bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Universal Salvation
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna
Published: October 2003

This monograph examines the claim that ultimately all people will be saved––i.e. that hell will not be eternal and that God will be ‘all in all’ (1 Cor. 15:28). Many Christians have expressed some form of this belief in universal salvation (sometimes known as universalism, or the apokatastasis), despite the fact that it has rarely been regarded as fully orthodox. The book focuses on the concept of universal salvation in the theology of the fourth‐century Cappadocian Father Gregory of Nyssa and the twentieth‐century Jesuit theologian Karl Rahner. It undertakes detailed studies of eschatology (theology of the ‘last things’) in Gregory's and Rahner's thought, paying particular attention to their contrasting cultural and intellectual contexts: Gregory was educated in rhetoric and in the philosophy of late antiquity (particularly platonism); Rahner was influenced both by Thomism and by later philosophers such as Kant, Maréchal, and Heidegger. Given the two theologians’ contrasting worldviews, this book asks whether their ideas of universal salvation are fundamentally the same––and whether universalism can be regarded as a genuinely Christian idea. It concludes that although Rahner expressed a hope that all will be saved and Gregory asserted universalism more confidently, both men base their convictions on a profound and orthodox Christian belief in the all‐encompassing love of God, which has come to fruition in Jesus Christ and is witnessed to in Scripture. The book's final chapter also compares how each theologian deals with the difficult issues raised by the idea of universal salvation, such as human freedom, punishment, and divine justice. It concludes that while Gregory's answers are sometimes clearer, Rahner's are more nuanced and have a subtlety that fits better with scientific discoveries about human nature, the mind and the development of the world. Finally, the book analyses the differences in the two ideas of universal salvation, asks whether one can speak of a ‘tradition’ of universalism in Christianity and reflects more broadly on the causes of development of Christian doctrine.
The Consummation of an Individual History of Freedom
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna
Published: October 2003

This chapter aims to explain Rahner's complex idea of the perfection, or consummation of the human individual. He stresses that it has two aspects: immanent consummation (individuals determine their fate through human freedom and decision) and transcendent consummation (the transforming grace of God). Paradoxically, he tries to collapse the distinctions between these two aspects (which seems to point to universalism and leads to his controversial notion known as ‘anonymous Christianity’) whilst still maintaining the possibility of humans rejecting God. The chapter explores how Rahner links his philosophical analysis of human perfection to the classical Christian doctrines of heaven and hell. Similarly, his discussion of the possibility of making decisions for or against God after death is connected with the concepts of indulgences and purgatory.
The Consummation of the World's History of Freedom
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna
Published: October 2003

This chapter recapitulates some of the themes of Ch. 6––decision, freedom, grace––at the collective rather than the individual level. This involves examining what Karl Rahner means by individual, the body, and the unity of human nature. The question of to what extent humanity as a whole can be said to make a free decision for God leads to reflection on the nature of the collective Christian task in working towards a world of greater peace, justice, and love. Rahner distinguishes this task from worldly ideologies and utopianianism, by emphasizing that humans are only at most co‐creators of the future world with God. The chapter concludes by connecting these ideas with Rahner's notions of resurrection, the beatific vision, and the parousia.
Comparison and Assessment
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna
Published: October 2003

In answer to the question ‘will all be saved?’, the final chapter suggests a third possible idea of universalist hope that lies between Gregory's predictive and Rahner's paradoxical ideas of hope. In response to the question ‘how will all be saved?’, it compares the two theologians’ views on how one's current life affects one's destiny with God, focussing on the concepts of philosophia and sunergeia (in Gregory), and decision and immanent/transcendent consummation (in Rahner); their views on freedom are then compared. It is suggested that despite their many differences in expression and content, Gregory and Rahner present an idea of universal salvation that is fundamentally similar, and is genuinely coherent with orthodox Christianity. The chapter concludes that while Gregory's answers to the problems of universalism are sometimes clearer and although his concept of hope is more logical, Rahner's eschatology is more nuanced and has a subtlety that fits better with scientific discoveries about human nature, the mind, and the development of the world. Finally, the differences between Gregory and Rahner are assessed in terms of the development of Christian doctrine and the creative role of the theologian, and some suggestions are made as to the future of the idea of universal salvation.
Liberalism Divided
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: October 2003

