bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Failures of the Human Race
Authors: Hart Adam Charles
Published: March 2024

This chapter explores George A. Romero’s political philosophy through his envisioning of new political systems that arise after the zombie apocalypse. Or rather, through the reinstatement and even exaggeration of old, unjust systems in the wake of the undead eradicating almost everything of society’s current power structures. It chronicles the development of Day of the Dead (1985) from its initial conception as a large-scale political epic to its finished form as a talky chamber piece. The initial version of Day was Romero’s exploration of society on a canvas large enough to detail each stratum of the oligarchy that had formed after the rise of the undead: a ludicrously greedy, indulgent ruling class, a cruel, ruthless military that enforced their rule, and several levels of human and zombie underclasses. This is the ultimate expression of Romero’s “apocalyptic irony”—mankind’s insistence on clinging to old inequalities, old prejudices, and old cruelties in the face of existential threats. But budgetary restrictions forced him to wholly reconceive of the film and to funnel its political commentary into a script about the last handful of survivors in a military bunker. The chapter ends by showing how ideas from the original Day scripts are repurposed in a script called Dead Reckoning, which is then rewritten and filmed as Land of the Dead (2005).
The Camera Virus
Authors: Hart Adam Charles
Published: March 2024

This chapter analyzes George A. Romero’s career-long ambivalence toward the cinema itself, from his performance in Jack Gelber’s play The Connection to a mid-1970s unfilmed project called The Footage, a once-lost short film called Jacaranda Joe (1994), a proposed TV version of Night of the Living Dead (1968) in the early 2000s, and the feature film Diary of the Dead (2007). In all of these projects, filmmaking is equated with exploitation and with profiting off the suffering of others, and Romero uses these scenarios to explore the destructiveness inherent not just in film but in art more broadly: turning those around you into material for your art. In The Footage, the exploitation of a TV crew is contrasted with the utopian equality and generosity of the prehuman creatures, a rejection of modern society that appears in various forms throughout his work. Those more pessimistic visions are contrasted with Romero’s feature film Knightriders (1981), which suggests the possibility for a creative community that values collaboration and the ideals of cooperative existence more than the creative project itself.
Introduction
Authors: Hassan Waïl S.
Published: March 2024

How do Arab immigrants fit in Brazil as a society built on racial and cultural mixture? Under the influence of European racial theory, mixture was seen in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as an impediment to national progress. However, in the 1920s Modernists like Oswald de Andrade described it as an enriching kind of cultural anthropophagy, and in the early 1930s sociologist Gilberto Freyre turned nineteenth-century racial theory on its head by arguing that the special richness and unique character of Brazil was the result of the racial and cultural mixture of Native Brazilian, Portuguese, and African elements—the Portuguese one being itself hybridized through the Arab-Moorish presence in medieval Iberia. Yet the discrimination and stereotyping faced by Arab immigrants in Brazil point to fissures within this notion of mistura that Brazilian Orientalism explains: faced with immigrants who did not fit easily within one of the three recognizable racial groups (Amerindians, Europeans, Africans), Brazilian intellectuals appropriated Euro-American Orientalism to make sense of the Arab presence in Brazil and to define the country’s place in the world. In so doing, they revealed both their overwhelmingly European orientation and their anxiety about the kind of mixing that was being celebrated as Brazil’s defining feature.
Arab Bahia
Authors: Hassan Waïl S.
Published: March 2024

Jorge Amado (1912–2001) is Brazil’s most famous novelist. His works have been translated into at least forty-nine languages, and most of them into English. Many have been adapted for cinema, theater, radio, and television, some multiple times. Amado portrays Arab immigrants as contributing to the development of twentieth-century Brazil. He overturns the turco stereotype not only by including dozens of likable Arab characters in his novels but also by moving them from the margins to the center of Brazilian social history in novels like Gabriela cravo e canela (1958, Gabriela, Clove and Cinnamon), Tocaia Grande (1974, Showdown), and A descoberta da América pelos turcos (1994, The Discovery of America by the Turks). In this way, Amado expands the range of Brazilian mistura beyond Freyre’s three-race theory.
Islam on Primetime TV
Authors: Hassan Waïl S.
Published: March 2024

The most popular telenovela in the history of Brazilian television at the time, O Clone (2001–2, The Clone) was conceived by its author, Glória Perez, as a work that undermines Islamophobia by portraying Muslim families and sympathetically explaining Islamic beliefs. O Clone began to air less than three weeks after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Rather than hurting the production, the coincidence contributed to the success of the telenovela, dampening fear of Muslims and increasing interest in belly dancing and other Oriental exotica. Highly progressive and anti-Islamophobic in its promotion of tolerance and mistura, O Clone nevertheless fetishizes belly dancing, the desert, and a host of other Orientalist clichés, evidence of tertiary Orientalism’s debt to colonial discourse.
Conclusion
Authors: Hassan Waïl S.
Published: March 2024

