bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Systematics and evolution
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

The herons are a fairly ancient group of birds. Although bird fossils are rare, herons are exceptionally rare even by avian standards (Bochenski 1995), totalling fewer than 40 identified species. Even the number of existing fossils is a moving target, as the restudy of available material periodically reassigns various specimens to non-heron taxa. Fortunately the lower leg bone of herons, the tarsometatarsus, often the bone preserved in fossils, is quite distinctive (Becker 1985, Olson 1979).
White-necked Heron Ardea pacifica
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

Other names: Pacific Heron, Crane in English; Garza Cuelliblanca in Spanish; Héron à téte blanche in French; Weißhalsreiher in German. Ardea pacifica Latham, 180 1. Ind. Orn., Suppl. 1, p. 45: New South Wales. The White-necked Heron is a medium to large, robust looking, grey heron with a completely white neck and head. ADULT: The head and neck are white, with black spotting running vertically down the foreneck.The irises are yellow to green; lores are dark grey to black, often with a cream-green to pale yellow streak from the bill to the eye.
Great Egret Ardea alba
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

Action is described as being by far less vigorous than the equivalent display of the Eastern Great Egret (M. Maddock pers. comm.). Eggs are pale green-blue, slightly pitted, and average 58 X 39 mm. Clutch is 4 eggs, occasionally 2–6. Incubation is 28–30 days. Both adults feed young by regurgitation.Young give rasping calls in the nest. Parents continuously attend and guard the nest and small young until 3–4 weeks. Older sib- lings harass the smallest chick, which usually dies. In colonies, young form groups on branches. Generally only two chicks survive. Fledging occurs in 6–7 weeks.
Eastern Great Egret Ardea modesta
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

Despite feeding aggregatively, it seems best adapted to feed alone.Through most of the year, the egret preferentially does so. Even when nesting colonially, it tends to fly to feeding areas alone, choose vacant sites, and land away from other feeding birds (Smith 1995b). Feeding in aggregations does not increase efficiency, decrease capture variability, or increase prey intake, and takes more of its time in aggressive interactions (Wiggins 1991, Master et al. 1993). And it tends to capture even smaller prey in aggregations than alone.
Reddish Egret Egretita rufescens
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

High dispersal tendancy, ability to breed in year one, high nesting success, potentially low chick mortality, low first year mortality but relatively short life span suggest that the Cattle Egret is indeed the “r” strategist among herons, a species well adapted to exploiting changing environments through population increases. The Cattle Egret is the heron success story of the twentieth century. It has expanded across the world, responding to human habitat change and is becoming an integral part of the human landscape nearly worldwide.
Snowy Egret Egretta thula
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

The Little Blue Heron is a specialist in shallow water stalking, and it benefits from being alone where it can walk very slowly along taking care not to scare its potential prey, or by feeding commensally following another animal capturing the prey it disturbs. Its engagement in feeding aggregations apparently is an extension of its commensal feeding.
Little Egret Egretta garzetta
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

Uncertainty about recent population trends in the USA suggests the need for a range-wide survey, which should be readily possible given the conspicuousness of the birds.An action plan for this species within the southeast USA is desirable in that it has shown a tendency for population shifts. Provision of a suitable dispersion of nesting and feeding sites is crucial, especially given the tenuous future of crayfish aquaculture. In North America, tri-national conservation efforts need to be organized to monitor pesticide burden and determine any populational impact of contaminants.
Green Heron Butorides virescens
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

Other names: Green-backed Heron, Little Green Heron, Little Crabier, Poor Joe, Gaulin,Water Witch, Pond Bird in English; Garcita Verde, Garzita azulada, Garza Rayada, Chicuaco, Caga Leche, Cuaco, Crá-Crá, Martinete in Spanish; Heron vert, Krabye rivié, Kio in French; Groene reiger in Dutch.
Chinese Pond-Heron Ardeola bacchius
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

Other names: Paddybird in English; Garcilla China in Spanish; Crabier chinois in French; Bachursrei- her in German; Kara-shirasagi in Japanese Chi lu in Chinese. The Chinese Pond-Heron is a small white bird with golden-buff streaks on its head and back; in the breeding season it turns dark with wine- chestnut head and neck and purple-black back with white wings. ADULT: The non-breeding adult has a golden brown to buff, streaked head.
Fasciated Tiger-Heron Tigrisoma fasciatum
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

season (Stiles and Skutch 1989). It is May–August in most of its range but February–April in Panama.The tiger heron nests solitarily in trees above the water, especially in mangroves (Rhizophora). Nests are small to large platforms made of sticks, usually lined with leaves. They are placed on branches 4–15 m above the ground. Courtship is little understood in this species, and the displays reported have little context to them (Dickey and van Rossem 1938, Sutton et al. 1950, Wetmore 1965).
Comparative tests of evolutionary lability and rates using molecular phylogenies
Authors: Gittleman John L , Anderson C Gregory , Kot Mark , Hang Kwang Luh
Published: November 2023

