bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
USE OF THE CEEB WRITING SAMPLE
Authors: EKSTROM RUTH B.
Published: August 2014

The Writing Sample introduced by the College Board in 1960‐61 is a secure essay evaluated by the colleges to which the student is applying. Questionnaires concerning the use of the Writing Sample were sent to 287 Board member colleges. Usable replies were received from 234.

Of these colleges 43% use the Writing Sample for admissions. Among these the most common practice was to use the samples in admissions decisions for borderline or marginal candidates. Reading was usually done by an admissions officer or admissions committee. The predominate purpose in reading was to gain a general impression of writing ability. Most of the colleges used the Writing Sample as “one of several factors” for admissions decisions. Over 70% of the colleges requiring the Writing Sample found it “extremely helpful” or “somewhat helpful” in admissions. Of the responding colleges 32% had plans to use the Writing Sample for placement. The reading was generally to be done by an English Department committee to gain a general impression of writing ability from all entering students who had submitted the Writing Sample. Plans to use the Writing Sample in guidance or counseling were reported by 20% of the responding colleges.

Questionnaires were also sent to 140 member and nonmember secondary schools. Approximately 60% of the 115 schools returning questionnaires said they made some use of the Writing Sample. In this group, 27% said that the introduction of the Writing Sample brought teachers to give more stress to the importance of composition, 19% said teachers give more attention to the mechanics of composition, and 14% said teachers require more compositions.
CUTTING SCORES AND ERRORS OF MEASUREMENT‐‐A SECOND CASE
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

The effect of errors of measurement on the shape of optimum selection regions is investigated under a second mathematical model different from that previously used. It is found that the second model leads to the same conclusions as the first.
ACQUIESCENCE AND SOCIAL DESIRABILITY RESPONSE SETS, ITEM CHARACTERISTICS, AND CONFORMITY1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J.
Published: August 2014

This study explored the tendency for two characteristics of personality and attitude items–readability and extremeness–to elicit acquiescent and socially desirable responses. The results were largely not consistent with a conceptualization of these response sets as aspects of conformity. The findings were that (a) more acquiescent responses were made to moderate than to extreme personality and attitude items; (b) fewer socially desirable responses were made to moderate than to extreme personality items, but no differences were found for attitude items; (c) more acquiescent responses were made to hard‐ than easy‐to‐read attitude items, although, conversely, fewer acquiescent responses were made to hard‐ than easy‐to‐read personality items; (d) fewer socially desirable responses were made to hard‐ than easy‐to‐read personality and attitude items; (e) subjects high, moderate, and low in acquiescence, as measured independently, did not generally differ in their trends of acquiescent responses to items varying in readability and extremeness; (f) subjects high, moderate, and low in social desirability set, as measured independently, did not generally differ in their trends of socially desirable responses to items varying in readability and extremeness; (g) responses to the two subsets of items that should most reflect conformity were uncorrelated; and (h) the set responses had little generality over different kinds of content or item format. The implications of these findings for the conceptualization, alternative conceptualizations of acquiescent and social desirability response sets, and the generality of these response sets were discussed.
COMMUNICATION RESTRAINTS AND MUTUAL PROBLEM‐SOLVING BEHAVIOR1
Authors: Hemphill John K. , McConville Carolyn B.
Published: August 2014

In most situations, communication among parties involved in a group problem‐solving situation is regarded as desirable if not essential, since each member's intentions can be made known and future actions made predictable. The present experiment was designed to test the hypothesis that communication facilitates the development of effective and predictable structure‐in‐interaction and thus contributes to the effectiveness of the group's problem‐solving activities.

The subjects, 80 women college graduates ranging in age from 20 to 60 years, were divided into 20 groups of four members each. Ten groups were designated as Communication groups and the remainder as Non‐Communication groups. The tasks for all groups were identical: to light a “goal square” in a 5 times 5 electrical plug board in a minimum number of moves. Rules defining permissible moves were imposed to create a mutual task. The Communication groups were permitted to send a written message to any (all) of their partners between trials; the Non‐Communication groups were required to send a message to the experimenter at the end of each trial.

Measures relating to task effectiveness and the development of structure‐in‐interaction were examined. The analysis of each panel of data pointed to the superiority of the Non‐Communication groups in both performance and development of structure‐in‐interaction. This result was not anticipated. Detailed analysis suggests that under certain conditions group task performance may be hindered rather than facilitated by communication.
CURRICULUM, COGNITION, AND EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT1
Authors: Heath Robert W.
Published: August 2014

Based on the proposition that the Physical Science Study Committee high school physics course has an objective of encouraging cognitive preferences different from those induced by traditional physics courses, a Cognitive Preference Test was developed. The following hypotheses were tested:

that PSSC students demonstrate a stronger preference for fundamental principles and questioning than non‐PSSC students,

that non‐PSSC students prefer memory for facts and terms and for practical application to a greater degree than PSSC students,

that preference for fundamental principles and questioning is more positively related to achievement test scores for PSSC students than for the control group students, and

that preference for facts and terms and for practical application is more negatively related to achievement test scores for PSSC students than control group students.

