bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Childhood Adversities, Midlife Health, and Elder Abuse Victimization: A Longitudinal Analysis Based on Cumulative Disadvantage Theory
Authors: Easton Scott D , Kong Jooyoung
Published: August 2020

Objectives

Elder abuse victimization is increasingly recognized as a pressing public health concern. However, few empirical studies have investigated whether early life course adversities and midlife sequelae heighten risks for abuse in late life. Guided by cumulative disadvantage theory, the current study examined whether compromised health in middle adulthood (physical, psychological, cognitive) mediates the association between child abuse and elder abuse.

Method

This secondary analysis was based on data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study, a population-based, multi-wave dataset. We analyzed responses from 5,968 participants (mean age = 71 years; 54% female) on adapted versions of standardized measures: elder abuse victimization (outcome variable), childhood adversities (independent variable), and midlife health (physical health, depressive symptoms, cognitive functioning; mediator variables). Serial multiple mediation models were conducted, controlling for background characteristics.

Results

Rates for any elder abuse and child adversities were, respectively, 16.34% and 47.98%. Multivariate analyses supported the cumulative disadvantage hypothesis. Childhood adversities (0.11, p < .001) and midlife health (physical, −0.10, p < .05; depressive symptoms, 0.09, p < .001; cognitive functioning, 0.02, p < .05) had significant direct effects on elder abuse victimization. Childhood adversities also had an indirect effect on elder abuse through physical health (0.002, p < .05) and depressive symptoms (0.01, p < .001), both in serial.

Discussion

This innovative study advances our understanding mechanisms through which childhood trauma influences abuse in late life. Boosting health in middle adulthood could help prevent elder abuse. Other implications for clinical practice, treatment, and future research on elder abuse are discussed.
Changes in Health Care Access and Utilization for Low-SES Adults Aged 51–64 Years After Medicaid Expansion
Authors: Tipirneni Renuka , Levy Helen G , Langa Kenneth M , McCammon Ryan J , Zivin Kara , Luster Jamie , Karmakar Monita , Ayanian John Z
Published: August 2020

Objectives

Whether the Affordable Care Act (ACA) insurance expansions improved access to care and health for adults aged 51–64 years has not been closely examined. This study examined longitudinal changes in access, utilization, and health for low-socioeconomic status adults aged 51–64 years before and after the ACA Medicaid expansion.

Methods

Longitudinal difference-in-differences (DID) study before (2010–2014) and after (2016) Medicaid expansion, including N = 2,088 noninstitutionalized low-education adults aged 51–64 years (n = 633 in Medicaid expansion states, n = 1,455 in nonexpansion states) from the nationally representative biennial Health and Retirement Study. Outcomes included coverage (any, Medicaid, and private), access (usual source of care, difficulty finding a physician, foregone care, cost-related medication nonadherence, and out-of-pocket costs), utilization (outpatient visit and hospitalization), and health status.

Results

Low-education adults aged 51–64 years had increased rates of Medicaid coverage (+10.6 percentage points [pp] in expansion states, +3.2 pp in nonexpansion states, DID +7.4 pp, p = .001) and increased likelihood of hospitalizations (+9.2 pp in expansion states, −1.1 pp in nonexpansion states, DID +10.4 pp, p = .003) in Medicaid expansion compared with nonexpansion states after 2014. Those in expansion states also had a smaller increase in limitations in paid work/housework over time, compared to those in nonexpansion states (+3.6 pp in expansion states, +11.0 pp in nonexpansion states, DID −7.5 pp, p = .006). There were no other significant differences in access, utilization, or health trends between expansion and nonexpansion states.

Discussion

After Medicaid expansion, low-education status adults aged 51–64 years were more likely to be hospitalized, suggesting poor baseline access to chronic disease management and pent-up demand for hospital services.
“Making Sense of a Disease That Makes No Sense”: Understanding Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Disorders Among Caregivers and Providers Within Alaska Native Communities
Authors: Lewis Jordan P , Manson Spero M , Jernigan Valarie B , Noonan Carolyn
Published: August 2020

Background and Objectives

With the rate of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias (ADRD) increasing among Alaska Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) people, the Alaska Native Health system is ill-prepared to meet the challenges associated with the growing population at risk of ADRD. The high cost of care, inadequate training of health care providers, and lack of supportive services for caregivers are especially concerning.

Research Design and Methods

Interviews were conducted with 22 AN caregivers for ANs with ADRD and 12 ANs and non-Native health care providers in communities across Alaska. Interviews lasted approximately 60 min and were transcribed verbatim. We employed directed content analysis to examine the major agreements and disagreements between the participants’ understandings of ADRD in each of the domains of Kleinman’s Explanatory Model of Illness.

