bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
American Missionary Motivation Before the Revolution
Authors: Beaver R. Pierce
Published: April 2006

Sources for discovery of the missionary motivation of the Indian evangelists and their supporters in seventeenth century New England are scanty. Nevertheless, the most compelling factors come clearly to view. The avowed missionary intent of colonization, as voiced in the Plymouth and Massachusetts Charters, was not one of these. The directors of the colonial companies might have had the notion of serving God and checking Roman Catholic political expansion through Protestant missions, but such an aim was of little force in the thinking of the colonist and his children. They were, indeed, creating a Christian commonwealth. They were completing the Reformation also in a place at the end of the earth. It had to be wrested from the heathen who possessed it. But this extension of Christendom was by the displacement of the heathen, not by their conversion.
Some Aspects of the Influence of the Byzantine Maximos the Confessor on the Theology of East and West
Authors: Geanakoplos Deno J.
Published: April 2006

That the seventh century Byzantine theologian Maximos the Confessor had an influence on the development of Western as well as Eastern theology is well known through the work of such scholars as Sherwood, Cappuyns, Dräseke, Gilson, and Altaner, for example, for the West, and of von Balthasar, von Ivanka, Grümel, Beck, Brilliantoff, Epifanovic, Hausherr, and Dalmais for the East. But although Maximos' works were apparently known throughout theentireperiod of Byzantine history, there remains a surprisingly great deal of research to be done to delineate the extent of his influence onspecificByzantine scholars and theologians such as Anastasius of the ninth century, Euthemius Zigabenos and Symeon the “New Theologian” of the eleventh, Nicetas Choniates in the twelfth, Patriarch Gregory of Cyprus and Pachymeres in the thirteenth, the Hesychasts Gregory Palamas and Nicholas Kabasilas and their opponents Nicephorus Gregoras and the Byzantine “Scholastic” John Cyparissiotes of the fourteenth, and, last of all, on the sixteenth century, post-Byzantine Bishop who lived in Venice, Maximos Margounios.
The Council of Trent, The Spiritual Exercises and The Catholic Reform
Authors: McNally Robert E.
Published: April 2006

Four hundred years ago, on December 4, 1563, the Council of Trent held its twenty-fifth and last solemn session. During eighteen difficult years it dominated the ecclesiastical affairs of Europe and its influence was felt far and wide even in the temporal order. No one in Christendom was indifferent to its proceedings, for the issues involved in this Council touched in one way or another the lives of all. In the course of the years it was supported and resisted in turn by their Catholic majesties, Charles V and Francis I, as well as by the Protestant Estates of Germany. Vituperated by Luther and Calvin and avoided by the evangelical theologians it became a wall of separation between the old and the new orders. United Christendom, which witnessed its convocation in 1545, had vanished as a reality before its closure in 1563. Assembled under trying conditions it was almost doomed to failure before it commenced; the task, which confronted this reform council, was gigantic. For it was asked to revitalize and renew the Church weighed down with the burden of the centuries. In effect, the reform, which the Fathers of this Council achieved, initiated the transformation of the medieval into the modern Church.
LeNain de Tillemont: Gibbon's “sure-footed mule”
Authors: Jordan David P.
Published: April 2006

Gibbon was scrupulous and generous in discharging his intellecttual and scholarly debts. The footnotes in the Decline and Fall (which comprise about a fourth of the work) are a candid and reliable index of the materials used in its composition. The reader of Gibbon is most forcefully struck by those mordant remarks which annihilate the work—and occasionally the character—of some obscure pedant. But the majority of Gibbon's notes are elegant apostrophes to the scholarship that supports the Decline and Fall. Of all the secondary authorities cited by Gibbon—there are nearly 3,000 such references— none is so frequently cited (about 250 times) and praised as Sebastien LeNain de Tillemont. He is “that learned Jansenist,” “the indefatigable Tillemont,” “the accurate M. de Tillemont”; and in one of those felicitous metaphors of which Gibbon was a master, Tillemont is “the patient and sure-footed mule of the Alps” who “may be trusted in the most slippery paths.
Liberalism, Catholicism, and the Abbé Grégoire
Authors: Ravitch Norman
Published: April 2006

With the convening and accomplishments of the Second Vatican Council liberal Catholicism seems triumphant in the Catholic Church. Despite continuing controversy over such agonizing problems as birth control, it would appear that the Church has forthrightly and definitely decided to reconcile itself as fully as possible to modern society. From this present perspective, the historian may well need to reexamine certain aspects of the rise of liberal Catholicism and to reassess the work of certain of its pioneers and the frustrating obstacles they encountered. No longer on the defensive, the partisans of liberal Catholicism may want to reclaim those they have ignored or rejected. One curious figure who seldom if ever has been given credit for his role in the emergence of liberal Catholicism is the Abbé Henri Grégoire, priest and politician during the French Revolution and patriarch of the schismatic Constitutional Church.Liberal Catholic historians have tended to shy away from too much attention to this puzzling and perhaps embarrassing figure, leaving him to the attacks of conservative Catholics or the enthusiastic devotion of neo-Jansenist sectarians. Secular liberals who have generally preferred to face a Catholic Church which was unequivocally reactionary have pretended to see Grégoire as an excentric of little significance.
American Influences on Canadian Protestant Churches Before Confederation
Authors: Moir John S.
Published: April 2006

