bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Protecting Heritage
Authors: Weiss Thomas G.
Published: January 2024

Some observers claim that it is necessary to prioritize either the protection of vulnerable populations or the tangible cultural heritage that sustains them; but there is no need because the two are inseparable. The moment is propitious because the international political disputes about when and where to intervene in specific crises to protect tangible heritage are less fraught than those to protect people. Moreover, protecting heritage is visible on the international public policy agenda; it is no longer a “niche topic,” the exclusive domain of cultural specialists. This chapter begins with the relevance of responsibility to protect (R2P) for the protection of cultural heritage. It continues with the value of inserting politics into what has been largely a legal conversation for over a century. The third section explores the possible “force multiplier” resulting from the use of heritage protection as a routine part of the peaceful resolution of disputes and of the mandates for outside military forces.
Legal Maxims: Summaries and Extracts from Selected Case Law
Authors: Antunes João Gil
Published: January 2024

This chapter covers a case before the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law: Olympic Entertainment Group AS v. Ukraine, PCA Case No. 2019-18, UNCITRAL Arbitration, Award, 15 April 2021.
De-idealization, mind, and language
Authors: Engelhardt Jeff
Published: January 2024

The first chapter of Nonideal Theory and Content Externalism (1) introduces de-idealizations as a kind of philosophical project, (2) makes a case for de-idealizations in philosophy of mind and language, and (3) responds to objections, including a recent argument that ideal/nonideal theory is useless in philosophy of language. To de-idealize a theory is to replace its model of society as free of oppression with a model that represents systemic oppression and its effects. The use of de-idealizations in mind/language is motivated in this chapter through the argument that (a) oppression systematically influences the parts of society that many theories of mind/language appeal to in their descriptions, explanations, and predictions, but (b) oppression has also made it so that most Western philosophers are ignorant of systemic oppression; consequently, (c) most theories of mind/language adopt systematically inaccurate social models and thus generate systematically inaccurate descriptions, explanations, and predictions. These theories should be de-idealized.
How Business Elite Dominance Engenders Creative Insecurity
Authors: Thafer Dania
Published: January 2024

In Chapter 6, the chapter argues that for the GCC economies to implement key reform in order to successfully achieve creative security, those reforms must be state-led, assuming the state is a rational actor interested in its national security and long-term stability. The chapter demonstrates how different levels of business elite dominance, and the perpetuation of business elite dominance by private sector institutions, undermine youth employment and integration in the private sector. The chapter also assesses how wealth accumulation does not generate innovation, with an emphasis on industries dominated by the business elites. The second part of the chapter addresses an underlying informal institutional environment that perpetrates business elite dominance and hierarchy in the Gulf private sectors.
Violence, Displacement and Social Transformation in Sabha
Authors: Stocker Valerie , al-Fallani Reema
Published: January 2024

Libya’s post-revolutionary struggles have played out in singular ways in the Fezzan, a region historically tied into the Sahelo-Saharan space. Centuries of mobility account for the region’s diverse demography. Since 2011, coexistence has been challenged by violent upheaval, the contest for power, and instability at the borders. A sequence of local conflicts fuelled ethnic and tribal divisions, prompting episodes of mass displacement. This chapter zooms in on Sebha, the Fezzan’s largest city, where regional dynamics converge. It retraces the city’s formation through colonial and Qadhafi-era social engineering, and analyzes its violent transformation post-2011. Over the decade from 2011, parochial identities became more salient and politicized amidst contentious questions of indigeneity and citizenship. Repeated waves of fighting and displacement intensified spatial and social fragmentation. With Sebha’s urban fabric cementing communitarian divides, its inhabitants navigating constraints and facing bitter sacrifices, the consequences of this social transformation may well prove durable.
The Revenge of the Defeated? The Re-emergence of the JamahiriYa Networks after 2011
Authors: Collombier Virginie , Omar Misbah
Published: January 2024

The killing of Muammar al-Qadhafi in October 2011 marked the definitive end of the Libyan Jamahiriya and the division of the society into two camps: the victors, who had supported the revolution, and the defeated, who had sided with Qadhafi. For the latter, military defeat translated into years of social stigma and political marginalization that proved difficult to reverse. This chapter focuses on the consequences of the regime’s collapse on the groups and communities who chose to back Qadhafi in 2011. It details how institutional divisions and renewed episodes of violent conflict over more than a decade changed the perception of former regime constituencies by the new elites competing for power, and paved the way for the re-emergence of certain individuals and networks who had been associated with the former regime. Despite the prominent political role now played by a number of former regime associates, political competition, fragmentation, and the lack of a collective leadership to represent those defeated in 2011 mean that there is no such thing as a “former regime” constituency any longer.
The Post-revolutionary Struggle for Economic and Financial Institutions
Authors: Eaton Tim
Published: January 2024

