bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Democracy of Laws
Authors: Townsen Hicks Michael
Published: January 2025

Philosophical views on the connection between the fundamental laws and the laws of the special sciences either emphasize the independence of the special sciences or emphasize their reduction to physics. Either option is problematic; philosophers emphasizing special scientific independence (who I here call ‘anarchists’) have trouble explaining inter-theoretic explanations. Meanwhile, philosophers emphasizing the reduction of the special sciences to physics have trouble explaining the counterfactual robustness of the higher-level laws. Here, I draw out these difficulties in detail. Then, I provide a version of the Humean Best-System Analysis of laws which balances the strengths of these two approaches. I call this the Democratic Best System, and conclude that it provides our best account of the metaphysics of special science lawhood.
Game-Mastering
Authors: von Moltke A.K.
Published: January 2025

Upstream platform dynamics can often be framed as a game-master–players relationship where suppliers are players and platforms are game-masters who organize the games, and sometimes also actively partake in them. ‘Game-mastering’ is therefore an inherent risk. Like role-playing game game-masters, powerful platforms have the ability and potential incentives to exploit their omniscient position to twink their own offers at the stage of inception and/or self-preference them later in time. Even when they forsake participation as players, game-mastering platforms may distort the value capture process by engaging in potentially harmful king-making. Can antitrust intervention be rationalized, then? From a consumer welfare perspective, the real issue is the need for rigour, which will often leave decision-makers caught between a rock and a hard place. Under the competitive process approach, ‘looking up’ becomes a more direct and more honest exercise. But formalizing the potential antitrust injury—ex ante unfairness—presents significant challenges.
Slavery, Abolition, and Islam
Authors: Bashir Haroon
Published: January 2025

Does the Qur’an promote the abolition of slavery? If so, why had the slave trade been allowed to operate across the Muslim world for over a millennium? And why had Muslim scholars not sought to eradicate slavery previously? These were the questions that Islamic abolitionist scholars explored as they sought to challenge the slavery throughout the nineteenth century. A mere two centuries ago, the slave trade was considered completely legitimate by scholars, philosophers, and jurists of all colours and creeds. The abolition of slavery remains a relatively new concept in human history. Scholars from all religious traditions have attempted to navigate the religious and ethical questions raised by the historical acceptance of slavery. This book tells the story of how scholars promoting abolition in the name of Islam transformed the debate regarding Islam and slavery. The book explores how abolitionism became the hegemonic position within contemporary Islamic thought and highlights the journey underpinning the current consensus. Abolitionist arguments were not simply accepted, with defenders of the slave trade using the weight of the historical tradition to emphasize the legitimacy of slavery. The strongly contested debates that ensued had huge ramifications for understandings of authority, tradition, and modernity within Islamic thought that are as present as they are past. In doing so, the book also explores broader themes regarding religious traditions, continuity, and transformation.
Sayyid Ahmad Khan and ‘Quranic Abolition’
Authors: Bashir Haroon
Published: January 2025

This chapter explores the birth and development of the ‘Quranic abolition’ thesis. Focusing on Sayyid Ahmad Khan and his Ibṭāl-e-Ghulāmī, Chapter 4 analyses Khan’s innovative arguments regarding the abolition of slavery being established at the time of Prophet Muḥammad. This chapter also assesses Khan’s interlocutors, and his disagreements with Orientalist scholars such as William Muir, whilst highlighting the reception of his ideas from scholars such as Abdullāh ‘Askarī and Saʻīd Akbarābādī, among others. Chapter 4 demonstrates how Khan’s arguments became popular and were promoted by influential reformist thinkers such as Cheragh Ali and Ghulām Aḥmad Parwez.
Muḥammad ‘Abduh, Rashīd Riḍā, and ‘Quranic Gradualism’
Authors: Bashir Haroon
Published: January 2025

This chapter assesses the development of the ‘Quranic gradualism’ thesis promoted by Muḥammad ‘Abduh and Rashīd Riḍā. ‘Abduh has been described as one of the most important reformist voices of his time, and Riḍā was his most famous student. Working primarily from the Manār, it explores the attempt to reconcile Islam with abolition as presented originally by Egyptian reformists. This chapter highlights the refutations lodged against ‘Abduh and Riḍā from scholars such as Ḥussain al-Jisr and Yūsuf al-Nabahānī. It also explores how the ideas of ‘Abduh were popularized by the likes of Sayyid Quṭb and Ibn ‘Āshūr, some of the most prominent Muslim thinkers of the twentieth century.
What is the Islamic Position on Abolition? Hermeneutical Paradigms and Interpretive Communities
Authors: Bashir Haroon
Published: January 2025

