bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pharmaceutical and cosmetic uses of palm and lauric products
Authors: Kalustian Peter
Published: January 2007

The pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries are large and still growing. New products, astute marketing and sophisticated advertising have been very effective in these industries. They are more and more exacting and highly complex in their requirements. They require specification products with specific performance characteristics.

The cosmetic industry and drug or pharmaceutical industries are defined. Information is given about the unique composition of palm and lauric oils which make them suitable raw materials for use in these applications.

These two base oils are used in the form of triglycerides, whole fatty acids, fractionated fatty acids or fatty chemical derivatives. Information is given about these various ingredients, their use in specific cosmetic and pharmaceutical products and reasons for their use.

Particular use is made of palmitic, stearic, myristic and short‐chain fatty acids. The derivatives would include glycerine esters, monostearates, other monoglycerides, propylene glycol esters, polyglycerol esters, sorbitans and sorbitan ethylene oxide products, isopropyl palmitic and myristate. Specific powdered stearins and cocoa butter substitutes are used in various formulations.

The production and marketing of ingredients for this industry are natural growths of the developing fatty acid industry in Malaysia and nearby countries of southeast Asia.
The role of the surveyor
Authors: Subramaniam S.
Published: January 2007

The surveyor provides guidance and assistance for cargo protection, besides ensuring that the palm, palm kernel and coconut oils conform to the contractual requirements. This involves quality and quantity check, inspection of storage facilities, conveying systems and transport vehicles and supervision of loading and discharge operations. Usually, the surveyor's findings form the basis for settlement of the transaction. With the ever‐developing technology customer requirements have become more and more sophisticated, and consequently the need for complex and sophisticated service is considerably increasing. In order to achieve the desired objective the surveyor, besides being neutral and reliable, must be endowed with adequate technical know‐how and facilities.

There are quite a few pitfalls that can occur during the course of manufacture, handling, transportation, transfer points, etc., and in order to prevent them, the surveyor should conduct a series of checks at various points to ensure that the quality of the oil is not affected. Adequate precautions and timely corrective measures would evidently ensure this requirement. Quality check is equally essential, with need for a well‐equipped testing laboratory with accurate instruments, controlled and managed by adequately qualified and experienced chemists with the knowledge of updated technology.

The surveyor can also assist in arbitration, insurance claims, general, commercial and maritime information, as his opinions and recommendations are unbiased, reliable and accurate, which helps make decision‐making a less difficult task. Besides the buyer and seller, the surveyor also protects the interests of the financier, under‐writer, shipowners and in certain cases the government departments.
New cleavable surfactants derived from glucono‐1,5‐lactone
Authors: Kida Toshiyuki , Morishima Nobuaki , Masuyama Araki , Nakatsuji Yohji
Published: January 2007

New amido nonionic cleavable surfactants were synthesized in good yields by the acetalization of glucono‐1,5‐lactone with octanal, 2‐octanone or 2‐undecanone, followed by amidation with monoethanolamine, diethanolamine or morpholine. These compounds possessed good water solubilities. The compounds derived from 2‐octanone showed higher critical micelle concentrations than the compounds from octanal. For the same hydrophobic chain, both the micelle‐forming property and the ability to lower surface tension increased with the change in the terminal amide group in the order diethanolamide<morpholide<monoethanolamide. Interestingly, in spite of their relatively short hydrophobic chains, these compounds showed greater ability to lower surface tension than conventional nonionic surfactants, such as alcohol ethoxylates. Furthermore, their acid‐decomposition properties were determined. Their decomposition rates were also compared with that of the corresponding carboxylate type of compound derived from glucono‐1,5‐lactone.
Glycerylbisether sulfates. I: Improved synthesis
Authors: Condon Brian D.
Published: January 2007

Sparse literature outlines previous syntheses for glycerylbisether sulfates, which, while giving rise to the desired molecules, are somewhat cumbersome and suffer from undersired by‐product formation. We now report an improved synthesis of the title compounds that results in greater simplicity and reduced by‐product formation. An hypothesis is advanced to explain the by‐product formation.
Dynamic surface tension of aqueous surfactant solutions. 6. Compounds containing two hydrophilic head groups and two or three hydrophobic groups and their mixtures with other surfactants
Authors: Gao Tao , Rosen Milton J.
Published: January 2007

Dynamic surface tensions (γt)—measured by the maximum bubble pressure method—of some surfactants containing two hydrophilic (sulfonate) groups and two or three hydrophobic groups in the molecule (“gemini surfactants”), and of their mixtures with a nonionic surfactant or an amine oxide, have been measured at 25°C in 0.1 M NaCl. Linearity of the plots of surface pressure vs. square root of the surface age indicated that the systems studied were all diffusion‐controlled. For the individual surfactant systems, the apparent diffusion coefficient decreases with an increase in the number of alkyl chains and the bulkiness of the surfactant molecules. For the mixtures, when interaction between the two surfactants is weak, γt at short times (t<1s) is close to that of the component with the lower surface tension; at longer times, it is closer to that of the component with the lower equilibrium surface tension. When interaction is strong, γt at short times is greater than that of either component. The molar ratio at which maximum effect on γt is observed depends upon the strength of the interactions between the two surfactants.
The abnormal proportions of di‐unsaturated glycerides in some pig deport fats
Authors: Kartha A. R. S.
Published: January 2007

