bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Magic Trick
Authors: Prasad Monica
Published: October 2021

This chapter argues that understanding causation is necessary to problem-solving, and suggests a comparative research design that can be easily adapted for most problem-solving projects. This research design requires defining what it would mean for the problem to be solved (a task that resonates with identifying “observable implications”), and selecting sites for comparison. The chapter draws on recent discussions of method and turns them to problem-solving purposes. The chapter also includes a warning against selecting on the dependent variable, and a discussion of the conditions under which it is possible to draw causal conclusions through in-depth study of one case.
Decision Points and Exercises (3): Clarifying and Defending Your Argument
Authors: Prasad Monica
Published: October 2021

Chapters six 6 through eight 8 are the “how to” core of the book. These chapters identify several decisions points that structure a problem-solving analysis, note the tradeoffs involved in the different decisions that might be made, and lay out some possible exercises that could guide thinking. The main argument of these chapters is that there are a range of different approaches that one could take to problem-solving; each has benefits and drawbacks that one should be aware of before you making decisions. In particular, each chapter emphasizes the need to consider how one might be wrong at each stage of the project. This chapter focuses on the advanced stages of a research project.
The Father of the Devil
Authors: Litwa M. David
Published: October 2021

This chapter argues that the gospel of John 8:44 helped to inspire the early Christian view that the creator was an evil being. This verse has at least four possible renderings allowed by grammar. In two of these renderings, taken by a variety of early Christian groups, there is indication that the devil has a father. Since the desires of this father are known from the parallel desires of his children, some early Christians inferred the hostility of the devil’s father toward Christ. Hostility toward Christ implied not only hostility toward Christians, but the generally malign nature of the creator.
The God of This World
Authors: Litwa M. David
Published: October 2021

This chapter treats Marcionite interpretations of 2 Corinthians 4:4. Marcion(ites) understood “the god of this world” (2 Cor 4:4) to be the creator because (1) this is one of the his known scriptural titles, (2) it accords with his well-known function (ruling the world, his creation), and (3) it concurs with his past actions (cognitive incapacitation, known from the reception history of Isa 6:9–10). To understand “the god of this world” as Satan runs into exegetical difficulties and in fact conflicts with key patristic interpretations. According to Marcion, the blinding “god of this world” was in cahoots with the blind “rulers of this world” who crucified Christ (1 Cor 2:8). This wicked alliance encouraged the idea that the creator was evil.
Destroyer of the Law II
Authors: Litwa M. David
Published: October 2021

This chapter shows how Christ destroyed the Law from Marcion’s (reconstructed) gospel (the Evangelion). After discussing the Marcionite reading of Luke 23:2 (Jewish leaders accuse Jesus of “destroying the Law”), the discussion focuses on Christ’s concrete violations of the Law. First, Jesus touched lepers in violation of the Law and healed them apart from the Law’s purification rites. Further, he allowed himself to be touched by an unclean woman but did not consider himself to be unclean. Moreover, he controverted the Law to honor parents by requiring a would-be disciple not to bury his father, and in general by requiring his disciples to abandon their families. Christ stated that the Law lasted until John the Baptist (Luke 16:16), indicating its abolition. Finally, Christ violated Sabbath laws numerous times, even claiming to be lord of—or over—the Sabbath. This Jesus who attacked the Law then died by the Law’s penalties. This was proof not only that Christ opposed the Law but that the Law was hostile to Christ. Yet the Law was only the instrument of the Lawgiver who plotted Christ’s death and so proved his evil nature.
The Battles over Sustainability and Climate Change
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

The political battles between anti-regulatory and libertarian conservatives and environmentalists have focused on two major and interrelated issues: sustainability and climate change. The opening of this chapter sets the stage by looking at the “Great Pacific vortex,” a vast whirlpool of plastic garbage the size of Texas, as a symptom of environmental distress. The battle over unrestrained growth took the form of “the Bet,” a wager between the Malthusian population doomsayer Paul Ehrlich and the libertarian economist Julian Simon. Whereas Ehrlich said growing world populations threatened life on earth, Simon argued that population growth was the solution, not the problem. Scarcity triggers a substitution effect (kerosene for whale oil) and as population increases so does human ingenuity. In the 1990s, the battle over climate change upstaged the argument over population. Enter Al Gore. As scientists battled to build a climate model that predicted the impact of greenhouse gases on temperatures, Gore heard a lecture in which his professor at Harvard, Roger Revelle, showed the class a graph of the “Keeling Curve” that demonstrated an unmistakable pattern of rising temperatures. It transformed the path of Gore’s life and the debate over climate change. The formation of the IPCC, along with the climate conferences at Rio in 1992 and Kyoto in 1997, provided an international platform on which scientists and government officials debated the nature of climate change and the need for governments to act. The Bush administration not only rejected Kyoto but also encouraged increased purchases of gas-guzzling SUVs and trucks.
The Great Patent Grab
Authors: Barnett Jonathan M.
Published: October 2021

