bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Parent-Child Interaction in a Letter-Writing Context
Authors: Burns M. Susan , Casbergue Renee
Published: December 2009

This study investigated the interactions between 26 parents and their 3- to 5-year-old children as they collaborated to write a letter to someone during a 10-minute videotaped session. Observations of these sessions were coded using categories designed to indicate: (a) the manner of the exchange of information, (b) the types of information that parents and children exchanged during the writing, and (c) the nature of the children's written input into the resulting letter product. Regression analyses were used to examine how the parents' level of control was associated with: (a) the nature of the children's communicative input into the literacy exchange, (b) the type of information about writing upon which the interchange was focused, and (c) the nature of each child's written input into their letter product. Parents exhibiting higher levels of control tended to have children who exhibited higher levels of response and recognition that they heard the parents, had exchanges that focused on spelling, and had written products that were conventional in nature. Parents demonstrating lower levels of control tended to have children who exhibited higher levels of initiations and verbal input, had exchanges focused on the content of the letter, and had written products that were emergent in nature. These results are discussed in terms of the parents' perception of the experimental task and the amount of instructional support needed to complete the task.
A Crack in Time: A Student Traversing Paradigms
Authors: Collins Norma Decker , Collins James R.
Published: December 2009

This article describes the first author's graduate work and dissertation which fell in a crack in time, that period where her institution moved from nearly an exclusive use of quantitative approaches to an awareness and acceptance of both qualitative and quantitative strategies. To be a student during the transition was to be in a very confusing situation. Yet, such a crack in time is probably not at all unusual, in fact it may be universal. Presented as a confessional tale (Van Maanen, 1988), the narrative centers on the student's research autobiography which includes reflections on her development as a researcher prior to graduate school, during her graduate program, and through her dissertation study. The curriculum and experiences that introduced the first author to research were not balanced in the presentation of alternative paradigms for inquiry. The article concludes with implications for graduate students and faculty, especially those who may be in a similar crack and want to speed the crossing.
Transfer of College Developmental Reading Students' Textmarking Strategies
Authors: Frazier Deidra W.
Published: December 2009

In this study transfer of textmarking strategy use was examined. Four college developmental reading students were asked to use textmarking strategies in their introductory biology course, but not in any other content course in which they were concurrently enrolled. However, at the semester's end, participants produced any textbooks in which they had marked for analysis of spontaneous textmarking. Results revealed that: (a) participants exhibited strong resistance to annotation, had difficulty distinguishing important from trivial information, and organizing and paraphrasing information; (b) participants cited existing knowledge of content material and test expectations as major reasons for textmarking adjustment; (c) participants' statements of textmarking utility were generally consistent with strategy use; and (d) participants gave similar reasons for lack of textmarking transfer. Implications for developmental reading programs based on a strategic learning approach are indicated. Findings support strategy training through direct explanation, including training in specific strategy components and text structure awareness, and integrated strategy instruction in which study strategies instructors are paired with content area specialists.
Text Reading and Rereading: Determinants of Fluency beyond Word Recognition
Authors: Bowers Patricia Greig
Published: December 2009

Factors related to the slower reading of text by reading disabled compared to average readers were studied. Thirty-seven children selected as poor and average readers in Grade 2 were followed through Grade 4; each year they reread text passages at a level of difficulty appropriate for each child. Phonological awareness (phoneme deletion) and digit-naming speed were consistently related to speed and errors on initial reading of a text and on reading it for the fourth time. After controlling for word-recognition skill, only digit-naming speed contributed significant additional variance to reading speed before and especially after practice, even over more than a 2-year period. Such independent relationship to fluency suggests that current theories stressing the role of phonemic sensitivity in fluent as well as accurate reading need to be modifed to include the role of processes indexed by simple symbol-naming speed.
Components of Reading Skill in Postkindergarten Precocious Readers and Level-Matched Second Graders
Authors: Jackson Nancy Ewald , Donaldson Gary W. , Mills Joseph R.
Published: December 2009

