bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
O'Toole, Michael
Authors: O'Halloran Kay L.
Published: December 2012

Michael O'Toole, also known as Lawrence M. O'Toole (1934– ), Emeritus Professor of communication studies at Murdoch University, Western Australia, has a long and distinguished career in applied linguistics, including the development of pioneering approaches to language studies and multimodal semiotic analysis, culminating in his highly influential systemic functional (SF) approach to displayed art, which has provided a foundation for contemporary multimodal research.
Output‐Based Instructional Approaches
Authors: Toth Paul D.
Published: December 2012

The ability to express oneself in a second language (L2), or make spoken or written
output
, is among the most desired outcomes for L2 instruction.
Paltridge, Brian
Authors: Wang Wei
Published: December 2012

Brian Paltridge's contributions to applied linguistics research are in the area of genre analysis and its application in language teaching and learning, and research in the area of academic writing, especially thesis and dissertation writing. He has contributed to the field both as an innovative and influential scholar, and as an educator whose teaching and mentoring have made an important mark on his students and on the field.
Phonetics and Phonology: Overview
Authors: Levis John , Munro Murray J.
Published: December 2012

Although
phonetics
and
phonology
both concern the study of speech, linguists have traditionally considered these as different areas of study.
Phonological Acquisition
Authors: Abrahamsson Niclas
Published: December 2012

Within only a few years, children master the grammatical and phonological elements, rules and structures of their first language (L1).
Positivism and Postpositivism
Authors: Weideman Albert
Published: December 2012

Positivist and postpositivist influences in applied linguistics are discernible both directly and obliquely, as has been the case in other fields. Those influences provide evidence of how closely applied linguistic concept formation relates to developments in scientific thinking in general, as well as to specific discussions in the philosophy of science.
Poststructuralism
Authors: Norton Bonny , Morgan Brian
Published: December 2012

Our interest in poststructuralism in applied linguistics arises from our work as language teachers and researchers, and our mutual desire to promote a productive relationship between social theory and classroom practice.
Practice in Second Language Instruction
Authors: Dekeyser Robert , Criado Raquel
Published: December 2012

The belief that practice is needed in order to achieve mastery in different skills (driving a car, playing the piano, sewing, cooking, etc.) is shared by laypeople and specialists alike.
Pragmatic Markers
Authors: Romero‐Trillo Jesús
Published: December 2012

Pragmatic markers can be described as those constructions, such asyou know,I mean,you see,well,yeah, that are present in speech to support interaction but do not generally add any specific semantic meaning to the message.
Pragmatic Routines
Authors: Bardovi‐Harlig Kathleen
Published: December 2012

Have you ever noticed that there are certain times in certain situations where almost everyone says the same thing? Listen to people leaving a party and you may hear them saying to the host, “Thanks for inviting me” or “Thanks for having me.”
Pragmatics in Learner Corpora
Authors: Vyatkina Nina
Published: December 2012

Pragmatics has been broadly defined as the study of how people behave as social actors using language to accomplish specific communicative goals.
Pragmatics in the Analysis of Discourse and Interaction
Authors: Weisser Martin
Published: December 2012

Pragmatics, as a linguistic discipline, broadly deals with the analysis and recognition ofmeaningin texts.
Pragmatics of Asynchronous Computer‐Mediated Communication
Authors: Kitade Keiko
Published: December 2012

Computer‐mediated communication (CMC) refers to any communication that occurs when human beings interact with one another through messages exchanged via networked computers.
Pragmatics of Chat
Authors: Blyth Carl S.
Published: December 2012

The term “chat,” when used in association with computer‐mediated communication, refers to synchronous computer‐mediated discourse (SCMD) that takes the form of either private interaction (e.g., one‐on‐one communication via instant messaging) or public interaction (e.g., group communication in a chatroom).
Pragmatics Research Methods
Authors: Golato Andrea , Golato Peter
Published: December 2012

As the entries in this encyclopedia demonstrate, there are a number of theoretical approaches to the study of pragmatics, or language use. And similarly, there are a number of different research methods, that is, data collection techniques and subsequent data analysis procedures.
Prompted Production
Authors: Rebuschat Patrick , Mackey Alison
Published: December 2012

Prompted production refers to language use that occurs in tasks which encourage, or “prompt,” participants to produce particular linguistic structures. Prompted production tasks are widely used in language research (including child language development, second language research, psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics) and represent a convenient way of collecting linguistic data. In contrast to naturalistic data collection procedures (e.g., classroom observations, diary studies), prompted production tasks are generally designed to elicit particular language structures (for example, English plural ‐
s
), which greatly facilitates the data collection process. In this entry, we describe four of the most common prompted production procedures, from the more structured to the less structured: elicited imitation, interactive tasks, narratives, and role plays.
Pronunciation Instruction
Authors: Derwing Tracey M.
Published: December 2012

Pronunciation instruction has been around for as long as people have been learning languages other than their mother tongues. The fact that much of the research in this area has focused on English is partly due to its status as a global language.
Psycholinguistic Studies of Literacy
Authors: Peshkam Annie , Rapp David N.
Published: December 2012

