bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Grenander Ulf , Miller Michael I.
Published: November 2020

This book is to be an accessible book on patterns, their representation, and inference. There are a small number of ideas and techniques that, when mastered, make the subject more accessible. This book has arisen from ten years of a research program which the authors have embarked upon, building on the more abstract developments of metric pattern theory developed by one of the authors during the 1970s and 1980s. The material has been taught over multiple semesters as part of a second year graduate-level course in pattern theory, essentially an introduction for students interested in the representation of patterns which are observed in the natural world. The course has attracted students studying biomedical engineering, computer science, electrical engineering, and applied mathematics interested in speech recognition and computational linguistics, as well as areas of image analysis, and computer vision. Now the concept of patterns pervades the history of intellectual endeavor; it is one of the eternal followers in human thought. It appears again and again in science, taking on different forms in the various disciplines, and made rigorous through mathematical formalization. But the concept also lives in a less stringent form in the humanities, in novels and plays, even in everyday language. We use it all the time without attributing a formal meaning to it and yet with little risk of misunderstanding. So, what do we really mean by a pattern? Can we define it in strictly logical terms? And if we can, what use can we make of such a definition? These questions were answered by General Pattern Theory, a discipline initiated by Ulf Grenander in the late 1960s [1–5]. It has been an ambitious effort with the only original sketchy program having few if any practical applications, growing in mathematical maturity with a multitude of applications having appeared in biology/medicine and in computer vision, in language theory and object recognition, to mention but a few. Pattern theory attempts to provide an algebraic framework for describing patterns as structures regulated by rules, essentially a finite number of both local and global combinatory operations. Pattern theory takes a compositional view of the world, building more and more complex structures starting from simple ones. The basic rules for combining and building complex patterns from simpler ones are encoded via graphs and rules on transformation of these graphs.
Estimation Bounds for Automated Object Recognition
Authors: Grenander Ulf , Miller Michael I.
Published: November 2020

Thus far we have only studied representations of the source. Now we add the channel, pushing us into the frameworks of estimate then examine estimation bounds for understanding rigid object recognition involving the low-dimensional matrix groups. Minimum-mean-squared error bounds are derived for recognition and identification.
Living and fossil marsupials
Authors: Kemp T.S.
Published: November 2020

There are about 265 living species of marsupial mammals, the majority in Australasia, about 60 in South America, and a handful in Central and North America (Macdonald 2001). They are distinguishable from the placental mammals by many characters, but most profoundly by their mode of reproduction. Compared to the placentals, there is only a relatively brief intrauterine period, during which the embryo exchanges nutrients and gases with the mother via a simple, non-invasive yolk sac placenta. There is no development of the complex, highly invasive chorio-allantoic placenta found in the placentals with the partial exception of the bandicoots in which there is a small, short-lived, but true chorio-allantoic placenta. The marsupial neonate is born at a very immature stage, and most of the total maternal provision comes via lactation. In the majority of cases the young are carried in a pouch, although there are exceptions to this. Whether pouched or not, the young attach themselves continuously to the teat for an extended period of time. There has been much discussion about whether the marsupial mode of reproduction is ancestral to that of the placental mammals, or whether it represents an independent, parallel acquisition of viviparity. Lillegraven (1979), Lillegraven et al. (1987), and Szalay (1994), for example, regarded the marsupial mode as primitive and inefficient compared to the placental mode, and that it was failure of the marsupials to evolve a mechanism to prevent immunological rejection of the embryo by the mother that prevented any extension of the gestation period. Placentals, they argued, solved the problem by evolving the trophoblast layer of embryonic cells that performs the function of preventing the maternal antibodies from damaging the embryo. Conversely, several authors such as Parker (1977) have argued that the marsupial mode is an alternative, but equally well-adapted strategy of reproduction to that of placentals. It is one of low investment but low risk, and is therefore suitable for a more unpredictable environment. Tyndale-Biscoe and Renfree (1987) suggested that primitive marsupials and placentals had quite similar reproduction, with relatively immature neonates and a relatively long lactation period. Subsequent specialisation in the two groups went in different directions.
Electron-density maps
Authors: Blow David
Published: November 2020

