bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Exercise of Information Influence in Legal Advocacy1
Authors: Lind E. Allan
Published: August 2006

The information search and transmission behavior of information‐supplying agents was studied using an experimental analog of a legal situation. An experiment was conducted to test the predictions of social psychological theories concerning the use of information influence and to test several assumptions of proponents of the American adversary system in law. In a 2 × 2 × 3 factorial design, first‐year law students acted as attorneys under conditions of high correspondence of outcomes with the judge versus high correspondence of outcomes with an involved party; perception that the outcomes of another attorney in the situation were correspondent with the judge versus correspondent with an involved party; and the discovery that the information environment was favorable, ambiguous, or unfavorable. Significantly greater information search was observed for party‐oriented subjects relative to judge‐oriented subjects only when the information environment was unfavorable. Party‐oriented subjects showed greater attempted use of information influence than did judge‐oriented subjects. Analyses of the amount and distribution of the information transmitted by pairs of subjects assessed the characteristics of several legal “systems”. The theoretical and applied implications of the study were discussed.
Petitioning: Dress Congruence Versus Belief Congruence1
Authors: Bryant Nigel J.
Published: August 2006

“Hip” and “straight” Es asked 240 passersby, who were also classified as “hip” or “straight”, to sign a petition. Each E received more signatures from S s of like dress only when the petition was neutral. There were no significant differences between the E s or S s for the two politically stronger petitions. It is proposed that dress congruence will override belief congruence only when the beliefs involved are of little significance to the S.
Predicting Perceptions of Victimization
Authors: Miller Frederick D. , Smith Eliot R , Ferree Myra Marx , Taylor Shelley E.
Published: August 2006

Male and female subjects rated female victims of misfortune after observing videotapes of the victims detailing their injuries to doctors. Contrary to predictions of just wortd theory, subjects derogated culpable victims more than innocent victims. When observers identified with the victim, through political ties, derogation was reduced. It was concluded that responses to victims are described by a balance theory framework in which the observer's relationships to the victim and the victimizing agent determine whether (s)he will react to victims with sympathy or derogation. It was further concluded that these relationships can be predicted from an understanding of the social and political context shared by the perceiver and the victim.
Penalties for Rape as a Function of Victim Provocativeness, Damage, and Resistance
Authors: Scroggs James R
Published: August 2006

Subjects responded to one of four cases of rape which they read by indicating how many years in prison the rapist should serve as a penalty. In Experiment 1, the cases presented the victim as either provocatively dressed or nonprovocatively dressed, and either pregnant as a result of the rape or not pregnant. Older subjects gave significantly higher penalties when the victim was pregnant, while younger subjects did not. In Experiment 2, the cases presented the victims as being either raped or robbed and as resisting or not resisting her attacker. Male subjects gave significantly lower penalties when the victim did not resist, while female subjecis gave higher penalties when the victim did not resist‐this interaction being significant for both crimes.
Effects of Inadmissible Evidence and Level of Judicial Admonishment to Disregard on the Judgments of Mock Jurors1
Authors: Wolf Sharon , Montgomery David A.
Published: August 2006

The effects of inadmissible evidence on the judgments of mock jurors were examined in a 2 × 3 design. Subjects (N= 168) read a trial transcript in which critical testimony was introduced either by the prosecution or by the defense and subsequently ruled admissible, ruled inadmissible, or ruled inadmissible with an admonishment by the judge to disregard that testimony. A Control condition in which the critical testimony was omitted was also run. Results indicated that judgments of the defendant's guilt were strongly influenced by the critical testimony when it was ruled admissible. When it was simply ruled inadmissible, the critical testimony had little effect on the guilt judgments. However, when the judge specifically admonished the jurors to disregard the inadmissible testimony, their verdicts were influenced in the direction of that testimony. Further, subjects in the Inadmissible With Admonishment conditions indicated a significantly greater desire to be allowed to consider the inadmissible testimony than did subjects in the Inadmissible Without Admonishment conditions. The results were interpreted in terms of psychological reactance (Brehm, 1966).
Predicting Helping Behavior: Willingness and Ascription of Responsibility
Authors: Zuckerman Miron , Siegelbaum Heidi , Williams Restee
Published: August 2006

Based on Schwartz' (1973) model of altruistic behavior, it was hypothesized that subjects who rate high on willingness to donate blood and ascription of responsibility to the self will be more likely to donate blood than all other subjects. Willingness to donate blood and AR were measured among 180 undergraduates enrolled in an introductory psychology course at the beginning of the spring semester. Actual blood donation was measured 2 months later in the context of a Red Cross blood drive. The results supported the hypothesis.
Judgment Processes and Interpersonal Conflict Related to Societal Problem Solutions1
Authors: Summers David A. , Ashworth Clark D. , Feldman‐Summer Shirley
Published: August 2006

