bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Social identity as both cause and effect: The development of group identification in response to anticipated and actual changes in the intergroup status hierarchy
Authors: Doosje Bertjan , Spears Russell , Ellemers Naomi
Published: February 2003

This study investigates how in‐group identification develops during group interaction and forms a dynamic input and output that changes over time. Phase 1 of the study shows how initial level of identification in combination with anticipated changes in the intergroup status hierarchy, predicts subsequent levels of identification. Whereas low identifiers only express solidarity with their group to the extent that the improvement of group status constitutes a likely prospect, high identifiers maintain commitment even if their group faces an uncertain or bleak future. During Phase 2 of the study, it is shown how low and high identifiers respond differently to actual changes in the intergroup status structure. Overall, low identifiers seem more instrumental than high identifiers, in the sense that the former are only prepared to affirm identification with a low status group when status improvement is imminent, or has actually been realized. These results are discussed with reference to social identity theory.
The prediction of attitudes from beliefs and evaluations: The logic of the double negative
Authors: Trafimow David , Finlay Krystina A.
Published: February 2003

One of the most intriguing aspects of Fishbein's (e.g. 1980) theory of reasoned action is the logic of the double negative: if a behaviour is thought to be unlikely to result in a negatively evaluated consequence, then the product of the two negatives (an unlikely consequence that is negatively valued) is thought to provide an impetus for the formation of a positive attitude towards the behaviour. The present experiment tested two derivations from the logic of the double negative. First, according to this logic, whether beliefs and evaluations are positively or negatively framed should not affect their ability to predict attitudes. Second, the multiplicative assumption of this logic (a negative × negative = a positive) suggests that a multiplicative model should be a superior predictor of attitudes compared to an additive model that does not allow for the logic of the double negative. The obtained findings contradicted both of these predictions.
Are essentialist beliefs associated with prejudice?
Authors: Haslam Nick , Rothschild Louis , Ernst Donald
Published: February 2003

Gordon Allport (1954) proposed that belief in group essences is one aspect of the prejudiced personality, alongside a rigid, dichotomous and ambiguity‐intolerant cognitive style. We examined whether essentialist beliefs—beliefs that a social category has a fixed, inherent, identity‐defining nature—are indeed associated in this fashion with prejudice towards black people, women and gay men. Allport's claim, which is mirrored by many contemporary social theorists, received partial support but had to be qualified in important respects. Essence‐related beliefs were associated strongly with anti‐gay attitudes but only weakly with sexism and racism, and they did not reflect a cognitive style that was consistent across stigmatized categories. When associations with prejudice were obtained, only a few specific beliefs were involved, and some anti‐essentialist beliefs were associated with anti‐gay attitudes. Nevertheless, the powerful association that essence‐related beliefs had with anti‐gay attitudes was independent of established prejudice‐related traits, indicating that they have a significant role to play in the psychology of prejudice.
Evidence that perceived behavioural control is a multidimensional construct: Perceived control and perceived difficulty
Authors: Trafimow David , Sheeran Paschal , Conner Mark , Finlay Krystina A.
Published: February 2003

Four studies were performed to test whether Ajzen's (1988, 1991) concept of perceived behavioural control is really an amalgamation of two variables, which we term ‘perceived control’ and ‘perceived difficulty’. Perceived control refers to the extent to which people consider the performance of a behaviour to be under their voluntary control. Perceived difficulty refers to whether people consider a behaviour to be easy or difficult to perform, Findings from Studies 1 to 4 demonstrate that it is possible to perform manipulations that affect perceived control more than perceived difficulty, or that affect perceived difficulty more than perceived control. Studies 2–4 used a variety of paradigms to show that people distinguish between beliefs that are presumed to underlie perceived control and perceived difficulty. Finally, we performed a meta‐analysis in Study 5 to determine whether perceived control or perceived difficulty is more important for predicting behavioural intentions and behaviours. Taken together, the findings support the distinction between perceived control and perceived difficulty, and also suggest that perceived difficulty is a better predictor of most behavioural intentions and behaviours than is perceived control.
Category activation effects in judgment and behaviour: The moderating role of perceived comparability
Authors: Aarts Henk , Dijksterhuis Ap
Published: February 2003

