bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mississippian Hunting and Butchering Patterns: Bone from the Vista Shelter, 23SR-20, Missouri
Authors: Wood W. Raymond
Published: April 2006

Vista Shelter, on the northwestern margin of the Ozark Highlands in southwestern Missouri, is identified as a hunting station of the prehistoric Mississippian Steed-Kisker focus. This shelter, suitably located for the exploitation of water-dwelling, forest, and prairie-dwelling species, was used by small groups engaged in deer and bison hunts in prairie areas far removed from their riverine settlements near present-day Kansas City. The bone frequencies at the site suggest that animals were killed nearby, cuts of meat were taken to the shelter and processed, and dried meat was returned home. This hunting station helps explain the rarity of refuse bone in the permanent villages, since many animals were butchered and processed far from the home villages. These conclusions are related to prairie and plains hunting and butchering patterns, and the significance of food bone in archaeological sites is thereby emphasized.
Comment on Gunnerson's “Plateau Shoshonean Prehistory”
Authors: Schroeder Albert H.
Published: April 2006

Gunnerson's postulated reconstruction of Plateau Shoshonean prehistory, based on linguistic data and geographic correlations of prehistoric and historic groups, is questioned on the basis of archaeological evidence, which indicates that a complete replacement of the prehistoric culture pattern took place in the 1100's in the Virgin River area of Nevada.
A Human Skeleton from Sediments of Mid-Pinedale Age in Southeastern Washington
Authors: Fryxell Roald , Bielicki Tadeusz , Daugherty Richard D. , Gustafson Carl E. , Irwin Henry T. , Keel Bennie C.
Published: April 2006

A living-site including human bones, bone midden, and artifacts has been discovered in sediments of mid-Pinedale age at the Marmes Rockshelter archaeological site in southeastern Washington. Radiocarbon dates, from sediments overlying the buried flood-plain surface on which these bones occur, show them to be older than 11,000 years. Geomorphic relationships suggest that the site may be younger than about 13,000 years.
Check-Stamped Pottery on the Northern and Central Great Plains
Authors: Neuman Robert W.
Published: April 2006

Check-stamped potsherds have been found at 50 sites on the Plains, and a check-stamped paddle of bone is reported from one site. These sites are found in a large area that extends from central Kansas northward into Saskatchewan and from the foothills of the Rocky Mountains to eastern North Dakota. The sites have been attributed by various writers to the Blackfoot, Crow, Hidatsa, Cree, Mandan, Pawnee, Ponca, Wichita, and Kansa. In most of these sites the check-stamped potsherds have a low frequency, and only at a few Hidatsa and Mandan sites do they predominate. As all check-stamped pottery from this area is assignable to the period of A.D. 1500 to 1845, check-stamped specimens may be used as diagnostic artifacts for the late prehistoric and early historic period.
Olmec and Chavin: Rejoinder to Lanning
Authors: Coe Michael D.
Published: April 2006

The maize design on a bottle from Kotosh is unusual for its time and place in its choice of subject matter and mode of depiction, and a previous statement that the motif might be of Olmec origin is defended. Lanning's attack on past arguments for early diffusion from Mesoamerica to Peru is countered by questioning (a) the role of the Intermediate area and lowland South America as alternative sources for the observed similarities, (b) the nature of unpublished data, (c) the age of the architectural complex at Las Haldas, (d) the likelihood of establishing final “proofs” or full chronological contexts, and (e) the reasoning of the “wait-until-all-the-facts-are-in” school. It is proposed that hypotheses are not assumptions but concepts subject to change which are ever attempting to explain large bodies of data. Such a hypothesis is that which originates New World civilization on the Gulf Coast of Mexico, and a revision of this hypothesis is made which accounts for the Chavin civilization as the result of a fusion of intrusive Olmec art and religion with an older, native-Peruvian tradition based on fabric construction and the worship of the condor and serpent.
The Skulls from Torrington, Wyoming: A Re-evaluation
Authors: Agogino George A. , Galloway Eugene
Published: April 2006

The Torrington skeletal material owes its suspected antiquity to its osteologic similarity to Minnesota Man. A recent study of the Torrington remains, based on laboratory analysis and grave artifacts, indicates that these burials are of late prehistoric age. These results reveal the danger of using morphological comparison, without supporting evidence, to establish chronological relationships.
Occurrence of Overall Corded Pottery in the Upper Ottawa Valley, Canada
Authors: Mitchell B. M.
Published: April 2006

Pottery with overall cording as the only form of decoration (both internally and externally) is reported from a site in eastern Ontario. This pottery came from a level overlain by a Middle Woodland component. As overall cording is not a Hopewellian trait, and as Hopewellian is believed to have influenced Woodland, it will be of interest to determine the age of this early level. Radiocarbon dates from this level, when compared with dates from similar culture levels in New York, should throw light on the direction of the spread of corded pottery into the Northeast.
Two Fired-Clay Figurines from Central California
Authors: Elsasser A. B.
Published: April 2006

