bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Costing of a hospital-based outbreak of poultry-borne salmonellosis
Authors: Yule B. F. , Macleod A. F. , Sharp J. C. M. , Forbes G. I.
Published: October 2009

Poultry-borne salmonellosis is the most common form of foodborne infection in Scotland for which the vehicle can be identified, yet little is known about the costs imposed on society by this disease, or the costs of preventing it. The present study identifies and values the costs of a hospital based outbreak of poultry-borne salmonellosis. Account is taken of costs falling on individuals, the health services and society as a whole. Depending on assumptions made about the value of ‘intangibles’, the cost of the outbreak is estimated to be between £200000 and £900000.
HTLV-1, HIV-1, hepatitis B and hepatitis delta in the Pacific and South-East Asia: a serological survey
Authors: Brindle R. J. , Eglin R. P. , Parsons A. J. , Hill A. V. S. , Selkon J. B.
Published: October 2009

Blood samples from 13 locations in the Pacific and South-East Asia were tested for evidence of infection with human T-cell lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV-1), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis delta virus (HDV). No samples were positive for antibody to HIV-1. Antibodies to HTLV-1 were found in samples from five locations, the maximum prevalence being 19%, in Vanuatu. Serological markers of HBV infection were found in all locations, the maximal prevalence being 88%, in Majuro, Micronesia. Antibodies to HDV in HBsAg positive sera were found in six locations with a maximum prevalence of 81% in Kiribati.
An outbreak of meningococcal disease in Stonehouse: planning and execution of a large-scale survey
Authors: Stuart J. M. , Cartwright K. A. V. , Jones D. M. , Noah N. D. , Wall R. J. , Blackwell C. Caroline , Jephcott A. E. , Ferguson I. R.
Published: October 2009

In November 1986 a large-scale survey was undertaken in the Gloucestershire town of Stonehouse during an outbreak of meningococcal disease due to group B type 15 subtype Pl. 16 sulphonamide-resistant strains. There were 15 cases in Stonehouse residents during the 4 years from April 1983, an annual attack rate of 56·5 per 100000. Four secondary cases occurred despite rifampicin prophylaxis. The objectives of this community survey were to investigate patterns of meningococcal carriage, transmission and immunity and to determine the proportion of non-secretors of blood group antigens in the Stonehouse population find amongst meningococcal carriers. A total of 6237 subjects participated including 75% of the 6635 Stonehouse residents. Over 97% of the participants provided all three of the requested specimens – nasopharyngeal swabs, saliva and blood samples.

The co-operation between the many organizations involved in the detailed preliminary planning was instrumental in the success of the survey; in particular the value of effective collaboration between Departments of Community Medicine and Microbiology and of the Public Health Laboratory Service network of laboratories in undertaking investigations of this size and type was clearly demonstrated.
The Stonehouse survey: nasopharyngeal carriage of meningococci and Neisseria lactamica
Authors: Cartwright K. A. V. , Stuart J. M. , Jones D. M. , Noah N. D.
Published: October 2009

A total of 6234 nasopharyngeal swabs was collected during a survey of the population of Stonehouse, Gloucestershire in November 1986 as part of an investigation into an outbreak of meningococcal disease. The overall meningococcal carriage rate was 10·9%. The carriage rate rose with age from 2·1% in the 0- to 4-year-olds to a peak of 24·5% in the 15- to 19-year-olds, and thereafter declined steadily with age. Male carriers outnumbered female carriers of meningococci by 3:2. Group B (or non-groupable) type 15 sulphonamide-resistant strains which had caused the outbreak were isolated from 1·4% of subjects. The age distribution of carriers of these strains was similar to that of other meningococci apart from an additional peak in the 5–9-year age group and a more rapid decline in carriage with increasing age. Variations in the carriage rates of the outbreak strain were seen in children attending different schools and in the residents of different areas of the town. The low carriage rate of these strains in a community during a prolonged outbreak supports the hypothesis that these organisms are less transmissible but more virulent than other strains of pathogenic meningococci.

Carriage of Neisseria lactamica, which is thought to be important in the development of meningococcal immunity, was most frequent in children under the age of 5 years and was six times commoner in this age group than carriage of Neisseria meningitidis. In older children and adults female carriers of N. lactamica increasingly outnumbered males in contrast to the male preponderance observed with meningococcal carriage.
Multiply- and methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureusstrains isolated in the German Democratic Republic in 1985 and 1986
Authors: Witte W. , Braulke Chr.
Published: October 2009

Multiply- and methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA) strains have been isolated from five small outbreaks of nosocomial infection in five different hospitals. The MRSA were typed by phage patterns, biochemical traits, resistance phenotypes and plasmid patterns. Three different groups of strains can be distinguished. The MRSA from three outbreaks in one country share identical characters.

Phage typing by the use of the International Basic Set for Phage Typing staphylococci as well as experimental phages does not completely discriminate between the strains. Attribution of several resistance determinants to plasmids in two of the described strain groups proved valuable for strain differentiation.

