bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Japan
Authors: Westney Eleanor
Published: September 2009

Japanese MNEs are arguably the most studied population of MNEs next to those from the United States, and in some aspects — particularly the extent to which home country practices and systems are carried across borders — they have been more exhaustively analysed than those from any other country. Summarizing this extensive literature poses a formidable challenge. This article tries to accomplish three things. First, it provides an overview of the scope, timing, and destination of Japanese foreign direct investment (FDI) — three of the fundamental topics of interest in international business — in order to supply a basic map of when and where Japanese companies extended their operations abroad. Second, it takes the research on Japanese MNEs conducted in the 1970s as a benchmark to examine their evolution over time. Finally, it briefly looks at Japan as a host country for foreign multinationals.
Emotional Intelligence: Rhetoric or Reality?
Authors: Jordan Peter J. , Ashkanasy Neal M. , Daus Catherine S.
Published: September 2009

The construct of emotional intelligence is confusing, and emotional intelligence researchers must “seem mad” to be embroiled in debate. To be sure, emotional intelligence has been one of the more controversial constructs to be considered in personnel psychology. There have been wide-ranging and substantial claims about the potential of emotional intelligence in predicting a broad range of workplace behavior. This article assesses the efficacy of the emotional intelligence construct by examining variables that have an impact at the organizational level. In particular, it examines the impact of emotional intelligence on prosocial behaviors, antisocial behaviors, and leadership. This article concludes with some recommendations for advancing research into emotional intelligence in the area of personnel psychology, and in particular, it comments on the need for emotional intelligence research to be extended to cover macro-organizational variables such as culture and climate.
Non‐Reductive Materialism
Authors: Baker Lynne Rudder
Published: September 2009

The expression ‘non-reductive materialism’ refers to a variety of positions whose roots lie in attempts to solve the mind–body problem. Proponents of non-reductive materialism hold that the mental is ontologically part of the material world; yet mental properties are causally efficacious without being reducible to physical properties. After setting out a minimal schema for non-reductive materialism (NRM) as an ontological position, this article canvasses some classical arguments in favour of NRM. Then it discusses the major challenge facing any construal of NRM: the problem of mental causation, pressed by Jaegwon Kim. Finally, it offers a new solution to the problem of mental causation.
Representationalist Theories of Consciousness
Authors: Tye Michael
Published: September 2009

This article surveys representationalist theories of phenomenal consciousness as well as the major arguments for them. It also takes up two major objections. The article is divided into five sections. The first section offers some introductory remarks on phenomenal consciousness. The second section presents the classic view of phenomenal consciousness to which representationalists are opposed. The third section canvasses various versions of representationalism about consciousness. The fourth section lays out the main arguments for the representationalist stance. The final section addresses the two objections.
Intentional Systems Theory
Authors: Dennett Daniel
Published: September 2009

Intentional systems theory is in the first place an analysis of the meanings of such everyday ‘mentalistic’ terms as ‘believe’, ‘desire’, ‘expect’, ‘decide’, and ‘intend’: the terms of ‘folk psychology’ that we use to interpret, explain, and predict the behaviour of other human beings, animals, some artefacts such as robots and computers, and indeed ourselves. In traditional parlance we seem to be attributing minds to the things we thus interpret, and this raises a host of questions about the conditions under which a thing can be truly said to have a mind, or to have beliefs, desires, and other ‘mental’ states. According to intentional systems theory, these questions can best be answered by analysing the logical presuppositions and methods of our attribution practices, when we adopt the intentional stance toward something.
Phenomenology, Intentionality, and the Unity of the Mind
Authors: Graham George , Horgan Terence , Tienson John
Published: September 2009

Phenomenology, the movement, has contributed and continues to contribute much to the study of phenomenal consciousness as well as to understanding the role of intentionality in our conscious lives. This article, however, is not about intellectual history or methodological movements. So it is not about such contributions. There is nothing in this article about the movement (Phenomenology) but much about the property (phenomenology). The word ‘intentionality’ is a technical word for the feature of a mental state in virtue of which it is directed at or is about or represents something other than itself.
Memory
Authors: Lawlor Krista
Published: September 2009

The psychological study of memory has made exciting advances. In the last two decades neurophysiology has given us insight into what happens in the brain when we remember. First, the biology of nerve cells is much better understood; since signalling by nerve cells is altered by experience, these cells might be the elementary devices of information storage. At the higher level of brain systems, researchers have identified mechanisms that make possible various memory functions. One task for neuropsychology is to unite the results at the level of nerve cells and brain systems. One moral for the rest of us is that while we often speak of a unified capacity — memory — responsible for much that is distinctive in human life, we are really talking about a range of capacities, variously realized in the brain and nervous system.
Introduction
Authors: Jones Geoffrey , Zeitlin Jonathan
Published: September 2009

