bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Actualité des transitions dans les parcours de vie adulte
Authors: Boutinet Jean-Pierre
Published: January 2015

Hier peu sollicitées, les transitions sont devenues aujourd’hui des temporalités incontournables qui désormais accompagnent et orientent les parcours de vie adulte. En venant s’imposer dans nos espaces quotidiens de vie depuis une ou deux générations, elles ont été l’objet d’un changement dans les significations qu’on leur attribuait jusqu’ici : de spatiales, elles sont devenues temporelles ; hier ambivalentes, elles apparaissent aujourd’hui convoitées ; confinées à l’enfance autrefois, elles se focalisent désormais sur la vie adulte. De telles métamorphoses nous invitent donc à saisir les enjeux auxquels sont confrontés les parcours de vie adulte lorsqu’ils s’organisent sur le mode transitionnel.
La transmission universitaire des textes médiévaux : pleine propriété ou usufruit d’un héritage ? Imaginaires critiques du proche et du lointain
Authors: Delale Sarah
Published: January 2015

La fin du xxe siècle a vu fleurir dans des médias récents (jeux vidéos, séries télévisées...) des productions que les spécialistes ont qualifiées de « médiévalisantes » et qui entretiennent avec le Moyen Âge une relation plus stylistique qu’historique. Cette même période a également vu émerger à l’université des méthodes d’analyse textuelle venant concurrencer l’histoire littéraire et proposant de revenir sur l’interdiction d’anachronisme qui fondait jusqu’alors l’étude des lettres médiévales. Cet article souhaite proposer un panorama de ces méthodes (de l’histoire littéraire à la théorie des textes possibles) et des rapports qu’elles entretiennent avec l’âge du texte médiéval. Le texte vieilli permet au lecteur de choisir entre une impression d’altérité ou de familiarité, entre proximité ou distanciation, et d’établir ainsi des limites interprétatives variables d’une méthode à l’autre. Alors que les œuvres médiévalisantes ont modifié leur rapport au médiéval, quel type d’héritage les étudiants de l’université française peuvent-ils tirer de ces textes, entre un usufruit réglé par l’idée de vérité historique et une pleine propriété ouvrant à la fois sur la nouveauté et sur le solipsisme interprétatifs ?
Les lettres médiévales françaises au profit de l’étudiant : observations d’une universitaire polonaise
Authors: Gęsicka Anna
Published: January 2015

Cet article se propose de partager quelques réflexions partant d’une longue expérience didactique de son auteur – enseignante universitaire et médiéviste. L’observation, depuis 20 ans, de l’évolution mentale d’un « étudiant moyen » de la philologie romane en Pologne incite à se redemander sur des voies d’apprentissage appropriées, visées non seulement à lui transmettre un savoir exigé, mais aussi à essayer de lui inspirer le goût de la littérature médiévale française. La première partie du texte résume trois voix inspiratrices de chercheurs polonais sur les enjeux et les pièges de l’approche de l’ancienne littérature. La deuxième partie présente un bilan des méthodes qui s’avèrent efficaces dans le processus pédagogique.
Partis-pris et enjeux didactiques autour du texte médiéval au collège : la voile noire et la mort de Tristan et Iseut dans deux manuels (1984/2010)
Authors: Pomel Fabienne
Published: January 2015

Les partis-pris dans le choix et l’identification des extraits contribuent dans les deux cas à brouiller le statut des textes (traduction ou adaptation ?) et l’état de la langue proposés aux élèves, gommant au lieu de l’exploiter le processus de transmission et de réécriture. La délimitation des extraits manifeste une exploitation didactique très différente : l’un privilégie la cohésion textuelle quand l’autre s’intéresse prioritairement au mythe, mais réduit à un digest dans le texte et au plus petit dénominateur commun dans la sélection des images du couple. L’examen du manuel le plus récent à la lumière des instructions officielles de 2008 (collège) invite à s’interroger sur le potentiel du corpus médiéval dans la double perspective d’une articulation entre langue et littérature et entre français et histoire des arts. Faute d’en intégrer les spécificités, de contextualiser les documents et de mobiliser des contributeurs spécialisés y compris en histoire des arts, ses ressources restent encore sous-exploitées.
Une nouvelle approche du Morte d’Arthur de Malory au XXe siècle : la réécriture musicale de Lerner et Loewe
Authors: Breton Justine
Published: January 2015

La littérature médiévale, peu connue des non-spécialistes, est surtout abordée par le biais des nombreuses réécritures et adaptations à différents media. La légende du roi Arthur, par exemple, est principalement connue du grand public grâce à son adaptation en bande-dessinée, film ou encore série télévisée. Mais cette large diffusion est également due à l’influence souvent négligée de la comédie musicale Camelot, créée à Broadway en 1960 par Alan Jay Lerner et Frederick Loewe. Cette œuvre complète, mêlant jeu théâtral, chant et danse, s’appuie sur le texte de Thomas Malory, Le Morte d’Arthur, ainsi que sur la lecture proposée par Terence Hanbury White dans sa réécriture The Once and Future King, œuvre célèbre dans le monde anglophone. Camelot met en scène (et en chansons) la grandeur d’un règne arthurien idyllique, troublé par des conflits internes et des antagonismes profondément ancrés. Ce spectacle musical, qui a largement participé au succès du mythe arthurien aux États-Unis, apparaît alors comme une synthèse du texte médiéval, soulignant la dimension amoureuse de la légende à travers une distribution prestigieuse.
IL-15 Amplifies the Pathogenic Properties of CD4+CD28− T Cells in Multiple Sclerosis
Authors: Broux Bieke , Mizee Mark R. , Vanheusden Marjan , van der Pol Susanne , van Horssen Jack , Van Wijmeersch Bart , Somers Veerle , de Vries Helga E. , Stinissen Piet , Hellings Niels
Published: January 2015