These multiply-resistant strains are sensitive to vancomycin and to rifampicin.
Typing ofAcinetobacter calcoaceticusstrains isolated from hospital patients by cell envelope protein profiles
Authors: Dijkshoorn L. , Vianen W. Van , Degener J. E. , Michel M. F.
Published: October 2009

The usefulness of sodium dodecyl sulphate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis patterns of cell envelope proteins for classifying strains ofAcinetobacter calcoaceticuswas studied using 129 isolates from 16 in-patients in a teaching hospital. In 11 patients, all of the isolates from each patient exhibited the same pattern irrespective of the body site or time of isolation. The patterns of the isolates from four other patients were indistinguishable, with the exception of one isolate per patient. In the isolates from one patient five patterns were observed. In several cases isolates from different patients exhibited the same pattern. The relative frequency of some of these patterns was low. Epidemiological data were compatible with the assumption that the concurrent presence of bacteria of these patterns in the patients was the result of cross-infection. For one pattern, which was seen in seven patients, cross-infection could not be substantiated. On the basis of analysis of electrophoretic patterns in combination with epidemiological data on a number of strains it is concluded that cell-envelope protein profiles appear to be a useful aid in studying the dissemination ofAcinetobacterin the hospital environment.
The specific IgM response toMycoplasma pneumoniaeinfection: interpretation and application to early diagnosis
Authors: Moule J. H. , Caul E. O. , Wreghitt T. G.
Published: October 2009

Specific IgM antibody production in patients with serologically provenMycoplasma pneumoniaeinfection by the complement fixation (CF) test was studied using a μ-capture ELISA. Sera from 79% of patients were found to be IgM positive. Patients could be divided into two groups relating to the amount of specific antibody produced. High levels of specific IgM (≥10 units) were more commonly found in younger patients. Seventy-six per cent of patients under the age of 20 produced relatively high levels of IgM compared to 35% of patients over the age of 20. In contrast, the number of patients who produced low or undetectable levels of IgM ( < 10 units) was found to increase with age. This trend was found to be significant which suggests that low or undetectable levels of IgM may be due to reinfection withM. pneumoniae. Specific IgM was found to appear in the serum at approximately 7 days after the onset of symptoms, peaking at between 10 and 30 days, and then falling to undetectable levels at an estimated 12–26 weeks post onset of symptoms. Twenty-eight per cent of acute-phase sera (CF titres < 256) from patients whose sera subsequently showed a fourfold or greater rise inM. pneumoniaeCF antibody titre were IgM positive. Thus using μ-capture ELISA a diagnosis ofM. pneumoniaeinfection may often be made more rapidly than by the complement fixation test.
Detection of lymphoproliferative disease virus by an enzymelinked immunosorbent assay
Authors: Patel J. R. , Shilleto R. W.
Published: October 2009

Hitherto, detection of lymphoproliferative disease virus (LPDV), a C-type retrovirus of turkeys, has proved difficult since no tissue culture or serological assay has been available. Development of serological tests has been hampered by the problems of raising virus-specific antisera. An indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is reported, using a viral antiserum raised with bromelain-digested virus.

The assay specifically detected purified virus at a concentration of 250 ng/ml or greater. In an experiment to detect virus in plasma from turkeys over a period of 4 weeks following LPDV infection, ELISA results correlated closely with the viral reverse transcriptase activity. Both assays were of similar sensitivity and detected small amounts of virus in high-speed pellets of turkey plasma. Evidence is presented indicating that LPDV-infected or hyperimmunized turkeys do not produce readily detectable circulating viral antibodies. In reciprocal ELISA tests, using antibodies to group-specific antigens of other avian retrovirus groups (avian sarcoma-leukosis (ASLV) and reticuloendotheliosis (REV)) no antigenic cross-reaction was found between LPDV, ASLV and REV.
Prevalence and risk factors of hepatitis B in Spanish prostitutes
Authors: Caballero L. Requena , Caballero C. Requena , Caballero I. Requena , López M. Sánchez , López F. Vázquez , Guerrero J. Romero , Jiménez M. Casado
Published: October 2009

Eighty prostitutes wore tested by solid-phase radioimmunoassay for serum markers of hepatitis B virus (HBV). Of 8 (10%) with hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), 6 (75%) also had hepatitis Be antigen (HBeAg). Antibodies to HBsAg (anti-HBs) and to hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc) were found in 52 (65%). Antibodies to HBeAg (anti-HBe) were positive in 32 (40%). Anti-HBc alone was found in 5 (6%) and anti-HBs alone in 2 (2%). Sixty-seven (84%) were positive for at least one HBV marker and 13 (16%) were still susceptible to infection. Hepatitis B markers were more prevalent in prostitutes than in the normal Spanish population. Age, a history of sexually transmitted diseases (STD), drug abuse and promiscuity are factors which were highly related to hepatitis B markers. We concluded that screening prostitutes for the presence of markers and vaccinating those who are negative would be worth while.
An evaluation of a commercially available enzyme immunoassay test for the rapid detection of salmonellae in food and environmental samples
Authors: Harford J. P.
Published: October 2009

A total of 91 food and environmental samples were examined for the presence of salmonollao using a commercially available enzyme immunoassay kit (EIA) and a conventional culture technique. A 78% agreement was obtained, but re-examination of culture-negative, EIA-positive samples gave agreement of 86%. The problem of comparing EIA and culture results is discussed. A partially selective pre-enrichment broth was tested in 37 samples and gave better EIA ratios. Artificially contaminated cooked foods gave 100% agreement.
Comparison of procedures based upon Rappaport–Vassiliadis medium with those using Muller–Kauffmann medium containing Teepol for the isolation ofSalmonellasp.
Authors: Vassiliadis P. , Mavromati Ch. , Trichopoulus D. , Kalapothaki V. , Papadakis J.
Published: October 2009

