bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Fredrickson George M
Published: November 2023

This book might be considered a sequel to my earlier study White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History, but it is not one that I planned or expected to write when that work was published in 1981. White Supremacy compared the attitudes, ideologies, and policies associated with white or European domination over blacks and other people of color in the history of both societies. In the introduction, I acknowledged the “obvious limitations” of this approach: “Comparative studies of non white responses and resistance movements would be enormously valuable and should be done. But a useful prelude to such a work is awareness of what non whites were up against.…”At the time, nothing was further from my mind than writing my own study of the other side of the black-white confrontation. I thought of White Supremacy as a one-shot excursion into comparative history involving South Africa, after which I would revert to my previous vocation as simply an historian of the United States with a special interest in black white relations. But two things happened to change my mind. The first was my growing sense of the unlikelihood that anyone else would undertake a study such as the one I had proposed. It eventually dawned on me that the broad understanding of South African history that I had acquired in writing White Supremacy had prepared me exceptionally well to carry on such work and that if I did not do it no one else was likely to in the foreseeable future. The second new consideration was the remarkable course of events in South Africa in the 1980s. I watched with fascination as a massive resistance movement challenged white supremacy as it had never been challenged before. Like most other observers writing in the previous decade, I had not expected such a development; my studies of the ideas and institutions associated with white domination had made it seem that the apartheid regime was backed by sufficient white power and determination to make it, if not invulnerable, at least in control of the situation for several years to come. As events unfolded in South Africa, I became intensely curious about the history of the black opposition-how it had developed, what its governing ideas were, and how it compared with the African-American freedom struggle that had been central to my public consciousness since the 1950s and that I had long wanted to study and write about.
“We Shall Not Be Moved”: Nonviolent Resistance To White Supremacy, 1940-1965
Authors: Fredrickson George M
Published: November 2023

People committed to a militant struggle against colonial or racist domination during the middle decades of the twentieth century had one clear alternative to the Marxist-Leninist path of violent revolution. It was the method of resistance pioneered by Mohandas K. Gandhi in South Africa and India that has been variously called “passive resistance,” “nonviolent direct action,” and “militant nonviolence.” During the 1940s and ‘50s in South Africa-and for a few years longer in the United States-advocates of nonviolence tried to demonstrate the superiority and efficacy of their method of protest. They argued for it, tried it out on a small scale, threatened mass action, and in a few notable instances led thousands of demonstrators in direct action against oppressive laws or policies. The term nonviolence is difficult to define with precision, but there seems little question that it refers to a range of protest or resistance activities that fall between the straightforward use of physical force and the men! expression of dissatisfaction in conventional, legally authorized ways within officially constituted bodies or channels. Boycotts, strikes, mass marches or demonstrations, and planned civil disobedience are all forms of nonviolent resistance. Nonviolent actions do not necessarily signify a nonviolent ideology. Movements that are not committed to nonviolence as a philosophy or moral imperative often make use of such methods. Furthermore, there is a natural tendency for people whose grievances are not being addressed through conventional politics and legalistic appeals to engage in nonviolent action out of frustration, or the pragmatic need to try something else, rather than out of the conviction that it represents a morally superior form of struggle. The practical function of nonviolent doctrine or ideology-as set forth by a Gandhi or a Martin Luther King, Jr might be to increase the morale and motivation of nonviolent protesters and prevent or inhibit their normal tendency to escalate the conflict to the level of violent resistance when nonviolent campaigns do not bring the results that are hoped for. It would be wrong, however, to assume that only committed pacifists can lead effective nonviolent movements. It is quite possible to regard violence as self-defeating within a particular historical context-and to act consistently on that conviction-without rejecting the use of force or violence in all conceivable circumstances.
“Black Man You Are On Your Own”: Black Power And Black Consciousness
Authors: Fredrickson George M
Published: November 2023

World War II awakened or strengthened independence movements in Asia and Africa and reduced the capacity of the Western imperial powers to suppress them. Unlike India, Indonesia, and Vietnam, where the war ended leaving strong nationalist parties or guerrilla armies ready to challenge European hegemony, the African colonies of England and France remained quiet and seemingly under control in 1945. But progress toward decolonization elsewhere encouraged African nationalists to act on the assumption that independence was a realistic aspiration. Except where there was substantial European settlement or other special conditions (as in Kenya, Rhodesia, Algeria, and the Portuguese colonies), these hopes were fulfilled by the early 1960s without the need for sustained guerrilla warfare. The emergence of new African nations helped inspire the American civil rights movement, as well as the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa. But the precise relationship of American and South African freedom struggles to the independence of black Africa and the Pan-African ideology that was associated with it was far from simple and straightforward. Were black Americans really Africans or had two or three centuries of exile and acculturation turned them into Americans? There could be no doubt about the Africanness of Bantu-speaking South Africans, but did the presence of substantial white and Indian settler minorities mean that a liberated South Africa could not be purely and simply African but would have to be a special kind of “multi-racial” or “nonracial” society? The 1950s saw a struggle within the African National Congress between the multi-racialists and the Africanists that ruptured the organization. In the late 1960s in the United States, advocates of Black Power and black nationalism challenged the integrationist ideology of the civil rights movement and gave new emphasis to African roots and identities. Shortly thereafter, the South African Black Consciousness movement borrowed some of the new African-American language of black pride and self determination to question in a new way the ANC’s insistent nonracialism. Both movements-Black Power and Black Consciousness-sought to encourage what Jean-Paul Sartre has called an “anti-racist racism”; they accepted the racial identity constructed for them by white oppressors and turned it against its creators by using it as a basis of solidarity and struggle against white domination.
Dividing Reality
Authors: Hirsch Eli
Published: November 2023