Molecular phylogenies provide an estimate of the evolutionary history of extant taxa. If, for example, it is possible to reconstruct hierarchical changes in a clade within a given time frame, then evolutionary rates and lability can be estimated (Harvey et al. 1991, 1994). This is an important step in our understanding of the evolutionary process because previously we relied on measures taken from the fossil record thus restricting study to well-preserved traits. Via molecular phylogenies, it is now possible to trace evolutionary patterns in behavioural, ecological, or other poorly preserved traits. Here we shall test the idea that behavioural and ecological characters evolve at faster rates than morphological traits. Conceptually, our work parallels cladistic analyses of the origin, transitions, and historical (homology) constraints of behaviour and ecology (see for example Lauder 1986; Coddington 1988; de Queiroz and Wimberger 1993; Greene 1994; for review see Brooks and McLennan 1991). However, in contrast to that body of work, we examine continuous traits using statistical comparative methods and molecular phylogenies for measuring taxonomic divergence and rate. Using quantitative techniques may permit a broader comparative sweep (both in traits and taxa) for analysing evolutionary trends and, more importantly, may permit full use of the more precise nature (branch lengths and divergence times) of molecular phylogenies. We emphasize, however, that the present work is inherently descriptive, and not of a causal form.
Accurate crystal structure analysis by neutron diffraction
Authors: Jeffrey George A
Published: November 2023

Single-crystal neutron diffraction analysis is a long-established method of structure determination which is well documented in textbooks (Willis 1970; Brown and Forsyth 1973; Bacon 1975). Because a neutron-diffraction crystal structure analysis is a relatively expensive and time-consuming experiment, the method serves to complement the deficiencies of X-ray crystal structure analysis. The neutron scattering cross-sections of the atoms vary over a narrow range compared with the X-ray scattering factors, which increase with atomic numbers. Therefore, neutron diffraction is more effective for determining the atomic parameters of light atoms in molecules containing heavy atoms. This is particularly important in the study of hydrogen bonding, both in small molecules and in large biological macromolecules. It is also useful for distinguishing between atoms which are adjacent in the periodic table, where there is only a small proportional difference in the X-ray scattering factors.
Nature and reactivity of excited states and radicals
Authors: Bensasson R v. , Land E J , Truscott T G
Published: November 2023

When light (or any electromagnetic radiation) falls on a sample it may be transmitted, scattered or absorbed. If an atom or molecule is in the path of electromagnetic radiation of a range of frequencies certain energies will be absorbed, corresponding to the energy difference between two energy levels, i.e. at the resonant frequency—this applies whether the two levels are rotational, vibrational or electronic.
Protection against superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and ferrous ions
Authors: Symons M C R , Gutteridge J M C
Published: November 2023

Oxygen-centred radicals are constantly formed in the body during normal metabolic processes, and biological systems have evolved to live with them, control them, and even utilize them for purposeful chemistry.
Biological measurements and fingerprints of radical and related damage
Authors: Symons M C R , Gutteridge J M C
Published: November 2023

The hydroxyl radical is far too reactive to be directly detected in vivo using present methodologies. Consequently, evidence of its biological existence is sought by indirect methods which assess patterns of damage characteristic of the hydroxyl radical. One of the most incriminating ‘calling cards’ the "OH radical leaves behind is its ability to hydroxylate aromatic molecules by the addition reaction (see Chapter 5).
Condensation
Authors: Whalley P B
Published: November 2023

Condensation can occur in two ways, as illustrated in Fig. 22.1. First there could be filmwise condensation, as in Fig. 22.l(a), where the condensate (that is the liquid formed when the vapour condenses) forms a continuous film on the solid surface. The latent heat released on condensation is conducted through this film from the interface where the condensation occurs and is removed through the wall. The other mechanism is drop wise condensation, shown in Fig. 22.l(b). In this case the condensate forms in drops which do not wet the solid surface well. The drops therefore do not form a continuous •film; instead they reach a certain critical size and then run off the surface. The surface is left dry and another drop can begin to form, rather like the formation of bubbles in nucleate boiling from a nucleation site. Because in drop wise condensation the vapour is in direct contact with the solid surface, the condensation heat transfer coefficients are significantly larger than in film wise condensation. However, dropwise condensation is difficult to promote reliably. Special surface coatings do give drop formation, but the effectiveness of such surface treatments decreases with time. The normal design practice is to assume that film wise condensation takes place.
Analysing the Screw
Authors: Davidson Joseph K , Hunt Kenneth H
Published: November 2023

