bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Crisis of Proletarian Identity in the Soviet Factory, 1928–1929
Authors: Kuromiya Hiroaki
Published: April 2006

In 1928-29 the drive for rapid industrialization exacerbated economic hardships in the Soviet Union and forced the adoption of food rationing in the major cities.1 Social discontent and social tensions grew more acute. Workers pressed for a tougher line against the educated and privileged classes, and the Stalin leadership responded by promoting a "proletarianization" of the party, government, and educational institutions. In this way the leadership hoped to win working-class support for the revolutionary path on which it was preparing to embark. But the economic hardships provoked by the industrialization drive caused the Stalin leadership to doubt whether it could indeed rely on uniform support. It feared that certain strata of the proletariat would resist the accelerated drive for industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture.
Khutora and Otruba in Stolypin's Program of Farm Individualization
Authors: Pallot Judith
Published: April 2006

The time has passed when it was automatically assumed that the Stolypin Land Reform represented an attempt on the part of the tsarist government to impose on an unwilling peasantry a predetermined plan for a change in land tenure. The revision of opinion has in large measure resulted from the work of George L. Yaney, who has shown that policy and the organization necessary for carrying it out evolved and changed during the course of the implementation of the Stolypin reform. Yaney argues that certain of the changes in the reform came about as a result of the government responding to pressure from the peasants. Inevitably, this pressure concerned those aspects of the land reform that affected the peasants most directly, for instance, the disposition of the land and the timing and sequence of withdrawal from the commune.
Soviet and East European Studies in the United States
Authors: Atkinson Dorothy
Published: April 2006

The American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies has been engaged over the past several years in a project to collect and analyze information on the Soviet and East European field. Some of the results of the work to date are presented in this report to the profession.

The field of Soviet and East European studies is a relative newcomer on the American academic scene. Not until World War II was there any considerable interest in the region in the United States. At that time, however, the federal government found itself acutely short of specialists on the area and had to scrape a shallow academic barrel. The lack of expertise led to the establishment of new military and civilian training programs; and the changed international situation in the postwar period gave further impetus to the extension of academic programs.
Satisfying Khlestakov's Appetite: The Semiotics of Eating in The Inspector General
Authors: Leblanc Ronald D.
Published: April 2006

“The belly is the belle of his stories, the nose is their beau.“

Vladimir Nabokov, Nikolai Gogol (1944)

The subject of gastronomy—as it touches upon the significance of what, how, and why man eats—has begun to receive increasing attention in recent years, during which time quite a number of books on the history of food and drink have appeared. Scholars, moreover, have demonstrated a heightened interest lately in the anthropological aspects of this topic. Since eating is a human activity that by its very nature encompasses a social, a psychological, as well as a biological dimension, the depiction of fictional meals in literature allows this ritualistic event to be transformed into a narrative sign with vast semiotic possibilities—not only within the world of the literary work itself (intratextually) but also within a broader cultural context (extratextually).
Tat'iana Tolstaia's “Dome of Many-Coloured Glass“: The World Refracted through Multiple Perspectives
Authors: Goscilo Helena
Published: April 2006

Speaking recently about the impact of Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost’ on Russian culture, the exiled Russian scientist Zhores Medvedev expressed skepticism about the artistic benefits of the reforms, comparing them unfavorably to those ushered in by Khrushchev's liberalization: “Whereas Khrushchev's thaw brought many new names and new talents into literature, no new talents have emerged in the past two years.“' Medvedev's statement suggests that he has not been reading Soviet literary journals assiduously. Otherwise he would have noticed the emergence of at least one remarkably talented newcomer on the literary scene—Tat'iana Tolstaia, the most gifted young woman writing fiction in Russia today and arguably the most noteworthy prosaist of the young generation at large.
From a Bolshevik to a British Subject: The Early Years of Maksim M. Litvinov
Authors: Phillips Hugh
Published: April 2006

Maksim M. Litvinov was the most colorful and controversial of the major European diplomats in the 1930s. As Henry Roberts has observed, Litvinov's “chubby and unproletarian figure radiated an aura of robust and businesslike common sense that was in striking contrast to the enigmatic brutality of the Politburo.” But this cultured and reflective man served that Politburo for the better part of his life, and he did so until his disillusionment overwhelmed him, and he made a complete break with the policies of the Soviet leadership. The obvious question is why Litvinov continued this bizarre relationship so long—one between the cosmopolitan “citizen of Geneva” and the reclusive and often violent men in the Kremlin. A definitive answer is, of course, impossible given the sources, but a clue can be found in an examination of Litvinov before the Bolshevik Revolution, a topic that has received virtually no attention from western scholars. As will be shown, the rotund and cooly analytical diplomat was for a considerable period of time a man wholly dedicated to violent revolution—and not just in the abstract. Litvinov was one of the apparatchiki of the movement who was not afraid to get his hands dirty in the sometimes messy business of fomenting revolution. Litvinov changed greatly over the course of his life, but it seems clear that for a few decades he was never fully able to repudiate these early years. Therefore he remained at his post, continuing to serve the government that sprang from the revolution, even as his own disillusionment grew.
The Campaign to Eliminate the Kulak as a Class, Winter 1929–1930: A Reevaluation of the Legislation
Authors: Viola Lynne
Published: April 2006