This book provides a state-of-the-art survey of research in business history. Business historians study the historical evolution of business systems, entrepreneurs, and firms, as well as their interaction with their political, economic, and social environment. They address issues of central concern to researchers in management studies and business administration, as well as economics, sociology, and other social sciences; and to historians. Business historians employ a range of qualitative and quantitative methodologies, but all share a belief in the importance of understanding change over time. While the prevalence of quantitative methodologies and the consequent need for large datasets has contributed to an overwhelming focus on the United States in many areas of management research, this book demonstrates how far business history has developed into a truly international and comparative field, and how much it has to gain by embracing a more fully global perspective.
Business Interest Associations
Authors: Lanzalaco Luca
Published: September 2009

Through much of the twentieth century, business-interest associations (BIAs) were neglected as the object of academic study and systematic research. Although this topic attracted considerable interest among institutional economists and social reformers on both sides of the Atlantic during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it is only from the late 1970s that modern scholars have once again begun to delve seriously into BIAs' organization and strategies. The introductory section of this article presents the main theoretical issues at stake, synthesizes the outcomes of historical research, and analyzes the interrelations between them. It sketches a comparative-historical framework to explain the development of BIAs. Furthermore, the article outlines the long-term historical development of BIAs since the Middle Ages. Finally, it proposes an agenda for future research.
Business Education
Authors: Amdam Rolv Petter
Published: September 2009

In recent years, there has been a steady expansion in the literature on the history of business education. This article presents the main contributions to the existing knowledge of the development of business education internationally. It discusses the developmental path of business education around the world and the emergence of higher business as a phenomenon that occurred in different forms in parallel within major economies. The article characterizes the first decades after the Second World War as a period of Americanization. It has been generally agreed that European business schools were strongly influenced by American role models after the Second World War. The article supports this view; however, it also emphasizes that the concept of “Americanization” most suitably characterizes the relationship between American and Western European business education during the first two decades after the war. It characterizes international business education over the last two decades by globalization and regionalization.
Belief Systems and Political Decision Making
Authors: Kuklinski James H. , Peyton Buddy
Published: September 2009

This article studies the belief systems and political decision making and examines the observation that political scientists have the ability to tell a coherent story about citizens and public opinion. It reviews and summarizes the original story about citizens and politics, which can be found in Converse's ‘The Nature of Mass Belief Systems’. The next section discusses three revisions of the story and the studies that gird them. The article ends with an examination of the validity of these three revisions.
The Welfare State: Values, Policy Preferences, and Performance Evaluations
Authors: Kumlin Staffan
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the welfare state and distinguishes the three levels of welfare state attitudes. These state attitudes are: general welfare state support, specific policy preferences about various aspects or parts of the welfare state, and specific policy evaluations of welfare state-related ‘performance’. The article discusses each of these levels in detail, and then studies a number of explanatory themes and topics where empirical findings have accumulated. The three promising emerging areas that may receive more attention in the years to come are also discussed.
Partisanship Reconsidered
Authors: Holmberg Sören
Published: September 2009

This article discusses partisanship and focuses mostly on the concept of party identification. It tries to show how party identification can be theoretically defined and measured empirically. It introduces the unmoved mover and pinpoints the location of party identification in the funnel of causality. The article also tries to show how party identification can be explained.
Political Activism and Party Members
Authors: Scarrow Susan E.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the significance of the party members to their respective political parties. It shows the lessons provided by recent research about those who join parties and what this research may most likely suggest about the future of membership-based political organizing. It views parties as membership associations and studies party members. Their participation with parties and the democratic process is studied, along with the concept of linkage. The article concludes with a section on the relationship between the decline of party membership and the obsolescence of political participation.
New Modes of Campaigning
Authors: Schmitt‐Beck Rüdiger
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the new campaign modes, with most of the focus on election campaigns, since these have been more thoroughly studied than any other type of campaigns. It examines the recent trends in electioneering, and emphasis is drawn on how old and new democracies all over the world are adopting new modes of campaigning. A review of the available evidence on whether and under what conditions campaigns and new modes of electioneering are considered important for public opinion and the political choices of the citizens is also discussed.
It Depends
Authors: Tilly Charles , Goodin Robert
Published: September 2009

