bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Corporate Crime
Authors: Navarro John
Published: January 2014

During the 1920s, many theories were postulated to explain lower‐class criminality—virtually ignoring crimes committed by the middle and upper classes. By the time the stock market crashed in 1929, Edwin Sutherland had collected information on the crimes committed by the wealthy, which informed his portrayal of a white‐collar criminal. Sutherland is credited with having conducted the first empirical study on corporate crime with his research on 70 large US corporations that were accused of wrongdoings. He defined white‐collar crime as “a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation.” As time went on and knowledge of corporate crime evolved, Sutherland's definition of white‐collar crime was viewed as broad, and many researchers believed that his book
White Collar Crime
should have been retitled
Corporate Crime
due to its focus on corporate violations.
Mixed Methods
Authors: Bachman Ronet , Brent John
Published: January 2014

Mixed methods research, sometimes termed triangulated methods or triangulation, is experiencing a rebirth in the social sciences in general, and in the criminological sciences in particular. This approach involves using both quantitative and qualitative methods in research in order to obtain better‐informed research, more complete findings, and increased communication between qualitative and quantitative researchers.
Progressive Era
Authors: Atkins Ben
Published: January 2014

The years 1890–1920 are known as the Progressive Era of the United States. While America recovered from the hardships of the Civil War to enter the twentieth century with optimism on the horizon, much in the country was in need of reform. A progressive spirit of reform swept the nation, targeting issues from technology, art, science, to familial and governmental institutions. Among the most profoundly transformed elements of American society was the criminal justice system. Many important features of today's local, state, and federal criminal justice systems are products of Progressive Era reforms.
Balanced and Restorative Justice
Authors: Thomson Douglas
Published: January 2014

Balanced and Restorative Justice (BRJ) operates in the United States as a juvenile justice reform approach that emphasizes accountability, competency development, and public safety in dealing with delinquency. Considered by many as a form of restorative justice and by others as a type of community justice Bazemore and Schiff 2004; McCold 2004, BRJ seeks to hold youths accountable for their delinquent acts, to support them in making amends, and to discourage further offending. It also challenges conventional responses to juvenile delinquency, by seeking to attend to the needs of victims including encouraging their participation in the process.
Pretrial Release
Authors: Clark John
Published: January 2014

The pretrial release decision is one of the most important decisions made in the life of a criminal case. Defendants who pose manageable risks to public safety and/or those likely to fail to appear in court should be identified and released with appropriate conditions, while those who pose unmanageable risks need to be detained once identified. The following three issues facing the pretrial release decision‐making process are discussed: (1) individualized risk assessments, (2) the importance of decision making based on science rather than intuition, and (3) the negative consequences associated with the heavy reliance on financial bonds. Four criteria are important to the pretrial release decision‐making process—visibility, equity, rationality, and effectiveness.
Problem‐solving Courts
Authors: Ray Bradley
Published: January 2014

Problem‐solving courts attempt to alter the underlying causes of criminal behaviors by linking offenders with treatment, services, or other community alternatives. This entry begins with an historical overview of these courts and describes how the problem‐solving court process differs from the traditional court process. Following this is a review of the empirical literature on problem‐solving courts. Suggestions of where further research may be needed are presented.
Compstat
Authors: Rush Jeffrey , Munoz Rosaura
Published: January 2014

In the past couple of decades, the City of New York has transformed from one of the most dangerous and crime‐prone cities in America to one of the safest. Certainly many different variables played a role in the reduction in crime in New York, but one of the most significant factors was the implementation of a data‐driven, goal‐oriented approach to policing known as Compstat. This policing model, which is associated with former NYPD Commissioner William Bratton, relies on the identification of problems and specific objectives, based on information, and then an ongoing evaluative process relating to actions taken to ensure effective results.
Truth in Sentencing
Authors: R. Scheidegger Amie
Published: January 2014

In response to disparities between the length of sentence given and the amount of time served, both federal and state lawmakers enacted “truth‐in‐sentencing” policies. Most importantly, truth‐in‐sentencing policies require violent offenders to serve 85% of their given sentence. In 1994 the Violent Offender Incarceration and Truth‐in‐Sentencing Incentive Grants Program made states who met federal guidelines eligible to receive funds which could be used to, among other things, build or expand correctional facilities. All 50 US states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands received funding under the grant program.
Vigilantism
Authors: Vander Ende Jacob
Published: January 2014

