bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Cultural Importance of Floristic Diversity: A Case Study from Nokopo village, Madang and Morobe Provinces, Papua New Guinea
Authors: Kocher-Schmid Christin
Published: April 2008

Biodiversity is not exclusively a product of pristine natural processes but is also, to a considerable degree, caused by human activities. This is demonstrated by a detailed inspection of the use and classification of plants by the people of Nokopo village in the Finisterre Range of Papua New Guinea. Nokopo people recognise and value biodiversity on all its levels - genetic diversity, species diversity and diversity of ecosystems - and their activities enhance overall biodiversity. This can be partly explained by the usefulness biodiversity has to them, in terms of resource access and other utilitarian considerations. On the other hand, aesthetic concepts and values make a significant contribution. Both these intrinsically interwoven components - the utilitarian and the aesthetic component respectively - form the base for understanding the major role humans play in creating and maintaining biodiversity, the role of keystone species enhancing overall biodiversity in a given ecosystem.
The National Park Management Regime in Bhutan: Historical Background and Current Problems
Authors: Seeland Klaus
Published: April 2008

This paper gives an account of the recent history and the international and national policy background with respect to the planning and administration of Bhutan's nine national parks, nature reserves and sanctuaries, and sheds light on their current problems. Although more than 25 per cent of Bhutanese territory has been declared protected area over the last three decades, little data is available on the local population's perception of the aims, present status and the benefits of national parks, and their future role in the regional political setting and national resource use policy. Local communities are exposed to the legal limitations of resource use. A national park regime faces the problems of integrating issues of local management with the international community's demands on biodiversity preservation and conservation, and with the objectives of a national resource use concept.
An Introduction to Places
Authors: Rehmann-Sutter Christoph
Published: April 2008

This paper draws attention to the significance of the concepts used in ecological ethics to describe nature and its parts. One of those concepts is 'place'. Place is often used to appreciate the distinct dignity of a natural situation. The meaning of that concept is explained and analysed. Four elements are proposed: (i) Places have to be seen with a special subjective inclination; (ii) places are perceived as meaningful and the relation towards them is of the hermeneutic type; (iii) places appear as open textures of relationships that cannot be demarcated; (iv) places are described from within and have centres. The perception of observers lets them participate. For observers involved in the perception of places (in this sense), responsibility for the place and its inhabitants is a direct relationship of care.
Modern Homesteading in America: Negotiating Religion, Nature, and Modernity
Authors: Gould Rebecca Kneale
Published: April 2008

This article explores the spiritual dimensions of modern back-to-the-land (or homesteading) practices in contemporary American culture. Drawing on historical and ethnographic research, it examines the ways in which nature is sacralised and everyday life is ritualised by those who have chosen to lead lives of partial self-sufficiency in rural locales. Through an examination of oral and literary source material, and several case studies, this study demonstrates the ways in which nature is constructed as a source of meaning and authority for those who are disaffected from traditional religious institutions. This article also seeks to unfold the complexities involved in living `close to nature', such as the dangers in seeing 'natural living' as the only standard for the moral life and the tendency for 'back to the land' practices to be advocated by those whose class location is a privileged one. The analysis offered here is intended as a point of access into broader tensions in American culture: between traditional and alternative forms of religious practice, between the idealisation of rural life and the realities of rural living, and between the desire for freedom and the desire for self-imposed constraint in the face of modernity.
The Mind of the Redactor: 2 Cor. 6:14-7:1 in Its Secondary Context
Authors: Duff Paul Brooks
Published: April 2008

Do not be mismated with unbelievers. For what partnership have righteousness and iniquity? Or what fellowship has light with darkness? What accord has Christ with Beliar? Or what has a believer in common with an unbeliever? What agreement has the temple of God with idols? For we are the temple of the living God; as God said, "I will live with them and move among them, and I will be their God, and they shall be my people. Therefore come out from them, and be separate from them, says the Lord, and touch nothing unclean; then I will welcome you, and I will be a father to you, and you shall be my sons and daughters, says the Lord Almighty." Since we have these promises, beloved, let us cleanse ourselves from every defilement of flesh and spirit, and let us make holiness perfect in the fear of God.
The Filter Apparatus of Larval Pelodytes punctatus (Amphibia: Anura)
Authors: Sokol Otto M.
Published: April 2008

