bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Recognition and treatment of law enforcement violence against detainees and prisoners: A survey among Israeli physicians and medical students
Authors: Benninga Zvi , Steiner-Birmanns Bettina , Arbel Firas Abu Akar Revital , Aboo Dia Mushira
Published: September 2017

Introduction: Physicians regularly encounter victims of violence. Although some at-risk groups are increasingly recognized as such, the risks faced by prisoners and detainees are often overlooked. The scope of violence against them is unknown and their treatment is often hampered by unique social and institutional impediments. This article reviews the need for improved recognition and protection of such patients and the associated obstacles, while presenting information on the experience, knowledge and attitudes of physicians in Israel regarding the maltreatment of prisoners and detainees. Methods: We sent a questionnaire to physicians and medical students in Israel to enquire about their knowledge concerning examination and treatment of persons under police custody who appear to be victims of violence as well as their attitude concerning torture. Results: We received answers from443 physicians and 114 medical students. Most physicians would correctly examine and document the injuries, but only 59% would report their suspicions of violence to the Ministry of Health. Though 60% of physicians objected in principle to the use of torture, a majority endorsed the use of physical and psychological pressure during interrogation. Moreover, 29% of physicians thought it is permissible for physicians to examine detainees and verify their health so that torture can begin or continue. Discussion: Our study shows that there is a need for development and implementation of treatment and reporting protocols as well as educational programs concerning the ethical and legal requirements of physicians towards detainees and prisoners in Israel. Limitations of our study are discussed.
Effective and humane ways to manage the drug problem in the Philippines, a human rights and public health perspective
Authors: Briola Jerbert M.
Published: September 2017

We, at the Medical Action Group (MAG), a health and human rights organization, are uniquely placed to see a particularly disturbing aspect of Duterte’s drug war: it disproportionately targets the poor and vulnerable. A five-year-old girl was killed in late September 2016 after suspected gunmen aiming to kill her grandfather opened fire. A picture went viral of a wife weeping while cradling her husband, a pedicab driver and alleged drug peddler, who was shot and killed by men on motorcycles on the street of Pasay City. Filipinos immediately associated this image with Michaelango’s famous Pietà sculpture. A cardboard sign next to his body carried the chilling message “Pusher ako, wag tularan” (I’m a pusher, don’t do what I did). We see both the drug war’s human toll and, from their story, we learn the crushing poverty of the majority of its victims
The Influence of Human Factor in Aircraft Maintenance
Authors: Virovac Darko , Domitrović Anita , Bazijanac Ernest
Published: September 2017

Human factor is one of the safety barriers which is used in order to prevent accidents or incidents of aircraft. Therefore, the question is to which extent the error caused by human factor is included into the share of errors that are madeduring aircraft maintenance. In the EASA approved aircraft maintenance organisation, which includes in its working system the human factor as well, the tendency is to apply the approach by continuous monitoring and analysis of errors in aircraft maintenance. Such approach achieves advance prevention or reduction of the occurrence of harmful events, such as accidents, incidents, injuries and in a wider sense damages related to aircraft operation and maintenance. The research presented in this paper is a result of gathering and systematization of errors caused by human factors over the last five years in one organisation for aircraft maintenance certified according to the European standards. The study encompasses an analysis of 28 (twenty-eight) investigations of individual cases and provides insight into the main factors of errors. The results of analyses on the cause of occurrence of human error show similar results like the Boeing study which was carried out for the world fleet.
Risk Assessment of Nautical Navigational Environment Based on Grey Fixed Weight Cluster
Authors: Tian Yanfei , Sun Xuecheng , Chen Lijia , Huang Liwen
Published: September 2017

In order to set up a mathematical model suitable for nautical navigational environment risk evaluation and systematically master the navigational environment risk characteristics of the Qiongzhou Strait in a quantitative way, a risk assessment model with approach steps is set up based on the grey fixed weight cluster (GFWC). The evaluation index system is structured scientifically through both literature review and expert investigation. The relative weight of each index is designed to be obtained via fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (FAHP); Index membership degree of every grey class is proposed to be achieved by fuzzy statistics (FS) to avoid the difficulty of building whiten weight functions. By using the model, nautical navigational environment risk of the Qiongzhou Strait is determined at a “moderate” level according to the principle of maximum membership degree. The comprehensive risk evaluation of the Qiongzhou Strait nautical navigational environment can provide theoretical reference for implementing targeted risk control measures. It shows that the constructed GFWC risk assessment model as well as the presented steps are workable in case of incomplete information. The proposed strategy can excavate the collected experts’ knowledge mathematically, quantify the weight of each index and risk level, and finally lead to a comprehensive risk evaluation result. Besides, the adoptions of probability and statistic theory, fuzzy theory, aiming at solving the bottlenecks in case of uncertainty, will give the model a better adaptability and executability.
Traffic Calming Measures: An Evaluation of the Effect on Driving Speed
Authors: Vaitkus Audrius , Čygas Donatas , Jasiūnienė Vilma , Jateikienė Laura , Andriejauskas Tadas , Skrodenis Dovydas , Ratkevičiūtė Kornelija
Published: September 2017

