bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Visualiser la cartographie postmoderne cybernétique de Régine Robin à l’aide du
logiciel Hyperbase
Authors: Richard Chantal
Published: March 2017

Dans ses Papiers perdus, site Web qui se dédouble en parcours
universitaire d’un côté, et créatif de l’autre, Régine Robin ne cherche pas à résoudre le
problème du non-lieu, mais l’explore, l’exploite et en multiplie les possibilités. Organisés
en cinq parties, les 106 fragments varient en longueur, et leur contenu est géré par des
contraintes énoncées sur la page d’accueil de la section des textes de création. Malgré
cette apparence d’ordre, l’auteure exprime le voeu que le texte soit reconstitué par le
lecteur à sa guise, sans suivre un parcours prédéterminé. Afin d’aborder ces textes, nous
ferons appel à la cartographie postmoderne, façon de décrire l’espace autour d’une
manifestation du soi et de tracer de nouveaux parcours à travers les paysages postmodernes
(Jones, 2007), ainsi qu’aux constellations sémantiques qui tracent les réseaux de sens par
les graphes Association produits par le logiciel Hyperbase.
Structure modale des charagan - chants liturgiques arméniens - à la lumière du logiciel Sphinx : le genre, les espèces et leurs combinaisons dans la IVe Voix
Authors: Kasparian Sylvia , Kerovpyan Aram
Published: March 2017

Cet article se veut une étude originale d’application des méthodes d’analyse de données textuelles à des corpus musicaux. Aucune étude en musicologie moderne n’a encore décrit en détail le système modal en usage dans le répertoire des charagan, chants liturgiques arméniens. Dans ce répertoire, on peut déceler une vingtaine de modes musicaux qui semblent avoir été classés par convention dans un système symbolique d’oktoechos (huit modes). Ceci donne à chacun des modes de l’oktoechos le caractère d’une famille de modes plutôt que d’un seul mode spécifique. Dans cet article, nous présentons une première étape de la description de six versions différentes de 42 chants. En tout, 728 versets découpés en unités de phrases, formules, motifs, degrés ont été analysés avec le logiciel Sphinx. Notre analyse avec Sphinx permet une première description de la structure modale des charagan, faisant ressortir les spécificités des différentes versions, des degrés et des motifs propres aux différentes formules initiales, médiane et finale de ces chants.
Module NooJ du français. Traitement automatique de corpus de français parlé
régional
Authors: Chevalier Gisèle , Kasparian Sylvia
Published: March 2017

Le traitement automatique des corpus oraux est en plein essor. L’intérêt gagne du
terrain, mais les outils restent rares. Dans notre article, nous présentons un outil que
nous avons développé pour l’analyse de corpus oraux spontanés en français acadien. Ces
variétés de français parlées dans les Provinces maritimes du Canada ont trois niveaux de
traits caractéristiques : elles sont orales, régionales et mixtes. Notre défi fut celui
d’adapter et de créer un module NooJ acadien qui permette le traitement d’un corpus
présentant de telles spécificités. Nous présentons ici trois solutions développées avec
NooJ : 1) la configuration d’un dictionnaire qui permette la reconnaissance
orthographique et lexicale de mots présentant des traits à la fois de français standard,
d’acadien traditionnel et de l’anglais ou du vernaculaire; 2) les grammaires développées
pour l’analyse des traits morphologiques de la flexion nominale et verbale; 3) un graphe de
désambiguïsation pour a, qui représente non seulement la 3e personne du
singulier du présent du verbe avoir, mais aussi la 3e personne du pronom
personnel féminin singulier en français acadien.
An unexpected role for the yeast nucleotide exchange factor Sil1 as a reductant acting on the molecular chaperone BiP
Authors: Siegenthaler Kevin D , Pareja Kristeen A , Wang Jie , Sevier Carolyn S
Published: March 2017

Unfavorable redox conditions in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) can decrease the capacity for protein secretion, altering vital cell functions. While systems to manage reductive stress are well-established, how cells cope with an overly oxidizing ER remains largely undefined. In previous work (Wang et al., 2014), we demonstrated that the chaperone BiP is a sensor of overly oxidizing ER conditions. We showed that modification of a conserved BiP cysteine during stress beneficially alters BiP chaperone activity to cope with suboptimal folding conditions. How this cysteine is reduced to reestablish 'normal' BiP activity post-oxidative stress has remained unknown. Here we demonstrate that BiP's nucleotide exchange factor – Sil1 – can reverse BiP cysteine oxidation. This previously unexpected reductant capacity for yeast Sil1 has potential implications for the human ataxia Marinesco-Sjögren syndrome, where it is interesting to speculate that a disruption in ER redox-signaling (due to genetic defects in SIL1) may influence disease pathology.
Creation for Fidelity – Zhao Yuanren’s Translation of Lexical Nonsense in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
Authors: Zhang Qunxing
Published: March 2017

Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland is one of the best examples of the literary nonsense genre. The paper mainly regards nonsense as a rhetoric device for humour and amusement and seeks to examine Carroll’s nonsense creation devices mainly at the lexical level, and at the same time explore the strategies the Chinese translator Zhao Yuanren adopts in his translation. The paper finds out that there is a direct correlation between Carroll’s devices of nonsense creation and Zhao’s strategies in translating them. The strategies Zhao adopts show his creativity and experimentation in dealing with the seemingly untranslatable elements of humorous nonsense to achieve fidelity to the essence of the original work. In reconstructing Carroll’s nonsense, Zhao adheres as closely as he could to reproduce the comic effect of the original by different means of creation. In this sense, his translation is creative fidelity.
Recommended Augmentative and Alternative Communication Competencies for Special Education Teachers
Authors: Da Fonte M. Alexandra , Boesch Miriam C.
Published: March 2017

Empirical evidence supports the notion of special education teachers receiving limited pre-service training in augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). This lack of training is not only evident in the United States but in other countries such as United Kingdom, India, and Israel. Yet the teaching demands for the use of AAC are increasing as more students with complex communication needs are entering the school systems. As a result, this paper outlines four special education teacher competencies needed to effectively address the communication needs of these students. The four competencies consist of the needs for training in the areas of (1) communication development and communicative competencies, (2) teamwork and collaborative practices, (3) role and functions of AAC systems, and (4) AAC assessment and instructional strategies. These competencies are aligned to the standards from the Council for Exceptional Children and the literature available on AAC training. Evidence suggests there is a lack of training for special education teachers and other professionals in this area and limited research to guide teacher preparation programs.
Effect of Amharic Letter Acquisition and Fluency Instruction on the Reading Achievement of Ethiopian Students at Risk for Reading Difficulties
Authors: Abdi Yirgashewa Bekele , Therrien William J.
Published: March 2017

This study took place in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and examined the impact of explicit instruction and fluency practice of letter/sound combinations on reading Amharic letters and words. First grade students at risk for reading difficulties were assigned via stratified random assignment to treatment or control condition. Students in the treatment group received explicit instruction and fluency practice on grade one Amharic letters, two times a week for 18 weeks for 36 sessions. Students in the control condition received typical Amharic reading instruction. Results indicate that students in the treatment condition significantly outperformed students in control on letter sound identification and word reading fluency.
Building the Oral Language of Young Hispanic Children Through Interactive Read Alouds and Vocabulary Games at Preschool and at Home
Authors: Baker Doris Luft , Mogna Vivianne , Rodriguez Sandra , Farmer Dylan , Yovanoff Paul
Published: March 2017

We conducted two studies to examine the effects of an interactive read aloud and vocabulary intervention on the vocabulary knowledge of Spanish-speaking preschoolers living in the U.S. In Study 1, 68 children (n = 34 in the treatment group) and 6 parents in the treatment group received the intervention in Spanish at home, and in Spanish and English in the preschool. Results indicated a significant effect of the intervention on children's receptive and expressive vocabulary knowledge in Spanish favoring the treatment group. Effect sizes were moderate to large. English outcomes were significant for the treatment group only on the receptive vocabulary measure. Children who participated in the Home plus Preschool intervention (n = 6) made significant gains on their Spanish vocabulary knowledge with large effect sizes. In Study 2 we conducted a single subject design study with four preschool children and their mothers. The intervention was provided at home. Results indicated a change from baseline to maintenance for all four children on their Spanish vocabulary knowledge. Parents in both studies saw important changes in their children's engagement in read alouds as well as in their children's communication skills.
A Promising Practice: School-Based Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for Children with Disabilities
Authors: Fuchs Wendy W. , Mundschenk Nancy J. , Groark Brian
Published: March 2017

Adults and children around the world are experiencing unhealthy levels of stress. More specifically, the stress levels that children report can have detrimental effects on their social-emotional, physical and academic well-being. Schools are in a unique position to not only address the causes of stress in children's lives, but to also provide strategies to reduce stress. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) is one approach that schools can use to teach children how to acknowledge and deal with everyday stressors. This article aims to provide a definition of stress, describe MBSR, and provide a review of the current literature on MBSR studies with children. Additionally, the authors suggest implications for school-based mindfulness approaches to reduce the stress of children with disabilities, and recommendations for future research.
Examining Self-Monitoring Interventions for Academic Support of Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
Authors: Hunter William , Williamson Robert L , Jasper Andrea D , Casey Laura Baylot , Smith Clinton
Published: March 2017

