bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Some considerations on the choice of a field sprayer1
Authors: ANDERSEN P. G. , JØRGENSEN L.
Published: April 2008

An analysis comparing conventional and air‐assisted sprayers indicates that even over relatively small areas air‐assisted spraying offers advantages of both economics and efficacy. An analysis of Danish meteorological data from 1989 to 1991 indicates that, without including any savings on plant protection products, air‐assisted sprayers proved most economic at total sprayed areas of over 600 ha, which with a typical Danish rotation equals a farm area of approx. 160 ha. Danish users of air‐assisted sprayers claim reduction in their use of plant protection products of 25‐30%. If more modest reductions of only 20 or 10% are considered, the break‐even occurs at total sprayed areas of only 300 or 200 ha, equalling typical farms of 77 or 52 ha, respectively.
Air‐assisted sprayers for application in vine, orchard and similar crops1
Authors: GÖHLICH H. , GANZELMEIER H. , BÄCKER G.
Published: April 2008

Spraying in so‐called space cultures (orchards, vineyards) is determined by two main aims which require contrary technical measures for their realization: (1) optimal even distribution of droplet deposition on the target. This generally requires sufficient air assistance of droplet transportation and penetration in order to bridge the distance between the nozzle outlet and the target; (2) the surplus energy which normally exists should be minimized in order to avoid any droplet flow outside the target. Several possibilities exist to approach these requirements: (1) optimal blower design and correct adjustment for each specific purpose; (2) catching and recycling of misdirected droplets by recycling units; (3) sensoring of gaps in the canopy and activation of a nozzle shut‐off. The legal requirements of the BBA are given, together with the results of experiments on drift and ground deposition of chemicals from air‐assisted sprayers, with special attention to recycling units and sensored sprayers.
Results of a European programme to compare methods used to test orchard sprayers1
Authors: MIRALLES A. , GORRETTA N. , DUSSERRE‐BRESSON L. , SEVILA F. , MILLER P. C. H. , WALKLATE P. , VAN ZUYDAM R. P. , PORSKAMP H. A. J. , GANZELMEIER H. , RIETZ S. , ADET G. , BALSARI P. , VANNUCCI D. , PLANAS S.
Published: April 2008

A research programme was set up by European Institutes to compare the testing methods employed by their laboratories to measure characteristic parameters of air‐assisted orchard sprayers. The parameters studied in this programme were: air flow rate, air velocity and liquid distribution. The study showed differences between the laboratories. which could partly be explained as resulting from the measuring devices or the testing methods. Recommendations are given to avoid major measurement errors.
Periodic inspection of air‐assisted sprayers1
Authors: KOCH H.
Published: April 2008

Periodic inspections of air‐assisted sprayers have been carried out i n Germany since 1984. The inspection follows BBA Guideline no. 44 and includes measurement of pump function and single nozzle output. a check o n pressure gauge operation and other visual checks. Similar systems have been implemented or are under consideration in other countries. There is discussion throughout Europe on the inclusion of a vertical patternator into the inspection procedure, to measure and optimize the vertical liquid distribution pattern with respect to an individual application situation. The original idea of the sprayer inspection was to improve the equipment and to save repair time during the spraying season. Environmental aspects were stressed later. The introduction of the mandatory periodic inspection of field sprayers in Germany was justified by the aim of avoiding chemical pollution due to deficient spraying equipment. A 4‐year test programme with air‐assisted sprayers in Germany has now proved that vertical patternators are not appropriate for specific adjustment of sprayer to particular crop situations. It is concluded that this equipment should not be a generally required test stand for periodic sprayer inspections.
Application technology, emission and safety in glasshouse spraying1
Authors: VAN ZUYDAM R. P. , VAN DE ZANDE J. C.
Published: April 2008

Two major trends can be distinguished in the application technology of plant protection products in glasshouses: unmanned application of very low volumes of chemical, e.g. by low‐volume mister equipment, and the so‐called high‐volume application, traditionally by human labour, by means of hydraulic nozzles mounted on a spraying stick, a spraying mast or a spraying boom. Measurement equipment was used 10 characterize the application quality. spray evenness, leaf coverage and soil and roof contamination in Dutch glasshouses. The condition of the average spraying equipment used in daily practice proved to be bad. A mathematical model was also developed to predict the emission of products from the glasshouse during and after spraying. Calculations were made to investigate if active filtration of the air inside the glasshouse could prevent pollution of the outside atmosphere significantly. This could not be confirmed.
Pedestrian sprayers: equipment for ultra‐low and very‐low volume spraying1
Authors: MATTHEWS G. A.
Published: April 2008

