bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Business Morality: Some Unanswered (and Perhaps Unanswerable) Questions
Authors: Miller Arthur Selwyn
Published: June 2007

Answers to questions about the ethical posture of American business require reference to the corporate, as dis tinguished from individualistic, nature of business. The tone of business is largely set by the corporate giants which domi nate the American economy. Corporate officials doubtless are normally the embodiment of rectitude in their personal life, but the several "publics" with which a corporation must deal pose difficult problems of accommodation, as yet unanswered. These problems will remain unanswered unless and until an adequate politico-economic theory of the corporation is pro duced. In the meantime, a rough analogy may be drawn be tween the corporation within the nation-state and the nation- state itself in its external affairs; corporate managers and national leaders, to some extent, have similar problems of accommodating competing interests. This accommodation is made more difficult because of the lack of clear external stand ards, from either law or the ethical leaders, through which pro posed decisions may be evaluated.
Ethical Aspects of Union Policy and Conduct
Authors: Stein Emanuel
Published: June 2007

The legislative findings providing the basis for the Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act (LMRDA) of 1959 brought to light a great variety of improper activities by unions and union officers. To persons familiar with the his tory of American trade-unionism, there was little, if anything, new in these revelations. From time to time, from the begin ning of unionism, there have been some labor leaders who have robbed and plundered and who have regarded the union as their private domain. The major underlying factor appears to be that as a union grows in power and membership, control of its policies passes from the man at the bench to paid union officials. Although this power transfer is not to be regarded as something contrived by power-hungry officers, it does lend itself to mal practice by unscrupulous union officials. The national unions themselves, and particularly the American Federation of Labor- Congress of Industrial Organizations, have tried to impose re form by constitutional amendment and by drawing up codes of ethical practices. However, because of the structure of Ameri can unionism, enforcement of these codes is difficult. The article suggests that the LMRDA, which makes fair practices by unions the law of the land and which incorporates many of the features of the unions' own reform measures, can aid in this reform.—Ed.
Some Social Functions of Violence
Authors: Coser Lewis A.
Published: June 2007

American social science has traditionally been somewhat remiss in examining social conflict and social violence because of its excessive commitment to models of social har mony ; this has resulted in a tame view of social structures. This paper proposes to redress the balance somewhat by dis cussing three social functions of violence: violence as a form of achievement, violence as a danger signal, and violence as a catalyst. A plea is made that the study of social violence be given greater emphasis in further research.
Controversies about the Mass Communication of Violence
Authors: Larsen Otto N.
Published: June 2007

Few would dispute that American mass communi cation dispenses large doses of violence to audiences ever grow ing in size. Two related controversies stem from this fact. One concerns the question of effects and the other the problem of control. An inventory of relevant research is inconclusive about effects, partly because of varying conceptions of what constitutes evidence. A dynamic opinion process leads to con trol efforts. Critics play a vital part in defining discontent. A reciprocal relationship emerges between the public, the critic, and the media. American media respond to controversy and threat of censorship with systems of self-regulation. These grow out of public opinion and are sustained by it in a delicate balance dependent somewhat on developing knowledge of the effects of violence.
Violence and Organized Crime
Authors: Geis Gilbert
Published: June 2007

Violence in the world of organized crime has been more common than in other segments of the social structure, mostly because of the absence of alternative control systems available to the highly competitive enterprises that make up organized crime. In the lower-class gang, the future organized criminal learns the utility of violence and is recruited into groups which train him in other social and personal at tributes of importance to a career in organized crime. These traits later assume a certain priority over direct physical coercion for successful work in organized crime, necessitating a balancing of adroitness and violence by the leadership. To day, though organized crime appears to be moving toward greater reliance on subtler manipulative techniques, its con tinued arrogation to itself of "the power to kill" provides one of the more interesting case studies in the institutionalization of violence.
Violence in American Labor Disputes
Authors: Taft Philip
Published: June 2007

Although most strikes in the United States have been peaceful, differences over the terms of employment have on occasion generated violent clashes. In cases where the union is recognized, strikes seldom lead to violent encounters. However, in unorganized strikes or in those which have arisen in an effort to gain recognition, the use of violence is more common. In the past, the presence of strike guards and private detectives were frequently causes of violent encounters. It ap pears that many industries were sometimes affected, and no region escaped from occasional violent incidents arising during a labor dispute. Nor were participants members of particular ethnic groups. Native Americans as well as foreigners and Negroes as well as whites were involved in bitter clashes that erupted in American industry. Violence has not been fully eliminated from American labor disputes, but considering the number of strikes and the number of employers directed to deal with unions by government boards dealing with labor relations, one has to conclude that it has been diminished. Laws re quiring employers to recognize unions representing their em ployees in a proper bargaining unit have perhaps been the primary cause for a lessening of violence in labor disputes.
Refugees
Authors: Smith Richard Ferree
Published: June 2007