From the late 1930s through the 1970s, the US innovation economy operated under a weak patent regime. This patent-skeptical climate was best illustrated by antitrust enforcement actions resulting in the compulsory licensing of leading US firms’ patent portfolios. Concurrently, the federal government instituted an implicit compulsory licensing regime through a dramatic infusion of R&D funding into the private sector, accompanied by constraints on firms’ legal exclusivity over technology developed using those funds. The US economy exhibited robust innovation activity for part of this period, followed by a slowdown commencing in the mid-1960s. During this period, R&D funding flowed mostly to large firms, market concentration remained high, and firms targeted by compulsory licensing generally maintained market leadership. The postwar regime of weak patents and public subsidies favored larger firms that could capture returns on innovation through vertically integrated structures and access to government funding. Case studies of two firms targeted by compulsory licensing suggest that this regime may have distorted organizational structures and the mix of innovation projects that were undertaken.
Augustine on Memory
Authors: Grove Kevin G.
Published: October 2021

Augustine of Hippo, indisputably one of the most important figures for the study of memory, is credited with establishing memory as the inner source of selfhood and locus of the search for God. Yet those who study memory in Augustine have never before taken into account his preaching. His sermons are the sources of memory’s greatest development for Augustine. In Augustine’s preaching, especially on the Psalms, the interior gives way to communal exterior. Both the self and the search for God are reestablished in a shared Christological identity and the communal labors of remembering and forgetting. This book opens with Augustine’s early works and Confessions as the beginning of memory and concludes with his Trinity and preaching on Psalm 50 as the end of memory. The heart of the book, the work of memory, sets forth how ongoing remembering and forgetting in Christ are for Augustine foundational to the life of grace. To that end, Augustine and his congregants go leaping in memory together, keep festival with abiding traces, and become forgetful runners like St. Paul. Remembering and forgetting in Christ, the ongoing work of memory, prove for Augustine to be actions of reconciliation of the distended experiences of human life—of praising and groaning, laboring and resting, solitude and communion. Augustine on Memory presents this new communal and Christological paradigm not only for Augustinian studies but also for theologians, philosophers, ethicists, and interdisciplinary scholars of memory.
Learning to Leap
Authors: Grove Kevin G.
Published: October 2021

Chapter 3 begins the second part of the book, “The Work of Memory.” Chapter 3 presents the spiritual exercise characteristic of the whole body of Christ. Augustine allegorizes Idithun, a name occurring in the Psalms, as “one who leaps across.” That leaping psalmist, a figure for the body of Christ, vaults all the way to the divine and back while remembering, forgetting, speaking, and keeping silent. The chapter follows Idithun on a leap of memory into Christ, a leap of memory out from Christ, and a leap of forgetting into Christ. Since leaping is also ascent, the chapter excavates a standard pattern of Augustinian ascent through memory revised communally by Idithun. Memory as spiritual exercise is a re-membering of the body of Christ, especially including the poor.
Origins of Moral-Political Philosophy in Early China
Authors: Jiang Tao
Published: October 2021

This book offers a new narrative and interpretative framework about the origins of moral-political philosophy that tracks how the three core values—humaneness, justice, and personal freedom—were formulated, reformulated, and contested by early Chinese philosophers in their effort to negotiate the relationship among three distinct domains, the personal, the familial, and the political. Such efforts took place as those thinkers were reimagining a new moral-political order, debating its guiding norms, and exploring possible sources within the context of an evolving understanding of Heaven and its relationship with humans. It makes three key points. First, the central intellectual challenge during the Chinese classical period was how to negotiate the relationships between the personal, the familial, and the political domains (or between the private and the public) when philosophers were reimagining and reconceptualizing a new moral-political order, due to the collapse of the old order. Second, the competing visions can be characterized as a contestation between partialist humaneness and impartialist justice as the guiding norm for the newly imagined moral-political order, with the Confucians, the Mohists, the Laoists, and the so-called fajia thinkers being the major participants, constituting the mainstream intellectual project during this period. Third, Zhuangzi and the Zhuangists were the outliers of the mainstream moral-political debate who rejected the very parameter of humaneness versus justice in the mainstream discourse. Zhuangzi and the Zhuangists were a lone voice advocating personal freedom. For them, the mainstream debate about humaneness and justice was intellectually banal, morally misguided, and politically dangerous.
Universal Bureaucratic State as the Sole Agent of Justice in Han Feizi’s Thought
Authors: Jiang Tao
Published: October 2021

