bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CHANGES IN ATTENTION ALLOCATION IN A MULTICOMPONENT TASK UNDER LOSS OF SLEEP
Authors: HOCKEY G. R. J.
Published: April 2011

An experiment was carried out to test the hypothesis that environmental treatments thought to change arousal in opposite directions (noise and loss of sleep) will also produce opposing changes in the degree of selectivity in attention allocation. A dual task method was employed, subjects having to perform a primary tracking task while simultaneously monitoring an array of light sources for occasional signals (the subsidiary task). The effect of loss of sleep was significantly to impair performance of the primary task, and to reduce the advantage of high‐probability sources over low‐probability sources, within the subsidiary task (i.e. a loss of selectivity). This result complements that found in previous experiments with noise (Hockey, 1970a, b), in which changes in attention allocation move in the opposite direction (an increase in selectivity), and thus supports the view that selectivity is a function of arousal level.
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY IN COMPLEX SOUND IDENTIFICATION
Authors: WEBSTER JOHN C. , WOODHEAD MURIEL M. , CARPENTER ALAN
Published: April 2011

The aim of the study was to discover whether there are perceptual constancies between classes of complex sounds, even though the acoustic information is very different. Listeners were asked to identify sounds consisting of vowels, musical instrument tones and meaningless buzz sounds, presented at three different fundamental frequencies (octave shifts), and at three signal‐to‐noise differentials. The sounds were numbered but not named. The vowels had voice‐like quality in mid‐octave (110 Hz); the musical tones sounded music‐like at the highest octave (220 Hz); at the lowest octave (55 Hz) both music and vowels were physically meaningless; the meaningless buzz sounds had no greater relevance in one octave than any other. These buzz sounds could be distinguished from each other by differing harmonic patterns. It was found that, in the absence of masking noise, the vowels were better identified in mid‐octave than were the musical and meaningless sounds. The musical sounds were not better identified than the others in high octave. The meaningless sounds were unexpectedly easier to identify in the low octave. They generally withstood thermal noise masking well, but not buzz masking, compared with the musical and vowel sounds. It was more difficult to identify musical and vowel sounds during thermal noise masking than during buzz masking. It would seem the fixed‐ratio hypothesis is not applicable to vowel (formant) sounds within the octaves tested. It may be used, however, to explain the constancy of identification for sounds which depend on harmonic patterning.
A COMPARISON OF RETRIEVAL AND LOCATION OPERATIONS IN ACTIVE AND PASSIVE SENTENCES
Authors: KENNEDY R. A. , WILKES A. L.
Published: April 2011

Data from 96 subjects were obtained on either location (indicating presence or absence of probe words) or retrieval (responding to probe words with the next word) for both active and passive sentence examples. The subjects were timed to respond in both tasks. The resulting latency profiles were compared and the relative contribution to these of surface structure and semantic features was assessed. In the location profiles, fast, medium and slow positions were isolated and found to be associated with semantic function in both the active and passive sentences. In the retrieval profiles structural factors to a large extent predicted the latencies obtained. Differences between active and passive forms were more evident in location than in retrieval.
SIMULATION OF INTROVERSION AND EXTRAVERSION ON THE LEMON TEST
Authors: POWER R. P. , THOMPSON W. T.
Published: April 2011

It has been reported that the salivary response of subjects to lemon juice is correlated with their degree of extraversion, and that this ‘lemon test’ is more satisfactory than questionnaires for measuring extraversion, since subjects cannot simulate as they can with questionnaires. In order to test the validity of this second claim, an experiment was carried out in which subjects were asked to control their salivation. It was found that subjects could control their rate of salivation and present themselves as ‘introverts’ or ‘extraverts’.
FREE RECALL WITH ASSISTANCE FROM ONE AND FROM TWO RETRIEVAL CUES
Authors: McLEOD P. D. , WILLIAMS C. E. , BROADBENT D. E.
Published: April 2011

A list of words was presented for free recall, and hints were later given for unrecalled words by presenting first one and then a second cue word associated with the unrecalled words. Earlier results by Tulving & Osler had shown that one cue assists recall but had shown no benefit from the second cue; in their task, however, the associations were established with the experiment. In the present results, the second cue did produce a further increment in recall; furthermore, the increment in recall was greater than that predicted on the assumption that there was no interaction between the two cues. This means that the first cue had produced some effect even when it did not give full recall.
QUALITATIVE GUSTATORY CHARACTERISTICS OF DISODIUM‐5′‐GUANYLATE
Authors: GREGSON R. A. M. , SIMMONDS M. B.
Published: April 2011

Descriptions of the taste qualities of a nucleotide, disodium‐5′‐guanylate, are reported under two different response sets, lenient and stringent. Control comparison stimuli were de‐ionized water and weak sodium chloride, and near threshold taste concentrations were used. Twenty subjects, 10 under each response set, participated. D5′G has a complex taste, and induces a marked false positive detection response pattern which resembles its own taste. The implications for methodology in gustatory psychophysics are noted.
A CLARIFICATION OF CROPLEY AND MASLANY'S ANALYSIS OF THE WALLACH‐KOGAN CREATIVITY TESTS
Authors: KOGAN NATHAN
Published: April 2011

