bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Illegal Immigrants and Corrections
Authors: McConnell Elizabeth H.
Published: January 2014

Based on recent estimates, there are over 12 million undocumented immigrants in the United States. They consist of people who enter the country illegally and those who enter the country legally but whose visas have expired. The federal government refers to illegal immigrants convicted of crimes as criminal aliens; they are reportedly the fastest growing inmate group. Five states, New York, Florida, Texas, Arizona, and California, account for 80% of criminal aliens incarcerated in state prisons. Currently, very few criminal justice agencies document the immigration status of arrestees, defendants, and offenders, making it impossible to accurately measure the relationship between crime and this group of illegal immigrants.
Pornography
Authors: Call Corey Patrick
Published: January 2014

In recent decades pornography has seen a dramatic upsurge in availability and popularity with the advent of new technology. Due to the increased ease of access in recent years and sizeable consumption by the public, the relationship between pornography and criminal behavior has become a popular and debated topic amongst researchers. The potential association between pornography and crime has been explored by two presidentially‐appointed commissions and a myriad of researchers over the last several decades. Despite the popularity of this topic amongst the scientific community, there is no clear consensus on the extent of the relationship between pornography and crime. Some studies support the link between pornography and crime while others deny it, and much depends upon the research methodology employed, including how pornography is defined. The possible effect of pornography on criminal behavior will likely continue to be a contested topic amongst social scientists for the foreseeable future as the nature of pornography in society continues to evolve.
Decriminalization
Authors: Call Corey Patrick
Published: January 2014

When there is a consensus that classifying an act or behavior as a crime is no longer justifiable, unenforceable, or society simply no longer views it as a threat, decriminalization offers a means to remove the criminal sanctions attached to the act or behavior. This occurrence is most closely associated with victimless crimes, but the specific crimes discussed for decriminalization vary from area to area such as prostitution in the United States and homosexuality in Germany. The crime most associated with debates about decriminalization is drug use, more specifically, marijuana use. Although frequently discussed, marijuana decriminalization has only occurred in limited areas due to concerns over increased marijuana use after decriminalization and the possibility of a gateway effect toward other illicit substances. Despite these concerns, research has shown only minimal increases in drug use in areas following decriminalization that often mirrors increases in areas that have not decriminalized.
Inmate Subcultures
Authors: Higgs Elizabeth
Published: January 2014

Inmate subcultures feature their own unifying systems of values, codes of behavior, social hierarchies, family structures, political systems, means of enculturation through initiation rituals, unique languages and worldviews, and underground economies. The issues explored in criminal justice literature concern the how, what, where, and why of their creation. Three theoretical models, i.e., deprivation, importation, and situational, dominate explanations of inmate subcultures. Although substantively different, the three models address the impact ofprisonizationintotal institutions on inmate behaviors. Further, criminal justice researchers tend to concentrate on similarities in inmate subcultures rather than differences.
M
iranda Warning
Authors: Eisenhardt Joseph H.
Published: January 2014

Certain guarantees and protections have continually been afforded to US citizens through the Constitution. Over time, there have been necessary changes made that clarified the meaning and purpose of the original writings of the founding fathers of the United States. In addition, there have been decisions made by the US Supreme Court that have changed police procedures to ensure that these rights are never violated, and that serious consequences result when they are. One classic example is the landmark case known as
Miranda v. Arizona
(1966), which resulted in the Miranda warnings still given today.
Police Pursuits
Authors: Hicks Wendy L.
Published: January 2014

Police pursuits have been and continue to be a source of controversy, sparking debate frequently between law enforcement personnel, legal authorities, scholars, and members of the general public. There are many and varied legal qualifications surrounding the practice of pursuit. From the monumental ruling inTennessee v. Garnerto more abstract notions concerning seizure law and entrapment issues, pursuits have remained a valued and integral part of law enforcement in the United States.
Forensic Science
Authors: Pettler Laura G.
Published: January 2014

In its broadest definition, forensic science could be defined as “the application of science to law.” Forensic scientists work in scientific laboratories, crime laboratories, in the field, in medical facilities, and in the courtroom. Usually, forensic scientists work in a team within a multiagency response effort where local, state, and/or federal authorities are responsible for the evidence relating to a specific crime or situation. Forensic scientists and forensic practitioners are primarily trained in chemistry, biology, physics, and other hard sciences, but most have specialized or technical knowledge of specific scientific disciplines, such as pathology, toxicology, anthropology, odontology, entomology, psychiatry, engineering, digital evidence, investigation, questioned document examination, and other related disciplines that allow them to contribute valuable information to a team of criminal justice professionals in their respective areas of expertise.
American Correctional Association
Authors: Hanser Robert D.
Published: January 2014

