bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Digital Democracy
Authors: Gilardi Fabrizio , Trechsel Alexander H.
Published: December 2023

The Swiss political system offers researchers in the social sciences a most fruitful context for theoretical and empirical advances in the field of digital democracy. The rich set of political institutions, characterized by a strong interplay of representative and participatory forms of democracy at different levels of the federal state, the multitude of organized political actors, a politically active citizenry, and the widespread use of Internet-based technologies throughout society have led to innovative experimentation with online instruments and processes as well as internationally relevant research. The point of departure arguably lies with Switzerland’s early attempts at introducing Internet voting in referendum votes, followed by election-targeting tools to improve the match between voters and candidates in the form of Voting Advice Applications. With the more recent proliferation of social media and the profound changes in the field of political communication, new research agendas tackle issues such as misinformation, online mobilization, campaigning, and old and new media consumption. Research on digital democracy now makes use of big data, to which constantly evolving methods of computational social sciences can be fruitfully applied. This chapter offers an overview of past and current research efforts in the areas of political communication, elections, and participatory democracy in Switzerland. It also shows how the data-rich Swiss context can inform comparative research, concluding with an outlook of opportunities and challenges that political science faces in the digital era.
The Structural Shifts in Switzerland’s Economy and Society, 2000–2020
Authors: Oesch Daniel
Published: December 2023

This chapter discusses the changes in Switzerland’s economy and society between 2000 and 2020, two decades marked by growth: Switzerland’s economy expanded almost without interruption, employment increased to an extent not seen since the 1960s, and the population rose by over a fifth. However, productivity only increased slowly and wages grew much less than in earlier boom periods. Over the same period, Switzerland’s social structure changed fundamentally. Educational attainment rose sharply as the numbers both of graduates of Swiss universities and of highly qualified immigrants increased. Tertiary education is thus becoming the new norm in Switzerland, replacing apprenticeships as the dominant level of education. Under the influence of strong immigration, Switzerland’s population has also become more diverse. Increasingly highly skilled immigration from a growing number of countries puts an end to a skewed social structure where foreigners from Italy, Spain, Portugal, and the former Yugoslavia were traditionally relegated to the social hierarchy’s bottom-end. These trends have also altered Switzerland’s class structure. Strong job growth in health, education, and business services has mainly benefited professionals, managers, and technicians. Therefore, the ranks of the salaried middle class expanded, whereas the traditional working class as well as the lower middle class of clerical workers lost ground. The losers of structural change in recent decades thus have been not the middle class but the working class.
Health Policy
Authors: Trein Philipp , Rüefli Christian , Vatter Adrian
Published: December 2023

This chapter analyses the structures, processes, and actors of health policy in Switzerland. In international comparison, Switzerland has a very well-developed health system with universal insurance coverage and high-quality care services. The regulation, financing, and provision of health care are characterized by three features: federalism—an important role for subnational governments (cantons); liberalism—high importance for economic freedom and individual responsibility; and subsidiarity—the provision of services by the lowest level of government and non-state actors that are close to the recipients of services. Against this background, this chapter analyses the politics of Swiss health policy in three steps. Firstly, the text discusses the various actors and explains their roles for health policy-making. Secondly, the chapter provides a historical overview of health policy reforms and outlines the development of institutions and policies in this field. Thirdly, the chapter discusses political factors that impact health policy reforms in Switzerland. New national policies and large encompassing reforms for the entire country are difficult to implement, due to the strong power of interest groups and voters, and as the cantons enjoy extensive autonomy in the implementation of health policy. Finally, the chapter concludes with a discussion of the challenges for Swiss health policy: rising costs and how to deal with them as well as the growing significance of the federal government.
Gender and Equality+ Policy
Authors: Engeli Isabelle
Published: December 2023

Switzerland is widely known for being a laggard in granting women’s right to vote in 1971 and same-sex marriage only in 2021. Since then, Switzerland has made progress towards gender equality through the introduction of the principle of gender equality in the federal constitution in 1981 and gender equality law in 1996. The chapter reviews the main opportunities, challenges, and pitfalls in the promotion of gender+ equality across education, the family, and the labour market. Pivotal steps have been taken to move the equality agenda forward under the framework of the CEDAW. Switzerland has nevertheless shied away from adopting a far-reaching agenda regarding gender+ equality. Instead, the Swiss approach is best characterized as a politics of small steps that has been punctuated by federalism and direct democracy. More recently, the influence of the far right has also left its conservative footprint on the equality+ agenda. As a result, Swiss equality policy has remained far from having achieved effective equality. Women are underrepresented in politics at all levels, the institutional family model remains predominantly heteronormative, pink ghettos persist in education and in the labour market, and pay discrimination is blatant.
Switzerland, Quo Vadis?
Authors: Freiburghaus Rahel , Mueller Sean
Published: December 2023