This book explores liberalism in Britain from 1914 to 1939. It looks at the impact of the war and post-war period on liberalist thought. It contends that major British socialist thinkers such as Laski and Tawney were at times within the left-liberal tradition, while the Labour party hosted left-liberal beliefs in terms of personnel and ideas. It discusses the success of the Liberal Summer School in the 1920s, and role of liberalism in buttressing democracy in the 1930s.
The Worker as Citizen
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the impact of the post-war period on British liberal thought. Two characteristics of liberal social thought emerged from the war: the decreased amount of time and energy devoted to concrete proposals, and an emphasis on the role and importance of the industrial sphere as a prime arena for maintaining social well-being. This shift in focus resulted in two central and interconnected themes of inter-war liberalism: the place of the worker in a modern industrial society, and the rediscovery of the importance of power in the body politic.
The Liberal Summer School: The First Decade
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses the Liberal Summer School movement, which was the linchpin of liberal and progressive thought during the 1920s. It witnessed the only serious attempt to revive liberalism as an intellectual force, supplied the Liberal party with a radical ideology that assumed salience and centrality in its programmes, and was a source of inspiration for political activists outside the Liberal party. However, it failed to supply liberalism with a much-needed integrating framework to mobilise a nation.
Liberalism, Socialism, and Labour
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: October 2003

Throughout the 1920s, liberalism operated on two levels — the ideological and organizational — making it appear to be engaged in a life and death struggle with the other main progressive force in Britain. This chapter explores the way liberals interpreted the dual relationship, and its effect on their self-image. Two problems are identified in the relationship between liberalism and socialism/Labourism: the identification of the party with ideology leading to an oversimplified version of events by which the progressive function of liberalism was taken over by the Labour party, and the unravelling of the influences of the Liberal and Labour movements.
Socialism With a Liberal Face
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the permeation of liberalism into Labour and socialist positions. It analyses the prevalence of liberal assumptions in the thought of two British socialists: H.J. Laski and R.H. Tawney. The New Statesman, particularly the contributions of G.D.H. Cole, provides insight into the emergence of liberal notions as central components of social ideas.
Does the Voter Follow his Pocket‐Book?
Authors: Lewin Leif
Published: October 2003

Political choices of voters are examined by discussing a large number of empirical studies. The aim is to test the pocketbook hypothesis that states that voters are following their economic rational self‐interest.

The author presents and discusses analysed cases of voters choices in the US, Western Europe, Canada, and Japan. He concludes that results of electoral research disapprove the pocketbook hypothesis.
Are Bureaucrats Budget‐Maximizers?
Authors: Lewin Leif
Published: October 2003

Even if bureaucrats carry out the wishes of the voters and the decisions of the politicians by performing various sorts of tasks, it is, according to the assumption of the public‐choice theory, their self‐interest that best accounts for their actions.

Critical analysis of budget‐maximizing hypothesis, formulated by the leading‐members of the public‐choice school such as Tullock, Dawns, and Niskanen, shows serious shortcomings of this model. Although Leif Lewin agrees that certain amount of contradiction exists in the empirical evidence on this issue, as ‘one came across bureaucrats, who out of self‐interest try to maximize the budget for their agencies’, he argues that budget‐maximization hypothesis explains too little about essential features of Western bureaucracy and other circumstances appear to be more important for its description.
Individual and Collective Rationality
Authors: Lewin Leif
Published: October 2003

The final chapter of the book draws conclusions and implications from the evidence presented in previous chapters that public interest seems to be of greater importance in democratic politics than self‐interest. Analysing collective rationality, the public‐choice theory maintains the notion that realization of collective choice often brings about ‘unfortunate and unintended consequences’, thus suggesting that more self‐regulatory, privately owned free‐market economy can solve many problems, providing individuals better opportunities to reach their goals. As an alternative, drawing on such classics of political philosophy as Rousseau, Kant, and Hume, as well as on insights of iterative games of ‘Prisoner Dilemma’, Leif Lewin describes concepts of welfare state, social contract, and common good. Upholding the belief that the man is a rational human being, who endeavours to realize his preferences, the author maintains that these preferences need not be egoistic in nature and calls political scientists not to deny the findings of their own empirical research. He concludes that for the most part the man tries to further the public interest in politics, assuming that in the long run such policies are also to his own benefit.
Market, State, and Community
Authors: Miller David
Published: October 2003

Offers a theoretical defence of market socialism, a third way between traditional capitalism and traditional socialism, which combines a market economy with social control of capital and employee control of workplaces. The first part offers a critique of the libertarian philosophy used to defend free‐market capitalism, focussing on the issues of freedom, justice, the neutrality of markets, and private charity as an alternative to the welfare state. The second part defends markets against socialist criticism. Here it is shown that consumers are generally the best judges of their own welfare, that people can deserve their market receipts, that exploitation is not an inherent feature of market transactions, and that alienation can be overcome provided the market is subject to political control. The third part develops a model of the socialist state, defending the ideas of national community as a basis of citizenship, of politics as a form of dialogue between citizens, of the integration of cultural minorities into an encompassing community, and of constitutional limits on majority rule. The book concludes by defending the political relevance of the system outlined in previous chapters.
The General Theory of Party Government
Authors: Budge Ian , Keman Hans
Published: October 2003