Plant protection products often need to be applied to small areas, inaccessible to vehicular equipment, hence the need for manually carried equipment. While there are lever‐operated knapsack and compression sprayers using conventional hydraulic nozzles, reduced‐volume applications have been developed in combination with the use of rotary atomizers to provide a narrow droplet spectrum. Most of the initial development of these hand‐carried battery‐operated spinning disc sprayers was for their use in the semi‐arid tropics to apply insecticides to cotton in the absence of plentiful water supplies. This continues to be the main market for these sprayers, although the trend recently has been away from oil‐based ultra‐low volume formulations to very‐low volume spraying (typically 5‐1 5 litre ha1) of water‐based formulations to reduce costs and allow greater flexibility in choice of insecticide in integrated pest management programmes. Changes in equipment design have been made to suit this change in spray volume and formulation. Air‐assisted sprayers have also been used in glasshouses. Subsequent development of rotary atomizers operated at slower speeds has led to the equipment being used for herbicide application. especially in forestry and urban situations where low weight of equipment and drift reduction have been important considerations. Formulations prepacked in containers to connect directly to the sprayers have been used to reduce operator contamination.
Reactions of potato cultivars to Synchytrium endobioticum and implications for minimum tuber numbers in wart susceptibility tests
Authors: BROWNING I. A.
Published: April 2008

Results of wart susceptibility tests on cultivars submitted for UK National List Trials in 1984/1994 are analysed. In cultivars classified as Resistance Group 2 (RG2), the percentage of individual tubers giving RG2 reactions ranged from 1.5 to 76. For most such cultivars (87%), less than 50% of tubers gave RG2 reactions. The percentage of tubers giving susceptible reactions in cultivars classified as susceptible ranged from 10 to 100. For most susceptible cultivars (87%), more than 60% of tubers reacted as susceptible. It is suggested that slightly susceptible cultivars in which 10‐21% of tubers react as susceptible are likely to produce numerous winter sporangia but no wart tissue when grown in infested soil. Those in which > 67% of tubers react as susceptible are likely to produce varying quantities of wart tissue. There was no cultivar in which 22–62% of tubers gave susceptible reactions, indicating a possible natural break in the spectrum between slightly susceptible cultivars and those which produce wart tissue. It is suggested, on the basis of the evidence available. that the number of tubers per cultivar used for susceptibility testing could safely be reduced for most cultivars.
Viruses of stone fruits in Albania
Authors: MYRTA A. , DI TERLIZZI B. , DIGIARO M. , SAVINO V.
Published: April 2008

Surveys were carried out in the main stone‐fruit growing areas of Albania to assess the phytosanitary status of Prunus in conimercial orchards and varietal collections. The presence of virus and virus‐like diseases and their identification was ascertained through field observations, sap transmission to herbaceous hosts, graft transmission to woody indicators, ELISA and IEM tests. The mean infection level was 42%. In particular, infections in apricot and almond were 12 and 16%, respectively, i.e. lower than in plum and cherry (47 and 56%, respectively). The following viruses were identified: plum pox potyvirus (PPV). apple chlorotic leaf spot trichovirus (ACLSV). prunus necrotic ringspot (PNRSV) and prune dwarf (PDV) ilarviruses. PPV infection was very severe in plum, and limited in apricot and peach. Apple mosaic ilarvirus (ApMV), and six nepoviruses tested for (SLRV, TBRV, RRV, CLRV, ArMV and ToRSV) were not encountered in Primus.
FRAC METHODS FOR MONITORING THE SENSITIVITY OF BOTRYTIS CINEREA TO ANILINO PYRIMIDINE FUNGICIDES
Authors: BIRCHMORE R. J. , FORSTER B.
Published: April 2008

Methods are presented for monitoring the sensitivity to anilinopyrimidine fungicides of Botrytis cinerea. The methods are intended for practical usc in thc implementation of antiresistance strategies. Methods for other groups of fungicides have already been published in Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin21, 291‐354 and 22, 297‐322.
Global developments in biological control and the implications for Europe1
Authors: WAAGE J.
Published: April 2008

Developed and developing countries, for a range of reasons, have strongly endorsed an IPM approach to sustainable pest management. IPM is founded on the self‐renewing contribution of natural enemies to pest suppression, or biological control. However, many pests today escape such natural control because they are exotic introductions, and for these pests the introduction of specific biological control agents is a proven and valuable technique. With growing exotic pest problems in agriculture and forestry, due both to increased trade and to the policy of the WTO, with new concern for exotic invasive species affecting biodiversity, and with a booming biocontrol industry, there is a rapid growth of interest in introduced biological control agents (including biopesticides, which are generally still not acknowledged as introductions). To meet this demand for biological control introductions, it is necessary to address issues of research, safety and the rights of governments and peoples to their genetic resources. By and large, Europe has not done this, and this is proving both an opportunity for environmental accidents and a disincentive for sustainable agriculture and conservation.
The FAO Code of Conduct for the Import and Release of Exotic Biological Control Agents1
Authors: SCHULTEN G. G. M.
Published: April 2008

The ‘Code of Conduct for the Import and Release of Exotic Biological Control Agents’ was endorsed by the 28th FAO Conference in 1995–11. The activities that were undertaken to develop the Code and its legal status are briefly described. The main elements of the Code are also summarized. The Code addresses the importation of exotic biological control agents, capable of self‐replication, for research and/or release into the environment including those packaged or formulated as commercial products. The Code deals with the responsibilities of governments and of exporters and importers of biological control agents. The relevance of the Convention on Biological Diversity in the observance of the Code is discussed and information is given on the present status of implementation of the Code.
Biological control and plant health in the UK1
Authors: CHEEK S.
Published: April 2008

