bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Natural Historian
Authors: Brockliss L V B
Published: November 2023

As we have seen, no one who stepped inside Calvet’s house in the Rue Pugelle in the last decade of his life would have ever doubted that he was a collector of antiquities. Such a visitor might never have suspected, on the other hand, that the Avignon physician possessed a natural-history collection. According to the inventory taken of Calvet’s household effects in 1810, the only natural-history items on display were the rib of a young whale and a narwhal’s tusk, both to be found in his cabinet d ‘ ‘etudes. Like his coins, his natural-history collection was largely kept out of sight, chiefly hidden in four cupboards, marked, so his testament informs us, A to D. One cupboard was kept in the box-room at the end of the hall, which entered onto the garden. The other three were kept in the attic (see Fig. 1.3). whether Calvet had displayed part or all of his natural- history collection earlier in his life is not known. whatever the truth of the matter, in the 1800s it must have been largely out of his own as well as his visitors ‘ sight. Given that Calvet was increasingly incapacitated in the last decade of his life and that his trusted servant, The ‘ re’se, was also getting on in years, he can have had little opportunity to view his treasures. Perhaps by then he had lost interest in the collection and tidied it away for posterity. 2
Crises
Authors: Hendy David
Published: November 2023

On Friday 10 January 1975, various BBC panjandrums—Governors, Advisory Council members, members of the Board of Management, and a small handful of programme-makers—all made their way to Ditchley Park, a secluded country house in the heart of the Cotswolds where Winston Churchill had spent time during the War. There, they were joined for the weekend by a select group of newspaper editors, clergymen, trade unionists, and academics, all concerned in one way or another with broadcasting.
Mac the Knife
Authors: Hendy David
Published: November 2023

There were five people with a chance of becoming Radio Four ‘s new Controller in 1976. One was Ronald Mason, the Head of Programmes in BBC Northern Ireland, who was keen to leave a troubled Belfast for a London posting. Two others worked in Television: Brian Wenham, the 38-year-old head of Current Affairs, and Monica Sims, the 50-year-old head of Children ‘s Programmes, a former editor of Woman ‘s Hour and the candidate tipped as a clear front-runner in the press.
Close-Up and Personal
Authors: Hendy David
Published: November 2023

One summer day in 1979, the nineteen-stone broadcaster Tom Vernon decided to pedal his bicycle all the way from Muswell Hill in London through France to the shores of the Mediterranean. Motivating him, he said, was the feeling that he had ‘given up being in touch with the world outside ‘: A radio broadcaster is among the most detached of all. He lives under fluorescent tubes in a windowless studio, and handles words and ideas on little pieces of magnetic tape. The temptation is strong to become more and more a processor of substitute reality, and not very different from a transistor in his tape machine.
Years Zero
Authors: Hendy David
Published: November 2023

In June 1983, with the wind of a Falklands War victory in her sails, Margaret Thatcher achieved a second decisive election victory. Henceforward, the climate within which the BBC operated became a potent brew of political, economic, and personal hostility. For broadcasters, her first government had been less intrusive than they might have expected. Macroeconomic policy had loomed largest in the Prime Minister ‘s concerns. There had also been the restraining influence at the Home Office of William Whitelaw, a man of the One Nation establishment quite at ease with the BBC–ITV duopoly.
Provocations
Authors: Hendy David
Published: November 2023

Programmes on Radio Four were lightning rods. Anxiety over the BBC ‘s internal upheavals, over the search for an acceptable mean between ‘popularity ‘ and ‘distinctiveness ‘, over the need to find new listeners without losing old ones: all this would find public expression in the reaction to individual programmes. For those on the outside they were the most sensible way of judging the health of the BBC. New programmes, or any changes to existing ones, were the ultimate measure of the Corporation ‘s ability to move with the times—and to do so by absorbing the best features of the age rather than the worst.
ENGLAND 450–1066
Authors: Pratt David
Published: November 2023

Conner, Patrick W. ‘Beyond the ASPR: electronic editions of Old English poetry’, A133, 109.Dobney, Keith; Hall, Allan; Kenward, Harry. ‘The bioarchaeology of Anglo-Saxon Yorkshire: present and future perspectives’, A89, 133–40.Fulford, Michael; Handley, Mark; Clark, Amanda. ‘An early date for Ogham: the Silchester Ogham Stone rehabilitated’, Medieval Archaeology44 (2000), 1–23.Irving, Edward B. (Jr.) ‘Editing Old English verse: the ideal’, A133, 11–20. 693. O’Keeffe, Katherine O’Brien. ‘Introduction’ [New approaches to editing Old English verse], A133, 1–10.Scragg, D.G. ‘Towards a new Anglo-Saxon poetic records’,A133, 67–78. 695. Spence, Craig. ‘“Citie . . . of stickes”: toward a material history of medieval London’,Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society50 (1999),98–107.
England And Wales 1500–1714
Authors: Archer Ianw.
Published: November 2023

