bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Megalopolis
Authors: Gotham Kevin Fox
Published: September 2017

Megalopolis refers to a cluster of densely populated cities stretching over a large region. Megalopolis (“the great city”) was the name given in classical antiquity to a strategic urban development that the Theban general Epaminon‐das “planned” and founded in rural Arcadia in 371 BCE. The new city became the center of the Acadian (subsequently Achaean) League and led several battles against the Spartans, who burnt it down in 223 bce; but it was rebuilt by the League and, although abandoned in late antiquity, it still survives today as Megalopoli. The late geographer Jean Gottmann (1915–1994) popularized the term in the early 1960s, when he classified the region from Washington to Boston, which encompasses the states of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. Gottmann urged researchers to view the megalopolis as a novel urban form that is multinucleated and multifunctional. Population growth fueled suburbanization and suburbs later became their own independent and autonomous regions, which merged with the central city to form an extensive metropolitan region on the US East Coast. In 1950 this megalopolis had a population of 32 million inhabitants. Today it includes more than 44 million people – 16 percent of the entire population of the United States. Four of the largest consolidated metropolitan statistical areas (CMSAs) in the United States overlap with the megalopolis and account for over 38 million of its population (Gottmann, 1961: 5). Between now and 2050, scholars estimate that more than half of the nation's population growth will occur in the megalopolis region. Similar networks of cities in Europe and Asia are now seen as the new competitive units in the global economy and megalopolis regional development. Major public and private investments are being made in high‐speed rail, broadband communications, and other infrastructure designed to strengthen transportation and economic synergies among the component centers.
Melting Pot
Authors: Battle Juan , Pastrana Antonio
Published: September 2017

Mainly used as a metaphor to evoke the experiences of assimilation for immigrants in the United States, the
melting pot
is a term that has been used by scholars in the field of race/ethnicity, immigration, and inequality. One strand of this concept rests on the belief that immigrant groups eventually shed beliefs, linguistic styles, and other cultural practices from their country of origin and meld with other people in order to form a new US‐based culture. However, another strand says that a melting of previous identities occurs but that what is newly created is a reflection of the dominant culture that exists in the US. The melting pot encompasses both of these ideas and has contributed to the growing literature on assimilation.
Mendieta Y Núñez, Lucio (1895–1988)
Authors: Olvera Serrano Margarita
Published: September 2017

Lucio Mendieta y Núñez graduated in law in 1920 and was awarded a doctorate in the same discipline in 1950. He is unanimously considered the founder of the first sociological institutions to exist in Mexico. Although the Institute for Social Research (
Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales
, IIS) of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
, UNAM) was created in 1930, it was not until Mendieta assumed the position of IIS director nine years later that the first institutionalized sociological research began in Mexico, along with steps to form Mexico's first communities of practitioners of this discipline. That moment also marks the beginning of the generation of a specific literature on the subject, around the
Mexican Sociology Journal
(
Revista Mexicana de Sociología
,
RMS
), founded by Mendieta in 1939. Mendieta's directorship marked the beginning of sociology's separation from law, ethnography, and anthropology, to gradually acquire its own identity. Lucio Mendieta y Núñez was also the primary promoter of the opening of the first school dedicated to training professional social scientists in Mexico, the National School of Political and Social Sciences (
Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales
, ENCPyS), which opened its doors in 1951, thereby marking the end of the phase of initial institutionalization of sociology and the formation of its first communities of knowledge.
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: (Hans) Bakker J. I.
Published: September 2017

There are at least three distinct meanings of the term “meta‐analysis” in social science. It can be used to indicate (1) a literature review of a body of empirical findings, especially in psychology; (2) a summary of replication research on a specific topic; or (3) a theoretical or methodological analysis of the complex philosophical problems associated with commonalities in scientific approaches. The first usage is common in psychology while the second is often used in physical science. Such reflexivity is predicated on an inductive approach. Involved in the third usage is, for example, Ritzer's (1975a, b) emphasis on the importance of
paradigmatic
“metatheory.” His schema for analyzing sociological theory involves a “meta‐meta‐analysis” of three kinds of metatheory: (1) a means for deeper
understanding
; (2) a
prelude
to theory construction; and (3) a source of
overarching perspectives
(Ritzer & Goodman 2004: A‐1 to A‐22).
Methods
Authors: (Hans) Bakker J. I.
Published: September 2017

