bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Taxing Pollution Instead of Employment: Greenhouse Gas Abatement through Fiscal Policy in the UK
Authors: Barker Terry
Published: January 2017

Fiscal changes designed to achieve the two objectives of reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and increases in employment are explored using a large-scale energy-environment-economy model of the UK, the Cambridge Multisectoral Dynamic Model (MDM). Two options are considered in detail: the road fuel duty escalator, introduced in the March 1993 Budget, and the CEC's proposed carbon/energy tax; revenues for each tax are recycled via reductions in employers' NIC calculated to keep the ratio of the PSBR to GDP at base scenario rates. The changes are introduced in 1996 and standardised so that each reduces CO2 emissions by some 21 mtC by 2005. The escalator is shown to raise far more revenue per mtC reduced and so NIC charges can be reduced much more than under the carbon/energy tax option. A detailed analysis is made of the effects on industrial costs of the carbon/energy tax option; the effects on competitiveness, measured as the effects on the balance of payments under a fixed exchange rate regime, are found to be negligible, even with a unilateral tax. Both options appear to provide substantial environmental net benefits as well as economic gains. However, each option has its strengths and weaknesses and a combination may allow the UK to reach the Toronto target of a 20% cut in CO2 emissions below 1988 levels by 2005.
The Great Greenhouse Controversy
Authors: Hoyle Fred
Published: January 2017

Understanding the Earth's greenhouse effect does not require complicated computer models in order to calculate useful numbers for debating the issue. A solution of the greenhouse problem - if it is a problem - is suggested which does not require industry to reduce its carbon dioxide emission, so avoiding the economic strain this would have, and the socially unwelcome consequences that would follow from it.
Political Pressure in the Formation of Scientific Consensus
Authors: Boehmer-Christiansen Sonja
Published: January 2017

Neither scientists nor the green lobby alone have driven the climate change story. A whole range of 'political actors', ranging from energy interests to international bureaucracies, has been involved. All found appeals to 'science' useful. This has created serious difficulties for scientific research where the pressure to create consensus must be replaced by the freedom to argue and debate, to test different theories and empirical sources. For the sake of both science and policy, therefore, the greenhouse debate 'must stay on the boil' a bit longer, with scientists and their environmental camp followers treating the rest of us as grown-ups. They need to air their arguments, not just hand our conclusions and prescriptions. It is most unlikely that the debate will be resolved in the short run by science. Science will remain a servant of politics, and should therefore take great care in what it offers and how it responds to opportunities. Short-termism may not only be the fate of politicians.
Climate Change: Forcing a Treaty
Authors: Bottcher Frits
Published: January 2017

The theory of global warming, for which there is little evidence, has come to dominate the world's environmental agenda to such an extent that an international treaty is based on it. This remarkable feat came about through the well-orchestrated efforts of an inner circle of science-policy makers within the IPCC, who dominated discussion in order to achieve the necessary 'scientific consensus' for politicians to take action. This paper explains how all this was achieved, and traces the global warming campaign from its inception in the 1980s to the Berlin conference of 1995.
Extension of the protocol of OECD guideline 407 (28-day repeated dose oral toxicity test in the rat) to detect potential immunotoxicity of chemicals
Authors: Institóris L , Siroki Olga , Dési I , Lesznyák J , Serényi P , Szekeres Éva , Petri Ildikó
Published: January 2017

To indicate the immunotoxic potential of chemicals the examinations prescribed by OECD Guideline 407 were extended by the following additional toxicological, haematological, histopathological, and immune function examinations: absolute and relative organ weight of spleen, thymus, popliteal lymph nodes, lung and brain; histopathology of thymus, mesenteric lymph nodes, popliteal lymph nodes, bone marrow (femur), Peyer's patches (ileum), lungs and colon; PFC assay (spleen), T cell proliferation and NK cell assay. Two well known immunosuppressants Azathioprine (AZA) and Cyclosporine A (CysA) were chosen as model compounds at a dose range which do not cause visible toxic signs on the animals during a 28 days treatment period. The results show that the applied experimental system is much more sensitive in detection of the immunotoxic potential of these two compounds in a low dose range than the examination required by OECD Guideline 407 are.
Peroxyacetyl nitrate: review of toxicity
Authors: Vyskocil Adolf , Viau Claude , Lamy Serge
Published: January 2017

