bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Immunomodulation with linomide: possible novel therapy for multiple sclerosis
Authors: Abramsky O , Lehmann D , Karussis D
Published: July 2017

Linomide, a synthetic quinoline carboxamide, has the ability to stimulate various lymphocyte subpopulations. We have shown its inhibitory effect on the clinical and histological signs of acute and chronic relapsing EAE. In these models linomide induces suppression of lymphocyte response to antigens, production of autoantibody, antigen presentation to specific T-cell lines and Mac-1 expression, and induces activation of NK and suppressor-inducer cells. We have subsequently shown its inhibitory effect on clinical and MRI signs of patients with secondary progressive multiple sclerosis. Results of a double blind, placebo controlled, short term pilot study with p.o. linomide, showed a significant effect on the clinical disability scale (EDSS) (P=0.045) and on the mean total number of new lesions in serial monthly MRI scans (P=0.021). The increase of CD45Ra, CD8 and CD16 positive cells in linomide treated patients may indicate the importance of suppressor-inducer, suppressor and NK cells for the inhibition of the autoimmune response in the disease.
Service Quality in Airlines
Authors: Witt Chris , Mühlemann Alan
Published: July 2017

This paper identifies some of the problems facing airlines in attempting to deliver a quality service. It goes on to examine reported case material which outlines how a variety of organizations have successfully managed a number of these problems. These cases are analysed in the context of a set of guidelines proposed for the successful adoption of a total quality culture in tourism. Finally a framework is developed by which airlines can manage service quality in a far more effective and efficient manner.
Measuring Changes in the Relative Competitiveness of Package Tour Destinations
Authors: Taylor Peter
Published: July 2017

The technique of deriving quality-adjusted prices and evaluating product characteristics is outlined and previous studies are cited. Details of a sample of package tours for Mediterranean destinations and its preliminary analysis are discussed. A suitable model for a hedonic regression analysis of package tours is outlined and estimated. The estimates provide implicit or shadow valuations of the component characteristics of the overall package tour. The results are discussed and it is concluded that the technique is a useful method of analysing changes in relative prices of package tour destinations.
Report: Finance, Flowers and Festivals — A Case Study of Little Economic Impact
Authors: Ryan Chris
Published: July 2017

There are many small community-based festivals which attract public sector funding. Such funding might be justified upon economic grounds of job creation and image re-creation. This paper describes one such festival, and highlights a discrepancy between the economic justification for support and the eventual revenue flows. Such results are not uncommon in studies of major events and public sector initiatives such as urban renewal, but it is not without interest that similar findings are paralleled in smaller community events. However, one factor often overlooked is that community festivals may retain discretionary leisure expenditure within a district that might otherwise be lost.
VAT Rates and the UK Tourism and Leisure Industry
Authors: Wanhill Stephen
Published: July 2017

In April 1995, the VAT Working Group of the British Tourist Authority (BTA) presented its report on the economic effects of changing the rate of VAT on the UK tourism and leisure industry. The report was prepared by Touche Ross. This article reviews and summarizes the issues raised by the BTA Report as a matter of general interest for the readers of this journal. The author is grateful to the BTA for giving permission to reproduce parts of the Report and to Michael Nevin of Touche Rosse who undertook the task of preparing the report.
Competition among European Tourist Cities: A Comparative Analysis with Multidimensional Scaling and Self-Organizing Maps
Authors: Mazanec Josef A.
Published: July 2017

The tourism researcher's attention is drawn to the neurocomputing methodology of self-organizing maps (SOMs) SOMs can be used to find a radically parsimonious representation of multidimensional profile data. The properties of an SOM network are explored in a case study on the competitive relationships between European cities as tourist destinations. SOM results are compared with a conventional INDSCAL model. The database consists of the guest mix profiles of 26 major tourist cities between 1975 and 1992.
Frequent Flyer Programmes: The Beginning of the End?
Authors: Beaver Allan
Published: July 2017

This paper aims to establish a reliable factual basis for the study of frequent flyer programmes. The background to FFPs is described, including data on the schemes' popularity in the USA and Europe. Issues such as the ‘corporate backlash’ to employees retaining free flights and other benefits for their personal use are covered in some detail. The results of an extensive survey into the views of the world's major airlines are then discussed. The survey was based on distribution to major airlines of a 5000 word report, followed by a detailed questionnaire. The results of the survey are analysed and it is concluded that FFPs are likely to move gradually away from the provision of free flights towards service-related benefits.
Alliances and Liaisons in Tourism: Concepts and Implications
Authors: Garnham Bob
Published: July 2017

