bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Erosion of Steam Turbine Blade Shield Materials
Authors: Smith Allen , Kent R. P. , Armstrong R. L.
Published: August 2009

The physical processes preceding blade erosion by wet steam in low-pressure turbines have been traced from the collection of water droplets larger than 30 μ by the stationary blading to the stripping of this water into drops at the blade trailing edges and the impact of these drops with the following moving blade row. Experiments indicate that the maximum stable drop diameter before the last row of a 500-Mw turbine is 800 μ, being a function of downstream Mach number as well as the Weber number. Stresses produced by impact of drops have been calculated by existing theories to be sufficiently high to initiate damage in shield materials. Turbine experience and our experiments show that erosion rate is time dependent, with three successive zones: a primary zone with a low erosion rate, a secondary zone where the rate rises to a maximum, and finally, a tertiary zone, where the rate diminishes to a steady-state value. Experiments on artificially roughened specimens suggest that this reduction in erosion rate may be partially caused by droplet breakup on the peaks of the eroded surface and partially by the retention of water in the cavities. The terminal rate dictates the life of a turbine erosion shield, and materials must be tested well into the tertiary zone before a valid assessment can be made.
Accelerated Cavitation Damage of Steels and Superalloys in Sodium and Mercury
Authors: Young S. G. , Johnston J. R.
Published: August 2009

An investigation was conducted to study cavitation damage in liquid-metal environments of materials under consideration for components of liquid-metal power conversion systems. The materials investigated included AISI Types 316 and 318 stainless steels, Sicromo 9M, Inconel 600, A-286, Hastelloy X, L-605, René 41, and Stellite 6B. A magnetostrictive apparatus was used to perform accelerated cavitation damage tests with liquid sodium at 800 F and mercury at 300 F. Cavitation damage determined by volume loss and surface roughness measurements was used to rank the various materials and to compare the effects of the different fluids on the degree of damage sustained. Metallographic studies were made to determine the nature of the early stages of cavitation damage. The materials tested in both sodium and mercury ranked in the same order of resistance to cavitation damage, but the degree of damage to all materials was consistently greater when tested in mercury. The most resistant material was Stellite 6B; the least resistant material was annealed Sicromo 9M. Surface roughness measurements provided the same ranking of materials as that provided by conventional volume loss measurements. Visual observation of sodium pump impeller blades of three materials operated under cavitating conditions for 250 hr indicated the same ranking of the materials with respect to resistance to cavitation damage that was determined from the accelerated cavitation tests.
Scale-Effect Investigation of Cavitation Erosion Using the Energy Parameter
Authors: Shalnev K. K. , Varga J. J. , Sebestyén G.
Published: August 2009

The authors define the energy parameter as the ratio of the volume loss of specimen material during erosion test to a certain fraction of the work done by the cavitation drag force. On the grounds of the analysis of the initial formula of the energy parameter as well as on the basis of experimental investigations, a method is suggested to allow for the influence of geometrical similarity (scale effects) upon cavitation damage when flow velocity or the characteristic dimension of the model and certain physical properties of the fluid, such as viscosity, surface tension, or density, are varied.
Relationship Between Specific Gravity and Other Fuel Properties and Diesel Engine Performance
Authors: Troth K. A.
Published: August 2009

Although a low fuel consumption is an inherent feature of the diesel engine, operators are always looking for improvement to reduce operating costs. Since fuel is usually bought on a volumetric basis, an obvious way to improve fuel consumption would appear to be to use fuels of high specific gravity. However, the specific gravity of a diesel fuel is not an independent variable, and an increase in specific gravity will probably result in an attendant increase in the mid-boiling point of the fuel and, possibly, a decrease in the cetane number. Also, in general, a fuel of high specific gravity will have high cloud and pour points. It is suggested that for best over-all performance of a diesel engine with respect to cold starting, cold smoking, misfiring, noise and black-smoke emission, a reasonably volatile fuel of moderately high cetane number is required and that these requirements preclude the use of a fuel of high specific gravity. In cold weather, fuels of low cloud point are required although, if careful attention is paid to the designs of a vehicle fuel system, the limit of operability may well be the pour point. The design of the fuel system is particularly important if the full benefit of pour-point-depressant additives is to be realized.
Survey of Roadside Diesel Fuel Filterability
Authors: Bertolette W. D. , Marvel H. D.
Published: August 2009

