bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Hopkins Steven Paul
Published: October 2003

After an opening section that tells the story about Vedåntadeóika's encounter with Vishnu at Tiruvahândrapuram, and the saint‐poet's compositions in honor of that god in Sanskrit, Tamil, and Prakrit, this introductory chapter summarizes the main themes of the book. First, a overview of Vedåntadeóika, his historical context, his works in Sanskrit, Tamil, Prakrit and maïipravåöa (“jewels” and “coral”, a prose form that combines the Tamil and Sanskrit languages) and significance in his time as a kavi (poet), a “lion among poets and philosophers,” as a “master of all the arts and sciences,” and as a logician/debater/philosopher/poet who synthesized local/regional Tamil with pan‐regional Sanskrit. Other core issues include tensions in Vedåntadesika between the “poet” and “philosopher,” between intellectual and “emotional bhakti” and divine presence and absence, along with “holy seeing” (daróan) and the “body language” used to describe the “beautiful holy bodies” of Vishnu's temple icons in three south Indian shrines. Methodological framework of the study includes a detailed consideration of Sheldon Pollock's theories on Sanskrit cosmopolitanism along with the “vernacular cosmopolitan” in South Asia after 1300, along with John B. Carman's notions of complementary and contrasting polarities and A.K. Ramanujan's theories on varieties of reflexivity in Indian literature, with help from the semiotic theories of Charles Sanders Peirce on “iconic” and “indexical” signs. Introduction concludes with a detailed discussion of textual sources of Vedåntadeóika's Sanskrit and Prakrit stotras and Tamil prabandhams, and a reflection on translation.
Philosopher, Preacher, Poet
Authors: Hopkins Steven Paul
Published: October 2003

This chapter focuses on Deóika's three‐fold contribution to South Indian religion and culture: as a philosopher, a theologian, and a poet. It surveys the milieux, both congenial and rival, in which went about his work, the sectarian debates, and the traditional and contemporary assessments of his work and its significance. Chapter One discusses in detail Vedåntadeóika in relationship to the work of Råmånuja and the Vióióìådvaita school of devotional Hinduism; his work in the area of nyåya or systematic logic; his association with the Vaìakalai or “Northern” School of àrâvaióïavism, his maïipravåöa writings and his relationships to the Çcåryas of the Teúkalai or “Southern” School; an account of the Vaìakalai and Teúkalai schisms and their western scholarly interpreters; the importance of two cities, Kåñcâpuram and àrâraígam, in the formation of these two schools and the importance of Kåñcâpuram to Vedåntadeóika's “cosmopolitanism.”

The final section focuses on theoretical issues central to the main subject matter of this study — and one of the most neglected areas of Vedåntadeóika's voluminous writings — his devotional poetry. Chapter tackles several key issues in South Indian bhakti literature, from religious devotion and the idea of the vernacular, poetry and commentary, and “viraha‐bhakti” (love in separation) and “emotionalism” in the work of Vedåntadeóika and other Çcåryas.
“The Fruits of Mukunda's Mercy”
Authors: Hopkins Steven Paul
Published: October 2003

This chapter focuses on a few stanzas of two long Tamil prabandhams — the Mummaïikkêvai and the Navamaïimålai — that use elements of classical Tamil akam love poetry as they have been appropriated by the Çôvårs — especially by Nammåôvår — to evoke Deóika's experience of Devanåyaka Svåmi, the form of Vishnu at a sacred place where he is said to have spent 30 years of his life, Tiruvahândrapuram. Whereas Vedåntadeóika's praises of Varadaråja at Kåñcâ stress Vishnu's overall puõuam nature as awesome majestic king with his queens, at Tiruvahândrapuram, Devanåyaka (The “Lord of Gods”), no less “awesome,” is the intimate, “interior,” love mode of akam dominates. The devotional attitude in these Tamil verses is mirrored in Deóika's Sanskrit and Pråkrit poems to this same form of Vishnu. And while the Sanskrit and Prakrit hymns to Devanåyaka consciously make use of their own conventions of erotic love to convey his love of this form of God, his Tamil verses suitably mine what had become with the work of the Çôvårs, a ‘Tamil’ poetics of passionate, intimate religious love. The thematic close reading of stanzas from these two Tamil poems includes discussions of various female personae from the Tamil akam poetry, love and separation, divine absence and presence, Vishnu's beautiful body and the temple icon, the “eros of place,” love and bathing imagery (niråìal) in Vedåntadeóika and the female Çôvår Çïìåö and, most significantly, the theology of beauty (“beauty that saves”) that emerges from these poems.
Religious Ambiguity and Religious Diversity
Authors: McKim Robert
Published: October 2003