This chapter’s analysis of three critical economic and financial state institutions--the Central Bank of Libya (CBL), the Libyan Investment Authority (LIA) and the Organisation for the Development of Administrative Centres (ODAC)—reveals that Libyan state institutions have had a direct and material impact on the evolution of Libya’s conflict since 2011. The highly centralized nature of the Libyan economy and its dominant public sector mean that control of these institutions connotes control of Libya’s economy and ongoing access to funds inside and outside of Libya. This has placed these institutions at the heart of conflict, both violent—as a source of funding to armed actors—and non-violent, as part of the legal contestation among rivals for control. A study of the battle for control of Libya’s economic and financial institutions reveals two connected findings: first, the fragmentation of political authority in the post-revolutionary era has led to the economic and financial institutions of the Libyan state developing an unprecedented significance as power centers in their own right, albeit to varying degrees. Second, the networks benefiting from control of these institutions have proven resilient and adapted where necessary.
Public Sector without State
Authors: Lacher Wolfram
Published: January 2024

This chapter examines the changes Libya’s public sector has undergone amidst civil war and weakening state authority since 2011. It analyzes how the devolution of the means of violence from the central government to local actors has transformed both the functions and the functioning of the public sector. Examining the paradox of a massive increase in state employment amidst waning state authority, it finds that bureaucrats followed similar practices in hiring employees after 2011 as they did under Qadhafi. The difference was that the expansion of patronage networks faced fewer limits in the absence of an ultimate arbiter. Weakening central authority also created a demand for the regulation of conflicts over self-enrichment, opening the door to the increasing influence of armed groups within the public sector. Over time, increasingly blatant corruption broadened the acceptance of conceptions of state assets as prey. Credible allegations of corruption by senior officials were increasingly met with apathy rather than outrage.
Reality Bites Back Violence, Power and International Mediation in Libya
Authors: Thornton Christopher
Published: January 2024

Mediators are often fond of presenting themselves as realists, who are simply reflecting the current balance of power in the peace processes they shepherd. However, based on detailed analysis of successive efforts to resolve the Libyan crisis from 2014 onwards, this chapter suggests that mediation processes interact and fundamentally alter the societies in which they are conducted. As the Libyan case demonstrates, mediation processes elevate certain individuals and constituencies, transform intra- and inter-group relations, and seek to marginalize and sideline elements of the society they deem to be “spoilers.” However, the failure of certain processes to stop the violence in Libya also shows us the limits of such efforts at “social engineering” by mediators and the international community, providing a salutary lesson for other contexts.
A Catalytic Role Untold
Authors: Byala Sara
Published: January 2024

Chapter Five unearths the hidden role Coca-Cola played in helping to end apartheid in South Africa, providing a rare glimpse into the company’s political work and setting the stage for its involvement in fully post-colonial Africa. This chapter begins in the 1970s in America, where activism helped to compel the company to change its stance on South Africa. It tells the story of Carl Ware, who played a key role in Coca-Cola’s particular form of divestment. It explores how this unique form of divestment entailed working closely with ANC operatives in South Africa and in exile. Coca-Cola’s form of divestment meant that there was never a time that you could not buy a Coke product in South Africa. Still, this chapter shows how this form gained the praise of such stalwarts as Desmond Tutu and Nelson Mandela, though it remains controversial to this day.
Conclusion
Authors: Byala Sara
Published: January 2024

The book’s Conclusion weighs the balance of Coca-Cola’s history in Africa against the two biggest threats facing this company--and, arguably, the world--today: those relating to the human body and the environment. The conclusion explores the global turn against sugar, and liquid sugar in particular, as well as how Coca-Cola responded to this threat. It then explores how humans--and, in particular, a drink business--abut what scholars call the planetary boundaries for continued life on earth. Without passing judgement, it suggests how Coca-Cola in Africa is navigating this particular moment.
Making Meaning of Being Bad
Authors: Kellerman Barbara
Published: January 2024

What do we mean when we say that a leader—or a follower—is “bad”? The word is vague or even ambiguous. Moreover, discussions of bad leadership are saddled with three major problems. The first problem is that humans are not widgets. They are flesh and blood, hearts, and minds. This makes them not simple things but complex beings. The second problem is that “bad” can be used in two different ways: bad as in ineffective, and bad as in unethical. The third problem relates to differences of opinion, or to the different values we hold. What I consider “bad” might not be what you consider “bad,” and vice versa. The chapter argues that while these admittedly major concerns have previously precluded us—even experts in leadership and management—from tackling “bad” in the past, they should not deter us in the future.
Martin Winterkorn, CEO of Volkswagen
Authors: Kellerman Barbara
Published: January 2024