When everything has been done to make the phases as good as possible, the time has come to examine the image of the structure in the form of an electron-density map. The electron-density map is the Fourier transform of the structure factors (with their phases). If the resolution and phases are good enough, the electron-density map may be interpreted in terms of atomic positions. In practice, it may be necessary to alternate between study of the electron-density map and the procedures mentioned in Chapter 10, which may allow improvements to be made to it. Electron-density maps contain a great deal of information, which is not easy to grasp. Considerable technical effort has gone into methods of presenting the electron density to the observer in the clearest possible way. The Fourier transform is calculated as a set of electron-density values at every point of a three-dimensional grid labelled with fractional coordinates x, y, z. These coordinates each go from 0 to 1 in order to cover the whole unit cell. To present the electron density as a smoothly varying function, values have to be calculated at intervals that are much smaller than the nominal resolution of the map. Say, for example, there is a protein unit cell 50 Å on a side, at a routine resolution of 2Å. This means that some of the waves included in the calculation of the electron density go through a complete wave cycle in 2 Å. As a rule of thumb, to represent this properly, the spacing of the points on the grid for calculation must be less than one-third of the resolution. In our example, this spacing might be 0.6 Å. To cover the whole of the 50 Å unit cell, about 80 values of x are needed; and the same number of values of y and z. The electron density therefore needs to be calculated on an array of 80×80×80 points, which is over half a million values. Although our world is three-dimensional, our retinas are two-dimensional, and we are good at looking at pictures and diagrams in two dimensions.
Catastrophes and Lesser Calamities
Authors: Hallam Tony
Published: November 2020

In Catastrophes and Lesser Calamities, renowned geologist Tony Hallam takes us on a tour of the Earth's history, and of the cataclysmic events, as well as the more gradual extinctions, that have punctuated life on Earth throughout the past 500 million years. While comparable books in this field of study tend to promote only one likely cause of mass extinctions, such as extraterrestrial impact, volcanism, and or climatic cooling, Catastrophes and Lesser Calamities breaks new ground, as the first book to attempt an objective coverage of all likely causes, including sea-level and climatic changes, oxygen deficiency in the oceans, volcanic activity, and extraterrestrial impact. Hallam focuses on the so-called 'big five' mass extinctions, at the end of the Ordovician, Permian, Triassic, and Cretaceous periods, and the later Devonian, and he also includes less well-known examples where relevant. He devotes attention especially to the attempts by geologists to distinguish true catastrophes from more gradual extinction events, and he concludes with a discussion of the evolutionary significance of mass extinctions, and on the influence of Homo sapiens in causing extinctions within the last few thousand years, both on land and in the seas.
Chemical Reactions In Condensed Phases
Authors: Nitzan Abraham
Published: November 2020

Understanding chemical reactions in condensed phases is essentially the understanding of solvent effects on chemical processes. Such effects appear in many ways. Some stem from equilibrium properties, for example, solvation energies and free energy surfaces. Others result from dynamical phenomena: solvent effect on diffusion of reactants toward each other, dynamical cage effects, solvent-induced energy accumulation and relaxation, and suppression of dynamical change in molecular configuration by solvent induced friction. In attempting to sort out these different effects it is useful to note that a chemical reaction proceeds by two principal dynamical processes that appear in three stages. In the first and last stages the reactants are brought together and products are separated from each other. In the middle stage the assembled chemical system undergoes the structural/chemical change. In a condensed phase the first and last stages involve diffusion, sometimes (e.g. when the species involved are charged) in a force field. The middle stage often involves the crossing of a potential barrier. When the barrier is high the latter process is rate-determining. In unimolecular reactions the species that undergoes the chemical change is already assembled and only the barrier crossing process is relevant. On the other hand, in bi-molecular reactions with low barrier (of order kBT or less), the rate may be dominated by the diffusion process that brings the reactants together. It is therefore meaningful to discuss these two ingredients of chemical rate processes separately. Most of the discussion in this chapter is based on a classical mechanics description of chemical reactions. Such classical pictures are relevant to many condensed phase reactions at and above room temperature and, as we shall see, can be generalized when needed to take into account the discrete nature of molecular states. In some situations quantum effects dominate and need to be treated explicitly. This is the case, for example, when tunneling is a rate determining process. Another important class is nonadiabatic reactions, where the rate determining process is hopping (curve crossing) between two electronic states. Such reactions are discussed in Chapter 16.
First-order theories
Authors: Hedman Shawn
Published: November 2020

