bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Testery: breaking Hitler’s most secret code
Authors: Roberts Jerry
Published: November 2020

I joined the Intelligence Corps in autumn 1941. At that time few people were allowed into the Mansion at Bletchley Park, the nerve centre. I was fortunate enough to work in the Mansion and was one of the four founder members of the Testery, set up in October 1941 to break ‘Double Playfair’ cipher messages. Then in July 1942 the Testery was switched to breaking Tunny traffic. Before reminiscing about the breaking of the Tunny code I should like to recall Alan Turing himself. If it had not been for him everything would have been very different, and I am eternally grateful to him that I did not have to bring up my children under the Nazis. We would have entered a dark age of many years—once the Nazis had got you down, they did not let up. Here is just one example of what life was like under the Nazis. After the war I met a brave Belgian lady called Madame Jeanty. Her family was one of those who kept a safe house for Allied airmen, shot down over Europe and trying to make their way back to Britain to fly again. Helen Jeanty and her husband had a hidey-hole in their house, and had an airman in there one day when the Gestapo came calling, at the usual time of 6 a.m. They searched the house up and down but did not find him, and went away. Everybody was delighted and relieved—claps on the back or whatever the Belgians do. But the Gestapo came back again to find this celebration in progress. Her husband was arrested and taken away and she never saw him again. That sort of thing would have happened time and time again here in Britain if the Nazis had managed to invade. One reason Britain did not fall to the Nazis is that in 1941 Turing broke U-boat Enigma. The decisive effect he had on the Battle of the Atlantic can be seen from the tonnages sunk. The tonnages lost to sinkings dropped by 77% after Turing broke into U-boat Enigma in June 1941, from approximately 282,000 tonnes of shipping lost per month during the early part of 1941, to 64,000 tonnes per month by November. If Turing had not managed that, it is almost certain that Britain would have been starved into defeat.
Turing’s Zeitgeist
Authors: Carpenter Brian , Doran Robert
Published: November 2020

This chapter reviews the history of Alan Turing’s design proposal for an Automatic Computing Engine (ACE) and how he came to write it in 1945, and takes a fresh look at the numerous formative ideas it included. All of these ideas resurfaced in the young computing industry over the following fifteen years. We cannot tell to what extent Turing’s unpublished foresights were passed on to other pioneers, or to what extent they were rediscovered independently as their time came. In any case, they all became part of the Zeitgeist of the computing industry. At some universities, such as ours in New Zealand, the main computer in 1975 was a Burroughs B6700, a ‘stack’ machine. In this kind of machine, data, including items such as the return address for a subroutine, are stored on top of one another so that the last one in becomes the first one out. In effect, each new item on the stack ‘buries’ the previous one. Apart from the old English Electric KDF9, and the recently introduced Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-11, stack machines were unusual. Where had this idea come from? It just seemed to be part of computing’s Zeitgeist, the intellectual climate of the discipline, and it remains so to this day. Computer history was largely American in the 1970s—the computer was called the von Neumann machine and everybody knew about the early American machines such as ENIAC and EDVAC. Early British computers were viewed as a footnote; the fact that the first stored program in history ran in Manchester was largely overlooked, which is probably why the word ‘program’ is usually spelt in the American way. There was a tendency to assume that all the main ideas in computing, such as the idea of a stack, had originated in the United States. At that time, Alan Turing was known as a theoretician and for his work on artificial intelligence. The world didn’t know that he was a cryptanalyst, didn’t know that he tinkered with electronics, didn’t know that he designed a computer, and didn’t know that he was gay. He was hardly mentioned in the history of practical computing.
The Immortals: Prehistoric Individuals as Ideological and Therapeutic Tools in our Time
Authors: Nordström Nina
Published: November 2020

Archaeologists have begun to look more closely at the history of displaying the dead in museums. One important reason for this is a growing awareness of the fact that, apart from deepening our understanding of certain events in prehistory, the evidence, such as bodies in different states of decay as well as grave-goods, reflects changing attitudes towards death and what it means to be human. One example is Howard Williams’s appeal for the need to look at how early medieval graves are displayed in British museums. He points out that we must be more aware of the seductive and even misleading reconstructions that we can see today, but he also suggested that we should focus more on ‘the bigger picture’: the broader contexts of factors and influences affecting how we display the archaeological dead. This concerns the question: ‘What do the early medieval dead ever do for us?’ He suggests that currently we pay too much attention to the two ‘fringe groups’: those who either stand for the scientific value alone of human remains on the one hand or those who object to the display of the dead on ethical or religious grounds on the other (Williams 2010). Instead, he proposes we focus more on the social roles of the archaeological dead in contemporary society. For several years I have worked on similar issues, mainly with the purpose of understanding why some individuals from the past become famous and ‘immortal’ whereas others are more or less forgotten in their showcases (Nordström 2006a,b, 2007, 2010). I have adopted a biographical approach to human remains in museums in order to afford a full picture of these individuals’ ideological and therapeutic value in contemporary society. What do they, as individuals, as timeless renowned characters, mean to us today? It is important to understand their role in our modern world both as evidence for the human past and as famous objects in museums today. Last but not least, it is vital to recognize that the mass media—newspapers, documentaries, and the like—play an important role in how these individuals’ stories are told and retold.
To Gaze Upon the Dead: The Exhibition of Human Remains as Cultural Practice and Political Process in Scandinavia and the USA
Authors: Stutz Liv Nilsson
Published: November 2020