Almost one-fifth of all immigrants to the United States since 1945 have been refugees. Despite the lack of a national policy, they have been admitted by a bewildering array of directives and special laws. The refugees came from widely varying ethnic backgrounds and experiences. They ranged from Latvians to Chinese to Cubans. In spite of their diversity, the refugees shared a common desire to find a land where they could rebuild their interrupted lives. They all faced the task of overcoming the same obstacle to integration in their adopted country. The major hurdles were to learn English, find appropriate employment, and control their bitter-sweet nostalgia for the land of their birth. The refugees came voluntarily and were helped by the voluntary efforts of the major national resettlement agencies and their constituents. In brief, the resettlement of these refugees represents an outstanding example of the willingness of Americans not only to accept but to assist newcomers regardless of their racial, ethnic, or religious backgrounds.
From the Other Side: A European View
Authors: Thomas Brinley
Published: June 2007

The United States 1965 Immigration Act, effectively a substitution of skill discrimination for racial discrimination, although morally superior to the former Act, may have bad side-effects. In the nineteenth century, large-scale movements of labor force from overpopulated countries to areas where labor was scarce benefited both the sending and the receiving countries. The modern pattern, however, shows a reversal of the flow—skilled labor and scientific personnel are moving from the less prosperous countries to the four richest nations in the world, and especially to the United States. Europe and Asia are both affected by this "brain drain" of many persons whose training was financed by their respective native governments. The reverse flow of experts and technical assistance from the rich to the underdeveloped countries is an imperfect substitute for the cumulative benefits of indigenous research. When a country absorbs migrants educated at public expense abroad, there is no reason why they should not be considered items in a capital balance of payments. If physical capital must be paid for, why should publicly financed human capital be received free? Other ways to overcome the imbalance might be less emphasis on student migration in technical assistance or an obligation on students receiving public grants to remain in or return to their own countries.—Ed.
The Control of Mortality
Authors: Smith T.E.
Published: June 2007

Expectation of life at birth has nearly doubled in the more developed countries in the last 150 years, and now often exceeds seventy years. Better water supplies and sani tation, the effective control of dangerous infectious and parasitic diseases, and higher living standards and educational standards have all contributed to this improvement. In the developed countries, death rates are now very low for all age-groups except the older adults. Accidents are the major cause of death of teen-age children and young adults, while heart diseases and cancer are responsible for the deaths of over half of older people. A feature of the reduction in death rates has been the increased excess mortality of males. There have also been big and rapid reductions in death rates in many developing countries, even in the absence of important improvements in living standards. Antibiotics and insecticides have made a major contribution to this movement in the last twenty years. It is unlikely that death rates will fall as rapidly in the next few decades as in the recent past in either developed or developing countries.
Population, Natural Resources, and Technology
Authors: Ackerman Edward A.
Published: June 2007

The developed and developing countries of the world may be divided roughly into four types: technology- source areas with high population-resource ratios; technology-source regions with low population-resource ratios; technology-deficient areas with high population-resource ratios; and technology-deficient areas with low population-resource ratios. The most critical problem of production is that of increasing food supply at the same or a greater rate than the increase in population. Technology must play a key role in any plans to increase food production. The technology exists for vast improvements in agricultural production in the deficient countries, and there are few obstacles to its export from the source areas. However, there are important obstacles to the flow of technical improvements in the deficient countries themselves. Resources exist for a possible severalfold increase in the world's population. However, there is doubt that improvement of food production can keep pace with population increase. Either a marked acceleration of the flow of technology or a marked reduction in population increase will be needed to avoid a world food crisis within this century. Over the longer run, limits exist for the number of people and the level of living that they can enjoy. The future adequacy of resources and technology will depend as much upon ethical choices and political decisions as on science and engineering.
Effects of Population Growth on the Economic Development of Developing Countries
Authors: Easterlin Richard A.
Published: June 2007