This entry provides an overview of the American Correctional Association (ACA) and its role as the premiere governing body for standards and guidelines among correctional practitioners in the United States. The goals of the ACA are outlined and discussed, making it clear that this organization serves as a key leadership entity within the field. The history of this organization, starting with its genesis as the National Prison Association in the late 1800s to its current day state of operations is presented. It is made clear that practitioners and scholars around the nation are impacted by the influence that the ACA has on correctional standards and practices.
Reformatory Movement
Authors: Kuanliang Attapol
Published: January 2014

Punishment for those who committed crime during the colonial period was harsh and severe. Only around the 1870s but not before, the American correctional system was introduced to a new paradigm, called Reformatory Movement. In the same period numerous innovative ideas were introduced and techniques implemented in our correctional system – for instance educational and occupational programs, grades and marks, the indeterminate sentence, and parole. Penologists of those times strongly believed that a prisoner can be reformed and can eventually become a productive citizen. Despite those exciting and promising practices, reformatory methods faced numerous challenges. Overcrowding and cruel discipline was prevalent in any correctional institution. Moreover, it was very costly to operate such a program, and recidivism was still high. Even though the reformatory approach did not achieve its goals, it left several legacies that influenced our criminal justice system and still survive today.
Nativism
Authors: Bonner Mkay
Published: January 2014

Nativism is the view that some human characteristics are innate. Criminal justice, political science, psychology, and philosophy have all theorized about nativism, bringing their own unique perspective to bear on it. Throughout history, nativism has also been used to oppress groups of people on the basis of race, citizenship, and political ideology. While the idea that some characteristics are innate is not itself absurd or offensive, its application carries the potential to cause a great deal of harm.
Selective Incapacitation
Authors: Perez Maria B. , Argueta Roberto
Published: January 2014

Selective incapacitation is a corrections strategy that seeks to protect society and save limited corrections resources by incarcerating only those offenders who pose the greatest threat to society. Threat is equated with quality and quantity of offenders' offenses and likelihood of re‐offending. It is generally measured with risk‐assessment instruments, most of which are based on statistical models. Praised as a scientific approach to incarceration, it is also criticized for false‐positive predictions that increase correctional costs and false‐negative predictions that compromise society's safety.
Juveniles Tried as Adults
Authors: Adams Benjamin , Addie Sean
Published: January 2014

Juveniles being tried as adults is not a new phenomenon. Since the inception of the juvenile court, juveniles have been eligible to be tried as adults for the commission of capital crimes. However, starting in the 1960s and 1970s and escalating in the 1980s and 1990s, there has been a substantial increase in the number of juveniles tried as adults as well as an increase in research on the topic. This increase has coincided with the proliferation of laws that cover and dictate juvenile transfer decisions. This entry covers transfer laws, the processing and sentencing of juveniles in criminal court, and research on specific and general deterrence.
Police Discretion
Authors: Brown Ben
Published: January 2014

This entry describes and discusses police discretion. Special emphases are placed upon the necessity of police discretion, the potential perils associated with police discretion, and factors which influence discretionary decisions made and actions taken by police officials.
Community Policing
Authors: Brown Ben
Published: January 2014

Community policing is a general law enforcement philosophy and practice which centers on (i) quality relations between the police and the public and (ii) joint efforts between the police and the public to control crime and social disorder. During the early to mid‐twentieth century police administrators relied upon scientific managerial methods which focused on efficient and standardized police responses to the situations the police were called upon to handle. The police sought to control crime by means of routine patrol, rapid response to emergency calls, and specialized investigative units dedicated to serious felonies. When these methods proved ineffective against the rapid escalation of crime that began in the 1960s and continued throughout the next couple of decades, the police sought to develop a new approach. The end result was community policing.
Prison Riots
Authors: Palomares Ernestina
Published: January 2014

The first prison riot in the United States was recorded in 1776. Prison riots are an unforeseen event that can be explained with various models and theories, such as the deprivation model and the state‐centered theory of revolutions model. Riots in the 1950s led to many changes in correctional policies and procedures. Researchers examining prison riots in Attica, Santa Fe, and Lucasville prisons uncovered an array of existing conditions and situations that contributed to the riots in these facilities.
Wrongful Convictions
Authors: Zalman Marvin
Published: January 2014

