bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Revaluation of the Old Copper Industry
Authors: Miles Suzanne W.
Published: April 2006

Collections of nearly 20,000 copper implements of twenty-one general types, heavily patinated, all surface or near surface finds without apparent pottery association, found in maximum concentration in Wisconsin, have raised questions of their relative age and probable cultural affiliations. In 1942, after Ritchie's discovery of copper implements in pre-pottery Laurentian levels, W. C. McKern (1942, p. 167) formulated a provisional hypothesis. He defined the tools as the production of a pre-Woodland, preceramic people, centered in Wisconsin and spreading into adjacent territory, and subsumed all copper implements, not attributable to known cultures, as cases of the Old Copper Industry.
The First Dendrochronologist
Authors: Heizer Robert F.
Published: April 2006

In The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise of Charles Babbage, an English mathematician who lived over 100 years ago, is contained an appendix entitled “On the Age of Strata, as Inferred from the Rings of Trees Embedded in Them.“ The account is of particular interest since it defines the method of deriving chronology from treerings, and Babbage actually envisages the possibility of employing the method to secure archaeological dating.
Fresh-Water Archaeology
Authors: Jewell Donald P.
Published: April 2006

Because fresh-water dams are flooding areas faster than archaeologists can investigate them, it has become urgent to develop a method of underwater archaeological research. Some technical equipment, such as “scuba” and other devices used by amateur divers, is already available. This, together with specialized techniques, some already developed, makes it possible to carry on archaeological research under water. The action of water is not always destructive. In fact, certain kinds of lakes act to preserve objects, either organic or metallic, which would be destroyed out of water. The objective of underwater research, then, would be twofold: (1) to recover data endangered by too long exposure to the destructive action of water, and (2) to recover data protected by the preservative action of water.
Underwater Archaeology: Its Nature and Limitations
Authors: Goggin John M.
Published: April 2006

The recent development of efficient free-diving apparatus has made possible underwater exploration for both sport and science. Human and cultural remains underwater are being extensively exploited. Although the term “underwater archaeology” is frequently applied to such activities, most are at the best only underwater salvage. Archaeological remains in lakes, springs, rivers, or the sea have considerable to offer. Perhaps their greatest value is the more complete condition of such artifacts in contrast to similar remains on land. However, they often suffer from decomposition, impregnation with minerals, or incrustation by algae or corals. Although context and sequential (or stratigraphic) position are not so easily found or recognized as on land, they are present in many cases. Any body of water is a possible site of study, but in practice, areas of potential importance are limited by location, depth, visibility, and bottom factors. There are four major types of underwater archaeological sites: (1) discarded refuse and “lost” material; (2) submerged sites of former human occupation; (3) shrines or places of offerings; and (4) shipwrecks.
A Fluted Point from Highland Guatemala
Authors: Coe Michael D.
Published: April 2006

An obsidian fluted point was found on the slope of a gorge near San Rafael, just west of Guatemala City. The point probably washed from hills on the thick beds of volcanics through which the gorge is cut. This would confirm previous beliefs that the paleo-Indian occupation of the area post-dates the volcanics. The San Rafael point resembles the fluted points from Costa Rica and Durango, Mexico, and Clovis forms from the eastern United States. Thus, paleo-Indian influences from the north into Middle America may have been of predominately eastern rather than western origins.
Observations on the Butchering Technique at a Prehistoric Bison-Kill in Montana
Authors: Kehoe Thomas F. , Kehoe Alice B.
Published: April 2006

The analysis of the bone from a bison drive in north-central Montana corroborates the implications of White's analyses of bison bone from Plains villages: the heaviest non-meaty bone was left at the kill site, the bones rich in marrow were chopped up for marrow-extraction; even when many animals were available all were thoroughly utilized by the hunters. This excavation also confirms ethnographic data on season of drives, methods of butchering, and use of arrows for killing.
Quantitative Analyses of Ancient Peruvian Metal
Authors: Kroeber A. L.
Published: April 2006

In January, 1927, soon after my return from an exploring expedition in Peru under the Chicago (then Field) Natural History Museum, I arranged with Dean Frank H. Probert of the University of California College of Mining for quantitative analysis of samples from 17 specimens of ancient Peruvian metal objects selected by me from the Max Uhle collections in the University's Museum of Anthropology. Professor Walter S. Morley kindly undertook to make the analyses in person. On February 26, the last of the specimens were returned to the Museum, and soon after that Professor Morley turned over to me a typewritten sheet giving the proportions, to a hundredth of a per cent, of copper, tin, antimony, arsenic, zinc, lead, gold, silver, and silica or insoluble materials determined.