Previous research on category activation effects demonstrates that extreme exemplar priming can lead to contrast effects as well as assimilation effects in target judgments. Two experiments extended this line of research by investigating the moderating role of perceived comparability, that is, the extent to which the exemplar and target are believed to belong to the same category and thus can be compared. In both experiments, participants judged the speed of a person displayed on a picture following priming with animals exemplifying either extreme speed (‘cheetah’) or extreme slowness (‘turtle’). In addition, in the second experiment a behavioural measure was included. In the first experiment individual differences concerning the perceived comparability between animals and humans were assessed. In the second experiment perceived comparability was experimentally varied. Results showed that the direction of category activation effects (i.e. assimilation versus contrast) depended on the extent to which the prime and target categories were seen as comparable. Contrast effects on both judgments and behaviour emerged when the prime and the target category were perceived as comparable. However, assimilation effects on judgment and behaviour ensued when the prime and target category were not perceived as comparable.
A cross‐cultural study of the Need for Cognitive Closure Scale: Comparing its structure in Croatia, Italy, USA and The Netherlands
Authors: Mannetti Lucia , Pierro Antonio , Kruglanski Arie , Taris Toon , Bezinovic Petar
Published: February 2003

This study was designed to compare the factor structure of Need for Closure Scale (NFCS) as it emerges from three European samples (Croatia, Italy and The Netherlands) to the structure emerging from a USA sample, and to test the invariance of the structure of the scale both across three European contexts and across European and US samples. This comparison was conducted to examine the generalizability of results obtained with the NFCS across cultures.

The sample sizes employed in this study range from 201 (Croatia) to 418 (Italy) participants. First‐ and second‐order confirmatory factor analysis and multiple‐group measurement invariance tests were performed using the LISREL‐8 program (Jöreskog and Sörbom, 1993). The analyses revealed that the factor structure of the scale was invariant across all samples, and that the best fitting model was one with two latent second‐order factors, thus confirming results of previous studies (Kruglanski et al., 1997; Neuberg, Judice, & West, 1997).
Attitudes and intentions of homeless people towards service provision in South Wales
Authors: Christian Julie , Armitage Christopher J.
Published: February 2003

The theory of planned behaviour (TPB: Ajzen, 1988, 1991) was used as a framework to investigate homeless people's participation in outreach service programmes. In total, 104 homeless people from South Wales were interviewed using a schedule based on the TPB. Congruent with previous research on the TPB, attitude was the dominant predictor of behavioural intentions, and intention and perceived behavioural control were predictive of behaviour. Contrary to predictions, subjective norms also exerted a direct effect on behaviour. The discussion focuses on two issues: first, the utility of social cognition models in explaining the relationship between demographic variables and behaviour in homelessness research; second, the direct effects of norms on behaviour and the extent to which work on social groups might usefully extend research on models such as the TPB to aid understanding of behaviour amongst stigmatized populations.
Evidence that the type of person affects the strength of the perceived behavioural control‐intention relationship
Authors: Sheeran Paschal , Trafimow David , Finlay Krystina A. , Norman Paul
Published: February 2003

This study examined the role of person type in explaining the relationship between perceived behavioural control and behavioural intentions. Participants (N = 187) completed measures of the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) variables regarding 30 behaviours. Within‐participants analyses demonstrated that intentions were more strongly predicted by perceived behavioural control (PBC) than a combination of attitudes and subjective norms among a minority of the sample. When these ‘PBC controlled’ participants were considered separately, the effects for perceived behavioural control obtained in previous between‐participants analyses were augmented. Conversely, when these participants were excluded from the sample, the effects of perceived behavioural control were reduced. PBC control was also modestly associated with dispositional measures of perceived controllability. Overall, the findings indicate that the strength of the perceived behavioural control‐intention relationship depends not only on the type of behaviour but also on the type of person.
Changing identity: Predicting adjustment to organizational restructure as a function of subgroup and superordinate identification
Authors: Jetten Jolanda , O'Brien Anne , Trindall Nicole
Published: February 2003

We investigated a work‐team restructure within an organization obtaining measures before and after the change occurred. Pre‐restructure analyses revealed that, in addition to informational variables, subgroup identification (work‐team) and superordinate identification (organization) were important predictors of negative feelings towards the restructure. The more that employees identified with the subgroup, the more negative feelings they reported about the upcoming change. In contrast, the higher the identification with the superordinate group, the less negative employees felt. Longitudinal analysis revealed that compared with the pre‐restructure, post‐restructure levels of work‐team identification, organizational identification, job satisfaction and perceived work‐team performance were significantly lower. Pre‐restructure work‐team identification was a stronger predictor of post‐restructure job satisfaction than pre‐restructure organizational identification. In addition, it was found that pre‐restructure work‐team identification and organizational identification had opposing effects on post‐restructure organizational identification. There was some evidence that high initial organizational identification protected long‐term organizational commitment.
Henri Tajfel's ‘Cognitive aspects of prejudice’ and the psychology of bigotry
Authors: Billig Michael
Published: February 2003

