bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Design and Activation of Self-Regulating Work Groups
Authors: Pearce John A. , Ravlin Elizabeth C.
Published: August 2005

This paper reviews the literature on self-managing work groups as implemented in organizations, and briefly reviews relevant laboratory and other non-SR WG research. A model is developed exploring the processes of SR WG implementation and operation. Task, organization, and personnel preconditions to implementation are identified, including appropriate expectations by managerial personnel. Design features should include heterogeneous composition and minimal status differences. Activation mechanisms are thought to smooth the way for the successful group, which exhibits the positive process criteria of variety in group member responses, coordination of members, and commitment to group success.
The Impact of Context and Choice on the Boundary-Spanning Process: An Empirical Extension
Authors: At-Twaijri Mohamed Ibrahim Ahmad , Montanari John R.
Published: August 2005

This paper develops and tests a theoretical model of the relationships among environmental interdependence, environmental uncertainty, and boundary-spanning activities. Drawing from the strategic choice literature, a decision variable labeled influence on organizational decision was incorporated as a moderator. Results supported the environmental interdependence-environmental uncertainty-boundary-spanning activities relationships, but the individual influence variable failed to emerge as a moderator.
On Managing Midlife Transitions in Career and Family
Authors: O'Connor Dennis J. , Wolfe Donald M.
Published: August 2005

Transitions are ubiqitious phenomena in modern life. This research sets forth a grounded theory phase sequence model of the transition process. The model is used to explore the midlife transition in terms of emotionality, changing career and family investments, and movement toward autonomy at the workplace. Implications for careerists and human resource management are suggested.
The Organization and Employee Alcohol Misuse
Authors: Markowitz Martin
Published: August 2005

There are many factors that could contribute to the onset of alcoholism. This paper examines the possible role that the work organization plays in alcohol misuse among employees. It is suggested that perceived organizational and job characteristics facilitate the onset or continuance of an alcohol problem. The mechanism by which these perceptions may affect alcohol misuse and attitudes toward alcohol use by co-workers is through their contribution to feelings of self-estrangement and powerlessness. Two hundred and ninetythree full-time employees completed surveys which were analyzed using correlational and path-analytic techniques. The results indicate support for the perceptions-self-estrangement-alcohol misuse sequence. Feelings of powerlessness at work were not significantly associated with the dependent measures. The results are discussed.
Power in Work Groups: Team Member's Perspectives
Authors: Fiorelli Joseph S.
Published: August 2005

Power and restrictive participation are often identified as primary issues which can retard the productivity of work groups. The study describes team member responses to a questionnaire regarding bases of social power used within 19 interdisciplinary clinical team meetings and their relationship with team decision-making style, participation in team decisions, and team meeting productivity. Physicians were found to effect almost all treatment decisions, and autocratic decision making was found to be more prevalent than consensual decision making. It is suggested that the generally held belief that the interdisciplinary team approach is equivalent with shared decision making and broad-based participation needs careful re-examination. Implications of the findings for shared decision making in health care teams and work groups in general are discussed. The importance for managers and team leaders to understand and appropriately facilitate the dynamics of power in work groups is emphasized.
Qualitative Research and the Study of Leadership
Authors: Bryman Alan , Bresnen Michael , Beardsworth, Alan , Keil Teresa
Published: August 2005

This article argues that the introduction of qualitative research methods into the study of leadership may improve this area of research by facilitating the introduction of a wider range of contextual variables into the investigation of leadership styles. It is also contended that such variables have the advantage of being grounded in people's experiences and are therefore more accesible to practitioners. These points are developed from the authors' research into the construction industry, in which the factors taken into account by leaders informing their leadership styles were investigated through intensive interviewing during three construction projects.
Executive Stress: Extending the International Comparison
Authors: McCormick lain A. , Cooper Cary L.
Published: August 2005

Much current research has considered the problems of occupational health and stress within particular work groups or individual countries. In a recent paper, an international comparison was made of the stress of senior executives in such countries as the United Kindgom, the United States, Sweden, Japan, Nigeria, and Egypt. In this study, it was shown that executives from less industrialized countries had higher levels of mental ill-health and job dissatisfaction. In the present study, this international comparison was extended using executives from New Zealand, a country with a reputedly more relaxed lifestyle but with serious economic problems. The comparison indicated that the New Zealand executives had lower levels of stress than those in all other countries but Sweden, and the lowest rates of job dissatisfaction. Stepwise multiple regression analyses provided clear and useful results indicating that threat of job loss was the best predictor of mental health, while interpersonal conflict and external agency conflict were the best predictors of job dissatisfaction. It would be most helpful for this international comparison to be extended by other researchers.
Firm Size: The Interchangeability of Measures
Authors: Hopkins H. Donald
Published: August 2005

