bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A study of the egg shells of the Sphenisciformes
Authors: Tyler C.
Published: August 2009

Studies on the egg shells of a selection of Sphenisciformes, similar to previous ones on ratites and the Anatidae, have been carried out. The true shells, after removing the membrane and cover, were analysed for insoluble and soluble nitrogen, and studies were also made using histological and plastic embedding techniques.

The combined studies indicate that, in addition to the large crystals running through the shell, there is often a thin layer of fine vertically orientated crystals above these. Then resting on this layer is a thin organic cuticle and usually, above this, a cover which is chiefly organic matter but contains some inorganic material. This cover is very marked in shells of Aptenodytes sp. and is thicker at the poles than at the equatorial region. The histological picture of the true shell is very similar to that of the Anatidae.

Most of the pore channels seem to be, at least partially, blocked with organic matter. Unlike the thickest Anatidae shells, there are few branched pores, although in the thicker shells the mouths of the channels have a shape like an arrow head.

Plotting true shell thickness against parts per 10,000 of nitrogen in the true shell gives some separation of genera and to a lesser extent of species, but the results are not so clear cut as in the Anatidae.
An analysis of the jump of the Lesser Galago (Galago senegalensis)
Authors: Hall‐Crags E. C. B.
Published: August 2009

Records of the jump of Galago senegalensis are subjective and incomplete. Observation of the jump confirms the findings of previous authors but its suddenness and speed preclude any detailed account of the important period during which the animal maintains contact with the ground. Using high‐speed cinematography an analysis has been made of movement during this period. This photographic analysis provides sufficient data for estimates to be made of the tensions that the muscle groups concerned are required to develop and the distances over which they need to shorten.

(1) An account is given of observations made of the jump of G. senegalensis in the field and in captivity.

(2) A standing vertical jump of 7 feet 43/4 inches is recorded.

(3) A photographic analysis of the earliest stages of the jump reveals (a) that the fore‐limbs take little part, (b) that effective use is made of the length of the synchronously acting hind limbs, and (c) that force is applied to the ground in the region of the tarsometatarsal joint.

(4) A mechanical analysis provides estimates of the tensions expected to be developed by the quadriceps femoris and triceps surae muscle groups and shows that in the act of jumping the gastrocnemius requires to shorten only a small amount in order to produce a full excursion of the ankle joint.
The coelomocytes of the maldanid polychaetes Clymenella torquata and Euclymene oerstedi
Authors: Pilgrim Muriel
Published: August 2009

The coelomocytes of the maldanid polychaetes Clymenella torquata (Leidy) and Euclymene oerstedi (Claparède) (=Caesicirrus neglectus Arwidsson, 1911) appear to be budded off from particular areas of the somatic peritoneum which overlie large blood capillaries in the thorax and trunk, and from more extensive areas of peritoneum at the posterior end of each tail segment. Both species have large numbers of phagocytic coelomocytes which are similar in structure and behaviour to those of some other polychaetes, and appear to have functions both of excretion and nutrition, and to play some part in regeneration. They have a tremendous capacity for ingestion which is shown particularly in late autumn, when they ingest and digest large numbers of disintegrating gametocytes, and after breeding, when they deal similarly with unshed gametes and debris.

Clymenella has a second type of coelomocyte which is not phagocytic. This type may contain haemoglobin, but the evidence is not conclusive.
The pedicel of the spider Heteropoda venatoria
Authors: Wilson R. S.
Published: August 2009

This paper describes the structure of the pedicel of Heteropoda venatoria (Linn.) (Sparassidae, Araneae), the banana spider, and illustrates the associated muscles. No attempt is made to assess the exact function and homology of each muscle, but consideration is given to their arrangement with respect to the free passage of blood between the prosoma and the abdomen, and to the observed movements of the abdomen in the living spider.
Species of Tilapia (Pisces, Cichlidae) in Lake Kitangiri, Tanzania, East Africa
Authors: Trewavas Ethelwynn , Fryer Geoffrey
Published: August 2009

Seven of a sample of 11 specimens of Tilapia from Lake Kitangiri in the eastern Rift Valley of Tanzania are shown to belong to T. amphimelas Hilgendorf and T. esculenta Graham. The other four are intermediate in structure and are interpreted as the result of hybridization. From this it is deduced that at least one of the species must have reached the lake recently, probably through the agency of man.

A table of comparison of proportions and meristic characters in the two species and the intermediates is given, and in a postscript this is used as a basis for identifying specimens from Lakes Singida and Eyasi, the former of which is known to have been stocked.

Seven of a sample of eleven specimens of Tilapia from Lake Kitangiri in the eastern Rift Valley of Tanzania (Tanganyika) are shown to belong to T. amphimelas Hilgendorf and T. esculenta Graham. The other four are intermediate in structure and are interpreted as the result of hybridization. From this it is deduced that at least one of the species must have reached the lake recently, probably through the agency of man.
Spontaneous arterial disease in exotic animals
Authors: Finlayson R.
Published: August 2009

An account is given of the pathology and incidence of spontaneous arterial disease occurring in a series of about 2000 vertebrates, the majority of which died in captivity from natural causes. The personal observations are integrated with a fairly detailed review of the literature.

