bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Electrical Stimulation of Cerebellar Fastigial Nucleus: Mechanism of Neuroprotection and Prospects for Clinical Application against Cerebral Ischemia
Authors: Wang Jian , Dong Wei‐Wei , Zhang Wen‐Hua , Zheng Jian , Wang Xin
Published: June 2014

For around two decades, electrical fastigial nucleus stimulation (FNS) has been demonstrated to induce neuroprotection involving multiple mechanisms. In this review, we summarize the protective effects of FNS against cerebral ischemia through the inhibition of electrical activity around the lesion, excitotoxic damage on neurons, and brain inflammatory response, as well as apoptosis. Moreover, FNS has been reported to promote nerve tissue repair, reconstruction, and neurological rehabilitation and improve stroke‐related complications including poststroke cognitive dysfunction, depression, and abnormal heart rate variability. We thus further discuss the potential of FNS for clinical applications. Given the absence of any risk of inducing sublethal damage, FNS may offer a new approach to preconditioned neuroprotection against cerebral ischemia.
Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia: Where We have been and Where We are Heading
Authors: Azorin Jean‐Michel , Belzeaux Raoul , Adida Marc
Published: June 2014

This review traces the history of negative symptom profiles in neuropsychiatry from their earliest emergence in the 19th century to the current psychiatric concepts and therapeutic approaches. Recent investigations performing exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis have suggested that negative symptoms are multidimensional, including evidence for at least two distinct negative symptom subdomains: diminished expression and amotivation. Preliminary studies have demonstrated the clinical validity of this distinction. Several potential pathophysiological validating factors based on brain imaging analysis of emotional experiences and expressions in individuals with schizophrenia are examined. Finally, the potential of different treatment strategies, including medications and various psychotherapeutic techniques, to most favorably treat each of these subdomains is discussed.
Resource implications of running a sacral neuromodulation service: a 10‐year experience
Authors: McMullin C. M. , Jadav A. M. , Hanwell C. , Brown S. R.
Published: June 2014

Aim

In this study we reviewed our 10‐year experience of the medium‐ to long‐term success of sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) for faecal incontinence, with particular reference to the resource implications of running such a service.

Method

All patients treated with permanent SNS implants for faecal incontinence from 2001 to 2012 were identified from a prospective database. The patients underwent follow up at 3 and 6 months, with annual review thereafter. They were divided into four groups: group 1, patients optimized after two reviews; group 2, patients optimized after further review; group 3, patients who failed to reach a satisfactory state; and group 4, patients who had a good initial result with subsequent failure.

Results

Eighty‐five patients underwent permanent SNS with a median follow up of 24 (range: 3–108) months. Group 1 included 30 (35%) patients; group 2 included 27 (32%) patients [median of two (range: 2–6) additional visits]; group 3 included 18 (21%) patients [median of six (range: 3–10) additional visits]; and group 4 included 10 (12%) patients [median interval to failure was 54 (range: 24–84) months]. Twenty‐seven per cent of our patients had an unsatisfactory outcome and the cost of follow up for these patients was £36 854 (48.7% of the total follow‐up costs).

Conclusion

The study highlights the significant resource implications of running an SNS service with a large proportion of patients requiring prolonged review, with more than one‐quarter having an unsatisfactory outcome at a substantial cost.
HEALTH INSURANCE AND LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION: WHAT LEGAL RECOGNITION DOES FOR SAME‐SEX COUPLES
Authors: Dillender Marcus
Published: June 2014

Using Current Population Survey data, I examine how same‐sex couples' labor force participation and health insurance coverage change as a result of their unions being legally recognized. The results indicate female same‐sex couples switch from arrangements where both members work to arrangements where only one member of the couple works. Being able to gain health insurance through a spouse's employer seems to play a major role in this change. Male same‐sex couples experience no change in their labor force participation or health insurance. (JEL J08, I13, J18)
The role of diffusion tensor imaging in paediatric Chiari I malformation
Authors: Losurdo Anna
Published: June 2014

This commentary is on the original article by Eshetu et al. on pages 742–748 of this issue.
Early Retirement Policy in the Presence of Competing Exit Pathways: Evidence from Pension Reforms in Finland
Authors: Kyyrä Tomi
Published: June 2014

I study the effects of changes in the eligibility age thresholds for unemployment and part‐time pensions, and the effect of tightening medical criteria for disability pension eligibility in Finland. Particular attention is paid to the spillover effects of the pension reforms. These pension reforms jointly raised the average age at which workers leave employment by 3.9 months, mainly due to a sharp drop in disability pension enrolment from age 58 upwards and a lower incidence of unemployment at younger ages. These effects are heterogeneous, much of which is attributable to the spillover effects that vary across individuals.
Hidden genetic variation evolves with ecological specialization: the genetic basis of phenotypic plasticity in Arctic charr ecomorphs
Authors: Küttner Eva , Parsons Kevin J. , Easton Anne A. , Skúlason Skuli , Danzmann Roy G. , Ferguson Moira M.
Published: June 2014