Firm size has been measured by numerous empirical indicators. Research studies concerned with firm size sometimes assume that these indicators are interchangeable for research purposes. However, an analysis of data on companies from 14 industries indicate that assets and employment, the two most common size measures, may be interchangeable only in certain circumstances.
Effectiveness Assessment in Public Service Systems
Authors: Torgovnik Efraim , Preisler Ela
Published: August 2005

The study combines research on effectiveness and organizational assessment. The reliability model enables a qualitative and quantitative assessment of level of performance and quality of performance of public service systems in two structural networks: parallel and sequential. The two levels of analysis used here, the unit and the system, show (1) how unit's level of performance and quality of performance affect the effectiveness of a system as a whole, and (2) the extent of a unit's detraction or contribution to a system's effectiveness. The reliability model enabled the measurement of (J) effectiveness as a product of structure and human interrelationships, and (2) areas amenable to corrective policies. The holistic approach to the unit-system relations makes the analytical and measurement distinction between performance with and without citizen participation. The measurements make it possible to deal with a concept, which in the past was on unstable theoretical and methodological grounds. For example, these measurements show that participation can be treated not only as a democratic preference but also as a concrete administrative tool amenable to measurement of performance in a public service delivery system. In the unit level, participation is contributing to performance ratios more than in the system level.
A Longitudinal Study of the Psychological Well-Being of Unemployed Men and the Mediating Effect of Neuroticism
Authors: Payne Roy
Published: August 2005

This paper proposes that the psychological experience of unemployed persons is determined by the stressfulness of the environment, but the relationships between the two is affected by certain conditioning variables, e.g., general health and social class, and by personal attributes such as their commitment to being employed and the tactics they use to cope with being unemployed. This model is tested empirically in a longitudinal study of 75 men who were studied on three occasions over a period of 2 years. Stepwise multiple regression was used to test the model on three occasions, and it was shown to be reasonably successful in predicting variations in psychological well-being. At time 3 of the study, trait neuroticism was measured to test the hypothesis that the large correlations among all negatively-toned scales found in the first two phases of the study were the result of a personality trait such as neuroticism. The results strongly supported this hypothesis. The implications of this for other self-report studies of stress are discussed.
The Vortical Environment: The Fifth in the Emery-Trist Levels of Organizational Environments
Authors: Baburoglu Oguz N.
Published: August 2005

The paper develops a conceptual scheme that has not been developed to extend the Emery-Trist levels of organizational environments to afifth level consistent with premises laid in their milestone paper (Emery & Trist, 1965). The mounting contemporary evidence that can be observed in the salience of maladaptive responses to turbulent environments is the second reason for undertaking this challenge. More specifically, it is argued that the prevalence of stalemate, polarization, and monothematic dogmatism, the second-order maladaptive responses to the turbulent environment, leads to a frozen or a clinched order of connectedness as well as that of unevenly dynamic turbulent conditions. This approach facilitates the articulation of a different causal texture of an organizational environment than the previous four levels (placid random, placid clustered, disturbed reactive, and turbulent).
Toward Measures of High-Level Competencies: A Re-examination of McClelland's Distinction Between Needs and Values
Authors: Raven John
Published: August 2005

McClelland has argued that it is essential to distinguish sharply both between operant and respondent measures and between needs and values. Further, that it is not possible to develop respondent measures of needs. In this paper, it is argued that there are alternative explanations of the results which led McClelland to these conclusions. Thereafter, it is shown that McClelland's measures of needs are best understood as indices of the number of important competencies which people bring to bear to reach goals they value. The measurement paradigm embedded in these measures conflicts with the dominant psychometric paradigm. McClelland's indices are neither valuefree nor internally-consistent; they are value-based, and the scores, like multiple regression coefficients, involve summing across independent predictors of performance. This new understanding of the psychometric principles on which McClelland's measures are based points to ways in which respondent measures of needs can be developed. However, more importantly, it offers a basis on which it would be possible to develop indices of a range of vitally important human qualities, like initiative and the ability to identify and solve problems, which have eluded psychometricians for over a century.
An Analysis of Individual Reactions to Potentially Offensive Jokes in Work Settings
Authors: Smeltzer Larry R. , Leap Terry L.
Published: August 2005

