bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dionysius’ Ear
Authors: Parker L. P. E.
Published: January 2010

The formulaic language of the early hexameter poets grew up over time designed to produce good hexameters, verses that sounded agreeable. A poet composing with these preformed blocks would be unlikely to strive after special effects. Yet the temptation to detect deliberate onomatopoeia in 598 is strong. Dionysius subjects the verse to close scrutiny in order to define how the rhythmic effect that he feels has been produced. He observes that there are no monosyllables and only two disyllables. No long vowel or diphthong is followed by more than one consonant, and pairs of consonants appear only where needed to ‘make position’ following a short vowel. In fact, to his way of thinking, all the syllables are as short as possible. Then, the words are nowhere ‘forced apart’ by (apparent) hiatus, or final semivowel meeting initial semivowel. But finally, and ‘most surprising of all’, all the ‘feet’, except the last, are dactylic. This chapter argues that unlike most ancient theorists, Dionysius shows himself genuinely interested in the sound of verse, but his surprise here does no credit to the sensitivity of his ear. Nearly one fifth of Homeric hexameters are holodactylic. Moreover, he failed to notice one really remarkable fact about the verse in question: all the bicipitia except one are split by word-end.
Critical Notes on the Greek Paroemiographers
Authors: Bühler Winfried
Published: January 2010

Greene prints γέλωτι, the reading of the two manuscripts of the scholia. But the ending is clearly corrupt, by a wrong adaptation to the following dative σπασμώ. Siebenkees (1798), 47 wrote γελώντες instead, and was followed by C. F. Hermann (1851-3), vi. 133. This is better, but still not right. This chapter argues that the correct reading is γελάν, written by Zen. Ath. 1.68 (cf. M. E. Miller (1868), 356), and also in Prov. Bodl. 833 (Gaisford (1836)).
Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors
Authors: Clapham Andrew
Published: January 2010

The threats to human rights posed by non-state actors are of increasing concern. Multinational corporations, armed oppositions groups, and the activities of international organizations such as the United Nations, NATO, and the European Union are increasingly examined with recourse to a human rights lens. This book presents an approach to human rights that goes beyond the traditional focus on states and outlines the human rights obligations of non-state actors and addresses some of the ways in which they can be held legally accountable in various jurisdictions. The political debate concerning the appropriateness of expanding human rights scrutiny to non-state actors is discussed and dissected. For some extending human rights into these spheres trivializes them and allows abusive governments to distract us from ongoing violations. For others such an extension is essential if human rights are properly to address the current concerns of women and workers. The main focus of the book, however, is on the legal obligations of non-state actors. The book discusses how developments in the fields of international responsibility and international criminal law have implications for building a framework for the human rights obligations of non-state actors in international law. In turn these international developments have drawn on the changing ways in which human rights are implemented in national law. A selection of national jurisdictions, including the United States, Canada, South Africa, and the United Kingdom is examined with regard to the application of human rights law to non-state actors.
Introduction
Authors: CLAPHAM ANDREW
Published: January 2010

The book begins with a discussion of the phenomena, such as globalization, privatization, fragmentation, and feminization, that are forcing us to think again about how we view human rights and why it makes sense to extend the obligations to non-state actors.
The United Nations
Authors: CLAPHAM ANDREW
Published: January 2010

This chapter looks at the obligations on the UN in the context of peace-keeping, the world bank, and the IMF. The conclusion is that the UN has human rights obligations in all these contexts and that these obligations can be derived from customary international law and the practice of the UN itself.
Regional Human Rights Bodies
Authors: CLAPHAM ANDREW
Published: January 2010

This chapter covers the case-law of the regional human rights systems. Key topics include killings by non-state actors, slavery and forced labour, privacy, and freedom of expression and assembly.
Complexity, Complicity, and Complementarity
Authors: CLAPHAM ANDREW
Published: January 2010

Understanding this topic means understanding that non-state actors and governments may both have obligations with regard to the same human rights abuses. This leads to a situation which is complex. Non-state actors are typically accused of facilitating violations of human rights law by governments. They emerge as accomplices with international obligations and are thus accused of complicity. The obligations apply simultaneously but we can only focus on one legal order at a time. The aim is to demonstrate that it may make more sense to see these variegated simultaneous obligations through the concept of complementarity.
Blood and Violence in Early Modern France
Authors: Carroll Stuart
Published: January 2010

