bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Enhancing Sport Management Education with International Dimensions Including Language and Cultural Training
Authors: Masteralexis Lisa Pike , McDonald Mark A.
Published: August 2016

This article presents the results of a pilot study that found significant differences between U.S. and non-U.S. based international sport managers with regard to the educational background, language, and cultural training deemed essential for success in the global sports market. Educational and executive training programs in sport management should recognize sport's movement into a global market and consider providing students in their programs with the competency to compete for positions in sport on a global scale. To do so, sport management programs should offer a global perspective, which encompasses education for recognizing and avoiding potential barriers to effectively conducting sport business in societies where differences exist in language, culture, business, economics, and politics.
From Diamonds to Dollars: The Dynamics of Change in AAA Baseball Franchises
Authors: Cousens Laura
Published: August 2016

Sport franchises are challenged to operate within the fast-changing environment of the professional sport industry. The purpose of this paper is to ascertain the extent to which these organizations are changing and to understand why some organizations have embraced the competitive strategies and institutional beliefs of their contemporary environment, while others have remained relatively unchanged. The concept of archetypes was used to create two templates for professional sport franchises: The sport-centered archetype and the business-centered archetype. Data were then collected from interviews with representatives of five AAA baseball franchises, documents were retained from the league's public relations firm and the franchises themselves, and information was assembled from newspapers and trade magazines. The results of the research indicated that one organization was in the sport-centered archetype, three were in the business-centered archetype, and one was between the two archetypes. It was found that a trigger for change and the ownership of the franchise impacted heavily on the ability of the franchises to adapt to their contemporary environment.
Relationship between Broadcasting Media and Minor League Hockey Game Attendance
Authors: Zhang James J. , Pease Dale G. , Smith Dennis W.
Published: August 2016

This study assessed the relationship between broadcasting and the attendance of minor league hockey games in terms of 5 media forms: cable television broadcasting, commercial television broadcasting, radio broadcasting, broadcasters, and overall broadcasting media. A random sample of spectators (N = 2,225) responded to a survey on attendance level and media use conducted in the arena during the intermissions of games from 6 second-half 1994-1995 season home games of an International Hockey League (ML) team. CM-square, f-test, and regression analyses revealed that viewing home games on cable television and away games on commercial television, listening to games on radio, and the quality of television and cable broadcasters were all positively associated with attendance, with approximately 6-11% game attendance variance explained. It is concluded that the current broadcasting arrangement is positively related to game attendance in providing information for and increasing the interests of spectators.
Research Outlets in Sport Marketing: The Need for Increased Specialization
Authors: Mahony Daniel F. , Pitts Brenda G.
Published: August 2016

While Weese recently recommended that JSM and NASSM become more practitioner-oriented, Cuneen and Parks argued that JSM and NASSM need to maintain a more theoretically-oriented approach. Further, Cuneen and Parks agreed with Weese's suggestion that a new practitioner-oriented journal could be developed in order to meet the current needs of practitioners and to provide opportunities for both types of research. The authors of this paper would like to go further and suggest that it is important to allow for both types of research within the various content areas. However, despite the popularity of sport marketing in North America, there is currently only one practitioner-oriented journal specializing in this area. The authors of this paper believe that there is an immediate need for a theoretical sport marketing journal that, together with the Sport Marketing Quarterly, will contribute to the development of this content area.
Methods and Criteria Employed in the Evaluation of Intercollegiate Coaches
Authors: Barber Heather , Eckrich Jean
Published: August 2016

This investigation examined the procedures employed by NCAA Division I, II, and ΙΠ athletic directors (ADs) in evaluating their cross country and basketball coaches. Three components were examined: individual input, methods, and criteria for evaluation. Questionnaires were mailed to 660 ADs, and final analyses were conducted on 389 responses. ADs most commonly sought input from athletes, coaches' self-evaluations, senior associate ADs, and university administrators in the evaluation process. Meetings with coaches and watching contests were rated as important methods of evaluation. Factor analyses of evaluation criteria revealed 8 evaluation factors for basketball coaches and 7 for cross country coaches with different underlying structures. For basketball coaches, unique solutions were created for technical-skill development and coach-player relationships. For cross country coaches, these items loaded together creating a general player development factor. MANOVAs examining divisional differences in the evaluation process indicated that significant differences existed between sports and across divisions.
Harlem Globetrotters International, Inc.
Authors: Fielding Lawrence W. , Miller Lori K. , Brown James R.
Published: August 2016