The hypotheses were supported by the data. Implications for further research were discussed.
COMPARISON OF INFORMATION SCALES AND LIKE‐INDIFFERENT‐DISLIKE SCALES AS MEASURES OF INTEREST
Authors: Skager Rodney W. , Bussis Anne M. , Schultz Charles B.
Published: August 2014

The potential of information tests for the non‐fakable measurement of interests was tested by observing the overlap of interest scales with information scales after partialling out verbal and numerical ability. Significant partial correlations between scales of the two types of measures for secondary school Ss led to a comparison of the respective capacities of the two instruments in predicting academic performance and self‐initiated, extracurricular accomplishments in the arts and sciences. While interest scales predicted academic performance independently of measured aptitude for males, the information scales were not related to grades for either sex after partialling out verbal and numerical abilities. In correlations with self‐initiated, extracurricular Science, Esthetic and Literary activities, interest scales did show larger and more consistent relationships than information scales, but the presence of interest components in information scales seems to have been established.
TEST BIAS: VALIDITY OF THE SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE TEST FOR NEGRO AND WHITE STUDENTS IN INTEGRATED COLLEGES
Authors: Cleary T. Anne
Published: August 2014

For this research, a test was said to be biased for members of a subgroup of the population if, in the prediction of a criterion for which the test was designed, consistent nonzero errors of prediction are made for members of the subgroup. Samples of Negro and white students from three integrated colleges were studied. In the two eastern colleges, no significant differences in the regression lines were found. In the one college in the southwest, significant differences were found, but it was the Negro scores which were overpredicted. Thus, in one of the three schools, the Scholastic Aptitude Test was found to be slightly biased, but biased in favor of the Negro student.
THE EFFECT OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION UPON TEST PERFORMANCE OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN TENNESSEE1
Authors: Roberts S. O. , Oppenheim Don B.
Published: August 2014

Previous studies of the effect of coaching on test scores have been essentially negative. The present study was undertaken to determine whether students who had received less adequate instruction and who were less able in scholastic aptitude test performance than the subjects in previous studies might benefit more from special instruction.

Specially prepared linear programed materials, designed to foster an analytic approach to the tasks required on college admission tests and to be used in conjunction with classroom instruction, were developed in the verbal and the mathematical areas. Instruction in either of the two areas was given to eleventh grade students in 18 predominantly Negro high schools. Alternate forms of the PSAT, administered as pre‐ and posttests, were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the special instruction.

While there were statistically significant differences in gain scores between some of the experimental groups and their controls, the outcome of this study, like the outcome of earlier studies, was generally negative. In fact, the gains in the experimental groups were more than offset by reductions in posttest scores in the control groups. The magnitude of the gains observed in the experimental groups were so small that it does not seem reasonable to expect that similar short‐term instruction given on a wide scale would be of significant benefit to disadvantaged students.
THE ABILITY OF PSYCHOLOGISTS TO ESTIMATE VALIDITIES OF PERSONNEL TESTS USED IN A DEPARTMENT STORE1
Authors: Neun Mary Ellen
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this study was to compare the validity estimates of 10 psychologists, knowledgeable in both test content and job requirements, with validity coefficients obtained by correlating employees' test scores and a job performance criteria. Three departments of a large department store were used, Merchandise Clerical, Stock Records Clerical, and Supervisory Trainees.

The correlations between test scores and merit ratings were generally higher for the two clerical departments than they were for the Supervisory Trainee department. The means of the psychologists' estimates of the test validities were not significantly correlated with the actual results for any of the three departments: .22 for the Merchandise Clerical department, .51 for the Stock Records Clerical department, and ‐.49 for the Supervisory Trainees.

The validity estimates of each psychologist were then considered separately across all three departments. The correlation between estimated and actual validities was significant for only one psychologist.
KR‐21 FOR FORMULA SCORED TESTS WITH OMITS SCORED AS WRONG
Authors: Linn Robert L. , Boldt Robert F. , Flaugher Ronald L. , Rock Donald A.
Published: August 2014

An expression was derived for computing KR‐21 based on formula score statistics for the special case when the number of items on the test equals the number right plus the number wrong (i.e., either there are no omits or omits are scored wrong). The effect of using means and variances based on formula scored tests in the KR‐21 formula usually given in textbooks was also discussed.
AN EXTENSION OF THE RULON FORMULA FOR TEST RELIABILITY: THE CASE OF CORRELATED TRUE AND ERROR COMPONENTS OF SCORES
Authors: Williams Richard H. , Zimmerman Donald W.
Published: August 2014

It is proved that Rulon's formula, estimating reliability from split‐halves of a test, can be applied in its usual form even though true scores and error scores are correlated. It is seen, however, that the variance of difference scores in Rulon's formula is not equivalent to error variance and that the standard deviation of difference scores cannot be used as an estimate of the standard error of measurement when true scores and error scores are correlated. Values predicted by the equations presented in this paper are compared to the corresponding values generated by a computer simulation method.
FACULTY PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS
Authors: Davis Junius A.
Published: August 2014

