bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Vehicle to Load (V2L) Scalable Architecture with On-Board Smart Power Panel Technology
Authors: Tavella Domenico , Tolkacz Joseph , Kasture Archana , Sarkar Ashish
Published: April 2024

Modern automotive industry field is recently moving to more electrification level, so the presence of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) is constantly increasing, along with charging technology evolution.

Typically, BEVs do not use a significant portion of their battery’s capacity in day-to-day travel, which means their most valuable asset, the battery, sits idle during most of its life. Vehicle to Load (V2L) feature enables the transfer of energy from vehicle to the external loads (like utility tools, dryer, camping equipment or any other electrical appliance) which is connected to the power socket present in the Power Panel to perform AC Discharging. V2L technology lets consumers get more energy from a vehicle, even when it is turned off, improving consumer appeal. Bottomline, consumers can use this on-board Power Panel like a normal portable generator.

More specifically, this paper will explore a scalable V2L architecture design with on-board Smart Power Panel technology, requested to support multiple vehicle platforms across all segments, spanning from passenger cars up to Light Commercial Vehicles (LCVs), having the following innovative capabilities:

Usage of on-board equipment, natively designed with the rest of vehicle electronics design (thus, reaching better functional safety performance)

Leverage of existing bi-directional On-board Charger component, thus optimizing total cost

No need of dedicated circuit breakers or Ground Fault Circuit Interrupt (GFCI), increasing customer convenience

Moreover, this paper will also describe the operational control logic and HMI interface of such a V2L On-board Power Panel system, covering a wide technology scope (BEV, PHEV and REEV propulsion systems).
Detecting the Anomalies in LiDAR Pointcloud
Authors: Zhang Chiyu , Han Ji , Zou Yao , Dong Kexin , Li Yujia , Ding Junchun , Han Xiaoling
Published: April 2024

LiDAR sensors play an important role in the perception stack of modern autonomous driving systems. Adverse weather conditions such as rain, fog and dust, as well as some (occasional) LiDAR hardware fault may cause the LiDAR to produce pointcloud with abnormal patterns such as scattered noise points and uncommon intensity values. In this paper, we propose a novel approach to detect whether a LiDAR is generating anomalous pointcloud by analyzing the pointcloud characteristics. Specifically, we develop a pointcloud quality metric based on the LiDAR points’ spatial and intensity distribution to characterize the noise level of the pointcloud, which relies on pure mathematical analysis and does not require any labeling or training as learning-based methods do. Therefore, the method is scalable and can be quickly deployed either online to improve the autonomy safety by monitoring anomalies in the LiDAR data or offline to perform in-depth study of the LiDAR behavior over large amount of data. The proposed approach is studied with extensive real public road data collected by LiDARs with different scanning mechanisms and laser spectrums, and is proven to be able to effectively handle various known and unknown sources of pointcloud anomaly.
Validation of a Two-Parameter Controlled Novel Tribometer for Analysing Durability of Piston Ring-Engine Cylinder Tribo-Pair
Authors: Sediako Dimitry G. , Banerjee Siddharth
Published: April 2024

The wear of the piston ring-cylinder liner system in gasoline engines is inevitable and significantly impacts fuel economy. Utilizing a custom-built linear reciprocating tribometer, this study assesses the wear resistance of newly developed engine cylinder coatings. The custom device offers a cost-effective means for tribological evaluation, optimizing coating process parameters with precise control over critical operational factors such as normal load and sliding frequency. Unlike conventional commercial tribometers, it ensures a more accurate simulation of the engine cylinder system. However, existing research lacks a comprehensive comparative analysis and procedure to establish precision limits for such modified devices. This study evaluates the custom tribometer's repeatability compared to a commercial wear-testing instrument, confirming its potential as a valuable tool for advanced wear testing on engine cylinder samples. The validation tests, achieved through standardized contact geometries, confirm the precision and reliability of the custom tribometer, highlighting its potential for advanced wear testing on engine cylinder samples. Utilizing 2D stylus profilometry, wear progression rates are examined, with a coefficient of variation for wear volume results ranging from ±0.63% to ±2.52% compared to a commercial device across tests, showcasing its precision and reliability.
Resistance Rivet and Insert Welding - A Flexible Manufacturing Technique for the Aluminum/FRPs-Steel Multi-Material Body Structures
Authors: Fang Xiangfan , Zhang Fan , Xu Hongli
Published: April 2024

Automotive body structures are being increasingly made in multi-material system consisting of steel, aluminum (Al) and fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP). Therefore, many joining techniques such as self-piercing riveting (SPR) and adhesive bonding have been developed. On the other hand, OEMs want to minimize the number of joining techniques to reduce the manufacturing complexity. Amount all joining methods, resistance spot welding (RSW) is the most advanced and cost-effective one for body-in-white.