In the familiar rectangular Cartesian coordinate frame in three dimensions, a certain surface (or, to be precise, the coordinates of those points that lie on it) can be defined by writing a single condition f f (x, y, z) 0. When two such conditions are imposed, f  1 0 and f  2 0 , the points that satisfy both of them lie on the curve that is common to the two given surfaces. When both f  1 and f  2 are linear functions of x, y, and z, then both the surfaces are planes, and they intersect one another in a line. In many books dealing with algebraic geometry in three dimensions, a line is so defined, and then manipulated and developed through the medium of the planes used initially to define it.
Transformations for Coordinates that Locate a Rigid Body
Authors: Davidson Joseph K , Hunt Kenneth H
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters most of our analyses have made use of a rectangular Cartesian coordinate frame. Since every robot comprises moving bodies, or links, a complete description of its relative displacements and force transfers can only be built by utilizing a succession of frames that continuously change in relative configuration. Often one frame is attached to or associated with each link, as indicated, for instance, for the robot in Fig. 1.8. To relate different displacements and forces, we need the means for transforming coordinates from one Cartesian frame to another.
In-parallel Actuation II: Combinations with Serial Devices
Authors: Davidson Joseph K , Hunt Kenneth H
Published: November 2023

We now move towards a vast range of possible robot-structures that embody in-parallel actuation. We have already mentioned the centuries-old tripod in §8.1. Other newer designs with fewer than six actuators are less well known but are in current use (e.g. the fast light-weight ‘DELTA’ robot, §9.8.2). Applications to numerically controlled machining, welding, and precision riveting appear to be attracting increasing attention. And there still remains an unending list of potential structural forms for such robots; Merlet (2000) gives the most comprehensive description to date of those possibilities that have been identified and investigated.
Static Stability in Legged Vehicles
Authors: Davidson Joseph K , Hunt Kenneth H
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we describe an application of screws to maintain automatically the static stability of legged vehicles and the impact of this stability on the coordination of displacements at the actuators in the individual legs. In Chapters 8 and 9, we presented other ways that the screw is used to coordinate displacements and velocities, but the relationship for static stability is distinctly different. There are also other interesting problems in controlling legged vehicles, such as the rules of gait. For a summary of the problems associated with controlling legged vehicles see Song and Waldron (1989).
Introduction
Authors: Collie John G , Eng F R S F , John R , Phil Thome D
Published: November 2023

The subject of boiling and condensation under conditions of natural or forced convection is an extremely important one. The design of watertube and fire-tube boilers, pipe stills, water-cooled nuclear reactors, refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment, heat pumps, petrochemical plant reboilers and condensers, surface condensers and many other major items of chemical and power plant is dependent upon a knowledge of the fluid dynamic and heat transfer processes occurring during convective boiling and condensation.
Empirical Treatments Of Two-Phase Flow
Authors: Collie John G , Eng F R S F , John R , Phil Thome D
Published: November 2023

The ‘homogeneous’ model and the ‘separated flow’ model are the two most widely used and tested treatments of two-phase flow at present available. However, a large number of other empirical and semi-empirical methods have been suggested from time to time and a few of these approaches are outlined in the first half of this chapter. The most relevant and useful of these methods are those which attempt to model the particular hydrodynamic features of the flow and therefore the treatments are loosely grouped under the various flow patterns discussed in Chapter 1. Needless to say, these methods have to be used in conjunction with some method of defining the extent of the flow regime such as a flow pattern map.
Saturated Boiling Heat Transfer
Authors: Collie John G , Eng F R S F , John R , Phil Thome D
Published: November 2023

In this chapter the present state of knowledge regarding the heat transfer characteristics of saturated forced convective boiling and evaporation will be discussed. Returning to Fig. 4.21, it can be seen that this covers the regions C and D, where nucleate boiling is occurring at the wall and where the flow pattern would be typically bubbly, slug, or low vapour velocity annular and regions E and F where there is no nucleation at the wall; this latter region is normally associated with annular flow.
Critical heat flux in forced convective flow—1. Vertical uniformly heated tubes
Authors: Collie John G , Eng F R S F , John R , Phil Thome D
Published: November 2023

The nature of the critical heat flux condition in forced convection was briefly discussed in Chapter 4 in the context of the boiling surface. Critical heat flux in pool boiling was also discussed in Chapter 4. This limiting condition forms a most important boundary when considering the performance of heat exchange equipment in which evaporation is occurring. The critical heat flux condition is characterized by a sharp reduction of the local heat transfer coefficient which results from the replacement of liquid by vapour adjacent to the heat transfer surface. For the case where the surface heat flux is the independent variable, the condition manifests itself as a sharp increase in surface temperature as the critical heat flux value is reached. Likewise, a considerably reduced heat flux will result when the condition is reached using a temperature-controlled heating surface.
Fundamentals of Robot Dynamics
Authors: Arimoto Suguru
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, after a discussion of how difficult it is to explicate human dextrous motions in executing skilled tasks in terms of a theory of dynamics and control, the fundamentals of kinematics and dynamics of mechanical systems including robotic arms and hands are presented. The concepts of physical quantities such as momentum, force, torque, work, kinetic energy, and potential energy are introduced, by which Lagrange’s equation of motion is formalized. Hamilton’s principle plays a vital role in derivation of Lagrange’s equation and in assertion of the energy conservation law, which leads to the passivity of robot dynamics between torque inputs and velocity outputs.
Iterative Learning Control
Authors: Arimoto Suguru
Published: November 2023