I filed the sheet, but when next I went to use it, it could not be found. Neither Morley nor Probert any longer possessed a copy by then, and both of them have since died.
The Pre-Columbian Obsidian Industry of El Chayal, Guatemala
Authors: Coe Michael D. , Flannery Kent V.
Published: April 2006

El Chayal is an extensive obsidian workshop site in an area of major obsidian deposits northeast of Guatemala City. Surface collections include a great number of elongated, unretouched flakes that were probably used as blanks, stemmed projectile points resembling the Wells type, shouldered knives, very large discoidal scrapers, a heavy chopper, bifacial utility implements, and large unretouched blades similar to that found with the Iztapan mammoth in Mexico. Pre-Columbian pottery does not occur. On the basis of this absence, and from a comparison of the artifacts with stone tools from other regions in Mesoamerica, it is believed that the El Chayal industry can be dated to the middle and late Archaic period, roughly from 5000 to 1500 B.C.
Aboriginal Occupation and Changes in River Channel on the Central Ucayali, Peru
Authors: Lathrap Donald W.
Published: April 2006

A study of the relationships between archaeological sites and the previous channels of the Ucayali River in eastern Peru supports the archaeological chronology already established on stratigraphic grounds. These relationships also suggest that the average duration of a meander loop from inception to cut-off is about 500 years. This 500-year cycle offers an explanation for, and a measure of, the temporal lacunae separating the various components of multicomponent sites on the bluffs adjoining the Ucayali flood plain. The extent and rapidity of geomorphological evolution in this region must be considered when one attempts to evaluate the data of site density and site location, since many archaeological sites are quickly destroyed or buried.
The Mono Craters Petroglyphs, California
Authors: Davis Emma Lou
Published: April 2006

An unreported group of petroglyphs, all versions of a single "horseshoe" symbol carved in high relief, occur on an isolated volcanic peak. The more realistic ones appear to represent female genitalia and the rest seem to be more abstract versions of the same motif. Archaeological investigation has disclosed similar motifs in Southern California and ethnological research has turned up clues in the literature suggesting that the same "horseshoe" symbol survived until recently as a magical element in the Diegueño girls’ initiation ceremony.
The Potential of AFDC Manpower for Archaeological Research
Authors: McMichael Edward V.
Published: April 2006

Public Law 87-543 passed by Congress in 1962 provides a five-year program called Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). This is very similar to the PWA-WPA programs of the 1930's. Since 1961, when this was a pilot program, small AFDC crews have been used in West Virginia to excavate archaeological sites. Other archaeologists with a labor problem may want to investigate this potential source of manpower.
The Alamito Culture of Northwestern Argentina
Authors: Regueiro Víctor A. Núñez
Published: April 2006

As a result of five field seasons in the Campo del Pucará, Prov. of Catamarca, the Alamito culture, dated in the fourth century A.D., is one of the best known archaeological cultures of the Valliserrana subarea of northwestern Argentina. The 50 sites excavated show only slight variation in subsistence (essentially agricultural), technology, ceremonial structures, burial pattern, settlement pattern, and inferred social organization. Close affiliations are evident with the Ciénaga, Condorhuasi, and possibly Tafí cultures of Argentina; further afield, similarities can be observed with the Megalithic culture of Bolivia, Chiripa and Titicaca Basin complexes, and more remotely with Peru.
Comments on Griffin's Review of The Eastern Dispersal of Adena
Authors: Ritchie William A. , Dragoo Don W.
Published: April 2006

Ritchie and Dragoo criticize Griffin, who rejected in his review their hypothesis that Adena groups migrated to the East Coast and Northeast, for basing his judgment on a few poorly documented sites, rather than on the large and recently excavated Adena sites in the Upper Ohio Valley and the Chesapeake Bay area. They summarize the evidence from these sites in terms of the questions raised in the review.
Comments on the Associations of Archaeological Materials and Extinct Fauna in the Valsequillo Region, Puebla, Mexico
Authors: Irwin-Williams Cynthia , MacNeish Richard S. , Petersen F. A. , Wormington H. M.
Published: April 2006

In view of the potential significance to American archaeology of the discovery of man-made artifacts along with extinct fauna near Valsequillo, Puebla, Mexico, it is considered useful, in addition to the detailed field documentation, to present the evidence of independent observers concerning the in situ associations. Comments by three such independent scientists, R. S. MacNeish, F. A. Petersen, and H. M. Wormington, on the character of the evidence at Valsequillo are quoted.
The Botanical Identification of Archaeological Cotton
Authors: Stephens S. G.
Published: April 2006

Cotton plant parts recovered from archaeological sites usually consist of cordage and textile fragments, raw cotton, boll segments, and seeds. All of these can be readily identified as cotton, but much less easily as particular species of cotton. Some possibilities for obtaining a more precise botanical identification are presented. Peduncles (i.e., the stalks to which the bolls are attached in living material) might be particularly useful for identification purposes.
A Crisis in Archaeology
Authors: Clewlow C. William , Hallinan Patrick S. , Ambro Richard D.
Published: April 2006

The future of field archaeology in some parts of North America is seriously threatened by rampant pot-hunting. Archaeologists should capitalize on popular concern against the looting of foreign antiquities to build better public cooperation for site preservation within the United States.
A Synthesis of the Prehistory of the Central Little Colorado Valley, Arizona
Authors: Gumerman George J. , Skinner S. Alan
Published: April 2006

