bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Defenders
Authors: Watt David Harrington
Published: January 2018

This chapter analyzes the arguments the champions of global fundamentalism advance and looks at how critics of global fundamentalism respond to those arguments. Defenses of global fundamentalism often acknowledge that the arguments of skeptics contain more than a few grains of truth. Champions of global fundamentalism say that skeptics are right to warn that when used sloppily, the concept can produce inadequate analyses of the people to whom it is applied. People who champion global fundamentalism readily admit that the vast majority of the people they call fundamentalists do not apply that label to themselves. But they see no reason to let how fundamentalists see themselves determine which categories can and cannot be used to analyze them.
The First Fundamentalists
Authors: Watt David Harrington
Published: January 2018

This chapter looks at the people who were part of the fundamentalist movement—who they were, what they believed, and what set them apart from other Protestant Christians. The fundamentalist movement was created in the 1920s by Protestants who feared that America's churches had drifted away from the fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith. They proudly called themselves fundamentalists, and their opponents called them that, too. The chapter then shows that the defining characteristics of global fundamentalism have often been said to include a penchant for reading texts literally, a proclivity for mixing politics and religion, a determination to resist modernity, and a predilection for militancy. As it turns out, none of the supposed characteristics of global fundamentalism can be neatly applied to the fundamentalists of the 1920s and 1930s.
“The Good Order and the Harmony of the Whole Community”
Authors: Dorn Charles
Published: January 2018

This chapter looks at South Carolina College, a state-supported, state-controlled college in the capital city of Columbia. The speed with which South Carolina College's chartering legislation sailed through the General Assembly during a politically contentious era urges the question of how legislators found political common ground on this issue when developing consensus in other areas of political life proved so elusive. There were three primary reasons. First, although legislators differed in opinions on the usefulness of a public system of grammar schools for white children throughout South Carolina, most agreed that providing a higher education for the state's future leaders contributed greatly to the prosperity of society—a central manifestation of civic-mindedness during the early national period. Second, many wealthy South Carolinians resented sending their sons away from home for a higher education. Third, the college's founding provided a means through which to attenuate the extreme sectionalism developing within South Carolina.
“To Meet the Training and Retraining Needs of Established Business”
Authors: Dorn Charles
Published: January 2018

This chapter explores community colleges. The community college is the workhorse of American higher education—and it has never been more popular. Yet community colleges have received relatively little attention from historians, an unfortunate shortcoming both because the community college is the single form of higher education that Americans can lay legitimate claim to having “invented” and because the institution has undergone a remarkable historical transformation. Beginning in the early twentieth century as “junior colleges,” community colleges were designed to provide the first two years of undergraduate study leading to the bachelor's degree. Over time, however, many became training grounds for individuals seeking occupational certification while also serving as resources for small-business development and agents of small-scale technology transfer. The chapter then looks at the cases of the Community College of Rhode Island and Santa Fe Community College to illustrate how a rising ethos of affluence guided the transformation of community colleges.
Let’s Hit the Motor-Camping Trail
Authors: Young Terence
Published: January 2018

This chapter turns to the appearance of the single most significant technological innovation in the history of camping—the inexpensive automobile. By the 1920s, millions of Americans, from Henry Ford to “Paw and Maw,” were “hitting the motor camping trail.” In addition, automobiles became a platform and facilitator for an enormous range of changes in camping gear. As an instance of these changes, the chapter examines the Coleman Company's move into the camping market. In addition, it introduces some of the era's best-known camping promoters, including Elon Jessup and Frank Brimmer, as well as the personal accounts of two continent-crossing campers, Mary Crehore Bedell and Frederic Van de Water.
The Garage in the Forest
Authors: Young Terence
Published: January 2018

This chapter examines how the millions of campers who swarmed public facilities around the country led to their rapid deterioration. Lakes, woods, seashores, and deserts within a few hours' drive generally satisfied these campers' desire to escape their everyday world, but some found these sites' ability to renew and transform to be limited. Moreover, when a camper sought greater restoration, he had to travel to spaces more sacred, but to do so was geographically challenging, because most Americans lived in the East, and the most sacred and desirable destinations—Yellowstone, Yosemite, and the other national parks—were in the distant West. Into this breach stepped E. P. Meinecke, who developed the auto campground plan that was quickly adopted by public agencies around the country and dominates car campgrounds to this day.
A Renewal of Our Faith and Ideals
Authors: Young Terence
Published: January 2018