A theory of iterative learning control for refinement of motions of robotic systems is presented, together with simulation results. It is shown that the passivity of such non-linear mechanical systems plays a key role in the ability to acquire a desired and skilled movement through repeated practice. This iterative learning scheme can be also applied to robot dynamics under holonomic tool tip constraint. When fluctuations and measurement noise exist, the introduction of a forgetting factor in the learning update law becomes crucial in the convergence of trajectory tracking errors.
Nonlinear Systems and State Constraints
Authors: Alamir Mazen , Barnard Guy
Published: November 2023

In this paper, new sufficient conditions for the stability of Receding Horizon Control strategy [RHC] are proposed. Two versions of this strategy are considered. The first deals with finite horizon cost and a final constraint on the state vector. The second is defined with an infinite horizon cost with a restriction on the command vector to a finite dimensional space. The whole context in which the problem is defined is that of both regulation and tracking control based on a reference model.
Conversion Factors
Authors: Cook James L
Published: November 2023

This is a handy reference for students, teachers, and practitioners in engineering, physics, sciences, and technical subjects. More than 3500 conversion factors are given; these have been calculated from primary conversion factors agreed internationally. All conversion factors are given to the greatest accuracy possible up to ten significant figures. The conversion factors are grouped into unit types by areas of science, and range from angular acceleration to volume flow. An appendix of agreed primary conversion factors is given. Also of practical help are appendices of common mathematical and engineering formulae.
Primary conversion factors
Authors: Cook James L
Published: November 2023

By far the most coherent of these is the SI system and although the author has included units from all the above systems in this book, he would strongly recommend that the reader learns to use the SI system at all times. This book should help in that respect. Some definitions in this book differ slightly from those given in other references. The following notes have been compiled to clarify any differences that may concern the reader.
Numerical data
Authors: Cook James L
Published: November 2023

Density of water : 1000.0 kilograms/meter3 Viscosity of water (18 °C) : 0.001 newton seconds/meter2Heat capacity of water : 4.0 kilojoules/kilogram K Thermal conductivity of water : 0.6 watts/meter KLatent heat of boiling water : 2.0 mega joules/kilogram Latent heat of fusion of ice : 334.0 kilojoules/kilogram.
Mathematical formulae
Authors: Cook James L
Published: November 2023

The roots are real and distinct, real and equal, or complex according as b2 - 4ac is positive, zero, or negative respectively. The sum of the roots is -bf a; the product of the roots is The standard normal distribution is normal with mean 0 and variance 1.A distribution related to the normal is the lognormal: a random variable is distributed log normally if its natural logarithm is distributed normally-say, with mean µ and variance a2• In this case, the lognormal mean and variance are respectively.
Curves
Authors: Marciniak Krzysztof
Published: November 2023

A curve segment is in most cases defined by a mapping P(t) of the interval [ a, b] into Euclidean space (see Fig. 3.1). If the parameter t is interpreted as time, P( t) describes the movement of point P and the curve is the trajectory of the point.
Surfaces
Authors: Marciniak Krzysztof
Published: November 2023

The mapping of the plane into space is the most commonly used representation of a surface (Fig. 6.1). Surface points are described by the mapping P(u) where P is a point in space and u is a point on the plane. If a coordinate system C = (0, u, v) is chosen on the plane, then the surface is represented by the function P(u, v) of two real variables.
Sculptured surfaces machining on 5C milling machines
Authors: Marciniak Krzysztof
Published: November 2023

On NC milling machines with a control unit of type SC a tool moves such that the direction of the rotation axis moves in space. A tool movement may be uniquely defined by the movement of a versor v on the tool axis and an arbitrarily chosen point C(t) on this axis (Fig. 12.1). An example of a SC machine tool structure is presented in Fig. 12.2. The trajectory shape depends upon the interpolators in the machine control unit (which are usually linear) but in practice any tool trajectory may be approximated by a polygon, so we may assume that any curve may represent a tool movement. A tool trajectory has to be calculated exactly, that is, approximately but within a tolerance of0.001 to 0.01 mm, and the tool feed rate may be calculated with an error of approximately So/o.
Basic Concepts
Authors: Woods L C
Published: November 2023