The conclusion reflects on the place of Arab Brazilians in the national imaginary today, suggesting that the nineteenth-century French imperial construct of Latinity continues to shape national identity for Brazilian elites and to downplay the role of Indigenous, African, Arab, and other elements. Encumbered with numerous limitations—from socioeconomic injustice to racial, ethnic, religious, class, and other prejudices—mistura remains an unfinished business. But it is a wonderfully democratic ideal and the key to a decolonial epistemology that enables a reorientation toward the Global South, with important implications for comparative literature.
Friendship in Doubt
Authors: Kaczynski Richard
Published: March 2024

Friendship in Doubt explores the influence of the British Agnostic movement—from Saladin’s Agnostic Journal and George William Foote’s Freethinker to the Rationalist Press Association and its Literary Guide—on three founders of the twentieth-century new religious movement of Thelema. Agnosticism introduced occultist Aleister Crowley, soldier J. F. C. Fuller, and poet Victor Neuburg to each other, and it would inform Crowley’s publishing company, SPRT; A⸫A⸫, a successor to the fragmented Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn; the Equinox journal; and the concept of magick as Scientific Illuminism. Crowley’s, Fuller’s, and Neuburg’s essays and poems from the Agnostic literature, reprinted in Friendship in Doubt for the first time, shed light on their thinking at the start of their careers and provide a baseline from which to understand the subsequent trajectories of their lives.
Crowley and Rationalism
Authors: Kaczynski Richard
Published: March 2024

Chapter 2 introduces the prime mover and spiritual leader of Thelema, Aleister Crowley, with a focus on his encounters with British Secularism. His undergraduate tutor at Cambridge University, Arthur Woollgar Verrall, sets the stage for what comes next. Crowley’s experience with the Rationalist Press Association (RPA) leads both to the publication of his early verse, The God-Eater and The Star and the Garter, in 1903 and to plans to publish his Browningesque satire and Rationalist manifesto, The Sword of Song (ultimately self-published in 1904 through Crowley’s newly formed imprint, the Society for the Promotion of Religious Truth, whose name lampooned the ubiquitous Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge). Crowley’s parting ways with the RPA sets the stage for his taking what he learned there and channeling it into the foundations of the new religious movement of Thelema.
The Prize
Authors: Kaczynski Richard
Published: March 2024

Chapter 3 documents Aleister Crowley’s consequential prize contest for the best essay on his three-volume collected Works (1905–1907). This includes a previously undocumented account of how the paper Truth (among others) suspected the sponsoring publisher, the Society for the Propagation of Religious Truth, of being a sock puppet for Crowley through which he would publish his own works, which, despite Crowley’s protestations to the contrary, it was. However, this contest would bring J. F. C. Fuller into Crowley’s circle as the winning (and purportedly sole) entrant in the contest with his massive and laudatory literary study, The Star in the West. Fuller’s appearance in Crowley’s circle coincides with the formation of the Golden Dawn successor organization outwardly known only as A∴A∴.
Conclusion
Authors: Kaczynski Richard
Published: March 2024

The previously invisible role of British Agnosticism is made clear in bringing together the foundational figures of the influential New Religious Movement of Thelema, inspiring many of its nascent ideas. Agnosticism, filtered through the lens of Thelema, remained an enduring influence on Aleister Crowley, J. F. C. Fuller, and Victor Neuburg, even decades after parting ways. It influenced Crowley’s writings and schemes throughout his life. It permeated J. F. C. Fuller’s military philosophy, from the Darwinian evolution of martial strategy to his liberal use of occult language. Even Neuburg, despite his intimate parting with Crowley, continued to call for people to give his former guru’s ideas a fair airing, regardless of who he was as a person. British Agnosticism must therefore be recognized as a formative influence on Western esotericism, particularly the Scientific Illuminism promoted by Crowley and his Thelemic peers.
Introducing the Cases
Authors: Brechenmacher Saskia , Mann Katherine
Published: March 2024

Chapter 3 introduces the four countries that anchor the analysis in this book: Nepal, Kenya, Morocco, and Myanmar. It explains the rationale for selecting these cases, highlighting differences in regime type and in women’s formal political representation and summarizing assistance flows across all four countries. It then briefly describes the history of women’s political inclusion in each case to help the reader situate the programming examples and illustrations referenced in the remaining chapters. For each country, we outline important political junctures and stubborn hurdles limiting women’s access to decision-making power and review the evolving role of international actors and aid programs in these processes.
First Generation: Getting Women in the Room
Authors: Brechenmacher Saskia , Mann Katherine
Published: March 2024

