bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
TOXICITY OF CHEMICALLY DISPERSED OIL TO SHRIMP EXPOSED TO CONSTANT AND DECREASING CONCENTRATIONS IN A FLOWING SYSTEM
Authors: Anderson J. W. , Kiesser S. L. , Bean R. M. , Riley R. G. , Thomas B. L.
Published: January 2013

The shrimp Pandalus danae was exposed, in a flowing system, to a water extract of Prudhoe Bay crude oil and to chemically dispersed dilutions of this oil. Mortality produced over a period of 10 hours to 9 days was followed to the point of 50 percent survival in each tank. The product of time to 50 percent mortality (in days) and the measured concentration (in parts per million (ppm)) in each tank was used to describe the toxicity of the solutions. This toxicity index (ppm-days) was 4.5 times higher in the winter and fall than in spring and summer tests with the same oil extract. In the warmer months, when shrimp were more sensitive, oil dispersed with chemicals was about half as toxic as the seawater extract of the oil. Differences in the concentrations of specific petroleum hydrocarbons in the seawater extract and the chemically dispersed oil aid in explaining the toxicity observed. Toxic aromatics represent 98 percent of the extract but only 67 percent of the dispersed oil since the latter is enriched with droplets of oil containing 33 percent saturated and other insoluble components. Linear dilution of dispersed oil to zero in 26 hours resulted in toxicity indices quite similar to those produced in constant exposures.
THE LEGAL ENVIRONMENT COMPONENT OF AN OIL SPILL CLEANUP MODEL
Authors: Nyhart J. D. , Psaraftis Harilaos N. , Laird Walter S.
Published: January 2013

An oil spill and its cleanup can be viewed as occurring within a legal environment separable into categories including legal aspects of planning, response action, environmental protection, liability, and compensation. Each may provide enabling rules and constraints that affect the delegation of authority and responsibility to a range of actors. These include the spiller, terminal/facility owner, local emergency cleanup personnel, the Coast Guard, other government officers, volunteers, cleanup contractors, equipment manufacturers, and those damaged by the spill.

This paper describes the legal components of an oil spill cleanup model being developed in a Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Sea Grant College Program project involving several representative actors from the above categories. It focuses on the relevant existing legal environment in the United States and its relationship to the different actors. It explores how these relationships, expressed as enabling rules or constraints, may be integrated into the project's strategic, tactical, operational, and damage assessment models.
THE MEDIA AND OIL SPILLS: DOES THE PRESS INFLUENCE DAMAGE PERCEPTIONS
Authors: Rappaport Allen , Zincone Louis H. , Fricke Peter
Published: January 2013

Although it is generally accepted that there is no evidence of socioeconomic damages resulting from the Argo Merchant oil spill, a survey undertaken approximately one year revealed that perceptions of significant damage exist among residents of adjacent areas. Concurrently, critics suggest the media exaggerated potential damages. Our findings indicate that erroneous damage perceptions are associated with a number of cultural and demographic variables, including differences in exposure to new media. Persons with erroneous damage perceptions had been exposed to a much larger number of information media reporting on the effects of the spill. Those concerned with providing accurate information will have to supply facts and data to the media, to local public officials, and to residents who are opinion leaders.
THE MASSACHUSETTS OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING PROGRAM
Authors: Garry B. J.
Published: January 2013

Since August 1979, Massachusetts has been involved in a unique oil spill contingency planning program. This program, which is funded through the Coastal Energy Impact Program, involves three phases.

Phase I entails the development of regional contingency plans. These plans, like others produced on larger and smaller scales, will include such information as the location of oil spill response equipment, the identification of Highly Vulnerable Areas (HVAs), including specific protection strategies and the identification of local personnel-either Harbormasters, shellfish officers, or firefighting personnel-available for a limited local response to any oil spill.

Phase II of the program involves training these local personnel in the basics of oil spill control. The training will emphasize hands-on deployment of boom under various weather and sea conditions and in various natural environments. The training course will be based at the Massachusetts Maritime Academy, will last for 3.5 days and will accommodate 12 to 15 students at each 3.5-day session.

Phase III, which will not be realized until contingency plans are printed and local personnel trained, involves the purchase of oil spill containment equipment for local use. Although a definite funding source has yet to be identified, legislation establishing a minimal per-barrel coastal oil transfer tax has been filed and will be considered by the state legislature in the near future.

