bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Views of the Past in Irish Vernacular Literature, 1650–1850
Authors: Morley Vincent
Published: February 2012

The Irish Magazine, published monthly between 1807 and 1815 and edited by Watty Cox, was perhaps the earliest periodical to articulate a consistently nationalist view of Ireland's history. Thomas Moore's Irish Melodies, like the Irish Magazine, evoked a strong response from the Irish public. Was their popularity an early manifestation of the romantic nationalism that would be so ubiquitous a generation later? It is hardly possible to open a discussion of historiography in Irish without referring to the synthetic history of Ireland entitled Foras Feasa ar Éirinn (‘A basis of knowledge about Ireland’) written by Geoffrey Keating around the year 1634. None of the factors that would have hindered the propagation of Keating's history applied to the poem Tuireamh na hÉireann. This chapter looks at a number of historical poems that strongly resemble Tuireamh na hÉireann and each other in both form and content, including those composed by Seán Ó Gadhra, Aodh Buí Mac Cruitín, Mac Cumhaigh, and Nicholas Kearney.
Transparency in Historical Perspective
Authors: Hood Christopher
Published: February 2012

Transparency is a term that has attained quasi-religious significance in debate over governance and institutional design. Today, it is pervasive in the jargon of business governance as well as that of governments and international bodies, and has been used almost to saturation point in all of those domains over the past decade. This chapter maps out some of the different strains and meanings of the term and doctrine. Like many other notions of a quasi-religious nature, transparency is more often preached than practised, more often invoked than defined, and indeed might ironically be said to be mystic in essence, at least to some extent. The English philosopher Jeremy Bentham seems to have been the first to use ‘transparency’ in its modern governance-related sense in English. The chapter also discusses transparency in international governance, transparency in national and sub-national government, and transparency and corporate governance.
Transparency as a Human Right
Authors: Birkinshaw Patrick
Published: February 2012

‘Transparency’, ‘openness’, and access to government-held information are widely applauded as remedies for the deficiencies and operations of government where government claims to be democratic but falls short of its rhetoric. This chapter examines whether transparency is a human right, focusing on one of its specific features: access to government information, or freedom of information (FOI). It explains what is meant by FOI and argues that within the framework of internationally agreed concepts of human rights, FOI deserves to be listed with those rights. Not only is FOI instrumental in realizing other human rights such as freedom of speech and access to justice, or other desiderata such as accountability, it is intrinsically important: the right to know how government operates on our behalf. The chapter also discusses constitutionalism and the struggle for information in the United Kingdom.
Beyond Exchanging First Principles? Some Closing Comments
Authors: Hood Christopher
Published: February 2012

This concluding chapter explores four issues. First, what have we learned about transparency and how has it changed? Second, what seems to affect transparency – what accounts for growth or decline in the phenomenon? Third, what does transparency itself affect – what does it do to organizations or to society more generally? Last, what normative view should we take of transparency? Transparency differs from other closely related concepts, particularly openness and freedom of information. What might have been discussed or labelled as accountability, openness, or due process a generation ago may now be talked of as ‘transparency’, but that relabelling might have no deeper significance except to students of the rise and fall of fashionable words and phrases. If the optimistic view of the effects of transparency provisions is that government ministers and bureaucracies adopt a culture of openness, citizens end up knowing more, and trust in democratic government goes up, the data available for assessing such a view are patchy and hard to interpret.
The Fire Temple at Tash-k’irman Tepe, Chorasmia
Authors: BETTS ALISON V. G. , YAGODIN VADIM N.
Published: February 2012

This chapter describes the fire temple in Tash-k'irman Tepe, Chorasmia. The interpretation of the Tash-k'irman Tepe fire temple is problematic, but there is strong enough evidence indicating the apparent parallels with Bronze and Early Iron Age cultic buildings, particularly in Margiana and Media. The Tash-k'irman Tepe temple seems to have its background in a mixture of early southern architectural influences and northern steppic cult practices, reflecting its unique location at the fringes of the settled ancient world, surrounded by steppe and desert.
The UK Occupational Pension System in Crisis
Authors: Clark Gordon L.
Published: February 2012

The crisis in occupational pensions in Britain extend beyond coverage rates and benefit levels. Private-sector sponsors of existing defined-benefit plans face an uncertain future notwithstanding the establishment in 2005 of the Pension Protection Fund. As for the public sector, the unfunded status of many defined-benefit plans raises significant doubts about their long-term viability. Whatever happens to the Turner Report, the pension crisis has just begun; it is bound to dominate domestic politics for another generation. Most private sector employees do not have access to social security entitlements while public sector employees may see their entitlements passed back to central government to become yet another liability on an already overburdened state. This chapter examines the crisis in the British occupational pension system, the link between pensions and modern capitalism, corporate capitalism in a global environment, lessons for public policy, capital market efficiency and occupational pensions in the public sector.
Continuing Ethnic Segmentation in Austria
Authors: KOGAN IRENA
Published: February 2012

