bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Microcomputer Software Development and Distribution
Authors: McGrann James M.
Published: July 2016

The microcomputer is becoming an important tool for the land grant institution in serving agriculture. Its applications present clientele with unprecedented opportunities for increasing the use of information systems, analytical and record-keeping tools, and the research results reported by land grant institutions to improve the decision-making process in agriculture.
Implications of Microcomputer Technology for Agricultural Economics Programs
Authors: Levins Richard A.
Published: July 2016

I have often heard the microcomputer compared to the tractor with respect to its potential impact on agriculture in the United States. From the viewpoint of agriculture as a whole, such comparisons must be regarded as overstated.
An Administrative Perspective on Microcomputers for Agricultural Research and Education
Authors: Ferney Preston E. La
Published: July 2016

Most of us involved in agricultural research and education are aware of the tremendous aid to our work computers have provided over the past 20 to 25 years. But the innovation to which ECOP refers—the phenomenon of the microcomputer in agriculture–is just now unfolding.
Modeling Weekly Truck Rates for Perishables
Authors: Beilock Richard , Shonkwiler J. Scott
Published: July 2016

The transportation literature reveals several studies that attempt to model freight rates. These efforts are important as they provide insight into rate determinants and consequently assist firms in planning, provide input into transportation policy debates, and are of use in transportation and commodity research. In such studies, freight-rate variations typically are explained by differences in commodity types, competition from alternative modes, and distance (Perkins; Benishay and Whitaker; Binkley and Harrar; Ferguson and Glorfeld; Boles; Miklius). However, when shippers must rely on one mode to ship a very limited mix of goods to one or a few destinations, this approach is of little use in explaining rate variations. The produce industry is a case in point.
Economic Analysis of Cotton Management Strategies Integrated Pest
Authors: Liapis Peter S. , Moffitt L. Joe
Published: July 2016

In an attempt to combat problems of insect resistance and the increasing cost of new insecticides, integrated pest management (IPM) systems have been developed for many crops, including cotton. Cotton IPM systems include such components as scouting to determine when control actions should be taken, planting trap crops, and using short season varieties of cotton. Regardless of the component(s) of IPM systems for cotton, when a decision is made that a direct control action is warranted, the control action most often used is the application of insecticides. Thus, although IPM strategies may reduce the frequency of insecticide applications and consequently reduce the possible problem of insecticide resistance, the use of conventional, broad-spectrum insecticides continues to be the primary control tool when insect outbreaks occur.
Florida Tomato Market Order Restrictions—An Analysis of Their Effects and Implementation
Authors: VanSickle John J. , Alvarado Guillermo E.
Published: July 2016

The Florida tomato industry produces about 90 percent of the domestic fresh tomato supplies during the November to mid-June season (Brooker and Pearson). Most of this supply is produced in an area under the authority of Federal Marketing Order 966 for fresh tomatoes. Federal marketing orders have been scrutinized in recent government studies and the USDA has been under pressure to justify the existence of these orders (USDA, AMS). Federal Marketing Order 966 uses quality restrictions to provide orderly market conditions for producers and consumers. This study measures the gains that producers could realize with quality restrictions and assesses the process for implementing these restrictions.
A Stocker Cattle Growth Simulation Model
Authors: Brorsen B. Wade , Walker Odell L. , Horn Gerald W. , Nelson Ted R.
Published: July 2016

Stocker cattle operations are an important part of the nation's cattle industry. Many producers do not realize the profit potential in new technological advances, and some feed their cattle on uneconomic planes of nutrition. Stocker cattle producers can benefit from results of animal science and agronomic research if they are presented in a framework suited to use in decision-making. Analyses prepared by agricultural economists often ignore many of the factors determining gain because of lack of data and complexity of the relationships. Thus, a system for economic analysis that accounts for more factors and improves growth predictions would be highly useful. The purpose of this study is to develop and provide computerized analytical procedures to estimate physical and economic results of alternative stocker production systems.
Motor Carrier Regulation and its Impact on Service: An Analysis of Texas Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Shippers
Authors: Makus Larry , Fuller Stephen
Published: July 2016

Recently there has been a trend toward economic deregulation of transportation by the federal government. The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978, the Staggers Rail Act of 1980, and the Motor Carrier Act of 1980 have reduced the regulatory role of the federal government and, in general, place increased reliance on the market for resource allocation. Earlier, the Motor Carrier Act of 1935 exempted from economic regulation the haulage of agricultural commodities moving in interstate commerce. In spite of the historic deregulation of agricultural motor carriage and the recent move by the federal government toward deregulation, the motor carrier deregulation question remains very important in many states.
OLS and Frontier Function Estimates of Long-Run Average Cost for Tennessee Livestock Auction Markets
Authors: McLemore Dan L. , Whipple Glen , Spielman Kimberly
Published: July 2016