A total of 308 samples of different types were examined for the presence of salmonellas by means of three different procedures. The first consisted of preenrichment in buffered peptone water followed by enrichment in Rappaport-Vassiliadis medium (P/RV). The second differed only in that 1% Teepol was added to the pre-enrichment medium (PT/RV). In the third, buffered peptone water with 1% Teepol was followed by enrichment in Muller–Kauffmann tetrathionate broth also containing 1% Teepol (PT/MKT). The first of these combinations (P/RV) proved superior to the others both in terms of isolation rates and in the appearance of suspicious colonies.
Investigation of the source of haemolytic Escherichia coli infecting weaned pigs
Authors: Hampson D. J. , Fu Z. F. , Robertson I. D.
Published: October 2009

Attempts were made to discover the source of strains of haemolytic Escherichia coli infecting weaned pigs on a piggery. The organisms were not detected in the faeces of sows in the farrowing house, or in the in the faeces or intestinal tracts of slaughtered bacon pigs or sows. Sows held in a quarantine unit, and their offspring born in the unit, did not excrete haemolytic E. coli until after they were returned to the piggery.

The environment of the piggery was the most likely source of infection for weaned pigs, and routine cleaning and disinfection of the accommodation did not prevent infection. Unweaned pigs were however able to transfer haemolytic E. coli to a newly built, previously unused weaning house, and establish a cycle of infection.
Human poxvirus infection after the eradication of smallpox
Authors: Baxby Derrick
Published: October 2009

There occurred during the planning and publication of this review: the twentieth anniversary of the start of the intensified WHO Smallpox Eradication Campaign and the tenth anniversary of the last endemic case of smallpox; debate about the fate of smallpox virus and possibly its irrevocable destruction; claims that mass smallpox vaccination campaigns may have helped the spread of AIDS in Africa; publication of the definitive account of Smallpox and its Eradication (Fenner et al. 1988), and the closure of the WHO Smallpox Eradication Unit (SEU). It is therefore perhaps an appropriate moment to assess the current status of human poxvirus infections and their epidemiology; this review concentrates on those viruses antigenically related to smallpox (i.e. orthopoxviruses).
Plasmid content and protein I serovar of non-pencillinase-producing gonococci isolated in Munich
Authors: Abeck D. , Johnson A. P. , Alexander F. E. , Korting H. C. , Taylor-Robinson D.
Published: October 2009

One hundred and twenty-four strains of non-penicillinase-producing gonococci isolated in Munich in 1986 were characterized in terms of their plasmid content and protein I serovar. Eighty-two per cent of the strains belonged to serogroup 1-B with over half belonging to either serovar 1B-2 or 1B-3. Half of the 22 serogroup 1A strains belonged to serovar 1A-2. Nineteen strains (15·3%) were found to lack the 2·6 Md cryptic plasmid although seven of these strains contained the 24·4 Md conjugative plasmid. Nine of the 105 strains which harboured the cryptic plasmid also contained the conjugative plasmid. The 19 strains which lacked the cryptic plasmid comprised 10 different serovars, indicating the heterogeneous nature of this group of organisms.
The relationship between intestinalCampylobacterspecies isolated from animals and humans as determined by BRENDA
Authors: Kakoyiannis C. K. , Winter P. J. , Marshall R. B.
Published: October 2009

Intestinal thermophilicCampylobacterspecies produce stable patterns when subjected to bacterial restriction endonuclease DNA analysis (BRENDA); this technique is therefore of considerable value in epidemiological studies. BRENDA was used to examine thermophilicCampylobacterspecies from humans, wild and domestic animals. One hundred and ninety-four (61%) of 316 isolates ofCampylobacter jejunifrom humans had BRENDA patterns which could be matched to those of animal isolates. Poultry appear to be a major source of nfection forC. jejuniin humans with nearly half (49·7%) of the human isolates giving patterns which were indistinguishable from those isolated from poultry. A total of GO BRENDA types were identified from 316 human isolates and 11 of these had the same pattern as those isolated from poultry. One of the threeCampylobacter coliBRENDA types recovered from poultry was indistinguishable from a human isolate type. Pigs appear to be only a minor source ofC. coliinfection for humans in New Zealand. Rats were found to be infected with strains ofC. jejuniwith BRENDA patterns indistinguishable from those infecting numans, poultry and a horse. None of the 102 isolates ofCampylobacterspecies from wild birds gave BRENDA patterns similar to those of isolates from humans.
Assessment of Brucellosis Card test in screening patients for brucellosis
Authors: Araj G. F. , Brown G. M. , Haj M. M. , Madhvan N. V.
Published: October 2009

