bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Lewis Ruth , Marine Susan B.
Published: September 2020

In this chapter the editors pull together key themes emerging from the previous chapters and consider how this volume may help direct future work on transforming higher education in order to eradicate gender-based violence (GBV). They reflect on the importance of theorizing about GBV in the higher education context. Paying attention to the language and concepts used, ensuring perpetrators are in the picture rather than obscured, and adopting an intersectional approach are all important aspects of scholarship and practice. The chapter examines the central role of students as both objects and subjects of transformation; their work as activists is essential to transforming student norms and practices. It also reflects on the importance of collaborations between various actors (students, staff, faculty, management, and community organizations). To be effective in transforming the power that enables GBV to persist, these collaborations, and scholarship, must be explicitly power-conscious.
Carolingians and Ecclesiastical Servitude
Authors: Sommar Mary E.
Published: September 2020

This is the story of how the church sought to establish norms for slave ownership on the part of ecclesiastical institutions and personnel and for others’ behavior toward such slaves. Chronicles, letters, and other documents from each of the various historical periods, along with an analysis of the various policies and statutes, provide insight into the situations of these unfree ecclesiastical dependents. Although this book is a serious scholarly monograph about the history of church law, it has been written in such a way that no specialist knowledge is required of the reader, whether a scholar in another field or a general reader interested in church history or the history of slavery. Historical background is provided, and there is a short Latin lexicon. This chapter discusses slavery in the Carolingian Empire (c. 750–900) and includes an overview of slavery in the British Isles in the first Christian millennium.
The Classical Canon Law
Authors: Sommar Mary E.
Published: September 2020

This is the story of how the church sought to establish norms for slave ownership on the part of ecclesiastical institutions and personnel and for others’ behavior toward such slaves. Chronicles, letters, and other documents from each of the various historical periods, along with an analysis of the various policies and statutes, provide insight into the situations of these unfree ecclesiastical dependents. Although this book is a serious scholarly monograph about the history of church law, it has been written in such a way that no specialist knowledge is required of the reader, whether a scholar in another field or a general reader interested in church history or the history of slavery. Historical background is provided, and there is a short Latin lexicon. This chapter discusses ecclesiastical slavery in the eleventh through thirteenth centuries and provides an in-depth analysis of the official canon law relevant to the question of ecclesiastical servitude.
Conclusions
Authors: Sommar Mary E.
Published: September 2020

This is the story of how the church sought to establish norms for slave ownership on the part of ecclesiastical institutions and personnel and for others’ behavior toward such slaves. Chronicles, letters, and other documents from each of the various historical periods, along with an analysis of the various policies and statutes, provide insight into the situations of these unfree ecclesiastical dependents. Although this book is a serious scholarly monograph about the history of church law, it has been written in such a way that no specialist knowledge is required of the reader, whether a scholar in another field or a general reader interested in church history or the history of slavery. Historical background is provided, and there is a short Latin lexicon. This chapter summarizes the conclusions drawn in earlier chapters and provides a brief overview of the question of ecclesiastical servitude up to the twentieth century.
Background, Clarifications, and Overview
Authors: Vermurlen Brad
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter opens with a brief summary of the big picture. It then establishes the existence of a New Calvinist movement in the United States since the turn of the millennium while acknowledging that the reality of the movement is itself a part of the puzzle. The chapter then provides an overview of the empirical data collected for this book, which includes participant observation at three (wildly popular) New Calvinist megachurches across the country, personal interviews with seventy-five Evangelical leaders (including New Calvinists and their religious challengers), and content analysis of printed and online materials, as well as how these data were analyzed. This chapter includes a section that responds to five common misconceptions about the nature and approach of this project. It ends with a summary of the narrative arc of the rest of the book, broken down by chapters.
Demonstration of the Model, Part II
Authors: Vermurlen Brad
Published: September 2020

Chapter 6 presents Part II of a field-theoretic model of religious strength, demonstrating the game-like contest and battle in the American Evangelical field, which created and fortified the New Calvinist movement. The chapter begins by showing multiple ways New Calvinist leaders strategically positioned themselves in relation to their field competitors to secure a “competitive advantage” (especially among university-educated young people) over other expressions of Evangelical Christianity. The analysis then shifts from strategy to gatekeeping and outright conflict, including in-depth accounts of two very public controversies: those regarding Rob Bell and World Vision-USA. The author further highlights the issues of charismatic authority and regional contextualization. In total, this chapter demonstrates the field-theoretic model of religious strength by showing how the Reformed resurgence is significantly a relationally constructed phenomenon, enjoying qualitative institutional vitality which has been fought for and won by Christian leaders’ strategic and conflictual actions.
American Evangelicalism in Hypermodernity
Authors: Vermurlen Brad
Published: September 2020

