bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Estimating Adult Age: Auricular Surface Morphology
Authors: Buckberry Jo
Published: November 2018

The auricular surface is located on the os coxae (pelvis) and forms part of the sacro‐iliac joint. Changes in appearance of the auricular surface have been used to estimate adult age at death. Two main methods are used in bioarcheology: the Lovejoy method and the Buckberry–Chamberlain (revised auricular surface) method. Neither reaches the gold standard of being both accurate and precise; however, the age‐related changes of the auricular surface do extend into the later decades of life.
Estimating Adult Age: Pubic Morphology
Authors: Bongiovanni Rosanne , Hentschel‐Fey Kelsee C.
Published: November 2018

Assessment of the pubic symphysis is one of the most reliable and frequently applied techniques for age‐at‐death estimation in skeletal remains. Throughout a lifetime, the pubic symphysis undergoes a series of irreversible, degenerative changes that follow a rough seriation from ridges and furrows in post‐adolescence to degeneration and porous expression in late adulthood. While several researchers have put forth age‐estimation methods, the Suchey–Brooks method remains the most commonly used today. Accurate age estimation relies on the assumption that the individual being analyzed is biologically similar enough to the reference population to follow the same rate of change; thus, many recent studies have called for population‐specific standards. To combat issues with age‐mimicry and small sample sizes, age‐estimation techniques are moving from description of phases to transition analysis. Future research into statistical methods such as transition analysis and revisions of old methods will continue to be an ongoing endeavor.
Estimating Subadult Age: Diaphyseal Length
Authors: Primeau Charlotte
Published: November 2018

Age estimation is a key step in the study of subadults in bioarchaeology. Estimating age from diaphyseal lengths is less precise than dental development, as long bone growth is more influenced by adverse conditions such as periods of disease, malnutrition, or starvation. In addition, differences in height between same‐aged children and sexual dimorphism further influence variation within a population. Despite these issues, estimating age from diaphyseal lengths is still useful when analyzing archaeological subadult remains, as there will always be cases where there is no dental information available. When estimating age from diaphyseal lengths, it requires the length of the diaphysis to be compared with a known standard or an established method. It is advisable to use a method devised from a population that resembles as much as possible the environmental conditions, time period and geography of the collection under investigation.
Estimating Subadult Age: Epiphyseal Union
Authors: Passalacqua Nicholas V.
Published: November 2018

The estimation of age at death using epiphyseal union is one of three primary approaches to aging subadult remains, the other two being dental development and eruption, and long bone growth. Epiphyseal union may be better understood as the union between two centers of bone ossification, with their fusion representing the completion of the growth and development process. Most epiphyses unite between the ages of 10 and 25 years, making epiphyseal union a reliable method for estimating age for individuals in adolescence or young adulthood. The estimation of age from epiphyseal union can be performed using radiographs or dry bones, and typically involves scoring the presence and degree of epiphyseal union and comparing scores to published reference standards.
Ethics in Conservation
Authors: Di Giovine Michael A. , Majewski Teresita
Published: November 2018

Heritage conservation practice is intimately tied to ethics, those future‐oriented rules of behavior based on ideas of what are the morally correct, right, and just actions that ensure the public good. The nature of heritage, however, makes the practical application of ethical principles quite challenging. While heritage purports to be inclusive—it links people with a recognized claim to an object, site, or intangible production through time and space—it does this by being necessarily exclusive. The challenge in heritage conservation is to identify an overarching ethical stance that can accommodate different, and sometimes conflicting, practical applications. Three prominent ethical paradigms for heritage conservation—paternalistic, multicultural, and patrimonial—illustrate the ways that practitioners struggle to appropriately engage and negotiate with all of the relevant stakeholders regarding the value, ownership, and uses of heritage, and the appropriate ways to communicate about and “manage” it.
F
aro Convention
Authors: Fojut Noel
Published: November 2018

The ‘Faro’ Convention 2005—the “Framework Convention on the Value of Cultural Heritage for Society”—builds on earlier heritage‐protecting approaches to present a model for the sustainable use of Europe's cultural heritage for public benefit. It offers a people‐centered approach which brings together heritage and human rights perspectives and identifies key fields of policy making and social action to which cultural heritage can add value. By demonstrating the social value which can derive from integration of cultural heritage dimensions into wider decision making, it also seeks to justify continued investment in heritage conservation and management.
Flooding
Authors: Fluck Hannah
Published: November 2018

