bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Criticism of The Theory of Moral Sentiments
Authors: Ross Ian Simpson
Published: October 2003

Here, we follow criticism of TMS by contemporaries, for example, Hume, who discerned that sympathy was the ‘Hinge’ of the book's system, but argued that Smith had not proved that all kinds of sympathies are necessarily agreeable, and that it was necessary to bring in a way of accounting for ‘disagreeable sympathy.’ This pushed Smith to make changes for the second edition of 1761, explaining more fully the moral psychology of sympathy and the role of imagination in the emplacement of the impartial spectator. A negative view of TMS came from the Common Sense philosopher, Thomas Reid, who argued that Smith's system did not offer a standard of virtue for measuring the emotions of the moral actor or the sympathy of the spectator, and that it was reason that informed our moral judgements. This criticism of Smith impressed the patrons of the Glasgow Chair of Moral Philosophy, including Kames, and Reid was chosen as Smith's successor, when he left Glasgow in 1764 to become a travelling tutor to the third Duke of Buccleuch.
Economic Theorist as Commissioner of Customs
Authors: Ross Ian Simpson
Published: October 2003

Smith's correspondence of this period of his life suggests that he believed that raising a revenue in a non‐discriminatory way did not gravely affect the tendency towards price equilibrium on which economic efficiency depends. There was also the necessity of providing for justice, education, and public works in Scotland. Smith was consequently willing, on the grounds of utility, to regulate and enforce the mercantile system, even though he viewed some of its features as unwise and unjust, for example, prohibiting certain imports and punishing smugglers harshly. Smith's activities as an administrative judge and director of import police are assessed, and highlights of his service are described, such as his coastguard command role in gathering intelligence about the entry of John Paul Jones with units of the American navy, supported by France, into the Firth of Forth in September 1779. As well, his views of this time about the issue of free trade for Ireland are examined.
Visions of the Firm: A Critical Survey of Leading Approaches to the Firm
Authors: Fransman Martin
Published: October 2003

The first purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate that many of the best‐known approaches to the firm in economics have in common a starting point that sees the firm as a response to information‐related problems. The second is to critically review some of these approaches on the basis of the internal structure of their arguments. The third is to analyse some of the limitations of the ‘information‐related paradigm’ in the light of the distinction that it is argued must be drawn between ‘information’ and ‘knowledge’. Finally, the chapter proposes some additional approaches to the firm that merit further exploration.
A Vision of the Firm and the Evolution of Japanese Computer and Communications Firms
Authors: Fransman Martin
Published: October 2003

A conceptualization (theory) of the firm is developed in order to analyse the evolution of the major Japanese computer and communications companies: Fujitsu, NEC, Hitachi, Toshiba, Mitsubishi Electric, and Oki. Particular attention is paid to the paradox presented by these companies, which feature strongly in the world's top ten in terms of total sales but which, unlike Japanese consumer electronics and automobile companies, are dominant in very few markets outside Japan. According to this conceptualization, a firm may be analysed in terms of four closely related dimensions: competences––the firm's activities and knowledge––define what that firm knows and can do; organization determines how the firm's competences are coordinated and controlled in order to produce a competitive output; vision refers to the set of beliefs that guide the firm's leaders in deciding what the firm should be doing and where it should be going; and selection environment is the sum total of factors external to the firm (and to the population of firms) that determine whether the firm will prosper or not.
Expansion through Acquisition and Merger
Authors: Penrose Edith
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses the expansion of firms via acquisitions and mergers. It is shown that a greater rate of expansion is made possible by merger. So long as a merger is a feasible and profitable method of expansion, it can be safely assumed that firms that have grown by merger will be larger than they otherwise would have been.
Fiscal Policy and Trade Policy
Authors: Joshi Vijay , Little I. M. D.
Published: October 2003

The reforms of the tariff and trade controls are the basis of this chapter. Tariff reform has direct consequences on the rest of the economy leading to an analysis of the fiscal policy and domestic taxation. It examines the changes in direct and indirect taxes imposed by the central states. It also examines the continuing role of subsidies, using agriculture as an example, as a negative effect on the economy. The authors analyse the changes and suggest ways to improve the economic situation.
Organizational Integration and Competitive Advantage: Explaining Strategy and Performance in American Industry
Authors: Lazonick William , West Jonathan
Published: October 2003

