bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Embracing the Infinite
Authors: Zausner Tobi
Published: April 2022

This chapter explains that there is a pervasive nonlinearity in the structure of universe; we see its consequences not only in the chaos of clouds and the movement of water, but it is also fundamental to our thinking, our behavior, our creativity, and it defines the nonlinear path of our self-evolution. Understanding these patterns of chaos offers us a profoundly new worldview, one that allows us to see accidents and mistakes as defining new trajectories to previously unrealized courses of action. The processes of self-organization and emergence are intrinsic to our insights and realizations and also serve to maintain our physical and emotional identity over time. Immersed in a world of nonlinear fractal patterns, we understand that they convey deeper meanings about the underlying structure of our psychological behavior. These repeating fractal patterns emerge in processes such as recognition, memory, creativity, and in the unconscious behavior of habits. Nonlinear models are not only clinically relevant to working with trauma and the elimination of self-destructive behavior, but they also illuminate the dynamics of self-transformation. Nonlinearity allows us to accept our imperfections and choose wholeness over perfection. Then imperfection, with all its surprises and room for creativity becomes, our own perfection and the perfection of our world.
The Daode Jing
Authors: Kohn Livia
Published: April 2022

The Daode jing (Book of the Dao and Its Virtue) is an essential work in both traditional Chinese culture and world philosophy. The oldest text of philosophical Daoism, and also widely venerated among religious Daoist practitioners, it was around the fourth century bce, ascribed to a thinker contemporaneous to Confucius (551–479 bce) named Laozi. Written in aphoristic verse, the book survives in several manuscripts, and its standard version consists of eighty-one chapters and two parts, one on Dao (chs. 1–37), and one on De (chs. 38–81), in approximately five thousand characters. Today, the Daode jing is still actively used in Daoist practice but, more importantly, serves as an inspirational guide to people in China and throughout the world. Its key concepts include cosmological notions, such as Dao, the underlying power of all life and the way the world functions; virtue or inner power, the manifestation of Dao within individual and society; heaven, the representative of nature and the patterns of stars, seasons, and more; as well as yin and yang, the alternating waves of universal development. In addition, it also presents key personal values, such as individual authenticity in so-being (aka naturalness or spontaneity), an ease and flow of life in nonaction, as well as integrity, humility, frugality, softness, simplicity, sufficiency, and more. Guides to Sacred Texts: The Daode jing by Livia Kohn presents a comprehensive overview of information regarding the Daode jing, from its origins and history through its content, commentaries, and ritual activation to its impact in the modern world, including self-help guides, leadership manuals, and poetic, even outlandish renditions.
Times and Authorship
Authors: Kohn Livia
Published: April 2022

The Daode jing was compiled during the Axial Age, a period of great philosophical and religious advance worldwide. At the time China saw great upheaval and various new visions of society and rulership arose. The text is traditionally associated with the ancient thinker Laozi, a contemporary of Confucius who served in the royal Zhou government. A figure shrouded in mystery, his first biography goes back to the early Han dynasty, a time when he was already venerated as a saint. The belief then was that he lived for an extraordinarily long time and emigrated across the western border in response to the decline of Zhou culture.
Devotional Activation
Authors: Kohn Livia
Published: April 2022

In the second century bce, the Daode jing became a sacred text and was recited at court. By the second century ce, it appears among Daoist cults, including the Celestial Masters, the first formally organized Daoist group. Following revelations from the divinized Laozi, they used the text for recitation to attain divine powers and as a source of behavioral precepts. By the fifth century, this had grown to include the attainment of immortality, and recitation became a ritually framed, highly spiritual practice that also involved the visualization of protective deities, notably of Laozi himself in a highly stylized form. Ever more formalized, the ritual expanded to include further complex visualizations as well as the practitioner’s placement among potent constellations in the center of the cosmos. In the sixth century, finally, when the various Daoist schools integrated into one system, the Daode jing became central to the formal ordination of priests.
Commentary Exegeses
Authors: Kohn Livia
Published: April 2022

Commentaries mediate between the content and impact of a core text and its understanding in a particular social and historical setting, creating an active interface between the written word and its readers. The first Daode jing commentator was the Legalist Han Feizi of the second century bce who read its message in relation to successful rulership. Following this, the Daoist sage Heshang Gong connected it to physical and meditative cultivation, while Wang Bi, in the third century ce, read the text more philosophically, focusing on original nonbeing and creating a more ontological and semiotic understanding. A more spiritual and mystical expansion of the text, moreover, appeared in the fifth-century Xisheng jing, the alleged record of Laozi’s oral instructions to Yin Xi.
China Today
Authors: Kohn Livia
Published: April 2022