This chapter looks at the five main political trends that have engulfed Swiss politics over the past few decades: alienation, centralization, digitalization, internationalization/Europeanization, and polarization. While they all reflect debates and developments found elsewhere, each poses a particular challenge for the consensual, direct-democratic, and profoundly federal Swiss political system. The first part of the chapter traces the nature and extent of each challenge and identifies the kind of problem it poses. Based on new and original expert survey data, the second part of the chapter then looks at possible solutions and reform options for the Swiss polity, its politics, and policy-making. We conclude by sketching two separate, yet inherently linked, paths that Switzerland may follow to accommodate these challenges: 1) changing the behaviour of political actors and 2) changing the institutional framework and the incentives it provides.
The Historical and Institutional Formation of Swiss Political Culture
Authors: Herrmann Irène
Published: December 2023

Swiss citizens are widely known to enjoy particularly extensive democratic rights. Not only can they vote and be elected to government, but they can also reject laws and even propose changes to their constitution. To the surprise of many, these exceptional rights have not led to complete disarray and have been exercised in a very moderate, if not outright conservative, way. To address both these considerations, this chapter focuses first on the nineteenth century, when these rights were most fully exercised just as responsibility increased, mostly based on the idea that the Swiss had to be worthy of their glorious ancestors. It then tackles the twentieth century, when the same empowerment restricted the expansion of the groups of people who had access to it. This in turn posed problems in terms of the integration of swathes of the population who were supposedly naturally less reasonable or who were unable to become so since they did not share the same illustrious history. Ultimately, both these rights and the sense of individual moderation they presupposed were characteristic of a very weak state that had to delegate to its citizens the portion of responsibility that it could not assume for them. This mechanism, inspired by poverty, was internalized just as Switzerland was becoming prosperous. However, the Swiss understood this new wealth to be the outcome of their reasonableness. Consequently, they tended to accentuate their self-restraint as well as their reluctance to share their political rights.
Federalism
Authors: Vatter Adrian
Published: December 2023

This chapter deals with Swiss federalism and focuses on the institutions of Swiss federalism. The chapter first presents the foundations and basic principles of the Swiss federal state. The implementation of the main federalist principles, such as partial autonomy, or cantonal participation and collaboration at the federal level, depends on certain institutional arrangements. Accordingly, the contribution presents vertical institutions of Swiss federalism such as the upper house of parliament (the Council of States), the cantonal vote on constitutional amendments (the need for majority support from the cantons), the cantonal initiative, and the cantonal referendum as well as the most important aspects of horizontal cooperative federalism such as intercantonal treaties and conferences. The chapter concludes with an overview of the main future challenges for Swiss federalism.
Judicial Tenure and Retirements
Authors: Pérez-Liñán Aníbal , Castagnola Andrea
Published: December 2023

Judicial tenure is often perceived as the most important institutional protection for judicial independence because it can promote the impartiality of court rulings. This chapter analyses different tenure models and their ability to protect judges effectively. Although life tenure is considered the gold standard to protect judges, and therefore embraced by a large number of constitutions worldwide, this arrangement is not free from problems. The first part of the chapter analyses the advantages and disadvantages of the life tenure system along with its two most frequent alternatives: judicial appointments with a mandatory retirement age, and appointments for a fixed term. The most common problems identified with life tenure are the ageing of judges on the bench, strategic retirements, and the potential disconnection of judges from society. Long, fixed terms without reappointment appear to be a better arrangement for promoting judicial independence. However, because formal tenure protections are not respected in many parts of the world, in the second part of the chapter we analyse how political actors disrupt judicial tenure. The authors create a novel typology that identifies four types of judicial exits: natural exits, strategic retirements, formal removals, and induced departures. The chapter offers illustrations for these patterns around the world, paying special attention to formal removals and induced departures. These examples underscore that chief executives are the most common actors threatening judges—but not the only ones—and that politicians employ formal removal procedures, as well as informal pressures, to purge the courts.
Mining Frontiers and the Making of the Modern World
Authors: Marques Leonardo
Published: December 2023

