bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Inclusion compounds of multi-dimensional cyanometal complex hosts
Authors: Iwamoto Toschitake
Published: November 2023

The cyanide group, CN-, is able to build up one- (1D), two- (2D), or three-dimensional (3D) frameworks by alternately linking one metal atom M to another metal atom M’. The M’—CN—M linkage is usually colinear; in some cases the M'—C—N or M—N—C bond, or both, bends to a certain extent. The deviation from colinearity is, however, not appreciable in comparison with the case of another ambidentate pseudohalogen group SCN-: the M’—SCN—M linkage is generally bent at the sulphur atom with an approximately tetrahedral angle. The sp hybridization character of the —C=N triple bond may contribute to the colinearity of the M’—CN—M linkage. One can easily depict the structure of a multi-dimensional framework comprised of the linear M'—CN—M linkages with the Mand M’ metal cations taking particular configurations of the respective coordination spheres: a ball- and-stick model is effective to depict the multi-dimensional host structure which can accommodate guest species.
Molecular mechanics
Authors: Allinger Norman L
Published: November 2023

The earliest reference known to the author on molecular mechanics is to be found in a paper by Andrews (1930), which has to do with vibrational spectroscopy. Andrews indicated that if we really understood the underlying fundamentals in this area, we should be able to calculate all of the kinds of things with which this discussion will be concerned. But this was in 1930, when people said that by solving the Schrodinger equation, we can find out essentially everything we want to know about chemistry and physics. The practical use of molecular mechanics (or of the Schr ö dinger equation) for determining molecular structures was still far in the future. In 1946, three separate papers appeared, one by Hill, one by Ingold and coworkers, and a third one by Westheimer and Mayer, which taken together provide a very substantial basis for molecular mechanics (Dostrovsky et al.1946; Hill 1946; Westheimer and Mayer 1946; see also De Ia Mare et al. 1955; Westheimer 1956).
Photodermatology
Authors: Bensasson R v. , Land E J , Truscott T G
Published: November 2023

In the first section of this chapter, a description of skin structure and of its optical properties indicates the regions and the depth to which the various wavelengths of light penetrate. Then the biological responses induced by visible light and UV in skin are presented. They have two aspects: firstly relating to the molecular (direct or sensitized) photodamage to the main molecules present in skin (DNA, enzymes, proteins, and lipids); secondly relating to the medical aspects of photosensitization produced by exogenous compounds.
How quantum theory was discovered
Authors: Baggott Jim
Published: November 2023

A scientist in the late nineteenth century could be forgiven for thinking that the major elements of physics were built on unshakeable foundations and effectively established for all time. The inspirational work of Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton in the seventeenth century had been shaped by a further 200 years of theoretical and, in particular, experimental science into a marvellous construction which we now call classical physics. This physics appeared to explain almost every aspect of the physical world: the dynamics of moving objects, thermodynamics, optics, electricity, magnetism, gravitation, etc. So closely did theory agree with and explain experimental observations of the everyday world that there could be no doubt about its basic correctness- its essential ‘truth’. Admittedly, there were a few remaining problems but these seemed to be trivial compared with the fundamentals - a matter of dotting a few is and crossing some ts.
Putting it into practice
Authors: Baggott Jim
Published: November 2023

Now that we have satisfied ourselves of the need for a quantum theory of radiation and matter, and we have seen the different positions taken up by the major figures in the theory’s early development, we must interrupt our historical narrative and turn our attention to details of how the theory works in practice. Readers are reminded that this is not a textbook, and so the description we will give here is a highly selective one.
Putting it to the test
Authors: Baggott Jim
Published: November 2023

Work on hidden variable solutions to the conceptual problems of quantum theory did not exactly stop after the publication of von Neumann’s ‘impossibility proof, but then it hardly represented an expanding field of scientific activity. About 20 years elapsed before David Bohm, a young American physicist, began to take more than a passing interest in the subject. His first, all-important contributions to the debate over the interpretation of quantum theory were made in 1951.
Colloid and surface chemistry
Authors: Laidler Keith J
Published: November 2023

By the beginning of the nineteenth century chemists had become aware that substances ordinarily considered insoluble, such as gold and sulphur, could sometimes exist in apparently homogeneous solution. The expression ‘pseudo solutions’ came to be applied to such systems, which often had to be prepared in an indirect manner, and which were obviously of a different character from solutions of substances like salt and sugar. Much clarification of the problem was given by the Scottish chemist and physicist Thomas Graham(1805–1869), who is regarded as the founder of the science of colloid chemistry. In 1829 Graham became professor of chemistry at the Anderson an College in Glasgow. There he carried out important work on the phosphates and arsenates, and also began to study gaseous diffusion.
Nonequilibrium Phenomena in Polyatomic Gases
Authors: Mccourt Frederick R W , Beenakker Jan J M , Köhler Walter E , Kuščer Ivan
Published: November 2023

