bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
New Labour’s Tax Credits, 1997–2010
Authors: Sloman Peter
Published: December 2019

The thirteen years of Labour government between 1997 and 2010 may come to be seen by future historians as the zenith of the British transfer state, when—in contrast to other western countries—the increase in fiscal redistribution which took place during the 1980s and early 1990s was sustained and deepened. Inspired by the Earned Income Tax Credit in the United States, Gordon Brown created a complex system of income-related tax credits, which formed a central part of New Labour’s strategy for ‘making work pay’ and eliminating child poverty. For the first time, the Treasury came to see itself as a social welfare agency, using tax credits and other instruments to achieve explicit distributional objectives. This chapter provides a detailed account of the development of tax credits, and shows how administrative difficulties and tensions between rhetoric and reality hampered Brown’s efforts to build public support for the system.
What Kind of Transfer State?
Authors: Sloman Peter
Published: December 2019

This final chapter draws together the arguments developed in previous chapters and examines the prospects for the UK’s ‘transfer state’ in the twenty-first century. It argues that Universal Credit marks the culmination of a particular line of development: the expansion and rationalization of income-tested support for the working poor, driven forward by policy-makers in Whitehall and backed up by conditionality requirements. The combination of benefit sanctions and cuts means that, despite its scale, the UK social security system does not provide a guaranteed income for working-age citizens in any meaningful sense. Although a subsistence-level Universal Basic Income is likely to be prohibitively expensive, even a low-level basic income could give individuals greater economic security by placing a stable income floor beneath the means-tested benefit system.
Systematic sampling
Authors: Hankin David G. , Mohr Michael S. , Newman Ken B.
Published: December 2019

In many contexts it is difficult or impossible to select a simple random sample. For example, the number of units in the finite population, N, may not be known in advance, or it may not be feasible to assign labels to all units in the population and to select an SRS from these labels (e.g., crabs within boxes on a fishing vessel). Instead, one may select a random start, r, on the integers 1 through k and then select that unit and every kth unit thereafter for inclusion in the sample. This selection method, called linear systematic sampling, results in an extremely restricted randomization—there are only k possible linear systematic samples—compared to the typically large number [N!/(N-n)!n!] of possible samples of size n that can be selected from N by SRS. If units are in random order, then linear systematic sampling with mean-per-unit estimation will have sampling variance comparable to SRS with mean-per-unit estimation. But if there is a trend of increase or decrease in unit-specific y value with unit label or location, then sampling variance of a mean-per-unit estimator for a linear systematic design may be substantially less than for an SRS design. Circular and fractional interval systematic sampling designs are also presented. The disadvantage of these systematic sampling designs is that the highly restricted randomizations generally rule out unbiased estimation of sampling variance from a single systematic sample. Several approaches for variance estimation are considered.
Introduction
Authors: Cole Emma
Published: December 2019

This introduction makes the case for postdramatic classical receptions to be included within reception studies scholarship. It contextualizes the overall study by providing an overview of the role of the classics within the development of postdramatic theatre and by charting the history of postdramatic classical receptions. The chapter offers an alternative to the standard teleological approach of documenting the history of postdramatic theatre, and instead suggests that the form arose from a diverse range of international theatrical experiments led by highly influential avant-garde practitioners, which gained enough notoriety and exposure to influence a range of other theatre makers. It examines Antonin Artaud, Bertolt Brecht, Richard Schechner, Tadashi Suzuki, and Heiner Müller, alongside a range of broader contextual environments, to argue that an interest in the classical underpinned the development of postdramatic theatre.
Sarah Kane’s Phaedra’s Love
Authors: Cole Emma
Published: December 2019

Chapter 1 explores the relationship between the classics, the postdramatic, and the so-called ‘in-yer-face’ theatre movement of Britain in the 1990s, taking the 1996 première production of Sarah Kane’s Phaedra’s Love as a paradigmatic example. Kane’s sparse, tightly woven script interrogated the Senecan themes of masculinity, sexuality, violence, and voyeurism; in performance, these themes were combined with a range of proto-postdramatic techniques to highlight their contemporary socio-political relevance. I suggest that the ‘in-yer-face’ movement can be viewed as a transitional period representing the gradual introduction of postdramatic techniques into British theatres. As a formative fusion of Greco-Roman tragedy and postdramatic theatre, Phaedra’s Love indicated the efficacious potential of this mode of performance to make powerful socio-political statements that have a visceral impact upon their audience.
Tom Holloway’s Love Me Tender
Authors: Cole Emma
Published: December 2019

