bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
17. Constructive trusts
Authors: Penner J E
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter focuses on constructive trusts, which are trusts that arise by operation of law. It identifies the variety of circumstances in which a constructive trust may arise, and discusses two important examples of constructive trusts: the vendor-purchaser constructive trust and the common intention constructive trust. More broadly, the chapter considers the role of the common intention constructive trust, equitable accounting, and the proprietary estoppel in determining interests under informal arrangements concerning family property.
7. Negligence: occupiers’ liability
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. While tort law is largely based on case law developed by judges through the common law, the liability of occupiers for the injuries suffered by those on their premises is governed by two statutes: the Occupiers’ Liability Act 1957 and the Occupiers’ Liability Act 1984. The chapter explains the scope of an occupier’s liability and how it relates to other aspects of negligence, considers the duty of care owed by occupiers to lawful visitors under the Occupiers’ Liability Act 1957, discusses the duty of care owed by occupiers to trespassers under the Occupiers’ Liability Act 1984 and how it relates to the previous common law duty of care.
14. Elements of defamation
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. Defamation differs from other aspects of tort law because it is concerned with protecting against harm caused by words. The law of defamation is intended to provide compensation for people whose reputations have been damaged by untrue statements and it may allow one to obtain an interim injunction to stop a potentially defamatory statement from being published. This chapter discusses the human rights dimension in defamation and the procedural and substantive changes to defamation law introduced by the Defamation Act 2013. It also explores how to strike a balance between the competing rights of freedom of expression and protection of reputation.
16. Privacy and misuse of private information
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. The Calcutt Committee Report on Privacy and Related Matters (1990) defined privacy as ‘the right of the individual to be protected against intrusion into his personal life or affairs, or those of his family, by direct physical means or by publication of information’. While a number of different torts indirectly address wrongful intrusion into another’s privacy, English law has not directly protected privacy in its own right. It was the Human Rights Act 1998 that has made it possible to use breach of confidence in regulating the publication of private information. This chapter looks at the history of the protection of privacy in English law, discusses the current legal approaches to privacy, examines the impact of the Human Rights Act 1998 on this developing area of law, and evaluates English law on privacy in an international context.
9. Theft
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter discusses the offence of theft. There are five elements of the offence of theft. Three are actus reus elements: appropriation, property, and belonging to another. There are two mens rea elements: dishonesty and intention to permanently deprive. The prosecution must prove all five elements in order for a conviction of theft to be successful. If one of the elements is missing, any prosecution for theft will fail.
15. Inchoate offences
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter deals with liability for inchoate offences. ‘Inchoate’ means incomplete or undeveloped. Where, for whatever reason, the full criminal offence is not committed, the defendant may still be liable for an inchoate offence. There are three types of inchoate offence: encouraging or assisting crime, conspiracy, and attempt. There are three offences of encouraging or assisting crime under the Serious Crime Act 2007, namely intentionally encouraging or assisting an offence, encouraging or assisting an offence believing it will be committed, and encouraging or assisting offences believing one or more will be committed.
2. Actus Reus: The Conduct Element
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

The actus reus is a central aspect of criminal law that defines the harm done to the victim and the wrong performed by the defendant. In many cases this involves proof that the defendant caused a particular result. A defendant will be held to have caused a result if but for their actions the result would not have occurred and there has been no intervening act of a third party. This chapter begins by distinguishing the component elements of a crime. It then discusses the voluntary act ‘requirement’; causation; classification of offences; the need for a voluntary act; omissions; and seeking a coherent approach to causation.
3. Mens Rea: The Mental Element
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

Mens rea is the legal term used to describe the element of a criminal offence that relates to the defendant’s mental state. Different crimes have different mentes reae: some require intention, others recklessness, negligence, or knowledge. Some crimes do not require proof of any mental state of the defendant. It has often been suggested that mens rea plays the crucial role of ensuring that only blameworthy defendants are punished for their crimes; however, a defendant’s blameworthiness or state of mind is only part of the picture. This chapter considers the following concepts that are used throughout criminal law: (a) intention; (b) recklessness; (c) negligence; and (d) knowledge.
4. Strict Liability
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

