bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Gospels before the Book
Authors: Larsen Matthew D. C.
Published: July 2018

What does it mean to read the gospels “before the book”? For centuries, the way people have talked about the gospels has been shaped by ideas that have more to do with the printing press and modern notions of the author than they do with ancient writing and reading practices. Gospels Before the Book challenges several subtle yet problematic assumptions about authors, books, and publication at work in early Christian studies. The author explores a host of underappreciated elements of ancient textual culture, such as unfinished texts, accidental publication, postpublication revision, and multiple authorized versions of the same work. Turning to the gospels, he argues the earliest readers and users of the text we now call the Gospel according to Mark treated it not as a book published by an author but as an unfinished, open, and fluid collection of notes (hypomnēmata). The Gospel according to Matthew, then, would not be regarded as a separate book published by a different author but, rather, as a continuation of the same unfinished gospel tradition. Similarly, it is not the case that, of the five different endings in the textual tradition, one is “right” and the others are “wrong.” Rather, each ending represents its own effort to fill in what some perceived to be lacking in the Gospel according to Mark. The text of the Gospel according to Mark is better understood when approached as unfinished notes than as a book published by an author. Larsen also offers a new methodological framework for future scholarship on early Christian gospels.
Unfinished and Less Authored Texts
Authors: Larsen Matthew D. C.
Published: July 2018

The concept of textual unfinishedness played a role in a wide variety of cultures and contexts across the Mediterranean basin in antiquity and late antiquity. Chapter 2 documents examples of Greek, Roman, and Jewish writers reflecting explicitly in their own words about unfinished texts. Many writers claimed to have written unfinished texts on purpose for specific cultural reasons, while others claimed to have written texts that slipped out of their hands somehow with their permission.
The Earliest Users of the Gospel according to Mark
Authors: Larsen Matthew D. C.
Published: July 2018

Building on the perspective of earliest readers of the Gospel according to Mark, who treated it like hypomnēmata, chapter 6 investigates the earliest users of the Gospel according to Mark and seeks to describe the use they made of it in terms more native to the first- and second-century contexts. It argues the Gospel according to Matthew did not produce a new and separate book by a different author. Rather, the textual traditions we now call the Gospels according to Matthew and Mark represent the same ongoing project of textualizing the gospel. Similarly, the manuscript tradition of the Gospel according to Mark records five different endings. It is not the case that one is right and the others are wrong. Each represents a unique, valid effort to fill in what is lacking in the gospel.
Intentionalism, Cognition, and Representation
Authors: Maloney J. Christopher
Published: July 2018

This chapter continues consideration of reductive intentionalism without embracing the doctrine, framing it in the context of cognitive science. Cognition, including perception, is representation. An agent’s cognitive, perhaps perceptual, state is a relation binding the agent to a proposition by means of her mental representation. Intentionalism would explicate the phenomenal character of a perceiver's experience in terms of the content of her prevailing perceptual representation. While minimal intentionalism maintains that the phenomenal character of the perceiver's experience merely supervenes on her representation's content, maximal intentionalism would reduce character to content. For maximal intentionalism maintains that phenomenal character is simply what introspection finds. Yet, according to maximal intentionalism, introspection, when tuned to conscious perception, detects only the content of experience. Hence, the maximalist identifies phenomenal character with the content carried by perceptual representation.
Intentionalism’s Troubles Begin
Authors: Maloney J. Christopher
Published: July 2018

This chapter puzzles over intentionalism’s odd exportation of the phenomenal character of perceptual experience. Evidently, a perceptual state's phenomenal character is intrinsic to the state while its content is not. So, intentionalism’s reduction of character to content stumbles right out of the blocks. Also, but contrary to fact, if content were phenomenally determinative, all cognitive states with the same content would have the same character. Since perceptual content admits of minimal logical or conceptual complexity, over time a perceiver may find herself in perceptual states that have the same content but, contrary to intentionalism, different phenomenal characters. Moreover, throughout a continuous period of phenomenally stable conscious perception a perceiver might reason from, or about, her experiential content. Her reasoning would ensure fluctuation in her cognitive content despite the constancy of her phenomenal character. In short, perceptual content’s availability to cognition generally undermines intentionalism. Content does not determine character.
Dotan Nitzberg
Authors: Bakan Michael B.
Published: July 2018

Dotan Nitzberg’s hands fly across the piano keyboard at lightning speed, bringing to life a musical work that he believes captures the essence of his Asperger’s mind. “Liszt’s etude, ‘Dance of the Gnomes,’ ” he explains, “is a fast paced piece. It is very mercurial and sparkling. It correlates since my brain is so mercurial . . . . [Z]illions of thoughts are traveling at the speed of light and sometimes it causes confusion . . . . [T]he absorption is quick but the classification process is slower, [and] this gap is hampering.” At the piano, however, Dotan is not hampered in the least. There, he is fully in his element, and this too, he says, is a product of his Asperger’s mind: “[A]t the moment Aspergers tackle a piece they recognize the character and ‘emotion’ right away. It’s instilled there, [but] only people with [a] sixth sense—that is, endowed with sensitivity beyond the average—can catch it.”
Maureen Pytlik
Authors: Bakan Michael B.
Published: July 2018