Results

Caregivers and health care providers expressed concerns about the lack of understanding, resources, and awareness of ADRD among ANs in rural and urban communities. Both caregivers and providers recognized the need to obtain an early diagnosis, blend Western and traditional medicines, promote lifestyle and dietary changes, and foster training for caregivers. Health care providers acknowledged their limited exposure to AN understanding of ADRD and wish to receive culturally relevant training to better serve AN.

Discussion and Implications

As the older AN adult population grows, the need for culturally responsive training and support services will continue to increase. We recommend establishing rural outreach and support groups for caregivers, developing an understanding of how ANs view ADRD to train and educate health care providers, and implement screening early for memory loss during routine medical examinations.
Seismoacoustic analysis of underground explosions using the Rayleigh integral
Authors: Blom Philip , Iezzi Alex , Euler Garrett
Published: August 2020

A coupled seismoacoustic model is developed for the analysis of acoustic signals produced by underground explosive events with an aim to develop a means of improving estimated depth and yield for explosion monitoring. A ground spall model is used to predict surface motion characteristics produced by an underground explosion and the Rayleigh integral is applied to relate the surface motion to the acoustic signal some distance from surface ground zero. The low-frequency component of the ground motion associated with the prolonged free fall of lofted material during spall is found to dominate the acoustic signal propagating away from surface ground zero at shallow angles. The model is applied to observed ground motion and acoustic signals recorded during the Source Physics Experiment (SPE) with promising results. In addition to accurately predicting characteristics of the observed acoustic signals from several of the SPE events, the model provides a means of explaining the lack of signals observed during several events in the SPE due to the directionality of the higher frequency acoustic signals associated with the uplift and closure components as well as the lack of a spatially localized, longer duration dwell.
6. Greece: a Critical Test Case of Europeanization
Authors: Papadimitriou Dimitris , Zartaloudis Sotirios
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores Greece’s turbulent and ambivalent relationship with European integration. Despite initial hesitation during the initial stages of EU membership, Greece grew into one of the most pro-European member states. This enthusiasm ended abruptly after 2010 with the eurozone crisis and resultant EU–IMF bailout agreements that necessitated unpopular reforms and austerity. Consequently, Greece witnessed a seismic change in its party system, with a dramatic increase in the popularity of anti-system parties on both the Left and the Right of the political spectrum. Euroscepticism became more prevalent among Greek voters who blamed foreign actors (such as the EU, the IMF, Germany) and their domestic interlocutors for the country’s economic hardship. Greece’s Europeanization has been difficult, not least because of endemic weaknesses in public administration and the public policy process. EU-driven adaptational pressures on policy, polity, and institutions have been severely mitigated by entrenched veto points at the domestic level.
9. Poland: Model European or Awkward Partner?
Authors: Copsey Nathaniel , Pomorska Karolina
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the pattern of Poland’s relations with the European Union during the period 1989–2011. Poland took an early decision in 1989 to place European integration at the centre of its plans for democratization and modernization. Post-accession opinion in Poland on the EU was initially divided between an increasingly Europhile public and an occasionally Eurosceptic political class. By the time of the Polish Presidency of the EU in 2011, however, Poland had largely shed its reputation for awkwardness and had achieved a few policy successes, particularly in relations with its Eastern neighbours. The chapter explains how Poland came to join the EU and assesses the impact of its EU membership on domestic politics, public opinion, institutions, governance, and public policy. It concludes by considering the re-emergent divide between elite and public attitudes since the 2015 elections and tensions with the EU over the rule of law.
10. Bulgaria’s Slow Europeanization
Authors: Gueorguieva Petia
Published: August 2020

The chapter analyses the Bulgarian experience of Europeanization: its achievements, weaknesses, and patterns of convergence with EU norms and rules. The chapter is structured in four parts. First, it offers a brief historical overview of Bulgarian accession to the EU. Secondly, the impact of EU membership on public opinion and political parties is evaluated. The third part presents the impact of EU membership on Bulgarian political institutions and governance. Finally, a brief comparison is offered with the Romanian experience of Europeanization. The underlying argument is that the process of Europeanization has been a slow one.
14. Europeanization, Euroscepticism, and Politicization in Party Politics
Authors: Taggart Paul
Published: August 2020

