bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
In‐group Bias and Culture of Collectivism
Authors: Yamagishi Toshio , Jin Nobuhito , Miller Allan S.
Published: March 2003

In this paper I present an argument that culture of collectivism which characterizes Japanese society is to be conceived in terms of an equilibrium between socio‐relational and cognitive traits in which people have acquired expectations for generalized reciprocity within, not across, group boundaries. Maintenance of harmony among group members and voluntary cooperation toward group goals – the characteristics of collectivist culture – are often considered to be fundamentally psychological in nature. It is usually considered that members of a collectivist culture like to maintain harmony and cooperate toward group goals, or that “culture” sneaks into the minds of people and drives them to behave in such a manner. According to this view, culture is a fundamentally psychological or subjective matter. This is the view that I want to challenge in this paper.
Social Cognition Permeates Social Psychology: Motivated Mental Processes Guide the Study of Human Social Behavior
Authors: Operario Don , Fiske Susan T.
Published: March 2003

Social cognition provides a metatheoretical approach to understanding the mental underpinnings of human social behavior. This paper reviews some of the major themes in social cognition research, tracing its progression from a methodological hybrid between cognitive and social psychology to a major foundation of social psychology. We stress the most recent trend in social cognition research – the motivated tactician theme – which focuses on the roles of motives and goals in people's mental processes and social behavior; examples from our laboratory illustrate this theme. Our brief historical overview emphasizes diversity within the social cognition approach; its applicability to multiple psychological and social issues; and directions for collaboration with other notable research traditions, particularly cross‐cultural perspectives.
The development and validation of the Relational, Individual, and Collective self‐aspects (RIC) Scale
Authors: Kashima Emiko S. , Hardie Elizabeth A.
Published: March 2003

A new scale measuring Relational, Individual, and Collective self‐aspects (RIC) was developed. The RIC Scale consists of ten questions each followed by three options reflecting the three self‐aspects. Respondents rate each option in terms of its applicability to the self, yielding three subscale scores and revealing the relative prominence of each self‐aspect. Two samples of university students (N1 = 170, N2 = 214) were used to develop and refine the scale. Analyses supported the reliability and validity of the three RIC subscales. Each self‐aspect correlated in predicted ways with several existing scales. The RIC Scale also proved useful in assessing gender differences in self‐aspect prominence. Validity of the three‐part model of the self and implications for future research are discussed.
Emotions and Creativity, East and West
Authors: Averill James R. , Chon Kyum Koo , Hahn Doug Woong
Published: March 2003

This article is concerned with emotion, creativity, and the intersection of the two – creativity in the domain of emotion. We first present a framework for the analysis of emotion, a framework that recognizes the importance of biological influences but that also takes into account cultural and individual variations. We then describe the criteria – effectiveness, novelty, and authenticity – for judging a response as creative; the relative emphasis placed on these criteria, especially novelty and authenticity, helps account for East–West differences in aesthetic preferences (e.g., in the production and evaluation of works of art). Next, we explore the ability of individuals to be emotionally creative, that is, to acquire emotions that meet the criteria for creativity. Finally, we examine the “Four‐Seven Debate,” a classic in Korean Neo‐Confucian thought, in light of our discussion of emotions and creativity.
Is Self‐enhancement Related to Modesty or to Individualism‐collectivism? A Test with Four Israeli Groups
Authors: Kurman Jenny
Published: March 2003

The main assertion of this study was that degree of self‐enhancement is determined by the modesty requirements prevailing in a culture rather than by its level of collectivism. Four Israeli subgroups (323 11th‐grade students) were compared in a two‐by‐two design: type of living (kibbutz versus city) and level of religious observance (religious versus secular). The two kibbutz groups were found to be more collectivist than the urban groups, and the religious groups were found to be more modest than the secular groups. Results show that self‐enhancement was related to level of religious observance and not to type of living. When modesty was statistically controlled for, the effect of level of religious observance was removed. It was also found that self‐enhancement measures were predicted by modesty and not by collectivism facets. Thus, the data supported the study's main claim.
Social representations of history in Malaysia and Singapore: On the relationship between national and ethnic identity
Authors: Liu James H. , Lawrence Belinda , Ward Colleen , Abraham Sheela
Published: March 2003

Social representations of history were investigated using surveys among university populations of ethnic Malays, Chinese, and Indians in Singapore and Malaysia. Representations of history and historical leaders tended to be hegemonic or consensual, showing low levels of conflict across ethnicity and nationality, even regarding the separation of these two nations. Tendencies towards in‐group favoritism and ontogeny were slight, but statistically significant on some measures. National and ethnic identity were positively correlated, with ethnic identity stronger than national identity in Malaysia, and strongest among Malays in Malaysia. National identity was strongest among Chinese in Malaysia, followed by Chinese in Singapore. Results of regression analyses on national identity suggest that ethnicity is more sensitive in Malaysia than in Singapore. Results are interpreted through the frameworks provided by social representations theory and social identity theory. It is argued that hegemonic representations of history are associated with positive correlations between national and ethnic identity.
Managing anger for teamwork in Hong Kong: goal interdependence and open–mindedness
Authors: Tjosvold Dean
Published: March 2003