Precocious readers are children who have made exceptionally rapid progress in beginning literacy. This study of precocious readers was designed to describe their skills in two ways: (a) by identifying any special strengths or weaknesses in precocious readers' component skills, relative to the skills of older but less rapidly developing readers, and (b) by identifying the extent to which individual differences in the skill patterns of precocious readers are multidimensional. The cognitive, word-reading, and text-reading skills of 116 postkindergarten precocious readers were compared with those of 123 second graders, mostly above-average readers, who were matched with the precocious readers on reading comprehension level. The two groups were compared using multiple-indicator modeling techniques. The same factor pattern accounted for the performance of both groups on a set of 29 measures. Therefore, comparisons of factor mean levels and factor covariances were interpretable. No meaningful weaknesses were identified in the average skill pattern of postkindergarten precocious readers. Their strengths tended to mirror weaknesses often identified among disabled readers. Precocious readers are especially rapid text readers, and they also are accurate identifiers of individual words, able to draw on strong phonological analysis skills as well as orthographic processes. However, covariances between orthographic and phonological word identification and between oral text-reading accuracy and effectiveness were lower for precocious than for second-grade readers, suggesting a diversity of skill patterns among highly able beginning readers.
Story Map Instruction Using Children's Literature: Effects on First Graders' Comprehension of Central Narrative Elements
Authors: Baumann James F. , Bergeron Bette S.
Published: December 2009

This study investigated the effectiveness of instruction in story mapping as a means to promote first-grade students' comprehension of central story elements in children's literature. Participants were 74 children in four first-grade classrooms, which were randomly assigned to one of four groups: (a) a Story Mapping 1 (SM1) group, in which students were taught to construct story maps for unadapted, unabridged children's stories they had read; (b) a Story Mapping 2 (SM2) group, which involved the same instruction as SM1 but included using story maps to compose stories; (c) a Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DRTA) comparison strategy group, in which students read the same stories according to a predict-verify procedure; or (d) a directed reading activity (DRA) instructed control group, in which students engaged in a noninteractive, guided reading of stories. Quantitative analyses were conducted on five whole-sample dependent measures: an important idea test on a parsed story, a wh-question test of central story elements, a summary selection task, an important story element recognition test, and a delayed wh-question test. Results revealed that (a) some form of active comprehension instruction (SM1, SM2, or DRTA) was superior to the control-group DRA on most measures, (b) story mapping (SM1 and SM2) students consistently outperformed DRA controls, (c) story mapping was superior to DRTA on some measures but not on others, and (d) SM1 and SM2 groups did not differ on any measure. Qualitative data from student interviews generally supported these findings. It was concluded that instruction in story mapping is an effective instructional strategy for promoting first-grade students' ability to identify central narrative elements in authentic children's literature.
The Effect of Reader Purpose on Interest and Recall
Authors: Schraw Gregory , Dennison Rayne Sperling
Published: December 2009

Three experiments tested the hypothesis that different assigned purposes for reading led to changes in the interestingness and recall of text material. Readers in each of the experiments were asked to read a neutral story from one of three assigned perspectives. Experiment 1 found that the interestingness of text segments varied as a function of perspective. Perspective-relevant segments were rated as more interesting and recalled better. Experiment 2 replicated this effect controlling for ratings of interestingness for each segment. Experiment 3 replicated this finding even when a perspective was assigned after reading. We concluded that reading for a particular purpose enhances the interestingness of text information even when that information is not intrinsically interesting. Educational implications were discussed.
Contrasting Instructional and Structural Importance: The Seductive Effect of Teacher Questions
Authors: Alexander Patricia A. , Jetton Tamara L. , Kulikowich Jonna M. , Woehler Carol A.
Published: December 2009

Two studies were conducted to investigate the nature of teacher questioning and its relationship to what learners consider important to remember when processing exposition. Specifically, we wanted to determine if teachers who are asked to write questions over an expository passage focus those questions on segments of text that have been determined to be of high, medium, or low structural importance. Further, we wanted to compare the questions that teachers ask with those that their students predict they would ask in order to assess students' strategic ability to determine what information is instructionally important. The results of the initial study demonstrated that neither teachers nor their students are highly influenced by structural importance when writing questions. The results generally supported the hypothesis that students are cognizant of what teachers value in text (i.e., instructional importance) and seem guided by this understanding when processing exposition. In Study II, we examined the questioning patterns of three physical science teachers as they developed quizzes and led discussions over a segment in their course textbooks. Results again demonstrated that students are relatively aware of the information that their teachers will test and that this information is not necessarily structurally important. Other similarities and differences between teacher and student questions are discussed and implications for research and practice presented.
So What's New in the New Basals? a Focus on First Grade
Authors: Hoffman James V. , McCarthey Sarah J. , Abbott Judy , Christian Cheryl , Corman Laura , Curry Catherine , Dressman Mark , Elliott Bonnie , Matherne Debra , Stahle Debra
Published: December 2009

