bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
How to Think Philosophically about the Status of Conventional Epistemic Warrants
Authors: Thabkhas Geshe Yeshes , Thakchöe Sonam , Duckworth Douglas , Garfield Jay L. , Powers John
Published: August 2022

This chapter was written by Geshé Yeshes Thabkhas, an eminent Gelukpa scholar and philosopher. He defends Tsongkhapa’s approach to epistemic warrants, incorporating points made by the other Geluk authors (Panchen Losang Chögyen, Jamyang Shepa, and Purchok Ngawang Jampa). He adopts a pragmatist approach to epistemic warrants: epistemic practices that consistently result in proper functioning and that are corroborated by subsequent experience tend to persist over time, while those that fail these tests are discarded. He analyzes the implications of the Buddhist understanding of conventional phenomena—that perceptions of them are overlaid with mistaken notions regarding their ontological status—but argues that this does not preclude the possibility of knowledge that is valid on the conventional level. Taktsang negates too much, and if one were to extend his ideas to their logical conclusions, effective action would become impossible, as would the Buddhist path.
Investigation into the Authenticity of Conventional Phenomena
Authors: Tsering Tashi
Published: August 2022

In this chapter, Khenpo Tashi Tsering, Dean of Sakya Studies of the Central Institute for Higher Tibetan Studies, defends Taktsang’s analysis of epistemic warrants and his characterization of antifoundationalist Prāsaṅgika Madhyamaka. He builds on the arguments of Mikyö Dorjé and Wangchuk Dorjé and also incorporates key points from Gorampa Sönam Sengé’s presentation of Prāsaṅgika Madhyamaka. He argues that when Nāgārjuna and Candrakīrti assert that they have no theses, we should take them at their word. This is precisely what antifoundationalism entails. Tsongkhapa’s attempt to merge the foundationalist epistemology of Dignāga and Dharmakīrti with Prāsaṅgika Madhyamaka is fundamentally misguided. There is no common standard of truth, as evidenced by the fact that different types of beings perceive their environments through the medium of their respective sense media.
The Fight for the Future
Authors: Moore Scott M.
Published: August 2022

Science, technology, and innovation have always been an essential part of China’s development strategy—including for the purposes of military modernization and state control. In the early twenty-first century this sustained investment began to pay off, as China partially closed the gap with developed economies in emerging fields such as artificial intelligence and biotechnology. This narrowing edge stoked a growing sense of technological competition between the United States and China. But there are few signs that China is about to surpass other nations in technological development, and innovation is often beneficial to everyone. Moreover, using technology to gain military, economic, and geopolitical advantage is more about organization, people, and culture than it is about technology itself.
Conclusion: Jackpot
Authors: Cohen Jonathan D.
Published: August 2022

Every week, one in eight American adults buys a lottery ticket, holding on to their own hope for a life-changing jackpot. The lottery is the sole mechanism by which many Americans think their fortunes might change. Even amid a disruption to the national economy with the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, lottery sales increased. Americans were not going to stop taking chances on a jackpot. States, too, have not stopped their quest for gambling revenue. Lotteries legitimized state-run gambling, facilitating the passage of commercial casinos and sports betting. State lottery commissions are currently engaged in a campaign to hook younger Americans on the dreams of a jackpot. Statesneed to think seriously about regulating their lottery operations and considering whether state-run gambling is a proper endeavor for American government in the twenty-first century.
Targeting Marginalized Group Politics
Authors: Board Jr. Marcus
Published: August 2022

The second of a three-chapter layout of the invisible weapons framework, this chapter examines the Political Activity and Self-Determination Survey—nationally representative survey data from 2015 with a Black and Latinx oversample. The survey instrument focuses on hard-work beliefs in politics and labor. The chapter then identifies the relationship between being non-white, being a woman, and in spite of more challenging lived experiences, believing that hard work is correlated with success. Continuing to align with dissonance and disempowerment, this chapter also brings in the causes of such experiences. Far from naturally occurring, these politics are the result of targeted silencing and co-optation efforts—as evidenced by the disproportional racial and gender outcomes. Breaking down these national-level responses, white men and women are the least likely to inhabit such experiences and Black women are most likely. The only remaining question is identifying who is behind these efforts, a question addressed in the subsequent chapter.
State Coercion Diminishing Radical Autonomy
Authors: Board Jr. Marcus
Published: August 2022

