bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Storm over Scotland
Authors: Woolrych Austin
Published: November 2023

When James VI (as he was styled in his native land) died he left his Scottish subjects nursing a number of discontents, but none so serious as to threaten to make them ungovernable. Rule by an absentee king imposed an inevitable strain, but James knew his people and understood the problems. When he first departed for England he promised to revisit Scotland every three years, but he did so only once, in 1617. During his first decade or so as James I of England he surrounded himself with Scots to an extent that aroused serious resentment among English courtiers, and for much longer he kept in touch by summoning his chief advisers in Scotland, one after another, to come and report on the state of affairs there and counsel him on his Scottish policy. He also added a powerful group of Scottish peers to the English privy council, thus giving it, quite informally, a British dimension.
The Overthrow of the Protectorate
Authors: Woolrych Austin
Published: November 2023

Richard Cromwell’s brief tenure of the Protector’s office began auspiciously. The privy council accepted without question that Oliver had nominated him to it, and Fleetwood and the senior army officers in and around London were as prompt to recognize his title. The Lord Mayor and aldermen of London were enthusiastically co-operative, and the proclamation of the new Protector, performed with due pomp, was greeted with warm applause at Whitehall, Westminster, Temple Bar, Cheapside, and the Royal Exchange. In most provincial towns too the proclamation was celebrated with bell-ringing, bonfires, parades, and cannon-fire. Only in royalist Oxford do we hear of students pelting the sheriff and his attendant troops with the tops of carrots and turnips, but that tells us more about the agelessness of student protest (probably directed there mainly against the military) than about the response of the public as a whole. Addresses of loyalty and congratulation poured in during the next three months from at least twenty-eight counties, twenty-four towns (besides London), and half-a-dozen groups of ministers covering a wide religious spectrum, as well as from the fleet and sundry garrisons and other outlying military units.
Neville against Percy, 1450-1455
Authors: Pollard A J
Published: November 2023

The political history of northern England in the 1450s and early 1460s is dominated by the great feud between the Nevilles of Middle ham and the Percies, which at times threw central Yorkshire into turmoil. The private war between the dominant families was described by one annalist as the beginning of the greatest sorrows in England-the start of the Wars of the Roses. And indeed it is plausible to suggest that what happened in Yorkshire in 1453 and 1454 led directly to the first battle of St Albans, Ludford, and all-out civil war. Not only were the subsequent battles, reaching a climax once more in Yorkshire at Tow ton, a continuation of the feud between Neville and Percy; but also, since the royal dukes of York and Somerset were dragged in as partisans, the struggle between Neville and Percy became inseparable from the struggle between York and Beaufort. The part played by the northern feud in the last years of the house of Lancaster has been clearly established and fully explored; its place in the history of the north-east is central. But, perhaps because the conflict between Neville and Percy has never been considered in its regional context, its genesis has been misunderstood.
Servants
Authors: Harvey Barbara
Published: November 2023

It has often been assumed that the number of servants employed by monasteries in the Middle Ages was very large and could have been smaller with advantages to the monks themselves, if not to those whom they employed. Thus, in a famous work, G. M. Trevelyan characterized the life of monks in Chaucer’s England as one of ‘sauntering comfort’; and Trevelyan’s references to the monks’ abandonment of manual labour and their employment of ‘armies of servants’ point to some of the ways in which, in his view, this state of affairs had come about.
Richard II in the Chronicles
Authors: Taylor John
Published: November 2023

Although we possess his likeness in the Westminster abbey portrait, and almost certainly in the Wilton Diptych, Richard II lives principally in the chronicles and the literary sources. What relatively few letters of his survive throw an interesting though limited light upon his character and outlook.1 For centuries the popular view of Richard has been determined by Shakespeare ‘s play, where the portrait of Richard is heightened by the ‘dramatic bid for tragedy ‘, and where the image of the king derives ultimately from the Lancastrian chronicles and also from the propagandist French accounts of Creton and the author of the Traison et Mort, accounts which were known to Shakespeare through Holinshed. In the play, which is concerned with the theme of kingship, Richard the man gradually emerges from the trappings of office. On a human level he changes from the arrogant and feckless youth to the suffering king, a change dictated in part by these sources. In view of the fact that Shakespeare ‘s view of Richard was conditioned by his chronicle sources, we need to look at them with some care, for through Shakespeare they have immensely influenced most subsequent writings. When we turn to the contemporary chronicles, consisting of narratives written in England, in Hainau1t, and in France, we find that we are dealing, the French narratives apart, with accounts which were the work of monks and secular clerks situated in different parts of the country.
The Kingship of Richard II
Authors: Saul Nigel
Published: November 2023

