bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Impact of Gender Disparities in Family Carework on Women’s Life Chances in Chiapas, Mexico
Authors: Bergstrom Cara A. , Heymann S. Jody
Published: October 2019

The entry of large numbers of women with children into the paid labor force was a major demographic shift throughout North America and Europe during the last half of the 20th century. Mexican women have gone through similar changes in employment, though less research has been done to document their experiences. As in North America and Europe, Mexican women and girls are doing more unpaid caregiving and housework than men and boys. The issue of central concern in this article is the impact that gender disparities in family carework have on women’s educational and work opportunities and experiences in Chiapas, Mexico. This article shows that girls’ and women’s unequal share of the unpaid childcare and housework has a substantial impact on their school performance, job choice, wages, and job retention. In 99 in-depth, open-ended interviews with working mothers in Chiapas, Mexico, 18% said that unpaid caregiving in the home affected their own education negatively; while 9% said that unpaid caregiving had a negative impact on their daughters’ education. Thirteen percent of women interviewed reported job loss due to caregiving, while 43% reported income loss. Altogether, unpaid caregiving negatively impacted the school or work lives of 52% of the working mothers we interviewed. Their experiences are detailed in this article and have broad relevance for policy debates around the role of social services, educational and work benefits in improving the lives of men and women in Mexico and other industrializing countries.
The Continuity of Family Agriculture and the Succession System: The Basque Case
Authors: Ramos Guadalupe
Published: October 2019

During the last forty years, the family farms in Basque Country (Spain) have changed by cause of industrial and economic development. The small farmers had to take on deep changes in a few years. These shifts have affected to way of live, to agrarian family structure, to social values of the rural communities, and finally, to the continuity of the family farms. The future of the agriculture and rural world depend on the potential successors of the farms. The children of farmers are the future successors. This article considers an important question, their decision of work or not into the family farm for the reproduction of the family farm. Regularly, the farms are passed from one generation to the next. This practice is the common access to an agrarian occupation, but the equality of inheritance occupies first place on succession rights and the continuity of the family farm. The distribution of the inheritance in equal parts supposes the break up of the family farm in small units that do not guarantee profitability and it supposes economic and family charges for the young farmers. This article is an introduction to the influence of the succession system in the decision of young Basque farmers to continue or not in the family farm.
Family Farm Transactions in Norway: Unpaid Care Across Three Farm Generations
Authors: Melberg Kjersti
Published: October 2019

This paper focuses on practical transitions in three generations of contemporary Norwegian farm couples. With their tightly interconnected relationships, farm families present a unique opportunity for studying bounding and transitions across generations. The main hypotheses of the paper are that different generations of genders within farm couples will exhibit differences in their distribution of caregiving (H1), practical help is still transferred across generations (H2), and that childcare and caregiving of the elderly promotes feelings of ambivalence amongst those involved (H3). Empirical implications are tested against 2002 data from a representative sample of Norwegian farm couples and a qualitative sample of three generational farm families. Analyses indicate that living arrangements with, and relationships amongst, family members across generations are closely bound up with general modernisation processes. The results of the analyses suggest that members of traditional farm families seem to be most sensitively attuned to one another.
Gender Differences in Gender-Role Attitudes: A Comparative Analysis of Taiwan and Coastal China
Authors: Tu Su-Hao , Liao Pei-Shan
Published: October 2019

New reproductive technologies have the potential to radicalize family life, as they could blur kinship lines, separate biological and social parenthood, and encourage couples to create ‘designer babies’. On the other hand, these technologies could help more married couples create socially-acceptable nuclear families and reduce unwanted childless marriages. This article uses the ‘stories’ from qualitative interviews with couples seeking fertility treatments in New Zealand to interrogate motives for treatment, gendered experiences with procedures, and views about the future of marriage without children. The interviews show that, despite the potential of medically assisted conception, these participants use reproductive technologies as a vehicle to normality and social acceptance. The results of this study, combined with overseas research, suggest that medically assisted conception could reinforce pronatalism and patriarchal families rather than lead to a future revolution in family life.
Race and Independent Living among Elderly Brazilians Since 1980
Authors: Devos Susan , Andrade Fla Via
Published: October 2019

This article investigates gender differences in gender-role attitudes in two societies with the same cultural heritage and identifies factors differentiating patterns of women’s and men’s attitudes. The data were collected from two surveys conducted in Taiwan and coastal China during 1996 97, with a total of 2.801 and 2,907 completed interviews, respectively, used in the analysis.

Latent Class Analysis revealed two similar latent forms of gender-role attitudes for both genders in the two societies. Most of the respondents, with more males than females and more coastal Chinese than Taiwanese, were classified as holding “traditional type” attitudes. The gender gap in traditional attitudes was larger in Taiwan than in coastal China.

