bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Tenant’S Rights
Authors: Haley Michael
Published: November 2023

The right to obtain a new lease, timed to follow on from the termination of the 5.01 contractual or continuation tenancy, can be achieved in several ways. First, there is nothing to prevent the parties from agreeing a new lease without recourse to the statutory machinery. If a written agreement is concluded, the current lease con tinues until the date set for the commencement of the new tenancy. In the inter vening period, it is not a lease to which the provisions of Part II apply and the tenant is precluded from making any application for a new tenancy. Second, in the absence of agreement, the tenant can apply to the court for a new lease following the service of a landlord’s section 25 notice and the tenant’s subsequent counter notice. Finally, where there is no agreement and a landlord’s termination notice has not been served, the tenant may be able to initiate the action for a new tenancy by the service of a section 26 request on the competent landlord or that landlord’s authorised agent.1 As with the landlord’s notice, the tenant’s request terminates the current lease and activates the jurisdiction of the court to grant a new tenancy.
Tenant’S Improvements: Authorisation And Compensation
Authors: Haley Michael
Published: November 2023

At common law, any improvements made by a tenant (unless classified as ’tenant’s 10.01 fixtures’ and, thereby, removable) form part of the freehold and, at the end of the lease, must remain for the reversioner.1 Subject to the law of waste, and to any con-trary stipulation in the lease, the tenant remains free to carry out improvements, but is not entitled to compensation. This is so even if the landlord knew of the works and consented to them. Admittedly, there has never been anything to pre-vent the parties to a lease negotiating terms to deal with the subject of improve-ments. Indeed, most commercial leases contain a covenant (either qualified by the need for the landlord’s consent or absolute in its prohibition) not to make
Why Join the Labour Party?
Authors: Seyd Patrick , Whiteley Paul
Published: November 2023

Joining a political party is very much a minority activity in Britain. Recent survey evidence from a comprehensive study of political participation concluded that only 7.4 per cent of the electorate are party members, and only 2.2 per cent party activists (Parry and Moyser, 1990). In the 1987 British Election Study individuals in the sample of the UK electorate were asked if they were members of a political party, and just under 1.5 per cent stated that they were members of the Labour party, which constituted about 5 per cent of Labour voters.
Kunwinjku Social Organization and Land Ownership
Authors: Taylor Luke
Published: November 2023

In examining the creation of networks of association that artists create with others, it is first necessary to introduce the way that Kunwinjku articulate a number of basic principles of social organization. My intention is to introduce the multidimensional character of Kunwinjku social relations and to identify the rights and obligations in relation to both natural and cultural resources exercised by members of certain social categories, in particular, how knowledge regarding Ancestral matters is distributed. The chapter moves from a discussion of particular groupings to consider these groupings in terms of the life-courses of individuals.
Introduction
Authors: Macedo Stephen
Published: November 2023

In 1942 Gordon Hirabayashi, a final-year college student in Washington state, became subject to a wartime curfew imposed on Japanese Americans on the West Coast. At first Hirabayashi went along, but after a week of dashing back to his hall of residence from the library or the coffee shop he stopped and thought, in his own words,

Why the hell am I running back? Am I an American? And if I am, why am I running back arid nobody else is? I think if the order said all civilians must obey the curfew, if it was just a nonessential restrictive move, I might not have objected. But I felt it was unfair, just to be referred to as a ‘non-alien’-they never referred to me as a citizen. This was so pointedly, so obviously a violation of what the Constitution stood for, what citizenship meant. So I stopped and turned around and went back.
American Exceptionalism: The Religious Phenomenon
Authors: Greeley Andrew
Published: November 2023

I propose in this chapter to present a sketch of religion in the United States based on my professional tools, survey research data, to ask whether this portrait does indeed make American religion ‘exceptional’, and to suggest some reasons why religion in the United States might differ from religion in Great Britain and on the continent. This is not an essay about the nature of religion. It is rather a much more modest effort to determine whether the tools of survey research are able to confirm the hypothesis that self-reported religious behaviour in America has diminished in the last four decades. To use the language of the logic of social research: can one safely reject the null hypothesis that the survey indicators show no major change in American self-reported religious behaviour?
Political Aspects
Authors: Whyte John , FitzGerald Garret
Published: November 2023

It was for long a matter of folk wisdom that national identity and religious allegiance coincided in Northern Ireland. The nationalist writer Frank Gallagher (1957), for instance, systematically used ‘nationalist’ when he appeared to mean ‘Catholic’. The first scholar to research the correlation between religion and national identity was Richard Rose, in his survey of 1968. In response to the question ‘which of these terms best describes the way you usually think of yourself?’, he obtained the results to be found in Table 4.1.
The Internal-Conflict Interpretation
Authors: Whyte John , FitzGerald Garret
Published: November 2023