Bartlett, Kenneth R. ‘Travel and translations: the English and Italy in the sixteenth century’, Annali d’Italianistica 14 (1996), 493–506.Chandler, John Howard (ed.) Travels through Stuart Britain: the adven-  tures of John Taylor, the water poet (Stroud: Sutton, 1999), xii, 308p.Chard, Chloe. Pleasure and guilt on the Grand Tour: travel writing and  imaginative geography, 1600–1830 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999), ix, 278p.Gunn, Steven. ‘Britain 1500’, History Today 50:8 (2000), 38– 44.Miller, John. ‘Britain 1600’, History Today 50:9 (2000), 35– 43.Macinnes, Allan. ‘Britain 1700’, History Today 50:10 (2000), 39 – 45.Renaud, Emma. L’Angleterre au XVIIe siècle[England in the 17th century] (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 1997), 171p.
Conversion to Christianity
Authors: Charles-Edwards Thomas
Published: November 2023

Between about 672 and 678, Wilfrid, bishop of York, built and dedicated to St Andrew the church of Hexham, close by Hadrian’s Wall and the great fort of Corbridge. His biographer praised Wilfrid’s stone church for the depth of its foundations and the crypts built with dressed stone.
‘Revolution in Writing’: Gender, Modernism, and the Aesthetics of the Ideal Language
Authors: Tookey Helen
Published: November 2023

One of the most consistent features of the reception of Nin’s work-from reviews dating from the 1940s through to feminist critical appraisals of the 1980s and 199os-has been a focus on the interrelations of artistic creativity and gender; more specifically, of creativity and femininity. Edmund Wilson, reviewing Under a Glass Bell in the New Yorker in 1944, described Nin’s stories as taking place in ‘a special world, a world of feminine perception and fancy’.
Byron
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

There is no longer a word for what used to be called cant, or in Victorian times humbug. (Bullshit, for which a poem in 1915 by T. S. Eliot furnishes the earliest OED citation, is something else, since it doesn’t have to imply a mouthful of piety.) We still have plenty of opprobrious terms for ways of speaking of which we disapprove, but none of them catches cant, with its insinuation of hypocrisy tinged with self-deception: ‘a stock phrase that is much affected at the time, or is repeated as a matter of habit or form’, ‘phraseology taken up and used for fashion’s sake, without being a genuine expression of sentiment’ (OED). There ‘genuine’ is good, because it waives any need to enter upon the distinction between sincerity and authenticity.
Tennyson
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

Tennyson was angered by those who told him that what he had so well expressed had oft been thought and indeed oft expressed. Their tone implied that he had been detected.
An Anglo-Indian Family
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

It is impossible to overstate the importance of India in the lives of the Stracheys. Both Richard and Jane Strachey described themselves as ‘Anglo-Indians’ and took immense pride in the term. They used it, of course, in its nineteenth-century sense as one referring, not to those born in India of mixed British and Indian descent, but rather to those English families and individuals who spent time engaged in imperial service in India. Thus their sense of themselves as Anglo-Indian was inseparable from their sense of connection to Britain’s imperial mission. Jane Strachey made this absolutely clear in a speech she made to the Lyceum Club in London in 1910.
An Imperial Marriage
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

Richard and Jane Strachey exemplify the companionate Victorian middle-class marriage that has been of so much interest to historians in the past few decades. Once thought of as an absolutely patriarchal institution, in which a dominant and powerful husband had complete control over a subordinate wife, Victorian marriage has come in recent years to be seen as both more complex and more varied than this simple model suggests. This is not to suggest that husbands did not have considerable legal power over the person, property, and children of their wives, but rather to recognize that many women exerted immense influence over their husbands and that personal affection often served to mitigate the extreme nature of patriarchal power.
School Days
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

The Stracheys were an unusual Victorian family in their belief that the education of daughters was almost as important as was that of their sons. Hence all the Strachey children went to school. For the most part the boys spent a longer time there, starting of as boarders at a preparatory schools when they were 7 or 8 and moving on to a public schools in their early teens. James followed the usual course in terms of a preparatory school, but then became the only one to attend a secondary day school. The daughters’ preparatory schooling was either done at home or in local day schools. Thus while they too went to boarding school in their teens, they were usually away from home for less time than their brothers.
Modern Marriages
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

In his short memoir, ‘Lancaster Gate’, Lytton Strachey described the marriage of his sister Dorothy to Simon Bussy in 1903 as an event that brought to an end a number of Victorian traditions and shook the world of his parents to its foundations.1 It was Dorothy’s choice of a husband that was most shocking. Simon Bussy was a French artist who was well known to the Stracheys. Indeed, he had stayed in their home. But he had never been thought of as a possible husband for one of their daughters. For all her love of French literature and culture, Jane Strachey had never seriously contemplated herself or any member of her family actually becoming French.
Continuity and Change
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

