bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Agricultural Planning and Pricing in the Post-Mao Period
Authors: Sicular Terry
Published: March 2009

During the past decade China's leaders have called repeatedly for reductions in administrative interventions in the economy, for greater reliance on economic “levers,” for decentralization of economic decision-making, and for an increased role of markets. Although the need for liberalization is fairly widely accepted, debate over how far and how fast to proceed has continued. One view initially proposed by Chen Yun sees China moving towards a system where a “planned economy is primary, and markets are supplementary” (jihua jingji wei zhu, shichang tiaojie wei bu). Others advocate moving beyond Chen Yun's vision to a system where, in fact if not in name, allocation takes place primarily through markets. Li Peng's government work report to the first session of the Seventh National People's Congress suggests that the current consensus leans towards the latter, more progressive view:

The focus of reform of the planning system is to transform the function of state planning organs, gradually reduce mandatory planning and expand guidance planning, … use economic instruments, and gradually establish a new economic mechanism where “the state regulates markets, and markets guide enterprises” (guojia tiaojie shichang, shichang yindao qiye).
Rural Employment Trends and the Legacy of Surplus Labour, 1978–86
Authors: Taylor Jeffrey R.
Published: March 2009

Despite 35 years of political turbulence and social change, a constant feature of China's employment situation has been its overwhelming agrarian orientation. In 1952, 88 per cent of China's total work force lived in rural areas, and 95 per cent of these individuals worked in agricultural jobs, primarily farming. By 1986, 74 per cent of the country's work force were considered rural, yet still an overwhelming 80 per cent of these individuals were engaged in agricultural pursuits. Few countries have experienced as rapid a growth as China has over the past four decades, yet maintained an employment structure so closely tied to the soil, the seasons, and the sun.
How the ‘Inscrutables‘ Negotiate with the ‘Inscrutables‘: Chinese Negotiating Tactics Vis-A-Vis the Japanese
Authors: Kazuo Ogura
Published: March 2009

I had the opportunity to participate in the five major negotiations between China and Japan from 1972 to 1975 (i.e., the talks over the normalization of diplomatic relations, and the aviation, trade, shipping and fishery agreements), and to observe the tactics, both offensive and defensive, used by the Chinese participants. Personal impressions are bound to be biased, but fortunately there are at least two books which give us detailed accounts of negotiations between China and Japan in the post-war period. These are The Record of Fishery Talks between China and Japan and The Secret Memorandum of Sino-Japanese Negotiations. The former, written and edited by the Japan-China Fishery Association, whose leaders negotiated with China in 1955, is a complete record of the first fishery talks between the Japanese fishermen's organization and Chinese authorities. These negotiations centred on the regulations which Japanese and Chinese fishermen were to observe in the East China and Yellow Seas in order to avoid collisions and other accidents. The negotiations also covered some conservation measures, such as the establishment of several conservation zones along the coast of China and seasonal restrictions of the catch of some types of fish.
‘Fascism‘ and Modern China Maria
Authors: Chang Maria Hsia
Published: March 2009

From the frequency of its employment and the scope of its use, the concept of “fascism” would seem to be one of the most important cognitive tools in the analysis of modern China. At least from the time of Sun Yat-sen, Marxists, of whatever sort, have regularly employed the characterization “fascist” to identify their Chinese opponents. Since Chinese Marxists now employ the same term to identify the Soviet Union, and the Soviets use it to identify Chinese Marxists, some have counselled the abandonment of the expression as serving only polemic purpose.
Plans for Constitutional Reform in Hong Kong, 1946—52
Authors: Miners N. J.
Published: March 2009

Hong Kong has never taken the path of constitutional development towards democratic self-government followed by the rest of Great Britain's colonial empire. In 1984 the Legislative and Executive Councils were still composed entirely of officials and unofficials nominated by the Governor without a single elected member, just as they have been for the past 140 years. This anomalous position has commonly been justified in two ways: the official explanation is that there have been no demands for democratic institutions voiced by the people of Hong Kong; unofficially ministers and officials have claimed that the People's Republic of China objects to free elections and Britain has found it expedient to give heed to China's views. This has never been publicly and unambiguously admitted by any Minister of the Crown while in office to avoid diplomatic embarrassment, but a large number of comments and replies to parliamentary questions can be quoted which leave little doubt that this is in fact the case. It seems that the Chinese People's Government has always equated democratic constitutional advance in Hong Kong with moves to grant independence to the territory and so has imposed her veto on any changes which might preclude the future resumption of Chinese sovereignty. But now that Britain has formally declared her intention to restore the whole of Hong Kong to China in 1997 China has in turn declared that after 1997“The legislature of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall be constituted by elections,” and is apparently prepared to waive her longstanding objections to democratic developments in the intervening 12 years before Hong Kong reverts to Chinese sovereignty.
The Organization of Publishing in China
Authors: Feldman Gayle
Published: March 2009

