bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Superconductivity
Authors: Karlsson Erik b.
Published: November 2023

Magnetism and superconductivity are strongly interrelated; magnetic fields can destroy superconductivity, and superconductivity can prevent a magnetic field from entering into a conductor. Therefore it is evident that nuclear techniques, which measure magnetic fields and their fluctuations at local points of the probe nuclei, can provide detailed information on the superconducting state in various materials. NMR was applied at an early stage to study the Knight shift and nuclear spin relaxation around the superconducting transition temperature T  c in conventional superconductors. The existence of the so-called Hebel-Slichter anomaly (Hebel and Stichter 1959) in the relaxation rate below T  c was one of the strongest proofs of the validity of Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory for these materials since it demonstrated the nature of the current carriers as quasi-particles. Of the nuclear spin methods discussed here, there has been only marginal use of DPAC for conventional superconductors and the same seems to be true for investigations of the high T  c superconductors (HTSCs), whereas μSR has emerged as one of the major spectroscopies in this field.
The classical logic
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz
Published: November 2023

This chapter contains background material. It collects and organizes the fundamentals of standard logic in a way which will make it easier to compare and distinguish between the classical and many-valued logics. The classical propositional calculus (CPC) is a basic system of the two-valued logic. The standard line of approach here is a theory of the following sentence connectives taken from everyday reasoning.
Lukasiewicz logics
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz
Published: November 2023

The generalization of his three-valued construction (see Chapter 2) led Lukasiewicz in 1922 to the family of many-valued matrices, both finite and infinite valued (countable and of the power of continuum); see Lukasiewicz (1961 p.135). The propositional calculi of Lukasiewicz and the related algebras have undoubtedly an important place in the history of logical many-valuedness. An account of the work of Lukasiewicz and his followers is given below.
Post logics
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz
Published: November 2023

Post (1920, 1921) is the author of a class of finite-valued, functionally complete propositional logics. In his constructions Post was inspired by the well-known formalization of the classical logic presented in Principia Mathematica (Whitehead and Russell (1910)) and by the truth-table method of verification of logical laws. In this chapter we survey the work of Post and his followers. Given the history of the subject, special attention will be put on recent algebraic interpretations and formalizations of Post logics which, as one may see in 14.3 and 14.4, are oriented almost entirely towards applications.
Standard properties of many-valued constructions
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz
Published: November 2023

The interpretation principle of propositional languages stated in 3.1 is a generalization of the truth-functionality principle constituting the base of matrix description of the classical propositional logic. The link in question is somehow manifested by the fact that most of the many-valued constructions known are ‘conservative’ extensions of the classical logic matrices. Rosser and Turquette (1952) determined the conditions that make finitely valued propositional logics resemble more the CPC, and hence simplified the problem of axiomatization and also the question of their extension to predicate logics (compare 11.3).
Fuzzy sets and Zadeh logic
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz
Published: November 2023

As is generally acknowledged, the possibility of applying the apparatus of traditional formal logic to the analysis of everyday reasoning is very limited. However, recent developments in logical studies have considerably extended it. Our aim in the present chapter is to account for one of the most interesting but simultaneously most controversial conceptions inspired by logical many-valuedness: the fuzzy set theory and logics based on it.
Applications and significance of the topic
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz
Published: November 2023

Projections of the expected applications always constituted a distinguished motivation for many-valued logical constructions. At first, these conceptions, as with Lukasiewicz, were a philosophical revolution, but there were also much restricted ones, as with Kleene or Post. And, it is not at all easy to answer the question of whether and to what extent the expectations of the authors of several many-valued logical systems actually came to fruition. Independently of that, however, some concrete, worthy applications of many-valued logics and algebras can be indicated; for example, the use of logical matrices to demonstrate the independence of axioms, to formalize (some) intensional functions or the application of Moisil’s and Post’s algebras in electrical network theory. A little look at those uses, at the very least, gives a view of the significance of the topic. Just for this purpose we will present some examples of the applications of many-valued matrices and algebras to philosophical logic and to such practical areas as switching theory and computer science.
Extending the Curry-Howard Interpretation to LDS Systems
Authors: Gabbay Dov M
Published: November 2023

This chapter extends the Curry-Howard interpretation to logics weaker and stronger than intuitionistic logic. The idea of the Curry-Howard interpretation is very simple. A formula of the implicational fragment of logic is regarded as a type.
Labelled Analytic Deduction
Authors: Gabbay Dov M
Published: November 2023

This chapter develops tableaux methodology for Labelled Deductive Systems. It is based on a paper of D’ Agostino and Gabbay.
Church-Rosser λ-theories, Infinite λ-terms and Consistency Problems
Authors: Berarducci Alessandro , Intrigila Benedetto
Published: November 2023

