bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
EARTHQUAKES AND OIL SPILLS: LESSONS FROM THE SANTA CLARA RIVER SPILL
Authors: White Jan L. , Wolfe Marti F.
Published: January 2013

On January 17, 1994, the Northridge earthquake struck southern California and caused multiple ruptures in a pipeline; the ruptures resulted in a 4607-barrel oil spill into the Santa Clara River. The veterinary mobile response vehicle equipped by the California Department of Fish and Game's Office of Oil Spill Prevention and Response (CDFG-OSPR) was called into use for immediate field stabilization. The International Bird Rescue Research Center of Berkeley, California, was hired to retrieve and provide rehabilitation care for the birds. Thirty-seven birds, mainly Virginia and Sora rails, were retrieved, and 24 birds were released; thus the survival rate was 65%. This spill effort was unique because, for the first time, blood samples were taken at the retrieval site; these samples revealed an early and very crucial “snapshot” of the affected birds. There was a noticeable difference in blood values compared with blood samples taken in wildlife care centers during previous oil spill responses. White blood cell counts were in the low to normal range (average 7800; range of 2700 to 12,700) (n = 20). Birds regained a predominant number of lymphocytes (over heterophils) in a shorter period of time than in other spills (i.e., 14.9 days versus 4 weeks). Methods for reducing stress in oiled birds were improved. Protocols for stabilization, stress reduction, housing, and handling used in this spill may serve to improve avian care and survival rates in subsequent spill response efforts.
ENHANCING THE IN-SITU BURNING OF FIVE ALASKAN OILS AND EMULSION1
Authors: Buist Ian , McCourt James , Morrison Jake
Published: January 2013

A study of the efficacy of in-situ burning (ISB) as a response tool for oils transported in Alaska has been partially completed. The first phase of the work involved laboratory burn tests to determine, with four oils, the limits to ignition imposed by evaporation and emulsification. Tests were also conducted to determine the effectiveness of chemical emulsion breakers in extending the ignition limits. The results demonstrate that the combination of evaporation and emulsification can severely curtail the ignition of slicks of the oils, but that application of an emulsion breaker can significantly extend the window of opportunity for ISB. Both the limits to ignition and the effectiveness of the emulsion breaker addition were found to be dependent on the oil type; oil-specific testing is required to ascertain the potential effectiveness of ISB and emulsion breaker addition. The second phase of the study comprised a series of burn tests with Alaska North Slope (ANS) crude in waves. For untreated slicks, burn efficiency and burn time both decreased with increasing wave energy; burn rate and the amount of residue increased with increasing wave energy. These effects were most pronounced for the thicker slicks and heavily weathered oil and emulsion. The application of a commercially available emulsion breaker permitted the successful burning of otherwise unignitable ANS emulsion slicks in waves. The results showed that mixing energy, either from mechanical agitation or from wave action, was necessary for the emulsion breaker to be effective. The most significant result was the successful burning in waves of a weathered 60% water ANS emulsion following the addition of a 1:500 dose of emulsion breaker with mixing energy imparted to the slick only by wave action.
THE HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY UNDERLYING ALERTNESS, RISK, AND PERFORMANCE IN THE OIL TRANSPORTATION INDUSTRY
Authors: Cantwell Vincent
Published: January 2013

Although human performance varies greatly between and even within individuals, it may nevertheless be generally predicted by a number of physiological and psychophysiological factors common to all humankind, regardless of the operational environment. These include the effects that circadian influences, disrupted sleep, sleep loss, and other factors, including caffeine, alcohol, and over-the-counter medications, have on performance, cognition, and response time and therefore the safety of any planned or emergency response operation. Given the environmental, litigious, and regulatory climate surrounding marine oil transportation and transfer operations, these factors must be incorporated into the operational environment by whatever means possible if maximal safety, awareness, and preparedness are to be assured. This may be accomplished at minimal cost, first, by training vessel and shore-side personnel in the underlying physiology and psychophysiology contributing to performance decrements and increased risk-taking behavior, and second, by enacting specific countermeasures that may be immediately implemented to mitigate the effects of fatigue and improve the quality of sleep achieved “off watch.” Given the research efforts identifying the performance-related problems in the marine environment and the reported efficacy of the solutions that are implemented, to further ignore these issues is considered irresponsible at all levels of management and operational responsibility.
PLANNING AND EXERCISING FOR SUCCESS: THE FOUR-STEP, SCENARIO-BASED PROCESS1
Authors: Ott Gary L. , Stalfort LCDR David C.
Published: January 2013

“No two spills are alike” is an important maxim in oil spill response that requires planners and responders alike to remain adaptable in their thinking regarding response actions. The majority of oil spills are small and can usually be addressed adequately within the confines of a rigid response management system. However, a large spill is not simply a “scaling up” of a routine, small spill. Large spills require input from many more stakeholders, public outrage is intensified, and often difficult decisions on environmental, economic, and emotional tradeoffs are necessary. As a result, a catastrophic spill requires responders to have more than the equipment-focused organizational skills that are satisfactory during routine spills. Complex spills require responders to have advanced interpersonal skills such as team building, risk communication, and organizational problem solving. It is very difficult, however, to evaluate the responder's grasp of these skills and ability to implement them, even though these skills are so critical to the success of a large spill response. The skills that often ensure success for small, frequently occurring spills are not the only skills required for success in a large, complex spill incident.