PAN is one of a class of common air pollutants formed by the action of sunlight on volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides. No toxicokinetic studies have been found in the available literature. The acute toxicity of PAN is less than that of ozone, similar to NO2 and higher than SO2. The LC50 in mice and rats were 718-743 mg/m3 (for 2 h) and 470 mg/m3 (for 4 h), respectively. Following acute exposure, severe lung lesions and, at the higher levels, damage to the epithelium of upper parts of the respiratory tract were found in animals. It seems that concentrations of 1.19-1.49 mg/m3 lie not far from the threshold required for pulmonary function effects in sensitive individuals. However, these PAN concentrations are well above the maximum ambient concentrations usually experienced within the USA and Canada (0.003-0.078 mg/m3). It appears unlikely that present ambient PAN concentrations would affect pulmonary functions responses to ambient ozone. In human, the lowest level causing eye irritations was 0.64 mg/m3 for 2 h. Concentrations of 0.99 and 4.95 mg/m3 were identi-fied as no-observed-effect level (NOEL) and no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) for pathological and histo-logical changes in the respiratory system (nasal passages) of rats during subchronic exposures to PAN, but were not considered to be relevant to derivation of a RfC for chronic inhalation exposure. PAN is a weak point mutagen or clastogen. The data are not sufficient to evaluate its carcinogenicity. No study was found which could be used for the derivation of a RfC for acute or chronic inhalation exposure to PAN.
Metabolic capacities in cultured human hepatocytes obtained by a new isolating procedure from non-wedge small liver biopsies
Authors: David Pascale , Viollon Catherine , Alexandre Eliane , Azimzadeh Agnés , Nicod Laurence , Wolf Philippe , Jaeck Daniel , Boudjema Karim , Richert Lysiane
Published: January 2017

A new isolating procedure of human hepatocytes has been developed using two-step collagenase digestion by a nonperfusion procedure (NP) of non-wedge liver biopsies.

1. A yield of 2 - 76106 hepatocytes/g liver, 52 - 95% viability and 13 - 75% attachment were obtained from liver biopsies weighing 6 - 60 g, comparable to that obtained when using the classical perfusion procedure (P) to isolate human hepatocytes from wedge liver samples of 50 - 150 g.

2. In culture, human hepatocytes obtained by NP remained attached to plastic for up to 5 days and displayed the usual morphological characteristics.

Their metabolic capacities, assessed by liver-specific albumin and urea synthesis and by CYP-dependent and conjugation pathways, were equivalent to those of human hepatocytes obtained by P. In addition, they responded adequately to specific CYP inducers, demonstrating that they constitute a model in which human drug metabolism and toxicity studies can be performed.
A combined COMPACT and HazardExpert study of 40 chemicals for which information on mutagenicity and carcinogenicity is known, including the results of human epidemiological studies
Authors: Lewis David FV , Ioannides Costas , Parke Dennis V
Published: January 2017

The COMPACT approach for defining structural criteria for substrates and inducers of cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes which mediate the formation of reactive intermediates is discussed in the context of prediction of potential carcinogenicity. This is broadened to encompass structural studies on mammalian P450s, including those relevant to genetic polymorphism in man. The use of the COMPACT system, in parallel with the structure alert program HazardExpert (now incorporated into the Pallas system), for evaluating human carcinogenicity data is reported, as an example of the possible employment of a battery of short-term test procedures for safety evaluation. In particular, the importance of using the log P value (as a measure of compound lipophilicity) to assess the likelihood of a potentially toxic compound reaching the site of activation, is emphasized by the finding that most procarcinogens requiring metabolic activation by P450s are lipophilic in nature.
Diisopropylglutathione ester protects A549 cells from the cytotoxic effects of sulphur mustard
Authors: Lindsay Christopher D , Hambrook Joy L
Published: January 2017

The A549 cell line was used to assess the ability of diisopropylglutathione (DIPE) to protect against a 100 mM challenge dose of sulphur mustard (HD) using gentian violet (GV), thiazolyl blue (MTT) and neutral red (NR) assays as indicators of cell culture viability.

As part of a continuing study of the efficacy of protective nucleophiles as candidate treatments for HD poisoning, several different combinations of protectant and HD were used to determine the optimal means of protecting A549 cells from the effects of HD. It was found that DIPE (4 mM) could protect cells against the effects of HD though for optimal effect, DIPE had to be present at the time of HD challenge. Cultures protected with DIPE were up to 2.9- fold more viable than HD exposed cells 48 h after HD challenge when using the GV, MTT and NR assays to assess viability. Observations by phase contrast microscopy of GV stained cultures confirmed these findings.

Pretreating A549 cultures with DIPE for 1 h followed by its removal prior to HD challenge did maintain cell viability, though at a relatively low level (only up to 1.4- fold more viable than HD only exposed cells). DIPE was also able to protect HD exposed A549 cultures when added to cell cultures at intervals of up to 12 to 15 min after the initial HD exposure, though viability tended to decrease over this period, so that at 1 h, addition of DIPE did not maintain the viability of the cultures.

