bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of Responding or Not Responding to Hecklers on Audience Agreement with a Speaker
Authors: Petty Richard E. , Brock Timothy C.
Published: August 2006

The hypothesis that responding to hecklers would produce more agreement with a speaker than not responding, stemmed from commodity theory (Brock, 1968). One hundred twenty‐one introductory speech students participated in what they were told was a “speech workshop” (not a psychology experiment). Two types of responding to live hecklers were used: In one, the speaker responded in a calm, relevant manner; in the other, she responded in an upset, irrelevant manner. In a third condition, the speaker did not respond to the heckles. There were two additional conditions: One in which the speaker responded to interruptions, and a further control in which there were neither heckles nor interruptions. In these five conditions, the speaker either argued for or against the audience's position. Regardless of whether or not the speaker's position agreed with the audience's, upset‐irrelevant responding decreased the speaker's persuasiveness over making no response, while calm‐relevant responding tended to enhance persuasiveness. Finally, in agreement with all other empirical studies, it was clearly shown that heckling, whether responded to or not, did not improve the speaker's effectiveness.
Pattern of Past Performance and Expected Future Performance: A Reversal of the Unexpected Primacy Effect
Authors: Cooper Harris M. , Low Charles A. , Baron Reuben M.
Published: August 2006

Stimulus students of varying race (black vs. white) and social class (lower vs. middle) were portrayed as showing either an ascending or descending pattern of past success to Introductory Psychology or Elementary Education subjects. Subjects then estimated the future success of the stimulus student. The results indicated a recency effect in expected future performance‐a performer whose scores showed an ascending pattern of success was expected to outperform those exhibiting a descending pattern of success. Black students were also expected to outperform white students, but only when they had shown increasing success; for descending success patterns, race did not differentially affect expected performance estimates. Possible explanations for the recency finding were presented and focused on the phenomenal status of ability and the prescriptions accompanying the institutionalized role of teacher. Implications regarding the differential credit for success to students were discussed.
Good News‐Bad News: Affective and Interpersonal Effects1
Authors: Veitch Russell , Griffitt William
Published: August 2006

News broadcasts conveying “good news” or “bad news” were played to subjects who subsequently made evaluative responses of anonymous others. The news broadcasts were shown to differentially elicit positive and negative affective responses and to affect subjects' evaluations of others. Additionally, reported affect was shown to be positively related to those interpersonal evaluations.
The Cost‐Reward Model of Helping Behavior: A Nonconfirmation1
Authors: Bloom Lawrence M. , Clark Russell D.
Published: August 2006

A field experiment was designed to test several predictions derived from the Piliavin and Piliavin cost‐reward model of helping behavior. Female and male subjects' reported intent to help a hemophiliac in a nearby hospital was unrelated to the costs for helping, the costs for not helping, and the order in which the subjects received the costs' manipulations. The obtained rates of helping were also unrelated to whether or not subjects reported having donated previously. Failure to obtain the predicted results is discussed.
Group Discussion and Defendant's Socio‐Economic Status as Determinants of Judgments by Simulated Jurors1
Authors: Gleason James M. , Harris Victor A.
Published: August 2006

Seventy‐two male subjects judged a defendant on trial for armed robbery, after reading trial transcripts and other background information. The 2 × 2 factorial design varied the defendant's socioeconomic status (SES) and simulated juror's decision making condition (either group discussion or independent decision‐making). Higher SES (middle class) defendants were seen as less blameworthy than low SES defendants, though not less guilty. Defendants were judged less guilty when simulated jurors had engaged in group discussion than when they had not. Subjects' potential similarity to the defendant, and their attitudes toward capital punishment, were also found related to these “legal” and “moral” decisions.
Sample Attrition in Studies of Psychosocial Sequelae of Abortion: How Great a Problem?1
Authors: Adler Nancy E.
Published: August 2006

This study examines sample attrition problems in abortion research and the implications for conclusions reached about psychosocial sequelae of abortion. A review of 17 recent studies shows that the percent of the initial sample lost to follow‐up ranges from a low of 13% to a high of 86%. Younger women and Catholic women appear to be less likely to participate in follow‐up. Since both of these characteristics are associated with a greater likelihood of negative sequelae, follow‐up studies may be underestimating the extent of negative reaction to abortion. Data from a recent study are presented; comparisons are made between characteristics of initial volunteers and the total population and between the volunteers who return for the follow‐up interview and those who do not. Results support the suggestion that women for whom the abortion was more stressful are less likely to be represented in the final sample. Factors affecting the likelihood of participating in research are explored and strategies for improving the representativeness of samples are suggested.
A Simulation Study of Administrators' Behavior Toward Employees Who Receive Job Offers1
Authors: Landau Samuel B. , Leventhal Gerald S.
Published: August 2006