Travel and accommodation have long gone hand in hand. In the increasingly competitive global economy alliances and liaisons have become an integral part of tourism organization; in addition to integrating the two major sectors of the industry, alliances and liaisons also have the effect of integrating tourism into the wider service economy. This paper discusses the basis on which these unions are formed and their implications for tourism and, in a wider context, development.
The Impact of Tourism on Employment in Denmark: Different Definitions, Different Results
Authors: Hansen Christian , Jensen Susanne
Published: July 2017

Using primary Danish statistics and a comprehensive Danish input–output table, we estimate that a total of 63 500 persons were employed in Denmark in 1991 as a result of tourism. This includes job creation resulting from tourist stays at destinations in Denmark. Separate calculations are made for different tourist nationalities and for the various types of accommodation involved. Calculations made by the Danish Tourist Board produced a figure of approximately 94 400 tourism-related jobs in Denmark. Recently, The 1995 WTTC Report stated that 290 000 jobs in Denmark in 1991 could be associated with travel and tourism. This figure is based on US primary statistics and a German input–output table. By studying the footnotes, statistics and mathematics in the various reports on tourism employment in Denmark, we are able to explain the discrepancies. They come from understandable and detectable differences in delimitations and definitions of tourism.
Databank: Definitions and Classifications
Authors: Bar-On Raphael Raymond
Published: July 2017

This section of Tourism Economics is devoted to data analysis. The article in this issue highlights some of the definitional and coverage problems that complicate tourism research. It includes a list of travel and tourism definitions as well as a list of common abbreviations.
A Framework for Monitoring Global Travel and Tourism Taxes: The WTTC Tax Barometer
Authors: Myers James , Forsberg Peter , Holecek Donald
Published: July 2017

Travel and tourism commerce is a growing source of public revenues. As an export, this economic activity is subject to a myriad of taxes, fees, levies and user charges. The dynamics of tax policy in international markets are poorly understood because there is little data as to the typology and extent of these vehicles as they relate to travel and tourism. This paper introduces tax policy concepts and describes the initial effort to monitor taxes in 53 cities worldwide. Development of a new tax index and initial findings that provide insight into fiscal policy as it relates to this sector of the economy are discussed.
Impacts and Benefits of MICE Tourism: A Framework for Analysis
Authors: Dwyer Larry , Forsyth Peter
Published: July 2017

The Meetings, Incentives, Conventions and Exhibitions (MICE) sector of tourism is rapidly expanding worldwide. This paper discusses some neglected issues relating to the assessment of the narrower economic impacts, the economy-wide impacts and the net benefits of an expanding MICE sector within a tourism destination. The paper does not attempt to provide estimates of impacts or net national benefits as such, bur attempts to enhance our understanding of issues important to the subsequent task of assessment and thus to more informed policy making in this area.
Differential Multipliers for Tourism in Victoria
Authors: West Guy R. , Gamage Ari
Published: July 2017

This study assesses the significance of different types of tourists to Victoria, Australia, by their relative contribution to the economy. Differential impacts are calculated using an input–output model incorporating marginal household coefficients. The analysis demonstrates that the conventional input–output model can overestimate the flow-on effects to value added, income and employment by a significant amount. It finds that domestic tourists are the largest contributor to the State economy, with day-trippers spending the greatest amount. International tourists rank last in terms of economic impacts on the state.
Financial Management in Tourism: A Destination Perspective
Authors: Sheehan Lorn R. , Ritchie J.R. Brent
Published: July 2017

This research examines the nature of financing and financial management within North American Destination Management Organizations (DMOs), identifies issues of concern in this area, and assesses how financing strategies may be changing. The research finds DMOs (convention bureaus or visitor/tourist bureaus) to be very reliant on public funding and optimistic regarding their future budget revenue streams in general. The research also finds bureaus to be relatively unsophisticated in the measurement of performance on both financial and non-financial dimensions. Cash flow problems are found to be common in bureaus. The authors caution bureaus to work at developing new non-governmental sources of revenue and to develop acceptable measures of performance for the providers of funds. While some measures are suggested, the authors acknowledge the complexity of the task and identify a number of significant gaps that should be addressed through further study.
Casino Gambling as an Economic Development Strategy
Authors: Rephann Terance J. , Dalton Margaret , Stair Anthony , Isserman Andrew
Published: July 2017

Casino gambling has experienced dramatic growth in the USA during the past seven years. Because this growth has occurred recently, there have been few systematic studies of its effects. This paper uses quasi-experimental control group methods to study 68 counties where casinos were opened during the period 1989–93 and three multicasino counties. Results show that casino gambling is adopted by economically struggling counties and that it can be a successful development strategy. The effects trickle down to other sectors of the economy, including recipients of income maintenance payments. On the downside, local governments and local workers do not appear to reap the lion's share of benefits, as much of the income generated by casinos is dissipated through leakages outside the host county. Finally, some casino types and locations are marginally better than others, but currently these factors are not prominent determinants of casino effects.
The Determinants of Capital Structure Choice in the US Restaurant Industry
Authors: Kim Woo Gon
Published: July 2017

