bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Richards Norvin
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1 I discussed a number of theories about the architecture of the gram mar. This book has largely been an effort to discover evidence that would help us to choose among these theories. One theory, the one which I assumed and which seems to most accurately capture the facts of multiple wh-movcment across languages, is the “classic” theory which postulates both overt and covert wh movement, and in which all overt movement precedes all covert movement; this is the theory defended in Huang (1982) and Lasnik and Saito (1984). As I pointed out, this theory has the property (unique among the theories discussed) that languages which move all their wh-words and languages which leave all wh-words in situ should have a similar status with respect to diagnostics for the order of operations in the derivation; these are the languages in which all movement takes place in a single component of the derivation. They contrast in this regard with English, which does some movement in the overt syntax and some movement in the covert syntax.
Quantificational Variability I: Adverbial Modification of Embedded Interrogatives
Authors: Lahiri Utpal
Published: November 2023

Predicates of the know-class include predicates like realize, forget, tell, guess, etc. whereas predicates of the wonder-type include predicates like ask, investigate, etc. This distinction is often taken to imply that interrogatives embedded under the two kinds of predicates differ syntactically and/or semantically. In this chapter, I provide an analysis of quantificational variability in embedded interrogatives, starting with the premise that embedded interrogative complements of both the know-class of predicates and the wonder-class predicates are identical in semantic type, the semantic type of Questions. The different behavior of the two classes of predicates follows from the way they are interpreted when a predicate like know, which is of the type ⟪s, t⟩, ⟩e, t⟫ (a predicate that would normally take a proposition as an argument) takes a Question as an argument.
The Rise and Success of the Sophists
Authors: Romilly Jacqueline De
Published: November 2023

WHO were these men whom we still, even today, refer to as ‘the Sophists’? The word itself means professionals of the intelligence. And they certainly set out to teach people how to use their intelligence. They were not ‘sages’, sophoi, a word which connotes not a profession but a state of being. Nor were they ‘philosophers’, for this word suggests a patient search for the truth rather than an optimistic confidence in one’s own abilities. They knew certain methods and could teach them. They were masters of thinking, masters of talking. Knowledge was their speciality, just as the piano is the pianist’s. One of them, Thrasymachus, hit on an admirable formula to convey this. The epitaph that he composed for his own tomb ran: ‘Chalcedon was my country, knowledge my profession.1
Reconstruction on the Basis of the Tabula Rasa
Authors: Romilly Jacqueline De
Published: November 2023

WE possess only brief fragments of Protagoras’ writing, the interpretation of which is frequently problematic. However, Plato fortunately has this Sophist make a long speech in the dialogue that bears his name, and all the details suggest it to be an extremely faithful imitation of Protagoras himself, his style and his line of reasoning included. Even were that not so, it would be absurd to suppose that Plato would go to these lengths to put into the mouth of such a well-known figure ideas which did not belong to him. This text, with the myth to which the greater part of it is devoted, puts forward a theory which constitutes an extremely solid defence of justice: it shows that man’s well-being depends utterly upon certain moral values, for it is these that make it possible for him to live in society. This is an idea which gives entirely new meaning to the thought of the Sophists. What can no longer be justified by reference to the gods or the absolute is once again given validity, although now this is derived from human life, even from the self-interest of human beings.
Politics
Authors: Romilly Jacqueline De
Published: November 2023

POLITICS of two kinds played an important part in the activities of the Sophists: internal politics and politics of external relations between one people and another. The Sophists, who set out to teach ‘the art of politics’, clearly took an interest in the internal conflicts of cities and in constitutional problems. However, at least so far as internal city politics go, it would not be correct to attribute to them, as a collective group, opinions or sympathies which would place them in any particular party.
Weak Externalism and Psychological Reduction
Authors: Macdonald Cynthia
Published: November 2023

Arguments for and against the possibility of reducing intentional state types and tokens such as those of belief and desire to entities describable in purely physical (or in physical and topic-neutral) vocabulary have often proceeded on the assumption that any such reduction will require psychophysical correlation laws. The argument against the possibility of such laws is a familiar one: beginning with the assumption that theories in general are governed by principles which constrain the ascription of properties to entities within their domains, it attempts to forge a distinction between intentional psychological state types or properties and physical ones on the basis of the fact that the principles which govern their attribution are not only different from, but ultimately incompatible with, one another. The attribution of psychological properties to persons, it is said, is governed by constraints of rational coherence and consistency characterized by the use of inductive and deductive principles of reasoning: absence of logical inconsistency, transitivity of preference, and so on. Such principles are normative in the sense that they license claims about how an agent ought rationally to behave or think conditionally upon the possession of other beliefs and desires.
Operators and Physical Quantities
Authors: Krips Henry
Published: November 2023