One of the most interesting questions when looking at the Strachey family over two generations centres on the extent to which it is possible to identify in detail the shared familial characteristics and attitudes that David Garnett referred to as the distinctive Strachey ‘atmosphere’. There is a question also about the impact of the strong sense of family tradition and of a shared outlook amongst the Stracheys on the desires of some members of the family to espouse new ideas, beliefs, and ways of life. These questions arise most particularly in relation to Lytton, James, and Dorothy, the three members of the family whose intellectual interests, activities, and personal lives diverged most noticeably from the family’s Victorian heritage.
A Literary Family
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

Literature was important to the Stracheys in many different ways. Every member of the family read voraciously, and several of them had marked literary talent. This is evident obviously in their published works, but also in the absolutely wonderful letters that some of them wrote. Pippa’s letters from India, for example, were rightly cherished by the family, and read aloud in a similar way to Lytton’s diary of his trip to Egypt and South Africa. Throughout the nineteenth and the early twentieth century, their love of reading, their shared sense of literary history, and their communal literary activities, including the acting of plays by favourite authors, helped bind the Stracheys closely together.
Understanding and Knowledge of What is Said
Authors: Fricker Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

When a human speaker-hearer of a language hears and understands an utterance by another speaker of a sentence of their shared language, she typically comes to know, or comes to be in a position to know, what speech act was elected in the utterance. But her forming of a knowledgeable belief about what was said is not the most immediate psychological upshot of her auditing of the utterance. In fact she may not, as it were, bother to form a belief about what was said at all. The most immediate personal-level psychological elect of her auditing of the utterance is that she enjoys a representation of a distinctive kind special to language understanding: a conscious representation of the content and force of the utterance.
Introduction: Conceptualizing Transition in an Evolving Field
Authors: Wray Alison
Published: November 2023

A book entitled The Transition to Language could give the impression that there was a single event at some point in prehistory before which there was no language and after which there was language. But that is far from the case. The constituent properties of human language-its mediums of transmission, its microand macro-structure, the mechanisms that process it, the manner in which it is used to convey messages-all entail independent, or partially independent, developments of physical, mental, and/or social configurations. Each such development can be conceptualized in terms of a transition. A transition may be sudden or gradual. That is, it may be the result of one event with major consequences for the species, or a slow accumulation of relatively unimportant small changes that ultimately effect a combined impact.
Constraints on Communities with Indigenous Sign Languages: Clues to the Dynamics of Language Genesis
Authors: Ragir Sonia
Published: November 2023

A common criticism of language origin hypotheses has been that they are too speculative-that there is no way of proving or disproving them by observing language actually being formed in a languageless community. This is no longer, strictly speaking, true. There are three sources of information that shed significant light on language genesis: recent studies of indigenous sign language formation; historical accounts of the transformation of plantation pidgins into Creoles (Bickerton 1990, 1999; McWhorter 1997); and computer simulations of language genesis (Kirby 1999a, 2000, 2001; Batali 1998, 2000; Steels 1998,Steels et al.,this volume).Where sign language is concerned, it is important to realize that the deaf individuals who have created communication systems within hearing-speaking populations did not have access to the existing spoken languages (Kegl et al. 1999); thus, an examination of the formation of sign in their different communities offers a unique glimpse into language genesis in real populations.
Uniformitarian Assumptions and Language Evolution Research
Authors: Newmeyer Frederick J
Published: November 2023

This chapter explores the consequences of the fact that most research into language origins and evolution has taken the ‘uniformitarian’ position that the general nature of human language has not changed much over the millennia. It concludes that such a position is probably a mistaken one. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 17.2 presents the evidence for uniformitarianism, at least in so far as it governs the languages spoken today. Section 17.3 documents the fact that most language evolution research has assumed the correctness of the principle diachronicallyas well as synchronically. Section 17.4 presents reasons to doubt the correctness of uniformitarianism, at least in its strongest form and sect. 5 argues that reasons for such doubt increase the further back we go in time.
Peasant Opinion and the ‘Coercive Economy’
Authors: Kershaw Ian
Published: November 2023

Peasant farming dominated Bavarian agriculture, which was predominantly mixed in character, though specialized production flourished in the viticulture of Lower Franconia, the hop-growing of parts of Middle Franconia, and the dairy farming of the alpine reaches of Upper Bavaria and Swabia. As Table IX shows, 77.5 per cent of agricultural concerns in Bavaria (here including the Palatinate) were classed in the 1933 census as peasant farms of various sizes, compared with. 68.9 per cent in the Reich as a whole. Most typical of the Bavarian rural economy was the medium-sized peasant holding, a tendency strengthened even further if we omit the Palatinate where, in a region of predominantly partible in heritance, three-quarters of all concerns were small peasant farms or smallholdings. Of the administrative regions of Bavaria proper, only Lower Franconia, where partible in heritance was also common, had a disproportionately high ratio of small peasant enterprises and smallholdings. For the rest, as Table X indicates, a half or more of all agricultural units was made up of medium-sized peasant farms with a fair sprinkling of larger farms, especially in southern Bavaria where many of the large peasant holdings were to be found in the alpine foothills.
Petty-bourgeois Complaint and Compliance
Authors: Kershaw Ian
Published: November 2023