Recent excavation by the Museum of Northern Arizona has provided a basis for a review of the prehistory of the poorly known region of the central Little Colorado basin of northeastern Arizona. A regional sequence of considerable complexity is established beginning with a Clovis-Folsom horizon and culminating in Pueblo IV (see Table 1). An amalgam of Anasazi and Mogollon traditions with a dominant Kayenta base is apparent as early as Basketmaker III. The introduction of Little Colorado White ware, beginning about A.D. 1075, signals the beginning of the Winslow branch, a distinguishable regional Anasazi variant, lasting until the abandonment of much of this desert region in the mid-13th century. The archaeological distinctiveness of the region is apparently due to its location between the Anasazi and Mogollon area and the necessary adaptations to the arid, basin environment.
A Pennsylvania Transitional Period Radiocarbon Date
Authors: Kinsey W. Fred
Published: April 2006

The Peters-Albrecht site in the upper Delaware Valley in Pennsylvania has yielded a radiocarbon date of 1720 B.C. ± 100 (Y-1826) for the Lehigh complex of the Transitional period. This is the earliest date for this complex, and it poses some problems of correlation with respect to the Late Archaic sequence in New York. Regional manifestations of the Transitional period are discussed.
A Unique Maya Shrine Site on the Mountain Pine Ridge of British Honduras
Authors: Bullard William R.
Published: April 2006

A small ruin of presumed ancient Maya origin is described. This ruin is the only certain prehistoric structure discovered on the Mountain Pine Ridge of British Honduras, and it is associated with a natural granite outcrop of monumental appearance in such a way as to suggest that the two formed a shrine of a type not previously reported in Lowland Maya archaeology.
In Reply to Olson’s Review ofJeddito264
Authors: Daifuku Hiroshi
Published: April 2006

Olson’s review ofJeddito264 is criticized because it attributes to the author remarks that are quotations from other publications. The interpretation of Mogollon and Anasazi as cultural traditions is discussed, as well as the manufacture of unslipped red pottery in the Anasazi area. A number of questions are posed concerning the late prehistory of the Southwest, with particular reference to the Athapaskans and the Yaqui.
The Paleolithic of Trans-Baikal
Authors: Okladnikov A. P. , Chard Chester S.
Published: April 2006

Paleolithic remains, mostly surface finds from blowouts, are known from 63 sites in the Trans-Baikal, one of the five large regional subdivisions of the Siberian Paleolithic. Most important recent discoveries are the stratified sites of Oshurkovo and Sannyi Mys and the Pleistocene faunal sequence on Tologoi Mountain. Characteristic stone tools are made from whole or split pebbles and from blades removed from prismatic cores. Bone artifacts, known only from Oshurkovo, include slotted points and knives and flat antler harpoons. The Trans-Baikal finds, all Upper Paleolithic in time, are tentatively arranged in five chronological stages. The earliest period is based on the lower levels at Sannyi Mys in which microblades, but no pebble tools, are found with woolly rhinoceros and mammoth. The next period is represented by large pebble tools and cores from Ust"-Kiakhta Locality 3. Typical Siberian pebble tools found with horse in the upper levels at Sannyi Mys are assigned to the third stage. The fourth is best known from Oshurkovo where all the common Siberian Paleolithic stone tools are found along with bone artifacts in deposits which contain abundant fish bones. A number of sites are assigned to the fifth stage, but it is best represented by the uppermost level at Oshurkovo where flakes, flaked pebbles, and small blade tools of regular outline replace the large blades and pebble cores of the earlier periods. This tentative sequence is strengthened by correlations with the Angara and Yenisei areas to the west and with Mongolia and North China to the east. The Trans-Baikal is seen as an area in which the prismatic core and blade tradition of Eurafrican origin and the split pebble-tool tradition of eastern Asia were in contact from the earliest known period.
The Short-Nosed God from the Emmons Site, Illinois
Authors: Griffin James B. , Morse Dan F.
Published: April 2006

A copper-covered, wooden, human-effigy mask from a burial in a site of the Spoon River focus of Late Mississippi, about 1200-1400, probably was a rattle much like the specimen from Mound C, Etowah, Georgia.
Ammonium Chloride Powder Used in the Photography of Artifacts
Authors: Weide David L. , Webster Gary D.
Published: April 2006

Application of ammonium chloride powder to artifacts of quartz, obsidian, and chert aids in the production of photographs that show excellent surface detail.
Iodine Staining and Ultraviolet Photography Field Techniques
Authors: Dorwin John T.
Published: April 2006

Iodine staining and ultraviolet photography are described as techniques for working out unclear and confused stratigraphic situations. They are viewed as complementary to existing techniques and of limited application.
An Olmec Serpentine Figurine at Dumbarton Oaks
Authors: Coe Michael D.
Published: April 2006

An Olmec figurine said to have been found at La Venta falls stylistically within the range of variation of other figurines known to be from that site. Four designs engraved on the upper parts of the limbs represent abstract were-jaguar heads identical with those of the serpentine mosaic pavements at La Venta. Thus, the pavements should be considered as examples of the Olmec style and not, as has been claimed, pre-Olmec.
Archaeological Excavations in Hohokam Sites of Southern Arizona
Authors: Johnson Alfred E.
Published: April 2006