Australian dramatist Tom Holloway’s adaptations of ancient tragedy reflect both the way that dramatists can structure scripts with an ‘open dramaturgy’ that provides directors with the opportunity to realize text through postdramatic strategies, and the way that the classics can be used to investigate the Australian psyche. The 2010 première production of Love Me Tender, Holloway’s Iphigenia at Aulis reinvention, situated the tragedy in an Australian bushfire season, and reinvented it in the form of unattributed lines on a page. The absence of characters is a postdramatic strategy, and in performance numerous other postdramatic techniques were added to the script to create an affective, image-driven investigation into the theme of sacrifice. Chapter 3 argues that Love Me Tender embodies a politics of form, and that the play compounds an investigation into the idea of sacrifice with a focus upon societal tensions surrounding pre-teen sexuality and raunch culture. It suggests that Love Me Tender provides a key example not only of the way that this new dramaturgical style can be realized through postdramatic performance, but also of the political use of the classics in postdramatic theatre.
The Hayloft Project’s Thyestes
Authors: Cole Emma
Published: December 2019

Chapter 5 explores Australian theatre company The Hayloft Project’s 2010 devised adaptation of Seneca’s Thyestes. It argues that the production’s combination of a focus upon the psychology of character with postdramatic techniques resulted in a confronting, visceral performance which demonstrated how Seneca’s material can interrogate modern values surrounding gender, sex, and violence. The discussion showcases the political potential of devised postdramatic performance, and simultaneously reveals how postdramatic reinventions can shed light back onto their source texts, in this instance via the contemporary commentary contained in the characterization of Atreus. The chapter posits that The Hayloft Project’s production can consequently not only tell us about the role of tragedy in the modern world, but that it also created continuity between the modern and the ancient and reveals that a contemporary commentary was part of this specific tragedy all along.
Adsorption of surfactants at liquid interfaces: thermodynamics
Authors: Aveyard Bob
Published: December 2019

The thickness and hence material content of a surface is generally unknown, and there are two common definitions of a surface/interface. In one the surface is treated as a phase distinct from the surrounding bulk phases, and in the other, due to Gibbs, the Gibbs dividing surface is supposed to be a plane, parallel to the physical interface. The former model gives rise to the surface concentrationΓ‎s of a surfactant, and the Gibbs model introduces the surface excess concentration, Γ‎σ‎. Some thermodynamic quantities for surfaces (e.g. surface chemical potential and Gibbs free energy for surfaces) are defined. Adsorption lowers interfacial tension by an amount termed the surface pressure, and the Gibbs adsorption equation allows the calculation of Γ‎s or Γ‎σ‎ for a surfactant from the variation of interfacial tension of a liquid/fluid interface with surfactant concentration in bulk solution.
Dynamic aspects of liquid interfaces
Authors: Aveyard Bob
Published: December 2019

Following the rapid formation of the surface of a surfactant so′′lution, the dynamic interfacial tension falls with time as a result of the finite time needed for surfactant adsorption. Surfaces can either be sheared (involving shape change) or dilated (area is changed), and both these processes can give a viscous and/or elastic response. Usually, surfaces of surfactant solutions exhibit a combination of the two and are viscoelastic. If small sinusoidal area changes are imposed on the surface, changes in tension and area are out of phase because surfactant adsorption is relatively slow. The responses to area change are frequency dependent. The complex dilational viscoelastic modulus, ε‎*, has real (elastic) and imaginary (viscous) parts, ε‎′ and ε‎′′, respectively, whose variation with frequency provides insights into relaxation processes occurring at the surface. The way in which dynamic tensions can give insights into the kinetics of surfactant adsorption is explained.
Aggregation of surfactants in aqueous systems
Authors: Aveyard Bob
Published: December 2019

Surfactants form micelles in aqueous solution above the critical micelle concentration (cmc); micelles are dynamic structures. Micellization is driven by the transfer of surfactant chains from water to the micelle core. There is an optimum size (aggregation number) and shape for micelles (dependent on surfactant molecular shape and packing within micelles) for which the standard free energy of micellization, Δ‎micμ‎o, is minimum. Inert electrolyte influences the degree of dissociation (α‎) of ionic micelles and hence micellar shape and aggregation number. Micellization in mixed surfactant solutions, and in mixed polymer + surfactant systems is also discussed. Micelles can dissolve (solubilize) other amphiphilic materials and nonpolar oils, which changes the cmc. If sufficient oil is solubilized, microemulsion droplets result (see Chapter 10). As the concentration of micelles in solution rises, intermicellar interactions lead to the formation of a variety of lyotropic liquid crystalline phases (mesophases).
Thin liquid films
Authors: Aveyard Bob
Published: December 2019

The study of soap films, which are symmetrical, has a distinguished history. More recently, other asymmetric liquid films (e.g. pseudo-emulsion films and wetting films on solids) have been widely investigated. The (meta)stability of thin liquid films can be understood in terms of disjoining pressure isotherms, the shapes of which reflect the nature of the films. Film stability in systems with only fluids present can also be considered in terms of both classical and generalized entry coefficients, defined in terms of the various interfacial tensions in the system. Film rupture obviously occurs as a result of dynamic processes. Film drainage (thinning) rate is influenced by surface concentration gradients in the surfactant layers at film surfaces and by the effects of Marangoni flow within the films. To be stable, films need to have elastic properties in order to withstand mechanical perturbations. If the repulsive forces between surfaces become insufficient, hole formation will lead to film rupture.
Emulsions and foams
Authors: Aveyard Bob
Published: December 2019

