bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Eight Principles of European Contract Law
Authors: Lando Ole
Published: November 2023

On a summer evening in 1974 I had dinner with a prominent official in the European Commission, Dr Winfried Hauschild. Dr Hauschild was then assisting the working group that drafted what later became the Rome Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations. We dis cussed whether the planned ‘choice of law’ rules would establish the uniformity necessary for an integrated market.
The Nature and Transfer of Rights in Dematerialised and Immobilised Securities
Authors: Goode Roy
Published: November 2023

The last thirty years have witnessed dramatic changes in the structure and organization of securities markets. Among the factors which have driven these developments are:

a huge expansion in the amount of capital sought to be raised on the market

a desire to promote cross-border investment and trading in securities

the requirement for an efficient system of distribution among major investors
Regulation: After ‘Command and Control’
Authors: Baldwin Robert
Published: November 2023

Just one of Don Harris’ contributions to the development of socio-legal studies has been his work on different methods of providing compensation and support for illness and injury (see Harris et al.,1984). Such research has manifested a concern that administrative and legal mechanisms should be tested for their appropriateness to particular tasks and a belief that the way such mechanisms operate on the ground should be a focus of attention. Echoing such interests, this chapter looks at different methods of controlling industrial or social activities and looks, in particular, at the potential of new regulatory techniques-techniques that can be contrasted with what might be called ‘old-fashioned command-and-control’ regulation. I begin by outlining the command-and-control method and its supposed problems. The alternatives to command and control are then reviewed and questions are asked about the limitations of such methods and their capacity to overcome familiar regulatory difficulties. Finally, comments are offered on how choices of control device can be made.
Sexually Transmitted Debt
Authors: Fehlberg Belinda
Published: November 2023

This book is the first major study of an increasingly evident legal and social problem: spouses and partners (particularly wives) who provide third party loan security for the business liabilities of their other spouse or partner. Unlike other texts in this field, Fehlberg specifically considers the legal rules which apply to surety wives in England, with reference to other Commonwealth jurisdictions, particularly Canada and Australia. The law is then considered in the context of sociological literature relevant to surety experience. The particular uniqueness of this book is that legal and sociological literature are then tested against empirical research involving interviews with sureties, and other main parties involved in surety transactions. Significantly the latter underlines the discrepancy between the ‘public’ legal perspective on providing security and ‘private’ complex experiences and motivations which pertain within intimate relationships. Given this situation, the author considers various legal reforms which could improve the position of sureties, but emphasises that the ultimate solution for sureties involves more fundamental social change.
Human Rights and the Law of Torts
Authors: Mason Sir Anthony
Published: November 2023

The object of this essay is to discuss the impact of human rights on the law of torts. This is no easy task as the protection of human rights was at most a speck on the horizon when the law of torts took shape-though some would deny that it has ever taken shape. The law of torts protects and has protected a range of rights and interests long recognized by the common law. Some of the rights and interests so recognized fall within the much wider catalogue of human rights; others do not.
The Right of Spring
Authors: Thorndon Lord Cooke of
Published: November 2023

Heuston, Glanville Williams, Fleming, Gower: in all-too-rapid succession the gods have stolen from the world of academic legal scholarship in English a select range of its acknowledged leaders, leaving sad gaps in the front rank. Two of them may be described without exaggeration as the most influential all-round writers in the field of torts.
The Staggering March of Negligence
Authors: Weir Tony
Published: November 2023

Although the twentieth century has been in many respects what Shakespeare called ‘The expense of spirit in a waste of shame’ -as it maunders to its end, we see the leaders of Western Europe adamant to create an insanely bureaucratic and multilingual ideological empire such as the nations of Eastern Europe have just broken loose from, and England, in an anachronistic preference for geography over history, abandoning the law it gave to the English-speaking world and turning its back on those to whom it was given-yet for the time being the common lawyers of England can take comfort in the success of the tort of negligence: announced in hieratic terms in 1932, its principle of liability has become so dominant that sixty years later Lord Goff could state that ‘the law of tort is the general law, out of which the parties can, if they wish, contract’. The contrast with the position in 1900 could hardly be more marked.
Towards a European Civil Code: The Duty of Good Faith
Authors: Kötz Hein
Published: November 2023

A few years ago the European Parliament in Strasbourg passed a resolution requesting the Commission to start work on a European Civil Code. The European Commission does not yet seem to show much enthusiasm for this idea, and it is indeed far from clear whether a demonstrable practical need for such a Code exists at the present time, whether the Commission has the jurisdiction to undertake such a project, and what the political chances of success would be. What is clear, how¬ ever, is that the project of a European Civil Code has proved to be a most challenging and stimulating idea to many legal academics.
Reading Through a Foreign Judgment
Authors: Markesinis Basil
Published: November 2023