Fragmentary human figurines from archaeological sites in Sacramento and Marin counties are described. It is suggested that noting slight variations in decorative and other characteristics within the type may aid in providing a clear picture of the geographical and chronological distributions of these specimens in western North America.
The Lithic Assemblage of the Western Desert Aborigines of Australia
Authors: Gould Richard A. , Koster Dorothy A. , Sontz Ann H. L.
Published: April 2006

Statistical and microscopic studies of ethnographic Australian Aboriginal stone tools reveal patterns which correlate significantly with the known uses, techniques of manufacture, and native classification of these tools. Statistically, the most significant correlation occurs between the angle of the working edge of the tool and the classification and function of the tool. Steep-edge flakes are classified as purpunpa and serve as woodworking scrapers, while flakes with acute edge-angles are classed as tjimari and are used as knives for cutting skin and tendons. Microscopic study has further revealed that woodworking scrapers show a distinctive pattern of use-wear. Some trial comparisons are also attempted between ethnographic Aboriginal woodworking scrapers and Quina-type scrapers of Bordes' Quina-Ferrassie facies of the Mousterian in order to suggest the value of comparing ethnographically known tools with archaeological specimens.
Note on Salwen's Comment on “Archaeological Potential of the Atlantic Continental Shelf”
Authors: Powell B. W.
Published: April 2006

In a recent note, Salwen challenges Emery and Edwards, who earlier reiterated a suggestion by Byers and others that absence of marine shells in low levels of some Atlantic Coast middens might record “failure of the local inhabitants to learn to eat marine mollusks.” Salwen's “environmental” explanation for this phenomenon is challenged in turn. Further, in a list of drowned and near-drowned sites in the Northeast that he curiously says “can be considerably expanded,” his most recent citation is 14 years old, and he ignores more recent work. Finally, his belief that peat layers may protect artifact assemblages and preserve drowned coastal sites in “relatively undisturbed” condition is questioned.
Radiocarbon Dating of the Organic Portion of Ceramic and Wattle-and-Daub House Construction Materials of Low Carbon Content
Authors: Taylor R. E. , Berger Rainer
Published: April 2006

Radiocarbon determinations on a series of low-carbon-content ceramic and wattle-and-daub samples were made to determine the validity of radiocarbon dates based on these types of sample materials. Good agreement between radiocarbon dates obtained from the ceramic samples and from charcoal samples stratigraphically associated with the ceramics suggests that radiocarbon dates obtained on low-carbon-content ceramic materials are reliable if appropriate precautions are observed. The confidence which can be placed on radiocarbon dates obtained on wattle-and-daub sample materials is, at present, somewhat less secure. Problems in the use of these sample materials are discussed.
A Three-Sided Figurine from Izapa, Chiapas, Mexico
Authors: Ekholm Susanna M.
Published: April 2006

A three-sided female figurine body was found in Preclassic mound fill during excavations by the BYU-New World Archaeological Foundation at Izapa, Chiapas, Mexico. A suggested partial reconstruction is given. Stratigraphically the figurine dates from the Conchas 2-Mamom phase or earlier. Stylistically it seems best associated with the Conchas 2 figurines of La Victoria, Guatemala. Though double figures are well known from Mesoamerica, this example and a triple-sided Olmec figurine head from Veracruz are the only known triple-sided examples. The multiple figures show a wide spread in southern Mesoamerica, but few have been reported and their significance is unknown.
Archaeological Field Sampling
Authors: Rootenberg S.
Published: April 2006

The residue of an archaeological site, which represents a collection of cultural and noncultural materials, provides quantitative information from which some indication of cultural practices and ecological and chronological relationships can be extracted. If quantitative methods of analysis are to be successfully applied to archaeological remains, the archaeologist must either totally excavate a site, recovering all the elements in the residue, or he can devise some system of sampling it. Total excavation is seldom possible or feasible because of limited resources. Consequently, he resorts to the process of sampling, that is, excavating only a portion of the whole site. His field objective is to collect as representative a sample of elements as possible with a minimum expenditure of time, labor, and money. Achieving this objective depends upon following a sampling procedure. Stratified-cluster sampling is a method proposed to achieve this objective. A sampling design of 13 steps is presented to serve as a guide to this method.
Family Size, Prehistoric Population Estimates, and the Ancient Maya
Authors: Haviland William A.
Published: April 2006

Current interest among anthropologists in population size as a major independent variable makes it likely that attempts will be made to estimate the size of populations resident at various prehistoric sites at particular points in time in Mesoamerica. Such estimates are likely to depend on some notion of the average number of people resident in a single house. The problem of arriving at such a statistic is illustrated for the Classic Maya site of Tikal, Guatemala. A consideration of demographic data from Tikal and modern Yucatán Maya communities, as well as information on household composition in sixteenth century Yucatán are reviewed which suggests that it is best to assume that each individual dwelling within a prehistoric household group at Tikal was inhabited by an average of 5 people. This requires some slight modification of previously published population estimates for Tikal and Mayapan, which relied on a base figure of 5.6 people per house.
Reply to Haviland
Authors: Adams Richard E. W.
Published: April 2006

Haviland's assertion that cognatic kinship organization is typical of Late Classic Maya is examined and matrilineal and double descent alternatives suggested. Lineages are suggested as represented in small residential groups at Tikal rather than clans.
Comment on Weymouth's “X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of Prehistoric Pottery”
Authors: Rice Prudence M.
Published: April 2006