This final report in the Faculty Perceptions of Students series has concerned, in the main, examination of students defined by a consensus of faculty as desirable. A variety of measures were tested for relationship against criteria drawn from frequency of being known and nomination by faculty to several laudatory categories. The major component of general acclaim was revealed to be academic performance, although technical difficulties (size of sample, limited reliability of other criterion measures) may have dampened other potential findings.
THE WIDE RANGE VALIDITY OF CERTAIN NEW APTITUDE TESTS
Authors: Flaugher Ronald L. , Rock Donald A.
Published: August 2014

A study by French showed that the addition of certain new types of test material to the College Board Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) would result in significant improvement of the validity of the SAT for the prediction of college performance by students of high ability. The present study examined the validity of these same types of test materials over the wider range of ability which characterizes college freshmen in College Board member colleges.
RATE AND UNIQUENESS IN CHILDREN'S CREATIVE RESPONDING1
Authors: Ward William C.
Published: August 2014

Three ideational fluency measures were administered to 34 seven‐ and eight‐year‐old boys. Response rate and uncommonness were compared with results from published studies using college student Ss. In agreement with earlier findings, response rate decreased, and average uncommonness of responses increased, over time; Ss who eventually produced more ideas gave them at a higher rate. Creative children (those having high response fluency) did not differ from uncreative ones either in their proportion of uncommon responses throughout the task or in the rate at which their successive responses became less stereotyped. The possibility was raised that children identified as creative differ from others solely in personality and motivational, rather than ability, characteristics.
RORSCHACH PREDICTION OF SUCCESS IN CLINICAL TRAINING: A SECOND LOOK1,2
Authors: Carlson Rae
Published: August 2014

This study reports the development of a Rorschach Index based upon an ego—pyschological conceptualization of an “optimal personality picture” of the successful trainee in clinical psychology. Rorschach Index predictions for 155 trainees of the VA assessment project (Kelly & Fiske, 1951) were compared with dichotomous predictions from the Miller Analogies Test (MAT) and the Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB). The Rorschach Index predicted success and failure and identified failures for “personality reasons” more effectively than the MAT or the SVIB. Implications for use of an “ideal type” approach in prediction are discussed.
SOME TEST THEORY FOR TAILORED TESTING*
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

In a tailored test, each item is selected for administration on the basis of the examinee's responses to previous items, with a view towards optimum measurement of this particular examinee. Various simple rules for 1) selecting the items to be administered and 2) scoring the examinee's responses are compared and evaluated. Some fundamental ideas emerge that will serve as guides in the future design of tailored testing programs.
PERCEPTUAL‐COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY: A GENERALIZED EXPECTANCY MODEL AS A FUNCTION OF THE MOTHER‐INFANT INTERACTION1
Authors: Lewis Michael , Goldberg Susan
Published: August 2014

The present paper concerns itself with the various aspects of the mother‐infant interaction. While amount and variety of stimulation are recognized as important parameters influencing development, the argument is made that a contingency relationship resulting in a generalized expectancy on the part of the infant is, by far, more important. Briefly, if the mother responds consistently and with short latencies she helps develop within the infant an expectation that his action can be effective in influencing his environment. This expectation, as a generalized expectancy, provides the motivation for additional environmental interaction and cognitive development. Data from a study of mother‐infant interaction and tests of cognitive development at three months support this hypothesis.
CONSERVATION OF NUMBER AMONG FOUR AND FIVE YEAR OLD CHILDREN: SOME METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Authors: Rothenberg Barbara B.
Published: August 2014

This study investigates certain methodological issues in current conservation of number assessment procedures. Concern was most particularly directed to the effects on conservation status of the focus and number of questions asked, the presentation of various transformations, and the use of justifications of prior judgments. The subjects were 210 lower and middle class preschool and kindergarten aged children. The results showed important differences in the number of conservers identified depending on the conservation question or questions asked and on the number of transformations presented. Lower class children were seen to be more likely inaccurately assessed in terms of conservation status than middle class children. The results also suggested that further study be devoted to the eliciting of and value placed on Ss' justifications. Overall, only 6% of the Ss were actually found to be conservers. The impact of the methodological findings is discussed and evaluated.
A CROSS‐CULTURAL STUDY OF THE STRENGTH OF THE MÜLLER‐LYER ILLUSION AS A FUNCTION OF ATTENTIONAL FACTORS1
Authors: Davis Clive M. , Carlson Julia A.
Published: August 2014

