bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Adjectives and adverbs
Authors: Kim Juhyae
Published: July 2023

This chapter presents an overview of adjectives and adverbs in Australian languages. Although the distinction between adjectives and nouns is often claimed not to exist in languages of Australia, the chapter summarizes semantic, distributional, syntactic, and morphological criteria that have been put forth as a means of distinguishing them. In languages where adjectives are said to be identifiable, they are categorized as nouns that semantically refer to qualities and attributes, or as a subtype of the ‘nominal’ category on more robust grammatical grounds. A survey of adverbs and their forms, relative word orders, and semantic categories is also given in this chapter. The chapter discusses how adverbs may occur as non-inflecting particles or as derivations with ‘adverbial’ functions, typically adjacent to verbs or at clause boundaries. Finally, the semantic subtypes of adverbs found across languages are primarily locative/spatial, temporal, and manner/degree, but may also include demonstrative, interrogative, imperative, and negation.
Questions
Authors: Kim Juhyae , Bowern Claire
Published: July 2023

This chapter describes the various questioning strategies found in Australian languages. We begin with an overview of question-forming intonation, lexical items, and clitics and particles. Though the syntax of questions is not well documented, we survey the structures of polar, content, tag, and embedded questions. It is clear that intonation patterns and particles are commonly attested in polar questions. Questions formed with rising intonation are said to have the same syntactic structure as declarative sentences, though detailed descriptions of intonation are lacking. In many languages, interrogative words used in content questions also have indefinite readings. These uses are often distinguished based on the word order: interrogatives occur clause-initially, while indefinites occur elsewhere. Finally, we briefly discuss the semantics of questions in this chapter. This includes polarity, pragmatics of question particles, and rhetorical questions, all of which warrant further investigation in the future.
Insults and compliments
Authors: Walsh Michael
Published: July 2023

Because of the relative paucity of literature on these topics a range of scholars with a substantial background in the study of Australian Languages was approached. Among the questions put to them were: Apart from mock insults, e.g. joking relationship, are there ‘genuine’ insults in classic Indigenous Australia?; What is the situation in post-classical Indigenous Australia?; Do insults directed towards non-Indigenous people differ from those directed towards Indigenous people?; Are there regional differences among Indigenous people re insults and compliments?; To what extent can an insult also be a compliment; Are insults and compliments encapsulated in nicknames?; To what extent do compliments invite demand sharing? Not surprisingly, the scope of the terms, insults and compliments, in Australian Languages differs from English.
Restricted respect registers and auxiliary languages
Authors: Walsh Michael
Published: July 2023

In the past it is likely that many Australian Languages used restricted respect registers and auxiliary languages. By now the best documented examples are to be found in northern Australia as these would have been early casualties as everyday forms of speech declined. This chapter deals not only with avoidance styles (including so called mother-in-law languages and brother-in-law languages) but also with initiate styles, bereavement styles, joking styles, teenagers’ language and baby talk. Because of the limited documentation across the continent, it is difficult to make generalizations about the nature and distribution of these ‘languages on the side’.
Language policy, planning, and standardization
Authors: Amery Rob
Published: July 2023

This chapter discusses policies and deliberate measures that shape Australian Indigenous languages and their use. Past policies have resulted in loss of most Australian languages and marginalization of those remaining. However, over the past half-century policy has shifted. Whilst there have been major advances (funding for Aboriginal language centres and language projects; 2017 NSW Aboriginal Languages Act; 2015 national curriculum for Australian languages in schools; 2009 National Indigenous Languages Policy) there are still major gaps. There remains no national recognition of Indigenous languages, and few training opportunities and career paths for language workers and teachers of Indigenous languages. Australian languages remain under-funded and marginalized. Language planning measures are viewed in this chapter from three inter-related perspectives: status planning, corpus planning, and education planning. It is grounded in a Kaurna case study of the Adelaide Plains language, where extensive standardization measures have been applied to re-awakening language over three decades.
Indigenous children’s language practices in Australia
Authors: Wigglesworth Gillian , Disbray Samantha
Published: July 2023

Research on linguistic ecologies and languages of Indigenous children has examined patterns of language development, shift, innovation, and change, which reveal that all Australian traditional Indigenous languages are endangered. In this paper we reflect on the importance of understanding how children acquire these languages which are often typologically very different from those languages generally reported in the acquisition studies and how these studies may contribute to the theories of language acquisition. Our focus is on the range of methodological approaches adopted by studies which have been undertaken to date, many of which highlight the importance of social practice in maintaining traditional language practices. We also detail new approaches, importantly the development of two multigenerational studies which are being conducted among speakers of languages, which continue to be acquired by children, Pitjantjatjara and Murrinhpatha, and which provide an important window into language shift and change in these languages.
Contact language case studies
Authors: Angelo Denise
Published: July 2023