Weymouth's X-ray diffraction analysis of prehistoric pottery necessitates a reevaluation of what diffraction peaks and "groupings" of peaks mean culturally. Specifically, archaeologists need to clarify what they mean by "temper" and what "temper" means behaviorally. X-ray diffraction will not screen out naturally occurring inclusions in the clay from those added by potters; consequently, X-ray data based on mineral ratios cannot necessarily be interpreted culturally as "temper" added by potters.
An Obsidian Hydration Rate for the Lower Columbia River Valley
Authors: Minor Rick
Published: April 2006

A hydration rate for obsidian of 1.3 μm2 per 1,000 radiocarbon years has been calculated for the lower Columbia River Valley of Oregon and Washington. The rate provides a means for dating prehistoric archaeological sites containing obsidian in terms of their radiocarbon age.
Textile and Basketry Impressions from Icehouse Bottom, Tennessee
Authors: Chapman B. J. , Adovasio J. M.
Published: April 2006

Analysis of a series of negative impressions in fired clay recovered during the 1975 excavations at Icehouse Bottom (40MR23), Tennessee, indicates the production and/or use of both single element textiles and basketry at that site. One type of single element textile, knotted looping, is represented by a single specimen while one of the three major subclasses of basketry is also present. The latter includes 19 samples of a single structural type of twining. The technical characteristics of this, the oldest well dated "perishable" assemblage from east of the Mississippi River, are discussed and the assemblage is briefly compared to others in eastern and western North America.
The Dating of Teotihuacan Contact at Altun Ha: The New Evidence
Authors: Pring D. C.
Published: April 2006

Pendergast's assertion that a Teotihuacan cache at Altun Ha, Belize, should be dated to the earliest part of the Protoclassic period is questioned in the light of recent findings of the ceramics of that period. The new evidence also tends to confirm the belief that the Floral Park ceramic complex coexisted with and did not totally displace the Chicanel phase.
Comment on Turnbaugh
Authors: Cotter J. L. , Day D. H. , Klein J. I. , Pollak J. S.
Published: April 2006

Replies to Turnbaugh's “An on-campus alternative to the archaeological field school” (American Antiquity 41:208-11) argue that the context in which the on-campus alternative is undertaken is important, as with any field school. At the same time the on-campus field school has significant value. An additional alternative to field schools is proposed.
Early Formative Period Chronology of the Ecuadorian Coast: A Correction
Authors: Meggers Betty J. , Evans Clifford
Published: April 2006

The Early Formative period divisions proposed by Meggers, Evans, and Estrada for the coast of Ecuador were incorrectly shown in a recent paper by Myers; the correct version is supplied.
The Aggressive Field Lab
Authors: Nichols Jacqueline , Evans June
Published: April 2006

It is proposed that archaeological field labs should be a mandatory and integral part of archaeological research design.
Application of Geomorphic Data to Archaeology: A Comment
Authors: Weide David L. , Weide Margaret L.
Published: April 2006

Archaeological site surveying and locational analysis of anthropological data depend in part on discrete subdivisions of geographic space. This fact is amplified in a recent proposal by Plog and Hill (1971) that outlines a numerical system for ordering stream channels and drainage basins as part of the statistical basis for correlation of site data. As proposed, however, their system is unworkable when used in conjunction with available geomorphic and hydrologic data. It is more convenient to use an established and standardized method of ranking drainage networks that allows correlation of comparable geomorphic data between and within basins of all sizes.
Downslope Movement and Archaeological Intrasite Spatial Analysis
Authors: Rick John W.
Published: April 2006

Erosion can produce heterogeneous distributions of cultural materials of differing densities, weights, and shapes within an archaeological site. A large, provenienced surface collection from a preceramic site in highland Peru is examined for evidence of downslope movement as an explanation for observed heterogeneity in artifact distribution. Statistical methods of spatial analysis are used to define the extent of movements of surface materials in this site. For this particular area of Peru, critical angles for downslope movement will limit the site areas in which analysis of horizontal distributions can be expected to produce culturally significant information.
A Trend-Surface Analysis of Central Plains Radiocarbon Dates
Authors: Roper Donna C.
Published: April 2006

For the past several decades, students of the Central Plains tradition have postulated a south-to-north trend of movement by the bearers of this tradition. Such a pattern should be detectable by means of a trend-surface analysis of the available radiocarbon dates. This paper reports such an analysis. The trend is found to be largely supported by the chronological evidence.
A Proposed Method for Deriving Seasonal Data from the Echinoid, Evechinus Chloroticus (Val.), in Archaeological Deposits
Authors: Coutts Peter J. F. , Jones K. L.
Published: April 2006

