bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Equilibrium Partitioning of Phenols and Phenyl Amines between [BF4]- Based Ionic Liquids and Aqueous Solution
Authors: Pei Yuanchao , Wang Jianji , Wu Kun , Zhao Yang , Fan Jing
Published: May 2007

In this paper, ionic liquids [C6mim][BF4] and [C8mim][BF4] have been used, for the first time, as alternative solvents for the extraction of organic pollutants such as phenols and phenyl amines from aqueous solution. The experimental results shown that partition coefficients of these compounds were strongly affected by pH of aqueous phase, and the molecular forms of these solutes were found to be efficiently extracted by the ionic liquids. This suggested that the partitioning of the phenols and phenyl amines was driven mainly by the dispersion interactions between the molecular forms of the solutes and cation of the ionic liquids and the hydrogen bonding interactions between the solutes and anion of the ionic liquids. Thermodynamic properties have also been determined for representative extraction processes. It is shown that the partitioning process is exothermic in nature and controlled by enthalpy term. Preliminary recovery experiments suggest that [C8mim][BF4] ionic liquid may be adapted to removal organic pollutants from aqueous solution with good recycling.
Long‐Term Population Dynamics of the Endangered Snake River Sockeye Salmon: Evidence of Past Influences on Stock Decline and Impediments to Recovery
Authors: Selbie Daniel T. , Lewis Bert A. , Smol John P. , Finney Bruce P.
Published: May 2007

Declines in populations of Pacific salmon Oncorhynchus spp. have been most pronounced in the southern extent of their range, and numerous anthropogenic stressors and natural drivers have been identified as potential causes. Using a paleolimnological approach, we have reconstructed the natural variability in the population dynamics of endangered Snake River sockeye salmon O. nerka over approximately the past 1,370 years. The rearing habitat ecology of their main production system, Redfish Lake, Idaho was also assessed over the past 500 years. Siliceous algal remains (diatoms and chrysophytes), stable nitrogen isotope δ15N, cladoceran zooplankton subfossils, and other proxy indicators archived in dated lake sediment cores were employed in this analysis. The inferred natural salmon production was much higher than that recorded in fisheries escapement data. Unprecedented declines in Snake River sockeye salmon production and changes in rearing system ecology were inferred over the past 150 years. The early, negative influences of the Columbia River commercial salmon harvest (in the 1860s) and sustained interruption of migration access (1910‐1934) from hydroelectric damming were evident. Enhanced zooplanktivory, associated with nonnative stocking and possible expansion of kokanee (lacustrine sockeye salmon) beginning in the 1920s and 1930s, appear to have altered the forage base for juvenile sockeye salmon, probably contributing to further declines. Lake nutrient enrichment since the 1950s was inferred, which changed nursery lake nutrient and trophic dynamics. This study highlights both site‐specific and regional influences on declines in past Snake River sockeye salmon population abundance and changes in rearing system ecology for these fish over the past 150 years. Such a long‐term ecological perspective is important to the continued conservation and management of this endangered species and has broader applications for other sockeye salmon runs at risk throughout their range.
Dental Arch Width Stability after Quadhelix and Edgewise Treatment in Complete Unilateral Cleft Lip and Palate
Authors: Li Weiran , Lin Jiuxiang
Published: May 2007

Objective: To evaluate the transverse stability of the dental arch in unilateral cleft lip and palate (UCLP) patients after orthodontic treatment with quadhelix and edgewise appliances.

Materials and Methods: Twenty repaired complete UCLP patients with posterior crossbites were chosen as the study subjects. All had ceased retention at least 15 months previously. Measurements were carried out directly on the pretreatment, posttreatment, and postretention study models using a three-dimensional dental cast analyzer. The interdental widths were measured for the canines, first premolars, second premolars, first molars, basal bone, and the alveolar arch. Two-way analysis of variance and Fisher's LSD was performed in comparing the difference between intervals.

Results: Lower inter-first-premolar width and upper arch widths of each region increased significantly (P < .05) after orthodontic treatment. The expansion was greater in the anterior than the posterior region in the upper arch, and the greatest increase was in the upper first premolar region. The upper arch width decreased after retention, with the decrease of the arch width in the upper canine (1.3 ± 0.8 mm) and first premolar (1.5 ± 0.8 mm) regions being statistically significant. The increased upper arch width in each region and the lower inter-first-premolar width maintained significant expansion after retention.