This paper presents an empirical analysis of an important element of capital structure of the restaurant industry which is represented by SIC code 58, eating and drinking places. The study focuses on explaining important characteristics affecting the capital structure of US restaurant firms. This is a cross-sectional analysis which assesses the role of size, earning volatility, profitability, growth opportunities, asset structure, non-debt tax shields, franchising, and leasing expense on various leverage ratios.
Common-Sense Analysis for Tourism: A Theoretical Discussion
Authors: Airey David , Burger C.J.S. , Dohnal Mirko , Mhlane L.
Published: July 2017

This paper provides an introduction to common-sense analysis in tourism. It outlines the background and nature of common-sense analysis, also referred to as vague modelling, fuzzy logic, qualitative modelling and rough modelling. It sets out some of the ways in which common-sense analysis can be developed, and, taking budget hotels as an example, it examines how this analysis can be applied in theory and considers some possible applications. The example of budget hotels is provided for illustration; it is not based on empirical work.
Airline Sales and Distribution Channels: The Impact of New Technology
Authors: Morrell Peter S.
Published: July 2017

Airline sales and distribution costs have been increasing faster than other costs over the past decade, particularly travel agent commissions and incentive payments. At the same time ticketless travel and the development of on-line services offer airlines an apparent solution to the dilemma of achieving both increased market share and reductions in sales costs. It is argued here, however, that travel agents will maintain their dominant position in airline sales distribution, because they will continue to offer the consumer the best response to their disadvantages of small size, ignorance and immobility. This will involve agents making full use of new technologies, offering a wider range of value added services, and moving to a pricing system which will be more acceptable to both travellers and airlines.
Income and Price Elasticities by Nationality for Tourists in Denmark
Authors: Jensen Thomas C.
Published: July 2017

This paper presents estimates of income and price elasticities for the six most important nationalities visiting Denmark as tourists. The estimates are based on two different measures of the Danish tourism revenue: the number of nights spent and the currency exchange statistics. The explanatory variables are prices and income abroad. The estimates vary considerably across nationalities. For German tourists, who account for the largest share in Danish tourism, the estimates for price elasticities are quite high: the long-run price elasticity with respect to the prices in Denmark is close to −1.5 and the long-run income elasticity is found to be near 2.
Optimal Management of Ecotourism
Authors: Mananyi A.
Published: July 2017

The ‘sustainability’ debate strongly suggests that the viability of ecotourism is in danger unless policies which promote the natural resource base are pursued. This paper considers the sustainability of ecotourism in the particular context of wildlife amenities, using dynamic analysis. It is well known that in the presence of externalities the competitive market equilibrium is suboptimal. Static and dynamic optimal tax policies are derived which are designed to decentralize the social optimum; thereby internalizing the externalities and guaranteeing the sustainability of both the wildlife species and tourism. In particular, the dynamic policy suggests that park authorities should increase taxes as the wildlife stock increases.
Demand Theory Reconsidered: Reflections on the Demand for Tourism in Cyprus
Authors: Ayres Ron
Published: July 2017

Cyprus is an important destination for international tourism, but the 1990s has witnessed a growing concern about the future trend of tourist arrivals. Orthodox economics provides a framework for analysing the demand for tourism yet, by treating demand as a function of price, income and competition, orthodox theory ignores the formation of consumer choice. The tourist life-cycle model draws attention to the effect of fashion on choice and Leibenstein's attempt to analyse interpersonal effects into bandwagon, snob and Veblen effects points to the non-functional nature of some demand, but even so the relationship between consumer groups is not well theorized within orthodox economics. The notion of cultural competition as a factor influencing consumer choice implies that the consumer has a strong idea of what he or she wants and is therefore at the same rejecting. While the link between culture and choice is complex the paper argues that it is important to understand it more fully since it has implications for the segmentation of the market and the positioning and promotion of the tourist product.
Total Quality, Human Resource Management and Tourism
Authors: Hope C. A. , Mühlemann A. P.
Published: July 2017

The tourism industry has many of the features of a classic service. These contribute significantly to the complexity of managing quality in such environments. While Total Quality Management (TQM) has been hailed as a philosophy which supports a key objective of continuously meeting customer requirements, there is debate over how the realization of this philosophy sits alongside what might be regarded as ‘best practice’ human resource management (HRM). The ‘people’ aspects are a main consideration in tourism management. This paper aims to provide a more detailed understanding of the linkages and interactions between TQM, HRM and tourism, by reviewing appropriate literature in these areas and through analysis of reported cases.
Seasonality in Irish Tourism, 1973–1995
Authors: Kennedy Elizabeth (Liz)
Published: July 2017