This chapter focuses on the last fajia thinker, Han Feizi (c. 280–233 bce), who was a grand synthesizer of many aspects of all classical Chinese moral-political discourse in his effort to perfect the operation of the impartialist state. His political project explicitly rejected the XQZP model by problematizing its every aspect. He sought an alternative model that provided the intellectual foundation for a system of impersonal and uniform bureaucratic machinery that could dispense reward and punishment automatically with as little interference from the ruler as possible. His goal of instituting a set of impartial, transparent, and uniform administrative and legal code and standard in governing the state, often in defiance of the interest of powerful aristocratic families, points to the principle of justice operative in his statist project. However, he could not solve the core tension between the monarch and the monarchy, dooming his project of building an impartial political order.
Promoting Data for Well-Being While Minimizing Stigma
Authors: Pasquale Frank
Published: October 2021

Defining permissible purposes for large-scale personal data collection, analysis, use, and sharing will take up an increasing amount of time for regulators, while law enforcers will need new tools to ensure that regulations are actually being followed. While posing great challenges to governments, the articulation and enforcement of these specifications will prove an essential part of the foundation of a truly emancipatory data policy. Particularly sensitive forms of data, such as health data, require special attention.
A New Social Contract for Platforms
Authors: Pickard Victor
Published: October 2021

This chapter proposes to frame the problems caused by platform monopolies as facets of a broader structural problem: the concentrated and unaccountable power over core information and communication infrastructures. It mentions Facebook and Google that have assumed the power on information and communication before societies were able to receive meaningful democratic obligations in return. It suggests the forging of a new “social contract” between the platforms, regulators, and society as the time has come to correct the power imbalance and redress social harms. The chapter discusses the concept of the social contract and its usefulness as a framework toward redesigning news and information systems. It draws attention to earlier policy battles around broadcast monopolies during which similar power struggles took place.
Absolute Power: Law, Sovereignty, Absolution
Authors: Lee Daniel
Published: October 2021

Bodin’s notoriety in political theory rests upon his thesis that sovereignty is an ‘absolute power’. This chapter investigates the function of absolute power in Bodin’s theory of legislation as a sovereign authority’s negative power to unmake positive law and, consequently, release [absolvere] subjects from the bond of legal obligation. Drawing upon canonistic jurisprudence concerning papal plenitude of power, the chapter explores how Bodin modelled absolute power on the priestly power of absolution [potestas absolvendi]. Just as priests are empowered to absolve and release sinners from the bond of sin, so too are sovereigns empowered to absolve and release subjects from the bond of positive legislation, whether by full abrogation or by partial derogation. Every independent legal system, Bodin argues, must have absolute power if it is to have the reflexive capacity to correct or even repeal its own laws, especially unjust laws. Absolute power, thus, is the sovereign’s ultimate instrument of equity.
The Common Law of Mankind, the Common Enemies of Mankind
Authors: Lee Daniel
Published: October 2021

Roman law described the law of nations [ius gentium] as that law common to all mankind based on natural reason and consensus. This law recognized war, conquest, and slavery as legally permissible, even if morally offensive. Bodin added a twist to this classical analysis, by recognizing that a lawful war could, in principle, also activate a new title of sovereignty for the victor. Not all organized violence, however, counted legally as war. The violence of brigandage and piracy, for example, fell outside the permissible scope of the ius gentium and, thus, lacked the legal protection and advantages that combatants in a legal war enjoyed. Dubbed by Cicero as ‘the common enemies of mankind’, anybody could lawfully kill them. This chapter explores how Bodin strategically included tyrants among the list of the ‘enemies of mankind’, and consequently concluded that tyrannicide was permissible, even morally necessary, under the ius gentium.
Pausanias in the World of Greek Myth
Authors: Hawes Greta
Published: October 2021

Pausanias gives us the clearest glimpse of Greek myth as a living, local tradition. He shows us how the physical world existed in myriad complex and shifting relationships with the world of storytelling, and what was at stake in claims to possess the past. He demonstrates how myths guided curious travellers to particular places, the kinds of responses they provoked, and the ways they could be tested or disputed. The Periegesis attests to a form of cultural tourism we would still recognize: it is animated by the desire to see for oneself distant places previously only read about. It shows us how travellers might map the literary landscapes that they imagined on to the reality, and how locals might ‘package’ their cities to meet the demands of travellers’ expectations. This book uses Pausanias’s text as a lens on the spatial dynamics of myth. It reveals the significance of local stories in an Empire connected by a shared literary paideia, and the unifying power of a tradition made up paradoxically of narratives that took diverse, conflicting forms on the ground. And it shows how storytelling and the physical infrastructures of the Greek mainland were intricately interwoven such that the decline or flourishing of the latter affected the archive of myth that Pausanias transmits.
Reproductive Effort and Costs
Authors: Hutchings Jeffrey A.
Published: October 2021