Conclusions: The widths of the dental arch increased significantly after expansion with a quadhelix followed by preadjusted edgewise treatment. Relapse occurred, especially in the upper canine and first premolar region, but most of the treatment effect on the upper arch remained after retention.
Horizons in Chemical Immunology – Approaches to Synthetic Vaccine Design
Authors: Robinson John A.
Published: May 2007

The main aim of this short review is to provide an up-to-date perspective of the properties a synthetic molecule must have in order to elicit a pathogen-specific humoral immune response. Chemistry will have an increasingly important role to play in the future rational design and optimization
of molecules that impact on the immune system, e.g. as vaccines, vaccine adjuvants, or as immunostimulants and immunosuppressants. This follows from the rapidly unfolding understanding of how the adaptive and innate arms of the immune system work, which includes the 3D structure determination
of many key receptors and signalling molecules – this opens the whole field to the rational chemical design of immunomodulatory molecules (chemical immunology).
The Synthetic-Technical Development of Oseltamivir Phosphate Tamiflu™: A Race against Time
Authors: Abrecht Stefan , Trussardi René , Rimmler Gösta , Oberhauser Thomas , Mair Hans-Jürgen , Karpf Martin , Fischer Rolf , Estermann Heinrich , Federspiel Muriel Cordon , Zutter Ulrich
Published: May 2007

The clinical development of the first orally available neuraminidase inhibitor prodrug oseltamivir phosphate (Tamiflu™) proceeded very fast. In order to support this program an unprecedented team effort in chemical process research, development, piloting, production
and analytics took place, which allowed the successful launch of Tamiflu™ in 1999, only two and a half years after it was licensed from Gilead Sciences. This article describes selected aspects of the commercially used synthesis route and a brief summary of alternative syntheses
devised by Roche chemists.
Understanding Authority in Classrooms: A Review of Theory, Ideology, and Research
Authors: Pace Judith L. , Hemmings Annette
Published: May 2007

Authority is a fundamental, problematic, and poorly understood component of classroom life. A better understanding of classroom authority can be achieved by reviewing writings on social theory, educational ideology, and qualitative research in schools. Social theories provide important analytical tools for examining the constitutive elements of authority but fall short of explaining its variability and contextual influences. Discussion of educational ideologies offers insights into the debates, historical contexts, and policy and reform agendas that shape the politics of authority while neglecting empirical realities. Qualitative studies present empirical data and analyses on the challenges intrinsic to classroom relations, but, exceptions aside, they often lack explicit attention to authority. More research focused on classroom authority as a social construction is needed to address critical educational concerns for contemporary practitioners, policy makers, and researchers.
Classroom Diversification: A Strategic View of Educational Productivity
Authors: López Omar S.
Published: May 2007

This article advances a theory of educational productivity based on a paradigm of classroom diversification that defines a strategic view of the education production process. The paradigm’s underlying premise is that classroom student performance, and the instructional interactions that produce such outcomes, depend on economies derived from the learning relationships that exist across and among students in a classroom and on the technological fit between students’ learning needs and a teacher’s capacity. In addition to the conceptual classroom diversification framework, measures of classroom student diversity and teacher capacity are presented, followed by a discussion of the implications of the proposed classroom diversification paradigm for educational research, policy, and practice.
Time went by so slowly: Overestimation of event duration by males and females
Authors: Loftus Elizabeth F. , Schooler Jonathan W. , Boone Stanley M. , Kline Donald
Published: May 2007

In three experiments, 469 subjects watched a short videotape of a bank robbery and later estimated the duration of the tape. Subjects invariably overestimated the durations. Accuracy of time estimation was unrelated to amount of free recall (Experiment 1) or accuracy of memory (Experiment 2). Females overestimated to a greater degree than males (Experiments 2 and 3). A more stressful version of the event produced greater overestimates than a less stressful version (Experiment 3). The relationship between induced arousal and time estimation appears to be different for men and women.
Remembering experienced and reported events
Authors: Larsen Steen F. , Plunkett Kim
Published: May 2007

Reported events are distinguished from personally experienced (autobiographical) events by being known from reports provided from some person or agency—for example, news reports. Memory for reported events has usually been ignored theoretically, or classified as ‘semantic’, though it is clearly concerned with specific, dated episodes. We discuss a number of differences between the information available to specify experienced and reported events, and the possible implications of such differences for remembering the events. A study of retrieval of the two types of events, prompted by cue words, showed that reported events take much longer time to retrieve but are dated as being equally old as experienced events. Effects of using emotion words as cues were similar for the two event types. These results suggest that reported events are forgotten (or become inaccessible) at the same rate as experienced events, but that memories are organized in such a way that reported events often have to be accessed indirectly through memories of associated autobiographical events.
Improving retrieval
Authors: Herrmann Douglas J. , Buschke Herman , Gall Melanie B.
Published: May 2007

