The post-acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection in two macaques species is associated with signs of ongoing virus replication and pathology in pulmonary and extrapulmonary tissues
Authors: Böszörményi Kinga P. , Stammes Marieke A. , Fagrouch Zahra C. , Kiemenyi-Kayere Gwendoline , Niphuis Henk , Mortier Daniella , van Driel Nikki , Nieuwenhuis Ivonne , Vervenne Richard A. W. , Haaksma Tom , Ouwerling Boudewijn , Adema Deborah , Acar Roja Fidel , Zuiderwijk-Sick Ella , Meijer Lisette , Mooij Petra , Remarque Ed J. , Oostermeijer Herman , Koopman Gerrit , Hoste Alexis C. R. , Sastre Patricia , Haagmans Bart L. , Bontrop Ronald E. , Langermans Jan A.M. , Bogers Willy M. , Kondova Ivanela , Verschoor Ernst J. , Verstrepen Babs E. 
Published: November 2020

The post-acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection was investigated in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). During the acute phase of infection, SARS-CoV-2 was shed via nose and throat, and viral RNA was occasionally detected in feces. This phase coincided with a transient change in systemic immune activation. Even after the alleged resolution of the infection, as suggested by the absence of viral RNA in nasal and tracheal swabs, computed tomography (CT) and positron emission tomography (PET)-CT were able to reveal pulmonary lesions and activated tracheobronchial lymph nodes in all animals. Post-mortem histological examination of the lung tissue revealed mostly marginal or resolving minimal lesions that were indicative of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Evidence for SARS-CoV-2-induced histopathology was also found in extrapulmonary tissue samples, like conjunctiva, cervical and mesenteric lymph nodes.

However, 5-6 weeks after SARS-CoV-2 exposure, upon necropsy, viral RNA was still detectable in a wide range of tissue samples in 50% of the macaques and included amongst others the heart, the respiratory tract and surrounding lymph nodes, salivary gland, and conjunctiva. Subgenomic messenger RNA was detected in the lungs and tracheobronchial lymph nodes, indicative of ongoing virus replication during the post-acute phase. These results could be relevant for understanding the long-term consequences of COVID-19 in humans.

Author summary

More than a year after the start of the pandemic, the long-term consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection start to surface. The variety of clinical manifestations associated with post-acute COVID-19 suggests the involvement of multiple biological mechanisms. In this study, we show that rhesus and cynomolgus macaques shed virus from their respiratory tract, generate virus-specific humoral immune responses, and show signs of SARS-CoV-2-induced lung pathology. PET-CT revealed that both species showed ongoing mild to moderate pulmonary disease, even after the virus was no longer detectable in nasal and tracheal swabs. Five to six weeks after infection, necropsy confirmed minimal to mild histopathological manifestations in various tissues, like the lungs, heart, lymph nodes, and conjunctiva. We detected Viral RNA in the heart, respiratory tract, and tracheobronchial lymph nodes, and subgenomic messenger RNA in the lungs and surrounding lymph nodes, indicative of ongoing virus replication. We show widespread tissue dissemination of SARS-CoV-2 in infected macaques and the presence of replicating virus in lungs and surrounding lymph nodes after alleged convalescence of infection. This finding is intriguing in the light of long-COVID disease symptoms seen in humans as it has been hypothesized that persistent infection may contribute to this phenomenon.