Methods of formation of emulsions and foams are given; both types of system are stabilized by surfactants. Emulsions can be oil-in-water or water-in-oil type and the preferred type is discussed in terms of the hydrophile–lipophile balance of the system, which ultimately depends on the preferred curvature of close-packed surfactant monolayers at droplet interfaces. Droplet and bubble size distributions in emulsions and foams respectively, evolve with time through Ostwald ripening (bubble disproportionation in foams); larger drops (bubbles) grow at the expense of smaller ones since the Laplace pressure in small bubbles/drops exceeds that in large ones. Creaming occurs in emulsions (if drops are less dense than the medium) and in foams so the volume fraction of dispersed phase, ϕ‎, changes with height. At high ϕ‎ both emulsions and foams assume polyhedral structures giving high internal phase emulsions and ‘dry’ foams, respectively. Methods of breaking unwanted emulsions and foams are described.
Urban System and Urban Development in the People’s Republic of China
Authors: Chen Zhao , Lu Ming
Published: December 2019

There is a trend of population concentration towards large coastal cities in The People’s Republic of China (PRC). However, there is a distortion of city size towards small cities in the PRC. That is to say, urban population in China should further concentrate in large cities rather than be more equally spread out. Cross-country analysis also indicates that the population size of the primary city in the PRC is smaller than its predicted value. The discussion in this chapter suggests that the Chinese government should adjust the policies on future urbanization with fewer restrictions on the further growth of megacities.
Growth, Inequality, Poverty, and Urbanization: the Case of India
Authors: Mitra Arup
Published: December 2019

In this chapter the analysis is pursued at three levels of disaggregation: states, districts, and cities with populations over one million. At the state level, urbanization does not show any significant impact on rural poverty, though it tends to reduce poverty in urban areas. Growth influences urbanization positively, while urbanization and expansion in non-agricultural activities both contribute to economic growth. Although urban inequality is not strongly correlated with urbanization and growth, the relationship is distinct. While poverty tends to decline, inequality rises in the process of growth and urbanization. The district-level data confirm a positive association between urbanization, work participation rate, percentage of workforce engaged in non-household manufacturing and services, literacy, growth, and inequality, though the degree of association is mild. Urbanization shows a strong beneficial effect on poverty at both the district and city levels.
A Multisensory Philosophy of Perception
Authors: O'Callaghan Casey
Published: December 2019

This book argues that human perception and perceptual consciousness are richly multisensory. Its thesis is that the coordinated use of multiple senses enhances and extends human perceptual capacities and consciousness in three critical ways. First, crossmodal perceptual illusions reveal hidden multisensory interactions that typically make the senses more coherent and reliable sources of evidence about the environment. Second, the joint use of multiple senses discloses more of the world, including novel features and qualities, making possible new forms of perceptual experience. Third, through crossmodal dependence, plasticity, and perceptual learning, each sense is reshaped by the influence of others, at a time and over time. The implication is that no sense—not even vision itself—can be understood entirely in isolation from the others. This undermines the prevailing approach to perception, which proceeds sense by sense, and sets the stage for a revisionist multisensory approach that illuminates the nature, scope, and character of sense perception.
Photoreception
Authors: Fain Gordon L.
Published: December 2019

“Photoreception” is the ninth chapter of the book Sensory Transduction and begins with general mechanisms of light detection, photopigment activation, and the variety of pathways of phototransduction using the scallop eye as an example. There is then a thorough treatment of the photoreceptors of arthropods, particularly those of Limulus and Drosophila. Following a description of photoreceptor anatomy, the chapter describes transduction in these arthropods including photoreceptor channels and the role of Ca2+ in the regulation of gain and turnoff. It then proceeds to vertebrate rods and cones, with individual treatment of the topics of transduction in vertebrate photoreceptors, the ion channels of rods and cones, the description and measurement of the photocurrent, pathways responsible for shutting down the light response, light adaptation, pigment renewal, and the recovery of sensitivity after bright light exposure. It concludes with transduction in intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells.
Drawing three dimensions
Authors: Genge Matthew J.
Published: December 2019

Natural outcrops of rock often have significant topography that makes them difficult to record in field sketches. This chapter describes the methods used to draw outcrops in three dimensions. The concepts of perspective and its influence on the appearance of strata are described as well as the tactics that can be used to simplify the drawing of natural outcrops. Three worked examples of field sketches are included in the chapter to illustrate how best to record the geology exposed on surfaces with significant relief. These include sketching of large three-dimensional outcrops and drawing of coastal cliffs. Common mistakes in drawing outcrops with relief are described.
Drawing rocks in thin-section
Authors: Genge Matthew J.
Published: December 2019