Austria has fairly complex patterns of post-World War II immigration. In addition to classic labour migrants from Turkey and the former Yugoslavia, there have been considerable inflows of refugees and displaced persons, such as Hungarians or Czechs migrating to Austria from communist countries as well as more recent refugee groups from the Middle East and Africa. The second generation of labour migrant groups have made considerable progress in education compared with the first generation, but, unlike the other two groups, still lag some way behind their native Austrian counterparts. They also continue to experience considerable ethnic penalties in the labour market, especially in access to the salariat. These penalties may be due partly to discrimination but also to the fact that people who do not hold Austrian citizenship are excluded from public sector (‘Beamte’) jobs, many of which are in the salariat.
Introduction
Authors: Mercer Wendy S.
Published: February 2012

Xavier Marmier's vast output, the variety of his achievements, and his celebrity status made him an influential figure in nineteenth-century France. In retrospect, his greatest achievement was probably as an initiator in bringing an awareness of foreign literatures and cultures to France; but his contribution is so vast that it is impossible to summarise it succinctly. Although he is now generally neglected, his name still occurs quite frequently, most often in studies of comparative literature analysing the introduction of a particular author or culture to France. Some of his travel narratives are slowly being recognised today as important social documents of the ways in which people lived in particular countries.
Germany (1832–5): ‘la rêveuse, la poétique, la mélancolique Allemagne’1
Authors: Mercer Wendy S.
Published: February 2012

Marmier spent some two years in the German-speaking world, with Leipzig as his base, returning only briefly to France in the intervening period. Immersing himself in the language and culture of these countries, Marmier met a number of the great literary figures of the day including Tieck, Schwab, Uhland, the brothers Grimm, Chamisso, Holtei, and many others. The publications resulting from his work here established his reputation as an exceptional linguist, travel writer, literary critic, and translator. However, it was Marmier's work on Goethe which really sealed his reputation as a literary critic in France. In retrospect, this chapter argues that he must be viewed as the most influential figure in Franco-German literary relations of the era.
Denmark (1837): ‘le bon, le noble pays du Danemark’1
Authors: Mercer Wendy S.
Published: February 2012

The year 1837 marked a new departure for Marmier to the Scandinavian countries: an extended journey over the next eighteen months took him to Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Lapland. This visit brought him into contact with a number of important figures from all spheres of society, notably the literary and the political, but also the scientific, the artistic, and the world of learning. It resulted in an outstanding series of publications, marking Marmier as the most influential Franco-Scandinavian intermediary of the era. In addition to the above, this chapter describes the contents of the Histoire de la littérature scandinave, dealing much with Danish literature.
The Early Swedish Experience (1837–8): ‘jours de paix, d’étude, d’amour’1
Authors: Mercer Wendy S.
Published: February 2012

Marmier's residence in Denmark from May to December 1837 was broken by a two-month visit to Sweden and Norway in June and July. In the course of this preliminary short stay, he made fleeting visits to Lund, Växsjö, Uppsala, Stockholm, Dannemora, Falun, and Christiania. Marmier returned to Sweden early in January 1838, where he worked principally in Stockholm and Uppsala before travelling on to Trondheim via Christiania in May to join La Recherche for its next expedition. The first visit was spent predominantly in finding his feet and in establishing contacts, while the second involved more intensive study and consolidation. Marmier visited Sweden again briefly in 1839 on his return from Lapland, and again in 1842 on his way to Russia.
Dynastic Change and Institutional Administration in Southern Mesopotamia in the Later Third Millennium BCE: Evidence from Seals and Sealing Practices
Authors: Zettler Richard L.
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the evolution of seal imagery and sealing practices in southern Mesopotamia during the latter half of the third millennium BCE or the late Early Dynastic period and succeeding Dynasty of Agade and Third Dynasty of Ur. It describes changes in glyptic imagery as well as sealing practices and elucidates the timing of those changes. It concludes that seal imagery and sealing practices were not static, but evolved over the course of the late third millennium and that the introduction of new imagery and changing administrative practices were gradual and seemingly lagged decades behind dynastic change.
The Mesopotamian ‘Rod and Ring’: Icon of Righteous Kingship and Balance of Power between Palace and Temple
Authors: Slanski Kathryn E.
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the so-called ‘rod and ring’, the identified symbol of the balance of power between the two premier institutions of ancient Mesopotamia, the palace and the temple. It proposes an identification of the ‘rod and ring’ that is rooted in the indigenous Mesopotamian conceptualization of justice. It suggests that the ‘rod and ring’ scene in royal monuments also signified righteous kingship sanctified by the gods and it communicated an aspect of the enduring relationship between the palace and the temple which served to secure the institutional continuity that endured throughout more than three millennia of regime change.
The Hyksos in Egypt 1600 bce: New Rulers without an Administration
Authors: Quirke Stephen
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the Hyksos' rule of ancient Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. It explains that during this period, the strongest centre of population and power in the country appears to be Tell el-Daba and that its rulers entered the Egyptian hieroglyphic record as heqau-khasut which later came to be known as Hyksos. It describes the late middle kingdom administration, the administration of Egypt in the Second Intermediate Period, the institutions from middle kingdom into new kingdom.
Regime Change in Iraq from the Mongols to the Present: an Essay in haute vulgarisation
Authors: Sluglett Peter
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines continuity and change in Iraq from the mid-thirteenth century to the present, with special reference to royal ideology and administrative practices. It explains that during these six centuries, Iraq underwent a series of major upheavals but a degree of continuity was preserved through a succession of unrelentingly catastrophic events. It describes the incorporation of Iraq into the Mongol domains and then it came under the control of a semi-sedentary principality based first in eastern Anatolia and later in Tabriz.
Patrick Lancaster Gardiner 1922–1997
Authors: DENHAM A. E.
Published: February 2012

