bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Simple Case of Conjunctive Surface‐Ground‐Water Management
Authors: Morel‐Seytoux H. J.
Published: July 2006

A specific hydrologic model of a stream‐alluvial aquifer system was developed for the purpose of designing rules and regulations which maximize the beneficial uses of the waters of a State within the law. The model is particularly suited when decisions on pumping rates are to be reviewed on a frequent regular basis. The procedure is illustrated on a simplified case for which the river loss influence coefficients can be obtained by a combination of analytic derivations and algebraic manipulations.
Well Cuttings Analysis in Ground‐Water Resources Evaluationa
Authors: Matlock W. G. , Morin G.C.A. , Posedly J. E.
Published: July 2006

A method for collection and analysis of well cuttings samples to aid in ground‐water resources evaluation of certain types of alluvial aquifers is described. The method standardizes collection procedures which minimize disruption of the drilling process and allows for easier laboratory interpretation. Analysis techniques for soils are adapted to differentiate between the formations encountered. Wet and dry colors, particle size analysis, acid reaction, plus examination of mineral constituents permits correlation of formation characteristics from wells constructed at different times and by different drillers. An example of the procedure for an area northwest of Tucson, Arizona is given.
Effects of Uranium Mining and Milling on Ground Water in the Grants Mineral Belt, New Mexico
Authors: Kaufmann Robert F. , Eadie Gregory G. , Russell Charles R.
Published: July 2006

Ground‐water contamination from uranium mining and milling results from the infiltration of mine, mill, and ion‐exchange plant effluents containing elevated concentrations of radium, selenium, and nitrate. Available data indicate that radium concentrations in the discharge waters of a producing mine tend to increase substantially as the ore body is developed. Whereas natural background radium concentrations are generally about several picocuries/liter (pCi/l), 100 to 150 pCi/l appear in the effluents of operating mines. The discharge of such highly contaminated mine effluents to streams and seepage from tailings ponds, creates a long‐lived source of ground‐water contamination. Seepage of mill tailings at two active mills ranges from 126,000 to 491,000 m3/yr and, to date, has contributed an estimated 2400 Curies of uranium, radium, and thorium to the ground‐water reservoir. The shallow aquifer in use and downgradient from another mill has been grossly contaminated with selenium, attributable to excessive seepage from a nearby tailings pond.

Radium, selenium, nitrate and, to a lesser extent, uranium, are of most value as indicators of ground‐water contamination. Gross alpha results are not consistent indicators of radium or uranium in water, although uranium does appear to be the principal contributor of alpha activity. Accurate radium‐s226 analyses yield the most information for radiological evaluation of drinking water.

To date, no adverse impacts on municipal groundwater supplies have been observed. However, industry‐sponsored environmental monitoring programs are inadequately designed and implemented, and may not define the full, long‐term impact of mining and milling operations on the ground‐water quality of the study area.
Evidence of Salt‐Water Intrusion in Southeastern Long Island
Authors: Anderson M. P. , Berkebile C. A.
Published: July 2006

A preexisting network of 124 wells used for fire protection in the Town of Southampton, Long Island, New York, was monitored during a one‐year period for groundwater levels and chloride concentrations. Water from 26 wells had chloride concentrations of 50 mg/l or greater and in 17 wells the chloride concentration exceeded 200 mg/l. Most of these wells are located in two densely populated areas. The possibility of widespread intrusion in one of these areas has not been previously documented. In addition, detailed water‐table contour maps are presented for selected areas within the Town.
Wastewaters in the Vadose Zone of Arid Regions: Geochemical Interactionsa
Authors: Runnells Donald D.
Published: July 2006

Because of increasingly stringent laws governing discharge of fluid wastes to surface waters, the alternative of discharge to the subsurface has become attractive. The physical‐chemical processes that prevail in the subsurface are not well understood, but they are clearly not identical to processes of purification in surface waters. For example, in the subsurface the process of oxidation may be of little value in significantly reducing the concentration of discharged contaminants; in contrast, oxidation plays an important role in purifying surface waters. Eleven physical‐chemical processes can be identified as having potential value for purifying wastes discharged to the subsurface, as follow: dilution, buffering of pH, precipitation by reaction, hydrolysis, oxidation or reduction, filtration, volatilization, biological assimilation, radioactive decay, membrane filtration, and sorption.

