bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
General-Purpose Intentionality
Authors: Price Carolyn
Published: October 2011

This chapter investigates the distinction between special-purpose and general-purpose intentional systems. It sets out the minimal conditions a system must meet if it is to be classified as a general-purpose intentional system and considers how the notion of general-purpose intentionality relates to some familiar ideas in the literature, such as the distinction between modular and central systems. It also discusses the connection between general-purpose representation and the Generality Constraint.
Patriotism and Justice
Authors: Jones Charles
Published: October 2011

A limitation argument is designed to prove that the pretensions of cosmopolitans are illusory, incoherent, overridden by some morally more important considerations or otherwise wrong-headed. Constitutive theorists maintain that while there are perhaps good grounds for recognising the claims of human beings, cosmopolitans fail to take proper account of the value of what we might call certain intra-species collectivities, most importantly, sovereign states. Since sovereignty is a value, and since cosmopolitan arguments appear to ride roughshod over the sovereignty of states, it follows that the sort of moral universalism embodied in the basic human rights approach overlooks a value of great significance and is consequently mistaken in its conclusions. If a view requires the denial or the full force of human rights claims, then patriotism conflicts with cosmopolitanism.
Relativism, Universalism, and Walzer
Authors: Jones Charles
Published: October 2011

The challenges to cosmopolitan justice that this chapter considers come from relativist ethical views, and the ideas of Michael Walzer, who has recognised both the validity of universal norms and the importance of a more thickly articulated ethical culture. This chapter identifies certain salient features of ethical relativism and subjects them to criticism, and examines Walzer's approach to international justice, bringing out its relativist as well as its universalist features and showing exactly how Walzer goes wrong in partially denying the implications of the sort of transcultural human rights principles that this chapter defends. Walzer is critiqued to have underemphasised the value of the thin universalist morality that applies globally.
Information Technology and Research and Development Impacts on Productivity and Skills: Looking for Correlations on French Firm-Level Data
Authors: GREENAN NATHALIE , MAIRESSE JACQUES , TOPIOL-BENSAID AGNÈS
Published: October 2011

Since the use of information technology (IT) has become increasingly widespread throughout several industrial countries, this is expected to bring about many developments not only in the performance and the characteristics of the firm, but also in the firm's production function and in the quality and composition of the involved factors of production. In terms of its direct effects, machineries and other such equipment are becoming more dependent on computer software and on various electronic components, while a huge portion of the capital stock of companies involves the use of more computer equipment. To manage and maintain this equipment, the firms also have to employ specialized staff and workers need to have specific skills and knowledge for using IT. As such, several organizations have modified their production, sales, and administrative structures. This chapter attempts to provide a description about the correlations between productivity and skills and the use of IT and whether these are statistically significant.
The Contribution of Information Technology to the Rapid Economic Growth of Singapore
Authors: WONG POH KAM
Published: October 2011

Singapore has undergone a great deal of economic growth since it gained political independence in 1959, and this is made evident through their 8.4% per annum real GDP growth, and how the country's income level successfully went beyond the average level articulated by the OECD. With this growth, the country also improved and expanded their manufacturing endeavours, specifically those that involved the production of ICT goods. This chapter analyzes how the diffusion and adoption of ICT and the expansion in ICT production has brought about significant effects on Singapore's growing economy. This is done through clarifying the contribution of ICT in economic development, going over the trends in ICT production, and examining the contributions to productivity growth and GDP.
Information Technology and Economic Development: Results and Policy Implications of Cross-Country Studies
Authors: KRAEMER KENNETH L. , DEDRICK JASON
Published: October 2011

Especially in industrialized countries, information technology has manifested itself in several aspects of life. However, doubts such as the ‘productivity paradox’ remain since there have been disputes about the real worth and contributions of IT investments and other such dimensions of technological progress. For the US and other developed countries, studies have shown that there is a declining productivity growth in this sector. If indeed IT is the key to economic growth and innovation, developing countries will be at a loss if they do not adopt these developments immediately. This chapter emphasizes the need for both qualitative and quantitative data analyses for proceeding with a cross-country analysis of economic growth and development. Also, it looks into the various implications of this data in formulating international and national policies.
Negation Theories of Subsistence (1) The Thirteenth Century
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the theories of Peter John Olivi, Godfrey of Fontaines, and Hervaeus Natalis. The earliest explicit attempt to defend the negation theory of subsistence — the theory that what distinguishes a person from an individual nature is just a negative feature — can be found in Peter John Olivi. The chapter first gives Olivi's presentation of the opposing view — in this case, the esse theory of subsistence — along with Olivi's reasons for rejecting it; and secondly Olivi's account of the negation theory of subsistence. It then considers the theories of Godfrey and Hevaeus.
Consequences of the Union
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2011

