bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Is the Modern American Death Penalty a Fatal Lottery? Texas as a Conservative Test
Authors: Phillips Scott , Simon Alena
Published: January 2014

In Furman v. Georgia (1972), the Supreme Court was presented with data indicating that 15% to 20% of death-eligible defendants were actually sentenced to death. Based on such a negligible death sentence rate, some Justices concluded that the imposition of death was random and capricious—a fatal lottery. Later, the Court assumed in Gregg v. Georgia (1976) that guided discretion statutes would eliminate the constitutional infirmities identified in Furman: If state legislatures narrowed the pool of death-eligible defendants to the “worst of the worst” then most would be sentenced to death, eliminating numerical arbitrariness. However, recent research suggests that numerical arbitrariness remains, as the death sentence rate falls below the Furman threshold in California (11%), Connecticut (4%), and Colorado (less than 1%). The current research estimates the death sentence rate in Texas. Interestingly, Texas provides a conservative test. In contrast to most states, the Texas statute does not include broad aggravators that substantially enlarge the pool of death-eligible defendants and therefore depress the death sentence rate. Nonetheless, the death sentence rate in Texas during the period from 2006 to 2010 ranges from 3% to 6% (depending on assumptions made about the data). The same pattern holds true in the key counties that send the largest number of defendants to death row: Harris (Houston), Dallas (Dallas), Tarrant (Fort Worth and Arlington), and Bexar (San Antonio). Thus, the data suggest that Texas can be added to the list of states in which capital punishment is unconstitutional as administered. If the death sentence rate in Texas runs afoul of the Furman principle then the prognosis for other states is not encouraging.
Diethyl 2,2'-[Biphenyl-4,4'-diyldihydrazin-2-yl-1-ylidene]bis(chloroacetate)
Authors: Kheder Nabila , Darwish Elham
Published: January 2014

Diethyl 2,2'-[biphenyl-4,4'-diyldihydrazin-2-yl-1-ylidene]bis(chloroacetate) was synthesized in high yield via Japp–Klingemann reaction. The structure of this compound was fully characterized by IR, 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, Mass spectra and elemental analysis.
Markov Jump Linear Systems-Based Position Estimation for Lower Limb Exoskeletons
Authors: Nogueira Samuel , Siqueira Adriano , Inoue Roberto , Terra Marco
Published: January 2014

In this paper, we deal with Markov Jump Linear Systems-based filtering applied to robotic rehabilitation. The angular positions of an impedance-controlled exoskeleton, designed to help stroke and spinal cord injured patients during walking rehabilitation, are estimated. Standard position estimate approaches adopt Kalman filters (KF) to improve the performance of inertial measurement units (IMUs) based on individual link configurations. Consequently, for a multi-body system, like a lower limb exoskeleton, the inertial measurements of one link (e.g., the shank) are not taken into account in other link position estimation (e.g., the foot). In this paper, we propose a collective modeling of all inertial sensors attached to the exoskeleton, combining them in a Markovian estimation model in order to get the best information from each sensor. In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach, simulation results regarding a set of human footsteps, with four IMUs and three encoders attached to the lower limb exoskeleton, are presented. A comparative study between the Markovian estimation system and the standard one is performed considering a wide range of parametric uncertainties.
Chemical Atherogenesis: Role of Endogenous and Exogenous Poisons in Disease Development
Authors: Ross Matthew , Matthews Anberitha , Mangum Lee
Published: January 2014

Chemical atherogenesis is an emerging field that describes how environmental pollutants and endogenous toxins perturb critical pathways that regulate lipid metabolism and inflammation, thus injuring cells found within the vessel wall. Despite growing awareness of the role of environmental pollutants in the development of cardiovascular disease, the field of chemical atherogenesis can broadly include both exogenous and endogenous poisons and the study of molecular, biochemical, and cellular pathways that become dysregulated during atherosclerosis. This integrated approach is logical because exogenous and endogenous toxins often share the same mechanism of toxicity. Chemical atherogenesis is a truly integrative discipline because it incorporates concepts from several different fields, including biochemistry, chemical biology, pharmacology, and toxicology. This review will provide an overview of this emerging research area, focusing on cellular and animal models of disease.
Tanzawaic acids I–L: Four new polyketides from Penicillium sp. IBWF104-06
Authors: Sandjo Louis P , Thines Eckhard , Opatz Till , Schüffler Anja
Published: January 2014

Four new polyketides have been identified in culture filtrates of the fungal strain Penicillium sp. IBWF104-06 isolated from a soil sample. They are structurally based on the same trans-decalinpentanoic acid skeleton as tanzawaic acids A–H. One of the new compounds was found to inhibit the conidial germination in the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae at concentrations of 25 μg/mL.
A Randomized Trial of Daclatasvir with Peginterferon Alfa-2B and Ribavirin for HCV Genotype 1 Infection
Authors: Suzuki Fumitaka , Toyota Joji , Ikeda Kenji , Chayama Kazuaki , Mochida Satoshi , Hayashi Norio , Ishikawa Hiroki , Miyagoshi Hidetaka , Hu Wenhua , McPhee Fiona , Hughes Eric A , Kumada Hiromitsu
Published: January 2014

Background

Daclatasvir-containing regimens have the potential to address limitations of current regimens combining peginterferon alfa and ribavirin with first-generation protease inhibitors for treatment of chronic HCV genotype 1 infection.