This chapter talks about the subject of backpacking to explore the emergence and meaning of a central infrastructural element of this mode—the long-distance trail. It specifically examines the motivations of Clinton C. Clarke and Warren L. Rogers, whose efforts ultimately led to the creation of the Pacific Crest Trail. Like other campers, Clinton C. Clarke and Warren L. Rogers shared some of their ideas about the value of backpacking with others, but they also pursued personal goals both when on the Pacific Crest Trail and when promoting it. Rogers saw hiking the trail as an activity that recapitulated the frontier experience and could foster Christian virtues. By contrast, Clarke was more of a nationalist who overtly linked backpacking to the character and durability of America.
“Every Brother on a Rooftop Can Quote Fanon”
Authors: Malloy Sean L.
Published: January 2018

This chapter examines the intersection of the domestic and international developments that shaped the creation of black-led movements that looked beyond the borders of the United States for support and legitimacy in the 1960s. By the mid-1960s, the notion that black Americans should seek solidarity with the Third World rather than looking to Washington for help had attracted advocates ranging from Williams to Malcolm X, Lorraine Hansberry, Amiri Baraka, Vicki Garvin, Harold Cruse, and groups such as the Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM). The successes—and failures—of these pioneering figures helped pave the way for a new generation of activists, including key figures in the birth and development of the Black Panther Party.
“We’re Relating Right Now to the Third World”
Authors: Malloy Sean L.
Published: January 2018

This chapter discusses how the Black Panther Party's (BPP) anticolonial vernacular sought to elide the differences between the black condition in the United States and anticolonial struggles in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Yet questions about how to translate these theoretical links into practical action remained unresolved. Issues of anticolonial violence and gender identity embedded within this anticolonial vernacular also produced lingering tensions within the party. Though women often appeared in Panther iconography of the period, including striking pictures of figures such as Kathleen Cleaver as well as more abstract depictions of women warriors modeled on revolutionary art of the Third World, they generally did so in the context of a heteronormative and patriarchal framework for understanding female agency.
“I Prefer Panthers to Pigs”
Authors: Malloy Sean L.
Published: January 2018

This chapter looks at how the Black Power pioneers of the early 1960s discovered that relations between minority groups in the United States and the foreign governments or international organizations to which they appealed were seldom conducted on equal terms. While the mushrooming growth of the Black Panther Party (BPP) as a national organization in 1968 gave the party more leverage than Malcolm X or Williams had enjoyed as individuals, the Panthers still interacted with their potential state-level partners as supplicants rather than as equals. The ad hoc, person-to-person diplomacy that formed the foundation of these relationships often revealed ideological schisms both within the party and between the BPP and its potential allies.
“Juche, Baby, All the Way”
Authors: Malloy Sean L.
Published: January 2018

This chapter illustrates how the April 6 action and the ensuing fallout helped to inadvertently launch a new phase in the Black Panther Party's (BPP) internationalism, while also highlighted emerging divisions within the party. As Eldridge Cleaver and his allies embraced guerrilla warfare, Cold War-inspired alliances with foreign governments, and an increasingly doctrinaire Marxism–Leninism, rejected both state-level diplomacy and what David Hilliard dubbed “an orgy of wishful adventuristic militarism” in favor of local community service programs supplemented by informal transnational solidarity networks. Questions over the role of anticolonial violence and the nature of the party's international engagements, however, fed growing intra-party tensions that left the Panthers vulnerable to both government repression and changes in the larger Cold War landscape.
Where Three Worlds Met
Authors: Davis-Secord Sarah
Published: January 2018

Sicily is a lush and culturally rich island at the center of the Mediterranean Sea. Throughout its history, the island has been conquered and colonized by successive waves of peoples from across the Mediterranean region. In the early and central Middle Ages, the island was ruled and occupied in turn by Greek Christians, Muslims, and Latin Christians. This book investigates Sicily's place within the religious, diplomatic, military, commercial, and intellectual networks of the Mediterranean by tracing the patterns of travel, trade, and communication among Christians (Latin and Greek), Muslims, and Jews. By looking at the island across this long expanse of time and during the periods of transition from one dominant culture to another, the book uncovers the patterns that defined and redefined the broader Muslim–Christian encounter in the Middle Ages. Sicily was a nexus for cross-cultural communication not because of its geographical placement at the center of the Mediterranean but because of the specific roles the island played in a variety of travel and trade networks in the Mediterranean region.
Sicily between Byzantium and the Islamic World
Authors: Davis-Secord Sarah
Published: January 2018

This chapter examines patterns of travel and communication that linked Sicily to the Islamic world during the centuries prior to the Muslim conquest in the ninth century. Covering the period of transition to Muslim rule, it shows how Sicily began to “drift” closer to North Africa already in the seventh century. This growing relationship was established through a series of both military and diplomatic connections that brought Muslims into contact not only with Greek Christians in Sicily but also, due to the relationship between the island and Latin Christendom, with Latin Christians. During these years of both violence and diplomacy, from the first seventh-century raids through the ninth-century conquest, Sicily and the Islamic world also began to exchange material goods and economic products. In some ways, then, Byzantine Sicily acted as a meeting ground in the central Mediterranean world for Muslims, Greek Christians, and Latin Christians.
Language History
Authors: Neidorf Leonard
Published: January 2018

