bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A PRIMER FOR RESPONSE TO OIL SPILLS ON GRAVEL BEACHES
Authors: Hayes Miles O. , Michel Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

Gravel beaches are the most difficult of all the beach types to clean and restore after an oil spill. Thus, they rank the highest of beaches on the environmental sensitivity index scale (ESI = 6). Problems posed by gravel beaches include: high porosity and permeability that allow deep penetration from the surface; potential for deep and rapid burial by clean sediments; presence of localized, sheltered areas where oil can persist for years; complex patterns of sediment reworking during storms; and slow rates of natural replenishment. Cleanup techniques currently employed on such beaches are usually disruptive to the environment, expensive, and logistically complex. Furthermore, gravel beaches are highly variable in terms of their geomorphology, sediment grain size, and degree of exposure to waves that can rework the sediments to remove oil and restore the sediments to their original distribution. Thus, cleanup decisions must be site-specific and based on an understanding of how each beach will respond to potential cleanup options.

To assist cleanup decision makers, a primer on gravel beaches has been prepared. The primer consists of the following sections: Brief introduction to the problems gravel beaches pose to cleanup decision makers Description of four classes of gravel beaches, in terms of their detailed geomorphology and sedimentation processes “Tools” to be used to predict the rate for natural removal of stranded oil or how long it will take for physical recovery to occur after disruption from cleanup activities
COMPARATIVE METHODOLOGIES FOR ESTIMATING ON-WATER RESPONSE COSTS FOR MARINE OIL SPILLS
Authors: Etkin Dagmar Schmidt
Published: January 2013

This study reviews three alternative oil spill response cost estimation methodologies as applied to hypothetical spill scenarios in the Gulf of Mexico and San Francisco Bay, California: (1) a model derived from historical data on various spill factors that drive overall cleanup costs; (2) a method using U.S. Area Contingency Plan (ACP) spill scenario plans to estimate costs for mechanical containment and recovery costs to be extrapolated to other hypothetical spill scenarios; and (3) a method that estimates the labor and equipment required for mechanical containment and recovery operations and the resulting costs. A method for estimating dispersant costs is also discussed. The easy-to-use model derived from historical data is shown to be a good cost estimation tool.
NONFLOATING OIL SPILL RESPONSE PLANNING
Authors: Schnitz Paul R. , Wolf Martha A.
Published: January 2013

Like conventional, lighter-than-water oils, heavy oils that sink or become suspended in water when spilled can cause damage to the environment, threaten human health, and adversely affect economic resources. The behavior of heavy oil in water complicates aspects of spill response including location, mapping and containment of spilled oil; assessment of environmental and economic impacts; responder health and safety; prediction of oil movement; comparison of alternative response methods; and measurement and documentation of cleanup effectiveness. Experience shows that the techniques and equipment needed to respond to heavy oil spills are highly specific to the spill location and circumstances of the spill, accentuating the importance of preincident planning.

Sound planning is one of the most important tools available for implementing an effective response to oil spills and minimizing their impacts. In this paper response strategies that have been utilized in nonfloating oil spills are examined, and the relative advantages and disadvantages of techniques and equipment employed in those incidents are discussed. The intent of this examination is to help emergency response planners recognize response methods that have worked under conditions they are likely to encounter so they can plan accordingly.
PRESTAGING VERSUS MOBILITY OF RESPONSE EQUIPMENT INVENTORIES
Authors: McFarland Barry A. , Kegelman Steven
Published: January 2013

One of the many valuable aspects of Area Contingency Plans (ACPs) in the US is the identification of environmentally sensitive sites. Over recent years the natural evolution of the area planning process has commonly involved development of site specific response strategies for protection of these environmentally sensitive locations. Whether called Geographic Response Plans (GRPs), Site Specific Response Strategies (SSRS), or Geographic Response Strategies (GRSs) these plans typically identify the equipment and personnel needed to accomplish the prescribed strategies.

Once strategies are developed, there is incentive to prestage equipment near the identified site to maximize the ability to implement the strategy identified in the plan. Regulatory agencies are now exerting additional pressure by requiring oil spill removal organizations (OSROs) to exercise these strategies on an annual or triennial basis. This pressure results in multiple competing OSROs prestaging similar or identical response inventories at or near the same sites. As a result, a growing percentage of the response equipment on the U.S. West Coast is now prestaged in duplicate or triplicate small stockpiles throughout coastal areas. Many of these prestaged packages are very site specific and include permanent mooring sites or equipment. This equipment is now configured to effectively protect a specific site. It may no longer be as flexible or as easily used under different conditions or at other locations.

