bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Implementing New Technology
Authors: Jones Dennis R. , Smith Michael J.
Published: January 2012

Organizations have come to rely on implementing new technology as a critical component of their competitive strategy. Implementing new technology allows companies to improve efficiency, productivity, quality, safety, working conditions, and profitability. Much of this potential is never realized; as a study found that 40% of companies had not achieved the intended benefits from the new technology. The study further stated that 10% of these new technology implementation problems were for technical reasons; whereas most problems occurred for human and organizational reasons. Effective new technology implementation requires considering all factors involved in the implementation process as: new technology characteristics, organization structure, task factors, environmental characteristics, and human factors. It is suggested to utilize a cooperative approach implementing new technology, relying on employee participation and teamwork. By taking a total systems view of the situation; and being aware to the existing interactions; it is hoped that the new technology can be implemented in the most effective way possible. A case study is presented to illustrate this.
Red Team Performance for Improved Computer Security
Authors: Kraemer Sara , Carayon Pascale , Duggan Ruth
Published: January 2012

This research attempts to develop a human factors understanding of red team assessment strategies in computer and information security. Red teaming is an advanced form of assessment that can be used to identify weaknesses in a variety of security systems. The purpose of this research is to identify and define the various dimensions of red team effectiveness with the aim of improving red team performance. A study of a red team was conducted in collaboration with Sandia National Laboratories Information Design Assurance Red Team (IDART). The design of the study included semi-structured individual interviews and focus groups with red team members and observation of red team practices. The analysis yielded various dimensions of red team effectiveness from the customer, management, individual, and team member perspectives.
Evaluation of Physical versus Virtual Surgical Training Simulators
Authors: Waxberg S. L. , Goodell K. H. , Avgerinos D. V. , Schwaitzberg S. D. , Cao C. G. L.
Published: January 2012

With the recent attention on patient safety, there is an increased interest in standardized training for laparoscopic surgeons. Studies have shown that laparoscopic simulators can be used to train surgical skills. A comparison of two popular systems (a real physical model and a virtual model) was conducted to determine the relative effectiveness of the systems for training purposes. Twenty-two medical students and surgical residents were tested on both simulators. Time to task completion and errors committed were recorded and compared. Our results showed that the physical training system was more sensitive to the experience levels of the subjects than the virtual system, and may be more effective as a tool for standardized training. However, as virtual reality technology becomes better developed, and surgeons become more familiar with the technology, we may see a change.
Effects of Friction on Haptic Perception in Simulated Endoscopic Environments
Authors: Perreault J. , Cao C. G. L.
Published: January 2012

Current endoscopic instrumentation cannot replicate the haptic feedback available during open surgery. Distracting friction forces in the interface make it difficult for surgeons to detect and differentiate between small-scale surgical site forces. As a result, the visual channel is being used to process information that should be available through the haptic sense. An experiment was conducted to examine the effects of friction, when probing tissues of dissimilar compliance. Results showed that the presence of friction in the interface increased applied force by 45%, contact time by 40%, and errors by a factor of 2 (100%), while its absence increased human operator confidence by 15%. The effects of friction were generally more pronounced in conditions with impaired visual cues but were also very strong when vision was available. These results are applicable to the design of more effective instrumentation for endoscopic surgery as well as robotic surgery.
How to Improve Working Conditions for Spinal Cord Injured? An Intervention Study at the Workplace
Authors: Sandsjö Leif , Grundell Lena , Valtonen Kirsi , Karlsson Ann-Katrin , Viikari-Juntura Eira
Published: January 2012

In this study the working conditions of six spinal cord injured (SCI) and one meningomyelocele (MMC) subject were evaluated with regard to risk factors for neck and shoulder disorders. Each subject was visited by an ergonomist at the workplace where the working conditions were documented by means of video recordings, questionnaires and the ergonomist's evaluation of the workplace. From situations identified, including the subject's own reporting of problematic situations and layout of the workplace, possible changes were discussed and implemented if feasible.

A specific aim of the study was to see if a myofeedback method to be used during work at the regular workplace was applicable and of use to promote a more favourable activation of the neck- and shoulder muscles in this group of subjects.