The development of European integration has meant that member states have experienced Europeanization and as a consequence the EU has become a more politicized issue in domestic politics. Politicization has come over time and as a consequence of the decline of a permissive consensus and takes some very different forms. The chapter considers the place of the domestic politicization of European integration in theories of European integration and then reviews different periods of the history of European integration, highlighting the growing phenomena of Europeanization and politicization. The chapter then looks at Euroscepticism and its meaning and different forms and identifying which parties can currently be identified as Eurosceptic and what issues Euroscepticism blends with in different member states. The chapter then offers a typology for understanding the different ways in which the politicization of European integration plays out in the party systems of member states.
17. Europeanization and Sub-National Authorities (SNAs)
Authors: Bursens Peter
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the impact of Europeanization upon the sub-national authorities (SNAs) of European Union member states. The Europeanization of SNAs can be broken down to the effect of EU membership on the policies, politics, and polity of SNAs. With respect to policies, the scarce literature available suggests that SNAs implement EU legislation in diverse ways according to the varying national contexts. The politics dimension discusses the impact on EU policy coordination mechanisms, domestic horizontal and vertical relations, and actors’ preferences and strategies. The chapter first provides a background on SNAs in the EU before discussing the Europeanization of SNA policies, politics, and polities. It also considers the Europeanization of Central and Eastern European Countries and concludes with some remarks regarding the analytical approaches and the variables used in the research on the Europeanization of SNAs.
9. The Eastern and Western Blocs in the 1960s
Authors: Young John W. , Kent John
Published: August 2020

This chapter provides an overview of the Eastern and Western blocs in the 1960s. It first considers US–Soviet relations from the Cuban Missile Crisis to détente spanning the period 1963–71, focusing on the talks between Nikita Khrushchev and John F. Kennedy regarding the Test Ban Treaty, before discussing the superpowers’ relations with China. It then explores unity and division in Eastern Europe and in the Western bloc, taking into account the European Economic Community (EEC), NATO, and the Western economies in the 1960s. It also analyses the rise of European détente, covering topics such as progress on pan-European contacts and the emergence of Ostpolitik.
15. The Return to Confrontation, 1979–80
Authors: Young John W. , Kent John
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines why the United States and the Soviet Union returned to confrontation during the period 1979–80. Despite the slow progress of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II), there were at least some efforts to control strategic weapons. Short-range and intermediate-range nuclear weapons, in contrast, continued to grow in number and sophistication, particularly in Europe, where NATO and Warsaw Pact forces still prepared for war against each other, despite détente. The failure to control theatre nuclear weapons led to a new twist in the European arms race at the end of the 1970s which helped to undermine recent improvements in East–West relations. The chapter first considers NATO’s ‘dual-track’ decision regarding theatre nuclear weapons, before discussing the Iranian Revolution and the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan. It concludes with an assessment of the revival of the Cold War, focusing on the so-called Carter Doctrine.
1. The Relevance of Comparative Politics
Authors: Rothstein Bo
Published: August 2020