The genetic variance that determines phenotypic variation can change across environments through developmental plasticity and in turn play a strong role in evolution. Induced changes in genotype–phenotype relationships should strongly influence adaptation by exposing different sets of heritable variation to selection under some conditions, while also hiding variation. Therefore, the heritable variation exposed or hidden from selection is likely to differ among habitats. We used ecomorphs from two divergent populations of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) to test the prediction that genotype–phenotype relationships would change in relation to environment. If present over several generations this should lead to divergence in genotype–phenotype relationships under common conditions, and to changes in the amount and type of hidden genetic variance that can evolve. We performed a common garden experiment whereby two ecomorphs from each of two Icelandic lakes were reared under conditions that mimicked benthic and limnetic prey to induce responses in craniofacial traits. Using microsatellite based genetic maps, we subsequently detected QTL related to these craniofacial traits. We found substantial changes in the number and type of QTL between diet treatments and evidence that novel diet treatments can in some cases provide a higher number of QTL. These findings suggest that selection on phenotypic variation, which is both genetically and environmentally determined, has shaped the genetic architecture of adaptive divergence in Arctic charr. However, while adaptive changes are occurring in the genome there also appears to be an accumulation of hidden genetic variation for loci not expressed in the contemporary environment.
Significance of longitudinal changes in the default‐mode network for cognitive recovery after stroke
Authors: Park Ji‐Young , Kim Yun‐Hee , Chang Won Hyuk , Park Chang‐hyun , Shin Yong‐Il , Kim Sung Tae , Pascual‐Leone Alvaro
Published: June 2014

Although a considerable number of patients suffer from cognitive impairments after stroke, the neural mechanism of cognitive recovery has not yet been clarified. Repeated resting‐state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used in this study to examine longitudinal changes in the default‐mode network (DMN) during the 6 months after stroke, and to investigate the relationship between DMN changes and cognitive recovery. Out of 24 initially recruited right‐hemispheric stroke patients, 11 (eight males, mean age 55.7 years) successfully completed the repeated fMRI protocol. Patients underwent three fMRI sessions at 1, 3 and 6 months after stroke. Their DMNs were analysed and compared with those of 11 age‐matched healthy subjects (nine males, mean age 56.2 years). Correlations between DMN connectivity and improvement of the cognitive performance scores were also assessed. The stroke patients were found to demonstrate markedly decreased DMN connectivity of the posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus, medial frontal gyrus and inferior parietal lobes at 1 month after stroke. At 3 months after stroke, the DMN connectivity of these brain areas was almost restored, suggesting that the period is critical for neural reorganization. The DMN connectivity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the contralesional hemisphere showed a significant correlation with cognitive function recovery in stroke patients, and should be considered a compensatory process for overcoming cognitive impairment due to brain lesion. This is the first longitudinal study to demonstrate the changes in DMN during recovery after stroke and the key regions influencing cognitive recovery.
Impaired ambulation and steroid therapy impact negatively on bone health in multiple sclerosis
Authors: Tyblova M. , Kalincik T. , Zikan V. , Havrdova E.
Published: June 2014

Background and purpose

The prevalence of osteopenia and osteoporosis is higher amongst patients with multiple sclerosis in comparison with the general population. In addition to the general determinants of bone health, two factors may contribute to reduced bone mineral density in multiple sclerosis: physical disability and corticosteroid therapy. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of physical disability and steroid exposure on bone health in weight‐bearing bones and spine and on the incidence of low‐trauma fractures in multiple sclerosis.

Methods

In this retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data, associations between bone mineral density (at the femoral neck, total femur and the lumbar spine) and its change with disability or cumulative steroid dose were evaluated with random‐effect models adjusted for demographic and clinical determinants of bone health. The incidence of low‐trauma fractures during the study follow‐up was evaluated with Andersen−Gill models.

Results

Overall, 474 and 438 patients were included in cross‐sectional and longitudinal analyses (follow‐up 2347 patient‐years), respectively. The effect of severely impaired gait was more apparent in weight‐bearing bones (P ≤ 10−15) than in spine (P = 0.007). The effect of cumulative steroid dose was relatively less pronounced but diffuse (P ≤ 10−4). Risk of low‐trauma fractures was associated with disability (P = 0.02) but not with cumulative steroid exposure and was greater amongst patients with severely impaired gait (annual risk 3.5% vs. 3.0%). Synergistic effects were found only between cumulative steroid dose in patients ambulatory without support (P = 0.02).

Conclusions

Bone health and the incidence of low‐trauma fractures in multiple sclerosis are more related to impaired gait than to extended corticosteroid therapy.
Proximal attrition facets: morphometric, demographic, and aging characteristics
Authors: Sarig Rachel , Hershkovitz Israel , Shvalb Nir , Sella‐Tunis Tatiana , May Hila , Vardimon Alexander D.
Published: June 2014