The experiences from this study are that the employer had usually not optimised the participating subjects' workplaces and that several easily implemented changes could be made that improved the working conditions. Regarding the myofeedback intervention, all of the subjects taking part increased the amount of time where the trapezius muscle was in a rest-like condition, which should be considered a change in a positive direction.
Using Psychological Scaling Techniques to Assess Clinical Expertise in Anesthesiology
Authors: Connor Olena , Weinger Matthew B. , Cooke Nancy J. , Slagle Jason
Published: January 2012

This study used Pathfinder, a psychological scaling technique, to assess underlying cognitive structure associated with mastery of relevant knowledge necessary for anesthesiology decision-making. Our study revealed this approach to be a valid method to assess the tacit knowledge that underlies clinical expertise. A set of concepts associated with a decision-to-extubate scenario was derived from expert interviews. Participants included nine attending anesthesiologists, seven first-year anesthesiology residents, and eight second-year anesthesiology residents. Pathfinder was applied to participants' pairwise relatedness judgments of the clinical concepts in the context of the scenario. Experts' data were aggregated to form an expert referent structure. Student anesthesiologists were assessed based on comparison of their structures to this referent. These comparisons yielded a knowledge score that was highly correlated with residents' exam grades. This finding supports our position that Pathfinder is a valid knowledge assessment method and, as a complement to current exams, can be applied to assess a student's deep understanding of anesthesiology concepts.
Measuring Awkwardness of Workplace Layout: Dispersion of Attentional and Psychomotor Resources within the Anesthesia Workspace
Authors: Seagull F. Jacob , Ward Russ , Mills Julie , Goodrich Christopher , Xiao Yan
Published: January 2012

In complex tasks such as provision of anesthesia, human operators often carry out simultaneous tasks with conflicting task demands. Workplace design can mitigate the impact of these tasks' conflict with one another, however there are few methodologies for quantifying awkward workplace layout that lead to task conflicts. The current work examines a measure of awkwardness we developed, “dispersion of attentional resources,” and further presents a graphical display to represent task conflicts within the anesthesia work domain. These measures and display methods can be generalized to other work domains to guide design.
Defibrillator Usability Study Among Paramedics
Authors: Fairbanks Rollin J. , Shah Manish N. , Caplan Stanley , Marks Aaron , Bishop Paul
Published: January 2012

A usability test was conducted of two different manual defibrillators regularly used in the prehospital setting by emergency medical personnel. The purpose of the study was to demonstrate that design attention is needed to make manual defibrillators more error resistant and less hazardous to patient safety. Fourteen paramedics performed four tasks in a “laboratory” environment that included a computerized Laerdal SimMan™ patient simulator. Even without environmental factors and the urgency of actual life-saving situations, more than twenty user interaction problems were found. Ten of the more prominent or consistent problems found are discussed here, and a design solution is proposed for each problem.
Physician Responses to Handheld Presentation of Clinical Evidence: Analysis of Group Differences
Authors: Lottridge Danielle M. , Chignell Mark H. , Straus Sharon E.
Published: January 2012

The Evidence at the Point of Care (EPoCare) project (Takeshita, Davis, Straus, 2002) is examining how to put clinical evidence on mobile devices to meet physicians' information needs at the point of care. Forty-seven physicians, including family physicians, general internists and medical residents, participated in usability testing with prototypes implemented on two different form factors (a tablet-style PC and a PDA-style handheld). During the testing physicians were asked to describe their impression of the prototype and to indicate their agreement with 20 statements concerning the prototype implementations. The three user groups differed in how they valued device portability and screen size. Family physicians wanted larger screen size and were less concerned with portability, while internists wanted portability and were less concerned with screen size. Residents wanted both portability and large screen size. Cluster analysis was used to identify four clusters of physicians, varying by age, amount of time in clinical practice, and frequency of use of search engines and medical databases. Differences in preferences about format of information were present amongst these clusters. This study demonstrates how large sample usability testing can be used to develop customization strategies for mobile applications, for designing both form factor and content.
3D Audio Cueing for Target Identification in a Simulated Flight Task
Authors: Simpson Brian D. , Brungart Douglas S. , Gilkey Robert H. , Cowgill Jeffrey L. , Dallman Ronald C. , Green Randall F. , Youngblood Kevin L. , Moore Thomas J.
Published: January 2012

Modern Traffic Advisory Systems (TAS) can increase flight safety by providing pilots with real-time information about the locations of nearby aircraft. However, most current collision avoidance systems rely on non-intuitive visual and audio displays that may not allow pilots to take full advantage of this information. In this experiment, we compared the response times required for subjects participating in a fully-immersive simulated flight task to visually acquire and identify nearby targets under four different simulated TAS display conditions: 1) no display; 2) a visual display combined with a non-spatialized warning sound; 3) a visual display combined with a clock-coordinate speech signal; and 4) a visual display combined with a spatialized auditory warning sound. The results show that response times varied in an orderly fashion as a function of display condition, with the slowest times occurring in the no display condition and the fastest times occurring in the 3D audio display condition, where they were roughly 25% faster than those without the 3D audio cues.
Semantic Information Influences the Degree to Which Human Observers Perceive Detail and Intricacy within an Icon
Authors: Forsythe A. , Sheehy N. , Sawey M.
Published: January 2012