The concluding chapter takes stock of what the preceding argument entails for American Evangelicalism today. It begins with evaluations from Evangelical leaders themselves about the state and health, or lack thereof, of Evangelicalism in the United States. It then addresses two frequently asked questions: “What’s new about the New Calvinism?” and “What are the boundaries of the Evangelical field?” Not able to identify any definitive boundaries, the chapter moves on to an exploration of what Evangelicalism in the United States centers on (the Bible? Jesus? The Gospel? Mission? Politics?). As with boundaries, it is argued this religious tradition lacks any coherent, agreed-upon, substantive center. American Evangelicalism is increasingly fragmented and incoherent. The chapter—and the book—ends by suggesting a new vision of secularization not as declining belief or practice but as dissolution or “cultural entropy,” a process by which an entire religious cultural system falls apart.
Electoral Afterlives
Authors: Charnock Emily J.
Published: September 2020

This chapter considers Labor’s Non-Partisan League (LNPL) and the Liberty League after the 1936 election campaign. Both remained in existence for several years, though the Liberty League was far less active. Meanwhile, the LNPL shifted its sights from electing the president to electing his supporters in Congress. In so doing, its actions took on a more partisan hue, for most LNPL support went to liberal Democrats and few, if any, progressive Republicans. It also opposed some conservative Southern Democrats, suggesting a nascent interest in partisan change—something President Roosevelt had himself encouraged with his 1938 “purge” campaign, when he urged defeat of his most bitter Democratic critics in their primary elections. Especially after 1938, CIO leaders began to look beyond a strategy of “rewarding and punishing” to envisaging a cohesive, disciplined, and supportive Democratic Party as a vehicle through which labor’s aims could best be achieved over the long term.
Rivers, sustainable development, and policies
Authors: Islam S. Nazrul
Published: September 2020

Chapter 1 introduces the concepts proposed in the book and gives an overview of the remaining chapters. It first highlights the importance of rivers for the three dimensions of sustainable development, namely economic growth, social development, and environmental protection. The chapter next describes broadly two opposing approaches to rivers, Commercial and Ecological. The former is based on the premise that “Any river water that passes to the sea is a waste,” and encourages impounding and abstraction of river water for various commercial purposes. The later considers carrying precipitation water to the seas as the main function of rivers and discourages interventions that alter significantly volume and direction of river flows. Both Commercial and Ecological approaches have their corresponding frontal and lateral versions. The lateral version of the Commercial approach is the Cordon approach, according to which floodplains should be cordoned off from river channels through construction of embankments. By contrast, the lateral form of the Ecological approach is the Open approach, which advocates keeping floodplains open to river channels for the benefit of both floodplains and river channels.
Introduction to the Ecological approach
Authors: Islam S. Nazrul
Published: September 2020

Chapter 6 introduces the Ecological approach to rivers that arose in response to the adverse effects of the Commercial approach. It explains the distinction between the pre- and post-industrial Ecological approaches. While the former was a compulsion due to low level of technology, the latter is a choice made to avoid the negative consequences of high level of technology acquired through the Industrial Revolution. The chapter clarifies the relationship of the Ecological approach with the basin-wide approach to rivers. It also shows that the Ecological approach can be viwed as an enlightened anthropocentric view of river, which in practical terms is also compatible with the non-anthropocentric view. The chapter goes on to show that, contrary to the popular perception, the Ecological approach is an active approach, requiring sustained efforts along multiple directions. Instead of negating the role of rivers as a resource, the Ecological approach advocates the use of this resource while preserving the basic role of rivers in maintaining earth’s hydrological cycle and the unique ecologies of their basins. The Ecological approach thereby is more conducive to sustainable development than the Commercial approach.
Cordon approach in a delta
Authors: Islam S. Nazrul
Published: September 2020

Chapter 11 illustrates the consequences of the Cordon approach through the experience of the Bengal Delta, formed by three great river systems—the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna. The chapter explains the delta formation process in general, noting the stages through which it progresses. It presents the basic facts regarding the Bengal delta, which now spreads across both Bangladesh and India. The chapter reviews the application of the Cordon approach in both parts of the delta. It notes that the approach received wider application in Bangladesh, which contains the larger and active part of the Bengal Delta. In the process, the approach gave rise to different types of cordons, rural and urban; coastal and inland; and partial and full. The chapter shows that while the specificities differ, the Cordon approach in each case led to separation of the land from the nurturing functions of river overflows, emergence of the new danger of catastrophic flooding, and the nagging problem of waterlogging. The Cordon approach also led to the rise of conflicts, pitting people inside the cordons with those remaining outside, who witnessed aggravation of flooding.
The Common School Awakening
Authors: Komline David
Published: September 2020

