bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
International Human Rights Law In The AIDS Pandemic
Authors: Lawrence O Gostin , Lazzarini Zita
Published: November 2023

Although human rights and public health present complementary approaches to advancing peoples’ well-being, only recently has human rights discourse begun to encompass health-related entitlements. Many reasons exist for this. Perhaps the primary reason, how ever, involves the evolution of state responsibility for promoting and protecting human rights. Human rights doctrine has always held that “[s]ince human rights and fundamental freedoms are indivisible, the full realization of civil and political rights without the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights is impossible” (Proclamation of Teheran, 1968). As the concept of state responsibility for violations developed, debate ensued over the appropriate nature of accountability. The result was a hierarchy of claims, that is, a ranking of rights by enforceability. Because states observe economic and social rights by pursuing certain objectives, rather than by adhering to immediately identifiable standards, rights such as health came to be seen by some as a long-term goal rather than an entitlement. Recent efforts to fully define and analyze the right to health and its relationship to other human rights result from the renewed recognition that all human rights constitute entitlements and are, moreover, inextricably interlinked (Jamar, 1994; Leary, 1994; Mann, Gostin, et al., 1994).

International human rights is a complex and evolving body of law. This chapter sets forth its basic structure, its relevant instruments, and its implementation and enforcement mechanisms. This review is intended not to be comprehensive, but rather to acquaint the reader with the basic concepts of human rights law. A more detailed description will follow of some of the human rights that are most relevant to attaining and advancing individuals’ physical and mental well-being. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the issues that continue to influence the development of human rights law.
Case Studies Raising Critical Questions In HIV Policy And Research: Balancing Public Health Benefits And Human Rights Burdens
Authors: Lawrence O Gostin , Lazzarini Zita
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter, we present three case studies that raise critical questions regarding HIV policy and research. Using the Human Rights Impact Assessment outlined in Chapter 3, we balance the public health benefits and human rights burdens. Because the exercise is intended to challenge the reader with some of the complex policy and research questions facing policymakers, scientists, and public health professionals, we intentionally avoid arriving at a “correct” answer. The Human Rights Impact Assessment tool is applied to (1) sort and distill the issues; (2) clarify whether the policy would achieve a valid public health objective; (3) identify the potential risks, detriments, and impacts on human rights; and (4) guide the search for less restrictive, more effective, alternatives.
What is Shame? Some Core Issues and Controversies
Authors: Gilbert Paul
Published: November 2023

Much has changed since Helen Lewis (1987a) wrote of shame as the “hidden emotion” and the “sleeper in psychopathology.” Indeed, over the last 10 to 15 years shame has been subject to much research and theory, as Tangney and Fischer’s (1995) landmark volume shows. Recently, S. Miller argued that shame is now so commonly seen as “the bedrock of psychopathology” and “the gold to be mined psychotherapeutically” that there has been neglect of other emotions and their interaction with shame (1996, p. 151). But while some researchers believe there is a growing consensus about shame-what it is and how it works-this chapter voices caution. There are still many differences of view, and as Andrews (this volume, chapter 2) points out, we do not yet have the methodologies to explore these differences empirically.
Shame in the Therapeutic Relationship
Authors: Retzinger Suzanne M
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with countertransference and its relationship to emotions and the social bond. The nature of psychotherapy involves intense relationships and reciprocal bonds, with all the accompanying emotions. Shame, particularly, seems to play an important role in therapeutic relationships. The psychoanalytic literature has not provided a detailed account of the role of emotion between therapist and patient. My formulation puts emotion at the center. The identification of shame cues may provide a tool for psychotherapists.
Country, Park, & City
Authors: Kowsky Francis R
Published: November 2023

After beginning his architectural career in England, Calvert Vaux came to America in 1850 at the invitation of architect Andrew Jackson Downing. In 1852, he moved to New York City and asked Frederick Law Olmsted, the landscape architect, to join him in preparing a design for Central Park. During the next thirty-eight years in New York, Vaux defended and refined his vision of Central Park and pursued a distinguished architectural practice. After the Civil War, he and Olmsted led the nascent American park movement with their designs for parks in many American cities. And as a pioneering advocate for apartment houses in American cities, Vaux designed buildings that mirrored the advance of urbanization in America, including early model-housing for the poor. His works also include many Gothic and Palladian style dwellings, the original portions of the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the American Museum of Natural History, and a stunning proposal for a vast iron and glass building to house the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia. Most notable, perhaps, are the many bridges and other structures that he designed for Central Park. This book is the first in-depth study of Vaux’s life and work.
Always Light-Armed, Cheerful, And Ready For A Run To The Nearest Summit 1873-1880
Authors: Kowsky Francis R
Published: November 2023