This chapter explains what comparative politics could be relevant for, such as informing the public debate and giving policy advice. It argues that comparative politics has a huge but sometimes underdeveloped potential for being relevant for the various aspects of human well-being, economic prosperity, and social justice that most people care deeply about. Empirical research shows that the manner in which a country’s political institutions are designed and the quality of the operations of these institutions have a strong impact on measures of population health, as well as subjective well-being and general social trust. One result is that democratization without increased state capacity and control of corruption is not likely to deliver increased human well-being. The chapter also considers whether democracy generates political legitimacy, and concludes by suggesting that comparative political science has so far paid relatively little attention to issues of state capacity, control of corruption, and institutional quality.
9. Constitutions, Rights, and Judicial Power
Authors: Sweet Alec Stone
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on the evolution of systems of constitutional justice since 1787. It first provides an overview of key concepts and definitions, such as constitution, constitutionalism, and rights, before presenting a simple theory of delegation and judicial power. In particular, it explains why political elites would delegate power to constitutional judges, and how to measure the extent of power, or discretion, delegated. It then considers different kinds of constitutions, rights, models of constitutional review, and the main precepts of ‘the new constitutionalism’. It also traces the evolution of constitutional forms and suggests that as constitutional rights and review has diffused around the world, so has the capacity of constitutional judges to influence, and sometimes determine, policy outcomes.
15. Regions
Authors: Bickerton James , Gagnon Alain-G.
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores the concept of region, defined as a territorial entity distinct from both locality and nation-state. The region constitutes an economic, political, administrative, and/or cultural space, within which different types of human agency interact, and towards which individuals and communities may develop attachments and identities. Regionalism is the manifestation of values, attitudes, opinions, preferences, claims, behaviours, interests, attachments, and identities that can be associated with a particular region. The chapter first reviews the main theories and approaches that are used to understand the political role and importance of regions, including the modernization paradigm, Marxism, and institutionalism. It then considers the various dimensions and aspects of regions and regionalism, with particular emphasis on regionalism from below versus regionalization ‘from above’. It also examines the political economy of regions, tracing the changing economic role and place of regions within the national and global economy.
18. Political Participation
Authors: Kitschelt Herbert , Rehm Philipp
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines four fundamental questions relating to political participation. First, it considers different modes of political participation such as social movements, interest groups, and political parties. Second, it analyses the determinants of political participation, focusing in particular on the paradox of collective action. Third, it explains political participation at the macro-level in order to identify which contextual conditions are conducive to participation and the role of economic affluence in political participation. Finally, the chapter discusses political participation at the micro-level. It shows that both formal associations and informal social networks, configured around family and friendship ties, supplement individual capacities to engage in political participation or compensate for weak capacities, so as to boost an individual’s probability to become politically active.
24. Globalization and the Nation-State
Authors: Sørensen Georg
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the implications of globalization for sovereign statehood. It begins with a discussion of the debate over the consequence of globalization for nation-states, followed by an analysis of the modalities of statehood as they have developed over the past several decades. In particular, it explores how advanced capitalist states are transforming from modern into post-modern states. It also considers the emergence of weak post-colonial states out of special circumstances—the globalization of the institution of sovereignty in the context of decolonization. Furthermore, it looks at modernizing states such as China, India, Russia, and Brazil, which combine features of the modern, post-modern, and weak post-colonial states. The chapter concludes with an overview of changes in statehood that place the discipline of comparative politics in a new setting.
25. From Supporting Democracy to Supporting Autocracy
Authors: Burnell Peter
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the controversies surrounding democracy support and its significance for comparative politics. It first compares definitions of democracy support and provides an overview of the basic vocabulary of democracy support, focusing on concepts such as democracy assistance and political conditionality. It then considers whether democracy support is now fit for purpose in a world where China and Russia continue to expand their international presence. It also discusses democracy support strategies and challenges facing democracy support, before concluding with a comparison and assessment of the rise of autocracy support. It suggests that democracy support has yet to devise adequate strategies to counter international autocracy support.
4. Democracy and Political Obligation
Authors: Garner Robert
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the claim that democracy is the ideal form of political obligation. It first traces the historical evolution of the term ‘democracy’ before discussing the debate between advocates of the protective theory and the participatory theory of democracy, asking whether it is possible to reconcile elitism with democracy and whether participatory democracy is politically realistic. The chapter proceeds to explain why democracy is viewed as the major grounding for political obligation, with emphasis on the problem of majority rule and what to do with the minority consequences of majoritarianism. It documents the contemporary malaise experienced by democracy and seeks to explain its perceived weaknesses as a form of rule. Finally, the chapter describes the new directions that democratic theory has taken in recent years, focusing on four theories: associative democracy, cosmopolitan democracy, deliberative democracy, and ecological democracy.
16. Introducing Global Politics
Authors: Lawson Stephanie
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses global politics in relation to the phenomenon of globalization. ‘Global politics’ as a field of study encompasses the traditional concerns of International Relations with how states interact under conditions of anarchy, but lays greater emphasis on the role of non-state actors and processes in a globalizing world. The chapter first provides an overview of politics in a globalizing world before explaining the basic distinctions between ‘state’ and ‘nation’ in the context of contemporary global politics. It then considers the variation in state forms and the phenomenon of empire throughout history as well as the historical emergence of the modern state and state system in Europe along with ideas about sovereignty and nationalism against the background of ‘modernity’. It also examines the effective globalization of the European state system through modern imperialism and colonialism and the extent to which these have been productive of contemporary global order.
8. Experimental Research
Authors: Halperin Sandra , Heath Oliver
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores the principles of experimental research design as well as the issues and problems associated with different aspects of the approach. In particular, it considers the issue of internal and external validity, the common obstacles associated with experimental research, and what can be done to try and avoid or minimize them. The chapter first describes the five steps involved in the classic version of the experimental design before discussing three types of experimental design: laboratory experiments, field experiments, and natural experiments. It also examines the ethical issues that arise from experimental research and concludes by highlighting some of the advantages of experimental research.
12. Interviewing and Focus Groups
Authors: Halperin Sandra , Heath Oliver
Published: August 2020