The governance of Richard II fits uneasily into the general pattern of constitutional development in later medieval England. In many ways it appears uncharacteristic of its age. Richard ‘s emphasis on the prerogative recalls the Angevin world of vis and voluntas, when the king could override the common law at will; while the use that was made of Chamber officials in central and local government anticipates one of the Tudors ‘ expedients for undermining the power of the magnates. By comparison with the less doctrinaire, though still assertive, kingship of an Edward III or Henry V, Richard ‘s appears an alien, even a provocative, style of rule-an ‘absolutist ‘ experiment conceived out of its time and predestined to failure.
Introduction
Authors: Stevenson David
Published: November 2023

The first test of Sir Edward Grey’s assessment must be statistical. Like other such tests, it is problematic. In the early twentieth century all the major Powers, including Russia after 1906, had relatively open political systems, in which War and Navy Ministry budgets were public knowledge and were scrutinized in Parliament. For practical purposes their currencies were fixed in value in relation to each other and to gold. Inflation was low. Comparisons are hampered, however, by differing accounting practices, sometimes intentionally misleading, and by problems of definition. Spending totals for each country make no allowance for international variations in purchasing power, and bear no constant relation to the size of forces in being (as measured in infantry divisions or squadrons of battleships). As well as armaments items, such as turrets and shells, they include routine categories, such as fodder and wages. Even so, they bring out the orders of magnitude and the overriding trends, and are the best point of departure.
Arms and the Men
Authors: Stevenson David
Published: November 2023

For a century and a half before the 1840s land and naval armaments had scarcely changed. But from that time on, the industrialization of weapons manufacture transformed the power to produce and to destroy. It took almost twenty years to re-equip the Prussian infantry with the first standard-issue rifle: subsequent replacements, even in much larger armies, needed only four. The wars and economic boom of the mid-nineteenth century ushered in a revolution in technology and organization that set the mould in which twentieth-century armies still operated. The impetus behind this revolution came from the mechanization of transport and communications and from the transformation of the arms themelves.
Britain’s Persian Connection 1798-1828
Authors: Ingram Edward
Published: November 2023

In 1801 and again in 1809 the British made a treaty with the Qajar regime of Persia. The two treaties and the attempts to define and to protect Great Britain's interests in the Middle East were known at the time as the Persian Connection. Edward Ingram's scholarly and extensively researched study shows how the British expected the Persian Connection to help them win the Napoleonic Wars and to enable them to enjoy the fruits of empire in India. Professor Ingram examines British policies and activities in the Middle East and Central Asia during the early nineteenth century, and traces the course of Anglo-Russian diplomatic relations during this period. The Persian Connection, he argues, was a measure of the status and reputation of Britain as a Great Power; the history of its first twenty years illustrates the limits to British power, as well as having much light to shed on the creation of the Indian Empire.
Scares of Invasion, 1807-1809
Authors: Ingram Edward
Published: November 2023

While the East India Company and the board of control were trying to decide how to meet an increasingly likely danger, Harford Jones, armed with a baronetcy and dreaming of a peerage, was on a leisurely voyage to Persia. As long as Great Britain was at war with both Russia and the Ottoman Empire, he did not have the choice of travelling overland. On 4 January 1808, he reached Cape Town, and three months later, on 24 April, Bombay. Imagine his annoyance at finding that one week earlier, his great rival for influence over British policy in the Middle East, John Malcolm, had sailed for Persia at the head of a mission from the government of India. Everybody in India had known for a month that Jones was on his way out from England; at Bombay his arrival was expected any day. Despite this, Sir Edward Pellew, the naval commander-in-chief in the East Indies, was sure the governor-general would be delighted when told, ‘I hurry ... [Malcolm] every hour to get away before Sir H. Jones arrives. ‘ The British were to pay dearly in the Middle East for the partisan conduct of their two highest Anglo-Indian officials.
Imperial Outpost, 1810-1815
Authors: Ingram Edward
Published: November 2023

At first glance, the behaviour of British officials in the Middle East can be misleading. Too much has been made of self-willed proconsuls and fidgety frontier agents on the make. They were on the make, of course: why else should John Malcolm-one of that ‘depressing collection of simple practical men who have been there’ -or a fine scholar like Harford Jones endure the discomfort and exasperation of working among Qajars, who resembled the post-Second World War British Establishment in having pretensions to grandeur wildly exceeding their power. Anybody stationed at the fringes of an empire with hopes of returning home to promotion or to set up in society needs a sponsor, and the closer to the centre of power the better. The claims made for ‘excentric’ imperialism by Ronald Robinson and the periphery by David Fieldhouse should not be exaggerated. The goals, limits, and, more important, style of imperial policy are set in the metropolis, even if they must adapt to local conditions and give ground before subjects and affiliates who must seem to be controlled. Nobody ever mistook a British colony for a French one. One had only to eat.
Anglo-French Diplomacy and the Transition from the Screw-Liner to the Ironclad, 1854 Onwards
Authors: Hamilton C I
Published: November 2023