Vigilantism consists of those acts taken by individuals who are attempting to enact their own rule of law or sense of morality, in essence taking the law into their own hands. One who participates in vigilantism is known as a vigilante. The word has Latin roots in the word “vigilant,” meaning “alertly watchful especially to avoid danger,” which then permutated into “vigilante.” Vigilantism, by reflection and extension at its broadest definition, is the cause or doctrine of being a vigilante.
Prosecutorial Discretion
Authors: Wulf‐Ludden Timbre
Published: January 2014

This entry discusses the importance of prosecutorial discretion at various stages of the criminal justice process. Specifically, the entry outlines the prosecutor's role at the following three critical stages: the prosecutor's decision regarding whether to move a case forward; the prosecutor's decision regarding the filing of specific charges; and the prosecutor's pivotal role in the case‐disposition process. The entry also discusses the considerable discretion exercised by prosecutors in the types of plea‐bargains offered and accepted.
Probable Cause
Authors: Schwerha Joseph J.
Published: January 2014

As used in modern times, the term “probable cause” refers to the standard in law in the United States denoting a reasonably held belief that the target of the inquiry had committed a crime. The term also applies to the standard of proof required to undertake searches for contraband or evidence of a crime.
Appellate Courts
Authors: Turner Jessica
Published: January 2014

Appellate courts in the United States are important as they determine whether the law was interpreted and applied correctly by lower trial courts. The United States has a dual court system which means that there are both federal and state appellate court systems. The federal appellate court system consists of the United States Courts of Appeals and the United States Supreme Court. Most state appellate court systems consist of intermediate appellate courts and a state supreme court. Since the federal appellate court system and each state appellate court system developed independently, appellate courts vary widely. This entry will discuss the varying structures, procedures, and jurisdictions of federal and state appellate courts in the United States, and will also discuss methods of judicial appointment for each of these systems.
Juvenile Probation
Authors: Vidal Sarah , Woolard Jennifer
Published: January 2014

Juvenile probation remains the most common disposition for juvenile offenders. It is a court‐imposed, community‐based sanction often characterized as a less restrictive and cost‐effective alternative to incarceration. The founding principle of probation posits that youthful offenders, through community‐based intervention, may become prosocial and productive members of the community. Since its first establishment in the mid 1800s, probation has expanded across the United States with all 50 states having their own juvenile probation process.
Forensic Evidence
Authors: Vandenberg Abby L.
Published: January 2014

The term “forensic evidence” encompasses a wide array of physical items and verbal statements that aid judges and juries in rendering verdicts of guilt or innocence. Although forensic evidence receives much positive attention in the media, it is the subject of many popular misconceptions and has many limitations that are frequently overlooked. This entry will examine two of the most common types of forensic evidence—eyewitness testimony and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—highlight problems associated with each of these, and discuss safeguards that may be implemented to help preserve the integrity of forensic evidence.
Costs of Crime (Issues in Measurement)
Authors: Elvey Kathryn , E. Clutter Jeffrey
Published: January 2014

Crime has indirect and direct effects, not only on the victim but also on society. While using cost‐benefit analysis to measure the effects of crime has become an important policy‐making tool, there are many disagreements about how costs of crime should be measured. Outlined here is an explication of the measurement issues involved in examining the cost of crime.
Defenses to Criminal Liability
Authors: Hartley Richard D.
Published: January 2014

Defenses to criminal liability are methods by which those accused of crimes can respond to charges made by the prosecution. A competent defense attorney should design a competent defense in an attempt to explain away the evidence the prosecution has brought against their client. Numerous defenses might be presented depending on such things as: the type of crime alleged, the evidence in the case, and/or other situational factors surrounding the offense. There are no well‐established ways in which to categorize the various defenses to criminal liability but they range from trying to exonerate the defendant from criminal responsibility altogether to trying to eliminate one or more of the elements of the crime. The success of any defense to criminal liability will rely on the attorney's ability to convince the judge or jury of its validity. Common defenses used in criminal cases include: alibi, automatism, coercion/duress, defense of property, entrapment, ignorance or mistake reverse order pf these two if alpha list is required necessity, and self‐defense.
Eighth Amendment and Juveniles
Authors: Burrow John D.
Published: January 2014

There is much uncertainty about the reach of the Eighth Amendment to juvenile offenders. Though this amendment has been used to effectively end the juvenile death penalty, whether it will have the same impact with regards to other areas such as juvenile sentencing remains to be seen.
Embezzlement
Authors: Walden Jeffrey S.
Published: January 2014