Literacy can be defined as the sets of skills or abilities that operate in the service of comprehension for information we read or hear or see. This includes moment‐by‐moment understanding of that information, as well as the potential application of any knowledge acquired from that information in future settings. Studies of literacy have often focused on the types of activities that are necessary to ensure successful reading experiences. These have included case studies of classroom behavior, investigations of teacher practices, analyses of the processes that underlie visual encoding of letter stimuli, and interventions designed to remediate struggling readers' difficulties (to name a few areas of interest). In line with the simple view of reading, as offered by Gough and Tunmer (1986) and Hoover and Gough (1990), many of these projects have focused on two core sets of reading activities—basic‐level processes that underlie the types of pattern recognition activities necessary to decode and identify words and sounds, and higher‐order processes that are necessary to extract meaning from words and sentences. Additionally, these projects might be broadly categorized as investigating two aspects of reading experiences: (a) the study of the
learning
products
that result from reading, as measured by tests of reader comprehension and memory
after reading is completed
; and (b) investigations of the internal
mental
processes
that individuals engage in
as they read a text
.
Qualitative Methods: Overview
Authors: Benson Phil
Published: December 2012

Discussions of qualitative research usually begin by contrasting qualitative with quantitative approaches. Quantitative research may best be defined as research that relies on the reduction of data to numbers and statistical argument, and typically aims to produce knowledge that holds true of relatively large populations. In applied linguistics, quantitative approaches are often underpinned by theoretical assumptions about universal language learning processes and the influence of contextual factors such as gender, culture, and sociopsychological differences. Qualitative research in applied linguistics takes many forms and may best be defined as research that relies mainly on the reduction of data to words (codes, labels, categorization systems, narratives, etc.) and interpretative argument. In applied linguistics, qualitative research is also associated with a focus on the individual and the particular in regard to “cases” as subject matter, the visibility of the researcher and the specificity of findings. Whereas quantitative research findings are, in principle, unrelated to the identity of the researcher, qualitative findings are always contingent upon particular processes of data collection, analysis, and interpretation carried out by particular individuals in particular settings.
Qualitative Research on Bilingualism and Multilingualism
Authors: García Ofelia
Published: December 2012

In the 21st century, the study of bilingualism and multilingualism has come to the forefront.
Quantitative Methods
Authors: Farhady Hossein
Published: December 2012

There has been a plethora of ongoing debates in the field of applied linguistics on many aspects of quantitative research method (QRM) in the last few decades.
Quebec Charter of the French Language and Canadian Language Policy
Authors: Vaillancourt François
Published: December 2012

The language policy of Quebec differs from those of other Canadian provinces and of the federal government since it is aimed at protecting and enhancing the use of the Francophone majority languages within its territory, while the other policies are aimed at helping the territorial minorities (Francophone outside Quebec, Anglophone within for the federal policy) preserve their language, mainly through transmission to their children by minority‐language education.
Race
Authors: Gordon Lewis R.
Published: December 2012

This entry focuses on race as discourse and its relation to culture, which, too, is discourse driven.
Realism
Authors: Sealey Alison
Published: December 2012

“Realism” is a term with a range of meanings in a number of academic disciplines. It is not a research method but a philosophical orientation, and even within philosophy “the word ‘realism’ is used in a bewildering variety of senses”
Research Methods and World Englishes
Authors: Berns Margie
Published: December 2012

World Englishes (WE) is a multidisciplinary field, and as such involves a wide variety of research traditions. The approaches to inquiry adopted and the methodologies and techniques selected for gathering, analyzing, and interpreting data and information are as varied as the disciplines within which studies on the Englishes of the world are conducted. For example, social science‐based investigations usually adopt qualitative and quantitative methodologies. More language‐based projects may draw on descriptive and historical methods of information‐gathering and analysis while literary studies may choose from dominant critical theoretical frameworks. Thus, an attempt at cataloging the research methods associated with World Englishes is not a straightforward task.
Rhetorical Discourse Analysis
Authors: Andrus Jennifer
Published: December 2012

Rhetorical discourse analysis (RDA) brings together methods and theories from strands of discourse analysis (DA), classical rhetoric, and rhetorical analysis.
Risager, Karen
Authors: Guilherme Manuela
Published: December 2012

Karen Risager is well known to researchers working in language and culture education and intercultural dialogue across Europe and beyond. She is a Danish scholar, with a global approach to the field, whose work on the relationship between language and culture within the scope of language education (second and foreign language) has inspired and contributed to structure theoretical research and teaching practice in the field all over the world.
Schmidt, Richard
Authors: Leung Janny
Published: December 2012

Richard W. Schmidt (1941– ) is a versatile linguist whose primary research area is in the role of cognitive and affective factors, such as attention, awareness, and motivation, in adult second language acquisition (SLA) and foreign‐language learning.
Searchlinguistics
Authors: Crystal David
Published: December 2012

Searchlinguistics is the application of linguistics to analyze and alleviate the problems that arise when people try to provide or obtain information through online search.
Second Language Pragmatic Development
Authors: Ishida Midori
Published: December 2012