The Massachusetts Oil Spill Contingency Planning Program is currently being implemented in Dukes, Nantucket, and Barnstable Counties. Over the next 2 years, the program will be expanded to include the entire Massachusetts coast, excluding Boston Harbor.
TEXAS A&M'S OIL SPILL TRAINING ACTIVITIES—A SIXTH YEAR PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Payne J. Larry , Krone Michael A. , Morris David V.
Published: January 2013

This paper will open by briefly tracing the initial development and subsequent evolution of the Texas Engineering Extension Service's (TEEX) oil spill control activities. The paper seeks to examine and evaluate the success of various phases of the activities including the basic 40-hour API Oil Spill Control Course and the newer specialized extension training programs covering oil and hazardous material spill control. Parameters of the evaluation include developmental rationale, audience analysis, educational validity, specific teaching and learning strategies, logistics and implementation, resource utilization, and program evaluation and planning strategies. Important differences and similarities between the basic 40-hour program and the spinoff extension programs are covered carefully in an attempt to provide useful data for those considering the development of similar programs. Finally, the expanded research and technical assistance of the TEEX Oil and Hazardous Material Control Training Division will be discussed briefly.
THE NAVAL FACILITIES ENGINEERING COMMANDS OIL SPILL RESPONSE PROGRAM
Authors: Castellucci Robert E.
Published: January 2013

This paper discusses the development of the Naval Facilities Engineering Command Oil Spill Program and addresses three specific elements of this program, including equipment acquisition, contingency planning, and personnel training.
A PORTABLE INSTRUMENT FOR SCREENING SPILL AND SOURCE OIL SAMPLES1
Authors: Jadamec J. Richard , Kleineberg Gerd A. , Marble Duane A. , Wargo Lisa A.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Coast Guard Research and Development Center recently completed a laboratory and field evaluation of a portable (battery-powered) Field Identification Luminescence Monitor (FILM) developed for oil spill identification. This instrument, a simplified fluorescence spectrometer, features high resolution, portability, operational simplicity, and sample-handling versatility. It is designed to record the fluorescence emission spectrum of oil from 280 to 650 nanometers (nm) directly on Polaroid® film for rapid comparisons of spill and suspected source samples directly at the spill site. Samples can be in the form of neat oils, solutions of oil in water, or as deposits on various substrates. Laboratory and field tests indicate that use of this instrument by pollution investigators both reduces the number of samples requiring laboratory analysis and increases the probability that the correct source has been sampled at or in the vicinity of the spill site. This system also can detect other fluorescing materials such as industrial solvents, specific hazardous chemicals, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons.
MOBILE COMMAND AND COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
Authors: Leigh J. T. , Park William C.
Published: January 2013

Effective communications are essential to the proper management of the many resources which may be committed to a large oil spill cleanup operation. Considerations in establishing a central command and communications center are presented, and the features and equipment of a center designed for rapid transport to a spill scene are discussed.
ENHANCED OIL BIODEGRADATION: A NEW OPERATIONAL TOOL TO CONTROL OIL SPILLS
Authors: Tramier Bernard , Sirvins Andre
Published: January 2013

Biodegradation of oil is a natural and universal process. Unfortunately, it is a slow one, and most attempts to enhance it have failed.

A new approach has been devised to try to render this enhancement process operational. A nutrient including nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon has been developed and formulated as an oleophilic micro-emulsion. It is, therefore, not dispersed in seawater.

The nutrient has been tested in laboratory and field situations in temperate and cold climates. Biodegradation rates have ranged from 60 percent to 85 percent depending on conditions. Combined with natural evaporation, enhanced oil biodegradation can lead to a reduction in oil content of at least 65 percent in less than one week.
OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING FOR GEORGES BANK
Authors: Danenberger Elmer P. , Eldridge R. Barry , Crocker Marshall
Published: January 2013

Lease Sale #42, held on December 18, 1979, provided the North Atlantic District of the Minerals Management Service (MMS) and the U. S. Coast Guard Marine Safety Office, Boston, an opportunity to develop oil spill contingency planning requirements for companies exploring for oil and gas on Georges Bank, one of the world's most productive fisheries.

After extensive consultation with the Coast Guard's Marine Safety Office and Atlantic Strike Team representatives, Clean Atlantic Associates (CAA), an oil industry cleanup cooperative for the Atlantic outer continental shelf, received specific criteria regarding response times, sea-state capabilities, uptake rates, support vessels, storage capabilities, training, and drills. These criteria were developed with the assistance of a technical review board approved by the Commandant of the Coast Guard. CAA met the criteria by purchasing additional response equipment and further demonstrating the capabilities of existing equipment.

Response equipment was maintained at two offshore locations to ensure that the specified six-hour response times could be achieved under normal conditions. The offshore response equipment was deployed by drilling personnel at offshore well sites. CAA and the Atlantic Strike Team successfully conducted a coordinated response exercise on July 30, 1981, in Rhode Island Sound. Additional training classes and a surprise offshore drill have been held subsequently.
METHOD FOR RANKING BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES IN OIL SPILL RESPONSE PLANNING1
Authors: Adams J. K. , Heikamp A. J. , Hannah R. P.
Published: January 2013

A method for identifying and ranking biologically important geographic areas in spill response planning is described. Although this project was conducted to minimize environmental risks due to accidental spillage from the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP), the methodology is widely applicable. The method has three important characteristics: it is driven by the existing information base and easily updated, applicable to all coastal and aquatic environments, and capable of producing a list of priorities within a specific spill response planning area.