Parts of the larval filter apparatus (ventral velum, branchial food traps, filter plates) were studied, using scanning electron microscopy. The primary species studied was Pelodytes punctatus, but Alytes obstetricans, Pelobates cultripes, Scaphiopus holbrooki, Telmatobius culeus, Hyla cinerea and Rana sphenocephala were also examined. Other data were taken from literature. Previous authors, in similar studies, maintained that variations in larval filter apparatus morphology supported the anuran suborders Archeo- and Neobatrachia. The present study concludes that the larval filter apparatus cannot be used to support any subordinal arrangement, but affirms its potential value at lower systematic levels. Pelobatoids tend to have modified filter apparatuses. Four types are recognizeable: 1) Pelodytes; 2) Scaphiopus; 3) Megophrys; 4)Pelobates, Leptobrachium, Oreolalax. Although other beaked Asian genera remain unstudied, these groups are enough to indicate that current pelobatoid systematics is erroneous. Pelodytes has the most primitive pelobatoid filter apparatus. This, the moderately derived larval chondrocranium and the peculiar mixture of certain primitive and derived character states in the adult frog (none shared with other pelobatoids), indicate a long independent phylogeny for Pelodytes. This in turn, supports recognition of a separate monogeneric family Pelodytidae.
The ecology of the island-lizard Podarcis sicula salfii
Authors: Ouboter P.E.
Published: April 2008

In the summers of 1974 till 1979 microdistribution of Podarcis sicula saffti was examined. Areas without much vegetation and areas with dense vegetation have low densities. Horizontal space, predators, parasites, interspecific competition, shelter and dew appear to be non important factors in the microdistribution of P. s. safii. From 9 a. m. until 6 p. m. temperature in the sun is above PBT (preferred-body-temperature) in all zones. Shade temperature is different from one zone to another. In the most rocky zone without much vegetation, shade is provided by crevices. Shade temperature is under PBT. Food is mainly available outside crevices, in vegetation of Statice sinuatum. Food-size is small, so excursion-time will be long. Lizards are able to collect sufficient food if Statice-plants are close to crevices. The zone with vegetation of Erica arborea, on top of the island, is shaded all day. Shade temperature is under PBT. Only clearings are inhabited by lizards. All other zones have bushes and open areas. During the hot hours bushes provide shade, with shade temperature close to PBT. Food is mainly available in these bushes.
The normal development of the newt, Triturus alpestris (DAUDIN)
Authors: Epperlein Hans H. , Junginger Martin
Published: April 2008

The normal development of the newt, Triturus alpestris, is described and illustrated in photos of living embryos. The embryonic development is divided into 37 stages, up to 300 hours. These stages are compared to those of several other urodelean species.
On spacing patterns and diversity of escape tactics in diurnal geckos (Lygodactylus) in Kafue Flats, Zambia
Authors: Simbotwe Malumo P.
Published: April 2008

Lygodactylus chobiensis and L. capensis were studied during their time of normal activity. Observations were made of spacing patterns and diversity of escape behaviours. Canopy size as opposed to tree trunk size restricted the number of individuals that occupied a structural habitat. The sex ratio did not differ significantly from a 1:1 on any substrate and neither sex predominated the other (contrary to previous reports on the other species in the family). Young were tolerated indefinitely and formed part of the social structure. Both species were found to use a variety of escape tactics with equal frequency. Lizards that had lost tails were not necessarily more wary than unharmed lizards. Microhabitat preference and body orientation was found not to be restrictive to the escape tactic used.
Summer Activity Patterns of Testudo hermanni GMELIN in Greece and France
Authors: Hailey Adrian , Pulford Elizabeth A. , Stubbs David
Published: April 2008

Daily activity patterns of Testudo hermanni in summer are described for two sites, Alyki, a coastal heathland in Greece, and the Massif des Maures, a woodland in France. Activity was bimodal in the former and unimodal in the latter. Habitat type was thought to be more important than latitude and climate in accounting for this pattern. AtAlyki there was a sex ratio of encounters of2. 7 ♂: 1 ♀ in summer, but no differences between the sexes in daily activity pattern. In the Massif des Maures, the ratio varied through the season, from 0.5 ♂: 1 9 in June, to 2.6 ♂: 1 9 in September, suggesting seasonal differences in activity of the sexes. Population density at Alyki was 5 times greater than in the Massif des Maures, yet sighting frequency was similar. This was accounted for by the increased ease offinding active animals in the woodland from the noise they made in the leaf litter.
Sexual differentiation as a function of the incubation temperature of eggs in the sea-turtle Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli, 1761)
Authors: Rimblot Frédérique , Fretey Jacques , Mrosovsky Nicholas , Lescure Jean , Pieau Claude
Published: April 2008

Eggs of Dermochelys coriacea were incubated in the laboratory at different constant temperatures between 27 and 32°C up to hatching. The genital system of 72 neonates and 11 embryos was dissected and processed for histological study. All the individuals from the 27, 28 and 28.75°C incubations were phenotypic males. In the testes, the medulla was voluminous and very dense, composed of many epithelial cords, some enclosing germ cells, whereas the surface was covered by a thin layer of epithelial cells between which germ cells were still visible. The Müllerian ducts were in the process of regression. In all the individuals from eggs incubated at 29.75, 30.5 and 32°C, the gonads were somewhat longer than testes but were considerably reduced in width and thickness. The medulla was strongly inhibited, showing similar epithelial cords but much less numerous than in testes. The epithelium of the gonadal surface was pseudo-stratified and enclosed germ cells which had not enter meiotic prophase as in typical ovarian cortex. The Müllerian ducts were complete. These individuals were classified as potential females. These results show that temperature influences sexual differentiation of the gonads of Dermochelys coriacea and indicate that the threshold temperature (or pivotal temperature) lies between 28.75 and 29.75°C. They also reinforce fears about masculinising turtle populations by incubating eggs at cool temperatures in artificial hatcheries.
The Diet of the Common Toad (Bufo bufo) around a Pond in Mid-Wales
Authors: Gittins S.P.
Published: April 2008

