compactness to avoid hole collapses. There was a preference for hard soil below holes to serve as a resistant platform when birds begin to dig their holes. In Sand Martins, the penetrability resistance level affected physical characteristics of holes such as tunnel length and dimensions of the orifices. Excessive compactness—and probably not high talus presence—was a major cause of abandonment of Sand Martin localities. A high penetrability resistance is the crucial factor for site selection in Sand Martins.
Habitat niche specialization in an understory species in a warm temperate forest
Authors: Takeshita Yuhei , Muller Onno , Yamada Toshihiro
Published: July 2008

Relationships between microhabitat variables; understory light conditions in summer and winter, altitude, slope inclination and topographic categories (valley, ridge, and slope) and the distribution of Aucuba japonica Thunb. (Cornaceae), a common understory shrub species in Japan were examined using non‐contagious 66, 20 × 20 m2 quadrats. The Morishita's Iδ suggested that A. japonica distributions were strongly heterogeneous among the quadrats. Therefore positive spatial autocorrelation of A. japonica at a within‐quadrat level (≤20 m) was obvious. Moran's I statistics showed a significant positive spatial autocorrelation in A. japonica abundance within the distance shorter than 60 m. But the partial Mantel tests suggested that the mass effect from neighboring quadrats would little explain A. japonica abundance in a quadrat. The partial Mantel tests also clearly showed that A. japonica distributions were strongly structured by topography and understory light conditions. Using Monte Carlo randomization tests, we found that A. japonica was aggregately distributed in quadrats in valley which were covered by deciduous canopies. Better understory light conditions in winter together with valley edaphic conditions may increase the abundance of A. japonica there. It is concluded that habitat niche specialization is important in structuring distribution of A. japonica in this forest community.
The formation of the marginal area of modern Tianjin and its structural characteristics
Authors: Haiyan LIU
Published: June 2008

During the first half of the 20th century, when China experienced a new tide of urbanization, a tendency appeared, in which the upper strata moved to the urban center and the lower strata distributed over the marginal area, where poor people formed a new community. This marginal community bore distinctive characteristics no matter in spatial structure or in residents’ life style in the development of modern Tianjin. The lower culture from the marginal areas and the upper culture from the foreign concessions constituted an interaction urban cultural structure in modern China.
From the supply system to the duty-graded salary system: Evolution of income distribution system of government officials around the founding of the People’s Republic of China
Authors: Kuisong YANG
Published: June 2008

Around the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the income distribution system of party and government officials has experienced a great reform from the supply system featured by equalitarianism to the duty-graded salary system with strict ranks and wide gaps. This change runs against the convention of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and proposition of Marx Karl. Chairman Mao Zedong was never satisfied with this distribution system marked by strict ranks and tried to amend it. It amounted to the same at the end as his failure to prevent the generation of this system, even though it experienced “the Cultural Revolution.”
Metabolic Syndrome Affects Fatty Acid Composition of Plasma Lipids in Obese Prepubertal Children
Authors: Gil‐Campos Mercedes , del Carmen Ramírez‐Tortosa Maria , Larqué Elvira , Linde Javier , Aguilera Concepción M. , Cañete Ramón , Gil Angel
Published: June 2008