The protected crop environment has long been recognized as offering particularly good opportunities for the application of biological control and this is reflected in the predominance of integrated pest management programmes and the wide range of biological control agents available. The introduction of new pest species of quarantine concern can often occur in glasshouse crops, as a result of international trade in plant material, and can have a highly disruptive impact upon well established, integrated pest management programmes. The use of biological control agents against quarantine pests is discussed, including both the use of exotic species and those established in the UK. The relevant legislation in the UK is outlined in relation to the introduction of non‐native species, including both plant protection and conservation interests. Environmental safety aspects such as the impact of such introductions on non‐target species and issues of quality control to prevent the introduction of contaminants are noted as of particular plant health interest.
A code of conduct for the import and release of exotic biological control agents for Europe?1
Authors: VAN HALTEREN P.
Published: April 2008

The FAO Code of Conduct for the import and release of exotic biological control agents is concerned with the importation of live, pest‐control agents for research and/or field release. The objectives of the Code are to set forth responsibilities and to establish voluntary standards of conduct for all public and private entities engaged in or affecting the distribution and use of biological control agents, particularly where national legislation to regulate their use does not exist or is inadequate. Unfortunately, the Code is more like an instruction to governments to introduce legislation. Furthermore, it does not discriminate between various categories: research purposes, classical biological control and biocontrol products. Consequently, the Code is a document of little practical value and a European Code of Conduct of more substance and of a more realistic nature is called for.
Biological control in Hungary: present situation and possibilities1
Authors: DORMANNS‐SIMON E. , BUD AI C. , ILOVAI Z.
Published: April 2008

Biological control has already achieved certain results in Hungary, especially against soil‐borne fungi and glasshouse pests. Nevertheless, experience has shown that locally found biological agents, however effective, could not be developed into registered, ready‐for‐sale plant protection products because of the lack of companies willing to invest. Biological control in Hungary is therefore limited to the conservation of natural antagonistic flora and fauna and to the application of imported biopesticides and bioagents, which are subject in Hungary to a registration procedure similar to that for chemical plant protection products. Current work includes the development of an anti‐nematode product from a local strain of Arthrobotrys oligospora, application techniques for a local mirid Dicyphus hyalinipennis against insect pests, studies with native and imported strains of the nematodes Steinernema and Heterorhabditis against soil‐borne insect pests, and introduction techniques for the chrysomelid Zygogramma sutularis against the weed Ambrosia elatior.
Evaluating one century of classical biocontrol in Italy1
Authors: BIN F. , BRUNI R.
Published: April 2008

Introduction of pests into Italy appears to be increasing. Between 1974 and 1994, 82 exotic insect species have been recorded as new to Italy, representing approximately four introductions per year, compared with one species per year up to the 1960s and two species per year in the 1980s. To combat these, and native, pests, 28 entomophagous species have been used in the last 20 years in classical biological control programmes. At the same time, 24 other species of entomophages have played a role in pest control without human intervention (i.e. fortuitous associations). There are examples of native and introduced entomophages acting fortuitously or in planned programmes on native or introduced pests. So far, none of the introduced entomophages appear to have caused any negative effects on the Italian ecosystem. However, because of increasing concerns about the possibility of such effects, there is a need to develop clear protocols covering entry and release of biological control agents.
Biological control of exotic pests in Italy: recent experiences and perspectives1
Authors: NICOLI G.
Published: April 2008

In Italy, successful application of classical biological control began in the 20th century, when Berlese released the predator Rodolia cardinalis in 1901 and the parasitoid Encarsia berlesei in 1906. Later, the ‘inoculative’ method was applied many times, limiting the misuse of insecticides and therefore achieving very positive effects for both the agricultural economy and environmental protection. When the establishment of new natural enemies failed, some exotic pests continued to damage important crops, sometimes disrupting any possibility of applying Integrated Pest Management (IPM). In other cases, new associations between exotic pests and native natural enemies occurred spontaneously and the importation of new species was not necessary: when no broad‐spectrum plant protection products are applied, some palaearctic parasitoids, such as Diglyphus isaea, naturally control the imported American leafminers Liriomyza trifolii and L. huidobrensis and some native predators (mainly Orius spp.) often control the exotic western flower thrips Frankliniella occidentalis. However, the introduction of natural enemies from the area of origin of the exotic pest is often the only alternative to chemical insecticides. Since its introduction in 1979, the American Flatid, Metcalfa pruinosa, has been spreading annually into new areas of the Mediterranean, causing severe damage to many crops because none of the indigenous natural enemies are sufficiently effective. Therefore, only the introduction of exotic natural enemies, such as the parasitoid Neodryinus typhlocybae, may reduce the outbreaks.
Authorization of plant protection products containing microorganisms in the European Union1
Authors: SMEETS L.
Published: April 2008

The main principles concerning the authorization of plant protection products containing microorganisms in the European Union are explained: a positive list of microorganisms to be adopted by the Commission, authorization of individual plant protection products by the Member States according to common criteria and data requirements, obligation of mutual recognition of authorizations granted by other Member States subject to comparable conditions. Further detailed provisions are under preparation for the common criteria and data requirements as well as for the rationalization of the procedures for plant protection products containing genetically modified microorganisms.
Authorization requirements to improve safety and efficacy in developmental products for biological plant protection1
Authors: BODE E.
Published: April 2008