In recent years, the importance of seasonal dating in archaeology has been widely acknowledged. To this end, relatively sophisticated methods of determining the season of death of cockles (Chione stutchbury) from coastal midden sites in New Zealand, have been developed. These methods can only be applied when the midden deposits contain cockles and those middens are normally found in the vicinity of lagoons, sandy beaches, or estuaries. However, the Echinodermata are endemic to the rocky shore sub-tidal zone, and recent research in New Zealand on one species of echinoid (Evechinus chloroticus) has defined growth patterns which are seasonally dependant. This research has provided the basis for exploring a method of determining seasonal dates for midden deposits containing Echinoidea. This method, when fully developed, should prove useful for extracting seasonal data from middens which do not have any cockles, and will provide a further means of cross-checking seasonal dates.
Style and Function: A Fundamental Dichotomy
Authors: Dunnell Robert C.
Published: April 2006

Our understanding of the archaeological record has been developed under the culture history paradigm. Its fundamental structure is shown to be stylistic; this characteristic, coupled with historical factors, is seen as the major reason why evolutionary processes have not been extensively employed in explaining cultural change. Consideration of an evolutionary approach suggests that such processes as natural selection have considerable explanatory potential, but it is also suggested that a substantial segment of the archaeological record is not best understood in terms of adaptation. The potential of an evolutionary approach cannot be realized without making a fundamental distinction between functions, accountable in terms of evolutionary processes, and style, accountable in terms of stochastic processes.
Functional Analysis of Stone Tools: A Cautionary Note on the Role of Animal Fats
Authors: Brose David S.
Published: April 2006

Recent studies have suggested that variations in areal distributions of utilized and non-utilized lithic materials can aid in the delineation of functional site areas. Microscopic analyses of experimentally produced and utilized flakes suggest that due to an accumulation of animal fats along the working edge significant numbers of utilized flakes may not display wear indicating use. Factors of lithology and variations in butchering technique are considered and implications for areal patterns explored.
On the Historicity of Carib Migrations in the Lesser Antilles
Authors: Allaire Louis
Published: April 2006

This paper questions the historicity of Carib migrations in northeastern South America, especially from the Guianas to the West Indies, on the basis of (1) recent chronological work on the late prehistory of the Lesser Antilles, and (2) a critical reexamination of ethnohistorical data on the Island Caribs (migration myths, linguistic dimorphism, distribution, early European contacts). A new interpretation of the previously elusive Island Carib pottery complex allows for a reevaluation of cultural continuities and affiliations. The question is further approached through a more precise definition of the Island Carib as an ethnic group in relation to other groups in the Guianas.
Preceramic Textiles and Cordage From Guitarrero Cave, Peru
Authors: Adovasio James M. , Lynch Thomas F.
Published: April 2006

Fifty-five pieces of cordage and 13 textile fragments, probably dating from the ninth through sixth millennium B.C., are described from this dry multi-component site. Wood and bone tools may also be associated with the textile and basketry industries. It appears that twining in South America as well as North America is the basic textile technique from which most of the others are derived, and that it has a similar antiquity in both continents. Spiral interlinking and cross-knit looping are also represented in the early deposits, and there is a possibility that simple loom weaving may have a longer history in Peru than previously supposed.
Comment on Cordell's Congruences, Tijeras Pueblo
Authors: Kehoe Alice B.
Published: April 2006

The unexpectedly high proportion of gophers to other animal bone in the Tijeras Pueblo excavation may indicate boys’ trapping activities. Relative completeness of large animal skeletons suggests large game was killed nearby.
Comparison of Source and Artifact Characterization Data Using a Generalized Distance Measure
Authors: Ward Graeme K.
Published: April 2006

A major difficulty arises in sourcing studies when more than two or three elements are used in the comparison of artifacts with a number of potential sources. Multivariate statistical analysis can be used to define source groups and to allocate artifacts to their most likely sources. In this study of North Island, New Zealand, obsidian sources used in prehistory, the generalized distance measure of Mahalanobis and Rao is applied in three phases: first, to define source groups in terms of their inter- and intrasource variation using characterization data from X-ray fluorescence spectrography of five trace element constituents; second, the five-dimensional array was reduced to a three-dimensional figure for visual presentation; and finally, the highest probability of the association of an artifact data-set with that of a source group is used to allocate archaeologically derived material to its most likely source of raw material.
Inauguration Dates of Three Late Classic Rulers of Tikal, Guatemala
Authors: Jones Christopher
Published: April 2006

Three passages in the hieroglyphic inscriptions of the Maya city of Tikal in Guatemala indicate inaugurations to the throne of three rulers at A.D. 682, 734, and 768. The distribution of the rulers' name-glyphs in the inscriptions, as well as differences in the art and architecture of the time-periods thus marked, support the validity of the three inaugural dates. The parentage of the rulers and the likelihood that the three rulers were members of the same family is discussed. The author suggests that personality differences among the three rulers can be discerned.
Fundamental Changes in the Interpretations of the Mixtec Codices
Authors: Troike Nancy P.
Published: April 2006

Since mid-1974 very significant advances have been made in interpreting the Mixtec codices of Mexico. Many older hypotheses have been disproved, including the long-accepted chronological scheme proposed by Caso (1949), and these will cause profound changes in archaeological correlations for the Oaxacan area. The most important codex research is now focused upon correcting the chronology, distinguishing between actual history and mythical events, and clarifying the natures and roles of supernatural beings. The use of Central Mexican concepts hindered earlier research, but these patterns are erroneous for the Mixtecs and have now been discarded; accurate interpretations occur only with the use of Mixtec cultural and linguistic data. Mixtec codex studies are now firmly established as a separate and independent area of specialization within Mesoamerican scholarship.
Lateral Displacement of Artifacts Due to Plowing
Authors: Roper Donna C.
Published: April 2006