Patrick Lancaster Gardiner is best known and most widely esteemed for his work on the nature of historical explanation. By addressing the problem of the limits of objectivity in relation to a variety of philosophical issues, he presciently identified the source of a number of philosophical disputes well before they had properly developed. This was certainly the case in Gardiner's treatment of historical explanation, and it is true also of his later treatment of the claims of the personal versus the impersonal in ethical life.
Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell 1937–2004
Authors: CROFT PAULINE
Published: February 2012

Conrad Russell, historian of 16th and 17th-century Britain, possessed a remarkable memory and could quote at length from other documents to give point and context to new material. His enthusiasm was contagious. History was not only an academic pursuit of great rigour, but also a pleasure shared between like-minded friends. Throughout his academic career Russell was a devoted tutor, and his students felt the vibrancy of engaging directly with a historian who was posing new questions in his own field. The book that made his name was his brilliant 1979 monograph, Parliaments and English Politics 1621–1629.
Becoming Human: the Archaeological Challenge
Authors: RENFREW COLIN
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the attempts of pinpointing the origins of humans, i.e. Homo sapiens sapiens. Due to the recent advances in archaeology, specifically in archaeogenetics, it has been determined that the Homo sapiens sapiens originated in Africa 200,000 years ago, and that the speciation phase of human development occurred before that time. The chapter shows that cognitive archaeology would need to analyse more carefully the nature of mind, as well as seek further insight into the processes that underlie the achievements that characterise those different trajectories of development and change.
Celtic Studies
Authors: Koch John T.
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the history and developments in Celtic studies in Great Britain during the twentieth century. In recent times medieval Celtic studies have attracted great numbers of amateur enthusiast and this is partly because antiquarian Romanticism of the eighteenth and earlier nineteenth centuries implanted indelible notions about the Celts in the popular imagination. However, because of a lack of synthetic histories of the discipline and of widespread and early language training in the late twentieth century, it is hard to imagine a realistic university curriculum that could bring today's students to the point of reconsidering Celtic philology from a philosophical standpoint or within the history of ideas.
Chinese and Japanese Studies
Authors: Birrell Anne
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines British work on Chinese and Japanese studies. It explains that for a significant part of the twentieth century British sinologists have been trendsetters worldwide in the field of medieval studies. Most of the British research focused on Tun-huang studies, the Taoist canon, Buddhist temple art, Chinese landscape painting, Sung porcelain and Chinese poetry. This chapter also stresses the need to examine the concepts of gender and egalitarianism with the framework of current trends in medieval sinology.
German Studies
Authors: Flood John L.
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines British scholarship with respect to German studies during the twentieth century. It explains that until 1925 the only work of modern German literature studied for the Modern and Medieval Languages Tripos at Cambridge was Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust. It also highlights the danger that medieval German studies may face an increasingly bleak future in British universities, where not only the larger subject of German studies itself has changed but consumerist philosophies and appeals to modernity have undermined traditional values.
Romance Studies 1: Francophone Studies
Authors: Hunt Tony
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the history and developments in Francophone studies in Great Britain during the twentieth century. It explains that the study of Old French in Great Britain began very soon after the establishment of chairs of French in British universities and that as the last decade of the twentieth century dawned, twenty-nine British universities were teaching Old French as a component of a French degree course and 90 per cent of them as an obligatory element involving sixty-two specialist teachers. This trend suggests the continuing vigour of Anglo-Norman studies, which had already run such a successful course since the beginning of the century.
Romance Studies 2: Hispanic Literatures
Authors: Hart Thomas R.
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the history and developments in the study of medieval Hispanic literatures in Great Britain during the twentieth century. It explains that the importance of Hispanic studies in British universities increased greatly after the end of the First World War and that by 1925 there were four professorships in Spanish studies. The first chair of Spanish studies in Cambridge was J.B. Trend. Other notable British hispanists include William James Entwistle and Gerald Brenan.
Musicology
Authors: Fallows David
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the achievements of Great Britain in medieval musicology during the twentieth century. British universities came to musicology very late and it was only in the 1950s that serious university study of musical history began. The earliest British position specifically denoted as ‘in musicology’ was the Readership awarded to Pierluigi Petrobelli at King's College London in 1975. Some of the key British musicologists include Charles Burney, Sir John Hawkins and Francis Galpin.
The Study of Medieval Art 2: 1950–2000
Authors: Alexander Jonathan J. G.
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the history of the study of medieval art in Great Britain during the period from 1950 to 2000. The British Academy created a separate section for History of Art and Music, but in many quarters art history was still thought of as the province of the amateur art-lover rather than an object of serious study. Only the Courtland Institute continued to be the only institution in England offering undergraduate and graduate degrees. The situation changed in the 1960s and 1970s when all branches of the discipline experienced major growth in the areas of conservation studies and art-book publishing.
Legacies: Socialism, Aesthetics, and the Modernist Generation
Authors: Livesey Ruth
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the afterlife of 1880s socialism in the early modernist generation. It focuses upon Virginia Woolf and Roger Fry and examines their negotiations with the productive, engaged aesthetics of those Bloomsbury socialists before the Bloomsbury Group. Both Woolf and Fry had significant relations with writers examined in earlier chapters of this work. Woolf's writings concerning the Women's Co-operative Guild reflect her rejection of the socially engaged and productive aesthetics of that generation in favour of a radical statement of aesthetic autonomy and the individualism of the artist. Meanwhile, Roger Fry's aesthetics strained between a belief in a democracy of aesthetic responsiveness and a conscious attempt to rewrite the aesthetic legacy of Ruskin and Morris. In the debacle that surrounded Wyndham Lewis's secession from Fry's collective Omega Workshops, however, Lewis himself sexed Fry's aesthetics as effeminate traces of the fin de siècle.
Delivering Justice in Qing China
Authors: Liang Linxia
Published: February 2012