In 1963 archaeological investigations were conducted by the Arizona State Museum in a series of Hohokam sites on the Gila River Indian Reservation of south-central Arizona. Significant data were derived from two of the eight sites tested. One site, Arizona U:13:9, included two small villages. The earlier village was first occupied during the Snaketown phase, which is estimated to date between A.D. 300 and 500. Occupation continued through the Sacaton phase or until about A.D. 1100. The later village was occupied during two phases of the Classic period, or from A.D. 1100 to about 1450. At this ruin both inhumations and cremations, apparently contemporaneous, were found in a distinct burial zone. The patterning noted in the placement of these two types of burials is a new feature for the Hohokam Classic period. The other site, Arizona U:13:11, a small Soho phase village that was occupied between A.D. 1100 and 1300, is important for the support it adds to the establishment of a pattern of burial placement during the Classic period.
Limonite Crystal Beads in the Southwest: A Query
Authors: Breternitz David A.
Published: April 2006

Information is solicited on the distribution in time and space of limonite crystal beads. Nine such beads from two sites in southern Arizona are described.
A Late Postclassic Sweathouse in the Highlands of Guatemala
Authors: Ichon Alain
Published: April 2006

In 1974, a sweathouse was discovered in the Postclassic site of Los Cimientos-Chustum, department of El Quiché, Guatemala. It is rectangular, provided with an interior hearth, a drainage canal, and a large water reservoir. It is, thus, quite different from the El Paraiso sweathouse, the only Precolumbian structure of this type known today in the Highlands of Guatemala. The Los Cimientos arrangement is similar, although on a more modest scale, to the Lowlands sweathouses, especially those of Piedras Negras.
The Dogs of Awatovi
Authors: Olsen Stanley J.
Published: April 2006

A watovi is one of the most important Colonial Spanish sites in the New World. A Franciscan mission was established on Antelope Mesa in northern Arizona in 1629 and was maintained until 1701. This was the area of the first introduction of many of the European domestic animals among the pueblo Indians. Native dogs as well as the remains of the first recovered Spanish greyhound are discussed.
Using NTIS, or How to Disseminate Archaeological Reports
Authors: Somers Gary F.
Published: April 2006

Unless the results of archaeological research are disseminated, the value of conducting that research is questionable. Mechanisms currently utilized by archaeologists to publish or otherwise distribute reports are inadequate to handle the number of reports being written. Archaeologists should begin utilizing the National Technical Information Service's abstracting and microfiche program. This program would publicize reports and make them available to interested archaeologists.
A Lowland Maya Calendar Round-Long Count Conversion Computer Program
Authors: Krowne C. M. , Sidrys R. V. , Cooperman S. K.
Published: April 2006

A Fortran computer program is presented that converts Lowland Maya Calendar Round dates to their equivalent Long Count dates, and the reverse, for the period 1139 B.C. - A.D. 2012 [5.0.0.0.0 to 13.0.0.0.0.]. Additional features include a calculation of the number of days that separate the submitted Long Count date from the completion dates of the prior three important calendric cycles [Sacred Round, Civil Year, and Calendar Round]. This program supplements an earlier Long Count-Gregorian conversion program [Sidrys et al. 1975].
An Economic Evaluation of the Potential of Fish Utilization in Riverine Environments
Authors: Limp W. Frederick , Reidhead Van A.
Published: April 2006

Aquatic fauna, and fish in particular, have had an important place in a number of theories of the development of complex cultural manifestations. Using experimental data, a number of specific characteristics of fish usage in riverine evironments have been evaluated. In one case 45.5 kg of fish were harvested in 4 man-hours from a floodplain slough using only two logs. The energy represented by the catch was sufficient for 9.9 man-days or a return of 60 to 1 [60 hours of energy per hour of labor]. Sufficient protein was produced for a return of 384 to 1 [384 hours of protein per hour of labor]. The species composition of the catch was also informative, with 50% of the weight contributed by gizzard shad, Dorosoma cepedianum, a small fish. It is demonstrated that archaeological recovery techniques are heavily biased against the recovery of gizzard shad and other small fish remains. The nature of this bias and considerations for compensation are discussed.
The Role of Museums in Cultural Resource Management
Authors: Christenson Andrew L.
Published: April 2006

Cultural resource management is often considered to end when endangered resources are collected or excavated. Actually, this is only an early step in the process. An increasing proportion of our preserved cultural heritage is being managed in museums, and it is in museums that much future archaeological research will have to be done. This brief essay reviews the role of museums in cultural resource management and points to the need for a careful evaluation of the adequacy of current archaeological curation systems.
The Atlatl: Function and Performance
Authors: Howard Calvin D.
Published: April 2006

Popular misconceptions relative to atlatl functions are identified. The manner in which an atlatl functions to increase spear impetus is explained and illustrated. Its performance is tested by experiments and resulting data are provided. These data indicate that the atlatl provides approximately 60% increased spear thrust. Experiments fail to indicate any benefit derived from the use of atlatl "weights."
Warfare and the Evolution of the State: A Reconsideration
Authors: Webster David
Published: April 2006