The drive to collectivize Soviet agriculture in the winter of 1930 was “spontaneous“(stikhiinyi)in the extreme.Spontaneous, in this context, is not a synonym forvoluntary;instead, it denotes the process by which collectivization was implemented from January to March 1930. This process was characterized by a deficit in organization and order, a revolutionary impulsiveness tempered by neither law nor legality, and, perhaps most of all, “teleological planning“ based on constant upward revisions of numerical indicators as plans and directives were passed down the hierarchical chain of regional command. Central control, in the traditional sense, was nonexistent or ineffective; control, central or otherwise, seemingly so pervasive in “Stalinist” collectivization, is simply a misnomer for the arbitrary coercion that prevailed at the time and was predicated, in large part, upon the very absence of such control.
A Report on Working in the Arkhiv Vneshnei Politiki Rossii
Authors: Ragsdale Hugh
Published: April 2006

In the summer of 1986, I spent a month working very successfully in the archives of the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Istoriko-diplomaticheskoe upravlenie, Ministerstvo inostrannykh del), and both the relative rarity of the experience and the significance of the materials preserved there warrant a brief report. Arkhiv vneshnei politiki Rossii (AVPR) is administered by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, unlike the records of all other prcrevolutionary ministries, which are held by state archives under Glavnoe arkhivnoe upravlenie pri Sovctc ministrov SSSR.

I was doing research on the Greek project of Catherine II, the notorious scheme whereby she planned to share with Joseph II the partition of the Ottoman Empire and perhaps to reestablish the old Greek or East Roman Empire under her grandson Constantine. The materials I read consisted primarily of St. Petersburg's diplomatic correspondence with Paris, Vienna, and Constantinople during the 1780s. I had prepared for the research in Moscow by working in the analogous correspondence of the Archives du Ministére des Affaires étrangéres (Quai d'Orsay) in Paris and the Haus-, Hof-, und Staatsarchiv in Vienna during preceding summers. In Moscow, I was given a generous abundance of material to read, including twenty-nine volumes of the correspondence with Paris, thirty-three volumes of correspondence with Vienna, and eight volumes of correspondence with Constantinople. Much of the material was invaluable, and some of it was entirely new to historical research. The quality of the information, however, was far from uniformly distributed.
The Mutability of the Canon: Socialist Realism and Chingiz Aitmatov's I dol'she veka dlitsia den'
Authors: Clark Katerina
Published: April 2006

Chingiz Aitmatov's recent novel I dol'she veka dlitsia den’ provides an excellent case study of the way the socialist realist canon can generate new paradigms out of itself. At a time when it is widely assumed in the West that all reputable Soviet authors have gone “beyond” socialist realism, the appearance of this novel is particularly instructive.

Aitmatov's book has had greater impact in the Soviet Union than any other novel published there in recent years. It covers subjects that are both highly topical and sensitive politically. Yet it does so by using the conventions of socialist realism to a greater extent than has been seen in the major Soviet writing of the past fifteen years. Indeed, Aitmatov has somehow contrived to weave into the fabric of his text patterns reminiscent of every period in the development of socialist realism.
“Marching Together!”: Left Bloc Activities in the Russian Revolutionary Movement, 1900 to February 1917
Authors: Melancon Michael
Published: April 2006

Russian socialists often used the slogan "vroz' idti, vmeste bit'," which signified that socialists should maintain separate party identities (march apart), but, if revolution approached, join together to deliver the coup de grace. Even in ordinary times, in tsarist Russia "marching apart" was a luxury revolutionaries could rarely afford. Of course, various parties and factions did not completely sacrifice their independence, but at all levels they informally coordinated activities and, at key times, resorted to official interparty arrangements. Although some histories have mentioned left bloc tactics during the 1905 Revolution and in elections to the duma, the full extent of socialist cooperation has hitherto escaped note.
In Imitation of Christ: Boris and Gleb and the Ritual Consecration of the Russian Land
Authors: Sciacca Franklin A.
Published: April 2006

While it is never wise to read the Vitae sanctorum as strictly historical accounts, we must be cognizant of the medieval hagiographers' frequent efforts to transform political history into theological and spiritual history. Thus did the authors and redactors of the vaiious texts concerning saints Boris and Gleb seek to project a piously viable and ideologically useful Christian argument for the sanctity of these princes who had perished in the course of the protracted civil war following the death of Prince Vladimir Sviatoslavich of Kiev (d. 1015).
Anti-Semitism in Moscow: Results of an October 1992 Survey
Authors: Brym Robert J. , Degtyarev Andrei
Published: April 2006

Public opinion polls show that between 1988 and 1991 some three percent of adult Russians donated money to various political movements, four percent took part in strikes and just over six percent participated in mass rallies and demonstrations. Fewer than one percent of Russians j o i n ed new political parties, still nascent organizations that attract elites, not masses. At the same time, membership in the Communist Party dropped from ten percent to four percent of the adult population of Russia.
Russia in Rilke: Rainer Maria Rilke's Correspondence with Marina Tsvetaeva
Authors: Tavis Anna A.
Published: April 2006

