bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Invited reaction: Thoughts about on‐the‐job training and on‐the‐job learning
Authors: Rothwell William J.
Published: July 2007

It is important to get away from the prevailing notion that off‐the‐job training is always more efficient and effective than on‐the‐job training (OJT). Jan de Jong has done an admirable job of drawing attention to this important issue. I would like to provide support for several of de Jong's key points and raise issues with others. My aim is to enlarge the discussion beyond issues in de Jong's article and to frame questions that I—as a practitioner who has long grappled firsthand with this subject—feel are central to the continuing evolution of OJT and on‐the‐job learning (OJL) in the workplace.
Developing and validating the performance analysis for training model
Authors: Sleezer Catherine M.
Published: July 2007

This article challenges the use of intuitive approaches for determining an organization's training needs. It establishes the need for a research‐based approach to the development and validation of a training needs assessment model and then demonstrates the feasibility of using such an approach by describing the process used to develop and test the Performance Analysis for Training (PAT) Model. The process of developing and testing the PAT model resulted in (1) research in the area of assessing training needs, (2) a model to assist practitioners in moving from theory to practice, and (3) a model that is based on explicit assumptions and that fits the realities of the dynamic organizations in which needs analysts work.
Leadership lessons from Mikhail Gorbachev
Authors: Bolman Lee G. , Deal Terrence E.
Published: July 2007

The experience of Mikhail Gorbachev provides important lessons for leaders in the 1990s. Leadership is a process of mutual influence that produces collective action in the service of shared or compatible goals and values, usually in a context of conflict and uncertainty. The job of the leader is not to control the tides but to know where they are going and to move with them. Leaders need to combine core values with elastic strategies; expect conflict, encourage its expression, and create arenas to confront it openly; and recognize the paradox of success: the more you succeed, the more you will be surprised and the likelier it is that events will outrun you. Leaders need the patience to recognize that change will take much longer than they hope and that things usually get worse before they get better. They need to be able to think complexly and to use multiple perspectives.
A comparison of men and women managers' and nonmanagers' perceptions of success
Authors: Parker Barbara , Chusmir Leonard H.
Published: July 2007

This study examined the importance attached to six dimensions of life success by 756 U.S. managerial and nonmanagerial women and men. Among managers, women attached more importance than did men to personal fulfillment and security. Among nonmanagers, women scored higher than men on the importance of family relationships and personal fulfillment, but lower than men in status/wealth. A comparison of managers and nonmanagers showed differences in only two life success dimensions: status/wealth and professional fulfillment were more important to managerial than to nonmanagerial women. Men respondents at both levels reported no significant differences. Implications are directed to those responsible for organizational reward systems.
Managing the total quality of training
Authors: Brinkerhoff Robert O. , Gill Stephen J.
Published: July 2007

The total quality management framework provides an easily legitimized and popularly supported vehicle for achieving goals that training leaders have long pursued—with only moderate success—under the banners of systematic instructional design, performance‐based training, and evaluation of training. Because total quality management efforts are based on systems thinking, training quality improvement efforts readily clarify the critical role of “nontraining” processes (supervision, for example) in the production of training‐added value. The total training quality management approach prescribes a systems view of training that partitions the value‐adding process into three areas: processes that take place (1) before the learning transaction, (2) during the learning transaction, and (3) after the learning transaction. Critical value‐adding events in the before‐, during‐, and after‐training processes are first defined, then measured and tracked, so that nonconforming variations can be detected that will lead first to problem solving, then to continued improvement.
Training directors' perceptions about the successful implementation of supervisory training
Authors: Taylor Paul
Published: July 2007

Training directors' perceptions of how interpersonal supervisory skills training is implemented in their organizations, and the relationships between perceptions about implementation characteristics and measures of program success were investigated. Program success was assessed using reports of supervisors' reactions to the training, learning, and subsequent skill utilization. Findings indicated that supervisory training is reported to vary greatly in virtually all implementation characteristics studied. Explanations are offered for the lack of salience of implementation characteristics previously thought to be critical to training success, such as conducting task‐oriented needs analyses and interviews with supervisors before training.
Agreement between young subordinates and managers about social and personal practices in the workplace
Authors: Markward Martha J.
Published: July 2007

Research is lacking that identifies the normative perspectives of collaborations between subordinates and superiors in work environments typified by youth employment. In this study, managers and high school students were asked to rate the importance of both personal and social competence in practices involving subordinates without reference to specific work‐system expertise. The two groups agreed that social competence is more important than personal competence. That normative perspective suggests that managers might stress social competence in their practices with subordinates in businesses characterized by youth employment. Such a conclusion has practice and research implications for human resource specialists interested in developing and managing a competent work force.
Effects of optimistic versus realistic previews of training programs on self‐reported transfer of training
Authors: Karl Katherine A. , Ungsrithong Duangkaew
Published: July 2007