The Daode jing is alive and well in China today. Still central to the Daoist religion, its author is widely venerated as a key supporting deity and its content is thoroughly studied by the clergy. Many academic institutions and scholarly organizations dedicate their efforts to its deeper understanding and interpretations, and among intellectuals it serves as a platform to engage with Western thought, both historical and modern. In addition, its concepts provide inspiration for ideals of governance, social harmony, and environmental awareness. Psychologists have adapted some of the text’s key notions to create a Chinese version of cognitive therapy. Spiritual and business leaders, moreover, have found in it a way to inspire people to improve their lives and prosperity through personal training and inspiration.
Intergenerational Justice
Authors: Moellendorf Darrel
Published: April 2022

Climate change creates long-term, intergenerational effects. Our capacity to affect the living circumstances of future people raises the question of which principle of intergenerational justice best explains our duty to mitigate climate change on behalf of future generations. This chapter examines four possible principles: Help and Do No Harm, Discounted Utilitarianism, Intergenerational Equality, and Anti-Catastrophe. The survey provided in the chapter reveals serious problems with the first three of these principles. In the end, Anti-Catastrophe has a considerable degree of plausibility. Moreover, its plausibility is augmented by the fact that it is consistent with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
Global Poverty and Responsibility for Climate Change Mitigation Policy
Authors: Moellendorf Darrel
Published: April 2022

Chapter Four takes up justice and responsibility in climate change mitigation. It argues that human development, as understood by the United Nations Human Development Programme (UNDP) is rightly a high priority, and that respecting the Right to Promote Sustainable Development is a matter of international justice. Taking that right seriously requires a conception of responsibility in a climate change mitigation regime that protects the human development interests of states. And the conception that non-contingently does that is one that assigns responsibility based on a state’s human development level. Solidarity in climate change mitigation requires assigning the burdens of achieving a zero carbon global economy in accordance with protecting the Right to Promote Sustainable Development.
The Status of the Human in Classical Chinese Philosophy
Authors: Perkins Franklin
Published: April 2022

One of the central points of contention in Chinese philosophy was the status and nature of human beings. The diversity of views makes generalization difficult, but Chinese philosophers early on gave up the attempt to ground human values in a human-like and human-centered divine power. As a result, they saw human beings as just one of the myriad living things, which meant that human concepts and values were merely human. In this essay I focus on two views from the late 4th or early 3rd century BCE, that of Mengzi孟子‎, a Ru or Confucian, and that of Zhuangzi 莊子‎, a Daoist. Mengzi gives an account of natural human dispositions (xing性‎) and emotions. Human beings are distinguished primarily by certain kinds of socially oriented feelings that lead toward the absorption of cultural norms. Zhuangzi rejects this view partly by emphasizing human diversity and partly by arguing that emotions depend on perspectives that can be changed. For Zhuangzi, what is most distinctively human is that which allows us to escape the bounds of any natural human perspective.
Being Human, Being Homo Sapiens
Authors: Walsh Denis
Published: April 2022

Homo sapiens, like any other biological species, arose through the process of evolution. It is natural to suppose, then, that we could appeal to evolution in explaining human nature. Yet the project of grounding human nature in evolutionary theory is generally thought to have failed. After a brief survey of two failed attempts, I argue that one cannot reduce the concept of an organismal nature to evolutionary theory because a proper understanding of evolution presupposes the concept of an organismal nature. I draw on Aristotle’s concept of bios (way of life) as a good candidate for the concept of organismal nature required by evolution. I further argue that the concept of human nature posited by proponents of neo-Aristotelian metaethics is an instance of Aristotelian bios. The upshot is that the concept of human nature is sanctioned by our best evolutionary science but can be given no reductive evolutionary account.
“This Desperate Attempt to Get a Living” (1872–1901)
Authors: Saylor Eric
Published: April 2022

Spanning the first three decades of Vaughan Williams’s life, the first chapter begins with a short summary of his family background and upbringing at Leith Hill Place in Surrey, United Kingdom. It goes on to address his early education (at Field House and Charterhouse) and formal study in music at the Royal College of Music and Cambridge, with particular focus on the relationships he built during that time. These included his teachers (particularly Hubert Parry, Charles Stanford, and Charles Wood), friends (Ralph Wedgwood, Gustav Holst, and Hugh Allen, among others), and Adeline Fisher, whom he would marry in 1897. His study with Max Bruch beginning in the autumn of that year is also addressed, along with his early attempts to build a career in music, whether as a church organist, freelance writer, or composer. The completion of his doctorate at Cambridge in 1899 (and taking of the degree in 1901) marked the capstone of his early apprenticeship, but there was as of yet little indication of the accomplishments to come as his thirtieth birthday approached.
The Music of 1909–1914
Authors: Saylor Eric
Published: April 2022