Considerable research has been conducted to explore economies of size in the livestock auction market industry. Since auction market cost functions are expected to conform to microeconomic theory, conclusions regarding industry economies of size are often derived from estimated long-run average total cost (LRATC) functions (French; Stoddard).
A Bioeconomic Simulation Analysis of Irrigation Investments
Authors: Boggess W. G , Amerling C. B.
Published: July 2016

Agriculture is unique with respect to the importance of weather variability on output and profits. Irrigation has long been recognized as a means of increasing yields and profits in the arid west, and recently interest in investments in supplemental irrigation in humid areas has accelerated (Brown and Skinner; Hewitt et al.; Levins; Clouser et al., Worm et al.; Schoney and Massie).
Estimating the Effects of Pesticide Use on Burley and Flue-Cured Tobacco
Authors: Norton George W. , Andrew Bernat G.
Published: July 2016

The only pesticides a farmer may use on his crops are those that are registered for such use by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Registration of a particular pesticide can be withdrawn or partially restricted if the EPA determines that the risk to society outweighs the benefits of continued unrestricted use.
The Changing Demand Structure for Pork and Beef in the 1970s: Implications for the 1980s
Authors: Braschler Curtis
Published: July 2016

During the 1960s and through 1973, a single equation demand system resulted in reasonably accurate forecasts of both pork and beef prices at the farm and retail levels (Grimes 1974a, 1974b). Errors in forecasts were primarily attributable to errors in projections of supply variables and, to a lesser extent, projections of consumer income. Some minor errors resulted from random variation, captured in an error variable.
Implications of Emerging Biotechnologies
Authors: Carter Mary E.
Published: July 2016

The following definition of biotechnology goes beyond the rather limiting concept of genetic engineering. Biotechnology is defined simply as those biological means used to develop processes and products employing organisms or their components.
Agricultural Economists in Rural Development: Responsibilities, Opportunities, Risks, and Payoffs
Authors: Nelson James R. , Doeksen Gerald A.
Published: July 2016

Rural development research and extension activities directly impact approximately 100 million U.S. farm and nonfarm residents; whereas, commercial agricultural programs directly impact about 6 million farm residents (U.S. Department of Commerce, b). Based on this fact, it is difficult to understand why rural development research and extension programs are often listed last when priorities for funding are discussed.
Evaluating Use of Outlook Information in Grain Sorghum Storage Decisions
Authors: Rister M. Edward , Skees Jerry R. , Black J. Roy
Published: July 2016

This study examines grain sorghum storage decisions in the Texas Coastal Bend region. Decisions involving use and non-use of outlook information are compared using stochastic dominance criteria. Results indicate outlook information is of value to most classes of decisionmakers. The value of outlook information, however, is contingent upon producers' risk preferences. The methodology presented could be used to evaluate a more extensive set of marketing strategies for grain sorghum as well as for other crops.
Assessment of Journals Used by Agricultural Economists at Land-Grant Universities
Authors: Broder Josef M. , Ziemer Rod F.
Published: July 2016

Agricultural economists at land-grant universities were surveyed to evaluate the use and assessment of professional journals. Faculty rankings of journals are reported along with faculty perceptions of changes in the quality of selected journals. Of 25 journals used by agricultural economics faculties, the Southern Journal of Agricultural Economics ranked first among regional agricultural economics journals in personal usefulness, subscriptions held, papers submitted, papers published, and participation in the editorial and review processes. The SJAE was also ranked as the second most improved journal among all journals evaluated.
Risk Management Strategies to Reduce Net Income Variability for Farmers
Authors: Falatoonzadeh Hamid , Conner J. Richard , Pope Rulon D.
Published: July 2016

The most useful and practical strategy available for reducing variability of net farm income is ascertained. Of the many risk management tools presently available, five of the most commonly used are simultaneously incorporated in an empirically tested model. Quadratic programming provides the basis for decisionmaking in risk management wherein expected utility is assumed to be a function of the mean and variance of net income. Results demonstrate that farmers can reduce production and price risks when a combination strategy including a diversified crop production plan and participation in the futures market and the Federal Crop Insurance Program (FCIP) is implemented.
A Mathematical Programming Model for Vegetable Rotations
Authors: Musser Wesley N. , Alexander Vickie J. , Tew Bernard V. , Smittle Doyle A.
Published: July 2016