Vascular lesions have been described in fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Particular attention is given in this paper to the comparative pathology of degenerative arterial disease and, more especially, atherosclerosis. Minor degrees of lipid infiltration of the arterial wall are seen commonly in many avian and mammalian orders, but more advanced atheromatous plaques occur frequently only in some avian orders and man. Atheroma has been observed occasionally in sub‐human primates and ungulates.

Focal degeneration and calcification of the arterial media constitute the major arterial lesion in ungulates and marsupials; parasitic arteritides are seen principally in carnivores, equines and, possibly, reptiles. Arterial thrombosis in animals is usually secondary to local physical injury or infection; occlusive atherothrombosis is extremely rare in all animals.

A hypothesis is presented on the histogenesis of atherosclerosis as it occurs in animals. It is concluded that the condition is a multifactorial disease. The role of dietary and other factors which may play a part in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis is discussed. Age is the only factor shown to be fairly directly related to atherosclerosis, but the almost complete absence of lesions in some comparatively old animals emphasizes that atheroma is not an inevitable accompaniment of senescence. The morphological pattern of arterial disease would appear to be similar in free‐living and captive animals; and though increasing age and the conditions of captivity may potentiate lesions, it would seem likely that the primary causes of arterial disease are operative in natural, quasi‐natural or captive environments.
A comparison of livingSepioteuthis sepioideaandDoryteuthis pleiwith other squids, and withSepia officinalis
Authors: Boycott B. B.
Published: August 2009

Some of the features of the behaviour ofSepioteuthisare described compared with that of other squids and of cuttlefish which it has come to resemble.
The control of growth in Locusta migratoria
Authors: Clarke Kenneth U.
Published: August 2009

Understanding of the control of growth in the locust (Locusta migratoria L.) is presented as a problem of the relationship between “nature” as represented by genetic information and “nurture” as represented by the locust's food and by the environmental temperature.

Emphasis is placed on the role of proteins in the translation of the genetic code and on the formation of protein species from genes according to the model given by Jacob & Monod. In insects, neurosecretion may influence protein metabolism at the level of mRNA formation in the nucleus, and it is suggested that the mode of action is suppression of the negative feedback of the metabolite on to its specific gene locus. The release of neurosecretory material is related to food intake, information about which is relayed from stretch receptors in the pharynx, via the frontal ganglion and frontal connectives to the brain. Surgical interference with this pathway leads to a complete cessation of growth in the animal.

Studies on the action of fluctuating temperatures on the growth of the locust also show hormonal involvement. Under certain temperature regimes the corpora cardiaca is empty of neurosecretory material but there is no evidence of failure of its formation. It is thus assumed that it is being secreted and utilized, yet growth is slow or nonexistent. It is suggested that under these conditions protein metabolism is maximally stimulated as different protein species are needed to meet different requirements imposed by the changing environmental temperature.

A model has been constructed which suggests a common basic mechanism to these and other phenomena. The model is formalized by the application of simple Boolean algebra.
The structure and function of the stomach in bivalve molluscs
Authors: Reid R. G. B.
Published: August 2009

The structure and function of the stomachs of nine bivalves are examined. These animals belong to the Gastrotetartika, Gastrotriteia, and Gastropempta, the three orders of the Polysyringia, a new sub‐class of the Bivalvia suggested by Purchon (1960a). It is found that in all three orders there are common ciliary tracts and grooves. For example, tracts are always found in association with the duct openings, and a distinction between the right duct tract and the posterior sorting area is drawn. Another tract which is a constant feature of these stomachs, but which has not been noted before, is the antero‐dorsal tract. A generalized polysyringian stomach is constructed. All the stomachs examined function similarly, there being set up in the lumina circulating currents of the gastric fluid. In general, large particles and masses of particles are recirculated until they are broken down, and small heavy particles are rejected by the sorting areas, of which three main types are described. Light particles in suspension in the stomach fluid are carried by the circulating current to the vicinity of the opening of the ducts of the digestive diverticula.

The form of the primitive polysyringian stomach and the evolution of sorting areas are postulated. Possible steps in the evolution of the gastropemptan stomach through the gastrotetartikan form are suggested. The function of the appendix is that of a temporary store for large, heavy particles which escape the pallial sortingjnechanisms. It is noted that this organ occurs in all three orders of the Polysyringia.
Neurosecretion and water balance in the male desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria)
Authors: Highnam K. C. , Hill L. , Gingell D. J.
Published: August 2009

Cautery of the cerebral neurosecretory cells in the immature male desert locust results in a retention of water and a consequent dilution of the haemolymph. If such cauterized locusts are given an excess water load this is lost far more slowly than in control animals; further, water is lost at a much slower rate in water loaded decapitated males than in decapitated males given a water load containing neurosecretory material (extract of corpora cardiaca).