Anger is part of working in a team, as is dealing with its frustrations and conflicts. The cooperative–competitive approach to conflict suggests that how open–mindedly the anger incident is discussed impacts on its dynamics and outcomes. Results from critical incident interviews of organization members in Hong Kong clarify how team members can manage their anger. Structural equation and other analyses suggest that open–minded discussion of the anger–inducing incident promotes productivity and strengthens relationships; thereby developing commitment and a belief that team members are resourceful. These constructive dynamics and outcomes were found to occur when team members had co–operative but not competitive nor independent goals. Results were interpreted as suggesting that even in a society where collectivist and conflict–negative values are influential, anger can be managed constructively through an open–minded discussion of the incident.
Theory & Methods: Fisher’s Information on the Correlation Coefficient in Bivariate Logistic Models
Authors: Smith Murray D. , Moffatt Peter G.
Published: March 2003

From a theoretical perspective, the paper considers the properties of the maximum likelihood estimator of the correlation coefficient, principally regarding precision, in various types of bivariate model which are popular in the applied literature. The models are: ‘Full‐Full’, in which both variables are fully observed; ‘Censored‐Censored’, in which both of the variables are censored at zero; and finally, ‘Binary‐Binary’, in which both variables are observed only in sign. For analytical convenience, the underlying bivariate distribution which is assumed in each of these cases is the bivariate logistic. A central issue is the extent to which censoring reduces the level of Fisher’s information pertaining to the correlation coefficient, and therefore reduces the precision with which this important parameter can be estimated.
Theory & Methods: A Note on Bayesian Prediction from the Regression Model with Informative Priors
Authors: Marriott John M. , Spencer Nancy M.
Published: March 2003

This paper considers the problem of undertaking a predictive analysis from a regression model when proper conjugate priors are used. It shows how the prior information can be incorporated as a virtual experiment by augmenting the data, and it derives expressions for both the prior and the posterior predictive densities. The results obtained are of considerable practical importance to practitioners of Bayesian regression methods.
Theory & Methods: Continuous‐time capture‐recapture models with time variation and behavioural response
Authors: Hwang Wen‐Han , Chao Anne , Yip Paul S.F.
Published: March 2003

This paper develops a likelihood‐based inference procedure for continuous‐time capture‐recapture models. The first‐capture and recapture intensities are assumed to be in constant proportion but may otherwise vary arbitrarily through time. The full likelihood is partitioned into two factors, one of which is analogous to the likelihood in a special type of multiplicative intensity model arising in failure time analysis. The remaining factor is free of the non‐parametric nuisance parameter and is easily maximized. This factor provides an estimator of population size and an asymptotic variance under a counting process framework. The resulting estimation procedure is shown to be equivalent to that derived from a martingale‐based estimating function approach. Simulation results are presented to examine the performance of the proposed estimators.
Theory & Methods: Tests for Bivariate Symmetry Against Ordered Alternatives in Square Contingency Tables
Authors: Menéndez M.L. , Pardo J.A. , Pardo L.
Published: March 2003

Let X and Y denote two ordinal response variables, each having I levels. When subjects are classified on both variables, there are I 2 possible combinations of classifications. Let pij= Pr(X = i, Y = j). This paper introduces a family of tests based on φ–divergence measures for testing H0: pij = pji against H1: pij ≥ pji (I≥ j); and for testing H1 against H2: pij unrestricted. A simulation study assesses some of the family of tests introduced in this paper in comparison to the likelihood ratio test.
The Steel Manufacturers' Nickel Syndicate Ltd., 1904–39: Assessing the Conduct and Performance of a Cooperative Purchasing Organization
Authors: Boyce Gordon
Published: March 2003

This paper seeks to extend our knowledge of intermediate transacting frameworks by examining the history of the Steel Manufacturers' Nickel Syndicate. The study shows how constituents arranged and employed inter‐organizational communication lines to create a durable cooperative purchasing syndicate that had a special relationship with a New Caledonian supplier. By measuring the financial advantages that members secured by participation relative to market prices, the article explores one way of refining our approach to comparative institutional analysis.
Changes in Technology and Preferences: A General Equilibrium Explanation of Rapid Growth in Trade
Authors: Dixon Peter B. , Menon Jayant , Rimmer Maureen T.
Published: March 2003