A statue of Horace Mann, erected in front of the Boston state house in 1863, declares him the “Father of the American Public School System.” For over a century and a half, most narratives about early American education have proceeded as if this epithet were true. It has been etched into the general American consciousness as surely as it has been etched into the stone pedestal on which Mann stands. As Mann looms over the Boston Common, so he has loomed over discussions of early American schooling. The Common School Awakening offers a new narrative about the rise of public schools in America. The story begins before Horace Mann ever entered the scene as the first secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education. In the first half of the nineteenth century a broad and distinctly American religious consensus emerged, allowing people from across the religious spectrum to cooperate in systematizing and professionalizing America’s schools, all in an effort to Christianize the country. At the height of this movement, several states introduced state-sponsored teacher training colleges and concentrated government oversight of schools in offices such as the one held by Mann. Shortly thereafter, the religious consensus that had served as the foundation for this common school system disintegrated. But the system itself remained, the legacy not just of one man, but of a whole network of reformers who put into motion a transatlantic and transdenominational religious movement—the “Common School Awakening.”
An Awakening for Whom?
Authors: Komline David
Published: September 2020

In the 1830s, the population of Ohio was much more diverse than was that of Massachusetts. For the most part, school reformers in both states came from a white, Protestant, English-speaking majority and did little to look beyond their narrow cultural horizons when advocating educational change. In Ohio, however, groups that fell outside of this majority were larger and could more feasibly, although not always successfully, engage the debate about school reform. This chapter highlights the way three such groups, African Americans, Germans, and Catholics, interacted with the Common School Awakening, illustrating how their objections to the key assumptions of the awakening adumbrated larger weaknesses that would eventually undermine this educational reform movement.
The End of the Awakening
Authors: Komline David
Published: September 2020

Between 1840, when chapters five, six, and seven leave off, and 1848, when Horace Mann left his position as secretary of the board of education, the religious consensus that had helped to give rise to the Common School Awakening definitively broke down. By the end of the decade, American Christians of all stripes were issuing objections to common schools. Lutherans, Reformed Christians, and members of other confessions joined the Catholics who had first voiced opposition to the vision of Christianity without sectarianism that stood at the heart of the Common School Awakening. As a result, the dramatic reform of the 1830s came to a halt, occasionally even retreating. But whatever regression might have occurred in terms of short-term policy, the religiously motivated ideals of systematization and professionalization had been permanently enshrined in the American vision of public education. Once stirred from her slumbers, American public education would not go quietly back to sleep.
Introduction
Authors: Harney Kristin
Published: September 2020

This introduction summarizes the content found in chapters 1 through 6. It includes details regarding specific subject areas, denotes which teachers will deliver instruction, discusses alignment with national standards, and provides a rationale for labeling lessons as primary, intermediate, or upper elementary. The introduction concludes with suggestions for implementing lessons and strategies in K–5 classrooms.
Overview of Music Integration in the Elementary Curriculum
Authors: Harney Kristin
Published: September 2020

This chapter serves as a brief introduction to music integration and includes definitions and a review of best practices. An overview of the 2015 National Core Arts Standards provides a foundation for the standards-based lessons that teachers will encounter throughout the remaining chapters of the book. There are growing calls to foster self-expression, critical thinking, collaboration, and creativity in school settings, and music integration is a path for developing these skills. The challenge for teachers involved in the integration process is to teach interdisciplinary lessons that make meaningful connections between disciplines and do not compromise the integrity of either discipline. The final section of the chapter focuses on strategies that allow teachers to create their own lessons that integrate music with other areas of the elementary curriculum.
Music and Social Studies
Authors: Harney Kristin
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores connections between music and social studies. It includes rationales for integrating music and social studies, common links between the two disciplines, and a discussion of National Curriculum Standards for Social Studies, the C3 Framework for Social Studies State Standards, and the National Core Arts Standards for Music. Tables clearly show the standards that are incorporated throughout the lessons and examples. The chapter contains four detailed, full-length lessons that integrate music and social studies. These include a lesson that examines the importance of a classroom community; a two-part exploration of historical and musical aspects of the blues; and an introduction to the Holocaust through Górecki’s Symphony No. 3. The chapter ends with an inventory of ideas detailing nineteen additional lesson topics, specific teaching strategies, and recommended activities.
The Finales
Authors: Lester Joel
Published: September 2020

Chapter 5 is a detailed study of the final movements of Brahms’s three violin sonatas. How do the finales function as separate movements? How do the finales complete the musical narratives of each entire sonata? Concerning the G-major Sonata, the chapter explores how the finale wraps up the sonata-long narratives, and how the sonata as a whole relates to the death of Brahms’s godson Felix Schumann. Concerning the A-major Sonata, the analysis looks at the ways the last movement wraps up the sonata-long narratives of how the personas of the violinist and pianist interact. In the case of the D-minor Sonata, attention is on the ways that the final movement differs dramatically yet relates to the earlier movements in the sonata.
Introduction
Authors: Sobieraj Sarah
Published: September 2020

