bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dynamical Theory Ii. Transmission High-Energy Electron Diffraction
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J
Published: November 2023

The majority of practical applications of high-energy electron diffraction are associated with the use of transmission geometry of scattering. Transmission geometry was also the first considered by Laue (Friedrich et al., 1912, von Laue, 1912) in his work on X-ray diffraction, and later by Thomson and Reid in their studies of electron diffraction (Thomson and Reid, 1927). In the literature transmission high-energy electron diffraction (THEED) is often referred to as the Laue case of electron diffraction (see for example the book by Thomson and Cochrane (Thomson and Cochrane, 1939) where they describe the history of the development of the subject). In THEED geometry the electrons are incident nearly normally at the top face of a thin crystal, the thickness of which typically does not exceed 1 μm (see Fig. 4.1). In almost all the theoretical treatments the specimen is assumed to have the form of a perfect crystal slab with parallel faces terminated by low-index atomic planes. In the Cartesian system of coordinates the (x, y) plane is normally chosen to be parallel to the surface with the z axis pointing into the crystal. In transmission geometry of diffraction the general dynamical theory discussed in Chapter 3 may be greatly simplified, since backscattering of electrons may be safely neglected.
The Basics of the Structures and Spectra of Simple Molecules
Authors: Hartquist T W , Viti S
Published: November 2023

Atomic spectroscopy concerns the electronic states of atoms. Molecular spectra are richer than atomic spectra because they depend on the properties of the motions of the nuclei as well as the electronic characteristics of the systems. Section 2 of this chapter describes the Born—Oppenheimer approximation which is at the heart of the description of molecular states. Section 3 treats diatomic molecules. When considering polyatomic molecules we focus mostly on their rotational properties because, though (particularly in the local interstellar medium) a number of astronomically abundant diatomic species are detectable in transitions that are between states differing by more than their rotational properties, observations of polyatomic astronomical molecules are made primarily in purely rotational transitions at wavelengths usually (but not always) in the range of a few tenths of millimetres to a few centimetres.
The Chemistry of Diffuse and Dark Interstellar Clouds
Authors: Dishoeck Ewine F van
Published: November 2023

Ever since the realization early this century that the space between the stars is not empty, the study of the physics and chemistry of the interstellar gas has played a prominent role in astrophysics (Eddington 1926). Most of the early work focused on absorption line observations of diffuse interstellar clouds, which do not completely obscure the light from bright background stars. The electronic transitions of atoms and molecules can then be seen as sharp lines superposed on the stellar spectra at visible and ultraviolet wavelengths. After the development of millimetre telescopes in the early 1970s, most of the interest shifted to dense, dark molecular clouds where a rich chemistry is revealed through the rotational emission lines of molecules (see Table 1). Diffuse and dark clouds form the essential link in the lifecycle between the death and birth of stars: late-type stars return heavy elements and dust grains back to the diffuse interstellar medium, whereas new stars are born deep inside dense molecular clouds. A good understanding of these processes is therefore a prerequisite for interpreting observations of the interstellar medium and star formation in the local and distant Universe.
The Chemistry of Planetary Nebula Formation
Authors: Howe D A , Williams D A
Published: November 2023

The high mass loss rates of red giant stars during the AGB (asymptotic giant branch) phase of stellar evolution obviously cannot continue for very_ long. For example, the central star of IRC+10216 is losing roughly 10-4 M0yr-1 (solar masses per year), and contains only a few M0. The chemistry of matter ejected during the post AGB (PAGB) evolution of such stars is the subject of this chapter. The matter will continue to drift from its parent star, even after the end of the high mass loss rate phase. The changes in physical properties of this material (density, opacity, temperature) occur on timescales of the order of hundreds of years, or less:—even shorter than those that characterize the· AGB phase. In addition, the remnant star will continue to evolve quite rapidly, perhaps on comparable timescales. The interaction of the ejected envelope with the remnant star thus provides a fascinating field of study, both for the theoretician and the observer. The attraction of this field is the challenge of following a dynamic, evolving system, displaying widely differing physical conditions that change during the course of a human lifetime. However, the short evolutionary timescale implies that few such objects will be observable at any one time.
The Suppression of Dust Formation in Evolved Stars Near Active Galactic Nuclei
Authors: Hartquist T W , Bertoldi F , Durisen R H , Dyson J E , Williams R J R , Rawlings J M C , Williams D A
Published: November 2023

As stated in-Chapter 17, dust formation probably does not occur in environments in which photodissociation and photoionization processes are sufficiently rapid to maintain most carbon in c+. Chapter 15 describes the influence of the external interstellar background radiation field on the chemistries of the outflowing envelopes of evolved star’s; the typical interstellar background radiation field is too weak to be of importance at the depths in the envelopes at which dust formation occurs. However, near enough to an active galactic nucleus (AGN) the radiation field impinging on the outside of an evolved star’s envelope is sufficiently strong to cause carbon to be primarily in the form of c+ at the positions where dust formation would occur in the absence of an AGN (Hartquist et al. 1995).
Deposition and properties of group III nitrides by molecular beam epitaxy
Authors: Popovici Galina , Morko’5, Hadis , Mohammad S Noor
Published: November 2023

