bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Standards of Medical Care and Protection in detention camps
Authors: Boissier Pierre
Published: January 2010

An international symposium on Medical Care and Protection of Prisoners and Detainees was organized by the Ciba Foundation, in London, from 27 to 30 November 1972. The papers read at the symposium and the discussions which followed related mainly to minimum rules governing the treatment of all detainees, provisions made by various governments regarding hygiene, care, food, etc., and the role of the doctor in that domain. The texts were compiled and assembled in a volume published some time ago.

The book contains a study essentially based on the experiences of ICRC delegates which will undoubtedly be of particular interest to readers. It was written by the late Pierre Boissier, and we wish to thank the Ciba Foundation for allowing us to reproduce it. (Ed.)
Recognition of the Singapore Red Cross Society
Authors: Martin Eric
Published: January 2010

We have the honour to inform you that the International Committee of the Red Cross, on 20 September 1973 officially recognized the Singapore Red Cross Society.
Henry Dunant
Authors: Gagnebin Bernard
Published: January 2010

On July 9, 1859, readers of the Journal de Genève could read a heart-rending appeal, coming from Solferino, of which we quote the following passages:

For 3 days I have been treating the wounded from Solferino at Castiglione and have cared for more than one thousand men in misery. We have had 40,000 wounded, of which as many Allies as Austrians, involved in this terrible affair. There are not sufficient doctors, and I had to replace them as well as I could with the help of some local women and some prisoners who were in a fit condition.
Nurses in national defense
Authors: Magnussen Ann
Published: January 2010

The subject I have been asked to discuss is one which has been of great concern to the nursing profession in the United States for many years, but this interest has been accentuated by our recognition of the vulnerability of every part of the world in modern warfare. The nurse has traditionally been the personification of those who care for the sick, and the helpless. Her very presence gives the patients a feeling of security and comfort. The public, the physicians, and the patients expect nurses to have an important role in national defense. Therefore, nurses must be prepared and willing to carry out their responsibilities effectively.

Before telling you what we are planning to do to prepare nurses to function adequately in national defense, it will be necessary to review the milieu in which we work as each country has its own framework in which activities are carried out and, therefore, the pattern of action may not be the same for every country. Further, I recognize that there are countries represented here that have had much more experience with the problems inherent in planning for national defense than we have in our country.
The special position of the Red Cross
Authors: Emden A. Van
Published: January 2010

The Red Cross prevents and alleviates human suffering in time of war as in time of peace, irrespective of class, race, nationality, religion, political beliefs or any other criterion, solely tin the basis of humanitarian principles. This line of conduct has been and still is being followed daily in many different situations, for despite outstanding progress in different spheres and all that has been achieved by modern techniques and growing civilization, present-day society still desperately needs help in relieving human suffering.

The Red Cross constantly provides such aid, sometimes discreetly, sometimes in a more spectacular way, but always in accordance with the basic principles governing Red Cross work.
Following the Arab Language Competition
Authors: Al Dayim Numan Abed , Farahat Mustafa Obaid
Published: January 2010

In the July issue of the Review we recalled that the International Committee, in co-operation with the League, had organised an Arab language competition and we gave the results. This competition, which took place under the auspices of the ICRC radio broadcasts, was a great success. The first prizewinner (who comes from Jerusalem, Jordan) chose as his subject “The Red Cross as an important factor in closer relations between people”, and we think it will be of interest to publish extracts of his essay, which has been translated by the ICRC. This is followed by part of the essay by the 3rd prize-wiitner (from Gaza, U.A.R.), who chose to write on “Experiences or stories connected with the idea of the Red Crescent and the Red Cross”, and did so in the simple and moving manner which this theme required.
Recognition of the Red Cross Society of Trinidad and Tobago
Authors: Boissier Léopold
Published: January 2010

We have the honour to inform you of the official recognition, on August 8,1963, of the Red Cross Society of Trinidad and Tobago by the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The Society applied for recognition in a letter dated July 2, 1963. The application was accompanied by the Decree of May 31,1963, of the Government of Trinidad and Tobago recognizing the Society, together with the text of the Society's Statutes, and a report of its activities.
Still no time to kill
Authors: Bark Evelyn
Published: January 2010

When the second World War broke out I was the humble possessor of one First Aid certificate, and had little knowledge of the Red Cross outside the London area.
Recognition of the Upper Volta Red Cross Society
Authors: Boissier Léopold
Published: January 2010

We have the honour to inform you of the official recognition, on November 1, 1962, of the Upper Volta Red Cross Society by the International Committee of the Red Cross.