Why does our language divide up reality one way rather than another? On what rational basis does our language contain certain kinds of general words rather than others? Hirsch shows that a language can be constructed which describes reality in ways we would find absurdly irrational, for example by classifying normally disparate items under the same general term. The apparent irrationality of the new language does not depend on its impoverished fact-stating power, as this may be equivalent to the fact-stating power of ordinary language; the problem then is to explain exactly what is wrong with it. Various options are explored and criticized, such as the hypothesis that language must reflect an underlying objective distinction between `natural’ kinds; that there are pragmatic reasons for the way language functions as it does; and that, as a matter of `metaphysical necessity,’ strange ways of dividing up reality are constructions out of ordinary ways. Having demonstrated that this newly identified problem is in fact a serious one which cannot be easily solved or brushed aside, Hirsch offers his own suggestions for a possible solution.
Projectibility and Strange Languages
Authors: Hirsch Eli
Published: November 2023

Goodman’s problem of projectibility is to explain why it is rational to project ordinary terms such as “green” and “circular” rather than strange terms such as “green” and “circular.”1 Let us imagine that we have a solution to Goodman’s problem (his own proposed solution is based on the relative degrees of “entrenchment” of ordinary terms and strange terms). We still do not have an obvious solution to the division problem. If it is rational to project “green” but not “green or circular,” then it seems to follow that it is rational to project “circular and circular circular,” which is equivalent to “green,” but not “ circular,” which is equivalent to “green or circular.” I am appealing here to the widely accepted evidential equivalence principle, which says that if p is equivalent to p’ and q is equivalent to q’, then if p is good evidence for q, p’ is good evidence for q’. This principle seems unassailable in general, and any exceptions to it do not seem likely to be related to the sort of examples.
The Pragmatic Response
Authors: Hirsch Eli
Published: November 2023

Extreme relativism was defined in section 1.5 as the view that the strange languages are as reasonable and good as ordinary languages, even for people in essentially our life situation. It should now be clear that this view with respect to the division problem need not imply any form of relativism with respect to various other issues of metaphysics or epistemology. An extreme relativist may be a staunch metaphysical inegalitarian, and may also regard the projectibility of terms as a function of how they relate to objectively natural properties and things. One is an extreme relativist in the intended sense only because one rejects any division principle. I will sometimes use “extreme division relativist” to empha-size this point.
The Fight Against AIDS: Biomedical Strategies and HIV’s Evolutionary Responses
Authors: Ewald Paul W
Published: November 2023

In the last chapter I proposed that behavioral changes may alter the evolution of HIV’s virulence. The practical significance of this proposition depends on the success of nonevolutionary strategies for treating the disease and control its spread. If these more conventional options were to prove completely successful in controlling and eradicating AIDS, the evolutionary control of HIV would be of theoretical rather than practical importance. What is the outlook for these options? Because viruses complete their life cycles by becoming integrated with the cellular machinery, they are notoriously difficult to control by drugs that block viral activity. If a drug blocks some critical function of the virus, it also may be blocking some critical function of our cells. The general approach of HIV researchers therefore has been to identify steps in viral invasion and reproduction that are uniquely viral.
Arrival at the Arctic Coast
Authors: Mackenzie Alexander
Published: November 2023

Beginning at Fort Chepewyan, this industrious young Scotsman made his way to the Great Slave Lake in what is today the Canadian Northwest Territories, and then traveled down the river that now bears his name to the Arctic Coast. In July 1789, as France exploded in violent revolution, Alexander Mackenzie was making a different sort of history at the furthest reaches of the known world. In this passage Mackenzie de scribes his arrival near the outlet of the river on what is today called Mackenzie Bay. Of equivalent importance historically was his arrival on June 22, 1793, at the Pacific Ocean, a feat that fulfilled his youthful dream of being the first person to cross the North American continent.
St. Lawrence Island
Authors: Kotzebue Otto Von
Published: November 2023

Otto Von Kotzebue (1787-1846) accompanied Admiral A. J. Von Krusenstern on his circumnavigation of the world in 1803-1806, and subsequently commanded two other voyages around the world in 1815-1817 and 1823-1826. It was on his second voyage that he explored the northwestern coast of Alaska in 1816 in an unsuccessful attempt to find the “Holy Grail” of arctic exploration-the northwest passage. He named Kotzebue Sound for himself, a large bay 35 miles wide by BO miles long north of the Seward Peninsula in extreme northwestern Alaska.
Nulato, a Settlement on the Yukon
Authors: Zagoskin L A
Published: November 2023

