bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
La polygamie en droit international privé camerounais
Authors: Djuidje Brigitte
Published: March 2015

La polygamie, entendue dans son acception commune comme l’état d’un homme légitimement marié à deux ou plusieurs femmes, est aujourd’hui un phénomène mondial compte tenu de l’importance de l’immigration d’individus provenant de pays où se pratique ce type de mariage.

Sujet d’actualité, elle mérite que l’on en tienne compte sur le plan juridique et plus instamment sur le plan du droit international privé. À cet égard, il ne fait aucun doute que pour un pays comme le Cameroun qui, en vertu de l’article 49 de l’Ordonnance du 29 juin 1981 portant organisation de l’état civil, admet l’union polygamique, la question de la polygamie en droit international privé se pose avec acuité et doit être analysée principalement sous l’angle du conflit de lois.

Envisagée sous l’angle conflictuel, cette question tient essentiellement à la détermination de la loi applicable au mariage polygamique par le biais de l’élaboration d’une règle de conflit adéquate d’une part, et à la mise en oeuvre de la loi ainsi déterminée d’autre part.

Partant de l’insertion de la polygamie dans la catégorie du for mariage et plus précisément dans les conditions de fond du mariage, avec comme conséquence son rattachement à titre principal à la loi personnelle des époux, tout en prenant en considération la pluralité d’épouses caractéristique de la polygamie, l’on aboutit à une solution camerounaise qui peut être schématisée de la manière suivante : la validité d’un second mariage célébré sans dissolution du premier dépend tout d’abord de l’aptitude des deux futurs époux à contracter un mariage polygamique au regard de leur statut personnel; ensuite, de la détermination de la nature du premier mariage par une application cumulative des lois personnelles des époux parties à ce mariage et, le cas échéant, de la prise en compte de leur volonté.
The International Legal Regime for Biotechnology Patenting: an Appraisal from the Standpoint of Developing Countries
Authors: Badimboli Atibasay Jean-Faustin
Published: March 2015

The development of biotechnology, which promises many economic opportunities, has revived the debate over the ownership of biological resources and its derivatives, as well as the sharing of the benefits which derive from its multiple applications. At the core of the debate, is the recent marriage between intellectual property rights (IPR) and international trade, within the framework of the World Trade Organization (WTO). In this context, the need of developed countries to prevent trade distortions due to the lack of adequate IPR protection in developing countries, is weighed against the need to promote local interests in these countries.

However, the legal impact of recent multilateral agreements, which address biological innovations, is still subject to controversy. An assessment of these instruments reveals divergent approaches to the issues which divide the parties concerned. This results in ambiguities and conflicts with respect to relevant provisions of these agreements.

From a wide range of possible solutions discussed, industrial and developing countries might consider to review the disputed provisions in a way that attempts to harmonise the agreements and render legal implications of their respective initiatives in this area more predictable.
La place du droit à la protection de la santé au regard du droit constitutionnel français
Authors: Byk Christian
Published: March 2015

Cet article porte sur la notion d’État de droit dans le cadre d’un nouvel ordre international. La notion de droit consacre en quelque sorte sa prédominance générique au sein de l’Europe et tout particulièrement depuis la division physique et idéologique de ce continent. Le droit à la santé soulève quelques questions dans les pays où ce domaine est complètement envahi par les lois et un contexte économique ingrat. Le droit de la santé a été reconnu par la Constitution française en 1946 et désormais on voudrait qu’il soit reconnu comme une obligation par l’État et non seulement comme un simple idéal à réaliser. La Constitution de 1946, au sujet du droit de la santé a pris force constitutionnelle seulement depuis la décision rendue par le Conseil constitutionnel du 16 juillet 1971.

D’abord, il faut voir quelle place aura le droit de la santé dans les paramètres constitutionnels en analysant les bases de la Constitution française en parallèle au droit à la protection de la santé, ainsi que le rôle et la place qu’a joués l’histoire dans la reconnaissance de ce droit. En effet, la Révolution de 1789 a affirmé les droits politiques mais a négligé considérablement les droits sociaux. Ce n’est qu’à l’arrivée de la Constitution du 4 novembre 1848 qu’il y eut un certain élargissement et que les droits sociaux ont eu une poussée fulgurante dans la sphère judiciaire.

De plus, la question fondamentale sur le droit universel de la personne humaine sera fort importante dans la dénonciation du droit à la santé; plus précisément le caractère récent de la reconnaissance constitutionnelle du droit à la protection de la santé. Il est certes important de prendre en compte ce droit puisqu’il est reconnu et retenu dans le cadre du droit international des droits de l’homme.

Alors que le droit à la santé peut être considéré comme un droit autonome et que dans les autres cas il n’est que le corollaire d’un autre droit constitutionnel, il faudra se pencher sur la nature juridique de la protection constitutionnelle de la santé pour en connaître ses tenants et aboutissants.

