bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
II — R. C. Talbot
Authors: Talbot R. J.
Published: November 2009

Although VOR/DME has been the standard airborne navigation aid for over 15 years there are still some features of the system which are far from ideal. In particular, the bearing information from the ground station is noisy and frequently inaccurate. There are a number of sources of error, some avoidable and some not. The quality of maintenance, particularly with respect to alignment and calibration, varies greatly throughout the world – for example there have been a number of reports concerning VOR stations in the Eastern Mediterranean with up to 40° error in the transmitted bearing information.
The VHF Radio Lighthouse
Authors: Johannessen R.
Published: November 2009

In this paper, which was presented at the seminar on Coastal Navigation referred to on p. 448, the author describes a new system of radio navigation particularly suited to small craft and coastal vessels.

This paper reviews the objectives of a new radio aid termed the Radio Lighthouse and describes its scope and use. The results achieved to date are given, as well as plans for the immediate future. A consideration of the options available in implementing the system and methods of obtaining navigational data from the system conclude the paper.
II—The First Year of MNPS
Authors: White F. A.
Published: November 2009

The adoption by the International Civil Aviation Organization of the MNPS requirement in the North Atlantic Region was based on two premises:

(i) The need to maintain an acceptable level of safety in an ATC environment in which a major systems change was taking place—the withdrawal of the Loran A Navigational System on 31 December 1977.

(ii) The evidence of an option to take economic advantage of the provision of advanced navigation systems now being used by the majority of traffic operating in the Region. This advantage would be a reduction in the lateral separation minima.
Edward J. Johnson and the early History of Ship Magnetism
Authors: Cotter Charles H.
Published: November 2009

During the months of October and November 1835 a series of magnetic observations was made, under orders of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, on board the iron steamshipGarryowenby Commander Edward J. Johnson R.N. The results of Johnson's observations paved the way to Airy's solution to the crucial problem of compass management on board an iron ship.

Johnson related in a paper in which he described his experiments, that he proceeded to Ireland taking with him the necessary instruments for ascertaining the deviation of the magnetic needle produced by the local attraction of an iron steam-vessel, together with instruments for measuring dip and magnetic intensity. Every facility was afforded him by the owners of theGarryowen, the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company, and by the builders of the vessel, Messrs. Laird of Liverpool.

TheGarryowen, built in 1833, was a paddle steamer of length 130 ft, breadth 21 ft 6 in and depth 11 ft. She was equipped with two engines each rated at 85 h.p. and her tonnage was 281 tons burden. She was fitted with four water-tight transverse bulkheads of wrought-iron ¼ in thick. Her hull and boilers were of malleable iron and the total weight of iron in her structure amounted to 180 tons.
Interaction at Sea
Authors: Dand Ian W. , Paget P. J. V.
Published: November 2009

Dr Corlett's paper on hydrodynamic interaction (Journal, 32, No. 2, May 1979) is of great interest, coming as it does from a practising naval architect with considerable experience of dealing with complex issues arising from casualty investigations. His paper gives an insight into the causes of interaction and the practical illustrations given in the paper add weight to his arguments.

Model experiments to study interaction between ships in shallow water have been undertaken at the National Maritime Institute for some years now and many of the results obtained agree with conclusions reached by Dr Corlett. For example experiments carried out with models close to sloping surface-piercing and flooded banks have shown that at moderate to high speeds the side forces and turning moments induced by the banks vary not as the square of the speed, but as the speed raised to a power greater than two. It is of interest to note that the rudder force used to counteract these bank effects varies roughly as the square of the speed, so that when close to a bank at too high a speed, use of the rudder is less likely to maintain control than would be the case at a more moderate speed.

The author correctly emphasizes the advantages of a ‘kick ahead’ with a single screw ship, but it is well to bear in mind that this device is not applicable to some ships, notably those with twin-screws and a single centreline rudder.
An Analysis of Error Distributions in Navigation
Authors: Hsu D. A.
Published: November 2009

This paper first presents some of the results of my recent work on error distributions in navigation which may be worth summarizing for navigation practitioners. Some further explanations and insights in the second part may be useful for future studies on the subject.

