bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Waste, 1. Introduction and Legal Aspects
Authors: Thomé‐Kozmiensky Karl J. , Willnow Sophie
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Origin of Waste1.1.Municipal Waste1.2.Hazardous Waste1.3.Future Determination of Waste Generation2.Legal Aspects2.1.Introduction2.2.The Recycling Act2.3.Principles of Recycling2.3.1.Avoidance before Recovery2.3.2.Material and Thermal Reclamation2.4.Legal Formulation of Recycling2.5.Disposal Standard‐TA Abfall2.5.1.TA Abfall2.5.2.TA Siedlungsabfall2.6.Hierarchy of Responsibility2.7.Approval of Waste Disposal Facilities2.8.Monitoring of Waste Disposal2.8.1.Monitoring2.8.2.Transportation Approval2.9.Plant Officer for Waste2.10.Waste Management Concepts and Balances2.10.1.Waste Management Concepts2.10.2.Waste Management Balances2.11.Remediation of Hazardous Waste Sites2.11.1.Duty to Remediate2.11.2.Other Duties2.11.3.Financing of Remediation of Hazardous Waste Sites2.12.Criminal Offenses and Infringements of Regulations2.13.Civil Liability2.13.1.Product Responsibility2.13.2.Damage Claims3.Organization of Hazardous‐Waste Disposal4.Acknowledgement
Nanotechnology
Authors: Rubahn Horst‐Guenter
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Preparation of Nanoscaled Samples2.1.Bottom‐Up Nanotechnology2.1.1.Epitaxial Growth2.1.2.Self‐Organization2.1.3.Tubes and Wires2.1.4.Dots2.1.5.Chains2.1.6.Nanoarchitecture2.2.Top‐Down Methods2.2.1.Imaging Photolithography2.2.2.Electron Beam Lithography2.2.3.Nanoimprint Methods2.2.4.Nanostructures via Scanning Probe Methods3.Characterization Methods4.New Applications4.1.Integrated Optics, Nanooptics and Non‐Linear Optics4.1.1.Light Sources4.1.2.Frequency Doublers4.1.3.Tayloring of Optical Properties4.2.Molecular and Nanoelectronics4.2.1.Wires4.2.2.Single Electron Transistors4.2.3.Electron Sources4.2.4.Quantum Computers4.3.Nanobiotechnology4.3.1.Micro‐ and Nanomechanics4.3.2.Tweezer5.New Materials5.1Optical and Magnetic Data Storage Materials5.2Photonic Crystals as New Photonic Materials5.3.Nanobionic Materials5.4.Carbon‐Based Materials: Molecular Carbon Nanostructures5.5.Colloidal Materials
Pigments, Inorganic, 2. White Pigments
Authors: Auer Gerhard , Woditsch Peter , Westerhaus Axel , Kischkewitz Jürgen , Griebler Wolf‐Dieter , De Liedekerke Marcel
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Titanium Dioxide2.1.Properties2.2.Raw Materials2.2.1.Natural Raw Materials2.2.2.Synthetic Raw Materials2.3.Production2.3.1.Sulfate Method2.3.2.Chloride Process2.3.3.Coating2.3.4.Chloride or Sulfate Pigments?2.3.5.Waste Management2.4.Economic Aspects2.5.Pigment Properties2.6.Analysis2.7.Uses of Pigmentary TiO22.8.Uses of Nonpigmentary TiO22.9.Toxicology3.Zinc Sulfide Pigments3.1.Properties3.2.Production3.3.Commercial Products3.4.Uses3.5.Economic Aspects3.6.Toxicology4.Zinc Oxide (Zinc White)4.1.Introduction4.2.Properties4.3.Production4.4.Quality Specifications4.5.Uses4.6.Economic Aspects4.7.Toxicology and Occupational Health
Pigments, Inorganic, 4. Magnetic Pigments
Authors: Leitner Lutz , Kathrein Hendrik , Schwab Ekkehard , Jakusch Helmut , Ohlinger Manfred , Veitch Ronald
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Iron Oxide Pigments2.Cobalt‐Containing Iron Oxide Pigments3.Chromium Dioxide4.Metallic Iron Pigments5.Barium Ferrite Pigments
Pigments, Inorganic, 6. Luster Pigments
Authors: Pfaff Gerhard , Franz Klaus‐Dieter , Emmert Ralf , Nitta Katsuhisa , Besold Robert
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Nacreous and Interference Pigments2.1.Optical Principles2.2.Natural Pearl Essence2.3.Basic Lead Carbonate2.4.Bismuth Oxychloride2.5.Metal Oxide ‐ Mica Pigments2.6.New Developments2.7.Uses3.Metal Effect Pigments
Pigments, Inorganic, 7. Transparent Pigments
Authors: Gaedcke Harald
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Iron Oxides3.Iron Blue4.Cobalt Blue and Green5.Titanium Dioxide6.Zinc Oxide
Reaction Engineering in Metallurgical Processing
Authors: Provis John L. , van Deventer Jannie S. J.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Process Engineering to Optimize Metals Extraction2.1.Residence Time Distributions: Plug Flow and Mixed Flow2.2.Dispersion in Flow‐Through Systems2.3.Networks of Reactor Components2.4.Maximizing Extraction by Control of Equilibria3.Modeling Complex Processes3.1.Combining Mass Transfer with Other Rate‐Controlling Processes3.2.Fitting Rate Expressions via Artificial Intelligence3.3.Applicability of “Standard” Models in Nonstandard Situations3.4.Population Balances in Reacting Systems
Air, 3. Laws and Technical Regulations
Authors: Feldhaus Gerhard , Grefen Klaus
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Federal Antipollution Law

3.

Federal Statutory Antipollution Regulations Relating to Air Pollution and Plant Safety

3.1.

First BImSchV

3.2.

Second BImSchV

3.3.

Third BImSchV

3.4.

Fourth BImSchV

3.5.

Seventh BImSchV

3.6.

Eleventh BImSchV

3.7.

Twelfth BImSchV

3.8.

Thirteenth BImSchV

3.9.

Seventeenth BImSchV

3.10.

Nineteenth BImSchV

3.11.

Twentieth BImSchV

3.12.

Twenty‐First BImSchV

3.13.

Twenty‐Second BImSchV

3.14.

Twenty‐Third BImSchV

3.15.

Twenty‐Fifth BImSchV

3.16.

Twenty‐Seventh BImSchV

3.17.

Other Federal Regulations

3.18.

Smog Regulations of the Länder

4.

General Administrative Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution

4.1.

TA Luft

4.2.

Fourth BImSchVwV: Determination of Air Pollution in Test Areas

4.3.

Fifth BImSchVwV: Register of Emissions in Test Areas

5.

Technical Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution

5.1.

National Regulations

5.2.

European Regulations

5.3.

