bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Glass Ceilings and Glass Escalators
Authors: MAUME DAVID J.
Published: March 2007

Many have researched the effect of occupational segregation on race and gender gaps in pay, but few have examined segregation's impact on promotions. This article uses the Panel Study of Income Dynamics to examine the effect of race and gender composition in the origin occupation on movement to a managerial position. Findings show that for men, percentage of women in the origin occupation positively affected the chances of men moving to a supervisory position and that Blacks were less likely than Whites to be promoted. For women, percentage of women and percentage of Blacks in the origin occupation significantly decreased chances of women attaining a management position. Subsequent analyses showed that Black men, Black women, and White women waited longer than did White men for the managerial promotions they received. The findings suggest the impact of a “glass escalator” for White men, a “glass ceiling” for others, and contradict the notion of a “declining significance of race.”
Variability of Carbon and Glass Fibers, and the Strength of Aligned Composites
Authors: Manders Peter W. , Chou Tsu-Wei
Published: March 2007

The strength and variability of carbon and glass fibers have been estimated in several ways from tests on single fibers and loose bundles of fibers. These tests involved analyzing the variation of strength with the length of the fibers, the distribution of strengths, multiple fractures of a single fiber, and the shape of the stress/strain curve for a loose bundle. The procedures based on loose bundle tests are considerably easier to perform and provide very similar results. Tows of the same batches of fibers were impregnated with epoxy resin and the tensile strengths of the resulting composites were found to be approximately 2.5 times higher than those of the equivalent loose bundles. A rule-of-mixtures approach is unable to account for this ratio, but two- and three- dimensional probabilistic models provide good predictions of the relative strengths.
Stress Distribution of Aligned Short-Fiber Composites Under Axial Load
Authors: Sun C.T. , Wu J.K.
Published: March 2007

The objective of this paper is to investigate the normal and interfacial shear stress distribution of short-fiber composites under a force either parallel to the fiber or mak ing some angle with the fiber. Different geometrical shapes of fiber end were taken into account. The geometrical shapes under investigations were: rectangular, semi-circular, V-shaped and wedge-shaped respectively.

Analytical solutions of this problem were achieved by using finite-element numerical scheme. For the cases when the applied load is parallel to the fiber, very small triangular constant strain elements were used near the fiber tip and rectangular elements were used throughout the rest of the region. For the cases of off-axis loading parabolic-isoparametric elements were used throughout the entire domain. Depending upon the fiber volume fractions and fiber end geometry, the total time of calculation for each case is around 18 seconds.

Numerical results of normalized normal stress σf and shear stress τ were plotted as a function of the coordinate along the fiber direction. It was observed that, the distribu tions of σ f and τ were in good agreement with existing results obtained experimentally by using photoelasticity method. It was also observed that shear stress concentration is very high near the fiber tip. This phenomenon is particularly true for wedge and V-shaped fiber ends.

A possible application of this investigation is to optimize internal damping of short- fiber composites by properly adjusting fiber end geometry. It is believed that the presence of high shear stress concentration at numerous fiber ends in short-fiber com posites will transfer to the viscoelastic matrix. The viscoelastic matrix will then dissipate energy and thus improve internal damping of the composites.
A Micromechanics Analysis of the Influence of the Interface on the Performance of Polymer-Matrix Composites
Authors: Adams Donald F.
Published: March 2007

A specially developed two-dimensional finite element micromechanics analysis was used to predict the transverse tensile response of three different carbon fiber-reinforced, polymer matrix unidirectional composites. Experimental data were available for four dif ferent fiber sizings. The composites were tested both dry and moisture-conditioned, at room and elevated temperatures. Analytical/experimental correlations are presented and discussed.
Fracture Behaviour of Carbon/Epoxy Composites with Damage Consideration
Authors: Chow C.L. , Xian X.J.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents an investigation of the effects of test specimen geometries and load ing conditions of different stacking sequences on the fracture behaviour of carbon/epoxy laminates with damage consideration. The specimen geometries chosen are single edge notched (SEN), double edge notched (DEN), centre notched (CN), three point bending (TPB) and compact tension (CT) specimen while the stacking sequences are [0] s, [0/90] s, [03/902]s, [90/0/±45]s, [±45], and [90]s. The development of damage within the test pieces were monitored using acoustic emission, COD measurement, optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). These experimental methods are shown to be capable of assessing the development of damage and characterizing fracture behaviour of carbon/epoxy composites under consideration.
Micromechanics Prediction of Fatigue Failure of Composite Materials
Authors: Aboudi Jacob
Published: March 2007

A micromechanics theory is proposed for the prediction of the fatigue failure of unidi rectional composites and laminates under any loading system. The method is based on micro-failure criteria which are applied separately on the fiber and matrix regions. The resulting failure stresses of the composite depend explicitly on the elastic constants of the phases and the reinforcement volume ratio. Comparisons between the theoretical fatigue failure diagrams and experimental results are given for unidirectional composites and angle-ply laminates.
Adaptive Process Control for Injection Molding
Authors: Nunn Robert E. , Grolman Cory P.
Published: March 2007

