bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Turning Point of PhysicsVII: The Breakdown of Physical Body
Authors: Glasner Ruth
Published: September 2009

A theory of underline minima naturalia denies infinite divisibility to a physical body: there is a lower limit to the size of a physical body, beyond which it cannot be further subdivided and still retain its identity as this specific physical body. According to the commonly accepted narrative this theory was developed by Scholastic scholars on the basis of some hints found in Aristotle. The two pioneer students of Scholastic science, Pierre Duhem and Anneliese Maier, did not assign to Averroes any role in the development of this theory. Chapter III shows that Averroes not only “anticipated” the Scholastic theory of underline minima naturalia, but actually developed a complete and coherent theory of his own. Furthermore, his theory is more than a theory of underline minima naturalia: it is a theory of actual parts, i.e. a corpuscular theory, which goes far beyond the vague beginnings in Aristotle.
The Tension between Uniformity and Diversity
Authors: Pérez Aida Torres
Published: September 2009

The tensions between uniformity and diversity regarding the meaning of fundamental rights are endemic to any system in which political power is allocated among multiple spheres. In the U.S., there is a vast literature converging on federalism and rights, which may well provide valuable insights for EU dilemmas. The core of this chapter is devoted to discussing the arguments underpinning state diversity and supranational uniformity regarding fundamental rights' interpretation. In many cases, the arguments for state diversity do not go beyond state sovereignty, which is no longer adequate given the EU political structure. At the same time, the virtues of supranational uniformity tend to be assumed without questioning the reasons underpinning this claim. Reaching to the conclusion, it is sustained that the ECJ should not impose uniformity for its own sake. The values underlying state autonomy justify accommodating certain degree of diversity through deference to state courts.
Judicial Dialogue as the Source of Legitimacy of Supranational Adjudication
Authors: Pérez Aida Torres
Published: September 2009

This chapter spells out the proposed theory of supranational adjudication in the EU. In the EU academic literature, the term dialogue and a variety of close notions are commonly employed. As such, the words' specific definitions and connotations have become muddled. The chapter seeks to demonstrate that dialogue may provide the conceptual model for ECJ's legitimacy in adjudicating fundamental rights. Dialogue among national and supranational courts — understood as argumentative communication based on the exchange of reasons — furthers better-reasoned outcomes for the community as a whole. Also, dialogue enhances participation in the interpretive process. Additionally, dialogue benefits the building of a common identity; and ultimately, this is the most consistent form of interaction within a pluralist framework. Each of these arguments is developed. The chapter explores the prerequisites that need to be fulfilled for dialogue to develop with the capacity to ground ECJ's normative authority. Lastly, the objections to judicial dialogue are examined and responded to.
Comparative Constitutional Reasoning: Recasting its Justification and Operation
Authors: Pérez Aida Torres
Published: September 2009

This chapter analyzes the implications of judicial dialogue for the mode of judicial reasoning in interpreting fundamental rights. In particular, it explores the comparative method and judicial self-restraint as mechanisms contributing to ECJ's authority-building. These mechanisms have been highly contested in the literature. First, the chapter articulates a normative justification of the comparative method for giving meaning to EU fundamental rights. In addition, it expands on how the ECJ should operationalize this method, eschewing lowest and highest standard approaches. The comparative method should be aimed at better understanding the values informing the meanings attributed to fundamental rights across the states. This inter-state comparison would help to strengthen common understandings, while fostering an in-depth appraisal of pervasive particularities. Thereafter, ECJ's deference to state courts allowing for diversity in rights interpretation are explored.
ICSID ANNULMENT DECISIONS: THREE GENERATIONS REVISITED
Authors: Marboe Irmgard
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines ICSID annulment decisions after 2002 along the lines of the ‘three generation’ classification, Professor Schreuer's examination scheme, and the organization of claims. The analysis of recent ICSID annulment decisions has shown that the majority of them can be classified as appertaining to Professor Schreuer's ‘third generation’ of ICSID annulment proceedings. Explicitly or implicitly referring to this concept, they have shown a very cautious approach. They have made it repeatedly clear that annulment must be distinguished from appeal and that an ad hoc committee may not analyse the merits of the case or substitute its own determination for that of the tribunal.
CHANGED CIRCUMSTANCES IN INVESTMENT LAW: INTERFACES BETWEEN THE LAW OF TREATIES AND THE LAW OF STATE RESPONSIBILITY WITH A SPECIAL FOCUS ON THE ARGENTINE CRISIS
Authors: Binder Christina
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on changed circumstances in investment law with a special focus on necessity. Section B first deals with the diverging findings of the different investment tribunals with respect to Argentina's necessity defence. After a brief description of the factual background and of the relevant standards under treaty law and the customary law of State responsibility, the tribunals' decisions will be discussed and a categorization of their approaches attempted. Section C analyzes the different approaches from a broader international law perspective. It is argued that the ‘separation/two-step approach’ which was adopted by the CMS Annulment Committee and the UNCITRAL tribunal is the one most in line with general international law.
COMMERCIAL ARBITRATION AND INVESTMENT ARBITRATION: FERTILE SOIL FOR FALSE FRIENDS?
Authors: Cordero Moss Giuditta
Published: September 2009

