bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Responsibility Transfer
Authors: Saint-Paul Gilles
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on a new feature of paternalism: responsibility transfer. Responsibility transfer means holding an individual liable for a perfectly licit action, on the grounds that this action has initiated a chain of events that had led to harm inflicted by another individual. Responsibility transfer not only originates from the will to allocate responsibility to those who are rational; it is also determined by the relative capacity to pay of the various actors involved. This partly explains why there is a tendency to take into account not only the person's presumed cognitive capacity to act responsibly but also his financial capacity to pay the damages. In a world with limited liability, it is more efficient to allocate responsibilities to those individuals or entities that can pay: this allows one to increase the penalties and get better incentives.
Pollination by Birds
Authors: Willmer Pat
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on pollination by birds. Bird pollination, or ornithophily, is a widespread phenomenon. Many common birds visit flowers by biting through or piercing their corollas, notably tits and warblers. Birds primarily take nectar from flowers, although some may also eat pollen and occasionally take solid floral tissues. The chapter first provides an overview of the bird’s feeding apparatus, sensory capacity, and behavior and learning capabilities before discussing various types of flowers that are pollinated by birds such as hummingbirds and perching birds. The foraging behaviors of these birds are also considered, along with the ornithophilous syndrome. The chapter concludes with some observations on why extreme specialization is precluded in ornithophilous relationships.
Pollination by Bees
Authors: Willmer Pat
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers pollination by bees, or melittophily. The bee flower syndrome involves flowers that have medium to long corolla tubes, often pendant, usually zygomorphic (i.e., bilaterally symmetrical rather than radial), commonly with a landing platform with complex texture or ridging so that a bee can hang on easily, and often arranged in spiked inflorescences. The flowers typically open in the early morning and offer their main rewards before midday, although a few are particularly rewarding in the evenings. The chapter begins with a discussion of the bee’s feeding apparatus and feeding methods, along with sensory systems and bee perception of flowers. It then examines the effects of sociality on bees’ flower-visiting patterns as well as behavior and learning in flower-visiting bees. Finally, it analyzes six melittophily types namely: solitary bees, carpenter bees, euglossine bees, bumblebees, stingless bees, and honeybees.
Cultural Evolution: Adaptive Diversification in Language and Religion
Authors: Doebeli Michael
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines adaptive diversification in language and religion. The historic record contains many examples of the types of diversification occurring in these models. Diversification in languages has been rampant throughout history, and must have often occurred under substantial contact between hosts of diverging language memes. Similarly, it seems clear that religious diversification has often occurred, and continuous to occur, under conditions of substantial contact. The models illustrate that diversifying processes should be expected to operate whenever the likelihood of secession from a dominant culture increases with increasing dominance of the mainstream culture. Intuitively, it is not hard to imagine that the attractiveness of a culture diminishes as the culture becomes more dominant, dogmatic, and perhaps oppressive, and that the desire to stand out and be different increases in increasingly conformist cultures.
Adaptive Diversification and Speciation as Pattern Formation in Partial Differential Equation Models
Authors: Doebeli Michael
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses partial differential equation models. Partial differential equations can describe the dynamics of phenotype distributions of polymorphic populations, and they allow for a mathematically concise formulation from which some analytical insights can be obtained. It has been argued that because partial differential equations can describe polymorphic populations, results from such models are fundamentally different from those obtained using adaptive dynamics. In partial differential equation models, diversification manifests itself as pattern formation in phenotype distribution. More precisely, diversification occurs when phenotype distributions become multimodal, with the different modes corresponding to phenotypic clusters, or to species in sexual models. Such pattern formation occurs in partial differential equation models for competitive as well as for predator–prey interactions.
The Deathblows to Authoritarian Rule
Authors: Mickey Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the federal government and black protest organizations intervened in southern authoritarian enclaves, with a particular focus on the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 as well as the reform of the National Democratic Party during the period 1964–1972. It first considers state authorities' consensus preference for effecting a “harnessed revolution” before discussing the challenges posed by the Civil and Voting rights acts to southern enclaves. It then describes the degree to which outsiders interfered in enclaves' responses to these landmark statutes, including federal oversight of voting rights in the Deep South and deployments by black protest organizations. It concludes by analyzing the McGovern–Fraser national Democratic party reforms of 1968–1972.
