bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
Authors: Lallas Peter L.
Published: April 2006

In May 2001, at a diplomatic conference in Stockholm, Sweden, the international community adopted and opened for signature the new Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (Stockholm Convention). Over ninety nations signed the convention at the conference, and one country—Canada—ratified it. The Stockholm Convention is designed to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants (POPs)—chemical substances that are persistent and toxic, that bioaccumulate in fatty tissue (achieving higher concentrations as they move up a particular food chain), and that are prone to long-range environmental transport. Among other things, the convention contains obligations to eliminate or severely restrict the production and use of a number of POP pesticides and industrial chemicals, to take strong measures to prevent or control the release of certain POPs that are formed as by-products of various combustion activities, and to ensure the safe and proper disposal or destruction of such substances when they become wastes.
New Mechanisms for the Enforcement of International Humanitarian Law
Authors: Mundis Daryl A.
Published: April 2006

The international criminal court (ICC) will serve as a permanent institution dedicated to the enforcement of international humanitarian law sixty days after the sixtieth state has deposited its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval, or accession to the Treaty of Rome with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.1 Pursuant to Article 11 of the ICC Statute, however, the ICC will have jurisdiction only with respect to crimes committed after the treaty comes into force.2 Consequently, when faced with allegations of violations of international humanitarian law in the period prior to the establishment of the ICC, the international community has five options if criminal prosecutions are desired.3 First, additional ad hoc international tribunals, similar to those established for the former Yugoslavia (International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, ICTY) and Rwanda (International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, ICTR) could be established.4 Second, "mixed" international criminal tribunals, which would share certain attributes with the ad hoc Tribunals, could be created.5 Third, the international community could leave the prosecution of alleged offenders to national authorities, provided that the domestic courts are functioning and able to conduct such trials. Fourth, in those instances where the national infrastructure has collapsed, international resources could be made available to assist with the prosecution of the alleged offenders in domestic courts. Finally, the international community could simply do nothing in the face of alleged violations of international humanitarian law.
Scared into Selfhood: The Poetry of Inna Lisnianskaia, Elena Shvarts, Ol´ga Sedakova
Authors: Sandler Stephanie
Published: April 2006

Sandler analyzes the poetry of three contemporary Russian women poets, focusing on one poem by each poet from the late Soviet period. Using psychoanalytical theory and philosophical theories of the sublime, she assesses how fear creates a sense of self for each poet. In all the texts examined, the poet's self is shattered in order to be built up again. Poetic identity means a writer's identity, particularly to Sedakova and Lisnianskaia, and all three poets find a sense of self by resisting some conventional notions of the woman poet.
Modern Bulgarian Society and Culture through the Mirror of Bai Ganio
Authors: Daskalov Roumen
Published: April 2006

This article deals with the fictional character Bai Ganio, who was created by the Bulgarian writer Aleko Konstantinov at the end of the nineteenth century and who has become a sort of national symbol in Bulgarian society and culture. Daskalov presents the various interpretations of Bai Ganio, explores their assumptions and implicit meanings, and then employs the character to illuminate some of the major problems and concerns within Bulgarian society. Metaphorically one might say that the various interpretations of Bai Ganio serve as a mirror for a modernizing Bulgaria or, even better, that Bai Ganio and Bulgaria mutually reflect each other. Yet although the mirror retains the trace of the mirrored object, it obfuscates and distorts it.
Nothing but Certainty
Authors: Weiner Amir
Published: April 2006

Eric D. Weitz argues that the Soviet Union promoted the development of national institutions and consciousness and explicidy rejected the ideology of race. Yet traces of racial politics crept into Soviet nationalities policies, especially between 1937 and 1953. In the Stalin period particular populations were endowed with immutable traits that every member of the group possessed and that were passed from one generation to the next. Recent scholarship, he suggests, has been resistant to drawing out the racial elements in the Stalinist purges of certain nationalities. Francine Hirsch challenges Weitz’s argument, arguing that the Soviet regime had a developed concept of “race,” but did not practice what contemporaries thought of as “racial politics.” Hirsch argues that while the Nazi regime attempted to enact social change by racial means, the Soviet regime aspired to build socialism dirough die manipulation of mass (national and class) consciousness. She contends that it is imperative to analyze the conceptual categories that both regimes used in order to undertake a true comparative analysis. Weiner proposes that Soviet population politics constandy fluctuated between sociological and biological categorization. Although the Soviets often came close to adapting bioracial principles and practices, at no point did they let human heredity become a defining feature of political schemes. Race in the Soviet world applied mainly to concerns for the health of population groups. Despite the capacity to conduct genocidal campaigns and operate death camps, the Soviets never sought the physical extermination of entire groups nor did they stop celebrating the multiethnicity of tiieir polity. The radicalization of state violence in the postwar era was triggered by die nature and role of the war in the Soviet world, the alleged conduct of those who failed to rise to the occasion, and the endemic unstable and unassimilated borderlands, and not by die genetic makeup of the internal enemies. Alaina Lemon’s contribution suggests that scholars seek racialized concepts by treating discourse as situated practice, rather than by separating discourse from practice. This allows consideration of the ways people use language not only to name categories but also to point to social relationships (such as “race”) with or without explicidy naming them as such. Doing so, however, is admittedly more difficult when die only available evidence of past discursive practices are printed texts or interviews. In conclusion, Weitz responds to these critics.
The Poetry and Prose of Everyday Life in Communist Kraków: Moths, Old Maids, and the Memoirs of Adam Zagajewski
Authors: Wolff Larry
Published: April 2006