A political scientist at the London School of Economics, Brendan O’Leary, has pointed out in a stimulating article (1985) that a distinction can be made between endogenous and exogenous explanations of the Northern Ireland problem. The schools of thought covered in the three preceding chapters all offer exogenous explanations: the problem is the responsibility of the British, or the Irish, or the capitalists. We now come to a school of thought which stresses endogenous factors. This does not mean that the authors in this school dismiss the importance of outside forces: some lay considerable stress on the role of the British (and/or Irish) governments, and most recognize that one of the reasons for internal conflict is that the two communities in Northern Ireland relate differently to their neighbours, Britain and the Republic. But it does mean that they see the biggest source of the problem as lying within Northern Ireland itself.
The Beginning of the Retaliatory Policy
Authors: Morris Benny
Published: November 2023

In addition to defensive measures, Israel adopted a retaliatory policy in its effort to combat infiltration. The policy emerged immediately after the signing of the armistice agreements, in response to specific attacks by Arab infiltrators. To a lesser extent, retaliatory strikes were launched in response to anti-Israeli actions by the regular forces of the Arab states.
The Gaza Raid and After
Authors: Morris Benny
Published: November 2023

For three weeks after the execution of Marzouk and Azar there was an ominous silence along the lines. The director general of the Prime Min¬ ister’s Office, Teddy Kollek, ‘warned’ officials at the Foreign Ministry that ‘the IDF was ... determined to get revenge for the hanging[s] ... the suicide of [the] two others and ... Egypt’s action in the Bat-Galim case’.1 Then the inevitable occurred. A squad (or two squads) sent by Egyptian military intelligence broke into a military facility in Rishon LeZion, south of Tel Aviv, on 23 February 1955 and stole maps and documents. They also appear to have stolen food, a heater, and a telephone from an office in nearby Ness Ziona. Two days later they shot dead an Israeli bicyclist near Rehovot, fifteen kilometres south-east of Tel Aviv.
Berlin And French Liberalism
Authors: Galipeau Claude J
Published: November 2023

The desire not to be impinged upon, to be left to oneself, has been a mark of high civilization both on the part of individuals and communities. The sense of privacy itself, of the area of personal relationships as something sacred in its own right, derives from a conception of freedom which, for all its religious roots, is scarcely older, in its developed state, than the Renaissance or the Reformation. Yet its decline would mark the death of a civilization, or an entire moral outlook.
A Need To Belong
Authors: Galipeau Claude J
Published: November 2023

So far, I have discussed three aspects of Berlin’s political thought and theory of human nature: liberty, pluralism, and history. To this list must be added his belief that belonging is a human need, no less important than liberty. This is another respect in which he distinguishes himself from much of the liberal tradition, in particular contemporary Anglo-American liberal thought.
History, Pluralism, And Liberty
Authors: Galipeau Claude J
Published: November 2023

The first public obligation is to avoid extremes of suffering. Revolutions, wars, assassinations, extreme measures may in desperate situations be required. But history teaches us that their consequences are seldom what is anticipated; there is no guarantee, not even, at times, a high enough probability, that such acts will lead to improvement. We may take the risk of drastic action, in personal life or in public policy, but we must always be aware, never forget, that we may be mistaken, that certainty about the effect of such measures invariably leads to avoidable suffering of the innocent.
Wrapping in Images
Authors: Gell Alfred
Published: November 2023

In traditional Polynesian societies, tattooing played a key role in the social construction of the person. This study is the first to provide a comparative analysis of tattooing in its original setting, based on a comprehensive survey of the documentary sources, both written and visual. Drawing on modern social theory, psychoanalysis, and contemporary anthropological studies of Polynesia, Alfred Gell demonstrates that tattooing formed part of a complex array of symbolic techniques for controlling sacredness and protecting the self. This framework is used to elucidate the iconographic meaning of tattoo motifs, as well as the rich corpus of mythology surrounding tattooing in certain Polynesian societies, and the complex rituals associated with the tattooing operation. However, not all ancient Polynesian societies placed an equal emphasis on tattooing, and not all exploited the basic metaphors of tattooing in the same way. Dr Gell provides a wide-ranging comparative political analysis of the main Polynesian societies in order to show consistent correlations between forms of political structure and different tattooing institutions. In this way, Wrapping in Images can be read as a general introduction to Polynesian comparative sociology, viewed from the perspective of body symbolism.
European Community Regulation and National Enterprise
Authors: Woolcock Stephen , Wallace Helen
Published: November 2023

While the reach of EC regulation covering ‘national enterprise’ is being extended as a result of the internal market programme and the application of Community powers in areas such as competition policy, the grip of Community control will continue to vary across all aspects of EC regulation. Why is this the case?
European Federalism The Lessons of Past Experience
Authors: Riker William H
Published: November 2023