Regulation and Governance of Market Infrastructure: Global Perspective
Authors: Lee Ruben
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines a unique set of assessments of securities markets and their regulation, from countries around the world, in order to provide a global perspective on policymakers' viewpoints about the regulation and governance of market infrastructure institutions. The assessments were undertaken as part of an initiative called the Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP), implemented jointly by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Each assessment evaluates the extent to which a country's securities markets regulatory regime reflects internationally recognized standards. The assessments prepared for the FSAP since its inception in 1999 up until 2006 are analyzed. Together they provide insights on three topics: how exchanges, central counterparties, and central securities depositories are regulated and governed globally; official perceptions on the optimal way of regulating markets and market infrastructure institutions; and the assumptions that are often made when examining the governance and regulation of market infrastructure institutions.
Exchanges
Authors: Lee Ruben
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a series of case studies illustrating how specific exchanges have actually been governed in particular contexts. The following institutions and contexts are described in turn: the proposed iX merger between Deutsche Börse and the London Stock Exchange (LSE), and its subsequent collapse, in 2000; the “Penny Stocks Incident” at Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing Ltd. in 2002; the attempted takeover of the LSE by NASDAQ over the period 2006–8; Euronext's purchase of London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange in 2001; the resignation of the chairman/CEO of the New York Stock Exchange in 2003; and the purchase by the “Murakami Fund” of a major block of shares in the Osaka Securities Exchange in 2005. A few brief general lessons from each case study are also identified.
CCPs and CSDs
Authors: Lee Ruben
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a series of case studies illustrating how some specific central counterparties (CCPs), and central securities depositories (CSDs) have been governed in particular contexts. The following institutions and contexts are described in turn: the relationship between the Canadian Depository for Securities' owners, its users, and board directors from the company's inception to 2008; the establishment of European Central Counterparty Limited by Depository Trust and Clearing Corporation over the period 2000–2002; the creation of Clearstream International by Deutsche Börse over the period 1999–2002; some aspects of how Euroclear was governed regarding its creation, ownership, and board structure up until 2006; and the creation of LCH.Clearnet and some difficulties it faced over the period 2003–6. A few brief general lessons from each case study are also identified.
Secret Reports on Nazi Germany
Authors: Neumann Franz , Marcuse Herbert , Kirchheimer Otto , Geuss Raymond
Published: November 2017

During World War II, three prominent members of the Frankfurt School—Franz Neumann, Herbert Marcuse, and Otto Kirchheimer—worked as intelligence analysts for the Office of Strategic Services, the wartime forerunner of the CIA. This book brings together their most important intelligence reports on Nazi Germany, most of them published here for the first time. These reports provide a fresh perspective on Adolf Hitler's regime and the Second World War, and a fascinating window on Frankfurt School critical theory. They develop a detailed analysis of Nazism as a social and economic system and the role of anti-Semitism in Nazism, as well as a coherent plan for the reconstruction of postwar Germany as a democratic political system with a socialist economy. These reports played a significant role in the development of postwar Allied policy, including denazification and the preparation of the Nuremberg Trials. They also reveal how wartime intelligence analysis shaped the intellectual agendas of these three important German–Jewish scholars who fled Nazi persecution prior to the war. The book features a foreword and a comprehensive general introduction that puts these writings in historical and intellectual context.
Proteins: Amino Acids and Amines
Authors: Bianchi Thomas S. , Canuel Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses proteins, which make up approximately 50% of organic matter and contain about 85% of the organic nitrogen in marine organisms. Peptides and proteins comprise an important fraction of the particulate organic carbon (13–37%) and particulate organic nitrogen (30–81%), as well as dissolved organic nitrogen (5–20%) and dissolved organic carbon (3–4%) in oceanic and coastal waters. In sediments, proteins account for approximately 7 to 25% of organic carbon and an estimated 30 to 90% of total nitrogen. Amino acids are the basic building blocks of proteins. This class of compounds is essential to all organisms and represents one of the most important components in the organic nitrogen cycle. Amino acids represent one of the most labile pools of organic carbon and nitrogen.
Lipids: Hydrocarbons
Authors: Bianchi Thomas S. , Canuel Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines hydrocarbons present in the environment and derived from natural and anthropogenic sources. Since the industrial revolution, the abundance of hydrocarbons derived from anthropogenic sources (petroleum hydrocarbons) has increased significantly in aquatic systems. Natural oil seeps and erosion of bitumen deposits can also contribute to hydrocarbon abundance and composition in systems. These petroleum hydrocarbons can be distinguished from biological hydrocarbons by their absence of odd-carbon chain lengths commonly found in biological hydrocarbons and the greater structural diversity found in petroleum hydrocarbons. The chapter focuses on naturally produced hydrocarbons. It provides examples of how aliphatic and isoprenoid hydrocarbons have been successfully used to distinguish between algal, bacterial, and terrigenous vascular plant sources of carbon in aquatic systems. It discusses how pristine and phytane are formed from phytol under oxic vs. anoxic conditions, respectively. It also introduces highly branched isoprenoids and their use as algal biomarkers.
