bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Should There Be Multilateral Rules on Foreign Direct Investment?
Authors: Graham Edward M.
Published: October 2003

The surge of foreign direct investment (FDI) in the late 1980s and first half of the 1990s and the associated expansion of the activities of multinational enterprises (MNEs) has left the world a somewhat different place than it was as recently as 15 years ago; what has changed is that the ‘globalization’ of business, a term that had become a well‐worn cliché by the early 1990s, has come to look more and more like a description of reality. All of this has resulted in much debate over whether the rules and institutions of the world's multilateral trading system should be augmented to cover more explicitly FDI and the international activities of MNEs. While there is no complete consensus on what the substance of new rules should be, there is a general feeling among specialists that at least three issues should be addressed: first, the extent to which national governments should be allowed to engage in discriminatory treatment towards foreign‐controlled enterprises (including initial entry of these via FDI) needs clarification and, if possible, the establishment of international standards; second is the question of whether there should be limits on the abilities of national governments to create and apply measures to foreign investors that have the potential to distort world allocation of resources; and third, it is widely felt that a more effective international mechanism to resolve disputes between foreign direct investors and governments would be useful. After an introduction that discusses these matters, the next section of the chapter examines the history of efforts to create some sort of international regime regarding FDI and MNEs; the approach of this section is largely historical, but an effort is made to detail some of the specific issues that are raised; the different subsections discuss the WTO (World Trade Organization) and GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), the UN (United Nations), the World Bank and the IMF (International Monetary Fund), regional approaches to FDI (the EU (European Union), NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) and APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation)). The last section of this chapter examines the issue of where we might be going from here.
2 Traditional Class Voting in Twenty Postwar Societies
Authors: Nieuwbeerta Paul , De Graaf Nan Dirk
Published: October 2003

This is a major piece of work that forms the baseline with which to compare the more detailed case studies. It sets the terms of the debate in that it indicates that there has been a decline in levels of class voting in certain countries but not in others. It also addresses certain social structural explanations of these variations, which focus on cross‐national variations in the changing composition of classes. The elaboration of national variations in the extent of continuity in class politics is then pursued in more depth in the detailed case studies that follow.
3 Modelling the Pattern of Class Voting in British Elections, 1964–1992
Authors: Goldthorpe John H.
Published: October 2003

The structure of association between classes and parties is examined over a thirty‐year period using log‐multiplicative and topological models. It is shown that there is a substantial degree of stability in class–party associations over the period. The topological models also show that not only has there been little evidence of dealignment but realignment has also not occurred to any degree: the major changes have been in the overall popularity of the main political parties.
4 Classes, Unions, and the Realignment of US Presidential Voting, 1952–1992
Authors: Hout Michael , Manza Jeff , Brooks Clem
Published: October 2003

Class voting in US presidential elections underwent a historic realignment (rather than dealignment) during the 1960s and 1970s. The middle class split their allegiance: professionals and routine white‐collar workers switched from supporting Republican candidates to backing the Democrats, while the self‐employed converted from fence‐sitting to strong Republican support. At the same time, the Democrats lost their former blue‐collar base. This chapter investigates the role of the demise of the trade unions during the realignment of class voting in the US. It concludes that the drop in union membership hurt Democratic candidates, but it does not explain the realignment of class voting in US presidential elections.
5 The Secret Life of Class Voting: Britain, France, and the United States Since the 1930s
Authors: Weakliem David L. , Heath Anthony F.
Published: October 2003

It is shown that since the 1950s, there has been little evidence of change in the voting patterns of most classes in France. However, farmers have clearly moved to the extreme right from the late 1950s onwards, thus producing a polarization in voting patterns between them and working class voters. The explanation for this rather specific over‐time variation is argued to lie not in social change but in the political strategies of the Gaullist movement. As with the previous two case studies, parties are seen as the key actors explaining movement in class–party relations.
7 Changes in Class Voting in Norway, 1957–1989
Authors: Ringdal Kristen , Hines Kjell
Published: October 2003

Despite their reputation as the home of a highly developed form of class politics, the first of two Scandinavian case studies examines trends in relative class voting in Norwegian Storting elections from 1957 to 1988 and shows that there was a decline in levels of class voting in the 1960s. Ironically, perhaps, the reason for this change would appear to be the political success of class politics, in which universalistic welfare provision legislation—in part a response to the strength of the working class movement—led to an erosion of middle class opposition to welfarism.
10 The Emergence of Class Politics and Class Voting in Post‐Communist Russia
Authors: Evans Geoffrey , Whitefield Stephen
Published: October 2003