The chapter is about Martin Winterkorn, who was CEO of Volkswagen from 2007 to 2015 and who presided over “Emissionsgate” or “Dieselgate,” one of the worst scandals in corporate history. During the entire time that Winterkorn was chief executive, Volkswagen was installing a defeat device with the deliberate intention of misleading everyone from regulators to the buying public about the level of its vehicles’ emissions—the degree to which its products were polluting the air. Most of the chapter is divided into four sections each of which discusses one of the four previously mentioned phases. Each illustrates the process that begins with the leader promising the moon and the stars and ends in misfortune or even disaster. Winterkorn’s case was no exception. In the end, his career was over, and his company paid dearly for allowing its leader, and some of his followers, to cheat egregiously for almost a decade.
Xi Jinping, President of China
Authors: Kellerman Barbara
Published: January 2024

Xi Jinping transitioned over the course of the four phases of leadership from bad to worse, going from being an authoritarian leader to being a totalitarian one—a leader who demanded and largely was handed near-total control and given near-complete obedience. During the more than a decade that Xi Jinping has held power in China, he has been relentless in his quest for more power, to the point where the man who is now possibly if not probably president for life has become the sun around which China revolves. Xi has been a brutal and on occasion even evil leader. At the same time, he has become a force to be reckoned with, not just at the national level but also internationally . Notwithstanding his totalitarianism, Xi Jinping he has made his country a global power rivaled only by the United States.
Phase II: Followers Join In
Authors: Kellerman Barbara
Published: January 2024

During the second phase of leadership from bad to worse, leaders secure their base of support. Their followers usually increase in number, as does their level of involvement and commitment. Leadership is a relationship in which followers are every bit as important as their more visible counterparts. Which is why leaders do what they can to enlist followers, whether active or passive. The chapter asks whether followers of bad leaders are themselves necessarily bad. It further asks why anyone would ever follow a leader who is obviously bad. While on the surface following a bad leader, especially willingly, makes no sense, close examination reveals reasons for doing so. These reasons are described in a concluding section, “Warning Signs.” Martin Winterkorn, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, Elizabeth Homes, and Xi Jinping were all leaders who focused on getting followers into line and keeping them there.
Twenty-First-Century Activist Documentaries
Authors: Kim Jihoon
Published: January 2024

This chapter illuminates the succession and innovation of the activist tradition by discussing the twenty-first-century social change documentaries that take as their subject three social problems that the early activists and their collectives engaged in dialogue with during the mass demonstrations in the 1980s and the new civil movements in the 1990s: state and ideological violence, labor issues, and disenfranchised subjects. The documentarians who addressed these three problems have advanced the activist tradition in two directions: first, while sometimes being directly aligned with the social movements and explicitly promoting social solidarity, many documentarians, including such veterans as Kim Dong-won and Hong Hyung-sook, have tended to focus on each of the subjects as individual (kaein) rather than audiovisually constructing them as minjung. Second, the documentarians’ growing self-consciousness of their identity as individual kamdok (directors), of their relationship to the social actors, and of the documentary modes available for them has resulted in different ways of telling stories (including ethnography, experimental diary film, and observational documentary) than practiced by the enlightenment discourse of the 1980s activism, and of investigating the aspects of reality that were not noticed by the activist precursors, such as the mechanisms of the union and workplace themselves, the culture of the urban poor, the senses of disabilities, and animality.
Externalism
Authors: Pitt David
Published: January 2024

This chapter defends conceptual internalism in general by critiquing Putnam’s and Burge’s classic arguments for (linguistic and psychological, natural and social) externalism. It argues that the classic thought experiments of Putnam and Burge do not motivate their externalist (anti-individualist) conclusions. It follows that any externalist view based upon them (or others relevantly like them) is also unmotivated. The chapter maintains that the classic arguments were never sufficient to motivate externalism in the first place. In the final section it also presents a critique of phenomenal externalism.
Introduction
Authors: Gryb Sean , Thébault Karim P. Y.
Published: January 2024

The problem of time occurs within all mechanical theories in which the laws are invariant under local time relabelling. Such reparameterization invariant theories are the context in which the modern classical mechanical problem of time can be formally stated and in which our solution shall be articulated. The problem of time in classical mechanics is that the symmetry properties of reparameterization invariant theories with regard to chronometric and chronobservable structure enforce indeterminacy with regard to such structure under the standard approach to gauge symmetry. Our solution will be first to demonstrate that the standard approach to gauge symmetry is inadequate to the treatment of reparameterization invariant theories and second to formulate a general and fully adequate alternative based upon a more perspicuous analysis of temporal symmetry and structure. Our approach is such that reparameterization invariance is demonstrated to be fully compatible with determinate chronordinal structure.
Spatiotemporal Structure and Theory Re-Articulation
Authors: Gryb Sean , Thébault Karim P. Y.
Published: January 2024

