bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Transformation: From Sustainably Productive Agriculture to Industry?
Authors: Lele Uma , Agarwal Manmohan , Goswami Sambuddha
Published: November 2021

The chapter explores issues of farm size, productivity, and structural transformation, as well as the reasons underlying performance. Productivity growth is crucial to structural transformation, and conventional wisdom held that small farms were more productive than large farms, in terms of yields per hectare. Increasingly, however, there is evidence that farms of all sizes can perform well, particularly when total factor productivity is measured in terms of all factors of production—that is, for farmers of large, medium, and small farms—rather than in terms of land productivity. Similarly, transformation theory has held that manufacturing tends to be more productive than agriculture, explaining migration from agriculture to industry and manufacturing being seen as the escalator of growth, but some evidence suggests agricultural productivity growth can be greater than growth of productivity in the manufacturing sector. Some have questioned the role of smallholder farms, suggesting development policy, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, needs to foster medium and large farms, reallocating factors of production in their favor, as the only way to achieve an increase in overall levels of productivity and food for the burgeoning urban population. The chapter also tests the hypothesis of premature deindustrialization in many low-income and low-middle-income developing countries, including relative rates of growth in agriculture, manufacturing, and the service sector.
The Effect of Dissolved Elements and Inclusions on the Properties of Metal Products
Authors: Simensen Christian J.
Published: November 2021

The chapter deals mainly with the effect of impurities on the macro properties of metals made from steel, aluminium, copper, and zinc. It is about porosity, mechanical properties, strength, fatigue, and corrosion. It shows the effect of small amounts of inclusions and liquid impurities in bulk, on grain boundaries, and on the surface of the metals. The investigations have been carried out using mechanical tests, and advanced microscopic instruments like electron microscopes, X-ray diffraction, and different SIMS instruments (secondary ion mass spectrometry). The chapter lays the foundation for the need for refining of primary and secondary metals, i.e. recycling.
Removal of Dissolved Impurities from Molten Metals
Authors: Engh Thorvald Abel , Sigworth Geoffrey K. , Kvithyld Anne
Published: November 2021

Impurities are transferred out at the boundary of the liquid. Velocities normal to the boundary are small. Therefore, for efficient removal contact areas and times should be large. Transfer depends on the chemical and physical properties of the liquid and the phase that captures the impurities at the boundary. This phase may be a liquid, gas (vacuum) or solid. Properties can be described in terms of equilibrium and empirical mass transfer coefficients. Vacuum may be applied to remove volatile elements. Refining can be carried out by partial solidification or fractional crystallisation, using the segregation that occurs during freezing of an alloy. Finally, an element can be added to form a reactive compound followed by removal of the compound by sedimentation or filtration.
Removal of Inclusions from Melts
Authors: Engh Thorvald Abel , Sigworth Geoffrey K. , Kvithyld Anne
Published: November 2021

Inclusion origins and the methods for determining the content of inclusions in a melt are described. Removal of inclusions by flotation/settling is demonstrated. The method for removing inclusions from molten metals by bubbling is described in detail with attachment mechanism to bubbles. Use of microbubbles are included. Filtration capture mechanisms of inclusions, cake and deep bed mode, are derived. A model for removal of inclusions by ceramic foam filters is introduced. Re-entrainment of inclusions are examined. In addition the use of rotational and electromagnetic forces to remove inclusions is explained. The number size distribution of inclusions is taken into account, both the change in the distribution function and the growth of inclusions with time. In the end the interaction of dissolved elements and inclusions is described.
Social data collection and analyses
Authors: Charpentier Marie J. E. , Pelé Marie , Renoult Julien P. , Sueur Cédric
Published: November 2021

Sampling accurate and quantitative behavioural data requires the description of fine-grained patterns of social relationships and/or spatial associations, which is highly challenging, especially in natural environments. Although behavioural ecologists have tackled systematic studies on animals’ societies since the nineteenth century, new biologging technologies have the potential to revolutionise the sampling of animals’ social relationships. However, the tremendous quantity of data sampled and the diversity of biologgers (such as proximity loggers) currently available that allow the sampling of a large array of biological and physiological data bring new analytical challenges. The high spatiotemporal resolution of data needed when studying social processes, such as disease or information diffusion, requires new analytical tools, such as social network analyses, developed to analyse large data sets. The quantity and quality of the data now available on a large array of social systems bring undiscovered outputs, consistently opening new and exciting research avenues.
Longitudinal demographic data collection
Authors: Gamelon Marlène , Firth Josh A. , Le Moullec Mathilde , Petry William K. , Salguero-Gómez Roberto
Published: November 2021