On the federal level, the area contingency planning process was established to plan for, respond to, and evaluate the adequacy of response capability in a given area. Currently, area contingency plans consist primarily of boiler-plate language, reference materials such as lists of resources, notification procedures, and general incident command system information, all written to satisfy the format required by the guidelines (U.S. Coast Guard, 1992). What is usually missing, however, is a useful discussion by the area committee on how responders might work together to solve problems and on detailed “how to” strategies for preventing a bad situation from getting worse. As a result, the requirement that there be an “assessment of the effectiveness of the plan” (Public Law 101-380, 1990 and 1992) may not be able to take into account an evaluation of the problem-solving and communications skills of the response organization, which is necessary for both the public perception and the reality of a successful complex spill response.

Our objective is to demonstrate how a four-step, scenario-based approach to training, contingency planning, and exercises can improve the response management system's (RMS) performance and ability to succeed. If the area committee is trained with an outward focus on stakeholder needs, develops a scenario-based contingency plan with its stakeholders, and exercises its response organization using these scenario-based processes, it will improve the effectiveness of a response to a major, complex spill.
CRUDE OIL VANADIUM AND NICKEL CONTENT CAN PREDICT EMULSIFICATION TENDENCY
Authors: Canevari Gerard P. , Fiocco Robert J.
Published: January 2013

Most crude oils in contact with water form water-in-oil emulsions. The stability of these emulsions will vary. When spilled crude oil emulsifies, it becomes viscous and expands in volume, becoming more difficult to recover, chemically disperse, or ignite. The ability to better predict the emulsion-forming behavior of a specific crude oil would greatly aid oil spill response decisions.

The problem is complex because of the various stabilizing mechanisms. This study identified surface active agents, that is, porphyrins, as key compounds that contribute to the emulsification of crude oil, particularly fresh crude oil. This research not only identified these metal-porphyrin agents but also determined the mechanism for their emulsion stabilization.

These porphyrin complexes are known to be associated with the metals vanadium and nickel. Because the vanadium and nickel levels of a specific crude oil are available from its published assay, they can be used to predict the emulsification of oil early in the spill.

The study has also established that a concentration level of over 15 ppm of vanadium and nickel is required to form a stable emulsion for fresh crude oil.

It should be stressed that the vanadium-nickel index applies to fresh crude oil. A second emulsification mechanism was also observed during this research that was related to the weathering of the crude oil. Extensive data to support this mechanism are presented and may provide a valuable tool for oil spill response.
EVOLUTION OF SHORELINE CLEANUP ASSESSMENT TEAM ACTIVITIES DURING THE BUFFALO 292 OIL SPILL
Authors: Martin Robert D. , Byron Ilene , Pavia Robert
Published: January 2013

The Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Team (SCAT) effort during the Buffalo 292 oil spill is noteworthy because of its evolution during the event and because it demonstrated the importance of having a pretrained pool of field personnel. During the initial phase of the spill, when oil was impacting the Galveston Bay entrance along the upper Texas coast, two teams were assembled by the Texas General Land Office and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration scientific support coordinators. The state of Texas had a large pool of trained SCAT personnel from which to draw because of extensive, interagency SCAT training conducted the previous summer. Although traditional SCAT methods proved too time-consuming to provide timely input early in the spill, they did provide information critical in gaining agreement on acceptable final cleanup levels.

In the spill's second phase, as it moved southwest toward Matagorda Island and points south, the SCAT effort became more streamlined and was better able to meet the time constraints of the incident action plan. Significant time savings were realized by using cellular telephones for debriefing SCAT personnel in the field, placing mile marker stakes along the beach front to help identify shore segments, using simplified SCAT reporting forms, and marking buried oil and other areas requiring prompt attention with survey flags. These adaptations allowed the SCAT reports to meet the incident action plan time frame and to provide direct visual input to the cleanup crews without the performing the time-consuming task of sketch mapping.
FEEDING THE MEDIA FRENZY WITHOUT GETTING BIT1
Authors: Milbury Jim
Published: January 2013