This essay analyzes Adam Zagajewski’s recent memoir W cudzym pigknie (Another beauty), in which he reflects particularly on the decades of the 1960s and 1970s, when he was a student and young poet in Kraków. The essay addresses Zagajewski’s perspective on the city of Kraków, his reflections on communism in Wladyslaw Gomulka’s Poland, his sense of the relations between older and younger Polish generations, and his efforts to negotiate a personal balance between poetry and politics. Zagajewski’s memoir is discussed in the context of his own poetry, of Polish intellectual life, and of Kraków’s cultural history from the 1890s to the 1980s. Intellectual points of reference and comparison range from Tadeusz “Boy“ Żeleński and Stanisław Wyspiański in fin-de-siècle Kraków, to Witold Gombrowicz, Czesław Miłosz, and Adam Michnik in later twentieth-century Polish letters and politics. The essay, finally, attempts to assess the significance and implications of communism for Polish poetry, literature, and intellectual life.
Masculine Purity and “Gentlemen's Mischief”: Sexual Exchange and Prostitution between Russian Men, 1861-1941
Authors: Healey Dan
Published: April 2006

Sexual exchanges between men in modernizing Russia can be a window on the comparatively unexplored problem of Russian masculinities. Traditional forms of mutual male intimacy occurred within the patriarchal structures of gentry and merchant households, workshops and bathhouses.Arteliof peasant bathhouse attendants engaged in “sodomy” with clients, observing customary work practices (zemliachestvo, krugovaia poruka). By the 1890s an urban sexual marketplace characterized Russia's male homosexual subculture. Sexually knowing youths and men systematically offered sex for cash to “pederasts”, ortetki, who were perceived as predominantly attracted to men. After 1917, Bolsheviks evaluated same-sex love not through a single prism but by class and national contexts. Russia's male homosexual subculture was mistrusted in part because it was a clandestine sexual market, creating suspicious dependency relationships and threatening the “purity” of “innocent” young men.
The Orsini Sala Theatri at Monte Giordano in Rome
Authors: Mode Robert L.
Published: April 2006

The designing of permanent indoor theatres did not command the attention of Italian Renaissance architects until the sixteenth century was well under way, temporary structures and portable facilities having previously sufficed for dramatic presentations. Yet already in the second quarter of the quattrocento a chamber in one of the most prominent palaces of fifteenth-century Rome was referred to as the sala theatri.
À propos de L'Enfer de Clément Marot
Authors: Françon Marcel
Published: April 2006

L’enfer de Clément Marot a donné lieu à des interpretations vari- ées. Villey a signalé que ‘ Le premier livre de la Méamorphose d'Ovide translaté . . . par Clément Marot… item certaines oeuvres qu'ilfeit en prison non encore imprimez donne … Certaines oeuvres qu'ilfeit en la prison’: le rondeau Comme inconstante, la ballade Ung jour j’escrivy, l'épître à Boil chard et l'épître à Léon Jamet (1534). En 1544 Dolet a publié L'Enfer . . . Item aulcunes ballades et rondeaulx appartenant à l’argument. C'est ici que, pour la première fois L'Enfer a été publié en même temps que le rondeau Comme inconstante et la ballade Ung jour j’escrivy. On en a déduit que toutes ces pièces se rapportaient aux mêmes événements. Morley, puis O. Douen, ont pensé que Ysabeau—abréviation d'Elisabeth— désignait l'Eglise.
Domenico di Leonardo Buoninsegni's Istoria Fiorentina
Authors: Molho Anthony
Published: April 2006

Domenico di Leonardo Buoninsegni's Istoria Fiorentina has served numerous historians of Renaissance Florence as a source for the political events which occurred in that city in the Trecento and Quattrocento. Being a narration of Florentine history from the Creation to the autumn of 1460 it has provided modern scholars with numerous details which, seemingly, offered fresh and original insights into the evolution of Florentine history, particularly for the later portion of the Istoria in which the events described coincided with the life of the author himself (b. 1384—d. 1465).

Unfortunately, since its first partial publication by Giorgio Marescotti in 1580 (reissued in 1581), Buoninsegni's Istoria has been subject to a series of misunderstandings and misinterpretations on one of which, ironically, has rested its reputation among scholars.
Milton's Eve and the Neoplatonic Graces
Authors: Boyette Purvis E.
Published: April 2006

Some of Milton's classical allusions are stylistically supplemental, but more often than not they function with illuminating homology. Milton's description of Eve as Queen of the Graces is one example of what might appear a passing simple detail:

With Goddess-like demeanor forth she went; Not unattended, for on her as Queen A pomp of winning Graces waited still.