Rainer Maria Rilke's widely celebrated fiftieth birthday in December 1925 and his sudden death on 29 December 1926 framed his correspondence with members of Boris Pasternak's family and Marina Tsvetaeva- Efron, for which Leonid Pasternak's initial greetings to his old Moscow friend and Rilke's prompt reply had set the stage. It was agreed that Rilke's letters from Switzerland would be sent to Boris Pasternak in Moscow via Marina Tsvetaeva in Paris. Against all historical and political odds, the three poets decided to form a union, the last one, perhaps, of an era which still believed that the making of poetry equaled the making of life. Rilke's participation in this association reassured uprooted Russian writers of their continuing link with European culture and history.
Pushkin's Narratives and the Hex of Darkness
Authors: Gregg Richard
Published: April 2006

Among the great poets of the world Pushkin was the first to express with such power and passion the eternal opposition of the cultivated and the primitive man.

D. S. Merezhkovksii

I would like to begin this investigation of Pushkinian thematics with a fable, or better perhaps, a parable of my own making.

Once upon a time in the land of Rus’ there lived two brothers. And although they were sired by a noble father and reared as befits the sons of a nobleman, they differed from each other as the day differs from the night, for the elder brother was tall and fairhaired and born of a Russian princess, while the younger brother was swarthy, small, and the bastard son of a dark-skinned barbarian maiden.

As the boys grew up, to these bodily differences were added spiritual ones. For the elder brother was a dutiful son, who honored his parents and heeded his teachers and obeyed the laws of the land. After coming of age he traveled to the capital city and learned the ways of the imperial court and found favor in the eyes of the tsar.
Incremental Activism in Soviet Third World Policy: The Role of the International Department of the CPSU Central Committee
Authors: Adams Jan S.
Published: April 2006

Historically, leaders of the Soviet Union have shown extraordinary faith in the power of bureaucratic reorganization to solve political problems. The 1985-1987 restaffing and restructuring of the foreign policy establishment indicate that Mikhail Gorbachev shares this faith. In the first sixteen months of his leadership, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs replaced its minister, two first deputy ministers, seven deputy ministers, a third of all Soviet ambassadors, and created four new departments. In addition, important changes were made in the central party apparat, affecting three of the CPSU Central Committee departments: The International Information Department was abolished. The Propaganda Department gained added prominence in international affairs with the appointment of a new chief, Aleksandr Iakovlev, who began playing a conspicuous role as Gorbachev's advisor at international conferences even before his elevation to the Politburo in January 1987. Of great significance for the Soviet foreign policy establishment as a whole, the International Department (ID) was given new leadership, a new arms control unit, and expanded missions.
Who Is a Pole and Where Is Poland? Territory and Nation in the Rhetoric of Polish National Democracy before 1905
Authors: Porter Brian A.
Published: April 2006

At the turn of the twentieth century most Polish political activists dreamed of recreating the Polish state, although they disagreed about where the new Poland should be located and whom it should include. In the years before 1905 the National Democratic movement—the “Endecja,” as it was commonly called—envisioned an expansive Poland stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea, and from the Dnieper to the Oder. How could a movement which came to be known for its pragmatism and tactical flexibility espouse such an unrealistic, if not absurd, ambition? How could nationalists who insisted upon cultural unity desire a nation which would include millions who neither spoke the Polish language nor considered themselves to be Poles? This article will argue that these questions can be illuminated by examining the Endecja's definition of that enigmatic Polish term, naród (nation).
Aleksei Kruchenykh's "Razboinik Van'ka-Kain" and the Literary Politics of LEF
Authors: Vroon Ronald
Published: April 2006

Aleksei Kruchenykh's "Razboinik Van'ka-Kain i Son'ka-manikiurshchitsa" is the first in a cycle of four "crime novels" in verse published by the poet during the heyday of his involvement in postrevolutionary futurist politics. Unlike much of the ephemera he wrote during the 1910s, this particular poem was produced and promoted with unusual care. It first appeared in the sixth, penultimate, issue of Vladimir Maiakovskii's LEF.
Autocratic Journalism: The Case of the St. Petersburg Telegraph Agency
Authors: Mcreynolds Louise
Published: April 2006

At the close of the nineteenth century, the tsarist government faced an increasingly restive reading public, well-informed on a variety of issues through the proliferation of mass-circulation newspapers. A punitive censorship served as the basis for the autocracy's policies toward the press, but by 1900 it had long outgrown the requirements for dealing with a society undergoing modernization. As public opinion tacitly began to be recognized as a factor in national development, some officials realized that they must adapt to the changing journalistic demands of Russia's readers. Hoping to gain public support for the government, they knew that the prohibition of certain controversial topics would not generate the backing they sought. Following the example of successful commercial publishers, they argued that the government should take an active lead in supplying news.
Moving to Moscow: Patterns of Peasant In-Migration during the First Five-Year Plan
Authors: Hoffmann David L.
Published: April 2006