The second chapter examines a country whose post‐communist experience has been very different from that of the relatively advantaged Czechs, and examines the emergence of class divisions to political preferences in Russia during the early and middle part of the 1990s. By examining the relationship between class position, economic perceptions and orientations towards marketization over time, this study provides evidence of both the economic basis of class polarization and the role of an increasing understanding of the socially differentiated costs and benefits associated with market economies in accounting for class differences in political preferences.
11 Resolving Disputes About Class Voting in Britain and the United States: Definitions, Models, and Data
Authors: Weakliem David L. , Heath Anthony F.
Published: October 2003

Examines the methodological bases of different findings in the Anglo‐American democracies and tries to resolve these aspects of the disputes through: (1) a comparison of the findings obtained in Britain using the British Election Studies versus Gallup polls, and in the US using the American National election Studies, Gallup polls, and the General Social Survey; (2) comparison of the effects of differences in class coding; and (3) various specifications of loglinear models. The analyses span the period from 1936 to 1987 in Britain and 1936 to 1988 in the US. The effects of the sources of difference are interpreted in conjunction with an emphasis on their substantive implications.
12 Critical Commentary: Four Perspectives on the End of Class Politics?
Authors: Mair Peter , Lipset Seymour Martin , Hout Michael , Goldthorpe John H.
Published: October 2003

This eminent group of scholars contributes a range of institutional, historical, sociological, and technical expertise to a debate on the issues raised in the book. The aim is to present a balanced overview. Thus, Seymour Martin Lipset has previously argued that class no longer has a central position in politics and that other social characteristics, or value preferences, form the bases of political divisions. In contrast, John Goldthorpe and Michael Hout have argued that class remains central to politics and many other areas of social activity. Peter Mair gives a perspective from institutional political science.
Making Sense of the EMU Negotiations
Authors: Dyson Kenneth , Featherstone Kevin
Published: October 2003

The EMU negotiations are identified as a ‘core executive’ activity and analysed in terms of their structural, strategic, and cognitive dimensions. EMU was a prestructured negotiating process, shaped by a historical inheritance of received ideas about vital interests, by institutional structures and policy style, by the hegemony of German monetary ideas, by globalization and deregulation of financial markets, and by policy beliefs and knowledge. EMU negotiations were also a strategic process involving power and interests and choice amongst a range of strategic options, and were both a two‐level game and a nested game. Finally, the EMU negotiations were a cognitive process, in which beliefs, the probing and restructuring of arguments, signalling behaviour, symbolic politics, choice of institutional venues, and policy entrepreneurship played key roles.
The Political Problem of Reconciling Domestic and International Interests in EMU: The Legacy of Barre, Giscard D'estaing, and Pompidou
Authors: Dyson Kenneth , Featherstone Kevin
Published: October 2003

De Gaulle's views on EMU are compared with those of his Finance Minister Giscard d’Estaing. French policy towards the Hague Summit and the Werner Report is analysed, in particular the views and strategy of Pompidou. The Giscard Presidency is explored from the problems of the ‘Snake’ to the idea of a ‘new Bretton Woods for Europe’, beginning with the ERM and leading to EMU by a process of evolution.
French Strategy for the IGC: Making EMU Irreversible
Authors: Dyson Kenneth , Featherstone Kevin
Published: October 2003

Presidential leadership is examined in the context of German unification. Particular attention is given to the construction of the French negotiating team and the domestic bureaucratic politics of EMU, especially involving Dumas, Guigou, Bérégovoy, and Trichet. Bérégovoy's idea of a third route to EMU is also considered. The key focus is on how French negotiators pursued their objectives, especially the idea of irreversibility.
The Political Problem of Reconciling Domestic and International Interests in EMU: The Legacy of Schiller and Schmidt
Authors: Dyson Kenneth , Featherstone Kevin
Published: October 2003

EMU is situated in the context of the legacies of Schiller (especially coronation theory) and of Schmidt (the creation of the EMS). Schmidt's leadership style is examined with reference to the Bundesbank, especially Emminger and the ordo‐liberals. The failure to launch the second stage of the EMS in 1982 is also considered.
German Strategy for the IGC
Authors: Dyson Kenneth , Featherstone Kevin
Published: October 2003