CD4+CD28− T cells arise through repeated antigenic stimulation and are present in diseased tissues of patients with various autoimmune disorders, including multiple sclerosis (MS). These cells are believed to have cytotoxic properties that contribute to the pathogenic damaging of the target organ. Endogenous cues that are increased in the diseased tissue may amplify the activity of CD4+CD28− T cells. In this study, we focused on IL-15, a cytotoxicity-promoting cytokine that is increased in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid of MS patients. Using immunohistochemistry, we demonstrate that IL-15 is mainly produced by astrocytes and infiltrating macrophages in inflammatory lesions of MS patients. Moreover, in vitro transmigration studies reveal that IL-15 selectively attracts CD4+CD28− T cells of MS patients, but not of healthy individuals. IL-15 further induces the expression of chemokine receptors and adhesion molecules on CD4+CD28− T cells, as investigated using flow cytometry, resulting in enhanced migration over a monolayer of human brain endothelial cells. Finally, flow cytometric analyses revealed that IL-15 increases the proliferation and production of GM-CSF, expression of cytotoxic molecules (NKG2D, perforin, and granzyme B), and degranulation capacity of CD4+CD28− T cells. Taken together, these findings indicate that increased peripheral and local levels of IL-15 amplify the pathogenic potential of CD4+CD28− T cells, thus contributing to tissue damage in MS brain lesions.
Scaling laws for the upper ocean temperature dissipation rate
Authors: Bogucki Darek J. , Huguenard K. , Haus B. K. , Özgökmen T. M. , Reniers A. , Laxague N. J. M.
Published: January 2015

Our understanding of temperature dissipation rate χ within the upper ocean boundary layer, which is critical for climate forecasts, is very limited. Near‐surface turbulence also affects dispersion of contaminants and biogeochemical tracers. Using high‐resolution optical turbulence measurements, scaling laws for χ are investigated under forcing states where either the daytime heat flux or the wind stress forcing is dominant. We find that χ remains constant over 1.5 times the significant wave height, while over a layer below, χ decays based on the local surface forcing. When the heat flux is dominant, traditional scaling based on the Monin‐Obukhov similarity theory remains valid; χ ∝ z−1. When the wind stress dominates, we observe the emergence of a new scaling, χ ∝ z−1/2, which is explained by invoking the effect of small‐scale coherent structures on vertical heat transport. These results have implications for improved modeling of the ocean's heat and CO2 intake.
Heavy precipitation in a changing climate: Does short‐term summer precipitation increase faster?
Authors: Ban Nikolina , Schmidli Juerg , Schär Christoph
Published: January 2015

Climate models project that heavy precipitation events intensify with climate change. It is generally accepted that extreme day‐long events will increase at a rate of about 6–7% per degree warming, consistent with the Clausius‐Clapeyron relation. However, recent studies suggest that subdaily (e.g., hourly) precipitation extremes may increase at about twice this rate. Conventional climate models are not suited to assess such events, due to the limited spatial resolution and the need to parametrize convective precipitation (i.e., thunderstorms and rain showers). Here we employ a convection‐resolving model using a horizontal grid spacing of 2.2 km across an extended region covering the Alps and its larger‐scale surrounding from northern Italy to northern Germany. Consistent with previous results, projections using a Representative Concentration Pathways version 8.5 greenhouse gas scenario reveal a significant decrease of mean summer precipitation. However, unlike previous studies, we find that both extreme day‐long and hour‐long precipitation events asymptotically intensify with the Clausius‐Clapeyron relation. Differences to previous studies might be due to the model or region considered, but we also show that it is inconsistent to extrapolate from present‐day precipitation scaling into the future.
Dissolved organic matter composition and photochemical transformations in the northern North Pacific Ocean
Authors: Medeiros Patricia. M. , Seidel Michael , Powers Leanne C. , Dittmar Thorsten , Hansell Dennis A. , Miller William L.
Published: January 2015

The composition and photochemical transformations of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in the northern North Pacific Ocean were investigated at the molecular level using ultrahigh resolution mass spectrometry and geochemical tracers. Analyses included vertical profiles and experiments in which deep sea DOM was exposed to sunlight and incubated in the dark. The composition of the deep sea DOM was found to be approximately uniform and enriched with highly unsaturated compounds, with highly aromatic compounds, and with polycyclic aromatics. Surface DOM had a significantly different composition, being enriched with both highly unsaturated and with unsaturated aliphatic compounds potentially due to the addition of photodegradation products and phytoplankton inputs. Deep sea DOM composition is transformed by photoreactions, becoming more similar to surface DOM. The influence of photochemistry extends beyond the photic zone, presumably because of vertical export of DOM previously modified at the surface.
Formation of the oxygen torus in the inner magnetosphere: Van Allen Probes observations
Authors: Nosé M. , Oimatsu S. , Keika K. , Kletzing C. A. , Kurth W. S. , Pascuale S. De , Smith C. W. , MacDowall R. J. , Nakano S. , Reeves G. D. , Spence H. E. , Larsen B. A.
Published: January 2015