In order to investigate the role of attentional factors in cross‐cultural differences in illusion susceptibility, Müller‐Lyer illusion stimuli were administered to several samples of adult male Ss, in Uganda and the United States under two instructions. One instruction directed S to attend to the horizontal lines and to withhold attention from the angled lines. The other instruction merely asked him to tell which of the two horizontal lines was longer. When the horizontal and oblique segments were separated and of different colors, there were no instructional differences. When the angled lines joined the horizontals and the stimuli were all of one color, instructional differences were found. The lesser susceptibility of the African Ss was replicated.
TWO OPERATIONS IN CHARACTER RECOGNITION: A PARTIAL REPLICATION
Authors: Bracey Gerald W.
Published: August 2014

Subjects carried out a choice reaction time experiment in which they were required to press one lever if a tachistoscopically flashed numeral were a member of a previously memorized list of numerals and a second lever if it were not a member of the list. The number of numerals in the list was varied from one to four. On half of the trials the numeral was partially masked by a pattern of visual noise. For one group a single fixed pattern of noise was used; for a second group four patterns presented in random order were used. Reaction time from the onset of the numeral to the lever press was found to be a linear function of list size, confirming Steinberg's hypothesis that the list is scanned serially to determine a match. Partial masking was found to add a constant increment to reaction time for both groups, independent of set size. The increment was equal for both groups. The constancy of the reaction time increase contradicts Sternberg's results in which the increment was found to be, in part, a function of list size. The results of the present study indicate that one cannot dismiss the possibility that subjects identify the character to the point of labelling prior to an attempt to determine list membership.
ANALYZING SCHOOL EFFECTS: HOW TO USE THE SAME DATA TO SUPPORT DIFFERENT HYPOTHESES
Authors: Werts Charles E. , Linn Robert L.
Published: August 2014

Four methods of estimating the magnitude of school effects are compared and systematic differences in the magnitude of the effects are shown and discussed.
IMPLICATIONS OF A SHORT‐TERM MEMORY METHOD FOR A K‐SPAN LEARNING MODEL: SOME DATA ON CHILDREN1
Authors: Freedle Roy
Published: August 2014

Sequential analyses of learning data collected in noncontingent 2‐choice probability learning studies often reveal that a response made on trial n is strongly influenced by the pattern of events which occurred over the last few trials. A learning model which incorporates such a memory of recent events as a basic assumption has been found recently to be only approximately correct. The present study introduces a new memory test which attempts to assess some of the assumptions made by the k‐span model. The data suggest that certain modifications of the model are called for.
ROBBINS‐MONRO PROCEDURES FOR TAILORED TESTING*
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

In tailored testing, we try to choose for administration items at a difficulty level matching the examinee's ability, which we infer from his responses to items already administered. Robbins‐Monro procedures for selecting items and for estimating the examinee's ability are evaluated. Various ideas of use for tailored testing emerge.
A THEOREM ON THE TRACE OF CERTAIN MATRIX PRODUCTS AND SOME APPLICATIONS12
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

A theorem giving attainable upper and lower limits for the trace of certain products of real matrices is established. These products are of the form with orthogonal matrices Xi and diagonal matrices where the matrices Xi are allowed to vary independently and unrestrictedly. The proof makes use of two lemmas. The theorem may find application in psychometrics when the trace of matrices is involved. Several examples taken from this area are appended by way of illustration.
A MULTIPLE MODERATOR APPROACH TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF OVER‐ AND UNDERACHIEVERS1
Authors: Flaugher Ronald L. , Rock Donald A.
Published: August 2014

This paper reports a study of over‐ and underachievement of college students, utilizing a computerized multiple moderator technique. The subjects were students at a large southwestern university, the predictors were short forms of the SAT and high school rank, and the criterion was first year grade average. Selected background variables were the potential moderators.

The overachievers were characterized as having come from backgrounds where the father was highly educated, the underachievers were observed as having small town origins and high interest in extracurricular activities.
BAYESIAN METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING
Authors: Novick Melvin R.
Published: August 2014

A Bayesian method of estimating ability is described that generalizes Kelley's regression estimate of true score based on a weighted average of observed score and the presumed known population mean true score. This Bayesian method uses all available data to estimate the population mean true score and incorporates this information into the estimate of each individual ability parameter. This method is superior to methods that do not include estimates of population mean values. A normal law error model is used to illustrate the method. Modal estimates of an intuitively attractive form from the joint posterior distribution of the ability parameters are identified as a solution to a set of nonlinear equations.

The method is then illustrated in the context of a Poisson process model having both person‐ability and item‐difficulty parameters. The posterior marginal distributions for individual sets of ability and difficulty parameters are given and modal estimates are described. Modal estimates from the joint conditional distribution of the ability parameters given the item difficulty parameters are also given. The desirability of incorporating prior information is discussed and a method of accomplishing this is described.