Mining—extraction of mineral resources from earth—has been central to various historical transformations since prehistoric times. The characteristics and broader meanings of mining, however, have changed over time and space. Taking labour, technology, and environmental change as its guiding theme, this chapter explores the historiography of mining, with a focus on mineral frontiers in the Iberian Americas. New Spain, New Granada, Peru, and Brazil were the main sources of the bullion that contributed to the creation of a world economy in the early-modern era. At the other end of the global flows of silver and gold were the thousands of Amerindians and Africans who spent most of their lives in the mines and rivers of colonial Latin America, working under various labour arrangements and radically reshaping the environment in places like Potosí, Zacatecas, and Minas Gerais. This is illustrated by a case study of gold mining in Brazil.
Towards a Technological History of Commodity Production
Authors: Pretel David
Published: December 2023

This chapter explores the technological history of export commodities, especially as it pertains to the processes of extraction and processing in the Global South. General historiographic reflections are combined with detailed historical examples spanning the past six centuries. The objective is to appraise the impact of technology in commodity cycles using a variety of case studies, in particular the production of sugar, silver, henequen, and tree products. Rather than attempting a comprehensive examination of all the technological dimensions of commodity frontiers and chains, this chapter concentrates on the significance of industrial treatment of raw materials in Asia, Africa, and Latin America; the emergence of technological interconnections among distant regions; the displacement of natural resources by artificial substitutes; the persistence of traditional production techniques; and the collaboration of local and imported expertise. Taken together, these serve as a call for a technological history of global commodity production.
Culinary Commodities
Authors: Zanoni Elizabeth
Published: December 2023

This chapter introduces readers to an historical and historiographical overview of food histories that has utilized a commodity-history approach to globalize research on foodways and to historicize contemporary food systems that move commodities from ‘farm to fork’. It argues that the best of this research embeds food commodities in their larger political, economic, and cultural milieu to link histories of mobile food to other historical processes such as voluntary and forced migration, empire- and nation-building, industrialization, and capitalism. This perspective, scholars have shown, reveals that the globalization of food is shaped by often inequitable political and labour regimes and geopolitical dynamics. The chapter also includes a case study of one Italian family whose entrepreneurial endeavours in South America illustrate principal historical and historiographical trends in recent food commodity scholarship.
Primary Commodities and Industrial Consumers
Authors: Robins Jonathan
Published: December 2023

Most modern commodities serve as raw materials for industrial processes. From the eighteenth century, industrial demand drove new forms of production and the expansion of commodity production into new areas. While industries were shaped by the physical properties of commodities, commodities were also remade to suit changing industrial needs. New technologies rendered some commodities obsolete but could also give producers flexibility and resilience in the face of competition. Many commodities served multiple industries, embedded in complex ‘commodity webs’ that created opportunities as well as limits to commodity expansion. Palm oil, from an early-modern luxury, became an important ingredient in industrial manufactures like soap and candles. It was embedded in a commodity web linking multiple industries, sites of production, and other commodities. Its industrial success owed more to factors influencing its production cost than its material properties, and the emergence of a plantation system cemented palm oil’s role in global industry.
Producing Drug Histories
Authors: Madancy Joyce A.
Published: December 2023

This chapter explores the interdisciplinary directions pursued in recent histories of drugs, which stress the key role of socio-cultural context in determining the meanings of, attitudes towards, and policies related to the production of psychoactive substances such as opium, alcohol, caffeine, and to a lesser extent cannabis, cocaine, and tobacco. Three particular themes in recent scholarship are highlighted: the central place of psychoactive commodities in global/imperial trade and production networks; identity formation; and the politics of control. Opium is then examined in more depth in a case study analyzing the range of responses in India, Britain, and China in the final decade of the triangular trade. Differences in Indian and Chinese production methods reveal important strengths and weaknesses in the political, social, and economic structure of each society. Opium production could entail both exploitation and opportunity. The chapter ends with reflections on possible avenues for future research in drug history.
Migration, Slavery, and Commodification
Authors: Zeuske Michael
Published: December 2023

This chapter analyses migrations in global history using examples of slave trade/slavery as ‘forced’ or ‘coerced’ migration and their connections to commodification. Taking a longue-durée plateau approach to global history, from 10000 bnc to around 1960, Atlantic slavery (1400–1900), as well as the slaveries and colonial expansions of Europe (1800–1960), are given special consideration. In addition to referencing the commodities produced by and for enslaved people, here enslaved people in particular are treated as ‘talking commodities’, a relatively unaddressed topic. In summary, it is established that without slavery, diverse slavery regimes, slave trade, but above all without enslaved people, many commodities would not have existed. How this applies to commodification in ‘Western’ capitalism as a whole needs to be further researched and debated.
Approches Filières and Commodity Chains
Authors: Ruf François , Ollendorf Franziska , Uribe Leitz Enrique
Published: December 2023