Discussion on this subject was initiated by E. W. Anderson who questioned the adequacy of the gaussian distribution as the probability model for navigational position errors. He observed that empirical position error distributions are usually long-tailed (i.e. with raised skirts) compared to the gaussian and have a strong tendency to form an exponential function of error magnitude, especially in the far tail-region. Attempts to explain this phenomenon have been made by Abbott, Crossley, Lloyd, Parker, Lord, O. D. Anderson, etc., based on various aspects of navigation performance. To provide a general structure for characterizing the error distributions, Anderson and Ellis made a significant step forward in suggesting ‘Student's t’ distributions as error models. As pointed out by Parker, however, this suggestion has to be taken with reservation and requires further verification based upon empirical data. My own recent work has indeed taken the direction advocated by Parker and has attempted to fill a theoretical deficiency in Anderson and Ellis's work, to provide examples of empirical model fitting and to discuss the merits of Student's t distributions relative to the double exponential model. The main findings are summarized below.
Some Social Problems in Modern Navigation Systems
Authors: Hopkin V. David
Published: November 2009

A navigation system is not normally changed for social reasons. When changes are made, they are intended to meet new or more stringent requirements, to utilize technological advances, to increase efficiency, to improve safety, or to extend the functions which can be fulfilled. Innovations are evaluated according to their technical feasibility and cost. Not only have social factors failed to influence the nature of changes, but the social implications of changes have also been ignored. Yet greater benefit would often accrue from changes if their social effects were predicted and allowed for. Such predictions are usually feasible.

Social problems in navigation systems are gradually becoming more severe. In the past, man could often compensate for their effects because his role remained sufficiently dominant for him to be innovative and flexible in resolving difficulties, and he retained a full understanding of the system and control over it. More recent aids tend to curtail human communication, restrict the nature of teamwork, and reduce the social aspects of such functions as consultation, supervision, and verification. Man-machine relationships are emphasized, instead of relationships between people. Each man tends to be more remote from his colleagues, and to know less about what they are doing. These effects are generally incidental rather than the reflection of a deliberate policy.
The Economics of Air Traffic Control
Authors: Hislop Angus
Published: November 2009

This paper is based mainly on a study carried out in 1976/7 for the UK Department of Industry into the long-term development of air traffic control systems in Europe by a team drawn from the Civil Aviation Authority, the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment and private industry, in which Coopers and Lybrand provided the economic expertise.

Until the early 1970s, air traffic control was almost completely neglected by air transport economists. Economists contributed to the planning of airports and airline operations but not to the third facet of the air transport system. However, in 1970–1, in conjunction with a programme of expansion and improvement of the country's airports and airways, the US Department of Transportation launched a major study of the airport and airways system. This was designed to establish an equitable charging policy between the different categories of user but in the event its recommendations in this area have only recently begun to be followed.
The Social Cost of Marine Accidents and Marine Traffic Management Systems
Authors: O'Rathaille M. , Wiedemann P.
Published: November 2009

The benefits to society that would result from the introduction of a given marine traffic management system depend directly on the scale of the system introduced. Since the cost society would be required to pay for a marine traffic management system would also vary directly with its scale, by focusing on the cost of marine accidents both from cargo pollution as well as from loss of life, a direct cost-benefit comparison can be made, indicating the benefit to society attained through a reduction in cargo pollution and loss of life per thousand pounds expenditure on control systems.

Such an analysis implies confidence in the ability to assess in monetary terms the effect of pollution on such non-economic entities as the natural ecosystem as well as the value of such supra-economic items as a human life. In presenting our estimates we not only point out their shortcomings but also admit that past research has been unable to place an economic value on some of the dimensions of the environment, and that therefore any estimates for the social cost of pollution and loss of life should be considered a conservative estimate of the true social cost.

It is only when we have reliable estimates of the social cost of marine accidents that we can proceed to assess the net benefit of a given marine traffic management system. But then further research must be undertaken on the question of just what is the nature of the relationship of controls and social costs.
The Social and Economic Impact of the Costs of Carriage of Goods by Sea
Authors: Couper A. D.
Published: November 2009

The principal aim of this paper is to explore some of the wider social and economic implications of reductions in the real costs of sea transport as a result of the changes in maritime technology since about 1960. In this wider approach we have to consider shipping not as a series of mechanical links meeting with land transport at port interfaces, but as a system which has in recent years undergone processes of transformation, technically and organizationally, which have been of such fundamental significance as to affect several aspects of the spatial organization of society.

Major transport advances have had a considerable impact on society at various times in the past – the industrial revolution in Britain has equally well been described as the transport revolution; but it is always difficult at the time to discern the significance of the social and economic impact of such changes – even now there is some controversy as to whether the too early allocation of resources to railroads in America inhibited nineteenth century rates of economic growth in that country. But what have been common to all transport revolutions are the ways in which they have acted to converge time and space through increased speed of transit and reduced costs of overcoming distance. This in turn has affected perceptions of the value of places, the accessibility of resources and markets, and has influenced decisions relating to the location of mining, agricultural, and industrial activities.
Traffic in the Dover Strait
Authors: Oudet L.
Published: November 2009