Subjects received descriptions of hypothetical employees who received job offers from another company. Employees who received more attractive job offers were given higher counteroffers by subjects, who also attributed higher inputs to them. Subjects' treatment of nonproductive employees depended on organizational personnel policy. Those who were told to follow a policy of weeding out nonproductive employees gave low counteroffers to such employees, presumably to encourage them to quit. When permitted t o follow their own discretion, male subjects behaved as if they wanted to be rid of nonproductive employees, whereas female subjects behaved as if they wanted to retain such employees. The results indicate that administrators may perceive job offers to employees as either a threat to organizational stability or an opportunity to rid themselves of unwanted employees.
Training Verbal‐Nonverbal Correspondence
Authors: Kurtz P. David , Neisworth John T. , Goeke Karl , Hanson Marci
Published: August 2006

This study assessed the influence of strengthening a verbal self‐referent statement on later corresponding nonverbal behavior performed outside the treatment setting. Seventeen preschool children were randomly assigned to two groups: (1) Experimental group, in which subjects were reinforced for repeating anti‐litter statements; (2) control group in which subjects merely repeated statements unrelated to littering. Subsequent paper‐picking behavior in the lavatory was counted. The results suggest that verbal, training can strongly augment the control function of self‐repeated instructions in preschool children despite a time lapse between training and opportunity to perform the behavior, and a difference between the training and the performance settings.
Television and Sex‐Role Stereotyping1
Authors: McArthur Leslie Zebrowitz , Eisen Susan V.
Published: August 2006

The possible influence of television on sex‐stereotyped behavior was investigated in three studies. In Study I the portrayal of male and female central characters on children's Saturday morning television programs was examined, and a number of differences consistent with current sex‐role stereotypes were found. Males and females were portrayed in different roles, they manifested different behaviors, and their behaviors were followed by different consequences. In addition, male characters were more frequent than females, and they exhibited higher rates of behavior. Similar differences in the portrayal of males and females in the commercial announcements accompanying these programs were found in Study II. The sexes differed in their frequency of appearance, their location, their roles, their expertise, and the consequences of their behavior. In Study III the effects on children's behavior of exposure to sex‐stereotyped vs. non‐stereotyped behavior by adult televised models were examined. It was found that children manifested greater imitation and recall for the behavior of a same‐sex model with the result that boys exposed to “stereotyped” behavior by a male and female model manifested and recalled relatively more “masculine” behavior than those exposed to “non‐stereotyped” behavior, while the opposite trend obtained for girls. Implications of these three studies for television's contribution to sex‐stereotyped behavior are discussed.
The Differential Impact of Abstract vs. Concrete Information on Decisions1
Authors: Borgida Eugene , Nisbett Richard E.
Published: August 2006

Recent findings from research on judgment and attribution processes indicate that people regard base rate data, i.e., statistical summaries of populations, as if they were uninformative. It is suggested that base rate information lacks impact because of its abstract, pallid nature. In a demonstration of the inefficacy of abstract information, undergraduates were given mean course evaluations based on ratings of students who previously took the courses. This information had little impact on course choices. In contrast, brief, face‐to‐face comments about the courses had a substantial impact on course choices. The results suggest that information is utilized in proportion to its vividness.
Motivating People to be Physically Active: Self‐Persuasion vs. Balanced Decision Making1
Authors: Wankel Leonard M. , Thompson Carol
Published: August 2006

Female members of an adult physical fitness club, who had been inactive for a period of at least one month, were assigned to one of four treatment groups. A control group received no treatment while the other three groups underwent different treatments during a telephone interview. A regular call‐up group received a standard club telephone interview advocating greater participation in the club's activities; a decision‐balance‐sheet group completed a list of anticipated gains and losses for attending the club's activities; a positive‐outcomes‐only group (i.e., self‐persuasion condition) completed a list of anticipated gains for attending the club's activities. Attendance rates for both the decision balance‐sheet group and the self‐persuasion group were better than for the control group. Also, attendance for the self‐persuasion group was significantly better than for the regular club call‐up group, Results are discussed in terms of self‐persuasion and emotional inoculation processes with respect to behavioral change and behavioral maintenance.
The Effect of Food on Test Anxiety
Authors: Pines Ayala , Gal Reuven
Published: August 2006

