bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Geography and Administration in Egypt (332 BCE–642 CE)
Authors: Falivene Maria Rosaria
Published: February 2013

This article outlines the administrative geography of Egypt under the Graeco-Macedonian regime and as it evolved over the next millennium. This information comes from papyri and ostraca—sources that differ from the material evidence of archaeological finds yet are not so distant from these as literary evidence often is. What makes papyrological texts so informative is their being on the same timescale as the actors involved: their speaking, as it were, in everyday words. There are some downsides as well. Mahaffy's observation applies most aptly to the difficulties we encounter when trying to reconstruct the administrative framework of Graeco-Roman Egypt and having to deal with the intricacies of a territory and its management as it evolved over time and under changing regimes.
Law in Graeco-Roman Egypt: Hellenization, Fusion, Romanization
Authors: Yiftach Uri
Published: February 2013

The Ptolemaic kings of Egypt ruled a variety of ethnic groups that were diverse in language, culture, religion, and legal practices. The main themes were tolerance and even the protection of particular legal traditions. By the beginning of the Roman period, changes were under way. The autonomous courts of law had by then ceased to exist. The second century ce witnessed the abandonment of demotic script in legal documents and the emergence of a new law, “the law of the Egyptian”, which was applied by the entire population and consisted of Greek and Egyptian elements alike. In the late third century bce, agoranomeia were established in the throughout Egypt to allow the state to monitor foreclosure on assets placed as security for debts. In the Roman empire, Roman citizens in Egypt followed major elements of the Roman law of succession, family, and personal status.
The Papyri and Early Christianity
Authors: Martinez David G.
Published: February 2013

Two events, one occurring during Greek rule in Egypt and the other during Roman rule, brought about a new status for the great world language. The first was the translation of the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, produced in Egypt, starting early in the Ptolemaic dynasty. The second was the advent of Christianity and the vigorous production and dissemination of Greek Christian scriptures and other sacred material in Egypt and throughout the Mediterranean world. This article reflects Greek in its capacity as the language of the sacred, as well as of daily life in early Christianity. It examines Christian literary papyri and Christian documentary papyri.
Manichaeism and Gnosticism in the Papyri
Authors: Römer Cornelia
Published: February 2013

The church fathers were appalled in particular by the Gnostics' condemnation of creation. But the fact that much of their teaching was in many respects not so far from Christian dogma must have disturbed the advocates of the “real” Christian church. In some of these Gnostic systems, Christ was the main savior figure; in others, it was the forefathers of the Old Testament who guaranteed salvation; in Manichaeism, it was the new Messenger of Light, the apostle Mani, who, coming after Christ, would finally give the right revelation to the people and excel Christ in doing so. This article deals with religious groups such as these as they existed in Egypt in the Roman and late antique periods. Papyrology has played a decisive role in our understanding of the religious movements of the first centuries ce in Egypt and elsewhere in the Mediterranean.
Crime and Public Policy
Authors: Tonry Michael
Published: February 2013

This introduction to the book starts by defining crime. It explains that cross-national agreement about what should and should not be considered as criminal is narrower than is sometimes recognized. Examples are given of various acts that are regarded as criminal in some countries but not others. Crime and its control raises many instrumental, expressive, emotional, and moral issues, the text states. The layout of the book is outlined and some noncontroversial conclusions are offered. Next this introductory text looks at broad public policy approaches for dealing with crime: criminal law enforcement, prevention, harm reduction, regulation, decriminalization, and nonintervention. Next rates and trends are detailed and the costs associated are analysed. Finally this introductory section of the book looks at choosing the right policies.
Sexual Violence
Authors: Sample Lisa L.
Published: February 2013

This article reviews the assumptions underlying sex offender legislation and discusses the incidence, prevalence, and causes of sex offending. The current sex offender legislation assumes that sex offenders are a homogeneous group who exhibit similar offending patterns irrespective of their type. It shows the importance of assessing the degree to which these assumptions comport to empirical information available about sex offenders and sex crimes. The trends in sex offending and victimization are summarized. Recidivism information is reviewed here in terms of general reoffending, sex offenders' general reoffending rates as compared to those for non-sexual offenders, and comparisons of general and sexual reoffending across several sex offender types. Several factors that contribute to criminal offenders' behavior, including those of a sociological, psychological, and biological nature are discussed. Finally, this article mentions that sex offending is a reprehensible behavior with long-lasting consequences for victims and needs to be managed, controlled, and prevented.
Robbery
Authors: Cook Philip J.
Published: February 2013