A nation-wide survey was conducted in the spring of 1965 to obtain information on the cleanliness and quality of diesel fuels available at roadside truck stops. Roadside diesel fuels were found to be generally clean and of good quality. Normal inspection properties were found not indicative of a fuel's filterability. The harmful effects of various common or occasional fuel contaminants on filterability were determined. Fuel filterability, as measured in the laboratory filtration test, was found to be dependent on the size and quantity of the particulate matter present in each fuel and on the porosity of the filter.
Weather Patterns and Diesel Fuel Performance
Authors: Rescorla A. R.
Published: August 2009

From a review of weather data available in the literature, maps of the United States have been developed to indicate the lowest temperature encountered in various parts of the country over a 50-year period. Similar maps showing the mean of the lowest temperature and the average annual minimum temperature have also been included. These maps were used as a basis for defining temperature quality zones for optimum low-temperature diesel operation. Based on field test data, a relationship has been developed to determine the diesel fuel fluidity temperature requirements for any given ambient temperature. These data have been used as the basis for monitoring the quality of diesel fuel shipments to various areas. Field test data for four areas during the past two years comparing the fluidity values with actual weather data as well as the lowest temperature and mean of lowest temperature have been presented. A comparison of the quality zones with recommended areas for satisfactory diesel engine operation based on the lowest one-day mean temperatures has also been included. Diesel fuels meeting the low-temperature requirements of the four quality zones should be satisfactory according to a recent publication. The importance of monitoring the low-temperature flow characteristics of diesel fuels to conform with accepted weather patterns has been demonstrated in this study. A method for controlling the quality of the diesel fuel in the field has been outlined as one possible approach.
Introduction
Authors: Davidson D. M.
Published: August 2009

The quality evaluation of multiform copies falls into the same category as color, odor, and taste measurements since the senses and psychological influences of the observer are involved. Nevertheless, manufacturers and users of business forms have felt the need for instrumental methods and quantitative values in measuring the properties of copies. In this series of papers, several instruments and measuring concepts are presented. Many of the problems related to this type of product evaluation are discussed, particularly the need for precise specimen preparation and careful reproducibility of results. While only one paper relates to electrostatic copying, the kinship between the older impressioned copy and its younger cousin is unmistakable. A final paper offers a description of the mechanics of ink transfer from carbon paper or ribbon during impact. The theories proposed in this paper represent a significant advance in current concepts and should prove to be very useful to the technology of business forms. Considerable effort has gone into the development of business copy products, and, while their influence on our lives frequently is not appreciated simply because of their ubiquity, we literally could not live our modern lives without them. Every bill we receive, every item we buy, sell, or ship has a document related to it (prepared, at least, in triplicate) and is a product of the business forms industry.
Legibility of Carbon Copy by an Instrumental Method
Authors: Davidson D. M.
Published: August 2009

Legibility of carbon copies has long been considered a subjective property where psychological factors play a significant part in the selection of acceptable quality. Some investigators have tried to place legibility on a more objective basis. The use of the scanning microdensitometer to make a profile of an individual image and then interpret that profile in numerical terms offers the most satisfactory approach to achieving that goal. In this paper, a microdensitometer will be described, and the method that has been developed for using it in analyzing carbon copy image quality will be reported. A mathematical model for the microdensitometer trace is proposed that will permit the interpretation of the effect due to character dimension and the correlation of parameters that may be used in describing legibility. The model also suggests several techniques that may be used in measuring these parameters. Many of the variables affecting carbon copy quality include impressioning conditions, material differences, and form construction. Numerical data from the scanning microdensitometer technique will be used to illustrate the effect of some of these variables.
Laboratory Evaluation of Manifolding Paper Performance
Authors: Graham R. H. , Fadner T. A. , Barker W. T.
Published: August 2009

A method for laboratory evaluation of manifolding papers is presented. An impact imaging device and an electro-optical image evaluator are described. With these instruments, field performance of commercial manifolding products can be predicted. In addition, test methods have been developed which characterize energy transfer, image transfer, and image receptivity, three primary product properties that affect manifolding. The use of the instruments and methods as an aid in the development of high manifolding products is illustrated.
Instrument Evaluation of Electrostatic Paper
Authors: Reynolds R. G.
Published: August 2009