Finalement, il faudra voir quelle sera la portée de la protection de la santé et la protection du corps humain, soit le principe de la dignité de la personne humaine. Nous constaterons que le Conseil constitutionnel a su mener progressivement le droit à la protection de la santé sur le chemin d’une reconnaissance effective notamment en reconnaissant le caractère essentiel du droit de la santé dans la société et ce, en passant par la notion de dignité humaine.
De l’étude des racines chrétiennes des droits pénaux français, britannique et canadien
Authors: Morin André Albert
Published: March 2015

Ce texte est une étude historique du développement de la mens rea en droit pénal. L’auteur soutient que c’est par le biais de l’influence des théologiens que l’intention est devenue un élément essentiel de l’infraction en droit pénal. L’article traite également de l’influence du christianisme sur le développement du droit pénal en Occident.
Exclusion et inclusion de la Convention de Vienne sur les contrats de vente internationale de marchandises de 1980
Authors: Ferrari Franco
Published: March 2015

Malgré l’entrée en vigueur de la Convention des Nations Unies sur les contrats de vente internationale de marchandises il y a 13 ans, et malgré le grand nombre de publications écrites sur ce sujet, ce dernier demeure mal connu des praticiens. C’est pour cette raison que beaucoup de praticiens veulent exclure l’application de la Convention, afin d’éviter l’utilisation d’un instrument qu’ils ne connaissent guère. Néanmoins, l’exclusion de la Convention n’est pas aussi simple que l’on pourrait le croire. Cet article examine, en se référant soit à la doctrine étrangère, soit à la jurisprudence internationale, les éléments que les praticiens doivent prendre en compte lorsqu’ils considèrent l’exclusion de la Convention.
L’investissement responsable par les comités de retraite
Authors: Cloutier Alexandre
Published: March 2015

Les caisses de retraite sont des joueurs importants de l’économie canadienne. À titre d’exemple, la caisse de retraite des enseignants de l’Ontario, la plus importante au Canada, possède plus de 70 milliards d’actifs (2000). Au Québec, 44 milliards de dollars appartiennent aux régimes de retraite privés sous la surveillance de la Régie des Rentes du Québec.

Une des plus grandes craintes des comités de retraite en matière d’investissement responsable concerne la légalité de ces investissements. En effet, certains croient qu’un comité de retraite exerçant l’investissement responsable viole ses responsabilités de fiduciaire. L’objet de cette étude est de déterminer dans quel cadre légal les comités de retraites au Québec peuvent exercer le placement responsable. Pour ce faire, l’auteur dresse les obligations de fiduciaire prescrit par la Loi sur les régimes complémentaires de retraite et le Code civil du Québec.

L’auteur présente les obligations juridiques des comités de retraite lorsque ceux-ci souhaitent se constituter un portefeuille boursier dont les sociétés choisies pour le placement respectent certains critères éthiques tels que des critères sociaux ou environnementaux. L’auteur étend également son analyse à la légalité de l’exercice des droits de vote dans une perspective sociale ou environnementale par les comités de retraite. Ce faisant, l’auteur est amené à explorer différentes juridictions tels que les provinces de common law du Canada, les États-Unis et le Royaume-Uni.
Aspects juridiques du régime seigneurial en Nouvelle-France
Authors: Niort Jean-François
Published: March 2015

Si l’on a abondamment traité du régime seigneurial canadien et souligné son importance, rares sont les études juridiques d’ensemble qui lui ont été consacrées. L’entreprise est difficile, notamment parce qu’elle se heurte à la notion de féodalité, susceptible de plusieurs acceptions. Si, en ce sens, le régime seigneurial en Nouvelle-France ne relève guère de la féodalité politique, qui est disparue en Métropole à l’époque de la colonisation, il s’inscrit dans la féodalité au sens d’organisation socio-économique instaurant des rapports de domination de cette nature entre le seigneur et les habitants. Or, ces rapports s’expriment juridiquement, essentiellement à travers la Coutume de Paris, applicable en Nouvelle-France, bien que complétée par une législation royale et locale spécifique. Il s’agit plus précisément des « droits seigneuriaux », et parmi ceux-ci les droits dits « utiles » (détenant une valeur économique). Ces droits seigneuriaux peuvent être distingués en fonction de leur nature plutôt « privée » (seigneurie foncière) ou « publique » (seigneurie banale), correspondant aux deux « facettes » de la seigneurie complète, l’aspect « public » étant le plus révélateur de la dimension fiscale du régime seigneurial, puisque les droits en relevant n’ont pas de fondement contractuel.

Utilisant ce cadre de référence, on présentera les droits seigneuriaux en Nouvelle-France, en cherchant à souligner leurs spécificités vis-à-vis de leur modèle juridique d’origine. On étudiera donc successivement les droits seigneuriaux attachés à la seigneurie « foncière » (cens et rentes, « lods et ventes » ), puis ceux relevant de la seigneurie « banale » (droits de justice, de banalité, de pêche et de chasse), avant d’évoquer les droits « conventionnels » (droits de corvée, de retrait, ainsi que les servitudes et les réserves).