This chapter considers different types and forms of interviewing, including focus groups, and how they should be conducted. Interviews are a popular method of data collection in political research. They share similarities with surveys, but these similarities relate mostly to structured interviews. The chapter focuses on semi-structured interviews, including focus groups, the emphasis of which is to get the interviewee to open up and discuss something of relevance to the research question. After describing the different types and forms of interview, the chapter explains how interview data can be used to confirm or disconfirm a hypothesis or argument. It also shows how to plan and carry out an interview and how the type and wording of questions, as well as the order in which they are asked, affect the responses you get. Finally, it examines the interviewing skills that will ensure a more successful outcome to an interview.
6. The ‘Other’ European Communities and the Origins of the European Economic Community (the Early 1950s to the 1960s)
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on the ‘other’ European communities and the origins of the European Economic Community (EEC). Negotiations over a plan for a European Defence Community (EDC) ran parallel to those over the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). Connected with the EDC was a proposal to create a European Political Community (EPC) to provide democratic European structures for co-ordinating foreign policies. This chapter first considers the Pleven Plan for an EDC, before discussing the development of the EDC/EPC plan and the ultimate failure to reach agreement in 1954. It also analyses the Messina negotiations and the road to the Treaties of Rome. Finally, it looks at the experience of the other organization that was created at the same time as the EEC, the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), which, like the ECSC, was institutionally merged with the EEC in 1967.
13. The European Commission
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the European Commission’s functions and structure, along with its role in policy making. The Commission initiates legislation, may act as a mediator, manages some policy areas, is guardian of the Treaties, is a key actor in international relations, and the ‘conscience of the European Union’. The chapter proceeds by discussing the debate on the extent to which the Commission is an autonomous political actor or simply an agent of the member states. Finally, it analyses the increasing challenges faced by the Commission in securing effective implementation of EU policies and its response to concerns over its financial management of EU programmes.
14. The European Council and the Council of the European Union (EU)
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on two European Union (EU) institutions that are principally composed of government representatives: the European Council and the Council of the EU. By virtue of their composition of government representatives (government heads, ministers, and civil servants), both the European Council and the Council of the EU remain part of a hierarchy of EU institutions. The chapter first provides an overview of definitions and distinctions, before discussing the intergovernmentalism of the European Council and how the Council of the European Union helped increase the supranationalism of the EU. It also considers the role of the Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) and various preparatory committees.
15. The European Parliament
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on the European Parliament (EP), the one directly elected institution of the European Union. It first provides an overview of the EP’s composition and functions, before discussing the struggle for increased powers within the EP. It then considers debates and research on the EP. The focus of contemporary research on the EP includes political behaviour and EP elections, the internal politics and organization of the EP, and inter-institutional bargaining between the EP, the European Council, and the European Commission. One theme of the academic debate is the extent to which the EP has become an effective independent actor in the affairs of the EU.
18. Policy Making and Policies in the European Union
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines policies and the patterns of policy making in the European Union (EU). First it surveys the range of EU policy responsibilities, and identifies ways in which policy dynamics differ between them, the most striking difference in policy making relating to the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and its defence affiliate, the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). It then explores the different stages in the EU policy cycle: the passage of policy issues from agenda-setting stage through policy formulation and decision making to the implementation stage and feedback loops. In a final section, it identifies some important policy areas that are worth being aware of but where space precludes chapter-length treatment.
19. The Single Market
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the European Union’s (EU’s) original decision to create a single market and the moves to complete the internal market—what became known as the single market programme—in the 1980s. The economic ideal of a common or single European market lies at the core of the EU. The decision to institute a drive to achieve a single internal market by the end of 1992 played a key role in the revival of European integration. The chapter first traces the development of internal market policy before discussing the record of implementation beyond 1992. It then considers recent policy developments in relation to the single market in the context of the Barroso (2005–14) and Juncker (2014–19) Commission presidencies. It also reviews the academic literature on the single market, focusing on the main explanations for its development and some key ideological or normative perspectives on its consequences, including political economy critiques.
23. Freedom, Security, and Justice
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the European Union’s (EU’s) policy activity in the area of freedom, security, and justice (AFSJ). Introduced mainly by the Maastricht Treaty of 1992, the AFSJ was initially given the name Justice and Home Affairs (JHA). The AFSJ was greatly enhanced by the Treaty of Lisbon and has matured over time, despite the controversy surrounding the way in which it strikes at national sovereignty. A key characteristic of JHA, later AFSJ, has been the use of differentiated integration. The chapter first provides a historical background on the AFSJ, focusing on the policy dynamics and JHA structures under the Treaty on European Union (TEU) as well as the reforms of the Treaty of Amsterdam. It then considers the AFSJ’s institutional character and policy content, before examining the refugee crisis. It concludes with an assessment of key explanations and debates relating to the AFSJ.
26. Enlargement
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter first examines the European Union’s (EU’s) main enlargement rounds. The first enlargement occurred in 1973 when Britain, Denmark, and Ireland were admitted as members. The second (1981) and third (1986) enlargements are often treated as a single ‘southern enlargement’. The fourth enlargement took place in 1995, and admitted Austria, Finland, and Sweden. The fifth and sixth enlargements, in 2004 and 2007, are known as the ‘eastern enlargement’. The seventh enlargement saw the admittance of Croatia in 2013. A number of further states in the western Balkans are at various stages in their accession processes. The chapter describes what happened during each round and the evolution of the procedure for joining. It reviews academic explanations of why the various applications for membership were made, and why they were accepted by the European Community (EC)/EU. Finally, the chapter looks at the controversial case of Turkey and considers the notion of ‘enlargement fatigue’.
1. The Study of Global Political Economy
Authors: Ravenhill John
Published: August 2020