Following the Boucart & Humphreys (1995) method, this paper reports a study in which response time to three groups of semantically related icons were examined. This study was used as a model by which to examine the ability of human observers to attend solely to one icon property without being influenced by other salient icon information. Humans are easily influenced by their experience of an icon: they tend to judge very simple, but unfamiliar icons (as defined by an automated analysis) as complex (Forsythe et al., 2003). This means that when humans are unreliable judges about the degree of detail or intricacy in an icon. The degree of detail or intricacy in an icon is one property is that lends itself to automation (Forsythe et al., 2003). As a decision-making aid, an automated system would make the process of icon development and modification a less speculative, more cost-effective activity.
Manipulating Optical Looming to Influence Perception of Time-To-Collision and its Application in Automobile Driving
Authors: Li Zhonghai , Milgram Paul
Published: January 2012

Direct manipulation of optical looming provides convincing evidence of the contribution of optical looming in estimating time-to-collision (TTC). Precise manipulation of optical looming cues can be easily accomplished through computational scaling of (real or virtual) objects without impinging upon the naturalness of the task. This paper first discusses three ways to manipulate optical looming by scaling object size in order to influence perception of TTC. Then two principles affecting the implementation of optical looming manipulation are addressed. Next by revisiting the data of previous research, influences of knowledge about the optical looming manipulation and practice on the effect of optical looming manipulation are discussed. This supports our proposed principles and confirms the possibility of introducing the concept of optical looming manipulation into actual automobile design. Finally a potential application of optical looming manipulation, a dynamic brake light system, is proposed for automobile driving, to reduce the frequency of rear-end collisions. Issues in implementation of such a system and future research to validate it are also identified.
Judgments of Speed of Self-Motion: Modeling the Relative Effects of Speed and Altitude Change
Authors: Flach John M. , Junaid Asad Ali , Warren Rik
Published: January 2012

Empirical studies consistently show that judgments of the speed of self-motion are influenced by changes in the altitude of an observer. In general, a given actual speed is judged to be relatively faster from a lower altitude and relatively slower from a higher altitude. Similarly, loss of altitude can be accompanied by a false perception of increasing speed, while increases in altitude can be accompanied by a false perception of loss in speed. The direction of these effects is consistent with the Global Optical Flow Rate (GOFR) Hypothesis. However, the pattern of effects is not proportional to the ratio of velocity to altitude as predicted by the GOFR Hypothesis. An alternative model is presented that predicts additive effect of speed and altitude changes on speed perception.
The Susceptibility of a Call Center-Like Task to Disruption by Extraneous Sound: The Role of Semantic Relatedness
Authors: Perham Nick , Banbury Simon , Jones Dylan M.
Published: January 2012

Irrelevant noise in the work environment has long been viewed as a source of annoyance and disturbance with speech being rated as the worst (e.g. Nemecek and Grandjean, 1973; Kjellberg and Landstrom, 1994). This may be particularly detrimental in environments where background speech is prevalent, such as call centers. Furthermore, additional disruption may occur when the background speech is similar to items in the primary task. We report an experiment that examined the effects of speech and the role of semantic similarity using a call center-like task. Analyses showed that although both similar and dissimilar speech noise conditions were worse than a quiet noise condition, there was no difference between the two speech conditions. Results are discussed in light of the changing-state account of the irrelevant sound effect.
Multiple Resources Questionnaire and Workload Profile: Application of Competing Models to Subjective Workload Measurement
Authors: Phillips Jeffrey B. , Boles David B.
Published: January 2012

This study examines the abilities of three subjective measures of workload to predict dual task performance. The measures compared are: The Workload Profile (WP), the Multiple Resources Questionnaire (MRQ), and the Global Rating Questionnaire (GRQ). Each of these measures is based on a different theoretical model of cognitive workload. Participants first played three computer games. They were asked to rate the games on subjective workload using all three measurement indices. Subjects were then asked to play pairings of the games simultaneously. Only the MRQ significantly predicted task interference, and it also showed the least variability over participants.
User Feedback on Moldex N-100 Filtering Face Piece Design
Authors: Sexton-Lewis Pauline , Kleiner Brian , Young Deborah
Published: January 2012

Male landscaping mulch handlers were asked to use the Moldex N-100 filtering facepiece and provide feedback on factors associated with usability, comfort, and perceived value of the respirator. Recommendations for design changes to improve comfort and usability were solicited. Mean responses to questions employing a Likert-type scale indicated that the workers found it easy to communicate while wearing the mask and agreed that the head straps were easy to adjust. Questions concerning comfort and voluntary use yielded low scores, indicating that the workers found the masks uncomfortable and that they would be unlikely to adopt patterns of voluntary use. When the results were analyzed along with worker age, the study found that older workers were more interested in voluntary use, however were also more concerned about comfort. Key suggestions for design change involved greater adjustability of the nose piece and improvement of the exhalation valve.
The Effects of Warning Presentation and Retention under Varying Levels of Stress
Authors: Helmick-Rich Jessica , Burke Kelly A. , Oron-Gilad Tal , Hancock Peter A.
Published: January 2012