An attempt to explore middle-class opinion during the Third Reich faces some obvious difficulties. The first is definitional. Whatever their internal differentiation and stratification, the peasantry and the working class can be seen as relatively homogeneous social groups. The ‘middle class’, by contrast, embraces numerous, quite disparate sectors of society with widely differing socio-economic interests.
The Disillusioning of the Protestants
Authors: Kershaw Ian
Published: November 2023

The acqms1t10n of Franconian territories and of the free Reich cities within its geographical area—the most important of which were Augsburg and Nuremberg—brought the Bavarian State for the first time in the early nineteenth century a sizeable Protestant minority, amounting in 1815 to just less than a quarter of the total Bavarian population.
The Alienation of the Catholics
Authors: Kershaw Ian
Published: November 2023

In its relations with the Catholic population of Bavaria, the Nazi Movement faced both before and after 1933 problems of an entirely different order from those which it encountered in its dealings with the Protestant population. Compared with the historical divisions and theological rifts which were features of a critical disunity in the Protestant Church during the Weimar Republic, Catholic institutions and religious life between the foundation of the German Empire and the rise of Nazism were characterized by an extraordinary degree of inner strength, cohesion, unity, and vitality, which rose to a peak in the years of the Republic.
Nazism and the Church: the Last Confrontation, 1941
Authors: Kershaw Ian
Published: November 2023

After subsiding into an uneasy partial truce in 1938–9 and continuing to- simmer at just below boiling-point during the first war years, Church-State relations erupted again during 1941 as the Nazis launched what was to prove their final all out offensive against the institutions, traditions, and values of in particular the Catholic community. The opposition of the churchgoing population reveals perhaps more clearly than any other single episode the depth and intensity of antagonism towards Nazism.
A Military Education 1852-1858
Authors: Owen Roger
Published: November 2023

The military school to which Evelyn Baring was sent in 1852 at the age of 11 had been started only a few years earlier as an experiment to prepare young boys for a cadetship at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich (RMA). It was not a success and came to an end in 1859 after only ten years owing to a disagreement between the masters. It was quartered in Carshalton House, most parts of which had been built by an East India Company merchant in the eighteen century, and leased to the Board of Ordnance in 1847. A drawing of 1850 shows it to have been an imposing, three-storey structure. It was built in a brownish-yellow brick, with decorations of better-quality red brick and stone window sills. There was also a large formal garden with a lake, an island, and an ornamental bridge.
Surviving the Drummond Wolff Mission and the ‘ Race Against Bankruptcy’ 1885-1887
Authors: Owen Roger
Published: November 2023

As Baring prepared to leave for Cairo at the end of the summer of 1885, his main preoccupation was with what was soon to be called the ‘ race against bankruptcy’ , the name given by Alfred Milner to the struggle to ensure a return to full payment of the interest on Egypt’ s funded debt within the two years allocated by the London Convention which followed the London Conference. However, even before he left England for Austria, perhaps to take the waters at Carlsbad (now Karlovy Vary), perhaps to go hunting, he learned that there was to be a significant new development on the international front as well.
One Among the Crowd: The Marking of Singular Participants
Authors: Cysouw Michael
Published: November 2023

Pronominal paradigms vary widely among the world’s languages. It will be a long journey to get this variation under control. I will proceed in small steps, limiting myself each time to a conveniently arranged subset of the variation. Inevitably, this will lead to some ad hoc decisions to include certain themes in one chapter or another, but everything that has to be said will come up eventually. This chapter deals with singular pronominal marking. In the introductory chapter, I have defined pronominal systems as paradigms that show at least an opposition between the marking for speaker and addressee. In this chapter, one category will be added to these two: the category ‘any other singular participant’. There are maximally three different morphemes to be discussed here: one for speaker, one for addressee, and one for any other. The principal objective of this chapter is to provide a typology of singular person marking (Section 2.2). Various kinds of homophony between the singular categories are attested. The major part of this chapter will consist of a description of examples of singular homophony. Almost everything that is theoretically possible will be shown to exist (Section 2.3). Next, I will argue that the examples attested do not corroborate the hypothesis that the ‘richness’ of singular marking is linked to the usage of independent pronouns (Section 2.4). Subsequently, some attention will be paid to the occurrence of zeros in singular pronominal marking. Among others, the question will be raised here whether these zeros should be considered as non-overt marking, or maybe better seen as non-existing marking (Section 2.5). Finally, a summary will be presented (Section 2.6).
The Diversity of the Core : A Survey of Patterns of Singular and Group Marking
Authors: Cysouw Michael
Published: November 2023