The framework for the analysis of symmetry and structure in physical theory allows one to identify explicit heuristics for theory rearticulation. One of the most powerful of these heuristics is the surplusing heuristic which is built from the conversion of invariant to surplus structure within a theory. When applied to the pivotal structure of inertial frames within Newtonian mechanics this heuristic leads directly from Newtonian Mechanics to Barbour–Bertotti theory. In Newtonian Mechanics, inertial frames are invariant under the narrow symmetries of the theory given, under the preliminary stance, by rigid Euclidean transformations but variant under the dynamical transformations given by Galilean boosts. Inertial frames are thus dynamically relative invariant structures of the theory. Implementing the surplusing heuristic means converting structure from invariant to surplus and this is exemplified by the case of moving from Newtonian Mechanics to Barbour–Bertotti theory.
The Communists Enter the Scene
Authors: Piffer Tommaso
Published: January 2024

The German invasion of the Soviet Union marked the beginning of a new phase in the history of the international communist movement. By the end of the war, in most European countries the small and decimated communist parties of 1939–41 had turned into mass parties with millions of supporters. In countries such as Yugoslavia, Greece, Albania, France, and Italy, they were strong enough to seize power after the German defeat, at least in theory. But the arrival of the communists on the scene also drastically changed the history of the European resistance, as it brought the struggle for the future of Europe to the very heart of how the resistance movements waged the war. European opposition groups could now play the British and the Soviets off against each other in order to maximize their room for manoeuvre. The Polish underground became a key card in the conflict between the government-in-exile and Moscow. And when a civil war between different resistance groups broke out in the Balkans, the British were forced to decide which side they wanted to support.
The Militarization of British Policy and the Beginning of the US Challenge in the Mediterranean
Authors: Piffer Tommaso
Published: January 2024

Starting from 1943, the operational control of SOE passed progressively from the British Chiefs of Staff to the theatre commanders in each area of operations, which were all operating under the direction of the Combined Chiefs of Staff in Washington. After the Casablanca conference in January and the decision to open a new front in Italy, the British pushed to maximize resistance in the Balkans in order to create a diversion coordinated with the attack in the Mediterranean, divert German troops from other theatres of war, and relieve pressure on the Eastern front. The roles played by the individual agents dispatched to assess the political and military nature of groups in the field increased, and so did conflicts regarding policy between SOE in Cairo, which was supported by the Middle East command, the SOE London Headquarters and the Foreign Office. At the same time, with Moscow’s support, Tito’s Partisans were now firmly established in Yugoslavia and the turning point of Stalingrad gave new strength to all communist groups in the Balkans area. In this already complicated context, OSS launched another attack intended to question British policy in the region and expand its own area of operation.
The Communist Movement on the Offensive
Authors: Piffer Tommaso
Published: January 2024

At the beginning of 1943, the Red Army’s victory at Stalingrad and the approach of the Soviet spring offensive disrupted the geopolitical balance within the Grand Alliance: Moscow was asserting its role as a European power and commencing its bid for Eastern Europe. Both in Czechoslovakia and Poland, Stalin moved cautiously, manoeuvring Beneš into the Soviet orbit and blaming the Polish Government-in-exile for the inevitable break in relations with Moscow. In order to increase the room for manoeuvre of the communist parties, the Comintern was disbanded and replaced by the Department of International Information. The situation in the Balkans remained uncertain. After the Italian surrender in September 1943, the Greek and Albanian communist-led resistance groups tried to seized power and move onto the offensive against their internal enemies. Moscow had put its weight behind Tito, and Stalin was infuriated when Tito entered on a collision course with the Yugoslav Government-in-exile. The impasse was solved by Churchill, who in December 1943 decided to give full British support to Tito and spared Stalin the choice between the communist movements and the Yugoslav Government-in-exile.
The Liberation of Western Europe
Authors: Piffer Tommaso
Published: January 2024