This paper is a report on research to find a means of analysis of ZNO coated light sensitive paper from small specimens and be able to predict resultant copy. Present instruments can measure and record similar parameters, but predictable results could not be made since the range, level, and cycle of adjustments were not related to machine cycle. When the methods and controls presented are followed, it is possible to predict optimum copy and make estimates on latitude, background, loss of density of copy, as well as other characteristics related to machine conditions. None of the instruments are new nor are any of the parameters measured new. The research was in determining type and range of instruments, methods of operation, and calibration to duplicate machine cycle. It was also necessary to determine and measure all elements of the machine cycle. The first study is of the machine to determine light level and variations due to system and voltage. This includes light on both background and image. Other machine factors are exposure time, dark decay time, charge, time cycle of copy, and any special machine components such as preexposure, double exposure, etc. The combination of instruments then may be set up to duplicate these machine functions. These may include turntable, light source, electrometer, recorder, voltage generator, variac, and programmer to operate and control the instruments over all ranges and in same sequence of machine operation. The third and of equal importance are methods and proof of calibrations. For example, a lightmeter reading on level of light source, even when taken by placing meter in specimen exposure position, is not enough. The calibration must prove that the light level is not an average reading or that there are no high or low points in the specimen exposure plane. The entire system must be automatic and adjustable, equal to full range of machine adjustments. Production of the electrophotographic curves should take no longer than a similar copy in the machine. A test of the system is when you can make a copy on the machine, set the instruments at same levels, and then show in the recording the background, best copy, image loss or any problem or area that requires explanation.
Introduction
Authors: DeVilliers T. E.
Published: August 2009

Fretting corrosion may be very generally defined as a surface damage that occurs when two solid surfaces are contacted under relatively high loads and with small relative (vibratory) motions. The phenomenon has been recognized by investigators for many years, but even today it is not thoroughly understood. The many names applied to this occurrence are illustrative of a lack of understanding of the subject. Fretting corrosion has also been called “friction oxidation,” “wear oxidation,” “false brinelling,” “chafing,” “bleeding,” “cocoa.” Some difference of opinion exists as to the rôle of corrosion or oxidation in the mechanism of fretting corrosion; some investigators hold that corrosion or oxidation is an integral part of the mechanism while others believe that it is only incidental. Fretting corrosion is not always recognized as such by many users of equipment wherein it occurs, and as a result the steps taken to prevent the damage are not always successful. Numerous excellent studies of the problem have been made in the past and are being continued today by governmental and industrial groups as well as schools and research institutions. ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Products and Lubricants proposed that a symposium on the subject be held in order to present the views and latest work of leading experts in the field to a wide audience so that as many as possible could benefit from the presentation. A further purpose of the symposium was to stimulate future activity on the subject. Technical Committee G on Grease, under the chairmanship of Mr. R. C. Adams, was given the assignment of organizing the symposium.
Effect of Lubricants in Minimizing Fretting Corrosion
Authors: Herbek E. W. , Strohecker R. F.
Published: August 2009

A survey of past work on the effect of lubricants in minimizing fretting corrosion is presented, and it is shown that investigators differ on the corrective effect of specific lubricants. With the use of a modified version of the Fafnir Thrust-Bearing Friction Oxidation Tester, fretting corrosion data were obtained using various greases. These data are presented and discussed in relation to the factors which are of importance in minimizing fretting. It is concluded that the feedability (consistency) of a grease under the action of bearing shear is of prime importance in minimizing fretting. The use of specific soap bases, solid materials such as ZnO or MoS2, and additives such as tricresyl phosphate do not, per se, alleviate fretting.
Test Equipment for Evaluating Fretting Corrosion
Authors: Uhlig H. H. , Tierney W. D. , McClellan A.
Published: August 2009

A test machine has been designed and constructed to measure fretting corrosion quantitatively under precisely defined conditions. Damage is measured by weight loss of two 1-in. diameter cylindrical specimens, one of which is subject to radial oscillatory motion. Specimen load is applied pneumatically to a maximum pressure of 27,000 psi. Frequency of motion can be varied between 56 and 3000 cpm. Relative slip is established by means of an adjustable cam to values between 0.000 and 0.008 in. and is measured using either a comparator microscope or a strain gage transducer. A stainless steel cell surrounds the specimens permitting control of environment. Using SAE 1018 steel against itself, it was found that rate of fretting corrosion decreased gradually during a brief run-in period, after which it became constant. Weight loss was found proportional to total relative slip. Increase of applied load on specimens first increased fretting corrosion, reached a maximum, then decreased. Corresponding slip became less at high loads as imparted motion was lost elastically in various components of the machine. This corresponds to the situation observed by others for which fretting damage approaches zero when relative slip is zero. Further measurements are in progress.
Principles of Permeability Testing of Soils
Authors: Burmister Donald M.
Published: August 2009