On 18 May 1979 the Nautical Institute held a one-day meeting at Dover to discuss some of the more burning problems of traffic congestion in the Dover Strait. The meeting was attended by shipmasters, pilots, representatives of the Dover Strait Information Service, the Department of Trade, etc. The Institute was formally represented at the meeting by the Director and Captain A. N. Cockcroft. The papers had been circulated beforehand. The following contribution from Commandant Oudet was read out by Captain Cockcroft.
Studies on Interaction at Sea
Authors: Barrass C. B.
Published: November 2009

From about 7 years’ research work on the phenomenon of Ship Squat I have produced curves (Fig. 1) that will give predictions of maximum squat for merchant-ship types having block co-efficients, CB, ranging from 0.500 to 0.900. They are for vessels operating in ‘confined channel’ conditions and ‘open water’ conditions, i.e. those without breadth restrictions.
The Role of Advanced Navigation in Future Air Traffic Management
Authors: Rawlings R. C.
Published: November 2009

Over the last decade there has been considerable development of the applications of modern technology to the avionics of new aircraft. Examples of this have been the provision of area navigation and flight management systems, and now with the advent of cathode ray tube displays there is the opportunity to provide a greater range of information to the pilot in a more readily assimilable form than is at present possible. There have been similar developments in computer assistance to air traffic control (ATC) to aid the ground controller. There has, however, been a tendency for these and other parts of the operational system to be improved without fully evaluating their interaction with each other, especially the interaction between ATC and the flight deck. Unless this aspect is studied it is probable that the full capability of the system with its potential for improving the safety and economy of operation will not be fully realized.

The Civil Avionics Section of Operational Systems Division at RAE Bedford, in collaboration with UK avionics manufacturers and funded by the Department of Industry, has been concerned for a number of years with the development and integration of these systems in the flight deck of the future and with the way in which they can be used to develop, in conjunction with ATC, an improved system of air traffic management.
Possible Improvements in Meteorology for Aircraft Navigation
Authors: Bisiaux M. , Cox M. E. , Forrester D. A. , Storey J. T.
Published: November 2009

Based on a survey of its members in Europe and the Middle East, IATA expects that by 1985 almost half their aircraft will be equipped with Flight Management Systems (FMSs) incorporating 2-D, 3-D or 4-D navigational capabilities. The prime aim of this very significant investment is to increase airline operating efficiency, in particular through fuel saving. Flight Management Systems can perform a wide range of tasks, including flight planning and performance management, for which inputs of meteorological data are required. The more sophisticated systems can accept a number of wind and temperature inputs for the climb and descent profiles plus a wind input at each way-point of the cruise phase. Any estimate of flight progress and fuel requirements based on the use of the most economical aircraft speeds, whether made by the pilot or by an FMS, can only be as good as the knowledge of the wind-vector data pertinent to the flight. Whereas FMS-equipped aircraft in level cruise can often ‘update’ or correct the forecast data relating to the next flight leg, this is not feasible when major changes of altitude are necessary, e.g. during the descent phase. Accurate meteorological data are essential to ensure the optimum results from the FMS.

During the early 1970s, before the fuel crisis began, some thought was being given to the problem of handling the rapidly increasing number of aircraft movements in Europe.
Self-adaptive Filters for the Integration of Navigation Data
Authors: Abbott J. P. , Gent C. R.
Published: November 2009

The traditional non-adaptive Kalman filter includes models of the error characteristics of the navigation aids in use and such filters are very successful, so long as their model assumptions approximate to the true error characteristics sufficiently closely. However, for any filter there will be times when the environment changes and one or several aids will have errors which are not consistent with the assumed error models. It is necessary to consider carefully the sensitivity of the filter to such changes and, where a significant reduction in performance ensues, modifications to the filter are necessary.

This paper introduces a Kalman filter which monitors the behaviour of internal variables to detect and characterize any model imperfections. The filter will then adapt its internal model of the environment accordingly. The discussion is restricted to the development of a navigation filter for integrating dead reckoning (EM log and gyrocompass) and Omega data. The principles are the same for any filter and details regarding similar analysis involving the use of other aids, for example Satnav and Decca, have been developed in a similar way.