SOE was created in 1940, but it took years before the right conditions enabled it to claim that the population of Western Europe was ready to rise up. In France, this required the convergence of different groups under the banner of Fighting France and de Gaulle’s political victory over Giraud. And only the German occupation of northern France in November 1942 and the decision to resort to forced labour to sustain German industry provided the resistance with a wide base of consensus and a mass of volunteers at its disposal. In Denmark, it was the German takeover of August 1943 which finally turned the population against the Reich. In Italy, the Western Allies had to wait until the September 1943 armistice before strong groups appeared on the scene. When the time for the invasion of Western Europe finally came, the military planners were beset by doubts over whether it was really advisable to launch the partisan movement into the fight. Some countries, such as Denmark, the Netherlands, and Norway, were clearly on the periphery of the invasion. In such circumstances, a general rising of the population might end up incurring heavy reprisals without providing any immediate military dividend. In France, the Allies generally thought that the resistance groups were more concerned with political issues than in fighting the Germans. The partisan groups were tasked with conducting acts of sabotage and collecting information, but generally speaking in Western Europe the role assigned to them in the offensive remained marginal.
The Objects of Credence
Authors: Mahtani Anna
Published: January 2024

This book brings to light a simple and deep insight with profound theoretical and policy implications for all who use the credence framework. There are concepts which need to be rethought, moves which turn out to be invalid, and principles which need to be rejected or transformed. The central aim is to give those who use the credence framework an awareness of the insight and its wide-reaching implications. The credence framework is used throughout the sciences and social sciences. On this framework, credences (degrees of belief, subjective probabilities, or Bayesian probabilities) are assigned to certain objects—but what objects? I argue that the objects of credence are ‘opaque’ or ‘hyperintensional’: to adapt an example from Gottlob Frege, a person’s credence that Hesperus is bright might be different from their credence that Phosphorus is bright, if that person does not know that Hesperus and Phosphorus are one and the same. We might put the point by saying that our credences are not about objects in themselves, but about objects under designators. This point has far-reaching implications for users of the credence framework. There are implications for principles of rationality, including deference principles and the Principal Principle, and practical implications for decision theory and welfare economics. Furthermore, there are implications for how the framework should be interpreted: this book explores both two-dimensionalism and impossible worlds, and assimilating either into the credence framework brings further significant repercussions.
States as Metaphysically Possible Worlds
Authors: Mahtani Anna
Published: January 2024

This chapter assesses whether the credence framework could accommodate the tenet (that credence claims are opaque) while retaining the assumption that states are metaphysically possible worlds. The chapter explores various options, beginning with those inspired by Bertrand Russell’s descriptivism and Robert Stalnaker’s account of belief attribution, and then turning to David Chalmers’s two-dimensionalist approach. Chalmers’s definitions of the primary and secondary intensions of assertions are explained and motivated, and then there is an extended exploration of the idea that the objects of credence might be primary intensions. Problems with this view are raised, and various potential solutions and refinements are considered. The chapter ends with a discussion of some related views, including the view that the objects of credence might be enriched propositions. It is argued that all of the views discussed face serious difficulties.
Linguistic evidence for Iranian influence on Armenian
Authors: Meyer Robin
Published: January 2024

This chapter provides a survey of the research carried out on Iranian–Armenian contact linguistics to date. It gives an overview of all the domains influenced by this contact, from different layers of loanwords in the lexicon and its stratigraphy, identifiable by different types of loan phonology, to phonological, morphological, and phraseological borrowings more broadly. While exchanges with Parthian constitute the bulk of this chapter, loans from Old Iranian and Middle Persian are discussed and compared as well. The influence of contact on Armenian syntax is identified as the domain on which next to no research has been done so far–a lacuna this book seeks to fill.
The syntax of the Armenian perfect
Authors: Meyer Robin
Published: January 2024

The hypothesis of a Parthian origin of the Classical Armenian perfect tense is put to the test in this chapter. A corpus analysis of all participial and perfect forms in the five earliest historiographical Armenian texts (Koriwn, Agat‘angełos, Łazar P‘arpec‘i, Ełišē, and the Epic Histories) provides information about the frequency and diachronic development of certain features of the construction, in particular the occurrence of non-nominative subjects, occurrence or absence of the copula, and copula agreement. This analysis shows a slow decline of non-nominative subjects in favour of nominative ones, and thus a tendency away from ergative (or more precisely: tripartite) alignment and towards a nominative-accusative pattern. By contrast, the initially infrequent copula becomes effectively obligatory over the course of the century, illustrating a distinct change-in-progress in the periphrastic perfect and lending further credence to the proposed Parthian origin.
Other cases of Iranian–Armenian pattern replication
Authors: Meyer Robin
Published: January 2024

Going beyond the contact hypothesis of the Classical Armenian periphrastic perfect, this chapter enquires into other syntactic patterns that have plausible parallels in West Middle Iranian. Three patterns in particular are investigated-nominal relative clauses, a multifunctional anaphora, and a quotative pattern-and clear Iranian parallels discussed. In the case of nominal relative clauses, the differences between Armenian and Iranian are too pronounced to argue for a contact origin, especially since similar patterns are available also in other Indo-European languages. The functional distribution of the anaphora ink‘n, which also serves as an intensifier and switch-function marker, has clear parallels in Iranian, however, as do specific quotative uses of (e)t‘e. For these patterns, an Iranian model is proposed at least as a contributing factor in their development.
Lenin as Icon and Inspiration: Leninism after Lenin
Authors: Read Christopher
Published: January 2024