This Society applied for recognition in a letter dated August 20, 1962. The application was accompanied by the Upper Volta Government's Decree of July 9, 1962, recognizing the Society, together with the text of the Society's Statutes, and a report of its activities.
The early years of the Red Cross
Authors: Boissier Pierre
Published: January 2010

The Russians say that one must not go to Tula with a samovar, because it is there that samovars are made. The English avoid taking coals to Newcastle. In the same way, the Dutch would not go to Gouda with a clay pipe. To speak about the Red Cross before an assembly such as this, composed of loyal friends of the International Committee and distinguished servants of the institution, is rather like flying in the face of the wise counsel of so many nations. In such tricky circumstances, I have only one recourse and that is to take refuge in a past as distant as possible. Fortunately, the Centenary which we are celebrating today invites me to do just that. It was in fact a century and a day ago that five gentlemen, as unlike each other as it is possible to be, met together for the first time.
The Sovereign Order of Malta Today
Authors: de Fischer Béat
Published: January 2010

A half century has gone by since 1927. During that time, the sovereign Order of Malta has sought to adapt itself to the evolution of international life and international law. Its experience during the First World War, in which it brought aid to the wounded, the sick, the prisoners and the refugees with its medical units, ambulances, trains, aircraft and ships, enabled it to make its working methods responsive to emerging needs. In addition, the mid-century dialogue between the Order and the Catholic Church led to the acceptance of a formula put forward by the Cardinals' Commission, whereby the Holy See recognized the functional sovereignty of the Order in carrying out its international humanitarian activities. Finally, the increasing number of its members, particularly those recruited from amongst those distinguished personalities who combine a spiritual life with an intimate association with governmental circles, provides the order with an invaluable human reserve of men of thought and action who are available in case of need.
Modernization of protective markings and signalling
Authors: Eberlin Ph.
Published: January 2010

The remarkable advances made during the last few years in technology, and particularly in electronics, and the increasingly rapid development of scientific inventions are likely to render obsolete the protective markings of the medical service as laid down in the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949.
The Protection of War Victims under Polish Legislation, up to the end of the 18th Century
Authors: Gorbiel Andrzej
Published: January 2010

The international law of armed conflict (jus in bello) has undergone a long course of development. Its first traces date from antiquity, but we find a more substantial evolution during the latter part of the Middle Ages.

One of the remarkable elements in this development was the «Code of Chivalry». Although this was not a written document, being transmitted only by tradition, it possessed great authority. It prescribed that combat must take place in such a manner as not to compromise the honour of the knight and condemned unnecessary killing and killing by treachery. It required that the vanquished be treated with generosity and that assistance be rendered to the helpless and destitute.
Re-appraisal of the Role of the Red Cross
Authors: Tansley Donald D.
Published: January 2010

Will the Red Cross survive? Should it survive? Has it really a mission in the world of today? In the world of the 1980s and thereafter? What is that mission? How can Red Cross gear up for it?

These questions have been the subject of thoughtful discussion among Red Cross people for some years. In 1972, the International Committee of the Red Cross and the League of Red Cross Societies, in co-operation with the National Societies, decided to take a hard look at the future in the form of a comprehensive examination of the role of the Red Cross.
The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross (VIII)
Authors: Pictet Jean
Published: January 2010

Under the heading “unity”, the Proclamation brought together three concepts: unity, properly speaking, or uniqueness: there can be only one National Red Cross Society in any one country; multitudinism: it must be open to everyone; and generality in its action: it must extend throughout the entire territory.
Recognition of the Red Cross Society of Cape Verde
Authors: Hay Alexandre
Published: January 2010

We have the honour to inform you of the official recognition of the Red Cross Society of Cape Verde by the International Committee of the Red Cross. This recognition, which took effect on 14 March 1985, brings to 136 the number of National Society members of the International Red Cross.
The development of the idea of peace in the thinking of Henry Dunant
Authors: Durand André
Published: January 2010

Henry Dunant first came up against the problem of war at the battle of Solferino. The impact of the experience remained in his memory for ever and decided the course of his life. Spurred on by a deep repugnance for violence, he then set out on the long road which would lead him to propound ways and means first to protect victims of war, then to restrict the circumstances wherein war could arise, and finally to abolish war altogether. These three approaches—protection, restriction and abolition—complemented each other; they were not alternatives. To Henry Dunant's way of thinking they formed a cohesive system aimed at curbing the excesses of war while at the same time preventing its appearance and eradicating its causes.
125th anniversary of the Swiss Red Cross (1866–1991): Thoughts on past and future
Authors: Bender Philippe
Published: January 2010