Flooding brings benefits in the form of enriched soils, irrigation, and food resources, alongside negative impacts such as loss of life, livestock, and property, and waterborne diseases and parasites. Perhaps unsurprisingly, flooding as a natural disaster is a common theme in the mythology of most cultures and has been proposed as a contributory factor in the abandonment of settlements and collapse of cultures around the world. Identifying floods in the archaeological record requires the application of geological and geomorphological frameworks and techniques to consider the landscape and environmental context as a whole. With contemporary global climate change and associated sea‐level rise in many areas, flood risk is increasing. As modern communities are forced to find ways to adapt, there are opportunities to learn from the past to inform solutions for the future. Modern flooding also poses a threat to heritage management, damaging archaeological sites and historic structures.
Genetics: Ancient
Authors: Lee Esther J.
Published: November 2018

The development of genetic techniques has allowed DNA analysis of organic remains obtained from archaeological contexts. While early ancient DNA studies focused on questions surrounding human evolution and adaptation, the field now encompasses bioarchaeological topics such as identifying an individual's sex and biological affinities and assessing the morbidity and mortality of past populations. Ancient DNA analysis of human remains can address past demographic processes across broad geographical regions. Analysis of ancient organic specimens traces the origins and spread of plant and animal domestication and provides information on past human environments. Genetic technology continues to expand the type of specimens used for DNA analysis and further improves the quality of information gathered from ancient DNA, which will advance our understanding of past societies.
Geoarchaeology
Authors: Nicosia Cristiano
Published: November 2018

Scientific archaeology has made use of geological concepts and methods since its very early development, with stratigraphy playing a central role. Geoarchaeology employs a multiscalar approach to solve archaeologically relevant questions. It mainly deals with the evaluation of geological events in relation to their effect on human dynamics, paleoenvironmental reconstruction, site formation processes, material studies (e.g., provenance and sourcing of geogenic materials in artifacts) and with the study of anthropic impact on the environment.
Glacial and Periglacial Environments
Authors: Bates Martin R.
Published: November 2018

Glacial and periglacial landscapes associated with cooler periods during the Quaternary are characterized by lower temperatures, reduced sea levels, and altered vegetation patterns. Except for during times of glaciation, these landscapes were often attractive to Paleolithic people. A wide range of features allow us to identify what these landscapes were like in both the geological and paleontological records.
Human–Computer Interaction Research
Authors: Martin‐Rodilla Patricia
Published: November 2018

As a result of the multifaceted dimension of the relationship between humans and computer technology, human–computer interaction (HCI) is a vast and complex field in which many disciplines and approaches have a place. This includes psychology, computer science, and user studies, among others. In recent years, this relationship has generated great interest in the scientific community, and humanities researchers are not an exception. Fundamentally, HCI research involves the study of the users–systems dialogue phenomena, and the design, adaptation, and improvement of computer technology to the intrinsic characteristics of the human being. This adaptation includes not only ergonomic studies to achieve a better physical adaptation, but also studies of human cognition aspects in order to adapt software systems to them. Advances in HCI research are applied to all domains and fields, even more so due to the recent information systems presence in all aspects of our daily life and work environments.
Heritage and Human Rights
Authors: Williams Tim
Published: November 2018

The universal nature of human rights was set out asfor everyone without distinctionin the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948. However, this text does not define the role of culture or of cultural rights. Much of the recent debate has argued that, while cultural rights cannot simply be placed on a par with human rights, human rights such as dignity and justice need to be seen as driving forces behind decision‐making with regard to cultural heritage and its management. Rights‐based approaches—which we might argue are an extension of values‐based approaches in that they reflect the idea that some values are rights, and not simply interests or concerns—could be a very useful construct for promoting critical debate on the values of heritage and on the decisions taken regarding its use.
Heritage and Politics
Authors: Wilson Ross J.
Published: November 2018

To preserve, protect, present, and examine heritage is a political act. It is framed by the values and agendas of the individuals, communities, and societies that invest importance in objects, sites, places, and practices in their environment. From the 1980s, scholars in the field have stressed the political agenda inherent in the delineation of heritage. This has formed the basis of critical heritage studies, an approach that emphasizes how the representation of the past serves as a tool of social control but also possesses the capacity for resistance and dissent. However, such associations have been present since the origins of the antiquarian movement in the West during the early modern period (1500–1750ce). By defining heritage, whether cultural or natural, we engage in debates regarding power, capitalism, democracy, identity, and place.
Heritage and Value‐Based Approach
Authors: McClelland Andrew G.
Published: November 2018

A value‐based approach is now the dominant model applied to decision making over a diverse range of heritage around the world. In essence, it seeks to identify and conserve the positive values attributed by people and groups to things, which combine to represent the cultural significance of a particular place or category of heritage. This approach emerged in the afterglow of the Australia ICOMOS Burra Charter and is now embedded in numerous international charters, conventions, and national policy documents. It is claimed to result in better outcomes for heritage by involving a broader range of stakeholders and values. However, difficulties remain over the integration of considerations of economic and social value into a value‐based approach; and its appropriateness for “living heritage” sites and in other contexts remains open to critical examination. Its practical application will benefit from the greater use of social research methods, digital technologies, and community‐led and coproduction methodologies.
Heritage Interpretation
Authors: Hems Alison
Published: November 2018