In recent years, process controls for injection molding have developed from simple open-loop systems to more sophisticated closed-loop systems that provide im proved quality of molded product, and greater productivity. In particular, closed-loop con trol of the injection step, involving closed loop-control of injection velocity during cavity filling, switch-over by pressure detection, and closed-loop control of the holding pressure, is a widely accepted methodology for maintaining high product quality.
Optimal Use of Adhesive Layers in Reducing Impact Damage in Composite Laminates
Authors: Rechak S. , Sun C.T.
Published: March 2007

Impact experiments were conducted on a group of cross-ply graphite/ epoxy laminates with and without adhesive layers. Impact-damage modes were examined by sectioning the impacted specimens and examining the sections with optical microscope. The effectiveness of using adhesive layers to suppress impact-induced delamination was investigated. It was found that the presence of adhesive layers could toughen the interface between two laminas and also reduce matrix cracking. A guide to optimal use of adhesive layers for improving impact resistance properties was proposed.
Computational Simulation of the Creep-Rupture Process in Filamentary Composite Materials
Authors: Slattery Kerry T. , Hackett Robert M.
Published: March 2007

A computational simulation of the internal damage accumulation which causes the creep-rupture phenomenon in filamentary composite materials is developed. The creep-rupture process involves complex interactions between several damage mechanisms. A statistically-based computational simulation using a time-differencing ap proach is employed to model these progressive interactions. The finite element method is used to calculate the internal stresses. The fibers are modeled as a series of bar elements which are connected transversely by matrix elements. Flaws are distributed randomly throughout the elements in the model. Load is applied, and the properties of the individual elements are updated at the end of each time step as a function of the stress history. The simulation is continued until failure occurs. Several cases, with different initial flaw dis persions, are run to establish a statistical distribution of the time-to-failure. The calcula tions are performed on a supercomputer. The simulation results compare favorably with the results of creep-rupture experiments conducted at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
The Elastic Modulus of the Mesophase as Defined by Diffusion Processes
Authors: Theocaris Pericles S.
Published: March 2007

Recent progress in the science of composite materials has resulted in the introduction of multiphase composites, in which the reinforcement may be an inorganic material, metal, carbon (or any other substance) and the matrix, a high-strength polymer. For better adhesion of the main phases a polymeric encapsulation of the filler is used, which may be considered as a third intermediate pseudophase. On the other hand, metallic-metallic composites, as well as polymer-polymer composites develop between phases an intermediate pseudophase due to diffusion. In most of the interfaces in these composites the penetration of one phase into its neighbour phase is a two-way process. This is mainly due to diffusion, combined with adsorption and other types of interpenetra tion.
A Model for Predicting the Residual Strength of GFRP Laminates Subject to Ballistic Impact
Authors: Jenq S.T. , Wang S.B. , Sheu L.T.
Published: March 2007

This work is concerned with the tensile residual strength of s-glass/epoxy (Fiberite, Hy-E 9134B) laminates subject to ballistic impact. A total of twenty-four tests are conducted in order to study the impact residual strength of a specimen struck by a nor mal incident foreign object. Depending upon the post impact behavior, a high speed fram ing camera and a set of silver short-screens are used to measure, respectively, the projec tile's rebound and post-perforation terminal velocities. A target's impact residual strength is determined using an MTS tester. A model is proposed here in order to predict the tensile residual strength of the GFRP specimens. This model is based on a combination of the target's residual strength and the kinetic energy transferred to it by the penetrator. Results calculated from this modified model are compared with test findings. The impact residual strength results predicted by the current model more closely resemble the test results than those predicted by Caprino's model. In addition, the relationship between the initial im pact and projectile terminal momentum is also reported.
Creep Characterization of a Fiber Reinforced Plastic Material
Authors: Zhang S.Y. , Xiang X.Y.
Published: March 2007

Creep behavior of [±45°]s composite material is characterized by using uniaxial creep and recovery tests. The well-known Schapery nonlinear viscoelastic consti tutive relation was modified to make it suitable for characterizing the creep behavior of this material. Then, using this modified Schapery constitutive equation, by which the vis coplastic and creep damage can be taken into consideration, the creep behavior of [±45°]. glass fiber reinforced epoxy laminate was studied. The constitutive parameters of the material were determined experimentally, and the procedure and method of determination of the material parameters are proved to be valid.
An Approach to Guided Wave Mode Selection for Inspection of Laminated Plate
Authors: Rose J.L. , Pilarski A. , Ditri J.J.
Published: March 2007