International Regulations
Air, 4. Pollution Monitoring
Authors: Bruckmann Peter , Pfeffer Hans‐Ulrich
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Measurement Planning2.1.Types of Air Pollution Monitoring2.2.Planning of Pollution Measurements2.2.1.Measurement Networks (General Air Pollution Monitoring)2.2.2.Evaluation of Data; Period and Frequency of Measurements2.2.3.Planning Measurements on Industrial Plants3.Quality Assurance3.1.Procedure‐Based Methods3.2.User‐Based Methods4.Measuring Methods4.1.Measuring Methods for Inorganic Gases4.1.1.Automatic Measuring Methods4.1.2.Calibration of Automatic Measuring Methods4.1.3.Manual Methods4.2.Measurement and Analysis of Particulate Atmospheric Impurities4.2.1.Measurement of Particle Mass and Particle Fractions4.2.2.Measurement of Particle Numbers and Size Distributions4.2.3.Measurement of Inorganic Components in Suspended Particle Matter4.2.3.1.Measurement of Major Ionic Compounds in Suspended Particulate Matter4.2.3.2.Measurement of Heavy Metals and Metalloid Compounds in Suspended Particulate Matter4.2.3.3.Measurement of Soot (Elemental Carbon)4.2.3.4.Measurement of Fibers4.3.Measurement of Deposition4.3.1.Measurement of Total (Bulk) Deposition4.3.2.Measurement of Wet Deposition4.3.3.Special Sampling Devices for Deposition Measurements4.3.4.Analysis4.4.Optical Methods of Remote Measurement4.4.1.Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy4.4.2.Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy4.4.3.Long‐Path‐Length Absorption Spectroscopy with Tunable Diode Lasers4.4.4.Differential Adsorption LIDAR4.4.5.Correlation Spectroscopy and Gas Filter Correlation Spectroscopy4.4.6.Significance of Remote Measurement Methods4.4.7.Measurement of Unstable Trace Substances4.5.Measurement of Organic Atmospheric Pollutants4.5.1.Overview4.5.2.Summation Methods (Total‐C Measurements)4.5.3.Chromatographic Methods4.5.3.1.Chromatographic Methods for Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)4.5.3.2.Chromatographic Methods for Low‐Volatility Organic Compounds4.5.3.3.Determination of Organic Compounds with Functional Groups4.6.Olfactometric Methods4.7.Screening Measurements
Air, 5. Emission Measurements
Authors: Lützke Klaus
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Objectives and Planning of Measurements

3.

Requirements for Measurement Techniques and Measurement Stations

3.1.

Quality of Measurement Methods

3.2.

Choice and Equipment of Measurement Stations

4.

Requirements for Continuous Measurement and Associated Computer Systems

4.1.

Minimum Legal Requirements

4.2.

Testing the Suitability of Continuous Measurement Methods and Evaluation Computers

4.3.

Testing and Calibration of Measurement Equipment

5.

Physical State Parameters, Reference Value Measurements, and Evaluation Computers

5.1.

Temperature

5.2.

Moisture Content

5.3.

Carbon Dioxide Content

5.4.

Oxygen Content

5.5.

Evaluation Computers

6.

Measurement of Gas Velocity and Flow Rate

7.

Measurement of Particles

7.1.

Sampling

7.2.

Discontinuous Methods

7.3.

Continuous Methods

7.3.1.

Optical Methods

7.3.2.

Radiometric Methods

7.4.

Particle Size of Dusts

7.5.

Heavy Metals as Dust Constituents

8.

Measurement of Gaseous Inorganic Emissions

8.1.

Sampling

8.2.

Sulfur Oxides

8.2.1.

Discontinuous Methods

8.2.2.

Continuous Methods

8.3.

Nitrogen Oxides

8.4.

Carbon Monoxide

8.5.

Fluorine Compounds

8.6.

Chlorine Compounds

8.7.

Hydrogen Sulfide

8.8.

Ammonia

9.

Measurement of Gaseous Organic Compounds

9.1.

Sampling

9.2.

Measurement of Total‐C

9.3.

Chlorinated Hydrocarbons

9.3.1.

Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins and Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans (PCDD/F)

9.3.2.

Polychlorinated Biphenyls

9.3.3.

Chlorobenzenes and Chlorophenols

9.3.4.

Volatile Chlorinated Hydrocarbons

9.3.5.

Chlorofluorocarbons

9.4.

Hydrocarbons

9.5.

Other Compounds

10.