Rather than serving as a pretext for noisy celebration and self-congratulation, the 125th anniversary of the founding of the Swiss Red Cross should be an occasion for reflection on our institution's development, its role within the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and its special situation as the National Society of Switzerland. This is a worthy undertaking, an attempt, as the historian Marc Ferro put it, “to capture time and make it intelligible to others”. But anyone who embarks on such a venture must be careful to avoid rewriting the past according to his own preferences and giving an idealized picture of this humanitarian organization, which has had its share of tensions, setbacks and contradictions, some of them still unresolved.
Conference of Red Cross Experts on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts
Authors: Naville Marcel A.
Published: January 2010

The International Committee of the Red Cross had the honour of providing you, by Circular 483 of September 1971, with a report on the work of the Conference of Government Experts on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts which was held in Geneva from 24 May to 12 June 1971. The same Circular informed you of the second session of that Conference which would be open to all States expressly party to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, and that, in order to closely associate National Societies with this work, the International Committee had decided to invite representatives of those societies to attend as observers.
Synopsis II: Protection of Civilian Populations against the Effects of Hostilities
Authors: de Preux J.
Published: January 2010

Customary law concerning the protection of civilian populations against the effects of hostilities is essentially based on the rules of the law of The Hague. The general principle underlying it is set out in the Declaration of St. Petersburg (1868) which states “that the only legitimate object which States should endeavour to accomplish during war is to weaken the military forces of the enemy”.
Recognition of the Red Crescent of Djibouti
Authors: Hay Alexandre
Published: January 2010

We have the honour to inform you of the official recognition of the Red Crescent of Djibouti by the International Committee of the Red Cross. This recognition, which took effect on 15 October 1986, brings to 144 the number of National Societies members of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.
The question of superior orders and the responsibility of Commanding Officers in the Protocol additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts (Protocol I) of 8 June 1977
Authors: Aubert Maurice
Published: January 2010

Much has been written on the question of orders from a superior officer. The problem is too complex for any simple reply. The national legislation to which soldiers are subject renders any member of the armed forces who refuses to carry out an order liable to presocution for a penal offence. In serious cases and especially in time of war military penal codes generally provide that the judge may sentence the offender to death. However the plea of superior orders does not necessarily relieve a military subordinate of penal responsibility for a violation of international humanitarian law committed in carrying out those orders.
The Work of the Red Cross in Poland
Authors: Dománska Irena
Published: January 2010

The year 1969 marks the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Polish Red Cross.

In our country the assistance brought by the population and voluntary associations to wounded soldiers originated from a very ancient and fine tradition. It goes back to the time of Kosciuszko's Insurrection and was continued during the national insurrections of 1830 and 1863. Throughout the 120 years and more of Poland's servitude and dismemberment it was extended to those who had been imprisoned for fighting for liberty and justice. One of the organizations of voluntary assistance and first-aid was called the Red Cross Society (1862–1886).
The Military Physician in Captivity
Authors: Reginato E.
Published: January 2010

In his introductory address at the third International Refresher Course for Junior Medical Officers, Dr. H. Meuli, member of the ICRC, said “No one knows war better than the military medical officer, nor measures its horror, nor hates it more. No one has greater insight into war to enable him to take a stand for peace and against war”. From its very beginnings the Red Cross has been linked to medicine; it was the ICRC which obtained for doctors the means of exercising their profession in war, which are laid down in the Geneva Conventions.

It therefore seems appropriate to quote extensively from a communication submitted at the Course by an Italian doctor, bearing moving testimony to the difficulties facing the medical officer, the noble character of his mission and the principles underlying his activity in the prisoner of war camp. These principles were summed up in his conclusion : “Like peace and justice, medicine loses its significance if not accompanied by charity. If it is to stay universal, it must not lose its humanity”. (Ed.).
Florence Nightingale
Authors: Angela, Countess of Limerick
Published: January 2010

In 1872 Henry Dunant, on a visit to London, read a paper on the work of the Red Cross. His first words were:—“Though I am known as the Founder of the Red Cross, and the originator of the Conventions of Geneva, it was an Englishwoman to whom all the honour of that Convention is due. What inspired me was the work of Miss Florence Nightingale…”
Public relations: policy and practice of the International Committee of the Red Cross
Authors: Modoux Alain
Published: January 2010

For a long time it was considered at the ICRC, as in most other international organizations, that the function of an information service was to put out information on the institution's current activities and its general aims. No attention was paid to the true needs of those sections of the public who were at the receiving end, the only concern being the ICRC's short-term interests. This one-way process meant that the people to whom this flow of information was fed received it passively but there were no means of discovering what were their reactions, in other words, there was no feed-back.
The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross (VI)
Authors: Pictet Jean
Published: January 2010

The Red Cross is independent, the Proclamation states, in simple and lapidary terms. The statement of the conditions for recognition of new National Societies (Point 10) refers to political, religious and economic independence.
The Reuniting of Families in Europe during and after the Second World War (II)
Authors: Beckh H. G.
Published: January 2010

In a previous issue, International Review set out the moral and, for the ICRC, fundamental, reasons spurring it to tackle this problem at the international level. The legal standards were described in general terms, but should now be gone into in greater detail.