The Brucellosis Card test (Brewers' Diagnostic Kits, Hynson, Westcott and Dunning, Inc., Baltimore, Md.) was evaluated in relation to the Brucelloslide test (bioMérieux, France), the microagglutination test (MAT) and the demonstration of brucella-specific IgG, IgM and IgA in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A total of 573 serum specimens was tested. These included sera from patients with acute brucellosis (159), chronic brucellosis (23) and patients who had been diagnosed previously as having had brucella infection (155). Control groups consisted of patients with diseases other than brucellosis (52), others with noninfectious diseases (20), and healthy individuals (164). The Card test detected 100% of the patients with acute and 61% of the patients with chronic brucellosis. The sera from the control groups were all negative. Similar results were obtained with the Brucelloslide test and the MAT. The ELISA test detected brucellaspecific Ig of all classes in the serum of patients with acute brucellosis, and IgG and IgA in the serum of patients with chronic brucellosis. In the latter group, IgM was also detected in 32% of the sera. Twenty-three per cent of sera with titres of 20 by the MAT were positive on the Card test and had ELISA titres for IgM, IgG and IgA of 400. Characterization of the antibodies involved in the Card test showed that sera with IgM ELISA titres of 1600, or an IgM titres of 800 together with IgG and IgA titres ≥ 200 were Card test positive. Higher IgG (≥ 1600) plus IgA (≥ 400) titres were required to produce a positive Card test in the absence of IgM or when the IgM titre was ≤ 200. The Card test has a potential value as a rapid screening test for humans with acute brucellosis and shows similar results to Brucelloslide and MAT tests. ELISA, however, remains the most reliable test for diagnosis of brucellosis especially in patients with chronic and complicated stages of the disease.
Factors affecting the toxicity of rotting carcasses containing Clostridium botulinum type E
Authors: Smith G. R. , Turner Ann , Till Diane
Published: October 2009

Mice killed shortly after receiving c. 2000 spores of a type E strain of Clostridium botulinum per os were incubated at one of five chosen temperatures together with bottles of cooked meat medium seeded with a similar inoculum. After incubation the rotting carcasses were homogenized. Sterile membrane filtrates of the homogenates (10%, w/v) and pure cultures were then titrated for toxicity. Some of the main findings were confirmed with two further type E strains.

Toxicity produced at 37 °C was poor in both carcasses and cultures (200–20000 mouse intraperitoneal LD/g or ml). It was good in both systems at 30 and 23 °C, usually reaching 20000–200000 LD/g or ml, and in carcasses occasionally more; at 30 °C maximal toxicity was reached more quickly in carcasses than in cultures. Prolonged incubation (36–118 days) at 30 or 23 °C resulted in complete loss of toxicity in virtually all carcasses but not in cultures. At 16 °C the development of toxicity in carcasses was strikingly greater than in cultures. At 9 °C neither system produced more than slight toxicity after prolonged incubation. Trypsinization increased the toxicity of cultures but not usually of carcasses. Unfiltered carcass homogenate (10%, w/v) with maximal intraperitoneal toxicity was harmless for mice by mouth in doses of 0·25 ml. These findings differed in important respects from those made earlier with a type C strain.
Class-specific herpes simplex virus antibodies in sera and cervical secretions from patients with cervical neoplasia: a multi-group comparison
Authors: Dale G. E. , Coleman R. M. , Best J. M. , Benetato B. B. B. , Drew N. C. , Chinn S. , Papacosta A. O. , Nahmias A. J.
Published: October 2009

Serum and cervical secretions were collected from patients with cervical dysplasia, carcinoma-in-situ (CIS), squamous cell carcinoma (cervical SCC), and controls with normal cervices, attending clinics within the West Lambeth Health District, London. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to examine cervical secretory IgA (sIgA) and serum IgG and IgA antibodies to herpes simplex virus (HSV). Sexual and demographic factors were considered during data analysis, which involved fitting multiple linear or multiple logistic regressions to HSV antibody levels. Prevalence of sIgA-HSV and levels of serum antibodies to HSV in all groups were compared with those of gynaecology controls. Caucasian women with mild dysplasia had a significantly higher prevalence of sIgA-HSV. Serum IgG levels to HSV (IgG-HSV) were significantly elevated in women with mild dysplasia and severe dysplasia/ClS. Serum IgA levels to HSV1 (IgG-HSV1) were significantly higher in women with cervical SCC (after adjusting for smoking habits) and other genital tumours. Significantly higher levels of serum IgA to HSV2 (IgA-HSV2) were also found among Caucasian women with cervical SCC. The possible role of HSV as a co-factor in cervical carcinogenesis is discussed.
Poultry meat as a source of human salmonellosis in England and Wales
Authors: Humphrey T. J. , Mead G. C. , Rowe B.
Published: October 2009

In England and Wales human salmonellosis is a major public health problem and, although mortality is low, the disease has important social and economic consequences. All surveillance indicators suggest that an epidemic of unprecedented proportions is occurring. Between 1081 and 1980 the number of strains received for serotyping by the Public Health Laboratory Service (PHLS) Division of Enteric Pathogens has increased by 60% (Table 1). This is predominantly due to strains ofSalmonella typhimuriumandS. enteritidis. Smaller but significant increases have occurred in the numbers ofS. virchowandS. Stanley. With the exception of the latter serotype, which seems to come from a bovine reservoir, the indications aro that poultry is the main source of the increase in infections.
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for the measurement of specific antibodies in experimentally induced ovine toxoplasmosis
Authors: Payne R. A. , Joynson D. H. M. , Wilsmore A. J.
Published: October 2009

Tachyzoitcs of the RH strain of Toxoplasma gondii were inoculated intravenously into sheep following which serum samples were collected at approximately weekly intervals for 9 months. The sera were examined by the toxoplasma dye test and two enzymc-linkcd immunosorbent assays (ELISA) specifically developed for investigations of ovine toxoplasmosis. One was an antibody class capture assay for the detection of anti-toxoplasma specific IgM, the other an indirect assay which detected anti-toxoplasma IgG.

