bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Political Philosophy Between Peace and War
Authors: Mara Gerald M.
Published: June 2019

Chapter 5 revisits the classical Greeks. I argue that while Thucydides and Plato appear to take different positions on whether peace or war should be the controlling frame of reference for political theory, their texts frustrate attempts to see either perspective as dominant. Thucydides’s description of his book a possession forever does not establish his text as a conclusive last word, but marks it as a resource to be continually consulted. In parallel, Plato’s Republic represents a kind of conversation able to take Thucydides’s book seriously. These thematic convergences suggest neither war nor peace can be identified as the dominant frame of reference for political theory. The need to take both prospects seriously makes a dialogic approach to Western political philosophy attractive. I recommend reading the philosophical statements considered throughout the book not as systematic arguments to be proven or refuted, but as diverse voices to be critically interpreted.
Perception from Action
Authors: Buzsáki György
Published: June 2019

The outside-in framework inevitably poses the question: What comes between perception and action? The homunculus with its decision-making power produces unavoidable logical consequences from the separation of perception from action. I promote the alternative view that things and events in the world can acquire meaning only through brain-initiated actions. In this process, the brain builds a simplified, customized model of the world by encoding the relationships of events to each other. I introduce the concept of “corollary discharge,” the main physiological mechanism that grounds the sensory input to make it an experience. This is a comparator mechanism that allows the brain to examine the relationship between a true change in the sensory input and a change due to self-initiated movement of the sensors.
Seeing the Southern Ocean Ecosystem
Authors: Antonello Alessandro
Published: June 2019

This chapter investigates how the marine ecosystem came to be the central object of conservation in the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources of 1980. This was a novel move in international law, because the protection of an entire ecosystem had never before been enshrined in a treaty. In the 1960s the Soviet Union began to investigate the potential of krill and other fisheries in the Antarctic. This worried other treaty parties and environmentalists because over-exploitation of krill would have flow-on effects on its predators. While the Soviet Union, joined by Japan and others, was resolutely pro-exploitation, other nations, led by the United States and Britain, were more pro-conservation, particularly focusing on protecting the ecosystem as a whole. The eventual codification of ecosystem protection demonstrated the power of the pro-conservation states at that time.
Epilogue
Authors: Wempe Sean Andrew
Published: June 2019

This chapter considers the decade-long, rather tempestuous relationship between Colonial Germans, the colonial lobbies, and the Nazi Party (NSDAP), and takes a brief glimpse into German engagement with the postcolonial world in the late twentieth century. Although there was a significant amount of mutual flirtation between the Nazi regime and some opportunistic Colonial Germans who continued the pursuit of colonial restitution by any means, there were a fair number of Colonial Germans who did not find the Nazi Party appealing. Ultimately, all Colonial Germans and their ambitions would be disappointed as their organizations were absorbed by Nazi centralization schemes. The colonial legacy was appropriated to serve the Nazi state’s specific propaganda needs, often contradicting German colonialists’ aims. On January 13, 1943, late in the Battle of Stalingrad, Hitler and Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels ordered the cessation of all colonial and colonialist activities in Germany. Even this, however, was not the end of Germany’s colonial legacy, as Colonial Germans continued to adapt and insert themselves into new careers and international debates well into the second half of the twentieth century.
The Burden of Mental Disorders
Authors: Eaton William W. , Bienvenu O. Joseph , Nestadt Gerald , Volk Heather E. , Anthony James C.
Published: June 2019

This chapter describes seventeen important mental disorders and reviews studies of the prevalence of the disorders from around the world, presenting median and interquartile ranges for more than four hundred research studies. The range of prevalences is below 0.5% for eating disorders and schizophrenia, and above 5% for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, major depressive disorder, phobias, personality disorders, and dementia. The chapter discusses methods for judging the disability adjusted life years (DALYs) for the disorders and compares estimates to other diseases considered in the Global Burden of Disease study. Mental and substance use disorders account for more than 160 million of the total DALYs in the world, or about 7% of the total. Major depressive disorder is the leading causes of DALYs among the mental and substance use disorders.
Psychiatric Nosology
Authors: Nestadt Paul S. , Seymour Karen E. , Potash James B. , McHugh Paul R.
Published: June 2019

This chapter introduces and compares three prominent systems for the classification of mental illness, recognizing that no one system is ideal for all purposes and that there is a complicated historical context for each. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders arose in response to a troubling lack of consistent and reliable diagnostic definitions among both mental health researchers and clinicians. The Perspectives of Psychiatry framework represents a comprehensive approach to mental disorders that begins with the understanding that they can stem from combinations of one’s biology, behaviors, temperament, and personal experiences. The Research Domain Criteria framework is of particular value to scientists investigating the biological underpinnings of mental illness, arranging mental phenomenology along neuropsychological dimensions that can be broken down into proposed mechanisms building from genes to physiology to symptoms.
Global Mental Health Issues
Authors: Bass Judith K. , Haroz Emily E. , Sartorius Norman
Published: June 2019