The rationale of selecting ranking units and ranking criteria is presented. Habitat was selected as the best available ranking unit for oil spill response planning. “Habitat” is defined, and the attributes of habitats that make them useful analytical units are described. The ranking criteria selected (habitat recovery, persistence of oil, cleanup damage, important species supported, and habitat rarity) are defined and their evaluation explained.

An application of the method is described for the LOOP spill response planning area. Habitats are identified and delineated, and values are assigned to the ranking criteria. The resultant habitat ranking is presented with recommendations for the incorporation of this analysis into a comprehensive oil spill contingency plan using a computerized geographic information system.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESOURCE PROTECTION PLANS: AN ANALYSIS OF METHODS1
Authors: Smith Randall W.
Published: January 2013

During the past 10 years, a variety of plans have been developed for the evaluation, assessment and protection of natural resources and wetlands from the impacts of oil spills. Each plan has contributed to our knowledge of resource evaluation and planning. Several methods have been used to develop and organize the information available, as it applies to spill response.

A comparison of several methods in use on the Pacific Coast of the United States is made from existing protection plans. Analysis of the component methods shows that each plan contains elements of similarity to other plans, but each also includes some unique or innovative approaches to the common problems. Distinctive characteristics of each plan are noted, discussed, and compared. The convenience of each plan for use in the field is reviewed.

Each of the resource protection plans develops some needed contribution to interagency oil spill response efforts. There is a trend toward comprehensive planning efforts with practical field application; however, single-purpose plans are useful elements.

Few plans use high-level aerial photography, but low-level aerial photography is common. Few plans develop criteria for damage assessment, and few include archaeological sites which might be disturbed during cleanup activities. Identification of endangered species and critical habitat is gaining acceptance as a method for ordering the priorities for protection, although geomorphological categories also are important for this purpose. It is noteworthy that while sensitivity of habitat often is emphasized, sensitivity of organisms to the toxicity of oil usually is not used as a method for setting priorities.

The practical considerations for each type of planning or assessment method are compared and discussed.
MIRG ENVIRONMENTAL ELEMENT: AN OIL SPILL RESPONSE PLANNING TOOL FOR THE GULF OF MEXICO
Authors: Lindstedt-Siva June , Baca Bart J. , Getter Charles D.
Published: January 2013

Several companies involved in the marine transportation of petroleum in the Gulf of Mexico have established the Marine Industry Group (MIRG). MIRG has funded two oil spill contingency planning information projects for the Gulf of Mexico. The Resources and Logistics Element identifies the location and accessibility of cleanup equipment in the area of interest. The Environmental Element describes Gulf of Mexico environments, identifies biologically and socioeconomically sensitive areas, and includes countermeasure considerations.

This paper examines the environmental element of the MIRG project. The purpose of this element is to provide environmental information on the Gulf of Mexico coastline in a form that can easily be used during an oil spill emergency. The information covers both U.S. and Mexican nearshore waters and coastal areas and is specific enough to provide meaningful guidance to spill response personnel.

The environmental element is divided into two volumes. Volume I is an environmental overview of the Gulf of Mexico, including physical processes that influence the movement of spilled oil, a description of Gulf of Mexico environments, an analysis of possible spill impacts, and spill cleanup considerations for each type of environment. Volume II is divided into regional sections. Each section includes overview maps of the area covered, detailed maps of identified sensitive areas, and accompanying data sheets which include reasons for sensitivity, access and possible launch points for equipment, and countermeasure considerations. These volumes are designed to function as field manuals during spills as well as reference documents for spill response planning.
RESULTS OF A FULL-SCALE SURPRISE TEST OF SUN'S MAJOR SPILL RESPONSE PLAN
Authors: Kazmierczak Leon J. , Crawford T. A.
Published: January 2013

The Marine Operations Division of Sun Refining and Marketing (formerly Sun Transport Co.), a division of Sun Company, Inc., has conducted a series of drills to assess the effectiveness of its response plan, originally published in 1976. The latest exercise, conducted in November 1981, was by far the most extensive and complicated. Papers presented at the 1979 and 1981 oil spill conferences described the plan, the rationale behind it, and the first test. This paper reports on the findings and experiences of this latest exercise.

The test (as with the original) was known only to a few beforehand to simulate as real-life a situation as possible. Involvement by people and organizations was extensive and included about 40 people representing Sun, the U. S. Coast Guard, the Delaware Bay Cooperative, the University of Delaware, reporters, and a few others. A number of problems identified will be discussed in detail. Two of the more important were early confusion about assignments and reporting; that is, people arriving were not sure where to go or to whom to talk.