Not only did the second world war lay waste large areas and virtually destroy economic life; it also left in its wake bitterness and hatred together with fundamental ideological differences. Even the very first attempts at reuniting families demonstrated their pacifying effects. Such reunited families completely forgot the hardships of the wartime and post-war periods and once more looked to the future, starting with the rebuilding of their lives.
The International Committee of the Red Cross (III)
Authors: Durand André
Published: January 2010

The founders of the Red Cross did not seek to establish their work on the elements of a doctrine. They referred to a concept of the world which was common to them all and which did not appear to need any explanation. They were impelled by the emotions which Henry Dunant's revelations and proposals had raised in them. Their purpose was to “take into serious consideration the idea proposed in the conclusions of the book entitled “A Memory of Solférino”, namely the foundation of Societies for the Relief of Wounded Soldiers and the addition of a corps of medical volunteers to the belligerent armies”, and their concern was “how” to put that idea into practice rather than “why”. It is true that those conclusions contained in embryo a whole set of guiding principles which were not formally stated until much later; but they appeared then as a necessary condition for the application of the initial decisions rather than as their source.
The ICRC and the Manila Conference — Evaluation and prospects
Authors: Moreillon Jacques
Published: January 2010

An International Red Cross Conference is an ideal moment to review the present situation and look to the future. Meeting every four years and assembling as it does the governments and the entire Red Cross family (ICRC, National Societies and the League), this “supreme deliberative body of the International Red Cross” reflects the concerns of the entire movement at a certain point in time. Its resolutions are a gauge of progress achieved in the various fields of Red Cross activity and an indication of the direction that activity should take in future, or in any case until the next International Conference.
Resolutions of International Red Cross Conferences and their implementation by the National Societies
Authors: Perruchoud Richard
Published: January 2010

Two ideas generally current in the Red Cross on the question of implementation, by the National Societies, of the resolutions adopted during the International Red Cross Conferences are:

1. the resolutions are not binding;

2. the National Societies apply the resolutions voluntarily and in a satisfactory way.

Our purpose here is to examine the exactitude of these two opinions.
Recognition of the Red Crescent Society of the Yemen Arab Republic
Authors: Hay Alexandre
Published: January 2010

We have the honour to inform you that the International Committee of the Red Cross has officially recognized the Red Crescent Society of the Yemen Arab Republic. This recognition came into force on 22 April 1982 and brings to 129 the number of member Societies of the International Red Cross.
The identification of medical aircraft in periods of armed conflict
Authors: Eberlin Philippe
Published: January 2010

Since the end of the Second World War, technological developments in armaments have produced increasingly sophisticated weapons. The most dangerous of these for air transports protected by the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 are remote controlled missiles equipped with homing devices, the operating raduis of which exceeds the visual range of the protective emblems recognized by these Conventions and carried by medical aircraft. The visual range of the emblem is frequently much less than 1,000 metres.
The Hiroshima disaster (I)
Authors: Junod Marcel
Published: January 2010

The physical impact of the atom bomb was beyond belief, beyond all apprehension, beyond imagination. Its psychological impact was appalling.

The Japanese military authorities were incapable of suppressing the news. In a few hours, a few days, the survivors told the whole country the incredible story of an incandescent bomb dropped by the Americans and devouring everything in its path.
Recognition of the Red Cross Society of Belize
Authors: Hay Alexandre
Published: January 2010

We have the honour to inform you of the official recognition of the Belize Red Cross Society by the International Committee of the Red Cross. The recognition is effective as of 15 March 1984 and brings to 132 the number of National Society members of the International Red Cross.
Encounter between Two Worlds
Authors: The Review
Published: January 2010

By adopting the theme “Encounter between two worlds” for the celebration marking the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's first voyage to the Americas, the international community was seeking to highlight what the Old World and the New World have in common and what can bring the peoples on either side of the Atlantic closer together. Such concern is understandable in a community engaged in a ceaseless quest for a new world order based on dialogue and harmony.
International humanitarian law and the protection of the environment in time of armed conflict
Authors: Antoine Philippe
Published: January 2010

The condition of our planet today is, to say the least, a cause for great concern. As recently stated by Ms. Gro Harlem Brundtland, Prime Minister of Norway and Chairman of the World Commission on Environment and Development: “We are living in an historic transitional period in which awareness of the conflict between human activities and environmental constraints is literally exploding”. A decisive battle is now under way to preserve a truly endangered planet from the threat of extinction.
Anti-Personnel Mines: A disgrace for humanity
Authors: Russbach Rémi
Published: January 2010