The authors examine the first-grade materials in five new basal programs submitted for the 1993 Texas state adoption.1 These series are compared with program materials currently in use in the state (copyright 1986/1987). The analysis focuses on features of the pupil texts (e.g., total number of words, number of unique words, readability levels, literary quality) and features of the teachers' editions (e.g., program design, organization, tone). Results of the analysis indicate substantial changes in the more recent series. The findings are interpreted in terms of historical trends as well as recent developments in the literature-based and whole-language movements. Implications for future research are identified that relate to the study of the implementation and effects of these new programs.
Spanish Literacy Development: A Descriptive Study of Four Bilingual Whole-Language Classrooms
Authors: Pérez Bertha
Published: December 2009

This study investigated the Spanish literacy development of 20 low-SES Spanish dominant students learning and using literacy in whole-language classrooms. Students' oral reading, writing, and discussions about reading and writing were observed and examined. The data indicated that the children used a variety of reading and writing strategies. The findings of this study provide some evidence to support the theory that students learn about meaning construction through the use of whole language. Additionally, the data suggest that meaning construction is associated with the individual's efficient and contextual use of the graphophonic system. The findings were less supportive of the theory that students learn about the code through exposure to print and through invented spelling.
Teacher-Student Interaction during Oral Reading and Rereading
Authors: Roller Cathy M.
Published: December 2009

In this article I report six case studies of interactions between less proficient readers and their teachers during oral reading and rereading. The questions were: Does children's reading accuracy determine teacher-student interaction patterns? Are there additional factors that explain differential interaction patterns? I determined whether the focus of teacher-student interactions shifted from decoding to meaning as accuracy rates improved with successive readings. Results indicated that a clear shift to a meaning focus occurred for one of five cases for which there were data. In the remaining cases, teacher-student interaction did not shift from decoding to meaning as accuracy improved. In one case, accuracy remained below a threshold level for achieving a meaning focus. For the others, the decoding focus decreased as accuracy improved but the shift from decoding did not lead to a focus on meaning. Children's control of meaning and teachers' focus on fluency goals, were influenced by the teachers' pursuit of alternative instructional goals. Accuracy was a critical factor in achieving meaning-focused teacher-student interactions in these case studies; however, the nature of text material and teachers' instructional goals also influenced the nature of teacher-student interactions.
Tacit Shared Understandings of a First-Grade Writing Community
Authors: MacGillivray Laurie
Published: December 2009

This study examined first graders' tacit shared understandings about composing as related to expectations about the processes and meaning of writing. Data were gathered in one first-grade classroom during the 2 1/2-hour reading/writing block over a 20-week period. The 19 students were ethnically diverse and ranged in SES from low to middle income. Domain, typological, theme, and reconstructive intersubjective analysis were all used in analyzing the following sources of data: field observations gathered by a participant observer; informal talk with students and the teacher; formal interviews with the teacher, students, and parents; and regularly collected samples of the students' writing and drawing. Two levels of student assumptions emerged from the data. The first level addresses the community's assumptions about composing which evolved through daily interactions. Specifically, it was alright to compose in one's own way, but the writer had to be able to interpret it and attending to audience interest is more important than exact decoding. The second level includes the cultural themes regarding the meaning of writing: (a) Illustrations and text reference three different virtual realities that can mediate relations with others, (b) writing is for exploring self and issues, and (c) writing can be an act of unity with others. These assumptions have implications for the research and teaching of writing at all levels.
Effects of Phonemic Awareness Training on Low- and Middle-Achieving First Graders' Phonemic Awareness and Reading Ability
Authors: Weiner Sue
Published: December 2009

This study investigated the effect of phonemic awareness training on the phonemic awareness and reading ability of low- and middle-achieving first-grade readers ( N=19). Random assignment was made to one control group and three experimental: phonemic skill training only (“skill and drill”), phonemic skill training plus decoding (“semi-conceptual”), and phonemic skill training plus decoding and reading (“conceptual”). Outcome measures included tests of segmentation, deletion, deletion and substitution, and both standardized and informal tests of reading. Results indicated no significant differences among the experimental and control groups on measures of phonemic awareness (segmentation excepted) or reading. Findings also revealed that training that provided subjects with a conceptual connection between phonemic skills and reading was generally ineffective for low readers. These results suggest that phonemic awareness training for low- and middle-achieving beginning readers may not be unequivocally beneficial.
Fifth Graders' Search for Information in a Textbook
Authors: Dreher Mariam Jean , Sammons Rebecca Bell
Published: December 2009

