bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Earthquakes and Ancient Cities: Armageddon—Not the End of the World
Authors: Hough Susan Elizabeth , Bilham Roger G.
Published: November 2020

The reduction of an entire city to a pile of rubble poses a special problem for the survivors. Roads are blocked, underground pipes are broken, and disease accompanies the decay of incompletely buried bodies. Fresh water and sewage no longer flow, food becomes scarce, and the absence of shelter from extremes of temperature can make life miserable. In the cities of the ancient world a very real practical problem followed in the months and years after the destruction of a city—a cleanup operation beyond the wildest dreams of the survivors. Although steam shovels had been used for moving heavy materials in building the Suez and Panama canals in 1869 and 1910, respectively, it was not until 1923 that the bulldozer was invented. The even more useful backhoe followed 25 years later. Thus, clearing debris was a daunting task as recently as the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. In his book The City That Is: The Story of the Rebuilding of San Francisco in Three Years, Rufus Steele wrote of the rebuilding effort: . . . First the ground had to be cleared. The task would have baffled Hercules— cleaning out the Augean stables was the trick of a child compared to clearing for the new city. This is a step in the rebuilding which fails entirely to impress the visitor of today. He can form no conception of the waste which had to be reduced to bits and then lifted and carted away to the dumping grounds. The cost of removing it was more than twenty million dollars. . . . Lacking what we would now consider modern machinery to move large volumes of debris, the rebuilders of San Francisco extended railway lines across town, brought in steam and electric cranes, and relied heavily on teams of horses that suddenly found themselves in enormous demand. According to Steele, “Huge mechanical devices for shoveling and loading were invented and set to work.” Formidable as the task may have been, San Francisco tapped into several critical resources in its Herculean efforts: trains, cranes, and, perhaps most important, large numbers of survivors following an earthquake that killed a very small fraction of the local population.
Between Support and Exclusion
Authors: Bauder Harald
Published: November 2020

In North America, the value of the ethnic community is deeply ingrained in national mythology. Ethnic communities supposedly enable immigrants to move from rags to riches, from dishwasher to millionaire. Neither John F. Kennedy nor Al Capone would have risen to the top of their trades without the support of their Irish and Italian communities, which endowed these figures with the best and the worst cultural qualities. In recent decades, however, a counternarrative involving ethnic communities has also appeared in popular mythology. African Americans and Latino communities supposedly keep their members from absorbing the virtues of mainstream society, infecting their members with a culture of despair. The causal link between ethnic community and success or failure seems unquestioned—although the exact processes that supposedly render members of ethnic and immigrant communities inferior remain unsubstantiated. In the labor market, ethnic communities can create opportunities and facilitate segmentation and subordination. For example, information about employment opportunities often travels through ethnic networks and among family members. These opportunities can lead to a comfortable job in corporate banking or to underpaid employment as a maid or a helper in a corner store. Some entrepreneurs may, in fact, recruit workers through ethnic and immigrant networks because community and family linkages result in a particularly vulnerable, yet disciplined, labor force. Whereas the previous two chapters focused on legal and institutional mechanisms of exclusion, the current chapter brings the discussion back to informal processes of distinction and exclusion. As in Vancouver, these less tangible, informal processes operate in Berlin, and they complement legal and institutional processes of subordination that affect immigrant labor. Informal processes of distinction and exclusion affect, in particular, those immigrants who escape legal exclusion because they possess citizenship, such as Spätaussiedler, or they have acquired economic and social rights by living and working in Germany for decades, such as Turkish immigrants. I illustrated in part II how exclusionary processes associated with habitus and embodied cultural capital operate. In this chapter, I focus on social networks, the ethnic economy, and residential immigrant concentration. The North American literature has demonstrated that social networks are of critical importance to the economic well-being of some immigrant groups.
Types of Polysiloxanes
Authors: Mark James E. , Schaefer Dale W. , Lin Gui
Published: November 2020