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of realistic versus optimistic previews of training programs on training transfer. Hicks and Klimoski (1987) suggested that a realistic training preview should increase trainee motivation by clarifying expectations and by matching training programs to individual needs. In contrast, this study predicted that an informative and optimistic training preview would not only help trainees see the relevance of the training program to their own jobs but also increase outcome expectations, self‐efficacy, motivation, learning, and transfer. When quantity of information was held constant across training preview conditions, the optimistic training preview had a more positive impact on outcome expectations, motivation, learning, reactions to training, and transfer than the realistic training preview.
Strategic management of emerging human resource issues
Authors: Peery Newman S. , Salem Mahmoud
Published: July 2007

An analytical framework for practitioners and researchers to use in managing emerging human resource issues is presented. It integrates strategic human resource development activities with the external competitive, public issue environment and the internal needs of organizations. Over two thousand articles were reviewed and grouped to determine the emerging categories of human resource issues demanding attention. Strategic issues management includes issues identification, issue analysis, strategic formulation, and strategy implementation. The HRD professional can use the issue life cycle model as a conceptual framework for strategic issues management to improve HRD effectiveness in the coming years. The framework suggests a need for close cooperation between traditionally externally oriented departments, like public affairs, and the human resources department.
Impact on financial productivity: A study of training effects on consulting services
Authors: McLinden Daniel J. , Davis Marsha J. , Sheriff Dennis E.
Published: July 2007

An evaluation study was conducted to assess the return on investment of training. Investment consisted of the development and delivery costs associated with increasing the competence of consultants in a tax specialty area. A three‐phase study was implemented to (1) determine pretraining trends, (2) evaluate the training event, and (3) follow the activities of students after training. While data were obtained from multiple sources throughout the study, key information in determining financial impact was obtained from accounting data bases. Return was defined as the amount of time required for the training to result in a payback equal to the original investment. After the revenues that could be attributed to training were determined, results indicated that the training had a substantive positive financial impact. The findings are discussed from the standpoint of the appropriate theoretical paradigm for this type of evaluation. Specifically, the authors point to the need to avoid issues of cause and effect and to utilize an evidentiary paradigm in drawing conclusions.
The relationship between organizational transfer climate and positive transfer of training
Authors: Rouiller Janice Z. , Goldstein Irwin L.
Published: July 2007

This study describes the development and investigation of the concept of organizational transfer climate and discusses whether it influences the degree to which trainees transfer behaviors learned in a training program to their job situations. The study was conducted in a large franchise that owns and operates over one hundred fast‐food restaurants in a large metropolitan area. Analyses indicated that when manager trainees were assigned to units that had a more positive organizational transfer climate, they were rated as better performers of the behaviors previously learned in training. As was predicted, it was also found that manager trainees who learned more in training performed better on the job. It was concluded that, in addition to how much trainees learn in training, the organizational transfer climate of the work situation affects the degree to which learned behavior will be transferred onto the actual job. This research suggests that organizational transfer climate is a tool that should be investigated as a potential facilitator for enhancing positive transfer of training into the work environment.
Preparing the host country workforce for expatriate managers: The neglected other side of the coin
Authors: Vance Charles M. , Ring Peter Smith
Published: July 2007

This paper extends the focus of past research on expatriate assignment to include the training and preparation of the host country workforce (HCW) to reduce uncertainties associated with the overall expatriate management assignment, and therefore to enhance the productivity of the expatriate operation. A conceptual basis is provided for including the training of the HCW in the total picture of preparation for the expatriate work assignment. Preliminary ideas and issues are considered for the design and implementation of HCW training based upon an instructional systems design approach, and important considerations for further research are examined.
A classification and description of human resource development scholars
Authors: Wimbiscus James J.
Published: July 2007

Scholars from various disciplines have contributed volumes of research aimed at improving the performance of individuals, processes, and organizations. With so many disciplines represented, human resource development (HRD) lacks a unifying model that practitioners and scholars may use to integrate and understand HRD issues. The Rummler and Brache nine‐cell performance variables matrix (1990) is used as a template to identify, classify, and describe major HRD scholars. In addition, a summary of the contributions made by the selected scholars is presented. In total, the comprehensive HRD model offers scholars and practitioners a synthesis and integration of the work of scholars from the disciplines that support HRD.
College graduates' experiences and attitudes during organizational entry
Authors: Holton Elwood F.
Published: July 2007