This chapter assesses the particular language quirks of Beowulf’s transmission. The failure of the scribes to comprehend the language of Beowulf would not be relevant to the transmission of the text if the task of the scribe were to reproduce the letters encountered in the exemplar without modification. However, for the Anglo-Saxon scribe, the task of the mechanical reproduction of the text was complicated by the imperative to modify its superficial, nonstructural features. Language change frequently induced the scribes to make minor alterations to the text that inadvertently deprived it of sense, grammar, alliteration, or meter. These alterations offer valuable insights into the history of the English language—particularly, into some specific ways that the language had changed between the period when Beowulf was composed and the period when its extant manuscript was produced.
Environmental Governance
Authors: Krasny Marianne E. , Svendsen Erika S. , van den Bosch Cecil Konijnendijk , Enqvist Johan , Russ Alex
Published: January 2018

This chapter explores the relationship between environmental governance and urban environmental education. It first provides an overview of environmental governance and governance networks before discussing research on the prevalence of organizations conducting environmental education in governance networks in Asian, European, and U.S. cities. It then offers suggestions on how environmental education organizations can be effective contributors in urban environmental governance and explains how the role of environmental education in governance can be made transparent to educators and participants. It argues that environmental education organizations are actors in urban governance networks and can play an important role in environmental governance. It also asserts that an explicit focus on governance will enable organizational leaders to target their partnerships and efforts to have a greater impact on urban sustainability and will enable youths and other participants to gain an understanding of critical concepts in environmental management and policy.
New York Film Production Unions Enter the Political Arena in Search of Tax Subsidies
Authors: Figueroa Maria , Gray Lois S.
Published: January 2018

This chapter explains how labor's preference for tax incentives is conditioned by the highly concentrated ownership structure, flexible production system, and fragmented bargaining relations that characterize the film industry. Labor's preference for a tax incentive-based approach in New York encouraged greater coordination between local film unions, policymakers, employers, and local studios, and was successful in generating employment in the specific context of the city's deep talent and qualified labor pool. The chapter also shows how the strategy induced tensions among local film unions over the distribution of tax benefits within the sector, and between film unions and representatives of low-income urban residents, who find themselves subsidizing a high-skill/high-wage industry from which they are largely excluded.
Film Unions’ Struggle to Defend Studio Space in Toronto
Authors: Wieditz Thorben
Published: January 2018

This chapter looks at the tension that emerged in Toronto, where film workers sharing local space with lower-income residents found themselves positioned as gentrifiers in their campaign to save studio space from being redeveloped for big-box retail. It considers the urban planning dimension of labor strategy in a case in which local film unions mobilized to defend low-cost studio space at risk of being lost as an unintended consequence of the city's real estate-led policies. This shows the contradictions of the luxury city strategy for labor in a high-skill/high-wage sector. While labor's campaign has so far proven successful in securing employment in this particular case, the campaign reinforced a competitive creative city discourse that is at odds with industrial employment retention efforts in a rapidly gentrifying city.
The Comunist Party’s Miracle
Authors: Sorace Christian P.
Published: January 2018

This chapter offers a new perspective on the Chinese Communist Party's legitimacy based on norms, expectations, and discourse during the era of Mao Zedong that shape how the Party and masses view and interact with each other. The Party's initial response to the Sichuan earthquake seemed to reflect major changes in Chinese politics, society, and media. As scholars shifted their focus from the emergency rescue period to the long-term process of reconstruction, it became clear that the rebuilding of Sichuan would be a showcase of Party legitimacy rather than a platform for expanded civic participation. This chapter introduces the concept of discursive path dependence in order to elucidate the ways in which the Party's narrative of legitimacy predisposed it to transform the reconstruction into a utopian promise of “great leap development” (kuayueshi fazhan).
Blood Transfusion, Generation, and Anemia
Authors: Sorace Christian P.
Published: January 2018

This chapter examines China's political economy based on an interpretation of Chinese Communist Party ideology and discourse, challenging the notion that there is a mythical switch that can be flipped between politics and ideology on the one side, and economy and development on the other. Adopting a two-step approach, it considers the premises of the dominant paradigm of economic performance legitimacy and concludes with a discursive analysis of China's post-2008 Sichuan earthquake reconstruction plans. In the context of post-earthquake reconstruction, the chapter investigates how the metaphor of “blood transfusion” and “blood generation” established the coordinates for the Party's reconstruction plan to economically develop the Sichuan countryside. In place of a robust, self-reliant, and blood-generating economy engineered by the mobilization of Party spirit, the disaster zones had a lifeless and anemic economy.
The Utopia of Urban Planning
Authors: Sorace Christian P.
Published: January 2018