However, RSW cannot be applied for joining dissimilar materials. Therefore, a novel Rivet Resistance Spot Welding method (RRSW) was developed in which Al or FRP components can be directly welded to steel structures with existing welding systems. RRSW uses rivet-like double T-shaped steel elements as a welding adapter which are formed or integrated into Al or FRP components during their forming process. After that, they are welded to the steel components by RSW.

This paper shows at first the development results on Steel – Al RRSW. An appropriate rivet geometry was developed using FEM simulation and made mechanically. The corresponding welding parameters were determined experimentally. Tests on different specimens and components were conducted. The static and fatigue strengths of RRSW are mostly better or equal to that of SPR. The corrosion resistance is superior to SPR. Finally, a section of a car roof made of Al sheet was stamped and welded with the steel structures in neighborhood using RRSW proofing the technology.

In next step, RRSW was extended for long fiber reinforced thermoplastics components manufactured by compression molding. A 2nd rivet was successfully developed using FEM welding simulation with the target of minimal temperature in FRPs to avoid their thermal damage, and wide welding process window. The entire process was proved on an FRP seat cross member welded in steel floor panel. The strength of this RRSW is also equal or better than SPR.
A Novel Quasi-Dimensional Model for Transient Mixing Prediction in Two-Phase Multicomponent Sprays under Flash-Boiling Conditions
Authors: Weigand Peter , Oswald Jonas , Bin Mohd Izahar Mohd Farhan , Bikas Georgios
Published: April 2024

A novel one-dimensional multiphase and multicomponent spray model - hereafter referred to as the Kattke-Weigand model - has been developed to predict the penetration length of both vapor and liquid gasoline sprays under flash-boiling conditions, such as superheated injections. Its formulation is based on mass and momentum equations for unsteady jets and is therefore capable of capturing dynamic effects. Experiments were conducted in a constant volume chamber using various ambient and fuel temperature conditions and a six-hole GDI injector with a separated jet. Macroscopic spray parameters were extracted from the measurements to verify the model's ability to predict both liquid and vapor penetration length and the corresponding spray angles.

Apart from the separated jet of the injector used, the other five jets interact strongly with each other under flash boiling conditions, resulting in spray collapse, and thus affecting spray characteristics. The prediction of collapse is very sensitive to calculations of vaporization and air entrainment. Since these submodels cannot be validated directly, a calibration method was developed, that is based on a three-dimensional reconstruction of all fuel sprays of the injector used. For this purpose, all optical measurements performed in the constant volume chamber are utilized. As a result, a three-dimensional representation of the spray collapse can be calculated from the combination of the 3D spray reconstruction and the entrainment and vaporization submodels. The validation of the collapse leads indirectly to the calibration of the entrainment and vaporization submodels in the Kattke Weigand model. Latter is applied to gain a deeper understanding of the interaction between spray collapse and both liquid and vapor phase penetration.
Hydrogen Engine Testing with SuperTurbo Compared to Simulation
Authors: Brin Jared , Waldron Thomas
Published: April 2024

Hydrogen has recently become a primary focus as a future carbon-free fuel for transportation, especially for heavy duty commercial vehicles. The hydrogen internal combustion engine (H2 ICE) shows promise, as current manufacturing facilities and vehicle architectures can be largely maintained while keeping the initial purchase price of the vehicle relatively low. However, hydrogen combustion engines have challenges to overcome. One of the main challenges is to provide transient response on par with current diesel engines while maintaining low NOx emissions from the engine.

Previously, simulations were performed by AVL List GmbH and SuperTurbo Technologies of a mechanically driven turbocharger, the SuperTurbo, on a 13L H2 ICE. This paper covers follow on work of actual engine testing of the H2 ICE with the SuperTurbo in an effort to reproduce the simulation results with engine test data. The primary focus of the engine testing was to demonstrate low engine out NOx emissions through transient operation comparable to current diesel engines, as well as demonstrating engine out NOx emissions below 0.4 g/kWh on the WHTC transient cycle. These goals were achieved in testing, and additionally similar low NOx emissions were demonstrated on the NRTC and FTP transient cycles. Following the engine testing, modifications to the model were made to better match the engine data, matching the IMEP and fuel efficiency through the cycles more accurately. Additional simulations were performed to estimate future improvements that could be made to the H2 ICE engine system utilizing the SuperTurbo boosting system.
Numerical Investigation on Hydrogen Enrichment and EGR on In-Cylinder Soot and NOx Formation in Dual-Fuel CI-Engine
Authors: Yadav Neeraj Kumar , Maurya Rakesh Kumar
Published: April 2024