Much of the emphasis in HRD on new‐employee development has been on task‐related training or orientation programs. Little attention has been focused on integrating socialization research and interventions. The first step in integrating the two perspectives is obtaining a clearer description of what is occurring in the field. This descriptive study is designed to understand more fully how new college graduates experience organizational entry. A comprehensive survey instrument was sent to 2,214 bachelor's degree graduates one year after graduation, with a response rate of 38.2 percent. The sample was reduced to 378 graduates working in for‐profit organizations and not in temporary employment. Twenty‐four socialization scales were derived using exploratory factor analysis; descriptive statistics are reported for each scale and seven other established scales. Data are reported on the graduates' preemployment attitudes, organizational entry experiences, perceptions of their jobs, organizational understanding, new‐employee attitudes, expectations, and adaptation strategies. Results indicate wide variability in socialization experiences and adaptation success and the need for HRD interventions. Implications for HRD research are discussed.
Managerial behaviors and work group climate as predictors of employee outcomes
Authors: Church Allan H.
Published: July 2007

Employee satisfaction and quality of worklife continue to be significant concerns for HRD and organizational change efforts in contemporary organizations. One area that can have a major impact on people's attitudes in the workplace and yet is highly susceptible to intervention is individual behavior. Behaviors exhibited by leaders, managers, and work group members all have an effect on employees' attitudes and perceptions about their work and their organization. This article attempts to extend existing research by presenting an analysis of the predictive relationships of various aspects of managerial behavior and work group climate on employee outcomes—on feelings of satisfaction, contribution, and team spirit. Results are based on 1, 428 survey responses collected during an organizational change effort in the marketing and sales division of an international pharmaceuticals company. Overall, different types of behaviors for senior managers, immediate supervisors, and work group members were found to be significantly related to employee attitudes and perceptions. Results are discussed in terms of implications for the management of marketing‐ and sales‐based organizations. Limitations and suggestions for future research are also addressed.
Measuring mental models: Choosing the right tools for the job
Authors: Rowe Anna L. , Cooke Nancy J.
Published: July 2007

With the evolving nature of high‐technology workplaces, personnel are continually confronted with new, complex systems. Possession of accurate mental representations or “mental models” of these systems should enhance workers' understanding and use of the equipment. Incorporating mental model assessment, diagnosis, and instruction into training requires the selection of an appropriate measure of mental model knowledge. Because there is no agreed‐upon measure of this knowledge, selection can be difficult. This study evaluated four mental model measures, with performance as the criterion. Three of the evaluated techniques were predictive of performance; two of these were independently predictive. Determining the relationship between a knowledge representation and performance can offer valuable information for designing and evaluating a training intervention.
The role of human resource development in successful small to mid‐sized manufacturing businesses: A comparative case study
Authors: Rowden Robert W.
Published: July 2007

Although a great deal of attention is being given to human resource development in the Fortune 500 companies, little is known about the extent and function of HRD in small to mid‐sized firms. This article delineates the role of human resource development in three successful manufacturing firms with fewer than two hundred employees.

The research was based on a qualitative comparative case study. Three successful small to mid‐sized manufacturing companies were selected. The within‐case analysis revealed that each conducts a considerable amount of HRD, both formal and informal. The cross‐case analysis revealed that HRD supports the unique market niche of the company through knowledge, skill, and attitude development; integrates employees into the company's work practices; and enhances the quality of work life.

Two conclusions were drawn from the findings. First, small to mid‐sized manufacturing companies do engage in both formal and informal HRD activities. Second, these HRD activities have a direct effect on the success of these businesses.
Gender‐Specific nonverbal communication: Impact for speaker effectiveness
Authors: Spangler Lori
Published: July 2007

Because women are now the largest group entering the labor pool, it is important to know how sex and gender differences relate to communication, job satisfaction, and work performance.
Latin America: A case for debt relief and foreign aid?
Authors: Li Carmen A.
Published: July 2007

The debt controversy seems now to be focused on which countries should be eligible for debt relief, and if foreign aid should be used in debt relief agreements with commercial banks. We participate in the debate by examining the situation in Latin America. Although debt relief is a crucial ingredient for restoration of growth, our empirical estimation shows that few countries were suffering from debt overhang in 1988. However, we could not envisage a justification for using foreign aid in debt relief negotiations. We argue that commercial banks should accept the loss at the market discount and foreign aid could instead help to support stabilization and economic reform programmes which are preconditions for growth.
Export diversification strategies and community welfare
Authors: Love J.
Published: July 2007