While Vaughan Williams’s immediate post-Paris compositions demonstrate new levels of technical facility and expressive individuality, they are better thought of as representing a transitional stage between his period of apprenticeship and his postwar career. As a whole, works from this era are stylistically inconsistent, but evince the development of a compelling and idiomatic compositional voice. Most conspicuously, pentatonicism, modes, whole-tone scales, and octatonicism increasingly augment or replace the fin-de siècle chromatic tonality that had dominated much of Vaughan Williams’s music up to that point, sometimes extending practices drawn from English folk song or hymnody, contemporary French music, and Tudor-era works (real or imagined). Some of his early compositions engage with such materials and practices, but usually in brief or isolated contexts; the works completed after 1909 more thoroughly integrate them into their underlying design, suggesting a fundamental reconsideration of their potential function. The range of works undertaken during this period is also quite wide, spanning incidental music for plays to two large-scale symphonic works, with appropriately varied musical language reflecting either the provenance, origins, or external associations connected with each piece. However, Vaughan Williams also seems to be increasingly aware of his proclivity for the grandiose gesture, and demonstrates a growing desire to bring it under control.
“Beyond Powers of Expression” (1914–1922)
Authors: Saylor Eric
Published: April 2022

Vaughan Williams volunteered for military service shortly after the Great War broke out, despite being over the age of conscription. He served first with the Royal Army Medical Corps in France and Greece, and then (after receiving a commission to second lieutenant) with the Royal Garrison Artillery and the British Expeditionary Forces in France. Vaughan Williams’s return home elicited a host of mixed feelings, relief at having survived foremost among them, but also the anticipation of coming back to his wife and music. Beyond returning to composition, he was fortunate to be appointed to a teaching position at the Royal College of Music, where he played a hugely influential role in shaping the next generation of British musicians. He also began consolidating his own style into an idiom often referred to as “pastoralism,” which emerged in several works left unfinished or unrevised at the start of the war (including The Lark Ascending and the Four Hymns), and three new ones: the Pastoral Symphony, The Shepherds of the Delectable Mountains, and the Mass in G Minor. These works gained attention both at home and abroad, with the Vaughan Williamses traveling to the United States to see the Pastoral Symphony in performance, and the Mass garnering acclaim in Germany. Such performances helped establish Vaughan Williams as a significant player on the international stage as well as in England.
A Synoptic and Multidimensional Theory of the Modern African Self
Authors: Nwoye Augustine
Published: April 2022

Chapter 7 paints a synoptic picture of the holistic/multidimensional fabric of the modern African self. The chapter argues that the African notion of the self is fundamentally opposed to the prevailing approach to the self expounded in the literature of Western philosophy and personality theory. The chapter explains that the Western model of the self is individuocentric and less inclusive and extensive than the African view. In addition, the chapter draws attention to the fact that the Western self is imbued with an emphasis on reason and, until quite recently, a denial of the significance of the body in the determination of the overall destiny of a human being. The chapter therefore argues that the Western idea of the self as a disengaged entity is too self-contained and exclusive to accurately reflect the communal perspective and the theme of precariousness in the notion of the self as understood in Africa.
Questionable Research Practices
Authors: O’Boyle Ernest H. , Götz Martin
Published: April 2022

There is increasing concern that the veracity of research findings in a number of scientific disciplines, including psychology, may be compromised by questionable research/reporting practices (QRPs). QRPs, such as hypothesizing after results are known, selectively deleting outliers, and “p-hacking,” bolster findings by giving the appearance of statistical significance, generalizability, and novelty. In truth, studies containing such QRPs do not replicate, do not generalize, and mislead both research and practice. This process of “ugly” initial results metamorphosing into “beautiful” articles through QRPs is known as the chrysalis effect and has the potential to compromise the integrity of the field and the trust practitioners and external funding agencies place in psychology research. This chapter reviews the extant research of the existence and frequency of QRP engagement. We then transition into the antecedents and outcomes of QRPs, with a focus on the system processes that both encourage and facilitate QRP engagement. We then close with a series of steps that might mitigate QRP prevalence in order for research to reflect best scientific practices.
Washington's Heir
Authors: Magliocca Gerard N.
Published: April 2022

In Washington’s Heir, Gerard N. Magliocca gives us the first published biography of Bushrod Washington, one of the most underrated Founding Fathers. Born in 1762, Justice Washington fought in the Revolutionary War, served in Virginia’s ratifying convention for the Constitution, and was Chief Justice John Marshall’s partner in establishing the authority of the Supreme Court. Though he could only see from one eye, Justice Washington wrote many landmark decisions defining the fundamental rights of citizens and the structure of the Constitution, including Corfield v. Coryell-an influential source for the Congress that proposed the Fourteenth Amendment. As George Washington’s personal heir, Bushrod inherited both Mount Vernon and the family legacy of owning other people, one of whom was almost certainly his half-brother or nephew. Yet Justice Washington alone among the Founders was criticized by journalists for selling enslaved people and, in turn, issued a public defense of his actions that laid bare the hypocrisy and cruelty of slavery. An in-depth look at Justice Washington’s extraordinary story that gives insight into his personal thoughts through his own secret journal, Washington’s Heir sheds new light not only on George Washington, John Marshall, and the Constitution, but also on America’s ongoing struggle to become a more perfect union.
A Young Gentleman of Talents
Authors: Magliocca Gerard N.
Published: April 2022