Proceeding from the literature on eating behavior and anxiety reduction, this study introduces food offering as a mode of intervention aimed at reducing anxiety. Two hypotheses were tested: (1) in an anxiety evoking test situation students will tend to consume more food than in a nonanxiety inducing situation such as a regular lecture; (2) eating food (i.e., peanut butter sandwiches) will result in a reduction of subjects' initial levels of test anxiety. Both hypotheses were confirmed. It also became apparent that the mere offering of food is conducive to some anxiety reduction, presumably due to the effect on the classroom atmosphere.
The Effects of Cooperation and Competition on Ingroup‐Outgroup Bias1
Authors: Kennedy James , Stephan Walter G.
Published: August 2006

A matrix game format was employed in a 2 × 2 design to study the effects of within group cooperation and competition under conditions of success and failure on subjects' subsequent treatment of own group and outgroup persons. Subjects in two‐person groups either succeeded or failed at a cooperative or competitive game and then awarded points (worth money) to themselves, their partner, and two other people. A review of the relevant literature suggested that ingroup‐outgroup bias would be greater after successful competition than after unsuccessful competition. The results supported this hypothesis. It was also found that subjects in the Cooperation‐Failure condition displayed greater ingroup‐outgroup bias than subjects in the Cooperation‐Success condition. A qualification of the previous research supporting a positive relationship between group cohesiveness and ingroup‐outgroup bias was suggested on the basis of the results.
The Effects of Suspect Race and Situation Hazard on Police Officer Shooting Behavior
Authors: Inn Andres , Wheeler Alan C. , Sparling Cynthia L.
Published: August 2006

Shooting incidents involving patrol officers are examined for the effect of suspect race and degree of hazard in the number of shots fired and hits made on suspects. Additional tests examine frequencies of shooting incidents among Blacks and Whites with respect to city population and various measures of police‐citizen contact. Finally, fatalities are examined with respect to involvement in shooting and arrest rates. The results suggest an effect for degree of hazard; however, there was no evidence to suggest police bias against Blacks.
Birth Planning Values and Decisions: The Prediction of Fertility1
Authors: Townes Brenda D. , Beach Lee Roy , Campbell Frederick L. , Martin Donald C.
Published: August 2006

This investigation was a prospective study based upon subjective expected utility theory, of the processes and determinants of birth planning decisions. The hypothesis tested was: Where maximum expected benefit will derive from having a (another) child, a pregnancy will occur and where maximum expected benefit will derive from not having a (another) child a pregnancy will not occur. Values associated with birth planning decisions for 74 married couples were found to be good predictors, one year later, of pregnancy status. The implications of these results were discussed as they related to birth planning counseling and to population policy.
Air Pollution and interpersonal Attraction1
Authors: Rotton James , Barry Timothy , Frey James , Soler Edgardo
Published: August 2006

It was predicted that negative affect associated with one component of air pollution (malodor) reduces attraction toward both similar and dissimilar strangers. In one experiment, 27 subjects rated attitudinally similar or dissimilar strangers while confined in a room whose atmosphere was ambient (no‐odor control) or polluted by ammonium sulfide. Contrary to predictions, similar strangers elicited greatest liking in the polluted atmosphere. It was suggested that air pollution had increased attraction for another who might be experiencing the same disagreeable situation (i.e., “shared stress”). In a second experiment, this suggestion was examined by assuring subjects that they were alone and would not meet the similar or dissimilar person they rated. As predicted, exposure to either ammonium sulfide or butyric acid combined additively with attitudinal dissimilarity to depress liking, mood‐affect, time spent in the setting, and ratings of the environment. These results were viewed as consistent with the reinforcement‐affect model of attraction, but it was cautioned that the effects of air pollution may depend on social factors, such as shared stress, and dosage level of the pollutant.
The Effect of Looking Behavior on Perceptions of a Communicator's Credibility1
Authors: Hemsley Gordon D. , Doob Anthony N.
Published: August 2006

A courtroom simulation technique was employed to examine the effects of a communicator's looking behavior on observers' perceptions of his credibility. Half of the subjects heard testimony presented on behalf of a defendent by a witness (one of three confederates) who was visually presented as either looking directly toward the target of his communication (gaze maintenance) or slightly downward (gaze aversion) while testifying. The other half of the subjects merely heard the audio portion of the testimony. The results indicated that witnesses who averted their gaze were perceived to be less credible and, ultimately, the defendant for whom they testified was judged as more likely to be guilty. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for research concerned with the communicative effects of visual behavior.
Help Seeking: Effects of Visibility of Task Performance and Seeking Help
Authors: Shapiro E. Gary
Published: August 2006

This study manipulated independently whether help seeking and task performance were public or private, since in public settings persons may lose esteem by seeking help or by demonstrating unsuccessful performance. Subjects were given false feedback that they were doing poorly on a task involving judging levels of neuroticism in others, and were given all opportunity to seek help by consulting a set of guidelines. The main result was an interaction with help seeking most likely when task performance was public and help seeking was private.
Only Children and Interpersonal Behavior: An Experimental and Survey Study
Authors: Falbo Toni
Published: August 2006