The polysiloxane of greatest commercial importance and scientific interest is poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS), [Si(CH3)2 –O –]x, a member of the symmetrical dialkyl polysiloxanes, with repeat unit [SiR2 –O –]x. This polymer is discussed extensively in the following chapters, particularly in chapter 5. Other members of this series are poly(diethylsiloxane) [Si(C2H5) –O–]x, and poly(di-n-propylsiloxane) [SiC3H7)2–O–]x. An example of an aryl member of the symmetrically substituted series is poly(diphenylsiloxane), with repeat unit [Si(C6H5)2–O–]x. This polymer is unusual because of its very high melting point and the mesophase it exhibits. The closely related polymer, poly(phenyl/tolylsiloxane), has also been prepared and studied. The unsymmetrically substituted polysiloxanes have the repeat unit [SiRR’O–]x, and are exemplified by poly(methylphenylsiloxane) [Si(CH3) (C6H5) –O–]xand poly(methylhydrosiloxane) [Si(CH3)(H) –O–]x. In some cases, one of the side chains has been unusually long, for example C6H13, C16H33, and C18H37, including a branched side chain—CH(CH3– (CH2)m–CH3. Another example has methoxy-substituted aromatic fragments as one of the two side chains in the repeat unit. Such chains have stereochemical variability in analogy with the vinyl polymers such as polypropylene [CH(CH3) –CH2–]xand vinylidene polymers such as poly(methyl methacrylate) [C(CH3)(C = OOCH3) –CH2–]xOne can also introduce optically active groups as side chains, the simplest example being the secondary butyl group—CH(CH3)(C2H5). Another example involves redox-active dendritic wedges containing ferrocenyl and carbonylchromium moieties. Other substituents have included phenylethenyl groups, cyclic siloxane groups, and Cr-bound carbazole chromophores. In a reversal of roles, some polymers were prepared to have PDMS side chains on a poly(phenylacetylene) main chain. Siloxane-terminated solubilizing side chains are used to improve the properties of thin-film transistors. Silalkylene polymers have methylene groups replacing the oxygen atoms in the backbone. Poly(dimethylsilmethylene) is an example, [Si(CH3)2–CH2]x. A variation on this theme is to include aryl groups, for example, in poly(dimethyldiphenylsilylenemethylene) [Si(CH3)2CH2Si(C6H5)2]x. Other aryl substituents, specifically tolyl groups, have also been included as side chains. It is also possible to insert a silphenylene group [Si(CH3)2–C6H4–] into the backbone of the polysiloxane repeat unit to give [Si(CH3)2–C6H4– Si(CH3)2O–], in which the phenylene can be para or ortho or meta. A specific example is poly(tetramethyl-p-silphenylene-siloxane).
Copolymers and Interpenetrating Networks
Authors: Mark James E. , Schaefer Dale W. , Lin Gui
Published: November 2020

Random copolymers are prepared by the copolymerization of a mixture of cyclic oligomers. Although the resulting polymer can be quite blocky (figure 8.1), taking the reaction to equilibrium can give a polymer that is essentially random in its chemical sequencing. One reason for preparing copolymers is to introduce functional species, such as hydrogen or vinyl side groups, along the chain backbone to facilitate cross linking. Another reason is the introduction of sufficient chain irregularity to make the polymer inherently noncrystallizable. Specific examples of comonomers include imides, perylenediimide, urethane-ureas, epoxies, other siloxanes, amides, styrene, divinylbenzene, acrylics, silsesquioxanes, polythiophenes, and poly(lactic acid). One novel combination is the preparation of polysiloxanebased episulfide resins. An unusual application is the use of monomethylitaconate- grafted polymethylsiloxane to induce crystal growth of CaCO3. Polysiloxanes containing thermally curable brenzoxazine moieties in the main chain are also in the category. These and other copolymers have been extensively characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The sequential coupling of functionally terminated chains of different chemical structure can be used to make block copolymers, including those in which one or more of the blocks is a polysiloxane. If the blocks are relatively long, separation into a two-phase system invariably occurs. Frequently, one block will be in a continuous phase and the other will be dispersed in domains having an average size the order of a few hundred angstroms. Such materials can have unique mechanical properties not available from homopolymer species. Sometimes similar properties can be obtained by the simple blending of two or more polymers. Examples of blocks used with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) include imides, epoxies, butadienes, ε-caprolactones, amides having trichlorogermyl pendant groups, urethanes, ureas, poly(ethylene glycols), polystyrene, vinyl acetates, acrylates or methacrylates, 2-vinylpyridine, and even other polysiloxanes. Some results have also been reported for polyesters, polyethers, hydroxyethers of bisphenol A, bisphenol A arylene ether sulfones, vinylpyridinebenzoxazines, methyloxazolines, terpyridines, polysulfones, γ-benzyl-Lglutamate, and carboranes. Two other examples are foamed polypropylene and melamine resins. Even ABA, ABC triblock copolymers, and ABCBA pentablock copolymers involving PDMS have been reported.
The Future of Flow Cytometry in Biotechnology: The Response to Diversity and Complexity
Authors: Sklar Larry A.
Published: November 2020

