bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
HAZARD ANALYSIS OF CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS IN THE SKYLAB FOOD SYSTEM
Authors: Bourland C. T. , Heidelbaugh N. D. , Huber C. S. , Kiser P. R. , Rowley D. B.
Published: December 2016

The Skylab Food System presented unique microbiological problems because food was warmed in null-gravity (diminished convection) and potentially diminished conduction due to poor surface contact), and because the heat source was limited to 69.4 C (to prevent boiling in null-gravity in the approximately one-third atmosphere total pressure). For these reasons, the foods were manufactured using critical control point techniques of quality control coupled with appropriate hazard analyses. One of these hazard analyses evaluated the threat from Clostridium perfringens. Samples of food were inoculated with C. perfringens and incubated for 2 h at temperatures ranging from 25 to 55 C. Generation times were determined for the foods at various temperatures. Results of these tests were evaluated taking into consideration: food-borne disease epidemiology, the Skylab food manufacturing procedures, and the performance requirements of the Skylab Food System. Based on this hazard analysis, a limit for C. perfringens of 100/g was established for Skylab foods.
EFFECTS OF RIPENESS AND POST-HARVEST TREATMENTS ON THE FIRMNESS, ACIDITY AND CANNING CHARACTERISTICS OF BABYGOLD #6 PEACHES
Authors: Boggess T. S. , Heaton E. K. , Shewfelt A. L. , Parvin D. W.
Published: December 2016

Effects of ripeness and post-harvest storage on firmness, acidity, and canning characteristics of southeastern non-melting clingstone peaches (as represented by the cultivar Babygold #6) were investigated. Best results were obtained from ripe peaches harvested at 90 to 100% ground color development and canned without further holding. Firmness values of the raw fruit increased one day after harvest but diminished steadily during 10 days storage at 24 and 1 C. Total acidity of raw peaches diminished during storage after harvest. At 24 C the rate of decrease was uniform between 3 and 14 days. However at 1 C the rate of change decreased with increased storage time. Firmness of the canned halves was influenced by ripeness and post-harvest storage. Ripe fruits, and those stored at 1 C, had lower canned product firmness values. Viscosity values of the canned peach syrup and total grade scores were markedly influenced by storage temperature and time. The reduced acidity in Babygold #6 peaches stored for more than three days and canned resulted in a low-acid food in terms of thermal processing conditions.
CHARTING A SAFENESS COURSE FOR THE FOODSERVICE INDUSTRY1
Authors: Cordell Vernon E.
Published: December 2016

The practical application of sanitation and food protection principles by foodservice operators depends on their under-standing what is necessary for achieving adequate protection of their customers and how this protection can be accomplished. The operator and, in turn, his personnel must be motivated by knowing the basic “why” for each requirement by understanding the direct relationship of the unsatisfactory procedure or condition to the possibility or likelihood of its causing illness. The foodservice operator needs practical tangible aids to guide and assist him in training, supervising, and reminding his personnel and to facilitate his initiating and carrying on an effective self-evaluation of his operation's safeness.
TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF LIQUID COMPOSTING1
Authors: Crauer Lois S. , Hoffman Bernard
Published: December 2016

As a consequence of stiffening legislation for environmental control, livestock producers are coming to realize that how they handle manure removal, drainage, and odor control (or lack thereof) is no longer their decision alone. While providing a solution to an immediate problem of odor control, the dairy farmer is beginning to become aware that in the future he may be required to produce an effluent which could be discharged to the nearest stream or lake. The De Laval Separator Company has developed a liquid composting system for deodorizing, pasteurizing, biologically decomposing, and chemically purifying dairy cow waste. The theory of liquid composting is discussed and several modes of LICOM™ System operation are described. Particular emphasis is placed on a description of a completely automated manure handling and treatment system operating at an 80-cow, free-stall dairy barn. Data covering 24 months of operation are presented.
COMPARISON OF MEDIA FOR ENUMERATING FUNGI IN PRECOOKED FROZEN CONVENIENCE FOODS
Authors: Ladiges W. C. , Foster J. F. , Jorgensen J. J.
Published: December 2016

Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) was compared to potato dextrose agar (PDA) acidified to pH 3.5 and to SDA containing 10 mg kanamycin/100 ml and chloramphenical (SDA +) in enumerating fungi from precooked frozen convenience foods. SDA yielded significantly higher fungal counts in most foods even though it allowed a high degree of bacterial growth. No significant difference was found between the fungal counts of PDA and SDA +.
PROFESSIONAL ACCOUNTABILITY IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT1
Authors: Walker Bailus
Published: December 2016

Professional accountability is an issue of high priority and great controversy in the environmental health field today. While it is an elusive concept, its terms of reference are in the broad spectrum of health, social, and economic issues either in the public or private sector. It includes a curious mixture of technical knowledge, and social and political responsibility all applied to a strategy designed to meet basic human needs and wants.
EFFECT OF TYPE OF ASSAY FLASK CLOSURE ON THE GROWTH RESPONSE OF SACCHAROMYCES CARLSBERGENSIS TO VITAMIN B61
Authors: Joe A. M. , Shahani K. M.
Published: December 2016