Chapter 4 lays out the primary goals and achievements of the first generation of aid initiatives targeting women’s political empowerment. It begins by reviewing the main types of international assistance that emerged during the 1990s and 2000s: campaigns for gender quotas, training programs targeting women political leaders, and support for politically oriented women’s organizations. These efforts brought about important gains. In many countries, they bolstered women’s advocacy during critical constitutional reform junctures and advanced the global spread of gender quotas. However, by focusing on women’s presence within political institutions, first-generation approaches paid less attention to the sociocultural and institutional environment hindering women’s participation and influence in politics. Moreover, they often took the form of stand-alone “women in politics” programs that were poorly integrated into broader democracy assistance initiatives, which limited both their impact and reach.
The Limits of Candidate Training
Authors: Brechenmacher Saskia , Mann Katherine
Published: March 2024

Chapter 6 focuses on training programs targeting women candidates. It begins by outlining the basic model of gender equality change guiding these interventions and describing the hurdles to measuring their success. It then explores recurring pitfalls in program design and promising alternative models. Training initiatives often rely on one-off workshops and standard templates that neglect the practical challenges women face on the campaign trail. Recognizing these limitations, some organizations have begun offering longer-term accompaniment and mentorship to women candidates. Others have targeted male relatives and gatekeepers or focused on building a pipeline of women leaders beyond electoral politics. Yet despite these innovations, capacity-building interventions have significant limitations. By centering women’s political ambition and capacity, these initiatives fail to address the institutional and structural hurdles that create an unequal playing field for women aspirants.
Tackling Patriarchal Gender Norms
Authors: Brechenmacher Saskia , Mann Katherine
Published: March 2024

Chapter 9 investigates how democracy aid providers grapple with patriarchal norms, resistance, and backlash. It focuses on two newer areas of research, advocacy, and programming that have emerged to address these challenges: efforts to engage men in dismantling patriarchal norms and practices and a growing range of initiatives aimed at countering violence and harassment against women in politics. These approaches seek to tackle discriminatory gender norms by altering the attitudes and behaviors of male powerholders and by strengthening accountability for harassment and abuse. However, they also push democracy aid providers into unfamiliar and difficult territory, marked by uncertainty about which approaches work in varying contexts and how to measure success.
Health in the Balance
Authors: Krieger Nancy
Published: March 2024

Chapter 2 critically examines early theories—and current “traditional” theories—about patterns of disease occurrence. Each theory is analyzed in its societal and ecological context and how this context affects who develops the theories, their content, and approach to framing the “balance” needed for health. Ancient theories considered include Greek humoral theory and Chinese traditional medicine(s). Contemporary traditional theories include the Kallawayan Andean cosmovision and traditional African medicine(s), using the example of the Ogori in Nigeria. Revision updates bring in new scholarship about Athenian slavery; circuits of knowledge connecting pre- and early-modern European, Islamic, Chinese, and Latin American theories of disease distribution; and new developments in Indigenous medicine in Bolivia, along with new threats posed by climate change.
Epidemiology Emerges
Authors: Krieger Nancy
Published: March 2024

Chapter 3 covers the rise of epidemiology as a self-designated scientific discipline in Europe and the United States from 1600–1900 c CE, bringing analysis of population health into the orbit of scientific study. The chapter considers three sets of raging debates over theories of disease distribution from 1600–1900 c CE, each analyzed in societal and ecological context. The first debate concerns miasma vs. contagion as theories to explain the emergence of new lethal epidemic diseases in Europe and North America, including cholera and yellow fever. The second debate involves liberal vs. radical vs. paternalistic explanations for class inequities in health, using the examples of Louis René Villermé, Friedrich Engels, and Johann Peter Frank. The third debate concerns “race” and health, and contrasts those theories that viewed the poor health of enslaved persons as evidence of: (1) their innate inferiority, vs. (2) the harmful impacts of slavery and racism.
Ecosocial Theory of Disease Distribution
Authors: Krieger Nancy
Published: March 2024

Chapter 7 explicates the ecosocial theory of disease distribution and its approach to analyzing how people literally embody, biologically, their societal and ecological context, thereby producing population patterns of health and disease. Its four core constructs pertain to: (1) embodiment; (2) pathways of embodiment; (3) the cumulative interplay of exposure, susceptibility, and resistance at multiple levels, across the life-course and in relation to historical generation; and (4) agency and accountability for analysis of and action to alter population health and health inequities. Concrete applications of these constructs are employed in case examples concerning lead poisoning and the adverse health impacts of Jim Crow. Affinities between ecosocial theory and political ecology are examined. The updated chapter newly includes 11 ecosocial theses regarding the stories bodies tell, emergent embodied phenotypes, structured chance, and the embodied truths of health (in)justice.
Introduction
Authors: Mhajne Anwar , Henshaw Alexis
Published: March 2024