The clattering sound of a child’s shoes across the cold stone floors; the echo is magnificent. I am nine or ten years old and I make my way through the prehistoric exhibition at the National Museum in Copenhagen. The dimly lit display cases are filled with arrowheads, heavy beads of perforated amber, funnel beakers, and bronze artefacts. I reach my goal, the alluring Bronze Age oak cists where the buried men and women from the heaths of Jutland are looking back at me. I touch the glass. My eyes wander over their reddened hair and their clothes, stained in deep shades of peat brown. My eyes seek theirs in the hollow orbits of their skulls. I close mine and imagine a life thousands of years ago. My small hand moves across the glass, leaving an almost invisible trace. Small fingerprints; a dreaming child’s gesture. I would stay there forever, dreaming of the past. Feeling it. I know that it was moments like this, when I could see and feel the humanity of the past that made me want to become an archaeologist. The immediate encounter with an individual from the past is a privileged moment. For a brief moment our destinies cross paths, and hundreds, even thousands of years are transcended. Scenes like this one, of children gazing at the dead and seeing the past, are not unusual. In museums across Europe, the archaeological findings from burials, including both the human remains and the items that accompanied the dead, are often displayed with pride and confidence. The public expects this and is drawn in with fascination to stand face-to-face with the deep past. Beyond this, the display of the dead and of death itself, with all of the allure and drama that accompany it, becomes a privileged locus for pedagogy and communication. But while this confident attitude towards the display of the dead may be typical in Europe, it is not as evident in North America. In North American museums, it is rare to see human remains from archaeological contexts displayed in any form (exception seems to be given to Egyptian mummies, which still are prominently displayed by many institutions that have them among their collections).
Framing
Authors: Hanson Robin
Published: November 2020

Why study future emulations? Some readers of drafts of this book have told me they don’t care much about future worlds where they don’t personally expect to live, unless those worlds contain their children, grandchildren, or especially engaging fictional characters. And I must admit that the scenario I present here may not be especially well suited for dramatic or inspirational stories. But I will note that applying similar standards would declare most of history to also be uninteresting. Yet many of those who express low interest in the future also show great interest in many nooks and crannies of history. Today, we take far more eff ort to study the past than the future, even though we can’t change the past. people often excuse this by saying that we know far more about the past than the future. Yet modest eff orts often give substantial insights into the future, and we would know more about the future if we tried harder to study it. Also, relative to the future, our study of the past has hit diminishing returns; most of the easiest insights about the past have already been found. If policy matters, then the future matters, because policies only affect the future. And unless we are very pessimistic or self-centered time-wise, the distant future matters the most, as with continued growth we expect the vast majority of people to live there. Furthermore, for most intellectuals most of the benefits that result from their policy discussions will happen with long delays; the path from an intellectual having a new policy idea, to publishing an article on it, to someone else reading that article, to that someone gaining policy influence, to them finally finding a chance to try that idea, to the tried policy having consequences, can take decades. If enormous changes will happen over the next decades, policy analyses that ignore such changes may be irrelevant or badly misdirected. It is thus important to try to foresee big upcoming changes, and their likely consequences.
Work
Authors: Hanson Robin
Published: November 2020

Today, successful people in very competitive jobs, professions, and industries often work a great many hours per week. This makes it plausible that selection for em productivity will produce a world of ems who are also very hard-working, even “workaholic,” perhaps working two-thirds or more of their waking hours, or 12 hours or more per day. Today, people who are seen as “workaholics” tend to make more money, to be male, and to focus their socializing on scheduled times such as holidays. They also tend rise early to work alone and they often use stimulants ( Kemeny 2002 ; Currey 2013 ). These patterns weakly suggest that ems will also tend to be early rising males who use simulating mental tweaks and socialize more at standard scheduled events. (How an em world might deal with unequal numbers of males versus females is discussed in Chapter 23 , Gender Imbalance section.) In the U.S. today, people aged 15 and older do work and “work-related activities” an average of 25 hours per week. They also spend 3 hours on school, 12 hours on housework, and 20 hours watching TV ( Bureau of Labor Statistics 2013 ). However, from around 1820 to 1850 in the U.S., France, and Germany, men worked at jobs an average of 68 to 75 hours per week ( Voth 2003 ). For ems, work levels might return these 1820 to 1850 levels, or even exceed them. Of course “work” time includes gossip, news-following, and unstructured exploration to the extent that these activities are productive enough for work purposes. In addition to working more hours, em workers are likely to accept less pleasant working conditions, if such conditions are substantially more productive. during the industrial era, we have spent much of our increasing wealth on more pleasant working conditions, as well as on more consumption variety and on working fewer hours. poorer and more competitive ems are likely to reverse these trends, and accept more workplace drudgery. It is not clear, however, how much productive drudgery exists in the em world.
Rules
Authors: Hanson Robin
Published: November 2020