Several long-term field studies are running worldwide on many taxa across the Tree of Life. These longitudinal studies involve several visits to the study population with repeated observations/measurements. Demographic data can be collected at the population level (e.g. time series of population counts) or at the individual level (e.g. monitoring of marked and/or georeferenced individuals throughout their life). These data are then used to estimate demographic parameters such as annual population abundances, survival, growth, and reproductive rates. This chapter introduces the reader to monitoring methods (including recent technologies) that can be implemented in the field to collect specific demographic data on mobile species (e.g. birds, mammals) at both the population and individual levels, while dealing with imperfect detection. It also presents the procedures and the type of demographic data that can be collected on sessile species (e.g. corals, plants) at both levels. Finally, the chapter concludes with new aspects, current biases, and arising challenges for future long-term field studies.
Drivers of demography: past challenges and a promise for a changed future
Authors: Quintana-Ascencio Pedro F. , Menges Eric S. , Cook Geoffrey S. , Ehrlén Johan , Afkhami Michelle E.
Published: November 2021

There is an urgent need to understand how populations and metapopulations respond to shifts in the environment to mitigate the consequences of human actions and global change. Identifying environmental variables/factors affecting population dynamics and the nature of their impacts is fundamental to improve projections and predictions. This chapter examines how environmental drivers, both continuous (stress) and episodic (disturbance), are incorporated in demographic modelling across many types of organisms and environments, using both observational and experimental approaches to characterise drivers. It critically summarises examples of the main approaches and identifies major accomplishments, challenges, and limitations. The chapter points to promising approaches and possible future developments. In the initial sections, models in closed systems without migration among populations are considered. The chapter then focuses on metapopulation models, emphasising the importance of understanding drivers affecting migration and differential extinction among populations. Finally, it concludes with a discussion of some important and general problems associated with assessing how population dynamics may be affected by environmental drivers that are dynamic, nonlinear, and with indirect and/or interacting effects with other drivers..
Demographic processes in socially structured populations
Authors: Paniw Maria , Cozzi Gabriele , Sommer Stefan , Ozgul Arpat
Published: November 2021

In socially structured animal populations, vital rates such as survival and reproduction, are affected by complex interactions among individuals of different social ranks and among social groups. Due to this complexity, mechanistic approaches to model vital rates may be preferred over commonly used structured population models. However, mechanistic approaches come at a cost of increased modelling complexity, computational requirements, and reliance on simulated metrics, while structured population models are analytically tractable. This chapter compares different approaches to modelling population dynamics of socially structured populations. It first simulates individual-based data based on the life cycle of a hypothetical cooperative breeder and then projects population dynamics using a matrix population model (MPM), an integral projection model (IPM), and an individual-based model (IBM). The authors demonstrate that, when projecting population size or structure, the relatively simpler MPM can outperform both the IPM and IBM. However, mechanistic details parametrised in the more complex IBM are required to accurately project interactions within social groups. The R scripts in this chapter provide a roadmap to both simulate data that best describe a socially structured system and assess the level of model complexity needed to capture the dynamics of the system.
Fictional reference as simulation
Authors: Recanati François
Published: November 2021

According to a widespread view, the author of a fiction makes pretend assertions, which themselves rest on ancillary acts of pretend reference. Fictional discourse is thus asymmetrically dependent upon ‘serious’ (non-fictional) discourse: fictional reference and fictional assertion alike are parasitic on genuine reference and genuine assertion, which they mimic. Recently, however, several authors have criticized the pretence approach. According to the alternative, two-stage model they argue for, fiction and non-fiction are on a par (rather than one being asymmetrically dependent upon the other). This chapter shows how this debate connects with the current controversy about the force/content distinction. A sustained defence of the pretence approach is provided, and the approach is shown to extend to the parafictional uses of fictional names.
Do the imaginings that fictions invite have a direction of fit?
Authors: García-Carpintero Manuel
Published: November 2021

The chapter argues that a normative view of fictionality that I have defended elsewhere allows us to put in a perspicuous way an intriguing claim by Kathleen Stock regarding the imagination. The chapter puts it in terms of the direction of fit (DoF) asymmetry: imaginings prescribed by fictions have the thetic DoF of beliefs and assertions, as opposed to the telic DoF of desires and requests. Although the chapter argues that the imagination itself lacks DoF, it argues for Stock’s claim understood in these terms: imaginings prescribed by fictions have the direction of fit of judgements and assertions, not that of directives and intentions.
Isomorphic mapping in fictional interpretation
Authors: Bauer Matthias , Beck Sigrid
Published: November 2021