Excavations at the Airport site, Springfield, Illinois, recently provided a rare opportunity to examine lateral displacement that has occurred due to plowing. Measurements of relative displacement of sections of reconstructed bifaces are given. These measurements suggest that plow drag may not be as great as is sometimes supposed.
A Reconsideration of the Archaeological Significance of the Role of the Middleman in the Fur Trade
Authors: Tracy William A.
Published: April 2006

Arthur Ray's concept of the archaeological significance of the role of the middleman in the fur trade in northern Canada is examined. It is felt that his conclusions are based on historical generalizations that are not representative of the complexity of the trading post system. Specific examples from early journals of the Fort Churchill and Lake Athabasca areas are cited in support of this contention. Finally, it is suggested that the most profitable avenue for future research is to use historical data in an integrative rather than a supplementary manner.
A Mechanical Device for Drawing Excavation Sections
Authors: Reichlin Seth
Published: April 2006

A mechanical device for making scale drawings of excavation sections is described. In limited testing the machine has shown itself to be capable of substantially reducing the time required for this operation, while increasing the accuracy of the results.
Prehistoric Principles of Labor Organization in the Moche Valley, Peru
Authors: Moseley M. Edward
Published: April 2006

Prehistoric construction projects in the Moche Valley required the mobilization and coordination of very large numbers of individuals. It is thought that workers were mobilized by means of labor tax obligations, and large projects were subdivided into repetitive tasks executed by distinct parties of workmen drawn from separate communities.
X-Ray Diffractometer Investigations of Bones from Domestic and Wild Animals
Authors: Østergård Morten
Published: April 2006

It is shown that by means of an X-ray diffractometer that in bone diaphyses of dog (Canis familiaris L.), wolf (Canis lupus L.), ox (Bos taurus L.), aurochs (Bos primigenius Boj.), domestic pig (Sus domesticus L.), and wild boar (Sus scrofa L.), the hydroxyapatite crystals are in all probability oriented with the basal pinacoid (002) at right angles to the long axes of the bones, although in some areas of the distal epihyses they parallel the long axes of the bones. No difference is found in the orientation of the crystals either between domestic and wild animals or between carnivores, ruminants and omnivores.
A Supposed Fluted Point from Fort Rock Cave, an Error of Identification, and Its Consequences
Authors: Fagan John L.
Published: April 2006

The erroneous identification of a fluted projectile point associated with the earliest radiocarbon date at Fort Rock Cave is noted. Contrary to what has been stated in the literature, no fluted or Folsom-like projectile points have been found associated with early radiocarbon dates at Fort Rock Cave.
Location Analysis of Prehistoric Maya Sites in Northern British Honduras
Authors: Green Ernestene L.
Published: April 2006

This paper examines the spatial distribution of prehistoric Maya sites in Corozal District, northern British Honduras (Belize). Central to the analysis is the proposition that sites were located so as to minimize the effort expended in acquiring critical resources. The method is to isolate characteristics of the environment and to test their correlation with settlement distribution. The analysis includes both bivariate and multivariate tests. By using both kinds of tests, it is possible to suggest not only which characteristics were relevant to the selection of a location for settlement but also the relative importance of these characteristics. The analysis indicates that variables of soil, vegetation, and distance from navigable water are significantly associated with settlement. Also, the analysis brings out the phenomenon of settlement clusterings as it occurs in this region.
The 12 Mile Creek Site: A Reinvestigation
Authors: Rogers Richard A. , Martin Larry D.
Published: April 2006

The 12 Mile Creek site in western Kansas was the first site yielding a fluted projectile point to be excavated in North America by scientific personnel. The Bison from this kill site were used in forming the original concept of B. occidentalis. A new study of the site including radiocarbon dates and a pollen analysis suggests the kill took place in a pine parkland about 10,300 years ago. The artifact from this site reported by Williston seems to be a Clovis projectile point.
Archaeological Uses of Microcomputers with “Off the Rack” Software
Authors: O'Neil Dennis H.
Published: April 2006

Microcomputers are proposed as relatively inexpensive, portable substitutes for mainframe computers in processing archaeological data. Five types of software packages and an economical hardware system are described. These can facilitate cataloging and sorting data, create two-dimensional tables and graphs, carry out statistical tests, and do word processing.
Supposed Solar Alignments at Poverty Point
Authors: Purrington Robert D.
Published: April 2006

The suggestion of Brecher and Haag that the Poverty Point, Louisiana, earthwork structure possesses solar alignments is shown to be incorrect. The existence of other astronomical markers is problematical.
Astronomical Alignments at Poverty Point
Authors: Brecher Kenneth , Haag William G.
Published: April 2006

We reiterate our previous suggestion that the Poverty Point earthwork possesses solar and possibly other stellar alignments.
Toward a More Behavioral Approach to Archaeological Lithic Concentrations
Authors: Odell George Hamley
Published: April 2006