At the height of the so-called ‘Beef Crisis’ in 1996, Mr D. F. Williams, the Secretary-General of the European Commission and Britain’s most senior Civil Servant in Brussels, warned against the Europhobic sentiments which were being whipped up by certain politicians and the Press.
Reparations in the Inter-American System
Authors: Shelton Dinah
Published: November 2023

International human rights treaties generally require that the States Parties afford an effective remedy to the victim of a human rights violation Failure to provide a remedy constitutes a separate breach of the treaty, additional to the original violation. Where domestic remedies do not exist or prove ineffectual, international supervisory organs may have jurisdiction to accept petitions meeting stated admissibility criteria in order to decide if a violation has been committed. Two human rights treaties, the European and the Inter-American Conventions, go further and authorize their respective courts to issue judgments on reparations.
Public Service, Public Services, Public Functions, and Guarantees of the Rights of Citizens: Unchanging Needs in a Changed Context
Authors: Garcia Elisenda Malaret
Published: November 2023

The notion of public service is one that may be approached in various ways and is used in widely differing conceptual areas. In the present chapter, however, an attempt will be made to focus on the legal approach, that is, to define the role of the notion of public service or similar notions in terms of government measures designed to provide guarantees for the exercise of their rights by citizens, or to ensure that collective needs are met. Such an approach necessarily takes account of the existence of an ideology of public service as legitimizing action by the State,1 in that here the State is no longer confined to the activity of policing or maintaining public law and order, but is active in the provision of services to the public.
Making the Welfare State Work: Changing Conceptions of Legal Remedies Within the British Welfare State
Authors: Goriely Tamara
Published: November 2023

Legal aid has a dual relationship with the welfare state. On one hand it is a welfare provision. The level and nature of help which legal aid provides will be influenced by general societal attitudes to welfare. On the other hand, providing legal help to the poor may also play a part in enforcing welfare provision and other social rights. It may be a mechanism to make the welfare state work.
The Lawyers’ Lobby and the Welfare State: The Political Economy of Legal Aid
Authors: Blankenburg Erhard
Published: November 2023

This Chapter analyses and accounts for the different amounts spent on legal aid in a selection of developed countries. It starts by describing the limits and success of three legal aid movements: the right to counsel codification in European Continental codes, the peace of law movement in Germany around the turn of the century and the legal aid movement in some of the welfare states of the 1970s. Explanations are sought for why legal aid grows in some countries but meets resistance in others under similar circumstances. As main factors, the prosperity of the welfare state and the success of lawyer lobbies in defending professional privilege are singled out. They provide the key to explaining why Canadian provinces or Australian states have, but American states have not (and why Scandinavian countries and the Netherlands have, but Germany or France have not) invested in legal aid infrastructures. The way legal aid institutions are embedded within the welfare system and in the legal profession also explains why current austerity politics have managed to put a ceiling on Dutch and Scandinavian expenditures but not on the British legal aid scheme.
Why Do Legal Aid Services Vary Between Societies? Re-examining the Impact of Welfare States and Legal Families
Authors: Regan Francis
Published: November 2023

Recent comparative legal aid research presents us with a puzzle. While a number of fascinating patterns have been identified between different societies’ legal aid services, little progress has been made in explaining their origins or appreciating their significance. For example, the proportion of the population eligible for legal aid varies widely between groups of societies as does the range of services. Most of the population are, for example, usually eligible in Northern Europe but in English-speaking societies it is usually targeted at the poor. Meanwhile, the latter often provide surprisingly extensive services for problems that are unlikely to end in court while the Continental schemes usually assist their citizens primarily in relation to court cases.
Patterns of Fusion
Authors: Getzler Joshua
Published: November 2023

Imagine a system of mathematics where there were blue numbers and red numbers, descended from two historically distinct sources of arithmetic. The red numbers were developed chiefly in order to supplement and vary func tions performed with blue numbers. Blue and red numbers could be com bined validly in some functions and operations, but not in others. The rules for permissible combinations were complicated and arcane. Mathematicians differed over which combinations were permissible: some insisted on tradi tional compartmentalisations; others favoured increased blending of the two number systems; others still wanted the historical distinction abolished and replaced with one unified set of black numbers.
Negotiating Domestic Violence: Police, Criminal Justice and Victims
Authors: Hoyle Carolyn
Published: November 2023