We study the formation process of an oxygen torus during the 12–15 November 2012 magnetic storm, using the magnetic field and plasma wave data obtained by Van Allen Probes. We estimate the local plasma mass density (ρL) and the local electron number density (neL) from the resonant frequencies of standing Alfvén waves and the upper hybrid resonance band. The average ion mass (M) can be calculated by M ∼ ρL/neL under the assumption of quasi‐neutrality of plasma. During the storm recovery phase, both Probe A and Probe B observe the oxygen torus at L = 3.0–4.0 and L = 3.7–4.5, respectively, on the morning side. The oxygen torus has M = 4.5–8 amu and extends around the plasmapause that is identified at L∼3.2–3.9. We find that during the initial phase, M is 4–7 amu throughout the plasma trough and remains at ∼1 amu in the plasmasphere, implying that ionospheric O+ ions are supplied into the inner magnetosphere already in the initial phase of the magnetic storm. Numerical calculation under a decrease of the convection electric field reveals that some of thermal O+ ions distributed throughout the plasma trough are trapped within the expanded plasmasphere, whereas some of them drift around the plasmapause on the dawnside. This creates the oxygen torus spreading near the plasmapause, which is consistent with the Van Allen Probes observations. We conclude that the oxygen torus identified in this study favors the formation scenario of supplying O+ in the inner magnetosphere during the initial phase and subsequent drift during the recovery phase.
Gas migration into gas hydrate‐bearing sediments on the southern Hikurangi margin of New Zealand
Authors: Crutchley G. J. , Fraser D. R. A. , Pecher I. A. , Gorman A. R. , Maslen G. , Henrys S. A.
Published: January 2015

We present multichannel seismic data from New Zealand's Hikurangi subduction margin that show widespread evidence for gas migration into the field of gas hydrate stability. Gas migration along stratigraphic layers into the hydrate system manifests itself as highly reflective segments of dipping strata that originate at the base of hydrate stability and extend some distance toward the seafloor. The highly reflective segments exhibit the same polarity as the seafloor reflection, indicating that localized gas hydrate precipitation from gas‐charged fluids within relatively permeable layers has occurred. High‐density velocity analysis shows that these layer‐constrained gas hydrate accumulations are underlain by thick (up to ~500 m) free gas zones, which provide the source for focused gas migration into the hydrate layer. In addition to gas being channeled along layers, we also interpret gas migration through a fault zone into the field of hydrate stability; in this case, a low‐velocity layer within the hydrate stability zone extends laterally away from the fault, which might indicate that gas‐charged fluids have also migrated away from the fault along strata. At this site, where both dipping strata and faulting seem to influence fluid migration, we observe anomalously high velocities at the base of hydrate stability that we interpret as concentrated gas hydrates. Our results give insight into how shallow fluid flow responds to permeability contrasts between strata, fault zones, and perhaps also the gas hydrate system itself. Ultimately, these relationships can lead to gas migration across the base of hydrate stability and the precipitation of concentrated hydrate deposits.
Synthesizing large‐scale pyroclastic flows: Experimental design, scaling, and first results from PELE
Authors: Lube G. , Breard E. C. P. , Cronin S. J. , Jones J.
Published: January 2015

Pyroclastic flow eruption large‐scale experiment (PELE) is a large‐scale facility for experimental studies of pyroclastic density currents (PDCs). It is used to generate high‐energy currents involving 500–6500 m3 natural volcanic material and air that achieve velocities of 7–30 m s−1, flow thicknesses of 2–4.5 m, and runouts of >35 m. The experimental PDCs are synthesized by a controlled “eruption column collapse” of ash‐lapilli suspensions onto an instrumented channel. The first set of experiments are documented here and used to elucidate the main flow regimes that influence PDC dynamic structure. Four phases are identified: (1) mixture acceleration during eruption column collapse, (2) column‐slope impact, (3) PDC generation, and (4) ash cloud diffusion. The currents produced are fully turbulent flows and scale well to natural PDCs including small to large scales of turbulent transport. PELE is capable of generating short, pulsed, and sustained currents over periods of several tens of seconds, and dilute surge‐like PDCs through to highly concentrated pyroclastic flow‐like currents. The surge‐like variants develop a basal <0.05 m thick regime of saltating/rolling particles and shifting sand waves, capped by a 2.5–4.5 m thick, turbulent suspension that grades upward to lower particle concentrations. Resulting deposits include stratified dunes, wavy and planar laminated beds, and thin ash cloud fall layers. Concentrated currents segregate into a dense basal underflow of <0.6 m thickness that remains aerated. This is capped by an upper ash cloud surge (1.5–3 m thick) with 100 to 10−4 vol % particles. Their deposits include stratified, massive, normally and reversely graded beds, lobate fronts, and laterally extensive veneer facies beyond channel margins.
In situ observations of black carbon in snow and the corresponding spectral surface albedo reduction
Authors: Pedersen C. A. , Gallet J.‐C. , Ström J. , Gerland S. , Hudson S. R. , Forsström S. , Isaksson E. , Berntsen T. K.
Published: January 2015