There was no significant difference between the number of food items obtained by stomach-flushing toads caught in pitfall traps and from the dissection of corpses found on nearby roads. The frequencies of the different food categories were similar using the two methods. 97 % of the toads entering the pond in the spring had not recently fed, whereas 25% of toads leaving the pond had started to feed. Sloughed skin was found in 7% of stomachs. Vegetable matter was found in 15% of stomachs and inorganic matter in 6% of stomachs. The diet of the toad was found to be very varied, and the main food items were beetles, collembolans, millipedes, harvestmen and spiders. The diets of males, females and young toads were very similar, and only slight changes in diet were observed throughout the year. The size of food items ranged from 1 mm to 40 mm with most around 7 mm. There was no significant relationship between the size of the food item and the size of the toad for adult males and females, but there was for juveniles.
Origin and evolution of the frontoparietal complex in anurans
Authors: Rocek Zbynek
Published: April 2008

The frontoparietal is a unique feature of anurans, not only if this group is compared with other amphibians, but also with other vertebrates as well. It is often used as an important character in anuran systematics. However, little is still known about its evolutionary origin and significance. This is the reason why its state in Triadobatrachus and fossil anurans was examined, and compared with the condition in osteolepiforms and labyrinthodonts. Besides that also an information from the larval development was taken into consideration. It follows from all these data that the frontoparietal in adult anurans is a compound bone; the originally independent elements forming it (frontals, parietals, and some other ones) either coalesced with each other, or have disappeared during the course of evolution, often in convergent fashion. As the original state is better reflected in early developmental stages, one may suppose that larval condition also better reflects phylogenetic relations than the definitive bone complex of adults.
Orientation of giant tortoises, Geochelone gigantea (Schweigger) while grazing on Aldabra Atoll
Authors: Frazier J.
Published: April 2008

The Aldabran giant tortoise is one of the few testudines that feeds in dense herds, and in so doing the animals frequently exhibit a conspicuous orientation away from the sun. This orientation is most marked when ambient temperature is high, and it breaks down when the tortoises are shielded from direct sunlight. It was previously hypothesized that negative heliotaxis is related to thermoregulation-to reduce heat inflow to the exposed anterior appendages and instead expose the protected posterior of the shell. There has been no test of the thermoregulatory function, and pilot experiments indicate that orientation away form the sun occurs to reduce direct glare into the tortoise's eyes. The glare of the sun seems to interfere with accurately oriented biting movements and reduce feeding efficiency. Speed and intensity of reaction to solar glare is inversely related to the animal's body size. The possibility of a thermoregulatory component to the away-from-the-sun orientation cannot be discounted, but it must be investigated directly.
Observations on the natural history of Lacerta lepida in Cádiz Province, Spain
Authors: Busack Stephen D. , Visnaw Jeanne A.
Published: April 2008

Cádiz Province, Spain, is the southernmost extent of the range of L. lepida. Within this area, L. lepida demonstrates no distinct preference for any habitat and inhabits man-made and natural shelters with equal frequency. L. lepida is diurnal and active at the surface at ambient temperatures between 15.6°C and 42°C from February through November. Males are 4% to 8% heavier than females of equivalent body length. The rate of parasitism from nematodes is low (6%). The Cádiz Province population has the most diverse diet of any population studied to date. The taxonomic composition of the diet of males and females is identical, and consists mostly of invertebrate prey. Mean prey size and prey diversity are not correlated with lizard body size. Lacerta lepida is cannibalistic. Spermatogenesis and follicular development occur from April through July, egg laying occurs between early June and early July, and clutch size may vary from 4 to 18. Lacerta lepida reproduces only once annually.
Bidder's organs: Bufonid by-products of the evolutionary loss of hyperfecundity
Authors: Roessler Martha K. P. , Smith Hobart M. , Chiszar David
Published: April 2008

Bidder's organs in both male and female bufonids are hypothesized to represent a transitory state in an evolutionary transformation from extensive, hyperfecund ovaries to smaller, less fecund ones-a transformation that other families of anurans experienced in forms now long extinct. Some members of the genus Bufo retain considerable hyperfecundity, but in derived species of Bufo and genera of Bufonidae a spectrum of ovarian reduction exists. In those groups, Bidder's organs normally persist, always in males and often in females, as an undifferentiated ovaroid or ovary in a non-functional transition between the ancestral state and modification as part of the fat body. The organs are gynomorphs in males and highly variable as vestigial structures, but may well have endocrinogenic functions in both sexes although gametogenic functions in nature have been lost in males. Presence of Bidder's organs is a derived condition in the context of anurans as a whole, but primitive within the family Bufonidae.
A natural hybrid between Hyla arborea and Hyla meridionalis detected by mating calls
Authors: Oliveira M.E. , Paillette M. , Rosa H.D. , Crespo E.G.
Published: April 2008