A strict liability offence is one where it is not necessary to prove any mental state of the defendant. All that needs to be shown is that the defendant caused a particular result or carried out a particular act. The courts will only interpret the offence to be one of strict liability where Parliament has made it quite clear that there is no mens rea requirement for the offence. There are some offences which just require proof that the defendant possessed a prohibited item. This chapter discusses the offences that are strict liability; when a court will not presume mens rea; what mens rea will be presumed; the Human Rights Act 1998 and strict liability offences; common law defences and strict liability offences; possession offences; and the arguments for and against strict liability.
8. Theft, Handling, and Robbery
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

This chapter begins with a discussion of the law on theft, robbery, assault with intent to rob, handling stolen goods, and money laundering offences. Theft is committed where the defendant has dishonestly appropriated property belonging to another with the intention to deprive the other of it permanently. The offence of robbery involves the defendant using force at the time of, or immediately before, a theft. The offence is also committed where the defendant causes the victim to fear that force will be used but does not actually use force. The second part of the chapter focuses on the theory of theft, covering property offences; the debate over Gomez; the Hinks debate; temporary appropriation; dishonesty; robberies; and handling stolen goods.
13. The Criminal Liability of Corporations
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

This chapter begins with a discussion of the law on corporate criminality, covering the difficulty in convicting companies of crimes; corporate killing; and vicarious liability. The Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007 created a new offence of corporate manslaughter. This can be committed where the way in which a company’s activities are managed or organized amounts to a gross negligence and causes someone’s death. In a limited number of crimes, a company can be guilty in respect of the acts of one of its employees under the doctrine of vicarious liability. The second part of the chapter focuses on theoretical issues in corporate liability, covering the reality of corporate crime; the clamour for corporate liability; whether a company should be guilty of a crime; and what form corporate crime should take.
14. Inchoate Offences
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the law and theory of inchoate offences, which are those that seek to deal with defendants who have taken steps towards the commission of an offence but who have not (yet) committed it. The two best-known examples are attempts and conspiracies. In attempt cases, the defendant has gone beyond mere preparation and taken steps towards carrying out a complete crime. Conspiracy involves agreeing with others to commit an offence. The Serious Crime Act 2007 offences involve encouraging or assisting a person to commit an offence. With all of these inchoate offences the defendant has not themselves performed the actus reus but is sufficiently close to doing so, or persuading others to do so, for the law to find it appropriate to punish them. The second part of the chapter shows that there is much debate about the justification for inchoate offences.
9. Corroboration and care warnings
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses exceptions to the general rule that there is no requirement for evidence to be corroborated. There are three categories of exception (i) where corroboration is required as a matter of law (speeding, perjury, treason, and attempts to commit these offences) and therefore a conviction cannot be based on uncorroborated evidence; (ii) where neither corroboration in a technical sense nor supportive evidence is required as a matter of law, but the tribunal of fact may need to be warned to exercise caution before acting on the evidence of certain types of witness, if unsupported; (iii) five cases in which corroboration is not required as a matter of law, and there is no obligation to warn the tribunal of fact of the danger of acting on the unsupported or uncorroborated evidence, but there is a special need for caution. The five cases are confessions by mentally handicapped persons, identification evidence, lip-reading evidence, cases of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, and unconvincing hearsay. Identification evidence is dealt with separately in Chapter 10.
11. Evidence obtained by illegal or unfair means
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the circumstances in which relevant evidence can be excluded, as a matter of law or discretion, on the grounds that it was obtained illegally, improperly, or unfairly. The principles for exclusion of evidence are considered, and exclusion in both civil and criminal cases are covered. In respect of civil cases, discretionary exclusion under the civil procedure rules is examined, and in respect of criminal cases, discretionary exclusion at common law and under statute is discussed. The chapter also considers the circumstances in which criminal proceedings should be stayed as an abuse of the court’s process, where a trial would undermine public confidence in the criminal justice system and bring it into disrepute.
17. Evidence of character: evidence of character in civil cases
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the admissibility of evidence of character. A number of factors govern the admissibility of character evidence, including whether the proceedings are civil or criminal and whether the evidence relates to the character of a party or non-party. It is also necessary to consider the nature of the character evidence in question. It may relate to either good or bad character and, in either event, may constitute evidence of a person’s actual disposition, that is his propensity to act, think, or feel in a given way; or evidence of his reputation, that is his reputed disposition or propensity to act, think, or feel in a given way. Thus, the character of a person may be proved by evidence of general disposition, by evidence of specific examples of his conduct on other occasions (including, in the case of bad conduct, evidence of his previous convictions), or by evidence of his reputation among those to whom he is known. The chapter considers civil cases in which bad character designated ‘similar fact evidence’ has been admitted.
Complete Criminal Law
Authors: Loveless Janet , Allen Mischa , Derry Caroline
Published: September 2022