Research on the development of second language (L2) pragmatic competence began as early as the late 1970s and became a systematic area of inquiry within interlanguage pragmatics research from the mid‐1990s.
Segments
Authors: Carlisle Robert S.
Published: December 2012

Oral language is a system of communication that relates sound to meaning.
Skehan, Peter
Authors: Leung Janny
Published: December 2012

Peter Skehan (1944– ) is a British linguist whose main research focus revolves around individual differences (especially language aptitude) and second language acquisition.
Snow, Catherine
Authors: Burns M. Susan , Sherris Arieh
Published: December 2012

Catherine Elizabeth Snow, born December 14, 1945, in Toledo, Ohio, received her BA in psychology in 1966 from Oberlin College in Oberlin, Ohio, and was awarded highest honors, Phi Beta Kappa, for her thesis titled “Effects of Luminance and Contrast on Contour Dependent Color After‐Effects.” In 1967, her thesis “Conjunctive and Disjunctive Thinking in Children” led to an MA in psychology from McGill University in Montreal, Quebec. In 1971 McGill University awarded Snow a PhD in psychology for her thesis “Language Acquisition and Mothers' Speech to Children.”
Social Evaluation of Second Language Speech
Authors: Miller Jennifer
Published: December 2012

In a time of unprecedented mass global movements of people, the number of people who use more than one language to communicate has never been greater.
Sociolinguistic Studies of Literacy
Authors: Baynham Mike
Published: December 2012

The connection between sociolinguistics and literacy studies is not as obvious as it might seem. Introductory textbooks in sociolinguistics tend not to mention literacy in their indexes, while books on literacy do not typically list sociolinguistics in theirs. Sociolinguistics of different sorts has, however, been a significant influence in the development of literacy studies, as this entry will show. To understand how, it is important to distinguish between a number of intellectual strands or traditions within sociolinguistics.
Sociological Approaches to Translation
Authors: Vorderobermeier Gisella M.
Published: December 2012

An initial indication to the potential significance of a future “translation sociology” or “socio‐translation studies” can be dated to a seminal lecture delivered by James S. Holmes in 1972, to which translation studies also owes its name (see Holmes, 1988/1972).
Special Purposes Vocabulary
Authors: Nation Paul , Coxhead Averil
Published: December 2012

An important distinction to guide vocabulary teaching is the division between high‐frequency and low‐frequency words (Nation, 2008).
Speech Acts
Authors: Golato Andrea , Golato Peter
Published: December 2012

Linguists and language philosophers have long since recognized that language is not only used to describe states of affairs and events, but also to do certain things (for instance complaining, praising, etc.).
Speech Analysis Software
Authors: Schmidt Anna Marie
Published: December 2012

Speech analysis software consists of tools that can be used in the second language (L2) classroom, by researchers or by individuals, to explore and measure important characteristics of speech production.
Speech Perception
Authors: Guion‐Anderson Susan
Published: December 2012

It may be safe to assume that most readers have had the experience of listening to a conversation in an unknown foreign language.
Spoken Word Recognition in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Weber Andrea , Broersma Mirjam
Published: December 2012

In order to decode the message of a speaker, listeners have to recognize individual words in the speaker's utterance.
Sarangi, Srikant
Authors: Sissons Helen
Published: December 2012

Srikant Sarangi is professor in language and communication and director of the Health Communication Research Centre at Cardiff University. He is also honorary professor, Faculty of Humanities, Aalborg University (Denmark; 2009–14) and professor in language and communication at Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim (2009–11). His research interests are in discourse analysis and applied linguistics; language and identity in public life and institutional/professional communication studies.
Standard Language Ideology and African American Vernacular English
Authors: Anokye Akua Duku
Published: December 2012

A universal struggle is to find and exert one's own voice and to break the patterns of silence.
Suprasegmentals: Intonation
Authors: Levis John
Published: December 2012

Intonation refers to a combination of acoustic parameters, including duration, intensity, and pitch used to communicate discourse meaning.
Suprasegmentals: Stress
Authors: Hincks Rebecca
Published: December 2012

Stress is a feature of pronunciation in which a syllable is given more emphasis than surrounding syllables.
Teaching Business English
Authors: Zhang Zuocheng
Published: December 2012

Teaching business English is an important growth area in English‐language teaching. It involves understanding three key facets: business, business English, and teaching business English. These aspects will be dealt with in turn below.
Teaching Language‐Learning Strategies
Authors: Rubin Joan
Published: December 2012

Learning strategies, considered inherent to the act of learning, are what students do when trying to learn and address their learning problems.
Teaching Adolescent and Adult Language Learners With Limited or Interrupted Formal Schooling
Authors: Bigelow Martha
Published: December 2012

Worldwide, formal schooling is not available to all individuals for reasons ranging from political and social unrest on a large scale to economic necessity among individuals and families.
Technology and Language: Mixed Methods
Authors: Chen Yu‐Li
Published: December 2012

