bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Other Fiduciary Duties
Authors: Sitkoff Robert H.
Published: May 2019

This chapter canvasses the fiduciary duties other than the primary duties of loyalty and care. The core claim is that these other, subsidiary duties are field-specific elaborations of the primary duties of loyalty and care that implement those duties as applied to commonly recurring circumstances within the particular type or kind of fiduciary relationship. Together, the primary duties of loyalty and care, structured as open-ended standards, and the subsidiary duties, structured as rules or at least more specific standards, provide for fiduciary governance by a mix of rules, specific standards, and open-ended standards that mitigates the weaknesses of governance entirely by rules or standards alone. Fiduciary law thus improves on the familiar trope of rules versus standards as competing governance strategies. The increased specification provided by the subsidiary duties simplifies application of fiduciary obligation to cases that fall within their terms. But because the primary duties of loyalty and care remain operative, the specification for recurring matters provided by the subsidiary duties does not provide a roadmap for strategic avoidance behavior. If a fiduciary acts in a manner that is inimical to the principal’s interests and not addressed by a subsidiary duty, the principal may still invoke the open-ended primary duties of loyalty and care in challenging the fiduciary’s actions.
Fiduciary Principles in English Common Law
Authors: Getzler Joshua
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses fiduciary principles in the historical English common law. The term “fiduciary” today connotes high standards of loyalty and good faith in the performance of discrete obligations, the management of assets or the conduct of relationships, and the concept of fiduciary duty is often traced back to equitable notions of good conscience and undivided loyalty rooted in the moralistic approach of Chancery judges. However, a prior source of fiduciary standards lies in the common law doctrine of account. Legal accounting regulation began in the feudal age with Exchequer control of fees and services, rents and taxes. Feudal accounting was codified in the twelfth century to control the behavior of lords who stood as guardians for underage heirs, with particularly extensive duties being applied to guardians of wards in socage (or agricultural) tenure. Accounting systems were then extended to control management chains within manorial units embracing the lord’s farm agents of stewards, bailiffs, and reeves. The chapter then shows how the common law courts extended accounting and waste remedies to third parties through augmentation of disseisin actions to permit tracing and following procedures for entrusted assets. The prohibition of unauthorized profit-taking by fiduciaries or others in positions of influence or good faith and the use of an array of personal and proprietary remedies thus precedes the rise of the Court of Chancery by some three centuries. It is then shown how Chancery came to dominate fiduciary accounting procedures in modern times, building on an expansion of jurisdiction in the eighteenth century as the Chancellors struggled to repress managerial fraud in the private and public spheres. Today, following fusion of law and equity, we are seeing the assimilation of equitable remedies for breach of fiduciary duty with negligent liability for tortious harm, and the folding of the primary fiduciary duties into contract. Fiduciary accountability, born long ago within the early common law, is now being undermined by the blanket application of much simpler common law concepts.
Fiduciary Principles in the Canon Law
Authors: Helmholz Richard H.
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses the scope of principles of fiduciary duty as they appear in the canon law. It first provides a historical background on canon law and its relation to fiduciary law, noting that the medieval church and principles of fiduciary duty were interconnected in direct and positive ways. In fact, the church was governed by many of the same principles of fiduciary law that are found in modern trust law, and these principles were fully and authoritatively stated in the Corpus iuris canonici during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The chapter proceeds by analyzing the Corpus iuris canonici and its two books: Gratian’s Concordia discordantium canonum, also known as the Decretum, and the books of Decretals. It also traces the development of fiduciary law inherent in some of the canonical texts and explains how fiduciary principles came to be enforced in the canon law, citing examples of the width of the scope of fiduciary principles found in English court practice, including a duty applied only to the clergy. Finally, it considers whether the modern law of trusts was shaped in any way by canonical influence.
Fiduciary Principles in Classical Jewish Law
Authors: Saiman Chaim
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on fiduciary principles at work in classical Jewish law. Using modern (Western) legal concepts, it places disparate halakhic rules into a rubric not found in classical Jewish legal sources. The discussion proceeds by examining the origins of fiduciary concepts in the Mishnah and how they fit into the larger system of Jewish civil liability. From there, the chapter considers fiduciary rules within the laws of bailments, guardianship fiduciary duties in agency and partnership law. The moves to contrast the relatively minimal duties of private law fiduciaries with the far more expansive obligations incumbent upon surrounding public fiduciaries, and concludes with a tentative account of the differences between Jewish and common law perspectives on fiduciary law.
Fiduciary Principles in Contemporary Common Law Systems
Authors: Conaglen Matthew
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the principles of fiduciary doctrine that are found in contemporary common law systems. More specifically, it considers the current similarities and differences between various jurisdictions such as England, Australia, Canada, and the United States. The similarities focus on the duties of loyalty, care and skill, and good faith, as well as when fiduciary duties arise and the kinds of interests that are protected by recognition of fiduciary relationships. The chapter also discusses the issue of differences between various jurisdictions with regard to the duty of care and skill before concluding with an analysis of differences between remedies that are made available in the various contemporary common law jurisdictions when a breach of fiduciary duty arises. It shows that the regulation of fiduciaries appears to be reasonably consistent across common law jurisdictions and across various types of actors, even as such actors are expected to meet differing standards of care. Statute plays a key role in the regulation of various kinds of fiduciary actors, especially corporate directors.
Fiduciary Principles in Chinese Law
Authors: Howson Nicholas C.
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the principles of fiduciary doctrine that are found in Chinese law, with a particular focus on developments in law and regulation in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) after the early 1980s. It also considers the advent and elaboration of what the Anglo-American legal system calls “corporate fiduciary duties,” including partnership fiduciary duties. The chapter first provides an overview of basic conceptions of corporate fiduciary duties that entered Chinese law and practice through at least three separate tracks: academic, regulatory, and jurisprudential. It then explores corporate and partnership fiduciary duties after 2006, placing emphasis on corporate law and the law on partnerships, before discussing how corporate fiduciary duties are understood and applied by state institutions and private parties. More specifically, it explains how the Chinese courts have engaged with the idea of corporate and partnership fiduciary duties in the period after 2006, and how these doctrines have been formalized in law. The chapter shows how a particular set of legal doctrines originating in a distinct legal, political, and economic system have been given life in large part by private actors, namely, domestic PRC investors, managers, and state institutions, rather than the demands of foreign investors.
Fiduciary Law and Psychology
Authors: Wilkinson-Ryan Tess
Published: May 2019