Discharge to the vadose zone may be a safe means of disposal of wastes in arid regions. But it is necessary to carefully test the suitability of a particular site for a particular waste. Processes of purification in the vadose zone can be incorporated into a workable plan of discharge if adequate studies and safeguards are employed. Regulations governing subsurface discharge should take into account the physical‐chemical processes that may act to purify the waste fluids. In one set of experiments, a soil from Sulfur Springs, New Mexico was capable of removing large quantities of dissolved molybdenum and copper from a synthetic mill water, and the soil was able to quantitatively retain the copper during subsequent leaching by fresh and metal‐free mill waters. Such studies permit rational plans of discharge to be developed.
Potential Replacement of Septic Tank Drain Fields by Artificial Marsh Wastewater Treatment Systemsa
Authors: Fetter C. W. , Sloey W. E. , Spangler F. L.
Published: July 2006

Individual subsurface liquid waste disposal has been cited as a source of ground‐water contamination. Wastewater treatment systems using emergent marsh vegetation planted in a gravel substrate in a plastic‐lined trench could be used to treat septic tank effluent. A pilot plant treating unchlorinated primary municipal effluent achieved the following reductions in mass: BOD5‐77%; COD‐71%; orthophosphate–35%; total phosphorus–37%; nitrate–22%; coliform bacteria–99.9%. While such treatment is possible only during the growing season, it could be useful at summer cottages, camping areas, resorts and roadside rest areas. Marsh treatment systems are inexpensive to operate and virtually automatic.
Prediction of Future Nitrate Concentrations in Ground Watera
Authors: Young C. P. , Oakes D. B. , Wilkinson W. B.
Published: July 2006

Over the last few years rises in the nitrate content of ground water from wells and springs in the principal aquifers of the United Kingdom have been observed. In a number of cases the concentrations have exceeded the WHO lower recommended limit. In order to determine the reason for the rise, to assess whether it will continue and the eventual nitrate levels, the Water Research Centre has undertaken an extensive programme of drilling and sampling on the Chalk and Bunter Sandstone, and by August 1976, twenty‐two sites had been examined. This work has established that high nitrate concentrations (peaks up to 60 mg/l NO3‐N have been observed) are present in the unsaturated aquifers at fertilized arable/ley sites. At unfertilized grassland sites nitrate concentrations are low (less than 4 mg/l NO3‐N) and below fertilized established grassland values are in the intermediate range. At one farm site near Winchester, models to predict the rate of movement of nitrate through the unsaturated and saturated Chalk have been developed. These suggest that the nitrate levels at this site will remain at an essentially constant value of about 4 mg/l NO3‐N until the late 1970's when they will rise progressively to about 4 mg/l NO3‐N. The models have been checked against tritium data and the approach is now being extended to other sites.
Monitoring Cyclic Fluctuations in Ground‐Water Qualitya
Authors: Pettyjohn Wayne A.
Published: July 2006

The chemical quality of water in many shallow and surficial aquifers exhibits cyclic fluctuations. These fluctuations are caused by the intermittent flushing of contaminants into the ground during recharge events. The contaminants may be natural or reflect man's activities, particularly waste disposal schemes.

Over the past 12 years an oil‐field brine contaminated aquifer in central Ohio has been monitored. Data from three closely‐spaced wells tapping selected parts of the aquifer indicate that brine is flushed into the ground during recharge events and that each contaminated mass maintains much of its integrity as it sinks to the bottom of the aquifer and then migrates laterally to the adjacent river. The most concentrated mass that covers the largest area infiltrates during the spring recharge period, but less concentrated and smaller masses may occur any time rainfall is sufficient to overcome the soil‐moisture deficiency.

Because of the cyclic nature of recontamination events, care and common sense must be exercised in the extrapolation of quality data, particularly in regard to estimation of contaminant flushing rates.
Land Subsidence and Cracking Due to Ground‐Water Depletiona
Authors: Bouwer Herman
Published: July 2006

Subsidence of the land surface due to ground‐water overdraft is caused by an increase in the intergranular pressure in unconsolidated aquifers and other underground materials. For unconfined aquifers, this increase is the result of a loss of buoyancy of solid particles in the zone dewatered by the falling water table. For confined aquifers, increases in intergranular pressure are caused by decreases in the upward hydraulic pressure against the bottom of the upper confining layer, due to a drop in piezometric surface. Compression of layers in which the intergranular pressure is increased can be calculated with elastic or logarithmic theory. Sample calculations yield rates of subsidence that agree with those observed, i.e., about 5 to 50 cm (2 to 20 inches) per 10‐m (33‐ft) drop in ground‐water level. Ground‐water depletion can also produce surface cracks, particularly above discontinuities in bedrock depth along the periphery or in other parts of subsiding basins. Calculations based on the rotating‐slab theory show that the initial surface width of such cracks is about 1 cm (0.5 inch), which agrees with field observations.
Limitations of the Electrical Resistivity Method in Landfill Investigations
Authors: Klefstad Gilbert , Sendlein Lyle V. A. , Palmquist Robert C.
Published: July 2006