Lipids: Alkenones, Polar Lipids, and Ether Lipids
Authors: Bianchi Thomas S. , Canuel Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on several classes of polar lipids, including alkenones, which are di-, tri-, and tetra-unsaturated long-chain ketones. These compounds are produced by a restricted number of species of prymnesiophyte algae (coccolithophorid alga Emiliania huxleyi), living over a wide temperature range. Prymnesiophytes are able to live under different temperature regimes because they are able to regulate the degree of unsaturation of these compounds; as ambient water temperature decreases, unsaturation increases. Long-chain ketones are more stable than most unsaturated lipids and can survive diagenesis. Because of these properties, alkenones have been used widely as paleothermometers. Paleoclimate studies of continental environments have been hampered by the lack of a useful temperature proxy. Glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (GDGTs) occur ubiquitously, including sites where alkenones are not produced due to the absence/low abundance of alkenone-producing algae. The TEX86 index, based on the number of cyclopentane rings in the GDGTs, provides a useful paleotemperature index for lakes and other sites where alkenones are not produced. The analysis of intact polar molecules is also becoming more widespread with the advent of liquid chromatography mass spectrometry techniques.
Introduction
Authors: Sabl Andrew
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter discusses how David Hume's political ideas shed light on a host of questions in political theory, political science, and practical politics that would otherwise seem intractable. Aspects of Hume's work that might seem either hard to understand or of questionable modern relevance when treated with the methods of philosophy or history both fall into place and prove their continuing importance when viewed through the lens of political theory. Political theorists can find in Hume an innovative, unfamiliar way of understanding and addressing political disagreement. Hume's “liberalism of enlargement” suggests that moral factions divide the members of polities; whereas political interests, suitably defined and creatively accommodated, unite them.
Bounded Rationality and Elections
Authors: Bendor Jonathan , Diermeier Daniel , Siegel David A. , Ting Michael M.
Published: November 2017

This book discusses a behavioral theory of elections based on bounded rationality. As a research program, bounded rationality contains a set of alternative formulations, rather than a single theory or model. The issues raised by the bounded rationality program—the impact of cognitive constraints on behavior—are as pertinent to politics as they are to markets, perhaps even more so. This is evident in the subfield of elections. This chapter considers two major topics that are central to a behavioral theory of elections: framing and heuristics. It also explores aspiration-based adaptive rules (ABARs), the relation between the research programs of bounded rationality and rational choice, voter turnout, and the cognitive capacities of voters and politicians. Finally, it provides an overview of the topics tackled in the book.
Weimar Theology
Authors: Gordon Peter E.
Published: November 2017

The brief lifespan of the Weimar Republic saw some of the most earthshaking revolutions in the study of religion. This chapter provides a survey of the major movements. It shows that an intellectual drama that opened with the subdued efforts in both historical criticism and historical sociology of religion would pass through a revolution of anti-historicism, rising to a crisis with various trends in dialectical theology and religious existentialism, and reaching an inconclusive end in bitter factionalism and political disarray. It examines general patterns and debates in Weimar theology from liberal Protestants (Adolf von Harnack) to crisis theologians (Karl Barth, Emil Brunner, Friedrich Gogarten) alongside Jewish philosophers (Cohen, Rosenzweig, Buber) and partisans of political theology on both the right and the left (Schmitt, Benjamin, Bloch).
Defying Communism
Authors: Neier Aryeh
Published: November 2017

This chapter details how the rise of the international human rights movement as a significant force in world affairs cannot be separated from the Cold War context in which it took place. The Cold War magnified the importance of citizen efforts to promote rights and, though many of those involved in the movement during the Cold War era took significant risks and suffered severe consequences, it was the circumstances of the East–West conflict that attracted many of them to the cause in the first place. Rights activists on both sides of the Iron Curtain became aware that calling attention to abuses of rights by their own governments carried extra weight in an era when a global competition was underway for people's hearts and minds.
State Courts
Authors: Berkowitz Daniel , Clay Karen B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how a state's colonial legal system and levels of political competition in the state legislature shaped the independence of judges on the state high court. It argues that the independence of judges in state high courts influences their behavior on the bench and thus economic and social outcomes. This is because judges face the difficulties of maintaining their positions. Thus, this chapter shows how judges facing Republican electorates were more likely to vote for businesses over individuals, and how those facing Democratic electorates had the opposite voting patterns. The chapter illustrates a model emphasizing these patterns, by plotting the relationships among legal initial conditions, political competition, and state courts.