Wide bandgap semiconductor materials extend the field of semiconductor applications to the limits where classical semiconductors such as Si and GaAs fail [1- 7]. They can emit light at shorter wavelengths (blue and ultraviolet), and can operate at higher temperatures due to the large bandgap, high thermal conductivity, and chemical inertness.
Movpe growth of nitrides
Authors: Briot Olivier
Published: November 2023

Finding a proper group III precursor for growth of nitrides is an easy thing, since well-suited molecules have been developed, purified, and tested for the growth of the other III-V materials. The ‘simplest’ trimethyl, triethyl molecules are widely available, in very high purities, but more complicated molecules were also developed for specific purposes, which can be tested to grow nitrides.
Structural defects and materials performance of the III-V nitrides
Authors: Ponce Fernando A
Published: November 2023

The collection of extended structural discontinuities in the lattice, such as interfaces, dislocations and stacking faults, is referred to as the microstructure of the material. The microstructure is sensitive to steps involved in crystal growth, such as the substrate used for epitaxy, the growth method itself, and variations in chemical composition during growth. The microstructure is expected to have a substantial effect upon other properties, such as electric transport and optical performance. It is known that in almost all semiconductors dislocations play a detrimental role in the electronic properties for applications ranging from integrated circuits to diode lasers. Achieving superior semicondutor performance has typically meant reducing the density of extended defects
Optical properties and lasing in GaN
Authors: Song Jin Joo , Shan Wei
Published: November 2023

It is well known that widegap Group III nitrides have enormous potential in device applications, particularly in UV-visible light emitters and high¬ temperature and high-power electronics. The study of optical properties in these materials has been hampered by the difficulties in obtaining high-quality nitride materials. The tremendous recent progress made in nitride growth technology, such as MBE and MOCVD as discussed in previous chapters, has renewed interest in optical investigations in GaN after a relatively long inactive period since the early work during the 1970s by Dingle (1971a-c), Pankove (1976), and Monemar (1974).
Dislocations in Patterns
Authors: Pismen L M
Published: November 2023

An ordered medium with translational symmetry broken along a certain direction is a one-dimensional spatially periodic structure that can be characterized by a certain phase variable changing along the chosen direction. A common example of such a structure is a striped pattern in a non-equilibrium system, e.g. convection rolls in a fluid heated from below or Turing patterns in an autocatalytic chemical system. An extensive review of pattern formation in non-equilibrium systems is given by Cross and Hohenberg (1993).
Vortices in Superfluids
Authors: Pismen L M
Published: November 2023

A superfluid is characterized by flow without dissipation. From a macroscopic point of view, superflow is a consequence of Galilean invariance of antisymmetric (conservative) dynamic equations of the type (1.28).
Adaptive plant evolution on islands: classical patterns, molecular data, new insights
Authors: Givnish Thomas J
Published: November 2023

The nature of plant life on oceanic islands is shaped by the remoteness of such islands, the resulting selection on plant dispersal mechanisms before arrival, and the ensuing pressures on plant ecology caused by an impoverished set of competitors, predators, pollinators, and frugivores after arrival. Island plants are thus often marked by unusually effective means of long-distance dispersal, the evolution of arborescence, extensive speciation coupled with adaptive radiation in habit and habitat, possession of unspecialized flowers, and loss of anti-herbivore defences (Darwin 1859; Wallace 1878, 1880;
Introduction
Authors: Monk Kathryn A , Fretes Yance de , Reksodiharjo-Lilley Gayatri
Published: November 2023

This book deals specifically with the four Indonesian provinces of West Nusa Tenggara (WNT), East Nusa Tenggara (ENT), East Timor, and Maluku, referred to collectively here as Nusa Tenggara and Maluku (NT&M). These provinces are composed of the smallest islands in Indonesia, of archipelagoes within archipelagoes. As such, they have been frequently excluded from general discussions in which reference is made to the six major areas of Indonesia: Sumatra, .Java, Bali, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya.
People and Society
Authors: Monk Kathryn A , Fretes Yance de , Reksodiharjo-Lilley Gayatri
Published: November 2023

The first section of this book has considered the ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku (NT&M) to be based solidly on its biophysical aspects and the resulting habitats. A comprehensive understanding of this region’s biodiversity is still lacking, however, because of the shortage of detailed knowledge of animals and plants at the population and community level. While observations have been made in previous chapters on the problems resulting from imprudent natural resource management, a major factor has as yet gone broadly unremarked: the role of people in this ecological equation.
Traditional and Modern Environmental Laws
Authors: Monk Kathryn A , Fretes Yance de , Reksodiharjo-Lilley Gayatri
Published: November 2023