The aim of the present study was to assess the plasma fatty acid composition of the total plasma lipids and lipid fractions in obese prepubertal children with and without metabolic syndrome (MS). Thirty‐four obese prepubertal children were recruited: 17 who met MS criteria and 17 who did not; and twenty prepubertal children of normal weight. MS characteristics, insulin resistance (by homeostasis model assessment [HOMA‐IR]), and plasma adiponectin (by radioimmunoassay) were recorded. Separation of lipid fractions was performed by liquid chromatography and the concentration of fatty acids in total plasma lipids and fractions was determined by gas–liquid chromatography. Concentrations of 16:1n‐7, 16:1n‐9, 18:3n‐3, 22:6n‐3, and n‐3 PUFA in total plasma lipids (P < 0.05) and of 16:0, 16:1n‐7, 18:1n‐9, 18:2n‐6, and n‐6 PUFA in triacylglycerols (TG) (P < 0.05) were significantly higher in obese MS versus normal‐weight children. Increased risk of MS was positively associated with plasma concentration of 16:1n‐7 and negatively associated with proportion of 20:4n‐6 (OR 2.76; P = 0.004; OR 0.56, P = 0.030, respectively). Saturated FA in TG were associated with HOMA‐IR (R = 0.349, P = 0.017) and 22:5n‐6 with adiponectin (R = 0.336, P = 0.05). In conclusion, increased concentrations of 16:1n‐7 and decreased proportions of 20:4n‐6 and 22:5n‐6 in plasma lipids appear to be early markers of MS in children at prepubertal age.
Comparison of a New Estolide Oxidative Stability Package
Authors: Cermak Steven C. , Biresaw Girma , Isbell Terry A.
Published: July 2008

The rotating pressurized vessel oxidation test (RPVOT) was used in the analysis and determination of a new oxidative stability package (OSP) for a series of estolide based materials. Three antioxidants (BHT, two different alkylated diphenyl amines) were used in either 0.5 or 1.0 wt/wt%, in different ratios, and in conjunction with one another (hindered phenol/alkylated diphenyl amines or hindered phenol/mixed alkylated diphenyl amines). The estolide‐based samples analyzed for their resistance to oxidation were two pure (distilled) estolides (oleic estolide 2‐EH esters and coco‐oleic estolide 2‐EH esters), an estolide mixture that was analyzed straight from the reaction (coco‐oleic estolide 2‐EH esters with coco 2‐EH esters) and finally the ester fraction from the estolide mixture (coco 2‐EH esters). The coco estolide mixture and coco 2‐EH esters had the best overall RPVOT times with 1.0% of the alkylated diphenyl amine, coco estolide mixture, 326 min, and coco 2‐EH esters, 310 min. Coco estolides were expected to have an advantage over the simple oleic estolides due to the increase in saturation in the estolide. Unexpectedly, the two distilled estolides (oleic and coco) had very similar RPVOT max times with all the antioxidants, and were much higher than the other oxidative packages tested to date. In general, the alkylated diphenyl amine outperformed mixed alkylated diphenyl amines in the majority of the individual samples tested specially the coco 2‐EH esters and distilled coco‐oleic estolide 2‐EH esters material at 1% OSP. Overall, a series of new antioxidants were tested and compared to other commercial products. A variety of physical properties of the four estolide based material were collected and compared to commercially acceptable material. Coco‐oleic estolide 2‐EH esters were formulated to have excellent pour points (−36 °C), were both oxidatively and hydrolytically stable (RPVOT, 310 min), with expected good biodegradability which should help commercialization.
Impact of PUFA on early immune and fetal development
Authors: Enke Uta , Seyfarth Lydia , Schleussner Ekkehard , Markert Udo R.
Published: June 2008

It has recently been reported that the increased prevalence in childhood allergy may be linked to deviations in fetal immune development. One reason may be impaired nutrient supply. Hence, a well-differentiated placenta together with an optimal fetal nutrition via the mother are important prerequisites for the establishment of a functional immune system with normal immune responses. Fatty acids and their derivatives can influence both the early immune development and immune maturation by regulating numerous metabolic processes and the gene expression of important proteins such as enzymes and cytokines. The present review summarises the impact of nutritional fatty acids on the development of the immune system as well as the fetal development. It describes the mechanisms of action of PUFA,transfatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids in programming the fetus with regard to its risk of acquiring atopic diseases in childhood.
Evaluation of equations for fat-free mass based on anthropometry in infants and young children in South Asia
Authors: Sen Bandana , Mahalanabis Dilip , Shaikh Saijuddin , Kurpad Anura V. , Bose Kaushik
Published: June 2008