On proposera finalement une réflexion sur la possibilité d’une synthèse générale du régime seigneurial canadien.
La responsabilité du Monarque : du nid de poule à Walkerton
Authors: Braën André
Published: March 2015

Les interventions croissantes de l’État dans la vie moderne ont accru, parallèlement et d’une manière significative, le contentieux de sa responsabilité. Alors qu’au départ aucune faute ne pouvait être imputée au Monarque, tant le législateur que les tribunaux ont par la suite façonné, non sans difficultés, un régime spécifique pour encadrer la responsabilité de l’administration publique. Mais encore aujourd’hui, ce régime reste fort nuancé et complexe. Des distinctions entre légalité et responsabilité, entre immunité et responsabilité, entre les divers types de responsabilité (pénale, contractuelle ou délictuelle), entre les sources juridiques (loi ou common law) à la base de l’acte générateur de responsabilité, entre son caractère discrétionnaire ou simplement opérationnel, restent essentielles pour qui veut bien saisir l’évolution de ce régime et ses tendances. Ce dernier interpelle en bout de piste notre propre conception de la démocratie dans laquelle la Cité elle-même verrait de plus en plus sa sphère politique définie et délimitée par les tribunaux judiciaires.
La responsabilité de la justice en France
Authors: Desdevises Yvon
Published: March 2015

La responsabilité de la justice et des juges a longtemps été considérée comme impensable à l’image de celle du souverain. Elle est aujourd’hui très discutée. En tant que service public, l’institution judiciaire semble pouvoir être appelée à répondre de ses dysfonctionnements comme d’autres administrations. Mais si cette idée fait son chemin elle ne peut conduire à traiter le juge comme un agent public ordinaire dont la responsabilité personnelle pourrait être engagée sans tenir compte de la spécificité de la fonction juridictionnelle.
Difficult decisions: Migration from Small Island Developing States under climate change
Authors: Kelman Ilan
Published: March 2015

The impacts of climate change on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are leading to discussions regarding decision‐making about the potential need to migrate. Despite the situation being well‐documented, with many SIDS aiming to raise the topic to prominence and to take action for themselves, limited support and interest has been forthcoming from external sources. This paper presents, analyzes, and critiques a decision‐making flowchart to support actions for SIDS dealing with climate change‐linked migration. The flowchart contributes to identifying the pertinent topics to consider and the potential support needed to implement decision‐making.

The flowchart has significant limitations and there are topics which it cannot resolve. On‐the‐ground considerations include who decides, finances, implements, monitors, and enforces each decision. Additionally, views within communities differ, hence mechanisms are needed for dealing with differences, while issues to address include moral and legal blame for any climate change‐linked migration, the ultimate goal of the decision‐making process, the wider role of migration in SIDS communities and the right to judge decision‐making and decisions. The conclusions summarize the paper, emphasizing the importance of considering contexts beyond climate change and multiple SIDS voices.
Discovery of suprathermal Fe+ in Saturn's magnetosphere
Authors: Christon S. P. , Hamilton D. C. , Plane J. M. C. , Mitchell D. G. , DiFabio R. D. , Krimigis S. M.
Published: March 2015

Measurements in Saturn's equatorial magnetosphere from mid‐2004 through 2013 made by Cassini's charge‐energy‐mass ion spectrometer indicate the presence of a rare, suprathermal (83–167 keV/e) ion species at Saturn with mass ~56 amu that is likely Fe+. The abundance of Fe+ is only ~10−4 relative to that of W+ (O+, OH+, H2O+, and H3O+), the water group ions which dominate Saturn's suprathermal and thermal ions along with H+ and H2+. The radial variation of the Fe+ partial number density (PND) is distinctly different from that of W+ and most ions that comprise Saturn's suprathermal ion populations which, unlike thermal energy plasma ions, typically have a prominent PND peak at ~8–9 Rs (1 Saturn radius, Rs = 60,268 km). In contrast, the Fe+ PND decreases more or less exponentially from ~4 to ~20 Rs, our study's inner and outer limits. Fe+ may originate from metal layers produced by meteoric ablation near Saturn's mesosphere‐ionosphere boundary and/or possibly impacted interplanetary dust particles or the Saturn system's dark material in the main rings.
Local and remote wind stress forcing of the seasonal variability of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) transport at 26.5°N
Authors: Yang Jiayan
Published: March 2015

The transport of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) varies considerably on the seasonal time scale at 26.5°N, according to observations made at the RAPID‐MOCHA array. Previous studies indicate that the local wind stress at 26.5°N, especially a large wind stress curl at the African coast, is the leading contributor to this seasonal variability. The purpose of the present study is to examine whether nonlocal wind stress forcing, i.e., remote forcing from latitudes away from 26.5°N, affects the seasonal AMOC variability at the RAPID‐MOCHA array. Our tool is a two‐layer and wind‐driven model with a realistic topography and an observation‐derived wind stress. The seasonal cycle of the modeled AMOC transport agrees well with RAPID‐MOCHA observations while the amplitude is in the lower end of the observational range. In contrast to previous studies, the seasonal AMOC variability at 26.5°N is not primarily forced by the wind stress curl at the eastern boundary, but is a result of a basin‐wide adjustment of ocean circulation to seasonal changes in wind stress. Both the amplitude and phase of the seasonal cycle at 26.5°N are strongly influenced by wind stress forcing from other latitudes, especially from the subpolar North Atlantic. The seasonal variability of the AMOC transport at 26.5°N is due to the seasonal redistribution of the water mass volume and is driven by both local and remote wind stress. Barotropic processes make significant contributions to the seasonal AMOC variability through topography‐gyre interactions.
Seasonal variability of alongshore winds and sea surface temperature fronts in Eastern Boundary Current Systems
Authors: Wang Yuntao , Castelao Renato M. , Yuan Yeping
Published: March 2015