But on closer reading, one discovers that the allusion embraces large themes, especially when seen through the lenses of Neoplatonism. It is altogether apposite that Ficino regarded Venus, the symbol of love, as the mediatrix between God and man: ‘love is the perpetual knot and link of the universe: amor nodus perpetuus, et copula mundi.’ Following the precedent in Spenser of linking the Graces with flowers, the symbol of fruition, Milton identified the three Graces in L'Allegro (11-16) as the daughters of Venus.
Did Pole Write the 'Vita Longolii'?
Authors: Parks George B.
Published: April 2006

The Literary remains of Christophe de Longueil (Longolius, ca. 1490-1522)
were published by Junta in Florence in December 1524. The volume had no
collective title, but may be listed as Orationes. It
included the writing which Longueil did in Padua during his stay there
1520-1522: 'Orationes duae pro defensione sua in crimen lese maiestatis,'
or, as the title appeared over the work itself, 'Perduellionis rei
defensio,' a third version of his answer to the charge of treason to the
Roman people.
George Joye's Exposicion of Daniel*
Authors: Pineas Rainer
Published: April 2006

During the Tudor period, Protestant Reformers tended to rely heavily on the Scriptures as a weapon against their Catholic opponents, since they believed that the Scriptures were the ultimate authority for Christian doctrine and conduct. The work of the most important of these, William Tyndale, has already been treated, and it is therefore the intention of this paper to examine the contribution made by one of Tyndale's contemporaries, George Joye.

Joye fled to the continent toward the end of 1527 and between 1529 and 1549 produced a large number of polemical works, among them biblical translations and commentary. It is on this latter aspect of Joye's achievement that the present study intends to focus, specifically on his The exposicion of Daniel the Prophete (1545).
Sully, the Press, and the Pursuit of Power
Authors: Dickerman Edmund H.
Published: April 2006

The Wars of Religion in France greatly stimulated the use of printing for partisan purposes. Books and pamphlets proliferated as France's internal divisions deepened. Several generations of historians have studied the content and tried to assess the impact of the propaganda issuing from the pens of royalist, Huguenot, and Leaguer polemicists. But another use of the press, the promotion of a royal minister's career and policy, has received little attention. In a recent study of Richelieu, William F. Church remarks: ‘For several generations, French statesmen had been aware of the power of the press to influence public opinion, but Richelieu was one of the first to use it systematically and effectively for promoting his views and himself.’ Church is referring to Richelieu's use of the writings of François Langlois de Fancan to promote his views and to secure his appointment as first minister to Louis XIII in 1624.
An Account of Cataloguing Incunables in Oxford College Libraries*
Authors: Rhodes Dennis E.
Published: April 2006

The six thousand and more incunabula of the Bodleian Library and the two thousand six hundred in my recently finished catalogue covering all the other libraries of Oxford make a total of some nine thousand books (not editions, for I include duplicates) in the possession of the University as a whole. It is hoped that a complete catalogue will be published, probably in three volumes; but there is a difference between Mr. Sheppard's catalogue of the Bodleian and mine in that his is arranged in ‘Proctor-order,’ i.e., by countries, towns, and presses, while mine is in ‘Goff-order,’ i.e., a straightforward alphabetical order under authors. For technical reasons they cannot be arranged in any other way; but while Mr. Sheppard's catalogue will have complete author indexes, my own will have indexes by printers and publishers as well as by libraries (since some of my libraries are not colleges).
Art, Culture, and Mentality in Renaissance Society: The Meaning of Hans Baldung Grien's Bewitched Groom (1544)
Authors: Hoak Dale
Published: April 2006

For the study of early modern society, Renaissance art often provides an extraordinary means of exploring visually the values and assumptions, attitudes, and modes of perception of those who inhabited, mentally and materially, the world of traditional, preindustrial Europe. The work of Hans Baldung dit Grien (1484/85-1545), a Swabian painter, illustrator, and designer of stained glass, illuminates one of the most familiar and yet least understood aspects of this world, the mentality of those who believed that some women were capable of influencing a man's sexual nature by means of witchcraft.

In a series of prints and drawings executed between 1510 and 1544, Baldung portrayed various aspects of the alleged activities of witches. As contributions to the iconography of witchcraft, these Hexenbilder were without artistic precedent.
Panurge, Perplexity, and the Ironic Design of Rabelais's Tiers Livre
Authors: Duval Edwin M.
Published: April 2006

Despite a good deal of excellent work on Rabelais's Tiers Livre in the last thirty years, some of the most fundamental issues of the book have not yet been satisfactorily resolved. The character of Panurge, for example, has been explained in a variety of mutually exclusive ways, all of which are plausible but none of them absolutely compelling. Panurge has been understood as a positive character whose noble quest for an absolute Answer serves to reveal the limits of existing human knowledge, and to expose the vain pretensions of the learned. He has also been understood as precisely the opposite: a negative character whose self-love blinds him to the Evangelical wisdom of characters like Pantagruel and Hippothadée. And most recently he has been understood as neither of these, but rather as a pretext for, and an agent of, Rabelais's own verbal virtuosity, or of a ludic inquiry into the nature of language.
The Imitation of Imitations in Orlando Furioso
Authors: Javitch Daniel
Published: April 2006