Complete Criminal Law offers a student-centred approach to the criminal law syllabus. Clear explanations of general legal principles are combined with fully integrated extracts from leading cases and a wide range of academic materials. This text aims to engage the reader in an active approach to learning and to stimulate reflection about the role of criminal law, offering a complete guide to the LLB/GDL criminal law syllabus with extracts from key cases, academic materials, and explanatory text integrated into a clear narrative. It provides a range of pedagogical features, including concise summaries, diagrams, and examples. Thinking points are included to facilitate and reinforce understanding. Students are referred to the social and moral context of the law, wherever relevant, to encourage them to engage fully with the topical subject matter. This new edition includes coverage of several recent cases of importance including: R v Aidid [2021] (voluntary intoxication), Barton and Booth [2020] (dishonesty), Broughton [2020] and Long, Bowers and Cole [2020] (involuntary manslaughter), Damji [2020] (strict liability: reasonable excuse), Dawson [2021] and Singh [2020] (loss of control), DPP v M [2020] (defence of compulsion), Ivor and Others v R [2021], Lawrance [2020], and Attorney-General’s Reference (Section 36 of the CJA 1972) (No 1 of 2020) [2020] (sexual offences), Lanning and Camille [2021] (joint venture: overwhelming supervening act), Martins [2021] (appropriation in robbery), MS [2021] (proximity in attempt), Pwr v DPP [2022] (strict liability), Thacker and others [2021] (necessity: political protest), Williams (Demario) [2020] (self-defence: defence of property) and the Domestic Abuse Act 2021 (coercive control, strangulation, consent).
2. Actus reus: the conduct element
Authors: Loveless Janet , Allen Mischa , Derry Caroline
Published: September 2022

A crime consists of conduct (actus reus or AR) and a mental element (mens rea or MR). This chapter focuses on AR, the external elements of a criminal offence. It discusses the key components of AR. These key components are omissions or liability for failing to act and causation, which represents the connection between the conduct and the result of an act. The duty of a doctor in withdrawal of medical treatment is discussed. The chapter explains that AR must be proved, must be voluntary, and can include a mental element. It also considers several examples of cases relevant to AR and analyses the bases of the court decisions.
8. Non-fatal offences against the person
Authors: Loveless Janet , Allen Mischa , Derry Caroline
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the provisions of criminal law for non-fatal offences against the person in England and Wales, which include assault, battery, malicious wounding, grievous bodily harm, and racially and religiously aggravated assaults. It examines the distinctions between these major offences against the person and discusses their actus reus and mens rea elements. The chapter evaluates the use of consent and lawful chastisement in legal defence, analyses the relevant provisions of the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 and the offences of coercive control and strangulation, and reviews recent reform proposals. It also provides examples of related cases and comments on the bases of court decisions on each of them.
2. Agreement: Objective or Subjective?
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the approach adopted by the courts when seeking to ascertain the intention of the parties to a contract. The general rule is that the existence and content of an agreement are questions that must be answered by reference to the intention of the parties, objectively ascertained. Two leading cases are presented that consider the scope of the objective test, namely Smith v. Hughes (1871) LR 6 QB 597 and Centrovincial Estates plc v. Merchant Investors Assurance Company Ltd [1983] Com LR 158. The discussion then turns to the case where one party attempts to ‘snap up’ an offer which he knew that the offeror did not intend, and the case where one party was at fault in failing to notice that the other party’s offer contained a mistake, or he was himself responsible for inducing that mistake in the other party. The chapter concludes that it is not necessary to resort to a subjective approach in order to explain these cases; they can be analysed in terms consistent with the objective test which is generally applied by the courts.
14. Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on Part 2 of the Consumer Rights Act 2015. The Act gives to the courts much broader powers to regulate terms in contracts which have been concluded between traders and consumers. Section 4.2 examines the individual sections of Part 2 of the Act and the leading cases decided under the Regulations which preceded the Act. Particular attention is given to key concepts such as ‘significant imbalance’, ‘good faith’, the exclusion of certain terms from assessment for fairness, the indicative and non-exhaustive list of terms that may be regarded as unfair (often referred to as the ‘grey list’), and the role of regulators in the enforcement of the legislation. Section 4.3 draws on work done by Professor Susan Bright in relation to the role of the Unfair Contract Terms Unit in the early days of the enforcement of the legislation.
19. Undue Influence
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses cases of alleged undue influence. Such cases have caused considerable difficulties for the courts in recent years, not in relation to the existence of the doctrine, but to its scope and its relationship with other doctrines, particularly duress, and other cases in which courts have intervened to protect the vulnerable or those who have been exploited by those in a position of influence over them. Recent judicial exposition of undue influence has tended to take place in the context of three-party cases rather than two-party cases, that is to say cases in which a wrong has been committed by a third party and not the defendant. Two leading cases of undue influence are analysed: Allcard v. Skinner (1887) 36 Ch D 145 and Royal Bank of Scotland plc v. Etridge (No 2) [2001] UKHL 44, [2002] 2 AC 773 and they are used to illustrate the limits of the modern doctrine of undue influence and in particular the role of presumptions in this area of the law.
O'Sullivan & Hilliard's The Law of Contract
Authors: O'Sullivan Janet
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. The Law of Contract provides a concise overview of the fundamentals of contract law and its underlying rationales. It also introduces and explores the main academic debates within the subject, encouraging readers to reflect on the law and, where it is controversial, to form their own views on whether the rules that contract law adopts are justifiable.
12. Unconscionable bargains
Authors: O'Sullivan Janet
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter examines the concept of unconscionable bargains and the conditions under which it operates as a vitiating factor. It discusses the history of the court’s jurisdiction to give relief in cases of unconscionable bargains and explains the current scope of relief, considering the elements in modern case law on unconscionable bargains.
5. Children and Medicine
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