Studies were made to compare the effect of different flask closures (cotton, plastic foam, parafilm, and metal) on the growth response of Saccharomycos carlsbergensis (sacch aromyces uvarum) used to assay for vitamin B6. The organism showed maximal growth response and gave optimal standard curves when the assay was done in cotton-plugged flasks.
The Effect of Concentration, Thermal Processing, and Storage Temperature on the Interaction Between Alpha-Ketoglutaric Acid and Tryptophan
Authors: CHU N. T. , CLYDESDALE F. M.
Published: December 2016

Formation of colored compounds caused by the interaction of α-ketoglutaric acid and tryptophan was followed spectrophotmetrically at 470 and 620 nm. It was found that the rate of formation of these colored compounds was effected by the concentration of α-ketoglutaric acid and/or tryptophan. High concentrations of both α-ketoglutaric acid and tryptophan caused the greatest concentration of such colored compounds, but singly, α-ketoglutaric acid concentration was more effective than that of tryptophan. The amount of colored compounds formed after storage at 75 F was not altered by processing, since both processed and unprocessed samples showed the same concentration after storage. The interaction mixtures stored at 38 F proceeded at very slow rates compared with those stored at 75 F. The results also indicated that individual effects caused by processing were overcome by storage at room temperature (75 F) since all samples were similar after storage.
Indices of Water Content in Gaseous Systems, Their Measurement, and Relationship to Each Other1,2
Authors: FISHER DONALD A. , JACOBSON RONALD L. , PFLUG IRVING J.
Published: December 2016

The quantity of water available to microorganisms influences both their growth and death kinetics. The water in microbial cells cannot be measured directly. The equilibrium atmospheric water conditions are usually measured and reported. The attributes of the several measuring units that can be used to indicate the water content in a gaseous atmosphere are described. Equations for their calculation and for converting from the several measurement units described to relative humidity at test temperature are presented.
Some Observations on a Perigo-Type Inhibition of Clostridium botulinum in a Simplified Medium
Authors: HUHTANEN C. N.
Published: December 2016

A rapid and sensitive assay for Perigo factor was developed using a medium of 0.5% yeast extract and tryptone, 0.2% glucose, 0.12% K2HPO4 and 0.1% cysteine HCI or sodium thioglycollate and vegetative cells of Clostridium botulinum type A. Yeast extract or tryptone, together with a reducing agent (cysteine, sodium thioglycollate, or glucose autoclaved with the medium), produced a Perigo inhibitor when autoclaved at 15 psi for 15 min with NaNO2. Tryptone was more active than yeast extract as a source of the Perigo inhibitor; of the reducing agents tested cysteine was more effective in producing Perigo-type inhibition than thioglycollate and either was better than glucose autoclaved with the medium.
A Direct Microscopic Count Procedure for the Rapid Estimation of Bacterial Numbers on Green-Headless Shrimp1,2
Authors: NICKELSON RANZELL , HOSCH JOYCE , WYATT LAWRENCE E.
Published: December 2016

A Direct Microscopic Count (DMC) procedure, utilizing the Gram-stain, was used to estimate bacterial numbers on 149 samples of green-headless (shell-on) shrimp. A correlation of 0.876 (significant at P < 0.01) existed between the log DMC and log agar plate counts done at 25 C for 2 days. Samples judged questionable or unacceptable organoleptically had DMC's of 108 or more.
Survival of Salmonella dublin and Salmonella typhimurium in Lebanon Bologna
Authors: SMITH J. L. , PALUMBO S. A. , KISSINGER J. C. , HUHTANEN C. N.
Published: December 2016

Survival and destruction of Salmonella dublin and S. typhimurium added to Lebanon bologna was studied during manufacture of this sausage. During the aging period of salted cubed beef at 5 C, viable cell counts of S. dublin did not change over a 10-day period. Cell counts of S. Dublin were reduced 3 to 4 log cycles during the 4-day fermentation at 35 C; further reduction in the viable Salmonella count occurred during mellowing of the bolognas at 5 C. The number of S. typhimurium was usually reduced to an undetectible level before the end of the fermentation. Salmonella typhimurium was consistently more sensitive to the acid conditions of Lebanon bologna than was S. dublin. Introduction of an optional cooking step indicated that heating of bolognas to 51.7 C or above led to destruction of salmonellae. Unaged beef which was not inoculated with starter culture did not ferment and there was very little reduction in numbers of added salmonellae. Salmonellae were destroyed more rapidly in Lebanon bologna made from unaged beef with starter culture than in bologna made from aged beef (natural flora fermentation). Smoking also appeared to contribute to destruction of salmonellae. Four commercial Lebanon bolognas were tested for the presence of salmonellae but none were detected.
A Vapor Pressure Osmometer for Determination of Added Water in Milk
Authors: PENSIRIPUN K. , CAMPBELL E. C. , RICHARDSON G. H.
Published: December 2016

A vapor pressure osmometer requiring a 5- to 7-microliter sample to saturate a 0.64 cm filter paper disc fixed a digital readout of milliosmolality in 110 sec. A coefficient of variability of 0.70 was obtained on a raw milk sample tested 25 times when an acetone impregnated tissue was used to clean the sample chamber between tests. Two hundred individual cow milk samples from 20 herds averaged 280.0 ± 3.0 milliosmols. Milk samples containing up to 25% added water were evaluated on both the vapor pressure osmometer and a thermistor cryoscope with a resultant correlation coefficient of 0.991. A collaborative study involving eight hospital and industry laboratories was conducted. When the results of two laboratories were discarded, due to instrument maintenance problems, there were no significant differences among the laboratories in their abilities to quantitate added water in milk.
Repair, Growth, and Enterotoxigenesis of Staphylococcus aureus S-6 Injured by Freeze-Drying
Authors: FUNG DANIEL Y. C. , VANDEN BOSCH LINDA L.
Published: December 2016