Researchers have found that English teachers in the United States of America (USA) perceive providing writing instruction to students with emotional behavioral disorders (EBD) as a difficult task. This could be associated with the fact that students with EBD often work below skill level in the content area of writing compared to same age peers. Researchers continue to investigate interventions to increase academic outcomes for students with EBD. Utilizing a single case design, three middle school students with EBD were observed in a self-contained classroom to determine the effects of a traditional and technology based self-monitoring intervention focused on decreasing student off-task behaviors while increasing scores on writing assignments. The study took place in an urban school district within the Southeastern region of the USA. Results indicated that the first two intervention phases were equally as effective at reducing off-task behaviors. Additionally, the third intervention phase led to decreased off-task behaviors and increased writing scores for all students compared to the previous two phases. Social validity assessments indicated that the self-monitoring interventions were useful and relevant for teachers and students with EBD in the self-contained setting. Implications for teachers and educational researchers are discussed within this article.
Increased water yield due to the hemlock woolly adelgid infestation in New England
Authors: Kim Jihyun , Hwang Taehee , Schaaf Crystal L. , Orwig David A. , Boose Emery , Munger J. William
Published: March 2017

Over the past few decades, a hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA) infestation has significantly affected eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) in the eastern U.S., and warmer winters are expected to promote a continued northward expansion in the future. Here we report a water yield increase due to the HWA infestation in New England, U.S. Since the first observation in 2002, peak growing season evapotranspiration over a hemlock‐dominated area has decreased by 24–37% in 2012 and 2013. Over the same time period, the water yield from the study catchment significantly increased as compared to an adjacent catchment with less hemlock cover. The net increase was estimated to be as much as 15.6% of annual water yield in 2014 based on an ecohydrological modeling analysis. This study indicates that the ongoing hemlock decline is also largely altering hydrological regimes in the northeastern U.S.
Arctic sea ice decline and continental cold anomalies: Upstream and downstream effects of Greenland blocking
Authors: Chen Xiaodan , Luo Dehai
Published: March 2017

The influence of Greenland blocking on continental cold anomalies in the Northern Hemisphere is examined. It is found that westward moving Greenland blocking (WGB) events in the recent decade are more strongly related to the sea ice decline over the Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, and Labrador Sea (BDL), while the quasi‐stationary Greenland blocking (QGB) events are more strongly related to the negative phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation. The frequency of WGB events is significantly increased owing to reduced mid‐high‐latitude westerly winds in the North Atlantic and its upstream region because of intensified Arctic warming related to the large BDL sea ice decline. It is further revealed that North American low temperatures are more sensitive to the WGB, while European low temperatures are more sensitive to the QGB. For the WGB, an intense cold anomaly is seen over the eastern North America. But for the QGB, strong cold anomalies appear over the North Europe and eastern Asia. Thus, it is concluded that more winter cold air outbreaks should occur over the eastern North America, if large BDL sea ice decline continues in the recent decade.
Radar observations of density gradients, electric fields, and plasma irregularities near polar cap patches in the context of the gradient‐drift instability
Authors: Lamarche Leslie J. , Makarevich Roman A.
Published: March 2017

We present observations of plasma density gradients, electric fields, and small‐scale plasma irregularities near a polar cap patch made by the Super Dual Auroral Radar Network radar at Rankin Inlet (RKN) and the northern face of Resolute Bay Incoherent Scatter Radar (RISR‐N). RKN echo power and occurrence are analyzed in the context of gradient‐drift instability (GDI) theory, with a particular focus on the previously uninvestigated 2‐D dependencies on wave propagation, electric field, and gradient vectors, with the latter two quantities evaluated directly from RISR‐N measurements. It is shown that higher gradient and electric field components along the wave vector generally lead to the higher observed echo occurrence, which is consistent with the expected higher GDI growth rate, but the relationship with echo power is far less straightforward. The RKN echo power increases monotonically as the predicted linear growth rate approaches zero from negative values but does not continue this trend into positive growth rate values, in contrast with GDI predictions. The observed greater consistency of echo occurrence with GDI predictions suggests that GDI operating in the linear regime can control basic plasma structuring, but measured echo strength may be affected by other processes and factors, such as multistep or nonlinear processes or a shear‐driven instability.
On extracting sediment transport information from measurements of luminescence in river sediment
Authors: Gray Harrison J. , Tucker Gregory E. , Mahan Shannon A. , McGuire Chris , Rhodes Edward J.
Published: March 2017