Before implementing any filter it is necessary to understand the behaviour of the measurement errors. For the dead reckoning and Omega aids this behaviour is described in section 2, while section 3 outlines a filter for integrating these aids and introduces the problems of model imperfections.
Charting for Modern Needs
Authors: Haslam D. W.
Published: November 2009

With the rapid changes taking place in so many countries – new ports, new terminals and anchorages and new buildings of significance to mariners – it is essential that users report back to us whenever they feel that our charting service could be improved. Whilst it is flattering that we seldom do have criticism, this is not always very helpful. At the recent International Hydrographic Conference in Monaco preliminary results of a recent questionnaire issued by the International Chamber of Shipping on the use and availability of navigational charts and Notices to Mariners were made known; it was flattering to hear that over 2000 of the replies stated that they used British Admiralty products as their primary series, but disconcerting that about a quarter of the replies said that arrangements for the supply of both charts and Notices to Mariners were less than adequate. Even for the various national or world-wide series of charts, it has given me food for thought to hear that our own arrangements were considered to be ‘adequate’ in Western Europe (including the Mediterranean) by only 504 out of 1150 ships, by 753 out of 2547 ships in North American waters, and by 457 out of 1507 ships in the Middle and Near East. Many other areas seem to reveal reports just as conflicting as those which we have heard at earlier Chart Users' Panel meetings, when we have repeatedly asked for reports of areas where our service could be improved, but seldom if ever have had any reports of difficult areas.
The Estimation of the Mean Size of Ship Domains
Authors: Lamb W. G. P.
Published: November 2009

Efforts to determine the mean size of ship ‘domains’ from measurements of the distribution of ships in the vicinity of an individual ship have been made by several workers, particularly by Goodwin, who made extensive observations in the Sunk Lightship area of the North Sea. The work involved plotting the positions of vessels at time intervals of a few minutes to estimate the number of ships in an annulus about a central ship, or alternatively the number per unit area at various distances from a central ship. These figures were used to obtain distribution curves from which the average domain could be estimated. The work of Curtis and Barratt on the validation of simulator studies of passing manoeuvres in fog, in which the nearest point of approach of ship's tracks was determined, serves to illustrate an alternative method based on the distribution of the density of tracks. In both procedures use is made of the point at which the distribution function first returns to the value which would obtain if the distribution were uniform, that is, if ship domains were absent. Some doubts have been expressed as to the validity of using the position of the cross-over point as a measure of the average domain size, and also whether it would be more appropriate to employ the position of the maximum value of the functions.
A New Concept for Vertical Separation
Authors: Blom-Bakke Arne
Published: November 2009

The ICA system which is now being considered by the Civil Aviation Administrations in the UK and the USA is based on a new height unit, the ‘millica’. Below an arbitrary fixed level (29000 ft) this unit is equal to 0.3 m; above that level it increases gradually, the rate of increase corresponding to the standard deviation of aircraft height from assigned cruising level. At 10 000 m the unit is equal to 0.325 m and 15 000 m to 0.477 m. In this way the ratio between the separation of cruising levels and the standard deviation of the departure from assigned level remains constant; that is to say, the safety margin is constant. At present, cruising levels up to 29 000 ft are separated by 1000 ft and above this level by 2000 ft, so that there are five cruising levels between 29000 and 39000 ft; in the new system there would be nine.

If δh is the height difference, δp the barometric pressure difference and p the mean atmospheric density in this interval, it is clear that δp = pδh and δh(1/p)δp. From this it follows that if δh is constant between adjacent flight levels the δp decreases with altitude and the vertical separation safety factor also decreases.

If, as has sometimes been suggested, δp remains constant between adjacent flight levels, then δh will increase with altitude and the safety factor will increase also.
Factors Contributing to Marine Casualties
Authors: Fukushima H.
Published: November 2009

Marine casualties usually arise through a combination of complex conditions. To trace any one of the conditions involved, and its reaction on others, not only helps to reveal the cause of an accident but is also important in understanding the nature of such casualties.

Like accidents on land, marine casualties do not arise spontaneously but have ascertainable causes, rarely a single cause but rather a combination of causes. Thus in a collision in fog in a narrow channel we must consider not only faults in carrying out a manœuvre but also the natural phenomena of fog and the narrowness of the channel.
The Development of Milford Haven as a Major Port
Authors: Dudley G.
Published: November 2009

Milford Haven has expanded as a port extremely rapidly over the last few years, largely as the result of a government decision to make it the major deep-water oil port in the country. Between 1959 and 1974 the amount of cargo handled rose from 200,000 to nearly sixty million tons. In this paper, which was presented at an Ordinary Meeting of the Institute held on 19 November 1975 in the City of London Polytechnic with the President in the Chair, the Harbourmaster describes this development, the problems it brought and how they were solved, and some of the lessons learned.
High Accuracy Positioning for Submarine Pipelines
Authors: Broadwood W. F.
Published: November 2009

Among the many problems arising from the exploitation of North Sea oil is that of finding practicable landfalls for the proposed pipelines. The oil companies have been confronted with some of the most difficult landfalls yet experienced where the requirement for precise positioning has been paramount. This paper, which was presented at a meeting of the Institute held at the Southampton School of Navigation on 23 October 1975, outlines the problems encountered and the methods used to overcome them.
A Position Line from an Object off the Chart
Authors: Moody A. B
Published: November 2009