As law serves important social functions in most farmer and industrial societies, law will almost certainly continue in the em world. As the em world is more competitive, when enforcement is insufficient law will select not only for honest success, but also for cheating to create apparent success. Thus the em world should be all the more eager to choose institutions of law and its enforcement to ensure that cheaters do not prosper. To the extent that em law continues to invoke the concept of the expectations or beliefs of a “reasonable person,” that person is likely to be an em. Also, we discussed in Chapter 10 , Rights section, the wide range of legal environments that might cover the creation of em copies. At the other end of life, it is much easier to determine the wishes of past ems. After all, ems who are archived or retired can be directly consulted about their wishes. For ems who are erased but have very close copies still living, those close copies could be consulted. Th e ability to read minds, even at shallow levels, can offer em law better ways to determine pain, intent, and lies. Archived copies of minds from just before a key event could be used to infer the intent and state of knowledge of ems at that key event. Spur split tests might be used to determine unconscious biases. More generally, wider surveillance makes it easier for ems to notice rule violations, and to identify guilty parties. Spurs can ensure privacy not only in legal advice, but also in law enforcement. For example, an isolated police spur could look in detail at arbitrary private data and then end quietly if it found no legal violation, revealing nothing to outsiders but that one fact. Some elements of law today can be understood as attempts to insulate legal decisions from coalition politics in the larger society. For example, rules of evidence prohibiting hearsay (i.e., indirect testimony) and statistical inferences about members of groups can be seen in this light, as can the habit of expunging juvenile records. As em clans may be even better at forming effective coalitions than are family clans today, em law may need to try harder to insulate legal decisions from political coalitions.
Treatment of dental caries in the preschool child
Authors: Fayle S A , Kandiah P
Published: November 2020

Dental caries is still one of the most prevalent pathological conditions in the child population of most Western countries. A UK study of children aged from 1.5 to 4.5 years demonstrated that 17% have decay, and a more recent survey of 3-year-old children in England found 12% to have decay with up to a third of 3-year-olds affected in the worst areas of the country (Public Health England 2014). Although the most recent surveys show a slow decline in decay levels, on average 25% of five-year-old children have decay, peaking at over 50% in the worst affected parts of England. Dental caries is associated with significant morbidity in children, and the treatment of dental caries (and its sequelae) is currently the most common reason for administration of general anaesthesia (GA) to children in the UK. Successfully managing decay in very young children presents the dentist with a number of significant challenges. This Chapter will outline approaches to the management of the preschool child with dental caries. Early childhood caries (ECC) is a term used to describe dental caries presenting in the primary dentition of young children. Terms such as ‘nursing bottle mouth’, ‘bottle mouth caries’, or ‘nursing caries’ are used to describe a particular pattern of dental caries in which the upper primary incisors and upper first primary molars are usually most severely affected. The lower first primary molars are also often carious, but the lower incisors are usually spared—being either entirely caries free or only mildly affected. Some children present with extensive caries that does not follow the ‘nursing caries’ pattern. Such children often have multiple carious teeth and may be slightly older (3 or 4 years of age) at initial presentation. This presentation is sometimes called ‘rampant caries’. However, there is no clear distinction between rampant caries and nursing caries, and the term ‘early childhood caries’ is widely recognized as a suitable all-encompassing term. In many cases, ECC is related to the frequent consumption of a drink containing sugars from a bottle or ‘dinky’ type comforters (these have a small reservoir that can be filled with a drink).
Advanced restorative dentistry
Authors: Kilpatrick N M , Burbridge L A L
Published: November 2020

