bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Comparative Studies On the Reproductive Behaviour of Two Closely Related Weaver Bird Species (Ploceus Cucullatus and Ploceus Nigerrimus) and Their Races
Authors: Crook John Hurrell
Published: April 2008

I. This paper provides quantitative data on the precise differences in breeding behaviour between two closely related weaver bird species, some of which function in reproductive isolation. 2. Ploceus cucullatus (7 races) and P. nigerrimus (2 races) have a wide broadly sympatric distribution in West, Central and East Africa south of the Sahara. P. nigerrimus is restricted to forest fringe and secondary growth around cultivation in forest lands while cucullatus, in addition to these, inhabits humid savannah and riverine areas in arid country. In one locality hybridisation has been reported. The races of each species are partially allopatric with interbreeding in zones of overlap. 3. The birds breed in crowded colonies and are polygamous, the males constructing up to five nests successively and acquiring a number of females. Each male defends a territory around his nest group. 4. Territorial behaviour in cucullatus consists of "supplants", "song bows" and "lunging matches" and the posturing is particularly static. In nigerrimus more mobile behaviour
A Comparison of the Social Postures of Some Common Laboratory Rodents
Authors: Grant E.C. , Mackintosh J.H.
Published: April 2008

This paper describes elements in the social behaviour of the laboratory rat, mouse, hamster and Guinea-pig. These elements are divided into postures, which are static, and acts, which involve movement. A total of 45 of these elements are mentioned, most of which are common, with only slight modification, to all four species. Apart from these the guinea pig differs in not having a true Upright Posture and also in showing a male sexul display "Rumba". The postures are classified under broad motivational headings. A number of general concepts are discussed, for example the relation of convulsions to flight behaviour, the reduction of incoming aggressive stimuli in submissive postures, "Cut-Off", and the inhibition of biting in the more social species.
An Analysis of the Social Behaviour of the Male Laboratory Rat
Authors: Grant E.C.
Published: April 2008

An analysis is made of the social behaviour of the male laboratory rat using the following methods. One rat is introduced into the home cage of another. One observer records the series of elements shown by each rat. These results are tabulated in sequence tables of elements. The tables are analysed by calculating an "expected" value for each cell and comparing this with the observed value. An ethogram is built up showing the relationships of the elements seen when the rats are close together and indicating the possible motivation of these elements in terms of the interaction of Aggression and Flight. It is shown that the Flight motivated elements fall into two groups, one leading to Crouch and the other leading to Submissive Posture. The occurrence of grooming and digging as displacement activities is shown and is contrasted to the occurrence of mounting which appears to be separately aroused in male-male situations. A group of elements occurring when the rats are at a distance from each other, and showing conflict between approach and avoidance, is described. It is suggested that there are two main Flight pathways, one leading to a Submissive Posture and the other to Crouch or Retreat, the occurrence of these is related to two types of behaviour seen in the wild, intra-colonial and territorial. Finally, the possible occurrence of an Approach component other than Aggression or Mating, which might be called a social drive, is suggested.
Ethological Studies of the Budgerigar (Melopsittacus Undulatus): Non-Reproductive Behavior
Authors: Brockway Barbara F.
Published: April 2008

Melopsittacus undulatus, a member of the parrot family Psittacidae, sub-family Psittacinae, is a colonial nomadic species inhabiting the dry grasslands of Australia. Only domesticated strains were studied and information concerning general biology is included. Non-reproductive behavior (maintenance and agonistic activities) are described and analysed with respect to function, causation and biological significance. Budgerigars perform a maintenance activity (scratching the lateral crissum) never reported for any other species of bird. Most maintenance activities closely parallel those of another parrot genus Agapornis. Budgerigars perform few stereotyped agonistic behaviors. This may be correlated with the relatively little physical injury involved in settling disputes by overt fights involving bills and occasionally feet. Females seem generally more aggressive than males, however sex differences in agonistic behavior seem of a quantitative nature only. Feather postures of the crown and throat are described and attempts made to correlate these with underlying agonistic motivations. Data from objective "ranking" of agonistic behaviors indicate that functions appear to parallel causation.
Analysis of Sniffing of the Albino Rat 1)
Authors: Welker W.I.
Published: April 2008