As we begin this consideration of European federations, it is worth while recalling that only in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries have federations been a widely used constitutional form. They were rare before the nineteenth century and it may be that they will become less attractive in the twenty-first century. But for now they are generally approved of. And this is surprising because this era has also been an era of nationalism when the nation-state, the sovereign political organization of the people, is also approved of. These two forms are in some ways inconsistent: nation-states derive from, justify, and separate out a single ethnic group, while federations may—and often do—bring together political units with different ethnic bases. So a difficult problem for interpreting federalism is to explain the twentieth-century support for this pragmatic, instrumental constitution in an era that embraces simultaneously the emotional and often irrational loyalties of nationalism.
Can there be a Stable Federal Balance in Europe?
Authors: Scharpf Fritz W
Published: November 2023

In its present shape, the European Union is more than a mere alliance of nation-states. But it is also far from being a fully developed political system with a democratically legitimized government of its own. The Union has remained at this halfway house between confederacy and federation much longer than both the optimistic and the pessimistic theorists of European integration would have thought possible in the 1950s and early 1960s. However, at the beginning of the 1990s the European constellation is changing, and new factors seem to increase the pressure towards political integration. As a result, Europe will have to deal with increasing tensions between the urgency of effective central regulation and the equally compelling need to respect the cultural diversity and institutional autonomy of its nations and regions.
Foreign Policy Thinking
Authors: Light Margot
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the evolution of foreign policy views in the Russian Federation after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. It looks at the domestic debates about foreign policy among political elites and at the development of official views, particularly as they were articulated in the official foreign policy ‘concept’. We begin, however, in this first section by exploring the problems facing the new Russian leadership in terms of deciding what foreign policy to adopt, how these problems were reflected in the range and nature of the foreign policy debate, and who the political elite was which participated in the debate.
The Village
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

Visitors like the early missionaries have often begun their accounts of Lamalera by describing it as it is approached from the sea. A small inlet lies at the foot of a very large volcano. The long rocky coast is accessible only at the small beach that lies at the inner edge of this inlet (see Plate 2). At the back of the beach stands a semicircle of thatched huts. These sheds house the boats. Behind them may be seen a stone wall about two metres high, providing protection from the sea on the one side and retaining the soil upon which the dwellings stand on the other. The houses stand four or five or six deep behind the boat sheds and restraining wall and are so close to each other that it is difficult to get past them. In the open places and along the sides of the houses are situated platforms for drying fish. The air may be made intolerable from the smell of fish and whale. The buildings in this semicircle comprise the lower half of Lamalera. To the west of the beach a steep and once very difficult climb leads to the upper half of the village (see Plates 3 and 4).
Disaster, Migration, Foundation, and History
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

Lamalera means ‘sun plate’, a definition I have heard hotly defended when someone was so rash as to suggest that it actually means a plate made from the leaves of the lera tree. The leaves of this tree allegedly are small and of no consequence, whereas the distinguished history of the people of Lamalera makes them worthy to live in a village named for the sun or to be, as Wintjes (1895: 57) dubbed them, children of the sun.
Fishing
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

Hellmuth (1853: 233) wrote that the straits of Solor and Flores are very rich in fish, the manifold distinct and splendid species of which are almost uncountable. As Medical Officer Second Class stationed at the small Dutch outpost at Lohayong, Solor (then called by the Dutch Lawaijong, etc.), he made a collection of some sixty-six types of fish which together with the contributions of other naval medical officers became the basis of several scientific articles by Bleeker (see Hellmuth 1853: 234; Bleeker 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854).
Large Boats
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

The large boats used in Lamalera for deep-sea fishing and hunting are hand made, planked double outrigger vessels of over ten metres length and just over two metres at their widest point (see Plates 22 and 23). These boats comfortably accommodate fourteen men. A bamboo platform extends a further 1.5 metres in front of the boat upon which the harpooner stands when throwing his harpoon.
Open-Sea Fishing and Hunting
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

Once the transition has taken place to the calmer south-east monsoon winds of the dry season, the time has come for daily use of the téna for open-sea fishing and hunting. In the past, the beginning of this season was marked by a large ceremony in the centre of the beach attended by residents of both the upper and the lower villages. Today the ceremony continues to be held in a mixture of Christian and traditional forms.
Fishing near Lobetobi and Pantar
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

Toward the end of the period of deep-sea fishing in the middle of August it is common for some boats, six to nine in the best years, to load themselves with provisions and sail away from the village to other locations for up to a month or so of intensive fishing. In the 1960s as many as twenty boats would go to Lobetobi, Flores, to the point where the village was nearly empty of men. They would stay several months, sometimes coming back to Lamalera to unload and then going back to fish some more.
Early Whaling and Contacts with Timor
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

