bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sentence-analysis
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

The present chapter is devoted to a word-by-word demonstration of how one sets about translating a complicated sentence. The great difficulty is not so much that the Turkish verb usually comes at the end. It is that, as the Turkish qualifier precedes whereas the English relative clause follows, a native English-speaker has virtually to read the Turkish sentence backwards. One important reservation must, however, be made. When a writer has used side by side several words or clauses of the same grammatical function, whether or not they are joined by a conjunction they must be translated in the order in which they are written and not backwards, i.e. not in the order in which they are met as one works back from the verb.
Further Examples
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

The sentences below are intended to provide supplementary illustrations of various points of grammar. Baraj’da toplanacağ hesaplanan 15 milyar metreküp su ile, kurak bölge rahatça sulanabilecektir ‘with the 15 thousand million cubic metres of water which, it is calculated, will be collected at the dam, it will be possible for the dry zone to be irrigated quite easily’. toplanacağ hesaplanan su ‘the water whose future collecting is being calculated’. See XVIII, 2 (c).
Culture and the intellectuals
Authors: Tombs Robert
Published: November 2023

However dazzling the transformations of the last century, French cultural life has continued to bear enduring hallmarks. One is the centrality of the state as patron and policeman. Linked to this is the public prominence of intellectuals. Third is a sense of national cultural exceptionalism (if not superiority) though paradoxically this often accompanies a pessimism in the face of perceived threats from inferior yet overwhelming foreign influence.
Reclaiming History
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa
Published: November 2023

In Spain, the historian Jaume Vicens Vives had been developing an incisive critique of the dominant mode of unprofessional, ideology-driven dabbling in history (‘ideologismo historizante’) throughout the 1940s, although he was denied a university chair until 1947. His rigorous, modern methodology, based on solid economic and sociological evidence collected at a local level, began to have a significant impact after his founding of the journal Estudios de historia moderna in 1951, an impact that was ultimately political as much as academic, since its focus on Catalan history posed a serious challenge to the regime’s dogmatic centralism.
New Writing: New Spain?
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa
Published: November 2023

The attempt by critics to categorize the novels of the 1950s and 1960s through the constrictive binary opposition of realism and anti-realism breaks down over the course of the following decade as a period of intense experimentalism gives way to the explosion of nueva narrativa characterized by its diversity. It is this plurality which has led to considerable disagreement about whether nueva narrativa as such exists and, if so, how it can be categorized. There is, however, consensus that the principal change since 1975 has been a return to a problematized realism.
Parliaments, 1485-1536
Authors: Loach Jennifer
Published: November 2023

The parliaments of Henry VIl’s reign, and, indeed, those of Henry VIII before l 529, were very like those of the Yorkists. They were less politically important than parliaments had been earlier in the fifteenth century, and both their place in the constitution and their procedure were a great deal less clear-cut than they were later to become. Parliaments were still only one amongst the various consultative bodies upon which a monarch could call: five great councils were summoned in Henry VII’s reign, for instance, and three of these authorized a financial grant, although, as we have already noted, such grants had subsequently to be validated by a parliament. The king’s control of parliament was at this period almost total. In the parliament of 1478, for example, no one had opposed Edward IV when he accused his own brother, the duke of Clarence, of treason, and the speaker had even asked on behalf of the Commons that execution should be hastened. Henry VII never found it necessary to veto a bill, because no measure of which he disapproved could reach the stage of presentation.
Introduction
Authors: Doyle William
Published: November 2023

The kingdom of France was one of the longest established political entities in Europe. Over the 1,100 years since the Frankish chief Clovis became a Christian after leading his horde to colonize the ruins of Roman Gaul, the men who ruled from the Île-de-France had often wielded the dominant power in western Europe. But for much of the century after 1559 their authority had been fragile.
Society
Authors: Bossenga Gail
Published: November 2023

When Louis XIV began his personal rule in 1661 he envisioned restoring order to a society suffering from civil strife, international war, and periodic waves of disease and famine. The society over which Louis XIV cast his gaze was a traditional, preindustrial one, characterized by minute distinctions of status, extremes of wealth and poverty, poor communication networks, low life expectancy, and close economic ties to the land. Legally it was a society characterized by privilege, that is, by an acute consciousness of rank and the practice whereby some groups enjoyed particular rights—tax exemptions, economic monopolies, or favoured access to occupations—denied to others.
The state and political culture
Authors: Swann Julian
Published: November 2023

‘Louis by the grace of God, king of France and Navarre, to all those who will see these letters, present and to come, greetings.’ With this phrase French kings began the preamble to a1l laws issued in their name, and once the terms of the legislation had been expounded they concluded with a majestic ‘for such is our pleasure’. Taken together these few words conjure up an enduring image of the divine right monarchy of the old regime. In 1614, the deputies of the third estate had implored the estates general to declare it a fundamental law that the king ‘is sovereign in his state, holding his crown from God alone, there is no power on earth, be it spiritual or temporal which has any authority ⃛ to depose the anointed person of the king’. Their plea was, in part, a response to the assassination of Henri IV and to memories of the terrible civil wars of the previous century. Vaunting the power of the crown offered hope of preventing a repetition, and, once the Fronde had provided another glimpse into the abyss, few questioned the virtues of a powerful monarchy.
Politics: Louis XV
Authors: Swann Julian
Published: November 2023

