bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Genetic Education of Primary Care Health Professionals in Britain
Authors: Kirk Maggie
Published: October 2007

The education of primary healthcare professionals in Britain (including physicians, nurses, midwives and health visitors) provides little understanding of recent developments in genetics. Some of the deficiencies that have been identified and possible means of responding to the needs for greater knowledge and understanding are presented.
Deaf Community and Genetics
Authors: Middleton Anna
Published: October 2007

People who are culturally Deaf have a positive attitude toward being deaf. Typically, they do not wish to be treated or cured of their deafness and may feel threatened that genetic technology could reduce the numbers of deaf people being born.
Intelligence: Ethical Debates about the Search for IQ Quantitative Trait Loci
Authors: King David
Published: October 2007

This article focuses on arguments about the acceptability of research dedicated to isolating specific genes which may influence IQ. It also surveys other public controversies in the UK about behavioral genetics.
Lamarckian Inheritance
Authors: Bowler Peter J
Published: October 2007

Lamarckian inheritance requires the hereditary transmission of characters acquired by the organism in the course of its adult life, usually through the adoption of new habits in a new environment. Although widely accepted in the nineteenth century, it has been rejected by modern geneticists.
Malthus, Darwin, and Social Darwinism
Authors: Bowler Peter J
Published: October 2007

Darwin's theory of natural selection was inspired in part by T. R. Malthus's principle of population expansion. This was linked to the ideology of free‐enterprise individualism, leading to claims that Darwin's theory reflected a similar ideology. Darwinism was certainly used to justify competitive social policies, but the relationship between science and ideology requires careful analysis.
Biological Complexity: Beyond the Genome
Authors: Salthe Stanley N , von Sternberg Richard
Published: October 2007

Biological processes, such as development, evolution and behavior, are enormously complex. Language needs to be developed for representing such phenomena, because current reductive approaches to explaining complex systems, although useful in guiding observations, have become conceptually misleading.
Geneticization: Concept
Authors: Have Henk AMJ ten
Published: October 2007

Geneticization is the sociocultural process of interpreting and explaining human beings using the terminology and concepts of genetics, so that not only health and disease but all human behavior and social interactions are viewed through the prism of biomolecular technology.
Autonomy and Responsibility in Reproductive Genetics
Authors: Hellsten Sirkku K
Published: October 2007

The principle of respecting individual autonomy has traditionally been the most powerful of the four conventional principles of Western bioethics (the others being beneficence, benevolence and justice). It is rarely trumped by other ethical considerations such as an individual's personal responsibility, collective duties, or even by the utilitarian maximization of the overall happiness or utility of a society.
Personal Identity: Genetics and Determinism
Authors: Chadwick Ruth
Published: October 2007

Traditional theories that locate the identity of the human person in physical or psychological attributes are subject to reinterpretation in the light of advances in genetics.
Apolipoprotein Gene Structure and Function
Authors: Uelmen Huey Patricia , Chang Benny , Chan Lawrence
Published: October 2007

Apolipoproteins are the protein components of lipoproteins, the lipid–protein complexes responsible for transporting lipids in the blood. They may have additional specialized functions that are encoded by their genes. This review summarizes the current knowledge on gene and protein structure and the function of this rather complex group of proteins.
Addiction and Genes: Animal Models
Authors: Phillips Tamara J
Published: October 2007

Gene products (i.e. proteins that may be enzymes, receptors, hormones, etc.) influence susceptibility to alcoholism, drug abuse and other addictions. Progress in gene discovery has been fueled by the Human Genome Project, and by utilization of classical (e.g. standard inbred strains, selected lines) and new‐era genetic models and techniques (e.g. transgenics, microarray analyses). The ultimate goal is to identify the genes of importance to addiction and to define their interactions with other genes and with environmental influences.
Cytogenetic and Physical Chromosomal Maps: Integration
Authors: Kirsch Ilan R , Ried Thomas
Published: October 2007

It is now possible to link a cytogenetic location directly with the sequence of the human genome. This is accomplished by using a toolset consisting of high‐resolution fluorescent
in situ
hybridization‐mapped and sequenced bacterial artificial chromosome clones distributed at 1–2 Mb intervals across the genome. This toolset is available from a commercial repository and is searchable in publicly available databases cross‐referenced to extant information on cancer‐associated chromosomal aberrations.
Public Health Genetics
Authors: Zimmern Ronald L
Published: October 2007

Public health genetics is a subspecialty within public health that deals with the application of genetic and molecular science to the promotion of health and the prevention of disease. Its scope is wide and requires an understanding, among other subjects, of genetics, epidemiology, public health and the principles of ethics, law and the social sciences.
m
RNA
Stability and the Control of Gene Expression
Authors: Ji Xinjun , Liebhaber Stephen A
Published: October 2007

Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) stability is a principal determinant of gene expression; intrinsic stabilities of mammalian mRNAs can differ by more than 100‐fold, and the stability of an mRNA species can be altered markedly by developmental, cell cycle and environmental stimuli. The determinants of mRNA stability and the pathways by which they function are diverse and are represented by a spectrum of informative model systems.
mRNA Turnover
Authors: Mitchell Philip
Published: October 2007

Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) degradation mechanisms provide important regulatory steps in the control of eukaryotic gene expression. Although major recent advances have been made in our understanding of cytoplasmic mRNA turnover in mammalian cells, we are only just beginning to unravel the mechanisms of RNA turnover in the cell nucleus.
Oncogenic Kinases in Cancer
Authors: Tsatsanis Christos , Zafiropoulos Alexandros , Spandidos Demetrios A
Published: October 2007

Oncogenesis involves the generation and transmission of signals that result in deregulation of cell proliferation, inhibition of apoptosis and morphological changes. Transmembrane or cytoplasmic tyrosine and serine/threonine kinases participate both directly and indirectly in cell transformation and tumorigenesis.
Insights into the Molecular Basis of Kallman Syndrome
Authors: Hu Youli , Kim Soo‐Hyun , Cadman Steven Mark , Bouloux Pierre‐Marc
Published: October 2007

Kallmann syndrome (KS) consists of anosmia related to defective olfactory bulb development and hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism due to gonadotrophin‐releasing hormone (GnRH) deficiency. Two genes have been identified so far:
KAL‐1
, encoding anosmin‐1, and
KAL‐2
,encoding fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1).
Genetic Redundancy
Authors: Krakauer David C
Published: October 2007

In genetic redundancy, modification or deletion of a portion of genetic material results in minimal changes in trait or organismal phenotype with reference to the wild type as a result of buffering mechanisms in the wild type.
DNA Repair: Evolution
Authors: Koonin Eugene V
Published: October 2007

Comparative genomics has brought a new perspective to the origin and evolution of DNA repair. Evolution of repair is connected intimately to the evolution of replication systems but shows much greater plasticity as a result of many lineage‐specific gene losses and horizontal gene‐transfer events.
Somatic Hypermutation of Antigen Receptor Genes: Evolution
Authors: Diaz Marilyn , Verkoczy Laurent K
Published: October 2007

Analysis of the immunoglobulin mutational pattern across species has helped to reveal some of the molecular properties of this mechanism. Strong evidence for the involvement of DNA strand breaks and error‐prone DNA polymerases confirms earlier predictions made from phylogenetic data.
Mutation Rates: Evolution
Authors: Metzgar David
Published: October 2007

Mutation rates are controlled by genetic factors, which are themselves subject to evolutionary processes. Mutation rates (both local and global) are expected to evolve to allow adaptive change while minimizing maladaptive mutation.
Longevity: Genetics
Authors: Cournil Amandine
Published: October 2007

The longevity of a species refers to its maximum potential length of life. Longevity at the individual level can be regarded as an outcome of the aging process, which is both genetically and environmentally determined. Genetic studies of longevity primarily focus on the genetic variation of life span and on the genetics of exceptionally long life in human populations.
Vertebrate Immune System: Evolution
Authors: Hughes Austin L
Published: October 2007

The vertebrates possess unique adaptations for immune defense that have apparently evolved gradually over the long evolutionary history of the vertebrate lineage. Molecular diversity is one of the hallmarks of vertebrate immune mechanisms, and molecular analyses have clearly implicated natural selection as the major factor in promoting molecular diversity and a consequent enhanced immune surveillance.
Dosage Compensation Mechanisms: Evolution
Authors: Marín Ignacio
Published: October 2007

Degeneration of sex‐limited chromosomes generates the need for dosage compensation mechanisms able to equalize in both sexes the amount of products derived from sex‐linked genes. Evolution of these mechanisms is understood in some detail in the fly
Drosophila melanogaster
, the nematode
Caenorhabditis elegans
and in eutherian mammals.
Mitochondrial Non‐Mendelian Inheritance: Evolutionary Origin and Consequences
Authors: Birky C William
Published: October 2007

Alleles of mitochondrial genes segregate during vegetative (mitotic) divisions as a consequence of the random manner in which mitochondrial genomes are replicated and partitioned at cell division. This is probably an evolutionary relic of their endosymbiotic origin. Uniparental inheritance of mitochondrial genes in humans is a result of oogamy and degradation of paternal mitochondria in the egg, but different mechanisms have evolved in other organisms.
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Genes: Polymorphism
Authors: Meyer Diogo , Mack Steven J
Published: October 2007

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) contains genes that code for glycoproteins which play a key role in the immune response. Several features of MHC gene polymorphism indicate that diversifying natural selection has acted upon these genes. Different models of diversifying selection may explain the observed variation.
Fibroblast Growth Factors: Evolution
Authors: Ornitz David M
Published: October 2007

Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) and their receptors constitute a signaling system conserved throughout animal evolution. Most members of the FGF family signal across adjacent tissue boundaries and are essential for a variety of developmental and physiologic processes. A subfamily of vertebrate FGFs that may have originated in primitive chordates appears to have evolved novel functions within neurons.
Complement System: Evolution
Authors: Nonaka Masaru
Published: October 2007

The human complement system is one of the principal effector systems of innate immunity and consists of more than 30 serum and cell surface proteins. Most complement components show a striking modular structure, and evolutionary studies indicate development from a simpler system by gene duplications and exon shuffling in the vertebrate lineage.
Imprinting: Evolution
Authors: Spencer Hamish G
Published: October 2007