As a greater percentage of the equipment inventory becomes prestaged, what does this mean in terms of overall response mobility? Has the mobility of equipment or cascading of response equipment been affected? The combination of multiple OSROs, the increasing number of protection strategies, and the need to regularly exercise these strategies is resulting is an decreasingly mobile equipment inventory. At what point does this affect the tactical planning process? Is there a way to optimize preplanning and still achieve equipment flexibility?
UPLAND/INLAND SPILL RESPONSE: USE OF UNDERFLOW DAMS
Authors: Camlin Theodore E.
Published: January 2013

On December 20, 1999 at approximately 1045 hours, crude oil was discovered in the Leaf River near Collins, Mississippi. The investigation determined the discharge was approximately 8,000 barrels originating from a source in the vicinity of State Highway 28 and Summerland Road, Jones County, Mississippi. The point of the release was located inland and in an upland type environment approximately 8 miles from the discovery location (Highway 84 bridge) near Collins, Mississippi.

After the line was shut-in and control of the source was certain, it was determined there were three distinct types of work areas remaining for the cleanup operations: an upland marsh type environment, an ephemeral flow creek bed, and a limited access river environment. Strategic objectives for the response included prevention of any further migration of oil down the Leaf River; and prevent any additional oil from migrating or being flushed (during the next rain event) out of the upland marsh area down the unnamed creek and entering the Leaf River.

The focus of this paper is on the measures pursued by operations and the Unified Command that were designed to prevent any further oiling of the Leaf River in the event oil was flushed out of the upper marshy area as a result of the cleanup operations or from a rain event. Operations installed a series of underflow dams at the confluence of the unnamed creek and the Leaf River as well as between the unnamed creek and the upland marsh area. These two stopgaps provided the necessary containment for the anticipated rain events forecast to occur early in the new year. The series of dams were successful in controlling the total fluid flow, containing flushed oil, and preventing additional oiling of the Leaf River during the first rain and throughout the remainder of the response.
PARTNERING FOR A DISPERSANT APPLICATION CAPABILITY IN HAWAII
Authors: Martin Curtis , Kanazawa Gilbert , Beasley Kim
Published: January 2013

Anything worthwhile takes time and effort. In 1989 the tanker Exxon Houston broke free of her offshore mooring and ran aground. Dispersants were brought to Hawaii as a potential response tool. This was a wake up call that our coastlines and economy were vulnerable to a large-scale event. Although not needed in this instance, this awakening produced the 1992 signed Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between the Oceania Regional Response Team (RRT) and the state of Hawaii, preauthorizing the Federal On Scene Coordinator (FOSC) to use dispersant to combat oil spills in Hawaiian waters. It was very restricted in its applicability, but it was a good beginning. A revised and greatly improved dispersant pre-approval MOA was signed in April 1999. Explanation of the elements that worked to obtain agreement and the special considerations unique to Hawaii is addressed. The evolution of the state's acquisition of a large-scale dispersant application system, and the ultimate development of a unique three-party MOA is discussed.

Community interest focused on obtaining an Airborne Dispersant Delivery System (ADDS) and an adequate and immediately available stockpile of dispersant. It was envisioned to have the state of Hawaii come up with the necessary funding, the U.S. Coast Guard use their C-130 aircraft, and the local industry financed oil spill Cooperative, Clean Islands Council (CIC), maintain the system. This presentation discusses the challenges; issues and problem solving required accomplishing the acquisition of this large-scale system. It further discusses the Hawaii response community's continuing efforts to ensure this vital response tool is ready and able to perform in an emergency.
STRENGTHENING THE RESPONSE/RESTORATION LINKAGE—LESSONS LEARNED FROM RECENT OIL SPILLS1
Authors: Helton Douglas
Published: January 2013

Although both spill responders and natural resource trustees share common goals, spill response in the United States is a disjointed process. Spill responders focus on containment and cleanup of the spilled oil, while trustees focus on documenting the impacts and developing a damage claim to fund restoration projects. Both steps in the process are necessary, but lack of coordination may result in a less than optimal mix of response and restoration actions. Efforts to remove oil from a shoreline or to capture and rehabilitate oiled wildlife may be conducted with good intentions, but may cause further harm to the environment. Liability limits set by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) may exacerbate the problem since responsible parties (RPs) may exceed their financial obligations during the response phase of the spill, leaving no funds for later restoration actions. At some point in the process, it makes sense to curtail the response and shift the effort to restoration.

This paper illustrates some of the problems with the status quo and argues that responders and trustees need to work together towards the goal of restoration using a combination of response and restoration tools. Expanding the use of the existing emergency restoration provisions under OPA 90 regulations may be a simple avenue to increase the effectiveness of both response and restoration actions.
SOURCE CHARACTERIZATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF NEW CARISSA OIL IN NRDA ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES USING A COMBINED STATISTICAL AND FINGERPRINTING APPROACH1
Authors: Payne James R. , Driskell William B.
Published: January 2013

Source oil characterization and its subsequent identification and quantification in different receiving environments are integral components of a natural resource damage assessment (NRDA) following a spill. When the M/V New Carissa broke up on the Oregon coast in February 1999, it released an estimated 70,000 gallons of two bunker fuels and two diesel fuels. Numerous oil, water, sediment, and tissue samples were subsequently analyzed for the standard suite of aliphatic and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) fractions, as well as steranes and triterpanes to use in chemical fingerprinting in support of the NRDA process. The fingerprinting task was uniquely complex with this spill because of the four major source oils of highly disparate compositions and additional compositional changes occurring as a result of partial in situ burning and release of residual fuels onboard the vessel during the response effort. Also unique to NRDA process was the segregated sampling of dissolved-phase and dispersed-oil droplet fractions from the water column, information that proved invaluable in the fingerprinting process. To assist with the complex data analysis in identifying New Carissa oil in environmental samples, a combination of multivariate principal-component analyses and hierarchical agglomerative-cluster analyses, conventional double-ratio analyses of selected PAH, and custom computer displays to allow comparison of multiple graphs on a single page was developed.