The existing state of knowledge does not warrant any clear-cut generalization as to the effect of population growth on economic development in today's less developed areas. Some theoretical analyses argue that high population growth creates pressures on limited natural resources, reduces private and public capital formation, and diverts additions to capital resources to maintaining rather than increasing the stock of capital per worker. Others point to positive effects such as economies of scale and specialization, the possible spur to favorable motivation caused by increased dependency, and the more favorable attitudes, capacities, and motivations of younger populations compared with older ones. The actual evidence on the association between growth rates of population and per capita income does not point to any uniform conclu sion, though the true relationship may be obscured in a simple two-variable comparison. None of this means that per capita income growth, currently and in the past, would have been the same if population growth rates had been markedly higher or lower. But it is possible that the effect of population growth on economic development has been exaggerated, or that no single generalization is justified for countries differing as widely in growth rates, densities, and income levels as do today's less developed areas. Clearly there is need for more intensive re search on the actual experience of nations, currently and in the past.
Demographic Transitions and Population Problems in the United States
Authors: Taeuber Irene B.
Published: June 2007

The development, growth, and transformation of the population of the United States were unique in the late settlement; the vast, rich, and sparsely settled area; and the immigrant formation. There were demographic transitions rather than a unidirectional process. Birth rates were very high in the colonial and early national periods, declined in rural areas and cities alike to the 1930's, and then rose substantially, only to decline again for roughly a decade now. The occupational movements from agricultural to professional and related activi ties, the advances of education to high levels, and the changes from rural to urban and then to metropolitan residence underlay the demographic transitions. A generation ago the problems appeared those of decline; a decade ago the problems seemed to be those of a rapid growth that would eventually press on resources, economy, and social facilities. Today assessments of the future are conjectural. The major population problems are those of metropolitan agglomeration, particularly the differen tiations of central cities and outer areas; the swift movements of the disadvantaged Negro population into central cities; the mas sive irregularities in age changes introduced by the changing birth rates of past years; and the adjustments to exodus from the Deep South and the mid-continent and influx to Florida, the Southwest, and California. The most intricate problem is the reconciliation of the ideals of family size prevalent in the generally affluent population with the economic, social, and political developments that are muted and eventually jeopar dized by continuing increases in numbers.
National Goals and Indicators for the Reduction of Crime and Delinquency
Authors: Glaser Daniel
Published: June 2007

Optimum procedures for measuring the preva lence of crime vary tremendously by type of offense, because these procedures depend on whether the crime creates a death, a complaining victim, a satisfied customer, an annoyed audi ence, or a dangerous condition. Assessing the effectiveness of criminal correction requires long-term data on criminal careers, to compare the subsequent criminality of similar of fenders who receive different kinds of correctional action. The formulation of crime reduction goals must take into account the instability of crime definitions, and the social costs of crime control actions, in addition to the dimensions of crime. Because of the multiplicity of data sources and the breadth of perspective required for this diversity of measurement, it should be the primary responsibility of a single national agency, to be assisted by the many other agencies now oriented to segments of this task.
The Natural Environment
Authors: Fisher Joseph L.
Published: June 2007

In the United States, the problem of sheer quantity of raw materials has given way in importance to the qualitative problem of environmental pollution. On the quantitative side, physical and economic indicators and goals are available, but on the qualitative side, such goals and indi cators are more difficult to conceive and work with because the more subjective problems of individual and social welfare must be taken into account. As exemplified by the water- quality studies of the Delaware Estuary, probably the basic indicator for social welfare would be the net social benefits (minus costs or losses in some sense) that would result from various selected measures to deal with a specific problem. Where estimates of benefits seem impossible, a second-best objective would be minimizing the social costs of selected measures. In view of the interrelatedness of environmental pollution problems, the concept of the "environmental problem shed" has been suggested—taking into account the various interrelated physical and social problems and indicators within a given area. Research is also needed on the processes by which environmental quality standards and programs are reached, the direction and rates of change for which statistical indicators are necessary, and to create and improve the indi cators of trends in environmental pollution and its effects on people.—Ed.
The Chinese Threat to World Order
Authors: Nimmanheminda Sukich
Published: June 2007

The threat from Communist China to world order in Southeast Asian countries in the form of military con quest is most unlikely. The Chinese ability with nuclear fission will probably require many more years before she can keep abreast with more senior members of the "nuclear club." The presence of a large number of ethnic Chinese, better known as "overseas Chinese," in most countries of Southeast Asia makes actual conquest by Communist China quite unnecessary. In a few countries, with the exception of Thailand, the question of assimilation and absorption of Chinese elements into the indigenous population is still in a state of attempt and adjustment. The fact that it was customary for the Chinese abroad to look up to the ruling group in any country and to look down upon the "foreigners" amongst whom they lived does not help countries that had been under foreign domination very much; yet these propensities made absorption and assimilation in Thailand a much easier task. Hence the success or failure of a Chinese attempt to intervene in any country really depends on how far assimilating effort and achievement have been reached.
International Broadcasting and the Changing World Audience
Authors: Chancellor John
Published: June 2007