The rival screw-fleets that we have seen being built against each other so energetically never did meet to fight. Rather, they never met to fight on opposing sides: instead, strange reversal, they went to war as allies against a common enemy. The causes of that war have been described often enough, and will not be dealt with here. Nor will the progress of the land war be looked at in any more than a passing way. Our concern is with the maritime war against Russia, and what it showed of the state of the naval art, and how it affected construction policy.
The Nature of the Rivalry and its Conclusion
Authors: Hamilton C I
Published: November 2023

The most striking feature of the naval rivalry between Britain and France in the mid-nineteenth century was its degree of exclusivity. Each side came to see itself as having only one real opponent—the other. In a pamphlet published in 1844, one French naval officer wrote, ‘La force et la puissance d’une marine n’étant que relative, il faut un point de comparaison. Ce point, il n’y en a qu’un: c’est la marine anglaise.’1 What he wrote applied also in reverse.
The First Protectorate
Authors: Johnson P A
Published: November 2023

The summons to Duke Richard of York ran counter to a strong political tide. Power had rested with the duke of Somerset since 1451, and after Dartford he had virtually monopolized it. That power was now to be challenged, as the king’s councillors were fully aware. Legitimacy, practical politics, the duke of York’s inexorable arrival at the forthcoming session of Parliament, all demanded a solution, and these considerations, rather than personal favour, determined the council’s invitation. Of the four laymen who signed the warrant, Worcester, the prior of St Johns, Sudeley, and Dudley, the last two had profited appreciably in the Somerset years, Prior Botiller’s attitude is unknown, and Worcester, perhaps indifferent to Somerset, is best regarded as a willing servant of the king. Of the five bishops, three were king’s men, Wainflete, Chedworth, and Lowe, and one was a former Suffolk protege, now the queen’s confessor, Walter Lyhert. The fifth, Richard Beauchamp of Salisbury, may have had some sympathy with York, but it is impossible to see how such a group could agree to summon York other than on grounds of legitimate right.
The Capture Of The Palestinian Coast And The Development Of Crusader Siege Technique
Authors: Rogers R
Published: November 2023

With the crusaders’ triumph over the Fatimids at the battle of Ascalon on 12 August m99, their possession of Jerusalem was temporarily assured. Yet this did not establish Latin authority securely in the Holy Land, and much of the territory which would constitute the Latin states remained to be conquered. One crucial area in the establishment of Latin power in the eastern Mediterranean was the Syro-Palestinian coast. Control of the littoral was vital in several regards, the most immediate involving lines of communication with Europe.
British Business and Protection 1903-1932
Authors: Marrison Andrew
Published: November 2023

This is the first in-depth study of the involvement of businessmen in the campaign for Tariff Reform, the most important and pervasive political debate on economic policy in the first three decades of the twentieth century. Previously published work on Tariff Reform has concentrated on its political or "social-imperialist" dimensions, and our knowledge of businessmen's motivations, objectives, and strategies has been under-developed. This book is organized around an analysis of the pressure and propaganda groups directed, or supposedly directed, by protectionist businessmen themselves. Detailed treatment of Joseph Chamberlain's Tariff Commission before the Great War, and of successor organizations such as the Empire Development Union and the Empire Industries Association, provide a thread of continuity from Chamberlain's Birmingham speech in 1903 to the Import Duties Act in 1932. Less overtly political bodies, such as the Federation of British Industries, the National Union of Manufacturers, and the chambers of commerce, are also studied. The book includes the first in-depth investigation into the development of protectionism during the First World War, and presents a new analysis of the turbulent events of 1929-1932. Andrew Marrison gives particular attention to the questions of economic motivation and industry-alignment - areas where oversimplification and generalization have been common - and to the relationship between business participants and their political mentors. The general conclusion is one of a "primacy of politics", a fragmentation of the corporate ideal, in which the lack of influence of the businessman, and especially of the manufacturer, in British politics and British society meant that the Edwardians' fear of protectionist vested interests was highly exaggerated. The cunning, grasping businessman of legend is found to be little more than fiction.
A State Under Siege
Authors: Follis Bryan A
Published: November 2023

The origins of the Northern Irish state are of great importance for the study of Irish history and Anglo-Irish relations, but this subject has never been tackled in great detail. In this diligent ad detailed account, Follis makes up for this oversight. He examines the turbulent early years of Northern Ireland, looking at how its administration was established and how it survived in the face of widespread communal violence, near bankruptcy, and political uncertainty, exacerbated by problematical relations with the governments in Westminster and Dublin. The highly controversial subject matter is subject to careful analysis, and if a particular standpoint emerges at its conclusion, an expression of it is long overdue. This is an honest and extremely lucid piece of research on a subject of vital importance.
Defending Self.-Govemment
Authors: Follis Bryan A
Published: November 2023

