bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Adults' attributions of intentionality to vocalizing infants
Authors: Beaumont Sherry L. , Bloom Kathleen
Published: March 2007

In conversations between adults, attributions about a speaker's intentions are partly determined by vocal intonation. Similarly, 3-month-olds have been found to produce intonational vocal sounds during social interactions. The present experiment investigated whether infant vocalizations differing in intonational quality resulted in differential attributions of communicative intent by adults. Seventy-seven undergraduates viewed videotapes of 24 three-month- old infants who interacted vocally with an experimenter. Twelve of the infants produced intonational (syllabic) sounds and the other 12 infants produced sounds consisting of uniform pitch (vocalic). The infants were presented in random order, and gender and attractiveness were controlled (counterbalanced) across conditions of infant vocal quality. The adults completed rating scales designed to assess their attributions of intentionality and their perceptions of social favourability toward each of the infants. The results indicated that infants who produced the intonational syllabic sounds were rated as more intentionally communicative and socially favourable than those who produced vocalic sounds (p < 0.001). A series of confirmatory factor analyses confirmed that the rating scales did measure two different (but related) factors (intentionality and social favourability). These results are discussed in terms of the possible influence of attributions of intentionality on adults' behaviour and on the infant's development of communicative competence.
On the fringes of the system: children's acquisition of syntactically isolated forms at the onset of speech
Authors: Ninio Anat
Published: March 2007

Analysis of the utterances of 16 beginning speakers revealed that the great majority of linguistic forms they had acquired consisted of forms lacking syntactic combinatorial properties in adult language. The results support the hypothesis that young children are unable to learn linguistic signs which are integrated into the linguistic system by a complex network of interrelationships. Rather, they are limited to such forms which are sustained by their own individual and discrete 'language games', such as interjections, vocatives, moves in rituals and in games, as well as unmarked general forms for the expression of specific communicative intents. This restriction is attributable to the nature of the learning task facing a beginner attempting to master a complex system, rather than to the characteristics of the learners themselves. Thus, it is unnecessary to search for an explanation for the character of early utterances in terms of some prior limitations of young children, such as lack of object concepts, lack of internal representation and the like.
Modularity and Principles and Parameters: avoiding the 'cognitively ugly'
Authors: Foster-Cohen Susan H.
Published: March 2007

This paper provides an overview of some of the advantages of the Principles and Parameters approach to language acquisition research, and suggests that modularity is a particularly helpful feature of this approach. It argues that serious attention to modularity clarifies research thinking, encouraging us to examine the boundaries between modules in constructive ways. Particular attention is paid to the boundary between syntax and pragmatics as illustrative of such boundary issues in general. Researchers are encouraged to examine other frameworks for their contributions to a more eclectic view of language acquisition than currently popular, with the anticipation that it will lead to a healthy interaction between the contributions of different approaches.
The nature of the cognitive deficit in specific language impairment
Authors: Kushnir Connie C. , Blake Joanna
Published: March 2007

Fifteen language-impaired children between 3 and 5 years and 15 non-impaired children matched on sex, age, and non-verbal IQ were compared on classification, symbolic play, spatial memory and verbal memory tasks. The two groups differed only on the verbal memory tasks, and it was particularly the verbal sequential memory task that predicted language production, both Reynell expressive scores and MLU from spontaneous speech samples. These findings suggest that sequential processing/memory of verbal items is a critical factor in language impairment, while classi fication, symbolic play and spatial memory are not problematic.
How to persuade mum to buy a toy
Authors: Axia Giovanna
Published: March 2007

The main aim of this study was to investigate whether a developmental sequence can be found in spontaneous use of language when the child intends to influence other people's behaviour. Eighty-eight children (4, 6 and 8 years old) and their relatives were observed in the toy department of a big store. All subjects were unaware that an observer with a hidden tape- recorder was close to them. Children's spontaneous verbal behaviour aimed at persuading an adult relative to buy them a desired object was recorded. Significant age differences were observed. Four-year-olds mostly tried to get direct control over the adult; they did not take into account the adult's reactions. Six- year-olds also tried to get control over the adult, but they took into account the adult's objections; the exchanges were mostly competitive and the children 'bargained'. Eight-year-olds tried to overcome the potential conflict and to orient the exchange towards co-operation; children were sensitive to the adult's objections and tried to accept their hearer's point of view.
Referent introductions in Spanish narratives as a function of contextual constraints: a crosslinguistic perspective
Authors: Kail Michele , Sanchez y Lopez Ines
Published: March 2007