I shall start this chapter by summarizing some of the claims of Chapter 2. In QT we represent the states of systems in QT by vectors. In particular with each q-system S is associated a set (or space) ℋ(S) of vectors each one of which represents a possible state of S at t. Each vector in ℋ (S) is represented by a set of N numbers (c  1, c  2, … , c  N) The number N is called ‘the dimension of ℋ (S)’, and the various c  n for n = 1, 2, … , N are called ‘the vector components’.
Kochen and Specker
Authors: Krips Henry
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I shall discuss some difficulties for a realist interpretation of QT. In particular I shall discuss the difficulties in reconciling the two classical metaphysical principles (Det Q) (that for any q-system S all the q-quantities for S have unique determinate values at all times t during the lifetime of S) and (Pass Q) (that the ideal measurements of QT are passive) with various of the uncontroversial laws of QT. These difficulties have been brought to focus thanks to two powerful theorems in the mathematical theory of Hilbert spaces proved by Gleason (1957) and by Kochen and Specker (1967).
Naturalizing Norms
Authors: Blackburn Simon
Published: November 2023

We are all of us born in moral stupidity, taking the world as an udder to feed our supreme selves: Dorothea had early begun to emerge from that stupidity, but yet it had been easier to her to imagine how she would devote herself to Mr Casaubon, and become wise and strong in his strength and wisdom, than to conceive with that distinctness which is no longer reflection but feeling-an idea wrought back to the directness of sense, like the solidity of objects-that he had an equivalent centre of self, whence the lights and shadows must always fall with a certain difference.
Looking Out for Yourself
Authors: Blackburn Simon
Published: November 2023

The economy of nature is competitive from beginning to end. Understand that economy, and how it works, and the underlying reasons for social phenomena are manifest. They are the means by which one organism gains some advantage to the detriment of another. No hint of genuine charity ameliorates our vision of society, once sentimental ism has been laid aside. What passes for co-operation turns out to be a mixture of opportunism and exploitation. The impulses that lead one animal to sacrifice himself for another turn out to have their ultimate rationale in gaining advantage over a third; and acts ‘for the good’ of one society turn out to be performed to the detriment of the rest. Where it is in his own interest, every organism may reasonably be expected to aid his fellows. Where he has no alternative, he submits to the yoke of communal servitude. Yet given a full chance to act in his own interest, nothing but expediency will restrain him from brutalizing, from maiming, from murdering-his brother, his mate, his parent or his child. Scratch an ‘altruist’, and watch a ‘hypocrite’ bleed.
Relativism, Subjectivism, Knowledge
Authors: Blackburn Simon
Published: November 2023

We now, I hope, have a substantial sense of the complexities of human motivation, the strength of the sentimentalist tradition, and its capacity to explain such things as the emergence of co-operation, trust, respect for principle, and other contours of the virtuous life. But the construction of the moral proposition in Chapter 4 leaves us open to the old worry, if it is a worry, of relativism or scepticism. If this is what ethics comes to, people think, then can’t it be ‘invented’ in different ways? And how could any one way be known to be the right one? Is debating about ethical truth like debating the real location of a rain bow? For the relativist, the last word in moral discussion is the same as the last word in etiquette, which is only: this is how we do it. Relativism is permanently fascinating because it can both seem inevitable (what other last word is there?), but also undermining: if morality is no more than the relativist says, then it loses its claims to universal, authoritative application.
Introduction: The Relationship between Syntax and Semantics
Authors: Ravin Yael
Published: November 2023

One of the central issues in modern linguistics has been the relationship between syntax (or grammar) and semantics (or meaning). Obviously, the two are interconnected–language consists of constructions that are both well-formed and meaningful. When the syntactic structure of a sentence is altered, its meaning is often changed with it. But what are the extent and nature of the interconnection? Are there, for example, linguistic phenomena which belong to syntax alone or to semantics alone? The question has often been asked concerning deviant sentences: are there sentences which are grammatically ill-formed but semantically meaningful, or others which are grammatically sound but semantically nonsensical? A wide range of answers has been proposed, indicating that the question is dependent on the theoretical framework within which it is posed.
The MLP Correlation Theory
Authors: Ravin Yael
Published: November 2023

The omission of any semantic discussion concerning the nature of thematic roles in LGB has not gone unnoticed within the GB framework. In particular, it has led to the formation of the MIT Lexicon Project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (henceforth, the MLP), whose aim is to provide Chomsky’s GB Theory with a more developed notion of thematic roles: The reliance on a predicate–argument representation in the GB frame-work makes it imperative that those other components of theta-theory[the set of possible theta-roles and theri assigners] be developed.
Introduction
Authors: Stewart M A
Published: November 2023

