bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Comment on the abundances of rotational and tangential discontinuities in the solar wind
Authors: Neugebauer M.
Published: April 2006

Several recent studies indicate that there are very few discontinuities in the solar wind that have both the small changes in field magnitude and the large components of the magnetic field normal to the discontinuity surface that are commonly assumed to be signatures of rotational discontinuities (RDs). Those results call into question the validity of earlier studies based on the minimum variance technique for determining the direction of the normal to the discontinuity; many of those studies concluded that RDs occur more frequently than tangential discontinuities (TDs). The new results raise the question of whether the discontinuities with both small magnitude changes and small normal components are TDs with small magnitude changes or RDs with small normal components. Reexamination of an earlier study of discontinuities observed with the ISEE 3 spacecraft and consideration of the plasma jump conditions across some of the discontinuities observed by Cluster fail to give a clear answer. The pros and cons of the two interpretations are summarized.
Spatio‐temporal variability of ocean temperature in the Portugal Current System
Authors: Lemos Ricardo T. , Sansó Bruno
Published: April 2006

A dynamic process convolution model (DPCM) is used to investigate the evolution and spatial distribution of monthly ocean temperature anomalies in the Portugal Current System. The analysis is performed with 20th century standard depth measurements from the National Oceanographic Data Center, ranging from the surface to 500 m depth. The proposed DPCM decomposes the temporal variability into short‐term non‐linear components and long‐term linear trends, with both components varying smoothly across latitude, longitude and depth. An important feature of the DPCM is that it allows the assessment of trend significance without ad hoc corrections, since the residuals are spatially and temporally uncorrelated. In the analyzed period, an overall warming of coastal surface waters off the west Iberian Peninsula is found, together with fading cross‐shelf temperature gradients and increased coastal stratification. Since previous studies also found that upwelling‐favorable winds have weakened from the 1940s onward, these results most likely reflect a long‐term weakening of the coastal upwelling regime. Transient periods of temperature change are also described and associated with known variability in the North Atlantic, and a final discussion on the link between the observed trends and anthropogenic forcing on climate is presented.
Tyranny Exposed: Mark's Typological Characterization of Herod Antipas (mark 6:14-29)
Authors: Smith Abraham
Published: April 2006

Erstwhile helpful historical and literary readings of Mark 6:14-29 traditionally give short shrift to the typological characterization of Herod Antipas as a tyrant in the gospel of Mark. This article addresses that gap by tracing the history and conventions of the tyrant typology and by drawing out the implications of the Markan characterization of Herod Antipas with the ancient stock features of a tyrant. Markan characterization of Herod Antipas not only exposes him as a tyrant. It also provides the rhetorical scaffolding for a thematic critique against tyrannical postures of any kind, including those that may have entered into Jesus' own fellowship.
The Sixth Session (Part Two) and Seventh Session of the Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change
Authors: Wirth David A.
Published: April 2006

The reconvened sixth session of the Conference of the Parties (COP-6bis) to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) took place in Bonn from July 16 to 27, 2001, under the presidency of Jan Pronk, Netherlands minister of housing, spatial planning, and the environment. The meeting was noteworthy as the occasion for adopting the Bonn Agreements on the Kyoto Protocol rules, a crucial juncture for entry into force of the principal international instrument for reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. The rules were adopted in final form as the Marrakesh Accords at the seventh session of the Conference of the Parties (COP-7), held in Marrakesh, Morocco, from October 29 to November 9, 2001.
Neither Bush nor the “Jurisprudes”
Authors: Gardner Richard N.
Published: April 2006

Relations between the United States and most other countries, including major U.S. allies, have been severely strained during the past year by divergent opinions about the rules of international law governing the use of armed force. On the one side, the Bush administration has unveiled a new strategic doctrine asserting the right to use force preemptively against any country or terrorist group that could potentially threaten U.S. security. On the other side, most UN members have rejected the Bush doctrine as inconsistent with the traditional view that armed force can only be used when authorized by the Security Council or in self-defense against an armed attack. I will argue that neither the new Bush doctrine nor the strict interpretation of the “jurisprudes” represents good law or good policy. The new strategic environment, marked by suicidal terrorists and the spread of mass destruction weapons, requires a different approach.
The Prospect for International Law and Order in the Wake of Iraq
Authors: Farer Tom J.
Published: April 2006

International lawyers should help our political leaders, die media, and the electorate appreciate more adequately the implications for international law and order of the United States-led invasion of Iraq and its nearest precedent, the Kosovo intervention. At this point, mid-2003, those implications remain unclear.
The 2003 Judicial Activity of the International Court of Justice
Authors: Crook John R.
Published: April 2006

The International Court of Justice again completed a substantial program of work during 2003, with old and new cases involving the United States figuring prominendy. In a decision that will find Hide favor in official Washington, the Court dismissed Iran's 1992 Oil Platforms case against the United States, but in doing so firmly rejected U.S. positions regarding the scope of self-defense. Libya withdrew its venerable Lockerbie cases against the United States and the United Kingdom, in parallel with its acceptance of responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing and the final lifting of UN sanctions. And Mexico sued the United States, claiming failures of consular notification for fifty-four Mexican nationals sentenced to death in U.S. proceedings, the third such ICJ case against the United States.