The publishing world, like everything else in China at the moment, manifests both signs of change and resistance to change. Some publishers are cautiously hopeful about the current reforms, others feel change is not happening fast enough, and yet others do not ally themselves with reform at all but would prefer to have more stringent controls. This field note will attempt, therefore, to offer a portrait of how Chinese publishing is organized at the moment with areas of likely change, as well as highlighting the relations between Chinese publishing establishments and their counterparts in the west.
A Preliminary Model of Particularistic Ties in Chinese political Alliances:Kan-ch'ingandKuan-hsiin a Rural Taiwanese Township
Authors: Jacobs J. Bruce
Published: March 2009

When one becomes an official, the entire family prospers … they host banquets and send presents (ch'ing-k'o sung-li). … One can see no organization. Personal acquaintances (ssu-jen) are employed, factions are active, and there are feudal relationships (kuan-hsi) …

Why were the big and small “fleets” [of Lin Piao's anti-party group] openly able to carry out the schemes of forming cliques, engaging in factionalism, and carrying out conspiracies by such acts as hosting banquets (ch'ing-k'o), sending gifts (sung-li), offering official positions and making promises?

In addition to providing himself with extravagant pleasures, Wang Hungwen used the illegally obtained money and goods to host banquets (ch'ing-k'o), and send presents (sung-li) in order to recruit corrupt cadres and conduct anti-party factional activities. So many filthy political exchanges are just so happily arranged in an atmosphere of wine and women. Eat, Eat, Drink, Drink had already become a gauge by which Wang Hung-wen and his “little brothers” measured political relationships (kuan-hsi).
The People versus Tai Hung-sheng
Authors: Watson Andrew
Published: March 2009

Opportunities to observe a people's court in action dealing with a criminal cases are relatively rare. Therefore, the following summary of the trial of an embezzler at the Hungkou District People's Court, Shanghai, which I attended on the morning of 14 December 1977, may offer some additional understanding of the way the legal system currently works in China. The visit to the court formed part of a tour by a group mainly drawn from the University of Adelaide. The fact that we were invited to attend the court, however, was mainly due to the presence among us of the attorney-general of South Australia, Mr Peter Duncan. The visit was preceded by a meeting with two judges of the Shanghai Higher People's Court who outlined in fairly familiar and general terms the basic structure of the Chinese legal system. The judges also accompanied us to the district court.
China's Industrial Development, 1958–63
Authors: Li Choh-Ming
Published: March 2009

China had no Second Five-Year Plan (1958–62) only five ad hoc annual plans during that period. In basic construction and industrial production a great leap forward did take place in the first three years, only to be followed by collapse and readjustment in the last two years. In agriculture, the period started with an unprecedented bumper crop in the first year, after which there commenced an agricultural crisis that grew in intensity from year to year until 1962 when the output of food grains and green vegetables began to show recovery. This was in sharp contrast to the First Five-Year Plan period which concluded with spectacular achievements in heavy industry, moderate success in light industry and slow but steady improvement in agriculture.
Handicrafts in Communist China
Authors: Schran Peter
Published: March 2009

Even though it is a truism, it is worth pointing out that with relatively little foreign trade and even less foreign aid, Communist China's economic growth must in the main result directly from the development of her indigenous resources. In her comparatively backward economy, most of those resources were to be found initially in two traditional sectors of production: in agriculture, and in various crafts and trades. Due to limited division of labour, these two traditional sectors were not separated sharply from each other, but overlapped in the person of the peasant-craftsman who was relatively common in the countryside.
The Terms of Sino-Soviet Trade
Authors: Mah Feng-Hwa
Published: March 2009

The development of the ideological controversy between Communist China and the Soviet Union in recent years has aroused increased interest in a more careful evaluation of Sino-Soviet economic relations. In this paper, I attempt to deal with one specific aspect of this broad area, that is the price problem in Sino-Soviet trade.
The National People's Congress
Authors: Green Marcus
Published: March 2009

The annual sessions of the National People's Congress have always been more like a national rally than the parliamentary institution outlined in its own constitution. The leaders meet a large selected group deemed to represent the nation, outline their picture of national and international affairs, describe their plans and hopes for the future and call on the citizens to rally to the flag. From the floor of the house deferential speeches assure the leaders that all sections of the nation agree with them and will obey their call with alacrity. For the student outside China the first consideration is of course not what is said but how much is published. Six or eight years ago he had to wade through reams of material to catch the general flavour and find the occasional grain of fact in drifts of formal and repetitive chaff. In 1962, and now again in 1963, the problem was very different. The published documents are very brief and many passages are so generalised and indeed abstract that only an initiate can be sure of their meaning. The student's task is to expand these generalities and to suggest their context and their real meaning.
On the Nature of Mao Tse-tung's ‘Deviation’ in 1927
Authors: Schram Stuart R.
Published: March 2009