Case studies form the basis for the development of what business scholars have termed best practices scenarios. The Harlem Globetrotters International (HGI) is one of the most successful sport franchises in history. In this case study, we trace the development of HGI, from its beginnings in 1926 to its acquisition in 1993 by present owner and CEO, Mannie Jackson. We present a situational analysis of HGI from Jackson's perspective at the time of purchase. Next we outline Jackson's vision, objectives, and competitive strategy. We present Jackson's strategic brand management tactics. Next, we present Jackson's interpretation of the success of HGI's strategy and his interpretation of HGI's strengths, weaknesses, threats, and positive outlook. Appendix H presents relevant financial data that can be used to analyze HGI's success and shortcomings. Appendix I presents discussion questions. This case study is intended to be used as a teaching tool.
Do Differences Make a Difference? Managing Diversity in Division IA Intercollegiate Athletics
Authors: Fink Janet S. , Pastore Donna L. , Riemer Harold A.
Published: August 2016

This study applies a framework of diversity initiatives as a basis of exploration into top management beliefs and diversity management strategies of Division IA intercollegiate athletic organizations. This framework utilizes issues of power, demographic and relational differences, and past literature regarding specific diversity strategies to empirically assess these organizations' outlooks regarding employee diversity. Results of the study suggest that Division IA intercollegiate athletic organizations operate in cultures that value similarity. Demographic variables predicted a significant amount of variance in employees' perceptions of diversity management strategies. In addition, demographic differences (being different from one's leader) accounted for an even greater amount of variance in these perceptions. Top management's beliefs in the benefits of diversity were related to perceptions of different diversity practices. That is, high beliefs resulted in higher levels of diversity management practice. Discussion of the findings relative to current theory in sport and implications for sport managers are noted.
Evaluating Monitoring Mechanisms as a Solution to Opportunism by Professional Hockey Agents
Authors: Mason Daniel S. , Slack Trevor
Published: August 2016

Focusing on player agents in professional ice hockey, this paper utilizes the theoretical construct of agency theory as a means of evaluating attempts by several stakeholder groups to find solutions to opportunistic agent behavior. As proposed by agency theorists, this would include the creation and implementation of monitoring mechanisms by industry stakeholders in order to regulate agent activities. Stakeholder groups involved include state and federal governments, the agents themselves, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), and Players' Associations, which, at various times, all have adopted forms of certification programs in attempts to monitor player agents. Documentation on these programs and interviews with industry stakeholders are employed to develop criteria by which such programs can be assessed in terms of their ability to reduce traditional agency problems. In doing so, it is argued that the agency model can be used to provide additional insight into problems associated with these programs and to improve program effectiveness in monitoring hockey agent behavior.
The Gambling Industry and Sports Gambling: A Stake in the Game?
Authors: Claussen Cathryn L. , Miller Lori K.
Published: August 2016

This article describes developments in the American gambling industry during the decade of the 1990s in light of predictions made in the 1980s. Societal and legal trends in the 1990s are discussed in terms of their relevance for the future of the gambling industry in the first decade of the 21st century. Particular attention is addressed to sports gambling and Internet sports gambling as growth areas in the gambling industry.
Intercollegiate Athletics in Canadian Universities: Perspectives on the Future
Authors: Danylchuk Karen E. , MacLean Joanne
Published: August 2016

As the new millennium begins, we find intercollegiate sport in Canadian universities at a crossroads. Although the Canadian Interuniversity Athletic Union (CIAU), the governing body for university sport in Canada, has a history of recurring issues and challenges, further change is imminent. This paper provides the perspective of two Canadian intercollegiate athletic administrators and sport management academicians on the future of intercollegiate sport in Canada by focusing on five major areas of concern: (a) diversity, (b) governance, (c) funding of athletics, (d) the role and value of athletics, and (e) the changing environmental context of the university. The authors conclude that university sport in Canada will remain embedded within the non-profit, amateur fabric of the Canadian sporting milieu characterized by a participant rather than spectator focus, men's sport domination, decreased funding sources, and pressures to justify its role and value within a rapidly changing environment. The diversity evident throughout the CIAU will continue to have a compelling impact on the organization.
A Structural Model of Image-Based and Utilitarian Decision-Making Processes for Participant Sport Consumption
Authors: Hang Joon-Ho
Published: August 2016

This study develops a decision-making process model for participant sport consumption that integrates self-participant image congruency (SIC), attitude, and intentions. SIC is the degree of congruency between one's self-concept and her/his participant's stereotypical image in a given context of sport or exercise involvement. Attitudes toward participation refer to an overall utilitarian evaluation of the behavior whereas intentions reflect decisions (Fishbein, 1980). A structural model is developed that incorporates SIC (as image-based evaluations) and attitudes (as utilitarian evaluations) as antecedents of intentions (as decisions) using LISREL8. Structural equation modeling analyses revealed that (a) both SIC and attitudes influence one's decision to initiate sport or exercise participation in the consumption context but attitudes have greater impact than SIC, and (b) both actual and ideal self-concepts are relevant in image-based decision-making processes.
Understanding Principal-Agent Relationships: Evidence from Professional Hockey
Authors: Mason Daniel S. , Slack Trevor
Published: August 2016