Flow cytometry is a mature technology: Instruments recognizable as having elements of modern flow cytometers date back at least 30 years. There are many good sources for information about the essential features of flow cytometers, how they operate, and how they have been used. For the purposes of this book, it is necessary to know that flow cytometers have fluidic, optical, electronic, computational, and mechanical features. The main function of the fluidic components is to use hydrodynamic focusing to create a stable particle stream in which particles are aligned in single file within a sheath stream, so that the particles can be analyzed and sorted. The main functions of the optical components are to allow the particles to be illuminated by one or more lasers or other light sources and to allow scattered light as well as multiple fluorescence signals to be resolved and be routed to individual detectors. The electronics coordinate these functions, from the acquisition of the signals (pulse collection, pulse analysis, triggering, time delay, data, gating, detector control) to forming and charging individual droplets, and to making sort decisions. The computational components are directed at postacquisition data display and analysis, analysis of multivariate populations and multiplexing assays, and calibration and analysis of time-dependent cell or reaction phenomena. Mechanical components are now being integrated with flow cytometers to handle plates of samples and to coordinate automation such as the movement of a cloning tray with the collection of the droplets. The reader is directed to a concise description of these processes in Robinson’s article in the Encyclopedia of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering. This book was conceived of to provide a perspective on the future of flow cytometry, and particularly its application to biotechnology. It attempts to answer the question I heard repeatedly, especially during my association with the National Institutes of Health–funded National Flow Cytometry Resource at Los Alamos National Laboratory: What is the potential for innovation in flow cytometer design and application? This volume brings together those approaches that identify the unique contributions of flow cytometry to the modern world of biotechnology.
Flow Cytometry and Cell Sorting in Plant Biotechnology
Authors: Galbraith David W. , BartoŠ Jan
Published: November 2020

Higher plants comprise approximately 250,000 described species and represent a critical component of the planetary biomass. They contribute functions essential for life, of which the most important is photosynthesis, as it provides the means for conversion of incident solar radiation into biomass accumulation, as well as the oxygen required by aerobic life forms. Fixed carbon in the form of carbohydrate provides the basis of the food chain, and metabolic interconversions within plants provide a variety of essential dietary factors. Plants also provide biomass in the form of structural materials and are the source of many natural products with important biomedical properties. As a consequence, considerable scientific interest is invested in determining the molecular mechanisms underlying plant growth, development, metabolism, and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. Investment has also been made in developing tools and resources for biological investigations using plants. Notable advances include the development of genetics, of means for transformation using defined DNA sequences, and most recently, of the entire nuclear genome sequences of two plant species (Arabidopsis thaliana and Oryza sativa). On the basis of information of this type and that from other sources, it is evident that higher plants share many features with other eukaryotic organisms. Shared features can be observed at many levels; for example, the overall method of construction of cells, in which a bilamellar plasma membrane separates the cytoplasm from the external milieu and provides primary homeostatic regulation. Eukaryotic cells of different kingdoms share organelles, as well as overall regulatory mechanisms. Shared, or highly similar, protein sequences are observed, and they perform similar functions as enzymes, regulatory molecules, or structural components . Higher land plants have evident differences from other eukaryotes. They contain unique classes of organelles primarily devoted to energy capture from sunlight (plastids and peroxisomes). Of these, chloroplasts contain highly fluorescent pigments devoted to photosynthesis, which, particularly chlorophyll, provide unique and powerful signals that can be employed for flow cytometric analysis. Higher plants are also essentially immobile in the sporophytic stage and hence must be capable of responding to changes in environmental conditions and to biotic attack.
Rheology of Thermoplastic Polyurethanes
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) has received considerable attention from both the scientific and industrial communities (Hepburn 1982; Oertel 1985; Saunders and Frish 1962). Applications for TPUs include automotive exterior body panels, medical implants such as the artificial heart, membranes, ski boots, and flexible tubing. Figure 10.1 gives a schematic that shows the architecture of TPU, consisting of hard and soft segments. Hard segments, which form a crystalline phase at service temperature, are composed of diisocyanate and short-chain diols as a chain extender, while soft segments, which control low-temperature properties, are composed of difunctional long-chain polydiols with molecular weights ranging from 500 to 5000. The soft segments form a flexible matrix between the hard domains. TPUs are synthesized by reacting difunctional long-chain diol with diisocyanate to form a prepolymer, which is then extended by a chain extender via one of two routes: (1) by a dihydric glycol chain extender or (2) by a diamine chain extender. The most commonly used diisocyanate is 4,4’-diphenylmethane diisocyanate (MDI), which reacts with a difunctional polyol forming soft segments, such as poly(tetramethylene adipate) (PTMA) or poly(oxytetramethylene) (POTM), to produce TPU, in which 1,4-butanediol (BDO) is used as a chain extender. There are two methods widely used to produce TPU: (1) one-shot reaction sequence and (2) two-stage reaction sequence. The reaction sequences for both methods are well documented in the literature (Hepburn 1982). It should be mentioned that MDI/BDO/PTMA produces ester-based TPU. One can also produce ether-based TPU when MDI reacts with POTM using BDO as a chain extender. TPUs are often referred to as “multiblock copolymers.” In order to have a better understanding of the rheological behavior of TPUs, one must first understand the relationships between the chemical structure and the morphology; thus, a complete characterization of the materials must be conducted. The rheological behavior of TPU depends, among many factors, on (1) the composition of the soft and hard segments, (2) the lengths of the soft and hard segments and the sequence length distribution, (3) anomalous linkages (branching, cross-linking), and (4) molecular weight.
Rheology of Particulate-Filled Polymers, Nanocomposites, and Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