The aim of this Chapter is to cover the management of more complicated clinical problems associated with children and adolescents: tooth discolouration, inherited enamel and dentine defects, hypodontia, and tooth surface loss. As there is considerable overlap in the application of the various restorative techniques, the Chapter is divided into two parts. The first outlines the clinical steps involved in the various procedures, while the second covers the more general principles of management of particular dental problems. It is not the remit of this Chapter to cover advanced restorative dentistry in detail, but many of the techniques and indications used in children are the same as those for adults (Boxes 11.1 and 11.2). With the aid of some clinical examples, eight of the restorative procedures will be described in simple stages. Omitted from this list are the stages involved in the provision of full crown restorations and bridgework, which are the specific remit of a restorative dentistry textbook. However, the provision of porcelain veneers, more commonly associated with adult patients, will be mentioned briefly. This technique involves the daily placement of carbamide peroxide gel into a custom-fitted tray on either the upper or the lower arch. As the name suggests, it is carried out by the patient at home and is initially done on a daily basis. • Mild fluorosis. • Moderate fluorosis as an adjunct to hydrochloric acid–pumice micro-abrasion. • Yellowing of ageing. • Single teeth with sclerosed pulp chambers and canals. • Selective bleaching for aesthetic purposes. • Upper impression and working model. • Soft mouthguard—avoiding the gingival tissues. • 10% carbamide peroxide gel. 1. Take an alginate impression of the arch to be treated and cast a working model in stone. 2. Relieve the labial surfaces of the teeth by about 0.5mm and make an acrylic pull-down vacuum-formed splint as a mouthguard with or without reservoirs for bleaching agent on the teeth requiring lightening. The splint should be no more than 2mm thick and should not cover the gingival tissues. It is only a vehicle for the bleaching gel and is not intended to protect the gingivae.
Periodontal diseases in children
Authors: Heasman P A , Waterhouse P J
Published: November 2020

Periodontal diseases comprise a group of infections that affect the supporting structures of the teeth: marginal and attached gingiva, periodontal ligament, cementum, and alveolar bone. Acute gingival diseases—primarily herpetic gingivostomatitis and necrotizing gingivitis—are ulcerative conditions that result from specific viral and bacterial infection. Chronic gingivitis, however, is a non-specific inflammatory lesion of the marginal gingiva which reflects the bacterial challenge to the host when dental plaque accumulates in the gingival crevice. The development of chronic gingivitis is enhanced when routine oral hygiene practices are impaired. Chronic gingivitis is reversible if effective plaque control measures are introduced. If left untreated, the condition invariably converts to chronic periodontitis, which is characterized by resorption of the supporting connective tissue attachment and apical migration of the junctional epithelia. Slowly progressing, chronic periodontitis affects most of the adult population to a greater or lesser extent, although the early stages of the disease are detected in adolescents. Children are also susceptible to aggressive periodontal diseases that involve the primary and permanent dentitions, and present in localized or generalized forms. These conditions, which are distinct clinical entities affecting otherwise healthy children, must be differentiated from the extensive periodontal destruction that is associated with certain systemic diseases, degenerative disorders, and congenital syndromes. Periodontal tissues are also susceptible to changes that are not, primarily, of an infectious nature. Factitious stomatitis is characterized by self-inflicted trauma to oral soft tissues and the gingiva are invariably involved. Drug-induced gingival enlargement is becoming increasingly prevalent with the widespread use of organ transplant procedures and long-term immunosuppressant therapy. Localized enlargement may occur as a gingival complication of orthodontic treatment. A classification of periodontal diseases in children is given in Table 12.1. Marginal gingival tissues around the primary dentition are more highly vascular and contain fewer connective tissue fibres than tissues around the permanent teeth. The epithelia are thinner with a lesser degree of keratinization, giving an appearance of increased redness that may be interpreted as mild inflammation. Furthermore, the localized hyperaemia that accompanies eruption of the primary dentition can persist, leading to swollen and rounded interproximal papillae and a depth of gingival sulcus exceeding 3mm.
Anomalies of tooth formation and eruption
Authors: Parekh S , Harley K
Published: November 2020

Both the primary and permanent dentitions may be affected by variations in the number, size, and form of the teeth, as well as the structure of the dental hard tissues. These variations may be exclusively genetically determined, brought about by either local or systemically acting environmental factors, or possibly a combination of both genetic and environmental factors acting together. The same interplay of influences may affect the eruption and exfoliation of primary teeth, as well as the eruption of permanent teeth. This Chapter considers a range of conditions involving abnormalities of the number, size, form, and structure of teeth and their eruption. It is important to be aware of the psychosocial aspect when meeting children and families affected by these conditions. We have too often heard stories of social isolation of even very young children as a result of their missing or discoloured teeth. In the case of discoloured teeth, parents and children have told us that they have been told off or teased for not looking after their teeth when the discolouration was intrinsic and unavoidable. Society’s preoccupation with ‘the perfect smile’ seems to increase; hence children denied access to aesthetic dental treatment may be genuinely disadvantaged. Wherever possible, we try to avoid the use of the word ‘normal’ in our clinical care, although the word will be used in this text. The vast majority of children with these conditions want to become ‘one of the crowd’. Thus we would speak, when offering restorative treatment for example, of making a smile ‘ordinary’ or ‘boring’. While investigating inherited conditions, it is important to make enquiries of both sides of the family tree equally. Not only does this ensure that the investigation is complete, but also it may help to alleviate any sense of ‘guilt’ felt by an affected parent. We have been questioned repeatedly about the possibility of genetic treatment for some of these inherited conditions. We are not aware of any progress in this direction at present. Hypodontia is the term most often applied to a situation where a patient has up to six missing teeth (excluding third permanent molars) as a result of their failure to develop.
The paedodontic–orthodontic interface
Authors: Gillgrass T J , Keightley A J
Published: November 2020