This chapter explores how the law deals with cases involving children receiving medical care. It considers the circumstances in which children have capacity to consent to treatment. It explores the case law in cases where there is disagreement between parents and children over health care. It also looks at difficult cases where parents and doctors disagree on how to treat very sick children. The way the courts interpret the best interests of the child are examined. The chapter also explores the ethical and legal issues around the vaccination of children. The broader issue of whether there should be limits on the rights of children and the extent to which parents can determine what is in the best interests of the child are examined.
9. Reproduction
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines legal and ethical aspects of assisted reproduction. Topics discussed include infertility; the concept of reproductive autonomy; criticisms of assisted reproduction; regulation of assisted reproductive technologies; criticisms of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990; gamete donation; surrogacy; cloning; and genetic enhancement and eugenics. The chapter explores the extent to which the state should regulate decisions around reproduction or whether they should be left to the decision of the individuals concerned. Some people believe that the interests of children to be born should be taken into account, although there is extensive debates over how this should be done.
4. The legislative supremacy of Parliament
Authors: Parpworth Neil
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the constitutional significance of the principle of the legislative supremacy of Parliament. The discussion covers the traditional view of the principle, which holds that Parliament is legally omnicompetent, as well as a competing view of legislative supremacy of Parliament, referred to as the ‘new’ view or the ‘manner and form’ argument. The chapter also considers the effect on legislation of the following: the doctrine of implied repeal, the meaning of entrenchment, the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949, Union legislation, legislative supremacy and EU Law, legislative supremacy and devolution, and legislative supremacy and the Human Rights Act 1998.
19. Police powers
Authors: Parpworth Neil
Published: September 2022

The Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) confers many powers upon the police. This chapter discusses the Codes of Practice of PACE, police powers of stop and search, the power to arrest members of the public, and the powers to enter property. Whether or not a particular power is exercised will be a matter for the discretion of an individual officer. The exercise of this discretion and the extent to which this is subject to review by the courts will be examined. Finally, the chapter looks at two offences under section 89 of PACE which may be committed against the police: assaulting an officer and wilful obstruction of an officer.
10. Leasehold Covenants
Authors: Bevan Chris
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers covenants that exist in relation to leasehold land—also known as ‘leasehold covenants’. As the name suggests, these are promises made between landlords and their tenants and form the crucial foundation of this leasehold relationship. The chapter explores the nature and importance of leasehold covenants, how such covenants are enforced between the original parties, and enforceability where there are successors to the original parties. In view of changes to the law introduced by the Landlord and Tenant (Covenants) Act 1995, this chapter considers both the pre-1996 and post-1996 regimes for determining enforceability of leasehold covenants. Finally, the chapter discusses the important issue of remedies for landlords and tenants facing a breach of covenant.
11. Easements and Profits
Authors: Bevan Chris
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers two rights in land that fall short of rights of possession—easements and profits. These lesser, non-possessory rights are a vital way in which even more of the value in land can be unlocked. An easement is a right of one landowner to enjoy limited use of another’s neighbouring land. A profit involves a right to take something from another’s land, for example fish or wood. It involves more than a mere limited right over another’s land but rather entails a right to appropriate some part of the natural product of that land.
12. Freehold Covenants
Authors: Bevan Chris
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers covenants that exist in relation to freehold land—also known as ‘freehold covenants’. As the name suggests, these are promises made between freehold owners of land. The chapter explores the nature of freehold covenants: how such covenants are created and enforced between the original parties and successive owners of the land, the role of law and equity and the role of remedies, and the legal and equitable rules. Finally, the chapter discusses how freehold covenants can be discharged and modified as well as reform of the law in this area.
8. Joint owners of land (co-ownership)
Authors: Clarke Sandra , Greer Sarah
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses ‘express’ co-ownership of land—the situation in which owners make a conscious decision to own land together. It first briefly defines the two types of co-ownership—joint tenancy and tenancy in common—and distinguishes between legal and equitable ownership. It then discusses legal title and equitable title in relation to joint tenancy and tenancy in common; and how to differentiate between joint tenancy and tenancy in common in practice. The chapter also considers the issue of severance, which converts the status of a co-owner from joint tenant to that of tenant in common, as well as the impact of co-ownership on the land register.
10. Proprietary estoppel
Authors: Clarke Sandra , Greer Sarah
Published: September 2022

This chapter looks at another way of acquiring an interest in land, through the doctrine of proprietary estoppel. It discusses the two-stage process of acquiring an interest in land through proprietary estoppel: establishing an equity and satisfying the equity. It explains the three main elements that need to be proved to establish the equity. These are assurance, reliance, and detriment, and it gives case law examples of where these have been considered. It considers the wide range of remedies that may be awarded at the court’s discretion. It then looks at some interesting recent developments in proprietary estoppel and addresses an overarching element of proprietary estoppel claims: unconscionability. Finally, it examines the differences between the constructive trust and proprietary estoppel.
12. Easements and profits
Authors: Clarke Sandra , Greer Sarah
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses easements and profits—two of the most important rights that can be held by one person over land belonging to another person. Easements are important property rights owned by one landowner (the dominant owner) over land of another (the servient owner). To be an easement, the right claimed must benefit the land itself and not merely the owner of the dominant tenement personally. This key requirement has been thoroughly examined recently by the Supreme Court in Regency Villas Title Ltd v. Diamond Resorts (Europe) Ltd. Common types of easement include rights of way, rights of parking, right to air, and rights of water. A profit à prendre is the right to take something from another person’s land. This includes minerals, crops, and wild animals. Profits may be owned either by one person to the exclusion of all others—that is, a several profit—or by one person in common with other persons—that is, a profit in common, or a common.
14. Mortgages
Authors: Clarke Sandra , Greer Sarah
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses mortgages, specifically mortgage creation, legal mortgages, equitable mortgages, and priority of mortgages. A mortgage is a debt secured on land. A legal mortgage in registered land can now be created only by means of a legal charge under the Land Registration Act 2002, s. 23(1)(a). The mortgagor has a bundle of rights known as the ‘equity of redemption’. If the mortgagee attempts to gain any unconscionable advantage by means of the mortgage, the courts will strike it down. The mortgagee has five potential remedies to recover the debt: an action on the mortgagor’s personal covenant; repossession; sale; appointment of a receiver; and foreclosure. The doctrine of undue influence is important in the law of mortgages. Provided the mortgagee bank follows the steps outlined by the House of Lords in Royal Bank of Scotland v. Etridge (No. 2), it will be protected against a claim for undue influence.
16. Exam technique and the perils of question spotting
Authors: Clarke Sandra , Greer Sarah
Published: September 2022

