bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Risky Business
Authors: Pugh Jonathan
Published: July 2024

The insurance industry relies on incomplete predictive information to try and identify high risk and low risk clients. In some cases, those who are low risk end up subsidising those who are high risk. But as AI develops, and we become better at predicting outcomes, there is a danger that those who are high risk may not be able to access affordable insurance. Will AI allow for a fair highly personalized insurance market, or might it instead threaten the existence of the industry as we currently know it?
The Perfect Politician
Authors: Lechterman Theodore M.
Published: July 2024

Ideas for integrating AI into politics are now emerging and advancing at accelerating pace. This chapter highlights a few different varieties and shows how they reflect different assumptions about the value of democracy. We cannot make informed decisions about which, if any, proposals to pursue without further reflection on what makes democracy valuable and how current conditions fail to fully realize it. Recent advances in political philosophy provide some guidance but leave important questions open. If AI advances to a state where it can secure superior political outcomes, leading perspectives in political philosophy suggest that democracy may become obsolete. If we find this suggestion troubling, we need to put the case for democracy on stronger foundations.
Do AI Systems Allow Online Advertisers to Control Others?
Authors: Marco Gabriel De , Douglas Tom
Published: July 2024

Subliminal advertising seems ethically problematic. Providing accurate, balanced information about a product seems ethically OK. But in between these two extremes there is an expanse of grey area. At what point does the influence exerted by advertisers, governments, and others become concerning? And does the advent of artificial intelligence increase the risk of such influence? These questions are explored through the case of AI-based microtargeted advertisements.
Should You Let AI Tell You Who You Are and What You Should Do?
Authors: Leuenberger Muriel
Published: July 2024

AI generates profiles and recommendations for us based on information from all sorts of trackers. But should we listen to AI when it tells us who we are and what we should do? The author suggests that even if we could trust AI, this would come at a cost. We might fail the moral demand to create ourselves and take responsibility for who we are. AI can also fix our interests by sending us suggestions for the same type of meetings, books, films, etc. Ultimately, we might lose skills for self-creation.
A more demanding approach to suppletion
Authors: Kayne Richard S.
Published: July 2024

In all cases of suppletion, one needs to ask why the unavailable expected form is not well-formed, and one needs to look for an answer that is independent of the existence of the unexpected form. In a number of cases, or in perhaps all cases, suppletion can be seen to involve, not direct competition between two forms, but instead two structures that differ in that (at least) one contains a silent element lacking in the other.
The syntax of Romance clitics and selective clitic climbing
Authors: Benincà Paola , Cinque Guglielmo
Published: July 2024

While the primary goal of this article is to discuss a number of parametric differences in the syntax of clitic climbing (Section 12.2), we preliminarily lay out in Section 12.1 what we tentatively take the syntax of Romance clitics to be. In the final appendix we also suggest that the different orders of clitics in different closely related varieties cannot be directly derived via movement from the canonical Merge position of the corresponding full complements (as the latter are arguably merged in the same structural positions in all varieties while the order of clitics varies substantially among the different varieties).
The Latin passive morpheme /-r/ and its morphosyntactic similarity with Romance si
Authors: Calabrese Andrea
Published: July 2024

Latin synthetic passive forms display a suffixal /-r/ that is added to the AGR endings (cf. am-ā-t vs. am-ā-t-[u]-r ‘love-pres-3sg-act/pass’ (cf. Meillet 1964, Ernout and Thomas 1951/1972, Weiss 2009). The positioning of this voice morpheme to the periphery of AGR violates the basic generalizations on the positioning of verbal functional elements, according to which Voice should have a very low position in the extended projection of the verb close to v0 and probably lower than Asp0 (Cinque 1999, Zyman and Kalivoda 2020). In this chapter, I will propose an analysis of this positioning based on the close similarity between the morpho-syntactic distribution of the Latin passive morpheme /-r/ and the Romance clitic si in terms of Schäfer’s (2008) analysis of si-constructions in Romance and Distributed Morphology (Halle and Marantz 1993).
Merger Control and Theories of Harm on Data Privacy as a Non-Price Parameter
Authors: Esayas Samson Y.
Published: July 2024