We use a computable general equilibrium model in an explanation of the recent rapid growth in Australia's trade, particularly intra‐industry trade. Relative to previous studies of trade growth based on multiple regression analysis, our approach allows us to: (i) work at a detailed industry level; (ii) use primary variables to represent changes in technology and preferences rather than proxies; and (iii) use a framework based on explicit microeconomic foundations. We find that most of the growth in Australia's trade relative to GDP is explained by changes in technology and preferences.
Steindl's Contribution to the Theory of Industry Concentration
Authors: Bloch Harry
Published: March 2003

Over a period of some fifty years from the early 1940s until his death in 1993, Josef Steindl developed and expounded a theory of industry concentration. His analysis deals explicitly with differences in costs and demand among firms producing similar products. These differences lead to differences in firm growth, so that his analysis is dynamic. Thus, it provides a constructive alternative to the emphasis in the neoclassical mainstream on static equilibrium with identical firms. In the present paper, Steindl's analysis is subjected to a critical appraisal. Shortcomings of the analysis are noted, its links with other approaches to the theory of industry concentration are identified and directions for further development are indicated.
Public Hospital Costs in Two Australian States
Authors: Fahrer Jerome , Fung Justin G. , Harper Ian R.
Published: March 2003

This study examines the long‐run and short‐run behaviour of public hospital average costs in two Australian States: Victoria and Queensland. Using adjusted weighted inlier‐equivalent separations as a measure of hospital output, and floor area as a measure of capacity, the study finds a hump‐ or ‘∩'‐shaped long‐run average cost curve at the 5 per cent significance level in both data sets. The study also finds a saucer‐ or ‘∪'‐shaped relationship between capacity utilisation and short‐run average cost at the 5 per cent level.
The Rise and Fall of the Australian Women’s Bureau
Authors: Russell Lani , Sawer Marian
Published: March 2003

Policy textbooks often overlook the importance of international borrowing in their accounts of the policy process. Analysis of feminist policy influence also tends to neglect the international dimension of the opportunity structure and the leverage provided by international agendas. In this article we tell the story of how the Women's Bureau, the first women’s unit in Australian government, came into being in the 1960s. This story encompasses the overseas modelling of such bureaux and the promotion of such models through international women’s organisations and their national affiliates. The international dimension has been inseparable from the development of women’s policy machinery in Australian government; the current disengagement from international standard setting coincides with the dismantling of domestic machinery, including the Women’s Bureau.
Re‐Interpreting Cultural Nationalism
Authors: Hutchinson John
Published: March 2003

This article reviews standard and recent interpretations of cultural nationalism. It rejects “invention of tradition” perspectives, and assumptions that it is a surrogate statist movement, concerned with cultural homogeneity, that it is archaising in character, and that it is a transient movement, incompatible with full modernisation. It argues cultural nationalism seeks to “rediscover” an historically‐rooted way of life; its concern is communitarian; that cultural nationalists act primarily as moral and social innovators; and that it is a recurring movement, embedded in the modern world.
The “Polish Problem”– American War‐Time Perspectives
Authors: Salisbury Christopher G.
Published: March 2003

As one of the initial, and arguably most devastated, casualties of the Second World War, Poland’s restoration as a free and independent state was seen as a test case for the viable continuation of the victorious Grand Alliance. Yet seemingly irreconcilable differences between the Western powers and the Soviet Union over intricate territorial and political issues (with the Polish state and people caught firmly in the middle) would signal the end of the working alliance. The US collectively struggled to come to terms with this “Polish problem”– its government failing to deliver to the Poles on those democratic principles enshrined within the Atlantic Charter, and its people finding the very ideals for which they had gone to war compromised. While reflecting the unique complexities of this particular dilemma, American officialsrsquo; perceptions of the conundrum over Poland bear a ringing familiarity to future East European developments and certainly set the tone for the ensuing West‐Soviet impasse there. Indeed, this author would not be alone in suggesting that the superpower struggle over Poland at the close of World War II was itself the very genesis of the Cold War conflict.
“Cold Storage”: British Policy and the Beginnings of the Irian Barat/West New Guinea Dispute
Authors: Tarling Nicholas
Published: March 2003

During the struggle for independence, the British had sought to bring the Dutch and the Indonesians together: they wanted the friendship of the Dutch, their neighbours in Europe, but also believed that the Western powers could stay in Southeast Asia only if they came to terms with nationalism. The 1949 agreement that transferred sovereignty postponed the question of Irian Barat/West New Guinea. The British rather hoped that the Dutch would stay but,particularly as the Cold War intensified, did not wish to alienate the Indonesians. If no agreement could be reached on the issue, they wanted to put it into “cold storage” for a number of years. The Australian government was not satisfied with these policies. It opposed an Indonesian takeover, or indeed any Indonesian role in West New Guinea. Its aim was thepreservation of the status quo: even “cold storage” was insufficient.
Review Article
Authors: Johns Gary
Published: March 2003