According to pope Benedict XIV there was no greater proof for the existence of providence than to see France prosper under the rule of Louis XV. Few were as gentle or ironic as the pontiff in their assessment of the king. For the duke de Choiseul, who was the linchpin of his government for more than a decade (1758–70), Louis XV was ‘soulless’ with the mind of a ‘spiteful child’. Worse still ‘he would, like Nero, have been enchanted to watch Paris burn … but lacked the courage to give the order.’1 In the popular memory, the king is famous for uttering the phrase ‘after me the deluge’, which, while almost certainly apocryphal, conjures up an image of a monarch intelligent enough to foresee the tragedy of 1789, but too lazy to do anything about it. Napoleon, on the other hand, once declared that he ‘found the crown of France in the mud’ and many have assumed that it was Louis XV who let it drop.
Politics: Louis XVI
Authors: Price Munro
Published: November 2023

‘We were walking on a carpet of flowers; we did not see the abyss beneath’.1 The count de Segur’s famous description of the last years of the old regime has informed views of the reign of Louis XVI ever since. More than any other reign in European history, that of Louis XVI has been distorted by contemporaries and historians writing with hindsight. The period 1774–88 has been consistently seen as a mere prelude to the Revolution, evoked with regret and nostalgia by right-wing historical tradition, and dismissed by that of the left as the last gasp of a dying and corrupt monarchy.
Britain and Ireland 1050–1530
Authors: Britnell Richard
Published: November 2023

This book analyses the economic and social development of Britain and Ireland between 1050 and 1530. It compares economic institutions, the structure of production and rates of economic development and is richly supplied with up-to-date evidence. After considering the principal geographical, cultural and political constraints on economic development, the book examines in detail the development of towns and trade, settlement patterns, agriculture and relations between lords and tenures. The book is structured so that it can be used on both short courses and longer ones, with the material divided at 1300 in order to facilitate its adaptation for different study needs.
Introduction
Authors: Reynolds Susan
Published: November 2023

This book has three principal arguments. The first and most important is that collective activity was more important and more pervasive in medieval Europe than might be deduced from most recent writing on lay society and politics. Reacting against anachronistic interpretations of medieval communes and parliaments as the product of deliberate strivings towards modem democracy, recent generations of historians have concentrated their attention on kingship and the vertical bonds of society—the links between kings and their subjects, lords and their men. Apart from some rather arid wrangling about the concept of feudalism—a concept foreign to the middle ages themselves1—this has been enormously illuminating, but it has been accompanied, as it seems to me, by a tendency to undervalue the horizontal bonds in medieval society.
The Church
Authors: Bull Marcus
Published: November 2023

These remarkable sentiments are attributed to Christ on the Cross in the Chanson d ‘Antioche, a late twelfth-century epic account, in Old French, of the events of the First Crusade. The author, Graindor of Douai, saw the success of the crusade as nothing less than the playing out of a divine plan; God ‘s instrument were Ii Franc, the Franks who took up arms in response to Pope Urban II ‘ s appeal and captured Jerusalem in July 1099. Crusading reintroduced a measure of ambiguity into the vocabulary of Frankishness, which had been in the process of becoming appropriated by the kings and inhabitants of western Francia, France.
Introduction
Authors: Crook Malcolm
Published: November 2023

‘Dangerous rioting’, wrote Louis-Sébastien Mercier in the 1780s, ‘has become a moral impossibility in Paris.’ The eternally watchful security forces in the expanding French capital, he added, ‘make the chance of any serious rising seem altogether remote’. Mercier was not alone in his optimism. Towards the end of the eighteenth century the realm of France was generally regarded as a well-ordered, prosperous, monarchical state.
Class and Gender
Authors: Accampo Elinor
Published: November 2023

First published in 1610, Charles Loyseau’s justification for the Estates System in France remained an authoritative force until the Revolution of 1789 overturned the Old Regime. The author carefully explained that for society to have order, it had to be ordered into the three estates of the clergy, the nobility, and the rest of society. In principle, only members of the first two estates could exercise public power or hold public office because only they had dignity in their persons, acquired from both blood and service, as well as from the absence of servitude and ‘commonness’.
France and the wider world
Authors: Heffernan Michael
Published: November 2023

The history of modern France can be seen as an ideological struggle between competing interpretations of the nation’s past, present and future. Opposing political groups developed distinct, usually mutually exclusive, visions of the country, although no single perspective dominated for more than a decade or so in the century after the Revolution. Paradoxically, the failure to invent a transcendent idea of France to which a majority of Frenchmen and women could subscribe provided opportunities for those whose ideas would otherwise have commanded little public support.
Liberal and Fascist Italy
Authors: Lyttelton Adrian
Published: November 2023