Seven years of satellite observations (2003–2009) are used to describe variability in sea surface temperature (SST) fronts and in the alongshore component of ocean winds, and to investigate their relations in four Eastern Boundary Current Systems (EBCS). The general patterns of SST frontal activity are remarkably similar in all EBCS, with high frontal probabilities along the coast decreasing with distance from the coastline. Results from empirical orthogonal function decompositions reveal that the seasonal evolution of SST fronts and wind stress are significantly correlated, with intensified upwelling favorable winds associated with an increase in frontal probabilities. An offshore migration of the region of high frontal activity is observed during the period of upwelling favorable alongshore wind stress in EBCS. In all regions, the seasonal variability of frontal activity and wind stress is stronger at mid than at low latitudes. The width of the region of high frontal activity is relatively broader in the California and Benguela Current Systems, and narrower in the Canary and Humboldt Current Systems. The width of the band of high frontal activity may be influenced by multiple factors, including wind forcing, flow topography interactions, and mesoscale dynamics. While seasonal variability in frontal activity in the California Current System acts to reinforce or weaken the average pattern, they are substantially different in the Canary Current System, where there is little overlap in the areas characterized by persistent and seasonally varying front activity.
Advection of North Atlantic Deep Water from the Labrador Sea to the southern hemisphere
Authors: Rhein Monika , Kieke Dagmar , Steinfeldt Reiner
Published: March 2015

Recently formed Labrador Seawater (LSW) and overflow water from Denmark Strait (DSOW) are main components of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. Both exhibit a distinct chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) maximum. Here we use 25 years of CFC observations in the Atlantic to study the main features of the circulation of LSW and DSOW. From the CFC data, the age and fraction of young deep water are inferred. Due to the superior spatial data resolution compared to former attempts, regional differences in the spreading velocity and pathways of young deep water become evident, dependent on the regional circulation. The observed distributions of young LSW and DSOW showed that the DWBC is the fastest pathway to reach the southern hemisphere. The downstream decrease of the fractions of young LSW in the DWBC is slower compared to model studies. From 47°N to 42°N, DWBC transports of young LSW and DSOW decrease by 44% and 49%, respectively. At 26°N, the DWBC transport of young water is still 39% of the LSW formation rate and 44% of the DSOW overflow transport. Interior pathways also exist, especially in the subpolar North Atlantic and in the transition zone between the subpolar and subtropical gyre. Compared to DSOW, the distributions indicate a higher tendency for LSW to follow additional interior pathways. North of 45°N the major part of LSW is younger than 20 years. The general weakening of new LSW formation since the 1990s worked toward a homogenization between the LSW in the western and the eastern subpolar North Atlantic.
Climate and year‐to‐year variability of atmospheric and terrestrial water cycles in the three great Siberian rivers
Authors: Oshima Kazuhiro , Tachibana Yoshihiro , Hiyama Tetsuya
Published: March 2015

Among all the rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean, the Lena, Yenisei, and Ob are the three largest in terms of water discharge (R), and they are a large source of freshwater. We analyzed the R observed at the river mouths and precipitation minus evapotranspiration (P − E) estimated from atmospheric reanalyses. P is a key player in the water cycles of the Siberian rivers, but regional differences of E also affect the long‐term means of R and P − E. Climate fields and terrestrial conditions play some roles for the regional differences of P and E. A decomposition analysis of the moisture flux revealed that moisture transport associated with cyclone activity dominates the climatological features of P − E over the Lena, whereas moisture transport associated with seasonal mean winds dominates the features of P − E over the Ob. Both transport processes affect over the Yenisei. Whereas the moisture transports related to the climatological P − E differs among the rivers, P − E variations are mainly affected by the stationary component of moisture transport for all three Siberian rivers. Although previous studies have shown considerable deviations between P − E and R variations, the year to year variations agree very well with each other when appropriate seasonal time lags are taken into account. Comparison with the results of six atmospheric reanalyses indicated that estimations of P − E with the reanalyses produce values comparable to observed Rs and are therefore an effective way to examine the water cycles of the Siberian rivers.
A single‐column model intercomparison on the stratocumulus representation in present‐day and future climate
Authors: Dal Gesso S. , van der Dussen J. J. , Siebesma A. P. , de Roode S. R. , Boutle I. A. , Kamae Y. , Roehrig R. , Vial J.
Published: March 2015

Six Single‐Column Model (SCM) versions of climate models are evaluated on the basis of their representation of the dependence of the stratocumulus‐topped boundary layer regime on the free tropospheric thermodynamic conditions. The study includes two idealized experiments corresponding to the present‐day and future climate conditions in order to estimate the low‐cloud feedback. Large‐Eddy Simulation (LES) results are used as a benchmark and GCM outputs are included to assess whether the SCM results are representative of their 3‐D counterparts. The SCMs present a variety of dependencies of the cloud regime on the free tropospheric conditions but, at the same time, several common biases. For all the SCMs the stratocumulus‐topped boundary layer is too shallow, too cool, and too moist as compared to the LES results. Moreover, they present a lack of clouds and liquid water and an excess of precipitation. The disagreement among SCMs is even more distinct for the response to a climate perturbation. Even though the overall feedback is positive for all the models, in line with the LES results, the SCMs show a rather noisy behavior, which depends irregularly on the free tropospheric conditions. Finally, the comparison with the host GCM outputs demonstrates that the considered approach is promising but needs to be further generalized for the SCMs to fully capture the behavior of their 3‐D counterparts.
Introducing a probabilistic Budyko framework
Authors: Greve P. , Gudmundsson L. , Orlowsky B. , Seneviratne S. I.
Published: March 2015