The second half of 1927 is one of the most obscure periods in the history of the Chinese Communist Party. From a large and well-organised force openly playing a major role in the political and military affairs of the country, the Chinese Communist Party rapidly found itself reduced to a few small remnants fighting for their existence. As a result, the printed sources available for future historians were drastically reduced. The Communists cut their output of publications both for lack of the means to produce them, and because it was no longer prudent to reveal even as much about their plans as they had done before. The Nationalist authorities further decimated this scanty output by confiscation and repression. So much of what has been written about this period is based on verbal testimony or secondary sources, and cannot be regarded as altogether reliable.
Chou En-lai on Safari
Authors: Adie W. A. C.
Published: March 2009

Chou en-lai's recent “western expedition” to Africa and the Mediterranean was Peking's greatest diplomatic effort to date outside the Communist world. Coming at a time when China had openly split from Russia and yet remained at odds with America, India, and most other countries, it marked a turning point in Peking's foreign policy and perhaps in the entire post-war structure of international relations.
China's New Economic Policy: A Statistical Appraisal
Authors: Klatt W.
Published: March 2009

June 1979 was a turning point for China. In the fast-moving world of today, one has to be careful in the use of catchphrases which can easily be invalidated when events of even greater import overtake them. Even so, the Second Session of the Fifth National People's Congress (NPC) may justly be regarded as a landmark in the brief post-Mao history of the People's Republic. Its significance pales, to be sure, when set against the T'ien An Men incident of April 1976, which gave the signal to the world that political and economic changes were in the making. Teng Hsiao-p'ing, deposed from all his posts as the main victim of that incident, emerged – fully rehabilitated – two years later as the chief architect of what can now legitimately be regarded as China's New Economic Policy. Of course, the foundation stone had been laid much earlier by the late Chou En-lai. Thus, as in the past, continuity and change were to live precariously side by side.
China's Vietnam War and its Consequences
Authors: Tretiak Daniel
Published: March 2009

The Sino-Vietnam War of February–March 1979 marked the culmination of months of strained relations between the two neighbouring communist states. (This article explores Chinese foreign policy as it evolved before, during and after the conflict) My underlying thesis is that China's original goals were both political and military, relating to the definition and strengthening of China's role in regional (e.g.Indo-Chinese and South-east Asian) international politics, as well as China's perceived role in the global relationship between the Soviet Union and the United States. Because the conflict's military goals were not fully attained, the political goals were also not met, affecting not only the relationship between various Chinese leadership factions and their views about China's economic development plans, but also the importance of military modernization costs as part of the “four modernizations” and even China's alignmentvis-à-visthe Soviet Union and the United States. I shall first describe the prelude to the war.
On Maoist Conceptualizations of the Capitalist World System
Authors: Friedman Edward
Published: March 2009

One of the less emphasized strengths of a world systems approach to national societies is its critical comprehension of the limited possibilities of ruling groups transforming their societies into ones of socialist relations. One limit placed on the part by the whole, on nation states by a capitalist world market, is the impossibility of building “true” socialism. The imperatives of the world market force state power-holders to act in a capitalist manner, that is, to organize their society for competition in world exchange.
China's Cellular Economy: Some Economic Trends Since the Cultural Revolution
Authors: Donnithorne Audrey
Published: March 2009

The Cultural Revolution severely shook the organizational structure of China. In its aftermath came a general weakening of the administration and a loosening of control. As a result the country has experienced an intensification of the tendencies towards a cellular economy. The forces, already strong, which encouraged individual localities and enterprises to develop on self-sufficient autonomous lines, have received a new accession of strength. At present the country seems composed of a myriad of small discrete units, although there are at work technical forces which, it would seem, ought to be breaking down this cellular arrangement. This article looks at the emphasis on self-reliance and self-sufficiency, enquires into certain consequences of these trends and hexamines and speculates on the manner in which the separate units of the Chinese economy relate to each other economically.
How did the Korean War Begin?
Authors: Gupta Karunakar
Published: March 2009

As the British historian A. J. P. Taylor once remarked, “In the Cold War apparently even the world of scholarship knows no detachment.” This statement applies with particular force to Korea, which became one of the foci of the Cold War after 1945 and turned into a bitter battleground between the supposedly monolithic World Communism and the western alliance after 1950.
The Genesis of the People's Procuratorate in Communist China 1949–1951
Authors: Ginsburgs George , Stahnke Arthur
Published: March 2009

When the Chinese Communists finally consummated their seizure of power in mainland China, one of the first tasks which faced them was that of elaborating a formal institutional structure for the exercise of regular public authority. Indeed, while the new leadership now undoubtedly enjoyed de facto control over the country and the mass of the people, it found itself quite destitute of those normal channels of state regulation and administrative management which serve to bestow legitimacy on a claimant to the role of national government and to distinguish a duly constituted, relatively stable political order from an altogether fluid interlude of revolutionary action predicated on ad hoc use of organised force under a central direction. The Party soon moved to make up for this grave deficiency by creating, on paper at least, a complex mechanism of state administration to back up its bid for recognition as the official spokesman for the Chinese nation and, concurrently, provide it with the wherewithal to play that role effectively.
Modernisation and the Maoist Vision—Some Reflections on Chinese Communist Goals
Authors: Schwartz Benjamin
Published: March 2009