This study investigates referent introductions in narratives produced by Spanish children of 6, 9 and 11 years and adults in two situations, where they either could assume mutual back ground knowledge of the narrated content (Situation MK) or could not make this assumption (Situation NMK), while holding this content constant by means of a picture book. Overall, situation NMK elicits more indefinite first mentions than situation MK and this effect is more marked for the main characters than for the secondary ones. The developmental pattern indicates that 9 years is the critical age at which Spanish children begin to use more indefinite first mentions in both situations. For all animate referents, Spanish children's and adults' introductions occur significantly more often in VN clause structures than in NV ones. Situation NMK elicits more VN first mentions than situation MK, but this contrasted effect concerns only the main characters. For these referents, the dominant pattern is Indefinite/Non Subject/VN clause structure; this pattern increases regularly with age. For main characters, Spanish children and adults tend to choose some predicates as a function of the situation: estar + auxiliaries in MK and estar + locations in NMK. These results compared with previous ones obtained with French children in identical conditions (Kail & Hickmann 1992) are discussed in the light of various constraints: linguistic, especially clause structure as a
Sorting out language and level: examining the relation between productive vocabulary and category differentiation
Authors: Singer-Freeman Karen E. , Bauer Patricia J.
Published: March 2007

In two experiments we examined the relation between productive vocabulary and categorization at the basic and superordinate levels. Experiment 1 assessed categorization using a spontaneous object-manipulation task; Experiment 2 used a structured task employing 3 different levels of verbal support. In both experiments 24-month-old children participated in two sessions, with different levels of categorization tested at each session. Each child's productive vocabulary was assessed using either the Reznick & Goldsmith (1989) short parental report or the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory. In both experiments, children performed equally well at the basic and superordinate levels, regardless of the task or level of verbal support. In Experiment 1 productive vocabulary was correlated with categorization at the basic level: children with larger productive vocabularies were more successful on basic-level tasks. The same relation between productive vocabulary and basic-level categorization was seen in the lowest verbal support condition of Experiment 2. There was no relation between vocabulary score and categorization at the superordinate level in either experiment. Possible implications of these findings are discussed.
Partial representations and phonological selectivity in the comprehension of 13- to 16-month-olds
Authors: Kay-Raining Bird Elizabeth , Chapman Robin S.
Published: March 2007

This study examined constraints on early phases of incidental learning ('fast mapping') of novel word comprehension in twenty 13- to 16-month-old children just beginning to acquire spoken words (10- to 30-word vocabularies). It asked: whether children this young can give evidence of comprehension, as indicated by object looking, after only four novel word exposures; whether frequency of input (4 versus 8 exposures) influenced learning; whether learning was better for novel words composed of sounds IN rather than OUT of the infant's repertoire ('phonological selectivity'); and whether infants also attended to the named object on probe trials partially similar in sounds to the novel word ('partial representation'). Planned comparisons revealed that children 13 to 16 months of age can 'fast map' novel words after only four word exposures and that representation of the word form may be partial. Further, the likelihood that a named object would be identified following a probe systematically diminished as the phonetic similarity to the target stimulus decreased. No effects of selectivity or input frequency were evident.
Culturally Appropriate Education for Children in Hawaii
Authors: Calkins Roderick P. , Pedersen Paul
Published: March 2007

Scholastic achievement amongst ethnic or cultural minority groups is gene rally recognised to be poor, and programmes initiated to remedy the problem have had disappointing results. This article, however, describes a new approach taken with Hawaiian children by creating a 'third culture' to en hance attainment through the integration of aspects and values of the in digenous culture of the children and the assumed culture of the educational system.
The influence of Special School Attendance and Success and Failure Ratings upon GOAL SETTING
Authors: Lauth Gerhard
Published: March 2007

Eighty-seven pupils from a special school for learning disabled were tested to find out whether the length of time spent in a special school results in an increasingly realistic setting of goals. The methods used and the results were described and analysed.
Cultural Challenges in Nutrition Education Among American Indians
Authors: Jackson M. Yvonne , Broussard Brenda A.
Published: March 2007

Nutritional management is the cornerstone of any treatment program for diabetes. This paper presents a descriptive overview of the cultural factors influenc ing nutrition behavior and its relevance for nutrition education and diabetes management among American Indians. Techniques to improve diabetes educator effec tiveness to bridge cultural gaps are described.
Locus of Control and the Control of Diabetes
Authors: Edelstein Jacqueline , Linn Margaret W.
Published: March 2007