The religious ambiguity of the world has many aspects, one of which is the hiddenness of God. Theists have proposed a number of explanations of God's hiddenness. Some putative explanations contend that the advantages of God's hiddenness (“goods of mystery”) outweigh whatever benefits would result if God's existence and nature were clear to us (“goods of clarity”). Goods of mystery that have received a lot of discussion include human moral autonomy and the ability on our part to exercise control over whether we believe in the existence of God. The extent of the ambiguity that surrounds God's existence, and indeed all important religious matters, combined with our lack of an obviously correct and adequate explanation of this lack, suggest that, even if God exists, it is not important that people believe in God. Another central theme in the book is the significance of religious diversity for religious belief. The character of this diversity is such that it provides people who take a position on religious matters with reason to adopt the “Critical Stance” – which requires people in all the religious traditions to subject their religious beliefs to critical scrutiny and hold those beliefs in a tentative way.Some contend that religious faith requires complete confidence in what is believed but tentative belief actually is sufficient to sustain many forms of religious commitment.
God's Hiddenness and the Possibility of Moral Action
Authors: McKim Robert
Published: October 2003

Immanuel Kant, John Hick, and Richard Swinburne, among others, have presented versions of the claim that God must be hidden from us if we are to make morally significant choices. The proposal that an intimate and enduring personal relationship with God would reduce our moral autonomy is especially plausible. Less plausible is the claim that somewhat more evidence than we currently have for the existence of God would be morally harmful. While God's hiddenness cannot be explained adequately in terms of preserving our moral autonomy, there may be a good of mystery in this area that is capable of contributing to an adequate explanation. Especially promising is the idea that it is very valuable that we should be able to choose whether or not to harm others.
The Hiddenness of God and Arguments for Atheism
Authors: McKim Robert
Published: October 2003

There have been a number of attempts to argue from the ambiguity that surrounds the existence of God to atheism. John Schellenberg offers one such argument: he proposes that a perfectly loving God would not permit nonbelief to be reasonable for anyone who is capable of a personal relationship with God. I contend that arguments of this sort are unconvincing.
The Hiddenness of God: Implications
Authors: McKim Robert
Published: October 2003

If the goods of mystery outweigh the goods of clarity, there is some reason to doubt that any particular good of clarity, such as more people adopting theism here and now, is very important. Theists should acknowledge that it is unlikely that it is part of the goal of human life that we should here and now hold theistic beliefs. If any goods that are essential for human flourishing were dependent on our believing here and now in God's existence, then – if God exists – God would not remain hidden from human beings. For, if God exists, it would be easy for us to be provided with more evidence for the existence of God than we currently have.
Wounds Not Healed By Time
Authors: Schimmel Solomon
Published: October 2003

Wounds Not Healed By Time: The Power of Repentance and Forgiveness examines the meanings of revenge, justice, forgiveness, repentance, and reconciliation. In doing so, it draws on religious traditions, psychology, psychotherapy, moral philosophy, and the personal experiences of both perpetrators and of victims.

Christianity, Judaism, and Islam call for forgiveness and repentance in our relations with others. Yet, there are significant differences between them as to when and whom to forgive. Is forgiving always more moral than refusing to forgive? Is it ever immoral to forgive? When is repentance a precondition for forgiveness, and what does repentance entail? Wounds Not Healed by Time explores these questions in diverse contexts, ranging from conflicts in a marriage and personal slights we experience every day to enormous crimes such as the Holocaust. The author also applies insights on forgiveness and repentance to the Middle East, postapartheid South Africa, interreligious relationships, the criminal justice system, forgiving God, and self‐forgiveness.

Wounds Not Healed By Time also provides practical strategies to help us forgive and repent, preparing the way for healing and reconciliation between individuals and groups. “It is my belief,” Schimmel concludes, “that the best balm for the resentment, rage, guilt, and shame engendered by human evil lies in finding the proper balance between justice, repentance, and forgiveness.”
Introduction
Authors: Schimmel Solomon
Published: October 2003

Examines the range of responses to the September 11, 2001 (9/11) act of terrorism on the World Trade Center, such as calls for revenge, justice, self‐criticism, repentance, and forgiveness. This is followed by a comparison of Jewish and Christian responses to requests for forgiveness made by perpetrators of atrocities in Nazi Germany and in South Africa. Concludes with the hope that the book will help bring us closer to the biblical vision of love founded on justice, compassion, and self‐transformation.
The Essence of Forgiveness
Authors: Schimmel Solomon
Published: October 2003

