bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Stratification, Class and Health: Class Relations and Health Inequalities in High Modernity
Authors: Scambler Graham , Higgs Paul
Published: March 2007

This paper starts from a critique of the dominant and largely empiricist paradigm within which sociologists have approached the relationship between social class and health. Referring to the transformational model of social activity and the relational model of society advanced by Bhaskar, the nature and reality of class relations and the preconditions for their theorisation are discussed. A neo-Marxist theory of class relations owing much to Clement and Myles is outlined. The relevance of this theory for a revised and more sociological consideration of health inequalities is then explored and some pointers offered for future empirical enquiry. The authors contend that this theory may throw some light too on the theoretical and political timidity medical sociologists characteristically show in their current research on health inequalities.
Screening for congenital toxoplasmosis: accuracy of immunoglobulin M and immunoglobulin A tests after birth
Authors: Gilbert Ruth E , Thalib Lukman , Tan Hooi Kuan , Paul Margaret , Wallon Martine , Petersen Eskild ,   The European Multicentre Study on Congenital Toxoplasmosis (EMSCOT)
Published: March 2007

Objectives: To determine the accuracy of postnatal screening for toxoplasma-specific immunoglobulin (Ig) M and IgA.

Setting: Ten centres in three European countries.

Methods: We compared results of the first postnatal IgM or IgA test in infants with infected mothers identified by prenatal screening with the reference standard for congenital infection status of specific IgG status at one year of age.

Results: In all, 170 infected and 822 uninfected infants were analysed. Overall, IgM or IgA testing detected only 52–55% of infected infants. Sensitivity was highest between one and two weeks after birth and declined thereafter. Specificity was highest from four weeks after birth. For IgM, but not IgA, sensitivity was statistically significantly lower if the mother seroconverted in the first and second trimesters of pregnancy (29% and 34%, respectively) than the third (71%). Prenatal treatment with pyrimethamine–sulphonamide did not significantly reduce IgM or IgA sensitivity. Sensitivity was lowest for the immunofluorescence (IF) IgM test (10%) and the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) IgM test (29%), but similar for the immunosorbent agglutination assay (ISAGA) IgM (54%), ISAGA IgA (58%) and ELISA IgA (52%) tests. Specificity was significantly lower for the ISAGA IgA test (91%) than for the ISAGA IgM (96%), IF IgM (100%), and ELISA IgA tests (98%).

Conclusions: Poor performance of IgM and IgA tests in the newborn, particularly if the mother seroconverted in early pregnancy, casts doubt on the value of neonatal screening in industrialized countries where the risk of clinical manifestations during childhood is low. More accurate diagnostic tests are needed for newborns identified by prenatal screening.
Ideals and Reality In Competence-Giving Adult Education: An Examination of Swedish Municipal Adult Education
Authors: Hoghielm Robert
Published: March 2007

The official position of the Swedish government is that municipal adult education should be learner-centered rather than teacher-centered and problem-oriented rather than subject-oriented. The research reported here sought to determine the extent to which the official position is reflected in actual classroom practice. Detailed analyses of classroom interactions, coupled with survey responses from interviews with participants, teachers, and principals, revealed a substantial discrepancy between the governmental ideals and the reality of classroom practice. A theoretical framework is presented in an effort to interpret that discrepancy and to understand more fully the factors that shape the instructional process.
Deterrents To Women's Participation In Work-Related Educational Activities
Authors: Blais Jean-Guy , Duqueite Andre , Painchaud Gisele
Published: March 2007

Women's participation in adult education has been shown to be comparable to that of men, except for work-related educational activities, where their rate of participation is considerably lower. The purpose of the study was to explore nonparticipants' clusters of reasons for nonparticipation in continuing nursing education to determine whether women working in a traditionally female profession were confronted with specific kinds of deterrents. A questionnaire consisting of a list of 50 reasons which might have prevented respondents to participate was mailed to a random sample of diploma nurses. Analysis of the data revealed five conceptually interpretable clusters: Low Priority for Work-Related Activities, Absence of External Incentives, Incidental Costs, Irrelevance of Additional Formal Education for Professional Practice, and Lack of Affective Support.
Parlous Questions In "Postmodern" Adult Education: A Response To Zacharakis-Jutz
Authors: Stanage Sherman M.
Published: March 2007

This paper responds to an article by Zacharakis-Jutz (Post-Freirean Education: A Question of Empowerment and Power, Adult Education Quarterly, 39, 4147). A portion of his article was devoted to a discussion of an article I had previously published (Unrestraining Liberty: Adult Education and the Empowerment of Persons, Adult Education Quarterly 36, 123-129). In this response I argue that the great strength of his discussion lies not in his criticism of my position. I try to show, in fact, that he has misunderstood my position and its claims in rather fundamental terms by evidently reading so selectively what I wrote as to fail to "hear" the text of my discourse itself.
Teaching Learners To Be Self-Directed
Authors: Grow Gerald O.
Published: March 2007