Lieutenant L. A. Zagoskin (1808-1890) was sent by the Russian government to explore the western coast and interior of Alaska from 1842-1844. The expedition rep resented a significant investment for the Russians-total cost for the two-year, four-month period was over 6,000 rubles-but the benefits were substantial as Zagoskin explored both the Kvihpak (Yukon) and Kuskokwim drainages. Nulato, described in this selection, was and still is a small native community on the Yukon River downstream from the confluence with the Koyukuk River, a major river that drains south from the interior Brooks Range. Zagoskin notes that both the black and grizzly bear are found in the region, that “there are not many wolves here,” and that the Nulato River is rich with otters and has good numbers of beavers.
Letter to Sir John Richardson
Authors: Murray Alexander Hunter
Published: November 2023

Alexander Hunter Murray (1818-1874) was born in Kilmun, Scotland, in 1818. Like so many Scotsmen of his generation, he emigrated to the United States, shortly finding work with the American Fur Company. He traveled widely as their representative in Louisiana, Texas, and Belize. In 1846 Murray left the American Fur Company and went to work for the Hudson’s Bay Company as a senior clerk, Mackenzie River District. In 1847 Murray made a permanent place for himself in Arctic history by founding Fort Yukon near the confluence of the Porcupine River and the Yukon River. This fort enabled the British to control the fur trade of interior Alaska and the Yukon, even in an area considered then to be under the jurisdiction of the Russians. Murray retired from the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1867 and spent the last seven years of his life in a cottage on the Red River in Canada.
On Crossing the Alaska Range
Authors: Allen Henry T
Published: November 2023

Lieutenant Henry Tureman Allen (1859-1930) led one of the last official U. S. Army expeditions of note in Alaska, exploring the Copper River north over the Alaska Range into the Tanana River drainage. The Pulitzer-Prize winning historian William Goetzmann has called Allen’s report “a classic in the literature of Alaskan exploration” and a “model example of the old-style all-purpose reconnaisance.”1 In this passage from the Report of an Expedition to the Copper, Tanana, and Koyukuk Rivers in the Territory of Alaska, in the Year 1885 (Washington) Henry Allen de scribes the exciting moment when the expedition accomplished what had never been done before the crossing of the divide between the Copper and the Tanana River: “From this [location] the most grateful sight it has ever been my fortune to witness was presented.”
The Gustavus Peninsula
Authors: Burroughs John
Published: November 2023

In 1899 Union Pacific magnate Edward Harriman asked John Burroughs (1837-1921), John Muir, George Bird Grinnel, Edward Curtis, William Healy Dall, and dozens of other luminaries to join him on an extended oceanic exploration of Alaska. Burroughs, well known as a naturalist of the Catskill Mountains and the Hudson River Valley of New York, agreed to go on what was to be the last of the great nineteenth-century ocean adventures, a scientific voyage roughly comparable to the modern cruises of Jacques Cousteau aboard the Calypso.
The Ascent of Denali (Mount McKinley)
Authors: Stuck Hudson
Published: November 2023

It was Hudson Stuck ( 1863-1920), the archdeacon of theEpiscopal Church in Alaska, who led the first successfulassault on the south peak of Mount McKinley (20,320’)on June 17, 1913. With Stuck on that day were Harry Karstens lCharlesSheldon’s old hunting partner and future superintendent of MountMcKinley National Park), Walter Harper (the half-Athabascan son of Arthur Harper who was in 1873 the first white man to describe themountain from the interior), and Robert Tatum.
The Kuskokwim River
Authors: Lamb May Wynne
Published: November 2023

In 1916, May Wynne (1899-1975), a young woman from rural Kansas, arrived in Akiak, a small Eskimo village on the Kuskokwim River of southeastern Alaska, to teach at a government school established for the residents. She re mained in Akiak for three years, eventually marrying Frank Lamb, a physician assigned to build a hospital there. A year after their marriage, Dr. Lamb died while making his rounds in the bush. May subsequently left for the Lower 48 and never returned to Alaska.
Eskimo Poems
Authors: Rasmussen Knud
Published: November 2023

The Danish ethnographer Knud Rasmussen (1879-1935) led the Fifth Thule Expedition across northern Canada from Baffin Island to Alaska during the years 1921-1924. This expedition constituted the first traverse of the North west Passage by dog sled. Along the way, Rasmussen made detailed ethnological and archaeological studies of the Inuit, a research project that eventually produced a monumental ten-volume work totalling over 5,000 pages. Rasmussen was interested in all cultural aspects of the Eskimo as they are found in the circumpolar north. Toward this end, he gathered and translated Eskimo folk tales, oral narratives, religious myths, songs; and poems. These poems are found scattered through the many volumes of his study, a few volumes of which were published posthumously.
The Old Crow
Authors: Murie Margaret
Published: November 2023