Black carbon (BC) particles emitted from incomplete combustion of fossil fuel and biomass and deposited on snow and ice darken the surface and reduce the surface albedo. Even small initial surface albedo reductions may have larger adjusted effects due to snow morphology changes and changes in the sublimation and snow melt rate. Most of the literature on the effect of BC on snow surface albedo is based on numerical models, and few in situ field measurements exist to confirm this reduction. Here we present an extensive set of concurrent in situ measurements of spectral surface albedo, BC concentrations in the upper 5 cm of the snowpack, snow physical parameters (grain size and depth), and incident solar flux characteristics from the Arctic. From this data set (with median BC concentrations ranging from 5 to 137 ng BC per gram of snow) we are able to separate the BC signature on the snow albedo from the natural snow variability. Our measurements show a significant correlation between BC in snow and spectral surface albedo. Based on these measurements, parameterizations are provided, relating the snow albedo, as a function of wavelength, to the equivalent BC content in the snowpack. The term equivalent BC used here is the elemental carbon concentration inferred from the thermo‐optical method adjusted for the fraction of non‐BC constituents absorbing sunlight in the snow. The first parameterization is a simple equation which efficiently describes the snow albedo reduction due to the equivalent BC without including details on the snow or BC microphysics. This can be used in models when a simplified description is needed. A second parameterization, including snow grain size information, shows enhanced correspondence with the measurements. The extracted parameterizations are valid for wavelength bands 400–900 nm, constrained for BC concentrations between 1 and 400 ng g−1, and for an optically thick snowpack. The parameterizations are purely empirical, and particular focus was on the uncertainties associated with the measurements, and how these uncertainties propagate in the parameterizations. Integrated, the first parameterization (based only on the equivalent BC) gives a broadband (400–900 nm) snow albedo reduction of 0.004 due to 10 ng equivalent BC per gram of snow, while the effect is almost 5 times larger for BC concentrations 1 order of magnitude higher. The study shows that the reconstructed albedo from the second parameterization (including information on the snow grain size) corresponds better to the radiative transfer model Snow, Ice, and Aerosol Radiation albedo than the reconstructed albedo from the first parameterization (excluding grain size information).
Long‐term and seasonal variability of the aerosol optical depth at Mount Kasprowy Wierch (Poland)
Authors: Markowicz Krzysztof M. , Uscka‐Kowalkowska Joanna
Published: January 2015

This paper presents the results of long‐term observations (1964–2003) of direct solar radiation, to determine aerosol optical depth (AOD), made with a Linke‐Feussner actinometer at the Tatra Mountain Meteorological Observatory on Mount Kasprowy Wierch (1991 m above sea level, 49.233°N, 19.982°E). To this end, broadband direct solar flux (0.29–2.9 µm) and wideband solar radiation measured with OG530 and RG630 filters are used to estimate the broadband and wideband (0.53–0.63 µm) AOD. The inversion algorithm used is based on the MODTRAN (MODerate resolution atmospheric TRANsmission) radiative transfer model applied to estimate direct flux for aerosol‐free atmosphere. Total water vapor content, which accounts for the largest extinction of clear‐sky direct flux, was obtained by radio sounding from the Poprad‐Ganovce station (33 km from Mount Kasprowy Wierch) and from water vapor pressure measurements at the Observatory. The almost 900 clear‐sky observations, performed close to noon time, found a significant long‐term reduction of AOD. AOD decadal trends were −0.006 (−8 ± 4% [2σ]) with a 95% confidence interval of ± 0.003 and −0.014 (−13 ± 4% [2σ]) with a 95% confidence interval of ± 0.004 for broadband and wideband, respectively. Similar trends, but for years with negligible contamination of volcanic aerosol, are −0.012 (−16 ± 6% [2σ]) and −0.018 (−17 ± 6% [2σ]) with a 95% confidence interval of ± 0.003 and ± 0.004. However, positive AOD trends (from 0 to 0.04 per decade) were found between 1964 and 1983 and negative AOD trends (from −0.016 to −0.035 per decade) were found between 1984 and 2003. Changes of the AOD trends between both periods are associated with global dimming and brightening phenomenon, which took place in the second half of the twentieth century and at the beginning of the 21st century. The long‐term mean broadband and wideband AOD were 0.07 ± 0.01 and 0.11 ± 0.02, respectively. Both quantities show a significant annual cycle, with maximum AOD during spring and summer. Very low values during the autumn and winter (about 0.03 for broadband and 0.05–0.06 for wideband) are the result of planetary boundary layer height (defined for the lower elevations), which during this period lies below Mount Kasprowy Wierch itself. The other explanation of low AOD values can be the high frequency (more than 50%) of inversion occurrence below the top of the mountain.
Aerosol impacts on cloud thermodynamic phase change over East Asia observed with CALIPSO and CloudSat measurements
Authors: Zhang Damao , Liu Dong , Luo Tao , Wang Zhien , Yin Yan
Published: January 2015