To mitigate the NOx emissions from diesel engines, the adoption of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) has gained widespread acceptance as a technology. Employing EGR has the drawback of elevating soot emissions. Using hydrogen-enriched air with EGR in a diesel engine (dual-fuel operation), offers the potential to decrease in-cylinder soot formation while simultaneously reducing NOx emissions. The present study numerically investigates the effect of hydrogen energy share and engine load on the formation and emission of soot and NOx from hydrogen-diesel dual-fuel engines. The numerical investigation uses an n-heptane/H2 reduced reaction mechanism with a two-step soot model in ANSYS FORTE. A reduced n-heptane reaction mechanism is integrated with a hydrogen reaction mechanism using CHEMKIN to enhance the accuracy of predicting dual-fuel combustion in a hydrogen dual-fuel engine. The results show that hydrogen enrichment plays a significant role by decreasing the soot precursor concentration by increasing the hydroxyl (OH) radical and suppressing soot formation by enhancing oxidation. Hydrogen enrichment in dual-fuel operation significantly reduces soot and NOx emissions under low load conditions. Adding hydrogen in diesel engines decreases the concentration of acetylene (C2H2), locally inside the combustion chamber, which inhibits soot formation. The findings highlight the synergistic benefits of combining hydrogen and EGR in a dual-fuel engine, offering a viable strategy for achieving lower NOx levels without compromising on soot emissions. This research contributes to the advancement of cleaner and more efficient propulsion technologies, especially in the context of heavy-duty applications where stringent emissions standards are a critical concern.
Mixture Formation and Corresponding Knock Limits in a Hydrogen Direct Injection Engine Using Different Jet Forming Caps
Authors: Bucherer Manuel , Reinbold Marcel , Bui Thai An , Kubach Heiko , Koch Thomas
Published: April 2024

The need for carbon-neutral transportation solutions has never been more pronounced. With the continually expanding volume of goods in transit, innovative and dependable powertrain concepts for freight transport are imperative. The green hydrogen-powered internal combustion engine presents an appealing option for integrating a reliable, non-fossil fuel powertrain into commercial vehicles. This study focuses on the adaptation of a single-cylinder diesel engine with a displacement of 2116 cm3 to facilitate hydrogen combustion. The engine, characterized by low levels of swirl and tumble, underwent modifications, including the integration of a conventional central spark plug, a custom-designed piston featuring a reduced compression ratio of 9.5, and a low-pressure hydrogen direct injection system. Operating the injection system at 25 bar hydrogen pressure, the resulting jet profiles were varied by employing jet forming caps affixed directly to the injector nozzle. Specifically, two cap geometries were used: a 1-hole cap, yielding a tightly concentrated jet with notable penetration, and a 4-hole cap, yielding a dispersed jet with a broader angle and reduced penetration. Manipulating the injection timing to achieve varying levels of mixture homogeneity within the cylinder, the minimum lambda values were examined before reaching the threshold of knocking for each timing configuration. All trials maintained a constant hydrogen mass flow, with an indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) of approximately 11 bar and optimal phasing. To complement experimental insights, a comprehensive computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation was conducted, focusing on mixture formation intricacies. The results highlight a noteworthy reduction in knocking propensity for the 4-hole cap configuration at later injection timings. This observation demonstrates the intricate interplay between mixture formation and knocking tendencies. The study underscores the potential of jet forming geometries to optimize mixture formation while minimizing knocking effects in hydrogen direct injection engines.
Powertrain Control via Model Predictive Rollout Scheme
Authors: Arend Jannik , Ayeb Mohamed , Veller Sergej
Published: April 2024

Multi-motor powertrain topologies are playing an increasingly important role in the development of heavy duty battery electric trucks due to the changing driving requirements of these vehicles. The use of multiple motors and/or transmissions in a powertrain provides additional degrees of freedom for the energy management. The energy management system (EMS) consist of the gear selection strategy and torque split between the drive motors. The aim of the EMS is thereby to achieve high energy efficiency in motor and regenerative operation, while reducing the number of gear changes to ensure driving comfort. Ongoing research focuses on the energy management system of hybrid electric trucks, where the aim is to optimize the torque split between the combustion engine and the electric motor.

In this paper, the EMS for an electric truck is described as a mixed-integer nonlinear control problem. This type of optimal control problem is notoriously difficult to solve. Current control strategies mainly use techniques such as dynamic programming or Pontryagin's minimum principle, which lead to optimal solutions but also to high computational complexity.

The approach presented in this paper uses a model predictive rollout scheme to determine the shift strategy and torque split between the motors in terms of energy efficiency for a multi-motor-transmission design. The vehicle environment is assumed to be known. In addition, the performance of the proposed scheme is compared with the optimal solution under a representative driving scenario. The proposed approach requires less computation, but shows close to optimal results.
Model-Based Approach for Optimization of Propulsion System of a Heavy-Duty Class 8 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
Authors: Paul Sumit , Fnu Dhanraj , Joshi Satyum , Franke Michael , Tomazic Dean
Published: April 2024

The tightening emissions regulations across the globe pose significant challenges to vehicle OEMs. As a result, OEMs are diversifying their powertrain solutions e.g., CNG/Propane based conventional powertrains, BEVs, H2 ICE, FCEV, etc. to meet these regulations. More recently, the ‘CARB Advanced Clean Trucks’ and ‘EPA GHG Phase 3’ regulations are forcing manufacturers to increasingly adopt zero tailpipe emission solutions. While passenger vehicle applications are trending towards a single consensus i.e., BEVs, the heavy-duty on-road applications are challenged with unique requirements of high payload capacity, higher range, lower sales volumes, higher durability, short refueling time, etc. These requirements are driving manufacturers to consider FCEV as an alternative powertrain solution to BEV specifically for higher payload capacity, and range applications.