Study participants were 120 diabetic men on insulin who completed Rotter's Locus of Control Scale. Control of diabetes was measured with a score derived from five-point weighted scales for hemoglobin A1, fasting blood glucose, triglyceride, and cholesterol. Baseline and six-month locus of control scores were correlated with metabolic control at six and 12 months. Results showed that an internal locus was associated with poorer control of the disease at six and 12 months, with correlations stronger at six months than at 12 months, when control was slightly worse. It may be that externally controlled individuals are more receptive to medical instructions and comply more readily than internal pa tients who take charge of their lives through self-controlling behaviors. A more thorough understanding of internally oriented diabetic patients is necessary to design educational programs that would guide these self-regulated persons toward better control of their illness.
Differences in Patient Knowledge About Diabetes as a Function of Type of Primary Care Physician
Authors: Garrard Judith , Ostromjoynes Judy , Mullen Lucy , McNeil Leann , Etzwiler Donnell D.
Published: March 2007

This study examined whether or not patients (n =57) of specialists in diabetes differed from patients (n=211) ofnonspecialists in terms of their knowledge about diabetes before and after a standardized patient education program in diabetes. A specialist was defined as a physician whose practice consisted of 50 % or more diabetic patients. Patient knowledge about diabetes was measured with a 50-item ques tionnaire consisting of seven subscores and a total score. Prior to the program, the two groups did not differ on five of the subscores nor on the total score. There were statistically significant differences on two of the subscores on the pretest: Methods of Control and Pattern Control, with the specialist group scoring better than the nonspecialist group. No differences on any of the scores were found at the end of the program, nor were there differ ences in the amount of knowledge gained during the program. Several interpretations of these findings are suggested and the implications for patient and physician education and the need for further research are discussed.
Nutrition and Diabetes: A Review of Current Recommendations
Authors: Cooper Nancy A.
Published: March 2007

Nutrition has long been described as the cornerstone of diabetes management. Important goals of nutrition therapy are to restore normal blood glucose and lipid levels, prevent complications, promote growth in children and weight maintenance in adults, and develop an individualized meal plan. Calorie content, and the distribution of carbohydrate, protein, and fat in the diet need to be individualized. Illness, exercise, and hypoglycemia may require special modification in food intake. Whenformulating a diet prescription, the dietitian needs to consider calorie needs, current eating habits, diabetes management goals, and medication schedule, as well as appropriate teaching materials for initial and in-depth continuing education.
The Diabetes Care and Education Provided by Nurses Working in Physicians' Offices
Authors: Anderson Robert M. , Lockwood Donna , Dedrick Robert F. , Hiss Roland G.
Published: March 2007

This paper describes the diabetes care and education provided to 290 diabetic patients by 47 nurses working in primary care physi cians' offices in two Michigan communities. The study utilized data from questionnaires and logbooks of patient contacts kept by the 47 nurses. The study demonstrated that nurses could play an important role in caring for persons with diabetes, but in dicated that office nurses were constrained from delivering optimal care by lack of time, resources, and diabetes-related continuing education. Since the majority of patients with diabetes receive their ongoing diabetes care and education in primary care physicians' offices, and since nurses, as a profession, can and should play a major role in the overall care of these patients, a national effort to improve the quality of patient education provided by this very large group ofhealth professionals is indi cated. The diabetes patient education provided by office nurses should supplement, but not replace, the comprehensive diabetes patient education provided by programs that meet national standards.
Teaching Skills of Health Professionals
Authors: LORENZ ROD A.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this paper is to describe an analytic method that focuses on health professionals' teaching skills. The method involves comparing live or recorded teacher behaviors with operational definitions of 20 skills known to influence learning outcomes, and assigning numerical ratings on a four-point scale. The videotapes prepared for this symposium are rated and compared with other sessions recorded in health care settings. Virtually all patient educators could improve their teaching skills substantially. Although many questions about teaching skills and education process remain unanswered, available data clearly justify training to improve health professionals' teaching skills.
Patient Perceptions of Diabetes Treatment Goals
Authors: D'Eramo-Melkus Gaila. , Demas Penelope
Published: March 2007

The current treatment of type II noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) and obesity involves complex regimens for weight reduction and improvement in metabolic control that necessitate active partici pation by the patient in estab lishing treatment goals and strategies. However, well- documented rates of nonad herence suggest that weaknesses may exist in patient-provider communications that preclude such patient participation. This study examines patient percep tions of diabetes treatment goals as established with their health care providers. Fifty-four individuals with type II NIDDM and obesity were surveyed. To determine the degree of congruence between patient and health care provider, the physi cians of study participants were also surveyed. A 53 % discrepancy rate was found to exist in the area of overall treatment goals. In addition, a 57% and 43 % rate of discrepancy was found for the specific goals of weight loss and blood glucose levels, respectively. Further findings and the implica tions for practice are discussed in this paper.
Physical and Glycemic Responses of Women With Gestational Diabetes to a Moderately Intense Exercise Program
Authors: Durak Ericp. , Jovanovic-Peterson Lois , Peterson Charles M.
Published: March 2007