The permeability of soils is a most important physical property since some of the major problems of soil and foundation engineering have to do with the recognition, evaluation, and proper handling of drainage problems encountered in the design and construction of structures. These problems include drainage of highways and airports, seepage through earth dams, uplift pressures beneath concrete dams and structures below ground water level, unwatering of excavated sites to permit construction in the “dry,” seepage pressures causing earth slides and failures of retaining walls, etc. In all of these, the permeability characteristics of soils have a controlling influence on the effective strength properties of the soils and on their responses under stress, and hence on stability conditions. Drainable soils will act essentially as “open systems” with free drainage and fully effective shearing strength, whereas soils of low permeability may act as “closed systems” under rapid application of stress, with the development of pore pressures and reduction in shearing strength. The determination of the permeability of soils is therefore a most important aspect of soil testing. The purpose of this paper is to formulate into a more complete form certain attitudes, concepts, and principles of a fundamental and comprehensive approach in permeability testing of soils and to increase the adequacy, reliability, and practical value of permeability data.
The Permeability of Fine-Grained Soils
Authors: Lambe T. William
Published: August 2009

The permeability of a soil is one of its most fundamental and important properties. It enters into nearly all seepage, settlement, and stability problems confronting the soil engineer. The amount of leakage through and under dams, the rate at which a building settles, and the ate at which the strength of a deposit increases after it has been subjected to a consolidating pressure are typical of the many problems in which the permeability of a soil can be a critical factor. The importance of evaluating the permeability of a pervious soil has been long recognized and test techniques for measuring it have been well developed and are widely used. The permeability of fine-grained soils, however, has not received extensive study. Soils with permeabilities of less than 1 /t per sec are often considered “impervious” and are not subjected to permeability testing. Soil permeabilities less than 1 y. per sec are becoming increasingly important to soil technologists from both practical and theoretical considerations. More use is being made of “impervious” soil to line canals and reservoirs and to construct cores for earth dams. Research workers are studying the permeability of finegrained soils to learn more of the nature of particle surfaces and the thickness of adsorbed water (7). A look at some of the factors influencing the permeability of fine-grained soils, therefore, is timely.
Measurement of Permeabilities in Ground-Water Investigations
Authors: Smith W. O. , Stallman R. W.
Published: August 2009

Certain physical conditions must be considered in the measurement of permeabilities of soils and sediments. Among these are sediment structure (particularly whether the sample is disturbed or undisturbed), the occlusion of air, and, finally, the effects of colloidal material. To meet some of these conditions, a special sampling procedure has been developed for obtaining undisturbed samples suitable for permeability measurement. The particular sampling device is of the piston type and contains an inner barrel, in which an undisturbed soil sample is taken. This inner barrel, with its undisturbed sample, is removable and serves as the permeameter tube in subsequent permeability measurements. The techniques for permeability measurement are described. It is emphasized that the test liquid must be one that is in equilibrium with the soil sample, so far as colloidal chemical properties are concerned. For example, in the determination of ground-water permeabilities, actual ground water, which is assumed to be in equilibrium with the sediments of the aquifer, must be used. If fluids such as distilled water or ordinary laboratory tap water are used, then severe washing of colloidal material may occur, owing to a change in the exchangeable ions, with a consequent erroneous measurement of the permeability. Finally, the alterations in permeability due to trapped air and other gaseous material are discussed. They result in a decreased value of permeability.
Introduction
Authors: Gnaedinger J. P. , Johnson A. I.
Published: August 2009

Before intelligent decisions involving soil and foundation engineering design can be made on any engineering project, information is necessary on the properties and extent of soils present at the project site. Only when adequate information is available on surface and subsurface conditions can proper consideration be given to the economical design, safety, and probable performance of a project. The art and science of soil engineering have progressed to the point where information obtained solely from shallow boreholes and from tests on samples extracted from such boreholes can no longer be considered as providing adequate design data for the use of soils in engineering projects. By using geologic and pedologic interpretation as well as geophysical and other reconnaissance techniques, detailed information obtained from a few boreholes may be projected over a large area with reasonable confidence. Many exploration methods have been developed and used for years in related disciplines, such as petroleum engineering, and these methods should be recognized and more fully applied to soil exploration. The many methods available for the exploration of soils can be broadly classified as indirect or direct. Under indirect methods are aerial photographic interpretation, pedologic and geologic reconnaissance, and surface and borehole geophysics, all of which would provide useful information on most soil projects. However, data obtained by these methods should be supported by actual field reconnaissance, sampling, and testing.
Investigation of Surficial Soils by Field Vane Test
Authors: Liu T. K. , Thornburn T. H.
Published: August 2009