What can be said at this point about the broad goals and motivations of the present Chinese Communist leadership? The question is, of course, distressingly imprecise and begs further definition. Is the leadership a monolithic group? Have its goals remained constant and unchanging? Is there a rigid Chinese Communist “goal structure,” etc.?
China in the Postwar World
Authors: Halpern A. M.
Published: March 2009

History is not going to find it easy to render a full judgment on the Second World War. The impact of the technological developments which that war stimulated is still working itself out. These developments alone have set to the politicians of various countries a series of problems which demanded action and which required a more complex, sustained intellectual effort than was needed in earlier times. The more advanced and more powerful the country, the more the problems arising from technological development, especially in weaponry, placed themselves in the centre of attention. For a full decade after the end of the war, it was generally thought that the bipolar distribution of power was a lasting phenomenon. The second postwar decade produced some evidence that this might not be so, but even now no one can be quite sure what qualifications or exceptions to bipolarity are significant today or will be in the future. The decolonisation process, attended by the emergence of many new, for the most part modernising, states and paralleled by the restructuring of European politics, clearly is one of the major phenomena of the period. Here, too, the future is obscure. Throughout the period, there has been a pervasive uncertainty as to what cultural and social values the world's peoples would subscribe to and what political leadership they would follow.
China and the Bomb—Chinese Nuclear Strategy
Authors: Halperin Morton H.
Published: March 2009

The detonation of a nuclear device by the People's Republic of China on October 16, 1964, made it unmistakably clear that China attached a very high priority to becoming a militarily effective nuclear power as soon as possible. Although the effect on Chinese economic development has probably been relatively limited thus far, the Chinese are devoting substantial resources to their nuclear programme and may be expected to have militarily effective systems within this decade. The Chinese appear to be considerably further along in the development of nuclear weapons and delivery systems than had been previously anticipated.
Revolutionary Struggle and the Second Generation in Communist China
Authors: Lewis John Wilson
Published: March 2009

Various interpretations of Chinese politics have been offered since the tumultuous days of the abortive “great leap” and the high tide of the Mao-Khrushchev debate. The perplexing problem which has confronted the Western analyst has been that of estimating the effectiveness of Communist policies designed to initiate predictable and controlled changes. Though differently perceived, this same problem now underlies the principal concerns of the Chinese Communist elite. Rigid adherence to long-held views of development may have blinded Peking's leaders to subtle—but crucial—distinctions in the actual situation of their own society, and they may now be unable to prevent the advancement of fundamental changes which contradict cherished goals and programmes. This article seeks to analyse one limited dimension of the current disparity between policy and social reality in terms of the concept of revolutionary struggle.
Economic Growth in Communist China
Authors: Clark Colin
Published: March 2009

Recognising that pre-Communist China in the 1930s was not a very prosperous or well-ordered community, even before the Japanese invasion, we should nevertheless examine what information is available about the level of its productivity and well-being, as a standard with which to compare such information as we can obtain today. This is fairer than comparing productivity in recent years with that of 1949, which is what Communist propagandists prefer to do (and many western economists are naïve enough to follow them). In 1949 the country was so disorganised that a substantial improvement in productivity was to have been expected as soon as any stable government was established.
The Reinterpretation of Chinese Buddhism
Authors: Welch Holmes
Published: March 2009

China was the second country in the Buddhist world to have a Communist government. The first was Mongolia. But Mongolia was isolated both geographically and by its form of Buddhism (shared only with Tibet). Chinese Buddhists, on the other hand, had been building closer ties with their brethren in South-East Asia for more than half a century. Their form of Buddhism was less remote from South-East Asian forms and they felt the same need as South-East Asian to fit Buddhism into a national revival.
Communist Chinese and the American Adolescent Subcultures
Authors: Hickrod Lucy Jen Huang , Hickrod G. Alan
Published: March 2009

Sociological research on Communist China is severely limited by the fact that western-trained sociologists, at least those travelling on an American passport, are not permitted to enter, let alone practise on, the mainland of China. Consequently, the standard techniques of the journeyman sociologist, the case method, questionaires, interviews, non-participant observation, etc., cannot be used at present. In such a situation social scientists have had to fall back upon the translation and analysis of documents issued on the mainland and intended by their authors for internal, rather than external, consumption. Whenever possible, this technique is supplemented by the results of interviews conducted with emigrés from the mainland. The senior author has used this technique elsewhere to describe changes occurring in the structure and function of the Chinese family under Communism. It should be admitted that such an approach is open to the charge that the primary data is biased. That is, that the researcher runs the risk of confusing behavioural reality with the image that the régime wishes to convey in its internal publications. There are two answers to this. First, the internal publications include a good deal of “self-criticism” which is likely to contain other than propaganda elements, and secondly, direct empirical observations are neither feasible nor possible under present conditions. The use of emigré data is probably more suspect, since those who flee the régime are likely to be biased in their interpretations of régime policies and actions.
The Fukien Rebellion and the CCP: A Case of Maoist Revisionism
Authors: Dorrill William F.
Published: March 2009