An application of multidimensional scaling to judgments about potential solutions to the overpopulation problem yielded two dimensions: Voluntary versus involuntary and economic versus noneconomic. The location of the “solutions” in this two dimensional space was closely related to their judged acceptability, for both original and cross‐validation samples. The two‐dimensional coordinates of the “solutions” were then used as implicit cue values in a “lens model” analysis of potential conflict among the subjects. This analysis indicated that judgmental inconsistency was likely to be the major source of conflict for these subjects.
Individual Differences, Situational Constraints, and Police Shooting Incidents
Authors: Inn Andres , Wheeler Alan C.
Published: August 2006

Differences in the personal nature of police officers as well as differences among the situational constraints due to assignments are considered in an examination of the occurrences of police involvement in shooting incidents. The Poisson and negative binomial models used in accident research are considered for representing the occurrence of shooting incidents. Data were gathered from incidents in a large metropolitan police department over a 34‐month period and used to test the two models. Various analyses indicate a good Poisson fit. Implications of the data are discussed.
To Have–or Not to Have–Another Child: Family Planning Attitudes, Intentions, and Behavior1
Authors: Vinokur‐Kaplan Diane
Published: August 2006

Two hundred eighty‐two respondents, representing 141 married couples with either one child (N= 71 couples) or two children (N= 70 couples), were interviewed about their considerations and intentions regarding whether or not to have another child. Reports of their actual subsequent family planning behavior were obtained 12 months later via a mailed questionnaire. The data was gathered and analyzed according to Fishbein's attitude‐behavior model which stipulates that the individual's actual behavior is a function of one's behavioral intention. This intention, in turn, is determined by two multiple factors: (a) the individual's beliefs about the consequences of performing the behavior multiplied by his/her evaluation of those consequences, and (b) one's normative beliefs multiplied by one's motivation to comply with the perceived norms. The results provided substantial support for the model; both behavioral intention and actual behavior were successfully predicted from the attitudinal and normative components of the model. It was also shown that the behavioral intention mediates the relationship between the model's attitudinal and normative components and actual behavior.
Effects of Anticipated Interaction, Sex, and Homosexual Stereotypes on First Impressions1
Authors: Gurwitz Sharon B. , Marcus Melinda
Published: August 2006

The effects of anticipated interaction on liking were examined, with the person being evaluated sometimes being presented as a member of a negatively stereotyped group. The stereotype studied was that associated with male homosexuals. The standard effect of anticipated interaction causing increased liking was obtained when females rated either a homosexual or a non‐ homosexual male and when males rated a nonhomosexual male. When males anticipated interacting with a homosexual male, however, they rated him less favorably than did males who did not anticipate interacting with him. It was also found that both males and females liked the stimulus person less and attributed stereotypic traits to him more when he was homosexual than when he was not. These latter effects were stronger for males than for females.
Soliciting Charity Contributions: The Parlance of Asking for Money1
Authors: Benson Peter L. , Catt Viola L.
Published: August 2006

The major purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of three verbally‐mediated variables on financial contributions in a door‐todoor charity campaign. The relationship of race to contributions was also observed by using both black and white subjects. One hundred and twenty black and 120 white subjects were randomly assigned to one of 8 verbal appeals in a 2 (High vs. Low Dependency) × 2 (Internal vs. External Causal Locus of Need) × 2 (“it is your social responsibility” vs. “it will make you feel good” Expressed Reason for Giving) factorial design. The solicitor controlled for order effects by varying the sequence of these three variables within each experimental group. Main effects were found for Rae, Causal Locus of Need, and Expressed Reason for Giving: Whites contributed more than blacks, the external locus of need condition produced more giving than the internal condition, and persons who heard the “feel good” reason donated more than those in the “social responsibility” condition. Additionally, a significant Causal Locus of Need × Expressed Reason for Giving interaction was found. The combination of external locus of need and “feel good” was considerably more productive of contributions than the other three combinations. Implications of these results for the helping behavior literature are discussed.
Racial Differences in Children's Responses to Inequity1
Authors: Gray‐Little Bernadette , Teddlie Charles B.
Published: August 2006

Racial differences were examined in the responses of grammar school boys to an unfair distribution of rewards. Our primary interests were equity‐restoration and inequity distress. Race of the three participants, allocator of rewards, beneficiary, and victim were varied in a factorial design. Generally, children who profited from the unfair distribution made no attempt to restore equity regardless of race. Black children who were victims did try to restore equity when the allocator was also black. All victims experienced emotional distress that was more extreme when the allocator's race was different from their own. Victims also justified their mistreatment by blaming themselves. There was no evidence of guilt on the part of the beneficiaries who disavowed the inequity. Thus equity‐restoration through denial of responsibility by the advantaged and justification of inequity by the disadvantaged resulted in acceptance of a fundamentally unfair situation by beneficiary and victim alike.
Affirmation of the High‐Power Person and His Position: Ingratiation in Conflict
Authors: Tjosvold Dean
Published: August 2006