Polymer composites consisting of a thermoplastic polymer forming the matrix phase and a large amount of inorganic particles (commonly referred to as fillers) or glass fibers, which are often referred to as particulate-filled polymers, are very common in the plastics and elastomer’s industries (Deanin and Schott 1974; Kraus 1965; Lubin 1969). Polymer composites are developed to achieve a set of properties not possessed by the thermoplastic polymer (i.e., polymeric matrix) alone. Polymeric matrices can be thermoplastics, which soften and behave as viscous liquids when heated to above their glass transition temperatures (in the case of amorphous thermoplastic polymers) or above their melting temperatures (in the case of semicrystalline thermoplastic polymers). Polymeric matrices can also be thermosets, which undergo a transformation from a viscous resinous liquid to a hard or rubbery solid in the presence of heat and/or curing agents. There are numerous industrial products made of particulate-filled polymeric materials; for example, thermoplastic polymers filled with mica or calcium carbonate, carbon-black-filled elastomers, thermoplastic polymers or thermosets reinforced with glass fibers or carbon fibers. The ultimate goal of adding fillers to a thermoplastic polymer and adding glass fiber or carbon fiber to a thermoset is to improve the mechanical properties of the polymer. However, fillers, glass fibers, or carbon fibers themselves usually supply little or no reinforcement since there is little interfacial interaction between a thermoplastic polymer and fillers, and between a thermoset and glass fiber or carbon fiber. This has led to the development of “coupling agents,” chemical additives capable of improving the interfacial bonds between a thermoplastic polymer and fillers, and between a thermoset and glass fibers or carbon fibers (Plueddemann 1982). The use of coupling agents for the surface modification of fillers to reinforce thermoplastics has generally been directed towards improving the mechanical strength and chemical resistance of composites by improving adhesion across the interface. When inorganic fillers or glass fibers are added to a thermoplastic polymer, the resulting material exhibits a complex rheological behavior, quite different from the rheology of neat homopolymers presented in Chapter 6.
Diabetes Drugs
Authors: Li Jie Jack
Published: November 2020

Diabetes mellitus is a multisystem disease associated with the loss of control of physiological glucose concentrations in the blood. The disease is broadly broken down into two types based on factors that include age, acuteness of onset, underlying glucose-handling deficit, and therapy. Type 1 diabetes usually manifests acutely in the young, secondary to some underlying insult (possibly infectious) to the islet cells of the pancreas, resulting in an absolute lack of insulin. Type 2 diabetes is more frequently associated with maturity, obesity, and gradually increasing blood glucose concentrations; it may be asymptomatic for some time and discovered on routine glucose screening. In fact, as weight increases among the general population of the developed world, type 2 diabetes is becoming an epidemic. Type 1 diabetes always requires insulin replacement therapy, whereas type 2 can frequently be controlled with diet, weight loss, and oral medications that enhance residual pancreatic function. Diabetes has been known since antiquity. In fact, the term diabetes mellitus comes from the Greek meaning “siphon and honey” due to the excess excretion (siphon or faucet) of hyperglycemic (sweetened, or honeyed) urine. In ancient times, most cases of diabetes were of type 1, with acute onset in the young, which was often fatal. Type 2 diabetes was extremely rare when sources of nutrition were scarce and obesity was not prevalent. Diabetes was also known as “wasting” because diabetics were not able to metabolize the sugar content of food and eventually died from wasting away. Because of the effect of excess blood glucose, the blood of the diabetic is hyperosmolar (concentrated), and this triggers compensatory thirst (in an attempt to dilute the hyperglycemia and return the blood to a normal concentration). This excess thirst results in the common diabetic symptom of polydipsia (excessive drinking secondary to thirst, resulting in the urge to drink frequently) and polyuria (excess urination). Even before many modern diagnosis tools became available, savvy doctors could diagnose diabetic men just by looking at their shoes for the telltale white spots from urine with high sugar content. In fact, tasting urine samples of diabetics was a routine diagnostic tool for diabetes. Even the breath of a severe diabetic was sweet—a sickly smell as a result of acidosis. In addition, it has been mentioned that ants would track to the urine of diabetics.
Experimental Methods
Authors: Jordan Robert B.
Published: November 2020