This chapter considers the psychology of fiduciary law, with particular emphasis on how the principal-agent dynamic affects judgment and decision-making. From a decision-making perspective, a characteristic of fiduciary behavior is that fiduciaries choose for others. Behavioral decision research has focused on the ways that actors decide differently when they are acting for others rather than acting for themselves. To introduce readers to the psychology of self-other decision-making, this chapter reviews the theoretical framework within which these questions have been situated, along with some of the most relevant and intriguing experimental research. Three principal areas of research are discussed: the effect of social distance on the mental operations utilized in judgment under uncertainty; the moral psychology phenomena around navigating conflicts of interest; and the specific social dynamics of deciding in the context of a relationship, whether one-shot or ongoing. The chapter examines the concept of “psychological distance” as an integral component of construal level theory, and the extent to which heuristics and biases are acute for agents and principals. Along the way, Prospect Theory and concepts such as loss aversion, risk perceptions, intertemporal discounting, self-serving biases, disclosure approaches to regulating conflicts of interest, impression management, accountability, and hindsight bias are explored.
Fiduciary Law and Equity
Authors: Smith Henry E.
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores the relationship between fiduciary law and equity, focusing on an idea that largely determines the place of fiduciary law in private law: that fiduciary law is equitable. In this regard, the term “equitable” implies that fiduciary law serves a characteristic equitable function, a function that solves problems of high variability and uncertainty through higher-order or metalaw. The prominent role played by second-order law in general and the equitable function in particular is what makes fiduciary law special among areas of private law. This chapter first identifies problems addressed by second-order law, and shows how the fiduciary relationships are equitably second order, especially for trustees, other categorical fiduciaries, and fact-specific fiduciaries. It then considers the duty of loyalty as a second-order duty equitably regulating the performance of primary duties and how fiduciary remedies for breach of fiduciary duty (for example, disgorgement) are equitably second order in a way that many prototypically private law remedies are not. Finally, it examines constructive trusts as a second-order aspect of fiduciary remedies and fiduciary law’s relation to contract law.
Fiduciary Law and Pluralism
Authors: Dagan Hanoch
Published: May 2019