Attempts to diversify the commodity composition of developing countries' exports are a familiar response to the problem of export instability. Important arguments have tended to be discussed, however, in relative isolation. This paper combines arguments about instability and comparative advantage with basic welfare analytics to examine whether diversification generates ‘desirable’ outcomes. It is argued that there are important differences between ‘small’ and ‘large’ exporters, and that reducing the degree of export instability is not in itself sufficient to justify diversification. These conclusions contrast with the customary acceptance of diversification as an unqualified part of development policy.
Trade effects of 1992 and the developing countries
Authors: Alizadeh Parvin
Published: July 2007

It is manufactured exports rather than agriculture and primary products which arc the main targets of trade diversionary effects of 1992. Nevertheless, the Asian NICS, as the major exporters of manufactures from developing countries, might greatly benefit from the trade creation effects of the single market rather than being adversely affected by trade diversion.
Non‐governmental organizations as agents of democratization: An African perspective
Authors: Fowler Alan
Published: July 2007

It is currently contended that the economic adjustment programmes being implemented by most African countries should be accompanied by reforms that lead to greater democracy. As part of civil society, non‐governmental organizations (NGOs) are expected to play an important role in fostering the democratic changes now argued to be needed. This article examines the theoretical grounds for assuming that NGOs will function as agents of democratization through their increasing presence and ability to transform society. It is argued that NGOs are unlikely to have significant impact on political reform because (a) regimes have effective instruments to contain such a possibility and (b) the legal standing, typical development approach and the relations maintained by the NGO community are not sufficiently consistent with this aim. It is concluded that in order to effectively promote democratization in Africa NGOs will need to adopt more complex development strategies and consciously include the issue of citizenship in their interventions.
Two errors of targeting
Authors: Cornia Giovanni Andrea , Stewart Frances
Published: July 2007

The authors analyse the relationship between two errors which commonly arise in the attempt to ‘target’ government expenditures on poor people: ‘E‐mistakes’ in which benefits are provided to the non‐poor as well as the poor, and ‘F‐mistakes’ in which some of the poor fall outside the scope of the programme. Existing redistributive programmes are examined in order to determine the right balance between the two types of error, and the conclusion is reached that in a majority of cases universal‐benefit programmes dominate programmes of precisely targeted support.
Are third world megacities sustainable? Jabotabek as an example
Authors: Atkinson Adrian
Published: July 2007

This paper enters the debate about ‘sustainable development’ with reference to the emerging ‘megacities’, of which the capital of Indonesia, Jakarta, and its adjacent cities in the region known as ‘Jabotabek’ is one. It is argued that, while the immediate agenda of urban environmental management—of water, sanitation and waste—remains important, the problems involved are tractable, and it is necessary to go beyond them to try to think through the implications of regional and global processes in considering the future of city regions such as Jabotabek. The extreme inequality of income distribution in the city region, and associated patterns of power, emerge as major problems in envisaging sustainable futures.
Cost‐benefit analysis and the problem of locating environmentally noxious facilities
Authors: Quah Euston
Published: July 2007

Many developing projects include proposals for the construction of certain kinds of facilities that would provide useful services to the general community. Facilities such as sewage treatment plants, transmission stations, public utilities, nuclear power stations and airports are, by general consensus, necessary for development and growth. However, there is little doubt that the residents living near these facilities would suffer from their negative external effects. The purpose of this paper is to discuss and highlight the problem of siting an environmentally noxious facility. The paper presents the characteristics of such a facility, examines current conflict‐resolution instruments and emphasizes the importance of valuing intangibles, including option values in environment impact assessments. Finally, it offers some general considerations for establishing a compensation package for local residents, including two alternative compensation mechanisms to effect payment. Based in large part on cost‐benefit analysis, a set of efficiency and equity criteria to screen compensation claims is presented.
Non‐nested hypothesis testing of theories of inflation in Latin America
Authors: Dowla Asif
Published: July 2007

There is a lively debate among the monetarists and the structuralists in explaining the persistence of inflation in Latin American countries. The monetarists point out the role of excess demand in generating inflation. On the other hand, the structuralists point out the role of structural factors; agricultural bottleneck, foreign trade bottleneck, and public sector bottlenecks in causing inflation. In this paper we conduct non‐nested hypothesis testing of the structuralist and the monetarist theories of inflation using data for a set of Latin American countries. No general pattern emerges from the tests. In the case of individual country studies the results are mixed. For some countries the tests rank the monetarist model over the structuralist model, while for some others they either accept or reject both models. In the pooled sample there is even less variation in the results. In most of the cases the tests accept both models, suggesting that it is not possible to differentiate between the models. The results of the paper casts serious doubt on the applicability of monetarist and structuralist theories in explaining inflation in Latin America. The conclusion of the paper may be able to explain why in the past stabilization programmes based either on monetarist or structuralist ideas have failed miserably in controlling inflation in Latin America.
Compatibility of the cooperative model with urban informal sector development: A policy query
Authors: Ahwireng‐Obeng Fred
Published: July 2007