In sociology the term methods can encompass different aspects of a methodical approach to empirical research. We can distinguish between “methodology” as the theoretical understanding of basic principles, and “method” as research techniques (Abbot 2001a). The topics discussed under methods often include both. A classical experimental design (CED), with random assignment to an experimental group and a control group, is a basic aspect of methodology, while the importance of the specific statistical techniques that attempt to emulate aspects of a CED (without actually carrying out an experiment) is a topic in statistical methods. In most sociological research there is a multivariant approach. It would be very difficult to actually carry out an experiment on such multivariable models, hence we rely on “path analysis” (Land 1969) to simulate the logic of CED. The term methods is often used to represent specific techniques of research, both quantitative and qualitative, with the underlying logic of utilizing such techniques often left implicit in “normal science” (Kuhn 1970) approaches. But different individuals may be more knowledgeable about one or the other. Thus, for example, all of the inferential statistics, parametric and non‐parametric, may be studied as aspects of quantitative methods. Similarly, all aspects of ethnographic fieldwork, open‐ended interviewing, and observation may be considered in the context of qualitative methods. We do not consider a person who has specialized in certain techniques a “methodist.” We use the term methodologist to cover expertise in either techniques of research (e.g., Manton et al. 1994) or the underlying logic or methodology (e.g., Popper 1969).
Methods, Arts‐Based
Authors: Barone Tom
Published: September 2017

The arts and sciences have exhibited fundamental similarities since their beginnings. Each has always been an inherently aesthetic activity. There has always been artistry in science (including the social sciences) as there is inevitably an empirical basis to good art. Other commonalities include the imaginative process that inhabits the work of both the artist and the scientist, the drive of each to illuminate and interpret facets of the physical and social worlds, and the personal nature of these inevitably human enterprises. Indeed, historians of western thought have noted that before the nineteenth century no substantial differences were recognized between the arts and sciences.
Methods, Postcolonial
Authors: Bauchspies Wenda K.
Published: September 2017

Postcolonial methods utilize social, cultural, and political analysis to engage with the colonial discourse. Postcolonialism has been defined as both a social movement and a research approach whose main agenda addresses racism and oppression. Postcolonial research names the cultural, political, and linguistic experiences of former colonized societies by including voices, stories, histories, and images from people traditionally excluded from European/western descriptions of the world. It is through the shared experience of colonialism that postcolonial scholars and writers are articulating how colonialism has worked “through” and “upon” individuals, societies, and material culture.
Milgram, Stanley (Experiments)
Authors: Kemmelmeier Markus
Published: September 2017

Stanley Milgram was one of the most influential social psychologists of the twentieth century. Born in 1933 in New York, he obtained a BA from Queen's College, and went on to receive a PhD in psychology from Harvard. Subsequently, Milgram held faculty positions in psychology at Yale University and the City University of New York until his untimely death in 1984. Although Milgram never held a formal appointment in sociology, his work was centrally focused on the social‐psychological aspects of social structure.
Military Sociology
Authors: Smith Irving , Edens Sharon M. , Weimer Laura R.
Published: September 2017

Military sociology is an interdisciplinary subfield of sociology that employs sociological concepts, theories, and methods to analyze the internal organization, practices, and perceptions of the armed forces as well as the relationships between the military and other social institutions. Some of the topics generally covered in military sociology include small group processes related to race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation, leadership, policy, veterans, historical cases, United States and foreign military organization, international affairs, manpower models, the transition from conscription to all‐volunteer forces, the social legitimacy of military organization, the military as a form of industrial organization, and civil – military relations.
Moral Panics
Authors: Bromley David G.
Published: September 2017

Moral panic is an analytic concept that refers to a distinctive type of social deviance characterized by a heightened sense of threat in some segment of the population, sudden in emergence and subsidence, attribution of the troubled condition to a “folk devil,” and a disproportionate response relative to an objectively assessed threat level. The concept is particularly useful in focusing analytic attention on the socially constructed nature of deviance through the interaction of claimsmakers, folk devils, and audiences.
Music and Social Movements
Authors: Eyerman Ron
Published: September 2017

In academic discussions, social movements and music have rarely been conceptualized together, while in actual practice the two have always been linked. Music has been important to social movements as an organizing tool: drawing individuals to participate in movement‐related activities, it has served as a source of courage and strength in trying situations, and has helped create the sense of collectivity, of moving together, that is so vital to any form of collective action.
Myth
Authors: Wasson Leslie
Published: September 2017

A myth is a story that has a parallel structure linking the past to the present and suggesting directions for the future. Myth, according to Lévi‐Strauss, allows anthropology to understand the underlying structure of a culture by examining linguistic elements and their relations to one another. A myth may be a cautionary or moral tale, or may be about idealized behavioral standards. Within sociology, the primary use of the word “myth” has been rather casual. This use of the term imputes a less than factual status to the topic of reference and calls into question the veracity of others' accounts and theories. Sociology currently lacks a clear concept of myth such as is found in anthropology or cultural studies.
Mental Illness, Social Construction of
Authors: Horwitz Allan V.
Published: September 2017