This chapter examines Dujiangyan Municipality's “urban-rural integration” plan and the Chinese Communist Party's obsession with urban form and ideology as the solution to rural underdevelopment. In urban planning discourse, “small townships are to serve as the key combination point between cities and the countryside.” Before the Sichuan earthquake, Dujiangyan was already a model laboratory for experiments in urban–rural integration that were accelerated and expanded during the reconstruction process. The ideology and discourse of utopian urbanism gave shape to the post-Sichuan earthquake reconstruction plans and was responsible for generating “the frenetic physicality of the reconstruction effort, which is transforming the lives of isolated communities with dizzying speed.” The chapter discusses the “three concentrations” around which the urban-rural integration plan for the greater Chengdu municipal area, including Dujiangyan Municipality, was organized: the concentration and efficient rationalization of land use, the concentration of industry, and new urban citizen construction.
The Ideological Pursuit of Ecology
Authors: Sorace Christian P.
Published: January 2018

This chapter introduces a relatively new concept in the Chinese Communist Party's political vocabulary: “ecological civilization” (shengtai wenming), which offers a new metric of development apart from growth. Several years before the Sichuan earthquake, Qingchuan County was promoted by local officials and the media as an ecological society and an experimental pioneer in rethinking development in ecological terms. Qingchuan's ecological consciousness and dialectical strategy of protecting the environment and advancing the economy were said to differentiate it from other agricultural counties. This new discourse transformed Qingchuan's developmental constraints into political advantages. Among the most remote and impoverished counties in the earthquake zone, Qingchuan designed a reconstruction plan that would capitalize on environmental protection, forest conservation, and green modes of agricultural production. Using the case of Qingchuan, the chapter highlights the enormous obstacles for recasting not only production practices but also the very definition of economic development.
Shakespeare’s Adumbrations of State-Based Diplomacy
Authors: Watkins John
Published: January 2018

This chapter focuses on William Shakespeare's plays, which expressed a negative view of interdynastic marriage as subservience to a foreign power that later dominated European politics. Shakespeare came of age after the failure of Elizabeth I of England in her bid to marry the French Duke of Alençon. The chapter analyzes two of Shakespeare's works, King John and Henry V. King John casts Eleanor of Aquitaine as a manipulator who orchestrates treaties that deprive a rightful heir of his claim to the English throne and put dynastic interest above the welfare of the English people. Henry V is an interrogation of just war theory in its conventional tripartite division: justice in waging, conducting, and ending war.
New York Amish, 2nd Edition
Authors: Johnson-Weiner Karen
Published: January 2018

Tracing Amish settlement in New York from the nineteenth century to the twenty-first century, this book draws on more than thirty years of participant-observation, interviews, and archival research to introduce the Amish to their non-Amish neighbors. In the last decade, New York State has had the fastest-growing Amish population, and this book highlights the diversity of Amish settlement there and the contribution of New York's Amish to the state's rich cultural heritage. This second edition updates settlement areas to acknowledge recently established communities and to demonstrate the impact of growth, schism, and migration on existing settlements. In addition, chapters treating external and internal challenges to Amish settlement and the challenges Amish settlement poses to neighboring non-Amish communities have been updated, and a new chapter looks to the future of New York's Amish. All maps have been updated, and a new map showing all of New York's Amish communities has been added.
Who Are the Amish?
Authors: Johnson-Weiner Karen
Published: January 2018

This chapter discusses how the Amish have been a part of the New York scene for nearly two hundred years. The first Amish settlers to the Empire State came from the French province of Lorraine. In several ways, these first settlers set the pattern for Amish settlement in New York. First, they were fleeing troubles in their homeland—due to Napoleon's military exploits, the pacifist French Amish had lost their military exemption. Moreover, like many who have come since, the French Amish came to New York to obtain cheap, available land. Finally, in making New York State their home, these Amish settlers and their descendants demonstrated how a group's response to particular events, social developments, personalities, and faith uniquely shapes its practices and its interaction with the surrounding society.
Introduction
Authors: Armstrong-Partida Michelle
Published: January 2018

This introductory chapter provides an overview of clerical masculinity and priestly identity. Throughout the medieval period, secular and regular clergy struggled with, contested, and negotiated their own ideas of manliness and the demands of the Church. In medieval society, social and cultural trends that focused on marriage, fatherhood, and displays of patriarchal authority shaped how many men understood and reacted to gendered ideals that ultimately affected how they formed their own masculine identity. Clergy received the gendered messages of their environment, and some conformed, modified, or challenged gendered prescriptions in creating their masculinity. Depending on their social status, education, and clerical rank, clergymen expressed their masculine identity in a variety of ways that included—but were not limited to—celibacy, active sexuality, models of spirituality, pious devotion, intellectual prowess, abstinence from manual labor, military skill, and violence.
Proof of Manhood
Authors: Armstrong-Partida Michelle
Published: January 2018