Thin-sections of rocks allow petrology to be characterized at a microscopic scale and enable mineral identification to be made with greater confidence than in hand-specimens. This chapter examines the methods used to produce drawings of rocks and minerals in thin-section for the analysis and interpretation of petrology. Crystal or component shapes should be drawn first and it is useful to work outwards from a single object. Four worked examples of thin-section drawings are described to illustrate different tactics used in creating these diagrams. Practical advice on identifying minerals in thin-section and the optical properties of minerals is also given. Crystal orientation diagrams, useful in recording the optical properties of individual minerals, are also discussed.
Geological cross-sections
Authors: Genge Matthew J.
Published: December 2019

Geological cross-sections are graphical representations of the distribution of rock units in vertical planes cut through landscapes. Cross-sections extrapolate the boundaries between rock units above and below ground. This chapter provides practical advice on how to create geological cross-sections through the interpretation of maps with an emphasis on recognizing the key features that reveal the orientation of boundaries and structures. Topography lines can be sketched with reasonable accuracy rather than transferred from maps. The use of sketch cross-sections as an interpretative diagram is introduced, and examples given to illustrate how these can be used in field notes to assist in the analysis of geological structures.
Drawing schematic diagrams
Authors: Genge Matthew J.
Published: December 2019

Schematic diagrams are invaluable in Earth Science in the communication of concepts in both publications and teaching. These diagrams can also be used during fieldwork to help develop interpretations of structures, palaeoenvironments, and geological processes. This chapter describes methods used to create block diagrams of structures and landscapes, surface diagrams of folds and faults, and process diagrams used to summarize interpretations of a wide range of processes. Schematic diagrams can and should be included in field notes. Process diagrams represent a cartoon of interpretative thoughts. Four worked examples of schematic diagrams are provided to illustrate their uses and construction.
Magnanimity as Generosity
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: December 2019

In modern English ‘magnanimity’ normally refers to generosity, especially in forgiving offences. ‘Pusillanimity’ normally refers to cowardice. The two traits do not seem to be genuine opposites. This is one way in which modern English usage may seem to mislead us about the Aristotelian virtue of megalopsychia. On closer inspection, however, the modern usage turns out not to be altogether misleading; for two central expressions of megalopsychia are generosity and bravery. Once we see why they are central expressions, the apparently unattractive features of the Aristotelian virtue are more intelligible and less unattractive.
Magnanimity, Christian Ethics, and Paganism in the Latin Middle Ages
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: December 2019

Magnanimity, especially as discussed by Aristotle, might seem to be one of the pagan virtues that would have been difficult to assimilate into a Christian ethical scheme. In fact, from the Fathers onwards, Christians welcomed magnanimitas into their classifications of the virtues, basing their understanding of it, up until the thirteenth century, on Stoic sources. When they came, from the mid-1200s onwards, to read Aristotle’s discussion of magnanimity in his Ethics, the theologians—Aquinas above all—managed ingeniously to combine Aristotle’s description with the version of magnanimity that was already at home in Christian thought. In the fourteenth century, Giraut Ott and John Buridan, in different ways, came closer to Aristotle’s discussion, without suggesting that magnanimity should be suspect as a virtue for Christians. The one medieval writer who does seem to have had a strong sense of magnanimity as an attractive, but distinctively pagan virtue, cultivated by the damned rather than those destined for heaven, was Dante.
The Kantian Sublime and Greatness of Mind
Authors: Brady Emily
Published: December 2019

This chapter explores Kant’s discussion of the sublime in the Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790), in which the aesthetic subject becomes aware of a certain kind of greatness of mind. Kant’s scheme emphasizes respect for the moral capacities of the self as part of humanity, as well as admiration for greatness in the natural world. More broadly, his views show how ideas about greatness—if not magnanimity in the narrower sense—flow into philosophical approaches that lie beyond virtue ethics, moral thought, and human exceptionalism. The chapter argues that a comparative relation between self and sublime phenomena is central to understanding greatness of mind. Drawing out this comparative relation supports a deeper understanding of how both self-regarding and other-regarding attitudes feature within sublime experience, and just how this greatness might express itself within an aesthetic context.
Greatness of Soul Across the Ages
Authors: Roberts Robert C.
Published: December 2019