The rise of civilised conduct and behaviour has long been considered as one of the major factors in the transformation from medieval to modern society. Thinkers and historians alike argue that violence progressively declined as men learned to control their emotions. The feud is a phenomenon associated with backward societies, and in the West duelling codified behaviour and channelled aggression into ritualised combats that satisfied honour without the shedding of blood. French manners and codes of civility laid the foundations of civilised Western values. But as this original work of archival research shows, we continue to romanticise violence in the era of the swashbuckling swordsman. In France, thousands of men died in duels in which the rules of the game were regularly flouted. Many duels were in fact mini-battles and must be seen not as a replacement of the blood feud, but as a continuation of vengeance in a much bloodier form. This book outlines the nature of feuding in France and its intensification in the wake of the Protestant Reformation, civil war, and dynastic weakness, and considers the solutions proposed by thinkers from Michel de Montaigne to Thomas Hobbes. The creation of the largest standing army in Europe since the Romans was one such solution, but the militarisation of society, a model adopted throughout Europe, reveals the darker side of the civilising process.
Combat
Authors: Carroll Stuart
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the realities of Renaissance combat in France. Sword fighting during the Renaissance was predominantly offensive — it taught how to kill as rapidly and as efficiently as possible. The key to self-defence was to seize the initiative; relentless thrusting and cutting blows prevented the possibility of a counter-attack. The best form of defence is attack — strike first and ask questions later. Without armour combats were likely to be short, and speed and surprise were essential to survival. This is significant because accused under interrogation and supplicants for letters of pardon invariably painted killing as an involuntary act of self-defence. In order to understand the economy of violence, the terminology must be clear to distinguish between battles, encounters, and duels. Paying close attention to the terminology also permits us to study the pace of change in combat techniques and modes of killing.
Substantive Constitutional Accommodation: Autonomy, Representation and Recognition
Authors: TIERNEY STEPHEN
Published: January 2010

This chapter addresses the substantive constitutional status of Catalonia, Quebec, and Scotland. It focuses on the ways in which, in all three states, informal constitutional practices and processes supplement traditional renditions of the law of the constitution in helping to shape relations between sub-state national societies and their respective host states. It shows how the informal workings of the constitution can foster the constitutional co-existence of different demoi within the state, particularly in situations where political actors at the sub-state level see no prospect of improved constitutional accommodation through formal constitutional amendment.
Future Prospects for the Plurinational State
Authors: TIERNEY STEPHEN
Published: January 2010

The flourishing of the plurinational states appears to be important in less instrumental terms to those citizens who feel a deep bond with the larger project. The alternative — separation — is one which brings losses that stretch beyond economic and strategic considerations. The extent of contemporary constitutional and political disjuncture within plurinational states means that the task of making them work is not easy. This book has identified three areas where general improvements in both the theory and practice of liberal constitutionalism seem necessary to improve the health of the plurinational states. This chapter addresses these three issues.
Introduction
Authors: SHEPARD ALEXANDRA
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter begins with a brief survey of the potential contribution the history of masculinity can make to gender history, referring to ways in which it has grown out of but also conflicts with women's history. An analysis of the relationship between manhood – both as conceived and practiced – and patriarchal norms, is identified as the key focus for this study. A discussion of the principal primary sources serves first to map out the book's structure in two parts (the first focusing on representations of manhood and the second exploring social practice) and secondly to justify the use of a case study of the town of Cambridge, fully contextualised with reference to a wide range of other materials.
The European Union: Discursive Bifurcation Revisited
Authors: Lasser Mitchel de S.-O.-l’E.
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes the European Court of Justice (ECJ), the highest court in the judicial system of the European Union. On the one hand, the ECJ generates official judicial decisions that consist of relatively short, deductive and magisterial judgments that are highly reminiscent of their French counterparts. On the other hand, the ECJ's judicial magistrates — and in particular its Advocates General — also routinely deploy a purposive or ‘teleological’ form of interpretation that stresses the more socially oriented goals of judicial interpretation. In short, the ECJ demonstrates a bifurcated form of judicial discourse that reproduces in large measure the French judicial system's own discursive bifurcation. What characterises and distinguishes ECJ argumentation is the public bifurcation of the Court's discourse. The ECJ publishes multiple judicial and quasi-judicial documents, including the official decision, the Opinion of the Advocate General, and (at least until recently) the Report of the Reporting Judge. This publication practice profoundly affects the discourses deployed by the ECJ and its interlocutors, leading to a particular and distinctive form of embattled judicial reasoning and argumentation.
The ECJ: The French Bifurcation Reworked
Authors: Lasser Mitchel de S.-O.-l’E.
Published: January 2010