Previously, the authors have published numerous model-based powertrain architecture optimization studies comparing different conventional, hybrid, and alternate powertrain solutions for heavy-duty applications [1,2]. While the suitability of a particular solution, e.g., BEV or FCEV, depends significantly on the type of application i.e., urban, regional, or long haul, it is important to conduct a thorough system level powertrain optimization study of each architecture for sound decision making on concept selection and component sizing. This study focuses on model-based propulsion system optimization of a fuel cell electric Class 8 long haul truck using GT-SUITE and MATLAB/Simulink.

A 1-D model of a class 8 heavy-duty truck with a conventional diesel powertrain was first developed and validated against on-road test data. The model was then adapted for a fuel cell powertrain which included fuel cell stack, fuel cell balance of plant loads, high-power LTO high-voltage battery pack, e-axle, thermal system and electrified accessories. To ensure optimal control for each powertrain configuration and size, an ECMS-based control strategy was developed for determining the optimal power split between the fuel cell and high-voltage battery. Powertrain component models for fuel cell, high-voltage battery, e-axle motor, e-axle geartrain, H2 tank etc., were parameterized to perform sizing optimizations and identify the optimal component specifications which would meet the vehicle performance requirements while maximizing efficiency, range and battery life for a given estimated vehicle direct manufacturing cost increase.
C-STAR
TM
Protection
Authors: Yu Miao , Hu Jun , Zhu Feng , Nazari Sobhan T. , Elengikal Sajan , Makrygiannis John , Zhang Jimmy , Wang Yu-Wei , Stubleski Dawn , Luther Isaac
Published: April 2024

Electrification is the future of the automotive industry and with the rapid growth of Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) market, battery protection becomes more and more crucial. Side pole impact is one of the most challenging safety load cases. Rocker assembly, as the first line of defense, plays a significant role during the event. This paper proposes Cleveland-Cliffs Steel Tube as Reinforcement (C-STARTM) protection as an application for rocker reinforcement. For a component level assessment, three-point bending is used as a testing method to replicate pole impact. The performance is compared with aluminum baseline with respect to peak force and energy absorption. Test and CAE simulations have been performed and a well calibrated CAE model is utilized to predict the robustness of various steel designs using different grades, gauges and geometries. It is shown that C-STARTM [1] protection is a scalable and configurable solution that offers superior performance in terms of peak force and energy absorption. In this study, the C-STARTM design with optimized gauges shows an improvement of 7.5% on peak force with competitive energy absorption compared to the aluminum baseline. It exhibits great potential to be used as rocker reinforcement and other structure components that have a long and near consistent section.
Analyzing the Expense: Cost Modeling for State-of-the-Art Electric Vehicle Battery Packs
Authors: Islam Ehsan Sabri , Kubal Joseph , Knehr Kevin , Ahmed Shabbir , Kim Namdoo , Vijayagopal Ram , Moawad Ayman , Rousseau Aymeric
Published: April 2024

The Battery Performance and Cost Model (BatPaC), developed by Argonne National Laboratory, is a versatile tool designed for lithium-ion battery (LIB) pack engineering. It accommodates user-defined specifications, generating detailed bill-of-materials calculations and insights into cell dimensions and pack characteristics. Pre-loaded with default data sets, BatPaC aids in estimating production costs for battery packs produced at scale (5 to 50 GWh annually). Acknowledging inherent uncertainties in parameters, the tool remains accessible and valuable for designers and engineers. BatPaC plays a crucial role in National Highway Transportation Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) regulatory assessments, providing estimated battery pack manufacturing costs and weight metrics for electric vehicles. Integrated with Argonne's Autonomie simulations, BatPaC streamlines large-scale processes, replacing traditional models with lookup tables. This integration highlights BatPaC's adaptability to emerging technologies, ensuring efficiency and accuracy in Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) rulemaking evaluations. In short, BatPaC is a robust LIB pack design and cost estimation tool, contributing to the evolving landscape of lithium-ion battery technology. Its integration with Autonomie positions it as a key player in large-scale simulations and regulatory assessments, emphasizing the tool's relevance and effectiveness in the dynamic electric vehicle and battery technology landscape. Continuous refinement will be essential to address market dynamics and ensure BatPaC's ongoing impact.
Research on Insulation Resistance Monitoring and Electrical Performance Evaluation into Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor Considering Humidity and Heat Factors
Authors: Zhang Wei , Qiu Zizhen , Kong Zhiguo , Huang Xin , Wang Fang
Published: April 2024