In other significant developments, the General Assembly in December asked die Court for an urgent advisory opinion on die legal consequences of the Israeli construction of a wall in occupied Palestinian territory. Malaysia and Singapore brought a new territorial dispute by special agreement; France consented to jurisdiction over a suit by the Republic of the Congo; and the Court rejected requests by Yugoslavia and El Salvador to revise earlier judgments. Finally, the Court elected Judge Shijiuyong of China as its president and Judge Raymond Ranjeva as vice president.
The Manley O. Hudson Lecture: Why Regime Change is (Almost Always) A Bad Idea
Authors: Reisman W. Michael
Published: April 2006

Every impulse to protect the weak and help the infirm is noble. The impulse to use the means at our disposal to liberate a people from a government that poses no imminent or prospective threat to us, but is so despotic, violent, and vicious that those suffering under it cannot shake it off, is also noble. The action that gives effect to that impulse may sometimes be internationally lawful. It may sometimes be feasible. It is often—but not always— misconceived.
The “Wall” Decisions in Legal and Political Context
Authors: Watson Geoffrey R.
Published: April 2006

In June 2002, the Israeli cabinet approved a plan to construct a continuous “security fence” separating much of the occupied West Bank of the Jordan River from Israel proper. The stated purpose of the barrier was to prevent Palestinian terrorists from entering Israel and killing Israeli civilians. Construction began in 2002, and a significant portion of the structure had been completed by early 2004. The current route of the wall deviates significantly from the “Green Line”—the 1949 armistice line that separates the West Bank from Israel. The fence frequently enters and traverses the West Bank, encircling Jewish settlements there. Eventually, about 15 percent of the territory of the West Bank, home to several hundred thousand Palestinians, will lie between the wall and the Green Line.
Increased Renal Arterial Resistance Predicts the Course of Renal Function in Type 2 Diabetes With Microalbuminuria
Authors: Nosadini Romano , Velussi Mario , Brocco Enrico , Abaterusso Cataldo , Carraro Andrea , Piarulli Francesco , Morgia Giuseppe , Satta Andrea , Faedda Rossana , Abhyankar Avinash , Luthman Holgher , Tonolo Giancarlo
Published: April 2006

Type 2 diabetic patients often die because of end-stage renal failure, but no definitive reliable factor predicting long-term renal outcome has been identified. We tested whether a renal arterial resistance index (R/I) ≥80, using Doppler ultrasound technique, was predictive of worsening renal function. The primary end points of the study were 1) the course of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and 2) the albumin excretion rate in 157 microalbuminuric, hypertensive, type 2 diabetic patients after a 7.8-year follow-up period (range 7.1–9.2). Kaplan-Meier curves for the primary end point (decrease of GFR ≥−3.0 ml/min per 1.73 m2 per year) was two to three times more frequently observed in patients with R/I ≥80. Four- to fivefold fewer patients showed a regression to normoalbuminuria during the follow-up period from baseline microalbuminuria in the cohort with R/I ≥80. Overt proteinuria did develop in 24% of patients with R/I ≥80 and in 5% of patients with R/I <80 (P < 0.01). In conclusion, intrarenal arterial resistance appears to play a nontrivial role in deteriorating renal function in type 2 diabetic patients. R/I is a noninvasive diagnostic procedure, which strongly predicts the outcome of renal function in type 2 diabetic patients, even when GFR patterns are still normal.
Improvement in Glycemic Excursions With a Transcutaneous, Real-Time Continuous Glucose Sensor
Authors: Garg Satish , Zisser Howard , Schwartz Sherwyn , Bailey Timothy , Kaplan Roy , Ellis Samuel , Jovanovic Lois
Published: April 2006

OBJECTIVE—Hypoglycemia and wide glucose excursions continue to be major obstacles to achieving target HbA1c values and the associated reductions in long-term complications (and economic costs) in people with insulin-treated diabetes. In this study we evaluated the accuracy, safety, and clinical effectiveness of a continuous glucose-sensing device.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—A total of 91 insulin-requiring patients with type 1 (n = 75) and type 2 (n = 16) diabetes were enrolled in this multicenter randomized study. Subjects wore a transcutaneous, 3-day, continuous glucose-sensing system for three consecutive 72-h periods. Subjects were randomly assigned (1:1 ratio) to either a control group (continuous glucose data not provided) or a display group (continuous glucose data not provided during period 1 but displayed during periods 2 and 3). During periods 2 and 3, patients in the display group had real-time access to sensor glucose values, could review glucose trends over the preceding 1, 3, and 9 h, and were provided with high (≥200 mg/dl) and low (≤80 mg/dl) alerts and a low (≤55 mg/dl) alarm. Sensors were inserted by patients, and both groups used (or wore) the system during daily activities. Device accuracy was assessed by comparing continuous glucose values to paired self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) meter readings. Clinical effectiveness was evaluated by analyzing between-group (control vs. display, periods 2 and 3) and within-group (display, period 1 vs. period 3) differences in time spent in high, low, and target (81–140 mg/dl) glucose zones.