Measurement of Odor Emissions
Air, 7. Waste Gases, Separation and Purification
Authors: Schmidt Eberhard , Schmidt Torsten , Pilhofer Theo , Krill Helmut , Menig Harald , Schirz Stephan , Pollack Helmut
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Separation of Solid and Liquid Particles from Gases1.1.Introduction1.2.Characterization of Particle Separation1.3.Gas Cyclones1.3.1.Mode of Operation and Basic Designs1.3.2.Collection Efficiency and Pressure Drop1.3.3.Operational Characteristics1.4.Wet Scrubbers1.4.1.Mode of Operation and Basic Designs1.4.2.Collection Efficiency and Pressure Drop1.5.Filters1.5.1.General1.5.2.Deep‐Bed Filters1.5.3.Surface Filters1.5.4.Granular‐Bed Filters1.6.Electrical Precipitators1.6.1.Mode of Operation and Basic Designs1.6.2.Design Calculations2.Waste‐Gas Purification by Thermalor Catalytic Reactions2.1.Fundamentals2.1.1.Types of Reaction2.1.2.Reaction Engineering2.1.2.1.Homogeneous Gas‐Phase Reactions2.1.2.2.Heterogeneous Gas‐Phase Reactions, Catalytic Waste‐Gas Purification2.1.3.Process Selection and Plant Concepts2.1.4.Operational Check2.2.Thermal Processes for Waste‐Gas Purification2.2.1.Oxidation Processes2.2.1.1.Waste‐Gas Disposal in Furnaces2.2.1.2.Thermal Combustion2.2.1.3.Combustion in Flares2.2.1.4.Safety Engineering in Thermal Waste‐Gas Purification2.2.2.Reduction Processes2.2.2.1.Staged Combustion2.2.2.2.Thermal Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides2.3.Catalytic Waste‐Gas Purification Processes2.3.1.Catalytic Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides in Flue Gases and Process Off‐Gases2.3.2.Engine Exhaust Emission Control2.3.3.Gas‐Turbine Exhaust Emission Control2.3.4.Catalytic Purification of Claus Plant Off‐Gases2.3.5.Catalytic Oxidation in Industrial Off‐Gas Streams3.Absorption3.1.Introduction3.2.Basic Principles of Absorption Processes3.3.Operating Principles of Absorption Apparatus3.4.Absorption Apparatus3.5.Selection of Equipment4.Adsorption4.1.Fundamentals4.2.Industrial Adsorbents4.3.Design Criteria for Adsorbers4.4.Adsorber Designs4.5.Plant Concepts4.6.Adsorption Processes4.7.Recycling and Disposal of Spent Adsorbents5.Biological Processes5.1.Overview and Classification5.2.Process Engineering Principles5.2.1.Biological Conditions5.2.2.Physicochemical Conditions5.3.Biofilters5.4.Bioscrubbers6.Flue‐Gas Purification in the Incineration of Hazardous Waste
Antibiotics, 2. Production
Authors: Öppinger Heinz , Hoffmann Hinrich , Sukatsch Dieter , Hepner Leo , Male Celia
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Fermentation1.1.Screening1.2.Selection, Mutation, and Maintenance of Strains1.3.Process Development Leading to Large‐Scale Production1.4.Fermentation Technology1.4.1.Maintenance of the Strain and Production of Inoculum1.4.2.Treatment Before and During Fermentation2.Isolation and Purification of Antibiotics; Quality Specifications2.1.Isolation2.2.Purification Techniques, Sterile End Products, Official Regulations3.Analytical Measurements and Quality Control3.1.Microbiological Analysis3.2.Isotopically Labeled Antibiotics4.Economic Aspects
Analgesics and Antipyretics, 2. Nonsteroidal Anti‐inflammatory Drugs
Authors: Friderichs Elmar , Christoph Thomas , Buschmann Helmut
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Salicylates3.Para‐Aminophenol Derivatives4.Anthranilates5.Arylacetic Acids6.Arylpropionic Acids7.Pyrazolinone Derivatives8.Acidic Enolic Compounds8.1.Pyrazolidine‐3,5‐diones8.2.Arylsulfonamides (Oxicames)9.Other Structures10.COX‐2 Inhibitors10.1.Nonselective COXC‐2 Inhibitors10.2.Selective COX‐2 Inhibitors (Coxibs)
Analgesics, Centrally Acting
Authors: Friderichs Elmar , Christoph Thomas , Buschmann Helmut
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Opioids1.1.Opioids in Clinical Use1.1.1.Morphine and Morphinane Derivatives1.1.2.Piperidine Derivatives1.1.3.Fentanyl and Congeners1.1.4.Methadone and Congeners1.2.Other Structures1.2.1.Mixed Opioid Agonist‐Antagonists and Partial Agonists1.2.2.Opioid Antagonists2.Anti‐Neuropathic Analgesics and Other Nonopioid Compounds2.1.Neuropathic Pain Treatment2.2.Individual Compounds
Ammonia, 2. Production Processes
Authors: Appl Max
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Historical Development3.Thermodynamic Data4.Ammonia Synthesis Reaction4.1.General Aspects4.2.Catalyst Surface and Reaction Mechanism4.3.Kinetics5.Catalysts5.1.Classical Iron Catalysts5.1.1.Composition5.1.2.Particle Size and Shape5.1.3.Catalyst‐Precursor Manufacture5.1.4.Catalyst Reduction5.1.5.Catalyst Poisons5.2.Other Catalysts5.2.1.General Aspects5.2.2.Metals with Catalytic Potential5.2.3.Commercial Ruthenium Catalysts6.Process Steps of Ammonia Production6.1.Synthesis Gas Production6.1.1.Feedstock Pretreatment and Raw Gas Production6.1.2.Carbon Monoxide Shift Conversion6.1.3.Gas Purification6.2.Compression6.3.Ammonia Synthesis6.3.1.Synthesis Loop Configurations6.3.2.Formation of Ammonia in the Converter6.3.3.Waste‐Heat Utilization and Cooling6.3.4.Ammonia Recovery from the Ammonia Synthesis Loop6.3.5.Inert‐Gas and Purge‐Gas Management6.3.6.Influence of Pressure and Other Variables of the Synthesis Loop6.3.7.Example of an Industrial Synthesis Loop
Atomic Spectroscopy, 4. Mass Spectrometry
Authors: Broekaert José A. C. , Hywel Evans E.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Plasma Mass Spectrometry1.1.Principles1.2.Instrumentation1.3.Analytical Features1.4.Applications2.Glow Discharge Mass Spectrometry2.1.Instrumentation2.2.Analytical Performance2.3.Applications
Atomic Spectroscopy, 5. Fluorescence Spectrometry
Authors: Broekaert José A. C. , Hywel Evans E.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Principles

3.

Instrumentation

4.

Analytical Performance
Azo Dyes, 4. Cationic Dyes
Authors: Raue Roderich , Kunde Klaus , Engel Aloys
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Cationic Charge at the Coupling Component2.1.Polyamines as Coupling Components2.2.Heterocycles as Coupling Components2.3.Coupling Components with Alkylammonium Groups2.3.1.Coupling Components with Dialkylaminoalkyl Groups2.3.2.Aromatically Linked Trialkylammonium Groups2.3.3.Trialkylammoniumalkyl‐Substituted Anilines2.3.4.Other Trialkylammoniumalkyl‐Substituted Coupling Components2.4.Coupling Components with Dialkylhydrazinium Groups2.5.Coupling Components with Cyclic Ammonium Groups2.5.1.Heterocyclically Linked Cyclic Ammonium Groups2.5.2.Aliphatically Linked Cyclic Ammonium Groups2.6.Coupling Components with Condensed Cyclic Ammonium Residues2.7.Cyclic Ammonium Residues at the Azo Group2.8.Coupling Components with two Different Cationic Residues3.Cationic Charge in the Diazo Component3.1.Diazo Components with Aminoalkyl Moieties3.2.Diazo Components with Trialkylammonium Residues3.2.1.Aromatically Linked Trialkylammonium Residues3.2.2.Aliphatically Linked Trialkylammonium Residues3.3.Diazo Components with Cyclic Ammonium Residues3.3.1.Aromatically Linked Cyclic Ammonium Residues3.3.2.Aliphatically Linked Cyclic Ammonium Residues3.4.Diazo Components with two Different Cationic Residues3.5.Diazo Components with Aromatic Condensed Cyclic Ammonium Residues3.6.Cyclic Ammonium Compounds Linked in Meta Position to the Azo Group4.Different Cationic Charges in Both the Coupling and the Diazo Component5.Introduction of Cationic Substituents into Preformed Azo Dyes6.Cationic Dyes with Sulfur or Phosphorus as Charge‐Carrying Atoms7.Dyes with Releasable Cationic Groups
Azo Dyes, 5. Developing Dyes
Authors: Hunger Klaus , Mischke Peter , Rieper Wolfgang
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Developing Dyes for Cotton

2.1.

Developing Dyes for Dyeing

2.1.1.

β‐Naphthol Dyes

2.1.2.

Naphtol AS Dyes

2.2.

Developing Dyes for Printing

3.

Developing Dyes for Animal Fibers

4.

Developing Dyes for Hydrophobic Fibers
Benzyl Chloride and Other Side‐Chain Chlorinated Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Authors: Lipper Karl‐August , Löser Eckhard
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Benzyl Chloride2.1.Physical Properties2.2.Chemical Properties2.3.Production2.4.Quality Specifications and Analysis2.5.Storage and Transportation2.6.Uses3.Benzal Chloride3.1.Physical Properties3.2.Chemical Properties3.3.Production3.4.Quality Specifications and Analysis3.5.Storage and Transportation3.6.Uses4.Benzotrichloride4.1.Physical Properties4.2.Chemical Properties4.3.Production4.4.Quality Specifications and Analysis4.5.Storage and Transportation4.6.Uses5.Side‐Chain Chlorinated Xylenes5.1.Physical and Chemical Properties5.2.Production5.3.Storage and Transportation5.4.Uses6.Ring‐Chlorinated Derivatives7.Economic Aspects8.Toxicology8.1.Benzyl Chloride8.2.Benzoyl Chloride8.3.Benzotrichloride8.4.Side‐Chain Chlorinated Xylenes
Chlorinated Paraffins
Authors: Strack Heinz , Cook Richard , Mann Trevor
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Physical Properties

3.