Staphylococcus aureus S-6 cells in the mid-log growth phase rapidly (0.5–1 h) repaired freeze-drying injury when rehydrated at mesophilic temperatures (20–50 C), although these temperatures had a greater effect on subsequent growth of total survivors. At 15 C repair and growth processes were slow. At 10 C repair and growth did not occur. Enterotoxin B was released into the rehydration medium at about the time when survivors initiated growth but was difficult to demonstrate during the repair stage because of the short duration of this phase. Metabolic and macromolecular inhibitor studies on S. aureus S-6 cells injured by freeze-drying suggested that RNA synthesis was necessary as the first stage of repair.
Starters and Bacteriophages in Lactic Acid Casein Manufacture
Authors: THOMAS T. D. , LOWRIE R. J.
Published: December 2016

The bacteriological composition and acid producing activity of mixed strain starters used for commercial lactic acid casein manufacture were investigated. Rates of acid production by mixed starters from eight New Zealand casein factories were similar under standard laboratory conditions. Streptococcus cremoris was the predominant species comprising some 70–90% of total bacteria in all but one mixed casein starter. Most isolates in a random selection of 160 individual S. cremoris colonies took longer than the parent mixed starter to coagulate autoclaved skimmilk at 22 C. More than half required 2–3 days and some up to 7 days of incubation, in contrast to the 17–20 h required by the mixed starters. Only 20% of the S. cremoris isolates had the coagulation times and reached maximum cell densities characteristic of the parent mixed cultures. The slow-coagulating isolates grew to only low population densities in milk although acid production continued in stationary-phase cultures. The maximum cell density and rate of acid production could be increased by culturing together with a fast-coagulating strain, by addition of hydrolysed milk proteins or amino acids. Whey samples from the casein precipitation silos of eight commercial factories were examined for bacteriophage. Virulent phages were found in all samples.
I. Environmental Contamination and Biochemical Relationships
Authors: HUGUNIN A. G. , BRADLEY R. L.
Published: December 2016

Mercury is naturally concentrated in geographical belts, but geological cycling has distributed the element in all strata of the earth. Natural concentrations of mercury are approximately 100 ppb in soil, 0.06 ppb in fresh water, 0.01–0.30 ppb in sea water, and 0.003–0.009 μg/m3 in air. Concentrations vary, being highest near mineral deposits. The concentration of mercury in some areas has been significantly increased by human carelessness. An epidemic among Japanese fishing families, death of Swedish wildlife, and discovery of elevated mercury levels in American fish focused attention on this problem. The discovery that certain species are capable of methylating inorganic mercury indicates pollution with any chemical form of mercury is dangerous.

Alkylmercurials are the most dangerous form of mercury in the environment. Alkylmercurials are absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, diffuse across the blood-brain carrier, and pass through the placental membrane in significantly higher proportions than other mercury compounds. The whole body half-life of methyl mercury in humans is 76 ± 3 days compared to half-lives of 37 ± 3 days for men and 48 ± 5 days for women observed for mercuric salts. Not readily broken down, sufficient concentrations of methyl mercury can cause irreversible damage to the central nervous system. Renal damage usually results from high levels of aryl- or alkoxyalkylmercurials and inorganic mercury; however, vapors of elemented mercury can damage the central nervous system. Organic mercury compounds cause chromosome changes, but the medical implications resulting from levels of mercury in food are unknown. The concentration of mercury in red blood cells and hair is indicative of the exposure to alkylmercurials. On a group basis, blood and urine concentrations of mercury may corrrelate with recent exposure to mercury.
The Effect of the Antibiotic, Everninomicin, on Control of Clostridium Botulinum in Foods
Authors: INSALATA N. F. , HAAS G. J.
Published: December 2016

Everninomicin was evaluated for its effect on Clostridium botulinum. Enrichment broth tests with C. botulinum Type A demonstrated the effectiveness of 1 ppm Everninomicin in inhibiting exotoxin formation in sporulation broth. Tests using Everninomicin in selected foods demonstrated: Type A exotoxin formation was inhibited by 10 ppm Everninomicin D in inoculated corn; formation of Type E exotoxin was inhibited by Everninomicin D at 1 ppm in inoculated fish; Type A exotoxin formation was not inhibited in sausage by 1 ppm or 10 ppm Everninomicin D. However, when used in ground beef, Type A exotoxin formation was inhibited by 8.0 ppm of Everninomicin B.
Exposure of Man to Mercury. A review1,2
Authors: HUGUNIN A. G. , BRADLEY R. L.
Published: December 2016

Man is exposed to mercury through every facet of his life, however, for the average citizen the most probable source of toxic levels of mercury would be his food supply. Although most foods contain less than 0.02 ppm mercury, considerable variation occurs depending on the type of food, production techniques, and location. Mercury is concentrated at higher trophic levels of food chains, particularily in aquatic food chains in which concentration factors of hundreds and thousands have been observed. The concentration of mercury in some large fish has been found to exceed the 0.5 ppm tolerance limit of the FDA and the 1.0 ppm limit of the Swedish government. Fifty-seven grams of fish containing 0.5 ppm mercury in the methyl form could be consumed daily without exceeding the joint FAO/WHO recommended weekly tolerable intake of 0.2 mg. In the U.S., Sweden, and Japan the per capita daily fish consumptions are 18, 56, and 88 g, respectively.