The application of these Bayesian methods to central prediction and sequential testing are discussed. It is suggested that the Bayesian method is uniquely appropriate to each of these problems. Finally, these ideas are also shown to be relevant to the problems of selecting predictor variables and multiple comparisons.
THE MEANING OF AN ORIENTING RESPONSE: A STUDY IN THE HIERARCHICAL ORDER OF ATTENDING1
Authors: Lewis Michael , Harwitz Marcia
Published: August 2014

While it is appealing to theorize about a two‐stage process of attending, having both separate and ordered focusing and elaborating aspects, the following discussion will attempt to show the weakness of this theory and at the same time offer an alternative approach whereby both focusing and elaborating are under the service of cognitive variables. To accomplish this it is first necessary to discuss (1) the issue of the definition of a “new” stimulus event, and (2) the inherent difficulties in a simple matching process. Once having shown that what has been considered to be an OR varies as a function of some cognitive principle(s) an alternative model for attending to stimulus events will be offered. Finally an experiment will be presented which demonstrates an OR hierarchy comparable to hierarchies of concept formation attainment in the same age child. Specifically a redundant visual signal is followed by 4 variations of that signal; changes in color, size, number and rotation. The results, accounting for both discriminability and intrinsic value demonstrate a hierarchy of stimulus salience. This hierarchy of color, size, number and rotation is consistent with concept formation acquisition and these results are used to argue for the proposed model of attending which emphasized the need to consider cognitive principles in understanding an OR.
ON THE SAMPLING THEORY OF RELIABILITY ESTIMATION1
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

This paper is intended as a contribution to the sampling theory of reliability estimation when a test has been divided into two, not necessarily parallel, parts. Under normality assumptions, a strict t ‐test of a point hypothesis about the coefficient α parameter is derived. The test is then converted to yield confidence intervals for α. These techniques remain applicable even when the initial distributional assumption is considerably relaxed. The methods developed here are complementary to certain large sample techniques of the same intent. Worked examples are appended by way of illustration.
CROSS‐SECTIONAL VERSUS LONGITUDINAL DATA: AN EMPIRICAL COMPARISON OF MEAN DIFFERENCES IN ACADEMIC GROWTH
Authors: Hilton Thomas L. , Patrick Cathleen
Published: August 2014

Three sources of data for studies of growth (matched longitudinal, unmatched longitudinal, and cross‐sectional) are compared using mean achievement test scores collected from 32,000 students tested repeatedly from 1961 to 1967. The principal results were that matched longitudinal data yielded significantly higher means than unmatched longitudinal data, and that a school's dropout rate was highly related to the discrepancy between cross‐sectional and matched longitudinal data (r = 85) Seven sources of differences among the three types of data are considered: age differences, cohort differences, time changes, equating errors, retest effects, cohort change effects, and selection effects. Methodological guidelines for future research in studies of growth and change are presented.
DIFFERENCES IN SELECTED ATTITUDES AND COLLEGE ORIENTATIONS BETWEEN BLACK STUDENTS ATTENDING TRADITIONALLY NEGRO AND TRADITIONALLY WHITE INSTITUTIONS
Authors: Hartnett Rodney T.
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this paper was to determine what educationally relevant differences exist, if any, between two groups of black collegians–those who enter traditionally Negro colleges and those who enter integrated ones. On the basis of data from the College Student Questionnaires (Part 1) and the Scholastic Aptitude Test (Verbal), black students entering integrated institutions were found to have higher SAT‐V scores, to be more independent, liberal and concerned with social injustice, and to aspire to more years of formal education. Many of the differences between the two groups, however, were found to be highly correlated with SAT scores. Thus, it would appear that to the extent integrated institutions are attracting the higher ability (as measured by the SAT) Negro students, they are also attracting those with a quite different set of attitudes, background characteristics, and orientations toward college. In view of recent efforts on the part of integrated institutions to attract Negro students, such facts are important to recognize and consider, for the practice of focusing on students with higher SAT scores is also bringing about a redistribution of behavior styles and personality characteristics that contributes critically to campus environments.
A BAYESIAN APPROACH TO THE SELECTION OF PREDICTOR VARIABLES
Authors: Novick Melvin R.
Published: August 2014

Some work of Lindley on a Bayesian structural model is shown to be relevant to the problem of the selection of predictor variables. It is suggested that estimates of regression parameters be regressed toward a mean value and that the resulting attenuated estimate of the multiple correlation be adopted. These regressed estimates are derived from a general Bayesian normal law analysis.
SHORT TAILORED TESTS*
Authors: Stocking Martha
Published: August 2014

A tailored test is one in which items are chosen for administration on the basis of an examinee's responses to previous items. The effect of test length is investigated for tailored tests with a variety of designs and scoring procedures.
EFFECTS OF PHRASE STRUCTURE, MEAN DEPTH, AND GRAMMATICALITY ON CHILDREN'S IMITATION OF SENTENCES1
Authors: Freedle Roy O. , Keeney Terrence J. , Smith Nancy D.
Published: August 2014