This volume centres on one of the most dramatic periods of Italian History: 1900-1945. It examines the crisis of the liberal state as it undergoes a process of significant transformation, which starts with a process of modernization and leads to the totalitarian fascist state. Lyttelton and his international team discuss the social and moral conflicts resulting from modernisation, the two world wars and the fascist regime, considering the issues from both national and international standpoints. The discussion includes the developments and impact of the changes on religion, literature, and the visual arts.
The Church and Catholicism
Authors: Kelikian Alice A
Published: November 2023

On 6 June 1861, in a malarial delirium, Count Camillo di Cavour uttered Montalembert’ s formula, <a free church in a free state’ , to the priest who had come to administer last rites to the excommunicated prime minister. Subsequent premiers of Italy would share his fixation and frustration with the Roman Question, which remained a thorn in the side of all liberal regimes. The Vatican did not acknowledge the reality of the united Kingdom until 1929. Papal disaffection from high politics perforce limited the nature of representative democracy in a predominantly Catholic country, and it underscored the narrowness of the Italian political class.
Fascism in power: the totalitarian experiment
Authors: Gentile En1ilio
Published: November 2023

Historians have variously described Italy’ s Fascist regime as an authoritarian nationalist regime, as a personal ‘ monocracy’ , a ‘ tendentially totalitarian State’ , ‘ an imperfect totalitarian state’ , and as an ‘ incomplete totalitarian state’ . Others have simply described Fascism as Mussolinismo,arguing that Mussolini created a personal dictatorship based on an alliance with the traditional institutions of the Italian monarchist state that left the fundamental structures of the old regime virtually unchanged. To support this, they claim that Mussolini carried out the ‘ political liquidation’ of the Fascist Party, which he then turned into a vast bureaucracy whose function was simply to orchestrate parades, organize consensus, create jobs and positions.
Ramsey’s Test and Adams’s Hypothesis
Authors: Woods Michael , Wiggins David , Edgington Dorothy
Published: November 2023

Ramsey describes someone deciding whether or not to accept Q, after accepting P, as making minimal revisions in his other beliefs. On what basis is such a hypothetical revision made? In order to answer this question, it will be useful, and more realistic, to take account of the fact that the acceptance or rejection of a belief is not an all-or-nothing matter, and this applies to the acceptance of ‘If P then Q’. In so far as someone has any opinion at all on whether or not P is the case, he will assign to Pa certain probability. Since an individual’s beliefs are systematically related, they involve assignments of probabilities not only to P and Q separately, but also to their joint occurrence. Idealizing a good deal, we may think of an individual’s probability-function as assigning values between zero and one to each of a range of exclusive possible states of the world-alternative possible scenarios-which together exhaust the possibilities, so that the probability-assignments add up to r. We can then distinguish those scenarios in which the antecedent is true and those in which it is not.
Action, Other Minds, and the Self
Authors: Stoneham Tom
Published: November 2023

A philosophical theory of action tries to say what an action is. This slightly nebulous project is usually made more precise by giving an account of which things, among the vast class of happenings or events, are actions and which are not. The volitional theory of action is one answer to this question. The theory states that actions are happenings or events which are willed by persons or minds. An event is willed if someone wills that it happen, and we can call this act of will ‘forming a volition’. Since some things which happen are willed but still not actions (for example, I might will that the sun shine this afternoon, and even if the sun does shine, making the sun shine is not something I did), the volitional theory adds a further condition, namely that the volition actually cause the event to happen. Furthermore, since my volition can only cause anything to happen by first causing my body to move, the proper statement of the theory is: actions are bodily movements caused by acts of will, called volitions. Thus, when I pick up the glass three things happen: I form a volition, my hand moves, and the glass moves.
On our Origin and End
Authors: Finnis John
Published: November 2023

This reflective account of Aquinas’ social, political, and legal theory has mostly been within moralis philosophia. That is to say, it has been concerned with the (third) order that practical reasons can bring into one’s deliberations and free choices, rather than with the (first) order of realities which are what they are quite independently of our reasoning about them (ii.i). But no course of reflections could reasonably remain confined to the practical, to third-order considerations.
Further Aspects of Performance
Authors: Rowland-Jones Anthony
Published: November 2023

This chapter is concerned with certain further points of technique and interpretation in relation to the five sonatas considered in Chs. 2-6. The five sonatas are referred to simply by the names of the composers, so ‘the Handel’ means the Handel G minor recorder sonata. The points are dealt with under the following headings: speed, repeats, fingering and interpretation, presentation, working in ensemble, and authenticity. Pre-hearing the right speed before the start of a movement, or before a change of speed, is vital to successful interpretation. ‘The right speed’ does not mean an exact metronome speed, for a movement may be played on the slow side or on the fast side for reasons which involve a considerable exercise of judgement, balancing a variety of factors. Even so, there are limits beyond which a sonata movement becomes too slow or too fast to make musical sense under any circumstances.
Analysis in Context
Authors: Samson Jim
Published: November 2023