Like the Cour de cassation of France, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) maintains two different judicial discourses, that of its judicial decisions, and that of its Advocates General (AGs). However, the ECJ puts an important twist on its French predecessor: it publishes both discourses in every decided case. The ECJ's simultaneous publication practice obviously produces a serious effect on the types of judicial arguments and reasoning that are deployed in each sphere. Both discourses are public discourses; the disjunction between the two is therefore available for all to see. Perhaps as a result, the ECJ approach softens the bifurcation to a significant extent: neither discourse takes as pure a form as does its French counterpart. Although still highly magisterial and deductive, the collegial ECJ decision does not rival the oracular syllogisms of the Cour de cassation's judicial decision. Although the ECJ's Reporting Judges and AGs adopt explicitly purposive and teleological interpretive approaches, they do not tend to deploy the kind of free-wheeling judicial argumentation oriented towards equiy and substantive justice that characterises so much of the hidden French judicial discursive sphere.
On Judicial Transparency, Control, and Accountability
Authors: Lasser Mitchel de S.-O.-l’E.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses some of the difficult, but fascinating, rule of law/democratic theory issues raised by the judicial approaches employed by the Cour de cassation of France, the Supreme Court of the United States, and the European Court of Justice. It examines what it means for legal and judicial systems to function in such bifurcated or integrated ways. More specifically, it explores the implications for such interrelated issues as judicial transparency, accountability and control, and democratic debate and deliberation. As an introduction to the complex topic of how the French, American, and EU judicial systems each deal with the formation and transfer of interpretive knowledge and authority, this chapter considers how each of the three judicial systems handles the deeply pragmatic issue of how to make publicly accessible certain forms of knowledge about what Americans call ‘the state of the law’ (that is, knowledge about the content, development, and motivation of existing legal and judicial norms).
Introduction
Authors: Brenkert George G. , Beauchamp Tom L.
Published: January 2010

This introductory article explains the coverage of this book, which is about business ethics. It discusses the differences in the understanding of business from a philosophical and from a business orientation. This volume is divided into nine parts ranging from basic philosophical issues to the moral culture of business organizations. The topics covered include the nature of ethical theory and the methods used in the work of business ethics, corporate responsibility, economic justice, and the relativity of moral judgments.
The Methods of Business Ethics
Authors: Green Ronald M. , Donovan Aine
Published: January 2010

This article examines how the mission of business ethics has fostered several methodological approaches, which were chiefly drawn from philosophical analysis and descriptive methodologies. It discusses the focus on individual managerial decision making and the tension between methods within business ethics education. It evaluates the work of leading business ethics scholars and suggests that this field is both limited and intellectually ambitious.
Moral Issues in Globalization
Authors: Gould Carol C.
Published: January 2010

This article considers the key normative issues raised by globalization and describes the implications of these issues for business ethics and public policy. It considers various philosophical approaches to global justice and identifies the consequences of globalization, which include global poverty and outsourcing. It analyzes three additional values posed by globalization: the need for improved transparency and accountability of multilateral institutions, the emphasis on labor standards and the idea of sustainability and environmental justice.
Employment at Will and Employee Rights
Authors: McCall John J. , Werhane Patricia H.
Published: January 2010

This article looks at employment relation in the U.S. and Western Europe. The predominant mode of employment in the U.S. is a common law doctrine of Employment at Will and under this model employees must rely upon bargaining under conditions of competitive market exchange in order to secure many of their employment related rights. In contrast, European views of this relationship emphasize a partnership between employer and employee. This article evaluates whether there are moral reasons to prefer one view or the other.
Working Conditions: Safety and Sweatshops
Authors: Arnold Denis G.
Published: January 2010

This article examines issues concerning working conditions and worker safety in the so-called sweatshops. It discusses the extent of employers' obligations to protect workers from workplace hazards and evaluates whether they may be mitigated by other obligations or interests. Two general duties concerning safety play a key role in this analysis: the obligation to inform workers in advance regarding workplace hazards and the obligation to ensure minimum health and safety conditions. It rejects various defences of sweatshops and defends the view a respectful treatment of workers requires that they be paid a weekly wage consistent with human dignity.
Educating the Practical Imagination
Authors: Rorty Amélie
Published: January 2010

This article argues for the educational importance of imagination and sketches strategies for developing it in the classroom. It explains that imagination is a necessary ingredient in the operation of practical reasoning and that considerations that limit or constrain and direct it are in the nature of the case integrated with other functions of practical reasoning, with critical rationality and with constraints of relevant reasonableness. The article describes potential practical applications of imagination in education.
Constructivisms, Scientific Methods, and Reflective Judgment in Science Education
Authors: Grandy Richard E.
Published: January 2010