This chapter offers some general advice to students on how to prepare for their land law exam. Firstly, it discusses the revision process and advises on how best to prepare for exam success. It offers some top exam tips, and suggestions on question spotting. It then presents some questions that are likely to be asked on the topics studied. These topics include all of the substantive topics covered in the book, including the nature of land, the structure of land law, the freehold estate, land registration, leases, adverse possession, co-ownership and the Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996, easements and profits, covenants in freehold land, and mortgages.
12. Judicial review: illegality
Authors: Stanton John , Prescott Craig
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers ‘illegality’ as a ground of judicial review. Illegality is one of the three main grounds of judicial review as outlined by Lord Diplock in Council of Civil Service Unions & Others v Minister for the Civil Service. Broadly, the aim of this ground of judicial review is to ensure that public authorities act within the scope of their powers. This means that illegality is a wide ground of judicial review and is best considered as an umbrella term for a range of different ways in which a decision by a public authority can be challenged. A decision can be challenged under this ground of judicial review on the basis that the public authority lacks the power to make the decision in the first place, or if it does have the power, then the power has been exercised incorrectly.
15. Tribunals
Authors: Stanton John , Prescott Craig
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses tribunals and their role within the administrative justice system. It considers the purpose of tribunals, their advantages over the courts and the difference between tribunals and judicial review. The chapter than outlines the structure of tribunals, focusing on the two-tier system introduced by the Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement Act 2007, and the roles of the First-tier Tribunal and the Upper Tribunal. The ability to appeal from the First-tier Tribunal to the Upper Tribunal is then outlined together with the possibility of making an onward appeal on a point of law to the Court of Appeal and potentially direct to the Supreme Court. The chapter also analyses the development of ‘Cart judicial reviews’, which is when the Upper Tribunal is itself reviewed by the High Court, and scrutinises proposals to abolish this procedure. Different aspects of tribunal procedure, including oral or paper-based hearings, and different approaches to conducting oral hearings are also discussed. The chapter concludes by considering potential reforms, including the move to holding tribunals online.
8. Freedom for Individuals to Provide and Receive Services
Authors: Barnard Catherine
Published: September 2022

Articles 56–7 TFEU lay down the principle of freedom to provide services on a temporary basis by a person established in one Member State to a recipient established in another. This chapter first considers who is entitled to benefit from the services provisions and the rights they enjoy in respect of: (1) initial access to the market; (2) the exercise of the freedom; and (3) the enjoyment of social advantages.
9. Union Citizenship
Authors: Barnard Catherine
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the concept of Union citizenship and the rights EU citizens enjoy. European citizenship allows individuals a variety of associative relations based on economic, social, cultural, scholarly, and even political activities, irrespective of the traditional territorial boundaries of the European nation states. In particular, this chapter examines the rights enjoyed by citizens under the Citizens’ Rights Directive 2004/38, including family rights and the rights citizens enjoy irrespective of whether they are economically active.
14. Regulating the Internal Market
Authors: Barnard Catherine
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the power to harmonize (that is, the power to adopt legislative acts and the possibility to supplement them by non-legislative acts), the different approaches to harmonization adopted by the Union, and the problem of the implementation and enforcement of Union standards. By setting harmonized standards, EU law enables goods, persons, services, and capital to move freely. When viewed from this perspective, harmonization is the complement of the four freedoms. However, it remains a sensitive matter both legally and politically. The chapter also examines the evolution of the digital internal market.
2. The Nature of a Contract of Employment
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the parties to a contract of employment, the distinction between employees, workers and self-employed persons, and other categories of parties to a contract of employment, looking at the different types of employment status and the tests used to decide which category a person falls into. It includes the status of directors, partners, office holders, ministers of religion, and the police, as well as apprentices, posted workers, domestic servants, and those working abroad and in offshore employment. It also looks at employee shareholders and has a discussion of whether people working in the ‘gig economy’ are workers or employees. Further, the chapter looks at those on fixed-term contracts and agency workers. It also summarises the new IR35 regime and looks at modern slavery.
3. The Formation of a Contract of Employment
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses how an employment contract is formed, and it then looks at the terms and conditions of employment and how these terms are to be interpreted. The types of terms discussed include express terms, implied terms, statutory terms, collective agreements and how such collective terms are incorporated, and looks at custom as a source of employment terms and works and staff rules. The chapter also considers other aspects of the contract of employment such as disciplinary and grievance procedures, job descriptions, written particulars of the contract of employment, the right to itemised pay statements, variation of contractual terms, and an overview of occupational pension schemes.
10. Performance of the Contract of Employment
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