Road accidents are one of the leading causes of death in the world, particularly among young people. Excessive speed is one of the main risk factors in road traffic safety, increasing accident probability and affecting accident severity. Experimental research of the traffic calming measures allocation effect on the driving speed is presented in this paper. The research has been carried out on two aspects. The first one with respect to the mean speed and the second one regarding instantaneous speed. However, the paper is not only restricted by the above research. Standardized survey interview and questioning, a survey of public opinion, was carried out to find out the road users’ opinions about the need for traffic calming measures and speed control measures. Finally, the authors presented their insights and recommendations for the installation of speed humps and gateways and their optimum spacing.
Predictive models of early motor development in preterm infants: a longitudinal-prospective study
Authors: Formiga Cibelle Kayenne Martins Roberto , Vieira Martina Estevam Brom , Facundes Rayne Ramos , Linhares Maria Beatriz Martins
Published: September 2017

Introduction: Preterm infants are vulnerable to developmental delays. Detecting problems at an early age is one of the challenges of professionals and researchers in the area.Objectives: To analyse the motor development and to identify the risk factors associated with predictors of overall and motor delay in preterm newborns.Methods: Eighty preterm infants (50% female; mean gestational age = 33 ± 2.2 weeks) with low birth weight (average of 1,715 ± 437 g) were evaluated using the Neurobehavioral Assessment of the Preterm Infant (NAPI) during the neonatal phase (prior to term age), the Denver Developmental Screening Test II (DDST-II) between 2 and 8 months, the Test of Infant Motor Performance between 2 and 4 months regarding motor development and the Alberta Infant Motor Scale between 4 and 8 months. Results: Neurobehavioural delay was noted in 24% of the infants in the neonatal phase. Between 2 and 8 months, the delay in overall development was ≥ 31% and the delay in motor development was 35–36 %. Decreased levels of alertness, orientation, motor developmentand vigouraccording to theNAPIwereshown to be predictive of a delay indevelopment between4 and 6 months of age.The delayin overall development between 2 and 6 months was predictive of a delay in motor development between6 and 8months. Conclusion: Neurobehavioural variables, hospital stayandoverall delayare goodpredictorsof motor developmentduring the first yearof age.
Simultaneous presence of excess weight and insufficient hours of sleep in adolescents: prevalence and related factors
Authors: Lima Tiago Rodrigues de , Sousa Gabriel Renaldo de , Castro João Antônio Chula de , Silva Diego Augusto Santos
Published: September 2017

Introduction: An increase in excess body fat and a decrease in the number of hours of sleep per day are health problems affecting the paediatric population. Objective: To estimate the combined prevalence of overweight and insufficient sleep/day in adolescents, and the association with sociodemographic characteristics, physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Methods: A cross-sectional school-based study was conducted with 1,132 participants from 14 to 19 years old in São José, Santa Catarina, Brazil. Body fat was assessed by body mass index (BMI) and classified by the Z-score, while adolescents reported the total hours of sleep/day. Sociodemographic data, physical activity and sedentary behaviour were collected by self-filled questionnaire. Results: The simultaneous prevalence of overweight and insufficient sleep/day was 17.5%. The factors associated with this condition were to meet the recommendations of the practice of physical activity per week, participate in gym class twice/week and period greater/equal to four hours/day in front of the screen. Conclusion: Guidelines in the school environment in relation to health problems posed by weight excess and the amount of insufficient hours sleep can be present when recommendations on physical activity and sedentary behaviour are given to students.
Comparison of performance in metalinguistic tasks among students with and without risk of dyslexia
Authors: Silva Cláudia Da , Capellini Simone Aparecida
Published: September 2017

Introduction: Studies on students at risk for dyslexia have increased  as well as the interest in verifying whether tasks involving a phonological basis can favor the performance of these students in the initial literacy process.Objective:Evaluate the performance of students with and without risk of dyslexia in metalinguistic tasks.Methods: Participants of this study were 40 students, aged between 5-6 years, enrolled in the 1st year of elementary school, divided into two groups, GI: composed of 20 students without risk of dyslexia and GII: composed of 20 students at risk of dyslexia, both groups were submitted to the Evaluation Cognitive Linguistic Skills Protocol - collective and individual version (adapted), and phonological intervention composed of tasks of relation letter/sound alphabet in sequence and in random order, rhyme, identification and manipulation of words, identification and production of syllables, syllabic segmentation and analysis, identification and phonemic segmentation, substitution, synthesis, analysis and phonemic discrimination. Results: Indicated that the students from GI and GII showed statistically superior performance in the post testing compared to the performance obtained in the pre testing.Conclusion: The students at risk of dyslexia showed an increase in the mean of performance after the intervention, however, when compared with the performance of the students without risk for dyslexia, they presented inferior performance, indicating that, even after have underwent  to the intervention, they did not reach the mean of performance of students without risk for dyslexia in metalinguistic tests.
Analysis of motor capacities in the maturational stages of female adolescents
Authors: Barros Jaqueline Dos Santos Valente , Lima Marcos Venicius Malveira de , Sampaio Aristéia Nunes , Rocha Suellem M. B. de Moura , Dantas Paulo Moreira Silva , Batista Shirley Regina De Almeida , Silva Romeu Paulo Martins
Published: September 2017