Accurately quantifying sediment transport rates in rivers remains an important goal for geomorphologists, hydraulic engineers, and environmental scientists. However, current techniques for measuring long‐time scale (102–106 years) transport rates are laborious, and formulae to predict transport are notoriously inaccurate. Here we attempt to estimate sediment transport rates by using luminescence, a property of common sedimentary minerals that is used by the geoscience community for geochronology. This method is advantageous because of the ease of measurement on ubiquitous quartz and feldspar sand. We develop a model from first principles by using conservation of energy and sediment mass to explain the downstream pattern of luminescence in river channel sediment. We show that the model can accurately reproduce the luminescence observed in previously published field measurements from two rivers with very different sediment transport styles. The model demonstrates that the downstream pattern of river sand luminescence should show exponential‐like decay in the headwaters which asymptotes to a constant value with further downstream distance. The parameters from the model can then be used to estimate the time‐averaged virtual velocity, characteristic transport lengthscale, storage time scale, and floodplain exchange rate of fine sand‐sized sediment in a fluvial system. The sediment transport values predicted from the luminescence method show a broader range than those reported in the literature, but the results are nonetheless encouraging and suggest that luminescence demonstrates potential as a sediment transport indicator. However, caution is warranted when applying the model as the complex nature of sediment transport can sometimes invalidate underlying simplifications.
Hydrodynamics of steep streams with planar coarse‐grained beds: Turbulence, flow resistance, and implications for sediment transport
Authors: Lamb Michael P. , Brun Fanny , Fuller Brian M.
Published: March 2017

The hydraulics of steep mountain streams differ from lower gradient rivers due to shallow and rough flows, energetic subsurface flow, and macro‐scale form drag from immobile boulders and channel and bed forms. Heightened flow resistance and reduced sediment transport rates in steep streams are commonly attributed to macro‐scale form drag; however, little work has explored steep river hydrodynamics in the absence of complex bed geometries. Here we present theory for the vertical structure of flow velocity in steep streams with planar, rough beds that couples surface and subsurface flow. We test it against flume experiments using a bed of fixed cobbles over a wide range of bed slopes (0.4–30%). Experimental flows have a nearly logarithmic velocity profile far above the bed; flow velocity decreases less than logarithmically toward the bed and is nonzero at the bed surface. Velocity profiles match theory derived using a hybrid eddy viscosity model, in which the mixing length is a function of height above the bed and bed roughness. Subsurface flow velocities are large (>1 m/s) and follow a modified Darcy‐Brinkman‐Forchheimer relation that accounts for channel slope and shear from overlying surface flow. Near‐bed turbulent fluctuations decrease for shallow, rough flows and scale with the depth‐averaged flow velocity rather than bed shear velocity. Flow resistance for rough, planar beds closely matches observations in natural steep streams despite the lack of bed forms or channel forms in the experiments, suggesting that macro‐scale form drag is smaller than commonly assumed in stress‐partitioning models for sediment transport.
Coastal Erosion Processes and Landforms
Authors: Trenhaile Alan S.
Published: March 2017

Most landforms on rocky coasts are the result of erosion, although these coasts often host a variety of sandy to boulder beaches, as well as functioning as an important source of sediment for adjacent coastal areas. The erosional processes and mechanisms, including mechanical wave erosion, weathering, bioerosion, and various types of mass movement, produce landforms such as bays and headlands, sea cliffs, shore platforms, and arches, stacks, and caves. Many types of rock coast develop very slowly and may have been inherited, in part, from previous interglacial stages when sea level was similar to today.
New Cultural Geography
Authors: Clarke David B.
Published: March 2017

The emergence of the “new cultural geography” in the 1980s had an impact spanning the whole discipline, as culture became increasingly central to thinking about the world (and arguably to the world itself). Attempting to resolve the standoff between structure and agency, the new cultural geography explored the cultural dimensions of virtually all aspects of the human world – from national culture and landscape painting to masculine cultures of global finance – encompassing high culture, popular culture, subcultures, and the impress of globalization on indigenous cultures.
Postmodernity
Authors: Clarke David B.
Published: March 2017

*****DUMMY******Postmodernity refers, on the face of it, to a new historical epoch, beyond modernity, in which space and geography supplant time and history as privileged means for understanding the world. Such conceptions have not necessarily stood up to scrutiny and postmodernity is perhaps best understood as modernity shorn of its illusions; as a loss of faith in the idea that the power of reason could resolve the uncertainty and ambivalence of the world, instilling order where disorder once reigned. Amidst the contentions surrounding the idea of postmodernity, the idea that contested and incommensurable (incompatible) truths find and create their own space – as they have done since at least the dawn of modernity – stands out as its lasting legacy. Far from being a stage beyond modernity, postmodernity appears to have been modernity's indispensable
alter ego
from the start; the term's evident decline perhaps tacitly signaling widespread acceptance of the situation it describes.
Science and Technology Parks
Authors: Walcott Susan M.
Published: March 2017

Science and technology parks are a type of industrial district that features clusters of companies, organizations such as business incubators, services, and activities geared to support research and innovation‐intensive economic development. They particularly flourish in developed countries and those capable of supporting an advanced level of university technology transfer. Government involvement crucially underlies their existence, which is now on a global scale.
Cryosphere Studies: History
Authors: Barry Roger G.
Published: March 2017