Results show two different mechanisms of hydrocarbon uptake into affected organisms: direct uptake of dissolved-phase PAH from the water column into crab tissues, and accumulation of aliphatic and aromatic constituents from dispersed oil droplets and oiled suspended particulate material (SPM) by filter-feeding organisms. From the combined statistical and fingerprinting process, it was possible to differentiate New Carissa oil from background combustion-derived (and sediment-associated) PAH in selected clam and oyster tissue samples from inside Coos Bay. Also documented was interstitial water contamination of otherwise clean and unoiled sandy beach substrates by offshore dissolved-phase PAH, and the accumulation of hydrocarbons from the surface microlayer by diatoms.
FAWICK PARK ENVIRONMENTAL REMOVAL PROJECT
Authors: Nguyen Duc , Darling Mary N. , Meier Ron A.
Published: January 2013

The project site was a small downtown park with many utilities and was bounded by roads on three sides and by the Big Sioux River on another. To remove the contaminants under the riverbank and sediments, a 900-foot temporary reusable damn was placed in the river along the bank. The soils and sediment were removed to bedrock A total of 378,779 gallons of ground and river water were treated and discharged to the city publicly owned treatment works. A total of 56,065 tons of manufactured gas plant (MGP)-impacted soil was removed, staged, and sampled, and properly transported and disposed. During removal, the original contaminated area was found to extend beneath adjacent state highway so this was also excavated. Thirty-seven tons of engineered select fill and 78 tons of ballast stone were used to restore state highway and minimize loading of the bridge abutment. The park excavation was backfilled with 19,494 cubic yards of clean soil materials, of which approximately 8,827 cubic yards was overburden. Extensive coordination was necessary between the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), state of South Dakota, City of Sioux Falls, U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACOE), and IT Corp. The project removal goals are: naphthalene, 100 mg/kg; TPH/DRO, 500 mg/kg; benzene soils, 13.5 mg/kg; and benzene sediments, 70 mg/kg. The City of Sioux Falls contributed “in-kind” cost savings to the project, including disposal of the soil, regrading park to require less backfill, and provided backfill soil. The project cost was $4.0 million and completed on time and under budget. There were no safety problems or incidents, which occurred during the course of this project.
NATURAL DISPERSION OF OIL IN A FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM: DESAGUADERO PIPELINE SPILL, BOLIVIA
Authors: Lee Kenneth , Stoffyn-Egli Patricia , Owens Edward H.
Published: January 2013

During a flood event in January 2000, approximately 29,000 barrels of mixed crude oil and condensate was accidentally released from a fracture in the OSSA II pipeline at a crossing point on the Rio Desaguadero, Bolivia. The resultant downstream impact zone included over 400 km of river banks and 500 km2 of flooded lowlands within the Bolivian Altiplano. Analysis of stranded oil samples recovered from the riverbanks suggested that significant oil loss occurred by evaporation (>40%). With additional data on the amount of surface oil remaining (<0.2%) and oil recovered (3–13%) at the end of cleanup operations, it became apparent that a large fraction of the spilled oil remained unaccountable (27–37%). Laboratory tests were undertaken to assess if oil-mineral aggregate (OMA) formation—a natural process believed to promote rapid oil dispersion—may provide part of the explanation for this unaccounted loss.

OMA were generated from local oil, sediment and water samples under simulated field conditions. Epi-fluorescence microscopy analysis verified the presence of flake aggregates that would be formed typically by the interaction of oil with smectite minerals (e.g. montmorillonite). On the basis of these microscopy observations and of mineral analysis of suspended material in water from the spill site, which revealed abundant smectite, it is hypothesized that OMA formation occurred, and that this process facilitated significant removal of residual oil from the ecosystem by enhancing biodegradation rates.
THE ADNOC 1999 OIL SPILL EXERCISE: EXERCISE GHAZAL
Authors: Svitil Edward A.
Published: January 2013

The Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) conducted the largest full deployment oil spill exercise ever held in the Arabian Gulf on October 4, 1999. Code-named EXERCISE GHAZAL, it took the form of an incident management exercise, lasting one long day of approximately 10–14 hours. This exercise required significant planning In terms of availability of personnel, development of an appropriate scenario and arranging for the physical and logistic requirements of such an exercise.