In a recent article Cropley & Maslany (1969) examined the relationships among and between the Wallach–Kogan creativity tasks and the Thurstone Primary Mental Abilities tests in a sample of university students. A factor analysis yielded a general factor with moderate to substantial loadings for all of the tests in the battery. On this basis Cropley & Maslany concluded that complete statistical independence of the ‘creativity’ and ‘intelligence’ domains had not been established. The present paper attributes the Cropley–Maslany outcomes to a failure to rotate, and reports a Promax rotation of the Cropley–Maslany principal‐components solution. Such rotation yields a pure ‘creativity’ factor, and two ‘intelligence’ factors. Unlike the Cropley–Maslany principal‐axis factor loadings, the Promax solution is congruent with most of the evidence reported in other relevant investigations of the creativity–intelligence distinction.
THE INFLUENCE OF FORCE MAGNITUDE ON THE PERCEPTION OF BODY POSITION
Authors: WADE N. J. , SCHÖNE H.
Published: April 2011

Judgements of body position during rotation in the sagittal plane were investigated at force magnitudes of 1·0, 1·2, 1·4, 1·6, and 1·8 g. With the head and trunk upright (Expt. I) the judgements were displaced forward as a function of the force operating. The forward shift could be related to the increase in the backward acting shear force on the utricular statolith organs. This hypothesis was supported by the reduced forward shift in perceived body position that occurred under the same conditions but with the head tilted 30° forward of the upright trunk (Expt. II).
OCULAR DOMINANCE: A TEST OF TWO HYPOTHESES
Authors: GRONWALL D. M. A. , SAMPSON H.
Published: April 2011

Fifty subjects were given a battery of eye dominance tests to investigate whether there are five types (Lederer, 1961) or two types (Walls, 1951) of ocular dominance, and to investigate the relation between these tests and handedness. There was no evidence in support of either classification, or of any correlation between the preferred eye and the preferred hand. An alternative hypothesis to those formulated by Lederer and by Walls is presented, which seems to account more adequately for the results.
THE USE OF QUADRATIC DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF PROFILE DISTANCE IN SOCIAL PERCEPTION
Authors: SUTTON A. J.
Published: April 2011

The 291 students in the 1965 first‐year intake to a variety of degree courses at a London college of technology rated 12 role concepts in each of 35 bipolar, seven‐point adjective scales and provided information on their social and cultural background and on certain educational and occupational attitudes.

In many studies similarity between semantic differential profiles in relation to external criteria such as the students' social background has been examined using Osgood's generalized distance index. This index assumes a particular kind of interaction between the profiles and it is the purpose of this paper to demonstrate that several kinds of interaction between profiles can be obtained and that they can effectively be described using quadratic discriminant analysis.

The method of analysis is used to analyse hypotheses arising in the present study. These results are reported and a number of problems concerning interpretation of the results are discussed.
ANISEIKONIA: THE ACHILLES HEEL OF THE CLASSICAL THEORY OF VISION
Authors: TAYLOR JAMES G.
Published: April 2011

There are two kinds of naturally occurring aniseikonia. Parallactic aniseikonia (retinal disparity) is one‐dimensional, and it is commonly supposed to be a major factor in the genesis of the perception of depth. Asymmetric aniseikonia occurs when ocular convergence is asymmetric, so that a fixated object is nearer to one eye than to the other, and it is two‐dimensional. It has fatal implications for any theory based on the assumption that visual perception is fully determined by events in the visual system, from the retina to the striate area, and consequently is seldom mentioned in the literature. It has no such implications for the behavioural theory of perception (Taylor, 1962), which fully explains two perceptual constancies that persist through a wide range of variation in aniseikonia. The behavioural theory offers a simple explanation of the delay in the development of perceptual distortion when aniseikonia is produced artificially by means of a lens.
AN EVALUATION OF ELICITATION PROCEDURES FOR PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS
Authors: EPTING FRANZ R. , SUCHMAN DAVID I. , NICKESON CARL J.
Published: April 2011

The opposite method (OM) and the difference method (DM) for eliciting personal constructs were evaluated with regard to the number of bipolar constructs produced. This evaluation is an investigation of how the constructs were used in a grid procedure and how they were reported in a structured interview. Comparing the two methods, using the grid procedure, the OM produced a greater number of bipolar constructs. Responses to the interview were incomplete. Explanations for this observed difference between methods are proposed.
STIMULUS COMPLEXITY AND THE OCCIPITAL EEG
Authors: GALE ANTHONY , CHRISTIE BRUCE , PENFOLD VALERIE
Published: April 2011

Occipital EEG was monitored during long‐term exposure to visual stimulus arrays of five levels of complexity. Integrated EEG output was recorded for nine separate frequency bands. The stimuli were two, four, eight, 16 or 32 randomly located white squares on a black background. Mid‐alpha activity (8·5–10·5 Hz) decreased linearly with log2n, where n = number of squares in the array (P < 0·01). Beta activity (12·5–16·5 Hz) showed a quadratic trend (P < 0·02). Theta activity (5·5–7·5 Hz) increased linearly with ascending complexity (P < 0·05). There were no significant trends for low alpha (7·5–8·5 Hz) or high alpha (10·5–12·5 Hz). Brightness‐control slides showed no parallel effects.
THE PERFORMANCE OF APPROVED‐SCHOOL BOYS ON THE GIBSON SPIRAL MAZE
Authors: MARTIN D. N. , WARDE SUSAN
Published: April 2011