Genomic imprinting, the differential expression of maternally and paternally derived genes, diminishes the ability to mask the deleterious effects of recessive mutations, one of the major advantages of diploidy. Nevertheless, imprinting has evolved at roughly 40 mammalian loci, and several hypotheses have been proposed to explain how the apparent disadvantage of imprinting has been overcome.
Drug Metabolism: Evolution
Authors: Nebert Daniel W
Published: October 2007

Advances in molecular biology and genetics have given us a much better understanding of the evolution of drug metabolism. Genes encoding drug‐metabolizing enzymes, as well as some drug receptors and transporters, have functioned in many signal transduction pathways in bacteria and yeast and, more recently, in countless critical life processes in plants and animals – events that emerged millions of years before the establishment of pharmaceutical companies and drug stores.
Nuclear Receptor Genes: Evolution
Authors: Owen Gareth I
Published: October 2007

The evolutionary origins and diversification of the nuclear receptor superfamily gene structure in the Metazoa.
X‐linked Genes for General Cognitive Abilities
Authors: Kehrer‐Sawatzki Hildegard , Steinbach Peter , Hameister Horst
Published: October 2007

More than 200 syndromic and nonsyndromic disorders associated with X‐linked mental retardation are known, and the gene responsible for the condition has been identified in many cases. The phenotypic effects of known MRX genes, and their obvious overrepresentation on the X chromosome, suggest that they played an important role during human speciation.
Disability: Philosophical Issues
Authors: Edwards Steven D
Published: October 2007

Why do we try to prevent the births of people with disabilities? According to one view, this is because of the low moral status of disabled people, and also due to adherence – tacit or explicit – to the philosophical tenets of individualism.
Cryogenic Detectors: Detection of Single Molecules
Authors: Twerenbold Damian
Published: October 2007

To extend the technique of mass spectrometry for analyzing large protein complexes, more sensitive detectors are required. Cryogenic detectors operate by measuring the energy deposition of a single molecule. Their detection sensitivity is independent of mass, and both the arrival time and energy of an individual molecule are measured in a MALDI‐TOF mass spectrometer.
Laser Capture Microdissection in Proteomics
Authors: Banks Rosamonde E , Craven Rachel A , Selby Peter J
Published: October 2007

Laser capture microdissection or laser‐assisted microdissection techniques allow the purification or enrichment of selected cell types from heterogeneous tissue sections prior to downstream analysis of DNA, RNA or protein.
Mitochondrial Proteome: Origin
Authors: Andersson Siv , Karlberg Olof
Published: October 2007

The proteins comprising the mitochondrial organelle have originated both from an endosymbiont and from within the eukaryotes.
Proteomics and Genomics Technology: Comparison in Heart Failure and Apoptosis
Authors: Nosworthy Neil J , Tsubakihara Masako , dos Remedios Cristobal G
Published: October 2007

Recent developments in microarray technology in determining the protein and gene content of cellular extracts will allow, on a much larger scale, the characterization of genes and proteins that change due to heart failure.
Noonan Syndrome
Authors: Tartaglia Marco , Gelb Bruce D
Published: October 2007

Noonan syndrome is a genetic disorder inherited as an autosomal trait or occurring sporadically, characterized by short stature, dysmorphic facies, webbed neck, congenital heart disease or hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, skeletal anomalies, cryptorchidism and developmental delay. Missense mutations in the
PTPN11
gene, encoding the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP‐2, cause approximately 50% of cases.
Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator Sequences: Comparative Analysis
Authors: Chen Jian‐Min , Lecointre Guillaume , Denamur Erick , Férec Claude
Published: October 2007

Information obtained by comparing cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator sequences has been used to refine the domain structure of the protein, to better understand the effects of the many mutations identified in typical and atypical cystic fibrosis patients, and to develop better animal models for cystic fibrosis studies.
Migraine: Genetics
Authors: Montagna Pasquale , Mochi Mirella
Published: October 2007

Migraine is a complex disease with multifactorial genetic determination. Disease risk is increased in relatives of migraine patients, and concordance rates are higher in monozygotic twins.
Peopling of India: Insights from Genetics
Authors: Majumder Partha P
Published: October 2007

India was one of the earliest destinations for the waves of imigration of modern humans from Africa. Linguistic evidence for the origins of the many tribal and nontribal groupings is conflicting, but recent data from genetic markers have clarified the relationships of the earliest inhabitants.
Wilson, Edward Osborne
Authors: Ruse Michael
Published: October 2007

Edward Osborne Wilson (1929–) is an American biologist, the world's leading authority on ants, who has explored biogeography.
Sutton, Walter Stanborough
Authors: Crow James F
Published: October 2007

Walter Stanborough Sutton (1877–1916) was an American scientist who united Mendelism and cytology to establish the chromosome theory of heredity.
Genetic Maps: Direct Meiotic Analysis
Authors: Hultén Maj , Tease Charles
Published: October 2007