Determination of mercury concentrations generally involves colorimetric, atomic absorption or emission spectrometry, neutron activation, or gas chromatography techniques. The sample preparations are often time consuming, subject to numerous sources of error, and complicated by the low concentrations of mercury. Differentiation of mercury compounds usually necessitates selective extraction followed by gas chromatographic analysis.
Protein Content in Raw and Fluid Milk Products1
Authors: BARNARD S. E. , HARGROVE G. L.
Published: December 2016

Protein values of more than 100,000 individual cow samples of milk were determined over a 12-month period. In addition, protein levels of more than 1,100 store-purchased samples of whole, lowfat and skimmilk were determined during 27 months. Protein determinations were made with an automatic Foss Combi protein-fat tester, which is in regulaur use at the Pennsylvania Dairy Herd Improvement Central Milk Testing Laboratory. Lactation averages indicate wide differences among breeds for percentage of protein and total yield. Identification of cows with high fat yield does not assure identification of those cows with high protein yield. Seasonal variations were noted for raw milk and retail samples of fluid milk. Average protein content of retail whole milk samples was 3.26%, but levels ranged from 2.82% to 4.20%. Protein content of low fat milk varied depending on the level of fortification with non-fat milk solids.
Growth and Preservation Parameters for Preparation of a Mixed Species Culture Concentrate for Cheese Manufacture1
Authors: EFSTATHIOU J. D. , McKAY L. L. , MORRIS H. A. , ZOTTOLA E. A.
Published: December 2016

The production of a frozen concentrated cheese starter by batch culture fermentation of a mixed species cheese starter culture consisting of Streptococcus cremoris and Streptococcus diacetilactis was investigated. A response surface analysis to optimize growth conditions was made using 20% NaOH or 20% NH4OH as neutralizers and pH and temperature as variables. The yield of cell mass was about two-fold higher using NH4OH as the neutralizer. The optimal growth conditions for the latter were pH 6.1 to 6.5 and 24 to 27 C. Optimal balance of species of one S. diacetilactis per six S. cremoris cells was observed from a growth pH of 6.1 to 6.4 and temperatures of 23 to 26 C using NH4OH. A pH of 6.2 to 6.5 and temperature of 25 to 27 C yielded cells of highest acid-producing ability when NH4OH was the neutralizer. Cultures grown at 25 C using NH4OH were also more resistant to freezing than NaOH neutralized cultures. Glycerol was the only cryoprotective agent examined which protected the culture during freezing and frozen storage. Lactose and malic acid appeared to have a destructive effect on the starter concentrate during frozen storage. Conditions of growth and type of cryoprotective agent affected each species individually. Gouda cheese prepared from a frozen concentrate was equivalent in quality to that prepared from a conventional bulk starter culture.
Behavior of Selected Food-Borne Pathogens in Raw Ground Beef
Authors: GOEPFERT J. M. , KIM H. U.
Published: December 2016

Raw ground beef was inoculated with five strains each of Escherichia coli, enterococci, salmonellae, staphylococci, Bacillus cereus, and Clostridium perfringens. Changes in population levels of these organisms, psychrotrophs, and total aerobic flora as these were influenced by temperature and packaging film were recorded. Among the organisms inoculated, only E. coli, salmonellae, and the enterococci were able to grow and then only at the highest test temperature (12.5 C), As expected, the packaging film did not influence the behavior of any of the test organisms. These results and the fact that a cooking step is involved demonstrate why ground beef is very rarely involved as a vehicle in bacterial food poisoning. This study indicates that there is no reason to expect protection of public health to evolve from bacteriological standards which limit numbers of non-pathogenic organisms.
Improvements on the Agar Plate Method to Determine Lysozyme1
Authors: GOSNELL W. W. , KROGER MANFRED , KATZ FRIEDRICH
Published: December 2016

Through systematic investigation of several variables the agar plate assay for lysozyme was modified so that concentrations as low as 5μg egg white lysozyme per 100 ml of sample could be determined in 3 h. Plates were stained with 0.5 g buffalo black in 100 ml 7% acetic acid followed by destaining in 7% acetic acid until satisfactory contrast between clear zones of lysis and surrounding seeded agarose was obtained. Standard egg white lysozyme solutions remained stable for at least 7 days at −5 C. The best lyso-plate method included 1.0 g agarose with 0.1 g NaC1 in 100 ml of a pH 7.0 phosphate buffer seeded with 0.020 g Micrococcus lysodeikticus and incubation at 47 C for 3 h.
Organic Acid Profiles of Thermally Processed Carrot Puree1,2
Authors: BIBEAU T. C. , CLYDESDALE F. M.
Published: December 2016