This chapter looks at the sexuality of parish clergy and their masculine identity, exploring why priests were involved in relationships that were, for all intents and purposes, marriages. Indiscriminate sex alone was not enough to prove manliness; marriage and progeny were central attributes of the dominant forms of masculinity in medieval society. However, acquiring adult male status and attaining the role of paterfamilias was more than just a way for clerics to take part in a common social practice. Although clerical unions would never be on par with lay marriages because they lacked legal recognition and the ceremonial trappings of a relationship sanctioned in the eyes of the Church, these marriage-like relationships nevertheless afforded clerics important social and familial roles as husbands and fathers. Moreover, the role of husband and father allowed clerics to participate in the culture of lay masculinity.
Laymen in Priestly Robes
Authors: Armstrong-Partida Michelle
Published: January 2018

This chapter addresses the extent to which parish clergy were embedded in their local community and considers how familial, social, and economic factors firmly bound clerics to a life that very much mirrored that of their parishioners. In fact, people of the parish were often connected to their priests through ties of kinship and affinity. Clerics lived out their lives as more than just priests; they were also the sons, brother, uncles, and nephews of the people in the parish. In effect, priests behaved like laymen because they were laymen in the priestly profession. Indeed, parish clergy represented an amalgamation of both the clerical and secular worlds. The clerical profession provided them with a priestly identity, and their experience as men of the village, in turn, influenced how they interacted with parishioners as priests.
Hierarchy, Competition, and Conflict
Authors: Armstrong-Partida Michelle
Published: January 2018

This chapter focuses on priests, priors, and monks who fought against their religious colleagues to carve out status and privilege and to gain prestige within the hierarchy of the parish as well as greater access to economic resources. To subordinate their co-workers and demean their rivals, clerics insulted, sabotaged, and orchestrated petty acts of revenge and violence. Moreover, the economic crisis of the 1330s in Catalunya intensified the competition among the parish clergy struggling to survive in a time of famine, deprivation, and inflation. Clerics frequently quarreled over the customary gifts obtained when they officiated at baptisms and marriages, celebrated special masses, and buried the dead. They also became more aggressive in defending the privileges connected to their status and the rights attached to their benefices.
Exceptions to Hell
Authors: Bernstein Alan E.
Published: January 2018

This chapter discusses the alternative scenarios from hell’s torments: the idea that there is periodic relief from torment in hell, and the idea that rescue is possible from hell. The first is mitigation: the torments of hell can be interrupted, and periodic relief given to the damned. This idea occurred in Jewish speculation as well as Christian and derives ultimately from Genesis 2:2–3, God’s rest on the seventh day. The second is an end to hell: hell can end if sinners are rescued from it. Another end to hell appears in a related, third strand that presents the idea of forgiveness in the otherworld for some sins, but not the very worst, and explicitly not for blasphemy against the Holy Spirit. This is the option of therapeutic suffering, specifically through a fire that gradually purifies and then releases its sufferers to join the community of the saints.
Calibrated Justice and Purgatorial Fire
Authors: Bernstein Alan E.
Published: January 2018

This chapter examines the concept of purgatory. A temporary, therapeutic system of punishment after death that progressively cleanses sinners and thereby permits them to enter heaven did not come to be called purgatory for many centuries. According to Jacques Le Goff, there were two dramatically different phases in this development. First, he says, is a perception that suffering for those who die with only slight sins will cleanse them through punishments that are “purgatorial.” The adjective “purgatorial” describes certain pains—such as purgatorial fire—that remove the last imperfections from a saved soul needing only slight amendment before admission to heaven. Then, around 1170, thinkers began to conceive of purgatory as a place, considered as a proper noun, with a name of its own (purgatorium in Latin), occupying a demarcated, physical space between hell and heaven. Repentance remains the decisive factor between the purgatorial and the eternal fires.
Conclusion
Authors: Bernstein Alan E.
Published: January 2018

This concluding chapter argues that all three Abrahamic religions professed a belief in hell, whether they called it Gehinnom, Gehenna, or Jahannam, and all three successfully resisted similar objections to it within their own communities. To counter these challenges, religious specialists posited purgatorial fringes that offered lesser sinners temporary discipline outside the core of hell, thus sparing them damnation. Despite these threats to hell’s essence, authoritative pronouncements succeeded in reasserting eternal punishment as the consensus or orthodox position in the three religions. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam therefore agree on the existence of an eternal hell for incorrigible sinners. Still, it became necessary to reconcile such a dramatic and apparently cruel fate with the mercy of God. Around the core idea of hell, specialists and visionaries perceived alternatives to hell in the form of escape, periodic relief, and purification.
Introduction
Authors: Bernstein Alan E.
Published: January 2018