Introduction: Maturation is a biological phenomenon inherent to the human being that acts alongside environmental factors in its relationship with the development of children and adolescents.Objective: To analyse the motor skills during maturational stages of female adolescents.Methods: This study included 133 female adolescents aged between 10 and 17 years from federal schools in the city of Rio Branco, State of Acre, Brazil. Sexual maturation was evaluated using Tanner’s self-assessment. Motor skills were assessed using the following tests: strength (Jump Test); coordination (Burpee Test); balance (Flamingo Test); flexibility (Sit and Reach Test); agility (Shuttle Run Test). The data were analysed using R software through analysis of variance. The significance level was fixed at 5%.Result: No significant statistical results were found for strength, agility, balance and flexibility, evidencing that maturational advances did not influence these skills. In the coordination variable, significant results were obtained.Conclusion: The results of this study suggest that maturational advancement in adolescents does not influence strength, agility, balance or flexibility. However, it does influence coordination, presenting better performance at stage P2.
Monkeys overharvest shellfish
Authors: Perry George H , Codding Brian F
Published: September 2017

The use of stone tools by macaques in Thailand has reduced the size and population density of coastal shellfish; previously it was thought that tool-assisted overharvesting effects resulted uniquely from human activity.
Movilización ciudadana frente al proyecto de la “Autopista Urbana Oriente” en la Ciudad de México
Authors: Morales Guzmán Jesús Carlos
Published: September 2017

Una de las transformaciones recientes de las grandes ciudades latinoamericanas consiste en la ejecución – ya sea a través de inversión pública o privada – de grandes proyectos urbanos, principalmente en barrios tradicionales y centros históricos. Entre los proyectos más visibles destacan las obras de infraestructura vial diseñadas para enfrentar las problemáticas de movilidad y transporte, por ejemplo, así como otras construcciones relacionadas con aspectos como el crecimiento, desarrollo y competitividad de las ciudades. Paradójicamente, proyectos que pareciera que están orientados hacia el beneficio de la ciudadanía, han dado lugar a una serie de movilizaciones, conflictos sociales y reivindicaciones urbanas frente a estas acciones de carácter público. Esto, incluso, ha introducido un cambio cualitativo en quienes se resisten y movilizan. Ya que estos no sólo pertenecen a sectores populares, sino que en la movilización participan distintos sectores sociales, los cuales perciben que este tipo de proyectos son una amenaza que puede vulnerar sus derechos, civiles, sociales, políticos y medioambientales.
La Ciudad de México no ha sido ajena a esta tendencia. En los últimos años se han acentuado los conflictos entre el gobierno de la ciudad y distintas organizaciones sociales, asociaciones de vecinos y ciudadanos, que son causados por la implementación de grandes proyectos de infraestructura vial. Sin embargo, se observa que no se han generado los consensos necesarios para solucionar dicha problemática y las medidas tomadas por los poderes locales no han considerado las demandas ciudadanas en materia de planeación, ejecución de obras y, en general, de mecanismos ciudadanos para la gestión de la ciudad.
Para ilustrar estos planteamientos se aborda un caso paradigmático: el proyecto de la “Autopista Urbana Oriente”, que es una acción gubernamental que pretende solucionar la falta de movilidad y comunicación en el oriente de la ciudad pero, de realizarse, afectaría áreas naturales protegidas y además sería contraria a la reglamentación normativa y de planeación vigente. Asimismo, a los ciudadanos afectados se les ha negado el derecho a la consulta y, en consecuencia, han protestado y se han movilizado. No obstante, si bien estos han recurrido a instancias legales, se ha permitido la vulnerabilidad de sus derechos ciudadanos. La metodología utilizada parte de categorías analíticas vinculadas con la reconstrucción de los hechos más significativos en torno al proyecto a partir de la recopilación y sistematización de información periodística, informes gubernamentales y declaraciones públicas de los actores políticos, organizaciones, activistas y vecinos afectados.
Poder y palabras en la obra “Vida y costumbres de los indígenas araucanos de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX”
Authors: Samaniego Sastre Mario , Fuentes Peña Alejandro
Published: September 2017