This paper proposes an analytical framework that can comprehend how and to what extent the interaction of institutions, industries, and enterprises has contributed to the decline of US competitiveness. The analytical framework builds on the notion that, ultimately, competitive advantage depends on the strategies and structures of the business enterprises on which Americans rely for most of the nation's productive investments. It is argued that, over time, to gain sustained competitive advantage, business enterprises in the United States and elsewhere have had to achieve increasingly higher degrees of ‘organizational integration’, and that, as a general rule, the US's prime competitors, and particularly the Japanese, have gained competitive advantage by becoming more organizationally integrated than their American rivals. For some industries, moreover, organizational integration is more important than others, hence the variation in the extent to which certain American industries have been affected by foreign competition; and even within the more vulnerable industries such as electronics and automobiles, some American companies have responded to the competitive challenge more quickly and effectively than others. The organizational integration hypothesis argues that an important determinant of differences in the quickness and effectiveness of strategic responses to competitive challenges among American companies in the same industry is the extent to which these companies are organizationally integrated.
Optimum Flat Tax and Basic Income
Authors: Atkinson A. B.
Published: October 2003

A flat‐tax rate, coupled with a basic income paid to all, can be highly redistributive. This chapter examines the trade‐off between equity and efficiency involved in setting the tax rate, and hence the degree of redistribution.
A Richer Model of the Labour Market
Authors: Atkinson A. B.
Published: October 2003

The theoretical models used, explicitly or implicitly, in policy analysis tend to ignore much relevant real‐world complexities. This chapter considers the incidence of tax reform in a model that allows for labour market segmentation.
The Structure of Strategy
Authors: Kay John
Published: October 2003

The successful strategy of a firm originates in the requisite match between its internal capabilities and its external relationships. This is the basis of its ability to add value, i.e. to create an output that is worth more than the cost of the inputs it uses. To achieve this, these capabilities need to be distinctive (not easily replicated by other companies), sustainable (persist over time), and appropriable (to principally benefit the company that holds them). There are three broad categories of such distinctive capabilities. “Architecture” refers to a network of relationship contracts within or around the firm. It adds value by helping to create organizational knowledge and routines that enable the company to respond flexibly to changing circumstances and allow easy exchanges of information. The second is “reputation” which is the main commercial mechanism for conveying information to purchasers of complex commodities. Finally, by protecting and exploiting “innovation”, the company can derive a third distinctive capability, given that it can appropriate the gains associated with it.
Rules and Schemata
Authors: Schlicht Ekkehart
Published: October 2003

Custom consists of a set of regularities that may be described as rules. This chapter explores the nature of rules as cognitive entities, and what distinguishes rules from arbitrary associations (‘random rules’). Our cognitive make‐up induces discontinuity in rule formation and gives rise to rigidity and hysteresis on a purely cognitive level.
Rule Preference
Authors: Schlicht Ekkehart
Published: October 2003

Rules are cognitive entities that carry behavioural consequences. Phenomena of commitment, obedience, status quo preference, and reciprocity are brought about by rule preference, viz. the desire of men to act sensibly and in a justifiable way.
Professional Arbitrage
Authors: Shleifer Andrei
Published: October 2003

Considers noise trader risk in the agency context of professional arbitrage. It elaborates on a performance‐based arbitrage model where arbitrageurs are affected by the inability of their investors to separate luck from skill, shedding further doubt on the effectiveness of arbitrage in achieving market efficiency. At the end, the chapter also briefly discusses the turbulence of financial markets in the summer of 1998, when Russia defaulted most of its debt, which vividly illustrated the limits of arbitrage.
Serving Time With the Government: Federal Penitentiaries
Authors: King Desmond
Published: October 2003

King analyses segregation in federal prisons—institutions that he argues reproduced segregationist pressures ever since the 1930 establishment of the Bureau of Prisons through the 1960s, even in those penitentiaries located in parts of the country outside the South. After discussing the origins of federal penitentiaries, King presents a statistical profile and racial composition of inmates in federal prisons before the legal ‘separate but equal’ doctrine. He then considers how the segregated system operated in federal prisons and how attempts at integration were carried out.
Creating Citizens
Authors: Callan Eamonn
Published: October 2003

The problem of education in liberal democracies is to ensure the intergenerational continuity of their constitutive political ideals while remaining open to a diversity of conduct and belief that sometimes threatens those ideals. Creating Citizens addresses this problem. The book identifies both the principal aims of political education—liberal patriotism and the sense of justice—and the rights that limit their public pursuit. The public pursuit of these educational aims is properly constrained by deference to the rights of parents, and these are shown to have some independent moral weight underived from the rights of children. The liberal state's possible role in the sponsorship and the control of denominational school is discussed, as are the benefits and hazards of moral dialogue in morally diverse educational environments. The book draws heavily on John Rawls's theory of justice.
Autonomy, Justice, and the Good
Authors: Callan Eamonn
Published: October 2003

Rawls's political conception of the person and his related conception of reasonable pluralism entail a partially comprehensive ideal of personal autonomy. The warrant for that ideal is further supported by showing that it is integral to the virtue of justice and that communitarian claims that autonomy is at odds with a life of integrity are unfounded.
Adam Smith's System of Liberty, Wealth, and Virtue
Authors: Fitzgibbons Athol
Published: October 2003

Adam Smith's System is a study in classical economic thought and methodology. It portrays Adam Smith as a Stoic philosopher who wanted virtue to be relevant to this life rather than to the next. His central purpose was to define a set of laws, a jurisprudence in the widest possible sense, which would permit economic and political liberalism to proceed without triggering long‐run moral degeneration. Smith argued that the conflict between morals and wealth was only apparent, because it was possible to synthesize the seeming contraries with better laws and moral rules.