The electrical resistivity method has been used to delineate shallow zones of ground‐water contamination resulting from solid waste disposal sites. Application of this method to sites located in alluvial deposits in Iowa revealed that the degree of success of the method was directly related to the degree of contamination. A detailed investigation of the interrelationship between electrical resistivity, material variation, and water quality was conducted in the alluvial deposits of the Skunk River at Ames, Iowa. The lateral variation of materials at this site resulted in a large, natural scatter in the resistivity response. The decrease in resistivity due to contamination was not greater than this natural scatter and thus could not be detected. These results suggested a relationship between the scatter levels at any site and the minimum degree of contamination necessary to be detected. The minimum level of contamination which can be detected over the natural scatter is herein called the threshold value. The threshold value must be known before the resistivity method can be applied with confidence.
Effect of Vegetation on Landfill Stabilization
Authors: Molz Fred J. , Browning V. Douglas
Published: July 2006

Six types of vegetation were established successfully on lysimeters containing sanitary landfill materials. The vegetation grew well with the roots penetrating several refuse layers within one year. Leachate analysis indicated that vegetation and evapotranspiration (ET) reduced leachate volume and increased the rate of refuse decomposition. This was accompanied by production of a more potent leachate and a substantial increase in cumulative chemical oxygen demand. Therefore, this study suggests more potential ground‐water pollution in a shorter period of time when vegetation is planted on a landfill. The net effect of ET on the stabilization of any particular landfill will be the result of a complex interaction involving climate, vegetation, soil type, cover material, landfill geometry, and other variables. This makes extrapolation of our results to a particular field situation rather difficult.
A Hazard of Subdividing Farmland
Authors: Whitlock Willis W.
Published: July 2006

Changing land‐use patterns are occurring in all areas of the United States, especially those lands surrounding urban centers. Previously farmed land is being converted to residential subdivisions of one‐quarter to one‐half acre lots with on‐site water supply and sewage disposal systems (well and septic). This in itself can present problems which are recognized and usually (now) provided for. There are also hazards resulting from the original uses of the land that have not been anticipated.

This paper is concerned with the high nitrate nitrogen levels (U.S.P.H.S., 1962, Note 1) in ground water resulting from long‐term farming. Natural chemical and biological activity will break down manure to persistent nitrate that is then leached into the water table. Subsequent subdivision of the land, well installation and consumption of the contaminated ground water constitutes a problem that has been medically recognized since 1945, but not by the drilling industry or environmental health personnel.

Regulations of the Maryland State Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (Note 2) provide for a required series of bacteriological and chemical samples prior to the water supply being put into service. To date, the tests are usually conducted after occupancy, if at all. In Harford County, Maryland, at least four subdivisions have been shown to have areas of excessive nitrate nitrogen (up to 60 ppm) showing the need for stringent enforcement of existing regulations.
Trends of Selected Ground‐Water Constituents from Infiltration Galleries, Southeast Nassau County, New Yorka
Authors: Sulam Dennis J. , Ku Henry F. H.
Published: July 2006

Long‐term records of ground‐water quality indicate that in an unsewered area of southeast Nassau County, New York, certain constituent concentrations increased substantially from 1910 to 1975. Most of the increases virtually parallel the rate of population growth and number of houses that discharge waste water through cesspools and septic tanks. Data sites used for this study were two abandoned infiltration galleries in Wantagh and Massapequa that withdraw water from the shallow aquifer. Ranges in constituent concentrations, in milligrams per liter, during 1910–75 were:
The Significance and Prediction of Observation Well Response Delay in Semiconfined Aquifer‐Test Analysis
Authors: Black J. H. , Kipp K. L.
Published: July 2006

The concept of the observation well as a measuring instrument with its own response characteristics is developed, and a method for response evaluation is derived based on methods of slug‐test analysis. The effect of well response time upon the results of semiconfined aquifer tests is calculated and a series of type curves is produced. The ambiguity of observation well response affected leaky aquifer tests is demonstrated.

A method for calculating well response time based on estimates of aquifer parameters and observation well dimensions is also presented to aid the proper design of aquifer tests. It is recommended that a slug test should be performed on every observation well used in confined or semiconfined aquifer tests.
Application of the Drill‐Stem Test to Hydrogeology
Authors: Hackbarth D. A.
Published: July 2006

Drill‐stem tests may be useful for such hydrogeological purposes as regional ground‐water or geothermal resource studies. Water samples, hydraulic head and hydraulic conductivity may be obtained from these tests.