Book reviewed in this article:

Neal Blewett, A Cabinet Diary: A Personal Record of the First Keating Government
Trade Liberalisation and the Australian Labor Party
Authors: Leigh Andrew
Published: March 2003

The three most substantial decisions to reduce Australia’s trade barriers — in 1973, 1988 and 1991 — were made by Labor Governments. Labor’s policy shift preceded the conversion of social democratic parties in other countries to trade liberalisation. To understand why this was so, it is necessary to consider trade policy as being shaped by more than interest groups and political institutions. Drawing on interviews with the main political figures, including Gough Whitlam, Bob Hawke, Paul Keating and John Button, this article explores why the intellectual arguments for free trade had such a powerful impact on Labor’s leadership, and how those leaders managed to implement major tariff cuts, while largely maintaining party unity.
Remaking Australia’s Economic Policy: Economic Policy Decision‐Makers During the Hawke and Keating Labor Governments
Authors: Goldfinch Shaun
Published: March 2003

This paper reports on interviews with 93 members of strategically located institutional elites and nominated influentials. It examines the sources of economic ideas in economic policy and studies a select number of key economic policy decisions made during the Labor governments of Hawke and Keating. It will argue that the economic liberalisation carried out during the Labor government reflected the influence of a range of individuals and institutions, depending on the economic decision in question, while a variety of domestic and internationally based institutions and individuals contributed ideas to economic policy‐making. It will reject Pusey's (1991) belief that the central agencies (ie Treasury, the Department of Finance and the Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet) were necessarily the major influence in economic policy and show that other individuals and institutions, including cabinet and particular ministers, ministerial offices, the ACTU and other government departments, were also important. It will discuss further how economic policy is made in Australia.
Comparing Accountability in the Public and Private Sectors
Authors: Mulgan Richard
Published: March 2003

Analysis of public accountability tends to concentrate on public sector institutions. However, increasing use of the private sector in the provision of public services suggests the need to compare accountability in the two sectors. While private sector (for‐profit) companies are more accountable in terms of their 'bottom line', accountability requirements in the public sector are generally more stringent, particularly with regard to process and general policy.
Torres Strait Governance Structures and the Centenary of Australian Federation: A Missed Opportunity?
Authors: Sanders Will
Published: March 2003

In his 1993 Boyer lecture, Getano Lui Jnr called for a change in the status of Torres Strait governance structures within the Australian federation, nominating the centenary of Federation on 1 January 2001 as a possible time for change. In 1996, the Commonwealth Minister for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs initiated a parliamentary committee inquiry into greater autonomy for the people of the Torres Strait, which reported favourably in 1997. This report was not, however, greeted all that favourably by Torres Strait Islanders and it now seems unlikely that any significantly new governance structures for Torres Strait will be in place by the centenary of Federation. This paper attempts to explain why.
Balancing Accountability and Efficiency in a More Competitive Public Sector Environment
Authors: Barrett, AM Pat
Published: March 2003

Extract from a speech delivered at Government‐in‐Excellence Summit 2000, ‘Reinventing Government — A Manifesto for Achieving Excellence and Managing for Results in the New Millennium', 24–26 May, Singapore, (For the full text see www.anao.gov.au)
Introduction: Changing Public Sector Industrial Relations in the Australian State
Authors: Fairbrother Peter , O'Brien John
Published: March 2003

During the last two decades, governments have restructured their public services. Public administration has been largely replaced by public management, reflecting a more market oriented approach. In line with this pattern of change, the Australia public services at both state and Commonwealth levels, since the early 1980s, have undergone significant change. The aim of this symposium is to explore the dimensions, detail and impact of these developments, tracing the implications of public service reorganisation and operations for public sector industrial relations. The contributions therefore focus on government policies, management and industrial relations and implications for collective organisation and action. Changes in five states and one territory are considered as well as those at the Commonwealth level.
Local Government Failure in Australia? An Empirical Analysis of New South Wales
Authors: Byrnes Joel , Dollery Brian
Published: March 2003

The complexities of contemporary local governance in Australia and other advanced democracies provide social scientists with significant theoretical and empirical challenges. Drawing on recent developments, including public choice theory, economists have sought to develop taxonomic systems of government failure specifically tailored to local government circumstances. This paper seeks to extend the Dollery and Wallis (2001b) taxonomy of local government failure by invoking Olson’s (1965) concept of political entrepreneurship. The paper then attempts to determine the empirical validity of the augmented taxonomy by examining it in the context of NSW local government.
Social Capital and Local Government Capacity
Authors: Wallis Joe , Dollery Brian
Published: March 2003