This chapter explores how data privacy fits into competition analysis as a non-price competition parameter in the context of merger control. The chapter critically analyses three theories of harm for incorporating privacy as a non-price competition parameter: privacy-as-a-quality, consumer choice, and maverick-firm theories. These theories help explain situations in which a merger may reduce the level of privacy and trigger intervention from competition law. First, the chapter explores how reductions in data privacy could be incorporated as a quality parameter, including what constitutes a reduction in privacy as a quality and how a merger could lead to such a reduction. Next, it examines the prospects and challenges of incorporating data privacy into competition analysis as part of consumer choice theory, which treats variety as the ultimate policy goal for competition law. Finally, the chapter discusses the maverick-firm theory, which focuses on the elimination of a firm that plays a disruptive role in the market. Drawing lessons from the literature on disruptive innovation, the analysis outlines a framework for applying the maverick-firm theory to factor privacy in merger assessment. The discussion surrounding the different theories of harm, particularly the consumer choice and maverick theories, usefully dovetails with the calls for a complexity-orientated antitrust law, which focuses on fostering diversity, introducing a degree of uncertainty into markets, and curbing the power of dominant digital players in shaping the trajectories of innovation to their own advantage.
Governing Natural Resources in the Age of Strategic Competition
Authors: Nem Singh Jewellord T.
Published: July 2024

This chapter introduces the background and context of the book, its key arguments, the rationale for a comparative approach, and the presentation of the chapters. It opens with a discussion of emerging supply chains in renewable energy capitalism linking the critical minerals sector with emerging industries in the 21st century. The worldwide shift towards clean energy technologies sets the pace for new strategic competition among industrialized countries, and this shift is likely to determine the future configuration of global power politics. The book presents the view from resource-intensive countries in Latin America and beyond. Challenging resource curse arguments, the book claims that natural resources and industrial development can go hand in hand. It considers the persistence of state ownership as a development strategy as an anomaly, before presenting the book’s key arguments: first, we need to better understand historical antecedents as a precondition to why states seem to maintain SOEs rather than privatize them; and second, the choice of states to pursue a developmental role for SOEs in the era of economic globalization requires a closer analysis of the reforms implemented in SOEs’ organizational structures and a new way to assess SOE performance.
The Dark Side of Statius' Achilleid
Authors: Abad Del Vecchio Julene
Published: July 2024

The Dark Side of Statius’ Achilleid explores systematically and for the first time the darker aspects of Statius’ Achilleid, bringing to light the poem’s tragic and epic dimensions. By seeking to position centre-stage these darker elements, the book offers several new readings of the Achilleid in relation to its literary inheritance, its gender dynamics, and its generic tensions. Beneath the surface of a story that ostensibly deals with a lighter subject matter, the cross-dressing of a young Achilles on Scyros, the volume examines in depth the poem’s relationship to its epic and tragic precursors, and explores more serious themes: challenges to traditional epic narratives, Achilles’ complex familial relationships, his deviant and transgressive heroism, the tragic character of Thetis, and frequent glimpses of the horrors that a cataclysmic Trojan War, looming around the corner, will beget. By looking into Statius’ wide-ranging dialogue with his literary predecessors, such as Homer, Sophocles, Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, and Seneca, as well as Statius’ previous epic magnum opus, the Thebaid, the book investigates the multidimensional characterizations of Achilles and other of the poem’s key characters such as Ulysses, Calchas, and Thetis. Far from simply representing a shameful but essentially humorous cross-dressing episode in Achilles’ life destined to be forgotten, the Achilleid will be seen to challenge the very fabric of epic by probing the validity and authority of its literary tradition, as well as putting on view once again its highly innovative and experimental nature.
Shifting the Deckchairs
Authors: Cooper Christopher , Elston Thomas , Bilous Anna
Published: July 2024

Scholars regard the delegation of contentious or failure-prone tasks to semi-autonomous bureaucracies (or ‘quangos’), and salient examples of officials in these organizations ‘taking the flack’ for ministers, as proof of the so-called ‘agency strategy’ of blame management. But how can we explain cases of administrative re-centralization, in which quangos are abolished and high-risk functions returned to ministerial control? Focusing on the UK government’s ‘public bodies’ reforms initiated in 2010, and the re-centralization of immigration, legal aid, and child maintenance functions in particular, this chapter investigates this inconsistency between blame theory and empirical bureaucratic reform by comparing blame-management strategies prior to and following the loss of each quango. It focuses on a single blame forum (independent value-for-money audits) and draws on quantitative and qualitative comparisons over the decade 2005–2015. It finds that politicians cope with the loss of the quango scapegoat by, in part, switching to ‘problem-denial’ tactics of blame management.
‘Everyone’s Quick to Blame the Alien’
Authors: Consterdine Erica
Published: July 2024

Blame games are ubiquitous in immigration politics; they are distinctive to other political areas because officeholders attempt, and often succeed, to avoid blame by blaming migrants. As immigration is a wicked issue, there are multiple potential problem definitions of why immigration is a problem, and which migrants are the problem. Immigrants are then blamed for all of the nation’s problems, and this blame game is more than just politicking; it has policy feedback effects. However, as demonstrated through two case studies of immigration controversies in Sweden and the UK, the extent to which migrant blame is successfully mobilized is conditional on whether the target migrant group is perceived as blameless or blameworthy. The chapter demonstrates how problem definition is critical in blame games, how migrant blame cascades are mobilized where frames utilized to avoid blame become institutionalized in political debates, and how framings of blameworthiness dictate migrant blame.
Rethinking the Politics of Blame Avoidance under Populism
Authors: Andrews Leighton
Published: July 2024