This chapter reviews cultural and contextual influences on the presentation and prevalence of mental health problems in low- and middle-income countries. “Culture” is defined as shared norms, beliefs, values, and attitudes, while “context” refers to resource availability and political/social situation. The chapter includes discussion of the local “emic” and universal “etic” approaches to understanding mental health and shows the ways in which cultural and contextual variation influences the understanding, presentation, and treatment of mental and behavioral disorders. Research on understanding the effects of culture on differences in diagnosis and prevalence of mental disorders, as well as processes of recovery, is reviewed as well as guidelines developed by the World Health Organization. The way in which cultural and contextual differences affect choice and implementation of treatment and prevention programs is discussed.
An Introduction to Quantitative Methods Relevant for Public Mental Health
Authors: Stuart Elizabeth A. , Leoutsakos Jeannie-Marie Sheppard , Musci Rashelle , Gross Alden , Andrews Ryan M. , Eaton William W.
Published: June 2019

This chapter provides a brief introduction to some of the epidemiologic and statistical methods for, and challenges to, gathering and analyzing the data that underlie the research presented in this volume and in the field of public mental health as a whole. The chapter is not intended as a general introduction to epidemiologic and statistical methods, but focuses more specifically on some of the data and methodological complexities particularly common in public mental health research. Three fundamental types of questions relevant to public mental health are discussed in particular: (1) estimating rates of disorders in a population across people, places, and time; (2) examining risk and protective factors associated with particular disorders; and (3) exploring and understanding the effects of interventions to prevent disorders or to treat them once they emerge.
The Population Dynamics of Mental Disorders
Authors: Eaton William W. , Kessler Ronald C. , Mortensen Preben Bo , Rebok George W. , Roth Kimberly
Published: June 2019

This chapter concerns the natural history of mental disorders from onset of disorder throughout the remaining life course. Data are presented from population-based cohort studies in the United States and in Denmark. Mental disorders start before midlife and are persistent, with long episodes and recurrences for as many as a 20%–30% of those who meet criteria for the disorders. The cumulative incidence proportion is above 30%. Early identification of mental disorders via precursor signs and symptoms has the potential to contribute to prevention of full episodes. Comorbidity is common among mental disorders both for other mental disorders, and for later-occurring physical disorders. Most mental disorders are associated with raised mortality risk.
Public Mental Health and the Brain Across the Life Span
Authors: Carlson Michelle C. , Moored Kyle , Rebok George W. , Eaton William W.
Published: June 2019

This chapter introduces the reader to brain structures that are hypothesized to be associated with mental and behavioral disorders. The focus is on the prefrontal-limbic and prefrontal-parietal-striatal networks as regulators of cognitive and emotional responses to internal and external stressors. These networks are increasingly understood as being plastic over the entire life course. The development of these systems from early childhood to old age is discussed, with focus on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, schizophrenia, mood disorders, and Alzheimer’s disease. Neuroimaging tools and blood biomarkers that may help understand and prevent these disorders, as well as predict responses to therapies, are becoming increasingly useful.
Pathways to Care
Authors: Mojtabai Ramin , Murray Sarah , Eaton William W.
Published: June 2019

This chapter discusses the gap between the need for mental health care and the actual receipt of such care, and the barriers that contribute to this gap. These barriers include attitudes such as stigma, negative attitudes about the benefits of mental health treatments, and lack of perceived need for care. Another set of barriers is related to the structure of services such as scarcity of providers, geographical distance, and inadequate health insurance coverage of mental health services. The chapter describes theoretical models used to understand the process of treatment-seeking and examples of initiatives that have been used to overcome barriers to care. Among these initiatives, public campaigns aimed at increasing awareness and recognition of mental disorders and at reducing stigma, and legislative initiatives aimed at increasing insurance coverage for mental health care have received public attention. Future initiatives to improve access to services and reduce the treatment gap would benefit from a better understanding of the process of treatment-seeking and barriers to mental health treatment.
Mental Health Systems Around the World
Authors: Saxena Shekhar , Kane Jeremy , Krawczyk Noa , Bass Judith K.
Published: June 2019

This chapter discusses the concepts, definitions, measurement instruments, and sources of data bearing on global mental health and mental illness. The discussion reveals the limited use of system-level instruments and readily comparable global data to help guide international public mental health policy. The chapter includes selected data on mental health systems around the world and gives an overview of mental health–related activities by leading international agencies such as the World Health Organization (WHO) Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse, the United Nations Interagency Task Force (UNIATF) on the Prevention and Control of Non-communicable Diseases, the United Nations International Children’s Educational Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and a range of international research consortia. The presence or absence of mental health policy, the presence of law relevant to mental health, and the presence of mental health care facilities around the world are reviewed.
The Logic and Practice of the Prevention of Mental Disorders
Authors: Mendelson Tamar , Pas Elise T. , Lee-Winn Angela E. , Bradshaw Catherine P. , Rebok George W. , Leis Julie A. , Mandell Wallace
Published: June 2019