This chapter introduces the idea of a plural legal category, namely, a legal category that is deeply heterogeneous and, nonetheless, legally meaningful. More specifically, it proposes structural pluralism as an alternative to the prevailing assumption of structural monism. It argues that a wholesale category should not be a category for deciding; pigeonholing a case within its ambit is not enough to justify any concrete decision. At times, however, holding on to such a category can still be useful because some heterogeneous legal categories can function as categories of thinking. Thus, a wholesale legal category is theoretically important if its subcategories raise questions that invoke similar normative concerns or imply some similarity in the means that inform their pertinent answers. This chapter offers an account of plural legal categories and demonstrates its promise regarding fiduciary law, which it analyzes as a classic example of a plural legal category. It also discusses autonomy-based pluralism in fiduciary law and shows how, despite the significant differences between various fiduciary types, their structural similarities could facilitate learning and cross-fertilization and thereby justify holding such diverse categories as money managers, parents, and sovereigns under the unified umbrella of fiduciary law. Furthermore, since many fiduciary types enhance autonomy, the pertinent subsets of fiduciary law dealing with the facilitation of various forms of money management and division of labor can and should be critically examined against this important function of liberal law.
Fiduciary Law and Social Norms
Authors: Harding Matthew
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the relationship between fiduciary law and social norms—norms that guide conduct with reference to social expectations as opposed to universal morality, for example. It first considers a number of questions about the relation of law and social norms in general; for instance, whether law’s coercion suppresses or interrupts social norms that might flourish in its absence, or under what circumstances should law enable and bolster social norms and why. It then discusses the ways in which fiduciary law interacts with three types of social norms: norms of trust and trustworthiness, norms of loyalty, and norms of altruism. In particular, it explores those aspects of fiduciary law that suggest a balance between trust and detachment, along with fiduciary law’s link to contract law. Finally, it describes how social roles, such as the role of trustee or company director, interact with both social norms and fiduciary law.
Delaware Corporate Fiduciary Law: Searching for the Optimal Balance
Authors: Hamermesh Lawrence A. , Strine Leo E.
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines Delaware’s corporate fiduciary law, focusing on how the courts have sought to balance concerns about opportunism or carelessness, unchecked by statute, against the direct and indirect costs of resorting to litigation against directors to limit such opportunism or carelessness. It first traces the evolution of Delaware case law before discussing the institutional setting and philosophical foundations of the Delaware corporate fiduciary law. It then considers two core principles that underpin Delaware’s regulation of the fiduciaries who govern corporations: fiduciaries should have the authority to be creative, take chances, and make mistakes so long as their interests are aligned with those who elect them; in cases where there might be a conflict of interest, there are accountability tools to ensure that the stockholder electorate is protected from unfair exploitation. The chapter also explores four contexts of judicial review of fiduciary conduct involving the board of directors: the “business judgment rule,” freeze-out mergers, mergers and acquisitions (takeover defenses, change of control mergers), and voting manipulation and entrenchment.
Fiduciary Law, Good Faith, and Publicness
Authors: Sale Hillary A.
Published: May 2019

This chapter uses corporate law as a case study to evaluate the content of the fiduciary duty of good faith. Tracing its development from Van Gorkom through to the present, the chapter shows how good faith, though part of the duty of loyalty, has become a gap filler, policing the space between generally exculpated breaches of care and the more obvious breaches of loyalty. This chapter also surveys good faith case law to show the most common “red flags” for which corporate officers and directors should be monitoring. An analysis of two of the most recent good faith cases—City of Birmingham and In re Wells Fargo—show how the theory of publicness can be used to predict future good faith developments. Finally, the chapter ends by showing that the duty of good faith’s expansion into trust law parallels its corporate development by emphasizing its gap-filler function.
Fiduciary Principles in Unincorporated Entity Law
Authors: Manesh Mohsen
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines fiduciary principles in the context of unincorporated business entities, specifically general partnerships, limited partnerships (LPs), limited liability companies (LLCs). It begins with an overview of the sources of law that govern unincorporated business entities, covering both Delaware law as well as the various uniform unincorporated entity statutes promulgated by the Uniform Law Commission (ULC). The chapter proceeds by discussing the triggers for fiduciary duties in unincorporated entity law. It also explores the fiduciary duty of loyalty and duty of care for general partnerships, LPs, and LLCs, along with other legal obligations such as the obligation of disclosure and the duty of good faith and fair dealing. Finally, the chapter explains the extent to which fiduciary duties in unincorporated entity law are mandatory or subject to waiver by contractual agreement, as well as the remedies available for breach of fiduciary duty in general partnerships, LPs, and LLCs.
Fiduciary Principles in Charities and Other Nonprofits
Authors: Mayer Lloyd Hitoshi
Published: May 2019