Achieving responsibility for law and order was a major objective for the fledgeling Government of Northern Ireland, particularly given the deteriorating security situation. The truce between the Crown forces and the IRA insisted upon by Sinn Fein as a preliminary to negotiations came into operation on 11 July 1921. Applying the truce in Northern Ireland without London’s consulting the Craig administration highlighted the latter’s lack of control over security matters. With the Special Constabulary virtually demobilized, the force which ‘the Unionists had lobbied so hard to get established had been almost neutralised overnight’. The IRA did not stand down its men during the truce but rather took the opportunity to consolidate its position. Following an attack by IRA gunmen on the police in Belfast on 14 July, full-scale rioting (accompanied by widespread sniping) broke out, resulting in twenty deaths and some 200 wounded. Further serious outbreaks of trouble on 20, 30, and 31 August left seventeen dead and ninety-one wounded. The Government of Northern Ireland could only lobby the military authorities and the British Government for the deployment of additional troops in the hope of preventing further disorder.
Financing Self.-Govemment
Authors: Follis Bryan A
Published: November 2023

The Northern Ireland Cabinet had to grapple with various administrative problems as it endeavoured to establish the new government. Although these problems had been exacerbated by the obstructionist tactics of the Irish Free State, the government succeeded in consolidating its authority and in shaping Northern Ireland as a viable entity. With the implementation of a tough counter-insurgency programme and the defeat of the IRA terrorist offensive in 1922, Northern Ireland appeared to have secured its existence. Doubts, however, remained in the minds of many people about the ability of Northern Ireland to avoid a budget deficit and national bankruptcy. Even at the height of the IRA campaign in 1922, the funding of the Ulster Special Constabulary appeared to pose an almost greater problem than the acts of terrorism themselves.
Conclusion
Authors: Follis Bryan A
Published: November 2023

The fact that the public sector is today the largest employer in Northern Ireland, or that the public purse primes some 80 per cent of total expenditure, can conceal the modest (and recent) origins of the state. Indeed, prior to the establishment of devolved government in 1921, not only were there no organs of statehood in Northern Ireland but Northern Ireland as a political entity and administrative unit did not exist. Apart from some junior-to middle-ranking civil servants administering public services such as revenue collection, agriculture, national insurance, and labour exchanges, there was no central government presence in Belfast. All the senior civil servants responsible for policy formulation were based either in Dublin or in London, as were the bulk of officers who administered the services affecting the people in what was to become Northern Ireland. The Government of Ireland Act, 1920, did not so much establish a devolved government in Northern Ireland as create the entity called Northern Ireland. Unlike the United Kingdom state, which evolved over centuries, Northern Ireland was conceived and born in a matter of months.
Render unto caesar?
Authors: Fulbrook Mary
Published: November 2023

It may seem a little strange to include a chapter on the Protestant Churches under a section entitled ‘The Contours of Domination’. The Churches were, after all, hardly part of the communist state apparatus; a legacy of centuries of Christian history, they were institutional standard-bearers of a very different world-view from that of Ulbricht and Honecker. The Church appeared to have acted as a haven for dissidents in the course of the 1980s, leading up to the climactic events of the autumn of 1989; moreover, in the months following the fall of the Wall, many commentators were surprised at the prevalence of pastors in the political landscape of that short-lived transitional state, the ‘noch-DDR’. It seemed to many that the Protestant Church had played more of a role in undermining than sustaining the system of domination in the GDR.
The End Of A Dictatorship
Authors: Fulbrook Mary
Published: November 2023

No revolution, historically, has been a simple matter. In no case is it sufficient to seek to explain only the growth of popular discontent: dislike of prevailing political conditions has never been a sufficient explanation even of an isolated revolt, let alone a successful revolution. As argued above, dislike of the GDR was relatively constant throughout its forty-year history, and does little to elucidate its final collapse. While every revolution is in a very real sense unique, there are certain recurrent features. All successful revolutions appear to be characterized by a particular combination of factors. One of these is the growth of a revolutionary movement which at crucial moments is capable of mobilizing large numbers of people to mount a serious challenge from below. But equally important is the question of elite claims to power and exertion of effective rule. Historically, notable revolutions-including the English Revolution of 1640 and the French Revolution of 1789-have originated, not with a challenge from below, but rather with splits among ruling elites (although of course emerging splits are often simultaneously exploited and exacerbated by growing challenges from below).2 The course taken by revolutionary developments may also depend crucially on international circumstances. In the East German case, the state was characterized by a lack of national legitimacy and the artificial nature of its construction and dependence on the Soviet Union:
British Clubs and Societies 1580-1800
Authors: Clark Peter
Published: November 2023