The histology of the neurosecretory system of the adult male desert locust is in all respects similar to that of the female. In the mature male most of the cerebral neurosecretory cells are histologically “full”, and injection of distilled water into such locusts results in a significant decrease in the number of “full” cells, indicating a release of neurosecretory material. Injection of 10% sodium chloride does not result in any such change.

Allatectomy of males results in an accumulation of neurosecretory material in both the cerebral neurosecretory cells and corpora cardiaca. Injection of distilled water into these locusts results in a significant decrease in the number of “full” cells and injection of 10% sodium chloride does not result in any change.

These results are consistent with the idea that the cerebral neurosecretory system produces a diuretic factor. However, as yet, no observations have been made of the effects of neurosecretion on the Malpighian tubules and so the possibility that the neurosecretory system is not directly related to the general mechanism of water balance remains open.
Albinism of the tail‐tip in the house mouse (Mus musculus Linn.)
Authors: Clegg T. M.
Published: August 2009

In a recent paper Corbet (1963) summarized the occurrence of white hairs in the tail‐tips of a number of species of British mammals using specimens from the collection of the British Museum (Natural History). In the series of 47 house mice referred to by Corbet no white tail‐tipped examples were noted, and I can find no published record of this condition in this species. Between March and May 1964 I collected or received specimens from a number of South Yorkshire coal‐mines and amongst this collection of 94 were seven which showed tail‐tip whitening to some extent. Over 70 of these mice were prepared as cabinet skins with skulls and they have been deposited in the collection of the Doncaster Museum.
Harvestmites on bank voles that have lost a leg
Authors: Smyth Michael
Published: August 2009

This note is submitted to record evidence of the harmful effects on small rodents of banding them with metal rings (see Fullagar & Jewell, 1965).
Notes on the opening of hazel nuts (Corylus avellana) by mice and voles
Authors: East K.
Published: August 2009

A difference was noticed in the type of hole made by captive wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) and bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) when opening hazel nuts. To find the reason for this they were observed when actually opening the nuts.
A taxonomic revision of the Phreodrilidae (Oligochaeta)
Authors: Brinkhurst R. O.
Published: August 2009

Seven of the 20 former species of the Phreodrilidae have been examined. Information derived from a study of this material has necessitated a re‐assessment of the interpretations of some of the anatomical features formerly employed in the separation of genera. As a result, all of the known species are merged in the single genus Phreodrilus with seven subgenera, 17 species and two taxa recognizable only as unidentifiable phreodrilids.
Seasonal fluctuations in the riverain invertebrate fauna of the Blue Nile near Khartoum
Authors: Lewis J. G. E.
Published: August 2009

The physical conditions on the Blue Nile Bank near Khartoum and the seasonal succession of the invertebrate fauna are described. The fauna is dominated by beetles, mainly Carabidae, in the rainy season which coincides with the annual flood and by spiders, mainly Lycosidae, in the dry season. Climatically, the habitat is relatively mild and food is relatively abundant. The main problem with which the fauna has to contend is the annual rise and fall of the Nile.
Skulls and skeletons of Gorilla in British collections
Authors: Groves C. P. , Napier J. R.
Published: August 2009

A survey is made of the skulls and skeletons of Gorilla in British collections. The method of recording data is described and there is a section on historical material. The localities of many specimens are listed, together with their present location.
The pelvic girdle and fin in certain Indian hill stream fishes
Authors: Saxena Subhash Chandra , Chandy Mary
Published: August 2009

This paper deals with the functional morphology of the pelvic girdle and fins in various genera of hill stream cyprinid and sisorid fishes. The pelvic plate of Pseudecheneis shows the greatest modification; it is unusually large and reaches the coracoids of the pectoral arch in front.

The elaborate working of the pelvic muscles and their function in bringing about effective adhesion by the pelvic fins is described in detail. The formation of a new muscle, M. pars retractor ischii of the M. mesioventralis, is reported in Garra and Psilorhynchus (Cyprinidae) and in Glyptothorax and Pseudecheneis (Sisoridae). In Pseudecheneis, the complete separation of this muscle from the M. mesioventral, and modification of the M. protractor ischii, are discussed in relation to the crawling habit of the genus. The appearance of the M. arrector pel vicalis ventralis in Glyptothorax and Pseudecheneis among sisorids has been associated with the adhesive function of the outer ray.
A contribution to the ecology and reproductive biology of the Marabou stork (Leptoptilos crumeniferus) in East Africa
Authors: Kahl M. P.
Published: August 2009

Marabous are common scavengers in regions where game or domestic animals are abundant or near human settlements. Adults are able to subsist for long periods on a diet of carrion, but the rapidly growing nestlings require a high‐calcium diet containing some small whole vertebrates, such as fish or frogs. Most breeding colonies are situated near a source of carrion as well as a freshwater feeding area. Breeding generally takes place in the dry season, when aquatic vertebrates are concentrated and carrion is easier to obtain. Observations are presented on the various phases of the breeding cycle. The incubation period averaged 30–3 days, and the young stayed in the nest an average of 116 days before their first flight. Parents commonly bring water, as well as food, to young in the nests. Only a small percentage of the population appears to breed in any given year, and the rate of productivity is low; some birds must live to be very old. Population size is probably controlled by food availability and its influence on reproductive success.
Adhesive apparatus in certain Indian hill stream fishes
Authors: Saxena Subhash Chandra , Chandy Mary
Published: August 2009