Deals with both the general assumptions and detailed predictions of the theory of party government proposed in the book. The general assumptions are that (1) in parliamentary democracies, the party of combination of parties that can win a legislative vote of confidence forms the government; (2) parties seek to form that government which is capable of surviving legislative votes of confidence and which will most effectively carry through their declared policy preferences under existing conditions; (3) the chief preference of all democratic parties is to counter threats to the democratic system; where no such threats exist, but sociality‐bourgeois differences are important, the preference of all parties is to carry through policies related to these differences; and where neither of the preceding conditions hold, parties pursue their own group‐related preferences; and (4) within parties, and subject to overall policy agreements and disciplinary and procedural constraints, factions seek to transform their own policy preferences into government policy most effectively.

From these can be deduced hierarchical rules for government formation (Table 2.3) and further hypotheses about when parties choose to support rather than enter governments; distribution of government ministries between parties in a coalition; policies pursued by governments; turnover of personnel; and durability and termination of governments.

These hypothesis constitute predictions that can be empirically tested against statistical evidence from 20 democracies between 1945–84. (An expended version of this is available in Jaap Woldendorp, Hans Keman, and Ian Budge, Party Government in 48 Democracies (1945–98, Dordrecht, Kluwer, 2000)).
Government Formation
Authors: Budge Ian , Keman Hans
Published: October 2003

Examines whether the hierarchical rules for government formation actually do describe the way parties form governments in the 20 post‐war democracies. An overall predictive success of 0.81 of all governments is achieved so it seems that they do.
The Distribution of Ministries
Authors: Budge Ian , Keman Hans
Published: October 2003

The policy goals sought by parties in the various ideological ‘families’ are specified and flow diagrams created of how relevant ministries should be distributed among parties in government under various coalition combinations. The comparative data is matched to these to see how far they work. An overall predictive success rate of 0.75 is obtained.
Party Influences on Government Policy
Authors: Budge Ian , Keman Hans
Published: October 2003

Party influences on policy are examined at two levels: (1) Participation of the party in the government as a whole and (2) control by the party of particular ministries in specific policy areas.

Policy is examined particularly as it takes a Left–Right direction. Party influence at both levels is found, supporting the conclusion that ‘parties makes a difference’.
Government Termination: Causes and Effects
Authors: Budge Ian , Keman Hans
Published: October 2003

The main finding is that the absence of policy agreement among parties in a government produces premature and involuntary dissolution. This offers further support to the general policy‐based approach to party government adopted here.
Europeanism and Regionalism
Authors: Keating Michael
Published: October 2003

European integration and regional assertion have been complementary processes. Both are connected to the transformation of the state. There is no common pattern and a Europe of the Regions is an unlikely prospect, but regions will remain an important part of the institutional architecture of the European Union and its Member States.
Belgian Federalism and the European Community
Authors: Hooghe Liesbet
Published: October 2003

Belgian constitutional reforms have gradually converted the state into a federation. Regions and language communities have extensive rights of representation in European matters.
German Länder and the European Community
Authors: Gerstenlauer Hans‐Georg
Published: October 2003

German federalism has been affected by European integration and the Länder have long demanded extended rights in European matters. They have achieved a considerable amount, using constitutional provisions and the mechanisms of cooperative federalism.
The Dutch Province as a European Region: National Impediments Versus European Opportunities
Authors: Hendriks Frank , Raadschelders Jos C. N. , Toonen Theo A. J.
Published: October 2003

There are no regional governments in the Netherlands, but the province can be seen in some ways as an equivalent. Europe has been a factor in the enhanced role of the province.
Regions Within a Region: The Paradox of the Republic of Ireland
Authors: Holmes Michael , Reese Nicholas
Published: October 2003

The Republic of Ireland counts for the purposes of EU regional policy as a single region. This has permitted the government to maintain a very centralized system, although there have been pressures to allow at least a form of adminstrative regionalization.
Introduction
Authors: Dahrendorf Ralf
Published: October 2003