All readings of the Qur’ān are ultimately mediated by the interlocutor. That is to say, the interpreter’s preferences, contexts, and hermeneutical paradigms ultimately shape the manner by which scripture is engaged. To fully account for interpretive differences regarding the issue of slavery, then, it becomes necessary to explore the question of hermeneutics. This chapter assesses the divergent interpretations of slavery and abolition, exploring why scholars are approaching the same subject matter and producing different readings. Focusing on hermeneutical paradigms, Chapter 6 provides overarching analysis regarding differing reading formations and interpretive communities. Using Stanley Fish’s model of interpretive communities, it explores how authority is constructed and enacted within differing reading formations.
The Transformation of the Politics of Ethics from Kınalızade to Birgivi
Authors: Tezcan Baki
Published: January 2025

Birgivi’s (d. 1573) The Muhammadan Path in Arabic and Kınalızade’s (d. 1572) The Sublime Ethics in Turkish are two Ottoman classics that enjoyed a very wide degree of circulation since the sixteenth century. Ethics is at the heart of both works. Whereas Kınalızade engages the Greco-Islamic tradition of practical philosophy through the Persian works of Tusi (d. 1274) and Davvani (d. 1502), Birgivi is most directly engaged with al-Ghazali (d. 1111). Since practical philosophy comprises ethics, as well as economics (in the ancient sense of household management) and politics, the connections between the moral and political worlds of Kınalızade and, thus, the political assumptions that inform his moral world are not difficult to uncover. While Birgivi is ostensibly less engaged with political power, this chapter suggests that there are important political (and epistemological) assumptions on which his moral world is built and that these assumptions are, arguably, more adoptable to modernity.
“Where There Is Love, Justice Is Not Needed”
Authors: Gürbüzel Aslıhan
Published: January 2025

This chapter analyzes Ottoman conceptions of public order and civic community through the twin concepts of justice and love. In ethical thought, justice sustained a frame against oppression, thus ensuring a stable and conflict-free society. While indispensable for the safety of citizens, a society governed merely via justice was tyrannical. It was another cardinal social virtue, namely friendship, that elevated the polity to a virtuous social union. Through the argument that it was incumbent upon a virtuous polity to enable the flourishing of friendship, ethicists framed the rights of civic communities. Chief among these rights was a degree of protection from the public authority’s invasion of their private sphere. Love and justice framed Ottoman discussions about public order and civic community, respectively. Explicating the concepts of love and justice also drives home the eclecticism of Ottoman ethical writing; rather than forming a framework that applied to all social gatherings, ethicists articulated different normative frames for different social groups. As a result, ethicists developed a rich taxonomy of types of friendship, namely types of civic community.
A Gendered History of Honor in the Ottoman Legal Praxis
Authors: Tuğ Başak
Published: January 2025

This chapter studies honor in the Ottoman legal praxis, particularly concerning the new Tanzimat penal codes of the nineteenth century. It mainly focuses on the 1858 Penal Code as the first criminal code that codified honor extensively in a comprehensive section devoted to various sexual offenses. It argues that the centralizing state of the Tanzimat expanded its control over the private sphere of its subjects. The state claimed to assert itself as the supreme arbiter of morality by entrusting women’s sexuality to its male subjects to control. Nevertheless, this gendered construction of morality based on honor has undermined its claims of creating a novel universal citizenship/subjecthood. This study also argues that the 1858 Penal Code was part of global codification movements in which the Napoleonic Code Pénal has been adapted according to local needs. Thus, it reveals how the section on sexual offenses and public outrage in the Code Pénal and the French gendered norms have been translated and adapted to the Ottoman moral codes of family and patriarchal honor with the introduction of ırz.
Pavagan E (Enough!)
Authors: Bilal Melissa
Published: January 2025

This chapter focuses on Armenian feminist writer and activist Zabel Yesayan’s “Pavagan E (Enough!)” published in 1922 in Vienna’s Arek (Sun) monthly. A piece of creative non-fiction or autobiographical fiction on the First Balkan War, “Pavagan E” lends itself to a discussion of Yesayan’s standpoint with regard to peace, justice, and people’s right to self-defense. The chapter offers a reading of the text in light of its author’s political activism and other writings and contextualizes it as a fundamental work in the history of Ottoman political thought. Reclaiming “Pavagan E”s place in historiography requires addressing the silences imposed in Turkey on the Ottoman Armenian intellectual legacy that the text documents along with the lived experiences it refers to. It also opens up the possibility for a critical reflection on its relevance for today.
Securing Resilient Peace
Authors: Njeru Shastry , Masiya Tyanai
Published: January 2025

The African Union Transitional Justice Framework (AUTJF) is conceptualized to ‘end violent conflicts and repressive rule, and nurture sustainable development, social justice, human and peoples’ rights, democratic rule, and good governance, consolidate peace, reconciliation and justice in Africa, and prevent impunity’. However, instead of consolidating the peace dividend after many years of violent conflict, many African countries leap back into conflict. Though institutions such as the African Union (AU) and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development advocate for hybrid courts, this chapter argues that the complexity and plurality of such conflicts around the continent need more than court hybridity. The Western neo-liberal peacebuilding and transitional justice models, from which most elements of hybridity are borrowed, are inadequate. They are narrow; focus on retributive outcomes; and have logics of inclusion and exclusion. They are prone to instrumentalization, misappropriation, or co-option by more powerful national or international actors against the interests of local justice and security. This affects the resilience of peace outcomes in most of the cases. However, the vaunted traditional approaches cannot be successful alone because they lack universality of application across ethnic groups. This chapter advocates for strategic localized polyvalence responses to address the ever-challenging situations besetting the countries in conflict time and again. In Africa, these are the layers of local actors starting from the least powerful person to the AU. Through this model, this chapter not only considers dominant discourses, but also the operant, dormant, challenged, and even the strongly negated views within the transitional justice field.
Victim Participation in Hybrid International(ized) Tribunals
Authors: Ambach Philipp
Published: January 2025