After June 4, 1873, when Vaux resigned his position as consulting landscape architect to the Department of Public Parks, he had no official association with New York’s parks until the following decade. Olmsted, however, served as the landscape architect from 1873 until January 1878, when the department abolished his position, and Mould retained his post until May 1875.With the dissolution of Olmsted,Vaux & Company, Olmsted moved his office from 110 Broadway to a room in his house at 209 West 46th Street, where he tended to his personal clients.Vaux must have been touched to see his own picture, together with those of Ruskin and other notables, on Olmsted’s office mantelpiece.WhenVaux and others came to visit, they were often greeted by the sight of their workaholic friend tending to business in this downstairs room. Only later would he abandon his desk for conversation upstairs in the living room. Vaux retained his office at the old address until 1877, when he moved to 71 Broadway, and later, in 1884, to Bible House on Astor Place. Wisedell continued to assist both men, helping Olmsted especially with the design of ornamental walls around the grounds of the U.S. Capitol. And throughout the 1870s and 1880s, Vaux relied on the services of George K. Radford, the able engineer with whom he and Olmsted had worked on many projects.
A School Of Romanticists Even Then Fast Vanishing 1881-1895
Authors: Kowsky Francis R
Published: November 2023

By1881,Vaux could look back on 30 years of success and near success. While much work and many challenges lay ahead, over the next decade and a half he would see his name eclipsed by others, especially as America became enamored of modern Neoclassicism. But a taste for Roman monumentality was not in Vaux’s makeup, and until his death in 1895, he remained true to the ideals of naturalism in landscape design and to picturesque expression in building. When Olmsted moved to Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1881 (he told Vaux that it “would be Hell” for him to stay living in NewYork),Vaux must have felt that indeed an era had ended in his life. Vaux was to continue to concern himself with the parks that he and Olmsted had designed together, and from time to time he would prepare plans for significant new pleasure grounds with his old partner. Especially after 1888, when Vaux became landscape architect with the Department of Public Parks, a post that he held until his death in November 1895, he had the opportunity to fulfill his desire to plan for the city he loved many new small parks and squares. Much of this work was done with his devoted protege, Samuel Parsons Jr., who became Vaux’’s professional partner in 1880. The son of a well-known Flushing, Long Island, nurseryman, Parsons came to study landscape architecture with Vaux after graduating from Yale in 1862 and having worked for a time in his father’s business. Assisting Parsons, Radford, and Vaux was the architect’s son Downing, who by the beginning of the 1880s, after completing his degree at Columbia, had determined on a career in architecture and landscape architecture under his father’s tutelage.
Data Sources for Public Health
Authors: Thacker Stephen B , Wetterhall Scott F
Published: November 2023

In public health, data are used for both research rend program implementation. Sources of data can be categorized as vital statistics and census, registries, public health surveillance systems, surveys of populations or providers, epidemic investigations, research studies, and program evaluations. Data used in public health may be generated specifically for public health uses or may be obtained from sources that are collected for other purposes (e.g., workers’ compensation or the Hazardous Materials Information Systems of the Department of Transportation). In this chapter, each of these types of data sources will be defined and illustrated. The strengths and weaknesses of each data source will be evaluated for specific uses. Applications of data to public health will be illustrated, and data issues of particular interest (e.g., confidentiality) will be discussed. Finally, new directions in data use in public health (e.g., informatics) and new data sources [e.g., managed care organizations (MCO)] will be addressed.
The Scleroderma Book
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

An autoimmune disease in the family with Lupus, Rheumatoid Arthritis, and Polymyositis, Scleroderma afflicts hundreds of thousands of people in the United States. And yet there are very few sources of information for men and women with this disease. Now, in The Scleroderma Book, one of the nation's leading authorities provides a comprehensive guide written specifically for patients and their families. Dr. Maureen Mayes has drawn on her extensive experience treating scleroderma to provide up-to-date, practical information that will help patients manage their symptoms and improve their quality of life. Dr. Mayes begins with an easily accessible description of the basic facts, distinguishing between the many manifestations of the disease, ranging from localized scleroderma (small patches of hardened skin, most common in children, which tend to clear up over time) to systemic scleroderma, which can attack the lungs, the kidneys, and the blood vessels, and can be life threatening. Equally important, she offers sympathetic and reassuring advice on matters that often concern patients, such as the best course of action for those who want children, what to do if the disease affects your sex life, and what you can do to help your doctor treat your illness more effectively. The book concludes with a good-humored, frank discussion about how to cope, day in and day out, with an uncertain future--how to be a "person living with" scleroderma, not a "victim suffering from" it. Touching on virtually every aspect of this disorder, The Scleroderma Book can be used as a reliable source of information and reassurance for patients of any age and no matter how severe their form of the disease.
Epidemiology of Scleroderma Numbers of Patients, Occupational Links, and Environmental Concerns
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