Some of the sheep had antibodies to toxoplasma prior to inoculation but none had specific IgM. Sera collected 17 days after inoculation showed that all had raised specific antibody levels but the only sheep that produced specific antitoxoplasma IgM were those that were initially without any antibody. Specific IgM could be detected in all these particular sheep for at least 1 month after infection and up to 3 months in some. Specific IgG persisted at high levels for at least 3 months and could still be detected at moderate levels for at least 9 months. The ELISA methods described are simple to perform and could clearly distinguish between previous infection and this experimental infection with Toxoplasma gondii.
A microbial culture system for use in remote field environments
Authors: Grimmond T. R.
Published: October 2009

Field studies of human flora carried out in remote environments are often compromised by problems associated with media, equipment or cargo limitations. For the International Biomedical Expedition to Antarctica an anaerobic culture system was developed based on sealed vials, pre-reduccd anaerobically sterilized media, antibiotic selective media and compact processing equipment. The system proved simple to use in a harsh environment and gave results comparable with standard plate and roll-tube techniques. No problems with dehydration, contamination or oxidation were encountered. Furthermore, the system preserved viability of primary isolates for up to 6 months of storage.
Serological examination of IgE- and IgG-specific antibodies to egg protein during influenza virus immunization
Authors: Yamane N. , Uemura H.
Published: October 2009

The concentrations of serum IgE (PRIST) and IgE- and IgG-specific antibodies to egg protein were determined in paired sera taken from students who had received influenza virus vaccine. Although persons who gave a history of allergy to egg or to chicken feathers were excluded, 10–16% of vaccinees possessed higher titres of serum IgE and IgE-specific antibody (RAST) to egg white (Fl) allergen before vaccination. The titres of IgG-specific antibody to egg protein (ovalbumin and ovomucoid antigens) were negligible, and did not show any significant response after vaccination. In contrast, IgE-specific antibody to Fl allergen rose significantly in a considerable number of the vaccinccs. The results obtained indicate possible contamination of vaccine products with allergens of egg origin and a potential risk of allergic manifestation after influenza vaccination.
Location on the evolutionary tree of influenza H3 haemagglutinin genes of Japanese strains isolated during 1985–6 season
Authors: Nakajima S. , Takeuchi Y. , Nakajima K.
Published: October 2009

The nucleotide sequences of the haemagglutinin (HA) genes of influenza A (H3N2) isolates from the 1985–6 season in Japan along with those of several viruses isolated between 1982–5 from other countries were analyzed to determine the origin of the 1985–6 Japanese strains. The HA genes of these viruses consisted of 1762 nucleotides and had a three-nucleotide deletion downstream from the stop codon when compared to the sequences of earlier Hong Kong H3N2 viruses. An evolutionary tree of the HA genes of these viruses was drawn using the A/Bangkok/1/79 sequence as the starting point. Eight strains isolated from Asian and Pacific regions including Japan in the 1985–6 season (one in May) had the HA genes located closely on the evolutionary tree but away from those of the isolates in North America and Europe during the 1984–5 season, and a common ancestry for these viruses was suggested.
The origin of major human infections and the crucial role of person-to-person spread
Authors: Mims C. A.
Published: October 2009

In discussions of the origin of new infectious diseases, prominence is usually given to dramatic infections acquired from animals (Lassa fever, Marburg and Ebola viruses) or from the environment (legionellosis). But these infections do not spread from human to human, and their impact on mankind can never be catastrophic. If a new infectious agent is to pose a major threat to the human species, it will need to kill tens or hundreds of millions of people over a short period of time (a few years), before vaccines and antimicrobial agents can be developed or effective blocks to transmission established. The 1918 influenza pandemic (total deaths about 20 million) almost came into this world-shaking category, but many of the deaths were presumably due to secondary bacterial pneumonia and this was the pre-antibiotic era. A similar airborne pandemic occurring today could spread globally within weeks by air transport and would have a greater impact. Smallpox arose long before the world became one from an infectious disease point of view, and although it caused devastating epidemics it did not have the opportunity to develop into the ‘major threat’ category. A significant proportion of people recovered, less virulent strains of virus (variola minor) appeared, and an effective vaccine not only kept it under control in many continents but finally eliminated it from the world. The plague (Yersinia pestis) influenced the course of history in Asia and Europe [1] but oven in its respiratory form could not in those days be transferred rapidly from continent to continent.
Salmonella serovars (others than Typhi and Paratyphi) from extra-intestinal sources. Israel, 1984–9
Authors: Sechter I. , Katzenelson E. , Reisfeld A.
Published: October 2009