The results of a detailed study on the adhesive apparatus of Indian hill stream cyprinid and sisorid fishes are presented. The structure of the mental suctorial disc in the genus Garra is described. Histological study of the mental region of Crossocheilus and Psilorhynchus has also been made and compared with the mental disc of Garra. The muscles of the disc which control its movements in bringing a partial vacuum during adhesion have been investigated. The complexity of the geniohyoideus muscles in Garra is interesting. Variations in the degree of development and histological modifications of the mental disc are exhibited by the fishes of the genus Garra.

A thoracic adhesive apparatus in the form of longitudinal or transverse ridges and grooves is present in the sisorids, Laguvia, Glyptothorax and Pseudecheneis except Gagata. A close study has revealed that the adhesive apparatus of the catfishes works mainly on the principle of friction. The variations in shape, size and location of the adhesive apparatus in various species are correlated to their respective habitats.

Structural variation in the adhesive apparatus of Pseudecheneis is maximum in comparison to that in Laguvia and Glyptothorax. It is discovered that the modifications are associated with the presence of multi‐spinous layers, formation of caps by the basal or holdfast cells and with the transformation of loose areolar tissue into thick collagenous dermis. The presence of a pad of adipose tissue in the region of the adhesive apparatus has been reported and its physiological significance as a source of stored food suggested.

The anterior part of the protractor ischii muscle is modified to control the action of the adhesive apparatus. In Pseudecheneis, besides the m. protractor ischii, the ventral part of m. mesioventral is also associated with the adhesive apparatus.
The Zoological Society of London: Report of the Society's Pathologist for the year 1964
Authors: T‐W‐Fiennes R. N.
Published: August 2009

An account is given of autopsy examinations of Mammalia, Aves and Reptilia during the year 1964. Statistical analyses of results are added in the tables given. Various research problems studied during the year are briefly described.
A taxonomic revision of the genus Grania (Oligochaeta: Enchytraeidae)
Authors: Kennedy C. R.
Published: August 2009

Grania is a genus of Enchytraeidae which was erected to contain a single Irish marine species. The re‐examination of the type material of this species and the discovery of some new American material has made possible the revision of the earlier description and the erection of a new species. A third species, formerly located in Enchytraeus, is now recognized as belonging in Grania. As a result of these investigations the genus has been re‐defined.
On the feeding process in the White Amur, Ctenopharyngodon idella
Authors: Hlckling C. F.
Published: August 2009

The White Amur or Grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella Val. is almost exclusively herbivorous, feeding chiefly on macrophyte material. The pharyngeal teeth are described, and their effect on the ingested food material. The distribution of the digestive enzymes along the gut suggests that most amylase and protease is in the mid‐gut, and lipase in the anterior gut. The gut is short for a herbivore, and food passes through in less than eight hours at 28°c to 30°C. Digestion is incomplete, and about half the food material is passed out as faeces which can support, directly or indirectly, a large biomass of other species of fish.
Investigations of the blood capillary system of Tubifex tubifex
Authors: Palmer M. F.
Published: August 2009

The blood capillary system of Tubifex tubifex has been investigated using various methods of killing and fixation. When the worm was killed slowly and in a relaxed state capillary systems to both the intestine and the body wall showed clearly and have been described.
The morphology of the head, thorax, proboscis apparatus and pygidium of the maldanid polychaetes Clymenella torquata and Euclymene oerstedi
Authors: Pilgrim Muriel
Published: August 2009

A detailed description is given of the anatomy of the head, thorax, proboscis apparatus and pygidium of the maldanid polychaetes Clymenella torquata (Leidy) and Euclymene oerstedi (Claparède) (=Caesicirrus neglectus Arwidsson, 1911). The head consists of prostomium, peristomial region and one achaetous segment which is undoubtedly a metamere. Whether the peristomium should be counted as another rests on the definition of a metamere, about which opinions differ. Evidence is presented which suggests that each of the two paired groups of proboscideal retractors is derived from a head septum.

Probably because of the relatively large size of the proboscis, not only the head, but also the first four chaetigers (= thorax) act as a pump to effect the eversion of the proboscis by coelomic fluid pressure. The thoracic septa are highly specialized in relation to this function. In both gross and detailed anatomy, and in mode of functioning of the region, the maldanids show many resemblances to some arenicolids.

The pygidium consists of a ring‐shaped thickening (the callus ring), the anal funnel and the anal cone.