This paper pays tribute to Tajfel's classic article ‘Cognitive aspects of prejudice’ and re‐examines its central arguments. Tajfel's paper is important for outlining a social cognitive approach to the study of prejudice and also for refuting of what Tajfel called the ‘blood‐and‐guts’ approach. Taking Tajfel's proposition that social psychology is not value‐free, the current paper examines the moral and political view of ‘Cognitive aspects’ and also the gaps in its approach to the study of prejudice. It is suggested that this cognitive approach has difficulty in accounting for extreme bigotry, at least without recourse to the motivational themes that the approach seeks to exclude. In particular, there would be limitations in applying this approach in order to understand the Holocaust. Indeed, Tajfel did not attempt to do so, for reasons that are discussed. Tajfel's Social Identity Theory (SIT) has similar limitations. The paper also examines Tajfel's use of the term ‘depersonalization’, which he described as a ‘milder’ form of dehumanization of out‐groups. Later social identity theorists have tended to use ‘depersonalization’ differently, shifting their attention to in‐groups. Their perspective moves away from understanding the topic of prejudice in the way that can be found in Tajfel's ‘Cognitive aspects of prejudice’. Finally, the present paper suggests how extreme prejudice might be studied without returning to the motivational ‘blood‐and‐guts’ approach that Tajfel so cogently criticized.
Henri Tajfel's ‘Cognitive aspects of prejudice’ and the psychology of bigotry
Authors: Brown Rupert
Published: February 2003

In this article, Billig presents an incisive review of one of our discipline's classic contributions to the study of prejudice, Tajfel (1969). Whilst acknowledging the importance of Tajfel's article, Billig does us a considerable service by identifying some crucial shortcomings both in Tajfel's original argument and in some of the later work that he and others developed from it. As Billig rightly says, it does not belittle the value of historically important theories to subject them periodically to critical reflection and analysis; indeed, the history of science tells us that many of today's most important insights emerge from the failings of yesterday's models.
The effects of status on subgroup relations
Authors: Hornsey Matthew J. , Hogg Michael A.
Published: February 2003

Two experiments were conducted to assess the impact of status differentials on subgroup attitudes and behaviours. In Experiment 1, 73 maths‐science students were led to believe they had higher or lower status than humanities students. They then performed a non‐interactive decision‐making task during which they were categorized exclusively as a university student (superordinate condition), or as a university student and maths‐science student simultaneously (subgroups condition). Experiment 2 (N = 98) differed from Experiment 1 in that perceptions of relative subgroup status were measured rather than manipulated. Consistent with social identity theory, subgroup members tended to categorize themselves more at the superordinate (university) level the lower status they considered their subgroup to be. In Experiment 2, a series of interactions also emerged, showing that status and inter‐subgroup bias were positively related when the participants had been categorized exclusively at the superordinate level. When superordinate and subgroup identities were activated simultaneously, perceptions of status had no effect on levels of bias. The results were interpreted in terms of participants' needs for identity enhancement and identity distinctiveness.
Organizational identification after a merger: A social identity perspective
Authors: Van Knippenberg Daan , Van Knippenberg Barbara , Monden Laura , de Lima Fleur
Published: February 2003

An analysis of the social identity processes involved in organizational mergers suggests that organizational identification after a merger is contingent on a sense of continuity of identity. This sense of continuity, in turn, is argued to be contingent on the extent to which the individual's own pre‐merger organization dominates, or is dominated by, the merger partner. In support of this analysis, results of two surveys of merged organizations showed that pre‐merger and post‐merger identification were more positively related for members of dominant as opposed to dominated organizations, whereas perceived differences between the merger partners were more negatively related to post‐merger identification for members of the dominated compared with the dominant organization.
General threat leading to defensive reactions: A field experiment on linguistic features
Authors: Vaes Jeroen , Wicklund Robert A.
Published: February 2003

Supported by several theoretical perspectives on motivation, we based an experiment on the idea that threat motivates people to become defensive and to choose that which is familiar and unequivocal in a given situation. The present field experiment confirmed that a general relevant threat can motivate people in a linguistic multiculture to conform more rigidly to their own language, and hence accentuate their own linguistic singularity. In addition, an exploratory analysis of tolerance towards the competing language revealed that non‐threatened people tended to open up toward the other language. A dual‐motive model that accounts for opening‐up versus defensive reactions is proposed.
Talking about transplants: Social representations and the dialectical, dilemmatic nature of organ donation and transplantation
Authors: Moloney Gail , Walker Iain
Published: February 2003