How many scleroderma patients are there in the United States? There has been some confusion and controversy over this number in the past. Studies of scleroderma have been hindered by the following three factors: (1) scleroderma is an uncommon condition, (2) the diagnosis can be difficult to make with certainty (the classification criteria were established only in 1980), and (3) until fairly recently there were few researchers interested in studying this disease. Epidemiology is the study of the pattern of disease occurrence, that is, the prevalence of disease (the total number of cases) the incidence of the disease (how many new cases occur each year), and whether the condition is becoming more or less common.
Scleroderma and the Heart
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

Scleroderma can affect the heart in several ways. In some cases, heart rhythm can be affected. This is demonstrated by a slow or irregular heartbeat or by an abnormality that is seen only on an electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG). In these cases, the approach to treatment involves either medication to help keep the heartbeat regular or a pacemaker to over-ride the natural electrical system that controls the heartbeat. Heart rhythm is controlled by an electrical conduction system comprised of specialized cells that generate an electrical current to stimulate the heart muscle to contract in a smooth and regular way. There is a complex system of re-flexes that tells the heart to speed up (as with exercise) or to slow down (as with rest), but there is only one electrical system that sends signals to both sides of the heart so that all four chambers contract or pump in a synchronized fashion.
Prevention of Osteoporosis and Management of Menopause with Hormone Replacement Therapy
Authors: Lane Nancy E
Published: November 2023

Prevention of osteoporosis means prevention of low bone mass. Since bone mass at any age, at least until the age of 75, depends largely on the peak bone mass obtained at age 25, prevention should focus on anything that can increase peak bone mass. The problem is that the major determinants of peak bone mass are unchangeable, and the value of factors such as nutrition and exercise is uncertain. Even if we could identify, at the age of 13 or earlier, girls who are destined to become osteoporotic and those who will fracture, we probably could not persuade them to change their lifestyle or accept a therapy to prevent a disease from occurring 50 years later. Also, although we believe that lifestyle factors are important in determining bone mass and rates of osteoporotic fractures, we are not sure that lifestyle changes will prevent osteoporosis. For these reasons and others, prevention is focused on preventing the bone loss that occurs with menopause, when osteoporosis is diagnosed, or when an individual becomes inactive and risks developing osteoporosis. Most of the interventions involve hormones.
Lully Is Granted A Monopoly On Opera In French
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

The French court was indirectly involved in the creation of opera by virtue of the marriage of Maria de’ Medici with Henry IV of France in 1600, an event that was marked, as we have seen (pp. 11 ff. above), by the performance in Florence of Peri’s L’Euridice (1600), the first opera ever to be produced in public. In 1603 and again in 1604-5, after the queen had settled in Paris, Giulio Caccini, along with his singing daughters, was invited to perform for the French in the Palais Royal that is above the stage, such elevation being feasible with out prejudice to the symmetry of the said Palais, and without touching any of the Apartments that are in the said hall. It also requests that some beams which are broken and on the point of falling down be changed before the work there is commenced, because it would be impossible to build any machines there with safety. There are at either side of the Arch of the Stage two stone pillars that serve no function, and that on the contrary greatly obstruct the space for the Scenery: His Majesty is most humbly entreated to grant permission to remove them and make use of the stone for the said elevation of the Stage’s walls. All this with the stipulation that the Places and works proposed shall first be visited by the Officers of His Majesty’s buildings, and approved by my Lord Colbert.
Saint-Évremond’s Views On Opera
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

The writings of Charles de Saint-Evremond (1613-1703)1 who has been called the most civilized man of his century, enjoyed a great popularity in the early 1700s, undergoing several editions, all of them posthumous. His famous letter on operas (addressed to the second Duke of Buckingham and here given in the English version of 1728) summarizes most of the opinions on the subject current in Paris before the rise of Lully’s tragedies en musique. Saint Evremond himself had been obliged to flee Paris in 16611 having compromised himself politically, and spent the rest of his long life in London. His letter therefore, which may have been drafted as early as 1661 and was probably written mostly in 1669-70, can only have reflected a limited personal experience of Italian opera. The works he almost certainly saw performed in Paris were those promoted by Cardinal Mazarin: Sacrati’s La finta pazza (1645), Cavalli’s Egisto (1646), Orfeo (1647) by Luigi Rossi (the composer referred to below as Luigi), Le nozze di Peleo e di Teti (1654) by Carlo Caproli, and Cavalli’s Xerse (1660). He also probably knew the Pastorate d’lssy (1659), an early precursor of opera in French, with music by Robert Cambert (who was later to join him in exile in England).
Metastasio On Setting Dramatic Recitative To Music
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

