bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Publishing and the digital library: adding value to scholarship and innovation to business
Authors: COLEMAN Ross
Published: September 2009

Sydney eScholarship is a framework and suite of services that enables integration of digital collections, open access repositories, and research data services with scholarly publishing. The primary platform for scholarly publishing at the University of Sydney – Sydney University Press – currently operates as part of the University Library's Sydney eScholarship program. Three sets of publishing initiatives demonstrate the integration of the digital library with scholarly publishing to deliver different forms to different audiences: (i) new publishing and the literary canons – rediscovery, customisation and critical interpretations; (ii) book and web – open access publishing; (iii) publishing in the mix – data and experimental scholarly publishing.
Making journals accessible to the visually impaired: the future is near
Authors: GARDNER John , BULATOV Vladimir , KELLY Robert
Published: September 2009

The American Physical Society (APS) has been a leader in using markup languages for publishing. ViewPlus has led development of innovative technologies for graphical information accessibility by people with print disabilities. APS, ViewPlus, and other collaborators in the Enhanced Reading Project are working together to develop the necessary technology and infrastructure for APS to publish its journals in the DAISY (Digital Accessible Information SYstem) eXtended Markup Language (XML) format, in which all text, math, and figures would be accessible to people who are blind or have other print disabilities. The first APS DAISY XML publications are targeted for late 2010.
Book reviews
Authors: BAILEY Rebecca
Published: September 2009

Global Information Inequalities: Bridging the Information Gap
Edited by Deborah H. Charbonneau Oxford, Chandos Publishing, 2008, 210 pp. ISBN 9781843343615, £39.95, pbk ISBN 9781843343622, £59.95, hbk
Book reviews
Authors: CARDEN Mark
Published: September 2009

Never Mind the Web: Here Comes the Book
Miha Kovač Chandos Publishing, Oxford, UK 2008, 204 pp. ISBN 978 1 84334 406 3, £59.95, hbk ISBN 978 1 84334 405 6 £39.95, pbk
Anti‐Arthritic Activity of Bartogenic Acid Isolated from Fruits ofBarringtonia racemosaRoxb. (Lecythidaceae)
Authors: Patil Kalpesh Ramdas , Patil Chandragouda Raosaheb , Jadhav Ramchandra Baburao , Mahajan Vallabh Krishnalal , Patil Prabhakar Raosaheb , Gaikwad Pradeep Sampatrao
Published: September 2009

The fruits ofBarringtonia racemosaare prescribed in the ayurvedic literature for the treatment of pain, inflammation and rheumatic conditions. In present investigation, activity guided isolation of bartogenic acid (BA) and its evaluation in the Complete Freund′s Adjuvant (CFA)‐induced arthritis in rats is reported. Among the various extracts and fractions investigated preliminarily for carrageenan‐induced acute inflammation in rats, the ethyl acetate fraction displayed potent anti‐inflammatory activity. Large‐scale isolation and characterization using chromatography and spectral study confirmed that the constituent responsible for the observed pharmacological effects was BA. Subsequently the BA was evaluated for effectiveness against CFA‐induced arthritis in rats. The results indicate that at doses of 2, 5, and 10 mg kg−1 day−1, p.o., BA protects rats against the primary and secondary arthritic lesions, body weight changes and haematological perturbations induced by CFA. The serum markers of inflammation and arthritis, such as C‐reactive protein and rheumatoid factor, were also reduced in the BA‐treated arthritic rats. The overall severity of arthritis as determined by radiological analysis and pain scores indicated that BA exerts a potent protective effect against adjuvant‐induced arthritis in rats. In conclusion, the present study validates the ethnomedicinal use of fruits ofB. racemosain the treatment of pain and inflammatory conditions. It further establishes the potent anti‐arthritic effects of BA. However, additional clinical investigations are needed to prove the efficacy of BA in the treatment of various immuno‐inflammatory disorders.
Visual Analytics of an Eighteenth-Century Business Network
Authors: Haggerty John , Haggerty Sheryllynne
Published: September 2009

A social network consists of a finite set or sets of actors and the relation or relations defined upon them. The presence of relational information is a critical and defining feature of a social network.