An account of the global spread of Leninism and the collapse of the European communist movement shows how Lenin’s ideas and activities were turned into Leninism and became the theory and practice of the Communist Party and its variants. Stalin dominated this process. The Communist International (Comintern) attempted to spread Leninism beyond the USSR. Two aspects of Communist Party ideology and practice derived from Lenin, anti-imperialism and anti-fascism, were the main foundations for its adoption by a variety of radical movements around the world. The decline and fall of European communist parties between 1956 and 1991 is analysed.
The Problem of Self-Observation
Authors: Spener Maja
Published: January 2024

This chapter provides an overview of some of the main developments in the use of introspective methods in early experimental psychology (mainly 1860-1920). During this period, a key concern about introspective methods was the problem of self-observation, namely that introspecting experience distorts or destroys the target experience. It was raised prominently by Auguste Comte and dominated methodological discussion among so-called ‘introspectionist psychologists’. The chapter applies the proposed framework to set out the flow of this debate among some of the main figures in early psychology, presenting their responses to the problem of self-observation. Doing so makes clear that one of the most salient differences among the different responses is the appeal to different modes of introspective access and how these are best exploited in an empirical investigation of the mind. This shows the value both of the book’s proposed framework and of the insights of the early psychologists.
Varieties of Introspective Methods in Introspectionist Psychology
Authors: Spener Maja
Published: January 2024

Chapter 3 focusses on the specific proposals put forward by two early German experimentalists, Wilhelm Wundt and Georg Elias Müller. It explores Wundt’s and Müller’s detailed critical rejection of the so-called ‘systematic introspection’ practiced by Oswald Külpe’s Würzburg School (and which is most representative of contemporary understanding of Introspectionist Psychology), and Wundt’s and Müller’s own introspective methods. Their positive proposals show how conceptions of the different types of introspective access - in particular, of their epistemic potential and their susceptibility to interference - shape the methodological terrain. These two approaches serve as a good illustration how, on the basis of detailed conceptions of introspective access, we can formulate different types of introspective methods in a more systematic manner. In particular, discussion of their views helps to bring into focus the basic interaction between types of introspective access and introspective methods in an empirical setting.
The Problem of Response Bias
Authors: Spener Maja
Published: January 2024

Against the background of an historically-informed understanding of introspective methods, this chapter turns to contemporary science of consciousness, which features subjective and objective measures of consciousness. Subjective measures involve gathering subjective reports about consciousness. They are typically held to be essential to the science of consciousness but also to be notoriously unreliable. This methodological challenge polarises the field and threatens the foundations of the science of consciousness. The source of the challenge is that subjective measures have the problem of an ineliminable response bias affecting the main data they deliver, i.e. subjective reports. The chapter argues that subjective measures are introspective methods because they involve subjects deploying introspective access to deliver subjective reports. It makes the case that addressing the problem of response bias adequately requires understanding the kind of introspective access deployed by a given subjective method.
Subjective Measures of Consciousness
Authors: Spener Maja
Published: January 2024

This chapter critically investigates the two main types of subjective measures of consciousness, Confidence Ratings and the Perceptual Awareness Scale. The aim is to show that these measures are best understood to draw on introspective access in delivering subjective reports, but that the conception of such access is seriously underdeveloped. Instead, proponents mostly rely on a shared and unarticulated common-sense understanding of introspection. This makes contemporary subjective measures more vulnerable than they should be to the problem of response bias, and hence, to radically negative assessments. Attempts to provide a more detailed conception of subjective access by appeal to the scientifically-informed notion of metacognitive access is also not promising, given the current wide application of the notion of metacognition. The imprecision at the heart of these modern introspective methods also renders standard arguments for the necessity of introspection in consciousness science toothless in the overall debate.
The Reliability of Subjective Measures of Consciousness
Authors: Spener Maja
Published: January 2024

This chapter puts together the lessons from the previous historical and critical chapters. The proposed framework for assessing introspective methods provides the resources to address questions about the reliability of present-day scientific introspective methods in detailed and principled ways. This helps to create space for a middle ground position on how to respond to the methodological challenge, overcoming the polarised state of play between optimistic faith-based endorsement of subjective measures and radically pessimistic wholesale rejection of them. Having such a middle ground allows for nuanced assessment of the potential and limitations of specific introspective methods and stabilises the methodological foundations of the contemporary science of consciousness.
The Explanatory Role of Introspective Access
Authors: Spener Maja
Published: January 2024