Attilio Regolo was Metastasio’s eighteenth dramma per musica, a relatively late work. Written in 1740, it was withdrawn shortly before the premiere, owing to the sudden death of Emperor Charles VI. Ten years passed before it finally appeared, not in Vienna but at the Saxon court theater in Dresden, and set to new music by Johann Adolf Hasse. It was Metastasio’s favorite among all his dramas; and indeed it enjoyed a career of its own as a spoken tragedy, remaining high in the estimate of critics down to the present. Perhaps because of its uncompromisingly elevated tone, its lack of spectacle, and, not least, its tragic ending, it failed to attract the swarm of composers who invariably reset the other Metastasio dramas over and over again; Attilio Regolo was set to music only four times in all. It tells the story of Atilius Regulus, the legendary Roman hero in the first Punic War; twice consul, then victorious general against the Carthaginians, he fell prisoner to them at last and was sent back to Rome to negotiate peace on condition that, should he fail, he would surrender again to his captors. Regulus appeared before the Roman senate with the Carthaginian Hamilcar by his side. After conveying the enemy’s peace terms, he delivered an impassioned speech, urging the Romans to reject the offer and fight Carthage to the end. Then, true to his word, and disdaining pleas that he remain, he surrendered once more, was taken back to Carthage, and suffered a horrible death.
The War Of The Buffoons
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

The buffo style in opera was first heard outside Italy in the intermezzos brought to various European cities in the 1720s and ‘30s by the two or three singers required for their performance. When full-length opere buffe began to be exported in the late 1740s, they traveled by much the same routes with some-what bigger companies; still, following the tried and true pasticcio practice, many were cut down to the size of intermezzos and patched together with music from other operas. It was just such a repertory of miscellaneous intermezzos that Parisians heard when the impresario Eustachio Bambini, on tour in northern France with his tiny, undistinguished company, was summoned to Paris by the directors of the Opera. The Italians opened on 1 August 1752 with Pergolesi’s La serva padrona, sharing the bill with Lully’s Acis et Ga/atee performed by the regular company; the Opera orchestra accompanied both. Not immediately successful, the Buffoons (as they were soon called) adjusted to the relative vastness of the Palais Royal and, as they added other works to their repertory, began winning enthusiastic support from a part of the public.
Fidelio In 1806
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

When Beethoven entrusted various manuscripts of Fidelio to his future biographer Schindler shortly before his death, he told him that “this child of his spirit had cost him greater birth pangs than any other and therefore was also his favorite; and that he considered [the manuscripts] particularly worthy of being preserved.” The story of the opera’s vicissitudes has often been told: how it failed at its premiere in Vienna in 1805 and again, despite revisions, in 1806; and how, after more extensive revisions, it finally triumphed in 1814. Josef August Rocke! (1783-1870) was in his early twenties when, as a tenor at the Theater an der Wien, he was asked to replace F. C. Demmer, who had just sung the part of Florestan in the unsuccessful first run of Fidelio. In later years Rocke! told of this experience several times, but nowhere in such detail as in the article below, which first appeared in a German magazine, Die Gartenlaube, in 1868. How far can the memory of the eighty-five-year-old singer be trusted, so many years after the events he described? Certain inaccuracies are easily noted: he states that Beethoven wished his opera to be called Fidelio, not Leonore, while the opposite is true; also, that the final version of the opera was first performed in 1823. These two passages have been omitted below. Rocke! also says the 1806 Fidelio was performed three times, whereas it was only performed twice; but perhaps he was remembering a pubIic rehearsal. On the other hand, his experience singing Florestan under Beethoven must have made an indelible impression on him, so that, once due allowance is made for a certain amount of Victorian hero worship and sentimentality, there is no reason to doubt the essential veracity of Rockel’s narrative. It begins in December 1805, a few weeks after the failure of the first version of Fidelio, in which Sebastian Mayer had played Pizarro. Mayer and Rocke! have been summoned to the palace of Prince Karl Lichnowsky, the great patron of Beethoven.
Tchaikovsky On Eugene Onegin
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

Tchaikovsky’s comments on his operatic masterpiece are scattered quite widely over the many letters he wrote during the period of its gestation and early performances. The recipients included his brothers Anatoly and Modest, various friends and colleagues, and most importantly, his patroness Nadezhda von Meck. Out of an English-language compilation, a sort of montage of excerpts from his vast correspondence (see the source cited at the end), it has been possible to carve a mini-montage of Tchaikovsky’s thoughts on Eugene Onegin, which, thus assembled, present a surprisingly consistent authorial voice, despite the variety of recipients to whom they were originally addressed. (The bracketed page references at the end of each excerpt are to the English he has much affection, out of boredom, out of a trivial irritation, without really thinking about it, because of a fateful coincidence of circumstances! All right, perhaps this is all very simple, even mundane, but the simple and the mundane do not exclude either poetry or drama.
Busoni And The Reinstatement Of Disbelief
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