Scientific study of most components of the cryosphere (all forms of terrestrial snow and ice) began around 1900. The term “cryosphere” was introduced in 1923 by A.B. Dobrowolski, in Poland, but came into wide use only in the 1990s. The advent of remote sensing in the 1970s has played a major role in global mapping and in monitoring components of the cryosphere.
Parallel Computing
Authors: Shekhar Shashi , Cugler Daniel Cintra
Published: March 2017

Parallel computing, a computational technique that deals with the concurrent execution of applications, has been used to provide high performance as well as redundancy in high‐availability systems. In contrast to sequential computing, parallel computing aims to compute several operations simultaneously, in different central processing units (CPUs), speeding up their execution. Parallel computing, when specialized to spatial information, is called a parallel geographic information system (parallel GIS). It includes, for example, parallel spatial databases, geospatial data interoperability, and distributed spatial operations. Since massive volumes of spatial and nonspatial data are routinely created and acquired by current technologies (e.g., satellites, sensors, and social media), parallel computing has become essential; sequential computing cannot process current data volumes in an acceptable time.
L
os
A
ngeles School
Authors: Anderson Matthew B.
Published: March 2017

The Los Angeles School refers to a conceptual approach to understanding contemporary patterns of urbanization based on Los Angeles. Formed by an ensemble of critical geographers, urban planners, and urban historians working in Los Angeles during the 1980s, it argued that cities were developing in new and emergent ways that rendered the centralized, concentric‐ring model of the Chicago School increasingly obsolete. Based on Chicago, the paradigmatic modernist city, the Chicago model was not equipped for making sense of the emerging trends and patterns of development that marked the post‐Fordist, or what some Los Angeles School scholars have called the “postmodern,” metropolis. As has been most explicitly and forcefully argued by Michael Dear, the polycentric, decentralized, and disorderly character of Los Angeles reflected what was unfolding across urban America and beyond, and formed the basis for claiming Los Angeles as the new prototypical city of contemporary urbanization.
Factors of Production
Authors: Hanink Dean M.
Published: March 2017

Goods and services are produced using the factors of production. At a minimum, the factors of production are capital and labor. Land is often considered a separate factor of production, but is also considered to be a form of capital. In addition to those that can be observed, less tangible factors such as technology and entrepreneurship are also sometimes considered to be factors of production. The contribution of individual factors to output can be measured in a production function. The interplay between the varying intensity of factor use among products and the uneven geographical distribution of factors underlies a fundamental theory of trade.
Ecological Footprint
Authors: Collins Andrea
Published: March 2017

The ecological footprint is an aggregated indicator which provides a measure of the global ecological impact of human resource consumption. The measure is based on a strong sustainability position as it considers the ecological limits to resource consumption and economic growth. By comparing the area of land required to support a certain level of consumption with what is currently available, the ecological footprint is considered a valuable approach for assessing whether or not consumption is ecologically sustainable.
Work–Life Balance
Authors: Perrons Diane
Published: March 2017

Work–life balance has been defined as “A situation in which you are able to give the right amount of time and effort to your work and to your personal life outside work, for example to your family or to other interests.” This gender‐neutral definition has displaced earlier conceptualizations such as work and family reconciliation in order to recognize that all workers, and not only parents and carers, have legitimate interests outside of the workplace. Even so, the emphasis in analysis and policy has focused on how people, and especially women, manage the tension between paid work and caring. State provision of care and domestic work is low, leading households to make their own resolutions in gender‐, class‐, and racially differentiated ways resulting in migration of domestic workers via the global care chain, thereby intensifying social and geographical inequality.
Oceanic Circulation
Authors: Bigg Grant R.
Published: March 2017

Oceanic circulation is driven by a complex mixture of surface winds with heat and freshwater fluxes. These lead to variations in density, and hence pressure, across the ocean's three physical dimensions, as well as variations in time. The principal oceanic flows in the upper ocean are circulatory, or gyre, structures in the subtropical and subpolar regions of each ocean basin, with strong and narrow poleward‐flowing boundary currents on the western side of subtropical oceans, and cool equatorward currents on the east. The tropical oceans are characterized by zonal currents, forced largely by strongly varying winds, both seasonally and interannually. In the polar regions, and evaporative basins like the Mediterranean, circulation is driven to first order by the more extreme heat and freshwater fluxes, leading to convection, deep water formation, and the global thermohaline circulation. The latter is closed by geographically concentrated ascending, or upwelling, water and interbasin linkages in the surface circulation.
Geography of Evolution
Authors: Chunco Amanda J.
Published: March 2017

Geography has been central to the study of evolution since Darwin and Wallace established the underpinnings of the discipline in the 1850s. Starting in the early 1900s, an intense focus on the geographic distribution of populations (i.e., allopatry, symaptry, or parapatry) has been a critical component of studies of speciation. Today, advances in both genetic techniques and GIS have revitalized interest in the intersection of evolution and geography, and allowed a rapid advancement in our understanding of the effect of environmental change on the genetics of a population.
Unionism, Community
Authors: Tufts Steven
Published: March 2017