Those who look after people injured by anti-personnel mines and who, day after day, witness the suffering caused by these pernicious weapons, those who produce artificial limbs to help maimed children as they try to cope with their disability all ask themselves what can be done to put an end to this terrible scourge.
Youth and peace
Authors: Stubbings Leon
Published: January 2010

In the beginning…

Peace was part of the vision of Henry Dunant when, having seen the human suffering and misery on the battlefield of Solferino, he was inspired to create a humanitarian organization that would aid all people affected by war. His ultimate objective was not merely to relieve the suffering caused by war but to instil in mankind a spirit of peace. He believed that if we instil humanitarian ideas in people, and inspire everyone with a horror of the spirit of vengeance, hatred and destruction, we shall counteract the terrible scourge of war and perhaps avert it completely.

The quest for peace has been an integral part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement since its inception. The Movement has many other goals but in pursuing them all it tries to spread the spirit of peace.
States' entitlement to take action to enforce international humanitarian law
Authors: Sachariew Kamen
Published: January 2010

The ultimate purpose of dissemination of and compliance with international humanitarian law (IHL) is to mitigate the effects of armed conflict and provide the best possible protection for its victims. At the same time, IHL fosters wider acceptance of the ideals of humanity and peace between peoples. The relationship between IHL, the struggle for peace and the prohibition of the use of force is becoming ever clearer as the realization grows that lasting peace, development and peaceful international co-operation can be achieved only on the basis of compliance with international law and respect for human life and dignity.
Conferences for the Development of Humanitarian Law — Main Subjects
Authors: J. P.
Published: January 2010

Notwithstanding the volume reached by the Geneva Conventions in 1949, they do not cover the whole field of human misfortunes. It is now more than twenty years since they were drafted. Moreover, although Geneva Law was developed in detail in 1949, The Hague Law, on the contrary, which deals more with the regulation of hostilities and of the utilization of weapons, goes back to 1907, when bomber aircraft had not yet come into existence.
Salvadorean Red Cross Society: Reflections on the subject: Development of National Societies and Co-operation
Authors: Morales Oscar Ernesto
Published: January 2010

We can say from experience that the ideas put forward in the document “Strategy for the development of National Societies in the Eighties” have served as a reference in the preparation of our general plans for the periods 1980–1985, 1982–1986 and 1987–1990.
Protection and assistance for refugees in armed conflicts and internal disturbances: Reflections on the Mandates of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
Authors: Muntarbhorn Vitit
Published: January 2010

This article examines the mandate to protect and assist refugees in armed conflicts and internal disturbances. It is a modest attempt to clarify the web of overlapping roles and mandates of humanitarian bodies, in particular the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (“the Movement”) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). It purports to re-assess the evolution of their mandate and its extension. On the one hand, there is a need to define concrete principles, based on past and present practice, for humanitarian action. On the other, there must be sufficient leeway for flexibility and pragmatism in situations for which there is no comprehensive prognosis. The article concludes by demonstrating the interdependence and complementarity of humanitarian organizations which have to proffer protection and assistance where no other body can act.
1. Communication and dissemination: The Philippine National Red Cross: Communication to promote dissemination
Authors: Angco Edilberto H.
Published: January 2010

Information and dissemination are integral parts of the present structural design of the Public Relations and Publications Department of the Philippine National Red Cross (PNRC). Although interrelated, the two activities have distinct functions and objectives that set them apart from each other. A system of this kind seems ideal for any National Society which, like the PNRC, is small in size and has meagre human and financial resources. Owing to budgetary constraints at the PNRC, the Head of the Public Relations and Publications Department has to run the “whole show”, except for the field of dissemination where another key person is in charge.
The penal repression of violations of international humanitarian law applicable in non-international armed conflicts
Authors: Plattner Denise
Published: January 2010

At a time when non-international armed conflicts are increasing in number, it may be interesting to examine the implementation of international humanitarian law (IHL) applicable in these conflicts. To ensure its respect in international armed conflict, this law provides for the penal repression of certain violations. Used with discernment, especially for preventive purposes, this is undoubtedly an effective measure. There is good reason, therefore, also in view of the work of the International Law Commission (ILC) on a draft code of crimes against the peace and security of mankind, to see whether penal repression of the violations of international humanitarian law applicable in non-international armed conflicts should be promoted.
A Brief Outline of International Humanitarian Law
Authors: Nahlik Stanislaw E.
Published: January 2010

The term “humanitarian law” applies to those rules of international law which aim to protect persons suffering from the evils of armed conflicts as well as, by extension, objects not directly serving military purposes.