Humor is seen as a virtuous personality trait that can be used to release tension, convey organizational roles, and alleviate boredom. What may be perceived as a humorous joke to one person, however, could be considered inappropriate or offensive to another. Thus, joking may impact on civil and human rights litigation and on the quality of work life. To further understand perceptions of humor and joking, 165 subjects were asked to evaluate the appropriateness of three types of jokes in work settings. Whites and females considered racist and sexist jokes more inappropriate than blacks and males. Inexperienced employees considered all joking behavior at work to be less appropriate than experienced employees.
Models of Stress in Organizational Research: A Metatheoretical Perspective
Authors: Eulberg Joe R. , Weekley Jerr A. , Bhagat Rabi S.
Published: August 2005

Four models of organizational stress are comparatively reviewed using seven metatheoretical criteria. It is found that while they have been rather successful in explaining large bodies of existing empirical literature in a post hoc fashion, there is a consistent lack of conceptual tightness in some of the models. The crucial role of temporal factors has not been adequately dealt with, and a variance, as opposed to a process theory framework (Mohr, 1982) has dominated much conceptual developments. It is suggested that metatheoretical assessments along the lines proposed in this review would aid in future theory-building efforts. Three major recommendations are made in order to improve conceptual developments and methodological robustness in this important area of organizational behavior.
Theoretical and Methodological Problems Within Occupational Stress and Burnout Research
Authors: Handy Jocelyn A.
Published: August 2005

This article examines the implicit assumptions underlying current research into occupational stress and burnout. It argues that the two fields utilize similar theoretical models and research techniques and therefore have a number of problems in common. These problems arise from their common tendency to adopt a psychological perspective which pays insufficient attention to the complexity of the interrelationship between social conditions and subjective experience. The article suggests that both fields could be strengthened by incorporating more sociological concepts and developing analyses of the effects which discrepancies between the manifest and latent functions and surface and deep structures of organizations have on the individual's subjective experiences of work. The value of such analyses is illustrated with three examples of empirical research utilizing this perspective.
Organizational Factors and Perceptions of Climate in Three Psychiatric Units
Authors: O'Driscoll Michael P. , Evans Rosalind
Published: August 2005

The relationships of perceived organizational structure, leader behaviors, and communication processes with perceptions of the work environment and ward atmosphere by staff in three psychiatric units were assessed. Satisfaction with communication and participation in decision making emerged as the most consistent correlates of staff views about their work environment, while dimensions of ward atmosphere were most frequently related to satisfaction with communication. Patient scores on the ward atmosphere scales were most closely associated with staff receptiveness and interest, along with patient involvement in decisions and satisfaction with the degree of patient-staff communication. These findings highlight the salience of organizational climate variables and illustrate the utility of ward atmosphere and work environment perceptions as components of a multi-dimensional climate construct.
Factor Analysis and the Construct Indicator Relationship
Authors: Bynner John
Published: August 2005

The use of factor analysis to validate theoretical constructs and to underpin multiple indicator measurement strategies ignores two methodological principles: a necessary condition for the operationalization of a theoretical construct is not the same as a sufficient condition, and a correlation does not imply a particular model of causation. It is pointed out that factor analysis of the traditional (exploratory) kind used as a basis for construct validation breaches these principles; it does not provide sufficient evidence of construct validity, and it is incapable of dealing with any structure of the relations between variables other than in terms of a set of underlying causes (common factors). Alternative causal interpretations can be evaluated only through the confirmatory methods of structural modeling. Using this approach in the analysis of Richmond Basic Skills Test data, the value of alternatives to the classical factor model is clearly demonstrated. Some implications for measurement strategy and theory construction in social science are considered.
Dual-Career Couples and Geographic Transfer: Executives' Reactions to Commuter Marriage and Attitude Toward the Move
Authors: Taylor Ann Siegris , Lounsbury John W.
Published: August 2005

This study investigated four factors predicted to influence executive decision making concerning geographic transfers when married employees are involved. One hundred and fifty-one executives completed a series of "inbasket" decision-making tasks which described geographic transfer situations. Their ratings of geographic transfers were found to be significantly affected by the couple's attitude toward the move and the presence of commuter marriage (a marital arrangement in which spouses maintain separate households to maximize career possibilities, and reunite when schedules permit). In contrast to prior research, significant differences were not obtained for sex of employee. A number of significant interactions were observed; however, both of the above main effects held up in post hoc analyses of simple main effects. The results were discussed in terms of their implications for companies and for employees considering a commuter marriage. It was recommended that companies should show a greater awareness of transferrelated problems to reduce possible bias against employees planning a commuter marriage.
Determinants of Organizational Commitment
Authors: Mottaz Clifford J.
Published: August 2005