A kinetic study generally proceeds after the reactants, products and stoichiometry of the reaction have been satisfactorily characterized. The more one knows about the chemistry of the reaction, the better the conclusions that one can draw from a kinetic study. The discussion here describes techniques often used in inorganic studies, emphasizes their time range and general area of applicability and gives some examples of their use. Further details can be found in other sources. Any experimental kinetic method must somehow monitor change of concentration with time. Many studies are done under pseudo-first-order conditions, and then one must monitor the deficient reactant or product(s) because the other species undergo small changes in concentration. The kinetic method(s) of choice often will be dictated by the time scale of the reaction. The detection method(s) will be determined by the spectroscopic properties of the species to be monitored. The efficient use of materials can be a significant factor in the choice of method because a kinetic study generally involves a number of runs at different concentrations and temperatures, and conservation of difficult to prepare or expensive reagents may be a critical factor. The detection method should be as species specific as possible, and ideally one would like to measure both reactant disappearance and product formation. The method must not be subject to interference from other reactants and should be applicable under a wide range of concentration conditions so that the rate law can be fully explored. Often there is a practical trade-off between specificity, sensitivity and reaction time. For example, NMR is quite specific but rather slow and has relatively low sensitivity, unless the system allows time for signal accumulation. Spectrophotometry in the UV and visible range often has good sensitivity and speed, but the specificity may be poor because absorbance bands are broad and intermediates may have chromophoric properties similar to those of the reactant and/or product. Vibrational Spectrophotometry can be better if the IR bands are sharp, as in the case of metal carbonyls, but the solvent must be chosen to provide an appropriate spectral window.
A Model of Being in Recovery as a Foundation for Recovery-Oriented Practice
Authors: Davidson Larry , Rowe Michael , Tondora Janis , O'Connell Maria J. , Lawless Martha Staeheli
Published: November 2020

We begin this second chapter where we left off in the preceding one, with the question of what is involved in the work of recovery and how practitioners can best support this work. On one hand, we understand the answer to this question to be very much a work in progress. There is much still to learn about recovery and recovery-oriented care, and we consider the field—including our own efforts in this regard—to be in the very early stages of its development. On the other hand, we have begun to learn some things about what processes of recovery entail and what the provision of recovery-oriented care looks like in practice, as well as about some of the structural conditions necessary for this kind of care to be implemented. In this chapter, we share some of these lessons by describing components and processes of being in recovery that we have integrated into a model that can then serve as the foundation for developing recovery-oriented practices. The assumption of this approach, as we mentioned in the previous chapter, is that this form of recovery is primarily the responsibility of the person with a serious mental illness. What practitioners do should thus be oriented to supporting and facilitating the person’s own efforts. We describe this perspective as a “bottom up” approach to service development, as it begins with the needs, preferences, and goals of the person in recovery— not only at the individual level of a person’s “recovery plan” but also at the collective level of the system as a whole. What services and supports should a mental health system offer? Those, we suggest, that will enable persons with serious mental illness to lead safe, dignified, and gratifying lives beyond the illness—when possible— or, when that is not possible, within the boundaries imposed by the illness. Before turning to the question of what services and supports we need to offer to promote and sustain recovery, we need to understand better what being in recovery entails. To frame the question in this way is not to ignore the other form of recovery (i.e., recovery from mental illness).
Brain Tumors, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, HIV/AIDS, and Wilson’s Disease
Authors: Lyketsos Constantine G.
Published: November 2020

This chapter deals with four diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS) for which neurologists are primarily involved as consultants. It follows the same approach as the chapters that focus on single diseases but does so more briefly. Brain tumors are estimated to have an incidence of 12/100,000 per year (Scharre, 2000). The incidence is highest in old age, peaking between 60 and 80 years of age. Almost 50% of intracranial tumors are gliomas, 10% to 15% are meningiomas, 5% to 7% are pituitary adenomas, and 5% to 6% are metastatic tumors. Brain tumors produce signs and symptoms in a variety of ways, including direct invasion, compression, hemorrhage, and edema. Motor, sensory, visual, and gait disturbances are frequent manifestations of brain tumors. In addition, headache and focal or generalized seizures are quite common. The psychiatric manifestations of brain tumors reflect their location; the type of brain damage they produce; patients’ reactions to their symptoms or diagnosis; and the effects of treatments such as steroids, chemotherapy, and radiation. Tumors in specific brain regions have been linked to specific psychiatric manifestations. Frontal lobe tumors are most closely associated with behavioral changes,sometimes referred to as the frontal lobe syndrome or executive dysfunction syndrome. Temporal lobe tumors are most closely associated with personality change, irritability, and hallucinations (especially auditory), as well as with a variety of language disorders. Patients with language disorders associated with temporal lobe tumors can experience catastrophic reactions when their deficits interfere with communication. Parietal lobe tumors typically are associated with cognitive deficits such as apraxia, neglect syndromes of the contralateral body or space, and unformed visual hallucinations such as streaks or flashes of light. When evaluating brain tumor patients with psychiatric symptoms and signs, careful evaluation and differential diagnosis are critical. In hospitalized and seriously ill patients, it is especially important to rule out delirium, particularly when the psychiatric phenomena are intermittent and vary in intensity. Serial observations and repeated mental status examinations are the basis for the diagnosis of delirium, but an electroencephalogram (EEG) is also helpful, because in most cases of delirium it reveals generalized slowing involving brain areas far from the location of the brain tumor.
Educational Programs and Philosophies
Authors: Marschark Marc , Lang Harry G. , Albertini John A.
Published: November 2020