In the context of international relations (IR), the global politics of cybersecurity and cyberwar can still be called a relatively new topic of inquiry. This introduction makes the case for critical cybersecurity studies scholarship while also outlining the remainder of the volume. It begins by introducing existing literature on cybersecurity and IR and proceeds to interrogate the applicability of themes advanced by feminist and postcolonial scholars. Among the points explored are the centrality of states in existing cybersecurity work, the role of nonstate actors in cybersecurity history, the evolving definition of cybersecurity as a concept, and contestation over cybersecurity norms.
Gendered and Postcolonial Perspectives on Data Weaponization in Armed Conflict
Authors: Hofstetter Julia-Silvana
Published: March 2024

Following the withdrawal of coalition forces from Afghanistan in August 2021, many feared the Taliban would use the vast amounts of data that various international and national actors had been collecting over two decades to identify and hunt down enemies of the regime, and thousands of Afghans rushed to delete their online identities and digital histories. While a growing body of research addresses how digital technologies provide authoritarian regimes and conflict parties with new instruments to perpetrate violence and persecute adversaries, the risks of data weaponization in armed conflict are still underexplored. To address this gap the chapter analyzes how the Taliban weaponized data and builds theory on how gendered and colonial discriminatory structures and ideologies enabled and shaped these processes. The chapter closes by discussing the need for a multistakeholder approach to cybersecurity provision in fragile contexts that emphasizes citizens’ digital agency and addresses gender-specific vulnerabilities.
The Zimbabwe Liberation War (1972–1979)
Authors: Liu Shelley X.
Published: March 2024

This chapter examines the Zimbabwe Liberation War to trace the effects of strong wartime social control on post-war resource allocation decisions for the consolidation of power. Drawing from three archives and interviews, the chapter examines how wartime rebel governance and rebel-civilian ties in controlled, unsecured, and rival terrain explained post-war control, coercion, and co-optation. In addition, the chapter uses a novel measure of wartime rebel control and contestation, census data, and Afrobarometer survey data for quantitative testing. Results from two difference-in-differences regressions provide causal evidence that wartime ties and rebel social control predicted sub-national differences in post-war political control and divergences in development.
Conclusion
Authors: Hai Ambreen
Published: March 2024

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the book and draws out some of their implications. It discusses briefly some recent texts that follow upon the servitude fiction discussed in this book, including a film adaptation of The White Tiger. It broadens the scope of the book by elaborating on some films that are doing analogous work to the servitude fiction that is the focus of this book: Mira Nair’s Monsoon Wedding, and Rohena Gera’s Sir. It concludes with a brief consideration of recent activist efforts to change cultural attitudes and labor laws in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh, and to improve the conditions faced by domestic workers, efforts toward which, this book argues, servitude fiction importantly contributes.
Movements, Victims, and Images
Authors: Marat Erica
Published: March 2024

This chapter builds a theory of transformative violence by drawing on literature on mobilization, charitable economic, and communication studies, as well as qualitative research regarding the book’s two cases. It untangles independent processes that suddenly coalesce at the same time and in the same space and generate unprecedented collective action against violence. It then explains the three developments that make an otherwise routine act of violence transformative: core activists’ antiviolence frames, an identifiable victim arising from a kin group, and visual images of the victim. The chapter also includes a discussion of the main similarities and differences between the cases of mobilization in India and Mexico.
Electoral Reform in Indonesia
Authors: Fox Colm A.
Published: March 2024

Chapter 4 provides a comprehensive overview of Indonesia’s legislative and regional head electoral reforms from 1955 to 2020. Breaking with the convention of analyzing the democratic and authoritarian features of elections, the chapter instead considers their candidate-centric nature as a key defining feature. During this time period, Indonesia’s electoral rules have been revised several times. The chapter explains each reform process, why revisions were made, what new rules were adopted, and how these rules affected the party-centric or candidate-centric nature of subsequent elections. The analysis is based on the features of the electoral rules that offer incentives for the personal vote. Specifically, it focuses on the rules governing nomination procedures, voting, and the allocation of seats. Using this framework, the chapter identifies which elections operated under party-centric, semi-candidate-centric, and candidate-centric rules—a three-way classification that sets the stage for comparisons of campaigns.
Religious Polarization in Indonesia
Authors: Fox Colm A.
Published: March 2024

Chapter 9 focuses on religiously polarizing election campaigns. It begins by recounting the massive, religiously inspired mobilization against a minority Chinese Christian candidate in Jakarta’s 2017 gubernatorial election and reviews the prevailing explanations of this highly polarizing episode. Using election poster appeals and secondary sources, it explores religious appeals and polarization across district-level regional head elections, as well as all gubernatorial elections in every province between 2017 and 2020. I conclude that religious polarization is most likely to occur when a competitive non-Muslim candidate competes in a Muslim-majority/indigenous-minority constituency and faces off against a joint-Muslim ticket that lacks a strong religious reputation. The chapter helps to explain why religious polarization is a strong possibility in West Kalimantan and North Sumatra in the future, but is unlikely to occur again in Jakarta.
Conclusion
Authors: Fox Colm A.
Published: March 2024