Similar to other crimes, embezzlement is a hotly contested offense that appears to have garnered great attention from the inception of Edwin Sutherland's analysis and further analyzed by Donald Cressey. The occurrence of embezzlement can vary greatly from the taking of money from a place of employment, to the more grand schemes orchestrated within the highest levels of society, and often referred to as collective embezzlement. As with other crimes, scholars have examined the offense through various theoretical lenses varying from the general strain theory (GST) to the integrated theory of crime. While criminologists agree that embezzlement is prevalent within society, there is little data to substantiate the true scope of embezzlement. Even within the FBI's Uniform Crime Report (UCR) and the National Incident‐Based Reporting Systems (NIBRS), an accurate portrayal of the scope of embezzlement within society is largely unknown.
Mens Rea
Authors: Robertson Paul T.
Published: January 2014

Mens rea (Latin for “guilty mind”) is the mental element of crime. Absent in ancient common law, mens rea originated in English courts around the thirteenth century. Before the development of mens rea, an individual could be found guilty of a crime based solely on his or her physical conduct. Mens rea developed from the emerging notion that a person should not be found guilty of a crime if he or she had an innocent mindset. Mens rea, also called criminal intent, has become a required element of most criminal offenses. Mens rea is often characterized in terms of intent—general intent or specific intent—but it can also be characterized as fault or culpability.
Labor History and Violence
Authors: Root Carl
Published: January 2014

American labor history is fraught with instances of violence. This violence often occurred during disputes between labor and capital. Violence throughout this labor history is not limited to a specific industry or type of work, and workers and employers alike have been both perpetrators and victims of violence. Frequent violence marked the early years of labor in the United States. Recently, violence in labor disputes has decreased greatly and there are differing explanations for why this is the case.
Geographic Location
Authors: Maskaly Jon
Published: January 2014

There has long been an interest in the relationship between geographic location and crime. Research as far back as the 1800s has examined the relationship between the characteristics of certain geographic places and crime. Modern research in this vein has formed two distinct subfields of macro and micro places, each with its own theoretical explanations and associated research. This entry covers the basics of macro and micro geographic locations, as well as two special issues that must be considered when examining the relationship between geographic places and crime.
Peacemaking Criminology
Authors: Afflitto Frank M.
Published: January 2014

This entry introduces the field of peacemaking criminology and its theoretical foundations. Based on a hybrid of origins, including traditional and modern philosophies of human social interaction, conflict resolution, and perspectives on the etiology and resolution of injustice and human suffering, peacemaking criminology is much more than a simple, novel approach to the amelioration of street crime. It is, in fact, a new direction in life, both individually and collectively.
Homeland Security
Authors: Robertson Jessica L.
Published: January 2014

Homeland security is difficult to define because it means something different to each agency. The general idea behind homeland security is to protect the country not only from terrorist attacks, but also from natural disasters and other disasters that may arise. Homeland security places an emphasis on interagency communication to prevent a disaster, and, if need be, handle disaster response. Homeland security pervades all levels and agencies of the government.
Power Control Theory
Authors: Whiteley Kathryn M.
Published: January 2014

Power control theory is credited to John Hagan and considered among the first criminological theories that sought to gauge power relations within a family system through patriarchy. In assessing the impact of patriarchy, a major focus rested in the patriarchal hierarchy within the employment setting and its relationship to gender inequalities. Hagan concurred with this notion in his earliest conceptualizations. However, Haganet al. (1987) expanded upon the theory and noted that positions of power within the work environment translate to power relations within the home. Hagan suggested that males are predominately employed outside the home; therefore, the mother is typically delegated responsibility for control of the children. In highly patriarchal families, the father focuses upon his outward duties and the mother upon the instrumental control of the children. Daughters are subjected to more supervision than sons. Power control theory advocated that boys are supervised less than girls and are encouraged to take more risks. This scenario lessens the perceived consequences of risk taking by males and in part accounts for the large gender gap in delinquency.
Feminist Theories of Criminal Behavior
Authors: Whiteley Kathryn M.
Published: January 2014

Feminist criminology arose in the late 1960s alongside the second wave of feminism. Pioneering feminist criminologists, such as Frances Heidensohn, Dorie Klein, Freda Adler, and Carol Smart, argued that criminology was a study of the male criminal conducted by male criminologists. They further contended that theories of crime studied males and as such were incomplete without the analysis of criminality perpetrated by females. Accomplishments of feminist criminology include the theories of pathways to crime and battered woman syndrome, and the creation of a division of feminist criminology of the American Society of Criminology (along with the esteemed journal
Feminist Criminology
). But perhaps the single most important accomplishment of feminist criminology is that the female offender no longer stands as an afterthought in criminological research.
Human Trafficking (Issues in Measurement)
Authors: Farrell Amy
Published: January 2014