The purpose of this study was to examine whether certain salmonella serovars, other than Typhi and Paratyphi, may have an increased ability to enter the human body fluids. The data are based on over 20000 salmonella isolated from humans during 1984–9, among them 436 from extra-intestinal (EI) sources. The mean percentage of EI salmonella isolated in Israel (excluding Typhi and Paratyphi), was 2·1 %. In three serovars: S. 9, 12:1, v:-, Virchow and Saintpaul, the percentage of blood isolations and of EI isolations in general, was high. Among the frequent serovars, ser. Infantis and Hadar had a much lower percentage of EI isolations.
Numbers of Salmonella enteritidis in the contents of naturally contaminated hens' eggs
Authors: Humphrey T. J. , Whitehead A. , Gawler A. H. L. , Henley A. , Rowe B.
Published: October 2009

Over 5700 hens eggs from 15 flocks naturally infected with Salmonella enteritidis were examined individually for the presence of the organism in either egg contents or on shells. Thirty-two eggs (0·6%) were positive in the contents. In the majority, levels of contamination were low. Three eggs, however, were found to contain many thousands of cells. In eggs where it was possible to identify the site of contamination, the albumen was more frequently positive than the yolk. Storage at room temperature had no significant effect on the prevalence of salmonella-positive eggs but those held for more than 21 days were more likely (P < 0·01) to be heavily contaminated. In batches of eggs where both shells and contents were examined, 1·1% were positive on the former site and 0·9% in the latter.
Haemolytic anaemia after childhoodEscherichia coliO 157.H7 infection: are females at increased risk?
Authors: Rowe P. C. , Walop W. , Lior H. , Mackenzie A. M.
Published: October 2009

We conducted a 4-year retrospective cohort study to better define the risk of haemolytic anaemia and haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) in children following sporadic gastrointestinal infection with the O 157.H7 serotype ofEscherichia coli. Of the 72 children infected with this organism, 9 (12·5%) developed haemolytic anaemia, 6 of whom had HUS. No child in a cohort of 72 age-matched controls withCampylobacter jejunigastroenteritis developed haemolytic anaemia (P= 0·003). Females had a significantly greater risk of developing haemolytic anaemia afterE. coliO 157.H7 infection than did males (8/29 femalesv.1/43 males;P= 0·003). In a logistic regression model, female gender emerged as the only statistically significant risk factor for haemolytic anaemia (odds ratio 3·85; 95% confidence interval 1·24–12). These results are consistent with recent reports of a moderate increase in the risk of HUS for females.
Complexity ofPseudomonas aeruginosainfection in cystic fibrosis: combined results from esterase electrophoresis and rDNA restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis
Authors: Denamur E. , Picard B. , Goullet Ph. , Bingen E. , Lambert N. , Elion J.
Published: October 2009

Esterase electrophoretic typing and restriction fragment length polymorphism of ribosomal DNA regions (ribotyping) were used to differentiate 102Pseudomonas aeruginosaclinical isolates obtained from chronic lung infection in 23 patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) and two reference strains (including the type strain ATCC 10145). Twenty-five zymotypes were obtained with the former method and 16 ribotypes with the latter. Combination of the two typing systems led to the finding of 30 different types. Our data highlights the physiopathological complexity ofP. aeruginosainfection in CF as, in six individual cases, several types were found among isolates from a given patient. On the other hand, two unique types were found in two and three patients respectively, raising the possibility of crossinfections.
Seasonal and spatial trends in the detectability of leprosy in wild armadillos
Authors: Truman R. W. , Kumaresan J. A. , McDonough C. M. , Job C. K. , Hastings R. C.
Published: October 2009

A survey for leprosy among 565 armadillos from Louisiana and Texas found IgM antibodies to the phenolic glycolipid-l antigen ofMycobacterium lepraein 16% of the animals. There were no geographic trends in the distribution of prevalence rates between the sites and the disease probably has a much greater range. Repeat observations in one location showed significant seasonal variations in the observable antibody prevalence rate, but the yearly average remained similar. Infected armadillos tended to be heavier, and the females usually had plasma progesterone concentrations indicative of sexual maturity. Using these characteristics to stratify the populations into adult and sub-adult cohorts, variations in the observable leprosy prevalence rate were seen to be proportional to changes in the age structure of the populations. Leprosy appears to be maintained in steady state within some regions, and nearly a third of the adult armadillos in Louisiana and Texas harbourM. leprae.
Bovine tubercle bacilli and disease in animals and man
Authors: Grange J. M. , Collins C. H.
Published: October 2009

In 1882 Robert Koch reported the isolation oftuberkelbazillenfrom human and bovine sources. Sixteen years later, Theobald Smith (1898) demonstrated that strains of Koch's tubercle bacilli from these two hosts differed in cell morphology, cultural characteristics and virulence in rabbits. He did not believe that these variants were limited to the hosts from which they were isolated nor that the differences resulted from adaptations to a given host. Indeed, he remarked that ‘It might be better to omit the host designation of such varieties in order to anticipate assumptions that they are necessarily limited to the host whose name they bear.’ Nevertheless, heedless of his own misgivings he termed them the ‘human’ and ‘bovine’ types.
Legionella pneumophila: monoclonal antibody typing of clinical and environmental isolates
Authors: Brindle R. J. , Stannett P. J. , Tobin J. O'H.
Published: October 2009