This is the first such report of the anti-HD protectant properties of DIPE in A549 cells. It is concluded that the protection observed against HD is probably largely due to extracellular inactivation of HD by DIPE.
Alterations in rat erythrocyte membrane due to hexachlorocyclohexane (technical) exposure
Authors: Bhalla Pankaj , Agrawal Deepa
Published: January 2017

1 Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), an organochlorine pesticide having hydrophobic molecule is known to act on membranes. HCH mediated alterations in erythrocyte membrane occur through disorganization of the lipid bilayer. Therefore the changes in erythrocyte membrane fluidity, osmotic fragility and certain membrane bound enzymes were studied. Administration of HCH (technical) to rats at 5 mg/kg, orally, 5 days a week for 1, 2 and 3 months caused marked increase in erythrocyte membrane fluidity, osmotic fragility anddecreaseinlevelsofNa+, K+-ATPase, acetylcholinesterase in erythrocytes and glutathione in blood.

2 These changes indicate that HCH adversely affects membrane structure and function.
Advances in medical statistics arising from the AIDS epidemic
Authors: Becker Niels G , Marschner Ian C
Published: January 2017

Many statisticians have contributed to studies of the HIV epidemic and progression to AIDS. They have developed new statistical methodology, where needed, to address HIV-related issues. The transfer of methods from one area to another often involves a substantial delay. This paper points to methods that were developed in the HIV context and have either already found applications in other areas of medical research or have the potential for such applications, with the hope that this will promote a speedier transfer of the research methods. Among the new tools that HIV studies have placed firmly into the pool of statistical methods for medical research are the methods of back-calculation, methods for the analysis of retrospective ascertainment data and methods of analysis for the combined data from clinical trials and associated longitudinal studies. Notions that have been stimulated substantially are use of surrogate endpoints in clinical trials and screening blood products by the use of pooled serum samples. Research activity in many other areas has been boosted substantially through contributions motivated by HIV/AIDS studies. Noteworthy examples are analyses for doubly-censored lifetime data and methods for assessing vaccines for transmissible diseases.
Carcinogenesis models for risk assessment
Authors: Kopp-Schneider Annette
Published: January 2017

This article provides an overview of different types of carcinogenesis models and discusses their use for risk assessment. One class of model, the multistage model, is especially suited for risk assessment purposes because it uses biological information about the process of carcinogenesis and the quantities of interest, such as time to tumour and number and size distribution of premalignant tumours, can be derived explicitly, allowing for standard statistical techniques to be used. The mathematical methods necessary for the treatment of multistage models are developed and the application of multistage models in risk assessment is discussed.
Correcting for verification bias in studies of a diagnostic test's accuracy
Authors: Zhou Xiao-Hua
Published: January 2017

Standard methods for assessing the accuracy of diagnostic tests require determination of true disease status for each study patient. In practice, some study patients might not have verified disease status. If the decision to verify a patient is influenced by the test result, analysis using only verified cases might lead to biased results, commonly known as verification bias. This paper reviews recent developments in bias-correction methods for studies on the accuracy of diagnostic tests.
Sample size calculations in studies of test accuracy
Authors: Obuchowski Nancy A
Published: January 2017

Methods for determining sample size for studies of the accuracy of diagnostic tests are reviewed. Several accuracy indices are considered, including sensitivity and specificity, the full and partial area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, the sensitivity at a fixed false positive rate, and the likelihood ratio. Sample size formulae are presented for studies evaluating a single test and studies comparing the accuracy of tests. Four real examples illustrate the concepts involved in sample size determination. Lastly, various study design issues are discussed, such as sampling methods, choices in format for the test results, and the issue of replicated readings.
Developments in the Acoustic Design of Concert Halls from the Royal Festival Hall, London, to the Segerstrom Hall, California
Authors: Orlowski R.J.
Published: January 2017

Research over the last forty years has resulted in many new factors being considered in the acoustical design of concert halls. In this paper a brief account is given of this research and how halls designed since the nineteen fifties have been progressively influenced by this work. The Segerstrom Hall in California is an example of a hall where acoustical considerations have been given great importance at all stages of the design process and a team of consultants has ensured that recent research findings have been applied to good effect. The design approach is discussed and model experiments performed in the course of the design process are described. Finally the results of objective and subjective measurements carried out in the completed hall are described.
Comparison of Road Traffic Noise Calculation Models
Authors: van den Berg Martin , Gerretsen Eddy
Published: January 2017

The results of a round robin test on road-traffic noise calculation schemes are presented and analyzed for differences. On the basis of the information supplied, corrections were applied to make results more comparable.

Every day situations, as simple as possible were presented, such as straight, asphalted roads with no reflections, ramps, curves or blocks.

The spread in results is large, from 6 to 10 dB, with larger differences for the motorways and for the night situation.

On closer examination of the calculation models the source models were seen to cause the largest differences.

The conclusion is therefore that before comparing noise levels and standards between countries, one should be aware that large unexplainable differences result when the same situations are calculated with different methods. The differences vary between 6 and 10 dB(A), even after correction. This means that the differences when comparing official outcomes (according to the national standards) may be even larger.