All of Smith's writings are analysed, including his writings on morals and methodology, art and rhetoric, and his political and economic writings. The relevance of Wealth of Nations is analysed, and Smith's theories of free trade and economic growth are put into context. It is shown that Smith was primarily concerned with the very broad intellectual endeavour to replace the Aristotelian world‐view, the bulwark and inspiration of medieval Christian thought, with an outlook that was more consistent with Newtonian science.
Utility Versus Virtue
Authors: Fitzgibbons Athol
Published: October 2003

Explains that Smith's new moral philosophy was designed to establish a balance between ancient virtue, for social stability, and modern self‐love, for economic dynamism.
Balancing Against Threats: The Rise and Fall of the Sino‐Soviet Alliance
Authors: Foot Rosemary
Published: October 2003

This is the first of four chapters focusing on America’s perceptions of China’s capabilities, and dwelling on the correspondence between those perceptions and the projected consequences. It presents an analysis of the rise and fall of the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance, which was signed in February 1950, and represented one of the most significant alliances of the post-war period. The focus is on US perceptions of Chinese power during successive phases in the Sino-Soviet relationship: the perceived impact of the alliance on China’s capabilities and levels of security; the effects of its demise on Beijing and on the socialist bloc generally; and finally, the consequences of its eventual replacement in the 1970s by a tacit alignment between China and the United States.
The Iron Wall: China's Conventional Military Capabilities
Authors: Foot Rosemary
Published: October 2003

This is the second of four chapters focusing on America’s perceptions of China’s capabilities, and dwelling on the correspondence between those perceptions and the projected consequences. It looks at American perceptions of China’s capabilities as a military power, discussing them in relation to the successive conflicts in which China was involved: the Korean war, the two Taiwan Straits crises, the Sino-Indian and Sino-Soviet border conflicts, the Vietnam war and the Sino-Vietnamese fighting in 1979. The discussion marks the transition from the Truman and Eisenhower administration appraisals of China’s conventional strength as a ‘candidate great power’ (in military terms), to the perceptions in the 1960s and throughout the 1970s, that China had not developed advanced conventional forces, and had been sufficiently weakened through its domestic and foreign policies eventually to require it to embark on a domestic modernization programme that led to the reduction and then ending of its support for the national liberation struggles it had previously championed. Moreover, it needed American military protection to help it deal with Soviet encirclement. This evolution in the understanding of China’s needs and capacities helped ease the path to the rapprochement and then normalization of relations between these two former military opponents, much as America’s own defeat in Vietnam made it easier for Mao to turn to Washington.
Modes of Punishment
Authors: Martin Rex
Published: October 2003

The chapter suggests that there are three main modes of punishment (each with distinguishing features): (1) penalty, invoked against the offender; (2) compensation, to be paid to the victim of crime; and (3) treatment and rehabilitation of the adjudged offender. These are all modes of punishment in virtue of coming under the same general characterization, but each mode has distinguishing features as well. Penalty (e.g. imprisonment, fines) has the prevention of lawbreaking (and thereby the prevention of violations to the rights of others) as its exclusive or primary goal; it achieves this goal through credible examples of penalization or through incapacitation of the offender. Compensation is concerned principally with the good of the victims of crime (with restoration of such persons’ well being, with covering the losses they suffered through the violation of their rights by the offender); it achieves this goal by requiring that money or in‐kind aid be given to the victim (and achieves thereby, an incidental deterrent impact on crime as well). Treatment/rehabilitation is concerned with the good of the adjudged violator (though not exclusively, for the ultimate good of society is also contemplated); it achieves this goal through distinctive measures of treatment (e.g. medical treatment) and rehabilitation (e.g.education).