This chapter investigates how readers/hearers come to assign a subjective interpretation to a fictional text. It argues that fictional texts use a speech act operator that involves an inference from the text worlds to the reader’s reality (Bauer and Beck 2014). The inference is based on a mapping from concepts in the text to real objects, properties, and relations which has isomorphic features, i.e., it is a structure-preserving mapping. We illustrate the workings of our semantic framework by applying it to two poems by Emily Dickinson and offer some generalizations regarding plausible vs. implausible mappings and what governs their choice.
The Politics of Legislative Debates
Authors: Bäck Hanna , Debus Marc , Fernandes Jorge M.
Published: November 2021

The contribution of this chapter to our volume is fourfold. First, we look at why we should study legislative debates and how scholars may benefit from representation, legislative politics, party politics, and electoral studies by incorporating debates in their analysis. In so doing, we unpack their functions in liberal democracies. Second, the chapter offers a state of the art of the burgeoning field of legislative debates. We focus on the normative scholarly discussion about legislative debates and their importance for deliberation and democratic outputs. In addition, we dwell on Proksch and Slapin’s model as a watershed in the empirical study of legislative debates, particularly due to its capacity to travel and its usefulness in understanding how different institutional settings have an impact of speechmaking. Third, the chapter presents the theoretical framework, the key hypotheses guiding the volume, and our empirical approach to legislative debates. Fourth, the chapter concludes with the plan of the book.
Argentina
Authors: Ecker Alejandro , Payva Martin Soto
Published: November 2021

This chapter explores the institutional setting and identifies the critical determinants of parliamentary speechgiving in the Argentine Chamber of Deputies between 2001 and 2016. We understand and describe access to the parliamentary floor as a complex interplay between formal and informal regulations, which govern the distribution of floor time as a scarce resource between, and its allocation within, political parties. The empirical analysis combines textual data on plenary session speeches with both individual and institutional characteristics of over 1000 Argentine MPs. The analysis results indicate that participation in parliamentary debate is driven by a combination of individual traits such as seniority and MPs’ ability to hold institutionally powerful leadership positions such as that of the parliamentary bloc. At the same time, we observe that the government–opposition divide plays no significant role in parliamentary floor access, which speaks to the Argentine Chamber of Deputies’ general characterization as a consensual institution.
Australia
Authors: Dowding Keith , Leslie Patrick , Taflaga Marija
Published: November 2021

This chapter examines speeches in the Australian House of Representatives from 1990-2019. Our findings are primarily determined by the nature of Australia’s Westminster-style system, where the government tends to dominate proceedings. We find strong party effects, government versus opposition effects, and strong ministerial effects on the amount and duration of speeches. The descriptive statistics demonstrate that women and less experienced parliamentarians speak less than male and experienced ones. The gender effect also holds when controlling for ministerial selection. The latter is likely to be explained by men being given more important and prestigious ministerial portfolios. We also find that opposition MPs speak more on average than non-ministers on the government side. However, that is mostly a statistical artifact of their necessarily being fewer opposition MPs, but the rules give both sides of the House approximately equal time to speak. While both gender and seniority are predictive of how much people speak, this is mediated by the fact ministers speak more.
European Parliament
Authors: Sorace Miriam
Published: November 2021

The European Parliament is an extraordinary legislature due to its multinational nature, and its mixed internal legislative organization. Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are subject to mixed incentives: they have to heed both national and European Party Groups’ (EPGs) leaderships, but also have significant opportunities for individual floor access. The chapter uses speech counts from 1999 to 2019, scraped from the EP official website. The analysis finds that frontbench domination of speeches is not constant and has weakened over time. Changes in internal procedure appear to be an important explanatory factor, while member states’ electoral systems do not seem to play a role in explaining frontbench domination patterns. The study also finds that EU-level government–opposition dynamics do not play a role, while ideological extremism does explain speechmaking patterns. In terms of individual level determinants of legislative speech, senior MEPs are granted more floor time, while there is no difference between male and female MEPs in their debate participation rates.
Iceland
Authors: Helgason Agnar Freyr , Indriðason Indriði H. , Kristinsson Gunnar Helgi
Published: November 2021

Parliamentary procedures in the Icelandic Alþingi are comparatively permissive, allowing legislators ample opportunity to address the chamber. There is, however, considerably variance in terms of how extensively legislators use those opportunities and we find, e.g., that opposition status, gender, seniority, and leadership positions within the party affect how much legislators address the chamber. Due to the frequent use of primaries to establish party lists, we also examine whether the incentive to build a personal following affects legislators’ proclivity for addressing the chamber. We find limited evidence to suggest that MPs selected in primaries speak more in the chamber, contrary to what theories emphasizing electoral motives in speechmaking in parliament claim.
The Netherlands
Authors: Otjes Simon , Louwerse Tom
Published: November 2021