Women who participate in public discussions about social and political issues are often confronted with a barrage of vicious digital attacks. The abuse is a form of patterned resistance to women’s voice and visibility, as evinced by the way gender is weaponized as the central grounds for condemnation. Attacks are riddled with gendered epithets and stereotypes, and they perseverate on women’s physical appearance and presumed sexual behavior; also, the generic nature of the abuse features nearly interchangeable misogyny rather than taking substantive issue with any particular woman. Women who challenge social hierarchies face the most intense pushback, particularly those speaking in or about male-dominated fields, those perceived as feminist or otherwise noncompliant to gender norms, and those with multiple marginalized identities (e.g., women of color, LBTQ women, etc.). This often-unrecognized form of gender inequality constrains women’s use of digital public spaces, much in the way the pervasive threat of sexual intimidation and violence constrains women’s use of physical public spaces.
Constant Calibration (Preventative Labor)
Authors: Sobieraj Sarah
Published: September 2020

The substance of online attacks against women is predictable—filled with long-standing sexist, racist, xenophobic, and homophobic content—but their frequency and intensity are not. This uncertainty makes participating in public discourse a gamble and leaves women struggling to crack the code: how can they enter digital publics while also avoiding abuse? Drawing on interviews with women targeted by digital attacks, this chapter shows that they engage in time-consuming and emotionally draining efforts intended to reduce the potential for harassment. They use four main approaches: tightening their digital security, consulting “mental maps” of riskier and safer online spaces, monitoring their emotional stamina to assess whether they are “up to” participation, and engaging in extensive credibility-work designed to limit attackers’ ability to discredit or shame them. In the end, as with other forms of gendered abuse, following victim-avoidance “rules” is not enough to ensure safety for women who speak out online.
Anger Management (Ameliorative Labor)
Authors: Sobieraj Sarah
Published: September 2020

This chapter uses in-depth interviews with women attacked online to explore how they cope with the harassment. It shows that women employ multiple coping strategies (e.g., retreating into like-minded enclaves, constructing narratives in which the abuse does not affect them), shaped by the perceived threat and real impact of their attacks, which are—in turn—shaped by their severity, the social position of the target, and the extent to which the toxic content is supported by pre-existing stereotypes and cultural biases. More privileged women have a wider array of coping strategies available, as their social class; professional standing; membership in historically valued racial, ethnic, and religious groups; and possession of arbitrary markers of respectability (e.g., thinness and emotional restraint) work to deflect some accusations while also creating space for resistance. Regardless of how women cope, these efforts take time and sap energy, yielding costs of their own.
Authoritarians Who Dislike Authority?
Authors: Hibbing John R.
Published: September 2020

This chapter reviews and critiques one of the most frequently invoked descriptions of intense Trump supporters—that they have authoritarian personalities. This phrase is taken from the title of a landmark book published in 1950 by Theodor Adorno and colleagues, a work that is described in some detail in this chapter. Subsequent efforts to measure similar concepts have focused on right-wing authoritarianism and preferences for child-rearing. These scholarly efforts attempt to explain anti-Semitism, ethnocentrism, and prejudice based on authoritarian attitudes that include submissiveness, conventionalism, and aggression. The argument made in this chapter is that the application of these concepts to Trump’s base does not capture the real difference between those who are and those who are not avid Trump supporters because the actual central distinction has more to do with attitudes toward security than authority and because they mix personality traits with worldview.
Better Secure than Submissive
Authors: Hibbing John R.
Published: September 2020

In this chapter, the securitarian hypothesis is tested against the standard authoritarian hypothesis. At the personality level, the results show that Trump venerators actually are less likely to have the key authoritarian personality trait of submissiveness and are no more likely to value conventionalism and aggression. They are, however, more likely to display securitarian personality traits (e.g., to believe that “being prepared” is the best life motto). Parallel patterns appear on the issues believed to be “most important” where Trump venerators are more likely than non-Trump-venerating conservatives to mention a security issue such as gun rights, immigration reduction, or defense spending. Finally, at the societal level, Trump venerators are not more likely than non-Trump-venerating conservatives to value authoritarian leaders and conventionalism but they are significantly more likely to say that the worst thing possible for a country is to be perceived as weak.
Fashioning the Future
Authors: Kölbel Andrea
Published: September 2020