The present research investigated whether ability for retrieval might be improved by practice at retrieval. Retrieval practice trials, each of 10 min duration, required subjects to attempt to recall as many examples as possible of a designated category. Two kinds of practice were investigated. Subjects given general practice attempted to recall a different category on each successive practice trial. Subjects given specific practice attempted to recall the same category on each successive practice trial. General practice had a negligible effect on recall, even when subjects practised daily for over a month. In contrast, specific practice substantially improved recall, facilitating retrieval of 50 to 100 per cent of all the example subjects known for a category.
Pictorial experience as a factor in the recognition of incomplete pictures
Authors: Bentley A. M. , Deregowski J. B.
Published: May 2007

The study investigated the effects of distinctive feature emphasis and familiarity with pictorial materials on the recognition of incomplete pictures of common objects in three cultural groups. Contrary to a familiarity hypothesis Kxoe Bushman pre‐school children were superior to both Zulu and white English‐speaking Sth African pre‐school children in recognizing fragmented pictures. Cultural differences were interpreted in terms of response strategies mediated by ecological and social variables. Children in each cultural group made effective use of distinctive features to aid recognition of fragmented pictures. The implications of these findings for the development of teaching materials were examined.
Memory for traumatic events
Authors: Christianson Sven‐åke , Loftus Elizabeth F.
Published: May 2007

This research compares memory for traumatic events with memory for non‐traumatic versions of the same event. In Experiment 1, subjects watched an event depicted in slides while focusing and rehearsing the central detail of each slide. They were tested after a short or a longer retention interval (20 min or 2 weeks). Subjects who watched the traumatic version were better able to recall the central details that they had rehearsed, but were less well able to recognize the specific slides that they saw. Better recall for the traumatic group did not occur because the words used to describe the recalled details were inherently more memorable, as shown in Experiment 2. In Experiment 3, subjects watched either a traumatic or non‐traumatic version of a filmed event and about 6 months later they were asked to remember the essence of the film. Subjects who saw the traumatic version were better able to recall the essence of the film. A similar finding was obtained with a group of subjects from Experiment 1 who were also contacted about 6 months after their initial participation. These results suggest that some information (the essence, the theme) of a traumatic event might be relatively well retained in memory, while memory is impaired for many of the specific, and especially peripheral, details.
Testing the limits of the phonetic mnemonic system
Authors: Patton Gary W. R. , Lantzy Patrick D.
Published: May 2007

Three experiments tested the efficacy of the phonetic mnemonic system under varying conditions of application. The first study attempted unsuccessfully to replicate and extend the work of Morris and Greer (1984), who had shown training in the phonetic mnemonic method to facilitate memorization of a serial list of two‐digit numbers. In the present study, subjects trained in the phonetic mnemonic method failed to learn lists of two‐, four‐, and six‐digit numbers better than control subjects. The second experiment partially replicated the first, the differences being that training in the phonetic mnemonic method was strengthened, and time allotted for number recall was extended. Under these circumstances the phonetic mnemonic group recalled the two‐, four‐, and six‐digit numbers significantly better than the control groups, a finding conforming with Morris and Greer's (1984) results. The third experiment partially replicated the second, everything being the same except that, in this case, subjects constructed their own key words representing each number, instead of these words being supplied by the experimenter. Under these conditions, subjects trained in the phonetic mnemonic method recalled significantly fewer numbers than control subjects.
Preliminary findings concerning the effects of specialized teaching on dyslexic children
Authors: Thomson Michael
Published: May 2007

Some of the recent cognitive research on phonemic awareness and phonological skills in short‐term memory of dyslexic children is related to the development of specific teaching programmes aimed at circumventing theoretical ‘deficits’. Data on a 2‐year follow‐up of the reading attainments of dyslexic children are presented, along with data on reading and spelling of non‐words, multi‐syllable words and words learned under visual inspection versus simultaneous oral spelling conditions. Dyslexia is viewed as a developmental phenomenon, with children's performance changing over time.
Effects of inference awareness training on poor reading comprehension
Authors: Yuill Nicola , Oakhill Jane
Published: May 2007

Previous studies show that 7–8‐year‐old poor comprehenders differ from good comprehenders, matched in age and decoding skill, primarily in their failure to make high‐level inferences, despite adequate text recall. The impact of inference awareness training on reading comprehension in two such groups was compared with the effects of two other treatments. Inference‐trained children were instructed over 4 weeks in making inferences from text and generating questions. Other groups were trained either in rapid decoding or in standard comprehension exercises. Less skilled comprehenders given inference training improved significantly more than those given decoding practice, and slightly, but not significantly, more than those given comprehension exercises. Skilled comprehenders showed little improvement regardless of treatment condition. The results are discussed in relation to possible sources of comprehension failure, and implications for remediation.
Applying cognitive theory to the testing and teaching of intelligence
Authors: Sternberg Robert J.
Published: May 2007