The insoluble azelaoglycerides from shark liver oil and pig depot fats contain about 2% each, on fat basis, of resinous monocarboxylic acids of mean M.W. 270–280 which give water soluble magnesium soaps. Those from chicken fat and depot fats of goat, sheep, cow and buffalo contain only 0.0% to 0.8% of this material. When this acid is estimated and corrected, all the above animal fats show proportions of di‐unsaturated glycerides equal to or lower than the Glyceride Type Distribution Rule values. The abnormal di‐unsaturated glyceride values earlier reported for various pig depot fats were apparently caused by presence of this impurity in varying amounts.
Solubilization of cholesterol in two binary mixed micelles of bile salt and nonionic surfactant
Authors: Asano Hiroyuki , Sasamoto Hiroki , Ueno Minoru
Published: January 2007

The saturated amounts of solubilized cholesterol (Cch) in mixed micelles of sodium cholate (NaC) and octaoxy‐ethylene glycol monon‐decyl ether (C10E8) and of sodium zyme assay at 25, 29, 33 and 37°C. The Cch values in both systems increase with the total surfactant concentration. Because the mixed micelles for both systems tend to form C10E8‐rich micelles near the critical micellar concentration (CMC) of the mixed system, the curves of cholesterol solubility approached the Cch curve for C10E8 alone near the CMC. The tendency of Cch to decrease in both systems with increasing mole fractions of bile salts resembled that of the mean aggregation number of micelles. Thermodynamic analyses of cholesterol solubilization showed that the free energy of solubilization, if considered as the transfer of cholesterol from solid state to micellar environment, increased with increasing mole fraction of bile salt. The enthalpy of cholesterol solubilization (ΔHS→M) decreased with the mole fraction of bile salts and showed break points around the mole fraction of 0.75 for the NaC−C10E8 system and at 0.60 for the NaDC−C10E8 system, respectively. These phenomena resemble earlier hydrophobicity data for mixed micelles by fluorescence measurements. Furthermore, Cch values for the NaDC−C10E8 system were larger than those for the NaC−C10E8 system because of the structural differences at the 7α hydroxyl group between NaC and NaDC. This fact was confirmed by thermodynamic calculations.
A comparison of surfactants derived from alcohols based on petrochemical and oleochemical sources
Authors: Condon Brain D. , Lee Matheson K.
Published: January 2007

Samples of lauryl‐range alcohols derived from palm kernel oil, coconut oil and ethylene (Ziegler) were derivatized into alcohol sulfates and alcohol ether sulfates (2 moles of ethylene oxide adduct). Physical properties and performance characteristics for earch surfactant were evaluated both individually and in light‐duty liquid (LDL) dish‐washing formulations. The slight differences observed in the physical and performance properties of the surfactants and their formulations were assignable to slight differences the individual alcohol, alcohol sulfate and alcohol ether sulfate samples employed in this study. The magnitude and type of variation found in the samples resulted from normal production variation and not from any properties inherent to the nature of the alcohol source. We therefore conclude that alcohol sulfates, alcohol ether sulfates and LDLs formulated from them exhibit identical physical property and performance characteristics, regardless of whether the original alcohol was manufactured from petrochemical or eleochemical sources.
Lipase‐catalyzed synthesis of lysophospholipids in a continuous bioreactor
Authors: Sarney Douglas B. , Fregapane Giuseppe , Vulfson Evgeny N.
Published: January 2007

A novel enzymatic method of lysolecithin synthesis was developed with immobilized lipase as a catalyst. The enzymatic transesterification was carried out in a number of alcohols, and the reaction was optimized with regard to the water content and temperature of the medium. Similar kinetics of transesterification were observed with several individual phospholipids. The reaction was also performed continuously in a packed‐column bioreactor, which was operated for 1180 h. The lipase displayed strict regio‐selectivity towardsn‐1 fatty acid in the phospholipid molecule, thus yielding exclusivelysn‐1 lysolecithins as the final product.sn‐2 Lysophospholipids were subsequently obtained by acyl migration catalyzed by ammonia vapor. Advantages associated with the use of lipases as opposed to conventional, phospholipase‐A2 catalyzed hydrolysis are briefly discussed.
Synthesis and performance of ester quaternary biodegradable softeners
Authors: Lagerman R. , Clancy S. , Tanner D. , Johnston N. , Callian B. , Friedli F.
Published: January 2007

Reaction of hydroxyethylpiperazine with two moles of fatty acid, followed by quaternization with methyl chloride, methyl bromide or dimethyl sulfate, resulted in new quaternaries useful as biodegradable fabric softeners. Additional softeners were synthesized from hard tallow propane diamine by reaction with butyrolactone, followed by ethoxylation, esterification with one mole of fatty acid and quaternization.
The structure of rosmariquinone — A new antioxidant isolated fromRosmarinus officinalis L.
Authors: Houlihan Christopher M. , Ho Chi‐Tang , Chang Stephen S.
Published: January 2007

A new diterpene, named rosmariquinone, was isolated from the leaves ofRosmarinus officinalis L. The leaves were first extracted using methanol and, upon further purification, this extract yielded rosmariquinone. Structure elucidation of the antioxidant was done using IR, MS,1H‐NMR and13C‐NMR.
Chemometric classification of two peach palm (Bactris gasipaes H.B.K.) landraces (Juruá and Vaupes)
Authors: Rojas J. M. , Serruya H. , Bentes M. H. S.
Published: January 2007