This chapter illustrates the risk of false friends in international arbitration by looking at one example of transplant from public international law into commercial law, and one from commercial arbitration into investment arbitration. The purpose of this exercise is to draw attention to how investment arbitration and commercial arbitration, in spite of clear parallels between the two, cannot be considered as fully corresponding to each other and cannot always automatically be used as a source for each other.
Introduction
Authors: Cavill P. R.
Published: September 2009

The Introduction begins by setting the historiographical scene. It shows how ‘Whig’ history presented parliament as a cowed and quiescent assembly, marginalized under the ‘new monarchy’ of Edward IV and Henry VII. Discussing more recent interpretations, the Introduction explains why the reign's position at the frontier between medieval historiography and early modern historiography is significant in shaping accounts. Next the sources available for this study are examined, and their comparative paucity emphasized. It is argued that this lack of evidence accounts to a large degree for prior interpretations of parliament in this period. The Introduction then provides a brief chronological survey of the seven parliaments that met between 1485 and 1504 in the context of the principal events of Henry's reign.
The Wider Realm
Authors: Cavill P. R.
Published: September 2009

Chapter 6 considers how decisions taken in parliament affected everyday life. It first discusses the publicizing of statute law examining the roles of proclamations and of statute books, and the rise of printing is addressed. Next it discusses the interaction between national legislation and local regulations, exploring the reception of statute law in local courts through jury presentments and borough ordinances. Then tax collection is discussed as a central means by which parliament impinged upon the lives of ordinary people. The efficiency of tax collection is considered. The popular protests that demands for taxation sometimes provoked are also analysed. Particular attention is paid to the Yorkshire rising of 1489 and to the Western rebellion of 1497.
Conclusion
Authors: Cavill P. R.
Published: September 2009

The Conclusion briefly restates the themes of the study. It highlights the range of business transacted in parliament, the vigour with which it was debated, and its impact on elite and non-elite subjects. Therefore it presents parliament as an effective point of contact, both for the crown and for its subjects. Rejecting Whig history, the Conclusion emphasizes the degree to which the new monarchy consolidated the standing of parliament. Lastly, it stresses the significance of this period in establishing the groundwork for the break with Rome and for parliamentary supremacy.
massXpert 2: a cross-platform software environment for polymer chemistry modelling and simulation/analysis of mass spectrometric data
Authors: Rusconi Filippo
Published: September 2009

Summary: Since the middle of the 90s, mass spectrometry has evolved into an almost indispensable tool in structural studies on an ever-growing variety of (bio-)polymers, of which proteins, sugars and nucleic acids are the most prominent. Since the first public release of massXpert, the advances of mass spectrometry have motivated continuous and thorough maintenance of that software, in the form of two full software rewrites, culminating with massXpert 2, which we describe in this report. We shall describe the profound changes in massXpert that were performed so as to keep up with the technical advances in mass spectrometry since a decade.

Availability: The massXpert 2 software is an open source and free software project hosted at http://www.massxpert.org.

Contact:  rusconi@mnhn.fr

Supplementary information:  Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Psychological Profile of Sasang Typology: A Systematic Review
Authors: Chae Han , Park Soo Hyun , Lee Soo Jin , Kim Myoung-geun , Wedding Danny , Kwon Young-Kyu
Published: September 2009

A systematic review of studies related to the psychological characteristics of Sasang types was conducted with the goal of delineating generalizable psychological profiles based on Sasang typology, a traditional Korean medical typology with medical herbs and acupuncture that is characterized as personalized medicine. Journal articles pertaining to Sasang typology were collected using five electronic database systems in Korea and in the USA. As a result, 64 potentially relevant studies were identified and 21 peer‐reviewed research articles that employed psychometric inventories were included. Beginning with the use of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory in 1992, Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator, NEO‐Personality Inventory, Temperament and Character Inventory and other personality assessment tools were employed in the identified studies. Because data synthesis could not be carried out due to the heterogeneity of the studies, the present review article sought to delineate the mutual relevance of the studies based on research results pertaining to the correlation between the aforementioned psychological assessment instruments. Results of the review indicate that two super‐factors, Extraversion and Neuroticism, serve as the foundation in regards to delineating personality constructs, such that the So‐Yang type scored high on the Extraversion dimension and low on the Neuroticism dimension, while the So‐Eum type scored low on the Extraversion dimension and high on the Neuroticism dimension. The present systematic review indicates that Sasang typology shares similarities with the Western psychological tradition.
Randomized Clinical Trials of Constitutional Acupuncture: A Systematic Review
Authors: Lee Myeong Soo , Shin Byung-Cheul , Choi Sun-Mi , Kim Jong Yeol
Published: September 2009