The improved performance of Irish tourism and its contribution to employment growth since 1987 can be attributed in part to a more focused concentration of government efforts, improved access transport policies, liberalization of air fares, more favourable external demand factors, and increased European input through structural funds and the resulting emphasis on tourism investment. A total of 5.540 million visitors visited Ireland during 1998 and published figures show that 5.007 million visited in 1997. Consequently, the numbers have increased by 11% over the period. This improved performance since the late 1980s, however, has failed to address adequately a long-term structural problem of Irish tourism, seasonality. The purpose of this paper is to provide a detailed analysis of seasonality in Irish tourism and in doing so to identify some salient policy issues that need to be addressed as a matter of priority. The first section provides a definition of seasonality in the Irish context, and outlines the nature of Ireland's main source markets. The next section discusses the seasonal distribution of overseas visitors to Ireland (1973 and 1995 — the analysis begins in 1973 because that is the first year for which comparable data are available). A brief discussion pertaining to the seasonal profile of the domestic market and regional distribution is also included in the analysis. The paper concludes with an outline of policy initiatives and implications of the trends for seasonality in Irish tourism.
A Cost—Benefit Study of Protection of the Northern Beaches of Australia's Gold Coast
Authors: Raybould Mike , Mules Trevor
Published: July 2017

Ocean beaches are a valuable recreation asset for local residents and tourists, and beachside communities throughout the world have adopted a variety of engineering strategies to protect this asset from the natural forces of erosion. Increasingly the proponents of such schemes are expected to demonstrate the economic benefits of these projects. The study reported is a benefit—cost assessment of beach nourishment works planned for the northern beaches of the Gold Coast region in Queensland, Australia. Data covering past beach erosion events in the region are used to estimate the effects of beach erosion on tourism receipts and public assets located at beachside. Losses in these two areas are seen to far exceed the cost of protecting the beaches from storm damage, and of restoring them quickly after damage, and expenditure on such programmes has high ratios of benefit to cost.
Assessing the Impact of Urban Casinos on Tourism in New Zealand
Authors: Pearce Douglas G.
Published: July 2017

A comparative framework involving pre- and post-opening assessments is adopted to analyse the impact of the introduction of the Christchurch and Auckland casinos on tourism in New Zealand. In addition to analysing the patterns of tourist demand consideration is also given to other ways in which the casinos impact on the country's tourist industry. These broader impacts include: destination enhancement, promotion, competition and greater professionalism. The study concludes that the introduction of the casinos has contributed to the objective of promoting tourism but that these impacts, while beneficial, have been relatively modest and should not be overstated.
Tourist Levies and Willingness to Pay for a Whale Shark Experience
Authors: Davis Derrin , Tisdell C. A.
Published: July 2017

Swimming with whale sharks has become popular in the waters of Ningaloo Marine Park, Western Australia, since 1993. The Park is one of very few known and accessible places in the world where whale sharks congregate on a regular and predictable basis. Consumers' willingness to pay (WTP) to participate in the whale shark experience, and their willingness to contribute financially to the management of the resource might be important to the long-term sustainability of the industry. The Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management levies tourist operators A$15 per passenger per day, and uses the funds collected for research, management and education about whale sharks. Surveys were undertaken to determine the willingness of participants to pay for their whale shark experience and to pay the levy. WTP for the experience was slightly below the amounts actually paid, while Japanese tourists indicated a lower WTP than did other tourists. Respondents indicated WTP a significantly higher levy than is presently charged ( t = –10.99, p < 0.05). In a loglinear analysis the only significant effect on WTP the levy was ethnicity (Pearson chi-square = 16.2473, p < 0.05), with Japanese tourists again signalling a lower WTP than other groups. It is concluded that tourists are willing, via the payment of a transparent ‘access fee’, to contribute to the costs of sustainable management of the whale shark experience.
Europe
Authors: Bar-On Raphael Raymond
Published: July 2017

Europe continues to lead the world in international tourism. The World Tourism Organization reported 381 million tourist arrivals in 1998 (excluding day-visitors) in its European region, 2.5% above 1997, with receipts from international tourism totalling US$229 billion, 3.8% above 1997 (in current US$ and excluding International Fares, including receipts from day-visitors). Tourist arrivals and receipts are presented for the 45 countries and territories (by sub-regions), with revised 1998 totals for the other five WTO regions. The Word Travel and Tourism Council's estimates of the economic impact of the Travel and Tourism Economy in Europe and worldwide and projected growth to 2010 are also presented.
An Analysis of the Economic Contribution of Inbound International Tourism in Turkey
Authors: Tosun Cevat
Published: July 2017