Delinquents generally perform differently on the Gibson Spiral Maze from non‐delinquents. However, they are tested under different circumstances and this may explain the difference. Evidence is presented here that performance on the maze is indeed influenced by the circumstances of its administration. New validity studies which control these influences are needed. In this study, comparisons of more and less delinquent boys tested similarly generally fail to support the claim that delinquency and psychomotor style (as exhibited by this test) are related.
LONG‐TERM MEMORY: A STATE‐SPACE APPROACH
Authors: KISS GEORGE R.
Published: April 2011

Some salient concepts derived from the information sciences and currently used in theories of human memory are critically reviewed. The application of automata theory is proposed as a new approach in this field. The approach is illustrated by applying it to verbal memory.
THE REGRESSION TO RIGHT ANGLES TENDENCY AND THE POGGENDORFF ILLUSION. I
Authors: HOTOPF W. H. N. , OLLEREARNSHAW CHRISTINE
Published: April 2011

The theory that ‘angle’ visual illusions like the Zöllner and the Poggendorff are due to the lines forming the sides of angles being deflected in such a way as to make the angles nearer to right angles, was tested by obtaining judgements of the orientation of both lines in simplified versions of the Poggendorff and Zöllner illusions. The theory was confirmed, although the deflexion was only slight in the cases of lines in a vertical orientation.
AROUSAL VALUE OF THE STIMULUS AND EEG ABUNDANCE IN AN AUDITORY VIGILANCE TASK
Authors: GALE ANTHONY , HASLUM MARY , LUCAS BONNIE
Published: April 2011

The EEG was monitored during an auditory vigilance task. The wanted signal consisted of three consecutive odd digits. Five other types of signal varied in their approximation to the wanted signal and were ranked on that criterion for their ‘arousal’ value. Each signal was followed by a rest period. The key results were: (i) alpha abundance (8·5–13·5 Hz) diminished as the arousal value of the signal increased (P < 0·005); (ii) theta (4·5–6·5 Hz) and beta (13·5–19·5 Hz) showed either weak or no effects; (iii) a very‐low‐frequency filter (2·0–4·5 Hz) yielded a strong effect for one class of signal only (P < 0·021); (iv) during rest periods which followed the three most arousing types of signal, alpha abundance was greater than during the preceding signal (P < 0·025): the reverse held for the least arousing signals (P < 0·025); (v) theta abundance was very much lower following response (rest period following the wanted signal) than following other signal types (P < 0·01) and theta abundance during rest was generally smaller than during signals (P < 0·021); (vi) for the three least arousing signals, activity at 2·0–4·5 Hz was lower during rest than during signals (P < 0·05); (vii) subjects rated themselves as being more ‘keyed up’ as cue or arousal value of the signals increased (P < 0·001) and (viii) similarly, reported that alertness increased during rest periods associated with signals of increasing cue value (P < 0·01). These findings demonstrate that during a task of this sort, the subject experiences variation in alertness; this variation in subjective state is reflected by systematic change in the EEG. It is concluded that these results lend support to arousal models of vigilance and to Lindsley's activation theory.
A HIERARCHICAL MEASURE OF COGNITIVE COMPLEXITY
Authors: SMITH STUART , LEACH CHRIS
Published: April 2011

A new hierarchical measure of cognitive complexity based on the repertory grid is described. This measure is considered to be both conceptually and empirically an advance over previous measures. It emphasizes that the structure of a subject's construct system is important, rather than merely its degree of differentiation. In this respect, it has advantages over previous measures based on the repertory grid. Three experiments are described which test the validity and reliability of the new measure. These experiments show that the hierarchical measure is reliable and is unrelated to a measure of differentiation based on the repertory grid. The hierarchical measure is shown to be positively related to performance on Harvey's ‘This I Believe’ test, which has been used as a projective measure of cognitive complexity. The hierarchical measure is also shown to be unrelated to performance on a verbal reasoning task.
PEN‐FIELD BEHAVIOUR IN RATS: EFFECTS OF HANDLING, SEX AND REPEATED TESTING
Authors: WILLIAMS D. I. , RUSSELL P. A.
Published: April 2011

The effects of pre‐weaning handling, sex and repeated testing on the open‐field behaviour of rats were consistent with existing reports and with the interpretation of the defecation and ambulation measures as inversely related indices of emotionality. The main finding replicated a report that although handled rats increase their ambulation with repeated testing in a fashion concordant with the observed drop in defecation, non‐handled rats show an initial decline followed by an increase. This latter effect is interpreted in terms of fear‐motivated escape behaviour on trial one, since non‐handled rats confine their activity largely to the periphery of the field on this trial and their exploration of an object placed in the centre of the field increases over trials in accordance with theoretical expectations.
IKONIC IMAGERY IN THE SEVERELY SUBNORMAL
Authors: MACKAY C. K.
Published: April 2011