The degree to which urban informal sector (UIS) operators are willing to engage in cooperation as a self‐help system to attract external support, is determined largely by participatory control, incentive structures and individual self‐determination in the organization and external manoeuvrability. It is not, however, possible to determine a priori whether, in the UIS, formalities of the cooperative model would permit socioeconomic benefits (including sustainable employments and incomes) to be attained sufficiently to offset perverse incentives they induce. This paper seeks explanations of these tendencies and to examine how cooperatives can contribute to UIS development in developing countries.
The application of economic evaluation techniques in the health sector: The state of the art
Authors: Evans David B. , Hurley Susan F.
Published: July 2007

Economic evaluation techniques were originally developed to assess the efficiency of public, rather than private, investment decisions. They are particularly relevant to the health sector where there is general agreement that free markets fail to produce efficient and equitable solutions, and government intervention can improve both equity and efficiency. In this paper, the four evaluation techniques most commonly applied to the health sector—cost‐minimization, cost‐effectiveness, cost‐utility and cost‐benefit analysis—are reviewed in turn. The purpose is not to provide a step by step guide to their use. Rather, the aim is to explain the context in which they are used, their relative strengths and weaknesses, and to highlight a number of methodological issues and controversies surrounding their application. The discussion shows that no technique is without problems, and none can be recommended as being better than the others in all situations. The review concludes that, despite the sophistication of the academic debate surrounding the techniques, the type of economic evaluation which will influence health policy must remain pragmatic. For the time being, a full description of the costs and benefits of competing alternatives is likely to be more useful to decision makers than attempts to incorporate all possible costs and benefits into a single efficiency ratio.
Burden of disease assessment and health system reform: Results of a study in Mexico
Authors: Lozano R. , Murray C. J. L. , Frenk J. , Bobadilla J.‐L.
Published: July 2007

This paper describes in broad terms the first national assessment of the burden of disease using Disability Adjusted Life Years, which formed part of an overall study of health system reform in Mexico. The overall project, ‘Health and the Economy: proposals for improving the Health System in Mexico’, is one of the first experiences of applying the analytical tools featured in the World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health. The Mexican National Burden of Disease (NBD) study was a critical component of the analysis of health system reform in Mexico. It provided a strong analytical basis for the identification of epidemiological priorities. The results of the study document the heterogeneous nature of the epidemiological transition in different parts of Mexico, and included both premature mortality and disability in the analysis. The results of this study were employed along with information on the cost‐effectiveness of major health interventions in Mexico to design a package of essential health services for all Mexicans. Not only was the NBD study useful in identifying health needs and interventions that may have a major health impact, but the exercise itself had a number of other benefits. Through the careful review of all available sources of information on the incidence, prevalence, duration and severity of disability and mortality by age, sex and cause, the strengths and gaps in the current information system were identified. The process by which a large number of Mexican experts were involved in the estimation of the burden of each disease encouraged broad participation of health experts in the discussions about health reform in Mexico.
NGOS‐a policy panacea for the next millennium?
Authors: Green Andrew , Matthias Ann
Published: July 2007

There has been a significant growth in interest in NGOs in health care over the last decade. This article suggests a number of ideological and other reasons for this interest and analyses the consequences in terms of growing support by donor agencies. The resultant donor policies are still very blunt and often fail to recognize adequately the significant differences among NGOs in terms of their characteristics, roles and motivations. The article concludes that there is a need to develop the current weak understanding of NGOs, for donors to be more focused in their policies towards NGOs, and for support to be given to the important role of governments in developing policy frameworks within which NGOs can operate.
The demise of ‘socialist’ state forms in Africa: an Overview
Authors: Simon David
Published: July 2007

This paper surveys the recent eclipse of various state forms in the Third World claiming the label ‘socialist', with particular reference to Africa. Different variants are distinguished and their trajectories since the late 1980s are explained in terms of both internal and external factors. A comparison of economic and social data on (ex‐)socialist and overtly capitalist Third World states shows that there is generally no clear basis for distinguishing between them within any broad income band. Finally, the nature and extent of politico‐economic change in Africa's erstwhile socialist countries is traced, and is shown to be most marked in the former ‘Marxist‐Leninist’ states.
Change in African farming systems between the mid‐1970s and the mid‐1980s
Authors: Wiggins Steve
Published: July 2007