This chapter discusses the history and future of prevention of mental disorders. The history of successful prevention efforts includes important disorders such as scurvy, pellagra, delirium tremens, and general paresis. The three-tiered approach of the Institute of Medicine is used (universal, selective, and indicated prevention). Successful prevention programs for the entire range of mental and behavioral disorders are reviewed at the levels of the individual, small group, family, school, workplace, community, and society. Separate sections review programs to prevent depression, schizophrenia, and cognitive decline. The Internet provides new opportunities for disseminating interventions, and integration of social, genetic, and biological predictors of mental disorders will enhance preventive efforts in the future.
Influences from the Arabian Peninsula on the Revival of Islam in Central Asia and the Caucasus
Authors: Balci Bayram
Published: June 2019

Arabian Peninsula and Arab countries have always been linked to Muslims of Central Asia and the Caucasus. However, because of the Russian and Soviet parenthesis, the Islamic connections between these regions weakened. With the end of the Soviet Union, an Islamic cooperation started and took mainly two channels: pilgrimages (hajj) and diaspora. Although it was de facto impossible during the Soviet period, hajj has become a very important Islamic point of contact between Saudi Arabia and the post-Soviet sphere, contributing to the development of Salafism in the region. Meanwhile, Uzbek and Uighurs, the two Central Asian diasporic communities present in Saudi Arabia for several decades, have also contributed to the development of Islamic cooperation between the Arabian Peninsula and the new post-Soviet Republics.
The Administration of Religion in the Newly Independent Republics
Authors: Balci Bayram
Published: June 2019

Faced with an Islamic revival from the inside and incoming foreign Islamic trends, leaders in Central Asia and the Caucasus have developed specific policies for a better management of Islam. With a new attitude toward Islam, different from the Soviet approach to religion, the new leaders have developed their own “national” Islam, also called a traditional Islam, one that accepts the control of the State. Security and stability of the country are the first parameters determining management of Islam by the government. For that, Islamic education and the existence of appropriate committees are the main tools and instruments that help the regimes to control the transformation of Islam.
Conclusion
Authors: Balci Bayram
Published: June 2019

Approximately one generation after the implosion of the USSR, the post-Soviet zone had fragmented into fifteen new states, which inherited borders and populations that they had not chosen, let alone forged into a nation in the course of history. The search for identity, common to a disorientated population deprived of the USSR as a source of pride and a state lacking geographical and historical legitimacy, generated formidable cultural impetus in these countries in the early 1990s. However, nation-building rapidly assumed the form of negative self-differentiation, falling back on what each country was not, compared with its neighbour, as opposed to what it intrinsically was. These processes intensified the individuation of each of the zone’s countries, which thereafter evolved differently. Among the profound cultural upheavals, multiform changes in Islam are specific to each society. They are all the more interesting to observe and study because they have resulted in a marked religious revival in less than twenty-five years, characterized by diversity in its forms and its openness to foreign influences, the strongest of which did not necessarily hail from where they were expected....
Ruptures
Authors: vom Bruck Gabriele
Published: June 2019

Pursuing a relational approach, Part II tells the story of Amat al-Latif’s childhood and early adult life in an elite household viewed through the prism of her intimate relationship with her father. Amat al-Latif’s narrative explains how the momentous events of 1948 – her father’s arrest, the collapse of the constitutional government, the sack of her city, house demolition ‒ have impacted upon her life’s trajectories, above all the loss of close relatives to disease and execution, early marriage and dispossession after the failed revolt. It dwells on the precariousness of everyday life in the aftermath of her family’s downfall and women’s exposure to destitution, and the ways in which she has dealt with violent bereavement. Amat al-Latif also had to deal with her husband’s father’s overbearing wife in her patrilocal household, refusing to subordinate herself to her. However, instead of employing the trope of resistance, it is argued that women’s noncompliance is frequently articulated within existing socio-cultural norms rather than the expression of an oppositional subjectivity.
Insurgent Truth
Authors: Maxwell Lida
Published: June 2019