This article addresses questions concerning science education, focusing on contemporary cognitive scientific investigations of teaching and learning in the science classroom. It distinguishes several kinds of views labelled constructivist and argues for the relevance of cognitive and epistemic constructivism to science education and irrelevance of ontological constructivism. It contends that proper understandings of what is involved in the knowledge of science and scientific method involves mutually informing between parties and portraying a much more complex cognitive and social landscape than that which is usually recognized.
Religion and Political Socialization
Authors: Pearson‐Merkowitz Shanna , Gimpel James G.
Published: January 2010

This article argues that there is a poor understanding of the process by which citizens acquire political knowledge, political attitudes, and expectations concerning political activity. The article first reviews the history of political socialization as a field of study, and then describes the role that different agents have played in the socialization process. It discusses religious socialization and religion as an influence on both youth and adult political socialization. The article also provides a review of related literature that addresses how the church can serve as a socializing and mobilizing venue for politically quiescent religious groups.
Religion and American Public Opinion
Authors: Wilson J. Matthew
Published: January 2010

This article discusses the interaction of the religious faith of the Americans and their economic policy attitudes. It provides a historical perspective of American Protestantism and the economy, followed by a discussion of the contemporary evangelical and mainline attitudes toward economic policy. It discusses American Catholicism and economic liberalism, and studies the attitudes of economic policy among minority religious traditions. The article ends with several suggestions for future research agendas.
Religious Interest Groups in American Politics
Authors: Hertzke Allen D.
Published: January 2010

This article examines the various religious interest groups in American politics. These interest groups actually occupy an important position within the American political process: they serve as a form of “intermediary”—agents existing between the elected officials and the mass public. The article studies the institutional growth of national religious interest groups, looks at the rise of the New Religious Right, and inspects the different organizational dynamics of these groups. This article suggests that the collective activities of religious interest groups—including local community organizing and lobbying state governments—contribute to a more authentic neopluralism than what is seen in a general interest group scholarship.
Religion and Judicial Politics
Authors: Wahlbeck Paul J.
Published: January 2010

This article provides an overview of the existing political science literature. The literature is used as a background for formulating answers to several questions. It reviews the empirical and theoretical research on matters of judicial selection, interest group activity in litigation, decision making, and the implementation of judicial decisions. This is followed by a section on the literature that has studied the role of a judge's religious affiliations and cases regarding the Constitution's religious clauses.
Institutionalism
Authors: Peters B. Guy
Published: January 2010

This article explores the role of institutional theory, and institutional analysis more broadly, in British political science. Institutional analysis presents some interesting paradoxes about examining and realizing British politics, and this article develops several of these and investigates their implications. It first considers the institutionalism as the root of British political analysis. Institutionalism helps explain how even individuals with strong political views appear to adapt those views to conform to institutional contexts. British political science may need to incorporate more dynamic elements into the study of institutions. The strong institutionalist strand in British political science may actually facilitate that integration. The use of institutional analysis shows some interesting paradoxes about the practice of governing in the United Kingdom, and also illuminates the theories that bring forth the paradoxes.
Political Journalism
Authors: Riddell Peter
Published: January 2010

This article deals with the transition over a century from when the printed press enjoyed a monopoly, via the slow growth to the dominance of radio, and then television, to a world of almost infinite diversity with not only multiple television channels, but also the Internet, blogging, and text messages. For most of the period, really until the last decade of the twentieth century, political journalism was dominated by a relatively few newspaper and broadcasting outlets which concentrated mainly on Westminster. Television and radio have become much more important as a source of political news and in shaping public views than the written press since the 1960s. The rise of television changed the way in which political journalism worked. The Internet can, and should, supplement conventional newspaper and broadcast journalism.
Regulation
Authors: Moran Michael
Published: January 2010

This article concentrates on the crisis in the historical system: the extent to which it has been replaced by arrangements based more on the command of law; and the limits that are being experienced by this command system. It also demonstrates at the end that the turn to command is in key respects both unexpected and dysfunctional; it arises from the unavailing struggle of social actors to cope with crisis. A key implication of the article is that agency has mattered less in these developments than accident, unanticipated consequences, and fate. It then presents changes in the British system of self-regulation by focusing on three key cases: financial regulation; the regulation of the school system; and the regulation of medicine. The command revolution has been attempted in circumstances where there are powerful functional pressures, and powerful economic interests, pressing for a different regulatory style.
Ethnicity and Religion
Authors: Modood Tariq
Published: January 2010

One of the principal ways of seeing the emergence and development of ethno-religious equality is in terms of a grievance of exclusion from the existing equality framework and its utilization in order to extend it to address the felt exclusion and to develop and seek public recognition for a minority subjectivity ignored by liberal legislators. An important problem for political blackness came from an internal ambivalence, namely whether blackness as a political identity was sufficiently distinct from, and could mobilize without, blackness as an ethnic pride movement of people of African descent. The issues of ethnicity and Muslim honour are presented. It also considers the expanding of racial equality to include religious equality. It is shown that Labour's attentiveness to Muslim agenda precedes the war or even 9/11. It is true that many Muslim activists have walked away from the Labour Party and many more others feel betrayed by the Iraq War and feel victimized by the anti-terrorism measures.
The Security State
Authors: Aldrich Richard J.
Published: January 2010