Conventional wisdom holds that Africa has been undergoing an agrarian crisis, marked by falling food production per capita and rising imports of cereals, as seen in national statistics. This paper tries to test whether African farmers have indeed experienced the setbacks suggested, by looking at village‐level studies of change in fanning systems between the mid‐1970s and the mid‐1980s. Fourteen studies from six countries were examined. Contrary to the above thesis, there was little evidence of decline, and much of increased production per head, albeit by modest margins. If the studies are representative, then talk of crisis is exaggerated, the national statistics probably seriously underestimate farm output and unspectacular policy may suffice to support African farmers to produce and market more.
Policy‐based lending by the world bank
Authors: Qureshi Moeen Ahmed
Published: July 2007

This paper aims to explain the essential logic of adjustment lending by the World Bank, and to assess some of the implications of the Bank's expertise in this genre for the practice of project lending. Adjustment lending arose from a sense that the disturbances which struck the international economy in the early 1980s could not be adjusted to by project lending alone, and that a lending instrument was required which would help correct the policy distortions which threatened the efficiency of the Bank's projects themselves. Such finance is provided to countries whose commitment to reform is proven, in order to reduce the sacrifice of growth which economic adjustment would otherwise require. Conditionality as understood by the Bank consists of a set of understandings between the Bank and a borrower concerning the nature of the reform programme required, of which the explicit legal conditions contained in loan documents are simply the external symbol. Since the start, conditionality has been linked to the requirements for project success, but much conditionality has in the 1980s been moved away from project agreements towards sector‐level agreements in order to ensure that those signing contracts on behalf of the recipient are also those empowered to carry them out and to take responsibility for sustainability. It may be expected that the demand for adjustment lending will diminish at least in the countries which used it effectively in the 1980s; and therefore that the relative importance of this type of operation in total Bank lending will diminish over time.
Western joint ventures in China
Authors: Casson Mark , Zheng Jurong
Published: July 2007

The paper presents new evidence on Western investment in China. It offers a comprehensive analysis of official statistics for the period 1979‐86 which is supplemented by questionnaire responses from 79 Western investors. Theories of internalization and joint venture activity are tested using a regression model which examines the interplay of industry‐specific, firm‐specific and source country‐specific determinants of business strategy. The results suggest that Western investors have pursued a coherent rational strategy towards the economic and political uncertainties of the host environment.
When projects collapse: Irrigation failure in the Gambia from a household perspective
Authors: Webb Patrick
Published: July 2007

This paper examines the impact of the failure of an irrigation project on former beneficiary households. The project in question was designed to expand pump‐irrigated rice production amongst smallholders in The Gambia. It achieved this aim for a few years; increased farm productivity improved food security for participating households, while at the same time increasing their ability to invest in farm, household and community assets. However, the project subsequently succumbed to numerous technical and institutional problems. The paper considers the reasons for the project's failure, discusses the effects and consequences of project unsustainability from the household perspective, and draws a number of conclusions about minimum requirements in the design of projects of this type.
Glycosyl imidates, 73. Synthesis of ganglioside gm1 via a GA1 intermediate
Authors: Stauch Thomas , Greilich Ulrike , Schmidt Richard R.
Published: July 2007

The synthesis of GM1 pentasaccharide 36 via GA1‐intermediate 24 was based on lactose building block 11, Galβ(1–3)‐GalN3 building block 23, and sialyl donors 32. For the synthesis of 11, tetra‐O‐acetyl galactosyl trichloroacetimidate 3 or 2,3‐di‐O‐acetyl‐4,6‐O‐benzylidene‐galactosyl trichloroacetimidate 5 as donors were allowed to react with 4‐O‐unprotected glucose derivative 4 as acceptor to afford lactose derivatives 6 and 7, respectively, in high yields. They were readily transformed via 8 into 2b,3b‐O‐MPM‐protected 9; reductive opening of the dioxane ring with DIBAH furnished regioselectively the desired 4b‐O‐unprotected lactose derivative 11. From donor 3 and 6‐O‐benzoyl‐protected 2‐azidoglucose 19 as acceptor Galβ(1–3)GalN3 disaccharide 20 was synthesized which was readily converted into per‐O‐acylprotected trichloroacetimidate 23. Reaction of 23 with 11 afforded upon Sn(OTf)2 catalysis the desired β‐linked tetrasaccharide 24 in high yield. Removal of the MPM‐protective groups with DDQ furnished 2b,3b‐O‐unprotected derivative 31, which gave by treatment with sialyl donors 32a and 32b GM1‐pentasaccharide intermediate 33 in good yield. 2b‐O‐Acetylation and then hydrogenolysis in the presence of Pearlman's catalyst and ensuing peracetylation afforded O‐acyl‐protected GM1‐pentasaccharide 36 which was already previously converted into GM1.
Die Allen‐Racemisierung, eine zweistufige Reaktion
Authors: Roth Wolfgang R. , Bastigkeit Thorsten
Published: July 2007