Methods

In this randomized, double-blind study, 27 Japanese treatment-naive patients received once-daily daclatasvir 10 mg or 60 mg or placebo, each combined with peginterferon alfa-2b/ribavirin; 18 prior null ( n=9) or partial ( n=9) responders received the same daclatasvir-containing regimens without a placebo arm. Daclatasvir recipients with protocol-defined response (HCV RNA<15 IU/ml at week 4, undetectable at week 12) were treated for 24 weeks; those without protocol-defined response and placebo recipients continued treatment to week 48.

Results

Sustained virological response 24 weeks post-treatment (SVR24) was achieved by 66.7%, 90.0% and 62.5% of treatment-naive patients in the daclatasvir 10 mg, 60 mg and placebo groups, respectively. Prior non-responders had more frequent virological failure; 22.2% and 33.3% of daclatasvir 10 mg and 60 mg recipients, respectively, achieved SVR24. Adverse events were similar across groups and were typical of peginterferon alfa-2b/ribavirin. Pyrexia, headache, alopecia, decreased appetite and malaise were the most common adverse events; two daclatasvir recipients discontinued due to adverse events.

Conclusions

Daclatasvir 60 mg combined with peginterferon alfa-2b and ribavirin achieved a high rate of SVR24 in treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 1 infection, with tolerability similar to that of peginterferon alfa-2b/ribavirin alone. However, regimens with greater antiviral potency are needed for prior non-responders.
Les groupes minoritaires : un nouveau concept entre droit et politique
Authors: Hérin Jean-Louis
Published: January 2014

Groupe d’opposition ou groupe minoritaire ? Cette option a été introduite par le Sénat lors de la dernière révision constitutionnelle qui a été adoptée grâce à l’apport des futurs groupes minoritaires... Forts de cette consécration constitutionnelle, les groupes minoritaires contribuent à conforter le pluralisme parlementaire, surtout au Sénat où le groupe majoritaire ne dispose pas de la majorité absolue des sièges, avec le risque, aux yeux de certains, de compliquer le processus de délibération et de remettre en cause la primauté du fait majoritaire. Même s’ils appartiennent de fait à la majorité ou à l’opposition, ils sont en capacité d’affirmer leur spécificité ou leur autonomie face à la bipolarisation de la vie parlementaire. Peut-on imaginer un Parlement représentatif sans un ou plusieurs groupes minoritaires ?
Squash cytology of primary central nervous system lymphoma in an immunocompetent patient
Authors: Myageri Aneel , Vandana G , Melkundi Sateesh , Patil Preetam , Kulkarni Padmaja
Published: January 2014

The diagnosis of primary central nervous system lymphoma (PCNSL) can be suggested by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Cerebral PCNSL in immunocompetent patients generally shows marked homogeneous contrast enhancement in MRI. However, confirmation of it requires demonstration of lymphoma cells in stereotactic biopsy of the lesion or in cerebrospinal fluid. In the present case, with radiologic diagnosis of glioma, complete resection of the lesion by micro-neurosurgical technique was performed. The tumor tissue was examined by squash smear, frozen section and paraffin sections. Cytologic appreciation of tumor cells as lymphoid origin in squash smears negated the other possibilities. The immunocytochemistry on squash smear and immunohistochemistry on paraffin sections confirmed the diagnosis of diffuse large B cell lymphoma of non-germinal center B cell phenotype
A rare case of recurrent primary spinal echinococcosis
Authors: Ashraf Aabid , Kirmani Altaf , Bhat Abdul , Sarmast Arif
Published: January 2014

Spinal hydatid disease, though rare, is one of the differential diagnosis of spinal cord compression syndrome especially in endemic areas. Surgery is the treatment of choice but surgery alone is not curative. Adjuvant drug therapy as well as intraoperative prophylaxis are indicated. Despite all measures, the disease has high recurrence rates and overall outcome is still poor. We report a case of 65 year old male with lumbosacral hydatidosis recurring after 13 years.
Advanced Technology Dispels Membrane Cleaning Myths
Authors: Lee Durham , Dan Gibson
Published: January 2014

All pressure‐driven membrane separation systems foul over time, so effective cleaning is crucial to maintaining a productive membrane system. However, the proven science and conventional wisdom about the most effective ways to clean membranes have evolved.
Use Empirical Data to Manage Water Infrastructure
Authors: Jones Cliff
Published: January 2014

By having greater awareness and control of their infrastructure, utilities can drastically reduce the consequences of failure.
Large‐Diameter Reverse Osmosis Facility Redefines Water Reuse
Authors: Alexander Kevin , Nunez Art , Talabi Binga , Faber Dave , Filteau Gerry
Published: January 2014