Insurgent Truth argues for the importance of outsider truth-telling to democratic politics and reads Chelsea Manning as an important contemporary outsider truth-teller. Outsider truth-tellers such as Manning tell or enact unsettling truths from a position of social illegibility. Often dismissed as in-credible by their societies, this book argues that their acts and writings reveal problems with dominant models of truth and truth-telling in politics, which often look to truth to offer a prepolitical stable common ground and align credibility with gendered, classed, and raced traits. Focusing on how outsider truth-tellers reveal this supposedly prepolitical common ground to reflect the power and reality of elites, Insurgent Truth argues that outsider truth-telling enacts an important, if risky democratic role in three ways: 1) revealing oppression and violence that the dominant class would otherwise not see; 2) revealing, in their truth-telling, the possibility of another way of living; and 3) disclosing an alternative form of stability via outsider solidarity. Insurgent Truth develops this argument through reading Chelsea Manning’s actions in conjunction with a cohort of other outsider truth-tellers: especially Virginia Woolf, Bayard Rustin, Audre Lorde, and Anna Julia Cooper.
Telling the Truth, Changing the World
Authors: Maxwell Lida
Published: June 2019

Chapter 5 argues that Manning’s leaking of the Collateral Murder video may have changed, or be at work in changing, the world. Mobilizing a reading of Virginia Woolf’s use of war photographs in Three Guineas, the contention of the chapter is that leaking or displaying images of war may not have its primary impact through assuring accountability of elites but rather through changing the world: transforming various functional sites (offices, sitting rooms, work computers) into sites of truth-telling and empowerment. As an example, the chapter discusses the story of Ethan McCord, an infantryman who appears in the Collateral Murder video rushing to pick up the children injured by the shooting from the army helicopter. Seeing his own image in the video prompted McCord to take responsibility for his actions and to begin a broader anti-war campaign.
“I used to only know how to write memos”
Authors: Maxwell Lida
Published: June 2019

This chapter argues against seeing our contemporary moment as part of a “post-truth era” and instead situates Trump’s dismissal of facts as one nodal point in a broader crisis of the modern ideal of dispassionate speakers of rational truth. Viewed in this way, we may see our contemporary moment as containing sites of political danger and political promise. In this context, the chapter argues that outsider truth-telling offers a set of alternative precedents of possibly more democratic or emancipatory models of truth-telling that help us rethink what truth-telling does, and might do, for politics. Through a reading of Manning’s prison writings, I argue that outsider truth-telling is not only unsettling but also creates an alternative form of stability as creative solidarity.
The Field of Art
Authors: Nail Thomas
Published: June 2019

This chapter argues that matter flows and folds into affects, affects are conjoined into images, and images are arranged or ordered together in an aesthetic field, or art. This is the third concept of kinesthetics. If flows of matter intersect and folds of affect periodically cycle, then aesthetic fields organize them all in a continuous feedback loop. This chapter provides a theory of how conjoined flows become organized according to distinct patterns or fields of art. The author develops a theory of synesthesia, fluxions, emotion, experience, and knot works. This chapter concludes part I of this book and the kinesthetic exposition of the minimal features of the image and its motion. If the image can truly be said to be in motion today more than ever before, it must at least be capable of flowing, folding, and circulating across a field. Kinesthetics gives the theory of the moving image its own proper concepts.
The Generative Image
Authors: Nail Thomas
Published: June 2019

simply valorize the digital or even the generative The generative arts have invented a new artistic pedesis and laid the ground for a new materialist aesthetics of the image. The chapter discusses the various forms that the generative arts have taken, including the ordered and disordered. In particular, disordered forms of contemporary images discussed here are the visual arts, literary, plastic, and sonic forms. The argument is not that the generative arts are the only or best forms of art. Their function has been to blaze a trail that shows us what all the arts have already been doing, to one degree or another. The challenge now is to unfold the consequences of this discovery in the arts, to draw our attention to what the contemporary image shows us about the image more generally and what it is capable of today.
Taxonomy and Pauline Uniqueness
Authors: Eyl Jennifer
Published: June 2019

Chapter 1 establishes the two primary theoretical approaches of the book. First, the chapter argues for polythetic classification as a more nuanced and accurate approach to understanding Paul’s divination and wonderworking. This approach moves us away from the notion of Chrsitian uniqueness and toward a historically plausible context for divination and divine power. Second, the chapter argues for thinking in terms of modes of religiosity to better understand Paul as a religious figure. I argue that Paul moves in and out of various modes of religiosity that include practical, mundane understandings of the gods, as well as the theoretical, conceptual, and counterintuitive. He participates in dual modes of religiosity simultaneously, and the seamless overlap broadens his ability to reach his audience. Academic theologians themselves operate usually in the secondary mode of religiosity, which further explains why practices of divination and wonderworking have been disparaged, rejected, or ignored. Addressing the issues of taxonomy and modes of religiosity is critical to the entire project.
Complexities, Misconceptions, and Context
Authors: Ware Anthony , Laoutides Costas
Published: June 2019