Rotations have historically been used to alleviate pest problems in crop production. This paper considers methods of modeling rotations in linear programming models for Southeastern vegetable production. In such models, entering each possible crop rotation as a separate activity can be burdensome because of the large numbers of possible rotational alternatives. Conventional methodology for double crop rotations reduces the number of activities but must be adapted to accommodate triple crop rotational requirements in vegetable production. This paper demonstrates these methods both for a simple example and an empirical problem with numerous rotation alternatives. While the methods presented in this paper may have computational disadvantages compared to entering each rotation as a separate activity, they do have advantages in model design and data management.
Supplier Substitutability and the Impacts of the 1980 U.S. Grain Embargo
Authors: Abbott Philip C. , Paarlberg Philip L. , Patterson Paul M.
Published: July 2016

The 1980 U.S. suspension of grain sales to the Soviet Union illustrates the importance of the choice of conceptual framework for empirical analysis of international trade problems. A spatial equilibrium model of wheat and coarse grains trade assumes perfect substitution among exporting nations' commoditites by importers and, thus, precludes the embargo from having a large impact. The imperfect substitutability assumption of an Armington model results in larger consequences from the embargo. For small shocks, the Armington model better captures the rigidities characteristic of international grain markets. The spatial model provides insights on adjustments to large shocks, but rigidities persist in actual markets.
Allocation of Farm Financial Stress Among Income, Leverage, and Interest Rate Components: A Kansas Example
Authors: Featherstone Allen M. , Schroeder Ted C. , Burton Robert O.
Published: July 2016

Suggested methods to reduce farm financial stress have included interest rate buy-downs and debt forgiveness. This study develops a method to estimate the proportion of individual farm financial stress attributable to an income problem, a leverage problem, and an interest rate problem. Of the Kansas Farm Management Association farms with a financial problem, 30 percent of the total financial problem is caused by an interest rate problem, 28 percent by a leverage problem, and 42 percent by an income problem. A reduction of leverage or interest rate to the level attained by the average nonstressed farms would make 31 percent and 32 percent of the stressed farms profitable, respectively. Therefore, in the short run, an interest rate buy-down or a debt reduction would be equally effective.
Forecasting Agricultural Prices Using a Bayesian Composite Approach
Authors: McIntosh Christopher S. , Bessler David A.
Published: July 2016

Forecast users and market analysts need quality forecast information to improve their decision-making abilities. When more than one forecast is available, the analyst can improve forecast accuracy by using a composite forecast. One of several approaches to forming composite forecasts is a Bayesian approach using matrix beta priors. This paper explains the matrix beta approach and applies it to three individual forecasts of U.S. hog prices. The Bayesian composite forecast is evaluated relative to composites made from simple averages, restricted least squares, and an adaptive weighting technique.
A Comparison of Subjective and Historical Crop Yield Probability Distributions
Authors: Pease James W.
Published: July 2016

Forecast distributions based on historical yields and subjective expectations for 1987 expected crop yields were compared for 90 Western Kentucky grain farms. Different subjective probability elicitation techniques were also compared. In many individual cases, results indicate large differences between subjective and empirical moments. Overall, farmer expectations for 1987 corn yields were below those predicted from their past yields, while soybean expectations were above the historical forecast. Geographical location plays a larger role than crop in comparisons of relative variability of yield. Neither elicitation technique nor manager characteristics have significant effects on the comparisons of the forecasts.
A Bio-economic Dynamic Programming Analysis of the Seasonal Supply Response by Florida Dairy Producers
Authors: Gao X. M. , Spreen Thomas H. , DeLorenzo Michael A.
Published: July 2016

Seasonal price premiums have been proposed as a means of dampening the highly seasonal patterns of milk production in Florida. A Markov decision bio-economic model of the breeding and replacement decisions was solved via stochastic dynamic programming and used to analyze the potential supply response to seasonal price premiums. The results of the analysis suggest that the seasonal milk supply in Florida is highly price inelastic.
Farm Policies - - A Paradox
Authors: McMurtry Gene
Published: July 2016

Many facets of the much discussed and maligned “farm problem” were examined in the National Advisory Commission report on Food and Fiber. This report was readable, cohesive and on the whole, quite informative. All the essentials of our dynamic and complex agriculture were touched upon. Members of the Commission represented a cross section of thinking concerning the industry of agriculture. It appears that they presented their ideas and objectives with a view toward what was good for all of agriculture. Consideration was given not only to farm numbers and sizes, but also to the human resources involved in agriculture and rural America.
An Analysis of Oklahoma's Economy by Districts Using Input-Output Techniques
Authors: Doeksen Gerald A. , Little Charles H.
Published: July 2016

In order to adequately appraise a district's potential for economic growth and development, it is important to know as much as possible about the economic structure of the particular district under analysis. Recent input-output analysis research conducted for the state of Oklahoma provided an examination of the economic base of the state, but this examination proved inadequate when considering the economic structure of the districts within the state.