That a virtue should be called magnanimity suggests that souls come in sizes. But what makes for this sizing? This chapter is framed between the Homeric heroic ideal embodied in the megalêtôr and the gentle but resolute American hero, the magnanimous Abraham Lincoln, interacting along the way with the other chapters in the volume. This chapter compares conceptions of greatness of soul (heart, spirit, mind), touching on Socrates, Aristotle, the New Testament, Stoicism, Yaḥyā ibn ‘Adī and al-Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī, Thomas Aquinas, Descartes, the Scottish Enlightenment, Kant, and Nietzsche. The story is one of diversity, indeed in some cases mutual exclusion, with overlap and continuities. But in the end the chapter suggests a certain evolution of our conception of human greatness in which the virtues of strength and toughness are integrated with those of generosity and compassion.
From Grisette to Midinette
Authors: Tilburg Patricia
Published: December 2019

This chapter examines the early nineteenth-century grisette as a literary type, and traces her reappearance on the cultural scene as a figure of nostalgia at the turn of the nineteenth century. By the turn of the century, the grisette of the 1830s and 1840s still regularly appeared throughout French popular culture as a sign of heightened romantic longing for a lost Paris, a France of small-scale industry, sentiment, and elegance. She was frequently conflated with contemporary garment workers, tethering living belle époque workingwomen to a figure of literary wistfulness. Parisian garment workers were repeatedly cast in the mold of a pleasing throwback, a woman at once thoroughly embedded in the modern Parisian landscape and yet, also, out of time, carrying within her the essence and soul of a lost or endangered France. The most popular grisette at the turn of the century was Musset’s Mimi Pinson, who was featured in songs, poems, postcards, ballet, vaudeville shows, short stories, novels, and films. This chapter also develops a physiognomy of the grisette’s belle époque descendant, the midinette, a modernized version of the type, and inheritor of both the grisette’s cultural significance and her limitations. From strike reportage to pulp novels to monuments, the Parisian garment worker found eroticized and socially useful shades of herself promoted around her city and nation in these years, shades which more often than not moved backward in time to the grisette of the 1830s and 1840s.
From A to B: On “Critique and Morals”
Authors: Ameriks Karl
Published: December 2019

This chapter gives an account of the transition from Kant’s publishing of the first edition (“A”) of his Critique of Pure Reason and his decision to focus on the topic of morals by suddenly writing a book called the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. The interpretation of this transition contrasts with the stress on Christian Garve in recent work by Eckart Förster, in a chapter called “Critique and Morals,” but it agrees with him about the significance in this era of the project of establishing philosophy as a science. A special emphasis is placed on Kant’s intense concern with absolute freedom during this period and with his desire to show that he can present a better account of the realms of “nature” and “grace” than can other philosophers.
Revisiting Freedom as Autonomy
Authors: Ameriks Karl
Published: December 2019

This chapter responds in detail to two recent discussions of Kant’s notion of freedom. Jörg Noller’s book argues, in part against Kant, for a graduated concept of degrees of freedom that might help make sense of the phenomenon of evil. Owen Ware, in articles on the notions of “fact” and “will,” revisits Kant’s transition from his argument in the Groundwork to his reliance, in the Critique of Practical Reason, on the notion of a “fact of reason.” I agree with most of Noller’s nuanced historical approach but do not endorse his view on degrees of freedom as a needed improvement of Kant. In reaction to Ware, I agree that there are many elements of continuity between Kant’s Groundwork and the Critique of Practical Reason, but I disagree with his argument against the now common view that the latter work involves a significant “reversal” in Kant’s methodology in arguing for freedom.
Vindicating Autonomy
Authors: Ameriks Karl
Published: December 2019

This chapter follows a suggestion, by Onora O’Neill, that Kant’s notion of autonomy should be interpreted neither in an anarchic “radical existentialist” way nor in terms of an authoritarian “panicky metaphysics.” It also develops her suggestion, in reacting to Iris Murdoch’s critique of Kant as anarchic and “Luciferian” in a bad Sartrian sense, that there is a way to read Sartre as, in part, a good Kantian. The chapter offers an extensive defense of Sartre’s “Existentialism as a Humanism” as a sensible existentialist version of Kantian ethics, and it also notes positive ethical connections between Milton and Kant. Empirical and transcendental notions of choice, and their “all or nothing” and “degree” aspects, are distinguished, and this distinction is used to vindicate Kant’s notion of freedom as also metaphysical but not in a “panicky” way.
Prauss and Kant’s Three Unities
Authors: Ameriks Karl
Published: December 2019

This chapter discusses a recent systematic book by the Kant scholar Gerold Prauss. Here Prauss discusses the connection of subject and object primarily in terms of the relation between an unextended subject and a three-dimensional world that is constructed within an infinite continuous field of space and time. Kant’s notion of pure intuition is critically and creatively adopted in Prauss’s development of a kind of transcendental geometry, which characterizes the basic three-dimensionality of our experience in an a priori manner. I compare Prauss’s approach to earlier work in Kant scholarship, such as by P. F. Strawson, and also note that Prauss’s holistic approach has some similarities with later German Idealism.
The Historical Turn and Late Modernity
Authors: Ameriks Karl
Published: December 2019