One of the main thrusts of this chapter is to show that treatment/rehabilitation, in so far as it is required of adjudged violators is a quite specific and independent mode of punishment. The relevant argument here, respecting treatment/rehabilitation, is conducted mainly by considering a hard case: legal insanity, i.e. the after‐verdict handling of persons adjudged ‘not guilty by reason of insanity’.
A System of Rights
Authors: Martin Rex
Published: October 2003

We return in this chapter, to the issue of the justification of political authority; it is argued here that the notion of political authority is internally justified in a given political system if the main elements in that notion —that is, the title to issue rules, a reasonable presumption of compliance, and the government's rightful monopoly in the use of coercive force – are actually ingredient in the theoretic structure of the system under review. Thus, it is the coherence of the background theory (the coherence of a democratic system of rights), in which each of the authority elements can be shown to have a necessary place that justifies authority in that particular political system.

In developing this line of argument, we come to see that the priority rule (from Ch. 7) has to be modified. We do so by introducing the notion of basic rights: such rights are those civil rights (e.g. freedom of political speech or liberty of conscience) that have passed the double test of being enacted by legislative majorities and of being affirmed and, then, supported over the years by checking devices (such as judicial review). They are rights that have survived the scrutiny of time and experience and public discussion; they have been winnowed by the self‐correcting character of the democratic process, and now continue to enjoy a very high level of social consensus support. Basic rights, as understood here, are the rights that have the top priority in a democratic system of rights.
The Micro‐Powers of Apocalypse: Ecological Modernization in the Netherlands
Authors: Hajer Maarten A.
Published: October 2003

One of the most comprehensive discussions of the Dutch environmental ‘policy planning’ approach. Analyses how the acid rain issue became a key problem that persuaded many that a new policy strategy was required. Yet, where the Dutch debate quickly showed a conversion to the new eco‐modernist language, here we can see how the institutional practices accommodated many of the more radical suggestions of ecological modernization.
The Basic Constitutional Rules: Influence and the Prerogative
Authors: Bogdanor Vernon
Published: October 2003

The office of head of state should be distinguished from that of head of government. The head of state has three main functions. First, there are constitutional functions, which today are primarily of a residual or formal kind, such as appointing a prime minister and agreeing to dissolve the legislature. Second are the ceremonial functions that President de Gaulle once dismissed as opening exhibitions of chrysanthemums. Third, and perhaps most important, there is the symbolic or representative function, by means of which the head of state represents and symbolizes not just the state but also the nation. The head of state represents the nation to itself. These last two functions are, in Bagehot's terminology, `dignified’ rather than `efficient’ functions. They are likely to be better performed when the office of head of state is separated from that of head of government so that the head of state is not an active party politician. The fundamental principle of constitutional monarchy is that of acting on the advice of ministers. But this does not exclude a considerable amount of influence being wielded by an assiduous sovereign.
Three Constitutional Crises
Authors: Bogdanor Vernon
Published: October 2003

The three constitutional crises examined are that caused by the rejection by the House of Lords of Lloyd George's `People's Budget’ of 1909; that caused by the Home Rule Act of 1914; and the abdication in 1936. Each of these crises posed difficult problems for the sovereigns involved—George V and Edward VIII—and for their Prime Ministers—Asquith and Baldwin. In 1914, George V seriously contemplated refusing royal assent to legislation passed by Parliament. In 1936, abdication, a voluntary renunciation, seemed a threat to the very institution of monarchy, which depends upon automatic hereditary descent. But, paradoxically, the abdication heralded a vote of confidence for monarchy and the new style of limited, constitutional monarchy, as represented by George VI.
Interpreting Econometric Evidence: The Behaviour of Consumers' Expenditure in the United Kingdom
Authors: Hendry David F. , Davidson James E. H.
Published: October 2003

Updates and tests whether DHSY and HUS specifications encompass the rational‐expectations, permanent‐income model by eliminating contemporaneous income terms. Both reject that model and lead to an improved specification using only lagged information. The ‘feedback versus feedforward’ debate is confronted as an issue of interpretation of the implications of economic analysis, rather than its use or absence, especially for intertemporal optimization by economic agents.
Econometric Modelling: The ‘Consumption Function’ In Retrospect
Authors: Hendry David F.
Published: October 2003

Exposits the main ideas and concepts for consumers’ expenditure behaviour in the UK to clarify their empirical content and implications. Each theoretical concept in the information taxonomy is related to the relevant empirical counterpart, reinterpreting some of the intuitive notions in DHSY, to show how the formalization clarifies problems with a ‘conventional’ econometric approach. The discovery/evaluation dichotomy, and the necessity but insufficiency of evaluation criteria to determine validity, are stressed. Modelling is an exercise in design to achieve predetermined selection criteria, but rigorous evaluation can eliminate poor designs. The theory of reduction explains the derivation of empirical models and their susceptibility to design, leading to an analysis of design and conventional criteria. The six information sets of the taxonomy and their associated criteria are related to well‐known test statistics (where each criterion is the null). The resulting tests are applied to the consumers’ expenditure model in DHSY on quarterly and annual data frequencies, and the inter‐war and post‐war UK data are compared, illustrating the progressive research strategy that follows from an encompassing approach to econometrics.
Epilogue: The Success of General‐To‐Specific Model Selection
Authors: Hendry David F.
Published: October 2003