The aim of this systematic review is to compile and critically evaluate the evidence from randomized clinical trials (RCTs) for the effectiveness of acupuncture using constitutional medicine compared to standard acupuncture. Ten databases were searched through to December 2008 without language restrictions. We also hand‐searched nine Korean journals of oriental medicine. We included prospective RCTs of any form of acupuncture with or without electrical stimulation. The included trials had to investigate constitutional medicine. There were no restrictions on population characteristics. Forty‐one relevant studies were identified, and three RCTs were included. The methodological quality of the trials was variable. One RCT found Sasang constitutional acupuncture to be superior to standard acupuncture in terms of the Unified PD Rating Scale and freezing gate in Parkinson′s disease (PD). Another two RCTs reported favorable effects of eight constitutional acupuncture on pain reduction in patients with herniated nucleus pulposi and knee osteoarthritis. Meta‐analysis demonstrated positive results for eight constitutional acupuncture compared to standard acupuncture on pain reduction (weighted mean difference: 10 cm VAS, 1.69, 95% CI 0.85–2.54, P < 0.0001; heterogeneity: τ2 = 0.00, Χ2 = 0.00, P = 0.96, I2 = 0%). Our results provide suggestive evidence for the effectiveness of constitutional acupuncture in treating pain conditions compared to standard acupuncture. However, the total number of RCTs and the total sample size included in our analysis were too small to draw definite conclusions. Future RCTs should assess larger patient samples with longer treatment periods and appropriate controls.
Current Researches on the Methods of Diagnosing Sasang Constitution: An Overview
Authors: Lee Si-Woo , Jang Eun-Su , Lee Jeon , Kim Jong Yeol
Published: September 2009

Sasang constitution diagnosis has traditionally been conducted by a Sasang constitutional medicine (SCM) doctor who examines the external appearance, temperament and various symptoms of an individual and then collectively analyzes this information to determine their own constitutions. However, because this process is subjective and not quantitative, many researchers have been attempting to develop objective and reasonable methods of determining constitutions. In Korea, even though a wide range of research regarding SCM has been conducted, most of the work has not been revealed internationally. So in this review, the authors have searched the Journal of Sasang Constitutional Medicine, as well as other Korean domestic journal databases and Pubmed for research regarding modernized constitution diagnosis methods so to provide the understanding of current research state and outlook for future research.
Taeyeumjoweetang Affects Body Weight and Obesity‐Related Genes in Mice
Authors: Lee Si-Woo , Yoo Jong-Hyang , Lee Su-Kyung , Keum Kyung-Soo , Ryu Do-Gon , Kwon Kang-Beom
Published: September 2009

Taeyeumjoweetang (TYJWT) is a herbal medication that was mentioned in Jema Lee′s Donguisusebowon, which is a book about Sasang constitutional medicine. Tae‐eumnis, one of the four constitutions, tend to suffer from metabolic diseases such as obesity and diabetes. It is widely used to treat the digestive problems and obesity of Tae‐eumins. We divided mice that were fed a normal diet for 48 days into control, TYJWT 250 mg kg-1 and TYJWT 500 mg kg-1 groups. After carrying out the experiments, the serum levels of leptin, adiponectin, ghrelin and resistin were measured. The results showed that TYJWT significantly reduced the weights of mice that were fed a normal diet, and that this was due to a decrease in food intake. Also, the two TYJWT groups had lower serum levels of leptin compared to the control group, and the ghrelin levels were proportionately increased by the dosage of TYJWT given. These results show that TYJWT has obesity‐suppressing effects similar to those previously reported using high fat diets. In addition, these results also provide evidence that TYJWT has anti‐obesity effects.
Sasang Constitutional Medicine as a Holistic Tailored Medicine
Authors: Kim Jong Yeol , Pham Duong Duc
Published: September 2009

Sasang constitutional medicine (SCM) is a unique traditional Korean therapeutic alternative form of medicine. Based on the Yin and Yang theory and on Confucianism, humans are classified into four constitutions. These differ in terms of (i) sensitivity to certain groups of herbs and medicines, (ii) equilibrium among internal organic functions, (iii) physical features and (iv) psychological characteristics. We propose that two main axes in the physiopathology of SCM (food intake/waste discharge and consuming/storing Qi and body fluids) are equivalent to the process of internal–external exchange and catabolism/anabolism in modern physiology, respectively. We then used this hypothesis to discuss the physiological and pathological principles of SCM. Constitution‐based medicine is based on the theory that some medicinal herbs and remedies are only appropriate for certain constitutions and can cause adverse effects in others. The constitutional approach of SCM share the same vision as tailored medicine; an individualized therapy that can minimize the risk of adverse reaction while increasing the efficacy and an individualized self‐regulation that can help prevent specific susceptible chronic disease and live healthily. There is still a long way to this goal for both SCM and tailored medicine, but we may benefit from systems approaches such as systems biology. We suggest that constitutional perspective of SCM and our hypothesis of two main processes may provide a novel insight for further studies.
Could there Be a Synthesis between Western and Oriental Medicine, and with Sasang Constitutional Medicine in Particular?
Authors: Noble Denis
Published: September 2009