The need for combined effort to establish a common calculation method is obvious. From the data it seems impossible to prepare a translation between methods since the differences lack any trend.
Estimation of the Reduction in Impact Sound Pressure Level of Floating Floors from the Dynamic Stiffness of Insulation Layers
Authors: Metzen H.A.
Published: January 2017

The most relevant parameter for assessing the acoustical properties of insulation layers for floating floor applications is the dynamic stiffness. Besides the surface mass of the floor plate the dynamic stiffness influences the reduction in impact sound pressure level of a floating floor. According to the formerly German measurement standard DIN 52214 the dynamic stiffness of impact sound insulation materials had to be measured after applying a short-term pre-load of 50 kNm−2. This pre-load does not reflect the conditions in the field and has been withdrawn in EN 29052-I. By comparison of measured field data for floor constructions with estimated data based on measurements with and without pre-load it is shown, that the new measurement procedure in connection with a more detailed estimation of the building element properties leads to a more accurate prediction of impact sound insulation in dwellings.
A Preliminary Investigation of the Perceived Smallest Sound Duration Change in a Room
Authors: Jeong D.-U. , Fricke F.R.
Published: January 2017

The present work aims at producing a test, similar to a speech intelligibility test, which can be used to rate the acoustic quality of rooms for music. Listeners' perceptions of the duration of sounds were investigated in an attempt to find a useful indicator of the acoustics of a room for music and speech. The research design was based on a discrimination task and a 2AFC experimental procedure. Two experiments were carried out in which two acoustic variables, reverberation time and background noise level, were varied and listeners' smallest perceivable sound duration changes were measured. It was found that the listeners' duration perceptions were significantly influenced by the reverberation time and background noise level of the listening environment, and that these discrimination procedures may form the basis for room acoustics assessments.
Artificial Neural Networks for Predicting Noise from Construction Sites
Authors: Boussabaine A.H.
Published: January 2017

Exposure of populations to noise at their workplace and at home is a major concern for academia and industry. This concern has resulted in a number of standards for predicting the level of noise and studying the adverse noise-induced effect on the health of the work force. Among these standards is the assessment of noise for open construction sites. Current British Standard methods for noise assessment are limited in their application. The paper explains the need for noise prediction and demonstrates the limitation of the existing methods. A background introduction to Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) methods with a methodology for developing ANN applications is provided. ANN is proposed as an alternative approach to construction noise prediction methods. A model for construction noise prediction is presented and its structure is described.
Methylprednisolone treatment in multiple sclerosis: effect of treatment, pharmacokinetics, future
Authors: Hommes OR , Barkhof F , Jongen PJH , Frequin STFM
Published: January 2017

High dose intravenous methylprednisolone treatment is effective and safe in the treatment of relapses in multiple sclerosis, but the long term effects are unclear. Pharmacokinetics are almost unknown, but may be very important for the understanding of the clinical and paraclinical effects. In view of what is known now, IVMP should have a prominent place in basic and clinical MS research.
Mitoxantrone immunotherapy in multiple sclerosis
Authors: Gonsette RE
Published: January 2017

Mitoxantrone, a cytotoxic agent recently developed, was subsequently found a very potent immunosuppressor. Experimental data in experimental allergic encephaloymyelitis demonstrated a dramatic suppression of both active and passive forms. Immune effects concern cellular and humoral components and are particularly persistent B cell subset is preferentially deleted. Suppressor cells are relatively spared and suppression becomes dominant In cancer therapy, the main advantages of mitoxantrone are a definitely better immediate tolerance and very low delayed adverse reactions (carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, impact on reproductive organs). Given its major immunosuppressive activity and its better tolerance, mitoxantrone was a potential candidate for multiple sclerosis therapy. Several clinical trials have confirmed the remarkable efficacy of mitoxantrone to reduce both attack and progression rates. Unfortunately the cardiotoxicity was found more frequent than expected and limits the maximum cumulative dose to 120 mg/m2. Mitoxantrone, when employed properly, may be useful in patients with frequent and disabling excerbations and/or rapidly progressing disability. It must be kept in mind mat multiple sclerosis is a chronic disease, and that the benefit is limited to the period of administration of any treatment.
Guidelines for MRI monitoring of the treatment of multiple sclerosis: recommendations of the US Multiple Sclerosis Society's task force
Authors: Miller DH
Published: January 2017

In relapsing-remitting and secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (MS), MRI activity on monthly brain scans is a sensitive primary outcome measure in short term exploratory treatment trials. Because conventional MRI findings have a limited correlation with disability, the primary outcome in definitive trials should be clinical, although MRI is useful in providing an index of pathological progression. In trials aimed at preventing evolution from a clinically isolated syndrome to MS, MRI findings should be used in the entry criteria. The likely pathological substrates of irreversible disability are demyelination and axonal loss. Putative MR markers for these pathologies appear to relate more closely to disability than conventional MRI findings. Further technical developments should lead to improved quantitation, pathological specificity and clinical correlations.
A phase II trial of anti-CD4 antibodies in the treatment of multiple sclerosis
Authors: vanOosten BW , Lai M , Barkhof F , Miller DH , Moseley IF , Thompson AJ , Hodgkinson S , Polman CH
Published: January 2017