American influences on Canadian Protestant Churches before Confederation do not present any simple historical pattern. As any student of Canadian history would expect the responses of the Canadian Protestant denominations vary widely, not only from one denomination to another but from one region to another. Indeed, regionalism seems to be the most important factor in determining the degree of American influences, both positive and negative, on Canadian Protestantism. Canadian historians have examined or at least noted separate aspects of American influences, particularly in a denominational context, but no one has apparently attempted a survey approach to the wide range of such influences—wide both geographically and topically.
The Renaissance and/of Witchcraft
Authors: Nugent Donald
Published: April 2006

These lines might well have been written by a denizen of the contemporary counter culture, though he might have respected “Divinity” only by eliminating it for “Government.” The lines can suggest various things. First, that there is an analogy to be made between the Renaissance and the contemporary world. Secondly, that a rejection of conventional learning—we discuss it under the rubric of irrelevance—can be a prelude to a revival of the occult. Thirdly, the utilization of this text can intimate that, for present purposes, the author may owe more to Herodotus than he does to Ranke, that is, more to history as art than to history as science. That, too, may be a sign of the times.
James McGready: Theologian of Frontier Revivalism
Authors: Opie John
Published: April 2006

When the historians of frontier revivalism turn to James McGready, they find him difficult to comprehend. Since the Kentucky Great Revival of 1797 to 1802 first arose in his frontier congregations, the historians point to McGready as the original frontier revivalist, imitated by all other revivalists. Because the origins of the frontier camp meeting were inextricably tied to his career, McGready has been described as the leading innovator of the western awakenings, who gave frontier religion its peculiar flavor. And the revivals have been described as a bizarre form of undisciplined religious barbarism, dominated by emotional intensity, primitive excesses, and pious anti-intellectualism. The difficulty with these widely accepted generalizations is that McGready was neither the model nor the advocate for the revivalism the historians said he created.
The Roman Propaganda Fide Archives: An Overflow and Assessment
Authors: Mcgloin John B.
Published: April 2006

In 1908–09 Professor Carl Russell Fish of the University of Wisconsin was commisioned as a Research Associate by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C., and sent abroad to visit and assess the materials for American history to be found in the various archives of Italy. Out of his labors, done with the precision of a trained historian, came a volume which has long been a standard tool for students and researchers in this field: Fish's Guide to the Materials for American History in Roman and Other Italian Archives, published in 1911 by the Carnegie Institution. Pages 119–95 are devoted to an analysis of those archives of the Catholic Church which are commonly called the Archives of the Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide in Rome. Fish's analysis is preceded by a brief historical account of this important arm in the ordinary government of the Catholic Church from 1622 (the date of its establishment) until 1911.
George Whitefield on Slavery: Some New Evidence
Authors: Stein Stephen J.
Published: April 2006

George Whitefield's racial views pose an enigma for the historian, for he has been closely identified with both the rise of humanitarian ideals and the defense of slavery. In the middle of the eighteenth century as he traveled up and down the American seaboard electrifying the English colonists with his preaching, Whitefield showed a special concern for the plight of the slaves in America. Despite this concern, a nagging fear of insurgency by the blacks gripped him and shaped his reflections about the institution of slavery.
The Johanninc Commentary of Friar Thomas
Authors: Weisheipl James A.
Published: April 2006

In 1894 Heinrich Denifle showed conclusively that the official textbook of masters in theology in the medieval university was the Bible. At one time historians commonly assumed that masters in theology lectured on theSentencesof Peter Lombard, a most subtle and thought-provoking book. There are so many medieval commentaries on theSentences, both published and unpublished, and so many great masters did in fact comment on theSentencesthat it was easy enough to assume that this was the set text for masters in the universities. Today there can be no doubt. Normally only bachelors lectured on theSentencesbefore being promoted to the rank of master. Once the young man became a master in sacred theology, he was not allowed to lecture on the Lombard. His task was to lecture on the sacred scriptures, and his official title wasmagister in sacra pagina, Master of the Sacred Page.
The ‘Political Puritan’
Authors: Shipps Kenneth
Published: April 2006

Two statements written prior to 1642 have suggested the title of this piece. The first statement comes during the spring of 1623 from Joseph Mead, a Cain- bridge University don and newsletter correspondent. In a letter Mead says he has observed three sorts of puritans:

First a Puritan in politicks, or the Politicali Puritan, in matters of State, liberties of people, prerogatives of sovereigns, etc. Secondly An Ecclesiasticall Puritan, for the Church Hierarchie and ceremonies, who was at first the onely Puritan. Thirdly A Puritan in Ethicks or moral Puritan sayd to consist in singularity of living, and hypocrisie both civil! and religious which may be called the vulgar Puritan, and was the second in birth and hath made too many ashamed to be honest.
The Christmas of 829
Authors: Cabaniss Allen
Published: April 2006