When an eighteen-year-old peasant named Evgenii Mikhailovich Kostin stepped off a train in Moscow in October 1931 he felt overwhelmed by milling throngs of unfamiliar people and frightened by the commotion of the city. Yet his adjustment to urban life proved much less traumatic than his initial impression had portended; relatives housed him, an acquaintance from his village found him a job, and friends showed him around Moscow. Kostin was one of at least 23 million Soviet peasants who moved permanently to cities between 1926 and 1939—marking what demographers estimate to be the most rapid urbanization in world history. In the First Five-Year Plan alone Moscow’s population increased nearly 60 percent (an added 1,349,500 people) to reach 3,663,300 by the end of 1932. Scholars have portrayed peasant in-migration to Soviet cities during the 1930s either as a phenomenon tightly regulated by the state or, alternatively, as chaos and upheaval; but, as this article will demonstrate, the process by which peasants found their way to Moscow during the First Five-Year Plan was neither controlled nor chaotic.
The International Regime of Soviet-East European Economic Relations
Authors: Reisinger William M.
Published: April 2006

In recent years, scholars of international relations have realized how poor have been their predictions, based on relative military or economic strength, of the outcome of negotiations or disputes. The strong often do not prevail or must compromise to a surprising extent. The Soviet Union's relations with its six East European allies have also exhibited this phenomenon. Even during the period when Soviet leaders were committed to maintaining control over Eastern Europe as a vital underpinning of Soviet security, and despite the Soviet Union's disproportionate strength in the region, the East European states departed from Soviet wishes in a variety of ways. In the late 1980s, this departure, for a while, took the ironic form of Romania, the GDR, and Czechoslovakia flouting Soviet calls for reform.
What's in a Name? Of Dog-Killers, Jews and Rasputin
Authors: Verner Andrew M.
Published: April 2006

Russians have long been preoccupied with surnames, particularly a distinction between so-called "good" and "bad" surnames, in ways that may be hard to understand by a nation of immigrants whose ancestral names were often mutilated by immigration authorities or anglicized by their bearers with a stroke of the pen. In the Russian Empire, such changes required the personal permission of the ruler and were exceedingly rare until the end of the nineteenth century.
Baptism, Authority, and the Problem ofZakonnost'in Orenburg Diocese: The Induction of over 800 "Pagans" into the Christian Faith
Authors: Werth Paul W.
Published: April 2006

In 1846, theOrenburg Provincial Gazettecarried a brief account of the recent baptism of over 800 Mari pagans in a “distant corner” of Birsk district. As the newspaper reported, District Chief N. Bludarov, accompanied by his assistants and a priest, “by gradually gaining the trust of the Cheremis [Maris], finally succeeded in shaking their obdurate superstition by means of persuasion. At first only a few, then a large number, and finally by whole villages, [Cheremis] decided to accept the Christian faith, and in 1845, on the clergy’s lists, there appeared up to 900 new Christians.“Since the mid-eighteenth century, baptisms on such a scale had been rare in the Volga-Kama region, and virtually none had occurred in northwestern Orenburg province, where the population was predominantly Muslim and “pagan.“ On the surface, therefore, these baptisms appeared to be a “happy beginning” of the Christianization of local Maris and a foothold for Orthodoxy in a heavily non-Christian area.3 In fact, matters were not quite so simple.
“No Place to Lay My Head”: Marginalization and the Right to Land during the Stolypin Reforms
Authors: Gaudin Corinne
Published: April 2006

In the opening decade of the twentieth century, the tsarist government embarked on an ambitious program of agrarian and administrative reforms that dramatically changed the rules of village politics. The most famous of these reforms, decreed on 9 November 1906 by Prime Minister Petr Stolypin, allowed peasants to claim their share of communal land as personal property and enclose it in a single parcel. This reform threatened to undermine the administrative and fiscal means through which the peasant commune had previously controlled its lands. Householders who obtained title to their land, even if they never undertook the second stage of consolidation but kept their scattered strips within the commune's open-field system, gained considerable autonomy from the village assembly of heads of household (skhod).
Party Revivalism and the Death of Stalin
Authors: Gorlizki Yoram
Published: April 2006

After the XIX Party Congress…everyone in the orchestra was playing on his own instrument anytime he felt like it, and there was no direction from the conductor.