A study was conducted to investigate the validity of many of the stereotypes about only children. A sample of 77 undergraduates (30 only, 30 first, and 17 last born) underwent a two‐play Prisoner's Dilemma Game, the NASA exercise, and completed a questionnaire. Results indicated that only children were more likely to make cooperative response moves in the Prisoner's Dilemma Game and deviated more from the group decision in the NASA exercise than nononlies. Only children reported having fewer friends and joining fewer clubs than nononlies, but reported comparable numbers of close friends and took a comparable number of leadership positions in the clubs they joined. Results are discussed in terms of effects of siblings on development of interpersonal behavior.
Compensatory Response to Anticipated Densities1
Authors: Greenberg Carl I. , Baum Andrew
Published: August 2006

The coping processes associated with crowding stress were conceptualized as dynamic sequences of personal or situational adjustments and readjustments directed toward maintaining desired frequencies of social contact. By studying ongoing coping processes as subjects prepared for anticipated crowding, evidence of social withdrawal as a response to crowding was obtained. In addition, findings suggested that these processes were sensitive to change in the situation, seeking or avoiding interaction as anticipated group size changed. Subjects who were subsequently told that they would be interacting in small groups rather than in larger groups reported less crowding and discomfort than subjects whose anticipation of large group interaction was maintained. Furthermore, subjects whose expectations of large group interaction were disconfirmed increased facial regard for others following disconfirmation, indicating a greater willingness to interact. These findings were discussed as evidence of optimization processes governing desired levels of social contact, intimacy, and personal space.
Behavioral and Physiological Consequences of Crowding in Humans1
Authors: Evans Gary W.
Published: August 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of crowding on human performance. Results generally supported the hypothesis that crowding acts as a stressor which may be mediated by overarousal. Moderate decrements in complex but not simple task performance were found for crowded subjects as compared to uncrowded controls. Poorer performance on a group cooperation task and less tolerance for frustration as an aftereffect of the crowded experience were reported. Crowded subjects in comparison to controls also exhibited significant elevations in blood pressure and pulse rate and manifested additional behavioral indices of stress, which included greater behavioral stereotypes, increased defensive postures, more remarks toward the door of the experimental room, and self reports of greater discomfort and hostility.
Background and Focal Environmental Conditions of the Home and Attention in Young Children1
Authors: Heft Harry
Published: August 2006

A conceptual distinction is drawn between two aspects of the perceptual field, focal features which the individual selectively engages and extraneous background conditions which serve as a context within which these activities occur, and a study is described which examined the relationship between these aspects of the home environment and attentional skills in young children. Ninety‐four families with kindergarten age children participated in the project. Interviews and observations were conducted in the homes in order to assess background conditions (e.g., noise and activity levels) and variation and patterning of focal features (e.g., furnishings), and tasks designed to assess attentional skills were administered to the children. The results indicated that children from homes with high noise levels had longer response latencies on a visual search task and also subsequently recognized fewer incidental aspects of the task than did children from quieter homes. Furthermore, the former group appeared to be less distractible, i.e., less responsive to an auditory distractor. Neither variation nor patterning of focal features was found to be associated with task performance. In general, the findings are interpreted as indicating the adverse effects of high noise levels in the home on attentional skills in spite of apparent adaptation, i.e., lower distractibility, to these conditions.
Predicting Summer Energy Consumption from Homeowners' Attitudes1
Authors: Seligman C. , Kriss M. , Darley J. M. , Fazio R. H. , Becker L. J. , Pryor J. B.
Published: August 2006

Two surveys were conducted to examine the relationship between homeowners' attitudes toward energy use and their actual summer electric consumption. In Survey 1, 56 couples filled out questionnaires concerning their energy attitudes. A factor analysis of their responses revealed four factors: comfort and health concerns, effort to conserve and monetary savings, role of the individual, and legitimacy of the energy crisis. The factors were entered into a multiple regression analysis to predict actual summer electric consumption. The attitudinal factors together significantly accounted for 55% of the variance in summer electric consumption. The comfort and health factor by itself explained 30% of the consumption variance. Survey 2, consisting of 69 couples, was conducted to elaborate the meaning of the factors. The results of the factor analysis of Survey 2 revealed six factors: comfort, health, individual's role, belief in science, legitimacy of the energy crisis, and effort to conserve. An overall regression analysis showed that the factors significantly explained nearly 60% of the summer consumption variance. The comfort factor was again the best predictor of summer electric consumption, accounting for 42% of the variance. It was concluded that attitudes about one's comfort are significantly related to household energy consumption (primarily air conditioning). The implications for energy conservation campaigns were discussed.
Reactance and Norm Appeal in Anti‐Littering Messages
Authors: Reich John W. , Robertson Jerie L
Published: August 2006