In Germany, as in other countries around the world, plant protection products need to be authorized before being placed on the market. This is true not only for chemicals but also for biological products, which, in Germany, cover microorganisms (including fungi) and viruses. Therefore, an importer or manufacturer of a plant protection product must apply for authorization and submit detailed data and information to prove conformity with the authorization requirements. Beside other important subjects, it must be clearly demonstrated that a plant protection product fulfils the demands of its user as far as its intended fields of use are concerned, and that there are no adverse effects on human and animal (livestock) health, on groundwater or on other aspects of the environment. Although there is an agreement between responsible applicants, authorization holders and competent authorities that such facts should be known, it must be admitted that there are problems with details. Nevertheless, instead of being resistant to official demands for efficacy and safety of biological plant protection products, it would be better to accept them as a guide for the development of good products for the market and as a means of preventing others from being distributed, which could spoil the reputation of biological control.
Experience from registration of biopesticides in Sweden1
Authors: UNGER C. C. , PRIDEAUX G. B.
Published: April 2008

In Sweden, biopesticides (which are divided into those containing microorganisms or viruses and those containing macroorganisms) may be offered for sale only if approved by the National Chemicals Inspectorate. Data requirements, for safety to human health and the environment and for efficacy, are being developed and are different for the two groups of biological agents and also for indigenous and non‐indigenous organisms. At present, four products based on insects have been approved. Forty‐nine other products (already in use) have been provisionally exempted from approval, but will have to be approved in due course.
Authorization requirements for organisms as plant protection products in Austria
Authors: BLÜMEL S. , WOMASTEK R.
Published: April 2008

In Austria, beneficial arthropods and entomopathogenic nematodes (‘macrobials’), as well as micro‐organisms and viruses, are classified as active substances of plant protection products, according to the Federal Law on Transactions with Plant Protection Products which entered into force in 1991. Therefore, naturally occurring organisms, intended for use in the field of plant protection, must be authorized as plant protection products before they are permitted to be sold. Requirements for the authorization of macrobials, micro‐organisms and viruses and the authorities involved are presented. The legislative regulations for the use of macrobials, micro‐organisms and viruses as plant protection products are described. At the beginning of 1996, 35 plant protection products containing 21 different organisms have been authorized in Austria for use in agriculture, horticulture and forestry.
Presence of Phytophthora fragariae var. fragariae in Norway
Authors: STENSVAND A. , HERRERO M. L.
Published: April 2008

The strawberry red core disease caused by Phytophthora fragariae var. fragariae has until recently not been reported from Norway. During 1995 and 1996, samples from 323 Norwegian strawberry fields were tested in a root‐tip bait test for possible detection of red core. Symptoms of the disease developed in test plants cultivated in growth medium containing root tips from 21 fields at eight locations in four different counties. Disease symptoms included wilting of plants, root rot, red steles in the roots, and oogonia and oospores identical in size and appearance to those of P.f. fragariae developing along the root steles. In V8 juice agar, the mycelium was slow‐growing, thick, fluffy and aerial. Sporangia were large, mainly inversely pyriform, and without papillae. Optimum temperature for mycelial growth was 21°C, and the fungus ceased to grow at 25°C. In infested fields, the most severe attacks were found in low, often poorly drained areas. The means by which red core may have been introduced and spread in the country are discussed, together with preventive action to avoid further dissemination.
Survey of chickpea for viruses in Morocco
Authors: OUIZBOUBEN A. , FORTASS M.
Published: April 2008

Chickpea was surveyed for viruses in the main growing areas of the crop in Morocco. A total of 36 fields was examined and 167 samples with symptoms suggestive of virus infection were collected. Serological testing using polyclonal antisera and monoclonal antibodies revealed the presence of the following viruses: alfalfa mosaic alfamovirus (AMV), broad bean mottle bromovirus (BBMV), broad bean stain comovirus (BBSV), bean yellow mosaic potyvirus, cucumber mosaic cucumovirus (CMV), faba bean necrotic yellows nanavirus (FBNYV), lettuce mosaic potyvirus, pea seed‐borne mosaic potyvirus (PSbMV), and luteoviruses. Field symptoms of these viruses in chickpea comprised mosaics, yellowing, stunting, narrowing of leaflets and bushy growth. AMV, luteoviruses and potyviruses were found spread over the chickpea‐growing regions, while BBSV, BBMV, and FBNYV were confined to some areas. Virus incidence per field varied from 1 to 40% for luteoviruses and from 1 to 20% for mosaic‐inducing viruses. AMV, luteoviruses, potyviruses and CMV were detected in 89, 83, 75 and 42%, respectively, of the surveyed fields. BBMV, BBSV and FBNYV were less widespread at the national level. This is the first report of the occurrence of viruses other than CMV and BBMV in chickpea in Morocco, and the first record of the natural occurrence of BBSV and PSbMV in chickpea.
First record of onion leaf blotch (Mycosphaerella allii‐cepae) in Argentina
Authors: KIEHR M. , ANDERSON F. , AZPILICUETA A. , DELHEY R.
Published: April 2008