Using technology for teaching and learning is a current challenge for language teachers, as evidenced by the various studies that have been conducted to understand why and how teachers have incorporated modern technology into their instruction (e.g., Groves & Zemel, 2000; Epper, 2001). This entry offers an overview of the advantages of applying a mixed methods research design to explore the ways language teachers adapt to current rapid technological advances. The portion of the study described in this entry used the quantitative technique of structural equation modeling (SEM) and the qualitative technique of interviews (see Chen, 2008a, 2008b, for details of the study).
Technology and Language: Quantitative Methods
Authors: Yu Li‐Tang , Liou Hsien‐Chin , Vongpumivitch Viphavee
Published: December 2012

As time is an important variable in second language acquisition (SLA), longitudinal studies play a crucial role in research.
Technology and Listening
Authors: Hubbard Philip
Published: December 2012

As one of the four core skills, listening plays an important role in most modern language teaching methodology.
Culture in Textbook Analysis and Evaluation
Authors: Risager Karen , Chapelle Carol A.
Published: December 2012

Textbooks often play a central role in the formal teaching of foreign and second languages, especially at beginning level. To this day, much language teaching is structured by published textbooks, even if it is supplemented with other materials from the Internet or elsewhere. In view of the importance of textbooks in providing learners with their first authoritative glimpses of the target culture, only a little work in applied linguistics has explored issues concerning the choice of cultural content for textbooks. However, the research that has been conducted points to the importance of different ways of representing culture, the ideological dimensions of cultural choices authors make, as well as the variety of methodological perspectives that are useful.
Text‐to‐Speech Synthesis Development
Authors: Henton Caroline
Published: December 2012

Speech synthesis, as defined inThe International Encyclopaedia of Linguistics, “is the automatic generation of speech using linguistically salient acoustic or articulatory properties, or spoken units that are selected and controlled using computational commands” (Clark & Henton, 2003). Machines that synthesized speech (synthesizers) were unveiled first in 1939 at the New York World's Fair. In the following 50 years, early vocoder synthesis was improved upon by parametric synthesis and linear predictive coefficient (LPC) synthesis. Parametric (or formant) synthesizers get control information either by analyzing relevant acoustic parameters in speech, or by rules operating on a character string (i.e., text). LPC synthesis uses the representation of the speech signal as a set of coefficients that try to predict the signal from past values in the time domain; LPC accounts for resonance and pitch movements well, but fails in natural voice quality because of the invariant nature of glottal pulses. For a history of the development of, and progress in, speech synthesis, see Klatt (1987), van Santen, Sproat, Olive, and Hirschberg (1997), and Clark and Henton (2003).
Text‐to‐Speech Synthesis in Computer‐Assisted Language Learning
Authors: Handley Zöe
Published: December 2012

In very simple terms, speech synthesis is the process of making the computer talk, and text‐to‐speech (TTS) synthesis is a specific type which takes raw text as input and aims to mimic the human process of reading. TTS is the technology which allows dictation software, such as IBM ViaVoice, toreadyour dictated texts back to you. It was also the technology behind Texas Instruments’ Speak & Spell spelling bee program launched in the 1980s. While interest in the use of TTS in computer‐assisted language learning (CALL) only really began to take hold around the year 2000, some of the potential benefits of the use of TTS in CALL had already been identified around the time that Speak & Spell was launched. At this time, Bruce Sherwood (1981) observed that typing/editing text is easier than (re)recording voice, that navigating through a textual database is easier than retrieving recorded samples from an audiotape, and that TTS synthesis has the capacity to generate speech models on demand—benefits which researchers continue to see in the use of TTS synthesis in CALL (Dutoit, 1997; Keller and Zellner‐Keller, 2000; Handley and Hamel, 2005; Kang, Kashiwagi, Treviranus, & Kaburagi, 2008). This entry discusses the way in which these benefits have been exploited to provide learners with tools to support them in their language‐learning activities as well as tutorial software focusing on the acquisition of specific areas of linguistic knowledge and language skills.
Time Series
Authors: Mellow J. Dean
Published: December 2012

The time‐series design (TSD) allows applied linguists to investigate two issues: (a) the nature of language use or acquisition over time; and (b) the effect of a specific variable or session of learning on that use or acquisition. The time period of investigation could be seconds and milliseconds, as in applied phonetics research that measures vocal‐fold vibrations (e.g., Mergell, Herzel, & Titze, 2000) and spoken discourse research that measures stages in speech planning and production (e.g., Roberts & Kirsner, 2000). This entry focuses on the study of language use and development across days and weeks and in response to particular sessions of instruction.
Translation Theory
Authors: Tymoczko Maria
Published: December 2012

The current concept of theory in academic disciplines began to develop in tandem with the scientific revolution during the early modern period, with most parameters of the concept of theory having been worked out in the natural sciences.
Typology and Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Ramat Anna Giacalone
Published: December 2012

In recent years increasing emphasis on typological research has triggered a growing interest in the implications of typological findings on second language acquisition (SLA).
Validity: Mixed Methods
Authors: Leech Nancy L. , Dellinger Amy
Published: December 2012