There is therefore an essential difference between humanitarian law and “human rights”, for the latter do not apply only in time of armed conflict.
Food aid: For or against?
Authors: Grunewald François
Published: January 2010

For or against food aid? When looking at the pictures of famine and malnutrition that abound on the small screen, this question may seem at best incongruous and at worst inadmissible. And yet it should be taken at its face value—provocative and stimulating, intended not to discourage but rather to sharpen our minds, for behind this simplistic question lie some real political stakes, some genuine issues of humanitarian ethics and some fascinating methodological problems. Our task here should perhaps be to single out the “operational” angles and then to reply to the questions “When”, “Why” and “How” food aid should be provided, and finally to the question “How can we do without it?”. As the global balance between supply (food resources) and demand (the needs) breaks down, access to these resources becomes more and more difficult for an increasingly large sector of the population, while at the same time the enormous stocks of the 1980s have melted away. Food aid has therefore become a rare commodity, to be used judiciously and in the most appropriate manner.
Reflections on a dissemination operation in Burundi: Declaration for standards of humanitarian conduct: Appeal for a minimum of humanity in a situation of internal violence
Authors: Baeriswyl Édith , Aeschlimann Alain
Published: January 2010

The idea of the dissemination project described in the present article first came up at the end of 1993, when what is known as interethnic violence broke out in Burundi following the attempted coup of October 1993 and the assassination of President Ndadaye together with a number of other leading figures. Given the scale of destruction and the heavy loss of life (it is now generally acknowledged that tens of thousands of people were killed during the first few weeks), and in view of the cruelty of the acts committed, ICRC delegates were at first hesitant to embark on any specific operation to promote humanitarian principles. Initially, they confined themselves to a practical demonstration of humanitarian conduct and to the use of radio broadcasts to supply information designed to facilitate operational work.
Legal advisers to the armed forces — The Swedish experience
Authors: Thelin Krister
Published: January 2010

In ratifying the 1977 Protocols additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, Sweden pledged to inform and instruct the authorities responsible for the country's policy of “total defence” and their personnel, as well as the civilian population, on the rules of international law.
The concept of vulnerability: beyond the focus on vulnerable groups
Authors: Anderson Mary B.
Published: January 2010

The recent explicit focus on “vulnerable groups” by international assistance agencies — particularly those that respond to emergency situations around the world — reflects two important concerns. First, aid providers want to be able to identify potential victims of disasters in order to anticipate and mitigate such events, and second, they use the identification of vulnerable groups as a way of targeting assistance, which is always restricted by limited resources, towards those groups who most need it. However, vulnerability should be understood as a far more powerful concept in the design and implementation of aid operations than simply as a criterion for targeting aid. In fact, problems arise when the notion of vulnerability is used only or primarily to identify groups who should receive assistance.
Illicit drugs and vulnerable communities
Authors: Tullis LaMond
Published: January 2010

In the 1980s and 1990s vulnerable people worldwide have suffered assaults on their basic survival and civilized existence. Ethnic upheavals have convulsed the former Yugoslavia and new republics of the former USSR. The struggles have produced human tragedies beyond calculation in Rwanda. Political terrorists have operated freely in some Latin American, Middle Eastern, and Asian countries. Hunger, disease, ethnic strife, and praetorian governments continue to stalk much of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Economic restructuring has marginalized citizens of some countries, placing people even further below already abysmal poverty lines. Families and civilized social values continue to disintegrate in the inner cities of the United States of America where income disparities between the poor and everyone else are increasing, threatening to create an underclass extending well beyond current geographical confines.
The challenges of human development: The future of the Red Cross in Latin America and the Caribbean
Authors: de Mencía Meneca
Published: January 2010

The very title of this work is thought-provoking for any member of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, but especially one from Latin America or the Caribbean.
International humanitarian law and nuclear weapons
Authors: The Review
Published: January 2010

On 8 July 1996, the International Court of Justice gave its advisory opinion in response to two enquiries as to the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons. Whilst the Court did not examine in detail the request put forward by the World Health Organization, it did give very close attention to the question presented by the General Assembly:

“Is the threat or use of nuclear weapons in any circumstance permitted under international law?”
Two new species of Xyalidae (Nematoda) from the Yellow Sea, China
Authors: Huang Yong , Zhang Zhinan
Published: January 2010

Two new species of free-living marine nematodes, Daptonema longiapophysis sp. nov. and Cobbia sinica sp. nov. from the Yellow Sea, China are described and illustrated. Daptonema longiapophysis sp. nov. is characterized by spicules with a projection on the ventral and dorsal side respectively and the length of the gubernacular apophysis longer than the length of spicules. Cobbia sinica sp. nov. is characterized by one big dorsal tooth, long conico-cylindrical tail and gubernaculum with a small dorsal apophysis.
Reproduction of the biogenic reef-forming honeycomb worm Sabellaria alveolata in Ireland
Authors: Culloty S.C. , Favier E. , Ní Riada M. , Ramsay N.F. , O'Riordan R.M.
Published: January 2010