RESULTS—When prospective, real-time sensor values were compared with SMBG values, 95.4% of 6,767 paired glucose values fell within Clarke error grid A and B zones. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was 0.88, and mean and median absolute relative differences were 21.2 and 15.9%, respectively. No systematic bias was detected at any of the prespecified glucose levels (50, 80, 100, 150, and 200 mg/dl). When compared with control subjects, the display group spent 21% less time as hypoglycemic (<55 mg/dl), 23% less time as hyperglycemic (≥240 mg/dl), and 26% more time in the target (81–140 mg/dl) glucose range (P < 0.001 for each comparison). Nocturnal (10:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.) hypoglycemia, as assessed at two thresholds, was also reduced by 38% (<55 mg/dl; P < 0.001) and 33% (55–80 mg/dl; P < 0.001) in the display group compared with control subjects.

CONCLUSIONS—We conclude that real-time continuous glucose monitoring for periods up to 72 h is accurate and safe in insulin-requiring subjects with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. This study demonstrates that availability of real-time, continuously measured glucose levels can significantly improve glycemic excursions by reducing exposure to hyperglycemia without increasing the risk of hypoglycemia, which may reduce long-term diabetes complications and their associated economic costs.
Optimization and uncertainty estimates of WMO regression models for the systematic bias adjustment of NLDAS precipitation in the United States
Authors: Xia Youlong
Published: April 2006

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) regression models for precipitation gauge bias developed by Goodison et al. (1998) were optimized using the very fast simulated annealing algorithm. The regression model uncertainties were estimated by use of a Bayesian stochastic inversion (BSI) algorithm. Legates and Willmott's (1990) precipitation correction factors database (applicable to average monthly conditions) were used to constrain model parameters. Daily wind speed, air temperature, and precipitation from the North American Land Data Assimilation System (NLDAS) were used as input for the WMO regression models in the United States. The results show that the optimal regression model is reasonably bounded by the WMO Alter‐shielded and unshielded models for both rain and snow. The optimized regression model, aside from reproducing reasonably well the Legates‐Willmott average monthly adjustment factors, also describes daily and interannual variation of precipitation correction factors. The relations among model parameters and model uncertainties, including regression parameter uncertainty and input data uncertainty, are examined. The results show strong relations between regression model uncertainties and uncertain NLDAS wind speed. Uncertainty of NLDAS data has little effect on optimization of the WMO regression model. However, it has significant effects on uncertainty of the regression model parameters and the precipitation correction factors.
Spatial and temporal heterogeneity in aerosol properties and radiative forcing over Bay of Bengal: Sources and role of aerosol transport
Authors: Satheesh S. K. , Srinivasan J. , Moorthy K. K.
Published: April 2006

The Bay of Bengal (BoB) region is a small oceanic region surrounded by landmasses with distinct natural and anthropogenic aerosol sources. Despite this and the significant influence of BoB on the Indian monsoon and weather, information on aerosols and its spatial and temporal heterogeneity is sparse. The observations onboard several cruises and on an island location have been used in this paper along with satellite (MODIS onboard TERRA satellite) data (2000–2004) to study the spatial and temporal heterogeneity in aerosol properties. Our studies show that seasonal variation in aerosol optical depths over northern BoB are similar to that of east coast of India and west China, whereas variations over the southern BoB region are similar to that of Arabian Sea. The aerosol optical depths (AODs) and black carbon (BC) mass fraction (MF) over northern BoB reach their maximum value during April/May (AOD ∼0.48 ± 0.06; BCMF ∼6%) and minimum during October/November (AOD ∼0.19 ± 0.02; BCMF ∼3%) in contrast to the seasonal pattern reported over Arabian Sea by earlier investigations. Over equatorial Indian Ocean south of BoB, AODs were low (∼0.11 ± 0.03) and seasonal variations were not very significant. The whole‐sky (including clouds) aerosol surface radiative forcing (0.2 to 40 μm) over northern BoB was in the range of −9 to −30 W m−2, whereas that over southern BoB was in the range of −3 to −12 W m−2. The corresponding atmospheric forcing was in the range of +6 to +20 W m−2 and +1 to +6 W m−2. The atmospheric absorption translates to a heating rate of 0.5 to 1.0 K/day.
Field-dependent ordered phases and Kondo phenomena in the filled skutterudite compound PrOs4As12
Authors: Maple M. B. , Butch N. P. , Frederick N. A. , Ho P.-C. , Jeffries J. R. , Sayles T. A. , Yanagisawa T. , Yuhasz W. M. , Chi Songxue , Kang H. J. , Lynn J. W. , Dai Pengcheng , McCall S. K. , McElfresh M. W. , Fluss M. J. , Henkie Z. , Pietraszko A.
Published: April 2006