Historians have become increasingly interested in networks as an analytical tool for eighteenth-century commerce. In much of the historiography these networks are treated as inherently beneficial for the wider economy and the actors themselves. Recently, however, historians have started to problematize networks and to complicate our understanding of them. Indeed, the quote above stresses that a network is not simply theactorswithin it, but therelationshipsbetween them. Realizing this facilitates an understanding of how such networks function.
Bereavement and Coping with Loss
Authors: Nagraj Shobhana , Barclay Stephen
Published: September 2009

Bereavement and loss are universal phenomena, which may be viewed as a normal rite of passage in life. Although it is important that General Practitioners do not over-medicalize death and loss, they have a valuable role in the acknowledgement of bereavement, the recognition of pathological grief and the identification of vulnerable people who may need extra support. General Practitioners may be faced with bereavement issues covering all age groups from loss of a spouse, loss of a child, miscarriage or loss of a parent. Patients also come to see GPs in the context of other losses such as redundancy, moving house, retirement and loss of fertility.
Breaking Bad News — Skills and Evidence
Authors: Thistlethwaite Jill
Published: September 2009

Bad or unfavorable news may be defined as ‘any news that drastically and negatively alters the patient's view of her or his future’( Buckman 1992 ). When GPs talk about breaking bad news, they usually mean telling patients that they have cancer, though in fact similar communication skills may be employed when informing patients about a positive human immunodeficiency virus status, or that a relative has died. Of key importance in the process is the doctor gaining an understanding of what the patient's view of the future is or was — the expectation that now might not be met. A doctor should not assume the impact of the diagnosis without exploring the patient's worldview.
Polymyalgia Rheumatica and Giant Cell Arteritis
Authors: Knights Gayle
Published: September 2009

First described in 1888 by William Bruce, a physician practising in Scotland, polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) is an inflammatory condition of unknown aetiology. Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a vasculitis of medium or large arteries, also of unknown cause. Because the two conditions often occur together (5% of patients with PMR develop GCA and conversely 40–50% of patients with GCA also have PMR), they are thought to share the same underlying pathophysiology, being opposite ends of the same spectrum. Unfortunately, there is no firm evidence to support this.
Inflammatory Arthritis
Authors: Stevenson John
Published: September 2009

Inflammatory arthritis is an umbrella term used to describe a range of conditions, including rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis and reactive arthritis. These are autoimmune diseases in which joint and systemic features are present in varying degrees between disease processes and individuals. Delayed diagnosis can lead to irreversible joint destruction and dysfunction but a therapeutic revolution has transformed its prognosis. Ever-expanding therapeutic options require GPs to recognize these conditions, manage symptoms and undertake drug monitoring. The costs to individuals, their families and the National Health Service are high. There were 1.9 million GP consultations for inflammatory arthritis in 2000 and nearly 46000 hospital admissions. The challenge in primary care is to recognize an inflammatory arthritis early and refer to secondary care.
The Sources for Presocratic Philosophy
Authors: Runia David T.
Published: September 2009

Between about 2,600 and 2,400 years ago, a group of men lived whose thought formed the beginning of the discipline of philosophy. All contemporary material records of these men have disappeared, with the possible exception of a piece of a statue and some likenesses on early coins and vases. The very notion that these philosophers can be best understood as Presocratics is redolent with interpretative interventions. Although this view is not without ancient precedents, the driving force behind its dominance in the twentieth century was the great achievement of the German classical scholar Hermann Diels (1848–1922), which exercises authority to this day. The aim of this article is to examine the sources for Presocratic philosophy. It commences with the dominant legacy of Diels. Thereafter, it examines various strands of transmission streamlined by Diels. Finally, it reaches some tentative conclusions on what should be the way forward in future research.
The Cloud‐Astrophysics of Xenophanes and Ionian Material Monism
Authors: Mourelatos Alexander P. D.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses Xenophanes' “cloud astro-physics”. It analyses and explains all heavenly and meteorological phenomena in terms of clouds. It provides a view of this newer Xenophanes, who is now being recognized as an important philosopher-scientist in his own right and a crucial figure in the development of critical thought about human knowledge and its objects in the next generation of Presocratic thinkers. Xenophanes' account has been preserved in Aëtius, the doxographic compendium (1st or 2nd century ce) reconstructed by Hermann Diels late in the nineteenth century mainly from two sources that show extensive parallelism: pseudo-Plutarch Placita Philosophorum or Epitome of Physical Opinions (second century ce); and Ioannes Stobaeus' Eclogae Physicae or Physical Extracts (fifth century ce). In the Stobaeus version, which is also the one printed in the standard edition of the Pre-socratics.
Hinduism
Authors: McDaniel June
Published: September 2009

Emotion is viewed in both positive and negative ways in the Hindu religious and philosophical traditions. In those traditions that are more ascetic and emphasize mental control, emotions are distractions which need to be stilled. In those traditions that emphasize love of a deity, emotions are valuable—but they must be directed and transformed. However, in order to study emotion in the Hindu tradition, we must first look at the meaning of the term “Hinduism.” There are at least six major types of Hinduism: Hindu folk religion, Vedic religion, Vedantic Hinduism, yogic Hinduism, dharmic Hinduism, and bhakti or devotional Hinduism. All of these involve emotion in various ways, but two traditions—those of Bengali Vaishnavism and raja yoga—have written about emotion in greatest depth. This article examines what the term “emotion” means in India, and then describes the beliefs about emotion in Vaishnavism and Yoga in greater detail. In discussing the nature of emotion, it considers bhava and rasa. Finally, the article discusses the literature on emotion in Hindu tradition, focusing on religious poetry.
Judaism
Authors: Gereboff Joel
Published: September 2009