The stage of development of the gametes of both male and female honeycomb worms Sabellaria alveolata (L.) was examined, using histology, over a 14-month period. Samples came from Howes Strand and Garrettstown, County Cork in south-west Ireland. A clear cycle of both male and female gametogenesis was evident, with a distinct peak in the summer (June–September) when the majority of them were ripe. During October–January a small proportion of males contained abundant spermatozoa, but no mature oocytes were found. Over the whole sampling period the ratio of males:females was 1.4:1. Further south in Roches de la Fosse in France at the centre of its range, two spawnings and an even sex-ratio have been reported.
Incidence and biology of Arcotheres tivelae (Crustacea: Decapoda) in Amiantis umbonella (Bivalvia: Veneridae) on the northern coast of the Persian Gulf, Iran
Authors: Saeedi Hanieh , Ardalan Aria A.
Published: January 2010

The occurrence of pinnotherid crab Arcotheres tivelae in the bivalve mollusc Amiantis umbonella was investigated for one year on the Bandar Abbas coast (Persian Gulf, Iran). Specimens of A. umbonella were collected monthly from two transects from April 2007 to March 2008 and were investigated for presence of the Arcotheres tivelae. Infestation frequency of A. tivelae was 9.18% in a sample of 893 clams. From a total of 89 specimens of crabs, only eight were male. They were observed in late February and early March, all of them but one in association with female crabs. There was no significant difference between the sexes of the infested clams that pea crabs choose as a host. The mean carapace width of the crab A. tivelae was 7.7 ± 1.7 mm and the mean length of the Amiantis umbonella was 39.84 ± 8.93 mm. Clams in the mid and low tidal zones were more infested. There was no significant relationship between clam length–crab width (R2 = 0.28). The mean fecundity of crabs was 2517 ± 864 eggs. Infection caused a reduction of flesh weight of clams. There was no significant correlation between the frequency of crabs' occurrence and the temporal variability of water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen and pH in different months. This study provides the first report of the distribution of pea crabs A. tivelae in A. umbonella, a new clam host record in Iran.
Social structure of bottlenose dolphins,Tursiops truncatus, in Panama City, Florida
Authors: Bouveroux Th. , Mallefet J.
Published: January 2010

Social organization is an important attribute of the animal society. We describe the social structure of a bottlenose dolphins population living in Panama City, a seaside resort located on the north-west coast of Florida. Study was conducted with 46 individuals. Dolphins are associated on average half weight index of 0.11. Preferred long-term associations are observed. The proportion of the non-zero association indices suggests that some dolphins seem to avoid others. Associations between and within sex-classes were investigated using only dolphins of known sex and observed at least 4 times. Highly significant differences are found in associations between and within sex-classes (Mantel test,t = 3.7987;P = 1); indeed, male associations are stronger than between inter-sexual associations or between females only. Sociogram of males reveals a complex network with strong associations between pairs or trios that reach up to 0.97, whereas female associations are lower than males. The cluster analysis shows no clear division in the social organization of bottlenose dolphins in Panama City, except for dyads, triads and their multiple networks. The population structure seems to be temporally stable over the study and constant companionships are observed in the dolphin population in Panama City.
Identifying deep-sea megafaunal epibenthic assemblages for use in habitat mapping and marine protected area network design
Authors: Howell K.L. , Davies J.S. , Narayanaswamy B.E.
Published: January 2010

International efforts are currently being made to establish networks of marine protected areas (MPAs) for the purposes of conservation of marine biodiversity. One of the primary objectives of MPA networks is to achieve representation of all marine biological diversity. Since we do not know the extent of biological diversity nor its distribution and function, we use surrogates to represent biological diversity. At a broad scale, measures of the physical environment are used, however at a fine scale biological assemblages have been shown to provide better representation of known biological diversity. While there are well known descriptions of assemblages for shallow water environments, few such descriptions of deep-sea benthic assemblages have been attempted. This paper provides descriptions of deep-sea epibenthic megafaunal assemblages based on a broad-scale video and stills image survey of the upper bathyal (200–1000 m) regions of the Rockall Trough and eastern Faroe–Shetland Channel. One thousand nine hundred and eighty-seven images were analysed from 139 video transects sampled from Dangaard and Explorer Canyons, Rosemary Bank Seamount, Hatton Bank, Wyville-Thomson Ridge, and the continental slope west and north-west of Shetland. Quantitative data obtained were analysed using cluster analysis and SIMPER analysis in Primer V.6 to identify benthic assemblages and their characterizing species. Thirty-one epibenthic megafaunal assemblages are defined by their characterizing species, and their distribution in terms of site, depth, temperature and substratum type. These 31 ‘biotopes’ provide consistent units for use in biological mapping efforts and assessments of representativeness in MPA network design. To facilitate the incorporation of these biotopes into existing deep-sea classification systems the biotopes have been assigned to broad substratum types. This is consistent with the use of substratum as a surrogate in many existing systems.
Length–weight relationships of 216 North Sea benthic invertebrates and fish
Authors: Robinson L.A. , Greenstreet S.P.R. , Reiss H. , Callaway R. , Craeymeersch J. , de Boois I. , Degraer S. , Ehrich S. , Fraser H.M. , Goffin A. , Kröncke I. , Jorgenson L. Lindal , Robertson M.R. , Lancaster J.
Published: January 2010