Eighty college students were induced to be bargainers who had high power in that they controlled more valued resources than the other bargainer. The low‐power bargainer (a confederate) expressed different types of affirmations (positive evaluations) of the participants. The low‐power bargainer either strongly or mildly affirmed the personal effectiveness of the participants and either strongly or mildly affirmed their negotiating position. Participants whose personal effectiveness was strongly, compared to mildly, affirmed increased their self‐evaluation and were attracted to the low‐power person. They did not, however, agree to the low‐power person's demand. Participants whose position was strongly, as opposed to mildly, affirmed did not increase their self‐evaluation nor were they more positive toward the low‐power person. They did reject the low‐power person's demand. Results were interpreted as suggesting that strong affirmations of personal effectiveness and of position may be ineffective ingratiation strategies in conflict.
Understanding Public Reaction to Energy Proposals: An Application of the Fishbein Model1
Authors: Bowman Carole H. , Fishbein Martin
Published: August 2006

The Fishbein attitude model was applied to voter decision‐making on an energy ballot proposal. Questionnaires were sent to a random sample of potential voters in Oregon's 1976 general election and dealt with the Nuclear Safeguards Initiative, a measure that would place restrictions on future nuclear power plants. Questionnaire items probed the attitude toward the act of voting “Yes” on the measure (Aact), perceived likelihood of various consequences of voting “Yes” (Bi), evaluations of these consequences (ei), the subjective norm (SN), normative beliefs (NBi), motivation to comply with several referents (Mci), and voting intention (VI). A follow‐up interview determined the actual voting behavior (VB) of persons responding to the questionnaire. The following model predictions were tested and strongly supported by the data: (a) VB=VI; and (e) external variables have a nonsignificant relation to VB once VI is partialled out. It was concluded that the Fishbein model should be extremely useful in understanding public reaction to future energy proposals.
Individual Differences in Affective, Evaluative, and Behavioral Responses to an Erotic Film1
Authors: Fisher William A. , Byrne Donn
Published: August 2006

The current research sought to replicate and explore further unexpected pilot data indicating that negative reactions to filmed erotica may be associated with post‐exposure increases in sexual activity. Subjects (31 males, 31 females) viewed an erotic film; background variables, affective, evaluative, and sexual‐behavioral responses were assessed. Compared to individuals who evaluated the film as relatively nonpornographic, those who rated it as pornographic reported more restrictive sexual socialization experiences and more negative attitudes towards sex, responded to the film with more negative affect, and showed greater increases in sexual activity subsequent to exposure (all p <.05). Additional analyses provided some evidence that evaluations mediated behavioral responses to the stimulus. Cognitive labeling, transfer of arousal, and disinhibition considerations which may account for the relationship between responses to erotica and post‐exposure sexual activity were discussed.
Emotional Empathy in a Courtroom Simulation: A Person‐Situation Interaction1
Authors: Archer Richard L. , Foushee H. Clayton , Davis Mark H. , Aderman David
Published: August 2006

A pair of experiments were conducted using a simulated courtroom trial of a criminal case. In Experiment I subject‐jurors were asked by defense counsel either to imagine themselves as the defendant (empathy‐inducing appeal) or to pay close attention to evidence (nonempathy appeal). Later the judge delivered only general instructions or, in addition, charged jurors to give consideration only to the facts presented. When there was no Fact‐focused judge's charge, juror‐subjects who heard the empathy‐inducing appeal rated the defendant's actions as more lawful and attributed less of the cause for the incident to his personality than did their counterparts in the nonempathy condition. Experiment II included individual differences in the tendency to empathize as an additional mediating variable. The original pattern of effects found for the manipulated variables in Experiment I appeared again, but were overshadowed by the stronger effects of the individual difference variable and of subject sex. Subject‐jurors who scored high on the empathy individual difference measure rated the defendant less guilty, assigned less cause to him, and showed corresponding mood shifts when they heard the empathy‐inducing appeal. In addition, male subjects empathized more strongly with the male defendant and viewed him more favorably.
Implicit Representations of Political Leaders: A Multidimensional Analysis
Authors: Forgas Joseph P.
Published: August 2006