In general, the test was a very positive learning experience for all involved. Probably the single most important benefit was that the Sun people acquired a level of experience which they can draw on with some degree of confidence in the event of a major spill.
OIL SPILL RESPONSE TRAINING FOR COOPERATIVES AND INDIVIDUAL ORGANIZATIONS
Authors: Deslauriers Paul C.
Published: January 2013

Oil spill response training for cooperatives and individual organizations often involves focusing on a specific area, environmental conditions, personnel structure and resources for response. Cooperatives operating in remote areas often require personnel with a variety of spill response skills and disciplines, particularly for large spill events. Because of the variety of skills and conditions involved in this type of response preparation, 15 different training programs have been developed. Individual organizations, particularly for a single facility, have less diversified training needs, with the program designed around the facility, types of potential spills, area of potential spill impact and available response equipment and personnel.
THE USE OF RECEPTOR MODE TRAJECTORY ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES FOR CONTINGENCY PLANNING
Authors: Galt J. A. , Payton D. L.
Published: January 2013

Spill trajectory models and computer analysis techniques have been used effectively in spill response programs. In addition to providing movement and spreading forecasts, these models also can be used to explore alternative operational scenarios. In many cases these same, basically deterministic, model formulations have been used to study hypothetical spills in a region where development is proposed, and the results used in contingency planning activities. When deterministic trajectory forecast models are used in this manner, a number of assumptions are necessary about the statistical nature of the dominant physical transport processes and the location of potential spill sites.

This paper describes a new modeling procedure in which high-value target, or receptor, areas first are determined. These areas may be defined by using various environmental sensitivity mapping schemes. With this information, the model performs an inverse set of trajectory calculations and presents the output as two maps. The first map provides the quantitative probability distribution that a pollutant could reach the high-value receptor site from anywhere in the modeled region; i.e., it is a threat zone map. The second map provides time of travel information for this distribution.

An example of the model's use is presented, and ways in which its map output may be used directly in regional response and contingency plans are discussed.
ANALYZING THE POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF OPERATIONAL DISCHARGES OF OIL FROM SHIPS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO
Authors: Ehler Charles N. , Basta Daniel J. , LaPoint Thomas F.
Published: January 2013

This paper describes a first attempt to estimate the spatial and temporal pattern of operational discharges of oil from ships and their contribution to surface oil concentrations in the Gulf of Mexico. A relatively simple—although novel in its application to marine pollution problems—simulation model has been developed to estimate the amount of oil discharged into the gulf routinely and intentionally during normal ship operations. These estimates are entered into a surface pollutant transport model developed to predict “typical” seasonal distributions of surface oil concentrations in the Gulf of Mexico. First results indicate that operational discharges from ships are a major contributor to coastal oil pollution problems throughout the gulf.
STATISTICAL FAILURE MODE ANALYSIS OF SUBMARINE PIPELINE ACCIDENTS
Authors: Olender William K.
Published: January 2013

This study was conducted to investigate the appropriate exposure and system variables that affect the frequencies of submarine pipeline accidents and spills, the relationships among these variables, and the principal failure modes for individual pipeline classes. Available data on accidents, spills, pipeline inventory, and operational experience were used to compute annual and (diameter adjusted) mean accident rates, standard deviations, and confidence limits. Combined data for three dissimilar maritime regions indicate that a failure rate for oil and gas submarine pipelines of between one and ten incidents per 1,000 kilometers (km) per year probably represents a conservative estimate; however, the number of accidents in two of these regions was too small to provide statistically meaningful results.

A more detailed analysis of Gulf of Mexico data recorded in the 1969-1980 period revealed that, while external factors such as severe weather and third party (man-made) activity accounted for nearly half of all pipeline incidents in that maritime region, corrosion has accounted for about half of all oil pipeline failures since 1975. Failure rates derived for Gulf of Mexico pipelines, however, are believed to overestimate pipeline vulnerability by a substantial margin owing to the exclusion of all but offshore Texas and Louisiana pipelines from the database.
UNDERGROUND OIL SPILL INVESTIGATION AND CLEANUP1
Authors: McIntyre David
Published: January 2013

In April 1978, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Region I office received an oil spill report which involved a sheen leaching from an industrial park into a river in Connecticut. Initial investigation revealed only two 10,000-gallon and one 11,000-gallon buried storage tanks as possible sources. All were located relatively close together about 200 feet from the river. The maintenance man reported that one of the 10,000-gallon tanks had spilled an estimated 500 gallons into the ground the previous year.

EPA responded and initially worked with the property owner and the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection in addressing the problem. Although the leaching seemed to be relatively minor at first, it gradually increased after July 1978. The property owner was unable to finance cleanup actions after the first few months. EPA assumed cleanup responsibility, using federal funds, and eventually took over all investigation and recovery efforts in 1980.

The incident has involved many phases, including locating and estimating the volume of the underground contamination, attempted source identification through sample analysis, installing recovery systems, excavating the oil storage tanks, winter operations of the recovery systems, disposal of product, and river cleanup. Analyses of test boring data in 1979 indicated the maximum volume of spilled product on the groundwater to be between 50,000 and 150,000 gallons. Since 1980, the recovery systems alone have yielded more than 90,000 gallons of oil, making this innocuous incident one of the largest inland oil spills ever in Region I. It also has been the most expensive federally-funded inland spill in the region. Recovery from the groundwater is expected to continue through 1982, albeit at a decreasing rate. The total observed volume of oil involved in the spill will probably exceed 110,000 gallons.
A CASE HISTORY: CLEANUP OF A SUBSURFACE LEAK OF REFINED PRODUCT
Authors: Minugh Edward M. , Patry Jeffrey J. , Keech Dorothy A. , Leek William R.
Published: January 2013

In October 1980, gasoline vapors were detected in two restaurants about 500 feet downgradient from the site of a bulk plant that handles refined products. A geohydrological investigation identified a plume of gasoline and diesel fuel floating on the water table from the bulk plant to the restaurant locations.