After the successful launching in 1983 of Oxford studies in ancient philosophy under the editorship of Julia Annas, I was invited to prepare plans for a companion project to be called Oxford studies in the history of philosophy. This would avoid poaching on Professor Annas’s territory unless it was plain to both parties that ancient philosophy was in need of further outlets, but it would not discourage work which deliberately linked developments in classical and post-classical philosophy. We were also advised from several quarters that there are sufficient channels at present for such quality work as exists on exclusively medieval philosophy, although this is certainly an area of research which we would hope to open up to a wider public at some future date. The field of post medieval philosophy is still a vast one, and the diversity of study generated by it is immense. As consultations proceeded and plans progressed, it became clear to the editor and the publishers that the issue of an annual yearbook of unrestricted coverage would spread the interest too thinly to appeal to any but compulsive subscribers. To give the volumes a clear focus and a clear market, we have created instead a series which will consist of individual collections, each dedicated to a pre announced theme, even if necessary at the cost of a less rigid publication schedule.
Introduction
Authors: Chloros-Gardner Penelope
Published: November 2023

Alsace is one of the countless areas of Europe with a complex plurilingual situation, which belies the persistent late eighteenth-early nineteenth-century stereotype of ‘one nation, one language’ which has its roots in German Romanticism (Edwards 1985; Wardhaugh 1987). At the same time, France is one of the European countries where this stereotype has been-and, to a considerable extent, continues to be-most powerful. Standard French, it has been said, has performed the same function for France as the monarchy for Britain (Charpentier, quoted Le Page 1989:14); the French Academy continues to act as watch-dog of its purity and to issue occasional edicts on the avoidance of ‘franglais’, and in schools pupils continue to be taught a strictly standardized form of the language which on principle takes no account of the variety they speak outside.
The Simple Believer
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

I must start with an apology. The philosophy of religion is not a speciality of mine. It is, indeed, a subject which fastidious philosophers do not like to touch. This is not merely because it is a confused subject — -that could be said of other branches of philosophy — but because the whole atmosphere of the subject is such as to put a premium on unclarity of thought. The confusion is not of philosophical origin; nor do the problems with which I shall be dealing belong to the class sometimes confidently called ‘pseudo-problems’. They have been generated, rather, by the quite genuine perplexities of those who want to call themselves Christians, or at least theists, and yet cannot bring themselves to believe what theists are supposed to have to believe. These people have been appealing for help to the theologians for a long time; they have received a great deal of comfort but not much clarification — because the issues have not been faced in the clear light which only a thorough understanding of the concepts involved could give. The philosophers, for their part — those few of us who have cared to soil our fingers — have contributed, perhaps, a little towards this understanding; but our failure to make any decisive progress has prompted in some the thought that the concepts are inherently confused and can never be clarified. For the rest — the non-philosophers — hardly anybody has any interest in achieving clarity; it would be too harsh and unpleasant. And such philosophical work as has been done on these questions has not (or so it would appear) made much impact on those who are most troubled by them.
Satanism and Nihilism
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

In this paper I wish to discuss two sorts of things that can easily go wrong in the transition from intuitive to critical thinking—that is, from the everyday moral thinking that suffices, and should suffice, for most of our moral thought, to the higher-level thinking that we have to do if we need to scrutinize the principles we are using at the intuitive level. This is a transition which in the course of our moral education we all have to learn to make if we are ever to get beyond intuitive moral thinking. I shall give to these two pitfalls in moral education the perhaps rather too dramatic names ‘Satanism’ and ‘Nihilism’. They both have some kinship with the amoralism that I discussed in MT, chs. 10 and 11; but they are different from it and from each other, though all three can be combined in various more or less confused mixtures. The discussion of these pitfalls will enable me both to clear up a theoretical difficulty which has often been raised against my views, and to shed some light on a pressing social problem.
A Little History
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: November 2023

The oldest and most continuously reiterated precept in the philosophy of music, sometimes merely amounting to a simple expression of faith, other times reaching the level of sophisticated theory, is that there is a special connection between music and the human emotions, beyond the connection there might be supposed between emotions and any other of the fine arts. It stretches back into the mists of time, has its first philosophical embodiment in Plato’s Republic, and is already present in the myth of Orpheus, singer of songs, whose music could subdue the savage beasts, and even the lord of the underworld himself. The philosophy of music begins with Plato’s account of music and the emotions. It is there that it is logical for us to begin our study.
And the Performance thereof
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: November 2023

I said at the end of the previous chapter that what I have to say about musical performance in this one will be consistent with any of the three theories put forth there about what the musical work is. The reason for this is that the question of what a musical performance is assumes as its first principle only that a musical performance must be compliant with a score. That is the basic necessary condition for being a performance of a musical work and not something else. But all three analyses of what a musical work is, previously examined, make that assumption as well. That is to say, whether you think the work of music is the score compliance class, or a created type, or an uncreated, discovered type, you will, as well, think that a performance of the work must be compliant with the score.
Absolute Music and the New Musicology
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: November 2023