The modality in which the information is presented differentially influences behavioral response, especially when tasks are either learned or subsequently performed in stressful circumstances. The current work examines the effects of cross modality of warning presentation and retention in a dual task paradigm in a simulated environment with various task-induced stress levels. Consistent with the Hancock and Warm model of stress and attention, it was found that when task demand is relatively low, the modality of presentation is of less importance and participants are able to comply. When task demand is relatively high, the modality of presentation was critical and played a significant role in compliance behavior. Additionally, it was found that participants were significantly less likely to comply in the verbal modality across all levels of working memory demand than in either the pictorial or written modalities.
Atypical, but Practical Applications for Cognitive Modeling
Authors: Forsythe Chris
Published: January 2012

We assert that there exists a broad range of applications for computational cognitive modeling that have been largely unexplored. In some cases, data mining and expert systems approaches have been utilized to accomplish similar objectives. However, there are distinct advantages that come from basing technologies on human-like computational cognitive models. This paper describes several illustrations of the technologies that may be created based on realistic computer models of human knowledge and cognitive processes.
Using Cognitive Modeling to Study Behavior Moderators: Pre-Task Appraisal and Anxiety
Authors: Ritter Frank E. , Reifers Andrew , Klein Laura Cousino , Quigley Karen , Schoelles Mike
Published: January 2012

We present a cognitive model of a repeated serial subtraction arithmetic task in the ACT-R cognitive architecture (Anderson & Lebiere, 1998) that is modified to demonstrate how the influence of biobehavioral effects on cognition (sometimes called behavioral moderators) can be studied through a combination of cognitive modeling experimental psychology, and physiological psychology techniques.
The Identification of the Critical Haptic Stimulus Features in a Clinical Dental Task
Authors: Liu Li , Thomas Geb , Stanford Clark , Johnson Lynn
Published: January 2012

This paper reviews evidence from a series of experiments that identify a characteristic 250–350 Hz tool vibration that may enable a dentist to make a specific clinical determination during a dental exam. The specific task is a generalized version of crown margin gap estimation. The results suggest that the vibration of the dental tool may be the salient haptic characteristic perceived by the dentist. Our previous experiments indicate that this vibration occurs when the probe releases potential energy after moving across the gap. A Fourier power spectrum of the vibration indicates that the vibration energy is in the maximally sensitive range of the Pacinian corpuscle, an organ which senses fingertip skin vibration. This paper discusses follow-up experiments designed to verify that including the vibration makes the size of the crown margin gap more salient while damping the vibration makes the size of crown margin gap more difficult to estimate. Defining the essential characteristics of the haptic signal is essential for redesigning, implementing and assessing the next generation of our dental surgical simulator.
Exploring Communication between Health Care Professionals and Older Adults
Authors: Hickman Jamye M. , Pak Richard , Stronge Aideen J. , Jones W. Brad
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this study is to understand the communication problems that older adults may encounter when interacting with their health care professionals. In particular, we are interested in the types of communication problems older adults have experienced such as memory, comprehension, and sensory issues. A structured interview consisting of two parts was designed to gather this information. The first part focuses on the specific communication problems participants may have had. The second part of the study involves six scenarios in which a fictitious patient has a communication problem with a health care professional. The goal of the scenarios is to determine the types of strategies, if any, participants recommend using when faced with communication problems with their health care professional. The findings from this study will be used to identify and categorize problems and strategies to inform design solutions to remedy these communication problems.
Using a Driving Simulator to Train Teens Swerving Strategies to Reduce Vehicle Collisions
Authors: Tran Tuan Q. , Cady Elizabeth T. , Friel Brian M. , Slick Renee F.
Published: January 2012

Traditionally, teens are taught procedures to use during hazardous situations (e.g., when encountering an obstacle and needing to swerve around it). In most driver education programs these procedures are taught through lecture; however, this has not proven to be effective. This study will utilize a similar lecture on the skill of avoiding obstacles, and teens will then train in a high-fidelity driving simulator. Participants will be divided into three training groups: (1) Swerving Practice, in which teens practice steering in scenarios that require swerving, (2) Situation Recognition, in which teens react to the same scenarios, but respond only with a button press, and (3) No Practice, in which participants read verbal descriptions of the same scenarios. Participants will then be tested in scenarios requiring swerving maneuvers. It is expected that teens in the Swerving Practice condition will yield the fastest reaction times and the fewest errors.
Launching Your Career in HF/E: Guidelines for Soaring High in the Job Market
Authors: Shapiro Ronald G. , Andre Anthony D. , Creaser Janet I. , English Jeff , Lund Arnold M.
Published: January 2012