In 1990, onion leaf blotch was observed for the first time in the Lower Rio Colorado Valley (Province of Buenos Aires), the most important onion‐producing region of Argentina. Since then, the disease has been found in other production areas of this country. Infections on shallot have also been recorded. The causal agent, Mycosphaerella allii‐cepae, was identified on the basis of symptoms, fungus morphology (as its anamorph Cladosporium allium‐cepae) and successful artificial inoculations on onion plants. Although the disease has been present in all seasons since 1990, epidemics of any importance have not been observed in the main crop of dry onions. This is the first record of onion leaf blotch for Argentina.
First record of Puccinia horiana on Dendranthemamonfolium in Greece
Authors: VAKALOUNAKIS D. J.
Published: April 2008

The occurrence of a severe attack of Puccinia horiana on Dendranthema×morifolium is reported for the first time in Greece.
First occurrence of bean yellow mosaic potyvirus on chickpea in Algeria
Authors: AIT YAHIA A. , AIT OUADA M. , ILLOUL H. , TAIR M.I.
Published: April 2008

Chickpea is one of the major legume crops in the northern parts of Algeria, with 60 000 ha sown. The different viral diseases observed on this crop are partially responsible for the low yields obtained. Of the viruses involved, bean yellow mosaic potyvirus (BYMV), associated with ‘narrow‐leaf disease, has been identified in the central parts of the country since 1994. The host range was screened and found to include species of Fabaceae, Solanaceae and Cucurbitaceae. Three aphid species (Acyrthosiphon pisum, Aphis craccivora and Aulacorthum solani) have been shown to transmit the virus. Two chickpea cultivars (ILC 3279 and ILC 482) carry BYMV in the seed cotyledons. The virus has been purified, antiserum has been produced and electrophoretic analysis has been conducted.
Sheath rot and leaf blight – a new disease of Java citronella caused by Rhizoctonia solani
Authors: SINGH H. B. , KALRA A. , PATRA N. K.
Published: April 2008

A new disease of Cymbopogon winterianus, characterized by symptoms of sheath rot and leaf blight, has been observed in the Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh (IN). The pathogen has been isolated and identified as Rhizoctonia solani.
Bacterial leaf spot of bougainvillea caused by Pseudomonas andropogonis in Brunei Darussalam
Authors: SIVAPALAN A. , HAMDAN FUZIAH HAJI
Published: April 2008

A leaf spot disease was found widespread on Bougainvillea in Brunei Darussalam. Leaf spots were characterized by circular to irregular brown necrotic areas with yellow haloes. A non‐fluorescent bacterium was isolated consistently from the lesions and confirmed as the causal agent by Koch's postulates. On the basis of biochemical characterization and inoculation tests, the bacterium was identified as Pseudomonas andropogonis. This is the first report of a bacterial disease on bougainvillea in Brunei Darussalam.
Almond protection in relation to good plant protection practice 1
Authors: SMITH I. M.
Published: April 2008

The EPPO programme on‘good plant protection practice’(GPP) is presented and its purpose explained. An EPPO standard on GPP in stonefruits is in preparation, and the elements which will appear in this for almond provide a brief review of the main pests of almond in Mediterranean countries, their importance, and how they can best be controlled and managed.
Occurrence and pathogenicity of Armillaria tabescens on almond in Greece 1
Authors: TSOPELAS P. , TJAMOS E. C.
Published: April 2008

Armillaria tabescens was detected in almond orchards in three different localities of central Greece (Fthiotis county). Mycelial fans of the fungus were observed in the roots and the base of the trunk of dead or dying trees. Symptoms of gummosis were also evident on the bark of infected trees. One of the orchards had been established on land cleared of a Quercus coccifera forest. A. tabescens was identified from basidiocarps developed in vitro, as well as in haploid–haploid mating tests with testers from France. This is the first report of A. tabescens on almond in Europe. Although the fungus has been characterized as a weak parasite or even non‐pathogenic to other hosts, it caused considerable damage in almond orchards. In inoculation trials, it was shown that one‐year‐old almond trees were susceptible to three Armillaria species tested: A. mellea, A. gallica and A. tabescens. The most virulent species in these tests was A. mellea while the least virulent was A. tabescens. The pathogenicity tests verified the ability of A. tabescens to be pathogenic to almond.
Eutypa canker and dieback of almonds
Authors: RUMBOS I. C.
Published: April 2008

Eutypa canker and dieback of almonds was first recorded in commercial plantations in Greece in mid‐1980 and confirmed as due to the ascomycetous fungus Eutypa lata. The disease manifests itself by the formation of cankers at the point of the junction of the branches and the trunk and is associated with pruning wounds made by the growers in order to confront the‘non‐infectious bud failure’disorder or to remove unwanted limbs close to the crotch. Pathogenicity tests made on young trees of cv. Texas with different isolates originated from grapevine, almond, apricot and pear showed significant differences in virulence. Pathogenicity tests carried out on 20 different almond cultivars gave a significant indication of the existence of tolerant and susceptible cultivars.
Verticillium wilt of almond in California 1
Authors: STAPLETON J. J.
Published: April 2008