This chapter argues that while the UK response to COVID may be analysed using the standard models of the blame-avoidance literature, the specific nature of the COVID response under a populist government needs a more critical engagement to draw out the specific approaches of populism, which itself is a strategy of blaming. This requires a stronger focus on the strategic action and intent of the government as it seeks to achieve a state of post-pandemic ‘blame decay’. Drawing on learning from Journalism Studies, the chapter identifies strategic populist approaches of lying, bullshit, boosterism, and scapegoating and suggests a revision of the blame-avoidance typology to accommodate the populist responses.
Creation beyond Creativity
Authors: Ingold Tim
Published: July 2024

For the past two millennia, debates around creation and creativity have turned around the question of whether it is possible to create something from nothing, or whether creativity necessarily involves the recombination of elements already to hand. These debates divided theologians and philosophers from classical through medieval times. Following the Renaissance, however, and in the subsequent rise of modern science, creation came to be strongly associated with the recombinant power of intelligent design. This chapter charts how, from the mid-twentieth century, this association went on to underpin the burgeoning field of creativity research in psychology, leading to an exclusive focus on the novelty of ideas and products that left no room for the creativeness of life itself, in its intrinsic potential for renewal. Drawing on the thinking of John Dewey, Henri Bergson, and Alfred North Whitehead, on questions of philosophy, religion, and art, the chapter elaborates on the distinction between novelty and newness, and makes a plea for the restoration of the idea of creation not as the proliferation of ends but as the promise of perpetual beginning.
Collaborating Using Digital Technologies
Authors: Garud Raghu , Kumaraswamy Arun , Tuertscher Philipp
Published: July 2024

Digital technologies are ushering in fundamental changes in the ways we work. One such change is the possibility of collaboration among actors who are not co-located. Indeed, digital technologies can serve as platforms for groups of actors from different time zones, cultures, and practice domains to engage with one another to accomplish complex tasks, even in the absence of a hierarchy. This chapter explores how digital technologies can facilitate asynchronous, distributed collaboration among actors by studying the emergence of articles on Wikipedia. It finds that the wiki digital technology automatically creates a multi-layered digital trace of who contributed what, the discussions that unfolded, and the emergent outcomes of collaboration over time. A central finding from this study is that this multi-layered digital trace in-use serves as a generative memory that shapes but does not determine the emergent outcomes of such collaboration.
The Machinery of Law
Authors: Green Duncan
Published: July 2024

This chapter argues that the state sees the world, learns, and evolves at least partly through the machinery of law. Beyond the set of rules enforced by litigation, the police, and the courts, the law also has a broader role: it encapsulates what we expect of our society and at the same time contributes to delivering on that expectation. To that end, the chapter examines two forms of law and how they might be used to implement change. In contrast to formal legal systems, ‘customary law’ is a community-level justice system not codified by the state, deriving its legitimacy from local mores, values, and traditions. The chapter also looks at how power is wielded in international law and how activists can use the different legal systems to promote progressive change.
Transnational Corporations as Drivers and Targets of Change
Authors: Green Duncan
Published: July 2024

This chapter focuses on transnational corporations (TNCs), not only as economic heavyweights, but also as influential players in political and social change. It traces the origins of the modern TNC to the East India Company, which was established in 1600 and grew to become a trading empire that encircled the globe. The chapter next looks at the ways in which TNCs drive change, arguing that they do so both through their normal business operations and through their behaviour as political players. The world of TNCs is seething with expressions of power, hidden in their political connections and invisible in the extraordinary influence on consumers exerted by brands and the values they claim to embody, as well as the apparently mesmerizing authority of giant corporations in the eyes of policy makers. With this in mind, the chapter also discusses the ways in which activists can in turn influence TNCs, for example the pharmaceutical industry over access to medicines for Covid-19 and HIV/AIDS.
Citizen Activism and Civil Society
Authors: Green Duncan
Published: July 2024

This chapter contains a more in-depth discussion of who citizen activists are, how they pursue change, and what outsiders can do to help. Citizen activism is considered as any individual action with social consequences, and much of it involves collective activity. In recent years, this type of activity has grown exponentially across the developing world, and is driven by several factors: rapid increases in literacy and access to education (particularly for women), a greater openness to political activity, and the spread of new norms regarding rights and justice, as well as shocks like the Covid-19 pandemic. Technology is also a factor, most recently through the spread of social media and mobile telephones, which greatly expand the possibilities of networking among large groups, both to pursue self-help strategies and to influence the state. However, government assaults on ‘civic space’ are rapidly curtailing these possibilities. Outside support can help, but only if it understands the systems in which civil society is operating and genuinely shifts power and resources to local actors.
Conclusion
Authors: Wentker Alexander
Published: July 2024