This chapter provides an overview of the fiduciary principles that apply to charities and other nonprofit organizations. More specifically, it discusses the criteria that trigger a fiduciary relationship, the duties of loyalty and care, other legal obligations that may apply to nonprofit fiduciaries, and the extent to which those duties and obligations may be modified or avoided. In the course of doing so, it draws upon applicable state law, applicable federal tax provisions, and various model and uniform acts. It also discusses and critiques the approaches taken to these principles by the draft Restatement of the Law, Charitable Nonprofit Organizations.
Fiduciary Principles in Banking
Authors: Tuch Andrew F.
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines fiduciary principles in banking law, focusing on both commercial and investment banking. It considers when fiduciary duties exist and what they require, the range of remedies available for breach, and the various techniques banks use to exclude or modify fiduciary duties. One puzzling feature of the legal landscape is that clients bring actions less often than banks’ size and conduct might suggest, contributing to legal uncertainty. Fiduciary law nevertheless constrains banks’ activities: courts have cast banks as fiduciaries in all of the major commercial and investment banking functions, including making loans and accepting deposits, advising on merger and acquisition transactions, and underwriting securities offerings, although banks face greater risk in some areas than others. Banks have responded by disclaiming fiduciary duties and using information barriers/Chinese walls, and yet recent judicial decisions refuse to accept these measures as automatically effective for avoiding fiduciary liability. Courts insist that they, rather than the parties themselves, determine whether fiduciary duties exist and what they require. The law thus diverges from some theoretical accounts of fiduciary doctrine, posing challenges for banks and new questions for scholars.
Contextualizing Music and the Body
Authors: Kim Youn , Gilman Sander L.
Published: May 2019

The presence of the phenomenological body is central to music in all of its varieties and contradictions. With the explosion of scholarly works on the body in virtually every field in the humanities, the social as well as the biomedical sciences, the question of how such a complex understanding of the body is related to music, which has its own complexity, has been investigated within specific disciplinary perspectives. The present handbook brings together these particular aspects of such relationships in a broad context and provides a platform for the discussion of the multidimensional interfaces of music and the body. This introduction first discusses the multiple definitions of the body and raises a set of fundamental questions in the general context of body studies. Thereafter, it contextualizes the topic within the discourse of musicology and identifies six different yet related aspects of music and the body, namely, the moving and performing body, the brain and psyche, embodied mind and embodied rhythm, the disabled and sexual body, music as medicine, and the multimodal body.
Inspired and Appreciated by the Group
Authors: Haslam S. Alexander , Adarves-Yorno Inmaculada , Steffens Niklas K. , Postmes Tom
Published: May 2019

The processes of creative production and creativity recognition are both understood to be central to the dynamics of creativity. Nevertheless, they are generally seen by creativity researchers as theoretically unrelated. In contrast, social identity theorizing suggests a model of creativity in which groups play a role both in inspiring creative acts and in determining the reception they receive. More specifically, this approach argues that shared social identity (or lack of it) motivates individuals to rise to particular creative challenges and provides a basis for certain forms of creativity to be recognized (or disregarded). This chapter explicates the logic underlying the social identity approach and summarizes some of the key evidence that supports it.
Integrating Mechanisms and Functions to Understand Behavior
Authors: Welling Lisa L. M. , Shackelford Todd K.
Published: May 2019

Evolutionary psychology and behavioral endocrinology provide complementary perspectives on interpreting human behavior and psychology. Hormones can function as underlying mechanisms that influence behavior in functional ways. Understanding these proximate mechanisms can inform ultimate explanations of human psychology. This chapter introduces this edited volume by first discussing evolutionary perspectives in behavioral endocrinology. It then briefly addresses three broad topic areas of behavioral endocrinology: (1) development and survival, (2) reproductive behavior, and (3) social and affective behavior. It provides examples of research within each of these areas and describes potential adaptations. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the importance of integrating mechanisms with function when investigating human behavior and psychology.
Hormones, Sexual Orientation, and Gender Identity
Authors: Neibergall Nicholas C. , Swanson Alex J. , Sánchez Francisco J.
Published: May 2019

Gender identity and sexual orientation are two characteristics that play a significant role in human development. This chapter focuses on the potential role that hormones play in their development. First, a review of the direct effects of hormones and endocrine-disrupting chemicals is provided with a focus on animal models and persons born with disorders of sex development. Second, some evidence from association studies linking characteristics that are known or suspected of being influenced by hormones is provided. Although biological research has yielded some intriguing findings—especially from neuroimaging studies—scientists have yet to conclude what specific factors contribute to their development.
Synthetic Hormones
Authors: Hahn Amanda C. , Cobey Kelly D.
Published: May 2019