This article provides a description of trends and patterns in robbery using police statistics and statistics from crime surveys. The focus is on data of robbery rate trends for the United States, which is the most established of the national crime surveys. The survey data support a fine-grained analysis of the age, sex, race, and number of robbers and victims involved in an incident, as well as the type of weapon and the outcomes of the confrontation with respect to theft and injury. It examines the demographics of robber perpetration and victimization and robbery outcomes (property loss, injury, and death). This article discusses robbers' strategic choices about whom to rob, how, and with what weapon and interventions aimed at preventing robberies. Policies to reduce the scope of the underground market will thus be helpful in the effort to curtail robbery.
Auto Theft
Authors: Cherbonneau Michael , Wright Richard
Published: February 2013

This article reviews our current knowledge about automobile theft. It defines crime and outlines its prevalence. It further examines the social and economic consequences of auto theft and deals with patterns of auto theft in the United States and elsewhere. Auto theft is found to be an activity of greater salience among the socially advantaged. It moves on with the discussion of forms of motor vehicle theft, including various types of offenders and offender motivations. It includes discussion about victim and offender characteristics, correlates of victimization risk, and types of vehicles stolen and motor vehicle theft offenders. Finally, it examines the ways of controlling auto theft, concluding with a discussion of policy-relevant issues and directions for future research.
Money Laundering
Authors: Levi Michael , Reuter Peter
Published: February 2013

Money laundering is a very modern crime created by the late twentieth-century state to enlist the financial sector in its search of the proceeds of crime and prevention of career criminality, particularly transnational crime. This article presents examples that illustrate the variety of methods available and kind of persons involved, along with some classifications. It discusses the relationship of money laundering to corruption control and analyzes the effects of anti-money laundering controls. It provides a brief assessment of the consequences of the control system. A broad and intrusive set of controls has been erected to prevent money laundering. The system generates substantial crime or corruption control benefits which must be high on the agenda of the relevant policy-making community.
Trafficking in Cultural Artifacts
Authors: Tijhuis A. J. G.
Published: February 2013

Cultural artifacts encompass both antiquities and works of art. Global crime related to cultural artifacts can be divided into several types. This article discusses these types and look at the nexus with other types of crime. It focuses on art crimes that involve cross-border activities. The transnational trade in stolen art and antiquities can be placed in the context of several causal mechanisms and influences. Law enforcement efforts and other policy approaches are also described. Finally, it discusses the policy implications with focus on ratification of multilateral treaties. Police agencies specializing in art theft are few in number and typically small. On the basis of the current body of knowledge about the trade in stolen art and antiquities several tentative recommendations can be offered for both public policies and research in this field.
Hate Crimes
Authors: Jenness Valerie
Published: February 2013

Hate crime is a product of civil right, disabilities rights, and crime victims' movements. This article primarily focuses on criminal justice concerns related to hate crime. Assessments of hate crime-related criminal justice policy and law enforcement practices require an understanding of the emergence of hate crime. It presents a summary of early assessments of hate crime law and concerns about bias-motivated violence as “merely symbolic politics” with minimal enforcement effects. It conceptualizes this assessment and includes a brief summary of federal and state hate crime law. The next section details the organization of hate crime enforcement and the outcomes of law enforcement practices, including data on the policing and prosecution of hate crime. Finally, it discusses the development of hate crime law and law enforcement practices beyond the United States.
Gambling
Authors: Dombrink John
Published: February 2013

Policy contests over gambling have turned to issues of problem gamblers, economic development, and ancillary crime. This article discusses the scope and scale of legal gambling in the United States and examines various issues during this history, contextualizing U.S. treatment with continued toleration of gambling and its flourish in illegal forms. It details current forms of legal gambling and its symbolism. The article provides a critiques of legal gambling together with analyses of their salience and success in current discussions and legalization efforts. It presents a number of unresolved issues in the legalization of gambling, including the capacity of communications technology to change the forms of gambling. Due to the role of the state in allowing and promoting gambling, the progress of gambling in all these dimensions has been uncoupled from other victimless crimes.
Cyclades
Authors: Renfrew Colin
Published: February 2013