In the classical analysis of the pronomen, various accidentia(‘attributes’) of the pronoun were distinguished. For example, in the Te’khne Grammatike’by Dionysius Thrax, ‘persons, genders, numbers, cases, shapes, species’ are mentioned as possible attributes of pronouns (Uhlig 1883: 64; Kemp 1987: 182). Somewhat differently, the Ars Minorby Donatus lists the attributes ‘quality, gender, number, form, person, case’ (Chase 1926: 33). Many slightly different version of the list of attributes can be found in the classical literature, but all agree on one basic point: there is an unordered list of characteristics that are equally relevant to the analysis of pronouns. This classical analysis is rather different from what is found in more recent grammatical work. Today, the PERSONAL pronouns have been put at the top as the prototypical kind of pronoun, and the attributes person and number have become the central pivot for their description. However, there has never been a clear decision to change the perspective. Over the ages, the special status of the combination person/number has diffused slowly and largely unnoticed into grammatical practice. It dates back at least to De Emendata Structure(1524) by Thomas Linacre. He gives these two attributes a special place among the others because they occur with all declinable word classes (Luhrman 1984: 185, 205). Over the following centuries, the combination person/number virtually becomes the basic framework to describe pronouns.
Cardinality : Redefining Number in the Pronominal Domain
Authors: Cysouw Michael
Published: November 2023

The marking of quantity-more traditionally called ‘number’-in human language is a complex and multifaceted subject. In The Philosophy of Grammar, Otto Jespersen introduces the discussion of number with the warning that grammatical number is more complex than basic counting: Number might appear to be one of the simplest natural categories, as simple as ‘two and two are four’. Yet on closer inspection it presents a great many difficulties, both logical and linguistic. (Jespersen 1924: 188)Jespersen continues with an extensive discussion of various aspects of number marking in the grammars of human languages. Among many other things, he notes the problematic status of the plural in the pronominal domain, characterizing the pronoun ‘we’ as being ‘essentially vague’ (p. 192). Still, he does not conclude that the analysis of ‘we’ as a plural should be reconsidered. Yet this is exactly what is being proposed in the present work. The traditional use of plurality in the pronominal domain implies that the number of participants is important. However, as has been argued before (see especially Chapter 3), the categories traditionally called ‘plural’ are better interpreted as unmarked for number. The difference between the traditional approach and the perspective taken here is illustrated in Figure 6.1. A GROUP of participants has been defined as a specific combination of various singular participants (see Section 3.3). A group is unmarked for number because the number of participants is not important. Of course, a group necessarily refers to more than one person. Yet the definition of a group is based purely on qualitative characteristics of the constituting parts. The KIND of participants that form the group is important, not the NUMBER of the included participants.
Cognate Paradigms Revisited : Connecting the Dual
Authors: Cysouw Michael
Published: November 2023

A pronominal paradigm is not an isolated, unchangeable structure. Quite the contrary: the structure of a pronominal paradigm is highly variable through time and space, and the variation in paradigmatic structure, even between closely related languages, is remarkable. Individually, pronominal elements are relatively stable, but the structure of pronominal paradigms appears to change rather easily. The resulting variability of paradigmatic structure might make one wary of any typological generalization or diachronic analysis of the paradigmatic structure because both types of investigation need an object with some stability to yield results. However, each of these analyses can be combined to compensate for the other’s deficiencies. Typology abstracts away from the small variations and focuses on the major transitions in the synchronic structure of human language. In contrast, historical-comparative study starts from small variations between close relatives to develop generalizations about diachronic. Typology can inform a comparative investigation about the chances with which a particular structure occurs. In return, comparative investigation can enhance a typology by adding transitions between the types distinguished. In this chapter, I will use a crypto-diachronic method to incorporate the typo-logy of dual marking from Chapter 7 into the cognitive map as established in the previous chapter. The typology of dual marking resulted in the Dual Explicitness Hierarchy. As a hypothesis, this typological hierarchy is interpreted as a pathway for diachronic change. I will use examples of cognate paradigms to test this hypothesis. If the hierarchy allows for a diachronic interpretation, I expect to find examples of cognate paradigms linking two paradigms that are adjacent on the hierarchy, approximating the dynamics of paradigmatic structure through time and space.
Introduction
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: November 2023

German is spoken as a first language by approximately 100 million people in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and elsewhere, and as a second language by many others in Central and Eastern Europe. It is also learnt as a foreign language by people all over the world. There are many books which purport to describe the language, ranging from compendious grammars intended for native speakers to elementary textbooks for foreign learners, and from dictionaries of current usage to philological studies of earlier stages of the language.
Morphology
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: November 2023