Water availability is of importance for a wide range of ecological, climatological, and socioeconomic applications. Over land, the partitioning of precipitation into evapotranspiration and runoff essentially determines the availability of water. At mean annual catchment scales, the widely used Budyko framework provides a simple, deterministic, first‐order relationship to estimate this partitioning as a function of the prevailing climatic conditions. Here we extend the framework by introducing a method to specify probabilistic estimates of water availability that account for the nonlinearity of the underlying phase space. The new framework allows to evaluate the predictability of water availability that is related to varying catchment characteristics and conditional on the underlying climatic conditions. Corresponding results support the practical experience of low predictability of river runoff in transitional climates.
Measurement Uncertainty: Requirement for Admission of Forensic Science Evidence
Authors: Vosk Ted
Published: March 2015

Measurement is one of science's primary tools in the investigation of the physical universe. Forensic measurements are relied upon daily to investigate and prosecute charges spanning from murder to exceeding the speed limit. As powerful a tool as measurement is for the determination of factual truth, though, measured results are often misunderstood and misapplied. Many judges, lawyers and jurors naively believe that a measurement reveals a quantity's true value. Unfortunately, measured results do not reveal a quantity's true value. Absent a clear indication of the inferences supported by a measurement, its results are simply numbers whose meaning is vague. Measurement uncertainty provides a quantitative characterization of the values a measured result permits to be attributed to a quantity. It is a basic tenant of science that measured results can only be properly interpreted when accompanied by their uncertainty. Measurement uncertainty permits factfinders to understand and rationally weigh a result. Absent its uncertainty, the same result may just as easily confuse and mislead those factfinders. Where forensic measurements are relied upon as evidence, they must be accompanied by their uncertainty if verdicts consistent with science are to be reliably obtained.
Custody and Visitation Evaluations
Authors: Bernet William
Published: March 2015

Mental health professionals may conduct child custody and visitation evaluations (also called parenting time evaluations) when divorcing parents disagree on the parenting arrangements for their children. This article outlines a systematic approach for conducting a child custody evaluation and the criteria that should be considered in making recommendations to the court. Additional issues are addressed, such as disputes over relocation and grandparent visitation.
Children: As Defendants
Authors: Thompson Christopher , Fischer Christopher
Published: March 2015

In response to an increase in juvenile violent crime in the late 1980s, most jurisdictions in the United States adopted a more punitive stance toward juvenile offenders. As a result, juveniles faced increasing sanctions in juvenile court and were transferred to adult criminal court in greater numbers, where they faced serious penalties.

Unfortunately, policymakers of that era often failed to consider that certain characteristics of juveniles (e.g., psychosocial/developmental immaturity) may affect their adjudicative competence and culpability. In addition, minors who are likely to become involved in the juvenile justice system have additional characteristics (e.g., higher rates of mental illness and substance abuse, lowerIQs) that might further compromise or affect these domains.

Over the past decade, legislators and judicial officers, informed by recent research in adolescent development, began to question the appropriateness of increasingly punitive policies aimed at juvenile offenders. Recent research has helped provide evidence that juveniles with particular characteristics, such as young age and lowIQ, may be at increased risk of having their legal rights violated at numerous points in the adjudicative process, thereby undermining the fundamental fairness of the juvenile and adult criminal justice systems.

Other research has shown that adolescents' psychosocial immaturity significantly affects their criminal decision‐making. Neuroimaging has proved a powerful tool in helping elucidate a potential neuroanatomical basis for poor decision‐making in adolescents. Because adolescents are likely somewhat less culpable than adults for similar criminal acts and because most individuals limit their antisocial behavior to adolescence, the wisdom of indiscriminately giving minors (or even young adults) long prison sentences is questionable.
Capacity to Stand Trial
Authors: Finch Indra
Published: March 2015

The legal construct of competency to stand trial requires that a defendant has sufficient present ability to consult with his lawyer with a reasonable degree of rational understanding and a rational and factual understanding of the legal proceedings against him. The trier of fact (usually a judge) is responsible for interpreting what capacities are sufficient to meet the legal standard of trial competency. Forensic examiners who assist the court in establishing whether or not a defendant is competent to proceed are in a position to explain how mental health issues factor into a defendant's capacities in relation to the relevant legal concepts. There are three primary capacities that are relevant to a defendant's trial competency: general capacity, decisional capacity, and particular capacities in reference to a defendant's specific case. General capacities speak to a defendant's intrinsic abilities, including his level of psychiatric, intellectual, cognitive, and interpersonal functioning. Decisional capacities consider the manner in which a defendant makes everyday decisions and how this may impact his conceptualization of his case, the rationality of his legal decisions, and his ability to work with his attorney. Particular capacities speak to the unique elements of a defendant's legal case, requiring a direct analysis of relevant case facts and how these may interact with the defendant's mental status. Defendants who are found by the court to be incompetent to stand trial may be referred for competency restoration treatment, depending on the guidelines of the particular jurisdiction. If treatment with psychiatric medications is required, a judicial hearing may be held to determine whether this treatment will meet established criterion to authorize involuntary treatment. Legal standards for competency to stand trial are the same as competency to plead guilty, to waive an insanity defense, to waive privilege, and to waive the right to counsel. Competency to be executed parallels general competency standards but it is unconstitutional and unethical to execute an insane or mentally retarded person. The decision to proceedpro se(represent self) also must be made voluntarily and intelligently, although a court may insist upon representation for a competent defendant who lacks sufficient capacity for self‐representation.
Eyewitness Testimony
Authors: Berkowitz Shari R. , Enright Kally , Bowman‐Fowler Nicci , Loftus Elizabeth F.
Published: March 2015