This article describes how cognitive theory can be applied to the testing and teaching of intelligence. The article is divided into three main parts. The first part describes how the study of intelligence, traditionally an area that has been viewed as under the purview of differential psychology, has come squarely into the purview of cognitive psychology. The second part describes how the testing and teaching of intelligence, which in the past have been largely atheoretical, have been transformed into theoretically based enterprises guided by the theories of cognitive psychology. The last part describes a particular theory of intelligence, the triarchic theory, and how it has been applied to the problems of testing and teaching intelligence. It is concluded that cognitive psychology has given the study of intelligence a ‘new lease on life’, and that the testing and teaching of intelligence can and should be viewed as a primary focus of application for the principles of cognitive psychology.
The Tichborne Claimant: Person identification following very long intervals
Authors: Ellis Hadyn D.
Published: May 2007

An account is given of the nineteenth‐century case of the Tichborne Claimant, in which someone purporting to be Sir Roger Tichborne, a missing heir, arrived in England from Australia 13 years after Sir Roger had been assumed drowned at sea. Many people, including Lady Tichborne, Sir Roger's mother, positively identified him. Others insisted that he was an impostor. A civil court and a criminal trial each found against The Claimant for various reasons, but the question of The Claimant's true identity remains open to this day. The case of the Tichborne Claimant is used to illustrate issues in identification that are of contemporary interest. The particular matter of how faces change over time is briefly discussed.
The effectiveness of different types of pragmatic implications found in commercials to mislead subjects
Authors: Searleman Alan , Carter Helen
Published: May 2007

Statements concerning the truthfulness of claims made in 16 tape‐recorded commercials about fictitious products were judged by 40 college students. In half of the commercials a claim was directly asserted while in the other half the claims were pragmatically implied. Pragmatic implications are statements that lead a person to believe something that is neither explicitly stated nor necessarily implied. As expected based upon previous research, subjects often responded to implied claims as if they had been directly asserted (particularly by subjects in the short delay group). In addition, differences were found in the effectiveness of four different types of pragmatic implications for misleading subjects.
Tactual picture recognition in congenitally blind and sighted children
Authors: Pathak K. , Pring L.
Published: May 2007

Three experiments were carried out to investigate tactual processing of two‐dimensional raised line drawings by blind and blindfolded sighted children. The results showed an unexpected but consistent pattern indicating that the introduction of ‘meaning’ facilitated the performance of the blindfolded sighted children but caused a relative decline in the performance of the congenitally blind. A general lack of evidence distinguishing between recognition of objects that had or had not been directly experienced through touch suggested that the internal spatial representations of objects depended not only on perceptual information but also on knowledge derived from other sources.
What mediates the impact of response alternatives on frequency reports of mundane behaviors?
Authors: Schwarz Norbert , Bienias Julia
Published: May 2007

Previous research demonstrated that respondents assume that the range of precoded response alternatives reflects the researcher's knowledge of the distribution of opinions or behaviours in the population. This assumption may influence respondents' reports in two ways: respondents may either use the range of the response alternatives as a frame of reference in estimating their own behavioural frequencies, or they may be reluctant to report frequencies that appear extreme in the context of the scale. Three experiments using reports of mundane behaviours, namely watching TV and drinking beer, were conducted to differentiate between the frame of reference and the self‐presentation hypothesis. The results of all studies favour the frame of reference hypothesis, and suggest that the impact of response alternatives is the more pronounced the less episodic information about the behaviour is accessible in memory. Specifically, proxy‐reports were found to be more affected by the range of response alternatives than self‐reports (Experiments 1 and 2), and respondents with dispositionally low access to self‐related information were found to be more affected than respondents with dispositionally high access to self‐related information (Experiment 3). Implications for questionnaire construction are discussed.
How people give verbal instructions
Authors: Wright P. , Hull A. J.
Published: May 2007

Four experiments examined the content and sequencing adopted when people gave verbal instructions about changes to be made to a typescript. Experiments 1 and 2 showed that only 30 per cent of instructions contained overviews, and that although most mentioned the general region where the change should occur, more detailed information was often omitted. Experiment 3 increased the need for precision, by enhancing the potential for ambiguity about locations specified in the text. This significantly reduced the omission of location details, although still present in over 50 per cent of instructions. Experience in carrying out similar procedures had no effect on the content or style of the instructions (experiment 4). The sequence in which information was given remained stable across the four experiments, with the action being specified between the general and the precise location. It is suggested that this reflects a compromise between sequences aiding comprehension and those helping people carry out the instructions. This suggestion was supported by an analysis of circumstances in which people disregarded experimental directions about the use of reference cues. It is concluded that giving verbal instructions is a linguistic skill that not all adults have perfected.
Effects of college students' learning styles and gender on their test preparation strategies
Authors: Speth Carol , Brown Robert
Published: May 2007