This article presents an analysis of the contribution of international inbound tourism to economies of developing nations with special reference to Turkey. It shows that the contribution of international inbound tourism to the Turkish economy appears to be significant in absolute terms. However, when compared with that of other competing European countries, the economic benefits of international inbound tourism seem not to have reached a satisfactory level. Moreover, analysis of available statistics reveals that the contribution of international inbound tourism to the Turkish economy has been overstated. For example, after a change in the method of data collection, the figure for tourist spending per capita is found to increase dramatically and out of all proportion to tourist spending per capita figures in neighbouring Greece, though there seems to be no significant difference between the tourism demand profile of each country. By taking into account the tourism demand profile of Turkey, the stiff price competition among identical tourist destination countries, the nature of tourism demand, the dependence of tourism on international tour operators and a few tourist-generating countries, and the peculiarities of jobs generated by tourism, the author concludes that the contribution of international tourism to the Turkish economy is too precarious, unreliable, and difficult to sustain in future. It is suggested that international tourism should not be seen as an engine of export-led economic growth strategy, nor as the principal long-term source of employment and foreign exchange in the developing world. In this context, it is further recommended that profits from tourism should be directed into other sectors of the economy in developing nations.
Mexico's Experience of Setting up its Tourism Satellite Account
Authors: Rivera Gabriel Díaz
Published: July 2017

The main objective behind the creation of the Tourism Satellite Account of Mexico (CSTM) was the need to have access to macro-economic information in support of the strategic management of Mexico's tourist development, so as to provide greater efficiency in the programming, analysis and decision-making processes for an increasingly dynamic tourism sector that is in full expansion and developing in an openly competitive and global context. This article examines the steps taken to develop and establish the CSTM, the results obtained and the main achievements and limitations of the satellite account, within the framework of the System of National Accounts, in respect to tourism policy and the tourism sector in general. It concludes by looking at the future use and applications of the CSTM.
Criminality among Female Alcoholics
Authors: Medhus Asbjörn
Published: July 2017

The proband group consisted of 71 female alcoholics subjected to compulsory treatment by the Temperance Board in Malmö. 38 probands were recorded in the Penal Register. For a period from year 20 before to year 9 after the first compulsory treatment, 85 offences were committed. During the same period, less than one recorded criminal offence was expected, according to an age-and calendar year specific risk table for Swedish women. In relation to the expected incidence, the observed was not particularly high at the beginning of the period. From year 12 up to year 2 before the intervention, it increased to an extremely high level where it remained. The distribution of the crimes according to nature agreed with that valid for Swedish women in general. The average age at the crime debut was conspicuously high, about 30 years. Despite this, the first criminal offence, as also the first gonorrhoeal infection, was an early sociomedical symptom; not until later did public assistance and conviction for drunkenness usually arise.
Arteriosclerotic and Other Degenerative Heart Diseases in Finland
Authors: Penttilä Antti , Ahonen Antti
Published: July 2017

All available information recorded on the death certificates of 12973 Finnish persons who, according to the official Finnish mortality statistics, died in 1968 from arteriosclerotic and other degenerative heart diseases (ADHD, rubrics 420–422 in ICD) comprised the material of the present study. The mortality of males from ADHD analysed by age and place of residence was very high when compared with various national rates of international WHO statistics. The degree of urbanization of the domicile did not have any statistically significant effect on the mortality from ADHD. Significant differences between various provinces were found in the mortality of males from ADHD. The male population living in the eastern provinces of Finland showed a highly significantly higher mortality from degenerative heart diseases than the male population living on the west coast. A highly significant difference was found in mortality between various subgroups of the Finnish male and female populations analysed by age, place of residence, and type of community. The uniform difference between the mortality of various male and female subgroups of the Finnish population, which was obtained using the present statistical survey of death certificates, and the fairly uniform distribution of high rate of mortality of males from degenerative heart diseases in most regions of the country lend further support to the reliability of cause-of-death statistics, since certification of deaths can then be regarded to occur uniformly and with about the same accuracy in different parts of the country.
Detection, Treatment and Follow-up of Hypertension in a Community Sample of 55-Year-Old Men
Authors: Isacsson Sven-Olof , Lindell Sven-Eric , Carle Torsten , Malmborg Robert O.
Published: July 2017