The past twenty-five years have witnessed the development and spectacular growth of international broad casting, for a number of reasons: international political conflicts, the national pride of having such a capability, and the development and widespread use of the transistor radio. The character of the audience has changed during these years, and has, in turn, influenced the broadcasters. Where once the listener was willing to tune into a specific program at a given time, he is now more mobile, has more leisure, and has numerous channels of communications competing for his time; therefore, he is unable or unwilling to listen at a certain time. In an attempt to keep pace with the contemporary listener, the Voice of America (VOA), like several other broadcasters, is changing some of its concepts about broadcasting. In place of specific programs, it is initiating what might be called a "service," a blending of program elements built around certain basic landmarks such as news. An international broadcaster today, in order to retain and expand his audience, in the face of competition from other international broadcasters and domestic media, must establish an identity representing his society which the audience can recognize—and he must tell the truth about that society.
Cultural Exchanges between Communist Countries and the United States
Authors: Barghoorn Frederick C.
Published: June 2007

Little scholarly work has been done on cultural exchanges between Communist countries and the United States. Despite the frustrations involved, such exchanges are regarded as useful by both sides. One of the great difficulties in the study of cultural exchanges is the conceptual problem of de fining their nature. It would appear that, in addition to the genuinely cultural aspects of exchanges of persons between and among countries with such different ideologies and political structures, significant noncultural aspects are involved. There is certainly a propaganda component in such exchanges, and also an intelligence component. Many activities which would be regarded as normal academic research in the United States are regarded as espionage by the Soviets. Another difficult problem is obtaining adequate information. On the Soviet side, secrecy hampers the scholar, and on the American side, conscientious participants do not wish to disclose information which may be injurious to their Soviet contacts. Finally, it is interesting to analyze Communist motives in exchanges with "capitalist" countries. Although the Soviet Union especially takes a highly political approach to such exchanges, they are also useful to non-Communist countries. Among the Communist countries, Yugoslavia, particularly, has pursued a relatively liberal course. In spite of the difficulties, it is to be hoped that the United States will continue to welcome exchanges. It is encouraging that the United States Senate ratified the United States-Soviet consular convention, and it is to be hoped that the Soviet Union will also ratify it.
Some Dangers in "Valid" Social Measurement
Authors: Etzioni Amitai , Lehman Edward W.
Published: June 2007

This paper is a preliminary statement on the dysfunctions that social measurement may have for societal planning. Three problem areas associated with questions of internal validity are examined. The most general one is the area of fractional measurement, which concerns dysfunctions stemming from lack of coincidence between a social concept and its operational definition. Also examined are problems of indirect measurement and problems of formalistic-aggregative measurement of collective attributes. The area of indirect measurement concerns potential negative consequences of using data collected originally for other purposes as measures of social concepts. The area of formalistic-aggregative measure ment concerns dysfunctions flowing from imprecise measure ment of the states of social systems. Two broad classes of dysfunctions in these three areas are identified: (1) arriving at invalid conclusions which become the bases for erroneous policy decisions and (2) ignoring those dimensions and indicators of a concept that are most susceptible to social manipulation.
Democratic Participation
Authors: Verba Sidney
Published: June 2007

Democratic participation refers to acts that are intended to influence the behavior of those empowered to make decisions. In a society where participation is a value, in ability to participate represents a severe deprivation. This essay focuses on participation vis-à-vis governmental decision- makers, though the term refers to nongovernmental decisions as well. The variety of participatory acts is discussed, as are the conditions for effective participation. There is need to consider a wide range of participatory acts, including par ticipation in relation to administrative decisions. In addition, one must study not only why citizens participate, but why decision-makers are responsive. Several problems of par ticipation are discussed, including the problems of scale, of technical complexity, and of inequalities in participation.
Women and Politics in the United States and Canada
Authors: Boyd Rosamonde Ramsay
Published: June 2007