In his D’Amboinsche Rariteitkamer, the Dutch naturalist Georg Everhard Rumf or Georgius Everhardus Rumphius (1705) discusses at length the theories of the origin of ambergris and records a good deal of original information about strandings of whales in the eastern islands, but makes no mention of indigenous whaling.1 Hunting of whales by the islanders of Lewoleba, that is, Lembata was mentioned as early as 1643 in an anonymous Portuguese document (Anonymous 1956: 487).2 The whales were hunted with harpoons for their oil, and the author implies that the islanders collected and sold ambergris at Larantuka, Flores.
Lamalera Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

Lamalera is a community which straddles several dichotomies. As such it does not differ from its neighbours, except in the particular combination of dichotomies involved and its position in them. In the past it was landless or virtually landless. Today, this is less true, but still relatively so. Nevertheless, until recently the community and its leaders were politically potent in the region. It is a poor and remote community in an impoverished province, yet it has long served as a window of trade and communications to the outer world for much of south Lembata, and in recent decades it has achieved a degree of international fame drawing increasing numbers of tourists to it. In the past it was a magnet attracting population from elsewhere, and today still retains an essentially alien definition within its own cultural region, but today it has become demographically stagnant for reasons which are better attributed to its successes in accepting the challenges and opportunities of the modern nation and economy than to its failures.
The Relationship of Age at Menarche and Fertility in Undernourished Adolescents
Authors: Riley Ann P , Samuel Julia L , Huffman Son Sandra L
Published: November 2023

The relationship of age at menarche to fertility is important in developing countries, where the average age at menarche is sometimes two or three years later than in developed countries. The average age at menarche is between 12.5 and 13 years in most contemporary US and European populations (Marshall and Tanner, 1986). In addition, marriage occurs soon after menarche in many developing countries, and there is virtually no use of effective contraception between marriage and first birth. Thus, the interval between menarche and first birth may be only a few years or less. Nutritional status is widely recognized as one of the most important nongenetic determinants of the onset of menstruation. Evidence to support this hypothesis comes from three principal sources:
Breastfeeding and Fertility
Authors: McNeilley A S
Published: November 2023

Breastfeeding suppresses fertility for a period which varies considerably between individuals and among different societies. Until recently the reason for this variation in the duration of infertility was unclear, but it is now apparent that it depends on the strength of the suckling stimulus and its impact on prolactin and gonadotrophin secretion. In a non-contracepting, breastfeeding woman, the interbirth interval can be divided into four major components: (1) the recovery of the hypothalamopituitary-ovarian axis from the suppressive effects of placental steroids during pregnancy (20 to 30 days); (2) the period of lactational amenorrhoea; (3) a period during which menstruation returns associated with inadequate or adequate corpus luteum function; and (4) pregnancy. Over the last few years we have investigated the relationship between suckling activity and the resumption of ovarian activity, concentrating on the underlying mechanisms involved.
Interrelations between First Home-Ownership, Constitution of the Family, and Professional Occupation in France
Authors: Courgeau Daniel , Leliévre Éva
Published: November 2023

An important aim in the life of a Frenchman or Frenchwoman is to become the owner of his or her own home. Nevertheless, in 1982, only 50.6% of French households were home-owners, and among households whose head was between 55 and 64 years old, this proportion rose to 63.5%. These results, which reflect a behaviour pattern toward home-ownership distinct from other European countries, are well known from census data. Nevertheless, the processes that lead to the fulfilment of this ambition to own a home are more difficult to study. To analyse this process of first home-ownership, longitudinal data are necessary. In order to obtain such data, we conducted a survey that collected retrospective information on the entire family, professional career, and migration histories of the interviewees. The sample consists of the life histories of 4602 individuals, and is representative of the population living in France in 1981 and born between 1911 and 1935. These data will enable us to explore in more detail the process of home-ownership.
Agricultural Instability in China, 1931-1991
Authors: Kueh Y Y
Published: November 2023

China is particularly dependent upon her agricultural surplus for financing her ambitious industrialization programme, but the performance of the agricultural sector of the economy has been extremely unstable throughout the twentieth century. Professor Kueh provides a scholarly and authoritative account of this vital part of the Chinese economy during the period 1931-1990, based upon detailed statistical data and other sources of material. Professor Kueh has achieved a unique analysis of the interrelationships between natural, economic, and institutional factors, which lie at the heart of China's agricultural performance. He describes policy changes, technological advances, and natural factors such as climactic conditions, and distinguishes the effect of each factor in the varying level of agricultural production. The strength of this book lies not only in its collection and analysis of data but in the innovative methodological process used, including the construction of a `weather index', which will be invaluable not only for Chinese studies scholars but also for those wishing to undertake similar work for other countries.
Methods and Problems of Measurement
Authors: Kueh Y Y
Published: November 2023