Welcome to the Eleventh Annual Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Career Panel. This year's proceedings paper emphasizes the importance of career planning and preparation throughout the graduate school experience. It addresses what to do if you are getting an early start on career planning and if you are fairly far along in the graduate school experience, even if you did not begin early career preparation These topics are most timely, because in a very competitive labor market outstanding preparation is vital, and if one did not do the appropriate preparation remedial action may be necessary. Fortunately, early preparation (or even taking remedial action) enhances the entire graduate school experience. The panel itself will address questions from the audience about careers preparation. A second paper will be produced by Christina Mendat, a PhD Candidate at North Carolina State University based upon the panel presentation and will be available upon request to session attendees and included alongside this paper in the 2005 edition of the Career Resource Guide.
Human Responses to a Workload Change
Authors: Miyake Shinji , Hashimoto Masahiro , Watanabe Takayuki , Takae Yasuhiko , Shiraishi Yasuhiro
Published: January 2012

Twenty male students performed three 5-minute trials of a PC-based multi-task which consisted of three independent tasks, i.e., resource management task, system monitoring (vigilance reaction time) task and compensatory tracking task. Participants were instructed to perform only one task (tracking) during the second trial. Tracking task performance, subjective workload, mood scores and physiological parameters (Tissue Blood Volume, Hemodynamics, Systolic Time Intervals, Heart Rate Variability and Skin Potential Level (SPL))were obtained. The task performance was significantly improved and subjective workloads evaluated by NASA-TLX were significantly low in the second trial. SPL measured on the left palm showed a significantly high value in the low workload trial when compared to high workload trials. No other physiological parameter showed such workload related significant changes among the trials. This result suggested that SPL is sensitive to the workload change although that the electrode must be attached to a palm so that it may disturb task performance.
Effects of Visual Challenges on Steering Ability: Testing the Selective Degradation Hypothesis
Authors: Brooks Johnell O. , Tyrrell Richard A. , Frank Talissa A. , Isenhower Robert W.
Published: January 2012

Most young drivers are comfortable driving at night despite the increased danger. The selective degradation hypothesis predicts that drivers' overconfidence at night is a consequence of their ability to steer being preserved even though their ability to recognize details is impaired. To test this hypothesis, ten participants drove a curvy simulated roadway with varying levels of luminance, blur, and visual field size. Steering performance, but not visual acuity, was degraded when the visual field was reduced. Acuity, but not steering performance, was severely degraded by extreme blur and extremely low luminance. These findings support the selective degradation hypothesis, suggest that separate neural mechanisms support visual recognition and visual guidance skills, and emphasize the problems that occur when unexpected low contrast objects are present in the roadway environment at night.
Using an Information-Driven Decision_Making Human Performance Tool to Assess U.S. Army Command, Control, and Communication Issues
Authors: Plott Beth , Quesada Stacey , Kilduff Patricia , Swoboda Jennifer , Allender Laurel
Published: January 2012

The military command and control process is certain to change given the introduction of new information technology and new organizational structures. To predict how these changes will impact system performance, the U.S. Army Research Laboratory Human Research and Engineering Directorate (ARL-HRED) sponsored the development of a modeling environment in which one can develop multiple concept models for any sized organization, staffed by any number of people, performing any number of functions and tasks, and under various communication and information loads. This environment is called Command, Control, and Communication: Techniques for Reliable Assessment of Concept Execution (C3TRACE). Among the performance measures tracked are operator utilization, the number of tasks performed, and the quality of decisions made by the operators. Recently, C3TRACE was used to develop models of two Future Combat Systems (FCS) conceptual configurations. This paper discusses the theory and application of the tool.
Toward a System Approach to Human Error Investigation
Authors: Yemelyanov Alexander M.
Published: January 2012

A supporting investigation of human operator errors is discussed. Existing classification systems (taxonomies) are mostly used to analyze the accident reports, and not for investigating the accidents themselves. These systems provide appropriate taxonomy primarily for Reason's latent conditions and not so much for active errors. A model incorporating the active error characteristics of underlying cognitive sources along with the classification system for them is presented. It describes a human operator error as a group of frames adjusted to the activity of different operators, such as pilot or air traffic controller. Our model of active error and its classification system, combined with existing latent conditions classification systems, constitute a powerful tool – a decision support system for investigating human errors. Additionally, our model can be used as a basis for defining algorithms to analyze human performance in complex man-machine systems.
A Consumer's Guide to Internet Questionnaire Development Tools: II
Authors: Voorheis Christopher M. , Singleton Heather M. , Silvers Timothy J. , Snead Andrea E. , Moroney William F.
Published: January 2012