The argument is presented here that lithic artifact assemblages can be made to yield considerable information on prehistoric behavior patterns, often despite a lack of associated organic material. To illustrate this point, an example has been taken from the Mesolithic settlement of Bergumermeer in the northern Netherlands, from which only prehistoric ground features, stone, and small bits of carbonized remains have been preserved. Proceeding from a functional use-wear analysis of the collection, a four-stage analytical procedure was instituted, employing ethnographically derived models of seasonality, expected resource exploitation, and hunter-gatherer population parameters. This structure enabled the author to provide estimates of several aspects of the prehistoric behavior of the Mesolithic group, including activities, methods of tool prehension, tool use-life and discard rate, number of animals exploited, population of the settlement, and minimum duration of occupation.
Re-Evaluation of the First Radiocarbon Age for the Folsom Culture
Authors: Holliday Vance T. , Johnson Eileen
Published: April 2006

Charred remains of Bison antiquus recovered in 1950 from lacustrine sediments at the Lubbock Lake archaeological site (Southern High Plains of Texas) yielded a radiocarbon age of 9,883 ± 350 years B.P. (C-558). The bone was believed to be from the Folsom occupation of the site and the date was considered to be the first for the Folsom culture in North America. Although the feature that contained the bone was correlated with bone beds that contained Folsom points found elsewhere at the site, the dated feature did not contain diagnostic artifacts and direct correlations with the Folsom features were not possible. Excavations at the site since 1973 provide data that demonstrate that the feature that produced the historic date is stratigraphically above the Folsom horizon. Sediment samples taken from the feature have yielded radiocarbon ages of 8,585 ± 145 years B.P. (SI-5499) and 8,130 ± 80 years B.P. (SMU-1089). These ages further demonstrate that the feature is from a post-Folsom occupation, and probably represents the Firstview occupation of the site. The Lindenmeier site, Colorado, probably produced the first radiocarbon age for the Folsom culture.
A Note on Frequencies, Proportions and Diversity: A Response to Cannon
Authors: Rosen Steven A.
Published: April 2006

In a recent article based on ethnoarchaeological research in Mesoamerica, Cannon has suggested that presence/absence statistics are generally preferable to percentage statistics. The case presented is weak, and seems only to reflect a specific instance rather than a general rule.
On the Misuse of Projectile Point Typology in Mesoamerica
Authors: Hester Thomas R.
Published: April 2006

Comments are offered on the inappropriate use of Texas-derived projectile point typology at certain Mesoamerican sites. Moholy-Nagy et al. (1984) recently applied labels to point groups from the Maya site of Tikal that are misleading in terms of the original type descriptions. Similar misuse of the Texas typology in central Mexico and in the Tehuacan Valley is noted.
On Carrasco's Use of Theoretical “First Principles”
Authors: Offner Jerome A.
Published: April 2006

Due to excessive adherence to theoretical "first principles" and consequent erroneous superficial textual analyses, Carrasco overstates political control over land and labor and understates the importance of marketing and forces of supply and demand in Aztec economies. The lack of evidence for price regulation and for the enforcement of sumptuary laws is exposed, while other evidence which indicates that the Texcocan (and other) tribute systems depended in many ways on Mesoamerican marketing systems is pointed out. The inadequacies in Carrasco's comments on the scale of Texcocan tribute income are evaluated along with the lack of diachronic depth in his analyses.
Middle-Range Theory in Archaeology: A Critical Review of Origins and Applications
Authors: Raab L. Mark , Goodyear Albert C.
Published: April 2006

The concept of middle-range theory, arising over three decades ago in sociology, is reviewed. The concept was proposed as an approach to theorizing, urging consolidation of high-order theories with low-order empirical studies. The critical elements in such hierarchies are theories of a middle-range of abstraction. However, most current conceptions of “middle-range theory” in archaeology are far more narrowly conceived. Derived primarily from Binford's work, they continue the New Archaeology's attempt to develop a materialist epistemology for archaeology. In this view, principles of site formation processes are nearly synonymous with “middle-range theory.” The dangers to theory-building of this approach are outlined. Examples of middle-range theory that expand our capacity for explanation of cultural behavior are presented.
Evidence for Aboriginal Tobaccos in Eastern North America
Authors: Haberman Thomas W.
Published: April 2006

SEM micrographs of seeds from four tobaccos historically cultivated by aboriginal groups in the Eastern Woodlands and adjacent Great Plains of North America are presented. The tobaccos considered are Nicotiana rustica L., N. attenuata Torr., N. bigelovii var. quadrivalvis (Pursh) East, and N. bigelovii var. multivalvis (Lindley) East. Micrographs of seeds from herbarium collections are compared with micrographs of carbonized tobacco seeds from the Extended Middle Missouri component at the Travis I site, and tobacco is reported from the Dirt Lodge Village site, both in South Dakota. The archaeological specimens compare most favorably with N. bigelovii var. quadrivalvis (Pursh) East, the tobacco historically cultivated by the Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa. These results strengthen the evidence for trade contacts and cultural interaction by Middle Missouri tradition populations with groups to the west and provide new data on the temporal perspective for the cultivation of N. bigelovii var. quadrivalvis (Pursh) East in the Middle Missouri subarea.
Heuristic Approaches to Spatial Analysis in Archaeology
Authors: Kintigh Keith W. , Ammerman Albert J.
Published: April 2006