This entry gives a short survey of some of the major changes inthinkingabout heritage interpretation over the past twenty years. Its focus is primarily on the United Kingdom, and it explores the relationship between public policy and interpretive practice. It considers heritage interpretation in its widest sense, in the context of heritage sites, but also in the context of museums and, more informally, of community‐based projects.
Transmission Electron Microscopy
Authors: Gialanella Stefano
Published: November 2018

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), together with the companion technique, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), is regarded as one of the most powerful characterization tools for materials. Starting from the fundamental idea of using electrons to overcome the spatial resolution limits of optical microscopy, a variety of specific instrumentation has been developed over the years to comply with the analysis requirements of different classes of materials. The attractiveness of TEM stems from the possibility of obtaining a full range of information on the microstructure, crystallographic structure and composition of the analyzed material. The main working principles of the technique are presented, highlighting TEM applicability to archaeological research. A critical aspect for the use of TEM is the preparation of suitable samples: electron transparent and still representative of the materials under investigation. Therefore sample preparation techniques are also introduced, together with the main TEM techniques, methodologies and related spectroscopies.
Human Growth and Development
Authors: Ríos Luis
Published: November 2018

The study of growth and development in past populations can offer important information regarding the social and environmental circumstances under which the earlier stages of the human life cycle develop in different biocultural contexts. This study is mainly accomplished through the analysis of skeletal remains belonging to the subadult stages of the human life cycle (infants, children, juveniles, and adolescents). The first steps of this study are the estimation of sex, and the estimation of age‐at‐death, where the concepts of biological and chronological age should be correctly understood. Next, the sensitivity of skeletal maturation and growth to the quality of the biocultural environment presents a broad picture of the living conditions during the subadult period in past societies. This biocultural approach is the basis that, combined with further dental and skeletal studies about diet, migration, and pathological conditions, and with archaeological and documentary information, constitutes the strategy to reveal the information stored in subadult remains.
Human Skeletal Data Quantification
Authors: Konigsberg Lyle W.
Published: November 2018

Data from human skeletal material is a major component of bioarchaeological research. Although in the digital era it is generally possible to make raw data available electronically, it is also possible within publications to provide summary descriptive statistics that can support the published analyses as well as permit researchers to consider further analyses. This entry focuses on the efficient and complete reporting of summary statistics that quantify human skeletal data.
Human Skeletal Geochemistry
Authors: Hoffmeister Kristin K. , Wright Lori E.
Published: November 2018

Human skeletal geochemistry is the study of the chemical interactions between the human skeleton and the surrounding natural environment during both life and death. During life, human biology and behavior shape the chemical composition of the skeleton due to food consumption, behavioral choices, and the places where people live. After death, the human skeleton is chemically incorporated into the geological environment. The structures of human bone allow for a variety of chemical exchanges that can be analyzed by geochemists to understand these processes and answer critical archaeological questions about diet, mobility, and disposal of the dead. Geochemists measure the elemental concentrations and stable isotope ratios of certain elements found in the skeleton using a variety of analytical methods.
Image‐Based
3D
Modeling
Authors: De Reu Jeroen
Published: November 2018

Image‐based 3D modeling is the reconstruction of the three‐dimensional shape and appearance of scenes or objects from two‐dimensional imagery, using mathematical algorithms developed in computer vision science. The application of image‐based 3D modeling in various archaeological research projects has proven that this technology provides detailed and accurate results and that it has the potential to be used worldwide, on a daily basis, at a large scale, and in different environments and conditions, in order to document a broad variety of archaeological landscapes, sites, features, contexts, and artifacts from different chronological eras. It thus provides an excellent tool for the 3D documentation of archaeology, from the artifact to the landscape level, opening new doors to multidimensional analysis and digital preservation of archaeological heritage.
Infectious Disease
Authors: Zuckerman Molly K.
Published: November 2018

The study of infectious disease within the archaeological record has shifted within the twentieth century from an emphasis on case studies of single disease episodes to population‐level analyses of the evolution and ecology of infectious diseases and coevolutionary dynamics between human hosts and pathogens. Material, methodological, and theoretical issues, such as the limited number of infectious diseases that affect the skeleton, have limited and complicated some aspects of the interpretation of infectious disease from archaeological skeletal material, particularly on the population level. However, methodological innovations, particularly within biomolecular research, have increased the number of archaeologically identifiable infectious diseases and the accuracy of these diagnoses. Ancient DNA studies and ancient pathogen genomics have also further increased scholarly understanding of host–pathogen interactions over the course of social and economic processes such as agricultural intensification and industrialization.
Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy
Authors: Sandak Anna , Sandak Jakub
Published: November 2018