Public concern about the trafficking of persons for exploitative labor or commercial sex has prompted government officials to pass legislation and policy makers to adopt policies to identify and restore victims and prosecute offenders. Despite the allocation of resources to address human trafficking, the scope of the problem remains unknown. This entry discusses the challenges of using existing data sources to measure a hidden crime such as human trafficking and identifies a number of the limitations of attempts to estimate the prevalence of the problem. A series of recommendations are provided to help improve the measurement of human trafficking.
Convict Leasing
Authors: Day George J.
Published: January 2014

During the aftermath of the Civil War, prison systems in southern states were plagued by deteriorating prisons, an increase in inmates, and a lack of funding to support rebuilding and maintaining an effective prison system. Southern states, as a result, began experimenting with leasing inmates to businesses and individuals as a means of reducing prison populations and costs. The convict leasing system, however, was plagued with abuse and mistreatment of inmates causing its popularity to decline in spite of profits and by the 1930s convict leasing ceased to be used in the United States.
Ohlin, Lloyd
Authors: Sechrest Dale
Published: January 2014

Lloyd Edgar Ohlin was best known for his work addressing delinquency and opportunity in which he addressed the importance of subcultures. Throughout his long career, Ohlin remained actively involved in developing and questioning causes of crime among juveniles. His publications, teaching, and service to the profession are widely recognized as essential to the advancement of criminology and criminal justice.
International Criminal Law
Authors: Ellis Mark S.
Published: January 2014

This entry provides a comprehensive review of one of the most dynamic and prolific areas of law to develop over the past 30 years. International criminal law provides guidance through norms and principles for the international community to legally prosecute individuals, even if national governments attempt to avoid prosecuting their own nationals for international crimes. It is a principle of law that repudiates impunity and embraces accountability. The essay covers international and domestic war crimes tribunals, the ICJ, universal jurisdiction, treaties (e.g., Geneva Conventions, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, and the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment), international customary law, immunity, and command responsibility, amongst other salient international criminal law principles.
Homicide, Criminal (Manslaughter)
Authors: McAloon David
Published: January 2014

Manslaughter is a common law crime that, along with murder and negligent homicide, comprises the spectrum of homicide crimes in the United States. Manslaughter is divided into two types: involuntary and voluntary. While murder requires a higher level of intent, involuntary manslaughter charges can follow from either reckless or grossly negligent behavior. Some jurisdictions have also attached criminal liability for simple negligence that results in death. Voluntary manslaughter charges come when a person who would otherwise be charged with murder has a legally recognized justification or excuse that lessens the punishment.
Homicide, Criminal (Murder)
Authors: McAloon David , Spencer Samantha
Published: January 2014

Murder is a common law crime that courts interpret differently throughout the United States. Much of the disparity stems from what it means to kill with “malice aforethought.” Without one accepted definition, legislatures have introduced various degrees of murder with different levels of punishment. Reformers have also attempted to define more carefully the appropriate mens rea for murder, while allowing for enhanced punishment based on aggravating factors.
Theory and Public Policy
Authors: Cordner AnnMarie
Published: January 2014

The relationship between criminological theory and public policy appears to be simple and direct. Ideally, policies would be directly influenced by theoretical assumptions and propositions. Closer examination shows that this relationship is much more complex, however, involving such factors as the adequacy of theory, political factors, and a basic lack of cooperation between academics and practitioners.
Watch and Ward System
Authors: Parks Kyle L.
Published: January 2014

In the history of policing the Watch and Ward system was the first organized attempt at policing the masses. The Watch and Ward was codified in the Statutes of Winchester in 1285. The system was used for the next 600 years and was taken to the English colonies by those who settled in cities such as New York and Boston. By the time the system had reached the court of Henry VIII it had become well established in London and had taken on a ceremonial role in addition to its traditional role of keeping the peace. The system was eventually replaced in the Metropolitan Police Act of 1829, which paved the way for the modern police system developed by Sir Robert Peel, who is cited as the father of modern policing in the West.
Arson
Authors: May Colin A.
Published: January 2014

Arson, the crime of intentionally setting a fire that causes significant damage, injury, or death, is difficult to investigate and prosecute due to the complex and highly technical nature of proving the fire was intentionally set. Skilled investigators use a wide variety of tools to investigate arsons and a team of support personnel, including forensic accountants, insurance personnel, chemists, even psychologists, to assist in solving this crime.
Family Court
Authors: Steinke Camela M.
Published: January 2014

The structure and scope of family courts vary widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but all family courts have the same mission: to combine court matters related to family issues into one system for better decision making and faster case resolution. While the concept has existed for decades, not all jurisdictions have adopted the family court model despite its benefits for the family and the court system.
Human Rights
Authors: Sudula Susruta
Published: January 2014