Margaret Murie (1902-) has been, and continues to ‘ be, one of the most influential conservationists of the century. Born in Seattle, she moved to Fairbanks, Alaska-then a frontier town-at the age of nine when her father was appointed Assistant U. S. Attorney for the region. She later became the first woman graduate at the University of Alaska and married Olaus Murie (1889-1962) two months after graduation.
Here I Am Yet!
Authors: Jack Johnny Taku
Published: November 2023

In this selection a Tlingit Indian recalls a lifetime of working in the outdoors in the southern Yukon and northern British Columbia. Born near Atlin, British Columbia, in April 1903, Johnny Taku Jack worked as “railway section foreman, steamboat officer, big game hunter’s cook, carpenter, and maintenance supervisor.” Trapping supplemented seasonal summer employment. Trapping is still a mainstay of the northern village economy, but was threatened in 1989 when European Common Market Nations, an important market for raw furs, signed a resolution banning the import of furs taken by leg-hold traps.
Yukon-Charley: The Shape of Wilderness
Authors: Lopez Barry
Published: November 2023

Barry Lopez (1945-) was born in Port Chester, New York, and since the late 1960s has made his home in a small town in Oregon. His works, which include Of Wolves and Men (Scribner’s, 1975) and Arctic Dreams (Scribner’s, 1986) have won numerous honors, including an Award in Literature from the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters, the American Book Award, and the John Burroughs Medal. This selection, part of an essay that first appeared in Wilderness magazine in 1982, narrates a trip the author and a companion made down the Yukon River in east-central Alaska.
Cape Prince of Wales. Alaska: A Suite
Authors: Morgan John
Published: November 2023

John Morgan (1943-) studied poetry at Harvard J under the Pulitzer-Prize winning poet Robert Lowell and was awarded the Roger Conant Hatch Prize for lyric poetry. He has received the Academy of American Poets’ Prize at the Iowa Writers’ Workshop and has won the Discovery Award of the New York Poetry Center. His books of poetry include The Bone-Duster (Quarterly Review of Literature, 1980), The Arctic Herd (University of Alabama Press, 1984) and Walking Past Midnight (University of Alabama Press, 1989). He has taught at the University of Alaska since 1976.
This Tangled Brilliance
Authors: Wallace David Rains
Published: November 2023

The author of eight works of natural history and one of fiction, David Rains Wallace (1945-) has, in the words of author John Muste, established himself “firmly in the front rank of naturalist writers.” Twice the winner of the Common wealth Club of California’s Silver Medal for Literature, Wallace also holds the John Burroughs Medal for Nature Writing, awarded for The Klamath Knot (Sierra Club, 1983). Wallace was born in Virginia and educated at Wesleyan University and Mills College. His articles and essays have appeared regularly in Sierra, Wilderness, The New York Times Book Review, and other national periodicals.
The Cormorant Hunters
Authors: Ellana Frank
Published: November 2023

In this selection Frank Ellana (1904-), a King Island Eskimo, tells of a different kind of wilderness-the wild reaches of the human heart-in a tale of infidelity and murder that could have been taken from Greek mythology of drama, so intensely tragic is it.
Ragged Ear of Sable Pass
Authors: Murray John A
Published: November 2023

It was my great pleasure to be able to spend a portion of the summer of 1989 photographing and videotaping grizzly bears in Denali National Park. This essay, a

chapter from a work in progress on Denali National Park, relates my experiences with Ragged Ear, a twelve-year-old female grizzly bear whose home range is centered on Sable Pass. Her story-gleaned from the field notebooks in which I recorded daily observations-tells much about the difficulties the bears face as they try to survive and reproduce in interior Alaska, about some of the surprising truths that contradict the myths that have accreted around the species, and also about the value of our national parks, sanctuaries where animals such as the grizzly bear have been given the same rights to exist as people-a remarkable change, considering all that has come before, and one rich in hope for the future of civilization and of nature.
Pathways to Chicago
Authors: Fitzpatrick Ellen
Published: November 2023

When the University of Chicago opened its doors in 1892, a lively assortment of students enrolled for graduate study. It was an exciting moment. The promise of the research university stirred members of a new generation. Per haps no one among the early group felt the drama more than the young women in attendance. Recent beneficiaries of one revolution in women’s higher education, Chicago’s female students quickly took part in another. Leaving behind the women’s colleges and state universities that had fostered their intellectual growth, they set out for Chicago to pursue advanced study.
“If Sex Could Be Eliminated”
Authors: Fitzpatrick Ellen
Published: November 2023

Public service, private philanthropy, and hard-nosed politics shaped the des tiny of many reformers who hoped to change American society in the early twentieth century. Few had a keener sense of this reality than Frances Kellor. From the moment she left graduate school in Chicago and settled down in New York, Kellor began to build a career around a series of causes. Her experience underscores the tremendous challenges faced by activists in the era that preceded the welfare state.
Johannes Brahms
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