Infrared spectroscopy is a field of science exploring the interaction of the infrared radiation with the matter being investigated. The infrared itself is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum located between visible light and microwaves, covering wavelengths between 700 nm and 1 mm. Infrared reflectance spectroscopy has proven its greatest applicability in several scientific fields, including archaeology. This technique permits chemical composition assessment, identification, material recognition, and provenance, covering various types of objects. Composition may be measured both in the field and in the laboratory, during excavation, intervention, and/or conservation. The measurement is rapid, nondestructive, and highly informative. If properly configured, infrared spectra include both qualitative, and quantitative information, assessed from any kind of sample (organic, inorganic) in any state (liquid, gaseous, solid), and presented in a small amount (milligrams). Recent developments in the fields of optics and electronics have provided several low‐cost solutions applicable directly for in‐situ measurements. However, implementation of spectroscopy should rely on correct sample presentation, representative measurement routine, and robust, continuously updated chemometric models.
Inhabited Landscapes
Authors: McNiven Ian J.
Published: November 2018

An inhabited landscape approach focuses on people as central to understanding past environments through the social construction, experience, and use of environments. Key is the concept of dwelling and inhabited landscapes expressing the inherited and cumulative results of people's lived experiences. As people's lives constantly unfold, so too landscapes possess an inherent temporality as they are perpetually under construction and always a work‐in‐progress. Alteration of ecological processes, environmental modification, and the creation of engineered, constructed, and domesticated landscapes are tangible expressions of dwelling. As the social world of most people involves environments imbued with sentient life forces, dwelling also encompasses emplaced interactions with nonhuman persons and spiritual entities. It is the tangible expressions of the lived experiences of dwelling that go to the heart of archaeologies of inhabited landscapes.
Instrumental Analysis of Lithics
Authors: Loendorf Chris , Fertelmes Craig
Published: November 2018

The instrumental analysis of lithic materials is a useful method for identifying source locations for stones that were employed by people around the world, and source data have been employed to address a wide range of important archaeological research issues. The analytical methods and instruments that archaeologists employ to identify sources for tool raw materials are similar to those used in geological research. These include such approaches as stable isotope analysis, ultraviolet florescence, instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA‐ICP‐MS), particle‐induced X‐ray emission (PIXE), thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), and X‐ray fluorescence (XRF).
Isovist Analysis
Authors: van Nes Akkelies
Published: November 2018

Visibility can be defined as the extent to which the spaces between the walls and obstacles are visible to one another in excavated towns or buildings. Space syntax offers a quantitative method to measure various degrees of visibility, based on visual sightlines of a built environment's spaces. The application of space syntax in archaeology contributes to new knowledge on socioeconomic life based on the degree of visibility of the physical form of past built environments.
Laser Cleaning
Authors: Pouli Paraskevi
Published: November 2018

The laser‐assisted removal of unwanted layers or encrustations has been established in the cultural heritage field, as it ensures material selectivity and spatial resolution as well as a fully controlled cleaning process. In the last 25 years a number of diverse applications have been reported that rely on different laser interaction mechanisms and methodologies. This entry aims to highlight the most important parameters that influence the efficiency of a successful laser‐cleaning intervention while presenting a broad perspective of different applications, devices, and practices; and it discusses open issues and challenges.
Linear Models
Authors: Nikita Efthymia
Published: November 2018

A linear model is a mathematical relationship that expresses a linear combination between one dependent (response) variable and one or more independent variables (predictors). Linear models have extensive applications in archaeological studies as they allow the prediction of the average value of a certain property for an individual/object, provided that the values of certain predictors are measured/observed, while they enable the assessment of the contribution of each of the predictors and their interactions to the response variable. Different linear models support different types of variables (continuous, binary, or ordinal), extending further their applicability. Indicative examples of relevant applications are provided here.
Lithics Data Quantification
Authors: Stemp W. James
Published: November 2018

Archaeologists use numerous methods to quantify the data from the analyses of lithic artifacts. In most cases, quantification addresses research questions concerning stone tool form and function. Data derived from tool metrics and morphology are used to interpret lithic typologies, reduction sequences, and retouch invasiveness, and create virtual copies of lithic artifacts for both study and display purposes. Quantification is also applied to lithic microwear and residue analyses to determine tool function based on the mathematical characterization of edge and surface structure (roughness/texture) and the chemical/elemental analysis of residues on stone tools.
Magnetic Field Gradient
Authors: Alva‐Valdivia Luis M. , Agarwal A.
Published: November 2018