A multivariate analysis by Principal Components (PCA), Hierarchical Cluster Analysis, K‐Nearest Neighbor (KNN) and Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy (SIMCA) methods were used to classify plants to different peach palm races. These statistical operations were applied to a data set of nineteen peach palm plant samples. Each data set contained fifteen variables defined as chemical characteristics of the mesocarp flour and physicochemical characteristics of the oil. The plants belonged to two different races. PCA showed that two principal components separated these races into two classes. KNN and SIMCA confirmed this classification. The final data for the model contained sixteen samples (plants) and eight variables. These results showed the utility of using chemometric methods for the classification of botanical species. These methods should aid the identification of new sources of oleaginous plants.
Variation in fatty acid composition of the different acyl lipids in seed oils from fourSesamum species
Authors: Kamal‐Eldin Afaf , Appelqvist Lars Åke
Published: January 2007

Seeds from different collections of cultivatedSesamum indicum Linn. and three related wild species [specifically,S. alatum Thonn.,S. radiatum Schum and Thonn. andS. angustifolium (Oliv.) Engl.] were studied for their oil content and fatty acid composition of the total lipids. The wild seeds contained less oil (ca. 30%) than the cultivated seeds (ca. 50%). Lipids from all four species were comparable in their total fatty acid composition, with palmitic (8.2–12.7%), stearic (5.6–9.1%), oleic (33.4–46.9%) and linoleic acid (33.2–48.4%) as the major acids. The total lipids from selected samples were fractionated by thin‐layer chromatography into five fractions: triacylglycerols (TAG; 80.3–88.9%), diacylglycerols (DAG; 6.5–10.4%), free fatty acids (FFA; 1.2–5.1%), polar lipids (PL; 2.3–3.5%) and steryl esters (SE; 0.3–0.6%). Compared to the TAG, the four other fractions (viz, DAG, FFA, PL and SE) were generally characterized by higher percentages of saturated acids, notably palmitic and stearic acids, and lower percentages of linoleic and oleic acids in all species. Slightly higher percentages of long‐chain fatty acids (20∶0, 20∶1, 22∶0 and 24∶0) were observed for lipid classes other than TAG in all four species. Based on the fatty acid composition of the total lipids and of the different acyl lipid classes, it seems thatS. radiatum andS. angustifolium are more related to each other than they are to the other two species.
Performance evaluation of hexane‐extracted oils from genetically modified soybeans
Authors: Mounts T. L. , Warner K. , List G. R.
Published: January 2007

Soybeans produced by induced mutation breeding and hybridization were cracked, flaked and hexane‐extracted, and the recovered crude oils were processed to finished edible oils by laboratory simulations of commercial oil‐processing procedures. Three lines yielded oils containing 1.7, 1.9 and 2.5% linolenic acid. These low‐linolenic acid oils were evaluated along with oil extracted from the cultivar Hardin, grown at the same time and location, and they were processed at the same time. The oil from Hardin contained 6.5% linolenic acid. Low‐linolenic acid oils showed improved flavor stability in accelerated storage tests after 8 d in the dark at 60°C and after 8h at 7500 lux at 30°C, conditions generally considered in stress testing. Room odor testing indicated that the low‐linolenic oils showed significantly lower fishy odor after 1 h at 190°C and lower acrid/pungent odor after 5 h. Potatoes were fried in the oils at 190°C after 5, 10 and 15 h of use. Overall flavor quality of the potatoes fried in the low‐linolenic oils was good and significantly better after all time periods than that of potatoes fried in the standard oil. No fishy flavors were perceived with potatoes fried in the low‐linolenic oils. Total volatile and polar compound content of all heated oils increased with frying hours, with no significant differences observed. After 15 h of frying, the free fatty acid content in all oils remained below 0.3%. Lowering the linolenic acid content of soybean oil by breeding was particularly beneficial for improved oil quality during cooking and frying. Flavor quality of fried foods was enhanced with these low‐linolenic acid oils.
Liquid light‐duty detergents
Authors: Chirash W.
Published: January 2007

Technical development of a light‐duty liquid detergent requires a knowledge of the kinds of ingredients that may be used and their functions, and an understanding of the techniques used for evaluating performance characteristics. It involves selection or optimization of an active ingredient system, adjustment of product physical properties, incorporation of suitable colorant and perfume, conduction of appropriate aging studies and testing of resistance to microbiological contamination to ensure proper quality at time of purchase, and assessment of safety to humans.
Studies on peroxidized lipids. VI. Fluorescent products derived from the reaction of primary amines, malonaldehyde and monofunctional aldehydes
Authors: Kikugawa Kiyomi , Ido Yuko , Mikami Atsushi
Published: January 2007

Monofunctional aldehydes such as acetaldehyde,n‐propylaldehyde,n‐butylaldehyde,n‐hexylaldehyde,n‐heptylaldehyde and benzaldehyde affected the reaction between primary amines and malonaldehyde. While the reaction of primary amines and malonaldehyde at pH 7 produced fluorescent 4‐methyl‐1,4‐dihydropyridine‐3,5‐dicarbaldehydesIa‐f, the reaction of the primary amines, malonaldehyde and the aldehydes listed above gave fluorescent 4‐substituted 1,4‐dihydropyridine‐3,5‐dicarbaldehydesIIa‐j. The primary amines used for this reaction included alkylamines, amino acids and alkanolamines. The optimal ratio of the amine, malonaldehyde and the aldehyde was 1:2:1–2, at which compoundsII were produced quantitatively. Peroxidized lipids which may contain malonaldehyde and other aldehydes could react with the primary amines to produce highly fluorescentII. Fluorescence spectra ofII showed excitation maxima at 386–403 nm and emission maxima at 444–465 nm in phosphate similar to those ofI. The spectra of these 1,4‐dihydropyridinesI andII were roughly similar to those of lipofuscin pigment, but they exhibited different characteristics in acid and alkaline media from those of lipofuscin pigment. CompoundsII may be useful as model compounds to elucidate the chemical structure of lipofuscin pigment.
Isoricinoleic acid inSemecarpus kurzii seed oil
Authors: Farooqi Javed A. , Jamal Sajid , Ahmad I.
Published: January 2007