Aerobic exercise machines are becoming more popular. Their use by women with gestational diabetes is reported, and their benefits in improving blood glucose management and in increasing maternal fitness without undue stress to the fetus are substantiated. Of equal benefit is the use of an exercise specialist to prescribe an individual exercise program, to increase the safety and effec tiveness of the workout, to monitor maternal and fetal well- being, to record relevant data, and to provide feedback and infor mation to the patient about the exercise session. The use of exercise specialists in the clinical setting should prove a useful adjunct to medical and dietary regimens for the woman with gestational diabetes.
A Modified Quality-of-Life Measure for Youths: Psychometric Properties
Authors: Ingersoll Gary M. , Marrero David G.
Published: March 2007

In the Diabetes Control and Complication Trial (DCCT), a Diabetes Quality of Life (DQOL) measure was developed to assess the psychosocial impact of intensified regimens. Its applicability for use with children and adolescents was limited by the exclusion criteria of the DCCT. In this study, the DQOL was modifiedfor specific use in young diabetes populations. The result is an instrument composed of three intercorrelated scales—a Diabetes Life Satisfaction scale, a Disease Impact scale, and a Disease-Related Worries scale—with satisfactory levels of reliability. While the scale variances were independent of glycosylated hemoglobin values, they were related to adolescents' perception of their general health status. Self-perceived quality oflife related to diabetes management is an important alternative outcome for diabetes education programs.
Bedside Glucose Monitoring: In Compliance With Regulatory Standards
Authors: Levine Ann , Sotomayor Grace
Published: March 2007

When accurately performed, bedside glucose monitoring (BGM) is a prompt, reliable, and cost- effective method of managing patients who require a high degree of glucose control. However, regulatory agencies have criticized the quality-control deficiencies of most existingBGMprograms. A new generation ofmulti-user reflectance meters enables the various regulatory directives to be more easily satisfied. These meters provide computer-assisted quality control analysis and facilitate operator feedback for each control test. New York State Department of Health regulations state that the ultimate responsibility for BGM belongs to the chemistry laboratory director. We believe that nursing personnel should retain their patient care prerogative to perform glucose monitoring. Implementation of our successful BGMprogram required the collaboration ofnursing, medical, laboratory, and administrative personnel. These departments combined theoretical and practical expertise with material and financial management. During the first 5 months of operation, our program has shown a steady increasefrom 78% to 89% ofcontrol tests performed correctly. This model can be used by other hospitals to achieve a successful BGM program.
Self-Care of Adults With Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus: Influence of Family and Friends
Authors: Wang Chen-Yen , Fenske Mildred M.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the relationships among the source of support, universal self-care, and health-deviation self-care behaviors in adults who control their blood glucose with oral agents. A descriptive correlational design was used. Respondents completed a total of 51 items on questionnaires. Significant differences were found between the group with family-plus-friend support and the group without support in relation to universal self-care and health-deviation self-care. A significant difference was also found between the group with family-plus-diabetes-group support and the group without support in relation to health-deviation self-care. Subjects who received support from friends in addition to family support reported higher universal and health-deviation self-care behaviors than those without support. Support systems explained 23% of variance in universal self-care and 17% of variance in health-deviation self-care.
Motivational Strategies Used by Dietitians to Counsel Individuals With Diabetes
Authors: Brown Stacy L. , Pope Janet F. , Hunt Alice E. , Tolman Nancy M.
Published: March 2007

The purposes of this study were to determine the use and perceived effectiveness of motivational strategies used by dietitians and to evaluate dietitians' perceptions of barriers to client compliance. A three-part questionnaire with 32 motivational strategies, 16 barriers to adherence, and demographic information was designed and mailed to 862 members of the American Dietetic Association's Diabetes Care and Education Dietetic Practice Group. Statistical analyses included frequency distributions, chi-square analysis, and factor analysis.

Only 13 of the 32 motivational strategies were used frequently by 50% or more of the dietitians. The main strategy based on perceived effectiveness was "Tailor the diet to the client's lifestyle. " Strategies perceived as effective also were used frequently by a majority of the dietitians. There were differences in use of strategies based on practice setting, CDE certification, and education level. The most significant barrier to adherence was "Complications with lifestyle/competing demands. " Factor analysis revealed nine factors for motivational strategies and five factors for barriers to adherence.
Integration Theory Applied To Models of Inequity
Authors: Anderson Norman H. , Farkas Arthur J.
Published: March 2007

Three algebraic models for inequity were shown to be simply testable in terms of their additivity structure. The model from integration theory correctly represented the sequence of comparisons, first between persons, then between input and outcome. Also, it gave a good though not perfect account of the additivity structure.
Personality Theory: Its Nature, Past, Present and--Future?
Authors: Rychlakl Joseph F.
Published: March 2007