In connection with a population study including 703 randomly selected 55-year-old men, 20 men with the highest blood pressure were selected for a careful follow-up and treatment for 1 year. Controls without hypertension were randomly selected from the remainder of the same population. Electrocardiogram at rest and in connection with an exercise test, changes in fundus oculi, orthostatic tests, peripheral arterial blood flow, chemical analyses and other variables were recorded on three occasions during the observation year. Drug treatment was standardized. Basic treatment was induced with polythiazide, which normalized the blood pressure in the majority of the hypertensive cases. The most striking findings in the hypertensive group before treatment were, besides the high blood pressure at rest, high blood pressure during exercise, an increased peripheral blood-flow through the calves, and an increased heart-rate. During treatment, the blood pressure were selected for a careful follow-up and blood-flow were almost “normalized”; the heart-rate remained elevated. The investigation shows that it is quite easy to achieve adequate reduction of blood pressure in hypertension among middle-aged men, as found in the “real world” outside the hospital. The main problem today is not to normalize the blood pressure but rather to detect hypertension and to maintain the therapy for several years. Hypertension is considered to be the cardiovascular risk factor that is probably most amenable to preventive approaches to public health.
Hospital treatment of Addicts Arrested for Intoxication in Finland
Authors: Niemi Timo
Published: July 2017

Hospital treatment of addicts arrested for intoxication in Finland. Niemi, T. (Dept. of Public Health Sciences, Univ. of Helsinki, Finland).

In the present study the treatment of addicts as performed by the Finnish police was investigated. The intention was to evaluate how the treatment procedure functioned in meeting the need for medical care and safety of the addict. The series was collected from the police district of Helsinki, the Finnish capital, and comprised all addicts arrested and transported to hospital during 1969. The series totalled 859 cases, which is about 2% of all addicts arrested in Helsinki during 1969. The reasons for transportation to hospital were: external injuries (60%) and the addict's complaints of an injury or illness (17%). Of all subjects, 44 were admitted to a hospital ward and of these, 2 died later on the ward. Furthermore, 7 addicts had died at the police station, on the way to hospital, or at the out-patients' department. Thus the number of deaths totalled 9. On investigating the cases of death in detail it was found that omission of or delay in the transport to hospital may have been of decisive influence on the addict's death in 4 cases. It was estimated that, had the police not transported any of the addicts to hospital, the number of deaths would have been about 20. When the cost of hospital treatment and transport to hospital is used as an evaluation factor the effort of the activity covered by the present study is 98500 Fmk (U.S. 23 200). The output is the number of lives saved, i.e. 11. The efficiency of the activity is thus the saving of one life at the cost of about 9 000 Fmk (about 2 100 U.S.). The social characteristics of the addict were not found to have had a decisive bearing on the question of transportation to hospital. Differences between the various points of activity were observed in the relative numbers of the addicts arrested and transported to hospital.
Smoking and the Subjective Health Condition among Finnish Military Conscripts
Authors: Moilanen Paavo , Hirvonen Leo , Timisjärvi Jouni , Kari-Koskinen Onni
Published: July 2017

Smoking and the subjective health condition among Finnish military conscripts. Moilanen, P., Hirvonen, L., Timisjärvi, J. and Kari-Koskinen, O. (Department of Public Health and Department of Physiology, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland).

Information on smoking habits and a subjective self-estimate of general state of health was collected by means of a questionnaire from 400 conscripts in Northern Finland. The data were treated by factor analysis. Long-term fatigue, frequent headache, insomnia and occasional depression were less frequent among non-smokers than among smokers.
Mental Health and Housing
Authors: Kari-Koskinen Onni , Karvonen Pentti
Published: July 2017

Mental health and housing. Kari-Koskinen, O. and Karvonen, P. (Dept. of Public Health, Oulu University, Oulu, Finland).

With the present trend away from the designing of individual buildings and towards the systematic planning of whole residential communities, it should be possible to take mental health requirements into account at the planning stage. At present, sociologists are all too seldom consulted on matters of residential planning.

When discussing the relationship between housing and mental health one cannot restrict oneself only to the external aspects of the house, but rather one must also consider the opportunities available for the members of the family to satisfy their own needs, both within the home and in its immediate surroundings. Factors which may affect residential requirements include geographical location, type and standard of dwelling and time and continuity of occupation.

A move between two districts or groups representing different housing norms and values may lead to withdrawal symptoms in the individual. This may arise equally well from the remoteness of the country districts as from the conflicting pressures brought on by the abundance of contacts available in the large towns. Town life tends to heighten susceptibility to neuroses and personality conflicts.

The character of a residential area may affect the mental health of its occupants. Faris & Dunham (4), in studying the incidence of various types of mental illness with an urban population, observed that schizophrenia was most common among people who were in some way isolated from social involvement.

The striving for spaciousness in residential areas and the creation of a “summer city” or “garden city” image or a “family-centred way of life” may lead to unexpected problems and have a variety of social consequences. Mental health difficulties have been noted, for example, among housewives in “dormitory” towns or suburbs (11).

The institutions required by a community may be grouped into four categories, representing the basic needs of its members. These are (1) economic institutions, (2) social and political organizations, (3) leisure-time clubs and (4) societies and institutions for promoting social integration, including educational, advisory and assistance bodies.

