bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of Precipitation Uncertainty on Discharge Calculations for Main River Basins
Authors: Biemans H. , Hutjes R. W. A. , Kabat P. , Strengers B. J. , Gerten D. , Rost S.
Published: December 2008

This study quantifies the uncertainty in discharge calculations caused by uncertainty in precipitation input for 294 river basins worldwide. Seven global gridded precipitation datasets are compared at river basin scale in terms of mean annual and seasonal precipitation. The representation of seasonality is similar in all datasets, but the uncertainty in mean annual precipitation is large, especially in mountainous, arctic, and small basins. The average precipitation uncertainty in a basin is 30%, but there are strong differences between basins. The effect of this precipitation uncertainty on mean annual and seasonal discharge was assessed using the uncalibrated dynamic global vegetation and hydrology model Lund–Potsdam–Jena managed land (LPJmL), yielding even larger uncertainties in discharge (average 90%). For 95 basins (out of 213 basins for which measurements were available) calibration of model parameters is problematic because the observed discharge falls within the uncertainty of the simulated discharge. A method is presented to account for precipitation uncertainty in discharge simulations.
Making Drugs Affordable for the Poor in a Tertiary Care Hospital
Authors: Singh Om Prakash , Bapna Jawahar S.
Published: December 2008

The public sector health care facilities are expected to provide health care services including medicines at low costs. The costs are escalating and the poor population is unable to afford them. The most important factor for high costs is prescribing of expensive newer drugs irrationally due to the pressure of pharmaceutical companies. An attempt to promote rational prescribing through interventions, such as essential drugs lists, clinical protocols and training has not been very effective. The margin of profit manufacturer to retailers is high. Two attempts to supply medicines at low cost, one through a not-for-profit association, Rajasthan Medicare Relief Society (RMRS) and the other through a public sector undertaking, Rajasthan State Consumer Cooperative Federation (COOPS) are described. Quantitative data was collected using WHO indicators and qualitative information through interviews. The RMRS store stocks only the expensive drugs that are prescribed by the doctors. Although the cost is 30 per cent to 50 per cent below maximum retail price (MRP), only 20 per cent of the drugs are from the Rajasthan state essential drugs list (RSEDL) indicating an irrational use of expensive newer drugs. The benefit of reduction of the costs does not reach the public in the true sense. The COOPS provide medicines at 2 per cent below the MRP, where 30 per cent of the drugs are from the RSEDL. Mostly the government servants buy medicines from these stores to get the reimbursement from their employers. The study suggests that though these two types of outlets provide the medicines at low cost to the public, the actual benefits do not reach them due to irrational prescribing of expensive non-essential medicines.
The impact of context on discourse marker use in two conversational genres
Authors: Verdonik Darinka , Žgank Andrej , Pisanski Peterlin Agnes
Published: December 2008

The relationships between text or talk and the context are among the basic fields of pragmatic research and an insight into their nature may contribute to a better understanding of language use. In this article, we use the results of an analysis of discourse marker use in two different conversational genres (telephone conversation and television interviews) in an attempt to examine the impact of context on the use of discourse markers, generalized for each analysed genre. In the first stage of the analysis, we observe important differences between the two genres: discourse markers are far more frequently used in telephone conversations than in television interviews. In the second stage of the analysis, we identify several contextual factors which contribute to the differences in the use of discourse markers. In this way, we obtain insight into this particular aspect of genre context-talk relationships, and identify some of the characteristics of the genres in question.
Encouraging responses to good news on a peer support line
Authors: Pudlinski Christopher
Published: December 2008

When callers to a warm line report on good news tied to a current or ongoing problem, call takers use four different methods to endorse this good news and encourage actions implied within the report. Building upon 93 potentially encouraging responses in 65 actual warm line calls, this study describes four different methods of encouragement used by call takers within news delivery sequences: 1) positive assessments; 2) assessments plus formulations; 3) statements of agreement to a planned action; and 4) second assessments. Across these methods, call takers must do more than what is minimally required as a response in order to encourage and endorse good news.
Revealing the Connection between the Gospel and History: The Definition of “Economics at the Service of Humankind” in the Analysis of Francesco Vito
Authors: Parisi Daniela
Published: December 2008

This essay focuses on Francesco Vito (1902–1968), one of the most important Italian economists and a contributor to an extensive, thorough debate in Catholic social thinking, a debate at times accompanied and followed by exacting and solid experience in the real world, in an effort to turn into action the mediation between the Gospel and history proposed by Catholic social thinking. Economists made that effort under the influence of what could be regarded as the last stage of a tradition that was already present in the culture of economic matters and behavior and had previously been expressed as the preoccupation of Catholic intellectuals and politicians with the novelty of “modern” phenomena. It was a continuation but, of course, a renewed one.