The Racemization of Allene, a Two‐Step Reaction

For four vinyl‐ and phenyl‐substituted allenes racemization enthalpies have been determined, which are 2–6 kcal · mol‐1 below the estimate derived from the parent system by correction for the additional radical stabilization of the intermediate allyldiradical 2(I), indicating the growing importance of the carbene type structure 2(II) for the intermediate. — The racemization of 1,3‐dimethylallene 1b at temperatures >300°C in the presence of NO allows the trapping of an intermediate, which is considered to be the orthogonal allyl diradical 2b. From the trapping kinetics (307–388°C), the reversible bimolecular addition of NO at low temperatures (225–285°C) and the strength of the CNO bond an enthalpy well for the singlet diradical of 2.7 kcal · mol‐1 and a singlet‐triplet splitting of 5.6 kcal · mol‐1 is derived with the triplet being the groundstate. — The postulated intermediate diradical 2 can be stabilized electronically by phenyl and vinyl groups or by strain when incorporated in an eight‐membered ring. Thermolyses of the optically active 1,2,5‐cyclooctatriene 18 in the presence of oxygen allows to determine the enthalpy well of the corresponding diradical 25 to be 13.1 kcal · mol‐1.
Anodic Cyanation of N‐Substituted 1‐Benzazepines: Synthesis of the Corresponding α‐Aminonitriles
Authors: Michel Sébastien , Le Gall Erwan , Hurvois Jean‐Pierre , Moinet Claude , Tallec André , Uriac Philippe , Toupet Loic
Published: July 2007

α‐Cyano‐N‐alkyl‐1‐benzazepines are obtained by electrochemical oxidation of various 1‐benzazepines. Electrolyses are carried out in a flow cell, at a carbon felt anode in methanol; the supporting electrolyte is a mixture of lithium acetate and sodium cyanide. With 2,3,4,5‐tetrahydrobenzazepines 2a–c and 5a–b, cyanation takes place either on the sidechain or on the seven‐membered ring; with the latter, the 3‐methyl substituted derivatives 5a–b, the reaction is stereospecific leading only to the trans‐α‐cyano compound. With dihydrobenzazepines 8a–b only ring cyanation occurs; the reaction is again stereospecific for 2,3‐dihydro‐1,3,5‐trimethylbenzazepine (8a) but not for the 2,5‐dihydro‐1,3,5‐trimethyl isomer (8b).
Tetraethynylethene Molecular Scaffolding
Authors: Tykwinski Rik R. , Diederich Franşois
Published: July 2007

Tetraethynylethene (3,4‐diethynylhex‐3‐ene‐1,5‐diyne, C10H4) and its differentially protected derivatives are versatile building blocks for carbon‐rich molecular scaffolding. They have been applied to the preparation of perethynylated dehydroannulenes, expanded radialenes, poly(triacetylenes), organometallic σ‐acetylide species, and donor/acceptor‐functionalized chromophores with interesting nonlinear optical properties. This article gives an account of the synthesis of tetraethynylethene and its derivatives as well as their elaboration into novel linearly or cross‐conjugated chromophores and functional carbon‐rich nanomaterials.
Chiral Selenium Compounds: Versatile Reagents in Organic Synthesis
Authors: Wirth Thomas
Published: July 2007

Chiral diselenides are easily accessible and can be used for various asymmetric reactions. Oxy‐ and aminoselenenylations with selenium electrophiles generated from the diselenides are used to build new asymmetric centers in the addition products. Improvements in the synthesis of chiral diselenides are described as well as the generation of addition products suitable for natural product synthesis. Oxyselenenylation‐elimination sequences can be performed with catalytic amounts of chiral diselenides. In addition, such compounds can be used as ligands in other metal‐catalyzed asymmetric reactions.
The effects of job‐related stress on medical center employee communicator style
Authors: Pettegrew Loyd S. , Thomas Richard C. , Ford Julia , Raney Denise C.
Published: July 2007

Founded on the assumption that communicator style is situationally and contextually influenced, this study investigates the effects of job‐related stress on communicator style. It was specifically designed to measure the effects of job‐related stress factors on employee communicator style within the context of a medical center organization. Three central research questions are posed: (1) what, if any, meaningful differences in communicator style can be found from general work conditions to stress‐specific conditions; (2) do different stress conditions give rise to meaningful differences in communicator style; (3) what communicator style differences exist among three major medical center employee hierarchies in response to stress‐specific situations. The results indicate that communicator style in the stress‐specific sample was significantly more dominant, open, attentive but less dramatic and friendly. Multivariate analysis revealed that communicator style accounted for the greatest differences between employees who were experiencing stress due to being unprepared to perform their work role. All role‐related stress variables were more powerfully discriminated by the communicator style variables than department/unit stress (stress at the work group level). Finally, communicator style variables provided statistically significant discrimination of three occupational groups: physicians, administrators/managers, and line employees. Physicians appeared to be more assertive and less supportive in their communication; administrators/managers were assertive but also supportive while line employees were both submissive and supportive in their communicator style. These three employee groups were also discriminated using the job‐related stress variables. Although statistically significant findings were obtained, the discriminant functions were less powerful than the communicator style discriminant functions.
Renegotiating absence levels
Authors: Chadwick‐Jones J. K.
Published: July 2007