Based on the Situational Leadership model of Hersey and Blanchard (1988), the Staged Self-Directed Learning Model proposes that learners advance through stages of increasing self-direction and that teachers can help or hinder that development. Good teaching matches the learner's stage of self-direction and helps the learner advance toward greater self-direction. Specific methods are proposed for teaching students at each stage, although many different teaching styles are good when appropriately applied. Several pedagogical difficulties are explained as mismatches between teacher style and learner stage, especially the mismatch between a student needing direction and a non-directive teacher.
The Impact and Potential of American Diplomacy
Authors: Findley Paul
Published: March 2007

The people of the United States should offer the firm, friendly hand of common citizenship to freedom-loving people beyond our borders. This should be done by inviting the people of other free nations to join with us in establishing a new federal-union government of limited but specific author ity while at the same time placing new emphasis on United States immigration and statehood. This powerful initiative would demonstrate plainly our desire to co-operate—not to dominate—in world affairs. It would show how certain prob lems which beset the free-world community—like monetary instability, nuclear proliferation, trade rivalry, and East-West relations—can be resolved safely, peacefully, and to mutual advantage. It would prove that we mean what we say about the supreme importance of each individual person, regardless of race, origin, or station in life. Our avowal that government exists to serve man—and not the other way around—would have new meaning, not only to those fortunate enough to live under our system, but also to those in distant lands and degrad ing circumstances. By the simple but explicit offer of common citizenship we would give eloquent testimony to our firm com mitment to the ideals of liberty, justice, and equality for all people.
Political Rationality in Ending War
Authors: Kecskemeti Paul
Published: March 2007

The terminal stage of an armed conflict is reached when both sides agree to accept the military outcome (i.e., the "asymmetrical" or "symmetrical" distribution of armed strength) existing at that time as the basis for deter mining the political payoffs accruing to each. The payoff distribution corresponding to the "asymmetrical" outcome (monopoly of armed strength for one side, the other being defenseless) is the political "stake." The more "symmetrical" the outcome, the greater the difference between the actual payoffs and the "stake." Both "asymmetrical" and "sym metrical" outcomes, however, may be reversible as long as the adversaries still have mobilizable potentials at their disposal. Whether a given outcome will be accepted by both sides as the "terminal" one depends on their judgments concerning two questions: (1) whether the outcome can be reversed by renewed efforts, and (2) whether the "stake" is high enough to justify an attempt in this direction. This suggests two kinds of "rational" criteria for terminating armed conflicts: the "irreversibility" principle, and the principal of "corre spondence between effort and stake." Now "reversibility" depends, in part, on the effort that the belligerent in question is willing to make, and hence on the "correspondence" prin ciple; it is argued, however, that objective, "rational" decision criteria for "correspondence" cannot be defined, because there is no common measure between "costs" and political "payoffs." It is argued that one can speak of a "rational" conclusion of conflicts only to the extent that a "convergent reorientation" of the basic political outlook of the adversaries takes place, as a result of which the controversial issues underlying the conflicts are liquidated.
Chinese History and the Foreign Relations of Contemporary China
Authors: Feuerwerker Albert
Published: March 2007

It is frequently implied that there is something peculiarly "Chinese," derived from the millennia of a separate and remarkable cultural tradition, which operates to motivate the foreign relations of the People's Republic of China (P.R.C.). It is, of course, absurd to expect that there would be no residue of the past at work in the present, even after the profound revolutionary changes that China has undergone in the past century. That persistence of tradition, however, is not simple and unproblematic. Precisely what out of the past has a functional role in contemporary China requires explication. A distinction between influences from the pre-nineteenth-century "Great Tradition" and those growing from the importunate impact of the outside world on China in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries must be made. And the weight of tradition/history must be compared with that of other factors influencing the formation and execution of foreign policy. This paper examines five components which have determined the foreign relations of the P.R.C. and suggests that they may be ranked in the following order of importance: 1) nationalism; 2) the politics of the international Communist movement; 3) China's domestic politics; 4) Marxist-Leninist-Maoist ideology; and 5) a strategic-political imagery based on a traditional spatial-ideological world order.
Sex and Income Inequality among the Employed
Authors: Hamilton Mary Townsend
Published: March 2007