This article explores developments in the UK security state, concentrating on the intelligence and security services, together with the Whitehall machinery that connects these agencies with the core executive. It also addresses related aspects of security policing or ‘high policing’. In addition, major developments that have taken place since the end of the cold war against the background of Euro-peanization, globalization, and the so-called ‘Global War on Terror’ are described. The discussion considers some of the more important legislative changes that have introduced mechanisms for oversight and a remarkable new culture of regulation. Europe is still driving the new culture of regulation that overtook the security state in the 1990s. The formidable growth of the UK security state might be unprecedented in national terms, but viewed through a comparative lens it is hardly unique.
Political Marketing
Authors: Savigny Heather
Published: January 2010

This article reports the growth and use of political marketing, in literature and practice, in its broader communications context. It also presents an historical overview of the trajectory of political marketing, as both political practice and a disciplinary subfield. Attention is then turned to the specific models and concepts, derived from business, which underpin and inform this development, and shows how these have been used to both describe and prescribe practice. Moreover, it places political marketing in its broader context and investigates its structural basis. Throughout, the underlying assumptions are teased out, and key areas of contention and debate are also highlighted. Some argue that, in practice, the UK is simply following trends in the USA, both in the use of marketing and also as marketing has become entwined with a permanent campaign approach to government, which could be seen to reinforce the Americanization thesis.
Europeanization
Authors: Featherstone Kevin
Published: January 2010

This article outlines recent scholarship on the influences of Europeanization on British politics to evaluate what has been learned to date. The discussion provides a brief survey of research straddling policy, political actors, and institutions. The article also argues that, though Britain generally does indeed represent a distinctive case, the evidence of recent literature signals that Europeanization has had a far more complex and varied character than popular images might suggest, and that there has been change over time. Europeanization is the study of the interrelationship between the domestic and the European Union (EU) system. The agenda for Europeanization research in the UK is broad and, whilst scholarship to date has dwelt on particular cases, it has done so to varying degrees of empirical depth. There remain major gaps and limitations.
National Economic Policy
Authors: Thompson Helen
Published: January 2010

While the British economy was indeed more internationalized than those in other European states, the emphasis some scholars have placed on the Conservative governments' active encouragement of that openness has risked missing some important political nuances from the 1980s and the first half of the 1990s. New Labour assumed power without having to confront an immediate economic crisis. Its economic success was premised on acceptance of the constraints of an open international economy. The political success of New Labour in economic policy is elaborated here. The New Labour government escaped any consequences for sterling of the burgeoning current account deficit for reasons that would seem to have more to do with the dollar's weakness than any permanent indifference of investors in the present international economy to current account weakness. While relative economic decline appared to be over, significant features of the exceptionalism that was frequently held responsible for it remained.
The Ancient Greeks
Authors: Broadie Sarah
Published: January 2010

There are various motives for refining the notion of cause. Aristotle's was an interest in providing the most informative and illuminating method of explaining the central natural phenomena of his universe. A different sort of motive is created by problems of free will and responsibility, of which readers may have been reminded by the reference to indeterminism. The thought that our free and responsible behaviour is caused by factors over which we have no control has often seemed impossible to accept and impossible to reject. The challenge then is to refine the notion of cause either so that the thought becomes more acceptable or so that it becomes more rejectable.
Agency and Interventionist Theories
Authors: Woodward James F.
Published: January 2010

Agency and interventionist theories of causation take as their point of departure a common-sense idea about the connection between causation and manipulation: causal relationships are relationships that are potentially exploitable for purposes of manipulation and control. Very roughly, if C causes E then if C were to be manipulated in the right way, there would be an associated change in E. Conversely, if there would be a change in E, were the right sort of manipulation of C to occur, then C causes E. Accounts of causation in this vein have been defended by Collingwood, Gasking, and others. Similar ideas are defended by many social scientists and by some statisticians and theorists of experimental design.
Anti‐Reductionism
Authors: Carroll John W.
Published: January 2010

Anti-reductionism is the view that causation cannot be analysed non-nomically and, further, that causation still resists analysis even when the non-causal, nomic concepts are made available. In other words, the anti-reductionist maintains that there can be no non-causal analysis of causation. Indeed, some anti-reductionists hold that causation does not supervene on the non-causal facts. This article is an overview and defence of anti-reductionism. It locates anti-reductionism relative to some possible companion doctrines and recounts the development of anti-reductionism.
Mechanisms
Authors: Glennan Stuart
Published: January 2010