Categories of knowledge shape our understanding, and are shaped by it. Categories are selective, and their boundaries, like all boundaries, exclude as they select. Categories are also permeable. Since they are motivated in large part by the need to make knowledge manageable or persuasive in particular contexts, they find or create institutions, lodging within them. This makes them vulnerable, and also contingent. They are subject to revision. Even those primary categories of the mind proposed by some idealist theories of knowledge1 are increasingly viewed within a network of relationships, so that invariants, if they exist at all, are already mediated.
Beyond Privileged Contexts: Intertextuality, Influence, and Dialogue
Authors: Korsyn Kevin
Published: November 2023

One place to begin rethinking music lies at the frontier between text and context, at the threshold where the individual composition meets the surrounding world. Conceiving text and context as a stable opposition promotes a compartmentalization of musical research, dividing the synchronic analysis of internal structure from the diachronic narratives of history. Music analysis treats pieces as closed, static entities, open to history only at the level of abstract paradigms (such as formal archetypes). Since analytical techniques have been developed primarily with respect to autonomous compositions, even music historians, when they analyse music, must use ‘internal’ methods of analysis, as if the piece were created outside time and then parachuted into history. Thus we inhabit a conceptual space ruled by metaphors of ‘inside’ and ‘outside’. You are either ‘inside’ the piece, securing its boundaries through ‘internal’ analysis, or you are ‘outside’, mapping its position with respect to other closed units. You can alternate between internal and external perspectives, tilting like a see-saw, but you can’t occupy both positions at once. The trouble with such binary oppositions, as Jacques Derrida has shown, is that they create ‘a hierarchy and an order of subordination’.
Concepts of Musical Unity
Authors: Maus Fred Everett
Published: November 2023

Unity is a familiar criterion of value for individual musical compositions, especially for eighteenth-and nineteenth-century European instrumental music and related twentieth-century traditions. But recent discussions suggest that the content and status of this criterion may be unclear. Perhaps we do not always know what we mean by ‘musical unity’; perhaps unity (whatever it is) is not as important or as central as we have sometimes believed.
Popular Music, Unpopular Musicology
Authors: Covach John
Published: November 2023

In June of 1956, singer/song-writer and prototypical rock guitarist and performer Chuck Berry released a single entitled ‘Roll Over Beethoven’. A few years before this single became a hit on radios and juke-boxes across the country, a war of cultures had broken out in the United States, a phenomenon often referred to as the ‘teen rebellion’; middle-class American youth were rejecting the culture of their parents, and insisting on creating a culture that addressed their own specific interests and needs. Films such as The Wild One (1953) and Rebel without a Cause (1955) featured youthful principal characters—played by Marlon Brando and James Dean, respectively—in open rebellion against white middle-class values.
Musicology and/as Social Concern: Imagining the Relevant Musicologist
Authors: Locke Ralph P
Published: November 2023

How can a musicologist express her/his social concern? In what ways is her/his work socially relevant? And how might it become more so? Questions of this sort, often phrased in more or less these terms, have recently been raised by a variety of people in our field, as in the following two instances.
What Do We Want to Teach When We Teach Music? One Apology, Two Short Trips, Three Ethical Dilemmas, and Eighty-two Questions
Authors: Koskoff Ellen
Published: November 2023

All of us engaged in the transmission of musical culture today face a central problem: too many competing voices and not enough time or space to accommodate them all. The recent explosion of postmodernist critical theory from musicology, ethnomusicology, gay and lesbian studies, feminist, literary, and cultural criticism, and other disciplines previously thought to be only tangential to the study of music has exposed the hegemony of the dead, white, European, heterosexual, male musical canon; as a result, the canons of women, non-Western peoples, gays and lesbians (to name but a few) have finally been resurrected from their purgatory of otherness.
New Vocal Repertory 2
Authors: Manning Jane
Published: November 2023

The first volume of New Vocal Repertory identified a genuine need, amongst singers and their teachers, for expert help in choosing contemporary repertoire from the often bewildering volume and variety of music available. It is now in regular use in teaching institutions, and many works featured have found a wider audience. This has prompted Jane Manning to produce a further personal selection of over 60 vocal works, recommended for general repertoire. As before, pieces are graded according to their demands on vocal techniques and musicianship. Each is given detailed treatment from both performing and teaching viewpoints, with music examples, programming suggestions, and practical information. The stylistic range is even wider---composers from Norway and New Zealand are featured, and a strong contingent of British and North American composers, including early pioneers as well as young talents. Works in foreign languages are now included, as are pieces for solo voice, and voice and tape. Jane Manning's persuasive advocacy is reinforced by over 30 year's international experience, and over 300 world premieres. This invaluable guide will be warmly welcomed by amateurs and professional alike.
Interlude III: The Linear Flow of Parts in Chorales, and Elsewhere
Authors: Pratt George
Published: November 2023