Social constructionist studies of mental illness examine how cultural conceptions of mental illness arise, are applied, and change. They differ from traditional views of mental illness because they conceive of symptoms as cultural definitions rather than as properties of individuals. Such studies address questions of how conceptions of mental illness emerge in particular social circumstances, which groups have the power to enforce definitions of normality and abnormality and apply these definitions to individuals, and what social and cultural forces are responsible for why these conceptions change.
Metrosexual
Authors: Yaksich Michael
Published: September 2017

“Metrosexual” is a term that generally refers to a male whose lifestyle, spending habits, and concern for personal appearance are likened to stereotypes associated with homosexual men. Developed by British writer Mark Simpson in a 1994 article “Meet the Metrosexual,” the typical metrosexual is “a young man with money to spend living in or within easy reach of a metropolis – because that's where all the best shops, clubs, gyms, and hairdressers are. He might be officially gay, straight, or bisexual, but this is utterly immaterial because he has clearly taken himself as his own love object” (2002). While Simpson originally defined metrosexuality as neither heterosexual nor homosexual, its popular application has remained predominantly associated with heterosexual males. Simpson later complicates the reconfiguration of the term, noting that the appeal of metrosexuality stems from its association with stereotypical aspects of homosexuality considered desirable in consumer culture.
Moral Careers
Authors: Loy John W.
Published: September 2017

Human careers are of prime concern to sociologists; studying careers “allows one to move back and forth between the personal and the public, between the self and its significant society” (Goffman 1961: 127). This back and forth movement stimulates what C. Wright Mills (1959) calls the
sociological imagination
that “enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two in society” (p. 6). It highlights what Mills calls the fruitful distinction of the sociological imagination between “the personal troubles of milieu” and “the public issues of social structure” (p. 8).
Male Sexual Deficit
Authors: Hakim Catherine
Published: September 2017

The male sexual deficit is a new concept in social science, developed by Hakim (2015) to summarize the large and continuing sex differences in sexuality in affluent modern liberal societies of the twenty‐first century, in which recreational sexuality has become more important than reproductive sexuality, due largely to the contraceptive revolution of the 1960s.
Nation‐State and Nationalism
Authors: Cox Lloyd
Published: September 2017

Nationalism can be defined in a broad and a narrow sense. In its broadest sense it refers to the sum of those beliefs, idioms, and practices oriented to a territorially delineated “nation,” and embodied in the political demands of a people who collectively identify with a nation. This may or may not entail the existence of or demand for a separate national state, or be realized in a self‐conscious nationalist movement, though historically this is often the eventual outcome of national identification. In its narrower meaning, nationalism refers to a political ideology or doctrine whose object is an existing or envisaged nation‐state wherein cultural and political boundaries coincide.
Nationalism
Authors: Leoussi Athena S.
Published: September 2017

Nationalism is a complex social phenomenon with the nation as its object. In its modern, ideological manifestation of an otherwise human, natural attachment to the life‐giving forces of parenthood and land, observable throughout human history, nationalism has its roots in both the Enlightenment and the Romantic reaction to it. It found its earliest expressions in the American and French revolutions, and in the multiplicity of movements for national independence and national unity which have marked the modern world, from the nineteenth century to the present day. Given the rise of global connections and transnational communities, following World War II, some scholars have urged the abandonment of the assumption of a world ordered into nation‐states. Nevertheless, nationalism continues to be a powerful idea that inspires and mobilizes groups throughout the contemporary world.
Naturalistic Inquiry
Authors: Lincoln Yvonna S.
Published: September 2017

Naturalistic inquiry is a label given to certain forms of phenomenological inquiry, including some qualitative research, much interpretive research, and many other forms of non‐experimental and non‐positivist inquiry, which relies heavily on the assumption that sensemaking or meaning‐making activities constitute forms of reality[ies] as meaningful, or more meaningful, to study than physical realities when dealing with human research. While positivist and experimental forms of inquiry rely heavily on factors which can be weighed, measured, assessed, or otherwise quantified, naturalistic inquiry – or constructivist inquiry, as it is more accurately labeled today – balances the inquiry focus by moving beyond tangible or measurable variables to focus on thesocial constructionsof research participants. Social constructions are those products of the meaning making, sensemaking (Weick 1995) mental activities that human beings engage in as a consequence of interaction with other human beings.
Naturalistic Inquiry
Authors: Athens Lonnie
Published: September 2017