Using an exchange perspective based on work rewards and work values, this study is concerned with assessing the relative importance of various influences on organizational commitment. Data from 1385 workers representing a variety of occupations suggests that the model employed explains a large proportion of the variations in this work attribute. Moreover, it appears that work rewards have a strong positive effect on commitment while work values have a weaker negative effect. The results further indicate that intrinsic rewards are significantly more powerful determinants of commitment than extrinsic rewards. Additionally, the study examines the role of demographic variables. Generally, the data suggests that the effect of demographic factors on commitment is indirect through work rewards and values. The implications of these findings are discussed.
Breadwinner vs. Non-Breadwinner Differences in Married Women's Job Satisfaction and Perceptions of Organizational Climate
Authors: Witt L. Alan
Published: August 2005

The present study investigated differences in job satisfaction, interpersonal values, and perceptions of organizational climate between "breadwinning" and non-breadwinning married working women in a private sector organization. The data suggested that the breadwinners were significantly more satisfied with their pay and their opportunities for promotion and that they perceived a more favorable reward system in the organization. The results suggest that the family status of employees may be a variable important in accounting for variance in organizational behavior and for identifying issues particularly salient to female employees.
Power-Balancing Styles of Indian Managers
Authors: Das G. S. , Cotton Chester C.
Published: August 2005

Emerson's (1962, 1972ab) power-dependence model has had a profound impact on the manner in which power can be viewed in relationships. However, there has been little empirical work examining Emerson's approach, and even less focused at the individual level. The present study takes a psychological approach to Emerson's theory of power and dependency. The study has two objectives. First, it examines the existence and distribution of dominant power-balancing styles among Indian managers. Second, it begins to validate an approach to operationalizing Emerson's conceptualization ofpower and dependency at the individual level. The study is based on a managerial sample from a cross-section of Indian industries. Findings provide partial support for the predicted relationships among power-balancing styles and other psychological variables. It also provides some support for the construct validity of the instrument used to measure power-balancing style.
Predictors for Managers' Career Mobility, Success, and Satisfaction
Authors: Gattiker Urs E. , Larwood Laurie
Published: August 2005

Research into career success has usually dealt with objective aspects of career paths such as income and job title. This paper suggests also using cognitive variables to assess career success and examines past career choices to show that postdecisional justification may be apparent. The data reveal that demographics and success criteria are the best predictor sets when trying to explain a person's objective career success, mobility, and career satisfaction. Implications for future research and management are discussed.
Attachment and Emotional Health: A Life Span Approach
Authors: Kotler Tamara , Omodei Mary
Published: August 2005

Recent research on the relation between quality of attachments and socio-emotional functioning in both childhood and marriage is briefly reviewed Attention is specifically drawn to processes linking quality of early attachment relationships to later marital quality, taking account of socio-emotional health, social support, and experienced stress. The empirical and theoretical literature is integrated into a comprehensive "continuity" model which is represented as a path diagram. Using data from a socio-economically diverse set of Australian couples, estimates were obtained for all paths specified in this predictive model. Examination of the model estimates revealed moderate support for the continuity model insofar as close social bonds were found to be formative for both men and women. Following initial similarities between partners in psychological status, the quality of the early marital relationship contributes to changes in the psychological health of both partners which, in turn, influences changes in that relationship.
Consciousness Raising among Mentally Handicapped People: A Critique of the Implications of Normalization
Authors: Szivos Susan E. , Travers Eileen
Published: August 2005

Consciousness raising involves not only making bearers of a stigmatized identity aware of the inequitable distribution of social rewards, but also an exploration of the meaning of that identity on a personal level. Current theory and practice, however, assumes the advisability of "passing" and not exploring the nature of handicap. We present reasons why consciousness raising is of benefit to handicapped clients. These reasons cluster around five theoretical positions: (1) self-acceptance and self-esteem, (2) cognitive dissonance, (3) realistic attributions and goal-setting, (4) coming through the "loss spiral," and (5) social identity theory and intergroup comparisons. We also discuss possible drawbacks to consciousness raising. Implications for professional practice include whether to and how to "tell" and talk about handicap with clients.
Time Spent Communicating: A Multiple Levels of Analysis Approach
Authors: Yammarino Francis J. , Naughton Thomas J.
Published: August 2005