The influences on German negotiating positions are examined from the preparation for the IGC through to the end game. The focus is on Kohl, Waigel, Köhler, and Lautenschlager, as well as what happened inside the Bundesbank. A key question is why the German government accepted irreversibility at Maastricht. The Franco–German relationship emerges as central to the negotiations, along with Kohl's determination to save the treaty. German negotiators had to learn to trust the French, to move beyond coronation theory, and to pacify German public opinion by ensuring that the single currency was at least as stable as the D‐mark.
Framing EMU as a New Vincolo Esterno: Policy Entrepreneurs, Co‐Ordination, and Reflection in Italy, 1988–1990
Authors: Dyson Kenneth , Featherstone Kevin
Published: October 2003

Domestically, elites and the mass public were so united in giving high priority to maintaining Italy's position in ‘Europe’ that its substance elicited little public debate. Yet, the demands of the EMU negotiations challenged the traditional diffuseness of state administration and the mores of the partitocrazia. Thus, a window of opportunity appeared for technocratic policy leadership over the EMU negotiations. A small nucleus of officials within the core executive acted in relative isolation as policy entrepreneurs. Especially at the start, the policy style was essentially reactive but it came to display clarity, coherence, and consistency in the positions adopted. Paradoxically, a ‘weak’ state displayed strong policy coordination.
Resisting EMU: Political Strategy, Policy Entrepreneurship, and Policy Reflection Before the IGC
Authors: Dyson Kenneth , Featherstone Kevin
Published: October 2003

The emergence of EMU on the European agenda caught Whitehall off guard. The task soon became one of resistance. Two alternative plans were launched—for a competing currency, then for a common currency—but their motivation and purpose remained uncertain. Mrs Thatcher saw them as a means to delay or dilute EMU. Lawson, Howe, and Major favoured a more constructive engagement in the EMU debate. Both the alternative plans failed to restructure the debate in Europe, a feature to be explained by both short‐ and long‐term conditions affecting British policy‐making. Strategic miscalculations (concerning the Delors Committee, as well as the British alternatives) were evident in the perception of the balance of political forces and the ability of Britain to reshape them.
Conclusions and Reflections
Authors: Dyson Kenneth , Featherstone Kevin
Published: October 2003

This chapter considers what can be learnt from the EMU negotiations and why an EMU agreement was possible. It looks at the nature and patterns of coalition building. It also examines the EMU negotiations in the context of European integration theories and outlines the theoretical implications of the study. Finally, it identifies the key problems in the Maastricht agreement, especially the risk of being locked into a politics of deflation in the context of imperfect legitimation.
Justifying Comitology: The Promise of Deliberation
Authors: Neyer Jürgen
Published: October 2003

Provides basic data on comitology and introduces the normative concerns voiced by the EP. Responding to the inter‐institutional debate and the Commission's proposal concerning the reform of comitology, the chapter proceeds by discussing comitology in the context of supranational governance in general. It is argued that convincing normative justifications must take account of the distinctive nature of the European polity. One way of formulating such a justification is provided by the concept of deliberative supranationalism. This concept corresponds to theoretical interpretations emphasizing the sui generis nature of the EC. It assumes that the legitimation of governance within constitutional nation‐states remains inevitably one‐sided and parochial. Deliberative supranationalism, in this regard, respects the member states’ constitutional legitimacy, while at the same time clarifying and sanctioning the commitments arising from its interdependence with equally democratically legitimized states, and with the supranational prerogatives that the institutionalization of this interdependence requires.
Negotiating Flexible Integration in the Amsterdam Treaty
Authors: Stubb Alexander C.‐G.
Published: October 2003

Focuses on the negotiations that led to the institutionalization of closer cooperation or flexible integration, i.e. the possibility for a number of member states to cooperate more closely in specific areas using the institutional framework of the Union. Flexibility is examined because it is an important legal and political issue, influencing all aspects of Union activity in the long term. Although the notion of flexibility is not new to the Union, the Amsterdam Treaty provides the first institutionalization of this concept as a basic principle in the Treaties. This chapter tries to determine how the subject was approached in the negotiations. To assess the outcome of the flexibility clauses in the Amsterdam Treaty and the different stages of the negotiations on flexible integration, the chapter is divided into four parts: first, a description of the flexibility clauses in the Treaty; second, the agenda‐setting stage, which lasted from June 1994 to June 1996; third, the drafting stage, which ran from July 1996 to December 1996; and finally, the negotiating stage, which lasted from January 1997 to October 1997.
Abuses of Asymmetry: Privilege and Exclusion
Authors: Leslie Peter
Published: October 2003