Most gases in nature are polyatomic, yet they are not considered in many textbooks of kinetic theory. In recent years they have been the subject of intensive research, and interesting results have been obtained which remain largely unknown. This book reviews the present state of knowledge of the kinetic theory of polyatomic gases, and is the first to provide a comprehensive account of both theoretical and experimental aspects of their behaviour. The first volume deals with dilute gases, in which boundary-layer effects can be neglected. Transport and relaxation phenomena such as heat conduction, diffusion, thermal diffusion, and viscous flow are considered from the point of view of kinetic theory. Special attention is paid to phenomena which do not occur in monatomic gases, including light scattering, nuclear spin relaxation, microwave absorption, and the effects of magnetic and electric fields on transport properties. Volume II begins by establishing the connections between molecular scattering theory and effective cross-sections in dilute gases,and then considers rarefied gases in detail. Detailed theoretical derivations are presented throughout the book, and experimental results and methods are documented in tables and figures. Introductory sections will be of use to graduates with a knowledge of elementary classical and quantum mechanics. The more specialized chapters are aimed at professionals who want information regarding the present state of the art in a particular field or who require data for various phenomena.
Generalized Boltzmann Equations
Authors: Mccourt Frederick R W , Beenakker Jan J M , Köhler Walter E , Kuščer Ivan
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1 we discussed the nature of the Boltzmann equation and its collision operator for monatomic gases. Its basic structure has been known and understood since Boltzmann’s time. Although it was known that the Boltzmann equation was, strictly speaking, not applicable to polyatomic gases, it was nevertheless used to treat the transport properties of such gases for many years, not without success, so long as it was not employed to describe phenomena depending upon molecular internal states. It is possible, for example, to obtain quantitative agreement between the most accurately measured shear viscosity coefficients and values calculated from an effective spherical interaction potential (using omega integrals and the monatomic Boltzmann equation). However, the same potentials cannot be used to generate accurate values of phenomena in which the internal states play an important role as they do, for example, in the thermal conductivity. Only qualitative agreement can be obtained in this manner.
Effect Of Fields On Transport Phenomena
Authors: Mccourt Frederick R W , Beenakker Jan J M , Köhler Walter E , Kuščer Ivan
Published: November 2023

As discussed in § 5.1, the imposition of an external magnetic or electric field on a polyatomic gas causes a lowering of symmetry for the system from spherical (isotropic) to axial (anisotropic). As a consequence, the single scalar field-free shear viscosity coefficient of the gas is replaced by a fourth rank tensor shear viscosity which has five independent components in the case of a magnetic field, and three independent components in the case of an electric field. Three of the coefficients in the magnetic field case do not differ by much from the field-free value while the other two, vanishing in zero field, are smaller by orders of magnitude. In the electric field case, none of the three coefficients differs by much from the field-free value.
Light Scattering
Authors: Mccourt Frederick R W , Beenakker Jan J M , Köhler Walter E , Kuščer Ivan
Published: November 2023

Until now we have been concerned with flows of gases under the influence of externally imposed thermodynamic forces, such as a temperature gradient. Special attention has been paid to the respective transport coefficients and to their changes caused by external fields. It is now time to tum to a different class of phenomena, where the gas is suddenly disturbed and then left to relax towards equilibrium. We are particularly interested in the relaxation constants which are characteristic for various types of disturbances.
Partial miscibility of quasi-binary polymer systems
Authors: Koningsveld R , Stockmayer W H , Nies E
Published: November 2023

In a quasi-binary system both constituents may contain many components, so that an extension of (130) for the FHS modelis needed. This was accomplished by Flory, and independently by Scott and Magat, and leads to the following expression for the free enthalpy of mixing:
Introduction
Authors: Jones John
Published: November 2023

Nature synthesizes proteins by stepwise assembly from amino acid building blocks. Since these compounds are freely available in homochiral form, this is also the most obvious way for the chemist to proceed in the laboratory, and is indeed the way things are generally done, although the construction of peptide backbones in other ways is not ruled out, as Section 5.4 will show.
Conjugated peptides
Authors: Jones John
Published: November 2023

Structures 1-3 in which a non-peptide moeity Q is conjugated to a simple peptide or protein through a terminal or (more commonly) side-chain functionality are widespread in biological systems.
Behaviour of Effective Cross Sections
Authors: Mccourt Frederick R W , Beenakker Jan J M , Kohler Walter E , Kuscer Ivan
Published: November 2023

One concept that has played a central role in our description of transport properties and relaxation phenomena in dilute gases is that of effective cross sections. We have seen that there are many of them, with a large variation in their magnitudes.
Direct Methods For Powder Diffraction Data
Authors: Giacovazzo Carmelo
Published: November 2023