Modern freemasonry was invented in London about 1717, but was only one of a surge of British associations in the early modern era which had originated before the English Revolution. By 1800, thousands of clubs and societies had swept the country. Recruiting widely from the urban affluent classes, mainly amongst men, they traditionally involved heavy drinking, feasting, singing, and gambling. They ranged from political, religious and scientific societies, artistic and literary clubs, to sporting societies, bee keeping, and birdfancying clubs, and a myriad of other associations.
Engines of Growth
Authors: Clark Peter
Published: November 2023

Clubs and societies were established for all kinds of reasons. Individuals might have a decisive role, like the Russia merchant Jonas Han way who founded the Marine Society and other philanthropic bodies; William Shipley, an art teacher, who pushed for the creation of the Society of Arts; and the radical philosopher David Williams, who fought for twenty-five years to start the Literary Fund. Or societies might be set up in response to particular problems and perceived crises, such as the wave of moral and social reform societies in the 1780s in the wake of the American defeat. f<ads and fashions might be vital-hence the surge of pseudo-masonic societies following the success of Modern freemasonry; while local and regional factors also had an effect. Societies could rise and fall as a response to short- and medium-term shifts in the cultural and political agenda, and as a result of tough competition between associations. The pattern of associational growth was itself a social process, serving as an indispensable ingredient in the complex reworking of British society during the early modern period.
Organization
Authors: Clark Peter
Published: November 2023

Riven by disputes, the Royal Society erupted in 1783, complaints against the president, Sir Joseph Banks, being ‘stopped by a clamour more worthy of a Covent Garden rabble than the fellows of a learned society’. A decade later An Authentic Narrative of the Dissensions and Debates in the Royal Society recorded renewed faction fighting over admissions and elections? Despite all the rhetoric of associational solidarity and the mechanisms for controlling admission and enhancing cohesion, societies often experienced internal conflict. The Royal Academy of Arts was set up in 1768 following a schism within the Incorporated Society of Artists of Great Britain, but the Academy proved equally prone to division. At the close of the century the professor of painting, James Barry, launched a noisy attack on the president, Benjamin West, and other members of the Council, making allegations of financial abuse. Nor were smaller societies immune. Exeter’s Literary Society suffered acrimonious exchanges in the 1790s, while Tiverton’s corporation club descended to family feuds and personal invective.1 2 The New England minister William Bentley remarked on the ‘many mortifications in such associations’, which led to animosities and division. On occasion, disputes might turn violent. In the 1730s we hear of an East Anglian ringing club, split over sharing the profits from ringing the peals at a wedding, where the members ‘fought till one died on the spot and another was desperately wounded’.
Freemasons
Authors: Clark Peter
Published: November 2023

Decisive for the creation of English, and indeed British, freemasonry as a speculative (that i , non-gild) movement was the assembly of four London lodges at the little Gouse and Gridiron alehouse in St Paul’s Churchyard on the feast of St John the Baptist, 1717. Here they elected Anthony Saver, gentleman, as first grand master, and Captain Joseph Elliot and Jacob Lam ball, a carpenter, as grand wardens, and so inaugurated what was to become the Modern grand lodge of England.
The New Poor Law and the Aged Poor
Authors: Thane Pat
Published: November 2023

What changed with the coming of the New Poor Law, the reform of the Poor Law which occurred following the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834? Some historians believe very little, others that it became increasingly severe. Such differences arise mainly because research has been focused upon different geographical areas or different groups of poor people. Able-bodied men were treated more punitively than before; this was a major purpose of the change. The effect upon old people, who were still the largest single group of paupers has been more contested and was probably more mixed. Exploration of the practical implementation of the New Poor Law can tell us much about the lives of poorer old people and about how they were perceived by others.
Loca Sanctorum: The Significance of Place in the Study of the Saints
Authors: Thacker Alan
Published: November 2023

Loca sanctorum: the phrase occurs repeatedly in the study of the saints, a reminder that sanctity and place are ineluctably linked. All saints are in a sense local if they have had a physical existence and an identifiable place of burial or a site with which (for whatever reason) they have been strongly associated. But while all saints are local, some are more intensely local than others. We may distinguish degrees of localness, from the universal saints of the Bible through national, regional, and multi local patrons, to the truly local figure venerated in but a single place. In this book, we shall have occasion to consider most if not all of these categories, but the main focus will be on the last two or three. The paper that follows traces the role of place in the cult of the saints in Western Europe from its origins until the eighth century. In this period, Christians developed an extraordinary need to identify with a particular spiritual patron, active among them in a special way and potent in intervening with their God on their behalf. Such patrons confirmed their presence through some physical token or memoria, most notably their corporeal remains.
Constructing Cults in Early Medieval France: Local Saints and Churches in Burgundy and the Auvergne 400-1000
Authors: Wood Ian
Published: November 2023