Forty-one clinical isolates ofLegionella pneumophilafrom sporadic cases of legionella pneumonia were collected from laboratories throughout the United Kingdom and were compared with 300 routine environmental isolates using two panels of monoclonal antibodies, covering serogroups 1–10. Eighty-five per cent of the clinical isolates belonged to the subgroup Pontiac of serogroup 1, whilst only 13% of the environmental isolates did. Approximately half of the clinical isolates tested came from patients with a recent history of foreign travel, mainly to southern Europe.
Food-borne outbreak of group G streptococcal sore throat in an Israeli military base
Authors: Cohen D. , Ferne M. , Rouach T. , Bergner-Rabinowitz S.
Published: October 2009

A food-borne outbreak of sore throat caused by Lancefield group G β-haemolytic streptococci and involving 50 persons occurred in May 1983 in an Israeli military camp. All of the patients available for clinical examination had sore throat and difficulty in swallowing. Exudative tonsillitis occurred in 46% of the patients and the body temperature was above 37·5 °C in 81%. The pattern of attack was uniform over the base and 37 became ill during the night and morning of the 5 May. Thirty-two (84%) of the throat cultures taken from 37 patients grew group G β-haemolytic streptococci. Eight of 29 contacts were positive for group G β-haemolytic streptococci and 6 of the 28 foodhandlers examined had positive cultures of the same group. The organism was also isolated from one food sample. The epidemiological and laboratory investigations indicated that a food handler, a convalescent carrier of group G streptococci, might have been the source of infection. Assumptions on the potential of non-group A streptococci to cause epidemics are discussed.
An estimate for the source of coagulase-negative staphylococci in blood cultures
Authors: Haverkorn M. J. , Staal M. J.
Published: October 2009

An estimate for the source of coagulase-negative staphylococci in blood cultures is presented and its use illustrated in two populations. The method estimates the probability that a positive blood culture is positive due to contamination and the probability of it being positive due to bacteraemia. The effect of changes in efficiency of the blood culture technique on these estimates is demonstrated. One of the illustrative populations consists of 537 sample pairs from 273 patients, taken after open-heart surgery in 1978–80. The other consists of 500 consecutive sample pairs taken in one of two hospitals in 1983–4.
Comparison of alcohol shock enrichment and selective enrichment for the isolation ofClostridium difficile
Authors: Riley T. V. , Brazier J. S. , Hassan Hamimah , Williams Kathleen , Phillips K. D.
Published: October 2009

Two enrichment methods were compared for their ability to recoverClostridium difficilefrom stool samples. One method used selective enrichment in an antibiotic-containing broth followed by detection with a latex particle agglutination (LPA) reagent. The other used enrichment in a non-selective broth following treatment of the specimen with alcohol. With clinical specimens enrichment culture was significantly more successful at detectingC. difficilethan direct plating. Alcohol shock enrichment was twice as effective as direct culture, while selective broth enrichment was three times more effective. The use of LPA for screening selective enrichment broths forC. difficileshould prove a cost-effective measure as only positive broths (about 20%) require subculture for confirmation.
A new serovarmogdeniof serogroup Tarassovi ofLeptospira interrogansisolated from a sewage plant in England
Authors: Coghlan J. D. , Kmety E.
Published: October 2009

Among 30 strains of leptospires isolated from samples of sewage taken before and during treatment at two sewage plants in England, only one appeared to belong toLeptospira interrogans, the species that comprises the leptospires that are pathogenic to man and animals. That strain, Compton 746, was isolated from settled sewage, before treatment at a treatment plant that deals mainly with human sewage. It was shown serologically to belong to serogroup Tarassovi and appears to represent a new serovar that has been namedmogdeniafter the name of the sewage plant, Mogden, from which it was isolated.
Serological prevalence of leptospiral infection in domestic animals in West Malaysia
Authors: Bahaman A. R. , Ibrahim A. L. , Adam H.
Published: October 2009

A cross-sectional serological survey of domestic animals in West Malaysia revealed that 25·5% of the animals examined had agglutinating antibodies to one or more antigens belonging toLeptospira interrogans. Significant prevalence of infection was observed in cattle (40·5%), buffaloes (31%) and pigs (16%). The Sejroe serogroup was shown to be the principal one involved in cattle and buffaloes, and to a lesser extent the Tarassovi and Pomona serogroups. Evidence of infection in domestic animals by strains bearing the other seven antigens appeared insignificant and was indicative of sporadic infection. A majority of the large (semi-intensive) cattle and buffalo farms demonstrated a high prevalence of leptospiral infection. In both species of domestic animals mentioned above, the prevalence of infection was significantly higher (P= 0·01) in the semi-intensive farms than in the smallholdings. Amongst cattle, the droughtmasters had the highest prevalence whilst the Kedah-Kelantan (an indigenous breed) had the lowest prevalence of leptospiral infection. In general, the temperate breeds of cattle had a significantly (P= 0·01) higher prevalence of infection than local breeds. Leptospiral infection in goats and sheep was shown to be sporadic, and the Pomona serogroup was the principal leptospiral serogroup involved in these small ruminants. The prevalence of infection in pigs was observed to decline during the study period, and it is suspected that pigs in West Malaysia are the maintenance host for serovarpomonawhilst cattle are the maintenance host for serovarhardjo. Overall, it appears that domestic animals in Malaysia will play a bigger role in the epidemiology of leptospiral infection with the advent of sophisticated farming.
Psittacosis in a highly endemic area in Italy
Authors: Maffei C. , Marracino A. , Di Stanislao F. , Pauri P. , Clementi M. , Varaldo P. E.
Published: October 2009

In one locality in Italy where the incidence of psittacosis has increased rapidly since 1980, a hospital-based study and a seroepidemiological survey were carried out in order to define the clinical and epidemiological features of psittacosis in that area.