Often Direct Methods fail when applied to powder data. There are several reasons for this. Among others: (a) The overlapping, accidental or systematic, of diffraction peaks. Large scale overlapping makes the intensities of several reflections uncertain: large intensity reflections are sometimes estimated weak andvice versa. Therefore the reliability of several triplet invariants is uncertain, and consequently phase expansion and refinement become rather ineffective processes frequently failing to solve the structure. Over the past few years improvements were obtained in reducing the effect of (non-systematic) overlapping. The recent generation of high resolution diffractometers and the use of synchrotron radiation generate diffraction peaks with very small full width at half maximum (FWHM). Furthermore, modern computational techniques allow reliable estimates of single peak intensitiesvia deconvolution of sets of partially overlapping peaks.
Chromium- and titanium-mediated synthesis of alkenes from carbonyl compounds
Authors: Hodgson David M , Boulton Lee T
Published: November 2023

This chapter contains organometallic-based one-step procedures for: Reductive coupling of aldehydes or ketones to produce alkenes (the McMurry reaction) Carbonyl methylenation using titanium-based reagents (the Oshima Lombardo reaction) Conversion of esters and amides into enol ethers and enamines Homologation of aldehydes to (E)-1,2-difunctionalised alkenes using gem dichromium reagents The procedures in this chapters are distinct from the organometallic methods described in Chapter 7, since here the alkene functional group is constructed from two components. The two individual components are coupled via organometallic intermediates such that a new C=C bond is constructed.
Order in chemical systems: elements and their combinations
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1 we indicated that through careful analysis it has become clear that there are only some 90 elements on Eartht and that, putting to one side man’s synthetic capability of making heavier nuclei, there are no more to be found. This conclusion is based on the firm knowledge of the unitary nature of nuclear structures, protons plus neutrons, which become generally unstable above atomic number 92 (Fig. 2.1), and on the fact that the electronic shells are completed in an understood systematic numerical manner, namely, 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32, (+6) electrons. There are no gaps for new elements. It was necessary to describe these findings since it is against the background of this sure knowledge that we can begin to see how these 90 or so elements have been selected naturally during the development of the universe. By this natural selection we imply that there are reasons for: (1) the limitation of the number of elements to 90; (2) the appearance of some of these elements in larger amounts than others; and (3) the selective coming together of one or more of the atomic elements in gases, liquids and solids with molecular or continuous structures. There are yet further reasons for: (4) the incorporation of some elements and not others into biological structures and organisation; and ( 5) their use in man’s constructions. The scene is not yet set for us to pursue this sequence of events historically since we need to describe the chemical and physical principles that have led from the production of atoms to that of chemicals, planets, life and man’s artefacts. We shall use as little of modern theory as possible in describing these principles since this theory of forces acting between atoms is conceptually difficult and not indispensable for the understanding of the actual relevant phenomena. Throughout this chapter we shall be examining separated and isolated, chemically ordered species in particular phases and not real chemicals that equilibrate in systems between phases and chemical species (see Chapter 3). It is the ordering of atoms in space and the properties of the associated atoms that we wish to appreciate first.
The evolution of kinetic control and of organisation
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto
Published: November 2023

The conclusion from the analysis of the abiological material around us in Chapter 6 is that, in both its physical and chemical conditions, the variance of inanimate Earth became incalculably large due to the prevailing conditions that inhibited the generation of full chemical equilibria, thus giving rise to many components, and to the inability to maintain equilibrium transfer of components between phases. In effect, most systems on Earth broke down into compartments (Section 6.3) in and between which both failures to equilibrate were due to barriers to change produced by the rapid fall in temperature. However, we were able to treat most of these systems locally through the thermal equilibrium considerations described in Chapter 6. Now around us we see millions of living individuals in species, which are reproducible almost identical objects, closely, if not exactly, invariant in chemical composition as well as in physical appearance, even during growth. They can be compared with a set of identical single crystals. Our arguments in the previous chapters led us to conclude that internally individual living systems, organisms, are therefore effectively invariant in components and transfer between their compartments, which is the condition of equilibrium. Clearly, however, they are not at equilibrium since they are developing and expanding flow systems. It must then be to considerations of flow and development, that is, to rate of change of, first, components and, second, of compartments, to which we must turn to understand the nature of this constancy of living reproducible objects. We shall ask the question: is there any true parallel between the growth of living organisms with a fixed pattern and the expansion of phases of inanimate objects (crystals) that can occur on cooling at equilibrium? Throughout this enquiry we are seeking an explanation of the objects around us in terms of the natural selection of the chemical elements, now related to their ability to change at selected rates. We shall not attempt to come to any firm conclusion until Chapter 16.
Early biological chemistry: the uptalce and incorporation of elements in anaerobic organisms
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto
Published: November 2023