In many westernized countries, organ donation rates are low in comparison with the need for life‐saving organ transplants, and are at odds with generally high community endorsement of organ donation. This is particularly true for Western Australia, the location of this study. This contradiction between endorsement and donation is investigated within a framework that draws from Moscovici's (1984) theory of Social Representations, Guimelli's (1998) differentiation between normative and functional dimensions of the central core, and Billig's (1988) rhetorical position on the role of argumentation in discourse. Four focus group discussions on organ donation and transplantation were conducted. Analysis of the discourse suggests that the social representation of organ donation and transplantation can be understood best as a representational field organized around two dialectically ‘opposed’ images—the gift of life and the mechanistic removal and replacement of body parts. The normative and functional expression of these two images as a pro‐donation stance and a qualified pro‐donation stance is discussed, as is the role of argumentation in the production of a social representation.
Collective symbolic coping with new technology: Knowledge, images and public discourse
Authors: Wagner Wolfgang , Kronberger Nicole , Seifert Franz
Published: February 2003

Using data from policy analyses, media analyses and a European‐wide survey about public perceptions of biotechnology conducted in 1996 and again in 1999, it is shown how a country's public develops an everyday understanding of a new technology (genetic modification) construed as potentially harmful by the media. To understand the reliance on images and related beliefs, we propose a theory of collective symbolic coping. It identifies four steps: first, the creation of awareness; second, production of divergent images; third, convergence upon a couple of dominant images in the public sphere; fourth, normalization. It is suggested that symbolic coping occurs in countries where a recent increase in policy activity and of media reporting has alerted the public; that this public show a high proportion of beliefs in menacing images; that these beliefs are relatively independent of pre‐existing popular science knowledge; and that they are functionally equivalent to scientific knowledge in providing judgmental confidence and reducing self‐ascribed ignorance. These propositions are shown to be true in Austria and Greece. Several implications of the theory are discussed, including social representation theory and public understanding of science.
Manufacturing individual opinions: Market research focus groups and the discursive psychology of evaluation
Authors: Puchta Claudia , Potter Jonathan
Published: February 2003

This article addresses a paradox. On the one hand, discourse and rhetorical studies have provided evidence that evaluative talk is both variable and rhetorically organized. On the other hand, a wide range of social psychological research is produced that both presupposes and finds evidence of enduring underlying attitudes. One explanation for this may be that, on some occasions at least, the results of attitude research are a consequence of procedures that restrict and refine from everyday evaluative practices in a way that ensures the ‘discovery’ of underlying attitudes. The article explores this explanation in one domain where there is a major practical concern with attitudes and opinions, namely market research focus groups. Detailed analysis of transcripts of eight market research focus groups identifies three procedures that moderators use to produce freestanding opinion packages: (a) they display rhetorically embedded evaluations as inconsequential; (b) they provide formal guidance for participants to produce freestanding opinions; and (c) they formulate participants' talk as freestanding opinions, stripping off rhetorical elements. The findings are supported by considering deviant cases. This illustrates one way in which evaluations are transformed into freestanding attitudes. More broadly, it contributes to a body of work that studies how social science methods work in practice.
Protecting the ingroup stereotype: Ingroup identification and the management of deviant ingroup members
Authors: Castano Emanuele , Paladino Maria‐Paola , Coull Alastair , Yzerbyt Vincent Y.
Published: February 2003

In two experiments, we investigated the impact of the presentation of a deviant ingroup member on the perception of the ingroup among participants who differed in their degree of identification with the ingroup. In Study 1, we measured psychology students' level of identification with the group of psychologists (i.e. the ingroup) and presented them with an anti‐norm versus a pro‐norm psychologist. Results showed that in the anti‐norm condition (but not in the pre‐norm condition), identification predicted the ratings of psychologists as a group and the perception of typicality of the deviant psychologist. Also, in this condition, the impact of the level of identification on the ratings of psychologists proved to be mediated by the perceived typicality of the deviant. In Study 2, group measures were taken both before and after presentation of a deviant among members of an environmentalist group who differed in their level of identification with the ingroup. The level of identification had an impact on the modification of the ratings of environmentalists as a group, and this effect was mediated by the perceived typicality of the deviant environmentalist. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the black sheep effect and the stereotype change literature.
A meta‐analysis of sex differences in romantic attraction: Do rating contexts moderate tactic effectiveness judgments?
Authors: Schmitt David P.
Published: February 2003