Wrongful conviction—the conviction of a factually innocent person—is becoming an important policy issue in criminal justice and criminology research. A wrongful conviction is deemed worse than a wrongful acquittal, also an error of justice, because it implicates the very governmental apparatus relied on to provide justice. They are very difficult to detect and no official records are kept. Estimates of wrongful felony convictions range from 0.005 to 0.03, or from about 5,000 to 30,000 (and 2,000 to 12,000 prison admissions) each year. Many factors, including eyewitness identification errors, false confessions, forensic error, perjury, ineffective defense lawyers, and prosecutorial misconduct regularly appear in false conviction cases, suggesting a causal influence, although scientific evidence of cause and effect is limited. Impediments to reform include inherent problems like cognitive bias and policy impediments like not videotaping confessions, conducting suggestive lineups, and underfunding indigent defense. Half the states provide compensation for wrongful convictions.
Police Use of Force
Authors: May Jeff D.
Published: January 2014

An integral part of modern law enforcement work is the requirement to seize and detain individuals. Police have authority to overcome resistance to their law enforcement efforts, but this authority has potential for abuse and has led to civil suits alleging the use of excessive force. Police use of force is a controversial topic. Despite concern about excessive and unnecessary uses of force, the research indicates that police officers only use force or threaten to use force in only about 1% of their contacts with citizens. Despite being a statistically rare event, police officer use of force continues to undermine the relationship between many police departments and the communities they serve. Community perception is as important as reality, and the statistics show that most people believe the force used against them is unreasonable. Excessive force claims are one of the most frequent civil claims filed against police departments. Many of these claims result in settlement awards or court judgments of more than $1 million. Liability concerns have caused many departments to adopt specific use of force policies to guide their officers. These policies can significantly impact street‐level encounters between the police and public.
Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences
Authors: Hunter Ronald D.
Published: January 2014

The Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences is one of two professional associations available to students, practitioners, and criminal justice/criminology scholars within the United States. Its lineage may be traced to the beginnings of American criminal justice/criminology as a scholarly discipline. This article provides an account of the history, purpose, and functions of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences.
Fourth Amendment and Juveniles
Authors: Kennedy Megan
Published: January 2014

This entry focuses on the Fourth Amendment as it is applied specifically to juveniles. It includes relevant history, general Fourth Amendment principles, and issues unique to juveniles. These include school searches, locker searches, consent by a juvenile, and drug testing in schools.
Fifth Amendment
Authors: Gentes Eric A.
Published: January 2014

The Fifth Amendment is one of the first 10 amendments to the US Constitution, collectively called the Bill of Rights, which went into effect on December 15, 1791 after Virginia became the 11th state to ratify it. The Fifth Amendment provides five distinct rights. This entry gives an historical and legal overview of the amendment that captures the imaginations of moviegoers, authors, and criminals perhaps more than any other.
Elderly Inmates
Authors: Chiotti Jennifer M. , Harris Judith A.
Published: January 2014

Crime is almost always associated with youthful offenders and arrest statistics confirm that crime declines significantly after late adolescence. However, despite the overwhelming data proclaiming age as one of the primary factors in crime, the rapidly increasing number of elderly inmates in American correctional institutions demands closer examination. Since there is not an elderly crime wave occurring in the United States, inquiry into the issues, problems, and reasons behind the constant influx of older inmates is necessary. Among the areas requiring scholarly scrutiny are sentencing policy ramifications, definitional debate, elderly‐inmate profile, health care concerns, and housing issues.
Suicide by Cop
Authors: White‐LEWIS Elvira M.
Published: January 2014

Suicide by cop is a phenomenon noted in the last several years, which has had a significant impact on law enforcement and the community. Studies conducted on the subject over the past 25 years give examples of suicide by cop and the impact of this deadly force on the entire community. Future research suggest that further examination by law enforcement, including mandatory training, is required to attempt to curtail this growing violence which can impact the continued career of a law enforcement officer and indeed influence the future of the department.
School Crime (Problems in Measurement)
Authors: Kremser Jonathan
Published: January 2014

Data have been collected on school‐based offending since the early 1970s. The data show that school violence is declining, but the research suffers from several limitations, including a lack of consensus regarding measurement, a tendency to focus on larger schools, and the constraints implicit in the methods of data collection used.
Counterfeiting
Authors: Fenoff Roy , Spink John
Published: January 2014

Counterfeiting has historically been a problem that has received little attention in the law enforcement and academic communities, when compared to other types of crime. Nevertheless, recently, government and nongovernmental organizations have dedicated more resources in combating counterfeiting crimes by building partnerships, sharing information, and investing in academically‐based research programs. This entry provides a summary and general overview of the global problem of counterfeiting. It begins with a discussion of the three categories of counterfeiting: currency, documents, and products, and their impact on society. Next comes a brief outline of anti‐counterfeiting efforts, including the development of academic anti‐counterfeiting research programs and the role of agencies of the United States government in investigating and enforcing laws aimed at fighting this crime.
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: Kim Bitna , Byoun Soo‐Jung
Published: January 2014