Although prior studies have explored the association between time spent communicating and various antecedents and outcomes, differentiating among multiple levels of analysis in these investigations has been largely ignored. In this study, the relationships among time spent communicating and effort, satisfaction with work, and autonomy from a superior were assessed with an explicit consideration of multiple levels of analysisindividuals, work groups, and collectivities. Results from within and between analysis (WABA) procedures suggest that some effects were cross-level, aggregating to higher levels of analysis and varying across job-based collectivities and work groups. Other effects were level-specific, varying across work groups, but not aggregating to a higher level.
Extending the Metaphor "System"
Authors: Atkinson C. J. , Checkland P. B.
Published: August 2005

Virtually all systems-based work is dominated by the notion of "system" as a concept of an adaptive whole which may survive in a changing environment. Such unexamined givens should be challenged; it might be fruitful in practical interventions in real-world problems to widen the concept "system." The nature of the concept of the adaptive whole is examined, both in general and more specifically in "soft systems methodology" (SSM), the systemsbased approach to tackling ill-structured problems which has been developed in the 1970's and 1980's. A method for developing alternatives to the core systems metaphor is presented, and its practical use in real-world problem solving is illustrated. This is a promising enrichment of SSM.
Correlates of Work and Non-Work Stress and Satisfaction among American Insulated Sojourners
Authors: Lance Charles E. , Richardson Deborah R.
Published: August 2005

We sought an integrative perspective on relations among work and nonwork stress and satisfaction in terms of their similarity in life domain (work vs. non-work) and psychological outcome (satisfaction vs. stress) facets. In a sample of American "insulated sojourners," we hypothesized stronger relations among outcomes (and their putative determinants) which shared either the life domain or psychological outcome facet, than among outcomes which shared neither facet in common. Results were generally supportive, indicating that psychological outcomes in at least two life spheres are distinguishable and may relate to one another in predictable ways.
A Cognitive-Expectancy Analysis of Compliance Decisions
Authors: Hope Jon W. , Pate Larry E.
Published: August 2005

This paper examines the relationship between organizational directives and managerial decision making. Specifically, a variety of issues surrounding compliance/noncompliance with organizational directives are examined. Directives are seen as formal reflections of the intentions and past learning of the firm. An expectancy-based model is developed to explain conditions of compliance with directives vs. the decision-maker's search for an initiative solution. A number of implications of this analysis are presented and discussed for both theory and practice in organizational decision making.
Perceptions of Injustice in a Black Community: Dimensions and Variation
Authors: Adams James P. , Dressler William W.
Published: August 2005

Few studies have examined beliefs and attitudes about injustice and discrimination within minority communities. Most research has emphasized the institutional consequences of discrimination, or the racial beliefs of the majority groups. In this study we examine attitudes about injustice and reactions to discriminatory acts within a Black community in the U.S. South. Beliefs and attitudes were found to cluster in three dimensions, including responses to personal discrimination, perceptions of political structures, and perceptions of major social institutions. Economic, social, and psychological variables accounted for 10-30% of the variance in these dimensions in regression analyses. Implications of these results for theory and policy are discussed.
Effects of Devil's Advocacy on Escalating Commitment
Authors: Schwenk Charles R.
Published: August 2005

Devil's advocacy is designed to assist decision makers in questioning assumptions. Escalating commitment in organizations occurs in decisions involving ambiguous information which requires decision makers to make assumptions. In such decisions, experts often provide analysis and recommendations for action which may increase the tendency toward escalating commitment if decision makers uncritically accept the assumptions underlying the experts' recommendations. Devil's advocacy may be effective in this process. In this paper, Staw's (1976) escalating commitment task is used to examine the effects of an expert report and a devil's advocate treatment on the tendency to escalate commitment. Results show that an expert report increases dollar allocations to a failing project and subjects' estimates of the project's probability of success. A devil's advocate critique appeared to reduce the effects of the expert report though the results were only marginally significant. The results also suggest that, in their assessments of probability of success, females are less sensitive than males to the failure feedback but more sensitive to the devil's advocate treatment.
Patterns of Life Structure and Variability in Self
Authors: Crary Laura M. , Pazy Asya , Wolfe Donald M.
Published: August 2005