Recent commentary on poetic imitation in the Renaissance has tended to emphasize competition, to value kinds of imitation that strive to surpass their models, and therefore to disregard or even deprecate modes of imitation that seem to consist of little more than respectful duplications. It has too readily assumed that imitative poets can only achieve originality by defying or somehow asserting their difference from their models. In the following essay I seek to challenge such assumptions by examining the practice of a major Renaissance poet who managed to assert his modern voice through imitatio while refusing to engage in competitive struggle. I do not mean to suggest that Renaissance poets were not given to competitive imitation. For purposes of subsequent contrast it is worth considering rapidly why emulation frequently did characterize the imitative practice of some of these poets.
Exhibition Review: The Genius of Venice
Authors: Rosand David
Published: April 2006

The Genius of Venice 1500-1600,the grand exhibition held at the Royal Academy of Arts from November 25, 1983, to March 11, 1984, transformed the London season, as one brochure announced, into “A Venetian Winter.” Notwithstanding the strong competition of the British Museum's exhibition of Raphael drawings, all London seemed filled with enthusiasm for the Queen of the Adriatic, an enthusiasm that manifested itself on every level of culture consumption and tourism: from gondolier shirts, carnival masks, and tinsof baicolito concerts of Venetian music, programs of films set in the lagoon, and public lecture series on topics such as “Venice: Art and Culture” and “Venice and the Victorians“; and, not least important in setting the tone of the occasion, special travel packages guaranteed the presence of large numbers of live Venetians in the British capital (the show was sponsored by the Sea Containers Group and Venice Simplon-Orient-Express Limited).
Lewkenor's Venice and its Sources
Authors: Mcpherson David
Published: April 2006

Despite the extensive work by recent historians on the “Myth of Venice,“ there has never been a thorough study of Lewis Lewkenor'sThe Commonwealth and Government of Venice(1599), one of the central documents through which the myth was transmitted to England—and England, after all, was the country in northern Europe in which the myth had its most profound effects. Lewkenor's book is interesting not only because of its importance in the history of political thought but also because it was probably used as a minor source by Shakespeare forOthelloand by Benjonson forVolpone.
The Crisis of the Aristocracy inJulius Caesar*
Authors: Rebhorn Wayne A.
Published: April 2006

"The purpose of playing… is to hold, as 't were, the mirror up to nature, to show virtue her feature, scorn her own image, and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure" (Hamlet, 3.2.20-24).

In his hagiographic treatment of the life of Sir Philip Sidney, Fulke Greville presents the last events in his hero's existence as constituting a particularly exemplary "tragedy"; he celebrates Sidney's generosity towards a common soldier in need of water, his endurance in suffering pain, and his careful "fashioning" of his soul to meet death when the end appeared inevitable.
Recent Trends in Montaigne Scholarship: A Post-Structuralist Perspective
Authors: Regosin Richard L.
Published: April 2006

Montaigne scholarship has traditionally drawn its impetus from the identification of life and work and its sense of the overwhelming presence of Montaigne as the subject of his text. Bolstered by the essayist's own protestations of sincerity, of good faith and mutual trust between writer and reader, scholars have read the first-person discourse as affirming the truth of the “I” inside the writing and its unequivocal coincidence with its historical referent. The authorial voice announcing itself as self-portraiture, bearing its own name, has been taken to represent the man, his character and ideas, and to reflect the broader sixteenth-century intellectual and social context.

This long-standing reading practice, with its conviction of mimesis, has undoubtedly achieved useful biographical and historical results. Scholars interested in the evolution of Montaigne's thought have shed light on his mode of composition through textual accretion by studying the successive additions and emendations which are identified as strata in the body of the work: A(1580, 1582), B(1588), C(after 1588).
Translatio Lupae: Du Bellay's Roman Whore Goes North
Authors: Prescott Anne Lake
Published: April 2006

In 1609 Gervase Markham, England's leading authority on horses, Sir John Harington's cousin, and not a truly bad poet, invited readers ofThe Famous Whoreto give the prostitute “a kind welcome out of Italy.” According to the headnote of this long poem, the elderly woman who here makes her “lamentable complaint” was “Paulina the famous Roman Curtezan, sometimes M[istress] unto the great Cardinal Hypolito of Est.” Since Markham seems so confidently to direct our eyes to Rome, it is understandable both that the entry on him in theDictionary of National Biographyposits an unknown Italian model and that neither the modern bibliography of his works nor the revisedShort Title Cataloguecan identify his source. In fact, Markham's work is a fairly close imitation of Joachim Du Bellay's’ ‘Vieille courtisanne,'’ first published in 15 5 8 as part of a collection somewhat misleadingly entitledDivers jeux rustiques.
A Satirist's Impresa: The Medals of Pietro Aretino
Authors: Waddington Raymond B.
Published: April 2006