Responsible parties and response agencies often criticize the news media during and after a major pollution incident as being too aggressive, inaccurate in their reporting, and sometimes just downright rude. Some have termed the media a “pack of hungry wolves.” The analogy illustrates that one either feeds them information or they rip you apart in the morning newspaper or evening television broadcast. But how much of the “wolf pack” analogy is accurate, and how much of it is caused by our own inability to process our company's or agency's information in an accurate and timely manner during an emergency response? How do our preconceived attitudes toward the media affect how they portray our response actions? The proper attitude toward the news media, as well as proper preparation and implementation of plans, will result in an accurate reflection of actions and events during a spill response.
ASSESSMENT AND REMEDIATION OF A HEAVY OIL SPILL INTO GROUNDWATER AQUIFERS
Authors: Kennedy Alan , Sikstrom Calvin
Published: January 2013

The Cold Lake Production Project is located in northern Alberta, Canada. The project currently produces approximately 15,000 cubic meters of heavy oil per day. Production involves the injection of steam at very high pressure and temperature into the reservoir to reduce the viscosity of the heavy oil (the steam phase). The oil is then pumped to the surface through the same well bore in which the steam is delivered (the production phase). The process is termed “cyclic steam stimulation.”

During the winter of 1995 a series of six well casings under steam failed and released approximately 55,000 cubic meters of material to the environment. The material was a mixture of oil, saline produced water, and solids, including shale, glacial till, sand, and clay. The failures occurred at various depths from 95 to 250 meters below ground and traveled upward to the surface. The spill affected two local groundwater aquifers.

This paper describes the Cold Lake heavy oil production process, and then the chronology of events that resulted in the T-pad casing failure incident. Impact assessment methods, including surface geophysics, piezometer well installation, groundwater quality data collection, and contaminant fate and effects modeling, are presented, as well as remediation techniques. Much was learned from the T-pad incident regarding oil contamination within the groundwater aquifer systems.
LEAK DETECTION AND LEAK LOCATION IN UNDERGROUND PIPELINES1
Authors: Tafuri Anthony N. , Yezzi James J. , Watts Daniel J. , Carlyle John M.
Published: January 2013

The use of passive acoustic techniques to detect and locate leaks in underground pipelines that carry pressurized liquids is being investigated in a joint research program between the Department of Defense (DoD), the Department of Energy (DOE), and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Acoustic techniques permit more cost-effective, timely, and accurate leak detection and location than currently established techniques, such as methodologies based on volumetric changes and others based on pressure loss. An experimental facility for determining the capabilities and limitations of improved leak detection and leak location methods based on advanced acoustic principles is being developed at the EPA's research facility in Edison, New Jersey. Four representative pipeline systems will be installed and evaluated: one typical of the petrochemical industry, one typical of a navy/air force hydrant refueling system, one typical of an army central heating system, and a fourth typical of pipelines associated with low-level liquid wastes at DOE facilities. Results of acoustic experiments on an existing 2-inch-diameter test line have indicated that the fundamental theory behind passive acoustic leak detection and location is solid. Several different acoustic leak detection and location methods have been explored to date; data have been produced by all of the techniques, proving their usefulness.
NORTHERN SAUDI COASTAL RECOVERY IN THE AFTERMATH OF THE GULF OIL SPILL
Authors: Allen Kent W. , Williams Ronald O. , Kattan Yasser M.
Published: January 2013

The authors carried out a series of four beach surveys during a 3-year, 8-month period along 200 kilometers of coastline on the western Arabian to monitor effects of the Gulf War oil spill. The surveys were basically qualitative, but semiquantitative information was collected at 44 sites during the last three surveys. Assessments were based on a scheme that classified the impact level at the 44 sites into four hierarchical categories. The last three surveys were compared to demonstrate any improvement between surveys as well as to document the general prevailing conditions regarding bio- or mechanical degradation, persistence, and mobilization of the oil. The source of the oil was verified through laboratory analysis. The oil apparently became highly mobile during the hot summer months 15 months after the spill, and the levels of contamination were redistributed at the 44 selected sites. The trend during the overall study was toward improving conditions. The areas most impacted remain the low-energy back bays and the low-relief salt marsh habitats. The team members concluded that allowing natural degradation was effective in this remote coastal area. A pilot study is under way to determine the effectiveness of controlled breakup of the hard oil crusts that persist at some back bay locations.
OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY AND RESPONSE (OSCAR) MODEL SYSTEM: SENSITIVITY STUDIES
Authors: Aamo Ole Morten , Reed Mark , Downing Keith
Published: January 2013

OSCAR, an integrated system of models and databases, has undergone a sensitivity analysis as part of a calibration and testing program. A total of 48 simulations was performed in this sensitivity study, which focused on selected parameters that may directly or indirectly influence environmental evaluations: spreading, response actions, and threshold concentration for biological effects. The main conclusions from the study are as follows:The spreading coefficient, K, is a key parameter in calculating areal coverage and mass balance.The number of particles used to represent an oil slick has a minor influence on the mass balance, to the extent that it has an influence on the simulation of response actions.In calm weather, the effectiveness of mechanical cleanup only slightly affects the total amount of oil collected, but is decisive for the rate at which oil is collected. At higher wind speeds, the total amount of oil collected becomes a strong function of effectiveness.The amount of oil that is chemically dispersed by helicopter is more dependent on the delay due to trips for refueling and refilling than on the effectiveness of the dispersant.Oil spill response actions from boats may be sensitive to the number of particles used to represent the surface slick, depending on the search strategy specified. Response from aircraft is not sensitive to particle number.In the simulations performed here, the threshold concentration for biological effects only influences the fraction offish eggs and larvae in the interval 0 to 40 ppb-hours.