This chapter briefly examines an issue which is of Christological importance, and which has some relation to the issue considered thus far: namely, the question of the consequences that the union has for the assumed nature. Specifically, the question is whether the union automatically entails that, for example, the human nature considered as including a human mind has any special religious experiences or gifts, whether these be of a kind not possibly had by other natures, or of a kind possibly had by other natures — albeit as a result of a different cause.
Counting Persons and Natures
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2011

The medievals found the discussion of counterfactual and counterpossible states of affairs to be particularly useful tools for clarifying tricky theological questions. As noted in Excursus I, Christology is no exception to this. This chapter looks at the first two of the issues listed at the beginning of Excursus I (viz. Are multiple incarnations possible? and Could many divine persons assume just one and the same nature?) relating them closely to medieval intuitions about the individuality of the assumed nature.
The March of the Women
Authors: Pugh Martin
Published: October 2011

This book is the first comprehensive study of the campaign for women's suffrage to appear for over thirty years. It challenges the widely-held assumption that the Victorian suffragists underwent a decline during the 1890s, and sets out to prove that, on the contrary, they had effectively won the argument about votes for women by 1900. To support this view the author demonstrates how ineffective Anti-Suffragism was during this period; cites the impetus given to the campaign by the enfranchisement of women in New Zealand and Australia in 1893 and 1902; and crucially examines the shift towards suffragist support by the Conservative Party in the 1890s. The March of the Women also evaluates anew the militant campaign of the Edwardian era, contrasting the sharp divisions over tactics among the London leadership with the more pragmatic approach at grass roots level. It shows how the Pankhursts and the WSPU managed to combine attacking the British Establishment and its values with tapping into it for support and funds; while at the other end of the spectrum the non-militants gathered support for the cause from the working-class and the emergent Labour Party.
The Tactical Dilemmas
Authors: Pugh Martin
Published: October 2011

When Constance Rover's Women's Suffrage and Party Politics in Britain was published in 1967, attempts to assess the entire campaign to secure the parliamentary vote for women has become available. Since 1967 a number of studies of specific aspects of the movement have helped to change the perspective on the cause. However, in view of the importance of the subject and the popular interest it still engenders, it cannot be said that a great deal has been published. Several aspects of the topic remain neglected, and the treatment of it seems unbalanced in many ways. Some authors continue to approach it by attacking the straw men of the past — that is the accounts written by George Dangerfield in The Strange Death of Liberal England and by Roger Fulford in Votes for Women, neither of which were based on primary source material. It is easy to criticize such works, but this is to avoid the real issues involved in an analysis of the campaign.
Decline or Revival? Women's Suffrage in the 1890s
Authors: Pugh Martin
Published: October 2011

This chapter analyses the debate over women's enfranchisement — a key theme but surprisingly neglected, perhaps because scholars traditionally accepted the Pankhursts' claim that no progress had been made before the 1900s. This chapter also demonstrates how the debate fluctuated over time as suffragists varied their case in order to take advantage of changing conditions; it also identifies those areas of debate in which anti-suffragist views became discredited or redundant. After 1900, members of parliament had been converted to the cause. The principle of women's enfranchisement had largely been won by the turn of the century; it remained to resolve the complicated question of the precise terms on which women were to receive the vote.
Women's Suffrage and Public Opinion
Authors: Pugh Martin
Published: October 2011

This chapter analyses and evaluates militancy which is designed to show it as a far more varied and in some ways subtle movement than is usually thought. Militancy is revealed as involving a wide spectrum of participation including purely nominal and temporary involvement by many women. The extent to which suffragettes and suffragists crossed the supposedly clear line between militancy and non-militancy, which suggests that the divisions over tactics assumed far less significance at local level than they did in London and among the leadership ranks, is emphasized. It also examines the character of the WSPU by juxtaposing the radicalism of its methods and its reputation with the reality of its members' position within the economic and social establishment, and by highlighting the inconsistency involved in attacking private property while simultaneously exploiting private wealth to sustain the campaign. The chapter concludes by explaining the decisive failure and decline of WSPU by 1914.
Globalization and the Logic of International Collective Action: Re-examining the Bretton Woods Institutions
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E.
Published: October 2011

The fixed exchange rate system had been abandoned back in 1971, raising questions at that time about the role of the International Monetary Fund. However, the abandonment of the fixed exchange rate system did not mark an end to crises; rather, they seemed to become both more frequent and of greater depth. When the Bretton Woods institutions were founded, there was a less well-developed theory of collective action that outlined the circumstances under which public, as opposed to private, action was desirable. There was, in particular, a less well-developed theory of market failure, of the circumstances under which markets by themselves did not yield efficient outcomes. This chapter explores the role of the Bretton Woods institutions from the perspective of global public goods and externalities. The discussion begins by focusing on the IMF, simply because there was, in its establishment, a clear vision of a global market failure that it was supposed to address.
The hierarchy
Authors: Potter Michael
Published: October 2011