The third of a three-chapter layout of the invisible weapons framework, this chapter examines in-depth interviews of Chicagoans participating in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). The interviews focus on radical engagement in the aid office and during the job-seeking process. The chapter then identifies the relationship between dissonance, disempowerment, and the state. The targeted silencing and co-optation are particularly evident in the aid office, while moving to radical engagement outside of government-run spaces. Breaking down these individual-level responses, the chapter reveals a compartmentalizing of these political differences—where respondents with very different experiences with SNAP and unemployment similarly recount their disconnectedness in the aid offices. In the end, the findings show a constrained sense of autonomy—people do not feel a sense of choice when they need political change.
The Silent Epidemic of Gun Injuries
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: August 2022

Gun violence undermines a quest for a healthy and productive life. This book is urban focused, with race and socioeconomic class assuming prominence, thus bringing a social justice and equity lens. Gun violence is best conceptualized as a jigsaw puzzle, with deaths representing one dimension and injuries the other. The vast majority of gun violence encounters cause an injury rather than death, which only enhances the importance of this public health issue. US gun violence is commonplace, particularly in its cities and in communities of color. This translates into major policy decisions that ignore these communities, and fear of crime is the glue that helps associate gun violence and race. This book addresses five goals: (1) provide a picture of the extent and nature of gun injuries among children/youth and adults, with a special emphasis on those of color and cities; (2) provide a series of concepts for conceptualizing urban-focused interventions; (3) provide case illustrations of innovative interventions; (4) highlight recommendations for practice, education, and research; and (5) identify crosscutting themes to move this field forward.
Gun Injury Research and Statistics
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides statistics on various aspects of gun injuries, including limitations in data-gathering approaches. Knowledge of gun injuries is still in its infancy and will change as more research is conducted from a multidisciplinary perspective. This chapter, in addition, presents quantitative and qualitative research approaches highlighting gun injury within urban communities and population subgroups. Both approaches are in order to develop a comprehensive picture of this phenomenon. The complexity of gun injuries cannot be captured solely through quantitative or qualitative methods.
Gun Injuries
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: August 2022

The majority of gun violence outcomes result in injuries, but injuries do not receive needed attention from research and practice standpoints. The subject of gun injuries benefits from greater attention, but it must be multidisciplinary and community centered. The term “gun injuries” engenders a multitude of reactions and images, with many responses probably influenced by their portrayal in television and film. Gun injuries cover a range of types and severity, making generalizing impossible, if not dangerous, and calling for increased injury research. Further, the historical paucity of gun violence research funding limits the creation of data consistent and comparable across sites and time periods. This chapter addresses the extent and complexities of gun injuries, taking them beyond a statistic. Injuries are complex, and there is no such thing as a minor injury. Further, we can never relegate injuries to a prescribed time period; they often extend to a lifetime, especially when considering trauma. Multiple types of injuries are discussed. Those paralyzed by gun injuries receive additional attention in this chapter because of the multiple resources required to aid them.
Community Interventions and Gun Injuries
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: August 2022

Community centrality is manifested in gun injuries, shaping worldviews of who must be at the table in finding solutions to this public health problem. “Community involvement” is a catchall phrase, with many different meanings depending upon the values of those who embrace it and the institutions sponsoring these interventions. Values are like DNAs that interact within a sociocultural context. Community-centered approaches to gun injuries encompass a broad arena and can be both exciting and frustrating. This chapter describes how community-centered approaches are operationalized to address this public health problem. Obviously, no two communities are identical, requiring flexibility in constructing initiatives by taking into account local conditions.
Case 2
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: August 2022

Readers will witness the potential of the arts to transform lives that have been dramatically altered by gun violence, with victims becoming survivors and part of a new cadre addressing this violence. This chapter illustrates what is possible when we are bold and creative in designing interventions. As discussed in Chapter 3, the challenges victims face warrant a case illustration. Victims paralyzed by gun violence present some of the gravest challenges for the field, as well as costing society immense funds over a lifespan. Those engaging in gun violence think they understand the risks, with a bimodal view of life as death and prison. Another bimodal perspective is operative, with disability rarely talked about as a potential outcome of violence, reinforcing a binary view of life as either being able-bodied or dead. Paralysis, and dealing with its complications, necessitates an extensive and highly sophisticated system of care. The Open Doors program offers a unique focus on the arts with its multifaceted approach, including the prominent role played by participants in wheelchairs. Readers will be inspired by how the pain of a life-altering gun violence event has been channeled through use of poetry or the spoken word.
Community Practice
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: August 2022