In multiple sclerosis (MS) myelin damage is the result of a chronic inflammatory process mediated by CD4 positive T helper/effector cells. In experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE), the animal model of MS, treatment with anti-CD4 antibodies can prevent the onset of disease. Natural history studies have demonstrated that gadolinium enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain is more sensitive and objective in assessing inflammatory disease activity in MS than clinical monitoring, so that less patients and shorter studies suffice to reach the same statistical power as compared to trials using clinical outcome parameters. In this paper we describe the design of an exploratory trial of chimeric monoclonal anti-CD4 antibodies in the treatment of MS. For this study we chose the number of active MS lesions on monthly gadolinium enhanced MRI scans as the primary outcome measure.
Intravenous immunoglobulin G therapy: effects of acute and chronic treatment in multiple sclerosis
Authors: Sørensen Per Soelberg
Published: January 2017

High dose intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) exerts several effects on the immune system that could have a beneficial influence on the disease processes in multiple sclerosis (MS). IVIG may by useful in treatment of acute exacerbations, in prevention of new relapses, and in promotion of remyelination. Presently, the clinical evidence of effect of IVIG in MS is based on the results of small open trials, some of which, however, have been encouraging. Confirmation of a beneficial effect of IVIG must await the results of placebo-controlled, double-blind trials currently ongoing in several centers. If effective, IVIG administration would be a valuable supplement to the existing treatment of MS.
Resolution of CNS lesions following treatment of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in macaques with monoclonal antibody to the CD 18 leukocyte integrin
Authors: Rose L M , Richards T L , Peterson J , Petersen R , Alvord E C
Published: January 2017

Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) in macaques is an acute inflammatory and demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) which has been studied extensively as a model of the human demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis (MS). The in vivo administration of monoclonal antibodies against CD 18, the common β-chain of a leukocyte integrin, at the onset of clinical disease, significantly prolonged the survival of nine of 11 macaques (82%) and in some cases completely reversed the clinical appearance of disease. Treatment with anti-CD18 mAbs dramatically reduced the extent of inflammation in brain lesions as determined by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). These improvements confirm that anti-CD18 mAbs are powerful anti-inflammatory agents in vivo and suggest that such mAbs may provide effective treatment of both demyelinating and inflammatory CNS diseases in man.
Specific power calculations for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in monitoring active relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (MS): implications for phase II therapeutic trials
Authors: Truyen L , Barkhof F , Tas M , Van Walderveen MAA , Frequin STFM , Hommes OR , Nauta JJP , Polman CH , Valk J
Published: January 2017

Inhomogeneous patient samples have been used in previous studies to determine the power of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for trial monitoring in multiple sclerosis (MS). These power-calculations might not be applicable to the active relapsing-remitting patient who is preferably included in trials. In order to reevaluate the power alculations for MRI in the monitoring of treatment in strictly relapsing-remitting MS and to compare the power of different trial designs we studied 12 relapsing-remitting MS patients prospectively for a median period of II months using monthly clinical assessments and gadolinium-enhanced MRI. A median number of two clinical relapses/patient occurred of which a median of one was treated with steroids. A median of 1.59 new lesions/scan/patient was detected (range 0–8). The total number of new active lesions correlated significantly with study period relapses (SRCC=0.72, P=0.023). Computer simulations using the bootstrap technique yielded mostly lower power values for a parallel groups design than in previous studies except for short follow-periods in larger samples. In this sample the open cross-over design was found to be between 20 and 40% more powerful. Results of power-calculations are clearly sample dependent implying that for treatment trial monitoring using MRI in relapsing-remitting MS conservative sample size estimates are to be used. In an active patient group open cross-over trial designs could be a very powerful alternative to parallel groups design.
The Medicolegal Implications of Teleconsulting in the UK
Authors: Brahams Diana
Published: January 2017

Broadly speaking, the medicolegal position of doctors involved in a telemedicine consultation is similar to that when telephone, fax, email or letter is used instead. All amount to the provision of advice from a distance and the normal standards of care and skill will apply. There is therefore a duty to practise to a reasonable level of skill. In a telemedicine consultation between general practitioner and hospital specialist, the referring doctor must give an accurate history (note that a video record would provide retrospective proof). For anything more than treatment purposes, the patient's permission is required before recording. There may be occasions when it is inappropriate not to use telemedicine if that is considered to be best practice in the circumstances. Time will tell whether teleconsulting is a more efficient method of practising medicine, as some people believe already. Ultimately many of the questions raised here about the medicolegal implications of such telemedicine will be determined in the courts.
Remote Interpretation of Microbiology Specimens Based on Transmitted Still Images
Authors: Akselsen S , Hartviksen G , Vorland L
Published: January 2017