This article explores three issues surrounding the adequacy of the mechanical approach to causation. First, it considers whether the appeal to laws or invariant generalizations in characterizing interactions between parts of mechanisms either makes the mechanical theory circular or reduces it to a regularity, counterfactual, or manipulability theory. Second, the article discusses Machamer, Darden, and Craver's argument that the proper understanding of the causal productivity of mechanisms requires the recognition of the novel metaphysical category of activities. Third, it discusses the relationship between mechanical theories and process theories.
Causal Pluralism
Authors: Godfrey‐Smith Peter
Published: January 2010

Causal pluralism is the view that causation is not a single kind of relation or connection between things in the world. Instead, the apparently simple and univocal term ‘cause’ is seen as masking an underlying diversity. Assessing such a claim requires making sense of a difficult counting operation. How do we tell whether a theory of causation is identifying causation with a ‘single’ kind of connection? In practice, there tends not to be much disagreement about how to do the counting, because most philosophical work on causation has sought a view with an obvious kind of unity. The literature often works with a standard range of candidate connections that seem to have an important link to the idea of causation.
Causation and Observation
Authors: Beebee Helen
Published: January 2010

This article briefly discusses Hume's original argument concerning the absence of a sensory impression of causation. Hume's argument is important not just because of its historical significance in the debate about the observability of causation, but because it raises issues that arise within that debate in a particularly pure form. The article considers several ways in which psychologists and philosophers have attempted to characterize the sense in which causation might be ‘observable’, and the implications for the viability of a regularity account of causation. It considers whether causation can be experienced in non-visual cases, specifically the experience of touch and the experience of agency. It also considers briefly whether the observability of causation makes trouble for broadly Humean, non-regularity accounts of causation, namely counterfactual, projectivist, and agency theories of causation.
Mental Causation
Authors: Maslen Cei , Horgan Terence , Daly Helen
Published: January 2010

Mental causation is held so dear because it seems essential in order for people to do anything (at least voluntarily). If one accepts Davidson's view that motivating reasons are causes, then (as Kim puts it) ‘agency is possible only if mental causation is possible’. Many kinds of mental items are supposed to be causes: beliefs, desires, sensations, emotions, the contents of beliefs and desires, and the phenomenal mental properties of sensations and beliefs (i.e. those properties such that there is ‘something it is like’ to experience them, if sensations and beliefs have such properties). Not only are mental states supposed to be causes (and effects), but so also are mental properties.
Causation and Reduction
Authors: Humphreys Paul
Published: January 2010

When considering the relations between causation and reduction one must distinguish between, on the one hand, issues about how causation operates within and between systems that stand in various reductive relations to one another; and on the other hand, issues concerning whether causation itself is amenable to a reductive treatment. These two issues are intertwined and each must be treated with sympathy for the other. There are two basic types of reduction. Ontological reduction concerns reductive relations between the objects themselves whereas linguistic or conceptual reduction deals with reductive relations between our representations of those objects. For the great majority of the last century, both causation and reduction were treated linguistically or conceptually, but in recent years there has been a significant shift towards directly ontological treatments of each.
Causation in Classical Mechanics
Authors: Lange Marc
Published: January 2010

Russell might be interpreted as arguing that physics reveals there to be no causal relations since physics has no need to posit them (just as Laplace said to Napoleon that physics has no need to posit God). Of course, whether physics needs to posit causal relations depends upon what physics needs to do. Russell appears to presume that a physical theory needs merely to predict certain quantities from others. For that purpose, the bare equations suffice. However, it is doubtful that the bare equations are enough to fund scientific explanations. The force on a body and the body's mass apparently explain why the body undergoes a given acceleration, whereas the force and acceleration do not explain why the body possesses a certain mass.
Causation in Statistical Mechanics
Authors: Sklar Lawrence
Published: January 2010

In statistical mechanics causation appears at the micro-level as the postulation that the full state of a system at one time can be specified by the dynamical state of all its micro-constituents (the positions and momenta of the molecules in a gas or, alternatively the wave function of these at one time), and that this state at one time generates, following the laws of dynamics (classical or quantum) the future dynamical state of the system characterized in these micro-constituent terms. So what is ‘non-causal’ in nature in explanations in statistical mechanics? This article explores two issues: The peculiar ‘transcendental’ nature of explanation in equilibrium theory in statistical mechanics; The need for introducing some a priori probability posit over initial conditions of systems in non-equilibrium theory.
Causation in the Law
Authors: Stapleton Jane
Published: January 2010