El presente artículo analiza las relaciones entre horizontes de comprensión, prácticas traductológicas y dinámicas de reconocimiento en el texto Vida y costumbres de los indígenas araucanos de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, del padre Ernesto Wilhelm de Moesbach, el cual puede serconsiderado un testimonio clave para observar las relaciones intersociales entre el pueblo mapuche y la sociedad chilena a finales del siglo XIX y principios del siglo XX. Más específicamente, se trabaja la relación entrelos marcos de sentido que ordenan y proyectan la obra, esto es, el prólogo de Rodolfo Lenz y el prefacio del Padre Ernesto de Moesbach, y el relato etnográfico sobre la vida y costumbres de los mapuches en boca de PascualCoña. Asimismo, se indaga sobre el uso de la traducción como práctica que puede valorizar o desconocer aquello sobre lo cual se ejerce (para el caso que nos convoca, la biografía del lonko Pascual Coña), poniendo especialatención en cómo son abordadas las prácticas socioculturales y las autoridades culturales como vía de acceso a la cosmovisión mapuche. Consideramosque este tipo de análisis, que remite a una dialéctica entre narrativas diversas tensadas por las relaciones de poder, permite comprender las relaciones interétnicas contextualmente situadas.
La esquizofrenia del desarrollo: Un análisis semántico-discursivo de las relaciones entre salmonicultura y pesca artesanal en el sur-austral de Chile
Authors: Saavedra Gallo Gonzalo , Mardones Leiva Karen , Torres Zamora María Pía
Published: September 2017

El artículo se basa en una investigación, etnográfica y documental, sobre la problemática relación entre las empresas productoras de salmones en cautiverio y los sistemas pesquero-artesanales emplazados en el sur-austral de Chile, en Patagonia insular occidental. En particular este trabajo busca elucidar qué tipo de representaciones sobre la pesca artesanal y la salmonicultura construyen sus protagonistas –actores de la “comunidad” costera- en un contexto problemático, caracterizado por las incertidumbres y las dinámicas disolutivas y des-estructurantes propias de la expansión modernizante del capitalismo tardío, o si se prefiere, transnacional y neoliberal. La investigación tiene como base metodológica una etnografía reflexivo-conversacional realizada en sucesivas experiencias de campo llevadas a cabo entre diciembre 2011 y septiembre 2014, y la aplicación de redes semánticas naturales para construir y analizar representaciones sociales. Los principales resultados de la investigación dan cuenta de las diferencias discursivas y prácticas que los actores en cuestión formulan en esa intersección espacio-territorial, revelando los sentidos paradójicos y controversiales que se entretejen en la relación industria/comunidad, en donde el “trabajo” pareciera ser el denominador conceptual común pero que adquiere una condición polisémica de notables contrastes según sea observado y/o vivenciado desde la comunidad pesquero-artesanal o desde los/as operarios/as de la industria acuícola.
Editorial
Authors: Díaz Diego José
Published: September 2017

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Irrigation Patterns Resemble ERA‐Interim Reanalysis Soil Moisture Additions
Authors: Tuinenburg O. A. , de Vries J. P. R.
Published: September 2017

Irrigation modulates the water cycle by making water available for plants, increasing transpiration and atmospheric humidity, while decreasing temperatures due to the energy that is needed for evaporation. Irrigation is usually not included in atmospheric reanalysis systems, but moisture can be added to the soil due to data assimilation. This paper compares these soil moisture additions to the irrigation patterns. In the ERA‐interim atmospheric reanalysis, 2 m temperature observations are assimilated. A mismatch between modeled and observed temperatures is corrected by adding or removing moisture from the soil. These corrections show a clear pattern of mean soil moisture additions in many areas. To determine the cause of these increments, the spatial and temporal patterns of these soil moisture increments are compared to irrigation water demand and precipitation bias. In irrigated areas, the annual means and cycles of soil moisture increments correlate well with irrigation, and less with precipitation bias. Therefore, in irrigated areas, the soil moisture increments are more likely caused by irrigation than by the precipitation bias. In nonirrigated areas, a weak statistical relation between soil moisture increments and precipitation bias is present. Irrigation is currently not included in reanalysis systems. However, as irrigation indirectly influences the water balance in atmospheric reanalysis systems, we recommend to include this process in reanalysis models. Moreover, the influence of irrigation on the local and regional atmosphere should be taken into account when interpreting atmospheric data over strongly irrigated areas.
Popular Culture Icons: Star Trek
Authors: Milner Andrew
Published: September 2017

Star Trek
is the most successful “brand” in the history of US television science fiction and, after the BBC's
Doctor Who
, the second longest running SF show in the history of the medium.
Media Populism
Authors: Cross Simon
Published: September 2017