The outbreak of the Fukien Rebellion on 20 November 1933 brought to a halt the first phase of Chiang Kai-shek's Fifth Encirclement Campaign against the Central Soviet area. Just as the Kuomintang (KMT) economic blockade was becoming effective and Nationalist troops were inflicting important losses on the Red Army, Chiang was forced to curtail operations and divert sizeable units eastward to defend against a possible rebel invasion from Fukien. For the beleaguered Red armies defending the Kiangsi Soviet base, this allowed a much-needed rest and a chance to turn with safety from the Fukien front to regroup for action in more critical sectors. The rebellion broke the KMT encirclement in the east, at least temporarily, and seemingly gave the Communist leadership at Juichin grounds for hope that a friendly rebel regime in Foochow might open up new channels for supply of food and munitions.
The Party in Chinese Communist Ideology
Authors: Schram Stuart R.
Published: March 2009

As the title indicates, this article deals with the image of the Party in Chinese Communist ideology. Obviously the conception of the Party and its role put forward in theoretical writings cannot be isolated from the reality of the Party, if only because ideology is shaped by practice and serves as a rationalization of practice. But the emphasis here will be on the analysis of statements about the Party, and their evolution over the past three decades.
The Two Chinese Revolutions
Authors: Johnson Chalmers
Published: March 2009

The achievements of the Chinese Communist regime over the past 20 years are impressive, whether seen in terms of the Communists' own ideology or of universal human desires for security and material sufficiency. Under the Party's leadership, the Chinese people have unified their nation, constructed a considerable industrial base, transformed their country's internal distribution network, explored thoroughly for the first time China's natural resources, overcome the threat of famine, begun to master the field of nuclear energy, and accomplished many other changes which reflect favourably on China in comparison with other nations that have set for themselves equal or lesser goals in a similar period of time. This is not to deny shifts and setbacks in the general strategies for socialist construction. The capital-intensive industrialization of the first five-year plan moved to the labour-intensive industrialization of the Great Leap and culminated in the balanced strategy which emerged after 1962 of building the agricultural prerequisites for industrialization. The failure of the Great Leap may have cost China as much as a decade in terms of a potential time schedule for development, but it is important to stress the achievements of the economic plan which followed the Leap.
Paper Tigers and Nuclear Teeth
Authors: Hudson Geoffrey
Published: March 2009

It is impossible to estimate exactly what weight should be given to each of the various factors which have contributed to the conflict between the Communist regimes of Russia and of China, but there can be no doubt that Russia's refusal to assist China to become a nuclear power was one of the most important. According to the Chinese account of the matter, the Soviet Union promised to provide China with “a sample of an atomic bomb and technical data concerning its manufacture,” apparently as part of an agreement on “new technology for national defence” concluded in October 1957, but went back on this promise and unilaterally annulled the agreement in June 1959. The Chinese People's Republic, nevertheless, went ahead on its own and exploded its first atomic bomb on 16 October 1964; this was followed by China's first hydrogen bomb on 17 June 1967.
Economic Necessity and Political Ideals in Educational Reform During the Cultural Revolution
Authors: Bastid Marianne
Published: March 2009

Educational reform has been one of the important issues raised during the Cultural Revolution, not merely because it belongs to the realm of culture but, more important, because it bears on the question of “cultivating revolutionary successors” and on the shaping of the whole future of China. Anyone seizing power wishes to keep it for a certain length of time; it is however a special feature of people's revolutions to set their goals on the prospect of a boundless future. In this regard, gaining power in education is not simply one side of the struggle for actual total power (mastering the “superstructure” as well as the “structure”) it is the guarantee of everlasting rule, on the assumption that the mind is ultimately the only thing man can rely upon and which is entirely within his grasp. As one slogan puts it: “The earth may shake, heaven may fall, but we shall ever be faithful to Chairman Mao.”
The Chinese Communist Youth Movement, 1949–1966
Authors: Funnell Victor
Published: March 2009

In the Cultural Revolution, the task of dismantling and reorganizing the Communist Party has not spared the various youth organizations that operated under the Party's aegis. Mao's injunction to “bombard” the bourgeois central headquarters within the Party has involved a similar bombardment of lesser headquarters in dependent establishments. Just as the Party organization was by-passed in the formation of rebel committees, so Communist youth organizations have been subsumed or swamped in the Red Guard movement. The Youth League in particular, as the Party's “main assistant,” has shared its fate.
Japanese Imperialism and the Manchurian Economy, 1900–31
Authors: Bix Herbert P.
Published: March 2009

What makes Manchuria a most promising industrial field … is the fact that coal and labour are obtainable at an extraordinarily low cost. … Although Manchuria possesses a population of forty millions, not a single piece of clothing worn by the inhabitants is manufactured in the province. All textiles required by the people are imported either from south China or from Japan. The starting of a spinning and weaving industry in Manchuria will be fraught with great possibilities. [Shirani Takeshi, Kwantung Civil Governor (1909).]
Military Forces in the Cultural Revolution
Authors: Nelsen Harvey
Published: March 2009