Ability to reproduce and transpose matrices was studied in 23 adult SSN trainees. These subjects could transpose the matrices at a MA equivalent to the CA at which children normally do. The ability to reproduce the same matrices was not in evidence prior to the ability to transpose them, as it is in normal children. One possible interpretation of this finding is that cognitive development in SSNs is qualitatively different from that of normal children.
A CONFIRMATION OF THE INERTIAL‐ψ EFFECT IN SEQUENTIAL CHOICE AND DECISION
Authors: COHEN JOHN , CHESNICK E. I. , HARAN D.
Published: April 2011

The experiment was designed to test the hypothesis, derived from earlier investigations, that people tend to overestimate compound probabilities, in the rough sense that they think they have a better chance of success than is actually the case. Fifty boys, aged 14+, were presented with various m × n arrays, where m represents the number of stages and n represents the number of alternatives at each stage. There was one correct but unknown alternative at each stage and, in order to win a prize, the subject had to guess them all in turn, only one guess being allowed at each stage. The task of the subject was then to equate what he believed was his chance of winning the prize with one of a set of lotteries. The chance of success in these lotteries ranged from 0·9 to 0·0001. The hypothesis was confirmed and, in addition, what seems to be a ‘law’ of sequential choice (or decision) seemed to emerge. The ‘law’ is such that if the number of stages in the array is held constant, the relative overestimation of the chance of guessing correctly at all stages varies directly with a power of the number of alternatives per stage. If, however, the number of alternatives is held constant, the relative overestimation varies exponentially with the number of stages. This ‘law’, which we call ‘the inertial‐ψ effect’, appears in almost identical form in two independent experiments. It may prove to have a very general application in the characterization of human judgement and its fallibility in many spheres of life.
EFFECTS OF EXTERNAL STIMULATION ON THE DOMESTIC CHICK'S CAPACITY TO STAND AND WALK
Authors: VINCE MARGARET A. , CHINN SUSAN
Published: April 2011

External conditions affecting the rate at which the domestic chick gets up on to its toes and walks in the hours immediately following hatching were investigated. Five groups of chicks were tested; four groups were kept after hatching under different conditions (with or without other chicks, under different light conditions and under different conditions of restriction), and one group was hatched under different conditions: each egg was stimulated artificially so that the chick hatched early. The results showed that the last group developed most slowly. The group reared in the light and with other chicks attained the normal chick posture most rapidly, and was followed next in sequence by chicks reared in the light but in isolation. Chicks kept in the incubator until the time of testing developed more slowly. It is concluded that external stimulation can contribute towards, or retard, the development of this behaviour.
REASONING WITH NEGATIVES
Authors: EVANS J. St B. T.
Published: April 2011

Two experiments are reported on the effect of negation on reasoning with conditional rules. In Expt. I significantly more affirmative than negative statements were denied by a valid inference (modus tollens), and significantly more negative than affirmative statements were affirmed by a fallacious inference (affirmation of the consequent). Subjects made their inferences by choosing from a list of possible conclusions, so that, for example, an affirmative statement, p, could be denied by selecting the negative conclusion, not p. It was hypothesized that the greater difficulty experienced by subjects in the denial of not p by a choice of p might be due to the additional intermediate step of double negation. i.e. not not p, which is involved. The results of Expt. II suggested, however, that the difficulty lies in subjects' inability to infer that a negative statement is false, rather than in the process of transforming a double negative into an affirmative.
A METHOD FOR OVERCOMING THE PROBLEM OF CONCEPT‐SCALE INTERACTION IN SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL RESEARCH*
Authors: BYNNER JOHN , ROMNEY DAVID
Published: April 2011

Data collected in a study of hospital staff attitudes to drug addicts and other types of patient are used to illustrate the problem of concept–scale interaction in semantic differential research. Results of factor analysis of the four within‐concepts correlation matrices diverged sharply from the results of the factor analysis of the across‐concepts correlation matrix. Although the first two unrotated orthogonal factors could be identified in the ratings of all concepts, some of the rotated factors did not appear for some concepts. For the purposes of comparing the concepts in terms of the factors, scores were computed for each factor from the across‐concepts factor‐score estimation weights, but only for those concepts to which the factors applied. It is concluded that this procedure has some advantages over other methods for overcoming the problem of concept–scale interaction which have been proposed in the past.
A MODEL FOR READING, NAMING AND COMPARISON
Authors: SEYMOUR PHILIP H. K.
Published: April 2011

Morton (1968) has described a general model for word recognition and other language‐processing tasks. In this paper, Morton's model is used as a framework for discussion of a number of tasks in which a measure is taken of the latency to read words, name objects or compare printed names and objects. In order to accommodate these tasks, the basic model has been elaborated to include separate access and exit channels for verbal and pictorial stimuli, which will be involved when a word or object is assigned an abstract interpretation, or when names or graphic responses are initiated. In addition, the model includes a channel for alteration of the content of the semantic system, which is employed in superordinate naming and in congruence judgements.
SOURNESS AND BITTERNESS: CONFUSIONS OVER SEQUENCES OF TASTE JUDGEMENTS
Authors: GREGSON R. A. M. , BAKER A. F. H.
Published: April 2011