For applied linguistics researchers, validity is an important concept to consider and assess in all research studies.
Values in Language Assessment
Authors: McNamara Tim
Published: December 2012

Language assessment can be understood from many different viewpoints. The conventional perspective focuses on the individual candidate—determining the level of skill and knowledge in each individual taking the test.
Varieties of English in Cameroon
Authors: Anchimbe Eric A.
Published: December 2012

In 1976 when Mbassi‐Manga's paper “The State of Contemporary English in Cameroon” was published, there was no—or he made no—distinction between Cameroon English and Cameroon Pidgin English.
Verbal Report
Authors: Cohen Andrew D.
Published: December 2012

The performance of language ability (i.e., through listening, speaking, reading, or writing) involves cognitive processes that are not easily observable, nor are language learners' strategies for accomplishing these activities.
Indigenous Literacies
Authors: de Souza Lynn Mario T. Menezes
Published: December 2012

Indigenous literacies are an important new area of research and discussion in applied linguistics marked by various controversies and issues of importance.
Vocabulary Acquisition in Bilinguals
Authors: Izura Cristina
Published: December 2012

Ten years ago, at the age of 65, my father decided to learn English as a second language.
Washback in Language Assessment
Authors: Wall Dianne
Published: December 2012

“Washback” refers to the influence important tests have on classroom practices—in particular, the effects they have on teaching and learning.
Spoken Word Recognition
Authors: Fraser Helen
Published: December 2012

One of the most basic aspects of learning a language is learning its words, or vocabulary.
WordNet
Authors: Fellbaum Christiane
Published: December 2012

WordNet (Miller, Beckwith, Fellbaum, Gross, & Miller 1990; Miller & Fellbaum, 1991; Miller, 1995; Fellbaum, 1998), a lexical database for English, can be thought of as a large electronic dictionary. It contains information about some 155,000 nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, including simplex words likeput, phrasal verbs likeput up, and idioms likeput out the dog.Its digital format frees WordNet from the constraints of traditional paper dictionaries, whose entries have to be arranged according to their spelling (and thus, to some extent, their pronunciation). But since an important function of dictionaries is to inform users about word meanings, entries in WordNet are organized in terms of their semantics. Specifically, words in WordNet that are similar in meaning are interlinked by means of pointers that stand for a semantic relation. Formally, WordNet is a semantic network, an acyclic graph.
World Englishes and Language Pedagogy
Authors: Matsuda Aya
Published: December 2012

The implications of the linguistic, cultural, and functional diversity of English to English‐language teaching (ELT) have attracted much attention from scholars and teachers, and World Englishes studies have been the primary source of information and insights for responding to this interest.
World Englishes and Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
Authors: MATSUDA AYA
Published: December 2012

Teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) and World Englishes (WE) have both established themselves as important areas of inquiry within applied linguistics, with their own professional organizations (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages and International Association for World Englishes [IAWE]), annual conferences, and affil‐iated journals fully dedicated to the scholarship in their disciplines (TESOL QuarterlyandWorld Englishes, respectively). The articulation between the two fields, however, began only in the last decade or so, except for the work of a few individuals who crossed over the two areas (e.g. Kachru, 1976, 1984; Sridhar, 1994). This entry traces the history of the (inter)disciplinary relationship between the two fields as evident from scholarly publications that attempted to bring them together. It also identifies future research areas where cross‐fertilization is particularly needed.
Neurobiological Foundations for Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Lee Namhee
Published: December 2012

The distinction between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge has played an important role in second language acquisition (SLA) theory and research.
Lexicography in Non‐European Languages
Authors: Prinsloo D. J.
Published: December 2012

Lexicography in non‐European languages presents interesting challenges, some of which are illustrated in this overview of dictionary compilation for the Bantu languages, mainly from a South African perspective but equally applicable to Bantu lexicography on the continent of Africa as a whole.
Kachru, Yamuna
Authors: Smith Larry E.
Published: December 2012

Yamuna (Keskar) Kachru was born in Purulia (now in West Bengal) on March 5, 1933 where her father was a medical practitioner.
Canagarajah, A. Suresh
Authors: Jerskey Maria
Published: December 2012

A. Suresh Canagarajah (1957– ) is a language/literacy teacher and prolific scholar whose joint appointment in the English and applied linguistics departments at Pennsylvania State University indicates the range and application of his research and pedagogical practices as well as his ability to negotiate disparate worlds, a hallmark feature of his significant contributions to the field.
Norton, Bonny
Authors: Higgins Christina
Published: December 2012

Bonny Norton is Professor and Distinguished University Scholar in the Department of Language and Literacy Education at the University of British Columbia (UBC), Canada, where she has received both the Killam Teaching Award and the Killam Research Prize for her exemplary contributions to the field of applied linguistics. In 2011, Norton became the inaugural recipient of the “Second Language Leadership Through Research” Award from the American Educational Research Association.
Discourse: Overview
Authors: Norris Sigrid
Published: December 2012