Sniffing behavior of albino rats was photographed on movie film at 30, 32, or 64 frames per sec. The ontogenetic development of sniffing was studied and the component movements were described. The effects of olfactory, somatic, visual, and auditory stimuli, and of certain drugs, nerve sections, and cerebral ablations upon sniffing were examined. The following results were obtained: "Sniffing" by rats consists of an integrated and precisely timed movement sequence in which four distinct synergistic muscle groups participate to produce: (a) bursts of polypnea, (b) recurrent protraction and retraction of mystacial vibrissae, (c) repetitive retraction and protraction of the tip of the snout, and (d) a rapid series of discrete head movements and fixations. These four component movements occur at rates between 5-11/sec. in bursts of varying duration (1-10 sec.). Some of these movements may occur independently of the others, but when they all occur together, which is more common, they blend at the same rate and in a fixed temporal pattern with respect to one another. The sniffing bursts are brought into play when the animal is aroused to explore by olfactory, visual, auditory, or tactile stimulation. Sniffing actions are not dependent on olfactory or tactile vibrissae input for their initiation or synchronous patterning despite the fact that the main adaptive values of these actions would seem to be those of olfactory and somatic sensory perception. In normal rats, olfactory input affects sniffing activities by regulating the degree of their persistence; the duration being affected by the character of the olfactory stimuli encountered. Thus, aversive stimuli are contacted only briefly, whereas, preferred stimuli elicit prolonged bursts of sniffing. Each of the four component movements of the sniffing sequence emerge at different times during ontogeny. This suggests that separate neural centers driving them also mature at different times. As each type of movement appears, it swings into synchrony with those actions already present. Interruption of olfactory input does not alter the normal rate of sniffing. Interruption of somatic sensory input from vibrissae may reduce the overall sniffing rate slightly. Bilateral ablation of neocortex drastically interferes with the sniffing sequences. In the decorticate rat these actions were elicited only with difficulty; the sharpness of the individual movements was blurred, and their magnitude and rate were diminished. The possibility that these effects are not directly related to cortical control of sniffing patterns is suggested. The various lines of evidence indicate that sniffing is a fixed and stable response pattern that is relatively independent of age and of long or short term experiential factors.
Changes in Marching of Locusts With Rearing Conditions
Authors: Ellis Peggy E.
Published: April 2008

1) Locusta migratoria migratorioides (R. & F.) hoppers reared in crowds march actively; those reared in isolation do not, even when placed in a marching crowd. When rearing conditions are changed the amount of marching alters from one extreme towards the other. 2) Significant changes in marching occurred within 15 days of altering rearing conditions, well within the nymphal life of each locust. 3) It is suggested that long term changes in behaviour are associated with changes in endocrine status.
Incubation and Nest-Building Behaviour of Black-Headed Gulls
Authors: Beer C.G.
Published: April 2008

(1) Parental behaviour, and its development from incubation behaviour during the reproductive season, is described. (2) Day to day observations of the natural situation showed that elements of the incubation pattern persist throughout the post-hatching period but progressively decline in quantity, duration and completeness. (3) Substitution of eggs for chicks also showed that the readiness to show incubation responses in a standard incubation situation declines progressively during the post-hatching period. (4) A certain amount of experience with hatched chicks renders Black-headed Gulls incapable of immediately returning to sustained incubation behaviour if the conditions of the incubation period are restored. (5) Failure of the eggs to hatch results in extension of the incubation behaviour period beyond the normal time. (6) Premature introduction of hatched chicks in the nests of incubating gulls can cause the gulls to switch to parental behaviour and so end the incubation behaviour period before the normal time. (7) The timing of the change from incubation to parental behaviour is thus mainly a matter of external control. (8) Certain of the relationships found to hold between responses having an incubation function and responses having a nest-building function in the earlier phases also hold in the post-hatching period.
Behavioural Effects of Electrical Stimulation in the Forebrain of the Pigeon Ii. Protective Behaviour
Authors: Åkerman Bengt
Published: April 2008

Responses that showed a very good conformity to the normal defence and escape behaviour have been released by means of electrical stimulation at di- and telencephalic structures in the forebrain in unanaesthetized, freely moving pigeons (Columba livia). The defense response consisted of the characteristic threat posture of the species with crouching, ruffling of the feathers, wing erection and the growling vocalisation. The response could be very intense with defensive attacks, either in empty space or towards a threatening object. The attacks were accompanied by a short and hard call. The escape response was shown either by flying or running away. The defence and escape responses were obtained from a linked substratum extending from the hypothalamus and the diencephalic paraventricular gray via the area ventralis and the posterior parts of the cerebral peduncles up into the paleo- and archistriatum. The defence reactions were released from more medial sites compared to the escape reactions. The spatial arrangement of the active area within the forebrain shows similarities with the neural projection of the same category of behaviour in mammals. Combined data from this and a previous investigation show that a field involved in the coordination of an "agonistic" behaviour complex including aggressive and defensive threat and escape can be traced in the di- and telencephalon of the pigeon. The results produce further evidence that functionally linked actions at a high level also have a linked central representation.
Inter-Situational Transfer in the Ant Formica Schaufussi as Tested in a Two-Phase Single Choice-Point Maze
Authors: Weiss Burton A. , Schneirla T.C.
Published: April 2008