In 2017, Maureen Pytlik graduated from Ottawa’s Carleton University with degrees major in both clarinet performance and mathematics. Her curriculum also included advanced music theory studies and West African drumming and dance. She describes her West African dance experiences as transformative. “I was quite happy to open up and be awkwardly uncoordinated,” she relates, “because it was something that created a lot of group bonding in a way. Feeling part of the group was very important to me because having Asperger’s means it’s not something that I experience easily.” African dance, and drumming too, helped Maureen to navigate a dichotomy which has been difficult for her to manage in her life, and one that she identifies closely with having Asperger’s: the conflicting pulls of competing desires for control and freedom. “I am pulled in these two different directions,” she acknowledges. “My modes of being can fluctuate between the two styles of having control and experiencing freedom, but I have a hard time (as with any polar opposites) hovering in the middle between them without gravitating toward one extreme or the other at any given time.” Music and dance, especially of the West African variety, have enabled her to move closer to achieving that elusive balance.
Signs in the Gods, Gods in the Pots
Authors: Geslani Marko
Published: July 2018

Reviewing ongoing debates about the origins of image worship in the study of Hinduism, this chapter investigates the transfer of the Vedic-astrological royal cult to the Hindu cult of the image, through an analysis of some of the earliest available ritual prescriptions for image installation (pratiṣṭhā) and image worship (pūjā). It reviews our earliest mention of permanent images in divination literature, and examines how, in the astrological view, images could serve as loci for the manifestation of omens. It then details the adaptation of techniques for preparing mantra-based aspersion waters in the installation of images, and how aspersion rituals were harmonized with regular image worship. The chapter also raises the possibility that techniques from this ritual history could have influenced elements of the design of the classical Hindu temple. These arguments support the overarching claim that temple images serve as a ritual substitute for the body of the king.
Ritual Change and the Problem of Presence
Authors: Geslani Marko
Published: July 2018

This chapter forms a concluding reflection on the nature of ritual change, based on the transformation of śānti rituals detailed in the previous chapters, while critically engaging the reception history of Frits Staal’s theory of ritual meaninglessness. Taking a historicized view of ritual structure as illustrative of the workings of orthopraxy, it illuminates the close relation between ritual authority and ritual meaning, engaging an earlier debate between Stanley Tambiah and Maurice Bloch. The second half of the chapter illustrates the constraints of orthopraxy through a discussion of how the ritual history of appeasement imposes constraints on the notion of presence in Hindu and related image-worshipping contexts, in which divine presence must always be concieved in relation to mantra, and thus dependent on priestly work.
Conclusion
Authors: Geslani Marko
Published: July 2018

The conclusion reviews how a history of śānti rituals complicates our sense of the relationship between Vedism and Hinduism. Despite the drammatic religious changes that took hold in the post-Vedic period, Vedic orthopraxy, at least in the endurance of its ritual structures, nonethless constrained Hindu practice, especially in its highly public temple setting. The study also connects the medieval Brahmanical world to the ethnographic present. While relatively taciturn at the level of theoretical discourse, the ritual and astrological cultures of the royal and temple cults pose a striking countertext to the better-known Brahmanical discourses of Dharmaśāstra, and tend to align with recent ethnographic and ethnohistorical work on auspiciousness, kingship, and materiality. Finally, the study makes possible a critique of the well-known term, darśan (viewing an image), based on the priestly view of the royal body, arguing for a recontextualized and repoliticized view of image worship in Hinduism.
Introduction: Naturalism in Ethics
Authors: Deigh John
Published: July 2018

The collection’s introduction traces the tradition of naturalism in ethics from its origin in Plato’s Protagoras to Freud’s theory of conscience. It then surveys the twelve essays that follow it and concludes with an observation about the main challenges for any naturalist program in ethics.
William James and the Rise of the Scientific Study of Emotion
Authors: Deigh John
Published: July 2018

Recent attempts by philosophers to revive William James’s theory of emotions rest on a basic misunderstanding of James’s theory. To see why, one needs to see how James’s theory completed the transformation of the study of emotions from a study in moral philosophy to a scientific study. This essay charts that transformation. The catalyst for this transformation is Hume’s theory of the passions. The essay offers an explanation of the innovations Hume introduced into this theory and how they brought about the passage from the traditional view of the passions as springs of action that Hume radically revised to the view of emotions in the field of experimental psychology that James helped to pioneer as states of arousal.
Freud
Authors: Deigh John
Published: July 2018