Predictions about life-history evolution are intellectually bereft without a consideration of trade-offs. Benefits derived from making one life-history ‘decision’ are made at a cost of not realizing potential benefits associated with alternative decisions. These trade-offs are the inevitable product of constraints, often driven by an individual’s differential allocation of fixed resources to reproduction versus survival or growth. These allocations prevent multiple positive outcomes from being simultaneously realized. Reproductive effort is the proportion of total energy or resources allocated to all elements of reproduction. Reproductive effort generates reproductive costs. Increases in current reproductive effort reduce future reproductive success by affecting survival, growth, and/or fecundity. The causal mechanisms of these costs can be energetic, ecological, behavioural, or genetic. Evidence for reproductive costs is widespread. Instances where the evidence of costs is equivocal are usually caused by using among-individual correlations to study what is a within-individual phenomenon.
Placebo Effects
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio
Published: October 2021

The book Placebo Effects: Understanding the Other Side of Medical Care examines the importance and the role of placebos across all medical conditions. This book offers a comprehensive description of all aspects of placebo research, a discipline that is now becoming a melting pot of concepts and ideas for medicine and neuroscience. A modern approach to the placebo effect and medical care is emphasized and highlighted across a variety of conditions. The first part sets the stage for a better understanding of placebo effects. To do this, it approaches medical care from an evolutionary and neuroscientific perspective, which helps understand the other side of medical care; that is, the psychosocial component. In the second part, old and new concepts and findings are described, so as to improve understanding of the specific conditions treated in the following chapters. The third part is dedicated to the most studied conditions, such as pain, motor disorders, depression, the immune and endocrine systems, and the fourth part describes those conditions that have been investigated much less, such as the cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal and genitourinary systems. All clinical, ethical, and methodological problems and implications related to the placebo effect are discussed in the fifth part, whereas other conditions outside the healing context, such as sport and social psychology, are briefly described in the sixth part.
Seeking relief
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio
Published: October 2021

In this chapter, why and how the patient starts seeking relief are analysed in terms of motivated behaviour whereby motivation mechanisms are at work in order to trigger the appropriate behavioural repertoire, whose final step is the suppression of discomfort. The distinction between suppressing discomfort and getting a reward is not always straightforward. When one wants to suppress his own discomfort from hunger or pain, he is actually seeking the reward of food or analgesia, which is itself the means leading to the suppression of hunger or pain. The mesolimbic dopaminergic system is at the very heart of this seeking behaviour, and can be identified as a motivation/reward system. There is compelling evidence that the mesolimbic dopaminergic system may be activated when a subject expects clinical amelioration.
Placing placebo effects within the context of the doctor–patient relationship as a defence mechanism
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio
Published: October 2021

This chapter seeks to emphasize the tight relationship between placebo effects and the doctor–patient relationship. The basic concept of defence mechanisms is that the body can protect itself from invaders, as the immune system does, and from damage, as the wound healing processes do. Complex cultural and social factors can also represent an important mechanism of defence. Within the context of body defence mechanisms and social interactions, the doctor–patient relationship represents a special case of beneficial social interaction which can be conceptualized as a true defence mechanism. The central point is that the system ‘patient–therapist’ is at work regardless of whether the therapy is effective or ineffective. Even if the therapy is totally ineffective, that is it has no specific effects, expectation of benefit (the placebo effect) may be sufficient to inhibit discomfort and eventually to influence the course of illness.
Special medical conditions and therapeutic interventions
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio
Published: October 2021

This chapter considers some special conditions, such as oncology, surgery, physiotherapy, complementary and alternative interventions, and itch. For example, cancer progression is not affected by placebo treatments, however symptoms can be reduced by placebos. Nocebo effects are crucially involved in anticipatory nausea and vomiting before a cancer chemotherapy session, with a basic mechanism of classical conditioning. Placebo surgery may induce improvement in surgical clinical trials, but it also raises many ethical questions. Clinical trials for physical/manual therapies represent a major problem, as it is difficult to design trials with placebo manual treatments, thus limiting our understanding in this area. Alternative and complementary therapies, like acupuncture, show high rates of placebo responses. Itch has been found to respond very well to placebo interventions, thus it represents a nice model to investigate.
Limits to Predictability
Authors: Briggs Andrew , Reiss Michael J.
Published: October 2021

Much economic modelling has used the concept of Homo economicus. This assumes that individuals always behave wholly rationally to achieve the maximum amount of what they want, whether it be desirable goods or enjoyable experiences, for the minimum cost. Humans, in this economic model, are rational, greedy, selfish, and lazy. But to base modelling on the belief that humans only act like that is a mistake; humans need to cooperate and they have evolved to cooperate. In many circumstances, identity plays a decisive role in motivation and moral choices. Human flourishing requires a nuanced appreciation of uncertainty. If we are not sure of anything, then we cannot make informed decisions, we cannot implement wise choices, and we cannot take responsibility for random consequences. But if we are too sure of everything, then we shall be live with unwarranted confidence in assumptions that will be unable to bear the load that we place on them.
Religion and Human Flourishing
Authors: Briggs Andrew , Reiss Michael J.
Published: October 2021