Discrimination in the labor market has received considerable attention in the last two decades. Racial aspects have been a primary concern, but the question of discrimina tion against females has assumed an increasing importance. Despite statements of alleged discrimination against women, there is a paucity of empirical evidence. For the most part, the evidence cited—including that in governmental studies—is based upon comparisons of gross earnings by sex obtained from census studies or studies of particular industries. The pur pose of this study is to isolate pure measures of wage dis crimination on the basis of sex, within narrowly defined occupations. The measures are pure in that factors other than sex, to which wage differentials might be attributed, are taken into account. The results of the analysis of wages in four narrowly defined occupations clearly suggest that wage dis crimination has a sex dimension. A sex variable is con sistently powerful in explaining wage dispersion. Moreover, the estimated sex differentials generally exceed those related to color, often by considerable amounts. This finding poses obvious theoretical questions. If the wage for labor is deter mined under free market conditions, the continued existence of discrimination seems implausible in the absence of real differ ences in productivity among sex and color groups. This suggests that there are differences in the supply and demand curves relating to different groups of labor which arise out of subjective, rather than objective, factors.
The Strategy of Economic Policy and Income Distribution
Authors: Minsky Hyman P.
Published: March 2007

In a capitalist economy, income distribution is compounded out of the distribution of capital income, the dis tribution of labor income and the shares of capital and labor in total income. As capital inequality is much greater than in come inequality, a decrease in capital's share would decrease income inequality. Keynes held that euthanasia of the rentier —that is, a decrease in capital's share of total income—would result from the investment that takes place during sustained full employment. Tolerably full employment has been sus tained ever since World War II, but capital's share of income has not fallen. Full employment over the postwar period has been the result of policy which conformed to a private invest ment strategy. This strategy operates by sustaining and in creasing the returns on capital and also carries threats of finan cial instability and inflation. An alternative public employ ment strategy for full employment policy is available. This strategy would probably lead to a partial euthanasia of the rentier and would tend to diminish the likelihood of financial instability and inflation. Highly stylized examples show that the effects of a partial euthanasia of the rentier, when com bined with mildly equalitarian taxes, transfers and government services, can lead to a substantial decrease in income in equality.
Finally the Family
Authors: Weitzman Murray S.
Published: March 2007

The family makes a belated but welcome appearance in Social Indicators, 1976 after being all but ignored in Social Indicators, 1973. In recent years, statistics on the family have recorded a steady increase in the divorce rate, a decline in both the marriage and birth rates, and a rising proportion of premarital births to total births. These trends translate into family structures in which an increasing proportion of children are members of single-parent families. Although not inevitable, on balance some harmful spillover effects are probably generated such as less attractive human personal qualities, declining domestic tranquility in the community, and decreasing individual capability for educational achievement, work accomplishment, and earning power. After this second run through of social indicators, there seems to be sufficient evidence that, while the work was conducted by very competent people, the operational structure is far from optimal for achieving sustained progress in this field. Producing social indicators requires more than a process of searching and soliciting statistical tables from the statistical networks, assembling them in packages of charts, tables, and texts and marketing them in attractive publications. In the end it may come down to the fact that insufficient resources have been committed to these social indicator projects, precluding the formation of proper operational goals, rather than concluding that social indicator efforts are bereft of potential.
A Decent Home and Suitable Living Environment
Authors: Holleb Doris B.
Published: March 2007

Social Indicators, 1976 documents the success of the nation in solving the housing problems of the 1950s, in eliminating both a severe housing shortage and large numbers of substandard dwellings. Housing has improved greatly for all income classes, including the poor, for all races, and by all standards of measurement, but wide disparities remain. This suggests great relative deprivation in a society with such universally high standards. A massive upsurge in housing construction, greater than rising demand, brought changes not only in the quality of the housing stock but in its location as well. The transformation of residential settlement patterns and the growth of extensive metropolitan cities have had profound effects on housing and community life. Because of racial and social barriers in local housing markets, polarities among metrpolitan neighborhoods have increased. None of these pervasive changes emerge in the indicators. Nor do they address such contemporary concerns as rising housing costs, deteriorating neighborhood conditions in poverty areas, and the environmental and energy implications of emerging low density housing patterns. Thus, readers are likely to underestimate the scale and nature of housing deprivation and misread the direction of future trends.
The Helsinki Accord: a Case Study
Authors: Fascell Dante B.
Published: March 2007

World governments have traditionally been responsive, in a variety of ways, to public pressure in the area of domestic issues; but with trends toward global interdependence and massive advances in communications technology, governmental leaders must be increasingly sensitive to their constituents' desires and concerns in the field of international relations. An important recent example of this phenomenon is embodied in the 1975 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). This article explores how nongovernmental individuals and groups have impacted this significant 35-nation agreement which is a symbol of the long-term process of East-West détente.
The U.S. Crisis In Foreign Language
Authors: Simon Paul
Published: March 2007