We have described the basic principles of chemical binding at equilibrium in Chapters 2-6 after looking at the history of the development of ideas on the constitution of matter and energy in Chapter 1. This allowed us to consider the manner of the eventual appearance of the chemical elements as structured compounds and co-operative, condensed phases on the Earth. Simultaneously, in this process, energy was lost locally from the planet on cooling, but the pathways of energy loss often led also to a variety of chemical systems trapped out of equilibrium (Chapters 7-9). The processes are not difficult to follow. The facts that the materials in the crust of Earth were often out of equilibrium ( Chapter 8) and that the Earth was far out of equilibrium with the sun then allowed new compounds, often organic, to be formed in solution or in the gas phase by the capture of energy. These compounds entered new (higher) energy traps, and acquired potential for further reactions, and so prebiotic organic chemistry developed (Chapter 9). In order to understand the underlying drive toward equilibrium, that is, toward the most stable state, we discussed in Chapters 3 and 6 the evolving forms of energy in the context of the evolving materials, both at equilibrium and in trapped states. We have also described the basic ideas of dynamic organisation of energised material as opposed to rigid structure in Chapter 1 and again in Chapter 7. It was necessary to clarify the nature of the development of all these aspects of materials, of energy and of kinetic traps and to include feedback controls over flow (organisation including structure) in Chapter 7 before turning to biological chemistry. Biological systems are self-organising, self-reproducing, energised, material traps in feedback flow, while they undergo evolution forced upon them in part by competition but equally by the necessary conditions for long-term survival, requiring protection in a changing environment (see below). In effect, they have become more and more longlasting and sophisticated chemical processes in kinetic traps (see Chapter 12). All biological progression involves a selection of chemical elements for ‘use’ to these ends and it is this fact that we shall follow in our further study of the natural selection of the functional capability of the elements.
The structure and chemistry of organisms after the advent of dioxygen
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 10 we described the selective uptake of the chemical elements in early life to the degree to which this was possible given the poor fossil and geochemical evidence. We depended for our description largely upon present day descendants of primitive life. As well as looking at the uptake of the elements we were concerned with the way in which they were incorporated in organisms since this involved other selection processes. We showed that many elements, between 1 Sand 20, were always essential for this anaerobic life and that those used for any function were chosen to a large degree by abundance, availability and inherent selective chemical properties as observed in isolated atoms or in very small molecules (Chapter 10). These properties were then refined so that the fitness of elements for particular functions was enhanced. There are two obvious parts to such refinement within self-assembly-a physical or compartmental selection and a chemical combination selection. While some of the selective interactions in local volumes could be achieved using the drive to thermodynamic equilibrium as described in Chapters 2-6, it was also necessary for many other processes to utilise energy in uptake and synthesis, as analysed in Chapter 7. Kinetic management was therefore required over many pumps and pathways, that is control systems, and over syntheses leading to the production of all the polymers including DNA, that is by regulation. We found that only through co-operative feedback communication in complicated networks could we see a way in which survival strength could have been achieved and increased in cells in all three features, element uptake and incorporation, metabolic pathways, and polymer production relative to random prebiotic chemistry (as illustrated in Chapter 11).
AB Initio Methods
Authors: Stone A J
Published: November 2023

The term ’ab initio‘ is used to describe methods that seek to calculate molecular prop-erties from the beginning, that is, by solving Schrodinger’s equation without using any empirical data. Although it is always necessary to make approximations, it is possible to organize them in such a way that the accuracy of the calculation can be systematically improved, up to the limit allowed by available computing resources.
distributed polarizabilities
Authors: Stone A J
Published: November 2023

Polarizabilities, like multipole moments, are commonly ascribed to the molecule as a whole, but they describe movements of charge density within the molecule, and are often associated with particular regions. The polarizabilitiesdescribe changes in the charge distribution arising from external fields, and a single-centre multipole description of these changes is subject to the same convergence problems as the ordinary multipole expansion. A distributed treatment can be expected to give better results here too.
Success
Authors: Merricks Linda
Published: November 2023

The years from 1900 to 1904 were to be the most successful of Soddy’s career. His later achievements stemmed from this early period and the colleagues and friends he made at this period were to influence the whole of his life. However, there was no intimation of this during his first days in Canada.After his somewhat precipitate departure from Oxford and an uneventful sea crossing to New York, Soddy boarded the train for Toronto. He took with him the daily paper in which there was a report of speeches given at the farewell dinner for Dr Pike, the retiring Professor of Chemistry in Toronto. In this report, Soddy found words which dashed whatever hopes he had entertained for his application for the chair. In his speech, the Principal of the university had said, ‘Dr. Pike came to us from Oxford, but thank God his chemistry was made in Germany’.
Electronic Noses
Authors: Gardner Julian W , Bartlett Philip N
Published: November 2023