Based on an analysis of the legal position of parties to an armed conflict within the international legal system, the book has developed an account of the legal framework for identifying parties. This analysis of party status enhances our understanding of the architecture of the international legal regulation of armed conflict and its ability to respond to the complex realities of contemporary armed conflicts. In practical terms, the framework proposed in the book may serve as an analytical roadmap in actual conflict settings. Overall, the account of party status presented in this book reveals often overlooked ways in which the established structures of this body of law enable addressing challenges to the effective protection of individuals that are raised by increasingly widespread and varied patterns of cooperation. Even as the international regulation of individuals and third parties in armed conflict develops further, a clear understanding of the status of parties still has much to offer.
Realism, Relativism, and Reference
Authors: Loewer Barry
Published: July 2024

There is a worry that the BSA and even more so the PDA may be incompatible with scientific realism and metaphysical realism and, worse, be committed to what Lewis calls “ratbag idealism.” The worry is due to the fact that both accounts say that laws and, in the case of PDA, fundamental ontology/properties and space-time, depend in part on what systems best satisfy criteria fashioned by human scientific practice. This seems to make the BSA and PDA incompatible with realism. This chapter argues that the PDA is compatible with scientific realism and that, although it makes laws, space-time and fundamental ontology, and properties partly dependent on scientific practice, this poses no problem for defensible metaphysical realism. The chapter also discusses Lewis’s argument that perfectly natural properties are needed to defend realism from Putnam’s Paradox.
Reprise and Conclusion
Authors: Loewer Barry
Published: July 2024

This chapter reviews the discussion of laws and argues that the PDA account is the best account so far developed. It is shown that it satisfies the conditions that earlier chapters enumerated by an adequate account of laws of nature. Hawking asked, “What is it that breathes fire into the equations and makes a universe for them to describe?” The PDA’s answer to his question is that the fire is the activity of science. Reality’s structure provides the fuel, and science, by finding a systematization satisfying certain conditions developed during its history, ignites it to yield fundamental ontology and laws.
Translating Rome
Authors: Ostacchini Luisa
Published: July 2024

This final chapter considers Ælfric’s presentation of Rome, the most culturally significant city of the early medieval imagination. In the Lives of Saints, there is not one single ‘Rome’, but rather four different and interrelated images of the city. Rome was at once the metaphorical keystone of the Christian church; the imagined embodiment of imperial ambition; a real, geographical locale; and a font of sainthood which nourished England’s own cult of saints. Throughout the Lives, Ælfric diminishes Rome’s physical reality while emphasizing the city’s symbolic importance, thereby emphasizing commonality between Rome and England despite the considerable geographic and cultural lacuna between the two places. Rome serves as the heart of Ælfric’s imagined European Christian community, representing the idealized imperial, scholastic, and ecclesiastical achievements that all of the universal church, and particularly England, might share in.
What Literature Does Not Say
Authors: Khair Tabish
Published: July 2024

It makes the argument, already outlined in my reading of Chekov’s story in the previous chapter, that literature is not just about language, though of course it cannot exist without language. The chapter looks at the different ways in which ‘stories’ are used and read in literature and in other disciplines, with the focus on anthropology in this case. It stresses the role of stories in literature but suggests that literature cannot be simply conflated with storytelling. It focusses on how literature works, not just through what it says but also what it does not and sometimes cannot say, and illustrates this with readings of Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights and Robert Macfarlane’s Underland. The focus is on highlighting the role of seemingly ‘non-linguistic’ elements, such as silence, gap, or noise, in literature.
The Example of Gorboduc
Authors: Orgel Stephen
Published: July 2024

Translating manuscript into print was not a straightforward matter. The conventions are not the same; in particular, the presentation of verse and prose is different in script and in type, and it is clear that printers sometimes misunderstood the prosody of their copy text. This is an issue because English Renaissance drama is generally a verse medium, but even more because editors since the eighteenth century have had a strong bias in favor of verse, and have systematically transformed or revised anything that can be represented as verse. Modern Shakespeare includes a great deal more verse than seventeenth-century Shakespeare.
From Stage to Page
Authors: Orgel Stephen
Published: July 2024

How do we know what the relation was between the texts that have come down to us as books and what playgoers saw in Shakespeare’s theater? Readings are performances too, especially readings aloud, as they typically were until the last century. But reading performances are inflected by the decisions made by the editor of the book. In texts like Tamburlaine or The Spanish Tragedy, which acknowledge that they have been rewritten to be printed, the reader is not experiencing the same play that Marlowe’s or Kyd’s audiences saw. All printed texts, including Shakespeare’s, have gone through some editorial process.
Conclusion
Authors: Orgel Stephen
Published: July 2024