The traditional approach to summarizing knowledge is a “narrative review,” in which scholars survey the available research, choose the most essential or meaningful studies, critique and summarize each one, and interpretively synthesize their findings. While narrative reviews are useful for theoretical explication, they suffer from some notable weaknesses. Meta‐analysis is a statistical and systematic approach to reviewing research findings across multiple independent empirical quantitative research studies.
Farrington, David
Authors: Bolton Amanda
Published: January 2014

David Philip Farrington is a Professor of Psychological Criminology at the Institute of Criminology at Cambridge University and a chartered forensic psychologist. Farrington is also an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE). He is best known for his work in developmental and life‐course criminology. His research interests include longitudinal studies of criminal careers, risk‐focused prevention, and evaluating the effectiveness of interventions.
Short, James
Authors: D. Dooley Brendan
Published: January 2014

James F. Short is recognized for his substantial contributions to criminology and sociology. Short's insights, ranging from the etiology of gang violence to the inclusion of self‐report methodology, the introduction of the notion of risk, and the admonition to adhere to scientifically grounded research when generating policy solutions, have all produced tangible gains for sociological criminology.
Animals as Victims
Authors: Reyes Cassandra L.
Published: January 2014

There is a seemingly ignored class of victims within society. These are the animal victims of interpersonal relationships, illegal animal fighting, and animal hoarding. This victimization occurs within the context of such situations as child abuse and neglect, and intimate partner violence. In addition, recent television shows have brought to the forefront the plight of animals in cases of illegal animal fighting and animal hoarding that are often related to other criminal offenses. In order to break the mold of conventional thinking, a focus must be placed on this form of victimization, which could provide an in‐depth view of co‐occurrences of human criminal behavior. This essay explores these relationships and provides a forum in which to study a nearly forgotten segment of societal victims.
Genetics and Crime
Authors: Reardon Lena M.
Published: January 2014

The role of genetics in relation to crime has long been studied, but research findings continue to be debated. Though past researchers used less precise methods, they provided the foundation on which modern research is built. The study of how genetics are correlated with crime has created controversy amongst those who fear such connections might lead to eugenics and the racist ideas associated with past research, and the atrocities born of these. Modern researchers continue their work in the hopes of dispelling these fears and finding answers that will aid in understanding, and possibly curbing, criminal behavior. This entry focuses on the role of genetics in regard to inherited traits, physical appearance, personality, as well as twin and adoption studies, chromosomal abnormalities, neurotransmitters and hormones.
Biological Theories of Crime
Authors: Newsome Jamie
Published: January 2014

Biological explanations for criminal behavior have gained importance in recent years. Advances in science and technology have permitted researchers to examine differences in brain function and development, genetic influences on behavior, and environmental experiences and conditions that may alter biological functioning, causing changes in behavior. Findings from this body of research may have important implications for crime prevention and offender rehabilitation.
Routine Activities and Crime
Authors: Lee Joongyeup
Published: January 2014

Unlike other theories that concern backgrounds or characteristics of offenders (e.g., social learning theory, self‐control theory, social control theory, and social disorganization theory), routine activities theory argues that crime or victimization happens when the
opportunity
arises in the context of everyday life. Regardless of criminal motive that is more or less present for an average person, a vulnerable person who is present in a particular time and place may find no reachable help, rendering him/her an easy target for potential offenders.
Campus Crime
Authors: Sloan John J. , Fisher Bonnie S.
Published: January 2014

Although criminal acts ranging from theft to murder have been occurring at postsecondary institutions since their inception, only recently has campus crime been elevated to the level of a serious social problem. In response, research estimating the volume of campus crime or describing or explaining its causes and consequences has been undertaken; the US Congress passed legislation requiring colleges and universities to report their security policies and crime statistics; the US Department of Education changed procedures used to investigate and adjudicate complaints of student‐on‐student sexual harassment or sexual violence; and state courts have held postsecondary institutions liable for victimizations occurring on or near campus. Institutions have not only tried to upgrade campus security, but developed prevention efforts to educate students about the risks of victimization and in tactics relating to self‐defense and bystander intervention. Whether these efforts have been successful is an open question, but high levels of public concern about campus crime remain.
Disenfranchisement of Felons
Authors: Dawson‐Edwards Cherie
Published: January 2014

Felony disenfranchisement, one of the collateral consequences of felony convictions, generally refers to convicted felons' loss of right to vote. Discussed is the existing literature on criminal disenfranchisement in the US, the distribution of enfranchisement throughout US history, state laws that permanently disenfranchise felons, and the rationales for upholding current felon voting restrictions.
Rural Policing
Authors: Duke J. Robert
Published: January 2014