The contemporary notion of human rights has evolved through the beliefs emphasized by religions, past philosophers, and international organizations. Specific examples of human rights violations are also detailed, such as the crimes in Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and Myanmar. In response to the human rights violations that have occurred throughout the world, key pieces of legislation have been formulated to protect human populations.
Attempt and Incomplete Offenses
Authors: Broussard D. Barret
Published: January 2014

This essay describes the law of attempt as it stands today in the United States. It describes the requirements for liability in attempt—the mental state and required action. It gives an overview of specific intent as the required mental state. The essay then provides an outline of the different tests courts use to determine whether a defendant has attempted a crime or was simply preparing to do so. It also discusses the various limits of attempt law, including abandonment and impossibility.
Police History, United States
Authors: Chism Kimberly
Published: January 2014

The history of the police in the United States can be separated into four eras: the Political Era, the Reform Era, the Community Problem‐Solving Era, and the Homeland Security Era. The police began as the night watch in colonial America and evolved to become paramilitary and professional. Influential events that shaped the current police include the implementation of Sir Robert Peel's police design in the United States, emphasis on professionalism and education of the police as championed by August Vollmer and O. W. Wilson, and police use of technology (such as the automobile and two‐way radio). The evolvement of American police was also shaped in part by the social and political environment occurring at particular points in US history. Riots, unrest, and labor strikes often resulted in violence that involved the police. The police attempted to address the rift with the public by implementing community‐friendly programs in the twentieth century.
Appeal
Authors: Westfall E. A. “Penny”
Published: January 2014

In the United States criminal court appeals may be filed at either the state or federal level, and this entry provides an overview of the appellate process. In doing so, the role of intermediate appellate courts, the impact of lawyer advocacy and special interest groups, and the Supreme Court's role in the appellate process are discussed.
Delinquency of Minors, Contributing to
Authors: Macak Randy J.
Published: January 2014

In the United States, children are entitled to the basics necessities of life such as food, clothing, and shelter. In addition, children are to be protected from the criminal influences of adults. When adults fail to adequately care for or protect a minor or when they encourage or engage in criminal behavior with a minor, they are subject to prosecution under the contributing to the delinquency of a minor statutes. Laws at the federal and state level have established that minors are not adequately prepared at this stage of their life to make important decisions or to be fully culpable for their law violating behavior. The United States Supreme Court has further defined the level of culpability of minors in recent appellate decisions. Whether or not contributing to the delinquency of a minor statutes actually reduce juvenile delinquency and whether or not they unfairly penalize parents for the misdeeds of the child is still open for discussion and empirical research.
Witnesses, Examination of
Authors: Moore Jennifer L.
Published: January 2014

In civil and criminal trials, both parties to the case examine witnesses through direct and cross‐examination. The applicable rules of evidence dictate the specific procedures for questioning a witness and admitting evidence. The Sixth Amendment's Confrontation Clause also contains special protections for criminal defendants at trial. Specifically, it provides the general right to confront one's accuser face‐to‐face as well as the opportunity to cross‐examine opposing witnesses.
Larceny (Theft)
Authors: Chanbonpin Kim D.
Published: January 2014

This entry on larceny (theft) provides an overview of the crime, from its origins in the common law of England to modern statutory crimes in common law countries across the world. The entry begins by providing a definition of the term “larceny” and then proceeds to explain each of the crime's constituent elements: taking, carrying away, tangible personal property, from another's possession, with the specific intent to steal. This entry also describes the related crimes of embezzlement and false pretenses and provides useful distinctions between the three.
Robbery
Authors: Chanbonpin Kim D.
Published: January 2014

Robbery is a crime of violence against the person, and this entry provides a definition of the crime, focusing on the elements that distinguish robbery from larceny—the taking from the person or presence of another, and accomplishing the taking by means of force or fear. This entry utilizes several references to hypothetical examples and case law to illustrate doctrinal points.
Grand Jury
Authors: Toprani Steven M.
Published: January 2014

The grand jury is a body of not less than 12 and not more than 23 persons (in US federal courts) selected, organized, sworn to oath, and charged by the court to inquire into criminal offenses and matters of social importance in its jurisdiction, that operates in secrecy and is supervised by a judge. Grand juries are also empowered to indict or otherwise approve indictments charging individuals with criminal offenses.
Social Process Theories
Authors: Huck Jennifer L. , Morris Camie
Published: January 2014

Social process theories are a grouping of criminological theories that aid the explanation of why people engage in criminal behaviors. The social process theories include differential association, social learning theory, social control theory, and labeling theory. Each of these theories has a specific explanation for why individuals engage in criminal acts, but they all hold that socialization is the key to understanding crime.
Sherman, Lawrence
Authors: Leeper Piquero Nicole
Published: January 2014