This chapter juxtaposes two research strands that developed in parallel yet have remained largely disconnected from each other: francophone approches filières and anglophone commodity chains (and global value chains). Both share an interest in the analysis of global production patterns and commodity flows. Despite their commonalities, they differ in their approach. A review of cocoa literature illustrates their respective key characteristics; followed by a discussion of how each enables an understanding of the historical dynamics of cocoa in the Ivory Coast and Indonesia, as a microcosm of the global economy in relation to tropical agricultural commodities, shifting perspectives to the hidden costs (particularly environmental and ethical) of cocoa production. The chapter argues that understanding such externalities of production is key to their sustainability and demonstrates that this was integral to approches filières before finding its way into commodity and global value chain analyses.
Labour as a Commodity
Authors: Hofmeester Karin
Published: December 2023

Recent scholarship is resulting in a reappraisal of how we should understand labour as a commodity. The chapter begins with an overview of the debate that began in the eighteenth century with Adam Smith, before being developed by Marx and Polanyi. However, this focused exclusively on wage labour. Sociologists and historians have now begun widening the scope of what should be considered ‘commodified labour’. This has found expression in the Global Collaboratory on the History of Labour Relations, and its taxonomy, which explicitly places commodified labour within the wider framework of other types of labour relations—including other, often coerced forms of commodified labour. The chapter illustrates this with a case study of rough diamond production in India, Brazil, and South Africa, from the seventeenth till the early twentieth century, showing how this more inclusive definition enables a long-term global analysis of labour as a commodity.
Port Cities and Commodities
Authors: Antunes Cátia , Vos Jelmer
Published: December 2023

This chapter examines the role of port cities in the construction of global commodity trades in the early-modern era, using the Angolan capital Luanda as a case study. It defines port cities by their urban functions rather than demographic stock, allowing comparison of cases from Africa and the Americas with better-known Eurasian examples. Based on a reading of current urban and maritime historical literature, the chapter explains how port cities built on their hub-and-nodal functions in regional commodity trades to become gateways for global commodity chains. Concentrating on the local contexts in which port cities emerged, it argues that African port cities were more than peripheries supplying raw materials and slave labour to core regions in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean worlds. Ports like Luanda connected local, regional, and global markets and thus created commodity chains that satisfied consumer demands in their hinterlands as well as overseas.
Territorial Mapping and the Formation of Frontier Zones
Authors: Joseph Sabrina
Published: December 2023

The mapping and surveying of lands across various regions of the world by colonial authorities, scientists, and states intensified from the eighteenth century onwards and was motivated in large part by political and economic interests. These initiatives played a key role in integrating hitherto unexploited lands within global networks of commodity production and exchange. The first part of the chapter provides an overview of the current literature on territorial mapping. The second half explores the case study of the Trucial States in the early part of the twentieth century, specifically in regard to the political and economic motivations of mapping initiatives undertaken by the British and how these efforts played a pivotal role in the emergence of the oil frontier.
Commodities, Trade, and Ecological Transformation in the Modern World
Authors: Ross Corey
Published: December 2023

This chapter examines the intersection of commodity history and environmental change. Focusing principally on the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, it considers how the boom of commodity production and trade rearranged ecological relations around the world, and how historians have sought to make sense of these transformations. The discussion revolves around three principal themes—the economics of resource depletion, the spatial teleconnections of markets, and the ecological ramifications of specialization—which together highlight how a rapidly expanding world market for goods led to an unprecedented exploitation of land, water, plants, animals, and soils. It also considers how environmental factors shaped processes of commodification, using a handful of historical case studies (in particular, gutta percha, tin, and rubber) to illustrate their interconnectedness. The chapter argues that the inclusion of the biophysical world in our narratives provides historians with a potent tool for connecting commodities to their socio-ecological origins and for evaluating their long-term costs.
Historical Archaeologies of Commodities
Authors: Mullins Paul R.
Published: December 2023

Archaeologists examining the past half-millennium focus much of their analysis on the ways disparate people consume mass-produced commodities in distinctive forms that variously reproduce, negotiate, resist, or ignore ideology and inequality. This chapter examines the archaeological scholarship on commodities, particularly the ways consumers are structurally situated by commodities, how commodities’ meanings are constructed and contested in everyday consumption, and archaeological approaches to contextualizing these meanings. The chapter then focuses on the historical archaeology of African-American commodity consumption in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the ways commodities assumed meaning in a racially segregated society, and how commodity consumption could reproduce racial inequalities as well as imply a measure of self-determination for African-American consumers. It concludes that archaeologies of commodification are distinguished by the interpretation of prosaic things that are intersection points between producers, marketers, and consumers embedded in global structural, social, and ideological processes.
Seeing Things
Authors: Arabindan-Kesson Anna
Published: December 2023