Although a number of studies have explored perceived sex differences in romantic attraction effectiveness, no research has systematically examined whether different rating contexts might moderate effectiveness judgments. In a meta‐analytic review of romantic attraction research, four potential moderating variables were examined: temporal context (unspecified, long‐term, short‐term), manipulation form (self‐promotion, competitor derogation), attraction type (general, retention, poaching), and sex of rater (mixed, same, opposite). Although perceived sex differences in physical appearance and resource‐related tactics remained stable across most moderating variables, sex differences did vary across some rating contexts. For example, perceptions of sex differences in the effectiveness of appearance‐related attraction tactics were much stronger in the context of self‐promotion (d = ‐.77) compared with the competitor derogation context (d = ‐.17). Resource‐related tactics of attraction displayed the opposite pattern, with significantly larger perceived sex differences in the context of competitor derogation (d = .93) than in self‐promotion (d = .68). Discussion focused on the implications of sex difference variability and stability across rating contexts for evolutionary theories of romantic attraction.
What properties of talk are associated with the generation of spontaneous iconic hand gestures?
Authors: Beattie Geoffrey , Shovelton Heather
Published: February 2003

When people talk, they frequently make movements of their arms and hands, some of which appear connected with the content of the speech and are termed iconic gestures. Critical to our understanding of the relationship between speech and iconic gesture is an analysis of what properties of talk might give rise to these gestures. This paper focuses on two such properties, namely the familiarity and the imageability of the core propositional units that the gestures accompany. The study revealed that imageability had a significant effect overall on the probability of the core propositional unit being accompanied by a gesture, but that familiarity did not. Familiarity did, however, have a significant effect on the probability of a gesture in the case of high imageability units and in the case of units associated with frequent gesture use. Those iconic gestures accompanying core propositional units variously defined by the properties of imageability and familiarity were found to differ in their level of idiosyncrasy, the viewpoint from which they were generated and their overall communicative effect. This research thus uncovered a number of quite distinct relationships between gestures and speech in everyday talk, with important implications for future theories in this area.
The effects of mortality salience on relationship strivings and beliefs: The moderating role of attachment style
Authors: Taubman‐Ben‐Ari Orit , Findler Liora , Mikulincer Mario
Published: February 2003

This series of studies examined mortality salience effects on relationship strivings, while exploring the moderating role of attachment style. In the three studies, Israeli university students completed an attachment style scale, were assigned to a mortality salience or neutral condition, and then completed scales tapping specific relationship strivings and beliefs. Study 1 (N = 104) examined participants' willingness to initiate social interactions with a hypothetical same‐sex person; Study 2 (N = 100) examined appraisals of interpersonal competence; and Study 3 (N = 108) examined reports of rejection sensitivity. Findings revealed that mortality salience led to more willingness to initiate social interactions, lower rejection sensitivity and more positive appraisals of interpersonal competence than a control condition. These mortality salience effects were found mainly among persons who scored low on attachment anxiety or attachment avoidance. Findings were discussed in light of the terror management function of close relationships.
Constructions of equality and discrimination in professional men's talk
Authors: Riley Sarah C. E.
Published: February 2003

The contradiction between support for egalitarian employment practices and the maintenance of occupational androcentrism was examined by discursively analysing constructions of equality and discrimination from 46 interviews with professional men. Accounts of equality were produced through the interpretative repertories of ‘interchangeability’, ‘individual ability’ and ‘pragmatism’. This enables, first, an understanding of discrimination as ‘non‐individualism’, a term used to describe the treatment of social group memberships as salient, and second, defined interventions based on a structural analysis of equality as discrimination. These repertoires minimized the gendered nature of men and women's experiences and negated the use of context in favour of an abstract principle of individualism. Participants warranted their accounts through feminist arguments, two‐sided argument formulations, and the construction of a dichotomy between individualist‐equality and structuralist‐discrimination—supporting the material practice of ‘affirmative non‐action’, the active support of non‐action. Relating the findings to equal opportunity policy, occupational cultural analyses and the discursive production of ‘new sexism’, the article identifies the absence of an account that conceptualizes both individual and structural facets of equality.
Cognitive and strategic processes in small groups: Effects of anonymity of the self and anonymity of the group on social influence
Authors: Sassenberg Kai , Postmes Tom
Published: February 2003

Two studies examined cognitive and strategic processes of social influence in small groups. A first study showed that anonymity of in‐group members to the self cognitively enhanced the perceived unity or entitativity of the group, while the interpersonal attraction to group members decreased. A second study showed that anonymity of the self to the group strategically enhanced differentiation from the group on non‐normative dimensions. Overall, it was found that strategic and cognitive processes interact to produce social influence within the group. Implications for theories of social influence in groups are discussed.
Marriage: An analysis of discourse
Authors: Lawes Rachel
Published: February 2003