The first signs of the Symphony No. 1 date from 1862 in the form of a sketch for the main theme of the first movement copied by Clara Schumann in a letter to the violinist, conductor, and composer Joseph Joachim. Another sketch survives from 1868. Brahms does not seem to have begun to put the entire work together in earnest until about 1874; he finished it in the summer of 1876 at the resort of Sassnitz in the North German Baltic islands. Otto Dessoff conducted the premiere at Karlsruhe, Baden, on 4 November 1876. Numerous performances that season led to further revisions, particularly in the second and third movements, before the score finally appeared in print in 1877.
Edward Elger
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

Whose is the voice that speaks in these symphonies? Reviewing Michael Kennedy ‘s Portrait of Elgar, David Cairns sketches a hypersensitive, touchy, moody, at times almost suicidally unhappy genius with small, nervous hands: an English eccentric who loved fishing, Bradshaw,1 dogs, recondite information, and bonfires, who practised chemistry and patented the Elgar Sulphuretted Hydrogen Apparatus, and who nursed within him a wound that never healed.
Charles Ives
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

It is, on the face of it, absurd that I, born fifty-four years after Charles Ives, should have been able to attend the premieres of three of his four symphonies-not in utero or as a babe in arms, but as a grown man. The facts are these: Lou Harrison ‘s performance of the Symphony No. 3 with the New York Little Symphony at the Carnegie Chamber Music Hall (now Weill Recital Hall) on 5 April 1946 was the first complete performance of any symphony by Ives; Leonard Bernstein conducted the New York Philharmonic-Symphony in the first performance of the Symphony No. 2 on George Washington ‘s Birthday in 1951; and Leopold Stokowski introduced the Symphony No. 4 in April 1965, nearly eleven years after lves ‘s death. As for the Symphony No. 1, written in 1897-98, Walter Damrosch rehearsed three movements of it with the New York Symphony in 1910 but pronounced it unsuitable for public performance. It was not heard in concert until November 1965, when the Chicago Symphony played it under Morton Gould.
Sergei Rachmaninoff
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

Rachmaninoff is one of those composers whose popularity rests upon an excessively small and unrepresentative group of works. (Handel and Dvorak are two others who come immediately to mind.) We know the symphonist and even the writer of solo piano music and songs too little, the composer of church music and opera almost not at all.
Franz Schubert
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

Cautiously, one can hope that the commemorative concerts, publications, and scholarly conferences called into being in 1978 by the 150th anniversary of Schubert ‘s death began an overdue re-evaluation of his work and stature as an artist. But we still read sometimes that he was something of an amateur as a composer, albeit an inspired one, and there are still writers who portray him as the most seductive of charmers but deny him greatness.
William Schuman
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

Virgil Thomson ‘s book American Music Since 1910 contains a photo taken about 1950 by John Stewart of five composers in Thomson ‘s living-room. The host, seated, is commanding, self-pleased, wearing just a touch of smile, and managing to not quite look at any of his guests. Behind him stands Barber, eyes cast down. He appears distressed. Copland, leaning on the piano, observes him coolly. Menotti, seated to Thomson ‘s left but facing the opposite way, his handsome face open and alert, looks up at Barber, his longtime lover and friend. And off to one side―he might be in a different picture, even in a different room―sits William Schuman.
Igor Stravinsky
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

Stung by the Dadaists ‘ dislike of his most recent novel, Les Caves du Vatican, Andre Gide wrote in his journal for 24 June 1924: “Each of my books turns against those who were enthusiastic for the preceding one. That will teach them to applaud me only for the right reasons and to take each of my books simply for what it is: a work of art. “
William Walton
Authors: Steinberg Michael
Published: November 2023

On 18 October 1931, Walton played what is now the first theme of the slow movement (but in an allegro version) to his friends Hubert and Dora Foss, though at this time he did not yet know that it would find its home in his first symphony. In 1932, work on the symphony began in earnest, but the finale was not completed until 30 August 1935. The first three movements were introduced by the London Symphony on 3 December 1934, and the first performance of the complete work was given by the BBC Symphony on 6 November 1935. The Chicago Symphony gave the American premiere on 23 January 1936. All these performances were conducted by Sir Hamilton Harty. The dedication is to Baroness lmma Doemberg.
Aviation and Rail Transportation
Authors: Baker Susan P , O’Neill Brian , Ginsburg Marvin J , Li Guohua
Published: November 2023

Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of injury deaths, but other forms of transportation are also significant. “Transportation” includes travel for many reasons such as recreation, the context in which the majority of transportation deaths associated with driving, flying, and boating occur. The number of deaths per person mile of travel differs markedly by mode of travel (Table 8-1). Among users of road vehicles there is a 750-fold difference between bus occupants and motorcyclists in deaths per person mile. For air travelers, the death rate in general aviation (private or business aircraft) is more than 250 times the rate in scheduled non commuter airlines. Passengers traveling by bus or train and those on scheduled airlines have the lowest rates.
Drowning
Authors: Baker Susan P , O’Neill Brian , Ginsburg Marvin J , Li Guohua
Published: November 2023