We treat a general technique to obtain Church-Rosser extensions of the λβ-calculus, based on the notion of “confining class” and on an infinitary version of λ-calculus. We apply the technique to find a large class of terms which can be consistently equated to every other term, and we also show that many equations between λ-terms can be consistently added to the the λβ--calculus.
Baire Category for Monotone Sets
Authors: Blass Andreas
Published: November 2023

We study Baire category for downward-closed subsets of 2w, showing that it behaves better in this context than for general subsets of 2w. We show that, in the downward-closed context, the ideal of meager sets is prime and &-complete, while the complementary filter is g-complete. We also discuss other cardinal characteristics of this ideal and this filter, and we show that analogous results for measure in place of category are not provable in ZFC.
Atomic Lineshapes
Authors: Molisch Andreas F , Oehry Bernhard P
Published: November 2023

It is already evident from the basic physical picture developed in Chapter l that mainly two parameters determine radiation trapping: the strength of the absorption and the spectral shape of the absorption. The strength of the absorption is characterized by the opacity of the atomic vapour, which is proportional to the absorption cross-section of the atoms and to the density of atoms. Hence, before we enter the mathematics of the trapping problem, we first have to determine the absorption cross-section and lineshape. We will not go into details (these are beyond the scope of this book), but only review the facts needed to approach our problem. In addition, there is another motivation for this chapter. It is not only nice but absolutely necessary to have all required formulas compiled in one consistent notation. One has to take really great care not to become completely lost by widely differing notation in the literature—the cgs-system and esu-units versus the SI-system, frequency versus angular frequency, atomic constants referenced to photon density, to energy density or to light intensity, the ubiquitous factor of two for polarization, and the like.
Fitting Equations and Physical Interpretation
Authors: Molisch Andreas F , Oehry Bernhard P
Published: November 2023

In the previous two chapters, we have investigated various methods to solve the Holstein equation. While we have derived closed-form solutions for the high-opacity case, a general solution is possible only by the numerical methods described. The results obtained for the trapping factors and modes can be fitted by some simple expressions, which we will describe in this chapter. We will also give graphical representations of the results, and compare results obtained by the various methods of Chapters 5 and 6. Finally, we will discuss the physical interpretation of the solutions to the Holstein equation.
Non-Linear radiation trapping
Authors: Molisch Andreas F , Oehry Bernhard P
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we will drop the assumption of linearity that we have kept up till now. Previously, we have always assumed that the excitation of the vapour was weak, so that the radiation had no influence on the absorption coefficient This assumption had drastically simplified the mathematics of the trapping problem. More importantly, the assumption is fulfilled very well in many practical cases. The mathematical simplifications stem from the fact that for weak excitation, the describing equations became linear. This in turn allowed the use of the very efficient mathematical techniques for solving linear problems, most of which are based on the eigenmodes. Until about ten to twenty years ago, there had been practically no laboratory problems where non linearities played a role. The advent of the laser has, however, changed that situation with a vengeance.
Discharge lamps and plasmas
Authors: Molisch Andreas F , Oehry Bernhard P
Published: November 2023

Electric discharge lamps are undoubtedly the economically most important devices where radiation trapping occurs (Waymouth 1986). Mercury discharge lamps in the form of fluorescence tubes are the most widespread source of lighting in the world, and also sodium lamps are ubiquitous. Due to this widespread use, even small improvements in lamp efficiency have tremendous effects on world-wide energy consumption. Rough estimates show that if the efficiency of discharge lamps could be increased by only 1%, this would lead to savings of 109 kWh per year! This is in strong contrast to other trapping-related applications, like e.g. atomic line filters, where I% more or less efficiency does not play a really vital role in the course of the universe.
High-Resolution k-Space Imaging
Authors: Callaghan Paul T
Published: November 2023

The oscillating e.m.f. induced in a receiver coil by precessing magnetization is superposed on the noise e.m.f. arising from random thermal motion of electrons in the receiver coil wire and the comparative size of the signal and noise e.m.f.s is known as the signal-to-noise ratio (or just plain signal- to-noise). As we have seen in Chapter 2, this ratio may be improved by co-adding signals from successive experiments, a technique known as signal averaging. However, the repetition rate is limited by the time required for spin relaxation.
The Harmonic Oscillator
Authors: De Lange O L , Raab R E
Published: November 2023

In both classical and quantum physics the harmonic oscillator is one of the most important physical systems [1–4]. Furthermore, because of the simplicity and symmetry of the Hamiltonian operator, the quantum mechanical oscillator is particularly suited to analysis by abstract operator methods. For this reason the study of the one dimensional oscillator is a useful introduction to the application of operator methods in quantum mechanics. In Sections 2.1–2.4 we use these methods to determine energy eigenvalues and eigenkets, and matrix elements; the analysis is extended to isotropic multidimensional oscillators in Section 2.10. Quasiclassical states of the oscillator are discussed in Section 2.5. In Section 2.6 shift operators are used to calculate wave functions. In Sections 2.7–2.11 we discuss some applications of the theory of the oscillator.
Other One-dimensional Systems
Authors: De Lange O L , Raab R E
Published: November 2023