This essay—mainly dealing with Vito; Giuseppe Toniolo (1845–1918), one of Vito's key mentors; and Luigi L. Pasinetti (b. 1930), one of Vito's most important students—emphasizes the basic difference that Vito conceives between faith and religion, on the one hand, and between the importance of the documents of the authoritative official social Magisterium of the Catholic Church, on the other—which cannot be disregarded or underestimated—and the historical relevance of the debates and the intellectual and factual work preceding and following those debates. This cross-analysis, which takes into account both sides of the question, that is, both the solid faith of people who see themselves as belonging to the cultural framework of Catholic moral teaching and their secular nature as people engaged in temporal affairs who order these according to the plan of God and live in the ordinary circumstances of family and social life—in our case, economists by profession—is a challenging subject for a historian of economic thought.
An Inquiry into the Nature and Effects of Henry Thornton's Christian Faith on the Existence and Content of His Economic Writings
Authors: Skaggs Neil T.
Published: December 2008

Since the reintroduction of Henry Thornton's Enquiry into the Nature and Effects of the Paper Credit of Great Britain (1802) by Friedrich Hayek in 1939, Thornton has been regarded as one of the world's premier monetary theorists. In his own time, Thornton was better known for joining with William Wilberforce to assemble the “Clapham sect.” This group of evangelical Christians pressed the cause of Christ in all manner of venues, most prominently in seeking to end the slave trade and in working to repatriate freed slaves to Africa. Thornton served on numerous committees working on these and other projects, gave profusely from his own income to support these causes, and wrote far more on Christian subjects than on economics. Yet, in a time when political economy and religion mixed rather easily, Thornton's Paper Credit appears to be not a work in moral philosophy or Smithian political economy but a technical treatise on monetary theory and policy. Is it possible that such a devout believer, living in an era when political economy and religion so easily intertwined, would not seek to advance his religious agenda along with his economic agenda? This article concludes that it was indeed possible; the Paper Credit itself contains no religious arguments whatsoever, and Thornton's policy prescriptions make sense on narrow economic grounds. However, Thornton's work on economics is connected to his faith in one important way: Thornton was a “doer,” not just a “hearer,” and a doer of the Gospel could not avoid lending his expertise to his country in the dark days of the Napoleonic wars. Thus Thornton appears as a disinterested economist whose motivation to serve came from his devotion to Christ.
“Losing My Religion”: Sidgwick, Theism, and the Struggle for Utilitarian Ethics in Economic Analysis
Authors: Medema Steven G.
Published: December 2008

Henry Sidgwick's loss of religious faith is central to understanding the origins of the Cambridge school of welfare economics. The most prominent “public” manifestation of this loss and its impact on Sidgwick's thought was his Methods of Ethics, which was at once the capstone work of classical utilitarianism, cementing Sidgwick's place as one of the great philosophers of ethics during the Victorian period, and the source of his deep-seated need for the very religion to which he himself could no longer subscribe. Sidgwick's studies in political economy carried this ethical perspective into the economic realm, though the major impact came via his influence on A. C. Pigou, whose welfare analysis was very much a restatement of the Sidgwickian view, but undertaken with Marshallian analytical underpinnings. This article discusses Sidgwick's crisis of faith and his subsequent attempt to devise an ethical basis for social life that was divorced from religious concerns yet consistent with his own more general theistic stance. It also shows how the results of this search affected Sidgwick's work in economics and, ultimately, the Cambridge welfare tradition.
Sovereign Spaces, Caring for Country, and the Homeless Position of Aboriginal Peoples
Authors: Watson Irene
Published: December 2008

The laws of first peoples are connected to our traditional lands. The colonial project dispossesses us of land, but our laws are often still carried with us. These Aboriginal laws become like us, the native peoples, disconnected from country. So how is it possible for first peoples and our laws to survive this disconnection? And what is it we survive as? We are engulfed, inside a state that maintains its claim to sovereignty over Aboriginal lands and lives. This essay will explore the continuing connections to country from a place inside the “sovereign” space of the state, a space that guarantees no power to determine law-full Aboriginal obligations to country. Is it that all we have is a claim to law and homelands, a claim that may or may not be recognized by the colonial state? How can we keep the vision of Aboriginal relationships to country alive in a space where the universal, the global, views this relationship as an antiquated concept?
Kenya: The December 2007 Election Crisis
Authors: Ndungu Njoki S.
Published: December 2008

In this essay the origins, dimensions, and implications of Kenya's election crisis of 2007 and the key actors who contributed to it are examined. The author reviews the efforts undertaken by the African Union and the former secretary-general of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, and offers specific recommendations to prevent reoccurrence of turmoil in Kenya.
Bivariate Genome-Wide Linkage Analysis of Femoral Bone Traits and Leg Lean Mass: Framingham Study
Authors: Karasik David , Zhou Yanhua , Cupples L Adrienne , Hannan Marian T , Kiel Douglas P , Demissie Serkalem
Published: December 2008