The term, “naturalistic study,” or some variant of it, has been circulating in the social sciences for at least threequarters of a century. Matza (1969: 5) contended that a naturalistic investigation “strives to remain true to the nature of the phenomena under study or scrutiny.” Leonard Schatzman and Anselm Strauss (1973: 5) opined that the naturalistic researcher “must get close to the people whom he studies; he understands their actions are best comprehended on the spot – in the natural, ongoing environment where they live and work.” Finally, Blumer (1979) argues that naturalistic inquiry refers to a
special
form of inquiry that respects the natural integrity of the empirical problem under investigation by requiring the researcher to study its natural ongoing character without imposing a fixed preconceived order upon it. According to Blumer (1969: 152), naturalistic research “depends on patient, careful and imaginative life study, not quick shortcuts or technical instruments,” so that “it has the virtue of remaining in close and continuing relations with the natural social world.” Although sociologists have used the term “naturalistic inquiry” for all these years, many remain unclear about its origin and, especially, the “ins and outs” of performing a naturalistic study.
Neo‐Marxism
Authors: Toscano Alberto
Published: September 2017

Neo‐Marxism is a wide‐ranging term referring to the critical renaissance of Marxist theory in the post‐war period, most often used to denote work in radical political economy which tried to combine the revolutionary aspirations and orienting concepts of Marxism with some of the tools provided by non‐Marxist economics, especially the work of Keynes. Though the label “neo‐Marxist” is sometimes applied to figures (e.g., the members of the Frankfurt School) who combined a fidelity to Marx's critical and political aims with a sense of the limitations of Marxism in the face of phenomena like fascism or mass culture, it seems to have been first introduced to describe thinkers – such as Joan Robinson, Paul A. Baran, and Paul M. Sweezy – who sought to renew the critique of political economy in a situation marked by the rise of global corporations, anti‐colonial struggles for national liberation, and the politics of American imperialism.
New Left
Authors: Flacks Richard
Published: September 2017

Although the phrase “new left” was used as a shorthand for a variety of social movement phenomena of the 1960s, it refers specifically to a project in Britain and the US aimed at renovating the discourses and practices of the established lefts in both societies.
New Left Realism
Authors: DeKeseredy Walter S.
Published: September 2017

Left realism is “[o]ne of the most important critical criminologies in the world” (Schwartz & Hatty 2003: xii). Although there are variations in this school of thought, all versions begin with the assertion that inner‐city crime is a major problem for socially and economically disenfranchised people, regardless of their sex or ethnic/cultural background. Further, left realists contend that chronic urban poverty and an exclusionary labor market are major symptoms of contemporary capitalism, which in turn spawn crimes committed in public housing complexes and other poor areas. However, for left realists, it is not sheer poverty and the absence of prized material possessions (e.g., cars, high‐definition television sets) that motivate socially and economically marginalized people to prey on each other. Rather, it is a “lethal combination” of relative deprivation and market individualism (Young 1999). Thus, as left realists remind us, it is not absolute poverty, but poverty experienced as unfair (relative deprivation when compared to someone else) that breeds discontent. The form of capitalism that is predominant in North America, individualism, takes such discontent to the extremes, where in the most exaggerated situations one finds the urban poor living in a “universe where human beings live side by side but not as human beings” (Hobsbawm 1994: 341). Crime, then, is an individualistic solution to experiences of injustice (Young 1997).
New Reproductive Technologies
Authors: Throsby Karen
Published: September 2017

The new reproductive technologies constitute a broad constellation of technologies aimed at facilitating, preventing, or otherwise intervening in the process of reproduction. This includes, for example, contraception, abortion, antenatal testing, birth technologies, and conceptive technologies. These interventions focus predominantly, although not exclusively, on the female body and, with some notable exceptions (e.g., a privately arranged and implemented donor insemination), operate within the medical domain. The description of these technologies as “new” is contested, particularly by some feminists who have argued that they are simply part of a long history of attempts to control women's bodies (Klein 1987). However, others have highlighted the extent to which the new reproductive technologies are both produced by, and productive of, contemporary biomedicine, and that women are not simply passive recipients or victims of those technologies but are actively involved in their production (Saetnan et al. 2000).
NGO/INGO
Authors: Sklair Leslie
Published: September 2017

Non‐governmental organizations (NGOs) and international non‐governmental organizations (INGOs) are umbrella terms that refer to organizations not directly controlled by the state or governments, mostly concerned with human rights of various kinds (including civic and political, economic and social, and environmental rights), professional and occupational interests, and various other enthusiasms. They range from very large organizations with considerable budgets and international recognition, through national organizations with a strictly domestic agenda, to small, locally funded neighborhood groups. Many are connected and overlap with social and political movements. However, the existence of many domestically and internationally powerful QUANGOs (quasi‐NGOs) and GONGOs (government‐organized NGOs) suggests that, in practice, “non‐governmental” is not as straightforward as it at first appears. The close involvement of many NGOs/INGOs with governments, intergovernmental bodies (notably the UN and the World Bank), and transnational corporations and other organs of big business is a constant source of controversy.
NGO/INGO
Authors: Sklair Leslie
Published: September 2017

Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) are umbrella terms that refer to organizations not directly controlled by the state or governments, mostly concerned with human rights of various kinds (including civic and political, economic and social, and environmental rights), professional and occupational interests, and various other enthusiasms. They range from very large organizations with considerable budgets and international recognition, through national organizations with a strictly domestic agenda, to small, locally funded neighborhood groups. Many are connected with, and overlap with, social and political movements. However, the existence of many domestically and internationally powerful QUANGOs (quasi‐NGOs) and GONGOs (government‐organized NGOs) suggests that, in practice, “nongovernmental” is not as straightforward as it at first appears. The close involvement of many NGOs/INGOs with governments, intergovernmental bodies (notably the United Nations and the World Bank), and transnational corporations and other organs of big business is a constant source of controversy. The study by Smith and Wiest (2012) represents the first major attempt to quantify the extent of transnational activism.
Nozick, Robert (1938–2002)
Authors: Hunt Stephen
Published: September 2017

Robert Nozick, a noted Harvard philosopher, emerged as something of an icon for the libertarian right from the 1970s. Perhaps his most renowned work,
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
(1974) marked a powerful philosophical challenge to the most widely held political social stances of liberals, socialists, and conservatives. In this volume, Nozick advances a sophisticated defense of the rights of the individual in relation to the state. He argues that the legitimacy of the state is only justified when it is severely limited to the narrow function of protecting the citizen against force, theft, and fraud, and the enforcement of contracts. Any more extensive activities by the state, Nozick insists, will inevitably violate individual rights.
Neurath, Otto (1882–1945)
Authors: Henning Michelle
Published: September 2017

The distinctive contribution of Otto Neurath to sociology, philosophy, and a wide range of other fields has been largely obscured since World War II, when his own work was rapidly eclipsed by criticisms and revisions. Hayek, in his
Road to Serfdom
(1944), presented Neurath as a naive advocate of social and economic planning; the Unity of Science movement that Neurath had instigated in 1934 was criticised by Kallen as leaning toward totalitarianism; and Adorno's and Horkheimer's critique of instrumental reason targeted both Neurath himself and the Vienna Circle, of which he was a key member. After Neu‐rafh's sudden and untimely death, the Unity of Science movement lost sight of Neurath's emphasis on the social and human sciences; the Vienna Circle became increasingly associated with the ideas of Rudolf Carnap, who survived Neurath; and in English‐speaking countries Neurath's work was principally remembered through A. J. Ayer's popularization and critique of logical positivism.
Objectivity
Authors: Schwandt Thomas A.
Published: September 2017

In everyday life we worry about objectivity. We hear things like: “that judge wasn't very objective,” “he is speaking from his own prejudices,” “that was a very biased comment,” and so on. If we analyze these ways of speaking, we realize several different uses of the termobjectivity. It can refer toa property or quality of a claim: A claim or statement is objective if it is supported with reasons and evidence (or warrantable, supportable), and it is subjective if it is not so supported and only an expression of individual taste or preference. Objectivity can also refer toa characteristic of a person: The objective person is unbiased, unprejudiced, and evinces respect for the importance of evidence and argument. Finally,an aspect or characteristic of a processor means by which a claim is warranted can be called objective. Hence, some argue that the enterprise of science is objective because the claims of scientists are subject to public scrutiny and intersubjective criticism.
Operations Management
Authors: Edwards John S.
Published: September 2017

Operations management is the management of the transformation processes that create products or services, and thus concerns all organizations. It is a discipline that takes a practical focus, striking a balance between the pragmatic and the theoretical.

This entry begins by briefly reviewing the history of operations management, especially since that term came into wide use in the 1960s. Key changes have been the inclusion of services and the adoption of a process view. It goes on to consider conceptual frameworks, noting the growth of “softer” approaches. Operations management application areas are then identified. Current “hot” topics include the servitization of manufacturing and integration with information systems. The principal methodological issue is the relationship between theory and practice with top level academic publication perhaps favoring a positivist approach. The entry closes with some speculations on future directions.
Opportunities for Learning
Authors: Gamoran Adam
Published: September 2017

The concept of opportunities for learning refers to the content and quantity of curricular materials, activities, and assignments that students encounter in their classrooms. This notion is central to a sociological understanding of how schools operate. Major lines of research on opportunities for learning have examined curricular differentiation through ability grouping and tracking, and international comparisons of educational achievement. Within countries, differences in opportunities for learning are commonly linked to students' social and economic backgrounds, and consequently play a role in the reproduction of inequality. Opportunities for learning have come to increased salience in the current context of US education policy, as the emphasis on accountability has led to recognition that improving student learning rests substantially on improving the quality of teaching they encounter in classrooms.
Organization Theory
Authors: Greenwood Royston
Published: September 2017