The use of the traverse table for plotting a bearing from an object outside the coverage area of the chart, as described by Pesi Sorab, suggests a graphical solution that might be preferred by some navigators. The method is analogous to advancing a position line by advancing the position of the object observed.
The Dangers of Routing Without Good Control
Authors: Proctor J. D.
Published: November 2009

Well developed states have aircraft following airways in an orderly fashion under full positive A.T.C. control with good v.h.f. communications. The least developed states on the other hand are overflown by aircraft each on its own desired track with little if any control or communications. Many emergent states have taken the simplest step on the road to civilization in the air; they have specified mandatory airways or routes. In the most primitive situation aircraft, usually few in number, are protected against the risk of collision by natural dispersion. In other words the sky is so big and aircraft are so small that, provided they are spread out, there is very little risk of collision. The broadcasting of position reports by aircraft by v.h.f. on 126·9 m enables pilots to resolve any potential encounters that may occur. This situation occurs over the western Sahara.
Inuit Navigation, Empirical Reasoning and Survival
Authors: Irwin Colin
Published: November 2009

In order to navigate and thereby survive in a hostile environment the Inuit have developed a sophisticated body of knowledge that makes travel possible even during a blizzard or white-out. This unique skill was developed from a thorough understanding of the properties of snow and local meteorology. Problems of space, time and distance are also taken into account by Inuit navigators but this is done with minimal use of quantification and abstraction. However this highly practical form of navigation in which the Inuit deal directly with their environment is none the less scientific and empirical.

In 1971 the author attempted a single-handed sailing of the North West Passage and in 1973 completed a crossing of Arctic North America by dog team.
Astronomical Background to the International Meridian Conference of 1884
Authors: Sadler D. H. , Wilkins G. A.
Published: November 2009

The aim of this paper is to summarize the contributions made by the Royal Observatory at Greenwich that led, almost inevitably, to the choice of the Airy transit circle to define the zero meridian for the measurement of longitude and the beginning of the universal day. Although astronomical considerations were not of direct relevance to the deliberations of the 1884 conference, they formed the essential background to the navigational and civil interests which were dominant.
Charting Background to the 1884 Conference
Authors: Haslam David
Published: November 2009

Alexander Dalrymple was not appointed as the first Hydrographer of the Navy until 12 August 1795. Until this time, and indeed for at least twelve years later, individual commanding officers of British warships were expected to buy whatever charts they could find – and could afford. Apart from Greenvile Collins'sCoasting Pilot, no official chart was generally available although the East India Company (of which Dalrymple was allowed to remain Hydrographer when taking up his naval appointment) had produced many reliable charts of the Indian Ocean and East Indies.
The International Prime Meridian Conference, Washington, October 1984
Authors: Malin S. R.
Published: November 2009

By the middle of the nineteenth century, there were over a dozen different initial meridians for longitude on navigational charts, and a much greater number in use for time-reckoning. The need for a single internationally agreed meridian was recognised in the resolutions of the first International Geographical Congress held in Antwerp in 1871. They proposed that the meridian through Greenwich should be adopted, recognizing that this was already the choice of the vast majority of users, and linked this with a second resolution recommending the adoption of the metric system. This was partly a recognition of the intrinsic merits of the metric system, and partly as a concession to the French as compensation for the adoption of Greenwich rather than Paris. Although not widely used, the Paris meridian had some claim to consideration since the observatory through which it passed had been in existence several years before that at Greenwich.
Astronomical Navigation Since 1884
Authors: Fanning A. E.
Published: November 2009

In this technological age, when anartistof nautical astronomy is fast becoming a figure of history, there is a tendency to regard astro-navigation as something that went out with the dodo. It would be as well to remember, therefore, that despite the widespread use of radio navaids from the early years of World War II, astronomical navigation remained the only world-wide fixing system until the launch of the Transit navigation satellites during the 1960s. The truth is that the first half of the present century saw enormous advances in both its methods and practice and the fact that it is still in wide use can be judged by the large number of Nautical Almanacs sold annually.
The Terrestrial Coordinate System and International Earth-rotation Services
Authors: Wilkins G. A.
Published: November 2009

New techniques of measurement make it possible in 1984 to determine positions on the surface of the Earth to a much higher precision than was possible in 1884. If we look beyond the requirements of navigation we can see useful applications of global geodetic positioning to centimetric accuracy for such purposes as the control of mapping and the study of crustal movements. These new techniques depend upon observations of external objects, such as satellites or quasars rather than stars, and they require that the positions of these objects and the orientation of the surface of the Earth are both known with respect to an appropriate external reference system that is ‘fixed’ in space. We need networks of observing stations and analysis centres that monitor the motions of the external objects and the rotation of the Earth. Observations of stars by a transit circle are no longer adequate for this purpose.
The Evolving Law of the Sea
Authors: Haines Steven
Published: November 2009