Workers of the ant Formica schaufussi did not transfer a specific choice-point response of right- or left-turning (learned on entrance runs in which an opposed-turns alley sequence led to the choice-point) to an equivalent free-turns situation traversed on returns from the food-box to the nest. Variable behavior, however, was evident in both phases of the maze run after the choice-point alternatives had been reversed experimentally. This behavior is attributed to the general excitatory effects of the situational change. The outcome of this study supports previous results for these ants in complex mazes and in single choice-point U-approach mazes. The conclusion is confirmed that choice-point learning in these ants is bound to the situation in which it is established, evidently through a specificity of response to the sensory aspects and the organic conditions peculiar to action in that situation.
Spatial Organisation in Small Flocks of Domestic Fowl
Authors: Lill Alan
Published: April 2008

(i) Spatial organisation was studied in small flocks of domestic fowl to elucidate its underlying mechanisms and provide a basis for future comparative analyses. (ii) Approach-tolerance distance values were obtained in a non-competitive feeding and a roosting situation. (iii) A zone of variable width across which the likelihood of approach eliciting agonistic response increased centripetally was observed around feeding birds. No sexual difference in zone width was noted, and tolerance of approach was great. (iv) No indication of constant Individual Distance in roosting birds was obtained, though spatial adjustment following agonistic interaction was observed. Clumping was common. (v) Activity-dependent variability in spatial organisation was described and correlated with the distribution of aggressive behaviour. (vi) It was postulated that the state of dispersion during specific activities was explicable in terms of the interaction of the opposed tendencies to congregate and aggregate and to react aggressively when approached. (vii) The nature and distribution of clumping and allopreening responses were described, and their causation and function discussed.
Effects of Pre-Experimental Conditions On Nest Site Selection and Aggression in Gasterosteus Aculeatus L
Authors: Jenni Donald A. , Van Iersel J.J.A. , Van Den Assem J.
Published: April 2008

Male three-spined sticklebacks were held individually in compartments under one of four conditions: Total Isolation (Ti) ; Physical Isolation (Pi), compartments from which the males could see the room; Physical Isolation with Aggression Tests (PiA), similar to Pi but with the addition of aggression tests each day; and Physical Isolation with a Goldfish Companion (PiG), similar to Pi but with a white color-phase goldfish in the same compartment. Ti and PiA individuals became shy and tended to hide motionless in the corners of their compartments; when disturbed, they sometimes dashed madly about the compartment before becoming motionless. Pi and PiG fish became tame or non-shy. When tested individually in a 300 cm tank planted with a dense row of vegetation along one end, the shy males (Ti and PiA) selected nest sites nearer the ends of the tank than the non-shy males (Pi and PiG) did. The distribution of nests built by Ti individuals differed significantly from those of the other groups. Latency of response to a test male showed great variation; the difference between PiG with the shortest delays, and PiA with the longest delays, are significant. PiG and Pi males showed significantly more aggression toward the test male than did Ti and PiA males. The small differences in the amount of aggression between PiG and Pi and between Ti and PiA are not significant. Latency of response is negatively correlated with number of bites in the first minute and (less well) with total number of bites. The negative correlation between latency and total aggression is much better if we exclude those with short latencies. There is no correlation between nest site and latency of response to the test male. The location of the nest (distance from nearest end) and amount of biting directed at the test male are positively correlated. It is quite clear that the conditions under which these wild caught, first-year males were held in the laboratory immediately prior to the experiments affected the numbers nesting, their choice of nest sites, their latency in responding to intruding male, and the amount of biting they directed against them. The differences in treatment did not affect the percent of individuals that built nests and responded to the test male. Four Ti individuals showed large amounts of nest building behavior during the aggression tests, but none of the other groups showed this. In spite of gross differences in the treatments the four groups received, the two groups which became shy responded very similarly to one another and the two groups which became non-shy also responded similarly to one another.
Preoptic Activation of Mating Call Orientation in Female Anurans
Authors: Schmidt Robert S.
Published: April 2008

Techniques are described for inducing ovulation in tree frogs (Hyla cinerea) and toads (Bufo woodhousei fowleri) and for testing the ability of these gravid females to orient to homospecific mating calls. A few preliminary tests were also made with heterospecific mating calls. Several responses to calls are described. Of special interest is an escape response made by Bufo to heterospecific calls. This may serve as an isolating mechanism by effecting avoidance of heterospecific calling males. Males of the same species could not be induced to move toward mating calls. Testing of females with forebrain lesions showed that the telencephalon and the dorsal part of the preoptic area are not necessary for orientation behavior, but that the region of the ventral magnocellular preoptic nucleus is essential.
Significance of Antiphonal Song in the Eastern Whipbird, Psophodes Olivaceus
Authors: Watson Michael
Published: April 2008