This article argues that the Cyclades have played a central role in the prehistory of the Aegean. Even in the late Upper Palaeolithic period, before there is evidence of permanent settlement in the islands, the volcanic glass known as obsidian—and very suitable as a raw material for chipped stone tools—was being brought from its principal Aegean source on the island of Melos to Franchthi Cave in the Argolid. From the Neolithic period onward, interactions between the Cycladic Islands and neighboring lands were frequent. The Cyclades were significant in the Archaic period of Greece's civilization. In the Early Bronze Age, the inhabitants of the Cyclades took an active part in the trade and commerce of the time. Cycladic sources of lead and copper were economically significant. The influence of the Early Cycladic cultures was felt in settlements, and notably in cemeteries, in northern Crete and in Attica and Euboea.
Cyclades
Authors: Barber Robin L. N.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses adjustments in what may be termed “cultural geography.” The name Cyclades, derived in the Classical period from the islands that formed a loose circle (kyklos) around the sacred centre of Delos, nowadays signifies a modern administrative region—from Andros and Tenos in the north to Melos and Thera in the south. In the Byzantine and Mediaeval periods, the boundaries of the region were different at different times. Some of these have, on occasion, been dubbed “colonies,” but it can be suggested, with perhaps greater plausibility, that they belonged to a Cycladic cultural area, dissimilar to that with which one is now familiar and about whose extent there is undoubtedly more to be learnt. If defined in this way, Middle Cycladic geography seems to show yet another grouping since no sites with similarly strong island characteristics have so far been located outside the area known today as the Cyclades.
Minoan Architecture
Authors: Hitchcock Louise A.
Published: February 2013

Minoan architecture is characterized by both tradition and innovation. Although regionalism was more typical of the tomb architecture of the Early Bronze Age, there are also some regional distinctions among Minoan palatial buildings. These distinctions are frequently overshadowed by the emphasis placed on the organization of the palaces around a central court, resulting in the use of the essentialist term “court-centered building.” Houses were characterized by a radial plan with rooms organized around a squarish hall. A preference for corner doorways and a liberal use of corridors and staircases in the palaces and villas enhanced their complexity. Greater cultural uniformity with mainland Greece at the end of the Bronze Age is indicated by the predominance of rectilinear halls with entry on the short side throughout the Aegean.
Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A
Authors: Tomas Helena
Published: February 2013

The existence of Bronze Age literacy in the Aegean was first recognized thanks to Arthur Evans's insightful study of seals and other inscribed objects that he saw or purchased while traveling through Crete. The seals bore signs of a script thereafter called Hieroglyphics or Pictographs—the name was based on Evans's interpretation of the appearance of the signs but was also influenced by his awareness of other Bronze Age hieroglyphics known at the. Evans established the existence of two other linear-looking scripts, Linear A and Linear B. Although the very first inscriptions are of Prepalatial date and may have had symbolic value which enhanced power of élites, wider use of Cretan Hieroglyphics and Linear A is best explained as a result of expanding economic activities that accompanied the growth of Cretan palatial centers and a consequent need for a well-structured administrative system.
Cypro-Minoan
Authors: Hirschfeld Nicolle
Published: February 2013

This article shows that there are approximately 200 identified Cypro-Minoan inscriptions. They are impressed, incised, or painted on a variety of objects and materials in an assortment of lengths and formats and are found in a diversity of contexts widely dispersed across the island of Cyprus and at Ras Shamra-Ugarit on the mainland. They span the entire Late Bronze Age and perhaps continue into the very early Iron Age. The earliest discoveries were made at the end of the nineteenth century; most recently, Cypro-Minoan has been recognized at Ras Shamra-Ugarit and perhaps at Ashkelon. The script has not been deciphered, and any claims to have done so are premature, for the extant corpus is too limited, and there is no bilingual. The greatest concentration of Cypro-Minoan writing has been found at Enkomi.
Mycenaean Pottery
Authors: Rutter Jeremy B.
Published: February 2013

Mycenaean pottery, the ceramic assemblage characteristic chiefly of the central and southern Greek mainland during the Aegean Late Bronze Age, began within a decade of the first discovery of substantial quantities of this artifactual class in the initial exploration of the chamber tomb cemeteries at Ialysos on Rhodes by A. Billiotti and A. Salzmann, and Heinrich Schliemann's better-known excavations at Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, and Orchomenos. However, it was Carl Blegen's careful stratigraphic excavations of 1915–1916 at the Corinthian coastal site of Korakou that first permitted virtually the full temporal range of Mycenaean ceramics to be outlined by employing a tripartite system modeled after that devised by Sir Arthur Evans for the Bronze Age pottery of Minoan Crete less than twenty years earlier.
Jewelry
Authors: Laffineur Robert
Published: February 2013

Jewelry, usually designating both gold and silver work, is undoubtedly one of the most significant classes among the so-called small finds in the prehistoric Aegean. The corpus of finds is especially rich between these two extremes in all periods of development and in the various areas of expansion of Aegean cultures, the Cycladic islands, Crete, western Asia Minor, and the Greek mainland. Two important finds deserve special attention: the famous “bee pendant” from the necropolis of Chrysolakkos at Malia and the so-called Aegina treasure in the British Museum. The Malia pendant, which is dated to late Prepalatial or Protopalatial times, is another masterpiece of craftsmanship, with a highly skilful use of granulation, a sophisticated composition, and a likely symbolic meaning that has inspired many comments—beginning with the identification of the insects—bees, hornets, or wasps.
The Trojan War
Authors: Bryce Trevor
Published: February 2013