The risk of osteoporotic fracture is a function of both applied muscle mass and bone tissue distribution. Leg lean mass (LLM) and femoral bone geometry are both known to have substantial genetic components. Therefore, we estimated shared heritability (h2) and performed linkage analysis to identify chromosomal regions governing both LLM and bone geometry. A genome-wide scan (using 636 microsatellite markers) for linkage analyses was performed on 1346 adults from 327 extended families of the Framingham study. DXA measures were LLM, femoral neck length, neck-shaft angle (NSA), subperiosteal width, cross-sectional area (CSA), and section modulus (Z) at the femoral narrow neck and shaft (S) regions. Variance component linkage analysis was performed on normalized residuals (adjusted for age, height, BMI, and estrogen status in women). The results indicated substantial h2 for LLM (0.42 ± 0.07) that was comparable to bone geometry traits. Phenotypic correlations between LLM and bone geometry phenotypes ranged from 0.033 with NSA (p > 0.05) to 0.251 with S_Z (p < 0.001); genetic correlations ranged from 0.087 (NSA, p > 0.05) to 0.454 (S_Z, p < 0.001). Univariate linkage analysis of covariate-adjusted LLM identified no chromosomal regions with LOD scores ≥2.0; however, bivariate analysis identified two loci with LOD scores >3.0, shared by LLM with S_CSA on chromosome 12p12.3–12p13.2, and with NSA, on 14q21.3–22.1. In conclusion, we identified chromosomal regions potentially linked to both LLM and femoral bone geometry. Identification and subsequent characterization of these shared loci may further elucidate the genetic contributions to both osteoporosis and sarcopenia.
Large Osteoclasts in Pediatric Osteogenesis Imperfecta Patients Receiving Intravenous Pamidronate
Authors: Cheung Moira S , Glorieux Francis H , Rauch Frank
Published: December 2008

Intravenous pamidronate is widely used to treat children with moderate to severe osteogenesis imperfecta (OI). Changes in the appearance of osteoclasts have previously been noted in children receiving pamidronate and have been interpreted as signs of toxicity. In this study, we analyzed osteoclast parameters in paired iliac bone specimens before and after 2–4 yr of cyclical intravenous pamidronate therapy in 44 pediatric OI patients (age range: 1.4–17.5 yr; 21 girls). During pamidronate treatment, average osteoclast diameter and the mean number of nuclei present per osteoclast increased by 18% (p = 0.02) and 43% (p < 0.001), respectively. The number of samples containing large osteoclasts (LOcs, diameter > 50 μm) increased from 6 (14%) before treatment to 23 (52%) after pamidronate therapy (p < 0.001 by χ2 test). Post-treatment samples containing LOcs had a greater core width (p = 0.04) and a higher cancellous bone volume per tissue volume (p < 0.001), because cancellous bone volume had increased more during pamidronate treatment (p < 0.001). Osteoclast number and surface were higher in samples with LOcs, but there was no difference in cancellous bone formation parameters. The presence of LOcs was independent of OI type, type of collagen type I mutation, lumbar spine BMD, and other clinical or biochemical measures. In conclusion, this study did not show any indication that LOcs during pamidronate treatment are indicative of toxicity. It seems more likely that the observed abnormalities in osteoclast morphology are part of the mechanism of action of this drug.
Respiratory Function as a Marker of Bone Health and Fracture Risk in an Older Population
Authors: Moayyeri Alireza , Bingham Sheila A , Luben Robert N , Wareham Nicholas J , Khaw Kay-Tee
Published: December 2008

Identification of those at high risk of osteoporosis and fractures using clinically available tests beyond BMD measures is a major clinical challenge. We examined forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1), an easily obtainable measure of respiratory function, as a clinical measure for fracture prediction. In the context of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer-Norfolk Study, 8304 women and 6496 men 42–81 yr of age underwent a health check including spirometry and heel quantitative ultrasonography between 1997 and 2000 and were followed up for incident hip fractures until 2007. The main outcome measures were broadband ultrasound attenuation (BUA) of the heel (cross-sectional analysis) and hip fracture risk (prospective analysis). In multivariate regression models, a 1-liter increase in FEV1 was associated with a statistically significant 2.2-dB/MHz increase in BUA, independent of age, smoking, height, body mass index, history of fracture, and use of corticosteroids. Mean FEV1 was significantly lower among 84 women and 36 men with hip fracture compared with other participants. In multivariate proportional-hazard regression models, the relative risk (RR) of hip fracture associated with a 1-liter increase in FEV1 was 0.5 (95% CI, 0.3–0.9; p < 0.001) for both men and women. RR of hip fracture for a 1 SD increase in FEV1 was approximately equivalent to a 0.5 SD increase in BUA among women (1 SD among men) and an ∼5-yr decrease in age among both men and women. Middle-aged and older people with low respiratory function are at increased risk of osteoporosis and hip fracture. FEV1, an easy, low-cost, and feasible clinical measure, may help improve the identification of high-risk groups.
Haiti and departmentalization: the spectral presence of Toussaint Louverture
Authors: Forsdick Charles
Published: December 2008