The spiritual landscape of Western Europe abounds in saint cults. Yet in origin the region could not claim to be a Christian Holy Land— the events of the New Testament had for the most part taken place far to the east, only reaching Italy in the histories of Peter and Paul. True, persecution subsequently hit the western provinces of the Roman Empire, and Rome in particular came to boast the tombs of many martyrs, although the impact of the Great Persecution of 303-11 was overwhelmingly eastern. This did not stop the fourth-century Spaniard Prudentius from celebrating the martyrs of his native country. Gaul may have had to wait a little while before the earliest of its martyr-acts, whether authentic or invented, were set down in writing: the Vita S. Symphoriani, for instance, is usually dated to the fifth century, and the Passio Acaunensium Martyrumwas composed by the fifth-century bishop Eucherius of Lyon. At the same time, the fabrication or elaboration of the legends of seven missionaries came to play a vital role in the episcopal competition for status which raged in fifth-century Gaul, while in Burgundy
The Enshrinement of Local Saints in Francia and England
Authors: Crook John
Published: November 2023

The cult of saints in the early middle ages found visible and tangible expression above all in the veneration of the bodily (usually skeletal) remains, ‘ relics’, left behind on earth by men and women who had suffered death for their Christian beliefs (martyrs) or who had led particularly holy lives (confessors). From the very earliest days of the organized church the practice exercised a significant influence on the architectural design and the internal arrangement of ecclesiastical buildings housing such relics. In this chapter these influences are examined in the early medieval West, and more particularly in Merovingian and Carolingian Francia. First, however, we should take a brief look at the Roman background to these developments. The earliest arrangement for the veneration of saintly relics consisted of a memorial structure (memoriaor tropaion) over the body of the saint; and in this respect, the early cults were essentially local, linked with the saint’s grave. Such monuments were soon enclosed within churches, with the high altar still ideally located directly over the grave, although in some cases the terrain made this impossible.
Scottish Saints and National Identities in the Early Middle Ages
Authors: Clancy Thomas Owen
Published: November 2023

In his extraordinary and contemporary—though highly fabulous—account of the death of Somerled in the battle of Renfrew in 1164, the clerk William attributes the Hebridean leader’s end to the prayers of the ecclesiastical community of Glasgow and the intervention of St Kentigern. It closes on this gorily triumphal note: A cleric hacked off the head of the wretched leader Somerled, and placed it into Bishop Herbert’s outstretched hands. He said, ‘The Scottish saints are surely to be praised!’ yet wept as his custom was, to see the head of his enemy. And to blessed Kentigern he attributed the victory, so keep you his memory always, and that fittingly.
The State of the Union
Authors: Prest Wilfrid
Published: November 2023

The British Isles were and are divided not only by St George’s Channel and the Irish Sea, but also by long-standing cultural, economic, ethnic, and religious differences. Hence the formal political unity of England, Wales, and Scotland after 1707 hardly obliterated local loyalties, let alone created an immediate sense of British nationhood. But besides constituting perhaps the largest free trade area in the world, the Union was sustained by a common language and Protestant religion, factors conspicuous in their absence from the essentially colonial relationship between Britain and Ireland.
Internal Security and External Defence, 1932-1939
Authors: O’Halpin Eunan
Published: November 2023

De Valera’s peaceful installation as president of the executive council on 9 March 1932 was a watershed in Irish politics. He was elected as head of a minority government supported by the Labour party, a constraint for which he may on reflection have been grateful. The transfer of power took place through the relatively dignified medium of a vote in Dail Eireann. The process was the antithesis of what many on both sides of the civil war divide had anticipated: there was no shooting, no rioting, and surprisingly little overt rancour or triumphalism. Despite its sympathy with the militant republican movement, Fianna Fail had become an essentially constitutional party. Despite the bitterness of its defeat and its fears for the future, Cumann na nGaedheal remained one.
External Defence and Security, 1939-1945
Authors: O’Halpin Eunan
Published: November 2023

De Valera had three principal assets in the autumn of 1939. The first was his firm policy of staying out of a European war, and his concomitant public pledge not to allow Britain’s interests to be harmed from Irish territory. This formulation gave him the flexibility which he needed to steer his way through the hazards which confronted him. It not only underlined neutrality, but placed it in a context where British strategic concerns were nevertheless openly acknowledged, and to some extent discreetly addressed from the beginning of the war. This was aided by the timely solution of the question of British diplomatic representation in Dublin through the appointment of Sir John Maffey and the establishment of the British Representative’s Office in the first week of the war, an arrangement which proved invaluable to both governments. De Valera stuck to the letter of the deal hammered out in 1938. The British, who were to find themselves faced with circumstances unimagined when they had relinquished their rights to the treaty ports, came very close to breaking their part of that bargain.
Model Mothers
Authors: Marks Lara V
Published: November 2023