Size-based analyses of marine animals are increasingly used to improve understanding of community structure and function. However, the resources required to record individual body weights for benthic animals, where the number of individuals can reach several thousand in a square metre, are often prohibitive. Here we present morphometric (length–weight) relationships for 216 benthic species from the North Sea to permit weight estimation from length measurements. These relationships were calculated using data collected over two years from 283 stations. For ten abundant and widely dispersed species we tested for significant spatial and temporal differences in morphometric relationships. Some were found, but the magnitude of differences was small in relation to the size-ranges of animals that are usually present and we recommend that the regression relationships given here, based on pooled data, are appropriate for most types of population and community analyses. Our hope is that the availability of these morphometric relationships will encourage the more frequent application of size-based analyses to benthic survey data, and so enhance understanding of the ecology of the benthic/demersal component of marine ecosystems and food webs.
Patrones de comercio y flujo de información comercial entre España y América durante el siglo XVIII
Authors: Lamikiz Xabier
Published: January 2010

Este trabajo analiza varias transformaciones ocurridas dentro del comercio colonial español antes de la implantación del reglamento de libre comercio de 1778. Primero se muestran los cambios originados en el patrón de comercio a raíz de la adopción en 1739 del sistema de navíos de registro (o registros sueltos) en sustitución del tradicional sistema de flotas. En segundo lugar se examina el papel del correo transatlántico en la configuración de un nuevo patrón de comercio de creciente orientación minorista. Por último se aborda la evolución del flujo de información comercial en el eje Atlántico, destacando el creciente impacto de las modas. Las fuentes documentales utilizadas son principalmente cartas de comerciantes españoles interceptadas por los británicos durante las guerras del siglo XVIII.
Market Power on the Colonial Frontier? Evidence from São Paulo 1800–1840
Authors: Federico Giovanni , Paixao Ricardo
Published: January 2010

Economists often assume that agricultural markets in history were competitive, and all producers received the same price. In contrast, most agricultural historians deem prices to differ among agents, according to their social status and «power». This paper tests these opposite views with a database of some 12,500 transactions for the São Paulo area in Brazil in the first decades of the 19th century. Prices received by farmers were positively related to total sales, a proxy for the size of the estate, and also to the share on the relevant market, which measures the market power. These results are consistent with the anecdotal evidence about the growing importance of large slave estates which, however, did not wipe out small household farms.
Venezuela's Nascent Oil Industry and the 1932 US Tariff on Crude Oil Imports, 1927–1935
Authors: McBeth Brian S.
Published: January 2010

After a brief description of the initial development of Venezuela's crude oil industry, this paper examines the impact the 1932 US tariff on crude oil imports had on the country. The US tariff on crude oil imports stabilised domestic crude oil prices but prevented consumers from benefting from lower prices in refned petroleum products. The large us international integrated crude oil companies gained from higher crude oil prices for their domestic production while supplying their european markets with mostly cheap crude oil from their newly developed Venezuelan oilfelds. The tariff increased the Venezuelan oil industry's vulnerability to international events because it narrowed the competitive edge it had over domestic us crude oil production. consequently, the Gómez dictatorship in Venezuela at the time became more dependent on the oil companies operating in the country since they could reduce production considerably, or even leave the country as quickly as they entered with a negative impact on government revenues.
LIMITED PARTICIPATION, LABOR MARKET SEARCH AND LIQUIDITY EFFECTS
Authors: Li Yan
Published: January 2010

This paper models the liquidity effects after a contractionary open market operation in a framework that highlights the frictions of limited participation in financial markets and search frictions in labor markets. It is shown that Lucas rigidities, with the aid of labor market rigidities, could generate more persistent liquidity effects even in a context of flexible prices. In addition, the simulation results show that this adapted liquidity and labor search model does a reasonable good job in explaining the observed labor market dynamics in response to shocks of a plausible magnitude, and deliver substantial movements along a downward-sloping Beveridge curve.