The article explores the ways in which discussion of the departmentalized French Caribbean must take into account the wider history of the region, and in particular historical links between the former vieilles colonies, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Haiti. Studying the historical
and ideological background to the departmentalization law of 1946, it suggests that Haiti serves as an inspiration for the structures on which it depends, but reveals at the same time the difficult relationship between equality and alterity it attempts to forge in the context of French Republicanism.
The starting point is Glissant's observation, in Monsieur Toussaint, that the revolutionary leader risks being relegated to public silence; the article claims, however, that the presence of the Haitian revolution remains spectral. Central to the study is Csaire, both as author and politician,
and the place of Haiti in his thought and work. Exploring a range of texts, including parliamentary speeches, material written for the centenary of the abolition of slavery (1948), and, most significantly, a 1960 essay on Toussaint Louverture, the article suggests that Haiti and its revolution
played a key role in Csaire's initial championing of departmentalization as well as in his subsequent analysis of limitations of the 1946 law.
Of beauty, cosmopolitanism, and history in postcolonial Runion
Authors: Prabhu Anjali , Murdoch Adlai
Published: December 2008

Sparked off by the revocation of Miss France's crown after compromising photographs of her were found, this article traces how this incident resulted in the foregrounding of the beauty queen's Runionese identity and, with it, the history of her island and its relationship to France. Interrogating simplistic ideas of hybridity as mixing, and showing it to be tied to a politics of action and identity in Runion, this paper draws on previous work on hybridity andmtissagein Runion. The limits of beauty as a universal are questioned by drawing attention to the prevailing dominant male gaze as a precondition of such a universalizing principle, while at the same time cosmopolitanism is shown to be a worldview that seems untenable to those experiences that make up a certain Runionese reality identifiable today.
Social media as an opportunity for pedagogical change in music education
Authors: Salavuo Miikka
Published: December 2008

Many higher education institutions have been utilizing learning management systems in their teaching. These systems and the ways they are used, however, usually implement a traditional instructivist approach to teaching. Social networking platforms (SNPs) and online communities are
an integral part of most music students' everyday lives. SNPs are used for creating connections, but also for sharing one's music, providing information as well as for learning. They can also introduce a student-centred approach to learning by offering ownership of the environment to its core
users, and by creating a need to communicate and contribute to a community of practice.
Cellulose supramolecular structure changes during chemical activation and sulfation 2nd ICC 2007, Tokyo, Japan, October 25–29, 2007
Authors: Normakhamatov Nodirali Sokhobatalievich , Turaev Abbaskhan Sabirkhanovich , Burkhanova Neyla Djalalovna
Published: December 2008

Cotton cellulose has been sulfated in the presence of organic solvents (methanol, ethanol, iso-propanol and via chlorosulfonic acid-pyridine complex, and a mixture of concentrated sulfuric acid and ethanol) and the effects were studied by polarized light microscopy, electron microscopy, IR spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. Sorption-desorption behavior of the sulfonated cellulose was also observed. These processes enhance interfibrillar swelling, weaken intermolecular hydrogen bonds, and loosen the packing density of microfibrils. As a result, the accessibility of esterification reagents was improved depending on the activation method. Microscopic studies showed that the surface of the initial cotton cellulose is wrinkled. The fibrillar structure of the primary fiber wall was not observed. In the case of cotton cellulose, sulfation changed its crimped fibers with different thicknesses, length and defects which were visible in a polarized light as bright luminescence. Fibers become short, thick, and straightened. Moreover, degree of anisotropy and crystallinity of the modified fibers decreased. Their size and degree of crimping are dependent on condition of modification. All pre-activation processes were successful. Thickness of fibers was increased up to 20% and the length was decreased to one-third or one-fourth. The sorption capability of cellulose was increased 2.1–3.4-fold in pre-activated samples, which is due to the increasing specific surface area (45.0–109.1 m2 g-1). Volume and radius of the pores increased up to 0.1164–0.410 m3 g-1 and 36.2–133.3 Å, respectively.
Impact of dissolved sodium salts on kraft cooking reactions
Authors: Bogren Johannes , Brelid Harald , Bialik Marta , Theliander Hans
Published: December 2008

This study examined the effects of inactive ions – ions not reacting with wood – during kraft cooking, which thus far have received modest attention. Six different sodium salts were added to kraft cooking liquors at two different levels of alkalinities. Delignification as well as the formation and degradation of hexenuronic acid (HexA) were observed of Scots pine sapwood meal.