Warfare is seen as an adaptive ecological choice under conditions of population growth and resource limitation. Its major significance in the formation of the state lay in its ability to negate evolutionary constraints inherent in ranked societies. The evolutionary significance of warfare is discussed in terms of processes of cultural change which are largely internal.
Archaeological Evidence for Population Pressure in Pre-Agricultural Societies
Authors: Cohen Mark N.
Published: April 2006

The intent of this paper is to criticize contemporary methodology in prehistoric demography and to suggest several new types of archaeological evidence which may be indicative of population growth and population pressure. Standard methodologies have tended to underestimate population growth in pre-agricultural societies and to underestimate the role of population pressure in causing economic change. It is argued that with increased sensitivity to additional sources of evidence, it becomes clear that population growth and population pressure are essentially ubiquitous in the archaeological record and can readily be perceived as leading to economic and technological growth culminating in the origins of agriculture.
Extreme Closeup Photography and Photomacrography
Authors: Sanger David
Published: April 2006

An alternative to photomicrography is suggested for photography of specimens in analysis of technology and artifact functions. The photomacrographic system yields superior results up to 40x, at which point photomicrography is preferred. It is suggested that enlarging, movie camera, or specialized macro lenses coupled to view or press cameras, can duplicate results achieved with expensive commercial systems.
Obsidian Hydration Studies in Highland Ecuador
Authors: Bell Robert E.
Published: April 2006

A total of 383 obsidian hydration measurements are reported for highland Ecuador. Specifically, hydration rim measurements have been used to test the reliability of five radiocarbon dates from the site of El Inga, and three of them are shown to be too young.
The Utilization of Pomacea Snails at Tikal, Guatemala
Authors: Moholy-Nagy Hattula
Published: April 2006

Pomacea flagellata (Say), a large freshwater snail, was eaten by the ancient inhabitants of Tikal. Its shells appear in archaeological contexts datable to the entire circa 1500-year span of permanent occupation. Utilization was heaviest during the earliest and latest periods, a distributional pattern that seems directly related to population growth and decline. Comparison with the freshwater mussels and European land snails suggests that Pomacea snails were probably never more than a supplementary source of protein and calories. However, they could have been important in a marginal diet. Occasionally Pomacea were deposited in ceremonial contexts. They were most frequent during the later Early Classic period when they may have figured in a special votive complex.
Reply to Kautz
Authors: King Thomas F.
Published: April 2006

Kautz has criticized the author's "oversimplified" use of ethnological models in the interpretation of data from a salvaged California cemetery. The author argues that this criticism reflects a misunderstanding of the uses to which archaeological data and models drawn from outside archaeology can appropriately be put.
Long-Distance Exchange among the Maya: A Comment on Marcus
Authors: Andrews Anthony P.
Published: April 2006

With good reason, several scholars have challenged the exaltation of long-distance trade as a prime mover in the rise of civilization. However, in dismissing the economic importance of long-distance exchange in the development of Maya civilization, Marcus (1983) has moved too far in the opposite direction.
Cultural-Ecological Aspects of the Pithouse-to-Pueblo Transition in a Portion of the Southwest
Authors: Whalen Michael E.
Published: April 2006

Southwestern archaeologists have traditionally devoted much attention to inventory and description of material culture change between the Pithouse and Pueblo periods. Unfortunately, our understanding of the ecological, demographic, and organizational aspects of the Pithouse-to-Pueblo transition is much less advanced. The present study attempts to remedy this deficiency for at least one portion of the Southwest, relying largely on survey data from the Mogollon culture area of extreme western Texas. Three major aspects of Pithouse-to-Pueblo change are considered. These are demographic change, subsistence pattern change, and social-organizational change. Basically, the transition is seen as a fundamental adaptive reorientation in which a small-scale, extensive, generalized adaption is replaced by one which was larger in scale, more intensive, and more specialized in focus than ever before. Factors motivating this transition are considered, and the supra-local applicability of the resulting model is discussed.
Estimating a Hydration Rate for Chimaltenango Obsidian
Authors: Mendoza Luis Hurtado de
Published: April 2006

Ninety-six percent of the obsidians in the valley of Guatemala originate in either the El Chayal or the Chimaltenango source systems. To an established hydration rate for El Chayal obsidian, one for Chimaltenango is added, thus expanding chronometric control to most of the central highlands of Guatemala.
Ranking Maya Cities: A Trivial Correction
Authors: Hammond Norman
Published: April 2006

Appraisal of the evidential basis of a work cited by Adams and Jones is incorrect.
Obsidian Production and the State in Teotihuacan
Authors: Spence Michael W.
Published: April 2006