Focused on the permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) used in electric, this paper proposes an online insulation testing method based on voltage injection under high-temperature and high-humidity conditions. The effect of constant humidity and temperature on the insulation performance has been also studied. Firstly, the high-voltage insulation structure and principle of PMSM are analyzed, while an electrical insulation testing method considered constant humidity and temperature is proposed. Finally, a temperature and humidity experimental cycling test is carried out on a certain prototype PMSM, taking heat conduction and radiation models, water vapor, and partial discharge into account. The results show that the electrical insulation performance of the motor under constant humidity and temperature operation environment exhibits a decreasing trend. This study can provide theoretical and practical references for the reliable durability design of PMSM.
An Adaptive Flux-Weakening Strategy Considering High-Speed Operation of Dual Three-Phase PM Machine for Electric Vehicles
Authors: Wang Xudong , Sun Fengyang , Taha Wesam , Pradhan Subarni , Nahid-Mobarakeh Babak , Emadi Ali , Mohamadian Mustafa , Valencia Garcia Diego Fernando
Published: April 2024

Dual three-phase (DTP) permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs) are becoming attractive for electric vehicle (EV) propulsion systems in the automotive industry. Flux-weakening (FW) control technique is important to ensure DTP-PMSMs operating in high-speed range. This paper proposes an adaptive FW control algorithm to ensure better performance and stability in variant speeds. A small-signal model is developed to obtain the adaptive gain for a constant controller bandwidth regardless of the speeds. The proposed FW controller is implemented, tuned, and validated on a DTP-PMSM experiment setup. The proposed method improves the FW performances in terms of torque and system stability, compared with the non-adaptive FW controller. Moreover, the harmonics analysis shows an inevitable xy-components affecting the overall performances. The effect of xy controller gain is further investigated for the FW operation.
Hood Closing Characteristics in a Dual Hood Latch System
Authors: Selvan Veera , Sakthivel Gowtham , R Balaji , AS Kevin , A Sankaranarayanan , Kamat Rohan , Unadkat Siddharth , Pandurangan Venugopal
Published: April 2024

Certain sports utility vehicles (SUVs) utilize dual latches and gas struts in their hood design. This is primarily driven by the larger size of the hood and specific architectural requirements. These hoods can be securely latched either by a dynamic single stroke closing method or by quasistatic two stroke closing method. In dynamic method, the hood is closed with a single, high-velocity motion for the final primary latching, whereas in quasistatic method, force is initially applied for the secondary latching and then for the final primary latching. In this study, both the dynamic and quasistatic closing methods are compared in terms of closing force and velocity and hood over travel distance. A load cell is used for measuring the closing force, velocity meter is used for velocity measurement and a rope sensor is used for measuring the hood over travel distance. It is evident from the study that the velocity required for hood closing is higher in the dynamic method, than the quasi-static loading conditions. However, the closing force and hood over travel distance are higher in the quasi-static method compared to dynamic method. The hood overtravel distance in quasistatic method is twice that of the dynamic method. This excess hood overtravel in quasistatic method could potentially have a significant impact on the interface parts of the hood. The study clearly indicates that when dual hood latches and gas struts are employed, it is crucial for the structure of the hood system and its interface components to be robust enough to effectively handle both the quasistatic and dynamic closing conditions. This robustness is necessary to ensure the durability and reliable performance of the hood in varying operational scenarios.
Construction of Life Prediction Process for Engine Parts by Using Real-World Driving Data and Simulation Models
Authors: Tanaka Kohei , Yoshii Kenta , Takahashi Katsuyuki
Published: April 2024

To help ensure that engine components are as reliable as customers need them to be, we have thus far evaluated them by establishing development target values based on market requirements, having engineers design parts to meet these requirements, then performing durability tests. These durability requirements are calculated to provide a margin of safety for use in the marketplace. However, depending on the part, these evaluation criteria can be overly aggressive against how it is used in the market, having led to a decrease in development efficiency as engine systems become more advanced. Therefore, in this study, we focused on the subject of high-cycle fatigue, which affects numerous components and is highly scalable, and built up a process for estimating the life span of components that would enable us to conduct appropriate evaluations that reflect how parts are truly used in the market. Recently, more and more vehicles are equipped with Telematics Control Units, (TCUs) which are being used by an expanding array of services, and have earned such vehicles the label of connected cars. We utilized the large-scale, real-time data (driving data) that these units provide. By combining such data with simulations that calculate engine transient behavior, we went on to construct a process capable of estimating the life span of engine components in each vehicle based on how it is used (stress) and its failure mechanisms. This process allows the stresses that components will face in the market to be recognized during the development stage, and makes possible efficient development that satisfies the requirements of the market while reducing the pursuit of excessive quality.
Fatigue Life Analysis Methods for Rolling Lobe Air Spring
Authors: Yu Yingjin , Yin Zhihong , Li Jianxiang , Shangguan Wen-Bin
Published: April 2024