At a time when the national need suggests we should be increasing the exposure of our citizens to other languages and cultures, that exposure is, in fact, declining. The failure of the United States to promote or even provide opportunities for the study of foreign language and culture constitutes costly cultural isolation.
The New Town Movement in Europe
Authors: Merlin Pierre
Published: March 2007

The new town movement, originated in Britain in the ideas of Howard, was active in successfully implementing two new towns on a cooperative basis, Letchworth and Welwyn. These ideas became important on the Continent when the new town movement continued on a wider scale, mostly with government initiative. A remarkable exception to this is Tapiola, Finland, built by a nonprofit organization.
Immigrants in the U.S. Labor Market
Authors: CHISWICK BARRY R.
Published: March 2007

The general perception of an increased presence of foreign-born workers in the U.S. labor market is well grounded in changes in the U.S. immigration experience. Relative to the population, immigration has increased fivefold since the trough of the 1930s, and in recent years the annual legal inflow has been about 2.2 immigrants per year per thousand population. Even more dramatic is the change in the countries of origin. In the past 15 years, Europe and Canada have declined in importance as sources of immigrants, while Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean have increased in importance. Illegal immigration has also increased. Overall, adult male immigrants earn about the same as the adult male native-born population, but important differences among the foreign born are attributable to duration of residence in the United States, reason for migrating, and country of origin. On arrival, immigrants have low earnings compared with the native born, but with increased length of U.S. residence, their earnings rise. Economic migrants reach earnings equality with the native born when they have been in the United States for about 11 to 15 years. Refugees and tied movers have lower earnings than those who move for economic reasons. Illegal aliens from Mexico have labor market characteristics very similar to those of legal immigrants from Mexico.
Statements about Terrorism
Authors: JENKINS BRIAN M.
Published: March 2007

Terrorism has proved to be a far more serious problem than we anticipated 10 or 12 years ago. After more than a decade of terrorism to observe and nearly 10 years of research on the topic, we can say few things for certain. One is that terrorism has increased in volume and severity, although despite the increasing bloodshed, terrorists still operate within self-imposed constraints. Although terrorism is a widespread phenomenon, it affects the world unequally. There is no single factor that explains why some societies suffer higher levels of terrorist violence than others. Terrorists operate with a limited technical repertoire that has changed little over time. Diplomats and businessmen are the most frequent target of incidents of international terrorism. Terrorists share a common demographic profile and certain common attitudes, but we do not know enough about them as individuals to identify a common terrorist personality. Authoritarian regimes have characteristically reacted to terrorism with repressive measures, while nations with strong democratic traditions have cautiously limited certain liberties. Generally, the rhetoric against terrorism exceeds the commitment of resources to combat it, and international cooperation is limited.
Defining Terrorism in El Salvador: “La Matanza”
Authors: TAYLOR ROBERT W. , VANDEN HARRY E.
Published: March 2007

The term “terrorism” has been defined in a number of ways by a variety of scholars. For the most part, each definition has yielded a limited understanding of the actual phenomenon. This is especially true when analyzing the current wave of international situations in contemporary global affairs, such as those occurring in Central America. This article explores the various actors and motives operating in El Salvador in an attempt to clarify the meaning of terrorism. A case study approach is employed to analyze the evolutionary incidents, the hidden agendas, and the critical issues that characterize terrorism as an activity defined in regard to the perspectives of different political groups.
Clinical Issues of Middle Age and Later Life
Authors: KAHANA BOAZ , KAHANA EVA
Published: March 2007

Mental health problems of middle and late life are the focus of this article. Among topics discussed are adjustment reactions to mid-life, late-life transitions, and stressful life events. Emerging mental health problems during this period are considered as a function of increased stress that is not mediated by social supports or effective strategies in coping. Sex differences in adjustive tasks during mid-life and the later years are presented. The impact of family dynamics on mental health is considered. Age-related differences in specific types of mental disorders, including organic problems, schizophrenia, and depression, are reviewed. Sexual problems, substance abuse, and psychosomatic problems are reviewed in the context of clinical problems during middle and late life. Diversity and individual differences in responses to the stresses of life transitions are emphasized while psychosocial strengths of older persons that promote mental health are portrayed.
Intergovernmental Redirection
Authors: HAIDER DONALD H.
Published: March 2007

Intergovernmental reformers have long attempted to remedy the system's more apparent defects, especially the recent buildup in federal-state-local relations as Washington's involvement became broader and deeper. These remedies have included incremental and procedural changes, rationalization of federal aid and program delivery instruments, and total overhaul of the system through functional realignment. Efforts in the past have proved only marginally successful, essentially due to the fact that Congress had become the dominant architect and defender of the system. The world of intergovernmental relations changed dramatically from 1978 on, due to the poor performance of the economy, antitax and antispending sentiment, public-sector retrenchment, and fiscal deterioration at the federal level. Decentralization, competition, and fragmentation characterize the contemporary do-it-yourself federalism. President Reagan's proposed swap, turnback, and trust-fund package of New Federalism seeks to capture these changes in a system realignment. I examine these changes in light of whither intergovernmental relations go in the 1980s.
The Formation of New States as a Refugee-Generating Process
Authors: ZOLBERG ARISTIDE R.
Published: March 2007