The essential roles of methodology in the development of sound econometric models and of computers in making econometrics operational are noted. The former has led to the theory of reduction as a basis for general‐to‐specific (Gets) modelling procedures to build congruent empirical models. Software for data management, graphics, estimation, testing, and simulation have underpinned many of the great strides in the discipline. A new generation of computer programs (such as PcGets) bids fair both to resolve many of the methodological issues about model selection that have been the subject of debate—by demonstrating that general‐to‐specific works. PcGets controls the significance level of the selection process, yet attains a power close to the maximum feasible. Automatic modelling both facilitates simulation studies to evaluate its properties and greatly reduces the burdens of empirical modelling.
The Birth of the Language of Nationalism
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: October 2003

Focuses on the emergence of German nationalist theories that prioritized the spiritual and cultural unity of a nation over the political liberty of the ancients. Herder stressed the cultural unity of the Fatherland that transcends political divisions. He prizes the natural and emotional inclinations for the purity of a nation in contrast to rational, political associations. Schlegel, Fichte, and Hegel emphasize the common history of the German people as the source of spiritual unity. For these thinkers, spiritual unity and freedom, though possessing the tendency for exclusiveness, are prior to political relationships of equality.
The Basic Facts
Authors: Blanchard Olivier
Published: October 2003

Chapter 1 sets the stage by reviewing the evidence on output, employment, productivity, unemployment, and investment for five Central European countries – the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, Poland, Hungary, and Bulgaria. I focus on these countries simply because I know them better. But, while the primary focus of this book is indeed on Central Europe, I shall, as I go along, try to explain differences between Central and Eastern Europe and – more tentatively, because I know so little – between Central Europe and China.
Looking at the Pieces
Authors: Blanchard Olivier
Published: October 2003

Chapter 3 examines a number of pieces in more detail. I focus in particular on the adjustment of employment and wages in state firms to the initial shock, on the interactions between restructuring and privatization, and on the relation between reallocation, restructuring and traffic in the labour market. There are many fascinating and little‐understood issues here, from the way an insider‐controlled firm reacts to a large adverse shock to how to design privatization so that it leads to restructuring and why flows in and out of unemployment have been so low despite the high rate of structural transformation. Never has such a political and

economic transformation taken place with so much data collected on firms and people as it happened, but we have barely started exploiting the data. My purpose is to sharpen the discussion and present what we have learnt so far.
Putting the Pieces Together
Authors: Blanchard Olivier
Published: October 2003

Chapter 4 puts the pieces together. Here, I develop an analytical model of transition that incorporates what I see as the central elements of transition, the reallocation from old to new activities, the restructuring of firms, and the interactions with unemployment. I then use this framework to discuss a number of policy issues, from the role of labour market policies to the design of privatization, the role of fiscal policy, and the dynamics of support for reform.
Hope and Heroic Action: Rousseau, Paoli, Kosciuszko, and the Republican Tradition of War
Authors: Nabulsi Karma
Published: October 2003

This is the third of three chapters on the three traditions of war, and introduces the republican tradition, which is represented partially through the writings of Jean Jacques Rousseau, who, along with Pasquale Paoli and Tadeusz Kosciuszko, advanced a unified system of the republican good life and war in conjunction with the laws of war. The way in which this tradition developed in the nineteenth century is depicted. The different sections of the chapter are: The Republican Tradition of War; Republicanism; The Three Founders [Rousseau, Paoli and Kosciuszko]; Rousseau’s Republican War; Rousseau, Paoli and Kosciuszko; The Nature of Man and the State of Nature: Rousseau contra Hobbes and Grotius; The Nature of War; Liberty; Government, Society, and the Republic; Republic; Patriotism and Nationalism; Republican Nationalism; Republican Founders of the Tradition of War: Paoli and Kosciuszko; The Republican Tradition in the Nineteenth Century; The Nineteenth-Century Republican Tradition of War; and The Development of the Republican Tradition of War.
Introduction
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: October 2003