Characterized by Burckhardt as the father of modernjournalism, Pietro Aretino was the first vernacular writer to understand and exploit fully the resource of the printing press. But while some kinds of his writings anticipate now conventional varieties of journalism, such a label slights the more literary of his activities in drama, poetry, hagiography, and prose dialogue. The protean variety of Aretino's works made him both successor to Bembo as the leading man of letters in the 1530s and 40s and the model for the poligrafi who would succeed him. As with those poligrafi, a coherence to his activities can be seen in his posture as social critic; preeminently, in his secular compositions, Aretino writes as a satirist.
Magic and Festivity at the Renaissance Court: The 1987 Josephine Waters Bennett Lecture
Authors: Greene Thomas M.
Published: April 2006

The relationship between hermetic beliefs and Renaissance court festivity is by no means a novel object of study. Both literary and intellectual historians have been aware of its interest for many years, and this awareness shows no signs of declining. Although in practice the presence of occult beliefs in the intentions of a court impresario is not always easy to demonstrate, what we know of the court productions and what we know of the culture that generated them suggest that we should be alert to this potential presence. Recently Roy Strong's revision of his bookSplendour at Court(1974) under the new titleArt and Power(1984) places heightened emphasis on this element in Renaissance courtly and civic festivity.
Renaissance Sexuality and the Florentine Archives: An Exchange
Authors: Bell Rudolph M.
Published: April 2006

Benedetta Carlini, a mystic and visionary who rose from countryside origins to become abbess of the Theatine convent known as Holy Mary of Pescia (Tuscany), was a “lesbian.” For her crimes she was imprisoned for thirty-five years until her death in 1661, at the age of seventy-one. Abbess Benedetta's fascinating story is reconstructed by historian Judith C. Brown in Immodest Acts: The Life of a Lesbian Nun in Renaissance Italy (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).
Gabriel Harvey's Ciceronianus and the Place of Peter Ramus' Dialecticae libri duo in the Curriculum
Authors: Adams John Charles
Published: April 2006

A Useful Way of Establishing the historical significance of any perceptive text in the discourse arts is to explain the connection between the values embedded in its illustrative materials and the social and political interests it may have served and advanced among the persons who used it. Illustrative materials evidence and communicate lines of thought—substance as well as formal dimensions of technical interest to students of the history of the discourse arts.
Asleep in the Grass of Arcady: Giulio Campagnola's Dreamer
Authors: Emison Patricia
Published: April 2006

The rarest figural view is that involving a protagonist seen from behind, not directing a look outward toward the spectator. One such example is Giulio Campagnola's engraving of a solitary woman in a landscape, seen in a three-quarters rear view (fig. i). Radically stripped of iconographic attributes as it is, this print is less narrative, or even lyrical, in its presence than many pastoral compositions. Here there is no warm, atmospheric, and mellow world of wish-fulfillment as in the DresdenVenus.Giulio offered no paper Giorgione but rather a place in which lush vegetation clashes against sharp turrets, and no Cupid attends upon dormant, soft female flesh. Giulio distanced the image from predigested literary conventions. Yet the art historical inclination is to assimilate Giulio's work to Giorgione's, and furthermore to understand Giorgione's importance as consisting in his visualization of the hitherto literary world of pastoral.Ut pictor poe'siscan be too handy an axiom.
The Inward Zodiac: A Development in Ficino's Thought on Astrology
Authors: Bullard Melissa Meriam
Published: April 2006

Ever since Della Torre posited in 1902 that Ficino had undergone a religious crisis that led him to abandon the pagan beliefs of his youth and take holy orders, scholars have wrestled with how to explain the seeming inconsistencies in his thought. Though they downplayed Della Torre's notion of a specific crisis of faith, the next generation of scholars, including Thorndike, Sarton, Kristeller, Garin, Walker, and Yates, still labeled Ficino inconsistent, or at best, melancholic, wavering, and anxious.
Getting Past 1492: The Renaissance in Recent Portuguese and Spanish Publications
Authors: Sider Sandra
Published: April 2006

Nineteen ninety-two was such a watershed year for publications concerning the fifteenth, sixteenth, and early seventeenth centuries that dozens of these works could easily be described as “the best.” Unfortunately, out of the numerous Portuguese and Spanish publishers contacted in 1993 with our request for review copies, only two in Spain plus the Sorbonne took this project seriously. In response to their cooperative attitude, I want to mention their three books before turning to a more general discussion of Renaissance publications from the Iberian Peninsula. (Publishers in Mexico, the Caribbean, and Latin America were not included simply because of limitations on my time.)
Mothers and Sons: Two Paintings for San Bonaventura in Early Modern Rome
Authors: Valone Carolyn
Published: April 2006