This chapter presents an overview of approaches to, and case studies of, the visual representation of commodities. It specifically focuses on the representation of cotton, and its associations with commerce, colonialism, and slavery. The chapter has four sections. It sketches out recent art historiographical approaches to the study of commodities and then considers the significance of materiality as an art historical methodology that engages with the implications of the physical substance of a commodity and its visual representation. The chapter then examines how the materiality of cotton was represented and used to visualize meanings about trade, its geographies of connection, and its association with slavery. Finally, it reflects on possible future directions for studies of the visual history of commodities that might expand our understanding of how visual and material objects shape the production of historical knowledge.
Conclusion
Authors: Clarence-Smith William Gervase , Vos Jelmer
Published: December 2023

This chapter builds on the Handbook contributions to propose a new approach to commodity history that seeks to sidestep the enduring pitfalls of core-periphery thinking. The editors recommend a deeper integration of south-south, north-north, and north-south commodity flows into historical narratives, enhancing an understanding of global relationships from non-Western viewpoints. The editors further suggest that historians take a more nuanced view of the economic and environmental consequences of the production, trade, and consumption of commodities. A multi-centred approach can account for a variety of causal relationships in global commodity chains, and can help to assess the contributions of different places and actors, in terms that would have made sense to the people involved.
Early-Modern Commodity Routes
Authors: Faroqhi Suraiya
Published: December 2023

Silk was particularly important to intra-empire/inter-regional commerce across the vast Ottoman empire, in addition to trade with bordering polities. Historians have approached the interrelated issues of import substitution, political control of trade, trade linked to manufacture, and consumption through Braudel and Wallerstein’s concepts of ‘world economy’ and ‘world-empire’—in which significant sections of the late-eighteenth- and nineteenth-century-Ottoman Empire were incorporated as peripheral territories into a world economy dominated by Europe. Yet, this approach has been little used for the early-modern period, when Ottoman manufacturers supplied luxury silks to Poland, Russia, and the principalities forming present-day Romania, while artisans from the island of Chios successfully substituted their own silks for costly imports from Venice, Iran, and India. Well into the eighteenth century, Ottoman strength derived from control of overland trade routes, more secure than the pirate-infested Indian and Atlantic Oceans—and the war-torn Mediterranean.
Risky and Antisocial Behavior in Adolescence
Authors: Manasse Michelle E. , Rebellon Cesar J.
Published: December 2023

This chapter provides an interdisciplinary review of research concerning risky and antisocial behavior during the adolescent years. In particular, it summarizes and integrates existing research concerning two fundamental issues. First, it describes the developmental factors that contribute to the general tendency for risky and antisocial behavior to increase during adolescence. Second, it describes potential sources of interpersonal variation in risky and antisocial behavior during this stage of the life course. For both issues, the chapter discusses research bearing on the ways in which biological factors, family dynamics, the peer group, and the broader community collectively influence risky and antisocial behavior, paying special attention to the ways in which these factors interact to amplify or suppress one another’s influences.
Adolescent Incarceration
Authors: Viljoen Jodi L. , Li Shanna M. Y. , Schillaci-Ventura Julia M. , Cochrane Dana M.
Published: December 2023

Adolescence is a period marked by heightened risk taking, including illegal behaviors. In response to such behaviors, thousands of adolescents around the world are held in custodial facilities every year. This chapter considers whether incarceration is an appropriate response to adolescent offending. Through a review of the literature, the chapter discusses past and present incarceration trends and examines the impacts of incarceration on recidivism, family and peer relationships, mental and physical health, psychosocial development, and victimization while in custody. It also highlights an overrepresentation of diverse groups within the justice system, including adolescents of color as well as adolescents who are transgender, gender nonconforming, and sexual minorities. Ultimately, although the quality of research is variable, the breadth of current research suggests that incarceration not only fails to reduce recidivism but also is linked to a number of additional adverse impacts. The chapter concludes by presenting strategies and initiatives aimed to reduce the incarceration of adolescents.
Adolescents and Youth Justice
Authors: Grisso Thomas
Published: December 2023

This conclusion chapter uses issues raised in the Adolescent subsection to reflect on what types of research can best assist the youth justice system and youth who encounter it. After a brief historical note, the chapter uses three lenses to examine the value of the research the field has done thus far and to reveal worthwhile future research. The first lens reviews how translational studies of adolescent and youth justice contribute to discrete phases in the applied research enterprise. The second lens anticipates what will be needed to sustain the progress made thus far in the developmental era of youth justice reform. The third lens is determining whether there is an ideal model to which youth justice law and policy could aspire. The chapter closes with a reflection on how our research can best be done to improve its impact on law and legal practice.
The Relational Context of Early Development
Authors: Stacks Ann M. , Rice Danielle , Walton Allen Kathleen , Rabior Eleanor
Published: December 2023