A spectrographic analysis of the antiphonal song of the Eastern Whipbird, Psophodes olivaceus was carried out. Preliminary results show an overall constancy of male song and a marked geographical variation in female song. Male song is shown to consist of two components: the introduction, which is individually variable; and the whip-crack, which is rigidly species specific. Individual male birds use a series of up to four distinct frequency bands in their introduction. The female antiphonal component shows an individual variation but a constant pattern in any one area. There is a slow development of antiphonal song in juvenile pairs. Both sexes have specialised non-directional nest approach calls. Tentative conclusions indicate a threefold function of antiphony in this species: maintainance of contact; maintainance of the pair bond; and territorial advertisement and display. The song of P. olivaceus is discussed in relation to P. nigrogularis and other Passerine antiphonal species. There is a discussion of the possible origin, evolution and adaptive significance of antiphony in P. olivaceus.
Response To Novel Objects in Three Lower Primates : Greater Galago, Slow Loris, and Owl Monkey
Authors: Ehrlich Annette
Published: April 2008

Exploratory behavior, defined as response to novel objects, was measured in representatives of three lower primate species -greater galago, slow loris, and owl monkey. Test apparatus was a two-compartment cage; animals could choose between remaining on the familiar, home cage side or entering the novel side which contained six manipulable objects. Galagos spent the most time in contact with objects and the least time in retreat to the home cage. Owl monkeys and lorises were less responsive to the test objects but, while lorises actively explored spatial features of the new environment, owl monkeys remained inactive. For all species: i) the greatest degree of responsiveness to novel objects occurred during the first 5 min. of the 15-min. session. 2) initial object contacts were made with the nose; these were brief and were followed by lengthier contacts with mouth and hands. 3) occurrence of the various behavioral categories (object contacts, active responses, inactive responses, and retreat) followed a consistent pattern.
Song-Like Displays in Sayornis Species
Authors: Smith W. John
Published: April 2008

(1) Each of the three species of Sayornis employs some of its vocal displays in more or less continuous, regular, and prolonged bouts which, for present purposes, are defined as "song". In each species, song is a complex form of displaying comprising various combinations of two to three basic displays, the Regularly Repeated Vocalizations (RRVs, with units RR1 and RR2) and the Initially Peaked Vocalizations (IPVs). (2) Within each species, the basic display units differ from one another in the behavior patterns with which their employment can be correlated; that is, each display differs in message from the others. Since song comprises various combinations of these displays, its message is variable and dependent upon their ratio in each combination. (Whether or not the message of song varies in direct proportion to the frequency of its components has not been measured.) Yet the general range of employment of song bouts appears to be similar from species to species, indicating that the range of messages available to song is also generally similar. The song messages indicate different probabilities that the communicator will attack or escape, be nonagonistic, or associate; they also identify the communicator. (3) The messages of at least the RR1 and IPV displays vary among the species, so that the use of these displays in song also varies among the species. IPV is rarely or never used in song bouts of S. phoebe, but is prominent in the song of S. nigricans, and is the major component of S. saya song in which the RR1 is used very little. Many of the behavioral patterns with which the use of IPV is correlated in S. nigricans (and apparently in S. saya, for which the data are less extensive) are correlated with use of the RR1 in S. phoebe.
Intraspecific Geographical Variation in Chemical Food Cue Preferences of Newborn Garter Snakes (Thamnophis Sir Talis)
Authors: Burghardt Gordon M.
Published: April 2008

Four litters of garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) born to females captured in three different geographic areas were tested on their responses to an identical series of water extracts prepared from the surface substances of 15 small animals in addition to a distilled water control. Two of the litters came from northern Illinois; the others were from western Iowa and northern Wisconsin. From each litter 21 previously unfed snakes were tested on the fourth and fifth days after birth. The stimuli were presented on cotton swabs, and the number of tongue flicks, as well as attacks and their latencies, were recorded. The four litters shared a basic similarity in the kinds of extracts attacked. However, the relative effectiveness of the extracts varied considerably with the two Illinois litters most alike in their "ranking" of the various stimuli. Thus, geographical differences in responses to chemical cues within a species were shown. A good example of this was seen in the responses to the fish and earthworm extracts. While the two Illinois litters attacked both frequently, the Wisconsin litter attacked the fish much more than the worms and vice-versa for the Iowa litter. Correlations between the various response measures are presented also.
The Behavior of Stridulation in Orthoptera Ensifera
Authors: Nielsen Erik Tetens , Dreisig Hans
Published: April 2008