Obsidian production was a major component of Classic period Teotihuacan's economy, with hundreds of workshops producing cores and blades of green obsidian and bifaces of grey obsidian for distribution throughout central Mexico. Although green obsidian was evidently obtained through a state network, grey obsidian procurement was conducted independently by most workshop groups. Most production took place in residential areas beyond the major public structures of the city, but some of these craftsmen also worked periodically within the public precincts where their output would have been at the disposition of state officials. The burden of this levy fell primarily upon those sectors of the industry that were most dependent on the state for support and most involved in external distribution. However, despite this evidence of an important administered element in the Teotihuacan obsidian industry, the workshops apparently maintained their independence from the state. This may have been due to their organization in strong social units that had a long history of independent existence, and to their self-reliance in procurement and distribution during the earlier stages of the industry"s development.
Further Simulations of Ancient Agriculture and Population at Tikal, Guatemala
Authors: Dickson D. Bruce
Published: April 2006

Webster's criticism of my linear programming simulation of the agricultural carrying capacity of the Tikal sustaining area is answered.
Webster vs. Champlain
Authors: Trigger Bruce G.
Published: April 2006

Webster's (1979) thesis that the Huron were prepared to hunt deer at a considerable energetic loss is vitiated by a serious factual error.
Yucatec Influence in Terminal Classic Northern Belize
Authors: Chase Diane Z. , Chase Arlen F.
Published: April 2006

Excavations undertaken during 1978 and 1979 at Nohmul, Belize are believed to cast new light on the demise of the Maya. Investigations revealed Terminal Classic-San Jose V material intermixed with Late Classic to Early Postclassic Yucatec material in a single-unit refuse deposit. More importantly, striking architectural similarities exist between structures at Nohmul and Chichen-Itza; Structure 20 at Nohmul proved to be of the “patio-quad” type known previously only from Chichen-Itza, and Structure 9 of Nohmul may be put forth as a “Caracol” (Chichen-Itza Structure 3C15) counterpart. On the basis of excavations at Nohmul, it is implied that there is an association between Toltec Chichen-Itza (Sotuta) and the Terminal Classic periods to the south (San Jose V-Tepeu 3), in that the two are overlapping, if not coeval. Should this be the case, new alternatives relating to the Maya collapse must be considered.
Exception to Two Points in Cordell's Review of Academic Press Publications in Archaeology
Authors: Morris Elizabeth Ann , Blakeslee Richard C.
Published: April 2006

Exception is taken to two statements in Cordell's review. Eight out of seventeen titles dealing with hunters and gatherers in the case study group might not be considered “overkill” in view of the fact that so many of the world's cultures were and are those of hunters and gatherers. Secondly, the detail and the occasional imperfection in Frison's Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains does not detract from its substantial utility.
Soil pH, Bone Preservation, and Sampling Bias at Mortuary Sites
Authors: Gordon Claire C. , Buikstra Jane E.
Published: April 2006

Prediction of human skeletal preservation at mortuary sites is important in archaeological research and in cultural resources management. In this study, correlations between osseous deterioration and soil acidity, as measured by pH, were found to be significant. Age-associated preservation biases were also evident. The use of multiple regression is suggested as a technique for estimating recovery of human osteological remains in archaeological context.
Ceramics, Chronology, and Horizon Markers at Wickliffe Mounds
Authors: Wesler Kit W.
Published: April 2006

The area around the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers has become a sharp focus of discussion about late Mississippian developments. The debate largely is based on the presence or absence of artifacts thought to be protohistoric or contact period horizon markers. Late deposits at Wickliffe Mounds (15BA4) have produced two such artifacts: astragalus dice and a head-effigy pot. Close study of the ceramic sequence and associated radiocarbon dates indicates that both “horizon markers” belong to the late prehistoric period of western Kentucky, and that neither can settle the debate about protohistoric occupation.
A Method for Taxonomic Typology Construction and an Example: Utilized Flakes
Authors: Read Dwight W. , Russell Glenn
Published: April 2006

This paper considers problems inherent in constructing typologies based on subdividing artifacts using clustering algorithms that assume a paradigmatic structure (as do most, if not all, currently used algorithms) and presents an alternative method based on a taxonomic, rather than a paradigmatic, structure for the artifact classes. The method is exemplified by analysis of an assemblage of utilized flakes from a series of late prehistoric habitation sites in the central highlands of Peru. These flakes were previously analyzed using more intuitive, traditional methods but without identifying any satisfactory groupings within the assemblage. Similarly, paradigmatically based clustering algorithms applied to the entire data set and using the several variables measured over these flakes were also unable to extract meaningful groupings. In contrast, the method presented here was able to (1) construct a partition of the flake assemblage into groups that also made intuitive sense to the practitioner, (2) have functional interpretation assignable through a model of transmission of forces from agent to object acted on, and (3) produce units differentially occurring across the several subsites from which the utilized flakes were obtained, i.e., units that add another dimension to the analysis of activities represented by the archaeological assemblage. Although demonstrated with utilized flakes, the method has general application.
What is Archaeology's “Mitigated Objectivism” Mitigated by? Comments on Wylie
Authors: Fotiadis Michael
Published: April 2006