This chapter takes a fresh look at contemporary contact languages spoken by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Contact languages are treated here in groupings which are based on broad typological criteria, historical and sociolinguistic data, as well distinctive core language features. There is a north-eastern grouping of English-lexified creole languages spoken in the Torres Strait and on northern Cape York, including Yumplatok, Cape York Creole, and Lockhart River Creole. The Queensland Settlement contact languages are included in a grouping which acknowledges the historical superdiversity of Indigenous residents’ language backgrounds. Mixed languages (Gurindji Kriol, Light Warlpiri, and the less researched Modern Tiwi), are distinguished on the grounds of considerable traditional Aboriginal language material. The periphery of the Kriol speaking area is a dynamic and extensive zone of language contact and diffusion. Each grouping of contact languages is illustrated via case studies.
Introduction
Authors: Stone Dan
Published: July 2023

The introduction gives examples of the kinds of information that can be found in the International Tracing Service archive. It explains the emergence and growth of the archive and the hugely varied material that it contains. It gives a brief explanation of the ITS’s history and provides an overview of the sub-units that make up the vast archive, explaining what is original to the archive and what copied from elsewhere, and how the ITS came by some of the material that it holds. Finally, it gives examples of the work being done today to trace missing persons and to return objects to survivors or their descendants.
Tracing the Tracers
Authors: Stone Dan
Published: July 2023

Chapter 1 covers the history of the International Tracing Service, from the founding of its predecessor organizations during World War II to the present day. It looks in detail at the creation of a tracing unit under the auspices of the Allied military and the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, and the passing of control from that body to others, especially to the International Committee of the Red Cross in 1955. It examines the ITS in the context of the Cold War, shows why the Red Cross was initially excluded from but then invited to run the body, and why the ICRC finally surrendered its mandate in the early twenty-first century. The chapter examines the roles played by the military, displaced persons, and humanitarian organizations in running the ITS, and shows how ITS was bound up with Cold War politics and debates about the reassertion of West German sovereignty.
The Legion of the Lost
Authors: Stone Dan
Published: July 2023

This chapter examines the ways in which the ITS set about tracing missing people in the immediate aftermath of World War II. It did so by ‘mass tracing’, that is, radio broadcasts, publishing lists, and appeals in the press and in assembly points, but this was a measure of last resort. The bulk of the chapter analyses the process of ‘graves recheck’, later renamed ‘identification of the unknown dead’, whereby the ITS’s fieldworkers, working alongside the military authorities, tried to identify the bodies—victims of death marches—that had been buried on roadsides or in local cemeteries, as well as massacre sites and mass graves in concentration camps. The process was complex and slow and relied on information, such as cemetery maps, provided by local mayors. This information, held in ITS, provides a compelling insight into what was an emotionally and politically charged process and one that yielded relatively few cases of positive identification, but which has left behind a remarkable body of sources.
Europe’s Missing Children
Authors: Stone Dan
Published: July 2023

When the Allies set up the body that became the International Tracing Service, they did not expect to have to deal with children in anything other than small numbers. When the scale of the problem of ‘unaccompanied children’ became clear, they established a separate Child Search Branch. In the first years of its existence, the CSB searched for children ‘in the field’, e.g. in orphanages and foster homes, and, after 1950, conducted tracing on the basis of the documentary evidence it held. At the same time, ITS was involved in helping unaccompanied children to be reunited with their families or, where this was not possible, to be repatriated to their country of origin or resettled in a third country. The chapter discloses the emotionally fraught nature of this work, analyses the enormously controversial question of who had the right to decide on children’s futures, and reveals the great lengths to which the dedicated staff at the CSB went in order to help children, often in the face of political and bureaucratic obstacles.
Rijnsburg Years (1661–1663)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter recounts Spinoza’s departure from Amsterdam and two-year stay in Rijnsburg where he drafted a large part of his Ethics. It describes Rijnsburg, its history and its Collegiant connections, and the start of Spinoza’s long correspondence with the secretary of the Royal Society in London, Henry Oldenburg. It gives details of Oldenburg’s 1661 trip to Holland and connections in Amsterdam, Leiden, and The Hague as well as his relationship to Robert Boyle and role in European science at this time. It also analyses Spinoza’s connection with Leiden University and his interest in anatomical dissections at this time and his ties with the Danish scientist Nicolas Steno as well as with Johannes Bouwmeester, Lodewijk Meyer, Ole Borch, Jan Swammerdam, and Christiaan Huygens.
Spinoza and the Scientific Revolution
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