Confusions between bitterness and acidity in the perception of three taste stimuli ‐ quinine sulphate, citric acid and disodium‐5î‐guanylate ‐ were examined over the near‐threshold range in 45 subjects, using an extended ascending series procedure and intensity ratio estimations. Individual differences, and the effects of reference information, were marked. The results are interpreted in terms of a cosine model of qualitative confusions.
PERSONALITY, PAIN PERCEPTION AND PAIN TOLERANCE
Authors: MUMFORD J. M. , NEWTON A. V. , LEY P.
Published: April 2011

Square‐wave electrical impulses were applied to the teeth of human subjects to determine the pain perception threshold (PP) and pain tolerance level (PT). Each subject had previously completed the Cattell 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire, but the results of this were not known to the investigators (i.e. blind testing). Analysis of the results showed no statistically significant correlation between any of the personality factors and either of the two pain measurements. Neither was there any correlation with the derived values, PT‐PP or PT/PP.
OPEN‐FIELD DEFECATION IN RATS: RELATIONSHIPS WITH BODY WEIGHT AND BASAL DEFECATION LEVEL
Authors: RUSSELL P. A.
Published: April 2011

Correlations were computed between defecation and ambulation scores from the open‐field test, body weight, and the basal defecation level as measured over a 5‐day period in the animals' home cages for male and female hooded rats. The pattern of correlations indicates a sex difference in the ‘meaning’ of open‐field defecation which appears to be a valid emotionality index only in females. In males the score correlates positively with body weight and basal defecation level. But the sex difference in the level of open‐field defecation obtained probably represents a genuine sex difference in responsiveness to the test situation, since it persists even when the scores are corrected to take account of underlying basal differences in the amount of faeces available as inferred from the home‐cage defecation scores. The results are discussed in terms of the validity of the defecation index and discrepancies in the literature on emotionality.
THE INTERACTION OF INTER‐TRIAL INTERVALS, TIMING OF SURGERY AND DIFFERENTIAL HIPPOCAMPAL LESIONS
Authors: FRIED P. A.
Published: April 2011

Rats with lesions in either the dorsal hippocampus, ventral hippocampus or both regions were tested in a passive avoidance paradigm with surgery occurring either before or after the acquisition of the response to be punished. An inter‐trial interval (ITI) of either 10 sec. or 24 hr. was used. In contrast to previous studies using a 10 min. ITI, the timing of surgery had no effect under either ITI in those animals with combined dorsal and ventral hippocampal lesions as they all ran significantly faster than appropriate control groups. Animals with lesions restricted to either the dorsal or ventral hippocampus were quite similar to control animals under massed conditions, but showed significantly less avoidance under distributed conditions if surgery occurred after acquisition training. The results are compared to previous findings and are discussed in terms of an incubation of fear phenomena and memory consolidation.
ASSOCIATIVE ENCODING OF WORDS IN PASSIVE SENTENCES
Authors: KENNEDY ALAN
Published: April 2011

Subjects were presented with short passive sentences and timed to respond in a recognition test involving a series of single words. Items to be rejected included synonymous associates of critical words and associates which would fit sensibly into the sentence frame. Rejection latencies varied as a function of the position of the critical word in the sentence, the time to reject associates of the logical subject (the final noun in the passive sentences) being much slower than associates of the object.
PASSIVES AND TOPICALIZATION
Authors: GRIEVE ROBERT , WALES ROGER J.
Published: April 2011

Recent studies, suggesting that passives emphasize the importance of their logical object over their logical subject, have employed full passives with both nominals similarly determined (e.g. the Noun + Verb + the Noun). When subjects are asked to indicate the important entity of full passives where the definiteness of nominals is varied, they select the definitely marked nominal in sentences like the N + V + a N, a N + V + the N, and the event in sentences like a N + V + a N. Since these results apply both to short passives and to active sentences, it would seem that the important entity of an utterance is not solely indicated by voice and word‐order, but is more closely concerned with definiteness. This is apparently related to a feature of discourse which may be termed topicalization.
THE VERBAL TRANSFORMATION EFFECT: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE VERBAL TRANSFORMATIONS OF PHONETICALLY TRAINED AND NON‐PHONETICALLY TRAINED SUBJECTS
Authors: LASS NORMAN J. , GASPERINI RICHARD M.
Published: April 2011

The purpose of this investigation was to determine if there are differences between phonetically trained and non‐phonetically trained subjects in terms of their reported verbal transformations. A total of seven auditory stimuli, representing variations in meaningfulness and phonetic complexity, were presented to 28 phonetically trained and 28 non‐phonetically trained listeners. Results indicate that there are both similarities and differences between the two groups. The differences that exist are quantitative, and not qualitative, in nature. The phonetically trained group reported more forms and transitions, and required fewer repetitions of the stimulus prior to their first verbal transformations, than the non‐phonetically trained subjects. However, both groups reported the same types of transformations and, in many instances, identical forms as well.
VERBAL DESCRIPTIONS OF SPATIAL RELATIONS IN LINE DRAWINGS BY YOUNG CHILDREN
Authors: ASSO DOREEN , WYKE MARIA
Published: April 2011