This is an effort to frame the core meaning of "person ality theory," and to show how all personality theorists have made certain assumptions in common about the nature of behavior. Exam ples are given from the leading personality theories of history. It is argued that the personality theorists of the future must broaden their roles, and work more generally as "identity advocates" in all realms of psychology.
Arousal and Costs in Bystander Intervention
Authors: Ashton Nancy L. , Severy Lawrence J.
Published: March 2007

One hundred and twenty female undergraduates were subjects in an experiment testing aspects of the Piliavin and Piliavin (Note 1) model of bystander intervention. Subjects heard a female "victim" experience a falling-bookcase crisis. Three hypotheses were tested: (a) severity of the emergency would have an inverted-U relationship with help rather than the direct positive function predicted by the Piliavin model, (b) manipulated competence, and (c) permission to leave the room would each be positively linearly related to helping behavior. Severity had no significant effect on the kind of response, but there was some support for the inverted-U hypothesis with regard to latency of intervention. The permissibility-of-leaving-the- room hypothesis was strongly supported.
Social-Unit Analysis as a Framework for Research in Environmental and Social Psychology
Authors: Stokols Daniel
Published: March 2007

The present discussion examines some of the theoretical assumptions implicit in Altman's (1976) concept of social-unit analysis. These assumptions are considered in relation to Miller, Galanter, and Pribram's (1960) "TOTE" model of human behavior and the concept of human-environment optimization (Stokols, in press). An attempt is made to specify certain core concerns of the environ ment and behavior field, and to examine the potential contribution of social psychology to an analysis of these concerns.
Visual Interaction at Extended Distances
Authors: Aiello John R.
Published: March 2007

Male and female visual orientation levels while speak ing and while listening were examined at interpersonal distances above those typically chosen for conversation to test an equili brium theory of social intimacy. Results indicated that while an upper distance boundary for female visual responsiveness is reached between 7' and 9.5', predictions from an equilibrium theory still hold for males as an upper boundary for male responsiveness (a de crease in looking) had not been reached by 14.5'. Further, while males increased their looking while they spoke at these large dis tances, females decreased their level of visual regard over the course of the conversation. This result reinforces the interpre tation that the extended distances used lack the appropriate re inforcement value for women and hence lead to their greater with drawal from interaction.
Effects of Making Blood Donor Motives Salient Upon Donor Retention: A Field Experiment
Authors: Paulhus Delroy L. , Shaffer David R. , Downing Leslie L.
Published: March 2007

The salience of each of two important reasons for giving blood (altruism and personal benefits) was manipulated by exposing volunteer donors to one of four communications immediately preceding their donation. The results of a post-donation questionnaire revealed an increased likelihood of future donation when altruism was made salient. However, the personal benefits manipulation had no effect upon subjects' reported willingness to donate in the future. Veteran donors were more responsive to the altruism manipulation, reported a stronger motivation for having given blood, expressed a greater like lihood of donating again, and perceived the actual donation as less aversive when compared to rookie donors.
Attribution Theory: Phenomenology or Science?
Authors: Calder Bobby J.
Published: March 2007

Attribution theory sometimes confuses phenomenological understanding with scientific theory. Kruglanski's (1977) comments on the endogenous-exogenous distinction are analyzed as an important case of such confusion. Phenomenology is rejected as a substitute for scientific attribution theorizing.
Effects of Individual Optimization in Setting the Boundaries of Dichotomous Items on Accuracy of Estimation
Authors: Samejima Fumiko
Published: March 2007

Applying the normal ogive model of latent trait theory, two sets of data, simulated and empirical, were analyzed. The objective was to determine how much accuracy of estimation of the subjects' latent ability can be maintained by tailoring for each testee the order of presentation of the items and the border of dichotomization for each item. This was compared to the information provided by the ori ginal graded test items. Results indicated that tailored testing is promising especially when the number of items is not too small, and that a graded item can effectively be used as the initial item in tailored testing because of its branching effect.
Predictions of Academic Performance in Graduate and Professional School
Authors: Lin Pang-chieh , Humphreys Lloyd G.
Published: March 2007

Using a model followed in earlier research, corre lations were computed between undergraduate and graduate grade-point averages as well as between these and standard graduate and professional school tests. Approximately 1200 law school stu dents constituted a professional school sample and another 1200 students in mathematics, physics, and chemistry constituted a graduate school sample. Earlier findings were replicated. In addition, it is shown that both graduate and professional school grades form simplex matrices and that early grades are more highly predictable from aptitude tests than later grades. There is evidence for a single simplex matrix extending through the four under graduate and three post-graduate years only in the law school sample. There are two separate simplex matrices for the two levels in the graduate school sample. Correlations between test scores and under graduate grades are biased to very low values in the professional school sample by a compensatory selec tion system, but both aptitude and achievement tests are clearly more highly correlated with fresh- man than with senior grades in the graduate school sample. In this sample, however, the advanced test in the discipline is more highly correlated with first year graduate grades than with senior grades. These data suggest that the first year in a new aca demic learning situation represents a greater intel lectual challenge than subsequent years.
Some Item Analysis and Test Theory for a System of Computer-Assisted Test Construction for Individualized Instruction
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: March 2007