This entry describes the current and historical challenges faced by rural law enforcement agencies and officials. Rural policing differs in distinct ways from urban policing regarding organizational context, community culture, and the types of crime faced.
Police Operations
Authors: Robert Duke J.
Published: January 2014

This entry describes current law enforcement agency operational practices and challenges. Responding to a series of internal and external pressures, policing techniques, tactics, organization, and structure are undergoing a period of crisis, change, and experimentation.
Hate Crime (Issues in Measurement)
Authors: Kim Bitna , Dickinson Ashley
Published: January 2014

Hate crime is defined as an illegal act against a person, institution, or property that is motivated, in whole or in part, by the offender's bias against the victim's perceived group membership. Since the late 1980s and early 1990s, the federal government and states have collected data on hate crime occurrences. However, for a number of reasons, including existing differences in group coverage between federal and state laws and across states, the true rate of hate crime is reported differently across sources and overall it remains unknown.
Battered Woman Syndrome
Authors: Couture Amanda , Ammar Nawal
Published: January 2014

Battered woman syndrome concept was introduced in the 1970s by Lenore Walker to elucidate battered women's experiences and behaviors. Although not technically a legal defense, battered woman syndrome has been used in the criminal justice system. One of its well‐known uses is in self‐defense cases of battered women who have killed their abusive partners. This entry discusses the two main theories used to support battered woman syndrome, namely the cycle theory and learned helplessness. The ways in which battered woman syndrome has been used within the criminal justice system is discussed. Furthermore, early landmark cases used in courts for battered woman syndrome are examined. Finally, this entry provides an overview of battered woman syndrome's beneficial and damaging legal applications as well as some of the major criticisms directed at its use generally.
Labeling and Symbolic Interaction Theories of Crime
Authors: Bennett Katherine , Brickley Taylor
Published: January 2014

The term “symbolic interaction” was coined in 1936 by Herbert Blumer to represent the unique qualities of interactions that take place between individuals. Social reality is an interpretation according to each individual based on the process of continuing interactions, thus allowing for multiple realities. This school of thought, originally developed by George Herbert Mead, provides a foundation for labeling theory in criminology. The labeling process of “making the criminal” began to be fully explored in the 1950s and 1960s, with work by Edwin Lemert, Howard Becker, Edwin Schur, and others. While social scientists tended to distance themselves from labeling theory in the early 1970s, the labeling concept was not abandoned altogether. Labeling is considered as one part of a larger social process, exemplified in John Braithwaite's reintegrative shaming theory. Ross Matsueda has used a reflective appraisal approach to explain how labeling can influence subsequent deviance. One of the most contemporary developments in labeling theory can be found in Robert Sampson and John Laub's theory of age‐graded informal social control. Results from the most current research on labeling theory appear to be trending toward support for the theory.
Qualitative Research
Authors: Morris Sherill V. C. , Rockett Jennifer , Oko Elechi O.
Published: January 2014

Qualitative Research is a form of enquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences and marketing research. The qualitative researchers' aim is to get an in‐depth understanding of human behaviors and the reasons that govern such behaviors through the use of a variety of approaches. The qualitative method therefore investigates the why and how of behaviors, not merely the what, where and when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often used rather than larger ones.
Post Conviction Review
Authors: Machen Michael J. , O'Donnell Swan Suzanne M.
Published: January 2014

Separate from the right of a defendant to challenge a conviction by direct appeal, most states have some form of post conviction review. This is most often available due to legislative action in one form or another. These laws provide a procedure for criminal defendants to collaterally attack their conviction or sentence by raising specific challenges that were not considered by the trial or appellate court. This entry provides an overview of the post conviction review process.
Durkheim, Emile
Authors: Wehr Kevin
Published: January 2014

Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) was a French sociologist and early pioneer of criminology. His writings continue to be widely read and remain influential in many disciplines within the fields of social sciences, especially criminology and sociology. Scholars working in the Durkheimian tradition agree that crime serves the integrating function of maintaining social solidarity and his concept of anomie often is used in more recent theoretical perspectives such as strain theory.
Victims of Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking
Authors: J. Schauer Edward , Oko Elechi O.
Published: January 2014