A substance in the gaseous state consists of an assembly of a vast number of microscopic particles that, excepting when they collide with each other, move freely and independently through the region of physical space available to them. The nature of the particles depends largely on the temperature of the assembly. At low temperatures, but above the critical value at which liquefaction can occur, they are molecules. At higher temperatures the molecules dissociate into atoms, and at still higher temperatures the atoms will become ions by shedding some of their electrons. The resulting assembly is termed a ‘ plasma’. Partially ionized plasmas consist of a mixture of neutral (i.e. uncharged) atoms, electrons, and ions, requiring at least three distinct species of microscopic particles to be included in a mathematical representation of their collective behaviour.
Intermediate Kinetic Theory
Authors: Woods L C
Published: November 2023

In the elementary theory, the peculiar velocity c is treated as being a dependent variable. It depends on an initial value co chosen from the equilibrium distribution Jo, on the lapsed time since the last collision and on local temperature and fluid velocity gradients (see (3.40)). The procedure makes no use of the actual distribution function J, since Jo is entirely sufficient for averaging purposes. Details of the collisional process are suppressed by adopting relaxation times 71 and 72 for momentum and energy transfer. These times could be regarded as being a phenomenological input to the theory. However, if their dependence on an assumed molecular force law is required, then advanced kinetic theory is unavoidable. We shall present two forms of this theory in the following chapters.
Kinetic Theory For Magnetoplasmas
Authors: Woods L C
Published: November 2023

One of the basic assumptions of Boltzmann’s equation is that only binary collisions contribute to the collision integral, whereas in a plasma each particle is simultaneously interacting with the vast number of particles lying within a Debye distance. Most of these interactions result in very small deflections (see final paragraph of §6.3.3). From this description it would appear unlikely that Boltzmann’s equation has much relevance in plasma physics. In the first five sections of this chapter we shall introduce and apply a kinetic equation—known as the Fokker-Planck equation—which is usually considered to be more appropriate for plasmas, although in fact it can be deduced from Boltzmann’s equation by restricting the scattering angles to small values.
An Introduction to Ultrasonic Motors
Authors: Sashida Toshiiku , Kenjo Takashi
Published: November 2023

The ultrasonic motor, invented in 1980, utilizes the piezoelectric effect in the ultrasonic frequency range to provide the motive force. (In conventional electric motors the motive force is electromagnetic). The result is a motor with unusually good low-speed high-torque and power-to-weight characteristics. It has already found applications in camera autofocus mechanisms, medical equipment subject to high magnetic fields, and motorized car accessories. Its applications will increase as designers become more familiar with its unique characteristics. This book is the result of a collaboration between the inventor and an expert in conventional electric motors: the result is an introduction to the general theory presented in a way that links it to conventional motor theory. It will be invaluable both to motor designers and to those who design with and use electric motors as an introduction to this important new invention.
The Piezoelectric Element And Vibrator
Authors: Sashida Toshiiku , Kenjo Takashi
Published: November 2023

The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical oscillations which takes place in the piezoelectric element can be separated into two areas of study. One is the study of piezoelectric material and its properties. The other is the mathematical treatment of the electrical-to-mechanical energy transformation. There is quite an extensive literature covering both of these aspects in detail: ref 1 and 2, for example, deal with piezoelectric materials, while ref 3 and 4 discuss the electromechanical energy transformation. We restrict our presentation to those topics which are necessary for our treatment of the ultrasonic motor, mostly summarizing the results achieved by early researchers. With regard to the treatment of the electrical-to-mechanical energy transformation, however, we shall make use of the equivalent circuit method, and relate it to the subject of friction as treated in Chapter 2.
Theory Of The Ultrasonic-Wave Motor
Authors: Sashida Toshiiku , Kenjo Takashi
Published: November 2023

The ultrasonic wave motor was viewed as a major innovation compared with the wedge-type motor when it was announced, and it generated considerable interest in ultrasonic motors in general. In this chapter, the theory of flexural waves is first presented, then the mechanisms involved in generating thrust or torque from flexural waves are explained. The phenomenon of energy losses when electric power is converted to mechanical work is also discussed. In Chapter I, the concepts of standing waves and travelling waves were introduced, using waves generated in a stretched string. In the ultrasonic-wave motor, the waves are created by vibrations in a beam rather than a string. Before discussing waves in a beam, however, it will be useful first to gain an understanding of waves carried in a string. Consider a uniform string stretched along the x-axis (see Fig. 5.la) which is made to vibrate in they-direction (b). The behaviour of each point along the string can be determined by setting up and solving the appropriate equations of motion. Forces acting on a string segment are shown in Fig. 5.2.
Conceptual Overview
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

When a fluid flows past a stationary body or, equivalently, when a body moves in a fluid at rest, aregion of disturbed flow is always formed around the body. The extent of the disturbed flow region is largely dependent on the shape, orientation, and size of the body, the velocity and viscosity of the fluid, and may be influenced by a wide variety of small disturbances.
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

A new branch of fluid mechanics,Rheology, has rapidly been developed. It deals with non-Newtonian fluids which behave anomalously in comparison with Newtonian fluids. The anomaly is the variation in viscosity with the applied stress while the viscosity is constant for all Newtonian fluids.
The Hypergeometric Function
Authors: Andrews Larry C
Published: November 2023