The last chapter discussed the fact that some properties, such as non-self-membership, are not collectivizing (i.e., do not give rise to collections). It discouraged the notion that this is particularly surprising in itself, but did not provide a diagnosis. This chapter focuses on the task of selecting axioms that characterize some properties as collectivizing.
Ordinal arithmetic
Authors: Potter Michael
Published: October 2011

This chapter defines operations of addition, multiplication, and exponentiation for ordinals. It takes as a model the recursive definitions of the corresponding operations for natural numbers (§ 5.4): the form the extended definitions should take at success or ordinals is clear; the form of the additional clause defining the behaviour of the operations at limit ordinals is also clear if it is required that the operations must all be normal in their second variable.
Of the academical or sceptical Philosophy
Authors: Buckle Stephen
Published: October 2011

The interconnected essays that make up this work have displayed a clear tendency: sceptical doubts have been raised, and sceptical solutions proposed. This is true not only of the two sections that explicitly bear this tag, but also of those succeeding sections that appeal to custom, probability, and proof as the foundation of judgment. Free will, in the sense of some contracausal power possessed only by human beings and other higher creatures, has been denied, and human freedom has been relocated within the natural order. Human rationality itself has been humbled, as the ancient skeptics and Michel de Montaigne had humbled it, by being treated as, in large part, a quality possessed also by animals. Finally, religion, the defining mark of the human soul, has been attacked.
Unemployment
Authors: Layard Richard , Nickell Stephen , Jackman Richard
Published: October 2011

This book aims to provide a basis for better unemployment policy: showing how the lessons learned from experience and theory can be applied to greatly reduce the waste and misery of high unemployment. The book surveys the main aspects of the unemployment problem. It integrates macroeconomics with a detailed micro-analysis of the labour market. It uses a model to explain the puzzling post-war history of OECD unemployment and shows how unemployment and inflation are affected by systems of wage bargaining and unemployment insurance. For each issue the chapters develop a relevant theory, followed by extensive empirical analysis.
Edmund Burke, Volume II
Authors: Lock F. P.
Published: October 2011

This is the concluding volume of a biography of Edmund Burke, a key figure in eighteenth-century British and Irish politics and intellectual life. Covering the years 1784–97, its leading themes are India and the French Revolution. Burke was largely responsible for the impeachment of Warren Hastings, former Governor-General of Bengal, whose long trial is recognized as a landmark in the history of Britain's relationship with India. The author provides the first day-by-day account of the entire trial, highlighting some of the many disputes about evidence, as well as the great speeches by Burke and others. In 1790, Burke published Reflections on the Revolution in France, the earliest sustained attack on the principles of the Revolution. This remains, to this day, the most widely read book on the subject. Additionally, the biography examines Burke's parliamentary career, his family, friendships, philanthropy, and personality. The book's numerous illustrations and contemporary caricatures convey how Burke was perceived by an uncomprehending public. Controversial in his time, he is now regarded as one of the greatest orators in the English language, as well as one of the most influential political philosophers in the Western tradition.
A Boundless Object, 1787–1788
Authors: Lock F.P.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the activities and career of British politician Edmund Burke during the period from 1787 to 1788. In the summer of 1787, Burke spent his time writing letters in his estate in Beaconsfield and his attention was mostly on the Dutch crisis. During this period, Burke also participated in the impeachment proceedings against Judge Elijah Impey. Analyses of Burke's letters and writings during this period reveal that he had heated arguments with William Pitt on the Impey impeachment issue.
A Uniform Whig, 1791–1792
Authors: Lock F.P.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines British politician Edmund Burke's relations with his Whig Party in 1791–92. His Reflections on the Revolution in France was well received across a wide spectrum of political opinion, including many members of his party. However, when Prime Minister Charles James Fox declared he was against the book, no-one from the opposition benches came to Burke's defence. Burke retaliated and started attacking Fox with the help of William Fitzwilliam in the hope of unifying the Whig Party.
Criminology, Accountability, and International Justice
Authors: Schabas William A.
Published: October 2011

International criminal justice has barely engaged with the discipline of criminology, and vice versa. Probably this is because the phenomenon of international crimes is viewed within the field as more a matter of politics than sociology. On the legal side, there is an attempt by some of the lawyers to exclude the social sciences, by reducing prosecution to absolute principles and dismissing the relevance of factors such as peace building, reconciliation, and social reinsertion of offenders. Sometimes this is done in the name of legal rigour and sometimes its proponents invoke the rights of victims as justification. This chapter argues that international criminal law could benefit from greater openness to the social sciences. Criminologists might break some paths here by developing more sophisticated approaches to the specifics of crime when perpetrated in time of conflict, or by brutal regimes.
2 The Impact Question: The ICTY and the Restoration and Maintenance of Peace
Authors: Clark Janine Natalya
Published: October 2011