The factors differentiating women’s patterns of attitudes from men’s found in Taiwan support the perspectives of gendered self-interest and paternal role-model. Urbanization and cohort effects were more significant in coastal China, showing that political ideology and policy implementation in different stages and regions shape gender-role attitudes in different societies. This study supports the importance of incorporating gender analysis into interpretations of societal differences in the ways gender-role attitudes are structured.
Parenting Style and Academic Achievement for East Indian and Canadian Adolescents
Authors: Garg Rashmi , Levin Elizabeth , Urajnik Diana , Kauppi Carol
Published: October 2019

This paper is an attempt to study the current size and structure of family according to different socio-demographic and economic characteristics of the households in India and its states. Data are obtained from the National Family Health Survey conducted in 1998-99 which covered a representative sample from 26 states in the country. Results suggest that the proportion of nuclear family households in 1998-99 increased relatively in both urban (9 per cent) and rural areas (12 per cent) as compared to that in 1981. The mean family household size in India is 5.24 and it varies by the type of family and the demographic development of the state. This paper tests several socio-demographic hypotheses posed in the context of changing family structure and indicates that caste alone does not determine the joint family system. Rather, the jointness in a family depends on the standard of living and the agricultural land owning status of households in the country.
Transmission of Religious Beliefs across Generations: Do Grandparents Matter?
Authors: Copen Casey , Silverstein Merril
Published: October 2019

Despite substantial changes in the family’s structure over the past four decades, parents continue to exert a lasting imprint on the religious ideology and commitments of their children. However, research on the intergenerational transmission of religious beliefs, values and practices to younger generations has not included the ways in which grandparents-particularly grandmothers-influence the religiosity of youth. Drawing on the Longitudinal Study ofGenerations (LSOG), we examined the extent to which grandmothers and parents influence the religious beliefs of adolescent and young adult grandchildren. First, we asked whether grandmothers influence the religious beliefs oftheir grandchildren independently ofthe grandchildren’s parents. Our results indicated that grandmothers and grandchildren resembled one another on a series of statements conveying conservative religious beliefs and attitudes. Second, we examined patterns ofreligious transmission from grandmothers and parents to their children. We found that grandmothers transmitted their religious beliefs to grandchildren more strongly when mothers were more religious. Our third research question asked whether parental divorce weakens religious continuity across generations. We found that divorce adversely affected religious transmission from mothers to their children, but not from fathers and grandmothers. In addressing our fourth research question about the role of gender in religious transmission, we found that religious similarity between grandmothers and granddaughters was particularly strong. In general, our study showed a significant degree ofreligious similarity across three generations in the family, and offers an expanded view of religious socialization by considering grandmothers as active contributors to the religious beliefs of contemporary young-adults.
Intergenerational Assistance and Parental Marital Status in the US and Australia
Authors: Rezac Sandra J.
Published: October 2019

The likelihood of assistance being exchanged between adult offspring (aged 27 to 44) and their parents is examined in the United States and Australia. Of particular concern is the role of parental marital status in exchanges ofassistance. Secondary analysis was conducted using data from the Australian Family Formation Project, Stage 2 (AFFP2) and the USA-based National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH). Questions were asked ofthe offspring, concerning the amount of financial, social/emotional, and instrumental help they give to or receive from their parents.

The findings indicate that divorce has similar roles in intergenerational exchanges in Australia and in the USA, with offspring from divorced families reporting receiving less help from their parents than those from continuously married families. Offspring in both countries generally report exchanging less assistance with widowed fathers than continuously married parents. This highlights the importance ofwomen in keeping ties with the extended family. Australian offspring appear to be more likely than American offspring to give help (particularly instrumental help) to widowed mothers. This greater assistance from offspring, combined with greater support from the government, may indicate that widowed mothers in Australia are receiving greater assistance than similar mothers in the USA. Overall the similarities in these western post-industrial societies seem to outweigh the differences in divorce rates and government programs and result in largely similar patterns of intergenerational helping.
Culture, Gender and the Influence of Social Change amongst Emirati Families in the United Arab Emirates
Authors: Crabtree Sara Ashencaen
Published: October 2019

This paper discusses findings from a small-scale qualitative pilot study exploring the family structure of Emirati families in the United Arab Emirates. Here four Emirati families participating in the study discuss the effects of rapid social change across the generations and the perceived influence of these upon the roles and responsibilities of men and women in contemporary society in relation to child-rearing practices. Parental expectations for adult children in relation to marriage and careers are explored, focusing finally on the attitudes and perceptions towards ageing. Topics were considered in relation to how cultural, religious and social precepts govern and shape gender norms.
Changing Patterns in Men’s First Marriage among the Sereer in Rural Senegal
Authors: Mondain Nathalie , LeGrand Thomas , Sabourin Paul
Published: October 2019