The aim of this investigation was to examine changes in organic acid concentration in carrot puree during processing at temperatures ranging from 240–300 F, with 20 F increments and an F0 equal to 4.9. Two varieties of carrots from two different geographical regions were packed in Thermal Death Time (TDT) tubes, flushed with nitrogen, sealed, and processed. Following this, analyses were conducted to determine changes in organic acid content and pH. Significant increases in pyrrolidone carboxylic acid (PCA), citric acid, fumaric acid, acetic acid, and malic acid were noted between the fresh product and product processed at 240 F. The PCA concentration was significantly affected by changes in processing temperature, while pyruvic and fumaric acids exhibited possible variations. The greatest change in pH from the fresh (unheated) product occurred with the 240 F processed product in both Texas and California samples. As the processing temperature increased, with a constant F0 value, the pH decreased. The pH readings for the carrot samples from the two different locations were similar.
Detection of Penicillin in Milk by Bioluminescence1
Authors: WESTHOFF DENNIS C. , ENGLER THAIS
Published: December 2016

A procedure is described using the measurement of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by bioluminescence for detection of penicillin in milk. Following a 3-h incubation period the method detected penicillin at 0.015 unit per ml when a 5% inoculum of Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633 was used as the test culture.
Bacteriological Survey of Frankfurters Produced at Establishments Under Federal Inspection
Authors: SURKIEWICZ BERNARD F. , JOHNSTON RALPH W. , CAROSELLA JERRY M.
Published: December 2016

At the time of manufacture, 78% of 69 sets of packaged frankfurters collected from 40 firms had aerobic plate counts of 10,000 or fewer/g and 90% had 20,000 or fewer/g (geometric means of 10 units/set), 91% were coliform-negative, and 93% were Staphylococcus aureus-negative. Only one of 690 packaged frankfurter units was Escherichia coli-positive, and all units were salmonellae-negative.
A Method to Measure Pyruvate in Milk
Authors: ALBRECHT J. E. , TATINI S. R.
Published: December 2016

A simple procedure to measure pyruvate in fluid milk products was developed. A supernatant fluid from test milk was prepared by clotting with rennet followed by centrifugation. The supernatant fluid was then boiled centrifuged again, and finally membrane-filtered. This filtrate was then used in the spectrophotometric assay of pyruvate via the NADH NAD+ mediated conversion of pyruvate to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). This procedure recovered nearly 100% of pyruvate added to various milks, and detected a difference of 1 ppm of pyruvate (p < 0.01).
Dairy Products as Food Protein Resources
Authors: JONAS J. J. , CRAIG T. W. , HUSTON R. L. , MARTH E. H. , SPECKMANN E. W. , STEINER T. F. , WEISBERG S. M.
Published: December 2016

An overall, continuous downward trend in milk production and utilization can be observed in the U.S. during the last 30 years. The per capita dairy product consumption decreased by about 10% in every decade. Since dairy products supply an important portion of the nation's protein, and 75% of our calcium needs, it seems to be important to understand the causes of this decline. To overcome the decline, the rationale of a coordinated technological, nutritional, and marketing research approach is discussed in this paper. The future of the dairy problem is analyzed from three interrelated viewpoints: (a) product reserach to meet consumer needs, (b) nutrition research to promote consumer health, and (c) marketing research to explore consumer motivation.
Effect of Loin Quality on Discoloration of Pork Chops During Retail Display
Authors: SMITH G. C. , CARPENTER Z. L.
Published: December 2016

Pork chops from pale and soft loins were extremely susceptible to discoloration during retail display and had very limited retail caselife in comparison to chops from bright grayish-pink and firm loins. Pale and soft chops developed green discoloration on the second or third day of retail display. The green color of affected chops persisted through the interior of the longissimus muscle suggesting that physical or chemical changes, rather than bacterial growth, were responsible for the green pigmentation. Though the mechanism by which such discoloration occurs is not clear, it is apparent that some pale and soft loins react unfavorably to stress associated with storage, shipment, retail cutting, or display. Such loins should be identified at the time of carcass cutting, segregated and directed to an end-use or market outlet which does not necessitate retail display as a fresh product.
The Federal Food Service Program
Authors: BOWER WILLIAM F. , DAVIS A. SIDNEY
Published: December 2016

The Division of Food Service, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, is concerned with food safety when food is offered to consumers for consumption. This includes an estimated 600,000 institutional and commercial food service establishments, 300,000 retail stores, and vending machine sites numbering in the hundreds of thousands. Plans to accomplish this mission include achievement of uniform regulations and uniform enforcement procedures nationwide based on FDA standards, providing and/or supporting training and certification programs for regulatory officials and industry, developing and supporting self-inspection/quality assurance programs, evaluation of State programs, technical assistance to State regulatory agencies, and development of a model data processing system to aid program administration at the State level.
The Aerobic Plate Count, Coliform and Escherichia coli Content of Raw Ground Beef at the Retail Level
Authors: GOEPFERT J. M.
Published: December 2016

Nine hundred fifty-five samples of raw ground beef obtained from supermarkets throughout the United States were examined for coliforms, Escherichia coli, and Aerobic Plate Count (APC). The results were compared with existent standards for E. coli in raw meat in New York and Oregon. Lack of homogenious distribution of E. coli in fresh ground beef was demonstrated. Observations were made that indicate that a 2 day-two step procedure will detect the same number of E. coli as the more time consuming four step MPN procedure 98% of the time. A comparison of the APC obtained by incubating plates at 20 C and 35 C showed there to be an average 10-fold difference with the 20 C incubation always higher. Questions are raised about the necessity of microbial standards for raw meat and the validity of incorporating E. coli in such standards.
Fate of Animal Viruses in Effluent from Liquid Farm Wastes
Authors: DERBYSHIRE J. B.
Published: December 2016