Analysis of 41 drill‐stem tests conducted for a regional ground‐water study reveals that maximum pressures recorded during a test should exceed 30 percent of the full scale of the pressure gauge used in the case of bourdon‐type instruments. Use of drill‐stem‐test data without consideration for percent deflection of the pressure recorder, even with evaluation of mechanical quality will mean that individual values of pressure head may be as much as 30 percent different from that which would be obtained in an observation well. The error is random and has a median value approximating that which would be observed in a well completed over the same interval. Use of large numbers of drill‐stem tests will produce hydraulic head maps which agree with those produced by conventional observation wells.
Cyclic Storage, Where Are You Now?
Authors: Thomas Harold E.
Published: July 2006

This paper presents ten theses summarizing: The cyclic pattern of precipitation and runoff in the Central Valley of California and the need for cyclic storage to insure regularity and continuity in water supply; the inadequacy of surface‐water storage because of evaporation losses and probable interference with ground‐water recharge; the blasted hopes of Federal and State water agencies for control and management of the ground‐water reservoir, because of potential conflict with private property rights; the artificial recharge by private and local enterprise; increasing emphasis in Federal and State programs upon surface reservoirs at increasing cost in money and water; the tendency of Federal policy to focus on the needs and clamors for irrigation water, with subsidies; and the availability of water from Federal projects now under construction for artificial recharge and subsurface storage, a first step to a long‐range program of cyclic storage.
Use of Laboratory Data to Predict Sulfate Sorption During Artificial Ground‐Water Recharge
Authors: Wood Warren W.
Published: July 2006

Sulfate sorption data determined from laboratory investigations were used to predict movement of sulfate during a field experiment of artificial ground‐water recharge in a basin near Lubbock, Texas. Laboratory studies confirmed that sulfate sorption is controlled in the system by surface area, content of iron oxides and hydroxides, and pH. Predicted sulfate distribution in the unsaturated zone was made by assuming constant one‐dimensional flow. Where these assumptions were met, predictions were generally good at shallow depths and for short times.

At greater depths and longer times, these assumptions combined with other factors, such as changes in effective porosity, variable mineralogy, changing hydrodynamic dispersion coefficients, and variable infiltration rates contributed to the failure of the predicted values to match the observed data.

It appears that sulfate distribution in the unsaturated zone during artificial recharge can be predicted by using easily derived laboratory data if the flow conditions in the field can be described adequately.
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS UTILIZING HEAT‐SHRINKABLE TUBING
Authors: Buss David R. , Trexler Bryson D. , Kneller William A.
Published: July 2006

Hydraulic conductivity studies of a consolidated pozzolanic material indicate that heat‐shrinkable tubing can be utilized to encase cylinders for use in a permeameter. The materials required for encasement of a sample include: heat‐shrinkable tubing, hose clamps, polyvinyl chloride discs, glass tubing, and an electric oven. The procedure requires that the assembled PVC discs, filters, shrinkable tubing, and sample be placed on a support stand in an electric oven for three to four minutes at a temperature between 450–500° F. Upon removal from the oven, hose clamps are placed around each PVC disc. The method has several advantages. It saves time and expenses over conventional methods such as pneumatic pressurized core holders or triaxial testing units and preserves the original interstitial bore spaces of the sample.
Results of Pumping Tests in Crystalline‐Rock Aquifersa
Authors: Uhl Vincent W. , Sharma G. K.
Published: July 2006

The Evangelical Lutheran Church (E.L.C.) Water Development Project, headquartered in Betul, Madhya Pradesh, India, has been involved since 1971 in developing ground‐water supplies in the Satpura Hill Region of Central India. To date, over 400 wells have been drilled in crystalline rocks and more than 100 of these wells have been pump‐tested to determine aquifer hydrologic characteristics.

Crystalline rocks crop out in roughly 20 percent of the Satpura Hill Region and the main rock types are granite, gneiss, and schist. The crystalline‐rock country is gently undulating and ground‐water flow systems are of the local type being limited to small drainage basins of a few square miles in area.

The controlled testing and detailed analysis of over 100 pumping tests provided an excellent opportunity to evaluate the applicability of standard analytical models for the analysis of pumping tests in crystalline‐rock aquifers.

Step‐test data were analyzed by Rorabaugh's (1953) method and by a graphical method. The results indicate that well losses are significant in a number of wells tested and appear to be related to non‐Darcian flow in the aquifer adjacent to a pumped well.

Constant‐rate pumping tests were used to determine aquifer transmissivity. Time‐drawdown data were analyzed by the Cooper‐Jacob (1946) approximation to the Theis (1935) equation and recovery data were analyzed by the residual drawdown method. Aquifer transmissivity ranged over two orders of magnitude from 102 to 104 gpd/ft (1.24 to 1.24 × 102 m2/day). Pumping‐test results often enabled the prediction of aquifer conditions, such as limited aquifers, recharge and leakage boundaries, and aquifer dewatering.
Aquifer Storage of Heated Water: Part I — A Field Experiment
Authors: Molz Fred J. , Warman James C. , Jones Thomas E.
Published: July 2006