The emotions are an important feature of Jewish life and thought throughout the ages. From biblical descriptions of a God of pathos to early rabbinic and medieval works detailing the virtues, to mystical tracts focused on the inner life, and occasionally portraying emotion filled religious experiences of the adept, there have always been Jewish representations of the affective dimensions of life. In addition, the many ways Jews have actually participated in prayer and in the celebration of holidays, and in the construction of material objects and spaces in which such activities took place, also give evidence of emotional texture of the lives of Jews. John Corrigan's concluding observations in his introduction to Religion and Emotion: Approaches and Interpretations, in which he sets forth a model for future scholarship in this field, provide a standard against which to assess present investigations into Judaism and the emotions. Others who have produced methodologically astute scholarship adding significantly to the understanding of aspects of Jewish thought on the emotions are Michael Fishbane, Daniel Boyarin, and Hava Tirosh-Samuelson.
Christianity
Authors: Tallon Andrew
Published: September 2009

This essay explores philosophical and theological frameworks for the development in Christianity of notions of “head” religion and “heart” religion. Such notions are the product of a complex and sustained historical interplay of ideas about the soul, body, matter, spirit, thinking, acting, and feeling. While not exclusively the province of Christianity, ideologies of head and heart in religion nevertheless have developed distinctive forms within the Christian cultures of the West, changing over time and leading, at the beginning of the twenty-first century, to an engagement with scientific theories of emotion. In discussing head and heart, this essay focuses on Apollo, the Greek god of reason, and Dionysius, son of Zeus and Bacchus. The essay also looks at representative key historical figures and their theories, namely, Plato, Aristotle, and Augustine as well as Thomas Aquinas, Rene Descartes, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, and Edmund Husserl.
William James
Authors: Carrette Jeremy
Published: September 2009

William James's 1884 theory of emotion is perhaps the most well known of all his psychological ideas, particularly as it forms a key historical landmark in the history of the concept. His notion of “religious emotion” is perhaps one of the most important in shaping the subject in the twentieth century. The complex history of James's theory of emotion begins when he and the Danish physician Karl Georg Lange established a post-Darwinian, organic theory of emotions, in what became known as the James-Lange theory. This view of emotion went against the grain of contemporary theories of emotion in the new psychology, particularly that put forward by Wilhelm Wundt, who argued for a theory of “apperception”—the process by which a state of mind (the affect or emotion) produces bodily effects. This article examines James's theory of emotion and religious emotion, focusing on his views about mind and body. It also discusses three theories of emotion, namely, organic theory, cognitive theory, and social theory. Finally, it considers pluralism, mystical emotions, metaphysical emotions, and the reflex circuit of emotion.
Testing Adaptive Hypotheses, Optimality Models, and Adaptationism
Authors: Orzack Steven Hecht
Published: September 2009

This article discusses three claims about natural selection. The first claim is that natural selection played some role in the evolution of traits. The second claim is that natural selection played an important role in the evolution of traits. The third claim is that natural selection was a sufficient explanation of traits and that traits are locally optimal. An optimality mode was created for the generation of a prediction as to what a trait should be. By comparison, the testing and assessment of the predictions of optimality models have advanced. A related attempt is the testing of adaptive hypotheses with comparative data which are observations typically gathered from multiple species, and this provides an insight into an evolutionary trend.
Teleology
Authors: Walsh D.M.
Published: September 2009

Teleology is a mode of explanation in which the presence, occurrence, or nature of some phenomenon is explained by the end to which it contributes. The model of explanation is “pure mechanism” which holds that there is a single kind of stuff in the world-”matter” that exhibits a single kind of change, motion. It falls into three classes: the argument from nonactuality, the argument from intentionality, and the argument from normativity. These objections are because of early modern thinking about the natural world. These arguments rely on the Platonic model of transcendent teleology. Aristotelian teleology complements our current understanding of goal-directed, self-organizing, adaptive systems. The success of development can be explained by plasticity which is a goal-directed capacity of organisms to produce and maintain a stable, well-functioning living thing. The understanding of how evolution can be adaptive requires us to incorporate teleology.
Species and Taxonomy
Authors: Richards Richard A.
Published: September 2009