The re‐emergence in the 1990s of a credibility gap between political leaders and the electorate is characterized by five features: there is a continuing erosion of the class basis of politics; the stabilizing effects of the Cold War have disappeared; civil society is turning against those who govern; localism is asserting itself; and political leaderships are confused. The change is more a phase in a recurring cycle than a long‐term trend.
‘Losing Touch’ In a Democracy: Demands versus Needs
Authors: Lane Robert E.
Published: October 2003

The delegate theory of representation emphasizes responsiveness to public demands, while the trustee theory stresses response to public needs. Delegate theory, based on evaluative individualism, assumes that each person should decide in a market‐based context. In practice, such reliance is often more disruptive and less humane than reliance on needs. Compared to political elites, mass publics are less interested in politics, less tolerant of conflicting opinions and disliked groups, more nationalistic, less able to weigh policy costs, and more unstable and inconsistent.
Freedom from the Press
Authors: Miller William , Timpson Annis‐May , Lessnoff Michael
Published: October 2003

The relationship between press freedom, individual liberty, and democracy is somewhat ambiguous. Bias, censorship, and sensational or intrusive reporting arouse special concern. A survey of broadly conceived elite opinion in Britain shows that they trust TV and radio more than the press; educated and political elites were more committed to press freedom than the general public in matters of government secrecy; the left are far less willing to ban publication of government secrets but more willing to ban publication in matters of sensational or intrusive reporting into private lives. Elites are more intolerant than the public only towards racial or religious incitement.
The European Union, the Political Class, and the People
Authors: Bogdanor Vernon
Published: October 2003

General goodwill and opinion poll enthusiasm for the European Union, which are decreasing, have not translated into support in referendums or high turnouts in European elections that are not transnational elections but national contests. The absence of a common European consciousness accords priority to the pursuit of national self‐interest. Despite its increasing role, the European Parliament, operating as a consensual legislature, cannot secure accountability of the European executives. The adoption of uniform electoral procedures to the European Parliament may contribute to public support for integration.
Political Parties and the Public Accountability of Leaders
Authors: Hine David
Published: October 2003

Electoral accountability of leaders through political parties to the people is essential to representative democracy. Parties have suffered from declines in membership and increasing electoral volatility. There has been an increase in corruption of the political class, in the problem of managing factional conflict, and a reduced policy‐making capacity. Cartel parties have developed, which derive their strength from political patronage and public subsidies through holding government office.
Mediating Between the Powerless and the Powerful
Authors: Pasquino Gianfranco
Published: October 2003

Because the powerless at least own their vote, their needs are more likely to be met by political parties than interest groups. Pluralist and neo‐corporatist theories do not provide satisfactory explanations of intermediation because they concentrate upon the satisfaction of only the organized interests of the relatively powerful. Single‐issue and public‐interest social movements offer an alternative channel for influence by the powerless within a democracy.
Public Demands and Economic Constraints: All Italians Now?
Authors: Bosanquet Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Public demands are pressed on governments directly by mass action, representatives or sectional interests, while economic constraints are exerted especially by public expenditure and taxation. Cross‐national comparisons are made of public support for government economic intervention and for public expenditure in a number of specific policy areas. The contrasting record of the UK, Germany, and the European Community is analysed. Public aspirations have exceeded the limits implied by economic constraints.
International Action against Racial Discrimination
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: October 2003

The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) was, in 1969, the first of the UN human rights treaties to come into force. Many of the 143 states that by 1995 had become parties to it did not initially appreciate how extensive were the obligations they had assumed. They undertook to submit periodic reports; these have to be examined by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD), which in turn reports to the UN General Assembly. During the years 1970–1995, CERD has greatly improved international oversight of governmental action in this field, but understanding of what is entailed in the prohibition of this form of discrimination is still limited. Further progress depends upon a triangular relationship between states parties, the treaty monitoring body, and members of the public within states parties.
Extending the Rule of Law
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: October 2003

The presentation of a periodic report from the government of Venezuela in 1989 is described. Committee members expressed their disagreement with the government's view of its reporting obligations. Comparisons are drawn with the Committee's consideration of some other reports.
Crimes Against Humanity
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: October 2003

Action after World War I led to the creation of the League of Nations. During World War II, a War Crimes Commission was set up, which led to the proceedings before the Nuremberg Tribunal. The Tribunal's judgement was a foundation for the development of international human rights law by the UN.
The United Nations
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: October 2003

UN bodies with responsibility for action against racial discrimination are described. During the period 1945–1995, the number of UN member states grew from 29 to 185. The work of the human rights treaty bodies is complemented by that of the special rapporteurs appointed by the Human Rights Commission. They trace their authority to the UN Charter binding upon all member states as opposed to the smaller numbers of states that have accepted treaty obligations.
Seizing the Initiative
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: October 2003