We continue our study of Model Theory. This is the branch of logic concerned with the interplay between sentences of a formal language and mathematical structures. Primarily, Model Theory studies the relationship between a set of first-order sentences T and the class Mod(T) of structures that model T. Basic results of Model Theory were proved in the previous chapter. For example, it was shown that, in first-order logic, every model has a theory and every theory has a model. Put another way, T is consistent if and only if Mod(T) is nonempty. As a consequence of this, we proved the Completeness theorem. This theorem states that T ├ φ if and onlyif M ╞ φ for each M in Mod(T). So to study a theory T, we can avoid the concept of ├ and the methods of deduction introduced in Chapter 3, and instead work with the concept of ╞ and analyze the class Mod(T). More generally, we can go back and forth between the notions on the left side of the following table and their counterparts on the right. Progress in mathematics is often the result of having two or more points of view that are shown to be equivalent. A prime example is the relationship between the algebra of equations and the geometry of the graphs defined by the equations. Combining these two points of view yield concepts and results that would not be possible in either geometry or algebra alone. The Completeness theorem equates the two points of view exemplified in the above table. Model Theory exploits the relationship between these two points of view to investigate mathematical structures. First-order theories serve as our objects of study in this chapter. A first-order theory may be viewed as a consistent set of sentences T or as an elementary class of structures Mod(T). We shall present examples of theories and consider properties that the theories mayor may not possess such as completeness, categoricity, quantifier-elimination, and model-completeness. The properties that a theory possesses shed light on the structures that model the theory. We analyze examples of first-order structures including linear orders, vector spaces, the random graph, and the complex numbers.
Examples of the Practical Use of Non-Stoichiometric Compounds
Authors: Kosuge Koji
Published: November 2020

In this chapter, we describe four kinds of non-stoichiometric compound, which are or will be in practical use, from the viewpoint of preparation methods or utility. As a first example, the solid electrolyte (ZrO2)0.85(CaO)0.15 is described, which are discussed in Sections 1.4.6–1.4.8 from the viewpoint of basic characteristics. The second example is the magnetic material Mn–Zn ferrite, for which the control of non-stoichiometry and the manufacturing process will be described. Then the metal hydrides or hydrogen absorbing alloys, which are one of the most promising materials for storing and transporting hydrogen in the solid state, are described, mainly focusing on the phase relation. Finally, we describe the relation between the control of composition and the growth of a single crystal of the semiconductive compound GaAs, which is expected to give electronic materials for 1C and LSI etc. Solid electrolytes, which show ionic conductivity in the solid state, are considered to be potential materials for practical use, some are already used as mentioned below. Solid electrolytes have characteristic functions, such as electromotive force, ion selective transmission, and ion omnipresence. Here we describe the practical use of calcia stabilized zirconia (CSZ), (ZrO2)0.85(CaO)0.15, the structure and basic properties of which are discussed in detail in Sections 1.4.5–1.4.8. The most simple practical application of CSZ is for the gauge of oxygen partial pressure, as mentioned in Sections 1.4.7 and 1.4.8. The oxygen partial pressure P2o2 in the closed system as shown in Fig. 3.1 can be measured, taking the air as the standard oxygen pressure P1o2. The electromotive force (EMF) of this concentration cell is expressed as . . . E = (RT/4F)ln(P1o2/ P2o2) . . . This principle is applied in the measurement of oxygen partial pressure in laboratory experiments and of the oxygen activity of slag in refineries. Based on the principle of coulometric titration (see Section 1.4.8), the oxygen partial pressure of a closed system can be kept constant by feedback of the EMF, in the oxygen pressure range 1 to 10−7 atm. By use of this closed system, investigations on redox reactions of metals and also enzyme reactions have been carried out.
Analyzing Large Gene Expression Data Sets
Authors: Raychaudhuri Soumya
Published: November 2020

The most interesting and challenging gene expression data sets to analyze are large multidimensional data sets that contain expression values for many genes across multiple conditions. In these data sets the use of scientific text can be particularly useful, since there are a myriad of genes examined under vastly different conditions, each of which may induce or repress expression of the same gene for different reasons. There is an enormous complexity to the data that we are examining—each gene is associated with dozens if not hundreds of expression values as well as multiple documents built up from vocabularies consisting of thousands of words. In Section 2.4 we reviewed common gene expression strategies, most of which revolve around defining groups of genes based on common profiles. A limitation of many gene expression analytic approaches is that they do not incorporate comprehensive background knowledge about the genes into the analysis. We present computational methods that leverage the peer-reviewed literature in the automatic analysis of gene expression data sets. Including the literature in gene expression data analysis offers an opportunity to incorporate background functional information about the genes when defining expression clusters. In Chapter 5 we saw how literature- based approaches could help in the analysis of single condition experiments. Here we will apply the strategies introduced in Chapter 6 to assess the coherence of groups of genes to enhance gene expression analysis approaches. The methods proposed here could, in fact, be applied to any multivariate genomics data type. The key concepts discussed in this chapter are listed in the frame box. We begin with a discussion of gene groups and their role in expression analysis; we briefly discuss strategies to assign keywords to groups and strategies to assess their functional coherence. We apply functional coherence measures to gene expression analysis; for examples we focus on a yeast expression data set. We first demonstrate how functional coherence can be used to focus in on the key biologically relevant gene groups derived by clustering methods such as self-organizing maps and k-means clustering.
Quantum Computational Complexity Theory and Lower Bounds
Authors: Kaye Phillip , Laflamme Raymond , Mosca Michele
Published: November 2020