This is the first scholarly study to focus on Jewish women's experience of childbirth and infant care. In late nineteenth and early twentieth-century Britain there was deep concern about the perceived physical and military deterioration of the nation, reflected in the diminishing birth rate, persistently high infant mortality, and the poor health of the working class, revealed by army recruitment. Many medical practitioners and politicians believed that Jewish mothers were `model mothers' whose exemplary care of their children offered a solution to these problems. Lara Marks assesses the extent to which the stereotype of Jewish mothers reflected the reality of their experience in East London between 1870 and 1939. Not only did they have to cope with extreme poverty, but as newly arrived immigrants had to deal with linguistic and cultural barriers, as well as the unfamiliarity of local medical facilities. Nevertheless, as Dr Marks shows, Jewish mothers and their infants had clearly indicated by the remarkably low rate of Jewish infant mortality, and she examines the reasons for this. Model Mothers makes important contributions to our knowledge of maternal and infant care in this period and to our understanding of the interactions between ethnicity and health-care.
The Kingdom of France 900—1100
Authors: Reynolds Susan
Published: November 2023

The area considered in this chapter is more or less that contained in what came to be known as the kingdom of France. After a brief period when its kings secured part of the middle kingdom, the boundaries of the western kingdom seem to have remained much the same from the treaty of Verdun until the thirteenth century. I shall occasionally refer to areas outside the kingdom, like the areas east of the Rhone that now form part of France or parts of the Low Countries that lay just within the empire. Inconsistent as this may be, I do it partly because pieces of evidence from those areas sometimes provide particularly tempting illustrations of conditions that I suspect were also found within the kingdom and partly because I am aware that by focusing on the kingdoms of France and Germany I am squeezing out the borderlands between them. Partly too I have put in some references here because French historiography has, quite understandably, tended to work within the boundaries of modern France. As a result, information about these areas has contributed to the picture of feudo-vassalic institutions associated with France
Introduction Economic Systems and State Finance
Authors: Bonney Richard
Published: November 2023

The title of this book in itself introduces a substantial historiographical debate. If the term ‘systems’ alludes to the modem concept of systems theory with its own methodology, which may have some useful applications for the financial historian, the phrase ‘economic systems’ refers to the observable fact that at no stage was the European economy a single economic system before the end of the ancien regime. France, for example, was a kingdom with several regional economies which were radically different one from another, and poorly integrated with each other; attempts to remove internal customs barriers before 1789 largely failed. These regional economic systems were in tum related to other regional economies in Europe. To speak of a west European economy or economic ‘system’, let alone a world economy, is therefore to misrepresent the historical reality. Before c.1800 there could only be European economic systems and world economic systems with a tenuous relationship between them.
The West European Monarchies in the Later Middle Ages
Authors: Ormrod W M
Published: November 2023

lt is widely acknowledged that ‘modem’ fiscal systems can be said to have emerged at the point when the ‘private’ resourc s of the ruling power were exceeded in value by the ‘public’ revenues derived from a system of general taxation. In the European context, this is normally expressed as the transition from the ‘domain state’ (fiscalit  é d’  État)to the ‘tax state’ (fiscalit  é d’  État). Several generations of scholars have identified the first signs of the transition in thirteenth- and fourteenth-century England and France; indeed, Jean-Philippe Genet has used the example of these two realms between 1290 and 1360 to create a model not only for the fiscal, but also the political, juridical and cultural development of the early modem state. In a specifically fiscal context, it must be emphasized that the example of the centralizing monarchy extending its range and developing new modes of extraction provided only one of the possible avenues for state development in late medieval Europe: some of the alternatives are discussed in other chapters of this volume. However, the present contribution aims not so much to challenge the model developed by Genet and others, but to test its validity over a rather wider geographical range and in a more precise statistical context than has hitherto been attempted.
Expenditure
Authors: Komer Martin
Published: November 2023

Anyone wishing to express an opinion on the finances of the early modem state should reflect on the obligations of that state. Its first task, according to Fernand Braudel, was ‘to secure obedience, to gain for itself the monopoly of the use of force in a given society, neutralizing all the possible challenges inside it and replacing them with what Max Weber called “legitimate violence”‘. Its second task was to control and organize economic life, the circulation of goods, and to establish the material and legal infrastructure to facilitate the proper workings of production and exchange. The third and final task of the state was to play a part in cultural and spiritual life, by keeping watch over, and channelling, ideas and intellectual movements. Yet when writing of the obligations and budget of the state, Braudel described the latter as an intrusive Leviathan which sought to procure the ever-increasing financial resources required to achieve the objectives it set itself. He pointed out one constant feature--that expenditure generally outran revenues, with the result that borrowing was always necessary.
The Fiscal Burden
Authors: Gelabert Juan
Published: November 2023