The sensitivity study has shown the model to be numerically robust. The importance of specifying realistic search strategies for response vessels has also been made clear.
EMERGING LATIN AMERICAN OIL SPILL REGULATION
Authors: Hosmer Alicia Watts , Ijjasz Ede J. , Fairweather Gwen
Published: January 2013

Environmental regulation in Latin America is currently undergoing radical change. In response to an increase in environmental awareness, internal pressures (including privatization of state-owned monopolies), and external standards (such as those of the North American Free Trade Agreement [NAFTA] Environmental Side Agreement and ISO 14000), a large number of Latin American countries have passed or will soon pass new environmental legislation. Although much of this legislation aims to develop or strengthen the general environmental frameworks of these countries, there are many emerging Latin American regulations and initiatives that deal specifically with oil spill prevention, preparedness, and response.

As a first step toward understanding the impacts that these oil spill regulations and initiatives will have for individual Latin American countries and the region, this paper seeks to identify and explore the current forces driving the increase in oil spill regulation in Latin America; examine some new oil spill regulatory initiatives taking place in individual countries, including Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Argentina, and Bolivia; review relevant international treaties and regional initiatives; and discuss anticipated future trends for the region as a whole.
THE ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR OF ORIMULSION® SPILLED ON WATER1
Authors: Ostazeski Stanley A. , Macomber Scott C. , Roberts Lyle G. , Uhler Allen D. , Bitting Kenneth R. , Hiltabrand Robert
Published: January 2013

Orimulsion is a slurry of 70% bitumen emulsified and stabilized in water. For some electric utility companies Orimulsion has been successfully marketed as a cost-effective alternative to traditional heavy fuels used as feedstock for the generation of electric power. Battelle Ocean Sciences has investigated the fate and behavior of Orimulsion spilled in water using a tiered approach that has included laboratory physical and chemical characterization studies as well as meso-scale (flume) studies conducted with both fresh water and seawater. The chemical analysis of the bitumen obtained from fresh Orimulsion indicates that the bitumen is a highly weathered product. The chromatographic results obtained from the bitumen are characterized by an absence of alkanes and a weathered distribution of the petrogenic aromatic hydrocarbons. Flume studies conducted in seawater demonstrate that after an Orimulsion release the coalescence of the bitumen occurs rapidly. In seawater the bitumen droplets were observed to increase in size from a mean droplet size of approximately 12 pm in diameter to approximately 140 pm in diameter following 8 hours of exposure. Coincident with the bitumen coalescence, bitumen is removed from the water column through the formation of a surface slick. In flume studies conducted with fresh water the bitumen dispersed and the mean particle size remained approximately 12 μm.
ARE AUTOMATED SPILL RESPONSE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS OVERKILL?
Authors: McCreery Scott L.
Published: January 2013

Automated spill response management systems (ASRMSs) represent a significant step forward in oil spill response management. They combine a group of computer software tools that allow members of the spill management team to gather and share data and assimilate information more efficiently and effectively, automating information management within the framework of the response organizational structure. They also allow a broad range of electronic information to be depicted graphically in a geo-referenced mapping system so as to display a clear picture of the incident situation to the unified commanders and the public. However, efforts by the software development industry to introduce ASRMSs to the spill response community have been marked by defeat. The author, who has been involved in the development of several ASRMSs, sees this as a function of reluctance on the part of the oil industry and the oil spill response industry to accept new ways of managing a spill response. The author also views these failures as resulting from the temptation of software developers to build big, expensive ASRMSs that attempt to be all things to all people.
KEEPING UP WITH TECHNOLOGY—OR CAN WE?
Authors: Stankovich Gary J.
Published: January 2013

Is technology developing faster than it can be effectively used and managed in oil spill planning and response? Satellite communications, global positioning systems (GPS), geographical information systems (GIS), and advanced spill management computer software, to name a few technologies, are currently available to the response community—and more is on the way. This paper will discuss some successes and pitfalls of new technology implementation in emergency management teams. Questions regarding how technology is selected, tested, and implemented will be raised from the perspective of a purchaser or implementer rather than that of a technology developer or provider. Discussion will also include the practical experiences of a spill management team in its attempts to use some of the latest technologies. Finally, suggestions that may lead to more practical and effective selection and use of new technologies are presented.
DEVELOPING A GLOBAL TRAINING PROGRAM FOR BEING PREPARED TO RESPOND TO MARINE POLLUTION SPILLS1
Authors: Slater Joseph Edward , Murray Patrick J. , Troy Steven A.
Published: January 2013