A vision for the future was realized when the city of Scottsdale, Ariz., began operating the Scottsdale Water Campus in 1999 to augment the city's water supply and reclaim water. The facility remains at the forefront of water reuse.
Consider Brackish Groundwater Supplies for Desalination
Authors: Maliva Robert G. , Manahan William Scott , Guo Weixing
Published: January 2014

Brackish groundwater sources suitable for desalination are often present in regions where freshwater is scarce. Brackish groundwater requires less energy and pretreatment to desalinate than seawater, making it a water source worth considering in certain situations.
Leverage Employees' Values for Staff Retention and Development
Authors: Reed Doug
Published: January 2014

The stumbling economy has had a widespread impact on employers. Water utilities have to do more with less, and employees often must bear the brunt of cutbacks and changes. As a result, job satisfaction is at a historic low, and employees may be exploring new employment options. Many utilities want to retain talented staff but don't have the resources or know‐how to do so.
Methods for Improving Undergraduate Students' Sketching Skills
Authors: Dong Hua , Cifter Abdusselam Selami , Fan Zhong
Published: January 2014

Hand sketching is one of the most important skills for design. However, many design students are not confident or competent in sketching. This paper introduces initiatives at Brunel University for improving undergraduate students' sketching skills. A range of drawing workshops were organised and their effectiveness was evaluated through students' feedback. The teaching methods and students' motivation were studied through questionnaires and focus groups. It concluded that effective methods for improving sketching skills may include a combination of: setting structured, timed tasks for daily practice; creating a relaxing peer-learning environment; incorporating sketching into each design project; and organising intensive drawing workshops to enhance learning.
Natural variability and anthropogenic change in equatorial Pacific surface ocean pCO2 and pH
Authors: Sutton Adrienne J. , Feely Richard A. , Sabine Christopher L. , McPhaden Michael J. , Takahashi Taro , Chavez Francisco P. , Friederich Gernot E. , Mathis Jeremy T.
Published: January 2014

The equatorial Pacific is a dynamic region that plays an important role in the global carbon cycle. This region is the largest oceanic source of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere, which varies interannually dependent on the El Niño‐Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and other climatic and oceanic drivers. We present high‐resolution observations of surface ocean CO2 partial pressure (pCO2) at four fixed locations in the Niño 3.4 area with data sets encompassing 10 ENSO warm and cold events from 1997 to 2011. The mooring observations confirm that ENSO controls much of the interannual variability in surface seawater pCO2 with values ranging from 315 to 578 µatm. The mooring time series also capture the temporal variability necessary to make the first estimates of long‐term pH trends in the equatorial Pacific, which suggests that the combination of ocean acidification and decadal variability creates conditions for high rates of pH change since the beginning of the mooring record. Anthropogenic CO2 increases play a dominant role in significant observed seawater pCO2 trends of +2.3 to +3.3 µatm yr−1 and pH trends of −0.0018 to −0.0026 yr−1 across the full time series in this region. However, increased upwelling driven by increased trade winds, a shallower thermocline, and increased frequency of La Niña events also contribute an average of 40% of the observed trends since 1998. These trends are higher than previous estimates based on underway observations and suggest that the equatorial Pacific is contributing a greater amount of CO2 to the atmospheric CO2 inventory over the last decade.
Why did the 2011–2012 La Niña cause a severe drought in the Brazilian Northeast?
Authors: Rodrigues Regina R. , McPhaden Michael J.
Published: January 2014

The Brazilian Northeast (NE) is strongly affected by El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). During La Niña events, the precipitation over the NE is generally above average. However, during the last La Niña event in 2011–2012, the NE went through its worst drought in the last 30 years. In this study, observations and numerical simulations are used to determine what made the 2011–2012 event different from other events. We find that eastern Pacific (canonical) La Niña events cause a cooling of the tropical North Atlantic and warming of the tropical South Atlantic that lead to a southward migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone, which in turn brings rain to the NE. On the other hand, La Niña events with the cooling concentrated in the central Pacific cause the opposite meridional sea surface temperature (SST) gradient in the tropical Atlantic, leading to droughts over the NE. The 2011–2012 event was of the latter type. This study also shows that it is possible to predict the sign of the NE rainfall anomaly during ENSO events using a simple SST index.
Observational quantification of the separation of simple and complex atmospheric ice particles
Authors: Schmitt Carl G. , Heymsfield Andrew J.
Published: January 2014

The impact of ice clouds on weather and climate is a function of ice particle shape through light scattering properties and cloud lifetime through ice particle sedimentation rates. Many weather forecast and climate models use two categories to represent ice cloud particles: cloud ice and snow, though the distinction between particle categories is generally without observational justification. Improved characterization of cloud ice and snow as well as the transition between them will make models more realistic. An analysis of particle imagery data from high‐resolution aircraft particle imaging probes indicates that atmospheric ice particles can easily be separated by particle complexity. In this work, a technique is described which enables the clear separation of vapor grown particles from aggregates of particles. When applied to two example data sets, the technique shows that the separation between these categories occurs at 150 and 250 microns, for two example data sets.
Impact of Barents Sea winter air‐sea exchanges on Fram Strait dense water transport
Authors: Moat Bengamin I. , Josey Simon A. , Sinha Bablu
Published: January 2014