The analytical approaches so far devoted to the contemporary People's Liberation Army (PLA) have been of three general types. First, biographical studies which explain events in terms of the individual military leaders and their inter-relationships. Second, some students of the PLA have devised analytical models of informal power structures. The behaviour of the PLA in the “Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution,” has been interpreted by some as determined by personal loyalties, latent regionalism, and cliques formed around common service in military units prior to 1949. Others have viewed the PLA as split between “professional” commanders and the political cadres in the armed forces – sometimes dubbed a “Red versus expert” analysis. These categories of studies have one thing in common; they treat PLA institutions as being manipulated by informal and extra-legal forces. The third type of study emphasizes organizational and institutional frameworks. This paper falls into the third category. It asks the question: to what extent were the military institutions the subject or object of developments in the Cultural Revolution? It concludes that the organizational structures of the PLA and the missions assigned them heavily influenced the political behaviour of military leaders in the provinces.
GiardiaandCryptosporidiuminfections in sheep and goats: a review of the potential for transmission to humans via environmental contamination
Authors: ROBERTSON L. J.
Published: March 2009

The public health significance of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis in sheep is currently unclear. Some research suggests that they are probably not an important zoonotic reservoir, whilst other research indicates this potential exists, and some outbreaks have also been associated with infections in sheep. Actions to limit water supply contamination by sheep have sometimes been severe, occasionally creating problems between farming and public health communities. Here our knowledge on these parasites in both sheep and goats is reviewed; although direct evidence of transmission to humans via water supply contamination is limited, the data accrued indicate that this is a real possibility. As cryptosporidiosis in sheep is generally more prevalent than giardiasis, and species/genotypes ofCryptosporidiuminfections in sheep are likely to be infectious to humans, this parasite may be considered the greater threat. Nevertheless, geographical variation in prevalence and genotypic distribution is extensive and as measures to limit sheep grazing can have a highly negative impact, it is important that cases are judged individually. If water contamination from a particular population of sheep/goats is suspected, then suitable investigations should be instigated, investigating both prevalence and species/genotype, before precautionary measures are imposed.
Gravity wave spectra parameters in 2003 retrieved from stellar scintillation measurements by GOMOS
Authors: Sofieva V. F. , Gurvich A. S. , Dalaudier F.
Published: March 2009

Using satellite measurements of stellar scintillation allows quantifying gravity waves (GW) in the stratosphere and their breaking into turbulence. GW and turbulence spectra parameters are retrieved by fitting modeled scintillation spectra to measured spectra. We use a two‐component spectral model of air density irregularities: the first component corresponds to the gravity wave spectrum, while the second one describes patches of locally isotropic turbulence. In this paper, we show global distributions and seasonal variations of the GW spectra parameters (structure characteristic, inner and outer scales) retrieved from GOMOS/Envisat scintillation measurements in 2003, for altitudes 30–50 km, and discuss peculiarities of these distributions. The use of outer scale estimations has enabled us to obtain self‐consistent estimates of GW potential energy Ep per unit mass. GW parameters retrieved from scintillations are in good agreement with those from other measurements at overlapping altitudes and locations.
Mirror‐mode storms: STEREO observations of protracted generation of small amplitude waves
Authors: Russell C. T. , Blanco‐Cano X. , Jian L. K. , Luhmann J. G.
Published: March 2009

In the solar wind, STEREO occasionally observes mirror‐mode storms, periods in which small amplitude waves suddenly appear and persist for hours. Two triggers of these storms are high‐plasma beta and weak shocks, both consistent with conditions for the growth of mirror‐mode waves. The appearance of these waves is quite distinct from the isolated mirror‐mode structure that is frequently seen in the solar wind. They have not been reported previously. Here we show three examples of their occurrence.
Deep convection observed by the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager on board Meteosat 8: Spatial distribution and temporal evolution over Africa in summer and winter 2006
Authors: Schröder Marc , König Marianne , Schmetz Johannes
Published: March 2009