This article deals with biological systematics including ontological and taxonomic questions. Ontological questions are concerned with the nature of species and the taxonomic question is about how we should classify biodiversity. Evolutionary taxonomists determine homology through the use of process assumptions in functional analysis but cladistic phylogeneticists reject the use of such assumptions, arguing that theoretical assumptions can only be confirmed by evolutionary history. The species problem that arises is about the basic entities in organic nature. First, there are different theoretical concepts that make inconsistent assertions about the nature of species. Second, there are different and inconsistent operational grouping rules. Apparent intractability of the species problem leads philosophers to turn to pluralism which provides two ideas. The first idea is the division of conceptual labor and the second idea is the thesis that species are individuals.
Macroevolution
Authors: Sepkoski David
Published: September 2009

This article draws out the major philosophical issues that underlie macroevolution. This term means evolution that takes place at or above the level of the species. On the basis of the observation of fossil records, the history of life, and current biological populations scientists have concluded that organisms and taxa are unevenly distributed in space and time. Steven Stanley proposed the principle of species selection which states that species-level evolution occurs via a process on a different hierarchical level than microevolution and may or may not involve characteristics that are emergent. Many implications are drawn from the relation of extinction to macroevolution. Firstly, extinction alters the normal course of evolution not determined by previous selective criteria. Secondly, mass extinction can rapidly introduce new environmental conditions and thus new selective criteria. Finally, extinction theory implies that macroevolution may not be related to the biological processes of microevolution.
Sociobiology, Evolutionary Psychology, and Cultural Evolution
Authors: Mameli Matteo
Published: September 2009

This article discusses evolutionary approaches to the study of human minds. Humans are evolved organisms. Thus, studying the evolutionary process helps us to understand human behavior. This assumes that a mechanistic explanation of every aspect of human behavior is possible and human minds are collections of mechanisms. These mechanisms are supposed to be physically implemented. It is indicated in this article that in the relationship between the mind of current humans and the evolutionary process, evolution has generated only a small set of basic innate mental abilities in humans. According to Wilson many human behaviors are genetic adaptations and environmental variation affects behavioral adaptations. According to Tooby and Cosmides psychological mechanisms produce different behavioral outputs in response to different inputs from experience. Thus even if there are some behavioral differences between populations that have a genetic origin, most of the variation is at the population level.
Genes and Society
Authors: Gannett Lisa
Published: September 2009

This article emphasizes various ways in which the connection of relationships has been framed conceptually over the course of Western philosophy by Plato, Aristotle, and more recently by contemporary philosophers of science. This discussion cites examples with the help of cases taken from contemporary genetics that have significant social ramifications: eugenics, the Human Genome Project, the tractability of genes, behavioral genetics, pharmacogenetics, and the development of “ethnic drugs.” There are continuities between the eugenics of the past and the human genetics of today. Theoretical knowledge in genetics provides justification for practical interventions directed at the level of the genome. Recent research in genomics and the development of “ethnic drugs” provides a case study for analyzing the ways in which theoretical and practical considerations intersect and moral and social values are implicated in molecular biology. The goal is to begin to develop an improved conceptual framework for understanding genes and society.
Satire
Authors: Branham R. Bracht
Published: September 2009

This article describes the relation of satire to philosophy. It explains that while satire and philosophy may seem at first glance to be fundamentally distinct forms of discourse, they are in fact fratricidal siblings and that they are destined to be forever at odds but ultimately inseparable. It explains that philosophy and satire also share a common cultural genealogy and they both claim the same high ground: the right to determine what is to be taken seriously and what is to be laughed out of court. It also highlights the differences between satire and comedy.
Romanticism
Authors: Kompridis Nikolas
Published: September 2009

This article looks at Romantic literature. It discusses flaws and criticisms of Romanticism and highlights the resurgent of interest in German and American Romanticism. It evaluates whether Romanticism can redeem modernism and whether Romanticism is still needed today. It describes the prose of Romanticism and the idea that poetry and prose determines the whole of the Romantic philosophy of art. It also argues that the critical interanimation and contamination of languages in Romanticism takes place at the level of everyday life and language and that the prose of Romanticism is the prose of the everyday world from which we derive meaning and intelligibility.
Plato's Ways of Writing
Authors: McCabe Mary Margaret
Published: September 2009

This article deals with Plato's ways of writing. Plato's writing scintillates, most of them, if not all. However, this depends on whether we take the letters to be genuine—of what comes down to us from Plato's hand is in the dialogue form, somehow or other. But should we speak of “the” Platonic dialogue form? After all, the dialogues come in all sorts of different forms: some are dramatic, others merely formalized discussion; some are in direct speech, others narrated (compare the Gorgias and the Symposium); some seem to have a beginning, a middle, and an end, whereas others begin, or end, in the middle of things. In almost all the dialogues, people talk about big abstract questions: the nature of reality, truth, virtue and knowledge. These conversations come in all sorts of shapes and sizes, but they are often conducted by question and answer, by one-person asking questions to one another.
TheRepublic
Authors: Scott Dominic
Published: September 2009