And I completed my thought with what certainly seems to me now the very modest suggestion, that ‘We can have intellectually respectable description of music that is not remote from the humanistic understanding to which music itself has traditionally appealed. We can, in particular, have intellectually respectable description in the familiar emotive mode .. .’2 Five years later, Joseph Kerman wrote, in a book well known to many readers, ‘As a kind of formalistic criticism, analysis does not address all or even many of the problems that must be faced if music is to be studied in its integrity.’3
Sub-Maximizing Consequentialism
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: November 2023

Having rejected Collective Consequentialism, we must now examine the resources of the Individual Consequentialist tradition. Individual Con- sequentialism begins with a demanding principle of impartial maximization. We can soften it in two ways: either by limiting that principle from within, or by constraining it from without. The former option leads to Sub-Maximizing Consequentialism, where we are no longer required to bring about the best possible outcome. The latter option leads to a Hybrid Moral theory, where a Maximizing Consequentialist principle is combined with other moral prin- ciples to produce a less demanding overall theory. Part Three examines these softer forms of Individual Consequentialism.
The New Theory
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I sketch a new moral theory, designed to deal appropriately with both moral realms. This theory consists of three basic elements: (1) a Reason to Promote the Good, governing our behaviour within the Realm of Necessity; (2) a Rule Consequentialist ideal code of rules, governing our behaviour within the Realm of Reciprocity; and (3) a device for balancing the competing reasons delivered by (1) and (2). This final role is played by a modi- fied version of Scheffler’s Agent Centred Prerogative. The overall theory, which I shall call Combined Consequentialism, thus takes the form of a modified Hybrid View. I argue that it offers Consequentialists their best chance of developing a plausible moral theory without unreasonable demands.
Discovering Significant Lexical Functions in Dictionary Entries
Authors: Fontenelle Thierry
Published: November 2023

The generative tradition of the I960s and 1970s in linguistics tended always to neglect the role of the lexicon in the description oflanguage. The advent of computer technology, however, enabled linguists to test their hypotheses and intuitions and it soon became apparent that the development of a whole range of natural language processing (NLP) systems required a great deal more information than was needed to parse a lexically simple sentence such as John loves Mary. Developers were quickly faced by what has come to be known as the ‘lexical acquisition bottleneck’ (Wilks et al. 1989). The problem was very simple: in order to develop a large-scale NLP system—for example, a machine translation system or an information-retrieval system—one needed to feed the lexical component of the system with the description of tens of thousands of lexical items.
The Lexicographical Scene of English-Speaking Countries
Authors: Béjoint Henri
Published: November 2023

The lexicographical scene1 of a society is a complex thing to describe. A true portrait implies the study of the sociological conditions in which dictionaries are called for, then designed, produced, and finally used. The following questions should be answered: What sort of dictionaries are the most common in that particular society? What sort are rare, or do not exist at all? What dictionaries are remarkable, for their originality, or for their quality? The lexicographical scene of the English-speaking countries, for very obvious reasons, is characterized by the quantity and the variety of the dictionaries that are produced. Probably no other language in the world has produced so many dictionaries of so many different types, and none produces as many at present. In 1969, according to Barnhart (1969: 176), there were more than 60 general dictionaries available on the market. In 1977, Kister described 343 monolingual dictionaries of English available on the American market: this included dictionaries for children, for adolescents, or for foreign students, but excluded not only bilingual or multilingual dictionaries but also terminological, highly specialized dictionaries (Kister 1977). No doubt the figures would be even higher fifteen years later.
Tense and Nonfinite Clauses
Authors: Gary Miller D
Published: November 2023

Traditionally, infinitives have been defined as [ ™Tense]. But Tense/tensein the literature is fraught with confusion. Most infinitives are deficient in tense in that independent tense distinctions are not semantically allowed or morphologically marked. However, it is also widely held that at least control infinitives have an internal temporal organization [ +tense] while ECM do not [ −tense]. Infinitives with morphological tense show that this distinction lacks explanatory value. Tense in non-matrix clauses that is independent of the matrix tense is licensed by the matrix predicate. Epistemic, declarative, and factive predicates license a [tense] feature; causative and perception verbs do not. Volitional predicates may license [ ™past]. In some languages, absence of tense correlates with reduced (clause union) structures.
A Numerical Simulation Study of Two-Dimensional Gravity Currents
Authors: Hartel Carlos , Michaud1 Manuel
Published: November 2023