This paper examines the professional hockey industry to explore the principles of agency theory. Using basic tenets derived from the agency literature and conditions specific to the hockey industry, a series of propositions are developed. These are investigated using data from industry documents, popular articles on hockey, and interviews with players, agents, team managers and other relevant industry stakeholders. The results suggested that concerns for agent reputation, agent competition, agent certification and salary disclosure have cumulatively reduced information asymmetry favoring the agent and have decreased the likelihood of agent opportunism. This has resulted in a decrease in the use of commissions by agents, but this form of performance contingent compensation remains the most widely used form of remuneration.
Manipulating Consumer Price Expectations for a 10K Road Race
Authors: Kyle Gerard T. , Kerstetter Deborah L. , Guadagnolo Frank B.
Published: August 2016

Understanding consumers' response to price has become an important issue for managers of public sport and leisure services as they shift their dependence on revenue from government sources to user fees. Employing an experimental design, we manipulated participants' price expectations for the race entry fee of a 10K road race. Subjects were divided into six groups and provided with information relating to a different service outcome. Subsequent price expectations were elicited on the basis of the information provided in each message. Results indicated that messages including the cost of service provision information, information suggesting the loss of services, and information suggesting personal loss, significantly raised subjects' price expectations. One practical implication of these findings is that managers of public sport and leisure services considering price increases for their services should introduce them by outlining the purpose and the costs and benefits associated with the increase. Further, implementing effective communication strategies regarding price increases may significantly increase consumers' acceptance of an otherwise undesirable management decision.
Referent Selection: How the Women in Sport Journalism Shape Their Perceptions of Job Satisfaction
Authors: Whisenant Warren A. , Pedersen Paul M. , Smucker Michael K.
Published: August 2016

Job satisfaction is an essential construct explaining human behavior in organizations. To fully understand the construct, however, it is necessary to recognize how employees establish satisfaction levels. One method has been to explore who employees use as a basis of comparison—referent others—when establishing their perceptions of equity, which influence satisfaction. This study expanded the body of knowledge associated with satisfaction and sport organizations by using nontraditional participants—members of the Association for Women in Sports Media. The referent-selection processes used by these women in determining their level of satisfaction in five specific areas of job satisfaction were compared. The Job Descriptive Index was used to establish satisfaction levels, and a Referent Selection Instrument identified whom the participants used as a basis of comparison. The findings indicate the extent to which the participants made referent comparisons, what comparisons were made, and the relationship between satisfaction and their referent comparisons.
The Rival Concept: An Analysis of the 2002 Monday Night Football Season
Authors: Fortunato John A.
Published: August 2016

The 2002 season represented the fourth consecutive year in which ABC’s NFL Monday Night Football ratings have declined. The difficulty of predicting which teams will be good has made it challenging to put together a schedule of compelling games that will attract an audience. If team success is not a certain predictor, perhaps the behavior of the sports audience can be used as a more efficient variable in the scheduling of games. This study examined the overall national rating of the teams and the TV ratings in each NFL city for the 17 Monday Night Football games in 2002. The findings, as expected, demonstrated that more people of a particular city watched Monday Night Football when the team from that city was playing as compared with when they were not. It was also found, interestingly, that games in which a rival of the home team was playing also drew an audience from the home city.
The Effect of Content on Perceived Affect of Super Bowl Commercials
Authors: Kelley Scott W. , Turley L. W.
Published: August 2016

The Super Bowl television broadcast is the premier sports viewing spectacle each year. Although large sums of advertising dollars are spent on the production and placement of Super Bowl advertisements, little is known about the content of these advertisements and the level of affect associated with various aspects of the content of Super Bowl advertisements. This study explores the content of commercials shown during the 1996-2002 Super Bowls and uses USA Today Ad Meter scores as a dependent variable. Content analysis is used to analyze the data along with follow-up analyses investigating the relationships among advertising content and affect toward the advertisement. The findings suggest that higher levels of affect are associated with advertising goods rather than services in Super Bowl advertisements, and strategies include the following: using emotional appeals, avoiding straight announcements as a message format, including animals, and not making quality claims.
Effect of Work Shift and Club Size on Employees
Authors: Ferreira Raymond R.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine whether any differences in employee attitudes existed among three work shifts. Attitudes were measured through the Life Quality Inventory, the Job Diagnostic Survey, and the Role Ambiguity Questionnaire. Subjects were drawn from three work shifts (morning, day, and evening/night) at 24 sport clubs in Minnesota. The clubs were divided into three membership categories: small, medium, and large, with eight clubs in each category. A significant interaction effect for shift and size was found for the Life Quality Inventory and a scale in the Job Diagnostic Survey. The larger the club membership size, the more favorable the scores reported on the Life Quality Inventory, the Job Diagnostic Survey, and the Role Ambiguity Questionnaire. The day. shift employees in large membership clubs had less favorable scores on the Life Quality Inventory and Job Diagnostic scale than did either the morning or evening/night shift.
A Theoretical Framework for the Study of Complex Sport Organizations
Authors: Rail Geneviève
Published: August 2016