The delignification rate was greatly affected by the presence of additional anions. Chloride ions had the greatest retarding effect, while the addition of polyacrylate ions had almost no effect. When carbonate, sulphate and lactate ions were added to the liquors, the delignification rates were in-between the series with chloride and polyacrylates ions. We suggest that the anions affect the solubility of lignin fragments in analogy to the Hofmeister effect observed in various macromolecular systems in the presence of dissolved salts. When the reactions involving HexA were examined, the opposite results were obtained. In that case, the highest reaction rates were in the presence of chloride ions, and the lowest rates were obtained when no extra ions were added, and the second lowest rates were obtained in the presence of polyacrylate ions. As for delignification, the cooking series containing carbonate, sulphate and lactate ions had a reaction rate in-between the series with the highest and lowest rates. The differences obtained with various inorganic ions can be qualitatively explained by the Donnan equilibrium theory and by the variation in activity coefficients of hydroxide ions.

Findings imply that knowledge of kraft cooking is far from complete. The effects of inactive ions on reaction kinetics should also receive more attention.
Visualization of interfacial zones in lyocell fiber-reinforced polypropylene composite by AFM contrast imaging based on phase and thermal conductivity measurements
Authors: Lee Seung-Hwan , Wang Siqun , Endo Takashi , Kim Nam-Hun
Published: December 2008

The performance of a fiber-reinforced polymer composite depends not only on the properties of the fiber and matrix polymer but also on the interfacial properties. Nanoindentation and numerical simulation in our previous study revealed that the transition zone of the interfacial region between the regenerated cellulose fiber (lyocell fiber) and polypropylene (PP) was less than 1 μm. Interfacial zone was modified with maleic anhydride-grafted PP (MA-g-PP) and γ-amino propyl trimethoxy silane (γ-APS). In the present study, the interfacial zone is investigated by means of contrast imaging techniques based on phase and thermal conductivity in the context of atomic force microscopy. According to the obtained images, the widths of the interfacial zone modified with MA-g-PP were approximately 113–128 nm and modification with MA-g-PP and γ-APS led to an interfacial zone of 109–173 nm.
Metallographic and Materialographic Specimen Preparation, Light Microscopy, Image Analysis and Hardness Testing
Authors: Geels K , Fowler DB , Kopp W-U , Rückert M
Published: December 2008

Description

Twenty-seven comprehensive chapters cover all important aspects of the metallographic and materialographic specimen preparation process, light microscopy, image analysis, hardness testing, and directions for establishing and maintaining a modern metallographic/materialographic laboratory.

Part I is description of sectioning, mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching of specimens for examination in reflected light, enabling the reader to understand the mechanisms of the entire preparation process.

Part II is a "hands-on" manual guiding the metallographer and materialographer to the correct preparation method, based on the material to be prepared and on the purpose of examination. More than 150 methods are indicated covering practically all types of materials, describing the preparation process from sectioning to etching. This part also includes a section on trouble shooting, covering all stages in the preparation process and artifacts developed during the preparation.

Part III is a description of the optical reflected-light microscope with photomicroscopy giving the reader both an introduction to the subject and a manual for the daily work.

Part IV is an introduction to quantitative microstructural analysis and automatic image analysis, both theoretically and practically with emphasis on the examinations based on ASTM standards and other types of commonly used analyses.

Part V is a description of the most used hardness methods based on ASTM standards. Also other methods like instrumented indentation testing are described.

Part VI gives directions on how to establish and maintain a modern metallographic/materialographic laboratory. The important rules and regulations covering occupational safety are described and commented on.
Use of Infrared Spectroscopy in Permeation Tests
Authors: Perkins JL , Ridge MC
Published: December 2008

The use of infrared (IR) analysis for permeation work has both advantages and disadvantages. Most advantageous is its ability to monitor a permeation test constantly without taking samples, as is necessary for most gas chromatography (GC) systems. Infrared detection also requires little attendance, and breakthrough time is very easy to discern.

Disadvantages include a longer delay in detected breakthrough time (because of the volume of the system) than with GC systems. However, the relative error introduced is quite small. Another problem is the necessity to purge the IR gas cell during calibration or before adding a different sample. This makes simultaneous testing of several cells difficult if not impossible. Last, a high static pressure [12.5 to 25 cm (5 to 10 in.) of H2O] on the polymer membrane in the ASTM cell is created by the usual high flow rate (5 to 10 L/min) in commonly used IR systems. Although this pressure does not seem to affect permeation, these high flow rates are not necessary, and indeed, lower flow rates will reduce the error in detection of breakthrough time. The calculations and data to support these statements are reported.
How Protective Is Protective Clothing?
Authors: Henry NW
Published: December 2008

A standard method to evaluate the permeation resistance of protective clothing has been developed. This method has generated numerous data on the resistance of various clothing materials to specific chemicals. Three chemicals for which little data were available are formaldehyde, chlorine, and hydrogen cyanide. Experience with the method in evaluating materials for their resistance to these chemicals is presented as well as a review of current methods for determining protective clothing performance. Results from the tests show that nitrile-butadiene, neoprene, and butyl rubber offer the best resistance to formaldehyde, chlorine, and hydrogen cyanide, respectively, and that both breakthrough time and permeation rate data are needed to determine performance.
Testing of Candidate Glove Materials Against Metal Cutting Fluids
Authors: Forsberg K , Olsson KG , Carlmark B
Published: December 2008

This materials study demonstrates a testing program based on the requirements of protective glove material against metal cutting fluids in workshops and steel industries.