Under given conditions, conventional testing and computer-generated repeatable testing (CGRT) are equally effective for estimating examinee ability; CGRT is more effective than conventional testing for estimating the mean ability level of a group; and CGRT is less effective for estimating ability differences among individuals. These conclusions are drawn from domain-referenced test theory as distinguished from norm-referenced test theory.
Person Reliability
Authors: Lumsden James
Published: March 2007

Person changes can be of three kinds: develop mental trends, swells, and tremors. Person unrelia bility in the tremor sense (momentary fluctuations) can be estimated from person characteristic curves. Average person reliability for groups can be com pared from item characteristic curves.
Comparison of Ability Metrics Obtained under Two Latent Trait Theory Procedures
Authors: Baker Frank B.
Published: March 2007

Both the BICAL and LOGIST computer programs implement a maximum likelihood procedure for jointly estimating the item and ability parameters. The two programs differ, however, with respect to (1) the an choring procedures used to overcome the metric inde terminancy of the paradigm; (2) the item characteristic curve models employed; and (3) how the examinees are grouped within the estimation process. Three sim ulated sets of item response data based upon a known underlying ability metric were used to investigate the metric recovery capabilities of the two computer pro grams. The results showed that both programs re covered a transformation of the underlying metric via a common equation, but the elements used in this equation were program specific. The transformation of the metric yielded by BICAL to the underlying metric depended only upon the item characteristic curve pa rameters, whereas the LOGIST transformation also de pended upon the frequency distribution of the esti mated ability scores over the underlying ability metric. The empirical results indicate that both transformations are quite sensitive to errors in the average value of the obtained item discrimination indices. Because LOG IST groups examinees by ability levels and BICAL does so by raw score levels, the variability of the transformed ability estimates yielded by BICAL were smaller than those from LOGIST. The results suggest that when comparing results yielded by the two com puter programs, particular attention should be paid to the characteristics of the obtained metrics.
Assessing and Studying Utility Functions in Psychometric Decision Theory
Authors: Vrijhof Bastiaan J. , Mollenbergh Gideon J. , van den Brink Wulfert P.
Published: March 2007

In educational and industrial psychology, utility theory has been used for determining optimal decision- theoretic procedures such as optimal test cutting scores for Pass/Fail and Accept/Reject decisions. Three meth ods are described for empirically assessing utility functions: (1) a method for scaling utility mixtures, consisting of a true achievement or criterion level combined with the probability of passing the test or being accepted, which is applicable for determining optimal decision procedures; (2) a method for scaling the utility as a function of the true achievement or cri terion level; and (3) a graphical procedure for choos ing a utility function. These methods are useful for in vestigating the utility structure. The three methods are investigated using 30 students in a hypothetical educa tional Pass/Fail situation and appear to yield reliable information. Moreover, an overview of the students' utility structures is reported.
An Examination of the Characteristics of Unidimensional IRT Parameter Estimates Derived From Two-Dimensional Data
Authors: Ansley Timothy N. , Forsyth Robert A.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this investigation was to study the nature of the item and ability estimates obtained when the modified three-parameter logistic model is used with two-dimensional data. To examine the effects of two-dimensional data on unidimensional parameter es timates, the relative potency of the two dimensions was systematically varied by changing the correlations between the two ability dimensions. Data sets based on correlations of .0, .3, .6, .9, and .95 were gener ated for each of four combinations of sample size and test length. Also, for each of these four combinations, five unidimensional data sets were simulated for com parison purposes. Relative to the nature of the unidi mensional estimates, it was found that the â value seemed best considered as the average of the true a values. The b value seemed best thought of as an overestimate of the true b1 values. The θ value seemed best considered as the average of the true ability pa rameters. Although there was a consistent trend for these relationships to strengthen as the ability dimen sions became more highly correlated, there was al ways a substantial disparity between the magnitudes of these values and of those derived from the unidimen sional data. Sample size and test length had very little effect on these relationships.
Empirical Tests of Scale Type for Individual Ratings
Authors: Westermann Rainer
Published: March 2007