Following the invention of the hormonal contraceptive pill in the mid-20th century, there has been a rise in exogenous hormone use worldwide. Across the lifespan, many women will utilize synthetic hormones in the form of hormonal contraceptives and/or hormone replacement therapy. It is estimated that 100 million women worldwide use combined oral contraceptives, whereas 20 million women worldwide use hormone replacement therapy. Although extensive research has been done investigating the health side effects of these synthetic hormones, relatively little is known about their potential cognitive and behavioral consequences. This chapter reviews knowledge regarding the potential impact of these synthetic hormones on women’s psychology. Much of this work derives from the field of evolutionary psychology, which considers potential adaptive functions of behavior and their underlying mechanisms. This chapter emphasizes the need for randomized within-subject clinical trials to better understand the true causal effects they may have on women’s behavior.
Hierarchy and Testosterone
Authors: Geniole Shawn N. , Carré Justin M.
Published: May 2019

Hierarchy, the relative ranking of individuals with respect to status or other social dimensions, is ubiquitous across human social groups. However, relatively little is known about the biological factors that may promote or inhibit mobility in status hierarchies. Prominent theoretic perspectives suggest that concentrations of testosterone in the bloodstream fluctuate dynamically in anticipation of and in response to social challenges, serving to promote behaviors aimed at gaining/maintaining status. This chapter reviews studies that have directly examined the extent to which endogenous, competition-induced surges in testosterone predicted subsequent competitiveness and aggressiveness. Studies suggest that testosterone surges promote competitiveness, but that this effect is complex and depends on several factors. More consistent was evidence that testosterone surges predicted subsequent aggressive behavior. Testosterone–behavior links were also specific to men, suggesting that surges in this hormone may serve different functions, or may promote alternative behavioral strategies for gaining and maintaining status, in women.
Oxytocin
Authors: Grebe Nicholas M. , Gangestad Steven W.
Published: May 2019

Substantial excitement surrounds the mammalian peptide hormone oxytocin (OT) due to its potential to be a “hormone of love”—and more generally, a biological foundation for the diverse classes of intimate social bonds. Yet, theoretical models have struggled to absorb inconsistent, even contradictory, findings. Evolutionary theory will guide a coherent functional interpretation of the OT system. This chapter focuses on life history theory, a branch of theoretical biology that seeks to identify how natural selection shapes organisms’ efforts to optimally allocate limited resources. Endocrine hormones are important mediators of this process. A review of the psychological and physiological literature regarding OT suggests a number of possible trade-offs negotiated by oxytocinergic activity. This chapter proposes a provisional life history model in which OT is central to the regulation of important but vulnerable social relationships. It outlines implications of this model, addresses a number of caveats, and suggests directions for future research.
Social Bond Paradoxes
Authors: Witczak Lynea R. , Simmons Trenton C. , Bales Karen L.
Published: May 2019

An emergent literature illustrates some mechanisms by which social bonds are maintained throughout the animal kingdom. Examples of social bonds include parent–offspring bonds, monogamous pair-bonds, and friendships. Each type of bond involves a set of behaviors that can impose paradoxical physiological consequences. Testosterone levels, for example, are generally low during displays of parental care and high for infant defense, two behaviors that are necessary for maintaining parent–offspring bonds. This chapter details instances where social bonds may force physiological trade-offs in oxytocin, vasopressin, testosterone, and cortisol signaling. Specifically, it examines the endocrine trade-offs necessary for balancing mating and parenting behaviors; affiliation with mating and parenting; group stability among dominant and subordinate individuals; and multiple strong, simultaneous bonds across individuals. The synthesis provides evidence of physiological trade-offs as an explanation for social paradoxes and provides a framework for further exploration into the understanding of hormone mediation of social bond maintenance.
Hormones and Behavior
Authors: Vitousek Maren N. , Schoenle Laura A.
Published: May 2019

Hormones mediate the expression of life history traits—phenotypic traits that contribute to lifetime fitness (i.e., reproductive timing, growth rate, number and size of offspring). The endocrine system shapes phenotype by organizing tissues during developmental periods and by activating changes in behavior, physiology, and morphology in response to varying physical and social environments. Because hormones can simultaneously regulate many traits (hormonal pleiotropy), they are important mediators of life history trade-offs among growth, reproduction, and survival. This chapter reviews the role of hormones in shaping life histories with an emphasis on developmental plasticity and reversible flexibility in endocrine and life history traits. It also discusses the advantages of studying hormone–behavior interactions from an evolutionary perspective. Recent research in evolutionary endocrinology has provided insight into the heritability of endocrine traits, how selection on hormone systems may influence the evolution of life histories, and the role of hormonal pleiotropy in driving or constraining evolution.
Hormones, Circadian Rhythms, and Mental Health
Authors: Cisse Yasmine-Marie , Borniger Jeremy C. , Nelson Randy J.
Published: May 2019