Because of the many relations connecting the special functions to each other, and to the elementary functions, it is natural to inquire whether more general functions can be developed so that the special functions and elementary functions are merely specializations of these general functions. General functions of this nature have in fact been developed and are collectively referred to as functions of the hypergeometric type. There are several varieties of these functions, but the most common are the standard hypergeometric function ( which we discuss in this chapter) and the confluent hypergeometric function (Chap. 10).
Nonlinear ordinary differential equations
Authors: Jordan D W , Smith P
Published: November 2023

Nonlinear ordinary differential equations was first published in 1977 and has since become a standard text in the teaching of the subject. It takes a qualitative approach, and is designed for advanced undergraduate and graduate students of dynamical systems in mathematics or mathematics-related subjects. The text of this third edition has been completely revised to bring it into line with current teaching, including an expansion of the material on bifurcations and chaos. The book is directed towards practical applications of the theory, with several hundred examples and problems covering a wide variety of applications. Prerequisites are kept to a minimum, with appendices containing the necessary mathematical theory new to this edition. From reviews of the first edition: The book can profitably be used in a senior undergraduate course. It is well written, well motivated and contains some recent developments of interest which have not been readily accessible before at this level. V. Lakshmikantham in Mathematical Reviews From reviews of the second edition: The subject has wide applications in physical, biological, and social sciences which continuously supply new problems of practical and theoretical importance. The book does a good job in motivating the reader in such pursuits, and presents the subject in a simple but elegant style. P. K. Kythe in Applied Mechanics Reviews
Singular perturbation methods
Authors: Jordan D W , Smith P
Published: November 2023

This Chapter is concerned with approximating to the solutions of differential equations containing a small parameter E in what might be called difficult cases where, for one reason or another, a straightforward expansion of the solution in powers of c is unobtainable or unusable. Often in such cases it is possible to modify the method so that the essential features of such expansions are redeemed. Ideally, we wish to be able to take a few terms of an expansion, and to be able to say that for some small fixed numerical value of E supplied in a practical problem the truncated series is close to the required solution for the whole range of the independent variable in the differential equation. Failure of this condition is the rule rather than the exception. In fact the examples of Chapter 5 do not give useful approximations if we work solely from the initial conditions (see Problem 5.15): for satisfactory approximation we must use the technically redundant information that the solutions are periodic.
Liapunov methods for determining stability of the zero solution
Authors: Jordan D W , Smith P
Published: November 2023

In Chapter l we described the •energy method’ for determining that an equilibrium point at the origin is an attractor, in connection with simple systems that allow a discussion in terms of the change in energy levels along the phase paths as time progresses. The Liapunov theory described in this Chapter may be regarded as a development of this idea. It has no necessary connection with energy, concerns solution stability rather than Poincare stability, and has a broader field of application. We discuss only two-dimensional autonomous systems in detail, but the theory can be extended to higher-dimensional and nonautonomous cases (Cesari 1971). Sections I 0.1 to l 0.4 give a geometrical treatment for two-dimensional systems based on the Poincare-Bcndixson theorem applied to topographic systems of a simple type. In particular it is shown how a further requirement will frequently allow asymptotic stability to be proved by using a weak Liapunov function. In Section l 0.5 the theorems are proved in the usual, and more general, form. With small changes in expression they also apply ton-dimensional cases.
Bifurcations and manifolds
Authors: Jordan D W , Smith P
Published: November 2023

A characteristic of nonlinear oscillating systems which has become a subject of considerable recent interest is the great variety of types of response of which they are capable as initial conditions or parameter values change. The passage from one set of responses to another often occurs very suddenly, or catastrophically’: instances of this were shown in Section 1.7 in connection with a parameter-dependent conservative system, and in Section 7.3 on the jump phenomenon of Duffing’s equation. Further examples of such changes are given in the present Chapter, the linking concept being the idea of bifurcation, where the sudden change in behaviour occurs as a parameter passes through a critical value, called a bifurcation point. A system may contain more than one parameter, each with its own bifurcation points, so that it can display extremely complex behaviour, and computer studies play an important part in providing a taxonomy for the behaviour of such systems. We shall look at some of the elementary characteristics of bifurcations as they arise in the fold and cusp catastrophes, the Hopf bifurcation and structural instability.
Solving integrable systems
Authors: Guest Martin A
Published: November 2023