The story of Troy's war with the Greeks is one of the best-known narrative episodes from the Greek and Roman literary tradition. To the ancient Greeks and Romans, it provided the inspiration for a wide range of artistic representations in the fields of painting, sculpture, poetry, drama, and philosophy. Ancient Greek writers proposed widely varying dates for the Trojan War, ranging from as early as 1334 to as late as the tenth century bc. In the interval between the war and the earliest written records of it, traditions about the conflict were kept alive and orally transmitted by a succession of storytellers, no doubt like the bards and minstrels who, according to Homer, entertained the courts of kings and noblemen in Mycenae. By far the most famous version of the tale is that narrated by Homer in the Iliad.
Knossos
Authors: MacDonald Colin
Published: February 2013

Knossos was the main prehistoric settlement of the island of Crete and is best known for its monumental palace, the so-called Minos Palace. The earliest settlement of Knossos in the prepottery or Aceramic Neolithic may have been the earliest formal settlement in the whole of Crete. While new discoveries and a wide range of archaeological methods are helping to clarify and challenge the views of early human habitation on Crete, it is important to note that the earliest signs of human activity on the island are found precisely where the ceremonial center of Knossos, the palace, was later built. The Bronze Age palace itself was, among other things, both a monument to the ancient religious ceremonies that had taken place on this spot and an expression of the new authority that was in place, initially at the Knossian level and later at a regional and perhaps even an island-wide level.
Central and Southern Peloponnese
Authors: Cavanagh William G.
Published: February 2013

The Peloponnese, the heartland of Mycenaean civilization, covers about 19,000 square kilometers. Of this, the Argolid, so prominent in accounts of the Bronze Age Aegean, forms only eleven percent, while the region considered here is four times larger than the Argolid and only slightly smaller than the whole of the island of Crete. In a later period its agricultural wealth underwrote Sparta, the dominant Classical power: it occupies the wetter, western part of Greece, making it less subject to drought and unpredictable harvests. In addition to the farming base, there are mineral resources, notably metals in the area of Neapolis. This article stresses that at no time in prehistory was this a unified territory, and imposes generalizations that mask important regional differences.
Lerna
Authors: Wiencke Martha Heath
Published: February 2013

Ancient Lerna forms a low mound of some 12,000 square meters on the west shore of Argos Bay, beside an abundant spring. The inhabitants had easy access to good farmland, timber, and main routes north to Argos and south into Arcadia. Excavation at the site was carried out in the 1950s by the American School of Classical Studies under the direction of John L. Caskey, when some twenty percent of the mound was excavated. Most of the deposits belong to the Neolithic and Early and Middle Bronze Ages; the preserved finds are kept in the Archaeological Museum of Argos. The Neolithic occupation at Lerna left three-meter-deep deposits, of which only little could be excavated. Some ten percent of the Neolithic ceramic material, most frequently the painted Urfi rnis (Urf), was preserved for study by Karen D. Vitelli.
Mycenae
Authors: French Elizabeth
Published: February 2013

Mycenae was inhabited for several millennia before the start of the Bronze Age and remained occupied, if not prosperous, for at least a millennium after its end. The site lies on a rocky knoll between two hills in the northeast corner of the Argive plain some eight miles from the sea. It is probable that the environment of the Bronze Age was similar to that of the earlier part of the twentieth century ad, as it seems that the north and east sections of the Argolid suffered less than other areas from poor land management in the Early Bronze Age, which caused major changes in the landscape. Mycenae was identified through both legend and Homer at least until Roman times, with the walls and Lion Gate remaining visible. All recent interpretive work is based on these excavations.
Thorikos
Authors: Laffineur Robert
Published: February 2013

Thorikos is located in the southeastern part of Attica, some three kilometers north of the modern town of Lavrio, to the east of the Laurion ridge with its metalliferous resources, and facing the island of Makronisos. At Thorikos, the earliest find of litharge so far has been made in sector I53 on the Velatouri, where a long sequence could be revealed between the Final Neolithic and the Archaic period. Fragments of litharge were found on a soil that the excavator has dated to the end of the sixteenth century. This find has great importance since it is very close in time to the period of the first main monumental development at Thorikos in the early Mycenaean phase. It suggests that metallurgy could have given an impetus to local development and that those prerequisite conditions of development were indeed present at the very beginning of the Late Bronze Age.
Cyprus
Authors: Steel Louise
Published: February 2013