This introductory article explains the coverage of this book, which is about contextual analysis in politics. It analyses three kinds of contextual effects. These include the analysts' understanding of political processes, the evidence available for empirical examination of political processes, and the political processes themselves. It highlights the importance of various disciplines in political analysis including philosophy, psychology, and culture.
Social Preferences, Homo Economicus, and Zoon Politikon
Authors: Bowles Samuel , Gintis Herbert
Published: September 2009

This article analyses the relevance of the concepts of Homo economicus, zoon politikon, and social preferences in political analysis. It explains that the acceptance of the rational choice model coincides with an increasing recognition in economics of the limitations of the behavioural assumptions sometimes summarized by the term Homo economicus. Though Homo economicus is not entailed by any axioms of the model, three assumptions embracing this behavioural model are commonly treated as integral to the approach. This article highlights the confirmation of the existence of process-regarding and other-regarding preferences introduced by the idea of zoon politikon. It also presents empirical evidence supporting strong reciprocity as a schema for explaining important forms of political behaviour.
Why and How Ideas Matter
Authors: Rueschemeyer Dietrich
Published: September 2009

This article describes why and how ideas matter in political analysis. It explains that though the importance of ideas in politics is beyond question, its importance compared to other factors shaping social processes has been a matter of debate throughout the history of social thought. It suggests that the importance of ideas in society and history can be found in fundamental reflections on human social action. The doubts on the importance of ideas may be attributed to the fact their effect seems mediated by the way they are embedded in organizations and institutions. This embedding serves as a selection mechanism and the very content of ideas is partially shaped by these forms of social grounding and support. This article also suggests that ideas may be cognitive in character, can have normative nature, and can influence people's preferences.
The Idea of Political Culture
Authors: Lichterman Paul , Cefaï Daniel
Published: September 2009

This article describes the idea and existence of a so-called political culture, focusing on the culture of political action in civil society. It explains that political cultures are the sets of symbols and meanings or styles of action that organize political claims-making and opinion-forming, by individuals or collectivities. It aims to provide a contextualist understanding of political culture through discussion of recent cultural sociology in the U.S. and pragmatic sociology in France. It also investigates why political culture needs to be autonomous.
Historical Context and Path Dependence
Authors: Mahoney James , Schensul Daniel
Published: September 2009

This article looks into the relevance of the so-called path dependence and historical context in contextual political analysis. It analyzes the different meanings and uses of the concept of path dependence in contemporary academic discourse and uses the array of distinct understandings of path dependence as a means of specifying a number of ways in which historical context matters. It also identifies the strengths and weaknesses of different conceptualizations of path dependence and the trade-offs involved in adopting particular definitions of the concept. It discusses the relevant concepts of reactive sequence, self-reproducing sequences, and historical lock-in.
Why and How Technology Matters
Authors: Bijker Wiebe E.
Published: September 2009

This article explains the importance of technology to politics. The first reason to pay attention to technology in political studies is that such a focus on the technological in society will reveal aspects of politics that remain unnoticed otherwise. The study of technologies also shape political concepts and discussions and a focus on technology helps to recognize the boundary work that fuels practical politics. This article concludes that technology should matter to political studies because it matters to politics and explains that there is no simple answer to the why and how questions about technology's influence on politics.
‘Gnosticism’
Authors: Marjanen Antti
Published: September 2009

The state of research into what is traditionally called ‘Gnosticism’, a religious phenomenon of late antiquity, is opaque at the moment. In a recent collection of essays on the topic, two prominent scholars approach the topic in very different ways. Birger Pearson states that there was a gnostic religion, and that it still exists. Michael Williams, in turn, comments that related texts will be realized only when one ‘dims the switch’ on the category of Gnosticism. The two views presented above illustrate that, in the current scholarly discussion, no consensus prevails as to how the religious category or phenomenon of ‘Gnosticism’ is to be conceived or even employed. This article describes how the phenomenon has been perceived in the past. In the history of the study of ‘Gnosticism’, there have basically been three ways to approach it. The first represents an ancient view, contemporary with the assumed genesis of ‘Gnosticism’. The other two are later scholarly products.
Arius and Arians
Authors: Lyman Rebecca
Published: September 2009