On May 13, 1995, the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation, 1990 (OPRC) of the International Maritime Organization (1MO) came into force. The main objectives of the OPRC are to facilitate international cooperation and mutual assistance in preparing for and responding to major oil pollution incidents and to encourage states to develop and maintain the capability to deal with oil pollution emergencies. The functions assigned to the Oil Pollution Coordination Center located in IMO's Marine Environment Division include providing information services, education and training, technical services, and technical assistance to states. The OPRC convention obliges governments to establish a program of exercises for oil pollution response organizations and training of relevant personnel. It also called on IMO to develop a comprehensive training program in cooperation with interested governments and industry.

This paper discusses the progress achieved in the development of the training program, which consists of the IMO model courses on marine pollution preparedness and response, and gives an overview of its implementation strategy.
THE USE OF EVENT TREES IN OIL SPILL PREVENTION APPLICATIONS1
Authors: Novack Steven D. , Siu Nathan O. , Hill Susan G.
Published: January 2013

This paper investigates the applicability of event tree analysis, a method for identifying and analyzing potential accident scenarios, to the problem of oil spill prevention. It is shown that when a generic set of safety functions (identified from an analysis of 10 oil spill case studies) is used, event trees do provide an accurate and useful representation of the sequences of events leading up to and following an oil spill. Possible insights resulting from an event tree analysis and particular insights from the case studies are discussed.
EDIBLE OILS: ARE THEY REALLY THAT DIFFERENT?
Authors: Rigger Don
Published: January 2013

Congress passed the Edible Oils Regulatory Reform Act (EORRA) requiring regulatory agencies to differentiate between edible oils and petroleum oils when developing regulations because of the perception that edible oils are less toxic and less persistent. Recent EPA responses to vegetable oil spills on inland waters have highlighted some similarities and distinctions between edible oil spills and the more common petroleum oil spills.

This paper looks at this issue broadly and focuses on the underlying premise of the EORRA that edible oils are less harmful and therefore should be regulated less rigorously than other classifications of oil. The paper discusses observations made during spill cleanup operations and examines the practical matter of cleaning up edible oil spills. The paper will also make recommendations for additional research that would benefit the response community.
THE EVOLUTION OF MARINE FIRE-FIGHTING CONTINGENCY PLANNING AND EXERCISING AT THE MARINE SAFETY OFFICE SAN FRANCISCO BAY
Authors: Bateman V. Frank , Montoro Donald P.
Published: January 2013

Because no one entity has the resources to deal with a major vessel fire, contingency planning and exercising within the port community are critical. Achieving the highest level of response readiness is an evolutionary process made more difficult by today's fiscal constraints on both government and industry. This paper will discuss the steps taken over the last 15 years (workshops, table-top exercises, hands-on drills) to develop a comprehensive marine fire-fighting contingency plan that was tested during a recent area PREP exercise. The PREP drill scenario involved a collision between two vessels that resulted in a large spill and fire well away from shoreside access. Participants included over 200 personnel representing 50 federal, state, and local agencies.

Shipboard flammable liquid fires are never easy to extinguish; however, the degree of difficulty escalates exponentially when an event does not occur pierside with adequate access for local fire departments. Mutual aid agreements and state-of-the-art response strategies and equipment are essential to resolving this unique situation. Proper use of the incident command system helps ensure smooth, efficient waterside command and control of the fire attack assets. Special logistics systems and staging techniques need to be developed to bring adequate water and foam delivery (8000+ gpm) resources to bear on an away-from-shore incident. These requirements were shown to be well within the response capabilities of the San Francisco Bay fire-fighting community when dedicated fireboats and vessels-of-opportunity were converted to foam master stream delivery platforms.
DEVELOPMENT OF A DISPERSANT DOCTRINE IN THE GULF OF MEXICO
Authors: Calhoun CAPT James W. , Glenn CDR Stephan P. , Henderson LCDR Lynn M. , Duncan Welcome T. , Johnson Cheryl
Published: January 2013

To minimize the environmental damage caused by catastrophic oil spills, the response community must work together to keep spilled oil from impacting sensitive areas and natural resources. Since no response method is 100% effective, it is essential to consider the use of all available cleanup methods simultaneously. Preapproval for the use of dispersants by on-scene coordinators (OSCs) is necessary to maximize the benefits of dispersant application in a major coastal oil spill, and such preapproval is the responsibility of federal and state agencies.