This study investigated the effects of approach to studying, gender and type of examination on test preparation strategies. Educational psychology students completed the Approaches to Studying Inventory (Entwistle and Ramsden, 1983) regarding their general learning characteristics, and thus were assigned to four approach groups. Students also answered questions about how they might study for either an essay or a multiple‐choice examination. Factor analysis of those items yielded several study strategy subscales. When scores on the time‐effort, integration, selection and cognitive monitoring subscales were used as dependent variables in a 4×2×2 (cluster × gender × type of test) MANCOVA, a significant three‐way interaction suggested that male and female students using different approaches react differently to multiple‐choice or essay tests, and the patterns differ by strategy.
Remembering science: The recall of factual information as a function of the presentation mode
Authors: Furnham Adrian , Gunter Barrie , Green Andrew
Published: May 2007

Two studies are reported on the recall of ‘scientific’ factual material as a function of the medium or channel of communication through which it was presented. Programmatic research by authors of this paper using widely different stimulus materials on different subject samples has indicated that, compared to information received through audiovisual or audio‐only channels, stimulus ‘material’ received through print is best remembered. In the first study subjects either saw part of an actual television science programme in the audiovisual medium, heard it in the audio‐only medium or read a transcript in the print medium. As predicted, subjects who read the transcript remembered most details in both cued and free recall. In the second study a ‘talking‐head’ video was made of the reading of a comparatively easy and difficult scientific extract of comparable length. Subjects randomly assigned to one of six groups either saw audiovisually, heard in audio‐only, or read the print extract of either extract, and were then tested on free and cued recall. Again, material that was read was recalled best, though there were also a number of interesting medium by content interactions. These results are discussed in terms of the literature on the comprehension and recall of factual material.
Distignuishing the source of memories reported during prior waking and hypnotic recall attempts
Authors: Whitehouse Wayne G. , Orne Emily Carota , Orne Martin T. , Dinges David F.
Published: May 2007

Subjects attempted to identify the occasion on which they first reported particular responses to questions that were asked twice during an experiment on hyphosis and memory 1 week earlier. During this earlier experiment, subjects of high and low hypnotizability had been randomly allocatd to one of two recall test sequences: wake‐hypnosis ro wake‐wake. Recall improved from the first (R1) to the second test (R2) in a comparable manner for both test sequences, indicating a failure of hypnosis to enhance memory. It is noteworthy that, when later queried about the origins of specific recollections, the majority of subjects exhibited a bias to attribute their responses to R1, regardless of whether hypnosis was used during R2. Moreover, low hypnotizables exposed to the hypnotic procedure and, to a lesser extent, high hypnotizables who recalled both times in the waking condition displayed and exaggerated tendency to overattribute recollections to R1. These data indicate that individuals cannot distinguish between memories retrieved prior to hypnosis and those that occured during hypnosis. Implications for implementing judicial standards regarding hypnosis are discussed.
The effect of subject‐generated and experimentersupplied code words on the phonetic mnemonic system
Authors: Patton G. W. R. , D'agaro W. R. , Gaudette M. D.
Published: May 2007

The hypothesis tested proposed that subjects using the phonetic mnemonic system who were supplied code words by the experimenter would recall more numbers than either subjects generating their own code words or a control group. In Experiment 1,36 undergraduate subjects serving in a 3 × (3) mixed‐factorial design confirmed the hypothesis, but the possibility existed that the superiority of the experimenter‐supplied group was attributable to the failure of the subject‐generated group to devise a complete set of code words. In Experiment 2 a new group of 12 self‐generated subjects was tested with a modified procedure designed to maximize number of correct code words. However, the experimenter‐supplied group recalled significantly more numbers than this group, too. In Experiment 3 the possibility was tested that the superiority of the experimenter‐supplied subjects was an artifact based on insufficient training in the phonetic method of subjects creating code words. Accordingly, all 28 subjects received extended training before recall of a subject‐generated group was tested against that of an experimenter‐supplied group in a 2 × (2) factorial design. Once again the experimentersupplied group recalled significantly more numbers, confirming the hypothesis. These results represent an exception to the general finding that subject‐generated mnemonics are superior to those supplied by the experimenter. The data suggest that the relative efficacy of the two sources interacts with the difficulty of the mnemonic.
On‐line consultation of definitions and examples: Implications for the design of interactive dictionaries
Authors: Black Alison
Published: May 2007