Grappling with the principles and implications of Descartes’ system meant also thinking a good deal about the scientific and medical issues of the day. During the early 1660s, this “research into the nature of things,” Spinoza’s philosophical endeavour, also meant vesting much time in, and discussing, experimental work to which he then devoted much of his effort especially in the fields of optics, microscopy, physics demonstrations, and studying chemical reactions. As part of this broad effort to reform the Cartesian philosophy in all respects, he was interested too in mathematics and astronomy and, through his friendships with Steno and Kerckring, kept abreast of the latest work in anatomy and human and animal dissection. His correspondence with Oldenburg, moreover, led on to his developing a critique of Robert Boyle’s experiments with niter (which Boyle plainly rejected), and of Bacon and the Baconian “pure empiricism” of the Royal Society more generally.
Spinoza and the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1664–1667)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter considers how Spinoza life and work were affected by the Second Anglo-Dutch War, how Charles II’s policy towards the United Provinces led to the outbreak of war, with its severe economic impact, disruption of correspondence abroad, and other immediate effects. Meanwhile, the scientists, scholars, and philosophers constituting the Anglo-Dutch segment of the international “republic of letters” shared—at least in theory—lofty ideals across borders, and sank into a mood of dismay. In the fraught ambience of 1664–5, the philosophical and scientific fraternity loudly condemned the disruptive, ruinous, undesirable consequences of war, and of simplistic, unrestrained national zeal, stressing the desirability of peace and stability for human well-being, society, and all the arts and sciences, and consequent need to contemplate the world’s disputes with a calm, compassionate gaze. This chapter considers how far they kept to this ideal also in practice as well as the impact of the plague epidemic that swept the Dutch Republic in the early part of the war, forcing Spinoza to take refuge for a time on a farm near Schiedam.
Spinoza, Meyer, and the 1666 Philosophia Controversy
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter recounts the furious controversy that gripped the Dutch Republic in 1666 over the Philosophia S.Scripturae Interpres (1666), probably by Lodewijk Meyer, the importance of this work in discussion of Bible criticism, and the extent to which Spinoza became involved in the controversy. It also considers the relationship of Adriaan and Johannes Koerbagh to Spinoza’s Bible criticism and general philosophy, the impact of the anonymous subversive work De Jure Ecclesiasticorum, also linked to Spinoza and his circle, and the rise of the philosophical underground as a cultural force and its relationship to the Utrecht “College of Sçavanten.”
From the Jaws of Defeat (1666–1667)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter recounts the final stages of the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the reasons for England’s surprising defeat, Spinoza’s tenuous continuing correspondence with Oldenburg during the war, and why Spinoza took the view that although modern science was a key aid to the improvement of human society, and continued avidly following experimental science, he became convinced that the Baconian experimental creed of Boyle, Sprat, and Oldenburg represented a timid motor of change compared to the philosophical engine he was preparing. It considers also how the war, and the growing menace of Louis XIV’s France, from 1667, affected Spinoza’s political and social thought as he wrote his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus.
Nil Volentibus Arduum
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

The point of diffusing subversive philosophical ideas in a Spinozistic context was to assist men and women to live richer, more fulfilling lives by freeing them from their misconceptions, by enlightening sufficiently to free men from tyrants, exploiters, and theologians. But acquiring adequate ideas philosophically is arduous work and Spinoza recognizes that few are capable of it. Fortunately, there are other, more broadly appealing, ways to strengthen humanity’s disposition, enabling men and women to learn to see through “superstition” and adopt a useful and good plan of life. This chapter considers Spinoza’s friends’ involvement in the Amsterdam theatre and poetry society Nil Volentibus Arduum and its effort to reform the Amsterdam theatre and set new standards for the arts, and art and literary criticism more generally and also analyses Meyer’s philosophical approach to “the passions” and relates this to Spinoza’s treatment of the passions in his Ethics.
Revolution in Bible Criticism
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter considers the significance of the subversive Bible criticism that Spinoza develops in his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, how it relates to general trends in seventeenth-century Bible criticism and the special role of Hebrew studies in Spinoza’s particular approach to the subject. Showing how denial of the possibility of miracles serves as a defining feature of the entire text, the chapter also demonstrates how the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus seeks systematically to undermine religious authority, that of the Christian churches no less than that of the rabbis. It considers also Spinoza’s debt to Ibn Ezra and seeks to demonstrate that Spinoza’s “Ezra thesis,” that the Old Testament as we have it, including most of the Pentateuch, was redacted after the Babylonian captivity in the time of Ezra the Scribe, is more radical and far-reaching than the tentative Ezra thesis presented earlier by Hobbes and La Peyrère.
Publishing the Theological-Political Treatise
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter considers the clandestine techniques used to publish the TTP, its early impact, the efforts made by the Dutch Reformed Church councils and synods and several of the city governments to suppress the book and the early efforts, not least those of the Utrecht Collegie der Sçavanten to publish powerful rebuttals of the TTP promptly and why this campaign was not very successful. It also considers the early reactions of Leibniz and Steno and the difficulty of ascertaining for certain who the anonymous author of the TTP was, even after rumours attributing it to Spinoza began to circulate.
Intensifying Reaction (Early 1670s)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