As marriage behaviour is often related to fertility patterns in many African societies, it is essential to identify the components of and the changes affecting nuptiality regimes. Because oftheir key position as decision-makers within the family, men generally control marriage processes. Using qualitative and quantitative data, we investigate in detail men’s first marriage in a rural area in Senegal. We show that young men tend to start their marriage process informally and delay the celebration for economic reasons. Different patterns are identified with their respective implications regarding the start of the couples’ sexual and reproductive life. Today men perceive that the onset ofconjugal life starts earlier but the statistics do not support this finding. We show that these results are not contradictory with each other and are related to the changes in the traditional markers ofmen’s entry into adulthood. Hence, these findings refer to different dimensions of the same process: precise events in time (ceremonies, payments) and more diffuse perceptions ofthe stages in the marriage process that lead to a legitimate union (negotiations).
Parents, Children and the Distance between Them: Long Term Socialization Effects in the Netherlands
Authors: Jaspers Eva , Lubbers Marcel , Vries Jannes de
Published: October 2019

In this paper, we investigate the extent to which parents affect attitudes of their children and to what extent these parental influences vary with family characteristics. We use a Dutch survey with a representative sample and study attitudes toward three issues: euthanasia, homosexuality and the presence of ethnic minorities in the Netherlands . We include information from primary respondents, their parents and their siblings in structural equation models. We find that parents exert a large influence on their adult children’s attitudes, even when we control for structural similarities between parents and adult children. Families that the children perceive as emotionally warm are more successful in influencing children’s attitudes than families that are not supportive. The effects of parents’ attitudes diminish as respondents get older.
Divorce: A Structural Problem not just a Personal Crisis
Authors: Al-Kazi Lubna Ahmed
Published: October 2019

Social Change has transformed societies globally through the spread of education, the evolution of formal labor markets and the new roles individuals now play in the development of their societies. Just as economic institutions have been affected so have social institutions like the family, been transformed. Urbanization has led to the disintegration of the joint family to the independent, small, nuclear family. With residential autonomy and lack of control from the joint family elders, divorce rates have been rising universally. This paper studies the trend of Divorce in Kuwaiti Society.

Kuwait is an oil rich Gulf state where rapid economic development has been witnessed for over four decades. Urbanization and the Governments’ Welfare policies have helped young married couples to move to new areas and establish their homes. While social allowances for wife, children, etc were intended to help the Kuwaiti family, cope with the rising cost of living, divorce rates did not decline. Through Vital Statistics, data from the court of Justice and past research, the paper tries to examine the characteristics of those getting divorced. What factors have had an effect on this trend - education, age at marriage, women’s labor force participation? How has the State attempted to help divorced women to readjust?

Modernization has led to contradictions and challenges - weakening of the family support systems, legal reforms and a new awareness of rights and duties among the two sexes. How can these changes shed light on the problem of divorce? This study attempts to explain why divorce is a problem in Kuwait and some possible solutions to reduce the negative impact of divorce on future generations.
Reciprocity Revisited: Give and Take in Dutch and Immigrant Families
Authors: Komter Aafke , Schans Djamila
Published: October 2019

Classical theory suggests that “generalized reciprocity,” giving without clear expectations of returns, is characteristic for exchange within the family. Modern theory assumes differences between Western, “individualistic” cultures, and non-Western, more “collectivistic” cultures, presumably leading to ethnic variation in the nature of reciprocity within the family. These assumptions are examined by using data from the Netherlands Kinship Panel Study (NKPS; 2004). Patterns of reciprocity in intergenerational support exchange among three ethnic groups, “Mediterraneans,” “Caribbeans,” and native Dutch, (N= 3,520) are analyzed. Four varieties of reciprocity are distinguished: high exchangers (giving and receiving much), receivers (giving little, receiving much), givers (giving much, receiving little), and low exchangers (giving and receiving little). “Generalized reciprocity” proved not to be the prototype of support exchange; in fact, low exchange was the most common pattern. The similarities in reciprocity patterns between the three ethnic groups were greater than the differences; the Dutch were more often low exchangers than the other ethnic groups but after introducing the other independent variables this difference was no longer significant. Patterns of reciprocity were found to be affected by a combination of socio-structural, cultural and relational factors.
HIV and AIDS: Are All Women Equally at Risk? Afrikaans Speaking Married Women’s Perceptions of Self-Risk
Authors: Smit Ria
Published: October 2019