The International Criminal Court (ICC) pioneered a set of new victim-centred features in its normative framework that are unprecedented by the ICC’s predecessors. All internationalized ad hoc criminal courts and tribunals established subsequent to the ICC’s creation include legal regimes on victim participation and, to some degree, reparations. It would thus appear that such a victim participation/reparations component has become a core feature of any modern international criminal justice mechanism. Yet such victim participation and reparations regimes are not without their challenges. These range from capacity/budgetary constraints to the general question of meaningfulness and impact on victims and affected communities. While the ICC promises to be well equipped to face these problems due to its permanent nature and rather secure capacity and funding, this appears less likely in some respects for regional ad hoc solutions exercising international criminal justice. A number of key challenges can be identified which may be decisive over the success or failure of meaningful victim participation in criminal proceedings and reparations at the end of the criminal process. Future lawmakers may want to consider how comprehensive a victim regime they want to introduce into future hybrid courts to avoid setting it up for failure.
A New African Pluralism in International Criminal Law
Authors: Carlson Kerstin Bree
Published: January 2025

There is an ongoing disagreement in international criminal law (ICL) regarding sovereign immunity. International humanitarian law takes the possibility of challenging impunity as a central element of its mandate, in part because a fundamental norm of rule of law practice is that no one is above the law, and in part because leaders are those who arguably bear the greatest responsibility for the types of collective harms international humanitarian law would criminalize. This norm does not distinguish between sitting and former heads of state. Across Africa, however, there has been significant pushback regarding prosecuting sitting leaders for atrocity crimes. This has led to what is perhaps the central conflict defining ICL discourse today: a plurality of opinions regarding how sovereignty comports with state-sponsored atrocity crimes. The chapter examines the recent trial of deposed Chadian head of state Hissène Habré to consider questions of pluralism under ICL regarding sovereign immunity. Through a detailed analysis of the work and doctrinal content of the Habré trial, the chapter shows that while the Habré trial is celebrated as an example of bringing a former head of state to justice, the experience of the Habré trial does not change the balance as regards an African pluralism on the question of sovereign immunity.
The Advance of the Causal Revolution and Its Discontents
Authors: Schwartz Sharon , Prins Seth J.
Published: January 2025

This chapter interrogates the debates about how the Causal Revolution defined causal inference within epidemiology and its implications for the role of social phenomena as causes. It carefully defines what social phenomena are and why they pose a problem to the Potential Outcomes framework. It then analyzes the Potential Outcomes proponents’ suggested solutions to those problems and assesses their adequacy. The end of the chapter defines a missing causal concept in the Potential Outcomes framework—non-interventional counterfactuals with realized causal effects. This concept can be used to expand the applicability of the Potential Outcomes framework.
Toward a More Realist Causal Revolution
Authors: Schwartz Sharon , Prins Seth J.
Published: January 2025

This chapter examines five underlying and largely hidden premises embedded in the Potential Outcomes framework that realized causal effects destabilize. These are 1) how one knows about causation defines what causation is, 2) randomized trial effects are intervention effects, 3) numbers provide precise answers to causal questions, 4) epidemiologic theory is methodological theory, and 5) meaningful change happens in increments of well-defined interventions. Accommodating realized causal effects requires contrasting premises. These are 1) causation is not merely how one gains knowledge of it, 2) randomized trials do more than predict intervention effects, 3) numbers imperfectly represent concepts 4) understanding the world requires substantive theory as well as methodological theory, and 5) theories of change can be emancipatory and not only technocratic. This chapter describes a framework, derived from this analysis, that capitalizes on the strengths of the Causal Revolution but that is more compatible with causal analyses of social phenomena. It concludes with an applied example of what this framing might look like.
Hitler's Deserters
Authors: Peifer Douglas Carl
Published: January 2025

The Wehrmacht executed thousands of its own in World War II for desertion and “undermining the military spirit.” This study examines who these Wehrmacht deserters were, why they deserted, what punishment they could expect, and how German military justice operated. It argues that after World War I, the German military embraced the Dolchstoß legend and determined that if it ever went to war again, the military would punish deserters ruthlessly. This view, arrived at independently, accorded fully with that of Adolf Hitler. The study analyzes the challenges associated with hiding in the Third Reich, surrendering to the enemy, or crossing over into neutral Switzerland or Sweden. After World War II, Germans began a debate about how these deserters should be remembered (Vergangenheitsbewältigung) and whether they should be rehabilitated. The study analyzes the contested meaning attached to the Wehrmacht deserter in Germany from 1945 to the twenty-first century.
Putting a Face to the Numbers
Authors: Peifer Douglas Carl
Published: January 2025