The water table was encountered at a depth of 10 feet in alluvium composed of coarse gravels and cobbles. Pump tests of observation wells revealed the presence of buried, high permeability stream channels bordered by low permeability silty sediments. At low water level, a two-foot-thick layer of contaminated soil was observed above the product plume.

Free product was removed by recovery wells downgradient of the bulk plant and each of the restaurants using a two-pump method. Produced water was reinjected upgradient into wells around the restaurants and via a trench at the bulk plant.

Subsurface microbial biodegradation of residual hydrocarbons was stimulated by providing nutrients and diffused air at the water injection points. Biodegradation continued throughout a period of rising water table, reaching a high water depth above the contaminated soil layer. Accumulating fumes were removed from beneath one of the restaurants by means of a subsurface venting system constructed to maintain lateral air flow under the building.

This paper relates the case history of discovery, investigation, and response to a groundwater contamination problem. The unique methods successfully used to cleanup a subsurface leak of refined product are described.
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING OF THE FORTIES OILFIELD (NORTH SEA)
Authors: Hartley J. P. , Ferbrache J.
Published: January 2013

The Forties Oilfield (the largest in the U.K. sector of the North Sea) has been in production since September 1975. In June 1975, a quantitative survey of the benthic sediments and fauna over the area was made at the start of an environmental monitoring program for the field. The results of a repeat survey carried out after three years of production have been reported by Hartley.13 This paper presents data from a third similar survey in June 1981 and compares the findings with those of the earlier surveys.

The benthic fauna of the Forties Field is rich and diverse and qualitatively corresponded well in 1981 to previous descriptions. Naturally occurring gradients in both the sediment type and fauna are a feature of this area. Changes in the densities of certain species were noted at some sites in 1981, including increases in certain opportunistic forms. Although no areas of biological effect could be delineated around the four production platforms, the industrial activity in the field may be implicated in the changes found at several stations. The hydrocarbon content of the sediments was low and, with one possible exception, did not appear related to the biological changes noted.

The results to date suggest that offshore oilfields in deep water, developed using water-based drill fluids, present relatively few biological problems in the short term. Since no major biological effects have been found after six years of drilling and production, a reduced program of monitoring is recommended to maintain biological surveillance during the life of the field.
DELINEATION OF SUBSURFACE PETROLEUM SPILLS USING TERRAIN CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS
Authors: Saunders Wayne R. , Castle Robert W. , Foget Carl R.
Published: January 2013

Terrain conductivity is a geophysical technique which, by inducing current into the ground, can measure the conductivity of subsurface soils and interstitial waters. Hydrocarbons are not conductive materials and, because the surrounding lithology behaves to a certain extent as a conductor, the presence of pooled hydrocarbons floating on groundwater can be determined by the use of a terrain conductivity survey. Two case histories are presented in which terrain conductivity measurements were used to determine the extent and thickness of subsurface hydrocarbon plumes.
CAPE FEAR RIVER OIL SPILL (NORTH CAROLINA): DETERMINING OIL QUANTITY FROM MARSH SURFACE AREA
Authors: Baca Bart J. , Michel Jacqueline , Kana Timothy W. , Maynard Nancy G.
Published: January 2013

A spill of heavy fuel oil in the Cape Fear River near Wilmington, North Carolina, impacted approximately 30 miles of shoreline. The vegetation was of a high marsh type dominated by species of Spartina, Scirpus, and Juncus. The particular water-insoluble, hydrophobic characteristics of the oil caused it to adhere predominantly to marsh vegetation. To determine the amount of oil onshore it was necessary to determine marsh grass surface areas.

Aerial reconnaissance established the locations of major, moderate, and low impact areas and allowed the production of an environmental data map. Ground reconnaissance was used to obtain widths of impacted marsh and to identify dominant marsh vegetation components. Transect measurements completed the data acquisition and yielded surface areas. The amount of surface area submerged at mean high tide (and, therefore, subject to oiling) was determined separately for Spartina alterniflora, S. cynosuroides, Scirpus olneyi, and Juncus effusus. Geometric formulas used were based upon the surface morphology of each plant. A stepwide procedure is given for application of the methods to other spills and to other common marsh species. Surface areas for flowering S. alterniflora ranged from about 700-to-l,500 square centimeters per plant. The leaf area was approximately twice the area of the stem.