This chapter seeks to address an important ‘impact gap’ within the transitional justice literature, by using empirical data to explore and evaluate the ICTY's influence on the restoration and maintenance of peace in Bosnia-Herzegovina. In order to assess the Tribunal's social impact, it uses three key criteria — namely perceptions of the Tribunal, acknowledgement/denial, and inter-ethnic relations on the ground. Measured against each of these factors, the chapter finds little evidence that the ICTY has contributed to the restoration and maintenance of peace — and more specifically to reconciliation — in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Rather than necessarily interpreting this as a failure of the ICTY, however, it questions whether it is in fact realistic to expect a geographically remote judicial body to aid such a personal process as reconciliation.
8 Complicity in Genocide and the Duality of Responsibility
Authors: Jørgensen Nina HB
Published: October 2011

In 2007, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) upheld the notion that the Genocide Convention provides for state as well as individual responsibility for genocide, referring to the ‘duality of responsibility’ under international law. According to the ICJ, the obligation on states extends to complicity in genocide. In the meantime, the ICTY considered the relationship between ‘complicity in genocide’ and ‘aiding and abetting genocide’ within the terms of its Statute, and essentially settled the law on aiding and abetting genocide. The analysis of both the ICJ and the ICTY illustrates how problematic the legal definition of complicity in genocide has proved to be both for individual and state responsibility. This chapter examines the ‘duality of responsibility’ with specific reference to complicity in genocide, exploring the extent to which the issues faced by the ICJ are analogues of issues the ICTY and the ICTR grappled with but left partially unresolved.
15 The ICTY and its Relationship with National Jurisdictions: Powers, Limits, and Misconceptions
Authors: Prost Kimberly
Published: October 2011

This chapter explores the relationship between the ICTY and national jurisdictions. It examines the cooperation obligations imposed under Article 29 of the Statute in relation to the gathering of evidence and the surrender of persons, with emphasis on how those have been interpreted in the jurisprudence. It analyses critically the approaches adopted by the Tribunal, in particular in the creation of a subpoena power and the compulsion of documents from states and international organizations. It also looks at the criteria imposed for the taking of evidence via a satellite link and the practical problems which have arisen in that context. Finally, there is a brief consideration of the potential conflicts between the Tribunal and states in the context of the transfer of individuals to national jurisdictions for trial in instances where that person was originally surrendered to the Tribunal by a third state.
Entropy
Authors: Frigg Roman , Werndl Charlotte
Published: October 2011

This chapter explains the most important notions of entropy and clarifies their interrelations. It furthermore explores what notions of probabilities are at work when entropy is defined in terms of probability. Entropies from thermodynamics, information theory, statistical mechanics, dynamical systems theory, and fractal geometry are surveyed. Notions of entropy from statistical mechanics such as varieties of the Boltzmann and Gibbs entropies can be traced back to information-theoretic entropy. As the chapter points out, an analytic connection between fine-grained Boltzmann entropy and thermodynamic entropy can be established for ideal gases. No easy results about probabilities follow, since several interpretations are compatible with each definition of entropy.
Practical Reason's Foundations
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

Law's sources, by reference to which the correctness (validity) of propositions of law is assessed in this chapter, include not only ‘social facts’ such as enactment but also many ‘principles of interpretation’ which look to content-based considerations — requirements of humanly appropriate behaviour. So understanding law, and specific laws, requires reference (direct or indirect) to human goods and harms, and to the various derivability of laws from first principles of practical reason (ableness). Hume's challenge to the primacy of such first principles — his claim that reason is and ought to be the slave of the passions — is here confronted, with the aid of Christine Korsgaard's critique. That critique's inadequacy is then shown, as a claim once advanced (but since substantially withdrawn) by Terence Irwin, that Aquinas contradicts himself about whether prudentia (phronêsis, practical reasonableness) concerns ultimate ends or only means. The chapter argues finally that first practical principles are transparent for the persons who can flourish in the kinds of ways to which those principles direct us; and shows the non-Humean sense in Shakespeare's dictum: ‘Love hath Reason, Reason none...’.
Bernard Williams on Truth's Values
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This chapter is the first part of a 2008 essay whose other parts are collected as Chapter 7 in Volume II of this text and Chapter 8 in Volume V. Here Williams's project in the last book he published, Truth and Truthfulness: An Essay in Genealogy, is described and assessed. Its critique of scepticism is valuable, but the four objections he brings against Plato's conception of the cause of the world's intelligibility are shown to be misconceived. In relation to practical reason, with its foundational understanding of such goods as knowledge and friendship, Williams's famous distinction between internal and external reasons is to be regarded as merely updating Hume's unwarrantable dogma that reasons as such cannot motivate. Williams's attack on ‘the morality system’ (that is, on morality) simply assumes that there are no substantive first principles of practical reason, and thus shuts its eyes to intelligibilities available to us all.
Virtue and the Constitution
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