This paper suggests the usefulness of a general theoretical framework based on the model of strategic analysis elaborated by Crazier and Friedberg (1977/1980). This sociological theory allows for the understanding of complex sport organizations by the study of strategies and power relationships within them. The theory is linked to a restricted phenomenological method that can be used to discover the material, structural, and human conditions that limit and define the rationality of organizational actors, and thereby the meaning of their observable behaviors. Theory and method are explicated, and the paper concludes with an empirical example of the use of strategic analysis for the study of amateur sport federations.
Job Satisfaction and Corporate Fitness Managers: An Organizational Behavior Approach to Sport Management
Authors: Koehler Linda S.
Published: August 2016

It is proposed that the focus of sport management research be broadened to include those individuals who fill management positions in sport/fitness-related enterprises. A particularly useful approach is that of organizational behavior as it pertains to sport/fitness managers. Drawing from the content of organizational behavior for use in the study presented here, items of measure for job satisfaction include ability utilization, achievement, activity, advancement, authority, company policies/practices, compensation, co-workers, creativity, independence, moral values, recognition, responsibility, security, social service, social status, supervision-human relations, supervision-technical, variety, and working conditions. The corporate fitness managers participating in this study reported their level of general job satisfaction to be an average of 78.67 out of a possible 100 points. The factors shown to be significantly more satisfying than all other factors at the .05 level were social service and moral values. Additionally, although not significantly different from each other, both factors of advancement and compensation were revealed to be significantly more dissatisfying at the .05 level than all other factors.
Opening the Black Box: The Influence of Perceived Diversity and a Common In-Group Identity in Diverse Groups
Authors: Cunningham George B.
Published: August 2016

Previous research on diversity has been criticized for failing to include intervening and process variables. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the influence of two intervening variables, perceived group diversity and a common in-group identity, on the relationship between group diversity and group outcomes. Data were collected from 45 track-and-field coaching staffs (N= 175 participants). Hierarchical-regression analysis revealed that actual diversity was positively related to perceptions of such differences, and, in turn, perceptions of diversity were related to a common in-group identity. Finally, a common in-group identity was negatively related to organizational turnover intentions of the group and positively related to two measures of group effectiveness. Theoretical contributions and implications for diverse groups are discussed.
The Mediating Role of Perceived Value: Team Identification and Purchase Intention of Team-Licensed Apparel
Authors: Kwon Harry H. , Trail Galen , James Jeffrey D.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential mediating effect of perceived value in the relationship between team identification and intent to purchase collegiate team-licensed apparel. Direct effect, partially mediated, and fully mediated models were compared. The respondents were students (N = 110) attending a large university in the southeastern United States. Participants first completed the Team Identification Scale and then viewed a slide depicting an article of licensed merchandise (t-shirt). Participants next completed the Perceived Value and Purchase Intention Scales. Goodness-of-fit statistics indicated that the direct effect model did not fit the data. The partially mediated and the fully mediated models fit equally well; the latter was more parsimonious and thus was chosen for further analysis. Team identification explained 13.2% of the variance in perceived value; perceived value explained 42.6% of the variance in purchase intentions. The findings indicate that team identification alone did not drive the purchase intentions in this study; it is important to take into account the perceived value of the team-licensed merchandise.
Community Development and Sport Participation
Authors: Vail Susan E.
Published: August 2016

Many sport organizations face the challenge of declining sport participation. Traditional methods of addressing this challenge such as promotional ads and top-down initiatives that ignore community needs have not succeeded in sustaining sport participation. This action research study assessed the impact of the building tennis communities model, a community development approach based on three key elements: identifying a community champion, developing collaborative partnerships, and delivering quality sport programming. Eighteen communities across Canada were supported by the national sport governing body, Tennis Canada, to participate in the study. Findings demonstrated that communities were able to identify a community champion and deliver quality programs that aimed to increase and sustain tennis participation; however, partnership building was implemented in a very preliminary and incomplete manner. Recommendations about the benefits of using a community development approach to not only increase sport participation but also develop communities through sport are presented with implications for researchers, policy makers, and practitioners.
Measuring Attitudinal Loyalty: Separating the Terms of Affective Commitment and Attitudinal Loyalty
Authors: Heere Bob , Dickson Geoff
Published: August 2016