Seed oil ofSemecarpus kurzii was found to contain 10.5% of 9‐hydroxy‐cis‐12‐enoic (isoricinoleic) acid along with the usual fatty acids. The identification of the hydroxy acid was made on the basis of chromatographic, spectroscopic and chemical methods, with isoricinoleic acid used as the reference standard.
Multi‐functional polyacrylate polymers in detergents
Authors: Nagarajan M. K.
Published: January 2007

Alkali metal salts of polyacrylic acids are water‐soluble, multifunctional polyelectrolytes which exhibit a variety of solution properties useful in laundry and dishwashing detergents. This paper describes a number of studies carried out to identify the multifunctionality of polyacrylates under simulated detergent use conditions. Solution properties of several commercially available polyacrylates, with average molecular weight ranging from about 2500 to 250,000, are presented. These include: adsorption onto model particulate soil materials and fabrics, particulate soil and lime‐soap dispersancy, sequestration of calcium, magnesium and ferric ions, calcium carbonate precipitation inhibition, buffer action and detergency. Where appropriate, these solution properties are compared with those of commonly used non‐polymeric detergent ingredients.
Ultrasonic behavior of edible oils: Correlation with rheology
Authors: Gladwell N. , Javanaud C. , Peers K. E. , Rahalkar R. R.
Published: January 2007

Ultrasonic attenuation and velocity are studied for edible oils over the frequency range 2–95 MHz at 19.4 C. Shear and compressional (volume) relaxation spectra are evaluated and compared. Viscoelastic (shear) contribution to attenuation is estimated by Rouse theory. The ratio of volume to shear viscosities decreases with frequency (except for castor oil), indicating that the shear and compressional relaxations are separated on the frequency scale. The results indicate that the molecular rearrangements in the compressional relaxation are long range and require a greater degree of co‐operation compared with the shear relaxation. Possible mechanisms for the shear and compressional relaxations are discussed.
Tocopherols and tocotrienols in finnish foods: Fish and fish products
Authors: Syväoja E. ‐L. , Salminen K. , Piironen V. , Varo P. , Kerojoki O. , Koivistoinen P.
Published: January 2007

A high performance liquid chromatographic method with fluorescence detection was used to determine the content of tocopherols in Finnish fish species. Samples were obtained from different sea and lake areas. Autumn‐ and spring‐caught fish were analyzed separately.

The vitamin E of all species consisted almost entirely of α‐tocopherol. Muscle and roe contained relatively high levels of α‐tocopherol. High‐ and medium‐fat fish contained 2 mg and low‐fat fish 1 mg/100 g on average. In high‐fat fish the tocopherol: fat ratio was lower than in low‐fat fish.

Between‐species differences in tocopherol content were observed, as were between‐sample differences within the same species. Fish caught in the spring, the spawning season of most species, had a higher tocopherol content (and a lower fat content) than those caught in the autumn. Marine fish had a higher tocopherol (and fat) content than lake fish of the same species.
Studies on the mechanism of the hydrazine reduction reaction: Applications to selected monoethylenic, diethylenic and triethylenic fatty acids ofcis configurations
Authors: Ratnayake W. M. N. , Grossert J. S. , Ackman R. G.
Published: January 2007

The hydrazine reduction ofcis ethylenic bonds has been studied using a number of C16, C18, and C20 monoethylenic, C18 diethylenic, and C18 plus C20 triethylenic fatty acids. Relative reduction rates were determined and correlated with the positions of the ethylenic bonds in the fatty acids. The terminal ethylenic bond was the most reactive and among the others, reactivity was greater nearer the ends of the chain than in the center. Also, the ethylenic bonds closer to the carboxyl group showed greater reactivity than those closer to the methyl end of the chain. Differences in reactivity among the centrally located double bonds were not significant. These reactivity trends are consistent with a mechanism involving protonated diimide as an intermediate in the reduction process. In diethylenic fatty acids, the non‐methylene‐interrupted dienes showed slightly lower reactivity than the methylene‐interrupted counterparts, which indicated that both the position of ethylenic bonds and the relative distance between two ethylenic bonds in the diene influence the rate of reaction. The information obtained from the rate studies should be useful for predicting the product distribution from partial hydrazine reductions of long‐chain polyethylenic compounds.
Properties of aqueous solutions for two binary mixed systems between two kinds of bile salts and nonionic surfactants
Authors: Asano H. , Murohashi A. , Ueno M.
Published: January 2007