Fifty-nine fifth graders were asked to use an unfamiliar textbook on a familiar topic to locate the answers to three questions, all of which contained terms that could be found in the book's index. Those who were randomly assigned to a condition in which they were asked guiding questions before and during their search were more successful than their counterparts who were simply asked to search. An examination of the information access structures (e.g., index, table of contents) used by students indicated that those who were unsuccessful relied heavily on the table of contents and/or paging through the text despite the very specific nature of the questions. The facilitating effect of the guiding questions appears to have been due to raising the likelihood that students would think of and actually use the index during their search; index use did not guarantee success, but very few students who failed to use the index were successful.
Development of Text-Processing Skills in High-, Average-, and Low-Achieving Primary School Children
Authors: Vauras Marja , Kinnunen Riitta , Kuusela Leea
Published: December 2009

This longitudinal study is focused on the development of learning strategies in low-, average-, and high-achieving children from third to fifth grade (i.e., from age 9–10 to age 11–12). Children's comprehension and learning of expository texts were examined on micro-, local-, and global-level processing skills. The aims were to provide a characterization of individual differences in learning strategies, and to depict the development of text learning skills over a critical 2-year period, when children are expected to master basic reading skills and to develop text comprehension skills. The results supported the prediction of gradual increase in higher level processing skills with age. Even though this development was evident also in micro-level processes, the most critical development from age 9 onward took place in local- and global-level processing. However, developmental patterns were dependent on the initial skill and achievement level of a child. Clear progression could be found in average- and high-achieving students' local- and global-level coherence processes and learning strategies. This development was most striking in the extreme group of top-achievers, whereas low-achieving children's skills evidenced slow progression and, compared to others, even relative regression. The same developmental patterns were found in students' grade-point-averages.
Sources of Situational Interest
Authors: Schraw Gregory , Bruning Roger , Svoboda Carla
Published: December 2009

We tested the relationship among sources of interest, perceived interest, and text recall. Sources of interest referred to factors (e.g., ease of comprehension) that evoke feelings of interest in a text. Perceived interest referred to the feeling of interest itself. A factor analysis revealed six different sources of interest. Of these, ease of comprehension and vividness explained 45% of the variance in perceived interest. In turn, perceived interest explained 18% of the variance in text recall; however, only ease of comprehension was related to recall once perceived interest was controlled statistically. Results suggested that different sources of interest affect perceived interest, which in turn, affects recall. Implications for text design and future research were discussed.
Partner Reading and Writing: Peer Social Dialogue and the Zone of Proximal Development
Authors: Dixon-Krauss Lisbeth A.
Published: December 2009

This classroom action research study investigated Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development using peer social dialogue integrated with teacher support to develop children's reading, writing, and abstract thinking in story reflection and sense of audience. Twenty-four first and second graders were paired for a 6-week partner reading and writing activity to provide peer social dialogue through partner storybook reading, discussion, and dialogue journal writing. A class mini-lesson on verbal story reflection added teacher support to the partner instructional activity. Data sources included student evaluations of their own classroom literacy performance and preferences, observational notes collected during the partner sessions, and students' dialogue journal entries. Students showed the most improvement in word recognition, minimal improvement in fluency, accurate evaluations of their own reading progress, and felt more positive about reading aloud. Students' journal entry writing progressed from copying their partners' statements to printed conversations about their stories. Teacher support influenced students' written dialogue and the strategies they used to share text meaning in verbal dialogue.
Teaching and Learning Writing Skills in a Low-Ses, Urban Primary Classroom
Authors: McIntyre Ellen
Published: December 2009

This study investigated which writing skills were learned in one low-SES, urban, primary classroom in relation to the children's instruction. The skills measured in this study included fluency, a sense of audience and purpose, organization, use of “written” language (rather than oral), use of lively or engaging language, use of compound or lengthy sentences, end mark punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. The children's learning was studied in light of instruction from a whole-language perspective. Participants were three teachers who team-taught a group of primary-age children and 11 children who were considered conventional writers at the beginning of the study, 3 of whom had learning disabilities. Children's writing folders and journal entries were collected in late September and compared to their writing samples in late March/early April. The first five skills (above) were examined holistically using a rubric, and the final four skills were examined through word and sentence counts and error rates. To capture learning in its instructional context, the teachers and children were observed twice a month for a school year during literacy instruction, and six visits were tape-recorded. Teachers were interviewed and lesson plans were photocopied. The children in this classroom became more fluent writers who used more complex sentences and lively language. Children used surface level skills for some purposes, but the skills did not become automatic. Although the teachers changed their instruction midyear to meet the needs of learners, their instruction was not always a part of the children's writing. More opportunities for editing and publishing and more explicit instruction on particular skills may be needed for some of the children.
Classroom Teachers and Reading Specialists Examine their Chapter 1 Reading Programs
Authors: Tancock Susan M.
Published: December 2009