The concept of community unionism dates back to the 1960s. It was adopted by geographers in the 1990s as they began to explore community union coalitions. There are a number of conceptual debates and issues around community unionism.
Transnationalism
Authors: Mitchell Katharyne
Published: March 2017

Transnationalism refers to that which takes place across national borders. It can be used to describe both material ties and symbolic flows and interconnections. As a concept, transnationalism is used most frequently to describe a form of contemporary migration in which migrants form long‐standing social ties and allegiances to more than one national community. Transnationalism also delineates new forms of governance and the development of institutions and social spaces that are organized across borders and which either facilitate or resist cross‐border flows. As a widely used interdisciplinary term, it captures an epistemological shift away from methodological nationalism – the implicit reliance on the nation‐state as the backstop or container of social processes.
Business Improvement Districts
Authors: Ward Kevin
Published: March 2017

Business improvement districts (BIDs) are public–private partnerships in which property and business owners in a defined geographic area elect to make a collective contribution to the maintenance, development, and marketing/promotion of their commercial district. The BID program first emerged in Toronto in the early 1970s, spread to the United States over the course of the decade, and was introduced into the United Kingdom in 2001. Subsequently it has appeared in a host of other countries, including Australia, Germany, Japan, and South Africa. The program centers on a small number of activities, primarily those aiming to improve the physical, promotional, and surveillance infrastructure around commercial areas.
Glacier Modeling
Authors: Farinotti Daniel
Published: March 2017

The term “glacier modeling” is used in a generic sense for describing numerical simulations of glaciers and glacier‐related processes. Glacier modeling activities can be subdivided into four main branches reflecting the interactions between glaciers and other compartments of the Earth system. The degree of sophistication of the various models is heterogeneous and significantly affected by the effort required for observing and measuring the relevant processes.
Toponymy
Authors: Azaryahu Maoz
Published: March 2017

Place names, which help identify and distinguish places from one another, weld together language and territory. With its overwhelmingly linguistic orientation, the traditional approach to the study of place names has been fixated on older names, focusing almost exclusively on taxonomies and etymology. In contradistinction, underlying the critical approach to the study of place names is the insight that place names belong to structures of power and discourses of identity and that place naming is a potentially contested spatial practice.
Geomancy
Authors: Yoon Hong‐key
Published: March 2017

Geomancy, or fengshui (meaning “wind and water” in Chinese), is “the unique and highly systemized ancient Chinese art of selecting auspicious sites and arranging harmonious structures on them by evaluating the surrounding landscape and cosmological directions.” It has played a key role in the site selection and landscape design of cities and rural settlements, temples and monuments, as well as graves and houses in East Asia.
Outsourcing
Authors: Liefner Ingo
Published: March 2017

Outsourcing describes a company's decision to stop carrying out a certain business activity and to buy it instead. It leads to a redistribution of the production of commodities (usually components) and services between firms. The technical and organizational separation can lead to a spatial separation of production as well. Hence, outsourcing is a key underlying process of globalization and leads to the emergence of regional networks of interrelated specialized producers.
Knowledge‐Based Economy
Authors: Liefner Ingo
Published: March 2017

The term “knowledge‐based economy” is used to characterize economies, national or regional, that are primarily driven by the production, distribution and use of knowledge and information. From the perspective of economic growth theory, the knowledge‐based economy denotes the importance of the production factor knowledge in relation to other production factors. The emergence of the knowledge‐based economy has been spurred by a massive increase in research and education in public and private organizations. Furthermore, it is closely linked to the ongoing specialization of many companies in providing only those goods and services that exactly match their core competence.
Cultural Studies
Authors: Cupples Julie , Glynn Kevin
Published: March 2017

Cultural studies is an overtly politicized, interdisciplinary field that studies relationships between cultural practices and systems of power. From its earliest days it has mounted a radical critique of traditional notions and practices of academic disciplinarity. It first emerged in Britain around the work done at the University of Birmingham's Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, which was established in 1964 and produced a highly influential body of scholarship that initially cohered loosely around Marxist, structuralist, semiotic, and ethnographic modes of analysis. Over the years cultural studies has substantially expanded, both theoretically and geographically, eventually becoming a kind of global intellectual movement. Since the 1980s, the field has internationalized rapidly and given rise to numerous regional varieties in Africa, Asia, Australia, Latin America, and the United States. The intellectual debates generated through and around cultural studies have had a profound effect on disciplines across the humanities and social sciences, including geography.
Wicked Problems
Authors: Rayner Steve
Published: March 2017

Wicked problems are the highly complex challenges for planning and social policy that have been identified since the mid‐twentieth century, such as the redevelopment of entire neighborhoods. They have no simple solutions. The term is used to contrast such challenges with the more straightforward problems of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, such as improving public health and basic sanitation, or with more straightforward puzzle‐solving problems in mathematics and science.
Environmental Science and Society
Authors: Forsyth Tim
Published: March 2017