Electrical power plant and solar heating systems have been proposed wherein confined ground‐water aquifers are used as temporary storage reservoirs for thermal energy in the form of moderate to high temperature water (140°F‐400°F; 60°C‐204°C). The Water Resources Research Institute of Auburn University has performed an aquifer storage experiment involving warm water (97°F; 36°C). The objectives of the experimental program were to begin actual testing of the concept of heat storage in aquifers and to provide data for calibration of mathematical models describing the simultaneous transport of water and heat. Phase I consisted of drilling an exploratory well at the selected field site near Mobile, Alabama. Phase II involved construction of the central injection well, three observation wells, and performance of preliminary pumping tests. Phase III was devoted to construction of the remainder of the observation well field, performance of final pumping tests, and measurement of aquifer thermal properties; while Phase IV was devoted to a cycle of warm‐water injection, storage, and recovery. It was concluded that heat storage aquifers must have low natural pore velocities, and care must be taken not to clog the injection well with solids or precipitated chemicals. Swelling of clays in the storage formation must be minimized, and hydraulic pressures capable of breaching the confining layers must be avoided. Mechanical and chemical clogging problems may be minimized by using formation water as influent to the heating system. For a 36‐day storage of 2 million gallons, the calculated energy recovery factor of 0.69 was considered promising. Future research should be directed toward experimental studies involving larger volumes of water and high‐injection temperatures. Study should be directed also to the geochemistry problem and the effect of high temperatures on the mechanical and hydraulic properties of clay confining layers.
The Use of Multiple Linear Regression in Simulating Ground‐Water Level Responses
Authors: Hodgson Frank D. I.
Published: July 2006

The simulation of water table responses is discussed and the use of multiple linear regression as a modelling technique is considered. It is calibrated and validated against actual field data from the Vryburg aquifer in South Africa. The model permits the consideration of changes in properties of recharge, discharge and aquifer parameters simultaneously. By use of such a model, water table responses in the Vryburg area can be simulated six years ahead of time, using rainfall and discharge through pumping as the only input parameters. This technique can be regarded as a rapid, first approximation and low‐cost procedure which is unsurpassed as far as time and costs are concerned.
Detection of Permeability Variations by a Shallow Geothermal Technique
Authors: Bair E. Scott , Parizek Richard R.
Published: July 2006

During a seven‐month sampling period surface‐water, ground‐water, and shallow subsurface temperatures were measured at a well field in the Coastal Plain province in southeastern Pennsylvania in an attempt to delineate zones of relatively greater permeability in the underlying glacial outwash materials. Temperature measurements were made at monthly intervals using a tele‐thermometer equipped with a thermistor. Subsurface temperatures were taken at a depth of six feet (183 cm) in a network of 66 access holes.

In order to recognize perturbations in the subsurface thermal regime, theoretical conductive heat flow calculation: of the temperature variation expected to occur at a depth of six feet (183 cm) were compared to the observed temperature variation measured in the network of access holes. Isothermal maps, contouring equal temperatures at a specific time, and isallothermal maps, contouring equal temperature changes in a specific time interval, were constructed from the access hole data. These maps facilitated the identification of areas not conforming to the predicted value of annual subsurface temperature variation.

Anomalous areas were found to represent regions where differing land‐use practices or ground‐water movement perturbed the normal thermal regime. Access hole temperatures measured in areas not covered by a dense vegetative cover or a tree canopy were found to have greater temperature variation than predicted. Areas where the temperature variation in the access holes was less than predicted were found to overlie known zones of relatively greater permeability in the underlying materials.
Principles of Search Techniques for Hydrogeology
Authors: Thomas Robert G.
Published: July 2006

The concepts of target size and the effective size of the detection device are basic to any search problem. The type of target in hydrogeologic studies may either be a distinct or discontinuous one or may be the optimum value in a continuum. Search patterns can be one‐dimensional along a line or two‐dimensional. For discontinuous targets, such as an abandoned well, some kind of grid pattern is necessary, although more effective search patterns exist if some property of the target, such as the geoelectric field, can be detected over a larger area. Search for an optimum value of a continuum, i.e. a bedrock surface, a water‐table surface, etc., can be economically shortened by using adaptive search techniques. Examples of adaptive search techniques along a line are the Golden Section, Fibonacci Search, Dichotomous Search and Interval Bisection methods. The first three are based on values (depth, etc.) and the last on direction of gradient. Two‐dimensional adaptive search methods include repeating lines or search using the line search methods. A completely different approach is the Sequential Simplex Search, a heuristic method which seems to be the most efficient available.
Regional Ground‐Water Management
Authors: Helweg Otto J.
Published: July 2006

Aquifers are basically water storage reservoirs and need to be used as such to optimally integrate them into the water resource system. They have five special properties that dictate how they should be used to store water. These are size, their response time, the quality of water they hold, the ecological impacts of using them, and the type of investment needed to develop them. To be most effective, all of the available storage of an aquifer should be utilized and the quality of the ground water maintained, but neither of these requirements are totally met and in many areas are dangerously ignored. In order to realize the full potential of the aquifer benefits, regional cooperation or control is necessary.
Shortest Path Problems in Hydrogeology
Authors: Thomas Robert G.
Published: July 2006

Many aspects of ground water involve shortest paths between two points and shortest round trips to many points. These problems are included in network theory which is not easily available to ground‐water specialists. This paper introduces some of the techniques which can be solved by hand for fairly small projects. Larger networks can often be divided into districts, each of which may then be amenable to hand solution.