We have seen in the previous chapters that quantum computers seem to be more powerful than classical computers for certain problems. There are limits on the power of quantum computers, however. Since a classical computer can simulate a quantum computer, a quantum computer can only compute the same set of functions that a classical computer can. The advantage of using a quantum computer is that the amount of resources needed by a quantum algorithm might be much less than what is needed by the best classical algorithm. In Section 9.1 we briefly define some classical and quantum complexity classes and give some relationships between them. Most of the interesting questions relating classical and quantum complexity classes remain open. For example, we do not yet know if a quantum computer is capable of efficiently solving an NP-complete problem (defined later). One can prove upper bounds on the difficulty of a problem by providing an algorithm that solves that problem, and proving that it will work within in a given running time. But how does one prove a lower bound on the computational complexity of a problem? For example, if we wish to find the product of two n-bit numbers, computing the answer requires outputting roughly 2n bits and that requires Ω(n) steps (in any computing model with finite-sized gates). The best-known upper bound for integer multiplication is O(n log n log log n) steps. It has proved extremely difficult to derive non-trivial lower bounds on the computational complexity of a problem. Most of the known non-trivial lower bounds are in the ‘black-box’ model (for both classical and quantum computing), where we only query the input via a ‘black-box’ of a specific form. We discuss the black-box model in more detail in Section 9.2. We then sketch several approaches for proving black-box lower bounds. The first technique has been called the ‘hybrid method’ and was used to prove that quantum searching requires Ω(√n) queries to succeed with constant probability. The second technique is called the ‘polynomial method’. We then describe a technique based on ‘block sensitivity’, and conclude with a technique known as the ‘adversary method’.
The Biology of Coastal Sand Dunes
Authors: Maun M. Anwar
Published: November 2020

Coastal zones are becoming increasingly topical (and politically sensitive) as they face relentless pressures from urban expansion, recreational development and sea level rise due to climate change. This timely book provides a comprehensive introduction to the formation, dynamics, maintenance and perpetuation of coastal sand dune systems. It describes the interactions between living organisms and the physical processes of geomorphology, with particular emphasis on conservation and management issues due to this habitat's increasingly endangered status. A global range of examples enhance the book's international appeal, which also includes coverage of the latest methods/techniques and experimental approaches with suggestions for student-based field studies and projects. This accessible text is suitable for both senior undergraduate and graduate students taking courses in coastal zone management, marine biology, plant ecology, restoration ecology and conservation biology, as well as the many professional ecologists and conservation biologists requiring a concise but authoritative overview of the topic. The book will also be of relevance and use to coastal managers, planners and naturalists.
Introduction
Authors: Bostrom Nick , ćirković Milan M.
Published: November 2020

The term ‘global catastrophic risk’ lacks a sharp definition. We use it to refer, loosely, to a risk that might have the potential to inflict serious damage to human well-being on a global scale. On this definition, an immensely diverse collection of events could constitute global catastrophes: potential candidates range from volcanic eruptions to pandemic infections, nuclear accidents to worldwide tyrannies, out-of-control scientific experiments to climatic changes, and cosmic hazards to economic collapse. With this in mind, one might well ask, what use is a book on global catastrophic risk? The risks under consideration seem to have little in common, so does ‘global catastrophic risk’ even make sense as a topic? Or is the book that you hold in your hands as illconceived and unfocused a project as a volume on ‘Gardening, Matrix Algebra, and the History of Byzantium’? We are confident that a comprehensive treatment of global catastrophic risk will be at least somewhat more useful and coherent than the above-mentioned imaginary title. We also believe that studying this topic is highly important. Although the risks are of various kinds, they are tied together by many links and commonalities. For example, for many types of destructive events, much of the damage results from second-order impacts on social order; thus the risks of social disruption and collapse are not unrelated to the risks of events such as nuclear terrorism or pandemic disease. Or to take another example, apparently dissimilar events such as large asteroid impacts, volcanic super-eruptions, and nuclear war would all eject massive amounts of soot and aerosols into the atmosphere, with significant effects on global climate. The existence of such causal linkages is one reason why it is can be sensible to study multiple risks together. Another commonality is that many methodological, conceptual, and cultural issues crop up across the range of global catastrophic risks. If our interest lies in such issues, it is often illuminating to study how they play out in different contexts. Conversely, some general insights – for example, into the biases of human risk cognition – can be applied to many different risks and used to improve our assessments across the board.
Vertical Layers
Authors: Chemin Jean-Yves , Desjardins Benoit , Gallagher Isabelle , Grenier Emmanuel
Published: November 2020