The ever-growing concern about AIDS worldwide has increased the importance of understanding the disproportionate way in which the epidemic affects the lives of women. A cause for concern is the findings of a number of studies which indicate that the level of HIV infection among married women in sub-Saharan Africa has increased dramatically in comparison to the infection rate of those who are single. This article focuses on findings from a qualitative study done in South Africa during 2005/2006, which aimed to shed light on the perceptions and experiences of Afrikaans-speaking married women with regard to living in a society characterized by a high HIV prevalence rate. The main focus of the study fell on the women’s perceptions of self-risk of becoming HIV infected. It was found that, although the respondents in the study saw themselves to be at some risk of contracting the virus through unforeseen circumstances, such as receiving contaminated blood through blood transfusions, they viewed themselves as having no susceptibility to HIV within the context of their marital relationships. The rationale for having this view is the fact that they consider their marriages to be characterized by trust and fidelity, and therefore free from any form of unsafe sexual practices.
A Comparison of Family Networks and Friend Networks In Health Care Utilization
Authors: Salloway Jeffrey Colman , Dillon Patrick B.
Published: October 2019

The authors posit a model of health care utilization based upon a social network model. The independent variables in predicting delays in health care utilization are size of friend network, size of family network, amount of interaction with each network, and amount of role support available from the network. Hypotheses are tested using data collected in an interview study of 191 households in a Boston suburb. Correlational techniques are used for analysis. A negative relationship is found between the size of friend network and delays in health care utilization. While the size of family networks is not found to be related to utilization, the amount of role support available from the family is found to be related Jo delays in obtaining health services. It is suggested that friend networks may have more recent information about available health care facilities while family networks operate as role support systems.
Women, Marriage, and Illness: Consumptives in Salem, Massachusetts, 1785-1819
Authors: Farber Bernard
Published: October 2019

Modern studies which show that unmarried women are more prone than married women to contract tuberculosis may be misleading because of the confounding influence of socioeconomic factors on (a) marital status, (b) prevalence of illness, (c) medical delivery systems, and (d) official records. To avoid contaminating effects, this paper uses parish death lists and family records in Salem, Massachusetts in 1785-1819. The findings indicate not only that, to a greater extent than men, adult women remained in the community into which they were born, but also that, as compared with women of similar ages dying of other causes, consumptive women (a) generally married at slightly older ages, (b) tended more often to be widowed, single, or separated, and (c) had fewer children, with the deficit among widows especially large. Diaries, letters, and contemporary comment suggest that “stress and strain” was important in the propensity to assign consumption as cause of death for unmarried women. Abandoned and abused wives, grief-stricken and over-burdened widows, and delicate young maidens were considered particularly susceptible. The Salemites saw death by consumption as a form of ritual purification, a possible sign of grace, for these languishing women deprived of hope to fulfill ideal family roles. Implications of the findings for the increasing tendency of women today to lead unmarried lives are discussed.
The Family Member’s Decision to be a Kidney Transplant Donor
Authors: Simmons Roberta G. , Klein Susan D. , Thornton Kenneth
Published: October 2019

Kidney transplantation as a medical innovation involves the entire extended family in a major decision. Will a relative donate a kidney to help save the life of a dying patient? It is the aim of this study to use the transplant experience as a research site to enhance our knowledge of how individuals in a family attempt to make a major and highly stressful decision. Over a 1½ year period 124 families were followed through the transplant experience with questionnaires and repeated qualitative interviews. The results indicate that only a minority of related donors and non-donors (non-volunteers) perceived themselves as going through a rational decision-making process involving deliberation and conscious choice. Instead the majority seemed to follow one of two patterns compatible with Schwartz’s “moral-decision-making” model. First, the vast majority of donors, and a substantial minority of nondonors appeared to make an instantaneous choice and commitment with deliberation. Secondly, other subjects postponed donation without a conscious choice being made. A few donors of this type became “locked into” donation by taking a few first steps in the testing procedure; while a substantial minority of non-donors drifted into non-donation without arriving at a clear-cut decision.
Perspectives on Elder Abuse in Korea
Authors: Jang Mikyung
Published: October 2019