Although littering is a significant social problem, there is only a relatively small amount of quantitative research on it; there is little systematic theory concerning the variables which influence it. This study presents a theoretical model of how anti‐littering messages vary in the kind of social pressure against littering they attempt to impose. Three experiments were performed to test the model. It was found that messages making explicit commands against the act of littering (external pressure) actually generated more littering than messages making appeal to social normative standards concerning littering (internal pressure). Other data relevant to the model and areas in which additional research is needed also are discussed.
Effects of Victim's Pain Cues, Victim's Race, and Level of Prior Instigation upon Physical Aggression1
Authors: Baron Robert A.
Published: August 2006

Sixty‐four white undergraduate males participated in an experiment designed to examine the effects of victin's pain cues, victim's racial identity, and level of prior instigation upon physical aggression. On the basis of previous research, it was tentatively predicted that pain cues from a different‐race victim would exert less influence upon subjects' later behavior than similar feedback from a same‐race victim. Results offered support for this prediction. Specifically, pain cues from a black victim were less effective in inhibiting subsequent aggression by nonangry white subjects, and less effective in facilitating subsequent aggression by angry white subjects, than identical feedback from a white victim. An interpretation of these findings in terms of aggressors' emotional reactions to pain cues from their victim was suggested.
An Example of Consumeristic Social Psychology: Bargaining Tough in the New Car Showroom
Authors: Cialdini Robert B. , Bickman Leonard
Published: August 2006

Recent discontent within scientific psychology, especially social psychology, was discussed and found to be caused, at least in part, by a widespread perception among psychologists that the discipline has failed to act with social responsibility in researching and reducing areas of social concern. One such area of concern, consumer welfare, was examined. Social psychology's contribution was seen to be biased against the individual consumer for reasons that are primarily methodological rather than ideological. A study was conducted as an example of how social psychological theory and research could be directly and positively applied to the issue of consumer welfare. Procedures derived from aspiration level theory were employed in new car bargaining interactions set in the field. Results indicated that a consumer could realize substantial savings on the price of a desired automobile by taking a tough bargaining stance in prior negotiations with the salesperson. In addition to their practical value, the results also provided evidence for the external validity of earlier, laboratory work. Some implications for a socially responsible social psychology of consumer issues are discussed.
Preference, Expectations, and Attributional Bias: Two Field Studies1
Authors: Winkler Joachim D. , Taylor Shelley E.
Published: August 2006

Two quasi‐experiments were conducted to test the relationship among a perceiver's preference, expectations, and causal attributions for an event, when the outcome of the event ran for and counter to expectation and preference. Following the 1976 Superbowl, fans of Dallas and Pittsburgh and fans with no preference were asked to attribute causality for a series of game events, counterbalanced for (un)favorability for each team. Following the 1976 Presidential election, fans of Carter and Ford were asked to attribute causality for the election outcome and estimate its repeatability and mutability. Both studies revealed that fans exhibit a biased attributional pattern, offering more credit to their own side for their successes than to the opponents for their successes. Furthermore, fans see their side's successes as replicable and their side's failures as nonreplicable. The implications of the data patterns for real world manifestations of attributional bias are discussed.
“Recipe for a Jury” Revisited: A Balance Theory Prediction
Authors: Fischoff Stuart
Published: August 2006

This study examined the relationship of three variables to verdict confidence in an experimental simulation of the jury deliberation process. The three variables were: sex of juror, verdict (guilty or innocent), and the similarity or dissimilarity between juror and confederate verdicts (congruence or incongruence). The subjects were 35 male and 37 female college students. They deliberated in groups containing a male confederate who role‐played an obnoxious anti‐White or anti‐Black juror. Results indicated that before deliberation, male and guilt verdict jurors were more confident than females and innocent verdict jurors. After deliberation, however, sex differences in verdict confidence were absent while innocent verdicts jurors were more confident than guilt verdict jurors. Most important, as predicted from Heider's Balance Theory, males who deliberated with a confederate whose verdict was congruent with theirs' became less confident in their verdicts. Unexpectedly, females became more confident. The study's major hypothesis, then, that it may be advantageous for the defense to accept a juror who zealously advocates a guilty verdict, was only supported for males.
The Capital Punishment Debate: Public Perceptions of Crime and Punishment1
Authors: Lee Hamilton V. , Rotkin Laurence
Published: August 2006