N.S. Khrushchev

Some time ago a leading biographer of Joseph Stalin observed with a touch of irony that de-stalinization was a process “not only made possible but actually initiated by the death of Stalin.” Accordingly, some have turned to events in the final months of the dictator's life for evidence that, to the last, Stalin retained a firm grip on the levers of power; others have pointed to the new era of moderation in agriculture, literature and criminal justice which appears to have set in following Stalin's death. It was, so it seems, only with the conclusion of Stalin's reign that the hopes for stability and liberalization first raised at the end of World War II could finally be met. Only the dictator's death, it has been argued, could have put an end to absolute autocracy and opened the way for a new era of oligarchical rule.
Russian Ethnographers in the Service of Empire, 1856-1862
Authors: Clay Catherine B.
Published: April 2006

Several young Russian and Ukrainian writers responded to the era of Great Reforms by taking up a new enterprise: literary ethnography. Their ethnographic expeditions and reports of 1856 to 1862 manifested new political, cultural and social scientific movements within the empire. They not only investigated obstacles to forging a diverse, multinational population into a common empire, they also called the attention of educated Russians and the Russian state to cultural legacies of the countryside. Some were deemed worthy of preservation; others seemed inconsistent with modern ways. They sought a new socio-political path for the public. In these ways they began to link the various peoples in the empire, the imperial state and educated Russia at a time of social and political disclocation.
Problems of Persuasion: Communist Agitation and Propaganda in Post-war Yugoslavia, 1944-1948
Authors: Lilly Carol S.
Published: April 2006

Following the devastation of World War II, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY) called on all patriotic youth to join volunteer labor brigades and to rebuild the country's shattered infrastructure. Party propaganda for the brigades emphasized not only their economic function but also their role in nurturing a generation of people with new values, beliefs and standards of behavior.
Reclaiming the Stage: Amateur Theater-Studio Audiences in the Late Soviet Era
Authors: Costanzo Susan
Published: April 2006

All performance involves some kind of communication between performer and spectator. After the socialist realist model was established in the mid-1980s, Soviet professional theaters typically relied on conventional input from patrons: attendance, emotional reactions during performances, and applause. Known for its exceptional interaction with audiences, the Taganka Theater decorated its lobby to correspond to a production and even asked spectators to cast ballots indicating whether they enjoyed the performance ofTen Days that Shook the World. But for professionals, such efforts to bridge the gulf between the stage and the house were unusual.
Ambiguity as Agent in Pushkin's and Shakespeare's Historical Tragedies
Authors: Dinega Alyssa W.
Published: April 2006

The question of Shakespeare's influence on Pushkin's work in the period beginning 1824-25 has often been examined in critical works on Pushkin. This influence has generally been construed as one of the decisive factors in Pushkin's poetic and personal maturation away from his early naive Byronism. At the same time, Pushkin found in Shakespeare a release from the outworn conventions of French classical drama that had until then provided the precepts for writers for the Russian stage. For Pushkin, two specific features of Shakespearean drama were congenial: the abandonment of the three classical unities in favor of the primacy of character in dramatic action, and generic mixtures of comedy and tragedy, poetry and prose.
The Family Model of Society and Russian National Identity in Sergei N. Glinka's Russian Messenger (1808-1812)
Authors: Martin Alexander M.
Published: April 2006

It was long accepted throughout the European world that a father's authority over his children should be unchallengeable and that the authority of monarchs and noble lords was absolute because they, too, were “fathers” to their subjects. A profound shift in this thinking occurred during the eighteenth century, however, as increasingly critical attitudes toward paternal authoritarianism subverted the patriarchal ideology that undergirded the old regime. Recent scholarship has even linked the outbreak of the American and French Revolutions to these changing beliefs about the nature of the family. These ideas had a powerful impact among Russia's westernized upper class and drove conservatives to search for a less harshly authoritarian justification for the old regime. Much soul-searching went into their attempt to reconcile autocracy and serfdom with the respect for human dignity and the delicate moral sensibilité that were increasingly expected of any cultivated European. Slavophilism, which glorified the common people and emphasized the duties of monarch and nobility, represented one outcome of this quest. The anguished process by which proto-Slavophile beliefs evolved out of the noble culture of the Catherinian age is strikingly apparent in the turbulent biography of the poet, playwright, journalist, and amateur historian Sergei Nikolaevich Glinka.
War and International Adjudication: Reflections on the 1899 Peace Conference
Authors: Caron David D.
Published: April 2006

In fact, the first organized communities of international law . . . are organizations the function of which is to settle conflicts.

Hans Kelsen

But here we shall note the recurrence of a paradox . . . . Where practice is least ethical, theory becomes most Utopian.

Edward Hallett Carr

The belief that a world free of war might be possible, be more than simply a dream, is a relatively recent phenomenon. In earlier times, war—like disease—was a part of life. There existed then a fatalism about war that no doubt persists in many parts of the world today. During the nineteenth century, however, parts of the world developed a confidence in progress and a hope that progress might extend to the abolition of war. Most importantly for this essay, a popular belief circulated at the e nd of the century that the establishment of a permanent international court would be an important step toward a world free of war. Ad hoc arbitration, as distinct from adjudication by such a permanent court, was not the same and, by itself, not enough. The 1899 Peace Conference was a point of inflection, a turn in the river, in the effort to move beyond ad hoc international arbitration to adjudication by a permanent international court as a means to avoid war a nd preserve international peace and security.
The Humanization of Humanitarian Law
Authors: Meron Theodor
Published: April 2006