Wilt of almond due to Verticillium dahliae, also known as‘black heart', is an occasionally serious disease problem in orchards in California (US). Verticillium wilt is most severe on trees 2–6‐year‐old, and symptoms lessen as trees mature. Usually only a few trees in a young orchard are affected, though sometimes many young trees die. Severe economic losses of 9000‐11 000 USD per ha resulting from verticillium wilt in almond orchards have been recorded. Foliar symptoms may be difficult to discern after trees are 5–6‐year‐old. Unlike previous reports of new infections arising each year, recent research indicates that infections may perennate in vascular tissue of primary scaffolds and trunks. Some differences in tree damage are apparent among scion cultivars. Pre‐plant fumigation with methyl bromide and/or chloropicrin is not reliably effective for prevention of verticillium wilt. Solarization has been effective when applied prior to or at planting. Post‐plant therapeutic treatments are not consistently effective.
Effect of infection by the shot‐hole fungus, Wilsonomyces carpophilus, on drop and quality of almond fruit 1
Authors: TEVIOTDALE B. L. , GOODELL N. , HARPER D.
Published: April 2008

Almond fruits were inoculated with suspensions containing 103, 104 or 105 conidia per mL of Wilsonomyces carpophilus beginning when fruits emerged from the hypanthium and continuing at approximately weekly intervals until they reached full size and embryo development began. More small than mid‐sized fruits fell and abscission ceased when fruits reached maximum size. Abscission of mid‐sized fruits generally increased with increasing inoculum concentration, and lesions were most abundant on mid‐sized fruits. The kernel quality of infected and healthy fruits were compared in 1994 and 1995. Mid‐ to full‐sized fruits were inoculated one or three times with 10 conidia per mL of W. carpophilus. Kernels from inoculated and non‐inoculated fruits did not differ in weight, length, or percentage of kernels covered with gum deposits or incompletely filled.
Hyperplastic canker – a perennial disease of almond caused by Pseudomonas amygdali
Authors: PSALLIDAS P. G.
Published: April 2008

The history of hyperplastic canker of almond, caused by Pseudomonas amygdali, its evolution and the present situation in Greece are reviewed. Its main aspects, causal agent, symptomatology, epidemiology and control measures are described. The main characteristics differentiating the pathogen from some other pseudomonads pathogenic to fruit trees are also reported.
Asymmetrasca decedensr: a new pest of almond in Spain 1
Authors: JACAS J. A. , DE MENDOZA A. HERMOSO , CAMBRA M. , BALDUQUE R.
Published: April 2008

Asymmetrasca decedens was the most important of three leafhoppers found infesting almond trees in eastern Spain in late summer 1996, causing stunting of the shoots with small curled leaves. Only non‐bearing trees were affected. Although the species has previously been recorded on peach in Spain, this is the first record on almond.
Infectious diseases of almond with special reference to the Mediterranean area 1
Authors: MARTELLI G. P. , SAVINO V.
Published: April 2008

The major and most widespread virus‐induced disorder of almond is a complex disease called mosaic. The disease is characterized by a variety of symptoms ranging from bright chrome‐yellow (calico) to chlorotic discolorations, localized necrosis of the leaf blade, leaf curling, bud failure, fasciations, rosetting, stunting and bushy growth. Three ilarviruses, apple mosaic (ApMV), prune dwarf (PDV) and prunus necrotic ringspot (PNRSV), are associated with almond mosaic throughout the Mediterranean, and are involved to different extents in its aetiology. Apple chlorotic leaf spot trichovirus (ACLSV) may also be present in mosaic‐affected plants, and is sometimes associated with a chlorotic leafroll condition. Two epoviruses, tomato ringspot (ToRSV) and tomato black ring (TBRV), have been reported from the USA and Europe as the agents of diseases called yellow bud mosaic and enations, respectively. Plum pox potyvirus (PPV) and another filamentous virus, prunus latent virus (PLV), can also infect almond. Brown line and decline, a putative phytoplasma disease, occurs in California, together with the leaf scorch induced by the xylem‐limited bacterium Xylella fastidiosa. A stem pitting lot associated with nepovirus infection and a graft‐union necrosis apparently not caused by phytoplasmas have been reported from Italy. Infections by hop stunt viroid (HSVd) were recently reported from Spain.
Detection of virus diseases affecting almond nursery trees in western Anatolia (Turkey)
Authors: AZERÝ T. , ÇÝÇEK Y.
Published: April 2008

The purpose of this study was a comprehensive survey on the occurrence and distribution of the viruses affecting almond nursery trees in western Anatolia (Turkey). Three provinces (Aydýn, Balýkesir and Ýzmir) which are well known for their state and commercial nursery plantations of almond (mixed with other stone fruits) were visited and 19 300 and 19 000 almond nursery trees were surveyed in 1992 and 1993, and 56 and 40 leaf samples collected, respectively. The main viral symptoms were chlorotic and necrotic spots, calico, mosaic, narrowing and deformation of the leaves; gummosis, weak growth, dwarfing and short internodes of the trees. DAS‐ELISA was used to detect prunus necrotic ringspot ilarvirus (PNRSV), prune dwarf ilarvirus (PDV), raspberry ringspot nepovirus (RRV), peach rosette mosaic nepovirus (PRMV) and tomato ringspot nepovirus (ToRSV) in almond nursery trees in west Anatolia. PNRSV was found to be the most widespread according to ELISA. PDV was the second most important virus, and some samples were infected with both ilarviruses. Fewer samples were found infected with PRMV, RRV and only a few samples were infected with ToRSV.
EPPO certification scheme for fruit trees, including almond 1
Authors: ROY A. S.
Published: April 2008