This article discusses an approach to spatial analysis which is more closely tailored to archaeological objectives and archaeological data than are more "traditional" quantitative techniques such as nearest neighbor analysis. Heuristic methods, methods which make use of the problem context and which are guided in part by intuitively derived "rules," are discussed in general and with reference to the problem of spatial analysis in archaeology. A preliminary implementation of such a method is described and applied to artificial settlement data and artifact distributions from the Magdalenian camp of Pincevent. Finally, the prospects for further development of heuristic methods are elaborated.
Plant Preservation and the Content of Paleobotanical Samples: A Case Study
Authors: Hally David J.
Published: April 2006

Paleobotanical samples recovered from the floors of three domestic structures at an early historic (A.D. 1550-1700) site in northwestern Georgia are here compared. Several factors-excavation procedures, duration of structure occupancy, functional nature of structures, nature and timing of structure abandonment-which probably contributed to inter-sample variability are discussed. Consideration of the frequency of individual plant species in the samples and of the ethnohistorical evidence for aboriginal plant processing leads to the conclusion that most variability can be attributed to whether or not structures burned and when during the year burning occurred. The analysis demonstrates that the manner in which plant parts become carbonized has a major impact on the accuracy with which paleobotanical remains reflect actual plant utilization.
Rethinking Ramón: A Comment on Reina and Hill's Lowland Maya Subsistence
Authors: Miksicek Charles H. , Elsesser Kathryn J. , Wuebber Ingrid A. , Bruhns Karen Olsen , Hammond Norman
Published: April 2006

A recent identification of ramon in Miranda's sixteenth-century relacion of Alta Verapaz more likely describes achiote. There is very little archaeological evidence to suggest that ramon was more than a famine food in ancient Maya times.
Archaeology and the Image of the American Indian
Authors: Trigger Bruce G.
Published: April 2006

Archaeologists have treated American native peoples in a detached and somewhat pejorative fashion. In an attempt to explain this treatment, the development of American archaeology is examined in relation to changing views of native peoples that archaeologists have held. In the nineteenth century, native peoples were regarded as unprogressive savages, a view reflected in the "Mound Builder" myth, which held that the spectacular earthworks which were then the object of considerable antiquarian interest were the work of non-Indians. In the first half of the twentieth century, given a declining interest in the functional interpretation of archaeological data and a loosening of ties with ethnography, there was even less concern with native peoples. The New Archaeology continues to treat native peoples as objects rather than subjects of research. It is suggested that greater concern with Indian and Eskimo history might help to correct this.
Middle Prehistoric Period Adaptations and Paleoenvironment in the Northwestern Plains: The Sun River Site
Authors: Greiser Sally T. , Greiser T. Weber , Vetter Susan M.
Published: April 2006

The Sun River site (24CA74) near Great Falls, Montana, is significant because the six occupation levels span the millennia of notable climatic change from late Altithermal to Medithermal conditions. Informative paleoenvironmental data enhance the archaeological results. Sun River provides an important means for understanding prehistoric adaptations on the Northwestern Plains between 5200 and 3600 B.P.
Some Continuing Problems in New World Culture History
Authors: Willey Gordon R.
Published: April 2006

To aid in the celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Society for American Archaeology and its journal,American Antiquity, I was invited to address myself to “Unsolved Problems in New World Culture History.” I have agreed to do this, but, with the editor's indulgence, I would like to rephrase the title as I have, for I think that the word “continuing” more accurately captures the sense of the situation and where our interests lie. As all of us are aware, there are many unsolved problems in Precolumbian culture history—“more holes than cheese,” as the saying goes—but I think I should take a look at some of those with which we are most familiar.
A Column-Wise Approach to Seriation
Authors: Ester Michael
Published: April 2006

This paper presents a method called column-wise seriation, which is founded on inherent properties of the sequencing problem. Although nearly all previous approaches have focused on the permutation of units, hypothetical examples illustrate that certain relationships between types must likewise exist to achieve an ideal arrangement. Further examination and exploitation of these relationships furnish a new perspective on the seriation process, and lead to a strategy which is simple in concept and practice. A computer implementation of column-wise seriation is applied to archaeological data.
Some Problems in Applying Hodder's Hypothesis
Authors: Davis Dave D.
Published: April 2006

Difficulties encountered in attempting to apply Hodder's hypothesis about social boundary signalling in periods of resource competition indicate a potentially fertile area for the development of "middle range theory," Problems in defining critical tests are indicated.
A Lunar-Solar Year Calendar Stick from North America
Authors: Marshack Alexander
Published: April 2006

The microscopic and sequential analysis of an early nineteenth-century American Indian calendar stick documents the notation of a precise, non-arithmetic, observational lunar year of twelve months with the evidence for added, subsidiary months suggesting the use of a thirteenth intercalary month every three years to bring the calendar into phase with the solar tropical year. The calendar stick is the most complex astronomical-calendric, problem-solving device known from the Americas outside of the high Mesoamerican and Andean Civilizations, but it is not derived from these late traditions. The analysis suggests the presence of an underlying observational conceptual base that may have come into the Americas from Asia.
Culture and Cultural Behavior: One More Time, Please
Authors: Cordell Linda S. , Upham Steadman
Published: April 2006