Those historical compositions designated as annals are exceedingly valuable sources for knowledge of the Carolingian period, none more so that the so-calledAnnales regni Francorum, covering an interval beginning with the death of Charles Martel and ending with the last untroubled year of Louis the Pious (741–829). For half a century (759–808) the chronicle of each year generally includes a note indicating the place where the ruler celebrated the feast of Nativity. Some years also include a reference to Easter. Thirty-seven times the allusion is to both Christmas and Easter (759–774, 777–779, 781–783, 788–792, 795–798, 800–802, 806–808); nine to Christmas only (775, 780, 784, 786, 793, 799, 803–805); four to Christmas and two Easters (776, 785, 787, 794); but none to Easter alone. The repetitive, formulaic way in which the references are introduced suggests the high festival character of celebration and observance.
The Intellectual Role of the Early Catholic Episcopate
Authors: Countryman L. William
Published: April 2006

The intellectual dominance of the clergy is an important feature of Catholic Christianity in the second and third centuries. If one goes through the roll of Christian writers from the period, one finds very few laymen: Hermas, Justin, Tertullian, Minucius Felix. The great majority were ordained men, including a disproportionate number of bishops: Ignatius, Polycarp, Dionysius of Corinth, Irenaeus, Melito, Theophilus, Gregory Thaumaturgus, Dionysius of Alexandria, Cyprian, to give but a partial list.
Protestant Parishes in the Old World and the New: The Cases of Geneva and Boston
Authors: Kingdon Robert M.
Published: April 2006

There can be little doubt that for centuries the most important single unit of the Christian church has been the parish. It is surely the most fundamental of the structures upon which the institutional church has been built. Only by studying closely the parish and what goes on within it can we gain a real appreciation of what religion has meant and continues to mean to the average Christian at the grass roots level. It is somewhat surprising, given the general spread of interest in social history among contemporary historians, that there has not been more study of the parish. One can understand the superior appeal of historical theology to the historian who concentrates on ideas, given the range and sophistication of the systems of thought created over the centuries by theologians, but we should not forget that these systems could not even be comprehended by the great majority of Christians. One can similarly understand the superior appeal of ecclesiastical politics to the historian who concentrates on events, given the high drama in which ecclesiastical leaders have often been engaged, but we should not assume that these events necessarily even came to the attention of average Christians. But for the historian of society who is interested in the religious experience of the average man, the parish must be a starting point.
The Archbishop of Canterbury's Visit to Palestine: An Issue in Anglo-Vatican Relations in 1931
Authors: Hachey Thomas E.
Published: April 2006

The strain placed upon Anglo-Vatican relations as a result of the Archbishop of Canterbury's visit to the Holy Places in 1931 and the furor which that event provoked, although reported in part by the newspapers of the day, has remained undisclosed for nearly forty years. The British Parliament's Public Record Act of 1967, which reduced the waiting period on that country's official correspondence to thirty years, affords the student of the period with an invaluable, hitherto unattainable, view of the diplomatic involvement of the London Government with the Holy See in 1931. The aura of apprehension, suspicion and distrust which inhibited Anglo-Vatican relations at that time contrasts sharply with the spirit of benevolence and ecumenism manifested in the Holy See's contemporary contacts with both the English Government and the Anglican Church. Scenes like the one depicted in the widely published photograph of Pope Paul VI warmly receiving the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Most Reverend Arthur Michael Ramsey, highlight the progress which has been made since the none too distant past when relations were less cordial than today.
Crisis of An American Catholic Modernist: Toward the Moral Absolutism of William L. Sullivan
Authors: Duclos Warren E.
Published: April 2006

Thomas T. McAvoy has written in his study of “Americanism” in the Roman Catholic Church: “The history of the modernist controversy in this country has not been written and the destruction of pertinent records will make such a study very difficult.”. “Modernism” was quite evidently a movement within the Roman Catholic Church in Europe. It had its roots and took its strength there. There, too, it was destroyed. For the most part, American Catholics did not contribute to “modernism”s evolution, development and defeat. But eventually the main current of “modernism” in Europe rolled its waves onto American shores. Amidst many other streams, its waters flowed into the life of one man, William L. Sullivan, an Irish Catholic and Paulist priest.
“Good News From a Far Country”: A Note on Divine Providence and the Stamp Act Crisis
Authors: Berens John F.
Published: April 2006

November! gloomy Month! approaches fast,

When Liberty was doom'd to brethe [sic] her last,

All, all her Sons agree to fast that Day,

To mourn, lament and sigh, and hope,—and pray

That the Almighty god of all below,

Some Pity would to suffering Mortals show1.