This introductory chapter provides a background of the debates concerning postmortem punishment in three Abrahamic faiths: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. These three religions shared faith in many aspects of eschatology—the branch of theology that concerns the end of an individual’s life and the end of time. However, opposition to eternal punishment arose within each of these religions, and each entertained alternative beliefs about how wickedness in life might be punished in death. Cure, escape, and periodic relief were the chief rivals to uniform and eternal perdition. Hell survived these threats, and in the process of defending it, its advocates used the idea as a model of justice, a spur to right behavior, a guide to introspection, and a warning to neighbors in danger of damnation if they did not accept it and learn to respect the God whose sentence it executes.
Power, Violence, and Victory
Authors: Krause Peter
Published: January 2018

This chapter provides an overview of the book's main themes. The book analyzes the Palestinian, Zionist, Algerian, and Irish national movements and presents a new theory of violence and victory, which the author hopes will provide answers for the past, present, and future. National movements go by many names across the fields of political science, sociology, economics, and history: social movements, self-determination movements, insurgencies, and revolutions. Although the terminology is often different, the entities are similar. The theory presented here applies to all movements, insurgencies, and revolutions to a significant extent, but there are some key distinctions among them in identity, tactics, and objectives. The remainder of the chapter discusses why the use of violence and the outcomes of national movements matter, why existing arguments are inadequate, and the Movement Structure Theory. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
The Algerian National Movement
Authors: Krause Peter
Published: January 2018

This chapter analyzes the history of the Algerian national movement. It demonstrates the virtues of hegemony and the relative insignificance of unity and total movement strength. Like the Palestinian national movement, the Algerian national movement was strategically successful during hegemony (1958–1962) but largely unsuccessful during periods of fragmentation (1946–1950 and 1952–1957) and unity (1944–1945 and 1951). In 1944–1945, the Algerians were united and mobilized to a degree not seen before or since, yet that uprising failed while one a decade later, marked by a lack of unity and less total movement strength, succeeded. The chapter also illuminates the role of external states; the post-1957 FLN position as a credible hegemonic negotiator with limited potential for spoiling or sellout yielded international support and recognition, while the failure of numerous French attempts to refragment the movement forced France to concede full Algerian independence.
The Irish National Movement
Authors: Krause Peter
Published: January 2018

This chapter analyzes the Irish national movement. It discusses the most striking feature: the clockwork-like actions of republican groups that, while challengers, escalated violence, shunned elections, and denounced negotiated compromise; but after they became the leader or hegemon of the movement (or movement wing), shunned violence, participated in elections, and negotiated compromises. Despite their intense criticism of each other, this is the story of Cumann na nGaedheal (later Fine Gael), Fianna Fáil, the , Official Irish Republican Army/Official Sinn Féin, and the Provisional IRA/Sinn Féin over the course of the twentieth century. In every case in which abstentionism (the refusal to take seats in the government) was ended, what changed was not what the group ideologically said had to change but, rather, the movement structure and that the group would be guaranteed a leading role in the new order.
Popular Nationalism and Economic Interests in China’s Japan Policy
Authors: Reilly James
Published: January 2018

This chapter examines the contribution of Sino-Japanese economic interdependence on China's moderation of the role of mass nationalism on its policymaking. It contends that the importance to China of stable Sino-Japanese economic cooperation has compelled Chinese leaders to repress periodic mass outbursts of anti-Japanese nationalism before they could harm Sino-Japanese economic cooperation. But the rise of the Chinese economy vis-à-vis Japan, and Beijing's corresponding understanding that Japanese dependence on the Chinese economy has superseded Sino-Japanese interdependence, have weakened the constraints of economic interests on China's Japan policy. The rise of the Chinese economy has eroded the contribution of economic interdependence to stable Sino-Japanese relations, suggesting a long-term trend of greater nationalist content in China's Japan policy.
Kosovo
Authors: McMahon Patrice C.
Published: January 2018

This chapter turns to the effects of international peacebuilding in Kosovo from approximately 1999 until 2012. It also provides some background on the history of this troubled region during the 1990s. The chapter argues that international actors were “vast and richly endowed and full of capabilities”; and despite the fact that many Kosovars, Albanians, and Serbs alike did not agree or support many of their goals, internationals were determined to reconcile society and create a multiethnic democracy in Kosovo. In the process, however, international actors and specifically the scores of NGOs that descended on the region crowded out, rather than complemented, existing institutions.
Mr. De la Barre’s Expedition, and some Remarkable Transactions in 1684.
Authors: Colden Cadwallader
Published: January 2018