Chapter 3 discusses Bushrod’s marriage to Ann “Nancy” Blackburn Washington and his service in Virginia’s ratifying convention for the Constitution. In the course of that discussion, the chapter also covers Bushrod’s correspondence with George Washington about state politics, the death of Jack Washington, Bushrod’s election to the Virginia House of Delegates, and the ratification debate on the Constitution.
The Marshall Court Begins
Authors: Magliocca Gerard N.
Published: April 2022

Chapter 6 follows the first five years of Chief Justice Marshall’s leadership of the Court. During this era, the justice faced tremendous political pressure from Congress and from the Jefferson administration due to intense partisanship and sharp divisions over the proper role of courts in a democracy. Washington became the chief justice’s crucial ally in strengthening the Supreme Court as an institution and steered Marshall away from a potentially disastrous decision to go on strike in protest of the repeal of the Judiciary Act of 1801. The chapter then puts Marbury v. Madison into context and discusses how the impeachment of Justice Samuel Chase in 1804 led to a shaky truce between the Court and the elected branches.
The Supreme Court’s Balance Wheel
Authors: Magliocca Gerard N.
Published: April 2022

Chapter 9 canvasses Washington’s life on the Supreme Court from 1806 to 1823. This period was driven first by the War of 1812 and second by the arrival of Justice Joseph Story, who joined Chief Justice Marshall and Washington to form the backbone of the Marshall Court. Notable cases discussed here include Terrett v. Taylor, McCulloch v. Maryland, Dartmouth College v. Woodward, Houston v. Moore, and Green v. Biddle. Through these cases, the chapter attempts to illuminate the relationship between Washington and Story and Washington’s larger role within the Court.
Corfield v. Coryell
Authors: Magliocca Gerard N.
Published: April 2022

Chapter 11 analyzes Washington’s most important opinion—Corfield v. Coryell. Corfield was an early case on the Commerce Clause of the Constitution but is famed for its description of the fundamental rights that belonged to all American citizens. The chapter closely reads the justice’s notes on the case, his opinion, and how Corfield was received during Reconstruction when members of Congress and women’s suffrage activists turned to the decision as support for voting rights. There is also a companion discussion of the Supreme Court’s landmark Commerce Clause decision in Gibbons v. Ogden, which came while Corfield was pending and contains interesting parallels to the justice’s notes on that case.
Elizabethan First Editions
Authors: Shuger Debora
Published: April 2022

Chapter 3 treats the first editions of the major Elizabethan bibles. These are “official” bibles, their translation and paratexts, but also their printing, curated by the period’s competing magisteria: Archbishop Parker, the Marian exiles at Geneva, the leadership of the English College at Rheims and Douai; Theodore Beza, Calvin’s successor at Geneva; Pierre L’Oiseleur de Villiers, minister to London’s Huguenot congregation. As their provenance implies, these bibles were intended to set forth the distinctive theological visions of their respective faith communities; indeed the early Elizabethan ones—the Geneva and Bishops’ in particular—provide the earliest articulation of what in retrospect one instantly recognizes as hardline Calvinism and Hooker-style Anglicanism. The Rheims preface opens with an equally recognizable defense of Catholic traditionalism against the bible-spouting impudence of English heretics, but what follows is a quite sophisticated discussion, one without Protestant counterpart, of manuscript transmission, textual variants, and scribal corruption. The first half of the chapter focuses on the opening paratexts laying out these competing visions. The second turns to the myriad internal ones: to the psalm prologues, for example, where the same patristic homily, in the Bishops’ version, bears witness to the religious value of aesthetic pleasure, in the Douai’s, to the apotropaic power of sacramentalia; and to the Geneva’s prologue to Romans, whose account of predestination differs from that laid out in the Romans glosses that immediately follow.
Wanderings and Homelessness
Authors: von Winning Alexa
Published: April 2022

The chapter traces the post-revolutionary fate of the Mansurov family, a noble clan of former imperial agents and supporters of Orthodoxy. As former nobles, believers, and monarchists, they faced stigmatization in Soviet Russia. Impoverishment and arrests became part of their daily lives. The chapter shows how these prominent religious activists had to retreat from Bolshevik attacks to a quiet Orthodox spirituality and contrasts their experiences with the family’s pre-revolutionary activities. It reflects on the meanings of mobility and networks for the family before and after 1917, arguing for the enormous importance of state support and social stability for a family to flourish. Without stability, the family’s previous mobility turned into wanderings and homelessness.
Conclusion
Authors: von Winning Alexa
Published: April 2022