Media populism is where popular media and mediated politics intersect. Mediated political appeals are made only to those deemed belonging to the political community; no purpose is served appealing to those not belonging since by definition they are the social “problem” against whom the community is rhetorically mobilized. Media populism fuses leftwing or rightwing political themes/sentiments with popular media formats that claim to hear “the people's voice,” though only by elites ventriloquizing the voice of “the people.”
Failed States
Authors: Frödin Olle
Published: September 2017

The concept of failed state denotes countries where institutions underpinning the legal and political order have fallen apart, meaning that government organizations do not have the capacity to enforce laws, guarantee rights, and provide core public goods, such as security and basic infrastructure. The concept gained prominence as a national security and international development narrative in the 1990s, and was subsequently widely used in government and academic discourse in the 2000s. Both the concept itself and the interventions associated with it are contested. National security analysts held that the failed state agenda was an overconfident and misguided foreign policy rationale that seriously underestimated the difficulties of state‐building operations. In academic circles, the concept has been criticized for being vaguely defined in that a clear and coherent set of indicators for what constitutes failed states is lacking. As a result, different kinds of states, such as Afghanistan, North Korea, Haiti, Iraq, and Colombia, have been lumped together into an undifferentiated mass under one label. In the wake of such criticism, scholars have recently developed more nuanced and refined categories to discriminate between kinds and degrees of state failure.
Women's Empowerment in the Global South
Authors: Moghadam Valentine M.
Published: September 2017

The empowerment of women in the global south is a key goal of women's rights movements, international organizations, and international agreements such as the Beijing Platform for Action and the Millennium Development Goals. It has also been the subject of feminist sociological research. This entry discusses the diverse ways that empowerment is conceptualized and measured, some trends in women's advancements, and the structural and cultural barriers that reinforce class differences.
Discreditable Stigma
Authors: Chaudoir Stephenie R. , Francis Ara , Earnshaw Valerie A.
Published: September 2017

A discreditable stigma is an attribute, characteristic, or identity that is socially devalued but can be concealed from or made invisible to others. People who are “marked” with one or more of these attributes typically come to occupy a lower social standing. Attributes such as physical illnesses, mental illnesses, identities, and significant or traumatic life experiences are considered to be
discreditable
in many cultural contexts. Because the discreditable can typically exert greater control over when, to whom, and how others in their social group or society come to know about the stigmatized attribute, informational control is an important and unique stigma management strategy and area of ongoing research.
Role Conflict
Authors: Gordon Judith
Published: September 2017

Role conflict occurs when the performance of two or more roles overlaps or when a role interferes with the performance of another role. Interference may result in differing expectations about role performance by two senders, the same sender, the role itself, or the person interacting with the role. Conflict between roles associated with work and family, in particular, has received significant attention and can be time‐based, strain‐based, or behavior‐based. Measurement of role conflict has primarily relied on Likert‐type scales to assess general conflict or, more specifically, work–family conflict. Strategies for reducing role conflict include eliminating or downplaying a role, changing the expectations associated with one or both roles, and performing the roles in sequence rather than simultaneously.
Childhood Socialization
Authors: Bühler‐Niederberger Doris
Published: September 2017

The socialization perspective was almost the exclusive way to approach children in sociological theory and research up to the 1970s; it implied that childhood was a phase of transition to adulthood and conceived of children only as social actors‐in‐the‐becoming. However, Empirical research on situations of socialization which showed that such situations depend on the social competence of all participants led to revisions of this conception. Therefore, approaches of socialization were developed that attributed more activity to the child. The “new” sociology of childhood conceived of the child as social actor and showed that such agency was not limited to personality development but included participation in the social world. Childhood is marked by inequality in regard to the actual conditions of growing up and in future chances. Research on this issue can profitably link different scientific perspectives on children and socialization.
Gerontology Key Thinkers: Donald L. Spence (1930–1989)
Authors: Marshall Victor W.
Published: September 2017

Donald L. Spence stands as a major influence in the sociology of aging and in the area of gerontology education. His 1965 doctoral dissertation at the University of Oregon, under Robert Dubin, was on retirement, and aging remained his lifelong passion.
Interpretive Sociology
Authors: Adorjan Michael , Kelly Benjamin
Published: September 2017

Interpretive sociology, at heart, embraces the principle that social life is subjective and that those who systematically study social life should attend to how people make sense and interpret their social world, actions, and identities. Inspired by Max Weber, it has influenced the emergence of symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology, among other hermeneutically focused sociological paradigms. Interpretive sociologists often employ ethnography, participant observation, and interviewing in order to empirically situate analyses in the context of the lived experiences of social actors in their social world.
Transparency
Authors: Mol Arthur P.J.
Published: September 2017

Transparency has gained in prominence and power since the 1960s, especially in holding economic and political powers accountable. The information and communications technology revolution only strengthened and internationalized this. With increasing power, however, transparency has also become an instrument of these powers. As such, transparency has lost its innocence of being of undisputable value for civil society.
Blended Families
Authors: Hemez Paul , Tedrow Lucky , Teachman Jay
Published: September 2017