A study of the ability of children to describe verbally spatial relations depicted in line drawings was carried out. The subjects were 60 children between the ages of 4 1/2 and 7 1/2 years. The test material consisted of 27 cards. Each card had one or two lines and a circle drawn on it. The lines and the circle were drawn in different spatial relations to one another. The results show that the ability of children to describe such spatial relations improves with increasing age. Furthermore, comparison between scores obtained from the children's own verbalizations and those obtained from a test of the ability to comprehend verbal material describing the spatial relations in the same drawings showed that there were no significant differences in the accuracy of response in any age group. The study also analyses the words most frequently used by the children in describing the cards, as well as the correct usage of such words. Some theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.
THE EFFECT OF REHEARSAL DELAY ON LONG‐TERM IMITATION OF FILMED AGGRESSION
Authors: KNIVETON BROMLEY H.
Published: April 2011

An experiment is described which investigates the effect of rehearsal delay on long‐term imitation of a film model. The hypothesis tested was that a delay in the opportunity to imitate a film model would result in a reduction of imitation, ‘flitting’ and range of activities during play in the stimulus situation. One group of children played immediately after exposure to the film, a second after a delay of one day, a third after one week. All groups returned after an interval of seven days, and again after 4–5 months. The hypotheses were not accepted; the film influenced behaviour whatever the delay, but it was noted that the general effect of the films on activity level was less marked during the second session in the experimental situation, and increased after a few months' interval. The long‐term effect of the film model was noted, and it was observed that at this time retention of the film model's behaviour was not related to imitative behaviour.
BOOK REVIEWS
Authors: CHAPMAN TONY
Published: April 2011

Book reviewed in this article:

Human Information Processing: An Introduction to Psychology. By Peter H. Lindsay and Donald A. Norman.

Human Memory: Research and Theory. By L. S. Cermak.

Organization of Memory. Edited by Endel Tulving and Wayne Donaldson.

Associations or Addresses: a Study in Serial Verbal Learning. By F. J. Strømnes.

Verbal Learning Research and the Technology of Written Instruction. Edited by Ernst Z. Rothkopf and Paul E. Johnson.

Inhibition and Learning. Edited by R. A. Boakes and M. S. Halliday.

Purposive Explanation in Psychology. By Margaret A. Boden.

The Double Brain. By S. Dimond.

Limbic System Mechanisms and Autonomic Function. Edited by C. H. Hockman.

Languages of the Brain: Experimental Paradoxes and Principles in Neuropsychology. By K. H. Pribram.

Perception in Everyday Life. By S. Howard Bartley.

Language and Social Behaviour. By W. P. Robinson.

Language Development: Structure and Function. By Philip S. Dale.

Language of the Mentally Retarded. Edited by Richard L. Schiefelbusch.

Studies in Dyadic Communication. Edited by A. W. Siegman and B. Pope.

The Social Animal. By Elliot Aronson.

Moral Learning and Development, Theory and Research. By Douglas Graham.

The Social Influence Processes. Edited by J. T. Tedeschi.

Perception and Cognition: a Cross‐Cultural Perspective. By Barbara B. Lloyd.

The Psychology of Humor. Edited by J. H. Goldstein and P. E. McGhee.

Males and Females. By Corinne Hutt.

The Interview: Research on its Anatomy and Structure. By Joseph D. Matarazzo and Arthur N. Wiens.

Inquiring Man: the Theory of Personal Constructs. By D. Bannister and Fay Fransella.

Change and Continuity in Infancy. By Jerome Kagan.

The Psychology of Consciousness. By R. E. Ornstein.

Occupational Psychology. By Donald E. Super and Martin J. Bohn, Jr.
THE EFFECT OF WATER IMMERSION ON PERCEPTION OF THE VISUAL VERTICAL
Authors: WADE N. J.
Published: April 2011

Judgements of the apparent vertieality of a single visible line of light were compared under normal support conditions and under water. During head, body and trunk tilts up to 40° the visual vertical was not influenced by water immersion. Greater degrees of lateral body tilt (up to 180°) resulted in slightly greater departures of the visual from the gravitational vertical during immersion relative to terrestrial performance. It was suggested that this was due to the reduction of information from surface pressure receptors in the trunk. The mean visual aftereffects following head, body and trunk tilts were not affected by water immersion in any consistent manner. It was concluded that visual orientation constancy is only marginally reduced by immersion in water.
THE EFFECTS OF MUSIC AND TASK DIFFICULTY ON PERFORMANCE AT A VISUAL VIGILANCE TASK
Authors: DAVIES D. R. , LANG LESLEY , SHACKLETON V. J.
Published: April 2011

Forty subjects performed a visual vigilance task in music or noise and when the task was difficult or easy. Response measures taken were: correct detections, commission errors, detection latencies and d' values. For the difficult version of the task a significant increase in detection latencies was found which music prevented. Broadly similar findings were obtained for correct detections. The results are compared with other studies of detection latency and task difficulty and are discussed in terms of arousal.
THE TRANSFER OF SPECIFIC AND NON‐SPECIFIC LEARNING BY SEVERELY SUBNORMAL ADULTS
Authors: MACKAY C. K.
Published: April 2011