For approximately 10 years, EPPO has been working on the development of certification schemes for fruit crops. The production of healthy planting material is an effective tool to ensure that plants moving in trade can be certified free from certain dangerous pests, and also to protect national crop production. In 1981, a first scheme giving the basic principles for the production of virus‐free fruit trees and rootstocks was produced and approved by EPPO Council. Later, an EPPO Panel on certification of pathogen‐tested fruit crops was created in order to expand the original outline scheme, and in particular to develop technical details of testing procedures. The first part, containing general requirements and explaining how plant material of known filiation passes through several categories of propagation (nuclear stock, propagation stock, certified stock), was published in 1991. It was followed in 1992 by technical appendices which gave details on viruses, virus testing, nematological analysis, thermotherapy, in vitro techniques, etc. The principles of this scheme are presented specifically in relation to almond. At present, the EPPO scheme covers the production of healthy planting material (varieties, rootstocks, seeds) of fruit trees in general, including Malus, Pyrus, Cydonia, Prunus and Juglans regia, but it must be noted that it is currently under revision, in particular to update the technical appendices and to divide it into four separate schemes for apples, pears, cherries and other Prunus. Finally, the fruit‐tree scheme is part of a wider programme, covering also grapevine, Ribes, Rubus, strawberry, citrus, Vaccinium, olive, hop and hazelnut.
Immunofluorescence colony staining and selective enrichment in liquid medium for studying the population dynamics of Ralstonia solanacearum (race 3) in soil1
Authors: VAN DER WOLF J. M. , VAN BEKKUM P. J. , VAN ELSAS J. D. , NIJHUIS E. H. , VRIEND S. G. C. , RUISSEN M. A.
Published: April 2008

Survival of Ralstonia solanacearum (race 3) in different soil types in The Netherlands is currently under investigation to determine its significance in the epidemiology of brown rot. For detection of the brown‐rot pathogen, immunofluorescence colony staining (IFC) and selective enrichment in liquid media were optimized and evaluated. In IFC, pour‐plating of extracts from a clay soil and a loamy sand in the semi‐selective SMSA medium resulted in relatively low recoveries. Using non‐selective trypticase soy agar (10% TSA) medium, colonies of target bacteria added to extracts, particularly the sandy loam, remained very small and were weakly stained. Increased colony size and improved staining quality were found after addition of sucrose and crystal violet to 10% TSA. IFC detected 103‐104 cfug‐1 of dry soil. Detection of R. solanacearum by dilution plating on selective SMSA agar was complicated by the growth of many saprophytic bacteria which was confused with that of R. solanacearum. For detection of populations lower than 103 cfu g‐1 of dry soil, selective enrichment in SMSA broth containing the same nutrients as SMSA agar medium was evaluated. After enrichment, R. solanacearum was detected by serial dilution of the sample and immunofluorescence cell staining. EFC was less suitable here, due to the high densities of non‐target bacteria in the samples. In clay soil, initial populations of 1–10 cfu g‐1 of dry soil were enlarged within 48h to higher than 108 cfu g‐1. In sandy soil, enrichment occurred only when initial populations exceeded 100 cfu g ‐1 of dry soil. IFC was used to study the survival of R. solanacearum in sandy soil from the north‐east of The Netherlands (Drenthe). The pathogen survived at 15°C in soil for at least 92 days, but was not detectable at 4 or 20°C after 50–92 days. When the soil was frozen for 24 h at ‐8°C, the pathogen could not be detected by IFC. In soil from three different locations in The Netherlands from which brown rot‐infected potatoes were harvested, the pathogen was not detected by IFC, nor by bioassay in tomato plants. Cross‐reacting bacteria were detected in IFC preparations at a low frequency. They were weakly stained and could be distinguished from target bacteria in control preparations. Reisolated bacteria from these weakly stained colonies did not grow on SMSA and were negative in PCR amplifications, based on primers OLI‐1 and Y‐2.
Monitoring of Ralstonia solanacearum in Egyptian potatoes imported through the port of Ravenna (Italy)1
Authors: CALZOLARP A. , CONTESSI A. , MUCCIOLINI G.
Published: April 2008

Ware potatoes have been imported from Egypt into the EU through the port of Ravenna since 1992. It was not, however, until 1995 that phytosanitary inspections for Ralstonia solanacearum were carried out following official EU sampling and analysis procedures. The samples, consisting of 200 tubers each, were examined externally and internally to detect any symptoms of brown rot. Any tubers with suspect symptoms were immediately sent for bacteriological analysis using the direct isolation method. The detection of infected lots led to the identification in 1995 and 1996 of production areas contaminated by R. solanacearum. To limit the phytosanitary risk linked to the import of ware potatoes contaminated by this bacterium, controls of asymptomatic tuber samples were introduced in 1997 for every production area. These controls are carried out before the lots enter the EU. Sampling procedures are discussed, as well as the compatibility of the method adopted for bacteriological analysis with the perishable nature of the products in question.
Aggressiveness of French isolates of Ralstonia solanacearum and their potential use in biocontrol1
Authors: TRIGALET A. , TRIGALET‐DEMERY D. , FEUILLADE R.
Published: April 2008