The long-term management of a child’s developing occlusion often benefits greatly from a good working relationship between the paediatric dentist and the orthodontist. Typical problems range from minimizing damage to the occlusion caused by enforced extraction of poor-quality teeth, through the management of specific local abnormalities such as impacted teeth, to referral for comprehensive treatment of all aspects of the malocclusion. This Chapter discusses the principles underlying when to refer to a specialist colleague, and looks at some common clinical situations where collaboration is often needed. From the age of 8 years all children should be screened for the presence of malocclusion when they attend for a routine dental examination. Although orthodontic treatment is usually carried out in the late mixed and early permanent dentition, some conditions benefit from treatment at an earlier stage. The screening need only be a brief clinical assessment, but it should be carried out systematically to ensure that no important findings are overlooked. An outline of a basic orthodontic assessment is given in Table 15.1. With practice this can be carried out quite quickly to give an overall impression of the nature and severity of a malocclusion. In essence, it comprises assessments of the following elements: • the patient’s awareness of their malocclusion (the complaint, if any) • their general level of dental awareness • an extra-oral examination of facial form (skeletal pattern and soft tissues) • general oral condition—oral hygiene, periodontal health, caries risk, and tooth quality • the presence or absence of all teeth • the alignment and form of each arch • the teeth in occlusion. Radiographs are not routinely used when screening for the presence of malocclusion and should only be taken when there is a clinical indication. A panoramic radiograph gives a useful general scan of the dentition and indicates the presence or absence of teeth. Modern digital panoramic radiographs are generally of good enough quality to assess for the presence of any abnormalities or gross caries. Intra-oral views may be indicated if specifically indicated by the history/examination (e.g. dental trauma) or for further investigation of pathology found on a panoramic image. A radiographic assessment must always be made when considering any extractions.
Medical disability
Authors: Hosey M T , Welbury R
Published: November 2020

There are many general medical conditions that can directly affect the provision of dental care and some where the consequences of dental disease, or even dental treatment, can be life-threatening. The increasing number of children who now survive with complex medical problems because of improvements in medical care present difficulties in oral management. Dental disease can have grave consequences and so rigorous prevention is paramount. The decline in childhood mortality has led to increasing emphasis on maintaining and enhancing the quality of the child’s life and ensuring that children reach adult life as physically, intellectually, and emotionally healthy as possible. Dental care can play an important part in enhancing this quality of life. Indeed, management within the primary dental services helps to ‘normalize’ life for these children who appreciate attending along with their family, even though sometimes they might still require specialist expertise. Although infant mortality rates (deaths under 1 year of age) have declined dramatically in the UK, death rates are still higher in the first year of life than in any other single year below the ages of 55 in males and 60 in females. The rates are highest for the very young. The main causes of death in the neonatal period (the first 4 weeks of life) are associated with prematurity (over 40%) and congenital malformations (30%). However, in the remainder of the first year the main causes of death occur at home and often nothing abnormal or suspicious is found (SUDI (sudden unexpected death in infancy) and SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome). Although the unexpected death of a child over 1 year of age is rare, a few infants still succumb to respiratory and other infective diseases (e.g. meningitis), congenital malformations, and accidents. (See Key Points 17.1.) All patients should have an accurate medical history taken before any dental treatment is undertaken. This is important for several reasons. 1. To identify any medical problems that might require modification of dental treatment. 2. To prioritize children who require intensive preventive dental care. 3. To identify children requiring prophylactic antibiotic cover for potentially septic dental procedures.
Architecture: Building Dynamics at the Micro-Scale
Authors: Letesson Quentin , Knappett Carl
Published: November 2020