Although interproximal attrition is considered to be limited in modern populations, it has important clinical implications. However, in contrast to occlusal attrition, proximal attrition receives limited scientific attention. The main purpose of the current study was to fill this void. Seven‐hundred and sixty‐five teeth were collected from 255 skulls of subjects 18–75 yr of age. For each individual, three mandibular teeth (the first and second premolars and the first molar) were examined for proximal attrition facets (PAFs). The results provide detailed information on the size, shape, and location of the facets according to age cohort, gender, and ethnicity. The validity of the method used to measure the facets was also examined. The major findings were as follows: PAFs are usually located on the upper half of the crown proximal aspect; in each tooth, the mesial facet is more lingually positioned and the distal facet is more buccally positioned; the majority of the facets are subrectangular in shape; the size of the facets tends to increase in an anteroposterior direction (from premolars to molars); and facet size and location are age‐ and sex‐dependent and ethnicity‐independent. It is our recommendation that dentists bear in mind that interproximal attrition is a dynamic, long‐term process and needs to be considered in many clinical scenarios.
Environmental dependency of amphibian–ranavirus genotypic interactions: evolutionary perspectives on infectious diseases
Authors: Echaubard Pierre , Leduc Joel , Pauli Bruce , Chinchar V. Gregory , Robert Jacques , Lesbarrères David
Published: June 2014

The context‐dependent investigations of host–pathogen genotypic interactions, where environmental factors are explicitly incorporated, allow the assessment of both coevolutionary history and contemporary ecological influences. Such a functional explanatory framework is particularly valuable for describing mortality trends and identifying drivers of disease risk more accurately. Using two common North American frog species (Lithobates pipiens and Lithobates sylvaticus) and three strains of frog virus 3 (FV3) at different temperatures, we conducted a laboratory experiment to investigate the influence of host species/genotype, ranavirus strains, temperature, and their interactions, in determining mortality and infection patterns. Our results revealed variability in host susceptibility and strain infectivity along with significant host–strain interactions, indicating that the outcome of an infection is dependent on the specific combination of host and virus genotypes. Moreover, we observed a strong influence of temperature on infection and mortality probabilities, revealing the potential for genotype–genotype–environment interactions to be responsible for unexpected mortality in this system. Our study thus suggests that amphibian hosts and ranavirus strains genetic characteristics should be considered in order to understand infection outcomes and that the investigation of coevolutionary mechanisms within a context‐dependent framework provides a tool for the comprehensive understanding of disease dynamics.
Candidate Gene SNP Associations With Fat‐Free Mass (FFM) Measurements in Horses‐In‐Training
Authors: Katz L , McGivney B , Fonseca R , Hill E
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Body composition including percentage of fat, fat mass and fat‐free mass (FFM) is an important consideration for athletes. An evaluation of FFM in racehorses concluded that racing performance is positively correlated with FFM both pre‐ and post‐training. Athletic performance is influenced by interactions among the environment and genes that influence anatomical, metabolic and physiological traits relevant to exercise. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of genetic variation in six candidate genes with functions in growth and metabolism (IL1RA, PTPN1, MC3R, IGF1, LEPR and MSTN) on FFM in Thoroughbreds.

Methods

FFM was calculated from rump fat thickness measured ultrasonographically in 110 two‐year‐old Thoroughbred horses‐in‐training in the same yard after two (T2) and eight (T8) months of training. Twenty‐one SNPs in six genes were selected from the EquCab2.0 SNP database and were genotyped for all horses using custom Sequenom SNP genotyping assays. Quantitative tests of association were performed between SNPs and FFM at T2 and T8, and the FFM ratio between the two time points (T2 : T8) using PLINK software.

Results

Two SNPs in both the IGF1 (Insulin‐Like Growth Factor 1) and PTPN1 (Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase, Non‐Receptor Type 1) genes were significantly associated with FFM (T2) (P<0.05). The two IGF1 SNPs and two LEPR (Leptin Receptor) gene SNPs were significantly associated with FFM (T8) (P<0.05). One LEPR SNP was significantly (P<0.005) associated with changes in FFM (T2 : T8).

Conclusions

These results suggest a genetic contribution to FFM variation in Thoroughbreds. Further validation will determine whether these SNPs may be used to predict the effects of training on FFM.

Ethical Animal Research

Institutional Animal Research Ethics Committee approval was obtained. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: The study was funded by a Science Foundation Ireland, President of Ireland Young Researcher Award (04‐YI1‐ B539). Competing interests: Dr Hill is a co‐founder and Chairman of Equinome Ltd.
Where Do the Cold Blood Breeds Come from and Where Does Polysaccharide Storage Myopathy Fit in?
Authors: van den Hoven R
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Myopathy associated with a gain‐of‐ function mutation in the GYS1 gene is known in Quarter Horses and cold blood breeds. The mutation occurred between the collapse of the Roman Empire (500 AD) and the upsurge of Carolinian Reign (800 AD). The aim of this review is to reconstruct the development of the cold blood (brachimorph) breeds in Europe using existing literature.

Methods

Literature review

Results

Although archaeological evidence indicates the existence of a mesomorph horse (Cob) type in the early Iron Age, real cold blood breeding only started after 1750. The demand for draught power in the early Industrial Revolution resulted in a large population of cold bloods from 1850 onwards. In Roman times, the huge ugly horses from Thrace were known as “easy keepers” and Ardennes might have been the first land races carrying the GYS1 mutation. Hunnish horses might have contributed to the prototype cold bloods as well. With mtDNA, Y‐chromosome polymorphism, satellite markers and SNP genotyping some indication from where ancestors of particular breeds originate was obtained. Most phylogenetic trees place cold blood breeds, including Fell ponies, Haflinger and Friesian in a clearly different cluster than ponies, saddle horses and Thoroughbreds. Fjords and Mongolian horses are in neighbouring clusters. Since the last 200 years, genetic bottlenecks and the popular sire phenomenon could have caused high GYS1 H allele frequencies in many continental cold blood breeds.