Part II of our study examines long-term trends of agricultural instability in China from 1931 to 1984. We focus on the three major physical measures, i.e. total grain output, grain-sown area, and grain yield per sown hectare, in addition to the ‘gross value of agricultural output’ (GVAO) series, to show how the stability of farm output and input has changed over time. In other words, a particular time-period, say 1952-8, is compared with another period, say 1931-7 or 1979-84, in order to determine whether farm production has become more stable or unstable. Such a comparison between different periods promises to show historical trends and patterns of farm stability.
Reformulation of Standard Representative-Agent Models
Authors: Forni Mario , Lippi Marco
Published: November 2023

In Part I we have dealt with aggregation of scalar stationary (up to suitable differencing) variables. We now enter the core of the book, i.e. aggregation of economic micro models. The latter contain both dependent (controlled by the agent) and independent variables. Thus we must deal with aggregation of stochastic vectors.
An Extension of the Alternative Principle
Authors: Forni Mario , Lippi Marco
Published: November 2023

In Chapters 8 and 9 we have studied some of the properties of the aggregated model that can be analyzed on the basis of its MA representation in terms of the vector Ut. We now turn to problems involving the roots of the spectral density or the Wold representation of the aggregated vector. Such roots must be considered when we study Granger causality, while the Wold representation is necessary when we aim to study a vector autoregressive (VAR) model or an ARMAX linking the aggregate variables.
Wold Representation: VAR and ARMAX Models
Authors: Forni Mario , Lippi Marco
Published: November 2023

Vector autoregressive models have been extensively employed in macroeconomics since Sims (1980). may be thought of as an approximation of the Wold representation of Xt, Secondly, identifying criteria are introduced which allow the determination of structural shocks and impulse response functions. Such criteria are usually based on economic theory, econometric testing, and any other kind of available information. In the early eighties VAR models were mainly identified by recursive schemes: for instance, the first variable affects all the others at time t, whereas none of the others affects the first at time t, the second affects all the remaining ones at time t whereas the latter do not affect the second at time t, etc. In turn, the contemporaneous causal ordering was usually based on the strength of lagged causality.
An Overview
Authors: Heller Frank , Pusić Eugen , Strauss George , Wilpert Bernhard
Published: November 2023

What do we mean by participation? What forms does it take? Why has it been subject to so much interest? This introductory chapter deals with these issues and raises some fundamental questions which will be explored in later chapters at greater length.

Three broad arguments support participation: The first is humanistic-that is, that, by contributing to personal growth and job satisfaction, participation will enhance human dignity. The second argument, power-sharing, is that participation will redistribute social power, protect employees’ interests, strengthen unions, and extend the benefits of political democracy to the workplace. The third is that participation will promote organizational efficiency (Daehler and Wilpert 1978).
Myth and Reality: Valediction
Authors: Heller Frank , Pusić Eugen , Strauss George , Wilpert Bernhard
Published: November 2023

We call this chapter Valediction rather than Conclusion because it attempts to close a period of very intensive activity in thinking and research, and it is, per-haps, a farewell to certain aspects of myth and reality implied by our topic.

In this chapter we set ourselves two objectives. One is to pull together the main streams of arguments and evidence produced in previous chapters. We will do this indirectly rather than by straight summaries, since Chapter 1 has already presented an extensive overview of the main topics and most chapters provide their own interim conclusions. So, in the next two sections we will review some of the early writing of Fred Emery as a way of drawing attention to the tendency in much of the literature to encapsulate participation narrowly within one or two levels of organization. We then go on to argue that the tentative and in part contradictory evidence from research on these encapsulated phenomena, including the policies often flagged under the banner of Human Resources Management (HRM), leads us to suggest that better results would be obtained from a coordinated approach which makes systematic use of consistent policies. Recent research seems to confirm this (see Chapter 6).
Networks and Artificial Intelligence
Authors: Sargent Thomas J
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes some artificial devices that display ‘intelligence.’ Some of them memorize and recall patterns. Others represent and learn nonlinear decision rules. Most of the devices come from the recent ‘connectionist’ literature on neural networks. As Halbert White has taught, a student of econometrics will recognize many parallels between the connectionist literature and his own, in terms of problems and the methods. The connections between the literatures on neural networks and econometrics provide additional perspective on our characterization of bounded rationality as a program to populate models with devices that mimic econometricians.
Experiments
Authors: Sargent Thomas J
Published: November 2023