The field vane test has been used increasingly as a tool of soil exploration. This investigation presents a new application of this test—measuring the in- situ strength of surficial soils. Experimental data from 332 field vane tests in a particular group of surficial soils were studied. Results showed that the field vane strength of surficial soils is significantly influenced by their natural water content and plasticity index. A relationship has been derived by regression analysis to estimate field vane strength from the easily determined natural water content and plasticity index values. Attempts were made to correlate the field vane strength and unconfined compressive strength of surficial soils. As expected, they met with little success. It is believed that the poor correlations are due to the unsuitability of the unconfined compression test as a means of measuring the strength of surficial soils and to variations of soil materials used for the two different test procedures.
Shear-Strength Determination of Soft Clayey Soil by Field and Laboratory Methods
Authors: Hall E. B.
Published: August 2009

The Corps of Engineers has prepared a basic report of investigation for proposed underwater barriers in the San Francisco Bay area. In completing this study, it has been necessary to obtain soil design constants and to develop methods of analyses. This paper deals with the comparison of field vane-shear results and shear-strength constants as developed in the laboratory. The tests were conducted on soft bay mud that had been overlain for several years with a large displacement type fill.
Materials Exploration and Field Testing at Oroville Dam
Authors: O'Neill A. L. , Nutting R. G.
Published: August 2009

Design studies for Oroville Dam, a 735-ft high embankment dam now under construction, called for extensive material exploration because of the large quantities of materials required. The dam, which will contain 77 million cu yd of material, is located on the Feather River, 5 miles northeast of Oroville, Butte County, Calif. Original concrete-aggregate exploration and subsequent impervious and pervious materials exploration required procedures and techniques that would provide representative samples of material for testing and a reliable analysis of the in situ characteristics of the areas. A 7000-acre tailings deposit, which was the result of gold dredging along the Feather River downstream from Oroville, was investigated as a source for concrete aggregate and later for transition and pervious embankment material. A unique hole excavator and several types of casing were used in the very loose tailing deposit during the concrete aggregate investigation, and an elaborate field grading procedure was followed. Later exploration was accomplished by dragline, bulldozer, and backhoe. Impervious core material explorations were confined to clayey gravels adjacent to the tailing deposit. Bucket augers were used to drill 30-in. diameter uncased holes for most of the impervious borrow exploration. Field grading equipment was improved and mechanized and over 100 holes were drilled; excavated materials were logged, field graded, and sampled. Through careful analysis and control of the exploration procedures and techniques, it was concluded that samples used for laboratory testing and from which design values were obtained are adequately representative of the in situ deposits. For any extensive materials' exploration requiring field grading, mechanization of equipment is recommended.
Reverse-Circulation Drilling
Authors: Burnham W. L.
Published: August 2009

Reverse-circulation drilling is designed specifically for the construction of production water wells, but is readily adaptable to soil exploration uses, foundation projects, and underwater drilling. The method is an adaptation of the dredge to vertical holes, which permits construction of moderate to large diameter holes of any depth to several hundred feet. The water-filled holes are clean and of uniform diameter, and can be maintained uncased so long as the water level in the hole is higher than the piezometric head in the formation drilled. Drill cuttings are clean, virtually uncontaminated, and often in chunks representative of the materials being drilled. Travel time of cuttings from bit to discharge is only a few seconds, thus permitting close depth control. The method is also well suited to core sampling, which can often be done through the drill pipe without removing the drill tools from the hole. Considering this ease of sampling and the usually excellent sample quality, the cost for exploratory work may be less than with many other drilling methods. Most existing reverse-circulation drilling equipment is not readily adaptable to holes much less than 14 in. in diameter, which may be a disadvantage. However, the ability to construct and maintain clean, uncased holes up to at least 60 in. in diameter in unconsolidated materials and to great depth, could be a distinct advantage.
Introduction
Authors: Thomas Ray
Published: August 2009

During the past twelve years greater interest has been engendered into the minds of those intimately associated with thermal insulation than has been accounted for in many years previously. A large measure of this success has been due to the influence created through the membership of Committee C-16. Our personnel, recruited from the manufacturer, the independent scientist, and the consumer, has for the first time been able to bring together many of the leaders of the thermal insulation industry and weld them into a cohesive organization. The development and adoption of many tests has resulted in a confidence that is only born of agreement by a wide cross-section of industry. So much energy has been expended in increasing the number of specifications for promulgation that some of the more intricate workings of the Committee's interest have been long overdue for publicizing. It is this phase of our efforts that has been so ably compiled into the five papers presented in a symposium just twelve years after another symposium which in reality announced the birth of C-16 with a challenge and forecast of better things to come. A paper should be provocative of thought if it is to bear fruit. Some of the thoughts should also result in action either to support, advance or refute the declarations embodied in the papers presented. It is the hope of each one participating in this program that much of benefit will be forthcoming because of the work carried on by these authors and their presentation for public analysis.
Experiments with a Guarded Hot Plate Thermal Conductivity Set
Authors: Gilbo C. F.
Published: August 2009