Impacts of aerosols on subfreezing cloud thermodynamic phase change over East Asia are studied by using 4 year combined CloudSat radar and Cloud‐Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) lidar measurements. The mean occurrence frequencies of supercooled‐liquid, mixed‐phase, and glaciated clouds over East Asia are 10.4%, 10.3%, and 16.9%, respectively. Over northwest of East Asia (32–44°N, 75–100°E), subfreezing clouds are dominated by glaciated clouds with a mean relative cloud fraction (RCF) of ~60% and over southeast (16–32°N, 95–120°E) are dominated by supercooled‐liquid clouds with a mean RCF of ~50%. Although cloud top temperature (CTT) differences contribute largely to the thermodynamic phase differences, northwest of East Asia has ~20% larger glaciated (smaller mixed‐phase) RCFs than those of southeast at the same CTT. Seasonal anomalies of glaciated and mixed‐phase RCFs correlate well with the seasonal variations of dust occurrence frequency. In addition, subfreezing clouds associated with mineral dust contain approximately 5%, 10%, and 20% larger glaciated (smaller mixed‐phase) RCFs than those associated with polluted dust, smoke, and background aerosols at any given CTT. It is suggested that dust impacts on subfreezing clouds over East Asia by providing abundant effective ice nuclei to glaciate mixed‐phase clouds, although the impacts of large‐scale dynamics and water supply mechanisms cannot be ruled out.
VailConference (1973)
Authors: Routh Donald K.
Published: January 2015

The 1973 conference sponsored by the National Institute of Mental Health in Vail, Colorado had the effect of legitimizing the “scholar‐practitioner” model of professional training in psychology. This model, originally suggested as far back as 1918 by clinical psychologist Leta Hollingworth (1886–1939), endorsed thePsyDdegree rather than thePhDand fostered training that did not require students to carry out empirical research. The “Vail model” of training eventually produced far more graduates per year than the traditional “Boulder” (scientist–practitioner) model.
Binet, Alfred (1857–1911)
Authors: Ferrand Ludovic , Nicolas Serge
Published: January 2015

Alfred Binet (1857–1911) is arguably France's best known psychologist. The bulk of Binet's work can be divided into three periods. During the first period (1880–90) Binet focused on the study of psychopathology. Interested in unconscious phenomena, he worked on hypnosis and hysteria with Charcot at Salpêtrière hospital. During the second period (1891–1900) he conducted experimental psychological research at the Sorbonne laboratory. There he became a pioneer in various areas of cognitive psychology, including memory, expertise, movements, suggestibility, and visual illusions. The focal point of the third period of Binet's work (1901–11) was pedagogical psychology. In 1905, in cooperation with his colleague Theodore Simon (1873–1961), he created the first valid test of intelligence. In sum, Binet was a pioneer in many domains of psychology: clinical psychology, experimental psychology, differential psychology, social psychology, and pedagogical psychology.
Evidence‐Based Assessment
Authors: Therrien Zoé , Hunsley John
Published: January 2015

As part of the evidence‐based practice movement, a noticeable shift has occurred in the psychological assessment literature, with greater attention focused on the ways in which assessments are conducted and used to guide practice. This advance has also led to the development of evidence‐based assessment, an approach to clinical evaluation that emphasizes the use of research and theory to guide the selection of constructs, the methods and measures used in the assessment, and the interpretation of the resulting assessment data. This entry reviews the current state of evidence‐based assessment efforts and the scientific and logistic challenges that will need to be addressed in order to facilitate the identification and dissemination of evidence‐based assessment practices.
Risk Assessment/Dangerousness/Violence Prediction, General
Authors: Singh Jay P.
Published: January 2015

Risk assessment is the attempt to predict the likelihood of future antisocial behavior in order to identify those at greatest need of intervention. Assessments of risk are conducted using either unstructured clinical judgment or a structured risk‐assessment tool. Risk‐assessment tools are composed of risk and protective factors that can be either static or dynamic in nature. These instruments routinely follow one of two structured approaches: actuarialism, which focuses on statistical prediction, or structured professional judgment, which focuses on assessment as a means of developing individualized risk management plans. The investigation of the validity and reliability of risk assessments in different populations and settings has produced a sizeable psychometric literature.
Beneficence/Nonmaleficence
Authors: Singh Jay P. , Ivory Mary
Published: January 2015

Beneficence and nonmaleficence are fundamental ethical principles that guide the clinical practice and research of mental health professionals. The principles obligate professionals to promote the well‐being of their patients and participants while refraining from causing or exposing them to harm. The principlist approach recognizes that conflicts can occur between a psychologist's obligation to provide care and the need to prevent negative psychosocial consequences. Thus, a common ethical dilemma is the need to maintain a balance between beneficence and nonmaleficence. Such balance is achieved by weighing the costs and benefits of different interventions and management strategies, ideally selecting those with the highest net benefit.
Cronbach,LeeJ. (1916–2001)
Authors: Shavelson Richard J.
Published: January 2015