Based on this investigation of anatomy, a system of description is suggested which aims to avoid ambiguity and to eliminate from future maldanid literature the type of confusion which exists in it at present.
Variation in the distribution of pigment within the shell structure of birds' eggs
Authors: Harrison C. J. O.
Published: August 2009

Very little comparative study has been made of the distribution of pigments within the structure of the egg‐shell. The present paper is a general account of the distribution of the pigments within the thickness of the egg‐shells of the different avian genera, and was undertaken in order to assess the value of this character for taxonomic purposes. Egg‐shells tend to cleave along a radial plane and the radial surfaces of shell fragments were examined under a microscope and the distribution of colours noted.

Only two pigments are known to be present in most eggs, a blue biliverdin and a protoporphyrin responsible for reds, browns, blacks and yellows. The distribution of colours as it appears in fragments of egg‐shells of the different avian families is described, those of the Passeriformes being discussed as a single group. In general, the shells appear white or blue, with other pigment present either as a thin superficial layer, or in small patches scattered at intervals through the thickness of the shell. In 11 genera, various pigments were found to be present through a significant portion of the outer shell structure; from one‐third to one‐half the total thickness. There did not appear to be any common factor underlying this occurrence.

The only major variation in distribution was found in patterned eggs, some of which had all the pigment producing the pattern limited to the surface layer of the shell, while in others this was present at varying depths within the thickness of the shell. The former type was found in eight families only, and in three of these, Falconidae, Opisthocomidae and Jacanidae, was limited to one family in an order containing numerous families.

Fugitive pigments occur in some shells. An unstable porphyrin gives a pink flush only seen in very fresh eggs. In a few species the fresh eggs are green but subsequently become blue. The green colour appears to be due to a combination of blue biliverdin and a yellow pigment, possibly bilirubin.

In view of the general similarity of pigment distribution in most egg‐shells this character would appear to have limited use in taxonomy, but the difference in distribution of pattern pigments might be of some significance.
Effect of exogenous serum gonadotrophin (PMS) on aspects of reproductive development in female domesticated canaries
Authors: Steel Elizabeth , Hinde R. A.
Published: August 2009

PMS was injected thrice weekly for four weeks into first winter and second winter canaries during the following periods: September‐October, November‐December, January‐February and February‐March. Measures were made of ovary and oviduct weight, brood‐patch development (defeathering, vascularity and sensitivity changes), nest‐building and egg‐laying. PMS caused overy growth in all months: this was greatest in the second year birds in February. Both control and treated ovaries increased in size towards the breeding season. Oviduct growth depends mainly on the size of the treated ovary. Defeathering was produced by PMS in all months: its rate and extent increased towards the breeding season. Vascularity was also produced by PMS. It was least in November‐December but after that the rate at which it appeared increased towards the breeding season. By contrast, the effect of PMS on brood‐patch skin sensitivity was greater in the autumn group than subsequently. Nest‐building occurred in September‐October, but was then very slight until February‐March, which is the beginning of the breeding season. Eggs were laid in most months; fewer injections were needed to produce egg‐laying as the breeding season approached.
Catching and keeping live moles
Authors: Rudge A. J. B.
Published: August 2009

A live trap for moles and a method of keeping moles in captivity are described. A field trial of the trap has given promising results and suggests that it would be a useful tool in a capture/recapture technique in field studies on moles. Multiple captures of the same animal were made; all moles caught were in good condition when released from the trap, despite confinement in it for up to 18 hours. The use of wire tunnels as exercise runs and as links between sleeping and feeding cages was found important to the success of keeping live moles. Details are given of apparatus used for continuous automatic monitoring of the activities of captive moles.
The soil fauna as a food source for moles
Authors: Raw F.
Published: August 2009

Moles feed mainly on insects and earthworms and may eat 18 to 36 k (40 to 80 lb) per annum, collected in an area of about 1/25 hectare (1/10 acre). This largely restricts them to deciduous woodland and old grassland on “mull” soils since field populations of soilinsects cannot provide them with enough food but earthworm populations can. Slugs and millipedes may be relatively unpalatable.

Caches of earthworms stored by moles consist almost entirely of Lumbricus terrestris immobilized by removal or multilation of the anterior 3–5 segments. It is still uncertainhow and when the caches are made. Earthworm cocoons are prominent in the diet of moles in pastures but how they are located is not yet known.
Notes on the relationship between the burrowing capacity, size and shoulder anatomy of some eastern Asiatic moles
Authors:   The Earl of Cranbrook
Published: August 2009

Talpa micrura leucura and T. m. malayana make superficial burrows through tropical forest floor litter. They do not dig deeply into the soil or produce mole heaps as does Talpa europaea. Although some comparatively minor points of difference between the shoulder girdles of the eastern and European species are of sufficient interest to be described, it is suggested that it is the greater size and strength of Talpa europaea that enables it to perform the heavy manual labour of deep digging which T. m. leucura and T. m. malayana are not powerful enough to undertake.
Electron microscopic observations of the olfactory mucosa of the mole
Authors: Graziadei P.
Published: August 2009