Real‐life cases demonstrate that mistaken eyewitness memory is one of the leading causes of wrongful convictions. Over the past 40 years, eyewitness memory researchers have investigated the myriad factors that can influence and distort eyewitnesses' memories. In addition, researchers have identified certain lineup procedures that can reduce the possibility of a mistaken identification. The following article summarizes this large body of scientific research and highlights a couple of emerging issues in the field of eyewitness memory.
Interrogation
Authors: Costanzo Mark , Leo Richard A.
Published: March 2015

Police interrogators persuade a suspect to confess by manipulating his perception of the nature and gravity of his situation, the limited choices available to him, and the consequences that follow from each of these choices. Interrogators typically express unwavering confidence in the suspect's guilt and may confront suspects with fabricated evidence such as nonexistent eyewitnesses, false fingerprints, phony videos, or false polygraph results. These tactics are likely to have the effect of causing the disoriented suspect to believe that he bears the burden of proving his innocence. Detectives seek to create the impression that confessing will actually improve the suspect's otherwise hopeless situation, and they offer honorable or sympathetic reasons why the suspect might have committed the crime. Throughout the interrogation, police misrepresent their role as allies instead of adversaries, and suggest that they will help the suspect minimize the consequences of his crime. Most interrogation training offers little consideration of false confessions. However, researchers have documented the existence of false confessions and have suggested several reforms to reduce the probability of false confessions leading to wrongful convictions. Video recording of interrogations may be the single most important reform. A second important reform is the use of expert testimony in cases involving a disputed confession. The inherently manipulative process of interrogation requires careful monitoring to ensure the reliability of confessions.
Electron Beam Melting Fabrication of Porous Ti6Al4V Scaffolds: Cytocompatibility and Osteogenesis
Authors: Lv Jia , Jia Zhaojun , Li Jing , Wang Yanen , Yang Jun , Xiu Peng , Zhang Ke , Cai Hong , Liu Zhongjun
Published: March 2015

Titanium‐based implants possessing adequately low elasticity modulus and custom­designed structures are urgently demanded in recent years for orthopedic applications. Electron beam melting (EBM) provides an opportunity to fabricated porous titanium scaffolds that meet the as‐mentioned requirements, and it further allows for improved bone regeneration and increased contact area at implant–tissue interface. As a novel additive manufacturing (AM) technique, EBM could conveniently produce scaffolds with tunable porosity and shapes and complex structures based on the popular “bottom‐up” concept. In the present work, EBM‐produced Ti6Al4V cylinders designed with either a small pore size (EBMS, 640 μm) or a large one (EBML, 1200 μm) were characterized in respect of microstructure, permeability and specific surface area, and their cytocompatibility and osteogenic ability were evaluated subsequently in vitro. Both samples EBMS and EBML could support the attachment and proliferation of hMSCs with minimal inflammatory cytokines secretion. The EBMS scaffolds were relatively more compatible with hMSCs than the EBML and they better sustained osteogenesis probably for their larger specific surface area.
Influence of the Sulfur Content on the Mechanical Properties of a TRIP/TWIP‐Matrix Composite Reinforced with 10 vol% Mg‐PSZ
Authors: Decker Sabine , Lange Katja , Dubberstein Tobias , Krüger Lutz
Published: March 2015

The influence of the sulfur content (0.02 wt%, 0.1 wt%) within the steel phase (16 wt% Cr, 6 wt% Mn, 9 wt% Ni) of a TRIP/TWIP‐matrix composite, reinforced with 10 vol% MgO‐partially stabilized zirconia (Mg‐PSZ), produced by spark plasma sintering (SPS) is investigated. By increasing the sulfur content of the steel phase, the powder particle size after gas atomization is reduced. Hence, the steel/Mg‐PSZ‐particle size ratio decreases and the distribution of the Mg‐PSZ is improved. Within this study, the effect of the sulfur content on microstructure and flow behavior under compressive loading are determined. With increasing sulfur content, the 1% compressive yield strength increases by 40 MPa. The sulfur forms precipitations with chromium and manganese especially at the steel/Mg‐PSZ interfaces, which cause a destabilization of the Mg‐PSZ during sintering. The destabilization prevents a possible stress‐induced phase transformation of the Mg‐PSZ.
A Decaheme Cytochrome as a Molecular Electron Conduit in Dye‐Sensitized Photoanodes
Authors: Hwang Ee Taek , Sheikh Khizar , Orchard Katherine L. , Hojo Daisuke , Radu Valentin , Lee Chong‐Yong , Ainsworth Emma , Lockwood Colin , Gross Manuela A. , Adschiri Tadafumi , Reisner Erwin , Butt Julea N. , Jeuken Lars J. C.
Published: March 2015