We discuss the application of operator methods to one-dimensional systems other than the harmonic oscillator. In Section 3.1 the method of ‘oneway factorization’ is used to obtain generalized quantum harmonic potentials. In Section 3.2 factorization and shift operators for an arbitrary one-dimensional potential are considered, and a classification is presented of the problems that can be treated by this method [1]. The use of the hypervirial theorem in the calculation of expectation values for one-dimensional systems is discussed in Section 3.3. In Sections 3.4–3.7 four examples are used to illustrate the applications of the preceding material. In these examples we consider in some detail how shift operators for energy can be derived and we also use these shift operators to calculate wavefunctions. Supersymmetric quantum mechanics and shape invariance are discussed in Sections 3.8 and 3.9.
Angular Momentum
Authors: De Lange O L , Raab R E
Published: November 2023

The main purpose of this chapter is to present shift operators for the quantum numbers of angular momentum. These operators have useful applications, some of which are discussed in this and subsequent chapters. We also give a brief discussion of the non-relativistic treatment of spin angular momentum.
Applications
Authors: De Lange O L , Raab R E
Published: November 2023

We consider some applications of results obtained in the previous chapter. In Sections 6.1–6.3 operator methods are used to calculate matrix elements for the three-dimensional isotropic harmonic oscillator and the Coulomb potential. The shift operators also provide a simple method of constructing normalized coordinate space wavefunctions and some examples are given in Section 6.4. In Sections 6.5–6.8 we discuss applications to constant and sectionally constant potentials.
The Coulomb Problem In An Angular Momentum Basis
Authors: De Lange O L , Raab R E
Published: November 2023

The constants of the motion possessed by the nonrelativistic Coulomb problem are discussed and invariance algebras for this problem are derived. The shift operators are used to obtain a spectrum generating algebra for bound states of the Coulomb problem in an angular momentum basis.
The chaos of disease response and competition
Authors: Holton David , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

Leon Glass and Michael Mackey at McGill University in Montreal were among the first to explore the possibility that many medical problems may have their roots in some underlying dynamical effect: the so-called dynamical diseases. Mathematical models suggest that, when physiological parameters (such as CO2 transport rates in the blood stream) are changed, processes that normally are rhythmical may be replaced by erratic or chaotic fluctuations. For instance, in some blood diseases the numbers of blood cells show large oscillations that are not normally present. Glass and Mackey demonstrated that simple, but realistic, mathematical models for controlling blood cell production display similar periodic and chaotic oscillations as a particular parameter is varied. The changes in the parameters have themselves a physiological interpretation. Clifford Gurney of the University of Chicago has performed successful experiments, based on Mackey and Glass’s models, which produce oscillations in the numbers of blood cells.
The quantum mechanics of chaotic systems or ‘Can one hear the chaology of a drum?’
Authors: Keating Jonathan
Published: November 2023

This chapter has two titles. The first one is ‘The quantum mechanics of chaotic systems’, and this is indeed the general subject to be discussed. However, we mainly intend to focus on one particular aspect of what is becoming a very broad subject. This concerns the question raised in the subtitle, which is, with obvious influence from Kac (1), ‘Can one hear the chaology of a drum?’ Our aims are: first to explain what is meant by this question, second to give what appears to be an answer, and finally to describe how we are beginning to develop theories which explain to what extent this answer is, in fact, correct. On the way we shall also describe several interesting connections which have emerged between this relatively young area of physics and one of the longest-running pursuits of pure mathematics—the distribution of the prime numbers (2).
Introduction
Authors: Ghosh Pradip K
Published: November 2023

In 1936 in Eindhoven, Francis Michel Penning added an axial magnetic field to an electric discharge in order to increase the path length of discharge electrons; this contraption later found a range of applications in applied physics. In 1953 in Bonn, Wolfgang Paul invented the non-magnetic quadrupole mass filter, which revolutionized mass spectrometry. Both these innovations, in retrospect, were the seeds of the latter-day ion traps, yet these pioneers could scarcely have anticipated the subsequent import of their innovation. Perhaps this is not so surprising; the path along which science progresses is uncertain; even recently, several decades after Penning in 1936 or Paul in 1953, an elite group of physicists failed* to predict that the ion trap† would occupy part of the central stage in fundamental atomic physics experiments throughout the 1980s.
Paul Trap Confinement
Authors: Ghosh Pradip K
Published: November 2023