Chapter 10 reflects on the broader implications of the book’s findings in relation to contemporary Indonesia and the study of ethnic politics. It begins by considering the rising importance of candidates in recent Indonesian elections and the microfoundations underlying their behavior. Next, it provides insights on ethnic politics in Indonesia and assesses the country’s shift to a more candidate-centric system. It argues that while candidate-centric elections have prompted candidates to create tighter connections with their constituents, they have also weakened partisanship and exacerbated patronage politics. The chapter concludes by proposing two somewhat counterintuitive strategies to curb ethnic politics and divisive ethnic cleavages. The first involves politicizing multiple dimensions of ethnicity, while the second recommends changing the boundaries of electoral constituencies to foster greater ethnic demographic diversity.
Introduction
Authors: Maschmeyer Lennart
Published: March 2024

If cyber operations enable a revolution in conflict short of war, why did Russia invade Ukraine in 2022? This chapter identifies a puzzling mismatch between expectations and empirical evidence on the strategic value of cyber operations and shows how this mismatch fits a historic pattern of overestimating measures short of war. It explains why cyber operations are subversive, and why building a theory of subversion can fill the gap between expectations and evidence by laying out the actual mechanism of power involved—clarifying its promise as well as its perils. The chapter proceeds to outline the main argument of the book, namely that subversion offers a cheap, easy, and effective instrument of power only in theory, whereas in practice it often falls short due to a crippling operational trilemma. Consequently, it introduces the case studies and provides an overview of the structure of the book.
Subversion in War
Authors: Maschmeyer Lennart
Published: March 2024

As subversion fell short, in early 2022 Russia escalated and commenced a full-scale invasion. Although force projection thus became the primary instrument of power, Russia nonetheless deployed a multitude of subversive operations—both traditional and cyber—to complement its war effort. This chapter assesses and compares their contributions toward Russia’s war goals based on the (limited) evidence that is currently available. Findings are in line with predictions and previous observations. Overall, cyber operations produced very limited strategic value, and there are clear indications of time pressure and efforts to control effects limiting intensity. Meanwhile, traditional subversion produced some significant successes, foremost the takeover of the Chernobyl nuclear ruin. These findings thus further cement the relative advantages of traditional subversion, which become especially pronounced in the context of active war, where higher-intensity effects are more desirable.
Is It Real?
Authors: Emerson Michael O. , Bracey Glenn E.
Published: March 2024

Chapter 4 tests the proposed theory of the Religion of Whiteness. Drawing on a multitude of sources, we examine the elements of the ROW, focusing on its beliefs and practices. We find strong and consistent evidence that white practicing Christians stand alone from other Christians and non-Christian groups in ways predicted by our theory. We demonstrate that white practicing Christians selectively use Bible verses in ways that uphold white supremacy and preclude efforts toward racial equity. Further, this chapter documents white practicing Christians’ use of epistemological ignorance to deny and understate the significance of racial problems in the United States. We then explore white practicing Christians’ veneration of symbols associated with the ROW and show their fervent commitment to white Christian nationalism. Finally, we detail the “playbook” that adherents to the ROW use to defend the ROW from people who threaten it. Ultimately, we find that white practicing Christians hold more regressive racial ideas and attitudes than Christians of color or religiously non-affiliated whites, suggesting that a large percentage of white Christians also practice the ROW.
Technologies that Reveal Brain Structures
Authors: Jones Owen D. , Schall Jeffrey D. , Shen Francis X. , Hoffman Morris B. , Wagner Anthony D.
Published: March 2024

Building on previous chapters that review the basics of what is currently known about the brain’s anatomy and how the brain works, this chapter turns to the methods and tools scientists and doctors use to image an individual’s brain structure. This chapter examines several different noninvasive imaging technologies that reveal brain structures: x-ray, computerized axial tomography (CAT, or just CT), structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), which is a form of MRI. For each technology, relative advantages and disadvantages, including their spatial resolutions, are discussed. The chapter also identifies how these structural brain-imaging technologies are being used in legal contexts, including the use of DTI in brain injury litigation.
Introduction
Authors: Kimmage Michael
Published: March 2024

The introduction provides a historical frame for understanding the war Russia began against Ukraine in February 2022, relating it back to World War I, World War II, and the Cold War. It also elucidates the multiple collisions that occurred between 2014, when Russia’s war against Ukraine first began, and 2022, when this war went into high gear: the collision between Russia and Ukraine, the collision between Russia and Europe, and the collision between Russia and the United States. The introduction contextualizes two aspects of Russia’s war—the decision Putin made in favor of invasion in February 2022 and the global dimensions of the conflict in and around Ukraine.
The Allure of a Modern Russia
Authors: Kimmage Michael
Published: March 2024