Speechmaking in the Dutch parliament is characterized by party dominance and individual autonomy. This paradoxical situation can be understood from the perspective of specialization: every Member of Parliament acts as a spokesperson on a specific issue for their party. Therefore, usually, only one MP per party participates in a debate. Within their policy portfolio, MPs enjoy considerable autonomy, in particular in deciding whether to participate in a debate and what to say. The leadership does not decide for each debate whether or not to delegate speaking time to individual MPs, but rather at the beginning of the parliamentary term when the portfolios are assigned. An empirical analysis of debate participation and the number of words spoken shows that these are most strongly related to electoral list position and seniority. PPG leaders speak longer than other MPs, but we observe no such effect for committee chairs or PPG board members.
The United Kingdom
Authors: Blumenau Jack , Damiani Roberta
Published: November 2021

We describe the institutional setting of parliamentary debate in the UK House of Commons and assess the determinants of participation in Commons’ debates using data on more than two million speeches from 1979 to 2019. We show that the main determinant of participation in parliamentary debate in the UK is whether an MP holds an institutionally powerful position in either the government or opposition parties. In addition, we describe two patterns in the evolution of debate behavior in the Commons over time. First, although MPs in government and opposition leadership positions give more speeches than backbench MPs in all periods that we study, the speechmaking “bonus” these actors enjoy has decreased over time. Second, MPs have increasingly employed constituency-oriented language in their parliamentary speeches over the past forty years, a finding we link to theoretical accounts of legislative competition in personal-vote-seeking electoral systems.
Acoustic sensors
Authors: Crunchant Anne-Sophie , Nakka Chanakya Dev , Isaacs Jason T. , Piel Alex K.
Published: November 2021

Animals share acoustic space to communicate vocally. The employment of passive acoustic monitoring to establish a better understanding of acoustic communities has emerged as an important tool in assessing overall diversity and habitat integrity as well as informing species conservation strategies. This chapter aims to review how traditional and more emerging bioacoustic techniques can address conservation issues. Acoustic data can be used to estimate species occupancy, population abundance, and animal density. More broadly, biodiversity can be assessed via acoustic diversity indices, using the number of acoustically conspicuous species. Finally, changes to the local soundscape provide an early warning of habitat disturbance, including habitat loss and fragmentation. Like other emerging technologies, passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) benefits from an interdisciplinary collaboration between biologists, engineers, and bioinformaticians to develop detection algorithms for specific species that reduce time-consuming manual data mining. The chapter also describes different methods to process, visualize, and analyse acoustic data, from open source to commercial software. The technological advances in bioacoustics turning heavy, non-portable, and expensive hardware and labour and time-intensive methods for analysis into new small, movable, affordable, and automated systems, make acoustic sensors increasingly popular among conservation biologists for all taxa.
Challenges for the computer vision community
Authors: Morris Dan , Joppa Lucas
Published: November 2021

Computer vision (CV) is rapidly advancing as a tool to make conservation science more efficient, for example, by accelerating the annotation of images from camera traps and aerial surveys. However, before CV can become a widely used approach, several core technology challenges need to be addressed by the CV community. Taking into consideration several case studies in CV where tremendous progress has been made since the emergence of deep learning, this chapter will introduce core concepts in CV, survey several areas where CV is already contributing to conservation, and outline key challenges for the CV community that will facilitate the adoption of CV in mainstream conservation practice.
Wrestling with Digital Objects and Technologies in Studies of Work
Authors: Bailey Diane E. , Barley Stephen R. , Leonardi Paul M.
Published: November 2021

Studying technical work at digital interfaces, especially the work of engineers, poses challenges for ethnographers. In addition to the difficulties of understanding and documenting what engineers do at their computers, engineers use concepts and vocabularies that are foreign to social scientists without technical training. The authors describe the methods they developed over a decade to deal with these and related issues in their ethnographies of three engineering occupations: structural engineering, hardware engineering, and automotive engineering. Using dual observers, developing glossaries of technical terms, recording streams of behaviour, developing task tables, creating technology inventories, and creating databases of digital artefacts cross-referenced to one’s fieldnotes are among the 14 techniques discussed and illustrated.
Digital Diaries as a Research Method for Capturing Practices in Situ
Authors: Jarrahi Mohammad Hossein , Goray Cami , Zirker Stephanie , Zhang Yinglong
Published: November 2021

Digital diaries emerge as viable methods for capturing situated practices in research participants’ natural environments. This chapter reviews what has been learned about the affordances of diary studies from various research traditions and describes the researchers’ use of the digital diary method in different research contexts. Specifically explored is the use of digital diaries by drawing on the application of the method in studying nomadic work practices and how they help to reveal contextual details of nomadic work. The chapter thus outlines an ‘interposed approach’ where diary studies are preceded and succeeded by interviews with participants. Finally, the practical opportunities and challenges of conducting digital diaries are described.
Conclusion
Authors: Hine Christine , Pritchard Katrina , Symon Gillian
Published: November 2021