For the ancients, drama was both a codification of the culture through its legends and mythology, and a source of entertainment; for many subsequent centuries that vital tradition was ossified into a small corpus of classic drama, whether ignored and discarded as pagan, or useful primarily for the study of classical languages. In English universities, however, for many decades the ancient plays were not simply texts for study but living drama; in the culture at large they served as models for new drama. Now the tradition survives chiefly in the form of books.
The Riddle of the Sands
Authors: Childers Erskine , Snaith Anna
Published: July 2024

Executed in 1922 for his involvement in Irish republicanism, Childers in remembered most vividly for his ground-breaking spy novel, The Riddle of the Sands (1903). In spite of good prospects in the Foreign Office, the sardonic civil servant Carruthers is finding it hard to endure the emptiness and boredom of his life in London. He reluctantly accepts an invitation from a college friend, Davies, the shyly intrepid yachtsman, and joins him on a sailing holiday in the Baltic. The regeneration of Carruthers begins as he is initiated into the mysteries of seamanship, but the story builds in excitement as Carruthers and Davies discover a German plot to invade England.

Like much contemporary British spy fiction, The Riddle of the Sands reflects the long suspicious years leading up to the First World War and the intricacy of its conception and its lucid detail make it a classic of its genre. This edition is complemented by a fine introduction which examines the novel in its political and historical context.
Critical Concepts in the Study of Learning and Memory
Authors: Roediger Henry L. , Uner Oyku
Published: July 2024

Concepts are crucial in all scientific fields. They permit researchers to conceive of the phenomena studied in certain ways and, as the history of science teaches, they can prevent researchers from seeing these phenomena in other ways. This chapter reviews and analyzes 16 concepts critical to the study of learning and memory: learning, plasticity, memory, encoding, consolidation, coding and representation, working memory, persistence (storage), retrieval, remembering, transfer, context, forgetting, inhibition, memory systems, and phylogeny and evolution. Of course, many other important concepts exist, but these are essential. Psychology and neuroscience seem to accrue new concepts and rarely is a concept abandoned.
Attention and Memory
Authors: Sherman Brynn E. , Turk-Browne Nicholas B.
Published: July 2024

Attention plays an important and pervasive role in human perception, filtering complex sensory input based on what is most salient or relevant, and gating the entry of this information into conscious awareness. In addition to modulating processing of the current environment, the control of attention over perception has downstream consequences for processing of the past and future, determining what information is available for memory encoding and retrieval. This interaction between attention and memory is bidirectional, as goals, episodes, and knowledge held in memory in turn inform attentional selection and vigilance. These bidirectional interactions can be found across different types of memory and their underlying brain systems. This chapter catalogs the ways in which attention and memory interact, focusing on working memory, episodic memory, and learning. By reviewing the neural and behavioral mechanisms underlying these interactions, the chapter reconceptualizes attention as serving a broader role in the organization of the mind, and memory as being fundamentally selective and interwoven with perception.
Rehearsal Processes
Authors: Ward Geoff
Published: July 2024

This chapter reviews rehearsal processes in human memory. It considers the different types and functions of rehearsal; the different methods used to examine rehearsal; and the role of rehearsal in classic short-term and working memory tasks and theories, including the Brown–Peterson task, immediate free recall, immediate serial recall, and the complex span task. A variety of different types of rehearsal have been proposed, including: maintenance (or articulatory) rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal, attentional refreshing, covert retrieval, and short-term consolidation. Theorizing about rehearsal can be highly contentious, and the chapter discusses theories that assume rehearsal enhances later accessibility, theories that assume rehearsal merely maintains items in a highly accessible state, and theories that propose that there is no causal link between rehearsal and recall. The chapter considers the relationship between rehearsals and later recall, the relationship between rehearsals and repetitions, and whether rehearsal and recall are underpinned by the same retrieval mechanisms. The chapter concludes with a summary of the current points of contention and a personal viewpoint—that rehearsal is most likely to enhance recall to the extent that retrieval enhances later retrieval, because rehearsal and recall are underpinned by the very same mechanisms.
Context Reinstatement
Authors: Manning Jeremy R.
Published: July 2024

Context reinstatement is the process by which humans incorporate thoughts from their past into their current mental state. This chapter is concerned with characterizing the cognitive and neuropsychological underpinnings of context reinstatement. Modern theories of context reinstatement are inextricably tied to theories of how humans process and perceive the present. The primary goal of this chapter is to present a conceptual framework for characterizing how experiences unfold in time and how people’s mental states at each moment relate to their experiences. This framework allows researchers to compare, contrast, and test different theories of context reinstatement. A second component of this chapter is concerned with two fundamental properties of how people’s experiences unfold and how people perceive and remember them: scale invariance and event segmentation. The chapter concludes with a reflection on the proposed role of context reinstatement in facilitating a range of important memory-related cognitive functions.
Memory Reconsolidation
Authors: Nadel Lynn , Sederberg Per B.
Published: July 2024