In nature, charge recombination in light‐harvesting reaction centers is minimized by efficient charge separation. Here, it is aimed to mimic this by coupling dye‐sensitized TiO2 nanocrystals to a decaheme protein, MtrC from Shewanella oneidensis MR‐1, where the 10 hemes of MtrC form a ≈7‐nm‐long molecular wire between the TiO2 and the underlying electrode. The system is assembled by forming a densely packed MtrC film on an ultra‐flat gold electrode, followed by the adsorption of approximately 7 nm TiO2 nanocrystals that are modified with a phosphonated bipyridine Ru(II) dye (RuP). The step‐by‐step construction of the MtrC/TiO2 system is monitored with (photo)electrochemistry, quartz‐crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM‐D), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Photocurrents are dependent on the redox state of the MtrC, confirming that electrons are transferred from the TiO2 nanocrystals to the surface via the MtrC conduit. In other words, in these TiO2/MtrC hybrid photodiodes, MtrC traps the conduction‐band electrons from TiO2 before transferring them to the electrode, creating a photobioelectrochemical system in which a redox protein is used to mimic the efficient charge separation found in biological photosystems.
Highly PEGylated DNA Nanoparticles Provide Uniform and Widespread Gene Transfer in the Brain
Authors: Mastorakos Panagiotis , Zhang Clark , Berry Sneha , Oh Yumin , Lee Seulki , Eberhart Charles G. , Woodworth Graeme F. , Suk Jung Soo , Hanes Justin
Published: March 2015

Gene delivery to the central nervous system (CNS) has potential as a means for treating numerous debilitating neurological diseases. Nonviral gene vector platforms are tailorable and can overcome key limitations intrinsic to virus‐mediated delivery; however, lack of clinical efficacy with nonviral systems to date may be attributed to limited gene vector dispersion and transfection in vivo. It is shown that the brain extracellular matrix (ECM) strongly limits penetration of polymer‐based gene vector nanoparticles (NP) through the brain parenchyma, even when they are very small (<60 nm) and coated with a polyethylene glycol (PEG) corona of typical density. Following convection enhanced delivery (CED), conventional gene vectors are confined to the injection site, presumably by adhesive interactions with the brain ECM and do not provide gene expression beyond the point of administration. In contrast, it is found that incorporating highly PEGylated polymers allows the production of compacted (≈43 nm) and colloidally stable DNA NP that avoid adhesive trapping within the brain parenchyma. When administered by CED into the rat striatum, highly PEGylated DNA NP distribute throughout and provide broad transgene expression without vector‐induced toxicity. The use of these brain‐penetrating gene vectors, in conjunction with CED, offers an avenue to improve gene therapy for CNS diseases.
Stable and Efficient Paclitaxel Nanoparticles for Targeted Glioblastoma Therapy
Authors: Mu Qingxin , Jeon Mike , Hsiao Meng‐Hsuan , Patton Victoria K. , Wang Kui , Press Oliver W. , Zhang Miqin
Published: March 2015

Development of efficient nanoparticles (NPs) for cancer therapy remains a challenge. NPs are required to have high stability, uniform size, sufficient drug loading, targeting capability, and ability to overcome drug resistance. In this study, the development of a NP formulation that can meet all these challenging requirements for targeted glioblastoma multiform (GBM) therapy is reported. This multifunctional NP is composed of a polyethylene glycol‐coated magnetic iron oxide NP conjugated with cyclodextrin and chlorotoxin (CTX) and loaded with fluorescein and paclitaxel (PTX) (IONP‐PTX‐CTX‐FL). The physicochemical properties of the IONP‐PTX‐CTX‐FL are characterized by transmission electron microscope, dynamic light scattering, and high‐performance liquid chromatography. The cellular uptake of NPs is studied using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Cell viability and apoptosis are assessed with the Alamar Blue viability assay and flow cytometry, respectively. The IONP‐PTX‐CTX‐FL had a uniform size of ≈44 nm and high stability in cell culture medium. Importantly, the presence of CTX on NPs enhanced the uptake of the NPs by GBM cells and improved the efficacy of PTX in killing both GBM and GBM drug‐resistant cells. The IONP‐PTX‐CTX‐FL demonstrated its great potential for brain cancer therapy and may also be used to deliver PTX to treat other cancers.
A Facile and Universal Top‐Down Method for Preparation of Monodisperse Transition‐Metal Dichalcogenide Nanodots
Authors: Zhang Xiao , Lai Zhuangchai , Liu Zhengdong , Tan Chaoliang , Huang Ying , Li Bing , Zhao Meiting , Xie Linghai , Huang Wei , Zhang Hua
Published: March 2015