Psychophysical scales for seriousness of crime and severity of punishment were developed to aid in investigating the Eighth Amendment issue of whether the death penalty is “cruel and unusual” punishment. Using indirect crossmodality matching techniques with a quota sample of the Boston SMSA, satisfactory scales were obtained for both dimensions with most items in both scales concentrated toward the serious/severe end as planned. Further, specific case vignettes in which experimental variations were embedded were also developed; psychophysical lines production judgments for these specific cases indicated that quite complex social stimuli can be successfully judged psychophysically. Results indicated that (1) capital and noncapital offenses are thoroughly intermingled in seriousness ratings; (2) the death penalty is not rated as significantly more severe than life imprisonment without parole; (3) respondents assign the death penalty relatively rarely even to serious offenses, and then in a manner not particularly in line with capital statutes; and (4) respondents' weighing of extra‐legal and legally relevant aspects of capital cases is inconsistent with current statutes. These results suggest multiple ways in which capital punishment could be defined as “cruel”, and strongly suggest the need for further research and through about the issue.
Interpersonal Mediation of Perceived Crowding and Control in Residential Dyads and Triads
Authors: Baum Andrew , Shapiro Anne , Murray Darlene , Wideman Margaret V.
Published: August 2006

The role of interpersonal relationships in mediating the experience of crowding and loss of personal control was investigated in dormitory environments housing two or three students in bedroom units. A combination of survey, observational, and laboratory techniques was used to explore the formation of 2‐person coalitions in tripled housing and subsequent problems created for the third, “left‐out” roommate. Data strongly suggested that the aversiveness and loss of control previously associated with tripled residential settings may be more plausibly attributed to the inherent instability of 3‐person groups and the loss of control associated with being excluded from group activities. In most of the tripled rooms studied, 2‐person coalitions formed and most of the crowding and negative affect reported were expressed by the third roommate, who felt left out by the others. Residents of doubled rooms and members of coalitions in tripled rooms did not differ from one another on most dimensions.
Music Hath Charms … And Can Influence Helpfulness1
Authors: Fried Rona , Berkowitz Leonard
Published: August 2006

Eighty university students, half men and half women, were distributed evenly among 4 conditions in a one‐way design. Three of the groups heard a seven‐minute‐long musical selection, either soothing, stimulating, or aversive in nature, while the remaining subjects were not exposed to any music and sat still. Ratings indicated that the soothing and stimulating music created some‐ what different positive moods while the aversive music tended to arouse negative feelings. Those who heard the soothing music were most apt to be helpful immediately afterwards, significantly more so than the aversive music or no music subjects, perhaps because of the ideas evoked by this selection.
Effect of Level of Challenge on Pressor and Heart Rate Responses in Type A and B Subjects1
Authors: Dembroski Theodore M. , MacDougall James M. , Herd J. Alan , Shields Jim L.
Published: August 2006

The present study examined the relationship between the Type A coronaryprone behavior pattern and the magnitude of cardiovascular response induced by varying levels of environmental challenge. In a 2 × 2 experimental design, Type A and B (noncoronary‐prone) subjects (n= 80) were randomly assigned to either high or low challenge instructional conditions for both the cold pressor (CP) and a choice reaction time task (RT). Overall, across both tasks, Type A subjects responded with greater systolic blood pressure (SBP) and heart rate (HR) elevation than Type B subjects. While these differences between the Types tended to be larger in the high challenge condition, some differences were also observed under low challenge. Component analyses of the Pattern revealed that high hostile/competitive Type A's responded to both low and high challenge instructions in the CP and RT tasks with physiologic elevations comparable to that displayed by globally defined Type A's receiving high challenge instructions. The present findings tentatively suggest that (a) high hostile/competitive Type A's respond to even mild challenge with enhanced physiologic response; (b) globally defined A's tend to evidence the physiologic elevations when specifically challenged; and (c) Type B's show much smaller physiologic reactions to such challenges. Consistent with previous research, comparison of Type A assessment techniques revealed that the Rosenman diagnostic interview was a better predictor of physiologic response than other questionnaire methods. Two hypotheses are advanced and future research recommended regarding possible relationships between environment, behavior, physiology, and disease.
The Effects of Task Content and Reward Contingency Upon Task Performance and Satisfaction1
Authors: Wimperis Bruce R. , Farr James L.
Published: August 2006

A laboratory study examined the effects of task design and reward contingency upon task performance and satisfaction and upon behavioral and attributional measures of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were defined by the task content‐task consequence distinction. Both the task design and reward contingency factors were found to yield significant multivariate F ratios, but their interaction was not significant. Subjects in the contingent pay condition had higher performance quantity than those in the noncontingent condition. Subjects in the enriched task condition produced higher quality units than those in the nonenriched condition. Both contingent pay and enriched task conditons yielded higher task satisfaction and increased attributions of performance to intrinsic factors. Results were discussed in terms of cognitive evaluation theory and the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
The Effect of Photographs of the Handicapped on Donation to Charity: When a Thousand Words May be too Much
Authors: Isen Alice M. , Noonberg Aaron
Published: August 2006