With these lines an anonymous American poet addressed the first day of November 1765, the date the Stamp Act was to take effect throughout British North America. The hopes of patriots and lovers of liberty, he argued, rested upon the interposition of God on behalf of the American colonies. If the Lord would look with mercy on his afflicted people and come to their aid, their freedoms could yet be preserved. In assigning the continuation of American liberty to the intervention and protection of divine providence, this patriotic poet employed one of the deepest and most popular strands of American thought expressed during the era of the American Revolution.
Writing the History of English Worship: The Achievement of Horton Davies
Authors: White James F.
Published: April 2006

These are days of small books and single volumes. Multi-volume sets are a rare and endangered species. The completion of Horton Davies's five-volume set on Worship and Theology In England is a major achievement in our age, and an uprecedented one in any age. Never before has the worship life of an entire people for four and one-third centuries received such a balanced and careful scrutiny. Over fifteen years of research have borne plentiful and rich fruit. This work of the Henry W. Putnam Professor of Religion at Princeton University marks an achievement in liturgical studies unequalled by living scholars in the English-speaking world.
Aniconic Worship and the Apologetic Tradition: A Note on Canon 36 of the Council of Elvira
Authors: Grigg Robert
Published: April 2006

It is well known that the spokesmen for the early Christian church were hostile to religious images.1They regarded the Old Testament prohibition against images (Exodus 20:4, Deuteronomy 5:8) as binding upon Christians.2But even though Christian apologists like Clement of Alexandria and Origen cited the authority of this prohibition,3they defended the aniconic worship of Christians from pagan attack by borrowing heavily from pagan writers. The arguments they borrowed portrayed the cult of images as a ridiculously inappropriate form of worship, one that degraded the very gods it sought to honor by likening them to base material, shaped by mere craftsmen.4
The Law and the Revival: A “New Divinity” for the Settlements
Authors: Weddle David L.
Published: April 2006

In the settlements of New York State in the early nineteenth century two movements of the American spirit converged toward the common end of the creation of a just social order for the happiness of man and the glory of God. The revival and the institution of legal order grew and flourished from a common root, the conviction that a renewed national community could be formed only on the basis of respect for law. The Biblical promise of millennial bliss fervently extended by the revivalists and the Constitutional promise of domestic tranquillity recited by the lawyers were both dependent for their fulfillment on the people's submission to regulations, whether religious or civil. The interest in law as the basis of “settling things” with both God and one's neighbors implied a confidence in the human ability to understand and to honor the principles by which the affairs of God and men are rightfully ordered.
Answering “the Known Men”: Bishop Reginald Pecock and Mr. Richard Hooker
Authors: Brockwell Charles W.
Published: April 2006

There are both striking similarities and significant differences between the Lollards of the fifteenth century and the radical Puritans of the sixteenth. Both rejected the authority of the established church in England, and both suffered for such boldness. With the passage of De heretico comburendo in 1401 the so-called Wycliffites were liable to inquisitorial proceedings and punishments. Lollards were now felons as well as heretics. In 1406, by means of a supplement to the 1401 legislation, the laymen in Parliament at last took heed of the warning from the churchmen that confiscation of church possessions threatened all lordship, secular as well as spiritual. Under a constitution drafted at the Oxford Assembly from November to December, 1407 and republished at St. Paul's in 1409, any preacher other than a priest in his own parish was required to obtain a license from the ordinary or the archbishop in order to preach. Arundel further decreed that such preachers were to speak only on the subjects set forth in Peckham's constitution, Ignorantia sacerdotum. As the chief legal instrument of this English Inquisition, De heretico comburendo remained in effect until set aside by Henry VIII. It was later revived by Mary, and finally repealed by Elizabeth.
The Second Great Awakening In Connecticut: Critique of the Traditional Interpretation
Authors: Shiels Richard D.
Published: April 2006

As a doddering old man in 1850, Lyman Beecher told his children about the religious conditions at Yale College fifty-five years earlier. His words have become familiar to students of American religious history. The school had been “in a most ungodly state” when he entered as a student in 1795, he recalled. Its president, Ezra Stiles, had been ineffective as a pastor. Immorality and religious skepticism had been rife. Then Timothy Dwight replaced Stiles as president, and religion revived. Dwight's students embraced evangelical Christianity and followed him into battle against rationalists who challenged orthodoxy and politicians who wanted to separate church and state. Dwight transformed religious life at the college and, together with his students, rejuvenated the congregational churches of New England.
William Penn, Model of Protestant Liberalism
Authors: Barbour Hugh
Published: April 2006

William Penn intended no new synthesis of thought. His practical social reforms, combining the Quakers' radical hope for the total transforming of men, ethics and society by God's Spirit with a humanist's trust in reason and conscience already at work in all men universally, were a new stance for Quakers. But Friends noted mainly his exuberance and pragmatism and his uncritical openness about ideas. In Europe and America as a whole, he was best known in his own time for his practical career: he was the man of peace with the Indians, the founder of Pennsylvania, the champion of toleration. For these he was later celebrated in the paintings of “the Peaceable Kingdom” and the writings of Voltaire.
Michael Servetus: Exegete of Divine History
Authors: Friedman Jerome
Published: April 2006