One complaint often made by learners of German is that it has ‘a lot of grammar’. This is, of course, somewhat misleading, since all languages are complex and difficult for foreigners to learn, and there is no evidence that, taken as a whole, any language is significantly more or less complex than any other; all languages have ‘a lot of grammar’. What is usually meant by this remark is that German has a particularly complex word structure, and in this respect certainly it may be said to be rather more complex than some other languages, including English. There are, of course, also many languages, especially outside the Indo-European family, that have more complex word structures than German.
Syntax
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: November 2023

The study of grammatical structure is conventionally, and conveniently, divided into two parts, morphology and syntax; the former, which we considered in detail in Chapter 3, dealing with the structure of words, the latter, to which the present chapter is devoted, dealing with the structure of sentences. Morphology and syntax have many features in common: they are both concerned with grammatical entities and with the principles that underlie their combinations. But words and sentences are rather different kinds of units; words are not only very much shorter and simpler than the majority of sentences; they are also much more stable and fixed in their structure, offering fewer possibilities for innovation and improvisation. The more complex and much freer structure of sentences makes syntax a rather different knd of subject from morphology, requiring a different type and wider range of descriptive concepts and categories. Syntacticians make much of the fact that the vast majority of the sentences that we produce and understand are new and have never been uttered before, and yet we are able to produce and understand them without difficulty. Clearly, then, as speakers and hearers of our language we are making use of some sort of knowledge that goes beyond the mere memorising of structures, and we could therefore see the study of syntax as an investigation of this knowledge.
German in Use
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: November 2023

The theme of this book is, as the title asserts, the structure of German. Our analysis of the language so far has therefore focused on this structure: the various units — phonemes, morphemes, words, etc — and the way in which they fit together to form larger entities, the largest of which is the sentence. In our discussion of the complexities of this structure, we have explicitly excluded the way in which the language is actually used by speakers of the language, an area of linguistic study that, as we observed in Chapter 1, goes by the name of pragmatics.
War of Words: The Famine in the Times and the Nation
Authors: Fegan Melissa
Published: November 2023

It is rather disconcerting to look up the word ‘Ireland’ in the index to The History of the Times for 1841–84, and discover absolutely no reference to the Famine. ‘IRELAND: The Times “special commissioner”, reads the main entry; elsewhere there are oblique references to the Irish Church Question and Land Question, but the Famine-not to mention the other Irish events which made headlines such as Repeal, the Fenians, the Land League, etc.-is absent.
The Prefect, Political Functionary of the Jacobin State: Permanences and Continuities (1870-1914)
Authors: Machelon Jean-Pierre
Published: November 2023

AS one of the best-known historians of nineteenth century France, Vincent Wright could not have failed to be interested in the prefects. His doctoral thesis on the Basses-Pyrenees from 1848 to 1870 took him straight to the heart of a department of rural France at the time of the Second Republic and the Second Empire, where he was understandably fascinated by the contrast between the stability of the consular administrative institutions and the political and constitutional instability of the nineteenth century. Over a period of 30 years, starting in 1968, he wrote a number of important works on the prefectoral institution, which had long been taken for granted as being the backbone of territorial administration and the custodian of the Jacobin spirit. With Bernard Le Clere he wrote the definitive work on the prefects of the Second Empire. 1 He himself wrote a number of articles on the same period, in particular on ‘Les prefets demissionnaires en decembre 1851’ (1968), ‘Le corps prefectoral et le coup d’Etat de decembre 1851’ (1968), ‘Les prefets d’Emile Ollivier’ (1968), and ‘Les prefets imperiaux et le 4 septembre 1870’ (1970). In addition, other very substantial contributions to the literature on the subject scrutinized in detail the prefectoral body during the tormented early days of the interregnum between the Second Empire and the Republic, a period about which little was known, as is the case with all transitional periods.2 Vincent Wright’s curiosity did not stop there.
Introduction
Authors: Bergonzi Bernard
Published: November 2023

The subject of this book can be conveniently identified as Matthew Arnold’s Catholic younger brother. Readers who know of the Arnolds as one of the famous professional families of Victorian England will be aware that Matthew had brothers; several in fact. Rather fewer are likely to have known that one of them became a Catholic under the influence of John Henry Newman, like many of his contemporaries in the middle decades of the nineteenth century. Tom Arnold, though, wore his Catholicism with a difference; after some years he reverted to Anglicanism (though never moving very far from Catholic beliefs), then finally returned to the Catholic Church. Each of these shifts was the product of a spiritual crisis which involved physical displacement and a family upset.
Oxford Again
Authors: Bergonzi Bernard
Published: November 2023