The German military or Wehrmacht sentenced between 25,000 and 30,000 German military personnel to death in World War II. The vast majority of death sentences carried out involved the charge of desertion. This chapter puts a face to the statistics by telling the stories of four German deserters. Its purpose is to show that the motivations, methods, and outcomes of desertion from the Wehrmacht varied greatly, and that efforts to paint the picture of a typical deserter are misguided. While cases of group desertion occurred as the war ground on, most desertions were individual decisions. Delving into the circumstances, motives, and decisions of the individual is essential to understand why the soldier, sailor, or airman deserted.
Overall Contours
Authors: Peifer Douglas Carl
Published: January 2025

The German military was intent on deterring desertion during World War II. Understanding how the German military dealt with deserters reveals the interaction among consent, compliance, and coercion. This chapter asserts that the Wehrmacht executed over 15,000 of its own personnel during World War II on the charge of desertion. It discusses why it is impossible to provide a precise figure due to the loss and destruction of records and the resort to flying tribunals that kept no records. It grounds its analysis by explaining how desertion was defined in Germany’s military penal code (the Militärstrafgesetzbuch), how Hitler’s Order Imposing Extraordinary Wartime Laws and Penalties (the Kriegssonderstrafrechtsverordnung) expanded that definition, and how the German military justice apparatus functioned before and during World War II.
Deadly Blend
Authors: Peifer Douglas Carl
Published: January 2025

The Wehrmacht’s military justice system was not radicalized because of National Socialism but because it reflected lessons military commanders learned from their defeat in World War I. Even before Hitler’s ascent to power, the Weimar-era German military (the Reichswehr) had concluded that German military justice had been too lenient in World War I. Military officers and veterans embraced the myth that Germany had not been defeated in World War I but had been stabbed in the back (Dolchstoß legend) by revolutionaries, leftists, and Jews. They were determined that German military law should be applied more ruthlessly if Germany ever went to war again, a view that fully accorded with that of Adolf Hitler. The German Navy, traumatized by the experience of mutiny and revolution in 1917 and 1918, was particularly committed to squelching any signs of dissent.
Reasons for Desertion
Authors: Peifer Douglas Carl
Published: January 2025

Determining why some German soldiers chose to desert is less straightforward than one might think. Four distinct avenues of inquiry are available, each with its advantages and limitations. One can draw upon the documentation put together by the German military as it apprehended and tried deserters, one can examine the statements made by those deserters who managed to cross over into neutral states, one can scrutinize Allied interrogations of Wehrmacht deserters, and one can listen to the voices of German deserters who survived the war. Based on these sources, the reasons for desertion cited most frequently were fear of punishment, war weariness, ethnicity, homesickness, fear of injury or death, political opposition, moral reservations, and romantic concerns. Multiple causes interacted in generating the decision to desert from the Wehrmacht. Regardless of motivation, the Wehrmacht warned anyone contemplating desertion that the penalty for the crime was death.
Avenues of Desertion
Authors: Peifer Douglas Carl
Published: January 2025

Wehrmacht deserters sought to evade military duty by hiding in the Third Reich and occupied territories, by crossing over front lines and surrendering, or by seeking refuge in neutral territories. This chapter examines the risks, reception, and practicality of each of these options. Most deserters understood that hiding in the Reich or in occupied territories was possible for a short time, but that one’s chance of evading detection decreased the longer one was on the run. Many deserters dreamed of escaping to a neutral country, but German alliances and conquests had reduced the number of accessible neutral countries to two by mid-1941: Switzerland and Sweden. Swiss and Swedish policies toward German deserters evolved over time. Surrendering to the enemy posed its own risks, as did collaborating with them once one was a POW.
Stomp Off, Let's Go
Authors: Riccardi Ricky
Published: January 2025

Stomp Off, Let’s Go provides an overview of iconic trumpeter Louis Armstrong and his meteoric rise to fame. It examines Armstrong’s musical and personal development, including his initial trip to Chicago to join Joe “King” Oliver’s band, his first to New York to meet Fletcher Henderson, and his eventual return to Chicago. Moreover, Armstrong changed the course of music following his recordings with Hot Five and Hot Seven. Stomp Off, Let’s Go presents several snippets from the autobiography of Armstrong’s second wife, Lillian “Lil” Hardin Armstrong. The book, Stomp Off, Let’s Go explores Armstrong’s personal and professional relationships, while providing essential insights into how Armstrong evolved into one of America’s most beloved icons.
“A Firecracker Baby!”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky
Published: January 2025