Various aspects of viral pollution of the environment associated with disposal of liquid farm manure on agricultural land are being investigated. Techniques have been developed for concentration and recovery of animal viruses from various field samples. Seventeen of 22 samples of liquid manure from a swine fattening house yielded enteroviruses, adenoviruses, and a coronavirus. One enterovirus was isolated from six samples of waste from a swine farrowing house, but no virus was isolated from 18 samples of liquid cattle manure obtained from a dairy farm. A swine enterovirus was isolated from surface soil samples collected up to 8 days after liquid manure was spread on agricultural land. A swine enterovirus was also isolated from 2 of 26 samples of surface run-off collected from sites at which liquid pig manure was routinely spread on agricultural land. Thirty three samples of surface water and 36 samples of ground water were collected in areas in which liquid pig manure was routinely spread on farm land, and a swine enterovirus was isolated from one surface water sample. Field and laboratory experiments indicated that enteroviruses are more rapidly inactivated in aerated liquid manure than in untreated manure.
A Strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Resistant to a Quaternary Ammonium Compound
Authors: WASHAM C. J. , SANDINE W. E. , ELLIKER P. R.
Published: December 2016

Cells of Pseudomonas aeruginosa able to grow in Tryptone glucose yeast extract (TGY) broth containing 750 μg/ml of quaternary ammonium compound (alkyldimethylethylbenzyl ammonium chloride-(QAC) were studied in comparison to sensitive cells unable to grow in such medium to identify factors important in determining the precise degree of resistance. The germicidal activity of QAC solutions against both sensitive and resistant cells in TGY broth was shown to be greatly affected by the concentration of Tryptone and yeast extract, but not by the amount of sugar. The pH of the broth also influenced germicidal activity; both strains were more susceptible under slightly acid conditions. A comparison of the pH range of growth of sensitive and resistant cells demonstrated the abiility of the former to grow in TGY broth at pH 4.5 while the latter could not achieve growth at pH 5.0. A study of the effects of 50 ppm QAC, buffered to various pH values, indicated that susceptibility of resistant cells was nearly the same as that of sensitive cells below pH 3.0, at pH 6.0, and above pH 9.0. The greatest difference between the two cell types occurred from pH 3.5 to pH 4.5 with a second peak of resistance being observed from pH 7.0 to pH 8.5.
Food- and Waterborne Disease Outbreaks on Passenger Cruise Vessels and Aircraft1
Authors: MERSON MICHAEL H. , HUGHES JAMES M. , LAWRENCE DALE N. , WELLS JOY G. , D'AGNESE JOHN J. , YASHUK JOHN C.
Published: December 2016

Outbreaks of illness on passenger cruise vessels during 1970–1975 were caused by Shigella flexneri, Salmonella, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Vehicles for the etiological agents were water, multiple foods, seafood cocktail, and shrimp and lobster. Staphylococcus aureus caused two outbreaks of foodborne illness on aircraft during the same period. Vehicles were custard and ham.
Public Health Aspects of Cream-filled Pastries. A Review
Authors: BRYAN FRANK L.
Published: December 2016

In the United States foodborne disease outbreaks for which cream-filled pastry was identified as the vehicle have declined from 17.8% in the 1930's to 2.3% in the 1970's. Cream fillings or cream-filled pastries were usually contaminated with staphylococci and Salmonella typhi by workers and with salmonellae by ingredients such as eggs and milk. These contaminants multiplied as a result of favorable nutrients, water activity, temperature, and pH; and they survived the effects of competing organisms and processes. Prevention and control of such outbreaks have been based on formulating the product so it will not support bacterial growth, using pathogen-free ingredients, thorough cooking and reheating, sanitary handling of fillings and finished pastry, rapid cooling and storing at low temperature, establishing microbiological standards for the finished products, training food-processing and food-service personnel, and educating the consumer to refrigerate products after purchase.
An Examination of Methods to Assess Post-Pasteurization Contamination
Authors: BLANKENAGEL G.
Published: December 2016

Since post-pasteurization contamination usually shortens the shelf life of dairy products, it is of importance to have methods available for detecting the presence of contaminants. Ideally such methods should be accurate, simple, and economical, and should provide results within the shortest time possible. Presently, no single test fulfills all these requirements and therefore it is necessary to compromise. In most instances the emphasis is on detecting groups of organisms which will not survive the heat treatment of pasteurization. Some of the commonly used methods are described and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed.
Sulfite Compounds as Neutralizers of Spice Toxicity for Salmonella
Authors: WILSON CLYDE R. , ANDREWS WALLACE H.
Published: December 2016

The ability of five inorganic chemical salts (K2SO3, K2SO4, Na2SO3, Na2SO4, and CaCO3) to neutralize the toxicity of six spices (allspice, cinnamon, clove, garlic powder, onion powder, and oregano) for Salmonella was evaluated. Their effect on four spices non-toxic to Salmonella (black pepper, white pepper, rosemary, and thyme) was also determined. The inhibitory effects of onion and garlic powders were overcome by addition of 0.5% of K2SO3 or Na2SO3 to pre-enrichments of lactose broth, nutrient broth, or trypticase soy broth. Allspice, cinnamon, clove, and oregano remained toxic to Salmonella in all pre-enrichment broths tested, with or without chemical additives. None of the chemical additives had any effect upon isolation of Salmonella from the non-toxic spices. Until a more practical method for analysis of allspice, cinnamon, clove, and oregano is developed, dilution of these spices to non-toxic levels is recommended.
Inhibitory Substances in the Milk Supply of Southern Ontario
Authors: SCHIEMANN D. A.
Published: December 2016