Study of magnetic field gradient is the most common tool for geophysical prospecting of archaeological sites. Magnetic methods were first used in the 1950s, and have since then become the backbone of archaeological prospection. In general, application of geophysical methods in archaeology relies on the contrast in the physical properties of archaeological features and surrounding soil.
Magnetometry
Authors: Burks Jarrod
Published: November 2018

Magnetometry is a type of remote sensing, or archaeological prospection, used by archaeologists to locate archaeological features of varying magnetic properties largely related to differences in certain iron‐based minerals, such as magnetite and maghemite. Magnetometers, the instruments used to make magnetometry measurements, detect two kinds of magnetism: permanently magnetized materials and those materials that react to, or are susceptible to, a magnetic field. Typically, magnetometers are moved back and forth across an area of interest as sample readings of the magnetic field are recorded at set intervals. Such surveys are useful for detecting iron objects, burned earth (e.g., kilns, hearths, and house floors), and the accumulation of topsoil or archaeological midden in subsurface pits, trenches, and ditches.
Magnetostratigraphy
Authors: Muttoni Giovanni
Published: November 2018

Magnetostratigraphy uses the fossil record of Earth's magnetic polarity reversals to correlate rock sequences. Dating is also possible through correlation to age‐calibrated geomagnetic polarity time scales. The Quaternary contains ten main magnetic polarity reversals, from the base of the Brunhes Chron (∼0.781 Ma) to the top of the Gauss Chron (∼2.581 Ma). Polarity excursions of shorter duration (3–6 kya) may provide further resolution for dating and correlations.
Material Culture
Authors: Bille Mikkel , Sørensen Tim Flohr
Published: November 2018

The termmaterial culturebecame dominant in archaeology during the twentieth century, yet in two very different ways. In one version, material culture is a category of objects that allows scientists a glimpse of the past; in another, it is the active capacity of material remains of human production to constitute social worlds. Material culture is thus both an object of scrutiny in terms of composition, provenience, and production techniques, and a symbolic reflection of and practical constituent of social values. But the term is also problematic, as it implies that it is either a subcategory of culture, or that there are other aspects of human lives that are not in any way related to material surroundings.
Material Metaphor
Authors: Ray Keith
Published: November 2018

Archaeologists have explored the phenomenon of “material metaphor” in a number of ways, but primarily to help explain the symbolic ordering of representational items, or the patterning of physical remains they regularly encounter. The importance of metaphor that is expressed materially lies in its capacity, like metaphor in speech, not only to capture particular social qualities or relationships, but also to signal the transformative effect of the juxtapositioning involved. The most radical forms of material transformation have been achieved through the practice of skeuomorphism, and the metonymic qualities of these and other items have enabled absent people and their attributes to be “presenced.” Material metaphors have been suggested as underpinning the origins of thought and language back into remote prehistory, and their focused deployment at key historical junctures is considered to have helped achieve significant reorderings of the social order in different times and places.
Measurement Theory
Authors: Gibbon Guy
Published: November 2018

Science has embraced evidence‐based measurement as the dominant criterion for valid knowledge about the physical and social worlds. Accordingly, the theoretical foundations of measurement are a concern of scientists and philosophers. In the process, rules and assumptions have been proposed and debated as a basis for valid measurement. Measurement theory is the justifying logic behind this rule‐making process. This entry reviews traditional concerns and recent trends in measurement theory.
Memory
Authors: Šešić Milena Dragićević
Published: November 2018

Interest in heritage as a form of memory crucial for safeguarding national and cultural identity is spread across nations and communities, linking the past with today's values. Societies use different institutions to safeguard and represent their past (archives, museums) and different forms of official remembrance (narratives, symbols, commemorations, monuments, memorials, and so on). Memory work has become explicit within national and international (UNESCO) cultural policies and within everyday citizen practices, including the efforts of civil society movements to deal with a “negative past,” dissonant heritage, or oblivion. Using oral history and post‐memory, artists are contributing to the new links in between heritage and memory.
Metabolic Disease
Authors: Smith‐Guzmán Nicole E.
Published: November 2018

Deficiencies or surpluses of minerals necessary in bone homeostasis produce metabolic diseases that leave marks on the osseous remains encountered in archaeological contexts. Bioarchaeologists identifying these metabolic diseases through careful differential diagnoses make subsequent inferences into the cultural practices and genetic commonalities within and between past populations. With advances in clinical knowledge of the physiology of these disorders, and in the technologies with which to pinpoint them in human skeletal remains, future studies of metabolic disease in the past promise to pick apart the confounding factors of co‐morbidities and the lingering effects of childhood metabolic conditions on adult skeletal structure.
Mobile Geographic Information Systems (
MGIS
)
Authors: Gunn Scott A.
Published: November 2018