Over the past several years, the petrochemical industry, the response community, and the Region VI Regional Response Team (RRT VI)1 have studied the efficacy of various cleanup technologies. On the basis of their findings, in January 1995 RRT VI gave OSCs authority to use dispersants off the coasts of Texas and Louisiana under specific conditions. This was a significant shift from past philosophies, under which OSCs relied almost exclusively on mechanical recovery methods. Concurrently, industry has developed reliable and dedicated resources for the aerial application of dispersants in the Gulf of Mexico and has strategically located stockpiles of dispersants throughout the Gulf region. Delivery aircraft and trained controllers have been retained by industry to maintain a readiness and response posture that will maximize the effectiveness of an aerial application.
INVESTIGATION OF THE NATURAL CLEANUP MECHANISM OF SPILLED OIL IN SEA
Authors: Yakabe Yoshikuni , Kusumoto Ken-ichi , Takeuchi Shin-ich , Hasegawa Etsuko
Published: January 2013

A field survey of the Wakaura Bay oil spill and a laboratory biodegradability test of weathered crude oil were carried out to understand the natural cleanup mechanism of oil spilled in the sea. The petroleum hydrocarbons were eliminated from the intertidal sediment to nearly the same level as the uncontaminated sediment within 1 year. The elimination rates of both n-alkanes and branched alkanes were faster than those of the aromatic compounds. More than 20 times higher concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons than those in the uncontaminated organism were observed in the bivalve Septifer virgatus at the spill sites after 1 month. These petroleum hydrocarbons were eliminated from the organisms to nearly the same level as those in uncontaminated organisms within 1 year. The elimination rates of n-alkanes and alkylated naphthalenes were faster than those of other compounds, and the rate of alkylated dibenzothiophenes was slower.

A laboratory biodegradability test was conducted by using seawater collected from the spill site to examine the importance of biodegradability in the natural cleanup of spilled oil. The overall ultimate biodegradability estimated from oxygen consumption was 58% in 56 days. The oil constituents, except for the high-molecular-weight aromatics, were completely biodegraded within 56 days. The biodegradation rate increased in the following order: n-alkanes, alkylated naphthalenes, alkylated benzothiophenes > branched/cyclic alkanes > alkylated phenanthrene/anthracene, alkylated dibenzothiophene > high-molecular-weight aromatics.

It was concluded that Wakaura Bay was purified of the oil found in the sediment and benthic organisms within 1 year and that biodegradation played the most important role in the purification process.
SHARING RESPONSIBILITY FOR PREVENTION AND RESPONSE WITH YOUR TRADING PARTNERS1
Authors: Sample Michael J.
Published: January 2013

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 designates vessel and facility owners and operators as the “responsible parties” for cleaning up oil spills. This is true even if the spill was caused by someone else. OPA liability is “strict;” there is no need to show fault on the part of the “responsible party.”

Other parties, such as cargo owners, vessel charterers, and terminal operators, although not obligated to respond under OPA, may find themselves pressured to assist in a response out of fear of liability under state law or out of concern for protecting their “license to operate.” This potential exposure has provided an incentive for cargo owners to select safe operators to transport their cargoes, for terminal operators to screen the vessels calling at their facilities, and so on.

If an OPA responsible party is responding to a spill that it did not cause, or if a “nonresponsible party” joins the response effort, such a party should take steps to protect itself against the liabilities associated with spill response and to position itself to recover its response costs. This paper discusses those protective measures, as well as OPA's cost recovery provisions and the contractual rights of cost recovery that may exist in charter parties and other contracts between trading partners. Although the focus is on U.S. law, especially OPA, some of the situations discussed and the proposed protective measures may be applicable to those doing business elsewhere in the world.
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: NEW STRATEGIES FOR COMPANIES OPERATING IN DEVELOPING NATIONS
Authors: Armstrong Louis J. , James Steven E.
Published: January 2013

As oil exploration and development move into less developed countries, many companies are faced with the problem of environmental compliance. New countries, such as Azerbaijan, and rapidly developing countries, such as Indonesia, have the potential to change the structure of oil supply and demand in the future, but have not yet fully developed the environmental parameters that will govern oil and gas operations. Environmental managers of companies doing business or considering investing in these new markets now have new environmental issues to consider. The types of issues often encountered include the following:Should companies apply the same environmental standards and environmental management to their activities in less developed countries as they do in their own country?How do companies protect themselves from evolving and changing regulations in developing nations?What is the role of Western companies in transferring environmental technologies to developing nations?

To answer these questions, companies need to apply new techniques for understanding environmental regulations. They need to not only collect information on applicable environmental rules and regulations but also understand the history or background of the regulations; the external forces, both regional and international, driving the regulations; the institutional capabilities of the regulatory bodies; and the regulatory standards being applied by their peers.

Once the regulatory climate is understood, companies need to develop a strong environmental management strategy that should include, incorporate, or allow for the development of an environmental management system; the prioritization of short-term liabilities, such as oil spills or accidental releases; the development and application of appropriate standards when none exist; and the development and implementation of an institutional strengthening program.
ICS CONTRIBUTES TO THE NORTH CAPE OIL SPILL RESPONSE1
Authors: Burke LT Tina M. , Flynn LT John P.
Published: January 2013

In recent years, the usefulness of the incident command system (ICS) has received much attention. Much of the oil industry and several government agencies involved in all types of emergency response have been using ICS for many years. In addition, the U.S. Coast Guard formally adopted the national interagency incident management system (NIIMS) ICS as the response management system of choice in February of 1996.