This essay does two things. First, it gives an account of the development of Freud’s thought in human psychology from its beginnings in the studies of psychoneurosis he undertook jointly with Joseph Breuer to the mature theory of the human personality that Freud constructed in the last stages of his career. The main focus of the essay’s account of his thought in these last stages is on his theory of the acquisition in human beings of a conscience. Second, it explains the philosophical import of Freud’s theory of human personality by placing it within the tradition of naturalism in ethics and answers the objections of two critics of his account of conscience who side with Kant on the question of the nature of conscience.
Reactive Attitudes Revisited: A Modest Revision
Authors: Deigh John
Published: July 2018

The essay offers an interpretation of P. F. Strawson’s “Freedom and Resentment” on which attributions of moral responsibility presuppose a practice of holding people morally responsible for their actions, and what explains the practice is our liability to such reactive attitudes as resentment and indignation. The interpretation is offered to correct a common misinterpretation of Strawson’s essay. On this common misinterpretation, attributions of moral responsibility are implicit in the reactive attitudes of resentment and indignation, and consequently our liability to these attitudes cannot explain these attributions. The reason this is a misinterpretation of Strawson’s essay is that Strawson’s compatibilist solution to the free will problem requires that our liability to the reactive attitudes be conceptually prior to our attributions of moral responsibility.
Sidgwick’s Conception of Ethics
Authors: Deigh John
Published: July 2018

J. B. Schneewind’s Sidgwick’s Ethics and Victorian Moral Philosophy surpassed all previous treatments of Sidgwick’s The Methods of Ethics by showing how Sidgwick’s work follows a coherent plan of argument for a conception of ethics as grounded in practical reason. Schneewind offered his interpretation as the product of a historical rather than a critical study. This essay undertakes a critical study of Sidgwick’s work based on Schneewind’s interpretation. Its thesis is that the conception of ethics for which Sidgwick argued is incoherent. As a result, it is argued, the coherent plan of argument in Methods that Schneewind uncovered masks a deep incoherence in the argument itself.
Punishment and Proportionality: Part 2
Authors: Deigh John
Published: July 2018

This essay is a companion to the preceding essay. It continues the examination in the earlier essay of the question of what justice requires of the penal law in its determination of the severity of punishment relative to the seriousness of the crime for which it is inflicted. Its chief argument is that basing the determination solely on the end of giving the offender what he or she deserves is morally problematic because it conflicts with principles of humanity that call for our taking the good of human beings as our end. By contrast, it is also argued, basing the determination on promoting public safety or preserving civil order is not similarly problematic because punishment inflicted to serve either of these ends is compatible with principles of humanity.
Transitional Figures: Hugo Grotius, Thomas Hobbes, Samuel Pufendorf
Authors: Onuf Nicholas Greenwood
Published: July 2018

In the classical age, everything finds its place in a class of things; all classes are ordered; taxonomy represents the order of the world. Discussion of space exemplifies the transition to the world as a table. Descartes and Leibniz advanced a relational conception of space, while Newton held space to function as a container. This transition in conditions of thought affected the way people thought about the “person” who rules and is subject to rule. While Hugo Grotius’s De jure belli ac pacis conveys a Renaissance sensibility, it adapts a medieval-Aristotelian stance on human faculties to suit moral persons, including political bodies. Pufendorf furthered the Grotian position by positing the natural equality of human beings and working out the idea that rights among equals imply correlative duties. In Leviathan, Hobbes located “artificial persons” in an equally artificial setting to illustrate the logic of rule over territory as a contained space.
First Interlude
Authors: Onuf Nicholas Greenwood
Published: July 2018

IN 1844, SØREN KIERKEGAARD published a deeply serious book called Philosophical Fragments. After the fourth of five chapters, we find an “interlude” fully a chapter’s length (1985, 72–88). Kierkegaard remarked on the interlude as a comedic device to suggest the passage of time; the term itself derives from the Latin ...
“This Quarter of the Globe”
Authors: Onuf Nicholas Greenwood
Published: July 2018

Europeans of the classical epoch began to think of their “quarter of the globe” as “an extensive social commonwealth” (Friedrich von Gentz). The Westphalian settlement of 1648 supported this sensibility and its realization in the balance of power among Europe’s most important ruling houses. The metaphor of a balance creates the impression that the “powers” have some property called power, that each power’s power can be placed on the scales, that the scales will balance if the powers’ power is more or less the same, and that powers’ power should therefore be equalized—through war and by treaty—to maintain the stability of Europe. The metaphor of the balance relies on Newton’s concept of mass, derived from the Latin massa (lump of dough). Metaphorical weight equals state power or strength. This simple idea, so difficult to operationalize, is a lasting legacy of the classical epoch.
Transitional Figures: J. L. Austin, Jay Forrester, Donna Haraway
Authors: Onuf Nicholas Greenwood
Published: July 2018