The powerful driving forces in a perfect cadence led to some comments about the horizontal movement of parts at the beginning of Chapter 2, and Chapter 5 included discussion about doubling major thirds. The opening of this interlude develops these further with some guide-lines for good part-writing: note that these are not ‘rules’—or if they are, composers including those we are studying in detail have all broken them frequently.
Substitutes, Thirds and Steps
Authors: Pratt George
Published: November 2023

We have so far considered in detail progressions involving chord roots moving only P perfect fourth up or a perfect fifth down: the powerful dominant relationship. We have met but not dwelt on chords a third apart and a single step from each other, adjacent. These new relationships can be explained with the help of the concept of ‘substitutes’.
Things that go wrong with the thyroid gland
Authors: Vanderpump Mark P J , Tunbridge W Michael G
Published: November 2023

Certain conditions such as overactivity of the thyroid (hyperthyroidism), in which too much hormone is secreted, and underactivity (hypothyroidism), in which too little hormone is secreted, are specific to the thyroid and produce characteristic symptoms. Other disorders, such as infections, inflammation, and cancer, may occur in other organs as well as the thyroid, but the clinical picture is influenced by the fact that the disease process is taking part in the thyroid.
Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
Authors: Vanderpump Mark P J , Tunbridge W Michael G
Published: November 2023

Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (also known as chronic lymphocytic or autoimmune thyroiditis) is an important and common disease. It is named after the Japanese surgeon who first described it in 1912, but the condition was not properly understood until British doctors discovered thyroid auto-antibodies in 1956. This term is now commonly used to describe the presence of thyroid antibodies in the blood, with or without a goitre.
Cancer of the thyroid gland
Authors: Vanderpump Mark P J , Tunbridge W Michael G
Published: November 2023

The thyroid gland is an uncommon site for cancer to occur, accounting for only about 1 per cent of all cases of cancer. When compared with the incidence of malignant disease elsewhere in the body, thyroid cancer is responsible for less than 0.5 per cent of all deaths from cancer. Each year approximately 900 new cases and 250 deaths due to thyroid cancer are recorded in England and Wales. In the UK, the number of new cases reported is 1–2 per 100 000 people per year. Since 1980, the incidence of thyroid cancer in the USA has been increasing rapidly due in part to more sensitive diagnostic methods which find very small tumours with little or no tendency to progress. Although it may occur at any age, it is most common between the ages of 30 and 60 and, as with other thyroid disorders, it is more common in women than men. The long-term outcome for the majority of people treated effectively is usually favourable. Most thyroid cancers are very treatable and curable; however, there is the possibility of recurrence that can occur at any stage. Recurrences can also be treated successfully so lifelong follow-up is very important. Less than 10 per cent of people with a diagnosis of thyroid cancer die of their disease.
Postwar Poetry and the Purifications of Exile
Authors: Giles Paul
Published: November 2023

In 1973, Philip Larkin produced his edition of the Oxford Book of Twentieth- Century English Verse, seeking to identify a native literary tradition organized around a colloquial idiom whose precursors were Wordsworth, Thomas Hardy, and the Georgian poets. In order to emphasize this lineage, Larkin chose to omit altogether from his anthology the works of Ezra Pound and to minimize the contributions of T. S. Eliot, on the grounds that it was not within the editor ‘s remit to ‘include poems by American or Commonwealth writers, nor poems requiring a glossary for their full understanding ‘.
Global English and the Politics of Traversal
Authors: Giles Paul
Published: November 2023

Although questions about the pertinence of universal values go back far into history, the last quarter of the twentieth century, and particularly the 1990s, saw the emergence of a quite distinctive discourse around the issue of globalization. This was impelled by various factors, the most conspicuous of which were revolutions in communications technology which made the transfer of ideas and commodities across national frontiers much easier, and which in turn left the economies of nation-states more exposed to rapid transfers of global capital by transnational corporations and others.
Charnel Knowledge Open Graves in Shakespeare and Donne
Authors: Schwyzer Philip
Published: November 2023

On an April morning in 1549, Londoners might have observed a long convoy of carts wending its way from the heart of the city to Finsbury Fields on the northern outskirts. Its load consisted entirely of human bones, in almost unimaginable quantities. It reportedly took more than a thousand cart-loads to empty the charnel house of St Paul‘s, the greatest ossuary in England. The last earthly remnants of countless men, women, and children who had lived and died in London over the last four centuries were dumped without ceremony on a marshy patch of ground. Covered over with the filth and refuse of the city, they provided solid foundations for three windmills.
De Diis Syris
Authors: Toomer G J
Published: November 2023

This book, which was probably completed by late 1616, had been in active preparation for at least three years. In their edition of Selden’s letter to Ben Jonson on cross-dressing (dated 28 Feb. 1616) Rosenblatt and Schleiner point out numerous parallels with DS1617. However, the enormous note which Selden attached to his poem in praise of Purchas in the 1613 edition of the latter’s Pilgrimage is essentially a series of excerpts from his forthcoming book.
Natural classes and distinctive features in phonology
Authors: Mielke Jeff
Published: November 2023