The Oklahoma model provided an “average” or “aggregate” description of the various economic structures found in the state.
Selection of a Farm Machinery Replacement Criterion Using Simulation
Authors: Kletke Darrel
Published: July 2016

Little research has focused on developing a model which farmers can use to make yearly machinery replacement decisions. This paper contains an optimizing replacement criterion and then demonstrates the results of alternative rules of thumb used to implement the criterion in a real world situation.

The economic life of a machine is here defined as the interval of time during which that machine reaches its minimum average yearly cost. If a machine is replaced by an exact duplicate with the same annual costs, replacement occurs when the currently owned machine attains its economic life. When average cost reaches its minimum, marginal cost and average cost are equal. This is the same as saying that when economic life is reached, the actual yearly cost (marginal cost) is equal to the average yearly cost of the machine. Theoretically, replacement should occur when marginal cost first crosses average cost from below.
Agricultural Policy: Some Hard Choices Ahead
Authors: Boehm William T.
Published: July 2016

Most political analysts failed to predict that the election of 1980 would be close; few foresaw the landslide that would bring major changes in the policy-making machinery. The results surprised almost everyone. Ronald Reagan carried all but 6 states, and the Republicans won the Senate for the first time in a quarter century. The balance of power in the House of Representatives also shifted toward the conservatives—Republicans gained 33 seats.
Current and Developing Issues in Interregional Competition and Agricultural Transportation
Authors: Johnson Marc A.
Published: July 2016

This paper identifies current and developing issues in interregional competition and agricultural transportation. These topics are related to the extent that the cost and quality of transportation services is one major determinant of the economic distance between regions.

Interregional competition analysis was introduced to agricultural economics in the late 1930s, with the stimulus of agricultural research funds authorized by the Bankhead-Jones Act of 1935, under the leadership of Sherman E. Johnson and John D. Black. Interregional competition developed as a synonym for regional comparative advantage. Interregional competition analysis is a general set of tools designed to measure regional comparative advantage.
Adaptive Planning Over the Cattle Price Cycle
Authors: Bentley Ernest , Shumway C. Richard
Published: July 2016

Cycles in beef cattle inventories and prices have been documented as far back as 1880 (Breimyer). The inability to identify optimal herd management strategies in response to fluctuating cattle prices is frequently blamed for the low historical returns received by cattle producers (Farris and Mallett). Cattle producers typically react to rising prices by increasing the size of their breeding herd and liquidating a portion of the herd when prices decline. Long lags between the time a cow is bred and the time her calf is weaned and ready for market make it difficult for cow-calf operators to make optimal long-run production plans. And because a cow has a long productive life, several years are required to evaluate the decision to invest in a larger breeding herd by adding more heifers. During this period, prices may fluctuate drastically, so that with hindsight, the decision to increase the investment in the herd may have been a poor choice. The same problem occurs when the herd is liquidated because of dim prospects of earning an immediate profit from the intact herd. The use of other resources probably does not fluctuate much over the cattle cycle. Bebout discovered that land committed to calf production remains fairly constant even in periods of low profits.
Comment: Energy Accounting: The Case of Farm Machinery in Maryland
Authors: Bradford Garnett L.
Published: July 2016

Prior to the 1970s, energy accounting was the primary domain of physical scientists or engineers. The world of thermodynamics, rigorous concepts of energy ratios and entropy, seemed safe within their laboratories where, for example, the relative energy efficiency of solid and liquid fuels was assessed for powering an industrial heating system. This apparent orderly state of affairs—measurement primarily in controlled laboratory conditions—seemed to change abruptly in 1973 with the OPEC oil embargo. Energy accounting became the chore, if not the mission, of a myriad of scientists, engineers, businessmen, bureaucrats, and politicians. Understandably, the journals and other periodicals of our profession now abound with proposals on how to measure energy and how to employ these measures in making decisions and developing government policies.
A Typical Farm Series: Development and Application to a Mississippi Delta Farm
Authors: Hatch Thomas C. , Gustafson Cole , Baum Kenneth , Harrington David
Published: July 2016

Economic analyses of typical farms are often useful in applied agricultural research, because agricultural policymakers and analysts have a particular need for information on policy impacts and indicators of well-being at the farm level.
An Economic Evaluation of a Multi-Area Recreation System
Authors: Wetzstein Michael E.
Published: July 2016

Researchers as well as planners have been concerned with the impact of augmenting an existing recreation system with new recreational areas. That is, they are concerned with the substitution or duplication of services stemming from additional numbers of recreational areas.
Teaching Consumer Economics Using Taste Panels
Authors: McClelland John W. , Broder Josef M.
Published: July 2016

The teaching of economic theory has become a major topic in the economics literature. Siegfried and Fels point to the growing number of economists who consider their special interest to be economic education.
The Effect of an Embargo of California Peaches
Authors: Bauer Larry L. , Wells Gary J. , Rathwell P. J.
Published: July 2016