Taking the so-called language turn in the 1970s, writers in literature and the arts indiscriminately deployed the adjectives “postmodern” and “postmodernist” to describe what comes next. Linking cognition and rule demands a turn specifically to speech and its function in making social experience intelligible. Speaking is doing; speakers seek to affect listeners, who respond by doing something themselves. Systematizing this simple claim of Austin’s offers a table of speech acts, rules, and rule—a classical response to modernist thinking, and not a transition. Instead the explosion of machine-processed information seems to have changed everything in daily life, perhaps to the extent that modernity that has entered “the information age,” in which a virtuous spiral of technological development will save capitalism. Yet Forrester’s systems dynamics points to technology out of control and growth beyond sustainable limits, while Haraway’s fantasy of cyborgs in control take the virtuous spiral for granted.
Relative Virtue
Authors: Onuf Nicholas Greenwood
Published: July 2018

Whether we live in a time of transition, or in a time when bourgeois prosperity is coming to an end, many of us wonder how we might best conduct ourselves. In the circumstance, Aristotle’s virtue ethics offers a great deal. Cicero reconceptualized virtue as duty, and Adam Smith demonstrated that self-control, or conscience, depends on approbation and condemnation by one’s self and others. The result is an ethical system that makes duty a function of status-position and not just office. Positional ethics makes no universal claims about conduct. Specific norms are local and contingent, although some of them will be defended as natural and widely distributed. Status-ordering is everywhere; modernist administration, technological wonders, and liberal ideology have excused us from looking for it. If the modern world collapses, no system of ethics can help. Short of collapse, positional ethics is the best we can hope for.
What Is So Special about Field Research in Iran?
Authors: Rivetti Paola , Saeidi Shirin
Published: July 2018

Chapter 3 looks at the Islamic Republic of Iran and argues that while religion, laws, and customs impact the ability of researchers to conduct field research to a certain extent, the state’s authoritarian intervention plays a far greater role in limiting researchers’ freedom of inquiry. The chapter offers advice on how to deal with the limitations on research imposed by the authoritarian state. The chapter is based on the experiences of an Iranian American scholar, and an Italian professor based in Dublin. Examining this topic from the perspective of two female researchers with different backgrounds sheds light on the importance of religion and gender to fieldwork in Iran.
Research in and on the Palestinian Occupied Territories
Authors: Challand Benoit
Published: July 2018

Chapter 5 critically engages with the opportunities and challenges that arise from doing fieldwork in Palestine. It discusses the various terms used to refer to Palestine and the consequences these terms have. To deal with these different layers of “Palestine,” the chapter recommends avoiding short-term analyses and foregrounding historical analyses instead. It also proposes to concentrate on the study of flows (of population, ideas, or money) to make sure that Palestinian polity is not studied in isolation. It focuses both on the practical difficulties, such as entering the Occupied Territories and checkpoints, and on the ethical dilemmas. It highlights the rich local research institutions that must be consulted when carrying out research in Palestine.
Seeing beyond the Spectacle
Authors: Parkinson Sarah E.
Published: July 2018

In chapter 6, Sarah E. Parkinson shares practical insights regarding research on and adjacent to violence, with an emphasis on both the planning and the improvisation it often requires as well as the ethical questions it raises and the emotional demands it presents. Drawing on nearly two years of immersive fieldwork in Lebanon, Parkinson examines the social knowledge, routines, and practices that people deploy when violence interrupts their everyday lives. Emphasizing the importance of understanding the role of bystanders, she develops two ethnographic interludes to highlight these phenomena. The first centers on a public argument that culminated in a stabbing and a stampede. The second focuses on a household’s approach to coping with an international armed dispute between Lebanon and Israel. In doing so, Parkinson examines how scale, physical distance, and social proximity to very different events activate different routines, notions of group belonging, and demands on the researcher.
Researching the Countryside
Authors: Bush Ray
Published: July 2018

This chapter looks at the challenges and rewards of researching the countryside in the Middle East and North Africa. It explores the obstacles to conduct fieldwork that stem from working within the neoliberal university and in countries where access to knowledge is feared by repressive regimes. The chapter looks at the impact of economic reform upon farming family and how important it is to hear farmers’ voices. It demonstrates the importance of scrutinizing government and international agency policy and to see what impact it has in promoting agricultural modernization. The chapter demonstrates the centrality of using a frame of radical agrarian political economy to understand rural transformation in the Middle East and North Africa.
Online Media as Research Topic and Research Tool
Authors: Monier Elizabeth
Published: July 2018

The chapter focuses on researching social media and using online media to conduct research. In recent years, social media has become part of the way we receive and interact with information and understanding its impact on social and political life has become increasingly important in academic research. This presents new sets of challenges in terms of the research methodology and necessitates the cultivation of a very clear awareness of the limitations and shortcomings of conducting research using social media and online sources. In this chapter, Elizabeth Monier examines the advantages of using online media to do fieldwork on the Middle East while highlighting the many pitfalls that researchers can meet online.
Consumer Forces in Healthcare
Authors: Moore Gordon , Quelch John A. , Boudreau Emily
Published: July 2018