“There is no doubt that no one ever spoke singing” wrote Peri, the first composer of opera (seep. 15), and so all the early operas were steeped in mythology: where you have the supernatural anything is possible, even song instead of speech. Yet skepticism never really died. “Is it to be imagin’d that orders in time of battle are given, singing; and that men are melodiously killed with swords and darts?” asked Saint-Evremond sarcastically (p. 53). Italians accepted the basic operatic convention even with the advent of realistic subject matter, as in opera buffa. The French and Germans were more reluctant: the dialogue in opera comique and singspiel was spoken, not sung. Then romanticism brought back the supernatural, “yet so as to transfer from our inward nature a human interest and a semblance of truth sufficient to procure for these shadows of the imagination that willing suspension of disbelief for the moment, which constitutes poetic faith” (Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, chap. 14). Busoni came at a time when romanticism was exhausted and opera they yearn. And the stage grants them these conflicts without the accompanying dangers and unpleasant consequences, without compromising them and, most important, without any effort on their part. For there is one thing the public doesn’t know and doesn’t wish to know: that in order to be receptive to a work of art, the receiver must do half the work.
Shostakovich And The Lady Macbeth Of Mtsensk Debacle
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

Shostakovich’s second opera, Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District, completed in 1932 and first performed on 22 January 1934 in Leningrad, was an instant, tumultuous success. Already prominent in the first Soviet-educated generation of composers, Shostakovich with this opera became its undisputed leader, recognized as such both in the Soviet Union and abroad, where the work enjoyed several performances. Its American premiere took place (in concert form) in Cleveland on 31 January 1935 under Artur Rodzinski, who repeated it the following week at the Metropolitan Opera. It was evidently in preparation for these performances that the League of Composers published the following article in its quarterly journal. The footnote at the very beginning reflected Shostakovich’s true intentions at the time with regard to his future operas. It will be seen presently why nothing came of them.
Peter Grimes In Postwar London
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

The Second World War had ended in Europe just a few weeks before Benjamin Britten’s first full-length opera, Peter Grimes, had its premiere, on 7 June 1945, at Sadler’s Wells in London. Its success was instantaneous and lasting. The distinguished American literary critic Edmund Wilson was on assignment from The New Yorker at the time, visiting some of the war zones in newly-liberated Europe. In London, the devastation from the bombing was to be seen everywhere, as was the psychological aftermath of the war effort. It was therefore a not wholly unrelated experience that awaited him when, in July, a girl he knew (“G.”) took him to see Peter Grimes, that summer’s theatrical sensation. I was a little taken aback one evening for which I had had vague other plans to find out that I was going with G. to a new opera by Benjamin Britten which was being done at Sadler’s Wells. She had bought the tickets herself and said nothing about it in advance. The only thing I had heard by Britten had been a Requiem that had not much impressed me, and I did not feel particularly eager to sit through an English opera called Peter Grimes, based on an episode from Crabbe. G. did try, with her usual lack of emphasis, to get me to read the libretto, of which she had procured a copy, but she did not explain that this work had been something of a sensation in London, where the critics, who, like me, had not at first expected anything extraordinary, had been roused from their neat routine to the point of hearing it several times and writing two or three articles about it.
Einstein On The Beach By Philip Glass
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

The following appreciation by Tim Page, Pulitzer Prize winning culture writer for The Washington Post, accompanied the 1993 CD recording of Glass’s most famous opera. Einstein on the Beach (1976) is a pivotal work in the oeuvre of Philip Glass. It is the first, longest, and most famous of the composer’s operas, yet it is in almost every way unrepresentative of them. Einstein was, by design, a glorious “one-shot”-a work that invented its context, form and language, and then explored them so exhaustively that further development would have been redundant. But, by its own radical example, Einstein prepared the way-it gave permission-for much of what has happened in music theater since its premiere. Einstein broke all the rules of opera. It was in four interconnected acts and five hours long, with no intermissions (the audience was invited to wander in and out at liberty during performances). The acts were intersticed by what Glass and Wilson called “knee plays”-brief interludes that also provided time for scenery changes. The text consisted of numbers, solfege syllables and some cryptic poems by Christopher Knowles, a young, neurologically-impaired man with whom Wilson had worked as an instructor of disturbed children for the New York public schools. To this were added short texts by choreographer Lucinda Childs and Samuel M. Johnson, an actor who played the Judge in the “Trial” scenes and the bus driver in the finale. There were references to the trial of Patricia Hearst (which was underway during the creation of the opera); to the mid-‘70s radio lineup on New York’s WABC; to the popular song “Mr. Bojangles”; to the Beatles and to teen idol David Cassidy. Einstein sometimes seemed a study in sensory overload, meaning everything and nothing.
Progressives and Protection, 1897–1912
Authors: Edwards Rebecca
Published: November 2023