Circadian rhythms permit adaptations to predictable temporal environmental changes. Daily 24-hour rhythms are controlled by molecular clockworks within the brain that are set by the daily light–dark cycle. Downstream endocrine signaling conveys temporal information throughout the body. Mood disorders often present with disruptions in circadian clock-controlled responses, such as sleep and cortisol secretion, whereas circadian rhythm disruptions via jet lag, night-shift work, or light at night increase disordered affective symptoms. Evidence suggests strong associations between circadian rhythms and mental health, but only recently have studies begun to discover the direct interactions between the circadian system and mood regulation. This chapter provides an overview of circadian rhythms and the circadian regulation of the endocrine system. It discusses how the circadian and endocrine systems interact to affect depressive, anxious, and addictive responses. Finally, it discusses the potential detrimental effects the widespread use of nighttime light has for mood and cognition.
Future Directions in Human Behavioral Endocrinology
Authors: Welling Lisa L. M. , Shackelford Todd K.
Published: May 2019

Research within behavioral endocrinology has produced substantial advances over the past few decades. Knowledge of the biological mechanisms involved in human behavior informs evolutionary perspectives on selection pressures in our ancestral past, which encourages the development of more complete theories and more refined research questions. Yet, despite these advances, many unanswered questions remain. This chapter outlines broad suggestions for future hormone research within the topics of development and survival, reproductive behavior, and social and affective behavior. It concludes with several general suggestions for the field, including more research using hormonal assays, longitudinal and experimental designs, exogenous hormone administration, and cross-cultural work. It also suggests that researchers continue to consider the function of other endocrine traits (e.g., carrier proteins) and measure or manipulate hormones in combination with assessing hormone receptor genes. Behavioral endocrinology is a field replete with important future research directions that will contribute important insights into the evolution of our own and other species.
Sex Differences in Cognition
Authors: Hampson Elizabeth
Published: May 2019

Organizational and activational effects of sex steroids were first discovered in laboratory animals, but these concepts extend to hormonal actions in the human central nervous system. This chapter begins with a brief overview of how sex steroids act in the brain and how the organizational-activational hypothesis originated in the field of endocrinology. It then reviews common methods used to study these effects in humans. Interestingly, certain cognitive functions appear to be subject to modification by sex steroids, and these endocrine influences may help explain the sex differences often seen in these functions. The chapter considers spatial cognition as a representative example because the spatial family of functions has received the most study by researchers interested in the biological roots of sex differences in cognition. The chapter reviews evidence that supports an influence of both androgens and estrogens on spatial functions, and concludes with a glimpse of where the field is headed.
Hormones and Major Depressive Disorder
Authors: Ellenbogen Mark A. , Tsekova Virginia , Serravalle Lisa
Published: May 2019

Hormonal influences figure prominently in the development of major depressive disorder (MD). The chapter addresses the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and gonadal (i.e., estrogen and testosterone) hormones that are most relevant to MD. There is substantial evidence of HPA dysfunction in persons with MD, including adrenal hypersensitivity leading to elevated cortisol levels and deficient negative feedback control of the axis. These abnormalities may represent a marker of vulnerability for MD, as they are observed in high-risk populations prior to the development of the disorder. Gonadal hormones are related to specific presentations of MD. Estrogen sensitivity appears to underlie a “reproductive” form of MD in women, as seen during the menstrual cycle, postpartum period, and perimenopausal transition. Low testosterone, as occurs during normal aging, is associated with an increased risk for MD in men. These hormonal changes may be important in defining subtypes of MD that might be treated with targeted interventions.
Reproductive Behavior in the Human Male
Authors: Goetz Stefan M. M. , Weisfeld Glenn , Zilioli Samuele
Published: May 2019

Given the pivotal role of differential reproduction to the evolutionary success of ancestral men, evolution has produced a plethora of reproductive strategies aimed at solving the complexities of intramale competition and satisfying and/or thwarting the reproductive desires of women. Life history theory recognizes that an organism has limited resources and must invest energy appropriately. Broadly, reproductive strategies can be dichotomized into short-term (emphasizing mating over parental effort) versus long-term (emphasizing parenting over mating effort) strategies. Increasingly, the neuroendocrine system—especially testosterone—has been recognized as the proximate mechanism orchestrating adoption of one strategy over the other. This chapter reviews behaviors geared toward solving problems associated with both long-term and short-term reproductive strategies and discusses the neuroendocrine correlates. The adoption of one strategy over another is conceptualized as conditional or facultative adaptations in which strategic switching points are tuned over evolutionary time to produce optimal fitness responses to men’s social and physical conditions.
Mate Preferences Across the Lifespan
Authors: Boothroyd Lynda G. , Vukovic Jovana
Published: May 2019