Civic virtue is inadequately understood as tradition-bound; properly it is true moral virtue as it bears in various ways on one's participation in community extending beyond the family: for example, impartial and zealous dutifulness of doctors or firemen, probity of lawyers, honesty of scholars, fidelity of trustees, etc. It includes respect for and appreciation of persons, however diverse, even though diversity is a tragedy and cross for a community inasmuch as diversity about fundamental questions blocks the community's participation in good ways of living and its ability to reform. Governmental encouragement to virtue is permissible but subsidiary; primary responsibility for inculcating civic virtue rests with families, schools, and other institutions of civil society.
Rights: Their Logic Restated
Authors: Finnis John
Published: October 2011

This chapter offers some fundamental clarifications of the logic of Hohfeld's analysis of rights. Its results are presupposed and partly summarized in Natural Law and Natural Rights. Axioms for a right understanding are: each Hohfeldian jural relation concerns only one activity of one person; a claim-right can never be to do or omit something, but is always a claim that somebody else does or omits something; the relevance of legal remedies to the defining terms of the schema is left undetermined by Hohfeld. Neglect of these axioms is shown to be widespread in jurisprudence. The chapter concludes with critical discussion of Dworkin on ‘the right to break the law’ and the Second Vatican Council on ‘abuse of rights’ and the limits to religious liberty.
Beyond the Vienna Convention: Conflicting Treaty Provisions
Authors: Klabbers Jan
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the notion of treaty conflict and the various suggestions that have been made to solve them. It goes into the drafting of the Vienna Convention and explains treaty conflict along more or less systemic lines, resulting from the Vienna Convention's drafters' choice to concentrate on form rather than substance in conjunction with the circumstance that in a horizontal legal order, a treaty is res inter alios acta. It is argued that the unsolvable nature of some treaty conflicts need not necessarily be considered overly problematic, but that much will depend on the attitude of those charged with the task of applying treaties and settling disputes: a virtuous approach is called for.
Some Remarks on the Continuity of Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law Treaties
Authors: Pocar Fausto
Published: October 2011

This chapter explores how the proliferation of newly independent states and state dissolution has resulted in greater complexity on the issue of state succession of treaty obligations. In particular, between the theories of tabula rasa succession and automatic state succession. The Human Rights Committee, the Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties, and the development of customary international law all bolster the imposition of automatic state succession with respect to international human rights and humanitarian law treaties. Automatic state succession is required by the special nature of human rights and humanitarian law. Thus, once a population is granted the protection of such rights, these rights devolve with the territory and a state cannot deny them. Furthermore, other international institutions have enforced these obligations resulting in the continuity of international human rights and humanitarian law treaties.
The Distinction between Jus Cogens and Obligations Erga Omnes
Authors: Picone Paolo
Published: October 2011

This chapter demonstrates the necessary distinction between the two concepts in question, taking into consideration their different historical origins, their effects, and the reciprocal fields of application. It opposes the conception according to which only the rules creating obligations erga omnes could be considered as peremptory, as well as the theoretical opinion that all norms of jus cogens would produce, if breached, obligations erga omnes. It critically analyses how these erroneous conceptions are reflected in the solutions, although contradictory, adopted by the International Law Commission in the final draft on the responsibility of States approved in 2001. The last part of the chapter shows how the two concepts raise in their operation many different problems, which are not yet adequately considered in the legal scholarship.
The Cold War, Civil Liberties, and the House of Lords
Authors: Ewing K. D.
Published: October 2011

Following on an overview of civil liberties during the Cold War, this chapter argues that courts are part of the political constitution and cannot be seen as an obstruction to government, that this is most clearly the case in times of national security, where there is complete deference to the executive, and that neither the Law Officers nor Parliament provide effective safeguards. In the Westminster system of government, everything depends on the self-restraint of governments and where this is lacking the only remedy is elections.
Business Rights as Human Rights
Authors: Nicol Danny
Published: October 2011

There is no compelling basis on which business rights can be disentangled from classic political human rights. Free trade and competition may not be labelled as human rights but they have the same fundamental status. The supra-nationality of the European Community Treaty, The World Trade Organization Agreements, and the North American Free Trade Agreement establish a supra-national constitution entrenching free trade in the private sector and increasingly in the public sector as well, e.g., private sector dominance in service industries, the exclusion of social rights, and nationalization. As this stands it means that we must be neo-liberal, that is beyond deliberation, which in effect makes neo-liberalism a human right, entrenching a particular view of ‘what is owed to each of us as human’. Most ‘fundamental’ UK rights are the European Union's ‘four freedoms’ which exemplifies the fact that business has captures the language of rights to curtail the powers of government in the interests of business elites.
Drying Kinetics of Distillers Wet Grains (DWG) Under Varying Condensed Distillers Solubles (CDS) and Temperature Levels
Authors: Bhadra Rumela , Muthukumarappan K. , Rosentrater Kurt A. , Kannadhason S.
Published: October 2011

Distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) is a widely used animal feed. But transportation of DDGS is often troublesome because of its stickiness. DDGS is formed by combining condensed distillers solubles (CDS) with distillers wet grains (DWG) and then drying. As a first step toward understanding drying behavior, this study's objective was to investigate batch‐drying kinetic behavior of DWG with three CDS addition levels (10, 15, and 20% wb) and three drying‐temperature levels (100, 200, and 300°C). Multiple nonlinear mathematical models were used to fit experimental drying data for moisture content versus drying rate. A new comprehensive model was developed (R2 = 0.89, SEM = 18.60) from a modified Chen and Douglas model to incorporate CDS and drying‐temperature terms. Drying temperature affected drying rate more significantly than did changes in CDS level; thus, drying temperature was the main effect and CDS was a subeffect. Increasing the drying temperature increased the drying rate significantly for all levels of CDS addition. This model can be used for predicting DWG drying behavior under broad operating conditions; it can be used to help the industry produce better DDGS, which may thus result in better DDGS handling and transport characteristics.
Top-down causation and social structures
Authors: Elder-Vass Dave
Published: October 2011

Top-down causation has been implicit in many sociological accounts of social structure and its influence on social events, but the social sciences have struggled to provide a coherent account of top-down causation itself. This paper summarizes a critical realist view of causation and emergence, shows how it supports a plausible account of top-down causation and then applies this account to the social world. The argument is illustrated by an examination of the concept of anorm circle, a kind of social entity that, it is argued, is causally responsible for the influence of normative social institutions. Nevertheless, social entities are structured rather differently from ordinary material ones, with the result that the compositional level structure of reality implicit in the concept of top-down causation has some limitations in the social world. The paper closes by considering what might be involved in examining how top-down causation can be shown to be at work in the social domain.
Halioglobus japonicus gen. nov., sp. nov. and Halioglobus pacificus sp. nov., members of the class Gammaproteobacteria isolated from seawater
Authors: Park Sanghwa , Yoshizawa Susumu , Inomata Kentaro , Kogure Kazuhiro , Yokota Akira
Published: October 2011

Two coccoid, non-motile bacteria were isolated from seawater in the north-western Pacific Ocean near Japan. The two strains, designated S1-36Tand S1-72T, were Gram-negative, obligately aerobic, heterotrophic and catalase-negative. They were able to reduce nitrate to nitrogen. Both strains required NaCl for growth, with optimum growth in 2 % NaCl, and grew at 15–30 °C, with optimum growth at 20–25 °C. Genomic DNA G+C contents of strains S1-36Tand S1-72Twere 59.6 and 59.4 mol%, respectively. The predominant isoprenoid quinone was Q-8 and major cellular fatty acids were C16 : 1ω7c, C18 : 1ω7cand C17 : 1ω8c. Analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed that strains S1-36Tand S1-72Twere related to each other (96.1 % sequence similarity) and both strains showed 92.3–94.7 % sequence similarity with members of the genusHaliea. On the basis of phenotypic and phylogenetic features, strains S1-36Tand S1-72Tshould be classified as representatives of two novel species in a new genus,Halioglobusgen. nov., within the classGammaproteobacteria. The names proposed areHalioglobus japonicussp. nov., the type species of the genus, with S1-36T( = NBRC 107739T = KCTC 23429T) as type strain, andHalioglobus pacificussp. nov., with S1-72T( = NBRC 107742T = KCTC 23430T) as type strain.
Capabilities of through-the-substrate microdiffraction: application of Patterson-function direct methods to synchrotron data from polished thin sections
Authors: Rius Jordi , Labrador Ana , Crespi Anna , Frontera Carlos , Vallcorba Oriol , Melgarejo Joan Carles
Published: October 2011

Some theoretical and practical aspects of the application of transmission microdiffraction (µXRD) to thin sections (≤30 µm thickness) of samples fixed or deposited on substrates are discussed. The principal characteristic of this technique is that the analysed micro-sized region of the thin section is illuminated through the substrate (tts-µXRD). Fields that can benefit from this are mineralogy, petrology and materials sciences since they often requirein situlateral studies to follow the evolution of crystalline phases or to determine new crystal structures in the case of phase transitions. The capability of tts-µXRD for performing structural studies with synchrotron radiation is shown by two examples. The first example is a test case in which tts-µXRD intensity data of pure aerinite are processed using Patterson-function direct methods to directly solve the crystal structure. In the second example, tts-µXRD is used to study the transformation of laumonite into a new aluminosilicate for which a crystal structure model is proposed.
Information and professional support: key factors in the provision of family‐centred early childhood intervention services
Authors: Fordham L. , Gibson F. , Bowes J.
Published: October 2011

Background  Much has been written on the principles of family‐centred practice and on the service delivery methods and skills required of its practitioners. Far less has been written from the perspective of families whose children have a disability. The aims of this study were twofold: firstly to understand families' experiences of family‐centred early childhood intervention services and secondly to explore other factors that might impact on these experiences.