As Leibniz pointed out after he read it, in 1671, the TTP is a formidable book by a highly intelligent dissident comprehensively denying everything the churches teach and what nearly everyone believed, and it was intensely frustrating, not least to him, that while the uproar over the TTP showed no sign of abating there was still no effective, powerful rebuttal in the Netherlands, Germany, or anywhere else. This chapter considers the continuing furore and the eventual emergence of the opening series of refutations with those of Van Mansvelt, Jacob Thomasius, Johannes Musaeus (1613–91), Frans Kuyper, and Lambert van Velthuysen prominent among them.
Spinoza’s Libertine “French Circle”
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

Most of Spinoza’s allies, editors, translators, and publishers were of Dutch background. But, in addition, several were French or French-speaking. The Hague of the late 1660s and 1670s harboured a milieu of cosmopolitan wits but in key respects the predominantly French libertinage Spinoza encountered at The Hague in later 1660s and 1670s, especially in the milieu of the famed bon vivant, moralist, and fine essayist, Saint-Évremond, constituted a very different cultural and intellectual phenomenon, from both Dutch subversive freethinking of the time and that arising in Britain and Ireland, with the beginnings of the “deist” tendency of the 1680s and 1690s. At The Hague in the 1660s, “Epicureans” in the circle of Saint-Évremond frequented high society gatherings and showed little sign of seeking to attack the existing social and political order, or even outwardly express their usually carefully masked inner rejection of the surrounding world’s “entire Christian culture.” However, a number of Huguenot refugees in Holland were drawn into Spinoza’s circle and particular attention is given here to Saint-Glain the translator of the TTP into French, Jean Maximilien Lucas, Spinoza’s supposed first biographer, and Henry Morelli.
Disaster Year (1672)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter considers how Spinoza and his circle were affected by the outbreak of the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–4), the military pact of Louis XIV and Charles II of England to overwhelm the Republic and the French and Munsterite invasion that conquered around half of the Republic during the summer of 1672. As a result of the disasters at the front and accompanying political crisis, the De Witt regime was overthrown and a general Orangist-Calvinist reaction began. No less than 610 Dutch pamphlets appeared between June and August 1672 with a high proportion calling for a thorough purge of the traitors, the filth of “Loevesteiners, Barneveldists and Arminians” from city governments, those who had opened the town halls, as one tract put it, to “freethinkers, papists, etc.,” several of which cite the threat posed by Spinoza.
Amsterdam Revisited (1673–1675)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter relates how Spinoza was affected by the French withdrawal from the Netherlands, the end of the Third Anglo-Dutch War, the growing Orangist-Calvinist reaction in the Netherlands in the mid-1670s, and the crack-down on the Dutch Cartesians as well as the political purges in Utrecht and the eastern provinces. In 1675, Spinoza returned to and spent a period in Amsterdam where the new Portuguese synagogue was just being inaugurated and where he had meetings with his publisher, Rieuwertsz, his group of followers there, and also with Philipp van Limborch and no doubt others. The chapter explains that the Ethics was now finished and Spinoza hoped to publish it at this point but then decided, as he explained to Oldenburg, that this would be too risky.
Fighting Back
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter continues relating the early English reaction to Spinoza on the part of Boyle, More, Cudworth, and Stillingfleet, who continued their concerted campaign to block Spinoza’s progress by detaching his arguments from his name and person while attacking the former and preventing both attracting increased attention. Besides well-known opponents of Spinoza in the late 1670s such as Boyle, More, Cudworth, Stillingfleet, Lady Anne Conway (1631–79) and Baxter, it also discusses several lesser known figures writing to repel Spinoza at the end of his life such as John Wilson and another moderate Puritan minister, John Howe (1630–1705), describing a cumulative concerted campaign to block Spinoza’s progress. This chapter also considers the parallel process in France in the late 1670s.
A Tumultuous Aftermath
Authors: Israel Jonathan I.
Published: July 2023

This chapter recounts how Spinoza’s manuscripts escaped destruction and were transferred into the keeping of his editors in Amsterdam, and discusses the clandestine editing of his manuscripts and sifting of his correspondence that followed. It explains why Dutch translations of the Opera Posthuma were prepared for simultaneous publication with the main Latin version, as well as the efforts orchestrated by Steno, Neercassel, and the papal Inquisition to stifle Spinoza’s works at birth, before publication, and why these efforts failed. It considers too the early impact of publication of his Opera Posthuma especially the Ethics in the Netherlands, France, England, and Germany.
Default Assumptions and Pure Thought
Authors: Sosa Ernest
Published: July 2023