Conclusions

Cold blood breeds and the GYS1 mutation likely trace back to the mesomorph tough, easily satisfied horse types from Eastern Europe and central Asia.

Ethical Animal Research

No animals were used in the study. Sources of funding: none. Competing interests: none.
Probability of Jumping Success of Young Brazilian Sport Horses Assessed Via Kinematic Analysis
Authors: Godoi FN , Bergmann JA , Almeida FQ , Toral FL , Miranda AL
Published: June 2014

Introduction

The study of kinematic patterns of young jumping horses can help to improve selection. This study was carried out to predict free jumping success of young horses using logistic regression to model jumping kinematic variables.

Methods

108 untrained young Brazilian Sport Horses of both genders were studied. Reflective skin markers were used to identify anatomical reference points. Five free jumps over a vertical obstacle (with a height of 60, 80 and 105 cm for age classes 22–25, 29–32 and 36–39 months, respectively) were recorded. A 100 Hz camera was used, and images were analyzed using Simi Reality Motion Systems®. Successful (n = 1,030) and unsuccessful (n = 200) jumps were analyzed and the following kinematic variables were preselected by principal components analysis and then used as independent variables: last stride length prior to jumping, jumping velocity, take‐off distance, withers displacement at jumping, forelimb height at jumping, vertical distance between scapulohumeral and metacarpophalangeal joints, scapulohumeral, radial‐metacarpal, tibiometatarsal and withers‐fetlock angles.

Results

The effects of take‐off distance, forelimb height at jumping and jumping velocity on the jumping result were significant (P = 0.0091). An increment of one centimeter in take‐off distance and forelimb height led to an increase in the probability of success by 2.6% and 10.6%, respectively. An increase of one meter per second in jumping velocity led to a reduction in the probability of success by 27.8%.

Conclusions

Jumping success is influenced by take‐off distance, jumping velocity and forelimb flexibility. Selection of young horses for superior jumping capacity can be aided by kinematic analysis, which may shorten training time and improve performance.

Ethical Animal Research

The research was approved by UFMG Ethics Committee on Animal Research: 267/2008. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG). Competing interests: none.
The Effects of Chiropractic Treatment on The Range of Motion of the Carpus and Tarsus of Horses
Authors: Guest J , Cunliffe C
Published: June 2014

Introduction

The use of complementary therapies in both humans and animals has grown over the past decade. Equine back problems are more frequently reported as a contributing factor to poor performance, and back dysfunction affects limb kinematics. This study aimed to determine if (McTimoney) chiropractic treatment has an effect on the range of motion (ROM) of the carpus and tarsus.

Methods

Hemispherical 35 mm markers were applied to 7 anatomical landmarks of both forelimbs and hindlimbs of 10 sound, healthy horses from the same riding school with similar workload. The treatment group (n = 5) received (McTimoney) chiropractic treatment for the neck, back, pelvis and front feet. Two digital video recorders set 5.5 m from subjects, filming both sides concurrently, collected 2‐D kinematic data at walk and trot, 1 day before, and 2 hrs and 7 days after treatment. Data was analysed using Kinovea software, minimum and maximum joint angles were measured and ROM calculated. Statistical analyses included two‐way ANOVA, Student's t‐test and symmetry indices.

Results

A significant increase in right‐side ROM for carpus at walk (+4.0 deg, p = 0.04) and trot (+5.2 deg, p = 0.02) was noted in the treated compared to the non‐treated group. For the treatment group, there was a significant change in carpus ROM asymmetry from left towards neutral at walk (P = 0.004) and trot (P = 0.04). Tarsus ROM asymmetry change from left towards neutral was significant (P = 0.02) at trot. No changes were observed in the control group.

Conclusions

These results support the hypothesis that (McTimoney) chiropractic treatment may improve the symmetry of tarsus and carpus ROM of horses. Further research is needed to assess the clinical relevance of these effects.

Ethical Animal Research

Procedures were reviewed by the McTimoney Chiropractic College Ethical Review Committee. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: none. Competing interests: none.
The Effect of Centre of Mass Location on Pitching Moments in Trotting Horses
Authors: Hobbs S , Richards J , Clayton H
Published: June 2014

Introduction

The diagonal limb support pattern at trot provides pitch and roll stability, controlled by regulating pitching moments about the centre of mass (COM). Correct COM location is critical in calculation of pitching moments, as COM location influences the contribution of loading in the fore and hindlimbs. This study examined the effect of COM location on pitching moments in trotting horses and explored how COM location could influence balance.

Methods

Kinematic (120 Hz) and GRF (4 force plates, 960 Hz) data were collected at trot from three strides of eight horses overground. The position of the COM was determined from the weighted summation of the segmental COMs from previously determined inertial data of Warmblood horses. The COM of the standing model was manipulated cranially and caudally to test the effects of pitching moments during trotting. Pitching moments were calculated for each manipulation of the model and their relationship determined using reduced major axis regression.