Chemical Properties and Structure

4.

Production

5.

Analysis and Quality Control

6.

Storage and Transportation

7.

Toxicology, Environmental Impact and Regulation

8.

Uses

9.

Summary
Corrosion, 3. Corrosion Protection and Testing
Authors: Gräfen Hubert , Horn Elmar‐Manfred , Schlecker Hartmut , Schindler Helmut
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Corrosion Protection by Coating1.1.Metal Coatings1.2.Inorganic Nonmetallic Protective Coatings1.2.1.Enamel1.2.2.Brick Lining1.2.3.Thermally Sprayed Coatings1.3.Organic Lining and Coating Materials1.3.1.Rubber Linings1.3.2.Rubber ‐ Plastic Composite Linings1.3.3.Linings Consisting of Thermally Crosslinkable Thermosetting Plastics1.3.4.Reinforced Reaction Resin Coatings, Crosslinkable with Catalysts1.3.5.Thermoplastic Linings1.3.6.Paints and Powder Coatings2.Inhibitors3.Electrochemical Corrosion Protection4.Corrosion Testing4.1.Introduction4.2.Test Methods
Ecotoxicology
Authors: Fränzle Otto , Straškraba Milan , Jørgensen Sven Erik
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:3.Introduction2.Exposure Assessment2.1.Release Estimation2.2.Elimination2.3.Dispersion2.4.Local and Regional Concentration Estimates2.4.1.PEC Estimates in the Air Compartment2.4.2.PEC Estimates in Soil and Subsoil2.4.3.Variogram Analysis2.4.4.Modeling Chemical Distribution in Soil and Subsoil2.4.5.PEC Estimates in Aquatic Compartments3.Effects Assessment3.1.Test Systems for Aquatic Ecosystems3.1.1.Level 03.1.2.Level 13.1.3.Level 23.1.4.PNEC Values and Assessment Factors3.2.Testing Strategies for Terrestrial Ecosystems3.2.1.PNEC Estimates for Soil and Subsoil3.2.2.Complex Assessment and Modeling of Vegetation Damage3.2.3.Statistical Analysis of Forest Dieback3.3.Impact of Xenobiotics on Aquatic Ecosystems3.3.1.Approaches and Methods of Studying the Impact of Xenobiotics on Aquatic Life3.3.2.Behavior of Xenobiotics in the Aquatic Environment and their Influence on Aquatic Organisms and Indirectly on Humans3.3.3.Impact of Xenobiotics on Pelagic and Benthic Biocenoses3.3.4.Ecological Risk Assessment of Xenobiotics3.4.Testing Approaches to Atmospheric Effects3.5.Appraisal4.State of the Art of Modeling in Ecotoxicology4.1.Characteristics of Ecotoxicological Models4.2.Classification of Ecotoxicological Models4.3.An Overview: Application of Models in Ecotoxicology4.4.Ecotoxicological Processes4.5.Parameter Estimation4.6.Fugacity Models5.Appendix
Electrochemistry, 2. Inorganic Electrochemical Processes
Authors: Wendt Hartmut , Vogt Helmut , Kreysa Gerhard , Goldacker Hubert , Jüttner Klaus , Galla Ulrich , Schmieder Helmut
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Chlor‐Alkali Electrolysis1.1.Molten Salt Electrolysis1.2.Production of Chlorine1.3.Electrosynthesis of Hypochlorite1.4.Electrosynthesis of Chlorate1.5.Electrosynthesis of Perchlorate1.6.Chlorine Production Using Gas‐Diffusion Electrodes2.Water Electrolysis for Hydrogen Production3.Anodic Generation of Peroxodisulfuric Acid and Peroxodisulfates4.Electrowinning and Electrorefining of Metals4.1.Aqueous Electrolytes4.2.Melts5.Electrochemical Processes in Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing5.1.Electroredox Separation Processes5.2.Electroreduction Processes5.3.Electrooxidation5.4.Corrosion6.Electrochemical Water and Effluent Treatment6.1.Cathodic Treatment6.1.1.Optimization of Cell Design6.1.2.Electrochemical Reactors and Their Applications6.1.3.Operation Data of Electrochemical Cells6.2.Electrodialysis6.3.Anodic Treatment6.3.1.Direct Oxidation at the Anode6.3.2.Indirect Oxidation7.Electrochemical Gas Purification7.1.General Aspects7.2.New Process Developments8.Electrochemical Shaping
Electrochemistry, 3. Organic Electrochemistry
Authors: Steckhan Eberhard
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Perspectives of Electroorganic Reactions in Industry3.Syntheses3.1.Direct vs. Indirect or Mediated Electrochemical Reactions3.2.Technically Important Processes Ordered by Reaction Classes3.2.1.Electrochemical Substitution3.2.2.Electrochemical Addition3.2.3.Electrochemical Transformations of Functional Groups3.2.4.Electrochemical Cleavage and Elimination3.2.5.Electrochemical Coupling3.2.6.Bioelectrosynthesis3.3.Organic Electrochemistry for a Cleaner Environment4.Experimental Factors and Techniques4.1.Solvent ‐ Electrolyte Systems4.2.Electrodes4.2.1.Cathodes4.2.2.Anodes4.2.3.Other Factors Influenced by the Electrode Material4.3.Electrochemical Cells4.3.1.General Considerations4.3.2.Cell Design5.Economic Aspects
Fibers, 5. Polyester Fibers
Authors: Sattler Helmut , Schweizer Michael
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Production1.1.Starting Materials and Polymer1.2.Spinning1.3.Drawing1.4.Aftertreatment1.5.Dyeing of Poly(ethylene terephthalate) Fiber Products2.Structure and Properties2.1.Polymer2.2.As‐Spun Yarns2.3.Drawn Materials2.4.Dyed Poly(ethylene terephthalate) Material3.Poly(ethylene terephthalate) Fibers3.1.Staple Fibers3.2.Continuous‐Filament Yarns for Apparel and Home Furnishings3.3.Continuous‐Filament Yarns for Industrial Applications3.4.Spunbonds3.5.Monofilaments4.Other Polyester Fibers4.1.Poly(Tetramethylene Terephthalate)4.2.Poly(Trimethylene Terephthalate)4.3.Poly(1,4‐Dimethylenecyclohexane Terephthalate)5.Uses6.Economic Aspects
Fibers, 6. Polyurethane Fibers
Authors: Wolf Karl‐Heinz , Kausch Michael , Schröer Hans , Schweizer Michael
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Physical Properties2.Chemical Properties3.Raw Materials4.Production of Polymer5.Spinning Processes6.Uses
Fibers, 8. Polyacrylonitrile Fibers
Authors: Nogaj Alfred , Süling Carlhans , Schweizer Michael
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Physical Properties

2.

Chemical Properties

3.

Production

3.1.

Polymerization

3.2.

Dissolving

3.3.

Spinning

3.4.

Aftertreatment

3.5.

Special Processes

4.

Analysis

5.

Types of Fibers

6.