From a physical point of view, as well as from a mathematical point of view, horizontal layers (Ekman layers) are now well understood. This is not the casefor vertical layers which are much more complicated, from a physical, analytical and mathematical point of view, and many open questions in all these directions remain open. Let us, in this section, consider a domain Ω with vertical boundaries. Namely, let Ωh be a domain of R2 and let Ω=Ωh × [0, 1]. This domain has two types of boundaries: • horizontal boundaries Ωh × {0} (bottom) and Ωh ×{1} (top) where Ekman layers are designed to enforce Dirichlet boundary conditions; • vertical boundaries ∂Ωh × [0, 1] where again a boundary layer is needed to ensure Dirichlet boundary conditions. These layers, however, are not of Ekman type, since r is now parallel to the boundary. Vertical layers are quite complicated. They in fact split into two sublayers: one of size E1/3 and another of size E1/4 where E =νε denotes the Ekman number. This was discovered and studied analytically by Stewartson and Proudman. Vertical layers can be easily observed in experiments (at least the E1/4 layer, the second one being too thin) but do not seem to be relevant in meteorology or oceanography, where near continents, effects of shores, density stratification, temperature, salinity, or simply topography are overwhelming and completely mistreated by rotating Navier–Stokes equations. In MHD, however, and in particular in the case of rotating concentric spheres, they are much more important. Numerically, they are easily observed, at large Ekman numbers E (small Ekman numbers being much more difficult to obtain). The aim of this section is to provide an introduction to the study of these layers, a study mainly open from a mathematical point of view. First we will derive the equation of the E1/3 layer. Second we will investigate the E1/4 layer and underline its similarity with Prandtl’s equations. In particular, we conjecture that E1/4 is always linearly and nonlinearly unstable. We will not prove this latter fact, which would require careful study of what happens at the corners of the domain, a widely open problem.
Up from Middlebrow
Authors: Rose Jonathan
Published: November 2020

The Chinese had a word for it—wanbao quanshu. It’s a bibliographic term, which literally means “complete compendia of myriad treasures,” but an alternate translation might be “middlebrow.” These were encyclopedic works that distilled and summarized sophisticated science, history, and politics in cheap, accessible, illustrated guidebooks. Their audience (as a 1933 survey of Shanghai bookstalls confirmed) was neither the educated elite nor the impoverished peasantry, but an intermediate semi-educated class of shop-clerks, apprentices, housewives, workers, and prostitutes. Very few readers had thoroughly mastered the Chinese vocabulary of 50,000 characters, but many more, without much difficulty, had learned 2,000 basic terms, enough to read popular newspapers and wanbao quanshu. The latter commonly ran the subtitle wanshi buqiuren (“myriad matters you won’t need to ask”), which underscored their mission: self-education. They had titles like Riyong wanshi baoku choushi bixu, which could be rendered “Treasury of all daily things necessary for social relations” or (more idiomatically) “How to win friends and influence people.” Wanbao quanshu were the contemporaneous counterparts of H. G. Wells’s The Outline of History and Will Durant’s The Story of Philosophy. They flourished in Republican-era China, the same time frame that Joan Shelley Rubin identified as the heyday of American middlebrow culture. In societies where a wide gap opens up between elite and pulp literature, where literacy is growing but access to higher education is still restricted, where modernizing forces arouse both optimism and anxiety, middlebrow bridges those divides and makes sense of rapid change. Those conditions certainly prevailed in China, the United States, and Great Britain in the first half of the twentieth century, but not only then. Middlebrow has a very long history: wanbao quanshu can be traced back to the seventeenth century. And how about eighteenth-century Europe? Two generations ago historians studied the High Enlightenment of Voltaire and Rousseau, one generation ago Robert Darnton discovered a Low Enlightenment of Grub-Street hacks and smut-mongers, and now a team of young scholars at Radboud University in the Netherlands are creating the database MEDIATE: Middlebrow Enlightenment: Disseminating Ideas, Authors and Texts in Europe (1665–1820).
‘A Community of Sciences’
Authors: Kiddey Rachael
Published: November 2020