The paper discusses how dictionary consultation during text comprehension varies according to dictionary users' prior knowledge of a word and of the concept it represents. Four types of consultation are isolated: the construction, extension, confirmation, and recognition of word meaning. Two experiments (one using an interactive electronic dictionary and the second a pencil‐and‐paper task) show that people's use of definitions and examples varies with type of consultation. The findings suggest that dictionary entries giving definitions as the primary source of information are appropriate for construction, extension, and confirmation tasks but that examples should be the primary information for recognition tasks. The implications of the findings for the design of interactive dictionaries are discussed.
The impact of administration mode on response effects in survey measurement
Authors: Schwarz Norbert , Strack Fritz , Hippler Hans‐J. , Bishop George
Published: May 2007

The major differences between face‐to‐face and telephone interviews as well as self‐administered questionnaires are reviewed and are related to the cognitive and communicative processes assumed to underlie the process of question answering. Based on these considerations the impact of administration mode on the emergence of well‐known response effects in survey measurement is discussed, and relevant experimental evidence is reported. It is concluded that administration mode affects the emergence of question order and context effects; the emergence of response order effects; the validity of retrospective reports; and the degree of socially desirable responding. The emergence of question wording and question form effects, on the other hand, appears to be relatively independent of administration mode.
Voice identification of an abductor
Authors: Yarmey A. Daniel , Matthys Eva
Published: May 2007

A total of 288 male and 288 female undergraduate students heard a taped voice of a mock abductor for a total of 18 seconds, 36 seconds, 120 seconds, or 6 minutes. One‐third of all subjects heard the voice for one massed trial, one‐third for two equal periods separated by a 5‐minute inter‐trial interval, and the remainder for three equal periods separated by 5‐minute intervals. Voice identification and confidence of response were tested immediately after observation, or 24 hours later, or 1 week later. Hit rates were significantly greater with longer voice‐sample durations, and were superior with two distributed exposures to the suspect's voice in contrast to one massed exposure or three distributed exposures. However, the false alarm rate in the suspect‐present line‐up differed significantly as a function of voice‐ sample durations and retention intervals, and voice‐sample durations and frequency of distributed exposures. False alarms in the suspect‐absent line‐up were consistently high (overall M = .58) and exceeded the overall hit rate (M = .40). Confidence of response was negatively correlated with suspect identification in the 18‐second voice‐sample condition, but was positively correlated with voice‐sample durations of 120 seconds and 6 minutes.
Memory complaint and memory performance in the elderly: The effects of memory‐skills training and expectancy change
Authors: Best Deborah L. , Hamlett Kim W. , Davis Stephen W.
Published: May 2007

While the incidence of memory complaint has always been high among the elderly, recent research has demonstrated that there is often a discrepancy between subjective memory complaint and actual memory performance in this population. Four experimental groups were established to examine the relationship and the factors that may affect changes in memory complaint and memory performance. The groups consisted of a memory training condition, an expectancy change condition, an art discussion control condition, and an evaluation control condition. It was hypothesized that memory training sessions would be the most effective in increasing memory performance scores, and that the expectancy change sessions would significantly reduce the incidence of memory complaint. The findings provide support for these predictions and indicate that memory training programmes should teach strategies to facilitate memory while addressing older adults' expectations about memory performance.
Scripts and episodes: The development of event memory
Authors: Hudson Judith A. , Fivush Robyn , Kuebli Janet
Published: May 2007

This article reviews recent research on how children organize general script knowledge and memories of specific episodes in memory. First, we discuss developmental issues concerning how children represent single episodes during the initial stages of script acquisition. Research indicates that even very young children quickly grasp the role of variation and invariance in recurring experiences. After only a few varying experiences, children come to expect more variation, but if the initial experiences are invariant they expect that all future occurrences will be the same. However, there are developmental differences in children's ability to ‘sort out’ a standard script from its variations if a single experience is different from all others during the initial four or five exposures with an event. In the second section we focus on how typical and atypical episodes are remembered after a script is established. Here, there are few developmental differences. Very young children up to adults are better able to recall deviation episodes than episodes that closely follow a script. However, cueing plays an important role in remembering both routine and deviation episodes. In the last section we discuss explanations for developmental differences in children's memory for specific episodes during the initial phases of script acquisition and suggest areas for future research.
How slips result in traffic conflicts and accidents
Authors: Kruysse Herman W.
Published: May 2007

In this study subjects kept diaries about unintentional acts during driving. They were asked to record errors at skill‐based level: slips and lapses. They also recorded the circumstances preceding these errors and the consequences for road safety. It was demonstrated how insight into the nature and antecedents of these ‘human errors’ contributes considerably to the understanding of road safety. By focusing on the conditions which control the occurrence of unintentional acts the study shows how these errors or their consequences can be controlled. A relationship was established between the specific conditions that evoke these slips and generic classes of condition that are conducive to errors: latent failure types. It is argued that in conditions controlled by latent failures cognitive processes produce not only skill‐based errors but also rule‐ and knowledge‐based errors. It is claimed that strategies to increase safety should be directed at these latent failures, rather than at the errors that follow from them.
The importance of ‘mass’ in line drawings of faces
Authors: Bruce Vicki , Hanna Elias , Dench Neal , Healey Pat , Burton Mike
Published: May 2007