The basic framework of telic virtue epistemology is here sketched in the first few paragraphs, and then supplemented through a concept of “default assumptions” introduced and defended in my?Epistemic Explanations, although the defense in this chapter goes far beyond what is found in the book. Here the basic idea is explained and is shown to fit within the telic approach in the book. The bulk of the present paper then goes into issues beyond those in the book, such as those of “pure thought.” No prior acquaintance with the framework or with the book is presupposed.
Externalism Explained
Authors: Littlejohn Clayton
Published: July 2023

This chapter argues that an important virtue of externalism about justification is that it helps to explain the value of knowledge. It also develops and expands upon the line of argument that is taken to be the most promising argument for externalism, one that appeals to morally loaded cases. Externalism is needed to understand how it could both be true that we’re subject to certain widely accepted normative requirements and that we should be guided by our beliefs. Since internalist views imply that these normative requirements don’t apply to all rational agents or that rational agents shouldn’t be guided by their beliefs even when they believe precisely those things that they ought to believe, we have very good reason for rejecting their picture of what we ought to believe.
Introduction
Authors: Stevens Crawshaw Jane L.
Published: July 2023

The introduction explores the symbolic and practical connections between people and their environments in the premodern period. It outlines Renaissance humoural theory and the implications of this for concepts of cleanliness and health, focusing particularly on the perceived relationship between morality, behaviour and dirt. Using methodologies from social and cultural history, this section also introduces the specific, premodern understanding of space and its agency. Finally, this section outlines the comparison at the heart of this monograph. The traditionally diverging histories of Genoa and Venice are analysed and the justification and methodology underpinning their comparison—as important Northern Italian ports and Republics—is described.
Conclusion
Authors: Stevens Crawshaw Jane L.
Published: July 2023

The conclusion traces continuity and change across the chronological, as well as geographical, boundaries of this study. It underscores the intersection of ideals and practice which has been developed over the previous chapters and reinforces the results of the comparison between the structures and practices of environmental management in Genoa and Venice. It illustrates that, in both cities, environmental management included both public and private initiatives and compares the language used to justify interventions, considering what that reveals about the nature of civic identity in the two ports. Finally it draws together the characterization of environmental management and the varied connections drawn with public health.
A State of Two Nations?
Authors: Hachhethu Krishna
Published: July 2023

Since its inception, Madheshi sub-nationalism has been expressed in political mobilization initiated by ethno-regional parties. Against the internal colonization that the Madhesh has long suffered, the Madheshis revolted time and again. Irrespective of internal or horizontal differences among themselves in terms of caste, ethnicity, language, and religion, the Madheshi people have a shared perception that Nepal is a country of two nations, Pahadi and Madheshi. To translate this perception into political constituency and legal documents at a critical time of constitution-making (2008–2015), the Madheshi parties struggled hard both inside and outside the Constituent Assembly. Of three contesting proposals—‘one Madhesh, one Pradesh’, ‘one Madhesh, two Pradesh’ and ‘one Madesh, many Pradeshs’—put forth at the negotiating table, the new constitution adopts the last one. So, the Madheshis, like Janajatis, have strong reservations about the constitutional arrangement of federal design of the country.
Resistance and Reversion
Authors: Hachhethu Krishna
Published: July 2023

At a critical time of constitution-making, Nepal also observed the Khas Arya movements. At the outset, in the first half of a decade-long transition period (2006–2015), the state restructuring project was overwhelmed by Janajati and Madheshi radical agendas, including the Constituent Assembly-I’s recommendation for identity-based federalism. This in turn sought an end to the age-long domination of the Khas Aryas. Such fears worked for an effective mobilization of the hill caste people in launching a powerful counter-movement. Since they are equipped with both ‘ascriptive power’ (e.g. a superior position in the hierarchical caste order) and ‘achieved power’ through education and networking with state machineries (i.e. court, bureaucracy, and security sector), this community eventually prevailed to de-ethnicize the content of the state restructuring project, including on federal design. Indeed, they have controlled the leadership position of almost all the major political parties of the country.
Madness in popular medicine
Authors: Davies Owen
Published: July 2023

The early psychiatrists wrestled with popular notions of madness that may seem nonsense today, but which had deep roots in the orthodox medicine of the early modern era and beyond. Everyone could easily accept from personal experience and lore that cranial injuries could bring on madness, for instance, but most of this chapter is taken up with more problematic notions that lie behind terms such as ‘touched in the head’, ‘moon-struck’, ‘sun struck’, ‘possessed’, and ‘mad as a dog’. These suggested that madness was a result of uncontrollable external forces that affected both the minds and bodies of animals and humans equally. They were rooted in ancient medical theories and venerable notions of astrology, providence, sympathetic magic, and supernatural assault.
Making sense of science and technology
Authors: Davies Owen
Published: July 2023