A pilot study was carried out to examine the feasibility of the remote interpretation of microbiology specimens, that is, micro-organisms grown on agar in Petri dishes. The objective of our study was to decide whether still images contained enough information for microbiology specialists to identify the microorganisms accurately. A representative sample of microbiology specimens grown on the most commonly used agar media was used. Still images were captured using a video camera and a PC-based system. The results from a pilot study with the first video camera were discouraging, the interpretations differing in five out of 22 specimens; results with a second video camera were also disappointing. Images were then captured on photographic film, at a considerably higher resolution than images captured by the digitizer board in the PC. Again, however, the results were disappointing. We conclude that interpretation of microbiology specimens based exclusively on visual information is problematical. Remote microbiology interpretation in the future will require images of higher information content (e.g., including three-dimensional information), and will probably require additional information as well, from other senses, such as smell.
Environmental Tax Proposals: Analysis and Evaluation
Authors: de Souza Jeremy , Snape John
Published: January 2017

This article analyses and evaluates current government proposals for five new environmental taxes or charges: an aggregates tax, a climate change levy, workplace parking levies, road user charging schemes and a pesticides tax. It defines taxes as unrequited payments to general government, charges being, by contrast, payments which are requited. Environmental taxes or charges are those whose base is a physical unit, or a proxy for a physical unit, of something which has a proven negative impact on the environment when used or released. Both environmental taxes and charges are economic instruments for environmental protection and, as such, must satisfy nine basic criteria before they can be said to operate satisfactorily. An aggregates tax is not a worthwhile environmental tax in the light of these criteria. A climate change levy, although worthy, is misguided in a number of important respects, and is also, on the whole, not a worthwhile environmental tax. It is too early to say whether a pesticides tax is worthwhile in these terms. It is unclear whether workplace parking levies are worthwhile environmental taxes, while road user charging schemes are unlikely to be so. The government's environmental tax programme has been damaged by political, rather than strictly environmental, considerations.
Private Enforcement of Public Values in US Courts: Justiciability Barriers in Environmental Law
Authors: Harbison John S.
Published: January 2017

We have seen in many countries the development of specialised environmental courts designed to deal with the complex scientific and economic issues that environmental cases often raise. In the USA, however, with the exception of adjudicative bodies devoted to planning disputes in a few individual states, the environmental court movement is non-existent. Nevertheless, liberal rules of standing and ripeness have enabled environmental plaintiffs to bring thousands of lawsuits under federal statutes such as the Clean Water Act, the Endangered Species Act and the National Forest Management Act. Indeed, the actions of citizen plaintiffs under these statutes have contributed enormously to the considerable progress made in the past 30 years toward cleaner water, cleaner air and healthier ecosystems. Recently, however, the US Supreme Court has signalled that federal courthouse doors may have been opened too wide. Lower federal courts have picked up these signals, but the distinctions and rationales they have used to harness judicial review in environmental cases are not as sound as they may appear. Standing and ripeness questions are ultimately reducible to an inquiry into the concreteness and immediacy of the plaintiff's injury. This essay explores recent thinking in the federal courts about this inquiry. That has resulted in the retrenchment of liberalised standing and ripeness. I conclude its thinking does not withstand critical scrutiny.
Housing Development on Brownfield Sites
Authors: Bieback Karin
Published: January 2017

Official housing statistics project an increase in households by 3.8 million in England between 1996 and 2021.1 In its Strategy for Sustainable Development in the UK, the Government declared its aim to offer everyone the opportunity of a decent home.2 But where are all these new households to go? Housing accounts for about 70% of the consumption of greenfield land by urban development and while in 1991, 10.6% of England's land area had been built upon, this is likely to rise to 11.9% by 2016, if current trends continue.3 The pace at which land is being consumed by urban development is considered as one of the major threats to the achievement of sustainable development,4 which requires the ‘prudent use of natural resources’, a principle to which the Government has also committed itself.5

Consequently, sustainable development requires using as little previously undeveloped land for new development as possible. One way to reduce the land use of housing is to build as many new dwellings as possible on previously developed land.6 Therefore in 1995 the Government set a target of 50% for the proportion of additional homes in England to be built on previously developed land, or provided through conversions7 of existing buildings.8 In 1998 the target was increased to 60% by 2008.9

However, development on brownfield land will not always be the best solution considering the environmental impacts of the development as a whole. The location of housing, for example, is a crucial aspect in determining the creation of needs for energy (another very important sustainability issue). It can be assumed that housing development within existing urban areas is generally more sustainable in energy terms, as it reduces the need for transportation and higher densities of dwellings require less energy for space heating.10 Therefore, the aim should be to increase the amount of new housing development on brownfield land within urban areas. This article examines which obstacles need to be overcome and which instruments are available to achieve the governmental target.
Ethical Finance in Britain: A Neglected Prerequisite for Sustainability
Authors: Richardson Benjamin J.
Published: January 2017