The minimal spanning tree problem is described as background to the more useful problem of shortest path between two particular nodes. The matrix method is the simplest solution for the shortest path between all pairs of nodes and can easily be solved by hand for 30 or less nodes. This data can be used to determine which node is most centrally located and to determine a shorter round trip from one node to all others, returning to the origin. The matrix can be used for partial routes and for routing of two or more vehicles.
A FIELD‐MEASURING INSTRUMENT OF SATURATED PERMEABILITY kf IN UNDISTURBED SOIL SAMPLES BY THE CORE‐SAMPLER METHOD
Authors: Kley W. , Krahmer U.
Published: July 2006

A field instrument to determine saturated permeability is presented. It is possible to take several samples and obtain measurements quickly. The instrument, adapted for a series of measurements, permits the identification of erroneous values and allows repeated measurements. Calculating permeability values through self‐made tables or nomograms make field results immediately available for the description of the cross section. Transporting the samples to the laboratory is no longer required. The instrument is sturdy, and requires little maintenance.
The Impact of the Use of Heat Pumps on Ground‐Water Temperatures
Authors: Andrews Charles B.
Published: July 2006

The impact of the use of a heat pump for residential heating and cooling on ground‐water temperatures was simulated by means of a mathematical model which couples the equations for ground‐water flow with those for heat transport. A hypothetical case using data typical for southern Wisconsin was considered. Water was pumped from and recharged to a sandstone aquifer using a two‐well system. Water was withdrawn from a deep well and injected into a shallow well during the heating cycle and during the cooling cycle the system was operated in reverse. After ten years of operation, water temperatures in the aquifer had changed less than one degree centigrade at a distance of greater than 40 meters from the wells. For the case considered, the use of heat pumps for residential heating and cooling would not adversely lower ground‐water temperatures if use were restricted to sparsely populated areas. It is recommended that statutes which prohibit the injection of water directly into the subsurface be changed to allow the use of ground‐water heat pumps.
Ground‐Water Pollution — A Status Reporta
Authors: Lindorff David E.
Published: July 2006

Recent research has expanded our understanding of the suitability of waste disposal in various hydrogeologic settings. Although more research is needed, our knowledge can provide a basis for preparing guidelines for action that will protect ground water from waste disposal practices. It is impossible, however, to prevent accidental spills, unlawful dumping, and ground‐water contamination or pollution resulting from some old, unregulated waste disposal practices. Therefore, more than 170 case histories of subsurface contamination or pollution were studied to evaluate the effectiveness of remedial action in different geologic environments. The case studies indicate that the severity and extent of ground‐water contamination is determined by (1) the hydrogeologic setting, (2) the nature of the contaminant, and (3) the effectiveness of regulatory action.

Industrial wastes are the most common sources of ground‐water contamination. The most serious incidents are those that pollute or threaten water supplies and those that cause a fire or explosion. Once ground water is contaminated, remedial action is time consuming and expensive. Each incident must be handled as a separate problem. Although prompt action is essential to limit contamination and minimize remedial action, no strategies have been established for rapid response to contamination or pollution problems.

Ground‐water contamination will continue, but its impact can be reduced. The role of hydrogeologists in regulatory agencies should be strengthened to provide proper evaluation of potential sources of contamination and to aid in remedial action when ground water is contaminated. Cooperative efforts to develop strategies will ensure proper handling of future emergencies.
Ground‐Water Pollution — An Imminent Disastera
Authors: Pettyjohn Wayne A.
Published: July 2006

The significance of ground‐water pollution depends on our perspective. To those individuals who are directly affected, it is an imminent disaster. Once contaminated, ground water may remain in an unusable or even hazardous condition for decades or even centuries as illustrated by situations in central Ohio, New York, London and many others. All polluted water can be treated to make it potable, but the expense may far exceed the resources of the individual homeowner.
Ground‐Water Quality Standards — A Neutral Viewa
Authors: Keech Donald K.
Published: July 2006

An objective view of the need for ground‐water quality standards requires that an individual recognize the value that ground water contributes to the water supply needs of our nation. A vast number of people living in rural areas and a large number of communities are dependent upon ground water as their sole source of water for domestic, industrial, commercial, and agricultural needs.

This large use and dependency upon ground water dictates that these resources are valuable and must be protected for both present day and future uses. There are many examples where present methods of disposal of wastes generated in America have not been satisfactory from an environmental standpoint, with an exception of projects where disposal sites have been properly designed, operated, and managed for protection of the ground water.