Attitudes towards oriental medicine are changing for two major reasons. The first is that many patients, even in the West, are choosing to use its practitioners and methods. The second is that the rise of Systems Biology may offer a better basis for dialogue, and even for synthesis, between the oriental and Western traditions. However, a lot of work is needed to clear the way for such dialogue and synthesis. Much of this work should be devoted to clarifying the meanings of the terms used, and the framework of theory and practice within which oriental methods operate. But it is also necessary for Systems Biology itself to mature as a discipline, particularly at the higher levels of biological organization since it is at these levels that oriental medicine derives its ideas and practice. Higher level Systems Biology could be a basis for interpretation of the Korean version of oriental medicine: Sasang constitutional medicine since it seeks patient specific analysis and treatment, and the mathematical methods of systems biology could be used to analyze the central concept of balance in Sasang.
Corporate Social Responsibility Theories
Authors: Melé Domènec
Published: September 2009

This article follows the study of Garriga and Melé (2004), which distinguishes four groups of corporate social responsibility theories, considering their respective focus on four different aspects of the social reality: economics, politics, social integration, and ethics. The first one focuses on economics. Here the corporation is seen as a mere instrument for wealth creation. The second group focuses on the social power of the corporation and its responsibility in the political arena associated with its power. The third group focuses on social integration. It includes theories which consider that business ought to integrate. In describing each theory, this article commences with an overview, followed by a brief historical background, including the milestones of its development. Then, it outlines the conceptual bases of the theory, concluding with a brief discussion on the strengths and weaknesses of each theory.
The Business Case for Corporate Social Responsibility
Authors: Kurucz Elizabeth C. , Colbert Barry A. , Wheeler David
Published: September 2009

The purpose of this article is to provide a general summary of the key value propositions evident in the research on the business case for corporate social responsibility (CSR), described as four general ‘types’ of the business case, or four modes of value creation. It then presents a critique of these approaches (including identifying some problems inherent in the construct of CSR itself) and offers some principles for constructing a ‘better’ business case. Its intent is not to conduct a thorough review of studies analyzing the relationship between CSR and financial performance, as that has been well done elsewhere. Rather it seeks to unearth assumptions underlying dominant approaches in an effort to build a more robust business case for CSR that can move beyond existing limitations.
Corporate Social Performance and Financial Performance
Authors: Orlitzky Marc
Published: September 2009

The community of Business and Society scholars has been investigating the relationship between corporate social performance and corporate financial performance over thirty years. The typical conclusion, based on narrative reviews of this literature, is that the empirical evidence is too mixed to allow for any firm. In these reviews, poor measures and weak theory construction are often mentioned as causes of this apparent variability in findings. The assumption that this research stream is inconclusive has persisted until after the turn of the millennium. So, what may be required at this point is a critical examination of the evidence that seems to have motivated these conclusions. This article argues that certain types of literature reviews should be treated with caution. It proposes an alternative and uses this more rigorous methodology of literature reviews in order to assess the cumulative evidence on the core constructs.
Rethinking Corporate Social Responsibility and the Role of the Firm—On the Denial of Politics
Authors: Hanlon Gerard
Published: September 2009

This article argues that corporate social responsibility (CSR) does not represent a challenge to business. On the contrary, it suggests that CSR represents a further embedding of capitalist social relations and a deeper opening up of social life to the dictates of the marketplace. Furthermore, it protests that CSR is not a driving force of change but rather an outcome of changes brought on by other forces. Most particularly, it is the result of a shift from a fordist to a post-fordist regime of accumulation at the heart of which is both an expansion and a deepening of wage relations. This article somewhat conveniently traces the (re)emergence of CSR as an issue beyond the academy from the 1990s whilst acknowledging the academic work on CSR carried out earlier (Carroll, 1979 or Owen, 2003 on the democratic push in CSR during the 1970s).
Much Ado about Nothing
Authors: van Oosterhout J. (Hans) , Heugens Pursey P. M. A. R.
Published: September 2009

This article refutes the underlying conceptual need for corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the first place. All told, these critiques offer some serious challenges to the CSR field, although the conclusions reached by each of the contributors differ as to their degree of optimism or pessimism regarding its potential. The conceptual critique of the CSR concept is structured as follows. First, this article introduces some distinctions for evaluating CSR as an academic concept. It then sketches a short history of CSR concept formation, and elaborates on definitions and operationalizations of the CSR concept. Finding that CSR is problematic both theoretically and empirically, it proceeds to explore what—if any—role remains for the notion of CSR in business and society research. It concludes that it would be prudent for the field to dispense with the notion of CSR altogether.
Consumers as Drivers of Corporate Social Responsibility
Authors: Smith N. Craig
Published: September 2009