Electrical resistivity, specific heat, and magnetization measurements to temperatures as low as 80 mK and magnetic fields up to 16 T were made on the filled skutterudite compound PrOs4As12. The measurements reveal the presence of two ordered phases at temperatures below approximately 2.3 K and in fields below approximately 3 T. Neutron-scattering experiments in zero field establish an antiferromagnetic ground state <2.28 K. In the antiferromagnetically ordered state, the electronic-specific heat coefficient γ ≈ 1 J/mol·K2below 1.6 K and 0 ≤H≤ 1.25 T. The temperature and magnetic-field dependence of the electrical resistivity and specific heat in the paramagnetic state are consistent with single-ion Kondo behavior with a low Kondo temperature on the order of 1 K. The electronic-specific heat in the paramagnetic state can be described by the resonance-level model with a large zero-temperature electronic-specific heat coefficient that decreases with increasing magnetic field from approximately 1 J/mol·K2at 3 T to approximately 0.2 J/mol·K2at 16 T.
G8: a novel domain associated with polycystic kidney disease and non-syndromic hearing loss
Authors: He Quan-yuan , Liu Xiang-hua , Li Qiang , Studholme David J. , Li Xuan-wen , Liang Song-ping
Published: April 2006

Summary: We report a novel protein domain—G8—which contains five repeated β-strand pairs and is present in some disease-related proteins such as PKHD1, KIAA1199, TMEM2 as well as other uncharacterized proteins. Most G8-containing proteins are predicted to be membrane-integral or secreted. The G8 domain may be involved in extracellular ligand binding and catalysis. It has been reported that mis-sense mutations in the two G8 domains of human PKHD1 protein resulted in a less stable protein and are associated with autosomal-recessive polycystic kidney disease, indicating the importance of the domain structure. G8 is also present in the N-terminus of some non-syndromic hearing loss disease-related proteins such as KIAA1109 and TMEM2. Discovery of G8 domain will be important for the research of the structure/function of related proteins and beneficial for the development of novel therapeutics.

Contact:  liangsp@hunnu.edu.cn
Two Sample Logo: a graphical representation of the differences between two sets of sequence alignments
Authors: Vacic Vladimir , Iakoucheva Lilia M. , Radivojac Predrag
Published: April 2006

Sumary: Two Sample Logo is a web-based tool that detects and displays statistically significant differences in position-specific symbol compositions between two sets of multiple sequence alignments. In a typical scenario, two groups of aligned sequences will share a common motif but will differ in their functional annotation. The inclusion of the background alignment provides an appropriate underlying amino acid or nucleotide distribution and addresses intersite symbol correlations. In addition, the difference detection process is sensitive to the sizes of the aligned groups. Two Sample Logo extends WebLogo, a widely-used sequence logo generator. The source code is distributed under the MIT Open Source license agreement and is available for download free of charge.

Availability:  

Contact:  predrag@indiana.edu
WRI1 Is Required for Seed Germination and Seedling Establishment
Authors: Cernac Alex , Andre Carl , Hoffmann-Benning Susanne , Benning Christoph
Published: April 2006

Storage compound accumulation during seed development prepares the next generation of plants for survival. Therefore, processes involved in the regulation and synthesis of storage compound accumulation during seed development bear relevance to germination and seedling establishment. The wrinkled1 (wri1) mutant of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) is impaired in seed oil accumulation. The WRI1 gene encodes an APETALA2/ethylene-responsive element-binding protein transcription factor involved in the control of metabolism, particularly glycolysis, in the developing seeds. Here we investigate the role of this regulatory factor in seed germination and seedling establishment by comparing the wri1-1 mutant, transgenic lines expressing the WRI1 wild-type cDNA in the wri1-1 mutant background, and the wild type. Plants altered in the expression of the WRI1 gene showed different germination responses to the growth factor abscisic acid (ABA), sugars, and fatty acids provided in the medium. Germination of the mutant was more sensitive to ABA, sugars, and osmolites, an effect that was alleviated by increased WRI1 expression in transgenic lines. The expression of ABA-responsive genes AtEM6 and ABA-insensitive 3 (ABI3) was increased in the wri1-1 mutant. Double-mutant analysis between abi3-3 and wri1-1 suggested that WRI1 and ABI3, a transcription factor mediating ABA responses in seeds, act in parallel pathways. Addition of 2-deoxyglucose inhibited seed germination, but did so less in lines overexpressing WRI1. Seedling establishment was decreased in the wri1-1 mutant but could be alleviated by sucrose. Apart from a possible signaling role in germination, sugars in the medium were required as building blocks and energy supply during wri1-1 seedling establishment.
Role of glutamate in a visceral sympathoexcitatory reflex in rostral ventrolateral medulla of cats
Authors: Zhou Wei , Fu Liang-Wu , Tjen-A-Looi Stephanie C. , Guo Zhi-ling , Longhurst John C.
Published: April 2006