During 1981 there was much in the news about the Medfly (Mediterranean fruit fly) infestation of California. During the summer of 1981, a USDA quarantine on produce from California was imposed by 11 states–North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas, Tennessee, Florida, and South Carolina.
A Probabilistic Approach to Estimating Aggregate Regional Demand for Broiler Meat
Authors: Huang Chung Liang , Raunikar Robert
Published: July 2016

Classical theory of consumer demand postulates that each consumer possesses a continuous utility function. The theory describes the behavior of a rational consumer such that the consumer's preferences for various sets of goods are given and the consumer purchases a set of goods which maximizes utility function subject to the budget constraint that total expenditure is equal to income.
Impact of a More Intensive Insect Pest Infestation Level on Cotton Production: Texas High Plains
Authors: Masud Sharif M. , Lacewell Ronald D. , Stoll John R. , Walker J. Knox , Leser James F. , Sellar Christine
Published: July 2016

This study evaluated implications of increased bollworm problems in a 20-county area of the Texas High Plains relative to cotton yields and economic impact. Results did not indicate a serious effect of bollworms upon lint yield when insecticides were used for control. However, estimated annual reduction in farmer profit due to the bollworm for 1979-81 was over $30 million. Yields were estimated to decline about 300,000 bales without insecticide use and about 30,000 bales with insecticide use. This decline suggests potentially serious implications for the comparative economic position of cotton in this region if insecticide resistance were to develop among insect pests.
An Economic Analysis of Selected U. S. Dairy Program Changes
Authors: Whipple Glen D. , Powe Charles , Gray Morgan
Published: July 2016

An interregional reactive programming model of the United States dairy industry is used to test the welfare implications of several dairy program changes on milk producers, milk consumers, and taxpayers. The results showed that each of the tested alternatives (price support reduction, price support reduction with frozen minimum Class I price, assessments, and production quotas) could reduce price support expenditures substantially. However, assessments reduced expenditures most effectively in terms of cost to milk producers for the United States generally while price support reduction with frozen minimum Class I price was most efficacious in terms of cost to Southeast producers.
Developing Realistic Agricultural Production Functions for Use in Undergraduate Classes
Authors: Debertin David L.
Published: July 2016

This note describes an approach for teaching undergraduate students basic properties of cost and production functions with the aid of computer-generated illustrations. Parameters of a third degree polynomial are derived by making use of both the theoretical restrictions and the specific agricultural production process. The function is then used as the basis for the development of a simple computer graphics program which generates illustrations of the corresponding MPP, AC, and MC functions. Such illustrations can be used to make technically accurate visual aids.
Southern Farms and Rural Communities: Developing Directions for Economic Development Research and Policy: Discussion
Authors: Libby Lawrence W.
Published: July 2016

Dr. Henry has prepared a very thorough and thoughtful assessment of research needs concerning the relationships between farms and rural communities in the South. He has been true to his reputation—Dr. Henry does not skim lightly over any topic. He has diagnosed the subject area carefully, referenced current literature in his appraisal of research and policy needs, and drawn very defensible conclusions. Better still, his conclusions are basically consistent with my biases. To have one's intuitive conclusions substantiated by the experts is heady stuff indeed. The points in his paper with which I disagreed most consistently were found in extensive quotes from others, so we are clearly both on the right track.
Introduction: Southern Agriculture and the World Economy: The Multilateral Trade Negotiations
Authors: Newman Mark D.
Published: July 2016

The current round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations (MTNs) under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was launched at Punta del Este, Uruguay, in September, 1986. Thus, it bears the appellation, “Uruguay Round,” although negotiations have actually been taking place at GATT headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, since early 1987.
Soybean Trader: A Microcomputer Simulation of International Agricultural Trade
Authors: Levins Richard A. , Brown/ Earl H. , Rosson C. Parr
Published: July 2016

Soybean Trader is a microcomputer simulation of international grain trading. The program uses the format of a graphics-oriented game to teach basic economic principles and to stimulate interest in agricultural trade. Profits from trading serve as a score, and competition is encouraged by ranking top scores in Traders' Hall of Fame. Results of tests with adult and youth audiences indicated that the program is an interesting and effective teaching tool.
Economic Impact of Integrated Pest Management Strategies for Cotton Production in the Coastal Bend Region of Texas
Authors: Masud Sharif M. , Lacewell Ronald D. , Taylor C. Robert , Benedict John H. , Lippke Lawrence A.
Published: July 2016