Most large cities in North America have an Ethiopian restaurant called “Blue Nile’’. A plausible explanation for this fact is that Blue Nile is an Ethiopian restaurant chain with franchises located throughout North America. There would be some evidence to back up this explanation: the restaurants have similar menus, some have similar decor and background music, and there even appear to be other Ethiopian restaurant chains with names such as “Queen of Sheba” and “Abyssinia” and locations across North America.
Emergent feature theory
Authors: Mielke Jeff
Published: November 2023

Previous chapters have shown that many different phonetic properties can be relevant for defining sound patterns. Innate feature theories typically choose a set of features that is too small to handle all of these sound patterns. By positing no innate features which favor certain phonetic properties over others, emergent feature theory effectively says that any feature is possible, i.e. any feature can emerge. As in innate feature theory, some phonetic properties are expected to be involved in more sound patterns, but they are favored according to the robustness of their phonetic correlates and their propensity for involvement in sound changes that give rise to patterns referring to them.
The emergence of linguistic structure
Authors: Mielke Jeff
Published: November 2023

There are no recorded cases of human rabies in the United States caused by gerbils, chipmunks, guinea pigs, squirrels, mice, rats, rabbits, or hares.1 A plausible explanation for this would be that these animals are unfit hosts for the virus, perhaps because their body temperature is too high. However, Louis Pasteur created the first rabies vaccine by manually infecting rabbits with the virus. If rabbits can carry rabies, then why is it never transmitted to humans by wild rabbits afflicted with the disease? The answer is that a small animal such as the aforementioned rodents and lagomorphs usually cannot survive an attack by a rabid animal. Larger rodents such as beavers and groundhogs (which are large enough to survive an attack) have been reported to carry rabies. So there is a diachronic story for a typological generalization about small animals: there is no naturally occurring event which results in a rabid chipmunk.
Balaklava
Authors: Duberly Frances Isabella , Kelly Christine
Published: November 2023

October-November 1854

After two days on the battlefield at Alma, burying the dead and embarking the sick and wounded for hospitals in Scutari and Constantinople, the Allies continued their advance on Sebastopol. After a flank march around the city they encamped on the Uplands to the south. Raglan’s immediate priority was a safe harbour to land men and equipment for the short siege he now envisaged. He chose Balaclava (which had surrendered on 26 September after firing a few token shots), on the advice of Rear Admiral Lyons the naval second in command (see p. 277, note 1).
The Fall of Sebastopol
Authors: Duberly Frances Isabella , Kelly Christine
Published: November 2023

After the failed attack of 18 June and the death of Raglan, Pelissier dominated the Allied forces. Not only was the French fighting strength greatly superior, allowing him the final word in every council of war, but Simpson, Raglan’s reluctant successor as British commander, was too timid to defy him. The Allies returned to the long-term French strategy: bombarding Sebastopol with mortars and guns to drive the Russians from the south of the city before launching a further attack on the Malakoff, the key to their defences. As before, they inflicted little damage on the fortifications but within the city casualties mounted and hundreds died daily, their sufferings increased by the shortage of medicine and food after the break in the supply lines.
Italy: Creeping Towards Convergence
Authors: Quaglia Lucia , Furlong Paul
Published: November 2023

Italy entered the Euro Area at the eleventh hour, after an eventful journey. This chapter examines Italy’s first decade in the Euro Area. It focuses on two main themes: the increasing Euro scepticism amongst national elites, especially political elites, and amongst public opinion; and the Europeanization of core public policies and institutions, as a direct or indirect consequence of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) and Euro Area membership. Europeanization is identified mainly as a ‘top-down’ process; it concerns the impact of the European Union on its member states (Boerzel and Risse 2003; Radaelli 2003a) or, to be precise, the effects of EU ‘output’ on their politics, policies, and institutions. We are interested in the domestic effects of EMU in Italy in the past decade and in three key comparative questions.
Wages and Collective Bargaining
Authors: Parsons Nick , Pochet Philippe
Published: November 2023

Since the introduction of the euro on 1 January 1999, monetary policy is no longer the preserve of national governments or central banks but of the European Central Bank (ECB). Although fiscal policy remains under the aegis of national governments, European budgetary constraints are present in the form of the Stability and Growth Pact (SGP). Essentially, Euro Area governments can no longer increase the money supply through interest rates or public spending in the hope of soaking up unemployment. In addition, a single European currency deprives national governments of the recourse to currency devaluation as a tool for improving economic competitiveness. Furthermore, a single currency enhances the transparency and comparability of wage levels across the Euro Area states. An additional problem is that the product and financial market integration at the heart of EMU is not mirrored by any federalist fiscal approach. Euro Area states cannot rely on the transfer of funds from one part (state) of the monetary union to another in order to secure adjustment to asymmetric shocks (which affect some states or regions but not the Euro Area as a whole). Given linguistic and cultural obstacles, labor migration is also unlikely to play an adjustment role in a near and medium term, as it can in optimum currency areas (Mundell 1961). Therefore, competitive wage levels and unit costs compared to other states become all the more important for national economic growth and employment.
Making Women’s Medicine Masculine
Authors: Green Monica H
Published: November 2023