Economic Aspects
Gas Production, 3. Gas Treating
Authors: Boll Walter , Hochgesand Gerhard , Higman Christopher , Supp Emil , Kalteier Peter , Müller Wolf‐Dieter , Kriebel Manfred , Schlichting Holger , Tanz Heiner
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Carbon Monoxide Shift Conversion

2.1.

Fundamentals

2.2.

Catalysts

2.3.

Clean Gas Shift Conversion

2.4.

Raw Gas Conversion

2.5.

General Comments on Reactor Arrangements

2.6.

Noncatalytic Quench Conversion

3.

Carbonyl Sulfide Conversion

4.

Methanation and Methane Synthesis

4.1.

Definitions and Applications

4.2.

Principles of Methanation

4.3.

Methanation as a Step in Hydrogen Purification

4.4.

Methanation of Rich Gas

4.5.

Methane Synthesis from Gases with High Carbon Monoxide Content

5.

Absorption Processes

5.1.

General

5.2.

Processes for Carbon Dioxide and Sulfur Compound Absorption

5.2.1.

Physical Absorption Processes

5.2.2.

Chemical Absorption Processes

5.2.3.

Physical ‐ Chemical Absorption Processes

5.2.4.

Comparison of Various Absorption Processes for Hydrogen Production and IGCC

5.3.

Liquid‐Phase Oxidation Processes

5.4.

Removal of Gas Impurities of Low Concentration

6.

Adsorption Processes

6.1.

Fundamentals

6.2.

The “Classic” Method

6.3.

Pressure‐Swing Adsorption

6.4.

Adsorption on Activated Carbon

7.

Cryogenic Processes

7.1.

Partial Condensation

7.2.

Liquid Methane Wash Process

7.3.

Liquid Nitrogen Wash Process

8.

Gas Separation by Membranes

9.

Addition of Inerts or Other Substances
Gas Production, 4. Handling of Byproducts
Authors: Hochgesand Gerhard , Stönner Hans‐Martin , Klein Helmut
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Aqueous Condensates2.1.Mechanical Treatment2.2.Extraction and Adsorption of Organic Substances2.3.Removal and Recovery of Ammonia and Sulfur2.4.Biological and Final Treatment2.5.Removal of Heavy Metals2.6.Example of an Industrial Application3.Hydrocarbon Condensates3.1.Distillation3.2.Hydrorefining4.Gaseous Byproducts
Gas Production, 5. Examples of Complex Gas Production Plants
Authors: Reimert Rainer , Higman Christopher , Hilsebein Wolfgang , Gronemann Veronika , Zwiefelhofer Uwe , Albrecht Johannes
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Methanol Production from Natural Gas

1.1.

Methanol Production Based on Catalytic Autothermal Reforming

1.2.

Comparison of Conventional Steam Reforming and Combined Reforming Processes for Methanol Production

2.

Hydrogen Production Based on Heavy Residues

3.

Combined Cycle Power System Based on Coal

3.1.

Introduction

3.2.

Fundamentals

3.3.

Installations and Design Studies
Gas Production, 6. Analysis and Quality Control
Authors: Cowper Christopher J. , Driesen Hans Erhard
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Quality Specifications2.1.Combustion Characteristics2.2.Minor Constituents3.Test Methods3.1.Determination of Combustion Characteristics3.1.1.Calorimetry3.1.2.Density3.1.3.Wobbe Index3.2.Analytical Methods3.2.1.General Methods for Determination of Several Components3.2.2.Specific Methods for Determination of Individual Components3.2.3.Methods for Determination of Minor Components3.2.4.Determination of Trace Constituents
Fungicides, Agricultural, 3. Toxicology
Authors: Müller Franz , Ackermann Peter , Margot Paul
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Fungicidal Antibiotics

3.

Inorganic Fungicides

4.

Organometallic and Metal–Organic Compounds

5.

Dithiocarbamates

5.1.

Metal‐Free Dithiocarbamates

5.2.

Metal‐Containing Dithiocarbamates

6.

Imides

7.

Amides

8.

Dicarboximides

9.

Aliphatic Compounds

10.

Phenyl‐Substituted Compounds

11.

Organophosphate Fungicides

12.

Phosphites

13.

Benzimidazoles

14.

Anilides

15.

Acylamino Acids

16.

Amides

17.

Inhibitors of Sterol Biosynthesis

17.1.

Triazoles

17.2.

Imidazoles

18.

Pyridines

19.

Pyrimidine Fungicides

20.

Pyrroles

21.

Morpholines

22.

Strobilurins

23.

Carbamates

24.

Dinitrophenols

25.

Oxazoles

26.

Quinolines

27.

Quinones

28.

Quinoxalines

29.

Thiazoles and Thiazolidines

30.

Thiocarbamates

31.

Triazines

32.

Unclassified Fungicides
Glass, 4. Uses and Economic Aspects
Authors: De Jong Bernard H. W. S. , Beerkens Ruud G. C. , van Nijnatten Peter A. , Le Bourhis Eric
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Uses

1.1.

Silica and Silica‐like Glass

1.2.

Flat Glass

1.2.1.

Reflective Glass

1.2.2.

Laminated Glass

1.2.3.

Solar Glass

1.3.

Laboratory Glassware

1.4.

Light‐Sensitive Glass

1.4.1.

Photosensitive Glass

1.4.2.

Photochromic Glass

1.4.3.

Photocatalytic Glass

1.5.

Display Devices

1.5.1.

Cathode‐Ray Tube

1.5.2.

Flat Display Panel

1.6.

Glass Fibers

1.7.

Molded Optics

1.8.

Glasses for Nonlinear Optical Devices

2.

Economic Aspects
Hydrogen, 3. Purification
Authors: Häussinger Peter , Lohmüller Reiner , Watson Allan M.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Low‐Temperature Processes2.1.Condensation Processes2.2.Condensation and Rectification2.3.Low‐Temperature Absorption Processes3.Adsorption Processes3.1.Principles3.2.Thermally Regenerated Adsorbers3.3.Pressure‐Swing Adsorption (PSA)4.Catalytic Gas Purification4.1.Carbon Monoxide Removal4.2.Methanation4.3.Selective Oxidation4.4.Catalytic Removal of Sulfur Compounds4.5.Removal of Oxygen4.6.Removal of Nitrogen Oxides5.Scrubbing Processes5.1.Principles5.2.Physical Scrubbing (Rectisol Process)5.3.Chemical Scrubbing Processes6.Permeation Processes6.1.Metal Membrane Techniques6.2.Polymer Membrane Processes
Hydrogen, 4. Liquefaction
Authors: Häussinger Peter , Lohmüller Reiner , Watson Allan M.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Principles of Hydrogen Liquefaction3.Liquefaction Plants4.Further Developments
Hydrogen, 5. Handling
Authors: Häussinger Peter , Lohmüller Reiner , Watson Allan M.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Quality Specifications2.Compression and Expansion3.Transportation and Distribution4.Storage5.Materials6.Removal of Hydrogen7.Safety Aspects8.Toxicology9.Analysis
Hydrogen, 6. Uses
Authors: Häussinger Peter , Lohmüller Reiner , Watson Allan M.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Conventional Uses1.1.Hydrogen in the Chemical Industry1.1.1.Ammonia Synthesis1.1.2.Hydrogen in Refinery Processes1.1.3.Hydrogen in Coal Refinement1.1.4.Synthesis Gas1.1.5.Hydrogen in Organic Synthesis1.1.6.Hydrogen in Inorganic Synthesis1.2.Hydrogen in Metallurgy1.3.Other Uses2.Hydrogen Energy2.1.Aims of the Hydrogen Energy Economy2.2.Production Systems for Hydrogen Energy2.2.1.Energy Sources2.2.2.Production Methods for the Energy Carrier Hydrogen2.3.Hydrogen‐Energy Conversion Systems2.3.1.New Developments for Hydrogen Storage2.3.1.1.Cryoadsorption2.3.1.2.Hydride Technology2.3.1.3.Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers2.3.2.Combustion and Heating2.3.3.Hydrogen Fuel Systems2.3.3.1.Hydrogen Propulsion Systems for Space2.3.3.2.Hydrogen as Aviation Fuel2.3.3.3.Hydrogen for Automotive Vehicle Transport2.3.4.Electricity Generation from Hydrogen2.3.4.1.Heat ‐ Power Processes2.3.4.2.Electrochemical Energy Conversion2.4.Future Developments2.4.1.Production Schemes2.4.2.Hydrogen Energy Economics2.4.3.International Research
Imaging Technology, 5. Photochemical Machining
Authors: Allen David
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Artwork Generation and Phototool Production