Tom Arnold quickly made use of his privileges as a life member of the Oxford Union. Writing to Julia on its notepaper on 22 April 1865, soon after his arrival, he remarked on the fact that the Union supplied him with free stationery and a term’s postage at a greatly reduced rate. He wondered why undergraduates should willingly contribute to let old members, who paid nothing, enjoy such resources. But he briskly concluded, ‘However I did the same when I was an undergraduate, so I “take the good the Gods provide” and say nothing.’ He mentions his friendly reception from the Oxford establishment, or at least a leading member of its liberal faction. Benjamin Jowett, not yet Master of Balliol but confidently biding his time, had invited him to breakfast that morning, but Jowett had had a sleepless night, and Arnold found him rather dull.
Dublin Again
Authors: Bergonzi Bernard
Published: November 2023

Dublin, when Tom Arnold returned there, was sinking further into the decline that had been evident in the 1850s. In the words of a modern historian, ‘The 1880s were a particularly depressed decade. Unemployment and under-employment were rife. There were numerous appeals to charities, and demonstrations of men seeking work were common. By 1891 the population of Dublin was lower than it had been in 1851. The falling population and decaying properties reflected an impoverished city.’ It was also an unhealthy city, with bad drains and high mortality; in 1879 the death-rate in Dublin reached record levels.
Introduction
Authors: Watson Janet C E
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I sketch the development of Arabic from its Proto-Semitic ancestor to the present-day dialects. I begin by looking at common features of Semitic phonology, morphology, and syntax. I then consider the position of Arabic within the Semitic phylum as a Central Semitic language which also exhibits several shared traits with South Semitic. In Sections 1.2.1–3, I consider the spread of Arabic from the Arabian Peninsula, the development of the standard language and the phenomenon of diglossia. In Section 1.3 I introduce the main focus of this work, the mod-ern dialects of Cairene and San’ani Arabic.
The Phoneme System Of Arabic
Authors: Watson Janet C E
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers the development of the phoneme system in Arabic and establishes the phoneme systems for present-day San’ani and Cairene. I begin by considering the consonantal system of Classical Arabic as recorded by the founding father of Arabic grammar, the eighth-century ce Arab grammarian, Amr ibn Uthman ibn Qanbar Sibawayh. Having established the consonantal system of Classical Arabic, I look at refiexes of the Classical Arabic consonantal phonemes in modern dialects of Arabic. I then consider the consonantal system of San’ani and Cairene, showing that San’ani is far closer than Cairene in terms of its consonantal system to what we believe to have held for Classical Arabic. Finally, I consider the vocalic systems of Classical Arabic, and then of San’ani and Cairene.
Phonological Features
Authors: Watson Janet C E
Published: November 2023

It has been long understood that speech sounds are not atomic, indivisible units, but that they are made up of a number of phonological features. In earlier work, speech sounds were represented as unordered sets or bundles of distinctive features (Bloomfield 1933: 79; Chomsky and Halle 1968: 335 ff ., Lass 1984: 94). Today it is understood that speech sounds are internally structured: certain groups of phonological features behave as units in assimilation processes; certain features appear to be dependent on other features—[distributed] and [anterior], for example, are relevant for coronals and not for velars or labials; in assimilation processes certain spreading features appear to be contingent on the presence of features shared between the trigger and target (Cole 1987). The need to provide a structured representation of phonological features was first properly addressed in Clements’s (1985) paper entitled ‘The geometry of phonological features’ in which he proposed that features are arranged geometrically. Feature geometry rep-resents both the separate and the coordinated aspects of features within a hierarchical structure. In the model of feature geometry that I adopt, phonological features and feature values fulfil the four basic criteria listed in (1).
Word Stress
Authors: Watson Janet C E
Published: November 2023

Arabic is a language with word stress. This means that one of the syllables in a content word is perceived as prominent and receives main stress. In words of more than two syllables in San’ani (optionally also in words of two syllables where the leftmost syllable is heavy and the rightmost syllable superheavy) one or more of the remaining syllables receives secondary stress. In Cairene, secondary stress is not perceived.
Morphology 2
Authors: Watson Janet C E
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the level-two morphology. In contrast to level-one morphology, level-two morphology is wholly concatenative, involving suffixes and prefixes which are affixed to the outcome of level-one morphology.
Emphasis
Authors: Watson Janet C E
Published: November 2023

The assimilation processes considered in Chapters 8 and 9 involve a consonantal or vocalic undergoer acquiring a portion or the whole of the feature matrix of an adjacent trigger. This chapter deals with the local and long-distance spread of nonprimary features from a group of segments referred to broadly as emphatic. The presence of a set of pharyngealized coronals attested in the Central Semitic languages and their effect on consonants and vowels minimally within the syllable and, in general, maximally within the phonological word is one of the most widely recognized features of Arabic phonology. Traditionally, these consonants are referred to as emphatics and are held to be distinguished from a set of plain counterparts by the presence of a feature described loosely as phonological emphasis. In Chapter 3, however, I show that the set of emphatics is not restricted to the pharyngealized coronals. It also includes the uvulars (including the uvular fricatives and the uvular stop in dialects for which these sounds are attested phonologically) and the pharyngeals. These are analysed as the emphatic counterparts of the velars and the laryngeals respectively.
Medical Conflicts in Early Modern London
Authors: Felling Margaret
Published: November 2023