Overall philosophy of composite material inspection is discussed with a sample problem presentation to illustrate the utility of guided wave analysis and the use of field distributions across the thickness of a specimen to predict its sensitivity to specific anomalies in the material. Guided Lamb-type waves in a three-layered laminated compos ite plate with different anomaly content is studied in this article. Our work is focused pri marily on the detection of interlaminar bond layer imperfections and cracks normal to the interfaces. A Lamb wave mode selection criteria is discussed with respect to defect sen sitivity analysis. Selection of appropriate modes and frequencies is suggested by an ap proach based on an analysis of the modal displacement and power distribution across the multilayered structure as opposed to the previously utilized approach based on a numerical analysis of the dispersion relations for different boundary conditions and effective material properties.
Fine Celled CFC-Free Rigid Foam - New Machinery with Low Boiling Blowing Agents
Authors: Grunbauer H.J.M. , Broos J.A.F. , Thoen J.A. , Smits G.F. , Lehnert A.B. , Hoenke M.S.
Published: March 2007

This article describes newly developed high pressure dispensing and nucleating equipment, which is designed for making fine cell foams using soluble low- boiling blowing agents (LBBA) and sparingly soluble nucleating gases, such as N2 and no ble gases. The underlying concepts for handling, processing and metering of LBBAs have been developed from a systematic investigation of LBBA solubilities in polyols, using modelling as well as experimental measurements. In addition to the usual dispensing func tion, the equipment incorporates facilities for LBBA loading and for quantitative deter mination of dissolved and dispersed gaseous LBBA. The commercial viability of these features, under conditions simulating global industrial practice, is exemplified by present ing properties of fine-cell foams produced by using HFC-134a and HCFC-22/142b blends, in combination with tailor-made polyols, isocyanates and formulation additives.
High-Pressure/High-Temperature Dilatometry of SMC Low Profile Additives
Authors: Kia Hamid G. , Viscomi Paul V.
Published: March 2007

A high-pressure/high-temperature volumetric dilatometer has been designed and constructed. This equipment can be operated at temperatures as high as 250°C and pressures as high as 14 MPa. The sample chamber of this unit is composed of two concentric, double wall, stainless steel cylinders with ceramic and epoxy attachments and two thermocouples. The test sample is placed in the cavity between the two cylinders, and hence a very rapid and efficient heat transfer is achieved. The volume changes of the sample during the experiement are monitored by recording voltage changes caused by vari ations in the resistance of a circuit of the graphite rod in the pool of mercury. Using SMC paste samples, it has been demonstrated that the role of low profile additive is not affected by the maturation viscosity of the paste. Also, it was observed that the onset of volume ex pansion caused by the low profile additive occurs at about 110°C, whereas, the onset of the volume shrinkage due to chemical reaction does not coincide with this point and occurs at 135°C. This observation explains why, in general there is a major volume expansion and shrinkage associated with the cure of SMC.
Fatigue Behavior of Composites with Foamed Matrix
Authors: Kurek Krzysztof , Bledzki Andrzej K.
Published: March 2007

Fiber reinforced epoxy foams laminates are a new group of fiber compos ite materials. The microporous structure of these fiber composites is achieved by adding siloxanes as an expanding agent during the hardening reaction with amino-hardeners. Hydrogen released during the cross-linking reaction expands the polymer matrix.

Fiber reinforced epoxy foams laminates have already found widespread industrial use. A foam system with glass fiber reinforcement was used in the production of the first load- bearing primary structures of fiber reinforced thermosets. The underbody of the Z1 model of BMW exhibts a high degree of inherent stiffness and strength. Fiber reinforced epoxy foams systems have also become successfully established in sports and in the electrical and building industries.

Epoxy foams reinforced with glass and carbon fibers were selected for mechanical and microscopic tests. Given a micropore content of 27.4 vol. %, densities of 1.4 g/cm 3 were achieved with glass fiber fabric reinforced epoxy foams with a glass fiber content of 42 vol. %. Carbon fiber fabric epoxy foams exhibit the following values: density of 1.25 g/cm3 with a carbon fiber content of 50 vol. % and micropore content of 15 vol. %.

The dynamic increasing load tests showed that the damping progress of glass fiber rein forced epoxy foams laminates does not depend on the micropore content. The damping progress by carbon fiber reinforced epoxy foams laminates is largely independent of the micropore content, the stresses at break diminish with increasing micropore content. The Wöhler fatigue tests on glass fiber fabric reinforced epoxy foams laminates with different micropore content produced similar Wöhler curves, which are relatively close together. In view of the initial results it can be assumed that the structure of the fiber reinforced epoxy foams laminates can favourably influence the dynamic characteristics of these com posite materials. There is evidence that the porous structure which is developed during the expansion of epoxy resin can restrict the crack progression. The crack progression de pends on the size and distribution of the micropores in the resin matrix. This means that the dynamic behavior of completely pore-free laminates need not always be linked to the better dynamic behavior of such materials.
A Needs Assessment of Elderly Hispanics in an Inner City Senior Citizen Complex: Implications for Practice
Authors: Garcia Juanita L.
Published: March 2007