Our objective in this chapter is to review how the ‘Grassmannian model of the loop group’, usually referred to as the Sato or Segal—Wilson Grassmannian, provides a conceptual framework for solving integrable systems with spectral parameter. While it is certainly possible to solve integrable systems without mentioning the Grassmannian model, such methods always involve complicated ad hoc calculations. The Grassmannian model does not eliminate the complicated calculations, but it organises them efficiently and provides an intelligent compromise between the concrete and the abstract. It also reveals the infinite-dimensional symmetry groups behind such systems. We shall summarize the three main approaches which use the Grassmannian model, and then show how they are unified by the D-module point of view.
The Minium: Evolution Distance-Based Approach To Phylogenetic Inference
Authors: Desper Richard , Gascuel Olivier
Published: November 2023

Distance algorithms remain among the most popular for reconstructing phylogenies, especially for researchers faced with data sets with large members of taxa. Distance algorithms are much faster in practice than character or likelihood algorithms, and least-squares algorithms produce trees that have several desirable statistical properties. The fast Neighbor .Joining heuristic has proven to be quite popular with researchers, but suffers somewhat from a lack of a statistical foundation. we show here that the balanced minimum evolution approach provides a robust statistical justification and is amenable to fast heuristics that provide topologies superior among the cllass of distance algorithms. The aim of this chapter is to present a comprehensive survey of the minimum evolution principle, detailing its variants, algorithms, and statistical and combinatorial properties. The focus is on the balanced version of this principle, as it appears quite well suited for phylogenetic inference, from a theoretical perspective as well as through computer simulations.
Tau in musical expression
Authors: Lee David N , Schögler Benjaman
Published: November 2023

What is it that makes a great actor, musician, prima ballerina or performance artist? Many and varied talents are at work, but in every case it is individuals’ ability to communicate by controlled body movements that distinguishes their art. Creative artistic expression often excites the communication of complex ideas and emotions through a manipulation of ‘narrative’ in different modalities simultaneously, thereby stimulating affect (Malloch 2005).
Towards a chronobiology of musical rhythm
Authors: Osborne Nigel
Published: November 2023

The existence of biological clocks—clusters of rhythmically pulsing neurons that keep time for living organisms, regulate metabolism, procreation, movement, communication and even the temporal nature of human thought (Foster and Kreitzman 2004)—raises key questions about the relationship between the rhythm we experience in moving and that we easily share in music, our biology and neurobiology, and our culturally refined consciousness of time (Husserl 1969; Lakoff and Johnson 1980, 1999; Turner and Pöppel 1988; Schögler 1999; Pöppel and Wittman 1999; Pöppel 2002;

Donald 1991; Krumhansel 2000; Stern 2004; Lee 2005; Schögler and Trevarthen 2007).
Molecular Basis Of Tau Protein Pathology: Role Of Abnormal Hyperphosphorylation
Authors: Iqbal Khalid , Alonso Alejandra del C , Chohan M Omar , El-Akkad Ezzat , Gong Cheng-Xin , Khatoon Sabiha , Liu Fei , Grundke-lqbal Inge
Published: November 2023

Tau protein pathology, seen as neurofibrillary degeneration, is a hallmark of Alzheimer‘s disease (AD) and related tauopathies. To date, the most established and the most compelling cause of dysfunctional tau in AD and related tauopathies is the abnormal hyperphosphorylation of tau. The abnormal hyperphosphorylation results not only in the loss of tau function of promoting assembly and stabilizing microtubules but also in a gain of a toxic function whereby the pathological tau sequesters not only normal tau, but also the other two neuronal microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs), MAPlA/MAPlB and MAP2, and causes inhibition and disruption of microtubules.
Inflammation And Alzheimer‘s Disease
Authors: Mattson Mark P
Published: November 2023

Both brain-intrinsic and humoral inflammatory processes occur in Alzheimer‘s disease (AD). The contributions of such immune-response-related cellular interactions and molecular cascades to the dysfunction and death of neurons are beginning to be elucidated. Local activation of microglia and astrocytes which produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, together with activation of complement cascades, may occur early in the course of the disease in response to amyloid peptide (A ) accumulation and oxidative stress. As the disease progresses the production of signalling molecules by damaged cells and activated glia may recruit leucocytes to the affected brain regions. Epidemiological findings and data from studies of animal models of AD suggest that anti-inflammatory drugs and dietary manipulations can delay disease onset and may slow the progression of AD. Stimulation of an immune response by immunization with A or A antibodies also holds promise for disease prevention and treatment.
Amyloid-Based Therapies
Authors: Xia Weiming
Published: November 2023

Alzheimer‘s disease (AD) is characterized by the progressive accumulation of extracellu lar neuritic plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles. Neuritic plaques are com posed of the amyloid p protein (AP), which is derived from the P-amyloid precursor protein (APP) after P- and y-secretase cleavages. Because the neuritic amyloid plaque is an early and invariant feature of AD, reducing amyloid deposition is a rational approach to intervening in the neuropathological progression of disease. The current search for amyloid-based therapies is mainly focused on blocking AP generation, enhancing AP degradation, clearing AP from brain by vaccine, and interfering with AP oligomerization.
Apples or Oranges? Selection of the Control Group
Authors: Simon Stephen D
Published: November 2023