Methods  One hundred and thirty families attending two established early childhood intervention services in New South Wales, Australia completed a survey incorporating the Measure of Processes of Care‐56, the Family Empowerment Scale, the Family Support Scale and the Parenting Daily Hassles Scale.

Results  Consistent with previous research using the Measure of Processes of Care‐56, ‘respectful and supportive care’ was the domain of care families rated to occur most and ‘provision of general information’ was the domain they rated to occur least. Significant positive relationships existed between families' ratings of family‐centred care and feelings of empowerment. Being provided with general information was strongly correlated with family empowerment. Families' social support networks played an important role but support from professionals was most strongly correlated with families' experiences of family‐centred care. Finally, families whose children's early intervention services were co‐ordinated by a professional experienced significantly better care.

Conclusions  The provision of general information and professional support are key components of family‐centred early childhood intervention services.
Interaction between glycaemic control and serum insulin‐like growth factor 1 on the risk of retinopathy in type 2 diabetes
Authors: Chen Harn‐Shen , Wu Tzu‐En , Hsiao Li‐Chuan , Lin Shu‐Hsia
Published: October 2011

Eur J Clin Invest 2012; 42 (4): 447–454

Background  There is strong experimental evidence that insulin‐like growth factor 1 (IGF‐1) plays a role in the development of diabetic retinopathy. We carried out this study to determine the association between serum IGF‐1 levels and retinopathy in patients with type 2 diabetes and whether this association is modified by the severity of hyperglycaemia.

Materials and methods  A total of 480 consenting patients with type 2 diabetes were enrolled between 1 August 2001 and 31 December 2002. All participants provided a medical history and underwent a physical examination, biochemical assessment and eye fundi examination. These patients were followed up in our clinics according to our national guidelines until 31 December 2009.

Results  Compared with the middle tertile, increased levels of IGF‐1 did not increase the risk of mild‐to‐moderate retinopathy (RR, 1·11; 95% CI, 0·63–1·95) and severe retinopathy (RR, 1·84; 95% CI, 0·79–8·57) at baseline. In the longitudinal analysis, increased levels of IGF‐1 showed a nonsignificantly increased hazard ratio (HR) for the progression of retinopathy (HR, 1·61; 95% CI, 0·52–4·96) and severe retinopathy (HR, 1·63; 95% CI, 0·65–4·09). However, in patients with relatively good glycaemic control, there was a significantly increased risk of the progression of retinopathy (HR, 2·21; 95% CI, 1·01–5·91) and a cumulative incidence of severe retinopathy (HR, 4·82; 95% CI, 1·10–18·25) in individuals with the highest serum IGF‐1 levels.

Conclusions  Our data suggested serum IGF‐1 was a contributing factor in severe diabetic retinopathy and this effect may be masked by poor glycaemic control.
Long‐term effectiveness of a prefabricated oral appliance for myofascial pain
Authors: DOEPEL M. , NILNER M. , EKBERG E. , LE BELL Y.
Published: October 2011

Summary  The long‐term effectiveness of a prefabricated oral appliance (R) was compared with a stabilisation appliance (S) in patients with myofascial pain. Sixty‐five patients diagnosed with myofascial pain at two centres for Stomatognathic Physiology in Sweden and Finland were included in a randomised controlled trial using Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders, with history questionnaires and clinical examinations performed by blinded examiners at baseline and at 6‐ and 12‐month follow‐ups. Patients were randomly assigned either to the R or the S group. Treatment outcome was measured according to IMMPACT for four chronic pain outcome domains: pain intensity, overall improvement, physical functioning and emotional functioning. Physical functioning was classified for Graded Chronic Pain severities and assessed by the Jaw Functional Limitation scale. Emotional functioning composed of scores of non‐specific physical symptoms and depression. There were no differences between groups at baseline. At both follow‐ups, all outcome domains showed significant within‐group improvement, without significant differences between groups. At 12 months, 72% of all patients reported a 30% reduction in worst pain and 63% of the patients a 50% reduction in worst pain. Overall improvement ‘better’ to ‘symptom‐free’ was observed in 81% in the R and 64% in the S group at the 12‐month follow‐up. Graded Chronic Pain, Functional Limitation of the Jaw, non‐specific physical symptoms and depression showed statistically significant reduction at 12‐month follow‐up. Results support the hypothesis that the effectiveness of the prefabricated appliance is similar to that of the stabilisation appliance in the long‐term when treating patients with myofascial pain.
Diagnostic value of 2D and 3D imaging in odontogenic maxillary sinusitis: a review of literature
Authors: SHAHBAZIAN M. , JACOBS R.
Published: October 2011