Industry participants included the ADNOC Crisis Management Team, the Abu Dhabi Marine Operating Company's Emergency Response Team, BP Amoco as the vessel and cargo owner, government/industry liaison, and press/media. ADNOC activated regional and international oil spill response equipment and personnel, including the equipment stockpile of the Petroleum Association of Japan and Oil Spill Response Limited (OSRL) in the United Kingdom. Local aviation assets activated for simulated aerial spraying of dispersant were augmented by deployment of the OSRL Hercules aircraft and ADDS pack dispersant spray system from Southampton, United Kingdom.

Another major accomplishment of EXERCISE GHAZAL was the full participation and integration for the first time of local and national government agencies into a major Incident response. Included in the planning and execution of EXERCISE GHAZAL were the Federal Environmental Agency, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) Frontier and Coast Guard, Environmental Research and Wildlife Development Agency, Civil Defense, the Ministries of Health and Communication, the General Civil Aviation Authority, and others. The exercise received extensive local, regional, and international media coverage.

Following the completion of EXERCISE GHAZAL, an immediate “hotwash” debriefing of all participants was conducted, followed by a more formal, comprehensive debriefing of the major participants. These sessions generated key lessons learned and led to the development of a Five-Point Action Plan to improve the ability of the United Arab Emirates to respond to a major oil spill, the primary point being the development of a National Oil Spill Contingency Plan.
FEASIBILITY OF USING ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (ESEM) TO DETERMINE THE IMPACTS OF CLEANING TECHNIQUES ON HISTORIC STONE STRUCTURES
Authors: Wingrove Richard R. , Blackwelder Pat , Lynn Matthew J.
Published: January 2013

The oiling of cultural sites has occurred in past spills (USCG, 1994; Wooley and Haggarty, 1995) and will continue to be a problem in future spills. Oiled stone structures must be cleaned to minimize damage and return them to an aesthetic standard, yet little research has been conducted on the potential impacts of the cleaning process. Unfortunately, the cleaning process can cause negative impacts, perhaps even altering the chemical makeup of the stone that can compromise the structure. Because visual inspection is usually the sole method of determining the effectiveness and negative impacts of the cleaning process, only obvious surflcial effects can be detected and not chemical changes to the rock
SEABIRD RECOVERY FOLLOWING THE EXXON VALDEZ OIL SPILL: WHY WAS MURRE RECOVERY CONTROVERSIAL?
Authors: Boersma P. Dee , Clark J. Alan
Published: January 2013

The Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989 was responsible for substantial seabird mortality in the Gulf of Alaska. The Barren Islands, with the largest seabird colonies in the path of the spill, were particularly hard hit. Because of insufficient prespill data, it is impossible to quantify the effect of the spill on murre populations. However, the large number of murres killed and the rapid increase in murre attendance following the spill showed that the spill did impact the population. The authors hypothesize that large numbers of nonbreeders or inexperienced murres replaced breeding murres killed by the spill. Post spill data showed lower murre reproductive success in 1990 than in 1991, which is consistent with the authors' hypothesis. In 1991, fledging success was over 0.8 fledglings/chick and continued to be high in 1993 and 1994, suggesting spill impacts were short lived. Significant numerical differences exist between the authors' data and those collected by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) personnel. The low attendance numbers and poor reproduction they reported have been used to justify claims of extensive, potentially irreparable injury to murre populations. Data collection methods are at least partially responsible for causing USFWS to underestimate post spill murre populations and reproduction. Based on their data, the authors conclude that, although murres rafting near the Barren Islands suffered substantial mortality as a result of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, claims that the spill dramatically reduced colony attendance or reproduction of the remaining birds is not scientifically supportable.
PROTECTING RESOURCES IN THE LAKE WASHINGTON SHIP CANAL USING REAL-TIME ECOLOGICAL RISK ANALYSIS
Authors: Mora David G.
Published: January 2013

Response managers and resource protection specialists often face difficult environmental trade-offs. Many decisions are time sensitive so decision-making criteria developed prior to an actual spill event will often hold sway. Despite such planning efforts all too frequently there is great room for doubt and plenty of room for speculation regarding response decisions. Response planners frequently debate environmental trade-offs associated with dispersant applications, shoreline cleanup strategy, etc. Broad assumptions and uncertainty are in large part the fuel for such debates. This paper focuses on the dilemmas associated with developing a particular response plan in a particular geographic area (i.e., for the Lake Washington Ship Canal. Development of this plan is important because of needs for rapid response decisions in an area involving many conflicting interests. This paper suggests an approach for developing this plan utilizing real time risk analysis.
EXPERIMENTAL OIL WEATHERING STUDIES IN HYDRAULIC CANAL AND OPEN POOL TO PREDICT OILS BEHAVIOR IN CASE OF CASUAL SPILLAGE
Authors: Guyomarc'h Julien , Morin Estelle , Goutard Arnaud , Merlin François-X.
Published: January 2013

When spilled at sea, a crude oil is subjected to weathering processes such as evaporation, emulsification, dispersion and photooxidation, which occur under the influence of natural conditions. According to its weathering stage, the oil is continuously changing in terms of chemical composition and physical properties. Understanding and predicting these transformations is a key element in evaluating the potential impacts, optimizing response options and implementing the emergency response plan to spillage.