Lee J. Cronbach (1916–2001) had a long and distinguished career as an educational psychologist. He made major contributions to psychological testing, including coefficient alpha, generalizability theory, and construct validity theory; to evaluation, including a focus on program improvement, an emphasis on the role played by context and politics, and the strengths and limitations of randomized trials; and to instruction, most notably in the search for aptitude‐treatment interactions and designing particular learning environments to match learners' characteristics.
Bleuler, Eugen (1857–1939)
Authors: Dalzell Thomas G.
Published: January 2015

Eugen Bleuler (1857–1939) is best known for coining the term “schizophrenia,” which supplanted the term dementia praecox. Following the publication of Bleuler's 1911 book, dementia praecox was no longer conceived as necessarily entailing dementia or praecox. The shift in the focus of Bleuler's work, from illness entities to the speech of the individual patient, vis à vis Bleuler's biography is described. The way in which Bleuler found the symptoms of schizophrenia intelligible in terms of psychoanalytic theory, despite his own ambivalence about the work of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), is demonstrated.
Freedom‐of‐Choice Legislation
Authors: Cummings Nicholas A.
Published: January 2015

Freedom‐of‐choice legislation pertains to the laws in 23 U.S. states that resulted in a national mandate that if an insurer reimburses for the services of a psychiatrist, that insurer must also reimburse for the services of a psychologist. This provision, now taken for granted, was not always so, as the enactment was the culmination of a difficult battle spanning several decades. Once legislation was enacted in 23 states, the insurance industry capitulated, stating that it was too difficult to sustain two different reimbursement procedures.
Derner, Gordon F. (1915–83)
Authors: Cummings Nicholas A.
Published: January 2015

Gordon F. Derner (1915–83) founded the first professional program approved by the American Psychological Association (
APA
) at Adelphi University in 1950. In 1975, taking a cue from one of his early students who had founded the California School of Professional Psychology, he transformed it into a professional school, again the first on any university campus. After his death in 1983, the university named the school after him. He served as president of the
APA
's counseling and psychotherapy divisions, as well as the Nassau County Psychological Association and the New York State Psychological Association. He was a candidate for the
APA
presidency four times.
Case Studies
Authors: McKay Dean
Published: January 2015

Case studies are a common part of clinical science and practice, although a careful consideration of their advantages and limitations is essential. Case studies, and by association the case presentation, are defined. The advantages and limitations of case studies are detailed. It is emphasized that whereas case studies may be useful in the discovery and development of interventions, considerable caution should be exercised in relying on findings from them in clinical practice. A basic structure for case studies is provided. The key elements of a case study are described.
Parental Alienation
Authors: Bernet William
Published: January 2015

Parental alienation is a mental condition in which a child—usually one whose parents are engaged in a high‐conflict separation or divorce—allies himself or herself strongly with one parent (the preferred parent) and rejects a relationship with the other parent (the alienated parent) without legitimate justification. Parental alienation usually comes about when the preferred parent indoctrinates the child to fear and hate the rejected or alienated parent. Typically, the alienating parent interferes with or limits the child's contact with the rejected parent. Alienating parents have been described as being angry and vindictive and having maladaptive personality traits. Parental alienation frequently causes short‐term and long‐term psychological problems in the affected children. Many writers have concluded that causing parental alienation is a form of psychological child abuse.
W
idiger,
T
homas
A
. (
b
. 1952)
Authors: Samuel Douglas B.
Published: January 2015

Thomas A. Widiger (b. 1952) is an influential figure in the diagnosis and classification of psychopathology, having served as the Research Coordinator for DSM‐IV. His specific expertise in the diagnosis of personality disorders led to his inclusion as a member of the DSM‐III‐R Advisory Committee and DSM‐IV Personality Disorders Work Group, and co‐chair of the DSM‐5 Personality Disorder Research Planning Work Group. Dr. Widiger has long been a leading advocate for the adoption of a dimensional trait system for diagnosis of personality disorders.
Latah
Authors: Simons Ronald C.
Published: January 2015

Latah is the name of a culture‐bound syndrome from Malaysia and Indonesia. A person with latah has an extremely strong and easily elicited startle, and others often intentionally startle such affected individuals for amusement. When startled, many latahs not only jump, but also match sounds they have just heard or movements they have just seen. They may also obey sharply given commands. Though latah has often been described as merely a Malay and Indonesian custom, similar startle‐matching and command obedience has been described in individuals from places as remote from southeast Asia as Siberia and the United States. To understand and explain latah, it is necessary to consider the nature of the practices, the content and associations of the beliefs, and the factors, including neurophysiologic ones, that characterize easily startled people in specific social and cultural settings.
Self‐Injury
Authors: Victor Sarah E. , David Klonsky E.
Published: January 2015