Revisits to the spill site indicated that much of the oil had been exported from lightly oiled areas, and that these areas had recovered. However, heavily oiled areas showed a reduction in total plants per square meter and much contamination of surface sediments and substrate.
MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBON WEATHERING IN THE SUBARCTIC MARINE ENVIRONMENT1
Authors: Payne James R. , Kirstein Bruce E. , McNabb G. Daniel , Lambach James L. , de Oliveira Celso , Jordan Randolph E. , Hom Wilson
Published: January 2013

When crude oil or petroleum products are released to the marine environment, immediate alterations in chemical and physical properties occur as a result of a variety of weathering processes. A three-year oil weathering study of Prudhoe Bay crude oil has been completed under ambient subarctic conditions at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's lower Cook Inlet field laboratory in Kasitsna Bay, Alaska. Quantitative data from outdoor wave-tank and flow-through aquaria systems were collected on seasonal and time-series measurements of compositional changes in the oil and water column due to evaporation, dissolution, and water-in-oil emulsification, as well as alterations in rheological properties of the slick. These data are used for mathematical model development and verification of computer-predicted oil weathering behavior from a variety of spill scenarios.

The oil-weathering mathematical models developed in this program are based on measured physical properties data, and they generate material balances for both specific compounds and pseudo-compounds (distillation cuts) in crude oil. These models are applicable to open-ocean oil spills, spills in estuaries and lagoons where the water column is finite, and spills on land. The oil weathering processes included in the mathematical model are evaporation, dispersion of oil into the water column, dissolution, water-in-oil emulsification (mousse formation), and oil slick spreading. In most cases, very good agreement is obtained between predicted and observed weathering behavior. The material balance and weathered-oil composition predictions generated as a function of time have been very useful in providing information for contingency planning, estimating potential damage assessments and preparing environmental impact reports for outer continental shelf drilling activities.
LONG-TERM INVESTIGATIONS ON CHEMICAL AND MICROBIAL CHANGES OF A SLIGHTLY OIL POLLUTED BEACH1
Authors: Gassmann Günter , Gunkel Wilfried
Published: January 2013

A sandy and muddy beach polluted by Arabian light crude oil in 1974 was investigated in 1974, 1975, and 1981. The shift of the hydrocarbon contamination from the sand to the mud has been determined by infrared spectroscopy and glass capillary gas chromatography. In 14 months, the mean values of the hydrocarbon content in the sandy beach declined from 203 milligrams per liter (mg/l) to 10 mg/l. However, those of the mud flat increased by 300 percent (from 37 mg/l to 108 mg/l).

Six years later, the fossil fuel hydrocarbon concentration had decreased to 0.6 mg/l and 8 mg/l for the sandy and muddy beach, respectively. Nevertheless, both areas still reflect the former polluting event. This was established definitively by the trace analysis of acyclic isoprenoid alkanes (norpristane, pristane, phytane) which indicates oil contamination by detection of mature diastereoisomers.

The bacteria reflect the fate of the hydrocarbons. The numbers of oil degraders rapidly increased by several orders of magnitude within the first weeks and reached maximum values well above 1011 per liter of sediment. Simultaneously, the overall ratio of oil-degrading bacteria to normal heterotrophs topped 270 percent, decreasing gradually to the normal background value within one year. The highest ratio of oil degraders was found in the sandy beach shortly after the spill and in the muddy beach after several months.
POTENTIAL DAMAGE OF OIL WASTES IN COASTAL ESTUARY SEDIMENTS1
Authors: Lytle Julia Sever , Lytle Thomas F.
Published: January 2013

Bayou Casotte, Mississippi, an estuarine waterway near the eastern end of Mississippi Sound, has been altered to accommodate an extensive industrial complex including a large oil refinery. Several small oil spill accidents recently occurred in the bayou; the most serious, on June 13, 1981, involved 600 barrels of asphaltic crude. The ecological effects of continued exposure to low level oily wastes were estimated by examining pollution levels in sediments both in 10-foot cores and surface samples. Petroleum hydrocarbons (PHC) and other hydrocarbons occur at levels as high as 12,300 micrograms per gram (µg/g or ppm to total hydrocarbons, dry weight) in surficial sediments and 1,000 µg/g at 120 centimeter sediment depths. Dredging operations have removed most polluted sediments very near the refinery site in the bayou, but dispersal of petroleum wastes has caused PHCs to be dominant pollutants in other regions where no dredging has occurred and where care is required if any dredging is permitted.

Toxicological examination of sheepshead minnows, mysid shrimp and amphipods reveals significant mortalities to mysids from bioassay exposures to surficial sediments. Settling rate determinations, leach-ability, community structure vulnerability, and sediment disturbance probability are factors assimilated into an “environmental stress index” that indicates this to be a potentially harmful site to bottom feeders and, if sediments are disturbed, to free swimming organisms in sensitive life stages.
A NATURAL RESOURCES DAMAGE ASSESSMENT STUDY: THE IXTOC I BLOWOUT
Authors: Boehm Paul D. , Fiest David L. , Kaplan Ian , Mankiewicz Paul , Lewbel George S.
Published: January 2013