Implicit cognitive representations of 20 salient political personalities (10 domestic, 10 foreign) were studied in two samples (N1= 121; N2= 129) over a 1‐year interval. The aim of the study was to elaborate multidimensional models of voting preference by (a) representing the cognitive dimensions used by subjects in perceiving politicians, (b) contrasting perceptions of domestic and foreign leaders, (c) evaluating the effects of time, and (d) assessing individual differences between subjects on political perception. Judgments were analyzed by Carroll and Chang's (1970) Individual Differences Multidimensional Scaling (INDSCAL) procedure. Results showed that three implicit dimensions, evaluation, ideology, and leadership qualities, underlied perceptions of both domestic and foreign politicians. There were greater changes in perceptions of foreign and left‐of‐center leaders over the year than in judgments of domestic and right‐of‐center leaders; and individual differences such as attitudes, personality, and cognitive style were also significantly related to cognitive representations of politicians. Results were discussed in terms of their implications for predictive models of voting behavior, and the use of these methods in large‐scale political surveys and polls is suggested.
Physiological, Cognitive, and Nonverbal Responses to Repeated Exposure to Crowding1
Authors: Epstein Yakov M. , Woolfolk Robert L. , Lehrer Paul M.
Published: August 2006

The present study testcd the hypotheses that crowded subjects would evidence higher levels of arousal than uncrowded subjects and that the arousal of crowded subjects would not habituate with the passage of time. In a laboratory setting, subjects were exposed three tinies over a 3‐week period to either crowding with physical contact or an uncrowded environment. A high degree of convergence in support of the experimental hypotheses was provided by behavioral, physiological, and self‐report measures. Crowded subjects were more physiologically aroused; rated by confederates to be more tense, uncomfortable, and annoyed; and reported more negative affect than uncrowded subjects. No evidence for habituation of. response to crowding was found.
Reactions to Patients who Complain of Pain: Effects of Ambiguous Diagnosis1
Authors: Gillmore Mary Rogers , Hill Charles T.
Published: August 2006

Reactions to patients who complain of pain were explored in an experimental study in which nursing students viewed a videotape of a “hospital patient”. The medical diagnosis and the physical attractiveness of the patient were systematically varied. Results indicated that an ambiguous diagnosis itself led to a negative impression of the patient, rather than leading to the use of nonrnedically relevant information (physical attractiveness) to form an impression. Patients with an ambiguous diagnosis were rated less favorably on trait adjectives, and their pain was seen as less genuine.
The Impact of Time Proximity and Level of Generality on Attitude‐Behavior Consistency1
Authors: Katz Janet
Published: August 2006

This study examines the effects of (1) generality equivalence between attitudinal and behavioral entities and (2) the order and proximity of the attitude and behavior questions on the observed relationship between attitudes and behavior. The behaviors examined are sentence recommendations for six hypothetical defendants. The sample is composed of 185 line probation officers from New York State. The variables chosen conform to Martin Fishbein's model of behavioral intentions. As predicted, the observed relationship is affected by both level of specificity and proximity of the questions. Order of the questions has little effect.
The Representation of Mortality Statistics and the Perceived Importance of Causes of Death
Authors: Harding Christina M. , Eiser J. Richard , Kristiansen Connie M.
Published: August 2006

This study investigated how different methods of presenting mortality statistics may influence subjective impressions of the importance of a given cause of death. Subjects were 214 students from the fifth year of a comprehensive school (average age 15). Each subject rated one of six causes of death on a scale labeled “extremely minor–extremely major cause of death” before and after receiving accurate information concerning the number of deaths per annum in the United Kingdom resulting from the cause in question. This information was presented in one of five forms: (a) a statement of what proportion of all deaths resulted from the specified cause; (b) a statement of what percentage of all deaths were so caused; (c) a pie chart representing the proportion pictorially; (d) a bar chart representing the proportion pictorially; and (e) a statement of absolute number of deaths from the specified cause without information on total number of deaths from all causes combined. Analysis showed that subjects discriminated between the different causes both before and after presentation of the information but their ratings were imperfectly calibrated with actual frequencies. Also, the changes in ratings following the information depended significantly on the mode of presentation. Except when subjects were told the absolute frequency, the changes were in the direction of decrease in perceived importance. This decrease was most marked in the bar chart and pie chart conditions. The data are interpreted in relation to the literature on statistical inference processes and on judgmental contrast.
Contemporary Worldviews: Personal and Policy Implications12
Authors: Buss David M. , Craik Kenneth H.
Published: August 2006

In the past several decades, changes in industrial societies have presented a host of issues, worldwide in scope, around which individual attitudes may form: technological growth, population expansion, environmental quality, global resources, differing societal goals, etc. This study (N= 325) was conducted to identify and assess the major attitude/belief constellations surrounding these issues and to examine their psychological basis and implications for risk perception and societal decision‐making procedures. Results supported the hypotheses that assessed contemporary worldviews are related in predictable ways to (a) the pexceived risk associated with selected technologies, (b) preferences for the manner in which societal decisions should be made, and (c) a coherent set of psychological variables. Discussion focuses on policy implications of differing contemporary worldviews and on future directions and applications of this line of research.
Decision Control and Process Control Effects on Procedural Fairness Judgments1
Authors: Lind E. Allan , Lissak Robin I. , Conlon Donald E.
Published: August 2006