A direct numerical simulation study of gravity currents in twodimensional lock-exchange flow has been conducted. The simulations are based on the Boussinesq equations which are discretized using a mixed spectral/spectral-element scheme in space together with finite differences in time. The influence of viscous forces on the propagation speed of the currents is assessed by a series of simulations with widely different Grashof numbers. From the results it is estimated that a weak Grashof number dependence of the front speed remains up to Grashof numbers of the order of 1010. A direct comparison of simulation results for no-slip and free-slip boundaries reveals that the walls exert significant retarding forces on the propagating currents. The pronounced Kelvin-Helmholtz type instability of the interface between the light and heavy fluid is investigated
Interior and Basin-Wide Diapycnal Mixing in Stratified Water: A Comparison of Dissipation and Diffusivity
Authors: Goudsmit G -H , Wüest A
Published: November 2023

Turbulence measurements and basin-scale tracer balances can be employed to yield direct and indirect estimates of diapycnal diffusivity in stratified water bodies. As values inferred from these two fundamentally different approaches differ by an order of magnitude in the ocean thermocline, a series of experiments was carried out in order to quantify and to understand the mechanism of diapycnal mixing in a stratified freshwater basin.
Experimental Studies of Thorpe Scale Decay Rate
Authors: Folkard Andrew M , Fernando Harindra J S
Published: November 2023

The accurate parameterization of turbulent diffusion coefficients is a critical pre-requisite for the development of useful models of ocean circulation and budgets. Determination of these coefficients rely on field measurements of microstructure in both vector and scalar fields. Understanding these measurements depends upon knowing how the state observed relates to the history of the turbulent event which caused it. A central, unresolved problem in the effort to understand these matters is that of how the decay rate of scalar anomalies caused by turbulent stirring relates to external measurable parameters. Such a relationship would allow field oceanographers to gain a fuller insight into the nature of their microstructure data. The present work addresses this problem. A set of laboratory experiments was carried out using the standard vertically oscillating, horizontal grid positioned within a horizontally constrained container, which was filled with a linearly-stratified fluid.
Forecasting of Plume Dispersion around a Power Plant
Authors: Souto* M J , Pérez-Muñuzuri* V , Souto** J A , Castro** M de , Casares** J J
Published: November 2023

The legal limit of emissions guarantee, for the majority of locations and under most meteorological conditions, the observance of the law for ground level concentrations. However, the existence of single sources of significant magnitude, or the danger of fugitive emissions to the atmosphere, and also specific meteorological conditions may cause an impact of the plume on the ground that may go beyond the legal limits for the pollutant. To avoid the occurrence of these rare episodes, it is necessary to predetermine the maximum emission allowed for any meteorological condition [l].
Boundary Effects on Buoyant Cloud Discharges
Authors: Davies Peter A , Coulbourn Ian R , Newton Helen , Yu Guoliang , Doorschott Judith
Published: November 2023

Though many marine outfall systems operate continuously with either gravityfed or pumped discharge, several are designed to store effluent at an intermediate stage before discharging into coastal waters (Davies and Neves [l]). Such systems usually operate intermittently, with the intervals between separate discharges being determined by, for example, the supply volume of available wastewater and/or the need to synchronise discharge with tidal cycles or diurnal periods of low energy cost. The relationship between the intervals separating individual discharge events and typical dilution times in the receiving waters control the extent to which individual discharges may be considered to behave independently.
Nitrile ylides
Authors: Ibata Toshikazu , Fukushima Kazuaki
Published: November 2023

The metal-catalysed reaction of a diazo compound with benzonitrile generates a nitrile ylide as an unstable intermediate (Scheme 4.1.1). The utility of the reaction of a metal-ketocarbenoid with a nitrile for oxazole synthesis was first demonstrated by Huisgenet al. For the reaction of an a-diazocarbonyl compound, the use of a metal catalyst is essential in order to avoid side reactions of the ketocarbene intermediate such as Wolff rearrangements. The resulting acylated nitrile ylide is too unstable to be isolated, and undergoes intramolecular cyclization or intermolecular 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition to give a 5-membered heterocycle.
Inhibitors of cytokine production and action
Authors: Mantovani A , Dinarello C A , Ghezzi P
Published: November 2023

Since the first reports of protective effects of anti-cytokine antibodies in disease, industrial research has actively attempted to identify synthetic, simple chemicals to inhibit cytokine production or action. In particular, efforts have been aimed at developing receptor antagonists, an approach that has been successful in other areas of pharmacology. However, while the interest was obviously in identifying synthetic, orally active compounds, the really significant finding in this direction was the cloning of IL-Ira in 1990. More recently, screening of recombinant peptide display libraries has led to the identification of smaller peptides. With the advent of molecular modeling, the development of non-peptide inhibitors is forseeable in the future. For now, the general lack of success in the search for receptor antagonists has directed research towards inhibitors of cytokine synthesis or action by acting on specific signal transduction pathways implicated in the pro-inflammatory activities of cytokines. Table 2.1 gives a map of this chapter, and indicates the major classes of chemicals discussed.
Anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive cytokines
Authors: Mantovani A , Dinarello C A , Ghezzi P
Published: November 2023