The micellar properties of aqueous binary mixed solutions for two systems consisting of sodium cholate (NaC)‐octaoxyethylene glycol mono n‐decyl ether (C10E8) and sodium glycocholate (NaGC)‐C10E8 have been studied on the basis of surface tensions, polarity of the micelle interior and the mean aggregation number. Application of two theoretical treatments, based on regular solution and excess thermodynamic quantities for critical micellar concentration (CMC) data from surface tension curves of two mixed systems showed that the mole fraction of each bile salt in the mixed micelles near the CMC is lower than that of the corresponding prepared mole fraction in the mixed solution. The polarity of the interior suggested that the hydrophobicity of intramicelles increased with the increase of the mole fraction of bile salt in the mixed solution and that the mixed micelles become dramatically more hydrophobic at a mole fraction of 0.68 for NaGC−C10E8 system and 0.75 for NaC−C10E8 system, respectively. This implies that the micelles become richer in the bile salt molecules and the tendency appears strongly for NaGC−C10E8 system due to the strong cohesion between the conjugated glycines in the NaGC molecules. The decrease of aggregation number with the increase of the mole fraction of bile salts shows that the micelles approach those of the single system of each bile salt. This supports the previously mentioned facts.
Effect of caustic refining, solvent refining and steam refining on the deacidification and color of rice bran oil
Authors: Kim Sun Ki , Kim Chul Jin , Cheigh Hong Sik , Yoon Suk Hoo
Published: January 2007

Degummed rice bran oil was deacidified by caustic, solvent and steam refining processes. The steam refining process was optimized through a series of experiments with varying refining times (1–5 hr), temperatures (220–280 C) and amounts of steam (4–20%), at a pressure of 4 mmHg. The most significant factors affecting the degree of deacidification were the refining temperature and amount of steam. The correlation coefficient between quadratic equation obtained and experimental results was 0.96. Acid value and color of steam refined oil were not as good as those of caustic refined oil, but steam refining showed better retention of natural antioxidants than caustic or solvent refining. Steam refining is preferred for deacidification of rice bran oil because of reduced neutral oil loss and elimination of soap production.

The important criteria in selecting a deacidification process are known to be the degree of deacidification, neutral oil loss, effect on bleaching and production of soapstock (2,8–10). In comparing caustic refining, solvent refining and steam refining, caustic refining of degummed rice bran oil resulted in satisfactory acid values and color but showed the worst result in neutral oil loss and produced large amounts of soapstock. Solvent refining was not shown to be efficient because of poor deacidification, high losses of neutral oil and darkening of color. Steam refining also was less effective than caustic refining in deacidification and bleaching. However, the degree of deacidification could be improved by development of a process to remove all the free fatty acids (8), and the color problem could be eliminated by including a preliminary bleaching step before steam distillation (10). The application of steam refining to rice bran oil will result in many advantages such as reduced neutral oil loss, no production of soap, and the production of high purity, industrial fatty acids.
Wax ester synthesis in a membrane reactor with lipase‐surfactant complex in hexane
Authors: Isono Yasuyuki , Nabetani Hiroshi , Nakajima Mitsutoshi
Published: January 2007

A lipase‐surfactant complex (LSC) was prepared by mixing an aqueous solution of lipase (E.C. 3.1.1.3) derived fromPseudomonas sp. with an alcoholic solution of sorbitan monostearate. This LSC was applied to the catalysis of esterification of cetyl alcohol and palmitic acid to synthesize was ester in hexane. A membrane reactor system was investigated for the repeated batch synthesis of wax ester with LSC. High conversions were maintained during repeated experiments; however, the flux decreased during the run. Sponge washing of the membrane restored the flux to 70% of its original value.
Sintering of fat crystal networks in oil during post‐crystallization processes
Authors: Johansson Dorota , Bergenståhl Björn
Published: January 2007

Several foods contain semi‐solid fats that consist of solid crystals dispersed in a liquid oil. In oil‐continuous margarine, butter, and chocolate, fat crystals determine properties such as consistency, stability against oiling‐out, and emulsion stability. Trends toward foods with less fat and/or less saturated fat create a need for understanding and controlling the properties of fat crystal dispersions. Fat crystals form a network in oil due to mutual adhesion. One source of strong adhesion is formation of solid bridges (sintering), which has been studied in this work through sedimentation and rheological experiments. Results indicate that sintering may be created by crystallization of a fat phase with a melting point between that of the oil and the crystal. Generally speaking, β′ crystals were sintered by β′ fat bridges, favored by rapid cooling, and β crystals by β fat bridges, favored by slow cooling. The existence of the same polymorphic form of the crystal and bridge indicated that solid bridges, rather than bridges formed by small crystal nuclei, were formed. A maximum in sintering ability for an optimal sintering fat concentration occurred due to competition between bridge formation and other crystallization processes. Some emulsifiers influenced the sintering process. For example, monooolein made it more pronounced, while technical lecithin had the opposite effect.
Wetting of fat crystals by triglyceride oil and water. 2. adhesion to the oil/water interface
Authors: Johansson Dorota , Bergenståhl Björn
Published: January 2007

Fat crystals influence the stability of food emulsions, such as margarine, butter, or cream, if adsorbed to the oil/water interface. During the adsorption process, a new fat crystal/water interface is created, while the oil/water interface is lost. The driving force for adsorption is therefore the difference between the interactions between fat crystal/water and oil/water. In this work, we have estimated this interaction difference and compared it to the displacement energy for fat crystals from the oil/water interface to the oil. Our calculations have shown that fat crystal adsorption to the oil/water interface (expressed by contact angle ϑ) is determined by polar energy, excess of fat crystal/water over oil/water (Isw ‐Iow). The interfacial tension constitutes the resistance force for crystal adsorption to the interface. Polar interaction energy for fat crystal/water is stronger than the polar interaction energy for oil/water in all cases examined (Isw ‐Iow >0). The difference corresponds to about 104–106 hydrogen bonds for a hypothetical fat crystal with a diameter of 1 µm. The displacement energy for fat crystals to oil is lower than the polar energy excess in most cases examined. Thus, an additional interaction between fat crystals and oil makes it easy to displace the crystals to the oil. There is also a relationship between the adhesion tension (‐γow • cos ϑ) for the crystals at the oil/water interface and the interfacial tension γow. A straight line of slope ‐1 is achieved for systems with low interfacial tensions (γow) and low polar energy excess (Isw ‐Iow).
Spun‐fiber textured products
Authors: Rosenfield Daniel , Hartman Warren E.
Published: January 2007