With the election of new members in 1988 and with changes in external circumstances, CERD was able to take positive steps to improve its working methods and to agree that it would issue ‘concluding observations’ expressing a collective view. It introduced procedures for reviewing the implementation of the Convention in states that had not submitted reports and for taking urgent action in emergencies. Its procedure for issuing opinions on communications (or petitions) from individuals came into effect. Figures are provided on the use of CERD's time.
Dialogue With European States
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: October 2003

More detailed consideration is given to CERD's jurisprudence on particular articles, such as the recommendation that Article 3 constitutes a general prohibition of racial segregation and not just of apartheid. The discussion of particular articles is related to the Committee's observations on particular reports. It concludes that the dialogue with European states has been productive because there is also pressure for action arising within these states.
Dialogue With American States
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: October 2003

There appears to have been more genuine idealism in the approach of American states than in other regions. CERD has questioned states in this region concerning the implications of the Convention for the protection of indigenous peoples. The USA's ratification of the Convention in 1994 was subject to reservations that are controversial in international law.
Dialogue With African States
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: October 2003

The collection of census data on the ethnic origin of the population poses political problems for many black African states. The discrimination that led towards genocide in Rwanda and Burundi was of particular concern from 1989. South Africa had not ratified the ICERD at the time of writing.
States Parties
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: October 2003

The adoption and implementation of the ICERD has been an attempt to expand the rule of law, constraining the sovereignty of individual states. Further action to develop the Convention's potential will require a greater commitment from states parties, individually and collectively, than they have hitherto shown. The UN system for the protection of human rights has been built up on the basis of decisions that were expedient at the time. States are reluctant to rationalize it because they do not wish to be subject to closer oversight.
Actors, Institutions, and Change
Authors: Morlino Leonardo
Published: October 2003

The theoretical framework of the entire research is given. A definition of democracy is discussed. All other key concepts of the research are defined. Legitimation and consensus, autonomy and control, manifest inefficacy, and negative reactions are the paired empirical processes at the core of the research and are discussed at a theoretical level. A typology of democracy is also proposed.
Beyond Consolidation
Authors: Morlino Leonardo
Published: October 2003

This chapter sums up the result of the previous part of the book and discusses the main patterns of consolidation with reference to the cases. The second part illustrates the democratic outcomes of consolidation patterns by focusing the attention on the party system. The problems inside each process of consolidation and the possibilities of change are also singled out.
Conclusions: A Theory of Anchoring?
Authors: Morlino Leonardo
Published: October 2003

A set of specific hypotheses sums up the main results of the research. The anchoring process is suggested to be the main explanation of consolidation and crisis. So a ‘theory of anchoring’ is the main result of the entire research. The possible follow‐up of research is envisaged, especially with reference to the ‘quality of democracy’.
Regulating ‘Village Life’ In Central Government
Authors: Hood Christopher , Scott Colin , James Oliver , Jones George , Travers Tony
Published: October 2003

Examines the practices of regulation over central government. It starts from the observation that control based on mutuality has traditionally been of central importance and assesses the extent to which recent initiatives have been introduced more by way of oversight, and control through competition and contrived randomness. The chapter concludes that though the Whitehall has not been so sharply affected by processes of re‐regulation as other sectors examined in the study, such as schools and prisons, nonetheless it has not been immune from such reforms.
Mirror Image or Double Whammy? Regulation and Local Government
Authors: Hood Christopher , Scott Colin , James Oliver , Jones George , Travers Tony
Published: October 2003

Examines changes in patterns of central regulation over local government. It suggests that local government has been subjected to a wide range of more intrusive and more formal controls over its activities without the kind of associated loosening of other controls witnessed in other domains. Increases in oversight have been accompanied by processes of juridification.
All Bark, No Bite? The Regulation of Prisons in England and Wales
Authors: Hood Christopher , Scott Colin , James Oliver , Jones George , Travers Tony
Published: October 2003

Examines regulation of prison standards by arms‐length oversight bodies, which generally had much stronger capacities for monitoring than enforcement. Prisons in England and Wales are subject to one of the densest patterns of oversight of any public sector activity. There has been a tendency to add new layers of regulation at various times without taking anything away, creating considerable overlap and duplication. Regulators who lacked formal powers were nevertheless observed to develop less formal mechanisms for seeking modification of behaviour.
From Secret Garden to Reign of Terror? the Regulation of State Schools in England
Authors: Hood Christopher , Scott Colin , James Oliver , Jones George , Travers Tony
Published: October 2003