Since 1920 the women of the United States and Canada have steadily increased their responsibilities as voters. They have, however, been slow to assume policy-making positions at the state and federal levels. Many of them accept political responsibilities on boards and municipal councils, thereby functioning in areas of local education, welfare, and budgeting. Thus, they permit their interests and activities continually to revolve around the time-honored role of women. In both countries, there are a few women who have held Cabinet positions, and women are representatives in the Con gress of the United States and the Canadian parliament. These women continue an interest in health, education, and welfare, but most of their committee appointments are in areas of male specialization, such as armed services, transpor tation, banking, atomic energy, aeronautics, and flood control. This fact supports recent findings that the political behavior of men and women is similar at the higher educational levels. The lag between the voting habits of women and their accept ance of responsible public office may be attributable to tradi tional roles, ethnic and regional differentials, sporadic interest in politics, localized political activity, and woman's underestimation of her political potential.
Political Participation of Women in Africa South of the Sahara
Authors: Brooks Angie E.
Published: June 2007

In the newly independent states of southern Africa, many women have taken advantage of the political opportunities granted them in just a little more than the last decade and are now exercising political responsibilities equiva lent to those of women in the developed nations. The United Nations has contributed to this process by its impact on the constitutions of these countries and by its assistance to women through its various agencies. In twenty-nine nations south of the Sahara, women exercise their constitutional rights of suffrage. In many of these countries, women are playing a responsible role in government, judicial, and diplomatic af fairs. In Liberia, for example, where women first received suffrage and the right to hold political office in the 1940's, they are active in all branches and levels of government and in the diplomatic service. Women in southern Africa exhibit great interest in political matters, and their increasing abilities contribute much to the development of their nations.—Ed.
Women in the Rural Areas
Authors: Lanier Alison Raymond
Published: June 2007

Only 5 per cent of the human resources of the world are currently being used effectively, according to Mr. Paul Hoffman, Director of the United Nations Special Fund. Women in the rural areas—who form a sizable majority of all women—have tremendous potential impact on the develop ment of their countries. This can be measured in both eco nomic and human terms—in fact, the two cannot be separated. Rural women are intimately concerned with the world's urgent efforts: (1) to control population growth, (2) to feed the world's people, and (3) to improve the health and vigor of the next generation. In addition, they have a concrete contribu tion to make economically: (1) by their agricultural labor in the fields; (2) by improving distribution, standards of produc tion, preservation, and costs through co-operative efforts; (3) by producing goods in home industries; and (4) by trading. As their education increases, they are making sub stantial contributions to raising standards of living within their own nations and are already branching out, with interest, to take part in various kinds of international movements. The world faces problems of such magnitude that it cannot bypass the numbers, energy, and concerns of its huge rural popula tions. As steps are being taken to enable rural women to move into the world stream, they are clearly showing their competence and the range of their potential contribution.
Women and American Trade Unions
Authors: CooK Alice H.
Published: June 2007

Four aspects of women's participation in trade- union life are examined: the attitude of unions today toward protective legislation for women; the effect which the recent federal legislation on "equality" has had on women's opportu nities in the shops and the unions' attitudes toward handling these new kinds of grievances and demands; the degree to which unions include special clauses covering women's wages and conditions in their contracts; and the participation of women in the political life of the unions. Few changes in attitudes or practice are found to characterize the unions in the 1960's as compared with those in the 1940's, when THE ANNALS last carried a report on this subject.
Education Is the Key for Women
Authors: Beasley Ina M.
Published: June 2007

Since the nineteenth century, the expansion of women's education in the West has been marked by the inter action of personal development and contribution to the welfare of society. These tendencies are now apparent in small mea sure in emergent states also. Contemporary with much il literacy in many parts of the world is the high level of academic achievement in the developed countries. Contacts with the West have been a potent influence in the rise of women's education overseas, and this philosophy has brought women in developing countries straight into the modern stream. Every where this has led, in various degrees, to a growth of direct power and responsibility in government and a larger share in the learned professions, with an important growth in scientific studies. Illustrations and statistics are drawn from a repre sentative selection of places. The gain in economic indepen dence thus leads to opportunities for more far-reaching activi ties. Among the resulting imponderable benefits are an increase in the value of informed public opinion, more widely spread throughout the community, and evolvement toward a society more evenly balanced in all its parts.
Sex Education and the Roles of School and Church
Authors: Calderone Mary S.
Published: June 2007