The chapter summarizes the scholarly contribution of the monograph Leaving Home and provides an outlook on the evolution of some of the key concepts until today, in particular Russia’s religious links to the Levante and church-state collaboration in foreign policy. The monograph shows how a single noble family, the Mansurovs, connected religious and political landmarks and sought to advance Russian standing in areas of international and regional competition. It demonstrates the extent to which the building of the Russian Empire rested on the employment of private resources and included the role of women as imperial agents. The family’s travels to the ‘Orthodox East’ underlines the need to understand Russian Orthodoxy as a religious tradition that—like other world religions—has strong transnational affiliations across the globe. The chapter reflects on the ‘representativeness’ of the monograph’s protagonists and relates the family to recent research on the Russian nobility. Finally, it sketches the efforts of the Russian Federation to use the Russian Orthodox Church and its transnational ties as political assets in reasserting its status as a world power since 2000, including the idea of a ‘Russian World’ and testimonies to the Byzantine tradition.
Two Lives Converge, 1936–1939
Authors: Fiddes Paul S.
Published: April 2022

This chapter traces Lewis’ and Williams’ first period of friendship, beginning with an exchange of letters in March 1936 about each other’s books. These letters also reveal a crucial difference on the relation between human, especially erotic, love and the religious experience of divine love; Lewis stresses analogy, while Williams discerns a participation of one area in the other. In the next three years, there is partial convergence as Williams admits an element of parody in the ‘love-religion’ of medieval poetry, while Lewis testifies to being somewhat drawn into Williams’ own region of romantic love within their common general territory of romanticism. Lewis shows growing interest in Williams’ ideas of exchange and substitution, but continues to reinterpret Williams’ thought about romantic theology to accommodate it to his own kind of romanticism. The period ends with Williams’ first extensive expression of co-inherence in his book The Descent of the Dove.
Life After Death
Authors: Stump Eleonore
Published: April 2022

An exposition of the concept of the true self is needed for an examination and evaluation of the felix culpa view of human suffering. This chapter discusses the notion of life after death and disability in heaven to elucidate the concept of the true self. It argues that neither Harry Frankfurt’s concept of a person nor the notion of the narrative self can serve as the notion of the true self. Instead, the chapter uses an explication of the nature of suffering to generate a more workable concept of the true self. It is the emergent condition of a human being who is thriving and has his heart’s desires when those desires converge with his thriving.
An Excursus
Authors: Stump Eleonore
Published: April 2022

The evaluation of the felix culpa view requires detail about the nature of God in order to consider what fulfills the image of God in a human being. On Christian doctrine, God is love; and the love of God is most manifest in Christ’s passion. The story of the passion of Christ thus needs to be examined next. But it is presented in a biblical story, and there are serious methodological questions about the way in which a biblical story can be used as evidence in philosophical theology. How is the text of the story of Christ’s passion to be determined? How does any narrative transmit knowledge? And what counts as veridicality in a narrative?
The Love of God
Authors: Stump Eleonore
Published: April 2022

Since on Christian doctrine human perfection is a fulfillment of the image of God in human beings and God is love, it is necessary to have a story about the love of God. The most significant such story is the story of Christ’s passion. The most promising candidates for such stories are composite meta-narratives constructed from the multiple Gospel accounts describing Christ’s crucifixion, death, resurrection, and ascension. This chapter presents and comments on a composite meta-narrative of Christ’s passion to unearth a story of the love of God. The story serves to delineate what it is for a human being to perfect the image of God in human nature.
The Defense of the Felix Culpa View
Authors: Stump Eleonore
Published: April 2022

This chapter evaluates the felix culpa view and provides a defense with regard to the problem of mourning. The heart of the defense is the exposition and interpretation of a narrative, in the manner of a defense that is based on a story. The narrative is the biblical story of Christ’s passion. If it is true of the protagonists in the story of Christ’s passion that they can be their true selves more in a post-Fall world than in a world without suffering, then their story is the heart of a defense of the felix culpa view. For all we know, the test cases of these protagonists in this story can generalize; the possible world of the defense could be the actual world.
The Value and Future of Work in the Digital Economy
Authors: Busemeyer Marius R. , Glassmann Ulrich
Published: April 2022

This chapter reflects on the value of work in the digital economy. It starts with the observation that “valuable work” in modern welfare states is increasingly associated with formal employment. However, digitalization will result in more informal and self-determined forms of work. Unlike studies which mainly focus on the number of jobs created or eliminated by technological change, this chapter examines how digitalization might alter the nature and range of tasks in growing labor market sectors. Current debates focus on the growth of the digital infrastructure economy, while the perspective taken here also highlights the relevance of social services and the digital creative economy, arguing that social and creative skills are at least as important as technological skills. Furthermore, the welfare state remains critical when it comes to providing support for those failing to acquire the high-level abstract skills needed for work in the digital infrastructure economy.
Digitalization and Automation
Authors: Natali David , Raitano Michele
Published: April 2022