Defines forgiveness, and contrasts it with related concepts, namely, to condone, to excuse, to justify, to exonerate, to forget, to atone, and to reconcile, providing concrete examples of each of these. Forgiveness can be an internal, therapeutic process of letting go of anger and resentment, or an interpersonal one of forgoing legal and/or moral claims the victim of an injury has on a perpetrator. The chapter compares and contrasts the views of Judaism and Christianity on whether a victim is morally obligated to forgive a perpetrator when the perpetrator does not repent of his or her misdeed. The trait of “forgivingness” is discussed and the relationship of the tendency to forgive with personality characteristics of being prone to guilt and to shame.
How to Forgive
Authors: Schimmel Solomon
Published: October 2003

Discusses and illustrates three process models or psychotherapeutic approaches to teaching people how to forgive, developed by psychologists Robert Enright, Everett Worthington Jr., and Michael McCullough. These models emphasize the importance of cultivating the traits of empathy and of humility as essential to learning how to forgive. The chapter goes through each stage or phase of these models, and explains how they have been used in premarital, marital, and family counseling and therapy. While accepting most of the features of these approaches as valuable, the author critiques those aspects of them that presume certain Christian values which he considers to be morally or psychologically problematic, such as too little emphasis on justice and repentance in the models, and the goal of getting the victim to love the perpetrator of the injury to him, rather than merely to let go of the anger and resentment that he bears. The chapter concludes with a moving excerpt from the book “The Railway Man” by Eric Lomax, which describes the long psychological and spiritual journey of a British WW II POW who had been brutally tortured by his Japanese, towards forgiveness of the Japanese translator/interrogator who had been involved in the torture sessions and had spent all of the postwar years in remorse and repentance of, and vicarious restitution for his wartime misdeeds.
Repentance & Reconciliation
Authors: Schimmel Solomon
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses the role that repentance can play in reconciliation between criminals and their victims, and between religious and ethnic groups that have experienced major, violent conflicts in which gross injustices have been committed. The ways in which repentance can facilitate reconciliation are illustrated and analyzed with respect to rehabilitated criminals, the Catholic Church and the Jewish people, Palestinian and other Arabs and Israeli Jews, and white Americans and African‐Americans. The importance in Judaism of reintegrating the repentant sinner back into the community is one model of how society in general, and groups, should treat perpetrators of evil and injustice who have undergone an authentic and transformative process of repentance. The chapter discusses ways of assessing the sincerity and durability of repentance, and the advantages to society and to groups in conflict of responding positively to overtures of reconciliation.
Epilogue
Authors: Schimmel Solomon
Published: October 2003

The epilogue discusses the experience of South Africa and its Truth and Reconciliation Commission (T.R.C.) in attempting to avoid revenge and violence in the transition from white minority to black majority power in the 1990s. The author discusses the rationales given by advocates of the T.R.C. for its amnesty provisions, and the claims of opponents that the T.R.C. ignored the values of justice, accountability, and responsibility for one's misdeeds. The author concludes that we have much to learn from the efforts of South Africans to reconcile with a much lower level of rancor, vengeance, and violence that might have been anticipated given the history of apartheid injustices and human rights violations.
Introduction
Authors: Krawiec Rebecca
Published: October 2003

I begin by giving a general description of Shenoute and what survives of his monastic literature. I then turn to the evidence of women's lives within that literature, focusing on 13 letter fragments that address the female community or individual female monks directly. I argue that the genre of this material requires a methodology similar to that of feminist studies of Paul, rather than solely comparing Shenoute to his contemporaries: both Shenoute and Paul wrote rhetorically complex letters that responded to actual events, indeed crises, in physically distant communities over which they wished to exert their authority. I then lay out the major arguments of the chapters that follow, which, after giving a narrative of the women's conflicts recorded in the letters, analyze the material through three lenses, namely, power, gender, and family. One central thesis links these three approaches: that Shenoute advocated a universal monasticism he defined in terms of purity of the body (both individual and communal), a purity that could result from properly disciplining the flesh by the spirit so that differences located in the flesh (gender, biological kinship, social status) would not affect monastic or ascetic practices
Women's Life in the White Monastery Under Shenoute
Authors: Krawiec Rebecca
Published: October 2003

Lays out the narratives and explores the issues of various periods of crisis that prompted Shenoute's letters to the female monks. The issue themselves are wide ranging: Shenoute's exercise of power over the female community; his insistence on the gender separation of the male and female monks, including forbidding visits among relatives even as Shenoute himself visited the female community; incidents of female homoeroticism; a debate over what constituted proper monastic duties and proper corporal punishment; gossip; disputes over the quality of clothing the women were producing for male monks, including Shenoute's; and complaints about the excessive nature of Shenoute's leadership. All these topics, even in their diversity and their focus on conflict, provided Shenoute with the opportunity to teach all the monks, male and female, how to lead a salvific life in the monastery.
Shenoute's Discourse of Monastic Power
Authors: Krawiec Rebecca
Published: October 2003