In order to understand the operation of the Paul trap, it is convenient to start by considering the ion motion in a two-dimensional quadrupole field, examine its implications, and then extend the consideration to a threedimensional quadrupole field which is the basic configuration for the Paul trap. The two-dimensional quadrupole field is basic to the quadrupole mass spectrometer which, since its invention2153 in the mid-1950’s by Paul and his associates, has had such extensive applications that it has practically revolutionized mass spectrometry.
Biogeography
Authors: Kimsey Lynn S , Bohart Richard M
Published: November 2023

The fossil history of the Chrysididae is scant. The only specimens are from upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary shale and amber, and belong to the Cleptinae, Amiseginae, and Chrysidinae (Elampini) (Table 2). The oldest of these are cleptines. Despite the paucity of fossil information, the data we have supports observations on the biogeography of chrysidids based on extant forms (Table 3), and allows certain generalizations and speculations to be made.
Subfamily Cleptinae
Authors: Kimsey Lynn S , Bohart Richard M
Published: November 2023

Cleptines are generally medium-sized (usually 4–6 mm long) chrysidids. They can be immediately recognized by the convex face, robust mandibles with two or more teeth, and pronotum medially narrowed with a transverse sulcus. The abdomen has a convex venter and five visible segments in males, four in females. These wasps are generally rare but may be locally abundant due to outbreaks of their hosts. They are parasitic on the prepupal larvae of tenthredinid sawflies.
MHC polymorphisms and the conservation of endangered species
Authors: Schreiber Arnd , Tichy Herbert
Published: November 2023

Southern blot analysis using cloned sequences from the major histocompatibility genes of the human and the chimpanzee revealed extensive MHC polymorphisms in several mammals of conservation interest. Hybridization patterns were obtained with class I and class II probes in all 27 ungulate and primate species tested. Despite their high variability, a partial conservation of MHC restriction fragment patterns suggests a trans-specific mode of evolution of this polymorphism in ruminants, which might permit the differentiation of taxa that are little differentiated at isozyme level and the detection of cases of genetic introgression. The main value of MHC typing rests with the provision of identifying markers in populations that have lost most isozyme variation, or in species containing little molecular variability. The documented over dominance of the MHC polymorphism may be relevant for species conservation concepts if several current uncertainties about the role of MHC variation in stimulating the immune response can be resolved.
Genetic management strategies for endangered captive populations: the role of genetic and reproductive technology
Authors: Ballou Jonathan d. , Cooper kathleen a.
Published: November 2023

The fundamental contribution of captive propagation to species conservation is to use captive populations to re-establish and/or reinforce, not replace, wild populations. Captive propagation programmes focus on maintaining demographically stable and co-operatively managed populations of sufficient size to minimize the risks of extinction and maximize the retention of the population’s genetic diversity. Genetic and reproductive technology can play an important role in achieving these objectives.
Community ecology and the interactions between bats and other organisms
Authors: Altringham John D
Published: November 2023

Patterns in the global distribution of animals and plants have been recognised for a long time, and research aimed at explaining these patterns has been fascinating and rewarding. Until recently, bats had rarely been studied in this context, but Findley’s recent review (l 993) may act as a stimulus to research. What patterns do we see in the distribution of bats? The most obvious pattern is the decrease in species richness with increasing latitude, clearly seen in Fig. 7.1a which shows the decrease in the number of species in 500 x 500 km quadrats at each latitude in the New World (Willig and Selcer, 1989). The pattern is also obvious for the whole world in Fig. 7.1b (Findley, 1993) and Fig. 1.11. This increase in species richness with proximity to the equator is common to much of our flora and fauna. The simple explanation rests on the increase in primary biological productivity as light intensity, temperature, and growing season increase. The increased productivity leads to an increased range of resources, and this supports more species.
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van
Published: November 2023

The most widely distributed of all the eucalypts, E. camaldulensis (river red gum) is also one of the most variable. Its range of latitude is from 12° 48'S on the Mary River in the Northern Territory to 38° 15'S in south-western Victoria (Fig. 6.1, Table 6.1 ). In the hot, dry inland it is confined to watercourses where the trees rely on ground water stored from infrequent flooding (Fig. 6.2). In some less arid areas E. camaldulensis occurs away from its typical riverine habitat on plains and hill slopes. It can be found on the margins of salt lakes and on a variety of soil types. Soils are typically alluvial silts and sands. Except for a few populations in South Australia and Western Australia that occur on shallow soils over limestone, the species is not adapted to calcareous soils.
Eucalyptus nitens
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van
Published: November 2023