In this section we tackle individual buildings. For domestic structures, the scale is that of the household, whereas for more monumental buildings—such as the palaces or the so-called ‘villas’—the association with a particular social group is still a matter of great debate, although the term ‘corporate group’ has been recently put forward (Driessen 2010; Schoep and Tomkins 2012). Bronze Age Crete presents an extremely rich architectural landscape; indeed, many buildings are sufficiently well preserved to allow detailed studies not only of their layout but also of their construction techniques (Devolder 2014; Shaw 2009). The discovery of the town of Akrotiri, buried under metres of tephra, has also provided plenty of evidence for architectural features—most notably perishable elements such as timber and roofing material—that have only left scant traces on Crete (Palyvou 2005; Tsakanika-Theochari 2006). Nevertheless, as for any other scale (see chapters 6 and 11), gaps in our archaeological data necessarily impede some analyses at the micro-scale. Often, in Minoan archaeology, the built environment has been partially recorded, and data collection varies from extremely detailed at some sites to almost non-existent for the large-scale early excavations of the beginning of the twentieth century. Furthermore, in terms of data resolution, Neopalatial architectural remains outweigh by far those of other periods, both in terms of quantity and quality. With the exception of the small settlements of Myrtos Fournou Korifi (Sanders 1990; Warren 1972) and Vasiliki (Zois 1992), Early Minoan architectural remains are relatively scarce. The situation is even more problematic for Middle Minoan buildings. Although Malia produced incredibly well-preserved remains of a Middle Bronze Age town, with buildings like Quartier Mu (Poursat 1978, 1996), the Bâtiment Dessenne (Devolder, Déderix, and Fadin 2012–13; Devolder, Caloi, and Gomrée forthcoming), the Agora (van Effenterre and van Effenterre 1969), and the Crypte Hypostyle (Amouretti 1970), we are not as fortunate with other sites. Middle Bronze Age remains were nonetheless excavated in many areas of the island, but later constructions often make detailed investigations almost impossible.
Minoan Group Design: The ‘View from the Bridge’
Authors: Palyvou Clairy
Published: November 2020

The aim of this chapter is to address the so-called Minoan Palace as a design object. To detect and unfold, in other words, the design logic that produced this hybrid configuration standing somewhere between a large building and an urban compound. As a starting point, it is pertinent to emphasize that the production of built space is a dynamic process involving poly-parametric problem solving. It requires formulating the tasks, checking requirements versus constraints, evaluating tolerance and capacity, and finally making choices and decisions based on optimization. Planning and designing architectural space, in other words, is a nebulous task, notoriously difficult to capture, describe, or teach for that matter. In Rowe’s (1982: 18) lucid account, it has ‘“wicked problems”: they have no definitive formulation, no explicit “stopping rule”, they have more than one plausible explanation, and their solutions cannot be strictly correct or false’. Moreover, this procedure does not take place once and for all. It is re-enacted every time one interferes with a work of architecture, even if only to whitewash a wall or block a door. Since buildings, as a rule, survive their original creators and users by several generations, such interventions are frequent and vary in scale, in compliance with the life cycles that the building will serve till it exists nomore or has become the object of archaeological investigation. With such variety of intertwined and obscured parameters at play, one wonders: what sort of answers do archaeologists expect to find from the surviving remnants of the architectural palimpsest they are dealing with? Is it because of the innate difficulties in capturing and analysing the dynamic process of architectural production that we have lingered for too long over the static data of the end product (see chapter 1)? The situation however is not that hopeless, for ‘architecture is not the field of creative freedom some have imagined it to be, but a system of rules for giving society what it expects in the way of architecture’ (Eco 1997: 194).
‘Fiery Technology’ and Transformative Placemaking: A Contextual Examination of a ‘Crematory’ at the Aztalan Site in Wisconsin
Authors: Goldstein Lynne
Published: November 2020

In their Introduction to this volume, the editors note that the contextual analysis of cremation requires an understanding that is broader and more complex than we generally assume. This chapter examines what has been termed a crematory at one site, and tries to determine the accuracy of this label and its cultural implications. The research included in this chapter is not European in focus, but instead looks at the North American site of Aztalan in southern Wisconsin. Aztalan has been excavated, studied, and interpreted over a period of more than 150 years, and serves as a useful contrast to some of the European sites in this volume because research at Aztalan has drawn on different kinds of analogies, modern allusions, and different histories of development of archaeological method and theory. However, because Aztalan is also a site that represents a widespread, structured, complex, agriculturally based society, it should provide a useful comparison with similar European groups, and expand the range of understanding and examples of cremation and fiery technologies. Of course, there is not a formal link between this site and those in Europe, but many of the same kinds of processes, and especially modern allusions and interpretations, apply to both. A discussion of cremation, copper working, and fiery displays is presented first, followed by details of the Aztalan example and the feature originally labelled a crematory (Rowe 1958). Following this, an outline of the range of Aztalan mortuary practices and pertinent ethnographic and ethnohistoric data highlights the importance of both copper and fire in the Mississippian context. Rather than simply looking at the Aztalan structure as an alternative mortuary location, this chapter tries to place the feature contextually in a much broader social, physical, landscape, and behavioural frame. Since 2000, archaeological approaches to the analysis of mortuary sites have become more sophisticated, both theoretically and analytically. In this process, scholars have begun to focus on the fact that cremation practices have often been presented and interpreted as nothing more than an alternative mortuary practice, and the presence of both cremation and inhumation in a single site is often seen as representing no more than choice or a reflection of changing practices over time.
Come Rain or Shine? The Social Implications of Seasonality and Weather on the Cremation Rite in Early Anglo-Saxon England
Authors: Squires Kirsty E.
Published: November 2020