Organization theory is concerned with organizations, the relationship between organizations and their environment, the effects of those relationships upon intra‐organizational functioning, and how organizations affect the distribution of privilege within society. A central concept is
organizational form
. The ability of societies to respond to social and economic problems depends upon the availability of diverse forms. Organization theorists are thus interested in the range of organizational forms, their capabilities and consequences, in how new organizational forms arise and become established, and in who controls them for what purposes.
Organizational Contingencies
Authors: Suhomlinova Olga , Currie Graeme
Published: September 2017

Organizational contingencies are factors that moderate the effect of organizational characteristics on organizational performance. Whether a particular level of organizational characteristic would lead to high performance depends on the level of the relevant contingency factor. More broadly, a contingency is a moderating variable, and in principle any theory that contains a moderating variable is a contingency theory. The historical core of contingency theorizing – structural contingency theories – deals with the matters of organization, organizational structure, and design. The field has had a profound impact on teaching and practice of management. Research in this area peaked in the 1960s–1970s, stagnated thereafter, but is currently poised for a renaissance. What was initially at the periphery of contingency theorizing has burgeoned to encompass leadership, decision‐making, governance, and organizational change. Contingency theorizing has also spread beyond its “mother fields” of organization theory and organization studies to other disciplines such as public administration, information technology, marketing, and accounting.
Organizational Failure
Authors: Ackroyd Stephen
Published: September 2017

By organizational failure is usually meant failure against some measure of performance, or failure to achieve a goal that is normally expected. Thus, a company can be identified as failing if it is not profitable, or a school if it does not educate students to a required level, or in sufficient numbers. Clearly, such
measured
organizational failure might be purely nominal (and/or imposed), an artifact of the application of performance criteria, rather than a
substantive
failure of organization as such. Thus, the internal working of an organization might be highly efficient given the resources available; but, nonetheless, because it does not reach a prescribed level of performance, it is deemed to fail. If the price of an indispensable commodity suddenly makes production at a saleable price impossible for a firm, failing profitability is almost inevitable and, for a small or new organization, bankruptcy (the most commonly used indicator of failure) is likely.
Organizations, Voluntary
Authors: Onyx Jenny
Published: September 2017

Voluntary organization is a generic term used to refer to a specific type of organization, sometimes also referred to as nonprofit organizations, NGOs (non‐government organizations), third sector organizations, and civil society organizations. Each of these terms reflects a slightly different emphasis. For example, the common definition of a nonprofit is “an organization whose goal is something other than earning a profit for its owners. Usually its goal is to provide services” (Anthony & Young 1990). The definition emphasizes the nonprofit aspect of voluntary organizations but does not distinguish between other organizations that might not be profit‐seeking, such as state‐run or government organizations. Similarly, NGOs can technically refer to private for‐profit organizations as well as voluntary organizations, although the term is usually reserved for large international nonprofit organizations (which nonetheless may earn a profit from some aspects of their operations, such as, for example, the Bangladesh NGO BRAC).
Orientalism
Authors: Chua Peter
Published: September 2017

Orientalism refers to a set of important yet misleading cultural, racialized, and politicized discourses on the “Orient” and its “eastern” arts, languages, sciences, histories, faiths, cultures, and peoples. Since the 1600s, Christian theological experts, humanist scholars, and natural and social scientists generated a nationally specific orientalist body of knowledge, which was promulgated by first world leaders, experts, and policy advisors to support colonial projects and modern imperialism. Orientalist writers consider the “Orient” as consisting of societies geographically east of Christian Europe to be explored, acquired, and colonized for their raw materials, abundant labor, and pieces of seemingly opulent civilizations in decline. These colonial explorations resulted in man‐made, imaginary geographies and political demarcations such as the Near East, the Middle East, Central Asia, the Far East, the Pacific Isles, the New World, and the “Dark Continent.”
Orthodoxy
Authors: Kokosalakis Nikos
Published: September 2017