Portia dell'Anguillara Cesi and Margherita della Somaglia Peretti were both wealthy heiresses in late sixteenth-century Rome, and each was the patron of a fine altarpiece for the Capuchin church of San Bonaventura. Although women were widely recognized as patrons in the period, the patronage of these two paintings, which show the Virgin, saints, and the portrait of a young boy, has always been assigned to their husbands, Paolo Emilio Cesi and Michele Peretti, because the works have been related to the patrilinear, agnatic image of the early modern family, i.e., fathers and sons. Instead, the works express a bilinear, cognatic image of the family, indicating legal, economic, and affective ties between mothers and sons. Portia dell'Anguillara's will of 1587 further elucidates aspects of the bilinear family structure.
“Vows to the Blackest Devil”: Hamlet and the Evolving Code of Honor in Early Modern England
Authors: Terry Reta A.
Published: April 2006

The Renaissance was a period in which the honor code underwent a significant metamorphosis. The medieval, chivalric code of honor, with its emphasis on lineage, allegiance to one's lord and violence, evolved into an honor code that was both more moral and political in that it began to emphasize the individual conscience and allegience to the state. Analysis of Shakespeare's Hamlet, and in particular its characters' use of promise, provides new and revealing insights into the evolving Renaissance codes of honor, for Shakespeare creates characters in Hamlet that represent various stages in the evolution of a changing honor system.
Approaching the Altar: Donatello's Sculpture in the Santo*
Authors: Johnson Geraldine A.
Published: April 2006

Donatello designed a lavish high altar for the Santo (S. Antonio) in Padua in the 1440s. This article considers how the interests and concerns of the altar's original beholders may have affected its design and reception. Specifically, pilgrims drawn to the Santo by Saint Anthony's tomb probably would have been impressed by the altar's general magnificence; elite Paduan citizens may have been most interested in the civic associations of the statues displayed on the altar; and the Santos Conventual Franciscan friars may well have interpreted the Antonine narrative reliefs and the altar's overall splendor in light of their growing rivalry with Observant Franciscans.
Moving Forward on the Development of Minimum Humanitarian Standards
Authors: Petrasek David
Published: April 2006

Regular readers of this Journal will be familiar with the idea of developing a set of minimum humanitarian standards to provide greater protection of human rights in situations of internal conflict. The idea was first put forward in 1983 by Professor Theodor Meron as both a necessary and an effective means of closing the gap in legal protection that exists in internal conflicts that fall outside the scope of applicability of international humanitarian law, and where human rights norms might be insufficient. The idea became more concrete in 1990 with the adoption of the Declaration on Minimum Humanitarian Standards in Turku/Åbo, Finland, now often referred to as the “Turku Declaration,” by a group of experts convened by the Institute for Human Rights at Abo Akademi University.
Lincoln, Lieber and the Laws of War: The Origins and Limits of the Principle of Military Necessity
Authors: Carnahan Burrus M.
Published: April 2006

The roots of the modern law of war lie in the 1860s. Developments in this decade began in 1862 when Henry Dunant published Un Souvenir de Solferino, which inspired the conclusion two years later of the first Geneva Convention on treatment of the sick and wounded. Four years later came the first multilateral agreement to ban the use of a particular weapon in war. And in 1863, before either of these agreements had been concluded, the earliest official government codification of the laws of war was promulgated by the United States. This codification was issued as General Orders No. 100, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, more commonly known as the “Lieber Code.”
The Forty-ninth Session of the International Law Commission
Authors: Rosenstock Robert
Published: April 2006

The International Law Commission of the United Nations held its forty-ninth session in Geneva from May 12 to July 18, 1997, under the chairmanship of Professor Alain Pellet of France. The Commission concluded its first reading of a draft declaration on nationality in relation to the succession of states; adopted preliminary conclusions on a key element of the topic of reservations to treaties; and appointed new special rapporteurs for state responsibility, international liability for injurious consequences of acts not prohibited by international law, unilateral acts of states, and diplomatic protection. The Commission also established working groups on each of these topics.
The Political Economy of a Bilateral Investment Treaty
Authors: Vandevelde Kenneth J.
Published: April 2006

One of the more remarkable developments in international law in the mid-1990s is not what it appears to be. The massive and sudden proliferation of bilateral investment treaties (BITs), now constituting a network of more than thirteen hundred agreements involving some 160 states, appears to reflect die triumph of liberal economics in the sphere of international investment. In fact, however, it constitutes only a momentary convergence of nationalist interests. If the BITs are to construct the liberal international investment regime they seem to promise, then they must be modified in important and substantial ways.
Breard and Treaty-Based Rights Under the Consular Convention
Authors: Paust Jordan J.
Published: April 2006

Article 36(1) of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations provides that (a) “[nationals . . . shall have the same freedom with respect to communication with and access to consular officers,” and that (b) “[t]he said authorities shall inform the person concerned without delay of his rights under this sub-paragraph.” In Breard v. Greene, the Supreme Court nearly recognized that, under the Convention, the individual petitioner had actionable rights that had been violated. The Court concluded, however, that the rights were “defaulted” when not pursued in the state courts, that the errors would not be prejudicial, and that the subsequendy enacted federal Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act limited the petitioner’s “ability to obtain relief based on violations of the Vienna Convention.”
New Comedy inAll's Well That Ends Well
Authors: Miola Robert S.
Published: April 2006