A modification of Bryant's (1965) study of the transfer of positive and negative learning in severely subnormal subjects was attempted. A third condition, where neither positive nor negative learning could be transferred, was added. Fifty‐two adult non‐institutionalized SSN trainees demonstrated transfer in all three conditions. Transfer was greatest in the positive learning condition, intermediate in the negative learning condition and least in the non‐specific learning condition. Two main interpretations are offered. First, a significant degree of transfer, which cannot be attributed to specific approach‐avoidance learning, occurs with naive subjects. Second, such general transfer effects are inevitably confounded with specific transfer effects in the traditional transfer experiment design.
EARLY STIMULATION OF RODENTS: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF PRESENT INTERPRETATIONS
Authors: DALY MARTIN
Published: April 2011

It is widely accepted that extra stimulation, when administered to infant laboratory rodents, has adaptive consequences. Presumed benefits are: (1) accelerated growth and development, (2) reduced emotional reactivity, (3) improved learning performance, and (4) more adaptive physiological stress responses. Levine has explained these benefits by considering such stimulation to compensate for the impoverished rearing conditions of the laboratory. However, ecological studies of the natural microhabitats of rodents suggest that laboratory conditions are over‐stimulative for the very young. The presumed benefits are reviewed and the validity or adaptiveness of each is concluded to be very questionable. The prevalent misinterpretation is attributed to an anthropocentric research orientation.
PROBLEMS AND PROGRESS IN PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY*
Authors: WEISKRANTZ L.
Published: April 2011

The general aims of physiological psychology research are set out. It is argued that theoretical accounts of behavioural mechanisms that ignore physiological findings may be in danger of being irrelevant. There are inherent methodological difficulties in conducting brain and behaviour research, but these are not insuperable and are sometimes misinterpreted. Progress is made generally when a number of different technical approaches can converge on the same question. Aside from the advantages of pursuing brain and behaviour work for the understanding of basic mechanisms, some possible practical benefits are discussed, especially in the context of scientific financial policy. Two broad classes of possible therapeutic procedures for treatment of brain damage are discussed.
THE EFFECT OF PRIOR SLEEP ON REHEARSAL, RECODING AND MEMORY
Authors: STONES M. J.
Published: April 2011

Eight subjects came individually to the sleep laboratory for two consecutive nights. On both nights they learnt a word list and attempted verbal free recall immediately and again after a 20 min. delay. They were instructed to verbalize their entire thought content (as far as possible) throughout list presentation. In a balanced design, learning was preceded by wakefulness or 30 min. sleep. Delayed memory and percentage forgetting were found to be impaired after prior sleep, as were rehearsal and recoding. A measure of the intensity of rehearsal and recoding was found to be related to delayed recall and forgetting but not to immediate recall. It was suggested that the memory loss after sleep was at least in part due to a failure of rehearsal and recoding at the time of learning.
THE INFLUENCE OF STIMULUS FAMILIARITY/NOVELTY ON CHILDREN'S EXPRESSED PREFERENCES
Authors: SLUCKIN W. , MILLER LOUISE B. , FRANKLIN HELEN
Published: April 2011

Five‐year‐old children, fairly familiar with letters, greatly preferred letters to letter‐like shapes. Ten‐year‐old children, all fluent readers, also preferred letters, but less markedly so. It is concluded that favourability is a function of exposure, but that additional exposure does not necessarily increase favourability and may even reduce it.
QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION OF LOW CONCENTRATION SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS
Authors: O'MAHONY MICHAEL
Published: April 2011

Qualitative descriptions of low concentration sodium chloride solutions were studied using a procedure involving repetitive tasting in ascending series. Generally, subjects tended to use traditional taste categories while any new categories tended to be compounds of the old ones. However, further study suggested that at least four distinct category changes could be distinguished before salt taste recognition instead of the two traditional detection and recognition thresholds.
TOWARDS A NEW EXPLANATION FOR THE GEOMETRICAL ILLUSIONS: II APPARENT DEPTH OR CONTOUR PROXIMITY?
Authors: FISHER GERALD H.
Published: April 2011

The ‘inappropriate size‐depth’ theories suggest that illusions are to be explained in terms of mistaken perceptual impressions of depth cues supposedly implicit within certain spatial patterns. Contrariwise, the distortions evidenced in these same patterns may be understood as depending upon the ‘contour‐proximity’ principle without any reference being made to apparent depth as such. Six experiments are described and an attempt is made to establish which of these two alternative explanations accounts most consistently for the results. That parts of illusions might be interpreted as differing in apparent distance is demonstrated in the first two experiments. Doubts are raised over this type of explanation in the second two studies, however, and the final experiments suggest that depth features themselves are neither necessary, nor sufficient, conditions for the appearance of illusory distortion.
CONDITIONED AFTER‐IMAGES. I
Authors: DAVIES PETER
Published: April 2011

Two experiments are described in which subjects were presented with brief illuminations of a structured target preceded by an auditory stimulus; both experiments indicate that visual after‐images may be evoked, after such training, by the presentation of the auditory stimulus alone. Similar results have been obtained by the Popovs and Bzhalava in the Soviet Union, but little is known about the experimental designs employed by these authors. The results obtained in the present experiments are discussed in terms of related electrophysiological evidence from infra‐human subjects obtained in the course of cross‐modality interaction studies, and the adequacy of purely peripheral explanations for visual after‐image phenomena is questioned.
INTERNAL SCHEMATA FOR LETTERS IN GOOD AND BAD READERS
Authors: FRITH UTA
Published: April 2011

Children of various ages and levels of reading ability and adults copied and reversed graphic symbols which were either normal letters, mirror‐reversed letters or letter‐like shapes. Looking at reversed letters hardly affected performance, but producing reversed letters decreased speed and increased errors considerably. Since this was found also when writing with the non‐preferred hand a mechanism more abstract than muscle movements must be implicated.