Although social interest in elder maltreatment is increasing in Korea, the actual prevalence of elder abuse is hard to determine, and it is not even clear how “elder abuse” is generally defined. In particular, little is known about how aging adults are treated at home or in facilities or to what extent and under what circumstances their treatment might be considered abusive. In this study, a convenience sample of 102 Korean undergraduate students completed an open-ended qualitative survey asking them to provide examples, in their own words, of extreme, moderate, and mild abuse in family relationships. When giving examples of extreme elder abuse, these students emphasized neglect and physical maltreatment, followed by imprisonment and verbal abuse. When giving examples of moderate and mild elder abuse, respondents most frequently mentioned various forms of neglect and psychological abuse. Neglect, physical abuse, imprisonment, and sending the elderly to an institution were reported significantly more often as examples of extreme abuse than of moderate or mild abuse. In addition, Korean women tended to focus more on neglect than Korean men when giving examples of extreme elder abuse, whereas Korean men focused more on neglect than Korean women when giving examples of mild abuse.
The Role of Relational Communication Characteristics and Filial Piety in Mate Preferences: Cross-cultural Comparisons of Chinese and US College Students
Authors: Kline Susan L. , Zhang Shuangyue
Published: October 2019

Previous cross-cultural mate preference studies have employed researcher-generated lists of traits constructed from Western samples. Yet people from different cultures may prefer traits that do not appear on the lists. Unexamined, too, is the importance of relational communication characteristics and filial piety in partner preferences. To examine similarities and differences in mate preferences, two studies were conducted with 277 college students from China and the United States. In Study I, responses from an open-ended question indicated that both groups listed honesty, physical attractiveness, ambitious and considerateness as preferred traits. Chinese students listed filial piety as one of their three most preferred traits in a partner. Study 2 explored the relative importance of students' preferred traits. As hypothesized, Chinese students valued social status and filial piety more highly than US students. Both groups preferred the relational communication traits of steadfast support and authentic ity over social status and physical attractiveness
How Long Is the Second (Plus First) Shift? Gender Differences in Paid, Unpaid, and Total Work Time in Australia and the United States
Authors: Sayer Liana C. , England Paula , Bittman Michael , Bianchi Suzanne M.
Published: October 2019

We use recent time diary data for the U.S. and Australia to examine the gender gap in total work time (unpaid work plus paid work). We focus on whether the gender gap in total work time varies by couples’ employment and parental status. We use two alternative measures of unpaid work, which differ in whether unpaid work includes work reported as a secondary activity. Contrasting sharply with the image painted by Hochschild (1989), when we combine all types of families, we find little gender gap in total work hours (paid plus unpaid), whether or not secondary activities are included. However, the gender gap varies dramatically by family type. When couples have preschool-age children and both men and women are employed full-time, women’s total work is 4 to 5 hours more per week than men’s in the U.S. and 3 to 7 hours more in Australia (with the larger gap obtained when time in secondary activities is included). Women’s excess total work is even higher in unconventional families where men are not employed full-time. On the other hand, where women are not employed and men are, men work substantially more total (paid plus unpaid) hours than women.
“The Policeman and the Part-Time Sales Assistant”: Household Labour Supply, Family Time and Subjective Time Pressure in Australia 1997-2006
Authors: Craig Lyn , Mullan Killian
Published: October 2019

This paper explores associations between social and policy context and how parents of young children allocate time to work and family, using data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Time Use Survey (TUS) 1997 and 2006. Over the period, Australia’s economy was growing and unemployment was low. Political rhetoric supported ‘traditional’ family values, family tax policy favoured single income or ‘modified male-breadwinner’ households, and part time work was the most common ‘family-friendly’ workplace measure. Against this background, we investigate the market labour supply and intra-household time use of mothers and fathers in couple-headed households with at least one child aged 0 – 4 years (N=747 in 1997 and 626 in 2006). We identify associations between household labour supply and total (paid and unpaid) work, the way paid work, domestic labour and childcare is divided between mothers and fathers, and their subjective feelings of time pressure, at each time point. We find that by 2006, there was lower average maternal market work and a higher proportion of families with young children conformed to the one-and-a-half earner family form than in 1997. In the main there was increased total household work, increased gender specialisation in paid work and caring labour, and much higher subjective time pressure, especially for fathers and the relatively few mothers who were employed full time.
Repartnering in the United Kingdom and Australia
Authors: Skew Alexandra , Evans Ann , Gray Edith
Published: October 2019

As a result of a rise in divorce rates coupled with an increased prevalence of cohabitation, a growing percentage of the population has experienced or will experience the breakdown of a relationship and also the possibility of forming another new relationship. This paper explores the impact of previous relationship and fertility histories on repartnering. Using a longitudinal approach we compare the nature of repartnering behaviour in the United Kingdom and Australia, countries with similar policy and legislative frameworks. Using prospective panels surveys (British Household Panel Survey and the Household, Income and Labour Dynamic in Australia), we find that within five years of becoming single, an estimated 49 per cent of the United Kingdom sample and 43 per cent of the Australian sample had entered a new relationship, most commonly cohabitation. Event history analysis reveals strong repartnering patterns by age, and residency of children. The effect of previous relationship type suggests that people who have previously cohabited are more likely to repartner that those who did not.
Modified Maternalism: Nurses and Their Families Managing Work and Care in Australia
Authors: Lindsay Jo , Maher JaneMaree , Bardoel Anne
Published: October 2019