This book aims to discuss the basic principles of an electronic nose, and to provide an account of recent developments in this field, with practical examples of its application. It seeks to review the field together with the many new developments that have occurred since the first meeting was held on electronic noses in Iceland in 1991. It will be essential reading for anyone who is working, researching or simply interested in electronic noses or machine olfaction. A comprehensive appendix is provided at the end of the book.
Convective Boiling and Condensation
Authors: Collie John G , Eng F R S F , John R , Phil Thome D
Published: November 2023

On its original publication in 1973, this book was the first reference for engineers to fully present the science of boiling and condensation. It dealt especially with the problems of estimating heat transfer rates and pressure drops, with particular attention to the occurrence of boiling and condensation in the presence of forced flows within pipes. The new third edition covers recent advances and significantly extends coverage to flows over tube bundles, with extensive new treatment of two-phase heat transfer regarding refrigerants and petrochemicals. Many new problems have been added at the end of each chapter to enhance the book's use as a text in advanced courses on two-phase flow and heat transfer. The book is written primarily for design and development engineers in the chemical process, power generation, and refrigeration industries, and is meant to be an aid in the design of heat exchangers. Instructors using the book as a course text may obtain full solutions to the end-of-chapter problems by writing to: Science Marketing Dept., Oxford University Press, 198 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10016 (please include school name and course identification).
Vertical distributions: ‘zonation’ and its causes
Authors: Little Colin , Williams Gray A , Trowbridge Cynthia D
Published: November 2023

One of the major features in the distribution of shore organisms is that they all show a marked relationship with vertical height: almost everywhere, plants and animals are found in distinct horizontal bands at particular heights (Fig. 8.1). This is a feature that has engrossed marine biologists for over a century (Benson, 2002). In this chapter we discuss why these bands or ‘zones’ exist. We begin by describing zonation patterns found on a variety of shores, and then we go on to discuss the factors that establish and maintain them.

Very clear patterns of vertical distribution are seen on exposed shores, where mussels, barnacles, and lichens form a series of contrasting colour bands (Lewis, 1964). We start here, and then move on to compare exposed shores with more sheltered ones.
How organisms are gathered together: communities on the shore and the effects of wave exposure
Authors: Little Colin , Williams Gray A , Trowbridge Cynthia D
Published: November 2023

Patterns of vertical zonation exist on most rocky shores, but the communities that make up the different zones differ radically from one shore to another. Much of this variation in community composition seems to be related to the extent of wave exposure, and exposed shores look very different from sheltered shores. But to complicate matters, the differences in relation to exposure are, as we have discussed in Chapter 8, not the same in all parts of the world. Another complication is that the three zones discussed in Chapter 8 show very great variations in vertical extent, and in some places the shore is not readily split into three zones at all. Again, much of this variation relates to exposure.
Human influences on rocky shores
Authors: Little Colin , Williams Gray A , Trowbridge Cynthia D
Published: November 2023

As in other environments, human inKuence on rocky shores has often been severe—and there is no doubt that it is increasing. Are ‘natural’ shores really natural, or have all shores been affected, either directly or indirectly, by human activities? Are ‘native’ populations genuinely native, or have they been affected by human imports and extinctions? Is it possible to protect shores for the future?

One of the most obvious ways in which humans affect rocky shores is by allowing materials not normally found there to contaminate the marine ecosystem, either accidently or intentionally. For instance, domestic waste with high oxygen demands and industrial eeuents containing heavy metals, pesticides, radioactivity, or heated water are released legally, usually with strict limits. But accidental oil and chemical spills may cause quite unpredictable damage. Broadly speaking, all these forms of contamination are termed ‘pollution’ if they have ‘deleterious’ or undesired effects, but evidently the subjective nature of such a deInition makes it open to much debate.
Migraine With Aura and its Borderlands
Authors: Eriksen M K , Thomsen L L , Olesen J
Published: November 2023

A detailed knowledge of the aura symptoms is crucial when diagnosing migraine with aura because it is a clinical entity with no diagnostic biological markers. Most descriptions of migraine with aura are from studies of modest size or questionnaire studies. Since studies using a validated, semistructured interview done by physicians with experience in headache diagnoses are more likely to increase the under- standing of the symptomatology of migraine with aura, the aim of the present paper was to review the clinical characteristics of migraine with aura as reported in studies using this approach.
Migraine With Aura: IHS-subtypes 1988 Compared To 2004 in Clinical Practice
Authors: Göbel H , Heinze A , Heinze-Kuhn K , Todt U , Kubisch C
Published: November 2023