Although the teachings of Arius of Alexandria sparked a series of theological debates and church councils in the fourth century concerning the nature and redemptive activity of God, scholars share a slim consensus as to the origins and content of his teaching. In 325, for the first time, the adjudication of Christian controversy took the form of a council including the Roman emperor Constantine at the lake-side town of Nicaea. Arius, the theologian condemned at Nicaea, became the archetypal heretic; ‘Arianism’ thus became the archetypal heresy, which denied the saving divinity of Christ, and therefore essential Christian identity. The broadening of the study of ‘Arianism’ to examine questions of asceticism, spirituality, and liturgy reflects different historiographical concerns. This article reviews recent studies of Arius and non-Nicenes from the outbreak of the controversy to the conversions of the tribal peoples in the western empire.
Pelagius and Pelagians
Authors: Lamberigts Mathijs
Published: September 2009

The Pelagian controversy is generally considered to have been the first western theological controversy. The debate between Pelagius and his followers on the one hand, and Augustine, Jerome, Paulus Orosius, and the bishops of Rome on the other, deeply influenced theological developments in the West. Due to intense research over the last 50 years or so, it has become clear that Pelagianism as a well-organized movement never existed. Pelagianism as a consistent doctrine is a construction of its opponents, and Pelagius himself probably did not always recognize his own views in this construction. Such a construction does not do justice to the theological pluralism that existed at the beginning of the fifth century. However, the way in which Julian of Aeclanum criticized Augustine made clear that the Augustinian positions had some problems with the creation of the soul, the human nature of Christ, and baptism because of original sin.
Clergy and Laity
Authors: Torjesen Karen Jo
Published: September 2009

The distinction between clergy and laity in its most elemental form is a way of creating and setting apart an elite. The question about the clergy and the laity becomes a fascinating historical question about how the unity of the Church – symbolic, organizational, and political – comes to rest on the constitution of these two classes and the relationship between them. The premise of much of the earlier scholarship held that development of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and the clergy/laity dyad was evolutionary, an organic unfolding of an embryonic distinction between clergy and laity into a fully elaborated polarity based on the priestly functions of the clergy and the sacrality of the liturgy. Scholarship on the institutionalization of Christianity that in an earlier era had been primarily ecclesiastical and theological is now increasingly cross-disciplinary, drawing on work in sociology, politics, economics, archaeology, gender, and religion.
Asceticism
Authors: Krawiec Rebecca
Published: September 2009

This article explores an abstract concept, ‘asceticism’. Two obstacles immediately present themselves to an overview of the role of asceticism in shaping early Christian studies: the lack of a clear definition of asceticism and the ubiquity of the topic in both ancient sources and modern scholarship, especially in the past 35 years. Letters, hagiographies, homilies, even acts of councils all participate in the construction of an asceticism that was a central concern of Christians in late antiquity. To chart the shifts in the study of asceticism is to follow as well the major changes in the field from ‘patristics’ to ‘early Christian studies’. Asceticism is the means by which historians of early Christianity confront central methodological issues in investigating discourses, power, social relations, the body, and all the attendant current concerns of the construction of the self and society.
Pilgrimage
Authors: Frank Georgia
Published: September 2009

Early Christian pilgrimage involved a journey to a place in order to gain access to sacred power, whether manifested in living persons, demarcated spaces, or specific objects. Movement towards the sacred site, as well as ritualized movements once at the destination, shaped pilgrimage. Places associated with the Bible drew large numbers of pilgrims from throughout the Empire. Yet, local martyrs' shrines and pilgrimage centres with international appeal drew visitors to Italy, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. Travel to sacred centres was common in Mediterranean religions. The Jewish pilgrimage festivals of Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles drew large crowds to Jerusalem until the Temple's destruction in 70 CE. Early Christians maintained many of these practices. They gathered at the burial places of martyrs for prayers and held funerary banquets there.
Introduction: The Need for Meta-theoretical Reflection in Organization Theory
Authors: Tsoukas Haridimos , Knudsen Christian
Published: September 2009

This book provides a forum for leading scholars in organization theory (OT) to engage in meta-theoretical reflection on the historical development, present state, and future prospects of OT. It explores the status of OT as a social science discipline. It aims at reviewing and evaluating important epistemological developments in OT, especially issues related to the kinds of knowledge claims put forward in OT and the controversies surrounding the generation, validation, and utilization of such knowledge. This article provides a few words to clarify the term ‘organization theory’. Organization theory is seen as the academic field specializing in the study of organizational phenomena (both micro and macro) and for this reason OT is used here as a synonym for Organization Studies.
Organization Theory as an Interpretive Science
Authors: Hatch Mary Jo , Yanow Dvora
Published: September 2009