Current marketing research on attitudinal constructs such as commitment and loyalty is characterized by conceptual confusion and overlap. This study aims to improve the clarity of these terms by separating the commitment and loyalty constructs. It also provides a new scale for measurement of team loyalty. Commitment is a construct that is cross-sectional in nature and is internal to the individual. Alternatively, loyalty is longitudinal in nature and should be regarded as the result of interaction between negative external changes in the environment and the individual’s internal level of commitment. The proposed scale has its origins with the Psychological Commitment to Team scale. Our revisions to the scale provide the needed longitudinal dimension. The new Attitudinal Loyalty to Team Scale (ALTS), which has resistance to change as a central feature, demonstrates both reliability and validity.
The Attraction, Retention/Transition, and Nurturing Process of Sport Development: Some Australian Evidence
Authors: Sotiriadou Kalliopi , Shilbury David , Quick Shayne
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to explore and map the sport development processes in Australia. A grounded theory approach identified sport development processes by examining 74 annual reports from 35 national sporting organizations (NSOs) over a period of 4 years, before and after the Sydney Olympic Games. The 3 frameworks presented in this article representing the attraction, retention/transition, and nurturing process illustrate the generic processes and strategies described by NSOs. The results show that each sport development process requires human and financial input from various stakeholders. These stakeholders initiate or implement sport development strategies for each process and each process has different sport development outputs. These results contribute to the extant literature of sport development by demonstrating that sport development is more complex and encompassing than previously described. It is proposed that the generic frameworks derived from this study be subject to more specific testing using other sport systems, as context and case studies could lead to tailoring the frameworks to represent specific sport development processes and systems.
The Impact of Brand Cohesiveness and Sport Identification on Brand Fit in a Sponsorship Context
Authors: Gwinner Kevin , Bennett Gregg
Published: August 2016

This investigation analyzed the effects of sport identification and brand cohesiveness as predictors of brand fit in a unique sponsorship context by examining consumer responses to event sponsorships of the Dew Action Sports Tour. An additional focus of this research endeavor assessed the impact of brand fit on two important consumer behavioral outcomes: attitude toward sponsors and purchase intentions. Data were collected from 552 attendees at the Louisville, Kentucky stop of the Dew Action Sports Tour. The results of the study support our hypotheses that fit impacts attitude toward the sponsor which has a positive influence on consumer’s purchase intentions. The examination of influence that brand cohesiveness and sport identification have on fit perceptions extends our theoretical understanding of fit in a sponsorship context as up until now, research in this area has focused almost exclusively on outcomes of fit and not on those variables that might influence fit.
The Social Construction of Knowledge in the Field of Sport Management: A Social Network Perspective
Authors: Quatman Catherine , Chelladurai Packianathan
Published: August 2016

The works of Kuhn (1996) and other scholars on the social construction of knowledge suggest that great insight can be gained about an academic field of study by investigating interaction patterns between and among scholars. Using a social network perspective, the intent of this study was to empirically explore the social interaction patterns among scholars in the field of sport management. A network model of coauthorship was generated using several rounds of sampling of scholars in the field and archival data collection from relevant journals. The derived network structure was then explored both visually and quantitatively for meaningful patterns. The results of the study essentially tell a story of the evolution and current state of the field’s collaboration structure. Drawing on propositions from the literature on the sociology of scientific knowledge generation, the findings are discussed relative to what the obtained network structure might hold for sport management scholarship.
Globalization of Sport: An Inconvenient Truth1
Authors: Thibault Lucie
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the 2008 Earle F. Zeigler Lecture was to highlight some of the issues involved in the globalization of sport that affect the field of sport management. In particular, four issues were presented: a division of labor undertaken on an international scale where transnational corporations are drawing on developing countries’ work forces to manufacture sportswear and sport equipment; the increasing flow of athletes where country of birth and origin are no longer a limitation on where an athlete plays and competes; the increased involvement of global media conglomerates in sport; and the impact of sport on the environment. The impact and inconvenient truths of these issues on sport management were addressed.
Free Agent Auctions and Revenue Sharing: A Simple Exposition
Authors: Rockerbie Duane
Published: August 2016