The olfactory mucosa of the mole has been studied with the electron microscope. Bipolar ciliated neurons, supporting and basal epithelial cells have been recognized and theirultrastructure described. Morphological differences of the various parts of the sensory neurons have been emphasized. The considerable number of organelles observed in supporting cells and the complexity of their free surface suggests a more active role for these cells than their name implies.
Perception underground:Review of physical aspects and measurements
Authors: Crawford B. H.
Published: August 2009

A summary is given of the types of signal which might be perceived by the mole in itsunderground life, viz. sound, seismic earth movement or vibration, light, infrared radiation and other electromagnetic disturbances, and odours. Some guidance is provided regarding suitable physical receptors to use in the investigation of these various signals. Satisfactory receptors are available for light, infrared radiation and the other classes of electromagnetic disturbance. For sound, the presently available receptors are of inadequate sensitivity. Seismic earth movements and odours are almost unexplored and their detection at an appropriate level of sensitivity is a suitable subject for future research.
Patterns of gill ventilation in some decapod Crustacea
Authors: Arudpragasam K. D. , Naylor E.
Published: August 2009

The frequency of reversal of the respiratory current is recorded for Cancer pagurus, Macropipus puber, Corystes cassivelaunus and Homarus gammarus by cannulating the gill chamber and recording pressure changes therein. The predominant respiratory current flows backwards in Corystes and forwards in the other three, but all show rhythmic reversals of that current which appear to form an integral part of the mechanism of gill ventilation. Reversals appear to have significant gill cleaning functions only in Homarus andperhaps also Corystes.

Measurements of gill ventilation volumes support these findings. Macropipus puber takes in almost all respiratory water at the bases of the chelae, anterior to the gills, and it shows a high reversal frequency apparently to irrigate the posterodorsal aspect of the gills. Cancer pagurus takes in a considerable volume of respiratory water at the bases of the last pair of peraeopods in addition to that entering at the bases of the chelae. This species shows fewer reversals, since the posterior gills are irrigated during normal forward flow, but artificial closure of the posterior openings results in an increased reversal rate.

Comparisons are made of the gill ventilation patterns of all these species, together with Carcinus maenas described previously, and their functional inter‐relationships are discussed.
A study of the egg shells of the Falconiformes
Authors: Tyler C.
Published: August 2009

A study of a selection of egg shells of the Falconiformes has been made similar to the earlier ones on ratites, the Anatidae and the Sphenisciformes. Chemical analyses, and histological and plastic embedding techniques were used.

The main part of the shell in all species studied consists of large crystals running through the shell. There was no layer of fine vertical crystals above this and no cover, and even the cuticle was not very pronounced. Histological studies showed no major differences, except that some shells had vacuoles in the outer layers. All such shells also gave an unetched outer layer when plastic embedded radial sections were studied and thin sections showed spaces between and within crystals. These spaces in the outer layers of the shell were of taxonomic interest for they were not present in the Cathartidae, the Falconidae and Sagittarius serpentarius.

Pore channels appeared to be much sparser than in other orders so far studied and all pores were single. Pigment was present on the surface of some shells, but it was also found in different layers of the shell right down to the cone layer and, in one case, had leaked through on to the membrane.

There were significant relationships between total and soluble shell nitrogen which divided the Falconidae from most of the Accipitridae but left Pernis and Pandion in an intermediate position.
The three species of Latrodectus (Araneae), found in Israel
Authors: Levi Herbert W.
Published: August 2009

The three species of widow spiders found in the Negev Desert of Israel, Latrodectus mactans tredecimguttatus, L. pallidus and L. revivensis, seem to differ more in their behaviour and habits than in their morphology. Differences in structure of the genitalia are minor compared with differences in the integument of the abdomen and the structure of the sternum.
On the biology of the Watchman prawn, Anchistus custos (Crustacea; Decapoda; Palaemonidae), an Indo‐West Pacific commensal of the bivale Pinna
Authors: Johnson D. S. , Liang Margaret
Published: August 2009

Anchistus custos Forskål is the only common prawn commensal with bivalves of the family Pinnidae in Singapore waters. The whole morphology shows pronounced modifications connected with the commensal mode of life. The second legs are large and massive and show marked positive allometry in the male but appear to have little function in the general life of the animal. The animal occurs wherever there are established populations of matureindividuals of its host. Infestation rates are heavy and are affected by size of host and probably by competition with pinnotherid crabs. Multiple infestations are common and always involve individuals of both sexes and it has not been possible to demonstrate aggressive or territorial behaviour. Reproduction appears to occur throughout the year. Individuals are not normally found away from their hosts but rapidly abandon dead hosts. Location of the host depends in part on tactile stimuli and thigmotaxy and in part on pronounced positive rheotaxy. It has not been possible to demonstrate any distance chemical sense involved in host location but the prawn is repulsed by the presence of dead Pinna flesh. The prawn normally clings to the edge of the gill lamellae of its host and feeds by means of the highly modified first legs which are used as scrapers to remove mucus and entangled food particles from the gills of the host. Examination of gut contents of the prawn confirms this deduction. There is no evidence for any harmful effects on the host.
Occurrence of “elastic” fibres in the invertebrates
Authors: Elder Hugh Y. , Owen Gareth
Published: August 2009