This chapter provides an overview of the current state of the world economy. The contemporary international economic system is more closely integrated than in any previous era. The global financial crisis and its aftermath provide a clear illustration of the relationship between trade, finance, international institutions, and the difficulties that governments face in coping with the problems generated by complex interdependence. The chapter then traces how the world economy evolved to reach its present state. Before 1945, the spectacular increase in economic integration that had occurred over the previous century was not accompanied by institutionalized governmental collaboration on economic matters. The end of the Second World War marked a significant disjunction: global economic institutions were created, the transnational corporation emerged as a major actor in international economic relations, and patterns of international trade began to change markedly from the traditional North–South exchange of manufactures for raw materials. Since the emergence of global political economy (GPE) as a major subfield of the study of international relations in the early 1970s, GPE scholars have generated an enormous literature that has employed a wide variety of theories and methods. Most introductions to the study of GPE have divided the theoretical approaches to the subject into three categories: liberalism, nationalism, and Marxism.
3. States
Authors: Morin Jean-Frédéric , Orsini Amandine , Jinnah Sikina
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines how states have very different preferences in global environmental politics. These state preferences are formed and shaped in a co-evolving process at both the domestic and international levels. Domestically, a rational choice analysis shows how environmental vulnerability and the costs of abatement contribute to defining a state's national interests in environmental politics. But the rational choice model, though useful, has its limits. It often presents the state as a unitary and monolithic actor, whereas in fact states come in multiple institutional forms and are made up of numerous actors with varying and sometimes conflicting interests. Several international factors also play an important role in shaping state preferences. Some of those international factors revolve around how states interact with one another in international negotiations. Indeed, state preferences can be revised during international negotiations via states' interactions in working and contact groups, with negotiating chairs, in coalitions, and through leadership efforts.
10. Trade and the environment
Authors: Morin Jean-Frédéric , Orsini Amandine , Jinnah Sikina
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores the complex and multifaceted relationship between international trade and environmental protection. The global trade regime's normative principles, legal rules, and real-world consequences often contradict environmental governance. For example, there is tension between trade and environmental governance with respect to the commercialisation of endangered species, export of hazardous wastes, emissions involved in transporting goods, and patentability of living organisms. However, there are also synergies, which enable trade liberalisation and environmental protection to reinforce one another. For example, trade forces were key drivers in the reduction of ozone-depleting substances and the affordability of pollution abatement technologies. The chapter explores these conflicts and synergies by first discussing the literature that examines the positive and negative impacts that trade has on the environment. It goes on to look at the trade dimensions of various environmental regimes, and then environmental dimensions of the trade regime, within both the World Trade Organization and preferential trade agreements.
Human factors/ergonomics to support the design and testing of rapidly manufactured ventilators in the UK during the COVID-19 pandemic
Authors: Hignett Sue , Edmonds Janette , Herlihey Tracey , Pickup Laura , Bye Richard , Crumpton Emma , Sujan Mark , Ives Fran , Jenkins Daniel P , Newbery Miranda , Embrey David , Bowie Paul , Ramsden Chris , Rashid Noorzaman , Williamson Alastair , Bougeard Anne-Marie , MacNaughton Peter
Published: August 2020

Background

This paper describes a rapid response project from the Chartered Institute of Ergonomics & Human Factors (CIEHF) to support the design, development, usability testing and operation of new ventilators as part of the UK response during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Method

A five-step approach was taken to (1) assess the COVID-19 situation and decide to formulate a response; (2) mobilise and coordinate Human Factors/Ergonomics (HFE) specialists; (3) ideate, with HFE specialists collaborating to identify, analyse the issues and opportunities, and develop strategies, plans and processes; (4) generate outputs and solutions; and (5) respond to the COVID-19 situation via targeted support and guidance.

Results

The response for the rapidly manufactured ventilator systems (RMVS) has been used to influence both strategy and practice to address concerns about changing safety standards and the detailed design procedure with RMVS manufacturers.