It is estimated that between 100,000 and 300,000 American children and youth are sexually exploited annually for commercial purposes. A significant proportion of the child victims of domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) are runaways, street youths who engage in survival sex. Many victims of DMST have been sexually exploited either at home or elsewhere. It is estimated that the average age at which a girl is recruited into prostitution by traffickers is 12 to 14 years. The majority of the people who engage in the sexual exploitation of minors are men between the ages of 20 and 65. Child pornography and juvenile prostitution are examples of the sexual exploitation of children. Victims of DMST and offenders reflect all strata of American society. This entry examines the problem of DMST and the effectiveness of the laws which protect children from sexual exploitation.
Hirschi, Travis
Authors: Tomsich Elizabeth A.
Published: January 2014

Travis Hirschi is one of the most prominent theorists and methodologists in the field of criminology. Hirschi's most distinguished works include contributions to social control theory and a general theory of crime, or self‐control theory. Important themes undergirding Hirschi's research include integrity and methodological rigor.
Ness, Eliot
Authors: Calder James D.
Published: January 2014

Eliot Ness's rise and success in American law enforcement achieved legendary status. A treasury agent in the days of Prohibition, Ness became public safety director in Cleveland, Ohio, worked for the federal government in World War II, pursued a mayoral position in Cleveland, transitioned to the private sector, and had passed into virtual obscurity by the time of his early death in 1957.
Victim Compensation Programs
Authors: Kauffman Barbara , Samuels Holly
Published: January 2014

Victim compensation programs are a type of government‐funded program that help mitigate the financial burden that crime victims face as a direct result of a violent crime. The premise behind victim compensation programs is to compensate crime victims for certain financial losses incurred as a direct result of being an innocent victim of a crime. Crime victim compensation is the reimbursement of financial losses to a crime victim or someone on his or her behalf. A crime victim is a person directly or proximately harmed as a result of the commission of an offense in violation of federal or state law. An individual may recover from financial losses suffered as a direct result of being a victim of a crime by seeking reimbursement through victim compensation programs.
Misdemeanor Courts
Authors: Koski Connie M.
Published: January 2014

The American court system consists of both trial and appellate courts. Misdemeanor courts are trial courts situated at the lowest level of the state court hierarchy. Commonly known as courts of limited and original jurisdiction, misdemeanor courts vary in structure from state to state, and all but a few states have one or more of these lower level courts. Typically, judges assigned to these courts are responsible for deciding issues of fact and the application of law for defendants charged with offenses punishable by less than one year of imprisonment. Most also oversee the pretrial stages of felony cases. The heavy volume of cases handled annually by those who work in the misdemeanor courts is exponentially higher than the volume handled in other state courts. Although the workhorse of the state court system, misdemeanor courts have been the subject of criticism, controversy, and ongoing reform efforts.
Pretrial Detention
Authors: Bubolz Bryan F.
Published: January 2014

The criminal justice system that operates in the United States is centered on the principle that a criminal defendant is innocent until proven guilty in a court of law. While many individuals are presumed innocent prior to case disposition, some lose their freedom prior to that stage of case processing because they are detained pretrial. Defendants are detained pretrial when a judge believes they pose a significant risk to the safety of the community or thinks they are likely to flee before trial. Other extralegal factors may also be considered when making pretrial release decisions, including the defendant's race, gender, age, and social class. The use of pretrial detention is highly controversial and has more recently been used on enemy combatants and material witnesses in an effort to fight terrorism. Defendants who are detained pretrial may suffer numerous physical, psychological, financial, and legal consequences. This entry examines these possibilities.
Municipal Law Enforcement
Authors: Barrows Julie S.
Published: January 2014

Law enforcement in America occurs mainly at the local, or municipal, level of government. Stemming from the British policing experience, in the mid 1800s, American policing developed in large, New England cities and quickly spread across the United States. The roles and functions of municipal law enforcement have changed over time, from being predominantly reactive police forces to include more proactive policing strategies, as a result of technological innovations and increasing globalization. Such changes create challenges for local police agencies to incorporate crime analysis techniques and specialized units or task forces to combat particular crime types, and to collaborate with county, state, and federal law enforcement agencies.
Cloward, Richard
Authors: Brotherton David
Published: January 2014

Richard Cloward was an internationally known criminologist and activist. His work on delinquency rejected individual choice theories and focused on the lack of opportunities caused by poor social conditions. During his lengthy career, Cloward advocated for civil liberties and called for social programs to end poverty. He co‐founded the National Welfare Rights Organization.
Historical Research Methods
Authors: Pisciotta Alexander W.
Published: January 2014

The American criminal justice system is a product of history. Police, courts, laws, punishment, and corrections and juvenile justice institutions, as well as most forms of crime, have long and strong historical roots; thus, historical research is an important aspect of criminological research. The craft of doing historiography is described as a six‐step process: (1) topic selection, (2) research questions, (3) central themes, (4) data sources, (5) theoretical frameworks, and (6) organization and writing.
Wilson, O. W.
Authors: Cohen Galia , Taylor Robert W.
Published: January 2014