Legislatures and Courts
Authors: Berkowitz Daniel , Clay Karen B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter furthers the previous chapter's discussion by examining how colonial legal origin and political competition have shaped the funding of state courts. State judicial budgets are set by the state executive and legislative branches as part of a regular state budget exercise. Judicial budgets are used to pay for staff, facilities, and other resources such as professional experts who can evaluate complex cases, as well as judicial salaries. The powers that governors and legislators have to shape judicial budgets serve as reasonable and useful checks on the judicial branch. However, governors and state legislatures may also use their power in setting judicial budgets to inappropriately influence judicial rulings.
Symmetric Markovian Semigroups and Dirichlet Forms
Authors: Chen Zhen-Qing , Fukushima Masatoshi
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies the concepts of Dirichlet form and Dirichlet space by first working with a σ‎-finite measure space (E,B(E),m) without any topological assumption on E and establish the correspondence of the above-mentioned notions to the semigroups of symmetric Markovian linear operators. Later on the chapter assumes that E is a Hausdorff topological space and considers the semigroups and Dirichlet forms generated by symmetric Markovian transition kernels on E. The chapter also considers quasi-regular Dirichlet forms and the quasi-homeomorphism of Dirichlet spaces. From here, the chapter shows that there is a nice Markov process called an m-tight special Borel standard process associated with every quasi-regular Dirichlet form.
Reflected Dirichlet Spaces
Authors: Chen Zhen-Qing , Fukushima Masatoshi
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to reflected Dirichlet spaces. It first introduces the notion of terminal random variables and harmonic functions of finite energy for a Hunt process associated with a transient regular Dirichlet form. The chapter next establishes several equivalent notions of reflected Dirichlet space (ℰ
ref,ℱ
ref) for a regular transient Dirichlet form (E,F). One of these equivalent notions is then used to define reflected Dirichlet space for a regular recurrent Dirichlet form. Moreover, the chapter gives yet another equivalent definition of reflected Dirichlet space that is invariant under quasi-homeomorphism of Dirichlet forms. Various concrete examples of reflected Dirichlet spaces are also exhibited for regular Dirichlet forms. Finally, the chapter defines a Silverstein extension of a quasi-regular Dirichlet form (E,F) on L²(E; m) and investigates the equivalence of analytic and probabilistic concepts of harmonicity.
The Global Remapping of American Literature
Authors: Giles Paul
Published: November 2017

This book charts how the cartographies of American literature as an institutional category have varied radically across different times and places. Arguing that American literature was consolidated as a distinctively nationalist entity only in the wake of the American Civil War, the book identifies this formation as extending until the beginning of the Reagan presidency in 1981. It contrasts this with the more amorphous boundaries of American culture in the eighteenth century, and with ways in which conditions of globalization at the turn of the twenty-first century have reconfigured the parameters of the subject. In light of these fluctuating conceptions of space, the book suggests new ways of understanding the shifting territory of American literary history. It considers why European medievalism and the prehistory of Native Americans were crucial to classic nineteenth-century authors such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Herman Melville. It discusses how twentieth-century technological innovations, such as air travel, affected representations of the national domain in the texts of F. Scott Fitzgerald and Gertrude Stein. It also analyzes how regional projections of the South and the Pacific Northwest helped to shape the work of writers such as William Gilmore Simms, José Martí, Elizabeth Bishop, and William Gibson.
The Deterritorialization of American Literature
Authors: Giles Paul
Published: November 2017

This book explores relationship between American literature and globalization and how this equation has fluctuated and evolved over time. In addition to works of fiction or poetry that are organized explicitly around particular conceptions of place, the book considers how a wide range of texts are informed implicitly by other kinds of geographical projection, of the type found in cartography and other forms of mapping. It argues that the connection between American literature and geography, far from being something that can be taken as natural, involves contested terrain. The book also examines how the United States has moved from a national phase to a matrix of transnationalism and relates it to the idea of deterritorialization first broached in 1972 by French theorists Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, and how this move toward a transnational infrastructure has manifested itself in American literature.