Interpretive approaches to science are found in many social sciences, including organizational studies. They trace their antecedents, sometimes consciously, sometimes by implication, to a set of philosophical arguments that developed largely in the first part of the twentieth century in Europe (initially in Germany, at mid-century in France, with the occasional involvement of English philosophers). These arguments have even earlier roots — in the eighteenth-century work of Kant, in the ancient Greek philosophers, and in 1,500-year-old Jewish textual practices. To talk about ‘science’ is to ask certain kinds of questions, involving claims-making about the subject(s) of study. As interpretive philosophies developed in dialogue with other nineteenth- and twentieth-century philosophical arguments about various questions and claims, this article begins with a brief overview of the context out of which they grew, touches on their central ideas, and then turns to their manifestations in organizational studies.
The Historical and Epistemological Foundations of Organization Theory: Fusing Sociological Theory with Engineering Discourse
Authors: Shenhav Yehouda
Published: September 2009

This article provides an alternative historiography of the field of organization theory (OT). It follows two discourses — the engineering and the sociological — and their merger, in order to historicize the epistemological assumptions of contemporary OT directly back into the professional project of social engineering around the beginning of the twentieth century. It also presents the roots of the engineering–managerial discourse about organizations that dominated industrial America prior to the translation of Weber to English. This discourse was later incorporated into the work of early sociologists and management scholars. Furthermore, this article presents Weber's project on rationality, and analyzes the manner in which his work was interpreted by American sociologists. Then, it discusses the epistemological ramifications resulting from the nexus between the two discourses, focusing on two of the key concepts in OT: rationality and uncertainty. These were central concepts in the construction of organizations as rational actors.
Collaborative Service Provision in the Public Sector
Authors: Sandfort Jodi , Milward H. Brinton
Published: September 2009

The topic of public service partnerships has clear substantive importance. Governments all over the world are increasing their dependence upon collaborative partnerships to delivery public services. This article reviews literature written in the crevice between the espoused benefits of collaborative service partnerships and the reality that they are difficult to create, sustain, and use to mobilize resources in ways that create positive results. According to this article, the literature exploring the collaborative public service delivery is diverse. This reflects the variation found in the field, as practitioners use an increasingly wide array of tools to work on complex, public problems. What has resulted is a disparate literature with two distinct streams of inquiry — one focusing on collaboration itself, the other on the consequences these new service arrangements have on organizations and citizens. This article reveals some fundamental issues unresolved in the ongoing scholarly inquiry.
Voluntary and Community Sector Partnerships
Authors: Mandell Myrna P. , Keast Robyn
Published: September 2009

The community and voluntary sector sits alongside the state sector and the private sector. As such, it is sometimes referred to as the ‘third sector’. Organizations within this sector play a number of important and active roles in society. Some of these roles are either relatively new or have changed over the years. Many of them involve different types of inter-organizational relations. For instance, as an advocate for change on behalf of their constituents, voluntary and community organizations (VCOs) have often formed coalitions involving a number of VCOs working together. This article highlights the changing role of VCOs, with an emphasis on their role as a partner with government and others. It draws on extant literature including a suite of case studies undertaken across a number of sectors and from a range of disciplines including public administration, community and urban development, and integrated service delivery.
Critical Perspectives on Collaboration
Authors: Lotia Nuzhat , Hardy Cynthia
Published: September 2009

Inter-organizational relations (IORs) encompass a wide range of collaborative arrangements that are designed to achieve a variety of social and commercial purposes. This article focuses on one particular category of IOR collaboration, namely, cooperative IORs which rely on neither market nor hierarchical mechanisms of control to ensure cooperation and coordination and, instead, are negotiated in ongoing, communicative processes. This article discusses critical perspectives on collaboration which have moved from an interest in how individual partners might use power for their own interests to understanding the complex webs of power in which all collaborating actors are positioned. To do so, the article first briefly reviews some of the other approaches to collaboration. It then shows how critical perspectives differ from these approaches in some of their basic assumptions, and goes on to present some of the ways in which critical approaches have been applied to collaboration and to provide possible directions for future research.
Managing Collaborative Inter‐organizational Relations
Authors: Hibbert Paul , Huxham Chris , Ring Peter Smith
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the jungle of theories and approaches that abound today in works applied to the management of relations between organizations. It discusses the actions of ‘individuals’ who may be thought of as managers of an inter-organizational entity (IOE). It also explores research that describes organizational capabilities — in the sense of building them — as a product of, and an enactment through, managerial action. It address the various ways in which this kind of research has been conducted, including a discussion of the various methodologies and underlying theories that provide foundations for discussions of the management challenges inherent in dealing with collaboration and areas of substantive focus. Finally, this article closes with a discussion of significant gaps in the literature that require future research.
Trust in Inter‐organizational Relations
Authors: Bachmann Reinhard , Zaheer Akbar
Published: September 2009