How do people view their environment in Nusa Tenggara and Maluku (NT&M)? Why are they settled in that specific spot? How easy is it for local communities to accept changes in land use initiated by outsiders and to adapt to new neighbours and businesses entering their domain? How easy is it for the local people themselves to become involved in or develop new enterprises? In NT&M, most people live in rural communities with traditional systems that cope with the variability in their supporting environment. Interactions with the land are not only for material gains but have other cultural meanings “that are directly and indirectly paramount to the maintenance and order of village social structures” (Bury 1993). Traditional customs, the adat, are still strong within many communities, although weakening. Many younger people, educated in official schools and aware of the lifestyle and opportunities possible in the cities, are increasingly attracted to urban environments. In any new development project that affects indigenous communities, the “rationale of indigenous decision-making and resource evaluation” (Ellen 1978) should be considered.
Fluids
Authors: Ball Philip
Published: November 2023

If you want to see one of the key differences between Eastern and Western thought, look at the classical art of the two cultures. The West is deeply concerned with static form, with the angle of hand and arm, the tilt of a head, the naturalistic reproduction of shape. The Eastern tradition works differently: not with light and shade, not with a limitless blend of mimetic colour, but with quick, broad strokes, alive with the energy of the artist. It is like the apotheosis of a sketcher’s technique, capturing the instant while exclaiming the transience of forms in motion. It is, in short, an art that embraces change-an embodiment of the essential difference between a Platonic and a Taoist tradition. Traditional Western artists have seldom faced up squarely to the challenge of change. It’s not easy to paint something that is never still. Yet to the traditional Chinese artist, that can be the whole point of the exercise to capture the fundamental forms of motion.
The Inclusion Of Resonances
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero
Published: November 2023

The effect of the resonance over the non-resonant QED cross-section is parameterized in terms of the underlying Breit-Wigner resonance. The measurement of the parameters of the Breit-Wigner resonance have therefore to be corrected for the limited energy resolution as well as for the effects of radiation on the initial e+e~ state
The Minimal Standard Model Lagrangian
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero
Published: November 2023

In this section we give the explicit form of the Standard Model (SM) Lagrangian in the Re gauge (Fujikawa et al.1972, Yao 1973). We assume the simplest (minimal) scalar sector. The Lagrangian of the SM is by now a well-known quantity (Veltman 1994b) and, therefore, we limit its derivation to the essential points. Some special care, however, will be devoted to illustrating those points that are usually difficult to find in the literature, expecially those connected with the choice of gauge and with the corresponding Feynman rules in the ghost sector.
One-Loop Renormalization In The Standard Model
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero
Published: November 2023

The renormalization of the QED Lagrangian now has to be extended to cover the full Standard Model (SM). Once this step is taken, we will be able to make complete theoretical predictions and they will be compared with experimental measurements. In this chapter, therefore, we are going to unravel the deep quantum nature of the SM Lagrangian as a model for electroweak interactions.
Production Of On-Shell Vector (Scalar) Bosons
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero
Published: November 2023

We saw in Chapter 7 that the parameters of the Z boson can be predicted with very high accuracy, and that they are in rather good agreement with the measurements performed at LEPl, see (Grunewald 1998).
Life records of Isaac Newton
Authors: Hall A Rupert
Published: November 2023

The following chronological table lists the principal events in or affecting the life of Isaac Newton. AH dates are given in Old Style, but the year is reckoned to begin on 1 January.
Bernard le Bavier de Fontenelles Eloge
Authors: Hall A Rupert
Published: November 2023

Conduitt had simply passed to Fontenelle (1657-1757) the problem of de scribing Newton’s scientific work with due contextual and critical comment. His accomplishment of this part of his task, without Conduitt’s assistance, will be considered in a moment. Certainly this part of Fontenelle’s Eloge was also found by subsequent biographers to be a convenient model to follow.
Thomas Birch’s article
Authors: Hall A Rupert
Published: November 2023

Although Thomas Birch (1705-66) was the first British author of a biography of Isaac Newton, one need not suppose that he devoted tremendous effort to it as a literary composition. Thomas Birch’s father was a coffee-mill maker, a Quaker; the son set up a literary mill for turning out biographies, in the course of preparing which he assembled much useful information and collected many manuscripts-both orginals and copies procured at his own cost later to be preserved in the British Museum. Horace Walpole spoke of him running about after novelties like a brisk young dog; ‘Tom Birch’, Dr Johnson may have said, ‘is as brisk as a bee in conversation, but no sooner does he take a pen in his hand than it becomes a torpedo to him and numbs his faculties’. To counter this sarcasm, Boswell added: ‘We have seen that Johnson honored him with a Greek epigram; and his correspondence with him during many years, proves that he had no mean opinion of him’.
EV and HEV developments
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T
Published: November 2023