In an effort to provide better services to a specific ethnic population, a study was undertaken to determine the needs of elderly Hispanics in the Tampa Bay area. Items of inquiry included perceived needs, awareness/knowledge of community services, and extent to which the community is meeting their needs. A questionnaire was developed by a bilingual team and administered in Spanish to 45 elderly residents (62-85 years of age) of an inner city retirement facility in a predominantly Hispanic neighborhood. The results show service gaps in the areas of health, finance and specific tasks of daily living. The majority of respondents were unaware of most community resources and many were reluctant to use any services because of "pride, " communication difficulties and the fear of being poorly received. The problem areas are discussed and recommendations made vis-à-vis assessment of ethnic groups and service delivery to such diverse populations.
Adults' Metacognitive Ability: An Examination of the Age-Deficient Hypothesis
Authors: McCallum R. Steve , McKinney Warren , Gilmore Allison C. , Ledford Terry
Published: March 2007

A self-regulatory/recall task and a self-report questionnaire became operationally defined measures of metacognition, and dependent variables for an analysis designed to determine metacognitive functioning across age. Participants were 135 teachers-in-training and 21 retired teachers. All were exposed to a transfer propaganda lesson presented via the Merrill-Tennyson model. The elderly retired teachers performed less well on a concept mastery test after exposure to the lesson; also, their metacognitive ability was determined to be less effective. These results are consistent with much of the literature describing global and/or "meta" deficits among the elderly.
Home Satisfaction: Related Health and Psychosocial Variables
Authors: Klein Helen Altman
Published: March 2007

In later life, the home plays an increasing role as a site for leisure activities, social interaction, and personal growth. This research examined variables that were hypothesized to relate to home satisfaction for older adults. Home satisfaction was also compared to life satisfaction. Sixty-four older adults provided information on home satisfaction; health capacity; the psychosocial variables of self-esteem, locus of control, and social support; and life satisfaction. Home satisfaction was best predicted by health and by self-esteem In contrast, life satisfaction was best predicted by the three psychosocial variables. The outcomes of this research suggested the usefulness of a goodness-of-fit model for understanding and augmenting home satisfaction in later life.
Compliance With Recommendations From an Outpatient Geriatric Consultation Team
Authors: Weinberger Morris , Samsa Gregory P. , Schmader Kenneth , Greenberg Stanley M. , Carr David B. , Wildman Diane S.
Published: March 2007

For outpatient geriatric consultation to be effective, it is necessary, although not sufficient, that recommendations made to patients are followed. This prospective cohort study describes the nature of, types of, and compliance with, recommendations made to patients by clinicians at a university-based outpatient geriatric clinic. All patients seen by an internal medicine physician or family practitioner were contacted 1 year following their initial visit to determine compliance with recommendations. Clinicians identified 4.6 problems per patient; more than one half had never been documented previously. The most common problems were medical (53.1%) and neuropsychiatric (26.7%). Pahents had substantial limitations in both instrumental (X = 2.3) and physical (X = 1.3) activities of daily living. Clinicians made 5.9 recommendations per patient, 67.1% of which were followed. Compliance was similar for medical and social recommendations. No predictors of compliance were identified. Practitioners need to be aware that one third of their recommendations are not followed, and characterizing patients at increased risk for noncompliance is difficult.
Finding Satisfaction in Adult Day Care: Analysis of a National Demonstration of Dementia Care and Respite Services
Authors: Henry Mary Ellen , Capitman John A.
Published: March 2007

The effects of adult day care (ADC) operational choices on the satisfaction of informal caregivers were examined for 312 pairs of caregivers and care receivers from 10 case study sites that participated in the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation's national demonstration of Dementia Care and Respite Services. Cognitive, behavioral, and affective components of satisfaction were examined. Satisfaction was represented by measures of perceived affordability, length of stay, intensity of use, and caregiver well-being. Multivariate analyses indicated that controlling for other factors, program operational choices about nursing approaches, respite services, and activities programming had direct and interactive effects on satisfaction. The study concluded that dementia status is not a strong predictor of satisfaction with ADC, and the operational choices made by ADC programs can influence consumer outcomes, but no single choice accounts for all aspects of consumer satisfaction.
Nursing Staff Perceptions of Quality of Life of Cognitively Impaired Elders: Instrumental Development
Authors: DeLetter Mary C. , Tully Christine L. , Wilson John F. , Rich Eugene C.
Published: March 2007