The term “blended family” can be used to describe any nontraditional family household, such as stepfamilies, families with adoptive children, and families that use an alternative form of pregnancy. Although it is not an easy task, several national surveys and the US Census gather data on blended families to compare trends across time. Since the turn of the twenty‐first century, the number of stepfamilies (the most common type of blended family) in the United States has been found to remain constant, but the number of cohabiting stepfamilies has significantly increased. Research also suggests that outcomes for children in blended families differ from the outcomes for children reared in traditional households. The prevalence of these families has caused legislatures to create new policies that apply to families without the traditional nuclear family structure.
Spectacles
Authors: Silk Michael
Published: September 2017

Spectacles embody and naturalize the basic values of a society. Often narrated through emblematic individuals, spectacles are highly mediated events, sporting contests, political moments, and stories “of interest” that can normalize contemporary fears, anxieties, terrors, and concerns. Yet, spectacles are rife with contestation and contradictions, and important questions over depoliticization, passivity, and alienation become exacerbated when held together with new media technologies, platforms, and practices, especially when considering how spectacles are bound with social media, (new) social movements, activism, and prosumption.
Monopoly Capitalism
Authors: Bonanno Alessandro
Published: September 2017

Monopoly capitalism refers to the postcompetitive phase of the development of capitalism. It consists of processes whereby the predominance of competitive markets is replaced by the predominance of monopoly markets. In theory, a monopoly refers to a market controlled by one single firm. Practically, it refers to a situation in which one or a few large companies control the entire market. The entry reviews the evolution of the debate on monopoly capitalism. It includes reviews of the classic contributions of early twentieth
‐
century Marxists such as Lenin and Hilferding, mid‐century progressive economists such as Schumpeter and Galbraith, post‐World War II neoliberals such as Friedman and neo‐Marxists such as Baran and Sweezy. Finally, the characteristics of monopoly capitalism under globalization are underscored.
Civil and Uncivil Society
Authors: Glasius Marlies
Published: September 2017

This entry traces the genealogy of the concept of civil society and its recent resurgence. It discusses the problematic conceptualization of the “civility” of civil society and the antonymous concept of uncivil society, and briefly relates civil society to democracy and democratization and to capitalism, ending with a reflection on the debates relating to the existence and nature of a global civil society.
Schiller,Friedrichvon(1759–1805)
Authors: Nivala Asko
Published: September 2017

The famous poet and playwright Friedrich von Schiller was also an important historian, philosopher, and social theorist. Schiller's theoretical works criticized the disenchantment and rationalization of modern society after the French Revolution and industrialization. He maintained that aesthetic education could overcome the alienation that was characteristic of modernity. Schiller applied Immanuel Kant's transcendental philosophy to society by analyzing the interaction between the sensuous drive and the formal drive. The drive toward aesthetic play should unite these to supersede the alienation of modernity. Schiller's ideas influenced G.W.F. Hegel, Karl Marx, and the Frankfurt School in addition to such classical sociological thinkers as Max Weber, Ferdinand Tönnies, and Niklas Luhmann.
Cybernationalism
Authors: Jiang Ying
Published: September 2017

Cybernationalism refers to nationalism expressed or organized by means of the Internet. In a digital age, Internet and other electronic communication are helping to create new forms of living. The term “cybernationalism” was coined to describe the activities through which nongovernmental actors utilize the Internet to promote nationalistic sentiments across the world.
Purity and Danger
Authors: Lupton Deborah
Published: September 2017

The cultural anthropologist Mary Douglas's book
Purity and Danger
is an influential exegesis of the ways in which concepts of purity, impurity, dirt, and pollution operate as contingent sociocultural products. Douglas argues that concepts of cleanliness and dirt are arbitrary and culturally defined. Rather than springing from concerns about the inherent potential for infection or biological contagion of objects, humans, or animals, they serve the social and cultural purposes of bolstering cultural beliefs, defining and policing accepted behavioral norms, and maintaining the symbolic boundaries between social groups. Sociologists and other social researchers have drawn on Douglas's theories to apply them to many social issues, particularly in relation to the ways in which concepts of self and other operate.
Runaway World
Authors: Stones Rob
Published: September 2017

“Runaway World: How Globalization Is Reshaping Our Lives” was the title provided by the eminent British sociologist Anthony Giddens for his 1999 BBC Reith Lectures. His central focus is our sense of living in a world that is in many ways out of control. Giddens notes that, although individuals often experience their incapacity to control their lives as personal failure, the root causes lie elsewhere, in the structural processes and interdependencies of globalization. He discusses the major transformations wrought by globalization under the key themes of risk, tradition, the family, democracy, and – added in the wake of 9/11 – security and terrorism. Giddens reflects insightfully on the processes by which many people threatened by these forces retreat into fundamentalism in an attempt to restore order, security, and meaning to their lives, and also on the need to deepen democratic forces.
Gray Zone
Authors: Baehr Peter
Published: September 2017