Classroom teachers and reading specialists in two Midwestern elementary schools were interviewed to elicit evaluations of their Chapter 1 reading programs. Ethnographic interviews were conducted with three reading specialists and 27 classroom teachers who had children involved in the Chapter 1 programs in the two schools. Constant comparative data analysis was conducted with the transcribed interview data, and prominent themes emerged concerning the coherence and coordination that existed between specialists and classroom teachers. The results showed that specialists constructed their roles differently with each classroom teacher with whom they worked. Secondly, there was a lack of joint planning that occurred between the two groups of teachers. Third, specialists and classroom teachers had varied definitions of Chapter 1 program impact which reflected different goals of the two reading programs. Finally, different philosophies regarding the reading process were held by the two kinds of teachers in these schools. These findings suggest that all teachers who are responsible for the instruction of at-risk students must be given time and encouragement to communicate and coordinate their programs to meet the needs of the children in their schools.
The Reciprocal Relationship between Research and Development: An Example Involving a Decoding Strand for Poor Readers
Authors: Gaskins Robert W. , Gaskins Irene W. , Anderson Richard C. , Schommer Marlene
Published: December 2009

The two major goals of this paper are to describe a 5-year research and development project that led to the creation of a decoding program for poor readers in Grades 1–8 and to report the results of our research along the way. Unlike most research and development projects, research did not simply follow program development and assess its effectiveness. Instead, action research was used as a means of developing the program and program development led to modifications in the research as well. Thus, research and development had a reciprocal relationship and evolved together. The word identification program that eventually took shape emphasized phonemic awareness and decoding by analogy. Our findings were consistent with the conclusion that the word identification program enabled students to become better decoders and allowed them to make small gains in spelling, vocabulary, and comprehension.
Creating Communities of Readers: A Study of Children's Information Networks as Multiple Contexts for Responding to Texts
Authors: Guice Sherry L.
Published: December 2009

This case study explores the perspectives of a group of sixth-grade language arts students concerning their views of the contexts of reading and responding to books in school. The researcher took the role of participant-observer and characterizes this study as a qualitative interpretive case study. As participant-observer, the researcher collected data in the form of fieldnotes, interviews, and written responses; the researcher analyzed data using the constant comparison method. Results of the study indicated that in this setting children respond to texts differently in the contexts under which they read and write about books. There were four different classroom contexts for responding to books in school: “silent” reading, book selection, writing, and aesthetic activity. Three conclusions were drawn from the study and make up an emerging grounded theory: (a) Children respond to books in patterns specific to school contexts, (b) Classroom contexts for reading and responding to books are socially constructed through children's interactions, and (c) Children constructed a community of readers by interacting with one another to respond to books in socially constructed contexts serving as information networks.
Vocabulary Instruction during Reading Lessons in six Classrooms
Authors: Watts Susan M.
Published: December 2009

This study was conducted to explore two research questions: (a) How do teachers teach meaning vocabulary during reading lessons? and (b) What are teachers' stated purposes for teaching meaning vocabulary? The data were collected in six classrooms, three each at the fifth- and sixth-grade levels, in a large urban school district. Reading instruction in each of the six classrooms was observed over the course of 4 months, for a total of 47 observations. At the end of the observation period, participating teachers were interviewed. Data analysis consisted of a search for dominant themes through open and axial coding. A taxonomy of methods for teaching vocabulary was developed in order to further describe the nature of observed instruction. New words were taught most often as a prereading activity and there was a distinct pattern of discourse surrounding word meaning instruction. Teachers typically used more than one method for teaching words, most frequently employing definitional and contextual types of instruction. Characteristics associated with effective instruction in the research literature such as activation of prior knowledge, multiple exposures, and provision of strategies for independent word learning were rarely observed. Teachers' stated purposes for vocabulary instruction were congruent with the requirements of the basal reading series used to teach reading in their school district. Teachers defined the importance of vocabulary knowledge in terms of the immediate classroom environment and requirements thereof, and not within the context of larger environments such as the school or society.
Linking Reading with Meaning: A Case Study of a Hyperlexic Reader
Authors: Worthy Jo , Invernizzi Marcia A.
Published: December 2009