The study of satiation processes offers an interesting approach to the relationship between housing and mental health. Man requires new stimuli to motivate him. Boredom and satiation serve to induce passivity and may provoke destructive behaviour and escapism.

Finland has the highest percentage of dwellings constructed in the immediate post-war period of any country in Europe, and in respect of the functions of housing many aspects are still apparent which are detrimental to mental health.
Priorities in Epidemiology of the Future
Authors: Ipsen Johs.
Published: July 2017

Priorities in epidemiology of the future. Ipsen, J. (Institute of Social Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark).
Health Situation and Related Social Conditions among 66-Year-Old Finnish Men
Authors: Heikkinen Eino , Käyhty-Seppänen Birgit , Pohjolainen Pertti
Published: July 2017

Health situation and related social conditions among 66-year-old Finnish men. Heikkinen, E., Käyhty-Seppänen, B. and Pohjolainen, P. (Dept. of Public Health, University of jyväskylä, Finland).

The aims of the study were to reveal the extent of physical activity, nutritional habits, smoking and alcohol consumption and the relation of these to previous occupation among recently retired men. The number of men belonging to various health risk groups was estimated on the basis of the results. About 10% had inadequate nutritional habits as judged from their food expenses and number of daily hot meals and about 20% practised physical exercise in the way which is considered necessary for the improvement of cardiovascular performance and maximal oxygen uptake. Only a small minority had been requested to undertake physical exercise. About 18% lived alone. The problems were more pronounced among the men retired from manual occupations compared with men whose main occupation had been of a sedentary nature. The results indicate that a considerable proportion of elderly men would need more advice and more adequate services in order to improve their daily living habits. Any such measures should preferably be started before retirement as the living habits adopted during the earlier periods of life seem to remain unchanged in old age. The results are based on an interview study carried out among 137 66-year-old men repersenting about 90% of the men of that age group living in Jyväskylä, a town of 60000 inhabitants in Central Finland.
Life Changes and Myocardial Infarction
Authors: Faire Ulf de , Theorell Töres
Published: July 2017

Life changes and myocardial infarction. How useful are life change measurements? de Faire, U. and Theorell, T. (Dept. of Medicine at Serafimerlasarettet, Stockholm, Sweden).

Although statistically significant, the relation between certain life changes and imminent myocardial infarction appears to be quantitatively weak. Of particular importance are events connected with employment. However, the summation of life changes has not proved to be of use in the prediction of imminent myocardial infarction. For patients with ischemic heart disease, variations in life change measures have proved to be of use in the prediction of changes in catecholamine output and in prognosis. When genetic factors are held constant, as in monozygotic twin pairs vulnerable to ischemic heart disease, more life changes in one partner may indicate a greater risk of unexpected sudden cardiac death in this partner than in the other twin. The self-rating of the severity of each experienced event has proved more useful than “standard weights” in the retrospective discrimination of myocardial infarction patients. Further clinical and epidemiological studies are needed in this field. For the future, the following recommendations are made: The studies should be prospective. The individual's habitual level and actual level of the change should be recorded. The severity of events should be self-rated. Risk variables, known to be of importance to the development of MI should be recorded. They are for instance smoking habits, blood pressure, serum lipids and genetic predisposition. Psychological variables should be mentioned separately in this connection.
Visits to Small Coastal Communities of Northern Norway by a Doctor and a Health Insurance Officer
Authors: Brevik John Ivar , Indrevoll Nils
Published: July 2017

Visits to small coastal communities of Northern Norway by a doctor and a health insurance officer. Brevik, I. J. and Indrevoll, N. (Institute for Community Medicine, University of Tromsø, Norway).

What can we learn by visiting small remote communities, giving information about health insurance and social allowances, assisting clients in completing application forms, etc? In the present study we met attitudes that made some people bear numet needs instead of craving their legal rights. Our visits improved the communication between the people concerned and the Local Health Insurance Office. The officer realized what impairment might mean for working capacity in such communities, and got in a better position to handle various applications.
Alcohol Problems among Female Gonorrhoea Patients
Authors: Medhus Asbjörn , Hansson Holger
Published: July 2017

Alcohol problems among female gonorrhoea patients. Medhus, A. and Hansson, H. (Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Lund and Department of Dermatology, Malmö General Hospital, University of Lund, Sweden).