This chapter introduces the complexity of Myanmar’s ‘Rohingya’ conflict, and address a series of misconceptions widely held about it in the international community. It discusses the scale of recent violence, extent of displacement and degree of international condemnation, including discussion of Aung San Suu Kyi’s failure to adequately address the conflict. It also expresses serious concern about international advocacy campaigns, arguing many undermine any chance of cooperation by the very actors who are most required to implement any solution. The chapter then deals with three misconceptions about the conflict in some detail, arguing that the conflict is not recent, not merely oppression of a despised ethnoreligious minority, and not about denial of citizenship and statelessness per se. Instead, it notes profound social cleavages dating back more than a century, with multiple bouts of devastating violence. It identifies the conflict as tripartite, between the Burman-led state, local ethnic Rakhine and the ‘Rohingya’. And it argues that citizenship and statelessness is a by-product of a deeper power struggle over Myanmar polity and political power. The chapter concludes with an introduction to the geographical, historical, economic and socio-political context.
Recent Violence and Significance
Authors: Ware Anthony , Laoutides Costas
Published: June 2019

This chapter illustrates the tripartite nature of this conflict, by exploring the interrelated outbreaks of serious violence in Rakhine State, Myanmar over the past five years. These are the 2012 intercommunal violence between ethnic Rakhine and ‘Rohingya’, the 2015-16 Arakan Army armed insurgency between Rakhine and the Burman-led state, and the 2016-17 insurgency Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army and its backlash, which was primarily between the Burman-led military (Tatmadaw) and the ‘Rohingya’. Documenting each of these clashes and power struggles in specific detail, it highlights the multi-polar nature of this conflict and illustrates some of the key fears, grievances and deep social fault lines making any resolution complex. The chapter concludes by discussing the significance of this conflict on Myanmar’s domestic politics, economic and political transition, and international support.
The Rohingya ‘Origin’ Narrative
Authors: Ware Anthony , Laoutides Costas
Published: June 2019

Chapters Three and Four articulate the competing historical narratives and representations of memory sustaining Myanmar’s ‘Rohingya’ conflict. This chapter examines what the authors designate the Rohingya ‘Origin’ narrative, and interrogates it against the available historical record; the next chapter considers the Rakhine and Burman perspectives. Drawing on the concept of intractable conflict, this chapter commences with an assessment of ‘Rohingya’ written historical sources and their sociopolitical context, then presents an overview and critique of these historical accounts. The chapter summarizes the key narrative of Rohingya origins, examining their representation of various waves of Muslim migration in the distant past, seeking to establish the Rohingya as a national race with deep historical roots in Arakan—and a people integral to Arakan’s political and socioeconomic life until its 1784 conquest by the Burmans. The chapter then offers an analysis of the pre-colonial Muslim population, and assesses their perspectives about the origins of the contemporary conflict. The chapter thus documents and analyses Rohingya claims that various waves of settlers have been assimilated, over centuries, into what is now a single ethic identity with a strong historical connection to the land, and a distinct language, culture and history which should now be considered indigenous to the region.
Rakhine–Burman Narratives
Authors: Ware Anthony , Laoutides Costas
Published: June 2019

Chapters Three and Four articulate the competing historical narratives and representations of memory sustaining Myanmar’s ‘Rohingya’ conflict. The last chapter examined the Rohingya ‘Origin’ historical narrative; this chapter considers the Rakhine and Burman perspectives, and interrogates them against the available historical record. This chapter documents and analyses three Rakhine—Burman perspectives, which the authors designate: a) the Rakhine ‘Independence’ narrative, which justifies demands for their autonomy from Burman domination; b) the Burman ‘Unity’ narrative, which claims a shared ancestry and historical unity between all of Myanmar’s national races (excluding Rohingya) as the basis for expectations that minorities will unite with them, to form a political community at the heart of the Union of Myanmar; and c) the Rakhine-Burman ‘Infiltration’ narrative, which claims an influx of Bengali Muslims during the colonial and post-Independence period poses an existential threat to the ethnic Rakhine, to Buddhism and to the Myanmar nation. Discussion of each of these narratives includes an assessment of written historical sources and their sociopolitical context, and an overview and critique of these narratives in the light of known history and Bar-Tal’s (2013) ideas about intractable conflict. The chapter concludes with a demographic analysis highlighting the growth of the Muslim population in Rakhine during the colonial period.
Security Dilemma, Minority Complex, Greed, and Political Economy
Authors: Ware Anthony , Laoutides Costas
Published: June 2019

This chapter explores the nature of Myanmar’s ‘Rohingya’ conflict against concepts of a demographic security dilemma, an ethnic security dilemma, a dual minority complex, and then the question of the impact of resources through two lenses, the ‘greed thesis’ and the political economy of conflict. It examines Rohingya population growth data, and the tripartite nature of the ethnic security dilemma, which suggests that times of political transition can facilitate heightened fears between rival ethnic or cultural groups and make them more vulnerable to extremist narratives and recourse to violence. It explores the deep sense of existential threat experienced by all parties, and how, from a regional and social-psychological perspective, a majority group within a country or region can feel as if they are a threatened minority competing for territorial and cultural survival. The chapter then moves into a discussion about the role of the State in the conflict, often overlooked or downplayed yet vitally important. It then considers the economic aspects of the conflict, analyzing these from ‘greed thesis’ and political economy perspectives, highlighting the interplay between the pre-existing conflict and the post-transition economic dynamics in the region.
Identity and Territory Grievances in Rakhine State
Authors: Ware Anthony , Laoutides Costas
Published: June 2019