Nonsuicidal self‐injury is the deliberate self‐inflicted destruction of one's own body tissue without suicidal intent and for purposes not socially sanctioned. Common examples include self‐cutting, burning, and hitting. Self‐injury is especially common among adolescents and is associated with varied types of psychopathology, including mood and anxiety disorders and suicide attempts. Most people who frequently self‐injure begin in adolescence and stop in young adulthood, although the majority of those who try self‐injury engage in the behavior just once or a few times. People engage in self‐injury for a variety of reasons; the most commonly reported are reduction of negative emotional experiences and self‐punishment. Some people also engage in self‐injury to communicate with or influence others. Psychotherapies emphasizing emotional regulation, problem solving, and functional assessment appear to be most effective for treating self‐injury.
Projective Measures of Personality/Psychopathology
Authors: Tuber Steven , Meehan Kevin B.
Published: January 2015

A review of projective measures of personality is engendered through a highlighting of the role visual ambiguity plays in drawing upon a testee's signature pattern of meaning‐making. The nature of the Rorschach Inkblot Method, Thematic Apperception Test, sentence completion and figure drawing tasks are explained, with an emphasis placed on their use in a battery of testing methods. Each of the measures presents a different sort of ambiguity, challenging a testee's capacity to maintain coherence under stress in different ways. Heuristic linkages are then provided between the nature of these different types of tasks and behaviors outside the testing situation.
Dyssomnias
Authors: Bonnet Michael H. , Arand Donna L.
Published: January 2015

Dyssomnias are the primary sleep disorders. They include intrinsic sleep disorders such as sleep‐related breathing disorders, limb movement disorders, narcolepsy, and lifelong insomnia, as well as circadian rhythm disorders and extrinsic disorders such as situational insomnia.
H
alstead,
W
ard (1908–68)
Authors: Prigatano George P.
Published: January 2015

Ward Halstead (1908–68) pioneered an approach to the psychological evaluation of persons with brain disorders that influenced and advanced the profession of clinical neuropsychology as practiced in the United States. Within a historical context, Halstead's contributions and those of his student, Ralph Reitan, are briefly outlined.
Measurement of Chronic Stress
Authors: Hammen Constance , Dalton Elizabeth D. , Thompson Sarah M.
Published: January 2015

Chronic stress refers to the perceived and actual negative life conditions that affect a person on a daily or continuing basis, and is found to predict a wide array of debilitating emotional and behavioral states; physiological and medical changes;and neurobiological changes in development, cognition, memory, and information processing. Measures of chronic stress have been developed to cover both perceived and actual experiences, primarily focused on specific domains (e.g., financial concerns, marital or caregiving relationships, discrimination), or on general experiences across multiple roles affecting daily life (e.g., work, marriage, parenting, health).Thisentry describes more commonly used specific or general measures of chronic stress, and discusses psychometric properties of diverse questionnaire and interview assessments.Further study is needed on improving assessment methods, the nature of the content and aspects of chronic stress that are particularly harmful, and biological mechanisms associated with exposure to chronic stress.
Professional Organizations
Authors: Routh Donald K.
Published: January 2015

Many clinical psychologists over the years have belonged to a variety of professional associations. These include the American Psychological Association, the American Orthopsychiatric Association, the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies, and the Association for Psychological Science, to mention the main ones that continue to exist today.
Construct Validity
Authors: Smith Gregory T. , Pearson Carolyn M.
Published: January 2015

Construct validity involves the evaluation of evidence for the validity of psychological theories and the measures used to test them. It is therefore a central concept in the field of clinical psychology. This entry describes how the process of construct validation works and includes a brief history of validation efforts in clinical psychology as well as current conceptualizations and issues pertaining to this topic.
Free Will versus Determinism
Authors: Waller Bruce N.
Published: January 2015

Determinism is the philosophical doctrine that all events are the product of causal laws together with the prior state of the universe. There are two main views of free will: Incompatibilist accounts require open alternatives that are incompatible with determinism, whereas compatibilist theories emphasize the control humans exercise over their own behavior and insist that such control is compatible with determinism. Many psychologists regard determinism as a useful methodological research principle. While the nature and limits of free will remain disputed questions, the therapeutic importance of a sense of personal control is well established.
Privacy
Authors: Stiles Paul G.
Published: January 2015

In its simplest form,
privacy
is a term that describes a person's right “to be left alone”—to keep things about themselves out of the public domain, and selectively control disclosures of such information. Privacy should be distinguished from
confidentiality
(protection of information typically gained in a professional context) and
privilege
(information protected in a legal context). The
right to privacy
has a long history in American jurisprudence, evolving from the concept of slander and libel in tort law to the recognition by the U.S. Supreme Court of a constitutional right to privacy. Clinical psychologists should be aware of privacy provisions in the American Psychological Association Code of Conduct as well as several state and federal laws (e.g., Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) and take appropriate actions to put in place policies, training, and technology to ensure the privacy of their clients and others is protected.
W
itmer,
L
ightner (1867–1956)
Authors: Routh Donald K.
Published: January 2015

Lightner Witmer (1867–1956) founded the first psychology clinic in the world in 1896 at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1907 he gave clinical psychology its name and began publication of the first scholarly journal in the field, The Psychological Clinic. He trained the first generation of clinical psychology PhD students. His work was also important in the development of the related fields of speech pathology, vocational counseling, and school psychology.
Amicus Brief
Authors: Modecki Kathryn Lynn
Published: January 2015