This article describes the development and testing of the Cognitively Impaired Life Quality (CILQ) Scale to quantify differences in quality of life of severely cognitively impaired elderly patients as perceived by nursing caregivers. Two studies are reported. In study 1, focus groups with long-term care nurses were conducted using a vignette to elicit items most relevant to quality of life in cognitively impaired elders. These data were used to generate a 29-item version of the CILQ Scale. An exploratory factor analysis revealed a four-factor structure that included items related to social interaction, basic physical care, appearance of patient to others, and nutrition. In study 2, 67 nursing caregivers completed a shortened 14-item CILQ Scale using two actual patients as their reference. With these patients, the factor structure best resembled a three-factor solution including items related to social interaction, nutrition/comfort, and basic physical care.
Social Support, Household Composition, and Health Behaviors as Risk Factors for Four-Year Mortality in an Urban Elderly Cohort
Authors: Roy Ann W. , FitzGibbon Paula A. , Haug Marie M.
Published: March 2007

Predictors of mortality were examined by secondary analysis of a prospective, community-based study. In 1984, there were 805 survivors, aged 74 and over, from an original 1975 sample. Follow-up interviews were conducted with 547 of these survivors, representing a response rate of 68%. In 1988, data were collected on deaths (N = 131) that occurred during a 4-yearfollow-up period, 1984 through December 31, 1988. The relationship between social support, household composition, health behaviors, and mortality among urban elderly was examined. A 95% confidence interval (CI) was established to provide a range that would contain (95 times in 100) the true population relative risk. Results revealed that men who reported no exercise were 3.1 times (95% CI = 1.2-7.9) more likely to die than men who reported exercise. Also, elderly women who reported living with children were 2.8 times (95% CI = 1.4-5.7) more likely to die than women who did not live with their adult children.
Spotlight Interview
Authors: Anderton C. James
Published: March 2007

Some experts have many valuable thoughts to offer fellow practitioners and educators in the Criminal Justice field, but little time to sit down and put them on paper. A relatively painless method of capturing these thoughts is the interview. In an hour or so, the expert can pour out information and advice garnered through years of study and experience. Therefore, the Criminal Justice Review will from time to time interview the top experts in areas where few have the luxury of taking time away from daily operations to write articles.

As we begin our second year of publication, we are happy to present an interview with C. James Anderton, Esq., Chief Constable of the Greater Manchester Police. Chief Constable Anderton is the youngest man holding this position today in the United Kingdom. His career in the field of Criminal Justice has spanned the last 27 years. From 1950 until 1953, he served in the Corps of the Royal Military Police. From 1953 until 1967, he served as the Constable to the Chief Inspector in the Manchester City Police. From 1967 until 1968, he served as Chief Superintendent of the Cheshire Constabulary. From 1968 until 1972, he served as the Assistant Chief Constable of the Leicester and Rutland Constabulary. From 1972 until 1975, he served as Assistant to H. M. Chief Inspector of Constabulary for England and Wales, Home Office, in London. In 1975, he served as Deputy Chief Constable of the Leicestershire Constabulary. From 1975 until 1976, he served as Deputy Chief Constable of the Greater Manchester Police, before becoming Chief Constable of the Greater Manchester Police last year at the age of 44. Chief Constable Anderton is the holder of the Certificate of Distinction in Criminology, Manchester University, 1960. In 1974, he was the United Kingdom Delegate at the European Regional Meeting of the Fifth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and Treatment of Offenders at Budapest, Hungary. He is also currently a lecturer at Police College, and at Keele, Manchester and London Universities.

Chief Constable Anderson was interviewed by Dr. Kenneth V. Russell, who is at the Leicester Polytechnic School of Law in Leicester, England. The following is an edited transcript of the interview.
Police Leadership: An Analysis of Executive Styles
Authors: Kuykendall Jack L.
Published: March 2007

Managerial styles are often discussed in terms of the leadership abilities of the manager. One of the contemporary methods of determining effective leadership is the managerial grid developed by Blake and Mouton. Using a style assessment instrument based upon the managerial grid, leadership, or managerial, styles of the executives of an urban police agency are analyzed and discussed. Differences are noted between the overall primary style of the executives and their primary style in separate managerial activities. There is a tendency among the executives to move from the most desirable grid style (9/9) during the "thinking" (i.e., philosophy of management and planning and goal setting) phases of management to either task-or person-oriented (9/1 or 1/9) approaches during the "acting" phases (i.e., implementation and evaluation).
An Application of the Interorganizational Perspective to Community Based Corrections in an Urban Area
Authors: Wakefield William , Webb Vincent
Published: March 2007

Of the many problems facing anm community effective cooperation and communication between social service organizations are of prime concern. This is especially true in considering the problems involved in coordinating community based corrections efforts. This research represents an attempt to assess the extent of the Interorganizational Relations between community based correctional agencies in an urban area. By applying the Interorganizational Relations perspective frequently utilized in other social science disciplines, a better view of the role community based corrections plai' in the total framework of social services in a community may emerge.
Enforcing the Blue Laws: Police Discretion and the Rule of Law
Authors: Schubert Frank A.
Published: March 2007

The author uses the Massachusetts Sunday Closing Laws as they existed in November of 1976 as a vehicle for examining police discretion and its relationship to the rule of law.