This fast-growing and relatively uncommon species of the higher parts of the mountains of south-ea tern Australia is remarkable for extreme provenance variations over a limited environmental range. Its disjunct distribution is in a large number of small populations from 38°S in central and eastern Victoria to 30°S in northern New South Wales (Fig. 12.1). The range of altitude of E. nitens is 670 to 1280 m in Victoria in the two main regions of occurrence, and up to almost 1600 m in northern New South Wales where the species is found near Ebor and Barrington Tops. In southern New South Wales there are three small stands along the Great Dividing Range. The largest single stand is on the Errinundra Plateau in eastern Victoria close to the New South Wales border. The largest total area of the species is the sum of many small stands in three areas in the eastern part of the Central Highlands of Victoria, designated by Pederick (1979) as the Toorongo, Rubicon, and Macalister provenances (Fig. 12.2, Table 12.1).
Looking ahead
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van
Published: November 2023

Continued expansion of the planting of fast-growing eucalypts seems inevitable because of their ability to help meet the world-wide demand for wood. Equally inevitable are disputes about the suitability of eucalypts for particular areas, and their banning in some places, in spite of improvements in land-use planning. What is the place of eucalypt breeding in these moral and political dilemmas? There seems no point in inhibiting eucalypt breeding activities because some, or even many, plantations have been badly sited. Eucalypt breeding can be justified by its contribution to greater production in quantity and value in well-planned plantations. One aspect, agroforestry, deserves much more attention than it has received in the past. We agree with White (1990) that the concept of co-existence of food and wood production as part of ecologically sustainable agriculture should be included in eucalypt breeding objectives and the policy for genetic research on eucalypts. Eucalypt plantations are not only grown as extensive industrial monocultures. Small woodlots and windbreaks produce a large proportion of the world’s eucalypt harvest, and, increasingly, eucalypts are grown with compatible intercrops.
Survey and monitoring of aquatic weed problems and control operations
Authors: Murphy K J
Published: November 2023

A Proper understanding of the scale and distribution of an aquatic weed infestation is an obvious prerequisite to effective management of the problem. Information on how long the problem has lasted, or how weed distribution changes with time may also be vital in developing an effective control regime. All too often, however, surveys are inadequately carried out. There is a tendency to attempt weed control on the basis of insufficient survey data. This may, in turn, contribute directly to the lack of success of many control programmes (Mitchell 1979a, b). On a worldwide basis, data on the scale and distribution of aquatic weed problems are highly variable, largely due to the relatively low priority given to weed survey, in comparison with active weed control measures. To a great extent this situation has arisen because of the difficulties and costs of effective surveying of aquatic weed problems, in general, but particularly so for submerged weeds. Recent advances in the fields of information technology and survey methodology hold out the prospect of major improvements in our overall understanding of aquatic weed distribution.
Introduction
Authors: Gregory M , Cutler D F , Keating Richard C , Keating Richard C
Published: November 2023

The Araceae occupy a relatively isolated position among flowering plants due to their possession of a number of distinguishing vegetative and reproductive characters (MBB). Within the family a number of distinctive character states occur, especially in the larger or more basal genera, but few are diagnostic in themselves. It remains best to combine as many characters as possible when making determinations. Particularly in the more derived genera, anatomical characters are diminished in variety and must be combined with other morphological and reproductive characters for this purpose.
Study species and study area
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David
Published: November 2023

In Old English, ‘dun’ means dull brown and ‘ock’ signifies little. True to its name, the dunnock is the archetypal little brown bird. Although sparrow-sized and commonly called the hedge sparrow, it has a thin bill and is not a true sparrow, but rather one of 13 species of accentors of the family Prunellidae (Table 2.1), mostly montane birds which occur throughout the Palearctic. It would be most logical to change the common name of Prunella modularis to ‘hedge accentor’ but I shall use the more familiar ‘dunnock’, the name used in previous publications and in the most recent handbook (Cramp 1988).
Owl monkey (night monkey or douroucouli)
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

The geographical range of the owl monkey extends from northern Argentina, through the countries of central South America: Venezuela, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Peru, Equador, and Colombia to Panama (Wolfheim 1983). It is a nocturnal primate which inhabits many types of forest (Wolfheim 1983; Wright 1981; Meritt 1980). There are some morphological differences between races from various parts of the range, but the owl monkey is considered to be one species. However, karyotyping has revealed wide variation in the composition of the chromosomes from individuals from different geographical areas (Ma et al. 1976). Offspring resulting from mating between individuals of different karyomorphs are likely to be infertile (de Boer 1982).
Vervet monkey (Green monkey or grivet)
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

The species is common and widely distributed in Africa south of the Sahara, and 21 subspecies have been recognized (Hall and Gartlan 1965; Gartlan 1969; Wolfheim 1983). It is a highly adaptable terrestrial or semi-terrestrial species (Mitchell 1979a; Rowell, 1984), found in savanna, woodland edges, rain forests, and urban parks (Bloomstrand and Maple 1987), and typically around riverine acacia trees (Rowell 1984). It does not occur in closed forests and arid areas (Gartlan 1969). It is also found on the West Indian islands of St. Kitts and Barbados to which it was introduced in the eighteenth century (Poirier 1972; Horrocks 1986). In the past, these animals were quite widely used in biomedical research (Rowell 1970). A total of 21 779 were exported to the United States between 1968 and 1973, and 11 232 were exported to the United Kingdom between 1965 and 1975 (Wolfheim 1983). They are not recorded as important biomedical research species now (Johnsen and Whitehair 1986). Zoo populations appear to be small. According to the ISIS records of 30 June 1986, there were 59 C. aethiops of various subspecies held in captivity in zoos in the United States (Bloomstrand and Maple 1987).
Rhesus macaque
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