We analyze the spatial distribution of deep convection and its diurnal cycle and life cycle over Africa in June and December 2006. We investigate regions of distinct temporal evolution and of largest frequency of occurrence of deep convection (hereinafter referred to as convective activity), and we define and identify the deep convective stage from space observations. The analysis is based on hourly, half‐hourly, and quarter‐hourly brightness temperature (BT) observations of the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager (SEVIRI) on board Meteosat 8. Eulerian and Lagrangian approaches are utilized. In the Eulerian approach, diurnal cycles and spatial distributions of BTs are calculated as averages on a local solar time (LST) and pixel basis. In the Lagrangian approach we use a stand‐alone algorithm that tracks deep convective systems. Deep convection is frequently found over mountainous regions and exhibits a distinct diurnal cycle over large lakes. Local maxima of convective activity and origin of tracked systems are observed over the ocean off the west coast of Africa early in the morning. Over land the diurnal cycle of deep convective systems starts with strong rates of BT change in the formative stage, continues with the minimum BT around 1530 LST (start of the mature stage), and reaches the maximum cold cloud cover at 1730 LST (end of mature stage). The maximum number of split events marks the center of the dissipation stage at ∼1930 LST. A time shift of 1–2 h to earlier times is found in December. The life cycle analysis perfectly complements the diurnal cycle analysis and reveals characteristics of deep convective systems around the time of minimum BT10.8. Extreme rates of BT change and area expansion rates successively increase with decreasing temporal resolution. Thus quarter‐hourly measurements are needed to observe the most vigorous updraft and downdraft events.
Production and metabolic engineering of terpenoid indole alkaloids in cell cultures of the medicinal plant Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (Madagascar periwinkle)
Authors: Zhou Mei‐Liang , Shao Ji‐Rong , Tang Yi‐Xiong
Published: March 2009

The Madagascar periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don] is a plant species known for its production of TIAs (terpenoid indole alkaloids), many of which are pharmaceutically important. Ajmalicine and serpentine are prescribed for the treatment of hypertension, whereas the bisindoles vinblastine, vincristine and 3′,4′‐anhydrovinblastine are used for their antineoplastic activity in the treatment of many cancers. However, TIAs are produced in small yields in C. roseus, which make them expensive. Cell and metabolic engineering has focused on increasing flux through the TIA pathway by various means, including optimization of medium composition, elicitation, construction of noval culture systems and introduction of genes encoding specific metabolic enzymes into the C. roseus genome. The present review will attempt to present the state‐of‐the‐art of research in this area and provide an update on the cell and metabolic engineering of TIAs in C. roseus. We hope that this will contribute to a better understanding of the ways in which TIA production can be achieved in different C. roseus culture systems.
Hydrogen sulfide destroys lipid hydroperoxides in oxidized LDL
Authors: Muellner Markus K. , Schreier Sabine M. , Laggner Hilde , Hermann Marcela , Esterbauer Harald , Exner Markus , Gmeiner Bernhard M. K. , Kapiotis Stylianos
Published: March 2009

LOOHs (lipid hydroperoxides) in oxLDL [oxidized LDL (low-density lipoprotein)] are potentially atherogenic compounds. Recently, H2S was identified as the third endogenous gasotransmitter in the vasculature. H2O2 is known to be destroyed by H2S. Assuming that H2S may also react with LOOHs, the results show that H2S can destroy LOOHs in oxLDL. The ability of LOOH-enriched LDL to induce HO-1 (haem oxygenase 1) in endothelial cells was abolished by H2S pretreatment. HPLC analysis showed that 9-HPODE [(9S)-hydroperoxy-(10E,12Z)-octadecadienoic acid], a compound found in oxLDL, was reduced to 9-HODE [(9S)-hydroxy-(10E,12Z)-octadecadienoic acid] in the presence of H2S. Thus H2S may act as an antiatherogenic agent by reducing LOOHs to the less reactive LOHs and could abrogate the pathobiological activity of oxLDL.
Dexamethasone decreases neuronal nitric oxide release in mesenteric arteries from hypertensive rats through decreased protein kinase C activation
Authors: Aras-López Rosa , Xavier Fabiano E. , Ferrer Mercedes , Balfagón Gloria
Published: March 2009

Neuronal NO plays a functional role in many vascular tissues, including MAs (mesenteric arteries). Glucocorticoids alter NO release from endothelium and the CNS (central nervous system), but no results from peripheral innervation have been reported. In the present study we investigated the effects of dexamethasone on EFS (electrical field stimulation)-induced NO release in MAs from WKY (Wistar–Kyoto) rats and SHRs (spontaneously hypertensive rats) and the role of PKC (protein kinase C) in this response. In endothelium-denuded MAs, L-NAME (NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester) increased the contractile response to EFS only in segments from SHRs. EFS-induced contraction was reduced by 1 μmol/l dexamethasone in segments from SHRs, but not WKY rats, and this effect was abolished in the presence of dexamethasone. EFS induced a tetrodotoxin-resistant NO release in WKY rat MAs, which remained unchanged by 1 μmol/l dexamethasone. In SHR MAs, dexamethasone decreased basal and EFS-induced neuronal NO release, and this decrease was prevented by the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist mifepristone. Dexamethasone did not affect nNOS [neuronal NOS (NO synthase)] expression in either strain. In SHR MAs, incubation with calphostin C (a non-selective PKC inhibitor), Gö6983 (a classic PKC δ and ζ inhibitor), LY379196 (a PKCβ inhibitor) or PKCζ-PI (PKCζ pseudosubstrate inhibitor) decreased both basal and EFS-induced neuronal NO release. Additionally, PKC activity was reduced by dexamethasone. The PKC inhibitor-induced reduction in NO release was unaffected by dexamethasone. In conclusion, results obtained in the present study indicate that PKC activity positively modulates the neuronal NO release in MAs from SHRs. They also reveal that by PKC inhibition, through activation of glucocorticoid receptors, dexamethasone reduces neuronal NO release in these arteries.
Invar effect and noncollinear magnetism in FeCu alloys
Authors: Eisenbach Markus , Stocks G. Malcolm
Published: March 2009