When sex education is properly recognized for what it is, a birth to death continuum, the increase of aware ness of and involvement in it as a process, on the part of society's institutions, school and church, is striking in recent years. This involvement is looked upon as complementary and supplementary to the role of the family, and is being recognized as requiring didactic and pedagogic preparation. Thus, the number of schools, public, private, and parochial, engaged in developing sex education programs is increasing daily, as are teacher-training programs in institutions of higher learning. Movement away from emphasis on details of reproduction and into the area of the dynamics of male- female roles and relationships has been spearheaded by the major religious communions, which can be expected to con tinue and expand their leadership roles at both national and community levels. Other professional disciplines, especially in medicine, are also studying their roles in education for sexuality.
The Physical and Moral Stamina of American Youth
Authors: Zais Melvin
Published: June 2007

One of the most pervasive features of advancements in technology is the impact on the physical and moral stamina of our youth. Statistics relating to examinations for military service have been interpreted as an indication that a general deterioration is occurring. A careful analysis of these statistics and an evaluation of American youth in the military service reveal that there is an improvement, rather than a deterioration, in the physical and moral stamina of American youth.
Anonymity, Dissent, and Individual Integrity in America
Authors: Sibley Mulford Q.
Published: June 2007

The restlessness of the sixties of the twentieth century has been exemplified particularly in the civil rights movement, in the student revolt, and in greatly expanded antiwar dissent. The background of this disquietude is rooted in the American tradition of dissent; in rejection of the alienation which has tended to accompany complex industrialism; and in the relatively great economic affluence which provides opportunities to think about injustice and the larger purposes of life. There is strong moral justification for the dissent of our day; and, in many respects, American moral consciousness is broader and deeper than in previous generations. For the most part, the black man has been treated as a thing, and he legitimately aspires to recognition as a human personality. The student revolt reflects a repudiation of the anonymity which so often accompanies a multiversity type of higher education. The antiwar movement represents a long-needed revolt against what is, in effect, a warfare state and a particularly unjust war in Vietnam. Although some of the dissent is doubtless a kind of compulsive revolt, much of it is an expression of genuine conscience. It is justified in terms of ends, and much of it in terms of means as well. In selecting means, the dissenter should give the benefit of the doubt to existing laws before adopting civil disobedience; he ought not to violate human personality, in the name of which he is speaking; and he ought to test his proposed action against the judgments of critics—even though he alone must make the final decision. In general, a conscientious dissenter may help overcome feelings of anonymity, counteract social inertia, and vindicate the integrity of personality.
Federal Finances and the Economy
Authors: Keyserling Leon H.
Published: June 2007

The dominant fiscal policy of the "New Eco nomics" since 1961, in the form of massive tax cuts which reallocated income in the wrong directions, failed grossly to restore full resource use or serve priority needs. Both require ments for economic equilibrium at full resource use and the perilous deficiencies in the public sector require that the total federal budget be lifted from 186 billion dollars in fiscal year 1969 to 200 billion in calendar year 1970, and 250 billion in calendar year 1975. As of the time of writing (April 1968), as suming the spending program proposed by the President for fiscal year 1969, and in view of the inadequate rate of economic growth and excessive idleness of plant and manpower, tax in creases are not justified. But with spending adequately in creased, large tax increases would be essential to contain infla tion. These, which should be very progressive in nature, on both economic and social grounds, should close loopholes, lift the corporate income tax, and increase personal income tax rates from the middle of the income structure upward. Meanwhile, the exemptions should be lifted very substantially, to lessen the excessive nationwide tax burden on those lower down in the income structure.
The Tax Burden in the United States and Other Countries
Authors: Goode Richard
Published: June 2007

The ratio of taxes to gross national product (GNP) is lower in the United States than in most western European countries but considerably higher than in Switzer land and Japan. Social security taxes are much higher in relation to income in most of the European countries than in the United States; if these taxes are excluded, the rankings are somewhat altered. Federal, state, and local governments in the United States obtain a comparatively large proportion of their revenue from income taxes, property taxes, and other direct taxes, and a comparatively small proportion from sales taxes and other indirect taxes. Taxes have been increasing faster than income in all of the countries studied. Among seventeen Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Devel opment (OECD) countries, there is some tendency for tax ratios to be higher on the average where per capita income is high than where per capita income is low and a clearer tend ency for ratios of direct taxes to income to rise with per capita income. An examination of tax ratios, national income, and price levels over the period 1955-1965 raises some questions about interactions between taxation and economic behavior that merit further study.
Politico-Military Problems and Resources
Authors: Ausland John C.
Published: June 2007