The process for spinning fibers from soy isolate is described. Fabrication of so called food analogues and extenders containing spun soy fibers is reviewed. The rationale for the use of fibers in food products and ingredients is explored. Nutritional properties, especially protein quality, of the products are discussed. Emphasis is given to the fact that spun‐fiber textured products contain a variety of items, such as soy, wheat, oats, egg albumen, yeast, sodium caseinate, and vegetable oils. The relationship of this variety to applied nutrition is discussed.
Soy protein foods in U.S. assistance programs
Authors: Senti F. R.
Published: January 2007

Soy protein food products occupy an important place in both U.S. overseas and domestic food assistance programs. In the overseas food donation program the products serve as the source of protein for the fortification of conventional processed commodities—wheat flour, corn meal, rolled oats, bulgur, and sorghum grits—and as a major source of protein in several cereal soy products designed for special use as child food supplements. Acceptance of these products has been good and more than 1 billion lb. of soy‐fortified foods were distributed in the overseas program during July 1, 1972‐June 30, 1973. In domestic food assistance programs, soy protein foods which meet U.S. Department of Agriculture requirements have been introduced into both school lunch and breakfast programs and also are distributed to needy families. Two products, textured soy protein and protein‐fortified enriched macaroni, are permitted to meet part of the meat requirement in the Type A school lunch. In the school breakfast program, soy protein is a permitted ingredient in protein‐fortified foods such as doughnuts, cake‐like baked products, and cereal‐fruit products. They were introduced primarily to meet the need for nutritious food items that require no kitchen facilities to prepare and are convenient to serve in schools that lack food service facilities. Specifications for the various food products are presented.
Soy products in national and international programs: Field and emergency programs
Authors: Higgins Margot
Published: January 2007

An extremely important problem in large scale feeding programs such as described here is actually getting the needy recipients to eat the new or strange food. Precooking and sweetening of soy/cereal blends has gone a long way toward making the products more acceptable.
International programs utilizing soy foods: The world food program
Authors: Hutton George H. W.
Published: January 2007

The World Food Program was set up 10 years ago by the United Nations and Food and Agriculture Organization as a multilateral agency to provide food aid where needed. Soy products in the form of corn‐soy milk and wheat‐soy blend are playing increasing roles in this program described in this paper.
Winterization of sunflower oil
Authors: Leibovitz Z. , Ruckenstein C.
Published: January 2007

The chemical composition and percentage of waxes in sunflower oil are presented in relation to the crude oil quality obtained from decorticated or undecorticated sunflower seed. Three methods of winterizing are described: the conventional method with separation by filters, crystallization with a wetting agent and separation by centrifuge and winterization in solvent. We also comment on methods for checking the quality of winterized sunflower oil.
The determination of light petroleum residues in refined oils and fats
Authors: Downes M. J. , Rossell J. B.
Published: January 2007

A rapid, direct injection gas liquid chromatographic (GLC) method for determining residual light petroleum in edible vegetable oils has been developed. The response is linear at levels between 0.05–0.5 mg hexane/kg oil. A sample containing 0.2 mg hexane/kg oil was analyzed for repeatability, giving a standard deviation of 0.008 mg/kg, equivalent to a coefficient of variation of 4%. Separation of pentane, hexane, heptane, octane and decane was obtained by this method. A survey of 23 samples of freshly refined vegetable oils obtained from 13 U.K. refiners in 1981 showed that these all contained less than 0.05 mg hexane/kg oil.
Application of TLC chemical confirmatory tests to minicolumn chromatography of aflatoxins
Authors: Madhyastha M. S. , Bhat R. V.
Published: January 2007

The minicolumn (MC) proposed by Holaday and Lansden was developed with standard aflatoxin solution and also with the extracts of corn, rice, wheat, cottonseed, peanut cake and black pepper; each having different levels of aflatoxins. One‐half mL each of 2,4‐dinitrophenylhydrazine,p‐anisaldehyde, 20% H2SO4, 20% HCl and trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) with 25% HNO3, which were used for confirming aflatoxins on TLC, were applied to the developed column. Among these, all the 3 acid reagents changed the blue fluorescence of aflatoxins to yellow and thus were found to be satisfactory confirmatory tests. The TFA with 25% HNO3 had the lowest detection limit‐5 ppb.
Synthesis of 2, 3 fatty aziridines
Authors: Rauf A. , Ahmad M. S. , Ahmad F. , Osman S. M.
Published: January 2007