Differentiated integration, e.g. arising out of the flexibility provisions of the Amsterdam Treaty, is a special instance of functional asymmetry within compound political systems such as federal states or the EU. Functional asymmetry exists when central decision‐making applies unevenly across the system; the system is asymmetrical in that some of the participants (provinces, member states) exercise greater powers than others. This chapter explores when and why such an arrangement may be acceptable to participants or may even be imposed (as with admission rules for EMU). It argues that states’ attitudes towards asymmetry may be shaped (1) by economic calculation (cost/benefit), (2) by possible tendency to link economic issues with non‐economic ones (democracy, human rights), or (3) by institutional design, which may permit matching of functional asymmetries with political ones (uneven participation in central decision‐making). In all three respects, the question arises, what is fair, or reasonable? Judgements on such matters are inherently subjective, but still may be the focus of reasoned discussion identifying two possible abuses of asymmetry: privilege and exclusion.
East of Amsterdam: The Implications of the Amsterdam Treaty for Eastern Enlargement
Authors: Sedelmeier Ulrich
Published: October 2003

Despite the member states’ failure to agree in the Amsterdam Treaty on institutional reforms that they presented before the 1996/7 IGC as prerequisites for enlargement, we should not expect the enlargement process to come to a standstill. The inability to agree on necessary reforms does indeed highlight the EU's difficulties of finding a response to the various adjustment pressures that would not threaten some member states’ material interests. However, there are countervailing dynamics underpinning the enlargement process that appear sufficiently strong to continue to carry the process forward. These dynamics are not easily captured in materialist rationalist analyses: the EU's self‐image or collective identity in its relations with the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEECs) inclines EU policy‐makers towards accommodating these countries’ preferences to join. However, the impact of this identity is uneven among different groups of EU policy‐makers. Thus, while we should expect the enlargement process to continue despite countervailing material interests, the accommodation of the CEECs’ preferences in substantive sectoral policies will vary and will be limited in most issue areas.
Constitutional Settlements and the Citizen After the Treaty of Amsterdam
Authors: Shaw Jo
Published: October 2003