Cyprus occupies a strategic position between the western Asiatic and European landmasses in the East Mediterranean. The geographical location and physical landscape had a distinct influence on the development of the island's Bronze Age societies and ensured that it played an increasingly important role in international maritime trade of the later second millennium. In antiquity the fertile Mesaoria plain, which lies between the Troodos and the Kyrenia mountain ranges, was probably covered by open cypress woodland. Despite the undoubted importance of timber, exploitation of this resource by Bronze Age communities has not been fully explored. This might be extrapolated from later sources that demonstrate religious and royal control of timber to sustain various industries—metallurgy, ceramic production, and shipbuilding. Timber is itemized among the tributes sent from the ruler of Alashiya (ancient Cyprus) to Thutmose III, which further illustrates the economic importance of this resource in antiquity.
Uluburun Shipwreck
Authors: Pulak Cemal
Published: February 2013

Excavation of the Uluburun shipwreck near Kaş in southern Turkey has yielded one of the largest and richest assemblages of Bronze Age trade goods and raw materials ever found. The finds provide significant insight into, and the clearest glimpse of, Late Bronze Age maritime and terrestrial trade in the Mediterranean. The 1984–1994 excavation of the shipwreck, under the auspices of the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at Texas A&M University, revealed an immense cargo of raw materials, manufactured goods, a collection of premium, exotic items, personal effects, items for shipboard use, ship's equipment, and a small portion of the hull. The conservation and analysis of nearly seventeen tons of artifacts recovered from the site demonstrate the diversity and complexity of the assemblage.
Western Anatolia
Authors: Greaves Alan M.
Published: February 2013

Western Anatolia is often overlooked in discussions of the Bronze Age Aegean, despite its physical proximity to the region. This is partly due to a lack of identified sites and perhaps also to a tendency among scholars to retroject the modern Greek-Turkish political border onto past societies. The excavation of some key coastal, multiperiod sites is also hampered by the overburden of later deposits. This article highlights and critiques those core themes that scholars most frequently revisit. These include the date and nature of the earliest contact between the cultures of the Aegean and those of western Anatolia, the Minoan “colonization” of Miletus, Mycenaean pottery and materials in the region, and questions of the historical-archaeological interface.
Western Mediterranean
Authors: Vagnetti Lucia
Published: February 2013

During the Early and Middle Bronze Age, Minoan Crete plays the most active role, looking mainly eastward and developing a local network inside the Aegean, in particular with the Cyclades and the Peloponnese. The evidence for the western interconnection is supported almost entirely by archaeological finds, as there is no significant reference to this part of the world in Linear B texts, and writing was not yet in use among the communities of the Central and Western Mediterranean. The great explorations by Paolo Orsi in Sicily resulted in the discovery of several Bronze Age necropolis in which Mycenaean pottery was fairly common. In 1899–1900, the important Bronze Age settlement of Scoglio del Tonno near Taranto was excavated by Q. Quagliati. The large quantity and variety of Mycenaean pottery from these early discoveries remain a substantial source of information today.
Evidence for the history of English: Introduction
Authors: Fitzmaurice Susan , Smith Jeremy
Published: February 2013

The extensive scholarly study over many years of the history of the English language has yielded a well established set of accounts of the histories of English sounds, structures, words and meanings. This article urges the re-examination of the evidence on which these accounts are based, and offers fresh examinations of historical changes in the language before and after 1500. The authors discuss the implications for histories of the English language of different sources of evidence, such as material objects in the form of coins, inscriptions and manuscripts, and the impact on the nature of historical investigation of newly found and available kinds of evidence, such as parish records and court papers. The article introduces the discussion of the ways in which different kinds of evidence are collected in critical research tools, like atlases, thesauruses, dictionaries and historical corpora and addresses the relationships among the data that are drawn from different sources and types of evidence, methodology and theory. Finally, the article serves as an introduction to the articles in this section which examine the methods of selecting, collecting and presenting data from different sources of evidence in different forms and ways in order to inform the best research in the history of the English language.
Evidence from sources after 1500
Authors: Beal Joan C.
Published: February 2013

In the history of the English language, the period after 1500 is generally known as Modern English, which is often subdivided into Early (1500–1700) and Late (1700–1900) Modern English. Unlike the periods before 1500, the Modern English period has bequeathed a rich legacy of written material, so that, even before the advent of electronic corpora, it was possible to compile large datasets for the study of variation in lexicon, syntax, and morphology. This article examines the nature of evidence for the pronunciation of English after 1500. It shows that the different types of direct and indirect evidence all have their advantages and disadvantages, but that together they provide insights into English pronunciation in the Modern English period. The direct evidence from pronouncing dictionaries and elocution guides of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries is particularly valuable.
Middle English phonology in the digital age: What written corpora can tell us about sound change
Authors: Ritt Nikolaus
Published: February 2013