In 1801, Richard Trevithick built a steam-powered carriage, opening the era of horseless transportation. After tolerating over 30 years of noise and dirtiness due to steam engines, the first battery-powered electric vehicle (EV) was built in 1834. Over 50 years later, the first petrol-powered internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) was built in 1885. So, the EV is not new and is already over 166 years old. It was better than the ICEV in the early 1900s. Having slept for almost 70 years, it began to recover in the 1970s. Now, the EV intends to strike back (Daniels, 2000). Detailed history of the development of EVs can be found in Wakefield (1994, 1998) and Shacket (1979).
EV systems
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T
Published: November 2023

The conventional ICEV employs a combustion engine for propulsion. Its energy source is liquid petrol or diesel. In contrast, the EV employs an electric motor and the corresponding energy sources are batteries, fuel cells, capacitors and/or flywheels. Notice that the presently achievable specific energy of capacitors and flywheels precludes them from being the sole energy sources for EVs. The key difference between the ICEV and EV is the device for propulsion (ICE vs. electric). There are many alternatives for configuring EVs. Although EVs borrow most of the system parameters from ICEVs, they have some parameters that are absent in ICEVs (Chan, 1993; Unnewehr and Nasar, 1982; Shacket, 1979).
EV Auxiliaries
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T
Published: November 2023

Similar to ICEVs, EVs need many auxiliary devices or subsystems to enhance the vehicle’s manoeuvrability and driver’s comfortability. Some of these auxiliaries are dedicated to EVs such as the battery charger, battery management system (BMS) and regenerative braking system, whereas the others are common to those of ICEVs such as the air-conditioner, auxiliary power supply, power steering system, navigation system, lighting, defroster, screen-wiper and radio. Even common to both EVs and ICEVs, most EV auxiliaries (including the air-conditioner, auxiliary power supply, power steering system and navigation system) have their unique features and operation (Chan and Chau, 1997).
Introduction: Viruses, Immunity, Equations
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

Viruses populate the world between the living and the non-living. They themselves are not capable of reproduction, but if put into the right environment they can manipulate a cell to generate numerous copies of themselves. ‘Reproduce me!’ is the essence of the virus, the message that the viral genome carries into the headquarter of a cell--the nucleus. The viral genome manages to attract the attention of the workers in the cell, which are the various enzymes capable of copying and interpreting genetic information. These workers will read the viral message and follow its instruction; they will produce viral proteins and more copies of the viral genome. The cell may devote all its resources to produce new virus particles and die after everything has been turned into virus. A swarm of new ‘Reproduce me!’ messages is then leaving the cell, searching for new targets.
Dynamics Of Immune Responses
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we analyse the basic mathematical models that describe the interaction between a replicating virus population and immune responses. We study a variety of such models exploring different assumptions about the detailed dynamics of the immune response. We characterize conditions that specify whether a virus will establish a persistent infection or will be cleared by the immune response. We also study the correlation between virus load (that is, the abundance of virus) and the magnitude of the anti-viral immune response. While functional immune responses always reduce virus load, the correlation between virus load and the abundance of immune cells can be positive or negative. A high virus load provides a strong antigenic stimulation and may induce a high abundance of immune cells which in turn reduce virus load.
The Frequency Of Resistant Mutant Virus Before Anti-Viral Therapy
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

A number of potent anti-HIV drugs are now available which inhibit the replication of the virus in vivo. Reverse transcriptase inhibitors prevent the infection of new cells, while protease inhibitors prevent infected cells from producing infectious virus particles. As discussed in Chapter 4, drug treatment usually results in a rapid decline of plasma virus load and an increase in the CD4 cell count. Monotherapy often leads to rapid emergence of drug-resistant virus mutants. For some drugs, a single-point mutation can confer high level resistance, while for other drugs several point mutations are required. Combination therapy can result in a longer lasting suppression of virus load.
Everything We Know So Far And Beyond
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter, we provide a summary of our results and outline some open questions. The general purpose of this book was to provide a mathematical framework for how viruses interact with the immune system. We developed a theory for the population dynamics or micro-epidemiology of infectious agents within infected individuals.
Structured Systems
Authors: Ng Michael K
Published: November 2023

So far in this book, only iterative methods for the solution of Toeplitz systems of equationsTnX= b have been discussed. This chapter provides a survey of some of the latest developments in PCG methods for the solution of linear systems of equations with structured coefficient matrices, for instance Toeplitz-like, Toeplitz-plus-Hankel, Toeplitz-plus-band, block-Toeplitz, Toeplitzblock, and block-Toeplitz-Toeplitz-block matrices. We also discuss Toeplitz least squares problems. Several preconditioning techniques are discussed for different classes of structured matrices. This method allows us to solve structured systems efficiently and is therefore attractive for large scale problems.
Applications to Signal Processing
Authors: Ng Michael K
Published: November 2023