Results

Over the stride, the moments must sum to zero to prevent accumulation of rotational motion. This was found when the weight on the forelimbs in standing was 58.7% ± 3% (mean ± 95% C.I.). With this weight distribution moments were typically nose‐up changing to nose‐down at around 35% of stance, and then reversing again to nose‐up in late stance.

Conclusions

Divergence of the COM from the COP creating a vertical force moment arm prior to midstance may aid in accelerating the COM about the hind foot, thereby passively assisting hindlimb propulsion. Lower forelimb weighting resulted in mean nose‐up moments. Higher forelimb weighting resulted in mean nose‐down moments. Both would cause an accumulation of pitching motion.

Ethical Animal Research

The study was performed with approval from the institutional animal care and use committee under protocol number 02/08‐020‐00. Sources of funding: This study was funded by Michigan State University and the University of Central Lancashire. Competing interests: none.
Optimal Gait Parameters for Quantifying the Effect of Diagnostic Analgesia in Horses
Authors: Pfau T , Spicer‐Jenkins C , Smith R , Bolt D , Fiske Jackson A , Witte T
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Evaluating responses of horses to diagnostic analgesia is subject to bias. Pelvic movement symmetry can be measured accurately with inertial sensors, but it is unclear which of the many symmetry measures best reflect changes. It was hypothesised that objective parameters mimicking commonly observed visual parameters used by veterinarians (difference between upward/downward sacral movement and between amplitudes of left and right tuber coxa motion) would show the largest, most consistent responses.

Methods

13 horses underwent visual lameness scoring and independent gait assessment with inertial sensors during clinical lameness investigations. Multiple movement symmetry parameters were calculated and changes before/after diagnostic analgesia regressed against change in lameness grade. Confidence intervals of slopes of regression lines were assessed to identify significant changes.

Results

All parameters showed variation between horses and across lameness grades. Three measures documented a consistent increase in symmetry for each grade of change in lameness score: difference between sacral displacement minima, and upward movement difference and range of motion difference between the tubera coxae. A change in symmetry of 9–13% for each grade of increase in lameness can be expected.

Conclusions

The three most promising pelvic parameters for consistent quantification of changes due to diagnostic analgesia in the hindlimb of lame horses were identified. Difference in upward movement between left and right tuber coxae is the most sensitive but requires simultaneously focusing on pelvic and limb movements and may therefore be more difficult to assess visually. Showing a similar response to diagnostic analgesia, the difference in movement amplitude between left and right tuber coxae may be more easily perceived since it does not require simultaneous focus on limb movement.

Ethical Animal Research

The study was approved by the local ethics committee. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: None declared. Competing interests: none.
Can Locomotion Asymmetry in Young Trotters Predict Early Race Performance?
Authors: Ringmark S , Jansson A , Roepstorff L
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Lameness is the most common health problem of racehorses and may affect both welfare and performance. The aim of this study was to investigate if locomotion asymmetry in a group of young horses was related to delayed qualification for races.

Methods

Locomotion asymmetry was measured every 1–3 months with a wireless inertial sensor based lameness evaluation system in 16 horses fourteen times between September of the year they were 1‐year olds and May of the year they were 3‐year olds. As 3‐year‐olds they passed their qualification race and after this, two subgroups were created for the study based on whether they passed their qualification race before June 21st (early group, n = 6) or after September 19th (late group, n = 6). The groups were compared with respect to the differences in vertical head (forelimbs) and pelvis (hindlimbs) movement (as measured by the Lameness Locator, Equinosis) during each stride cycle at trot. The vector sums (VS) of maximum and minimum difference from each sensor were calculated and used for statistical analyses. ANOVA (Proc mixed model including individual {random}, date and group) was used to analyse differences between groups.

Results

The late group had higher VS for forelimbs (16.0 ± 1.0) than the early group (12.6 ± 1.0) (P = 0.04) in total over the whole period. The VS for hind limbs did not differ between groups.

Conclusions

Front limb locomotion asymmetry in young horses in training is associated with delayed qualification for races. However, further studies are warranted to investigate causality.

Ethical Animal Research

The study was approved by the local ethics committee in Umeå, Sweden. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, the Swedish National Trotting School, Wången, the Swedish Trotting Association, The Swedish Horse Council Foundation, the Swedish Horse Racing Totalisator Board (ATG), Trioplast AB and Dow Chemicals. Competing interests: none.
Is Foot Placement Related to Body Movement Asymmetry During Circular Locomotion?
Authors: Starke S , Merritt J , Stubbs N , Pfau T , Clayton H
Published: June 2014

Introduction

The mechanics of circular locomotion are relevant to equine training and lameness evaluation. Circular trotting is associated with asymmetries in upper body movement. This study investigated whether changes in foot placement explain upper body asymmetry and whether this asymmetry is dependent on centripetal force.

Methods

Six functionally sound horses walked and trotted on a 6 m diameter circle and straight line at their preferred speed. Optical motion capture (Motion Analysis Corp.) recorded foot position in 3D space. For each limb, horizontal foot placement was calculated in a body‐based reference system. Vertical displacement asymmetry (Vector Sum, VS) was calculated from inertial sensors (Xsens, The Netherlands) attached above poll, withers, sacrum and tubera coxae. Variables were compared across movement directions and gaits using repeated measures ANOVA (parametric datasets) or Friedman Test (non‐parametric datasets).