This book examines the factors which shape the criminal justice response to domestic violence in the light of policy changes at the beginning of the 1990s which aimed to increase arrest rates. In particular, the book discusses the needs and expectations of victims and examines how their choices impact on decisions made by police and prosecutors. Many books on the criminal justice response to domestic violence start from the premise that withdrawal of complaints by victims and the subsequent discontinuance of cases, represents some kind of failure on the part of the agencies involved and that victims would benefit from greater determination by police to prosecute offenders wherever possible. Implicit in this approach is the assumption that the criminal justice system as it presently operates is capable of responding effectively to the needs of victims of domestic violence. This book throws doubt on the validity of these assumptions.
From Wrongs to Rights: International Human Rights and Legal Protection
Authors: Herr Stanley S
Published: November 2023

People with intellectual disabilities are an integral focus of a growing international human rights movement. Although this movement gained momentum after the Second World War, it only made explicit reference to people with intellectual disabilities after the 1968 passage of the Declaration on the General and Special Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons in Jerusalem by the International League of Societies for the Mentally Handicapped. There is now growing recognition by scholars and advocates of the applicability of human rights law and UN human rights activities to people with intellectual disabilities and of the increased power that human rights bring to this most vulnerable population.
Disability as a Subject of International Human Rights Law and Comparative Discrimination Law
Authors: Degener Theresia
Published: November 2023

Disability law has not been a field of legal research and teaching at many universities around the world. As a subject of law in most European countries and in North America, the issue of disability has commonly been included in social security and welfare legislation, health law, or guardianship law. Thus, persons with disabilities were depicted, not as subjects of legal rights, but as objects of welfare, health, and charity programs. The underlying policy has been to segregate and exclude people with disabilities from the mainstream of society and provide them with special schools, sheltered workshops, special housing and transportation-if any services at all. This policy was deemed just because persons with disabilities were believed incapable of coping with society at large and with all or most of the major life activities.
Smart Regulation
Authors: Gunningham Neil , Grabosky Peter , Sinclair Darren
Published: November 2023

Despite decades of policy experimentation, the ultimate goal of efficient and effective environmental regulation has continued to elude policy-makers and regulatory theorists. The less than satisfactory performance of both government and market approaches to environmental protection has led to the introduction of a broader range of policy mechanisms, such as education, information-based strategies, economic instruments and self-regulation. Yet these various policy instruments are usually treated as alternatives to one another rather than as complementary. Drawing from studies in North America, Europe and Australia, the authors show how the design of complementary combinations of policy instruments, tailored to particular environmental goals and circumstances, will produce more effective and efficient policy outcomes. They also confront the critical problem of how, at a time of fiscal constraint and small government, environmental policy might still be designed in ways that improve outcomes both for the environment and for business.
The Agriculture Industry*
Authors: Grabosky Peter , Gunningham Neil
Published: November 2023

Agriculture is one of the world’s oldest industries. It is basic to human civilisation, fundamental to human survival, and a major contributor to the economy of many nations. Yet it is also one of the principal causes of environmental degradation. Many contemporary agricultural practices, which have achieved substantially higher yields and lower prices, have also exacted a high environmental cost in terms of land degradation, loss of habitat and biodiversity, and non-point source pollution. At the extreme, unsustainable agriculture poses the danger of irreversible harm which can produce major environmental catastrophe or system collapse.
The Wrongness of Rape
Authors: Gardner John , Shute Stephen
Published: November 2023

That rape is wrong, and seriously wrong at that, can scarcely be doubted. Arguably, rape is among those wrongs which are never excusable. Probably, it is among those wrongs which are never justifiable. Certainly, it is among those wrongs which ought to be forbidden and punished by the criminal law. Joel Feinberg is right to place it on his shortlist of wrongs which are crimes ‘everywhere in the civilised world’ and the decriminalization of which ‘no reasonable person could advocate’. In view of all this, one might expect it to be obvious to every reasonable person what is wrong with rape. Many writers and commentators, including Feinberg, seem to imagine that this is indeed obvious, and do not give the question detailed attention. Some writers, for example, just take rape as a settled paradigm of wrongdoing in need of no explanation, and work towards the conclusion that certain other actions are wrong simply by pointing out their resemblance to rape. But unless we know what exactly is wrong with rape, how do we know whether such a resemblance is resemblance in a relevant respect – that is to say, in a respect which makes the rape-resembling action wrong too? Other writers concentrate on difficult test cases which seem to lie at or near the borderline of rape. Of a fascinating and burgeoning recent philosophical literature on rape, a very large proportion has been concerned with tricky issues about the precise demarcations of consent in rape, or the difficulties of relying on the concept of consent to settle particular classes of case (e.g. those involving false promises or emotional blackmail on the part of the alleged rapist).
Seeing the Inside
Authors: Taylor Luke
Published: November 2023