One possible solution for ground‐water protection is the establishment of ground‐water quality standards. The purpose of such standards is to protect the public health and welfare and maintain the quality of ground waters in all usable aquifers for individual, public, industrial, and agricultural water supplies. A legal basis must exist and the prescribed steps must be followed as dictated by the rule making process. The primary aim of such standards is to prevent the degradation of ground waters such as they will not become a public health hazard or harm the users of the ground water.

The backbone of such a standard rests on the completion of a hydrogeological study which is necessary to determine background water quality information, set up the monitoring program and outline sampling to determine when water quality changes are taking place and what is a significant change.
Ground‐Water Quality Standards — Relevanta
Authors: McDermott James H.
Published: July 2006

The opportunity to begin formulating a national ground‐water quality protection program is at hand. In building the new program we should use the host of lessons learned in the experience of related environmental programs. This is necessary so that the new program will be realistic at the outset and congruent with the integrated planning and management of the ground‐ and surface‐water resources of the nation.

The keystone of program development, implementation, and evaluation is and will continue to be water quality standards. To the extent that the goal “Safe Drinking Water for Americans” has already been established, the point‐of‐use regulations (IPDW Regs and the RPDW Regs), should serve as water quality objectives thus facilitating ground‐water program formulation and evaluation. The major regulatory thrust of the program, the water quality standards, must be technology‐based site selection, construction and operational standards, with only limited monitoring in a conventional water supply and water pollution control context.
Land Application of Waste — Important Alternativea
Authors: Sheaffer John R.
Published: July 2006

Land treatment uses a combination of processes to manage and beneficially use waste water. It represents a revolution in sewage treatment because it (1) transforms sewage treatment from a single purpose activity into a multipurpose activity, (2) changes sewage treatment construction grants from subsidies into investments in the production of food and fiber, and (3) requires the participation of a variety of disciplines to implement successfully. Because it is revolutionary to the sewage treatment field, three situations have developed. First, it is displacing traditional technology at a record‐breaking pace. Second, its logical appeal to thinking decision makers has created a situation in which the policy makers are ahead of many technicians. Third, it is attacked with a fervor heretofore unknown in the sewage treatment field.

Land treatment has logged an enviable track record in the United States. Existing systems have produced a high quality effluent at economically competitive prices. In addition, in terms of relative risk, the threat to environmental quality from a land treatment system compares favorably with advanced waste treatment systems.
The Federal Ground‐Water Protection Program — Tomorrow's Undoinga
Authors: Mosher Dale C.
Published: July 2006

Past and present guidance in landfilling has been based on inadequate information. More recent information indicates past and present recommendations/guidance may not be accurate. Current trends, as a result of RCRA (PL 94‐580), are generally following the same recommendations. The result can be greater problems from landfills constructed now and in future years than have occurred from past landfills, such as the well‐known Llangollen landfill. It is time for Congress, EPA, and others to recognize what is and is not known about the pollution potential from landfills and waste disposal, in general.
The 208 Planning Approach to Ground‐Water Protection — A Program Overviewa
Authors: Hurd Merna
Published: July 2006

Ground‐water protection is one of the water quality management priorities that Section 208 planning is addressing. Examples are derived from the experiences of selected 208 planning agencies, among them Nassau‐Suffolk Regional Planning Board (NY), Old Colony Planning Council (MA), and Ventura Regional County Sanitation District (CA). These agencies have used 208 funds to identify problems such as salt‐water intrusion and contamination from storm runoff. Through ground‐water studies, each assessed the extent of the problems and used their analysis to produce protection and control recommendations.

Section 208 requires that designated State and area‐wide agencies plan for ongoing water quality management to meet the 1983 goal of restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's water. The Section, which originated with the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, contains the only extant provision for nonpoint source pollution control. Opportunities for integration of 208 with other Clean Water Act programs as well as with programs established under the Safe Drinking Water Act and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act are now being explored as a means of increasing water quality management efficiency and quality.
Controlled Degradation and/or Protection Zones ‐ Sensea
Authors: Landon Ronald A.
Published: July 2006

It is herein submitted that the nearly universal phrase “shall not cause pollution of the ground waters and surface waters” written into the State regulations for waste disposal operations not only refutes a sound technical alternative, but is impractical, uneconomical and often unworkable.

It is a fact that all ground waters are not created equal, as governed by certain irrefutable physical laws including the water budget equation and Darcy's Law which states that the quantity of ground water available is subject to wide variation from location to location. While an aquifer is a relative term, major, minor and nonaquifers can be identified within a given geographic area with respect to cost‐effective ground‐water resource development. Likewise, the natural quality of ground water is also a significant variable with certain parameters often exceeding drinking‐water standards. The land application of wastes overlying the ground waters of an area should, therefore, also be subject to a certain degree of flexibility for prudent management of both the waste operation and the ground‐water resources.