This article surveys the potential and limits of consumers in demanding socially responsible behavior through their decisions at the checkout. Corporate responsibility (CR) has never been more prominent on the corporate agenda and primarily because the business case is perceived to be much stronger. This article takes a critical look at the role of consumers in corporate attention to CR. It gives illustrative examples of ‘ethical consumerism’, survey data, and a theoretical rationale that supports the general idea that consumers care about issues of corporate responsibility. It also examines various marketer initiatives that reflect a belief in ethical consumerism, from cause-related marketing to ethical branding. It then turns to more theoretical treatments and empirical research findings on, first, consumer support for pro-social corporate conduct (‘positive ethical consumerism’) and, second, consumer punishment of CR failings, most notably in consumer boycotts (‘negative ethical consumerism’).
Corporate Social Responsibility, Government, and Civil Society
Authors: Moon Jeremy , Vogel David
Published: September 2009

This article examines the role of governments and civil society in shaping and encouraging corporate social responsibility (CSR). It begins by exploring the relationship between CSR and particular patterns of business–government–civil society relations. It then examines the patterns of business–government relations that are associated with CSR. It explores two basic models. One is the dichotomous view that posits that CSR and government are, by definition, mutually exclusive; accordingly, the scope of CSR is defined by the absence of regulation and public policy. The second posits that CSR is the relationship between market actors and governments. This article also investigates changes in business–government–civil society relations which explain the recent growth and development of CSR. Finally, it examines the ways in which governments have promoted CSR and the relationship between responsible public and private policies.
Responsibility in the Supply Chain
Authors: Millington Andrew
Published: September 2009

This article provides a comprehensive overview of one of the main areas where corporate social responsibility issues have impacted upon firms across the globe, namely the supply chain. Although the legal obligations for social and environmental issues are increasingly devolved to suppliers, the role of lead firms in the development of ethical supply chain management (ESCM) has been the subject of considerable debate. This article focuses on two questions which are central to the development of ESCM. First, it looks at stakeholder pressure for ESCM and its implications for the involvement of lead firms in ESCM. Second, it considers the conditions under which lead firms will be able to influence suppliers and implement ESCM. It then reviews the impact of ESCM on social and environmental performance. Finally, it outlines the implications for the development of effective ESCM.
Globalization and Corporate Social Responsibility
Authors: Scherer Andreas Georg , Palazzo Guido
Published: September 2009

This article analyzes the advent of globalization and delineates its impact on the corporation and its social responsibilities. It begins with an explanation of the concept of globalization. Next, it describes the traditional paradigm of corporate social responsibility (CSR) where the responsibilities of businesses are discussed vis-à-vis a more or less properly working nation-state system and a homogeneous moral. It describes the new situation of regulatory gaps in global regulation, an erosion of national governance, and a loss of moral and cultural homogeneity in the corporate environment. It also discusses the consequences of the post-national constellation with the help of two recent observations of business firms' behavior which call for a fresh view of the concept of CSR. Finally, it describes the necessary paradigm shifts toward a new politically enlarged concept of CSR in a globalized world.
Corporate Social Responsibility and Theories of Global Governance
Authors: Levy David L. , Kaplan Rami
Published: September 2009

This article develops a framework in which corporate social responsibility (CSR) represents the contested terrain of global governance. The rise of CSR is one of the more striking developments of recent decades in the global political economy. Calls for multinational corporations (MNCs) to demonstrate greater responsibility, transparency, and accountability are leading to the establishment of a variety of new governance structures—rules, norms, codes of conduct, and standards—that constrain and shape MNCs' behavior. CSR is thus not just a struggle over practices, but over the locus of governance authority, offering a potential path toward the transformation of stakeholders from external observers and petitioners into legitimate and organized participants in decision-making. This article points to two distinct perspectives on CSR; as a more socially embedded and democratic form of governance that emanates from civil society, or alternatively, as a privatized system of corporate governance that lacks public accountability.
Corporate Social Responsibility in a Comparative Perspective
Authors: Williams Cynthia A. , Aguilera Ruth V.
Published: September 2009

Comparative studies of corporate social responsibility (CSR) are relatively rare, certainly as contrasted with other related fields, such as comparative corporate governance or comparative corporate law. This is to be expected in a field, such as CSR that is still ‘emergent’. While theoretical perspectives on corporate social performance or stakeholder management have been developed over two decades, it is only in the last decade that businesses have begun to exhibit serious evidence of CSR in their strategic management and stakeholder social reporting. This article goes on to explore how CSR can reflect wider national business and governance systems, such as market structures and rules, institutional norms, and respective responsibilities of governments, corporations and other social actors. A particularly exposed role, most notably for multinational corporations from the global north, is emerging for corporations in developing countries.
Corporate Social Responsibility
Authors: Frederick William C.
Published: September 2009