Seeing the Inside is the first detailed study of one of the world's great visual art traditions and its role in the society that produces it. The bark painting of Aboriginal artists in western Arnhem Land is the product of a unique tradition of many thousands of years' duration. In recent years it has attracted enormous interest in the rest of Australia and beyond, with the result that the artists, who live primarily as hunters in this relatively secluded region of northern Australia, now paint for sale to the world art market. Though the richness and power of Aboriginal arts are now, belatedly, finding wide recognition, they remain insufficiently understood. In this thoroughly illustrated book Luke Taylor examines the creative methods of the bark painters and the cultural meaning of their work. He discusses, on the one hand, the arrangements which allow the artists to project their culture on to an international stage, and on the other, the continuing social and religious roles of their paintings within their own society. The result is a remarkable and fascinating picture of artistic creativity in a changing world.
An Explanatory Framework for the Study of Federated States as Foreign-policy Actors
Authors: Soldatos Panayotis
Published: November 2023

As a result of a crisis at the level of the nation-state’s systemic process and foreign-policy performance, as well as a process of reacting to and attempting to remedy this crisis, the ‘many voices’ phenomenon in foreign policy (called here ‘segmentation’) appears most often within advanced industrial federations in which individual federal governments and federated states (in this study often called ‘federated units’) compete for foreign-policy roles. It is, moreover, more pronounced in societies such as Canada, where the ‘nation-building process’ is unfinished and de  jure and de  facto decentralization allows for a more active provincial, regional, and even municipal role in external relations.
Freedom, Autonomy and Liberal Community
Authors: Macedo Stephen
Published: November 2023

Liberalism is, first and foremost, about certain political values and institutions, and so that is where my argument began. We have, to this point, been concerned with articulating and defending liberal institutions committed to preserving freedom and promoting public reasonableness. These dual commitments run through the complex practices and institutions of liberal constitutionalism.

I have avoided prejudging the nature of the liberal personality but will, here and in the next chapter, consider the personal traits liberalism presupposes and the attributes conducive to flourishing in a liberal milieu. Laying down metaphysical or universal foundations for liberal politics is not my aim. I proceed from what has already been said about liberal politics, not from a special theory of the ‘nature’ of persons in the abstract. My aim is not to disparage or deflect all communitarian concerns, but to argue that liberal ideals accommodate reasonable and attractive forms of shared identity, interpersonal commitment, and community. Communitarian values are implicit in the idea of a pluralistic community governed properly by liberal justice.
Is American Public Policy Exceptional?
Authors: Rose Richard
Published: November 2023

Because public policy links the act1v1t1es of government with the problems of society, there are grounds on both counts for expecting America to be exceptional. Its government was founded by a constitutional compact unique in the world at that time, and American government today remains very different from the parliamentary system normal to most advanced industrial nations. The ‘new’ nation was a novel mixture of immigrants from different parts of Europe and of African slaves too; contemporary Latin and Asian immigration adds to the very distinctive ethnic mixture of American society.
Shamans And Elders
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Onon Urgunge
Published: November 2023

Shamans and Elders is a major study of Mongolian shamanism and society, past and present. It presents a wealth of new information, and offers a fresh understanding of the widespread phenomenon of shamanism. This unique and detailed analysis of a fascinating subject combines a discussion of Urgunge Onon's memories of shamanism with Caroline Humphrey's text- and field-based analytical knowledge of Central and North Asian shamanism. It covers among other things: notions of gender in Mongolian society, including male and female traditions in ritual, female shamans, and goddess worship; attitudes to death, and funeral rituals; the importance of old men and of ancestors; and Daur notions of landscape within their direct experience (the importance of the sky, of themountains, of the forest, rivers, etc.) and beyond. In covering these diverse areas, the authors depart from the general cultural models usually offered in discussions of shamanism, providing a new vision of 'shamanism' as made up of fragmentary, non-formularized parts. It presents much-needed insight on a little-known world, and points to an original new way of doing anthropology.
Union Dissolution in Sweden
Authors: Trussell James , Rodríguez Germán , Vaughan Barbara
Published: November 2023

In sharp contrast to marital dissolution, about which there are many articles and books, the study of non-marital union dissolution has received relatively little attention. The reason for such an omission in the literature is largely due to the absence of high-quality data. Whereas numerous fertility surveys have collected the dates of marriages and separations (or divorces), the collection of such dates for non-marital unions is uncommon, except in those developing countries (largely in the Caribbean) where such unions are prevalent and can be viewed as marriage equivalents. As it does for many types of data, Sweden provides a refreshing exception. A 1981 fertility survey entitled Women in Sweden collected a union history, in addition to pregnancy and occupation histories and information on numerous other background variables. However, the rich variety of analyses of these data has included only one study of union dissolution, and it focused on the relatively narrow question of whether premarital cohabitation increased or decreased subsequent marital dissolution rates (Bennett, Blanc, and Bloom 1988). This focus is understandable, since a marked trend toward increased non-marital cohabitation has been evident in many countries, particularly those in Scandinavia. For example, in Sweden non-marital unions comprised 1% of all unions in 1960, 6–7% in 1969, and 15–16% in 1979 (Trost 1980). As such unions become more prevalent, it becomes more important to study their role in the life cycle of families.
Industrial Democracy In Europe Revisited
Authors: Mitchell Stephen
Published: November 2023