This article takes issue with the notion that calculativeness and not trust dominates inter-organizational relationships (IORs), and lays out a series of arguments in support of trust. While it principally addresses the role of trust in inter-organizational business relationships, much of what is covered here applies as well to relationships between organizations more generally, including those in the public and non-profit sectors. This article shows that trust is different from calculativeness in nature and that the concept of social embeddedness provides a more realistic perspective for analysing relationships between organizations. It is believed that a detailed examination of the role of trust in IORs from both the economic and sociological perspectives paves the way to a deeper understanding of the issues in this context. In turn, such understandings should help identify appropriate research questions to investigate better empirically the precise role of trust in IORs.
Learning and Innovation in Inter‐organizational Relationships
Authors: Nooteboom Bart
Published: September 2009

The purpose of this article is to survey this complex field of alliances and networks designed to help produce innovation, without claiming to be exhaustive. Here, the emphasis is placed on a coherent causal analysis that integrates at least some of the many factors that have been found to play a role in innovation and learning in inter-organizational relationships. In particular, this article looks at two issues: competence, which is clearly central in innovation and learning (which is all about developing competence), and governance, i.e. the management of relational risks. This article employs multiple perspectives, from economics, sociology, and cognitive science. Economics aids in dealing with considerations of efficiency; sociology for interaction, and cognitive science because learning is, after all, the central issue.
Evaluating Inter‐organizational Relationships
Authors: Provan Keith G. , Sydow Jörg
Published: September 2009

Despite the prevalence of inter-organizational relationships (IORs) in organizational life and despite the vast amount of research that has been conducted on the topic, there is considerable confusion over exactly what outcomes are actually achieved. One major reason for this confusion is simply that evaluation is complex. It is difficult to determine with any precision what specific outcomes result from an IOR and what outcomes might have occurred in the absence of an IOR. This article presents a general discussion of the rationale for evaluation, and then discusses and categorizes the various ways in which IORs have been evaluated over the years so that researchers, and also practitioners, will be able to address the important issue of evaluation in a more systematic way. Finally, it concludes with a discussion of the evaluation process, and how it might best be managed in light of current trends towards a collaborative approach to evaluation and the obvious path dependencies of evaluative practices.
Animals
Authors: Frey R. G.
Published: September 2009

There appear to be three main sets of issues that arise upon a focus on animal value: the moral standing or moral considerability of animals, the value of animal life, and the argument from marginal cases (or unfortunate humans). But these issues all arise, and in various ways, in the confines of a larger argument concerned with human benefit that proponents of animal use accept to justify animal experimentation in medicine and that opponents of animal use reject to scuttle that attempted justification. In fact, these main sets of issues are all interconnected, and the ultimate issue in dispute in this general area will turn out to be the comparative value of human and animal life.
People with Disabilities
Authors: Silvers Anita
Published: September 2009

This article focuses on the disability problem and the rights of the disabled people for a dignified existence. The system of removing people from the community because they are disabled took hold in the USA in the middle of the nineteenth century. Before 1820, disabled people stayed with their families or found places elsewhere in their immediate communities. During the following forty years, however, residential schools meant to train these individuals so that they could be more productive sprang up, supported by charitable donations and government funds. Up until the US Civil War, these institutions focused on improving the skills and therefore the productivity of corporeally or cognitively impaired people, and on giving them access to the Bible and therefore to the word of God, with the goal of returning them to the community to earn their own livings.
Legal Paternalism
Authors: Husak Douglas N.
Published: September 2009

This article's central interest is to examine the special philosophical difficulties that arise in attempts to think about paternalism in legal contexts. Most moral philosophers have focused on personal relationships in their efforts to understand both the nature and the justification of paternalism. That is, they have endeavoured to identify the conditions under which what they define as paternalism might be justified in situations in which one person (for example, a parent, a doctor, or a friend) interacts with another person (for example, a child, a patient, or a friend). The article is largely concerned with the problems that inhere in efforts to apply to the domain of law any theories about paternalism that might be derived from these personal contexts. It proposes tentative solutions to several of these problems.
Economic Justice
Authors: Wolff Jonathan
Published: September 2009