“Discourse analysis is widely recognized as one of the most vast, but also as one of the least defined, areas in linguistics (e.g. Stubbs, 1983, p. 12; Tannen, 1989, pp. 6–8)” (Schiffrin, 1994, p. 5).
Translation and Interpreting: Overview
Authors: Angelelli Claudia V. , Baer Brian James , Grbic Nadja
Published: December 2012

Within the field of applied linguistics the subfields of translation and interpreting, including signed language interpreting, have experienced explosive growth over the past two decades.
World Englishes: Overview
Authors: KACHRU BRAJ B.
Published: December 2012

The global diffusion of the English language represents two dimensions of the language: one of
multicanonicity
and the other of
multiculturalism
. These two constructs of what is called a global language have yet to be seriously recognized by the English‐language teaching (ELT) profession. The reasons for this attitude are essentially ideological, economic and, of course, attitudinal. This ominous indifference is sustained and encouraged within what Susan Butler has characterized as “the ESL Empire” (Butler, 1997).
L
ightbown,
P
atsy
M
.
Authors: Spada Nina
Published: December 2012

Patsy M. Lightbown is a pioneer in the field of classroom research (CR) on second language (L2) learning and teaching.
Grain Refinement of Magnesium Alloys by Mg–Zr Master Alloys: The Role of Alloy Chemistry and Zr Particle Number Density
Authors: Sun Ming , Easton Mark A. , StJohn David H. , Wu Guohua , Abbott Trevor B. , Ding Wenjiang
Published: December 2012

Although refinement of the as‐cast grain size of magnesium alloys by Zr is well established commercially, little research has been undertaken to optimize this refinement technology and to quantify the relative performance of different Mg–Zr master alloys. The performance of Mg–Zr master alloys was found to be related to (1) the number density of Zr particles between 1 and 5 µm in size where the master alloy with the largest number density of these particles exhibits the best refinement, and (2) the alloy's growth restriction factor (Q) where a linear relationship between grain size and 1/Q, was found to exist for each master alloy. An equation for predicting grain size based on the Interdependence model was developed. Further, the Interdependence Model was improved to be able to cater for an increasing Zr particle number density with increasing values of Q.
Influence of Heat Treatments on the Mechanical Properties of Ultrasonic Welded AA 2024/CF‐PA66‐Joints
Authors: Balle Frank , Huxhold Stefan , Emrich Stefan , Wagner Guntram , Kopnarski Michael , Eifler Dietmar
Published: December 2012

The ultrasonic welding technology is well suited to realize hybrid joints of aluminum alloys and carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP). Hybrid Al/CFRP‐joints by using self‐hardening aluminum alloy like AA 1050 or AA 5754 were already realized. To achieve ultrasonic welded Al/CFRP‐joints with enhanced joint strengths, the application of a heat treatable aluminum alloy was realized. The precipitation hardening of aluminum alloys like AA 2024 allows new process steps during the ultrasonic welding of these materials with CFRP to improve the joint strength. In this study, the influence of different heat treatments on mechanical properties and microstructure of ultrasonic welded AA 2024/CF‐PA66‐joints will be described. A distinction was made between pre‐weld and post‐weld heat treatments. The pre‐weld heat treatment of the metallic sheets was a solution annealing at a temperature of T = 500 °C followed by water quenching and immediate welding with CFRP. In case of the post‐weld heat treatment the entire ultrasonical welded AA 2024/CF‐PA66‐joints were heat treated with two different procedures: artificial aging for 20 h at a temperature of T = 180 °C or natural aging for 1 week at ambient temperature.
Highly Stable Nanoporous Sulfur‐Bridged Covalent Organic Polymers for Carbon Dioxide Removal
Authors: Patel Hasmukh A. , Karadas Ferdi , Byun Jeehye , Park Joonho , Deniz Erhan , Canlier Ali , Jung Yousung , Atilhan Mert , Yavuz Cafer T.
Published: December 2012

Carbon dioxide capture and separation requires robust solids that can stand harsh environments where a hot mixture of gases is often found. Herein, the first and comprehensive syntheses of porous sulfur‐bridged covalent organic polymers (COPs) and their application for carbon dioxide capture in warm conditions and a wide range of pressures (0–200 bar) are reported. These COPs can store up to 3294 mg g−1 of carbon dioxide at 318 K and 200 bar while being highly stable against heating up to 400 °C. The carbon dioxide capacity of the COPs is also not hindered upon boiling in water for at least one week. Physisorptive binding is prevalent with isosteric heat of adsorptions around 24 kJ mol−1. M06–2X and RIMP2 calculations yield the same relative trend of binding energies, where, interestingly, the dimer of triazine and benzene play a cooperative role for a stronger binding of CO2 (19.2 kJ mol−1) as compared to a separate binding with triazine (13.3 kJ mol−1) or benzene (11.8 kJ mol−1).
Meta‐analysis and literature review of techniques to achieve hemostasis in endoscopic sinus surgery
Authors: Khosla Akhil J. , Pernas Francisco G. , Maeso Patricia A.
Published: December 2012

Background

Functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) has been used as the standard of treatment for sinonasal disease in which medical therapy fails to ameliorate the disease. Intraoperative hemostasis is a crucial factor in FESS. Currently, ideal techniques for creating intraoperative hemostasis have yet to be clarified and standardized. We sought to better understand what variables can affect intraoperative blood loss and therefore improve surgical field outcomes.