Arthur (1991) and Rust, Palmer, and Miller (1992) have used adaptive algorithms to mimic and interpret the behavior of human subjects in experiments. In this chapter we describe some experiments that have been performed on two models of monetary economies that appeared in earlier chapters. Among the goals of the experimenters was to shed light on the quality of guidance supplied by rational expectations and adaptive dynamics in selecting among multiple stationary equilibria. The first example is an overlapping-generations monetary economy with two stationary equilibria. The second is the exchange rate model with indeterminate equilibria.
Changing Trends in Mortality Decline during the Last Decades
Authors: Arriaga Eduardo E
Published: November 2023

There has been a general concern about recent trends of mortality in developing countries. This concern emerged because in most of the developing countries for which there is information, mortality decline slowed down during the 1960s (as it also did in some developed countries). Data from most of these countries had shown significant gains in life expectation at birth during the 1950s; hence, optimistic predictions of future trends of mortality were made. However, life-tables for some developing countries in the early l 970s showed that the expected fast pace of mortality decline had not continued during the 1960s. Those populations for which information was available had mortality rates during the 1950s which declined rapidly at practically all ages, but during the 1960s most of the gain in life expectation was due to the reduction of infant mortality. At adult ages male mortality rates were only slightly reduced, or, in some countries, even tended to increase (Arriaga, 1981; Sivamurthy, 1981).
Living in the Global
Authors: Amin Ash , Thrift Nigel
Published: November 2023

‘Globalization’ is now seen too often as an all-pervasive force in the modern world. Yet, even now, there is still considerable dispute over what the term might mean, let alone what it might portend (Robertson 1990; King 1991). Commentators seem willing to agree that the term must be linked in some way to the wilting of the idea of a cohesive and sequestered national economy and society (Giddens 1989). They seem willing to agree that a global economy and society now exists, and not just in embryonic form. They seem convinced that as a result of these changes, everyday life, in developed countries at least, has in some senses, changed, if only because no one can opt out of the changes taking place (Giddens 1991). Finally, commentators seem sure that there is a ‘dialectic’ between the global and the local, that in some sense what counts as the local has been transformed by globalization (Massey 1991).
Regulating Labour: The Social Regulation and Reproduction of Local Labour-Markets
Authors: Peck Jamie
Published: November 2023

In his analyses of the degrading and degenerative effects of the self regulating market, Polanyi mounted an attack on those liberal doctrines which associated markets with freedom and regulation with the denial of freedom. Polanyi’s critique of nineteenth-century capitalism demonstrated that—contrary to the nostrums of free-market ideology—the development of markets for ‘fictitious’ commodities such as labour was dependent upon the existence of a set of institutional forms which had the effect of countering, or containing, the self-destructive dynamic of the market system (1944: 68-76). This later led to the revelation that economic structures are, in different ways, ‘socially embedded’, that economic processes are ‘instituted processes’ (Polanyi 1957: 243-5). This institutionalization of economic processes, moreover, was seen to be the source of stability and unity in the political-economic system as a whole (ibid. 246-50). Understanding the way in which an economy was institutionally embedded, then, provided the key to understanding how that economy was able to reproduce itself.
Engineers in the Boardroom: Britain and France Compared
Authors: Shaw Christine
Published: November 2023

Misguided and prejudiced attitudes to engineering and to engineers in Britain have been seen as forming one of the most serious cankers to weaken and cripple British industry in the twentieth century. Indeed these prejudices have, notoriously, been detected well back into the nineteenth century. ‘For the century after about 1850 or 1860 ‘, wrote Donald Coleman and Christine Macleod, ‘a mountain of apparently damning evidence on the British businessman can be built up. He can be presented as sliding into incompetence, displaying the while an attitude to new techniques which combined ignorance, indifference, hostility, prejudice and complacency in a dosage which ranged from the damaging to the lethal. ‘1 One of the central arguments of G. C. Allen ‘s famous and influential essay The British Disease was that ‘Britain ‘s industrial progress was gravely hindered by the strong prejudice in government and many branches of industry itself against the expert, a prejudice rooted in social and educational tradition, a prejudice which carried into a technological age the practices and attitudes of mind inherited from a pre-scientific time. ‘2
The Bank of England and the City
Authors: Roberts Richard
Published: November 2023

‘The City’ is a term with two meanings. Traditionally, it was an abbreviation for the City of London, the physical area of roughly one square mile that is the oldest inhabited part of the metropolis. Today the term is usually used as a shorthand collective term for the banking and other financial services which are the principal activities conducted in the square mile. It is in this latter functional sense that the relationship between the Bank and the City is discussed below. But a brief point about the physical dimension is a pertinent prologue.
Conclusions
Authors: Swann G M Peter , Prevezer Martha
Published: November 2023