A tree-frog with unusual mating calls was found in an area of sympatry between H. arborea and H. meridionalis. This individual was studied by analysis of mating call structure and allozyme variation. The structure of the testes was also examined. The intermediate characteristics of the mating calls, the heterozygosity of all discriminative loci examined, and the apparent sterility, as shown by testis histology, all corroborate the identification of this hybrid.
Ecología trófica de Lacerta lepida en la provincia de León, noroeste de España
Authors: Hernández Angel , Alegre Joaquín , Salgado José María
Published: April 2008

The diet of Lacerta lepida in the province of León (NW Spain) was studied through the analysis of 286 faecal pellets collected during May-August. Insecta were the numerically most important prey group, and always represented more than 85 % of prey numbers. Coleoptera and Hymenoptera were the dominant orders. Other important prey groups were Heteroptera and Arachnida. The number of Orthoptera consumed increased gradually from May to August. With respect to the occurrence frequency of prey in the faecal pellets, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera occurred in more than 75% at all times. The lowest trophic diversity was detected in june-july. Seasonal changes in the diet were noteworthy within short-terms and augmented in the long-term. The average length of the invertebrate prey was within the interval 9-14 mm. In terms of energy content, Vertebrata (43.82%), Coleoptera (15.77%), Orthoptera (14.40%) and Hymenoptera (13.95%) were the principal groups. L. lepida is considered to be an opportunistic feeder, although some prey groups are apparently selected.
An evaluation of methods for studying natterjack toads (Bufo calamita) outside the breeding season
Authors: Denton Jonathan S. , Beebee Trevor J.C.
Published: April 2008

We have investigated methods for finding natterjack toads (Bufo calamita) outside the breeding season at a range of sites in England. Success in locating toads in burrows or in other natural refugia was very variable between sites, depending on the nature of the substrate and availability of accessible alternative hiding places. Provision of artificial refugia (flat tiles) was also variable in success rate depending on local conditions, and even at the best site, tile use was highly seasonal with maxima in spring and autumn. Night searching was the most successful method for finding toads, readily applicable to all sites and facilitating contact with around 10% of the population in a single night, especially when weather conditions were optimal (i.e. after rain and with air temperatures above 9° C).
Reproductive behaviour in the neotropical foam-nesting frog Pleurodema diplolistris (Leptodactylidae)
Authors: Hödl Walter
Published: April 2008

Field observations and laboratory video studies were conducted on call production and foam-nest construction of the leptodactylid frog, Pleurodema diplolistris, in João Pessoa, Paraiba (Brazil). Males call during the night while floating on the water surface. Sound is generated by the inspiratory airstream during pulmonary respiration. Calls have a mean duration of 11.4 s and consist of a series oflow frequency notes given at a mean rate of 536 min-1. Pairs mate in axillary amplexus while floating on the water surface. Between 528 and 748 eggs are deposited in a foam nest. Nesting bouts can be divided into three consecutive phases: (1) female lordosis and egg extrusion and male basket formation; (2) foam beating, and (3) foam smoothing by the male. Bouts last up to 2.9 s and occur at a mean rate of 6.0 min-1. Fifty-one to 101 activity phases are needed to complete nest construction, which lasts between 6:48 and 17:04 min. Interconnected, communal nests outnumber single foam masses. Larvae hatch 22 to 26 h after oviposition at the external gill stage.
A laboratory experiment on interspecific competition between tadpoles of Geocrinia victoriana and Pseudophryne semimarmorata (Anura, Myobatrachinae)
Authors: Gollmann Birgit , Gollmann Günter
Published: April 2008

Larval growth of Geocrinia victoriana and Pseudophryne semimarmorata was studied in tanks housing tadpoles of either species and mixed groups, providing the same density (individuals/water volume) in all containers. Tadpoles of P. semimarmorata were larger at hatching than G. victoriana, they reached metamorphic climax earlier and at larger sizes. In mixed groups, P. semimarmorata experienced relaxation of intraspecific competition; they metamorphosed at bigger sizes than controls kept only with conspecifics. In the presence of P. semimarmorata, G. victoriana showed slower growth initially; they metamorphosed later than the controls, but at similar sizes.
Comportement agonistique du gecko géant diurne Phelsuma madagascariensis grandis
Authors: Delheusy Véronique , Bels Vincent
Published: April 2008