Under conditions of imperfect knowledge a price system is essential for signalling information about surplus and shortage of particular goods, relative to demand. A profit system is essential to give individuals an incentive to respond to changing prices. Accordingly, any attempt to produce according to a central plan — however rational this may seem in theory — will destroy both information and incentives. Prosperity presupposes markets. Yet it would be wrong to identify the market with pure capitalism, in which the exercise of property rights may lead to deep inequality. If we are concerned with both efficiency and justice we must determine how far we can depart from capitalist forms of the free market, in the name of justice, without losing ‘too much’ of its efficiency advantages. The complex topic is: Justice must be balanced against efficiency and perhaps other values. How this is to be achieved forms an important part of the present discussion.
Privacy
Authors: Allen Anita L.
Published: September 2009

The idea of privacy has played a role in constitutional thought, formulations of human rights, and both common and civil law. The US Supreme Court has recognized that five of the original Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment protect privacy interests. In US tort law, interests against intrusion upon seclusion, public disclosure of private fact, publications placing one in a false light, and misappropriation of a person's name, likeness, or identity are potentially protected through civil actions styled ‘invasions of privacy’. Federal and state statutes protect interests in the privacy of records relating to, inter alia, health, finances, consumer transactions, Internet use, and taxes.
Whistleblowing
Authors: Davis Michael
Published: September 2009

Whistleblowing is not so much a settled practice as a growing collection of acts in search of a unifying analysis. Indeed, there is even disagreement concerning which acts belong to the collection. This article gives one informed observer's sense of how whistleblowing should be understood, what moral and practical problems whistleblowing (so understood) raises, and how those problems might be resolved. The chief test of my recommendations is whether they help us understand whistleblowing better, not whether they fit usage.
Measurement Versus Calibration: A Set‐Theoretic Approach
Authors: Ragin Charles C.
Published: September 2009

This article distinguishes between ‘measurement’ and ‘calibration’. It is organized around the distinction between measurement and calibration. The main message of this article is that fuzzy sets, unlike conventional variables, must be calibrated. It also argues that fuzzy sets provide a middle path between quantitative and qualitative measurement. It explores the common measurement practices in quantitative and qualitative social research. It then further demonstrates that fuzzy sets resonate with both the measurement concerns of qualitative researchers, where the goal often is to recognize between relevant and irrelevant variation, and the measurement concerns of quantitative researchers, where the goal is the precise placement of cases relative to each other. Current practices in quantitative social science undercut serious attention to calibration. Set-theoretic analysis without careful calibration of set membership is an exercise in futility.
Time‐Series Analysis
Authors: Pevehouse Jon C. W. , Brozek Jason D.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses time-series methods such as simple time-series regressions, ARIMA models, vector autoregression (VAR) models, and unit root and error correction models (ECM). It specifically presents a brief history of time-series analysis before moving to a review of the basic time-series model. It then describes the stationary models in univariate and multivariate analyses. The nonstationary models of each type are addressed. In addition, various issues regarding the analysis of time series including data aggregation and temporal stability are considered. Before concluding, the article briefly reports the time-series techniques in the context of panel data. In general, time-series analysis can help improve the understanding of the political world.
Interviewing and Qualitative Field Methods: Pragmatism and Practicalities
Authors: Rathbun Brian C.
Published: September 2009

This article recommends the use of intensive, in-depth interviews which can help to establish motivations and preferences, even though they must deal with the perils of ‘strategic reconstruction’. The first section of this article makes the pragmatic case for interviewing. The second portion is devoted to assembling in one place the consensus in the literature on the basics of how to undertake interviews, including issues of how to build arguments using interview data, how to structure questionnaires, the proper role to adopt vis-à-vis respondents, and how to gain access to conversation partners. Doubts about the status of interview data and the reliability of respondents must be taken into account but can be addressed. These disadvantages rarely outweigh the unique advantages of interviewing.
Comparative-Historical Analysis in Contemporary Political Science
Authors: Mahoney James , Terrie Larkin
Published: September 2009

This article indicates that comparative historical analysis is complementary to statistical analysis because it deals with ‘causes of effects’ rather than ‘effects of causes’. It also presents some ideas about how one can tackle the problems posed by engaging in comparative historical inquiry. In addition, the article argues that comparative-historical analysis and statistical analysis pursue different research goals, and that while they both face methodological challenges, they both play an essential role in generating knowledge in political science. Comparative-historical studies that use regression analysis in the course of process tracing are not necessarily more powerful than comparative-historical studies that do not use any statistical testing. There is nothing inherently wrong with conducting comparative-historical work that does not include a statistical component (and vice versa).
Qualitative and Multimethod Research: Organizations, Publication, and Reflections on Integration
Authors: Collier David , Elman Colin
Published: September 2009