Local authorities vary considerably in their capacity for governance. The dimensions of this capacity can only be developed by drawing on local stocks of social capital. The seminal theories of social capital tend to conceive it as a community resource that is built up through a long tradition of civic engagement. We take issue with the laissez–faire implications of these theories, highlighting ways in which local governments can positively contribute to social capital formation by opening their ‘political opportunity structure’ and engaging voluntary organisations and community groups in trust–based partnership arrangements.
Costing Constitutional Change: Estimating the Cost of Five Variations on Australia’s Federal System
Authors: Drummond Mark
Published: March 2003

Australia’s system of government is by far the most centralised of the four ‘classic’ federations, hosting extremely centralised states, exceptionally weak local governments, and little of the substantive decentralisation and subsidiarity often presumed to derive from a federal structure. Five variations on the present structure are examined to estimate the costs of improved decentralisation, including New States models as traditionally advocated, Regional States models based on the ACT combined state–local prototype, and a National–Local model comprising a strengthened national government and local governments in essentially their present form.1 Results indicate that the Regional States or National–Local models could deliver greater decentralisation while saving over $20 billion per annum compared to the present system. Generally, the analysis suggests that coherent modelling of alternative government structures may be more feasible than previously thought.
Medicalization as a Moral Problem for Preventive Medicine
Authors: Verweij Marcel
Published: March 2003

Preventive medicine is sometimes criticised as it contributes to medicalization of normal life. The concept ‘medicalization’ has been introduced by Zola to refer to processes in which the labels ‘healthy’ and ‘ill’ are made relevant for more and more aspects of human life. If preventive medicine contributes to medicalization, would that be morally problematic? My thesis is that such a contribution is indeed morally problematic. The concept is sometimes used to express moral intuitions regarding the practice of prevention and health promotion. Through analysis of these intuitions as well as some other moral concerns, I give an explication of the moral problems of medicalization within the context of preventive medicine.
Equipoise, Knowledge and Ethics in Clinical Research and Practice
Authors: Ashcroft Richard
Published: March 2003

It is widely maintained that a clinical trial is ethical only if some form of equipoise between the treatments being compared obtains. To be in equipoise between two treatments A and B is to be cognitively indifferent between the statement ‘A is strictly more effective than B’ and its negation. It is natural to claim that equipoise regarding A and B is necessary for randomised assignment to treatments A and B to be beneficent and non‐maleficent and is sufficient for such an assignment to be fair. Cashing this out precisely is difficult, and various forms of equipoise have been discussed which consider whose equipoise is relevant to the decision. This is to make judgement of equipoise something to be managed socially, while its prima facie significance is supposedly cognitive. Recent reconstructions of equipoise‐like concepts in epistemology give clues about how to understand equipoise cognitively. In this paper I examine some of this work and discuss how successful it has been. I suggest that while this work is promising, it still has far to go, and that while equipoise remains the best theory we have of the cognitive justification for clinical trials, it is nonetheless incoherent.
Should We Undertake Genetic Research on Intelligence?
Authors: Newson Ainsley , Williamson Robert
Published: March 2003

Although the concept of intelligence is difficult to define, research has provided evidence for a significant genetic component. Attempts are now being made to use molecular genetic approaches to identify genes contributing to intelligence, and to determine the ways in which they interact with environmental variables. This research is then likely to determine the developmental pathways of intelligence, in an effort to understand mental handicap and learning disorders and develop new treatment strategies. This paper reviews research on the genetic basis of intelligence, and discusses the ethical concerns, including the role of genetic information, the value we place on intelligence and the allocation of resources. It will be argued that the objections raised are problematic, and that because of the value of this knowledge and the prospect of improving lives, this research is morally required. We will then provide a brief analysis of the issues raised by enhancement of intelligence using genetic technology, and will argue that there is no intrinsic difference between this and other means of optimising intelligence.
Reefer Madness: Legal & Moral Issues Surrounding the Medical Prescription of Marijuana
Authors: Barnes R. Eric
Published: March 2003

California, Arizona, and several other states have recently legalized medical marijuana. My goal in this paper is to demonstrate that even if one grants the opponents of legalization many of their contentious assumptions, the federal government is still obligated to take several specific steps toward the legalization of medical marijuana. I defend this claim against a variety of objections, including the claims: that marijuana is unsafe, that marijuana cannot be adequately tested or produced as a drug, that the availability of synthetic THC makes marijuana superfluous, and especially that legalizing medical marijuana will increase recreational use by ‘sending the wrong message ’. I then go on to argue that given the intransigent position of the federal government on this issue, state governments are justified in unilaterally legalizing medical marijuana as an act of civil disobedience.