The comments by Reid and others demonstrate a continued failure to distinguish problems of a general theoretical nature from those concerns relating to specific interpretations of southwestern prehistory. We separate these issues here. We also suggest that confusion arises because there are important philosophical differences between our approaches.
Comments on the Report of a Worked Mammoth Tusk from the Clovis Site
Authors: Green F. E.
Published: April 2006

A section of worked mammoth tusk reported to have been recovered but unrecognized as an artifact in January 1964 was actually discovered in November 1963 and recognized by several people at that time. The provenience for the tusk segment is given as unit B, which is declared to be pre-Clovis in age and more than 12,000 years old. The postulated translocation of the tusk, as well as other faunal remains and Clovis artifacts, is attributed to the influence of spring discharge and saturation of sediments. My salvage excavations in December 1963 and January 1964 are outlined, and my conclusions are not compatible with the concept of large-scale intrusion of artifacts and bones. The stratum designated as unit B in the north bank is entirely of Clovis age, and the mammoth-tusk artifact was coeval with its enclosing sediments.
Reply to F. E. Green's Comments on the Clovis Site
Authors: Haynes C. Vance , Saunders Jeffrey J. , Stanford Dennis , Agogino George A.
Published: April 2006

F. E. Green has corrected errors regarding the provenience and prior determination of the artifactual nature of the ivory semifabricate reported by Saunders et al. (1990) and has brought forth new information regarding the spring deposits of the north bank of the gravel pit at the Clovis site. This statement addresses the contemporaneity of Clovis occupation with deposition of the gray sand and the relation of the gray sand to spring deposits. We offer it in expectation that a better understanding of north-bank stratigraphy and geochronology might result regardless of which of two views of the archaeology of the gray sand eventually prevails.
Contextual and Nutritional Analysis of Freshwater Gastropods from Middle Archaic Deposits at the Hayes Site, Middle Tennessee
Authors: Klippel Walter E. , Morey Darcy F.
Published: April 2006

The role of shellfish in the diet of hunter-gatherers in North America is poorly understood. Specifically, the interpretation of freshwater gastropods from archaeological sites as food remains has been a subject of professional debate. Data from the Hayes site (40ML139), a stratified Archaic midden on the Duck River in Tennessee, suggest that freshwater gastropods were procured in considerable quantities and utilized as a food resource. Evidence supporting this interpretation includes (1) quantities of gastropods in the midden, (2) stratigraphic relationship between shell-bearing strata and shell-free strata, and (3) pH analysis of associated sediments. Although gastropods provide relatively little meat and are a poor source of food energy compared to other animal species such as deer, they contain relatively high concentrations of several important vitamins and minerals. Thus, their primary value may have been nutrient content rather than food energy. This consideration, coupled with seasonal variation in their availability, suggests summer and/or fall as most likely periods of gastropod procurement.
Basketmaker II Subsistence: Carbon Isotopes and Other Dietary Indicators from Cedar Mesa, Utah
Authors: Matson R. G. , Chisholm Brian
Published: April 2006

Four separate lines of evidence show that the Cedar Mesa Basketmaker II were dependent on maize horticulture: the settlement pattern of the mesa-top Basketmaker II; stable carbon-isotope analysis of Basketmaker and other skeletal remains from the Cedar Mesa area; and two different analyses of coprolites and midden constituents from the Turkey Pen Cave site (a Basketmaker II site in Grand Gulch, which drains parts of Cedar Mesa). All of these analyses concur with a dependence on maize horticulture for the Cedar Mesa Basketmaker II, a dependence not differing significantly from later Pueblo inhabitants of Cedar Mesa and elsewhere. Whether other Basketmaker II variants were as reliant on maize is uncertain, but there are good indications that at least some, and probably all, were. By 2,000 years ago the Basketmaker II peoples on Cedar Mesa were not modified hunters and gatherers, but relied on maize.
A Phonetic Version of the Maya Glyph for North
Authors: Closs Michael P.
Published: April 2006

The symbolic variant of the Maya glyph for north is claimed to be a phonetic construction xa-ma-n(a) generating the Yucatec term xaman, "north." The reading supports the notion that Maya directional symbolism was related to the horizon and disagrees with recent revisionist theory that such symbolism was related to the path of the sun across the sky and through the underworld.
The Penis-Headed Manikin Glyph
Authors: Closs Michael P.
Published: April 2006

One of the most exotic Maya glyphs consists of a seated figure having a head that appears to be a penis. This paper argues that the head is indeed a penis and provides an interpretation and a linguistic decipherment for the glyph. The glyph can be read as xib'ah "underworld lord" (Cholan) or xib'alb'a "underworld, underworld lord" (Yucatec). It is an epithet for a major Maya deity who was both god of Venus and Lord of the Underworld. In one case, it is used as a place name for the underworld. The paper also presents a rationale for the unusual graphic form of the glyph based on ethnohistoric documentation.