Work life, family life and care are all being substantially re-shaped in Australia as in other post-industrial societies. Concern about work/life balance has increased as domestic gender relations slowly change, the breadwinner/homemaker model becomes less dominant and families undertake more demanding and flexible modes of employment and care. Using data from a qualitative study of nurses and their families this paper explores how families are managing the contemporary intersection of flexible family life and flexible labour. Family values emerged as an important mediating factor in the organisation of work and care. The couples valued parental care and time with children and used shift work to enable family life. We argue that just as the breadwinner model is being modified in Australia so too is the maternalist culture of care. In most of the families in the study the women are important but secondary breadwinners and the men are important but secondary carers.
Family and Socialization Processes: Parental Perception and Evaluation of Their Children’s Household Labor
Authors: Peña J. Vicente , Menéndez Carmen Rodríguez , Torío Susana
Published: October 2019

This paper presents the results of a research project developed to analyze and diagnose family co-responsibility in Spain. The basic goal of the research was to broaden our knowledge about how families negotiate the division of household labour and also to understand how the processes involved in such negotiation hinder or facilitate changes in gender roles. In this paper, we report our analysis and conclusions in relation to the implicit model implemented by parents in the socialization of shared family responsibility. The data used for the analysis were taken from a set of semi-structured interviews carried out in a focus group context with Spanish parents. The analysis shows how the traditional, idealized model of co-responsibility has been substituted by a more individualistic one. However, this new model appears to give rise to some problems and conflicts.
A Half Century of Fertility Change
Authors: Morgan S. Philip , Rackin Heather
Published: October 2019

Fertility change has been one of the most important foci of social science over the past half-century. The body of knowledge accumulated is impressive and can account for both the decline of fertility from high to low levels (the fertility transition) and variation in fertility at both high and low levels. Explanation has been both at the level of proximate determinants and more distal causes. We review the empirical evidence on fertility change and offer integrative, conceptual observations.
The Two Faces of Policy: Divorce Reform in Western Democracies
Authors: Stetson Dorothy M.
Published: October 2019

The purpose of this study is to characterize the recent reforms in divorce laws in a number of Western democratic countries, including, the United States Canada Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand, and Italy. Various types of policy are discussed with emphasis on the extent to which they are effective in achieving stated goals of family stability.

The pattern of government involvement in divorce is reviewed and alternative policies for reform are described. The comparison of the statutes that have recently been revised indicates that although governments formally seek to maintain standards of marital stability, none provides effective means for state action to assist in achieving the goal. Although reforms have different provisions of procedures (no fault, breakdown, expanded fault grounds), the effect is the same: a couple who desires a divorce can obtain one, and the government has no power to prevent the breakup.

Several reasons for the gap between public goals and private action in the area of divorce are discussed as they pertain to the various countries studied: (1) influence of raligious pressure groups; (2) lack of adequate knowledge of family patterns among legislators ; (3) weak mobilization of interests in support of adequate government regulation or services to maintain family stability.

The conclusion of the paper relates the findings about divorce reform to the larger matter of policy capabilities. The situation with regard to divorce reform is an example of the gap between real policy output (divorce by consent) and symbolic pol icy output (marital stability). The findings represent an interesting reversal of the Edelman thesis that real policy output benefits organized interests while the people receive mostly symbolic output. In the case of divorce policy, the symbolic output satisfies interest groups, especially religious groups, and the real output answers needs of married couples for access to divorce.
The Nuclear and the Extended Family: An Area of Conceptual Confusion
Authors: Yorburg Betty
Published: October 2019

An attempt is made to establish a typology of families that would encompass all family units in major types of societies- non literate hunting and gathering and horticultural societies, agricultural societies, industrializing societies and highly industrialised societies. The problem of definition of family types is viewed as arising largely from a failure to define the concepts nuclear and extended according to essential rather than accidental criteria. Essential features are degree of economic interdependence between members of the wider kin network (common ownership of economic resources, occupational cooperation, exchange of goods and services), degree to which psychological interdependence (socialization, emotional support, protection) is confined to related kin units, degree of arbitrary intergenerational authority between related nuclear families or segments of these families, and degree of contact between these units. Common household residence is not regarded as essential to the definition of nuclear or extended family units. The degree of economic interdependence is viewed as the major factor underlying the tendency for the other variables to cluster together. Four modal types of families are then defined on the basis of the above classificatory principles. These four types are : extended, modified extended, modified nuclear, and nuclear, The definition of these concepts differs in certain ways from current usage. This particular model appears to offer a possible solution to some of the difficulties now prevalent in classifying family types, in determining their relative frequency in major kinds of societies, and in clarifying the relationship between technological development and family forms.
Farm, Household And Family in Fiji Indian Rural Society
Authors: Jayawardena Chandra
Published: October 2019