The objective of this study was to get experimental data on the behavior of crude oils from different oil fields. The various weathering processes were simulated realistically in CEDRE's hydraulic canal, in which different marine water conditions can be recreated: wind, waves, and UV light. All the experiments were carried out with the same agitation level and at two temperatures, 10 and 20°C. Six different oils were tested and the different parameters measured or assessed were: density, viscosity, water content and kinetics of emulsification, chemical composition and kinetics of evaporation, flash point, emulsion stability, oil adhesion, and chemical dispersibility. The evolutions proved to vary considerably according to the nature of the oil, the temperature and the photooxidation process.

The weathering of one crude was also assessed outside in a large pool to provide a calibration of the evaporation and emulsification kinetics in realistic conditions compared to the flume test. The canal speeds up these processes by a factor between 4 and 6.
DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SENSITIVITY INDEX MAPS IN JAPAN
Authors: Masaki Setsuko , Gell Dawn , Dauterman Andy , Verkennes Karen , Sawano Nobuhiro
Published: January 2013

Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps are important tools for oil spill planning and response measures worldwide. The United States, through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), has developed standardized guidelines for preparing ESI maps. The U.S. Navy stationed in Japan requested ESI maps for oil spill contingency and training purposes. Since Japan does not have national ESI guidelines, NOAA guidelines were used in preparing the maps. This effort proved to be challenging. Japanese agencies were contacted to collect existing data, and geographical information was compiled from numerous sources. The site surveys of the coastal areas surrounding the U.S. Navy bases in Japan also was done with added awareness of the unique physical features and habitats in Japan. This experience has lead to recommendations for standardized guidelines for Japan and for the corroboration of Japanese agencies to ease the collection and synthesis of data.
USING THE SELECTION GUIDE FOR SPILL COUNTERMEASURES TECHNOLOGIES IN RESPONSE DECISION MAKING AND PLANNING
Authors: Scholz Debra , Boyd John , Walker Ann Hayward , Michel Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

As part of national response priorities, On-Scene Coordinators (OSCs) and Incident Commanders should use all appropriate containment and removal tactics, including the use of products listed on the National Contingency Plan (NCP) Product Schedule, in a coordinated manner to ensure a timely, effective response that minimizes adverse impacts to the environment (40 CFR § 300.317). To facilitate greater understanding of these products and technologies, a Selection Guide was developed to evaluate their potential benefits and identify appropriate situations for their use. Although the NCP Product Schedule and Notebook provide information on regulated spill response products, the decision maker needs additional information presented clearly in a concise format that clarifies how these products can affect the spilled oil and the environment once applied.

The Selection Guide provides a spill response tool that gives OSCs and other decision makers an easy-to-use source of technical information on spill response countermeasures that are regulated by the NCP, including alternate sorbents, bioremediation agents, dispersants, elasticity modifiers, emulsion treating agents, in situ burning on land and on water, shoreline pre-treatment agents, solidifiers, surface-collecting agents (herders), surface-washing agents, and firefighting foams, as well as potential response strategies for “unusual” spill response conditions (i.e., fast-water booming strategies, non-floating oil strategies, and water intake monitoring). The Selection Guide facilitates easy comparison among product categories, as well as aids decision makers in determining the best response strategy or product for a particular issue that “traditional” response tools do not seem to address completely.

The Selection Guide has been developed under the Work Plan of the Region III Spill Response Countermeasures Work Group, in cooperation with the Region IV Regional Response Team (RRT). This document is applicable for inland and coastal areas and is intended for use during actual spill incidents and pre-spill planning efforts. This information also assists decision makers in evaluating vendor requests to use their products.
PRELIMINARY FINDINGS OF OIL-SOLIDS INTERACTION IN EIGHT ALASKAN RIVERS
Authors: McCourt James , Shier Larry
Published: January 2013

The formation of oil-mineral aggregates in rivers with high concentrations of suspended solids could be an important mechanism for transferring oil from a surface slick into the water column.

Seven glacier-fed rivers in south-central Alaska were sampled three times in the summer of 1999 and tested to see how suspended solids in the water would interact with crude oil. Oil-mineral aggregates formed with all samples, which lead to the conclusion that similar oil-solids interaction should occur if oil is spilled into other glacier-fed rivers.

The amount of oil associated with the solids after mixing was roughly proportional to the concentration of suspended solids in the samples. The oil-loading results ranged between 0.01 and 0.45 g oil/g solid, with most of the measurements falling between 0.03 and 0.24 g oil/g solid. The average loading for all tests was 0.13 g oil/g solid, which is consistent with the findings of a similar study done in 1998 on the Yukon River. This result indicates that the suspended solids in the streams studied—especially the larger Yukon, Copper, and Lowe Rivers—have a large oil-holding capacity and would be capable of scavenging a considerable volume of oil. The exact quantity would depend on several factors, including the volume and dimensions of the slick, concentration of suspended solids, and current velocity of the river.