This chapter combines an appreciation of Robert Pippin’s work on modernity with an elaboration of a thesis I have argued for earlier, that post-Kantian philosophy is best characterized in terms of the growing influence of an historical turn in philosophical methodology. More specifically, I argue that some classical German Idealists, and Early German Romantic thinkers especially, appreciate that we are in a distinctive era best understood as “late modernity.” It is an era of modernity because it does not turn away from the rational insights of the Enlightenment era, the scientific and democratic revolutions. But it is also an era of lateness, because it sees the limits of those insights, and it seeks to revivify the resources of the aesthetic and religious dimensions of human life. Insofar as this approach maintains respect for the fundamentals of Kantian ethics, it can avoid lapsing into historicism, aestheticism, or subjectivism.
Open Innovation with Chinese Characteristics
Authors: Chesbrough Henry
Published: December 2019

Open Innovation in China is greatly affected by the powerful role of the Chinese Communist Party. Xi Jinping thought introduces a tension between the ‘decisive role of the markets’ to allocate resources and stimulate innovation across the economy and ‘the leading role of the Party’ to guide the development of innovation in the most important industries. This tension plays out differently in different industries in China. In high-speed rail, the tension has been adroitly managed, creating an organization with world class innovation capabilities that is a peer with the best of the rival firms in the world. In automotive and semiconductors, however, the tension has been more problematic. The state-owned enterprises are well aligned with the Party, while it is the privately owned companies and foreign companies that are driving innovation.
Against Irreducibility-Parity
Authors: Cowie Christopher
Published: December 2019

It is argued that the second version of the parity premise—irreducibility-parity—is false. It is false because epistemic judgements, unlike moral judgements, are committed to merely reducibly normative properties. The argument for this is based on the same basic rationale outlined in chapter 3: epistemic judgements are normative or evaluative only in the sense of normative or evaluative judgements within ‘institutions’ such as sports and games, etiquette, fashion, and the law. A ‘back-up’ view is introduced: even if irreducibility-parity is true, the analogy between epistemic judgements and normative or evaluative judgements within institutions can yet be used to render the epistemic error theory less implausible than it may at first appear.
The Conventionalism Criticism
Authors: Cowie Christopher
Published: December 2019

It is sometimes claimed that ‘belief aims at truth’ in a sense that explains the existence and nature of epistemic norms. Furthermore it is sometimes claimed that there is no analogous explanation of moral norms. In this chapter it is asked whether these claims represent an alternative means of rejecting the parity premise to the basic rationale—comparing epistemic judgements to normative or evaluative judgements within ‘institutions’—offered in chapters 3 and 5. It is argued that they do not. Three different readings of ‘belief aims at truth’ are identified. None are found to be plausible as an alternative route to rejection of the parity premise.
Simple Veritism
Authors: Cowie Christopher
Published: December 2019

In modelling epistemic judgements on normative or evaluative judgements within ‘institutions’—such as sports and games, etiquette, fashion, and the law—as has been done in earlier chapters it has been assumed that the final or basic epistemic value is true belief. This chapter considers objections to this from knowledge-first and anti-consequentialist conceptions of epistemic norms. It presents reasons for scepticism about these views and claims that these alternatives are still compatible with the basic view in the book of the contrast between epistemic norms and moral norms and so with its rejection of the parity premise.
Whence Justice?
Authors: Deane-Drummond Celia E.
Published: December 2019

Justice requires proper consideration of right relationships between beings. What kind of philosophy might allow an extension of justice to animals? How did systems of justice evolve in deep history? Rather than constructing a comparative narrative between humans and advanced social animals, this chapter explores accounts of how systems of reciprocity and inequity aversion have evolved in other social animals, including primates. Inequity aversion is correlated with pro-social behaviour and cooperation in primates. Sarah Brosnan argues that while inequity aversion can be used to describe primate behaviour, there should be greater hesitation in using the language of fairness or justice, though she is prepared to use the language of morality. Marc Bekoff, who has worked as an ethologist among canids, is rather less hesitant about describing his observations of play behaviour as examples of wild justice. Examples of interspecies exchange that follows specific patterns of mutually entangled behaviour in Marcus Baynes-Rock’s work among hyenas in Ethiopia and Piers Locke’s work among elephants in Nepal are discussed. While there may be some convergence with the way justice has arisen in human communities, the basis for justice in a Christian theological sense often takes its bearings from transcendent norms of divine justice. Using Proverbs as a starting point, the argument is that there are at least some strands in the Christian tradition that widen an understanding of justice as inclusive of animals, though this is best understood as set in the context of a multispecies community.
Love’s Evolution
Authors: Deane-Drummond Celia E.
Published: December 2019