Permeation testing using various cutting fluids, puncture testing using a standardized penetrometer needle, and tensile strength testing indicated that nitrile rubber is the most protective material. By X-ray fluorescence analysis it was demonstrated that chromium and nickel, which act as allergens, can permeate glove materials when the metals are present in cutting fluids. The results of the permeation test showed a breakthrough time of less than 2 to 3 h for natural rubber and neoprene. Nitrile without additives showed a breakthrough time of >5 h and resistance to puncturing by a force of more than 25 N. The tensile strength test showed a strength of approximately 6 N/mm2 for nitrile and 12 N/mm2 for neoprene, measured at the breakthrough limit.

The primary requirements were resistance to cutting fluids and to puncture from work pieces. The secondary requirements were that the glove material should be able to break apart when drawn into moving machine parts and that the glove should be thin and elastic from the functional point of view (grip comfort and tactility).

The authors conclude that nitrile rubber latex best performs the requirements.
Protective Clothing Permeation Testing: Calculations and Presentation of Data
Authors: Winter JE
Published: December 2008

Data from protective clothing permeation testing are used to determine which specific protective clothing material will protect a worker better than other similar clothing materials. Currently, data are presented in a graphical form, showing the concentration of challenge chemical in a collection medium versus the elapsed time of chemical contact. The results obtained when using a closed or recirculated collection medium cannot be compared directly with the results when using an open or dynamic collection medium. The relationship between these results and methods for converting to a uniform system of permeation rate versus chemical contact time are presented.

Once in a uniform system, the permeation data are entered into a computer data base with graphical output, thus providing the health professional rapid access to this information.
Protective Clothing and the Agricultural Worker
Authors: Nielsen AP , Moraski RV
Published: December 2008

The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the role of protective clothing in hazard reduction for pesticide applicators and mixer/loaders. Research and other activities of the Office of Pesticide Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, relating to worker exposure and protective clothing are discussed, including field and laboratory studies. The goal of the program, to identify personal protective equipment that will be effective from performance and worker acceptability standpoints, is also discussed.
Fabric Parameters and Pesticide Characteristics That Impact on Dermal Exposure of Applicators
Authors: Laughlin JM , Easley CB , Gold RE , Hill RM
Published: December 2008

Fabric functional finish and formulation of pesticides are factors that contribute to pesticide wicking, wetting, and penetration. Fluorocarbon soil-repellent finishes inhibit contamination of the fabric and of sentinel pads. An undergarment layer offers better protection than does a single layer. Spun-bonded olefin offers protection of the same magnitude as soil-repellent finishes. Methyl parathion residues after laundering were similar for the unfinished fabric, the durable-press finished fabric, and the soilrepellent finished fabric, but the initial contamination of the soil-repellent finished fabric was only 20% of that of the other two fabrics.
Effects of Barrier Finishes on Aerosol Spray Penetration and Comfort of Woven and Disposable Nonwoven Fabrics for Protective Clothing
Authors: Hobbs NE , Oakland BG , Hurwitz MD
Published: December 2008

Woven and nonwoven fabrics with and without barrier finishes were tested for resistance to aerosol spray penetration and physical factors which contribute to comfort desirable for protective clothing for pesticide applicators. An aerosol spray test procedure was developed to test the following spray carriers: (1) water, (2) water/surfactant (48:1), and (3) unrefined cottonseed oil/surfactant (4:1). All the carriers contained 0.1% methylene blue dye as an indicator. Physical properties (for example, density, weight, thickness, water vapor, and air permeability) were examined as indicators of fabric comfort.

The presence of fluorocarbon-based finishes increased the resistance to aerosol spray penetration. Based on the physical test results and the aerosol penetration test, the spunlace nonwoven fabrics ranked highest for disposable protective garments.
Effect of Laundering Procedures and Functional Finishes on Removal of Insecticides Selected from Three Chemical Classes
Authors: Keaschall JL , Laughlin JM , Gold RE
Published: December 2008

Eleven pesticides from three chemical classes were chosen for comparison of residues after laundering. Pesticide was introduced to the fabric surface of one of three fabrics—unfinished (UN), renewable consumer applied fluorocarbon finished (RF), and commercially applied fluorocarbon finished (CM) fabric. The fabrics were laundered using one of three laundry treatments—a heavy-duty liquid detergent (HDL) alone, an HDL with a prewash spray, and an HDL with an agriculturally marketed pretreatment.