This paper briefly describes studies made on an 8-in. square guarded hot plate thermal conductivity set designed as outlined in ASTM Method of Test C 177-45. The limits which must be met in order to operate this instrument successfully are discussed. The results of various experiments in which the operational limits are changed are included and show such things as: the effect of ambient temperature on guarded hot plate results, the effect of thermal unbalance between the heater and guard, and the correlation of errors in results with equipment faults. It is shown that hot plates, as presently constructed, probably do not possess a sufficiently accurate temperature control on the guard heater and that extremely small amounts of unbalance affect the thermal conductivity results more than had previously been supposed. It is also demonstrated that the ambient temperature, when allowed to rise above the hot plate temperature, markedly influences the results. Future plans are discussed covering the construction of a new holder for the guarded hot plate apparatus and the development of a thin hot plate.
Radioisotopes and Nuclear Reactions Applied to Soil Mechanics Problems
Authors: Hosticka Harold E.
Published: August 2009

That there are problems in soil mechanics need hardly be emphasized to soil engineers and not the least of these problems is the proper evaluation of new techniques and methods. Nuclear physics has already established a beachhead in the field of soil mechanics, and now it is ready to widen its invasion of that domain. The question is “How shall it be received?” and the answer to that question should be, “According to its merits for each particular problem.” It is the purpose of this discussion to present the merits of some techniques of nuclear physics in the solution of some problems of soil mechanics. For the purpose of discussion, the field of application of nuclear physics to soils engineering problems may be divided into two broad categories: tracer techniques and techniques depending upon the inter-reaction of radiations with matter. Neither of these techniques is new nor even restricted to the use of radioactive materials. Radioactive isotopes of lead were used as early as 1920 by Hevesy to determine the rate of exchange of lead atoms between lead nitrate and lead chloride in solution, but even before this fluorescent dyes were used to trace the movement of water, and if it is desired to go back into antiquity, the practice of tying a bell on a wandering cow to aid in locating it in a forest can be cited as a tracer technique. Similarly considering the interaction of radiations with matter, in 1895 Roentgen using X-rays produced shadowgrams showing the difference in density between bone and flesh. Earlier than this, the absorption of light by certain chemicals in solution was used to measure the concentration of those chemicals. Indeed, as early as 1873, the laws governing the absorption of light (visible electromagnetic radiation) by solutions were well enough understood to allow the establishment of quantitative methods of analysis based on this effect. What is new is the greatly increased availability of a wide variety of radioactive materials at reasonable cost, the easy availability of a wide selection of commercial instruments for the detection of radioactivity, and the general dissemination of pertinent information on their use.
Cation Exchange Capacity of Loess and its Relation to Engineering Properties
Authors: Davidson Donald T. , Sheeler John B.
Published: August 2009

Cation exchange capacity of the “whole” soil was one of the properties measured in an investigation of the variation of physical and chemical properties of the Wisconsin loess in southwestern Iowa. The test data of the property variation study affords an unusual opportunity for correlations of cation exchange capacity with some engineering (physical) properties of a natural soil material. Before dealing with the cation exchange capacity of loess and its relation to engineering properties, which are the main subjects of this paper, the origin, distribution, and properties of Wisconsin loess are briefly discussed.
Some Effects of Treating Expansive Clays with Calcium Hydroxide
Authors: Goldberg Irving , Klein Alexander
Published: August 2009

The addition of calcium hydroxide to expansive clays results in beneficial reductions in the swelling characteristics and in increased resistance of the material to deformation under load. In this study, improvements in clay properties corresponded generally to the amount of calcium hydroxide addition. For two clays, each mixed wet with up to 8 per cent of calcium hydroxide and then air dried 14 days, it was found that calcium carbonate was present, that crystalline calcium silicate was absent, and that no calcium hydroxide remained. Leaching tests showed that for additions of calcium hydroxide up to 6 per cent, soluble sodium recovered was less than that recovered from clay to which no addition of calcium hydroxide had been made, and calcium ion utilized was in excess of that expected. In view of the impressive improvement in mechanical properties with increasing amounts of calcium hydroxide additions in excess of the total required for ion exchange, solution, and carbonation, it seems likely that there is another utilization of the calcium ion, perhaps involving the non-clay fraction of the soil. It was expected that exchanged sodium ion would be proportional to the amounts of calcium hydroxide additions. However, there was no evidence of sodium-ion exchange until a suffident excess of calcium hydroxide had been added. It was found that the addition of 8 per cent of calcium hydroxide provided a sufficient excess for one of the two days tested but not for the other, a Wyoming bentonite.
The Mass Spectrometer as a Tool for the Determination of Trace Element Impurities in Solid Samples
Authors: Inghram Mark G.
Published: August 2009