Questionnaires are among the tools most commonly used by human factors and ergonomics professionals. There are many commercially available tools that can assist HF professionals in the production of questionnaires and collection of data. Four commercially available tools for the construction of Internet-based questionnaires were selected and evaluated for their use in human factors. This product review compares relevant features and provides recommendations on the value and usefulness of these tools.
Comparison of Cluster Analysis and Structural Analysis Methods for Identifying User Mental Models: An Integrated in-Vehicle Telematics Systems Illustration
Authors: Richard Christian M. , Kleiss James A. , Bittner Alvah C.
Published: January 2012

A methodology for capturing the complexity of user mental model representations of complex systems is described in this report, with an illustrative application to an integrated telematics system for use in passenger vehicles. Thirty-two “tech-savvy” and “average-user” participants completed a card-sorting task based on the functional and information elements of an integrated telematics system under development. The data were comparatively analyzed using cluster and structural analyses. While both types of analyses generally identified the same mental model categories, only the structural analysis provided information about “distributed” functions that occurred in more than one category of the user's mental representation. This led to a more detailed and interconnected implementation of the telematics system. Usability evaluations of the structural-analysis-based design provided support of its effectiveness in capturing the mental representations of the telematic system held by both “tech-savvy” and “averageuser” participants.
Assessment of Structural Steel Workers' Safety and Health Competencies Using Signal Detection Theory
Authors: Patel Bhavin , Abdelhamid Tariq
Published: January 2012

The focus on worker training to recognize hazards assumes that workers will always recall what constitutes a safe or unsafe situation as well as respond to perceived or actual risks in the same manner. Regardless of the safety training program adopted, the focus on worker training to recognize hazards frequently overlooks the fact that hazard recognition is contextual and subject to individual judgment and experience. In addition, the tendency to work in known hazardous situations will depend on a worker's risk orientation. The specific aim of this research was to develop a methodology to assess worker sensitivity and risk orientation towards unsafe work conditions. The methodology was developed using Signal Detection Theory. The methodology was demonstrated for ironworkers. The methodology proposed in this research provides a guiding framework for training development on how to enhance workers' abilities to identify the boundary beyond which work is no longer safe.
Using Three-Dimensional Graphics to Enhance the Acquisition of Complex Satellite Systems Knowledge
Authors: Neville Kelly , Sorensen H. Barbara , Barba Charles A. , Schremmer Serge , Popp Edward , Andrade Robert , Kellermann Raymond
Published: January 2012

This paper describes the design of a training system in which three-dimensional (3-D) graphics are employed to help satellite operations trainees learn about satellite systems. The design takes into account training practices and support requirements of the satellite systems instructors who will be using it and ways in which trainees should be able to interact with and use the 3-D graphics. The training system must significantly improve the rate of satellite system knowledge acquisition beyond the rate obtained using current training practices. To this end, training principles that facilitate the acquisition of complex, functional, and integrated knowledge guided the design of a training system infrastructure that puts 3-D graphics to optimal use.
What Comes Down Must Go Up: Training Shipboard Helicopter Signaling Skills
Authors: Ruffner John W. , Fulbrook Jim E. , Struckhoff Andrew D. , Morey Peter A. , Franz Thomas M.
Published: January 2012

This paper discusses the findings from a project to develop a low-cost, effective training solution for shipboard helicopter signaling skills. We identified training objectives, explored training/simulation concepts, identified signal task training requirements, and demonstrated a prototype concept. The training solution includes an innovative prototype Hand Signal Recognition System that utilizes computer vision, a personal computer, a video camera, image acquisition and processing software, and a decision-making algorithm to recognize hand signals in support of signal task training for the Navy Landing Signal Enlisted (LSE) position. The training solution is practical for LSE signal training at the schoolhouse, capable of being deployed aboard ship with some constraints, and cost-effective. The training techniques and hand signal recognition technology developed in this project, and the lessons learned about training shipboard signaling skills, are useful to a variety of training and human factors professionals. The training and technology are relevant to a variety of applications such as emergency medical evacuation, search and rescue, oil platform operations, and shipboard control of unmanned aerial vehicles.
Are there Differences in Teamwork Across Team Type?
Authors: Priest Heather A. , Guthrie Joseph , Burke C. Shawn , Bowers Clint , Salas Eduardo
Published: January 2012

Team performance is a complex and illusive phenomena that has not yet been fully understood. Teams rely on certain underlying processes to shape their performance. These underlying processes (i.e., “the black box”) have been investigated over the last few years. However, a significant amount of the research has relied on command-and-control teams. The current study focuses on the differentiation of teams based on interdependence, performance arrangement and shared awareness to test the relationship between performance and teamwork behaviors. In addition, the effects of stress, operationalized as workload using a secondary task was also tested. Results showed some support for different communication patterns in different team types. No effects of workload were found. These results should be further investigated and applied to future team research.
When is VE Training Effective? A Framework and Two Case Studies
Authors: Milham Laura , Hale Kelly , Stanney Kay , Cohn Joseph , Darken Rudy , Sullivan Joseph
Published: January 2012