Gas chromatographic analysis showed that the fluorocarbon-finished fabrics absorbed only 10% of the pesticide absorbed by the UN fabrics. Residues after laundering were significantly different both among and within classes. Although both fluorocarbon finishes reduced absorption of pesticide, they did not facilitate removal of the contaminant through laundering. Laundry additives significantly aided residue reduction.
Bioassay for Testing Protective Glove Performance Against Skin Absorption of Organic Solvents
Authors: Boman A , Wahlberg JE
Published: December 2008

Solvents were administered into closed skin depots on guinea pigs, and the resulting blood concentrations were measured in samples repeatedly withdrawn through a catheter in the carotid artery. The exposure areas were protected with glove membranes of different kinds. Results from experiments with three solvents and various gloves are presented. The authors conclude that this animal model seems suitable for screening purposes and is capable of discerning between various commercial products.
Selection of Chemical Protective Clothing Using Permeation and Toxicity Data
Authors: Forsberg K
Published: December 2008

Recommendation of chemical protective clothing should be based on chemical resistance test data, assessment of the chemical in question, and the time workers are at risk of chemical exposure.

The availability of the ASTM standard test method has increased the amount of permeation data in the literature. By measuring breakthrough time, the method can be used to estimate the maximum protection time from chemical exposure under conditions of continuous contact. The second variable in permeation data is permeation rate, that is, the method can be used to identify protective clothing materials that limit chemical exposure to acceptable skin contact levels.

In this paper materials have been grouped in different classes based on permeation data. Three intervals of breakthrough time and five levels of steady-state permeation rate are proposed. The authors also recommend applying a labeling and classification system to provide information for risk assessment of chemical exposure hazards in protective clothing.

Risk assessment and recommendation of chemical protective clothing materials have to be carried out by a competent person.
Survey of Use and Maintenance Procedures for Chemical Protective Total Encapsulation Garments
Authors: Moore JA
Published: December 2008

This investigation essentially determined that all total encapsulation garments require basically the same use and maintenance procedures, regardless of base material or manufacturer. A few important differences exist between suits, however, and these differences tend to be concentrated in the closure systems, dump valves, glove to sleeve joints, and pressure sealing zippers. Other areas in which there is a slight disagreement or missing information include “buddy” systems, decontamination, laundering, and drying.

It also needs to be emphasized that input from users fell far below the hoped-for amounts; thus, this paper's input is heavily slanted in favor of the manufacturers.
A Critical Appraisal of Test Methods for Thermal Protective Clothing Fabrics
Authors: Hoschke BN , Holcombe BV , Plante AM
Published: December 2008

This paper discusses the merits and deficiencies of some existing and proposed test methods for the evaluation of fabrics intended for protection against radiant heat and flame. Modifications to improve the apparatus and the procedures are suggested.

The factors investigated include (1) the means used to obtain a given radiant or convective heat flux; (2) the type, design, and construction of the heat sensor; and (3) the specimen mounting.

Standard Test Methods British Standard for Clothing for Protection Against Intense Heat for Short Periods (BS 3791), ISO Test for Evaluation of Thermal Behaviour of Materials and Materials When Exposed to a Source of Radiant Heat (ISO 6942-1981) and ASTM Test for Thermal Protective Performance of Materials for Clothing by Open-Flame Method (D 4108-82) are considered, together with the radiant heat test method proposed in the Federal Aviation Administration's Proposed Flammability Standard for Commercial Transport Flight Attendant Uniforms (FAA-RD-75-176).
Thermal Insulative Performance of Single-Layer and Multiple-Layer Fabric Assemblies
Authors: Baitinger WF , Konopasek L
Published: December 2008

A variety of cotton fabrics treated to confer flame resistance characteristics were examined with the use of highly specialized laboratory equipment and procedures to predict their potential for thermal protection. Thermal sources based on convective (flame) and radiant exposures that approximate possible high-risk situations were employed. At 1.0 and 2.0-cal/cm2/s heat flux levels of exposure, fabric weight or thickness was found to be directly related to the amount of thermal energy passed through to the sensor.

Several investigators are currently examining the properties of wool, Nomex, flame resistant (FR) cotton, and other protective fabrics by similar approaches. Our work emphasizes the state of the art with flame resistant cotton fabrics. Very little has been published previously on multiple-layer assemblies and the effect of air spaces in such assemblies, so only a few model systems have been reported. Air spacing in multiple-layer systems has been found to be a significant contributor to insulation.
Anthropometric Methods for Improving Protection
Authors: Robinette KM
Published: December 2008

Many jobs involve contact with dangerous materials or hazardous environments requiring workers to wear various types of protective clothing and equipment. The fit of these items can directly affect both the worker's performance and the degree of protection provided and is, therefore, of paramount concern. Often, a stringent conformity to the body is required to afford the necessary physiologic protection and minimize degradation of performance. Traditional sizing practices are proving inadequate for protective wear in many instances; however, anthropometric analysis can be a very effective means of resolving the sizing and design problems. An anthropometric sizing analysis is based on the concept of dividing the population into subgroups of individuals who are similar for one or two relevant body size dimensions, then analyzing the remaining anthropometric data for each subgroup to arrive at appropriate dimensional design values. In this paper, the development and use of anthropometric programs for personal protective clothing and equipment is discussed.
The Effect of Alloying Elements and Steelmaking Processes on the “A” Segregation Occurrence in Large Ingots
Authors: Kim JT , Pyo MR , Chang YS , Chang HS
Published: December 2008

Investigations on segregation in various sizes of ingots of 13, 25, 54, 104, 180, 210, and 430-ton weight were carried out at Korea Heavy Industries and Construction Co.