We are all Familiar with the traditional understanding of sources: a source is a previous text that shapes a present one through authorial reminiscence and manifests itself in verbal iteration. As the seminal works of Baldwin, Muir, and Bullough amply demonstrate, this definition has served us long and well, but every element in it has undergone intense scrutiny and reevaluation. Scholars now recognize the potential limitations of a linear, authorcentered, and largely verbal approach and have become attuned to the likelihood of intermediation, the encodings implicit in genre and language, the more oblique and more satisfying evidence of configuration—both rhetorical and dramatic. Within the spacious perspectives provided by scholars like Leo Salingar, Emrys Jones, Gordon Braden, Harry Levin, Alan Dessen, and Louise George Clubb (who has coined the term “theatergram” for certain kinds of configuration), we may well reexamine the sources of Shakespearean comedy.
Conservatives and “Renewed Russia,” 1907-1914
Authors: Loukianov Mikhail
Published: April 2006

The article analyzes the relationship of conservatives to the political order that arose after the 1905 revolution. It suggests that by the start of World War I, a dissatisfaction with the status quo had become a characteristic feature of Russian conservatism. The archaic formula “orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality” was the quintessential conservative discourse, both for nationalist supporters of conservative reforms and for opponents of any innovation such as Dubrovin’s All-Russian Union of the Russian People. But this formula existed in sharp contradiction to the realities of “renewed Russia.” Conservatives continually underscored the lack of correspondence between reality and their conservative dogma. In conservative circles, the growth of social tensions on the eve of the war was also understood as evidence of the inadequacy of the new political order. Because of this, Russian conservatives did not aspire to preserve the Third of June system and did not try to restore it after February 1917.
Exporting Soviet Culture: The Case of Agitprop Theater
Authors: Mally Lynn
Published: April 2006

In this article Lynn Mally examines the efforts of a Comintern affiliate called MORT (Mezhdunarodnoe ob“edinenie revoliutsionnykh teatrov) to export models of Soviet theatrical performance outside the Soviet Union. Beginning with the first Five-Year Plan, MORT was initially very successful in promoting Soviet agitprop techniques abroad. But once agitprop methods fell into disgrace in the Soviet Union, MORT abruptly changed its tactics. It suddenly encouraged leftist theater groups to move toward the new methods of socialist realism. Nonetheless, many leftist theater circles continued to produce agitprop works, as shown by performances at the Moscow Olympiad for Revolutionary Theater in 1933. The unusual tenacity of this theatrical form offers an opportunity to question the global influence of the Soviet cultural policies promoted by the Comintern. From 1932 until 1935, many foreign theater groups ignored MORT's cultural directives. Once the Popular Front began, national communist parties saw artistic work as an important tool for building alliances outside the working class. This decisive shift in political strategy finally undermined the ethos and methods of agitprop theater.
The Sounds of Music: Soundtrack and Song in Soviet Film
Authors: Gillespie David C.
Published: April 2006

In this article, David C. Gillespie explores the deliberate foregrounding of music and song in Soviet film. He begins with a discussion of the structural and organizing roles of music and song in early Soviet sound films, including tiiose by Sergei Eizenshtein, Grigorii Aleksandrov, Ivan Pyr'ev, and Aleksandr Ivanovskii. Gillespie then focuses on the emphasis on urban song in some of the most popular films of the stagnation years, such asThe White Sun of the Desert (1969) and Moscow Does Not Believe in Tears(1979), adding considerably to the appreciation of these films. To conclude, he analyzes folk music in films about village life, especially those directed by Vasilii Shukshin, and explores the role of music in constructing a mythical and nationalistic discourse.
Traditional Town Planning in Burma
Authors: Hla U Kan
Published: April 2006

Traditions of regular town planning began to develop in Burma during the Christian era. In the feudal period, especially in the 14th to 19th centuries, the art of town planning flourished here, where it was promoted more than in any other country of the region. Unfortunately, this rich legacy has not been studied in any detail. Even plans of most Burmese historical cities have not been professionally drawn and published. In this article, some of the finest examples of Burmese feudal cities-Ava, Toungoo, Pegu, Amarapura, and Mandalay-are described and analyzed for the first time. Several conclusions are drawn from this material: that the square form of city plans was developed independently in Burma, that the traditional cities were regularly planned and well coordinated with the local topography, and that the most effective and progressive building technology was used in city construction.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel's Project for a Royal Palace on the Acropolis
Authors: Carter Rand
Published: April 2006

Schinkel's project for a palace on the Athenian Acropolis was designed for Otto von Wittelsbach, who had been elected King of Greece in 1832. Friedrich Wilhelm, Crown Prince of Prussia, suggested in 1833 that Schinkel undertake the project, and the following year the Berlin architect submitted plans, sections, elevations, and perspectives, together with an extensive commentary. This paper examines the project in detail, relates it to Schinkel's oeuvre, and sets it within the context of work by Schaubert and Kleanthes, Leo von Klenze, and Friedrich von Gärtner. Schinkel's project was conveniently layed out, modestly scaled, and successfully integrated with the antiquities on the Acropolis. It was not built primarily due to the severe economic restrictions then prevailing in Greece.
Superposed Wall Passages and the Triforium Elevation of St. Werburg's, Chester
Authors: Jansen Virginia
Published: April 2006