Memory reconsolidation refers to the phenomenon whereby a previously consolidated memory—that is, one that is resistant to interference or disruption—becomes labile due to reactivation, initiating a short window during which that memory can be modified. With a wide range of potential clinical and educational applications, reconsolidation has been demonstrated across multiple domains and timescales, including fear, motor, and episodic memory. This chapter clarifies the psychological processes involved in reconsolidation, making connections to underlying physiological mechanisms, with the goal of providing a framework for understanding why and when reconsolidation takes place. Drawing on reviews of both human and relevant animal studies, this chapter highlights the importance of both context and predictions for determining whether new experiences give rise to new learning or the updating of previously learned associations.
Schema, Inference, and Memory
Authors: Varga Nicole L. , Morton Neal W. , Preston Alison R.
Published: July 2024

Understanding how knowledge structures, or schemas, are formed and how they influence memory and inference has posed long-standing challenges for cognitive scientists. Recent neuroscientific work has helped elucidate the role of schemas in cognition by quantifying their formation and expression in novel situations. This chapter reviews evidence that the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) mediate schema formation. This evidence suggests that bidirectional hippocampus-mPFC interactions support formation of representations that integrate commonalities and emphasize goal-related differences among related events. Consistent with this theory, recent studies have found evidence that hippocampus supports schema formation by binding current experience with reactivated memories. New data further suggest that mPFC guides formation of hippocampal schemas by biasing encoding toward goal-relevant information while compressing irrelevant features that differ across events. By representing the commonalities and differences among previously and newly acquired information, schemas extend beyond direct experience to support flexible behaviors, such as inferential reasoning.
Prospective Cognition and Its Links with Memory
Authors: Addis Donna Rose , Tanguay Annick F. N.
Published: July 2024

The past decade has seen a reconceptualization of explicit memory that closely links it with prospective cognition. This chapter provides a brief historical perspective on prospection within memory research, an overview of the major modes of prospective cognition, and a comprehensive review of research examining episodic and semantic contributions to future-oriented thinking. It considers taxonomic issues in this emerging subfield, as well as the factors that appear to modulate the degree to which episodic and/or semantic memory are involved in prospection, including contextual specificity and psychological distance, while emphasizing the notion that most prospective thoughts are hybrid representations comprising episodic details and multiple types of semantic knowledge.
The Rational Analysis of Memory
Authors: Gershman Samuel J.
Published: July 2024

The idea that memory might obey rational design principles has been explored from many different perspectives. This chapter surveys rational models of memory, which posit that memory is optimized to store information that will be needed in the future, subject to the constraint that information can only be stored with a limited amount of precision. This optimization problem can be formalized using the framework of rate-distortion theory, which addresses the trade-off between memory precision and task performance. The design principles that emerge from this framework shed light on numerous regularities of memory, as well as how cognitive and environmental factors shape these regularities.
Memory in Infancy and Childhood
Authors: Newcombe Nora S. , Benear Susan L. , Ngo Chi T. , Olson Ingrid R.
Published: July 2024

During the past five decades, there has been a tremendous effort to better understand the nature of memory in infancy and early childhood. These findings are beginning to address the puzzle of how it is possible to build an impressive semantic memory during periods of development when episodic memories for events are unlikely to be retained (infantile amnesia, ages 0–2 years) or are fragile and fragmentary (childhood amnesia, ages 2–8 years). This chapter discusses three relevant issues: (a) how the nontrivial mnemonic capacities of infants fit with the facts of infantile amnesia, (b) the contribution of changes in key component processes of episodic memory to the lifting of childhood amnesia between ages 2 and 8 years, and (c) what is known about the development of the neural underpinnings of memory. The chapter highlights the importance of the reciprocal relationship between research on memory development and theories and models of mature memory systems—that is, how current knowledge about development may constrain building viable models, and how contemporary models provide guidance for understanding memory development.
The Mnemonic Consequences of Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury
Authors: Vakil Eli
Published: July 2024

This chapter presents a review of the effects of moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) on various aspects of memory, including working memory, episodic and semantic memory/contextual memory, prospective memory, skill learning, and memory self-awareness. In addition to reviewing the cognitive sequelae of TBI, the chapter also discusses approaches to memory assessment in TBI and memory remediation. TBI inflicts diffuse injury, including to the white matter (diffuse axonal injury), which is reflected in heterogeneous patterns of impairment across participants. Furthermore, neuroimaging findings consistently demonstrate the vulnerability of the frontal lobes. Memory processes that require strategic and effortful elaboration appear particularly susceptible to TBI. By focusing on these processes, the sensitivity of memory assessment and the efficiency of memory remediation could benefit significantly.
Memory, Depression, and Anxiety
Authors: Hitchcock Caitlin , Dalgleish Tim
Published: July 2024