The fatigue prediction model of an air spring based on the crack initiation method is established in this study. Taking a rolling lobe air spring with an aluminum casing as the studying example, a finite element model for analyzing force versus displacement is developed. The static stiffness and dimensional parameters of limit positions are calculated and analyzed. The influence of different modeling methods of air springs bellow are compared and analyzed. Static stiffness measurement of an air spring is conducted, and the calculation results and the measured results of the static stiffness are compared. It is shown that the relative error of the measured stiffness and calculated stiffness is within 1%. The Abaqus post-processing stage is redeveloped in Python language. The damage parameters including the maximum principal nominal strain, maximum Green-Lagrange strain, and effective stress of air spring bellows are extracted and calculated to find out the critical points, where the maximum amplitude of damage parameters appear. Finally, according to the Miner damage accumulation rule, the fatigue life of an air spring under variable amplitude loads is estimated. The durability of the air spring is carried out. The fatigue life of the air spring predicted by the three models is given and compared with the measured fatigue life. It is concluded that the three proposed models in this paper for fatigue life prediction can be used to estimate the fatigue life for an air spring.
Vehicle Lightweighting Impacts on Energy Consumption Reduction Potential Across Advanced Vehicle Powertrains
Authors: Islam Ehsan Sabri , Kim Namdoo , Vijayagopal Ram , Moawad Ayman , Rousseau Aymeric , Seitz Matthew
Published: April 2024

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) plays a crucial role in guiding the formulation of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards, and at the forefront of this regulatory process stands Argonne National Laboratory (Argonne). Argonne, a U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) research institution, has developed Autonomie—an advanced and comprehensive full-vehicle simulation tool that has solidified its status as an industry standard for evaluating vehicle performance, energy consumption, and the effectiveness of various technologies.

Under the purview of an Inter-Agency Agreement (IAA), the DOE Argonne Site Office (ASO) and Argonne have assumed the responsibility of conducting full-vehicle simulations to support NHTSA's CAFE rulemaking initiatives. This paper introduces an innovative approach that hinges on a large-scale simulation process, encompassing standard regulatory driving cycles tailored to various vehicle classes and spanning diverse timeframes. What sets this methodology apart is its integration of lightweighting advancements specifically tailored to different vehicle powertrains.

Moreover, beyond describing the novel methodology, this paper offers a comprehensive analysis of energy consumption reduction. It delves into the intricate dynamics across a spectrum of vehicle powertrains, providing a nuanced understanding of how advancements in lightweighting contribute to energy efficiency gains. This work not only highlights an innovative approach to vehicle simulation, but also contributes valuable insights to the ongoing discourse surrounding CAFE standards and sustainable automotive technologies.
Multi-Contact Real-Time Tire Model Validation Using a Novel Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulator Apparatus
Authors: Veneroso Luca , Capitani Renzo , Alfatti Federico , Annicchiarico Claudio , Farroni Flavio , Sakhnevych Aleksandr
Published: April 2024

Simulators are essential part of the development process of vehicles and their advanced functionalities. The combination of virtual simulator and Hardware-in-the-loop technology accelerates the integration and functional validation of ECUs and mechanical components.

The aim of this research is to investigate the benefits that can arise from the coupling of a steering Hardware-in-the-loop simulator and an advanced multi-contact tire model, as opposed to the conventional single-contact tire model.

On-track tests were executed to collect data necessary for tire modelling using an experimental vehicle equipped with wheel force transducer, to measure force and moments acting on tire contact patch. The steering wheel was instrumented with a torque sensor, while tie-rod axial forces were quantified using loadcells.

The same test set has been replicated using the Hardware-in-the-loop simulator using both the single-contact and multi-contact tire model. The simulation apparatus is composed of a static simulator equipped with a removable steering robot. The static simulator integrates the entire steering system from the steering column up to tie rods, where dynamic forces are applied by two torque motors.

The first part of the activity focuses on validation of the steering Hardware-in-the-loop test bench, investigating its capability to accurately reproduces the steering system operating condition. During this phase the steering robot is demanded to replicate the steering angle time history while the two test bench motors were required to contemporarily replicates tie-rod forces. The comparison between track and simulator data highlights the test bench capability to closely reproduce steering system inputs, confirming its value as validation tool.

Subsequently the collected data and driver feedback are examined

to individuate the advantages introduced by the multi-contact tire model during common and limit handling manoeuvres.

This model proves to enhance the steering feel providing accurate tie-rod forces to be applied to the steering system as function of the wheel slip angle, enhancing the driver perception of vehicle stability. The multi-contact tire model also demonstrates to enhance the effect of asphalt micro and macro roughness in tie-rod forces calculation, avoiding unrealistic spikes which negatively affect steering feel.