Impacts of extreme Barents Sea air‐sea exchanges are examined using the HadCM3 coupled ocean‐atmosphere model. Variability in the Barents Sea winter air‐sea density flux is found to be a potentially significant factor in determining changes in the southward transport of dense water through Fram Strait. The density flux variability is primarily driven by the thermal term, FT, due to heat loss to the atmosphere. The other two terms (haline flux and ice formation) play a relatively minor role. The difference in ocean circulation between winters with extreme strong and weak Barents Sea surface density flux anomalies is analyzed. This reveals an increase in strong winters of both the north‐westward intermediate depth flow out of the basin and the east‐west deep flows north of Spitsbergen and south through the Fram Strait. A linear fit yields a Fram Strait southward transport increase of 1.22 Sv for an increase in FT of 1 × 10−6 kg m−2 s−1. For the 10 strongest Barents Sea surface density flux winters, the Fram Strait winter southward transport increases by 2.4 Sv. This compares with a reduction of 1.0 Sv for the corresponding weakest winters. Furthermore, the properties of the southward flowing water are modified in strong density flux winters. In such winters, the Fram Strait water below 250 m is colder by up to 0.5°C and fresher by 0.05 than the climatological winter mean.
Energy dissipation in viscous‐plastic sea‐ice models
Authors: Bouchat Amélie , Tremblay Bruno
Published: January 2014

In viscous‐plastic (VP) sea‐ice models, small deformations are approximated by irreversible viscous deformations, introducing a nonphysical energy sink. As the spatial resolution and the degree of numerical convergence of the models increase, linear kinematic features (LKFs) are better resolved and more states of stress lie in the viscous regime. Energy dissipation in this nonphysical viscous regime therefore increases. We derive a complete kinetic energy (KE) balance for sea ice, including plastic and viscous energy sinks to study energy dissipation. The main KE balance is between the energy input by the wind and the dissipation by the water drag and the internal stresses (dissipating 87% and 13% of the energy input on an annual average). The internal stress term is mostly important in winter when ice‐ice interactions are dominant. The energy input that is not dissipated locally is redistributed laterally by the internal stresses into regions of dissipation by small‐scale deformations (LKFs). Of the 13% dissipated annually by the internal stress term, 93% is dissipated in plastic friction along LKFs (14% in ridging, 79% in shearing) and 7% is stored as potential energy in ridges. For all time and spatial scales tested, the frictional viscous dissipation is negligible in the KE balance. This conclusion remains valid regardless of the degree of numerical convergence of the simulations. Overall, the results confirm the applicability, from an energetical point of view, of the VP approximation.
Racial Profiling (Issues in Measurement)
Authors: Hefner M. Kristen
Published: January 2014

Allegations of racial profiling by our society's law enforcement personnel need to be scientifically investigated in order to resolve current, and circumvent future, constitutional and social impairments through the use of departmental policies and officer education. However, scientific investigations and inquiries into allegations of racial profiling by law enforcement officials pose methodological difficulties.
Criminal Sanctions
Authors: Na Chongmin
Published: January 2014

The primary rationale for criminal sanctions is that punishing criminals can reduce crime through deterrence, punishment, rehabilitation, and incapacitation. These justifications for criminal sanctions vary over time as they were influenced by philological, political, and social characteristics of particular periods in history. In particular, criminal sanctions are one of the areas where a clear linkage between criminological theories and criminal justice policies can be observed. Even so, evidence that the benefits of crime reduction through deterrence and incapacitation strategies outweigh the costs of them continues to be challenged. This issue becomes more complicated when considering not only intended consequences of criminal sanctions, but their unintended impact on offenders, offenders' families, and communities.
Victimology
Authors: Dillenburger Karola
Published: January 2014

Victimology (also victimotology) is the scientific inquiry into issues related to victims, such as what makes people vulnerable to becoming a victim and how people's lives are affected when offenses are perpetrated against them or their property. It also includes the study of perpetrators and offenders and their relationship to the victims of the offenses they commit. Victimology attracts a wide range of theories from multiple disciplines, including sociology, psychology, criminal justice, law, and advocacy.
Mass Murder
Authors: Madfis Eric
Published: January 2014

In the contemporary literature on criminal homicide, mass murder refers to the non‐state‐sponsored killing of at least three victims during a single episode at one or more closely related locations. A fairly neglected topic, mass murder was only defined as a distinct phenomenon roughly 25 years ago.
Cross‐Sectional Research Design
Authors: Sobol James J.
Published: January 2014

Cross‐sectional research designs, in which observations are made at a single point in time, are widely used in criminal justice research. They offer the ability to provide a “snapshot” of the phenomenon under study with a minimum of cost. However, this research design is limited in its ability to show causal relationships.
Recidivism (Issues in Measurement)
Authors: Balusek Ken
Published: January 2014