The Industrial Democracy in Europe project offers a unique opportunity to assess the changes in European industrial relations systems in general, and participation schemes in particular. In 1981 the Industrial Democracy in Europe team (IDE) reported their findings on the extent of industrial democracy in ten European countries during the 1970s. The present volume reports the findings for the subsequent decade. It is particularly useful to have a longitudinal research project that analyses the changes in participation schemes. The research team have looked at ten European countries (including Poland) and also comment on the situation in Israel and Japan. Contributors: B. Wilpert, E. Rosenstein, P. Drenth, R. Peccei, F. Heller, M. Warner
Walrasian Equilibrium without Survival: Existence, Efficiency, and Remedial Policy
Authors: Coles Jeffrey l. , Hammond peter j.
Published: November 2023

It is unquestionably true, that in no country of the globe have the government, the distribution of property, and the habits of the people, been such as to call forth, in the most effective manner, the resources of the soil. Consequently, if the most advantageous possible change in all these respects could be supposed at once to take place, it is certain that the demand for labour, and the encouragement to production, might be such as for a short time, in some countries, and for rather a longer time in others, to lessen the operation of the checks to population which have been described.
Playing the Devil’s Advocate: Limits to Influence Sharing in Theory and Practice
Authors: Heller Frank , Pusić Eugen , Strauss George , Wilpert Bernhard
Published: November 2023

Playing the devil’s advocate, we will now explore the varied evidence on problems associated with the democratization of organizational life over the last half century. It will be shown that organizational democracy has spread very slowly, if at all, and has had many setbacks. The literature is full of contrasts. There is near euphoria about the achievements of employee involvement and similar influence-sharing measures in some circumstances and despondency in others. It is not easy to come to a balanced judgement, because the variability of circumstances under which different forms of participation operates is considerable.

This chapter sets out to find and explore the shadow side of organizational developments trading under a variety of names, such as participation, involvement, influence- and power-sharing, industrial democracy, self-management, and empowerment, to name only the best known. Conforming to our overall plan, we will use the term ‘participation’ to describe the variety of influence-sharing phenomena, although occasionally other terms are used to specify particular variations.
Participation Works— If Conditions are Appropriate
Authors: Heller Frank , Pusić Eugen , Strauss George , Wilpert Bernhard
Published: November 2023

The theme of this chapter is that, despite its ‘dark side’, just discussed, participation frequently ‘works’. True it works in a variety of ways. But this is understandable given its many forms. Further, it does not always ‘work’. For it to work, certain conditions must be met. Some of these requirements are quite substantial. Participation will not succeed if viewed as merely rhetoric or a gimmick. Success typically requires substantial changes in organizational relationships and values. Nevertheless, taken as a whole, the evidence for participation’s success is rather impressive.

This chapter consists of three main parts. The first deals with methodological issues, while the second reviews the evidence as to participation’s success. The last and longer one sketches the conditions necessary for this success. In so doing it links up with the caveats of the previous chapter.
Market Structure, Corporate Performance and Innovative Activity
Authors: Geroski Paul A
Published: November 2023

Innovation - in products and processes - is an increasingly significant source of competitive advantage for firms and nations. Analysing extensive data on major innovations in the UK, this book examines the role of innovative activity in the structure of markets and the performance of firms. From this the author draws lessons on strategies for innovation for governments and firms alike. In particular, he addresses four questions which have long attracted the interst of economists: - does the structure of product markets affect the pace of innovative activity? - what are the effects of innovative activity on market structure? - how large a contribution does innovative activity make to productivity growth? - how does innovative activity affect corporate performance? In answering these important questions the author draws lessons for makers of public and business policy towards innovation.
Bounded Rationality in Macroeconomics
Authors: Sargent Thomas J
Published: November 2023