The rostral ventrolateral medulla (rVLM) is involved in processing visceral sympathetic reflexes. However, there is little information on specific neurotransmitters in this brain stem region involved in this reflex. The present study investigated the importance of glutamate and glutamatergic receptors in the rVLM during gallbladder stimulation with bradykinin (BK), because glutamate is thought to function as an excitatory neurotransmitter in this region. Stimulation of visceral afferents activated glutamatergic neurons in the rVLM, as noted by double-labeling with c-Fos and the cellular vesicular glutamate transporter 3 (VGLUT3). Visceral reflex activation significantly increased arterial blood pressure as well as extracellular glutamate concentrations in the rVLM as determined by microdialysis. Barodenervation did not alter the release of glutamate in the rVLM evoked by visceral reflex stimulation. Iontophoresis of glutamate into the rVLM enhanced the activity of sympathetic premotor cardiovascular rVLM neurons. Also, the responses of these neurons to visceral afferent stimulation with BK were attenuated significantly (70%) by blockade of glutamatergic receptors with kynurenic acid. Microinjection of either an N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist 2-amino-5-phosphonopentanate (25 mM, 30 nl) or an dl-α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate (AMPA) receptor antagonist 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (2 mM, 30 nl) into the rVLM significantly attenuated the visceral sympathoexcitatory reflex responses. These results suggest that glutamate in the rVLM serves as an excitatory neurotransmitter through a baroreflex-independent mechanism and that both NMDA and AMPA receptors mediate the visceral sympathoexcitatory reflex responses.
Lifetimes of epicardial rotors in panoramic optical maps of fibrillating swine ventricles
Authors: Kay Matthew W. , Walcott Gregory P. , Gladden James D. , Melnick Sharon B. , Rogers Jack M.
Published: April 2006

During ventricular fibrillation (VF), electrical activation waves are fragmented, and the heart cannot contract in synchrony. It has been proposed that VF waves emanate from stable periodic sources (often called “mother rotors”). The objective of the present study was to determine if stable rotors are consistently present on the epicardial surface of hearts comparable in size to human hearts. Using new optical mapping technology, we imaged VF from nearly the entire ventricular surface of six isolated swine hearts. Using newly developed pattern analysis algorithms, we identified and tracked VF wave fronts and phase singularities (PS; the pivot point of a reentrant wave front). We introduce the notion of a compound rotor in which the rotor's central PS can change and describe an algorithm for automatically identifying such patterns. This prevents rotor lifetimes from being inappropriately abbreviated by wave front fragmentation and collision events near the PS. We found that stable epicardial rotors were not consistently present during VF: only 1 of 17 VF episodes contained a compound rotor that lasted for the entire mapped interval of 4 s. However, shorter-lived rotors were common; 12.2 (SD 3.3) compound rotors with lifetime >200 ms were visible on the epicardium at any given instant. We conclude that epicardial mother rotors do not drive VF in this experimental model; if mother rotors do exist, they are intramural or septal. This paucity of persistent rotors suggests that individual rotors will eventually terminate by themselves and therefore that the continual formation of new rotors is critical for VF maintenance.
Prehistory in the Call to Abraham
Authors: Eslinger Lyle
Published: April 2006

A common pool of primitive human values fuels the world's religions. These values are evident in classical religions and are found lying on the surface in the book of Genesis, which is among the Bible's richest archetypal repositories. The Genesis pre-history focuses on human well-being. The mythological assumptions underlying this story manifest the rudiments of human thought and experience laid down in the archaic period. A hostile natural environment evokes behaviour to overcome its hazards. The narrative explores the mythological options of agency for achieving human well-being. As in other theistic worldviews two primary agencies are envisioned. Gods and humans, each with strengths and weaknesses, are potential protagonists on the stage of human optimism. Genesis inherits a southwest Asian cosmogony in which the gods are hostile to the advanced potential of collective human agency. Divine hostility complicates agency options, leading to a devotional compromise in the form of God's covenant with Abraham. The essay suggests the value of a renewed awareness of the influence of archaic human experience on the classical literature of ancient Israel. The argument is developed with reference to the traditional figure of Abraham.
Wear behaviour of 85Al–10La–5Ni alloy prepared by powder metallurgy
Authors: Li J. C. , Jiang Q. , Xu D. W.
Published: April 2006

The dry wear behaviour of 85Al–10La–5Ni (at.-%) alloy hot pressed has been studied. The result shows that 85Al–10La–5Ni alloy possessed excellent wear resistance. The wear resistance of the alloy pressed at 773 K is three times as high as that of the A355 aluminium alloy. The fine high hardness intermetallic compounds contribute to the wear resistance of the alloy.
Cultural aspects of telepsychiatry
Authors: Shore Jay H , Savin Daniel M , Novins Douglas , Manson Spero M
Published: April 2006

Telepsychiatry may involve working with clinicians, patients and systems of care that are both geographically and culturally distinct. In this context, culturally appropriate care is an important component of telepsychiatry. The outline for cultural formulation from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) provides general principles for addressing these issues. Two components of the outline are particularly relevant in telepsychiatry: (1) how the cultural background of patients (i.e. their cultural identity) influences their comfort with technology; and (2) the effect of cultural differences on the patient–provider relationship. Cultural differences between patient and provider are often highlighted in telepsychiatry by the patient and provider location (e.g. rural versus urban differences). Familiarity with the rural community and regular contact and feedback are important. Future research should examine the effect of telepsychiatry on patient–provider relationships, patient attitudes towards care and, most importantly, patient outcomes.
Diagnostic value of written referral and/or images for skin lesions
Authors: Oakley Amanda M M , Reeves Felicity , Bennett Jane , Holmes Stephen H , Wickham Hadley
Published: April 2006