Traditional Chinese law, including Qing law, was often criticized as being inapplicable in civil trials, and it was often believed that the magistrate's court preferred mediation rather than decision-making. This volume challenges these views. With a detailed analysis of the Qing law codes and of 100 nineteenth-century case records from Baodi county, the volume examines much-debated issues such as the approach of Qing law to civil and criminal matters, punishment and mediation in civil trials, Confucius' preference for education and the idea of anti-litigation. This book brings a lawyer's perspective to some of the most debated issues in Chinese legal history.
Submitting and Receiving a Complaint in Minor Matters
Authors: Liang Linxia
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses how to submit and receive a complaint in minor matters. It examines the jurisdiction for accepting a complaint, specifically the jurisdiction of magistrates. The next section covers the requirement concerning time limits for submitting and receiving a petition, followed by a discussion of petitioners and their agents, scriveners, and litigation masters. The proper form of the complaint and submitting and receiving a complaint are discussed in the last portion of the chapter.
Cases and Judicial Decisions Concerning Debt
Authors: Liang Linxia
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the magistrate's performance in solving debt cases. The material covered by debt disputes illustrates how the lives of individuals are interrelated, especially with respect to commercial activities. The chapter cites certain cases from Baodi and Ba counties, and provides a general idea of the pattern of debt cases in Baodi.
Prologue: kim kurukuru taratara
Authors: Crook Tony
Published: February 2012

The presented experimental ethnography of an exchange between two knowledge-making practices is the story of a man who tried to see properly. The existence of the ‘Min problem’ may not be widely recognized, but there are thoroughgoing consequences for anthropological knowledge in coming to terms with such a spectacular failure of analysis. Barth's rubric of ‘secrecy’ amongst the Baktaman has enjoyed an extended paradigmatic reign in the Min area, and remains unchallenged. This book specifically provides a solution to the ‘Min problem’. The analysis reveals a novel vantage point on the Min more widely, and uses this to afford a novel vantage point on Anthropology – and sets up an exchange between them. It also discusses the ethnographic field of connections, tensions, and causes constituting Bolivip by first setting the scene through a series of events in late 1994 and, second, by rehearsing an ethnographic moment that is adopted as a model for the methodological exchange. An overview of the chapters included in this book is given.
miit
Authors: Crook Tony
Published: February 2012