During pregnancy and the first three years of life, the environment impacts gene expression and neurobiology, which has a cascading effect on health and development across the lifespan. Understanding these effects is critical to assessing and responding to the impact of maltreatment during this developmental window. The current chapter provides this background knowledge. First, the science of child development is presented together with child welfare laws that support the well-being of maltreated children. Next, the impact of maltreatment during the embryonic, fetal, and infant periods of human development is reviewed. Finally, promising relationship-based interventions for maltreating families are described.
The Developmental Science of Children in Criminal and Dependency Court
Authors: Enriquez Rayna , Brown Lily F. , Goodman Gail S. , Metcalf Stacy , Quas Jodi A.
Published: December 2023

Children at times play key roles in legal cases as victims of or witnesses to crimes. This is most notable in criminal cases involving alleged sexual abuse. It also occurs with cases involving other types of crimes, both in criminal and juvenile dependency courts, the latter when children are suspected of having been exposed to intrafamilial maltreatment. Involving children is complicated, due to their prior experiences of trauma and their incomplete cognitive or socioemotional development and dependence on family members and legal authorities for assistance. How both the criminal and dependency systems involve children and the consequences of that involvement for children and the pursuit of justice have been heavily debated. This chapter reviews extant research concerning children’s participation in criminal and dependency proceedings as victims or witnesses. It includes a discussion of methodological issues that arise when pursuing this research, as well as findings concerning both the socioemotional and attitudinal consequences of children’s participation. The chapter closes with suggestions for future research and legal recommendations.
Attachment and Parenting Time for Children Under 3 Years of Age
Authors: Fabricius William V.
Published: December 2023

Attachment theory is the current standard model for how infants and toddlers develop emotional connections to their caregivers. This chapter is focused on implications that can be drawn from attachment theory and research for legal policies regarding overnight parenting time for children under 3 years of age whose parents either never cohabitated after the birth of the child or cohabitated for a period of time before separating. First, the basic principles of modern attachment theory are presented, followed by a brief review of research on the importance of the emotional security that children can derive from parent-child relationships for their healthy social, emotional, and stress-related physical health development. Second, the recent heated debate about overnight parenting time for infants and toddlers is reviewed, and the relevant studies and findings are discussed. Third, the implications that can be drawn from the current state of theory and findings are considered, and are found to support policies to encourage equal parenting time for children under 3 years of age. Finally, it is argued that equal parenting time not only serves children’s best interest in terms of their long-term health but also serves gender equality. Thus, gender equality could provide the needed principled legal framework on which to found consistent new custody policies presuming equal parenting time.
Child Development and the Family Regulation System
Authors: Huntington Clare
Published: December 2023

Child abuse and neglect clearly harm children, but the risks that accompany involvement with the family regulation system (also known as the child welfare system), especially placement in foster care, also present considerable risks to child development. This chapter describes these competing risks to child development, the legal framework governing the family regulation system, and scholarly debates in the field. It then analyzes the system in the broader context of the legal regulation of children, showing that the family regulation system is out of step with other areas and in need of significant reform. A core problem with the system is its crisis orientation, paying too little attention to family support and the prevention of child maltreatment. Equally problematic, the family regulation system reflects and reinforces racial and economic inequality. Black and Native American children are significantly overrepresented in the system and have worse outcomes than other children. Addressing these issues would help foster healthy child development.
Defoe, Philosophy, and Religion
Authors: Richetti John
Published: December 2023

This chapter considers the philosophical and religious bases of Daniel Defoe’s thought and applies these to an interpretation of the Robinson Crusoe trilogy (1719–20). Although Defoe did not attempt any kind of systematic philosophy, he was interested in the nature of reality, moral relativism, the genesis of knowledge and understanding, and religious doctrine as it shaped the individual’s conduct. The chapter demonstrates that Crusoe is an experiment in exactly rendered empirical observation, but it also dramatizes the limits of empiricism as an explanatory approach to reality. In the process of this dramatization, Defoe tackles Providential organization of the cosmos, the standards by which ‘heathens’ such as cannibals bereft of divine revelation can be judged, the passions as a driver of human agency, and above all the dynamic competition between religious and secular outlooks in his era.
Defoe and Colonialism
Authors: Ellis Markman
Published: December 2023