During the 1976 Christmas season many Massachusetts retailers open/v defied the Sunday Closing Laws (Blue Laws) by opening their stores. They did so because they believed themselves to be at a significant competitive disadvantage with retailers just across the Massachusetts borders in adjacent states, who could legall/ open on Sundays. They sensed that public opinion was behind them. They also knew that a justice of the Supreme Judicial Court, while refusing to enjoin the laws' enforcement, had indicated his belief that the law was unconstitutional on its face. The governor and attorney general openlv disagreed over whether the police should enforce the law.

In the midst of this turmoil were the states' police chiefs who had to formulate local enfocement policies.

The author mailed a questionnaire to each of the Massachusetts chiefs to determine: (1) what policy they had taken towards enforcement; (2) the reason for the police response; and (3) who had communicated with the chief in the decisionmaking process. Forty-four percent of the questionnaires were returned. The results showed that chiefs experiencing violations reported exercising broad discretion and did not uniformly comp/tv with the statutory enforcement mandate. The chiefs who prosecuted violators also reported that they became involved because of their own initiatives and not because of citizen requestsfor enforcement. The results further indicated that chiefs madefew communications with non-police persons prior to making their policy decision.

The author concludes that there should be wider input into the process by which chiefs decide enforcement policy. Recommendations are also proposed by which legislatures can facilitate the structuring and control of police discretion.
The Rural County Sheriff: An Issue in Social Control
Authors: Decker Scott
Published: March 2007

The study of criminal justice in the United States has maintained a consistent urban focus. While this is to some degree understandable, valuable comparative perspectives are lost w hen rural areas are ignored. The present study attempts to lay a groundwork for the studi' of rural police. The literature that addresses the impact of communit v and political structures upon stiles of policing is reviewed. Though they are few in number, studies that have examined rural settings indicate a marked difference in the nature of police behavior. This work attempts to document that e vpectation.

This is an exploratorY studi' that wvas conducted through the use offield-research techniques. The determinants of police action were sought in a number of contexts. Both formal and informal community structures were examined to understand the motivation for police action. Like their urban counterparts, rural police patrols were observed to be primarily reactive in nature. This was due to the thorough integration of the police into the informal normative si stem. Because consensus about the tolerable limits of crime and deviance was Widespread, the sheriffs department was able to provide services largely compatible with the desires of the public. Four specific kinds of situations (trqffic offenses, drunks, domestic affairs and felonies) are presented to further illustrate this point. The behavior of rural police was most like that of urban officers in matters of less discretion felonies. The paper concludes hb, identi/fing the bulA of ruralpatrol as (consensual in nature.
Economic Conditions and Social Control: An Empirical Assessment of the Relationship between Unemployment and Incarceration in the U.S.A., 1958 to 1978
Authors: Marenin Otwin , Pisciotta Alexander W. , Juliani Tom J.
Published: March 2007

Empirical studies of the interactions between economic conditions and social control have generally found high osito e correlations between unemployment and incarceration, although theorists interpret the meaning of these relations different. This studs' examines the relationships of economy to social controlfrom 1958 to 1978 at the level of the states rather than the United States as a whole. The analysis demonstrates that the linkages betsseen unemployment and incarceration vary from state to state. Therefore, analyses which use data for the United States as a hole inside more than they reveal and cannot be generalized to less inclusive levels of analysis. In conclusion, the stVudt rec ommends that further analyses be more inclusive in their conceptualization of economi((conditions and social crlitrol and examine the operation of social control in more context specific settings.
The Police, the Prosecution, and Plea Negotiation Rates: An Exploratory Look
Authors: Anderson Allen F.
Published: March 2007

Plea negotiation has become a dominant mode of case disposition in the criminal justice system. However, the quantitative impact of the police on this process has yet to be fully understood. The present research investigates the effect of police-prosecutor "cooperation" on the bargaining decision in one state. The results indicate that as police-prosecutor cooperation increases, the propensity of the prosecutor to bargain decreases.
Criminal Justice Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States: 1988 Term
Authors: Maddex James L.
Published: March 2007

The 1988 Term of the Supreme Court of the United States ended on July 3, 1989. There were important decisions in the areas of the Fourth Amendment and the right to counsel, and there were several forays into the less clearly demarcated waters of the right to a fair trial and sentence. Two death penalty cases resumed the preceding term's consideration of capital punishment for persons under the age of 18, and another dealt with imposition of the penalty upon mentally retarded offenders. The balance of the Court's criminal justice agenda included a wide array of issues such as double jeopardy, prisoners' rights, racketeering laws, habeas corpus, civil rights actions, and the First Amendment. Some of the cases in these categories are beyond the scope of the present survey, as is the term's major abortion case, Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, 109 S.Ct. 3040 (1989), which arose in the civil context.
The Theft/Violence Ratio in Antebellum Boston
Authors: Ferdinand Theodore N.
Published: March 2007