Makes clear its central aim—which is to challenge the predominant attitudes to ideologies and their scholarly analysis. It emphasises that the thinking encapsulated in ideologies deserves examination in its own right, and should no longer be pigeon‐holed as an impoverished and inferior relation of analytical and normative political philosophies. Proceeding from the political concept as the unit of analysis in political thought, the main thesis of the book is that ideologies are distinctive configurations of political concepts, and that they create specific conceptual patterns from a pool of indeterminate and unlimited combinations; that indeterminate range is the product of the essential contestability of political concepts. It is a parallel thesis that the furtherance of understanding of political thinking will be best assisted by comprehending political concepts as obtaining meaning on three dimensions—time, space, and the morphology of their interlinkages—and that these have to be integrated in an overarching analytical perspective. While the first two dimensions are commonly used in interpreting political thought, the third is not, and is a special aspect of the approach offered in the book; this perspective is considered by the author to be long overdue.
Public Childcare, Parental Leave, and Employment
Authors: Meyers Marcia K. , Gornick Janet C. , Ross Katherin E.
Published: October 2003

Analyses the effects of parental leave and public childcare on mothers’ employment across 14 countries, including the 12 countries discussed in the first 3 chapters. The results suggest that policy configurations influence the patterns of employment of mothers. The analysis of national policy performance also reveals a cluster of countries—Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Italy, and Sweden—that cut across welfare state regimes.
The Construction of Index Numbers for Contract Settlement
Authors: Shiller Robert J.
Published: October 2003

When creating indices intended for use in cash settlement of futures contracts (or perpetual claims or options, or swaps, or other over‐the‐counter forward contracts or retail insurance contracts), it is critical that that each index represents value associated with a standard claim on future income (or services). The contract settlement must reflect the price of claims on income streams, so that the market can be used to hedge the risk associated with the claims, but the problem is that the available observations on prices or incomes may apply to dissimilar claims, and that standardization in the indices used to settle contracts is essential to liquidity in these markets. This chapter first reviews some existing index number methods, and then extends these methods to deal with the problems described. Chain index and hedonic index number methods are reviewed, and ordinary repeated‐measures indices (like the repeat sales indices) are shown to be in a sense a special case of these, and to have strong parallels to some existing indices used to settle contracts. The last part of the chapter introduces the hedonic repeated‐measures index to allow for control of changing price of quality variables, while retaining the repeated‐measures design.
Pay and Incentives
Authors: Marsden David
Published: October 2003

Following the logic of the employment relationship, workers are paid for making their labour available to the employer as much as for the amount of effort expended. Hence, the ‘price of labour’ is better understood as a rule rather than a particular sum of money, part of the obligations exchanged by firms and workers. This is reflected in the complexity of most reward systems, as in the measurement of labour cost. Different types of reward systems and pay hierarchies are then related to the four types of employment systems with different ways of linking pay to performance and a contrast between ‘hierarchical’ and ‘occupational’ reward structures.
Skills and Labour Market Structure
Authors: Marsden David
Published: October 2003

The four types of employment systems shape skills and labour market structures according to the degree of functional flexibility in work assignments and whether firm internal labour markets or occupational labour markets prevail. Both of these depend on a different type of institutional support because of different collective action problems. The chapter also shows how the theory can be applied to monopsony in secondary labour markets, and to recent developments in ‘market‐mediated’ employment forms.
Employment Systems and the Theory of the Firm: Societal Diversity
Authors: Marsden David
Published: October 2003

The theory of employment systems provides a synthesis between the ‘human resource–based’ and the ‘opportunism‐based’ theories of the firm. The work rules shape human resource management systems within the firm, and these serve both as a platform for the development of skills and organizational capabilities, and they help contain opportunism. It is also shown how employment systems can shape labour institutions, and influence the development of patterns of corporate governance.
Pluralism and the Patrimonial State: Pre‐Colonial Africa
Authors: Grillo R. D.
Published: October 2003

The early patrimonial states of pre‐colonial Africa studied by anthropologists were usually polyethnic in character, subjectively perceived by rulers and ruled to be comprised of different peoples. Nonetheless, ethnicity did not generally constitute a problem. Detailed case studies of the Alur of Uganda, a classic example of a segmentary state, the Azande of Central Africa, and the Nupe of Nigeria, which had a more unitary structure, show that rulers were engaged in ‘extractive’ rather than ‘normative’ mobilization, as Azarya calls it. They were generally not concerned with much beyond maintaining their power and that of their immediate families, and extracting sufficient resources from their followers to enable them to do so, while ensuring that those followers were not driven by their demands to take their allegiance elsewhere. In this context, citizenship was subjecthood, and rulers had little interest in promoting a common identity or their own culture.
The Jacobin Project: The Nation‐State and the Enemy Within
Authors: Grillo R. D.
Published: October 2003