The relationship between empathy, love, and compassion has long been contested in the history of moral theory. Drawing on Martha Nussbaum’s definition of compassion as a form of judgement, and its relationship to empathy as both emotive and cognitive, this chapter seeks to uncover some of the reasons why empathy and compassion are still contested by scientists working in moral psychology as being relevant for the truly moral life. It also draws on fascinating work by archaeologists that shows reasonable evidence for the existence of deep compassion far back in the evolutionary record of early hominins, even prior to the appearance of Homo sapiens. The long-term care of those with severe disabilities is remarkable and indicates the importance of empathy and compassion deep in history. This is not so much a romanticized view of the past, since violence as well as cooperation existed side by side, but an attempt to show that the rising wave of anti-empathy advocates have missed the mark. Compassion is the fruit of cooperative tendencies. Primatologist Frans de Waal has also undertaken important work on empathy operative in the social lives of alloprimates. The Thomistic concept of compassion in the framework of his approach to the virtues in the moral life is also discussed.
Becoming Wise
Authors: Deane-Drummond Celia E.
Published: December 2019

In this chapter, the author discusses some recent evidence for the appearance of what appears to be a capacity for complex relational decision-making in the human evolutionary record. Unlike compassion and latent forms of justice known as inequity aversion, finding any traces of wisdom in the lives of other animals is much harder to discern. Some debates on animal intelligence and shared intention provide clues when comparing different primates, including humans and other social animals. Using the work of twentieth-century Jewish philosophers, including Hans Jonas, consideration is given as to how far and in what sense modern humans became doubly wise, Homo sapiens sapiens. It is suggested that this is a becoming wise in community with other hominins and other species, and is determined through a discussion of the different elements of practical wisdom that has been alluded to by the ancients. The faint traces left behind in the evolutionary record show both a sporadic and sometimes inconsistent pattern of distinctively human mental abilities, particularly those related to those elements of practical wisdom that in classic Thomistic thought were recognized as foresight (providentia) and memory (memoria). How far and in what sense such a process also aligned with a receptivity to the divine is difficult to judge, though it seems likely that humans reached a level of fairly sophisticated and consistent wisdom before they became conscious of divine agency. Wisdom, as an intellectual virtue of speculative reason, first required the imaginative capacity to speculate, but that capacity did not emerge in isolation, but in community with other species.
Laughter and Power at Henry II’s Court
Authors: Jones Peter J. A.
Published: December 2019

Chapter 3 shows how laughter became both a strategy for survival and a means for covert communication in the tense political environment of Henry II’s court. Contemporary writers described how public laughter worked as a potent weapon for shaming courtly rivals. As anxieties about mockery reached a new peak, public derision regularly destroyed careers and reputations. Laughter also became valued as a means of subtle communication, and as a way of exposing the hidden codes and power relationships of court life. As this chapter argues, laughter became so highly valued at Henry’s court because it allowed courtiers to appeal to a reason and dialogue that was otherwise beyond the restrictions of explicit discourse. Evading the culture of rigid procedure that was defining the operation of Angevin government, Henry’s courtiers were able to translate laughter’s growing conceptual and imagined power into a hard-edged, socially coercive political practice.
Thomas Becket, The Laughing Saint
Authors: Jones Peter J. A.
Published: December 2019

Chapter 4 investigates the hagiographic transfiguration of Thomas Becket’s laughter, and the recasting of his courtly wit into a saintly virtue. Known as a frivolous joker at Henry’s court, Thomas was posthumously celebrated as a type of “laughing saint” (sanctus ridens). He was described laughing while making prophecies and even while being murdered, and a unique series of comic miracles was attributed to him after his death. As this chapter argues, the making of Thomas as a “laughing saint” ultimately crystallized the intellectual, literary, and courtly ideas of laughter explored in the previous chapters. Legitimated by emerging ideas of transcendent laughter, this saintly image also depended on the popular currency of laughing prophets and miracles in late twelfth-century hagiographies, chronicles, and epic poems. Most importantly, the reshaping of Thomas’s laughter retroactively endowed the witty political culture of Henry II’s court with a new moral, quasi-theological power.
Henry II, the Laughing King
Authors: Jones Peter J. A.
Published: December 2019

Chapter 5 explores how Henry II used laughter to exercise power indirectly, and how contemporary writers exploited this to comment on the changing direction of English government. Henry laughed while negotiating political compromises, wittily forced enemies into compliance, and joked while overturning operations of the law. He especially laughed and joked when he felt that abstract ideas of authority had produced injustices he wanted to overturn. By joking, Henry could supplement the mechanisms of government, reinforcing his charismatic authority without explicitly undermining official procedure. Some court writers thus amplified the king’s laughter as a way of critiquing government by code and bureaucracy. Referencing both the intellectual discourses that dignified joking as a truth-telling device, and the narrative tropes that imagined laughter as a mouthpiece for divine authority, these writers created an image that covertly reinstated the sublime authority of royal charisma at variance with the direction of contemporaneous governmental change.
Conclusion
Authors: Jones Peter J. A.
Published: December 2019