Mobile geographic information systems (MGIS) combine traditional GIS mapping with a mobile framework to link spatial data within archaeological contexts to nonspatial data, including photographs, field notes, forms, and other information. An abundance of MGIS data collection hardware and software is available today and these solutions can be customized to meet the requirements of a variety of archaeological survey or excavation projects. MGIS technology can quickly and thoroughly inform archaeological analysis and interpretation and is an integral component of modern archaeological fieldwork.
Mind and Cognition
Authors: Iliopoulos Antonis
Published: November 2018

Cognitive archaeology is the subdiscipline of archaeology that studies the thought processes of past peoples. In order to illuminate the technological, ideological, linguistic, and artistic facets of long‐gone minds, cognitive archaeologists strive to infer archaeologically visible behaviors by focusing on a wide variety of material proxies. There has been, however, much dissonance about the optimal way to approach the archaeological evidence when explaining the nature and evolution of past ways of thinking. For the traditional school of thought, artifacts are essentially the epiphenomenal products of a brain‐bound apparatus molded by selective pressures, whereas according to a new wave of thinking, things are actually the material scaffolds that effected the functional and structural reorganization of our plastic brains. There should, however, be no disagreement over the fact that interdisciplinarity is in the best interest of this collaborative platform, for drawing upon other fields can help produce analytically precise and spherical accounts of the past.
Musculoskeletal Stress Markers
Authors: Yonemoto Shiori
Published: November 2018

Musculoskeletal stress markers (MSMs) are used to reconstruct the daily life and physical activities of past populations. Previous studies have focused on the validity of the correlation between MSMs and physical activities. However, MSMs have been found to be affected by various factors, such as age, sex, and body size, rather than just physical activities. Unfortunately, studies on the differences in the degree to which various factors affect MSMs have been superficial. It is necessary to examine the differences in the physical activities among social groups (such as social classes), the differences in the degree to which age affects MSMs, and the degree of sexual differences in MSMs between groups. By examining the differences in behavior patterns between groups, MSMs can reveal correlations between behavior patterns and social structure.
Nanoarchaeology
Authors: Pérez‐Arantegui Josefina
Published: November 2018

Nanomaterials (materials containing particles with one or more dimensions in the size range 1–100 nm) were already present in ancient objects, with similar features to currently engineered nanostructures, justifying the so‐called nanoarchaeology of these items. Most of these nanomaterials were included in colored glass and ceramic glazes, with metallic nanoparticles of gold, copper, or silver, but also some pigments were nanostructured, like Maya blue, or some properties of ancient metal alloys were due to the precipitation of crystalline nanophases or nanotubes. Hence, even if materials with nanometric sizes were inadvertently produced during ancient times, their remarkable properties were already well clear.
Nanotechnology and Nanoscience in Conservation
Authors: Baglioni Piero , Chelazzi David , Giorgi Rodorico
Published: November 2018

Nanoscience has been providing solutions to preserve cultural heritage. Microemulsions are effective in removing soil and aged coatings from artifacts, with a decreased impact on both the operator and the environment, and a more controlled cleaning action, as compared to traditional solvents. Chemical gels can be used to confine the fluids, allowing their application on water‐sensitive surfaces. The formulation of the gel network can be tuned to achieve optimal viscoelasticity and retentiveness, in order to allow the feasible handling of the gels and their residue‐free removal (e.g., down to FTIR detection limits) from the treated surfaces. Complementary to cleaning tools, nanoparticles' dispersions have been used to consolidate weakened murals and stone. Alkaline earth hydroxide nanoparticles have been also used to adjust the pH of both cellulose‐ and collagen‐based artifacts. New challenges involve the conservation of modern/contemporary art, where nanoscience can contribute as for the preservation of classic artifacts.
Neutron Activation Analysis (
NAA
)
Authors: Vasilopoulou Theodora
Published: November 2018

Neutron activation analysis (NAA) is a nondestructive, multi‐element nuclear analytical technique with excellent sensitivity, great accuracy, and precision that has been extensively used in archaeological and cultural heritage studies. A concise description of the basic principles of the method and the experimental procedure involved, as well as the advantages of NAA, as compared to other established analytical techniques, is provided. Characteristic applications, innovative developments, and future perspectives of the technique are discussed, with emphasis on the fields of archaeology, provenance, authentication, and cultural heritage research. The unique capabilities and the great potential of NAA for nondestructive analysis of precious artifacts and historical materials are presented.
Neutron Resonance Analysis (
NRA
)
Authors: Schillebeeckx P. , Postma H.
Published: November 2018