Results

Changes in foot placement relative to body position and orientation were small for both gaits in cranio‐caudal and medio‐lateral direction (maximum effect size at walk/trot: 66/102 mm). The amount of systematic movement asymmetry on the circle was comparable between walk (mean VS head/sacrum: 36/15 mm) and trot (30/15 mm, respectively), despite a 3‐fold higher centripetal force during trot.

Conclusions

Foot placement relative to body position and line of travel does not differ markedly between straight line and circle and cannot solely account for the observed upper body movement asymmetry. Since movement asymmetry was comparable at walk and trot (despite differences in adopted movement pattern), centripetal force may not be the primary variable responsible for movement asymmetry on the circle.

Ethical Animal Research

The study was approved by the MSU Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, protocol #06/11‐112‐00. Sources of funding: Sandra Starke's collaborative research visit for this project was funded by the British Society for Animal Science (BSAS), Murray Black Award. Competing interests: none.
A Questionnaire on Training of the Icelandic Pace Horse
Authors: Jansson A , Hedenström U , Ragnarsson S
Published: June 2014

Introduction

The Icelandic horse is popular and can be found in more than 30 countries. The breed is used for a variety of competitions but mounted pace competitions have the longest history. Despite this, pace training strategies have not been well documented. The aim of this study was to describe training strategies used by experienced trainers of Icelandic pace horses.

Methods

The study is based on the response to a questionnaire answered by nine trainers (age 42 ± 13 years and 23 ± 12 years of experience as pace trainers). The trainers selected were living in Iceland or Sweden, were on the world ranking list in 250 m pace races (FEIF, August 2013) and had a minimum of 12 years of experience in pace training. The questionnaire was sent to the trainers by e‐mail and answers were obtained in text or during a phone interview. The questionnaire included open questions about training strategies, the development of the horse and physical health problems. Data is presented as mean ± SD.

Results

Training commenced at an age of 5.4 ± 1.0 years. Horses were trained five times per week (4.8 ± 0.7) and pace training was performed less than twice per week (1.6 ± 0.9). The average time to achieve competitive condition was 1.9 ± 0.8 years. Horses were considered to be at their best at 13.8 ± 4.6 years of age. Wounds after cross‐firing (n = 3) and reactions within the suspensory ligament (n = 2) were the most common health problems mentioned.

Conclusions

In Icelandic pace horses, training appears to commence at mature age and although they are trained most week days, training in pace is limited.

Ethical Animal Research

No animals were used in the study. Sources of funding: Holar University College, Iceland and the Swedish National Trotting School in Wången, Alsen, Sweden. Competing interests: none.
Training Protocol for Marcha Test in Mangalarga Marchador Horses
Authors: Rezende AC , Abrantes RP , Melo MM , Santiago JM , Trigo P
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Mangalarga Marchador (MM) is the most important Brazilian horse breed. Functional evaluation of MM horses is performed in marcha competitions, where horses must perform 4‐gaited exercise at 13 km/h for 70 min. The aim of this work was to test a training protocol to prepare MM horses for marcha competition.

Methods

Eight untrained MM mares, in randomized blocks with Split plots, were trained for 84 days. Three days/week horses were ridden for one hour (10 min walk, then an individual amount of marcha exercise at 13 km/h established in a previous test, then walk to complete one hour total exercise time). Two days/week, horses walked for one hour. Before training and every 21 days a marcha test (MT) was performed, totaling 5 tests in the experimental period. During the MT, mares were exercised at 13 km/h using a heart rate monitor. Every 10 min heart rate (HR) and blood lactate concentration [La] were recorded. The MT was stopped at 70 min of exercise, or if HR was ≥150 bpm and [La] was ≥4 mmol/L, or if Marcha Time was reached. Blood samples for hemogram, lactate, glucose, triglyceride and CK, LDH, AST determination were collected. Individual time used for training was 10 min less than the exercising time in the previous MT. Regression was used to analyze the results.

Results

From MT 1 to 4, the positive effect of training was shown on HR, [La] and marcha time (from 9.52 min to 70.5 min, CV = 26.41). There was not an increase in marcha time on test 5.

Conclusions

MM mares trained for 63 days with the described protocol are ready to compete in marcha competition.

Ethical Animal Research

The study was approved by the Ethical Animal (CETEA) of the UFMG with the 255/11 protocol. Sources of funding: CNPq, CAPES, FAPEMIG, ABCCMM, Haras Catuni e Rações Total. Competing interests: none.
Predictive Value of Fitness Tests and Reasons for Withdrawal in Horses/Ponies Selected for the European Eventing Championship 2010–2011
Authors: Sloet van Oldruitenborgh‐Oosterbaan M , van den Broek J , Welling E , van Weeren R , Munsters C
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Eventing is a challenging equestrian discipline. Insight into causes of wastage and withdrawal from competition is essential for animal welfare and economic reasons.