Explores the complex institutional jungle of regulators involved in regulating state schools in England. In this sector, in contrast with the prisons sector, regulators were able to link their monitoring to sanctions as drastic as closing schools down. The study found no clear evidence of the benefits of the enhanced regulatory regime in terms of examination performance (the main performance indicator set by government for schools).
Regulating the Regulators: Policies for Reform
Authors: Hood Christopher , Scott Colin , James Oliver , Jones George , Travers Tony
Published: October 2003

Examines the overall pattern of different forms of control – oversight, mutuality, competition and contrived randomness – and suggests that each could be used more effectively to secure public objectives in regulation inside government. The regulators themselves appear not to apply the principles they apply in regulating to themselves. It is notable that there is little attempt to work out the costs to the public sector bodies of being regulated, and weak evidence of principles of competition and oversight, applied so assiduously to the regulatees, being applied to the regulators. The search for some consistency in approach offers a possible avenue for reform.
Equilibrium, Stability and Growth
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

This book brings together papers that were published by the author in several journals, and which have been revised and contain some new material. The main model carried through the whole book is Leontief's input–output system, which is dynamized from various points of view. Chapter 1 discusses formal similarities between the exchange equilibrium under weak gross substitutability and the static input–output system. Chapter 2 is concerned with the stability of the mixed Walras–Leontief system. Chapters 3 and 4 are companion chapters dealing with a mixture of the dynamic Leontief system and the Walrasian model of capital formation. Chapters 5 and 6 are devoted to an analysis of the von Neumann model of economic expansion, which may be considered as a variant of the dynamic Leontief system. Finally, an Appendix generalizes the classical theorems on non‐negative matrices to systems of non‐linear and homogeneous functions.
Comparative Static Analysis of the Simplest Input‐Output System
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses formal similarities between the exchange equilibrium under weak gross substitutability and the static input–output system as represented by various Leontief‐type models. By algebraic operations alone (no infinite processes being used), it is seen that the Hicksian laws of comparative statics and the Le Chatelier–Samuelson principle hold in both systems.
A Dynamic Leontief System With Neo‐Classical Production Functions
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

Chapters 3 and the following one are companion chapters dealing with a mixture of the dynamic Leontief system and the Walrasian model of capital formation. However, they assume different types of production functions: neoclassical production functions in Ch. 3 and discrete ’activities’ in Ch. 4. Various effects of technological improvements and correlations among prices, wages, and the interest rate are discussed, and it is seen that an efficient balanced growth path exists. A note to Ch. 3 establishes the existence of a solution to the Walrasian equations of capital formation and credit.
An Alternative Dynamic System With a Spectrum of Techniques
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

This chapter and the previous one are companion chapters dealing with a mixture of the dynamic Leontief system and the Walrasian model of capital formation. However, they assume different types of production functions––neoclassical production functions in Ch. 3, and discrete ’activities’ or processes in Ch. 4, and the model presented in Ch. 4 is more dynamic in character than that in Ch. 3. Various effects of technological improvements and correlations among prices, wages, and the interest rate are discussed, and it is seen that an efficient balanced growth path exists. Chapter 4, in particular, examines the stability of the balanced growth path as well as that of the long‐run equilibrium prices. The author is also concerned with the possibility of the golden age in the model––a multisectoral version of Robinson's problem.
Workability of Generalized Von Neumann Models of Balanced Growth
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

This chapter and the next are devoted to an analysis of the von Neumann model of economic expansion, which may be considered as a variant of the dynamic Leontief system. The original von Neumann model is a slave system, in which the object of production is mere enlargement at the subsistence level of wages. In Ch.5, the model is generalized so as to allow consumer choice. Two versions of this generalization are presented: the Marx–von Neumann and Walras–von Neumann models. Each is shown to have an efficient balanced growth solution.
Balanced Growth and Efficient Programme of Very‐Long‐Run Growth
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

This chapter and the previous one are devoted to an analysis of the von Neumann model of economic expansion, which may be considered as a variant of the dynamic Leontief system. The original von Neumann model is a slave system, in which the object of production is mere enlargement at the subsistence level of wages. In Ch. 6, the Turnpike Theorem, which asserts that there is a long‐run tendency for the optimum growth path of an economy to approximate to the von Neumann path of steady proportional growth, is proved for a von Neumann–Leontief model and for a von Neumann–Gale model.
Theory of Economic Growth
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