The research presented in this paper is a two-part case study of a 14-year-old mentally handicapped girl, Rachelle, who is hyperlexic. That is, she is able to easily decode the printed word, yet has great difficulty comprehending what she has read. We describe the characteristics of hyperlexia in a diagnostic case study of Rachelle and then outline an instructional program, implemented over a 1 1/2-year period, which we based on current research and theory about the normal processes of reading and learning. Using a learner-centered, literature-based approach, we directed instruction toward helping Rachelle to connect reading with making meaning. Her reading and writing competency and attitudes improved steadily throughout the intervention, as shown through collected work samples and a variety of assessment procedures. We suggest that instruction for hyperlexics and for all readers should focus on linking reading with meaning.
Evaluating the Effects of Training High School Students to use Summarization When Training Includes Analogically Similar Information
Authors: Wood Eileen , Winne Philip H. , Carney P. Anne
Published: December 2009

The present study investigated the impact of instructing high school students to summarize by comparing students taught to summarize versus those who received no formal instruction. To test whether the amount of detail in the study material affected the content of summaries, some students were provided with elaborated text and others were given condensed text. Additionally, performance was compared for students who were trained using information that was analogous and transferable to study passages versus students who were not exposed to analogous materials. The effects of these manipulations were assessed through written summaries produced by students, free recall and performance measures. The most important finding was that the students experienced some benefit from explicit instruction in summarization skills, including greater strategic knowledge about the structure of summaries and modest achievement gains.
Comparing the Effectiveness of Two Oral Reading Practices: Round-Robin Reading and the Shared Book Experience
Authors: Eldredge J. Lloyd , Reutzel D. Ray , Hollingsworth Paul M.
Published: December 2009

This study compared the effectiveness of two oral reading practices on second graders' reading growth: shared book reading and round-robin reading. The results indicated that the Shared Book Experience was superior to round-robin reading in reducing young children's oral reading errors, improving their reading fluency, increasing their vocabulary acquisition, and improving their reading comprehension. An analysis of the primary-grade basal readers submitted for adoption in 1993 revealed that most had incorporated “shared reading” into their instructional designs. Before “shared reading,” the common practice was “individual reading,” and although the authors of basals did not recommend it, round-robin oral reading was widely used. Although the Shared Book Experience had been widely used in schools prior to its inclusion in basal designs, there were no experimental studies supporting it. The findings of this study are discussed and related to these classroom practices and trends.
Language of Literacy Dialogues: Facing the Future or Reproducing the Past
Authors: Green Judith , Dixon Carol , Pearson P. David , Quint Sharon , Alvermann Donna E.
Published: December 2009

For the remainder of Volume 23, the Critical Issues section of JLR will be devoted to a discussion of literacy and educational policy. A survey of our editorial advisory board indicated that this topic was one of the critical issues facing the field. Likewise, a survey of the entire membership of the NRC, JLR's sponsoring organization, indicated that members hold strong feelings about whether the organization should “become more proactive on policy issues” (NRC Newsletter, Sept., 1995, p. 10). To further a dialogue about literacy and educational policy, we began by inviting three literacy researchers with diverse perspectives to address the topic of literacy and educational policy (Judith Green, who writes here with her colleague Carol Dixon, P. David Pearson, and Sharon Quint). We asked them to comment on the ideas they believe to be most crucial for policymakers to know about literacy. We also invited Donna Alvermann to read and to react to the three responses. Those familiar with the field will immediately surmise that these individuals represent not only diverse perspectives on literacy research, but that they are imminently qualified to reflect on what implications their research perspectives have for educational policy. Their responses are published here as Part 1 of a three-part series.

For the next two issues of JLR, we have invited several individuals who have played a key role in developing and implementing state and national agenda for educational policy to respond to the literacy researchers' views. In addition, because any discussion of literacy and educational policy must eventually attend to the issue of poverty and the socially disadvantaged, we have invited Patrick Shannon to comment on how this issue relates to literacy research.

We hope that this series of “Critical Issues” pieces will stimulate increased dialogue about educational policy among researchers interested in literacy and between researchers and policymakers. Toward that end, we encourage readers to ponder the perspectives and ideas presented in this series and to add their own insights by submitting letters to the editor, which will be considered for future publication.
What's after “What's That?”: Preservice Teachers Learning to Ask Literary Questions
Authors: Wolf Shelby A. , Mieras Erikka L. , Carey Angela A.
Published: December 2009