Homeless people are among the most marginalized in the UK, where homelessness—or vagrancy—has been ‘the classic crime of social status, the social crime par excellence’ since the 1349 Vagrancy Statute sought to deal specifically with the ‘wandering poor’. People who are homeless are those ‘swept into the vortex of political practices, socioeconomic assumptions, values and expectations bearing on the phenomenon of “home” as we understand it today and negatively put on “homelessness”’. But regardless of how they are legally and politically defined, homeless people have to exist somewhere. They have to find shelter, food, and other resources. They have the same physical, bodily and emotional needs as everyone else. It isn’t pretty or polite but homelessness has been documented in the UK for over eight hundred years, and it continues to shape and inform the world around us. Homelessness leaves material traces and a rich intangible heritage in the form of lexicon, folklore, and memories, making it an appropriate subject for archaeological study. The practice of applying archaeological approaches to the contemporary world—or, contemporary archaeology—is a comparatively recent development in the history of the discipline of archaeology. As Graves-Brown, Harrison, and Piccini note in the introduction to their edited volume, the contemporary archaeologist’s subject matter is ‘not just the buried remains of past societies, but as often as not the circumstances of living people’. An important question to bear in mind is this: For whom do archaeologists practise archaeology and what right do they have to make claims about the past or decisions about what should happen to data in the future? Archaeologists have a moral responsibility to ‘bear witness’ to other human lives regardless of whether the people concerned have been dead for thousands of years or they stand beside us, alive and kicking. To undertake an archaeological investigation of contemporary homelessness is to consider the ways in which homeless memory is constituted through objects (places and landscapes) as a form of bearing witness to the human experiences to which they testify.
Applied Heritage
Authors: Kiddey Rachael
Published: November 2020

At the start of this book I offered examples of how archaeological knowledge and skills are being applied in ways that are socially useful and relevant to contemporary society. Building on what Holtorf and Fairclough (2013) term the ‘New Heritage’, I want to go further to suggest that some participatory cultural heritage work might explicitly set out to function as a therapeutic social intervention with marginalized communities. I will call this Applied Heritage. Before I outline what Applied Heritage could conceivably comprise I want to look more closely at the findings and results of the Homeless Heritage project. In the first part of this chapter I unpack how material culture relates to and stimulates memories which shape perceptions and may be useful in aiding the reconstruction of identities following experiences of marginalization or trauma. Following this, I will look at the negative impact that memories can have for populations who feel ‘out of place’ in the physical environments in which they are forced to exist. I examine several ways in which a cultural heritage lens can be shown to have been useful in addressing some of the challenges first experienced in engaging people on the Homeless Heritage project. The second part of this chapter looks at how an archaeological approach to contemporary homelessness was useful in identifying how historic attitudes to homelessness, which were enshrined in policies intended to deal with vagrancy, continue to haunt current homeless legislation. Archaeologist Michael Shanks has observed that ‘a key component of archaeological thinking is . . . personal standpoint, in a context of sometimes considerable state investment in heritage and stewardship of the remains of the past’. The Homeless Heritage project sought to document multiple ‘personal standpoints’ which often directly contravened those memories of the past preferred and pushed by the state. As we saw in the brief history of the development of homelessness as a social status offered in Chapter 4, states have increasingly conflated homelessness and associated social deprivation with criminality.
Kilwa Kisiwani: Establishing a Town
Authors: Wynne-Jones Stephanie
Published: November 2020

Kilwa Kisiwani is an iconic Swahili stone town, its status and international renown exceeding any other. As discussed, it is also the town that has seen some of the largest-scale archaeological work, recovering a material record that bespeaks a thriving urban setting. Archaeological interest came on the heels of historical scholarship relating to the area; Kilwa is one of the few Swahili towns mentioned by both indigenous and foreign histories. The various versions of the Kilwa Chronicle give an account of the dynastic succession of Kilwa and of the deeds of its various sultans; together they are the earliest indigenous history of the coast. The oldest version was transcribed from oral form by João de Barros in his 1552 Da Asia (Freeman-Grenville 1962a: 89–93), while two other versions were both copied down in the nineteenth century (Strong 1895; Velten 1903). The Chronicles are similar in many aspects, although they differ on details and on the names of certain sultans. Debate over their veracity was quieted by the recovery of thousands of locally minted coins, and the dynastic lists were used as the basis for their interpretation (Album 1999; Brown 1991, 1992, 1993; Chittick 1965, 1967, 1973; Mitchell 1970; Walker 1936, 1939; Walker and Freeman-Grenville 1956). Indeed, the chronology of the Kilwa sultanate has been determined in the interplay between historical and numismatic evidence, the latter seen to act as an independent check on the less-reliable oral histories (cf. Fleisher and Wynne-Jones 2010b). This local historical record is bolstered by occasional mention in travellers’ accounts of the region. These are testament to Kilwa’s growing renown, but rarely offer much detail. In 1222, the Arab geographer Yakut referred to this ‘town in the country of the Zanj’ in his Geography and in 1331 an extended account was provided by Ibn Battuta during his travels on the coast (Freeman-Grenville 1962a: 27–32). These accounts echo a theme evident in the Kilwa Chronicles themselves: a distinction made between this town on its island, and the African continent that sits at its back.
Roman Artefacts and Society
Authors: Swift Ellen
Published: November 2020