The action of cytokines is under the control of several negative regulation circuits. These include glucocorticoid hormones (see Fig. 1.3, Chapter 1 and Chapter 2), soluble cytokine receptors (see Chapter 5), and anti-inflammatory/immunosuppressive cytokines.
Conformation of monosaccharides and their derivatives
Authors: David Serge
Published: November 2023

The conformations of the oxane ring (tetrahydropyran) of pyranoses are the same as those of cyclohexane. The carbons are numbered starting with the hemiacetal carbon, referred to as anomeric. This convention is not in keeping with the rule for numbering heterocycles where number one is assigned to the heteroatom (in this case, the oxygen). The oxane is represented with carbons 1, 3, and 5 in the horizontal plane, carbons l and 4 in the plane of the vertically positioned paper, and the cyclic oxygen behind the paper. To the viewer situated above the ring the numbers appear clockwise. In a pyranose sugar, all the carbons, or nearly all of them, are substituted, but for practical purposes, one only needs to introduce a substituent R to an arbitrary site. Equation (2.1) then represents the extension of the classic conformational equilibrium of cyclohexane to pyranoses.
Associations with anions, cations, and inorganic molecules
Authors: David Serge
Published: November 2023

In a mixture of sugars and salts in solution it is quite obvious that there will always be a loose association between hydroxyl groups and metal cations. Likewise, when a sugar is crystallized from a concentrated solution of salts, X-ray analysis will show associations between the sugar, cations, and water molecules. This is not actually very important from our point of view. For example, there is a crystalline addition compound corresponding to the formula saccharose -NaBr-2H2O, whereas there is no visible association in solution between saccharose and sodium ions. In this work only associations which involve at least three hydroxyl groups of the same sugar molecule will be considered (Angyal 1989). We will not deal with associations in an alkaline medium which are, in fact, alkoxides. Examining solid structures (a limited number) will provide the basis for our discussion. Simple techniques such as paper electrophoresis, thin-layer cation-exchange chromatography, or NMR spectroscopy, give information on complexation in solution.
Sialic acids and sialylated oligosaccharides
Authors: David Serge
Published: November 2023

Natural sialic acids (Schauer 1982; 1991) are derivatives of 5-amino-3,5-dideoxy-D-glycero-D-galacto-nonulosonic acid 12.1. This awkward name has been replaced by ‘neuraminic acid’. The most common derivative is N-acetyl-neuraminic acid 12.2 whose configuration is easy to memorize because, in the Fischer representation, 12.3, it is presented as an aldolic condensation product of N-acetylmannosamine (2-acetamido-2-deoxy-o-mannose) and pyruvic acid. When the expression ‘sialic acid’ is used without any other precision, it is in reference to derivative 12.2. It exists in the free state or glycosidated in the D-2C5 conformation, which allows an equatorial disposition of the three-carbon side chain. Structure 12.2 represents the stable β-anomer of the free sugar with an axial anomeric hydroxyl group and all-equatorial non-anomeric substituents.
The structure of some crystallized sugar—protein complexes
Authors: David Serge
Published: November 2023

In this work we will encounter the following four types of proteins associated with sugars: enzymes concerned with the metabolism of sugars, lectins, specific antibodies, and transport proteins. A good number of these proteins have been crystallized and examined by X-ray analysis for the determination of their tertiary structure. In view of their high molecular weight, analysing their spectra by diffraction analysis is a difficult task. However, knowledge of their primary structure, that is to say the peptide chain, obtained by chemical procedures, can act as a guide. The resolution power of these methods is on average 2.5 Å. It is better than this in the examples we will give.
Important recognition events involving oligosaccharides in the living world
Authors: David Serge
Published: November 2023

The recognition events of oligosaccharides in this section were not only chosen for their importance, but also because they illustrate good examples. The Ciba Foundation Symposium (Bock and Harnett 1989) published a volume which gives an account of a number of similar observations in the most varied domains. The reader interested in the questions not discussed here, such as the intervention of oligosaccharides in the fertilization of mammals and the embryonic development of the nervous system may refer to this book. Within the more limited framework of this chapter, all examples, apart from the first, have been taken from the animal kingdom. Although the subject may appear to be somewhat disparate, the author is precisely trying to show the reader the general character and great variety of supramolecular protein-sugar associations in the living world.
Introduction
Authors: Fjeldså Jon
Published: November 2023

No less than 390 bird species, in nine orders, swim habitually, and many others do so occasionally. The grebes (family Podicipedidae) represent a small group with only 22 species, but it is one that is particularly well adapted to the aquatic environment. They are small to fairly large water birds: some are superb and elegant divers, approaching the smallest diver (or loon, Family Gaviidae) in size. Others are small and dumpy—almost like ducklings—and may be referred to by nicknames such as ‘dabchick’, ‘pork-pie’ or ‘Tom Budding’.
Relationships of grebes and divers
Authors: Fjeldså Jon
Published: November 2023