Historical data on stream flow, suspended-solids concentration, and particle-size distribution were gathered and used in conjunction with the laboratory oil-solids interaction results to identify the times of the year when such interaction could occur to a significant degree. This data indicated that oil-mineral aggregates are expected to form in all rivers tested, with the most significant periods being during the summer months.
A 3-YEAR BASELINE SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS STUDY OF PETROLEUM POLLUTANTS IN COASTAL LOUISIANA
Authors: Gisclair David , McMillin Debra
Published: January 2013

The Louisiana Oil Spill Coordinator's Office (LOSCO) has conducted a 3-year study of baseline petroleum pollutant levels in South Louisiana. The project collected a total of 3,540 composite sediment samples from 1,180 sites. Each site was sampled three times, once a year from 1997 through 1999. Samples were collected within four zones; each zone was assigned to a different contractor. The zones were located primarily along the Louisiana coast, with additional sampling points along the Mississippi River, Atchafalaya Navigation Channel, Red River, and Ouachita-Black River. LOSCO emphasized areas at high risk of sustaining oil spills. The project required a 10 parts-per-billion detection limit for 65 analytes, including parent and alkylated polynuclear aromatic hyrdrocarbons (PAHs), saturated hydrocarbons (up to 35 carbon units), pristane, phytane, hopanes, and steranes. The targeted analytes provide a sample profile that can be used to both classify contaminant sources (crude, heavy fuel oil, combustion sources, etc.) and identify crude oil sources.

To standardize analytical results between contract laboratories and to ensure data quality, LOSCO funded development of an analytical standard operating procedure (SOP). The SOP describes a tumbling method of sample extraction and gas Chromatograph mass spectrometer (GC-MS) selected ion mode (SIM) analysis. This method is similar to procedures used to assess the environmental impacts of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, as well as other spills. SOP appendices describe identification and standardization procedures for quantifying alkylated PAH. Extraction and quantitative analysis of a reference-contaminated sediment supplied by LOSCO was required for every 30 samples.

The review process included: (1) a review of electronic spreadsheets to pinpoint incorrect or invalid results, and (2) an examination of hardcopy laboratory documents and electronic data files to determine if the analysis and data processing were performed correctly.

Baseline Sampling and Analysis Monitor Point Locations data sets1, in Geographic NAD83 (LOSCO, 1999a) for each of the sampling years, have been compiled in a geographical information system (GIS) format. Analytical results will be provided via the Internet or CD-ROM. The linking of field and analytical results allows examination and spatial analysis of study results.
BACKGROUND TARBALL STRANDINGS ON SANDY OREGON BEACHES
Authors: Mauseth Gary S. , Martin Colin A. , Brown John
Published: January 2013

The New Carissa grounded February 4, 1999 near Coos Bay, Oregon and released an estimated 595 to 1,786 barrels (25,000 to 75,000 gallons) of IFO 280 and MDO. Stranded oil and tarballs were monitored on 56 segments over 280 km (150 nmiles) of central Oregon coast sand beaches for a period of over 18 months. Tarball samples were collected and analyzed by GC-MS Modified EPA 8270. Samples were qualitatively compared to oils known to be aboard the ship. To date, a total of 824 tarballs have been collected, of which 183 have been analyzed. Criteria used for selection of tarballs to be analyzed were: (1) representative of tarballs on the beach, (2) appeared to be anomalous to the New Carissa incident in terms of timing or distribution, and (3) anomalous in appearance. Samples were randomly selected within each category for analysis.

Of the 141 random samples collected and analyzed, 69 (49%) were inconsistent with New Carissa source oils (NCSOs). Of 34 samples analyzed as anomalous in time and/or space, 16 (47%) were inconsistent with NCSOs, and of 8 samples analyzed as anomalous in appearance, 5 (63%) were inconsistent with NCSOs. In all cases, the relative frequency of inconsistent samples increased with distance from the vessel. In the winter and spring of 1999–2000 (10 months following the initial incident), data and samples were collected from two 1,000-m control beaches believed to be unaffected by New Carissa oil and 1,000 m of beach adjacent to the stern portion of the wrecked ship. Density of tarballs on control beaches was 0.01 g/m2 with 100% of the samples inconsistent with NCSOs. The beach adjacent to the wreck had a tarball density of 0.1 g/m2 with 70% consistent with NCSOs. Because of the small size of the tarballs, difficulty in observation in sand and frequent adverse weather conditions, the authors believe that the data collected likely underestimate the quantity of oil on the beach and is therefore conservative.
MODELING OIL SPILL TRAJECTORY IN THE GULF OF PARIA, TRINIDAD, WEST INDIES
Authors: Ramnath Kelvin , Harbajan-Sankar Ramona , Jagai Tennyson
Published: January 2013

The Gulf of Paria (GOP) is a semi-enclosed basin that provides access for all sea-going traffic to the four major ports on the west coast of Trinidad. This traffic includes tourist cruise liners, powerboats and yachts for recreation; cargo ships for transporting methanol, ammonia, and urea; tankers carrying crude oil and refined products to and from the refinery; and large, liquefied natural gas tankers. The GOP is considered a high-risk area for marine accidents and related spills because of this voluminous oceanic traffic. It also supports a range of fragile ecosystems including several beaches and the Caroni swamp, all of which can be adversely affected by any kind of discharge into this area.