Digital corpora have revolutionized research on historical morpho-syntax and lexicology, but so far have had little impact on the study of phonological change. This can be explained in part by the fact that the relationship between spelling and phonology is not very straightforward. Focusing on Middle English, this article shows how corpus data can be exploited to investigate historical phonology: from the distribution and frequencies of morphemes, conclusions can be drawn about phonological systems and the changes they underwent even without directly investigating phonemes or larger phonotactic configurations. Two cases are presented to demonstrate the line of reasoning. The first example concerns stress assignment in English nouns and verbs, while the second concerns the long term implementation of a specific sound change.
“Small is beautiful”: On the value of standard reference corpora for observing recent grammatical change
Authors: Hundt Marianne , Leech Geoffrey
Published: February 2013

Before the 1990s, evidence for ongoing grammatical change was based in large part on anecdote, prescriptivism and folk wisdom. The recent advent of mega-corpora such as COCA raises the question of how much value remains in using the standard reference corpora of the first generation—the so-called Brown family. This article focuses on two recessive phenomena, namely the decline of relativizer which and the conjunction for, arguing in favour of small, carefully balanced reference corpora because they allow fine-grained analyses with respect to functional, regional and genre variation. Rise in frequency can be explained by independent processes such as grammaticalization and colloquialization. On the other hand, the declining frequency of which and for investigated in this study can at least in part be attributed to the increasing preference for other items such as the relative that, the preposition on, and the conjunction because.
Exploring aspects of the Great Complement Shift, with evidence from the TIME Corpus and COCA
Authors: Rudanko Juhani
Published: February 2013

The term “Great Complement Shift” (GCS) refers to the major changes that have occurred in English predicate complementation. The GCS is characterized by variation and change in a number of patterns of sentential complementation, especially the spread of to -ing complements at the expense of to infinitives. This article presents case studies of two matrix predicates—the adjective prone and the verb consent—that select both patterns today. It examines the variation and change affecting the grammar of these two words, as well as the competition between two patterns of complementation that are very dissimilar from a grammatical point of view. The article uses the TIME Corpus, representing a historical corpus of American English from the 1920s onwards, and the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), representing a corpus of recent American English, for prone. Only COCA is used for consent.
Diachronic collostructional analysis meets the noun phrase: Studyingmany a nounin COHA
Authors: Hilpert Martin
Published: February 2013

This article considers diachronic collostructional analysis, a method for studying semantic and stylistic change in grammatical constructions, based on the Corpus of Historical American English (COHA). The term “collostructional analysis” refers to a family of methods used to study interrelations between grammatical constructions and their lexical collocates. Whereas much work in collostructional analysis has focused on verb-headed constructions, such as modal auxiliaries, causatives, the ditransitive construction, or the passive, relatively little attention has been paid to the nominal domain. This article focuses on the English many a noun construction, which undergoes a recessive change over the past two centuries and which has been chosen because it deviates from more canonical noun phrase patterns and shows several restrictions. First, determiners are not usually preceded by quantifiers. Second, the construction is limited to many; semantically related elements such as few, little, much, or lots do not form analogous patterns. Third, no elements may intervene between many and a.
Technologies of communication
Authors: Kohnen Thomas , Mair Christian
Published: February 2013

A wave of successive innovations such as writing, the printing press, and modern mass media have extended the range of human communication beyond the “technologies” associated with face-to-face interaction. This article examines the impact of communication technologies on the history of English. Most diachronic work on English is based on the assumption that linguistic innovations, particularly in the the areas of phonology and grammar, typically start in spontaneous speech before spreading into writing, with a time lag. This implies that for most of the recorded history of English, the primary data for the study of change are lost and the best possible approximation needs to be re-constructed from available written sources. This article explores whether this assumption holds true to a comparable extent for all periods in the history of English or whether it is subject to diachronic change itself.
The competing demands of popularization vs. economy: Written language in the age of mass literacy
Authors: Biber Douglas , Gray Bethany
Published: February 2013

Two apparently contradictory developments have been associated with the history of the English language over the past 200 years: the increasing use of colloquial linguistic forms (associated with 'popularization') and the increasing use of compressed linguistic forms (associated with 'economy'). Both forces have influenced all written registers to some extent. But as this chapter shows, these developments have been mediated by register differences. Based on an analysis of three registers (1800-2000) that differ in their intended audiences and communicative purposes, the chapter describes historical patterns of change for both colloquial and compression features. ‘Popular’ written registers (e.g., fiction) take the lead in the increased use of colloquial features (e.g., pronouns, contractions, semi-modals). In contrast, ‘specialist informational’ registers (e.g., academic research writing) take the lead in the increased use of economy features (e.g., phrasal modifiers of nouns). This results in a major increase in the use of colloquial features in fiction, a major increase in the reliance on phrasal (rather than clausal) discourse styles in academic writing, and increases in both sets of features in 'popular informational' newspaper reportage.
Social roles, identities, and networks
Authors: Palander-Collin Minna
Published: February 2013