Fakam lies a day's walk from the more permanently used houses in Bolivip, and this occasional house was temporarily occupied through various comings and goings for many weeks whilst mature taro gardens were harvested and new gardens were cleared and planted. Bolivip divides the forest in several ways: by elevation between hot and cold places where most crops and pandanus are tended, and the high cloud forest; and by usage between primary forest, gardens, old garden sites, spirit sites, and house clearings. An entirely new variety of taro is found having spontaneously emerged amongst broken ground in some unfamiliar part of the forest. Kinim miit relations are sometimes imaged as a tree.
Methodology After the Event: Weiner, Symbolic Obviation, and the Foi and Strathern, Gender of the Gift, and the Hagen moka
Authors: Crook Tony
Published: February 2012

This chapter provides two ethnographic examples of anthropologists reflexively incorporating Melanesian aesthetics and energetics into their interpretations by making distinctive borrowings from Melanesian practices. In James F. Weiner's portrayal, Foi perceive the world as constituted by various forms of ‘a flow of vital energies, forces and relationships’. He suggests that men and women engage flow in distinctive ways. Foi takes human sociality, its ‘rules’, as ‘given’ or ‘innate’. Marilyn Strathern's The Gender of the Gift: Problems with Women and Problems with Society in Melanesia presents an original line of theoretical reasoning prompted by an ‘impasse in [the] comparative anthropology of Melanesia’. Mt Hagen is the ground by which The Gender of the Gift is figured. Strathern shares Ongka's awareness that exchanges are dependent upon producers: a husband with moka ambitions has to be an equally enthusiastic sweet-potato gardener, helping his wife to provide fodder for the pigs she will grow into prestigious gifts. An effect of The Gender of the Gift has been that much of what it has to teach has been incorporated by Melanesianists.
eip
Authors: Crook Tony
Published: February 2012

Three young brothers were bouncing up and down on the wobbly verandah of their house in Bolivip, rejoicing the name of their newly acquired hunting dog. These boys had yet to be shown either the residential men's house or the yolam cult house, and remained wanang am alin (‘those of the women's house’). Taros grow head down, bottom up – but once harvested and severed, the corm's flat top is spoken of as the taro's ‘head’. They are planted offset at a slight angle. Walking through the old garden where his mother and grandmother were lifting taros, one of Recky's teenage rejoicers paused by a growing plant and described the taro leaf as a face, with ears, eyes, nose, and tongue. The now-successful gardener explained that the taram was shaped by Afek following and copying the image of her genitals. Listening to those taram mouth-harp songs of birds, women, and water, Recky's follower–owner father explained how the Feranmin man was following the same path that he himself used when out hunting marsupials with his dog. Angkaiyakmin knowledge it seems is necessarily the result of combined persons and takes the form of persons combined.
Some Recent Issues in the Study of the History of Israel
Authors: GRABBE LESTER L.
Published: February 2012

A lot of people write on the history of ancient Israel, from biblical scholars to archaeologists and social scientists. However, most such writers are not historians and often do not understand what a proper historical investigation should look like. This has been the bane of the history of Israel: that most of those who write on history are ultimately not interested in history as such. This chapter examines some issues relating to scholarly debate that are not always understood because they relate to approaches and attitudes, yet which are often more important in the direction taken by debate than the actual issues of data and specific scholarly method. These issues include minimalism vs. maximalism, whether the United Monarchy ever existed, ad hominem arguments by conservative evangelicals, and the forgery of antiquities.
Social History of Ancient Israel
Authors: RAINER ALBERTZ
Published: February 2012

The historical approach to the Bible with explicit reference to the social sciences (including sociology, cultural anthropology, archaeology, economics, social psychology, and political science) became popular among biblical scholars and archaeologists during the 1970s, often induced by social turmoil in several countries. Any endeavour to reconstruct a societal development according to a sociological or anthropological model without using as much historical data as possible, be it from textual, iconographic, or archaeological sources, is very risky. Sociological models will never reach the degree of unambiguity that is a distinguishing feature of scientific models. Therefore, a model that is not permanently tested against data can be misleading. This chapter discusses the social history of ancient Israel, arguing for a careful balance between sociological theory and anthropological knowledge on the one hand, and exegetical and historical investigation on the other. It also examines social-historical perspectives on the early monarchy in Israel and Judah up to the ninth century, along with social-historical perspectives on problems associated with religion and politics during the period.
The Transition to Late Antiquity
Authors: POULTER A. G.
Published: February 2012

In recent years, there has been a revival of interest in Late Antiquity and especially in observing — and trying to account for — the changes and evolutions which separate the Roman world from the early medieval successor states in the West, and the Byzantine Empire in the East. Most historians, once mistrustful of archaeology's potential role, now accept that this relatively new discipline can contribute substantially to the study of the ancient past. However, archaeology, like history, is constrained by its own limitations: excavation can provide no answers to questions not rooted in the data it extracts from the ground. This chapter, and the chapters which follow, cover a wide spectrum of issues, going beyond the problem of continuity or collapse on the lower Danube. Modern research programmes operating within the region and further afield, both in the northern Balkans and in Asia Minor, are analyzed. Cities and urbanism in the Roman Empire are discussed.
The Transition to Late Antiquity on the Lower Danube: the City, a Fort and the Countryside
Authors: POULTER A. G.
Published: February 2012