The response to the tank barge North Cape grounding was a complex multiagency effort that brought with it many of the issues and problems responders face when dealing with crisis situations. This paper describes the ICS-based organization that was established to respond to the major North Cape oil spill, analyzes the organization compared to standard ICS, and discusses how the ICS framework and principles contributed to the success of the response. It also explains how closer conformity to standard ICS could have remedied many of the issues that later surfaced as lessons learned, resulting in improved response efficiency. The North Cape response provides a vivid example of how ICS is a helpful management tool that, if rigorously learned and applied in a widespread fashion, can greatly enhance the nation's oil spill response posture.
EFFECTS OF OPA 90 RESPONSE PLANNING ON REPORTED SPILLS
Authors: Stalcup Dana , Yoshioka Gary , Kaiman Brad , Hall Adam
Published: January 2013

In the years following the passage of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90), government agencies and regulated parties in the United States have begun to implement spill prevention and preparedness programs. For this analysis, 7 years of oil spill data collected in the Emergency Response Notification System were used to measure the impact that OPA 90 has had on preventing large spills. Furthermore, relationships among the types, sources, and location of spilled oil are characterized. A comparison of the number of reported 10,000-gallon oil spills for the years 1992-1995 to that number for the years 1989-1991 indicates a decline, not only for vessels but also for pipelines and fixed facilities. The decline in large oil spills to water from various sources appears to indicate that the efforts of government and industry have had a measurable impact on environmental protection.
BOYD'S CREEK OIL SPILL REMOVAL SITE, GLASGOW, KENTUCKY
Authors: Rosen Robert N.
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the ongoing oil spill removal action conducted by EPA Region IV in Glasgow, Kentucky. The discharge source is an improperly abandoned oil well that is leaking crude oil through fractures in the limestone bedrock. The discharge is carried to the surface in a spring, which then flows directly into Boyd's Creek and Barren River Lake, a recreational use lake managed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Some of the unique technical and policy issues of this removal action include the appropriateness of using Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF) monies on this nontraditional “oil spill;” difficulties recovering the product from the karst features; cost recovery and responsible party (RP) identification; and concerns over Emergency Response Program involvement in the long-term operation and maintenance of the system.
LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN PIPELINE RUPTURE, CHATTANOOGA, TENNESSEE
Authors: Rosen Robert N.
Published: January 2013

An 8-inch oil pipeline ruptured on Lookout Mountain in Chattanooga, Tennessee, in February 1996. The resulting response was complicated by the unusual geology at the spill site as well as by the proximity of surface waters and sensitive natural resources. Lookout Mountain contains extensive karst cave systems featuring nationally renowned tourist and spelunking destinations. The caves are also a natural resource managed by the National Park Service.

A discharge of approximately 65,000 gallons of kerosene-fuel oil mix sprayed into a small ravine that drains toward the nearby Tennessee River. Responders arrived on scene promptly but found little product at the rupture site and so focused their preliminary efforts on containment and cleanup of free product in the ravine. As surface cleanup progressed, it became apparent that most of the discharge was unaccounted for. Responders quickly associated site geology with the “missing” product and feared that oil had entered the cave systems beneath the discharge zone. This paper discusses the strategies used and the problems encountered in attempting to track and clean up the discharge as well as some of the issues surrounding the impact on natural resources.
PLANNING AND RESPONSE CONSIDERATIONS OF A METROPOLITAN SPILL
Authors: Perkins K. Tim , MacArthur Jon D. , Henning Tom
Published: January 2013

A spill in a major metropolitan area, although not often considered a significant threat, still requires appropriate planning and response. Currently, most spill planning tends to focus on more rural river and coastal environments. However, lessons learned from a spill in the greater Los Angeles area provide several unique opportunities to improve contingency planning, area plans, and response operations in a very practical sense. In this case, an underground pipeline was punctured by excavation equipment, and the spill entered a 96-inch underground storm sewer and traveled approximately 2 miles. It then continued another 12 miles through creeks and rivers and was eventually stopped approximately one-half mile before it reached the Pacific Ocean. The following lessons were learned from this incident:The designation of a responsible party and the allocation of response costs should address third parties in an equitable way.Initial responders must communicate all pertinent facts to the spill management team.Response plans should address methods to prevent oil from entering storm sewers and response procedures to clean them if it does occur.Response plans should address the special safety requirements of confined space entry, in the unlikely event that oil must be removed and cleaned up in these areas.The area contingency plan should identify and address the response requirements of noxious weeds that may be present in oiled vegetation.The impact of oil spill response operations on communities, such as noise and traffic, becomes a major factor in metropolitan areas and must be addressed by the responsible party.
FIELD EXPERIENCE WITH CONTROLLED BURNING OF INLAND OIL SPILLS
Authors: May Victoria L. , Wolfe James R.
Published: January 2013