Daniel Defoe defended colonial endeavour throughout his writing career, including in his periodical journalism and his surveys of global trade. In his outlook, colonialism serves a commercial purpose and yields profits for promoters and their countries, but it also organizes the world into hierarchies of civilization and barbarism. The defence and promotion of colonial projects preoccupied Defoe in his non-fiction writing, particularly in tracts and essays, such as those he wrote at the time of the formation of the South Sea Company in 1711. His prose fictions and novels, especially Robinson Crusoe (1719) and A New Voyage Round the World (1724), constitute significant thought experiments in colonial foundation, plantation management, settlement practice, and labour management, including slavery. The chapter demonstrates that Defoe was a mercantilist and a gold bug, an apologist of trade, a philosopher of colonialism, and an imagineer of imperialism.
Defoe and London
Authors: Hammond Brean S.
Published: December 2023

Daniel Defoe was a Londoner born and bred, and across his writings he explores the significance of the capital at a time when London underwent rapid growth and modernization. Defoe chronicles, celebrates, and wrestles with the implication of that growth, recognizing it as a sign of national prosperity but contemplating it in the wake of the South Sea Bubble as a potential sign of corruption. The chapter analyses Defoe’s representations of London in tracts about economics, in periodicals, and in A Tour thro’ the whole Island of Great Britain (1724–6). It also examines representations of London in Defoe’s fiction, both the historical novel A Journal of the Plague Year (1722), which depicts a city in peril during the 1665 Great Plague, and criminal narratives such as Moll Flanders and Colonel Jack (both 1722), in which Defoe’s conception of personal identity and agency is bound up with urban experience.
Defoe on Screen
Authors: Mayer Robert
Published: December 2023

This chapter examines the animated film Michaël Dudok de Wit’s The Red Turtle (2016) as a filmic ‘Robinsonade’, the name for a text that adapts or appropriates Daniel Defoe’s archetypal castaway narrative. The chapter first surveys the history of Defoe on screen, taking in film and television reworkings of Moll Flanders (1722), A Journal of the Plague Year (1722), and above all Robinson Crusoe (1719). (It also provides a selective checklist of Defoe screen adaptations.) Turning to The Red Turtle, the essay interprets the film as following in the tradition of using Defoe’s writings to address contemporary debates. In this case, The Red Turtle reworks the adversarial relationship between humans and nature central to Crusoe by centralizing the relationship between the eponymous animal and a castaway. It feeds into debates about animal rights and ethics by replacing a paradigm of humanity’s ‘dominion’ over nature with an ‘interactive’ or ‘independent’ relationship.
The Celebrated Daniel De Foe
Authors: Seager Nicholas
Published: December 2023

The story of Daniel Defoe’s publication, from his death in 1731 to the mid-twentieth century, shows three things that have been inadequately acknowledged in accounts of his posthumous reputation. First, his writings were extensively republished, and not just major novels like Robinson Crusoe, but also non-fiction works. Second, Defoe’s writings were repeatedly reissued to provide commentary on topical events of later eras. And third, Defoe’s writings were commonly adapted and appropriated when republished, refitted to serve the tastes and attitudes of new readers, even if they preserved his original anonymity. This chapter surveys a broad range of Defoe’s works: political and historical writings, books on commerce and travel, religious and didactic treatises, and the novels. It attends to illustrated and collected editions, as well as international publishing contexts and translations. Ultimately, it attests to the enduring availability and diverse influence of Defoe’s works in the two centuries after his death.
Defoe and Economics
Authors: Seager Nicholas
Published: December 2023

This chapter outlines Daniel Defoe’s economic ideas, first situating his periodical essays, pamphlets, and economic tracts in the context of the financial revolution, then considering anxieties he expresses about the new ‘culture of commerce’, and finally applying these contexts to his novels. Defoe was a wholehearted supporter of Britain’s home trade, promoting vigorous circulation, generous wages, and high employment as conditions of national prosperity. He was also a mercantilist who advocated the state’s cultivation of favourable trade balances with foreign competitors, promoting high exports and colonial development. Defoe believed that trade improved society and the men who practised it, that it was part of God’s plan for fallen humanity, and that its operations matched the beauty of the creation and encouraged human ingenuity and progress. But he was concerned that credit and commerce posed insoluble moral challenges for his contemporaries, and his novels capture this ambivalence.
The Brief Outline
Authors: Nimmo Paul T.
Published: December 2023