Least squares methods find widespread use in all scientific disciplines where data are obtained by measurement of some physical process. In this chapter, we apply the least squares method in estimation of the parameters of linear system models for unknown systems. Thus a linear system model with a finite set of parameters is postulated for the unknown system and the least squares method is used to estimate the model parameters. This is a problem in system identification.
Dark Energy and the Runaway Universe
Authors: Silk Joseph
Published: November 2023

Supernovae are believed to be virtually perfect bombs. A supernova is brighter than a billion suns. When stars die, they brighten so much that individual stars can be detected even in distant galaxies. That suggests that supernovae might be good distance indicators. The best supernovae for this purpose are the brightest and most consistent. These are the supernovae of Type Ia, and they are generated by low-mass stars.
Spin Hamiltonian
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar
Published: November 2023

This chapter starts with an explanation of the different terms of the static spin Hamiltonian, their relation to structural parameters and a brief outline of the underlying physics of the various interactions. Then we discuss the transition amplitudes of electron and nuclear spin transitions and mention the most important line broadening mechanisms. Approaches to evaluate transition frequencies and line intensities of EPR and nuclear transitions from a given spin Hamiltonian are described in some detail. The concept of orientation selection by selective excitation, which is central for many pulse EPR experiments on disordered systems, is explained. Finally, we introduce a model system, which will be used in the following chapters to describe most of the pulse experiments devoted to the measurement of hyperfine interactions.
Desity operators and their evolution
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we introduce the quantum mechanical description of the state of spin ensembles and of their time evolution The relation between the density operator and the magnetization vector of ensembles of isolated spins S = 1/2 is explained. We derive the equation of motion of the density operator from the Schrodinger equation and discuss how the evolution of spin systems during pulse EPR experiments can be mathematically described.
Nuclear modulation effect I: basic experiments
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar
Published: November 2023

In 1965, Rowan, Hahn, and Mims observed that for certain samples the decays of primary electron spin echoes were modulated with frequencies that correspond to nuclear frequencies and their combinations (differences and sums). After the development of a theory for the nuclear modulation effect by Mims in 1972, this so-called electron spin echo envelope modulation (ESEEM) spectroscopy became very popular for studying hyperfine and nuclear quadrupole couplings in solids. Particular advantages of ESEEM techniques are the lower technical effort compared to ENDOR, a more sensitive detection of nuclear frequencies below about 5 MHz, and the broadband excitation of nuclear transitions which simplifies the development of correlation experiments and the separation of interactions (§10.3, Chapter 11). The application of ESEEM for the measurement of small hyperfine and nuclear quadrupole interactions is described in a number of reviews and in a monograph.
Field-swept EPR experiments in one and two dimensions
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar
Published: November 2023

EPR spectra with optimum resolution can often be measured with the highest sensitivity by c.w. EPR spectroscopy. In this chapter we first consider cases where ID field-swept pulse EPR experiments provide more faithful EPR lineshapes than c.w. EPR does or where pulse EPR techniques can be used to separate the EPR spectra of different paramagnetic centres by their relaxation times (§15.1). In many cases a 1D EPR spectrum may be difficult to interpret even if resolution is optimum. In such situations, 2D techniques can facilitate data analysis by providing additional information and unravelling different interactions which contribute to a complex EPR lineshape (§15.2). We first examine the correlation of forbidden transitions in an EPR spectrum to nuclear frequencies, which can be used to detect the presence of weak forbidden transitions and establish their character. We then discuss the separation of the electron Zeeman interaction in a second dimension as a tool for analysing spectra of species with electron Zeeman and hyperfine interactions of the same order of magnitude. Another 2D resolution enhancement technique makes use of a measure for the anisotropy of the interactions to obtain the second dimension. Finally we examine the possibility to obtain isotropic EPR spectra of solid-state samples by a magic-angle sample spinning technique.
Likelihood
Authors: Severini Thomas A
Published: November 2023

Suppose that the observed data y can be modeled as the observed value of a random variable Y distributed according to density p(y;θ), θ ∈ Θ. Consider two possible values for θ , θ and θ.
Likelihood functions for a parameter of interest
Authors: Severini Thomas A
Published: November 2023

Consider a model parameterized by a parameter θ which may be written θ = (ψ, λ) where ψ is the parameter of interest and λ is a nuisance parameter. In general, both ψ and λ may be vectors, although often ψ is a scalar. For models without a nuisance parameter, inference may be based directly on the likelihood function L(ψ); for instance, a test of ψ = ψ  1 versus ψ = ψ  2 may be based on the likelihood ratio L(ψ  1)/L(ψ  2). When a nuisance parameter is present however it is not possible to use the likelihood function to directly compare different values of ψ . For instance, the value of L(ψ  1, λ)/L(ψ  2, λ) will, in general, depend on the value of λ. The greater the dimension of the nuisance parameter, the greater is its potential effect on the conclusions regarding the parameter of interest.
Structure and Dynamics: An Atomic View of Materials
Authors: Dove Martin T
Published: November 2023