In the second edition of The International Classification of Headache Disorders, the subtypes of migraine with aura have been completely revised. For example, a subtype migraine with prolonged aura, i.e. with auras lasting more than 60 min is no longer recognized as a separate entity in 2004, whereas the subtypes typical aura with migraine headache and typical aura with non-migraine headache have been newly created (Tables 13.1 and 13.2). One essential feature determining the subtyping of auras is the time course of the focal neurologic symptoms.
Phenotype of Chronic Tension-Type Headache
Authors: Göbel H , Heinze A , Heinze-Kuhn K
Published: November 2023

International epidemiological studies have demonstrated that between 40% and 90% of the population suffer from episodic tension-type headache. About 3% of the population describe a chronic tension-type headache with headaches on more than 15 days a month. Tension-type headache is by far the most common headache type and one of the most common of all disorders. This headache type may lead to grave consequences for the patients’ life and is responsible for significant costs.
Discussion Summary, the Primary Headaches: Part II
Authors: Silberstein S
Published: November 2023

Lars Bendtsen highlighted the changes in the new IHS Classification of Headache (ICHD-2). Tension-type headache (TTH) is now subdivided based on frequency and tenderness. New to the classification is the subdivision of episodic TTH into infrequent (i1 day/month) and frequent (/1 and 115 days/month) varieties. The committee felt that the infrequent subtype has very little impact on the individual and did not deserve much attention from the medical profession.
Headache and Spontaneous Cervical Artery Dissections: Time-Course and Follow-Up
Authors: Lucas C , Viallet M , Mackowiak M A , Girot M , Hénon H , Leys D
Published: November 2023

Cervical artery dissection (CAD) account for up to one-fifth of ischemic strokes occurring before 45 years. Headache is the initial symptom of dissection of the cervical artery in 60% patients and occur in 75% of them. Pain is usually defined as ipsilateral throbbing headache or sharp pain located in the neck, jaw, pharynx, or face. Isolated pain may be a misleading symptom: sometimes pain mimics a migraine attack. However, the relationship between CAD and migraine are complex and the course of headache in patients with CAD is not well-known.
ID MigraineTM: Validation and Use of a Three-Item, Self-Administered Questionnaire to Identify Migraine Sufferers in a Primary Care Population
Authors: Lipton R B , Dodick D , Kolodner K , Hettiarachchi J
Published: November 2023

Although migraine is one of the leading reasons for outpatient visits to neurologists in the United States, migraine may not be the primary reason for a visit to a healthcare provider. Recent surveys suggest that fewer than half of current migraineurs have received a medical diagnosis of migraine. The availability of a brief, self-administered migraine screening tool in the primary care setting could help identify migraine sufferers who require further evaluation and possible referral for treatment.
Epidemiology And Determinants Of Susceptibility
Authors: Calvo-Alén Jaime , Alarcón Graciela S
Published: November 2023

The study of the distribution of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) among distinct human groups, at different times, and its impact on the individual affected with it fall within the scope of Descriptive Epidemiology. Analyses of individuals at risk for developing RA of variable severity (by virtue of a given attribute or risk factor), on the other hand, fall within the realm of Analytical Epidemiology. The knowledge gained from both descriptive and analytical epidemiology may have direct impact in the management of RA patients and it has, therefore, both theoretical and practical implications. We will limit this chapter to adult RA, with a few exceptions.
Cytokine Networks
Authors: Arend William P , Gabay Cem
Published: November 2023

Cytokines are important mediators of inflammation and tissue destruction in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) (reviewed in Refs 1–10). These small molecules of cell–cell communication include interferons, interleukins, growth factors, colony-stimulating factors, chemotactic factors, and others. Cytokines seldom function alone but comprise a network of synergistic, complementary, antagonist, and inhibitory factors where the net biological response in a particular tissue depends upon the balance between the multiple factors present. These molecules may act on the same cell that produced them (autocrine effect) and adjacent cells in a tissue or organ (paracrine effect), or, less commonly, travel through the circulation to other organs (endocrine effect). In recent studies, some cytokines have been noted to remain in the synthesizing cell and influence function without ever being released, exhibiting so-called intracrine effects.
Pain Mechanismsin Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Kidd Bruce L
Published: November 2023

Pain is the most prevalent symptom in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and the source of its greatest misery. Whilst some patients have trivial complaints despite intense inflammation others are incapacitated by relatively minor disease. It is apparent that many factors operate to produce symptoms in this disorder. This chapter will show that in the face of persistent disease the normally straightforward relationship between injury and pain is abandoned as the body strives to mount a coordinated and effective response. Hitherto suppressed inputs from both somatic and environmental sources substantially modify pain processing at multiple levels and there is a strong bi-directional interaction between the nervous system and inflammatory/immune responses.
Gold, Antimalarials, Sulfasalazine, And Other Dmards
Authors: Riel Piet L C M van , Kroot Eric-Jan J A
Published: November 2023