How does introspection as a mental capacity fit into our common sense and scientific pictures of the mind? This chapter asks about the shared ordinary understanding of introspection that is typically presupposed by psychologists and philosophers alike. It argues that the main source of our ordinary conception of introspective access is the explanatory role such access plays vis-à-vis our agency. The explanatory role of introspective access is also the key to (i) solving the calibration problem for the different modes of introspective access, and (ii) to providing an account of the ordinary and scientific kinds that answer our different introspective classifications. This account is a composite pluralism about introspective access. Modes of introspective access pick out distinct scientific kinds, but this does eliminate the ordinary notion of introspective access, which picks out an ordinary kind.
The Epistemology of Privacy
Authors: Véliz Carissa
Published: January 2024

Privacy studies have much to benefit from epistemology; losing privacy is an epistemic event, and better understanding knowledge and other epistemic states can help us establish when and to what degree privacy has been lost. But epistemology can also benefit from privacy studies. Not only can privacy practices lead to increased knowledge; thinking about privacy also informs our understanding of why knowledge matters, and how pragmatic concerns might affect how we think about what counts as knowledge. Privacy is a relational epistemic state. That is, for me to lose privacy, I must stand in an epistemic relation to someone else. Knowledge seems to be a sufficient condition for a loss of privacy. But is knowledge necessary for a loss of privacy? What about justified but false beliefs and unjustified but true beliefs? This chapter tackles these questions. Although access accounts of privacy are quite common, remarkably little has been written about what counts as access. The epistemology of privacy, in essence, is an exploration of what counts as an epistemic access that can lead to a loss of privacy. First, the chapter explores the relationship between knowledge and privacy. Second, the chapter explores the relationship between privacy, truth, belief, and justification. Section 3 considers whether epistemic states that amount to having less than knowledge can lead to privacy losses, and will argue that full and weak knowledge (true beliefs), as well as access to someone’s personal space, can lead to privacy losses. Section 4 explores perception and privacy.
Privacy Duties
Authors: Véliz Carissa
Published: January 2024

The interests we have in privacy, along with the cases, distinctions, and arguments explored in this book suggest that there is not only a right to privacy, but also certain duties to protect one’s privacy and that of others (e.g., duties to refrain from surveillance). First, this chapter offers some reflections on the relationship between rights and duties. Section 2 argues that the duty to respect other people’s right to privacy is composed of a duty of ignorance (partly composed of a duty of inattention and restraint), and a duty of silence. Section 3 argues for a duty of reticence when it comes to protecting one’s own privacy, and for privacy as a civic duty. Section 4 argues that privacy duties don’t only attach to individuals, but also to institutions.
Privacy in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Véliz Carissa
Published: January 2024

The twenty-first century has not been kind to privacy. Section 1 will offer a brief snapshot of the state of privacy in the digital age. Section 2 will argue that to digitize is to surveil, and that increasing surveillance comes with the territory of transforming the analogue into the digital. Section 3 will go through each of the goods that we saw in Chapter 7 that privacy protects and assess how they’re being affected in the digital age. The section ends up concluding that, if we want to preserve these goods, we ought to scale back surveillance. Section 4 responds to three objections: that we are not losing privacy because algorithms (not human beings) are doing most of the collection of personal data, that the digital age presents us with an opportunity to have a radically transparent society in which privacy isn’t necessary anymore, and that surveillance in the digital age is unproblematic because it’s done with the consent of the population. Section 5 offers some practical suggestions of how to better protect privacy in the twenty-first century: data minimization, setting limits on the storage of personal data, and banning the trade in personal data. Section 6 concludes the chapter with some final thoughts about consent and control.
Cotard Syndrome
Authors: Gerrans Philip
Published: January 2024

This chapter provides an alternative to two-factor explanations of Cotard syndrome that treat it as either (i) a metacognitive response to the experience of depersonalization caused by abnormal activity in the insula cortex or (ii) the result of global affective flattening. On the view presented here the primary cause of Cotard syndrome is pervasive bodily dysregulation and the primary cause of depersonalization is dissociative “deaffectualization”. These malfunctions affect a “self-model” in different ways. The self-model framework is developed against the background of active inference theory and also provides an explanation of the role of the insula in self-representation. It also provides a way of characterizing the role of affective experience in these disorders.
Collegiality in the Making
Authors: Patrin Maria
Published: January 2024