Despite extensive cultural changes among the descendants of Indian immigrants in Fiji, the extended family persists in rural society. This persistence results not so much from the retention of tradition as from the exigencies of operating cane farms in the economy of Fiji. These exigencies emphasise the role of the farm household as the focal unit in the structuring of family and kin relations.
Multidimensionality of Conjugal Decision Making Indices: Comparative Analyses of Five Samples
Authors: Cromwell Ronald E. , Wieting Stephen G.
Published: October 2019

Rapid expansion of research dealing with outcome of conjugal decision making has heightened the need for evaluation of indices employed. The purpose of this article is to provide an empirical test of the general hypothesis that additive indices of conjugal decision making yield a unidimensional measure. Analyses of data from five previous studies reveal little inter-item relationship within samples or within subsamples of husbands and wives, and factor analysis of correlation matrices yields widely disparate solutions with from two to four dimensions within each sample and subsample. Beyond evidence of inconsistent and complex factor structures, there remains considerable unexplained variation in the respective solutions even when three or four factors are extracted.; While coefficients of individual item reproducibility are reportedly high for scales of this type, the advisability of summing individual item weights to form a composite mean score for analysis and interpretation is not warranted. Each analysis provides a multidimensional conclusion.; The goal of replication, characteristic of extensions of the Blood and Wolfe approach, is compromised by questionable theoretical and methodological assumptions. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Some Aspirations of Lower Class Black Mothers
Authors: Jackson Roberta H.
Published: October 2019

In the past, maternal aspirations for offspring of lower class black mothers have been subjected to various myths or allegations. This study attempts to contribute to our understanding of the attitudes of indigent black mothers toward the future success of their children.

Data on family size, education, income and aspirations for offspring were collected from 441 ghetto dwelling black mothers. Analyses of findings revealed that the 3 independent variables: family size, education and income, had a significant influence upon the aspirations of the lower class black female parents.

The weight of available evidence suggests that: (1) the majority of indigent black mothers have positive aspirations for their Children; (2) those mothers who lived in families of above average size and those who had attained 9 or more years of formal training thought more positively about the future success of their children than other indigent black mothers; (3) the percentage of positive maternal aspirations f or children increases as levels of income and education become higher in the homes of lower class black mothers; and (4) female parents in low socioeconomic black families have become increasingly aware of the necessity of encouraging their children, regardless of sex; to obtain an education.
Youth Empowerment Program In Nigeria: A Strategy For Poverty Alleviation And National Development
Authors: WAZIRI MUSA , Idris Abu
Published: October 2019

Development is a process of attaining sustainable growth and the system's ability to cope with periodic changes in the realization of political, economic and social development through policies and programs. Successful governments in Nigeria have introduced several programs to alleviate poverty and attain national development. This paper is positioned on the qualitative method of social science research using secondary sources of data to examine the impact of the Youth Empowerment Program (YEP) on poverty reduction and national development. The study reveals that Low GDP growth, economic recession, and low investment are direct causes in the shrinking demand for job opportunities for the teeming unemployed youth and above all a mirror image of the state of an economy. It, therefore, explains that YEP has not alleviated poverty among the target beneficiaries and has insignificantly contributed to national development. The paper attributed poor performance of YEP to the high rate of unemployment in the country and therefore recommends for empowering the youth by exposing them into different vocational skills may help them to engage into sustainable-income and self-empowerment for national development which will lead to sustained poverty alleviation.
Capture-Recapture Sampling Techniques: Artificial and Real Population Data Analysis
Authors: Bukhari Neelam , Bukhari Sadia , Shehzad Muhammad Ahmed
Published: October 2019

Capture-Recapture sampling methods are being used to estimate the population size of an unknown population. These methods are widely used for determining the population size of animals and birds. Literature shows that these methods were purely used by ecologist in the past. But now-a-days, these methods are also used to determine the chronic diseases, for example, cancer patients, HIV Aid patients, etc. Not only this, many studies had conducted to determine the road accidents ratios on different points. This study covered two examples; one was the total number of female drivers at Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan and the second example was about the total number of male smokers at Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan. On these two examples, the basic capture-recapture sampling methods were used which involved Lincoln Peterson Index, Chapman Estimate and Schnable Estimate. Then an artificial data with known population was created and same methods were used for analysis. In the end, the results of artificial data and two examples were compared with each other through analysis on excel sheet.
PEMANFAATAN LIMBAH SABUT KELAPA ( Cocos nucifera L) DAN SERAT TANDAN KOSONG KELAPA SAWIT (Elais guineensis JACQ) SEBAGAI KOMBINASI BAHAN BAKU PEMBUATAN PAPAN PARTIKEL
Authors: Maulana Adam , Udiantoro Udiantoro , Agustina Lya
Published: October 2019