Many developments in economic theory in the 1970s and 1980s depended on the assumption that economic agents make decisions on the basis of `rational expectations' about economic developments, government action, and individual behaviour. These rational expectations are based on experience but how do economic agents behave in new situations in which previous experience is less useful? The concept of `bounded (or limited) rationality' is being developed to analyse behaviour in such situations. Sargent, a distinguished economist and author of two influential advanced economics books, has contributed significantly to the literature and in this book he describes and interprets some of the recent work in the area, especially in statistics and econometrics, and in networks and artificial intelligence. He focuses on a number of examples designed to illustrate the issues involved. He describes two laboratory experiments testing versions of the models and concludes by pointing to some promising applications of the methods surveyed as well as to some of their limitations.
Learning through Intermediaries: The Case of Inter-Firm Research Collaborations
Authors: Lutz Susanne
Published: November 2023

The notion of network-like institutional arrangements, of multilateral forms of collaboration between a number of economic actors, has received increasing attention by researchers in the fields of management and business theory, organization theory, or economic sociology (for the most recent synopses of the field, see e.g. the special issue of Research Policy on ‘Networks of Innovation’, 20 (5), October 1991; Axelsson and Easton 1992; Nohria and Eccles 1992; Sydow 1992; Powell 1990; Powell and Smith-Doerr 1994). Inter-firm networks, for example, research collaborations, strategic alliances, or technological partnerships, are perceived as a major source of a firm’s innovation capacity and competitive strength. Conversely, industry’s lack of interest or ability to engage in inter-firm co-operative arrangements is repeatedly presented as a powerful explanation of nations’ difficulties in regaining the productive edge (Dertouzos 1989: 94).
The Bank of England and the British Economy
Authors: Cairncross Alec
Published: November 2023

For most of its existence the Bank of England has been a joint-stock bank differing from other banks mainly in its close relations with government. It came into existence to raise money and lend it to the state and has continued to have the state as its principal customer. In return it was granted privileges as a bank of issue in its Charter and came to occupy a dominant position as a supplier of paper money, acquiring a monopoly of the note issue in the London area at an early stage but not becoming the sole bank of issue in England and Wales until the 1920s. When bank money superseded notes and coin as the main means of payment, however, the Bank could not keep pace with the expansion of the banking system, and by the twentieth century it was a relatively small element in it. On the other hand, its responsibilities expanded as it came to discharge the various duties of a central bank.
Clustering in Biotechnology in the USA
Authors: Prevezer Martha
Published: November 2023

Chapters 4 and 5 looked at the phenomenon of clustering in the computing industry. The next two chapters look at another high technology industry, biotechnology, that has also exhibited a marked propensity to cluster, particularly in the USA. To understand the phenomenon of clustering more generally, we need to establish why, in any particular industry, a cluster grows in one place rather than another. This chapter has two parts. The first looks at what we have discovered about the clustering process in biotechnology in the USA through data and the construction of a series of models described in more detail in Chapter 3; at the entry of new firms into clusters in the USA, and at the growth of incumbent firms within clusters.
Trade and Growth: A Historical Perspective
Authors: Kitson Michael , Michie1 Jonathan
Published: November 2023

‘There has developed a growing realization that stability of income and employment calls for policies operating not merely on prices and the credit base but on the volume of effective demand; and this affords a new hope for stability on a wider front. While the synchronisation of national policies required under the gold standard conflicted at times with the demands of internal stability and was for this very reason gradually abandoned, a synchronisation of policies aimed at sustaining and steadying effective demand in the various countries would promote both internal stability and stability of exchange rates at the same time.’ Ragnar Nurkse (League of Nations, 1944).
Some Economical Reflections on Ethics
Authors: Hahn Frank
Published: November 2023

I am not a philosopher, let alone a moral philosopher. Even worse, I have always had ‘doubts’ concerning arguments of welfare economists. So what follows is both idiosyncratic and ill-informed by a vast literature. I have thought on some of the main issues often for a considerable time, and this is the only inducement which I can offer to the reader to follow what I now have to say.
On the Foundations of Welfare Economics: Utility, Capability, and Practical Reason
Authors: Sen Amartya
Published: November 2023

‘There is no “royal road” to geometry’, Euclid is supposed to have told Ptolemy. A similar remark can be made about welfare economics also. Welfare economics deals with the basis of normative judgements, the foundations of evaluative measurement, and the conceptual underpinnings of policy-making in economics. It is not a modest subject. Given the variety of problems and the diversity of concerns that are inevitably included in this broad field, it would have been amazing had there been some simple-and already chosen-’royal road’ directing us on how to make these judgements, evaluations, and decisions. Pluralism and variety would be hard to avoid in this important field--characterized as it is by heterogeneity of problems and diversity of normative concerns.
An Evolutionary Dynamic Approach to Altruism
Authors: Sacco Pier Luigi , Zamagnj Stefano
Published: November 2023