In this chapter we explore the continuum of educational alternatives available for deaf children and emphasize the need to consider a variety of factors in determining the best placement for a particular child. Although we focus on schooling, it is important to keep in mind that learning has strong social roots in interactions with adults and peers. The ability to profit from both formal and informal instruction at school requires that children have skills in areas such as attention, problem solving, turn taking, and memorizing and have a positive attitude toward learning. Children must also have a firm foundation in language to access information in the classroom and learn from it. Although a variety of nonverbal, social interaction strategies are available and useful for young deaf (and hearing) children when they enter school, it is through language that the give and take of education really occurs. Parents often find the information available to them in making the school decision both confusing and contradictory. As we described in chapter 2, federal legislation has sought to make access to education easier for deaf children and their families, but the laws often are misinterpreted or overinterpreted by state, regional, and local authorities, making the results less than helpful for parents. Further, there is much disagreement about whether there is one educational setting or format that is best for deaf children, with the issue of residential (i.e., separate) schools versus mainstreaming being the most heated. The school debate is now decades old, and yet the matter is not yet resolved; there is no evidence to indicate that one educational setting is uniformly better than another. Meanwhile, on one issue there appears to be almost unanimous agreement: the importance of early intervention programs for deaf children. Such programs provide communication instruction, parental counseling, and enriching social and cognitive experiences for deaf children. Yet, even with regard to preschool programs, there are some complex decisions to be made because different programs may influence language, cognitive, and social growth in a variety of ways.
Reading, Writing, and Literacy
Authors: Marschark Marc , Lang Harry G. , Albertini John A.
Published: November 2020

Language is an essential component of normal development and a means for discovering the world. As we have seen, however, deaf children frequently do not have full access to communication until they have passed the most important ages for language acquisition. Parents and educators of young deaf students thus often struggle to find a balance between fostering effective early communication skills, which research has shown is usually best achieved through sign language, and the provision of English skills needed for literacy and academic success. Despite decades of concerted effort, most deaf children progress at only a fraction of the rate of hearing peers in learning to read. Current data indicate that, on average, 18-year-old deaf students leaving high school have reached only a fourth to sixth grade level in reading skills. Only about 3 percent of those 18 year olds read at the same level as the average 18- year-old hearing reader, and more than 30 percent of deaf students leave school functionally illiterate (Traxler, 2000; Kelly, 1995; Waters & Doehring, 1990). At the same time, there are clearly many deaf adults and children who are excellent readers and excellent writers. How can we account for these differences? What are the implications for educators developing English curricula for deaf students? To answer these questions, we first need to consider what is meant by literacy—that is, what is it we are asking students to acquire? Then, we have to understand how deaf students read, at both descriptive and procedural levels. In this chap ter, we consider only literacy relating to print materials (reading and writing); other possibilities will be considered in chapter 9. But is the question whether deaf students read well enough to fulfill the needs and expectations of their teachers? Is it important to know how well various subgroups of deaf learners read compared to each other? Or, do we want to know how well deaf students read, as a group, compared to hearing students of the same age?
Environmental Impacts of Urbanism
Authors: Hardoy Jorgelina , Satterthwaite David
Published: November 2020

This chapter describes the environmental impacts of urbanization in South America, and the difficulties that governments have had in managing them. The discussion focuses initially on the rapid urbanization of the continent and its environmental implications and then reviews the quality of the urban environment within the homes and neighbourhoods in which the urban population lives, in the workplace, and in the wider city (the ambient environment). The environmental impacts of these urban areas on their surroundings are then described and their wider and more diffuse impacts considered, including an evaluation of global climate change. Lastly, some of the new directions taken by governments in the region toward addressing these problems are noted. Table 20.1 provides a summary of the main city-related environmental problems in terms of their spatial context and the nature of the hazard or problem. The urban environment is taken to mean the physical environment in urban areas, with its complex mix of natural elements (including air, water, land, climate, flora, and fauna) and the built environment, in other words a physical environment constructed or modified for human habitation and activity encompassing buildings, infrastructure, and urban open spaces (Haughton and Hunter, 1994; OECD, 1990). Its quality is much influenced by: (1) its geographical setting; (2) the scale and nature of human activities and structures within it; (3) the wastes and emissions these activities create and their environmental impacts; and (4) the competence and accountability of the institutions elected, appointed, or delegated to manage it. In summarizing the environmental impacts of urbanization, this chapter concentrates on some of the region’s most serious urban problems. However, it should always be remembered that this is also a region with rich and varied urban cultures. South America has some of the world’s finest historic cities—for instance the historic centers of Cusco, Quito, and Salvador de Bahía. The urban cultures have evolved from a long history, including a rich pre- Colombian urban history in many places (Hardoy, 2000). The cities are widely known outside South America through the literature they have inspired—for instance, for the English-speaking world, the works of Garcia Marquez, Amado, and Vargas Llosa. Its cities are also known for the art, music, and dance that they incubated and inspired.
Deys, Beys and Bashaws, 1800–1830
Authors: Abulafia David
Published: November 2020