This article uses a simple approach to address the issue of how revenue sharing in professional sports leagues can affect the allocation of free agent players to teams. To affect the allocation of free agents, the imposition of revenue sharing must alter the ranking of bidding teams in terms of maximum salary offers. Two types of revenue sharing systems are considered: traditional gate revenue sharing and pooled revenue sharing. The article suggests that team rankings for ability to pay are not affected by pooled revenue sharing, however the distribution of player salaries will be affected asymmetrically. Traditional gate revenue sharing can alter the ability to pay rankings for teams, depending upon playing schedules and the closeness of revenues between closely ranked teams. Revenue data for two professional sports leagues provide evidence in favor of the model predictions.
Motherhood, Sport Leadership, and Domain Theory: Experiences from New Zealand
Authors: Leberman Sarah , Palmer Farah
Published: August 2016

Mothers’ voices are often silent in leisure and sport literature. This research used domain theory (Layder, 1997, 2006) to highlight the varied social domains that influence the experiences of nine women as mothers and sport leaders in New Zealand. Semistructured interviews were conducted and analyzed for themes using Hyper-RESEARCH. The findings suggest that potential constraints regarding sport leadership included guilt, exhaustion and stress, social disapproval and organizational resistance to the presence of children in sport settings. These women negotiate these potential constraints and manage their multiple identities with passion for sport and leadership, strong support networks, and specific integrating/compartmentalizing strategies to create work-family-leisure balance. The participants accentuated the mutual benefits of motherhood and sport leadership for themselves and for those they influence, while focusing on changes they can bring about at the personal and interpersonal level. Organizational and institutional change was less forthcoming, but a critical mass of mothers in some sport settings was slowly creating a desire for change.
Examining Fairness Perceptions of Financial Resource Allocations in U.S. Olympic Sport
Authors: Dittmore Stephen , Mahony Daniel , Andrew Damon P.S. , Hums Mary A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to measure U.S. National Governing Body (NGB) administrators’ perceptions of fairness of financial resource allocation within the U.S. Olympic Movement. This study extends previous research on distributive justice in the sport industry by examining a new setting and controlling for the potential moderating effect of procedural justice. Presidents and executive directors responded to a survey containing three resource allocation scenarios. Study participants most often identified need to be competitively successful as the most fair distribution principle, but believed equity based on medals won was the most likely to be used. Results also indicated significant differences in the perceived fairness of distribution principles based on the budget size of the NGB, the membership size of the NGB, and the NGB’s success in the Olympic Games. These results have implications for the evolving priorities of NGBs, how these priorities are being addressed, and possible reactions to resource distribution decisions.
Do Fans Care? Assessing the Influence of Corporate Social Responsibility on Consumer Attitudes in the Sport Industry
Authors: Walker Matthew , Kent Aubrey
Published: August 2016

Organizations within the sport industry are facing increasing pressure to both maintain profitability and behave in socially acceptable ways, yet researchers have provided little information on how consumers perceive and react to corporate social responsibility (CSR). This mixed-design study examined the relationship between CSR activities and fans’ assessments of reputation and patronage intentions. In addition, the study sought to determine the role of team identification in the aforementioned relationship. Fans of two NFL teams were sampled (N = 297), with quantitative results suggesting that CSR is an important predictor of reputation, and that two types of patronage could be significantly impacted as well. The moderating effect of team identification was significant yet influenced the outcomes in different ways. Qualitative findings reinforced the quantitative discussion by providing support for the general conclusions that CSR was viewed favorably by most fans, and is an important aspect of the overall business strategy of a sport organization.
Development of an Instrument to Measure the Moral Judgments of Sport Managers
Authors: Rudd Andrew , Mullane Susan , Stoll Sharon
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to develop an instrument to measure the moral judgments of sport managers called the Moral Judgments of Sport Managers Instrument (MJSMI). More specifically, our intention was to measure moral judgment on a unidimensional level given past research suggesting moral judgment is a unidimensional construct (Hahm, Beller, & Stoll, 1989; Kohlberg, 1984; Piaget, 1932; Rest, 1979, 1986). The MJSMI contains 8 moral dilemmas/stories in the context of sport management. Sport managers respond to the dilemmas on a four-point Likert scale. Three pilot studies were undertaken to develop the MJSMI. Exploratory factor analysis and internal consistency analysis were the primary methods for assaying reliability and validity. Results consistently showed that sport managers’ responses vary depending on the nature of the moral scenario and thus do not indicate a unidimensional construct. The reasons for inconsistent responses are thoroughly discussed.
The Perceived Impacts of Sport Tourism: An Urban Host Community Perspective
Authors: Hritz Nancy , Ross Craig
Published: August 2016