Community practice is dependent upon our vision of what community means. If we place it at the center of these efforts, then institutions, such as hospitals and others, are there to serve communities, rather than the other way around. Community practice is labor intensive. The slogan “bottom-up” ascends in importance in community practice, translating into a goal of bringing together diverse resident groups in pursuit of a common goal. Community practice is predicated upon an ecological foundation, with relationships forming the glue allowing what appear as disparate elements to pursue a common agenda. We have marching orders that respect different gun injury foci and roles because there is no single path. It is a journey with detours and temporary setbacks, but one worth taking nevertheless. For some of us it means taking a stance at an agency or community level. Others approach this journey from a research, policy, or scholarly standpoint. Further, these roles are not mutually exclusive. Regardless of the role we take, we need others to join us in this march on ending gun violence and corresponding injuries to individuals, families, communities, and the nation.
Travel and Off-Campus Performances
Authors: Swick Bill
Published: August 2022

While in college, music education majors are prepared for teaching in many areas except for perhaps the topic of traveling with students. It is likely this topic is never discussed in most university settings. Chapter 8 focuses on traveling and off-campus student performances. Travel, even when it is within the community, requires a good deal of planning and often money that your program may not have. This chapter is dedicated to helping with the planning and offers solutions for obtaining finances to make travel possible for all students. The chapter also details the importance of travel and provides ideas for the types of trips that are important toward building an award-winning music program.
Introduction
Authors: Sagdahl Mathea Slåttholm
Published: August 2022

This chapter introduces the topic of the book and identifies its aims and scope. It starts by laying out the main problem that the book addresses, which is how to make sense of claims that there are things we ought to do, when questions about what we ought to do appear to be determined by two very different standards, namely morality and prudence. After presenting the topic, the chapter gives a rough description of the position that will be defended, normative pluralism, as well as its rival view, normative monism. It is also argued that normative pluralism must be distinguished from value pluralism, as two separate and independent theories. A rough outline of the book and some limitations in the scope of the discussion and the strength of the book’s assertions are also described.
A Deliberate Leap in the Opposite Direction
Authors: Kramer Larry
Published: August 2022

Changes in technology have produced radical changes in our speech and information environment—yielding a qualitative change in the nature and content of the “marketplace of ideas.” Qualitative changes of the sort we have experienced in the underlying structure of our information environment necessitate a similar qualitative rethinking of the law, rights, and norms of free speech that structure it. This essay examines how technology has substantially changed the context of free speech, why current First Amendment doctrine is inadequate for governing this new landscape, and the danger that relying on this outdated doctrine poses to American democracy. It concludes by proposing ways to begin to rethink free speech doctrine in order to effectively address contemporary issues that threaten the future of our democracy.
The Disinformation Dilemma
Authors: Bazelon Emily
Published: August 2022

When it comes to the regulation of speech, we are uncomfortable with the government doing it, and we are uncomfortable with social media or media titans doing it, but we are also uncomfortable with nobody doing it at all. This essay considers options to address this dilemma by, in part, exploring the historical evolution of US media law and examining approaches in other democracies. Other democracies remain democratic though they allow greater regulation of speech. In fact, these countries have arguably created better conditions for their citizenry to sort what is true from what is not, make informed decisions about what they want their societies to be, and be alert to the ways in which demagogic leaders or movements can use disinformation. In the United States, meanwhile, we’re drowning in lies. We can address this in various ways. There’s no legal barrier, for example, to increasing the delivery of reliable information. The government could also make the platforms earn their immunity from lawsuits or promote competition through antitrust enforcement.
A Framework for Regulating Falsehoods
Authors: Sunstein Cass R.
Published: August 2022

If we are committed to freedom of speech, must we tolerate lies? This essay provides a framework for thinking about this and other questions regarding falsehoods. The framework focuses on four sets of issues: (1) the speaker’s state of mind, and the (2) magnitude, (3) likelihood, and (4) timing of harm. From this way of thinking about the problem, we can see that current constitutional law fails to strike the right balance. Public officials and public figures should be able to do far more than they are now permitted to do to respond to defamation, as should ordinary citizens subjected to damaging falsehoods. The government should be able to restrict and punish certain kinds of lies and falsehoods that pose serious threats to public health and safety. To protect the democratic process, the government should be able to regulate other kinds of even nondefamatory falsehoods. The essay draws attention to the sheer diversity of tools available to the government. The government need not censor or punish; it might, for example, require disclosure, labels, or warnings, or some form of choice architecture that reduces the likelihood that falsehoods will spread.
The Free Speech Industry
Authors: Franks Mary Anne
Published: August 2022

Large tech companies have created an industry around free speech, one that rivals other large industries, like tobacco and firearms, and can be just as harmful. Social media platforms have promoted extreme, polarizing, and dishonest content in their relentless commodification of speech and pursuit of “engagement.” In many billion-dollar industries, tort reform has served to effectively immunize large corporations from liability for the harms they facilitate. In the case of tech companies, Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act has been the primary vehicle for this immunity. This essay examines how tech companies created the “free speech industry”; how courts have allowed them to use Section 230 to preempt lawsuits by individuals harmed by their products and services; and how the unregulated speech industry undermines democracy. It suggests specific revisions to Section 230 to make it possible to hold these companies accountable for profiting from harmful content and conduct.
Algorithms, Affordances, and Agency
Authors: DiResta Renée
Published: August 2022