The centennial of the Hague Convention (No. II; No. IV in the 1907 version) on the Laws and Customs of War on Land and the fiftieth anniversary of the four Geneva Conventions for the Protection of Victims of War of August 12, 1949, present an opportunity to reflect on the direction in which the law of war, or international humanitarian law, has been evolving. This essay focuses on the humanization of that law, a process driven to a large extent by human rights and the principles of humanity. As the subject is vast, major issues must inevitably be left out of my discussion, including the impact of the prohibitions on unnecessary suffering and indiscriminate warfare on the regulation of weapons, the proscription of antipersonnel land mines and blinding laser weapons, and the progression of international humanitarian law from largely protecting noncombatants to protecting combatants as well.
The First Five Sessions of the UN Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court
Authors: Keith Hall Christopher
Published: April 2006

On June 30, 2000, at the conclusion of its fifth session, the Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court (Preparatory Commission or commission) completed the first phase of its work with the adoption of draft Elements of Crimes and Rules of Procedure and Evidence (Rules). The first five sessions took place from February 16 to 26, July 26 to August 13, and November 29 to December 17,1999, and from March 13 to 31, and J u n e 12 to 30, 2000.

On July 17, 1998, the United Nations Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of the International Criminal Court (Diplomatic Conference) had adopted the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Statute). At the same time, it decided “to take all possible measures to ensure the coming into operation of the International Criminal Court without undue delay and to make the necessary arrangements for the commencement of its functions,” purposes for which it established the Preparatory Commission.
Systematics and genetic structure ofPonderosaetaxa (Pinaceae) inhabiting the mountain islands of the Southwest
Authors: Rehfeldt Gerald E.
Published: April 2006

The systematics and genetic structure of taxa representing thePonderosaesubsection of genusPinuswere assessed for disjunct, isolated, and peripheral populations occupying the mountain islands of the Southwest. Wind‐pollinated progenies of 290 trees were compared in common gardens according to ten variables reflecting allometric, needle, and phenologic characteristics of 2‐yr‐old trees. The tests also included populations of similar taxa from the Rocky Mountains to the north and the Sierra Madre to the south. Principal component and canonical discriminant analyses demonstrated that the taxa segregated into three distinct groups, one of which contained two subgroups. These groupings collectively accounted for all of the many and confusing taxonomic descriptions that exist for thePonderosaeof the southwest United States and northern Mexico. The results suggested that intertaxa hybrids or hybrid derivatives may have been segregating within the progenies of only three of the parental trees. Hybridization, therefore, appears to be infrequent and inconsequential to the interrelationships among taxa and to contemporary genetic structures of taxa. Univariate analyses showed that the three distinct groups displayed different genetic structures despite similarities in their geographic distributions. While genetic variation within populations of all groups was abundant, a group labeled “quinquefoliata” displayed little variation among populations; one labeled “engelmannii” had abundant interpopulation variation that was largely randomly distributed across the landscape; and in a group containing the subgroups called “scopulorum” and “taxon X,” abundant interpopulation variability was arranged systematically along moderately steep clines. These disparate genetic structures showed no apparent effects of the isolated, disjunct, and peripheral conditions under which populations of these taxa exist.
Intra‐ and interspecific phylogeny of wild Fagopyrum (Polygonaceae) species based on nucleotide sequences of noncoding regions in chloroplast DNA
Authors: Ohsako Takanori , Ohnishi Ohmi
Published: April 2006

The intra‐ and interspecific phylogeny of Fagopyrum (Polygonaceae) species was studied using nucleotide sequence data from two noncoding regions in chloroplast DNA, the trnK (UUU) intron and the trnC (GCA)‐rpoB spacer. Thirty‐seven accessions of ten species and two unidentified samples in the urophyllum group of Fagopyrum were analyzed. Both of the studied regions showed high variability, including nucleotide substitutions, insertion/deletions, and inversions. Separate parsimony analyses of the two regions generated phylogenies that were largely consistent with each other. A single most parsimonious tree derived from the combined data of the two regions suggested that (1) either F. statice or F. leptopodum was derived from the ancestor more than once, (2) F. gracilipes, a tetraploid species, has recently been derived from diploid ancestor and rapidly spread out to its present distribution areas, and (3) F. pleioramosum, F. macrocarpum, and F. callianthum, three newly discovered species endemic to the upper Min River valley, differentiated from their common ancestral species in the present distribution area.
Population‐specific gender‐biased hybridization betweenDryopteris intermediaandD. carthusiana: evidence from chloroplast DNA
Authors: Xiang Lilin , Werth Charles R. , Emery Stacie N. , McCauley David E.
Published: April 2006