The Conclusion draws attention to three major arguments that have been developed throughout the book, suggesting that laughter’s transcendent power in twelfth-century texts produced a unique crossover between political and religious ideals of authority; situating humor in the lived experience of twelfth-century English politics; and reflecting on the implications of this research for our wider understanding of the development of medieval Europe. The rise of powerful laughter appears as a component in the evolving importance of the body in Christian devotion and equally, the escalating capital of humor in courtly society reveals something of the changing social nature of high political circles. This emerging power, ultimately, reveals modes of resistance to new forms of governance and political control. Both the laughing king and the laughing saint offered a resilient challenge to the networks of bureaucracy, law, codes, and protocols that were rapidly coming to dominate the rhythms of European life.
Some initial possibilities
Authors: Carruthers Peter
Published: December 2019

The present chapter surveys and critiques the leading competitors lined up against the global-workspace theory of consciousness, which will be presented and defended in Chapter 5. These are: integrated-information theory; a theory that identifies phenomenal consciousness with information represented in the upper brain-stem; a theory that identifies it with the contents of a fragile form of short-term memory, distinct from working memory; higher-order thought theory; and dual-content theory, which is also higher-order in character. The implications of these theories for the distribution of consciousness across the animal kingdom are also considered.
Rethinking Asian Drama
Authors: Nayyar Deepak
Published: December 2019

Gunnar Myrdal published Asian Drama in 1968, which made important analytical contributions to our understanding of development but was deeply pessimistic about Asia’s future prospects. Since then, contrary to Myrdal’s expectations, Asia’s development has been remarkable, although transformations have been uneven across countries and unequal between people. This introductory chapter explains the conception and design of the study, which seeks to analyse the amazing story of economic development in Asia. It begins with reflections on Gunnar Myrdal, the author, and rethinking about Asian Drama, the book, in retrospect fifty years later. It then discusses some critical issues and lessons that emerge—diversity in development, history and context, economic growth and structural change, well-being of people, markets and governments, economic openness, and institutions and policies—to serve as a teaser. To conclude, it provides a brief narrative on the contents and scope of the book, meant as a road map for readers.
East Asia
Authors: Wade Robert H.
Published: December 2019

Few non-Western countries have reached the general prosperity of Western Europe and North America in the past two centuries. The core–periphery structure of the world economy, created in the early decades of the Industrial Revolution, has proved robust, even after seven decades of self-conscious ‘development’ following the Second World War. Just about all the countries in the periphery in 1960 remain in the periphery today. The clearest ‘escapees’ are in capitalist Northeast Asia. This chapter argues that the East Asian ‘developmental states’ were crucial for their rapid ascent up the world hierarchies of income and production capability. Today, capital is no longer scarce and flourishing democracies are in place, but their erstwhile developmental states have not given up a central ‘developmental mindset’. Rather than becoming approximations to neo-liberal states, they have moved from developmental states 1.0 to 2.0. Other countries can learn from their experience of how to institute developmental states 2.0.
Conclusion
Authors: Mueller Valerie , Rosenbach Gracie , Thurlow James
Published: December 2019

We answer the broader question of whether Timmer’s framework is relevant to development in Africa today drawing on findings from the chapters presented in this volume. We conclude with policy recommendations for sparking a youth-inclusive transformation given today’s challenges. First, providing incentives for young farmers to adopt improved agricultural technologies is key to enhancing productivity growth in the agricultural sector. Second, employment policies need to be restructured to focus on the RNFE and the informal sector. Third, improvements in rural access to finance and savings promotion are necessary to enable enterprises to expand and create more jobs for youth. Fourth, government investments in infrastructure and education are essential to increase market access to farmers and entrepreneurs and improve the quality of the labour force to attract additional investments from foreign and domestic firms.
The Democratic Ideal of Self-Government
Authors: Lafont Cristina
Published: December 2019

This chapter considers the relationship between two elements of the democratic ideal of self-government: political equality and citizens’ democratic control. With respect to democratic control, the author argues that we can evaluate the democratic promise of different conceptions of democracy and their proposals for institutional reform by assessing the extent to which they require or expect citizens to blindly defer to the decisions of others. Conceptions of democracy that include such expectation tacitly accept the possibility of a permanent misalignment between the beliefs and attitudes of the citizenry and the laws and policies to which they are subject. Thus, they cannot explain how citizens can identify with the policies that govern them and endorse them as their own. Since an expectation of blind deference is quintessentially incompatible with the democratic ideal of self-government, it offers a helpful criterion for identifying democratic shortcomings among conceptions of democracy that propose various “shortcuts” that would bypass political deliberation by the citizenry. It is also helpful for articulating and defending a conception of democracy “without shortcuts.”