The result of this study demonstrate that advanced multi-contact tire model can be a valuable addition to hardware-in-the-loop simulator significantly improve steering feel perception.
Damping Force Optimal Control Strategy for Semi-Active Suspension System
Authors: Zhao Jian , Li Wanting , Zhu Bing , Chen Zhicheng , Ding Shuwei , Li Junwei , Hao Wenquan , Zhang Yong
Published: April 2024

Semi-active suspension system (SASS) could enhance the ride comfort of the vehicle across different operating conditions through adjusting damping characteristics. However, current SASS are often calibrated based on engineering experience when selecting parameters for its controller, which complicates the achievement of optimal performance and leads to a decline in ride comfort for the vehicle being controlled. Linear quadratic constrained optimal control is a crucial tool for enhancing the performance of semi-active suspensions. It considers various performance objectives, such as ride comfort, handling stability, and driving safety. This study presents a control strategy for determining optimal damping force in SASS to enhance driving comfort. First, we analyze the working principle of the SASS and construct a seven-degree-of-freedom model. Next, the damping force optimal control strategy is designed by comprising of the Genetic Algorithm (GA) and the Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR). The cost function, which provides a quantitative evaluation of the controlled vehicle's driving comfort performance, is constructed by calculating the root mean square value of the body's vertical acceleration, suspension dynamic deflection, and wheel dynamic deformation. Based on this evaluation, we utilize the LQR to convert the damping force control problem of the SASS into a multi-objective optimal control problem. At the same time, the GA is used to comprehensively optimize weighted coefficients of the cost function, and successfully achieve the damping force optimal control for SASS. Finally, we constructed a joint simulation platform using CarSim and MATLAB/Simulink to evaluate and validate. The simulation results demonstrate the SASS’ optimal damping force control strategy could considerably enhance the vehicle ride comfort under various operating conditions comparing with the passive suspension.
Vehicle Yaw Stability Model Predictive Control Strategy for Dynamic and Multi-Objective Requirements
Authors: Wang Hanlin , Wu Jian , Chen Zhicheng , He Rui , Li Haiqiao
Published: April 2024

Vehicle yaw stability control (YSC) can actively adjust the working state of the chassis actuator to generate a certain additional yaw moment for the vehicle, which effectively helps the vehicle maintain good driving quality under strong transient conditions such as high-speed turning and continuous lane change. However, the traditional YSC pursues too much driving stability after activation, ignoring the difference of multi-objective requirements of yaw maneuverability, actuator energy consumption and other requirements in different vehicle stability states, resulting in the decline of vehicle driving quality. Therefore, a vehicle yaw stability model predictive control strategy for dynamic and multi-objective requirements is proposed in this paper. Firstly, the unstable characteristics of vehicle motion are analyzed, and the nonlinear two-degree-of-freedom vehicle dynamics models are established respectively. Secondly, the vehicle yaw stability control strategy is designed: The two-line method is used to extract the boundary of β−β̇ phase portrait. On this basis, the geometric distance quantization method is applied to establish the dynamic mapping relationship between the multi-objective requirements of driving stability, yaw maneuverability, actuator energy consumption and the weight of YSC cost function in different vehicle stability states. The model predictive theory and rule-based single wheel differential braking technology are applied to achieve vehicle stability control. Finally, a joint simulation platform is built based on vehicle dynamics simulation software CarSim and MATLAB/Simulink for testing and verification. The simulation results show that the YSC designed in this paper can adaptively adjust the controller output according to the dynamic multi-objective requirements in different vehicle stability states, and effectively improve the driving quality of the vehicle under strong transient conditions.
Game-Theoretic Lane-Changing Decision-Making Methods for Highway On-ramp Merging Considering Driving Styles
Authors: Du Hang , Xu Nan , Zhang Zeyang
Published: April 2024

Driver's driving style has a great impact on lane changing behavior, especially in scenarios such as freeway on-ramps that contain a strong willingness to change lanes, both in terms of inter-vehicle interactions during lane changing and in terms of the driving styles of the two vehicles. This paper proposes a study on game-theoretic decision-making for lane-changing on highway on-ramps considering driving styles, aiming to facilitate safer and more efficient merging while adequately accounting for driving styles. Firstly, the six features proposed by the EXID dataset of lane-changing vehicles were subjected to Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and the three principal components after dimensionality reduction were extracted, and then clustered according to the principal components by the K-means algorithm. The parameters of lane-changing game payoffs are computed based on the clustering centers under several styles. Secondly, a neural network model is designed based on the Matlab nprtool and the principal components taken out earlier as well as the resultant data of clustering are used as inputs to train the model and realize driving style recognition. Next, the freeway ramp lane-changing game is designed, and according to the lane-changing characteristics, the designed lane-changing gains include: speed gain, safety gain, and forced lane-changing gain. The driving style lane change game gain parameters previously derived are matched to the corresponding lane change gains, then the game is solved by Nash equilibrium to get the final lane change results. Finally, the proposed freeway on-ramp lane-changing game decision-making method for freeway on-ramp considering driving styles is validated by simulation under different locations and speeds of freeway on-ramp.
Test and Simulation Model Based Vehicle Sound Auralization
Authors: Park Sangyoung , Park Junmin , Kang Yeon June , Nam Jeongmin , Dirickx Tom , Gonçalves Vinícius
Published: April 2024