As has been shown for many kinds of organisms, barriers to interspecific hybridization may differ in strength between reciprocal crosses, resulting in a bias in the probability that one or the other species may be the maternal or paternal parent of hybrids. The fernDryopterisXtriploidea, the “backcross” hybrid between the diploidD. intermediaand the tetraploidD. carthusiana, occurs in large numbers in nature, providing an opportunity to investigate whether such a bias exists. Differences in the chloroplast genome distinguishing the two parental species were discovered in the sequence of thetrnLregion following amplification by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), including aMseI restriction site. This allowed rapid identification of the donor of the chloroplast genome, and therefore the maternal parent of each hybrid, assuming chloroplast DNA to be maternally inherited inDryopteris.Analysis was carried out on 127 hybrids, shown to be of independent origin using allozymes, occurring at three localities in Virginia and West Virginia. When samples from all localities were pooled, 91 possessed theD. carthusiana trnLgenotype and 36 possessed theD. intermediagenotype, a ratio that is significantly different (P< 0.001) from the null hypothesis of no gender bias. The strength of the bias differed significantly among the three sites, however, with bias at the West Virginia site much stronger (5.6:1carthusiana:intermedia;P< 0.001) than at either Virginia site (1.55:1 and 1.43:1carthusiana:intermedia, respectively;P> 0.05 in both cases). The cause of the strong bias in the West Virginia sample is unknown, as is the cause of the population differences. Causes of bias could include differences between the parental species related to their ploidy difference, including sizes of gametes and/or gametangia, sperm motility, breeding system (D. intermediais outcrossing whileD. carthusianais selfing), or the nature and strength of interspecific isolating mechanisms.
Bird‐pollination of threeDuriospecies (Bombacaceae) in a tropical rainforest in Sarawak, Malaysia
Authors: Yumoto Takakazu
Published: April 2006

Pollination ecology of threeDuriospecies,D. grandiflorus, D. oblongus, andD. kutejensis(Bombacaceae), was studied in a lowland dipterocarp forest in Sarawak, Malaysia, during a peak flowering period when at least 305 species of plants bloomed in 1996.Duriohas been reported to be pollinated by bats in Peninsular Malaysia. However, my observations of flower visitors and pollination experiments indicated that two species,D. grandiflorusandD. oblongus, were pollinated by spiderhunters (Nectariniidae) and that the other species,D. kutejensis, was pollinated by giant honey bees and bats as well as birds. Hand‐pollination experiments showed that all three species were obligate outbreeders. A resource limitation in fruit production was suggested. The former two species were visited only by spiderhunters, and the bagged flowers that were opened for animal visitors only at night bore no fruit, while those that were opened only during the day bore fruits, at comparable fruiting ratios to open pollination.Durio kutejensiswas observed to be visited by giant honey bees, birds, and bats at different times of day, and three series of bagged experiments that exposed the flowers to animal visitors at different times of day bore fruits at a comparable ratio to open‐pollination.
Climate and the U.S. distribution of C4 grass subfamilies and decarboxylation variants of C4 photosynthesis
Authors: Taub Daniel R.
Published: April 2006

I compared the C4 grass flora and climatic records for 32 sites in the United States. Consistent with previous studies, I found that the proportion of the grass flora that uses the NADP malic enzyme (NADP‐ME) variant of C4 photosynthesis greatly increases with increasing annual precipitation, while the proportion using the NAD malic enzyme (NAD‐ME) variant (and also the less common phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase [PCK] variant) decreases. However the association of grass subfamilies with annual precipitation was even stronger than for the C4 decarboxylation variants. Analysis of the patterns of distribution by partial correlation analysis showed that the correlations between the frequency of various C4 types and rainfall were solely due to the association of the C4 types with particular grass subfamilies. In contrast, there was a strong correlation of the frequency of the different subfamilies with annual precipitation that was independent of the influence of the different C4 variants. It therefore appears that other, as yet unidentified, characteristics that differ among grass subfamilies may be responsible for their differences in distribution across natural precipitation gradients.
Biomechanical properties of the trunk of the devil's walking stick (Aralia spinosa; Araliaceae) during the crown‐building phase: implications for tree architecture
Authors: Briand Christopher H. , Campion Shannon M. , Dzambo Damion A. , Wilson Kerri A.
Published: April 2006

During the crown‐building phase, the mechanical architecture of the trunk ofAralia spinosaexhibits considerable ontogenetic variation. All trunks were tapered along their length, and taper was dependent on both ramet size and age; older, larger trunks were more tapered than younger, smaller trunks. Trunk specific gravity, % bark, wood, and pith exhibited considerable inter‐ and intra‐ramet variation. Specific gravity increased with both increasing ramet size and age, and declined acropetally in the majority of ramets sampled. Wood specific gravity was generally unrelated to ramet size, age, or position along the length of the trunk. Percent wood increased while % pith decreased with increasing ramet size and age. There was no relationship between % bark and either ramet size or age. Both % bark and % wood tended to decline acropetally, while % pith increased acropetally. On average, 47% of the variation in specific gravity could be attributed to % wood, while 77% could be attributed to % pith. Percent bark accounted for only 14% of the variation in specific gravity. We suggest that the relatively pithy trunk ofAralia spinosa(average range: 4–15%) allows for rapid height growth, but imposes severe constraints on crown architecture and the maximum size attainable by this species.
The cytoskeleton and polarization during pollen development in Carex blanda (Cyperaceae)
Authors: Brown Roy C. , Lemmon Betty E.
Published: April 2006