This study investigated whether the tendency to delete function words and inflections of nouns and verbs (telegraphic speech) in an imitation task can be attributed solely to such factors as relative lack of stress and low information value. In addition, questions concerning the nature and size of the encoding unit used to store the sentences prior to recall were investigated. The results indicated that the telegraphic nature of children's (mean age 4 yrs. 4 mos.) imitations is a result not of their inability to perceive and process articles and inflections, but rather of their tendency to delete these at the time of sentence production. Evidence was also found for phrase structure as the encoding unit rather than individual words. Finally, an application of Yngve's sentence mean depth measure failed to account for relative difficulty of sentence imitations.
PATH ANALYSIS: PSYCHOLOGICAL EXAMPLES1
Authors: Werts Charles E. , Linn Robert L.
Published: August 2014

The usefulness of “path analysis” is demonstrated by applying it to a set of kindred problems, including the correlation of true scores over time allowing specified measurement errors to be correlated, the “bouncing beta” in stepwise regression analysis, the specification of the number and interrelationships of latent variables in a set of data, adjustments for covariate unreliability in the analysis of covariance, and the analysis of multitrait‐multimethod matrices.
THE CRITERION PROBLEM IN THE EVALUATION OF INSTRUCTION: ASSESSING POSSIBLE, NOT JUST INTENDED OUTCOMES1
Authors: Messick Samuel
Published: August 2014

This paper discusses cognitive styles and affective reactions as two major classes of criterion variables that should be taken into account in the evaluation of instruction. These variables are emphasized because of their bearing upon questions that stem from particular views about the diversity of human performance and the role of values in educational research.
APTITUDE‐TREATMENT INTERACTIONS: SOME CONCEPTUAL AND METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS1
Authors: Cahen Leonard S.
Published: August 2014

The Investigation of learning performance as an interactive function of individual differences of the learners and alternative modes of instruction is a timely topic in the area of instructional research. This research area is generally referred to as “Aptitude‐Treatment‐Interaction” (ATI).

This paper makes some general comments about ATI efforts, with specific focus on methodological and conceptual problems connected with this type of research. In addition to providing an overview of the ATI concept, the paper discusses quantitative problems and strategies connected with this research area plus some comments about the direction ATI research may take in the future.
TECHNIQUE FOR APPROXIMATING THE BIVARIATE NORMAL CORRELATION COEFFICIENT, ρ, AND ESTIMATING TETRACHORIC r
Authors: Kirk David B.
Published: August 2014

In this paper a reliable method is found for approximating the value of the Bivariate Normal Correlation Coefficient, ρ, given values of the joint probability and the normal deviates, h and k, or the related areas. This technique finds useful application in the computation of the tetrachoric correlation coefficient, r, when the underlying distributions may be assumed to be normal.
AN APPROXIMATELY REPRODUCING SCORING SCHEME THAT ALIGNS RANDOM RESPONSE AND OMISSION1
Authors: Boldt Robert F.
Published: August 2014

One formulation of confidence scoring requires the examinee to indicate as a number his personal probability of the correctness of each alternative in a multiple‐choice test. For this formulation, a linear transformation of the logarithm of the correct response is maximized if the examinee reports accurately his personal probability. To equate omits scores with choice scores, the transformation can be chosen so that the score is zero if the examinee indicates complete uncertainty. If this is done, the scoring function depends on the number of alternatives. One could also align uncertainty and response omission by granting credit for omitting items, though it is felt this might be hard to explain to examinees.
PROJECT ACCESS RESEARCH REPORT #3 MINORITY VERSUS MAJORITY GROUP PERFORMANCE ON AN APTITUDE TEST BATTERY1
Authors: Flaugher Ronald L.
Published: August 2014

Black students from two cities and Mexican‐American students, both male and female, showed small but consistent tendencies to perform better, relative to White groups, on three nontraditional measures: tests of inductive reasoning, spatial scanning, and associative memory. These measures showed somewhat less discrepancy between the groups than did tests of the more traditional verbal and mathematical aptitudes.

The results seemed compatible with the suggestions of the Commission on Tests to expand the number of measures included in traditional testing programs. Other measures of these same aptitudes, and their validities, remain to be explored in this context.
RISK TAKING AND PERFORMANCE IN RELATION TO ACHIEVEMENT‐RELATED MOTIVES, DEFENSIVENESS AND SOCIAL CONTEXT1
Authors: Damm John T. , Bloxom Anne
Published: August 2014

This study investigates the effects of two social contexts on the risk‐taking behaviour of elementary school boys on a shuffleboard task. It is predicted that Atkinson's motive‐probability‐incentive (M‐P‐I) model will be supported in the peer‐competitive context, in that the success‐oriented subjects will choose more goals with median Ps values than the failure‐avoidant subjects, but that these two groups will not differ in this regard in the adult‐evaluative context. These hypotheses are supported. A test is also made of Atkinson's recent prediction that performance will relate positively to summated motivation in the peer‐competitive context but negatively to this variable in the adult‐evaluative context. These predictions are partly supported, and the data are interpreted in terms of the inverted U curve postulated to hold between discriminative behaviour and total arousal. The summated motivation measure is a combination of need for achievement, defensiveness and test anxiety.
TEST OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE AS A MODERATOR OF GRADUATE RECORD EXAMINATIONS SCORES IN THE PREDICTION OF FOREIGN STUDENTS' GRADES IN GRADUATE SCHOOL
Authors: Sharon Amiel T.
Published: August 2014