Financial institutions play a central role in capital and debt markets, providing the finance that shapes development patterns, and thus environmental pressures. Environmental law has traditionally focused on development itself, but not the capital allocation function. Consequently, the underlying market dynamics and growth imperatives are not adequately addressed. To achieve sustainable development in Britain, new legal tools and policies to promote ethical financing in the financial services sector are necessary. This article explains why ethical financing is important to sustainability, surveys the range of financial institutions in Britain relevant to ethical finance, and makes recommendations to improve the regulatory and institutional context for financing sustainable development.
Tax Law Aspects of Adopting and Operating Green Transport Plans
Authors: Snape John
Published: January 2017

This paper seeks to analyse the tax law aspects of adopting and operating green transport plans, both for the employer and the employee. The author has attempted to present the analysis in a way accessible to non-tax specialists. The paper also seeks to evaluate the extent to which current tax law and practice may assist, prevent or simply be a neutral factor in the adoption and operation of a green transport plan. The importance of the analysis is reflected in recent legislative changes and a recent statement of government policy on transport.†
The EU Landfill Directive
Authors: Cameron Hazel
Published: January 2017

Directive 1999/31 on the Landfill of Waste has finally been adopted and entered into force on 16 July 1999. This paper will analyse in detail the provisions of the Directive, including their legislative development, with particular attention to the prospects for UK implementation. It will be concluded that while the Directive is clearly a step in the right direction, close attention must be paid to the context in which it is implemented in order that these benefits are not negated by lack of coordination and underdevelopment of alternative waste management options.
Urinary Incontinence in Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Lee Hsiang-Ying , Li Ching-Chia , Juan Yung-Shun , Chang Yu-Han , Yeh Hsin-Chih , Tsai Chia-Chun , Chueh Kuang-Shun , Wu Wen-Jeng , Yang Yuan-Han
Published: January 2017

Objectives:

Urinary incontinence (UI) is more prevalent in the elderly populations with dementia than without dementia, and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia. Urinary incontinence may complicate AD morbidity and mortality. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the prevalence and annual incidence and determine the risk possibility of UI, which is the main type of incontinence in patients with AD in Taiwan.

Methods:

A total of 933 patients with AD were included in the study cohort, and a total of 2799 patients without AD by 1:3 proportion compared to the study cohort were used as a matched cohort. All participants were selected from the National Health Insurance Research Database in 2000 sample population. We utilize Cox proportional hazard regression to evaluate the risk of UI and cumulative incidence ratio curve to analyze the cumulative incidence function. Prevalence and annual incidence rate are calculated in individual medication including rivastigmine, donepezil, galantamine, and memantine only being initiated in patients with AD.

Results:

The risk of UI is higher in AD cohort (hazard ratio: 1.54, 95% confidence interval: 1.13-2.09). The cumulative incidence ratio of UI event between AD cohort and matched cohort presents statistical significance ( P < .001). Annual incidence and prevalence of UI in patients with AD are 6.2% and 4.2%, respectively.

Conclusion:

The present results suggest that the risk of UI is higher in patients with AD than in the general population.
Effects of Stenting the Parent Artery on Aneurysm Filling and Gene Expression of Various Potential Factors Involved in Healing of Experimental Aneurysms
Authors: Darsaut T. , Salazkin I. , Ogoudikpe C. , Gevry G. , Bouzeghrane F. , Raymond J.
Published: January 2017

Intracranial stents are increasingly used in the endovascular treatment of aneurysms, but very little is known regarding their effect on the cellular and molecular evolution of aneurysms.

Bilateral venous pouch lateral wall carotid aneurysms were created in 20 dogs. All dogs then underwent angiography and balloon-expandable stenting of one aneurysm four to six weeks later. Fifteen dogs underwent aneurysm harvesting at one day (n=3), four days (n=4), seven days (n=3), and 14 days (n=5) for mRNA expression analysis, using axial sections taken from the aneurysm neck and fundus for RT-PCR amplification of four cytokines or growth factors: TNF-a, TGF-b1, MCP-1, and PDGF-BB; two adhesion molecules: VCAM-1 and PECAM-1; five matrix modifying agents; MMP-2, 9, TIMPs 1, 3, 4, and two cellular markers: CD34 and a-SMA.

Five other dogs, sacrificed at 12 weeks, were examined for extent of filling of the aneurysm neck with organized tissue and for neointima formation at the aneurysm ostium. Angiography was performed prior to sacrifice in all animals, and compared with initial studies. Eleven out of 20 stented aneurysms showed a favorable angiographic evolution, while none of the 20 non-stented aneurysms improved (p=0.001). Pathology showed partially occluded aneurysms, with neointima formation around the stent struts. Observed trends in mRNA expression, that stenting increased expression of genes involved in organization and neointima formation, agreed with experimental hypotheses, but differences between stented and non-stented aneurysms did not reach statistical significance.