One of the relatively new approaches to understanding the history of the English language is to look at language as a social practice. In recent years, there has been increasing attention to linguistic construction of social roles and identities in earlier periods as well as the role of networks in language change and variation. According to this approach, language is connected to its users and to what they do with language in specific situations and socio-historical contexts within the confines of their linguistic repertoires. This article investigates the contextualization of language users in the history of English based on the idea that identities and social roles are time and place specific constructs that can be analyzed, for example, in networks. It considers solutions that are needed to systematize historical sociolinguistic research, including corpus methods. The article concludes by analyzing styles of self-reference in order to understand identity construction in Early Modern English with possible links to broader sociocultural changes.
Contact in the Asian arena
Authors: Lim Lisa , Ansaldo Umberto
Published: February 2013

A consideration of the Asian region in the history of English must view the element of contact in multilingual contexts as probably the most significant phenomenon affecting the development of English. Several critical factors of contact prompting rethinking what “the English language” has become are discussed, viz. changes in different eras in the sociopolitical contexts, the diversity of vernaculars in Asia that have come into contact with English, the range of input varieties, and the general context of multilingualism. Linguistic features which are shared across a number of Asian languages and which look set to continue their influence on English are highlighted: zero copula, predicative adjectives and topic prominence, discourse particles, and tone. Finally, two contemporary and significant trends in Asia – the rapid spread of English in noncolonial Asian countries, and globalization phenomena such as electronic media, global music, and call centre outsourcing – are also noted for their contribution to contact dynamics and their subsequent impact on the continuing development of English.
The impact of focusing and defocusing on word order: Changes at the periphery in Old English and Old High German
Authors: Petrova Svetlana
Published: February 2013

One of the most remarkable properties of Old English (OE) syntax is variation in word order, and especially the OV/VO alternation, meaning that objects in OE can both precede and follow their selecting verb in the surface. This kind of variation is also attested in Old High German (OHG), suggesting that it represents a common Germanic property. Research interested in the explanation of the OV/VO alternation in Early Germanic has addressed the way in which information structure (IS), and especially the expression of focus, determines the positional realization of objects in the clause. By analyzing the way in which focusing and defocusing interacts with word order in OE and OHG, this article demonstrates the relevance of comparing the two languages in explaining the surface variation in the order of the verb and its object in the surface.
A Fresh Look at Music Therapy in Special Education
Authors: McFerran Katrina , Elefant Cochavit
Published: February 2013

This article discusses factors that are changing music therapy in schools. It begins with illustrations of traditional music therapy practice in special education, with explanations of the underpinning theoretical frameworks that have shaped practice. This is followed by discussions of new developments in practice that will potentially impact on music therapy in special education into the future. The article concludes with a vision for how the changes in music therapy might be embraced in order to make them even more transparent and effective.
Commentary: Music in the Community
Authors: Elliott David J.
Published: February 2013

This article presents an overview of Section 2 of the Oxford Handbook of Music Education, Volume 2. It considers John Dewey's (1927) thoughts on the relationship between the “goods” (values, benefits) of some kind of activity and the nature of “community.” It argues that it is highly unlikely that there will never be a fixed concept or “how-to” of community music. For however and wherever community music is conceived and practiced, this elusive phenomenon continues to evolve and diversify locally and internationally to meet the changing needs of the people it serves today and those it will serve tomorrow. It reinvents itself continuously in relation to the musics and technologies its practitioners and clients desire and appropriate; and, of course, community music matures constantly as community music facilitators deploy their creativity to reframe, adjust, combine, integrate, and overlap existing ways of empowering people to make music for the realization of its many “goods” and the many ways that music making, musical sharing, and musical caring creates “community.”
The Community within Community Music
Authors: Higgins Lee
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the concept community in relation to the larger concept of community music (CM). It suggests that the community within community music is best understood as hospitality. Hospitality encompasses the central characteristics of community music practice, broadly understood as people, participation, places, equality of opportunity, and diversity. This does not mean that hospitality should replace the term community , but that hospitality evokes the practical meaning of community in that which is named community music . From this perspective, community can be conceived as “an act of hospitality” that runs deeply through the practice of CM, and that an acute awareness of hospitality exposes the distinctiveness of CM in music education.
Intercultural Tensions and Creativity in Music
Authors: Saether Eva , Mbye Alagi , Shayesteh Reza
Published: February 2013