For the purposes of this entry, “gray zone” has two meanings. The first, and more complex, describes complicity and collaboration within the Nazi death camps. The second delineates political regimes that are stranded between the severest modes of repression (despotism, autocracy, totalitarianism) and constitutional liberal democracies.
B
asil
B
ernstein (1924–2000)
Authors: Jenks Chris
Published: September 2017

Basil Bernstein (1924–2000) was an eminent British sociologist and holder of the Karl Mannheim Chair of Sociology of Education at the University of London. After a relatively unconventional entry into academic life, Bernstein achieved importance and influence within the social sciences and education through his then highly original combination of sociology and linguistics. His work was also quite distinct in that he drew on the inspirations of the French sociologist Émile Durkheim, a founding father of the discipline but one much out of favor. Bernstein's major concepts were
sociolinguistic codes
that he developed and refined over a number of years. In seeking to explain why social class largely determines educational achievement, he argued that different social classes engender different forms of social bond and that these bonds are highly influential in relation to how people think and learn and speak. The
restricted code
, typically that of the working‐class child, is discontinuous with the language of education, power, and control, namely the
elaborated code
, which is typically that of the middle‐class child. Bernstein also made a major contribution to the sociology of the curriculum.
Methodological Holism
Authors: Zahle Julie
Published: September 2017

Methodological holism is the view that social(‐level), macro(level), or holist explanations, as they are variously called, should be offered within the social sciences. This entry discusses different ways in which this position has been elaborated and some of the arguments offered in its support.
Relativism
Authors: Kusch Martin
Published: September 2017

Various forms of relativism have been central to the social sciences since their inception. It is important to distinguish between different forms of relativism, according to what feature is claimed to be relative and the parameter to which something is said to be relative. Relativism can take descriptive, normative, or methodological forms. There is much disagreement about which theses are central to a relativist position. Frequently cited theses include dependence, pluralism, exclusiveness, notional confrontation, symmetry, contingency, underdetermination, and tolerance. Arguments for and against relativism draw on linguistic data, practical consequences, logical properties, or methodological benefits to scientific enquiry.
Infanticide
Authors: Kearl Michael C.
Published: September 2017

The killing of infants is found throughout the animal kingdom and throughout human history. Human infanticide has occurred for reasons of population control, sacrificial ritual, eugenics, political pogroms, and altruism. The act is often legally distinguished from murder, with maternal perpetrators frequently treated with leniency. Ethically, it may be indistinguishable from abortion.
Freeters (Permanent Part‐Timers)
Authors: Genda Yuji
Published: September 2017

“Freeter” is a word coined in Japanese that refers to Japanese youth who continue to work as nonregular workers soon after their graduation from school. It is also a shortened form of “free arbeiter,” which connects the English word “freedom” with the German wordArbeit(“work”). During the booms of the 1980s and beginning of 1990s the term “freeter” was originally used to describe Japanese youth who prefer a free working style in their lives. Since the late 1990s, however, “nonregular freeters” started to refer to the miserable young people who failed to find regular work after graduation during periods of recession. According to the definition of the Japanese government, freeters are males and unmarried females between 15 and 34 years old – except students, who actually work or hope to work as part‐time orarubaitononregular workers. The population of freeters in Japan has remained between 1.7 and 1.8 million since the middle of the first decade of the twenty‐first century. Whether the number of freeters will increase or not in the future depends on the transition in the Japanese employment system, on economic conditions, and on the effectiveness of ongoing youth policies.
Commercial Surrogacy
Authors: Pande Amrita
Published: September 2017

“Surrogacy” is the commonly used term for the practice of assisted reproduction, in which a woman gestates and gives birth to a child for someone else to raise. If she receives monetary payment beyond the reimbursement of medical and other reasonable expenses, the arrangement is labeled commercial surrogacy or contract pregnancy; otherwise it is referred to as altruistic surrogacy. Surrogacy has been generating feminist, ethical, legal, and social debates for over three decades. This scholarship can be loosely classified into four categories: liberal and feminist defense of the practice, which emphasizes a woman's right to use her body as she chooses; works that debate the ethics or morality of this practice; the multiple systems of stratification that are potentially reinforced by such arrangements; and, more recently, ethnographic scholarship on the impact of surrogacy on the cultural meanings of motherhood and kinship.
Happiness
Authors: Bartram David
Published: September 2017

Happiness is a form of subjective well‐being; the concept captures how people feel about their lives as a whole. (A closely related concept, life satisfaction, indicates how people cognitively evaluate their lives.) Rather than assuming that happiness follows automatically from enjoying what many would consider favorable objective conditions, researchers investigate happiness empirically (often via surveys), asking individuals to indicate how happy they are and then studying the relationship between their answers and their circumstances or experiences. Findings might be relevant to institutional policies (including perhaps those of governments); alternatively, individuals might find insight for themselves through research in this field.
Radical Interactionism
Authors: Shaw James
Published: September 2017