A long-season (160–180 days) cotton variety with a conventional production system was formerly grown in the Texas Coastal Bend Region. Cotton producers in the region used intensive insecticide applications throughout the growing season and harvested in August or September, and occasionally in October. In general, intensive insecticide applications for boll weevil and fleahopper control destroyed the beneficial insects and spiders. Late-season tobacco budworm infestations were thereby aggravated. These late-season insect infestations were a result of the relatively high rainfall during August and September. Moreover, high rainfall during this time not only interfered with harvest, but also reduced both the yield and quality of cotton (Lacewell et al.).
Pest Information Markets and Integrated Pest Management
Authors: Wetzstein Michael E.
Published: July 2016

Integrated pest management (IPM) programs vary from employing field scouts to planting trap crops, as inputs in production, to control crop losses. Scouts provide pest information, helping to determine the need for pesticide applications. This increased information may indicate a reduction of periodic application, which would diminish the negative external effects that such treatments have on environmental quality.

Recent research in this area has determined the need for pest information (Regev et al.) and the rationale for established information markets (Feder). Currently, such sources exist throughout the United States, and both public and private consultants supply information to agricultural producers.
A Note on the Specification of Wage Rates in Cost-Push Models of Food Price Determination
Authors: Belongia Mike
Published: July 2016

Since publication of Popkin's work on price determination by state of processing, cost-push models of “inflation” have provided the theoretical structure underlying much of the empirical analysis of food price behavior. The general premise of such models is that the price (usually a component of the Consumer Price Index) of a commodity can be expressed as the summation of that commodity's price in a less processed form, plus the cost of all resources expended in the physical transformation of the commodity to its current form. Then, if the costs of raw farm produce or other factors of production used by food processing firms increase, cost-push models predict that retail food prices will increase at some future date. It is argued that price increases at the retail level occur because market power of processing and retail firms permits them to “pass through” increased costs of production by increasing the prices of their output. Or, “because of their oligopolistic structure, these [food manufacturing] firms are able to select the prices at which they sell” (Lamm, p. 119). Similarly, Heien (p. 11) states that “an operationally more realistic theory is one where store managers apply a markup over costs for each product in order to arrive at a price.”
A Blueprint for Designing a Successful Extension Program: Advice from Some Master Builders
Authors: Anderson Kim B.
Published: July 2016

The focus of the typical Ph.D. program in agricultural economics is on research. Little emphasis is placed on teaching, and, in most cases, there is no emphasis on extension, thus placing the new extension specialist in a difficult starting position. Even so, the current order or priorities may be appropriate, because an extension specialist must first understand economic theory and then be a capable researcher and teacher to work effectively in an extension program (Hildreth and Armbruster, p. 857).
Policy Science in the Land-Grant Complex: A Perspective on Natural Resource Economics
Authors: Randall Alan
Published: July 2016

Natural resource economics has long been identified as a policy science. Its chief concerns—problems attributable to “market failures” of various kinds (e.g., Castle 1965) and the special difficulties that arise in intertemporal and intergenerational resource allocation (e.g., Solow)—inherently require some kind of public solution, whether it be by reaffirmation or redefinition of property rights, regulation, taxation policy, or public enterprise.

In a time of some general disenchantment with government and selective retrenchment of public sector activity, resource economists (and many other social and economic scientists) are receiving mixed signals. Mostly we tend to work in or for the public sector, the political stock of which is not exactly booming.
Theoretical and Empirical Problems in Modeling Optimal Replacement of Farm Machines
Authors: Bradford Garnett , Reid Donald
Published: July 2016

Research on the optimal replacement problem has emphasized specification of the theoretically appropriate criterion. Today, the most commonly applied replacement decision theory for machinery assumes that the owner will replace each older machine, “defender,” with an identical new machine, “challenger,” in accordance with long-run cost minimizing or profit maximizing criteria (i.e., wealth maximization). Perrin (p. 60) summarizes the cost minimization criterion which should be applied: “A machine should be kept another period if the marginal costs of retaining it … are less than the ‘average’ periodic costs of a replacement machine.” As Chisholm noted, this criterion is “deceptively simple.” Support for Chisholm's observation is evidenced throughout the literature, because acceptance and use of an appropriate criterion has come about slowly.
The Effect of Price on Coupon Redemption: A Case Study of Florida Orange Juice Industry Coupon Programs
Authors: Lee Jonq-Ying
Published: July 2016

The distribution of coupons offering customers a reduction in the regular purchase price has become an important element of the marketing strategy for many consumer package goods and services. The distribution of manufacturers' cents-off coupons has increased from an estimated 35.7 billion coupons in 1975, to 90.6 billion coupons in 1980, representing an increase of more than 150 percent. In addition, there has been an upward trend in percent of households using coupons, from 65 percent in 1975, to 76 percent in 1980. More than 95 percent of the coupon users bought food items with them in 1980 (A. C. Nielsen Company).
The Import Demand for U.S. Burley Tobacco in European Markets
Authors: Reed Michael R. , Schnepf Randall D.
Published: July 2016