A social convention is, according to the classical definition of Lewis (1969), a state of things which is customary, expected, and self-enforcing. In game-theoretic terms (as pointed out, for example, by Ullman-Margalit 1977), these requirements can be translated into the familiar Nash equili brium conditions. Very recently, Sugden (1989) has pointed out that historically relevant social conventions need not only be self-enforcing vis-a-vis themselves but also against the possible ‘invasion’ of ‘rival’ conven tions, i.e. against the possibility that a relatively small number of players act as ‘deviants’. This additional feature amounts to a refinement of Nash equilibrium known as evolutionary stability (see e.g. van Damme 1987). This characterization of social conventions clearly stresses their stability, i.e. the fact that, once the social convention has been established, its destruction requires the successful co-ordination of a relatively large number of players. Unfortunately, as is well known, it is often the case that social conventions do not correspond to socially desirable outcomes; this can be due to the fact that:
The Free-Standing Company Revisited
Authors: Wilkins Mira
Published: November 2023

A ‘free-standing company ‘ is a firm set up in one country for the purpose of doing business outside that country. The term ‘free-standing ‘ was adopted to contrast this type of investment over borders with the more familiar one of today ‘s multinational enterprise that begins with business operations at home and then moves abroad, building on its competence and needs and generally pursuing a related line of business. With the free-standing company, the individual founders established a new ‘free-standing ‘ unit in the home (headquarters) country with the immediate intention of operating outside that headquarters nation. My initial research on the free-standing company concentrated on the history of British-headquartered free-standing companies; quickly, however, it became apparent that other nations also were homes for such companies.
Transaction-Cost Theory and the Free-Standing Firm
Authors: Hennart Jean FranÇois
Published: November 2023

Since the publication of Mira Wilkins ‘s seminal Economic History Review article where she described the free-standing firm as an important type of pre-1914 multinational enterprise, business historians have started to pay serious attention to this phenomenon. There is increasing evidence that this type of investment made up a substantial proportion of British foreign direct investment before 1914 and that there were a significant number of French, Belgian, and Dutch free-standing firms, and some US-based ones as well. While free-standing firms were overshadowed by the more traditional type of multinational enterprises after the First World War, they continued to be formed in both the UK and the USA, and some are still being floated in the 1990s.
Continental European Free-Standing Companies: The Case of Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland
Authors: SchrÖter Harm
Published: November 2023

The free-standing company (FSC) was studied initially in the context of British economic history. Soon the question was raised, to what extent were FSCs headquartered in other states? In Chapter 11, Ben Gales and Keetie Sluyterman considered Holland as home to FSCs; my interest is in Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland. I have noted in an earlier book that the majority of Belgian foreign direct investment (FDI) was carried out through FSCs. In Chapter 5 herein, Peter Hertner showed that Belgian FSCs ‘ investment in Italy was substantial, second only to the British interest. By contrast, other nations with a sizeable share of the FDI in Italy, such as Switzerland or Germany, played a small or even insignificant role there in foreign investments made by FSCs.My opening question is, to what extent are my prior findings on Belgium and Peter Hertner ‘s evidence, which was gathered for one major host nation, confirmed by further research? Thus, my first sec-tion will offer data on FSCs headquartered in Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland, providing information on numbers, destinations, periods of foundation, branches of industries, finance, and so forth. The second part of this chapter will be devoted to special problems that arose during my research and also the association of my empirical materials with the emerging theory on the FSC.
Petty Pawns and Informal Lending:Gender and the Transformation of Small-Scale Credit in England, circa 1600-1800
Authors: Lemire Beverly
Published: November 2023

Channels of credit assumed wider and more complex dimensions during the early modern period, as industrial, commercial, agricultural, and governmental needs expanded. The confluence of private lenders and government need, late in the seventeenth century, produced the more regulated structures of government debtors and creditors in the form of the Bank of England; this and other more formal lending associations grew in scale and sophistication from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries. The history of national debt, mortgaged estates, credit for commerce, and loans for industry defined the early histories of credit. These topics were explored with skill and ingenuity by generations of historians. But credit functions extended beyond the paneled rooms of Thread needle Street and the City and below the business of Blackwell Hall and West Country clothiers. This study begins the exploration of commercial practices common in metropolitan side-streets among formal and informal pawnbrokers, moneylenders, and their clients.
The American Automobile Frenzy of the 1950s
Authors: Offer Avner
Published: November 2023

The American passenger car of the mid-1950s was a marvel: a long, low, powerful, chrome-lashed barge on wheels. This chapter seeks to explain its emergence, its popularity, and its crisis, all in the space of seven years. Peter Mathias pioneered the study of consumer goods industries. This chapter carries his quest across the Atlantic. It examines American car dynamics as part of a larger study of the economic determinants of well-being.
A New Toyotaism?
Authors: Shimizu Koichi
Published: November 2023