Registers of the Virology Unit of the University of Ancona, Italy, were reviewed and all hospitalized patients with a serological diagnosis of psittacosis were identified. A total of 76 cases were found and studied. A presumptive bird source was identified in 80% of 62 patients, on whom a detailed investigation had been possible. Poultry represented the most frequent probable source of infection. Clinically, the predominant pattern of illness was a moderately severe lower respiratory tract infection, with chest X-rays showing pulmonary shadowings in 68 patients (89%).

In the seroepidemiological study, 51 out of 143 subjects were exposed to birds (35·7%), but only 7 out of 90 urban adult blood donors (7·3%) were positive for chlamydial antibodies using the microimmunofluorescence test.
Respiratory tract infections due toBranhamella catarrhalis: epidemiological data from Western Australia
Authors: DiGiovanni Cristina , Riley Thomas V. , Hoyne Gerard F. , Yeo Rebecca , Cooksey Patricia
Published: October 2009

During a 3-year periodBranhamella catarrhaliswas isolated in significant numbers from 239 (1·3%) of 19488 specimens of sputum sent for routine microbiological examination at a 700-bed general hospital. The majority of patients (83%) were over 60 years of age and 65% were male. There was a distinet seasonal variation in isolations with a peak incidence during the winter and early spring, a pattern not found with other pathogens. Susceptibility to amoxycillin decreased by approximately 50% over the 3 years, corresponding to an increased incidence of beta-lactamase-producing strains. There were minimal changes in susceptibility to other antimicrobial agents. Underlying pulmonary disease was the major factor predisposing toB. catarrhalisinfection, and 71% of patients were smokers or ex-smokers.
Surveillance of respiratory viral infections by rapid immunofluorescence diagnosis, with emphasis on virus interference
Authors: Ånestad G.
Published: October 2009

During the 7-year period from September 1978 to August 1985, smear specimens of nasopharyngeal secretions from 3132 patients mainly hospitalized children, taken in different regions in Norway, were examined for respiratory viruses by the rapid immunofluorescence (IF) technique. A positive diagnosis for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), parainfluenza virus type 1, 2 and 3 or influenza A and B virus was made for 896 patients (29%). The greatest prevalence for all these viruses was observed during the colder months with only sporadic cases during the summer months. A relative increase in parainfluenza virus activity, involving several parainfluenza virus types, was observed in every second autumn and during these periods only sporadic cases of RSV infection were diagnosed. Also both RSV and parainfluenza viruses were less frequently found during influenza virus epidemics and regional differences in RSV activity were observed. During the four autumn periods 1982–85 the monthly number of positive virus identifications by IF followed an epidemic curve, while the corresponding number of negative samples was relatively constant. The results of this study suggest interference between RSV, parainfluenza viruses and influenza virus in reaching their epidemiological peaks. It is suggested that interferon might be a mediator of this effect.
Infection with bluetongue and related orbiviruses in the Sudan detected by the study of sentinel calf herds
Authors: Elfatih M. , Mohammed H. , Taylor W. P.
Published: October 2009

Using two sentinel calf herds, the seasonal incidence of bluetongue in central Sudan was shown to be a predictable event related to the rainy season and to vector population. Seroconversions to bluetongue virus (BTV) were detected only between July and December. Neutralizing antibodies to 16 BTV serotypes (1–10, 12, 14, 17, 20–22) were present in animals from both sentinel herds. The use of a blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay made possible the distinction between infections due to BTV and those due to infections with other orbiviruses. Sera from 13 calves at Shambat and from 17 at Um Benein gave agar-gel tests indicative of BTV infections not attributable to any of the 22 serotypes, suggesting the presence of new serotypes of BTV. Sera from 30 calves gave results interpreted as evidence of infection with BTV-related viruses, rather than BTV serotypes. Comparing these results with those reported from Kenya, we suggest that the pattern of the disease and the types involved are similar in both countries and that the movements of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (I.T.C.Z.) may carry infected midges northwards into the Sudan at the start of the rainy season and southward at the end of this period.
Nephropathia epidemica: incidence of clinical cases and antibody prevalence in an endemic area of Sweden
Authors: Niklasson B. , Leduc J. , Nyström K. , Nyman L.
Published: October 2009

The incidence of nephropathia epidemica (NE) was compared with the NE antibody prevalence in normal population in a highly endemic area of Sweden (Västerbotten county). The antibody prevalence rate in the oldest age groups were found to be 14 and 20 times higher than the accumulated life-risk of being hospitalized with NE for men and women respectively. Whether the infection in persons not admitted to hospital is subclinical, atypical or clinically fulminant, remains to be determined.