In the time of peace between the French and the Five Nations, the French built their fort at Teiodondoraghi or Missilimakinak, and made a settlement there. The French took all the precautions in their power, not only to restrain the Indians by force, but also to gain their affections by sending missionaries among them. The only obstacle they met was from the Five Nations, who introduced the English of New-York into the Lakes to trade with the Indians that lived around them. This made the French uneasy because they saw the English as dangerous rivals. The Sennekas lived next to the Lakes, and nearest to the Nations with whom the French traded. They were so averse to the French that they allied themselves with the English. This chapter details events following Mr. De la Barre's (the Governor of Canada) message to Coll. Dongan, citing the need to bring the Five Nations to reason by force.
Coll. Dongan’s Advice to the Indians. Adario’s Enterprize, and Montreal Sacked by the Five Nations.
Authors: Colden Cadwallader
Published: January 2018

This chapter first presents Coll. Dongan's advice to the Five Nations during a meeting in Albany on the 5th of August. They were advised not to harm their French prisoners, but to keep them to exchange for their own people, who were likewise prisoners of the French; and to do what they could to open a path for all the North Indians and Mahikanders that were among the Utawawas and farther Nations. The remainder of the chapter covers Adario, the chief of the Deonondadies, who, upon realizing that his Nation had become under suspicion of the French, resolved by some brave action against the Five Nations to recover the good graces of the French; and the invasion of the island of Montreal by 1200 men of the Five Nations.
The Count de Frontenac attacks Onondaga in Person, with the whole Force of Canada. The Five Nations continue the War with the French, and make Peace with the Dionondadies.
Authors: Colden Cadwallader
Published: January 2018

This chapter details events following Count de Frontenac's seizure of Cadarackui Fort. Count de Frontenac resolved to make the Five Nations feel his resentment at their refusal of his terms of peace. To do so, he assembled all the regular troops of Canada, the militia, the Owenagungas, the Quatoghies of Loretto, the Adirondacks, Sokokies, Nepiciriniens, the Praying Indians of the Five Nations, and a few Utawawas, at Montreal, in June 1696. They marched from la Chine, in the south End of the Island of Montreal, the fourth of July. In retaliation, the Five Nations sent out several parties against Canada. Thus, the war was continued until the Peace of Reswick, by small parties of Indians, on both sides, harassing, surprising, and scalping the inhabitants near Montreal and Albany.
Eukaryotes in the gut microbiota in myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome
Authors: Mandarano Alexandra H. , Giloteaux Ludovic , Keller Betsy A. , Levine Susan M. , Hanson Maureen R.
Published: January 2018

Patients with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) often suffer from gastrointestinal symptoms and many are diagnosed with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Previous studies, including from our laboratory, have demonstrated that the ME/CFS gut bacterial composition is altered and less diverse when compared to healthy individuals. Patients have increased biomarkers of inflammation and leaky gut syndrome. To further investigate dysbiosis in the ME/CFS gut microbiome, we sought to characterize the eukaryotes present in the gut of 49 individuals with ME/CFS and 39 healthy controls. Using 18S rRNA sequencing, we have identified eukaryotes in stool samples of 17 healthy individuals and 17 ME/CFS patients. Our analysis demonstrates a small, nonsignificant decrease in eukaryotic diversity in ME/CFS patients compared to healthy individuals. In addition, ME/CFS patients show a nonsignificant increase in the ratio of fungal phyla Basidiomycota to Ascomycota, which is consistent with ongoing inflammation in ME/CFS. We did not identify specific eukaryotic taxa that are associated with ME/CFS disease status.
Structural performance of split orthogonal beam joints in continuous beam‐type circular concrete‐filled steel tubular beam‐to‐column connections
Authors: Ando Nozomi , Fujinaga Takashi
Published: October 2024

A continuous beam‐type connection has been proposed as a new type of concrete‐filled steel tubular beam‐to‐column connection without a diaphragm exhibits good seismic performance. However, in a 2‐way configuration, the performance of the connection in a direction orthogonal to the continuous beam may be suboptimal due to beam splitting. In this study, a new detail of a split orthogonal beam joint was proposed and 4 specimens were constructed and tested under quasi‐static conditions. All the specimens attained the full‐plastic flexural strength for the beams and exhibited a stable inelastic behavior. The specimen in which the depth of the orthogonal continuous beam was 100 mm greater than that of the split beam exhibited good inelastic cyclic behavior, whereas two other specimens with a split beam exhibited slipping and pinching. Minor fractures were observed in the tube wall; however, the strength and stiffness did not deteriorate significantly, though a slight pinched hysteresis was observed. In addition, a finite element analysis was conducted. The split beam was largely rotationally constrained by the bearing pressure of the concrete above and/or below the beam flange. If the split beam's flange was sufficiently inserted into the connection panel, the stiffness and strength were ensured.
Investigation of the Effect of Milling Time on Elemental Powders of Oxi‐Reduction Nickel and Hydrogenation–Dehydrogenation Titanium
Authors: da Silva Teixeira Rodolfo , Magalhães Gurgel Mônica Aline , Freitas Rodrigues Patrícia , Xavier de Freitas Bruno , Vieira Le Sénéchal Naiara , Vieira de Oliveira Rebeca , Carlos Figueiredo Pereira Neves Filipe , dos Santos Paula Andersan
Published: October 2024