This paper investigates the relationship between patterns of life structure and variability in self. It presents new methods for assessing two kinds of variability in self and four dimensions of life structure (complexity, conflict, flexibility, and compartmentation). Data for these measures were gathered through the design of a research program in which subjects were invited into the data-gathering process as co-inquirers. Empirical data reveal a congruence between variability of self and the nature of a person's environment as it is reflected in dimensions of life structure. Variability of self is linked with the occupation of complex, flexible, compartmented, and highly conflictful life structures. Theoretical implications point toward the need to consider patterns of life structure and variability of self as dimensions of individual differences.
Young Adults and Parental Divorce: Exploring Important Issues
Authors: Cooney Teresa M.
Published: August 2005

In this article, the potential impact ofparental divorce on the lives of young adult offspring is discussed. Parental divorce may upset both social and psychological aspects of the transition to adulthood process. The family roles young adults are expected to assume could be altered by the break-up, as could opportunities for particularyoung adult pursuits, such as advanced education. Heightened adjustment problems also are likely to result, as divorce produces additional life changes during the highly transitional period of early adulthood. Qualitative data from an exploratory study of 39 college students, ages 18-23, illustrate many of the relevant issues. Suggestions for future research are provided.
Competition and Cooperation: Effects of Value Dissensus and Predisposition to Help
Authors: Cosier Richard A. , Dalton Dan R.
Published: August 2005

Two studies were conducted in order to investigate the effects of cooperation and competition on performance and satisfaction. In Study One, it was hypothesized that the effects of cooperation vs. competition may be exacerbated by perceptions of value differences. Value dissensus did interact with the cooperation-competition variable for the satisfaction measure, but not for the performance measure. A main effect for performance was found, however, due to subjects in the cooperative condition performing significantly better than subjects in the competitive condition. In Study Two, an attempt was made to discover when cooperation may have advantages over competition. It was hypothesized that people who highly valued employee citizenship behavior would work better in a cooperative environment. An interaction was found suggesting individuals who highly value the helping dimension of citizenship behavior perform better under cooperative incentives than similar individuals under competitive conditions.
Analyzing Organizational Conflicts Using a Model Based On Structural Role Theory
Authors: Kabanoff Boris
Published: August 2005

A qualitative case approach is used to examine the capacity of the potential influence incongruence model of interpersonal conflict to analyze the latent sources of conflict and the resultant conflict processes in three cases of interpersonal conflict in organizations. A discussion of the case study approach and its role in theory construction and confirmation is provided. The three cases analyzed are those described by Walton (1969) in his seminal study of third-party conflict interventions. It is demonstrated that the model provides plausible, theoretically-integrated explanations of the sources of conflict in these three cases and aids understanding of the attitudes and behavior of the parties involved. A feature of the analysis is its integration of psychological and sociological concepts including bases of interpersonal power, the role concept and the process of role definition, and influence of role specialization and differentiation, symbolic aspects of interpersonal conflict, personality factors such as power needs, and dissonance theory. A degree of model clarification and elaboration are undertaken and the implications for conflict resolution and management are considered.
Social Categorization, Entitlement, and Justice in Organizations: Contextual Determinants and Cognitive Underpinnings
Authors: Lansberg Ivan
Published: August 2005

This paper builds on previous behavioral science research and theorizing as well as on classicalphilosophical examinations of entitlement andjustice, andproposes a newframeworkfor understanding these issues in the context of work organizations. This paperfocuses on how individuals in organizations develop perceptions of what they are entitled to receive in exchange for their membership and contributions. It proposes that there are two fundamental conditions that must be simultaneously satisfied for an individual to perceive his or her overall relationship to an organization as just: (1) that the individualperceive that he or she is being treated equally vis-a-vis others in the group category (e.g., seniorfaculty, juniorfaculty, student, or clerical) to which the individual belongs in the organization (referent similar) and (2) that the person perceive that he or she is being treated in accordance with legitimate criteria (such as seniority, education, and performance record) vis-a-vis those in groups to which the person does not belong (referent dissimilars). The paper examines how contextualfactors (such as the organization's structure and its size) influence the social comparisons and contrasts leading to perceptions of entitlement. A three step model depicting the cognitive process underlying the development ofperceptions of entitlement and justice is proposed. The paper also puts forth a number of testable hypotheses and explores the implications of this framework for understanding distributional conflicts in organizations.
Barriers to Mentoring: The Female Manager's Dilemma
Authors: Ragins Belle Rose
Published: August 2005

Mentoring relationships may be critical for women seeking advancement in organizations. The infrequency of mentoring relationships for females suggests special concerns and considerations. This literature review draws upon current research to examine the interpersonal and organizational barriers female managers face in developing and maintaining effective mentoring relationships in organizations. An analysis is made of gender differences in the function, nature, and effectiveness of mentoring relationships. Recommendations and guidelines for future research and theory development are proposed. The groundwork for a longitudinal theory of mentoring and career development for women in organizations is presented. Implications for organizations are also discussed.
The Effect of Extent of Use of Information Technology and Job of the User upon Task Characteristics
Authors: Medcof John W.
Published: August 2005