Radical interactionism (RI) is a theoretical perspective arising from the symbolic interactionist (SI) tradition, departing from conventional approaches to SI by redressing the lack of attention to the workings of power and domination in everyday social life. Developed primarily by Lonnie Athens, RI pushes the SI tradition beyond its theoretical and political conservatism, making the analysis of domination essential to all social inquiry. RI integrates the foundational SI work of George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer with the less well known work of Robert Park, bringing their early SI writings in dialogue with contemporary critiques of the SI tradition. This emerging theoretical position provides clear methodological guidance for social scientists who look to reconcile SI theory with contemporary critiques and with a growing theoretical emphasis on power and domination in everyday life.
Agency–Structure Relationship
Authors: Kabele Jiří
Published: September 2017

The challenge to social theory posed by phenomena of stability in changing social worlds is usually thematized as the dilemma of agency and structure: while human affairs are enacted by agents in unique ways, these agents are not free to enact them as they choose; instead, they must respect the reality of structures. After briefly summarizing the history of solutions to this dilemma, this entry shows how Bourdieu's and Giddens's metatheoretical legitimations of the dialectical dualism of agency and structure gave rise to a 30‐year debate about the status and nature of this relationship. Critical realists enriched the debate with philosophical perspectives and attention to the indirect structuring effects of social structures on agency. In contrast, actor‐network theory distanced itself from the debate and changed our perspective on the dilemma by ascribing “agency” to things or abstract ideas. Finally, the debate is rephrased to bring out a common denominator of the variety of theoretical and methodological approaches to studying the agency–structure relationship.
Hunger
Authors: Scanlan Stephen J.
Published: September 2017

This entry examines hunger by presenting both its conceptualization and a synopsis of key sociological contributions to this area of research. The sociology of hunger entails disentangling the complexities of the concept with the help of the theory and the methods it has at its disposal. Examining the issue both in the United States and around the world, sociologists emphasize the structural conditions that generate hunger, locating the experience of the individual in larger cultural, economic, social, and political processes tied to social institutions and social change. In defining the concept and understanding its components and forms, sociologists emphasize inequality and barriers to access to food as the foundation to hunger. The study of hunger from a sociological perspective is connected with numerous subfields with an interest in globalization, political economy, population ecology, social stratification and inequality, and policy discussions (among the topics that are more prominent in shaping the discussion).
Asymmetric Warfare
Authors: Mello Patrick A.
Published: September 2017

Asymmetric warfare is commonly defined as a mode of combat where the aims, means, or methods of the parties in conflict are substantively dissimilar. Most scholars assume a gaping power disparity between the warring parties in asymmetric conflicts. However, a two‐fold distinction can be made, separating asymmetry of strength from asymmetry of weakness. The former rests on an actor's ability to play to its own strengths, while the latter refers to a strategy that seeks to exploit an opponent's weaknesses, often through indirect and drawn‐out warfare. While narrow conceptions of asymmetric warfare largely focus on differences in military and economic power, more comprehensive understandings of the term emphasize that disparities in political and military strategy, notions of time, and organizational characteristics of the parties in conflict are just as important as differences in material capabilities.
Situated Knowledge
Authors: Stoetzler Marcel , Yuval‐Davis Nira
Published: September 2017

The term “situated knowledge” was introduced in 1988 by Donna Haraway as an alternative to positivist notions of objectivity and relativism, although it has roots reaching far back in modern western philosophy. It implies that acknowledgment of the situatedness of specific social locations and life practices allows actors to make truth claims that can be subjected to examination and dialogical constructions that are appropriate for emancipatory practices. “Situated knowledge” has therefore become a major concept in feminist and antiracist theory.
F
ukutake,
T
adashi (1917–1989)
Authors: Shoji Kokichi
Published: September 2017

As an advocate of sociology as a real science, Fukutake insisted that sociology should contribute positively to social development and that studies of social policies should be an applied field of sociology. Conducting field surveys in Japanese farming villages, he did a structural analysis that contrasted the conservative northwest with the enlightened southwest and revealed pyramidal family structures in the former and horizontal mutual aid systems in the latter. He also pointed out the “contradictory character” of peasants' attitudes, which made it difficult for them to realize their own situations and not to vote against their own interests. As an advocate of Japan's postwar modernism, he insisted that all people, peasants included, should be liberated from the old consciousness they had been deeply indoctrinated with and should become independent individuals, able to construct a truly democratic society. As rapid economic growth changed Japanese society, Fukutake wrote some enlightening introductory books on it and continued until his last moment his activities as an advocate of reforming the social welfare system, including university co‐operative associations in general.