Isolated males of the ensiferous Orthoptera stridulate under natural conditions with regular intervals. The main subject of the work described in this paper is an attempt to clarify the interrelationship between internal and external conditions activating this habit. To this end observations were made of several species both in the field and in the laboratory under controlled conditions, in order to establish the relation between the occurrence of stridulation - commencement, duration and intensity - and the prevailing environmental factors. During the work was established the following working hypothesis which covers all the observations: The stridulation is an effect of a continuously produced sensitizing agent which at a certain level releases the activity; the rate of increase of sensitization is correlated with temperature. The threshold of release is higher at high illumination and at high temperature than in darkness and at low temperature. During the activity' the sensitization is reduced to a low level. Reduction in illumination releases also spontaneous motoric activity and, at least in G. domesticus, also feeding. These activities prevail over stridulation, so that the song will first commence after a certain lapse of time, the period of latency. At the beginning of stridulation there is an increase in intensity during an interval of similar duration, the period of increment.
Effect of Flower Shapes and Nectar Guides On the Behaviour of Foraging Honeybees
Authors: Free J.B.
Published: April 2008

I. Honeybees were trained to collect syrup from coloured discs and then presented with a choice of 'model' flowers. 2. The colour of a model was an important distinguishing feature, but its scent was even more important. A foreign odour made the models less attractive than no odour. 3. The size of a training model did not influence the size of model later chosen, but the bees preferred radially symmetrical to bilaterally symmetrical models, and models with a disruptive outline to circular models, even though trained to circular ones. 4. Adding nectar guides to a model increased its attractiveness, independently of conditioning ; dotted lines were more attractive than continuous lines, and a group of dots was more attractive than a black circle in the centre of a model. Adding a disruptive outline to a model similarly increased attractiveness and effects of a disruptive outline and nectar guide lines were additive. However, a limit was soon reached in which more guide lines or further segmentation failed to increase attractiveness. 5. Bees showed no preference to alight in the centres of circular models, and preferred the edges of the petaloid or star-shaped models. 6. Nectar guide lines had a directing function only when the bees had learned to seek food at a particular site in relation to them. Training to a point where nectar guide lines converged was quickly achieved, and could be transferred to models of other types. A nectar guide ring in the centre of a model sometimes slightly increased the proportion of visits to its centre, but conditioning was again necessary to obtain much effect. 7. Bees without previous training were attracted to a black central area, and this was still more effective after training. The bees' behaviour was not affected by attempts to give models an illusion of depth.
Interactive Behaviour of Puffins (Fratercula Arctica L.) and Skuas (Stercorari Us Parasiticus L.)
Authors: Grant P.R.
Published: April 2008

Puffins fly to their burrows with food (fish) in their beaks for the single chick they raise. Skuas chase puffins and induce them to drop their food. If the skuas do not catch the falling food before it reaches the ground gulls drive the skuas away from the food and secure it for themselves. These interactions were studied quantitatively for two weeks at a breeding colony of puffins at Vik on the mainland of Iceland. The only conspicuous response of the puffins to the skuas was one of avoidance at the end of the breeding season when the frequency of arrival of breeding puffins at the colony was low; the puffins turned around in flight and flew back towards the sea. Some of the characteristics of chases which ended with food being released by the puffins were identified. Chases involving more than one skua tended to be more successful (i.e. food released) than those with one skua. Chases of puffins away from the colony were more successful than those towards the colony. Chases of incoming puffins were more successful when initiated far from the colony than when initiated close to it. Low flying puffins appeared to be chased preferentially. From these observations some idea can be gained of the way in which selection acts upon the puffins and skuas. For the skua there appear to be optimal positions from which to start chasing a food-carrying puffin, and selection acts against those skuas which choose incorrect positions and gain no reward after expending much energy in a chase. For the puffin there is a selective advantage when returning to the colony with food for the chick in flocking with non-breeding birds without food. This stratagem maximizes the difficulties of the skua detecting a food-carrying puffin early enough to start a chase with a chance of success. Late breeding by the puffin is selected against because, when the other parents have left the colony, it is comparatively easy for a skua to identify and successfully attack a food-carrying puffin. The difficulties of avoiding a chase by a skua under these conditions are reduced if the puffin delays its final flight to the colony until the skuas are either absent or 'out of position'. Selection acts against those puffins which do not take this avoiding action.
Individual and Breed Differences in Approach and Withdrawal in Dogs
Authors: Plutchik Robert
Published: April 2008