Considered as a social phenomenon, refugees can be thought of as the migratory segment of a larger group of victims, singled out for the willful exercise of extraordinary malevolence on the part of their state of residence, acting directly or by indirection. As part of the same process, others in the target group may be immobilized or destroyed. As acknowledged by the current U.N. definition, refugees fall into two main categories. Some are persecuted on grounds of political opinion or activity; since such persecution is the normal counterpart of illiberal regimes, the process does not require elaborate explanation. Hence the analysis focuses on the conditions under which persecution is directed against categoric groups—racial, religious, national, or social—to which individuals belong not by choice but by virtue of accidents of birth. It is suggested that the process under consideration arises most prominently as a by-product of the secular transformation of empires into nation-states. A brief historical review demonstrates how it originated in Western Europe half a millennium ago and recurred further east in the wake of the dissolution of the Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires in the twentieth century. The last part sketches out how within this general framework specific conditions account for a particularly high incidence of massive refugee flows in the contemporary third world.
The Commitment to Refugee Resettlement
Authors: STEIN BARRY N.
Published: March 2007

Since 1975 the traditional refugee receiving countries have made major changes in their refugee resettlement programs and policies. They have institutionalized their refugee programs, increased the number of refugees accepted for resettlement, and broadened the range of groups that can be considered for resettlement by relying on the U.N. Convention definition of a refugee as their criterion for acceptance. Recently concern has increased about the costs and difficulties of resettlement, particularly of third-world refugees. This has led some observers to wonder if there is a diminished commitment to resettlement as a durable solution. This article concludes that if one uses 1975 as a base year for comparison, commitment to refugee resettlement has increased significantly. There are, however, present challenges to it. The numbers of refugees being resettled are dropping sharply in response to both decreased need and increased domestic pressures within the major receiving nations to limit admissions. Lower numbers by themselves are an inadequate indicator of a decreased long-term commitment to resettlement. The article suggests a range of factors to be considered in assessing this commitment.
The Artificial Alien: Transformations of the Robot in Science Fiction
Authors: KLASS MORTON
Published: March 2007

The robot, though a relatively recent arrival in the real world, has been a subject of interest in literature—primarily, though not exclusively, science fiction—for most of this century. It is possible to note significant transformations in perceptions of, and attitudes toward, the robot during this period by reviewing the literature. Thus the earliest robots are flesh and blood creations, and are perceived as potentially inimical in a number of ways. Over time the robot becomes a mechanical equivalent of humans and takes on many but not all of the attributes of aliens: interestingly the one most threatening alien attribute in Western perception—that of sexual threat—is not accorded the robot. Instead the robot is perceived as the perfect and perpetual servant, though with a distinct potential for danger. It might make humans superfluous in certain areas, but if humans can manage to prevent that, the literature implies, they will rejoice in a human-equivalent servant and companion. This article is of possible interest to those in the fields of the anthropology of work, anthropology and literature, futures research, and ethnic relations.
Pathological Gambling: Roots, Phases, and Treatment
Authors: LESIEUR HENRY R. , CUSTER ROBERT L.
Published: March 2007

The medical model of pathological gambling is coming to dominate the public image of the problem gambler. The new image is replacing the previous one of sinner or criminal. This article traces the roots, causes, and phases of pathological gambling. The sociocultural roots of pathological gambling are seen as distinct from gambling itself. The work of sociologists, psychologists, psychiatrists, and others is summarized herein, and different types of pathological gamblers are examined. Three phases of the career of the pathological gambler are outlined: the adventurous, or winning phase; the losing phase; and the desperation phase. The gambler's career progresses with increasing problems in all spheres of life, including relations with family members and friends, gambling associates, employment, and finances. Eventually the gambler has reduced life options, which include suicide, imprisonment, running away, and seeking help. Two major sources of help, Gamblers Anonymous and professional counseling, are examined, and their prospects and difficulties are revealed. Projections are made for future developments in the area of pathological gambling.
Investment and Disinvestment in New York, 1960-80
Authors: YAGO GLENN , KORMAN HYMAN , WU SEN-YUAN , SCHWARTZ MICHAEL
Published: March 2007