Les comportements agonistiques du Gekkonidae Phelsuma madagascariensis sont décrits et leurs séquences analysées. Treize comportements sont classés suivant les régions du corps mises en jeu: les contacts entre la tête d'un lézard et une partie du corps de l'autre lézard, les mouvements du corps, de la tête et de la langue. Un test de chi-carré montre que les suites observées entre ces classes de comportements ne sont pas aléatoires. L'ensemble des comportements et leurs suites sont analysés à partir des stimulations possibles apportées par et vers chaque mâle. Les mouvements de langue interviennent dans les suites de comportements les plus fréquentes; que ces suites soient calculées pour l'ensemble des individus ou soient des transitions entre comportement précédant et suivant au sein d'une séquence comportementale établie par un individu. Les oscillations de langue auraient deux rôles importants: ils interviendraient en tant que signal visuel et en tant que mouvement augmentant les possibilités olfactives ou vomérolfactives de ces Gekkonidae. Les mouvements de la tête sont latéraux comme chez de nombreux Geckos. La relation entre le nombre moyen de comportement et la distance entre les individus est utilisée pour estimer le rôle et le changement de rôle des comportements les plus fréquents au sein des parades agonistiques. Les contacts à courte distance (<8 cm) pourraient remplacer les mouvements de langue utilisés le plus fréquemment à plus grande distance.
A new species of Scolecoseps (Reptilia: Scincidae) from southeastern Tanzania
Authors: Broadley Donald G.
Published: April 2008

A specimen of Scolecoseps from Litipo Forest in southeastern Tanzania is compared with previously recorded material and described as a new species, S. litipoensis, which shows affinities with the forest-dwelling genus Melanoseps. The type species of the genus, S. boulengeri, is considered to be a derived form which has moved into a savanna habitat. The status of S. acontias remains uncertain due to the inadequate description and destruction of the type specimen.
Allozyme variation in three closely related species of Caucasian rock lizards (Lacerta)
Authors: MacCulloch Ross D. , Jinzhong Fu  , Darevsky Ilya S. , Danielyan F.D. , Murphy Robert W.
Published: April 2008

Genetic diversity at 37 allozyme loci was surveyed from Lacerta valentini (4 populations), L. portschinskii and L. rudis (1 population each). The number of polymorphic loci ranged from 1 (L. valentini) to 11 (L. rudis). Mean heterozygosity (direct count) ranged from 0.003 (L. valentini) to 0.071 (L. rudis). Nei's (1978) genetic distance ranged from 0-0.03 among populations of L. valentini, 0.127-0.163 between L. valentini and L. rudis and 0.366-0.487 between L. portschinskii and the two other taxa. Indices of genetic variability for species having disjunct distributions were lower than in species with contiguous distributions, similar to the case of insular populations, which have lower values than do mainland populations.
Double-clutching by natterjack toads Bufo calamita at a site in Southern England
Authors: Denton Jonathan S. , Beebee Trevor J.C.
Published: April 2008

The breeding behaviour of female natterjack toads Bufo calamita at an isolated population in Hampshire, UK was investigated over a period of four years. In all four breeding seasons some (2-10) females laid two clutches of spawn, the first direct evidence of double-spawning by natterjacks in the wild. The mean period between clutch depositions was 63 days and the first clutches contained about twice as many eggs as the second ones. Double-clutching females were significantly larger than single-clutching ones, but not significantly larger than early spawners which were found in amplexus again late in the season but which did not spawn a second time. Late spawn, including second clutches, failed to produce toadlets in any of the four years of study.
Measuring snake activity patterns: The influence of habitat heterogeneity on catchability
Authors: Whiting Martin J. , Dixon James R. , Greene Brian D.
Published: April 2008

Activity patterns for two populations of the Concho water snake (Nerodia harteri paucimaculata) were studied in a large lake system in central Texas, USA, and compared to a river population. Trap data suggested different activity patterns for the two geographically proximate lake populations. Testing of the trap data using the program CAPTURE revealed differences in catchability rather than activity cycles. Based on these results, the apparent activity patterns for one of the lake sites was considered erroneous; and the differences in catchability were ascribed to habitat differences. It is suggested that future studies should incorporate a test of equal catchability when making interpopulational comparisons.
On two little known African water snakes (Crotaphopeltis degeni and C. barotseensis)
Authors: Rasmussen Jens Bødtker
Published: April 2008

Degen's Water Snake (Crotaphopeltis degeni) and the Barotse Water Snake (C. barotseensis) are two little known members of the almost Pan-African snake genus, Crotaphopeltis. An examination of all available material deposited in museums provides records of C. degeni from Tanzania and Cameroon which are outside the previously known geographical range. Populations of C. degeni differ in respect to number of ventrals and caudals, the relative position of the heart and the ornamentation of the hemipenes. As the variation of the various characters is discordant, no nomenclatural conclusions have been reached. The few observations on the biology of these species have been accumulated.
Description of a second species of the genus Xenohyla (Anura: Hylidae)
Authors: Caramaschi Ulisses
Published: April 2008

The second known species of the genus Xenohyla is described from the State of Bahia, Brazil. The new species is distinguished from X. truncata mainly by the retention of young color pattern in adults, and by inhabiting completely different environment, associated to disjunct distribution and distinct habitat.
Some Aspects of the Foraging Behaviour of Bumble-Bees
Authors: Manning Aubrey
Published: April 2008