Sport tourism is one of the fastest growing market segments in the tourism industry and is receiving increased attention for its social, environmental, and economic impacts upon destinations. Prior research in tourism impacts has tended to focus exclusively on tourism as a whole and does not differentiate among the different types of tourism that may be present in a destination. The purpose of this study was to examine how residents of Indianapolis, Indiana perceived the impacts sport tourism has upon their city. A total of 347 surveys were returned in a mailed questionnaire. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a four factor structure of social benefits, environmental benefits, economic benefits, and general negative impacts. Social and economic benefits were strong predictors for support for further sport tourism development revealing a strong identification with the advantages of sport tourism in their city such as an increased cultural identity and social interaction opportunities.
Employee Satisfaction in Sport: Development of a Multi-Dimensional Model in Coaching
Authors: Dixon Marlene A. , Warner Stacy
Published: August 2016

Despite the overwhelming emphasis on job satisfaction in sport management research, scholars continue to advocate for the distinctiveness and importance of evaluating both job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. The purpose of this investigation is to develop a model of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction for intercollegiate coaches. Fifteen head coaches participated in semistructured interviews. Results revealed a sport industry specific three-factor model. Desirable job factors (Player-Coach Relationships, Recognition, and Social Status) were related only to satisfaction. Industry Standard Factors (Sport Policy, Salary, Recruiting, Supervision, and Life Balance) were related only to dissatisfaction. Performance Dependent Factors (Flexibility and Control, Program Building, and Relationships with Colleagues) were related to satisfaction and dissatisfaction. The results support the distinctiveness of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction as constructs, and also demonstrate a continued need for examining job attitudes within context. As sport managers understand the particular expectations of their employees and their industry they can better diagnose and solve employee issues.
Interorganizational Support and Commitment: A Framework for Sporting Event Networks
Authors: Shonk David J. , Bravo Gonzalo
Published: August 2016

Sporting event networks are complex partnerships providing scope for investigation at multiple levels of analysis, including interpersonal, interorganizational, and field level. Based on an integration of the literature on interorganizational relationships, perceived organizational support, and interorganizational commitment, the paper proposes a conceptual model applicable to sporting event networks wherein perceived interorganizational support (PIOS) influences perceived interorganizational commitment (PIOC). The level of PIOS is indicated by six salient factors: trust, resources, structure, prior ties, reputation, and legitimacy.
The Influence of Applicant Sexual Orientation, Applicant Gender, and Rater Gender on Ascribed Attributions and Hiring Recommendations of Personal Trainers
Authors: Cunningham George B. , Sartore Melanie L. , McCullough Brian P.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of job applicant sexual orientation on subsequent evaluations and hiring recommendations. Data were gathered from 106 students (48 men, 57 women) who participated in a 2 (applicant sexual orientation: heterosexual, sexual minority) × 2 (rater gender: female, male) × 2 (applicant gender: female, male) experiment related to the hiring of a personal trainer for a fitness organization. Analysis of variance indicated that sexual minority job applicants received poorer evaluations than did heterosexuals. These effects were moderated by the rater gender, as men provided harsher ratings of sexual minorities than did women. Finally, applicant ratings were reliably related to hiring recommendations. Results are discussed in terms of contributions to the literature, limitations, and future directions.
Understanding Sense of Community From the Athlete’s Perspective
Authors: Warner Stacy , Dixon Marlene A.
Published: August 2016

Sport programs are often charged with creating a sense of community (SOC), and it is thought that doing so will benefit participants on and off the field of play. Since SOC is specific to the setting (Hill, 1996) and most research has been conducted outside of sport, the literature has not yet fully demonstrated how and when SOC is created within a sport context. Utilizing a grounded theory and phenomenological approach, this study investigated the mechanisms for creating SOC within a sport setting. Twenty former US college athletes were interviewed regarding their sport experiences. The results revealed that Administrative Consideration, Leadership Opportunities, Equity in Administrative Decisions, Competition, and Social Spaces were the most salient factors that fostered SOC. The results contribute to community building theory, and provide practical solutions for enhancing the participant experience.
Emotions as Antecedents of Participant Sport Consumption Decisions: A Model Integrating Emotive, Self-Based, and Utilitarian Evaluations
Authors: Kang Joon-Ho , Bagozzi Richard P. , Oh Jawang
Published: August 2016

Although emotion has occasionally been examined as a dependent variable or outcome of physical activity involvement, it rarely has been studied as an antecedent. This study examines the role of emotion in decision-making processes for participant sport consumption. A structural model is proposed to integrate emotions with self-image congruency and attitudes as antecedents of the decision to initiate physical activity in the consumption context. Context effects were investigated by two scenarios: (1) joining a private health club and (2) skiing in an indoor ski resort. A total of 199 persons responded, and structural equation models were examined. The results indicate that emotion mediates the influence of attitudes and self-image congruency on the decision to join the club and resort. The pattern of the relationships among utilitarian, self-based, and emotive evaluations depends on the sport consumption context. Discussion of theoretical and practical issues is presented and directions for future research are suggested.
Look Who’s Linked With Whom: A Case Study of One Community Basketball Network
Authors: MacLean Joanne , Cousens Laura , Barnes Martha
Published: August 2016