Job loss and plant closings have, until recently, been considered part of the inevitable cycle adjustments of economic growth. Since the late 1970s, however, a multifaceted debate has developed relating to the possible permanence of industrial decline in the American Northeast. Postindustrial and product life-cycle theories maintain an optimistic perspective predicting offsetting job gains in new sectors; while capital mobility theory predicts accelerated job loss and long-term depression. Evidence from the New York State Industrial Migration File offers little cause for optimism. Between 1960 and 1980, state job capacity declined by 200,000, a result of both an increase in disinvestment and a decrease in new investment. Contraction took place in every region and industrial sector. There is questionable evidence of compensatory expansion to offset contraction during most years as a consequence of physical changes in plant and equipment investment. Multilocal firms showed a much greater propensity to disinvest than local firms, suggesting support for capital mobility theory.
The Insanity Defense in England and Wales since 1843
Authors: WHITE STEPHEN
Published: March 2007

For defendants in the nineteenth century seeking refuge from the death penalty, the insanity defense was like a haven eagerly sought but with difficulty secured. For defendants now, no longer at risk of the death penalty and able to take advantage of statutory defenses akin to insanity, the defense has become like a reef fearfully avoided but easily struck. The transformation of the defense from shelter to snare is best understood when traced through the attempts of defendants to establish a defense of irresistible impulse due to mental disorder. At first, irresistible impulse was pleaded as insanity under the McNaughtan Rules. When this was no longer possible, defendants turned to the defense of involuntary conduct, a defense elaborated largely in response to the development of motoring. The courts' response to this tactic has breathed new life into the McNaughtan Rules, but legislation is required to remove resulting anomalies.
The Merits of Abolishing the Insanity Defense
Authors: BROOKS ALEXANDER D.
Published: March 2007

Discontent with the special insanity defense has resulted in pressure on legislatures and courts to change or abolish it. Most reformers urge modifications that they hope will rectify obvious abuses. This article examines the most frequently advanced moderate reforms and compares them to a more radical reform, the so-called abolition of the special insanity defense, which involves the use of the mens rea—or intent—approach as a vehicle for exculpating offenders who are seriously mentally ill, together with a greater emphasis on the dispositional stage of the process. It is argued that abolition of the insanity defense is neither immoral nor inhumane, as is often charged, if it is accompanied by such dispositional reforms. Rather, the elimination of an expanded insanity defense would result in restoring confidence in the criminal justice system and in psychiatry, would eliminate show trials, and would provide a more rational allocation of scarce mental health resources, with ultimate benefit both to the individual offender and to society.
Soviet Relations with Central America, the Caribbean, and Members of the Contadora Group
Authors: REYES EDMÉ DOMINGUEZ
Published: March 2007

This article discusses Soviet policy toward Central America, the Caribbean, and members of the Contadora group, and it compares the Soviet approach with Cuban policy. Since the 1970s Latin America has become a major center of interest to the Soviet Union. Soviet policy toward the region can best be characterized as a low-risk, low-profile strategy, in light of U.S. competition and interests. Current policy is one of continuity from the Brezhnev era. The article offers special highlights on Nicaragua and El Salvador and the Soviet dynamic with the Contadora group. El Salvador and the Contadora group are seen as sharing interests in the region with respect to political stability and economic development.
Toward Global Action
Authors: GROSS BERTRAM
Published: March 2007

Despite the world's rising unemployment and underemployment, the United Nations has deserted its earlier commitments to full employment. This reflects the attitudes of most member states. In turn, economists have failed to measure the full labor surplus, analyze it globally, or update earlier full-employment concepts. Fortunately, new quality-of-life employment proposals in the U.S. Congress provide a political impetus for improved data analysis and policymaking in the United States. Its sponsors also urge regional and global fact-finding conferences under U.N. auspices. This would require new-style expert appraisals. Such appraisals might well indicate that joblessness, underemployment, and job insecurity (1) affect the majority of people in every region of the world; (2) have enormous economic and social consequences; (3) undermine the purchasing power and productivity needed to reverse economic stagnation and prevent collapse; and (4) are used to justify arms escalation as a way of providing jobs.
Analysis and Reanalysis of Shared Scientific Data
Authors: STERLING THEODOR D.
Published: March 2007

Enormous strides in data handling and in telecommunications technology have made possible multiple access and sharing of data files. Sharing of research data often is resisted, however, because of (1) potential loss of monetary, political, or psychological reward; (2) potential conflict and disagreement; and (3) potential exposure of extreme bias or fraud. Found acceptable have been (1) the distribution of very large data files for further study, such as Public Use Tapes from the Bureau of the Census or the National Center for Health Statistics; and (2) the use of large data aggregates that serve as very comprehensive catalogs, such as bibliographic files for literature searches. Instances of scientist-to-scientist data sharing depend on individual arrangements. There are, however, many recorded instances of refusal to give access to data. Data that are liable to lead to conflict or controversy seem to be shared only if they fall within the realm of Freedom of Information legislation or court orders.
Public Policy Concerning the Exchange and Distribution of Scientific Information
Authors: WEINGARTEN FRED W. , GARCIA D. LINDA
Published: March 2007