Making Women’s Medicine Masculine challenges the common belief that prior to the eighteenth century men were never involved in any aspect of women’s healthcare in Europe. Using sources ranging from the writings of the famous twelfth-century female practitioner, Trota of Salerno, all the way to the great tomes of Renaissance male physicians, and covering both medicine and surgery, this study demonstrates that men slowly established more and more authority in diagnosing and prescribing treatments for women’s gynaecological conditions (especially infertility) and even certain obstetrical conditions. Even if their ‘hands-on’ knowledge of women’s bodies was limited by contemporary mores, men were able to establish their increasing authority in this and all branches of medicine due to their greater access to literacy and the knowledge contained in books, whether in Latin or the vernacular. As Monica Green shows, while works written in French, Dutch, English, and Italian were sometimes addressed to women, nevertheless even these were often re-appropriated by men, both by practitioners who treated women and by laymen interested to learn about the ‘secrets’ of generation. While early in the period women were considered to have authoritative knowledge on women’s conditions (hence the widespread influence of the alleged authoress ‘Trotula’), by the end of the period to be a woman was no longer an automatic qualification for either understanding or treating the conditions that most commonly afflicted the female sex—with implications of women’s exclusion from production of knowledge on their own bodies extending to the present day.
Prudent Semantics Meets Wanton Speech Act Pluralism
Authors: Camp Elisabeth
Published: November 2023

A cautious semanticist will be as minimalist as she can. A minimal theory is lean, clean, and easy to comprehend and implement. Each new parameter we introduce into the theory diminishes these virtues, complicating the lexicon and increasing the theory’s computational burden. By these measures of virtue, Cappelen and Lepore’s semantic theory verges on the saintly. They maintain that only a highly restricted class of expressions, like ‘‘I’’, ‘‘today’’, ‘‘this’’, ‘‘actual’’, and ‘‘local’’, are context-sensitive; they claim that all other expressions, including ‘‘every’’, ‘‘tall’’, and ‘‘good’’, which are widely believed to be context-sensitive, make the same contribution to every sentence in which they occur.
Minimalism and Modularity
Authors: Robbins Philip
Published: November 2023

Semantic minimalism is an austere and sober doctrine. At its core are two claims. First, semantic interpretation is licensed and driven by syntax at every step. There are no unarticulated constituents of propositional content. Second, features of the context of utterance guide the interpretation of only a small class of expressions, namely, those with overtly indexical features. Pragmatic processes, which draw on this contextual information, play only a modest part in semantic interpretation. Advocates of the headier doctrine of contextualism deny both of these claims (Recanati 2004).
Childhood and education
Authors: Hewison Robert
Published: November 2023

art and social critic, was born on 8 February 1819 at 54 Hunter Street, Brunswick Square, London, the only child of John James Ruskin (1785–1864), a sherry importer, and Margaret Cox, formerly Cock (1781–1871), the daughter of a Croydon publican. His parents were first cousins: the intensity of the triangular relationship between father, mother, and son was to have both a creative and a destructive influence on the course of Ruskin’s life. Contradiction governed a career driven by a search for synthesis.
Public education and personal tragedy
Authors: Hewison Robert
Published: November 2023

Ruskin’s inheritance was £157,000, pictures worth at least £10,000, and property in the form of houses and land. He immediately began to disperse this fortune in charitable and philanthropic schemes—notably placing Octavia Hill in charge of some of his houses—but made the unfortunate choice of the fraudulent artistic entrepreneur Charles Augustus Howell as secretary and almoner, although he had seen through him by 1869. He remained tied to his mother (aged eighty-three in 1864), living at Denmark Hill, but the burden was eased by the arrival of his young second cousin once removed Joan (Joanna) Agnew, who became his mother ’s companion.
Combinations and Variation
Authors: Duanmu San
Published: November 2023

A puzzling fact about SC is that the majority of expected syllables are missing, a fact that has rarely caught the attention of Chinese scholars. For example, H. Wang (1999: 283) says that Chinese does not have many gaps in its syllable inventory. To appreciate the enormity of the number of syllables that are missing, consider two ways of counting them. First, let us assume that there is no restriction on consonant–vowel combinations. Ignoring syllabic consonants, a full SC syllable can be made of up to four sounds CGVX, where C is a consonant, G a glide, V a vowel, and X a glide or a consonant. Given nineteen Cs, three Gs, and ve Vs in SC (excluding the retroïex V [ϑ], see Chapter 2), there are twenty choices for C (nineteen consonants or no C), four choices for G (three glides or no G), ve choices for V (not counting the retroïex vowel [ϑ]), and twenty-three choices for X (three glides, nineteen consonants, or no X). This gives 20 × 4 × 5 × 23 = 9,200 syllables, which is roughly the number of monosyllables that occur in English. However, in SC only about 400 are used, hardly 5 per cent.
Substrate Reinforcement
Authors: Siegel Jeff
Published: November 2023