This chapter discusses the birth and early life of Louis Armstrong. It elaborates on the debate regarding Armstrong’s birthdate between August 4 and July 4 following the fiasco of his baptism. Louis Armstrong remembered so little of Jane Alley that he spent much of his adult life not knowing its actual name but romanticized the “Battlefield” aspect. The chapter then explains the struggle to untangle the family tree of Armstrong’s mother, Mary Estelle Albert. It reports that Armstrong connected his reunion with his mother to a time when New Orleans was ravaged by a major drought in the spring of 1906.
“Nothing Could Stop Him”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky
Published: January 2025

This chapter looks into the musical influences on the young Louis Armstrong. He learned about phrasing from hearing cornetist Willie “Bunk” Johnson play, and he was gaining an appreciation for the repertoire of the Eagle Band. Many early histories of jazz overemphasized, romanticized, and borderline fetishized the role Storyville played in the development of New Orleans music. By 1912, Storyville was jumping with the sound of the ragtime bands, and that was most likely the year Armstrong spent a lot of time in the district delivering coal with Morris Karnofsky. Armstrong’s period of working with Karnofsky coincided with both the rise of ragtime bands in the red-light district and the rise of Joe Oliver as a cornetist of note.
“My Fairy God Father”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky
Published: January 2025

This chapter focuses on Louis Armstrong joining Kid Ory and Joe Oliver’s band. It starts with how Armstrong fell in love with a prostitute named Irene Jones. Almost overnight, he found himself in a serious relationship, living with an older woman, working multiple jobs, still supporting his mother, sister, and cousin, and now caring for an ailing girlfriend. The sounds of New Orleans music were originally spread across the country by Bill Johnson’s pioneering Original Creole Band during a series of high-profile vaudeville tours that began in 1914. Just as the Original Dixieland Jazz Band's popularity exploded, Armstrong and Joe Lindsey’s Brown Skin Jazz Band disbanded in the first part of 1917.
“The Hot Miss Lil”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky
Published: January 2025

This chapter introduces the early life Miss Lil: Lillian Hardin, who worked as a pianist in Chicago. At the Jones Music Store, Lillian had quickly established herself as the “Jass Wonder Child,” playing everything from Bach to the previously forbidden “St. Louis Blues.” When Hardin was offered the opportunity to join Joe Oliver’s new band at the lavish Dreamland Café, she jumped at the chance. The chapter details her first meeting with Louis Armstrong and looks into her marriage with singer Jiimmie Johnson, which eventually fell apart. It then elaborates on how Mayann Armstrong, Louis's mother, brought Hardin and her son together as a couple.
“The World’s Greatest Jazz Cornetist”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky
Published: January 2025

This chapter discusses the recognition of Louis Armstrong as the world’s greatest jazz cornetist. It highlights that the Dreamland Café was “considered the best black and tan club on the South Side” of Chicago and tells how Lillian Hardin Armstrong worked hard to bring her husband back home. Lillian worked to put up a sign at Dreamland Café declaring Armstrong as the world’s greatest jazz cornetist and drew many musicians to hear him play. The chapter also mentions Armstrong’s rocky relationship with Fletcher Henderson and his band. It explains how two songs changed the sound of jazz and American popular music, catapulting Armstrong to stardom and cementing his reputation as one of the most influential musicians of the 20th century.
“I Got the Heebies”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky
Published: January 2025

This chapter explains how the song “Heebie Jeebies” made Louis Armstrong a star. It focuses on the recording of the song by the Hot Five with Louis Armstrong. The group made history with the first song recorded that day, Spencer Williams’s “Georgia Grind,” which featured the first proper Louis and Lil Armstrong vocal on a record. The group also recorded “Heebie Jeebies,” written by Boyd Atkins, and Armstrong transformed his voice into an instrument for , swinging just as effortlessly as if he had been playing his trumpet. When OKeh released “Heebie Jeebies” at the beginning of May, it was an instantaneous hit.
“The Latest Novelty”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky
Published: January 2025

This chapter explores how a tiny section of the South Side of Chicago became the capital of hot jazz in America. Louis Armstrong and King Joe Oliver blew music across the street from one another, and clarinetist Jimmie Noone at the Nest next door to the Plantation did the same thing. “Big Butter and Egg Man” became Armstrong’s biggest hit since “Heebie Jeebies” and was a smash at the Sunset. Moreover, Armstrong soon embraced an entirely different comedic character at the Vendome, breaking out the preacher impression he used to do at Elder Cosey’s church as a boy in New Orleans. The chapter observes that Armstrong had risen from sideman to leader and become a recording superstar in the process.
“Louis Had Changed the Whole World”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky
Published: January 2025

This chapter focuses on how Louis Armstrong changed the whole world. All of the records Armstrong made were “race records,” marketed squarely to African American audiences around the country. Musicians and singers picked up on Armstrong’s innovations and adjusted their styles accordingly, which is why the Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings remain so important today. Moreover, comedy had been a big part of his personality since he was a kid and it made him a star with Black audiences in Chicago, so it’s only fitting that his recording of “Tight Like This” includes a running gag. Armstrong’s innovations as a trumpeter and vocalist set the entire soundtrack of the 20th century in motion.
Introduction
Authors: Walker Paul
Published: January 2025