In her recent work, Alison Wylie has sometimes claimed an important role for present politics in the constitution of archaeological facts, yet she has not fully documented such claims. Using the same materials as Wylie, namely the research on gender presented at the conference “Women and Production in Prehistory,” held in South Carolina in 1988, I attempt to provide such documentation, arguing that its absence may undermine Wylie's (indeed, archaeology's) “mitigated objectivism” as well as the facts emerging about prehistoric gender. I dispute neither the scientific integrity of those facts nor the rigor of Wylie's analysis. Like many before me, I puzzle about the relationship between truth and politics, and I regard the disjunction of the two notions, so obdurate in archaeology, as counterproductive, the source of contradictions and disabling ambivalences. I make at the end two suggestions about overcoming the notional disjunction of truth and politics, one adopted from Brumfiel and from Conkey (archaeological facts as allegories), the other from Foucault (archaeological evidence as a network of sites of power).
Making Nature Answer to Interpretivism: Response to J. E. Arnold, R. H. Colten, and S. Pletka
Authors: Raab L. Mark , Bradford Katherine
Published: April 2006

In a 1995 paper, Raab et al. questioned Arnold’s assertion that high sea temperatures in prehistoric southern California resulted in maritime subsistence disaster. The current discussion by Arnold et al. argues that our data were flawed and taken out of sociocultural context. Not only are these claims unfounded, they are based largely on an unfortunate strategy of combining uniformitarian and interpretivist analytical frameworks
The Hungarian Diet of 1839-40 and the Fate of Szechenyi's Middle Course
Authors: Barany George
Published: April 2006

Halfway between the publication of Széchenyi's Credit (Hitel, 1830) and the revolutionary year 1848, the Diet of 1839-40 stands out as an interesting episode of the Hungarian Reform Age. The importance of this period is generally recognized, but its interpretation is still problematic. Pre-World War I liberal historiographers tended to blame the “government of Vienna” for all the blunders committed before 1848. The conservative Szekfű school, more charitable to Metternich and Austria, was no less nationalistic in its approach to the non-Magyar minorities of Hungary, maintaining the myth of Magyar “spiritual supremacy” between the two world wars. Today, Marxist Hungarian historians try to be fair in their writings about the nationality problem but frown upon analyses of Austro-Hungarian cooperation, considering them apologies for the Habsburg Gesamtmonarchie. Modern Western historians, too, differ in their evaluation of nineteenth-century Hungarian reform and its leaders.
Vernacular Text-Books in South African Native Schools
Authors: Doke Clement M.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

In this survey of vernacular text-books I am confining my attention to the Union of South Africa and the three High Commission Territories of Basutoland, Bechuanaland, and Swaziland. In this area we have five important literary language forms in use, viz. Xhosa and Zulu (belonging to the Nguni cluster of Bantu), and Southern Sotho, Tšwana, and Northern Sotho (belonging to the Sotho cluster). Reference will be made to two other languages spoken in the northern and eastern Transvaal, Venda and Tonga (commonly written as Thonga, and belonging to the cluster of languages spoken in Portuguese East Africa from Delagoa Bay northwards). I do not intend to deal with the languages spoken in the Mandated Territory of South-west Africa, nor with such intrusions as that of Kalanga into the Bechuanaland Protectorate.
John Appleton of Maine and Commercial Law: Freedom, Responsibility, and Law in The Nineteenth Century Marketplace
Authors: Gold David M.
Published: April 2006

More than half a century ago, Walton H. Hamilton recognized the dual economic and moral spirit of the nineteenth century's ‘sense of individualism’ when he wrote that the legal maximcaveat emptor‘served well its two masters, business and justice’. However, recent scholarship has captured only half that spirit. Historians have concentrated on business and attributed the way judges shaped the law of the marketplace to their desire to promote economic growth. James Willard Hurst, in his seminalLaw and the Conditions of Freedom in the Nineteenth Century United States, posits ‘the release of individual creative energy’ as the ‘dominant value’ in American law for the first half or three-quarters of the nineteenth century, pointing to such developments as the judicial embellishment of ‘procedures and instruments to promote dealing at a distance and on credit’ in response ‘to the needs of a growing commerce’. Lawrence M. Friedman states that nineteenth century contract law was ‘attuned to the needs of a growing economy, at least as the leading judges read those needs’. Harold M. Hyman and William M. Wiecek credit the content of pre-Civil War contract law to the ‘developmental, entrepreneurial bias’ of antebellum judges. According to Bernard Schwartz, the job of American law, at least through the Civil War, was ‘to furnish the legal tools necessary for effective mobilization of the community's resources’. William E. Nelson, adding a class twist to the ‘developmental’ theme, writes that the law in the nineteenth century ‘came to be a tool by which those interest groups that had emerged victorious in the competition for control of law-making institutions could seize most of society's wealth for themselves and enforce their seizure upon the losers’.
“Standing” before the Constitution: Membership in the Community
Authors: Cogan Neil H.
Published: April 2006