Bumble-bees foraging an Hound's-tongue return to the same plants again and again for a period of 10 days or more. When the plants are close together (6' or less apart), they visit them in a rather irregular fashion, and experiments show that, while they have some knowledge of the position of individual plants with respect to other landmarks, bees are responding largely to the general form of the plants. They become conditioned to the form very rapidly after a few visits to plants, when they are responding largely to the flowers. On the other hand, when bees are visiting more distant plants, more than (12') 4 m apart, they are reacting almost entirely to the site of each. This, it has been shown, they fix with great accuracy during one or more brief orientation flights upon leaving the plant after their first few visits to it. They often find distant and partly hidden plants during the course of rambling 'searching flights', which usually start from the central group of plants. After a short time they develop a distinct route among the distant plants, and their flight is usually very direct, in contrast to the wavering flight within the central group, where they frequently react to and search for flowers, on other flowerless plants which resemble Hound's-tongue in general form. It is suggested that much of this behaviour is a direct adaptation to the Hound's-tongue plant because its flowers, though yielding abundant nectar, are so small and inconspicuous. This is confirmed by a comparison with the behaviour of bees foraging on Foxglove, which has very large, conspicuous flowers. Here bees rely almost entirely on direct stimuli from the flowers and never become conditioned to the form of the plant or visit plants without flowers. They learn practically nothing of the positions of plants which are close together, but do learn the sites of individual plants when these are more than about 12 feet from the next nearest. Unlike bees visiting Hound's-tongue, Foxglove bees become firmly conditioned to the colour of the flowers, and do not visit paper models of any colour other than a purple, closely resembling that of the real flowers. These results show that the foraging behaviour of bumble-bees is most flexible and that they can adapt themselves to suit very different features of the plants they visit. Hound's-tongue and Foxglove probably represent two extremes, and between them there may be many plants where both the flowers and general form play a part in guiding bees. The evolutionary implications of the work are briefly discussed.
Notes On the Behavior of Some North American Gulls. Iii. Pairing Behavior
Authors: Moynihan M.
Published: April 2008

This paper includes descriptions of the pair-formation and later pairing behavior of Franklin's Gull and the Ring-billed Gull ; and some notes on the pair-formation of the Laughing Gull, Bonaparte's Gull, and the american Herring Gull. The pairing of all these species is similar in many fundamental characters. Pair-formation begins with a selective response by unmated females to a series of hostile displays by unmated males. It is continued by a series of repeated mutual hostile performances between the sexes, gradually diminishing in strength. There are considerable differences in the form, frequency, and orientation of some of the homologous hostile displays used by different species during this phase. Sexual behavior, with its associated patterns, (many of which are still partly or completely hostile, but relatively weak), appears after the initial strong hostile reaction between the sexes has begun to decline. These sexual patterns and associated activities are almost identical in all gulls. The observed forms of pairing in the Laughing Gull and the Herring Gull were rather different from previously published descriptions of the process in these species; which would seem to indicate that some aspects of pairing (the social situation in which it occurs) may vary considerably within the same species.
A Theory of the Behavior of Paramecium Aurelia and Behavioral Effects of Feeding, Fission, and Ultraviolet Microbeam Irradiation
Authors: Jensen Donald D.
Published: April 2008

Paramecium aurelia is the subject of a theory of behavior composed of postulates describing the presence, action, and interaction of three pacemakers: a posterior pacemaker which produces ciliary beat backward along the kineties; a buccal pacemaker which produces ciliary beat toward the suture line and the buccal overture in the vestibulum ; and an anterior pacemaker which produces ciliary beat away from the suture line and the buccal overture in the vestibulum and forward along the kineties elsewhere. Commonly observed behaviors of paramecia are derived from the theory and six experiments relevant to the theory are described. In three experiments, the culture medium in which paramecia were observed was varied. Presence of bacteria and non-nutritive particulate matter decreased swimming scores and increased swimming turn rates. In one of these experiments prior as well as immediate presence of bacteria in culture fluid varied. Prior availability of food bacteria increased swimming scores and contact turn rates. These results are consistent with the theory if it is assumed that immediate presence of particulate matter increases buccal pacemaker activity and that prior availability of food bacteria increases posterior pacemaker activity. In another experiment animals were observed during and following binary fission. During fission swimming scores decreased, and following fission the proters had lower swimming scores and contact turn rates than opisthes. These results are consistent with the theory if it is assumed that periods in which all ciliary beat is absent occur in parent animals during fission, and in proters following fission. Such periods were observed in dividing animals. Opisthes had higher swimming turn rates following fission than prior to it; this result is consistent with the theory if it is assumed that newly organized buccal pacemakers are unusually active. In two other experiments, the anterior tips, buccal cavities, and posterior tips of paramecia were subjected to ultraviolet microbeam irradiation. Irradiated animals moved more during and immediately following irradiation than they moved prior to irradiation or than control animals did. Posteriorly irradiated animals moved forward, anteriorly irradiated animals moved backward. Irradiation also influenced behavior during a subsequent two-minute observation period. Anteriorly irradiated animals had higher swimming scores, lower contact turn rates, and a greater tendency to swim backward. Animals irradiated in the buccal cavity had lower swimming turn rates and higher swimming turn durations; posteriorly irradiated animals had lower swimming scores, contact turn rates, and swimming turn rates. These results are consistent with the theory if pacemakers near irradiated areas are temporarily activated by irradiation and are hyposensitive and hyperreactive following irradiation. A number of research problems were suggested.
The Motivational Organisation Controlling the Mobbing Calls of the Blackbird (Turdus Mer Ula) Iv. a General Discussion of the Calls of the Blackbird and Certain Other Passerines
Authors: Andrew R.J.
Published: April 2008