A variety of studies have shown that the theft/violence ratio is related to urbanization in several Western societies. The explanation for this pattern has focused on the socioeconomic changes that usually accompany urban growth. This study shows that another explanation is also plausible: the peculiar nature of assaultive offenses and the reaction of early criminal courts to large numbers of such offenses suddenly flooding their dockets.
Street-Level Leadership: The Role of Patrol Officers in Community Policing
Authors: Vinzant Janet , Crothers Lane
Published: March 2007

Police departments across the United States are moving towards community policing as a means of addressing problems of crime, citizen fear, and the provision of public services in the communities they patrol. In order to achieve this new type of policing, the role of patrol officers must be re-evaluated and restructured. This article focuses on the relationship between community, policing, and discretion in presenting a model of street-level leadership that the authors developed in over 800 hours of observational research with patrol officers in two police departments. Drawing on models of both situational and transformational leadership, the model of street-level leadership offered here is shown to provide explanatory and evaluative criteria by which police departments and communities can understand what patrol officers do and how those roles can be integrated into a community policing context. Viewing patrol officers as street-level leaders may thus make it possible to design policing programs that combine community and officer actions to reduce crime, reduce citizen fear, and promote the effective provision of public services.
Communications
Authors: Winfree L. Thomas , Mays G. Larry
Published: March 2007

A communication may take one of two forms. The first relates to correspondence from a reader about an article that has appeared in the Review. In this instance the editor will determine whether the initial correspondence is worthy of publication. In the event that it is, the author of the article in question will have an opportunity to respond to the reader's comment. Both communications will appear unedited. The second type of communication relates to book reviews. It is assumed that this type of communication will be initiated by authors of books who believe that their work has been criticized unfairly. In this instance the editor will not determine whether the communication should be published. Instead, it is our intention to allow the reviewer of the book in question to respond to the author's communication and then to permit the author of the book a final rejoinder to the reviewer's communication. All of this correspondence will be published unedited. This policy is designed to ensure the essential integrity and purpose of the Review.
Type curves for estimating the potential impact of stabilized-waste disposal sites on groundwater
Authors: Guyonnet D. , Seguin J.-J. , Côme B. , Perrochet P.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents analytical solutions for estimating the potential impact of waste disposal sites (landfills) on ground water. The solutions yield estimates of the average groundwa ter concentrations in an aquifer located below the landfill, and of the pollutant flux at the interface between a mineral barrier and the aquifer. Several source boundary conditions are considered: a constant source concentration, an exponen tially decreasing source concentration, and a source concen tration that is controlled by the diffusive release of pollutants from the waste. The latter is of particular relevance to the case of stabilized-waste landfills. The solution for the case of stabilized-waste is compared to two numerical models, and developed in terms of dimensionless variables that are combi nations of the real model parameters. These variables are then used to generate type curves for estimating peak aquifer concentrations. An example application of the proposed type curves illustrates their usefulness for evaluating the perfor mance of stabilized-waste landfills, in terms of potential impact, for different landfill designs.
Fiscal Constraints, Trust, and the Need for a New Politics/Administration Dichotomy
Authors: Klay William Earle
Published: March 2007

Current personnel practices are counterproductive insofar as they engender a fear of change and align the self interest of public employees with the status quo. In moving to remedy this problem, however, we must take care not to overcompensate by losing important merit concepts such as career security which may be essential ingredients for a positive, productivity oriented, system of personnel management. Such a system, derived from both American and Japanese theory and prac tice, could involve a new dichotomy of personnel management activities between political and career executives.
Public Unions and Penalties for Striking Across the States
Authors: Straussman Jeffrey D. , Bretschneider Stuart , Rodgers Robert C.
Published: March 2007

Though the frequency of penalties imposed and carried out against striking public sector employee unions is small, this fact does not imply that the application of such strictures is haphazardly ap plied or ineffective. This article explores the relationships between the severity of a strike, the characteristics of the collective bargaining situation, and the legal environment as they influence the likelihood that striking public employee unions will be fined and eventually forced to pay the fines imposed upon them. Using data on 590 public sector strikes between 1979 and 1980, a theoretical framework was developed and tested. Among the results were:
Od Perspectives On High Performance: Some Good News and Some Bad News About Merit Pay
Authors: Golembiewski Robert T.
Published: March 2007

This article proposes to summarize experience about compensation plans and high performance, as viewed from an Organizational Development (OD) perspective. Several orienting biases provide the context for this summary, which focuses on a panoply of managerial ways to reinforce the contributions of compensation plans to achieve high performance. Four themes get special atten tion as probable reinforcers: a regenerative style of interaction; supporting cultures at work; ap propriate structures; and an overview of reinforcing sub-systems.
A Critical Review of Performance Appraisal At the Federal Level: the Experience of the Phs
Authors: McNish Linda C.
Published: March 2007