Scores of foreign graduate students on the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) Aptitude Tests and the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) were combined through multiple and moderated regression to predict grade‐point average (GPA). It was hypothesized that TOEFL would moderate the relationship between the GRE scores and GPA. According to this hypothesis, students scoring high on TOEFL would be more predictable by GRE than those scoring low. The hypothesis was only partially supported by the results. The results suggest that foreign students with low English verbal aptitude can succeed in American graduate schools. The limitations of GPA as a criterion of graduate school success for foreign students is discussed.
SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT–A LONGITUDINAL STUDY
Authors: Hilton Thomas L. , Berglund Gösta W.
Published: August 2014

With the objective of investigating sex‐typed interests as possible causes of difference in mathematics achievement between the sexes, the study made use of longitudinal data from the Growth Study, begun at ETS in 1961. Growth in mathematics achievement as measured by STEP Math and SCAT‐Q was compared with changing interest patterns as reflected in certain biographical questionnaire responses. At grade 5 there were no differences in achievement, but thereafter the boys pulled ahead, while parallel differences emerged in the percentage perceiving mathematics as interesting and as likely to be helpful in earning a living.
A SYMBOLIC LOGIC FOR REPRESENTING LINEAR MODELS
Authors: Hall Charles E.
Published: August 2014

A set of symbols is presented along with logical operators which represent the possible manipulations of the linear model. The use of these symbols and operators is to simplify the representation of analysis of variance models, correlation models and factor analysis models.
HOW FACTOR ANALYSIS CAN BE USED IN CLASSIFICATION1
Authors: Harman Harry H.
Published: August 2014

This is a methodological study that suggests a taxometric technique for objective classification of yeasts. It makes use of the minres method of factor analysis and groups strains of yeast according to their factor profiles. The similarities are judged in the higher‐dimensional space determined by the factor analysis, but otherwise rely on the simple concept of “most like” or “neighbor.” The proposed techniques are illustrated by means of an example involving 110 strains of yeast with measurements on 30 variables. An analysis in terms of six factors is obtained and the six‐dimensional factor profiles for the strains are the basis for determining neighbors and classifying the strains into groups. The automatic procedure leads to 32 groups. Then, by applying the procedures again, only eight second‐order groups, or clusters, emerge.
A DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY OF ATTENTION: A MULTIVARIATE APPROACH1
Authors: Wilson Cornelia D. , Lewis Michael
Published: August 2014

A factor analytic technique was applied to the attentional data from a visual episode presented longitudinally at 6, 13, 25 and 44 months of age. Two factors were Identified: an orienting factor, consisting of fixation, cardiac deceleration, and cessation of activity, and an affect factor, consisting of smiling, vocalizing, and cardiac deceleration.
THE EVALUATION OF INFANT INTELLIGENCE: INFANT INTELLIGENCE SCORES‐‐TRUE OR FALSE?
Authors: Lewis Michael , McGurk Harry
Published: August 2014

The issue of infant intelligence as a unitary concept was attacked. Using data from three different tests of infant intelligence, it was shown that infant intelligence is neither unitary nor stable over the first two years of life. Implications for intervention programs were discussed in light of the failure to produce meaningful criterion measures of intelligence.
SELF‐RATINGS OF COLLEGE TEACHERS: A COMPARISON WITH STUDENT RATINGS
Authors: Centra John A.
Published: August 2014

College teachers' self‐ratings were investigated in this study by comparing them to ratings given by students. The sample consisted of 343 teaching faculty from five colleges; these teachers, as well as the students in one of their classes, responded to a 21 item instructional report questionnaire.

Correlating teacher responses to each item with the mean class responses (across the 343 classes) disclosed a modest relationship between the two sets of evaluation: a median correlation of .21 for the items. In addition to the general lack of agreement between self and student evaluations, there was also a tendency for teachers as a group to give themselves better ratings than their students did. Comparisons between student and faculty responses were also made across items, and a rank correlation of .77 indicated a good deal of similarity in the way the two groups rank ordered the items.

Discrepancies between individual teacher ratings and ratings given by the class were further analyzed for: (a) sex of the teacher (no difference found); (b) number of years of teaching experience (no difference); and (c) subject area of the course (differences noted for natural science courses vs. those in education and applied areas).