This article describes eight studies that tested em pirically the hypothesis that rating procedures lead to interval-scale measurements for each single subject. In order to enhance the probability of obtaining interval scales, subjects made numerical ratings and were de liberately instructed to choose their responses so that the algebraic differences between numbers represented the subjective differences between the corresponding objects with respect to the attribute under study. This approach is based on axiomatic measurement theory. It is exemplified by a study from clinical psychologi cal research pertaining to the subjective fear aroused by each of 160 objects or situations. Any subject's ratings are regarded as interval-scale measurements of his or her individual degree of fear if the testable ax ioms of a finite, equally-spaced difference structure are satisfied empirically. These axioms pertain to ordi nal judgments on differences, and they are tested em pirically by deriving statistical hypotheses and using a refined significance-test method as an error theory. For the eight studies criteria were chosen primarily to avoid accepting false interval-scale hypotheses at the expense of relative high risks for false rejections. Nevertheless, empirical data allow acceptance of the hypothesis for 54 of the 114 subjects. As a conse quence, for at least half of the subjects, this rating procedure seems to result in interval scales.
The Robustness of Rasch Estimates
Authors: van de Vijver Fons J. R.
Published: March 2007

The small scale applicability of Rasch estimates was investigated under simulated conditions of guess ing and heterogeneity in item discrimination. The ac curacy of the Rasch estimates was evaluated by means of the correlation between the item/person parameters and their estimates, the standard deviations of the esti mates, and the difference as well as the root mean squared difference between parameters and estimates. Within the range of the present investigation (from 10 to 50 items and from 25 to 500 persons) these criteria yielded favorable results under conditions of heteroge neous item discrimination. Under conditions of guess ing, robustness could only be demonstrated for the correlational criterion. Guessing affects the difference measures between the parameter values and estimates quite strongly in a systematic way. It is argued that, notwithstanding these estimation errors, the Rasch model is to be preferred over nonstandard estimation procedures, from which the validity is unclear, or the use of the three-parameter model with its computa tional problems in small samples.
The Mokken Scale: A Critical Discussion
Authors: Roskam Edward E. , van den Wollenberg Arnold L. , Jansen Paul G. W.
Published: March 2007

The Mokken scale is critically discussed. It is ar gued that Loevinger's H, adapted by Mokken and ad vocated as a coefficient of scalability, is sensitive to properties of the item set which are extraneous to Mokken's requirement of holomorphy of item re sponse curves. Therefore, when defined in terms of H, the Mokken scale is ambiguous. It is furthermore ar gued that item-selection free statistical inferences con ceming the latent person order appear to be insuffi ciently based on double monotony alone, and that the Rasch model is the only item response model fulfilling this requirement. Finally, it is contended that the Mokken scale is an unfruitful compromise between the requirements of a Guttman scale and the requirements of classical test theory.
Exploiting Auxiliary Infornlation About Examinees in the Estimation of Item Parameters
Authors: Mislovy Robert J.
Published: March 2007

The precision of item parameter estimates can be increased by taking advantage of dependencies be tween the latent proficiency variable and auxiliary ex aminee variables such as age, courses taken, and years of schooling. Gains roughly equivalent to two to six additional item responses can be expected in typical educational and psychological applications. Empirical Bayesian computational procedures are presented and illustrated with data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress survey.
Linear Equating Models for the Common-item Nonequivalent-Populations Design
Authors: Kolen Michael J. , Brennan Robert L.
Published: March 2007

The Tucker and Levine equally reliable linear meth ods for test form equating in the common-item non equivalent-populations design are formulated in a way that promotes understanding of the methods. The for mulation emphasizes population notions and is used to draw attention to the practical differences between the methods. It is shown that the Levine method weights group differences more heavily than the Tucker method. A scheme for forming a synthetic population is suggested that is intended to facilitate interpretation of equating results. A procedure for displaying form and group differences is developed that also aids inter pretation.
Some Practical Issues in Equating
Authors: Brennan Robert L. , Kolen Michael J.
Published: March 2007

The practice of equating frequently involves not only the choice of a statistical equating procedure but also consideration of practical issues that bear upon the use and/or interpretation of equating results. In this paper, major emphasis is given to issues involved in identifying, quantifying, and (to the extent possible) eliminating various sources of error in equating. Other topics considered include content specifications and equating, equating in the context of cutting scores, reequating, and the effects of a security breach on equating. To simplify discussion, some issues are treated from the linear equating perspective in Kolen and Brennan (1987).
The Application of an Unfolding Model of the PIRT Type to the Measurement of Attitude
Authors: Andrich David
Published: March 2007