I. All the main vocalisations of the Blackbird (excluding song) have as one of their causes the presence of a frightening object. The alarm call 'seee' may depend on the same action potential as the 'duck' group of calls. The causation of mobbing calls given in subsong is discussed. 2. The motivational organisation underlying the mobbing calls is such that they (or their variants) occur adaptively in a number of quite different contexts (e.,g. mobbing, fledgling location calls) and also in a context (reproductive fighting) where they are probably not adaptive. 3. Two Buntings (Emberiza spp.) have calls which are apparently motivated in the same way as the 'duck' group of calls. In one of them, the general threshold for calling appears to be permanently high in the adult. 4. The motivation of behaviour by a 'conflict of drives' is discussed. A simple behaviour pattern which genuinely depends on the interaction of two systems controlling groups of acts may be caused in two different ways. It may depend on the summation of positive effects from both systems. Alternatively it may depend on only one of the systems, but occur only when other systems are competing with it for control of effectors, so that the action potential for the behaviour pattern rises unusually high. The theoretical consequences of such competition (which can be represented by a variable of the general threshold type) are discussed; they appear not to have been fully recognised previously. Evidence is given that such interactions affect behaviour other than vocalisations.
The Following-Response and Imprinting in Wild and Domestic Ducklings of the Same Species (Anas Pla Tyrhynchos) 1)
Authors: Gottlieb Gilbert
Published: April 2008

1. Both the wild and domestic ducklings showed response variation. Some ducklings followed the decoy(s), others avoided it, and some behaved neutrally (indifferent). 2. The most highly domesticated group (Peking) showed the least behavioral variation. Specifically, only 2/65 Pekings showed avoidance (fear, fleeing) behavior upon testing, whereas 19/65 and 26/65 of wild and semi-wild Mallards, respectively, evinced avoidance behavior. The reduction of fear behavior in the most highly domesticated group was interpreted as the result of selection against overactive or "nervous" animals under domestic circumstances. 3. The following-response was more prominent in the Peking group than in either Mallard group. This finding was interpreted as contrary to the hypothesis that the following-response is maladaptive under domestic (barnyard) conditions. 4. Imprinting was equally strong in each of the groups, i.e., if a duckling followed during testing, it followed the object to which it had been initially exposed (33/40 Pekings, 7/10 semi-wild Mallards, 15/20 wild Mallards). The incidence and vigor of imprinting in the Peking group was contrary to the hypothesis that imprinting is maladaptive under domestic conditions. 5. To explain the maintenance of following and imprinting under domestic circumstances, the role that this behavior is supposed to play in breeding was pointed out.
Zur Strukturanalyse Des Kampfverhaltens Bei Vulpes
Authors: Tembrock G.
Published: April 2008

A film of a serious fight between two adult male foxes is analized. 16 behaviour patterns could be discriminated. The course of the fight was divided into two phases: a) The initialphase and (b) the main phase. The behaviour during the initialphase determines the course of the main phase (serious fight, commentfight, flight). Time analyses were made for the most frequent behaviour pattern during the main phase. Two groups of behaviour are discriminated: a) the alternative behaviour, always shown alternately by one of the two partners. The meaning of alternative, in this case, is: bite-combat-behaviour, or defensive behaviour. b) simultaneous behaviour; i.e. both partners do the same. Time decision was accomplished for both behaviour-syndromes. In a quantitative analysis total SAP for each of both combat partners was measured. The numbers of the activated behaviour patterns for each period are put in relation to this SAP. In the qualitative analysis the SAP was taken for neck-bite (HB) and the antiparallel-position I (APS I). Both are put in relation to each other. Finally the principal results are discussed: I. During the initialphase of the fight two tendencies are activated: aggression and defence. One results in turning towards, the other in withdrawal from the adversary. According to the strength of both tendencies, a more or less marked cross-position results. The reactions of the attacked fox, a stranger in the territory, decides the further course of the fight. The integration between both partners is illustrated by a feedback-model. 2. In the main phase of the fight, two behaviour complexes are found, one of which is always activated. They are called: "principal coordinations" to which can be added "frame coordinations" in changeable proportions. Furthermore first and second order frame coordinations can be distinguished. The frame coordination implies the activation of a pincipal coordination. 3. The problem of shifting from one principal coordination to another is discussed. It is assumed that a phase-shifting between both combat-partners takes place, that the activation of a principal coordination is drive-reducing and that phase-discordances give the partner the possibility to change over from defence to aggression. Phase-concordance shows simultaneous behaviour (principal coordination APS I). 4. Reference is made to the individual differences between both combat-partners. 5. It is presumed, that through dropping of the SAP in one partner (inferiority), phase-changes may, occur, so that the "Regelkreis "collapses and a change of behaviour (i.e. flight) may arise.
Central Mechanisms of Frog Calling
Authors: Schmidt Robert S.
Published: April 2008