Drowning is the third most common cause of unintentional injury death for all ages and ranks second for ages 5-44. Among Native Americans and Asians, only motor vehicles exceed drownings as a cause of fatal unintentional injury. In 10 states (Alaska, Arizona, California, Florida, Hawaii, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, and Washington), drowning surpasses all other causes of death in children less than 15 years old (Waller et al. 1989). In addition to the 5,000 drownings annually, there are many cases of extreme, permanent disability resulting from near-drowning. It is estimated that for every 10 children who drown, 36 are admitted to hospitals and 140 are treated in emergency rooms (Wintemute 1990).
Brothels, Licit and Illicit
Authors: Karras Ruth Mazo
Published: November 2023

Prostitutes practiced their trade in a wide variety of ways, but perhaps the most prominent, because the most formal and institutionalized, was in the brothel. Brothels could range from private dwellings used on a casual, ad hoc basis to enterprises established by municipal legislation. We know much more about the latter, which were few in number, than the former, which were numerous. The officially sanctioned brothels can tell us a great deal about how the authorities viewed the functions of prostitution. And because these brothels lasted longer than the more casual ones, the records that refer to them provide information about the actual practice of brothel prostitution. Institutionalized brothels were more the rule elsewhere in Europe than in England, but those places in England that established them followed some of the same patterns and used the brothels to make prostitutes available to men in a controlled and orderly manner.A number of towns in Continental Europe-in France, Germany, Italy, and Spain-had municipally owned or licensed brothels during the medieval and early modern periods. The official rationale for the establishment and regulation of brothels accorded with church doctrine in treating prostitutes as degraded and defiled but tolerating their activity because of masculine demand.
The Sex Trade in Practice
Authors: Karras Ruth Mazo
Published: November 2023

In many ways prostitution resembled other urban trades. The term covered a wide array of workplaces and a variety of ways of organizing that work. A prostitute’s working situation could range from the level of the streetwalker to that of the courtesan, and determined her freedom of choice in entering and leaving the trade, her prosperity, and her relation to the community. Some prostitutes operated out of their homes; others had their place of business separate from their residence. Some worked in brothels, whether officially sanctioned or a good deal more casual. Some catered especially to wealthy foreign merchants, others to servants and apprentices. Some prostitutes had to share their remuneration with pimps, procurers, brothel keepers, and go-betweens; others remained more independent, while yet others procured for one another or, if they remained in the trade long enough, became brothel keepers themselves.
The Electoral Campaigns
Authors: Roshwald Aviel
Published: November 2023

The shift of attention to North African affairs brought about a change of actors on the Levant stage that was to leave its mark on the political evolution of the region during 1943. Free French politics during this period were dominated by the rivalry between General de Gaulle and General Giraud, whom the Americdns and British had placed in charge of the civil administration in liberated French North Africa. After his trip to London in November 1942, Catroux joined de Gaulle on his visit to Washington in January and from then on most of his time was spent away from the Levant, dealing with the negotiation of a power-sharing agreement between de Gaulle and Giraud.
On Culture’s Edge
Authors: Barth Gunther
Published: November 2023

“ The Reflection of the Sun on the ... mist ... from these falls” made a rainbow, which enhanced “the beauty of this majestically grand scenery,” Captain Meriwether Lewis noted in his journal on June 13, 1805. Almost immediately the description bothered Lewis, one of the leaders of the first major exploring expedition sponsored by the United States government. “I ... was so much disgusted with the imperfect idea which it conveyed of the scene that I determined to ... begin agin. ‘“
Agriculture, Civilization, And American Indian Policy
Authors: Lewis David Rich
Published: November 2023

A consistent theme in United States Indian policy has been the attempt to civilize and assimilate Native Americans along agrarian lines. The federal government, religious organizations, and interested “friends of the Indians” saw settled western-style agriculture as the most appropriate means of making the Indian over again in their own image. They believed that the only way to save Indians from certain extinction, to incorporate them, to ensure their self-sufficiency and right to the land was to transform them into individualistic yeoman farmers and farm families, the backbone of American democracy. This belief, based in American agrarian idealism and the social-scientific view of unilinear social evolution, persisted into the twentieth century, influencing each major policy trend. Yet the success of agrarian-based policy directives rarely matched the desires or rhetoric of policy makers who refused to consider seriously the land and peoples they were so confident they could remake.
Agriculture And The Northern Utes
Authors: Lewis David Rich
Published: November 2023

In 1847, the first wave of Mormon settlers entered Ute territory and began to build their Kingdom of God on earth-a kingdom that did not include the native residents of Utah. Utes were slowly removed from the best lands and subjected to a series of policies designed to transform them into settled and self-sufficient agrarians. Reservation farming and ranching represented a fundamental change in their social and subsistence organization. Utes responded on both individual and group levels to this cultural assault, selectively adopting, adapting, and reproducing Ute ways within an ever-changing environment. Ultimately Ute resistance, both passive and active, and the economic and physical realities of agriculture in a tenuous environment left them economically dependent and incorporated on the periphery of American society.
Farming And The Changing Harvest Economy In Hoopa Valley
Authors: Lewis David Rich
Published: November 2023