The relationships between extent of use of information technology (IT) and task characteristics were examined in two jobs using the Job Diagnostic Survey. Consistent with past studies, it was found that, among clerks, extent of use is positively correlated with skill variety, feedback from agents, and dealing with others, and that there is no correlation between extent of use and task identity, task signifcance, andfeedbackfrom the job. Also consistent with past studies was the finding that the nature of the IT user's job moderates the relationship between use extent and task characteristics. In the non-clerical job in this study, use extent was negatively correlated with skill variety, feedback from agents, and dealing with others. A model proposed to explain these results suggests that the relationship between use extent and task characteristics depends upon the task characteristics of the IT-using and non-IT-using components of the job. Practical applications of this model were suggested.
The Network Structures of Organizations: Effects of Task Contingencies and Distributional Form
Authors: Shrader Charles B. , Lincoln James R. , Hoffman Alan N.
Published: August 2005

The broad concern in this paper is a long-standing one in organizational sociology, the determinants of organizational structures. However, it is argued that internal structures are better conceived and operationalized in network terms than in the "distributional" terms of past organizational research. From a survey of 36 agencies, network data were obtained on the communication and client referral ties among practitioner staff. From these data, the following structural measures were computed for each organization, density, connectivity (cohesion), symmetry (hierarchy), and clustering. From such theories of organization as Burns and Stalker's distinction between mechanistic and organic forms, hypotheses were derived relating these network structural properties to the distributional properties of differentiation, formalization, and centralization, as well as the task contingency variables of size, age, technology, and professionalization. The regression analysis provides support for the general argument that organic organization is manifested in networks characterized by high density, connectivity, and multiplexity combined with low hierarchy and clustering.
A Reconciliation of Market Competition, Decentralization, Size, and Financial Performance Results: An Extension Testing Moderating Effects
Authors: Moores Ken , Duncan Keith
Published: August 2005

The paper reports a study conducted in New Zealand that further examines contingency propositions that have been the subject of study in India, Mexico, and Wales and for which the results remain equivocal. Specifically, the relationship between structural dimensions and financial performance are examined while acknowledging the moderating effects of market competition and firm size. Responses from senior executives of New Zealand public-listed companies along with published financial performance results indicate that under high market competition conditions a decentralized authority structure is positively related to financial performance. Under low market competition centralized authority structure and financial performance are positively related. Implications of these findings for control strategy are tendered.
The Effect of Similarity on Performance Ratings and Interrater Agreement
Authors: Zalesny Mary D , Kirsch Michael P.
Published: August 2005

Although training and use of multiple raters have been suggested to minimize demographic and individual biases on performance evaluations (Latham & Wexley, 1981), use of multiple raters often results in low interrater reliability which compounds the difficulty of establishing performance rating validity. The present study investigated the performance ratings made by the peers and supervisors of correction's officers, i.e., prison guards. Attention wasfocused on two issues: (1) the effects of rater and ratee personal, attitudinal, and relationship variables on performance ratings, and (2) examining performance "perspective differences" as an explanation of rating agreement. Results indicated that supervisor-subordinate educational similarity was significantly related to subordinate's performance rating. Supervisor-subordinate agreement on job dimension importance and subordinate age similarity with peer raters were also marginally related to performance ratings. The findings are discussed from the perspectives of shared cognitive schemas ofjob behaviors and practical implications.
Occupational Stressors, Individual Strains, and Social Supports among Police Officers
Authors: Kaufmann Gary M. , Beehr Terry A.
Published: August 2005

In a survey of 121 police officers of a Midwestern state, it was found that occupational stressors (under-utilization of skills, quantitative workload, and job future ambiguity) and several types of social support are related to individual psychological strain. An interaction between occupational stressors and instrumental social support was opposite from the predictions of the buffering hypothesis, and explanations are offered for this "reverse buffering" result. Additionally, police in supervisory positions experience less stress and more social support than do nonsupervisory police officers.
The Career of the Military Wife
Authors: Jans N. A.
Published: August 2005