Normative theological systems may be influenced by philosophical considerations but must be based upon Scriptural authority. While different Christian denominations place varying degrees of emphasis upon the primacy of the Bible, or suggest contrasting methods of interpretation, Scripture remains the criterion of the theological formulations. If one alters normative thinking, one must necessarily change the existing relationship with Scripture through reinterpretation of at least key passages relevant to those modifications. At a result, it is often possible, through an examination of an approach to the Bible, to determine the limits of a system's orthodoxy or heterodoxy.
Irish Nationalism and Irish Catholicism: A Study In Cultural Identity
Authors: McCaffrey Lawrence J.
Published: April 2006

Seven years ago the Irish people celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of the Easter Monday Rebellion: the “Blood Sacrifice” that inspired the Anglo-Irish War leading to the Treaty, the Free State and finally the Republic. During the festivities, politicians paid homage to the memory of Padraig Pearse, James Connolly and their colleagues in the Volunteer and Citizen Armies; towns and villages erected monuments to men who died for Irish freedom; professional and amateur historians produced volumes of description and analyses of the brave deeds of Easter Week; bands played and singers sang patriotic airs; and someone blew up Nelson's Pillar in O'Connell Street.A prominent politician, a hero of 1916, allegedly described the last event in newspaper headline style as ‘noted British admiral leaves Dublin by air.’ The 1916 commemoration was more than a hymn to the past; it was also a tribute to the values and successes of physical force nationalism. Ireland in 1966 seemed a model of productive revolution: a stable community with viable democratic institutions and an expanding economy; an example for other countries emancipated from the scourge of imperialism. This was the consensus of a confident nation.
Christian Democracy and Social Modernism in Italy during the Papacy of Pius X
Authors: Agócs Sandor
Published: April 2006

Historians of Italian Christian Democracy have traditionally paid rather scant attention to the period 1903–1914, the years of the papacy of Pius X. Their lack of interest in this era cannot fully be explained by the scarcity of available official documents. The archives of the Vatican also keep under lock and key the documents pertaining to Leo XIII, the predecessor of Pius X. Yet volume after recently published volume has dealt with the Leonine period of Italian history. Interest in the papacy of Leo XIII is understandable in view of the fact that intellectual ferment in that era produced many of the sustaining ideas of Italian Christian Democracy. The Leonine period also saw in action for the first time some of the future leaders of Italian Christian Democracy.
The Halévy Thesis—A Working Hypothesis? English Revivalism: Antidote for Revolution and Radicalism 1789–1815
Authors: Itzkin Elissa S.
Published: April 2006

He “saw England with fresh eyes”, and for more than fifty years Elie Halévy's provocative interpretation of the effect of religion on the Victorian out look has continued to engender lively debate and controversy. After his History of the English People in the Nineteenth Century, few historians would contest the practical role of evangelicalism and nonconformity in molding Victorian society. What continues to be challenged is Halévy's claim that the moral influence of the evangelical movement is the parameter within which the social history of nineteenth-century England unfolded.
An Unsettled Ministry? Some Aspects of Nineteenth-Century British Nonconformity
Authors: Brown Kenneth D.
Published: April 2006

As befits its importance in the nineteenth century, British nonconformity has attracted a lot of attention from scholars. Eminent personalities and denominational development or doctrine tend to dominate the earlier writing, while another long-established genre which is still producing fruitful work has been the analysis of the impact of nonconformity in society at large, for example in national or local politics, trade unionism, and education.
The Scottish Free Church and its Relation to Nineteenth-Century Swedish and Swedish-American Lutheranism
Authors: Eklund Emmet E.
Published: April 2006

Some years ago James Hasting Nichols wrote, “A significant impetus to the awakening in Geneva and France came from Scotland… In Scotland the Evangelical revival may be dated from the 1700's.” But the influence of the Scottish Free Church went beyond the bounds identified by Nichols. At least one other country, namely, Sweden, was stimulated by this religious force from the British Isles.
Gerasim Pavskii's Clandestine Old Testament: The Politics of Nineteenth-Century Russian Biblical Translation
Authors: Batalden Stephen K.
Published: April 2006

Gerasim Petrovich Pavskii (1787–1863) was arguably the brightest pupil of Russia's most-noted nineteenth-century prelate, Metropolitan of Moscow Filaret Drozdov. Pavskii's work under the tutelage of Filaret dated from the future Moscow metropolitan's rectorate at the St. Petersburg Theological Academy, 1812–1817. Yet in the subsequent twenty-five years following Filaret's appointment to the episcopate in 1817, the young theologian and philologist Pavskii would break decisively with his former rector. That break culminated in the celebrated Pavskii Affair of 1841–1844—the so-called Delo Pavskogo—a far-reaching synodal investigation that dramatized the deep divisions in the Orthodox church of Nicolaevan Russia. On one level, these divisions involved issues of modern biblical textology. It is the thesis of this work, however, that alongside the textological issues were deep-seated differences over Orthodox piety and church polity that conditioned the responses of the esteemed metropolitan and the erudite theologian. This fundamental divide within Russian Orthodoxy was never reconciled and, indeed, has continued to the present in modified form within religious circles of the Russian emigration.
Archbishop Whately: Human Nature and Christian Assistance
Authors: McKerrow Ray E.
Published: April 2006