Pasteurized fluid dairy products (998 samples) and raw milk samples from approximately 1200 producers in Southern Ontario (5574 samples) were examined by the disc assay method, having a sensitivity of 0.0125 unit of penicillin per milliliter of milk, for the presence of inhibitory substances during the period April–August, 1975. One pasteurized milk (0.1%) and 50 raw milk samples (0.9%) contained penicillin. No other antibiotics were detected. Results represent a significant decrease in the incidence of antibiotics in milk compared to reports during the 1950's.
Staphylococcal Growth and Enterotoxin Production-Factors for Control
Authors: TROLLER J. A.
Published: December 2016

Factors controlling growth and enterotoxin production in foods are many and varied. Under optimum conditions, generation times as low as 15 min and maximal cell populations of 109 per gram attained within 12 to 18 h have been reported. In naturally contaminated foods, these rates of growth are seldom encountered, because various environmental factors, in combination and individually, influence growth and enterotoxin formation. Resistance to limited moisture conditions is probably the most remarkable feature of the growth of this organism. Other factors controlling growth and toxin formation are the nutritional completeness of the medium, pH, temperature, inoculum size and type, and the effect of competing organisms. In addition, the potential for staphylococcal contamination from various sources must be considered when ascertaining the public health risk presented by this organism in a specific food. Ultimately, it is the sum of these factors which must concern the food hygienist and which determine the wholesomeness of foods in the marketplace.
Milk Iodides: Effects of Iodophor Teat Dipping and Udder Washing, and Dietary Iodide Supplementation
Authors: CANTOR A. , MOST S.
Published: December 2016

In a small research herd, where dietary iodide intake was approximately 8 mg/head/day, and where management practices for 2½ years had included iodophor products for both udder washing and teat dipping, milk iodide values averaged 6.31 μg/100 ml, with a range of 1.0 to 24.0. The average iodide level (in μg/100 ml) in milk after udder washing and teat dipping was 3.7 with water and 3.9 with hypochlorite, with ranges of 1.6–9.6 and 1.6–9.2, respectively. Use of the iodophor udder wash under controlled conditions did not result in a detectable increase in milk iodides. Fluctuations associated with use of a commercial iodophor teat dip were essentially within the range of values obtained in the absence of iodophor use. The effect of iodide supplementation on milk iodide levels grossly overrode any contribution attributable to the use of a properly formulated iodophor teat dip product. Use of such products would seem of limited significance in the total human dietary iodide intake.
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Principles and Application Guidelines†
Authors:   ADOPTED AUGUST 14, 1997, NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA FOR FOODS
Published: December 2016

The HACCP Subcommittee of the National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF) has prepared a revision of the document “Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System” that was adopted by the Committee in 1992. The Committee retained the previous seven HACCP principles but made their wording more concise; revised and added definitions such as those for hazard, verification, and validation; included new sections on prerequisite programs, education and training, and implementation and maintenance of the HACCP plan; revised and provided a more detailed explanation of the application of HACCP principles, especially hazard analysis and verification; and added or revised Appendices such as new examples of prerequisite programs and an additional decision tree for identifying critical control points (CCPs).
Comparison of the Stress Response of Listeria monocytogenes Strains with Sprout Colonization
Authors: GORSKI LISA , FLAHERTY DENISE , DUHÉ JESSICA M.
Published: December 2016

Twenty-nine strains of the foodborne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes were tested for their ability to colonize alfalfa, radish, and broccoli sprouts and their capacity to withstand acid and oxidative stress, two stresses common to the sprouting environment. Wide variation in the ability of different strains to colonize alfalfa sprouts were confirmed, but the variations among radish and broccoli sprouts were not as large. With a few exceptions, strains that were poor colonizers of alfalfa tended to be among the poorer colonizers of radish and broccoli and vice versa. The strains also were variable in their resistance to both acid and oxidative stress. Statistical analysis revealed no correlation between acid stress and sprout colonization, but there was a positive correlation between resistance to oxidative stress and colonization of all three sprout types. Although the response to oxidative stress is important for L. monocytogenes virulence, it also may be important for life outside of a host.
Low Incidence of Foodborne Pathogens of Concern in Raw Milk Utilized for Farmstead Cheese Production
Authors: D'AMICO DENNIS J. , GROVES ERROL , DONNELLY CATHERINE W.
Published: December 2016