Cytogenetic analyses provide a direct means of obtaining critical information on the patterns of meiotic recombination, at the genomic and chromosome‐specific levels, in both male and female germ cells. This information provides insight into the control of meiotic recombination in human germ cells and allows the construction of accurate sex‐specific genetic maps.
Tjio, Joe‐Hin
Authors: Hultén Maj A
Published: October 2007

Joe‐Hin Tjio (1919–2001) was a Java‐born scientist who, in collaboration with Albert Levan, uncovered the correct number of human chromosomes.
Genetic Mapping: Comparison of Direct and Indirect Approaches
Authors: Hultén Maj , Tease Charles
Published: October 2007

Two general approaches are available for investigating patterns of meiotic recombination in human germ cells: firstly, direct cytogenetic assessment of recombination in the cells in which it occurs; secondly, indirect genetic methods that exploit DNA polymorphisms. Each of these approaches has advantages and disadvantages for the production of genetic recombination maps.
deCODE: A Genealogical Approach to Human Genetics in Iceland
Authors: Gulcher Jeffrey R , Stefansson Kari
Published: October 2007

The identification of genes contributing to diseases provides the most direct method for discovering the rate‐limiting molecular pathways involved in their pathogenesis. deCODE has built a system of information in Iceland, linking medical information from patients who have given them specific informed consent, disease by disease, to a nation‐wide genealogy database and their molecular genetic information.
Chlorophyll‐binding Proteins
Authors: Lokstein Heiko , Grimm Bernhard
Published: October 2007

Chlorophylls and bacteriochlorophylls are the dominant pigments on Earth and serve noncovalently bound to specific proteins as principal light‐harvesting and energy‐transforming chromophores in photosynthetic organisms. The enormous progress that has been achieved in the recent years in elucidation of structures and functions of chlorophyll‐binding proteins, in particular, photosynthetic reaction centres and light‐harvesting (antenna) complexes is reviewed.
Acetogenic Bacteria
Authors: Imkamp Frank , Müller Volker
Published: October 2007

Acetogenic bacteria are a specialized group of strictly anaerobic bacteria that are ubiquitous in nature and essential for the global carbon cycle. Acetogens are characterized by a unique pathway, the Wood–Ljungdahl pathway of carbon dioxide reduction with the acetyl‐CoA synthase as the key enzyme of the pathway.
Abscisic Acid (
ABA
)
Authors: Cutler Adrian J
Published: October 2007

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a phytohormone found in all higher plants that mediates responses to abiotic stress conditions and controls stomatal aperture. It is also involved in seed development and is associated with seed dormancy. ABA is biosynthesized in higher plants from carotenoid precursors. ABA acts via a complex signalling process leading to both short‐term changes in ion channel activity and longer term effects on gene expression.
Cold Acclimation and Freezing Tolerance in Plants
Authors: Ouellet Francois
Published: October 2007

Cold acclimation is the process leading to the development of freezing tolerance in plants. It is a complex multigenic process that requires a programmed and integrated genetic capacity to activate the appropriate mechanisms needed to withstand harsh winter conditions.
Endosperm Development
Authors: Berger Frédéric
Published: October 2007

The endosperm nurtures embryo development in the seed and stores seed reserves in cereal species, and undergoes a distinctive developmental mode controlled by elaborate epigenetic pathways. Endosperm development is coordinated with embryogenesis and the seed teguments leading to harmonious seed development.
Galactolipids in Plant Membranes
Authors: Dörmann Peter
Published: October 2007

Photosynthetic membranes of higher plants contain high amounts of galactolipids (monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) and digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG)) that are indispensable for the efficiency of photosynthetic light reactions. When plants are grown under phosphate‐limiting conditions, phospholipids are partially replaced by galactolipids in plastidial and extraplastidial membranes, thereby releasing phosphate for other essential cellular processes.
Hypersensitive Response in Plants
Authors: Mur Luis AJ
Published: October 2007

The hypersensitive response (HR) in plants is a rapid and highly localized cell death that may be evoked by pathogen challenge. The HR is not a disease syndrome but is an effective, host‐regulated defence response which contributes towards the neutralization of the invading pathogen. Research into the elicitation and elaboration of the HR is a major research theme in plant biology where there is a close interaction between laboratory‐based experimental science and plant breeders in order to generate pathogen‐resistant crops.
Lignins
Authors: Ralph John , Brunow Gösta , Boerjan Wout
Published: October 2007

Lignins, complex and irregular polymers present in the cell walls of vascular plants, are built from three basic monolignols. An understanding of their nature is evolving as a result of detailed structural investigations aided by improvements in analytical methodologies and the availability of mutant and transgenic plants. Oxidative phenolic coupling reactions, where monomers primarily couple endwise with the growing chain, generate the polymer. The combinatorial linkage synthesis, the random generation of new optical centres each time a monolignol couples via its sidechain, and the inclusion of monomers other than the monolignols, cascade to create polymers with enormous variation in primary structure. Lignification is a strategic process that has evolved to allow plants considerable flexibility in dealing with various environmental stresses. The malleability offers significant opportunities to engineer the structures of lignins beyond the limits explored to date.
Natural Variation as a Tool for Gene Identification in Plants
Authors: Lippman Zachary B , Zamir Dani
Published: October 2007