Methods

Twenty‐nine animals selected for the European Championship (EC) in 2010 (9 ponies) and 2011 (20 horses) were followed prospectively monitoring fitness using standardized exercise tests. Causes of withdrawal were noted. Data were analyzed using logistic‐regression, likely‐ratio‐tests, Fisher‐exact‐test, general‐linear‐model and Chi‐square tests as appropriate.

Results

Seventeen weeks before EC 17 horses and 9 ponies were tested: mean VLa4 was 10.3 ± 0.4 m/s and 7.8 ± 0.9 m/s respectively, and V200 was 11.4 ± 0.8 m/s and 9.6 ± 0.7 m/s respectively. Six weeks before EC 16/20 horses and 6/9 ponies were withdrawn, mainly for locomotor injury: 9/16 horses (P<0.001), 4/6 ponies (P = 0.011). Other reasons were ‘not‐meeting‐competition‐criteria’ (4/16 horses, 2/6 ponies) and ‘being sold’ (3/16 horses). Divided on the basis of VLa4 and ‘recovery‐HR‐during‐SET‐I’ into good (GP) and average performers (AP), AP were more likely to be injured (50%) than GP (0%, P = 0.05). In a subpopulation (n = 10, all condition training sessions evaluated for HR and speed) HRpeak was significantly lower in horses staying sound (186 ± 9 beats/min) compared to horses withdrawn because of injury (201 ± 5 beats/min; P = 0.016).

Conclusions

For the European Championship 45% of national selection horses were unavailable because of locomotor injuries. GP at the beginning of the season were less likely to become injured than AP. HRpeak during condition training showed predictive value for future injuries.

Ethical Animal Research

Owners gave consent for horses to participate in the study. Sources of funding: Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Dutch National Equestrian Federation. Competing interests: none.
Fatalities Associated with American Endurance Ride Conference Sanctioned Endurance Rides (2002–2013)
Authors: Balch O , Habing G , Schott II H
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Fatalities are recognized as a consequence of prolonged endurance exercise but data documenting incidence and causes is limited.

Methods

Numbers of horse starts and fatalities were obtained from the American Endurance Ride Conference (AERC) website (www.aerc.org) and further details about fatalities were obtained from horse owners and attending veterinarians. Annual incidence rates were calculated and odds ratios for region and ride length were determined.

Results

From 2002–2013 there were 252,738 horse starts in AERC sanctioned rides and 67 fatalities attributable to the demands of endurance exercise were documented. 46/67 horses were eliminated while 21 successfully completed the ride and were deemed fit to continue. Thirteen horses died while euthanasia was performed in the remaining 54 instances, and 51% had necropsy examinations performed. 81% of the fatalities developed acute abdominal pain and necropsy findings included gastric rupture in 12%. Fatalities were also related to financial constraints as 28% of riders declined fluid therapy, referral to surgical facilities, and/or surgery when recommended. Horses competing in the Central and Midwest regions appeared at lesser risk, while those in the Southwest and Northeast regions appeared at greater risk, but low numbers of fatalities precluded reaching statistical significance. In contrast, the risk of fatality was 2 (1 fatality per 3,711 starts) and 12 (1 fatality per 648 starts) times more likely for participation in 80 and 160 km rides, as compared to competition in Limited Distance (40 to 56 km) rides (1 fatality per 8,057 starts).

Conclusions

Overall fatality rates were low; however, risk increased with ride distance. Acute abdominal pain was the most common clinical presentation.

Ethical Animal Research

This retrospective study used data available on the American Endurance Ride Conference (AERC) website and additional documents provided by the AERC. Sources of funding: none. Competing interests: Dr. Balch is a member of AERC Veterinary Committee, Research Committee, and Board of Directors and Dr. Schott is a member of the AERC Research Committee.
Timing of Blood Sampling for Poor Performance Diagnosis in Standardbred Horses after Racing
Authors: Bos A , Lindner A , Compagnie E , De Brabander E , Kranenburg L
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Blood is often collected from performing poorly horses to measure blood variables that may indicate a reason. However, intense exercise affects many blood variables and therefore time of sampling can affect the interpretation of results. This study examined the behaviour of blood variables after racing to determine the magnitude of the changes and to determine when it is better to collect samples.

Methods

Blood was sampled in 17 Standardbred racehorses 3 and 2 days before as well as 2 and 3 days after racing. GGT, albumin, cholesterol, creatinine, Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, CK, AST, LDH and cortisol were measured in plasma, and haematocrit, haemoglobin, number of erythrocytes, total white blood cells, granulocytes and lymphocytes were measured in EDTA blood. Parametric data was analyzed with ANOVA for repeated measures and Fisher test; non‐parametric data with Friedman test and Wilcoxon test.

Results

Plasma Ca concentration was lower on day 3 after racing than on day 2 before racing (P<0.01). P concentration and GGT activity were higher at days 2 and 3 after racing compared to before racing (P = 0.01). Erythrocytes, haematocrit and haemoglobin were higher at day 2 after racing than before and 3 days after racing (P<0.01). The other variables were not affected.

Conclusions

Some slight but significant changes in blood variables have to be taken in account when interpreting biochemical and haematologic variables for poor performance diagnosis in Standardbreds. It seems preferable to take blood samples on the third day after racing than on the second day.