There are a number of studies that suggest that virtual environment (VE) systems can facilitate transfer of training (Darken & Peterson, 2002; Péruch, Belingard, & Thinus-Blanc, 2000; Rose et al., 2001). Yet this benefit is not universal, as Brooks et al. (2002) found that VE training was not beneficial for a recognition task. Thus, VE training may facilitate some types of training tasks, while not benefiting others. As technology pushes training more frequently into highly immersive environments, it is important to delineate and examine characteristics of VE trainers (such as egocentric perspective or multimodal interactivity) and consider the impact these characteristics have on training tasks and desired outcomes. Towards this end, a preliminary framework is herein presented which suggests that specific characteristics of VE systems impact specific training outcomes. This effort presents two operationally-based case studies that begin to examine different parts of the proposed framework. The first study examines how egocentric perspective was introduced into helicopter navigator training to impact spatial knowledge acquisition; the second study investigates how a VE was used to introduce interactivity into training to improve training outcomes for procedural knowledge. Given the low number of participants, no substantive conclusions can be made; rather, the studies are framed as an initial approach to VE training effectiveness within a theoretical model.
Scoring Concepts Maps: Can a Practical Method of Scoring Concept Maps be Used to Assess Trainee's Knowledge Structures?
Authors: Harper Michelle E. , Hoeft Raegan M. , Evans A.W. , Jentsch Florian G.
Published: January 2012

Previous research has indicated that the structure of an individual's knowledge may be just as important as the quantity of knowledge. Given this, using assessment methods that elicit trainee's knowledge structures seems imperative for predicting performance. Unfortunately, incorporation of these methods has been hindered, in part, due to the complexity of methods used to derive a score and the belief that simpler methods of scoring will not provide accurate information about an individual's knowledge. Presented here is a study that investigated whether this claim was true for the structural knowledge elicitation method, concept mapping. Twenty-six participants were run through a same-day training and assessment session. Following, concept maps were scored using a simple method and a complex method. Results indicated that both scoring methods produced significantly higher scores for the trained group and significantly lower scores for the untrained group. In addition, there was a very strong, positive relationship between the two scoring methods. Finally, both methods produced a moderately high correlation with the paper-pencil assessment. Results and implications are discussed further within the paper.
Implications of Team Communication Training for Distributed Team Performance in an Immersive Virtual Environment
Authors: Kring Jason P. , Hamilton Roger M. , Singer Michael J.
Published: January 2012

Distributed immersive virtual environments (VEs) allow geographically separate individuals to train together in a common setting, yet research suggests the absence of face-to-face (FTF) contact may degrade distributed team performance by negatively affecting communication-dependent team functions. This study tested whether brief team communication training (TCT) could reduce this distributed team disadvantage by imparting skills to compensate for the lack of FTF contact. Two-person teams completed a series of VE missions under local (same physical location) or distributed (different locations) conditions with half of each team type receiving TCT. Results indicated all local teams outperformed distributed teams overall, but there were no observable benefits of TCT for team performance. Explanations focus on the brevity and administration approach of the TCT as well as how cognitive overload may have negated any beneficial aspects of TCT.
Evaluating Visualization Modes for Closely-Spaced Parallel Approaches
Authors: Azuma Ronald , Fox Jason , Furmanski Chris
Published: January 2012

Raytheon's TACEC (Terminal Area Capacity Enhancement Concept) proposes to increase airspace capacity by using closely-spaced formations of arriving and departing aircraft to greatly increase airport capacities. However, a blunder in a tightly-spaced formation could cause a collision with another aircraft or its wake vortices. Therefore, humans need tools and visualization aids to detect and respond to blunders. This paper is the first in a series of experiments to evaluate the ability of different visualization modes to enable detection of lateral blunders. We tested four viewpoints, one warning aid, and three blunder speeds in a within-subjects design. This study had twelve participants. The main result was that changing the viewpoint made a large difference; the cockpit view was by far the worst. Blunder detection varied by speed and was difficult in the presence of noise. Future experiments should use more realistic simulators and pilots as participants.
Display Dimensionality and Conflict Geometry Effects on Maneuver Preferences for Resolving in-Flight Conflicts
Authors: Thomas Lisa C , Wickens Christopher D
Published: January 2012