The concluding chapter reflects on the methodological challenges and research experiences set out in the substantive chapters of the book. This chapter reviews common issues in relation to ethics and digital traceability, the practical challenges of researching digital work, and the new skills researchers must develop in order to embrace these challenges and generate impactful research. It also reviews the current intensification of digital work, particularly in light of the global Covid-19 pandemic. In these challenging times, digital work has changed in complex, unpredictable, and nuanced ways. Researchers are encouraged to produce perspectives on the inequalities across the field of digital work, to capture experiences of digital work across the spectrum, and to develop insights into evolving organization. The chapter ends by considering the future of research methods for digital work and organization and discusses where the methods showcased in this book provide a basis for researchers to rise to the coming challenges.
Dogs dancing
Authors: Thimbleby Harold
Published: November 2021

Look carefully for them, and you’ll uncover lots of stories of digital healthcare bugs. This chapter has lots of examples of buggy digital health.
Who’s accountable?
Authors: Thimbleby Harold
Published: November 2021

Software warranties generally deny all liability for problems. Manufacturers and developers should be required to be more accountable. Everyone needs to be constantly curious about improving systems and reporting problems.
Safe and secure
Authors: Thimbleby Harold
Published: November 2021

Cybersecurity is a serious problem for all computers and digital systems. In healthcare, patient safety is paramount, but in the wider world security has a higher profile than safety. Both have problems caused by poor programming and all the design and development processes that precede actual coding.
Signs of life
Authors: Thimbleby Harold
Published: November 2021

We’ve emphasized problems and solutions to problems, but of course, digital can do some fantastic things too. This chapter collects a few positive stories about digital successes and how it can transform lives.
Notes
Authors: Thimbleby Harold
Published: November 2021

Supporting this book are nearly 500 notes and references on digital healthcare and patient safety incidents. These notes cover media stories, peer-reviewed cutting-edge research, and national and international reports.
Introduction
Authors: Keser Kayaalp Elif
Published: November 2021

This chapter gives an overview of the dynamics that shaped the landscape of this frontier region. The region was a stage of war with the Sasanians. This situation resulted in well-fortified cities and a network of fortifications. Christological debates also left a significant mark on the cities, the rural areas, and their churches. This chapter describes the frontier character of the region by giving a summary of the wars between the two Empires and provides an overview of the Christological debates and the formation of the Syrian Orthodox Church hierarchy. It then focuses on the period after the Arab conquest. It looks at Muslim approaches to church building and Syriac accounts on building churches in that period. The chapter concludes with an overview of research on the region, including traveller accounts, surveys, and archaeological excavations.
Human Rights Litigation against Multinationals in Practice
Authors: Leader Daniel
Published: November 2021

Daniel Leader reviews multinational human rights cases that have developed English law on jurisdiction and parent company liability. He considers the first batch of parent company cases that started the ball rolling in the 1990s, leading to the establishment of the parent company duty of care principle in Chandler v. Cape. He explains the principles of the 2019 and 2021 Supreme Court decisions in Lungowe v. Vedanta and Opkabi v. Shell, and the first trial of a parent company case, where an international auditor was found in breached of its duty to act ethically. The key principles developed on jurisdiction and forum non conveniens are explained. He reviews security and human rights cases, including recent settlements against Gemfields and Kakuzi. He also reviews supply chain cases arising from shipbreaking and child labour on Malawian tobacco farms. Procedural and practical issues concerning discovery, group actions, witness anonymity, and funding and viability of cases are outlined.
Multinational Company Litigation
Authors: Brickhill Jason , Mbuyisa Zanele
Published: November 2021

Jason Brickhill and Zanele Mbuyisa review the current state of play in South Africa in terms of the imposition of civil liability on multinationals for human rights abuses. They outline the rules on jurisdiction over claims by foreign claimants and corporations and potential causes of action under common law, statute, and the Constitution. Specific consideration is given to the potential influence on the development of South African law of recent English law decisions on parent company liability. By reference to the goldminers’ silicosis and the Kabwe lead poisoning cases, they highlight the value to victims of the relatively recent developments of class actions in South Africa and the rules on discovery and damages. In terms of access to justice, they consider the receptiveness of the judiciary to public interest litigation and the key provisions relating to prescription and costs and funding, including by litigation funders.
Liability of Multinational Corporations in Canada for International Human Rights Violations
Authors: Johnston Bruce W.
Published: November 2021