Everyone was confronted with the same cognitive challenge when faced with new invisible power sources, mechanical innovations, electrical communications, and the replication of humanity through captured image and voice. But some people were initially confused, suspicious, and disorientated and tried to make sense of technology within the language and framework of magic and the supernatural. Patients’ fears and concerns about mesmerism, electricity, batteries, telephones, X-rays, and the cinematograph were not primeval responses, as some psychiatrists suggested, but essentially human and modern. Familiarity soon allayed fears, although those with severe mental health issues would move on to fixate on some new subject of unseen agency or object of scientific terror.
Introduction
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

Dürer’s altarpiece for Jakob Heller was one of most significant and spiritually inspiring commissions he received, and one of only ten altarpieces he ever painted. The introduction argues that it is Dürer’s lost masterpiece. Throughout the sixteenth century, the Heller altarpiece was among Dürer’s best-known paintings, yet soon after completing it in 1509 Dürer stopped taking on such commissions. Heller had made him furious. This prologue sets out the book’s aim to show why the Heller altarpiece was a turning point in Dürer’s career and how looking at the importance of merchants as tastemakers allows us to tell the story of Europe’s emerging art market in new ways.
Herr Jakob Heller
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

The merchant Jakob Heller and his wife Katharina Melem were important patrons of art in sixteenth-century Frankfurt. They were rich and influential, and able to control everything in their lives with one exception. Katharina was infertile. In this age, infertility equated to failure in maintaining the family line. This chapter tells the story of the couple, and reveals why devotion for the Virgin Mary, the subject of an altarpiece they commissioned from Dürer, may have been spiritually so important to them. This chapter outlines the couple’s life and their art commissions, and pays particular attention to the question of what the experience of infertility might have entailed.
Oil and Pigment
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

The desire to paint with care had turned Albrecht Dürer to this career. This chapter argues that Dürer as an artist can only be appreciated if we similarly recognize how many exciting experiments and ideas underpinned painting, and how an understanding of materials was bound up with philosophy and religion. To understand how Dürer painted, in short, means to uncover far more than ‘techniques’. Materiality connected with ideas. His letters to Heller show how he tried to educate the merchant about what was actually materially involved in creating a high-quality oil painting that would not deteriorate over hundreds of years.
Hans Fugger’s Taste for Painting
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

The thousands of letters Hans Fugger has left demonstrate that his taste for painting and forging the careers of painters was limited. They tell us just why other types of objects became so attractive, and what cultural ideas and visions were attached to them. Private zoos, aviaries, and cabinets of curiosities perhaps seem fanciful to us today. Why did anyone care about, and pay so much for live elks, canaries, coral, or Turkish shoes and stuffed birds of paradise? Moreover, Fugger spent enormous amounts of money on novel consumer goods, and in particular on dress. To us, much of this is amusing, and expenditure on dress has often been sidelined even by historians of Renaissance luxury consumption. The analysis in this chapter shows that items of dress were at the heart of trade, material knowledge, and innovation in this period, and hence could be valued more than paintings.
The Flow of Things
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

The court of Bavaria eventually bought the Heller altarpiece in 1614, but up to the 1590s hardly took any notice of Dürer as a painter. I focus on the remarkable life of Wilhelm V of Bavaria, who spent enormous amounts on artefacts or animals which he turned into one of the major collections of his age. This underpinned Bavarian claims to leadership in the politics of the Holy Roman Empire. But his collecting also led to financial collapse. Wilhelm’s relationship with Hans Fugger was central to his collecting. Hans Fugger first encountered Wilhelm as a young Crown Prince. He began to foot many of Wilhelm’s bills and fed his desire for new objects. This chapter takes us into their relationship and the tastes of two aesthetes and power brokers who spurred each other on.
The Debt Crisis Implodes
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

As Wilhelm’s debts increased the Crown Prince became ever more difficult to maintain. The question of what type of conspicuous consumption was necessary for a German dynasty to play a leading role in Europe’s court society was at stake. Yet unsustainable luxury consumption brought several courts to the brink. This chapter sets out the changing relationship of Hans Fugger to the Munich court and his role as broker of curiosities and fashion. The relationship continued to be conducted both in person and through correspondence. Different protocols attached to these media of communication, which Fugger and the Crown Prince sought to manipulate to their advantage.
The Lives of Northern Painters
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

The third part of this book shows how these shifts in connoisseurship newly interconnected European culture, states, and societies. Europe’s art market had become more integrated by 1600, and interest in old Northern masters had become more marked. Carel van Mander wrote a history of Northern painters that included Dürer’s Heller altarpiece. The art agent emerged as a distinct new figure, and auctions became a wider phenomenon. Collectors searched for copies of famous paintings and originals everywhere, even if this meant removing them from churches and monasteries. The introduction to this part sets out the context of the changes as a result of which several rulers began to negotiate with Frankfurt’s Dominicans to sell Dürer’s Heller altarpiece. Yet, for the moment, they were not inclined to sell.
Becoming Philipp Hainhofer
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