This chapter explores Schleiermacher’s landmark work of theological encyclopedia, the Brief Outline of Theological Study. In a first section, the chapter surveys the contexts within which this work arose, considering both Enlightenment challenges to theological education and Schleiermacher’s own teaching career. A second section explores the content of the Brief Outline, offering a concise account of its four principal sections—its introduction, and its sections on philosophical theology, historical theology, and practical theology. In a third section, the chapter attends to the reception of the work and its attempt to hold the academic and the ecclesial together, exploring its historical influence and some critical responses. The conclusion reflects briefly upon the contemporary relevance of the Brief Outline.
Schleiermacher as a Scriptural Exegete
Authors: Patsch Hermann
Published: December 2023

From the beginning of his time as a professor in Halle and Berlin, Schleiermacher continually lectured on the New Testament, while at the same time, as a preacher, giving sermons on New Testament texts. For him, pulpit and lectern belonged together. His few scientific publications in this area have played an important role in the history of research in this field. His monograph on the First Epistle to Timothy proved foundational for critical research on the pastoral epistles. The monograph on Luke’s writings, which dealt only with the Gospel but was to comprise three volumes, anticipated later developments in form criticism. His later essay on Colossians 1:15–20 marked the beginning of historical-critical exegesis of this text. His analysis of Papias’ testimonies about the Gospels of Mark and Matthew resulted in the term “logia source.” The lectures on the introduction to the New Testament and on the life of Jesus were not published until Schleiermacher’s death.
Practical Theology
Authors: Weyel Birgit
Published: December 2023

In this chapter, Friedrich Schleiermacher’s definition of practical theology is first developed on the basis of his Brief Outline. In addition, his definition of theology as a theory of church leadership is expounded. Historical, philosophical, and practical theology form the context of reference in Schleiermacher’s work. Theology’s reference to the historical-empirical form of Christianity, which precedes theology as a positive science, is essential. The second part presents the structure of Schleiermacher’s lecture notes on practical theology as well as essential points of the “rules of art” (Kunstregeln) on practical theology. This includes the distinction between church service and church government, as well as central insights into worship, preaching, and pastoral care. Finally, Schleiermacher’s concept of practical theology as a theory of practice is highlighted against the background of contemporary university reform and the foundation of church seminars as an institutional supplement for practical theology.
Demonstratives
Authors: Diessel Holger
Published: December 2023

Demonstratives are a particular class of deictic expressions that can serve a variety of grammatical functions. Traditionally, demonstratives are categorized as pronouns and adjectives; but recent research in typology has argued that demonstratives can also function as determiners (Himmelmann 1997), adverbs of space, manner, and degree (König 2012, 2017), nonverbal predicators (Killian 2021), and verbs (Guérin 2015; Breunesse 2019). Building on this research, this chapter provides a cross-linguistic overview of the way demonstratives are organized in grammatical word classes. It is argued that, while the word-class categories of demonstratives are language-particular (Croft 2001), there is a cross-linguistic tendency for demonstratives to grammaticalize into certain categories, e.g. pronouns, determiners, adverbs, identifiers, and verbs. The chapter builds on the typology of demonstrative word classes proposed in Diessel (1999) but draws on a larger and more balanced database and integrates the results of recent cross-linguistic research on demonstrative verbs, predicators, and manner adverbs.
Ideophones
Authors: Dingemanse Mark
Published: December 2023

Many of the world’s languages feature an open lexical class of ideophones, words whose marked forms and sensory meanings invite iconic associations. Ideophones (also known as mimetics or expressives) are well known from languages in Asia, Africa, and the Americas, where they often form a class on the same order of magnitude as other major word classes and take up a considerable functional load as modifying expressions or predicates. Across languages, commonalities in the morphosyntactic behaviour of ideophones can be related to their nature and origin as vocal depictions. At the same time, there is ample room for linguistic diversity, raising the need for fine-grained grammatical description of ideophone systems. As vocal depictions, ideophones often form a distinct lexical stratum seemingly conjured out of thin air; but, as conventionalized words, they inevitably grow roots in local linguistic systems, showing relations to adverbs, adjectives, verbs, and other linguistic resources devoted to modification and predication.
Word-Class Universals and Language-Particular Analysis
Authors: Haspelmath Martin
Published: December 2023

The study of cross-linguistic word-class variability and its limits needs to be based on clear comparative concepts because languages have different grammatical structures. This chapter shows that the notions of (i) function indicators and (ii) semantic root classes give us a way of formulating universals and of distinguishing cross-linguistic macro-classes in a rigorous way. The root classes are action, property, and object; function indicators are markers that signal an unusual propositional act function (e.g. a copula signals predicative use of an object root, and a relativizer signals modifying use of an action root). The chapter argues for distinguishing clearly between comparison and language-particular analysis, because analysis must be based on language-particular constructions and is thus a rather different enterprise from the search for language universals.