Summary  This review aims to explore whether 3D imaging offers an added value in diagnosis of odontogenic sinusitis. Odontogenic maxillary sinusitis accounts for approximately 10–12% of maxillary sinusitis cases. Proper diagnosis of odontogenic sinusitis is based on a thorough dental and medical examination and crucial to ensure therapeutic efficacy. To establish the odontogenic cause of maxillary sinusitis, 2D and 3D imaging modalities may be considered, each presenting distinct advantages and drawbacks. The available research indicates that 2D imaging modalities may often mask the origin of odontogenic maxillary sinusitis. This limitation is particularly evident in the maxillary molar region, stressing the need for 3D cross‐sectional imaging. The advent of low‐dose cone beam computed tomography in dentistry may be particularly useful when odontogenic maxillary sinusitis is not responsive to therapy. Yet, it seems that more research is needed to validate its use in odontogenic maxillary sinusitis.
Predictors of continuous positive airway pressure use during the first week of treatment
Authors: YE LICHUAN , PACK ALLAN I. , MAISLIN GREG , DINGES DAVID , HURLEY SHARON , MCCLOSKEY SUSAN , WEAVER TERRI E.
Published: October 2011

This study aimed to identify pre‐treatment and immediate early treatment factors predicting continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) use during the first week of therapy, when the pattern of non‐adherence is established. Four domains of potential predictors were examined: pre‐treatment demographic and clinical factors, patients’ perceived self‐efficacy, treatment delivery (mask leak and bothering side effects) and immediate disease reduction (residual respiratory events and flow limitation). The Autoset™ Clinical System objectively documented daily CPAP use, mask leak, residual respiratory events and flow limitation. Ninety‐one CPAP‐naive patients with newly diagnosed obstructive sleep apnea were followed for 1 week after treatment initiation. Mean CPAP daily use during the first week was 3.4 ± 2.7 h, with significantly lower use observed in black than non‐black participants (2.7 versus 4.4 h, respectively, P = 0.002). Less intimacy with partners caused by CPAP was the only treatment side effect correlated with CPAP use (r = −0.300, P = 0.025). Reduced CPAP use during the first week was associated simultaneously with being black, higher residual apnea–hypopnea index and the treatment side effect of less intimacy with partners. The three factors together accounted for 25.4% of the variance in the CPAP use (R2 = 0.254, P < 0.01). These data suggest the need to assess the impact of CPAP on intimacy and troubleshooting aspects of the treatment that interfere with sexual relationships. Assessing the presence of residual respiratory events may be important in promoting CPAP adherence. The association of race and CPAP use needs to be explored further by including more socioeconomic information.
Heterologous expression of a chloroplast outer envelope protein fromSuaeda salsaconfers oxidative stress tolerance and induces chloroplast aggregation in transgenic Arabidopsis plants
Authors: WANG FANG , YANG CHUN‐LIN , WANG LI‐LI , ZHONG NAI‐QIN , WU XIAO‐MIN , HAN LI‐BO , XIA GUI‐XIAN
Published: October 2011

Suaeda salsais a euhalophytic plant that is tolerant to coastal seawater salinity. In this study, we cloned a cDNA encoding an 8.4 kDa chloroplast outer envelope protein (designated as SsOEP8) fromS. salsaand characterized its cellular function. Steady‐state transcript levels ofSsOEP8inS. salsawere up‐regulated in response to oxidative stress. Consistently, ectopic expression of SsOEP8 conferred enhanced oxidative stress tolerance in transgenic Bright Yellow 2 (BY‐2) cells andArabidopsis, in which H2O2content was reduced significantly in leaf cells. Further studies revealed that chloroplasts aggregated to the sides of mesophyll cells in transgenicArabidopsisleaves, and this event was accompanied by inhibited expression of genes encoding proteins for chloroplast movements such as AtCHUP1, a protein involved in actin‐based chloroplast positioning and movement. Moreover, organization of actin cytoskeleton was found to be altered in transgenic BY‐2 cells. Together, these results suggest that SsOEP8 may play a critical role in oxidative stress tolerance by changing actin cytoskeleton‐dependent chloroplast distribution, which may consequently lead to the suppressed production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in chloroplasts. One significantly novel aspect of this study is the finding that the small chloroplast envelope protein is involved in oxidative stress tolerance.