The Introduction sites The Well-Tempered Clavier in Bach’s biography and creative output and describes its contents, including both books. It also characterizes the book’s intended audience(s)—particularly nonspecialists and individuals who do not read musical notation—and enumerates the various ways in which it differs from other books on the topic. After a chapter-by-chapter description of the book’s contents, the Introduction closes with an extended consideration of the best ways to find recordings, either in physical format or from downloading or streaming services. Possibilities include the streaming service Naxos and YouTube videos, among others. The pluses and minuses of each are enumerated.
Context and Concepts
Authors: Walker Paul
Published: January 2025

This chapter traces the history of Bach’s teaching, notes his particular focus on fugue, and discusses how he may have come to prefer the joining of prelude and fugue, not common at the time, into one genre. Following a brief history of the prelude and its uses, the chapter then offers a technical description of how fugue works, including consideration of its origin in canonic writing of the late Middle Ages. Graphic and verbal analyses of two fugues from Bach’s collection illustrate structural possibilities. Next a brief history of the origin and establishment of tonal harmony sets up Bach’s use of twenty-four major and minor keys. To unpack the expression “well-tempered,” elementary fractions serve to explain the physics of music and the resulting need to “temper” the chromatic scale. The chapter concludes with consideration of the German word Clavier and the various possible keyboard instruments to which it could refer in both Bach’s day and our own.
Legacy, Part II
Authors: Walker Paul
Published: January 2025

Chapter 5 traces the history of public performance of The Well-Tempered Clavier from ca. 1800 to today. At first, complex music of this sort was spurned by the concert-going public, but in the second half of the nineteenth century interest began to grow, thanks in large part to the half century of advocacy shown by Clara Schumann. The first important performer to prefer performances on harpsichord was Wanda Landowska in the early twentieth century. By mid-century, Bach’s preludes and fugues could be heard in concert halls worldwide, and the collection’s most important performance legacy since that time has been established in the recording studio, for which it is particularly well suited. The chapter also incorporates an essay on the performance issues involved in presenting this music, including not just choice of instrument but also all kinds of interpretational decisions. Electronic and jazz-tinged performances close out the book.
Introduction: The First Encounter
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J.
Published: January 2025

The introduction describes the Pilgrims’ first encounter with the Nausets, one of the many Algonquian peoples of New England, and introduces the themes of the book. It explains that Puritan Christianity decisively shaped the colonization of New England from beginning to end. While the Puritans had good intentions toward the Indians, their efforts to evangelize and civilize Native Americans led them to dominate them instead. Allegiances were complicated, as many Indians cooperated with and supported the English, often becoming Christians, while Puritan leaders often criticized other colonists for their injustice and greed. Nevertheless, when war did break out, the English remained united and gained the decisive upper hand.
The Pilgrims
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J.
Published: January 2025

This chapter describes how the Pilgrims established their power in Plymouth by treaty, trade, and military force. The Pilgrims were separatists from the Church of England. They came to America to find religious freedom, expand English dominion, and establish Christ’s kingdom in new lands. Although many Pilgrims died during the first winter, the Wampanoag Indians, led by Ousamequin, made peace with them. With Wampanoag help, Plymouth gradually became stable. Upon learning of an apparent plot against Plymouth, Pilgrim forces launched a bloody preemptive strike against the Massachusett Indians.
The Puritans
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J.
Published: January 2025

This chapter describes how the Puritans established Massachusetts and how they defended the morality of colonization. The Puritans were Reformed Christians who wanted to purify the Church of England. They came to America to escape persecution, to establish a church and society modeled on biblical principles, to find economic opportunity, and to convert Indians to Christianity. Puritan leaders explained why colonization was justified and how Indians should be treated justly. After establishing Massachusetts Bay colony, they established peaceful relations with local Indians, but they often treated the Indians as subjects and feared Indian attacks.
War with the Pequots
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J.
Published: January 2025

This chapter describes how Massachusetts’s domineering treatment of the Pequots provoked the Pequot War. Following the Indian murders of two colonial traders, Massachusetts imposed heavy demands on the Narragansetts and launched a punitive military expedition against the Manisses and Pequots. The Pequots retaliated, and war spread to the lower Connecticut valley. Roger Williams intercedede with the Narragansetts, who signed a treaty with Massachusetts, though the colony was distracted by a tumultuous religious controversy.
Miantonomo
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J.
Published: January 2025

This chapter describes the fallout from the Pequot War and the growing alienation between the Narragansetts and the English. The war exacerbated the emerging rivalry between the Narragansetts and Mohegans, both of whom were just as eager as Massachusetts and Connecticut to reap land and captives as the spoils of war. Connecticut pressured Miantonomo and Uncas into signing the Treaty of Hartford, which banned the Pequots as a people and apportioned them to other Algonquian communities as captives. Massachusetts grappled with allegations that Miantonomo was attempting to lead an Algonquian uprising against the English. Such concerns led the Puritan colonies to form the United Colonies confederation. The United Colonies ultimately allowed Uncas and the Mohegans to kill
God, King, and Land
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J.
Published: January 2025