The aim of this final chapter is to pull together the most important lessons from this study. We conclude by identifying some implications for policy to be drawn from the work. We have seen that, at least since the industrial revolution, there are many different forces causing clusters to emerge. While the initial location of a cluster may be a little arbitrary, when it has started to forge ahead it will tend to stay ahead, at least for a while. When clusters get large, saturation and congestion start to set in. At this stage the cluster may stop growing, and may even decline if it does not have and cannot attract new industries to replace the old. Some clusters never recover; others do. While some recovery may derive from the price mechanism, some through urban renewal, and some through the attractiveness of an old city’s cultural capital, there is an important role here for convergence between old and new technologies in sustaining the resuscitation of a cluster.
Transnational Corporations and the Nation State
Authors: Kozul-Wright Richard
Published: November 2023

The end of over a quarter century of growth and economic stability—appropriately christened a ‘Golden Age’ —has given way to a period of unstable growth, increased economic uncertainty, and widespread political instability. It has also seen the continuation and, in important respects, acceleration of a trend towards greater international specialization and economic integration that had already begun during the Golden Age. National states and labour movements, both important pillars of the Golden Age, have found it difficult to adapt to these changed circumstances. Their weakness contrasts, markedly, with the rising influence of transnational corporations (TNCs). This rise of the TNC, on many accounts, marks a transition from the Golden Age to a ‘globalising age’ (Dunning, 1994). In these accounts, the role of TNCs as long-standing organizers of a broad range of cross-border economic assets and activities has been transformed by new technologies and the relaxation of regulatory controls; free from their national setting and with a fully internalized governance structure these firms can now pursue global strategies of production, marketing, and profit seeking.
Germany: The Invention of Interventionism
Authors: Feldenkirchen Wilfried
Published: November 2023

More than any other Westem European nation, industrial development in Germany has been marked by political, economic, and social upheavals. The years between 1914 and 1990 included the First World War, inflation, the Weimar economic recovery, the Great Depression, National Socialist re-armament, the Second World War, the post-war occupation, the emergence of the Federal Republic of Germany, and the nation’s reunification. These radical changes are reflected in Germany’s GDP (Fig. 4.1). The question naturally arises whether and to what extent changes in the ‘economic order’ precipitated new directions in industrial policy. After a short survey of the development of the economic order in Germany, the chapter explains the Gennan conception of industrial policy and the relationship between private economy and the state since the end of the last century. It then discusses the central components of German industrial policy, cartel and com petition policy, tariffs and subsidies, infrastructure policy, and public ownership.
Italy: Stalling and Surpassing
Authors: Federico Giovanni , Giannetti Renato
Published: November 2023

One hundred years ago, Italy was a backward agricultural country with a glorious past. Nowadays, it is the fifth or sixth industrial power in the world. How much did industrial policy contribute to this achievement? Unsurprisingly, the issue is highly controversial. Opinions cover almost the whole possible range, from (conditional) praise to harsh criticism. The differences depend on the period each author is dealing with and perhaps on his academic specialization. Historians, who take into account the long-run achievements, are on average more sanguine than economists, and among these latter the policies of the 1950s enjoy a much better reputation than those of the 1970s. Yet most authors share the common belief that the Italian state was very active. Vera Zamagni (1994: 154) reckons Italy to have been the ‘most interventionist’ country among advanced ones, alongside Japan and Germany. And this belief justifies the interest for industrial policy and its role in the overall debate on Italian development.
Belgium: Liberalism by Default
Authors: Hens Luc , Solar Peter
Published: November 2023

During the last century Belgium has rarely had a clearly articulated industrial policy. Perhaps the only occasion was around 1960 when a series of measures designed to liberalize economic activity and to encourage physical capital fonnation, particularly that by foreign enterprises, was implemented. During the rest of the century one can only search the actions and inactions of successive governments for coherent patterns, and such coherence often proves difficult to find. This lack of coherence, as well as a serious shortage of empirical work by historians and economists on the effects of particular policies, makes it difficult to judge the overall impact of Belgian industria1 policy. But it will be suggested here that, especially since the 1930s, state policy towards industry has often been counterproductive and at best ineffective.
The Free-Standing Company, in Theory and Practice
Authors: Corley T A B
Published: November 2023

Business history can be studied either from the historical or from the scientific viewpoint. The historical approach tends to concentrate on the unique aspects of past occurrences, with some (but limited) comparisons with similar events being made. By contrast, the scientific method involves observing and seeking to analyses regularities. It likewise requires a continuous search for new and improved techniques for processing the available empirical evidence. Most business historians broadly follow the historical approach. However, some have looked to the social sciences, and most notably to economics, in order to find techniques to analyses and to explain these regularities and hence go some way towards making business history into more of a rigorous academic discipline than it clearly is at present. Mira Wilkins ‘s concept and descriptions of the free-standing company are urgently in need of re-examination along the scientific lines referred to above. She first unveiled the concept at an international conference in 1983, her paper being published three years later. A full length article, partly entitled ‘The Free-Standing Company, 1870-1914 ‘, followed in 1988. She has made use of this concept in various other works, most of which are noted in the present chapter. Although a number of scholars have identified historical cases of free-standing companies in various countries, no comprehensive academic critique has until now appeared in the literature.
Free-Standing Companies in Italy, 1883 1912
Authors: Hertner Peter
Published: November 2023