The Arcs of Modernism: Geography as Allegory
Authors: Giles Paul
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the lineaments of U.S. national identity were shaped and consolidated by three wars over a span of eighty years: the American Civil War, World War I, and World War II. It explains how American writers during these years sought to accommodate the heterogeneous nature of national space within an allegorical circumference where the geography of the nation would embody its redemptive spirit. The chapter first considers the establishment of social boundaries in William Dean Howells's novel A Hazard of New Fortunes and its effort to redescribe regionalism as a nationalist phenomenon. It then explores the concerted attempt to restore the “multilingual” dimensions of American literature and the nationalistic approach adopted by some writers that incorporates geography as a mode of allegory. It also analyzes the fiction of Wallace Stevens and Gertrude Stein, the latter of whom used the airplane as an emblem of modernism.
Father of Forms
Authors: Wasley Aidan
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses Auden's influence on James Merrill. It suggests that Merrill looked to Auden as the guide who could instruct him and encourage him to enjoy the feast of the full range of poetic modes. Merrill would later begin that instruction, starting work on a new project that would aim to unite craft and sentiment, aesthetics and engagement, and whose vast ambition would more than encompass “what it all means, and what his neighbor feels.” That project was The Changing Light at Sandover, the poem that would rewrite Merrill's identity as a poet of epic scope and vision. The schoolmaster in Sandover's classroom and a central figure in the composition and narrative of the poem, was Auden.
Ecological Niches and Geographic Distributions (MPB-49)
Authors: Peterson A. Townsend , Soberón Jorge , Pearson Richard G. , Anderson Robert P. , Martínez-Meyer Enrique , Nakamura Miguel , Araújo Miguel B.
Published: November 2017

This book provides a first synthetic view of an emerging area of ecology and biogeography, linking individual- and population-level processes to geographic distributions and biodiversity patterns. Problems in evolutionary ecology, macroecology, and biogeography are illuminated by this integrative view. The book focuses on correlative approaches known as ecological niche modeling, species distribution modeling, or habitat suitability modeling, which use associations between known occurrences of species and environmental variables to identify environmental conditions under which populations can be maintained. The spatial distribution of environments suitable for the species can then be estimated: a potential distribution for the species. This approach has broad applicability to ecology, evolution, biogeography, and conservation biology, as well as to understanding the geographic potential of invasive species and infectious diseases, and the biological implications of climate change. The book lays out conceptual foundations and general principles for understanding and interpreting species distributions with respect to geography and environment. Focus is on development of niche models. While serving as a guide for students and researchers, the book also provides a theoretical framework to support future progress in the field.
Introduction
Authors: Peterson A. Townsend , Soberón Jorge , Pearson Richard G. , Anderson Robert P. , Martínez-Meyer Enrique , Nakamura Miguel , Araújo Miguel Bastos
Published: November 2017

This book deals with ecological niche modeling and species distribution modeling, two emerging fields that address the ecological, geographic, and evolutionary dimensions of geographic distributions of species. It provides a conceptual overview of the complex relationships between ecological niches and geographic distributions of species, both across space and (perhaps to a lesser degree) through time. The emphasis is on how that conceptual framework relates to ecological niche modeling and species distribution modeling, which the book argues are complementary and are most broadly applicable to diverse questions regarding the ecology and geography of biodiversity phenomena. Part I of the book introduces the conceptual framework for thinking about and discussing the distributional ecology of species, Part II is concerned with the data and tools that have been used in the early development of the field, and Part III focuses on real-world situations to which these tools have been applied.
Niches and Distributions in Practice: Overview
Authors: Peterson A. Townsend , Soberón Jorge , Pearson Richard G. , Anderson Robert P. , Martínez-Meyer Enrique , Nakamura Miguel , Araújo Miguel Bastos
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the practice of modeling ecological niches and estimating geographic distributions. It first introduces the general principles and definitions underlying ecological niche modeling and species distribution modeling, focusing on model calibration and evaluation, before discussing the principal steps to be followed in building niche models. The first task in building a niche model is to collate, process, error-check, and format the data that are necessary as input. Two types of data are required: primary occurrence data documenting known presences (and sometimes absences) of the species, and environmental predictors in the form of raster-format GIS layers summarizing scenopoetic variables that may (or may not) be involved in delineating the ecological requirements of the species. The next step is to use a modeling algorithm to characterize the species’ ecological niche as a function of the environmental variables, followed by model projection and evaluation and finally, model transferability.
Discovering Biodiversity
Authors: Peterson A. Townsend , Soberón Jorge , Pearson Richard G. , Anderson Robert P. , Martínez-Meyer Enrique , Nakamura Miguel , Araújo Miguel Bastos
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the conceptual basis of using ecological niche modeling for discovering new elements of biodiversity. More specifically, it examines the use of ecological niche models to guide searches for and discovery of unknown populations of species as well as species limits. It also explains how niche conservatism provides some degree of predictability across related taxa and makes the use of niche models for discovering biodiversity possible. For applications focused on discovery of unknown species, the chapter shows that niche conservatism is necessary if predictions of likely distributional areas are to prove realistic. Finally, it reviews practical considerations that must be taken into account in applications of ecological niche models oriented at discovering biodiversity, along with the caveats and limitations of such applications.