The new information and communication technologies hold tremendous promise for both carrying out scientific research and disseminating the results. The importance of these technologies to the achievement of economic and military ends may, however, hamper their use for scientific purposes. Similarly, and perhaps of greater significance, the way these technologies are employed in defense and in the private sector may adversely affect the progress of science and seriously constrain the whole realm of scientific activity. Thus conflict over the use of new technologies is likely to give rise to a number of information-related public policy issues, issues on which the scientific community will have to take a stand. Decisions made in this regard will govern the flows of information within and across the borders of the United States, profoundly affecting scientific communication and perhaps even determining the future of U.S. science.
“Invitation to Struggle”: An Overview of Legislative-Executive Relations
Authors: DAVIDSON ROGER H.
Published: March 2007

The U.S. Constitution's central structural dilemma is the relationship between Congress and the president. The document itself provides little guidance for the day-to-day conduct of these relations. Although we commonly call the system “separation of powers,” it is really an arrangement of separate institutions sharing functions. A basic spirit of accommodation no doubt smooths policymaking, but the system's built-in counterweights are useful in encouraging this accommodation and forcing all the players to seek consensus. Divided government, in which the White House and one or both houses of Congress are controlled by opposing parties, has become more common in recent years. Although demanding skilled leadership in both branches, this situation need not preclude decisive and coherent policymaking. The most serious imbalance, not fully anticipated by the Founders, consists of the so-called war powers: a huge military establishment, unknown prior to World War II, gives the president a sizable advantage in making decisions about taking the nation to war. In such circumstances, how can we preserve the Founders' premise that such decisions are best left in the hands of representative assemblies?
Civil Rights in the Soviet Union
Authors: VAXBERG ARKADY I.
Published: March 2007

Civil rights in the Soviet Union are discussed against the backdrop of changes occurring in the Soviet legal system. The Soviet Union is set on a course to create a law-based state. With the signing of the Vienna Concluding Document, the Soviet Union recognized the priority of international law over domestic Soviet law, with the consequence that efforts are being made to bring domestic Soviet legislation into conformity with international law. Now permitted, even encouraged, is the creation of voluntary organizations that monitor the implementation of the Helsinki Accord. Furthermore, a program is being carried out to educate the public on the international agreements on human rights that the USSR has signed. Immense changes are taking place in the public's legal consciousness, and these will guarantee that the defense of civil rights will become a reality.
Understanding Educational Policies in Multilingual States
Authors: PAULSTON CHRISTINA BRATT
Published: March 2007

The main linguistic outcomes of the prolonged contact of ethnic groups within a modern nation-state are language maintenance, bilingualism, or language shift. This article explores the social variables germane to language maintenance and shift in ethnic-group relations. An understanding of language maintenance and shift and the social conditions under which they occur is prerequisite to establishing or evaluating educational language policies that seek to regulate the interactions of ethnic groups within a nation-state. A language policy that goes counter to existing sociocultural forces is not likely to be successful.
International Education for Engineers: A Working Model
Authors: WAKELAND HOWARD L.
Published: March 2007

An overview is provided of the need for a portion of science and engineering graduates to have language and cultural backgrounds for international involvement. The nature and educational background of engineering students, which have changed measurably in recent years, are reviewed. The experimental international engineering programs developed in the College of Engineering at the University of Illinois are described. These include active programs in Latin America, Europe, Asia, and the Pacific Rim. A variety of experimental programs has been tried, and experiences from these efforts have provided a basis for establishing future goals and direction.
Japan's Defense Strategy
Authors: IRIYE AKIRA
Published: March 2007

In 1940, Japan's wealth, estimated in terms of national income, may be said to have been roughly one-tenth of that of the United States, and yet Japanese military power—the number of aircraft and warships in the Pacific—surpassed that of America. Japan had a well-defined strategy, albeit a disastrous one, for conquering Asia in order to establish a more self-sufficient empire. Today, fifty years later, Japan has caught up with the United States in economic indicators, but it spends far less than the latter on defense, and it cannot be said to have developed more than a rudimentary notion of defense strategy. This article contrasts these two periods in recent Japanese history and discusses possible factors for this dramatic reversal. It argues that defense strategies must be seen as conscious choices by a country's leaders; who they are and how they perceive international affairs are of crucial importance.
Japan's Foreign Direct Investment
Authors: KOMIYA RYUTARO , WAKASUGI RYUHEI
Published: March 2007