Toyota introduced innovations in industrial organization and labour force management throughout the 1950s and 1960s. By the early 1970s these innovations had evolved into the coherent and successful Toyota Production System (TPS). Prior to the first oil crisis, the system was mainly geared towards mass production. The company had to find creative solutions in order to diversify its product range and make its production process more flexible during the turbulent 1970s. Emerging strengthened from these trials, Toyota revealed its capacity to achieve even higher performance levels during the 1980s. The company’s success led numerous managers, observers, and researchers to consider that its system had become the new best industrial model which all companies ought to adopt (Womack et al. 1990). Yet by the end of the 1980s, at the very point at which it was being promoted as the industrial model for the twenty-first century,
Peugeot Meets Ford, Sloan, and Toyota
Authors: Loubet Jean-Louis
Published: November 2023

Over the past thirty years, the Peugeot group has been marked by the most radical changes in its history. The company had long been a specialist automobile producer, and had only entered the mass market towards the end of the post-war boom. In 1974 a strategy of external growth was launched, with the purchase of Citroen and then the European subsidiaries of Chrysler. This was a vertiginous ascent which boosted Peugeot Societe Anonyme (PSA: the Peugeot Limited Company) into temporarily becoming the largest automobile manufacturer in Europe just as the second oil crisis arrived. However, the extraordinary difficulties of reorganizing and harmonizing three distinct automobile companies were soon revealed, to the point that management became embroiled in a completely different struggle: that for survival. Growth, reorganization, restructuring, and strategic change came in quick succession, as the company encountered the ideas of Ford, Sloan, and Toyota respectively. Perhaps the most unusual aspect of the Peugeot group is precisely its capacity to change. Indeed it may be precisely this capacity for self-questioning that has enabled Peugeot to adapt to an ever changing economic environment for more than one hundred years.
Economic Functioning, Self-Sufficiency, and Full Employment
Authors: Tarling Roger , Wilkinson Frank
Published: November 2023

Few economists would disagree that a central object of economic policy should be achieving and sustaining full employment; what they debate is how this can be achieved. Economists have traditionally argued that the labour market cleared; anyone can get a job if they are prepared to accept a market price which declines as the level of unemployment rises. Keynes identified over-saving as a cause of unemployment and introduced the idea that full employment required government intervention to establish and maintain a sufficiency in effective demand. Persistent inflation in the post war period led to the re-establishment amongst economists of pre Keynesian beliefs in a monetary explanation of inflation and a clearing labour market and established the notion of an equilibrium ‘natural’ level of unemployment at which inflation stabilizes. Monetarism rules out a macroeconomic intervention route to full employment and directs policy attention towards reform of the supply side of the labour market as the gen erator of jobs. However, despite seventeen years of continuous labour market deregulation and cutbacks in social welfare to sharpen work incentives in Britain, unemployment, depending on how it is measured, is currently between two to four times higher than it was in the 1970s.
Development Strategy and Management of The Market Economy
Authors: Malinvaud Edmond , Milleron Jean Claude , Nabli Mustapha K , Sen Amartya K , Sengupta Arjun , Stern Nicholas , Stiglitz Joseph E , Suzumura Kotaro
Published: November 2023

Around the world, the 1990s have seen greater attention being given to the role of markets as an instrument of economic development. Responding to new thinking and changed economic circumstances, governments perceptions of their own role in the management of their economies have shifted. As a result, many have withdrawn from direct involvement in certain sectors of the economy and have reduced their intervention and control in others. The reorientation has been most dramatic in the former centrally planned economies, but governments in developing countries, as well as in advanced countries where markets are already pre-eminent, have profoundly reconsidered their development role and the means of fulfilling it. In this process, it has been recognised that, left entirely to their own devices, markets may be either inadequate or inappropriate for a country's overall economic and social development. Government has a vital role to play even in facilitating the effective functioning of markets--to ensure the necessary infrastructure is in place, to sustain macroeconomic stability, to provide a framework for effective interaction with the international economy. It also has a responsibility to correct the market's inclinations in certain directions, in particular to provide a fuller perspective on the future, to give direction in critical sectors and, importantly, to fulfil a number of social objectives. The challenges lie in identifying policies and selecting instruments that enable the government to fulfil these roles complementing the contribution of markets. In this era of transition and experimentation in economic management, the Department of Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis of the United Nations convened a group of economists to distil their thinking and experience on the changing role of government in the development process. The first volume in this two volume set contains the views of the members of the group on critical dimensions of the management of market economies. The second volume contains some of the companion papers that were prepared as a compliment to the work of the group.