Recidivism is the return to criminal behavior after the offender has previously engaged in it. Recidivism can be measured by using several different methods, each of which touches on different aspects of the process of re‐offending. While different measures often reveal similar results with regard to determining if an offender is a recidivist, it is also possible to reach differing conclusions due to the nature of these measures.
Day Fines
Authors: Hignite Lance R. , Kellar Mark
Published: January 2014

Day fines are commonly used in Europe as an alternative to incarceration. The amount of the fine imposed is based on the severity of the offense as well as the defendant's ability to pay. As a result, wealthy individuals are given a larger fine compared to poor individuals. The concept originated in Scandinavia early in the twentieth century and spread throughout continental Europe during the 1970s. Although a number of pilot projects have been established in the United States and the United Kingdom, day fines as a criminal sanction have not gained widespread support or application in these countries. Many scholars believe cultural, political, and structural factors prohibit the use of day fines in the United States.
Chemical Castration
Authors: Kellar Mark C. , Hignite Lance R.
Published: January 2014

Chemical castration refers to the use of synthetic hormones to reduce and/or eliminate testosterone production in males as well as increasing the metabolism of testosterone in the liver. Unlike physical castration, chemical castration is not permanent and the effects of the drug are reversible once the use of the drug has ceased. Chemical castration has been used for many years in Europe and the United States for the treatment of certain sexual offenders. Specifically, type 4 sex offenders, also known as paraphiliacs, have been shown to benefit from this type of treatment. In addition to the aforementioned effects, the drug(s) lessens and/or eliminates deviant sexual imagery. Recently, as many as six states passed legislation authorizing the use of chemical castration as a treatment and/or punishment for certain sexual offenses, either as part of a sentence, as a condition of probation, or a condition of parole. Critics of chemical castration cite First, Eighth, and Fourteenth Amendment concerns about the constitutionality of such a treatment/punishment for sex offenders.
Obscenity and Pornography
Authors: Crichlow Vaughn J.
Published: January 2014

Obscenity refers to anything contrary to accepted morality or propriety, and pornography refers to anything sexually explicit that is intended to cause sexual excitement. Although obscene material need not necessarily be pornographic, it is clear that these terms are conceptually linked. Legal sanctions and restrictions regarding the use of pornographic material are usually imposed by anti‐obscenity laws. Therefore, by legal standards, pornographic material will also be deemed obscene.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Authors: Tsai Lily Chi‐Fang
Published: January 2014

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) serves as a threat‐based and intelligence‐driven organization within the US Department of Justice. Under the motto “Fidelity, Bravery, Integrity,” the FBI seeks to protect and defend the United States against terrorist and foreign intelligence threats, conduct criminal investigations based on the criminal laws of the United States, as well as provide criminal justice services to agencies and partners within federal, state, municipal, and even international jurisdictions. As both an internal intelligence and federal criminal investigative agency, the FBI has legal jurisdiction over more than 200 categories of federal crime.
Hate Crime
Authors: Grugan Shannon T.
Published: January 2014

A hate crime, or bias crime, is any criminal act in which the offender is motivated, in whole or in part, by social prejudice against a particular group. Victims are targeted based on their actual or perceived race, ethnicity, religion, gender, gender identity or expression, sexual orientation, or disability status.
Institutional Anomie Theory
Authors: Khruakham Seksan
Published: January 2014

Institutional anomie theory was proposed by Messner and Rosenfeld in 1994. The theory drew heavily from Merton's strain theory, itself developed from the conceptualization of anomie proposed by Durkheim. The aim of institutional anomie theory is to explain crime rates at the aggregate level. In particular, the higher crime rate is attributed to the cultural pressure exerted by economic goals and the “American Dream,” coupled with weakened controls of noneconomic social institutions.
Self‐Control Theory
Authors: Valasik Matthew
Published: January 2014

Why do individuals resist engaging in criminal acts? The answer is that they have high self‐control. That is, these individual are able to delay gratification of immediate impulses and pursue long‐term goals. However, individuals who lack self‐control engage in risky behavior, including criminal acts, to satisfy their immediate needs. Self‐control theory argues that an individual's propensity for criminality develops early in childhood and then remains stable across the life course. The theory ignores positivistic criminology by arguing that criminals are not distinctly distinguishable from noncriminals. Individuals are considered to be rational actors who engage in a variety of selfish acts that facilitate pleasure and avoid discomfort. Self‐control theory suggests that effective childrearing can instill individuals with a higher level of self‐control, lowering their propensity to engage in criminal acts and other analogous behaviors. While the theory has been thoroughly critiqued over the years, it remains one of the most influential and researched canons in the field of criminology.
Fraud
Authors: Nguyen Tomson H.
Published: January 2014