Chapter 2 is tacitly a chapter about the path not taken, which to a degree was the path taken by Russia after 1991, an opening up to the world, an embrace of democracy and a foreign policy based on cooperation rather than confrontation. This chapter recounts the development of Russia in the 1990s—under Boris Yeltsin, who sponsored peaceful relations with the United States—and its high point is the presidency of Dmitry Medvedev, between 2008 and 2012, when it might seem that a benign globalization could smooth the differences between Russia and the West. This chapter also outlines an American expectation that a modern Russia would be democratic and fundamentally pro-American, which informed the thinking of the Obama administration in its first term.
The Dilemma of a Modern Russia
Authors: Kimmage Michael
Published: March 2024

Chapter 3 characterizes the evolution of Russian politics from 1991 as an evolution toward “Putinism,” which is to say toward the use of economic modernization for military modernization, an approach with deep roots in Russian history. This long trajectory coincided with the practice of autocratic and ultimately of dictatorial rule in Russia, and at the core of Putin’s autocracy was rivalry with the West. This rivalry took on global outlines after relations between Putin and George W. Bush soured (after September 11), but its central arena was in Europe and in places that were contested in Europe—the Balkans, Georgia, and Ukraine.
War in Ukraine, Round 1
Authors: Kimmage Michael
Published: March 2024

Chapter 5 runs from 2014 to 2016 and in one narrative sweep links Russia’s annexation of Crimea and invasion of the Donbas (eastern Ukraine) to its 2015 incursion into Syria and 2016 meddling in the US election, a trajectory of mounting tension between Russia and Ukraine, on the one hand, and between Russia and the United States, on the other. Chapter 5 emphasizes the first round of war between Russia and Ukraine as a nested set of conflicts: Russia-Ukraine, Russia-Europe, Russia-United States. It also underlines a paradox: Russia saw its 2014 war with Ukraine as a fundamental break with the past, while Europe and the United States were using their economic and diplomatic tools to restore the status quo before 2014, making it hard for Europe and the United States to recognize Russia’s true intentions.
War in Ukraine, Round 2
Authors: Kimmage Michael
Published: March 2024

Chapter 9 tells the story of the war itself, starting with the Kremlin’s public “announcements” that the war would take place in February 2022 and concluding with President Zelensky’s visit to Washington in December 2022. It outlines two distinct dynamics within the war: the remarkable failure of Russia’s military efforts, coupled with the atrocities revealed by these failures in places like Bucha and Irpin, turning public opinion in Europe and the United States sharply toward support for Ukraine; and the incredible scale of the war itself, a major war within Europe that has generated inflation globally and introduced new divisions into the international scene—with Ukraine and its backers on one side and with Russia, China, and a host of countries on the other.
Conclusion
Authors: Kimmage Michael
Published: March 2024

This conclusion connects the question of a war’s origins with its consequences, on the premise that every war (once it is over) is a battle over why it happened. It moves then to the assumptions—about a peaceful Europe and about working with Russia—that the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine has shattered. It continues with a sketching out of the war’s consequences, acknowledging that the war is not yet over. These consequences will include long-term military tension within Europe, the integration of Ukraine into the West, the enduring separation of Russia from the West, and the expansion of American power and influence within Europe. The conclusion ends with a reference to the common people of Ukraine, whose fate is the most important story of the war.
The Art and Philosophy of the Garden
Authors: Fenner David , Fenner Ethan
Published: March 2024

The Art and Philosophy of the Garden is a comprehensive philosophical treatment of the aesthetics of gardens. The book focuses on five central questions: (1) What is a garden? The ten-point definition offered is derived from a comprehensive inventory of garden types. (2) Are some gardens works of art? Inspired by the recent work of garden philosophers—and after examining the arguments, as well as comparing the garden to other artforms—the book argues in the affirmative. (3) What does it mean to aesthetically appreciate gardens? Given that gardens are always changing in a variety of ways, how is it possible to compare, evaluate, or find meaning in them? To explain this, the book explores how aesthetic properties of gardens can be known, both formal and contextual. (4) How do people interpret gardens? After considering the arguments, pro and con, the book focuses on what it means to “read” the formal aspects of gardens—what the book calls “garden form”—as a basis for interpreting a garden. (5) How do people value gardens and gardening? Finally, the book discusses the intersection of gardens/gardening and value, the sort of value that gardens possess, whether and how ethics are relevant to gardens, how gardens may be evaluated and compared, and the value of the practice of gardening.
Formal Aesthetic Properties of Gardens
Authors: Fenner David , Fenner Ethan
Published: March 2024