The California gold rush of 1849 brought an increasing number of foreigners into the foothills and mountains of northern California-a relatively abundant environment supporting concentrated native populations like the Hupa Indians. Ultimately epidemic disease, subsistence displacement, and intentional genocide decimated California Indian populations. Whole groups disappeared, not simply or cleanly, but ever so quickly. The Hupa themselves managed to avoid the worst of that early contact and eventually obtained their beautiful mountain valley as a reservation. American plans to transform the people into subsistence and, ultimately, market agriculturalists went forward much as they did elsewhere, but while the abundance of their natural environment remained the Hupa people did little to cooperate with their “transformation.” Over time and given their cultural predisposition to fixed habitations, a traditional “harvest” economy, private usufruct property rights, and an acquisitive nature, Hupas adopted the outward practices and methods of settled agriculture. They desired and accepted allotment, livestock, and agricultural implements. But in the end the environmental parameters of their valley limited this socioeconomic transformation, forcing them to look elsewhere for sources of economic development.
Tohono O’Odham, The Desert People
Authors: Lewis David Rich
Published: November 2023

When Jesuit missionaries made their entradas into the Pimeria Alta of northern New Spain, they encountered a semi-nomadic desert people. Their riverine Piman neighbors called them pavi au’autam, the “bean eating people,” which Euro-Americans transformed into “Papabotas,” or Papagos. The people called themselves Tohono O’odham, the “Desert” or “Country” or “Thirsty People” to distinguish themselves from their cultural relatives, the ‘Akimel O’odham, “River People,” or Pimas. The O’odham are members of the Piman language family of the Sonoran di vision of the Uta-Aztecan language stock. They inhabited an area in southern Arizona and northern Sonora, Mexico bounded by the Gila River on the north, the Santa Cruz and San Pedro rivers on the east, the Colorado River and Gulf of California on the west, and the Magdalena and Altar rivers on the south. Today the majority of the approximately 16,000 Tohono O’odham live on one of three reservations in southern Arizona-the Papago (Sells), Gila Bend, and San Xavier reservations incorporating 4,460 square miles (2,855,802 acres) called the American Papagueria.1 The Tohono O’odham have an elaborate origin cycle, told over fournights during the winter solstice, that explains the creation of the world and the appearance of the O’odham. In the beginning, Earth Maker made the world from the dirt and sweat on his skin. Darkness lay upon the water and they rubbed, producing I’itoi, the Papago’s Elder Brother and culture hero. I’itoi, Earth Maker, and Coyote (Ban, the trickster, who came to life uncreated) finished the world, creating plants and animals and giving each a place and function. I’itoi and Earth Maker created people, but the tears from an abandoned baby flooded the world.
Fertility Enhancement and the Right to Have a Baby
Authors: Mahowald Mary Briody
Published: November 2023

Discussions of reproductive issues are replete with references to rights: rights of women, men, children, fetuses or embryos, and rights of others in society. The “right to have a baby” is often invoked as grounds for providing women or couples with technical or social means of fertility enhancement or assisted reproduction. In this chapter, therefore, I begin with an examination of the concept of rights in order to set the context for addressing issues that arise with regard to artificial insemination, egg donor programs, and surrogate gestation.
Coercive Treatment After Fetal Viability
Authors: Mahowald Mary Briody
Published: November 2023

Although the United States Supreme Court has affirmed the right of women to terminate pregnancy, the choices of women who decide against abortion have increasingly been subject to social pressures and legal restrictions. Examples of possible pressures or restrictions include signs in bars advising pregnant women against alcohol consumption; special warnings against drugs and smoking; exclusion from certain occupations; and standard medical advice regarding diet, sexual intercourse, bed rest, hospitalization, and method of delivery. Probably the most coercive among these interferences is what George Annas calls the “most unkindest cut of all”: court ordered cesarean sections.2
The Feminization of Poverty: Its Impact on Women’s and Children s Health
Authors: Mahowald Mary Briody
Published: November 2023

While poverty clearly leads to poorer health and poorer quality health care for men as well as women, its impact on women and children is more significant both qualitatively and quantitatively. Women seek treatment more often than men and are generally more needful of health services for themselves and their children. The “feminization of poverty” has led to poorer health care for women and children alike. In this chapter, I examine how and why this is so, using crack use and AIDS as examples in this regard. To redress the imbalance of poverty’s effects on women and children, as well as the inequality that confronts both men and women because of racism, classism, and other forms of prejudice, a systematic change is necessary. Another form of social prejudice, ageism, also leads to poverty and poor health. In addressing the apparent conflict between health needs of the elderly and children, I argue for more equitable distribution with respect to life span.
The “Family” and Health Care
Authors: Mahowald Mary Briody
Published: November 2023