Process control, the capacity to influence the content of a conflict resolution hearing, has been found repeatedly to affect disputants' judgments of the fairness of conflict resolution procedures, but never has there been an unambiguous test of the effect in nonbinding procedures. It was hypothesized that disputants experiencing nonbinding conflict resolution procedures, as well as those experiencing binding conflict resolution, would judge as more fair procedures high in disputant process control. One hundred nineteen undergraduate males and females were placed in apparent conflict with other suhjects. The procedure used to resolve the conflict was either high or low in disputant process control and was either binding or nonbinding. The outcome of the conflict resolution procedure was either favorable or unfavordblc to the subject. High disputant process control procedures were judged more fair than low disputant process control procedures regardless of whether the decision was binding, confirming the hypothesis. The results support new applications of procedural fairness theory and research and encourage testing of process control‐like variables in nonlegal settings.
Seat Belt Attitudes, Habits, and Behaviors: An Adaptive Amendment to the Fishbein Model
Authors: And John Wttenbraker , Gibbs Brenda Lynn , Kahle Lynn R
Published: August 2006

One hundred thirty‐four introductory psychology students participatcd in a longitudinal study of seat belt usage. The model of Fishbein and Ajzen was tested, as was the construct of habit within this context. Multiple regression analyses supported the basic Fishhein and Ajzen model predictions. Attitudes and subjective norms predicted intentions, which in turn predicted behavior. Furthermore, habit predicted behavior better than intention. The following nonspurious relationships were observed in cross‐lagged panel correlation tests: influence from subjective norm to intention, influence from intention to attitude, influcnce from attitude to subjective norm, influence from behavior to habit, and, of course, influence from attitude to behavior. Discussion included further consideration of the Fishbein and Ajzen model, social adaptation theory, and implications for seat belt usage.
Perceived Authoritarianism in Self and Others by Male College Students and Police Officers
Authors: Siiter Roland , Ellison Katherine W.
Published: August 2006

This study tested 62 police officers and 62 college males on their own authoritarianism and their estimates of the authoritarian beliefs of the other group. College students perceived police officers as much more authoritarian than the officers represented themselves as being (p < .0001). Officers were accurate in their estimations of students' authoritarianism, and there was no difference between officers and students in their characterizations of their own authoritarianism. The differences between these findings and those in much of the literature (especially that from the early 1970s) may be due to differences in police experience: Many of the officers in this sample had some college and thus direct experience with students. It may also be that officers are now being specifically chosen on the basis of less authoritarian attitudes. The results imply that rather than focusing on changing the attitudes of officers, police departments desiring better public relations might do well to concentrate on correcting public opinion.
Attitudinal and Social Factors in Adolescent Smoking: In Search of Peer Group Influence1
Authors: Eiser J. Richard , van der Pligt Joop
Published: August 2006

The smoking attitudes and behavior of two samples of British 15‐year‐olds (N = 278) were studied by questionnaire. “Smokers” (anyone who had smoked at all within the previous week) held less negative attitudes about smoking, were more likely to have a father who smoked, and anticipated less parental disapproval of their smoking. When asked to name their five best friends among their classmates, smokers were more likely to name other smokers than were nonsmokers. On the basis of these results, we argue that the notion of “peer group influence” should be reconceptualized in terms of intergroup processes and social identity concerns within the peer group.
Dealing with Poor Performance: Supervisor Attributions and the Cost of Responding1
Authors: Heerwagen Judith H. , Beach Lee Roy , Mitchell Terence R.
Published: August 2006

The Green and Mitchell (1979) model of the process by which supervisors diagnose and deal with the causes of subordinates' poor performance is based upon attribution theory. The notion is that the supervisor makes an attribution about the cause of the poor performance and then selects an appropriate response or solution to deal with the problem. Two ways in which this can lead to an inapprorpriate solution are, first, a bias toward making internal attributions and, second, an aversion to using costly, even though appropriate, solutions. This study demonstrates that it is possible to prompt participants to make more external attribution about poor performance. It also demonstrates that whichever attributions they make (either internal or external), the solutions they select to deal with the poor performance are congruent with their attributions provided that the solutions do not have explicit implementation costs associated with them. However, when implementation costs are made explicit, costs influence solution selection and reduce the congruence between the attributions and the selected solutions. The possible implications of this finding for success in dealing with poor performance are discussed.
Attributional Training Versus Contact in Acculturative Learning: A Laboratory Study1
Authors: Landis Dan , Brislin Richard W. , Hulgus Joseph F.
Published: August 2006