Bruce W. Johnston reviews the current state of play in Canada regarding the imposition of civil liability on multinationals for human rights abuses occurring overseas. He explains the bijural nature of the legal system and the consequential developments of civil law in Quebec and common law elsewhere. He outlines, by reference to case law, the relevant law on jurisdiction, including in class actions, and application of forum non conveniens, forum necessitatis, and choice of law, under common and civil law. Regarding causes of action, he considers the corporate veil hurdle and important judgments on direct liability of the parent company, in Choc v. Hudbay Minerals and most strikingly, the direct application of customary international human rights law by the Supreme Court in Nevsun. Equally important in terms of practical access to justice, the chapter outlines the rules on procedures relating to opt-out class actions, legal costs, including litigation funding.
Human Rights Litigation against Multinational Companies in Germany
Authors: Saage-Maaβ‎ Miriam
Published: November 2021

Miriam Saag-Maaβ‎ reviews the potential for human rights and environmental cases against multinationals in Germany. Outlining the rules on jurisdiction as per EU and national law. The chapter discusses the application of the Rome II Regulation to choice of law and the potential relevance of overriding mandatory provisions of German law and the possibility of claims for impairment or interference with property including the injunctive relief to prevent flooding caused by greenhouse emissions in Lliaya v. RWE. It also outlines the elements for liability for corporate human rights abuse under section 823(I) BGB and for the omission to comply with safety duties, in particular the potential for claims against a parent or buying company for breach of a safety duty by subsidiaries and suppliers. It considers key issues arising in Jabbir v. KiK, including the application of the Pakistani law and outlines key barriers to justice relating to discovery, collective actions, recovery of legal costs and funding.
Multinational Human Rights Litigation from the Perspective of Business
Authors: Lindsay Rae
Published: November 2021

Rae Lindsay outlines categories of multinational human rights cases pursued in the Global North, arguing overall that litigation in distant overseas courts often serves victims poorly. She offers nuance to the popular narratives concerning multinational human rights litigation, highlighting some features that pose challenges for corporate defendants that differ in emphasis from other forms of litigation. She reviews the impact of the UNGP and their ‘legalisation’ through regulation, incorporation into contracts, and use in litigation. Observing that adversarial litigation models and practices engrained within longstanding State-based structures can operate inconsistently with the effective resolution of human-rights focused claims, she urges those representing both claimants and businesses to consider alternatives and ways to conduct litigation in a constructive and mutually respectful manner conducive to respect for human rights.
Parties
Authors: Law European
Published: November 2021

This chapter examines the part of the European Rules of Civil Procedure which aims to ensure that the court is properly accessible to all persons who have a legitimate interest in bringing or defending proceedings, i.e., in vindicating or enforcing rights. Parties to litigation can be persons who are able to hold rights under substantive law. Lacking litigation capacity, parties must be represented according to applicable law. In appropriate cases, proceedings may be brought by several claimants or against several defendants as parties joined to the litigation. The court may order the consolidation of separate proceedings for the purpose of properly managing them. At any time after the commencement of proceedings, substitution or succession of a party by another person is possible if required by law or if it is necessary in the interest of good administration of justice. The chapter then considers cross-border issues, including the capacity of foreign nationals to be a party, as well as their litigation capacity.
Costs
Authors: Law European
Published: November 2021

This chapter addresses the subject of litigation costs, looking at Part XII of the European Rules of Civil Procedure. The seven rules under Part XII are set at general level, due to the impact of national law and the structure of the legal profession in European jurisdictions upon this area of civil procedure in a technical sense. While some jurisdictions have created a system where the court fees almost fully cover the state's expenses for the civil court system, other jurisdictions have opted for a system that is basically free of charge for the parties. A further important difference across European jurisdictions that has a significant impact on litigation costs is the different approaches to fees payable in respect of legal representation in proceedings. Finally, the rules on court organisation are also relevant to litigation costs.
Introduction to Part I
Authors: Swift Ellen , Stoner Jo , Pudsey April
Published: November 2021

This introductory chapter give an overview of dress objects from the Roman and late antique periods in Egypt and provides insights into their social function and meaning. It first surveys the site provenances of the dress objects in the Petrie Museum collection, and discusses particular issues that arise in their study (for instance, the use of material from grave assemblages to study dress). The wider range of dress objects in the Petrie museum collection is then surveyed, drawing out examples of notable artefacts that provide insights into important social phenomena in Egypt across the period studied. A strong relationship between dress objects and various stages of the life course is demonstrated, further explored elsewhere in Part I. Other notable insights relate to diachronic change in the construction of life course identities, the embodiment of identities through jewellery that was worn permanently, and the Roman discourse of beauty and adornment as represented in objects like hairdressing equipment. Questions of value, including jewellery as a store of wealth, and the different types of value demonstrated through evidence of wear and repair, are also discussed. Evidence of cosmopolitan societies is presented, especially resulting from the posting of military troops to Egypt. This comprises not only military brooches but also dress objects of Germanic origin such as dress pins and bucket pendants. The changing, context-dependent meaning of jewellery from Egypt with Christian themes and motifs is the final topic, discussing its multiple significance as material embodiment of faith, protective amulet, and expression of religious identity.
Concluding Discussion to Part I
Authors: Swift Ellen , Stoner Jo , Pudsey April
Published: November 2021