The rhesus monkey has a larger geographical distribution than almost any other primate (Smith et al. 1987). Its range extends from India and Afghanistan in the west to China and Vietnam in the east (Roonwal and Mohnot 1977). It is not listed in the IUCN red data book (IUCN 1990). In India the population is reduced but still common in the north (Southwick and Lindburg 1986). This species is widely used in biomedical research and Johnsen and Whitehair (1986) estimated that in 1984 the number of actual and potential breeding individuals at principal US research institutions was 24 934 and that the number of live births was 5582 (compared to 991 in 1973). The zoo population by comparison is small (Flesness 1986).
Stump-tailed macaque
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

The range of M. arctoides extends from eastern Bangladesh eastwards through southern China and into the Malayan peninsula and Vietnam. It is declining, or has become rare in India, Thailand, and Malaysia but its status elsewhere in its range is unknown (Wolfheim 1983). It is not classified as threatened by the IUCN (1990).
NMR Resonance Assignments
Authors: Pease Joseph H B , Wemmer David E
Published: November 2023

3.1 Introduction

NMR (see Glossary) spectra contain information about the structure of a molecule through the chemical shift (which is sensitive to the local electronic environment), spin-spin coupling constants (which are sensitive to dihedral angles), and through relaxation [nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE)], which is sensitive to the positions of nearby spins (see Glossary for definitions of chemical shift and NOE). However, before any of this information can be put to use in determining the structure of a molecule (see Chapter 2), it must first be determined which resonances come from which spins. The process of associating specific spins in the molecule with specific resonances is called the sequence-specific assignment of resonances. For many years this was the major hurdle in interpretation of NMR data for biological molecules. However, over the past decade tremendous progress has been made through the introduction of multidimensional NMR experiments and through advances in spectrometer hardware. These improvements were combined with development of a systematic approach for analysis of the spectra, to make an efficient algorithm for obtaining assignments.
Modelling of related protein structures
Authors: Thornton Janet M , Swindells Mark B
Published: November 2023

4.1 Introduction

Understanding protein function requires detailed structural analysis of atomic resolution data-which can be determined by X-ray crystallography (see Chapter 1) and NMR spectroscopy (Chapter 2). However, these methods are often slow and dependent on numerous factors for their success. For example, a crystallographic determination depends on the ability to grow well-ordered crystals, whereas NMR spectroscopy is only applicable to smaller proteins of up to 200 residues. In the absence of such definitive information a structure may often be predicted by detecting similarities between the new sequence and previously solved structures. Predictions that use related proteins of known structure are usually referred to as model-building strategies, the principles of which will be discussed in this chapter.

With the rapid growth of sequence databases, model building is now the subject of numerous investigations. There are currently more than 25 000 sequences available in the OWL composite sequence database (Bleasby and Wootton 1990), many of which can be clustered into homologous families. If at least one structure within a family is available, modelling the others becomes a realistic possibility. The subsequent design of mutagenesis experiments can benefit substantially from the models produced by these procedures.
The structure of the ‘universal’ genetic code
Authors: Osawa Syozo
Published: November 2023

The genetic code is written as a set of all 64 possible arrangements of the four RNA nucleotides-U, C, A, and G-in the form of a triplet (codon) (see Table 1.1). Each of 61 codons is assigned to a specific amino acid; the other three are stop codons that terminate the protein synthesis and do not correspond to any amino acid. As the number of amino acids used for protein synthesis is 20, the same amino acid can be coded for by more than one codon, i.e. the code is degenerate. For example, AAA and AAG are codons for Lys; GUG, GUC, GUA, and GUG are codons for Val. Further, six codons-CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, and AGG-are synonymous, and are translated to Arg. A box in which four codons are synonymous is called ‘family box’ or a ‘4-codon box’; there are eight family boxes. A set in which a single amino acid has two codons is called ‘2-codon set’ (see Table 1.1). Of the 13 2-codon sets, seven end with pyrimidine (Y: U or C) and six with purine (R: A or G). Codons for Arg, Leu, and Ser exist both in a family box and in a 2-codon set. There are exceptions: three codons-AUU, AUC, and AUA-are assigned to Ile (2-codon set plus 1, or family box minus 1). Met or Trp has only a single codon-AUG or UGG because codon AUA is for Ile and UGA is a stop codon. There are therefore two to six synonymous codons for a single amino acid, except for Met and Trp.
Activation and Reduction of Carbon Dioxide to Formylmethanofuran - a Unique Method of Carbon Dioxide Fixation in the Archaebacteria(archaea)
Authors: Wasserfallen Alain , Wolfe Ralph S
Published: November 2023