The remarkable variety of plant form and adaptation observed in nature is genetically controlled, with input from environmental cues. Identifying the genes responsible for discrete as well as quantitative differences requires an understanding of the phenotypic and genetic diversity found among species. As opposed to gene cloning based on laboratory‐induced mutations, genes discovered through natural variation provide insight into the genetic mechanisms that drive evolutionary change of complex traits.
Regulatory Mechanisms of Phyllotaxy
Authors: Hudson Andrew
Published: October 2007

Hypotheses to explain phyllotaxy – the regular positioning of leaves on stems – were first proposed in the nineteenth century. Recently, polarized transport of the photohormone auxin was found to have a key role in generating phyllotaxy patterns that is consistent with classical models. How auxin might interact with other patterning mechanism to regulate phyllotaxy is currently unclear.
Resistance Genes (
R
Genes) in Plants
Authors: Hammond‐Kosack Kim E , Kanyuka Kostya
Published: October 2007

The activation of plant defence to restrict pathogen invasion is often conferred by resistance (R) proteins. The most prevalent class of R proteins contain leucine‐rich repeats (LRRs), a central nucleotide binding site and a variable amino terminal domain. Other classes possess an extracellular LRR domain, a transmembrane domain and sometimes an intracellular serine/threonine kinase domain. R proteins function in pathogen perception and/or the activation of conserved defence signalling networks. Upon infection, specific effectors produced by pathogens and presumed to promote growth in host tissue, are either directly recognized by different R proteins or are recognized by a targeted plant protein which is itself guarded by R proteins. Subsequently, various defence signalling networks are activated via R protein phosphorylation, oligomerization, degradation, conformational changes and by the shuttling of R proteins between the plant cell cytoplasm and the nucleus. The overall outcome is dramatic cellular reprogramming and the activation of coordinated defence responses both locally at the site of infection as well as systemically throughout the plant. Many
R
gene loci appear to be under positive genetic selection, which rapidly diversifies paralogous sequences. Some
R
genes are present in plant genomes at single loci as either a single sequence or an allelic series whilst others reside within tight or loose clusters of related
R
sequences. For a century, plant breeders have genetically characterized and used
R
genes to reduce the impact of pathogens on crop production. More recently, various transgenic approaches have been tested to provide broader spectrum control and improved durability.
Rhizobia
Authors: Allan Downie J
Published: October 2007

Rhizobia are soil bacteria that enter into a symbiosis with leguminous plants, producing root outgrowths (nodules) within which the bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, that is made available to the plants. Legume nodules develop as a result of signal exchange between the symbiotic partners and the rhizobia infect the nodules via specialized infection threads. The bacteria are released into plant cells within the nodule and develop into a specialized form which is primarily dedicated to the production of ammonia via the action of an enzyme called nitrogenase.
Stomatal Patterning
Authors: MacAlister Cora A , Bergmann Dominique C
Published: October 2007

Stomatal development is a model for understanding the integration of multiple inputs into a simple cell fate choice. A small but growing network of genes has been identified that are responsible for stomatal development in the model plant
Arabidopsis
: a set of transcription factors control the final stages of guard cells production and proteins suspected to play a role in cell–cell communication affect how many stomata are formed and their distinct distributions in various organs.
Senescence in Plants
Authors: Buchanan‐Wollaston Vicky
Published: October 2007

Senescence is the final stage of plant development during which the plant reclaims the valuable cellular building blocks that have been deposited in the leaves and other parts of the plant during growth. Maintaining an efficient senescence process is essential for survival of the plant or its future generations. Senescence is a complex highly regulated process that requires new gene expression and involves the interactions of many signalling pathways.
Cell Signalling Mechanisms in Plants
Authors: Bögre László
Published: October 2007

Plants use cell surface receptors belonging to histidine kinases or receptor‐like serine/threonine kinases to sense signals and to trigger responses through phosphorylation cascades. Signal‐dependent protein degradation is a prevalent regulatory mechanism in plants. Some of the plant hormones can directly modulate intracellular signalling components to exert their effect.
Salicylic Acid
Authors: Weigel Ralf R
Published: October 2007

Salicylic acid (SA) is an important signalling molecule in the defence response of plants against microbial pathogens. Plants are sessile and have to cope with environmental challenges without the ability to evade them actively. Responding in an appropriate manner upon pathogen attack is indispensable for their survival.
Jasmonate Synthesis and Action in Higher Plants
Authors: Howe Gregg A , Browse John
Published: October 2007

Jasmonic acid and related fatty acid‐derived compounds regulate a wide range of developmental and defence‐related processes in higher plants. Accumulating evidence indicates that the cellular mechanism of jasmonate signalling is remarkably similar to that involved in the perception of the plant hormone auxin.
Pattern Recognition Receptor
Authors: de Wet Barend JM , Gordon S
Published: October 2007

Invading microorganisms are initially recognized by the innate arm of the host immune system and are usually rapidly destroyed. The innate immune system identifies pathogens using a large collection of pattern recognition receptors that bind to the invariant features of pathogenic microorganisms.
New Generation Vaccine Adjuvants
Authors: O'Hagan Derek T
Published: October 2007