In the competitive political atmosphere of the 1880s and 1890s when most Americans endorsed partisan strategies, a slow revolt was also in formation. Those who observed the machinations of party loyalists indicted not only campaign practices but also the larger operations of government-by-party. Harper’s dismissed “the usual machinery of processions and torch-light parades and floats and songs and girls in white.” What the nation needed, the editor argued, was reasoned policy-making rather than electoral hoopla. The fictional Mrs. Buzzy spoke for many Americans when she noted that in the old days “politics wasn’t the corrupt machine it is now.” Machine gradually became an epithet hurled not only at urban organizations like Tammany Hall but also at national party leaders who seemed to rank the public interest behind their own.
The Diving Response and Its Evolution
Authors: Hochachka Peter W , Somero George N
Published: November 2023

Intrigued by diving mammals and birds for well over a century, biologists in the 1930s and 1940s first began to make significant progress in understanding the physiological and metabolic mechanisms now known to permit an airbreathing animal to operate successfully deep into the water column. At that time, several fundamental biological traits that seemed to correlate with diving capacity were already known; these traits included (i) an expanded blood volume and red blood cell (RBC) mass, or high hematocrit, (ii) high muscle myoglobin concentrations, and (iii) collapsible lungs in the case of deep divers such as the pinnipeds. The pioneering work of Scholander, Irving, and their colleagues (Scholander, 1940) greatly expanded this preliminary knowledge and developed the fundamental foundations of diving physiology that are now known to include three key physiological “reﬂexes”: (i) apnea, (ii) bradycardia, and (iii) peripheral vasoconstriction and thus hypoperfusion of most peripheral tissues. Scholander referred to these physiological reﬂexes in combination as the “diving response,” and in forced diving under laboratory conditions, he imagined the marine mammal reducing itself to a “heart, lung, brain machine.” The metabolic correlates of this response included the gradual development of oxygen-limiting conditions in hypoperfused (ischemic) tissues, with attendant accumulation of end products of anaerobic metabolism (especially lactate and H+ ions).
American Mobbing, 1828-1861
Authors: Grimsted David
Published: November 2023

American Mobbing, 1828-1861: Toward Civil War is a comprehensive history of mob violence related to sectional issues in antebellum America. David Grimsted argues that, though the issue of slavery provoked riots in both the North and the South, the riots produced two different reactions from authorities. In the South, riots against suspected abolitionists and slave insurrectionists were widely tolerated as a means of quelling anti-slavery sentiment. In the North, both pro-slavery riots attacking abolitionists and anti-slavery riots in support of fugitive slaves provoked reluctant but often effective riot suppression. Hundreds died in riots in both regions, but in the North, most deaths were caused by authorities, while in the South more than 90 percent of deaths were caused by the mobs themselves. These two divergent systems of violence led to two distinct public responses. In the South, widespread rioting quelled public and private questioning of slavery; in the North, the milder, more controlled riots generally encouraged sympathy for the anti-slavery movement. Grimsted demonstrates that in these two distinct reactions to mob violence, we can see major origins of the social split that infiltrated politics and political rioting and that ultimately led to the Civil War.
Biogenesis
Authors: Lahav Noam
Published: November 2023

Biogenesis provides an up-to-date and detailed discussion of the interdisciplinary study of the origin of life, including in-depth investigations into its history, assumptions, experimental strategies, theories, models, and controversies. Written both critically and objectively, the book explores topics including the history of the search for life's origin from the Greek philosophers to contemporary scientists; selected attributes of life which are connected to theories of biogenesis; the main features of our solar system and earth, where life is assumed to have originated; and the rationale and strategies of scientific theories of the origin of life. Filled with fascinating insights, Biogenesis will appeal to a wide range of scientists and students in biology, chemistry, and geology.
The Clean Life Crusade
Authors: Tate Cassandra
Published: November 2023

The campaign against cigarette smoking intensified in December 1899 when Lucy Page Gaston, an alumna of the WCTU, founded the Anti Cigarette League of America. This group was to cigarettes what the Anti Saloon League was to alcohol: a single-interest organization determined to eviscerate an industry it deemed harmful to the public welfare. By 1901, it claimed a membership of 300,000, with a paid staff overseeing chapters throughout the United States and Canada.

Like Carry Nation-the hatchet-wielding prohibitionist-Gaston was a woman of fierce convictions, given to flamboyant tactics, nearly as likely to irritate her allies as her opponents. Both women had a knack for attracting public attention and influential support, although it is overstating the case to argue. as one writer does. that Gaston was second only to Nation as “the leading female reformer in America during the early 1900s.’
The Electronic Book
Authors: Kilgour Frederick G
Published: November 2023