This chapter summarizes the potential impact of technological innovations on pension systems, their financial sustainability, and social adequacy. The nature of the challenges depends on the different scenarios regarding the effect of technology on the labor market and type of pension scheme. In the event of massive job loss, we could see a decline in revenues and membership of statutory contributory pension schemes in social insurance systems, and the same might apply to coverage of supplementary pension funds. In the event of job transformation—with increased inequalities among workers—benefit computation formulas could present a challenge. An analysis of different scenarios sheds light on the risks for future pensions and emphasizes the need to rethink reform priorities. Policy risks may then lead to political consequences, especially for the stakeholders involved in the administration of the systems. Social partners need to refine their agenda to address future inequalities and risks to old-age security.
Infectious Disease Control
Authors: Smallman-Raynor Matthew , Cliff Andrew , Ord Keith , Haggett Peter
Published: April 2022

‘Infectious Disease Control’ examines the historical development of approaches to the geographical control, elimination, and eradication of infectious diseases. It begins at a local spatial scale, seven centuries ago, among the plague-ridden lazarettos of Venice. It ends at the global scale with twenty-first-century developments in the Internet-based monitoring and surveillance of infectious diseases. Basic spatial strategies for the control of infectious diseases (defensive isolation and offensive containment) are outlined, their historical development and application in the form of such measures as cordons sanitaires, isolation, and quarantine are reviewed, and their present-day forms highlighted. Vaccines and vaccination are reviewed as a second approach to disease control, alongside initiatives for the global eradication of infectious diseases such as smallpox and poliomyelitis. Disease surveillance continues to form a cornerstone of spatially focused control activities and, so, the chapter ends with a review of the evolution of disease intelligence systems down the centuries.
Dog-Father and Father-Dog
Authors: Grewal Gwenda-lin
Published: April 2022

Euthydemus claims that if one knows anything one must know everything, lest one be a knower and a non-knower at the same time. Speech itself makes this unavoidable, since it cannot help but utter generics (nouns) in its attempt to grasp particulars. To know a particular can only mean to know it in light of a class; the result is that one always knows more than one, if one knows one. One object of knowledge thus certifies a knowing subject’s omniscience. Nouns are simply the atheist’s gods. But predication, in attempting to beat its offspring into submission, provokes retaliation. The issue of justice and regime change playfully underlies classification, and this comes out in Ctesippus’ exchange with Dionysodorus about the identity of his dog and his father. The slide from genetic to eidetic is seamless by way of a slide from the dative of possession to the possessive adjective. In the process, the existence of Dionysodorus as a brother of Euthydemus, and Socrates’ own claim to have a half-brother, get called into question as phantom heads of a single hydra-like parent.
Stripping the Veil
Authors: Plummer Marjorie Elizabeth
Published: April 2022

Protestant nuns and mixed-confessional convents are an unexpected anomaly in early modern Germany. According to sixteenth-century evangelical reformers’ theological positions outlined in their publications and reform-minded rulers’ institutional efforts, monastic life in Protestant regions should have ended by the mid-sixteenth century. Instead, many convent congregations exhibiting elements of traditional and evangelical practices in Protestant regions survived into the seventeenth century and beyond. How did these convents survive? What is a Protestant nun? How many convent congregations came to house nuns with diverse belief systems and devotional practices, and how did they live and worship together? These questions lead to surprising answers. Stripping the Veil explores the daily existence, ritual practices, and individual actions of nuns in surviving convents over time against the backdrop of changing political and confessional circumstances in Protestant regions. It also demonstrates how incremental shifts in practice and belief led to the emergence of a complex, often locally constructed, devotional life. This continued presence of nuns and the survival of convents in Protestant cities and territories of the German-speaking parts of the Holy Roman Empire is evidence of a more complex lived experience of religious reform, devotional practice, and confessional accommodation than traditional histories of early modern Christianity would indicate. The internal differences and the emerging confessional hybridity, blending, and fluidity also serve as a caution about designating a nun or groups of nuns as Lutheran, Catholic, or Reformed or even more broadly as Protestant or Catholic during the sixteenth century.
“Old, Stubborn Nuns”Secular Convent Reform Between Imperial Politics and Freedom of Conscience after the Schmalkaldic War
Authors: Plummer Marjorie Elizabeth
Published: April 2022

Chapter 5 presents an overview of the impact on devotional lives of nuns that the alternately shifting and hardening confessional boundaries and local and imperial convent policies after the Interim had. These fluctuations in religious policies and interconfessional conflicts increased the possible options available to nuns and promoted the spread of fluid, blended, and pluriconfessional convent congregations. Authorities did not anticipate this shift and sought to fight against it in various ways, demanding confessional statements and mandating specific devotional practices. Some women found that temporarily conforming to authority or demurring in answering questions proved an effective strategy to retain freedom of religious practice and belief. Both rulers and abbesses proved more liable to resort to aggressive actions to assert their jurisdiction over convents. Abbesses unwilling to act against their conscience resorted to imperial court cases to contest religious freedom violations while some rulers resorted to new forms of violence.
Singing Hymns, Removing Madonnas
Authors: Plummer Marjorie Elizabeth
Published: April 2022