Species’ Invasions
Authors: Peterson A. Townsend , Soberón Jorge , Pearson Richard G. , Anderson Robert P. , Martínez-Meyer Enrique , Nakamura Miguel , Araújo Miguel Bastos
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the use of ecological niche modeling to study species invasions, and more specifically to identify and understand genuine exceptions to ecological niche equivalency between native and introduced ranges of species. In addition, it examines the degree to which the geographic course of species’ invasions can be anticipated based on scenopoetic variables and biotic interactions. The chapter also reviews practical considerations that must be taken into account when exploring the utility of ecological niche models in understanding species’ invasions, such as using niche conservatism to predict likely changes in the distributional potential of invasive species under scenarios of changing environmental conditions. Finally, it describes caveats and limitations of the approach and outlines future research directions and challenges involved in the application of niche modeling ideas in species invasions.
Introduction
Authors: Ginsburgh Victor , Weber Shlomo
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter sets out the book's purpose, which is to analyze the trade-off between the quest for efficiency that a small number of languages is thought to foster and a reduction in disenfranchisement, which calls for more languages. It does so by using economic and to some extent linguistic and sociological reasoning to balance the benefits and costs of various linguistic situations and policies. While extolling diversity, we must recognize that it may come with institutional wastefulness and inefficiency, corruption, legal and communication barriers, and lack of interest on the part of citizens about what happens in their country or region, or may lead to unrest, riots, and even wars. So also does restricting diversity, which results in disenfranchisement. It is a difficult challenge to decide on a “sensible” number of languages.
Linguistic, Genetic, and Cultural Distances: How Far Is Nostratic?
Authors: Ginsburgh Victor , Weber Shlomo
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the linguistic, genetic, and cultural aspects of a society or a nation. These aspects are often correlated, since all three are closely linked not only to nature but also to learning and history, that is, nurture. One can therefore wonder when it is appropriate to choose one or the other in representing the proximity of individuals or groups to which they belong. In some cases, one of the measures is obvious. This is so when describing the difficulty of acquiring a foreign language, though even here there may be other types of proximities at work between, say, a Swedish and a Danish speaker than the mere proximity of the two languages. Otherwise there is no obvious answer, and certainly no theory to invoke.
Conclusions
Authors: Ginsburgh Victor , Weber Shlomo
Published: November 2017

This chapter summarizes key themes and presents some final thoughts. It argues that the development of optimal and sensible linguistic policies has to balance the will of the people and their attachment to traditions, history, and culture, with equity and efficiency considerations. Standardization policies should, recognize the importance of the diversity of existing cultures and languages. Linguistic disenfranchisement, which limits the ability and opportunity of individuals and groups to fully use their native languages in communal, political, legal, business, and other spheres of life, may rock the foundations that lead to free cultural existence and to progress. Protecting cultural and linguistic identity and diversity is especially important in an increasingly globalized world.
Emergent Allee Effects through Biomass Overcompensation
Authors: de Roos André M. , Persson Lennart
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the emergence of a positive feedback between the density of predators and the availability of its food, mediated through biomass overcompensation in the prey life history stage that it forages on. This positive feedback between predation, prey availability, and thus predator population growth rate manifests itself at the population-level as an Allee effect for the predator: a predator population at low density will decline to extinction, whereas at high densities predators will manage to establish themselves in a community with prey. However, this positive relation between predator density and its population growth rate does not result from any positively density-dependent interactions among the predators themselves, which generally form the basis of an Allee effect. Instead, predators only interact with each other through exploitative competition for prey. The Allee effect emerges solely as a consequence of the demographic changes in the prey population, which are induced by the mortality that the predator imposes. For this reason this phenomenon is referred to as an “emergent Allee effect.”
Mixed Interactions
Authors: de Roos André M. , Persson Lennart
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses mixed interactions from a different perspective, taking as its point of departure the models for a structured prey, structured predator community with exclusive resources for both prey and predator that were analyzed in Chapter 6. For both the stage-structured biomass model and the size-structured model based on Kooijman–Metz energetics discussed in Chapter 6, it investigates how an increasing resource overlap between predators and consumers will change community structure and dynamics. The end point of such increasing resource overlap is a model in which consumers and predators compete for the same shared resource and adult predators feed partially or exclusively on juvenile, small-size consumers. This end point is close to the models analyzed by van de Wolfshaar, de Roos, and Persson (2006) and Hin, Schellekens, et al. (2011); the results will be discussed in the light of those publications.