One of the chief complaints against the federal tobacco program is that it sets prices too high relative to foreign tobaccos: most foreign burley tobaccos are priced between one-third and one-half the price of U.S. burley. Critics feel that if the government program were changed so that burley production could increase, prices would be lower, and more burley tobacco would be consumed. Production increases could bring about two beneficial effects. First, U.S. burley tobacco would be more competitive in overseas markets, and, therefore, exports could increase. Second, U.S. imports of foreign burley could decrease. This study examines the validity of the first argument; its main objective is to evaluate the elasticity of demand for U.S. burley tobacco in European markets. Of course, the more price elastic is the demand for U.S. burley in these European markets, the more exports will expand if U.S. prices are lowered. Evidence is also provided on the growth potential of these foreign markets.
Effects of Removal of the Peanut Program on Georgia Production and Distribution of Selected Fresh Produce
Authors: Epperson J. E. , Tyan H. L. , Carley D. H.
Published: July 2016

It has been conjectured that elimination of the U.S. peanut program would have a profound impact on the supply of fresh produce grown in the peanut producing area of Georgia. Awareness regarding this possibility was brought to bear for two reasons: a) the nature of peanut legislation in 1977 and subsequent years has created a great deal of speculation concerning the possible elimination or phasing out of the program and b) fresh vegetables and fruits produced for the national market and peanuts under the peanut program represent high value crops.
Advertising and Retail Promotion of Washington Apples: A Structural Latent Variable Approach to Promotion Evaluation
Authors: Richards Timothy J. , Gao X.M. , Patterson Paul M.
Published: July 2016

“Commodity promotion” consists of many activities, each designed to contribute to a consumer's product knowledge or influence tastes. However, both knowledge and tastes are unobservable, or latent, variables influencing demand. This paper specifies a dynamic structural model of fresh fruit demand that treats promotion and other socioeconomic variables as “causal” variables influencing these latent variables. Estimating this state-space model using a Kalman filter approach provides estimates of both the system parameters and a latent variable series. The results show that these latent effects contribute positively to apple and other fruit consumption, while reducing banana consumption.
Factors Affecting the Adoption of Value-added Production on Cow-Calf Farms
Authors: Popp Michael P. , Faminow Merle D. , Parsch Lucas D.
Published: July 2016

Factors that affect the decision to feed or sell calves at weaning are analyzed for Arkansas cow-calf operators. A discrete choice logit model is used to analyze the adoption of value-added cattle production. Farm size, human capital, perception of risk/returns and enterprise diversification are hypothesized to explain this decision. Regional factors and land quality are also accounted for. Operator perceptions towards risk, profitability and facilities were important. Production control and attention to marketing were also significant, but farm size and scale of cattle production had a minimal impact. Effects of human capital and off-farm labor opportunities need further investigation.
Application of Recursive Partitioning to Agricultural Credit Scoring
Authors: Novak Michael P. , LaDue Eddy
Published: July 2016

Recursive Partitioning Algorithm (RPA) is introduced as a technique for credit scoring analysis, which allows direct incorporation of misclassification costs. This study corroborates nonagricultural credit studies, which indicate that RPA outperforms logistic regression based on within-sample observations. However, validation based on more appropriate out-of-sample observations indicates that logistic regression is superior under some conditions. Incorporation of misclassification costs can influence the creditworthiness decision.
Temporal span of bone accumulations at Olduvai Gorge and implications for early hominid foraging behavior
Authors: Potts Richard
Published: July 2016

Bones of mammals exhibit progressive stages of weathering during their time of subaerial exposure. Consequently, the study of bone weathering in fossil assemblages may help to assess the period represented by an accumulation of bones. Stages of bone decomposition due to subaerial weathering have been identified in assemblages of fossil macromammals from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. A modern bone assemblage collected by spotted hyenas is used to devise a method for recognizing attritional accumulations of bones from weathering characteristics. This method, which involves study of long bone diaphyses, is applied to Plio-Pleistocene faunal assemblages from Olduvai, 1.70–1.85 ma old. Previous work indicates that early hominids had an important role in the collection of fauna at five of the six sites studied. It is shown that animal bones were accumulated at each site over a period of probably 5–10 yr or more. The length of this period, along with other taphonomic evidence, suggests that the processes of bone aggregation at these sites differed from those at the short-term campsites of modern, tropical hunter-gatherers.
Early chewing mechanisms in mammalian herbivores
Authors: Rensberger John M.
Published: July 2016

A comparison of the morphology and wear of the chewing surfaces among archaic Paleocene herbivores suggests that a compressive type of interaction between opposing chewing surfaces was becoming a dominant mode of chewing, unlike the translative (grinding or shearing) mechanisms common in Eocene and later herbivores. In part, the evidence for this conclusion is that most of the wear occurs on horizontal surfaces centered at the tips of the cusps and pronounced unidirectional striae tend to be lacking in these areas. In the diverse early Paleocene periptychid condylarths, multidirectional striae occur on the wear surfaces and there is a measured loss of directionality of the crests and enamel edges from the condition in the earliest condylarth, the Late Cretaceous Protungulatum. The patterns are even more random in the later Paleocene phenacodontids, suggesting that this was a broad characteristic for the larger Paleocene condylarths.