Lawrence W. Sherman is recognized nationally and worldwide for his contributions to experimental studies in policing, domestic violence, and crime prevention. His prolific and insightful additions to the academic literature and his active role in policy making have received numerous accolades and awards. Sherman's contributions to policing and theoretical criminology are widely recognized as having an instrumental influence on how law enforcement agencies currently operate.
Braithwaite, John
Authors: Leeper Piquero Nicole , Clipper Stephen
Published: January 2014

John Braithwaite is a preeminent international criminologist whose scholarship transcends academic disciplines and reaches well into fields of practice. He is an Australian Research Council Federation Fellow and Founder of RegNet (the Regulatory Institutions Network) at the Australian National University. His research spans a wide range of topics including: criminological theory and the development of his theory of reintegrative shaming; restorative justice; business regulatory theory and reform including the prevention and control of corporate and white collar crime; empirical research on intellectual property, nursing homes, occupational health and safety, pharmaceuticals, and tax avoidance; and most recently peacebuilding.
Judge, Role of
Authors: Bohn Lance
Published: January 2014

Judges play many different roles in the American court system, often depending upon the various venues at the federal, state, and local levels. The role of the judge in all of these jurisdictions is always that of the “trier of law” and the impartial party or decision maker in the courtroom. Judges may also undertake the role of the “trier of fact,” depending upon whether there is a jury trial (which then assumes the role of the trier of fact) or a bench trial. This entry provides a general overview of the many important roles of the judge in the criminal justice system.
Internships
Authors: Hartman Jennifer L.
Published: January 2014

This entry defines and operationalizes what undergraduate students and their supervisors can expect from social science internship placements. In particular, this entry will be useful for Criminal Justice and Criminology interns as an underlying guide to what experiential learning is all about. Further, this entry will provide some insight on how students and their supervisors can gain useful knowledge during their professional placement.
General Strain Theory
Authors: Morris Camie , Huck Jennifer L.
Published: January 2014

This entry presents a comprehensive overview of general strain theory. It includes a general description of the theory's main arguments, including an overview of how general strain theory diverts from, and refines traditional strain theories. Prior to concluding, this entry provides a discussion of the existing empirical support for general strain theory.
Prosecutor
Authors: Perselay Seidman Cathie
Published: January 2014

The prosecutor represents the government in all criminal prosecutions. It is the only office in the criminal justice system that has the power and discretion to begin a criminal prosecution. Prosecutors are ethically obliged, as officers of the court, to ensure the defendant receives due process according to the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution. They evaluate and screen cases to determine whether or not to prosecute; thus, they have wide discretion in the criminal justice system.
Judicial Selection at the State Level
Authors: Brennan Pauline K. , Epinger Ebonie M.
Published: January 2014

A person may become a state‐level judge in one of three ways—via a gubernatorial or legislative appointment, as a result of a popular election, or through a merit system. This entry provides an overview of all three of these methods, and explains why selection and appointment procedures have changed over time. The entry also explores whether any one method may be “better” than the others. Findings from empirical research studies are used throughout to inform the discussion.
Petersilia, Joan
Authors: Garcia Crystal A.
Published: January 2014

Joan Petersilia is one of the world's foremost experts in community corrections and prisoner reentry. For nearly two‐thirds of her life she has studied crime policy, evaluated justice programs, and worked closely with practitioners and policy makers to improve decision making and practice in the criminal justice system.
Lynching
Authors: Jackson Robin D.
Published: January 2014

Lynching in the United States is characterized as the brutal and racially motivated execution of African Americans in the South following the Civil War. Recent research suggests, however, that lynching in the United States was geographically widespread and that lynching victims came from all racial backgrounds. Motivations for lynching ranged from the need to ensure justice was met to political terrorism. Lynching continued well into the twentieth century and only began to decline when the US legal system was better able to punish criminals, including lynching participants, and when the use of capital punishment became widespread.
Discovery
Authors: Ellison Jared M.
Published: January 2014

Discovery is a legal concept that pertains to the disclosure of evidence by a prosecutor to a criminal defense attorney. The Supreme Court has ruled that prosecutors must share certain types of evidence with defense attorneys, but the standards remain somewhat ambiguous. Therefore, rules and expectations about discoverable evidence are not uniform across jurisdictions and problems sometimes arise. In 2006, while a case against three athletes from Duke University began to unravel, a prosecutor was charged with numerous ethical violations (and was subsequently disbarred) for his failure to share material evidence with a team of defense attorneys. To minimize the possibility of prosecutorial misconduct, some have called for the adoption of open‐file policies. This entry provides a discussion of the key Supreme Court cases in the area of discovery, highlights differences in practices across jurisdictions, and outlines some reasons why an open‐file policy may provide a fairer legal system.
Social Control Theories
Authors: Felts Chris
Published: January 2014