Methods

A literature search was conducted using PubMed, OVID, MD Consult, and Micromedex with keywords including: FESS, intraoperative blood loss, hemorrhage, and vasoconstriction. The articles were then evaluated with regard to blood loss, surgical grade, and operative time. Eleven articles were cross‐referenced to determine the most statistically significant techniques in 3 main categories: general anesthetics, preoperative steroids, and use of epinephrine.

Results

Analysis of the articles indicate that total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA) is statistically more beneficial than balanced anesthesia (BA), providing an average difference in blood loss of 75.3057 mL; the use of preoperative steroids is statistically more beneficial than placebo, with an improved difference in blood loss of 28 mL; and a trend toward hemostasis with the use of local anesthetics at a concentration of 1:200,000.

Conclusion

Meta‐analysis of 1148 patients concludes that hemostasis during FESS is best conducted using TIVA, preoperative steroids, and topical local anesthetic at a 1:200,000 concentration.
Axial computed tomography evaluation of the internal nasal valve correlates with clinical valve narrowing and patient complaint
Authors: Moche Jason A. , Cohen Justin C. , Pearlman Steven J.
Published: December 2012

Background

The objective of this work was to explore the utility of axial computed tomography (CT) imaging to objectively define a narrow internal nasal valve, and compare those findings with clinical examination and patient complaint.

Methods

Retrospective review from a single facial plastic surgery center. We reviewed 40 consecutive patients evaluated for either sinusitis or nasal airway obstruction for which a CT scan was obtained at a single radiology institution. Thirty‐six complete office records were examined for the presence of clinical internal valve narrowing and complaints of nasal obstruction. In total, 72 internal nasal valves were analyzed using axial plane CT and measurements were compared to clinical findings and presence of airway obstruction.

Results

Measured valve areas for clinically normal internal nasal valves averaged 0.47 cm2 vs 0.28 cm2 for clinically narrow valves, a decrease of 40.4%. In unobstructed nasal airways the valve area averaged 0.51 cm2 vs 0.38 cm2 in obstructed airways, a difference of 25.5%. A radiographically measured valve area of <0.30 cm2 suggests clinical narrowing with a sensitivity of 71.4%, specificity of 88.9%, positive predictive value of 62.5%, and negative predictive value of 92.3%.

Conclusion

Using standard axial CT imaging we describe an objective method of radiographically evaluating the nasal valve, demonstrating strong correlation with physical examination and patient complaint. Additionally, radiographic valve areas can be used to screen for clinically narrow nasal valves with good sensitivity and specificity, providing a novel straightforward method for nasal valve assessment.
Ultrafast photocurrents and THz generation in single InAs‐nanowires
Authors: Erhard Nadine , Seifert Paul , Prechtel Leonhard , Hertenberger Simon , Karl Helmut , Abstreiter Gerhard , Koblmüller Gregor , Holleitner Alexander W.
Published: December 2012

To clarify the ultrafast temporal interplay of the different photocurrent mechanisms occurring in single InAs‐nanowire‐based circuits, an on‐chip photocurrent pump‐probe spectroscopy based on coplanar striplines was utilized. The data are interpreted in terms of a photo‐thermoelectric current and the transport of photogenerated holes to the electrodes as the dominating ultrafast photocurrent contributions. Moreover, it is shown that THz radiation is generated in the optically excited InAs‐nanowires, which is interpreted in terms of a dominating photo‐Dember effect. The results are relevant for nanowire‐based optoelectronic and photovoltaic applications as well as for the design of nanowire‐based THz sources.
Synthesis, characterization, and swelling kinetics of pH‐responsive and temperature‐responsive carboxymethyl chitosan/polyacrylamide hydrogels
Authors: Wei Qing‐Bo , Luo Yan‐Ling , Fu Feng , Zhang Yu‐Qi , Ma Rong‐Xuan
Published: December 2012

A novel pH‐ and temperature‐responsive hydrogel composed of carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC) and polyacrylamide (PAM) semi‐interpenetrating polymer networks (semi‐IPNs) was synthesized by a crosslinking copolymerization route in the presence of N,N‐methylene bisacrylamide and potassium persulfate. The structure of the CMC/PAM hydrogels was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and the morphologies were observed by scanning electron microscopy. The swelling kinetics investigations demonstrated that the equilibrium swelling ratios (ESRs) of the semi‐IPN hydrogels depended on the compositional ratios, pH values of the buffer solutions, and temperature. The ESR values increased with increasing CMC contents and pH values; this was in agreement with the maximum theoretical water contents fitted by the swelling kinetic data. The CMC/PAM hydrogels complied with Fickian behavior at pH 1.4 and non‐Fickian behavior at pH 11.7 in the buffer solutions. These hydrogels displayed thermosensitivities that were different from those of common thermoresponsive gels. The swelling was enhanced when the temperature of the media was increased up to 40°C; this was followed by a reduction. Therefore, the swelling behavior of the CMC/PAM hydrogels could be controlled and modulated by means of the compositional ratios of CMC to acrylamide, pH values of the buffer solutions, and temperature. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
Formulation of pH‐responsive carboxymethyl chitosan and alginate beads for the oral delivery of insulin
Authors: Mukhopadhyay Piyasi , Sarkar Kishor , Soam Shweta , Kundu P. P.
Published: December 2012