This book is concerned with a wide range of general principles that govern the behaviour of atoms in solids, and these principles are applied to the full range of types of materials known to man. The dual focus is on the structures of materials at an atomic level and on how the atoms vibrate inside solids. This dual focus comes together to explore how the atomic principles determine the behaviour and properties of materials. Attention is also given to experimental methods. The general principles include the factors that determine the packing of atoms to form the huge variety of structures, the formal description of real and reciprocal space, the types of atomic bonding, the formalism of atomic vibrations, and the theories of phase transitions. The tools covered include diffraction and spectroscopy, both laboratory and large-scale facilities.
The Reciprocal Lattice
Authors: Dove Martin T
Published: November 2023

The concept of the reciprocal lattice arises from the need to have a formal mathematical representation of the planes of atoms within a crystal. The existence of planes of atoms plays an important role in many aspects of crystalline materials – images of planes of atoms in crystals are given in Fig. 4.1. The shapes of crystals are determined by the relative energies of surfaces defined by the crystal planes. For example, the faces of the calcite crystals shown in Chapter 1 are determined by one particular plane of atoms, as shown in Fig. 4.2. Vibrations of the crystal involve motions of planes of atoms. Diffraction of beams of radiation involve constructive reflections from planes of atoms. With such a diverse range of applications involving planes of atoms, a consistent and general representation is clearly of value, and the formalism of the reciprocal lattice fulfils this role.
Notation for Chapters 5, 6, and 11
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

transverse projector
Application of Renormalized Perturbation Theories to Turbulence and Related Problems
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we discuss two specific theories of turbulence. They are the direct-interaction approximation (or DIA, for short) and the local energy transfer (or LET) theory. They are both examples of second-order renormalized perturbation theories, as discussed in the previous chapter, and hence share the same equation for the pair correlation of velocities, but differ in the way in which renormalization is accomplished by the introduction of a second (response or propagator) function.
Setting The Scene: Critical Phenomena
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

In the third and last part of this book we concentrate on renormalization group (or RG) in its various forms. As the great success of RG has been in the context of critical phenomena, it seems sensible to consider the general theoretical situation in that subject as it existed just prior to the coming of RG. Moreover, as the application of RG to critical phenomena was to some extent inspired by the concepts of scaling and “blocking the lattice,” it will be helpful to examine these ideas also.
Real-Space Renormalization Group
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

As we saw in Chapter 2, the effect of the RGT is to change the strength of the coupling, and successive applications of the RGT can cause the value of a particular coupling constant to flow in a space of coupling constants. We use these ideas now to provide a general, more quantitative, formulation of RG, and in particular to identify the fixed point which corresponds to the critical point.
The Ginzburg–Landau model
Authors: Annett James F
Published: November 2023

The superconducting state and the normal metallic state are separate thermodynamic phases of matter in just the same way as gas, liquid, and solid are different phases. Similarly, the normal Bose gas and Bose–Einstein Conden-sate (BEC), or normal liquid He and superfluid He II are separated by a thermodynamic phase transition. Each such phase transition can be characterized by the nature of the singularities in specific heat and other thermodynamic variables at the transition, Tc. We can therefore examine the problems of superfluidity and superconductivity from the point of view of the thermodynamics of phase transitions.
The macroscopic coherent state
Authors: Annett James F
Published: November 2023

We have seen in the previous chapters that the concept of the macroscopic wave functionΨ(r), is central to understanding atomic Bose–Einstein condensates (BEC), superfluid He, and even superconductivity within the Ginzburg–Landau (GL) theory. But the connection between these ideas is not at all clear, since the atom condensates and He are bosonic systems, while super-conductivity is associated with the conduction electrons in metals which are fermions. The physical meaning of the GL order parameter was not explained until after 1957 when Bardeen Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) published the first truly microscopic theory of superconductivity. Soon afterward the connection was finally established by Gor’ kov. He was able to show that, at least in the range of temperatures near Tc, the GL theory can indeed be derived from the BCS theory. Furthermore this provides a physical interpretation of the nature of the order parameter. Essentially it is describing a macroscopic wave function, or condensate, of Cooper pairs.
Crocodilia
Authors: Lever Christopher
Published: November 2023