Parent vessel stenting was associated with angiographic improvement of aneurysm appearance. Modifications in mRNA expression patterns following stenting deserve further study to better establish potential molecular targets to promote aneurysm healing.
Minimally Invasive Atlanto-Odontoid Joint Injection for Involvement in Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Kostanian V.J. , Mathews M.S. , Westhout F.D. , Bhatia N.N.
Published: January 2017

This report shows that CT fluoroscopy guided anterior approach injections can be effectively utilized for inflammatory conditions affecting the atlanto-odontoid joint, and that steroid injections thus injected can provide pain relief lasting six months in properly selected patients. Patients with underlying rheumatoid arthritis demonstrating significant aggravation of neck pain with side to side (rotational) neck movements and refractory to medical therapy may be good candidates for the procedure.
Unilateral Moyamoya Phenomenon Due to MCA Occlusion in a Child Presenting with Intracerebral Hemorrhage
Authors: Srikanth S.G. , Nagarajan K. , Chandrashekar H.S. , Vasudev M.K. , Pillai Shibu V.
Published: January 2017

Spontaneous middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion leading to moyamoya phenomenon is different from classical moyamoya disease. Previous studies have reported such phenomena in adults with ischemic lesions, except for a solitary case in a child. We report a case of a ten-year old girl who presented with a deep intracerebral hematoma and a normal ipsilateral middle cerebral artery on initial evaluation by CT. Subsequently, on follow-up angiography, the ipsilateral MCA was occluded with evidence of unilateral basal lenticulostriate and transdural collateral supply causing a ‘moyamoya’ phenomenon.

This report discusses a rare and interesting disease from the perspective of ‘moyamoya’ phenomenon and angiogenesis.
In Vivo Effects of a Ginkgo Biloba Extract on Platelet Activating Factor Metabolism in Two Asymptomatic Hiv-Infected Patients
Authors: Tsoupras A.B. , Chini M. , Tsogas N. , Mangafas N. , Demopoulos C.A. , Lazanas M.C.
Published: January 2017

Ginkgo biloba products seem to protect from several pathological conditions, including HIV manifestations, where Platelet Activating Factor (PAF) is implicated. In the present study, we examined for the first time the in vivo effects of a standardized formulation of Ginkgo biloba extract (150 mg daily, per os) on PAF metabolism in blood cells and plasma of two male, asymptomatic HIV-infected patients, not receiving antiretroviral treatment, during a 9-month period. These patients differed at baseline in terms of duration of HIV infection, viral load levels, CD4 cell counts and Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART) experience. In the first patient with early HIV infection, after an initial transient increase, a return of both plasma viral load and PAF biosynthetic enzyme activities in leukocytes to their baseline levels was observed during Ginkgo biloba use. As a result PAF degradation also remained low in this patient. The second patient with late but not advanced HIV infection, had higher levels of viral load and a lower CD4 cell count at baseline. The use of 150 mg of a Ginkgo biloba extract was probably insufficient to induce PAF degradation and/or to suppress the induction of PAF biosynthesis observed. At the same time, the initial high levels of viral load were further increased and CD4 cell counts were finally decreased during the study. The observed differences in PAF metabolism during Ginkgo use seem to be related to the initial heterogeneity of these patients. It appears that in some HIV-infected patients inhibition of the PAF/PAF-receptor system, along with a decrease/down-regulation of PAF-biosynthesis, illustrates a new potential role for Ginkgo biloba compounds in the treatment of HIV infection and its manifestations. However, more tests on a larger number of patients are needed in order to support these preliminary observations.
Apocynin, a Plant-Derived Drug, Might Be Useful in the Treatment of Myocardial Ischemia Reperfusion Injury in Rat Hearts
Authors: Di Paola R. , Mazzon E. , Paterniti I. , Impellizzeri D. , Bramanti P. , Cuzzocrea S.
Published: January 2017

Apocynin is a potent and selective inhibitor of the NADPH oxidase-dependent production of ROS by stimulated human PMNs. Apocynin was isolated by activity-guided isolation from Picrorhiza kurroa, and in the years following its discovery it has been used in many laboratories around the world. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by activated polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) plays an important role in many cardiovascular disease states, including myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury. The purpose of this study is to examine the beneficial effects of apocynin on myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury. Myocardial I/R injury was caused by clamping the left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery for 20 min followed by release of the clamp allowing reperfusion for 1 h. Administration of apocynin i.p. (5mg/kg i.p. 10%DMSO) 15 min after ischemia significantly reduced the: 1) histological evidence of myocardial injury; 2) pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β); 3) adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, P-Selectin); 4) nitrotyrosine formation; 5) NF-kB expression; 6) PAR formation; and 7) apoptosis (Bax, Bcl-2, Fas-L and tunel). Based on these findings we propose that apocynin would be useful in the treatment of various ischemia and reperfusion diseases.