With the advent of the internet and social media, the way people communicate and receive news has changed drastically. In the past, citizens primarily experienced a top-down approach to information: Governments, elite institutions, and mainstream media largely controlled what information was disseminated and how. As the internet and social media platforms grew, the average citizen became able to create and disseminate information, form online communities of the like-minded, and participate in the widespread amplification of certain messages. Thus, the creation and spread of narratives has additionally begun to take on an increasingly important bottom-up dynamic. This essay analyzes how the interplay between social media algorithms, affordances, and the agency of users has resulted in a new infrastructure of human connection. Evaluating this regime in the context of historical communication ecosystems, the essay examines the unintended consequences of the new infrastructure and offers ways to move forward in this new age of communication.
Free Speech on Public Platforms
Authors: Greene Jamal
Published: August 2022

Suppose the US government establishes and operates a social media platform to create a forum for citizen expression. Under the First Amendment and international human rights law, what rules could the government establish on the platform? Much commentary has recognized that private platform moderation is distinct insofar as it is private. Commentators have focused less on the ways private platform moderation is distinct because it involves platforms. The legality of content moderation on a hypothetical government-run platform should depend not simply on whether regulation involves content discrimination or even viewpoint discrimination, but on the nature and degree of the burden imposed on speakers, the government’s purposes in imposing those burdens, the risk of arbitrary or corrupt enforcement, and—relatedly—the clarity and consistency of the rules the government has put in place.
Platform Power, Online Speech, and the Search for New Constitutional Categories
Authors: Persily Nathaniel
Published: August 2022

New communication technologies often challenge existing legal categories concerning freedom of expression. Like television, radio, and even the printing press, social media are forcing governments and civil society to reckon with fundamental questions as to the proper role of the public and private sectors in regulating this new communications medium to realize the benefits and control the harms of speech as amplified through this new technology. This essay highlights the ill-fittedness of existing constitutional categories for the communications revolution that social media have ignited. It argues that social media companies are not state actors, common carriers, or places of public accommodation. Nor should they be considered traditional First Amendment actors with robust claims against government regulation. Instead, it argues, courts need to retrofit our existing conception of speech regulation to be sensitive to the unique features of these new information monopolies: namely, their global scope, the unprecedented velocity of digital communication, and the need for algorithmic moderation at scale.
Profit Over People
Authors: Klobuchar Amy
Published: August 2022

The essay posits that we are at a critical moment in our history and an inflection point for reform. Our privacy laws and competition policy have not been meaningfully updated since the internet was created. Now, sprawling digital monopolies harvest data, target vulnerable users with harmful content and toxic disinformation, and control access to key online markets. This essay argues that it has become clear that America needs laws that are fit for today’s digital economy: a federal privacy law, provisions to better protect children online, more transparency in social media algorithms, and updates to our competition laws. The author has introduced in Congress proposals for reforms that would rein in the power of Big Tech companies; the essay, in part, discusses how the legislation would help combat the problems associated with Big Tech monopolies.
Three Meetings
Authors: Ambar Saladin
Published: August 2022

Frederick Douglass’s three meetings with Abraham Lincoln were the first of their kind between an African American political leader and an American president. While ground-breaking in terms of what their encounters meant for the shift in Lincoln’s Civil War policy, the meetings also modeled for the nation what racial equality might look like in the war’s aftermath. Chapter 2 describes how this short-lived but powerful relationship between Lincoln and Douglass came about, and what both men hoped to achieve through it.
First Ladies
Authors: Ambar Saladin
Published: August 2022

Eleanor Roosevelt’s friendship with the Black activist and educator Mary McLeod Bethune was one of the most influential relationships forged in Franklin Roosevelt’s presidency. The pioneering Bethune and the daring First Lady helped orchestrate a number of important policy shifts and advances in matters of race, in an administration deeply averse to taking risks where race was concerned. Over time, their bond helped create new expectations about racial justice and its connection to presidential leadership, even as women in politics were forced to play a subordinate role. Chapter 4 introduces a politically strategic, and yet deeply personal friendship, one that helped broaden the horizons of a racially proscribed New Deal era.
Veins
Authors: Ambar Saladin
Published: August 2022