Differences in the pathogenicity of French isolates of Ralstonia solanacearum were found using standardized root inoculations of tomato, aubergine and tobacco. Aggressiveness was assessed by comparing percentage wilted plants over 12 days, following root inoculation of tomato and aubergine, expressed as the mean of four independent replicates for each. The isolates could be separated into four aggressiveness groups on these hosts. None of them provoked any symptoms after root inoculation of tobacco, but they did induce a typical hypersensitive response, or disease symptoms, when infiltrated into tobacco leaves of tolerant or susceptible cultivars, respectively. Samples taken from stems of symptomless tobacco demonstrated high percentages of latent infections. The development of wilting symptoms was strictly correlated with large numbers of the bacterial parasite in xylem vessels and was thus related to the invasiveness of the bacterial strain. Root inoculation with an Hrp‐ mutant strain of R. solanacearum induced protection against subsequent inoculation by a pathogenic strain. The more invasive the Hrp‐ mutant strain, the more protection it gave. Thus aggressiveness should be assessed with a view to epidemiological studies and control measures, since it is an important characteristic of R. solanacearum isolates.
Management and monitoring of Ralstonia solanacearum in France1
Authors: DE GUENIN M.‐C.
Published: April 2008

Several cases of Ralstonia solanacearum were detected in France in 1994 and 1995, on tomato, aubergine and in a field in an experimental potato station. All these cases have been eradicated, and strong measures have been applied, including an official control Order dated 1996–03–28. An intensive monitoring programme has been carried out since 1993 on potato production in France, and in particular on seed‐potato production. No new case has been found since 1995 and the whole potato production system is considered to be free from the bacterium. Since 1996, a national survey has been carried out on rivers and the bacterium has not been found in water or in Solanum dulcamara. A national programme for testing seed potatoes from The Netherlands, arising from the EU Decision to authorize complementary controls, has given negative results. Imports of ware potatoes from various authorized sources has been reinforced since 1995. Specific measures have been applied for Egyptian potatoes since 1995, with systematic testing; 5 contaminated lots were intercepted in spring 1996.
Strategy and results of eradication of brown rot in The Netherlands1
Authors: SCHANS J. , STEEGHS M. H. C. G.
Published: April 2008

In 1995–09, The Netherlands were confronted with an outbreak of brown rot in potato (Ralstonia solanacearum race 3). An intensive eradication programme was started. The strategy employed consisted of two components: (1) complete elimination of brown rot in the potato‐production column, and (2) prevention of new introductions in the production columns of Dutch host crops of R. solanacearum race 3, i.e. potato and tomato. With respect to the first component, all infected lots and all lots related to infected lots have been traced and eliminated. With respect to the second component, possible routes for new brown‐rot introductions into the production column have been identified and controlled. The greatest risk is associated with the use of infested surface water. In 1996, an extensive survey was carried out to investigate the spread of the bacterium in surface water in The Netherlands. The results suggest that the elimination strategy will be successful. After it has been established that the potato‐production system is free from brown rot, suitable monitoring and control programmes for the production columns of potato and tomato will be maintained to safeguard production.
Use of PCR as a tool for diagnosis of tobacco rattle tobravirus in seed potatoes
Authors: MARTIN J.
Published: April 2008

Diagnosis of tobacco rattle tobravirus (TRV) in potato is difficult because of the existence of non‐encapsidated NM‐type strains, because similar symptoms are caused by potato mop‐top furovirus and physiological internal rust spot and because serological tests are inefficient. The aim of this study was first to compare ELISA and PCR tests. The former was found to be ineffective, so only the PCR technique was in a survey of numerous seed‐potato lots (200‐tuber samples) from different EU countries. A large disparity was found according to geographical origin, with infection levels of German, Dutch and French seed potatoes of 10.3, 8.5 and 0.6%, respectively. There is a real risk that planting tubers with such infection levels will newly contaminate soil. Besides, TRV is not considered in the EU texts on marketing of seed potatoes, so there is no legal recourse if seed‐potato lots are found to be TRV‐infected.
Culture de la canne à sucre au Maroc: mesures de quarantaine et diagnostic
Authors: NADIF A. , ELYACHIOUI M. , ELHADRAMI I.
Published: April 2008

Ce travail, réalisé au Centre Technique des Cultures Sucrières, a essayé de capitaliser l'expérience marocaine en matière de contrôle des cultivars de canne à sucre importés de divers pays. Plus de 200 cultivars ont été importés et analysés. Les principaux agents pathogènes interceptés sont d'ordre viral. Le sugarcane mosaic potyvirus (SCMV) et le sugarcane bacilliform badnavirus (SCBV) ont étéà l'origine de refoulement de plusieurs lots importés. Une étude menée sur ces deux virus a montré que leur distribution dans une plante infectée est localisée en grande concentration dans les trois premières feuilles. Au sein d'une feuille infectée, le SCMV est localisé dans les parties médianes et sommitales alors que le SCBV est beaucoup plus concentré dans la partie sommitale.