In this concluding discussion, evidence is brought together from the different categories of dress objects considered to examine further how people were assisted by objects in achieving social goals, and how these objects contributed to daily experience. Initially, the artefacts are examined from a life course perspective, in order to further illuminate the important roles and functions of dress objects at particular life course stages, a theme already evident in previous chapters. Particular types of dress objects associated with the life course stages of infancy and childhood, puberty up to menopause, and post-menopause, and their roles in life course rituals and identity construction are discussed. For infants and children, socialization and protection are important functions, while for adults, identities relating to fertility and married status are key. It is suggested that older women wore less jewellery than younger ones, and that gifting of jewellery within families was important in relation to life course stages and rituals. The various functions of dress objects in cementing and facilitating wider family and community relationships are also discussed.
Structure of the Atom
Authors: Oriakhi Christopher O.
Published: November 2021

Structure of the Atom describes the quantum-mechanical model of the atom, which explains the fundamental nature of energy and matter, in terms of how electrons are arranged within atoms and how that arrangement determines the ultimate chemical and physical properties of elements. A discussion of atomic spectra, the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, and the quantum numbers of an atomic orbital is provided. Other topics include the determination of quantum numbers from energy levels, the shapes of atomic orbitals, electron filling order, and the determination of the complete electron configuration of the elements.
Chemical Bonding 2: Modern Theories of Chemical Bonding
Authors: Oriakhi Christopher O.
Published: November 2021

Chemical Bonding II: Modern Theories of Chemical Bonding explains four bonding theories related to molecular geometry and bonding. Lewis structures and the Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) model are used to describe and predict the electron group geometry, molecular geometry and shapes of molecules. The VSEPR model is then used to predict molecular polarity as a function of shape. This leads to Valence Bond Theory, which uses the principles of orbital overlap and hybridization of atomic orbitals to describe chemical bonding. Finally the Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT) based on electron delocalization is discussed in terms of bonding and anti-bonding molecular orbitals.
Liquids and Solids
Authors: Oriakhi Christopher O.
Published: November 2021

Liquids and Solids introduce basic physical properties of liquids and solids. An overview of the liquid state is presented, with reference to polar covalent bonds and dipole moment. The effects of temperature on the vapour pressure of a liquid are described, including the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, which can be used to calculate the vapour pressure of a liquid at various temperatures. The chapter reviews the types of solids including their chemical structures and properties. The crystal lattice system and the unit cell relationships for the seven types of crystal lattice structures and the four substructures are examined. Guidelines for determining the number of atoms in a unit cell, including calculations involving unit cell dimensions, are explained. The ionic crystal structure, radius ratio rule for the ionic compounds and determination of crystal structure by X-ray diffraction and Bragg’s equation are covered.
Place, Being, and Agency
Authors: Cartwright Kent
Published: November 2021

Chapter 3 identifies the special world of Shakespearean comedy in terms of the multiple dimensions of place, something that seems especially pertinent to the comic genre. Shakespeare’s comedies deploy the Renaissance sense of place as capable of being either mundane or magical. Reflecting that dialectic, the association of place with Italy in the comedies calls upon popular notions of that locale as full of contradictions yet open to the possibility of transformation. The comedies often organize locale in terms of a contrast between “regulative” and “protean” places (the latter recalling Frye’s “green world”). Protean environs are enchanted and can enchant, as in As You Like It (which receives extended treatment); they make change and transformative experience possible; and yet they exhibit different degrees of agency in different plays. Notwithstanding its power, the protean world is a nice place to visit, but one would not want to live there. The chapter concludes by assessing the power of place to affect action and meaning in a range of comedies.
The Manifestation of Desire
Authors: Cartwright Kent
Published: November 2021

Chapter 4 conceptualizes the device of ‘manifestation,’ the term identifying the causal power of desires, thoughts, and words to call forth objects and even characters in Shakespeare’s comic world. In the spirit of critic Elena Zupančič, the device shows, among other things, the way that comedy can surface the amusing monstrousness and presumptuousness of human wishes. The concept of manifestation entails various literary and dramatic values that characterize Shakespearean comedy. Historically, it reflects interests and theories found in Renaissance treatises on magic, and it even parallels certain modern-day linguistic patters. The chapter formalizes and theorizes the device, drawing examples from a range of comedies. The Comedy of Errors (Dr. Pinch), A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Helana and the love potion), and The Merry Wives of Windsor (the Witch of Brainford) come in for special discussion. The chapter ends by situation manifestation in relation to entrance effects in medieval and Tudor drama and to allegorical effects in Spenser’s The Faerie Queene.
Ending and Wondering
Authors: Cartwright Kent
Published: November 2021