When Ralph Ellison reached out to the great but then unheralded critic Stanley Hyman to write for his Negro journal, one of the great tripartite intellectual connections and friendships in American history began. Ellison, Hyman, and the writer Shirley Jackson—still then very much known as “Stanley Hyman’s wife”—would collectively grapple with the great issues of the time in their works, as each explored the primal and the mythical in their writings. This was especially true of Jackson and Ellison, whose mid-century works would become synonymous for the ways in which race, sex, and class have shaped the nature of American democracy. Chapter 5 explores the subtleties of how this artistic triangle, rooted in friendship, blossomed into a social force for broadening American democracy.
Scripts
Authors: Ambar Saladin
Published: August 2022

When Marlon Brando walked into a diner in New York’s Greenwich Village and sat between James Baldwin and Norman Mailer, it began a friendship that would play out on many stages, including in Paris, Istanbul, and Washington, D.C., during the March on Washington. As both men were conscious of their public standing as two of the most prominent artists of their time, they sought public venues for their interracial friendship, hoping to shatter white supremacy in their lives and in their respective works. Their love and respect for one another was profound and mutually rewarding, even as their sexual identities were subordinated in an era where male romantic love remained taboo. Chapter 6 highlights one of the more important relationships of the civil rights era involving two cultural icons seeking a path towards racial justice through their art.
Icons and Intersectionalities
Authors: Ambar Saladin
Published: August 2022

Over many decades, the lives of America’s two most iconic radical women intersected—at times with equal parts irony and significance. As Gloria Steinem grew into perhaps the greatest symbol of post-war feminism, Angela Davis can likewise be said to have represented the radical left in America—and the rise of Black Power. As their friendship emerged over the years, their commitment to ending racial and gender-based discrimination intersected, bringing them together for a historic Women’s March after the inauguration of Donald Trump in 2016. Chapter 9 offers a window into their respective stories and their relationship as it demonstrates how the story of interracial friendship in America has many faces and demands new paradigms for understanding how the status of women in society is critical for thinking about racial injustice and white supremacy.
Peace and Friendship
Authors: Aron Stephen
Published: August 2022

Detouring from the violent and conflict-ridden mainstream of Western American history, this book spotlights an adjacent face of American frontiers in which peace, if not always also friendship, prevailed—for a time. Not to be confused with “alternate history,” a genre whose “what if” imaginings move into the realm of fiction and fantasy, this “alternative history” sticks to what happened. It traverses American frontiers from the Appalachians to the Pacific and from the birth of the United States through its first century as a republic, with each chapter focused on a particular locale where peoples previously at odds with one another came together. But instead of encounters that turned grounds dark and bloody, Peace and Friendship explores how common ground was sometimes found and then lost. Featuring famous figures like Daniel Boone, William Clark, and Wyatt Earp, its chapters explain how people overcame their differences and contained violence and why these arrangements did not endure. Its contents also examine the ways in which the alternative histories of these sites have been forgotten or turned into “wishtories” and what lessons we might glean from the legacy of broken concord.
Apple Creek
Authors: Aron Stephen
Published: August 2022

The unraveling of peace and friendship around Apple Creek and the removal of Shawnees and Delawares from Missouri is the focus of this chapter. It spotlights the roles of Lewis and Clark, who, as appointed governors, were charged with overseeing relations with scores of Indian nations across a vast new West of the United States, including with the Shawnees and Delawares around Apple Creek. For a few years, after the purchase of the Louisiana Territory by the United States, good neighborship continued at Apple Creek, which first Lewis and later Clark attempted to protect. But these relations fell apart after the War of 1812, when Clark found himself on the wrong side of a new tide of American settlers and bent to the force of Jacksonian Democracy during the 1820s and 1830s.
Introduction
Authors: Baker Raymond William
Published: August 2022

Islam has persisted for some fourteen centuries. The usual secular litany of Islam’s failings and shortcomings cannot explain that simple historical fact. Successive waves of Islamic reform and renewal can. The present-day Awakening has brought justice, the core Islamic value, to the fore. With justice has come renewed interest in the legacy of Abu Dharr al Ghifari, the seventh-century companion of the Prophet. Abu Dharr has for centuries represented justice, The “callers” to Islam who have fueled and guided the Awakening regularly evoke his legends. Along with Abu Dharr, the Islamic prophet Jesus has received enhanced attention. The Prophet Muhammad himself forged a link between Abu Dharr and Jesus. Muslims do not accept the Christian belief that Jesus is the son of God. The Muslim Jesus, however, is revered for his humility, love for the poor, and profound spirituality. The Islam that Abu Dhar represents is thus anchored in justice characterized by both a caring social and deeply spiritual character.
Shaikh Muhammad al Ghazalli
Authors: Baker Raymond William
Published: August 2022