The proband group consists of the 286 women who, in 1960, were treated for gonorrhoea in the Out-patient Clinic for Venereological Diseases in Malmö. During the years 1932 to 1973, they were responsible for 119 convictions for drunkenness, the expected number of convictions being 4, as calculated from an age-and calendar year specific risk table for Swedish women. The difference between numbers observed and those expected increased with age. Of the 82 patients aged 25 years or over in 1960, one in ten had previously been convicted for drunkenness, and one in seven, 13 years later. During the years 1939 to 1973, 12 gonorrhoea patients were subjected to compulsory treatment by the Temperance Boards. Of the patients aged 25 years or over in 1960, one in twenty had earlier been subjected to such treatment, and one in ten, 13 years later. It is concluded that gonorrhoeal infections, particularly in women 25 years and over, can constitute a “symptom” of alcohol problems.
Services to Pensioners and How They Might Be Improved
Authors: Bolin Anders , Lindström Bengt , Sagnér Alf , Svanström Leif
Published: July 2017

Services to pensioners and how they might be improved. II. A report from Malmö. Bolin, A., Lindström, B., Sagnér, A. and Svanström, L. (Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Lund, and the Social Board of Malmö, Sweden).

As a follow-up to a previous article, the authors present an analysis of the services to pensioners in the 4th Welfare District of Malmö, as shown by their survey in 1972–1973, along with suggestions for improvement in various respects. They point to the importance of acquiring a general view of the individual and his situation. Various functions within the society's welfare program must be essentially improved, field work and adequate information being among the most important. Integration and coordination between the functional units must be operational concepts.
Distributing Medical Care Services: Coronary Care Units in the United States and Sweden
Authors: Bloom Bernard S. , Jonsson Egon
Published: July 2017

Planning in the United States is based on an institution's perceived need, whereas in many other countries it is based on population need. These unique approaches to planning have led to widely differing distributions of facilities and services. Planning by the U.S. method leads to a more generous provision of services than does population-based planning.

In both planning systems, the planning process appears of paramount importance, while the fundamental questions of effectiveness outcome and impact of medical care services are usually ignored. Even population-based planning either cannot or will not deal with the conflict between professional desire for highly developed technology on the one hand and treatment effectiveness on the other. Nevertheless, population-based planning has at least the virtue of providing a less expensive yet more efficient system. Physicians and the public appear able to adjust to the quite different resource provisions of the two planning systems; both the abundant U.S. supply and the restricted supply in Sweden are perceived as adequate.
Costs and Benefits of Measles Vaccination in Finland
Authors: Ekblom Marja , Elo Olavi , Laurinkari Juhani , Niemelä Pauli
Published: July 2017

Measles vaccination is fairly beneficial. During the third year after launching of the vaccination programme, cumulative benefits accruing from vaccination outweigh the cumulative costs of vaccination. This conclusion is based on a study of the vaccination programme in Finland. According to the vaccination programme, all 1-year-old infants in Finland are vaccinated. The duration of the period under survey has been set at 25 years, the measuring unit is the Finnish mark and the price level is that of the year 1975. When comparing costs and benefits, these are converted to present day monetary values. Vaccination costs per vaccinated infant amount to 32 marks, and in total during the period 1975–1999 they will amount to about 34 million marks according to an interest rate of 9% and to about 41 million marks according to an interest rate of 6% in current monetary value. Benefits gained by vaccination, compared with costs, are manifold. The benefits of one vaccination have been estimated at 230 marks. In total, benefits during the period 1975–99 constitute ca 117 million marks at an interest rate of 9%, and ca 159 million marks at an interest rate of 6% in current monetary value, without any deduction for vaccination costs. The net gain of vaccination—with a deduction of vaccination costs—is ca 84 million marks at an interest rate of 9%, and ca 118 million marks at an interest rate of 6% in current monetary value.
Untreated Psychiatric Disability: A Study of Disabled Persons with Major Psychiatric Health Impairment, Having Never Received Psychiatric Treatment
Authors: Hartvig Pål
Published: July 2017

The presented investigation, from a county seemingly representative of the average for Norway, showed that at least 15% of male Disability Pensioners with a psychiatric primary diagnosis, become pensioned without having had any psychiatric treatment. The purpose of the investigation was to describe this group of untreated psychiatric disabled, both numerically and regarding social, personal and nosological factors. It was found that the absence of treatment was due not to lack of opportunity, but to the pensioner's own attitude, a stubborn resistance to being defined as a psychiatric patient. This is enhanced by a general tendency in our culture to choose, when possible, the role of a somatic patient rather than that of a psychiatric patient. The untreated group of male Disability Pensioners had a normal distribution of social status and stability, and showed a strong preponderance of neurosis-like conditions, combined with pains and other symptoms from the musculo-skeletal system in 51% of the clients. Among War Pensioners there were also found many untreated psychiatric disabled, especially ex-wartime seamen, showing a surprisingly constant syndrome of mixed anxiety and asthenia. The material comprised 150 males, 101 applicants for Disability Pension and 49 for War Pension, all untreated.