THE ELECTRONIC BOOK production system, although it also came into being in the last quarter of the twentieth century, has nothing in common with the three late-century printing systems, offset printing, flexography, and electrostatic printing, discussed in the previous chapter. It uses neither ink, paper, nor press, and it does not permanently print on anything; the format of the electronic book in no way resembles that of the convenient codex that has been traditional for nearly the last two thousand years, and it has met with unenthusiastic reception, chiefly because it presents a radical physical change for the user: from the familiar bound book in the hand to the monitor screen of a desktop computer or the flat-panel dis play of a laptop machine. The present situation with respect to electronic books is analogous to that of most late-nineteenth-century automobiles, which for nearly a decade after Karl Benz’s successful 1885 motorized tricycle were “horseless carriages,” until the French firm of Panhard and Lavassor built a machine having a design that has lasted more than a century: an engine in front under a hood instead of over the rear axle, a slanted post with steering wheel in place of a vertical post with tiller, and floor pedals rather than hand levers.
Suspended Particle Transport in Benthic Boundary Layers
Authors: Hill P S , McCave I N
Published: November 2023

Benthic boundary layer (BBL) transport of suspended sediment and associated substances, such as organic carbon, nutrients, and anthropogenic contaminants, represents a highly effective mechanism of dispersal. As such, developing predictive understanding of suspended sediment transport has been the goal of sedimentologists, ecologists, and engineers for decades. The goal of this chapter is not to offer a broad, necessarily synoptic view of the current state of knowledge, but rather to highlight several areas of suspended sediment research in BBLs where exciting recent advances have occurred. Featured are processes that affect vertical profiles of suspended sediment in unidirectional, horizontally uniform flows. Consequently, oscillatory flows and controls on the magnitude and timing of transport events are neglected. The assumed simple flow maintains focus on particles. That said, the approaches to parameterizing suspended particle profiles covered in this chapter are general and can be applied to more complex flows of variable strength, frequency, and duration.
Porewater Flow in Permeable Sediments
Authors: Huettel Markus , Webster Ian T
Published: November 2023

In muddy, cohesive sediments molecular diffusion and possibly the activities of the benthic fauna are the major transport mechanisms for solutes through sediments (Berner, 1980; Aller, 1982). Diffusion through water is a relatively slow process, and it is further slowed in porewaters because the diffusing molecules must follow a tortuous path around the sediment grains. In sandy, permeable sediments, interstitial water motions can be an effective transport mechanism. Webb and Theodor (1968) found that dye injected 5 cm into the crests and troughs of a sandy seabed under waves took only 1-3 hours to reach the sediment surface, a much shorter time than the 6 days it would take molecular diffusion to travel this distance. The interaction between waves and ripple bedforms is one of a number of mechanisms that drive interstitial flows within sediments. Waves can induce exchange across a flat sediment surface as well (e.g., Riedl et al., 1972). The repetitive action of waves running up a beach, infiltrating the sand and then draining, represents another process causing vigorous exchange between sediments and the water column (Riedl and Machan, 1972). Steady currents interacting with bottom obstructions, such as sediment mounds and benthic organisms, can induce interstitial flows and enhanced exchange between sediments and the water column (e.g., Huettel and Gust, 1992). Unstable density gradients within interstitial waters due to temporal variations in salinity in the overlying water, as might occur in estuaries, can lead to free convection within sediments (e.g., Webster et al., 1996).
Transport and Reactions in the Bioirrigated Zone
Authors: Aller Robert C
Published: November 2023

Diagenetic reactions of importance to sedimentary biogeochemical cycling commonly involve soluble reactants, products, or intermediates. Processes controlling solute transport, therefore, determine in large part the occurrence of specific reactions, the absolute and relative rates of reactions, and the net transfer of material between environmental reservoirs over a wide spectrum of spatial and temporal scales. These scales range from localized single crystal growth or dissolution to basinwide patterns of sediment-water nutrient exchange. The activities of benthic organisms influence the transport of solutes in surface sediments in a variety of direct and indirect ways, drastically altering elemental cycling processes, reaction rates, and diagenetic properties from what would occur in their absence. All the complexity of benthic biological community dynamics, individual species behavior, and ecological interactions are thus very much a part of solute transport in surficial deposits. This chapter outlines some of the major known effects of benthos on solute distributions and transport, particularly muds, and examines the ways in which these effects have been conceptualized and quantitatively modeled (see also chapter 9). As will become clear, the study of solute transport and reaction coupling in sediment subject to bioirrigation is a very rich area of research, and much remains to be done.
Life in the Diffusive Boundary Layer
Authors: Jørgensen Bo Barker
Published: November 2023

The sizes of living organisms span 8 orders of magnitude, from the smallest bacteria of about 0.2 µm diameter to the largest whales of 30 m. The difference in their biomass approaches the third power of this, 1022-23, a span that is truly difficult to comprehend, as it equals the relative size difference between humans and the entire earth. The relevant scale of the environment of marine organisms differs accordingly, from micrometers to kilometers. The physical properties of the aquatic environment and of the transport processes shift dramatically over this vast spectrum of scales, as shown in fig. 14.1. Microorganisms live in a world of low Reynolds numbers dominated by viscous forces to which they must adapt their mechanisms of motility. They also live in a world where diffusion within their microenvironment is so fast that it exceeds the advective transport of solutes, which they may need for their metabolism. The special properties of the small scale show up in many guises. They are important for the nutrient uptake of microscopic phytoplankton organisms, for the chemical microenvironment of aggregates sinking through the oceanic water column as marine snow, and for the transfer of dissolved substances across the sediment-water interface. Some consequences of viscosity and diffusion are even counterintuitive and often not correctly understood. This chapter gives a general introduction to the viscous world and small-scale diffusion and then discusses these aspects in terms of the benthic diffusive boundary layer (DBL).
Interfacial Microbial Mats and Biofilms
Authors: De Beer Dirk , Kühl Michael
Published: November 2023