Vaccines represent an outstanding success story in modern medicine and are responsible for a huge reduction in morbidity and mortality worldwide, but it is clear that improvements are necessary to enable the development of successful vaccines against some difficult pathogens, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis C virus (HCV) and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Vaccine improvements may include the addition of new adjuvants, which are able to induce higher immune responses, or immune responses with greater breadth, to cover the broad antigenic diversity of some pathogens. New generation adjuvants are starting to become available which may enable the development of new generation vaccines.
Glycolipid Presentation by CD1
Authors: De Libero Gennaro
Published: October 2007

T cells recognize lipid antigens as complexes associated with CD1 antigen‐presenting molecules. The biophysical properties of lipids impose unique mechanisms for lipid delivery, cell internalization, membrane trafficking, processing of large glycolipid antigens and loading of CD1 molecules. T cells specific for lipid antigens participate in the regulation of immune response, protection during infections and pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases.
Tuberculosis: Immunity
Authors: Orme Ian M
Published: October 2007

The immune response to infection with
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
is a highly complex event, involving a coordination of innate and acquired mechanisms. If the infection is left untreated, a chronic phase of infection ensues in most animal models, followed eventually by reactivation disease.
Evolution of Protein Domains
Authors: Yeats Corin A , Orengo Christine A
Published: October 2007

Analysis of protein structures reveals that they are made up from independent globular substructures known as protein domains. The fold that these domains assume is typically the same in evolutionarily related proteins. However, exceptions to this rule allow us to begin to determine the process by which novel folds can develop from ancestral folds and possibly even how the first folds came into existence. Various lines of research have shown that thermodynamic stability, designability, functional flexibility and structural drift all play important roles in shaping the distribution and variation of structural families in nature.
Normal Mode Analysis Techniques in Structural Biology
Authors: Miyashita Osamu , Tama Florence
Published: October 2007

Normal mode theory originates from classical mechanics and has been used in several fields such as mechanical engineering and spectroscopy. It was first applied 20 years ago to investigate dynamical properties of small biological systems. Today, due to advancement in computational techniques as well as processing power, normal mode analysis has emerged again as a very powerful method to study motions of large macromolecular machines that are critically important for sustaining most biological functions in our bodies.
Lissencephaly, Genetics of
Authors: Passemard Sandrine , Challard François , Verloes Alain , Gressens Pierre
Published: October 2007

The term lissencephaly (literally ‘smooth brain’) covers rare malformations which have in common a reduction of the cortical gyration and an abnormal cortical layering. Different forms of lissencephalies have been described: classical lissencephalies (also called type I) and its variants, and cobblestone lissencephalies (also called type II). Classical lissencephalies include lissencephalies with abnormalities in genesLIS1,DCXorARX, isolated lissencephalies without any identified genetic defect, lissencephalies with severe microcephaly (microlissencephaly), and lissencephalies associated with syndromes of multiple malformations. The cobblestone lissencephaly is observed in three related syndromes: Walker–Warburg, Fukuyama and muscle‐eye‐brain (MEB) syndromes.
Relevance of Copy Number Variation to Human Genetic Disease
Authors: Kehrer‐Sawatzki Hildegard
Published: October 2007

Copy number changes involving dosage‐sensitive genes are well‐known causes of human genetic diseases and syndromes. Genome‐wide analytical techniques such as array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping have revealed that polymorphic copy number variations (CNVs), manifesting as duplications or deletions, represent normal variants that contribute to human genomic diversity. Not all CNVs in the human genome have so far been discovered, however it is already clear that CNVs contribute much more to human genomic variation than SNPs. Since many human CNVs contain genes, the expression differences associated with these genes are very likely to influence normal phenotypic variation. Further, since not all CNVs are going to be neutral variants, at least some CNVs are expected to alter drug metabolism or to influence disease predisposition as is already evident in the context of HIV/AIDS susceptibility, Crohn disease and immunologically mediated glomerulonephritis.
Identification of Disease Genes by
CGH
Microarrays
Authors: Veltman Joris A , Vrijenhoek Terry
Published: October 2007

Subtle genomic copy number alterations cause a wide variety of human diseases. Microarray‐based genome profiling by comparative genomic hybridization detects these alterations, which makes it an attractive disease gene‐identification strategy.
Taste: Central Processing
Authors: Scott Thomas R
Published: October 2007

The taste system monitors the chemical environment to detect carbohydrates, proteins, fats and salt to be consumed and toxins to be avoided. It activates reflexes for swallowing or rejection, and powerful hedonic mechanisms of pleasure or disgust. Electrophysiological studies are revealing taste's neural organization. The weight of evidence implies that there are gustatory neuron types that may function as coherent subgroups within the system, that there are primary tastes whose number and identity remain uncertain, and that taste qualities are not represented topographically across the cortex. A cardinal property of taste neurons is their broad sensitivity across an array of chemicals. This breadth implies that the taste code must involve a comparison of the activity across different neuron types in a fashion most closely analogous to the code for colour vision.
Olfaction: Central Processing
Authors: McGann John P , Wachowiak Matt
Published: October 2007