Petroleum Company of Trinidad and Tobago Limited (PETROTRIN), in discharging its responsibility, has put in place many systems to mitigate the damage resulting from such a situation should it occur. The most recent has been the acquisition of a commercially available software package that can be used to predict the movement of oil spills during an actual incident. Wind speed and direction, and mean tidal and background currents for the GOP were used to customize the model for the marine area bounded by the points 10.0234°N 62.2059°W, 10.0234°N 61.4911°W, 10.06796°N 61.4911 °W, and 10.06796 °N 62.2059 °W.

The movements of surface drifters launched from a boat were recorded with time using a handheld global positioning system (GPS). Model simulations were generated and compared with field data to determine the model's capabilities and limitations for predicting the spill movement in the GOP. The trajectories predicted by the model were consistent with the actual movement of the surface drifters. Continuous updates of the movement of an actual spill will allow improved predictions and thereby assist response teams in determining and prioritizing the next course of action.
DETERMINATION OF A LIDAR SIGNAL FROM IMAGES OF BACKSCATTERED NATURAL LIGHT ON WATER SURFACE
Authors: Yamagishi Susumu , Hitomi Kazuo , Yamanouchi Hiroshi , Yamaguchi Yoshitaka
Published: January 2013

Surveillance is an essential component of an oil spill response that provides helpful data about cleanup operational sites and for the monitoring of the marine environment. A compact fluorescence lidar system, to be mounted in a small airplane or on a ship, has been developed to procure active real-time information of water properties even in full daylight. This paper describes a concept of a lidar system that is suitable for an operator to identify oil slicks quickly and a procedure to evaluate its performance on a ship and in an airplane. During a flight over a water surface, the proposed system could track the illuminated spots in an image with wide field of view. During a cruise, a spot illuminated by a laser on the sea surface was identified clearly even with the presence of whitecaps. The reflection from the surface was significantly greater than background noise. Signals acquired in an image were compared with adjacent background scattering due to the natural light. For an operator, the system can display a real-time spot image accurately positioned on a map.
HYDROCARBON AND ECOTOXICITY IN SEAWATER AND SEDIMENT SAMPLES OF GUANABARA BAY AFTER THE OIL SPILL IN JANUARY 2000
Authors: Gabardo Irene Terezinha , de Fátima Guadalupe Meniconi Maria , Falcão Leticia Veiga , Vital Neusa A. A. , Pereira Rosana Cardoso Lopez , da Silva Carreira Renato
Published: January 2013

On January 18, 2000, approximately 340,000 gallons (1,300 m3) of marine fuel (MF-380) spilled into Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The spill originated from a leak in the pipeline from the PETROBRAS refinery to the oil terminal. This paper presents the results for the water column and sediment monitoring 10 days after the spill, including n-alkanes, unresolved complex mixture (UCM), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and toxicological essays.

Chemical and toxicological monitoring of the water column was performed at 14 sampling stations throughout the impacted area in Guanabara Bay. The chemical analysis of PAHs by ultraviolet fluorescence showed results from <0.04–11.56 μg/L−1in chrysene equivalents. The toxicological essays for three species (Artemia sp., Mysidium gracile, and Vibrio fisheri, Microtox) indicate no acute effects for the water samples studied.

To monitor sediments, 57 samples were collected from intertidal and sub tidal sites. For the 30 intertidal sediments, 73% contained PAHs (GC-MS) below 2 μg/g−1, 20% were in the range 2–5 μg/g−1, and only two stations (7%), located in the vicinity of the spill point, contained levels up to 20 μg/g−1. For the 27 subtidal sediments, results were in the range of 0.2–9.6 μg/g−1 for PAHs, 0.7–43.3 μg/g−1 for n-alkanes, and 17.8–1,250 μg/g−1 for UCM. The toxicological study for the sediments based on Vibrio fisheri (Microtox) indicated no acute toxicity effects.

When comparing the post-spill results with previous hydrocarbon data, no significant impact was observed in sediments and water column because of the oil spill. There is, however, a significant background of chronic anthropogenic inputs to Guanabara Bay.
FISHERIES SAFETY MONITORING IN THE GUANABARA BAY, BRAZIL FOLLOWING A MARINE FUEL OIL SPILL
Authors: de Fátima Guadalupe Meniconi Maria , Santos Angelo Francisco , Moreira Isabel Maria N.S. , Scofield Arthur de Lemos , Salmito Thais M.C. , Romão Cátia Maria , Azevedo Luiz Augusto Carneiro , Machado Guilherme Augusto Witte Cruz
Published: January 2013

In January 2000, approximately 1,300 m3 (340,000 gallons) of marine fuel oil were released during a pipeline transference accident in the Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, reaching island and land shorelines situated at the north and northeast part of the bay. An Emergency Action Plan for oil recovery and cleanup was performed, and the effort of this strategy resulted in the recovery of approximately 40% of the spilled oil. Although there was no official fishery closure, several areas were, in practice, closed to marine traffic, and fishermen were not fishing in the oil-affected area; thus, there was a de facto fishery closure.