Overall milk quality and prevalence of four target pathogens in raw milk destined for farmstead cheesemaking was examined. Raw milk samples were collected weekly from June to September 2006 from 11 farmstead cheese operations manufacturing raw milk cheese from cow's, goat's, and sheep's milk. Samples were screened for Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella, and Escherichia coli O157:H7 both quantitatively (direct plating) and qualitatively (PCR). Overall, 96.8% of samples had standard plate counts of <100,000 CFU/ml, 42.7% of which were <1,000 CFU/ml. Although no federal standards exist for coliforms in raw milk, 61% of samples tested conformed to pasteurized milk standards under the U.S. Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) at <10 CFU/ml. All cow and sheep milk samples and 93.8% of goat milk samples were within the limits dictated by the PMO for somatic cell counts. Of the 11 farms, 8 (73%) produced samples that were positive for S. aureus, which was detected in 34.6% (46 of 133) of milk samples. L. monocytogenes was isolated from three milk samples (2.3%), two of which were from the same farm. E. coli O157:H7 was recovered from one sample of goat's milk for an overall incidence of 0.75%. Salmonella was not recovered from any of the 133 samples. The findings of this study suggest that most raw milk intended for farmstead cheesemaking is of high microbiological quality with a low incidence of pathogens. These data will help inform risk assessments associated with the microbiological safety of farmstead cheeses, particularly those manufactured from raw milk.
Cold Atmospheric Plasma Disinfection of Cut Fruit Surfaces Contaminated with Migrating Microorganisms
Authors: PERNI STEFANO , SHAMA GILBERT , KONG M. G.
Published: December 2016

The efficacy of cold atmospheric gas plasmas against Escherichia coli type 1, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Gluconobacter liquefaciens, and Listeria monocytogenes Scott A was examined on inoculated membrane filters and inoculated fruit surfaces. Inoculated samples were exposed to a cold atmospheric plasma plume generated by an AC voltage of 8 kV at 30 kHz. The cold atmospheric plasma used in this study was very efficient in reducing the microbial load on the surfaces of filter membranes. However, its efficacy was markedly reduced for microorganisms on the cut surfaces. This lack of effect was not the result of quenching of reactive plasma species responsible for microbial inactivation but principally the result of the migration of microorganisms from the exterior of the fruit tissue to its interior. The velocity of migration through melon tissues was estimated to be around 300 μm min−1 for E. coli and S. cerevisiae and through mango tissues to be 75 to 150 μm min−1. These data can serve as operational targets for optimizing the performance of gas plasma inactivation processes. The current capabilities of cold atmospheric plasmas are reviewed and ways to improve their bactericidal efficacy are identified and discussed. Considerable scope exists to enhance significantly the efficacy of cold atmospheric plasmas for decontaminating fresh cut fruits.
Hand Washing Frequencies and Procedures Used in Retail Food Services
Authors: STROHBEHN CATHERINE , SNEED JEANNIE , PAEZ PAOLA , MEYER JANELL
Published: December 2016

Transmission of viruses, bacteria, and parasites to food by way of improperly washed hands is a major contributing factor in the spread of foodborne illnesses. Field observers have assessed compliance with hand washing regulations, yet few studies have included consideration of frequency and methods used by sectors of the food service industry or have included benchmarks for hand washing. Five 3-h observation periods of employee (n = 80) hand washing behaviors during menu production, service, and cleaning were conducted in 16 food service operations for a total of 240 h of direct observation. Four operations from each of four sectors of the retail food service industry participated in the study: assisted living for the elderly, childcare, restaurants, and schools. A validated observation form, based on 2005 Food Code guidelines, was used by two trained researchers. Researchers noted when hands should have been washed, when hands were washed, and how hands were washed. Overall compliance with Food Code recommendations for frequency during production, service, and cleaning phases ranged from 5% in restaurants to 33% in assisted living facilities. Procedural compliance rates also were low. Proposed benchmarks for the number of times hand washing should occur by each employee for each sector of food service during each phase of operation are seven times per hour for assisted living, nine times per hour for childcare, 29 times per hour for restaurants, and 11 times per hour for schools. These benchmarks are high, especially for restaurant employees. Implementation would mean lost productivity and potential for dermatitis; thus, active managerial control over work assignments is needed. These benchmarks can be used for training and to guide employee hand washing behaviors.
Discovery and Development of Educational Strategies To Encourage Safe Food Handling Behaviors in Cancer Patients
Authors: MEDEIROS LYDIA C. , CHEN GANG , HILLERS VIRGINIA N. , KENDALL PATRICIA A.
Published: December 2016

Foodborne infections pose a threat to cancer patients who are immunocompromised because of disease or medical therapy. Comprehensive food safety education can raise cancer patients' awareness of risk for foodborne infections and encourage risk-reducing behavior. The objectives of this study were to assess food safety informational needs of cancer patients and to determine factors that may influence prospective educational interventions that foster risk-reducing behaviors. Focus groups with cancer patients were formed, and interviews with health professionals working with cancer patients were conducted. Findings were used to develop three educational resource prototypes for cancer patients. Information from two additional focus groups and interviews with cancer patients was used to evaluate the prototypes before revision and finalization. There was a general awareness among focus group participants that chemotherapy increased their susceptibility to foodborne illness and infections. Participants had a basic knowledge of safe food handling practices but did not necessarily link their awareness of increased susceptibility for infection with their routine food handling practices. When informed of specific high-risk foods, there was skepticism about compliance due to disbelief of the risk, personal preferences for the high-risk food, and lack of information about how to use the recommendation. Most of the health care providers agreed that food safety information should be provided by dietitians, physicians, and nurses, but physicians stated they had little time to do so. Cancer patients expressed positive attitudes toward the educational resource prototypes and willingness to follow the food safety recommendations provided.