Chapter Three explores the potential and limitations that educated young Nepalis associated with their university studies. Changes in the composition of the student body indicate that a growing number of students from social groups previously not represented at university now obtain academic credentials. Their participation in higher education gives reason to hope for a more socially just and prosperous future. In order to take full advantage of new educational opportunities, young people often felt compelled to relocate to the capital city or to go abroad. For the majority of these students, however, certain educational pathways associated with an upper social status remained out of reach. In identifying a number of social influences and structural constraints, which powerfully shaped young people’s educational trajectories and related future orientations, the findings presented in this chapter allow for a critically engagement with the concept of the ‘capacity to aspire’.
‘If Your Jeans Are Original, How Come Everyone Else Has One?’
Authors: Bhattacharya Sreedeep
Published: September 2020

This chapter deals with exclusionary strategies and their representations in colonial, postcolonial, and post-liberalization phases in India. Citing a wide range of secondary sources, it establishes how exclusionary strategies and conscious social distancing were central to the formation of middle-class identity in the colonial and postcolonial India. The author argues that middle-class attitudes towards consumption were characterized by a certain degree of restraint and thrift. However, in the post-liberalization phase, there is an erosion of that miserly attitude towards a guilt-free consumption, leading to unapologetic material indulgences. This chapter looks at popular visual registers such as advertisements to argue how the exclusionary zeal increasingly is visually mediated and manifested through portrayals of exclusivity. It particularly focuses on apparel advertisements that emphasize the ideas of class, exclusivity, and difference. It asserts that the visual aspects of commodity have become exterior markers of difference, as the desire for distinction is more visceral than before.
Kalikesh Singh Deo
Authors: Chhibber Pradeep , Shah Harsh
Published: September 2020

Kalikesh Singh Deo is a two-time elected member of the Lok Sabha from Odisha. He belongs to the Biju Janata Dal. Of royal lineage, Kalikesh and many of his family members are active in electoral politics in different parties, including the BJP and the Congress. Representing a smaller political party Kalikesh is very aware of the limited influence of a single member of parliament in enacting laws and influencing government policy.
Poonam Mahajan
Authors: Chhibber Pradeep , Shah Harsh
Published: September 2020

Poonam Mahajan is the president of the Bharatiya Janata Party’s (BJP’s) Youth Wing and MP from Mumbai North Central. Poonam is a firm believer in the importance of organization, especially a party’s organization. Her father, Pramod Mahajan, was a general secretary of the BJP. She is unequivocal in her belief that the BJP’s strength is its organization and cadre. She is proud of how the organization looks after its members. Poonam’s main concerns are joblessness, infrastructural development (especially toilets), and ensuring that Mumbai remains an important global city, part of a global village where international influences and trends have a long-lasting impact. She balances the need for infrastructural development with environmental protection, Mumbai’s needs for green spaces, and her passion for wildlife preservation.
Varun Gandhi
Authors: Chhibber Pradeep , Shah Harsh
Published: September 2020

Varun Gandhi, a scion of the Nehru-Gandhi dynasty, carries both the privilege and burden of being the nephew, grandson, and great-grandson of Indian prime ministers. Yet, he is in the BJP, where the Nehru name is considered anathema. Varun is enigmatic. He writes prolifically on policy matters and is also known for controversial and divisive remarks. He is soft-spoken and appears sensitive, leaving us to wonder whether Varun Gandhi a liberal intellectual in the BJP or a firebrand politician.
Review of Literature
Authors: Patibandla Murali
Published: September 2020

The chapter reviews fundamental theoretical contributions explaining determinants of international trade starting from comparative advantage, neo-technology theories, intra-industry trade, strategic trade policies and ‘New’ New Trade Theory. For developing economies, the Heckscher-Ohlin (H&O) Theory of Comparative Advantage in labour abundance is relevant. However, as countries start growing economically, neo-technology and intra-industry factors become relevant. The book traces the transition of international trade behaviour starting the Pre-reform era of import substitution to the Post-reform era of opening to international trade and investment. The conceptual discussion provides basic underlying theories in understanding international trade and investment behaviour of firms. It shows under what conditions international trade and investment are beneficial to a country. The discussion of the theories helps in formulating hypotheses for empirical testing in the following chapters.
Empirical Analysis
Authors: Patibandla Murali
Published: September 2020

Econometric exercises were based on firm level panel data which covers a long-time dimension of the Post-reform era. Three industries were chosen Automobiles (AM), Auto-components (AC), and Two-wheelers (TW). These industries were chosen because of their high degree of exposure to Transnational corporations (TNCs). The results demonstrate that exports are explained positively by TE, firm size, and labour intensity, which implies that firms have become very competitive in the Post-reforms era and large firms started to play important role in exports. TE variable is explained positively by R&D, Imports, Technology purchases and vertical integration. This implies firms augmented their technological efforts in the Post-reform’s era. The result for Vertical integration variable implies India remains a high transaction costs economy. The estimated augmented production function in general shows exposure to international trade and investment results positive benefits to the Indian economy.
Foreign Affairs
Authors: Wilmarth Jr. Arthur E.
Published: September 2020