Chapter 7 shows how the complex, individual experiences of nuns and convent congregations during the later Reformation led to the creation of temporary religious hybridity and blended traditions within many convents. As a result, most nuns worshipped in ways that did not follow the orthopraxy expected by their regional ruler, even supposedly evangelical convents. Some congregations of pluriconfessional nuns adapted their devotional lives to accommodate the religious diversity in their community. Exploring the various disagreements over space, time, language usage, and material culture that continually shaped and disrupted devotional practices, this chapter examines how religiously diverse convent congregations continued to worship together in shared convents. Shared devotional interactions in the resulting pluriconfessional convent congregations challenged the nuns’ understanding of their community and necessitated continual reconsiderations of convent sacred space and material culture. Even so, these communities experienced a very precarious balance between communal harmony and external expectations.
A Literate Life
Authors: Dudney Arthur
Published: April 2022

This chapter situates Ārzū among his patrons, friends, and rivals. It is primarily based upon tażkirahs (compendia of poets’ biographies), particularly Ārzū’s own tażkirah Majmaʿ al-Nafāʾis. Ārzū followed the typical career path for a Mughal man of letters, from early education in a familial and small-town environment to urban network building and education to a career in full flower in the capital. Soon after settling in Delhi he met Ānand Rām Muḳhliṣ, who introduced him to his future patron and facilitated his arrival into literary high society. He also came to know Mīrzā ʿAbd al-Qādir Bedil, the most important poet in Delhi, shortly before Bedil’s death in 1720. Ārzū tied himself into prestigious literary networks, including Bedil’s former circle, and battled with various literary rivals, particularly the Iranian émigré Muḥammad ʿAlī Ḥazīn. The chapter closes with a summary of Ārzū’s critical works, which include commentaries, dictionaries, and treatises.
Innovation and Poetic Authority in Eighteenth-Century Persian
Authors: Dudney Arthur
Published: April 2022

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Persian literary culture was experiencing a transformation: A poetics that explicitly valued newness, the “tāzah-goʾī” or “Fresh Speech,” threatened the traditional system of literary authority (sanad). To address this disconnect, Ārzū reiterated the importance of tradition as a unifying factor across the Persian world of letters while also systematizing the expertise of living poets. This chapter argues against the common but anachronistic interpretation of the tāzah-goʾī debate as a contest between Iranian and Indian aesthetics. It analyzes Ārzū’s influential disagreements with the long-dead Abū al-Barakāt Munīr Lahorī (1610–44) and with his contemporary Shaiḳh Muḥammad ʿAlī Ḥazīn Lāhījī (1692–1766). In Ārzū’s framing, Munīr and Ḥazīn both stood for a literary purism that valorized the works of the pre-tāzah-goʾī poets, but their claims to be the present-day guardians of this earlier poetic style were undercut by their inconsistency.
Represent and serve
Authors: Egreteau Renaud
Published: April 2022

This chapter examines the core function of representation as performed by the successive cohorts of Myanmar MPs in the 2010s. It focuses on the three main representational activities that legislators are supposed to perform with regard to their constituents: link with, speak for, and serve. Building upon semi-structured interviews, focus groups and ethnographic observations of MPs at work in parliament, it explains how elected lawmakers have viewed themselves, considered their own representational roles, and developed particular strategies for representation, constituency services, and (re)distribution in Myanmar’s post-junta context. Popular representation is considered a core principle of democratic legitimacy. Yet, the findings show that elected legislators in post-authoritarian, majoritarian Myanmar have obviously struggled to integrate the complex realities of what it is to be a committed, accountable, and effective parliamentary representative.
The Nature of Inquiry
Authors: Bengson John , Cuneo Terence , Shafer-Landau Russ
Published: April 2022

This chapter proposes a two-stage model of theoretical inquiry—inquiry that, when successfully undertaken for its own sake, results in some epistemic or alethic achievement. At the first stage, inquirers use various procedures to collect data that are relevant to answering the questions that open inquiry. At the second stage, inquirers apply a method to these data in an effort to construct a theory poised to facilitate some positive epistemic or alethic state. This two-stage model is distinguished from rival accounts of inquiry, such as those proposed by Descartes, Dewey, and Stalnaker. The chapter includes a discussion of the proper goals of theoretical inquiry, distinguishing merely proper goals (those whose realization implies an inquiry’s success or excellence) from ultimate proper goals (those whose realization suffices to fully resolve the inquiry at hand). The chapter concludes with a defense of the claim that inquiry’s ultimate proper goal is neither truth nor knowledge but rather theoretical understanding.
The Tri-Level Method
Authors: Bengson John , Cuneo Terence , Shafer-Landau Russ
Published: April 2022