After excavations carried out on the site of Nicopolis ad Istrum in Bulgaria, the results were used to reconstruct the city's physical and economic character from its foundation under Trajan down to the end of the sixth century. The incentive for the subsequent programme, ‘The Transition to Late Antiquity’, was the discovery that the city was replaced by a very different Nicopolis, both in layout and economy, during the fifth century. A site-specific survey method was developed to explore the countryside. The survey discovered that the Roman villa economy collapsed late in the fourth century. The excavations on the site of the late Roman fort at Dichin provided an unexpected but invaluable insight into the regional economy and military situation on the lower Danube in the fifth and sixth centuries. The results of both these two research projects are summarized and an explanation proposed as to how and why there was such a radical break between the Roman Empire and its early Byzantine successor on the lower Danube.
The Lower Danube Region under Pressure: from Valens to Heraclius
Authors: LIEBESCHUETZ J. H. W. G.
Published: February 2012

This chapter describes developments in the territory north of the Haemus mountains — included in the late Roman provinces of Moesia Superior, Dacia Ripensis, Moesia Inferior and Scythia Minor — from the late fourth to the early seventh century. It examines the impact of the Gothic war of 376–382 and the successive destructive invasions by Goths, Huns, Avars, Sclavenes and Slavs of 441 and 447 on these provinces. It also looks at attempts to restore the defences and settlements of the region from the late fifth century onwards, particularly in the reign of emperor Justinian (527–565). Periods of invasion were followed by phases of peace and reconstruction, but recovery never came even close to restoring the territory to its condition before these invasions. By the end of the first quarter of the seventh century, the Roman organization of the area had been wiped out.
The Two Anglo-Bulgarian Research Programmes and the Results of the Bulgarian Excavations
Authors: SLOKOSKA L.
Published: February 2012

In 1985, archaeologists from Bulgaria and Britain began a collaborative work with the initiation of two complementary projects. The first one was entitled ‘The Roman and late Roman city; Nicopolis ad Istrum’ (1985–1992) when the archaeological research of both teams was concentrated upon the Roman city and its late antique successor. The ‘City of Victory’ was founded by the emperor Trajan and is one of the largest archaelogical sites in the Balkans. The second programme represents a continuation and an expansion of the first and was entitled ‘The city and the village in the Roman and late Roman Empire: Nicopolis ad Istrum and nucleated settlement in its territory’ (1996–2002). It initiated work on the site of the late antique fortified settlement near the village of Dichin. Nicopolis, like the other cities in Thrace, was organized according to the Greek model, on similar lines to those found in the cities of Asia Minor. This influence is reflected in the character of the town, its plan, its agora and in its principal buildings.
The Late Roman Agora and the State of Civic Organization
Authors: VLADKOVA P.
Published: February 2012

The second half of the third century marks an important period in the history of Lower Moesia and the Balkans. It coincides with the economic and political crisis which spread across the Roman Empire and affected all levels of society. This chapter reviews the evidence for the character of the agora in Nicopolis ad Istrum during the late Roman and early Byzantine periods. First, it explains the historical context and then describes the epigraphic finds — which cease with the reign of Aurelian. It also details the coins that were discovered and their implications for continued use of the agora during the fourth century and on into the fifth and sixth centuries. Even so, archaeological excavations have demonstrated that there is no reason to believe that the agora served its original purpose beyond the middle of the fifth century, when flimsy structures were erected over the remains of the former civic centre. Occupation is still attested during the first half of the sixth century before the remaining buildings were destroyed by fire.
Seeds of Destruction: Conflagration in the Grain Stores of Dichin
Authors: GRINTER P.
Published: February 2012

This chapter reviews the preliminary results and methodology used in the archaeobotanical research programme at Dichin, a multi-period late Roman site in Bulgaria. The remarkable state of preservation of in situ deposits, especially from the destruction level dating to the end of the fifth century, provided an ideal opportunity to integrate fully the process of excavation with the recovery and examination of the seed material in order to research, not just the agricultural economy of the site, but also to reconstruct the spatial distribution of the finds and their association within particular buildings (granaries, store-buildings and living accommodation). Archaeological excavations were carried out at Dichin between 1996 and 2001. The excavations targeted defences, gateways, buildings and a road revealed by remote survey. Many of the buildings within the area were used for storing cereals and pulses. In addition, the lack of weed seeds or processing waste indicates that the crops were all at the final stage of processing and were in storage prior to distribution or use.
The Transformation of Cities in Late Antiquity within the Provinces of Macedonia and Epirus
Authors: SODINI J.-P.
Published: February 2012