Much discussion about environmental policy claims that environmental research needs to be separated from political influences in order to maintain trust and rigor within research. Various social scientists, however, have proposed that social norms always influence the generation of facts about environmental problems, and that, consequently, there is a need to make the connections of environmental science and society more transparent and open to governance. Research, in particular, has highlighted the social forces that hold authoritative truth claims in place despite the existence of counter‐evidence; the social influences on so‐called natural causes; and the role of social marginalization in shaping vulnerability to risk. Increasingly, analysts focus on how experts and expert organizations generate and legitimize knowledge, and the ways in which expertise can be made more democratic.
Sustainable Cities
Authors: Filion Pierre
Published: March 2017

Sustainability concerns conditions required to assure the durability of human life and society. In an urban context it pertains largely to the relation between cities and their environment. To endure, cities must respect environmental prerequisites for the wellbeing of their residents and their own existence. In this regard, they must avoid damaging their own environment and contributing to broader‐scale degradation of environmental conditions, as in the case of the emission of greenhouse gases. Sustainable approaches to cities can take two forms. The first consists of a design of new cities around sustainable development principles. The environmental rewards of this first approach are, however, limited by the small number of entirely new cities master‐planned according to these principles. The second involves the adoption of far more common measures that are less comprehensive, such as buildings that require less energy, and urban form and transportation policies that reduce car use.
Social Capital
Authors: Tsutsumi Kenji
Published: March 2017

Social capital refers to the mutual trust, social norms, and supportive networks in a society or community. Derived through ideas of reciprocity and mutual benefit, it has a utility for social efficiency. Although the concept has a long history, it has developed especially in the twentieth century and after. Recently, social capital shows several facets to be researched, not only in the real world but also in a virtual one.
Refugees
Authors: Darling Jonathan
Published: March 2017

Refugees are individuals or groups who have been forced to leave their home and have sought refuge across an international boundary. Refugees pose a series of challenges to nation‐states in terms of classification, accommodation, and human rights and critical questions for geographers about how refugees have been managed, governed, and constructed in the nation‐state system. The study of refugees includes examination of the history of refugee recognition and protection processes and highlights the complexities of contemporary migration. A range of attempts to manage and govern refugees and asylum seekers can be identified in different contexts, from refugee resettlement programs to spatial modes of governance such as refugee camps, dispersal processes, offshore detention, and processing and deportation practices. Critically, however, refugees are also political agents, and geographical approaches explore how activism and anti‐deportation campaigns have repositioned refugees as challenging the limits of the nation‐state, alongside examining the everyday sociospatial relations that constitute refugee identities.
Ports
Authors: Hall Peter V.
Published: March 2017

Ports, places where goods and people are transferred between water‐ and land‐based transportation modes, have long been central to human settlement and trade patterns. Ports were a core object of study in the classical and regional traditions in the discipline of geography. However, interest in ports among urban and economic geographers waned following containerization and related globalization processes which disrupted long‐standing relationships between ports, cities, and regions, especially in the developed world. Interest in ports as an object of geographical inquiry is, however, returning as scholars recognize the ongoing importance of goods movement in global supply chains, as well as the distinctive characteristics of ports in different geographical locations.
Streams, Gaining and Losing
Authors: Choi Woonsup
Published: March 2017

Streams exchange water and material with the underlying groundwater zone. Gaining streams are supplied with water from groundwater, and losing streams lose stream water to groundwater. Therefore gaining streams have water flowing year‐round or for extended periods such as wet seasons, whereas losing streams tend to have flow only in response to water‐input events like rainfall and otherwise have no flow. The interaction between stream water and groundwater takes place in the hyporheic zone in which saturated sediments lie beneath the streambed and stream banks.
Points in Polygons
Authors: Liu Yu
Published: March 2017

In geographical information systems, the point‐in‐polygon (PIP) problem determines whether a point in two‐dimensional space is located inside a polygon. PIP is a fundamental geometric searching problem, and many algorithms have been proposed in which the ray‐casting algorithm is widely applied. PIP has a wide range of applications, such as point queries and points‐in‐polygon overlays. The implementation of PIP in structured query language (SQL) statements is contained in Open GIS Consortium specifications. The conventional PIP problem can be extended to deal with the positional uncertainty of both points and polygons.
Weather, Extreme
Authors: Ashley Walker S. , Gensini Vittorio A.
Published: March 2017

The Earth's atmosphere is continually evolving, often spurring violent storms and weather extremes that can negatively affect individuals and communities. While these weather hazards encompass the tails of a climatological statistical distribution, their effects can lead to casualties and considerable socioeconomic distress. No location on Earth is immune from weather extremes, though the climatologies of specific weather hazards are determined by the unique combination of essential earth‐atmospheric ingredients required for their formation and sustenance. Weather hazards and their consequences can be enhanced by human and environmental vulnerabilities of particular regions, sometimes leading to disasters.
Productivity
Authors: Maroto‐Sánchez Andrés
Published: March 2017