Marathon Pipe Line Company (MPL) uses controlled burning as a means to clean up small oil spills and their residues in its gathering systems in oil-producing areas of southern Illinois. Controlled burning can be a quick, effective, and environmentally sound method of remediating small inland oil spills in rural areas. This paper focuses on actual field decision making and experience with controlled burning. MPL's evaluation process in deciding to conduct burning of a spill is discussed in detail. Such factors as the volume of oil released, the surrounding terrain, current and predicted weather, the accessibility of the oil, public health and safety, and proper permission to burn are considered. The decision to burn must be made within a few days of the spill because the light components of the crude oil rapidly volatilize, making the oil much less flammable and less likely to burn completely. When the decision is made to burn, additional control factors must be considered during the conduct of the burn, such as safe burn initiation, use of firebreaks and other fire control methods, burn direction versus wind direction, generation of airborne embers, and site security. Finally, postburn evaluation is discussed. Case studies of actual MPL-conducted burns and postburn analytical data of the burned areas are presented and compared to current Illinois cleanup criteria. The data indicate that controlled burning followed by surface bioremediation can quickly and successfully remediate small crude oil spill sites to Illinois cleanup standards.
THE APPLICATION OF IN-SITU BURNING TO A LOUISIANA COASTAL MARSH FOLLOWING A HYDROCARBON PRODUCT SPILL: PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT OF SITE RECOVERY
Authors: Pahl James W. , Mendelssohn Irving A. , Hess Thomas J.
Published: January 2013

The high degree of physical disturbance associated with conventional responses to oil spills in wetlands is driving the search for alternative cleanup methodologies. In March 1995, in southwestern Louisiana, a spill of gas condensate product into a brackish marsh at Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge was removed by in-situ burning. A monitoring program was established to examine the recovery of the marsh site. Three treatments were examined: (1) condensate-impacted and burned, (2) condensate-impacted and unburned, and (3) a reference that was neither exposed to the condensate nor burned. In March, July, and October 1995, vegetation plots were analyzed for biomass and stem density. Permanent quadrats were surveyed in July and October for total and species-specific percent cover. Although vegetation recovery was apparent 7 months after the burn, the burn treatment resulted in significantly lower biomass and stem density compared with both unburned treatments. In addition, burning led to conditions that favored initial recolonization by the sedge Scirpus robustus in a site previously dominated by the grasses Distichilis spicata and Spartina patens. However, biomass and stem density data suggest that D. spicata is regaining dominance. On the basis of these initial results, observations made in 1996 at the study site, and previous research, it is expected that in-situ burning will be successful at this site.
STATE-OF-THE-ART OR JUNK SCIENCE? THE NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT MODELS1
Authors: Bennett James F. , Logan Dick , Heimowitz Paul
Published: January 2013

In May 1996, the Department of the Interior (Interior) issued final natural resource damage assessment (NRDA) regulations enabling trustees to use new computer models in determining claims against parties responsible for spills. The new regulations incorporate a number of advances in the fields of computer technology, data management, data visualization, and graphic user interfaces. The models integrate spill simulation capability with a national coastal geographic information system (GIS) and expansive databases of chemical and petroleum characteristics, resource valuation, and restoration costs.

The development and issuance of the regulations have been the focus of much attention and controversy. Interior heralds the models as “state-of-the-art” procedures, whereas other groups attack the models as “junk science.” This paper briefly examines the principal arguments both supporting and attacking the new models. It also provides the results of model application to a database of real-world historical spill events in coastal and marine environments. Finally, model output is compared to damage claims developed using other simplified procedures (i.e., compensation formulas) in the state of Washington.
SETTING OBJECTIVES IN A UNIFIED COMMAND: THE “COST” OF LEADERSHIP1
Authors: Hereth Capt. Larry L.
Published: January 2013

This paper is written to help unified commanders improve their skills at setting objectives in a crisis management environment. Using the National Interagency Incident Management System (NIIMS) ICS framework, a process is described and clarified and job aids are offered. The recommended steps are easily remembered by the acronym COST: Constraints, Objectives, Strategy, Tactics and assignments.

The concept of constraints is discussed in the context of a multiorganization response. It must be understood by all unified commanders if they are to do their job effectively and provide leadership from the panic through the project phase of a large pollution response. Equally important is the skill of setting good objectives to drive the organization in the desired direction. Five options for setting objectives are offered to facilitate the process and to ensure that the concerns of all stakeholders are considered.

The concepts of strategy (how to accomplish an objective) and tactics (who will do what task) are also defined and briefly discussed. Understanding these two steps and how they fit into a cyclical pattern is important and can help a response organization be more effective and efficient.