Humans show preferential responses to “attractive” individuals from the first hours of life onward. However, these early preferences are subject to later development in terms of increasing agreement on general attractiveness and preferences for specific dimensions of attractiveness. This chapter outlines aspects of mate choice and considers evidence for their hormonal mediation in adults. It then examines preferences for these traits across infancy, puberty, and menopause and considers potential hormonal mediation arguments for the mate choice changes observed during these periods. The chapter finds overall that expression of specific preferences is ambiguous in infancy, but there is clear evidence that preferences become stronger in late childhood and adolescence (albeit subject to disruption around puberty). There is also evidence suggesting a decline in some preferences at menopause in women. Across the developmental and lifespan literature, there is a critical lack of studies directly assessing hormones. The chapter closes with recommendations for future research.
The Influence of Maternal Stress and Child Maltreatment on Offspring
Authors: Deer Lillybelle K. , Bernard Kristin , Hostinar Camelia E.
Published: May 2019

Child maltreatment has significant impacts on developmental trajectories and is one of the most preventable early-life adversities. It shapes the development of many biological systems, with most research concentrating on its influence on stress response systems like the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. This chapter reviews associations between child maltreatment and HPA axis activity across development. One emerging pattern is that of flattened diurnal cortisol slopes in children, adolescents, and adults with childhood maltreatment histories. This effect was moderated by psychiatric diagnosis, maltreatment subtype, and genetic vulnerability in some studies. Effects on cortisol reactivity are more mixed, including reports of higher reactivity, lower reactivity, or no differences compared to nonmaltreated samples. Interventions that focus on enhancing the quality of parent–child relationships early in life may reverse some of the effects of maltreatment. This chapter discusses implications of maltreatment-related alterations in HPA axis function for mental and physical health and concludes with suggested future research directions.
Overview of the Oxford Handbook of Adult Cognitive Disorders
Authors: Alosco Michael L. , Stern Robert A.
Published: May 2019

This handbook provides an up-to-date, scholarly, and comprehensive review of the spectrum of cognitive disorders in adults. Drawing on contributions from clinicians, clinical researchers, basic and translational scientists, and other experts on their respective topic and leaders in their field, the volume examines current clinical practice and research for adult cognitive disorders ranging from Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia to Parkinson’s disease, frontotemporal dementia, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, autism spectrum disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Part I deals with cognitive impairment and decline that often occur in the context of normal aging; Part II considers the spectrum of adult cognitive disorders, including the impact of medical and psychiatric disorders on cognitive function, adult neurodevelopmental disorders, and various neurological conditions; and Part III offers unique perspectives and special considerations for the clinician and clinical researcher in adult cognitive disorders, such as the roles of cognitive reserve, genetics, neuropathology, and translational science, as well as ethical and diversity implications. The book also discusses major advances in basic and clinical neuroscience during the past century that have been aimed at reducing the burden associated with adult cognitive disorders, such as those relating to fluid and neuroimaging biomarkers, risk and protective factors of cognitive impairment, and neuropathological and translational research methods.
Neuropsychology of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Authors: Vasterling Jennifer J. , Walt Gabriel S.
Published: May 2019

Exposure to psychological trauma is sometimes followed by significant emotional and behavioral changes that constitute post-traumatic stress reactions, including Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Neurocognitive decrements constitute one of the core features of PTSD, and a growing literature has identified specific patterns of neurocognitive compromise and related neurobiological features. This chapter provides an overview of neurocognitive features of PTSD, including performance on both standardized, emotionally neutral neuropsychological tasks and information processing abnormalities in the context of emotionally relevant stimuli. Direction of causality is also discussed, namely whether neurocognitive integrity is a moderator of psychological outcomes following trauma exposure and/or whether neurocognition is adversely affected by PTSD development. The chapter also includes a review of associated biological features potentially underlying expressed neurocognitive features, including neuroimaging findings, neurotransmitter and neuroendocrine characteristics, and genetic and epigenetic factors. In addition, it provides a brief overview of some of the major theoretical frameworks relevant to cognitive processes as a mechanism for PTSD development and maintenance. Finally, the chapter addresses the relationship of neurocognitive functioning to treatment, both as a predictor of treatment response and as an outcome of treatment.
Alcohol Use Disorder
Authors: Le Berre Anne-Pascale , Laniepce Alice , Segobin Shailendra , Pitel Anne-Lise , Sullivan Edith V.
Published: May 2019