Orthodoxy is a major branch of Christianity, represented by the Eastern Orthodox Church, with an unbroken continuity to the apostolic tradition and a claim to be the depositor of the authentic Christian faith and practice. Today, the Orthodox Church consists of the ancient patriarchates (Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem) and various national
autocephalous
churches. The patriarchate of Constantinople, also called the “ecumenical patriarchate,” enjoys the primacy of honour amongst all the other patriarchates and the rest of the Orthodox
autocephalous
churches without having any administrative or other jurisdiction over them. The churches of Russia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Georgia carry patriarchal status – being led by a patriarch. The churches of Greece, Cyprus, and Albania are led by archbishops. There are also the smaller, autonomous Orthodox churches of Poland, Finland, and former Czechoslovakia. The Greek diaspora, with full church organization (dioceses, parishes, etc.), in the United States, Canada, Europe, and Australia is under the jurisdiction of the ecumenical patriarchate. The Russian diaspora in the United States and elsewhere is under the patriarchate of Moscow. What should be stressed is that although all the Orthodox churches are organizationally and administratively autonomous and distinct they are in full communion in faith and worship. According to Ware (1963: 15), “The Orthodox Church, thus, is a family of self‐governing Churches. It is held together … by the double bond of unity in the faith and communion in the sacraments.” This is exemplified when the patriarchs and the archbishops meet periodically to celebrate the liturgy together. They met on March 9, 2014, in the ecumenical patriarchate in Istanbul, when they also announced a pan‐Orthodox synod to be convened in 2015.
Online social networking
Authors: Gorman Lyn
Published: September 2017

Online social networking is a phenomenon of the first decade of the twenty‐first century. It refers to the use of social network sites (SNSs) – such as MySpace and Facebook – for online communication and the establishment and extension of friendships and personal networks. SNSs are defined as “web‐based services that allow individuals to (1) construct a public or semi‐public profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system.” These sites share properties of persistence, searchability, replicability, and invisible audiences (boyd & Ellison 2007; boyd 2007). (Researchers differ over what counts as a social network site in the dynamic web environment. The following focuses on what are most commonly acknowledged as SNSs. It does not include photo and video sharing sites [such as Flickr and YouTube], virtual worlds [Second Life], microblogging [Twitter], social bookmarking [del.icio.us], or aggregating services [FriendFeed].)
Organizational Misbehavior
Authors: Ackroyd Stephen
Published: September 2017

Organizational misbehavior is one of a number of terms now used to designate an area of study of increasing interest to sociologists concerned with non‐compliant behavior at work. A wide range of terms are used to designate this subject area including anti‐social behavior in organizations, insidious workplace behavior, incivility, and organizational or employee deviance. Organizational misbehavior, being more inclusive than other terms, is perhaps the most frequently used general concept (Ackroyd & Thompson 1999; Vardi & Weitz 2004). Organizational misbehavior designates behavior that does not conform to managerial expectations or hopes and which, although discouraged, is not entirely prevented.
Park, Robert E. (1864–1944) and Burgess, Ernest W. (1886–1966)
Authors: Kivisto Peter
Published: September 2017

Robert Ezra Park (February 14, 1864‐February 7, 1944) and Ernest Watson Burgess (May 16, 1886‐December 27, 1966) advanced American sociology during its formative period and made lasting contributions to ethnic studies, urban sociology, and the study of collective behavior. Their methodological preference was for ethnography, while they articulated a theoretical perspective shaped in particular by human ecology.
Peer Debriefing
Authors: Janesick Valerie J.
Published: September 2017

Peer debriefing is a technique used by qualitative researchers for multiple reasons. Good qualitative researchers plan ahead when designing a study to include peer debriefing or a variation of it. Peer debriefing allows a peer to review and assess transcripts, emerging categories from those transcripts, and the final report. In addition, a peer acts as a sort of critical detective or auditor. This peer may detect whether or not a researcher has over‐emphasized a point, or missed a rival legitimate hypothesis, under‐emphasized a point, and in general does a careful reading of the data and the final report. Many writers have suggested that peer debriefing enhances the trustworthiness and credibility of a qualitative research project (Lincoln & Guba 1985; Creswell 1998; Spall 1998; Spillett 2003; Janesick 2004). Included in the peer review of information might be the full data set such as observations, transcripts, documents, photographs, and videotaped interviews.
Peer Debriefing
Authors: Janesick Valerie J.
Published: September 2017

Peer debriefing is a technique used by many qualitative researchers for multiple reasons. While sociologists favor this term, many other fields use other signifiers to achieve the same purpose and meaning. For example, words like outside reader, auditor, and peer reviewer are essentially describing the work of peer debriefing. A good qualitative researcher plans ahead and includes a space for peer debriefing or some variation of it. Peer debriefing allows a qualified peer researcher to review and assess transcripts, emerging and final categories from those transcripts, and the final themes or findings of a given study. Also, a peer may review selected site documents, observational notes, and possibly other written work of the researcher. This peer may assess whether or not a researcher has missed a key point, overemphasized a minor one, or repeated one or more points. In addition, a peer acts as a sort of critical detective and is similar to an auditor auditing the ledgers of finance. Many writers have suggested that peer debriefing enhances the trustworthiness and the credibility of a research project (Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Spall, 1998; Janesick, 2011; Spillett, 2003). Included in the peer review of information might be anywhere on a continuum from complete review of every single data set to a purposeful sampling of the data sets. Thus one might review all interview transcripts or a portion of the set, all documents and photographs or a portion therein. The peer and the researcher provide a rationale for the selection.
Play
Authors: Henricks Thomas
Published: September 2017