Historians who have studied the fiscal burden of a particular locality during a given period have usually been content to offer figures which represent the tax burden as accurately as possible by means of a wide variety of indexes. Rarely has much attention been paid to the underlying issues and the reasons why such figures differ so much from one place to another; why direct taxation predominated in some places while indirect taxes were the rule in others (Chapter 13); or why some systems were successful at raising money while others failed. Without completely disregarding quantitative data, the aim of this chapter is to address these issues, and to offer some suggestions towards an understanding as to why discussion of the fiscal burden ought not to be reduced simply to the calculation of a per capita fiscal burden, the lot of the ‘average taxpayer’, even within a particular country. There are various contributing factors which created the disparities in the tax burden on taxpayers in different countries. Leaving aside the question of the differential increase in state expenditure (Chapter 12), the aim is to focus on a geography of the tax burden in early modem Europe, something which Jean Bodin had already envisaged in the later sixteenth century.
Hierarchy and Jurisdiction: Models in Medieval Canon Law
Authors: Padoa-Schioppa Antonio
Published: November 2023

No one wishing to throw light on the models that have influenced the for mation of the modern state can ignore the medieval Western Church, both in its own institutional elements and in the theoretical development that unvaryingly accompanied historical events. One aspect of this evolution which is particularly important for an understanding of the origins of the modern European state is the concentration of decision-making power and the pyramidal structure of ecclesi astical organization, culminating in the Pope and the Roman Curia.
Issues at Stake in the Development of the State: Devising and Drafting the Law in Fourteenth-Century France
Authors: Rigaudiere Albert
Published: November 2023

In the extended fourteenth century, which ran from the reign of Philip the Fair (1285-1314) to that of Charles VI (1380-1422), legists and theoreticians writ ing in support of the monarchy were agreed that in France the institution of monarchy, born of the achievements of the reign of Louis IX (St Louis) and freed once and for all from the imperial yoke, had recovered its power to legislate.1 Such legislative power, an integral part of nascent sovereignty, was not distinguished from the other powers which the late eighteenth century, with its love of clarity and rigour, was to distinguish as executive.judicial, and legislative. For this reason, it is better to use more neutral expressions, such as ‘normative power’ or ‘edictal power’. Such expressions, in contrast with the doctrines of the philosophers and jurists of the Enlightenment, define the medieval reality of a monarchy constantly compelled to reassert its ability to make decisions, an ability whose recognition was most difficult to ensure.
The Legal Instruments of Power and the State in Early Modern England
Authors: Holmes Clive
Published: November 2023

The early modern period in England provides two major themes for the historian of the relationship between the legal instruments of power and the ori gin of the modern state. First, the period sees the continued development of the theoretical and practical supremacy of the Common Law and the central courts at Westminster over alternative, chiefly local, jurisdictions and customary rules-the theme emphasized by Dr Brand. That supremacy had to be in some measure reasserted following the weakening of all central institutions during the fifteenth century. It also had to adjust in response to the new social circumstances of the early modern period: to the growing complexity of economic transactions and the development of a national market, which multiplied civil litigation; to population growth, social polarization, and the appearance of a rural proletariat, which placed significantly enhanced burdens on the criminal and administrative agencies. Second, the period saw the redefinition of the relationship oflegal insti tutions to the monarchy and to Parliament, most apparent in the great constitu tional crises of the1640s and in1688-9. As Dr Brand has shown, the central courts of medieval England were essentially the king’s. Monarchs claimed the right to do justice to their subjects in an increasing range of disputes; this power they deputed to institutions that they established, and which were staffed by their nominees.
Cities, Bourgeoisies, and States
Authors: Isaacs Ann Katherine , Prak Maarten
Published: November 2023

The bourgeoisie is one of those historical phenomena that seems to be omnipresent in crucial developments of the European past, and at the same time eludes serious analysis by historians and other social scientists.1 As one of them summarized the problem three decades ago: ‘The trouble with the middle class is that it is always rising ‘. Even though the bourgeoisie ‘s destiny seems obviously enough the age of modernity, and its origins were surely to be found in the medieval town, the intermediate stages proved to be extremely hard to chart: somehow the bourgeoisie failed to appear at almost every rendezvous planned by its academic pursuers. With the destruction of the Industrial Revolution as a unifying concept, and the by now unanimous opinion that, whatever it may have been, the French Revolution was definitely not a bourgeois revolution, the last landmarks have disappeared.
Norms and values in the european cit y, 1300–1800
Authors: Blickle Peter
Published: November 2023

In what follows, only a rough definition of the terms ‘norm’ and ‘value’ will be attempted. Whereas a legal historian can consider the oldest kind of norm to be that of form,a sociologist like Talcott Parsons conceives social actions as striving towards conformity with norms, and sees norms as generalized patterns of expectations, which can be legitimized by values on a higher level.Norms and values can be thought of as essentially one, as in the old idea of an eternal, immutable law, in which justice and laws, norms and absolute values coincide; conversely, formal legal norms and material justice can be seen as diametrically opposed if they cannot be harmonized by aequitas—summa ius, summa inuria.