This year-long study analyzed the effects of using carefully assisted case studies to prepare preservice teachers to be more knowledgeable and skilled in supporting children's response to literature. As part of an undergraduate course in children's literature, 43 preservice teachers read weekly to individually selected children. The purposes of the assignment were (a) to expand the preservice teachers' understandings of response to literature by analyzing an individual child's responses over time and (b) to enhance their instructional strategies and critical stances toward literature. Over time, preservice teachers' question types shifted in amount and content, moving from teacher dominance to child-teacher dialogue. Within the dialogue, the preservice teachers learned to create or at least reflect on a balance between comfort and challenge. As the preservice teachers changed, the children changed as well, moving from hesitancy to confidence, even to the point of contradicting the preservice teachers. Additionally, the course emphasis on questioning as well as on detailed fieldnotes heightened preservice teachers' attention to the results of their own questioning strategies, causing them to be more reflective about the content and consequences of their queries.
Critical Issues: Literacy and Educational Policy: Part Three
Authors: Elliott Emerson J. , Hart Gary K. , Smith Marshall S. , Cianci Joanne E. , Levin Jessica
Published: December 2009

This installment of JLR's Critical Issues section is the final part of a three-part series on literacy and educational policy. We are especially pleased to publish the following responses, by three highly qualified policymakers, to the views expressed in Part 1 of this series (see Volume 28, Number 2). In Part 1, Judith Green with Carol Dixon, David Pearson, and Sharon Quint commented respectively on the ideas they believed to be crucial for policymakers to know about literacy from their perspectives as literacy researchers. At the same time, we published Donna Alvermann's reaction to the views of the three researchers, also from her perspective as a literacy researcher.

As substantiated by their brief biographies at the beginning of this issue, Emerson J. Elliott, Gary K. Hart, and Marshall S. Smith are imminently qualified to write a response to the researchers' views from the perspective of those who are intimately involved with educational policy at the highest levels. We are especially gratified that these busy public officials consented to share their views in a forum of interest primarily to literacy researchers. We believe their willingness to do so bodes well for the future of a constructive dialogue between the literacy research and educational policy communities.

Combined with Patrick Shannon's consideration of literacy and poverty in Part 2 of this series (see Volume 28, Number 3), we hope that this series has stimulated more attention about issues related to literacy research and educational policy. We encourage readers to ponder the perspectives and ideas presented in this series and to consider adding their own insights by submitting letters to the editor, which will be considered for future publication.
Interrupting Gendered Discursive Practices in Classroom Talk about Texts: Easy to Think About, Difficult to Do
Authors: Alvermann Donna E. , Commeyras Michelle , Young Josephine P. , Randall Sally , Hinson David
Published: December 2009

This study focused on us — a group of university — and school-based teacher researchers and observers — as we attempted to alter or interrupt certain gendered discursive practices that threatened to reproduce some of the same inequities in classroom talk about texts that we had noted in the past, but had not challenged. A feminist theoretical framework guided our use of gender as a lens for examining how particular power relations operating in our classrooms governed how students interacted in their discussions of assigned subject-matter texts. Fieldnotes, transcripts of videotaped text-based discussions, and interviews with students were collected in a graduate-level content-literacy class, a 7th-grade language arts class, and an 8th-grade language arts class. Transcripts of weekly research meetings and narrative vignettes that summarized a series of observations and interviews resulted in multiple layers of data. The findings reported from analyzing these data focus on 4 types of interactions: self-deprecating, discriminatory, and exclusionary talk; and talk that reflected our desire for teacher neutrality. Narrative analyses were used to reveal the difficulties we encountered in understanding and interpreting gendered discursive practices and the insights we gained from studying ourselves.
Changing Perceptions: The Literacy Development of Children Prenatally 8xposed to Crack or Cocaine
Authors: Barone Diane
Published: December 2009

This article presents an overview of 26 children prenatally exposed to crack or cocaine and a case study of one focal child. The article begins with a more global view that considers the literacy development of all of the children who were part of a longitudinal, multi-case study exploring their literacy development. Despite the prenatal drug exposure, each child was living in a stable foster or adoptive home situation. Each child was observed monthly either at home or at school over the 4 years of the study. The researcher's observations were enriched by the comments of parents, teachers, and children. The following developmental literacy concepts were systematically observed: drawing and writing, book knowledge, concept-of-word in print, book reading, and orthographic knowledge. This study describes the success in the development of literacy of the majority of the children as they moved through preschool and elementary school. The article then focuses on one child, Mario, whose case is typical of the children within the study. After 4 years, Mario was making satisfactory literacy progress commensurate with his peers in a regular school classroom. His literacy success was supported by the physical and emotional support of his foster mother and teachers, his determination to learn to read and write, and his positive adjustment to the expectations of his teachers.
Nancy Drew: Girls' Literature, Women's Reading Groups, and the Transmission of Literacy
Authors: González Norma Linda
Published: December 2009