The “who” of a lawsuit, who can sue and who can be sued, has long been a fundamental issue of process. Lengthy discussions of the issue are found in Roman law texts of eighteen centuries ago and in succeeding centuries in texts influenced by Roman law. In Roman law texts, the “who” of a lawsuit was discussed in the same context and, most importantly, with the same seeming concern as the fundamental issues of whether the court had authority over the parties and whether the court had competence over the subject matter. The same is true for many of the texts influenced by Roman law.
German Lawyers and the State in the Weimar Republic
Authors: Ledford Kenneth F.
Published: April 2006

Over the course of the late winter and spring of 1933, the German Bar Association (DAV), along with most other institutions in Germany, submitted to “coordination” by the new National Socialist regime. Coordination in reality meant a takeover of the private legal profession by younger lawyers who were National Socialist activists, directed from Berlin. The traditional leadership of the German bar permitted itself to be replaced by newcomers, formerly far removed from the centers of power in professional institutions. Regional lawyers' chambers, despite minor delays and efforts to express solidarity with colleagues in leadership now defined as falling outside of the “racial community,” also succumbed. Within five months, a profession that nineteenth-century reformers had condidered a bulwark of civil soviety, and which had viewed itself as a rock of independence from both state and public, had bowed to the demands of a party whose leader viewed lawyers with contempt and valued race over right.
The Comrades Law of Hebrew Workers in Palestine: A Study in Socialist Justice
Authors: Shamir Ronen
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this article is to examine socialist justice “in action.”Specifically, it looks at the Comrades Law system established in 1920s Palestine under the auspices of the General Federation of Hebrew Workers in Palestine. It finds that, regardless of original intentions, the Comrades Law quite rapidly became a quasi-state apparatus, displaying a clear bias in favor of institutional interests over those of individual workers. The argument, therefore, is that rather than becoming a liberating, alternative form of justice, this form of socialist justice ended up reinforcing existing relations of power and working as a mechanism of bureaucratic control.
Law and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Europe: The Case of Catalonia in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Jacobson Stephen
Published: April 2006

By the close of the nineteenth century, most continental Europeans tacitly accepted, if they thought about it at all, the notion that a civil code governed multiple personal and familial relationships in their daily lives. Like so many legislative structures, intellectual suppositions, and cultural artifacts, what was once regarded as a novel or even a major break with the past came to be understood as one of the many requisites of modernity. Contemporary historians have adopted a similarly indifferent posture, their curiosity only piqued when encountering specific provisions entangled with other political issues. In a strikingly dissimilar approach to that adopted toward penal law, they have been disinclined to explore the relationship between civil legal endeavor and political culture or the history of ideas. Only with respect to Germany have scholars considered these topics worthy of in-depth analysis; in so doing, they have demonstrated that understanding juridical culture is fundamental to appreciating the textures and peculiarities of the liberal nation state.
The Multiple Constitutions of Constitutional History
Authors: Mann Bruce H.
Published: April 2006

One of my few unrepressed childhood memories is of a high-school field trip to the Massachusetts State House in Boston. The docent, a hapless but not entirely innocent volunteer, addressed us in a tone of perky condescension usually reserved for precocious six-year-olds. Thus, when he stood before an object of local veneration—the state constitution of 1780, I think, or perhaps one of the royal charters—and clucked, “Now class, does anyone know what ‘constitution’ means?,” it was with casual adolescent malice that a voice from the back answered, “Yeah, it has something to do with metabolism.”
The Life of Langdell Has Not Been Logic; It Has Been Experience
Authors: Kimball Bruce A.
Published: April 2006

William LaPiana has led the way in searching for, identifying, and examining new evidence about Langdell, so it is gratifying to learn that he is informed by my revisions of Langdell's bibliography, teaching schedule, and career chronology. LaPiana also affirms the significance of Langdell's early lectures on partnership and commercial paper, adding informative points both about Langdell's views and their possible influence on others. However, the reconstructions of discussions from Langdell's classes are speculative, in LaPiana's judgment, and to some extent superfluous, because “one can certainly concede the point [that the Dean was not ‘dogmatic, rigid, and closeminded‘] even without resorting to the reconstructed discussions.”
Recycling, Paper
Authors: Borchardt John K.
Published: April 2006

More than 55% of the paper used in the United States is recovered and recycled. Similar high recovery rates are reported for Japan and some European countries. Recovered paper that is recycled includes old newspapers and magazines, old corrugated containers, and printing and writing paper. Products produced from recovered paper include newsprint, magazine paper, tissue products, corrugated cartons, other boxes, and printing and writing paper.

Paper recycling mills are a series of unit operations designed to disintegrate paper to form pulp, detach ink and other contaminants, such as adhesives from cellulose fibers, and separate the dispersed contaminants from the cellulose fibers. The fibers are optionally bleached and then made back into paper. The type of paper, the types of contaminants present, and the recycled paper product determine the choice of unit operations and their sequence. In particular, different ink types such as toner inks affect mill design and the choice of process chemicals. Both chemical and mechanical phenomena promote contaminant detachment from cellulose fibers and separation of the dispersed contaminant particles from pulp. Important chemicals used in paper recycling include agents to provide high pH, dispersants, surfactants, chelants, and bleaching agents. More paper recycling mills are clarifying and reusing process water. As a result, water clarification has become an important part of mill operations.