Shenoute's authority came from his position as head of the monastery, an authority he sought to expand to include the female community as it had not been included under his predecessors. Alongside that authority, then, Shenoute had to construct power and he did that through the discourse of his letters. Shenoute modeled himself as a prophet, like those in the Hebrew Bible, a spokesperson for God who had intimate knowledge of God's will and expectations. As such, Shenoute had correct knowledge of what was necessary for salvation, and this knowledge validated his position as a monastic leader and his actions, such as interpretation of Scripture and corporal punishment. A second theme of his discourse, that of suffering, balances the domineering tone of the first by presenting Shenoute as either a suffering servant or a suffering body who experiences the same pains as his followers. The humility of this discourse nevertheless also creates his power because, like knowledge, proper suffering leads to salvation.
Acceptance and Resistance
Authors: Krawiec Rebecca
Published: October 2003

Women's power in the White Monastery lay in their ability to accept, resist, or even manipulate Shenoute's authority. A model of complete acceptance occurs in Shenoute's hagiography, written by his follower and successor, Besa, where Shenoute appears in almost the exact language and imagery he used to present himself. So too there are moments when female monks, who seem to mostly have been those high up in the hierarchy of the female community, accepted and at times manipulated Shenoute's authority over their community, which was exercised either in person or through male envoys sent in Shenoute's place. The nature of the evidence, however, is geared more towards moments of resistance and indeed outright rebellion against Shenoute. The female monks, especially the leaders, could use the space from Shenoute and secrecy among their community to guard their own authority, both of which Shenoute worked actively against. At least one letter attests to both female and male monks joining in rebellion against Shenoute and his excessive leadership.
“They Too Are Our Brethren”
Authors: Krawiec Rebecca
Published: October 2003

Shenoute's goal for the monastery, including the female community, was to create one monastic experience for all monks “whether male or female.” His emphasis on uniformity was meant to preclude difference, especially gender difference, even as his language continually reinscribed the categories of “male” and “female.” Three areas – corporal punishment, fasting, and teaching – show evidence of change within the female community as a result of Shenoute's insistence on uniform monastic practices. Yet, Shenoute also, perhaps unwittingly, created an asymmetrical monastic hierarchy where all monks were subordinate to Shenoute, but the female monks were also under the authority of male envoys (with the same monastic rank as the female leaders) who served as proxies for Shenoute. Gender also served as a structural basis of the community: both a physical boundary, evident in the women's seclusion and the prohibition on visits between male and female monks, including relatives, and a cultural boundary, reinforced by Shenoute's alignment of the women with susceptibility to the Devil, separated, and so created difference between the male and female communities.
“According to the Flesh”
Authors: Krawiec Rebecca
Published: October 2003

Biological kin, who were defined with precise language as “those according to the flesh,” lived in the monastery alongside those monks who had renounced their families to join the monastery. These monks faced particular challenges since they experienced enforced gender separation from spouses and relatives, witnessed the corporal punishment of relatives, and even saw relatives expelled from the monastery. Overall, the monks with kin were expected to live as though they had also renounced each other so that all monks had the same “kinship” with each other and so shared the same salvation. Despite these expectations, Shenoute found a way to have male and female monks visit each other without violating his own commands: male relatives often served as envoys carrying these very letters from Shenoute to the female community. Finally, the experiences of one female monk, Tachom, shows the intersection of the three patterns that determined a monk's life: power, gender, and family.
The Legal Boundary Between the Garden and the Wilderness
Authors: Cookson Catharine
Published: October 2003

Examines the various legal standards, rules, or tests that have been used by the U.S. Supreme Court to resolve free exercise cases, and places these tests within the full factual and legal contexts of the cases. Particular attention is paid to the no‐exception test adopted in 1879 in the Reynolds case, the tests used in the important string of Jehovah's Witnesses cases of the 1940's, the more recent compelling state interest test as used in an Amish case involving compulsory formal education of children up to the age of 16, and finally the neutrality standard of the 1990 Smith case that reinvigorated the no‐exception test of 1879. A careful, detailed review of the particulars of the cases shows that the underlying analytical process used is excruciatingly influential to the ultimate decision: Justices in factually similar cases purportedly using the same abstract legal test reach different conclusions based upon the analytical process they use.
Casuistical Free Exercise Jurisprudence
Authors: Cookson Catharine
Published: October 2003