The Republic happens to be Plato's most important work. The article throws light on Plato's Magnum Opus. The debate rages over the idea of a city; rather an ideal city state comprising three classes—producers, auxiliaries, and guardians. The first to provide for the material needs of the state, the second for its defence, and the third to rule. Each has a specific function of its own, and none is to interfere with the others. Above all, the just city will be unified, ordered, and harmonious. The rulers and auxiliaries, the two classes Socrates discusses at most length, will be dedicated to protecting the good of the state as a whole, and every aspect of their education, as well as the conditions, under which they live, will be minutely engineered to ensure they fulfil their roles as best they can. In a particularly famous passage, Socrates devotes considerable attention to the arts, proposing radical censorship of the kinds of poetry and music to which will be applicable in the city-state or the Republic that Plato has idealized.
Wittgenstein on Certainty
Authors: McGinn Marie
Published: September 2009

This article examines philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein's view on skepticism based on his book On Certainty. It explains that Wittgenstein has variously been held to refute skepticism by showing that it is self-defeating to reveal the truth in skepticism and to offer an accommodation with it and to diagnose the misconceptions that underlie skeptical doubt. It suggests that the account of cognitive achievement that C. Wright attributes to Wittgenstein does not amount to an intelligible conception of us as knowing about the world and to question whether his account of the central insight of On Certainty is correct.
Sensitivity, Safety, and Antiluck Epistemology
Authors: Pritchard Duncan
Published: September 2009

This article analyses antiluck epistemology, and sensitivity-based and safety-based theories of knowledge in relation to skepticism. It suggests that the main motivation for sensitivity-based theories of knowledge is that they seem to offer a very neat resolution of at least one form of the skeptical problem. The problem with the use of sensitivity-based theories in responding to radical skepticism is that the closure principle is highly intuitive, intuitive that many feel that rejecting closure is too costly a price to pay for a resolution of the skeptical challenge.
A Priori Knowledge
Authors: Casullo Albert
Published: September 2009

This article addresses the question of whether a priori knowledge exists. Since one cannot determine whether such knowledge exists without knowing what such knowledge is, it begins by providing an analysis of the concept a priori knowledge. It utilizes that analysis to show that the traditional arguments, both for and against, the a priori are not convincing. It concludes by offering an alternative strategy for defending the existence of a priori knowledge. Although the questions about the relationship between the a priori and the nonepistemic concepts of necessity and analyticity are not the primary targets of this article, they are addressed here as they are relevant to analyzing the concept of a priori knowledge or to determining whether such knowledge exists.
Explanation and Epistemology
Authors: Lycan William G.
Published: September 2009

This article proposes that explanation and epistemology are related in at least three ways. First, “to explain something is an epistemic act and to have something explained is to learn.” This article begins its account of explanation by drawing out several paradigms for scientific explanation, but it finds it unlikely that scientific explanation is captured by a single set of necessary and sufficient conditions. Noting, however, that scientific explanation does not exhaust an account of explanation in general, it moves on to a second way in which explanation is related to epistemology: by the idea of explanatory inference. To account for a hypothesis' being “the best,” this article introduces “pragmatic virtues” that can increase the value of a hypothesis. The third way in which explanation relates to epistemology claims that a belief can be justified if it is arrived at by explanatory inference.
Biological Clocks: Explaining with Models of Mechanisms
Authors: Robins Sarah K. , Craver Carl F.
Published: September 2009

This article examines the concept of mechanistic explanation by considering the mechanism of circadian rhythm or biological clocks. It provides an account of mechanistic explanation and some common failures of mechanistic explanation and discusses the sense in which mechanistic explanations typically span multiple levels. The article suggests that models that describe mechanisms are more useful for the purposes of manipulation and control than are scientific models that do not describe mechanisms. It comments on the criticism that the mechanistic explanation is far too simple to fully express the complexity of real explanations in neuroscience and that neuroscientific explanations require emergent properties that cannot be explained by decomposition into the parts, activities, and organizational features that constitute the mechanism.
Emergentism at the Crossroads of Philosophy, Neurotechnology, and the Enhancement Debate
Authors: Racine Eric , Illes Judy
Published: September 2009