Chapter 1 introduces the concept of consumer choice in healthcare markets, exploring the history of consumer involvement in healthcare and why changes are occurring rapidly in the market today. This chapter highlights why healthcare has traditionally been slow to respond to consumer needs and demands, and it discusses how that is changing due to a combination of social, political, economic, scientific, information technology, and organizational forces. This chapter also shows why it is critical for provider organizations, insurers, policy makers, and others to take steps toward understanding the consumer and his or her needs. Finally, this chapter lays out the roadmap for the remainder of the book.
Is Healthcare Special?
Authors: Moore Gordon , Quelch John A. , Boudreau Emily
Published: July 2018

Chapter 2 asks the critical question of whether healthcare is different from other consumer-driven markets. In the past, many pushed back on the notion that healthcare could be a consumer-driven industry, arguing that it is fundamentally different from other markets. This chapter acknowledges and reviews these critiques, highlighting four areas that might present challenges to increasing consumer choice in healthcare: the special relationship between doctor and patient, ethics and morality, individual choice versus collective benefit, and the health consequences of consumer choice. In doing so, this chapter also presents a schematic for thinking about the different types of healthcare choices, arguing that not all choices are equal and consumers may be more prepared to make decisions in some areas as opposed to others. In presenting the counterargument to consumer choice, this chapter asks the reader to consider the drawbacks and potential limitations of consumer choice in healthcare.
Creating a Consumer Marketplace
Authors: Moore Gordon , Quelch John A. , Boudreau Emily
Published: July 2018

Chapter 3 presents six enabling conditions necessary to enhance consumer choice. These conditions are consumer-centric-oriented stakeholders, meaningful differentiation among available options, relevant metrics for success, information transparency among stakeholders, consumer protections, and balanced incentives between patients and providers. These six conditions are the soil in which consumer choice can grow. If one or more is absent, choice and market-forces are retarded. After reviewing each of these conditions in depth, this chapter argues that if these conditions are met, consumers will be more educated, see better products and services come to market, and be protected from bad actors and potentially poor decisions.
The Six E’s of Consumer Choice
Authors: Moore Gordon , Quelch John A. , Boudreau Emily
Published: July 2018

Whenever consumers make a choice—in healthcare or in other situations—they do so based on the benefits they anticipate. Chapter 5 focuses on the most common benefits consumers seek when making health and wellness decisions. Though they may vary in relative importance based upon the healthcare decision at hand, these six commonly sought benefits are economy, effectiveness, empathy, efficiency, empowerment, and experience. This chapter reviews each of these benefits in-depth, highlighting examples of each in today’s market. Consumers have different ways of assessing these benefits ranging from simultaneously trading off importance between them to using four shortcuts that make comparisons easier.
Making a Consumer Choice “System” Work
Authors: Moore Gordon , Quelch John A. , Boudreau Emily
Published: July 2018

This final chapter presents choice from a “systems” perspective by describing a process model for consumer choice. In this model, we argue that a consumer-oriented organizational mindset, coupled with incentives that reward healthcare producers for enhanced consumer choice, are the combination of environmental conditions most likely to lead to change. We highlight the roles that healthcare providers, insurers, and government—as well as consumers—can play to make consumer choice work. Finally, we reprise why consumer choice is important. We take the position that increased consumer choice by itself will not fix the American healthcare system but is one of several changes that could make it better. We conclude that more consumer-oriented experimentation is needed and propose a way forward using a funding mechanism that has worked well in creating breakthrough solutions for the U.S. military.
Introduction
Authors: Konstan David
Published: July 2018

This chapter examines the tension in classical thought between reciprocity and altruism as the two fundamental grounds of interpersonal relations within the city and, to a lesser extent, between citizens and foreigners. It summarizes the chapters that follow, and examines in particular the ideas of altruism and egoism and defends their application to ancient ethics. Various attempts to reconcile the two, especially in respect to Aristotle’s conception of virtue as other-regarding, are considered, and with the relationship to modern concepts of “egoism” and “altruism” is explored. The introduction concludes by noting that one of the premises of the book is that, in classical antiquity, love was deemed to play a larger role in the way people accounted for motivation in a number of domains, including friendship, loyalty, gratitude, grief, and civic harmony.
Love and Friendship
Authors: Konstan David
Published: July 2018

Aristotle described a friend as “another self” and is quoted as saying that friends are one soul in two bodies. This chapter proposes to take such statements literally rather than merely metaphorically, and suggests that certain modern theories, such as “distributed cognition,” and “enactivism,” help to make sense of these propositions. It also considers friendship as an activity rather than a state: “to be a friend” is not simply equivalent to the English “I am a friend” or “we are friends” but is more like “I am being your friend”: spending time together is thus necessary for the actualization of friendship.
Gratitude and Liberality
Authors: Konstan David
Published: July 2018