The Invar effect has been observed in many Fe rich alloys, most famously Ni Invar. Generally the Invar behavior is associated with the strong coupling between the lattice and magnetic degrees of freedom, and therefore depends on the magnetic ordering in these alloys. Recent experimental works observed an Invar effect in fcc-FeCu solid solutions [Gorria et al., Phys. Rev. B 69, 214421 (2004)]. In the present paper the magnetic states of fcc-FeCu solid solutions for various concentrations are investigated. The first principles calculations employ the locally self-consistent multiple scattering real space method for solving the local-density approximation Kohn–Sham equation to investigate the noncollinear ordering of magnetic moments. The magnetic order for the low iron concentration is found to be noncollinear, spin glasslike, and the ferromagnetic order is not stable, whereas for the iron rich alloys for the ground state equilibrium lattice constants a magnetic order with parallel aligned Fe moments is stable. In this configuration the induced moments at the Cu sites order nontrivially on a cone with an opening of approximately 40° around the Fe moment direction.
High-TC superconductivity related to deep inner orbital coupling in FeAs-based compounds
Authors: Chen N. , Liu Y. , Zhang W. J. , Li Yang
Published: March 2009

The discovery of new iron-based high temperature superconductors REOFeAs (RE=La, Ce, Pr, etc.) led to a great deal of interest in study of superconductivity mechanism. The relation in electronic structure between arsenic atom and its nearest neighbor cation A for various Fe–As superconductor systems is studied. The result shows that the energy levels of 5p orbitals of all cation A occupy in a narrow energy extent of −14 to −26 eV, which are close to that of As 4s orbital. The calculated electronic structures show that there is an inner orbital coupling between As and near cation A. The distance of A-As has an approximately proportional relation with the critical temperature of superconductivity (TC). The larger intensity of the inner orbital coupling corresponds to the higher TC. We conclude the high-TC superconductivity originates from the inner orbital coupling between As and its near cation A atom for this kind of Fe-based REOFeAs superconductors.
Micromagnetic numerical analysis of magnetization processes in patterned ferromagnetic films
Authors: Bottauscio O. , Chiampi M. , Manzin A.
Published: March 2009

Magnetization processes in planar arrays of magnetic nanodots are modelled, starting from the space-time discretization of the Landau-Lifshitz equation. The magnetostatic interactions between particles is investigated by varying interdot distance, material properties, and dot shape and size.
Dynamical measurements with a nuclear magnetic resonance force microscope
Authors: Chia Han-Jong , Monti Mark , Lee Yong , Lu Wei , Choi Jae-Hyuk , Markert John T.
Published: March 2009

We report imaging and dynamical measurements using a H3e nuclear magnetic resonance force microscopy probe. Relaxation-time measurements and a one-dimensional image were obtained for H1 nuclei in a micron-scale crystal of (NH4)2SO4. The force detection was made possible by a small Permalloy magnet, which supplied a field gradient of 500 T/m. These experiments were performed in the sample-on-oscillator configuration at room temperature, where the oscillator had a resonance frequency of 1.5 kHz and a spring constant of 0.03 N/m. The proton magnetic moments underwent cyclic adiabatic inversions (CAIs) under the influence of a frequency-modulated rf field. Scanning the position of the magnet with respect to the sample provided a micron-scale image with a signal-to-noise ratio of 4.3. A spin nutation signal was also obtained; those data imply a rotating rf field of 14 G. Using a 90°-τ-180°-t-90°-CAI sequence, a spin echo was mapped out, with a full width at half maximum of 8 μs. We also discuss future applications of this instrument toward relaxation measurements of single-crystal MgB2 at low temperatures.
Micromagnetic simulation of various pole-tip design perpendicular magnetic recording heads
Authors: Takano Kenichi , Guan Lijie , Zhou Yuchen , Liu Yue , Smyth Joe , Dovek Moris
Published: March 2009

We have studied the magnetization configuration of various pole-tip design perpendicular magnetic recording heads by using finite element method (FEM) based micromagnetic simulation. Taper pole has larger head field of 13%–25% than nontaper pole and delivers better gradient because the magnetization of the main pole becomes more perpendicular to the air bearing surface (ABS) and an increase in magnetic charge is observed not only at the ABS but also at the slope region. Side shield has less fringing field in the cross-track direction but the field profile is not as simple as the conventional FEM result. The side shield has a complex domain configuration around the edge, which is difficult to switch in polarity via write current excitation, differing from the trailing-shield situation. The magnetic charge of the side-shield wall induces off-track peaks of the fringing field, and so it must be minimized to optimize the side-shield structure.