To understand Hainhofer as a historical figure, we need to investigate his biography as a Lutheran merchant in his age and in Amsterdam and Augsburg as cities that had turned into a hub of innovation and knowledge by 1600. Amsterdam and Augsburg were hubs of innovation and knowledge by 1600. Hainhofer changed from a career in trading silk textiles to one focused on collecting or creating curiosities and rarities. He began to forge networks among lovers of art and adapted his own comportment and interests to suit these communities. This provided the merchant son with access to the most powerful princes. The chapter focuses on the first and formative steps of Hainhofer´s education, when he was a student in Italy.
Trading Silks and a Fragile Career
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

For any merchant, a crucial part of his education was mastering accounting, different currencies, weights, and conversion rates. It involved scouting opportunities to achieve the best price for quality. But, above all, this was an education in material discernment. In relation to silks this meant getting to know different qualities of fabrics, ‘connoscere la seta et drapi’, with a reliable a silk merchant. This chapter explores HainhoferÂ´s first education in such material discernment, and how it would have shaped his evaluation of other types of matter through preferencea for sheen and translucency. It also demonstrates the contemporary interest in material imitation and variety.
Material Presence
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

The fascination with rarities is particularly brought out by Wilhelm’s and Hainhofer’s interests in shells and in ice bear skins. This chapter demonstrates how the burgeoning literature on adventurous travels to foreign lands stimulated these interests and excitement about new ongoing discoveries which artefacts embodied. It thus argues that artefacts were embedded on social relationships. These relationships among art connoisseurs could also broker access to knowledge about how high-quality artefacts were to be found and prepared. Hainhofer thus offered rare information about how shells from Indonesia were polished by the Dutch to enhance their value and appeal.
The Age of Maximilian I
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

Few in the German lands aggressively furthered confessional strive like Maximilian I of Bavaria, Wilhelm’s son. This chapter introduces the ruler and his priorities as collector. It reflects on the duke’s library acquistions and analyses Hainhofer’s assessment of the duke’s personality when he visited the Munich court. Hainhofer’s minute observations of his visit offer an unparalleled source of information about courtly protocol and change in a new age of financial austerity and Wittelsbach power politics. Soon, Maximilian began to systematically hunt Dürers for his private art gallery. Dürer’s Heller altarpiece topped the list of works he most wanted to own.
Hunting Dürer
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

Maximilian I’s interests ran parallel to the full emergence and greater international integration of the European market for paintings and rarities. Art, politics, and religion intertwined in new ways. Maximilian of Bavaria’s chase of Dürer’s altarpiece commissioned by Heller tells us much about the meanings this painting took on a full century after its creation. The Heller altarpiece depicted the Virgin Mary and fitted Maximilian’s ideas to the core. Dürer had painted his Mary a decade before the Protestant Reformation shook Germany. Nuremberg became one of the most important cities to turn Lutheran in defiance of the Habsburg Emperors. Yet, one century later, Maximilian spearheaded a movement that turned the Virgin Mary into a triumphant symbol of militant Catholic Reform he championed across the Holy Roman Empire—in Germany, Austria, and Bohemia. Maximilian I moreover particularly valued ‘cleanliness’ in execution and moral conduct, and just like Heller and Dürer in their marriages, he and his first wife were unable to conceive children.
Special Things
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

Maximilian’s engagement with the arts has often been portrayed through his interest in painting, which makes him seem ‘modern’. His connection with Philipp Hainhofer reveals him as more of a man of his time, who was keen to spend large sums of money for miniature birds and other curiosities, or send a cabinet of curiosities to China in the interest of diplomacy and of spreading his fervent Catholic faith. Hainhofer’s world makes visible how important the taste for curiosities continued to be, and how painting still formed only one among other luxury goods valued at the time.
A British Spy?
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

The outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War in 1617 severely challenged the movement of art lovers in its irenic aspects—its mission to enable a diplomatic rapport between Catholics and Protestants and foster common values among Europeans through a love of culture. This chapter charts the devastating impact of the war on Philipp Hainhofer’s business. It tells the story of how he, the Lutheran, was recommended as a spy for the British and then finally cut off by Wilhelm of Bavaria from the Munich court. As the Thirty Years’ War took its course, the diplomatic mission of art lovers and art agents was challenged.
Epilogue
Authors: Rublack Ulinka
Published: July 2023