This entry gives an overview of social control theories. It focuses on the history and evolution of theories within the paradigm. Furthermore, it discusses the empirical support for current incarnations of social control. Theories discussed include containment, social bond, and self‐control. The entry concludes by suggesting the future direction of criminological theories.
Diversion
Authors: Kremser Jonathan
Published: January 2014

Diversion from formal court processing is a popular and common practice for first‐time, non‐violent offenders. Within juvenile justice, there has been a long history of diverting youth from the formal process to specific programs that focus on the individual's unique treatment needs. This practice is based upon the belief that formal adjudication often stigmatizes the offender, and restricts or eliminates future opportunities within the community. This entry defines diversion, identifies the various institutions in which diversion programs may be delivered, provides a historical background, and explains the theoretical framework that informs diversion practices. The entry also provides examples of specific diversion programs, and concludes with a discussion of some of the benefits and challenges of diversion.
Juvenile Delinquency Trends
Authors: Fowler Eric
Published: January 2014

Juvenile delinquency has become an issue of increasing importance to the American public in recent decades. Youth crime and deviance, as a dynamic phenomenon, represents and is determined by contextual social, political, and economic realities. Through the analysis of official police records, as well as self‐report and victimization surveys, we are able to describe the temporal, demographic, and spatial trends in violent, property, drug, and status offenses. This information is useful for developing policies to prevent delinquency as well as designing appropriate law enforcement responses.
Abortion and Crime
Authors: Marie Muncy Amanda
Published: January 2014

In the last couple of decades, the crime rate in the United States has steadily declined. With the legalization of abortion in the 1973Roe v. WadeSupreme Court decision, researchers have begun to look at the effect of legalized abortion on the decreasing crime rate. Establishing a causal relationship between legalized abortion and decreased crime is a highly debated topic among those researchers. Despite the attempts researchers have made in an effort to establish causality between abortion legalization and decreasing crime rates, there is still no clear evidence confirming this hypothesis. Depending upon research methodology and analysis, there are results that both confirm and refute the causal relationship between abortion and crime rate fluctuations. As researchers begin to look at specific variables within the abortion and crime rate relationship, the establishment of a causal relationship may become more statistically appropriate.
Theoretical Integration
Authors: Benefiel Rodger
Published: January 2014

Significant debate has occurred within the field of criminology on whether falsification or theoretical integration is the preferred method for scientific progress. The types and methods commonly used for integration are explained and examples of existing theories that are the product of integration are provided. It is noted that theories are rarely created completely independently of the work of earlier authors, and the rigors of scientific progress demand the use of both falsification and integration for the continued advancement of the field.
Colonial America Criminal Justice
Authors: J. Brooker Dale
Published: January 2014

Colonial America was a crucial time in the development of the history of the United States and moreover it set the foundation for the criminal justice system that was to develop along with it. The small communities that dotted the eastern part of the continent initially were ones where religion, work, and adjustment to a new world came together. The early colonists were spiritual, and this drove the social control mechanisms, both formal and informal. The development of an agrarian economic culture also shaped the way in which justice was dispensed and how colonists were treated.
International Crime Victims Survey
Authors: Kennedy Jonathan
Published: January 2014

This essay on the International Crime Victims Survey summarizes the purpose, history, coverage, content, recent findings, and strengths and weaknesses of the survey. Data from the survey are used extensively in comparative international studies of crime and victimization. To date the survey has been administered five times, first in 1989 and most recently in 2004–2005. The survey is supported by a working group of European criminologists and a range of institutional actors, including the United Nations Interregional Criminal Justice Research Institute, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Gallup Europe, and the European Commission's Directorate General for Research and Technology Development.
Expert Witness
Authors: Mantle William P. , Chenane Joselyne
Published: January 2014

This entry provides an overview of the types of evidence that experts may be called upon to provide and the legal standards for the admissibility of their testimony at trial. Also included is a discussion of the legal process of discovery as it relates to the use of expert testimony by prosecutors and defense attorneys. Concerns about the use of expert testimony are then delineated and specific examples of unethical behavior by so‐called “experts” are provided. The entry concludes with proposed solutions to the concerns about expert testimony and a statement about the future use of such evidence.
Moral Development
Authors: Rivera‐Vazquez Omara
Published: January 2014