With the French Revolution, modernity proclaimed that a nation state should organize itself through a powerful state that would assume responsibility for directing society's affairs and moulding its citizens: the Jacobin project. Nonetheless, there were two contrasting visions of how the French nation state might be constituted. For much of the nineteenth century, the view that it should include all those who shared its values encouraged French Jews, emancipated by the Revolution, to embrace assimilation. In the late nineteenth century, however, they were confronted with an alternative vision of France, one from which the Jews were excluded. The wave of anti‐semitism culminating in the Dreyfus Affair posed questions about the nation state that returned in late twentieth century debates in France and elsewhere about the right to difference and the desirability or otherwise of pluralist conceptions of society.
International Relations: Neo‐Realism and Neo‐Liberalism
Authors: Sanders David
Published: October 2003

The neo‐liberal/realism trend in international relations grew from a frustration (specifically of Waltz) with the simplicity and reductionism of realism. Game theoretical rigour and analysis of competition between nation‐states developed the field, but Sanders questions how much more we understand as a result. An alternative is offered in ‘concessional realism’, whereby analysis is furthered by a simple and flexible set of propositions about nation‐state behaviour. The propositions of each approach are outlined.
International Relations: Post‐Positivist and Feminist Perspectives
Authors: Tickner J. Ann
Published: October 2003

Questions the optimism for international relations cited in the 1975 Handbook of Political Science. Unprecedented global change has divided international relations, and optimism for consensus has eroded. Through a diversity of viewpoints, feminism provides optimism for the broadening of theory and of empirical base. Using a post‐positivist methodology, feminism challenges ethnocentrism and state‐centrism, and rejects universalism and claims of objectivity. Feminism's appreciation of difference provides realistic optimism for the future of international relations.
Political Theory: Traditions in Political Philosophy
Authors: Parekh Bhikhu
Published: October 2003

Analyses the development of political philosophy from the 1950s to the present. Challenges the idea that political philosophy declined during the 1950s and 60s, and was revived only by the publication of John Rawls's Theory of Justice. On the contrary, the political philosophy of the 1950s and 60s was rich, and responded to challenges levelled against it by other disciplines. We now see a change in, rather than a revival of, political philosophy. Most recent challenges include the cultural diversity of modern society and a reconsideration of the reflective and normative dimensions of political philosophy.
Political Methodology: Research Design and Experimental Methods
Authors: McGraw Kathleen M.
Published: October 2003

Provides a discussion of issues relating to research design and experimental methods in political science. Issues are elaborated relating to control and random case selection, internal and external validity, identification of mediating variables, and replication. Examples of experimental contributions in political science are outlined in the fields of public opinion research, decision‐making and information processing, collective action, public choice, and public policy. Experimentation represents a burgeoning cutting‐edge approach in the future of political science research.
Materialist—Postmaterialist Value Orientations
Authors: Scarbrough Elinor
Published: October 2003

Many of the chapters in this book discuss various aspects of the impact of post‐materialist value orientations on political behaviour and beliefs in government. This chapter sets out the conceptual background to such discussions––first reviewing the tenets of post‐materialist theory, then looking at trends in the development of materialist and post‐materialist orientations. Finally, it assesses the social distinctiveness of post‐materialism, and the social correlates by which it is measured.
Electoral Participation
Authors: Borg Sami
Published: October 2003

This chapter looks at the relationship between value orientation and voting behaviour from an individual or micro perspective. Its primary aim is to evaluate, in the light of available data, the impact of two value orientations (materialist/post‐materialist and religious‐secular) on the decision to vote (without regard to the choice of party to vote for), and to compare this with the impact of traditional socio‐economic factors. The findings suggest that while post‐materialist values have little effect, at least some part of the decline in voter turnout is attributable to the weakening of religious orientations in Western Europe.
Ecology and Opportunity: Intergenerational Equity and Sustainable Options
Authors: Norton Bryan
Published: October 2003

Bryan Norton suggests that there are two ways of answering the sustainability question, ‘what to sustain?’ They are ‘utility comparison’ and ‘listing stuff’. While preferable to the former, the latter lacks a unifying theory of value, he says, and so any specification of what to bequeath to future generations will embody powerful normative assumptions. These assumptions, he argues, should be rooted in the norms of specific localities. Loss of natural value across generations must be regarded, Norton suggests, as non‐compensable, so environmental sustainability will involve the mandatory protection of whatever physical features are regarded as valuable in a given locality.
Must the Poor Pay More? Sustainable Development, Social Justice, and Environmental Taxation
Authors: Tindale Stephen , Hewett Chris
Published: October 2003

Stephen Tindale and Chris Hewett analyse one of the most‐discussed policy tools available to politicians for moving towards sustainability: environmental taxation. Such taxation is usually regarded as regressive and therefore socially unjust – one reason sustainability and justice are sometimes regarded as pulling in opposite directions. Tindale and Hewett argue against this assumption via an examination of domestic fuel and transport taxes, showing how environmental taxation can be made progressive with careful design and attention to surrounding fiscal conditions. They also say that the greatest cause of poverty is unemployment, and that a package of measures to stimulate environmental industries would do much to bring sustainability and justice into alignment.
The Dimensions of Social Justice
Authors: Dobson Andrew
Published: October 2003