Patterns of cytoskeletal organization during distinct polarizations that characterize pollen development in the sedge Carex blanda (Cyperaceae) were studied by correlated methods of immunohistochemistry and confocal and transmission electron microscopy. As is typical of the family Cyperaceae, Carex produces a unique pollen type known as a pseudomonad in which all four microspores of the tetrad are enclosed within the wall of a single pollen grain. Only one member of the tetrad is functional and the other three abort. The pseudomonads are precisely oriented in the locule with the functional microspore in the wide abaxial portion of the wedge‐shaped cytoplasm adjacent to the tapetum, and the degenerative microspores are packed tightly in the pointed adaxial portion. A unique sequence of post‐meiotic developmental events reflects both intracellular and intercellular polarity. Development includes: (1) random placement of tetrad nuclei in the coenocytic sporocyte after meiosis, (2) interrupted cytokinesis resulting in a tetrad of nuclei that migrates as a unit into the narrow adaxial tip, (3) completion of unequal cytokinesis and centering of the functional nucleus in the wide abaxial portion of the microsporocyte via a radial array of microtubules and microfilaments, (4) unequal mitosis resulting in a small generative cell at the proximal surface of the functional microspore (adjacent to the abortive microspores), and (5) recentering of the vegetative nucleus in the abaxial cytoplasm via a radial cytoskeletal array.
Variation in seed traits of Lobelia inflata (Campanulaceae): sources and fitness consequences
Authors: Simons Andrew M. , Johnston Mark O.
Published: April 2006

Seed germination constitutes an important event in the life cycle of plants. Two related seed traits affect fitness: seed size and the timing of seed germination. In three sets of experiments, we (1) partition the sources of seed‐size variance in Lobelia inflata into components attributable to fruit size, relative fruit position, and parental identity; (2) examine the influence of pregermination conditions and seed size on time to germination; and (3) assess the fitness consequences of seed size and germination timing under seminatural, harsh conditions. Seed‐size variance is attributable to both parental identity and fruit position within an individual. Distal fruits produce larger but fewer seeds. No significant correlation exists between fruit size and seed size, but a trade‐off is found between the number and size of seeds contained in a fruit after correcting for fruit size. The timing of germination is influenced by seed size, light conditions before winter, and winter duration. Germination timing influences survival, and despite small seed size in this species (2 × 10−5 g/seed), seed size has a persistent and significant association with both final plant size and the probability of survival to autumn.
Relative competitive abilities and growth characteristics of a narrowly endemic and a geographically widespread Solidago species (Asteraceae)
Authors: Walck Jeffrey L. , Baskin Jerry M. , Baskin Carol C.
Published: April 2006

Relative competitive ability and growth characteristics of the narrow endemic Solidago shortii were compared to those of the geographically widespread S. altissima. Competition and growth studies were conducted over the entire growing season in an ambient‐temperature greenhouse, using a 3:1 (v/v) native limestone soil/river sand mixture. Results from a de Wit replacement series experiment (relative yield, relative yield total, plant height, aggressivity values) with S. shortii, S. altissima, and Festuca arundinacea (common competitor) suggested the following competitive hierarchy: S. altissima = F. arundinacea > S. shortii. Using classical growth analysis, we found that the competitive hierarchy was related closely to components of plant size (dry mass, height, leaf area, leaf area duration) and not to relative growth rate or any of its components (net assimilation rate, leaf area ratio, leaf weight ratio, specific leaf area). Solidago shortii allocated proportionately more dry mass to roots (but not to rhizomes) and had significantly greater root/shoot and (root + rhizome)/shoot ratios than did S. altissima. Thus, while the morphological traits of S. shortii enable it to tolerate drier habitats than S. altissima, in moist sites S. shortii easily would be overtopped and shaded out by S. altissima. Low competitive ability may be one of several factors contributing to the narrow endemism of S. shortii.
Genetic variation in Pueraria lobata (Fabaceae), an introduced, clonal, invasive plant of the southeastern United States
Authors: Pappert Rebecca A. , Hamrick J. L. , Donovan Lisa A.
Published: April 2006

Pueraria lobata (kudzu), a clonal, leguminous vine, is invading the southeastern United States at a rate of 50 000 ha per year. Genetic variability and clonal diversity were measured in 20 southeastern U.S. populations using 14 allozyme loci. Within its U.S. range, 92.9% of the loci were polymorphic and overall genetic diversity was 0.290. Such high levels of genetic diversity are consistent with its history of multiple introductions over an extended period of time. The average proportions of polymorphic loci and genetic diversity within populations were 55.7% (range = 28.6–85.7%) and 0.213 (range = 0.114–0.317), respectively. The proportion of total genetic diversity found among populations was similar to species with equivalent life history characters (GST = 0.199). No regional patterns of variation were seen. The number of putative genotypes in each population ranged from 2 to 26. Mean genotypic diversity was 0.694, ranging from 0.223 to 0.955. Such high levels of genotypic diversity indicate that local sites are often colonized by several propagules (most likely seeds) and/or that sexual reproduction occurs within populations after establishment. An excess of heterozygosity was observed in populations with few unique genets, implying that selection for highly heterozygous individuals may occur in populations of P. lobata.