Limited information is available pertaining to the weather and seasonal conditions of early Anglo-Saxon England. Environmental evidence and documentary sources indicate a downturn in climatic conditions from the fifth though to the early seventh century (Lamb 1981: 57–61; Carver 1989: 142; Dark 2000: 27–8; Hooke 2011: 315–16). This period was dominated by wet and cold conditions, which is in stark contrast to the preceding warmer and drier climate of Roman Britain (Dark 2000: 27). Documentary records from the Continent, dating from the fifth to the ninth century, reference several severe winters which seem to have increased in severity from the fifth through to the seventh century (Brooks 1949: 310–11). A particularly wet and cold year would have decreased agricultural output and made food storage extremely difficult (Koepke and Baten 2005: 147). These factors would have resulted in seasonal scarcities and, in the most severe of cases, famine would have ensued resulting in increased mortality rates. Environmental catastrophes would have also had a similar effect on human populations. The starkest example from this period has been dated to AD 536. It is thought that volcanic eruptions or extraterrestrial impacts from meteorites or comets led to environmental and socio-economic crises, particularly in Scandinavia (Gräslund and Price 2012: 431). Dendrochronology and literary sources provide evidence for lower temperatures, increased rainfall, and famine subsequent to this event, whilst social changes, such as the migration of villages to higher ground due to rising water levels and the adoption of new ideologies and funerary rites, have been associated with this environmental disaster (ibid.: 430, 432, 437–8). Seasonality also has an impact on health and disease. In unfavourable weather conditions and freezing temperatures, people are more inclined to spend longer periods of time indoors during the winter months (Roberts and Cox 2003: 37). In addition to the effects of the cold and wet conditions, increased time indoors can contribute to respiratory infections, such as influenza, the common cold, and sinusitis (ibid.: 37, 173). These conditions would have been made worse in early medieval homes due to indoor pollution from hearths and poor ventilation of these buildings.
The Biology of Fungi
Authors: Smith Stephanie J. , Manuel Rohini J.
Published: November 2020

Fungi are found ubiquitously in the environment such as soil, water, and food. There are an estimated 1.5 million fungal species worldwide, although this number is felt to be grossly underestimated and is regularly updated. Of these vast numbers, around 500 fungi to date have been implicated in human disease. As opposed to bacteria, which are prokaryotes, fungi are eukaryotes, meaning they have a well-defined nucleus and have membrane- bound organelles in the cytoplasm, including an endoplasmic reticulum and a golgi apparatus. In 1969, the scientist R. H. Whittaker first proposed that organisms be classified into five kingdoms: Monera (Bacteria), Protista (Algae and Protozoans), Plantae (Plants), Mycetae (Fungi), and Animalia (Animals). Since then, there have been dramatic changes to the classifications of fungi, largely due to the appliance of phylogenetic molecular techniques. This has resulted in variances to the number of phylums, and the species assigned to them. Table 3.1 shows the seven phyla of the Fungi Kingdom. The majority of fungi pathogenic to humans inhabit the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota phyla. Fungi used to be dually named if they had a pleomorphic life cycle with sexual/ asexual stages (teleomorph/ anamorph, respectively), which meant that fungi often had two names and were classed differently. This practice was discontinued in January 2013 after the International Commission on the Taxonomy of Fungi decided that a ‘one fungus, one name’ approach should be followed. Fungi can be unicellular (yeast) or multicellular (fungi). Yeasts may look globose in nature when grown, whereas multicellular fungi grow as tubular, filamentous material called hyphae that can create a branching, hyphal network called a mycelium. Hyphae may have septa that cross their walls or be nonseptate, which is a method of differentiating fungi. An early hyphal outgrowth from a spore is called a germ tube. The germ tube test can be used to differentiate the yeasts Candida albicans and Candida dubliniensis from other Candida species. The fungal cell wall is composed of chitin and glucans, which are different components to the human cell wall. This means that they can be an effective target for antifungal therapy.
Molecular Diagnostics
Authors: Clark Duncan , Wilks Mark
Published: November 2020