The analytical dimensions of social justice are laid out, driven by different answers to common justice questions. What is the community of justice? What is to be distributed? What is the principle of distribution? This provides the framework within which the question of the compatibility between social justice and environmental sustainability is explored in the rest of the book.
Michael Sandel and Richard Rorty: Two Models of the Republic
Authors: Sennett Richard
Published: October 2003

Sandel earns his theory by history: the last two-thirds of Democracy’s Discontent, called “The Political Economy of Citizenship,” explores with great historical acumen just how liberalism and republicanism have become manifest in the real world of labor, class, and capitalist development. At each stage of capitalism’s development, the concepts of the liberal, “procedural” republic proved better at rationalizing economic growth. The modern economy is, we know, uprooting large numbers of people who now labor at short-term tasks rather than pursue long-term careers; it’s hard to be loyal to corporations which do not practice loyalty in return, harder to take seriously the current hand-wringing about corporate responsibility on the part of institutions compulsively oriented to their quarterly earnings reports. Words like “duty” and “loyalty” do contain in themselves a coercive undertow, and it is that current in Sandel’s thinking which his most serious critics, such as Richard Rorty, have contested. Sandel sees civil society culminating in political action–or thinks it should move in that direction if we are to do battle with an ever more corrosive capitalism; for Rorty, civil society, whether strong or weak, ironic or blind, stands beyond the reach of politics, and the “network of beliefs and desires” that he calls the self is too complicated a map to have a single destination.
The Right of Privacy in Sandel's Procedural Republic
Authors: Fleming James E. , McClain Linda C.
Published: October 2003

To the extent Sandel hints at substance, his republican virtues suitable for multiple-situated selves sound suspiciously liberal or at least compatible with liberalism, raising the question whether there is a significant distance between his pluralistic republicanism and the most attractive form of liberalism. If republicanism’s concern is simply that citizens engage in morally worthy social practices, then a regime that places no value on choice could simply assign citizens to engage in those practices; if Sandel objects that forcing persons into particular relationships and practices compromises the moral worth of those practices, he must implicitly assume that there is some value attached to the element of choice, autonomy, or personal self-government. Sandel does not comment on perhaps the most republican aspect of the joint opinion in Planned Parenthood v. Casey: the latitude that it gives to the state to shape women’s decision-making process in favor of childbirth over abortion to encourage “wise” or responsible decisions, in part because of the “consequences” of the abortion decision for the women, the community, and prenatal life. Toleration need not be grudging and fragile if its proponents persuasively make a moral argument for it and its possible tempering of the formative project: autonomy is a human good, as are diversity, equal citizenship, and toleration itself, and a commitment to protecting those goods should often (but not always) constrain government from coercively acting to make citizens lead good lives by compelling “moral” and prohibiting “immoral” choices. It remains an open question whether we should wish to revitalize the republican tradition and to search for a substantive republic, but even if we should, most of the work of developing a moral reading of the Constitution of the substantive republic remains to be done.
Engineering the Environment: The Politics of ‘Nature Development’
Authors: Keulartz Jozef
Published: October 2003

Environmental policy in the Netherlands has reached a remarkable evolutionary stage, in which policy‐makers have moved beyond merely defensive considerations of preserving and protecting the environment to encompass proactive measures for ‘nature development’ by recovering wasteland and ‘returning’ it to nature. However, this new phase of environmental engineering is not without its own risks, notably with respect to its cultural assumptions. The principles of Dutch nature development involve a dubious form of cultural politics, in which the science is used to impose a particular cultural view of nature upon local communities, thereby excluding other views. Upon analysis, it becomes clear that science provides no adequate basis for this, and that a more consultative and democratic process is needed to clarify the range of solutions and scenarios that is available. Environmental politics should aim to address the question of what sort of relationship to nature people really want.
Ideas, Pioneers, and Precursors
Authors: Velupillai Kumaraswamy
Published: October 2003

In this chapter, a first, tentative attempt is made to define the nature and scope of what is meant by computable economics. From a study of the way economics was mathematized in the modern era, – i.e., since about the late 1920s – I try to extract those studies and examples that attempted recursion theoretic characterizations of economic theoretic problems. These are then distilled and codified as early examples of computable economics. The chapter also discusses, more specifically but concisely, the contributions of Herbert Simon from a recursion theoretic point of view.
Immigration and the Nation‐State
Authors: Joppke Christian
Published: October 2003

This chapter reviews the main literature on immigration and its societal impact, so as to set the book in its theoretical context.