Perceptions of authoritarian injustice or of anarchical laxity are just as harmful to the integrity of the justice system as actual impropriety. Casuistry offers clear, definable paradigmatic limits to the free exercise right, and places the burden of proof on both the state and the religious adherent. This book proposes that a casuistical free exercise analysis, while not perfect, protects the courts’ integrity by offering a fairer and more just process for resolving the conflict of principles that lies at the heart of free exercise cases. To those who would reject casuistry as a new element without precedent, and as an arbitrary choice without any foundation or authority, the book notes that casuistry is quintessentially the process used in common law decision making, and actually has been used in deciding a significant number of major free exercise cases by the U.S. Supreme Court. What casuistry requires of the courts is a searching scrutiny with discernment and a willingness to make, explain, and justify these decisions to a fearful public and to a faithful “people of the wilderness.”
Calvinism Improved
Authors: Bressler Ann Lee
Published: October 2003

At first glance, American Universalism seems to have been one of the clearest manifestations of the rational spirit of the revolutionary era, and with its bold assertion of salvation for all, the Universalist movement was shocking even in an atmosphere charged with challenges to orthodox Calvinist doctrines. In the nineteenth century, Universalists became even more closely identified with rationalistic dissent. Drawing upon eighteenth-century evangelical Calvinism on the one hand and Enlightenment liberalism on the other, Universalism emerged as an attempt to nourish piety through rational conviction. Reason, Universalists argued, dictated that a benevolent God would redeem all of creation; the doctrine of universal salvation was God’s way of influencing human affections and turning naturally self-centred human beings to the love of God and the greater creation. This chapter traces the early development of the movement and the notable figures involved.
The Challenge of Communal Piety
Authors: Bressler Ann Lee
Published: October 2003

In the first decades of the nineteenth century, the Universalist movement gained both momentum and attention. Although still a small minority, Universalists stirred up widespread controversy with their improved version of Calvinism. They faced massive opposition, even persecution, with almost all who denounced them united in a single fundamental criticism: their teaching ignored the basic lesson that all people were responsible before God for their actions, that goodness would be rewarded, and evil punished. Universalists responded by trying to show that “the larger hope” of their faith transcended such “carnal”concerns and was conducive to social concord, and for at least a generation after the turn of the century, the Universalist vision represented a genuine challenge to the religious and moral norms that accommodated the needs of a burgeoning capitalist society. However, the movement as a whole did not continue to sustain and develop the sort of spirituality that was reflected in Hosea Ballou’s teaching; the communal piety of early Universalism proved an unsatisfactory foundation, and the movement ultimately moved toward the moralism against which its early adherents had struggled. Ironically, the form of non-moralistic spirituality that gained lasting recognition in American religious history was not the popular preaching of Universalism but the Transcendentalism of Ralph Waldo Emerson, which while sharing certain themes with early Universalism, ultimately reflected a profoundly different orientation that was more closely in line with the broader tendencies of nineteenth-century American culture.
Winning the Battle, Losing the War
Authors: Bressler Ann Lee
Published: October 2003

When Hosea Ballou died in 1852, belief in the supernatural rule of God apparently held sway among most American Protestants, but the idea of universal salvation remained highly suspect. Twenty years later, supernatural rule had fallen under serious question, but except among outspoken theologians and conservative evangelicals, few appear to have considered universal salvation a particularly threatening or controversial issue. Such major shifts in outlook naturally had deep and complex cultural roots that resist generalization. Yet one general point seems inescapable: the traditional focus of religious attention on the hope of eternal redemption was becoming culturally irrelevant.
The Standing Order's Corporate Vision 1783–1795
Authors: Sassi Jonathan D.
Published: October 2003

During the 1780s and 1790s, Congregationalism predominated on the religious landscape of southern New England. Compared to other denominations, the Congregationalists enjoyed a tax‐supported religious establishment in Massachusetts and Connecticut, large numbers of churches and clergymen, influence with the political and social elite, and ministerial associations that enabled coordinated action. Given their prevailing public position, Congregational clergymen articulated a rich social ideology that centered on the role of divine Providence in communal affairs. The clergy's social discourse borrowed from both covenant theology and classical republicanism, but it constituted a distinct, providential synthesis. This providentialism enabled ministers to explain the successful outcome of the Revolutionary War and optimistically to project a millennial role for the new nation, although they could also use it to warn that sinfulness would invite God's wrath.
Jeffersonian Disillusions and Dreams 1799–1818
Authors: Sassi Jonathan D.
Published: October 2003