Dynamics of Consumer-Resource Systems
Authors: de Roos André M. , Persson Lennart
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on consumer-resource dynamics in systems where consumers of different sizes compete for a shared resource. It considers the implications of three important aspects of consumer life history: the explicit handling of a juvenile period leading to a delay between the time when an individual is born to when it starts to reproduce; the rate by which individual ecological processes scale with body size; and whether the rate by which the individual grows is dependent on food density or not. The chapter examines the effects of different resource growth dynamics to illustrate the fundamental differences between population cycles driven by interactions between individuals of different sizes, and classical predator–prey cycles driven by interactions between the consumer and the resource, also referred to as paradox of enrichment cycles. It also discusses experiments with the model organism, the cladoceran zooplankton Daphnia, to elucidate our current understanding of cycles driven by cohort interactions in this organism.
Explaining Lawmaking in the United States, 1877–1994
Authors: Lapinski John S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to lawmaking and shows that legislative productivity varies considerably by policy issue area. Specifically, it illustrates that the key determinants of legislative productivity differ by policy substance. It also provides empirical evidence that questions the benefits of pooling legislation when such aggregation often obscures empirical findings related to understanding the mechanisms of lawmaking. The chapter aims to determine whether pooling policies (using an overall aggregate measure of all legislation) is potentially inappropriate. This multivariate analysis draws on data using two different thresholds of significance. The highest threshold uses the top 500 enactments; while the second threshold uses the top 3,500 enactments. This threshold captures landmarks for very important legislation.
At the Crossroads: Policy Issue Substance, Congress, and American Political Development
Authors: Lapinski John S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter makes a final case that policy issue substance is critical for understanding contemporary and historical lawmaking. Neglecting the direct study of policy issue substance has unnecessarily weakened and stunted progress in the research programs of Congress and American political development. Additionally, Congress scholars generally prefer to engage in what is referred to as “normal science”—making steady but incremental progress towards the goal, instead of chasing big and potentially intractable ideas. Policy issue substance is unquestionably a big idea, and the chapter seeks to demonstrate that it is possible to pursue big ideas while still making solid, incremental progress in understanding lawmaking and political behavior.
Aristotle
Authors: Cooper John M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the Aristotelian way of life. For Aristotle, philosophy is not a way of life, as it was for Socrates. It is two distinct ones. Aristotle's contemplatives are, of course, complete philosophers. They lead lives of practical virtue in just the way other private citizens who possess those virtues in full measure do. The contemplative is both a philosopher of human affairs and a theoretical philosopher. Contemplatives live their philosophy in a double way. Still, the life they lead is correctly called a contemplative one, not one of practical virtue. It is one of the two ways that for Aristotle philosophy is a way of life. But for those “philosophers of human affairs”—virtuous political leaders, fully virtuous ordinary citizens—who are not also accomplished theoretical philosophers, philosophy is nonetheless just as much their way of life. The thinking and analysis and systematic argument, and systematically organized understanding, that belong to philosophy as a whole, both practical and theoretical, as its defining and distinctive characteristic, are engaged and expressed in all the thoughts that give rise to and direct all the choices, actions, and activities constituting the whole of their lives.
The Logical Study of Language
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the foundations of philosophical semantics, covering the work of Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell. Frege, along with Russell, did more than anyone else to create the subject. The development of symbolic logic, the analysis of quantification, the application of logical ideas and techniques to the semantics of natural language, the distinction between sense and reference, the linking of representational content to truth conditions, and the compositional calculation of the contents of compound expressions from the semantic properties of their parts are all due to Frege and Russell. Philosophy of language, as we know it today, would not exist without them.
The Metaphysics of Meaning: Propositions and Possible Worlds
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines two crucial aspects of the metaphysics of meaning—propositions and possible world-states. It reviews why propositions—needed as meanings of sentences and objects of the attitudes—can neither be extracted from theories of truth conditions, nor defined in terms of possible world-states, It then explains why they also cannot be the mysterious, inherently representational, abstract objects they have traditionally been taken to be. Instead of explaining the representationality of sentences and cognitive states in terms of their relations to the supposedly prior and independent representationality of propositions, we must explain the representationality of propositions in terms of the representationality of the cognitive states with which they are connected. A new account of is presented along these lines.