This study examined the discursive resources and techniques used by participants in research interviews to construct the nature of marriage. Speakers draw on two interpretative repertoires. In the romantic repertoire, successful marriage is treated as a product of a mix of personal happiness and virtuous behaviour, such as the willingness to develop and comply with a ‘code of good practice’. In the realist repertoire, marriage is treated as freer of moral responsibility and personal happiness is understood as relatively fragile, challenged by factors such as poverty, infidelity and parenthood. The implications of this analysis for previous diagnoses of recent ‘trends away from marriage are discussed and new directions for research are suggested.
Enhancing collective and personal self‐esteem through differentiation: Further exploration of Hinkle & Brown's taxonomy
Authors: Meeres Sandra L. , Grant Peter R.
Published: February 2003

The present study investigated hypotheses concerning the relationship between strength of social identification and intergroup differentiation and between personal self‐esteem and self‐serving bias for groups in the relational quadrants of Hinkle & Brown's taxonomy. Thirty groups each of individualists and collectivists were randomly assigned to either a compatible or an incompatible goal condition. During 10, 20‐second trials, subjects worked on the Tarkus Block task in which they built their own tower and a group tower as high as possible. Afterwards, they evaluated their own group, the outgroup, themselves, and another member of the ingroup on attitude and task performance scales. Then they completed a group identification scale and a state self‐esteem scale. For collectivists, a significant relationship was found between strength of group identification and intergroup differentiation when personal and group goals were compatible, and between self‐esteem and selfserving bias when personal and group goals were incompatible. Further, the correlations for individualists were opposite to those found for collectivists, although only one of the correlations was significant. These unexpected and interesting results qualify and add to the findings from other research which show that the identity‐differentiation relationship is usually the strongest for collectivists in a relational intergroup context.
The theory of planned behaviour: Assessment of predictive validity and 'perceived control
Authors: Armitage Christopher J. , Conner Mark
Published: February 2003

The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) has received considerable attention in the literature. However, there have been few attempts to assess the proposed causal links between beliefs, attitudes, intentions and behaviour. The present study was designed to assess the predictive validity and causal ordering of TPB constructs over a 3‐month period. Findings indicated good internal and test‐retest reliability of assessed components; evidence for a distinction between two processes of perceived behavioural control (self‐efficacy and perceived control); support for inclusion of self‐identity into the model; and predictive validity of the TPB over 3 months. Perhaps more importantly, there was some evidence to support causal ordering between predicted TPB variables. In particular, cross‐lagged panel correlation analysis supported the causal impact of self‐efficacy on intention. The present study supports the use of the TPB as a reliable predictor of intentions and behaviour over time. It also highlights the need for further research on the relationship between attitudes, perceived behavioural control and their underlying beliefs.
The development of national prejudice, in‐group favouritism and self‐stereotypes in British children
Authors: Rutland Adam
Published: February 2003

This study explores the development of national prejudice, in‐group favouritism and self‐stereotyping in a sample of 329 British children. The aim was to test the prediction, derived from self‐categorization theory (Oakes, Haslam & Turner, 1994; Spears & Haslam, 1997) and in opposition to cognitive‐developmental theory (Aboud, 1988), that the supposed limited cognitive ability of young children to engage in individuated perception will not necessarily result in intergroup discrimination and self‐stereotyping. The children were presented with a photograph evaluation task and some open‐ended questioning. It was found that national prejudice, in‐group favouritism or self‐stereotyping developed only in children aged over 10 years and was not evident in young children. These findings question the validity of the cognitive‐developmental approach which contends that intergroup discrimination and stereotyping are a product of information‐processing biases in young children. The apparent contradiction between the findings of this study and previous research on ethnic prejudice development is discussed in terms of the potential importance of group norms in determining the willingness of people to express national prejudice and in‐group favouritism.
Sex differences in beliefs about aggression: Opponent's sex and the form of aggression
Authors: Archer John , Haigh Anadelle
Published: February 2003

Previous studies show that men endorse instrumental beliefs about aggression to a greater extent than women, whereas women endorse expressive beliefs to a greater extent than men. However, men and women indicate that they have different opponents in mind when thinking about aggression, and existing measures may emphasize physical forms of aggression. Therefore, beliefs about aggression were examined when the type of aggression (physical or verbal) and the sex of the opponent (same sex or opposite‐sex partner) were specified, among a sample of 200 students. Expressive beliefs were higher and instrumental beliefs lower for an opposite‐sex partner and for physical aggression. The characteristic sex difference applied across all manipulations for expressive beliefs, but not for instrumental ones: men showed higher scores than women only for same‐sex physical aggression. Higher instrumental (but not lower expressive) scores were also found among those who based their responses on real rather than hypothetical events. The sex difference in instrumental beliefs for same‐sex physical aggression was largely confined to respondents using a hypothetical event. As in previous studies, instrumental and expressive beliefs were relatively independent of one another. The position that the beliefs represent rhetorical devices is assessed in the light of these findings.
In‐group favouritism and the reflection of realistic dimensions of difference between national states in Central and Eastern European nationality stereotypes
Authors: Poppe Edwin , Linssen Hub
Published: February 2003