Methanogens constitute a taxonomic group of strict anaerobes characterized by their ability to generate methane from the oxidation of molecular hydrogen and the reduction of carbon dioxide or the metabolism of other simple compounds such as formate, acetate, methanol, methylamines (Jones et al. 1987). Methanogenic organisms are currently grouped into three orders (Methanobacteriales, Methanococcales, Methanomicrobiales) in what is now referred to as the domain of archaea (Woese et al. 1990). Methanogens grow in environments where the redox potential is lower than -330 mV (Smith and Hungate 1958) and have been found in nearly every anaerobic habitat. Various methanogens have been found to use the same pathway of carbon dioxide fixation (Jones et al. 1985). As shown in Fig. 10.1 the oxidation of hydrogen and reduction of carbon dioxide to methane is a thermodynamically favourable reaction. Methanogenesis from this reaction readily takes place in nature (i.e. in sediments or the rumen) where the partial pressure of hydrogen may be quite low (10-4 atm). The C1 intermediates at the formyl, formaldehyde, and methyl levels of oxidation are coenzyme bound, and are not detectable as free compounds.
How Enzymes Deal with Carbon Dioxide and Bicarbonate
Authors: O’Leary Marion H
Published: November 2023

Carbon dioxide is a key metabolite in living systems. Thermodynamically, it lies in a deep valley. Formation of carbon dioxide is the ultimate exothermic step in a variety of energy-producing metabolic processes. Absorption of carbon dioxide by green plants is a key endothermic step in photosynthesis.
Ecology of the birds of paradise
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Beehler Bruce M , Cooper William T , Mcguire Michael
Published: November 2023

A remarkable feature that defines the birds of paradise is the group’s near-obligate dependence upon the tropical dosed humid forests of Australasia, entirely east of Wallace’s Line. The dependence on humid forest is nowhere more obvious than in Australia, where one finds that continent’s four paradisaeid species restricted to small geographical enclaves of remnant rainforest. It can be safely said that the birds of paradise have evolved a close dependence on rainforest. Also, as will be discussed in this chapter, there is evidence that some Australasian rainforest trees appear to depend upon birds of paradise for important aspects of their maintenance and regeneration-seed dispersal in particular.
Linking communities and ecosystems: trophic interactions as nutrient cycling pathways
Authors: Grover James P , Loreau Michel
Published: November 2023

Almost the entire field of community ecology has been based on the implicit assumption that communities can be understood in terms of the populations that constitute them and their direct interactions (essentially consumption and competition). There is no doubt that this approach has been fruitful in the analysis of simple systems of few species, but one of its basic weaknesses in understanding large systems is that it ignores the constraints imposed by ecosystem functioning, such as matter and energy balances, decomposition processes and nutrient cycling. Although ecological systems are organized hierarchically (Allen and Starr 1982; O’Neill et al. 1986), so that community properties can be partly independent of general ecosystem-level constraints, the latter should affect the biological components of ecosystems and the communities they form. Significant organizing processes seem to occur from the bottom-up through vertical (trophic) interactions, which are tied to energy and nutrient flow, rather than through horizontal (competitive) interactions (Loreau 1994a). Therefore community organization has ultimately to be studied within the broader framework of ecosystem organization.
Biodiversity value and taxonomic relatedness
Authors: Williams Paul H
Published: November 2023

The threat of exinction hangs over not only particular species, but also entire faunas and floras. The very immensity of the variety of all life dictates that most of this richness will only ever be conserved in situ. Therefore con servationists need to know which areas contibute most to overall biodiversity. This, in tum, requires an ability to measure ‘biodiversity value’ (McNeely et al. 1990; Reid et al. 1992; Groombridge 1992; Wilson 1992).

Biodiversity conservation is not necessarily equivalent to species conservation. Species conservation, when justified as part of biodiversity conservation, appears to assume the possibility of ‘collecting the set’ of all species for protection. Under these circumstances the most threatened species are often seen as the most immediate priority (a reactive strategy), and other species are assumed to be safe for the time being. But, if it is not possible to protect everything (which is perhaps realistic at least when dealing with tropical biodiversity), and particularly if it is not possible to foresee threats or act in time for the species that were assumed safe, then a lot of resources could be invested in a few species, while elsewhere, through some unexpected change in land use, the majority might be lost. A more appropriate (proactive) strategy might be to ‘salvage the most’, because it is then that the areas with the greatest contribution to total biodiversity acquire the greatest priority. It follows that, in certain circumstances, threatened species or areas might even be seen as a poor investment, particularly if equivalent, lower risk choices for biodiversity value were available (Williams et al. 1994).
Utilising genetic information in plant conservation programmes
Authors: Ennos Richard A
Published: November 2023