We examined whether it is possible for a dermatologist to diagnose benign and malignant skin lesions by telemedicine, given a comprehensive history and/or clinical images. A medical student recorded a standardized history and description of 109 skin lesions and took digital photographs of the presenting lesion(s) immediately prior to a normal outpatient dermatology consultation. About 52 dermatologists were invited to participate in online diagnosis. In all, 38 took part and they were provided with the text and/or the image(s) online on a secure Website. When the images and text were provided, 53% of teledermatology diagnoses were the same as the face-to-face diagnosis. When images alone were provided, 57% of diagnoses were the same. When text alone was provided, 41% of diagnoses were the same. The relatively low diagnostic concordance may have been due to the inexperience of many teledermatologists and poor quality image display systems. The teledermatologists were less confident in their diagnoses than face-to-face specialists, especially in the absence of images. The teledermatology management plan was more likely to include biopsy, excision or review than was the case at the face-to-face consultation. Teledermatology may result in an increase in follow-up appointments and surgical procedures.
Counterintuiting Countermeasures
Authors: Bederman David J.
Published: April 2006

The adoption in August 2001 by the International Law Commission (ILC) of its articles on responsibility of states for internationally wrongful acts well and truly brings to a close the twentieth century’s engagement with international law as (in Martti Koskenniemi’s memorable refashioning of George Kennan’s savage critique) a “gentle civilizer of nations.” Including the entry into force of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, the seven pillars of international legal codification have been completed with some form of assistance by the ILC: diplomatic immunities, the law of the sea, a comprehensive law of treaties, the Nuremberg Principles, andjurisdictional immunities of states. Indeed, the articles on state responsibility may represent an even greater methodological challenge for international law codification because they pose fundamental questions regarding the identity and nature of states. Like the Montevideo Convention on Rights and Duties of States and the ILC’s own somewhat obtuse efforts on the international law of state succession, the articles on state responsibility go to the intellectual core of public international law by delimiting the character of states and the nature of their obligations when they interact with other international actors. Perhaps, then, it is no surprise that the ILC’s journey into that doctrinal realm took over half a century, and consumed the attention of five special rapporteurs and countless Commission members.
Righting Wrongs: Reparations in the Articles on State Responsibility
Authors: Shelton Dinah
Published: April 2006

The International Law Commission’s articles on reparations restate the existing law on remedies, but they also innovate in significant ways to reinforce broader community interests in international legality. Given the dearth of precedents on reparations, both aspects can be helpful to tribunals and parties engaged in traditional interstate litigation, but the progressive elements, if they are accepted by states, could have wider application in supporting mechanisms to enhance implementation and observance of international obligations. The combination of codification and progressive development, however, is sometimes an uneasy fit and leaves unanswered several important questions about the theoretical foundation and practical application of the law of reparations. Even the seeming clarity of the articles is deceptive because some of the concepts included in the broadly drafted provisions can be difficult to apply in practice.
Security Council Resolution 1373, the Counter-Terrorism Committee, and the Fight Against Terrorism
Authors: Rosand Eric
Published: April 2006

Following September 11, 2001, the Security Council took a number of important steps in the fight against terrorism. It condemned global terror and recognized the right to self-defense under Article 51 of the UN Charter in responding forcefully to those horrific attacks. Perhaps its most significant action in this area, however, was the adoption of Resolution 1373 which established the Counter-Terrorism Committee (the CTC). Addressing the significance and substance of this Security Council action, this essay reviews the work of the CTC to date, highlighting some of its accomplishments, and then touches upon some of the challenges the CTC will likely confront as it progresses with its mission. How it chooses to confront these challenges will surely have a considerable impact on its future work.
The Law of Aerial Bombardment in the 1991 Gulf War
Authors: Lewis Michael W.
Published: April 2006

I shall often go wrong through defect of judgment. When right, I shall often be thought wrong by those whose positions will not command a view of the whole ground. I ask your indulgence for my own errors, which will never be intentional, and your support against the errors of others, who may condemn what they would not if seen in all its parts.

—Thomas Jefferson

On August 2,1990, Iraqi forces invaded and occupied Kuwait, beginning a seven-monthlong series of events that would come to be known as the Persian Gulf war. Perhaps the most thoroughly examined of these events was the thirty-eight-day air campaign, which began on January 17,1991, and marked the beginning of the offensive by the coalition of states arrayed against Iraq, which ended after the latter’s withdrawal from Kuwait. Much has been written about the air campaign and its objectives, its implications for the future use of military force, and the extent to which it conformed to international law. Although this article will focus on the last of these topics, a contextual understanding of the air campaign is essential to a serious consideration of the military necessity and proportionality issues that lie at the heart of the legal analysis.
What Future for the UN Charter System of War Prevention?
Authors: Falk Richard A.
Published: April 2006

President George W. Bush historically challenged the United Nations Security Council when he uttered some memorable words in the course of his September 12, 2002, speech to the General Assembly: “Will the UN serve the purpose of its founding, or will it be irrelevant?” In the aftermath of the Iraq war there are at least two answers to this question. The answer of the U.S. government would be to suggest that the United Nations turned out to be irrelevant due to its failure to endorse recourse to war against the Iraq of Saddam Hussein. The answer of those who opposed the war is that the UN Security Council served the purpose of its founding by its refusal to endorse recourse to a war that could not be persuasively reconciled with the UN Charter and international law. This difference of assessment is not just factual, whether Iraq was a threat and whether the inspection process was succeeding at a reasonable pace; it was also conceptual, even jurisprudential. The resolution of this latter debate is likely to shape the future role of the United Nations, as well as influence the attitude of the most powerful sovereign state as to the relationship between international law generally and the use of force as an instrument of foreign policy.
Goodwin v. United Kingdom. App. No. 28957/95 and I. v. United Kingdom. App. No. 25680/94
Authors: Caron David D. , Smith Rhona K. M.
Published: April 2006

Goodwin v. United Kingdom. App. No. 28957/95. At .