Regardless of present trends toward review of our commitments abroad, it seems certain that the defense establishment will continue to play a major role in the formulation and implementation of United States foreign policy. The next President will face many knotty politico-military problems. If the Department of State is to play its proper leadership role in providing foreign policy guidance, a new look will have to be taken at the needs and resources for the management of those problems. Key issues of major importance must continue to receive the President's personal attention. However, day-to-day co-ordination between the Department of State, the Department of Defense, and the White House will have to be improved to handle the heavy volume of problems that must be staffed at a lower level. Further improvements should be made in the Senior Interdepartmental Group (SIG)-Interdepartmental Regional Group (IRG) system, particularly in the field of planning. Interagency task forces will provide the President with needed focusing and flexibility on major problems. In the field, the gap between the ambassador and military commander left by the Kennedy letter of May 29, 1961, should be closed, particularly during any contingency operations. Finally, even more Foreign Service officers should be educated by and exposed directly to the military.
The Nature and Dimensions of Diplomacy
Authors: Simpson Smith
Published: June 2007

Diplomacy is the art and science of international politics. It has also acquired a domestic political thrust. Possessing in modern times the dimension of organization, it faces the serious problem of how personal and creative political skills in foreign affairs can be married to bureaucratic procedures. If diplomacy is to be dynamic, capable of providing an effective alternative to war, organization must become its servant rather than its master. While generally viewed as the means of carrying out foreign policies, diplomacy generates resources needed for the formulation of sound policy, and its practitioners should therefore be fully utilized in the policy-forming process. At the same time, the resources of diplomacy must be considerably amplified in all its dimensions: intellectual and cultural, political, research and analysis, planning, education and training, and others which space limitations deny treatment here. We should develop and use the total human resources of our diplomatic establishment, including those of consular and junior personnel, in the pursuit of our international objectives, providing officers with an education and training commensurate to the demands placed upon them by modern diplomacy. For this purpose, the possibilities of a Foreign Service (Foreign Affairs) Academy deserve further consideration.
The Correctional System: Problems and Prospects
Authors: Schrag Clarence
Published: June 2007

The prison is viewed as an element in the system of justice that operates under constraints imposed by the broader soci ety. Many of the contradictions observed in the prison's goals and in its achievement strategies have their counterpart in community disorganization. Accordingly, any major im provement in the prison's efficiency will probably require a fundamental overhaul of both the system of justice and the community's normative structure. Such overhaul encounters strong resistance from the community and the agencies of justice. Most current efforts at prison reform are therefore regarded as stopgap measures.
Innovations in the Treatment of Juvenile Offenders
Authors: Luger Milton
Published: June 2007

Approximately eight years ago, following a series of violent and sensational youth crimes, a state agency was given the responsibility to launch an innovative program for troubled adolescents. The manner in which the administra tion viewed its new mandate, the youth-care concepts upon which the programs were based, and the practical, daily opera tional problems experienced in implementing techniques and approaches which departed from tradition are discussed in this article.
The Cloacal Region of American Corrections
Authors: Mattick Hans W. , Aikman Alexander B.
Published: June 2007

Local jails have been denounced by social critics and citizens alike, but moral indignation has effected little change. The obstacles to change are rooted in local control, public indifference, and low priority in the scale of social values. The result is underbudgeting, understaffing, over crowding or underutilization, and haphazard administration. Suggestions are made for redefining the functions of local jails by allocating some of their traditional functions to other social agencies. Measures designed to avoid pretrial or posttrial jail commitments are explored. Alternatives, such as half way houses and work release also are examined. Other sug gestions run the gamut, from central control by the state, to state-set minimum standards. Some political recommenda tions are made about prisoners' voting, and changing the limited tenure of office for sheriffs who cannot succeed them selves, in order to use political influence for purposes of reform rather than neglect. The prospects for local jail reform do not look hopeful.
Corrections and the Violent Offender
Authors: Wolfgang Marvin E.
Published: June 2007

Improper attention is given to the diagnosis and classification of offenders sent to prison. An effort should be made to distinguish violent from nonviolent persons sen tenced to prison in order better to provide a more appropriate treatment setting for each. Past and current management of correctional institutions is based primarily on the image, behavior, and potential risk of the violent offender, much to the detriment of the nonviolent inmates who numerically pre dominate in prison.
The Flowering of the Hippie Movement
Authors: Howard John Robert
Published: June 2007