Italy was, economically speaking, a country of the European periphery from the second half of the seventeenth well into the twentieth century, after having been at the heart of Europe ‘s cultural and economic development during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance period. During the second half of the nineteenth century, despite Italy ‘s overall ‘economic backwardness ‘, its more advanced parts, mainly in the north-west, received considerable flows of financial and human capital as well as technology from abroad. Some of these flows, but only a relatively small amount, went also into the less developed central and southern parts of the peninsula.
British Free-Standing Companies and Investment Groups in India and the Far East
Authors: Chapman Stanley
Published: November 2023

The literature on British overseas investment has demonstrated that free-standing companies (FSCs) were by no means the only vehicle for the transmission of capital to imperial and foreign countries. The enterprise of merchant partnerships setting up companies and private ventures was evidently no less significant. Merchant investment certainly pre-dated FSCs by several generations, while merchants ‘ investment groups were among the biggest in the whole British economy, several times the size of the major FSCs. In India and the Far East, if not elsewhere, investment groups were the most important form of organization in the various national economies, as well as in the international movements of capital. The reasons for this continuing mercantile supremacy form the subject matter of this chapter.
Terms of Trade and the Real Exchange Rate in the CFA Zone: Implications for Income Distribution in Niger
Authors: Dorosh Paul , Essama-Nssah, B , Samba-Mamadou Ousmane
Published: November 2023

Dependence on primary commodity exports characterizes the economies of a number of countries in sub-Saharan Africa. During most of the 1970s, when commodity prices reached historic highs, real incomes rose along with exports in Cote d’Ivoire (cocoa and coffee), Cameroon (petroleum) and Guinea (bauxite). Subsequent reversals in the terms of trade contributed to balance of payments crises and led to the adoption of stabilization and structural adjustment measures. For Niger, a sharp increase in both the volume and price of uranium exports in the 1970s spurred an economic boom. Subsequent declines in uranium earnings in the early 1980s, combined with drought and macroeconomic reforms in Niger’s large neighbor to the south, Nigeria, reduced foreign exchange earnings, real incomes, and the stock of wealth.
Life after Public Sector Job Loss in Guinea
Authors: Mills Bradford , Sahn David E
Published: November 2023

Donors and policy-makers continue to emphasize reducing the role, and improving the efficiency, of the state as a key component of reform in sub-Saharan Africa economies. Macroeconomic stabilization efforts inevitably focus attention on the size of the wage bill and the attendant strain that is placed on the government’s limited budgetary resources. However, public sector wage and employment policies also have important direct impacts on the efficiency of the sector, as well as numerous indirect impacts on the rest of the economy.1 Thus, the retrenchment of government workers, as well as the rationalization of public sector pay scales and employment policies, have become essential components of structural adjustment programs in sub-Saharan Africa. This paper will focus on the Republic of Guinea’s successes and costs of implementing a public sector retrenchment program. Guinea’s experience is particularly poignant because of the public sector’s initial dominance of economic activity and the presence of severe institutional constraints to effective program implementation.
Accounting Principles and Users of Financial Information
Authors: Someya Kyojiro
Published: November 2023

In July 1949 the Investigation Committee on Business Accounting Systems of the Economic Stabilization Board of Japan submitted an interim report, ‘Business Accounting Principles’, and a report, ‘Working Rules for Pre paring Financial Statements’, which stipulated the standard formats and methods of preparation of financial statements based upon the principles outlined in the interim report. Regarding the purpose of ‘Business Accounting Principles’, the foreword of the report states: Since business accounting systems in Japan, as compared with those in the Western countries, have much room for improvement and lack uniformity, it is presently difficult to understand financial conditions and results of business activities of business enterprises.
The Coming of Age of Accounting in Japan
Authors: Someya Kyojiro
Published: November 2023

In so far as people can own and control wealth and engage in economic activity, there will always be a need for adequate and proper accounting. This is as true in the East as it is in the West. Around the sixteenth century, Japanese merchants, for example, employed their own unique brand of bookkeeping known as the ‘daifukucho’, or ‘ledger of good fortune’. However, with the introduction of Western bookkeeping methods in the 1800s, this uniquely Japanese style of account-keeping was gradually replaced, and it eventually disappeared altogether.