One of us had agreed to participate in the “Mothers' March” (on Birth Defects) of the March of Dimes. The collecting packet arrived without an identification badge, however. Much of the March of Dimes literature bears the picture of a handicapped child, but some does not. The question facing us as we set out to collect for the “Mothers' March” was whether or not to include a picture of a handicapped child on the identifying poster which we would present to potential donors as we made our rounds, door‐todoor. A picture is worth a thousand words, they say. But what would be the effect of a thousand words when collecting door‐tedoor on behalf of a charity such as the March of Dimes?
Value Systems and Social interaction: A Field Study in a Newly Independent Nation1
Authors: Feather N. T.
Published: August 2006

A field study was conducted in Papua New Guinea to test the hypothesis that extent of social interaction will be positively related to the degree to which individuals of one group perceive that members of the other group share value systems similar to their own (perceived value similarity) and see each other to have something in common (perceived commonality). Indigenous and Australian students at Port Moresby High (a multi‐racial school) answered a questionnaire that involved specially constructed items and that also included the Rokeach Value Survey, the Triandis and Triandis Social Distance Scale, and some other measures. Social interaction was assessed by using both direct measures (a specially constructed index, number of good friends in other group) and indirect measures (knowledge and use of Pidgin, social distance). Results for the Australian group showed that the direct measures of social interaction were positively and significantly related to perceived similarity in instrumental value systems and that both the direct and indirect measures of social interaction were positively and significantly related to perceived commonality. But the dependent variables were unrelated to perceived similarity in terminal value systems for this group. There was a general absence of significant relationships between the measures of social interaction and either perceived value similarity or perceived commonality for the indigenous students. Results were discussed in terms of the measures used and certain theoretical issues concerning the determinants of social interaction and the importance of field research.
Promoting Energy Conservation in Master‐Metered Apartments through Group Financial Incentives1
Authors: McClelland Lou , Cook Stuart W.
Published: August 2006

An energy conservation contest among four groups of apartments (44 to 70 units each) in a University of Colorado family housing complex was conducted February‐April, 1977. The winning group in each of six 2‐week contests won $80 to use however it determined. The program produced a drop of about 10% in use of natural gas during the first contest; energy savings were smaller but still statistically significant throughout the first 8 weeks. Over a 12‐week period, savings averaged 6.6%. Some changes in energy‐using behaviors were reported by residents surveyed at the contest's end; however, knowledge of contest results by residents was minimal. The results are compared to those of other contest and rebate programs, the practical problems of costs exceeding savings and inaccurate estimates of energy savings are discussed, and implications for future research are suggested.
Self‐Motivation and Adherence to Habitual Physical Activity1
Authors: Dishman Rod K. , Ickes William , Morgan William P.
Published: August 2006

The purpose of this investigation was to develop and refine a psychometric measure of self‐motivation and assess its relationship to adherence to programs of habitual physical activity. Following construction of a Self‐Motivation Inventory, a series of studies were conducted involving the pretesting of undergraduate males and females (N= 401) and subsequent validation work involving intercollegiate women athletes (N= 64) and adult males (N= 66) in actual exercise settings. Results of the psychometric work provided evidence for the logical validity, internal consistency, and test‐retest reliability of the self‐motivation construct. In addition, convergent and discriminant evidence was provided for construct validity through self‐motivation's pattern of association with other conceptually relevant psychometric variables. Finally, from the standpoint of behavioral validation, self‐motivation proved to be the best discriminator between exercise adherers and dropouts among the psychological variables employed and was strongly related to program adherence in both exercise settings. In fact, when combined with selected morphologic variables in a psychobiologic framework, self‐motivation scores were found to accurately classify participants according to their adherence status in approximately 80% of all cases and to account for nearly 50% of the variance in exercise adherence behavior.
Contrastive Vignette Technique: An indirect Methodology Designed to Address Reactive Social Attitude Measurement1
Authors: Burstin Kenneth , Doughtie Eugene B. , Raphaeli Avi
Published: August 2006