Alcohol is a psychoactive substance consumed worldwide and directly responsible or at least contributing to the development of diseases such as alcohol use disorder (AUD), cirrhosis, fetal alcohol syndrome, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. The past decades of research have revealed brain structural and functional abnormalities associated with mild to moderate cognitive impairment in recently detoxified AUD patients. Such functional compromise can be detectable even before the development of more chronic and severe neurological complications such as Korsakoff’s syndrome (KS) and alcohol-related dementia (ARD). Excessive alcohol consumption results in impairment in attention, executive functions, memory, visuospatial and motor skills, as well as deficits in metamemory processes, emotion recognition, and theory of mind abilities. As a consequence, early in abstinence, some AUD patients may not be cognitively able to benefit from therapies and could be at risk to relapse because cognitive impairment hampers efficient decision-making, motivation to change, and learning skills, in addition to challenging emotional and interpersonal interactions. This chapter describes the alcohol-related cognitive impairment observed in recently detoxified AUD patients. It then discusses potential cognitive recovery or persistence of these deficits with prolonged abstinence and their clinical implications in terms of treatment and abstinence or relapse. The specificity of the AUD cognitive and motor profile is contrasted with alcohol-related neurological complications (i.e., KS and ARD) and other neurocognitive disorders (i.e., Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal dementia). Finally, structural and functional brain abnormalities as well as their relationship with neuropsychological impairments are presented.
Autism Spectrum Disorders in Adults
Authors: Pretzsch Charlotte M. , Findon James L. , Murphy Declan G.
Published: May 2019

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a common, pervasive neurodevelopmental condition characterized by social impairments and restricted and repetitive behaviors and interests. Furthermore, frequently co-occurring physical and mental health conditions, including depression, anxiety, and epilepsy, contribute to the substantial burden on affected individuals, their family, and society. Consequently, the cost of ASD to society is greater than that of cancer, stroke, and heart disease combined. The cause of ASD is poorly understood, and there are currently no effective pharmacological treatments for its core symptoms. However, significant progress has been made in elucidating the molecular, genetic, neuroanatomical, and neurochemical associates of ASD, potentially paving the way for new treatment approaches.
Cognitive Functions in Patients with Brain Tumors
Authors: Correa Denise D.
Published: May 2019

Patients with cancer of the central nervous system often experience cognitive dysfunction as a result of the tumor and its treatment, including radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Difficulties in aspects of attention and executive functions, and learning and retrieval of new information, are the most prevalent in survivors, and they often interfere with survivors’ ability to resume work and social activities. As effective treatment interventions have increased survival, there has been growing recognition of the relevance of including cognitive evaluations as outcome variables in neuro-oncology research. Advancements in the field include the development of guidelines for the use of standardized neuropsychological instruments in the context of clinical trials and the inclusion of sensitive cognitive tests in several multicenter studies. Recent studies have also begun to investigate the underlying mechanisms and genetic risk factors that may contribute to treatment neurotoxicity. This chapter reviews the literature on cognitive dysfunction in patients with brain tumors, mechanisms of neurotoxicity, and currently used methods of treatment and management.
Hydrocephalus
Authors: Khan Aamir A. , Solomon David , Moghekar Abhay R.
Published: May 2019

Hydrocephalus specifies a disorder of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) physiology resulting in abnormal expansion of the cerebral ventricles, associated with increased intracranial pressure in certain subtypes. An equilibrium between CSF production and CSF reabsorption maintains mean CSF pressure at 5–25 cm of water in normal adults. In patients with communicating and noncommunicating forms of hydrocephalus, the buildup of extra CSF fluid within the ventricles may cause increased intracranial pressure. Idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH) causing ventriculomegaly without intracranial hypertension is a related and under-reported condition. The epidemiology of hydrocephalus is greatly disputed. Due to etiological heterogeneity, lack of a conclusive definition, and regional treatment variations, the true incidence of hydrocephalus is not known in adults or children. Clinical features, especially in children, commonly include a classical complex of elevated intracranial pressure, headache, vomiting, and drowsiness. Less common clinical features may include papilledema, abducens nerve palsy, and lethargy. iNPH typically presents with some combination of gait, cognitive impairment, and urinary dysfunction. Investigation centers around radiological modalities such as computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging scans with the addition of CSF sampling to assess mean CSF pressure and CSF drainage. Treatment of hydrocephalus is based on a number of factors, including age, etiology, severity, and supplementary testing. Treatment is usually indicated wherever hydrocephalus is considered to be progressive. Surgical intervention is central to management. This chapter discusses the classification, epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment, controversies, and future research agendas for hydrocephalus—a condition with an economic burden that outweighs its resources allocation.