The ocean environment within which navigators operate is not only physical in character; it is an economic, political and legal environment as well. One of the most significant factors influencing general environmental development in recent years has been the rapid advance and expansion in the field of ocean and ocean-related technology. Much of this technological evolution, while helping to reduce the restrictions imposed by the physical characteristics of the oceans, has created new challenges of an economic, political and legal nature.
Fuel Consumption in Container Ships on the North Atlantic
Authors: Motte R. , Laurence C. A.
Published: November 2009

Commercial interests now demand a close awareness of fuel consumption, which is one of the major costs in vessel operation. This paper outlines one shipping operator's attempts to monitor and improve economic performance as indicated by fuel consumption alone. The authors are well aware that some aspects of operation, such as main engine performance variables, are closely and easily monitored whilst others such as environmental effects are not. They have therefore adopted a ‘macro-economic’ approach to the analysis and advice on Fleet operation in this instance, attempting to monitor the vessel operation system as a whole. Thus fuel consumption is used as a yardstick and it is this particular variable which is the subject of management focus. Although many of the inputs to the complete economic equation are necessarily unquantifiable in precise terms, it is considered that a valid determination of performance is attainable from a scientifically based overview.
The Reliability of Surface Current Observations
Authors: Venendaal G. E.
Published: November 2009

For more than a century and a quarter ships' crews of the world's voluntary observing fleet have made meteorological and surface current observations. Those observations recorded in the ships' logbooks are the backbone of the Marine Archive now held in the Meteorological Office, Bracknell, UK. Much use is made of computer processing for providing suitable statistical data which form the basis of maps and current roses. This article outlines the method of processing used in the Netherlands, illustrating various situations the observer at sea may encounter. The supposition that the use of modern navigation equipment could hamper the making of current observations is discussed, and situations that could cause the reduction of accuracy and reliability of current mean values are mentioned. In essence: how reliable are surface current observations from ships collected in the past few years, and particularly those that will be collected in the years to come?
Windward Passage
Authors: Richey Michael
Published: November 2009

At the International Boat Show in London this year, the former Director was presented with a special Yachtsman of the Year award for ‘services to yachting taking into account his achievements in offshore racing and distinguished service to the art of small craft navigation’. The following account of his single handed transatlantic voyage last year may thus be of some interest to Members even though its strictly navigational content is limited.
Vessel Traffic Services and the Law
Authors: De Bièvre Aline
Published: November 2009

This paper was presented in an elaborated version at a seminar on Safety in European Waters and Progress in the COST-301 Project sponsored jointly by the Institute and the Nautical Institute n i London on 12 December 1984. It reports on the preliminary findings of an independent ‘pilot’ study carried out for the Commission of the European Communities on the legal implications of implementing Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) systems in Western European waters. In particular, it seeks to contribute to wider understanding of the legal position of the VTS authority with respect to the giving of information, advice or instructions to ships, and to assess the possible consequences for legal liability.
Navigation by Computer Processing of Marine Radar Images
Authors: Austin G. L. , Bellon A. , Riley M. , Ballantyne E.
Published: November 2009

The advantages of being able to process marine radar imagery in an on-line computer system have been illustrated by study of some navigational problems. The experiments suggest that accuracies of the order of 100 metres may be obtained in navigation in coastal regions using map overlays with marine radar data. A similar technique using different radar imagery of the same location suggests that the pattern-recognition technique may well yield a position-keeping ability of better than 10 metres.
Navigation Equipment Standards for Merchant Ships
Authors: Beattie J. H.
Published: November 2009

This paper, which was presented at the Institute Conference on navigation equipment and training standards held in Cardiff on 2–3 April, reviews the recent creation of international safety standards for shipborne electronic navigational aids and the new institutional framework in which these are being generated at IMO, IEC and ISO. It suggests that these safety standards, where they exist, are very similar to those needed by shipowners for efficiency of shipoperation.