Japan's foreign direct investment (FDI) began in the early 1950s but was conducted only on a small scale until the beginning of the 1970s. Until the 1970s, Japan's FDI was mainly in the mining sector for resource development, the commercial sector, and the labor-intensive manufacturing sector, directed toward developing countries. With the 1980s came deregulation of the financial sector as well as increased import barriers by major countries in North America and Western Europe, leading to an unprecedented increase in Japan's FDI in the finance and manufacturing sectors of these countries. The latter half of the 1980s was another period of a sharp increase in Japan's FDI, resulting from the large appreciation of the yen. Japan emerged as one of the top investor countries of the world. Except for resource development, government policies have neither restrained nor promoted FDI directly but have instead aimed at creating a generally favorable business environment in which FDI could be conducted.
Japan, an Imminent Hegemon?
Authors: TAIRA KOJI
Published: March 2007

Japan has been thrust into a leading role in world affairs by its own economic success and by the confluence of two powerful global trends: (1) hegemonic cycles that anticipate the rise of a new hegemon as a consequence of the relative decline of the United States, and (2) the end of history itself, which revolutionizes the meaning of hegemony and international order. Japan's hegemonic qualifications are examined with respect to economic resources by which to finance hegemony and its ability and will to lead the world. Japanese-style hegemony is inferred from the known characteristics of government-business relations in Japan and evaluated in the context of U.S.-Japanese relations. It is concluded that the Pax Americana is hardly dead and that Japan finds it more advantageous to fit into modified American hegemony than to go it alone by replacing America as a new hegemon.
Technology and Strategy: Lessons and Issues for the 1990s
Authors: DAVIS JACQUELYN K.
Published: March 2007

Throughout history, technology has exerted an important, if not decisive, influence on military strategy, tactics, and operational art. It has been demonstrated to increase the options available to states as they consider their strategic requirements and their force posture needs. Only by understanding the implications of new technologies can we begin to utilize them in preparing for and deterring future conflict. The utilization of advanced technologies within an appropriate strategic concept forms a central element of U.S. defense policy planning. Moreover, given the tendency in peacetime to cut defense spending, the force-multiplying effect that new and emerging technologies promise to have in the future may, as it did in the Persian Gulf war, serve to offset force posture deficiencies, while providing for a lower level of collateral damage and casualty figures. While it is not possible to conclude whether new technologies will favor the offense or the defense or how they will affect the future conduct of war, it can be stated with great certainty that the relationship between strategy and technology will grow in importance in the years ahead.
China and Japan: Politics Versus Economics
Authors: WHITING ALLEN S.
Published: March 2007

Sino-Japanese relations suffer from the heritage of Chinese bitterness over Japanese expansionism and aggression. This has put a political burden on economic complementarity that places Japan foremost in China's economic modernization in terms of trade, loans, and aid, and second in investment. In addition to the political burden, the economic interdependence is highly asymmetrical, being far more valuable for China than for Japan. Since the Tiananmen massacre, however, economic pragmatism has prevailed in Beijing as a result of Tokyo's muting its criticism of the event and moving to lift sanctions imposed by the Western industrial capitals. Yet Chinese memory and suspicion, heightened by a dispute over islands in the East China Sea, remain.
Literacy Research, Policy, and Practice: The Elusive Triangle
Authors: RYAN JOHN
Published: March 2007

This article explores the interrelationships between literacy research, policy, and practice. The author contends that these three spheres of activity, which in principle should be closely related and mutually supportive, have in fact developed independently of one another and remain separated by mutual misunderstandings. In developing nations, the influence of externally funded research and internationally sanctioned policy objectives has often resulted in research undertakings that fail to illuminate prevailing realities and policy goals out of touch with actual possibilities. The author concludes by noting the growing importance of adult literacy programs and the increasing efforts in both industrialized and developing countries to ensure closer linkages between research, policy formulation, and practice.
Health Care and AIDS
Authors: PECK JONATHAN , BEZOLD CLEMENT
Published: March 2007

The acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a harbinger for change in health care. There are many powerful forces poised to transform the industrialized health care structure of the twentieth century, and AIDS may act as either a catalyst or an amplifier for these forces. AIDS could, for example, swamp local resources and thereby help trigger national reform in a health care system that has already lost public confidence. AIDS can also hasten the paradigm shift that is occurring throughout health care. Many of the choices society will confront when dealing with AIDS carry implications beyond health care. Information about who has the disease, for example, already pits traditional individual rights against group interests. Future information systems could make discrimination based upon medical records a nightmare for a growing number of individuals. Yet these systems also offer the hope of accelerated progress against not only AIDS but other major health threats as well. The policy choices that will define society's response to AIDS can best be made in the context of a clearly articulated vision of a society that reflects our deepest values.