The interaction strength of neutrons with nuclei as a function of neutron energy shows sharp peaks, which are known as resonances. Such resonances are specific for each nuclide and can therefore be used to analyze elemental and isotopic compositions of materials and objects. Two methods can be distinguished:
neutron resonance capture analysis
(NRCA) based on the detection of gamma‐rays emitted promptly after capture of neutrons by an object; and
neutron resonance transmission analysis
(NRTA), based on the detection of a neutron spectrum after transmission of the neutron beam through an object. NRCA has been used extensively to investigate archaeological objects. NRTA is potentially equally important. The neutron energy is mostly determined by applying the time‐of‐flight technique. This requires a pulsed white neutron source like the one at the Joint Research Centre in Geel (BE), where most of the NRA experiments have been carried out.
Obsidian Hydration Dating
Authors: Anovitz Lawrence M. , Fayek Mostafa
Published: November 2018

Obsidian hydration dating is a method of dating obsidian artifacts based on the depth of the hydration layer formed by diffusion of water over time into the glass. The hydration rate is dependent on glass type and temperature. Originally proposed by Friedman and Smith in 1960, the original optical analytical technique yielded scattered, unreliable results. More recent analytical techniques using secondary ion mass spectrometry or Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy provide more reliable results. Uncertainties in temperature over time suggest that local calibrations may be needed, but when times are independently calibrated this can be inverted to yield integrated paleotemperatures.
Olives and Olive Oil
Authors: Smith Wendy
Published: November 2018

One of the earliest cultivated fruits, olives were of major socioeconomic importance in the ancient Mediterranean/ Near East; however, the origins of this plant and the timing of its domestication are still not resolved. This entry outlines current modern genetic study of olives, reviews the various scientific methods available to identify the presence of olives and olive oil archaeologically, discusses some of the limitations of those methods, and considers the potential for improved identification and/or taphonomic information (e.g., heating regime).
Optical Spectroscopies
Authors: Möncke Doris
Published: November 2018

Optical spectroscopies allow the identification and in some cases quantification of coloring species in a material through their wavelength‐dependent absorption in the ultraviolet–visible–near‐infrared (UV‐Vis‐NIR) wavelength region. Dissolved ions in glasses and crystals can be identified using ligand field theory, and mixed colors can thus be resolved and assigned to different ions. For pigments and different binders, a couple of databases are available for their identification through reference spectra. Quantification is based on Beer–Lambert's law, which can only be applied to spectra obtained in the transmission mode and is therefore limited to transparent samples. For semitransparent and opaque materials, reflectance measurements allow the application of optical spectroscopy to ceramics, glazes, enamels, frescoes, paintings, textiles, and even manuscripts. Typical instrumentation, basic methods for the interpretation of optical spectra of characteristic absorbing species, and the concept of color space are considered in this entry.
Oral Health
Authors: Lukacs John R.
Published: November 2018

The oral health status of past populations is directly influenced by mode of subsistence, food processing, and diet. Evidence of oral health comes from pathological lesions observed in teeth and jaws of ancient human skeletons. Dental diseases frequently observed are: enamel hypoplasia (EH), dental caries, antemortem tooth loss (AMTL), and periodontal disease. Dental caries is an infectious disease resulting in the destruction of enamel and dentine by acids produced by bacteria. Caries is associated with other pathological lesions (EH, periodontal disease) that may promote caries formation, or with lesions subsequent to severe caries (exposure and infection of the pulp chamber, abscess cavity formation, and AMTL). Anthropological interest in oral health is motivated by the complex biological and cultural factors that influence the frequency and distribution of dental diseases in human populations. Sex and social status differences also affect the oral health status of human groups past and present.
Synthetic Aperture Radar
Authors: Chapman Bruce
Published: November 2018

Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery has been used since the 1970s to remotely observe terrestrial landscapes. Under certain circumstances, SAR can penetrate foliage or hyper‐arid soils to detect obscured features, or can be used to survey large areas unhindered by cloud cover. Interferometric SAR (InSAR) can be used to map topography and surface deformations which can prove useful for archaeological studies or management.
Terrestrial Lidar
Authors: Collins Lori D.
Published: November 2018

Terrestrial lidar is an emerging technology in remote sensing, being used to digitally document, survey, and accurately represent in three dimensions, archaeological sites, features, and objects. Light detection and ranging (lidar) can be performed at a number of scales and with a variety of platforms and equipment types. Scalar consideration can be landscape‐level using space‐based and aerial surveys, as well as ground‐based and close‐range applications documenting built environments, features, or artifacts. New developments in low‐altitude aerial survey, covering large landscape areas, are also occurring with advances in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), which can accommodate lidar, photogrammetry, and other imaging sensors and applications. These survey and documentation strategies are becoming more commonplace in the archaeological and heritage preservation toolkit as prices for hardware and software continue to come down, ease of use and post‐processing and computer capabilities improve, and archiving, accessibility, and file‐sharing formats are resolved.
Testate Amoeba Analysis
Authors: Mitchell Edward A. D. , Payne Richard
Published: November 2018