The study was concerned with measuring patterns of approach and withdrawal in four breeds of dogs; namely: beagles, wire-haired fox terriers, basenjis and Shetland sheep-dogs. Each dog was exposed to a variety of stimuli including : a black rubber snake, a bone, a life-sized head of a clown, a mirror, a live puppy, etc. Behaviors of approach or withdrawal in relation to each stimulus were rated, and in addition, contact time, gridcrossings, latency and urinations were also recorded. Marked breed and sex differences were found on almost all measures. The beagles appeared to withdraw the most and the terriers were the most active and approachful. Most of the measures were found to show high retest reliability. The data support the view that temperamental differences may be determined to a considerable degree by hereditary factors, and that multiple measures are necessary for unambiguously assessing the behavior of organisms.
Ontogeny of Parent-Contacting in Young Cichlasoma Citrinellum (Pisces, Cichlidae)
Authors: Noakes David L.G. , Barlow George W.
Published: April 2008

Adult Cichlasoma citrinellum are polychromatic. About 92% of the adults of the population studied have a species-typical gray and black color pattern. The other 8%o are partially or completely xanthic. During the parental phase young nibble at the parents' bodies, apparently eating material from the surface. Such contacting behavior was also observed in nature as a regular phenomenon. Field observations suggested that the young were contacting the male parent more than the female, and that the amount of contacting was inversely related to the availability of food for the young. Contacting is not essential for survival in aquaria. Young raised in isolation from parents have survival and growth not significantly different from those raised with parents. The amount of contacting by young in aquaria is inversely related to their feeding: Hunger increases the amount of contacting. There is no apparent diurnal rhythm of contacting. Variations are related to the time of feeding. Contacting is shown by all young in aquaria. Initially young contact male and female parents about equally, regardless of color. At this stage contacting appears to be in proportion to the surface area available on each parent. Contacting changes with the age of the young. With increasing age, they contact a gray parent progressively more than a xanthic one. Also, they contact the male parent increasingly more than the female. These two preferences are apparently independent. Young, isolated from their parents in all respects but visually, did not develop preferences in contacting: When first exposed to parents, young fish, regardless of age, contacted each parent relatively the same amount. The continuous sight of their parents and of their siblings developing the contacting preferences was not sufficient for these semi-isolated young to develop the preferences. Hence, this development is not due just to changes in the young and/or the parents, but must involve direct experience. The experience of contacting a particular set of parents has an effect, of relatively short duration, on subsequent contacting preferences of the young. They learn the color and sex correlated factor of each parent. When tested against other parents, both sex and color play a role, but the natural banded color pattern appears to be more important than maleness. Parents, in pairs or individually, will accept other young of their species that are the same age or younger than their own. Older young are chased and eaten. Young can be raised in isolation and successfully re-introduced to their parents. And parents can be exchanged between families. In both such situations, both parents and young soon settle down and behave in typical fashion toward each other. The discussion centers on the possible bases for these preferences of the young and their development. Also considered are the origin of contacting as an alternate source of nutriment for the young, and its evolution within the Cichlidae.
The Importance of Mimic Pattern and Position in an Artificial Mimicry Situation by
Authors: Shideler Richard T.
Published: April 2008

"Batesian" mimicry was studied in a laboratory situation using caged starlings as the predator and painted mealworms as the artificial prey. Various mimic patterns bearing imperfect resemblances to the model, with the patterns on segments of the mimic different from those of the model, were offered to the birds to test whether the birds responded differently to the various combinations of patterns and positions. The experimental procedure consisted of offering each bird 50 models, 50 mimics, and 100 edibles over ten-day period. Models were all painted with a uniform green pattern and dipped in quinine dihydrochloride. Mimics were painted green with one of eight patterns (seven imperfect, and one perfect imitation) and dipped into distilled water. Edibles were painted with colorless paint and dipped into distilled water. Each mealworm was presented singly, and the bird responded by pecking, eating or not touching the worm. The mimics were eaten significantly less than the edibles, and the birds were able to generalize from the model to the mimics. Even the least perfect mimic escaped some predation. The time required to eat mimics was significantly greater than the time required to eat edibles. The birds could discriminate between some patterns and positions which were eaten less often than were others. Three pattern groups (APBFC, DE, and G) resulted. Position was also shown to be important. The results of this study support the micromutational theory of evolution.
Stridulation and Its Significance in the Genus Cenocorixa (Hemiptera, Corixidae)
Authors: Jansson Antti
Published: April 2008