Productivity is one of the key variables of long‐term welfare and economic growth in modern economies. Measures of productivity growth are core indicators for economic analysis in disciplines such as economics, economic geography, and regional development studies. However, despite its importance, there is still controversy over what we mean by productivity, and the best way to measure and interpret its evolution. Productivity is commonly defined as a ratio of a volume measure of output to a volume measure of input use. While there is no disagreement on this general notion, there is neither a unique purpose for, nor a single measure of, productivity. The debate about how to measure and to use productivity data is even more acute in relation to the service sector in general and the producer services sector in particular, given the strategic role that these activities play in advanced economies.
Cores and Peripheries
Authors: Lima Marcos Costa
Published: March 2017

The intertwined concepts of center and periphery, denoting the relative positions of given entities in space, are widely used not only in the social sciences, but also in urban design, physics, and the history of science. In the context of the social sciences, the core refers to regions that have consolidated their hegemony in terms of leadership in science and technology and economic power, that is, the highly industrialized countries in Europe and North America and some Asian countries. After the big changes taking place in emerging countries, a question arises: to what extent are the realities subsumed within current dynamics of North–South or center–periphery relations likely to change, along with their interpretation?
Text and Intertextuality
Authors: Smith Jonathan M.
Published: March 2017

Geographers began to use “text,” “textuality,” and “intertextuality” as theoretical terms in the late 1980s, as part of what was then called the new cultural geography. Geographers employed these terms and concepts in the interpretation of a wide range of objects, including scientific and literary documents, geopolitical discourses, maps, and landscapes, one result being a spreading conviction that the meaning of such objects is arbitrary, constructed, and endlessly contestable. Because the theory of which these terms were part represented meaning as unstable, provisional, partial, and vulnerable to deconstruction, these geographic studies were said to be poststructuralist. In its early days, Marxist geographers were among the harshest critics of poststructural geography; however, over the course of the 1990s, the two traditions merged to form critical geography.
Welfare Geography
Authors: Kirby Andrew
Published: March 2017

Welfare geography was a subfield focused on spatial variations in inputs (especially state expenditures) and outcomes (such as educational attainment or health indicators). Visible in the 1970s, the field was eclipsed by social and political events and academic fashions, although echoes exist in concerns for social justice and wealth disparities at the global scale.
Weathering Processes and Landforms
Authors: Thompson Tyler J. , Dorn Ronald I.
Published: March 2017

Rock‐decay processes operating at the nanoscale and micron scale generate spectacular landforms that spike the curiosity of the general public and scholars alike. Tafoni holes in rock faces, meter‐thick slabs of granite from the release of pressure, tors consisting of granitic boulders that pile up as decayed granite sand erodes away, limestone tower remnants left behind as thick carbonate deposits dissolve in the humid tropics, and many other bare‐rock forms exemplify links between landforms and the processes that led to those forms.
Pre‐Quaternary Landforms and Landscapes
Authors: Twidale C.R.
Published: March 2017

The conventional view that, with the exception of exhumed features, landscapes are of later Cenozoic (Quaternary) age is based on flawed assumptions. For example, weathering and erosion are not equally distributed over the land surface. As a result, considerable landscape elements of Paleogene and early Neogene ages survive, as do significant elements of Mesozoic derivation. Cretaceous and Jurassic features are widely reported, and Triassic forms increasingly so. These very old paleoforms have been dated by reference to volcanic, sedimentary, and duricrusted valley fills, and to correlative deposits. Some old surfaces are protected by duricrusts, but others are bedrock etch surfaces. Their conservation calls for either revisions of models of landscape evolution or a reconsideration of the factors responsible for shaping the land surface.
Microclimatology
Authors: Grundstein Andrew
Published: March 2017

Microclimatology is a subfield of climatology with a focus near the ground where most life exists. Microclimatologists are particularly interested in measuring and understanding exchanges of energy, mass, and momentum between the lower atmosphere and components of the land surface, including soils, vegetation, and surface waters. Microclimates are strongly influenced by factors such as topography, land cover variations, and differences in surface characteristics. There are numerous applications for microclimatological information in fields such as ecology, agriculture, forestry, hydrology, zoology, air pollution studies, and urban planning.
Governmentality
Authors: Hannah Matthew G.
Published: March 2017

Governmentality refers to a modern problematic of government, and its associated practices and rationalities, centered on the economic government of social life. It was coined by Michel Foucault in 1978, and has since come to be applied to a wide range of contexts in the critical social sciences. Geographers have employed the term to help understand how spatial relations play a role in social ordering schemes, and how governmental projects in turn shape and invest spatialities of social life.