European Court of Human Rights, Grand Chamber, July 11, 2002.

I. v. United Kingdom. App. No. 25680/94. At . European Court of Human Rights, Grand Chamber, July 11, 2002.

Under English law, people may change their names and use those new names for official purposes. At the same time, specified biological criteria determine the sex of individuals under the law for various purposes, including marriage and retirement pensions. In Goodwin v. United Kingdom and I. v. United Kingdom, the question presented was whether such biological criteria impermissibly operate to the prejudice of postoperative transsexuals. The grand chamber of the European Court of Human Rights unanimously concluded that the practice of restricting gender in national law to the one registered at birth infringed both the right to respect for private life and the right to marry, contrary to the guarantees of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.
Misusing International Sources to Interpret the Constitution
Authors: Alford Roger P.
Published: April 2006

In the keynote address to the 2003 annual meeting of the American Society of International Law, Justice Stephen Breyer declared that “comparative analysis emphatically is relevant to the task of interpreting constitutions and enforcing human rights.” Justice Breyer concluded that nothing could be “more exciting for an academic, practitioner, or judge than the global legal enterprise that is now upon us.” In a room filled with international lawyers and academics, he received a home court standing ovation.
Restrictions on U.S. Attorneys Practicing Before International Criminal Tribunals
Authors: Cedarbaum Jonathan G.
Published: April 2006

On May 28, 2003, President Bush issued Executive Order No. 13,304 under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), thereby “blocking” the property of individuals who, he determined, threatened efforts to bring stability to the Balkans. The blocking order prohibited U.S. citizens from, among other things, “making or receiving… any contribution or provision of funds, goods, or services to or for the benefit of” any of die targeted individuals unless the U.S. citizen received a license from the U.S. government. Included in the list of targeted persons were more than eighty individuals indicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY). EO 13,304's sweeping prohibition on U.S. citizens’ economic relations with die targeted persons consequently appeared to ban U.S. lawyers from representing virtually any defendants being prosecuted at the ICTY—a ban mat would have required the twenty or so U.S. lawyers widi such clients to break off their representation immediately, regardless of die stage that their cases had reached. Indeed, the U.S. Treasury Department office that administers IEEPA blocking orders informed three U.S. attorneys representing a client in a complex, lengthy appeal that, without a license, dieir continued representation of that client constituted a “prohibited exportation of legal services” and thus violated the order and its accompanying regulations.
The Advisory Opinion: The Light Treatment of International Humanitarian Law
Authors: Kretzmer David
Published: April 2006

Ever since the occupation of the West Bank and Gaza began in 1967, the Supreme Court of Israel has entertained petitions challenging actions of the Israeli authorities in those territories. The Court has delivered dozens of judgments in which it addressed questions of international humanitarian law in a situation of belligerent occupation. For a long time the Supreme Court was the sole judicial actor in this sphere. While its judgments were subjected to scrutiny and criticism by academics, no other judicial organs, domestic or international, ruled on the difficult legal issues discussed by the Court. The request for an advisory opinion provided the International Court of Justice (ICJ) with a unique opportunity to address and clarify some of the issues that had previously remained in the exclusive domain of the Supreme Court of Israel. Unfortunately, the Court did not take full advantage of this opportunity. As Judge Rosalyn Higgins noted in her separate opinion, the Court refrained from engaging in a detailed analysis of the law, thereby failing to follow “the tradition of using advisory opinions as an opportunity to elaborate and develop international law.” The opinion is especially weak on questions of international humanitarian law (IHL), which makes it extremely difficult to know what the Court actually decided on these questions.
Coexpression of CD25 and OX40 (CD134) Receptors Delineates Autoreactive T-cells in Type 1 Diabetes
Authors: Endl Josef , Rosinger Silke , Schwarz Barbara , Friedrich Sven-Olaf , Rothe Gregor , Karges Wolfram , Schlosser Michael , Eiermann Thomas , Schendel Dolores J. , Boehm Bernhard O.
Published: April 2006