The implementation of the Civil Service Reform Act in the U. S. Public Health Service was ac complished in a timely mannner. However, there were many problems, specifically with the per formance appraisal aspects. These problems arose not only through interpretation of the Act but through frequently changing requirements and one major flaw - making basic salary dependent upon performance appraisal. This requirement led to questions of equity on ratings, work plans, and amount of merit pay. In addition to these disincentives, implementation resulted in massive paperwork and inflexibility.
Three Decades of Experience with the Equal Pay Act
Authors: Greenlaw Paul S. , Lee Robert D.
Published: March 2007

The Equal Pay Act of 1963 deserves some stock-taking after having been in operation for thirty years. The law, which requires equal pay for equal work among men and women, provides a mechanism for aggrieved workers to present prima facie cases of discrimination before courts after which accused employers have an opportunity to provide affirma tive defenses, showing that no discrimination exists. This article ecamines how courts have interpreted the Equal Pay Act and discusses the current status of the law, including areas that remain unsettled and need the attention of the Supreme Court.
Fair and Equitable Treatment
Authors: Friedman Charles E.
Published: March 2007

The federal government is the originator and enforcer of the nation's civil rights laws Therefore, it has a special responsibility to ensure that its own personnel practices provide equal employment opportunity to all job applicants and employees The U S Ment Systems Protection Board recently studied the question of how well the federal civil service is fulfilling this responsibility This article describes the MSPB's role m monitoring the health and integrity of the federal ment personnel systems, summanzes the key findings and recommendations of the board's report on minority employment, and discusses the future impact of the board's work
From Affirmative Action to Full Spectrum Diversity in the American Workplace
Authors: Slack James D.
Published: March 2007

This article addresses the need to enhance both group diversity and individualism in the workplace by shifting attention away from affirmative action principles and strategies, as they are commonly implemented, and by focusing more on securing a comprehensive, or full spectrum, diversity in the workplace To do so, an accompanying shift in organizational paradigm must also occur, from one externally-driven to one that uses internally-based incentives to accomplish full spectrum diversity A workplace strategy is constructed which attempts to (1) eliminate the perceived or actual weaknesses found currently in many affirmative action practices and (2) maintain and enhance the asset of diversity m the American workplace.
Using Performance Measurement in Human Resource Management
Authors: Berman Evan M. , West Jonathan P. , Xiaohu Wang
Published: March 2007

This article examines the use of performance measurement m human resource management Based on a survey of counties with populations over 50,000, it finds that performance measurement is widely used Many measures reflect traditional concerns with comphance, but measures are also used to assess human resource management reforms m recruitment and compensation This study also finds that mission-orientation and broad support affect the use of performance measurement m human resource management, as well as technical ability to gather such data Many efforts are relatively recent, and thus it is too early to tell whether these measures will find enduring use
The Rehabilitation Act and Federal Employment
Authors: Lee Robert D.
Published: March 2007

The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 includes Section 501 which, while not prohibiting discrimination against individu als with disabilities, calls for affirmative action in their "hiring, placement, and advancement "Now in existence for more than a quarter century, the statute has a substantial body of case law that considers how Section 501 is to be applied Particular attention has focused on plaintiffs' and the government's burdens in terms of prima facie cases, reasonable accommodation, and being "otherwise qualified" The case law has not considered affirmative action The discussion concludes by discussing options in how affirmative action might be applied in the new century for people with disabilities in federal employment
Informal Settlement Upgrading: Bridging the Gap Between the De Facto and the De Jure
Authors: van Horen Basil
Published: March 2007

In order for informal settlement upgrading to build the institutions necessary to ensure continuity of the improvement process, planners must move beyond a narrow concern with legality and illegality. Upgrading should comprise a gradation of strategies that legitimize and integrate aspects of settlements' de facto institutions into the planning process. In so doing, it is possible to contribute to legal regulatory frameworks that are more appropriate to informal settlements. This article considers planning, tenure delivery, and public participation as three aspects of a recent upgrade in South Africa, and the extent to which they bridged the gap between the de jure and de facto.
Learning Processes in Development Planning a Theoretical Overview and Case Study
Authors: Ebrahim Alnoor , Ortolano Leonard
Published: March 2007

Planners work with various kinds of organizations, sometimes to provide technical expertise and other times to facilitate communication between different organizations and interest groups. Planners are also important players in “organizational learning.” In this article, the authors describe how organizational practices change through learning. Drawing from the sociological literature on organizational behavior, the authors develop a conceptual model of organizational learning. This model is then applied to the case of a nongovernmental organization (NGO) engaged in development planning in western India. We show not only how learning processes have led to behavioral change in this NGO but also ways in which learning has been constrained.