Seeking to make sense of what is going on in the world without taking account of religion results in understanding that is seriously deficient. Few questions about humanity are more contentious than to ask ‘What is the contribution of religion to human flourishing?’ For many religious believers, their faith is core to their being—a key component of how they understand themselves and the world as a whole. For some atheists, religion is an evil that does great harm and holds humanity back from fulfilling its potential. Despite the trope that we are living in an age of increasing secularization, the percentage of the world’s population who are religious is predicted to increase slightly over the next forty years. In this chapter we explore whether religion makes the world a better place and ask ‘is it true?’ We also ask what happens to us once we die.
Court and Culture
Authors: Waterfield Robin
Published: October 2021

I discuss the roles of the inner circle of Antigonus’s courtiers, his Friends. His decision was final, but he listened to his counsellors’ advice and they formed in effect the senior layer of government. Court life was risky for courtiers, and I illustrate the tightrope they walked by their behavior when hunting and drinking with the king. I discuss the handbooks that were being written for Antigonus and other kings by philosophers, that attempted to regulate their behavior. I discuss the evidence for Antigonus’s deification while still alive, not an unusual honor granted the kings of the time. I end by discussing his patronage of artists and intellectuals, and the importance of such patronage for third-century developments in science, philosophy, and literature. The chief luminaries of Antigonus’s court were the poets Aratus of Soli and Alexander of Pleuron, and the philosophers Persaeus of Citium and Menedemus of Eretria. But others passed through the court, and Antigonus used his wealth also to patronize others beyond the court, such as the eminent Cleanthes of Assos, the second head of the Stoic school.
The Control of Violence
Authors: Calvo-Gonzalez Oscar
Published: October 2021

This chapter explains why economic growth in Spain in the century and a half before 1950 was not sustained. The chapter provides evidence that the main shortcoming of economic growth in the period before 1950 was its instability. The high frequency of economic shrinking, as opposed to low rates of economic growth when the economy was expanding, is thus behind the failure to converge with more advanced economies. The chapter also draws on the insights from Douglass North and coauthors on the difference between limited and open access orders, to provide an account of why economic shrinking and inequality of opportunity remained the norm. A greater control of political violence was only achieved in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, and even then, only under a narrow elite bargain. When the political settlement between elites unraveled in the early twentieth century a return to violence ensued, undermining economic progress.
Promoting Platforms
Authors: Rayner Cynthia , Bonnici François
Published: October 2021

How do the principles of systems work show up in the day-to-day activities of organizations? Chapters 4 to 7 describe four practices of systems work, demonstrating how the principles from Chapter 3 are put into action. Chapter 6 describes a third role for organizations, which is to promote platforms that expand beyond local activities, connecting groups to one another and ensuring that knowledge, experience, and decision-making happen both vertically and horizontally. Organizations promoting platforms enable a crucial balance between “on-the-ground” expertise and large-scale learning and action. To do this, organizations are linking groups together; encouraging collaboration with flexibility; moving from outrageous to acceptable; and observing rituals. By promoting platforms, organizations can maintain a local diversity of approaches while harnessing the shared learnings, legitimacy, and solidarity that comes from a large-scale web of relationships.
Bodily Desires and Afterlife Punishment in the Phaedo
Authors: Reed Doug
Published: October 2021

In this paper I investigate whether in the Phaedo the body or the soul is the subject of bodily desires. By analysing Plato’s portrayal of the disembodied soul in the dialogue, I argue that because many souls are shown possessing bodily desires after death, the soul can possess bodily desires. Part of my analysis is built on my argument that the best way to understand afterlife punishment in the dialogue is as the necessary frustration of persistent bodily desires. Finally, I end the paper by offering some reasons to think that the soul is the only subject of bodily desires in the dialogue.
Reimagining the Judiciary
Authors: Escobar-Lemmon Maria C. , Hoekstra Valerie J. , Kang Alice J. , Kittilson Miki Caul
Published: October 2021

This book examines the factors that facilitate women’s representation on high courts worldwide. Diverse courts improve collective decision-making, strengthen public confidence in the judiciary and judicial decisions, and broaden access to the judicial process. Taken together, domestic and international factors explain women’s representation. These influences include judicial pipelines, domestic institutions including selection processes, and international expectations about gender equity. These explanations are evaluated using an original dataset, which includes both men and women appointed to high courts in all regions of the world. Pathways and processes are examined in-depth through five case studies: Canada, Colombia, Ireland, South Africa, and the United States. Taking a multi-method approach, the book combines insights from a cross-national, time-serial dataset with case studies drawing on fieldwork. Women are being appointed to high courts in greater numbers across every region of the world, and political and legal institutions provide context for where the gains are earliest and strongest. The findings suggest a chain of favorable promoters for women’s representation on high courts: new norms of gender equality encourage the reimagining of the judiciary; advocacy organizations challenge the status quo; and windows of opportunity enable change.
The Future of Friendship
Authors: Roache Rebecca
Published: October 2021