Molecular diagnostics in infection generally relate to the detection and/ or characterization of nucleic acid sequences of infectious agents in clinical samples which are used to provide: ● A laboratory diagnosis. ● A means of monitoring patients at risk of developing disease caused by a particular infection. ● A method to predict through genotypic analysis the susceptibility or resistance to appropriate treatments. ● A measurement of the response to therapy. A few key laboratory techniques underpin the majority of molecular diagnostic tests that are currently used in the field of infection, and include: ● Block-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR). ● Real-time PCR, including quantification. ● Strand displacement amplification. ● Transcription mediated amplification. ● DNA sequencing. These can be commercially sourced, which has the advantage of CE marking, or developed in-house, sometimes referred to as laboratory developed tests (LDTs). Whatever the source, the underlying principles are often the same and rigorous evaluation and validation is required for the adoption of any molecular test in the diagnostic laboratory. The majority of molecular diagnostic tests require the amplification of a specific DNA sequence and its subsequent detection by a variety of means. As such, small sequences of DNA from the infectious agent are amplified from a relatively low copy number in the clinical sample. For example, after thirty to forty cycles of PCR, a single copy of a sequence can theoretically be amplified to over a billion copies. This PCR product, commonly termed amplicon, can provide a template for any further testing with the same PCR test and therefore potentially act as a source for false positive results. Molecular diagnostic laboratories have requirements to keep the different stages of the molecular test separate and minimize the risk of amplicon contamination. Most facilities will have a ‘clean PCR laboratory’ that is used to store the clean reagents such as primers, probes, enzyme mastermixes, and no clinical samples, nucleic extracts, or amplification reactions are ever taken into this environment. Another laboratory is used for the nucleic acid extraction of the clinical samples and this environment is often used to set up the PCR reactions.
Tools in Infection Prevention and Control
Authors: Smith Stephanie J. , Cummins Martina N.
Published: November 2020

The Health Act (2008) Code of Practice on the Prevention and Control of Infections and Related Guidance provides a legal statutory requirement to which all hospital trusts in England should abide to ensure the safety of patients and healthcare workers. There are similar laws in both Scotland and Wales. Prevention and control of healthcare- associated infections (HCAI) remains integral to provide safe, quality patient care and requires an effective management team to implement the Act. In July 2015, a revised Code of Practice was introduced for the prevention and control of HCAI. The Code of Practice is also referred to as the ‘Hygiene Code’ and is regulated by the Care Quality Commission (CQC). A requirement of this Act is that the board of directors receive an annual report from the Director of Infection Prevention & Control (DIPC), with acknowledgement of the report and approval of a proposed programme of delivery prior to public release and implementation. All trusts must register with the CQC, whose role is to regulate and inspect care services in the public, private, and voluntary sectors in England. Part of the CQC assessment against the Act includes Outcome 8: Cleanliness and Infection Control. Under this outcome the trust is required to demonstrate compliance. The DIPC within an organization will assume responsibility to provide assurances that criteria are met by ensuring regular committee meetings to discuss compliance with standards, monitoring of trends, and provide strategies to reduce HCAI. The trust has to be made accountable for any infection control issues for their staff and patients and have evidence of a clear framework to provide assurances that safety has been met. The IPC Team will implement a plan across their trust that requires quarterly and annual reports to ensure implementation and remedial actions listed and acted on as appropriate. A care bundle is a set of evidence-based interventions that are grouped together to ensure that patients receive optimal management consistently. Ideally, each part of the bundle should be based on evidence from at least one systematic review composed of multiple randomized control trials. Care bundles have been implemented in England since June 2005.
Detecting Antimicrobial Resistance
Authors: Phee Lynette , Wareham David
Published: November 2020

● To optimize antimicrobial therapy for the management of individual patient’s infection. ● For surveillance purposes, which in turn inform local/national/international clinical guidelines. ● For the management of infection control and prevention. Broadly speaking, resistance is detected by observing its phenotypic expression (activity of the candidate drug(s) against the target bacterium) or detecting the underlying genotypic determinant (resistance genes). Commonly used methods in clinical diagnostic laboratories generally fall under the ‘phenotypic’ category. These share similar traits— ease of use, reproducibility, scalability, quick turnaround of results and relative low cost of materials/reagents required. Moreover, decades of experience and fine-tuning have seen them established as methods of choice in most microbiology laboratories. Most phenotypic test methods are reliant on the use of clinical breakpoints set by national and international bodies (e.g. EUCAST and CLSI) to determine susceptibility/resistance. These guidelines are regularly subject to updates with input from leading experts and latest research findings. It is important for clinical diagnostic laboratories to adhere to best practice guidance set out by these bodies and keep up-to-date with the latest guidelines. Growth characteristics (on artificial media) of the bacterium of interest are extremely important in conventional phenotypic methods. As this presents a big obstacle for slow growers and ‘unculturable’ pathogens (e.g. Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycoplasma spp.) it has led to the introduction of genotypic methods of resistance detection in the clinical diagnostic laboratory. meteoric rise in the world of microbiology. Compared with conventional phenotypic methods, molecular genotypic-based tests are better suited for automation and reduce dependence on skilled workers for result interpretation. They therefore deliver the rapid turnaround demanded by modern medicine. Antimicrobial susceptibility tests (ASTs) is a term used to describe a range of phenotypic methods that employ direct observation of the action of antimicrobials against a target microorganism. This is the most commonly used method in clinical diagnostic laboratories for detecting resistance in bacteria. A. Disc diffusion Growth medium: Standardized agar plates (usually unsupplemented, but addition(s) may be necessary for bacteria with specific growth requirements). Antibacterial component: Fixed dose in standard size circular paper discs or tablets.