Chapter 6 on endings discusses harmony and dissonance, and explores relevant Italian Renaissance comic practice and theories of comedy. The chapter leads into three final sections, the first (“Exclusion”) taking up the problem of how the “other” (here Shylock), seemingly excluded from the “harmonious” ending, can retain a ghostly presence; the second (“Delusion”) addressing the question of what protagonists and authority figures (and audiences) are left not knowing by the end, as seen in Much Ado About Nothing; and the third (“Forgiveness”) focusing on the special way that the comedies employ wonder to make forgiveness possible (as with Proteus, Claudio, Angelo, and Bertram), a process different from that of the late romances, where forgiveness precedes wonder. Here the problem of human and communal forgiveness moves beyond church strictures and takes illumination from present-day philosophical thinking.
The Langscape of War
Authors: Mugglestone Lynda
Published: November 2021

This chapter documents the ways in which an aggressively modern war took shape in language in World War One, yielding, in Clark’s notebooks, a real-time engagement with the fleeting diction of vernacular geography at the front, the weapons of industrial warfare, and the diverse taxonomies of mud or sound. It explores the emergence of trench warfare, and its own distinctive patterns of use (and variability), alongside the reconceptualization of fundamental terms such as battle and battlefield. Here, too, is a shifting language of attack and resistance and of ‘them’ and ‘us’, in which air warfare, or amphibious warfare, or gas warfare, or the brief efflorescence of Turpiite, offer striking lexical fertility alongside their new capacities for destruction.
Last Words
Authors: Mugglestone Lynda
Published: November 2021

This chapter explores both the end of war (and its accompanying diction), and the end of Andrew Clark’s ‘Words in War-Time’ project in 1919, and the afterlives that this reveals. The language of memory, and public and private memorialization, is an important part of this. Poppies, war shrines, and memorial services are all part of Clark’s process of attentive record. So, too, was the shifting language of the souvenir. As war ended, Clark, of necessity, also gathered his own last words. Nevertheless, as he stressed, trying to create a history of war-time usage in a single-handed project now seemed increasingly foolhardy. He was acutely aware of the imperfections of what he had achieved. ‘Words in War-Time’ remained incomplete and unrevised (Clark died in 1922) – an archive of scraps and annotations, both fascinating and frustrating. This chapter concludes by examining his legacies, insights, and the enduring value of his work.
‘Unfortunately We Are Bankrupt’
Authors: Schönhärl Korinna
Published: November 2021

It is often noted that people remember the past to better manage the present. One major driving force of economic behaviour is expectations of the future or ‘imagined futures’, as the sociologist Jens Beckert calls them. But whereas these expectations are oriented towards the future, the frames in which they arise are strongly influenced by the past. During economically difficult situations, economic crises of the past were especially intensively remembered and discussed. The thesis of this chapter is that actors in the public sphere remember crises in alarming situations to orient themselves, construct fictional expectations of the future, and legitimize decisions that have to be taken in the present. The Greek debt crisis from 2009 onwards is used as a case study. The past crisis most recalled in collective memory in this period is the one that followed the Greek bankruptcy of 1893.
Myths and Memory
Authors: Telesca Giuseppe
Published: November 2021

‘The treatment of devaluation as if it were tantamount to hauling down the flag is really very silly’, wrote the Westminster Bank’s economic advisor, R. J. Clark in 1968. Yet, one cannot escape the impression that, on the occasion of the different currency crises that since the gold standard abandonment of 1931 invested the British economy during the twentieth century, the debate went well beyond the decision to produce ‘a change in the price of sterling in terms of other currencies. A technical change made for technical reasons’. The troubles with the pound during the twentieth century, particularly after the Second World War, have attracted the attention of political economists, political, international, and economic historians. Rather than reviving one of the most debated issues in British historiography, this chapter seeks to understand whether the memory of the 1931 abandonment of the gold standard—the ‘mother’ of all currency crises of the twentieth century—played a role on the occasion of other (loosely defined) currency crises. The focus of this chapter is on the 1967 devaluation. In line with this book’s aim to reflect on how and by whom financial crises have been remembered, and what use has been made of the memory of financial crises, this chapter will be looking at the actors remembering and using the events of 1931 in the 1960s, particularly within the Labour party.