It is hypothesized that internal schemata for letters are acquired when learning to read. Schemata are necessary in order to recognize letters despite distortions such as occur in handwriting. An effect of schemata for letter orientation was shown by 7‐year‐old good readers, but to a much lesser extent by bad readers. On the other hand, 12‐year‐old bad readers showed an effect of schemata to a greater extent than good readers. It is suggested that one type of reading difficulty may be characterized by weakness of schemata, while another type may be characterized by dominance of schemata. Optimal reading performance would depend on the balanced integration of two processes: paying attention to external stimulus characteristics (‘looking’) as well as using internal schemata (‘knowing’).
HYPNOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND PERSONALITY: A REPLICATION STUDY
Authors: GIBSON H. B. , CURRAN J. D.
Published: April 2011

This study was designed to re‐examine the relationship between personality factors and hypnotic susceptibility, notably in relation to the conflicting evidence of the Maudsley (Furneaux & Gibson, 1961) and the Stanford (Hilgard & Bentler, 1963) studies. Subjects completed the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) and were tested on a technically modified version of the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (SHSS), Form A. In consonance with the Maudsley study, susceptible subjects predominated in the stable extravert and neurotic introvert groupings, and there was some tendency for subjects higher on the lie scale to be less susceptible, significantly in the case of some hypnotic items. When a dimension of ‘anxiety’ was derived from the EPI (cf. Gray, 1971) the relation of SHSS scores to it was significantly U‐shaped. A theoretical explanation is offered, suggesting that the extraversion dimension is ‘primary’ in hypnotic susceptibility and that neuroticism may act as a moderator variable of attitude.
EVALUATING A RULE AGAINST POSSIBLE INSTANCES
Authors: SMALLEY NEAL S.
Published: April 2011

This investigation is concerned with a reasoning task in which subjects are given a sentence expressing a material implication and are asked to select those instances which would have to be examined in order to determine the truth or falsity of the sentence. A model is developed to describe the process of evaluating the sentence against possible instances. Two sources of differences among subjects are incorporated into the model: differences in interpretation of the sentence, and differences in interpretation of the reversibility of the stimulus cards which are the instances. This evaluation model is then combined with a model previously developed by P. C. Wason and P. N. Johnson‐Laird to explain the process which subjects employ to select the instances which they believe must be examined. Predictions derived from the combined model were tested in an experiment which used an expanded version of a set of ‘therapeutic’ procedures developed by Wason and Johnson‐Laird. Subjects were found to make initial selections and to modify their choices in ways consistent with the model's predictions. The results are briefly discussed in terms of the ambiguity of aspects of the task when the stimulus materials are arbitrary symbols without reference to a realistic context.
FRUSTRATION AND ELATION EFFECTS IN OPERANT ANALOGUES OF THE DOUBLE RUNWAY
Authors: WOOKEY P. E. , STRONGMAN K. T.
Published: April 2011

Two experiments were carried out to clarify the effects of frustration and elation (reward shift) procedures in an operant analogue of the double runway. In one experiment subjects were prevented from responding in the presence of stimuli associated with reward shift. Comparison of experimental and unshifted control groups provided no evidence for frustration or elation effects under these conditions. This was in agreement with the results of previous studies. In the other experiment responding in the presence of stimuli associated with reward shift (midtrial responding) was possible. In this condition facilitatory effects of frustration obtained both within group and in comparison with unshifted controls. The effect was found only on mid‐trial responding. No reliable effects of elation were found in this case. Results were discussed with reference to Amsel's frustration theory.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PICTORIAL DEPTH PERCEPTION: THE ROLE OF FIGURAL ELEVATION
Authors: McGURK HARRY , JAHODA GUSTAV
Published: April 2011

This is a follow‐up of a previous study (Jahoda & McGurk, 1974), in which pictorial depth cues were systematically manipulated. In Expt. I children aged between 4 and 10 were presented with stimulus pictures in which depth cues were reduced to elevation and walking or standing posture of two figures. In one condition a training picture reminding subjects of the actual size relations remained visible, in order to test for possible memory effects, and in the other condition it was absent. As before, children were required to construct three‐dimensional models representing the size and spatial relationships between figures in the pictures, scoring being in terms of size and spatial accuracy. Results were consistent with previous ones, indicating that elevation alone constitutes a relatively weak but effective depth cue. There was a moderate memory effect, posture being insignificant. Expt. II was designed to test the hypothesis that the difficulties experienced by younger subjects are response rather than perceptually based. Children aged 4 and 6 were given the task of reproducing a three‐dimensional model. Subjects had no difficulty with size, but spatial responses were at a very low level at the age of 4, increasing significantly in accuracy by the age of 6. The predominant error at both age levels was horizontal instead of diagonal orientation. This is in conformity with the hypothesis and consistent with previous results.