This article argues that prospects for corporate social responsibility (CSR) are anchored in its early beginnings, in its ever-expanding acceptance as a legitimate business practice, and in the looming necessities and crises spawned by unprecedented global expansion of economic enterprise. CSR is an idea whose time has arrived, not just in the United States but wherever markets and corporate enterprise comprise the foundation of a society's economic endeavors. Unevenly developed and experienced across the grand arc of 21st century societies, CSR is infiltrating into corporate consciousness and corporate culture, finds expression in the workplace, sparks stakeholder involvement, molds company strategy, enriches the quality of community life, broadens business vision, and seeks to humanize economic enterprise wherever it is found. A cardinal principle of CSR's spread throughout the globe is that each society and each business firm shall find its own unique way of expressing and realizing CSR's core meaning.
Great tits search for, capture, kill and eat hibernating bats
Authors: Estók Péter , Zsebők Sándor , Siemers Björn M.
Published: September 2009

Ecological pressure paired with opportunism can lead to surprising innovations in animal behaviour. Here, we report predation of great tits (
Parus major
) on hibernating pipistrelle bats (
Pipistrellus pipistrellus
) at a Hungarian cave. Over two winters, we directly observed 18 predation events. The tits specifically and systematically searched for and killed bats for food. A substantial decrease in predation on bats after experimental provisioning of food to the tits further supports the hypothesis that bat-killing serves a foraging purpose in times of food scarcity. We finally conducted a playback experiment to test whether tits would eavesdrop on calls of awakening bats to find them in rock crevices. The tits could clearly hear the calls and were attracted to the loudspeaker. Records for tit predation on bats at this cave now span more than ten years and thus raise the question of whether cultural transmission plays a role for the spread of this foraging innovation.
Extrapolating non-target risk of
Bt
crops from laboratory to field
Authors: Duan Jian J. , Lundgren Jonathan G. , Naranjo Steve , Marvier Michelle
Published: September 2009

The tiered approach to assessing ecological risk of insect-resistant transgenic crops assumes that lower tier laboratory studies, which expose surrogate non-target organisms to high doses of insecticidal proteins, can detect harmful effects that might be manifested in the field. To test this assumption, we performed meta-analyses comparing results for non-target invertebrates exposed to
Bacillus thuringiensis
(
Bt
) Cry proteins in laboratory studies with results derived from independent field studies examining effects on the abundance of non-target invertebrates. For Lepidopteran-active Cry proteins, laboratory studies correctly predicted the reduced field abundance of non-target Lepidoptera. However, laboratory studies incorporating tri-trophic interactions of
Bt
plants, herbivores and parasitoids were better correlated with the decreased field abundance of parasitoids than were direct-exposure assays. For predators, laboratory tri-trophic studies predicted reduced abundances that were not realized in field studies and thus overestimated ecological risk. Exposure to Coleopteran-active Cry proteins did not significantly reduce the laboratory survival or field abundance of any functional group examined. Our findings support the assumption that laboratory studies of transgenic insecticidal crops show effects that are either consistent with, or more conservative than, those found in field studies, with the important caveat that laboratory studies should explore all ecologically relevant routes of exposure.
Does organic farming benefit farmland birds in winter?
Authors: Chamberlain D. E. , Joys A. , Johnson P. J. , Norton L. , Feber R. E. , Fuller R. J.
Published: September 2009

The generally higher biodiversity on organic farms may be influenced by management features such as no synthetic pesticide and fertilizer inputs and/or by differences in uncropped habitat at the site and landscape scale. We analysed bird and habitat data collected on 48 paired organic and conventional farms over two winters to determine the extent to which broad-scale habitat differences between systems could explain overall differences in farmland bird abundance. Density was significantly higher on organic farms for six out of 16 species, and none on conventional. Total abundance of all species combined was higher on organic farms in both years. Analyses using an information-theoretic approach suggested that both habitat extent and farm type were important predictors only for starling and greenfinch. Organic farming as currently practised may not provide significant benefits to those bird species that are limited by winter food resources, in particular, several declining granivores.
Optimal and robust control of invasive alien species spreading in homogeneous landscapes
Authors: Carrasco L. R. , Baker R. , MacLeod A. , Knight J. D. , Mumford J. D.
Published: September 2009

Government agencies lack robust modelling tools to manage the spread of invasive alien species (IAS). In this paper, we combine optimal control and simulation methods with biological invasion spread theory to estimate the type of optimal policy and switching point of control efforts against a spreading IAS. We employ information-gap (info-gap) theory to assess how the optimal solutions differ from a policy that is most robustly immune to unacceptable outcomes. The model is applied to the potential invasion of the Colorado potato beetle in the UK. Under no uncertainty, we demonstrate that for many of the parameter combinations the optimal control policy corresponds to slowing down the invasion. The info-gap analysis shows that eradication policies identified as optimal under no uncertainty are robustly the best policies even under severe uncertainty, i.e. even if they are likely to turn into slowing down policies. We also show that the control of satellite colonies, if identified as optimal under no uncertainty, will also be a robust slowing down policy for IAS that can spread by long distance dispersal even for relatively ineffective control measures. The results suggest that agencies adopt management strategies that are robustly optimal, despite the severe uncertainties they face.
Herd immunity acquired indirectly from interactions between the ecology of infectious diseases, demography and economics
Authors: Bonds Matthew H. , Rohani Pejman
Published: September 2009