A culture assimilator, a programmed learning technique for teaching about another culture, was combined with behavioral contact to test for the joint effectiveness of the two approaches to acculturative training. A total of 45 White male college students were randomly assigned to five training conditions in a modified Solomon four‐group design. Results indicated significant differences between trained and untrained S s on knowledge of Black culture and better behavioral performance (as rated by Black confederates who were blind as to the training conditions) for S s receiving assimilator training followed by contact than the reverse condition. Apparently, the assimilator provides an opportunity to consolidate new attributions prior to their use in a real interaction. The reverse pattern (interaction before the formation of new attributions) is seen as anxiety producing and a test for the role of anxiety in intercultural training was generally positive. Possible implications of the results for cross‐cultural training theory and methodology are discussed.
The Catalytic Situation in the Violence Equation1
Authors: Toch Hans
Published: August 2006

This paper discusses views of violence that point to situational impingements on the aggressor as precipitants of his or her aggression. The view (situational determinism) is illustrated through excerpts from a trial that was concerned with police responsibility for incidents of police‐citizen violence. The excerpts high‐light the exonerating and antipsychological corollaries of the situational view and its emphasis on victim‐related variables. This deterministic scenario (violence situation) is contrasted with an interpersonal emphasis (violence transaction) and an offender‐centered perspective (violence opportunity). In contrast to the latter's emphasis on aggressor motivation, situational determinism implies the generic motivation (“normalcy”) of aggression. As a corollary, the view rejects the possibility of introducing deescalating options into evolving violence transactions.
Determining Factors in Choice of Arcade Games and their Consequences upon Young Male Players
Authors: Nelson Thomas M. , Carlson Dona R.
Published: August 2006

Two experiments, one conducted with male university students and the other with male high school and junior high school students, investigated (a) determinants of preferences for driving‐type games widely available in public game arcades, and (b) the effects of extended play upon mood and motivation to continue playing. Four games were investigated: these were Death Race and Demolition Derby, which simulate violent, antisocial driving behavior; and Night Driver and Le Mans, which simulate skilled prosocial driving behavior. Preference for arcade games simulating aggressive behavior was found to be independent of personality and mood. However, preferences were closely related to the performers' c]apabilities. Players who exhibited higher levels of skill preferred the more skilldemanding games and those who showed less skill preferred aggression games, suggesting the operation of competency motivation in that the players preferred games appropriate to their level of skill. Subjects reported that the games were exciting, but extended play produced discomfort or an increase in negatively toned moods (fatigue, anxiety, and depression) and a decrease in positively toned moods (social affection, surgency, skepticism, concentration and vigor). However, these effects were not found to be a function of the anti‐ or prosocial content in the specific games studied and may well be effects accompanying activities that are subjectively fatiguing.
Locus of Control and Activity Level as Moderators in the Quantitative Job Demands—Satisfaction/ Psychological Anxiety Relationship: An Experimental Analysis
Authors: Perrewé Pamela L.
Published: August 2006

The present study examined the impact the quantitative job demands on satisfaction and psychological anxiety. In addition, the moderating effects of locus of control and activity level were examined. Consistent with the literature, perceptions of job demands were found to negatively affect satisfaction and positively affect psychological anxiety. Individuals reporting high activity levels had the strongest positive relationship between perceived job demands and psychological anxiety. Finally, external locus of control strengthened the negative relationship between perceived job demands and satisfaction. Results and social implications are discussed.
Emotional Arousal and Helping Behavior in a Real‐Life Emergency1
Authors: Amato Paul R.
Published: August 2006

This study examined a hypothesized relationship between the level of emotional arousal and subsequent helping behavior in a real‐life bushfire emergency. Respondents were contacted after a major bushfire occurred near the city of Melbourne. They were asked about their emotional reactions on first hearing of the bushfire destruction and about their subsequent helping behavior. Respondents who reported feelings of shock, terror, horror, or sickness donated significantly more to bushfire appeals than did respondents not reporting these emotions. Helping was also related to initial feelings of sympathy for the victims and initial feelings of wanting to help the victims. The results support a general model of emergency intervention linking emotional arousal to helping behavior.
Some Potential Negative Social Consequences of Cigarette Smoking: Marketing Research in Reverse1
Authors: Dermer Marshall L. , Jacobsen Elaine
Published: August 2006

The effects of cigarette smoking on first impressions were examined in an interlocking series of studies. Provided college students evaluated peers who were neither extremely attractive nor unattractive, smoking typically reduced the positivity of evaluations regardless of participants' smoking. Targets photographed with smoking material were rated, for example, to be less considerate, calm, disciplined, honest, healthy, well‐mannered, and happy than when smoking material was absent. Replication with apparently older participants evaluating college students did not reveal smoking to influence ratings strongly. Further replication did not reveal smoking material simply to influence college students' ratings of an attractive professional model. These results were compared with earlier studies of the effects of cigarette smoking on interpersonal evaluation and an educational unit for deterring smoking was discussed.
Chains of Command: Responsibility Attribution in Hierarchies1
Authors: Hamilton V. Lee
Published: August 2006