As mentioned in earlier chapters, Melanesian Pidgin (MP) is spoken in three countries of the southwest Pacific, each with its own dialect: Papua New Guinea Tok Pisin, Vanuatu Bislama, and Solomon Islands Pijin. These dialects are differentiated by a number of lexical, phonological, and morphosyntactic features. Clark (1979) and Mühlhäusler (1979, 1985a ) say that MP stabilized in the 1870s and 1880s on the plantations of Queensland and Samoa, while Keesing (1988) proposes an earlier date. However, here I argue that at least some of the salient grammatical features of MP did not stabilize until much later, based on the fact that several variants for these features were still in use until the early twentieth century. It was at this time that more complete stabilization began, and this took place on the internal plantations of the New Guinea islands, the Solomon Islands, and the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu).
The Impact of Political Institutions: A Contribution of the “Comparative Study of Electoral Systems” (CSES) to Micro–Macro Theories of Political Attitude Formation and Voting Behavior
Authors: Klingemann Hans-Dieter
Published: November 2023

Over the past decade (neo-) institutionalism has become the dominant paradigm in political science. The big questions about the emergence and impact of institutions have been brought back on the agenda. While this paradigmatic shift is widely acknowledged, a closer look reveals that the discipline had never stopped dealing with political institutions. Constitutions, election laws, party systems, and related sets of rules and regulations have continuously been studied, serving as dependent or independent variables in theory formation.
Socioeconomic Status and Nonvoting: A Cross-National Comparative Analysis
Authors: Nevitte Neil , Blais André , Gidengil Elisabeth , Nadeau Richard
Published: November 2023

Most empirical research on electoral behavior is based on voting (or nonvoting) patterns in a single country, often in a single election. This chapter draws on the CSES data set to examine the extent to which socioeconomic status (SES) factors explain nonvoting in 23 countries (and 33 elections). The 23 countries included in the analysis are: Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Hong Kong, Hungary, Japan, Israel, Korea, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Taiwan, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Economic Voting: Do Institutions Affect the Way Voters Evaluate Incumbents?
Authors: Nishizawa Yoshitaka
Published: November 2023

A classic reward-punishment model of economic voting is a simple yet powerful tool to explain voting decisions (Goodhart and Bhansali 1970; Key 1966; Kramer 1971; Mueller 1970). It holds that when voters find that an incumbent government has done a good job in controlling the state of the economy during its term, they vote for the incumbent government parties or candidates on election day, and when voters are not happy about the way that incumbents have handled the economy, they vote for the opposition parties or their candidates.
How Voters Cope with the Complexity of Their Political Environment: Differentiation of Political Supply, Effectiveness of Electoral Institutions, and the Calculus of Voting
Authors: Klingemann Hans-Dieter , Weßels Bernhard
Published: November 2023

This analysis focuses on how individual-level vote choice is influenced by macro-contexts, which constitute the voters’ political environment. Are major evaluative criteria for vote choice—such as parties, candidates, and issues—systematically affected by characteristics of political macrocontexts? For example, does it make a difference in the evaluative process if citizens cast their votes in small, single-member constituencies or in large, multimember districts? How do voters cope with the complexity of their political environment? There is growing evidence that voters’ evaluative criteria for electoral behavior are conditioned by the nature of their political environment (Kroh 2003; Paldam 1991). Thus, generally we expect that the political macro-context matters for vote choice .
Institutional Variation and Political Support: An Analysis of CSES Data from 29 Countries
Authors: Listhaug Ola , Aardal Bernt , Ellis Ingunn Opheim
Published: November 2023

The institutionalist turn in political science has become so strong that it is unlikely that many scholars would question that institutions matter. At the same time it is quite obvious that there is an imbalance between theory and empirical research. It is easier to find arguments in favor of institutional effects than to observe systematic evidence in support of such effects. The lack of appropriate empirical research is especially striking in the field of mass politics (Wenzel, Bowler, and Lanoue 2000), where there is scarce data that combine measurement of relevant attitudes and behavior for representative samples of the population, and institutional characteristics for a significant number of countries.
Effectiveness and Political Support in Old and New Democracies
Authors: Thomassen Jacques , Kolk Henk van der
Published: November 2023

Establishing a democracy is one thing, maintaining a stable democratic regime is another. In the current “third wave of democratization,” many new democratic regimes have succeeded nondemocratic regimes (Doorenspleet 2001; Huntington 1991). Most of the old regimes could only prolong their life by suppressing people and relying on violence as an instrument to enforce compliance with the rules and policies of the government. The new democratic regimes almost by definition cannot rely on force, but depend on political support for their survival. Political support, therefore, is a necessary condition for the stability and survival of new democracies.