The rise of the first party competition and the electoral successes of Thomas Jefferson and the Democratic‐Republican party shook the standing order's eighteenth‐century social ideology to its foundations during the dozen years between 1800 and 1812. Congregational ministers were a core element of the Federalist party base, and while they initially responded to the era's political contention with a conservative message that emphasized support for established religion and government in response to the Jeffersonians’ alleged infidelity and anarchy, they soon became frustrated with their counterparts in the civil leadership, who acted more from political expediency than from the clergy's prescribed principles of godly magistracy. At the same time, the outbreak of the Unitarian controversy divided Congregationalists in Massachusetts into Unitarian and orthodox wings, which inhibited them in the competition for adherents. On account of Democratic‐Republican gains, standing‐order ministers also experienced disillusionment with the providential role that they had prophesied for the United States, repudiated the Constitution as a godless document, and spiraled into a mood of apocalyptic doom that reached its height during the War of 1812, when the nation implicitly allied itself with Napoleonic France against Britain. The surging numbers of religious dissenters, meanwhile, gained from the Democratic‐Republicans new electoral coalition partners and more mainstream, Jeffersonian rhetoric, both of which they employed to bring down the standing order, finally achieving the Congregationalists’ disestablishment in Connecticut in 1818.
Grassroots Changes and Regional Ideology 1800–1815
Authors: Sassi Jonathan D.
Published: October 2003

The first fifteen years of the nineteenth century constituted a transitional period for orthodox Congregationalists, as they moved from their eighteenth‐century establishmentarianism toward a new, evangelical social ideology. Despite what appeared to them as the baleful state of politics, standing‐order ministers maintained their commitment to engaging society through both their providential interpretations and pronouncements about a righteous social order. The experience of religious revivals during the Second Great Awakening and news of missionary advances fostered renewed optimism and a new conception of the church's impact on society. Congregational ministers of an evangelical bent now portrayed the church as the key institution that would spread godliness and counteract social disorder, and they created new missionary and moral reform societies to put this vision into effect, thereby creatively substituting for their earlier reliance on the religious establishment and civil magistracy. As a microcosm of changes taking place throughout southern New England, the chapter examines events in Worcester County, Massachusetts, where Congregational ministers such as the Rev. Joseph Goffe of the North Parish of Sutton led grassroots religious revivals and founded new local organizations for evangelization and public morality.
Public Christianity's Relevance to Understanding Reform
Authors: Sassi Jonathan D.
Published: October 2003

The public Christianity of the southern New England clergy contributed to reform movements during the 1820s and 1830 in two principal ways. Ministers deployed the language of Providence in order to warn that societal sinfulness would invite divine wrath. They also invoked their ideal of a godly community in order to denounce selfishness and immorality. As a result, ministers were able to critique the excesses of romantic nationalism, the market revolution, and intemperance, and to speak out in favor of Sabbatarianism, antislavery, and African colonization.
Sikhs and Their Scripture
Authors: Singh Mann Gurinder
Published: October 2003

The historical background to the Sikh religion is outlined, and an account given of the Adi Granth (“original book”) – the primary Sikh scripture, which is considered to be the highest authority within the community, and plays a central role in Sikh devotional and ritual life. It consists of about 3,000 hymns of carefully recorded authorship with over 2,400 hymns written by the 6 Sikh gurus who lived in the Punjab between 1469 and 1675. The text of the Adi Granth is divided into three main parts: the opening section is liturgical and includes three daily prayers; the Japji (meditation) has 38 stanzas and 2 couplets; the Rahiras (supplication) has 9 hymns; and the Sohila (praise) has 5 hymns. Next, there is an account of the early Sikh community, which also discusses the origin and expansion of the scriptural text. The chapter ends with a plan of the book.
Writings on Sikh Scripture
Authors: Singh Mann Gurinder
Published: October 2003

A survey is made of the relevant Sikh literature, in order to understand Sikh perceptions of the history of compilation of the Adi Granth (the primary Sikh scripture) and the difference of views among scholars regarding the text's origin and its various stages of expansion. The important issues constituting scholarly debate and popular Sikh discourse on the compilation of the text of the Adi Granth are laid out. The chapter is divided into three main sections covering eighteenth‐century, nineteenth‐century, and twentieth‐century accounts.
Toward the Adi Granth
Authors: Singh Mann Gurinder
Published: October 2003

This chapter and the two previous chapters examine in detail the extant Sikh scriptural manuscripts in relation to the compilation of the Adi Granth (the primary Sikh scripture). Here, an analysis is made of the seventeenth‐century manuscripts in order to reconstruct the history of the text up to the compiling of the Adi Granth in the l680s. The existing classification of these manuscripts is examined and a modified picture of their mutual relationships proposed. Next, the Adi Granth itself is addressed, and its production is reconstructed in a way that radically revises the current understanding of the surrounding time and circumstances, as well as the relationship between its contents and those of textural antecedents, such as the Kartarpur Pothi (described in the last chapter) and other seventeenth‐century manuscripts.
Love's Grateful Striving
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

Human love is hidden, both because its source lies in God's love and because no word or deed necessarily reveals love; any act can be done lovingly or unlovingly. This ethic is anticonsequentialist, since external achievements can be thwarted, yet love must be recognizable by its “fruits,” its activity. Fruits of love are the expression of grateful striving, but are nonmeritorious.
Love's Law—Obligation
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