Muhammad al Ghazalli, regarded by many as the preeminent Sunni cleric of the twentieth century, emerged from the Muslim Brotherhood. He blended sophisticated but understated scholarship, meaningful social activism, and unmatched rapport with al nas (the common people). Ghazalli spoke and acted for midstream Islam, the Wasittia. He stood with the influential centrists of the Egyptian New Islamic Trend, against both retrograde Wahabbi Islam and violent extremist movements. Ghazalli himself always acknowledged just how much he owed to the Brotherhood. Yet, when he found the society too restrictive in institutional and intellectual terms, he objected and left the movement. As an Islamic public intellectual, Ghazalli rose above movements, regimes, and sects. Centrist in practice and thought, Muhammad al Ghazalli gave the mind and heart of midstream Islam tangible expression. His social activism and his lifetime of scholarship made Muhammad al Ghazalli an Islamic figure for the ages.
Big Data and the Future Law of Armed Conflict in Cyberspace
Authors: Stephan Paul B.
Published: August 2022

Some who should know argue, and I find plausible, that among the several aspects of AI, accumulation and organization of data sets is the most significant. If this claim is right, then increasingly the most valuable property on the planet will be in cyberspace. As a conflict grows in intensity, adversaries will want to protect their property and degrade that of their opponents. The more important big data becomes, the more likely that adversaries will take actions affecting it. Almost inevitably some kind of international law will come into the picture, in the sense that relevant actors will frame claims about what they and others do in terms of international legal arguments. This chapter focuses on the question of jurisdiction or domain, rather than content: Under what circumstances will international lawyers in 2040 look to LOAC, including ius ad bellum, to regulate actions taken in cyberspace involving big data? This focus allows me to avoid considering what particular rules LOAC will apply. Rather, I consider whether LOAC, rather than some other body of international law or exclusively municipal law, might govern particular cyberspace activity.
Coalition Warfare and the Future of the Law of Armed Conflict
Authors: Cathcart Blaise
Published: August 2022

The purpose of this chapter is to reflect upon future armed conflicts, at least out to the year 2040, and to draw some conclusions about the potential state of the law of armed conflict (LOAC) and coalition warfare. It highlights how the LOAC of 2040 will be at significant risk of being largely ineffectual, ignored, and viewed as illegitimate unless coalitions, consisting of State and/or non-State actors, more fully comply with, and respect, the LOAC. Failure of coalitions to openly and consistently apply, affirm, and legitimize the fundamental underlying principles of the LOAC will result in the LOAC falling into serious disuse. This, in turn, will profoundly threaten the rule of law, the maintenance of international order and humanity.
Who Gets to Make International Humanitarian Law in the Future
Authors: Moorehead Alex
Published: August 2022

This chapter addresses how substantive international humanitarian law develops—as well as other key questions surrounding its legitimacy, level of implementation, and enforcement—and suggests it will in large part depend on unsettled issues of process, that is, the modes by which the law is created, who plays a role in its development, and who sets the agenda for its reform. While the world is undergoing fundamental shifts that may be changing how we understand the role of States and global governance, States remain the primary and most powerful actors and will continue to be so in the coming decades. States are, and should be, the primary subjects and makers of international humanitarian law. This offers the best hope for greater recognition and application of the rules and their enforcement. Yet for international humanitarian law to retain its legitimacy in future decades, a pluralistic approach to international lawmaking must be embraced—one that international humanitarian law has already shown itself capable of coping with. This is not just a matter of good practice but survival: for the law of armed conflict to thrive in the future, it needs to channel the vibrancy of our diverse world by incorporating and enabling the views of a wider range of States and, in a supporting role, of civil society. A reversion to a narrow State-centric view of the law is likely only to lead to the marginalization of the law.
Virtue, Luck, and Other Goods
Authors: van Ackeren Marcel
Published: August 2022

Nagel labeled the question about demandingness “Williams’s Question.” In this chapter, the author tries to overcome the underappreciation of the historical aspects of the current debate on demandingness by arguing that pagan ancient ethics, which Williams considered to be an alternative to the modern morality system, can be very demanding, too. After clarifying his terminology and addressing alleged methodological obstacles, three previous interpretations are rejected, namely by Nagel, Raz, and Annas. The author then opposes the view that the main problem for ancient ethics is egoism by showing that classical virtue theories can be highly demanding precisely because of their views regarding personal well-being: a comparison between the Stoics and the Socratic-Platonic tradition, including a brief contrasting glance on Aristotle, will reveal that the demandingness of these theories depends on whether virtue is considered the only life-enhancing good or whether luck and other things have the status of goods. Ancient theories promote moral sainthood and can run into the same problems as Kantian or consequentialist theories, only for different reasons.
Williams, Kant, and Morality’s “Peculiarity”
Authors: Darwall Stephen
Published: August 2022

In Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy, Bernard Williams makes an argument that the “morality system” should be abolished since its core idea of obligation makes moral obligation not only inescapable but also ubiquitous, so that moral agents are not able to achieve the integrity that consists in pursuing their own projects. In making this argument, Williams draws heavily on Kant, “the philosopher who has given the purest, deepest, and most thorough representation of morality,” in Williams’s view. Williams’s critique insightfully identifies moral obligation’s conceptual connection to accountability and attitudes through which we hold ourselves and others accountable, most notably, moral blame. The author argues, however, that focusing on morality’s connection to accountability shows us how Williams’s critique can be resisted. He also considers Kant on these questions and argues that, perhaps ironically, although morality can escape Williams’s abolitionist critique, Kant’s moral theory cannot.
A Shelter from Luck
Authors: Queloz Matthieu
Published: August 2022

Far from being indiscriminately critical of the morality system, Bernard Williams offered vindicatory explanations of its crucial building blocks: the moral/nonmoral distinction, the idea of obligation, the voluntary/involuntary distinction, and the practice of blame. The rationale for these concessions, the author argues, is that understanding what these ideas do for us when they are not in the service of the system is as important to leading us out of the system as the critique of that system. The author then shows how regarding the aspiration to shelter life from luck as the system’s organizing ambition explains why the system elaborates and combines these building blocks in the way it does. Finally, he argues that the ultimate problem with this construction is its frictionless purity. It robs valuable concepts of their grip on the world and, by insisting on purity from contingency, threatens to engender nihilism about value and skepticism about agency.
Civil Society I
Authors: Levenson Zachary
Published: August 2022

This chapter chronicles the beginning of the 2011 Kapteinsklip land occupation, in which residents constituted themselves as a series: fragmented, isolated, and acting in simultaneity rather than in common. The organization that mobilized them represented the project of land occupation as legal, suggesting that each participant would receive a small plot of land. They therefore viewed the state as a partner in realizing the dream of distributive democracy. Rather than forming a unified front against an antagonistic state, each household instead passively received plots from the organization on an atomized basis. When they were subsequently confronted by armed police, they organized defensively into factions to secure their access to their own plots, rather than as a collective defending the entire occupation.
Political Society II
Authors: Levenson Zachary
Published: August 2022

Much like the preceding chapter, this chapter shows how the civil society articulation described in Siqalo in chapter 4 produced an unintended political society articulation: the fused group translated into an elected representative committee. As residents expanded this committee, their lawyer came to deal exclusively with their elected leadership, which publicly reported back to the rest of the community. As in Kapteinsklip, their case was perpetually delayed. But ultimately, when they had their day in court, judges viewed them as houseless people in immediate need of shelter. Of course, this was objectively true in both cases, but only in Siqalo were residents actually read as such. As in chapter 5, this chapter contends that occupiers were legible to judges, housing officials, and other government employees as political society articulations, even if these were unintended consequences of their articulation in civil society.
Political Choice in a Polarized America
Authors: Zingher Joshua N.
Published: August 2022

What motivates citizens to support one party over the other? Do they carefully weigh all the relevant issues and assess which party or candidate best matches their own positions? Or do people look at politics as something more akin to a team sport—the specifics do not matter as long as you know what side your team is on? Understanding how and why Americans vote the way they do is central to understanding the political process. Political Choice in a Polarized America claims that individuals have core beliefs about what the government should or should not do, and these attitudes explain a great deal about what party a person identifies with and votes for. Moreover, the book demonstrates these attitudes’ explanatory power has increased in recent decades. Its thesis rests on the idea that voters generally try to support the party or candidate that best matches their orientations. However, voters’ ability to successfully do so varies as a function of the signals sent by elites. Voters have an easier time connecting their own orientations with the party offerings when the parties are polarized. As a result, voters’ policy attitudes explain a lot more about their partisan preferences than they did in previous eras. When the parties are polarized, people notice, even if they do not place close attention to politics. The result is an electorate divided by partisanship, policy, and ideology.
America the Polarized
Authors: Zingher Joshua N.
Published: August 2022