Focuses on two related questions: the construction of the citizen as a constitutional figure in the EU, and the interpretation of the new constitutional settlement for the Union after the Treaty of Amsterdam. The two issues are brought together in so far as citizenship is treated in this paper less as an object of study in itself and more as an optic for understanding the development of institution‐building and polity‐formation in the Union context. This builds the key relationship between constitutional construction and the development of the citizenship idea in the EU context. The paper comprises in part a review of citizenship issues in the EU post Amsterdam, with a particular focus on the types of questions that animate the discussion of citizenship, and for the rest a brief review of how the Treaty of Amsterdam changed the citizenship/constitutional settlement in small but significant ways.
Angola
Authors: Clemente‐Kersten Ana Catarina
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Angola follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no referendums or coups d’états); 2.2 Electoral Body 1992 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7 and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1992 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums (no referenda have been held); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1992; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1975–1998.
Benin
Authors: Hartmann Christof
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Benin (formerly Dahomey) follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1958–1996 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7 and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1959–1996 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1958–1990 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1959–1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1959–1995; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1968–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.
Burkina Faso
Authors: Grotz Florian
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Burkina Faso follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1958–1998 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7 and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1959–1998 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1959–1991 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (not held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1959–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1959–1997 (the national and regional distribution of seats); 2.9 Presidential Elections 1965–1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.
Burundi
Authors: Basedau Matthias
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Burundi follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions (not in force since the coup d’état of 1996), and a comment on the electoral statistics (no official data are available). The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1961–1993 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1961–1993 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1981–1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (not held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1961–1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1961–1993; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1984 and 1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1961–1998.
Cameroon
Authors: Mehler Andreas
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Cameroon follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no coups d’états); 2.2 Electoral Body 1964–1997 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1956/1959–1997 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1960–1972 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (not held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1956–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast in the Territorial (French Cameroon) and Legislative (Republic of Cameroon) Assemblies 1956–1960, the House of Assembly (British Cameroon/West Cameroon) 1959–1961, and the National Assembly 1964–1997); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1956–1997 (Territorial and Legislative Assemblies 1956–1960, the House of Assembly 1959–1961, and the National Assembly 1964–1997); 2.9 Presidential Elections 1965–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1958–1998.
Cape Verde
Authors: Clemente‐Kersten Ana Catarina
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Cape Verde follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no referendums of coups d’états); 2.2 Electoral Body 1975–1996 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1975–1996 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums (none held); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly 1975 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1980–1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1980–1995; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1991–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1975–1998.
Chad
Authors: Römer Manuela
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Chad follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1959–1997 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1959–1997 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1989–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1959–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1959–1997 (the national and regional distribution of seats); 2.9 Presidential Elections 1963–1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.
Comoros
Authors: Thibaut Bernhard
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in the Comoros follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1972–1996 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1972–1996 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1974–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (not held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1972–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1972–1996; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1978–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1975–1998.
Congo (Brazzaville)
Authors: Fleischhacker Helga
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Congo (Brazzaville) follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions (none exist at present), and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1959–1993 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1959–1993 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1963–1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (not held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1959–1989 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1959–1993; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1961–1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1957–1997.
Eritrea
Authors: Thibaut Bernhard
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Eritrea follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no national elections or coups d’état); 2.2 Electoral Body 1993 (this resulted from a referendum in 1993; data are given on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances (no elections have been held yet); 2.5 Referendum 1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections (none held); 2.8 Composition of Parliament (details are given of the current legislative); 2.9 Presidential Elections (direct elections are not held); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1991–1998.
Ethiopia
Authors: Meier Michael
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Ethiopia follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1957–1995 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1987–1995 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendum 1987 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly 1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast, and distribution of seats between parties); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1987–1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1987–1995; 2.9 Presidential Elections (none held); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1974–1998.
Guinea
Authors: Brüne Stefan
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Guinea follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1958–1995 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1961–1998 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1958 and 1990 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1957–1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1963–1995; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1961–1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1958–1998.
Kenya
Authors: Hartmann Dirk
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Kenya follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no referendums or coups d’états); 2.2 Electoral Body 1963–1997 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1963–1997 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums (none held); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1963–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast for the House of Representatives (Lower Chamber) and Senate 1963–1966, and the National Assembly 1969–1997); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1963–1997 (House of Representatives (Lower Chamber) 1963–1966, and the National Assembly 1969–1997; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1969–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1963–1998.
Lesotho
Authors: Engel Ulf
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Lesotho follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no referendums); 2.2 Electoral Body 1965–1998 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1965–1998 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5/2.6 Referendums/Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1965–1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and by district); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1965–1998; 2.9 Presidential Elections (none held); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1966–1998.
Liberia
Authors: Basedau Matthias
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Liberia follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1955–1985 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1955–1985 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendum 1984 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1985–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and by county); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1955–1997 (House of Representatives and Senate); 2.9 Presidential Elections 1955–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1931–1998.
Madagascar
Authors: Thibaut Bernhard
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Madagascar follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1960–1998 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1960–1998 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1972–1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast, excluding the 1998 referendum); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1960–1989 (details of registered voters and votes cast, excluding the 1993 and 1998 elections); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1960–1998; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1965–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.
Malawi
Authors: Meinhardt Heiko
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Malawi follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no coups d’état); 2.2 Electoral Body 1961–1994 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1961–1994 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendum 1963 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1961–1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1961–1994 (nationally and regionally); 2.9 Presidential Elections 1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1964–1998.
Mali
Authors: Mozaffar Shaheen
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Mali follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1957–1997 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1957–1997 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1974 and 1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1957–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1957–1997; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1979–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.
Mauritius
Authors: Krennerich Michael
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Mauritius follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no referendums or coups d’états); 2.2 Electoral Body 1967–1995 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1967–1995 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums (none held); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1967–1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1967–1995; 2.9 Presidential Elections (none held); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1968–1998.
Mozambique
Authors: Krennerich Michael
Published: October 2003

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Mozambique follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no referendums or coups d’états); 2.2 Electoral Body 1994 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1994 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums (none held); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1994 (nationally and regionally); 2.9 Presidential Elections 1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1975–1998.