A speculative and unstable credit boom occurred in overseas markets during the 1920s, as universal banks and private investment banks competed aggressively to sell more than $12 billion of foreign bonds to U.S. investors. The resulting surge in overseas lending left many governments and private sector borrowers in Central and Eastern Europe and Latin America in a dangerously exposed position when U.S. investors lost their appetite for foreign bonds at the end of the 1920s. Universal banks and investment banks sold many unsound foreign bonds to unsophisticated and trusting American investors. The massive sales of risky domestic and foreign securities by universal banks and investment banks had highly adverse effects on the U.S. economy, foreign economies, and investors when the domestic and overseas financing booms abruptly ended following the stock market crash in late 1929.
Déjà Vu
Authors: Wilmarth Jr. Arthur E.
Published: September 2020

Like the credit boom of the 1920s, the toxic credit bubble of the 2000s precipitated a devastating global financial crisis. The desire to earn quick profits from originating and securitizing subprime loans corrupted the risk management practices of large financial conglomerates and the credit review practices of credit ratings agencies that assigned investment ratings to mortgage-related securities. By the end of 2006, U.S. credit markets resembled an inverted pyramid of risk, in which multiple layers of financial bets depended on the performance of high-risk subprime loans held in securitized pools. When housing prices began to fall and subprime loans began to default in large numbers in 2007, the leveraged bets on top of that pyramid of risk blew up and inflicted devastating losses on financial institutions and investors in the U.S. and Europe. Officials on both sides of the Atlantic were slow to recognize and respond to the severity of the crisis. The Federal Reserve Board and the Treasury Department missed multiple warning signs that should have caused them to increase their oversight of major U.S. banks and other large financial institutions during 2007 and early 2008.
Bailouts Without End
Authors: Wilmarth Jr. Arthur E.
Published: September 2020

The Fed’s rescue of Bear Stearns and the Treasury Department’s nationalization of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac in 2008 provoked widespread criticism. Consequently, the Fed and Treasury were very reluctant to approve further bailouts, and they allowed Lehman Brothers to fail in September 2008. Lehman’s collapse triggered a global panic and a meltdown of financial markets around the world. The Fed and Treasury quickly arranged a bailout of AIG, and Congress approved a $700 billion financial rescue bill. Treasury established the Troubled Asset Relief Program, which injected capital into large universal banks, while the Fed provided trillions of dollars of emergency loans and the FDIC established new guarantee programs for bank debts and deposits. In February 2009, federal regulators pledged to provide any further capital that the nineteen largest U.S. banks needed to survive, thereby cementing the “too big to fail” status of U.S. megabanks. The U.K. and other European nations arranged similar bailouts for their universal banks. Meanwhile, thousands of small banks and small businesses failed, millions of people lost their jobs, and millions of families lost their homes during the Great Recession.
Mendelssohn and Droysen
Authors: Applegate Celia
Published: September 2020

This chapter considers Felix Mendelssohn’s historicism—his cultural activities aimed at reviving the past in order to illuminate and improve the present—through the composer’s long-standing friendship with Johann Gustav Droysen. One of the most important and original of nineteenth-century historians, Droysen first entered Mendelssohn’s life as his tutor in the 1820s. Sharing a love of music as well as a veneration for the great achievements of the past, the two remained lifelong friends, and Mendelssohn would set several of Droysen’s poems. To compare their engagement with the past is to illuminate the relationship of practice to theory and of action to thought. At the same time, the comparison allows us to see two creative people grappling with the power and the insufficiency of the past in shaping the present.
The Philosophical Composer
Authors: Botstein Leon
Published: September 2020

Felix Mendelssohn’s philosophical convictions regarding faith and human reason not only hold a clue to his intentions as a mature composer but also set him apart from many contemporaries. His philosophical inclinations influenced his ambitions as a composer and helped him formulate and justify his aesthetic, particularly during the last decade of his life. This chapter examines the influence of his grandfather Moses Mendelssohn and the Protestant theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher, whom Mendelssohn knew from his youth in Berlin. Such philosophical affinities turn out to be illuminating and provocative, suggesting a way of recapturing a sense of the distinct character, beauty, and power of Mendelssohn’s music.
Fanny Hensel’s Sechs Lieder, Op. 9
Authors: Rodgers Stephen
Published: September 2020