There are numerous problems in nuclear physics where it is important to measure quantitatively the amount of a particular element present in a solid sample even though that element is present to only one part per million or considerably less. Examples of such problems include the quantitative determination of the amount of calcium formed by radioactive decay of potassium (1), the amounts of samarium and gadolinium formed by radioactive decay of europium (2), the amount of fission products formed from nuclear fission, etc. (3, 4). In addition to such nuclear physics problems in which the mass spectroscopy group at Chicago has been primarily interested, there are a variety of other problems where such sensitivities are important. These include such things as trace quantities of elements in semiconductors, or more generally, problems of the solid state; trace element studies in geochemistry; trace quantities of radioactive elements present in materials for constructing geiger counters, etc. It is the purpose of this paper to point out the potentialities and limitations of two of the mass spectrometric methods of quantitatively measuring trace elements in the part per million range and below. The two mass spectrometric methods of solid chemical analysis which have been used extensively in Chicago are (1) the Dempster vacuum spark method and (2) the isotopic dilution method. The Dempster vacuum spark method is quite analogous to the optical spectrographic method in that it analyzes for all elements present in a solid sample in a single experiment. In contrast to this general property of the spark method, the isotopic dilution method, as it is generally used, analyzes for only one element per experiment. Its sensitivity, however, is such that, using the method, many problems can be solved which are insoluble by any other known method. Since Mr. Hippie is discussing the general techniques and recent developments in the Dempster vacuum spark method in another paper in this group, this method is not described in any detail here, but there will be given a few results obtained by Dempster which illustrate, the sensitivities obtainable. The isotopic dilution method is described in somewhat more detail.
The Variances of Reduction and Analysis
Authors: Anderson W. W. , Sutherland M. L.
Published: August 2009

The equations of variance applicable to coal sampling can be solved only by substituting known values for each component of variance in the equations. The accuracy of analysis for dry ash content of coal is one contributing source of variation in the multiple system of variations which contribute complexity to a clear-cut solution of the coal sampling problem. This paper gives experimental data on the phase of the problem which embraces the variances associated with the reduction and analysis of the gross sample of coal after it has been collected. Variance values are included for each stage of the standard ASTM procedure for reduction and analysis as specified in Method D 271 - 48. The data indicate several points in the present procedure where systematic variations occur. Calculations of the magnitude of these systematic variations disclose the possible reduction of the variances in the reduction procedure and analysis if these systematic variations could be eliminated from the standard methods.
Multilot Sampling—The Accuracies in Sampling of Large Coal Shipments by Application of the Variance Concept
Authors: Miskimen T. A. , Thurston R. S.
Published: August 2009

This paper presents a system for applying the variance concept of coal sampling to routine sampling work. The relation between the design of routine sampling schemes and the resulting accuracy can be found by evaluating the “observed” variance of the coal and the combined variance of sample reduction and analysis. These accuracies can be expressed for large quantities of coal consisting of many “lots,” or barges, or railroad cars, rather than merely for one “lot” as in the existing ASTM specifications.
Significance of Minimum Property Values of Electrical Insulating Materials
Authors: Craig C. L.
Published: August 2009

Minimum property values are test results which indicate the lowest expected result within a designated accuracy for a definite property of a specific material. Test methods to determine minimum property values are basic requirements for design purposes and for anticipating service performance. Many tests are available to control properties of proven materials, but few methods allow prediction of suitability of materials before trial. The papers of this symposium are intended primarily to present the background of a few attempts to correlate general material test methods with expected service and design requirements. They are planned to set a base line for further work to be sponsored by Subcommittee XI on Nomenclature, Significance, and Statistics of ASTM Committee D-9 on Electrical Insulating Materials—these covering the general field, while future discussions will delve deeper into specific properties or material types. The cooperation and assistance of those having interest or data on any phase of the subject is greatly desired. A few of the papers present substantiated methods for filling a small portion of the void in performance-evaluating test methods, a lack that is commented on below. In general, we are attempting only to point out the need, and to offer some suggested remedies for consideration and possible further work. It must be emphasized that very limited data have been obtained on some of the tests introduced, and confirming evaluation is required before these can be put to general use.
Statistical Treatment of Heat-Aging Studies on Varnished Glass Cloth
Authors: Sieffert L. E. , Alexander E. W.
Published: August 2009