This opening chapter offers a preview of the theoretical argument, the scope of the evidence, and the outline for the rest of the book. It provides readers an overview of the American political landscape. It begins with a discussion of polarization among America’s elected officials before moving on to discuss how polarization among elites affects how people behave. Here the book’s central argument is introduced: polarization among elected officials sharpens the contrast between the choices for voters, and this causes them to connect their policy attitudes more readily with the parties. As a result, Americans have become more likely to identify with and vote for the party that best reflects their attitudes.
A Test of How Elite Polarization Shapes Mass Political Behavior
Authors: Zingher Joshua N.
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides a test of how elite polarization influences individual-level political behavior. The chapter begins with a discussion of how elite polarization conditions how citizens think about politics and then moves on to discuss how elite polarization is measured. It then performs an analysis interacting a measure of elite polarization with individual-level policy orientations. It finds that policy orientations become stronger predictors of partisanship, vote choice, and hostility toward opposing partisans as elite polarization increases. The chapter includes an additional set of tests that shows individuals are sensitive to changes in the level of elite polarization in addition to the absolute level. It concludes with a discussion of how political sophistication moderates the relationship between elite polarization and individual-level policy orientations.
How Political Sophistication Shapes Responses to Elite Polarization
Authors: Zingher Joshua N.
Published: August 2022

This penultimate chapter provides a test of how political sophistication conditions individuals’ responses to elite polarization. This chapter replicates many of the analyses from chapters 6 and 7 but breaks the analyses down by a respondent’s level of sophistication. It finds that those with middling levels of sophistication exhibit the strongest response to elite polarization, and now look very much like the highly sophisticated in terms of the relationships between their policy attitudes and their partisanship and vote choice. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how elite polarization has reshaped the entire electorate, not just the most sophisticated citizens.
Modern Virtue
Authors: Dumler-Winckler Emily
Published: August 2022

Mary Wollstonecraft revolutionized ancient traditions of the virtues in modern and Christian modes for feminist and abolitionist aims. Formed by religious traditions of dissent, Wollstonecraft radically altered the garments of the eighteenth-century religious, ethical, political, and aesthetic imagination. She sought to discard sexed virtues, to shed corsets that restrict women’s roles and rights, to expose and break chains of domination, to exchange the vicious finery of the rich for virtue in rags, and to design garb fit for a society in which all participate in defining and cultivating common goods. The virtues and debate about them remain indispensable to modern Christian traditions and democratic societies. When wed, virtues and contestation are among the goods shared in common. Canonical in women and gender studies, feminist philosophy, political science, literary studies, and history, Wollstonecraft is mostly unknown or ignored in contemporary virtue ethics, theology, and religious studies. Modern Virtue seeks to transform prominent narratives in each. Wollstonecraft scholars debate whether theology is ornamental or foundational for her radical arguments. Her use of the wardrobe metaphor provides a fitting alternative. Modern Virtue also challenges influential and competing narratives about the virtues in modernity. These stories render modern virtue a contradiction in terms, common goods obsolete. Modern accounts of the virtues must address this twofold conundrum: systems of domination thwart virtue and mask vice, and the virtues are integral to just sociopolitical transformation. Wollstonecraft’s account does just this.
Introduction
Authors: Dumler-Winckler Emily
Published: August 2022

“Who is Mary Wollstonecraft? Why should Christian theologians and ethicists, philosophers of religion, and virtue ethicists care? What does she contribute to these fields today? Why think of modern virtue as a tradition of dissent? Is not each phrase a contradiction in terms? The introduction addresses these questions. Mary Wollstonecraft’s account of virtue provides an alternative to influential and competing narratives about the virtues in modernity. Virtues’ defenders tell a story about the virtues’ modern demise and mid-twentieth-century revival. Virtues’ despisers and designers suspect that we are better off without a revival of this tradition on these terms. Wollstonecraft helps us to move beyond the impasse that has emerged. She extends and revolutionizes ancient traditions of the virtues in distinctively modern and Christian modes for distinctively feminist and abolitionist aims.
Staging a Tragicomic Revolution
Authors: Dumler-Winckler Emily
Published: August 2022

Chapter 2 examines two ethical conflicts and the tragicomic nature of each: the revolution in France, and Burke and Wollstonecraft’s dispute about its significance. Burke portrays the French Revolution as a tragicomic scene. Wollstonecraft demonstrates in equally dramatic modes that Burke is mistaken about the nature and extent of the revolutionary tragedy. Still, she prevents their dispute from devolving into a culture war or tragic conflict, exemplifying practices of accountability and contestation needed to sustain democratic societies in the midst of sociopolitical revolutions. The Revolution debates of the 1790s distill modern ethical conflicts that remain as significant in the 1970s as today. These intra-Protestant debates provide an important counterpoint to depictions of modernity as an epic battle of tastes between two opposing and incommensurable views, a Nietzschean tragedy or Christian comedy, hopeless pessimism or utopian optimism. The Revolution is better understood, Wollstonecraft suggests for different reasons than Burke, as a tragicomedy.