Among other conclusions, the results of this study would argue for the collection of student ratings to supplement self‐ratings.
MONOTONICITY PROPERTIES OF DIRICHLET INTEGRALS WITH APPLICATIONS TO THE MULTINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION AND THE ANOVA TEST1
Authors: Olkin Ingram
Published: August 2014

Bounds for the tails of Dirichlet integrals are established by showing that each integral as a function of the limits is a Schur function. In particular, it is shown how these bounds apply to the simultaneous analysis of variance test and to the multinomial distribution.
RACIAL DIFFERENCES IN NEWSPAPER READERSHIP
Authors: Sharon Amiel T.
Published: August 2014

A national survey of the reading behavior of Blacks and Whites indicates that there is a larger racial difference in newspaper reading than in any other form of reading. This difference exists between all Blacks and Whites as well as between Blacks and Whites who are poor. Proportionately less Blacks read newspapers and those Blacks who do read newspapers tend to omit reading certain sections such as editorials, women's and society pages, and regular ads. It is speculated that newspapers do not respond to Blacks' needs and concerns to the extent that is done by other printed media such as books or magazines.
BARRIERS TO WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION IN POST‐SECONDARY EDUCATION1
Authors: Ekstrom Ruth B.
Published: August 2014

Although the phenomenon has long been observed that women enter all types of post‐secondary education at lower participation rates than men, there have been few attempts to analyze the reasons for this. These barriers may be categorized as (1) institutional, (2) situational, and (3) dispositional.

Institutional factors that serve to exclude women from participation in post‐secondary education include admissions practices, financial aid practices, institutional regulations, types of curriculum and services adopted, and faculty and staff attitudes. Situational barriers that deter women from participation in further education include family responsibilities, financial need, and societal pressures. Dispositional barriers that prevent women from continuing education include their fear of failure, attitude toward intellectual activity, role preference, ambivalence about educational goals, level of aspiration, passivity, dependence, and inferiority feelings.
INDIVIDUALIZED TESTING AND ITEM CHARACTERISTIC CURVE THEORY*
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

An elementary survey of item characteristic curve theory is presented, centered around the problems of individualized (“tailored”) testing.
EMPIRICAL OPTION WEIGHTING WITH A CORRECTION FOR GUESSING1
Authors: Reilly Richard R.
Published: August 2014

Because previous reports have suggested that the lowered validity of tests scored with empirical option weights might be explained by a capitalization of the keying procedures on omitting tendencies, a procedure was devised to key options empirically with a “correction‐for‐guessing” constraint. Use of the new procedure with Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) data resulted in smaller increases in reliability than those observed when unconstrained procedures were used, but validities for quantitative subforms were not appreciably lowered. Validities for verbal subforms were lowered slightly, however.
THE GENERALIZATION FUNCTION IS DETERMINED BY ONE SUBJECT'S PROBABILITY LEARNING DATA1
Authors: Levine Michael V.
Published: August 2014

In his recent review of probability learning, Estes (1972, page 96) notes that “the chief limitation on effective application” of the models for learning with a continuum of responses to have emerged from the linear and pattern learning models is the failure to specify the smearing or generalization function. He notes that “a useful technique has been developed by Levine for estimating this function from individual data.” This paper describes, gives the rationale and proves the validity of the previously unpublished technique.
BETWEEN, WITHIN, AND TOTAL GROUP FACTOR ANALYSES OF STUDENT RATINGS OF INSTRUCTION
Authors: Linn Robert L. , Centra John A. , Tucker Ledyard
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this study was to compare the factor structures of student ratings of instruction resulting from total group, between group, and within group analyses. Six factors obtained from responses by 9700 students to 31 items were used to approximate the between group covariance matrix based on 437 classroom means and the pooled within classroom covariance matrix. A good approximation to both the between and within group covariance matrices was obtained.
MULTIVARIATE MATCHING METHODS THAT ARE EQUAL PERCENT BIAS REDUCING, I: SOME EXAMPLES
Authors: Rubin Donald B.
Published: August 2014

Multivariate matching methods are commonly used in the behavioral and medical sciences in an attempt to control bias when randomization is not feasible. Some examples of multivariate matching methods are discussed in Althauser and Rubin (1970) and Cochran and Rubin (1973), but otherwise seem to have received little attention in the literature. Here, we present examples of multivariate matching methods that will yield the same percent reduction in bias for each matching variable for a variety of underlying distributions. Eleven distributional cases are considered, and for each one, matching methods are defined which are equal percent bias reducing. Methods discussed in Section 8, which are based on the values of the estimated best linear discriminant or which define distance by a sample based inner‐product, will probably be the most generally applicable in practice.
THE VARIANCE OF A LINEAR COMBINATION OF INDEPENDENT ESTIMATORS USING ESTIMATED WEIGHTS
Authors: Rubin Donald B. , Weisberg Sanford
Published: August 2014

Let t1,…,tk be independent unbiased estimators of a parameter τ. Let t* = Σαiti have minimum variance among unbiased linear estimators of τ, and let , be any linear combinations with () independent of t1,…,tk. We prove that is unbiased for τ and that the ratio of the variance of to the variance of t* is where is the mean square error of as an estimator of αi.
ADDITIVE MEASUREMENT WITH SHORT SEGMENTS OF CURVES
Authors: Levine Michael
Published: August 2014

Periodic functions and functional equations remove the major remaining obstacle to the direct application of the logic of physical length and mass measurement to psychological data.