Over the last 15 years there has been an explosion of interest in measuring genetic variation within plant species. On the one hand, a series of increasingly sophisticated methods have been applied to detect differences among individuals at the molecular level. Such variation has been dubbed ‘genetic marker variation’ (Avise 1994). In parallel with these developments, quantitative genetic analysis first developed in animal and plant breeding has been applied to natural populations to elucidate and quantify the genetic basis of phenotypic variation (Lawrence 1984). The objective of this chapter is to consider how studies of both genetic marker variation and quantitative genetic variation, when carefully interpreted, can be used to guide the development of conservation strategies for threatened plant species, and to illustrate this with reference to an ongoing conservation programme involving native pine in Scotland.

Genetic marker variation represents differences in the genetic information of plants within (or between) species. Genetic marker loci may be detected at the DNA level (RFLP, RAPD, microsatellite, minisatellite loci) (Burke et al. 1992), or by analysing the primary products (isozymes) (Hamrick 1989) or secondary products (alkaloids, monoterpenes) (Tobolski and Hanover 1971) of genes. Genetic markers may be located in any of the three genomes (nuclear, chloroplast and mitochondrial) possessed by plants. For the purposes of initial interpretation, the effects of these forms of variation are assumed to be selectively neutral, though this may not always be the case.
Developmental stability and mode of selection
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Swaddle John P
Published: November 2023

Micro-evolutionary processes involve different genotypes producing phenotypes upon which selection can act. If phenotypes are non-randomly associated with fitness components, this will result in an evolutionary response to selection, provided the characters in question have an additive genetic basis, and that there are no strong negative genetic correlations preventing or delaying a response. In this chapter, we introduce the concept that the prevailing patterns of selection may affect both the phenotypes and the genotypes producing particular phenotypes. This may take place by means of genetic modifiers that control the phenotypic expression of a particular genotype, but also modify the amount of additive genetic variance being expressed phenotypically.
Adverse environmental conditions and evolution
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Swaddle John P
Published: November 2023

Stress is a state well known to most readers of this book. There are numerous definitions (most people have their own), but here we adopt the definition of stress as a state caused by a factor imposing a potentially lasting injurious change to a biological system. This implies that a range of phenomena such as starvation, irradiation, and hypoxia can be considered to be stressors. Stress is a common state affecting free-living organisms, and it thereby imposes important selection pressures on individual organisms, but also affects the development of phenotypes upon which selection acts. Stress generally results from deviations from normal, local conditions to which an organism is adapted. In other words, stress can be considered to arise from suboptimal environmental conditions.
Introduction
Authors: Crozier Ross H , Pamilo Pekka
Published: November 2023

Social insects fascinate because of the finely coordinated organization of their societies and because of their great ecological success in many biotopes (Wilson, 1990). Studies on insect social organization have traditionally focused on understanding colonylevel phenomena. The emphases in such studies have been on understanding colony growth, the division of labour between colony members, the coordination of functions between individuals, and the communication mechanisms that make this finely tuned coordination possible (e.g. Oster and Wilson, 1978; Moritz and Southwick, 1992; Holldobler, 1995). Holldobler and Wilson (1990:29) emphasize the importance of series-parallel task processing in the enormous success of social insects (i.e. individual ants can specialize in components of social life, and do not each have to perform the entire range of tasks necessary for their colony ‘s success).
The evolution of eusociality in insects
Authors: Crozier Ross H , Pamilo Pekka
Published: November 2023

Hamilton (1964a,b) formalized the modern approach to the evolution of social behaviour with his notion of inclusive fitness, and also noted that the exceptionally high relatedness among sisters might lead to a predisposition of the Hymenoptera to evolve eusociality because females could benefit more by raising sisters than own daughters. A decade later Trivers and Hare (1976) combined Hamilton ‘s kin selection theory with Fisher ‘s (1930) sex ratio theory and pointed out that hymenopteran workers benefit from the high sister relatedness only if they can bias the sex ratios in favour of females. These insights give sex allocation theory the central place in considering the evolution of eusociality. In the years since Hamilton ‘s seminal papers, opinion has varied greatly over whether malehaploidy was, after all, important in the evolution of eusociality. In this chapter we follow Pamilo (1991c) and evaluate the current status of views on malehaploidy as a predisposing agent to the evolution of eusociality in the light of sex allocation theory. We apply here the inclusive fitness formulation developed in the preceding chapter. The main aims in this approach are to see whether there is a difference between diploid and male-haploid genetic systems in how readily they allow the evolution of a worker caste, and to examine how different features of insect life cycles might affect such evolution.