3.

Materials

4.

Photoresist Systems

5.

Etching Technology

6.

Process Capability

7.

Economic Aspects

8.

Products
Iron, 4. Smelting Reduction Processes
Authors: Flickenschild Jürgen , Hauk Rolf , Steffen Rolf
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:2.7.Introduction2.Characteristics of Coals for the Smelting Reduction Processes3.Classification of Smelting Reduction Processes and Earlier Developments3.1.Processes Using Electrical Energy3.2.Coal ‐ Coke‐Bed Melter ‐ Gasifiers3.3.Converter‐Type Iron Bath Reactors4.State of the Art of Process Developments4.1.Melter ‐ Gasifiers4.2.Iron Bath Reactors4.3.Rotary Hearth Direct Reduction ‐ Submerged Arc Furnace Combinations4.4.Special Developments for Processing of Steelworks Dusts5.Conclusions
Information Storage Materials, 2. Optical Recording
Authors: Wochele Roman E. , van Houten Henk , Duchateau Johan P. W. B. , Kloosterboer Hans J. G. , Verhoeven Jan A. Th. , van Vlimmeren René , Legierse Peter E. J. , Gravesteijn Dirk J. , Wright C. David , Borg Herman J. , Heitmann Heinrich , Heemskerk Jacques
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.General Introduction1.1.Optical Storage Media1.2.The Optical Channel1.2.1.Focusing and Tracking (Servo Control)1.2.2.Data Channel1.3.Compact Disc Family1.3.1.Read‐Only, Replicated Discs1.3.2.Recordable and Rewritable Discs1.4.Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)1.5.HD‐DVD and Blue Laser Discs1.6.Magneto‐Optical Storage1.7.Future Developments1.7.1.Evolutionary Progress in Optical Disc Storage1.7.2.Three‐Dimensional Optical Storage2.Optical Disc Mastering and Stamper Production2.1.General2.2.Requirements2.3.Mastering Methods2.4.Electroforming of Stampers3.Read‐Only Optical Recording Materials3.1.Production Processes3.2.Material Specifications3.3.Molding Processes3.4.Photoreplication Process3.5.Metallization3.6.Protective Coating3.7.Nonstandard Processes4.Write‐Once Optical Recording Materials4.1.Material Specifications4.2.Deposition Techniques4.3.Tellurium Alloys4.4.Organic Dyes4.5.Metal Particle Colloids4.6.Metal‐Polymer Bilayers4.7.Alloying Bilayers4.8.Agglomeration4.9.Surface Texture5.Reversible Optical Recording Materials5.1.Magneto‐Optic Materials5.2.Phase‐Change Recording Media5.3.Liquid Crystals5.4.Photochromics5.5.Photochemical Hole Burning6.Economic Aspects of Optical Recording6.1.Consumer Electronics (CE)6.2.Data Applications
Liquid Chromatography, 3. Supercritical Fluid Chromatography
Authors: Lembke Peter
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.History2.Theoretical Background3.SFC Compared to GC and LC4.Equipment4.1.Pumps4.2.Oven4.3.Sample Introduction4.4.Detectors4.5.Restrictors5.Packed‐Column SFC (pc‐SFC) and Capillary SFC (c‐SFC)5.1.Capillary SFC (c‐SFC)5.2.Packed‐Column SFC (pc‐SFC)6.Applications
Liquid Chromatography, 4. Affinity Chromatography
Authors: Cabrera Karin , Brünner Wolfgang , Müller Egbert
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Preparation of an Affinity Matrix2.1.Selection of a Carrier2.2.Immobilization of the Ligand3.Ligands3.1.Group‐Specific Ligands3.1.1.Low‐Molecular Ligands3.1.2.Macromolecular Ligands3.2.Monospecific Ligands4.Elution
Lubricants, 3. Environmental Aspects
Authors: Luther Rolf
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Current Situation

1.1.

Economic Consequences and Substitution Potential

1.2.

Agriculture, Economy, and Politics

2.

Biodegradable Base Oils for Lubricants

2.1.

Synthetic Esters

2.2.

Polyalkylene Glycols

2.3.

Polyalphaolefins

2.4.

Relevant Properties of Biodegradable Base Oils

3.

Additives

4.

Products (Examples)
Lubricants, 4. Lubricants for Internal Combustion Engines
Authors: Harperscheid Manfred , Omeis Jürgen
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Four‐Stroke Engine Oils1.1.General Overview1.1.1.Fundamental Principles1.1.2.Performance Specifications1.1.3.Formulation of Engine Oils1.1.4.Additives1.2.Characterization and Testing1.2.1.Physical and Chemical Testing1.2.2.Engine Testing1.2.3.Passenger Car Engine Oils1.2.4.Engine Oil for Commercial Vehicles1.3.Classification by Specification1.3.1.MIL Specifications1.3.2.API and ILSAC Classification1.3.3.ACEA Specifications1.3.4.Manufacturers’ Approvals1.3.5.Future Trends2.Two‐Stroke Oils2.1.Application and Characteristics2.2.Classification2.2.1.API Service Groups2.2.2.JASO Classification2.2.3.ISO Classification2.3.Oils for Two‐Stroke Outboard Engines2.4.Environmentally Friendly Two‐Stroke Oils3.Tractor Oils4.Gas Engine Oils5.Marine Diesel Engine Oils5.1.Low‐Speed Crosshead Engines5.2.Medium‐Speed Engines5.3.Lubricants
Lubricants, 6. Compressor and Turbine Oils
Authors: Bock Wolfgang , Lingg Georg
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Gas Compressor

1.1.

Displacement Compressors

1.2.

Dynamic Compressors

1.3.

Preparation of Compressed Air

1.4.

Oils for Compression of Other Gases

1.5.