“Fraud” is a broad and generic term used to describe a multitude of distinct types of criminal activities. While definitions of fraud vary among states, criminal justice agencies, and private institutions, they all share four essential elements: (1) the intent to deceive; (2) a falsified statement that is material in nature; (3) knowledge that the statement is untrue; and (4) damage or loss resulting from the deception. Historically, limited resources have been allocated to the investigation of fraud, largely because ordinary citizens have a limited understanding of the wide‐ranging impact of fraud on society. Limited resources combined with technological innovations, legal changes, and the restructuring of the US capitalist system, have resulted in unprecedented levels of fraud. The vast economic costs of fraud to American taxpayers today reach the billions and even trillions of dollars, bringing the issue to the fore for most US citizens.
Peel, Robert and The Metropolitan Police
Authors: Gaunt Richard A.
Published: January 2014

Robert Peel (1788–1850), Conservative politician and reformer, is widely recognized as the founder of the Metropolitan Police force in London, England in June 1829. To this day, members of the police force in Britain are referred to as “Bobbies” in recognition of their political founder. Peel was involved in reforming the criminal justice system which encompassed the capital statutes enforcing the death penalty on a range of crimes, the empanelling of juries, the condition of prisons, and the administration of justice. He was concerned with consolidating statutes. In the “Act for further improving the Police of the Metropolis,” which became law in 1829 as the Metropolitan Police Act, the parish‐based system of policing the Metropolitan districts of London was abolished, and a central police department with jurisdiction over London was established.
State Law Enforcement
Authors: Burns Ronald G.
Published: January 2014

State police agencies in the United States have geographical jurisdiction over their respective state and provide a variety of law enforcement services. They emerged at various points throughout the history of the United States, often in response to problematic incidents. State law enforcement agencies continue to grow in size, and recent concerns for homeland security have expanded their responsibilities. The agencies have statewide jurisdiction, and some have general legal jurisdiction while others are restricted to serving specific law enforcement functions. State law enforcement agencies vary in organization and function. Highway patrol is an important function of state agencies, although they also perform a wide array of other services, including conducting investigations, protecting natural resources, and training other law enforcement agencies. In addition to the primary state law enforcement agencies, various special jurisdiction agencies provide law enforcement services at the state level. As such, states may have specific‐jurisdiction investigative divisions or agencies which are typically narrow in focus and address specific types of crimes and regulatory offenses.
Prisons
Authors: Emeka Traqina Q. , Emeka Franklin C.
Published: January 2014

Prisons developed from the philosophy of punishing the offender. Classical criminology provided the theoretical foundation for the creation of institutions for the punishment of those who have been adjudicated criminal. Initially, the goal of prison systems was to correct deviant behavior and thus return offenders to society. The Auburn System and the Pennsylvania System were the first prison systems and each sought to correct behavior through repentance and training. Retribution, incarceration, deterrence, and rehabilitation have been the reasons for incarcerating offenders in prisons in the United States. Professionalization of corrections in the 1960s changed the way prisons operated. No longer were prison closed institutions; they became open institutions that encouraged professionalism in prison management, administration, and correctional staff. Even so, prisons today continue to reflect many of the goals of early prisons.
Quasi‐Experimental Designs
Authors: Shelley Gregory P.
Published: January 2014

Quasi‐experimental designs are any experimental designs that are not considered “true experiments.” True experiments are ones in which participants are randomly assigned to different experimental groups. Quasi‐experimental designs lack random assignment of participants to experimental groups. Such designs are very common, particularly in the social sciences, because it is often impossible, impractical, or unethical to use random assignment.
Victimization Patterns
Authors: Morris, Sherill V. C. , Rockett, Jennifer L. , Elechi O. Oko
Published: January 2014

Once we have crimes, there are victims of crimes, but not everyone has an equal risk of being a victim; therefore, personal victimization rates are not evenly distributed throughout the population. Research has found that many factors, called correlates of crime, may put individuals at risk of victimization, and include: demographics (age, gender, race, ethnicity, and marital status), spatial and temporal factors, neighborhood, and types of offender. Certain demographic groups are found to be more likely to be victims of crimes than others: for example, age, gender, race, and income will affect personal lifestyle and therefore home life, schooling, recreation, and work. Lifestyles will then affect the individual's contact with dangerous people, places, and times.
Quinney, Richard
Authors: Valcore Laura
Published: January 2014

Richard Quinney, a prolific scholar, became widely known for his contributions to the development of critical criminology and his work in the bourgeoning field of white‐collar crime. Later, during his lengthy and distinguished career, he became a driving force behind peacemaking criminology. His innovative ideas and unique insights added a new dimension to the study of crime.
Domestic Violence
Authors: Brown Bethany
Published: January 2014

Domestic violence is clearly not a new problem, as it dates back to ancient times where men were in charge of and controlled women. Women were seen as the property of men and as the continuation of the family name and heritage. As a result, women were subject to the control of husbands or fathers. Because of their status in relation to that of men, if a woman was to act out, punishments were handed down to the husband, as well as the woman. Therefore, to control the wife, it was an acceptable solution for the husband to confine, beat, torture, and even kill her. Today, domestic violence is considered a serious crime that has evolved from focusing just on the female spouse to include unmarried women, in addition to males in the relationships.
Broken Windows
Authors: Crawford Charles
Published: January 2014