This chapter examines how Commission actors apply collegiality practices in their daily work. The methodological premise of this actor-centric approach is that the law of collegiality can only be fully understood within the institutional and political practices in which it is embedded. These practices are in turn shaped by the actors that animate them. The chapter identifies the main loci of collegiality, at the level of both the college and the administrative services. These are the college of commissioners, the commissioners’ cabinets, the Secretariat-General, and the Legal Service. Furthermore, the chapter unveils the practices that emerge from the actor’s interpretation of collegiality, focusing for instance on the college organization implemented by the Juncker and Von der Leyen Commissions and on the exceptional case of the High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, who belongs to two different institutions.
Internal Decision-Making and Functional Fragmentation
Authors: Patrin Maria
Published: January 2024

This chapter investigates the heterogeneity and fragmentation that affects the Commission’s activities from a functional perspective. This heterogeneity is at odds with collegiality as a principle of unity and cohesion. In other words, the Commission’s legislative, executive, enforcement, and surveillance functions respond to diverging logics, thus challenging the institutional coherence safeguarded by collegiality. How to reconcile the tension between collegiality and functional fragmentation? The first part of the chapter presents the Commission’s functions, unveiling a high degree of functional diversification. The second part retraces the internal procedures for the adoption of acts. Beyond the multi-functional character of the activities, and independently from the functions it fulfils, the internal Commission’s decision-making must preserve the cohesion of the collegial output. The degree of collegiality, however, varies for each Commission’s function, as it will be empirically illustrated in the case studies presented in the other chapters of Part II.
Executive Rule-Making
Authors: Patrin Maria
Published: January 2024

Delegated and implementing decisions are the result of highly complex coordination procedures. Contrary to legislative acts, however, executive rule-making does not require any co-decision procedure following the adoption by the college. Member State involvement mostly happens ex ante, at the stage of the formulation of the measure, through a system of expert committees accompanying the work of the Commission’s services. As a result, however, once the measure has been agreed with Member State representatives, it becomes very difficult to overturn it. The college is left with little discretion to amend the act. The case study on the approval of glyphosate demonstrates that the tension between expert consultation and collegiality can put the Commission’s collegial system under stress, especially when the decision becomes politicized. It thus highlights several shortcomings in the collegial decision-making process for the adoption of implementing acts.
The Symbolic Resonances of Rome’s Cityscape
Authors: de Beer Susanna
Published: January 2024

Chapter 4 introduces the cityscape of Rome as a contested battleground on which almost all strategies of claiming “Rome” can be projected. This chapter shows how the remains of the ancient city, by evoking past glory, provided the humanist poets with material for both the image of the “City of Magnificence” and the counter-image of the “City of Ruins,” supporting both “insider” narratives focused on restoration and “outsider” narratives focused on decline and decay. The chapter then examines poems that reflect emotional responses of wonder at and mourning of the Roman remains, demonstrating instances in which the goals of humanist poets and their patrons diverged, before moving over to the strategies by which the humanist poets use the monuments of Rome, and the literary representations thereof, as sites of memory, to frame themselves as the ultimate guides to Rome’s legacy. By so doing, this chapter introduces another dimension of the battle, in which the humanists also fight on their own behalf—instead of providing weapons and functioning as spin doctors in the “battle for Rome” on behalf of others. This chapter engages with the growing body of literature concerning the cultural meaning of “ruins” and the “Fall of Rome.”
The Humanist Poets as “New Romans”
Authors: de Beer Susanna
Published: January 2024

Chapter 5 focuses squarely on the humanist project of reviving Rome’s literary legacy and on the revival of ancient Rome through literature. While this literary revival also lends prestige to the authorities who support it, this chapter shifts the focus to the way the humanists define themselves in and through their poetry as “New Romans” by adopting “Rome” as a metaphor for Latin literature. It enters into discussion with scholarship on the nature and definition of Renaissance humanism by showing how the humanist identity is intricately connected with “Rome” and equally open to both narrow and wide definitions. This chapter ultimately suggests that the renewed dominance of Latin literature as propagated by the humanists also sparked a second—artistic—battle for Rome and discusses the implications of this battle on the Questione della linguà (debate concerning the use of Latin or vernacular) and the Paragone delle arti (“comparison of the arts”).
Introduction
Authors: Sax William S.
Published: January 2024

This chapter addresses the question, “How is radical alterity best understood?” and answers it by discussing “three problematic terms” in anthropology: culture, ontology, and ritual. It criticizes the so-called “ontological turn” in anthropology for failing to take seriously the idea of “multiple worlds” and, following the philosophers Mol and Hacking, the ethnosociologist Marriott, and the work of several anthropologists of Latin America, it argues that these can be theoretically grasped only when sufficient attention is given to practice. This is, however, not the case in many discussions of “ontology,” which remain stuck at the level of representation. Further, the chapter argues that a nuanced/revised notion of “culture” can comprehend the existence of multiple worlds, and suggests a conceptual framework for doing so. This framework requires us to identify the necessary preconditions for “real-izing” a world.