The battle of Trafalgar left the Mediterranean open to British shipping, but Great Britain had not yet gained incontestable mastery over the sealanes. The bitter struggle for control of Sicily and southern Italy between Britain, acting in support of King Ferdinand of Naples, and Napoleon’s armies, acting in support of Marshal Murat, who was trying to usurp the Neapolitan throne, reached a high point in July 1806 at the battle of Maida (a British victory, deep in Calabria). Maida demonstrated that Napoleon had been foolish in allowing so many troops to be pinned down in miserable conditions far from the areas in northern and central Italy he most wished to control. Earlier dreams of using Taranto as a base for controlling southern Italy and the entrance to the Adriatic and Ionian seas evaporated. Yet the British fleet was far more stretched than the story of its victories suggests. The British needed to keep open the channel of communication linking Malta to Trieste, for Trieste had become an important source of supplies from the Austrian empire, now that routes through Germany were blocked by Napoleon’s armies. And by 1808 the French seemed to be clawing back their control of the Mediterranean; they had re-established their fleet at Toulon, and there were fears of a naval attack on Naples and Sicily. The British government wondered whether there was any point pursuing war in the Mediterranean. Other concerns intruded: the French were trying to take control of Spain, and with the outbreak of the Peninsular War attention shifted to formidably tough land campaigns in Iberia. How difficult conditions were can be seen from the size of the British fleet, which had plenty of other duties to perform close to England, in the Caribbean and elsewhere. On 8 March 1808 fifteen ships of the line lay under the control of Admiral Collingwood, Nelson’s capable successor; one at Syracuse, one at Messina and one off Corfu; twelve stood guard at Cádiz. These large warships were supported by thirty-eight frigates, sloops, brigs and bomb-vessels within the Mediterranean, most of which were patrolling and reconnoitring as far afield as Turkey and the Adriatic.
Ocular Motor Disorders Caused by Lesions in the Cerebrum
Authors: Wong Agnes
Published: November 2020

■ Receives inputs from the frontal eye field (FEF), supplementary eye field (SEF), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPC), internal medullary lamina of the thalamus, and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc, the dopaminergic portion) ■ Projects to substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNpr) and the globus pallidus ■ Receives inhibitory inputs from the caudate nucleus ■ Sends inhibitory signals to intermediate layers of the superior colliculus Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects about 1% of adults over 60 years of age. 1. Loss of pigmented dopaminergic neurons in the SNpc 2. Presence of Lewy bodies (not specific for Parkinson’s disease) 3. Decreased dopamine reaching the striatum causes increased inhibitory output from the globus pallidus internal segment and SNpr, thereby inhibiting movement 1. Standard therapy: levadopa and carbidopa (a peripheral decarboxylase inhibitor to reduce motor fluctuations and dyskinesia) e.g., such as Sinemet or Sinemet CR 2. Monoamine oxidase-β inhibitor (e.g., Selegiline); may have neuroprotective effect 3. Dopamine agonist (e.g., bromocriptine, a D2 agonist, and apomorphine, a D1 and D2 agonist) 4. Anticholinergics (e.g., Benzhexol) 5. Amantadine (seldom used) 6. Surgery ■ Thalamotomy or thalamic deep brain stimulation of the ventral lateral nucleus to reduce medically refractory tremor. The mechanism of action is unknown; these procedures may destroy autonomous neural activity (synchronous bursts) that has the same frequency as the limb tremor. ■ Pallidotomy or pallidal stimulation to reduce contralateral dyskinesia (e.g., bradykinesia, rigidity, and tremor).
Chem 101: Learning by Doing
Authors: Griep Mark A. , Mikasen Marjorie L.
Published: November 2020