The paper which follows, by Moore and Page, was also presented at the Conference, an account of which appears in the Record.
II — A. Lister
Authors: Lister A.
Published: November 2009

Several years ago, when Airbus Industrie launched their twin-engined A 300 Airbus, it became apparent that a new generation of long-range aircraft was about to add a different facet to the shape of international air travel. The enormous power available from the big fan engines coming into use meant that adequate performance was available even when an engine failure meant the loss of half the installed thrust. Coupled to this was a standard of fuel economy and tank capacity which meant that the new aircraft were capable of operating over ranges far in excess of those previously attained by twin-engined aircraft.
III — S. Grieve
Authors: Grieve S.
Published: November 2009

Britannia celebrated its 21 st anniversary in 1983. From the beginning in 1962 with three Constellations, Britannia's 1985 fleet is four Boeing 767s and 25 Boeing 737 aircraft. Britannia is now the largest independent airline in Europe in terms of passengers carried and passenger miles flown. Our present route structure, within a radius of 2500 nautical miles of London, is between some 20 UK airfields and over 70 overseas destinations. The range of the B 737 fleet extends to 1900 n.m. with full reserves and a full payload of 130 passengers. The range of our present B 767 fleet, under similar conditions, extends to 2800 n.m. with a full payload of 273 passengers. This payload—range capability is so limited by our decision to operate these aircraft for the time being with a reduced maximum gross weight. Both fleets are operated by 2-man flight deck crews.
Radio Aids to Navigation The Pioneer Days
Authors: Fennessy Edward
Published: November 2009

There have been two distinct phases in the development of radio aids to navigation. The first, which must be regarded as the true pioneer period, followed rapidly upon the development of wireless telegraphy by Marconi and others; it was soon realized that the early aerials employed had directional properties and that this phenomenon could be used to obtain a bearing.
Navigational Almanacs for small Computers and Calculators
Authors: Sadler D. H.
Published: November 2009

In 1947 Dr G. M. Clemence, then Director of the Nautical Almanac Office at the US Naval Observatory, and I visited a number of US institutions engaged in the development of digital computing machines, with a view to their application to the calculation of astronomical ephemerides. We were, at that time, planning the revision of the almanacs for surface navigation which led, in due course, to the unification of The American Nautical Almanac and The Nautical Almanac, Abridged for the Use of Seamen in essentially its present form as (from 1960 onwards) The Nautical Almanac. We were told (actually by an astronomer, Dr T. E. Sterne) that our efforts were pointless since, in the near future, a navigator would be able to calculate the astronomical data that he required to reduce his observations by digital computer; conventional almanacs would no longer be needed. Thirty years later that optimistic forecast, although not yet realized, requires consideration. However, no one could have foreseen that the microprocessor of today is far more powerful than the most elaborate computer that was then practically visualized. For that matter, few would have thought that there would still have been a demand for astronomical data for navigation; the basic principles of many other aids to navigation were rapidly being developed.
Optimum Crossing Angles
Authors: Kwik K. H.
Published: November 2009

Depending on how the encounter rate is defined, different values can be found for the crossing angle or speed giving the smallest encounter rate. When dealing with ‘optimum crossing angles’ or ‘optimum speeds’ it is therefore proper to know which definition is taken as a basis, i.e. which expression is minimized.
Future Developments in Routing at Sea
Authors: Oudet L.
Published: November 2009

The Amoco Cadiz and the Work of the Institute. Seaborne trade calls for international agreement but it is not a matter that attracts much public attention. That is why, as Beattie has pointed out very clearly in his paper ‘Traffic Routing at Sea 1957–1977’ presented to the Institute on 14 December 1977, all the major steps taken to bring some order into the regulation of maritime traffic have been due to the initiative of mariners or maritime organizations. International action was only taken later, to give a legal sanction to such proposals as were felt to be necessary. In any case there was no international authority until 1958 when IMCO (the Inter-governmental Maritime Consultative Organization) took over the direction of maritime affairs between the International Safety of Life at Sea Conferences, and these were not convened at regular intervals. One can easily see that under these conditions progress was slow, depending as it did on either the initiative of seafaring people or on some turn of events that demanded a new approach.
Testing the Sperry Collision Avoidance System
Authors: Fedorowski J. , Galor W. , Hajduk J.
Published: November 2009

Automatic collision avoidance systems are being installed on board more and more ships and this necessitates verifying their characteristics, as compared with postulated requirements. The requirement for such anti-collision systems may be specified as follows:

(i) Radar echoes should be tracked automatically, regardless of weather conditions, the number of echoes, or the relative distance between tracked targets.

(ii) The system should be operable by a single observer, assuming that the information given is used efficiently.

(iii) The information should be displayed in the clearest and the most comprehensible form.

(iv) The system should facilitate alterations of course and speed.

(v) Information relating to collision risk should be provided in ample time if the system is to operate in dense traffic.