The following article focuses on three aspects of the hippie phenomenon: Who are the hippies? What are the defining characteristics of their movement? And what impact have they had on the larger society? Four hippie types are discussed: the visionaries, the freaks and heads, the midnight hippies, and the plastic hippies. The visionaries are utopians who pose an alternative to existing society. They repudiate conventional values on the grounds that they induce status anxi ety and a fetish for material acquisition. The community that they developed in Haight-Asbury can be viewed as a kind of experiment in social organization. Freaks and heads are the more drug-oriented hippies. They surround the use of drugs with an elaborate mythology suggesting a variety of benefits to be derived from "going out of one's mind." Midnight hip pies are older people, mostly in their thirties, who, having be come integrated into straight society, cannot adopt the hippie style of life, but, who are, nevertheless, sympathetic to it. They articulate and rationalize the hippie perspective to the straight world. Plastic hippies are young people who wear the paraphernalia of hippies (baubles, bangles, and beads) as a kind of costume. They have entered into it as a fad, and have only the most superficial understanding of the ideology. The vision aries sought over a two-year period in Haight-Asbury to imple ment their view of the good society. External pressure and certain internal contradictions in their social system led to a breakdown of the experiment. By the summer of 1968, many had left the city to set up rural communes, with the hope of being able to survive in a less hostile environment. It is argued here that it is slick and superficial to dismiss the phenomenon as simply the latest version of youth's rebellion against author ity. Unlike previous celebrated generations of young rebels— the "lost generation," for example, and the beatniks—the hip pies posed a fairly well thought-out alternative to conventional society. They assumed, implicitly, that the example which they set in their own communities would induce change in the rest of society.
The Student Revolt against Liberalism
Authors: Eisen Jonathan , Steinberg David
Published: June 2007

During its evolution from the sit-ins and picket lines of 1960, student protest in the universities broadened its base and became more politically active. Increasingly, students became aware of the logical interrelationships between issues being protested within and outside of the universities, and of the stifling effect exerted upon all dissent by the politi cal institutions of the Establishment. Stimulated by the ideas of men like Paul Goodman, Robert Nisbet, C. Wright Mills, Erich Fromm, and Edgar Z. Friedenberg, students rebelled against the Establishment philosophy of "corporate liberal ism," best exemplified, in their view, by the idea of the uni versity delineated in Clark Kerr's The Uses of the University. The students counterposed their own concept of "participatory democracy," as embodied in Tom Hayden's Port Huron State ment of 1962, against corporate liberalism in the university. The revolt at the University of California at Berkeley in 1964, the widespread, and often successful, student protests against university dismissals of faculty members, the "free university movement" which began at San Francisco State College in 1965, and, most recently, the rebellion at Columbia University in 1968—all reflect both the ideology and the activism of the educational protest movement.—Ed.
The Response of Police Agencies
Authors: Misner Gordon E.
Published: June 2007

Police response to the protest of the 1960's has not been monolithic. Although one can and must generalize, it must be borne in mind that police response not only has varied geographically, but has also been affected by differ ences in administrative style among agencies within certain regions and by the time factor: the results of one confronta tion can have either a positive or negative effect on police procedures in a later one. Although the substance, tactics, and strategies of protest movements have changed, police agencies are precisely those institutions most resistant to change in operating procedures and administrative styles. One reason for this conservatism is lack of experience in deal ing with mass protest groups; another is the long-standing hostile relationship between police agencies and minorities, civil rights groups, and social protest in general, a relationship which indicates that police reflect the basic conservatism of much of the public. The confrontations between police and Negro-protest-movement groups during the struggle for civil rights illustrate the problem, especially those which occurred during the period of nonviolent direct action and during the sporadic riots in various urban ghettos from 1964 to 1968. That effective police action can prevent the eruption of vio lence without interfering with the rights of individual citizens was proven by the success of police strategy in dealing with protest groups at the Republican National Convention in 1964. Generally, however, the usually conservative operating posture of the nation's police when dealing with protest groups reflects the posture of the political system itself.—Ed.
"Why Bastard, Wherefore Base?"
Authors: Krause Harry D.
Published: June 2007

Although the modern trend is toward a measure of legal equality between legitimate and illegitimate children of the same father, many states have not kept pace with the times. Ancient prejudice still shapes much of the law that denies the person of illegitimate birth a fair legal relationship with his father in matters of support and inheritance and in various other areas. A 1968 decision of the United States Supreme Court should bring substantial legal equality to the illegitimate child as a matter of constitutional law. This article discusses the prospect of such a development as well as its specific meaning for the person of illegitimate birth. Present law is presented in some detail in order to provide a frame of reference.