A large portion of this paper consists of an extensive response to the objection that legalizing medical marijuana will ‘send the wrong message ’– which I take to be the primary impediment to legalization. This objection basically claims that the consequences of withholding legalization (especially preventing increased recreational use) are superior to those of legalizing medical marijuana. I argue that legalization is justified even if one were to grant both that the harms of legalization outweighed its benefits and that utilitarianism is true. This requires a subtle and somewhat extended discussion of utilitarian moral and political theory.
The Doctor‐Patient Relationship: A Survey of Attitudes and Practices of Doctors in Singapore
Authors: Chan David , Goh Lee Gan
Published: March 2003

This article reports the results of a survey, by mailed questionnaire, of the attitudes, values and practices of doctors in Singapore with respect to the doctor‐patient relationship. Questionnaires were sent to a random sample of 475 doctors (261 general practitioners and 214 medical specialists), out of which 249 (52.4%) valid responses were completed and returned. The survey is the first of its kind in Singapore. Questions were framed around issues of medical paternalism, consent and patient autonomy. As the doctors were exposed to Western ethical concepts in their training, we were not surprised to find that they would mostly allow patients some say in decision‐making and keep patients reasonably informed. In respecting patient autonomy, they would usually seek to influence patient choice by persuasion. However, the residual ‘Asian‐ness’ of doctors in Singapore gives rise to some inconsistencies between values and practices. Many doctors still believe that a number of their patients are incapable of rational choice. There is some lack of openness in telling patients the whole truth. When patients choose to refuse treatment, many doctors are prepared to involve family members in making a consensus decision.

Doctors were also asked how they made ethical judgements in the face of dilemmas, and how they would like disputes with patients to be resolved. By and large, the doctors prefer to make their own judgements rather than to rely on rules. They also wish to keep the law courts out of disputes with patients, preferring less public ways of settling disputes.
International Research Ethics
Authors: Schücklenk Udo , Ashcroft Richard
Published: March 2003

This article provides a critical overview of the most important issues pertaining to the ongoing debate on international research ethics. It critically describes three problems of continuing concern: 1) the question of whether the distinction between therapeutic and non‐therapeutic research should be upheld; 2) the questions of whether the currently demanded best proven diagnostic and therapeutic method of treatment for all research subjects is feasible both in developed and in developing countries, and whether it should be upheld; 3) the questions of who owns international research ethics guidelines and regulatory frameworks and, how decisions about changes to such international guidelines can possibly be achieved, given that it seems to be the case that genuine disagreement about issues of content is possible and likely.
Elective, Non‐Therapeutic Ventilation
Authors: Kluge Eike‐Henner W.
Published: March 2003

Browne, Gillett and Tweeddale propose that the use of non‐therapeutic elective ventilation (EV) to secure transplantable organs is ethically indefensible. Their argument centres around several propositions: that explicit patient consent for EV is essential, but since it is not included in the consent process for donation from the patient, using it constitutes assault; that inferring consent for EV from the consent to donate itself is ethically and logically indefensible; and that explicit consent from next‐of‐kin should neither be sought nor honoured in view of the stress EV may cause to staff and families. This article examines their reasoning and suggests that it is fatally flawed. It argues further that in most cases of donation, not using EV may itself be unethical.
A Pain in the Fetus: Toward Ending Confusion about Fetal Pain
Authors: Benatar David , Benatar Michael
Published: March 2003

Are fetuses, at any stage of their development, capable of feeling pain? In his paper, ‘Locating the Beginnings of Pain’, Stuart Derbyshire argues that they are not. We argue that he reaches this conclusion by way of conceptual confusion, a misreading of the available scientific data and the inclusion of irrelevant data. Despite his assertion to the contrary, the work of most scientists in the area supports the conclusion that fetuses can feel pain. At the outset we examine the concept of pain and distinguish it from the allied concept of nociception, with which it is sometimes confused. With the relevant conceptual framework in place, we elucidate the problem of determining when, in its development, a human becomes capable of feeling pain. We then examine the available data showing how, on balance, it tends more to support than undermine the claim that fetuses of around 28 to 30 weeks' gestation are capable of feeling pain.
Fetal Pain: An Infantile Debate
Authors: Derbyshire Stuart W. G.
Published: March 2003

The question of whether a fetus can experience pain is an immense challenge. The issue demands consideration of the physical and psychological basis of being and the relation between the two. At the center of this debate is the question of how it is that we are conscious, a question that has inspired the writing of some of our most brilliant contemporary philosophers and scientists, with one commentary suggesting surrender. In my earlier review I attempted to draw together the various strands of thinking that had attacked the question of fetal pain and relate them back to the bigger question of consciousness. In their vituperative response, Benatar and Benatar bite off my finger before looking to where I am pointing. I will examine each of their criticisms and attempt to redirect the readers' interest towards examining the subjectivity of pain and the mediating links between physiology and experience.
Individual and Collective Considerations in Public Health: Influenza Vaccination in Nursing Homes
Authors: Verweij Marcel
Published: March 2003