Biofilms and microbial mats can be defined as surface-associated layers of microbial cells embedded in extracellular polymeric substance (EPS; Characklis and Marshall, 1989; Stal and Caumette, 1994). Biofilms cover solid surfaces, while mats cover sediments. Biofilms range from a few cell layers to a maximum of a few mmillimeters in thickness, and microbial mats range from <1 mm to several centimeters in thickness. Furthermore, most microbial mats are characterized by high population densities of photoautotrophic microorganisms that act as primary producers in the top millimeters and build up the mat matrix, while many biofilms are heterotrophic and rely on substrate supply from the surface or the surrounding water. Despite these fundamental differences, biofilms and microbial mats share many characteristics, and both represent communities with complex strategies for microbial life at surfaces where steep gradients of physicochemical variables are found (chapters 8 and 14).
Baboon-Human Liver Transplants: The Pittsburgh Case
Authors: Orlans F Barbara , Beauchamp Tom L , Dresser Rebecca , Morton David B , Gluck John P
Published: November 2023

In the summer of 1992, physicians at the University of Pittsburgh performed a lengthy operation to replace the failing liver of a 35-year-old man with the liver of a 15-year-old male baboon. The man’s own liver had been destroyed by the hepatitis-B virus. He also had been infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV, the virus that causes AIDS) for at least five years. The patient was deemed ineligible for a human liver transplant because it was feared that the new organ would also be destroyed by the hepatitis. Baboon livers are believed to be resistant to this disease. Although more than 25 doctors observed the surgery, the patient’s identity was kept confidential.2 By the time the transplant was performed, he required continuous hospital care and had lapsed into a coma. The physicians felt that he was near death and in urgent need of a replacement liver. Five days after the operation, the patient was able to eat and walk, and after one month, he was transferred out of the intensive care unit. However, he suffered from several infections, renal failure, and other health problems that required treatment. About two months after the procedure, the patient was readamitted because he had become jaundiced. Two weeks later, he had a massive stroke and died.4 Physicians attributed the patient’s death to an infection that had entered his brain. The HIV infection did not appear to contribute to the death.
Can animal aggression be studied in an ethical manner?
Authors: Orlans F Barbara , Beauchamp Tom L , Dresser Rebecca , Morton David B , Gluck John P
Published: November 2023

Aggression is a behavior found almost universally in the animal kingdom. It is an unprovoked, hostile act that poses a threat to the victim. It is shown in many ways, including threatening body movements, vocalization, fighting, wounding and infliction of pain, sexual attack, and killing. Commonly, animals act aggressively to exclude others from their territory, to capture food, and to control populations. Displays of aggression are influenced by age (newborns and infants below a certain age do not fight), by the physical environment, by previous social experience, and by the aggression level in a particular community. One manifestation of aggression is infanticide-the killing of young by adults. It occurs in several species of animal. Human infanticide is practiced in several cultures to control population, to favor the birth of a particular sex, usually male, and in waging war. In nonhuman animals, infanticidal behavior has been described as a type of social pathology induced by overcrowding and by intense competition for scarce resources. Some investigators have suggested that infanticide may be a genetically influenced aspect of an animal’s “normal” behavioral repertory-an adaptive strategy in circumstances of shortage of food, for example. It could be interpreted as a normal matem’al culling of the litter under those conditions.
Risk and the Authority of Ends
Authors: Hiskes Richard P
Published: November 2023

Within liberal theory it is clear that consent is an important-perhaps the only legitimate-basis of political obligation, in addition to providing, as in Locke’s theory, a significant source of moral obligations. Obligations, in turn, always establish authority of some variety, if only in the minimal sense of “authorizing” a set of expectations as legitimate for some person or persons to hold as a consequence of our having entailed an obligation. If, as we saw in chapter two, the obligation is moral, the actual authority of the persons (or community) to whom we are obliged does not necessarily entitle them to do any more than attempt to persuade us to live up to our obligations or possibly to shun us if we do not. If, on the other hand, the obligation is legitimately construed as political obligation, consent grants a fuller range of legitimate authoritative responses. As we have seen, liberalism’s troubles with political obligation and authority are not really solvable by its construal of consent, because such consent would need to be explicit and expressed, yet liberal societies offer few if any opportunities for acts of expressed consent.