As the mobility being developed becomes more complex and numerous, it is becoming difficult and inefficient to apply current vehicle-test-based development. To overcome this, research on combining test and simulation models has been actively conducted to perform objective and subjective evaluations more accurately and efficiently in the advance stage without a vehicle over the years. At first, test models for various systems such as tire, suspension and body were made compatible with simulation models by using various methodologies such as blocked forces, FBS decoupling, and Virtual Point Transformation (VPT). The second step was to objectively estimate road noise by using FBS coupling with system models and to deeply analyze transfer paths and system’s sensitivity. The results were verified by comparing with what was measured and analyzed on vehicle. The final step was to subjectively evaluate the road noise on various driving conditions such as road type and speeds by using inverse FFT to make the predicted road noise spectrum audible at driver’s discretion. The subjective evaluation was also verified by comparing with what was felt with vehicle. From this research, it was shown that objective and subjective evaluations can be performed accurately in early stages of vehicle development by combining test and simulation models.
Braking Judder Test and Simulation Analysis of Commercial Vehicle
Authors: Huang Dehui , Zhang Kai , Sun Jichao , Li Wenbo , Pei Kaikun
Published: April 2024

Brake judder affects vehicle safety and comfort, making it a key area of research in brake NVH. Transfer path analysis is effective for analyzing and reducing brake judder. However, current studies mainly focus on passenger cars, with limited investigation into commercial vehicles. The complex chassis structures of commercial vehicles involve multiple transfer paths, resulting in extensive data and testing challenges. This hinders the analysis and suppression of brake judder using transfer path analysis. In this study, we propose a simulation-based method to investigate brake judder transfer paths in commercial vehicles. Firstly, road tests were conducted to investigate the brake judder of commercial vehicles. Time-domain analysis, order characteristics analysis, and transfer function analysis between components were performed. Subsequently, a multi-body dynamics model of the commercial vehicle was established using ADAMS software, and the effectiveness of the model in predicting brake judder characteristics and transfer functions was verified through experiments. Under braking conditions, transient simulation analysis was carried out to obtain the acceleration of key components along each transfer path. The contribution of each component was then determined using a transfer path analysis method. Research shows that judder causes larger vibrations near the excitation end, showing clear order relationships at 2-4, 6, and 9 orders. However, components like the steering wheel, brake pedal, and cab seat have smaller vibrations with no clear order relationships. Modifying the structure of the steel plate spring can reduce braking judder. The simulation model accurately predicts the time-domain and frequency-domain characteristics of braking judder.
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Impact on Combustion and Emission Characteristics of i-C

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Flame under Premixed and Diffusion Conditions
Authors: Akram M. Zuhaib , Rashid Haroon , Deng Yangbo , Aziz Muhammad , Zhu Qiao , Akram M. Waqar
Published: April 2024

Soot and carbon dioxide released from internal combustion engines became the key issues when using fossil fuels. Ammonia and hydrogen having zero-carbon species can reduce carbon-related emissions and enhance the reliance on renewable fuels. A comparative study of ammonia and hydrogen impact on combustion and emission characteristics of iso-octane flame was performed under different combustion conditions. Arrhenius equation, soot surface reactions, and modified kinetic mechanism were used to study the flame growth, soot nucleation, and surface growth rates. The results show that hydrogen increased the temperature about 20.74 K and 59.30 K, whereas ammonia reduced it about 82.17 K and 66.03 K at premixed and counterflow conditions, respectively. The flame speed of iso-octane was increased 43.83 cm/s by hydrogen and decreased 34.36 cm/s by ammonia. A reduction in CH2O caused a reduction in CO and CO2 emissions. Ammonia impact on CO reduction was stronger than hydrogen under premixed and counterflow flame conditions. In contrast, a higher reduction in CO2 emission was noticed when adding hydrogen instead of ammonia adopting counterflow flame conditions. The diluted fuel reduced the fraction of small-chain hydrocarbon species in iso-octane combustion, resulting in a reduction of the soot precursors, soot particle number density, and soot volume fractions. NO emission decreased in premixed flame and increased in counterflow flame when adding hydrogen. Ammonia enhanced NO emissions, and its impact was greater on counterflow flame rather than premixed combustion. The current study suggested that ammonia dilution in iso-octane should be ≤ 50% because a higher reduction in soot and carbon dioxide emissions can be achieved with a small reduction in burning velocity and increment in NO emission. However, the hydrogen contents > 50% in iso-octane fuel significantly reduced the emission and increased the burning velocity.