Clinicians of various stripes tend to describe their practices as imbedded in a family context. Social workers, for example, often define their role as family advocates; their efforts to assist individuals necessarily take account of family influences and supports. Similarly, pediatric nurses and pediatricians sometimes pay more attention to parents than to their patients, because they recognize that children’s health is more affected by their home life than by clinical interventions. As one pediatric oncologist put it, “I’d be irresponsible if I did not regard each child’s family as my patient.” While specializations within modem medicine focus more on individuals than on families, a renewed appreciation of the family is evident in the development of “family medicine” as a specialty. Not only is family recognized as an important influence on health, but the health of each family member and the family as a whole is viewed as the responsibility of “the family doctor.”
The Compleat Conductor
Authors: Schuller Gunther
Published: November 2023

Gunther Schuller is one of America’s leading contemporary composers, conductors, and musicologists. He has become increasingly dismayed about the way contemporary orchestra leaders have been ignoring the composer’s intentions in playing the basic concert repertory from the mid-nineteenth century to the present. In this controversial new book, Schuller puts forth his own principles of conducting, and then analyses in detail several classical masterpieces, comparing the composers’ original notation to the way conductors interpret them. Showing ways in which current orchestra and conducting standards can be radically improved, this book is an indictment of contemporary musical trends and an incisive study of the dialogue between composition and performance.
A History of Conducting
Authors: Schuller Gunther
Published: November 2023

It is instructive and fascinating to study the various treatises, pamphlets, articles, books, and writings on conducting that have appeared through the years since Johann Mattheson published his Der Volkommene Capellmeister in 1739, a time when the art of conducting was still in its relative infancy. What is fascinating is how perspectives on conducting shifted over the years and with various authors-like Weber, Berlioz, Wagner, Strauss, Weingartner, Furtwangler, Scherchen, Walter, and most recently Max Rudolf, Frederick Prausnitz, and Kyrill Kondraschin—but also how certain fundamentals of the art of conducting have been perceived as constant and inviolate.

Mattheson (1681-1764) did not take the title of his book (The Complete Capellmeister, with emphasis on the word “complete”) lightly. Indeed the title page announces that the book will “give thorough notice of all those things which he who would preside over an orchestra with honor and efficiency must know and must know completely.” Mattheson characterized the conductor of his time-at least the ideal conductor-as a broadly educated artist, who was as knowledgeable in literature, poetry, painting, philosophy, and languages as in the various realms of music: harmony, counterpoint, orchestration, composition, and the art of singing.
Beethoven: Seventh Symphony
Authors: Schuller Gunther
Published: November 2023

It is debatable whether Beethoven’s magnificent Seventh Symphony has fared better or worse in the hands of most conductors than his Fifth Symphony. It is perhaps in some respects a less vulnerable work; in the sense that it is for the most part less rigorously constructed than the Fifth (especially in the first and third movements) and therefore allows for slightly more interpretational maneuverability-it is also less vulnerable to damage. Somehow the apparently more spontaneous, more intuitively realized rhythmic characteristics of the Seventh Symphony have led most interpreters to rein in their interpretive ambitions. Rhythm is, after all, the most powerful, most compelling, and at the same time the most readily understandable feature of a musical work. It speaks more directly to the musician-and, of course, the listener-than do, say, harmony, instrumental timbre, or even melody (some of the other tools of the composer). And if Wagner’s almost universally accepted characterization of the Seventh Symphony, especially its last movement, as the “Apotheosis of the Dance,’’ is not particularly useful conductorial-interpretive advice-it strikes me as rather non-specific-it has in general caused attention to be focused on the rhythmic/ metric aspects of the work, its elemental and linear drive, and has in turn discouraged the kind of tempo divagations so routinely visited upon the Fifth Symphony.
Brahms: First Symphony
Authors: Schuller Gunther
Published: November 2023

If Beethoven and the best composers of his time were remarkably precise and careful in the notation of their musical creations, Brahms was even more explicit, more detailed and exacting, if only for the reason that musical notation in general by the second half of the 19th century had become more explicit, more refined and sophisticated. This was inevitable as the increasingly complex demands of music required additional notational devices and terminology. Also, composers by and large had for some time felt the need to protect themselves against the vagaries and indulgences of their interpreters, and had invented notational techniques with which they expected to achieve that goal.

Brahms was not only a meticulous worker, constantly self-critical and self examining, but also at heart a strict classicist. For all the new complexity and modernity of his musical language, especially in his symphonies, Brahms’s music develops from the classical lineage and indeed more often than not adheres to a basically classical conception-precise, succinct, clear in form and continuity. The fact that we don’t often hear Brahms played that way is unfortunate and is, of course, not Brahms’s fault. The opinion held in many quarters that Brahms’s music is heavy and turgid, rather square, and even ‘academic,’ exists primarily because most performances of his music are ‘heavy’ and ‘turgid,’ emotionally overladen, indulgent in Romantic exaggerations and distortions which do severe damage to the music.