The connective tissues of a wide range of invertebrates have been investigated using a potassium permanganate/spirit blue staining technique. The method demonstrates fibres which are distinct from collagen, vertebrate elastic fibres, and reticular fibres. The fibres are variously associated with subepidermal collagen, muscles, basement membrances, the walls of blood vessels and the sheaths around nerve cords; the method also gives a positive reaction with the arborescent mesogloeal fibres of medusoid coelenterates. Their electron microscope appearance is distinctive and they exhibit a physical elasticity. Chemical tests indicate that following pretreatment with acidified potassium permanganate they show many, although not all, of the properties of vertebrate “elastin”. It is concluded that they should be regarded as a special category of “elastic” fibre.
Observations on the venous system of three species of Polypterus (Pisces)
Authors: Magid A. M. Abdel
Published: August 2009

The venous system of Polypterus exhibits general asymmetry. The features that characterize the venous system of this peculiarly African fish are the possession of many blood sinuses, the segmental drainage of blood, the continuation of the posterior cardinal veins as separated vessels and the occurrence of several anastomozes between the latter.

In the absence of any recent comprehensive work on the blood system of this fish, it was thought that investigation of the circulatory system of Polypterus would be valuable. In this paper attention is drawn to Budgettapos;s (1902) original work on a larva of Polypterus senegalus. Contrary to Budgettapos;s findings it is concluded that what he called the “interrenal” vein is in fact the right posterior cardinal vein. It is also found that paired posterior cardinal veins exist in all adults.
Diurnal rhythm, temperature and water relations of the African toad, bufo regularis
Authors: Cloudsley‐Thompson J. L.
Published: August 2009

B. regularis Reuss is nocturnally active, having an endogenous rhythm that is not accelerated in darkness or retarded by constant light. The rate of water‐loss is correlated with the saturation deficiency of the air and there is no control of transpiration. Pulmonary ventilation, however, plays a significant part in evaporative cooling. The lethal temperature for one hour's exposure in moist air is 39°C: in dry air a body temperature of 42°C has been recorded from a living toad. There is no correlation between rate of water‐loss and the point at which dehydration becomes lethal. The maximum water‐loss survived is 50% of normal body weight. The rate of water‐uptake is not influenced by ambient air temperature‐it is greatest in toads desiccated below 10 to 15% of original weight and declines as rehydration proceeds.
Observations on the biology of three species of Nigerian millipedes
Authors: Toye S. A.
Published: August 2009

Investigations have been carried out, both in the field and in the laboratory, into certain aspects of the biology of three species of millipede (Spirostreptus assiniensis, Oxydesmus sp., and Habrodesmus falx) which commonly occur during the rainy season in the Ibadan area of Western Nigeria. The feeding, mating, egg‐laying, and moulting habits of the three species are described. A detailed description is given of the nest‐building habit of the larvae of Oxydesmus sp. The elaborate nests which are built primarily for moulting also protect the larvae during the dry season when moisture conditions become unfavourable. Swarming behaviour, uncommon in millipedes, is shown by the larvae of H. falx. This behaviour which appears to be of survival value to the species is described.
A taxonomic review of the African megadrile genus Stuhlmannia (Eudrilidae, Oligochaeta)
Authors: Jamieson B. G. M.
Published: August 2009

The genus Stuhlmannia Michaelsen 1890 (Pareudrilinae, Eudrilidae) is redefined and a key to species given in the light of the author's examination of material of 24 of the 25 species previously recognized. A discussion of the general morphology of the genus is also included. Twenty‐two species are retained and five subspecies of S. variablis are defined. New and suspected synonyms are tabulated. New records are given of S. asymmetrica Michaelsen, 1903a, S. Suctoria (Stephenson), 1932, and S. variabilis Michaelsen, 1890, but these include no significant extension of previously known distribution. A map of the distribution of all known species shows that the genus is limited to tropical Africa, with the great majority of species in east and central Africa within 15 degrees of the equator. S. variabilis, one of the most abundant and widespread limnic magadriles in East Africa, is geographically replaced by closely related species in neighbouring regions, viz. S. asmmetrica in Ethiopia, and S. inermis around Lake Tanganyika. These species, with S. gracilis, which occurs at the western extremity of the range of variabilis, form a remarkably homogeneous and discrete group on the grounds of somatic and genital characteristics. The variabilis group, which has the ovaries enclosed in a complex female apparatus which ensures internal fertilization, would require separation as a distinct genus were it not apparently linked to other members of the genus by intermediate forms. The series which can be distinguished in the progressive complication of the female genital apparatus in the genus endorses union of platydrilus Michaelsen, 1891, with Stuhlmannia by Michaelsen (1936). Diagrams of this series are given and the significane is discussed of the development of a communication between the spermatheca and the oviduct and enclosure of the ovaries in the system thus produced. Evidence is presented for internal fertilization in the variabilis group and in at least some other species of the genus. The hypothesis advanced by Stephenson, (1930a), that the unenclosed condition of the ovaries and absence of a communication between the spermatheca and oviducts are secondary conditions, and his acceptance of a megascolecid origin of the Eudrilidae, are not supported by the present study.
Notes on the adrenal of the African elephant
Authors: O'Donoghue P. N. , Sikes Sylvia K. , Turvey A.
Published: August 2009