In this book, Ellen Swift uses design theory, previously neglected in Roman archaeology, to investigate Roman artifacts in a new way, making a significant contribution to both Roman social history and our understanding of the relationships that exist between artefacts and people. Based on extensive data collection and the close study of artefacts from museum collections and archives, the book examines the relationship between artefacts, everyday behavior, and experience. The concept of "affordances"--features of an artefact that make possible, and incline users towards, particular uses for functional artifacts--is an important one for the approach taken. This concept is carefully evaluated by considering affordances in relation to other sources of evidence, such as use--wear, archaeological context, the end--products resulting from artifact use, and experimental reconstruction. Artifact types explored in the case studies include locks and keys, pens, shears, glass vessels, dice, boxes, and finger-rings, using material mainly drawn from the north-western Roman provinces, with some material also from Roman Egypt. The book then considers how we can use artefacts to understand particular aspects of Roman behavior and experience, including discrepant experiences according to factors such as age, social position, and left- or right-handedness, which are fostered through artifact design. The relationship between production and users of artifacts is also explored, investigating what particular production methods make possible in terms of user experience, and also examining production constraints that have unintended consequences for users. The book examines topics such as the perceived agency of objects, differences in social practice across the provinces, cultural change and development in daily practice, and the persistence of tradition and social convention. It shows that design intentions, everyday habits of use, and the constraints of production processes each contribute to the reproduction and transformation of material culture.
Introduction to the dental surgery
Authors: Blinkhorn A S , Chadwick B L
Published: November 2020

It is a common belief among many individuals that being ‘good with people’ is something you are born with and cannot be taught. It is true that some individuals have a more open disposition and can relate well to others. However, everyone can adopt approaches that put children and parents at ease. It is particularly important for dentists to learn how to help people relax, as failure to empathize and communicate will result in disappointed patients and an unsuccessful practising career. Communicating effectively with children is of great value, as ‘being good with younger patients’ is a practice-builder and can reduce the stress involved when offering clinical care. All dental training should include a thorough understanding of how children relate to an adult world, how the dental visit should be structured, and what strategies are available to help children cope with their apprehension about dental procedures. This Chapter will consider these items, beginning with a discussion on the theories of psychological development and following this up with sections on parents and their influence on dental treatment, dentist–patient relationships, anxious and uncooperative children, and helping anxious patients to cope with dental care. The psychological development of children was originally viewed as a series of well-defined phases, but is now seen as a continuum. The phases of development may well differ from child to child, so cannot be rigidly applied, but for clarity are described as a series of psychological developmental milestones from infancy to adulthood. The most important theoretical perspective now influencing thinking about child development is John Bowlby’s attachment theory. Bowlby suggested that child development could best be understood within the framework of patterns of interaction between the infant and the primary caregiver. If there were problems in this interaction, the child was likely to develop insecure and/or anxious patterns that would affect the ability to form stable relationships with others, to develop a sense of self-worth, and to move towards independence. The other important concept to note is that development is a lifelong process—we do not switch off at 18—nor is it an even process. Development is uneven, influenced by periods of rapid bodily change.
Architectural Energetics and Late Bronze Age Cretan Architecture: Measuring the Scale of Minoan Building Projects
Authors: Devolder Maud
Published: November 2020

It may appear to be asking too much of archaeological evidence to attempt an assessment of the scale of Minoan building projects, their impact on communities, or the role of the labour-time needed for the construction of various kinds of masonry. By taking a firmly materialist perspective, however, the present paper offers an exploration of some of the parameters at play in the production of Minoan architecture. Architectural energetics is a method that translates a building into the labourtime necessary for its construction, a value expressed in person-days or person-hours (abbreviated p-d and p-h). Estimations are based on standard units of time necessary to accomplish each task making up the architectural project: the procurement of raw materials, their transport, manufacture, and assembling. These are most generally expressed in volumes per hour per person, and referred to as ‘standard costs’, which are applied to the volumes of edifices and thus determine the labour-time necessary for their construction. The first assessments of the duration and manpower of ancient building projects mainly appeared in the form of subjective labour-time estimates triggered by romantic views of the grandeur of early civilizations (Andrews 1877; Humboldt 1816; Squier and Davis 1848; Stephens 1841; Webster 1997: 219). Around the middle of the twentieth century, a growing body of publications started to make use of such estimates in order to correlate the magnitude of building or agricultural projects with particular stages of sociopolitical organization (Adams 1975; Cook 1947; Cottrell 1955; Erasmus 1965; Heizer 1960, 1966; Kaplan 1963; White 1949, 1959). Among the most prominent figures of this early trend was C. J. Erasmus, who led a series of experiments that aimed to provide objective quantification of building costs (Erasmus 1965). From the 1970s onwards, largely connected with a renewed research agenda promoting scientific methods of data recovery and interpretation of the archaeological record, quantitative assessments of architectural projects flourished (Aaberg and Bonsignore 1975; Arnold and Ford 1980; Carmean 1991; Cheek 1986; Craig, Holmlund, and Clark 1998; Hard et al. 1999; Price 1982; Trigger 1990; Webster 1985; Webster and Kirker 1995).
Building for the Cremated Dead: Ephemeral and Cumulative Constructions
Authors: Wessman Anna , Williams Howard
Published: November 2020