The provinces of Epirus and Macedonia, although divided into distinct regions by their mountains, were important for the Roman Empire, particularly because they were crossed by the via Egnatia which snaked its way eastwards, serving as the vital link between Rome and Constantinople at a time when insecurity was increasing along the Danubian frontier. From the middle of the third century, cities in this part of the Empire were under threat and their fortifications were reinforced in the fifth (Thessalonika) and sixth centuries (Byllis under Justininian). There was prosperity in the fourth century and beginning of the fifth. During the fifth century, the houses of Philippi were partly transformed into workshops. The sixth century was difficult and the second half was especially bleak. However, contacts between east and west were still maintained, along with local production. From 540–550, however, barbarian invasions and plague worsened the general situation. Graves appeared inside the city walls. Archaeology (Slav pottery and fibulae) and texts (Miracula Sancti Demetrii) all demonstrate how hard times were from the 580s to the 630s.
The Fort of Iatrus in Moesia Secunda: Observations on the Late Roman Defensive System on the Lower Danube (Fourth–Sixth Centuries ad)
Authors: VON BÜLOW GERDA
Published: February 2012

The seven years of excavation on Dichin (Bulgaria) have made a significant contribution to our understanding of the fifth century AD, a period that is still regarded as a ‘dark age’. The fort of Iatrus was situated in the province of Moesia Secunda, where Dichin is also located. Founded at the beginning of the fourth century, the fort was several times destroyed and then rebuilt over the 300 years of its existence until it was finally abandoned c.AD 600. What is not clear is whether Iatrus' role as a part of the Roman frontier (limes) on the lower Danube belongs to the final period in the history of the Roman Empire or whether it belongs to the early development of the Byzantine State. This chapter examines whether the archaeological discoveries at Iatrus, combined with the fragmentary literary sources for the fort, suggest a gradual transition or a radical break between Late Antiquity and the early Byzantine period.
Geophysical Survey and Rural Settlement Architecture on the Lower Danube at the Transition to Late Antiquity
Authors: BOYD M. J.
Published: February 2012

One of the key aims of the ‘Transition to Late Antiquity’ research programme has been to collect a systematic data sample in order to examine local patterns and disparities at a regional level. In this project, an understanding of inter- and intra-settlement patterns of occupation is primarily acquired by calculating total density distributions of surface material, but for the examination of individual architectural units and the relationships between them, a geophysical survey has been used because of its particular ability to provide detailed information about subsurface features over a large area without excavation. This chapter describes the approach and methodology employed in the geophysical surveys carried out to assess rural settlement patterns in Bulgaria (lower Danube) as part of the ‘Transition to Late Antiquity’ research programme. Examples of particular surveys — which in general have proved remarkably successful — are used to illustrate the results.
Another View on Late Antiquity: Sagalassos (SW Anatolia), its Suburbium and its Countryside in Late Antiquity
Authors: VANHAVERBEKE H. , MARTENS F. , WAELKENS M.
Published: February 2012

Survey evidence gathered in the city of Sagalassos (Pisidia, southwestern Turkey), its suburbs, and its countryside has led to new insights into developments in the region in Late Antiquity. Coupled with the results from archaeological excavations, soundings and interdisciplinary research, a reconstruction can be made of what happened during the last centuries of the city's existence. Framing the observed changes in a larger chronological perspective, another view emerges on the fate of the city and its countryside in Late Antiquity. Terms such as ‘decline’, ‘fall’ and ‘transformation’ relate to cities and do not adequately describe contemporary evolution in the countryside. An urgent call for rural surveys is advocated to avoid the perpetuation of the intellectual trap created by this urban-centred approach.
Trakhtemirov: A Fortified City site on the Dnieper
Authors: BOLTRIK YU. V. , FIALKO E. E.
Published: February 2012

This chapter focuses on Trakhtemirov, one of the most important ancient settlements of the Early Iron Age in the Ukraine. During the ancient period, the trade routes and caravans met at Trakhtemirov which was situated over the three crossing points of the Dneiper. Its location on the steep heights assured residents of Trakhtemirov security of settlement. On three sides it was protected by the course of the Dnieper while on the other side it was defended by the plateau of the pre-Dneiper elevation. The ancient Trakhtemirov city is located around 100 km below Kiev, on a peninsula which is jutted into the river from the west. Trakhtemirov in the Early Iron Age was important as it was the site of the Cossack capital of Ukraine. It was also the site of the most prestigious artefacts of the Scythian period and a site for various items of jewellery, tools and weaponry. The abundance of artefacts in Trakhtemirov suggests that the city is a central place among the scattered sites of the middle course of the Dneiper.
Social and Economic Issues in the Development of Steppe Scythia
Authors: GAVRILYUK N. A.
Published: February 2012