Impairments in working memory and autobiographical memory are integral to the experience of depression and anxiety. Within working memory, those experiencing poor mental health have a reduced ability to store and manipulate both visual and spatial information, relative to their healthy counterparts. Working memory is particularly impaired for emotional material. As such, novel interventions have emerged to improve working memory deficits, with the most promising results found for emotional working memory programs. Autobiographical memory has long been understood to play a key role in the onset and perpetuation of depression and anxiety. Voluntary retrieval of autobiographical memories of single-incident events is impaired, as is retrieval of memories that are positive in emotional valence. Both depression and anxiety are associated with increased involuntary retrieval of autobiographical memories. This chapter discusses how gold-standard treatments target autobiographical memories, and introduces science-driven memory interventions that seek to improve treatment options for depression and anxiety.
Principles of Expertise for Skill Learning
Authors: Healy Alice F. , Kole James A. , Proctor Robert W.
Published: July 2024

Expertise in any domain is attained through extensive practice. The best practice methods depend on several factors, among which are the three primary phases of training: acquisition, retention, and transfer. This chapter considers nine principles that promote skill learning, all of which have considerable empirical support. Four of the principles involve complicating learning, whereas five involve simplifying it. Complications that have been shown to be beneficial include desirable difficulties, cognitive antidote, variability of practice, and strategic use of knowledge. Beneficial simplifications include focus of attention, mental practice, rules, functional task, and stimulus–response compatibility. Which principle or set of principles to use in a particular training situation necessarily depends on which particular task is being learned and which parameters of the task can be manipulated. Nevertheless, the principles provide useful guidelines for consideration when designing a training regimen to optimize skill learning.
Emerson, Reluctant Feminist
Authors: Eckel Leslie Elizabeth
Published: July 2024

As a student of his freethinking aunt Mary Moody Emerson, collaborator with Margaret Fuller on The Dial, and contributor to the intellectual community that Elizabeth Peabody created at her bookstore in Boston, Emerson nonetheless published books and presented lectures that are startlingly antifeminist. In Emerson’s writing, only men are “representative” individuals, while women represent the emasculating forces of social conformity. This chapter confronts these contradictions as it explores Emerson’s private journals and public writings, asking why Emerson was reluctant to declare his support for women’s rights. Was Emerson oblivious to the power and potential of the women upon whom he relied, or did he minimize their influence to carve out space for his own radicalism? This chapter highlights Emerson’s hesitation to advocate for women’s equality with men, arguing that his ambivalence invites reconsideration in relation to twenty-first-century feminist concerns with self-determination, intersectional identity, and reproductive rights.
Lydia Jackson Emerson
Authors: Fuller Randall
Published: July 2024

Lidian Jackson Emerson (1802–1892) has been almost entirely overshadowed by her famous husband, but she was viewed differently by her contemporaries. Elizabeth Peabody said of her, “We had a beautiful talk about a variety of most intellectual and spiritual things—And I should think she had a rare characteristic of genius—inexhaustible originality.” One of the first to perceive Transcendentalism’s limitations, she reasoned that if the self was of preeminent importance, then people could find no meaning in anything greater than themselves. Lidian convinced her husband to redirect his rarefied philosophy toward the plight of enslaved African Americans. And her “Transcendental Bible”—a satirical rewriting of the gospel from the perspective of the reformers who visited her house—remains unparalleled in its portrait of Transcendentalism’s smug self-satisfaction and its imagining of a road not taken by the movement headquartered in her house.
Nature’s President
Authors: Stancliff Michael
Published: July 2024

When news of Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation finally came to those assembled at the Boston Music Hall late on January 1, 1863, Emerson read “Boston Hymn” to mark the occasion, heralding the executive order as the “word of the Lord,” a substitution that casts Lincoln in a divine light. Emerson’s praise of Lincoln provides a key for understanding the tensions and contradictions that bind nature and civilization as interdependent categories in his canon. Moreover, the Western orientation of the poem’s free-labor geography recalls Emerson’s admiration for John C. Fremont, whose exploits as a Western explorer in the 1840s and 50s captured the attention of a new Republican Party seeking its first presidential candidate. This chapter traces Emerson’s enthusiasm for presidents from Fremont’s 1856 campaign to Lincoln’s death in 1865, grounding his Transcendental theory of emancipation in the antislavery platform of the Republican Party and the settler-colonial discourse of racial progress.
Emerson and Caribbean Emancipation
Authors: Schoolman Martha
Published: July 2024