Efficiency (that is, the volume of food processed per stroke) in compressional chewing systems is theoretically proportional to the area of the opposing surfaces, with large, relatively flat surfaces optimal, whereas in translational systems linear structures are dominant. The reduction in alignment of striae and in linearity of topographic features of the chewing surfaces is consistent with an increasing dominance of compressive chewing from the condition characteristic of palaeoryctid and probably other Cretaceous insectivores in which both compression and shearing occurred between opposing surfaces. The change was brought about by expanding surface areas at the expense of edge length, which was accomplished independently and differently by the phenacodontids and the periptychids, one by increasing both the cylindrical shape and size of the cusps, the other by increasing the cylindrical shape and converging the cusps. The retention of large paraconules and metaconules in the upper molars, cusps essentially lost in the periptychids, preadapted the phenacodontid pattern for later development of the oblique lophodonty and translatory chewing component characteristic of perissodactyls (horses and their relatives), the dominant herbivores of the Eocene.
Morphogenetic gradients in Paleozoic bryozoan colonies
Authors: Anstey Robert L. , Pachut Joseph F. , Prezbindowski Dennis R.
Published: July 2016

Subcolony boundaries within Paleozoic bryozoan colonies, not otherwise easily observable, can be located precisely by computer mapping of variables derived from Fourier series. The monticule-centered subcolonies were maintained by morphogenetic gradients that controlled zooecial size and form, zooidal degeneration (producing brown bodies), and the spacing of monticules with respect to each other. These gradients were probably determined by the release of a budding inhibitor from polymorphic zooids within the monticule. In colonies with active monticular budding the morphogenetic gradients represent ontogenetic series, as the zooids that arose in the monticule gradually migrated outward along modified spiral pathways. Polymorphism, including reproductive functions, is probably reflected in the spatial order of zooids away from a monticule. In subcolonies with monticular budding, polymorphs represent different stages in the life history of a single zooid, with gradual transitions in zooecial form between castes.

The structural similarity between monticules and oghurd dunes supports the idea that they also functioned as excurrent water outlets, possibly with reproductive polymorphs clustered near the outflow. The variability of monticular size and spacing in some colonies indicates that hydrodynamic efficiency was compromised by the need for developmental plasticity. The development of active budding within monticules is considered an ecophenotypic response to the external environment, suggesting that all monticules within the Stenolaemata were potential budding sites. Monticules were successful adaptations in bryozoans because they performed a multiplicity of functions. While regulating the morphogenesis of the colony, they simultaneously served the metabolic functions of waste removal, feeding and reproduction.
Clams and brachiopods—ships that pass in the night
Authors: Gould Stephen Jay , Calloway C. Bradford
Published: July 2016

The presumed geometry of clam and brachiopod clades (brachiopod declines matched closely by clam increases) has long served as primary data for the classic case of gradual replacement by competition in geological time. Agassiz invoked the geometric argument to assert the general superiority of clams, and it remains the standard textbook illustration today. Yet, like so many classic stories, it is not true. The supposed replacement of brachiopods by clams is not gradual and sequential. It is a product of one event: the Permian extinction (which affected brachiopods profoundly and clams relatively little). When Paleozoic and post-Paleozoic times are plotted separately, numbers of clam and brachiopod genera are positively correlated in each phase. Each group pursues its characteristic and different history in each phase—clams increasing, brachiopods holding their own. The Permian extinction simply reset the initial diversities. The two groups seem to track each other in each phase and a plot of brachiopod vs. clam residuals (each from their own within-phase regressions against time) yields significantly positive association. Some of this tracking may be an artifact of available rock volumes; we could, however, detect no effect of stage lengths. Passive extrapolation of microevolutionary theory into the vastness of geological time has often led paleontologists astray. Competitive interaction may rule in local populations, but differential response to mass extinctions (surely not a matter of conventional competition) may set the relative histories of large groups through geological time. Similarly, adaptive superiority in design cannot, in the usual sense of optimal engineering, have much to do with the macroevolutionary success of clams. The interesting question lies one step further back: what in the inherited Bauplan of a clam permits flexibility in design and why are other groups, however successful in their own domain, unable to alter their basic design.