This article examines the implications of emergentism for research in philosophy and neurotechnology and evaluates the capabilities of brain-machine interfaces (BMI) to enhance brain function. It argues that the emergentist approach, for which reduction is necessary but insufficient to understand the higher level properties of the self, provides the strongest option for guiding the present ethical debate concerning BMI. The article suggests that BMI constitutes groundbreaking therapeutic interventions because it leads to a more complete ethical analysis that includes scientific, normative, and cultural considerations.
What's “Neu” in Neuroethics?
Authors: Roskies Adina L.
Published: September 2009

This article highlights some of the more exciting ethical issues raised by neuroscience and shows how some philosophical issues are framed by neuroethics. It suggests that despite the significant areas of overlap between questions raised by genetics and those raised by neuroscience, there are areas in which the ethical issues raised by the two diverge. The article discusses the ability of neuroscience to illuminate issues involving consciousness, the self, personhood, decision making, and the freedom of will and moral cognition. It concludes that even if it is admitted that the questions in neuroethics and genethics were not distinct, it would be a fallacy to conclude that there is no need for neuroethics.
Confabulations about People and Their Limbs, Present or Absent
Authors: Hirstein William
Published: September 2009

This article examines the neurobiological aspects of confabulations. It explains that confabulation is a false memory report and that to confabulate is to make unintentionally an ill-grounded, and hence probably false, claim that one should know is ill-grounded. Confabulation is caused by damage to some perceptual or mnemonic process in the posterior of the brain and damage to some prefrontal process that monitors and can manipulate and/or correct the output of that perceptual or mnemonic process. This article evaluates the application of this two-factor theory to the analysis of Capgras syndrome and anosognosia, the two oddest members of the family of confabulation syndromes.
Delusional Experience
Authors: Mundale Jennifer , Gallagher Shaun
Published: September 2009

This article presents a model of delusional experience which provides an integrated approach in which aberrations at the neurological level are directly related to a disorder of experience. It argues that higher order cognitive effects are not the proper locus for the explanation of the delusional experience itself. Through following out the neurological and phenomenological underpinnings of misattribution, this article provides a bottom-up account of the genesis of schizophrenic delusions, particularly those involving the misattributions of agency.
Structuralism Reconsidered
Authors: MacBride Fraser
Published: September 2009

The properties and relations that perform a role in mathematical reasoning arise from the basic relations that obtain among mathematical objects. It is in terms of these basic relations that mathematicians identify the objects they intend to study. The way in which mathematicians identify these objects has led some philosophers to draw metaphysical conclusions about their nature. These philosophers have been led to claim that mathematical objects are positions in structures or akin to positions in patterns. This article retraces their route from (relatively uncontroversial) facts about the identification of mathematical objects to high metaphysical conclusions. Beginning with the natural numbers, how are they identified? The mathematically significant properties and relations of natural numbers arise from the successor function that orders them; the natural numbers are identified simply as the objects that answer to this basic function. But the relations (or functions) that are used to identify a class of mathematical objects may often be defined over what appear to be different kinds of objects.
The Ontological Argument
Authors: Leftow Brian
Published: September 2009

The term “ontological argument” was Kant's name for one member of a family of arguments that began with Anselm of Canterbury. These arguments all try to prove God's existence a priori, via reasoning about the entailments of a particular description of God. The description almost always involves God's greatness or perfection. Where it does not, the argument has a premise justified by God's greatness or perfection. So these arguments might better be called arguments from perfection. This article deals with the main arguments from perfection and criticisms thereof in historical order. It first explicates Anselm's key phrase “something than which no greater can be thought” and then takes up his reasoning, then the question of whether its premises are true.
The Problem of Evil
Authors: van Inwagen Peter
Published: September 2009

There are many ways to understand the phrase “the problem of evil.” This article conceives this phrase as a label for a certain purely intellectual problem—as opposed to an emotional, spiritual, pastoral, or theological problem (and as opposed to a good many other possible categories of problem as well). The fact that there is much evil in the world (that is to say, the fact that many bad things happen) can be the basis for an argument for the nonexistence of God (that is, of an omnipotent and morally perfect God). But this article takes these qualifications to be redundant: It takes the phrases “a less than omnipotent God” and “a God who sometimes does wrong” to be self-contradictory, like “a round square” or “a perfectly transparent object that casts a shadow.”) Here is a simple formulation of this argument: If God existed, he would be all-powerful and morally perfect. An all-powerful and morally perfect being would not allow evil to exist.
Virtually Religious
Authors: Cowan Douglas E. , Hadden Jeffrey K.
Published: September 2009