Grebes and divers each are closely knit and well-defined groups, but the relationship between them and other birds has been highly controversial. Specializing to catch their food underwater, both were subject to the same physical constraints, explained in Chapter 2, and this has led to some striking similarities between them (Table 3). Both have similar pointed bills, and both have the feet set far back on their streamlined and short-tailed or almost tail-less bodies. Also many details of their skeletons are remarkably similar.
Conservation
Authors: Fjeldså Jon
Published: November 2023

Most cases of extinction and serious declines of grebe populations are related to changes in water levels, siltation, eutrophication, and fish introductions affecting the trophic web of lakes (see p. 55). The most critical factor for conservation of grebes is therefore wise management of wetland ecosystems. As described on p. 127, the use of gill nets may also be a critical factor for some grebe populations.
Metric Number Theory
Authors: Harman Glyn
Published: November 2023

This book deals with the number-theoretic properties of almost all real numbers. It brings together many different types of result never covered within the same volume before, thus showing interactions and common ideas between different branches of the subject. It provides an indispensable compendium of basic results, important theorems and open problems. Starting from the classical results of Borel, Khintchine and Weyl, normal numbers, Diophantine approximation and uniform distribution are all discussed. Questions are generalized to higher dimensions and various non-periodic problems are also considered (for example restricting approximation to fractions with prime numerator and denominator). Finally, the dimensions of some of the exceptional sets of measure zero are considered.
Schmidt’s method
Authors: Harman Glyn
Published: November 2023

The sequence cm. The sequence αf(n) where f(x) ∈  𝕫 (x). Application to continued fractions. Generalizations to higher dimensions.
Diophantine approximation on manifolds
Authors: Harman Glyn
Published: November 2023

Mahler’s classification of transcendental numbers. A simple result on linear forms. Sprindzuk’s theorem. Schmidt’s theorem for smooth curves in ℝ. Essential and inessential domains.
The physiology of protein oxidation
Authors: Davies Michael J , Dean Roger T
Published: November 2023

We now focus on tissues and organisms, and address the issue of how to demonstrate and interpret the presence of oxidized proteins, and in particular, how to assess whether they have a physiological role to play. Because of the additional complexity of assaying protein oxidation in samples which have as much internal heterogeneity as biology provides, we have also centred our discussion of the validity and precision of such assays here, though comments on this issue are of necessity to be found throughout the book.
Synthetic utility of bulky aluminium reagents as Lewis acid receptors
Authors: Maruoka Keiji
Published: November 2023

Organoaluminium compounds, little known until the 1950s, have been widely accepted and increasingly important in the field of industry and in the laboratory, particularly after K. Ziegler and colleagues discovered the direct synthesis of trialkylaluminiums and their brilliant application to the polymerization of olefins. The chemistry of organoaluminium compounds has been understood in terms of the Lewis acidity of their monomeric species, which is directly related to the tendency of the aluminium atom to complete electron octets. Organoaluminium compounds possess a strong affinity for various heteroatoms in organic molecules, particularly oxygen. In fact, bond strength of aluminium and electronegative atoms such as oxygen is extremely strong; the bond energy of the Al-O bond is estimated to be 138 kcal mol-1. In view of this high bond strength,
Active zinc in organic synthesis
Authors: Rieke Reuben D , Hanson mark v.
Published: November 2023

In 1849, Frankland prepared diethylzinc from the reaction of zinc metal with ethyl iodide.1 Since then, organozinc reagents have proven to be useful tools in organic synthesis.2 The expansion of Frankland’s method was hampered by the lack of reactivity of bulk zinc metal in the preparation of organozinc reagents directly from organohalides. This limitation is due primarily to oxide coating of the zinc surface, and an inherently small surface area. These factors can be alleviated by forming the zinc metal in an anhydrous, aprotic solvent, under an inert atmosphere, by the chemical reduction of anhydrous zinc salts. This chemical reduction produces a highly dispersed form of zinc metal, which is free of metal oxide, and has a dramatically increased surface area. This zinc metal displays an inherently higher reactivity towards organic halides than that of bulk zinc metal, commercial zinc dust, or zinc activated by standard entrainment methods.
Preparation methods of diorganozincs
Authors: Knochel Paul , Jones Philip , Langer Falk
Published: November 2023

Diorganozincs (R2Zn) are an important class of zinc organometallic reagents because of their synthetic applications in organic synthesis1 and asymmetric synthesis. Compared to organozinc halides (RZnX), they usually display a higher reactivity, but as a drawback, they often transfer only one of the two organic groups to the electrophilic reagents. Diorganozincs have also found numerous applications in organometallic chemistry and dimethylzinc or diethylzinc are very useful reagents for the preparation of alkyl transition metals (Scheme 5.1).
Uncatalysed reactions of zinc organometallics
Authors: Knochel Paul , Jones Philip , Langer Falk
Published: November 2023