Despite unique properties of layered transition‐metal dichalcogenide (TMD) nanosheets, there is still lack of a facile and general strategy for the preparation of TMD nanodots (NDs). Reported herein is the preparation of a series of TMD NDs, including TMD quantum dots (e.g. MoS2, WS2, ReS2, TaS2, MoSe2 and WSe2) and NbSe2 NDs, from their bulk crystals by using a combination of grinding and sonication techniques. These NDs could be easily separated from the N‐methyl‐2‐pyrrolidone when post‐treated with n‐hexane and then chloroform. All the TMD NDs with sizes of less than 10 nm show a narrow size distribution with high dispersity in solution. As a proof‐of‐concept application, memory devices using TMD NDs, for example, MoSe2, WS2, or NbSe2, mixed with polyvinylpyrrolidone as active layers, have been fabricated, which exhibit a nonvolatile write‐once‐read‐many behavior. These high‐quality TMD NDs should have various applications in optoelectronics, solar cells, catalysis, and biomedicine.
A North–South Dialogue on Open Dialogues in Finland: The Challenges and the Resonances of Clinical Practice
Authors: Brown Judith M. , Kurtti Mia , Haaraniemi Timo , Löhönen Elina , Vahtola Päivi
Published: March 2015

This paper focuses on the clinical practice of open dialogues in Finland and articulates some challenges and resonances for clinicians of this way of working. It is a collaborative paper based on a series of reflecting conversations in a North–South dialogue between four Finnish family therapists and an Australian family therapist. The paper begins with an overview of the context of open dialogues in Finland. It then introduces each individual Finnish therapist, followed by dyadic reflecting conversations about the work, before moving to a joint North–South dialogue where all voices join together in responding to each other's contributions. The clinical practice of open dialogues is revealed as ways of thinking, doing and being in relation to self, client, family, networks, and colleagues. Mutual understanding between all involved in the work emerges as a core theme. The paper offers the clinical wisdom of the Finnish therapists to those interested in adapting this way of working to the Australian and New Zealand context.
Family Therapy as a Process of Humanisation: The Contribution and Creativity of Dialogism
Authors: Wilson Jim
Published: March 2015

Family therapy shaped by the twin contributions of radical humanism (after Freire) and dialogism together create a binocular vision for practice. This vision encompasses the intricacies of moment to moment responses that are seen to occur within a politically informed and socially structured relational context. The breadth of practice possibilities shows no allegiance to any particular ‘school’ of family therapy but rather advocates for an orientation that humanises the relationship between therapist and family. This humanising orientation counters ‘technologies’ of practice that reduce the social or relational complexity of human existence creating categories of deficiency or pathology that individualise distress. Practical applications of aspects of dialogism are described and illustrated with a focus on multi‐actor participation and attention to embodied responsiveness by the therapist. An attitude that encourages joint experimentation, serious playfulness and the ‘performative’ are offered as examples of the scope of a dialogically informed humanising practice. In addition practice challenges are considered, in particular where contexts of power ‘over’ the other are a necessary part of one's professional context.
Wherefore Art ‘Thou’ in the Dialogical Approach: The Relevance of Buber's Ideas to Family Therapy and Research
Authors: Brown Judith M.
Published: March 2015

The philosophy of Martin Buber, the author of the seminal text I and Thou, offers profound insights into the dialogical approach to family therapy and research, in particular the understanding of the moment‐to‐moment relational encounters between therapist and client, or researcher and participant. This paper provides an introduction to Buber's dialogical philosophy of relation as based on his extensive writing. It opens Buber's scholarship beyond the ideas of the I‐It and I‐Thou relationships, to explore a relational process involving an ongoing movement between I‐It and I‐Thou. The author's conceptualisation suggests that Buber's poetic terms reveal different layers of this dialogical process that may lead to intersubjective moments, those which offer dialogical knowing and the possibility of transformation. The author proposes that such an understanding may increase the therapist's and researcher's awareness, sensitivity and attunement to this dialogical process and to moments of dialogical knowing.
Esterification of oleic acid by heteropolyacid/TiO2SiO2 catalysts synthesized from less expensive precursors
Authors: Sheikh Rizwan , Shao Godlisten N. , Khan Zakir , Abbas Nadir , Kim Hee‐Taik , Park Yeung‐Ho
Published: March 2015

A series of 12‐tungstophosphoric acid [HPW, H3PW12O40 (HPW)] catalysts supported on mesoporous titania–silica composite (TSC) were prepared by impregnation method. Primarily, TSC with mesostructure was successfully prepared by a modified sol–gel process using a less expensive silica precursor (sodium silicate) and titanium oxychloride as a titania source. In order to develop catalysts with various properties, the HPW loading over mesoporous TSC was controlled between 5 and 50 wt%. The surface morphology and structural properties of the prepared catalysts were characterized using N2 gas physisorption analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction, ultraviolet spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy analysis. The X‐ray diffraction and ultraviolet spectroscopy results were useful in determining the HPW dispersion on the support material. The catalytic activities of the samples were tested in liquid phase esterification of oleic acid with methanol. The results suggested that HPW dispersion on the support material was essential for the stability and performance of the catalysts during the esterification reaction. Even though the activity of the synthesized catalysts increased with increasing HPW loading, the homogeneity decreased in the samples with higher HPW content (30–50 wt%). The 20%HPW/TSC sample was found to be an active and catalytically stable catalyst, which was successfully regenerated and recycled for three consecutive runs. Copyright © 2015 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.