Orlando Winfield Wilson (May 15, 1900–October 18, 1972), also known as O. W. Wilson, was the most prominent policing leader and scholar of the twentieth century. His writings on policing and police administration, and his work as Police Superintendent of the Chicago Police Department, dominated the law enforcement field from the 1940s through the early 1970s.
Federal Prosecutors
Authors: Westfall E. A. “Penny”
Published: January 2014

This entry provides an overview of the US Department of Justice (DOJ) and examines the duties of federal prosecutors. The US Attorney General, a member of the president's cabinet, oversees the work of three different types of federal prosecutors employed by the DOJ—those who work for the Office of the Solicitor General, those who work for the Criminal Division, and US attorneys who serve specific federal districts. The entry discusses the responsibilities for each of these federal prosecutors.
Perjury
Authors: Ferketic J. Stephen
Published: January 2014

This entry provides an overview of the history and development of the law of perjury, the elements that must be proven to convict a defendant of perjury, common defenses to perjury charges, controversial topics related to the law of perjury, and a review of recent significant perjury cases.
Substantive versus Procedural Criminal Law
Authors: Nolan Daniel A.
Published: January 2014

There are two very important, and very distinct, areas of criminal law: substantive law and procedural law. This entry introduces the reader to the basic differences between the two by exploring a few examples drawn from each. The basic difference between substantive law and procedural law is the question they answer. Substantive law answers the question “What?” It defines which behaviors are criminal and what prosecutors must prove to convict a defendant of a given crime. On the other hand, procedural law answers the question “How?” It sets limits on how police may conduct investigations and on how prosecutors may prove the substantive elements of the case.
Criminal Justice Process
Authors: Orrick David
Published: January 2014

“Criminal justice” is a multi‐faceted concept with several meanings. This entry focuses on that meaning where society's reaction to crime can be examined. It goes beyond that to highlight the distinctive features of this process in the second decade of the twenty‐first century. The dynamic nature of the process means that the relative importance of these features can change. Thus, details such as agency interaction and cooperation, bail, defense of the indigent, the death penalty, and the use of high technology in all aspects of the criminal justice process are emphasized.
Preliminary Hearing
Authors: Montemayor Carlos D.
Published: January 2014

The preliminary hearing is an important procedure in the American court system. Many variations exist in the structure and practice of the preliminary hearing among the states and between jurisdictions in the United States. Despite these differences, the main purpose and objective of the preliminary hearing is essentially the same: It defines the role of the judge in determining if probable cause exists in support of the charges against the accused and to provide individuals with the constitutional provisions afforded them. The defendants are also formally read the charges against them and their legal rights prior to the outset of the criminal justice process. The aim of this entry is to provide a general overview of the preliminary hearing. In doing so, a brief summary of some of the major US Constitutional provisions is provided.
Plea‐bargaining
Authors: Block Lauren M.
Published: January 2014

Plea‐bargaining entails a process of negotiation between the defendant and the prosecutor whereby the defendant agrees to forego a trial and plead guilty to criminal charges in exchange for a sentence, count, and/or charge reduction. Plea‐bargaining has become the dominant form of disposition in criminal courts in the United States; the vast majority of those accused of a felony offense are convicted as the result of a guilty plea. The extent of guilty pleas has increased over time, and several different theories may provide explanations for the phenomenon. In this entry, the roles played by prosecutors, defense attorneys, judges, and defendants in the plea‐bargaining process will be explained. Several criticisms of plea‐bargaining will also be discussed.
Reckless, Walter
Authors: Lux Jennifer L.
Published: January 2014

Walter Reckless was a prominent scholar and criminologist and is credited with being one of the first researchers to seek explanations for crime and criminal behavior beyond the individual. Reckless introduced containment theory to the field of criminology, describing the pushes and pulls toward crime. His effort resulted in an enduring theory that has been tested by many other researchers.
Survey Research
Authors: Sims Barbara , Cordner AnnMarie
Published: January 2014

Survey research is one of the most commonly used methods of observation in the social sciences in general, and in the field of criminology in particular. Survey research is a method of observation in which information is obtained directly from the source by asking questions of subjects. Any study that relies on information collected through questioning participants falls under the classification of survey research. Thus, this approach includes research based on questionnaires, face‐to‐face interviews, telephone interviews, and web surveys, among others. Survey research is particularly good for learning about opinions, experiences, behaviors, and knowledge.
Positive Criminology
Authors: William Logan Matthew , Dulisse Brandon
Published: January 2014