Almost all research involves comparison. Do women who take Tamoxifen have a lower rate of breast cancer recurrence than women who take a placebo? Do left-handed people die at an earlier age than right-handed people? Are men with severe vertex balding more likely to develop heart disease than men with no balding? In each of these situations, you are making a comparison between a control group and a treatment/exposure group. I will use the terms treatment and exposure interchangably throughout this book, though I will reserve treatment for those conditions which represent an effort to produce a beneficial result and exposure to represent a condition that is potentially harmful. You would call drinking water from a natural spring a treatment, but drinking water from a contaminated well an exposure. The distinction between treatment and exposure is not that critical though, and when I discuss a generic ‘treatment’ in this book, feel free to substitute the word ‘‘exposure’’ and vice versa.
What Do the Other Witnesses Say? Corroborating Evidence
Authors: Simon Stephen D
Published: November 2023

This analogy also holds for research studies. Some studies are so well done that their evidence alone would be enough to convince you. Other studies, however, provide only weak evidence. But when this evidence is combined with other information, the evidence can become quite strong. Sir Austin Bradford Hill outlined a series of tests that you could use to evaluate whether an association between an environmental factor and disease was credible (Hill 1965). These criteria are not perfect. A strong criticism of Hill’s criteria appear in a classic textbook on epidemiology by Kenneth Rothman and Sander Greenland (Rothmann 1998). Rothman and Greenland point out that none of Hill’s criteria (with the exception of temporality) are necessary or sufficient for establishing cauastion.
Do the Pieces Fit Together? Systematic overviews and meta-analyses
Authors: Simon Stephen D
Published: November 2023

When there are multiple research studies evaluating a new intervention, you need to find a way to assess the cumulative evidence of these studies. You can do this informally, but medical researchers now use a formal process, known as meta-analysis. Meta-analysis, involves the quantitative pooling of data from two or more studies. More recently, another term, systematic overview, has come into favor. A systematic overview involves the careful review and identification of all research studies associated with a topic, but it may or may not end up pooling the results of these studies. So meta-analysis represents a subset of all the systematic overviews. I tend to use the older term, meta-analysis, partly because I am stubborn, but partly because I am interested in the quantitative aspects of this type of research. But most of my comments apply more broadly to systematic overviews.
What Do All These Numbers Mean?
Authors: Simon Stephen D
Published: November 2023

I have a fictional story that I tell people. It is about someone who comes to my office and says he has trouble understanding a recently published paper. I look at the title: ‘In vitro and in vivo assessment of Endothelin as a biomarker of iatrogenically induced alveolar hypoxia in neonates’ and say that I understand why you would have trouble with a paper like this. ‘Yeah’, he says in return, ‘I don’t understand what this boxplot is on page 3.’
Markov chains
Authors: Stirzaker David
Published: November 2023

Useful models of the real world have to satisfy two conflicting requirements: they must be sufficiently complicated to describe complex systems, but they must also be sufficiently simple for us to analyse them. This chapter introduces Markov chains, which have successfully modelled a huge range of scientific and social phenomena, supported by an extensive theory telling us how Markov chains behave. Because they combine tractability with almost limitless complexity of behaviour, Markov processes, in general, are the most useful and important class of stochastic models.
Parameter estimation II
Authors: Sivia D S
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, we were concerned with the most elementary type of data analysis problem: parameter estimation involving just one unknown variable. Now let us progress to the more common case in which there are several parameters; some of these will be of interest to us, but others merely a nuisance. As well as being a more challenging optimization problem, we will be led to generalize the idea of error-bars to include correlations and to the use of marginalization to deal with the unwanted variables. We will also see how certain approximations naturally give rise to some of the most frequently used analysis procedures, and discuss the so-called propagation of errors.
What is cancer?
Authors: Franks Leonard M , Knowles Margaret A
Published: November 2023

Cancer has been known since human societies first recorded their activities. It was well known to the ancient Egyptians and to succeeding civilizations but, as most cancers develop in the latter decades of life, until the expectation of life began to increase from the middle of the nineteenth century onwards, the number of people surviving to this age was relatively small. Now that the infectious diseases, the major causes of death in the past, have been controlled by improvements in public health and medical care, the proportion of the population at risk of cancer has increased dramatically.
How far can you go with Hebbian learning, and when does it lead you astray?
Authors: McClelland James L
Published: November 2023

This paper considers the use of Hebbian learning rules to model aspects of development and learning, including the emergence of structure in the visual system in early life. There is considerable physiological evidence that a Hebb-like learning rule applies to the strengthening of synaptic efficacy seen in neurophysiological investigations of synaptic plasticity, and similar learning rules are often used to show how various properties of visual neurons and their organization into ocular dominance stripes and orientation columns could arise without being otherwise preprogrammed. Some of the plusses and minuses of Hebbian learning are considered.