Numerous investigations and empirical data can be cited to substantiate the fact that many wastes and their associated leachates can be safely assimilated into the environment with reliance on attenuation and controlled degradation of ground water by utilization of a mixing zone or zone of renovation with a specified distance from a disposal operation. As increased emphasis is placed on the land disposal/management of wastes/residuals and as the cost of these operations continue to mount, it is strongly recommended that controlled ground‐water degradation be utilized in those areas where a “true” ground‐water resource does not exist. Protection of such a “true” ground‐water resource is obviously necessary as our demands for a potable water supply also continue to grow.
Controlled Degradation and/or Protection Zones — Nonsensea
Authors: Bouwer Herman
Published: July 2006

Man's activities are an ever‐increasing threat to ground‐water quality. New EPA policies encourage cities to discharge sewage effluent on land. Irrigated agriculture is incompatible with high‐quality ground water where deep percolation water is not removed by drainage. Present drinking‐water quality standards cannot be used to determine the suitability of water for potable use if such water is waste‐water‐derived. Where sewage effluent is applied to land, persistent trace organics occur in underlying ground water. Some of these organics may be carcinogenic or otherwise toxic, and much additional research is needed. Controlled degradation of ground water still is degradation. High‐quality ground‐water resources either are to be protected, or aquifers eventually must be abandoned as sources of high‐quality drinking water. In the long term, there is no in‐between. The choice will be dictated by economic and environmental considerations. For example, the most economical use of aquifers below irrigated valleys ultimately may be to serve as facilities for treatment, storage, and conveyance of municipal waste water from surrounding communities, so that this water can be used again for unrestricted irrigation. While such uses of aquifers may be far off, they should be anticipated now to allow proper planning.
Ground‐Water Computer Models — Practical Toolsa
Authors: Darr Russell E.
Published: July 2006

One of the most valuable and practical tools the ground‐water manager can use is the computer model, be it wellfield, conjunctive, solute transport, or statistical. Although these models vary in complexity, the end product is purely a function of the user's ability to select the appropriate level of modeling for a particular project. Any professional working in the field of hydrogeology should adapt to and use ground‐water models to be truly efficient.
Ground‐Water Computer Models — Intellectual Toysa
Authors: Baski Henry A.
Published: July 2006

Ground‐water computer models are, certainly, toys which provide intellectual stimulation. They can be useful tools for advancement of the ground‐water profession, but I believe that they have been blown out of proportion and that this might cause irreparable damage to our profession.

It is important to see where computer models fit into the ground‐water problem‐solving process. I believe that ground‐water computer programs are simply a complicated “turn the crank” tool for making projections. They're one type of tool out of several which requires aquifer and confining bed characteristics to facilitate making projections. A second approach for making projections involves the direct extrapolation or manipulation of data which does not require transmissivity, storage coefficient, leakance, and other interpreted characteristics. Further, I believe that the collection and evaluation of data are of greater importance than the projection methods and/or tools in arriving at answers.

Advantages of ground‐water computer models include: speedy analyses once a program is working, ability to handle many parameters, and utilization of a large data base. The disadvantages include: use of computer models as end goals, tendency for misapplications, time‐consuming setup, a waste of time and money in some cases, and diversion of human talent from useful ground‐water work.
Waterborne Disease — Current Threata
Authors: Cooper Robert C.
Published: July 2006

Control of epidemic waterborne disease of an infectious nature has been made practical through modern drinking‐water treatment practices. Certainty of such control depends upon treatment plant reliability. The possibility of the transmission of newly recognized infectious diseases by the water route must be considered. The presence of trace amounts of chemicals in drinking water that are potential agents of chronic disease, particularly cancer, poses many questions concerning the safety of our water supplies.
PROGRAMMING A POCKET CALCULATOR FOR SOLVING MULTIPLE WELL, VARIABLE PUMPING RATE PROBLEMS
Authors: Picking Larry W.
Published: July 2006

Abstract. Several of the newer models of programmable pocket calculators can accept programs that permit them to rapidly and accurately solve the Theis converging series formula. By freeing the Theis equation from the W(u) reference table, multiple well, variable pumping rate programs can be designed for operation on a simple input‐output basis, using additive drawdown and image well theory.
Aquifer Transmissivity from Surficial Electrical Methods
Authors: Heigold Paul C. , Gilkeson Robert H. , Cartwright Keros , Reed Philip C.
Published: July 2006

Recent advances in the automatic inversion of vertical electrical sounding data offer the opportunity to describe the relationship of the resistivity of a granular aquifer to its hydraulic conductivity. This type of relationship, together with aquifer thickness, can be used to determine the transmissivity of the aquifer.

Vertical electrical soundings and pump‐test data along the axis of a glacial outwash aquifer in central Illinois have indicated an inverse relationship between aquifer resistivity and hydraulic conductivity. This relationship has been attributed to differences in sorting of the outwash sediments. But studies of granular aquifers deposited in other geologic environments are needed before meaningful generalizations can be made.