This chapter focuses on the future of friendship, arguing that there is no reason to believe that the future of friendship will be fundamentally different from how friendship has been in the past. Despite cross-cultural differences, Dunbar’s Number remains constant and people with different friendship styles enjoy roughly the same health and emotional benefits from their friendships. Barring drastic change, it is likely that the future of friendship is not going to be markedly different from the past and the present of friendship. On closer examination, the sorts of things that are commonly viewed as threats to friendship — like social media and echo chambers — turn out to be less ominous. Time constraints, established social norms, and personal and cultural preferences are likely to apply brakes to the speed at which friendship transforms over time.
Pre-hospital emergency medicine
Authors: Harrison Oliver
Published: October 2021

This chapter contains 15 questions that encompass all of the important areas of pre-hospital care, with detailed explanations. Although it is unlikely that many students will have encountered pre-hospital medicine directly, it is likely that they will encounter patients who have received timely pre-hospital care. An understanding of the therapies, clinical decision-making, and emergent scenarios faced by doctors working in pre-hospital emergency medicine (PHEM) is therefore vital. Unique to this series, questions are rated by difficulty and are cross-referenced to the eleventh edition of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties to track revision progress and revise effectively.
Psychiatry
Authors: McMullen Isabel
Published: October 2021

Mental health problems are estimated to affect one in four people each year in the UK, making mental illness one of the commonest presentations to General Practice surgeries, outpatient clinics, and Emergency Departments. Yet many doctors and medical students feel uncertain about how to approach patients with a psychiatric disorder. This chapter contains 45 questions that encompass all of the important areas of this subject, with detailed explanations. Unique to this series, questions are rated by difficulty and are cross-referenced to the eleventh edition of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties to track revision progress and revise effectively.
Current Issues in the Conceptualization and Measurement of Executive Function Skills
Authors: Willoughby Michael , Hudson Kesha
Published: October 2021

Executive functions (EF) are domain general cognitive processes that contribute to individual learning, problem solving, and planning across the lifespan. Multidisciplinary interest in EF skills stems from their broad relevance to functionally important outcomes. However, this multidisciplinary interest in EF has also resulted in a large literature that is not internally consistent. In this chapter, we characterize historical shifts in the conceptualization and definition of EF skills. We describe quantitative and qualitative aspects of developmental change in EF skills. Finally, we highlight discrepancies that exist between current measurement approaches. The inconsistencies and discrepancies that we highlight are not surprising given the maturity of the EF literature. By drawing attention to these issues, we aim to provide readers a broad vantage from which they can critically evaluate the other chapters in this volume.
The Founder
Authors: Klausen Jytte
Published: October 2021

Chapter 2 presents a revisionist account of Osama Bin Laden’s personal experience of the West and his attachments to Britain. Bin Laden was born in 1957 in Riyadh, the only child of Muhammed Bin Laden’s tenth wife, A’alia Ghanem. After his parents’ divorce, Bin Laden spent his childhood years in the mother’s household. His father, a rich entrepreneur, died in an airplane accident when Osama was ten. The young Bin Laden had a cosmopolitan and in some ways rather secular upbringing. The turning point in his life came in 1976, when as a student he was exposed to Egyptian Islamist radicals in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Al Qaeda was founded in August 1988 in Bin Laden’s house in Peshawar, Pakistan. It was, from the start, dedicated to a global jihad. The chapter uses Bin Laden’s personal journal and files taken from his house in Abbottabad, Pakistan, and recently published books written by his close associates, to correct simplistic views of Bin Laden as a “man in a cave.”
Homegrown Terrorism
Authors: Klausen Jytte
Published: October 2021

Chapter 7 shows how “Homegrown” terrorism rescued Bin Laden’s project for attacking the “far enemy.” After the 9/11 attacks, the Taliban were driven from power and Al Qaeda was expelled from Afghanistan by U.S. and allied troops. Bin Laden and his second-in-command, Ayman al-Zawahiri, escaped and Al Qaeda’s control center moved to Pakistan’s North West Frontier Province. Al Qaeda fighters were now given (paid for) access to military training camps in the region. For the following decade, these camps prepared a new generation of recruits from Europe, Asia, and Africa. After the train bombings in Madrid (2004) and in London (2005), commentators began to talk of “homegrown terrorism” or “leaderless jihad,” though it was evident that the local recruits and the European jihad bases were subordinated to the control of Al Qaeda’s central command. An analysis of 2,300 terrorism offenders with European residence and/or citizenship in the first decade after the 9/11 attacks shows that the networks were markedly hierarchical and the new generation of native-born Western militants was under the control of older—sometimes even elderly—expatriate Al Qaeda veteran recruiters and managers.
The ISIS Effect
Authors: Klausen Jytte
Published: October 2021