Previous accounts of ‘causation’ in the law are flawed by their failure to appreciate that causal language is used to express different information about the world. Because causal terms have been used to communicate answers to different questions, any philosophical search for a free-standing account of causation is doomed. Lawyers require precision of terminology, so they should explicitly choose just one interrogation to underlie causal usage in law. It is argued that this interrogation should be chosen to serve the wide projects of the law. In these projects the law is interested to identify when a specified factor was ‘involved’ in the existence of a particular phenomenon, where the notion of ‘involvement’ identifies a contrast between the actual world and some specified hypothetical world from which we exclude (at least) that specified factor: this contrast being that, while in the former world the phenomenon exists, in the latter it does not. (Such contrasts of necessity can be generated in three ways, all of importance to the law.)
Solution structure of a zinc‐finger domain that binds to poly‐ADP‐ribose
Authors: Isogai Shin , Kanno Shin‐Ichiro , Ariyoshi Mariko , Tochio Hidehito , Ito Yutaka , Yasui Akira , Shirakawa Masahiro
Published: January 2010

Poly‐ADP‐ribosylation is a unique post‐translational modification that controls various nuclear events such as repair of DNA single‐strand breaks. Recently, the protein containing the poly‐ADP‐ribose (pADPr)‐binding zinc‐finger (PBZ) domain was shown to be a novel AP endonuclease and involved in a cell cycle checkpoint. Here, we determined the three‐dimensional structure of the PBZ domain from Drosophila melanogaster CG1218‐PA using NMR spectroscopy. The domain folds into a C2H2‐type zinc‐finger structure in an S configuration, containing a characteristic loop between the zinc‐coordinating cysteine and histidine residues. This is distinct from the structure of other C2H2‐type zinc fingers. NMR signal changes that occur when pADPr binds to the PBZ domains from CG1218‐PA and human checkpoint with FHA (forkhead‐associated) and ring finger (CHFR) and mutagenesis suggest that a surface relatively well conserved among PBZ domains may serve as a major interface with pADPr.
Experimental demonstration of population extinction due to a predator‐driven Allee effect
Authors: Kramer Andrew M. , Drake John M.
Published: January 2010

1.Allee effects may result in negative growth rates at low population density, with important implications for conservation and management of exploited populations. Theory predicts prey populations will exhibit Allee effects when their predator exhibits a Type II functional response, but empirical evidence linking this positively density‐dependent variation in predator‐induced individual mortality to population growth rate and probability of extinction is lacking.

2.Here, we report a demonstration of extinction due to predator‐driven Allee effects in an experimentalDaphnia‐Chaoborussystem. A component Allee effect caused by higher predation rates at lowDaphniadensity led to positive density dependence in per capita growth rate and accelerated extinction rate at low density.

3.A stochastic model of the process revealed how the critical density below which population growth is negative depends on the mechanistic details of the predator–prey interaction.

4.The ubiquity of predator–prey interactions and saturating functional responses suggests predator‐driven Allee effects are potentially important in determining extinction risk of a large number of species.
Electron microscopy investigations of the microstructure of a CrRe alloy
Authors: FORTUNA‐ZALESNA E. , ZIELINSKI W. , KURZYDLOWSKI K.J.
Published: January 2010

Transmission and scanning electron microscopic investigations were carried out to characterize Cr‐35Re alloy. A continuous film of precipitates at the grain boundaries and precipitates inside the grains were observed. Identification of the phases was based on the analysis of the chemical composition and the diffraction patterns. It has been found that the matrix is a solid solution of Re in Cr and sigma phase CrRe2 was one of the phases present at the grain boundaries. In the majority of the precipitates chromium, rhenium and nitrogen were detected, which indicates the existence of a ternary compound.
Testicular Neoplasms (Interstitial and Sertoli Cell Tumours) in a Domestic Ferret (Mustela putorius furo)
Authors: Batista‐Arteaga M , Suárez‐Bonnet A , Santana M , Niño T , Reyes R , Alamo D
Published: January 2010

Contents

Unilateral testicular enlargement was detected in a 5‐years‐old domestic ferret during a routine sterilization. The right testicle showed two different types of proliferative lesions: (i) round nodules, well demarcated, showing a soft yellow tissue; (ii) white nodules, firm, with irregular‐shaped invaginations. Microscopically, the neoplastic proliferations were identified as an interstitial neoplasm and Sertoli cell tumour, respectively. The left testicle was small and showed intense testicular atrophy. Clinical evaluation of the ferret did not show any other apparent pathological processes. This study is the first case reporting the concomitant occurrence of a Sertoli cells tumour and an interstitial cell tumour in a domestic ferret.
Exploratory study examining barriers to participation in colorectal cancer screening
Authors: Paddison Johanna S. , Yip Marcus J.
Published: January 2010

Objective:  To examine the Stage of Change distribution for bowel cancer screening in a regional Australian community and the factors associated with varying positions on the continuum of change.