This article examines the role of creativity in the Iranian-Swedish association music school in Malmö and Maali's Music School in Gambia. Section 1 outlines the theoretical framework which combines Vygotsky's theories of creativity with current discussions in ethnomusicology on the value and nature of cultural meetings. Section 2 presents an overview of how the concept of the Other has been used in the present study, in seeking insights from the epistemology of non-Western cultures. Section 3 describes how creativity is conceived and practised in the Gambian and Persian/Swedish examples. Section 4 describes the approach used in course development for music teacher education, while Section 5 presents a summary of key principles and approaches.
Assessing Creativity in Music: International Perspectives and Practices
Authors: Leong Samuel , Burnard Pamela , Jeanneret Neryl , Leung Bo Wah , Waugh Carole
Published: February 2013

This article presents six case studies from England, Australia, and Hong Kong, which illustrate the different ways creativity in music is defined and assessed by teachers and learners in various educational contexts. It considers the influence of educational policies on the assessment of musical creativity. It also examines the key features of music creativity assessment in order to draw parallels between various contexts. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications for classroom practice.
The Student Prince: Music-Making with Technology
Authors: King Andrew
Published: February 2013

This article examines recording studio practice in education. It begins by tracing the historical background of music-making with technology and providing an overview of how technology is used in the music curriculum. It then discusses the key relationships between curriculum, environment (studio), and community (learners, educators, studio users, support staff), that are essential in developing technology programs.
Commentary: Media, Music, and Education
Authors: Thibeault Matthew D.
Published: February 2013

This article provides an overview of Section 6 of the Oxford Handbook of Music Education, Volume 2. The section is the first among music education handbooks to focus on media. The authors highlight the increasing recognition of the importance of media both as a field of study and as a set of practices shaped by technology.
Let's Play! Learning Music through Video Games and Virtual Worlds
Authors: Tobias Evan S.
Published: February 2013

This article examines the ways video games promote musical learning and engagement. It begins by outlining the background and current scope of music-focused video games. It then situates video games in terms of new literacies. Next, it provides a theoretical framework that supports the use of video games in music education. Along with music-focused video games, it discusses the roles that music plays in video games. It argues for a re-examination of the principles and approaches for musical learning through gameplay.
Collaborative Digital Media Performance with Generative Music Systems
Authors: Brown Andrew R. , Dillon Steven C.
Published: February 2013

This article describes a new class of digital performance activities that maintain the benefits of ensemble performance while providing cultural and pedagogical value by exploiting digital media practices. It focuses on a specialized software application called jam2jam, which allows real-time manipulation of generative music and video (or still image animations). The jam2jam systems can be connected over a local area network or over the Internet to create ensembles, and all networked jam2jam systems have their parameters and timing synchronized.
Music Learning and New Media in Virtual and Online Environments
Authors: Ruthmann S. Alex , Hebert David G.
Published: February 2013

This article begins with a discussion of the rationales for diversification of musical education environments. It then covers applications of music technology which enable new forms of musical empowerment; online music education environments; a blended/hybrid approach that features some online learning to enhance what is taught in face-to-face settings; online music teacher education; and participatory media and social media musicianship.
Instrumental Teachers and Their Students: Who's in the Driver's Seat?
Authors: Beach Nick
Published: February 2013

Teachers of musical instruments have historically focused on ensuring that their students develop a secure technical foundation. They often discourage students from playing certain pieces until they are “ready” and take a linear approach, where each stage of technical development must be perfected before the next stage can be reached. But children live in the present and want those musical rewards now. As a result, they turn to resources available on the internet or ask for help from other people who can meet their musical needs. This article discusses the implications for music teachers.
Pride and Professionalism in Music Education
Authors: Colwell Richard
Published: February 2013

This article explores what appears to be music educators' lack of pride for their chosen profession. Studies show that even before entering the profession, music education students prefer to be identified as something other than a music education major, such as a bassoonist or a tenor. To gain respect, many music educators pay more attention to events in education than to events in music. Attracting better individuals to the profession requires a perceptual change that emphasizes scholarship and musicianship in music education. Music education also needs self-criticism and professional argumentation for music educators to take pride in its “big picture.”
Pondering the Grand Experiment in Public Music Education
Authors: Cutietta Robert A.
Published: February 2013

This article assesses one of the twentieth century's grandest experiments in music education—the attempt to provide participatory music education to every young person in the U.S. through the public school system. After 100 years, this experiment can be seen as reaching its end or at least the end of its first phase. If so, one possible conclusion is that while the experiment effectively reached a large proportion of the current adult population in the United States, it failed to establish a culture that could maintain it. Music education researchers can benefit by examining this period from this larger perspective.