Previous research (Davies, Ellis and Shepherd, 1978; Rhodes, Brennan and Carey, 1987) has shown that accurate line drawings of familiar faces are identified rather poorly. However, artists can produce lifelike portraits with pen and ink, and Pearson and Robinson (1985) described an automatic method for producing computer‐drawn sketches (‘cartoons’) of faces which appear very similar to those produced by a human artist. In this paper we show that subjects can identify famous faces depicted in such computer‐drawn ‘cartoons’ almost as well as full grey‐scale images. The cartoon algorithm comprises two components. One component draws lines at the locations of intensity changes corresponding to luminance valleys and edges (the ‘valledge’ detector). The other component applies a ‘threshold’ to the original intensity distribution, and replaces any area darker than threshold with black. Thus the full cartoon contains both ‘line’ and ‘mass’. Neither the valledges nor the threshold components alone were as well identified as full cartoons containing both components. The results suggest that the addition of the threshold component adds significantly to the identifiability of line drawings of faces.
The differential susceptibility of topographic map interpretation to influence from training
Authors: Eley Malcolm G.
Published: May 2007

Performances on standardized map to landsurface matching tasks were compared following one of three training conditions. Subjects were explicitly instructed to represent the mapped landsurfaces as mental imagery arrays of selected features, and they were presented with sequences of landsurface drawings described as modelling image manipulation processes. Alternatively, subjects were presented with these same sequences, but without explicit instructions that they should be taken as modelling mental processes, or that any particular representational form should be used. Finally, control subjects were presented with neither explicit instructions on processing and representational form nor the sequences of landsurface drawings. Performance differences across the three groups were interpreted in terms of the use of mental imagery being strongly task‐determined in such map matching tasks, but the choice of processing strategy being more susceptible to influence from training.
Football players' recall of helmet warning label information: Implications for behavioural compliance
Authors: Smith Ronald E. , Smoll Frank L. , Everett John J.
Published: May 2007

Football helmets contain a label designed to warn players of potentially catastrophic hazards associated with using the helmet as a point of contact. We assessed the effectiveness of the label in communicating this information to high‐school football players by asking them to reproduce the label's contents from memory under three conditions: pre‐season recall (n − 177), post‐season recall (n ‐ 60), and post‐season recall with verbal priming (n − 71). Only 26 per cent of the athletes assessed at pre‐season recalled both the potential consequences of injury and the behavioural guidelines. Thus, most subjects were unable to recall the elements specified in protection motivation theory as necessary for inducing behavioural compliance. Exposure to the label over the course of the season did not enhance recall of these elements. In the post‐season priming condition, verbal reference to a warning label produced a significant priming effect in recall of the injury consequences; it did not affect recall of the behavioural guidelines. Implications for enhancing the efficacy of helmet warning labels are discussed, and future research directions are identified.
Fallacies in memory for conversations: Reflections on Clarence Thomas, Anita Hill, and the Like
Authors: Pezdek Kathy , Prull Matthew
Published: May 2007

This study examines conditions that relate to fallacies in memory for conversations. This research tests a cognitive interpretation for why a conversation might be vividly memorable to one eyewitness but not to another. Specifically, a test of gist and verbatim memory for sexual versus non sexual material is presented. In addition, the relative memorability of sexual versus non sexual mateial is tested as a function of the consistency of the context in which it is presented. In two experiments participants heard a recorded conversation between a man and a woman that included four sexual and four non sexual target sentences. The conversation was framed as having been recorded in either a singles bar (the consistent context) or an office setting (the inconsistent context). Sexual items were recalled and recognized better than non sexual items, on both gist and verbatim memory tasks, and the difference in gist (but not verbatim) memory between sexual and non sexual items was greater in the inconsistent than in the consistent context. The discussion considers how this pattern of results might illuminate slippages in memory that may have occured during the Clarence Thomas‐Anita Hill hearing (U. S. Supreme Court appointment review; October 1991) as well as memory slippages more generally.
Contextual effects on the ability of divers to use decompression tables
Authors: Martin K. M. , Aggleton J. P.
Published: May 2007