Characteristics of Gas Compressor Oils

1.6.

Standards and Specifications of Compressor Oils

2.

Refrigerator Oils

2.1.

Introduction

2.2.

Minimum Requirements

2.3.

Classification

2.4.

Viscosity Selection

2.

Turbine Oils

2.1.

Demands on Turbine Oils ‐ Characteristics

2.2.

Formulation

2.3.

Specifications

2.4.

Turbine Oil Circuits

2.5.

Monitoring and Maintenance of Turbine Oils

2.6.

Life of (Steam) Turbine Oils

2.7.

Gas Turbine Oils ‐ Application and Requirements

2.8.

Fire‐Resistant, Water‐Free Fluids for Power Station Applications

2.9.

Lubricants for Water Turbines and Hydroelectric Plants
Lubricants, 7. Metalworking Fluids and Forming Lubricants
Authors: Freiler Carmen , Hörner Dietrich , Buss Wolfgang , Kubicki Franz , Losch Achim , Mang Theo
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction1.1.Mechanism of Action1.2.Water‐Miscible Cutting Fluids1.2.1.Composition1.2.2.Corrosion Protection and Corrosion Test Methods1.2.3.Concentration of Water‐Mixed Cutting Fluids1.2.4.Stability of Coolants1.2.5.Foaming Properties1.2.6.Preservation of Coolants with Biocides1.3.Neat Cutting Fluids1.3.1.Specifications1.3.2.Composition1.4.Application1.4.1.Machining with Geometrically Defined Cutting Edges1.4.2.Machining with Geometric Non‐Defined Cutting Edges1.5.Storage1.6.Environmental Aspects1.7.New Trends in Coolant Technology2.Forming Lubricants2.1.Sheet Metal Working Lubricants2.1.1.Deep Drawing2.1.2.Stretch Drawing and a Combination of Stretch and Deep Drawing2.1.3.Shear Cutting2.1.4.Choice of Lubricants2.1.5.Sheet Metal Forming in Automobile Manufacturing2.2.Lubricants for Wire, Tube, and Profile Drawing2.2.1.Wire Drawing2.2.2.Profile Drawing2.2.3.Tube Drawing2.2.4.Hydroforming2.3.Lubricants for Rolling2.3.1.Rolling Steel Sheet2.3.2.Rolling Aluminum Sheet2.3.3.Rolling of Other Materials2.4.Lubricants for Solid Metal Forming
Lubricants, 8. Lubricating Greases
Authors: Dresel Wilfried , Heckler Rolf‐Peter
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Components of Greases2.1.Thickeners2.1.1.Simple Soaps2.1.2.Complex Soaps2.2.Other Ionic Organic Thickeners2.3.Nonionic Organic Thickeners2.4.Inorganic Thickeners2.5.Miscellaneous Thickeners2.6.Temporarily Thickened Fluids3.Base Oils3.1.Mineral Oils3.2.Synthetic Base Oils4.Grease Structure5.Additives6.Manufacture of Greases6.1.Metal Soap‐Based Greases6.2.Oligourea Greases6.3.Gel Greases7.Grease Rheology8.Performance8.1.Test Methods8.2.Analytical Methods9.Applications9.1.Roller Bearings9.2.Cars, Trucks, Construction Vehicles9.3.Steel Mills9.4.Mining9.5.Railroad, Railway9.6.Gears9.7.Food‐Grade Applications9.8.Textile Machines9.9.Applications with Polymeric Materials10.Ecology and the Environment11.Grease Tribology
Lubricants, 10. Disposal, Recycling, and Safety Aspects
Authors: Luther Rolf , Mang Theo
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Disposal of Used Lubricating Oils

1.1.

Possible Uses of Waste Oil

1.2.

Legislative Influences on Waste Oil Collection and Reconditioning

1.3.

Re‐refining

2.

Toxicology and Occupational Health

2.1.

Safety Aspects of Handling Lubricants (Working Materials)

2.1.1.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAK, PAH, PCA)

2.1.2.

Nitrosamines in Cutting Fluids

2.2.