1) In the genus Cenocorixa both males and females are able to produce stridulatory signals by rubbing specialized stridulatory pegs (pars stridens), located anterobasally on the fore femora, against sharp edges of the head (plectrum). 2) The stridulatory signals of Cenocorixa are species and sex specific. The main differences between the signals of various species are in the temporal pattern of pulse-trains and in the amplitude of the signals. 3) The male signal functions as an agonistic signal serving to space out individuals. Males in most species will answer to almost any stridulatory signals, and will usually approach the source of the sound, nudge the other stridulating specimen, and often chase the pursued specimen. Both intraspecific and interspecific, as well as inter-generic interactions between the males were observed. 4) Stridulation is important in behavior leading to successful copulations. Male stridulation, besides functioning as an agonistic signal, also functions as a calling signal facilitating pair-formation. Receptive females respond to the stridulatory signals from a conspecific male by remaining stationary and stridulating (= agreement signal). The males orientate directly towards the female according to the agreement signal; successful copulations were only observed after such signal recognition. No courtship display was observed in any of the species. 5) Both males and females of Cenocorixa are able to discriminate between the signals of the conspecific opposite sex and all other signals. Females answer only to the conspecific male call and males show both stridulatory response and directly oriented searching behavior only when induced by a conspecific female call. Thus, stridulation functions in the premating isolation of the species in this genus.
Effects of Parental Colouration On the Mate Preference of Offspring in the Zebra Finch, Taeniopygia Guttata Castanotis Gould
Authors: Walter Margaret J.
Published: April 2008

A study was carried out to show the effect of early experience on later mate selection in the zebra finch, Taeniopygia guttata castanotis Gould. The morphological character, colour, was chosen and two colour types were used - the normal-coloured and the recessive mutant, white. Three crosses (normal by normal; normal by white; white by white) were established and the young from each cross were removed from their parents at the age of 28 days and placed in one of three experimental groups (visual-auditory isolation; visual isolation; sexual isolation) for a period of eight weeks. At the end of this period the birds were sexually mature and were given a choice test between a white and a normal-coloured bird of the opposite sex to that being tested. Results clearly show that the male zebra finch selects his mate on the basis of previous experience with respect to colour. All normal by normal cross males selected a nomal-coloured mate and all white by white cross males a white mate. Males from the normal by white cross showed a random choice of coloured mate. This is not a genetically determined characteristic since male zebra finches will imprint on a different species if reared by it (IMMELMANN, 1969). Female zebra finches do not imprint; regardless of parental colour they invited the normal-coloured male to court. It was found that where imprinting occurs its effects are absolute and are not altered by subsequent experience, and that domestication does not affect imprintability.
Habituation To Auditory Stimuli in Mice
Authors: Scourse N.J.S. , Hinde R.A.
Published: April 2008

Mice subjected to auditory stimuli (clicks containing ultrasonic components, tones, or combinations of the two) once every 30 seconds showed a variety of responses. The initial orienting response and static exploration waned in about 5 minutes. There was also a longer-lasting increase in exploratory behaviour, elicited by the clicks and/or the tones, which waned after 3 hours. Finally jerks and other movements elicited primarily during sleep by the click components (though they could also be elicited from waking animals with a more intense stimulus) laster for 49 hours or more. Thus the various types of response elicited by auditory stimuli wane at different rates: the variation in habituation rate appears not to be merely a consequence of stimulus intensity.
Hunger as a Catalyst in Aggression
Authors: Rohles Frederick H. , Wilson Linda M.
Published: April 2008

Under thermal conditions of 90° F 50% RH and a subject density of I subject per 0.125 sq. ft, two strains of inbred mice, C-57 (aggressive) and A/J (docile) were tested for aggressive behaviour following food deprivation periods of 0, 24, 36, and 48 hours. The greatest amount of aggression occurred in the 24 hours deprivation group of C-57 subjects whereas the 36 hour hungry A/J animals were most aggressive. Metabolism as evidenced by activity level and extent of food deprivation is suggested as the primary determinant of aggressive behaviour when temperature and subject-density are held constant.
Examination of Agonistic Behavior By Character Analysis I. the Spider Crab Microphrys Bicornutus
Authors: Hazlett Brian A. , Estabrook George F.
Published: April 2008

1) The influence of several classes of factors on the agonistic behavior of the spider Microphrys bicornutus were analyzed by character analysis. 2) Static factors (sex, size, color phase, hunger state) were found to have much less influence on the behavior patterns shown in a fight than the behaviors executed by the other animal. 3) The amount of communication between crabs during a fight ranged from 1.00 bits (act 2 to 3) up to 1.57 bits (act 4 to 5). The uncertainty about a given act was reduced by knowledge of the previous act (by the other animal) anywhere from 31% (act 2 to 3) up to 81% (next-to-last-to-last act).
The Social Organisation of Antelope in Relation To Their Ecology
Authors: Jarman P.J.
Published: April 2008