In October 1847, five months after Fanny Hensel died, her brother Felix Mendelssohn brought several of her manuscripts to his publisher. Three years later, these works appeared in print as Fanny’s Opp. 8, 9, 10, and 11, though who selected these pieces for publication remains unclear. The siblings’ music, however, provides another form of evidence that can shed light on Felix’s role in the dissemination of his sister’s music. This chapter examines Fanny’s Sechs Lieder, Op. 9, a collection that is intimately connected to one of Felix’s own song collections, Zwölf Lieder, Op. 9 (1830). Considering these intertextual resonances, it is difficult not to see Fanny’s Op. 9 as a sibling collaboration in its own right, a brother’s musical elegy to his departed sister.
Setting the Stage
Authors: McCarthy Kerry
Published: September 2020

We do not know where Tallis received his musical training, but we can catch a glimpse of the world of his youth by looking at an important book of music from that generation. The Antiphonale of 1519–20 is a vast printed collection of traditional plainchant for use in church. It contains many melodies Tallis used in his own works, and it shows us what everyday musical life would have looked like for a young musician in Catholic England. This chapter follows the Antiphonale through Advent and the Christmas season, discussing the old traditions of choral singing and the teaching of choristers.
The Peterhouse Partbooks
Authors: McCarthy Kerry
Published: September 2020

This chapter takes a close look at the Peterhouse set of partbooks, an impressive anthology of five-voice sacred music that contains several works by Tallis, including a mass he based on his own motet Salve intemerata (see Chapter 8). That mass gives us an unusually direct view of Tallis at work, revisiting, adapting, and making new decisions about his music. The Peterhouse collection shows the surprising stylistic diversity of Latin-texted church music during its last years in England. The partbooks also reveal hints of religious reform in its earliest stages, as well as the cosmopolitan tastes of the people who used them. They are copied on French paper and they include some Italian repertory. They may be linked to Tallis’s brief employment at Canterbury Cathedral around 1541.
The Wanley and Lumley Partbooks
Authors: McCarthy Kerry
Published: September 2020

At this point in Tallis’s story, musicians have begun singing in English for radically simplified church services. The Wanley and Lumley partbooks are two of the oldest musical documents of the English Reformation. They contain some of Tallis’s earliest works in the new reformed style. This chapter traces the changes in English music during the 1540s and looks at the origins of Tallis’s English anthems and services. At this point, he was in a position of great authority in the royal household chapel (itself the arbiter of liturgical taste for the rest of the nation) and under considerable pressure to write successful works in a new style. He thrived under this pressure, as we can see in a perfect miniature such as the anthem If ye love me.
The Cantiones of 1575
Authors: McCarthy Kerry
Published: September 2020

In 1575, Tallis and his younger colleague William Byrd were given a royal monopoly on the printing of music. That same year they published the Cantiones, an elegantly produced collection of music by both composers. Some of Tallis’s contributions were reworkings of his older pieces, but others were strikingly innovative. His works in the last part of the book are particularly creative and fascinating. This chapter describes the whole collection and examines those last pieces one by one. It is unclear whether the Cantiones were a commercial failure or at least a partial success, but in either case they were a significant landmark in English music printing.
Three Monuments
Authors: McCarthy Kerry
Published: September 2020

Chapter 16 is the last of the music chapters. It focuses on Tallis’s three most monumental works. The first work is the seven-voice Puer natus mass, built around an esoteric number-and-letter code in the tenor part; this piece was rediscovered only in the twentieth century and remains an enigma. The second work is the votive antiphon Gaude gloriosa, the boldest and most ambitious of all Tallis’s works in the traditional pre-Reformation English style. The third work is his forty-part motet Spem in alium, composed on a scale that was never equaled or even attempted by any other Tudor composer. This chapter discusses these three big pieces, their musical and cultural contexts, and their possible origins.
Child Composers in the Old Conservatories
Authors: Gjerdingen Robert O.
Published: September 2020

The original music conservatories were orphanages. Through innovative teaching methods the masters of these old institutions were able to transform poor and often illiterate castoffs into elite musicians, many of whom became famous in the history of classical music. The book tells the story of how this was done. It shows what the lessons were like, what a typical day was like for an orphan, and how children progressed from simple lessons to ones more advanced than any seen today in colleges and universities. Recent rediscoveries of thousands of the old lessons have allowed us to understand how children’s minds were systematically developed to be able to “think” in music. That is, the lessons slowly built up the mental ability to imagine the interplay of two or more voices or instruments. Today we think of Mozart as having a miraculous ability to imagine musical works in his head, but in truth many of the conservatory graduates of that era had attained a similar level of controlled musical imagination. They could improvise for hours at the keyboard, and they could quickly compose whole works for ensembles. The book is accompanied by 100 YouTube videos so that readers can hear what the lessons sounded like.
Schemas, Exemplars, and the Treasure Trove of Memory
Authors: Gjerdingen Robert O.
Published: September 2020