Absence figures show similar rising trends in a number of national surveys. Most of the figures utilize the Time Lost measure which is heavily weighted by sickness leaves. In general, the national computations of ‘absenteeism’ are inadequate for a variety of reasons, which are discussed. Previous attempts are summarized to relate absence rates to such factors as overtime, strikes, sex roles and an array of correlates. Techniques, managerial and psychological, for controlling absence levels are discussed and cost analysis of absence is also covered. The notion of an acceptable level in both cost and disciplinary terms is suggested and a negotiating approach to bringing absences to this level is proposed and developed subsequently.

Thus, consideration of absence data within the North American context, leads to the argument that rates of casual absences might be changed by employer‐employee negotiation of agreed levels. Possible reasons for management reticence over absence information are discussed.
Person‐Situation interaction: Competing models of fit
Authors: Joyce William , Slocum John W. , Von Glinow Mary Ann
Published: July 2007

This paper identifies three models of person‐situation interaction in an effort to conceptually clarify and integrate previous research. Statistical criteria for each model are then developed and tested within one organizational setting. Results indicate partial support for each of the three interaction models, and suggest various improvements for person‐situation interaction research.
Prediction of job satisfaction from characteristics of personal work goals
Authors: Roberson Loriann
Published: July 2007

This paper examines the relationship of job satisfaction to dimensions of employee personal work goals. Based on past theory and research, it was hypothesized that the probability of goal success, positivity and negativity of goals, goal commitment, expected negative consequences for goal attainment, and goal clarity would be related to job satisfaction. A mixed idiographic‐nomothetic technique was used to assess the personal goals and perceived goal dimensions of 150 employees. Most hypotheses were confirmed, indicating that employees were more satisfied with their jobs to the extent that they had higher goal commitment, perceived high chances of success for attaining their goals, and had few negative goals in their job situation. In addition, two indices of goal clarity, knowing the means for goal attainment and having specific deadlines for goal attainment were also related to satisfaction. The results suggest that the goal dimensions important for performance and motivation may also be responsible for job satisfaction. Implications for the design of goal setting programs to maximize both performance and satisfaction are discussed.
Job and organizational attitudes in relation to employee behavioral intentions
Authors: Shore Lynn Mcfarlane , Newton Lucy A. , Thornton George C.
Published: July 2007

A theoretical model was developed and evaluated which describes the differential relationship that organizational attitudes (organizational commitment and satisfaction job attitudes (job involvement and satisfaction) have with several behavioral intentions (turnover, absenteeism, and performance). One hundred and fifty‐seven male and 409 female participants filled out a survey. Results generally supported the proposed model.
Lower health risk with increased job control among white collar workers
Authors: Karasek Robert
Published: July 2007

Associations between increased job control and health status were tested with questionnaire data from a random sample of full‐time workers (n = 8504) from the national Swedish white collar labor federation, TCO (representing 25 per cent of the Swedish work force). Of these subjects, 1937 had undergone a company‐initiated job reorganization during the previous several years. Workers in the job reorganization group who had influence in the reorganization process and obtained increased task control as a result had lower levels of illness symptoms on 11 of 12 health indicators controlling for age and sex (11 of 12 associations significant for males, four of 12 associations significant for females).

A previously validated measure of coronary heart disease was significantly lower in circumstances of increased job control for males (8.6 per cent symptom frequency with decreased control versus 3.4 per cent with increased control; p = 0.05). Absenteeism was lower: 10.7 per cent versus 5.0 per cent (0.01). Depression was lower 27.8 per cent to 13.7 per cent (0.001). However, smoking was significantly higher for women 11.0 per cent versus 23.5 per cent (0.01). All illness indicators showed that the process of job reorganization itself was associated with significantly higher symptoms (‘change stress’). However for males (only) symptoms levels when reorganization was accompanied by increased control were often as low or lower than symptom levels for no reorganization at all. Unfortunately, job reorganizations involving employee influence and increased task control were less frequent than job reorganizations involving reduced influence and no increased control, especially for women and older workers.