This entry introduces readers to the notion of positive criminology and some of the core theories in the discipline that adhere to this approach. Both classical and contemporary perspectives are examined, with a focus on the methodological contributions from a variety of disciplines—including sociology, psychology, and biology—in the social sciences. Implications and limitations of positive research in criminology are also discussed.
Bail Bondsmen
Authors: Cubellis Michelle A. , Peterson Bryce E.
Published: January 2014

This entry discusses the origin and evolution of bail bondsmen, the states in which they are still permitted to work for profit, and why they have continued to play an integral role in the functioning of the criminal court system. The link between bail bondsmen and bounty hunters is reviewed, and the authority of bail bondsmen and bounty hunters to apprehend defendants who have failed to appear in court is highlighted. Arguments for and against bail bondsmen are presented, with a focus placed on the reality that these individuals operate private businesses for profit. A discussion of the bail bondsmen in New York is provided as an example. The entry concludes with a review of regulations placed on bail bondsmen and issues that surround the profession.
American Civil Liberties Union
Authors: Joseph Patricia
Published: January 2014

This essay covers the history of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) by examining how the organization was formed, its early experiences in civil liberties advocacy, attempts to reclaim its reputation in the face of opposition, and legal triumphs in the pursuit of its goals, concluding with a discussion of current issues confronting the ACLU going forward.
Piracy in Colonial Era
Authors: Wodda Aimee
Published: January 2014

This entry examines the most prominent and historically relevant occurrences of piracy in this particular time period, with a focus on the Americas. Several different types of pirate are discussed, and distinctions are drawn between the various pirating periods. A thorough overview of historical pirate social organization is presented, with a focus on pirate economy and the democratic structures in place aboard freebooting vessels, and the entry concludes with an assessment of how Colonial Era pirates were perceived and punished.
Prostitution
Authors: Vasquez Amanda L. , Wodda Aimee
Published: January 2014

This entry provides a thorough overview of the various types of act that fall under the umbrella term “prostitution”; it describes various forms of solicitation and the individuals engaged in these exchanges; and it offers descriptive statistics. The criminal justice response to prostitution is examined, with a focus on the strengths and weaknesses of arguments surrounding criminalization, decriminalization, and legalization. The summary concludes with a review of the global context of sex trafficking.
Corporate Criminal Liability
Authors: Pitts Chip
Published: January 2014

This overview of corporate criminal liability discusses the origins and history of the doctrine in civil and common law countries, the standard elements for vicarious criminal corporate liability on
respondeat superior
principles (of an agent acting within scope of authority to benefit the corporation), the current global trend toward an expansion of this form of liability, several specific notable recent cases in the US, Europe, and China, points of intersection with Alien Tort Statute jurisprudence, policy arguments supporting and opposing such liability, and more recent moves toward direct, fault‐based and not merely vicarious liability, as global and regional recognition of such liability has expanded in conjunction with the growth of corporate power and ability to engage in harmful criminal conduct globally.
NIBRS
Authors: Cobbs Rochelle E.
Published: January 2014

The National Incident‐Based Reporting System (NIBRS) was introduced in the 1980s by the Department of Justice as a measure to improve and expand the United States' crime data collection system. Its purpose was to make up for the flaws observed in the Uniform Crime Report (UCR). Under the NIBRS 46 crime types, under 22 offense categories, are recorded on the computerized record systems. The NIBRS is popular among criminologists because its data are comprehensive, including information about offenses, victims, offenders, and arrestees that were lacking in the UCR. Furthermore, all crime incidents reported to the police were recorded whether the suspects were arrested or not. The NIBRS is also helpful in the study of hate crimes as it records the bias motivations of offenders.
Believing in a Purpose of Events: Cross‐Cultural Evidence of Confusions in Core Knowledge
Authors: Barber Justin
Published: January 2014

We examined beliefs in the purpose of events in the American population. Previously, separate researchers surveyed these beliefs in the Finnish population. Their methodology was used to assess the beliefs in a dissimilar demographic. Four hypotheses were tested using questionnaire responses (N = 429; 301 women; Mage = 20.46) and analyzed with structural equation modeling. As hypothesized, a positive correlation was found between beliefs in the purpose of events and paranormal beliefs. Confusions of core biological, physical, and psychological knowledge predicted the belief variables—as hypothesized, although model fit was mediocre. Core knowledge confusions were also hypothesized to predict religiousness and purposeful‐event beliefs. A close‐fitting model displayed weak predictive power and was interpreted as insufficient support for the third hypothesis. Lastly, we hypothesized and found that participants rated events they experienced as more purposeful than events that they did not experience. We provide insight for the findings and make suggestions for future studies. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.