Design:  Survey of a convenience sample.

Setting:  Community sample.

Participants:  A total of 59 (31 male, mean age = 59) service club members from a South Australian regional community.

Main outcome measure:  Self‐reported Stage of Change for bowel cancer screening behaviour.

Results:  Attributing greater embarrassment and discomfort to bowel cancer screening was associated with earlier positions on the Stages of Change. Perceiving that bowel cancer screening might have positive value for personal health was associated with more advanced positions on the continuum of change. Those who perceived breast and prostate screening procedures to be embarrassing or to cause discomfort were significantly less likely to be participating in bowel cancer screening. No significant relationships were found between bowel cancer screening Stage of Change and worry about vulnerability; personal, family or wider social network case reports of bowel cancer; and the population‐level value attributed to the cancer screening procedures.

Conclusion:  Bowel cancer screening participation rates are currently lower than those associated with breast and prostate screening. Reducing perceptions of embarrassment and discomfort, increasing awareness of potential health benefits and maximising participation in other screening procedures might increase participation in bowel cancer screening.
Distress among rural residents: Does employment and occupation make a difference?
Authors: Fragar Lyn , Stain Helen J. , Perkins David , Kelly Brian , Fuller Jeffrey , Coleman Clare , Lewin Terry J. , Wilson Jacqueline M.
Published: January 2010

Objective:  This study investigates the relationship between levels of mental health and well‐being (in terms of self‐reported levels of distress) with employment and occupational status of rural residents, to better inform the provision of mental health services to those in greatest need in rural communities.

Method:  A stratified random sample of community residents in rural and remote New South Wales with over‐sampling of remote areas as first stage of a cohort study. Psychological distress was measured using Kessler‐10, inclusive of additional items addressing functional impairment (days out of role). Occupational data were classified using Australian and New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations categories.

Results:  A total of 2639 adults participated in this baseline phase. Among them, 57% were in paid employment, 30% had retired from the workforce, 6% were permanently unable to work and 2% were unemployed. The highest levels of distress and functional impairment were reported in those permanently unable to work and the unemployed group with rates of ‘caseness’ (likely mental health disorder) varying from 57% to 69%, compared with 34% of farmers and farm managers and 29% of health workers (P < 0.01).

Conclusion:  The rural unemployed suffer considerable psychological distress and ‘disability’, yet they are not the target of specific mental health promotion and prevention programs, which are often occasioned by rural adversity, such as drought, and delivered through work‐based pathways. Policy‐makers and health service providers need to consider the needs of the rural unemployed and those permanently unable to work and how they might be addressed.
Polar spongioblastoma: A high‐grade glioma that does not contain the IDH1 mutation or 1p/19q LOH
Authors: Nagaishi Masaya , Tanaka Yoshihiro , Iwatate Kensho , Yokoo Hideaki , Ueki Keisuke , Hyodo Akio , Nakazato Yoichi
Published: January 2010

We report a case of an unusual glioma termed “primitive polar spongioblastoma” that displayed characteristic palisading tumor cells at the light microscopic level. The patient was a 52‐year‐old woman who underwent subtotal removal for a left frontotemporal tumor. The palisading pattern was present throughout the tumor. Several glial markers were revealed by immunohistochemical examination, but no neuronal markers were observed. Genetic studies showed O‐6‐methylguanine‐DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) methylation, wild type IDH1, and the absence of 1p/19q loss of heterozygosity (LOH) in the tumor genes. Based on histological and genetic features, this tumor might not be suited to any of neuroepithelial tumor in the recent WHO classification. We consider that cases such as this should be temporarily set under a separate heading and be entrusted to future investigation after more cases have been accumulated.
The role of docetaxel based therapy for prostate cancer in the era of targeted medicine
Authors: Sonpavde Guru , Sternberg Cora N
Published: January 2010

Docetaxel based chemotherapy has been shown to modestly extend life, relieve pain and improve the quality of life in patients with metastatic castration‐resistant prostate cancer. Current trials are attempting to build on the backbone of docetaxel by combining it with novel biological agents. Trials are also investigating the role of docetaxel for earlier stages of prostate cancer. No standard second‐line systemic therapy exists and such patients are candidates for clinical trials. The increased understanding of the mechanisms of progressive castration‐resistant prostate cancer is being translated into an increasing pipeline of novel therapies.