The epilogue outlines the key themes and methods of the book, which analyses the making of a modern world of art and commerce. Commerce and commercial mindsets operate as cultural forces, and this book shows how these concerns wove themselves into history and understandings of art as the influence of the world economy on Europe grew. These historical contexts need to be approached in an anthropological vein—by asking who gave what meaning and value to visual media ranging from paintings to shells, how, and why. Artefacts informed cultural and political practices, ranging from contemplation and curiosity to a German ruler’s understanding of order, time, and cleanliness, for instance. They reshaped societies. The epilogue ends the biography of a lost Renaissance masterpiece: the altarpiece commissioned from Dürer by Heller, and the astonishing story of how it was made and valued before the Reformation, and how it became enmeshed in the drive of the Bavarian rulers to assert themselves, as Germany became the European country most riven by warfare in the name of religion. To tell the story of one of the best painters of all times and his forgotten masterpiece offers a rich and surprising narrative about culture, politics, and society in Germany and Europe across a formative period when the arts expanded in scope and significance across the world.
Introduction
Authors: Gilbert Nora
Published: July 2023

The Introduction provides an overview of some of the social, legal, and economic developments of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that caused the trope of female flight to resonate especially strongly with audiences of the period—developments such as the rise of the companionate marriage ideal that led to more women defying their parents’ wishes and running off with partners of their choosing; family law reforms that expanded the rights of women who chose to run away from their husbands; advancements in transportation technology that allowed women to relocate with increasing speed and anonymity, etc.. It also outlines the book’s theoretical and organizational methodologies, and provides summaries of the seven chapters that move, in roughly chronological order, through a variety of literary genres in which the runaway-woman figure played a leading role: amatory fiction, sentimental fiction, gothic fiction, the novel of manners, provincial fiction, sensation fiction, and New Woman fiction.
Fear of the Fast Young Lady
Authors: Gilbert Nora
Published: July 2023

There are three types of female mobility that persistently serve as subjects of concern in the sensation novels discussed in this chapter: social mobility (i.e., the ability to move up or down in social class), legal mobility (i.e., in particular, the ability to move in or out of the institution of marriage), and locomotive mobility (i.e., the ability to move quickly and covertly via the expanding railway system). Positioned at a point in time when social, legal, and transportational developments seemed to be conspiring together to blur and upend longstanding gender, class, and geographic boundaries, the fugitive mobilities afforded to the class-crossing, train-riding, shape-shifting female protagonists of Ellen Wood’s East Lynne (1861), Mary Elizabeth Braddon’s Lady Audley’s Secret (1862), and Wilkie Collins’s No Name (1863) appear to have taken hold of the popular imagination in a way that felt more sensationally threatening than ever before.
The Court and the Treaties
Authors: Spieker Luke Dimitrios
Published: July 2023

This chapter assesses, how the hierarchical division of primary law can foster the coherence of primary law. In the past, the Court has relied on Community objectives and free-floating general principles to establish coherence among the vast array of Treaty provisions. Yet, both concepts have lost much of their appeal. Article 2 TEU and the hierarchical division of primary law constitute a new tool providing stronger guidance for the interpretation of Treaty provisions and the resolution of conflicts among them. Eventually, an interpretation of primary law in conformity with Article 2 TEU can help the Court to adjust outcomes that are not compatible with the achieved stage of integration anymore (e.g. asymmetries between market freedoms and fundamental rights) and to overcome the EU legal order’s own deficiencies with regard to its values (e.g. restrictive standing requirements before the EU courts).
Horizontal Review
Authors: Spieker Luke Dimitrios
Published: July 2023

This chapter explores two horizontal ways in which national institutions can contribute to ensuring constitutional homogeneity across the Verbund. First, national governments can launch infringement procedures under Article 259 TFEU. This path seems especially promising if Member States launch such procedures together. Second, national courts can review a Member State’s compliance with Article 2 TEU through the gateway of mutual recognition regimes. The Court clarified that cooperation under these regimes must be suspended in case of demonstrated non-compliance with Article 2 TEU. This turns mutual recognition regimes into instruments for detecting and countering systemic deficiencies. Yet, this gateway has been conceived in extremely narrow terms and proves difficult to handle in practice. So far, only the European Arrest Warrant regime has been operated in this way. Still, this approach could be extended to other mutual recognition regimes as well and thus increase the pressure on non-compliant Member States.
Bottom-Up Review
Authors: Spieker Luke Dimitrios
Published: July 2023

This chapter examines the role that national constitutional courts can play in stabilizing the constitutional homogeneity across the Verbund. Many national legal systems feature certain constitutional principles which make up the Member State’s constitutional identity and which must be respected at the EU level. Voicing concerns in this respect before the Court of Justice and assessing the Union’s compliance with these principles can become an important tool for securing the Verbund’s constitutional homogeneity. Currently, however, many identity doctrines seem rather geared towards destructive contestation. In order for them to become a constructive bottom-up check, this chapter suggests articulating identity concerns under the banner of Article 2 TEU. Eventually, the Union’s values and the Member States’ constitutional identities consist of overlapping principles. Such a shift would foster a more constructive dialogue, counter abuses of identity doctrines, and help ensure constitutional homogeneity throughout the Verbund.