Given its inherent nature as fiery transformation, the archaeological traces of past cremation practices are always partial and fragmentary. However, recent advances in archaeological excavation and osteological analyses, and novel theoretical investigations of cremation’s variability, character, and context, have enriched and developed the archaeology of cremation in prehistoric and early historic societies (for a review, see Chapter 1, this volume; see also; Williams 2008, 2015b; Wessman 2010; Cerezo-Román and Williams 2014). For the later first millennium AD, archaeologists persist in underestimating the potential for investigating cremation practices, and this is particularly true of the study of mortuary structures and monuments associated with cremation burials (see also Chapter 4, this volume; Chapter 13, this volume; Williams 2013, 2014a). To some extent, the impoverished archaeological investigation of the architectural dimensions of cremation in particular is understandable. Archaeologists are well acquainted with the fact that burial monuments can be multiphased and become subject to uses and reuses over millennia, and indeed, many early medieval cemeteries focus on, reuse, and adapt, far older monuments (Williams 1997;Wessman 2010). There are also examples of large monumental barrows built over cremation burials, as in the late sixth and early seventh centuries at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, showing that cremation ceremonies could be utilized to make enduring, prominent monuments to commemorate the dead and project remembrance down the generations (Carver 2005). However, the more ephemeral mortuary architectures of the late first millennium AD which characterize the majority of cemeteries in most regions—mounds, ring-ditches, stone-settings, post-holes, and the like—are often damaged or destroyed by postdepositional processes. When burial monuments are identified they often appear to have been inherently modest structures that defy familiar explanations as status-markers and landmarks to project the commemoration of the dead across the landscape and through time. It is often all too tempting for archaeologists to dismiss these structures and refer to cemeteries in which cremation burials occur as ‘flat cemeteries’ or else to kaleidoscope these monuments into a single chronological phase and portray them as ‘collective’ structures. Hence, many archaeological accounts, emphasizing the spectacle and fragmentation of open-air cremation in the human past, wrongly imply, or explicitly stipulate, that cremation is counter-architectural.
Land of the Cremated Dead: On Cremation Practices in Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Scandinavia
Authors: Harvig Lise
Published: November 2020

As contract archaeology has emerged and larger connected areas have been excavated since the 1990s, focus has naturally changed from single finds of graves right below plough soil or in connection to mounds, towards the study of the surrounding cultural landscapes. In the Late Bronze Age and the Pre- Roman Iron Age settlements seldom overlap grave sites. This implies that the ‘land of the dead’ was considered separate from the ‘land of the living’. Although regionally differentiated, we further gain a better understanding of many of these accumulated grave sites and their gradual change during the transition period. In many cases we see a change from a personalized commemoration of the cremated dead in the Late Bronze Age, towards a focus on the act of cremation (rather than the post-cremation human body) around the beginning of the Iron Age. The increasing commemoration of pyre remains instead of human remains and deliberate ‘cremation’ of personal belongings in the Early Iron Age indicates a shift in funeral tempi from the post-cremation deliberate burial in the Bronze Age towards the actual cremation process as the primary locus of transformation in the earliest Iron Age. Throughout time, societies have grasped death, the dead, and the duration of death in very different manners. The process of death and relating to different stages of death may be more or less ritualized, that is, subject to specific repeated rules or laws within a society. Whether used to speed up or slow down the process of transformation—for example, keeping, embalming, dismembering, or exhuming the body in various stages—these rituals help the living create death through their acts. In interpretive archaeology we analyse these meaningful acts in the past and their continuation or discontinuation. Decoding single sequences within these acts therefore helps us designate non-negotiable repetitive actions in the archaeological record, as the material evidence of shared ‘embodied knowledge’ in a given prehistoric society (Nilsson Stutz 2003, 2010). Decoding and separating past actions and post depositional disturbances—the degree of intentionality—are crucial for plausible reconstructions of post-cremation treatment of cremated human remains.