Obedience to authority involves a chain of causation whereby one party causes another to act. Theoretical problems of responsibility in chains of command were addressed and responsibility within interpersonal causal chains was investigated among a quota sample of the Boston SMSA (N= 391). Findings replicated prior investigations of attitudes about the My Lai massacre and Calley trial. Most respondents approached the incident in terms of the assertion versus denial of responsibility—assertion on the basis of personal causation, versus denial the basis of superior orders. Judgments of responsibility for other bureaucratic crimes of obedience (Watergate burglary and cover‐up) or for wrongdoing in professional settings differed sharply, but tendencies to assign or reject assignment of responsibility to subordinates were consistently observable across incidents. Demographic cleavages supported earlier conclusions: More educated respondents and religious “others” (Jewish, other groups, and none) were more likely to assert individual responsibility, but education's effects were stronger for non‐Catholics. The paper concludes by raising the possibility of training individuals to assert individual responsibility in the face of illegal or immoral commands from authority.
The Attribution of Date Rape: Observer's Attitudes and Sexual Experiences and The Dating Situation
Authors: Jenkins Megan J. , Dambrot Faye H.
Published: August 2006

This study investigated the effects of individual experience with sexual aggression/victimization, rape myth score and dating situational factors on rape attributions. A sample of 332 males and 323 females from a freshman‐level class read one of three rape scenarios—a planned date with monetary investment, a planned dutch‐treat date and an unplanned pick‐up date. ANOVAS consisting of a 3 (scenarios) × 2 (above vs. below median on rape myth scale) × 5 (level of sexual aggression/victimization) were performed separately for each sex on four ratings of the rape scenario. Sexually aggressive males and males who agreed more with rape myths were less likely to perceive the scenarios as rape, blamed the victim more, perceived the victim as desiring intercourse and viewed the assailants’ behavior as less violent. The dating situation did not affect their attributions. Females tended to rate a pick‐up date scenario as rape more frequently than a date with monetary investment and females who agreed more with rape myths tended to blame the victim and perceive the victim as desiring intercourse. A female's previous experience of sexual victimization did not influence attributions. The results are interpreted within a social‐cultural context for males and points to the role of situational factors in understanding date rape from the female/victim perspective.
In the Eye of the Beholder: Accounting for Variability in Attitudes and Cognitive/Affective Reactions Toward the Threat of Nuclear War1
Authors: Hamilton Scott B. , Knox Thomas A. , Keilin William G. , Chavez Ernest L.
Published: August 2006

The present study was designed to evaluate four characteristics of subjects [i.e., generation (students vs. parents), gender, nuclear threat orientation, and political affiliation] in terms of potential differences in attitudes and cognitive/affective reactions toward the threat of nuclear war. Subjects were 297 college students and their parents (n= 546), who completed a multifaceted questionnaire concerning nuclear‐related thoughts, feelings, opinions, and predictions. Multivariate analyses suggested that college students were more distressed than parents about the threat of nuclear war, that men were less anxious than women and more supportive of a “peace through strength” perspective, that individuals endorsing the Disarmist orientation were more worried about nuclear war yet more optimistic than other groups concerning their ability to help reduce the nuclear threat, and that Republicans and Democrats were split along party lines in terms of their attitudes and cognitive/affective responses. Results are discussed with regard to the potential influence of sex‐role socialization processes and the importance of optimism in a nuclear world.
Perceptions of Controllability and Attitudes Toward Cancer and Cancer Patients1
Authors: Meyerowitz Beth E. , Williams Janice G. , Gessner Jocelyne
Published: August 2006

This study explored the possibility that widely held beliefs that cancer is uncontrollable underlie the public's negative attitudes toward this disease. One‐hundred‐and‐sixty undergraduates read a paragraph describing a disease that was labelled either as cancer or as “Haltmar's Disease,” a fictitious disease. The descriptions were designed to manipulate subjects' perceptions regarding both the degree to which the disease could be controlled through preventive behaviors (disease preventability) and the likelihood that it could be controlled through treatment (disease treatability). Subjects then completed a questionnaire on which they indicated their attitudes toward the described disease as well as toward a patient with that disease. Results generally supported the hypothesis that when a disease is perceived as controllable it is evaluated less negatively than when it is perceived as uncontrollable. Perceptions of control also influenced attitudes toward patients with the fictitious disease. As predicted by the Just World hypothesis, attitudes toward patients with the fictitious disease were more negative when the disease was described as uncontrollable. Attitudes toward cancer patients, however, were positive regardless of level of control. Overall, cancer was described significantly more negatively than the fictitious disease and cancer (vs. Haltmar's) patients were described significantly more positively.
Perceived Voluntariness of Consent to Warrantless Police Searches1
Authors: Kagehiro Dorothy K.
Published: August 2006