This article begins with a review of the current research into new or controversial religious movements and the Internet. It then explores three aspects of the intersection between these movements and the constantly evolving virtual world: (a) the Internet as a medium for the emergence and evolution of new religions; (b) the Internet as a stage for the virtual practice of online religion; and (c) the Internet as a platform for conflict over religious lineage and authority. It examines the issue of online rituals through case studies of the Temple of Duality and of competing branches of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.
Leaving the Fold
Authors: Bromley David G.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses a variety of factors precipitating disaffiliation. It then analyzes the process in terms of a series of phases. It suggests that in the future (1) a more integrated model of affiliation/disaffiliation needs to be constructed; and (2) more attention needs to be given to different types of disaffiliation.
The Study of Law and Politics
Authors: Whittington Keith E. , Kelemen R. Daniel , Caldeira Gregory A.
Published: September 2009

This book deals with the interdisciplinary connections of the study of law and politics. It discusses jurisprudence and the philosophy of law, constitutional law, politics and theory, judicial politics, and law and society. The book reviews three prominent traditions in the empirical analysis of law and politics and, indeed, politics more broadly: judicial behavior, strategic action, and historical institutionalism. It also focuses on questions of law and courts in a global context and on how law constitutes and orders political and social relationships. Moreover, the book: examines how courts, politics, and society have intersected in the United States; reviews several recent interdisciplinary movements in the study of law and politics and how they intersect with and are of interest to political science; and offers personal perspectives on how the study of law and politics has developed over the past generation, and where it might be headed in the next.
Judicial Behavior
Authors: Segal Jeffrey A.
Published: September 2009

Judicial behavior refers to what courts and judges do. The extent to which judges choose to move beyond their policy preferences divides the field of law and politics. Normatively, influences over what judges ought to do include evaluating legal rules such as precedent or legislative intent in an attempt to find the best answers to cases before them. Thus, in addition to the judges' own preferences, legal influences should be useful in explaining judicial behavior, though the extent to which it does undoubtedly varies throughout the judicial system. Judicial politics can be law or politics, but frequently it is both, with the mixture dependent on the type of court and the context of the case. This article examines judicial behavior, stare decisis, text and intent, judges' attitudes, the behaviour of the U.S. Supreme Court, judicial decisions in the lower courts, and separation of powers.
International Law and International Relations
Authors: Simmons Beth
Published: September 2009

International law is a set of rules intended to bind states in their relationships with each other. It is largely designed to apply to states, both to constrain (the laws of war) and to empower them (law of sovereignty). Increasingly, international law has been codified, so that today most international obligations are contained in treaty form, although historically customary international law played a relatively more important role than it does today. The role of international law in informing foreign policy decision making has waxed and waned over the course of the past century. It has also varied significantly across countries. It is striking the extent to which international interactions have become reflected in and regulated by formal state-to-state agreements. This article examines international law and international relations, multilateral treaties, political theories of international law (realism, rational/functionalist theories, constructivist approaches), and legal agreements. It also discusses the implementation, compliance, and effectiveness of international law.
The Globalization of the Law
Authors: Garth Bryant G.
Published: September 2009

The “globalization of the law” became a central topic in legal and social science scholarship in the 1980s. The topic refers to “legalization” diffused into two related kinds of domains. First, it refers to the development of and enhanced role for legal rules and procedures in transnational political and economic matters. Second, the topic refers to the increased importance of the domestic “rule of law” in countries throughout the world. The prominence of the United States in the recent story of the globalization of law supports the analogy between the globalization of law and the history of colonialism. Both the strong position of lawyers after World War II in the United States and their ideological orientation reflected an historical pattern that manifested itself early in U.S. foreign policy. This article discusses the globalization of law as well as international trade and the World Trade Organization, international human rights, import and export, and the future of anti-colonial colonialism as the globalization of law.
Litigation and Legal Mobilization
Authors: McCann Michael
Published: September 2009

Studies of legal mobilization have made important contributions to social science analysis of law over the last three decades. This article briefly reviews that tradition, emphasizing its basic underlying premises and insights as well as the sources of diversity and even contestation within the legacy. It then examines in greater detail several of these important lines of inquiry within the tradition. The article also discusses the historical context of scholarly interest in legal mobilization, the micropolitics of individual legal mobilization, and group struggle and social reform. Finally, it suggests some of the most fruitful paths of future scholarship regarding litigation and legal mobilization.
Introduction
Authors: Cartwright Susan , Cooper Cary L.
Published: September 2009

The success of an organization is invariably judged on the basis of its financial performance and its ability to provide high-quality goods and services over time. In a changing internal and external environment, the financial health of an organization is increasingly dependent on the extent to which an organization and its members are able to transform and adapt to these changing circumstances more effectively than their competitors. Physical health and well-being are determined by a range of social, psychological, and biological factors and are conceptualized as resources that allow people to lead individually, socially, and economically productive lives. The aim of this book, in focusing on organizational well-being, in its widest sense, is to review the factors which are associated with ill-health as well as those which promote positive health and well-being.
The Ethics of Realism
Authors: Donnelly Jack
Published: September 2009