One of the purposes of music training in the old conservatories was to stuff the students’ memories full of useful musical patterns. Psychologists often use the term “schema” to describe structured memories. In Naples, the masters taught dozens of schemas to the children. They taught three basic types of cadences, the so-called Rule of the Octave, the contrapuntal patterns known as suspensions, and a number of musical sequences categorized by the motions of their basses. These were explicit schemas in the sense of having names and being openly discussed. There were also implicit schemas—patterns learned through repeated similar experiences but not given specific names. Professional musicians seemed to know many patterns by name, whereas amateur musicians and concert listeners probably knew only a few names like “cadence.”
Counterpoint and Collocation
Authors: Gjerdingen Robert O.
Published: September 2020

We know a lot about which words go together in our native language. In English we say “She caught a cold and then the flu.” We would never say “She caught the cold and then a flu.” Often we cannot articulate a rule for such knowledge—we just pick it up from hearing language in use. Counterpoint in music was learned the same way. Millions of combinations of tones were possible, but only certain combinations were preferred. Linguists call them “collocations,” meaning things co-located much more frequently than might be expected if combinations were random. The chapter surveys several contrapuntal collocations taught in Naples.
A Sickly Young Woman Speaks Elegant Harmony to One of the Immortals
Authors: Gjerdingen Robert O.
Published: September 2020

In the 1930s, the harmony classes at the Paris Conservatory were still segregated by gender. Jacques de La Presle was a teacher of “women’s harmony,” and in 1938 his student Colette Boyer won a first prize in the annual women’s harmony contest. The test bass had been composed by Henri Busser. Boyer’s realizations exhibit an elegance and refinement that must have impressed the judges. Henri Busser’s own realization of his bass is perhaps not quite as good as Boyer’s. Although the trauma of WWII led her to abandon music and seek refuge as a nun, her small artworks produced for the contests and classes in harmony remain testaments to her great talent. She knew nothing of the kind of harmony classes taught today in North America, but she was a minor master of the art of harmony as a living expression of a great European tradition.
The Beaux-Arts Framework
Authors: Gjerdingen Robert O.
Published: September 2020

The Institute of France has for centuries controlled royal or public support for the arts in France. Under its wings it has both a School of Fine Arts for the visual arts and the Paris Conservatory for music, as well as many other institutions. The schools of fine arts and music were set up along the similar lines. The goal was to train the next generation of artists and musicians in the classic arts of a past golden age. For visual artists, sculptors, and architects, this meant the art of ancient Greece and Rome. For musicians, this meant the art of sixteenth- to eighteenth-century Italy. For young artists outside the official School of Fine Arts, instructional lithographs could be purchased and copied. These lithographs showed how to make a sketch, then to refine the sketch into a set of contours, and then to add shading and texture.
Early Dynastic Egypt
Authors: Bestock Laurel
Published: September 2020

The Early Dynastic period of Egypt was a time of transition during which the complex territorial state that knit together the Nile delta and the Nile valley north of the First Cataract achieved its first stable form. Consisting of the First and Second Dynasties, roughly the thirty-second to twenty-seventh centuries bc, the period is markedly one of change and innovation. During this period many of the central elements of pharaonic kingship were either introduced or codified, including the relationship of the king to the god Horus, extensive use of the hieroglyphic script, urbanism, royal festivals, some administrative practices, and many visual symbols of kingship that would persist for millennia. This chapter provides an overview of the current state of understanding of the Early Dynastic period. It presents a chronological history anchored on royal documents and monuments for the period but also considers thematic elements, such as regional variation, foreign interaction, and the nature of extant sources, that highlight ways in which a traditional historical narrative obscures the complexity of the establishment of the Egyptian state.
Introduction
Authors: Cox Adam B. , Rodríguez Cristina M.
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter identifies who controls immigration law and how. Many recent immigration controversies in the United States have been cast as power struggles between the political branches. In nearly every clash, the President’s detractors invoke the same supposed constitutional wisdom: that control over immigration belongs in the hands of Congress. When President Donald Trump, just days after his inauguration, signed an Executive Order banning immigration from six predominantly Muslim countries, critics immediately attacked the action as tyrannical, discriminatory, and a violation of the immigration statutes enacted by Congress. Similarly, when President Barack Obama announced that he would shield young unauthorized immigrants from deportation, the backlash was swift. Commentators, members of Congress, and even his own immigration enforcement agents pilloried him for usurping the constitutional authority of Congress. The modern-day battles of the Trump and Obama eras reflect a deep historical truth about the structure of immigration policymaking: that the President stands at its center. This book tells the story of how the President became the immigration policymaker-in-chief. Today, the President’s extraordinary power over immigration policy grows out of his utterly ordinary constitutional duty to enforce the law. The logic and tools of enforcement therefore define contemporary immigration policy, empowering the President and executive officials to shape the meaning of immigration law.