Olfactory receptor neurons in the nasal epithelium detect a huge variety of airborne chemicals (termed ‘odorants’) and encode information about these stimuli in the form of action potentials. This code is then transmitted to the brain, where patterns of neural activity represent the identity, concentration and temporal dynamics of the odorants. Neural processing of olfactory information at multiple levels in the brain mediates odour recognition, synthetic olfactory perceptions and provides feedback control to the initial stages of the olfactory pathway. This article presents some of the challenges in olfactory information processing and then reviews our current knowledge of the mechanisms by which the olfactory bulb and olfactory cortex represent odours and analyse olfactory information.
Myxobacteria
Authors: Dworkin Martin
Published: October 2007

The myxobacteria are a group of prokaryotes that are defined by their ability to form multicellular structures called fruiting bodies, and by their gliding motility. They coordinate their social behaviour by means of the exchange of a set of chemical signals as well as by contact‐mediated cell–cell interactions.
Restoration Ecology: Principles
Authors: Cairns John
Published: October 2007

The U.S. National Research Council (1992, p. 18) defines ‘restoration’ as

… the return of an ecosystem to a close approximation of its condition prior to disturbance… . Both the structure and the functions of the ecosystem are recreated. Merely recreating the form without the functions, or the functions in an artificial configuration bearing little resemblance to a natural resource, does not constitute restoration. The goal is to emulate a natural, functioning, self‐regulating system that is integrated with the ecological landscape in which it occurs.
Protein–protein Interactions: Identification
Authors: Lopper Matthew E , Keck James L
Published: October 2007

Protein–protein interactions are essential features of biological processes that allow cells to grow, divide and respond to their environment. A variety of methodologies now exist to probe protein–protein interactions
in vivo
and
in vitro
.
Amidohydrolase Superfamily
Authors: Aimin Liu , Tingfeng Li , Rong Fu
Published: October 2007

The amidohydrolase superfamily is a structure‐based cluster of enzymes that contain a sturdy and versatile triosephosphate isomerase (TIM)‐like β‐barrel embracing a mono‐ or dinuclear
d
‐block metal cofactor essential for catalysis. Up to date, it has had several thousand members catalysing a wide range of hydrolytic and nonhydrolytic metabolic reactions important in amino acid and nucleotide metabolism as well as biodegradation of agricultural and industrial compounds.
Glycosidases: Functions, Families and Folds
Authors: Hancock Susan M , Withers Stephen G
Published: October 2007

The classification of glycosidases into families and clans on the basis of amino acid sequence has provided a foundation for the analysis of the structures and mechanisms of these important enzymes. This confluence of bioinformatic, structural and mechanistic studies has greatly advanced glycosidase engineering and the development of specific inhibitors.
Density Functional Theoretical Studies on Polyaniline/HNb3O8 Layered Nanocomposites
Authors: Yang G. , Hou W. , Feng X. , Jiang X. , Guo J.
Published: October 2007

A theoretical study of polyaniline (PANI)/HNb3O8 layered nanocomposites has been performed based on ab initio calculations and experimental data. The Brønsted acidity of the layered niobic acid, and the interaction between the interlayered polyaniline molecules and the inorganic slabs in PANI/HNb3O8 nanocomposites, have been investigated. For the intercalation process of organic species into layered niobic acid, it is important to clarify whether the source of Brønsted acidity arises from the interlayered or hydrated protons. Thus, three inorganic layer structures, KNb3O8, HNb3O8, and HNb3O8·H2O, are evaluated, and the results show that there is only a minor contribution to the total acidity if the hydrogen is tightly bound by the inorganic slab. After the interlayered aniline monomers are polymerized within the acidic inorganic layers, two orientated structures of PANI molecules are calculated in which the interlayered C6 rings are perpendicular and parallel to the inorganic slabs, respectively, based on the experimental results. In comparison, PANI molecules in the latter orientation are placed in a relatively narrower interlayer space, and the hydrated proton cannot simultaneously form two effective hydrogen bonds with the O atom of Nb3O8– and an N atom of the PANI molecule because of the orientation requirement of the hydrogen bond. The interlayered hydrated proton cannot effectively transfer electrons between the PANI molecule and the inorganic slab. A similar conclusion is also reached from a detailed analysis of band structure and density of states (DOS). The calculated results are in good agreement with the experimental fact that a relatively higher conductivity is apparent in the former rather than in the latter.
Selective Nucleation of Organic Single Crystals from Vapor Phase on Nanoscopically Rough Surfaces
Authors: Mannsfeld S. C. B. , Briseno A. L. , Liu S. , Reese C. , Roberts M. E. , Bao Z.
Published: October 2007

Organic field‐effect transistors (OFETs) are attractive for microelectronic applications such as sensor arrays or flexible displays, due to their adequate performance and relatively low production costs. Organic single‐crystal transistors have emerged as benchmark devices for studying the intrinsic charge‐transport properties in organic semiconductor materials. Conventional approaches for growing organic single crystals result in uncontrollable dimensions and the formation of extremely fragile crystals. In addition, the hand‐selection and placement of individual crystals on a device structure represents a severe limitation for producing arrays of single‐crystal transistors with high density and reasonable throughput. As a result, the application of organic single‐crystal transistors has been restricted to fundamental charge transport studies, with their commercial application not yet realizable.