In Chapter 11, the enduring legacy of ISIS is considered: that it recruited more people to the global jihad movement than any of its predecessors. The overwhelming preference of young recruits to Western jihadist networks was to join insurgencies abroad. Their opportunity came with the civil war in Syria. Over a period of five years, starting in late 2011, thousands of old and new militants journeyed to join the fighting there. Recruitment was networked and socially contagious. Neighborhood-level mobilization fortified by online social media combined to create “small world” network structures that acted as transmission belts between local groups and small cells of militants in Western cities and the insurgency in Syria and Iraq. The networks that mobilized the migration to the insurgency also organized “blowback” attacks carried out on behalf of the Islamic State in Europe. The deadliest attack occurred on November 13, 2015, when combatants from the Islamic State mounted a series of commando-style attacks in Paris, killing 130 people. The attack was the most lethal attack in Europe since the 2004 Madrid train bombings.
“Your Jewish Grandmother”
Authors: Fritzsche Peter
Published: October 2021

This chapter explains that as Germans converted to National Socialism so they could participate in the new community, the community itself was defined in exclusive racial terms. In other words, consent was generated through coercion, inclusion, and uplift through exclusion. The “Jewish question” was posed not only forcefully in 1933 but as a matter of life and death. Indeed, the boycott of Jewish businesses on April 1 put forward the conceptual outline of the Holocaust for the first time. Germans associated National Socialism with anti-Semitism. Nazis and other right-wing nationalists obviously relied on ethnic and racial categories, and as the Nazis got bigger and bigger, Germans thought more and more carefully about how the collective nouns “Germans” and “Jews” functioned. In 1932, German Jews suddenly became the attentively inspected “object of political theories” about the future and fate of the nation. This scrutiny prepared the selections of the “Final Solution.”
The Administration of Life
Authors: Fritzsche Peter
Published: October 2021

This chapter describes how the Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State, known colloquially as the “Reichstag Fire Decree,” made emergency the foundation of dictatorial rule—the state had to intervene in everyday life to protect the German people, to overcome the “crisis” of the republic. Extended for four years by the Enabling Act on March 23, 1933, the decree served as the “constitutional charter” of the Third Reich. Meanwhile, the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service on April 7, 1933, and the coordinated public booting of Jews associated with it, offered a more precise indication of how the National Socialists intended to manage emergency conditions. The administration of everyday life rested on the idea that only a series of state-sponsored measures that grouped people as insiders or outsiders could realize the people's community. Breaking down exclusive social milieus, celebrating the military unit, and designing state services to generate racial health—these were all ways that the National Socialists created a single German people.
Surā Brewing and Public Drinking
Authors: McHugh James
Published: October 2021

Chapter 3 contains a study of surā breweries and surā shops, institutions somewhat analogous to alehouses of premodern England. The chapter presents texts on communal drinking, public places where people both made and sold drinks to all comers, and festivals and fairs. Savory snacks, essential to South Asian drinking cultures, are also considered in this chapter. Open, public drinking is sometimes represented as “common” and morally dubious, and thus many of these sources have a humorous or moralizing tone. One of the problems that arises in this book is the connection between social drinking contexts, textual genres, and moral perspectives. Can we determine anything about the ancient Indian surā houses from these biased sources?
Ozu Yasujirō’s A Story of Floating Weeds and the Art of Being Behind
Authors: Preston Carrie J.
Published: October 2021

In Ozu Yasujirō’s silent film A Story of Floating Weeds (1934), Kihachi, the aging leader of an itinerant kabuki troupe, repeatedly scratches his behind. This gesture appears to be directed at the viewer’s face because of Ozu’s famously low camera position, the so-called tatami shot—produced by fixing the camera at the eye level of a person kneeling in seiza on the tatami floor. The shot is used as evidence for another cliché about Ozu, that he is the “most Japanese” and “most traditional” of Japanese directors. Ozu seems “traditional” when associated with the practice of kneeling in kabuki but seems “experimental” when compared to the European modernist directors who also rejected Hollywood conventions. Ozu’s cinema undermines the common binaries between traditional/modernist and “East/West.” A Story of Floating Weeds drifts behind the times, pauses to scratch at the new constructions of Japanese traditions, and then turns its back on them along with some versions of European modernism.
“That Saves Them the Blessings of Civilization”
Authors: Valdez Moses Michael
Published: October 2021

The classic Hollywood Western is generally taken to be the antithesis of avant-garde art, a popular genre unaffected by modernism. However, John Ford’s Stagecoach (1939) provides an illustrative example of middlebrow American modernist cinema. Influenced by French literary naturalism and German expressionism, Ford’s Western obliquely engages with the ills of modern urban existence and the interrelated “crises of modernity” that characterized the interwar years, when the global viability of liberal democracy was cast into doubt. In Stagecoach, the problems of modernity are treated (diegetically), though not fully cured, by a transformative if dangerous journey into the American Wild West. By integrating the formal innovations of F. W. Murnau’s expressionist style with his own epic and monumental vision of the American west, Ford epitomized an underappreciated form of American vernacular modernism that emerged across the arts in the 1910s, flourished in the 1920s and 1930s, and survived into the post-WWII era.
Leni Riefenstahl’s Nazi Neoclassicism
Authors: Otto Elizabeth
Published: October 2021