(vi) The system should include alarm devices which operate in pre-determined circumstances.
Escape Time II — The Contribution of Automatic Acquisition
Authors: Wylie F. J.
Published: November 2009

In a previous article about Escape Time the writer mentioned automatic acquisition; this is taken by the writer to mean acceptance by the computer/processor of a radar echo and the subsequent initiation of the tracking process if the echo satisfies the requirement of one or more paints every 6 scans, and is one of the 40 (in Digiplot) closest to own ship. But he took the advantages of it to be so obvious that no special stress was laid on the desirability of its inclusion as standard practice. However, it is clear from the replies to the IMCO questionnaire on Radar Plotting, notably that of the International Chamber of Shipping, that although a very high percentage of informed maritime opinion (97) is in favour of automatic (computerized) radar plotting, a somewhat smaller though still a preponderant (65) percentage favours automatic acquisition. A similar view is taken in the United States' reply. Although to the writer this seems to be illogical or without good reason, it may be of interest to examine some possible subjects of controversy.
The Fastnet Storm of 1979
Authors: Coles K. Adlard
Published: November 2009

The Fastnet Race of 1979, over the classic course from Cowes round the Fastnet Rock and back to Plymouth, proved to be the most disastrous in the history of the race, or indeed of ocean racing itself. A storm of exceptional violence, of which the meteorological analysis by itself has provided an inadequate explanation, decimated the fleet causing the loss of 15 lives and the abandonment of many boats. The Royal Ocean Racing Club, which organizes the race, has (with the RYA) issued its own report and the progress of the weather pattern over those fateful days has by now become familiar. In this article Adlard Coles, a highly experienced small-boat seaman (and Institute Gold Medallist), author of Heavy Weather Sailing describes the chaos wrought by the unusually violent and steep seas and attempts to draw conclusions from his own investigation of the affair.
The Recent Casualty Record in the Dover Strait
Authors: Dare S. C. , Lewison G. R. G.
Published: November 2009

In the first six months of 1979 there were six collisions in the area of the Dover Strait (extending from the Greenwich meridian to 2° 30′ E and from 50° 30′ N to 51° 30′ N) that involved at least one vessel of 500 grt or more. (Two further collisions took place during the next four months.) Collisions have not occurred in these waters at a rate of one a month since 1969. Yet since then there have been several notable changes that should have led to greater safety. The IMCO traffic separation scheme has been made compulsory for ships of all nations through the coming into force of the new Collision Regulations on 15 July 1977. Secondly, the Channel Navigation Information Service was established in England in 1972, and it and its counterpart in France have been monitoring the traffic by radar and making regular broadcasts for more than five years. Finally, traffic discipline has steadily improved, as measured by the number of ‘rogue’ vessels that are held to contravene the routing scheme (Fig. 1).

To decide whether this spate of collisions represents a marked deterioration in navigational standards it is necessary to do rather more than merely count occurrences (Fig. 2). In the first place, any evaluation must take account of the amount of damage to the ships involved and to the environment, and of deaths and injuries to personnel.
Transponders in Civil Aviation
Authors: Ratcliffe S.
Published: November 2009

Air transport is characterized by a rapid and fairly steady growth in the size, numbers and speed of the vehicles. The systems for navigation and control of this traffic have evolved with the changing problem, and heavy demands have been, and are being, made on electronic technology. At the same time, heavy emphasis is laid on the need for evolutionary changes; old and new systems must be compatible. The present investment, world-wide, in civil air transport is about £100000M. World-wide compatibility is essential between air and ground electronic subsystems, and such systems and operating procedures are, eventually, the subject of international agreements. It follows that any system changes must be heavily influenced by past history, and for that reason it is proposed to discuss airborne secondary radar transponders on a historical basis.
The Application of Civil Aviation Operational Techniques to Merchant Ship Operations
Authors: Brace J.
Published: November 2009

The aerospace industry has demonstrated very effectively the accuracy and reliability of both manned and unmanned vehicles on extensive and sophisticated missions. There is little doubt that the next two or three decades will see the rapid introduction of further automated and computerized techniques into ship operations and there is a great deal that the shipping industry can learn from civil aviation – in particular, traffic regulation, automated navigation, accident investigation, and training techniques. Three accidents which illustrate some of the problems associated with the operation of merchant ships are cited, and comparisons made with the operational procedures used in aviation.

The motor vessel Blythe Star of 321 grt sailed at 1830 on 12 October 1973 from Hobart, Tasmania, bound for King Island with a cargo of bagged superphosphate. At 0800 on 13 October she heeled over to starboard and sank. The weather was fine, with light winds, slight seas, and very low swell. All of the ten persons aboard abandoned ship in an inflatable life-raft. One died at sea and two others died after reaching shore in southern Tasmania. The remainder, after landing on 21 October, made their way to a logging contractor and safety on October 24. The accident resulted in the biggest search and rescue operation ever conducted in Australia.