This chapter describes how the restoration of Charles II as king of England triggered bitter conflicts over land among the colonies. The colonies perceived the restoration as an opportunity to advance their ambitious land claims, including claims to Narragansett country and Rhode Island. They consistently advanced their claims on religious as well as legal grounds. The king dispatched royal commissioners to resolve the disputes. The royal commissioners frustrated the Puritan colonies by ruling in favor of Rhode Island and the Narragansetts at every turn. Nevertheless, the colonies resisted these decisions, leaving the future of Narragansett country in doubt.
Praying Towns
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J.
Published: January 2025

This chapter describes the unprecedented expansion of praying towns in New England. Numerous communities of Indians, especially Nipmucs, submitted to Massachusetts in exchange for protection from the Mohawks and Narragansetts. Daniel Gookin developed a plan to establish governments among these Indians, civilizing them, protecting their land, and educating and integrating them into English society. The number of praying towns in Massachusetts rose to fourteen. Other native communities, including Uncas’s Mohegans, received some Christian teaching, but eventually some turn away, alienated by English prejudice and power. Meanwhile, Puritan ministers warned colonists that God would judge them if they did not repent of their sins.
God Does Not Go Forth with Our Armies
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J.
Published: January 2025

This chapter describes how the expansion of the war and repeated defeats led the colonies to become increasingly hostile toward Indians. Governor Winslow was forced to request a meeting of the United Colonies. An attempt to coerce the Norwottucks into supporting the English alienated them and led to a series of bitter defeats. Plymouth sold Wampanoags into slavery in the Carribean, Massachusetts restricted Indian freedoms, and Christian Indians were harassed and arrested and had their towns and fields destroyed. A number of Puritans protested these developments on Christian grounds, including John Eliot and Daniel Gookin, which provoked hostility against them as well. As defeats continued, the United Colonies mobilized for a bigger war, and Massachusetts called its people to prayer and fasting to seek God’s favor.
No Indians Can Be Trusted
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J.
Published: January 2025

This chapter describes the intensification of colonial mistrust against all Indians and the dispersal or internment of Massachusetts’s praying Indians. Colonists were shocked when neutral Agawam Indians launched a devastating surprise attack on Springfield. While Increase Mather lobbied for reformation as a means of seeking God’s favor, the Massachusetts government considered various proposals for how to deal with the praying Indians. Many praying Indians were interned on Deer Island. The Wamesits were briefly imprisoned, and when they were released, one was brutally murdered by a colonial soldier. As colonial troops returned home for the winter and Massachusetts finally passed legislation seeking reformation, Nipmucs seized the Christian Indians from Hassanamesit, and the Wamesits fled to the wilderness for safety.
Turning Point
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J.
Published: January 2025

This chapter describes how negotiations were shattered by a devastating colonial offensive, leading to a stunning collapse of Algonquian fortunes throughout New England. Massachusetts was relaxing its policy toward praying Indians, moving them from Deer Island back to the mainland, and it was making progress in its negotiations with the sachems. Then Massachusetts forces led by William Turner launched a surprise attack on Indians at Peskeompscut Falls in the Connecticut Valley. Soon after, Mohawks from New York launched further attacks on the Algonquians. Algonquian resistance in western Massachusetts collapsed, and Indians scattered throughout New England, many attempting to surrender. Other Connecticut forces dealt crushing defeats to the Narragansetts in Rhode Island, while Plymouth forces and their Indian allies dealt defeats to the Wampanoags in Plymouth colony.
Tala as Phrase Meter
Authors: Mukherji Somangshu
Published: January 2025

One of the central concepts of Indian music theory is that of “tala.” Often translated as “meter” in Western music scholarship, tala is, however, different from Western meter in certain respects. The study of tala consequently provides a window into some of the peculiarities of rhythm and metrical organization in the music of South Asia. As this essay will argue, however, tala does seem to bear striking resemblances to one aspect of Western meter—namely, that of phrase meter, which is the metrical organization of phrase rhythm in Western music, seen at the level of multi-bar phrasal groups (as opposed to within individual bars, and as exemplified by the notated simple and compound meters of Western music). This essay reveals this connection between tala and Western phrase meter, first by defining the latter term—as one that is separate not only from simple and compound bar-level meters, but also from hypermeter—and then by analyzing examples of tala structure in actual Indian musical performances that appear to have distinct phrase-metrical qualities. The essay concludes by arguing that not recognizing this phrase-metrical basis for Indian tala has led to certain misconceptions about tala in contemporary musical scholarship, including the belief that tala constitutes a kind of “additive” rhythmic-metrical phenomenon.
Prolongation in Turkish Classical Music
Authors: Birson Adem Merter
Published: January 2025