Two issues involved in warrantless consent searches were examined: perceived voluntariness of consent and affirmativeness, or the form of a police search request. Research on actor‐observer divergence in causal perceptions suggests the possibility of misunderstandings between courts and defendants concerning perceived voluntariness of consent to warrantless searches. Research on speech‐act theory suggests that perceived choice of consent would be greatest when a search request was phrased interrogatively and unspecifically. In a laboratory experimental investigation of these legal issues, 96 subjects read vignettes in which two levels of perspective (consentor or observer) were crossed with two levels of request form (interrogative or declarative) and two levels of request specificity (not specific or specific). Observers underestimated the likelihood of consentors' requesting more information about the search request and overestimated consentors' perceived freedom to revoke consent and the permitted scope of the search. Search requests phrased interrogatively resulted in higher perceived choice in permitting entry, but also resulted in higher perceived likelihood of actually granting entry. Ignorance of legal ramifications of consent searches appears to be widespread, even in a college‐educated sample.
Adolescent Nonsmokers, Triers, and Regular Smokers' Estimates of Cigarette Smoking Prevalence: When Do Overestimations Occur and by Whom?1
Authors: Sussman Steve , Dent Clyde W. , Mestel‐Rauch Jill , Johnson C. Anderson , Hansen William B. , Flay Brian R.
Published: August 2006

The present study tested three assumptions often made by smoking prevention researchers and practitioners regarding the nature and causes of smoking prevalence estimates. Specifically, it is often assumed that (a) adolescent prevalence estimates of all levels of smoking are inflated, (b) youths at different stages of smoking onset all overestimate smoking prevalence, and (c) the predictors of these estimates are the same for youths at different stages of smoking onset. Measures of smoking behavior based on self‐reports using a bogus pipeline procedure, estimates of cigarette smoking prevalence (trying behavior and weekly use), and reports of smoking in significant others were obtained by the same youths when they were in eighth and ninth grades. Results indicated that, taken over all youths, estimates of trying cigarettes were accurate, whereas estimates of weekly use were inflated. When responders were defined by their stage of smoking onset, either as a nonsmoker, trier, or regular smoker, analyses revealed that triers were accurate regarding prevalence estimates of trying, whereas non‐smokers made gross underestimations and regular smokers made overestimations of trying. All groups of youths overestimated prevalence of weekly smoking. Analyses of variance revealed that both youths' smoking status and interpersonal smoking environment additively predicted prevalence estimates, and estimates of smoking prevalence were relatively higher in youths who began to smoke, or increased their levels of smoking, within the next year. Thus, previous assumptions were partially confirmed. Future research and prevention programming should focus more on regular smoking as the focus of normative smoking distortion effects and correction efforts.
The Effect of Residence Hall Judicial Pollcies on Attitudes toward Rule‐Violating Behaviors1
Authors: Triplet Rodney G. , Cohn Ellen S. , White SusaN O.
Published: August 2006

As part of a longitudinal study of legal socialization (N= 507), a subset of the sample (n= 87) was chosen for an exploratory naturalistic experiment of the effect of manipulated residence hall judicial policies on attitudes toward rule‐violating behavior. Freshman students who directly participated in the functioning of their dormitory judicial system (n= 26) expressed attitudes less tolerant of rule‐violating behaviors than did freshman students (n= 12) who had no control over how rules were enforced. Students in both of these experimental conditions expressed attitudes less tolerant of rule‐violating behavior than did those (n= 49) living in two control dormitories operating under the usual university policies. While noting the problem of confounds inherent in naturalistic designs, the results are interpreted as suggesting that while the imposition of strict rules by an external authority can result in attitudinal compliance, a stronger effect can be achieved by fostering shared values through active student participation in the judicial system. The implications of these findings are interpreted within the context of control theory.
Social Support Rejection and Reappraisal by Providers and Recipients1
Authors: Jung John
Published: August 2006

Study 1 used recalled incidents involving offered or sought social support that were either rejected or later reappraised. Rejected offers of support were perceived to be ignored by would‐be recipients, whereas rejected requests for support were viewed as due to lack of concern by would‐be providers. For providers, upward reappraisal of support as well as downward reappraisal was usually based on direct feedback of consequences. Recipient reappraisals in either direction were also based mainly on outcomes that contradicted initial perceived effects of support. Study 2 provided additional evidence on the factors that might lead to rejected support. Evaluations of the effect of specific behaviors from potential support providers in hypothetical stress situations identified common behaviors such as offering advice, implying blame, second‐guessing the victim's behavior, and minimizing the problem to be unhelpful. Implications for increasing the effective delivery of social support are discussed.