Within the social sciences, play has been an especially difficult phenomenon to define and study. Some scholars have described play as a pattern of individual behavior or social interaction, which features competition, improvisation, and fantasy. Others have emphasized play as a pattern of experience or awareness. By that standard, some participants in a shared activity may be playing while others are not. Still other researchers have focused on the cultural frameworks or scenes of play, with the understanding that all that happens within those settings should be deemed playful. Such settings frequently include games and sports; gambling; festivals, parties, and masquerades; artistic and musical expression; daydreams; jokes, rhymes, and storytelling; teasing and other forms of disrespect; rough‐and‐tumble behaviors, dramatic role performances, and adventurous pursuits like caving and skydiving. In that light, many of the daily activities of young children are characterized as play; and playfulness is considered to be an important trait of various species of mammals.
Playboy
Authors: Mac Innis Kim
Published: September 2017

Playboy
is a magazine founded by Hugh Hefner in 1953 when Hefner was 26 years old. The magazine was initially created under the company name HMH Publishing Co., Inc., and then went public under the name Playboy Enterprises, Inc. in 1971.
Playboy
's original name was to be “Stag Party,” but an outdoor magazine called
Stag
contacted Hefner and informed him of their trademark name. Hefner's co‐founder and executive vice president Eldon Seller suggested the name
Playboy
, based on a Playboy Automobile Company in Chicago. The first issue of
Playboy
was published in December 1953. The issue sold for $0.50 and was an immediate success, selling out in a few weeks. Known circulation was 53,991. According to Hefner,
Playboy
was influenced by the Jazz Age, his strict Midwestern Methodist upbringing, and a response to the post‐war period, which was described as socially and politically repressive. Additionally, the magazine was inspired by the Kinsey Reports, which focused on the study of sexuality in the United States in 1948. These reports revealed that many Americans were not as conventional as society believed concerning sexual behavior. The Kinsey Reports helped to promote sexual openness. Many scholars such as Kenon Breazeale and Barbara Ehrenreich contend that
Playboy
was inspired by male sociosexual identity crises. Ehrenreich argues that in the 1950s American men revolted against their most prominent role as breadwinner, which largely defined male identity. Men, she contended, needed more than responsibility in their lives, they needed desire. Whether or not Hugh Hefner agreed with this particular assessment, he created the magazine for men.
Pluralism, American
Authors: Gerteis Joseph
Published: September 2017

Pluralism refers to the condition of living amid diversity and also to a positive appreciation for that condition. The many similar metaphors describing America as a “melting pot” of different cultures or a “nation of nations” recognize both the historical fact of diversity and its role in shaping the American national character (see Kohn 1961). “What then is the American, this new man?” asked Jean de Crèvecoeur in an often‐quoted passage from
Letters from an American Farmer
(1782): “He is either a European or the descendent of a European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country … Here individuals are melted into a new race of men, whose labours and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world” (cited in Gleason 1980: 33).
Political Economy
Authors: Ramella Francesco
Published: September 2017

Political economy refers to a current of study that analyzes the reciprocal influences among economic, social, and political factors and their impact on how activities are regulated in different institutional contexts. Even though historically the origins go back to the birth of economics, over recent decades this subject of study has witnessed a revival in a variety of scientific sectors. Two aspects characterize this recent tendency: on one hand, a new attention – often in a comparative perspective – to the study of institutions and of the interrelations between economic and sociopolitical phenomena, and, on the other, greater interdisciplinary activity.
Political Opportunities
Authors: Meyer David S.
Published: September 2017

Political opportunities, sometimes referred to as political opportunity structure or the structure of political opportunities, is a catchall term that refers to the world outside a social movement that affects its mobilization, development, and ultimate impact. The notion that the social and political context matters is well established in the social sciences, but scholars dispute which aspects of the environment influence social movements, and how, and contest the analytic utility of the concept of political opportunities as it has developed. Tarrow's (1998: 19–20) economical definition, “consistent – but not necessarily formal or permanent – dimensions of the political struggle that encourage people to engage in contentious politics,” affords researchers considerable latitude in tailoring the concepts to the case at hand. The challenge for scholars of social movements is to conduct theoretically oriented empirical studies of the interactions of movements with their contexts to test and refine the theory.