This article focuses on the standard realist argument that international politics ‘is a practical exercise and not a moral one’, that ‘no ethical standards are applicable to relations between states’, and that ‘universal moral principles cannot be applied to the actions of states’. The article also looks at the idea that the ‘reality’ of international politics ‘justifies and necessitates political policies which a purely individualistic ethic must always find embarrassing’. It is shown that such categorical denials of the ethical dimension of international relations, although rooted in important insights, are both descriptively inaccurate and prescriptively perverse. Realism is best read as a cautionary ethic of political prudence rooted in a narrow yet insightful vision of international politics.
Marxism
Authors: Teschke Benno
Published: September 2009

This article discusses how Marxism produces some of the most trenchant challenges to mainstream international relations theory and general social science. Marx and Engels left a problematic legacy for theorizing international relations because of their neglect of inter-spatial relations and alterations in political geographies for processes of social reproduction. This ‘geopolitical deficiency’ still haunts the collective Marxist imagination. If significant progress has been made to rectify this defect, the tradition still stands in need of devising a theoretical framework wide and open-ended enough to conceptualize the nexus between social reproduction, power, and inter-spatial relations across the entire spectrum of human history.
Foreign‐Policy Decision‐Making
Authors: Stuart Douglas T.
Published: September 2009

This article begins with some background information on the development of the subfield of foreign-policy decision-making, with a particular emphasis on why and how this subfield took root in the United States in the interwar period. It then surveys some of the important orienting statements by pioneers in the subfield of foreign-policy decision-making. Next, it focuses on the independent, intervening, and dependent variables that have received most of the scholarly attention over the last five decades. It concludes with some comments on the state of the subfield today, and the challenges and opportunities that are likely to confront students of foreign-policy decision-making during the next few years.
Performance Management
Authors: Talbot Colin
Published: September 2009

Discussions of the performance of government have existed as long as government itself. Rulers—even autocratic ones—have usually sought to justify their rule by showing how it is beneficial to the ruled. In many modern democracies this has developed into a political theatre of performance where competing parties promise voters that their policies will deliver their version of “the good life”. This article starts by asking: Where does performance take place—with programs, organizations, or people? It then outlines some of the justifications and doctrines that have been developed in support of performance measurement and reporting and examines some of the counter-arguments which are typically advanced. The article then turns to examining some commonly employed models of performance and discusses performance audit. Finally, it examines what new challenges are on the horizon.
Budget and Accounting Reforms
Authors: Rubin Irene S. , Kelly Joanne
Published: September 2009

This article examines what reforms have been proposed, what they are intended to accomplish, and how they are working out. The result of the survey and analysis conducted is somewhat messy if informative. The amount and quality of information available in different countries varies enormously. Failed reforms have often been ignored by researchers, biasing the existing reports in a positive direction. Reforms have been in place for different amounts of time in different countries, and some have been only partly implemented, adding to the difficulty of comparing them. Finally, the large number of countries engaged in such reforms has led to some selectivity in the presentation, making the results less than neat. This article then illustrates an interim report on an ongoing set of processes in a limited number of countries, based on the literature and on first-hand observations offered by scholars and practitioners in a number of countries.
The Gravity Equation in International Trade
Authors: Fratianni Michele
Published: September 2009

This article aims to explain trade flows in terms of the gravity equation (GE). The reason for focusing on GE is twofold. The first is that GE, unlike other frameworks, has had great empirical success in explaining bilateral trade flows. For a long time, however, GE was a child without a father in the sense that it was thought to have no theoretical support. Since the late 1970s, this state of affairs has changed radically. Now, the gravity equation has strong theoretical support and can be derived from a variety of models of international trade. The second is that GE can be used to sort out alternative hypotheses of international trade.
Theories of the Multinational Enterprise
Authors: Hennart Jean‐François
Published: September 2009

This article provides a critical survey of some of the theories that have sought to explain why multinational enterprises (MNEs) exist, with special emphasis on the transaction costs/internalization approach. While scholars have quibbled over the definition of an MNE (and whether it ought to manufacture in at least two countries to qualify for that title), this article defines it as a private institution that organizes, through employment contracts, interdependencies between individuals located in more than one country. Hence a domestic manufacturer who contracts at arm's length with local distributors abroad is not an MNE, but a domestic department store with its own overseas buying offices, but no foreign manufacturing, is. The first section briefly discusses early capital flow and industrial organization theories before turning to transaction costs/internalization theories, the now dominant theories of the MNE. It focuses on the author's own brand of the theory, developing first the basic foundations, then applying them to the MNE.