Richard Whately, Archbishop of Dublin (1831–1863), has been characterized as a representative of the Broad Church movement of the early to mid-nineteenth century. Convinced that the Church of England's sacraments and liturgies, indeed its very structure, should correspond to the times and not to some ancient formulary, Whately argued continuously for a general reformation of its rules and regulations and for a separate church body to arbitrate disputes over spiritual matters. Recognizing the force of his arguments on these and myriad other subjects, a reviewer for theChristian Observercommented that “the Archbishop is a great intellectual gladiator, and all parties will confess that it is far pleasanter to have him with them than against them.” The nature of his role as a Christian advocate also was noted by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. “He showed a rare union of literary talent, knowledge of human nature, and administrative ability, and the work that he accomplished places him in the highest rank of Christian statesmen. … [His essays] have had a wide influence upon the course of religious thought in England for more than a quarter of a century.”
Sanguine Saints: Pentecostalism in El Salvador
Authors: Wilson Everett A.
Published: April 2006

Students of Latin American pentecostalism often have viewed it more as a symptom of emerging mass society than as a vital religious force. Studies based on development theory, especially, assume that popular movements in the Third World, such as Brazilian pentecostalism, Spiritism, and Umbanda, may promote national integration by offering marginal peoples rudimentary preparation for civic roles. Presumably the decision-making and leadership experience gained in religious participation later may be applied to community and political activities.
Occupational Groups Among the Early Methodists of the Keighley Circuit
Authors: Smith John Q.
Published: April 2006

The success of early Methodism in the textile-manufacturing region of Yorkshire and Lancashire is an important part of the overall story of the success of the Methodists. That Wesley's teachings and societies should have thrived in this rough area is almost as surprising as the success of the Wesleyans in Cornwall. Any attempt to explain this growth must include an investigation into the question: what kind of people chose to join the Methodists? Earlier historians of Methodism, including John Wesley Bready, Leslie F. Church, Maldwyn Edwards, W. J. Warner, and Robert F. Wearmouth, have offered largely impressionistic overviews of the social structure of early Methodism. The best way to obtain a more precise picture is to look at those records of individual circuits, such as the Keighley Methodist circuit, which provide occupational data.
Strauss's English Propagandists and the Politics of Unitarianism, 1841–1845
Authors: Dodd Valerie A.
Published: April 2006

In 1856 Ralph Waldo Emerson stated boldly that the English “cannot interpret the German mind.” 1Although German higher criticism did not “merely attack the Scriptures” but rather “studied them in a new spirit,” it was to be censured, feared, ignored, or misunderstood in the early decades of the nineteenth century in England.2 Such was not the case in the country which gave birth to the school of which David Friedrich Strauss is perhaps the most notorious and most distinguished representative. Eduard Zeller asserted that, in his own country, Strauss's work “had … a decided effect upon the philosophy and the general culture of our own day.”3
Subordinating Women: Thomas Bentley's Use of Biblical Women in ‘The Monument of Matrones’ (1582)
Authors: Atkinson Colin , Atkinson Jo B.
Published: April 2006

In Chaste, Silent and Obedient, Suzanne Hull lists 163 English books written for women (by both sexes) published between 1475 and 1640. Of the eighteen books she classifies as devotional, the second (chronologically) is Thomas Bentley's The Monument of Matrones (1582), an immense book—over 1500 quarto pages—containing prayers and meditations for a variety of occasions, extracts from the Bible, and brief lives of biblical and other model women. Hull has aptly commented that, “In fact, The Monument of Matrones comes close to being an entire female library between two covers.” The iconography of various illustrated pages and some prayers have been analyzed, and some writings by women such as Queen Margaret of Navarre, Queen Katherine Parr, and Lady Jane Dudley, have been anthologized, but the book has not been studied as a whole. Bentley, in his introduction, “To the Christian Reader,” describes the book as a collection of “diuers verie godlie, learned and diuine treatises, of meditationes and praier, made by sundrie right famous Queenes, noble Ladies, vertuous Virgins, and godlie Gentlewomen of al ages” (Bl) which had gone out of print. But is it simply an anthology of standard devotional material? Because it was directed to women, is it an affirmation of egalitarian impulses in Reformation English religious thought? Or does it prescribe the limited range of virtues acceptable to an increasingly patriarchal authority in late sixteenth-century society? It goes without saying that a book as rich and complex as the Monument will contain different, even conflicting, points of view, as the following, necessarily brief, summary will suggest.
Politics in the Convent: The Election of a Fifteenth-Century Abbess
Authors: Mellinger Laura
Published: April 2006