Rapid postnatal growth in low-birth weight infants increases the risk of hypertension, CHD and type 2 diabetes in adult life. To provide validated tools to study the growth in South Asian infants, we evaluated two published equations to measure total body water (TBW) and fat-free mass (FFM) based on anthropometry in 6- to 24-month-old infants, using 2H2O dilution. In a method-comparison study in seventy-eight infants aged 6–24 months (forty-two girls and thirty-six boys) from the urban poor attending an immunisation clinic of a hospital in Kolkata, we measured their length to the nearest 0·1 cm, weight to the nearest 10 g and TBW using 2H2O dilution. The calculated TBW in kg (TBWkg) and FFM in kg (FFMkg) using two equations based on the length and weight were each compared with TBWkg and FFMkg calculated from 2H2O dilution. The mean FFMkg were 7·31 (sd 1·11), 7·13 (sd 1·08) and 7·26 (sd 1·13) by the 2H2O dilution method, and the anthropometry equations of Mellits and Cheek (AN-1) and Morgenstern et al. (AN-2), respectively. The mean of the paired difference in FFMkg was 0·18 (sem 0·06) and 0·04 (sem 0·07) between 2H2O, and AN-1 and AN-2, respectively. There is a good agreement for FFM derived by AN-2 with 2H2O dilution. The former is 1 % lower than that obtained from the reference method (P = 0·28). The AN-2 equation is useful for evaluating FFM in infants in India.
The effects of age, birth cohort and survey period on leisure-time physical activity by Australian adults: 1990–2005
Authors: Allman-Farinelli Margaret A. , Chey Tien , Merom Dafna , Bowles Heather , Bauman Adrian E.
Published: June 2008

The prevalence of obesity continues to rise with many factors contributing to energy imbalance. Leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) has been proposed as one solution to counteract increasing energy intakes. The present study determined whether age, birth cohort and period of survey had independent effects on time, volume and energy expended in LTPA by Australian adults from 1990 to 2005. Adults were categorised into twelve age groups (5-year intervals from 20–24 years to >75 years), four survey periods (1990, 1995, 2000 and 2005) and fifteen birth cohorts (5-year intervals from pre-1916 to 1985). Time spent in three categories of LTPA was determined and metabolic equivalent (MET) values of 3·3, 4·0 and 8·0 were assigned for walking, moderate and vigorous activities, respectively, to calculate daily volume (MET minutes). Energy expended in LTPA was calculated using estimated BMR (from self-reported weight and published formulae), multiplied by the MET value. Regression models were fitted to the data. Age and period had independent effects on duration, volume and energy expenditure of LTPA for both males (P < 0·01) and females (P < 0·01), while birth cohort had independent effects for males only such that all three LTPA factors declined with recency of birth cohort (P < 0·01). This indicates that more recent birth cohorts of males may need to be targeted to increase LTPA, but as duration, volume and energy expended in leisure time have been declining since 1990, both the sexes may benefit from the promotion of increased LTPA.
Media, Public Opinion and Health Care in Canada: How the Media Affect “The Way Things Are”
Authors: Blidook Kelly
Published: June 2008

Abstract.Health care has arguably been the most important issue in Canadian politics in the past decade. This paper focuses on the extent to which the media affect public perceptions of “the way things are” in the Canadian health care system. Individual perceptions of the state of health care are analyzed as being a function of personal experience with the system, loyalty or pre-formed opinions and the information that the individual receives through the media. Results indicate that media use has a significant effect on the likelihood of negative perceptions regarding the state of health care.

Résumé.Le système de soins de santé représente sans doute le thème dominant de la dernière décennie sur la scène politique canadienne. Cet article examine l'influence exercée par les médias sur les perceptions du public concernant «la situation courante» du système de soins de santé canadien. L'analyse présente les perceptions individuelles sur l'état du système comme étant le reflet de l'expérience personnelle, d'une loyauté ou d'une opinion préétablie et de l'information transmise par les médias. Les résultats indiquent que les médias ont une incidence importante sur d'éventuelles perceptions négatives concernant l'état du système de soins de santé.