Filing amicus briefs in strategic legal cases is, arguably, one of the central means by which psychologists realize public policy objectives. The American Psychological Association (
APA
) regularly submits amicus curie or “friend of the court” briefs in legal cases to which psychological research might usefully inform the evidence base. Several authors argue that social scientists have a duty of care to inform legal policy, which otherwise might be based on anecdotal experience or on judicial assumptions regarding human nature. However, these experts also encourage cautious optimism around the role of
APA
amicus curie briefs in judicial decision making. Social scientists, they advise, should bear in mind the myriad of other issues, both legal and practical, that the judiciary will necessarily consider when making its decisions, beyond the body of research described in
APA
amicus briefs.
Training Models in Clinical Psychology
Authors: Routh Donald K.
Published: January 2015

There are three major training models in American clinical psychology, all of which require a doctoral degree: the scientist–practitioner model (Boulder conference, 1949), the scholar–practitioner model (Vail conference, 1973), and the clinical scientist model (Bloomington conference, 1994). Elsewhere in the world, there is a distinctive British model, approved in 1987, requiring a doctor of clinical psychology degree, and EuroPsy, the generic model approved by the European Federation of Psychologists' Associations, requiring the equivalent of a research‐based master's degree plus a year supervised postgraduate professional experience.
Intellectual Disability
Authors: Schalock Robert L.
Published: January 2015

This article focuses on intellectual disability, a construct that is operationally based on demonstration of significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. It must also be manifest prior to age 18. The article discusses intellectual disability in the context of an ecological model of disability that considers human functioning across multiple dimensions and views etiology as multifactorial. The article describes current thinking about best practices regarding the conceptualization and clinical/community support of individuals with intellectual disability. In particular, it advocates for the use of classification systems that take into account the multiple dimensions of human functioning and recommends aligning person‐ and service‐delivery classification and support practices.
S
kinner,
B
.
F
. (1904–90)
Authors: Vargas Julie S.
Published: January 2015

B. F. Skinner (1904–90) developed a science of behavior based upon selection by consequences. Based on his laboratory research in which he documented moment‐to‐moment changes in the rate of behavior under differing contingencies, he began what became known as behavior analysis. In his book
Verbal Behavior
, Skinner extended his analysis to contingencies over talking and thinking without appealing to internal structures or processes. Linguists and psychologists objected to the neglect of internal agencies they considered necessary to account for the complexity of language. Skinner addressed cultural design in
Walden Two
and
Beyond Freedom and Dignity
. In the latter, he argued that to create what we call freedom, contingencies that control our behavior must be addressed. Critics maintained that one's destiny resides inside each individual, an essentialist position that Skinner consistently opposed. Skinner combined laboratory research, invention of practical devices, philosophical writings, cultural design, and behavioral technology, all within a behavioral science that promoted reinforcing properties of actions as a way to improve the human condition.
Amnesic Defense
Authors: Jelicic Marko , Merckelbach Harald
Published: January 2015

Offenders, especially those who have committed violent crimes, often claim memory loss for their criminal acts. Various explanations for this type of amnesia have been proposed. One explanation is that, due to excessive alcohol consumption, drug use, or a medical condition at the time of the offense, individuals are unable to store information into memory. A second explanation holds that, due to a mismatch in mood during and after the offense, offenders are unable to retrieve details of their crime. A third explanation contends that a substantial portion of individuals claiming memory loss for their crime are feigning their amnesia in order to obstruct police investigation and/or reduce responsibility for their acts. Tools and strategies to evaluate the authenticity of crime‐related amnesia are addressed.
Evolution
Authors: Sela Yael , Shackelford Todd K.
Published: January 2015

Evolution by natural selection is the only known process capable of producing complex biological systems. Natural selection drives evolution and produces change over time in gene frequencies in a population. Organisms are vehicles for genes, and continually struggle to survive and reproduce. Adaptive problems resulting in differential reproductive success give rise to evolved inherited traits, or adaptations. All organisms possess adaptations constructed by natural selection, which exist because they propagate the genes that built them. Evolution is the only theory that offers a causal, naturalistic explanation for the striking diversity of life on Earth. Speciation occurs when lineages split, such that all life is related through common ancestry. This knowledge provides a unifying, metatheoretical framework for the life and social sciences, and is a source from which to generate novel hypotheses. When evolution by natural selection is properly understood and applied, nothing in the life and social sciences makes sense except in the light of evolution.
Attention/Cognitive Bias Modification
Authors: Schofield Casey A.
Published: January 2015

Cognitive bias modification (
CBM
) refers to a variety of computer‐based tasks designed to manipulate cognitive processes (e.g., attention and interpretation) that are proposed to play a role in the development and maintenance of emotional disorders. Via repetition of simple tasks,
CBM
procedures are designed to “train” cognitive biases that preferentially process disorder‐congruent information. Cognitive theories propose that modification of these biases will result in reduced emotionality in the face of subsequent stressors. Empirical work evaluating
CBM
procedures has demonstrated that
CBM
reliably modifies cognitive processes of attention and interpretation, although the strength of the effect varies across study parameters. The impact of
CBM
on emotionality is less clear, although the current evidence suggests these procedures may have some benefit in clinical populations. Important limitations exist in the current research, including limited work evaluating the endurance of these effects.