About 1278 a new elevation appeared in northwestern England at St. Werburg's, Chester. Copied at Guisborough and Exeter, and via Exeter in Breton churches, the elevation used a tall clerestory to balance the height of the main arcade; in between ran a short triforium containing a wall passage. Its date uncertain, the Chester elevation has not been recognized as original or significant. Moreover, historians have queried the authenticity of the medieval fabric restored in the 19th century, and have avoided discussing the issues of elevation design and structure in English architecture. At St. Werburg's, architectural details and an elevation containing superposed wall passages are fused with English tradition. The balanced design seems easily explained as a post-Westminster modernization of a variant English design, the low triforium elevation. This type of elevation appeared periodically, but no English building provided the primary source for Chester. St. Werburg's was apparently derived from a Burgundian design brought by Savoyard masons working in north Wales. The motivation of the Chester master and the relationship of this elevation to English tradition, however, are more difficult problems to solve. An examination of the Chester elevation illuminates a complex interrelationship between influences and traditions. In post-Westminster England, foreign ideas stimulated architects to develop certain indigenous traditions, radically changing English architecture. As a result, English builders took the lead in developing later architectural fashions. Although not part of this new work, the St. Werburg's elevation challenged older English formulas in a manner that permitted these changes.
Church Architecture in Neo-Classical England
Authors: Stillman Damie
Published: April 2006

The usual appraisal of the 18th century in England as a nonreligious era is, in part, confirmed by such practices as the re-siting of churches for aesthetic rather than ecclesiastical reasons and by formal concerns, especially the general emphasis on lightness. But a substantial number of churches were erected during the second half of the century, and over 80 designs for churches were exhibited at the Royal Academy and the Society of Artists. Many of these utilized such traditional formats as the nave-aisle basilica or the hall church, though with characteristically delicate and elegant Neo-classical decoration and a penchant for attenuation. There were others, however, that exhibited a fascination with unusual shapes, ranging from octagons and ovals to Greek crosses, triangles, circles, and squares. Similarly, the late 18th-century concern both for archaeology and for stark, powerful, and plain surfaces is also evident in executed churches and unexecuted designs. Perhaps most clearly epitomizing the divergent tendencies of this age in terms of shape, decoration, and overall character are such dramatically different examples as Stuart and Newton's Greenwich Chapel of 1782-1788 and Bonomi's Great Packington of 1789-1792. Most of the other major architects of the period, from Adam and Chambers to Dance, Wyatt, and Soane, also produced designs that reflect the interaction of architecture and religion at a time when both of these forces were undergoing substantial change.
Radial Pyramids and Radial-Associated Assemblages of the Central Maya Area
Authors: Cohodas Marvin
Published: April 2006

Although little known, the radial pyramid is one of the most important and widespread architectural forms of the Classic Maya culture. The radial pyramid is found in many sites of the Central Maya area, often incorporated into standardized assemblages. Both the association between radial pyramids and astronomical observation, and the open character of radial-associated assemblages, suggest that these structures were designed for public participation in rituals regulated by the solar or agricultural calendar. The ritual motions performed on or around radial pyramids were probably understood as acts of sympathetic magic. A comparison with Aztec ritual indicates that among other uses, the Maya would have employed the radial pyramid for the ritual establishment of the axis mundi in equinoctial ceremonies. The public nature of radial-associated assemblages, as well as the rigidity of form, orientation, and arrangement of the component structures, are shown to contrast with the qualities of Maya dynastic architectural assemblages such as the temple and palace acropolises.
Serpent and Atlantean Columns: Symbols of Maya-Toltec Polity
Authors: Kubler George
Published: April 2006

Beginning as a morphological and iconographic study this paper unfolds an ideological conclusion about the changing Maya Toltec polity conveyed by serpent iconography at Chichen Itza. A new emphasis in religious belief and civil authority, appearing in serpent columns, is in contrast to earlier Maya serpent-mask doorways. Atlantean columns supporting seats of authority displace an older imagery of bound captives beneath the feet of victorious rulers. Readers unfamiliar with Maya studies will find the chronological framework and a listing of the relevant monuments in the Tables (pages 93, 95, 97, 102). On the special conditions of the study of ancient American art, see Kubler, "Methodological Approaches to Pre-Columbian Art," Actes, XLIIe Congrès International des Américanistes (1976), vol. VII, 283-290.
"To Agree Would be to Commit an Act of Artistic Suicide...": The Revision of the Design for the Law Courts
Authors: Brownlee David B.
Published: April 2006

The 16 years of labor that George Edmund Street devoted to the Royal Courts of Justice were filled with artistic and political controversy. Amidst that turmoil Street created a design whose pragmatism and visual logic marked the end of the intensely intellectual, High Victorian phase of the Gothic Revival. "Without it," Robert Kerr concluded in 1884, "the whole process of the Revival had been quite incomplete."