Compared to organolithiums and Grignard reagents, organozincs have a relatively covalent carbon-metal bond resulting in a moderate reactivity compared to more polar organometallics. Already experiments from last century1 show that the addition of dialkylzincs to aldehydes is a sluggish reaction providing secondary alcohols in moderate yields. Only reactive classes of organozinc reagents like allylic zinc halides and zinc enolates3 efficiently undergo these addition reactions to carbonyl compounds. Whilst a few classes of highly reactive electrophilic reagents or radical reagents directly react with zinc organometallics.
Chemical reactions
Authors: Clifford Tony
Published: November 2023

The advantages to be gained from carrying out reactions in supercritical fluids, apart from the environmental advantage, can be classified as follows. Firstly, there is control of phase behaviour to obtain either homogenization or separation as required. Secondly, the increased diffusion coefficients can speed up reactions, both homogeneous and heterogeneous, when diffusion is a controlling factor. Thirdly, there is an enhanced control of conditions, through both pressure and temperature, which can increase control of reaction path¬ ways and products. In addition to these there is anecdotal evidence that reactions in supercritical fluids are cleaner and produce less by-products. There is no theoretical reason for this and time only will tell if this is really true, but perhaps the reaction process is smoother in the less dense conditions of a supercritical fluid.
Reactions of selenium-stabilized carbanions
Authors: chieffi André , Comasseto joão v.
Published: November 2023

Selenium-stabilized anions occupy an important place among a-heterosubstituted organometallics and are valuable building blocks in organic synthesis. a-Selena alkyllithiums play an important role because of their easy avail ability, stability and high nucleophilicity, which allow the formation of new functionalized carbon-carbon bonds when they are reacted with carbon electrophiles. Several methods can be used to prepare a-seleno alkyllithiums; the most useful are the metallation of the a-carbon by deprotonation and transmetallation or halogen-metal exchange. Usually, lithium (or potassium) amides are the best reagents to perform deprotonations while alkyllithiums are preferred for transmetallation reactions
Geology
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim
Published: November 2023

The world changes, but to most of us, our Earth ls the symbol of stability. Viewed from the standpoint of a human life span, and indeed generations of humans, the foundations of Earth remain unchanged. However, on a geological time scale, the earth has undergone radical transformations from its birth to present. These slow but ongoing changes are modifying the surface of the earth, reshaping the conti­nents and ocean basins. More rapid change are occurring on the earth’s surface a, a result of human activity. Examples of anthropogenic actions which have caused major modifications to the earth’s topography in dude the construction of dams, open-pit mining, and rice cultivation.
Coral Reefs: Natural Disturbances
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim
Published: November 2023

Like many other biological systems, coral reef communities are subjected to a variety of environmental disturbances of varying intensity, frequency and duration (Pearson 1981; Huston 1985; Karlson and Hurd 1993). The nature and magnitude of impacts associated with the various natural disturbances, therefore, also van’ with the nature and intensity of the disturbance. Tropical coral seas have often been regarded in the past as relatively stable environments (Johannes 1975; Endean 1976), without pronounced seasonal environmental fluctuations (e.g., temperature). In comparison, wide environmental fluctuations (e.g., temperature) are a rule in most shallow-water environments of the higher latitudes.
Marine and Coastal Biodiversity
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim
Published: November 2023

The Indonesian Archipelago is one of the richest marine biodiversity areas in the world. While the total biodiversity of any particular area is a function of a complex set of physical, chemical and biological interactions, as well as geological history, it will be useful here to discuss biodiversity at two levels, namely at the ecosystem level and the species level. Genetic biodiversity is the least understood level and is beyond the scope of this book.
Fossil and comparative evidence of cuckoo relationships
Authors: Payne Robert B
Published: November 2023

In the early Tertiary (Houde and Olson 1988, Mayr 1998a,b), the oldest fossil birds that might be cuck oos are known in the Paleocene and Eocene, the time when many avian families first appeared in the fossil record. None of these ancient fossils are known for certain to be cuckoos (Feduccia 1996, G. Mayr, in litt.).
Introduction
Authors: Hamley Ian W
Published: November 2023

The nanoscale self-organization of polymers can be achieved simply by joining polymer chains together in a block copolymer. With these remarkable materials, the molecular engineer can combine distinct polymers to give materials with defined physical properties. For example, a composite comprising glassy or crystalline domains in a rubbery matrix can be self-assembled by taking components with these characteristics and combining them in a block copolymer. Because the polymer chains are tethered to each other, macroscopic phase separation cannot occur and structural organization occurs in domains with periodicities ≈1−100 nm, whether in the melt, solid or in micellar solution.