Pharmacotherapy is still considered as the cornerstone in the management of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Due to insights into the pathogenesis of RA and the availability of an increasing number of anti-rheumatic therapies, the strategy of the treatment of RA has changed dramatically in the past decade. Until half a century ago, only a few disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) were available for the treatment of RA: antimalarial, sulfasalazine, d-penicillamine, and injectable gold salts. The management of RA at that time was mainly based on a ‘wait and see’ policy. This was on the assumption that prognosis was benign, the fear of adverse reactions, and on the lack of alternative treatments. It was common to treat the patient with active RA as long as possible with (bed)rest and salicylates; in the meantime the patient was reassured that the disease was not severe enough to ‘dig up the gold’. From 1950 onwards, gradually more first- and second-line agents became available. Almost all the DMARDs were primarily developed for the treatment of other diseases and were found to be useful in the treatment of RA by coincidence.
Combination Therapy With Synthetic Dmards In The Treatment Of Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Aliprantis Antonios O , Weinblatt Michael
Published: November 2023

Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) with disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) is the standard of care in rheumatology practices throughout the world. DMARDs include synthetic, low molecular weight compounds such as methotrexate (MTX), sulfasalazine (SSZ), and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), and the more recently developed biologic response modifiers, etanercept, infliximab, adalimumab, and anakinra. Initiation of DMARD therapy early in the disease can profoundly impact functional and radiographic outcomes, strongly supporting an early, aggressive treatment approach .
Occupational Therapy And Assistive Products And Technology
Authors: Nordenskiöld Ulla
Published: November 2023

The main goal of occupational therapy is to improve individual patient’s health and well-being by adjusting their environment, supplying assistive devices, and by teaching strategies . Promoting activity is a central concept in occupational therapy and includes all aspects of an individual’s physical and mental life. The importance of activity to health is central. The World Health Organization (WHO) is committed to promoting the empowerment of persons with disabilities so that they will not be disentitled or discriminated against .
The Hand
Authors: Sollerman Christer
Published: November 2023

These properties are listed in order of significance, freedom from pain and tactile sensibility being more important than range of motion and strength. This fact forms the basis for many of the surgical procedures used in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), for example when arthrodesis of a joint improves hand function through transforming a painful and unstable joint into a pain-free and stable fusion. The loss of joint motion after such a procedure is for certain joints, that is, the wrist joint and the metacarpophalangeal joint of the thumb, of minor importance compared to the improvement due to stability and pain relief.
Biogeography, adaptation, and evolution of alpine organisms
Authors: Nagy Laszlo , Grabherr Georg
Published: November 2023

The discussion of alpine habitats and their plant communities and animal assemblages so far has represented a snapshot of their present spatial arrangement, our treatment having been deterministic, based on environmental factors and on assumed ‘preferences’ of living organism found in those habitats. However, these patterns are not static and have undergone large changes at various scales of geography during the history of life on Earth. The processes that result in dynamic patterns of distribution are speciation, ecological diversification, and extinction, together with various dispersal processes. At the level of the individuals and communities, adaptations of various kinds may be used to interpret alpine ecosystem patterns and processes. This chapter summarizes the consensus that is commonly thought to be behind today’s patterns of distribution of alpine species that populate alpine habitats world-wide. This is largely made in anticipation of using the insight gained from the past to better predict the future spatial arrangements of alpine habitats, communities, and species (e.g. Crisci 2001). A geographic characterization of high mountain ranges and their climate, hydrology, and soils was given in Chapters 2–5, while Chapter 6 reviewed the plant communities and some of the animal assemblages from a geo-ecological point of view. Here we attempt to give an outline of historical biogeographic explanations, including the formation of alpine floras in relation to historic events. In addition, tolerances and adaptations by organisms that inhabit alpine environments are scrutinized in search of explanations for observed patterns and processes. Chapter 9 on global change impacts adopts an approach of environmental or ecological (biogeographic) considerations.
Global change impacts on alpine habitats: climate and nitrogen deposition
Authors: Nagy Laszlo , Grabherr Georg
Published: November 2023