This entry highlights the research studies conducted on the concept of moral development and correlates of crime. Most of the studies reviewed hypothesize that criminals are more likely to be classified within the lower stages of moral development when compared with noncriminals. These findings have important implications for prevention and intervention strategies.
Civil Liberties
Authors: Williamson Ché D.
Published: January 2014

This essay summarizes the general definition of “civil liberties,” as understood philosophically, internationally, and in the United States. What rights are included in the concept of “civil liberties” are explained as well as how quantitative research can measure the extent to which the citizens of a country are granted civil liberties. The history of civil liberties is briefly summarized and examples of how the concept of civil liberties has evolved through time. The remaining sections of the essay provide an analysis of the sources of these liberties and a brief summary of how such rights have been interpreted by the US Supreme Court through history. Each civil right guaranteed by the US Constitution is discussed with relevant US Supreme Court case law.
Constitution and Criminal Justice
Authors: Williamson Ché D.
Published: January 2014

This entry examines criminal justice issues that are covered in the US Constitution and how rights guaranteed by the US Constitution are interpreted and applied to the criminal justice system and criminal defendants. It also summarizes the US Supreme Court's relevant opinions on these issues and the role of judicial activism in expanding criminal defendants' rights and limiting law enforcement.
Service Learning
Authors: Sims Barbara
Published: January 2014

Instructors are often looking for ways in which to enrich the learning experience for their students. The use of pedagogical tools that increase the higher order thinking among students is one way to meet that goal. Through the service‐learning experience, students have an opportunity to engage civically with community sponsors in ways that are meaningful and have a long‐lasting impact. Further, the service‐learning experience creates an opportunity for building a relationship between the institution and the sponsoring agency or organization. When developed and implemented in a way that will allow for continuous improvement over time, quality service‐learning experiences can become the hallmark of any department situated in an institution of higher learning.
Prediction of Crime (Issues in Measurement)
Authors: Houser Kimberly , Fratello Jennifer
Published: January 2014

Criminal justice practitioners are frequently asked to make decisions based on predictions of whether an individual is likely to offend or reoffend based on a set of known characteristics about that individual. To help practitioners make more informed and objective decisions, risk assessment instruments are designed by researchers to help guide decisions on release, incapacitation, and treatment approaches based on scientific research on human behavior. There are several approaches to the design of risk assessment instruments, each with its own set of strengths and weaknesses. Although each generation of risk assessment instruments advances our predictive abilities, the complexity of human behavior precludes the forecasting of all human behavior with complete accuracy. Thus, crime prediction is far from being an exact science.
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Authors: Dammer Harry R.
Published: January 2014

Many criminologists around the world consider Professor Gerhard O. W. Mueller the “father” of international/comparative criminal justice. His work as one of the first chiefs of the UN Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch, and his scholarly research in various aspects of the globalization of crime and criminal justice, especially comparative criminal law, international criminal law, and maritime criminology, have made him among the pioneers in the fields of law, criminology, and criminal justice.
Reasonable Suspicion
Authors: Robert Cencich John
Published: January 2014

Reasonable suspicion is a legal standard that relates to the amount of information a law enforcement officer needs in order to undertake certain activities. The most common law enforcement practice that incorporates this standard is the notion of “stop and frisk.” This entry will provide a background into relevant police practices, their proper application in the field, and consequences and implications in the courts if they are misapplied.
Hate Crime—Sexual Orientation
Authors: Dixon Shane M.
Published: January 2014

Hate crimes are crimes of intolerance and bigotry that are committed to hurt and intimidate protected classes including race, ethnicity, national origin, sexual orientation, or disability, with bias being a motivational factor. Hate crimes are more likely than non‐hate crimes to be violent crimes, with 84% of all hate crimes falling into the categories of sexual assault, robbery, aggravated or simple assault, compared to only 23% of non‐hate crimes.
The role of attention problems and impulsiveness in media violence effects on aggression
Authors: Swing Edward L. , Anderson Craig A.
Published: January 2014

Previous research has established media violence as a causal risk factor for aggressive behavior. Several theoretical mechanisms have been identified to explain this effect. The present study assessed 422 undergraduate students to test the possibility that individual differences in attention problems and impulsiveness can help explain the link between violent media and aggression. Attention problems and impulsiveness proved to be a distinct construct from other processes believed to mediate aggression (aggressive beliefs, aggression related schemata, trait anger, and trait hostility). Attention problems and impulsiveness were uniquely related to both media exposure (total weekly hours and violent content) and aggression. Attention problems and impulsiveness were particularly related to impulsive (as opposed to premeditated) aggression. These results suggest that attention problems and impulsiveness may play an important role in violent media effects on aggression. Aggr. Behav. 40:197–203, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.