Conclusion

The documents are part of a wider collection of HFE advice which is available on the CIEHF COVID-19 website (https://covid19.ergonomics.org.uk/).
Three-dimensional culture of a pancreatic cancer cell line, SUIT-58, with air exposure can reflect the intrinsic features of the original tumor through electron microscopy
Authors: Takahashi Nobuyasu , Aoyama Fumiyo , Sawaguchi Akira
Published: August 2020

Mini-abstract: Application of a three-dimensional culture system with air exposure facilitates the formation of large cell spheres possessing cribriform glands and producing mucin in the collagen gel. Transmission electron microscopy revealed the formation of microvilli and junctional complexes at the apical side of the cell.

This study aimed to reproduce the characteristics of original adenocarcinoma tumors in vitro. The pancreatic cell line, SUIT-58, derived from a moderately differentiated adenocarcinoma of metastatic pancreatic cancer was used. The cells have a sheet structure in conventional cell culture without forming glands or exhibiting mucin production in the lumen. First, the necessity of scaffolds to create an adenocarcinoma-like microenvironment for SUIT-58 pancreatic cancer cells was assessed. Compared with conventional culture plates, the use of type I collagen as a scaffold played an important role in the formation of densely congested microvilli, as observed through scanning electron microscopy. As gland formation is one of the features of adenocarcinoma, we also assessed gland formation. Use of a recently developed three-dimensional culture system with air exposure resulted in the formation of large cell spheres possessing cribriform glands, which released mucin into the lumen. Transmission electron microscopy also revealed the formation of microvilli in the lumen of the glands and junctional complex at the intercellular part, which were similar to those observed in xenografts. These findings indicate that an in vitro three-dimensional culture system with air exposure reflects the intrinsic features of the original tumor, suggesting that this culture system could be useful for preliminary research of certain cancers.
Modelling the broadest spectral band of the Crab nebula and constraining the ion acceleration efficiency
Authors: Zhang Xiao , Chen Yang , Huang Jing , Chen Ding
Published: August 2020

Although it is widely accepted that the electromagnetic spectrum from radio to very high energy γ-rays of pulsar wind nebulae (PWNe) originates from leptons, there is still an open question that protons (or more generally, ions) may exist in pulsar wind and are further accelerated in PWN. The broad-band spectrum of the prototype PWN Crab, extended recently by the detection of the Tibet ASγ and HAWC experiments above 100 TeV, may be helpful in constraining the acceleration efficiency of ions. Here, we model the broadest energy spectrum of Crab and find that the broad-band spectrum can be explained by the one-zone leptonic model in which the electrons/positrons produce the emission from radio to soft γ-rays via the synchrotron process, and simultaneously generate the GeV–TeV γ-rays through inverse Compton scattering including the synchrotron self-Compton process. In the framework of this leptonic model, the fraction of energy converted into the energetic protons is constrained to be below 0.5 (nt/10 cm−3)−1 per cent, where nt is the target gas density in the Crab. However, this fraction can be up to 7 (nt/10 cm−3)−1 per cent if only the γ-ray data are used.
Meteors with extreme beginning heights from observations with high-sensitivity super-isocon TV systems
Authors: Kozak P M , Watanabe J
Published: August 2020

Meteors with extremely high altitudes are considered. Parameters of seven meteors having anomalous beginning heights recorded with highly sensitive super-Isocon TV systems are presented. One 1993 Perseid meteor, one 2001 sporadic meteor and five meteors from the 2002 Leonid storm had beginning heights in the range 135–145 km. The sporadic meteor is used to demonstrate the methods of data processing and observation precision results. The original TV meteor images, photometric calibration curves and meteor light curve are shown. Light curves are shown for the Leonid shower meteors as well. Based on the sporadic meteor and the 2002 Leonid shower meteor data, mass-loss curves were calculated as functions of height and time: the maximum rates of mass loss were 0.14 and 0.20 g s−1, respectively. Using the classic equation for partially isothermal stone particle heating, the detected beginning heights of most meteors considered (136–135 km) are shown to possibly be related to blowing the molten layer off from a meteoroid surface and most segments of the light curves (below 124 km) show intensive evaporation. For some Leonid meteors, appearing higher than 145–140 km, energy exchange of atmosphere molecules and atoms with the ‘cold’ meteoroid surface can also be assumed. Another possible explanation lies in the low melting temperature of 1500–1600 K for Leonid meteors.
Rotational relaxation of HCO+ and DCO+ by collision with H2
Authors: Denis-Alpizar Otoniel , Stoecklin Thierry , Dutrey Anne , Guilloteau Stéphane
Published: August 2020