Chemical and toxicological analyses were performed on water and sediment samples to evaluate the degree of the contamination of the affected area 10 days after the spill. The results of these analyses showed background levels for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in finfish habitat in Guanabara Bay. A study was then conducted as a cooperative effort among the governmental environmental agency (IBAMA), universities, and PETROBRAS to assess the degree of contamination of finfish from the area for hydrocarbons and microorganisms. Microbial essays and chemical analyses for PAHs were conducted on six composite samples of edible tissue of two species (Mugil lisa and Micropogonias furnieri) collected in nets and fish traps in the most affected area. The species were chosen based on their abundance, marketability, and feeding habits. Two samples collected in the bay 1 year before the oil spill were used as reference to PAHs. The microbial analyses were conducted according to the rules from the Health Ministry and also were done for other species collected by net fishing.

All samples were found free of microbial contamination and were approved to be consumed in accordance with the MERCOSUL criteria. The concentration of PAHs in the samples collected after the oil spill were at the same level of the reference samples, confirming the expectation from the literature. These results were compared to three international concentration-based and risk-based criteria since there were no legal limits for PAHs in fishes. No sample analyzed contained PAH contamination exceeding the criteria used as reference in this study. No carcinogenic compounds were detected in the samples. The net results of this work were the rapid resumption of the finfisheries and the acquisition of a preliminary database of PAH concentration and microbial conditions on finfish tissue for the Guanabara Bay.
PROPERTIES OF CRUDE OIL AND OIL PRODUCTS (NOT JUST ANOTHER PRETTY DATABASE)
Authors: Jokuty Paula
Published: January 2013

When an oil spill occurs, there is an immediate need on the part of spill responders to know the properties of the spilled oil, as these will affect the behavior, fate, and effects of the oil, which will in turn affect the choice of countermeasures. However, it is often difficult or impossible to obtain a sample of the spilled oil, let alone the specialized analysis required to determine its properties, in a manner timely enough to suit the circumstances of an oil spill. Under the scrutiny of the media and the public, answers regarding the identity and predicted behavior of the spilled oil will be expected immediately, if not sooner.

In preparation for such emergencies, the Emergencies Science Division (ESD) of Environment Canada has been collecting properties data for crude oils and oil products since 1984. Basic physical properties—density, viscosity, pour point, etc.—and environmentally relevant characteristics—evaporation rates, emulsion formation, chemical dispersibility—are measured. Properties related to health and safety—flash point, volatile organic compounds, sulfur—also are determined. In fact, nearly 20 different types of measurements are made for both fresh and weathered crude oils and oil products.

To date data has been collected for more than 400 oils. For ease of access, this information is stored in an electronic database. The database in turn is accessible via the World Wide Web, and is also periodically printed in an easy-to-read catalogue format. The wide variety of data collected in the database also makes it possible to examine both simple and complex relationships that may exist between oil properties and spill behavior.

This presentation will review the full scope of information determined and collected by ESD. Using tables and graphs, examples will be presented of the many ways in which this information can be viewed and used by both laymen and experts in the field of oil spills.
DEVELOPMENT OF A TACTICAL GUIDE FOR SENSITIVE AREAS
Authors: Marchant Larry A.
Published: January 2013

Important to any response is the ability to effectively respond to locations identified as sensitive within a response region. In Port Valdez, a part of Prince William Sound, Alaska adjacent to the Valdez Marine Terminal, the Port Valdez Sensitive Areas Tactical Guide was developed to do exactly that. It provides a tool for operational personnel during a spill response to enable protection of preidentified sensitive areas. In the guide, each sensitive area discussion includes tactical information required for deployment of exclusion, diversion or entrapment booming. This paper explains the development of the Tactical Guide.

The project started by visiting all sensitive areas to determine existing habitat, shoreline, and tidal flats. Anchor points also have been identified for use in the event booming is required. Surveying each area at low tide—given the 12-foot tidal range—indicated the necessary type and quantity of boom and anchor placement, and which type of workboats are needed. The Tactical Guide recognizes that permanent rock bolt anchors or concrete shoreline deadman anchor points are much more suitable for smooth and speedy deployment.

The permitting process for permanent anchor is a long and arduous task. This paper explores the process used to achieve successful permitting and buy-in from stakeholders. After the installation of permanent anchors in each area, aerial photographs were taken at different times of the tidal cycle to ensure successful identification on a year-round basis.

The Port Valdez Sensitive Areas Tactical Guide is key to the Valdez Marine Terminal Oil Discharge Prevention and Contingency Plan's effectiveness. It was developed over several years through input from regulators, stakeholders, and the plan holders. The establishment of the guide ensures tactical responses will be rapidly available to the response team, and mobilized based on prioritization established by the Unified Command. The development of the Tactical Guide has been a tremendous benefit to the response effort and a great example of stakeholder and plan holder cooperation.