Following the Ixtoc I blowout and Burmah Agate spill in 1979, a program was initiated to investigate the extent of damage to the offshore benthic environment. A program of chemical and biological measurements was conducted based on samples taken during and after the spills and compared with results obtained in a baseline program conducted before the spills. A new chemical method combining molecular (gas chromatography/mass spectrometry) and atomic (stable isotope) measurements was used to identify the source of weathered oil residues. The program concluded that the important biological changes observed cannot be attributed to a chemical impact from either spill and hence must be attributed to other causes.
EFFECTS OF OIL ON GROWTH AND DECOMPOSITION OF SPARTINA ALTERNIFLORA
Authors: Alexander Steve K. , Webb James W.
Published: January 2013

Four oils (Arabian crude oil, Libyan crude oil, No. 6 fuel oil, and No. 2 fuel oil) were applied to one-square-meter salt marsh plots in Galveston Bay, Texas. Oils were applied at four levels: no oil, 1 liter on sediment, 1.5 liters on sediment and lower portions of Spartina alterniflora, and 2 liters on sediment and entire S. alterniflora surfaces. Within one week of oil application, nylon bags containing cut stems of S. alterniflora were staked in the center of all unoiled and 1.5 liter oil plots.

Oil caused mortality of S. alterniflora within three weeks; the degree of mortality varied with oil type and the extent of plant coverage. Plant mortality was highest in plots with No. 2 fuel oil and those where oil was applied to entire plant surfaces. After five months, growth of plants in No. 2 fuel oil plots still was significantly below control levels. However, initial recovery was apparent in No. 2 fuel oil plots receiving 2 liters. Live biomass in Arabian crude oil, Libyan crude oil, and No. 6 fuel oil plots after five months was comparable to that of controls. Plots clipped three weeks after oil application were recolonized after five months by growth of new stems and seedlings. However, Arabian crude oil and No. 2 fuel oil significantly reduced the emergence of new stems while increasing the germination of seedlings. The decomposition of S. alterniflora was not affected significantly through the first eight months after oil application.
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR OPTIMUM DEPOSITION EFFICIENCY IN AERIAL APPLICATION OF DISPERSANTS
Authors: Lindblom Gordon P. , Cashion Bryan S.
Published: January 2013

The growing worldwide recognition of the value of aircraft for application of dispersants to marine oil spills has resulted in a number of tests and field trials, but they have developed new concerns regarding control of depositional efficiency. These are similar to those extensively studied by the agricultural aviation industry, and involve anything influencing placement of a calculated dosage on a given area with minimum variation or loss due to aircraft turbulence, drift, or other factors. Aerial application of dispersants differs from agricultural practice in the physical properties of the fluids sprayed, the dosage generally required, and operational factors such as altitude, speed, swath, and total area to be covered. Consideration of these may result in need for special mechanical designs or alterations in the spray system.

The major requirement for depositional efficiency is the droplet size distribution, which is affected by at least five factors. The most critical are nozzle diameter, viscosity of the fluid sprayed, and its exit velocity relative to the aircraft speed. These, together with pressure and pump rates, result in two shear regimes which are the ultimate controllers of droplet size. This report presents evidence for the above from mathematical model studies, laboratory windstream tests, and flight tests of both piston and turbo-powered aircraft. The data are used to propose a framework of requirements for optimal aerial dispersant application operations.
THE COST OF OIL SPILLS1
Authors: White I. C. , Nichols J. A.
Published: January 2013

The costs of major oil spills vary considerably from one incident to another and frequently defy simple analysis. Cleanup costs can range from about $5 to $30,000 per metric ton of oil spilled depending on many factors including the type and amount of oil spilled, the location of the incident and the response mounted at sea and on shore. These and other factors are discussed by reference to examples of marine oil spills from tankers around the world. Many spills give rise to additional claims for alleged damage to exploited and unexploited natural resources. These can amount to many tens of millions of dollars. Specific examples again are provided and the view expressed that many claims for damage to unexploited natural resources are best regarded as a desire to levy a penalty on the polluter rather than provide compensation for the real damage caused.
EFFECTIVENESS, BEHAVIOR, AND TOXICITY OF DISPERSANTS
Authors: Mackay Donald , Wells Peter G.
Published: January 2013

Three key issues must be addressed when deciding on the desirability of using chemical dispersants for mitigating the adverse effects of oil spills: (1) how effective a given dosage of dispersant will be on a given oil slick; (2) how the dispersed oil and dispersant diffuse into the water column, dissolve, volatilize, degrade, and interact with suspended and bottom sediments; and (3) what effects the dissolved and particulate oil and dispersant will have on water column and benthic biota. It is essential that the first two areas (physical and chemical studies) relate closely to the third (biological aspects) in order that bioassay exposure (in terms of concentration of dispersant, classes of and individual hydrocarbons, and duration) addressing the toxicity issue be realistic.