Ethical Animal Research

Horse owners gave consent for these procedures within a veterinary monitoring system. Sources of funding: Verein zur Förderung der Forschung im Pferdesport and Laboklin, Germany. Competing interests: none.
Effect of Showers and Blankets after Exercise on Heat Dissipation in Swedish Standardbred Trotters
Authors: Hartmann E , Connysson M , Dahlborn K
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Swedish Standardbred trotters are usually not clipped during the cold season but routinely showered and blanketed after exercise. Yet, the effects on heat dissipation have not been thoroughly studied.

Methods

Six Standardbred geldings were tested during three consecutive days, acting as their own control when: 1) showered, 2) showered and blanketed, 3) neither showered nor blanketed. The exercise consisted of 20 min trot (maximum heart rate 172 bpm), preceded and followed by 5 min walk. Rectal‐ (RT) and skin temperature (ST), respiration rate (RR) and heart rate (HR) were recorded: before exercise in the horses′ boxes, after harnessing, after 5 min walk, at stops during four sequences of low and high intensity trotting, after 5 min walk (stable aisle), after showering and blanketing and at intervals of 15–30 min during recovery in boxes until one hour after exercise. Blankets remained on horses until test completion.

Results

Data were analyzed with Proc Mixed Model in SAS. Ambient temperature was 7.2 ± 0.2°C (relative humidity 63.5 ± 1.0%) in the stable and 1.0 ± 1.0°C (54.3 ± 1.2%) outdoors. Showering decreased ST of the neck (mean ± SE, 32.0 ± 0.4°C) compared to when horses were not showered (35.1 ± 0.4, P<0.05). Showering also decreased ST of the hind leg (31.4 ± 0.5, P<0.05). RT, RR and HR did not differ between treatments (P>0.05).

Conclusions

In conclusion, showering is efficient for cooling down whereas blanketing compromised heat dissipation.

Ethical Animal Research

This study was approved by the Local Ethics Committee (Uppsala, Ref C99/12). Sources of funding: Stiftelsen Hästforskning. Competing interests: none.
Altered Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation Capacity in Horses Suffering from Polysaccharide Storage Myopathy
Authors: Tosi I , Art T , Cassart D , Serteyn D , Votion D
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Exertional myopathies are a common cause of exercise intolerance in the equine athlete, and Polysaccharide Storage Myopathy (PSSM) is a widely described muscular disease. It is characterized by an accumulation of abnormal glycogen in myofibers due to a genetic defect in the skeletal muscle glycogen synthase (GYS1) enzyme. We hypothesized that energy production through oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) in muscular mitochondria might be impaired in type‐1 PSSM‐affected horses.

Methods

Eight horses with a history of exertional rhabdomyolysis were tested for the GYS1 mutation. Muscle biopsies were collected and used for histological analysis and high resolution respirometry (HRR). HRR values from 3 groups of horses (5 PSSM‐positive horses, 3 horses with a history of myopathy but PSSM‐negative and 16 healthy controls) were compared using a linear mixed model to take into account repeated (2–3 times) measurements made for each horse.

Results

In 5/8 horses histology revealed an accumulation of abnormal glycogen in myofibers. These 5 horses also tested positive for the GYS1 mutation. A severe depression of maximal OXPHOS capacity was observed by HRR in 7/8 horses with exertional rhabdomyolysis, with lower values in PSSM‐positive cases (4/5).

Conclusions

Our study shows a severely decreased OXPHOS capacity in PSSM‐affected horses. PSSM is considered primarily a defect in glycogen synthesis but altered OXPHOS might play a central role in its pathogenesis.

Ethical Animal Research

All study procedures were approved by the Animal Ethic Commission of the University of Liege. Sources of funding: University of Liège. Competing interests: none.
Changes in Abdominal Circumference during Endurance Exercise: A Pilot Study
Authors: Spooner H , Schott II H , Nielsen B , O′Connor‐Robison C , Harris P
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Horses have a large intestinal reserve of water and electrolytes that can be absorbed to replace sweat fluid losses during endurance exercise. As a consequence, the abdomen develops a “tucked‐up” appearance; however, data documenting changes in abdominal circumference during endurance exercise are lacking.

Methods

Abdominal circumference was measured directly (in triplicate with a measurement tape to nearest cm) every 15‐km at three sites (front, middle, and back) in six 2‐year‐old Arabian horses that completed four 60‐km bouts of treadmill exercise. Data were analyzed by repeated measures ANOVA and compared to body weight (BW) loss by correlation analysis.

Results

Abdominal circumference decreased at all three sites during the exercise test (1.8 ± 0.7, 1.4 ± 0.7, and 3.1 ± 1.3 cm for front, middle, and back, respectively, [representing 1–2% of total circumference]) with the greatest decrease (>50% of total) occurring during the initial 15‐km of the exercise test. Changes in abdominal circumference during each step of the exercise test were significantly correlated with BW changes (R values 0.18–0.39, P<0.05 for all).

Conclusions

These data support the clinical observation that the abdomen decreases in size during endurance exercise and that the largest changes are observed in the earlier stages of exercise, similar to the initial greater decrease in BW that has been documented in several studies during the initial half of endurance competitions.

Ethical Animal Research

This study was approved by the Animal Use Committee of Michigan State University. Sources of funding: WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition. Competing interests: none.