In its native range the dwarf or broad-fronted crocodile (the nominate form reaches about 1.7 m in length and 0. t. osborni 1.2 m), which is classified by the IUCN (the World Conservation Union) as vulnerable, inhabits small rivers and shallow tributaries of large rivers and pools in the central African forest, venturing into the savannah along well-shaded rivers. It does not occur in large rivers occupied by themuch bigger (up to 6 m long) Nile crocodile Dwarf crocodiles (of which subspecies is not recorded) were apparently shipped from Madagascar (to which they had been previously introduced at an unknown date, and where their current status, if they survive there, is not known) to Kenya in the 1930s by the British explorer Ewart Grogan, who released them in Lake Challa on his 25000 sq km estate south of Nairobi. (This introduction is not mentioned by Spawls et al. 2002.) In Lake Challa, which straddles the Kenya/Tanzania border between Tsavo West National Park and Mount Kilimanjaro, the crocodiles are said to have thrived and multiplied for the next 60 years until, in the early 1990s, local subsistence fishermen, whose nets they were contin ually destroying, began a programme of eradication. It was generally believed that the fishermen had been successful and that the crocodiles in Lake Challa had died out, until in March 2002 a British tourist was killed by one while swimming in the lake (A. Blomfield, personal communication 2002).
The Fuller index
Authors: Crabb M C , Potter A J B
Published: November 2023

In 1967 F. B. Fuller published a paper [33] which introduced a Q-valued fixed point index to ‘count’ the periodic orbits of differentiable flows. This work was in many respects ahead of its time.
Hardness Measurements by Spherical Indenters
Authors: Tabor D
Published: November 2023

In the Brinell hardness test (Brinell, 1900) a hard spherical indenter is pressed under a fixed normal load on to the smooth surface of the metal under examination. When equilibrium has been reached, say after 15 or 30 sec., the load and indenter are removed and the diameter of the permanent impression measured. The Brinell hardness number (B.H.N.) is then expressed as the ratio of the load W to the curved area of the indentation.
The Deformation and Indentation of Ideal Plastic Metals
Authors: Tabor D
Published: November 2023

In the formation of the indentation made in Brinell hardness measurements we are concerned mainly with the plastic flow of the metal around the indenter. For this reason we shall first discuss briefly the nature of plastic deformation.
Hardness Measurements with Conical and Pyramidal Indenters
Authors: Tabor D
Published: November 2023

A Conical diamond indenter for hardness measurements was first introduced by Ludwik in 1908. He used a cone having an included angle of 90° and defined the hardness as the mean pressure over the surface of the indentation.
Action of Bearing Alloys [A]
Authors: Bowden F P , Tabor D
Published: November 2023

Bearings are normally designed to run with a finite film of oil separating them from the rotating journal. The frictional resistance will then depend on the clearance, the load, the speed, and the viscosity of the oil film. Provided the oil film is maintained, the metal surfaces of the journal and the bearing play no part, and there is no wear of either journal or bearing. In practice, however, particularly in starting and stopping, or if impulsive loading or excessive vibration occur, the finite oil film may break down and only thin, boundary films of lubricant may remain. In severe cases, considerable metallic contact may occur. It is during this incidence of boundary lubrication and of metallic con tact that the wear and seizure of bearings takes place.
Mechanism of Boundary Lubrication
Authors: Bowden F P , Tabor D
Published: November 2023

It has already been indicated that the boundary properties of lubricant films depend on the nature of the metal surfaces as well as on the composition of the lubricant itself. Nevertheless, little work of a consistent nature has been carried out on the effect of the underlying metal on boundary lubrication.
Action of Extreme Pressure Lubricants
Authors: Bowden F P , Tabor D
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters we saw that the main function of a lubricant film is to reduce the amount of intimate metallic contact between sliding metal surfaces. Under extreme conditions of load and speed, even the best boundary lubricants of the fatty acid or metallic soap type may break down with a consequent increase in the friction and amount of surface damage. This occurs, for example, with hypoid gears where the rubbing surfaces are made of very hard steel and the sliding speeds are relatively high. Here it is customary to use lubricants to which certain active radicals or groups have been added. These additives are referred to as ‘extreme pressure’ additives, and the resultant lubricants are termed ‘extreme pressure’ or ‘E.P.’ lubricants, since they enable the rubbing surfaces to run satisfactorily under conditions where ordinary mineral or vegetable oils would prove inadequate.
History of bird migration studies
Authors: Berthold Peter
Published: November 2023

Without doubt the history of bird migration studies started with Aristotle, who ‘raised ornithology to the rank of a science’, as Stresemann (1951) confirmed in his Entwicklung der Ornithologie (Development of ornithology).
The phenomena of bird migration
Authors: Berthold Peter
Published: November 2023

As animal migrations in general and bird migrations in particular occur in an abundance of different forms (Chapter 1), it is not easy to formulate apt and useful definitions for all migrations. In fact, there have been so many attempts that a lengthy article could easily be written on the definitions alone. The most general definition is given by Baker (1978): ‘Migration: the act of moving from one spatial unit to another.’
The significance of bird migration for human society
Authors: Berthold Peter
Published: November 2023

Since time immemorial man has been a ‘migratory species’, as evidenced by earlier mass migrations, present-day streams of refugees, and global tourist movements (Markl 1995). It is not surprising, therefore, that bird migration has always been a source of fascination. There are at least seven aspects of man’s life in which bird migration is of some significance-mysticism/religion, aesthetics, science, economics, hunting, transport, and hygiene.
The Astronomer Hoyle
Authors: Gregory Jane
Published: November 2023