This chapter stands at the midpoint of the “bright side” of this book. Its oppositional partner on the “dark side” is chapter 3 on chemical arsenals. Thus, education and war making present a core contrast in the uses of chemical knowledge in the movies. We have only to think of the closed world of Dr. Mabuse, symbolized so well by the writings in his notebook, as described in chapter 3. His inward, secret scribblings speak of outward, villainous purposes. In juxtaposition, the writing on the blackboards of this chapter’s movies is exposed; it is to be seen. This writing represents the open, cool, dispassionate transmission of facts in symbolic chemical language. But a little something more has slipped through in this section’s movie example. When we read its blackboard, we see the explosive nature of knowledge itself. “You have to see and read a movie at the same time,” says Harvard professor Tom Conley, whose creative film analyses leave readers with an appreciation of just how rich cinematic art can be (Savisky 2006). In his book Film Hieroglyphs, Conley considers writing as it appears in movies. He shows it is often an incidental and uncontrollable element that inserts itself into our movie-watching experience, leaving us to ponder nonnarrative written material observed on the movie sets. Conley calls the points where story, image, and writing are at odds with one another “ruptures.” Graphically interrupting the flow of the moving image, these points provide “slide areas” for analysis and new insights (Conley 1991). This section examines chemical notations appearing in our movie examples, and how they provide opportunities for an enhanced reading of these movies. The blackboard in The Affairs of Dobie Gillis (1953), a musical campus comedy, ruptures the movie like no other blackboard in movie history. But first, let us set the scene. Pansy Hammer (Debbie Reynolds) attends Grainbelt University to “work, work, work.” As she and her lab mates begin their first laboratory exercise, she gleefully tells them she really likes chemistry. After a few moments, the professor announces, “Don’t let the bubbles come too fast” and then Hammer’s experiment explodes.
Selection of Surgery for “Routine” Retinal Detachment
Authors: Brinton Daniel A. , Wilkinson Charles P.
Published: November 2020

Most rhegmatogenous retinal detachments are blinding disorders unless they are successfully repaired. They were regarded as incurable until the seminal work of Jules Gonin in the 1920s, when an anatomical success rate approaching 50% was first described (see Chapter 1). Anatomical results for routine retinal detachments slowly improved through several decades, reaching the current 85%–90% single-operation success figure for scleral buckling by the 1980s. Unfortunately, a similar improvement in visual results has not occurred because of the profound influence of preoperative macular detachment. Scleral buckling, once the sole standard of care for uncomplicated cases, has become much less popular worldwide with the development of alternative options starting in the mid 1980s. The most enduring of these are pneumatic retinopexy (PR) (described in Chapter 8) and vitrectomy (described in Chapter 9). Vitrectomy was originally reserved for complicated detachments but became popular for more routine cases as experience and equipment improved. Today, particularly in the United States, scleral buckling, PR, and vitrectomy are standards of care that are widely employed in the management of “routine” or “uncomplicated” retinal detachment, but how frequently each is used varies among different demographic groups. For instance, the popularity of PR varies by geographical location and scleral buckling appears less popular in the hands of relatively young vitreoretinal specialists. It can be useful to discuss objective clinical criteria that may favor one technique over another. Demarcation, scleral buckling, PR, vitrectomy, and vitrectomy plus scleral buckling have relative indications and contraindications (Table 10–1), as well as limitations and complications. In this brief chapter, clinical factors that may influence the choice of one technique over another, for the types of cases in which scleral buckling, PR, and/or vitrectomy are neither mandatory nor contraindicated, are discussed. However, it appears clear that we will never universally agree on the “best” operation for a given case, just as a single ice cream flavor will never be favored by all. There are several relatively common types of uncomplicated retinal detachments (Table 10–2), as well as numerous variables associated with all of them (Table 10–3). Management of retinal detachments with each specific technique is described in Chapters 7, 8, and 9.
More about Discovery Process Models
Authors: Lee P.J.
Published: November 2020

In Chapter 3 we discussed the concepts, functions, and applications of the two discovery process models LDSCV and NDSCV. In this chapter we will use various simulated populations to validate these two models to examine whether their performance meets our expectations. In addition, lognormal assumptions are applied to Weibull and Pareto populations to assess the impact on petroleum evaluation as a result of incorrect specification of probability distributions. A mixed population of two lognormal populations and a mixed population of lognormal, Weibull, and Pareto populations were generated to test the impact of mixed populations on assessment quality. NDSCV was then applied to all these data sets to validate the performance of the models. Finally, justifications for choosing a lognormal distribution in petroleum assessments are discussed in detail. Known populations were created as follows: A finite population was generated from a random sample of size 300 (N = 300) drawn from the lognormal, Pareto, and Weibull superpopulations. For the lognormal case, a population with μ = 0 and σ2 = 5 was assumed. The truncated and shifted Pareto population with shape factor θ = 0.4, maximum pool size = 4000, and minimum pool size = 1 was created. The Weibull population with λ = 20, θ = 1.0 was generated for the current study. The first mixed population was created by mixing two lognormal populations. Parameters for population I are μ = 0, σ2 = 3, and N1 = 150. For population II, μ = 3.0, σ2 = 3.2, and N2 = 150. The second mixed population was generated by mixing lognormal (N1 = 100), Pareto (N2 = 100), and Weibull (N3 = 100) populations with a total of 300 pools. In addition, a gamma distribution was also used for reference. The lognormal distribution is J-shaped if an arithmetic scale is used for the horizontal axis, but it shows an almost symmetrical pattern when a logarithmic scale is applied.