Here, we review the current status of a research program which addresses these issues. Under the program, attempts are being made to quantify dispersant effectiveness (including consideration of effectiveness testing using the Mackay-Nadeau-Steelman system for oils which have evaporated and/or formed water-in-oil emulsions to various extents), water column diffusion, and partitioning of specific hydrocarbons among water, oil, and suspended sediment as well as into the atmosphere. A procedure is described which has been used to quantify the acute toxicity of dispersants to copepods and which is being extended to apply also to the toxic contributions of dissolved and particulate oil. Hopefully, by assembling quantitative expressions for effectiveness, behavior, and toxicity, those situations in which dispersion is desirable can be better identified.
THE LOUISIANA OFFSHORE OIL PORT COMPUTERIZED OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLAN1
Authors: Gallagher John J. , Heikamp A. J.
Published: January 2013

The Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP, Inc.) is installing a computerized oil spill contingency plan. The nature and operation of the LOOP, Inc. facilities raise unique difficulties that must be addressed in oil spill contingency planning for the system. The structure of the new computerized contingency plan, its application to the system, and the benefits derived from the plan are the subjects of this paper.
IMPLEMENTATION OF MARPOL 73/78
Authors: Sasamura Yoshio
Published: January 2013

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78) is the latest and most comprehensive instrument dealing with all sources of pollution from ships. Annex I of MARPOL 73/78, which deals with pollution by oil and which supersedes the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, 1954, entered into force on 2 October 1983. The convention sets out criteria for the discharge of oil from ballast water and tank washings of oil tankers, and from machinery room bilges of all ships. It also lays down requirements for the construction and equipment of ships, including oily-water separating and filtering equipment, oil discharge monitoring and control systems, segregated ballast tanks (SBT), dedicated clean ballast tanks (CBT), and crude oil washing systems (COW).

The implementation of MARPOL 73/78 has a significant technical and economic impact. Major technical problems in the implementation of Annex I are, firstly, the lack of reception facilities in many ports of the world and, secondly, the non-availability of accurate and reliable oil content meters. The problem of reception facilities is particularly serious in Special Areas, such as the Mediterranean Sea, where the discharge of oily wastes is totally prohibited except for segregated and clean ballast.
ECUMOIRE II: EVALUATION OF THREE OIL RECOVERY DEVICES OFFSHORE
Authors: Peigne Georges
Published: January 2013

In June 1983, three French oil recovery devices were evaluated at sea off Toulon. These tests were conducted by CEDRE with the help of the French Navy, which is responsible for fighting pollution at sea. Skimmers evaluated were the SIRENE 20 skimming boom, the ESCA offshore weir-type skimmer, and the STOPOL oleophilic drum-type skimmer associated with a deflecting boom.

In the tests 35 m3 of oil were spilled; 25 m3 were recovered. The SIRENE and the STOPOL, which are selective skimmers, were towed and used by a supply vessel, whereas the ESCA required a little tanker to settle the large collected mixture of oil and water. During most tests the sea was moderate.

Average throughput efficiency was about 70 to 80 percent for the three skimmers. Oil recovery efficiency (i.e., the oil content in the recovered product) averaged 80 percent for the STOPOL and 50 percent for the SIRENE. For these skimmers, the recovered oil was stored in a 160-m3 flexible floating tank towed by the support ship.

Tests were more qualitative than quantitative owing to the difficulty of monitoring some parameters of the simulated spill. However, the tests permitted a positive conclusion about the ability of the three devices to recover oil effectively in a moderate sea. Some advantages and drawbacks of each system were also demonstrated; for example, SIRENE is the least affected by waves, whereas STOPOL is the most selective and ESCA the least affected by the viscosity of oil.

Pursuant to these trials some improvements were made that will be evaluated in the near future.
THE TANIO SPILL: A CASE HISTORY ILLUSTRATING THE WORK OF THE INTERNATIONAL OIL POLLUTION COMPENSATION FUND
Authors: Ganten Reinhard H.
Published: January 2013

The Tanio disaster of March 7, 1980, was one of the most costly oil pollution incidents ever. It caused serious pollution damage to the Brittany coast of France, which had been severely polluted by the Amoco Cadiz spill two years earlier and by the Torrey Canyon spill in 1967. The nature of the incident, the kind and quantity of oil spilled, and the prevailing weather conditions posed considerable response and cleanup problems. Claims for compensation for pollution damage totalling about $56 million were made by the French Government, regional and local authorities, and private persons. The assessment and settlement of these claims within four years of the incident by the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (IOPC Fund) placed a heavy burden on the secretariat of the organization and required new claims settlement procedures.
LEGAL CONTINGENCY PLANNING FOR OIL SPILLS1
Authors: Mertzl Douglas K. , Mattson James S.
Published: January 2013

This paper describes a model for extending contingency planning to the legal aspects of oil spills. The early stages of a spill are a critical time for gathering evidence and taking initial legal steps. The authors examine the need to assign specific documentation tasks to field personnel in advance and to have a team of legal staff, knowledgeable in oil spill, admiralty, and tort law preassigned to deal with spill-related legal matters requiring immediate attention. This approach should be of value to any organization involved in a spill, whether corporate owners or operators, or regulatory agencies. Finally, the authors consider whether being in a defensive or offensive legal posture should affect legal contingency planning.