The utilization of coconut fiber that has not been optimal is one of the opportunities so that the waste has added value, one of which is to process it into particle board.  Objective research is to best composition particle board making from coconut coir waste material and TKKS to produce qualified particle board. The method used was a complete randomized design (RAL) with 3 treatment, single factor treatment ie the composition of raw materials in the form of coconut husk and TKKS. Comparison of the particle-making composition of particle board P0: 100% coco fiber: 0% of oil palm empty bunch fibers, P1: 75% : 25%, P2: 50% : 50%, P3: 25% : 75%, P4: 0% : 100%. Best results the combination of raw material composition of particle board is in the treatment of P0 (100% coco fiber: 0% of oil palm empty bunch fiber) with a density value of 0.43 g / cm³, moisture content 7.0%, Modulus of Elasticity - MoE 2.037.45 kg / cm2 and the Modulus of Rupture - MoR 46.14 kg / cm².
USAHATANI PEPAYA CALIFORNIA: ANALISIS KELAYAKAN FINANASIAL SUATU STUDI KASUS DI DESA BENDANG RAYA KECAMATAN TENGGARONG KABUPATEN KUTAI KERTANEGARA
Authors: Dwijatenaya Ida Bagus Made Agung , Nugroho Agung Enggal , Iskandar Ahmad
Published: October 2019

The aims of this experiment was to determine the effect of the application of Agrib Compost liquid organic fertilizer to the growth of bud grafting seedling of Lai (Durio kutejensis HASSK. BECC) var. Mahakam. The experiment used a Randominzed Block Design (RCBD) with Agrib Compost liquid organic fertilizer treatment (P) 8 level and  3 tests made up of  p0 = without treatment (control), p1 = (2 ml L-1 water), p2 = (4 ml L-1 water), p3 = (6 ml L-1 water), p4 = (8 ml L-1 water), p5 = (10 ml L-1 water), p6 = (12 ml L-1 water), p7 = (14 ml L-1 water). The result of the experiment indicated that the treatment of Agrib Compost liquid organic fertilizer, it had a very significant effect to the age of broken buds but had no significant effect to the length of bud  parameters, the number of leaves  and the diameter of the stem. The treatment of Agrib Compost liquid organic fertilizer 14 ml L-1 water, providing better growth in  age parameters  of broken buds, bud length, and the number of leaves.
The impacts of introduced species on lake ecosystems: A case of Lakes Victoria and Naivasha, Kenya.
Authors: Outa Nicholas , Mungai Dan , Keyombe James Last A.
Published: October 2019

Fish and other aquatic organisms have been introduced into new environments for various reasons. Provision of sports fishery, supplemental to stocks, to fill empty niches, control weeds, and disease vectors and even create a commercial fishery are some of the reasons why fish species are introduced into new ecosystems. Lake Victoria and Lake Naivasha in Kenya have seen several introductions as discussed in this paper. In Lake Victoria for example, some of the species introduced include Nile perch, Lates niloticus, Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, Tilapia zilii, and Oreochromis esclentus among others. The most successful introductions have been that of the Nile perch, Nile tilapia and water hyacinth. Lake Naivasha too has witnessed a number of introductions into its fisheries too. Some of the successful introductions into the lake are those of the Common carp, Cyprinus carpio, the largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, the Nile tilapia, O. niloticus and Louisiana red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkia. Aside from the fish species mentioned, some invasive plant species have also been introduced into these two lake ecosystems. Of notable success and impacts have been the water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes and Nile cabbage, Pistia stratiotes. These introductions have had both negative and positive impacts on the fisheries and the ecology of the two lakes. Some of the impacts have been predation on the native species by the introduced species like in the case of Nile perch and largemouth bass in Lake Victoria and Naivasha respectively. Competition for resources and hybridization with the native species has also been witnessed in the case of the tilapiines in the two lakes with undesirable results. Blockage of navigation routes caused by the invasive plants has been a major problem in the two lakes sometimes leading to massive postharvest losses by the fishermen. On the other hand, some introduced species have led to an increase in fish landings as well as utilization of the niches that were initially vacant within these ecosystems. It can therefore be concluded that introduced species often have more negative effects on the native species and therefore such introductions should be based on sound scientific research in order to minimize their effects within the new environments.