One of the most important recent developments derived from previous studies on the calculation of brittleness temperature of plastics is the revelation that, due to wide distribution of results the usual mathematical average is not useful. Applying this experience to heat-aging life we will illustrate more reliable means of analyzing data statistically for the purposes of ultimately establishing minimum limits. These methods are particularly significant at this time in view of the numerous heat-aging studies planned or under way by ASTM Committee D-9, on Electrical Insulating Materials. ASTM method D 746 describes a method for determining brittleness temperature of plastics which is defined as that temperature at which 50 per cent of the specimens tested fail when a stated minimum number are tested by the method. It is established by testing the specimens at equal increments of temperature over a range including all failures and non-failures of the specimens.
Effects of Corona on Plastic Laminates
Authors: Rufolo A. , Winans R. R.
Published: August 2009

Corona arc, as a source of many undesirable effects, is a constant problem to designers of electrical equipment. In many cases the designer has been able to eliminate corona. Where complete elimination of corona has not been feasible, the problem becomes a search for an engineering material whose performance is not influenced by corona. It is this phase of corona study, dealing specifically with the performance of engineering materials in a corona arc, which is the subject of this paper. Corona attacks both metallic and non-metallic components by physical, chemical, and thermal action. Its attack on the insulation components presents one of the more important factors influencing the service life of electrical machines and equipment. The modern trends toward miniaturization in electrical circuits, reduced sizes of equipment, and decreased spacing of parts have tended to increase the occurrence of corona. Hence, there has developed a considerable interest concerning information on the corona-resistance properties of insulating materials. The investigation conducted by the Naval Material Laboratory, New York Naval Shipyard, has been confined to various types of plastic laminates. It was the aim of this study to determine the resistance of these materials to corona attack, as might be indicated by changes in certain of the electrical and mechanical properties after extended periods of exposure.
Corona Detection and Measurement at Sixty Cycles
Authors: Nye J. R.
Published: August 2009

The essentials of a corona test on insulating materials include a suitable method of detecting and measuring the corona produced. Such a method should be as simple as possible, yet be sensitive to the corona produced. At the same time it should have minimum susceptibility to interfering, extraneous signals. These requirements are not completely compatible so a compromise is usually resorted to for each particular set of test conditions. However, there are certain basic concepts of corona detection and measurement which can serve as a guide in selecting the best compromise. It is the purpose of this paper to present some of these concepts and to indicate their application under commonly-encountered test conditions.
Full Scale Wing Fatigue Testing
Authors: Vollmecke A. R.
Published: August 2009

The problem of fatigue in aircraft structures has been under investigation for many years. Much work has been accomplished in testing and evaluating the effects of different cyclic loads primarily upon material coupons, typical joints, and small component parts. Although this type of testing, along with service experience, has established the basis of present-day fatigue knowledge, it does not reproduce the complex load conditions that exist in a full scale aircraft structure. Only in testing of a complete aircraft structure for a given condition can the life relationship of the assembled parts and the influence of these parts on adjoining structure be determined. In recent years, limited repeated load testing of large structures has been accomplished by the use of two test methods: (1) single mass, cantilever, resonate beam type tests, and (2) distributed load application using tension pads and whiffle trees with hydraulic loading cylinders. The single mass resonate cantilever beam type test is simple in setup. A single mass placed on a wing is resonated to give the desired loading. The cyclic rate is fast, dependent only on the resonate frequency of the system. The single concentrated load however imposes a serious limitation to the testing in that the bending moment and shear produced are correct for a given condition at only one spanwise station. Torsion is generally neglected.
Structural Testing of Large Glass Installations
Authors: Frownfelter C. R.
Published: August 2009

Static test chambers for simulating wind loads on large glass plates or glassto-metal wall assemblies are described. With strain gage and deflection instrumentation, it is possible to determine the effect of supporting members, glass size, and other factors on the stress distribution in the assembly. The relation of small scale tests on glass to these large scale tests is discussed, particularly with respect to the effect of size and rate of loading on the strength of glass.
The Application of Emission Spectroscopy to the Analysis of Water-Formed Deposits
Authors: Anderson Charles H.
Published: August 2009

The principles of conventional light-emission spectroscopy, flame photometry, and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy are reviewed briefly as they apply to the determination of elements present in a water-formed deposit. Each field is discussed from the point of view of its applications, its advantages, and its limitations. New developments in each field are also discussed.
Objectives and Activities of Technical Committee N of Committee D-2 on Petroleum Products and Lubricants
Authors: Millett W. H.
Published: August 2009

The industry needs that prompted the formation of Technical Committee N are reviewed, and the organization and objectives of the committee are outlined. The activities of the committee and its various sections are discussed in general terms. Data of a summary nature are presented to illustrate the type of work now in progress. The paper concludes with a brief outline of the immediate and long-range goals of the committee.