Global change may be considered to encompass recent (post-1960s) changes in land use and climate, and largely human-induced impacts in atmospheric chemistry (especially inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen compounds and carbon dioxide) and biotic interactions, such as invasions by alien species. The relative importance according to the severity and extent of impact of each of these factors, or drivers of global change on alpine biodiversity has been estimated to follow the order of: land use ≈ climate change > nitrogen deposition > carbon dioxide enrichment > biotic interactions (Walker et al. 2001a). We consider the three most important of these. Climate change is the focus of this chapter, together with briefly discussing the potential impacts of nitrogen deposition; land use is dealt with in the following chapter. We start with an outline of past climate changes and their perceived changes in the extent and quality of alpine habitats and vegetation. This is followed by characterizing climatic drivers and enlisting climate change scenarios and observed changes attributed to climate warming. Considerations are given to factors that couple or decouple climate and plant growth at the landscape scale. Finally, the reader is directed to the chapter on land use and conservation.
Use of ICPC for recording health problems and process of care (interventions)
Authors:   Wonca
Published: November 2023

ICPC can be used to record the provider’s assessment of the patient’s health problems. This can be done in terms of symptoms and complaints, or diagnoses, so can be derived from Component 1 or Component 7. The latter is based on the lists of diseases, injuries, and related health problems in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), but includes as separate rubrics only those that are common or important in primary care.
The Stone Artefact Assemblages: A Comparative Study
Authors: Isaac Glynn Ll. , Harris John W K , Kroll Ellen M
Published: November 2023

Early artefacts mark loci of human activity. Information derived from studying them can contribute to knowledge about human evolution in three main ways, by indicating: (1) the minimum level of technological capability attained by the evolving brain-culture system of toolmaking hominids living at the time to which an assemblage dates; (2) aspects of the activity patterns and of the subsistence systems of early protohumans; and (3) particular, idiosyncratic lineages of cultural transmission (i.e. former culture-historic/culture-geographic entities). These lines of enquiry have provided the underlying rationale for the method of data collection reported in this chapter and they call for a brief discussion at the outset.
Lithic and Faunal Distributions At Eight Archaeological Excavations
Authors: Kroll Ellen M
Published: November 2023

Notes on the symbols and abbreviations used in the tables and figures The labelling of the refitted lithics is consistent among the tables, figures, and figure legends, as follows. (Photographic plates of refitted pieces arc in Kroll 1997; see Chapter 8 about refitted fragments of one bone (type R).) All figures, except for the are fact drawings, were prepared by A, B, and C (see section on ‘Basic spatial patterns’, p. 462). Groups of type A or type B that contain reconstructed detached pieces of type C are labelled type AC or type BC. A piece is interpreted as part of a reconstructed Rake (type C) instead of as a separate detached piece (type B) if the bulb is not evident. The stage of core reduction is based on the cortical categories (types 1--VI) defined by Toth (1982; see Chapter 7).
Echinodermata
Authors: Moyse J , Tyler P A
Published: November 2023

Most echinoderms have a distinctive radial pattern which may take the form of five arms radiating from a central disk (Fig. 15. I) or a more globular or cylindrical shape, again with structures arranged in five rows (or multiples of five) (Fig. 15.2). A few exceptional types have more than five radii and in others a bilateral shape has been superimposed on the basic radial plan. Compared to many other groups of marine invertebrates, echinoderms are large animals and, with rare exceptions, they are benthic (bottom living) and very slow moving. They are characterized by a number of unique internal organ systems and external appendages, the detailed form of the latter being used in precise identification of species. Up-to-date accounts of the general biology of the group are given in several good textbooks, some of which are listed in the bibliography. For the present purposes it is necessary to mention only selected characters.
Cephalochordata And Euchordata
Authors: Ryland J S
Published: November 2023

The subphylum Cephalochordata comprises the lancelets, which are placed in the single order Amphioxi. In lancelets the notochord persists throughout life and there is no bony or cartilaginous skeleton. The body is slender, tapering at both ends and superficially fish-like. The mouth opens ventrally between a pair of lateral expansions, which together form the oral hood, the free edge of which bears numerous cirri. The pharynx has the form of a perforated branchial sac and in the adult is surrounded by the atrial chamber; this occupies the anterior two-thirds of the body and opens to the exterior by a small posterior aperture, the atriopore. The ventral surface below the atrium is flat, with the edges produced as metapleural folds which begin at the mouth and terminate behind the atriopore. A median ventral fin extends from the atriopore to join the caudal fin, while the dorsal fin extends the entire length of the body. There are no eyes or nostrils. One family is present in British waters.
Metabolism, excretion, and water balance
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p. , Read Helen J
Published: November 2023

Metabolism is the sum total of the chemical processes that occur in living organisms, resulting in growth, production of energy, and elimination of waste material. In this chapter, five main areas of millipede metabolism are covered: Section 5.2 deals with respiration: Section 5.3 describes the com position and functions of the blood; Sections 5.4 and 5.5 cover excretion and the organs involved in excretory processes; Section 5.6 deals with osmoregulation and water balance, factors of crucial importance to the survival of millipedes; thermoregulation is discussed in Section 5.7.