The need for indirect assessment techniques for the measurement of social attitudes is discussed, and the disappointing results of many current methodologies reviewed. Contrastive Vignette Technique (CVT), an indirect‐structured methodology designed to overcome many of the shortcomings inherent in Current techniques, is presented. Three construct validation procedures were carried out in attempting to provide evidence for the value of the CVT approach in the assessment of group attitudes: Prediction of convergent and divergent response patterns based on group membership, comparison against concurrent direct measurement of the same conceptual content area, and comparison of response patterns across and within vignettes. Overall results provided support for the validity of the present approach. Of 16 directional response‐pattern predictions made in the first experiment, 15 were confirmed, and the remaining prediction was in the expected direction. In the second procedure, expectations of differential response patterns were more clearly observed in CVT performance than in responses on direct scales designed to address the same content. Results of the final experiment suggested that CVT performance was consistent and transsituational, but that the effect of the evaluative context was stronger than expected. Extension and application of CVT is discussed.
Police Perceptions of Alcohol Intoxication
Authors: Pagano Marc R. , Taylor Stuart P.
Published: August 2006

The accuracy of police perceptions of alcohol intoxication was assessed by comparing officers' impressions of intoxication with quantitative Breathalyzer measurements of blood alcohol concentration (BAC). Eighteen police officers predicted the BACs of 36 students who had consumed either a high or low dosage of alcohol. Results indicated that the officers could not discriminate between students who had consumed either the high or low alcohol dosage. More specifically, the officers were reasonably accurate in their predictions of students in the low alcohol condition, but they strongly underestimated the degree of intoxication of students in the high dose condition.
An Analysis of the Effects of Occupational Variables on Child bearing Intentions
Authors: Loken Barbara , Fishbein Martin
Published: August 2006

Recent studies have indicated that the relationship between family size and occupational variables (e.g., work status, occupation, total number of years worked, career decisions) may be influenced by a number of different variables. The present study uses Fishbein's Theory of Reasoned Action to analyze the effects of different occupational variables on the beliefs, attitudes, and subjective norms that underlie intentions to have a child (within the next 3 years). Consistent with the theory, occupational variables were significantly related to childbearing intentions only if they were related to attitudes toward having a child and subjective norms. Furthermore, these latter relationships were themselves dependent upon relations between the occupational variables and underlying beliefs, evaluations, and motivations to comply. As expected, different occupational variables influenced intentions in different ways. Thus, Fishbein's theory allows a means for identifying the loci of effects of occupational variables on childbearing intentions. Finally, the two components of the model were sufficient to predict childbearing intentions; in general, occupational variables did not contribute to prediction of childbearing intentions over and above childbearing attitudes and subjective norms.
Expectancy‐Value and Selective Exposure as Determinants of Attitudes Toward a Nuclear Power Plant1
Authors: Woo Tae O. , Castore Carl H.
Published: August 2006

The expectancy‐value model was examined in the context of a nuclear power plant siting controversy in an attempt to verify a relationship between attitudes toward an object (a nuclear power plant) and beliefs held with rcgard to the object in question. A set of beliefs about the attributes of the object and the evaluation of those attributes believed to be linked to that object were jointly conceptualized as the overall utility perception (including both benefit and cost perccptions) associated with the attitude object from a more general framework. A significant relationship between the overall utility perception and the overall evaluation of the power station was found in a random sample drawn from the population of northern Indiana residents living within 30 miles of a proposed nuclear power station construction site. In addition, the positions of different subgroups were found to be closely linked to their differential benefit and cost perceptions. The effect of selective exposure on attitude formation was also noted in the comparisons of the importance and the number of beliefs held by different groups.
Attributions for Exam Performance
Authors: Davis Mark H. , Stephan Walter G.
Published: August 2006

The expectancy confirmation and egotism approaches to attributions in achievement settings are contrasted in this study. It was found that students in two psychology classes expected to do well on their exams and that these expectations were based on internal factors (ability, effort). Post‐test attributions were determined almost entirely by the simple valence of the outcome (success‐failure). High outcomes were associated with internal attributions and low outcomes were associated with external attributions. It appears that students who perform poorly avoid the blame for failure by making ego‐defensive external attributions and that these attributions enable them to make unreasonably high predictions for future performance. Some limited support was found for the notion that attribution may be affected by the degree to which outcomes confirm or disconfirm expectations.
The Effects of Group Discussion on Eyewitness Accuracy
Authors: Warnick Dell H. , Sanders Glenn S.
Published: August 2006

Previous research on group performance in judgmental tasks reveals that groups are rarely inferior, and often superior, to the average individual. The present study examined whether this pattern of results extends to the accuracy of eyewitness reports of a crime. It was found that group discussion led to accounts that were significantly more accurate than the average individual. A requirement to reach a unanimous decision did not alter any of the effects of group discussion. Group superiority was especially clear in terms of the completeness of the reports and in estimations of the duration of the incident. The discussion considered the implications of the present results for the current practice of prohibiting group discussion as an aid to the preparation of testimony.