This chapter introduces a novel method for philosophical theorizing that builds upon familiar elements of philosophical practice while combining, integrating, and clarifying them in new ways. This ‘Tri-Level Method’ calls on theorists to articulate a set of theses about the domain that (i) accommodate and explain all relevant data, (ii) are themselves substantiated and integrated, and, as needed, (iii) possess specific theoretical virtues. Each level takes priority over its successors. The best theory is the one that satisfies the criteria at these levels (so ordered) to the highest degree relative to its rivals. After explicating the relevant notions embedded in the Tri-Level Method’s constituent criteria, and justifying the ordering of its three levels, the chapter proceeds by showing how the method readily handles the three data about method canvassed in Chapter 4. It then argues that the method is sound, capable of positioning inquirers to achieve understanding of the domain they are investigating.
Rhetoric and Leadership
Authors: Müller Henriette , Pansardi Pamela
Published: April 2022

The acute lack of women’s leadership throughout the history of the European Commission is best illustrated by contrasting the list of female vice-presidents with the overall number of presidents and vice-presidents that have run the institution to date: of 89 presidents and vice-presidents between 1958 and 2019, only seven have been women, including the two female High Representatives who served ex officio also as vice-presidents. Analyzing women’s and men’s rhetoric, this chapter focuses on the five female politicians who have served as vice-presidents of the European Commission as of 2019—Loyola de Palacio (1999–2004), Margot Wallström (2004–2009), Viviane Reding (2009–2014), Neelie Kroes (2009–2014), and Kristalina Georgieva (2014–2016)—and one High Representative, Catherine Ashton (2004–2009). It examines the characteristics of EU women leaders’ rhetoric and evaluates to what extent EU women leaders make use of charismatic rhetoric in their speeches. In addition, it investigates what trends may be identified over time as well as how and in what ways women leaders’ rhetoric differs from that of their male counterparts. Empirically, the analysis is based on software-assisted content analysis (Diction 7) of the entire corpus of speeches of the members of the European Commission between 1999 and 2019.
Theresa May’s Leadership in Brexit Negotiations
Authors: Eckert Sandra , Galpin Charlotte
Published: April 2022

Theresa May entered the scene as prime minister at a moment of multiple crises. Her task was to implement the Brexit agenda after the outcome of the Brexit referendum, while at the same time facing deep divisions in her party and a political crisis in her country. While one could easily jump to the conclusion that Theresa May’s leadership in the Brexit process is a story of outright failure, this contribution combines insights from gender and leadership studies to offer a more nuanced view. It seeks to shed light on the type of leadership that can be attributed to Theresa May in the Brexit negotiations with regard both to how she positioned herself as a leader and how she was perceived. In order to address these two dimensions, we conduct computer-assisted analysis of a corpus composed of May’s speeches on Brexit and media coverage in the UK and Germany. We find that the glass cliff metaphor is helpful to understand the type of leadership scenario May had to cope with. We argue that gender provides a crucial lens for understanding the ways in which Theresa May constructed her leadership and how her leadership performance was evaluated in the media.
Women’s Leadership in the European Central Bank
Authors: Verdun Amy
Published: April 2022

What has been the leadership exercised by women in the European Central Bank (ECB)? This chapter examines women’s leadership at three levels of ECB administration: the advancement of women versus men through the bureaucratic ranks into leadership positions, their roles in senior management, and their presence in the very top positions. Based on a review of the literature and aided by an analysis of interviews with six people working in the ECB (conducted in November and December 2019 for this study), this chapter investigates women’s opportunities and challenges to access and perform in the upper echelons of the ECB. It provides a case study of the first female president of the ECB, Christine Lagarde, examining her behavioral leadership and offering an assessment of her presidency of the ECB to date. The findings focus on Lagarde’s policies and leadership choices. Her monetary policy is not dissimilar to that of her predecessor, but she has actively presented herself as reinforcing changes on gender issues and been outspoken on women’s leadership in the COVID-19 crisis.
The Applications
Authors: Leftow Brian
Published: April 2022

Chapter 2 discusses three areas where Anselm applies his power-and-prevention modal metaphysics. Two are facets of God’s nature. One is the necessity that what is wholly past be “fixed” or unalterable. The chapter thus shows that Anselm uses the metaphysics as his account of necessities we would call absolute. Anselm explicitly commits himself to the claim that God’s will is the source of all necessity. The chapter suggests how this can be so even for the necessity that the past be fixed. God’s atemporality turns out to help explain the fixity of the past, on Anselm’s account.
The Argument
Authors: Leftow Brian
Published: April 2022

This chapter presents Anselm’s modal argument for God’s existence. It shows that the argument is valid. It also evaluates some of its premises for truth. One premise asserts that a perfect being would exist necessarily. The rest of the book examines this. Another denies that a possible being has contradictory properties. Another turns out to be true given the Brouwer system of modal logic. One premise commits Anselm to a controversial thesis that is at the core of Meinong’s views, that an item can have attributes whether or not it exists. The chapter suggests that Anselm would do well to drop this premise, and suggests a substitute.