The types of social organisation displayed by the African antelope species have been assigned in this paper to five classes, distinguished largely by the strategies used by the reproductively active males in securing mating rights, and the effects of those strategies on other social castes. The paper attempts to show that these strategies are appropriate to each class because of the effects of other, ecological, aspects of their ways of life. The paper describes different feeding styles among antelope, in terms of selection of food items and coverage of home ranges. It argues that these feeding styles bear a relationship to maximum group size of feeding animals through the influence of dispersion of food items upon group cohesion. The feeding styles also bear a relationship to body size and to habitat choice, both of which influence the antelope species' antipredator behaviour. Thus feeding style is related to anti-predator behaviour which, in many species, influences minimum group size. Group size and the pattern of movement over the annual home range affect the likelihood of females being found in a given place at a given time, and it is this likelihood which, to a large extent, determines the kind of strategy a male must employ to achieve mating rights. The effects of the different strategies employed by males can be seen in such aspects of each species' biology as sexual dimorphism, adult sex ratio, and differential distribution of the sexes.
The Food Searching Behaviour of Two European Thrushes
Authors: Smith James N.M.
Published: April 2008

1. The movement path of a predator will clearly be an important determinant of its ability to encounter and subsequently attack suitable prey items. Previous work on this aspect of searching behaviour has been mainly carried out on invertebrates, while this study describes the movement paths of two bird predators, the european blackbird and the song thrush (collectively referred to as 'thrushes') on a grass meadow in central Oxford. 2. The paths of foraging thrushes are divided up into natural units consisting of a series of alternating moves and pauses. A method of mapping these moves is presented (Figs 2, 3). 3. The large scale movements of the thrushes on the meadow was not uniform and this was probably related to non-uniformity in the environment, possibly including factors influencing feeding success (Figs 4, 6). 4. The durations of the moves and pauses were measured from cine film and video tape records. Only between one sixth and one tenth of the total foraging time was spent in actual movement, the remainder probably being spent largely in scanning for, or attacking, potential prey objects (Figs 7, 8). 5. Measures of the individual move lengths and angles. turned between successive moves were taken from the maps (Figs 3, 9), and the average speeds of movement were calculated for each track. Song thrushes and female blackbirds made longer moves than male blackbirds, and female blackbirds moved across the meadow at a higher overall speed than male blackbirds or song thrushes (Tables 1-4). 6. Methods are presented for describing the 'rules of movement' of the thrushes across the study meadow. When feeding mainly on earthworms, thrushes tended to make sequences of three, or possibly more, moves that were similar in length, and to make pairs, triplets, and possibly bigger groupings of alternating left and right turns. The size of each move was independent of the sign of the preceding turn and vice versa. The tendency of successive turns to alternate in sign, combined with the relatively restricted size of turns between moves, produced an ongoing search path, thus avoiding the pitfall of searching the same ground twice in a short time.
Social Interactions in the Solitary Wasp Cerceris Simplex (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae) by
Authors: Alcock John
Published: April 2008

The solitary wasp Cerceris simplex exhibits a variety of social interactions. In a nesting aggregation of this species females often abandoned old nests (voluntarily and involuntarily) and attempted to usurp burrows occupied by other females. These attempts were sometimes successful although they often failed forcing the searching female to hunt for still another burrow. Alternatively two or more wasps might provision the same nest for varying periods of time. It may be that nest-stealing behaviour has been, in some cases, a preliminary stage to the evolution of semi-social colonies in the Hymenoptera. This behaviour increases the probability that a female will try to enter and provision an already occupied nest; if the would-be parasite and the original occupant tolerate one another they could enjoy a variety of advantages through mutual occupation of a nest, including a reduction of the incidence of nest usurpation by other conspecifics.
Quantitative Observation of Behavior in Free-Ranging Macaca Mulatta: Methodology and Aggression
Authors: Drickamer Lee C.
Published: April 2008

Quantitative methods of data collection and analysis were used to assess patterns of aggressive interaction in rhesus macaques. Four social bands were observed for 488 hours over a twelve-month period using standardized observation techniques and behaviors and recording data on monkeys in both feeding and non-feeding contexts. The numbers of monkeys present within the prescribed observation areas, the frequencies of three aggressive behaviors and the occurrence of open wounds were recorded for three age-sex classes; adult males, adult females and juveniles. The data revealed that more monkeys were present in the observation areas during the mating season, that levels of aggression varied inversely with group size, smaller groups exhibited higher levels of aggression and that male and female aggression was higher during the mating season, while juvenile agonistic interactions reached a peak during the weaning and birth periods. There were 46% more aggressive acts in the feeding than in the non-feeding context but the seasonal and group patterns were nearly identical between the two contexts. Arguments were presented supporting the use of the interactions/hour/ possible interacting combination of monkeys as a dependent variable; the data from this study and comparisons with other reports indicate that this is a logical variable to use. Lastly, several methodological tests demonstrated that there are potential biases in the use of the traditional field-note method of data collection; only a small percentage of the total behavioral interactions are recorded with the field-note technique and there is a tendency to record a disproportionately greater number of interactions initiated by larger adult monkeys. These disadvantages of the field-note method must be weighed against the need for individual identification.