This chapter explores the nature of Myanmar’s ‘Rohingya’ conflict against the two most common non-material ‘grievance’ explanations in the literature, with the aim to highlight how their interplay shapes and reshapes the trajectories of the conflict: grievance based around identity (or ethnicity) and territory. The chapter highlights how the importance of issues of identity driving this conflict helps explain the resistance to the name ‘Rohingya’ within Myanmar, and discusses the reification of ethnic political identities in Myanmar. It argues that the politicization of ethnicity has led to a politics of ethnicity in Myanmar, and now a politics of indigeneity (taing-yin-tha) as a means of projecting control, through domination over the ‘national race’ minorities by instrumentalizing exclusion of other races, like the Rohingya. The chapter then discusses the framing of violence, and the danger of collectivization in conflicts labelled as ‘ethnic, discussing their complexity, fluidity and propensity to reframe micro-level crime or violence as ‘ethnic’. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the importance of territory to this conflict, in the light of the emphasis on territorial control as a marker of legitimacy in international politics.
Epistemological Foundations
Authors: Garfield Jay L.
Published: June 2019

This chapter addresses Hume’s commitments both to a naturalistic Pyrrhonism and to an empirical approach to understanding knowledge and morality. It also discusses Hume’s account of ideas and of meaning. In that discussion we will see how his nominalism often leads him to the conclusion that we can be mistaken in thinking that have ideas that we take ourselves to have; we can fail to have any idea that corresponds to a word we correctly use. It also shows how his nominalism grounds a communitarian understanding of meaning and thought. The chapter concludes with attention to Hume’s initial discussions of our knowledge of the external world and our use of causal reasoning.
Of Skepticism with Regard to the Senses
Authors: Garfield Jay L.
Published: June 2019

This chapter addresses Treatise 1.4.2. It explains the argument in detail, showing again that Hume’s account of custom is central to his understanding both of why skepticism with regard to the senses is justified and of how we come to trust our senses nonetheless. This chapter demonstrates just how robust Hume takes the role of custom to be in our psychological lives. Hume does not argue that we are not entitled to a belief in the external world, or that we are not entitled to trust our senses. Instead, he asks about the grounds of that entitlement, and locates it in custom.
Making a Rebel Group Work
Authors: Mironova Vera
Published: June 2019

Popularity can cause problems for an armed group’s human resource wing. On one hand, the group’s ranks swell. But the group also has to ensure that such an influx does not decrease the overall quality of its labor force, because a good organization with good benefits attracts more than just dedicated fighters. To do this, armed groups impose additional unproductive costs on fighters in return for membership in the group. To ensure they get only the most trustworthy and loyal fighters, the most organized and successful groups present prospective fighters with a condition: adherence to a strict set of requirements that have no direct effect on fighting. Groups need to at least try to explain the rationale behind those restrictions to their members. Ideology—in the case of the Syrian civil war, Islamist ideology—comes in handy for that purpose.
Managing Ideology
Authors: Mironova Vera
Published: June 2019

Even if a rebel group could mitigate the threat posed by group members interested in ideology, doing so would take significant time and resources away from the main group’s objective. As a result, well-organized groups in the rebel bloc need to find a delicate balance between using ideology as a screening mechanism and preventing it from becoming a fighter’s top priority. To achieve that, armed groups need to be very clear about their true goals to avoid any misunderstanding among potential recruits. Another helpful tactic is to have a small but more radical non-independent armed group in the rebel bloc to draw such fighters away from the main mother group while still keeping them in the rebel bloc to fight the enemy. Highly dedicated foreign fighters can join the smaller group, thus still pursuing the overall war goals without threatening the mother group and its leadership.
A New Global Agenda: 1997–2001
Authors: Gannon John
Published: June 2019

The National Intelligence Council’s role in nontraditional threats grew considerably under John Gannon’s chairmanship to include major studies on issues such as technological innovation, narcotics, HIV/AIDS, and global migration. These and other reports informed the production of the highly acclaimed Global Trends 2015, which took its predecessor report several steps further, particularly in its engagement of nongovernmental experts and organizations. On a more contentious note, the Republican takeover of the House of Representatives in 1994 led to creation of a commission led by Donald Rumsfeld to look into what was seen by some as a too-sanguine assessment of the nuclear proliferation threat. The Rumsfeld Commission’s focus on North Korea, Iran, and Iraq was a harbinger of the George W. Bush administration’s focus on the “axis of evil” and its fateful invasion of Iraq in 2003, with Rumsfeld playing a lead role as secretary of defense.
The Trauma of 9/11: 2001–2002
Authors: Helgerson John L.
Published: June 2019