A new route for the synthesis of 2,3‐aziridines is described. The reaction of methyl 2,3‐dibromohexadecanoate (II) with ammonia at 0 C gave methyl 2‐bromohexadec‐2‐enoate (III, ca. 93%). Compound III, on further treatment with ammonia at 25 C, gave methyl 2‐aminohexadec‐2‐enoate (IV, ca. 5%), methyltrans‐2,3‐epiminohexadecanoate (V, ca. 64%), methylcis‐2,3‐epiminohexadecanoate (VI, ca 24%) andtrans‐2,3‐epiminohexadecamide (VII, ca 3%). The structures were established with the help of elemental analyses and infrared (IR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectral analyses.
Pre‐Pressing of oil from rapeseed and sunflower
Authors: Ward J. A.
Published: January 2007

The current methods of prepressing rapeseed and sunflower seed prior to solvent extraction are reviewed on a stage‐by‐stage basis. The energy consumption numbers are examined and the overall extractability of the presscake is discussed. Possible changes in processing methods, with advantages and drawbacks, are set out.
Energy saving techniques in continuous degumming and refining
Authors: Latondress E. G.
Published: January 2007

Energy requirements for individual operations in the continuous caustic soda refining process are discussed. The electrical power requirements for the process are determined basically by the throughput rate which fixes centrifuge motor sizes. The electrical power requirements are not subject to significant reduction without a basic change in the process. However, the steam usage may be reduced by as much as 75% by proper heat‐recovery methods. The selection of process streams for most effective heat recovery is discussed.
Carboxylate surfactant systems exhibiting phase behavior suitable for enhanced oil recovery
Authors: Shaw J. E.
Published: January 2007

A large variety of aliphatic and aromatic carboxylate surfactants with alcohols as cosurfactants displayed phase behavior with n‐decane that indicated they could be useful in enhanced oil recovery. Three‐phase systems with large volume fraction middle‐phase microemulsions were observed with sodium isostearate and sodium oleate. The interfacial tension between top and bottom phases was at a minimum (∼0.001 dyne/cm) at the optimal salinity where the uptake of oil and water in the middle phase was equal. The phase behavior of carboxylates was affected by pH and added bases. In cases where a bicarbonate‐carbonate buffer was used to control pH, the optimal salinity decreased as the pH decreased. Use of ethoxylated alcohols as cosurfactants increased optimal salinities markedly and caused formation of very large volume fraction middle phases. Neutralized tall oils and tall oil fatty acids with alcohols as cosurfactants gave 3‐phase behavior with n‐decane with large volume fraction middle‐phase microemulsions.
Recovery of eicosapentaenoic acid from fungal mycelia by solvent extraction
Authors: O’Brien Dennis J. , Senske Gerard E.
Published: January 2007

Utilization of lipids containing eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) produced by microorganisms requires processes for their efficient recovery from microbial cells. Recovery of EPA from mycelia of the fungusPythium irregulare by solvent extraction with hexane‐isopropanol (HIP) in a pilot‐plant colloid mill was investigated. Extraction efficiencies of 96% for lipid and EPA were achieved with a 3∶2 (vol/vol) HIP mixture by milling wet, filtered mycelia for 5 min at a solvent/dry solids ratio of 100 L/kg. The process yielded a crude extract that contained up to 96% lipid and an EPA content as high as 24% (with no selectivity for EPA).
Enzyme‐assisted aqueous extraction of fat from kernels of the shea tree,Butyrospermum parkii
Authors: Tano‐Debrah Kwaku , Ohta Yoshiyuki
Published: January 2007

Chemical characteristics of kernels of the shea tree (Butyrospermum parkii) from Ghana were determined in order to design and evaluate studies on a traditional enzyme‐assisted fat extraction of the kernels. The effectiveness of a number of cellular degrading enzymes in assisting the shea fat extraction were also tested by treating meals of the kernels with one or more of these enzymes before extraction and comparing the yield with control extractions. Proximate composition of the kernel on dry‐matter basis was: total lipids, 59.04%; crude fat, 54.85; protein, 7.81%; total carbohydrates, 34.77%; ash, 2.57%. Starch content was 7.59%; hemicellulose, 10.84%; cellulose, 5.95%; and pectic substances, 2.93%. Total fiber content was 20.35%. The fat extracted by the Soxhlet method was pale‐yellow in color and solid at room temperatures. Its physicochemical characteristics were: melting range, 34–36°C; iodine value, 58.53; saponification value, 180.37; and unsaponifiable matter content, 7.48%. The predominant fatty acids were: palmitic (3.55%), stearic (44.44%), oleic (42.41%), linoleic (5.88%) and linolenic (1.66%) acids. The enzyme‐assisted extraction tests showed increases in extraction yield when the shea kernel meals were treated with the enzyme(s) before extraction. An increase of about 20% was realized when a protease and an enzyme with both cellulase and hemicellulase activities were used together. These observations confirmed the fact that the shea kernel is a rich source of fat. They also indicate the possibility of improving shea kernel extraction processes by pretreating the kernel meal with cell structure‐degrading enzymes.
Effects of Lewis acid catalysts on the esterification kinetics of castor oil with oleic acid
Authors: Erdem‐Şenatalar A. , Erencek E. , Tüter M. , Erciyes A. T.
Published: January 2007

The effects of two Lewis acid catalysts, tin chloride and cobalt chloride, on the kinetics of the esterification reaction between castor oil and oleic acid have been investigated. Uncatalyzed and catalyzed reactions were carried out both in the presence of excess oil and with equivalent amounts of reactants at various temperatures. The reaction, with respect to castor oil concentration, is first‐order in all cases, whereas with acid concentration the reaction was observed to change from second‐order for the uncatalyzed reaction to first‐order for tin chloride‐catalyzed and to zero‐order for cobalt chloride‐catalyzed reactions. The order (with respect to acid) also changed with temperature for the cobalt chloride‐catalyzed reaction.
Effect of heat processing on phenolic constituents and nutritional quality of sunflower flours
Authors: Shamanthaka Sastry M. C. , Subramanian N.
Published: January 2007