This study examines the content of European nationality stereotypes held by adolescents from six Central and Eastern European countries and in‐group favouritism on the dimensions underlying these nationality stereotypes. It was found that the content of nationality stereotypes reflects a competence and a morality dimension, and that each dimension is related to perceived structural or relational features of nation states. The attribution of competence‐related traits to out‐group nationalities is strongly related to the perceived economic power of the nation states and the attribution of morality‐related traits to the size of the nation states, as well as perceived conflicts of interests, nationalism and economic power. The participants did not blindly favour their in‐group over all foreign nationalities on competence or morality. The tendency to perceive Western European nationalities as more competent than the in‐group reflects a social reality constraint due to lower economic status. Furthermore, in‐group favouritism on competence decreased as a function of the economic status and size of out‐groups, while ingroup favouritism on morality increased as a function of economic status and size of out‐groups. These results are interpreted in terms of self‐categorization theory and social identity theory.
What does the DIT measure?
Authors: Thoma Stephen , Barnett Robert , Rest James , Narvaez Darcia
Published: February 2003

Emler, Palmer‐Canton & St. James (1998) suggest that scores on the Defining Issues Test (DIT) of moral judgment development are in large measure a reflection of participants political identities. Although we agree that political reasoning and moral judgments overlap, we do take issue with the claim that DIT scores and the findings they produce can be explained by political identity. In three sections we first outline our view of the controversy that this, and the senior author's previous paper, raise concerning the validity of the DIT, then we note our interpretation of the current findings, and finally we draw attention to the limitations of the test manipulation methodology featured in this research and offer an alternative strategy to assess the validity of the DIT. We conclude that, although this research clearly demonstrates that DIT scores can be manipulated by altering the participant's test taking set, it provides no direct evidence on the validity of the DIT.
Studies in self‐categorization and minority conversion: The in‐group minority in intragroup and intergroup contexts
Authors: David Barbara , Turner John C.
Published: February 2003

The aim of the reported studies was to provide a self‐categorization‐based explanation of the unique temporal patterning of minority influence (David, 1994; David & Turner, 1992, 1996; Turner, 1991) as being based on changes in social context. Moderate feminist participants were exposed to an in‐group minority (separatist feminist) message in no explicit context, an intragroup, or an intergroup context, and immediate and delayed measures of influence were taken. The explicit contexts were either stated once or repeated prior to the delayed measure of influence. Participants rejected the minority message when it was presented in a purely feminist context and accepted it in a context which included the salient outgroup. When no explicit context was stated and when an intragroup context was stated prior to the immediate measure only, participants displayed the classic conversion pattern of no immediate influence followed by evidence of delayed influence. Discussed are implications of the results for the self‐categorization claim that influence can only proceed from those categorized as similar to self, and the conflict of this proposal with conversion theory (Moscovici, 1980, 1985; Moscovici & Mugny, 1983; Moscovici & Personnaz, 1980) and conflict elaboration theory (Mugny, Butera, Sanchez‐Mazas & Perez, 1994; Mugny & Perez, 1987, 1991), which we understand to explain minority conversion as a product of the essential difference from self of prospective sources of influence.
Social categorization as a function of relative group size
Authors: Van Twuyver Mariette , Van Knippenberg Ad
Published: February 2003

The present study investigates effects of numerical group composition on categorization and individual recall of group members in a name‐matching paradigm. Relative group size was independently varied for sex (male minority, equal sex groups, female minority) and academic status (teacher minority, equal academic groups, student minority). The results show that, overall, sex and academic status were used to categorize the stimulus persons, and that the male female categorization was stronger than the student teacher categorization. Furthermore, across the stimulus groups studied (males, females, students, teachers), members of minority groups were (a) categorized to a larger extent than members of majority groups and (b) better individually recalled than members of majority groups. In addition, the overall use of the male female categorization was stronger when the size of the sex groups was equal than it was, on average, when the size of these groups was unequal. The results are discussed in terms of theories about category salience and perception of group members.
Social categorization and category attribution: The effects of comparative and normative fit on memory and social judgment
Authors: Blanz Mathias , Aufderheide Birgit
Published: February 2003