It has become common wisdom that gift-giving is predicated on reciprocity; as an eminent scholar wrote over a century ago, “To requite a benefit, or to be grateful to him who bestows it, is probably everywhere, at least under certain circumstances, regarded as a duty.” Is it possible, then, to bestow a gift freely, without expectation of compensation; or, to put it differently, is gratitude obligatory? This chapter explores ancient conceptions of liberality as a virtue, freely granted favors, and gratitude, as discussed by Cicero, Seneca, and Aristotle, and argues that gratitude is not a response to generosity as such but rather to the love that is manifested in the act of giving.
Grief and the Self
Authors: Konstan David
Published: July 2018

Grief for the dead may seem to exhibit the most selfless kind of attachment, since the dead can no longer give us anything in return, and yet in practice one often mourns for the loss of support and protection (as evidenced frequently in ritualized lamentations), and such grief may appear to be self-centered. The conventional genre of the consolation mobilized arguments to discourage excessive or prolonged mourning, even as writers recognized that the immediate sense of loss was natural, shared even by animals. What is more, if a beloved friend is another self, then his or her death is a kind of mutilation of one’s own self, and this, as illustrated by Achilles’ mourning over the death of Patroclus, may be the deepest grief of all.
Love and the State
Authors: Konstan David
Published: July 2018

Love was commonly understood in classical antiquity to obtain among a small circle of family and friends. Could such affection be extended more widely so as to include an entire community and be the basis of civic solidarity? Various thinkers in classical Greece supposed that it could, taking the place, in part, of loyalty to the state as it is conceived today. In Rome, on the contrary, where patronage was a semiformal relationship between the powerful and their dependents (or clients), friendship, as a bond between equals, was not so readily appropriated, and Cicero argued rather for class harmony or “concord among the social orders” (concordia ordinum). As an aristocratic value, friendship had a different function and dynamic from what it had in democratic Athens.
Introduction
Authors: Thompson Andrew C.
Published: July 2018

Dissenters experienced considerable change during the eighteenth century. The political and cultural environment in which they lived was in flux. Before 1689, public declarations of Dissenting faith were risky. By the early nineteenth century, Dissenters were increasingly influential and secure. Several different processes helped to make these changes possible. One was the revival of ‘vital religion’, associated with a period of awakening. Awakening spread far and wide within European and American Protestantism but Dissenters were strongly affected by it. The growth of ideas of enlightenment encouraged both an emphasis on personal faith and the ability of the individual to make choices about faith for him/herself and also helped increase the resources able to express faith through burgeoning print culture.
Protestant Dissent in Ireland
Authors: Holmes Andrew R.
Published: July 2018

Protestant Dissent was religiously and politically important in eighteenth-century Ireland. Presbyterians who arrived from Scotland after 1600 comprised the bulk of Dissenters whereas smaller groups who owed their origin largely to the arrival of Cromwellian forces stagnated or declined after 1700. Dissenters were part of a protestant minority in predominantly Catholic Ireland, yet Presbyterians were excluded from full participation in public life by the Church of Ireland ruling elite. This fuelled political dissent that was, in turn, informed by New Light Presbyterianism that rejected subscription to theological formularies; yet most Presbyterians remained religiously conservative and Seceder Presbyterianism grew significantly from the 1750s. At the same time, Presbyterians became more active in movements of political reform, which culminated in the involvement of many in the 1798 rebellion. Yet perhaps the more significant religious legacy of the 1790s was the growth of evangelical sentiment, especially in Ulster.
Protestant Dissent in Wales
Authors: White Eryn
Published: July 2018

Wales was once perceived as a ‘nation of Nonconformists’, but immediately after the Glorious Revolution, Dissenters represented a tiny minority of the Welsh population. One of the roots of later Dissenting success can be found in the disproportionate contribution that Welsh Dissenters made to Welsh-language print culture in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. In addition, the growth of a ‘circulating’ school system helped spread literacy (and the Word) to the younger generation. Although begun by Griffith Jones, rector of Llanddowror, the episcopal hierarchy remained sceptical of movements that crossed parish boundaries. This was also true of Methodism. The impact of revival in Wales was considerable. Initially, much of the support was derived from Methodists, although Calvinistic Methodism was initially much stronger than Wesleyan Methodism in the country—it was only in the early nineteenth century that Wesleyan Methodism began to enjoy more success.
Dissent in the American Colonies before the First Amendment
Authors: Brekus Catherine A.
Published: July 2018

Many of the early migrants to the American colonies came from Dissenting backgrounds. There were many reasons why it was difficult to enforce religious uniformity across the Atlantic, including the diversity of religious traditions and the rise of the Enlightenment, particularly Locke’s emphasis on the sanctity of conscience. However, the role played by Presbyterians, Baptists, and Quakers in arguing for freedom of conscience needs to be acknowledged as well. Their pressure to create a formal separation of Church and state was vital. The 1689 Toleration Act and the revivals of the Great Awakening undermined the principle of church establishment in early America and led to divisions between different religious groups. In 1789, Dissenters contributed to the passage of the First Amendment, which guaranteed religious freedom and prohibited the establishment of a national church.
Revival
Authors: McClymond Michael J.
Published: July 2018