The aim of this study is to investigate the phenomenon of a wife's psychological identification with her husband's career: her identification with the social role of "wife of' a member of a particular occupational group. The particular occupational group studied was the Australian military. The study isolated the wife's identification with the husband's career (WI) as a variable, and then developed and tested a model of the determination of a wife's identification. The concept of WI was derivedfrom Finch's (1983) research on the wives of British middle class professionals, and provides an empirical test of some of Finch's propositions about the determination of WI. A model of WI was developed by analogy to studies of the determination of psychological identification with an occupational career. Data were derived from responses to a questionnaire survey of male officers and wives/partners of the Australian Navy, Army, and Air Force, in the rank range lieutenant to colonel, or equivalents. WI and most other variables were measured by scores on Likert scales. A multiple regression analysis of the wives' data (N = 815) showed that WI is a function of the woman's assessment of her quality of family life, her sex-role image or support for feminist values, her age, and her husband's career involvement. Overall, 41% of the variance in WI was explained. The transposition of occupational-career models to family-career models shows theoretical promise.
Some Consequences of Turnover: A Work Unit Analysis
Authors: Mueller Charles W. , Price James L.
Published: August 2005

In response to the recommendation that researchers examine the consequences of turnover instead of merely its determinants, we test nine hypotheses about how the turnover rate in organization work units influences integration, centralization, promotional opportunities, instrumental communication, job satisfaction, and behavioral commitment. Data from 115 work units in five organizations are studied using a longitudinal design which measures the impact of the work unit turnover rate for 8 months on the changes in the six variables over the 8-month period. After introducing numerous controls, turnover is found to have a net negative effect on instrumental communication and behavioral commitment. Implications for future research are discussed.
Reactions of Nonparticipants as Additional Rather than Missing Data: Opportunities for Organizational Research
Authors: Sutton Robert I.
Published: August 2005

Organizational research entails encounters with two groups of people who are usually labeled "nonparticipants": (1) those who are never asked to participate, but whom the investigator encounters during the data gathering, and (2) those selected to participate, but who cannot or will not do so. This paper demonstrates the value of these data for field research, particularly for studies that rely on questionnaires, interviews, and structured observations. The sequence of events typically associated with recruiting respondents and informants is proposed to create five key junctures at which research can be designed to gather such data. Ethical issues are raised concerning the use of information from nonparticipants.
Cutbacks, Management, and Human Relations: Meanings for Organizational Theory and Research
Authors: Curtis Russell L.
Published: August 2005

Retrenchments are a common occurrence in business, educaitonal, social service, and civic and public organizations in the United States. Administrative responses to the events leading to reductions have been reactive and last-resort activities typically leading to centralizations, formalization, and increased downward initiatives of communications and directives. In turn, these have tended to exacerbate the existing problems, especially those of employee morale, trust, depression, and productivity. Variations by types of organizations are presented and implications are drawn for practical consequences and solutions and for analytical contributions to organizational theory.
Experimentation and Control: A Conceptual Framework for the Comparative Analysis of Socialization Agencies
Authors: Rapoport Tamar
Published: August 2005

The paper introduces a conceptual framework, backed by empirical evidence, in which experimentation and control are perceived as independent but coexisting generic dimensions within each of the three major socialization agencies during adolescence: the home, the school, and the informal youth association. The socialization experiences in each agency, in terms of each dimension, was assessed via a closed questionnaire distributed among 1433 Israeli Jewish adolescents. The results shown, first, a clear-cut differentiation between the two dimensions across agencies and, second, that the agencies differ substantially in the degree to which each of the dimensions is present and therefore diverge in the patterns of socialization on which they are based. In light of these results, a preliminary typology of socialization contexts, incorporating the dimensions of experimentation and control, is proposed under the assumption that each context has a distinct impact on the development of adolescents.
Examining the Nature of Work Stress: Individual Evaluations of Stressful Experiences and Coping
Authors: Dewel Philip J.
Published: August 2005

Recent reviews of occupational stress research constantly emphasizes four important themes. These include the need to clarify what we mean by stress since how we define it influences how we research it and thus how we explain our results, the need to reconsider how we measure stressors, the need to explicity recognize the role of coping by developing measures of coping strategies, and the need to consider the role of alternative methodologies in investigating the stress process. Qualitative and quantitative methodologies are used to explore some of these issues. The results point to the value of using qualitative measures to assess the validity of current research practices. A number of issues emerge. When measuring work stressors, more attention should be given to such facets as intensity, frequency, and the meaning individuals attribute to events. Coping also influences individual meaning and future research should explore the nature of direct action and palliative strategies and more thoroughly investigate the appraisal process and its role in shaping stressful events.