This essay reassesses Emerson’s “Address on the Anniversary of the Emancipation of the Negroes in the British West Indies,” with an emphasis on the staggered hemispheric emancipation process as it stood in 1844. By emphasizing the address’s engagement with the complexities and reversals of the emancipation process, this essay works to shift critical attention from abolitionist radicalism as an abstract ideal that shone with occasional purity over the course of the emancipation era, to the abolitionist movement’s confrontation with a proliferation of semi-emancipated resistance formations that we can see repeated and revised across the long hemispheric nineteenth century. This reading of the address tracks Emerson’s specific engagement with Haiti’s second revolutionary era in the 1840s before turning to the ambiguities of US emancipation, which Emerson well understood as itself partial and reversible as demonstrated by the treatment of free Black mariners from Massachusetts when they entered Southern US ports.
“The Calamity of the Next Ages”
Authors: Hanlon Christopher
Published: July 2024

This chapter takes up the resonance of Emerson’s ideas for thinkers who were public advocates for racial justice after 1865. It examines a set of lectures Emerson gave during 1862 and 1863, during which he projected the possibilities for a multi-ethnic postwar American democracy: “Perpetual Forces” (1862), “American Civilization” (1862), and “Fortune of the Republic” (1863). During the last of these, Emerson imagined that “a new era of equal rights [might] dawn on the universe as a result of the war” wherein legislators might “write laws for the benefit of men” (LL 2:335). This chapter will treat such projections, to which Emerson gave voice only as his active, independent career was coming to an end, as a keynote that would find resonance among the coming generation of civil rights advocates in the Reconstruction-era United States.
Environmental Authoritarianism
Authors: Eaton Sarah , Kostka Genia
Published: July 2024

This chapter offers a critical review of the environmental authoritarianism (EA) literature. The history of this contested concept is first reviewed before a turn to ongoing debate over whether autocrats are better environmental stewards than leaders in democracies. The argument is made that the study of EA lacks firm theoretical foundations and could benefit from closer engagement with the growing literature on authoritarian survival. Using case study analysis, the chapter then highlights the potential that a focus on authoritarian survival strategies—co-optation, legitimization, and repression—has for better understanding the varieties of environmental authoritarianism. The chapter concludes with a discussion of key variables such as state capacity, level of corruption, leadership, and national wealth that shape autocrats’ ability to make use of these strategies in the environmental domain.
Environment, Natural Resources, and Environmental History
Authors: Damodaran Vinita , Mahanta Sourav Kumar
Published: July 2024

The chapter looks at laws relating to the environment and how these came to be formulated, resource challenges and conflicts facing states and communities, and the development of new regulatory frameworks in colonial India. It attempts to fill the gaps in the literature by focusing primarily on laws related to forests, water, mining, and fisheries in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries covering a long time frame in the context of a broader environmental history of India.
Liability
Authors: Sharma Charu , Chaudhary Vishavjeet
Published: July 2024

This chapter analyses the underpinning theoretical ideas that guide liability in Indian environmental law. It contextualises liability and its contours in the Indian landscape. The text focuses on liability from a criminal law perspective, as well as a civil law perspective. It lists and critically assesses the various pieces of legislation and their scope, including specific sections of relevance and landmark cases that have shaped the jurisprudence of liability. It also enumerates fundamental and common law principles and their corresponding provisions in criminal and civil liability, including in the law of torts. The authors also try to capture the recent shifts in jurisprudence and its impact on the future of liability under environmental law in the future.
Health and Environment
Authors: Sharan Awadhendra
Published: July 2024

This chapter concerns the relationship between health and environment. Laws framed during the colonial period were of two kinds. Municipal management of the environment to ensure better health remained rather restrictive geographically and socially. The anti-smoke law, aimed at reducing respiratory harms, was somewhat more effective, but remained limited to large cities. Towards the middle of the twentieth century, the notion of public health expanded to include nutrition, poverty, housing and the state of physical environment. Health, however, only found a place in the Directive Principles of State Policy. Courts have occasionally taken recourse to this provision to rule on matters of public nuisance. Further, laws relating to water and air pollution and management of hazardous waste have been enacted. Poor implementation, however, has led to the Supreme Court to intervene, while including clean air, water and a healthy environment as essential components of the right to life.
Governing the Environment in the Fifth and Sixth Schedule Areas
Authors: Xaxa Virginius
Published: July 2024

This chapter engages with environmental governance in the Fifth and Sixth Schedule areas of the Constitution of India. At the outset, it spells out the broad features of the two schedules besides tracing their lineage in the Constitution. It then focuses on environmental governance under different historical regimes and delineates the key concerns of the people and the environment. Following this, the potential of environmental governance under regimes of contemporary times is discussed. The chapter then analyses the state of the environment in the two scheduled areas and puts forward a perspective for environmental governance based on experiences of the two areas.