Release calling and warning crying in Rana pipiens are described and compared with breathing. Vokalizations consist of a vocal phase, which is merely a modification of the expiratory phase of breathing, followed by an inspiratory phase, which is identical to inspiratory phase of breathing. Electrical and mechanical stimulation of the brain and brain lesions are used to locate some of the central mechanisms controlling release calling and warning crying in Rana pipiens, and mating calling in Rana pipiens and a number of hylids (mainly Hyla cinerea). It is concluded that the main control mechanisms are in the trigeminoisthmic tegmentum (below the nucleus isthmi). Mating calling requires, in addition, input transmitted through the ventral thalamus from hormone receptors in the preoptic area. Mating calling can be evoked in hylids by presenting them with recordings of specific calls. The mechanisms for responding to an acoustic stimulus are probably located in the anterior medulla and midbrain tegmentum (below the nucleus isthmi). Mating calling was evoked in two Hyla cinerea females after replacing the ovaries with Rana testes and injecting Rana pituitaries. It is suggested that release calling evolved from breathing, and that warning crying and mating calling may then have evolved from release calling.
Tests of Behavioural Characteristics for Rhesus Monkeys
Authors: Spencer-Booth Y. , Hinde R.A.
Published: April 2008

A series of tests were designed to assess differences in behavioural characteristics between immature rhesus monkeys. The tests mostly involved responses to strange objects or behaviour in mildly disturbing or frustrating situations. They were administered when the infants were 6, 12, 18 and 30 months of age. Rank order correlations between the same measure in replicated tests, between different measures in one test, between measures from different tests, and between measures from the tests and data from routine observations on mother-infant interaction and on infant activity, were calculated: these were used to assess the reliability and relations between the measures used. The tests were used to assess differences between groups of monkeys differing in previous experience such as presence or not of companions other than the mother, or having been separated from their mother or not. Despite the small group sizes, some significant differences appeared.
Waning of the Aggressive Response in the Three-Spined Stickleback Upon Constant Exposure To a Conspecific. I, a Preliminary Analysis of the Phenomenon
Authors: Van Den Assem J. , Van Der Molen J.N.
Published: April 2008

Stickleback males, which are held solitary under experimental conditions described above, give a more or less constant aggressive response toward a test-male (aggression test) when tested once or twice daily during a 4-day period following nest-construction. A distinct waning of this response is found in such males that have a continuous view of another male in a neighbouring territory behind a glass partition ('rival situation') : the frequency of biting decreases and becomes nil or fluctuates about a low level. Rival males and controls do not differ in the response toward a test-female (sex test). Therefore, rival males are said to have attained to a 'hypo-aggressive' condition. The stimulus situation that produces the waning of aggressiveness appears to have some specific properties, e.g. a goldfish neighbour does not lead to the same results. Waning of aggressiveness is also found toward the neighbour if it is used as a test-male. Waning is qualitatively independent of the presence of the glass partition, it occurs also in situations where neighbours can interact freely. Neighbours need not have a continuous view of one another to become hypo-aggressive, a (frequent) intermittent view leads to the same results. We conclude from our experiments that a recovery of aggressiveness, if present, takes place slowly (as a matter of days). A further analysis of the rival responses leads to the separation of three types: I, an unmodified response (similar to controls) ; II, a hypo-aggressive response without an increase of sexual activities toward the test-male; III, a hypo-aggressive response with an increase of sexual activities in addition. A large part of the type III males do not seem to discriminate a test-male and a test-female, the numbers of bites and zigzags in both test situations being nearly equal. Nest-building, or perhaps the presence of a complete nest, is a relevant factor for the occurrence of hypo-aggressiveness and the increase of sexual activities toward a test-male. The interaction of the aggressive and sexual tendencies is found to be entirely consistent with SEVENSTER'S (1961) results. In controls, biting and zigzagging result from the same aggressive and sexual tendencies irrespective of whether they are shown in aggression or in sex tests, and both tendencies are mutually inhibitive. The same conclusion is drawn for the interaction of aggressive and sexual tendencies in rivals. Though the interactions take place on quantitatively different levels, the relations of the tendencies remain qualitatively similar.