James Q. Wilson and George Kelling's “broken windows” article is one of the most widely cited and influential articles in policing. The authors proposed that focusing police activities on disorder and regulation would lead to reductions in serious crime. During the 1990s many of the nation's largest police departments embraced this simple metaphor and began implementing their own versions. The original theory is not without shortcomings, however, and both academics and practitioners continue to debate and refine the concepts involved.
Environmental Crime
Authors: Mailley Jen
Published: January 2014

Environmental crime is a term commonly used in popular culture that encapsulates a wide range of activities that typically include water, air, and soil pollution. These crimes include the illegal trade in ozone‐depleting substances; activities that cause direct and indirect harm to nonhumans; and the loss of biodiversity due to illegal fishing, deforestation, and illegal trade in flora and fauna. Pollution in its colloquial and broadest sense ranges from the pollution of the atmosphere by greenhouse gas emissions, to littering on the street. Transnational Environmental Crime is a term used to refer to these activities when they cross national boundaries, and also encompasses carbon fraud and corruption related to Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) schemes.
Prison Administration
Authors: Stojkovic Stan
Published: January 2014

Leadership concerns and management functions define the essential elements of prison administration. While for most prisons there is not a formal title of “prison leader” or “prison manager,” there are persons in administrative positions who take on leadership roles and perform management duties. Leadership involves the articulation of both mission and vision, while management involves the accomplishment of specific tasks. Both leadership and management are needed for effective prison administration to exist. We have developed and paid attention to the management concerns of prison administrators but very little attention to the development of mission and vision among them.
Trespass
Authors: Bein Steven
Published: January 2014

Trespassing is a legal term that can refer to a wide variety of offenses against a person or property. Trespass is broadly divided into three groups: trespass to the person, trespass to property, and trespass to land.
Rehabilitation
Authors: Bowen Kendra N.
Published: January 2014

This entry discusses the rehabilitation of offenders, including a brief review of its history in the United States, current practices, arguments for and against its use, and its future. Special attention is given to the impact of “nothing works” on the demise of rehabilitation in the 1970s and the importance of evidence‐based treatment programs.
Delinquency Prevention
Authors: Miller Riane N. , Fagan Abigail A.
Published: January 2014

Juvenile delinquency has been and continues to be a major concern to parents, the public, and policy makers. Due to this fact, there has been a growing interest in the prevention of delinquency. The essay provides an overview of the current research on delinquency prevention. This includes a review of risk and promotive/protective factors identified through empirical research as influencing involvement in crime, a discussion of effective delinquency prevention programs that target these factors, and information on delinquency programs that have been demonstrated to be ineffective in reducing delinquency. The essay concludes with a brief discussion of important next steps in delinquency prevention research.
Kidnapping
Authors: Toggia Pietro
Published: January 2014

Kidnapping is generally and generically defined as the intentional act of forcefully holding, carrying away, and confining a person. Kidnapping relates to and somewhat overlaps with such offenses as abduction, false imprisonment, unlawful restraint, and custodial interference. Kidnapping, as a state or federal offense, encompasses varying forms such as simple kidnapping, aggravated kidnapping, and parental kidnapping. Simple kidnapping involves taking, asportation, or removal and holding of a person. Aggravated kidnapping is the taking and holding of a person with intent to benefit from the act through ransom, robbery, or any form of property or financial reward. Parental kidnapping is the taking of one's child in violation of judicial custody or an illegal act of interference with parental custody and visitation rights.
Military Law Enforcement
Authors: Hicks Wendy L.
Published: January 2014

Law enforcement functions within the US military have changed considerably over the years. From the inception of policing corps in the Revolutionary War to the contemporary military police, law enforcement continues to evolve, mature, and professionalize amongst the ranks of the various branches of the military.
Juvenile Violence
Authors: Singer Simon I. , Rocque Michael
Published: January 2014

The reasons for juvenile violence appear related to adolescence. Life course, frustration, and status‐anxiety perspectives are all related to incidences of violence, along with possible familial, educational, and peer group influences. Contemporary responses to juvenile violence include prevention and treatment programs as well as laws that mandate that juveniles receive lengthy adult‐like sentences in criminal court.
Firearms Trafficking
Authors: Gibson Camille , Schauer Edward J.
Published: January 2014

Firearms trafficking is the movement of firearms from legal to illegal markets. It is of substantial concern to law enforcement globally because such weapons are often utilized in the commission of crimes and they often have the impact of making civil conflicts more deadly.
McCord,Joan
Authors: Gover Angela R. , Tunstall Ashley M.
Published: January 2014

Joan McCord is best known for the use of experimental methodology and longitudinal data in her research. Throughout her career, McCord maintained a consistent focus on investigating the effectiveness of various interventions for youth. One of her greatest contributions was the classic evaluation of the Cambridge‐Somerville Youth Study. This was the first longitudinal experiment conducted in criminology. One of McCord's subsequent studies utilized data from the Cambridge‐Somerville Youth Project to examine the effects of child rearing characteristics on adult men.
Prisonization
Authors: Naderi Nader
Published: January 2014