The results of the segregation examined reveal that silicon-deoxidized (SD) carbon steel ingots have much more segregation than have vacuum carbon-deoxidized (VCD) low-alloy steel ingots. That is, the total carbon segregation ratio is 41% in the 210-ton SD carbon steel ingot, whereas it is 38% and 21% in the 430 and 104-ton VCD, low-alloy steel ingots, respectively. From these results, “A” segregation is not found when the ratio of carbon segregation is less than 30 to 40% in both steel ingots. Since silicon and manganese increase the change of liquid density during solidification and molybdenum decreases it, it is possible to minimize the macrosegregation by increasing molybdenum and decreasing silicon and manganese within the specified range.
Development of Integral High-Pressure—Low-Pressure Combination Rotor Forgings
Authors: Yamada M , Miyazaki M , Watanabe O , Kawai M
Published: December 2008

Integral high pressure (HP)-low pressure (LP) combination rotor forgings for single-cylinder turbines used under the steam condition over 773 K require good toughness and elevated temperature strength. Conventional Ni-Cr-Mo-V or Cr-Mo-V steel forgings are undesirable from the viewpoint of material properties. We developed integral HP-LP combination rotor forgings by alloy modifications (niobium and nickel addition) based upon Cr-Mo-V steel and the application of differential heat treatment. An actual dimensional prototype sample forging (1650 mm in diameter) was manufactured and evaluated. The forging exhibited high quality, and superior creep rupture strength at the HP zone and excellent toughness at the LP zone were obtained simultaneously. These developed rotor forgings have been applied for several turbine units of about the 100-MW class.
New 2Cr-Mo-Ni-W-V Steel for High-Pressure Rotors
Authors: Finkler H , Potthast E
Published: December 2008

In recent years, extensive research has been undertaken to improve the service properties of 1Cr-Mo-V steels with the aim of manufacturing high-pressure (HP) and medium-pressure (MP) turbine rotors having higher creep-rupture and toughness values. However, notched impact strength, fracture appearance transition temperature (FATT), and fracture toughness depend greatly on heat treatment. Oil quenching after austenitizing, which is common practice in Europe, gives higher values than air quenching, which is specified in the United States. A change in heat treatment, however, has little effect on the toughness in the core of turbine rotors. To improve this property, it is necessary to increase the alloy content of the steel. This has led to the development of a new 23Cr-Ni-Mo-W-V 8 8 steel for HP rotors. After testing this new steel at laboratory level, a 114-ton electroslag remelted (ESR) ingot was produced, from which a 42.5-ton turbine rotor with a 1370-mm maximum body diameter and a 1555-mm flange diameter was manufactured and extensively tested. Results obtained from transverse specimens showed an 0.2% yield strength of 650 N/mm2, excellent elongation, reduction of area, and notched impact strength values, as well as a FATT of 273 K (0°C) at the surface, 293 K (20°C) at midradius, and 313 K (40°C) in the core. A modified production process will give a FATT of 293 K (20°C) in the core of the turbine rotor with excellent creep-rupture properties.
Metallurgical Analysis of Flaws in Carbon-Molybdenum and Nickel-Molybdenum-Vanadium Turbine Rotor Forgings
Authors: Toney S , Kim W , Melilli AS , Leone SG
Published: December 2008

The origins of metallurgical flaws in the vicinity of a 2.7Ni-0.5Mo-0.1V low-pressure (LP) rotor bore and on the bore surface of a 0.25C-0.5Mo high-pressure (HP) rotor, found after approximately 360 000 h of operation of a 50-MW tandem-compound, double-flow steam turbine, have been determined. LP rotor ultrasonic indications, the largest being equivalent to a 3.3-mm (0.13-in.)-diameter flat-bottom hole, were determined to be the result of void formation during ingot solidification shrinkage. Magnetic particle indications, maximum length of approximately 64 mm (2.5 in.) axially, on the HP rotor bore surface are a consequence of the intersection of a near-planar array of manganese-silicate inclusions by the bore hole. Evidence of service-induced transgranular growth of the HP-rotor flaw, predicted by the fracture mechanics analysis, is shown together with the actual-and-predicted flaw size and flaw location correlation for the LP and the HP rotors, respectively. The results of the metallurgical analysis, performed to characterize the nature of the LP and HP rotor flaws, and the low- and high-temperature tests, performed to determine whether the approximately 360 000 h of exposure of the 0.25C-0.5Mo HP rotor alloy to 722 K (449°C) adversely affected stress rupture strength or fracture toughness, are presented.