John Helgerson’s tenure began just six weeks before the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The terrorist threat had been the subject of major analyses produced during John Gannon’s tenure; it became the overwhelming priority after 9/11. Helgerson describes the early responses as well as the longer-term analyses of the evolving terrorist threat and the new landscape of counterterrorist cooperation with traditional allies and former adversaries alike. The US intervention in Afghanistan to topple the Taliban regime gave way to a new focus on Iraq. The ostensible rationale for the invasion of Iraq was a controversial national intelligence estimate on Iraqi weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Although the NIE was published in the interval between Helgerson’s tenure and his successor’s, the chapter assesses the estimate and the decision to go to war in Iraq through the analysis of National Intelligence Officer Paul Pillar, who straddled both tenures.
Envisioning the Future as a Working Mother
Authors: Ladge Jamie , Greenberg Danna
Published: June 2019

Chapter 1 begins before a woman even becomes pregnant. Many women spend years focusing on building a career, taking the time to build essential human capital skills that make them valuable resources in the workforce. However, there comes a time when most women begin to think actively about their future and determine whether or not that includes having children. When women have built a career and a personal life that they find satisfying, it becomes hard to imagine how children can be integrated into the mix. In this chapter we explore questions women often have at this important juncture in life, including: How does having a baby impact a woman’s career? How much does it cost to have a child? How does having a baby affect personal freedom?
Nine Months and Counting
Authors: Ladge Jamie , Greenberg Danna
Published: June 2019

Chapter 2 explores the foundations of working motherhood as women become pregnant and begin to negotiate professional and mothering roles as they disclose their pregnancies at work and prepare for maternity leave. We discuss three significant adjustments most women experience as they begin to integrate pregnancy and work. The first is a psychological adjustment that starts as a pregnant woman begins to envision her future identity as a working mother. The second adjustment is a physical one that stems from how a woman copes with her changing body in the workplace. The last adjustment is an interpersonal one and relates to how a pregnant woman manages interactions with her boss and her colleagues. We explore various ways women navigate these adjustments and how they set women up for positively integrating work and motherhood.
Black Gold and America Shape Iran and Saudi Arabia
Authors: Hiro Dilip
Published: June 2019

The discovery of oil near Masjid-e-Suleiman in Iran in 1908 by a British company aroused interest in Britain and America to explore the wider region for it. Standard Oil Company of California (Socal) secured oil concessions in Saudi Arabia from King Ibn Saud in 1933. The subsequent Arabian American Oil Company (Aramco) struck oil in 1938. The importance of Saudi petroleum increased when, following Iran’s nationalization of the British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) in 1951, Western countries boycotted Iranian oil. The political turmoil in Iran ended with the restoration of the briefly deposed Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi to the throne with the assistance of the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in August 1953. He leased the rights to Iran’s petroleum to the consortium of four Western oil companies for twenty-five years. With that, the United States became the prime Western influence in Tehran. By then Riyadh had forged military links with Washington. Soon rivalry developed between King Saud, a spendthrift ruler, and his austere Crown Prince Faisal. It ended with Saud abdicating in favor of Faisal in 1964. Four years earlier, Saudi Arabia had become one of the five founders of the Organization of Oil Exporting Countries (OPEC).
An Islamic Revolution in Iran; Initial Misreading by the Saudis
Authors: Hiro Dilip
Published: June 2019

By 1978, with all avenues of secular opposition blocked by the Shah’s dictatorial regime, more and more Iranians had turned to the mosque to voice their growing discontent. The revered Shia cleric, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, operating from exile in Najaf, Iraq, astutely tapped into Shia history of martyrdom and Iranian nationalism to create and intensify anti-royalist militancy among different classes of Iran. He transformed the escalating street protest into a non-violent revolutionary movement demanding the end of monarchy. It succeeded in February 1979. The freshly inaugurated Islamic Republic, endorsed by citizenry in a referendum, was to be built along the lines of Khomeini’s 1971 book, Islamic Government:
Rule of the Just Jurisprudent. .Unfamiliarity with this seminal work led Saudi Deputy Prime Minister, Prince Abdullah, to declare, wrongly, that obstacles to manifold cooperation between the Saudi Kingdom and the Islamic Republic had been removed. The new regime in Tehran established the Islamic Revolutionary Guards, a special force to protect the revolution, and revolutionary courts. Its constitution provided for a directly elected parliament and president, and Assembly of Experts who chose the just jurisprudent as the Supreme Leader. The regime embarked on Islamizing the state and society.
The Iran-Iraq War Steels Khomeini’s Regime
Authors: Hiro Dilip
Published: June 2019