Sections of the adrenals of two male specimens of Loxodonta africana were examined. Apart from the dimensions of the gland and the amount and disposition of connective tissue in it, the most characteristic features were the very high lipid content of the cortical secretory cells, the large size of these cells, and the occurrence of dark cells in the zona fasciculata.
Sisor rabdophorus—A study in adaptation and natural relationship III. The vertebral column, median fins their musculature
Authors: Mahajan C. L.
Published: August 2009

A detailed description of the vertebral column, median fin skeleton and musculature is given. Comparisons based on the study of these structures in Gagata and Loricaria have been made. It has been clearly demonstrated that these structures in Sisor bear an unmistakable imprint of the bottom‐living habit of the fish and as such show a remarkable series of convergent modifications with the most highly specialized catfish family, Loricariidae, while Gagata shows an intermediate stage between the typical siluroid condition and the extreme type of modifications found in Sisor and Loricaria.

That Sisor diverged early from the main stem of sisorid evolution is further supported by this study.
Catalogue of sounds of the Pigtailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina)
Authors: Grimm R. J.
Published: August 2009

A catalogue of sounds from a laboratory population of Pigtailed macaques has been developed from spectograms. Sounds are divided into four general classes: clear, harsh and high‐pitched calls, and miscellaneous sounds. It appears that all parameters of the vocal signal are independently manipulatable. A plot of selected spectral characteristics demonstrated the uniqueness of individual signals. In some instances, different sounds are developed by rearrangement of specific fragments, or by acoustical activities performed on similar sounds. This latter phenomenon, which will be termed mosaicism, parallels aspects of language design. Lastly, comparison of spectrograms for Pigtailed macaques with those published for Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) reveals similarities in structure.
Note on the food habits of Ptilocercus lowii Gray (Pentail tree‐shrew) and Echinosorex gymnurus (Raffles) (Moonrat) in Malaya with remarks on “ecological labelling” by parasite patterns
Authors: Liat Lim Boo
Published: August 2009

Examination of the endoparasites and stomach contents of Moonrats and Pentail treeshrews helps to establish certain facts as to the behaviour and food preference in their natural environment. Earthworms and arthropods are the main diet of Moonrats in the wild, with fish, crabs and land molluscs as supplementary food. In captivity, this animal fed primarily on fresh fish. The Pentail tree‐shrews, on the other hand are more insectivorous although meat is occasionally eaten. This animal apparently is not strictly a canopydweller as was previously believed. The stomach contents, and the fact that some specimens were trapped on the forest floor indicates that they may often descend to ground level.
Studies on the ecology of field mice and voles (Apodemus sylvaticus, Clethrionomys glareolus and Microtus agrestis) in Houghall Wood, Durham
Authors: Ashby K. R.
Published: August 2009

In a 12‐year study on Clethrionomys glareolus, Apodemus sylvaticus, and in less detail, on Microtus agrestis in an area of mixed woodland just south of Durham it has been found that a variety of mark‐and‐recapture line trapping has provided reliable indices of abundance, making it possible to follow the changes occurring in the populations of the three species. Parameters investigated included distribution, density, sexual condition, sex ratio, mortality, recruitment, growth and variation in pressure on food supplies.

The abundance of Clethrionomys has varied cyclically, the periodicity being slightly under four years as previously recorded in the microtine rodents of tundra and grassland habitats. There has been evidence of abnormalities of the generations living during a crash similar to those reported in Microtus agrestis during this phase of a population cycle. Apodemus in contrast has had only a well‐defined annual fluctuation in abundance, the rapid decline observed in its population density each spring perhaps being caused by an intensification of territorial behaviour at the beginning of each breeding season. lntraspecific competition also appears to account for male Apodemus, which grow more quickly and to a larger size than females, being more abundant than the latter in most years. After exceptionally favourable seasons, females are as numerous as males, apparently as a result of a temporary reduction of such competition. Microtus, for which the area of study provided a marginal habitat, showed less regular fluctuations in abundance than have been found to occur in this species on moorlands.

It is confirmed that Clethrionomys and Apodemus are important in woodland ecosystems as agents transporting, burying and eating tree‐seed, and damaging or killing the seedlings. Their influence on regeneration of forest is complex and calls for detailed study.

The pressure exerted by these two species on token supplies of seed which were offered, was greatest in winter and least in late summer. Appetite and stockpiling activity were increased relative to rodent abundance, under crowded conditions. The significance of food shortage and of social stimulation respectively as possible causes of these increases are discussed.