Mechanical alloying (MA) is widely applied in the synthesis of blended elemental or prealloyed powders. This work evaluates the effect of milling time on elemental nickel and titanium powders produced by oxi‐reduction and the hydrogenation–dehydrogenation process, respectively. The powders are characterized by scanning electron microscopy, X‐ray diffraction, particle size, powder yield, and differential scanning calorimetry. It is observed that increasing the milling time promotes the formation of a structure composed of thin lamellae of nickel and titanium, which results in the beneficial effect of lowering the temperature for the formation of the intermetallic of the Ni–Ti system and in the powder yield achieved. The reduction of milling time in the MA process of NiTi alloys enhances technological efficiency by decreasing their overall processing time.
Convenient Au@Ag Double‐Layer Nanoarray Fabricated by Rapid Thermal Annealing and Chemical Replacement Method for Surface‐Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy Sensing
Authors: Xu Yanru , Su Jiayu , Jia Zhiyong , Wang Yanqing
Published: October 2024

Surface‐enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has a wide range of applications in molecular recognition, environmental pollutant detection, and other fields. However, the intensity and number of “hot spots” in 1D and 2D nanostructures are limited due to the scale‐dependent localized plasmonic effect of nanostructures, making it difficult to increase the detection limit. Herein, a kind of 3D substrate called Au@Ag double‐layer nanoarray (Au@Ag DLA) is prepared using rapid thermal annealing and chemical replacement methods. The energy‐dispersive spectrometer spectra confirm the successful growth of AgNPs on the gold nanoarray (Au SLA) by showing no presence of the copper element, indicating complete replacement of the Cu film deposited on Au SLA by Ag atoms. The detection limit of malachite green in Au@Ag DLA is 10−8 mol L−1, four and three orders of magnitude higher than that of Au SLA and AgNPs, respectively. This stronger SERS effect of Au@Ag DLA arises from the larger number of intense hot spots generated not only on the horizontal surface but also in the vertical direction. This finding provides a method for developing efficient and stable 3D SERS substrate, which can be utilized for the trace detection of water pollutants and pesticide residue.
Investigation of Microhardness, Microstructural, Tribological, and Thermal Properties of Al7075/TiO2/Kaoline Hybrid Metal Matrix Composites Produced by Powder Metallurgy Process
Authors: Demir Mehmet Emin , Okumuş Mustafa
Published: October 2024

The shift from traditional, single‐component metals and alloys continues, and researchers are currently investigating alternative materials. This evolution has led to the creation of innovative materials, including hybrid metal‐matrix composites. The present study aims to investigate the microstructural, surface morphological, and thermal properties of a novel Al7075/TiO2/Kaoline hybrid metal‐matrix composite prepared using high‐energy ball milling and sintering methods. In this study, phases related to the composite components are formed depending on the milling time, no undesirable phase is formed, but the peak intensities decreas as the milling time increases. Particle size increases from 63 to 215 μm with increasing milling time. Increasing the kaoline reinforcement ratio and sintering temperature increases the microhardness from 62.27 ± 2 to 75.83 ± 2 HV, and reduces the friction coefficient from 0.82 ± 0.01 to 0.62 ± 0.01. The wear rate of the composite without kaoline addition is 2.1 (mm3 m−1) × 10−3, while with 6 wt% kaoline addition, it decreases to 1.5 (mm3 m−1) × 10−3. There are no cracks in the composite other than plastic deformation due to sintering and wear. Peaks indicating endothermic and exothermic reactions during continuous heating occurr in the 635–750 °C temperature range.
Stabilization of the Ternary Eutectic Growth in Additively Manufactured AlNiCe Alloys
Authors: Boussinot Guillaume , Cazic Ivan , Döring Markus , Schmidt Michael , Apel Markus
Published: October 2024

Coupled eutectic growth is known to favor enhanced materials’ mechanical properties, owing to the small‐scale composite microstructure that it produces upon solidification. Herein, the stabilization of ternary coupled growth of the three solid phases fcc‐Al, Ni, and in the AlNiCe ternary alloy is studied. The four alloys under laser powder bed fusion conditions are experimentally investigated and phase‐field simulations that are useful to understand qualitatively the solidification path are performed. The results tend to confirm the presence of a skewed coupled zone for the ternary coupled growth, and that this coupled zone exists for nominal compositions of the alloy around the equiatomic Al‐xNi‐xCe. The value of x should then increase with the solidification velocity for ternary coupled growth to occur.