This chapter begins with a discussion of the personal nature of the employment contract, and the fact that such a contract is necessarily one of personal service which gives rise to duties and obligations on both sides. It deals with issues such as the implied duties of the employer to provide for the employee (including the implied duty to provide work, pay wages, confidentiality, and the implied duty of trust and confidence), and the corresponding implied obligations of the employee (including the duty of faithful service, duty to use skill and care). There is also a discussion of whistleblowing and public interest disclosures. It then explains employer’s vicarious liability, and harassment and bullying.
11. Health and Safety at Work
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers the provisions of the Health and Safety at Work, etc Act 1974. It covers the background to the HASAWA, covering both the criminal and civil liability for health and safety. It considers the powers of inspectors, enforcement of the Act, improvement notices and prohibition notices, the burden of proof and appeals; statutory duties on health, safety, and welfare; the impact of European law; burden of proof; the Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007; and compensation for injuries at work. It also looks at a number of health and safety regulations, including the ‘six pack’. Also looked at is the extent of the employer’s duty, and its duty to unborn children, and the limitation period for bringing an action and risk assessments and employers’ duties in relation to Coronavirus.
12. Disciplinary, Dismissal, and Grievance Procedures
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

During the performance of the employment contract the employer may find it necessary to exercise some form of disciplinary authority over the employee, which may take one of a number of forms, ranging from informal warnings, etc, through to final warning or dismissal. There will also be occasions when the employee will wish to pursue a grievance over the way he is treated, and a suitable grievance procedure is the obvious channel to be used. This chapter discusses disciplinary procedures and grievance procedures, how to draw up such procedures and the conduct of disciplinary hearings; the right to be accompanied; disciplinary rules; and the exercise of disciplinary powers such as suspension, warnings, and other sanctions.
17. Unfair Dismissal
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