Unfolding data for unidimensional variables con structed from direct responses (e.g., agreement or dis agreement) are characterized by single peaked func tions involving the locations of each person and each stimulus. A continuous discrirninal process, of the form postulated by Thurstone when he proposed his Law of Comparative Judgment, is suggested. This process is transformed to a qualitative dichotomous re sponse in which the probability of endorsement is governed by the square of the distance between the lo cations of the person and the stimulus. Maximum like lihood estimates of the parameters are derived, and it is shown that the information associated with any re sponse is a bimodal function of the difference between the person and stimulus locations. The feasibility of parameter estimation is demonstrated with a limited simulation study. The model is applied to a set of statements designed to measure attitudes toward capi tal punishment and scaled by the methods of Thur stone. The responses conformed to the unfolding mechanism, and the scale values of the statements are statistically equivalent to those obtained by Thur stone's methods. Index terms: Attitude measure ment, Developmental data, Discriminal process, Item response theory, Person response theory, Thurstone scaling, Unfolding data, Unidimensional scaling.
Extended Axiomatic Conjoint Measurement: A Solution to a Methodological Problem in Studying Fertility-Related Behaviors
Authors: Nickerson Carol A. , McClelland Gary H.
Published: March 2007

This paper has three purposes: (1) to develop a methodology based on axiomatic conjoint measure ment to accompany the McClelland (1980) fertility de cision-making model; (2) to demonstrate the use of the methodology by applying it to the study of a specific fertility-related behavior (contraceptive choice); and (3) to evaluate the usefulness and validity of the model and its methodology for studying fertility-re lated behaviors. The within-persons methodology de veloped is contrasted with the across-persons method ology customarily used to test expectancy-value models of behavior. Index terms: Conjoint mea surement, Contraception, Decision making, Expec tancy-value models, Preference models, Within-per sons analysis.
Consistency of Rasch Model Parameter Estimation: A Simulation Study
Authors: van den Wollenberg Arnold L. , Wierda Folkert W. , Jansen Paul G. W.
Published: March 2007

It is shown in this paper that the unconditional or simultaneous maximum likelihood estimation proce dure for the one-parameter logistic model gives rise to biased estimators. This bias cannot be removed by a correction factor ( K - 1)/ K (where K is the number of items), contrary to the contention of several authors. The bias is dependent not only on the number of items, but also on the distribution of the item parame ters, which makes correcting for bias practically im possible. Furthermore, it is shown that the minimum chi-square estimation procedure, as introduced by Fischer, results in unbiased estimates. In addition, this method is computationally fast, so that it seems to be a good alternative for CML estimation when the latter method meets practical impediments. Index terms: Maximum likelihood estimation, conditional; Maxi mum likelihood estimation, unconditional; Minimum chi-square estimation; One-parameter logistic model; Rasch model.
Item-Rest Regressions, Item Response Functions, and the Relation Between Test Forms
Authors: de Gruijter Dato N. M. , de Jong John H. A. L.
Published: March 2007

Levine (1982) used item-rest regressions for the estimation of item parameters, and this relation ship was exploited in this research in the context of vertical equating. Results from a simulation and an empirical dataset were used to demonstrate that item-rest regressions were useful in verifying the relationship between two tests obtained from item parameter estimates. It is shown that in vertical equating designs the Rasch model cannot replicate the relationship between tests at the lower score levels when guessing is present. At higher score lev els, however, the correct transformation function can be estimated, irrespective of the IRT model used.
Effects of Passage and Item Scrambling on Equating Relationships
Authors: Harris Deborah J.
Published: March 2007

This study investigated the effects of passage and item scrambling on equipercentile and item response theory equating using a random groups design. For all four tests and for both scramblings used, differences in item and examinee statistics were found to exist between all three forms used (the base form and the two scrambled forms). Up to 50% of the examinees administered a scrambled form would have received a different scale score if the base form equating, rather than the scrambled form equating, had been used to convert their number-correct scores. It is, therefore, suggested that caution be used when scrambled forms are being administered, because in applications such as that studied here, the effects of applying the equating results obtained using a base form to the number-correct scores obtained on a scrambled form can be quite substantial in terms of the numbers of examinees who would receive different scores.
On the Efficiency of IRT Models When Applied to Different Sampling Designs
Authors: Berger Martijn P. F.
Published: March 2007

The problem of obtaining designs that result in the greatest precision of the parameter estimates is encountered in at least two situations in which item response theory (IRT) models are used. In so- called two-stage testing procedures, certain designs may be specified that match difficulty levels of test items with abilities of examinees. The advantage of such designs is that the variance of the estimated parameters can be controlled. In situations in which IRT models are applied to different groups, efficient multiple-matrix sampling designs are applicable. The choice of matrix sampling designs will also influence the variance of the estimated parameters. Heuristic arguments are given here to formulate the efficiency of a design in terms of an asymptotic generalized variance criterion, and a comparison is made of the efficiencies of several designs. It is shown that some designs may be found to be most efficient for the one- and two- parameter model, but not necessarily for the three- parameter model.