The Canadian Sport Policy advocates for increased interaction among sport organizations as a means to create a more efficient and effective system. The purpose of this study was to explore the existence and nature of linkages among a network of community basketball providers. Network theory focuses on the interconnections of organizations by considering the structural, social, and economic bonds of cooperative behavior. Quantitative data were collected via a questionnaire and analyzed using network software UCINET 6 to assess the numbers and types of linkages among a network of community basketball organizations (n = 10) in one geographical region. Next, in-depth, semistructured interviews were conducted with leaders from the organizations and from their provincial/national governing bodies (n = 11) to assess the barriers to linkages among these organizations. Results indicated a loosely coupled network, wherein issues of power and dependence, uncertainty, and the lack of managerial structures to initiate and manage linkages prevailed.
The Globalization of Sport and the Mass-Mediated Identity of Hines Ward in South Korea
Authors: Jun Jong Woo , Lee Hyung Min
Published: August 2016

In 2006, Hines Ward, a Korean-American athlete, was at the center of the media spotlights and became a national celebrity in South Korea after he was named the Most Valuable Player of Super Bowl XL. This paper examines the role of local journalists as cultural intermediaries and the repercussions of the mass-mediated identity of Hines Ward created and reproduced in the media. In light of the globalization of sport, this case study increases our understanding of how the globalization of sport has influenced and transformed the ways in which national identity is defined and conceptualized and how identities of cross-national athletes are crafted, disseminated, and marketed by local cultural intermediaries, particularly journalists.
Defining and Measuring Dimensionality and Targets of the Commitment of Sport Volunteers
Authors: Engelberg Terry , Zakus Dwight H. , Skinner James L. , Campbell Alastair
Published: August 2016

The organizational commitment of volunteers has been recognized as essential for the effective management of community-based sport. Despite this, little is known about the nature of sport volunteer commitment and, more specifically, its dimensionality and targets. This study developed measures of sport volunteer commitment within a framework of multiple dimensions of commitment and multiple targets of commitment to three organizational targets in the sport volunteering setting: the organization (in this context, the athletic center), the volunteer work team, and the volunteer role. Drawing on Meyer and Herscovitch’s (2001) general commitment model, we adapted measures from previous work of Engelberg, Skinner, and Zakus (2006) of commitment to each of these targets and tested the proposed model using partial least squares regression (PLS) modeling. Results provided support for a two-dimensional model within and across each of the targets, and also showed that the measures had adequate discriminant validity and reliability. Implications for research on volunteer commitment in sport organizations are discussed.
Testing a Hierarchy of Effects Model of Sponsorship Effectiveness
Authors: Alexandris Kostas , Tsiotsou Rodoula H. , James Jeffrey D.
Published: August 2016

The objective of this research was to test the application of an alternative hierarchy of effects model (affect, cognition, and conation) in the context of sponsorship. Activity involvement and team attachment (affect) were proposed to influence sponsor image and attitudes toward sponsorship (cognition), which in turn were proposed to influence consumer behavioral intentions (conation). Fans of a professional basketball team in Greece (N = 384) participated in the study. The results provided support for the alternative hierarchy of effects model and its application in the context of sponsorship. Team attachment (affect) was shown to have both a direct and indirect relationship with behavioral intentions (conation), through its influence on sponsor image and attitudes toward sponsorship (cognition). Furthermore, the attraction dimension of involvement was shown to influence team attachment. The theoretical and managerial implications of these results are discussed.
Fear, Anxiety, and Loss of Control: Analyzing an Athletic Department Merger as a Gendered Political Process
Authors: Kihl Lisa , Shaw Sally , Schull Vicki
Published: August 2016

This study examined organizational processes involved in a merger between two gender affiliated intercollegiate athletic departments. A conceptual framework incorporating the concepts of gendered social processes, and the transition and integration stages of organizational mergers framed the study. Organizational political activity is perceived as a gendered process in merging groups. Interviews with 57 stakeholders of a university athletic department were conducted. The data analysis showed that gender politics identified in the transition stage involved stakeholders’ emotional reactions. In the integration stage, gender politics were evident during the social processes of assessing trust and loyalties, and cultural reengineering. Practical implications for merger facilitation are noted in terms of considering the necessity of merging, the hiring of outside leadership, and implementing a communication plan. Overall, our study furthers our understanding of the gender politics involved in merging gender affiliated sport organizations.