On 26 May 1434, the sisters of the Abbaye Saint-Georges de Rennes filed into their chapter house. Their abbess had died two days previously, and following her burial in the abbey church the abbey's prioress had called a meeting to plan the election of a new leader for the community.
Hicksite Quakers and the Antebellum Nonresistance Movement
Authors: Hamm Thomas D.
Published: April 2006

John Orvis, Eliab W. Capron, Mary L. Cox, and Abraham Brooke were four Quakers who had much in common. Geographically they were widely separated: Orvis lived at Ferrisburg, Vermont; Capron at Walworth, New York; Cox near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania; and Brooke in Clinton County, Ohio. All, however, were Hicksite Friends committed to abolition, the principles of nonresistance, and the repudiation of all coercive force. All selfconsciously patterned themselves on the early Friends by bearing witness to what they saw as truth, whether in Friends' meetinghouses or in the churches of the “world's people.” And all shared the same fate: disownment for “disunity.”
Applying the Vagueness of Language: Poetic Strategies and Campmeeting Piety in the Mid-Nineteenth Century
Authors: Cooley Steven D.
Published: April 2006

Methodist studies of the last four decades have insisted that Methodism be seen as a distinctive intellectual tradition with its own integrity. These studies have corrected the excesses of an earlier experiential interpretation. Although some may still characterize Wesley's Christianity as “almost totally devoid of intellectual content,” the subjects of Wesley, of Methodism, and of the American Holiness Movement can now no longer be reduced to merely an unreflective warm-hearted piety. Current studies have especially highlighted several distinct Wesleyan theological developments. These include the displacement of election and predestination by a religious assurance from the witness of the spirit, the tension between salvation by holy living and salvation by faith alone, an emphasis on vital Christian experience in theological reflection, and especially the development of a Protestant understanding of Christian perfection or holiness. As Henry Rack states, Wesley “softened the hard edges of Calvinism” with an Arminian accent and moved the center of Protestantism so that justification became “the door into the pilgrimage of holiness” rather than the Lutheran cradle or the Calvinist promise. Wesley's prominence in Jaroslav Pelikan's history of Christian doctrine indicates the growing acceptance of this Methodist intellectual history.
Nazifying Christian Theology: Walter Grundmann and the Institute for the Study and Eradication of Jewish Influence on German Church Life
Authors: Heschel Susannah
Published: April 2006

The Third Reich's Kirchenkampf (church struggle) is sometimes mistakenly understood as referring to the Protestant churches' resistance to National Socialism. In fact, the term refers to an internal dispute between members of the Bekennende Kirche [Confessing Church (hereafter BK)] and members of the Deutsche Christen [German Christians (hereafter DC)] over control of the Protestant church. While not all members of the BK opposed Hitler's policies, the movement called for an autonomy of the church from National Socialist legal measures, particularly the racial laws, motivated both by theological and political considerations. The DC, by contrast, sought to introduce National Socialist policies and ideology into the church, especially Nazi racial laws, and modify church doctrine in accord with National Socialist ideology. Yet the antisemitism at the heart of the DC has been either ignored or marginalized by most historians. Indeed, some historians have incorrectly suggested that the DC underwent a dissolution at the end of 1933, from which it never recovered, or have presented the DC as a political creation of National Socialism, ignoring its theological roots.
New York Lutheran Abolitionists. Seeking a Solution to a Historical Enigma
Authors: Kuenning Paul P.
Published: April 2006

Among nineteenth-century North American Lutherans the only corporate body to take an early, serious, and vigorous stand on behalf of the abolition of human slavery was a small group in upper New York State called the Franckean Evangelic Synod.1 On 25 May 1837, at a meeting held in a small country chapel in Minden township, Montgomery County, four Lutheran clergymen and twenty-seven lay delegates broke with the Hartwick Synod and formed the new association. It was named after the German Lutheran Pietist cleric and humanitarian August Hermann Francke (1663–1727). The abolitionist convictions of the Franckean Synod were embedded in the main body of its constitution. No minister who was a slaveholder or engaged in the traffic of human beings or advocated the system of slavery then existing in the United States could be accepted into the synod nor could a layperson practicing any of the above serve as a delegate to synodical meetings.2 By 1848 these restrictions were increased to include laity who “justified the sin of slavery” and clergy “who did not oppose” it.3 Such precise constitutional requirements in opposition to human slavery remain without precedent in the history of the Lutheran church.
Augustine, Martyrs, and Misery
Authors: Kaufman Peter Iver
Published: April 2006

Augustine said that Rome fell frequently, all too often into “utter moral depravity,” occasionally into the hands of the city's enemies. Maybe Aeneas was to blame. He had shown poor judgment, hauling to Italy the gods that failed to save Troy. Subsequently, when the Gauls came to Rome's gates, those divine and purportedly vigilant protectors did remarkably little protecting. They later offered no resistance when Nero reduced Rome to rubble. Augustine held Aeneas's humiliations all the more demoralizing; Virgil misled citizens, suggesting that Rome would stand forever. Christians should have known better. They had it on higher authority that heaven and earth would pass away.
Finding an Archbishop: The Whigs and Richard Whately in 1831
Authors: de Giustino David
Published: April 2006