Patterns of morbidity and mortality around the globe are determined by interactions between infectious diseases and systematic human socioeconomic processes. The most obvious of these patterns is that the greatest burdens of infectious diseases are found among the poor, who lack the basic resources for disease prevention and treatment. Yet, it is becoming increasingly clear that many infectious diseases are themselves causes of poverty owing to their effects on labour productivity. A particularly subtle phenomenon that receives little attention in the epidemiology literature and is especially important for poor communities is the role of the birth rate as an important direct cause of high disease burdens. Because of their high rates of transmission and life-long immunity, the persistence of many child diseases such as measles relies on high rates of reproduction as their source of susceptible individuals. Thus, there are significant direct health benefits of lower fertility rates, which are further enhanced by interactions with economic processes. Indeed, fertility, poverty and disease all interact with each other in important and predictable ways that can be built into traditional disease ecology models. We present such a model here that provides insights into the long-term effect of policy interventions. For example, because of indirect income effects, herd immunity may be acquired with lower vaccine coverage than previously thought. Reductions in the disease burden can also occur through lower fertility. Our model thus provides a disease ecology framework that is useful for the analysis of demographic transitions.
Phylogenetic trait conservatism and the evolution of functional trade-offs in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Authors: Powell Jeff R. , Parrent Jeri L. , Hart Miranda M. , Klironomos John N. , Rillig Matthias C. , Maherali Hafiz
Published: September 2009

The diversity of functional and life-history traits of organisms depends on adaptation as well as the legacy of shared ancestry. Although the evolution of traits in macro-organisms is well studied, relatively little is known about character evolution in micro-organisms. Here, we surveyed an ancient and ecologically important group of microbial plant symbionts, the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, and tested hypotheses about the evolution of functional and life-history traits. Variation in the extent of root and soil colonization by AM fungi is constrained to a few nodes basal to the most diverse groups within the phylum, with relatively little variation associated with recent divergences. We found no evidence for a trade-off in biomass allocated to root versus soil colonization in three published glasshouse experiments; rather these traits were positively correlated. Partial support was observed for correlated evolution between fungal colonization strategies and functional benefits of the symbiosis to host plants. The evolution of increased soil colonization was positively correlated with total plant biomass and shoot phosphorus content. Although the effect of AM fungi on infection by root pathogens was phylogenetically conserved, there was no evidence for correlated evolution between the extent of AM fungal root colonization and pathogen infection. Variability in colonization strategies evolved early in the diversification of AM fungi, and we propose that these strategies were influenced by functional interactions with host plants, resulting in an evolutionary stasis resembling trait conservatism.
Seasonality and comparative dynamics of six childhood infections in pre-vaccination Copenhagen
Authors: Metcalf C. Jessica E. , Bjørnstad Ottar N. , Grenfell Bryan T. , Andreasen Viggo
Published: September 2009

Seasonal variation in infection transmission is a key determinant of epidemic dynamics of acute infections. For measles, the best-understood strongly immunizing directly transmitted childhood infection, the perception is that term-time forcing is the main driver of seasonality in developed countries. The degree to which this holds true across other acute immunizing childhood infections is not clear. Here, we identify seasonal transmission patterns using a unique long-term dataset with weekly incidence of six infections including measles. Data on age–incidence allow us to quantify the mean age of infection. Results indicate correspondence between dips in transmission and school holidays for some infections, but there are puzzling discrepancies, despite close correspondence between average age of infection and age of schooling. Theoretical predictions of the relationship between amplitude of seasonality and basic reproductive rate of infections that should result from term-time forcing are also not upheld. We conclude that where yearly trajectories of susceptible numbers are perturbed, e.g. via waning of immunity, seasonality is unlikely to be entirely driven by term-time forcing. For the three bacterial infections, pertussis, scarlet fever and diphtheria, there is additionally a strong increase in transmission during the late summer before the end of school vacations.
Human odometer is gait-symmetry specific
Authors: Turvey Michael T. , Romaniak-Gross Carissa , Isenhower Robert W. , Arzamarski Ryan , Harrison Steven , Carello Claudia
Published: September 2009