Beyond the Crabgrass Frontier
Authors: Needham Andrew
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of postwar metropolitan development. The search for the natural resources required for metropolitan growth, and for spaces to discard the waste produced by metropolitan consumption, led federal, state, and local actors to create new infrastructures. These power lines, aqueducts, and landfills reorganized economies, ecologies, and societies in distant landscapes. Once constructed, they shaped possibilities and limited opportunities for change. These infrastructures invested metropolitan actors in the transformation of distant landscapes while drawing distant people into new relationships with metropolitan centers. The result was not only metropolitan sprawl but also the reorganization of politics, society, and nature in new, far-flung regions. This book traces the development of the power lines that ran between Phoenix and the Navajo reservation through time and across space to construct a broad new map of postwar urban, environmental, and political change.
Beyond the Polemics on the Market
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines some of the recent interdisciplinary attempts to develop theoretical alternatives to purely economic models of the market. The very definition of the market is at stake. In contrast to the neoclassical assumption of the market as a universal and exclusive form of economic arrangement, market revisionists define the market as one among many different possible social arrangements, such as barter or gift exchange, that involve economic processes. The market is thus one institutionalized type of social relations involving consumption, production, and exchange. Its essence is the rational calculation of costs and benefits and the regulation of exchange by the price mechanism. The chapter argues that the “multiple markets” model represents the most useful alternative to the neoclassical paradigm of the market.
Propaganda as Necessity
Authors: Thum Gregor
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores how the integration of the former German territories into the Polish state was a complex undertaking. Not only did the area have to be settled to a sufficient density, but the administrative structures of the old territories also had to be expanded to serve the needs of the new territories. Efficient transportation connections had to be created between regions that had previously been separated by a national border, a uniform economic area had to be developed, and Polish cultural and educational institutions had to be established throughout the western territories. The task of merging two entirely different parts of a country into a single, homogeneous nation soon revealed the limits of what political power could accomplish.
Mythicizing History
Authors: Thum Gregor
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the study of local history as an “act of self-reassurance” has grown in importance as societies have become mobile and people are less tied to a specific location. Historian Helmut Flachenecker writes of modern society that one is no longer the citizen of a location primarily by birth, but rather by history. This is true to an extreme degree of the Polish city of Wroclaw, whose society came into being as the result of a complete population exchange. Societies of this kind typically yearn for tradition just as much as they lack it. Only by identifying collectively with the history of the city could a coherent citizenry develop out of a random assortment of settlers thrown together by the population shifts of postwar Poland.
Old Town, New Contexts
Authors: Thum Gregor
Published: November 2017

This chapter details how Jan Zachwatowicz, Poland's General Conservator from 1945 to 1957, was the country's most powerful voice in the field of historic preservation. Not only did he personally direct the rebuilding of the devastated old towns of Warsaw, Gniezno, and Poznan, but in a widely regarded lecture delivered at the first postwar congress of Polish art historians in August 1945, he formulated the program for reconstructing Poland's historic buildings. Historic preservation was supposed to be limited to the conservation of buildings—in their existing state. However, when an independent Poland was reestablished after the First World War, exceptions were made to the principle of nonintervention, especially for historic buildings regarded as particularly significant for the Polish national cult.
No Longer White
Authors: Keevak Michael
Published: November 2017

This book investigates when and how East Asians became yellow in the Western imagination. It follows a trajectory that emphasizes an important shift in thinking about race during the course of the eighteenth century, when new sorts of human taxonomies began to appear and new claims about the color of all human groups, including East Asians, were put forward. It also examines how the “yellow race” and “Mongolian” bodies became important subjects in nineteenth-century anthropology and medicine, respectively. “Mongolian” bodies, for example, were linked to certain conditions thought to be endemic in—or in some way associated with—the race as a whole, including the “Mongolian eye,” the “Mongolian spot,” and “Mongolism” (now known as Down syndrome). Finally, the book considers how the Far East came to be seen as a “yellow peril,” a term coined in 1895 and often attributed to Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany.
Taxonomies of Yellow
Authors: Keevak Michael
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the emergence of new sorts of human taxonomies as well as new claims about the color of all human groups, including East Asians, during the course of the eighteenth century, as well as their racial implications. It first considers the theory advanced in 1684 by the French physician and traveler François Bernier, who proposed a “new division of the Earth, according to the different species or races of man which inhabit it.” One of these races, he suggested, was yellow. Then in 1735, the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus published Systema naturae, in which he categorized homo sapiens into four different skin colors. Finally, at the end of the eighteenth century, Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, also a physician and the founder of comparative anatomy, declared that the people of the Far East were a yellow race, as distinct from the white “Caucasian” one.