When they regained power at Westminster in November 1830, the Whigs were dedicated to reform without knowing exactly where to begin. For decades they had committed themselves to financial “retrenchment” and parliamentary reform and now they hoped to pacify an angry country by dealing with those two great issues. Indeed, their main objective was to restore public confidence in the constitution and to prevent a French-style revolution. But their approach to reform in 1830 was uncertain and unpromising. Their vague intentions can be partly explained by their lack of party organization and cohesion; in Parliament, Whigs served as individual opponents of Tory policies rather than as supporters of an alternative government. Factionalism among the Whigs had kept them out of office for more than a generation. Some Whigs were considered unpatriotic because they persisted in defending the ideals of the French Revolution. Still others were hostile to the notion of reform because they suspected that the Tories had already given the country as much reform as it could digest. For many Whigs, the extension of civil liberties to Dissenters (in 1828) and then to Roman Catholics (in 1829) was momentous enough. What the country now wanted was a sensible and flexible government which accommodated the spirit of the age by heeding public opinion. It is not surprising, therefore, that the new government in 1830 was really a coalition of liberals and moderates, and as Peter Mandler has remarked, it was a while before their potential was realized.
Pius X and the Jews: A Reappraisal
Authors: Canepa Andrew M.
Published: April 2006

In standard Jewish reference works the figure of Pope Pius X has either been sorely neglected or has received a decidedly negative press. For the concise New Standard Jewish Encyclopedia, Pius X simply does not exist. The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia mentions rather cryptically that the pope was “better disposed” towards the Jews than had been his immediate predecessors. On the other hand, the monumental Encyclopaedia Judaica characterizes Pius as “disdainful of Judaism and the Jewish people.” Catholic biographies of this pontiff, essentially hagiographic, provide little or no insight into his relations with the Jews or his position on the Jewish question. However, as we shall attempt to argue, Giuseppe Sarto (1835–1914), who was elected pope in 1903 and canonized in 1954, maintained warm personal relationships with individual Jews throughout his ecclesiastical career, held a positive view of the Jewish character, defended the Jewish people against defamation and violence, and was instrumental in halting a twenty-year-old antisemitic campaign that had previously been waged in Italy by the clerical party.
The Strange Career of J. Frank Norris: Or, Can a Baptist Democrat Be a Fundamentalist Republican?
Authors: Hankins Barry
Published: April 2006

From the 1920s onward, many individuals and denominations have referred to themselves as Baptist-fundamentalists or fundamentalist-Baptists. Increasingly, however, scholars are emphasizing the stark contrast between fundamentalism and Baptist life.1More than any other, the life of J. Frank Norris stands as an example of the tension, if not irreconcilability, between the two camps. The enigmatic, or perhaps oxymoronic, nature of Norris's theological life was paralleled by his political endeavors in which he claimed to be a Democrat, but almost always supported Republican candidates. Being from Texas, it was natural that Norris would begin his career as a Baptist Democrat. In time, however, he evolved into a fundamentalist Republican. He actually attempted to be a fundamentalist-Baptist religiously and a Republican-Democrat politically. The fusion of these two religious traditions was no less problematic than fusion of the political parties.
Dilemmas of a Socinian Pacifist in Seventeenth-Century Poland
Authors: Brock Peter
Published: April 2006

The antitrinitarian Polish Brethren, from the inception of their denomination as a breakaway from the Calvinist Reformed Church in 1565, had earnestly debated the issue of whether a “true Christian” might collaborate in the workof the sword-bearing magistracy, take part in war, or kill a fellow human being in self-defense. Whereas the brotherhood in the militarily exposed Grand Duchy of Lithuania, with a few exceptions, gave a positive answer, the congregational leaders in the more secure kingdom of Poland for the most part said no. To do any of these things, the latterargued, entailed disobedience to Jesus’ commandments as expressed in the Sermon on the Mount and elsewhere in the New Testament. For Christ replaced the laws of the Old Testament, which had allowed the ancient Israelites to wage just wars and wield the sword for good cause, with a gospel of love and defenselessness. This doctrine of nonresistance the pacifist Brethren, of course, had taken over from the Anabaptists of central Europe, whose insistence on adult baptism they also adopted.
Emerging Ecclesiology in Calvin's Baptismal Thought, 1536–1543
Authors: Riggs John W.
Published: April 2006

The relatively few monographs on Calvin's baptismal theology have generally been done without regard to chronological development and historical context. This has been unfortunate because diachronic studies on Luther's and Zwingli's baptismal theology have shown theological shifts in emphasis depending on historical context. As we shall see, studies on Calvin's ecclesiology from 1536 through 1543 show a sequential development—a progression which, upon close examination, has a significant impact on his baptismal teaching over time.