This study focused on a women's reading group that organized for the purpose of discussing popular books from the Nancy Drew collection. Audiotapes of discussions, interviews, and questionnaires provided information that led to an in-depth analysis to address two research questions: How did the participants become engaged in the specific genre of Nancy Drew mysteries? and What can be learned from interactions that were part of the group discussions (in a noninstructional setting) that can inform the field of literacy about the processes and values of such discussions for adult participants' literary engagement? Key findings of the study are that (a) “literacy agents,” such as mothers and aunts, were influential in persuading participants to read Nancy Drew as a child and (b) the discourse patterns of the group, although they were similar in some ways to typical school literature discussions, departed from these patterns at key points. When the participants were collaborative rather than hierarchical in their discussion stances, they constructed unexpected knowledge and expressed divergent views. They also made personal responses, both relevant and tangential to the text, and humorous observations. The implications of these findings for conducting literature discussions in classrooms are explored.
Critical Issues: Bringing Scholarly Dialogue to the Surface: A View of the JLR Review Process in Progress
Authors: Gaskins Robert W. , Kinzer Charles K. , Mosenthal Peter B. , Pailliotet Ann Watts , Reinking David , Hynd Cyndie , Oldfather Penny
Published: December 2009

In many respects, the production of a scholarly journal such as JLR is the proverbial iceberg. Above the waterline is the clearly visible, final published product which typically arrives in the mail, is read wholly or in part, and then is archived for future reference. Below the waterline is a much less visible but remarkably extensive and intensive range of activities that support the visible product and that are an integral part of it. In fact, to extend the metaphor, this less visible activity in the production of a journal, particularly the review process (and particularly for new scholars), represents all the mystery and navigational hazards that icebergs do to inexperienced sailors traveling in uncharted waters.
“Leap into the Boundless …”: Teacher Freedom and Philosophies of Teaching
Authors: Gaskins Robert W.
Published: December 2009

The purpose of this paper is to consider whether any single philosophy of teaching can provide teachers with the freedom necessary to meet the needs of the diverse range of students they face in classrooms and move those students toward flexibility, creativity, and freedom. Using the writings of Chuang Tzu, a Taoist philosopher from the fourth century BCE, I discuss the three most central factors he considered to be limitations to true understanding and impediments to complete freedom (conceptualization, attachment, and language), and I consider how these factors apply to educational philosophies, particularly whole language and eclecticism. The paper closes by considering how Chuang Tzu understood “effective” actions and “true freedom” and the implications of these understandings for teachers.
Social Constructivism and the School Literacy Learning of Students of Diverse Backgrounds
Authors: Au Kathryn H.
Published: December 2009

This theoretical review builds on the idea that social constructivism offers implications for reshaping schooling in ways that may correct the gap between the literacy achievement of students of diverse backgrounds and that of mainstream students. A diverse social con-structivist perspective may encourage literacy educators to progress from a mainstream orientation toward a serious consideration of the significance of students' ethnicity, primary language, and social class to literacy learning. From a social constructivistperspective, 5 explanations for the literacy achievement gap appear plausible: linguistic differences, cultural differences, discrimination, inferior education, and rationales for schooling. Incorporating these 5 explanations and building on the work of Cummins (1986, 1994), a conceptual framework for addressing the literacy achievement gap is proposed. This framework suggests that the school literacy learning of students of diverse backgrounds will be improved as educators address the goal of instruction, the role of the home language, instructional materials, classroom management and interaction with students, relationships with the community, instructional methods, and assessment.
Continuities between Motivation Research and Whole Language Philosophy of Instruction
Authors: Bergin David A. , LaFave Cheryl
Published: December 2009

The purpose of this article is to show that motivation research is generally compatible with and supportive of the whole language philosophy of instruction and to provide explicit motivational reasons why whole language practices might be effective. Both motivation research and whole language instruction emphasize the following: providing choice in order to foster perceptions of autonomy, emphasizing the mastery goal of learning in order to improve personal competence rather than the ego goal of doing better than other people, using assessment that encourages a deep personal construction of meaning and learning for understanding, providing students with experiences that will increase their belief that they can succeed, modeling appropriate literacy activities, responding to students' social goals, providing an emotionally supportive atmosphere, and making learning interesting. Whole language classrooms provide settings where motivation researchers can investigate the success of motivation principles, and whole language classrooms might benefit from the motivation technique of goal setting. It would be useful for practitioners if whole language and motivation researchers investigated appropriate levels of teacher control more precisely.