In 1709, Berkeley hypothesized of the human that distance is measurable by ‘the motion of his body, which is perceivable by touch’. To be sufficiently general and reliable, Berkeley's hypothesis must imply that distance measured by legged locomotion approximates actual distance, with the measure invariant to gait, speed and number of steps. We studied blindfolded human participants in a task in which they travelled by legged locomotion from a fixed starting point A to a variable terminus B, and then reproduced, by legged locomotion from B, the A–B distance. The outbound (‘measure’) and return (‘report’) gait could be the same or different, with similar or dissimilar step sizes and step frequencies. In five experiments we manipulated bipedal gait according to the primary versus secondary distinction revealed in symmetry group analyses of locomotion patterns. Berkeley's hypothesis held only when the measure and report gaits were of the same symmetry class, indicating that idiothetic distance measurement is gait-symmetry specific. Results suggest that human odometry (and perhaps animal odometry more generally) entails variables that encompass the limbs in coordination, such as global phase, and not variables at the level of the single limb, such as step length and step number, as traditionally assumed.
Phase-dependent outbreak dynamics of geometrid moth linked to host plant phenology
Authors: Jepsen Jane U. , Hagen Snorre B. , Karlsen Stein-Rune , Ims Rolf A.
Published: September 2009

Climatically driven Moran effects have often been invoked as the most likely cause of regionally synchronized outbreaks of insect herbivores without identifying the exact mechanism. However, the degree of match between host plant and larval phenology is crucial for the growth and survival of many spring-feeding pest insects, suggesting that a phenological match/mismatch-driven Moran effect may act as a synchronizing agent.

We analyse the phase-dependent spatial dynamics of defoliation caused by cyclically outbreaking geometrid moths in northern boreal birch forest in Fennoscandia through the most recent massive outbreak (2000–2008). We use satellite-derived time series of the prevalence of moth defoliation and the onset of the growing season for the entire region to investigate the link between the patterns of defoliation and outbreak spread. In addition, we examine whether a phase-dependent coherence in the pattern of spatial synchrony exists between defoliation and onset of the growing season, in order to evaluate if the degree of matching phenology between the moth and their host plant could be the mechanism behind a Moran effect.

The strength of regional spatial synchrony in defoliation and the pattern of defoliation spread were both highly phase-dependent. The incipient phase of the outbreak was characterized by high regional synchrony in defoliation and long spread distances, compared with the epidemic and crash phase. Defoliation spread was best described using a two-scale stratified spread model, suggesting that defoliation spread is governed by two processes operating at different spatial scale. The pattern of phase-dependent spatial synchrony was coherent in both defoliation and onset of the growing season. This suggests that the timing of spring phenology plays a role in the large-scale synchronization of birch forest moth outbreaks.
Evidence of a myco-heterotroph in the plant family Ericaceae that lacks mycorrhizal specificity
Authors: Hynson Nicole A. , Bruns Thomas D.
Published: September 2009

Myco-heterotrophy is one of the longest-studied aspects of the mycorrhizal symbiosis, but there remain many critical, unanswered questions regarding the ecology and physiology of myco-heterotrophic plants and their associated fungi. The vast majority of all myco-heterotrophs studied to date have exhibited specificity towards narrow lineages of fungi, but it is unclear whether the loss of photosynthesis in these plants is contingent upon fungal specialization. Here, we examine the fungal associates of the myco-heterotrophPyrola aphylla(Ericaceae) and its closest green relativePyrola pictato determine the pattern of mycorrhizal specialization. Our findings show that both plant species associate with a range of root-inhabiting fungi, the majority of which are ectomycorrhizal taxa. This study provides the first example of a eudicotyledonous myco-heterotroph that is a mycorrhizal generalist, indicating that the loss of photosynthesis in myco-heterotrophs is not contingent upon fungal specialization.
The origin of a selfish B chromosome triggering paternal sex ratio in the parasitoid waspTrichogramma kaykai
Authors: Van Vugt Joke J. F. A. , de Jong Hans , Stouthamer Richard
Published: September 2009

This study uses molecular and cytogenetic methods to determine the origin of a B chromosome in some males of the waspTrichogramma kaykai. This so-called paternal sex ratio (PSR) chromosome transmits only through sperm and shortly after fertilization triggers degeneration of the paternal genome, while keeping itself intact. The resulting embryos develop into haploid B-chromosome-carrying males. Another PSR chromosome with a very similar mode of action is found in the distantly related waspNasonia vitripennisand its origin was traced by transposon similarity to the genusTrichomalopsis, which is closely related toNasonia. To determine whether both PSR chromosomes have a similar origin we aimed to reveal the origin of theTrichogrammaPSR chromosome. Using fluorescentin situhybridization, we discovered a major satellite repeat on the PSR chromosome, the 45S ribosomal DNA. Analysis of the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) of this repeat showed the presence of multiple ITS2 sequences on the PSR chromosome resembling either the ITS2 ofT. oleaeor ofT. kaykai. We therefore conclude that theTrichogrammaPSR chromosome originates fromT. oleaeor aT. oleae-like species. Our results are consistent with different origins for the PSR chromosomes inTrichogrammaandNasonia.