Chapter 5—“Formal Aesthetic Properties of Gardens”—begins with a general account of what it means to aesthetically appreciate anything. Working with this structure, the chapter explores what it means to aesthetically appreciate gardens, with a specific emphasis on identifying a garden’s aesthetic properties. Since a garden is always changing in a variety of ways, knowing that garden’s aesthetic properties is more complex than it would otherwise be. The chapter explores this, offering a solution and delineating the sorts of properties that gardens have (such as phenomenal properties and process properties) that give rise to their aesthetic properties, both as individual gardens and as garden types.
What Is Deterrence?
Authors: Gartzke Erik , Lindsay Jon R.
Published: March 2024

This chapter reviews the classic literature on deterrence theory. Scholars have examined many varieties of deterrence—extended, immediate, general, denial, punishment, etc.—and have applied them to many different areas—nuclear and conventional warfare, cyber and space operations, terrorism and insurgency, economic statecraft, law enforcement, and even parenting. Our review is of necessity proscribed and selective; it focuses on portions of the huge literature on deterrence that we consider most characteristic or deem most salient to our efforts here. It provides a glossary of key distinctions in classic theory that continue to be relevant, even as implicit assumptions about military specialization have not been fully appreciated. It also discusses modern challenges and the re-emergence of deterrence theorizing, with special focus on the recent notion of “integrated deterrence.“ It concludes with a call for revisiting first principles in (re)theorizing deterrence.
Politics by (Many) Other Means
Authors: Gartzke Erik , Lindsay Jon R.
Published: March 2024

While the previous chapter discussed the many ends of deterrence, this chapter turns to its many means. It focuses on the political utility of different military building blocks, setting aside for now the complex problems of crossing or combining them. The chapter proceeds in three parts. First, it highlights the underappreciated importance of military specialization in classic strategic thought. It argues that different domains have varying suitability for the pursuit of different objectives of deterrence, as discussed in the previous chapter. Second, it discusses nuances and exceptions that arise within and across the five primary domains, with special consideration of nuclear missiles in the air and space domains. Third, it returns to the problem of combinations and trade-offs across domains. It argues that political calculations concerning national defense must consider not only the classic trade-off between “guns and butter” but must also account for complements and trade-offs between “guns and guns.”
Air
Authors: Gartzke Erik , Lindsay Jon R. , Walsh James
Published: March 2024

Modern warplanes can deliver tremendous firepower on short notice, and they can do this at greatly reduced risk to friendly forces. The rise of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or “drones” takes the separation between aircrew and their targets to an unprecedented extreme. The problem with costless conflict is that it fails to produce costly signals of resolve. A nation that does not need to imperil what it values most in fighting will have more difficulty demonstrating its values. Combatants will be tempted, therefore, to find ways to make costless conflict more costly. The chapter presents empirical evidence that militant deaths from drone strikes in Pakistan have led to more terrorism in urban areas and have reduced militant attacks on government and military targets. Because automated airpower is a poor signal of resolve, a world made safer for military personnel may become more dangerous for civilians. The chapter further examines the implications of this argument for more recent conflicts involving high-intensity combat.
Trade
Authors: Gartzke Erik , Lindsay Jon R. , Westerwinter Oliver
Published: March 2024

Adding to the challenges of military complexity across domains, military rivals may also be trading partners. States that cooperate in some areas may also compete in others. The chapter shows how low-levels of conflict can coexist, and may even be encouraged by, the deterrence of high-levels of conflict. Classic liberal perspectives expect interdependence to have a pacifying effect, and there is some empirical evidence for this view. This chapter offers a more nuanced view by linking trade interdependence to the bargaining model of war. In its simplest form, our argument is that the complexity of trade networks may account for ambiguity in the observed effects of commerce on conflict. Trade ties produce several effects, each of which has different consequences for cooperation and conflict. The chapter characterizes these effects as interdependence, asymmetry, and multipolarity and explains their interaction to alternately reduce or encourage different types of conflict.
Introduction
Authors: Mallinson Christine , Henner Jon , Hudley Anne H. Charity , Bucholtz Mary
Published: March 2024

This introduction to Inclusion in Linguistics begins by explaining the motivation for the volume and its grounding in social justice initiatives within linguistics, the academy, and society more broadly. It then provides an overview of the chapters, organized around the volume’s major themes: intersectional inclusion, disciplinary and institutional pathways for inclusion, creating just and inclusive classrooms, and fostering community partnerships and public engagement. Next, reflecting on the insights of the chapters, a key principle of inclusion in academia is discussed, namely, that inclusion and exclusion are both personal and structural. Finally, the inclusive process of developing and creating the volume is described and the reader is called upon to use this volume and its companion, Decolonizing Linguistics, to develop their own action plan for advancing social justice in linguistics.
Towards Greater Inclusion in Practice and Among Practitioners
Authors: Punnoose Reenu , Haneefa Muhammed
Published: March 2024