Examines both the scope and the bindingness of the duty imposed by the love commandment – the unconditional obligation is to exclude no one. It examines the role and rationale of proper self‐love, as contrasted with selfish self‐love. Since the need to love and the need to be loved are part of human nature, the commandment guides our love; the relevance of human need distinguishes this ethic from a divine command ethic.
Love's Law—Kinship
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

Moral blindness (or “closed eyes”) is not a call to otherworldliness, but rather indifference to temporal distinctions (e.g, class, financial status). Such moral blindness is the obverse of moral vision of our common kinship as creatures. Both advantaged and disadvantaged are equally obligated and equally able to fulfill the obligation.
Love's Labor—Action
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

As exemplified by the Good Samaritan and implied in the imitation of Christ, Christian love is action (vs inaction) and action that is responsive to the distinctive needs of an individual. God is the “middle term” in all human love, because God is Love and because we are all creatures of God. The Christian view of “hatred” for the sake of God does not mean the absence of love, but rather that we sometimes cannot give to others what they want because of what we see as their good.
Love's Venture
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

The three deliberations opening the second series emphasize our “being‐for‐others” – our effort to build them up by presupposing love in them. This means believing in them and hoping for them, which require imagination and courage to take a risk. These exemplify the way in which love does to you as you do to others – a kind of ‘‘like‐for‐like’’ or mutuality.
Love's Forgiveness
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

Love covers up the sins of others – by refusing to look for them, by silence, and by mitigating explanation. In forgiveness one still sees the sin of another, so one does not engage in self‐deception. Love “forgets” the sin of another by refusing to let it hinder the relationship. The end of forgiveness is social reconciliation.
Love's Faithfulness
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

Love's fidelity is a continued openness to reconciliation with others. In contrast to poetic love, Christian love makes a commitment to endure. Our behavior is contoured by limits to self‐sacrifice, but we are never justified in refusing to love or in returning “hatred for hatred.”
Love's Mercifulness
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

The obligation to be merciful applies to poor and rich alike since mercy is distinguished from financial generosity. Material benevolence on the part of those who are well‐off is assumed – here the emphasis is on encouragement for those with few or no means. The relation between sympathy and imagination is explored.
Love's Asymmetry
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

Love of the dead is a heuristic model of the unselfish love that demands no reciprocity. It bears on the love of the living insofar as an acknowledgment of asymmetry is implied (1) in the notion of love as “infinite debt” and (2) in the suggestion that love should not rise and fall with contingent change in the other. The complex relations between asymmetry and equality are explored, with reference to Levinas. Asymmetry does not preclude mutuality and responsiveness in relation.
Conclusion
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie
Published: October 2003

Kierkegaard's account is put into the context of contemporary theological ethics, providing a middle way between Protestant and Roman Catholic traditions, between ethics of self‐sacrifice and ethics of mutual communion, between gift‐love and need‐love, between deontology and teleology.
Intergenerational Public Goods
Authors: Sandler Todd
Published: October 2003

We live in a “brave new world” in which allocative decisions on public goods today can have consequences that cross political and generational boundaries. Although the international aspects of public goods have received much attention in recent years, particularly with respect to environmental activities, intergenerational public goods have received relatively scant attention.

In response, this chapter has five main purposes. First, it presents a taxonomy of public goods with benefits spanning generational or national boundaries. Second, it describes the implications for economic efficiency of a variety of public goods that affect nations or generations. Third, it explores the strategic aspects of intergenerational public goods. Fourth, it offers design principles for institutional arrangements, intended to address concerns about the allocation of transgenerational public goods. Fifth, the analysis is applied to specific cases of intergenerational public goods throughout. A number of policy insights derive from this analysis. At the national level, decision‐makers are unlikely to achieve optimal levels of these public goods. If intergenerational awareness of public goods spillovers is only encouraged within a country, then that country's well‐being may actually deteriorate as others free ride on its enhanced far‐sightedness. Thus, cooperation and increased awareness of spillovers must have both an international and an intergenerational dimension for all nations to gain.
The Political Economy of International Cooperation
Authors: Martin Lisa L.
Published: October 2003