Leni Riefenstahl is easily the most successful female director of the earlier twentieth century, as gauged by the size of her audience and the scope of her influence. Despite her lifelong claims of innocence, she has largely been remembered for her culpability as one of Adolf Hitler’s premier image-makers, in films including Triumph of the Will (1935). In this essay, I focus on Olympia, her two-part film of the 1936 Berlin Olympics. Drawing heavily on neoclassical imagery mixed with overtly modernist camerawork, Olympia masquerades as an apolitical celebration of human beauty and fortitude that claims the Olympic idea for the Youth of the World. Yet the film simultaneously conveys other messages that served the regime; it glorifies Hitler and the Nazi state, which it positions as the true inheritor of the classical ideal. In Olympia, Riefenstahl created a film that accomplished exactly what the state attempted with the Olympic games themselves: to project an image of an international, modern Germany while still symbolically conveying Nazi Germany’s power.
REPRISAL: mapping lignification dynamics using chemistry, data segmentation, and ratiometric analysis
Authors: Morel Oriane , Lion Cedric , Neutelings Godfrey , Stefanov Jonathan , Baldacci-Cresp Fabien , Simon Clemence , Biot Christophe , Hawkins Simon , Spriet Corentin
Published: October 2021

This article describes a methodology for detailed mapping of the lignification capacity of plant cell walls that we have called “REPRISAL” for REPorter Ratiometrics Integrating Segmentation for Analyzing Lignification. REPRISAL consists of the combination of three separate approaches. In the first approach, H*, G*, and S* monolignol chemical reporters, corresponding to p-coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol, and sinapyl alcohol, are used to label the growing lignin polymer in a fluorescent triple labeling strategy based on the sequential use of three main bioorthogonal chemical reactions. In the second step, an automatic parametric and/or artificial intelligence segmentation algorithm is developed that assigns fluorescent image pixels to three distinct cell wall zones corresponding to cell corners, compound middle lamella and secondary cell walls. The last step corresponds to the exploitation of a ratiometric approach enabling statistical analyses of differences in monolignol reporter distribution (ratiometric method [RM] 1) and proportions (RM 2) within the different cell wall zones. We first describe the use of this methodology to map developmentally related changes in the lignification capacity of wild-type Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) interfascicular fiber cells. We then apply REPRISAL to analyze the Arabidopsis peroxidase (PRX) mutant prx64 and provide further evidence for the implication of the AtPRX64 protein in floral stem lignification. In addition, we also demonstrate the general applicability of REPRISAL by using it to map lignification capacity in poplar (Populus tremula × Populus alba), flax (Linum usitatissimum), and maize (Zea mays). Finally, we show that the methodology can be used to map the incorporation of a fucose reporter into noncellulosic cell wall polymers.
The Effect of Adding Dry Needling to Physical Therapy in the Treatment of Cervicogenic Headache: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Authors: Mousavi-Khatir Seyedeh Roghayeh , Fernández-de-las-Peñas César , Saadat Payam , Javanshir Khodabakhsh , Zohrevand Amirhossein
Published: October 2021

Objective

To compare the long-term effect of adding real or sham dry needling with conventional physiotherapy in cervicogenic headache.

Design

A randomized controlled trial.

Setting

Physiotherapy Clinic, Rouhani Hospital of Babol University of Medical Sciences, Iran

Subjects

Sixty-nine patients with cervicogenic headache.

Methods

Patients were randomly assigned into a control group (n = 23) receiving conventional physical therapy; a dry needling group (n = 23) receiving conventional physical therapy and dry needling on the cervical muscles; placebo needling group (n = 23) receiving conventional physical therapy and superficial dry needling at a point away from the trigger point. The primary outcome was the headache intensity and frequency. Neck disability, deep cervical flexor performance, and range of motion were secondary outcomes. Outcomes were assessed immediately after treatment and 1, 3, and 6 months later.

Results

Sixty-five patients were finally included in the analysis. Headache intensity and neck disability decreased significantly more in the dry needling compared to sham and control groups after treatment and during all follow-ups. The frequency of headaches also reduced more in the dry needling than in control and sham groups, but it did not reach statistical significance. Higher cervical range of motion and enhancement of deep cervical flexors performance was also observed in the dry needling compared to sham and control groups.

Conclusion

Dry needling has a positive effect on pain and disability reduction, cervical range of motion, and deep cervical flexor muscles performance in patients with cervicogenic headache and active trigger points, although the clinical relevance of the results was small.

Trial registration

The trial design was registered in the Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials (www.irct.ir, IRCT20180721040539N1) before the first patient was enrolled.