Many nursing homes have an influenza vaccination policy in which it is assumed that express (proxy) consent is not necessary. Tacit consent procedures are more efficient if one aims at high vaccination rates. In this paper I focus on incompetent residents and proxy consent. Tacit proxy consent for vaccination implies a deviance of standard proxy consent requirements. I analyse several arguments that may possibly support such a deviance. The primary reason to offer influenza vaccination is that vaccinated persons have a significantly reduced risk of getting the flu. This reason however cannot support the assumption that each nursing home resident is ‘better off ’ if she is vaccinated. Neither can it support tacit proxy consent policies. More promising are arguments that take the collective nature of infectious diseases into account. A potentially strong, but ultimately insufficient, argument for non‐express consent is that vaccination contributes to prevention of harm to others. Other arguments emphasise the importance of group protection: herd immunity. I discuss three collective reasons for aiming at herd immunity: solidarity, a common interest in reducing the risk of illness, and a common interest in the prevention of an influenza outbreak. The latter argument appears to be most important. An outbreak is not just detrimental to the health of residents; it is detrimental to their everyday social life as well. Outbreaks can be seen as a collective evil. My analysis shows that there are valid (though not necessarily sufficient) moral arguments for a tacit proxy consent policy.
The Concept of Precedent Autonomy
Authors: Davies John K.
Published: March 2003

Does respect for autonomy imply respect for precedent autonomy? The principle of respect for autonomy requires us to respect a competent patient’s treatment preference, but not everyone agrees that it requires us to respect preferences formed earlier by a now‐incapacitated patient, such as those expressed in an advance directive. The concept of precedent autonomy, which concerns just such preferences, is problematic because it is not clear that we can still attribute to a now‐incapacitated patient a preference which that patient never disaffirmed but can no longer understand. If we cannot make that attribution, then perhaps we should not respect precedent autonomy – after all, how can you respect patient autonomy by giving patients what they no longer want, even if they never disaffirmed those wants? I argue that whether an earlier preference can still be attributed to a now‐incapacitated patient depends on the reasons behind the preference, for a preference includes (and is not merely supported by) the reasons behind it. When the considerations that served as reasons no longer exist, neither does the preference which included those reasons. In particular, if the considerations that served as reasons for the patient exist only under conditions where the patient retains full mental capacity, then once that capacity is lost, so are those reasons and the preference based upon them. I use this analysis of precedent autonomy to ascertain the merits of various approaches to advance medical decisionmaking, including Nancy Rhoden’s approach, approaches based on a Parfitian personal identity analysis, approaches based on soft paternalism, and approaches based on the stability and longevity of preferences. Despite the apparent absurdity of respecting patient autonomy by giving patients what they no longer prefer but have never disaffirmed, I conclude with some programmatic remarks on when and why respect for (precedent) autonomy nonetheless requires us to respect former preferences.
How do Objects become Objects of Reference?
Authors: Park Keith
Published: March 2003

Keith Park, a teacher of children with visual impairments and learning disabilities, provides an analytical review of the literature on objects of reference in order to formulate a model of object use in communication. Peirce's (1932) three categories of sign (index, icon and symbol) are suggested as a method of providing a developmental framework for the use of objects of reference.
Pretzel Only Policy? Inclusion and the Real World of Initial Teacher Education
Authors: Garner Philip
Published: March 2003

Philip Garner, Professor of Special Education at Nottingham Trent University, continues the New Professors Series with an in‐depth evaluation of special educational needs programmes within teacher education.
The contribution of a ‘Quiet Place’ to early intervention strategies for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties in mainstream schools
Authors: Spalding Bob
Published: March 2003

Bob Spalding, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Education, University of Liverpool, outlines the nature of a holistically oriented therapeutic intervention (‘Quiet Place’) developed in some mainstream primary schools on Merseyside. It offers a focus for a variety of therapeutic interventions, as well as an environment conducive to a sense of well‐being and relaxation. An evaluation of the first cohort of children to complete the programme is analysed in comparison with a control group, and the key factors in the success of the provision are identified.
Educational Psychology Services and their futures — some responses to the DfEE Working Group Report
Authors: Stoker Rob , Gersch Irvine , Fox Glenys , Lown Jackie , Morris Sue
Published: March 2003