Just as definitions of Dissent can be complicated, ‘revival’ was a multifaceted phenomenon in the eighteenth century. It crossed geographic and institutional boundaries and rounded histories of the phenomenon need to look at the connections between what was happening in Europe, the British Isles, and the American colonies, as well as considering groups both within and outside the Established Church. Some groups, notably Methodists, began within the Church of England, although many eventually left it. Others, like the Moravians, did not fit comfortably into the category of either Establishment or Dissent. Revivals and revivalism relied on shared and intensified spiritual experience but also networks of interconnection of people and ideas. Revivals frequently witnessed extensive outdoor preaching and leaders who were prepared to travel extensively to spread the Word. While there was some soteriological disagreement, many of the awakened sought to spread their experiences through personal interaction and conversion narratives.
Dissent and Education
Authors: Burden Mark
Published: July 2018

Much eighteenth-century Dissenting educational activity was built on an older tradition of Puritan endeavour. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the godly had seen education as an important tool in spreading their ideas but, in the aftermath of the Restoration, had found themselves increasingly excluded from universities and schools. Consequently, Dissenters began to develop their own higher educational institutions (in the shape of Dissenting academies) and also began to set up their own schools. While the enforcement of some of the legal restrictions that made it difficult for Dissenting institutions diminished across the eighteenth century, the restrictions did not disappear entirely. While there has been considerable focus on Dissenting academies and their contribution to debates about doctrinal orthodoxy, the impact of Dissenting schools was also considerable.
Manifestations
Authors: McKitrick Jennifer
Published: July 2018

Manifestations are events which are effects of dispositions being activated. Events often involve something acquiring a property. According to dispositional monism or pandispositionalism, all properties are dispositions. If all properties were dispositions, then all manifestations would involve something acquiring a disposition. Whether this leads to a vicious regress is unclear. However, pandispositionalism may render nearly all properties unobservable. Another issue about manifestations involves the question of whether dispositions are all single-track or whether some of them are multi-track. Some philosophers argue that each type of disposition has one type of manifestation. However, the events that occur when a disposition manifests vary according to the circumstances. This motivates some philosophers to say that manifestations are not effects but are instead contributions to effects. But it is not clear what kind of entity a contribution is, or if it is needed. Consequently, dispositions are extremely numerous or massively multi-track.
Conclusion
Authors: McKitrick Jennifer
Published: July 2018

Dispositional Pluralism is more consistent with our dispositions talk than more monolithic views. Our evidence for extrinsic, ungrounded, and non-natural dispositions is comparable to that of intrinsic, grounded, and natural ones. Dispositional Pluralism has wide applicability to various philosophical issues. Secondary qualities, such as colors, can be given a dispositional account. Thinking of character traits as dispositions sheds light on the debate over Dispositionalism Situationism in moral psychology. One can give an account of gender identity as a cluster of behavioral dispositions. Finally, the potentiality of an embryo or a patient is best understood as an extrinsic dispositional property.
Shadows, Objects, and the Lexicon
Authors: Casati Roberto
Published: July 2018

Visual phenomena such as shadows and reflections are lexicalized in idiosyncratic ways. In particular, we appear to master notions of certain types of shadows, at least notions that \are learnable and communicable, for which we do not have names. We also have many imprecise lexicalizations; so much so that in certain conditions notions that appear to be antonyms, such as that of shadows and of light, for example, even get applied to the same visual phenomena. Reflections offer another field of study. I shall investigate whether constraints on lexicalization depend on particular cognitive advantages conferred upon objects or object-like entities.
On Silhouettes, Surfaces, and Sorensen
Authors: Raleigh Thomas
Published: July 2018

Sorensen (2008) argued that when we see a silhouetted object, the part of the object that we see is its back surface. I argue against this claim and in favour of the thesis that the part of a silhouetted object that we see is its edge/edges. I provide a general ‘Parts Perception Principle’ (PPP) for determining which part/parts of a seen object are seen and show that it both provides the intuitively correct answers in cases of normal seeing and also that it favours the edge theory over the back-side-theory in cases of seeing silhouetted objects. I also briefly compare and contrast cases in which a subject can see part of a camouflaged object.
Aristotle on Transparency
Authors: Kalderon Mark Eli
Published: July 2018

Commentators have been unkind to Aristotle’s account of transparency—unnecessarily so, as it turns out. I argue that that account is best understood as part of a reaction to Empedoclean puzzlement about perception at a distance. When understood in this way, Aristotle’s account is both phenomenologically apt and a reasonable approximation of the truth. The first section elaborates this Empedoclean puzzlement through a brief discussion of its lingering effects. The aim is to make the difficulty vivid for modern readers. The remainder of the essay details Aristotle’s discussion of the transparent in De Anima and De Sensu. Many of the misgivings of commentators are due to an uncharitable interpretation of these texts.
Nonsense and Visual Evanescence
Authors: Cumhaill Clare Mac
Published: July 2018