Over the past 15 years, the field of international relations has produced a great deal of work on international cooperation and international institutions. This work has immediate relevance for conceptualizing a new era and a new approach to international development cooperation. Once we understand development cooperation as a problem of providing global public goods, our attention is immediately drawn to the problems of strategic interaction and opportunistic behavior that confront states as they attempt to cooperate in the pursuit of mutually beneficial goals. Drawing on public goods models and related concerns, the literature on international cooperation identifies strategic problems that states must overcome if they are to cooperate effectively – and how international organizations can facilitate state efforts to cooperate, primarily through the provision of information. This chapter summarizes the central claims of political science about the conditions for international cooperation and the roles of international organizations and nonstate actors in helping states achieve the benefits of cooperation. It concludes that the most useful functions of international organizations involve the provision of information about state preferences and behavior – particularly about standards and causal knowledge.
Equity and Justice
Authors: Rao J. Mohan , Kapstein Ethan B. , Sen Amartya
Published: October 2003

Economic and cultural globalization seem to have ushered in an awkward and potentially unstable period of transition for the world. Even if one supposes that free trade and unrestricted capital mobility can eventually result in global factor price equalization and international equality, the transition may take decades if not centuries. At stake are questions of how to distribute the costs incurred, and the benefits to be derived, by cooperative action to create global public goods or minimize global public bads. Questions of equity are also implicated in the origin of the global problems themselves. International negotiations are influenced by unequal economic and bargaining strengths and the diverse stages of development at which nations find themselves.

The basic argument of this chapter is that equity and distributional criteria must be at the core of a global public goods framework for international cooperation. There are several reasons behind this. First, equity and justice promote cooperative behavior, itself needed for the provision of public goods. Second, when the system is perceived to be fair and equitable, nations will participate in it willingly. Third, global equity is itself a public good that, without cooperation or coercion (i.e., in a decentralized setting), may be undersupplied. The undersupply may be because, e.g., there is no private market through which nations or individuals may meet their need to give.

Thus, the first section of this chapter sets the stage by outlining the continuing role of inequality among nations in shaping the world. The second section considers the potential instrumental value of social cohesion in public goods supply (equity for public goods). After that, the chapter considers how distributional factors affect the demand and supply of public goods. Then, it pursues the proposition (originally from Thurow, 1971) that the distribution of income is itself a public good. The final section offers conclusions. The rest of the chapter illustrates the value of equity for the production of public goods, in the distribution of public goods, and as a public good itself.
Deep Integration and Trade Agreements
Authors: Birdsall Nancy , Lawrence Robert Z.
Published: October 2003

This chapter looks at financial crises as a challenge to the international financial system and investigates the “public bad” nature of the phenomenon. The conclusion: excessive financial volatility is a global public bad. Instability is not purely a technical by‐product of the production of financial services. Rather, it is the outcome of market failures, for reasons not yet fully understood. Having laid out this diagnosis, the chapter looks at how existing institutions and policies deal with international financial instability, both to limit its acuity and to deal with its implications. The main emphasis is on drawing lessons from recent experiences (Europe, Mexico, and East Asia) and recent theoretical advances, especially those that have improved our understanding of crises. The chapter presents five main proposals. (1) Proceed with caution in promoting capital liberalization; (2) avoid the restrictive macroeconomic policies, huge loans, and deep structural policies of recent packages; (3) complement today's ex post conditionality with ex ante conditionality; (4) suspend debt repayment in the event of a major crisis accompanied by a collapse of the exchange rate; and (5) end the monopoly of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) by creating regional IMFs.
Montreal versus Kyoto
Authors: Barrett Scott
Published: October 2003

The world of public goods has changed radically in the past quarter century, rendering some textbook discussions and examples quite dated. This is a good time to take a fresh look at both the nature of public goods and the policy options for managing their provision. Privatization and technological advances have combined to change the very nature of public goods provision in many respects. In the environmental field, in addition, there exists a growing volume of privately produced global public bads, such as pollution. In response, Heal suggests using markets to foster the private provision of public goods. If properly structured, markets can solve the problems posed by this type of good. The chapter describes how a global market in pollution permits could reduce pollution levels while assuring an efficient and equitable distribution of the costs of emission reductions. In a second example of the power of markets to overcome cooperation dilemmas, Heal describes how early actions by large firms or countries can accelerate environmental reforms by smaller actors through a process of adoption spillovers.
New Strategies for the Provision of Global Public Goods
Authors: Heal Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

Crude cost‐benefit analysis is often a poor guide to solving issues of the environment but also those of culture. Both can have economic as well as intrinsic value that is commonly recognized, if not valued. For methodologically similar problems such as these, cost‐benefit analysis must be complemented by new analytical instruments. Beyond the criterion of use value, used for private goods, Serageldin highlights the relevance of nonextractive value, including existence value, e.g., the value of a cultural site goes beyond the amount that the site is able to generate in terms of tourist dollars. Unique sites have value for the world at large, not just for residents and visitors. Serageldin suggests that private–public partnerships to ensure the revitalization of priceless sites such as old cities would be an effective policy option, offering to illustrate the examples of the historical districts of Hafsia, Tunis, and Fez, Morocco.