T-cell–mediated loss of pancreatic β-cells is the crucial event in the development of type 1 diabetes. The phenotypic characteristics of disease-associated T-cells in type 1 diabetes have not yet been defined. The negative results from two intervention trials (the Diabetes Prevention Trial–Type 1 Diabetes and the European Nicotinamide Diabetes Intervention Trial) illustrate the need for technologies to specifically monitor ongoing autoimmune reactions. We used fluorescence-activated cell sorter analysis to study surface marker expression on T-cell lines specific for two major type 1 diabetes autoantigens, GAD65 and proinsulin. We then applied this knowledge in a cross-sectional approach to delineate the phenotype of circulating memory T-cells. The autoreactive T-cells of patients could be distinguished from those of control subjects by their coexpression of CD25 and CD134. Autoantigen-specific T-cells that recognized multiple GAD65- and preproinsulin-derived peptides and coexpressed CD25+CD134+ were confined to patients (n = 32) and pre-diabetic probands (n = 5). Autoantigen-reactive T-cells in control subjects (n = 21) were CD25+CD134− and recognized fewer autoantigen-derived peptides. Insulin therapy did not induce CD25+CD134+ T-cells in type 2 diabetic patients. The coexpression of CD25 and the costimulatory molecule CD134 on memory T-cells provides a novel marker for type 1 diabetes–associated T-cell immunity. The CD134 costimulatory molecule may also provide a novel therapeutic target in type 1 diabetes.
Y2Y4 Receptor Double Knockout Protects Against Obesity Due to a High-Fat Diet or Y1 Receptor Deficiency in Mice
Authors: Sainsbury Amanda , Bergen Hugo T. , Boey Dana , Bamming Darja , Cooney Gregory J. , Lin Shu , Couzens Michelle , Stroth Nikolas , Lee Nicola J. , Lindner Diana , Singewald Nicolas , Karl Tim , Duffy Liesl , Enriquez Ronaldo , Slack Katy , Sperk Günther , Herzog Herbert
Published: April 2006

Neuropeptide Y receptors are critical regulators of energy homeostasis, but the functional interactions and relative contributions of Y receptors and the environment in this process are unknown. We measured the effects of an ad libitum diet of normal or high-fat food on energy balance in mice with single, double, or triple deficiencies of Y1, Y2, or Y4 receptors. Whereas wild-type mice developed diet-induced obesity, Y2Y4 double knockouts did not. In contrast, Y1 knockout or Y1Y2 or Y1Y4 receptor double knockout mice developed an exacerbated diet-induced obesity syndrome. Remarkably, the antiobesity effect of Y2Y4 deficiency was stronger than the obesogenic effect of Y1 deficiency, since Y1Y2Y4 triple knockouts did not develop obesity on the high-fat diet. Resistance to diet-induced obesity in Y2Y4 knockouts was associated with reduced food intake and improved glucose tolerance in the absence of changes in total physical activity. Fecal concentration of free fatty acids was significantly increased in Y2Y4 knockouts in association with a significantly reduced bile acid pool and marked alterations in intestinal morphology. In addition, hypothalamic proopiomelanocortin expression was decreased in diet-induced obesity (in both wild-type and Y1 receptor knockout mice) but not in obesity-resistant Y2Y4 receptor knockout mice fed a high-fat diet. Therefore, deletion of Y2 and Y4 receptors synergistically protects against diet-induced obesity, at least partially via changes in food intake and hypothalamic proopiomelanocortin expression.
The Diabetes Type 1 LocusIdd6Modulates Activity of CD4+CD25+ Regulatory T-Cells
Authors: Rogner Ute Christine , Lepault Françoise , Gagnerault Marie-Claude , Vallois David , Morin Joëlle , Avner Philip , Boitard Christian
Published: April 2006

The genetic locus Idd6 confers susceptibility to the spontaneous development of type 1 diabetes in the NOD mouse. Our studies on disease resistance of the congenic mouse strain NOD.C3H 6.VIII showed that Idd6 influences T-cell activities in the peripheral immune system and suggest that a major mechanism by which the Idd6 locus modifies diabetes development is via modulation of regulatory T-cell activities. Our transfer experiments using total splenocytes and purified T-cells demonstrated that the locus specifically controls the efficiency of disease protection mediated by the regulatory CD4+CD25+ T-cell subset. Our data also implicate the Idd6 locus in controlling the balance between infiltrating lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells within the pancreatic islet.
Variants in the Human Insulin Gene That Affect Pre-mRNA Splicing
Authors: Královičová Jana , Gaunt Tom R. , Rodriguez Santiago , Wood Peter J. , Day Ian N.M. , Vořechovský Igor
Published: April 2006

Predisposition to type 1 diabetes and juvenile obesity is influenced by the susceptibility locus IDDM2 that includes the insulin gene (INS). Although the risk conferred by IDDM2 has been attributed to a minisatellite upstream of INS, intragenic variants have not been ruled out. We examined whether INS polymorphisms affect pre-mRNA splicing and proinsulin secretion using minigene reporter assays. We show that IVS1-6A/T (−23HphI+/−) is a key INS variant that influences alternative splicing of intron 1 through differential recognition of its 3′ splice site. The A allele resulted in an increased production of mature transcripts with a long 5′ leader in several cell lines, and the extended mRNAs generated more proinsulin in culture supernatants than natural transcripts. The longer mRNAs were significantly overrepresented among β-cell-expressed sequenced tags containing the A allele as compared with those with T alleles. In addition, we show that a rare insertion/deletion polymorphism IVS1+5insTTGC (IVS-69), which is exclusively present in Africans, activated a downstream cryptic 5′ splice site, extending the 5′ leader by 30 bp. These results indicate that −23HphI and IVS-69 are the most important INS variants affecting pre-mRNA splicing and suggest that −23HphI+/− is a common functional single nucleotide polymorphism at IDDM2.