I focus on a species of animal camouflage which is distinct from the cases of mimicry that have hitherto occupied philosophers of perception. In cases of what I call visual evanescence, the visible animal body can be said to ‘cease to appear’ and, in certain conditions, can even be said ‘to pass instead for an empty region’. I explain why certain structured visible patterns on the surface of the animal body can give rise to evanescence at a place and time, and how we should read such peculiar descriptive phenomenological claims. I conclude by suggesting that if my analysis is convincing we should be prepared to grant that empty space is seen— and that this is the primary lesson from visual evanescence.
Sicily and Magna Graecia (South Italy)
Authors: Hornblower Simon
Published: July 2018

The Alexandra is full of allusions to and whole sections about south Italy and to a lesser extent Sicily. This makes it likely that the poet came from southern Italy. Eastern Sicily hardly features, despite the ancient glories of its Greek cities. But western Sicily was important in Lykophron’s time for kinship reasons to do with the supposed Trojan origins of Elymian cities like Egesta and Eryx, whose support Rome needed in the mid-third-century BC: Troy was the mythical mother-city of Rome. In Italy, many places prominent in the poem (especially Croton and its neighbours) also featured in the ancient histories of the war against Hannibal, a recent event in 190 BC, and of Roman colonization policies of the 190s.
Culture, Religion, and Myths of Identity in the Alexandra
Authors: Hornblower Simon
Published: July 2018

Hellenistic incubation (temple medicine, healing by dreams) is described authentically in the Alexandra. The excursus about the re-burying of Hektor’s bones at Boiotian Thebes (a cult of relics) is grounded in Hellenistic events. The excursus about the tribute of the Lokrian Maidens has strongly Hellenistic features and the ritual is also attested by a third-century bc inscription. Divine epithets show the poet’s acquaintance with both Greek and Roman cultic realities. Myths of identity are examined, including and especially the Roman.
Fighting for Peace in Somalia
Authors: Williams Paul D.
Published: July 2018

Fighting for Peace in Somalia provides the first comprehensive analysis of the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM), an operation deployed in 2007 to stabilize the country and defend its fledgling government from one of the world’s deadliest militant organizations, Harakat al-Shabaab. The book’s two parts provide a history of the mission from its genesis in an earlier, failed regional initiative in 2005 up to mid-2017, as well as an analysis of the mission’s six most important challenges, namely, logistics, security sector reform, civilian protection, strategic communications, stabilization, and developing a successful exit strategy. These issues are all central to the broader debates about how to design effective peace operations in Africa and beyond. AMISOM was remarkable in several respects: it would become the African Union’s (AU) largest peace operation by a considerable margin, deploying over 22,000 soldiers; it became the longest running mission under AU command and control, outlasting the nearest contender by over seven years; it also became the AU’s most expensive operation, at its peak costing approximately US$1 billion per year; and, sadly, AMISOM became the AU’s deadliest mission. Although often referred to as a peacekeeping operation, AMISOM’s personnel were given a range of daunting tasks that went well beyond the realm of peacekeeping, including VIP protection, war-fighting, counterinsurgency, stabilization, and state-building as well as supporting electoral processes and facilitating humanitarian assistance.
Offensive
Authors: Williams Paul D.
Published: July 2018

This chapter analyses the battle for Mogadishu and how AMISOM not only pushed al-Shabaab forces out of the city but also turned significant pockets of international opinion from viewing the mission as a failure to a strategic success. The chapter starts by briefly summarizing the debate about AMISOM’s authorized strength before examining how the mission prepared for the upcoming offensive campaign with reference to its pre-deployment training programmes and some of their limitations. The third section then analyses how AMISOM took control of Mogadishu via a series of operations conducted during 2011. The fourth section briefly assesses the challenges AMISOM faced in Mogadishu after al-Shabaab had withdrawn its main forces while the final section discusses the problems involved in trying to end Somalia’s transitional phase of government.
Expansion
Authors: Williams Paul D.
Published: July 2018

This chapter starts by analysing Kenya’s decision to launch Operation Linda Nchi into Somalia in October 2011 and why it subsequently integrated nearly 4,500 troops into AMISOM in 2012. The second section discusses the factors that led to AMISOM’s most deadly day when many Burundian soldiers were killed in the Dayniile region outside Mogadishu, also in October 2011. The third section examines the return of Ethiopian troops to Somalia from November 2011, once again operating outside of AMISOM, while the fourth section analyses Djibouti’s decision to join the mission. The penultimate section provides an analysis of AMISOM’s new Concept of Operations that was developed in the wake of the Kenyan and Ethiopian interventions. The final section then summarizes some of the main expansion operations conducted by AMISOM, Kenyan, Ethiopian, and Somali government forces during 2012 and some of the challenges they raised.