Khomeini’s exhortations to the Shia majority in Iraq to revolt against the regime of President Saddam Hussein, the Sunni head of the secular Arab Baath Socialist Party, incensed not only the Iraqi leader but also the Saudi and Kuwaiti monarchs. Encouraged by reports of low morale in the depleted Iranian military, and by the Saudi and Kuwaiti rulers, Hussein invaded Iran in September 1980. His scenario visualized the ethnic Arab minority in Iran’s oil-rich Khuzistan province welcoming Iraqi soldiers as liberators, and starting a chain reaction that would culminate in the collapse of Khomeini’s regime within a few months. Iran fought the war using its limited resources. By contrast, Iraq received massive financial aid from Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, which shipped their oil on its behalf, and loans from Western nations and Japan. Nominally neutral America helped it by passing on satellite and high resolution reconnaissance images of Iranian troops to Riyadh, which transmitted these to Baghdad. After ninety-five months of warfare, neither Iran nor Iraq lost much territory. And there was no a regime change in either country. The unintended consequence of the longest war of the twentieth century was to enable Khomeini to consolidate the Islamic revolution.
The Saudi-Iranian Race to Influence the Muslim World
Authors: Hiro Dilip
Published: June 2019

Saudi Arabia backed the Islamization drive by Pakistan’s military ruler General Zia ul Haq, a Sunni. Its official aid to his government was supplemented by contributions from Islamic charities, foundations, mosque collections, and royal princes. When Haq issued a decree in July 1980 for the compulsory collection of religiously enjoined tax of zakat, to be used as charity by the state, Shia leaders protested. They argued that they were required to pay one-fifth of their trading profits to a grand ayatollah of their choice. Haq issued an exemption for Shias. But he and the military’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) directorate encouraged radical elements in the Society of Scholars of Islam organization to form a militantly Sunni group, Sipah-e-Sahaba. It secured additional funding from Riyadh’s General Intelligence Directorate. After igniting anti-Shia riots in Lahore in 1986, it started killing prominent Shias. Militant Shias formed Soldiers of Muhammad group to commit tit-for-tat assassinations. The killing of the Iranian Counsel General in Lahore highlighted the Saudi-Iranian proxy war. In Afghanistan, when Moscow intervened militarily in December 1979, Khomeini condemned it. Iran implemented its own anti-Soviet campaign in Afghanistan while staying clear of the US-Saudi-Pakistani jihad against the Soviet-backed regime in Kabul.
Saudi Arabia at the Center of the Twentieth Century’s Last Major War
Authors: Hiro Dilip
Published: June 2019

At the end of 1990, Saddam Hussein’s invasion and occupation of Kuwait in August of that year dominated headlines internationally. US President George H. W. Bush, an oilman, saw that by annexing Kuwait, Hussein would control 20 per cent of the global oil reserves almost on a par with Saudi Arabia’s. That would deprive Riyadh of being the swing producer able to cause rise or fall in petroleum prices. Such an eventuality had to be aborted with the backing of the international community, with Saudi Arabia as a crucial part of the project. After convincing King Fahd, on the basis of dodgy evidence, that Hussein was readying to attack his country, Bush got invited by Fahd to send US troops to the Desert Kingdom. It was thus that Saudi Arabia became the center of the century’s last major war. By December 1990, the Pentagon, leading a coalition of twenty-eight nations, thirteen of them Arab or Muslim, assembled the most lethal fighting machine since the Second World War to confront 545,000 Iraqi troops in Kuwait and southern Iraq. The fighting between 16 January and 28 February 1991 ended with the defeat of Iraq and the liberation of Kuwait.
Multi-front Cold War between Riyadh and Tehran
Authors: Hiro Dilip
Published: June 2019

When rebel Houthis, followers of Zaidi Shia code, captured Sanaa in September 2014, and expelled Yemen’s Sunni President Abd Rabbu al Hadi, alarm bells rang in Riyadh. Deputy Crown Prince Muhammad bin Salman led a coalition of friendly states to intervene in the Yemeni civil war in March 2015. This ignited protest by the Shias in Saudi Arabia. Their indignation intensified when, ignoring international appeals for clemency, the Saudi government executed their revered Ayatollah Nimr al Nimr in January 2016. This led to the severance of diplomatic ties between Riyadh and Tehran. In Iraq, whereas Iran dispatched its trained Shia volunteers to fight Islamic Sate in Syria and Iraq (ISIS), Riyadh lent four jet fighters to the Pentagon in Washington’s anti-ISIS campaign. When Riyadh backed Syrian opposition with cash and weapons, Russian President Vladimir Putin sent air force units to Syria, and shored up Assad’s depleted arms arsenal. With Assad’s recapture of Eastern Aleppo, an opposition stronghold, in December 2016, Iran established superiority over Riyadh in Syria. In July 2015, Iran and six major world powers signed an accord on Tehran’s denuclearization program, titled Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA). It won universal approval except by Saudi Arabia and Israel.