The HCO+ and DCO+ molecules are commonly used as tracers in the interstellar medium. Therefore, accurate rotational rate coefficients of these systems with He and H2 are crucial in non-local thermal equilibrium models. We determine in this work the rotational de-excitation rate coefficients of HCO+ in collision with both para- and ortho-H2, and also analyse the isotopic effects by studying the case of DCO+. A new four-dimensional potential energy surface from ab initio calculations was developed for the HCO+–H2 system, and adapted to the DCO+–H2 case. These surfaces are then employed in close-coupling calculations to determine the rotational de-excitation cross-sections and rate coefficients for the lower rotational states of HCO+ and DCO+. The new rate coefficients for HCO+ + para-H2 were compared with the available data, and a set of rate coefficients for HCO+ + ortho-H2 is also reported. The difference between the collision rates with ortho- and para-H2 is found to be small. These calculations confirm that the use of the rate coefficients for HCO+ + para-H2 for estimating those for HCO+ + ortho-H2 as well as for DCO+ + para-H2 is a good approximation.
Halogen bonding in the co-crystallization of potentially ditopic diiodotetrafluorobenzene: a powerful tool for constructing multicomponent supramolecular assemblies
Authors: Ding Xue-Hua , Chang Yong-Zheng , Ou Chang-Jin , Lin Jin-Yi , Xie Ling-Hai , Huang Wei
Published: August 2020

Halogen bonding is emerging as a significant driving force for supramolecular self-assembly and has aroused great interest during the last two decades. Among the various halogen-bonding donors, we take notice of the ability of 1,4-diiodotetrafluorobenzene (1,4-DITFB) to co-crystallize with diverse halogen-bonding acceptors in the range from neutral Lewis bases (nitrogen-containing compounds, N-oxides, chalcogenides, aromatic hydrocarbons and organometallic complexes) to anions (halide ions, thio/selenocyanate ions and tetrahedral oxyanions), leading to a great variety of supramolecular architectures such as discrete assemblies, 1D infinite chains and 2D/3D networks. Some of them act as promising functional materials (e.g. fluorescence, phosphorescence, optical waveguide, laser, non-linear optics, dielectric and magnetism) and soft materials (e.g. liquid crystal and supramolecular gel). Here we focus on the supramolecular structures of multicomponent complexes and their related physicochemical properties, highlight representative examples and show clearly the main directions that remain to be developed and improved in this area. From the point of view of crystal engineering and supramolecular chemistry, the complexes summarized here should give helpful information for further design and investigation of the elusive category of halogen-bonding supramolecular functional materials.
A Meta-Analysis of Cue Reactivity in Tobacco Cigarette Smokers
Authors: Betts Jennifer M , Dowd Ashley N , Forney Mia , Hetelekides Eleftherios , Tiffany Stephen T
Published: August 2020

Introduction

The cue reactivity paradigm allows for systematic evaluation of motivational responses to drug-related cues that may elicit drug use. The literature on this topic has grown substantially in recent decades, and the methodology used to study cue reactivity has varied widely across studies. The present research provided a meta-analytic investigation of variables that have an impact on cue reactivity effects to enhance our understanding of this key feature of tobacco use disorders.

Methods

A total of 128 publications yielded 249 effect sizes, which were analyzed to investigate the magnitude of the cue reactivity effect and potential moderators.

Results

Craving generated a moderate-to-large effect size (Hedges’ g = 0.71, p < .001), indicating that drug cues produced significantly greater craving than neutral cues. However, physiological variables yielded significantly lower or nonsignificant effect sizes. Analyses of a variety of empirically and theoretically relevant moderator variables showed that cue modality, cue personalization, cue reactivity environment, and the use of multiple assessments of cue reactivity were significantly associated with the magnitude of cue-specific craving effects (ps < .001). Effect sizes were not significantly related to abstinence status, gender, cigarettes per day, and treatment-seeking status.

Conclusions

The results underscored the strength of self-reported craving as an index of cue reactivity across studies, which support theories that posit cue reactivity is core to the addictive process for daily tobacco cigarette smokers. The present research further elucidates the variables that alter the cue reactivity effects across studies and provides recommendations for future cue reactivity research.

Implications

A core feature of addiction is that drug-related cues can have a major impact on motivational responses across multiple substance use disorders, including tobacco cigarettes. This paper describes a meta-analysis updating and synthesizing cue reactivity research with tobacco cigarette smokers over the last 20 years, a time of rapid growth for this literature. The study leads to a better understanding of the cue reactivity paradigm across different self-report and physiological variables and identifies factors that may modulate addictive motivation for tobacco cigarettes.