Discusses economic growth within the framework of the theory of equilibrium. Attempts on the one hand to resolve much of the controversy on growth that results from differences in assumptions made by various authors and, on the other hand, to make a contribution to the theory of dynamic economics. Practical problems are not discussed, and the economy dealt with is isolated from foreign countries and is provided with a knowledge of industrial arts that does not change throughout the time horizon concerned. Factors such as public spending, foreign trade, technical improvement, and monetary policies are, therefore, ignored, even though they are usually important in determining the actual rate of economic growth. In the first half of the book, decisions regarding investment are made by private enterprises either in the neoclassical or Keynesian manner, while in the second half the planning authorities are responsible for directing firms so that they invest society's savings in such a way that the economy will progress along a path of efficient or optimal growth. The book is divided into four parts that discuss prototype models of economic growth, models resulting from the von Neumann model, models after the ‘von Neumann revolution’, and further model developments. An appendix is included on the von Neumann equilibrium, which aims at a clearer comprehension of Chs. 6 and 7.
Possibility of Persistent Growth Equilibrium
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

Examines the possibility of persistent growth equilibrium. The first part of the chapter looks at price‐guided choice of techniques and factor‐price frontiers. The second digresses into the degree of mechanization problem. Remaining parts discuss the warranted rate of growth, the natural rate of growth, and an alternative approach to growth equilibrium due to Hicks. The final part presents a synthesis of the two methods for finding a growth equilibrium discussed in the chapter: the ‘Oxford’ method principally due to Roy Harrod, and the ‘Cambridge’ method, which is accepted by such Cambridge economists as Joan Robinson, N. Kaldor, P. Sraffa, R. F. Kahn, and L. L. Pasinetti.
A Neo‐Classical Passage to Growth Equilibrium
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

Investigates whether a series of the short‐run equilibria starting from an arbitrarily (or historically) given capital–labour endowment will eventually approach the state of the long‐run or ‘Silvery Equilibrium’. Taking a neoclassical approach to growth equilibrium, it is found that once a more general model of flexible population growth is used, the Silvery Equilibrium may be unstable even though the relative capital‐intensity condition is satisfied. Also, the stability depends not only upon the capital intensities of the two industries but also upon the relative steepness of the warranted‐rate‐of‐growth and the natural‐rate‐of‐growth curve and the flexibility of workers’ and capitalists’ consumption–savings decisions.
Harrodian Knife‐Edge in a Keynes‐Type ‘Fixprice’ Economy
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

Among the assumptions underlying the analysis of stability of growth equilibrium already made in the book, the following two have played the most important roles in deriving the conclusions: first, prices and the wage rate are perfectly flexible so that the price of any good or any factor of production will go down to zero if excess supply of it cannot be eliminated (the Rule of Free Goods); second, unless the price of the capital service is zero, the existing stock of capital is fully utilized and investment is made according to the Acceleration Principle. However, as soon as a progression is made from the Walras‐type ‘flexprice’ model (where quantities are fixed in the short run, and prices adjust faster than quantities) to a ‘fixprice’ model (where prices are fixed in the short run, and quantities adjust faster than prices), either full employment of labour or full utilization of capital is no longer automatically established. Also, in the absence of full utilization of capital, it is evident that investment decisions do not obey the Acceleration Principle. The first four sections of this chapter look at price flexibility and full employment, the possibility of a Keynesian short‐run equilibrium with unemployment, the induction of centrifugal forces around the Silvery Equilibrium by the Harrodian investment function, and the necessity of unemployment in a ‘fixprice’ economy. The last section looks at the possibility of avoiding this last Iron Rule: that in fixprice economies where the Rule of Competitive Pricing does not work, a state of full employment cannot be kept unless the warranted rate of growth is equated with the natural rate of growth.
Equilibrium Growth (I) Cassel–Von Neumann Ray
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

In the previous chapter, the state of balanced growth of all outputs with continued full employment of labour was described in terms of six sets of inequalities. Such a state of affairs has been called a Silvery Equilibrium, which is reduced to the familiar Golden Equilibrium in the particular case where no worker saves and no capitalist consumes at all. In this chapter, the existence is established of a balanced growth at the natural rate in one step but not two. The impossibility of perverse cases is demonstrated if various assumptions put forward in Ch. 6 are made. The new argument uses game theory as before. The different sections of the chapter look at the game‐theoretic approach, the preliminary production‐pricing game, the existence and uniqueness of the ‘fair’ wage rate, equivalence between the ‘game‐theoretic’ and ‘balanced growth’ solutions, groping for the equilibrium game, the equilibrium game and the Silvery Equilibrium, and characterization of the fair wage rate as the warranted and the greatest technically possible real wage rate.
Dynamic Utility Functions Proposed
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