In this short article, a group of educational psychologist representatives on the DfEE Working Group on the future role and training of educational psychologists and their Services, consider some of the outcomes of the ‘Role’ Report. They describe the positive aspects of the Report, especially its ambitious description of what educational psychologists can do to make a difference. They also describe some of the problems of impact and implementation associated with the report. Rob Stoker is Principal Educational Psychologist for the London Borough of Westminster and a Director of Applied Psychology Associates; Glenys Fox is an HMI; Irvine Gersch is Professor and Director of Professional Training in Educational Psychology at the University of East London; Jackie Lown is Specialist Senior Educational Psychologist in York, and is also seconded to the University of Sheffield, where she works as an academic and professional tutor; and Sue Morris is Director of Professional Training in Educational Psychology at the University of Birmingham.
The Gulliford Lecture: Reciprocal working by education, health and social services: lessons for a less‐travelled road
Authors: McConkey Roy
Published: March 2003

The 2001 Gulliford Lecture was given by Professor Roy McConkey, of the University of Ulster. In this article, based on his lecture, Roy McConkey reflects on some of the themes in Ron Gulliford’s work from the 1960s. These themes still seem relevant to our work with pupils and students with special educational needs today. Roy McConkey focuses, in particular, on collaboration between practitioners from different professional backgrounds. He invites the reader to reflect on some of the strengths of current practice and to consider the ways in which these initiatives might be taken forward. This article closes with a set of strategies that could be used to develop innovative, holistic, inter‐agency approaches in future.
A study of curriculum development in a new special school
Authors: Maddison Anne
Published: March 2003

Anne Maddison is deputy headteacher, with responsibility for curriculum, at the Milestone School, a special school created recently after the amalgamation of three smaller schools. In this article, she describes the development of an outcomes‐based curriculum for pupils with a range of learning difficulties aged from two to 16 years. Anne Maddison sets out the rationale for her work in the context of a need to promote shared approaches to teaching and learning at this newly formed school.

The curriculum development project described here was evaluated using questionnaires, interviews and the analysis of documents and practice as part of a case study in school‐based enquiry. Anne Maddison used the outcomes of these processes as part of her Doctor of Education (EdD): Educational Leadership course at Lincoln University.

Since this article was written, the Milestone School has undergone its first Ofsted inspection. The report noted that teaching at the school is ‘of very high quality’ and the curriculum ‘is very good’. Inspectors noted that ‘the planning of schemes of work, which are being developed with different subjects being focused on each year, is exemplary, with clear outcomes for pupils of different abilities’. While Anne Maddison’s article details the experience of one school, her analysis may be of interest to other school managers, teachers, governors or advisers who are seeking to promote the development of a more inclusive curriculum.
The SEN Code of Practice: Is it User‐Friendly?
Authors: Bowers Tony , Wilkinson David
Published: March 2003

The 1997 Green Paper (DfEE, 1997) refers to a new ‘Code of Practice’ to ‘be in place by the year 2002’. The present Code contains both principles and procedures, which LEAs and schools are expected to apply, and against which agencies will measure their performance. Yet how user‐friendly are they? In this article, a shortened version of a paper prepared as part of a National Research Project, Tony Bowers and David Wilkinson (from the School of Education, The University of Cambridge) consider evidence from past writings and research.
Focus on Practice: Using special needs assistants effectively
Authors: Jerwood Leigh
Published: March 2003

Leigh Jerwood, the SENCo at Hardley School (a foundation, 11‐18, school in Hampshire) considers how teachers can optimise the use of special needsassistants in mainstream secondary schools. Her findings demonstrate that whilst role clarity and collaborative teamwork are increased when assistants are attached to faculty areas, they are most effective in classes where teachers possess good management skills.
Target Setting in Schools for Children with Severe Learning Difficulties: Headteachers' Perceptions
Authors: Male Dawn
Published: March 2003

Dawn Male, Lecturer in Psychology and Special Needs at the Institute of Education, University of London, reports on headteachers' perceptions of the advantages of target setting and their concerns about its implementation.
The prevalence of psychiatric disorder in children attending a school for pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties
Authors: Cassidy Elizabeth , James Anthony , Wiggs Luci
Published: March 2003

The research presented in this article suggests that young people attending schools for pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties are more likely to experience concurrent psychiatric disorders (comorbidity) than their peers in mainstream schools. Dr Cassidy (Consultant in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry), Dr James (Consultant and Honorary Senior Lecturer in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry) and Dr Wiggs (Research Psychologist) used questionnaires and interviews with parents and teachers, together with pupil self‐reporting, to gather their data. The two‐stage investigation suggested that 89% of the adolescents in one school for pupils with EBD met established criteria for the diagnosis of a psychiatric disorder. Conduct disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) emerged as the most common psychiatric difficulties, but emotional disorders were also prominent in the data. These untreated problems are likely to have significant long‐term implications for the psychological and educational development of the pupils concerned, and the authors speculate on some of the ways in which psychiatric and education services might work together in order to improve the outlook.