Theories on the structural properties of scales have predominated studies of Western art music, yet little is known about how scales function in the context of non-Western music. Such knowledge would help broaden our understanding of scales as a somewhat universal organizing principle, as well as provide insight into appreciation of musical cultures otherwise thought to be too “exotic.” This paper focuses on Turkish classical music, the musical structure of which is based on makam, or modes. As in Western tonality, Turkish makam involves defining a particular pitch of a scale as tonic and then completing a process of concluding on that pitch by means of stepwise scalar descent. While scalar stepwise melodies may occur in the more local contexts of musical phrases, this structural stepwise descent occurs over the course of entire pieces, logically connecting the music of one section of a composition to another. Along the way, pitches of the structural makam scale may be subjected to prolongation, during the course of which expressive formal techniques—such as brief modulations to other makam—may occur. The approach in this paper is inspired by the treatises of the Ottoman Turkish theorists, composers, and performers Dmitrie Cantemir (1673–1723) and Abdul-Baki Nasr Dede (1765–1820).
“A Blueprint for Dancers”
Authors: Turci-Escobar John
Published: January 2025

One night in 1897, in a swanky libertine Buenos Aires night spot, house pianist Rosendo Mendizábal premiered his new tango, “El Entrerriano,” to great success. The composition would achieve immortality as the first representative of the incipient genre known as “tangos criollos” in what became the tango songbook. Generations of tango musicians performed and recorded this standard, including the premier orchestras of the genre’s golden age. The questions that guide this essay’s analysis of “El Entrerriano” are grounded in the context in which this tango was composed, performed, and received. Thus, as the title of this essay hints, it frames its discussion in terms of the tango’s original function: stimulating reveling dancers in nocturnal environments. The essay analyzes the form of the tango as presented in sheet music and elaborated in thirty recordings by celebrated tango ensembles. Its analysis then shifts to a close reading of the A section, focusing on motivic, harmonic, and rhythmic features. Finally, and circling back to the choreographic motivation of this tango, it analyzes how celebrated dancers interpret these musical features in a scene from a historic film.
Comparing the Choreomusical Styles of Marius Petipa and George Balanchine in the Berceuse of Harlequinade
Authors: Leaman Kara Yoo
Published: January 2025

Marius Petipa and George Balanchine each held reputations for being among the most significant and most musical ballet choreographers of their eras. This essay shows how the choreomusical styles of these choreographers can be compared by examining how they set patterns in music to patterns in their dances. The “Berceuse, a variation for Columbine,” from Act II of Riccardo Drigo’s Harlequinade (1900), offers a special instance in which Petipa and Balanchine choreographed to the same score, Petipa for the original production and Balanchine for a new production sixty-five years later. An exceptionally detailed Stepanov-notation dance score preserves Petipa’s choreography for modern-day reconstruction. The essay’s analysis takes advantage of a recording of the performance staged by Doug Fullington at the Guggenheim Museum in 2015. Focusing on the opening eight-measure period of the Berceuse, it examines patterns of movement as they relate to patterns of melody, harmony, and phrase. The analysis shows how Petipa set close-range musical repetitions to choreographic repetitions, while Balanchine set select elements of music to select aspects of movement. The different choreographies visually highlight different facets of the music, creating unique audiovisual experiences for the viewer. The essay’s close reading of the music and two settings in dance demonstrates for students how to apply music-analytic tools to the study of musical multimedia, especially dance. Furthermore, annotated video examples suggest ways students also might use video editing to clarify their arguments when writing about audiovisual art forms.
A Rhetorical Strategy to Subvert Artistic Suppression
Authors: Guerrero Jeannie Ma.
Published: January 2025

The “March of the Israelites” from R. Nathaniel Dett’s oratorio The Ordering of Moses (1937) depicts the flight of the Jews from Egypt through the Red Sea. It poses some baffling features that “regular” analysis cannot illuminate. For one, the orchestra suddenly evokes a strong sense of Ravel’s Bolero (1929), departing starkly from the remainder of the work. Additionally, it is not danceable for reasons that are not immediately apparent. Further, the chorus sings only on one syllable, “Ah.” The essay demonstrates how investigations of pitch, meter, and other structures serve as initial steps to unlock artistic motives that were central to Dett’s objectives: illuminating the equal stature of spirituals with the European classical tradition. The essay demonstrates how to present arguments for the artistic decisions that composers make.
Reminiscences of the Past and Hybrid Traditions in Yoshinao Nakada’s Art Songs
Authors: Deguchi Tomoko
Published: January 2025

Yoshinao Nakada (1923–2000) is a popular and well-known composer of art songs and choral music in Japan. However, his music is not much known in the United States, and it has not been fully investigated. This essay examines his musical language in his art songs from the collection From the Poems of Matinée Poétique (1950) and also draws a few examples from Six Songs for Children (1947). In his songs, a Romantic harmonic idiom, a French impressionistic style, and an unmistakable Japanese melodic writing coexist, and together they interact and successfully establish an individual style that came to popularity. Nakada’s songs evoke nostalgia to pre–World War II Japan, which appealed to the Japanese affinity to the past.