This article describes the rapid development of institutions for the study of qualitative methods in the past decade. It first begins by presenting an overview of the approach to methodology that underpins the idea of qualitative and multimethod work. It then discusses these new organizations, in particular the Organized Section on Qualitative and Multi-Method Research of the American Political Science Association, and the annual Institute for Qualitative and Multi-Method Research. It outlines the patterns of publication, and a conclusion considers briefly the merits of an integrative, versus a separate tracks, approach to coordinating alternative methodologies. The formation of the organizations linked with qualitative/multimethod work reflected the need for methodologists with convergent skills and objectives to have a meaningful forum for dialogue.
Culture and Decision Making
Authors: Rojot Jacques
Published: September 2009

This article argues that the primary effects of cultures in decision making take the form of limitations on decision makers' rationality. Simon pointed out that decision making reflects the limitations of human brains. Subsequently, scholars have written many words about the psychological limitations on rationality. However, rationality also confronts cultural limitations that both augment and dominate the psychological ones. The article begins by summarizing some of the writing about national, occupational, and organizational cultures. It then considers the implications of these writings for organizational decision making.
Strategy Workshops and “Away Days” as Ritual
Authors: Bourque Nicole , Johnson Gerry
Published: September 2009

Management researchers have made few attempts to study strategy events and to build explanations from theories. In particular, the management literature has failed to explain why the social dynamics, the often intense emotional experiences of participants, and the intended strategies formed at these events are not always realized after the event. This article uses the ritual theory, developed by anthropologists, in order to shed light on these processes. In particular, this entails a focus on theories of rites of passage and of ritualization. This article describes a “typical” strategy event and discusses the similarities between this event and a rite of passage. Then, it uses ritual theory to analyze this case study and explain the phenomena that arise during and following the event. Finally, it suggests areas of future research and offers some advice for managers and facilitators of such events.
Types and Positions
Authors: Kanter Rosabeth Moss , Khurana Rakesh
Published: September 2009

This article aims to make a case for using Georg Simmel's ideas to illuminate features of organizational life that connect individuals, groups, organizations, and society. It first summarizes three related aspects of Simmel's approach to social action that are relevant to organizational research: his method of using ‘pure types’ for describing social roles; positions for locating social actors in relation to each other; and structure for describing recurring social relationships. It then examines Simmel's applications of these ideas to social groupings of increasing complexity beginning with simple social interactions consisting of a monad, dyad, and triad; pyramidal hierarchies of dominant and subordinate relations; and finally, overlapping and interacting affiliations. The article continually draws parallels between Simmel's conceptual ideas and how they relate to critical topics in organizational behavior and to the larger social context. The article concludes by suggesting that Simmel may be even more relevant to a post-industrial age than he was to the machine age in which bureaucracy dominated, which might account for his relative neglect in the past and possible re-emergence today.
Mary Parker Follett and Pragmatist Organization
Authors: Ansell Chris
Published: September 2009

Although Mary Parker Follett's reputation rises and falls with academic and management fashion, she has established a fairly secure place in the pantheon of organization studies. As many have noted, her contributions are sometimes difficult to classify because of her strong interdisciplinarity. Her writings range across political science, democratic theory, management, public administration, conflict resolution, social psychology, and organization theory, and she can be fairly claimed by all these fields. Her work is often seen as having a prescient or ‘prophetic’ quality, in that she anticipated developments in many of these fields that came to prominence much later. The revival of interest in her work has often coincided with the attempt by these emerging fields to establish their intellectual pedigrees. This article argues that what remains powerful and exemplary about Follett's work is her attempt to provide, and work through, the implications of a basic philosophical perspective for the social sciences.
Death and the Afterlife
Authors: Pippin Tina
Published: September 2009

In English literature and theology, the varieties of fictions about the End follow certain patterns and scattered genealogies, yet the connections to political and social realities of the times are always worthy of connection and comment. Death lyrics in poetic or prose form have a long history. These lyrics were popular in the Middle Ages in England, especially in the fifteenth century. Everyone will eventually die, and death treats all social classes equally. Literature responds, in poetry, sermons, novels and plays, to humour death. All these writers mentioned in this article faced these limitations of understanding death and the afterlife. These writers wrote in the context of plague; of their own and others' sickness; of existential dilemmas, sudden death, or funerals. They spoke out of despair, joy, memory, politics, and hope. In the face of death they dreamed of afterlives and saw visions of their own world transformed.