The present study compared the ability of novice divers to apply decompression tables having learnt how to use them in either the same or a different environment. Those subjects who had learnt how to use the tables in a different environment (i. e. had learnt on dry land and were tested underwater or vice‐versa) performed on average 64 percent worse than those who had the same environment for both learning and test. This effect could not be ascribed to the disruption brought about by changing environments. The results show that contextual effects on memory extend beyond the recall of word lists (Godden and Baddeley, 1975) to the ability to implement potentially important instructions.
A longitudinal analysis of the role of task‐specific knowledge in the subjective impact and structure of performance
Authors: McCarthy John C. , Dunne Elizabeth A.
Published: May 2007

It is widely accepted that the structure of performance depends on the relationship between task demands and information processing resources. This relationship is affected by many factors including practice. For instance, it is claimed that while use of task‐specific knowledge, an information‐processing resource, may benefit performance in the long term, the costs of its use in the short term are quite high. It is dificult to find any studies which can be used to test this claim, as those which have been undertaken typically measure gross performance only, lack any measure of the subjective costs of resource investment, and are of relatively short duration. In this paper an experiment is reported which looks at the effects of task‐specific knowledge on gross and process performance, and on a number of subjective indices over a longitudinal time frame. The results are discussed in terms of the relationships between the context of performance, the perception of control, and strategies of resource management. Finally, the argument that the data suggest a need for the reconceptualization of demands and resources is mooted and some methodological implications are discussed.
Expert performance in solving word puzzles: From retrieval cues to crossword clues
Authors: Underwood Geoffrey , Deihim Caroline , Batt Viv
Published: May 2007

Crossword enthusiasts were first clasified as expert or intermediate on the basis of their performance with a previously unseen set of clues, and then participated in five laboratory experiments designed to capture different aspects of their skilled performance: experiment 1 required the generation of words from a fixed set of letters; experiment 2 monitored the solution of anagrams; experiment 3 required the comipletion of a word of given meaning with only three letters presented; experiment 4 was a lexical decision task with suffixed and pseudosuffixed words and non‐words; and experiment 5 was a synonym judgement task with prefixed and suffixed words Subjects also completed psychometric tests of reasoning and vocabulary. A discriminant function analysis sucessfully predicted the crossword ability of all subjects on the basis of measures of the generation of words from given letters, the number of anagrams solved, sensitivity to a suffix in a non‐word (lexical decision task), sensitivity to a pseudosuffix in a word (synonym judgement task), and vocabulary score. Cryptic crossword puzles are solved by a combination of component subskills, including lexical retrieval, clue recognition, and the manipulation of components of words.
Evaluating the quality and impact of mediators for learning when using associative memory strategies
Authors: Wood Eileen , Needham Douglas R. , Williams Janine , Roberts Robin , Willoughby Teena
Published: May 2007

Recently, a series of studies has reported much greater recall for factual information when students were asked to generate elaborations in response to ‘why’ questions (elaborative interrogation) relative to studying provided elaborations. The two experiments reported here extend and clarify research regarding the strategic benefits of generating elaborations versus providing elaborations. In both experiments, undergraduates studied 30 sentences, all of which described one particular man doing one activity. Students used one of three study strategies. In two conditions, students studied provided elaborations (PE). Half of the elaborations explained why the particular man engaged in the particular activity and half did not explain the specific relations. In the remaining condition, students generated their own elaborations. In both experiments, students were provided with their generated/provided elaborations as cues for recalling the fact at testing. When students were not explicitly cued to use the generated/ provided elaboration at recall, elaborative interrogation (EI) consistently outperformed the PE condition. Recall in the EI condition did not exceed recall in the PE condition, however, when students were provided with good explanatory elaborations and were cued with them at testing. These experiments demonstrate that the poorer performance associated with providing relative to generating elaborations can be mediated by encouraging more meaningful processing of materials and prompting students to access their mediators at recall.
Print adverts: Not remembered but memorable
Authors: Perfect T. J. , Askew C.
Published: May 2007

Attempts to measure advertising effectiveness have relied on explicit memory measures based on recall or recognition. However, recent cognitive research has shown that not only is it possible to measure unconscious effects of prior experience through implicit tests of memory, but that such performance is independent of explicit recollection. The present study sought to determine whether it is possible to demonstrate the same pattern of findings using print advertising in an ecologically valid situation. Eighty subjects saw 25 full‐page colour magazine adverts in either a deliberate or incidental study condition and subsequently rated (on four salient dimensions) a set of 50 adverts, which included the target adverts. Following the ratings subjects were asked to indicate which of the adverts they recognized as having been in the original set. While the deliberate study group recognized around 60 per cent of the adverts, the incidental study group recognized only 11 per cent. However, both groups showed the same positive bias in attitudes towards the adverts they had been exposed to compared to the ones they had not seen before. Thus, in line with by the cognitive literature, it is possible to show shifts in attitudes that are independent of conscious recollection. This data questions advertisers' reliance one explicit memory tests as measures of advertising effectiveness.