Skin Problems Caused by Lubricants
Laundry Detergents, 2. Ingredients and Products
Authors: Smulders Eduard , Sung Eric
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Detergent Ingredients1.1.Surfactants1.1.1.Anionic Surfactants1.1.2.Nonionic Surfactants1.1.2.1.Alcohol Ethoxylates (AE)1.1.2.2.Alkylphenol Ethoxylates (APE)1.1.2.3.Fatty Acid Alkanolamides (FAA)1.1.2.4.Alkylamine Oxides1.1.2.5.N‐Methylglucamides (NMG)1.1.2.6.Alkylpolyglycosides (APG)1.1.3.Cationic Surfactants1.1.4.Amphoteric Surfactants1.2.Builders1.2.1.Alkalies1.2.2.Complexing Agents1.2.3.Ion Exchangers1.2.4.Builder Combinations1.3.Bleaches1.3.1.Bleach‐Active Compounds1.3.2.Bleach Activators1.3.3.Bleach Catalysts1.3.4.Bleach Stabilizers1.4.Further Detergent Ingredients1.4.1.Enzymes1.4.2.Soil Antiredeposition Agents, Soil Repellent/Soil Release Agents1.4.3.Foam Regulators1.4.4.Corrosion Inhibitors1.4.5.Fluorescent Whitening Agents1.4.6.Dye Transfer Inhibitors1.4.7.Fragrances1.4.8.Dyes1.4.9.Fillers and Formulation Aids2.Laundry Products2.1.Heavy‐Duty Detergents2.1.1.Conventional Powder Heavy‐Duty Detergents2.1.2.Compact and Supercompact Heavy‐Duty Detergents2.1.3.Extruded Heavy Duty Detergents2.1.4.Heavy‐Duty Detergent Tablets2.1.5.Color Heavy‐Duty Detergents2.1.6.Liquid Heavy‐Duty Detergents2.2.Specialty Detergents2.2.1.Powder Specialty Detergents2.2.2.Liquid Specialty Detergents2.3.Laundry Aids2.3.1.Pretreatment Aids2.3.2.Boosters2.3.3.Aftertreatment Aids2.3.3.1.Fabric Softeners2.3.3.2.Stiffeners2.3.3.3.Laundry Dryer Aids2.3.4.Other Laundry Aids2.3.4.1.Refreshing Products for Dryer Application2.3.4.2.Odor Removers for Washer Application3.Industrial and Institutional Detergents
Laundry Detergents, 3. Production, Testing and Economic Aspects
Authors: Smulders Eduard , Rähse Wilfried
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Production of Powder Detergents1.1.Technology Overview1.2.Manufacturing Processes1.2.1.Traditional Spray‐Drying Process1.2.2.Superheated Steam Drying1.2.3.Nontower Agglomeration Process1.2.4.Nontower Compound Technology1.3.Densification Processes1.3.1.Dry Densification in a Mixer1.3.2.Dry Densification in a Spheronizer1.3.3.Dry Densification in a Roller Press1.3.4.Wet Granulation1.3.5.Spaghetti Extrusion1.3.6.Postaddition Process1.3.7.Dry Densification in a Tablet Press1.4.Raw Materials1.4.1.Anionic Surfactants1.4.2.Nonionic Surfactants1.4.3.Builders1.4.4.Peroxygen Bleaches1.4.5.Enzymes2.Analysis of the Composition2.1.Detergent Ingredients:2.2.Purposes of Detergent Analysis:2.3.Sample Preparation:2.4.Analytical Methods2.4.1.Qualitative Analysis2.4.2.Sample Preparation2.4.3.Quantitative Analysis2.4.4.Separation Methods:2.4.5.Structure Determination2.4.6.Determination of Characteristic Values2.4.7.Analysis Automation:2.5.Sources of Information:3.Test Methods for Laundry Detergents3.1.Laboratory Methods3.2.Practical Evaluation3.3.Consumer Tests4.Economic Aspects4.1.Detergent Components4.1.1.Surfactants4.1.2.Builders4.2.Laundry Detergents4.3.Fabric Softeners4.4.Other Laundry Aids
Laundry Detergents, 4. Ecology and Toxicology
Authors: Steber Josef , Wiebel Frederike
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Ecology1.1.Laundry, Wastewater, and the Environment1.2.Contribution of Laundry to the Sewage Load1.3.Detergent Laws1.3.1.Development of the European Detergent Legislation1.3.2.Regulatory Limitations on Anionic and Nonionic Surfactants1.3.3.Primary Biodegradation Test Procedures1.3.4.Regulation of Maximum Phosphate Content in Detergents1.4.General Criteria for the Ecological Evaluation of Detergent Chemicals1.4.1.Concept1.4.2.Environmental Exposure Assessment1.4.2.1.Biodegradation1.4.2.2.Biodegradability Standard Test Methods1.4.2.3.Supplementary Biodegradation Test Methods1.4.2.4.Exposure Analysis1.4.3.Assessment of Environmental Effects1.4.3.1.Basic Ecotoxicity Tests1.4.3.2.Subchronic and Chronic Ecotoxicity Tests1.4.3.3.Biocenotic Ecotoxicity Tests1.4.3.4.Bioaccumulation1.4.4.Process of Environmental Risk Assessment1.5.Ecological Characterization of Main Detergent Ingredients1.5.1.Surfactants1.5.1.1.Anionic Surfactants1.5.1.2.Nonionic Surfactants1.5.1.3.Cationic Surfactants1.5.2.Builders1.5.2.1.Zeolites1.5.2.2.Polycarboxylates1.5.2.3.Citrates1.5.2.4.Sodium Carbonate (Soda Ash)1.5.2.5.Nitrilotriacetate (NTA)1.5.3.Bleaching Agents1.5.3.1.Sodium Perborate1.5.3.2.Sodium Percarbonate1.5.3.3.Tetraacetylethylenediamine (TAED)1.5.4.Auxiliary Agents1.5.4.1.Phosphonates1.5.4.2.EDTA1.5.4.3.Enzymes1.5.4.4.Optical Brighteners1.5.4.5.Carboxymethyl Cellulose1.5.4.6.Dye Transfer Inhibitors1.5.4.7.Fragrances1.5.4.8.Foam Regulators1.5.4.9.Soil Repellents1.5.4.10.Dyes1.5.4.11.Sodium Sulfate2.Toxicology2.1.Detergent Ingredients2.1.1.Surfactants2.1.2.Builders2.1.3.Bleach‐Active Compounds2.1.4.Auxiliary Agents2.2.Finished Detergents2.3.Conclusions
Laundry Detergents, 5. Washing Conditions and Washing Machines
Authors: Smulders Eduard
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Textiles2.Washing Machines and Wash Programs (Cycles)2.1.Household Washing Machines2.1.1.Classification2.1.2.Operational Parameters2.1.3.Wash Programs2.1.3.1.Japanese Washing Machines and Washing Conditions2.1.3.2.North American Washing Machines and Washing Conditions2.1.3.3.European Washing Machines and Washing Conditions2.1.4.Energy and Water Consumption2.1.5.Construction Materials Used in Washing Machines2.1.6.The Market for Washing Machines2.2.Laundry Dryers2.3.Washing Machines for Institutional Use2.3.1.Batch‐Type Machines2.3.2.Continuous Batch Washers
Nuclear Technology, 2. Power Reactors, Survey
Authors: Axmann Joachim K.
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction, Scope of Utilization2.Important Technical and Economic Parameters3.Radiation Protection and Safety3.1.Radiological Quantities and Units3.2.Radiation Burden, Radiation Damage, Radiation Safety Rules and Regulations3.2.1.Natural and Medical Radiation Doses3.2.2.Radiation Damage and Radiation Safety Regulations3.3.Emission Protection3.4.Industrial Safety3.4.1.General Design Principles for Protection Systems3.4.2.Safety Channels, Safety Limits, and Safety Measures3.4.3.Engineered Safeguards3.5.Accidents3.5.1.Classification and Analysis3.5.2.Design Accident3.6.Location Problems4.Survey of Reactor Types4.1.Classification Features4.1.1.Neutron Energy Spectrum4.1.2.Fuels4.1.3.Moderators4.1.4.Coolants4.2.Reactor Types4.2.1.Light‐Water Reactors (LWR)4.2.2.Graphite‐Moderated Reactors4.2.3.Heavy‐Water Reactors (D2O ‐ R)4.2.4.Fast Breeder Reactors4.3.Future Developments
Nuclear Technology, 4. Nuclear Fusion
Authors: Schumacher Uwe , Herold Hans
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Fusion Physics3.Plasma Confinement and Status of Fusion Research3.1.Magnetic Plasma Confinement3.1.1.Status of Magnetic Confinement Fusion3.1.2.Further Development of Magnetic Confinement Toward a Fusion Reactor3.2.Inertial Confinement Fusion4.Fusion Reactors as Energy Sources4.1.Fusion Power Plants4.2.Energy Resources and some Economic Aspects4.3.Environmental Impact and Safety‐Related Aspects of Fusion Power
Plastics Processing, 3. Machining, Bonding, Surface Treatment
Authors: Burkhardt Gert , Hüsgen Ulrich , Kalwa Matthias , Pötsch Gerhard , Schwenzer Claus
Published: November 2011

The article contains sections titled:1.Machining1.1.Estimating Machinability1.2.Shaving Formation1.3.Surface Quality1.4.Cutting Forces1.5.Cutting Temperature and Tool Wear1.6.Guidelines for Machining Polymers1.7.Processing of Fiber‐Reinforced Plastics2.Bonding2.1.Welding2.1.1.Heated‐Tool Welding2.1.2.Hot‐Gas Welding2.1.3.Radiation Welding2.1.4.Friction Welding2.1.5.Induction Welding2.2.Adhesion2.3.Mechanical Bonding3.Surface Treatment3.1.Mechanical Processes3.1.1.Hot Embossing3.1.2.Flocking3.2.Painting and Printing3.2.1.Painting3.2.2.Printing3.3.Wet Chemical Deposition Processes3.3.1.Chemical Deposition3.3.2.Electroplating of Plastics3.4.Physical Deposition Processes3.5.Dry Reactive Processes3.5.1.Surface‐Modifying Processes3.5.2.Coating Processes