pH‐sensitive beads were prepared from the interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs) of carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCTS) and alginate to study their application in oral insulin administration. CMCTS was synthesized from chitosan and was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction. Calcium chloride, a relatively less toxic material, was used to crosslink both the alginate and CMCTS to prepare the IPN beads. The IPN beads were used to encapsulate insulin at different weight ratios. The swelling behavior and insulin release profile in response to simulated gastric and intestinal media of the beads were investigated. The beads observed under scanning electron microscopy were almost spherical, with an average diameter of 780 μm. The bead with about a 54% insulin loading efficiency was observed to contain about 98% encapsulated insulin. The maxima of about 20% insulin retention at acidic pH (1.2) and about 94% insulin release at intestinal pH (7.4) justified the good pH‐responsive nature of these IPN beads. Moreover, the insulin released from the IPN beads was stable and biologically active. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
Possible tuning fabrication of nanoplatinum particles with the conducting copolymer films and their behavior toward the electrooxidation of methanol
Authors: Zhang Guirong , Ding Binbin , Wu Liang , He Li , Ni Bing , Lu Jiaxing
Published: December 2012

The electrocopolymerization of o‐toluidine (OT) and p‐phenylenediamine (PPDA) on a platinum electrode in a solution of 0.5 mol/dm3 H2SO4 with cyclic voltammetry was examined. The addition of PPDA to the solution of OT in 0.5 mol/dm3 H2SO4 accelerated the electrocopolymerization of OT and PPDA. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and ultraviolet–visible spectra for the polymers showed that the unit of PPDA should have been integrated into the backbones of the copolymers to form phenazine‐like ring structures, and the delocalization of electrons in the copolymer was better than that in poly(o‐toluidine) (POT). The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images for the polymers showed that the copolymers became more porous, and smaller particles, which made oxygen, oxidized the reduced copolymer more easily and faster. It was proven with SEM, energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy that the size of the nanoplatinum particles deposited on the copolymer reached 10 nm and was much smaller than those on POT. They had better tolerance to the poisoning species arising from the intermediates of the dissociation of methanol on a platinum electrode during the electrocatalytic oxidation of methanol. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
Flame retardant polyurethane nanocomposite: Study of clay dispersion and its synergistic effect with dolomite
Authors: Amiri Rafieh‐Sadat Norouzian , Tirri Teija , Wilen Carl‐Eric
Published: December 2012

Polyurethane–clay nanocomposite adhesives were prepared by different synthetic routes and their microstructures were determined by X‐ray diffraction measurements and from transmission electron microscopy images. The preparation method of the polyurethane nanocomposite adhesives was systematically changed, that is, condensation either in the presence or absence of catalyst, concentration and type of nanoclay, premixing order of nanoclay (nanoclay was either premixed with the polyol or isocyanate part) and by using MDI surface treated nanoclays. Depending on the polymerization conditions cluster, intercalated, and exfoliated clay structures were obtained. The flame retardant properties of the manufactured nanocomposite adhesives and the synergistic effect of clay in combination with dolomite were investigated by cone calorimeter and UL 94 vertical burning tests. The results indicate that addition of nanoclay reduces burning time and the total heat evolved (THE) at flame out, and that the type of assembled clay structure (cluster, intercalated or exfoliated) had a significant effect on the flame retardant property. Nanocomposites with 3 wt % of clay loading gave the shortest burning time, the lowest THE and also UL 94 V‐2 ratings were reached, although the flame retardancy in terms of heat release rate and time to ignition was not improved. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
Polysulfone microcapsules with different wall morphology
Authors: Panisello Cinta , Peña Brisa , Gumí Tània , Garcia‐Valls Ricard
Published: December 2012

For the production of polysulfone microcapsules, a process was proposed, which allowed the obtaining of capsules with different wall morphology. A polysulfone solution was projected to a precipitation bath. Three solvents were assessed: N,N‐dimethylformamide, N,N‐dimethylacetamide, and N‐methyl‐2‐pyrrolidone. Precipitation baths were composed by water, pure or mixed with solvent. Surfaces and cross–sections of different preparations were observed by Scanning Electron Microscopy. The study was focused on capsules of 30 ± 10 µm of diameter. Microcapsules surfaces were porous and two different structures were distinguished in the cross‐section: macrovoids and sponge‐like structures. High concentration of solvent in the precipitation bath reduced the porosity of the surface and the macrovoids of the wall, thus favoring sponge‐like structures. The present work set some bases for a better control of polysulfone microcapsules morphology. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013