Physicians have had a major role in framing the middle-class values of modern western society, especially those relating to the professions. This book questions the bases of this hegemony, by looking first at the early modern physician's insecurities in terms of status and gender, and then at the wider world of medicine in London which the College of Physicians sought to suppress. The College's proceedings against irregular practitioners constitute a case-study in the regulation of an occupation critical for the well-being of contemporary Londoners. However, the College was, it is argued, an anomalous body, detached from most other forms of male authority in the urban context, and its claims lacked social recognition. It used stereotyping to construct an account designed for higher authority, but at the same time, its regulatory efforts were constantly undermined by the effects of patronage. The so-called irregular practitioners emerge as extremely diverse in country of origin, religious belief, and levels of formal education, yet the full analysis provided here also shows that most were literate, and that a significant number later became members of the College. Many were London artisans, barber-surgeons and apothecaries who can be seen as the 'excluded middle' between the two better-known extremes of the physician and the quack. In suppressing artisan practitioners, the College was also seeking to suppress contractual or 'citizen' medicine, an alternative system of structuring relations between the active patient and the practitioner which was fully integrated in contemporary urban custom and practice, but which has since disappeared. The College's selective account also inadvertently reveals the existence of female artisans who practised medicine outside the household routinely and for payment. Although distorted by the College's proximity to the Crown and to élite patrons, the Annals of the College give access to the rich variety of medical practice in early modern London and to the forms of resistance and self-presentation with which those outside the College justified, or denied, their identity as practitioners.
Coda Place And Manner Assimilation and Neutralization
Authors: Wheeler Max W
Published: November 2023

Catalan is relatively rich in the range of consonants that can appear in codas, though word-medial codas are restricted in length to one consonant, or to one consonant + [s] (as in extra[ Eks.tre] ‘extra’). The diversity of word-final codas, in particular, gives scope for extensive assimilation and neutralization of contrast before following consonants. As explained in Chapter 5, voice is never contrastive in codas. With respect to place of articulation, while homorganic clusters are found, not surprisingly, there are also a number of heterorganic clusters within morphemes, though by no means all combinations of place and manner are found (Wheeler 1975/9: 254–69; 1987; Bonet & Lloret 1998: 127–55). Place and associated properties of morpheme-internal codas are the focus of §6.2. Issues of manner assimilation—lateral and nasal—are raised in §6.3. When words are adjacent, all possible coda onset combinations of input place and manner can be found, and are subject to varying degrees of assimilation, especially of place. Issues particular to assimilation and most major place contrasts in word-final preconsonantal codas are treated in §6.4. Assimilation in coronal clusters is the focus of §6.5, where minor place assimilation is also explored. The focus of §6.6 is consonantal contacts in Majorcan Catalan, where the outputs are strikingly different from those observed in other varieties, and interestingly different from a typological perspective.
Epenthesis and Other Sonority-Related Phenomena
Authors: Wheeler Max W
Published: November 2023

I take up in this section some phenomena that illustrate further the three sonority constraints introduced in §3.1: the Sonority Sequence principle (SONSEQ), the Minimum Sonority Distance principle (MSD), and the Syllable Contact law (SYLCON). The major focus in this chapter is vowel epenthesis, that well- known process by which ‘underlying’ sequences that violate the Sonority Sequence principle (SONSEQ) are made acceptable by the ‘insertion’ of a default or unspecified vowel. Thus, for example, the infinitive of the verb ‘write’ escriureconsists of the stem / skRiw/ followed by the consonantal infinitive inflection/+r/. The output is not *[ skriwr] but [s kriwr], in eastern Catalan pronunciation, with epenthesis of [e] in both initial and final position, to allow proper syllabification of initial [sC] and final [wr]. (Western Catalan has [es kriwre] or [as kriwre].) There are accounts of the Catalan epenthesis phenomena from the perspective of Generative Phonology in Mascar ó (1976/8), Wheeler (1975/9: 11–32; 1987), and DeCesaris (1987). Lloret (2002a) provides a comprehensive description. While it is true that there are no output forms with *[sC-] initials, nor -C1C2 Wnals except where C1 is more sonorous than C2 (and not all such Wnals are admissible, as escriureshows), it does not necessarily follow that a process of ‘epenthesis’ takes place. All that one may directly infer is that contrast between zero and the presence of the default vowel is neutralized in such contexts. Given ‘Richness of the Base’, the relevant constraints would ensure that, for example, both /sC-/ and /VsC-/ inputs were realized [esC-].