With the presence of a cockpit display of traffic information (CDTI) that provides graphical airspace information, pilots can use a variety of conflict resolution maneuvers in response to how they perceive the conflict. Inconsistent preference findings from previous research on conflict resolution using CDTIs may be due to inherent ambiguities in 3-D displays and/or a limited range of conflict geometries. This paper describes a study that investigates conflict resolution maneuver preferences using three displays with different frames of reference and a wide range of conflict geometries. Results indicate that 3-D displays with interactive viewpoints reduced spatial ambiguities. The interactive 3-D displays produced a preference for vertical maneuvers over lateral similar to a 2-D coplanar display; however this preference was reversed under increased workload conditions for both 3-D displays. Pilots in all three display conditions showed a preference to maneuver vertically away from intruders, though this was eliminated (or reversed) as workload increased. The 2-D coplanar display induced a preference to laterally turn away from approaching intruders, which overwhelmed a trained “turn right” preference.
Interface Heuristics and Style Guide Design: An Air Battle Management Case Study
Authors: Nelson W. Todd , Bolia Robert S.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes the development of a human-machine interface style guide designed to promote a common look and feel among operator interfaces employed by air battle managers in the United States Air Force, and to reduce training requirements for operators moving between platforms. An analysis of the content of extensive operator interviews from all relevant platforms preceded the production of a compact style guide based on a few simple heuristics and populated with wire frame illustrations devised to act as examples of interfaces that were either compatible or incompatible with each rule. This novel methodology will be discussed as applied to the air battle management work domain, and in the context of its ability to produce usable style guides.
Investigating Pilot Performance Using Mixedmodality Simulated Data Link
Authors: Lancaster Jeff A. , Casali John G.
Published: January 2012

Research exploring new technology integration into general aviation (GA) cockpits is lacking, especially that which focuses on the capabilities and limitations of the single pilot. Sixteen visual flight rules (VFR) rated pilots were evaluated for data link communication performance using a flight simulator equipped with a mixed-modality simulated data link within one of two flight conditions. Modalities included textual, synthesized speech, digitized speech, and synthesized speech/textual combination. Flight conditions included VFR (unlimited ceiling, visibility) or marginal VFR (MVFR) flight conditions (clouds 2800 feet, threemile visibility). Evaluation focused on the time required accessing, understanding, and executing data link commands. Measures to evaluate workload, situation awareness, and subjective preference were also obtained. Results indicated performance, mental workload, and situation awareness differences across data link modalities and between flight conditions. Implications for operational safety in future systems that incorporate data link for use by a single pilot are discussed.
The Effect of Financial Incentive on General Aviation Vfr-Into-Imc
Authors: Knecht William
Published: January 2012

Two flight simulator studies explored the effects of financial incentive on general aviation pilots' willingness to proceed under visual flight rules flight into adverse weather. Study 1 assessed 60 pilots' takeoff behavior into varying degrees of adverse weather seen immediately at taxiway level. Thirty pilots received straight salary, while 30 received salary plus a bonus contingent on takeoff. Trend emerged in regression analysis for effect of incentive. Study 2 examined 45 pilots' in-flight continuation into weather degrading to zero visibility. Fifteen pilots received straight salary, 15 received salary plus a partial bonus, 15 received salary plus a full bonus. Bonuses were contingent on reaching the assigned destination. Although all pilots diverted before reaching the destination, financial incentive was a powerful stimulant to continuation into IMC ( p = .001). The difference between studies involves an information contrast effect. That is, when conditions deteriorate slowly, a bad situation can develop unnoticed.
Designing External Aids that Support Older Pilot Performance
Authors: Morrow Daniel , Chang Dervon , Wickens Christopher , Rantanen Esa , Raquel Liza
Published: January 2012

Communication taxes pilots' cognitive resources. External aids such as note-taking help pilots manage these demands. Morrow et al. (2003) found that note-taking eliminated age differences among pilots on a readback task compared to a no-aid condition. However, we investigated communication-only rather than multi-task environments typical of piloting. The present study compared note-taking ( kneepad) with an electronic notepad positioned next to the instrument panel in a flight simulator ( epad). The epad may be easier to coordinate with concurrent tasks because it is more integrated with flight instruments. Six older and six younger pilots used these aids to respond to ATC messages in a flight simulator. Readback accuracy was higher when pilots used either aid compared to a no-aid condition. The pattern of results suggested a smaller age difference in the aid than in the no-aid conditions. The results replicate the earlier finding of note-taking benefits and extend them to the novel epad.
Package Opening: An Evaluation of Opening Tools for the Elderly Population
Authors: Saha Chaitanya , Shehab Randa L.
Published: January 2012

Opening packages is becoming more difficult with manufacturers making packaging harder to tamper with. Consumers must apply greater force or use tools to aid them in opening. With aging, the amount of force that can be applied reduces considerably which makes it important to view the packaging problem from the perspective of the older population. The objective of the current study was to determine the effectiveness of opening tools in opening different kinds of packages. The study revealed that the tools are mostly ineffective and do not improve performance beyond the use of the hands alone. In addition, the more complex the tool, the less effective the tool was as an aid to open packaging.