Studies of the social and economic issues of the early societies emerged from the encounter of archaeology with other disciplines which are concerned with the sociological aspects of traditional societies. The study of Scythia or Scythology offers an extensive material that makes it a primary model of socio-economic models. This chapter aims to determine the specific features of the socio-economic development and structure of Scythia. It examines the changes in Scythia and Scythian economic history. It reviews the concepts of unity or lack of unity in Scythia to provide a better understanding on the key problems of the social, political, and economic history of Scythia. It also discusses the issues surrounding the statehood of steppe Scythians. The emphasis of the chapter is on the economic framework and the features of the development of the nomadic society in the Early Iron Age as represented in the archaeology of the Scythian culture.
Introduction
Authors: Hoock Holger
Published: February 2012

This introductory chapter first sets out the purpose of the book, which arose out of a symposium held at the British Academy in January 2006, on the weekend after the bicentenary of the state funeral of Admiral Lord Nelson at St Paul's Cathedral, and thus at the conclusion of a year which had seen hundreds of official, commercial, and popular events commemorating and celebrating the bicentenary of the Battle of Trafalgar and the death of Nelson. The book assembles the revised versions of the papers delivered at the symposium along with three specially commissioned essays. An overview of these essays is presented.
Marking Time
Authors: Jordanova Ludmilla
Published: February 2012

This chapter reflects critically on ‘marking time’ — the complex and interlinked notions of remembrance, celebration, honouring, and commemoration. It unpacks some of the assumptions about periodization and the nature of historical agency bound up with commemoration, and tackles the difficult notions of ‘identification’ and ‘honouring’. It exhorts professional historians to subject all these to critical analysis when engaging with public history.
Nelson the Hero and Horatio the Lover: Projections of the Myth in Canada, the Cinema, and Culture
Authors: MacKenzie John M.
Published: February 2012

This chapter extends the perspective on 1905 into a British and imperial dimension and traces resonances and reverberations of the Nelson myth as an imperial and international hero in both Britain and Canada. It also explores the treatment of Nelson in 20th-century international cinema.
The Battle of Austerlitz, Collective Amnesia, and the Non-Commemoration of Napoleon in France
Authors: Hicks Peter
Published: February 2012

French reception of the fully bilingual exhibition ‘Nelson & Napoléon’ was limited, and — in parallel with much British coverage — in good part focused on questions of national identity in ways that ignored or undermined the organizers' intentions. This chapter reflects on the absence of official commemoration in France of the Napoleonic bicentenaries. It discusses the complex role of Napoleon in French history, memory, and public history today.
Introduction
Authors: KERR DAVID , FEI LIU
Published: February 2012

An international conference was held in London in April 2006 to examine the different dimensions of the emerging political and security relationship between the EU and China. Organized jointly by a British and a Chinese partner under the guidance of the British Academy's International Relations Department, the conference brought together European, Chinese and international academics, analysts and policymakers. The papers in this volume reflect the diverse discussions at the conference. The first section of this book addresses the important question of strategic identities and behaviour. From considerations of grand strategy, the second section turns to the role of society and governments in the European–Chinese relationship. The third section discusses attempts to approach this question by examining problems and prospects for European–Chinese engagement in regional and global governance. The final section presents different longer-term perspectives on EU–China relations.
The EU and China: Partners in Effective Multilateralism?
Authors: ODGAARD LISELOTTE , BISCOP SVEN
Published: February 2012

This chapter considers the EU's ambition to enmesh China in a system of effective multilateralism in pursuit of global public goods. It notes that China's position on both multilateralism and universal goods to be contingent: China favours these engagements and goals to the extent that they restrain and commit others, but is much more conservative if they require restraint or commitment on its own part. China's reservations derive mostly from the behaviour of the United States: if the world's predominant military and economic power is a contingent multilateralist, can the rising power of China do otherwise? Until there is more evidence to the contrary, this chapter concludes that China's commitment to multilateralism cannot form a ‘reliable basis for long-term EU policy planning towards China’.
China and the EU: Science and Technology Cooperation as a Binding Factor in Partnership
Authors: YANG YANG
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the possibilities for building a science and technology foundation to the EU–China relationship. China and Europe face quite different societal changes in the next twenty years but, for both, science and technology (S&T) is part of the solution: China must embrace technology in order to deal with the problems of rapid but uneven growth, not least as they contribute to human and environmental insecurity; Europe must embrace technology to deal with weak growth, demographic contraction, and declining productivity. Moreover, many of the dimensions of these problems extend beyond bilateral and multilateral relations to questions of global governance. Therefore, the China–Europe strategic partnership on knowledge-based growth and development will become an important facet of their interaction in the next generation.