This chapter initiates a call for reflexivity in the practice of linguistics in India by demonstrating that the secondary status assigned to experience (as constitutive of empiricism and inextricable to the knowledge of a language) in the discipline’s practice is related to a lack of inclusion among its practitioners which in turn continues to narrow the scope of knowledge produced in the field. The authors examine the case of a neighbouring discipline, sociology, in the light of positive shifts over the last 30 years that reflect the early outcomes of a discipline attempting to be reflexive and its consequences for the practitioner-practice relationship in knowledge production. Preliminary recommendations are made on ways to strengthen the undergraduate programme in linguistics, reimagine the MA curriculum, popularise the discipline, and collaborate with the Global North to decentre their position of privilege in the knowledge economy while participating as allies in centring the practice and practitioners of linguistics in the Global South.
Power Shift
Authors: Bender Emily M. , Grissom Alvin
Published: March 2024

This chapter explores the ways in which lack of inclusion in natural language processing encourages the development of inequitable and harmful technology, both through the exclusion of the language and perspectives of marginalized populations and through overexposure and surveillance, especially of these same populations. The authors review the ways in which research funding and corporate interests influence the field and the growing awareness within the research community of the deleterious potential of current language technologies, from the level of individuals to the level of societies and beyond. Finally, the authors look to some paths forward, with particular emphases on shifting power to affected communities and the role that linguists can play in shaping the development of more inclusive and less harmful language technology.
Texts, Tweets, Twitch, TikTok
Authors: Lederer Jenny
Published: March 2024

Increasing racial diversity in linguistics rests on capturing BIPOC student interest, ideally upon first exposure. This chapter introduces a replicable introductory course design, which focuses on computer-mediated communication (CMC) as a means to inspire passion for language analysis. The case study is a general education course at San Francisco State University, titled Language Evolution in the Digital Age. In the course, students investigate patterns in language use from a variety of online and smartphone platforms including text messaging, social media interaction, online gaming, vlogging, and other every-day mediated interaction. By elevating students’ own linguistic competencies and expertise, the traditional asymmetry between instructor and student inverts: the CMC student is a data source, a data analyst, and a teacher, leading to student empowerment and comfort in the linguistics classroom. Meanwhile, the CMC data itself becomes the entree to lessons on grammatical analysis, semantics, pragmatics, and sociolinguistic theory.
The Breakdown in Democracy in 1930s Japan
Authors: Young Louise
Published: March 2024

Japan’s parliamentary system underwent a stress test during the 1930s, as economic collapse, a wave of political violence, and geopolitical crisis precipitated the hollowing out of democratic institutions built up over the preceding decades, culminating in a de facto military dictatorship by the end of the decade. Examining the creation of a constitutional monarchy under the Meiji emperor, the chapter argues that, while the 1889 Constitution created an asymmetry of power between the executive and legislative branches, it also provided the foundation for parliamentary democracy. Politics evolved to meet the pressures of an industrializing society, expanding democratic institutions across the 1910s and 1920s. But when parliamentary government failed to respond to the crises of the 1930s, the public lost faith in party politics. Military leadership stepped into the political opening to execute a slow-moving takeover of the state, effectively transforming democracy into authoritarian rule.
Democratic Breakdown in Argentina, 1976
Authors: Mainwaring Scott
Published: March 2024

This chapter’s argument about democratic breakdown in Argentina in 1976 focuses on three factors. First, extreme radicalization on the left and right quickly led powerful establishment actors to shift away from support or acceptance of democracy. The revolutionary left had no chance of capturing power, but it galvanized an extremist right-wing response. The country was besieged by right-wing and left-wing bombings, kidnappings, assassinations, factory seizures, and violent attacks on companies, newspapers, and cultural organizations. Second, the democratic government failed to handle Argentina’s economic and public-security problems. These crises generated a public perception of chaos and power vacuum. In response, actors who had welcomed democracy in 1973 clamored for a coup in 1976. Third, democracy might have survived if nonextremists, especially political leaders, had embraced it. However, most of them were indifferent or even hostile to democracy.
A Different “Turkish Model”
Authors: Hintz Lisel
Published: March 2024

When the Justice and Development Party (AKP) took power in 2002, many hoped Turkey’s previously jittery path to democratization would stabilize. Moves to address obstacles to democracy, such as reducing the military’s political role and opening space for Islam in the public sphere, led observers to herald the AKP’s accomplishments as a “Turkish model” that could be exported, particularly to the Muslim world. However, what appeared as steps toward Turkey’s democratization are better understood as AKP moves to solidify its own rule—in effect, laying the groundwork for rapid de-democratization. After more than twenty years of AKP rule, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan presides over a highly consolidated executive system, opposition actors—particularly Kurds, but also politicians, journalists, lawyers, artists, and more—are jailed, and political rights and civil liberties are drastically curtailed. This chapter unpacks Turkey’s de-democratization by examining the institutional and discursive tools the AKP used to weaken and vilify domestic challengers and consolidate state power in party hands.