Now that Hoyle had his institute, he seemed to have joined the establishment after all. He was a frequent if combative correspond- ent to The Times, not only on steady-state theory and quasars butalso on matters such as economic inflation, foot-and-mouth disease in cattle, and the Common Market of Europe, which he opposed both on grounds both of nationalism, and because it seemed to be tempting the UK into what Hoyle saw as fruitless pan-European collaborations on minor but expensive projects in space technology.
Introduction to the Theory of Ferromagnetism
Authors: Aharoni Amikam
Published: November 2023

The present book is the second edition of Amikam Aharoni's Introduction to the Theory of Ferromagnetism, based on a popular lecture course. Like its predecessor, it serves a two-fold purpose: First, it is a textbook for first-year graduate and advanced undergraduate students in both physics and engineering. Second, it explains the basic theoretical principles on which the work is based for practising engineers and experimental physicists who work in the field of magnetism, thus also serving to a certain extent as a reference book. For both professionals and students the emphasis is on introducing the foundations of the different subfields, highlighting the direction and tendency of the most recent research. For this new edition, the author has thoroughly updated the material especially of chapters 9 ('The Nucleation Problem') and 11 ('Numerical Micromagnetics'), which now contain the state of the art required by students and professionals who work on advanced topics of ferromagnetism. From reviews on the 1/e: '... a much needed, thorough introduction and guide to the literature. It is full of wisdom and commentary. Even more, it is Amikam Aharoni at his best - telling a story... He is fun to read... The extensive references provide an advanced review of micromagnetics and supply sources for suitable exercises... there is much for the student to do with the guidance provided by Introduction to the Theory of Ferromagnetism.' A. Arrott, Physics Today, September 1997
Molecular Field Approximation
Authors: Aharoni Amikam
Published: November 2023

It is necessary to understand paramagnetism before trying to understand ferromagnetism, and it is best to start from the same quasi-classical approach which will be useful for ferromagnetism. A quantum-mechanical theory of paramagnetism [3) is not particularly difficult to introduce, but it will not serve this purpose as effectively.
Embryonic development and utilisation of egg components
Authors: Deeming D C
Published: November 2023

Development of bird embryos of domestic species is well reported but given the diversity of bird species there are relatively few descriptive reports of development in non-commercial species (Ricklefs and Starck 1998). Patterns of embryonic development in different species have been found to be largely similar and the domestic fowl (Gallus gallus) embryo has proved to be a useful general model for avian development. In this chapter space prevents an in-depth description of the pattern of embryonic development in any particular species and this would be largely redundant given previous publications (Romanoff 1960; Freeman and Vince 1974; Bellairs and Osmond 1998; Ricklefs and Starck 1998). Rather, an attempt is made to provide a basic description of embryonic development through to hatching, with emphasis on the changes in extra-embryonic environment within the shell. Freeman and Vince (1974) describe behavioural aspects of development and interactions between the developing embryo and the incubating adult as described in Chapter 7.
Nest microclimate during incubation
Authors: Ar A , Sidis Y
Published: November 2023

The vast amount of written information about bird nests and their significance to the eggs, parents and nestlings, calls for a revision with the hope that significantly new insights to this subject will emerge. Bird nests are so highly variable in their appearance, size, building material, structure, location, temporal appearance and species specificity, that more then one kind of classification is possible. In fact, many reviewers over–emphasise rare, curious and unusual features of nests. Hanging nests, communal nests, odd building-material nests, soil and foliage covered nests, floating nests, nests in tunnels, on cliffs, etc., seem to catch the eye of the keen observer (e.g. Collias 1964) and mask the fact that most nests are ‘ordinary’. Even so, nests are so species-specific that an expert can easily recognise a bird species by its nest (e.g. Welty 1982; Hansell 2000). The variability of nest forms among species, in particular in warm climates, can only partly explain the microclimate they provide. It may be related more to niche competition, protection and camouflaging against enemies during this critical period, whereas factors such as shading or entrance orientation may contribute more to the microclimate of the nest (e.g. Facemireet al. 1990; Williams 1993a; Sidiset al. 1994).
Patterns and significance of egg turning
Authors: Deeming D C
Published: November 2023

Turning, shifting or jabbing, is the process in which the egg is moved around within the nest changing both its location and, through rotation, its orientation. It is considered to be an integral part of successful incubation in almost all species of bird (Poulsen 1953) although as will be shown it is not a universal behaviour. This chapter reviews the process of egg turning during incubation using qualitative descriptions of the behaviour together with quantitative records of rates and angles of turning. Theories explaining the need for turning are discussed and a start is made in examining the evolutionary significance of this behaviour in avian incubation. This chapter does not deal with other behaviours during incubation which involve movement of eggs, e.g. retrieval of an egg that has rolled from a nest. Such activities are described in Chapter 6.