“Prisonization” refers to the process by which inmates adapt to prison life by adopting the mores and customs of inmate subcultures. Some regard prisonization as the socialization of inmates to the culture of prison. Prisonization of inmates enhances successful participation in prison society and results in the continuity of prison culture. Prisonization, like socialization, is an educational process whereby inmates learn prison culture through social interaction. Several models have been employed to explain the origins of inmate subcultures, namely deprivation, importation, integrated/multilevel, and situational.
Matza,David
Authors: Wolf Aaron , Gaspar Donessa L.
Published: January 2014

David Matza's collaboration with Gresham Sykes during the 1950s on techniques of neutralization represents an important contribution to understanding how deviant behavior can be accomplished by an otherwise “good” person. Additionally, Matza's idea of drifting in and out of delinquency established a new framework for exploring juvenile and adult deviant behavior.
Interpol
Authors: Marks Rubin Marilyn , Walker Michael C.
Published: January 2014

With its 190 member nations, Interpol is the world's largest international police organization. Its primary objective is to reduce criminal activity across the world by facilitating the cross‐border exchange of police information and promoting cooperation among law enforcement authorities in its member nations. One of Interpol's most important functions is to assist its members through the issuance of
notices
that facilitate the sharing of crime‐related information among countries and are the main instruments of international police cooperation. These notices are discussed in this entry, as are the databases provided by Interpol to law enforcement authorities in its member countries who are connected through a secure communications system giving them real‐time access to current global crime data.
Prisons for Juveniles
Authors: Naples Michelle
Published: January 2014

The nature of juvenile corrections has changed over the course of different eras in juvenile justice. Juvenile correctional facilities (prisons for juveniles) represent the most restrictive type of placement in the juvenile justice system. Security of the juvenile correctional facility and its staff and residents is a primary concern. Youth placed in juvenile correctional facilities are not representative of the general population of youth, with boys and minority youth (particularly African American youth) confined at disproportionate rates. Despite constitutional rights to reasonable safety, adequate medical and mental health care, rehabilitative treatment, and education for youth in confinement, juvenile correctional facilities vary widely in terms of the quality and extent of services and programming offered. States differ in terms of how placement, commitment length, and release decisions are made. Recent trends in juvenile corrections include moving away from large, congregate facilities in favor of small, regional facilities, and an emphasis on the adoption of evidence‐based practices, which research has shown to be effective in reducing offending.
Repeat Victimization
Authors: Cernat Charlie T. , Moloney Joseph
Published: January 2014

Repeat victimization can be understood as repeat targets; those targets can be persons (e.g. a victim of domestic violence), objects (e.g. motor vehicle), or property (e.g. a precise address, a business chain with several locations). According to a typology of repeat victimization, victims can be classified into four types, namely true repeat victims, near victims, virtual repeats, and chronic victims.
Chambliss, William
Authors: Burke Alison S.
Published: January 2014

William Chambliss is a professor of sociology and is best known for his work in criminology and sociology of the law. He has received numerous awards, including the prestigious Edwin H. Sutherland Award from the American Society of Criminology, which recognizes outstanding contributions to theory or research in criminology, law, or justice. He has published more than 20 books addressing conflict criminology and social problems.
Bail
Authors: Lateano Thomas A.
Published: January 2014

Bail is a means by which a criminal court will release individuals formally accused of a crime while ensuring their appearance at future court proceedings. It is a form of collateral established by the court and provided by the defendants or a third party on the defendants' behalf. The collateral is held by the court and forfeited if the defendants fail to meet the obligations of their pretrial release. If the defendants meet their bail obligation, the collateral is then returned. Once set, bail may subsequently be revoked if a condition of release is violated. Finally, bail may also be reduced or increased if the new risk assessment and applicable laws support the determination.
Families
Authors: Sugie Naomi F.
Published: January 2014

This entry provides an overview of the relationship between the role of families and criminal offending. It discusses how sociological theories of crime perceive families as either regulators or facilitators of criminal behavior, and how the role of families for offending changes throughout the life course. The entry also describes the consequences of crime and punishment, specifically incarceration, for the families of offenders. It concludes by suggesting future areas of fruitful research at the intersection of criminal justice and families.
Determinate Sentencing
Authors: Johnson Jermaine A. , Sterling RaShaunda V.
Published: January 2014

Determinate sentencing, based on fixed or flat sentences, reemerged in the late 1970s to enhance punishment and limit disparity in punishment by limiting the discretion of judges, as well as prison and parole authorities, in the United States. New sentencing guidelines, established by legislatures throughout the country, often replaced indeterminate sentences with mandatory fixed sentences for many felony offenses. Mandatory sentences, three‐strike laws, and truth in sentencing are often associated with determinate sentencing. Despite the benefits of determinate sentencing, it is not without controversy. For example, there is evidence some measures were unconstitutional and that determinate sentences caused severe overcrowding in prison systems throughout the United States.