Heat processing of dehulled, defatted sunflower flour resulted in a reduction in phenolic constituents, the destruction of chlorogenic acid (CGA) being more than that of caffeic acid (CA) and quinic acid (QA). Considerable losses in the available lysine rather than total lysine content were observed when sunflower flour was autoclaved at 1 kg/cm2 (120 C) for periods varying from 5 to 60 min. The N solubility of sunflower protein in 0.02N NaOH showed a progressive decrease as the duration of heat treatment increased. Moderate heat treatment (15 min at 120 C) of the flour had no significant beneficial effect on in vitro digestibility. Any advantage in decreasing the levels of CGA, CA and QA contents by moderate heat treatment apparently was lost by the decrease in available lysine content, thus lowering the protein efficiency ratio (PER) from 1.97 to 1.71 and Net Protein Utilization (NPU) from 62.7 to 54.8, respectively.
Fatty acid composition of seed oils of some members of the meliaceae and combretaceae families
Authors: Balogun Adebisi Mogeed , Fetuga Babatunde L.
Published: January 2007

Seed oils of some members of the Meliceae (six) and Combretaceae (three) were analyzed for their fatty acid composition. In oils of members of both families palmitic acid was the most abundant saturated acid. Trace amounts of short chain (C12–C14) and long chain (C20–C22) saturated acids were detected in some members of the two families. Oleic acid was the most abundant unsaturated acids in the oils of four members of the Meliaceae. However, in the oils ofCedrella odorata andLovoa trichilloides, dienoic acid (C18:2) was the major unsaturated acid. Strikingly high levels of trienoic (C18:3) and monoenoic (C16:1) acids were detected in the seed oils ofC. odorata andEnthandrophragma angolense, respectively. Oleic acid also was the most abundant unsaturated acid in the Combretaceae. The nutritional value and industrial potentials of these oils are given.
Ultrasonic velocity measurements in some liquid triglycerides and vegetable oils
Authors: McClements D. J. , Povey M. J. W.
Published: January 2007

A pulse echo technique was used to measure the ultrasonic velocity of nine vegetable oils (5–70 C, 1.25 MHz) and a number of liquid triglycerides and triglyceride/sunflower oil mixtures (70 C, 1.25 MHz). The velocities of the vegetable oils at 70 C were related to the velocities of their constituent components using two empirical equations; the first related the velocity of a triglyceride to its molecular formula, and the second related the velocity of an oil to the velocities of its triglyceride components.
The determination of fatty amides by high performance liquid chromatography
Authors: Jasperse J. L.
Published: January 2007

A high pressure liquid chromatographic technique for separating fatty amides by chain length in the presence of fatty nitriles was developed. The separation used spherical silica with hexane/chloroform/glacial acetic acid (7:2:1, v/v/v) as the mobile phase. The HPLC method can be used to detect trace amounts of fatty amide in the presence of fatty nitrile with a recovery of 99%. Thin layer chromatography was used as a solvent scanning technique. The relationship between k values and Rf values was investigated.
Identification of the most intense odor compounds formed during autoxidation of methyl linolenate at room temperature
Authors: Ullrich Frank , Grosch Werner
Published: January 2007

The volatile compounds formed during autoxidation of methyl linolenate (MLe) at 22–24°C were analyzed by a technique which reveals the flavor compounds having the highest flavor units (ratio of the concentration to the odor treshold). After a reaction time of 48 hr, when ca. 20 mol percent of the MLe had been converted into hydroperoxides,trans, cis‐2,6‐nonadienal followed by 1,cis‐5‐octadien‐3‐one,rans,cis‐3‐5‐octadien‐2‐one andcis‐3‐hexenal showed the highest flavor units. After 102 hr 1,cis‐5‐octadien‐3‐one was by far the most important odor compound, followed bycis‐3‐hexenal andtrans,cis‐2,6‐nonadienal.
Oxidative stabilities of low‐linolenate, high‐stearate and common soybean oils
Authors: White Pamela J. , Miller Lynne A.
Published: January 2007

It is generally agreed that the high linolenate (18:3) content of soybean oil (SBO) contributes to its flavor instability. In this study, the oxidative stability of five SBO of various fatty acid (FA) compositions was compared by using peroxide values, conjugated dienoic acid values and sensory panel scores. Three of the oils were from common commercial varieties representing the range of 18:3 content normally found in SBO. The other two oils were from seed developed in a mutation breeding program. One of these oils from the line A5 had an 18:3 content of 3.5%, and the other from the line A6 had a stearate (18:0) content of 24%. Seed from the five soybean varieties was cold pressed, refined and deodorized without additives under laboratory conditions. Two oxidation experiments were conducted. In the first, the oils were stored at 28 C for 67 days. In the second, the oils were stored at 60 C for eight days. Sensory comparisons were done by using the AOCS Flavor Intensity Scale. The A5 and A6 oils were more stable than the commercial varieties as measured by chemical tests, but the sensory data were inconclusive. Oils with similar 18:3 contents did not have similar rates of oxidation. The differences between the oils were not as distinct in the 60 C test as in the 28 C test.