The present study examined the effects of comparative and normative fit on categorization in memory and social category attribution. We set forth conflicting predictions about the effects of these manipulations. Based on Taylor, Fiske, Etcoff & Ruderman's (1978) perceptual salience hypothesis, social category salience was expected to be stronger when counter‐normative rather than normative category exemplars were presented. On the other hand, according to Oakes (1987) functional perspective on category salience, a reversed pattern of results was hypothesized. Our results contradicted Taylor's social‐cognitive approach and supported the Oakes predictions. In our experiment, social categorizations were activated to the extent that they provided a meaningful representation of social relationships. Social category salience was determined by both the relations between the persons compared (comparative fit) and the agreement between stimulus persons compared and perceivers pre‐existing stereotypical beliefs (normative fit). Furthermore, as hypothesized, we found evidence for differences in nature of both dependent measures. Specifically, it was shown that the attribution measure is a less ambiguous measure of social category salience than the category confusion paradigm (Taylor et al., 1978). Findings are discussed in regard to social identification, stereotype maintenance and current research on subtyping.
Imagined futures: Young men's talk about fatherhood and domestic life
Authors: Edley Nigel , Wetherell Margaret
Published: February 2003

As part of an extensive series of interviews about men and masculinity, small groups of 17 to 18‐year‐old male students were invited to look forward to their future romantic and domestic lives. Their responses were analysed using the approach and methods of discourse analysis in order to examine both the interpretative resources used within their accounts and to look at how the young men attempted to manage the ‘ideological dilemma’ (Billig, Condor, Edwards, Gane, Middleton & Radley, 1988) that was framed by these cultural themes. The analysis describes three such strategies while paying particular attention to the ‘action orientation’(Heritage, 1984) of these constructions. Finally, the paper moves on to discuss, albeit briefly, the broader implications of this research.
Interaction effects in the theory of planned behaviour: Studying cannabis use
Authors: Conner Mark , Mcmillan Brian
Published: February 2003

This study employed the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to investigate the factors underlying intentions and frequency of use of cannabis over a three‐month period in a population of students (N=249). In addition, several hypotheses in relation to the TPB were investigated. The TPB provided good predictions of both intentions (R2=0.653; attitude, injunctive norms and perceived behavioural control significant) and behaviour (R2=0.711; intentions significant). Other norm measures (descriptive and moral norms) explained additional variance in intentions. (p<.01). In addition, habit strength and self‐identity explained significant additional portions of the variance in intentions (p<.001), but not behaviour, over and above the TPB variables. Several interactions among these variables were also tested. Attitude moderated the impact of perceived behavioural control (PBC) on intentions (p<.001). Moral norms moderated the impact of attitudes on intentions (p<.001). Habit strength moderated the impact of self‐identity on intentions (p<.001). PBC was found to moderate the impact of intentions on behaviour (p<.05). The findings are discussed in relation to how interaction effects further our understanding of the social processes by which variables are related in the TPB.
The theory of planned behaviour: Self‐identity, social identity and group norms
Authors: Terry Deborah J. , Hogg Michael A. , White Katherine M.
Published: February 2003

The aim of the present study was to examine further the role that self‐identity plays in the theory of planned behaviour and, more specifically, to: (1) examine the combined effects of self‐identity and social identity constructs on intention and behaviour, and (2) examine the effects of self‐identity as a function of past experience of performing the behaviour. The study was concerned with the prediction of intention to engage in household recycling and reported recycling behaviour. A sample of 143 community residents participated in the study. It was prospective in design: measures of the predictors and intention were obtained at the first wave of data collection, whereas behaviour was assessed two weeks later. Selfidentity significantly predicted behavioural intention, a relationship that was not dependent on the extent to which the behaviour had been performed in the past. As expected, there was also evidence that the perceived norm of a behaviourally relevant reference group was related to behavioural intention, but only for participants who identified strongly with the group, whereas the relationship between perceived behavioural control (a personal factor) and intention was strongest for low identifiers.
Discourse of dilemmas: An analysis of communication planners' accounts
Authors: Molder Hedwig F. M. Te
Published: February 2003

This paper is an analysis of how communication planners talk government communication campaigns into being. More specifically, the study explicates the resources which communication planners use to make sense of government policies and the actions they accomplish through their reports of these policies. Rather than passively transmitting government policies, campaigns are designed in such a way as to solve ‘efficacy dilemmas’ and ‘political dilemmas’. The analysis documents some of the discursive procedures through which these dilemmas are managed. It is argued, first, that these findings mark a shift away from the main assumption conventionally underlying government communication and, second, that the results raise problems for the conception of reasoning as an essentially individual and cognitive event.