Various dynamic utility functions are proposed for optimum economic growth. The different sections of the chapter discuss: maximization of satisfaction over time; whether dynamic utility should be cardinal; the postulated properties of dynamic preferences—separability, consistence, and stationariness; and the invariability of the internal structure of the dynamic utility function with respect to monotonic transformation of the index. All this discussion is based on the assumption that the marginal rate of substitution between any two contemporary goods is independent of consumption in any other period. Finally, an alternative proposal is made based on the fact that the marginal rate of substitution between any two contemporary goods is not independent of consumption in any other period.
Flexible Population and Avoidance of Malthusian Poverty
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

So far, this book has been concerned with an economy where the labour force increases at a given constant rate, independently of the real wage rate and other economic factors.. However, the rate of population growth has not been stationary in many countries, but has been influenced inter alia by the level of income per individual, the level of capital per individual (hospitals/rooms per individual, etc.), the level of specific economic activities (production of medicines, etc.), and so on. These influences are very complicated, and this last part of the book begins by taking into account the effect of the real wage rate on the growth rate of population. The different sections of the chapter discuss: a parable by Volterra on cyclical poverty that is applicable to a closed economy at the crudest stage; the existence of a growth equilibrium in a neo‐Malthusian economy; the application of the Eilenberg–Montgomery fixed‐point theorem; positivity of total production and the real wage rate; and positivity of the equilibrium rate of growth.
An Alternative Approach: Remodelling and Refinements
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

The argument developed in the previous chapter was based on the tacit assumption that the production of goods by means of goods and labour is independent of the feeding of labour, and was described in terms of the matrices of input and output coefficients and the vector of labour‐input coefficients, all of which were considered as technologically given constants. However, it is difficult to obtain precise figures of these coefficients, especially for the labour‐input coefficients, without knowing how and at what level people are fed; the productivity of labour depends not only on technology in the narrowest sense but also on the workers’ state of health, their living and working conditions, etc. Further, in a slave economy, with the wages fixed at a subsistence level, the productivity of labour was low, and it is this that led to its replacement by a more productive system—the capitalist economy. It is not surprising that outputs of goods might increase, even though the allocation of available goods among industries and families became unfavourable for the former; in fact, the positive indirect effect on outputs of a transfer of goods from industries to families causing an improvement in the welfare of the workers might be so strong as to overcome the negative direct effect on outputs of the decrease in industrial inputs. Thus, the production of goods and the feeding of men should be treated as an inseparable process, and this is the approach taken in this chapter, which discusses: the production of goods and ‘men’ by means of goods and ‘men’; the properties of aggregate production processes; conditions for the Silvery Equilibrium; modification of the rule of competitive pricing such that Keynesian involuntary unemployment is allowed for; the existence of ‘quasi‐equilibrium’ processes and prices; the upper semicontinuity of quasi‐equilibrium prices; the equilibration of quasi‐equilibrium; efficiency and optimality in an economy with a flexible labour force; instantaneous efficiency and Pareto optimality of the Silvery Equilibrium; the possibility of optimum cyclical growth of production of goods and men; and the intertemporal efficiency and Pareto optimality of the Golden Equilibrium.
Simultaneous Optimization of Population and Capital
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

The problem of optimum savings has been discussed by Ramsey on the assumption of a constant population and later by a number of economists on the more general assumption that the labour force expands at a constant exogenously fixed rate; different rates of population growth lead to different solutions; i.e. the path of optimum capital accumulation is relative to the population growth. In contrast, Meade and others have been concerned with the problem of optimum population, assuming among other things that at any given time the economy is provided with a given rate of savings as well as a given stock of capital equipment to be used; it follows that the path of optimum population is relative to capital accumulation. It is evident that these two partial optimization procedures should be synthesized so as to give a genuine supreme path, which is optimum with respect to both capital and population. This final chapter generalizes the Ramsey–Meade problem in that direction and shows that two kinds of long‐run paths—efficient and optimum paths—will under some conditions converge to the Golden Growth path when the time horizon of the paths becomes infinite; the two long‐run tendencies that are derived may be regarded as extensions of those discussed in the chapters entitled First and Second Turnpike Theorems. The different sections of the chapter discuss: the generalized Ramsey–Meade problem; the finding that the Golden Equilibrium rate of growth is greater than the Silvery Equilibrium rate; the Average Final State Turnpike Theorem; the strong superadditivity of processes—a sufficient condition for strong convergence; the tendency towards the ‘top facet’ as the general rule; cyclic phenomena; the Average Consumption Turnpike Theorem and its proof; and aversion to fluctuation in consumption.