We recently reported a materials‐general method of fabricating large‐area arrays of patterned organic single crystals. Microcontact‐printed octadecyltriethoxysilane (OTS) film domains on smooth, inert substrates were found to act as preferential nucleation sites for single crystals for a broad range of organic semiconductor materials, such as pentacene, tetracene, rubrene and C60. In order to understand the underlying mechanism of preferential nucleation, the stamped OTS domains and the contact plane between the OTS domains and the organic crystals were inspected by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and optical microscopy. Our analysis suggests that crystals nucleate at the base of tall OTS pillars that form the significantly rough surface in the stamped domains. The selective nucleation inside the rough surface regions is discussed by means of a rate‐equation model of the growth process.
Assembling DNA into Advanced Materials: From Nanostructured Films to Biosensing and Delivery Systems
Authors: Johnston A. P. R. , Zelikin A. N. , Caruso F.
Published: October 2007

The past decade has witnessed a rapid expansion in the design and assembly of engineered materials for biological applications. However, such applications place limitations on the molecular building blocks that can be used. Requirements for polymer‐based building blocks include biocompatibility, biodegradability, and stimuli‐responsive behavior. Many traditional polymers used in materials science are limited in at least one of these areas, so new polymers need to be explored. As we outline here, DNA is one such polymer that shows promise in developing the next generation of ‘smart’ materials for biomedical and diagnostic applications.
The Synthesis of Spirobitetraline Phosphoramidite Ligands and their Application in Rhodium‐Catalyzed Asymmetric Hydrogenation
Authors: Huo Xiang‐Hong , Xie Jian‐Hua , Wang Qiu‐Shi , Zhou Qi‐Lin
Published: October 2007

A racemic 1,1′‐spirobitetralin‐8,8′‐diol (SBITOL) was conveniently synthesized from 3‐methoxybenzaldehyde in 26 % yield over 9 steps and resolved via its bis‐(S)‐camphorsulfonates. The corresponding chiral spirobitetraline monophosphoramidite ligands have been prepared and their rhodium complexes were applied in the asymmetric hydrogenation of dehydroamino esters with good to excellent enantioselectivities (up to 99.3 % ee).
Application of the corresponding states principle to the diffusion in CO2
Authors: González Luis M. , Suárez‐Iglesias Octavio , Bueno Julio L. , Pizarro Consuelo , Medina Ignacio
Published: October 2007

Binary diffusion coefficients at infinite dilution in supercritical carbon dioxide, DAB, have been measured for the four monohalogenated benzenes (fluorobenzene, chlorobenzene, bromobenzene, and iodobenzene) with the Taylor–Aris technique in a chromatographic apparatus as a function of temperature and pressure. The ranges covered for these two variables were 313–333 K and 15.0–35.0 MPa, respectively. As the four solutes are similar molecules, the corresponding states principle (CSP) has been tested, together with the results of several predictive equations. © 2007 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2007
On the role of microeconomics, planning, and finances in product design
Authors: Bagajewicz Miguel J.
Published: October 2007

In this article it is claimed that in order to obtain the right composition, structure, and functionality for a new product, one needs to anticipate what the demand of the product will be and take into account all costs involved (associated manufacturing and supply chain). To obtain the demand, one needs a pricing model, which in turn relies on consumer preferences that are connected to the product composition, structure, and functionality. Thus, a model, including the varying characteristics of the product, the manufacturing capacity and site, the supply chain and ultimately, the markets, is proposed. I use a very simple case of insect repellent to illustrate how the best repellent, identified as the one that consumers will prefer the most, is not the most profitable one and how one can obtain the insect repellent composition that maximizes profit. © 2007 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2007
Liquid–liquid two‐phase mass transfer in the T‐junction microchannels
Authors: Zhao Yuchao , Chen Guangwen , Yuan Quan
Published: October 2007

In this work, the mass transfer characteristics of immiscible fluids in the two kinds of stainless steel T‐junction microchannels, the opposing‐flow and the cross‐flow T‐junction, are investigated experimentally. Water‐succinic acid‐n‐butanol is chosen as a typical example of liquid–liquid two‐phase mass transfer process. In our experiments, the mixture velocities of the immiscible liquid–liquid two phases are varied in the range from 0.01 to 2.5 m/s for the 0.4 mm microchannel and from 0.005 to 2.0 m/s for the 0.6 mm microchannel, respectively. The Reynolds numbers of the two‐phase mixture vary between 19 and 650. The overall volumetric mass transfer coefficients are determined quantitatively in a single microchannel, and their values are in the ranges of 0.067–17.35 s−1, which are two or three orders of magnitude higher than those of conventional liquid–liquid contactors. In addition, the effects of the inlet configurations, the fluids inlet locations, the height and the length of the mixing channel, the volumetric flux ratio have been investigated. Empirical correlations to predict the volumetric mass transfer coefficients based on the experimental data are developed. © 2007 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2007