The statutory provisions relating to unfair dismissal are found in ss 94–107 of the Employment Rights Act 1996. This chapter looks at what amounts to a dismissal and the ways in which a dismissal may take place, covering expiry of a fixed-term contract, resignation and constructive dismissal, and frustration of the contract. It also discusses the categories of employees which are not protected by the unfair dismissal provisions of ERA; the termination of the contract; fair and unfair dismissal; fair reasons for dismissal and some other substantial reason; written reasons for dismissal; and remedies for unfair dismissal such as reinstatement, re-engagement, and compensation, as well as showing how such compensation is to be calculated.
3. Legislation and the law-making process
Authors: Rutherford Helen , Kotecha Birju , MacFarlane Angela
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the legislative (law-making) process. In the UK, the Westminster Parliament can make primary legislation called Acts of Parliament or ‘Statutes’. Parliament can also grant powers to other bodies to make legislation on Parliament’s behalf, in the form of secondary legislation or delegated legislation. Parliament is comprised of three bodies, the Queen in Parliament, the House of Commons, and the House of Lords. A draft piece of legislation, a bill, which will become an Act of Parliament must be passed by the House of Commons and the House of Lords and then receive Royal Assent. If the House of Commons and House of Lords cannot agree on legislation this can be governed by the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949. Secondary or delegated legislation is necessary for a number of reasons but is subject to controls exercised by Parliamentary and the courts.
7. Human rights in the United Kingdom
Authors: Rutherford Helen , Kotecha Birju , MacFarlane Angela
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and its relationship to the English legal system. The focus in the chapter is on key provisions of the Human Rights Act 1998—the Act that incorporated the Convention into UK law. In the earlier part of the chapter there is coverage of sections 2, 3, and 4 of the Act. These provisions concern the duties placed on the courts to take into account judgments of the European Court of Human Rights, to interpret domestic legislation so as to comply with rights under the Convention, and finally to issue a declaration of incompatibility when domestic legislation does not comply with rights under the Convention. Using examples from the case law, the chapter assesses how the courts balance their constitutional role to respect the supremacy of Parliament, with the duties provided in the Act to respect rights under the Convention. There is also an analysis of s.6 of the Human Rights Act 1998 which makes it unlawful for a public authority to act incompatibly with Convention rights. The analysis includes the contested question of what precisely constitutes a ‘public authority’, particularly when a private body is carrying out a public function.
9. The legal profession
Authors: Rutherford Helen , Kotecha Birju , MacFarlane Angela
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers the roles of solicitors and barristers in the English legal system. It outlines the basic business models of legal practice, including alternative business structures, and the constraints on such organisations. It discusses the rules affecting practice as a solicitor or a barrister, and other legal professionals, and discusses the regulatory organisations overseeing their work. The debate as to whether the two main branches of the legal profession should be fused into one is set out. The discussion and debate about changes to legal education are signposted, including the major reforms to the qualification requirements for solicitors and barristers.
2. Funding Litigation
Authors: Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the issue of funding litigation. Solicitors have a professional duty to advise clients on litigation funding options. The advice and agreed funding method should be confirmed in writing in a ‘client care letter’. Most commercial clients pay their lawyers under the traditional retainer, normally with an agreed hourly rate. Conditional free agreements (CFAs) or ‘no win, no fee’ agreements allow a lawyer to agree not to charge the client if the proceedings are unsuccessful, but to charge an uplift or ‘success fee’ of up to 100 per cent over the solicitor’s usual costs if the proceedings are successful. Damages-based agreements (DBAs) are a form of contingency fee agreement under which the lawyer is paid out of the sums recovered in the proceedings. Public funding through legal aid is restricted to individuals with modest income and capital, and there are wide exclusions from the scheme.
4. Overriding Objective and Human Rights
Authors: Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the sources of procedural law, the general principles relevant to civil procedure established by the overriding objective, the European Convention on Human Rights, and some rules on how the courts approach construing the Civil Procedure Rules 1998 (CPR). The CPR and practice directions (PDs) are the procedural rules governing civil proceedings. The most important rule is the ‘overriding objective’ of dealing with claims justly and at proportionate cost. The most important Convention rights in civil litigation are the right to a fair trial, the right to respect for private and family life, and the right to freedom of expression.
11. Service Outside the Jurisdiction
Authors: Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

This chapter deals with jurisdiction in England and Wales. Proceedings generally have to be served within the jurisdiction. There always has to be a sound basis before proceedings can be served outside the jurisdiction. Where the parties have an exclusive jurisdiction clause in favour of the courts of England and Wales, proceedings may be commenced against a defendant who is outside the jurisdiction pursuant to the Hague Convention 2005, and served on the defendant without seeking court permission. In other cases, if jurisdiction can be established against a defendant who is outside the jurisdiction under the CPR, r 6.36 and PD 6B, para 3.1, proceedings can be served outside the jurisdiction only with the permission of the court. The times for responding to claims served outside the jurisdiction are extended.
40. Remote Hearings
Authors: Sime Stuart
Published: September 2022

Traditionally, civil hearings take place in court buildings, with hearings being conducted in public in court rooms in front of a judge. Active case management in accordance with the overriding objective includes dealing with cases without the parties needing to attend court, and by making use of technology (CPR, r 1.4(2)(j) and (k)). There is provision in the CPR for holding hearings by telephone, by video, or by any other means which permits simultaneous communication (r 39.1(1)(a)), and for receiving evidence by telephone or by using any other method of direct oral communication (r 3.1(2)(d)). Increased public proficiency with information technology, combined with the emergency created by the coronavirus outbreak in 2020, have resulted in the courts embracing computer technology for remote hearings for civil proceedings.
8. The constitution of the company: dealing with insiders
Authors: Dignam Alan , Lowry John
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter discusses the constitution of the company, with emphasis on the articles of association. It first outlines the operation of the memorandum and the articles before turning to the law surrounding the contract of membership under s 33 of the Companies Act 2006. It then considers some elements of corporate theory in relation to the articles of association, contract between the company and the members, contract between the members, the question of who is entitled to sue to enforce the s 33 contract, and the issue of outsider rights with respect to the s 33 contract. The chapter also looks at the historical reforms proposed by the Company Law Review Steering Group for the Companies Act 2006 and concludes by analysing the effects of shareholder agreements on the statutory obligation of the company.