Testate amoebae are a group of single‐celled microorganisms characterized by distinctive shells which are often found preserved in sediments. The use of testate amoebae as indicators of past environmental conditions is well established in paleoecology but has been much less explored in archaeology. This entry reviews the biology and ecology of testate amoebae, their application in paleoecology, and previous and potential applications in archaeological studies. Key roles of testate amoebae may be for studies interested in linking archaeological and climatic change, for understanding human use of wetland environments, and as part of a suite of non‐pollen palynomorphs providing additional context to palynological studies. These and other applications deserve greater investigation.
Time and Temporality
Authors: Griffiths Seren
Published: November 2018

Time and temporality are vital aspects of archaeology. They influence both how we compose our arguments and what we think of in terms of the limits of archaeological interpretation. As a structuring principle, our temporal schemes provide one of the most significant aspects that inform and limit archaeological narratives; however, the latent influence of these schemes can be significantly underacknowledged. Temporality as part of recent reflexive approaches has provided one of the most important late‐twentieth‐century themes in archaeological description. Both these interlinked themes represent essential aspects of the ways in which we construct archaeological narratives.
Varve Chronology
Authors: Valero‐Garcés Blas L. , Corella Juan Pablo
Published: November 2018

Varves provide annually resolved chronologies and high‐resolution reconstructions of environmental changes affecting human societies, both key issues for geoarchaeological research. Varve sequences occur in a wide range of depositional environments (mostly in marine, estuarine, and lacustrine settings). Most varve chronologies include the Holocene and only a few span up to the Late Glacial. Africa and the southern hemisphere are underrepresented in the varve dataset. Research coupling varve and archaeological studies will advance our understanding of human–climate–environmental interactions, particularly the influence of water availability, climate variability, and catastrophic events on past human migrations and evolution.
Visualization of Magnetometer Data
Authors: Fry Robert
Published: November 2018

The aim of processing and subsequent visualization of magnetometer data is to provide both the specialist and non‐specialist with a dataset that can inform decision‐making and subsequent risk management in a sensible and appropriate way. Magnetometer data are complex, and require careful processing and thoughtful visualization to transform them from a stream of measured values into a clear, interpretable dataset. Key generic processing routines are introduced which deal with noise reduction and enhancement of magnetic anomalies, to improve the visual appearance and positioning of data. Common visualization approaches of processed data are also highlighted.
Volcanic Rock Sourcing
Authors: Barca Donatella
Published: November 2018

Rocks have been used as raw materials since ancient times. Yet, to source them, people have always taken into account a variety of factors such as their easy availability in the field, as well as their workability, durability, appearance, and color. This meant that the selected rocks were occasionally sourced from outcrops and/or quarries which were very distant from the places where they were used, and then transported from geological sources to different locations. An accurate comparison between the petrographical and geochemical properties of rock samples collected from the outcrop in the field and the properties of archaeological finds in stone helps to solve provenance problems. After having identified the provenance of lithic raw materials, it is possible to use this information to understand the commercial relations between distant ancient populations. This entry deals with the sourcing of volcanic rocks. In particular, to define the two concepts of source and provenance, some case studies on the use of volcanic rocks in the world (the South Tyrrhenian Sea, Teotihuacan in Mexico, and Easter Island in Chile) will be discussed.
Wheat
Authors: Ulaş Burhan , Çakan Halil , Özkan Hakan
Published: November 2018

The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture had revolutionary consequences for the development of human societies. Crops such as wheat played a crucial role in the establishment of complex civilizations in the Fertile Crescent. Wheat was among the first crops to be domesticated between ca. 12,000 and 10,000 years ago. These early domesticates were staple crops for several thousand years before being largely replaced by free‐threshing wheats. Allopolyploidization, mutations in genes governing threshability and other domestication‐related traits, and interspecific gene flow led to the formation of today's economically important bread wheat. Common present‐day wheat cultivars mainly fall into two main groups: tetraploid durum wheat,Triticum durumDesf. (2n = 28, BBAA) and hexaploid bread wheat,T. aestivumL. (2n = 42, BBAADD).
X
‐Ray Absorption Spectroscopy (
XAS
,
EXAFS
,
XANES
)
Authors: Quartieri Simona
Published: November 2018

This entry presents selected examples of applications of X‐ray absorption spectroscopy methods to the study of artifacts of archaeological and artistic interest. The main physical aspects and characteristics of these techniques (non‐invasivity, exceptionally high chemical sensitivity, wide applicability to many different materials and sample sizes) are discussed, and specific case studies are reported for different ancient materials, like glass, pigments, paintings, and paleontological samples. The repercussions of these studies for conservation and restoration of cultural heritage are highlighted.