bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
TOWARD A PRODUCTIVE DIVORCE: Separating DOE Cleanups from Transition Assistance
Authors: Russell M.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Cleanup of legacy waste and transition of US Department of Energy site communities to sustainable economic vitality have been melded inappropriately in one program. The results have been cleanup that costs far more and takes far longer than is necessary, and transition assistance that is ineffectual in meeting host communities' goals. Attempts at reform have largely failed because administrative and operational fixes clash with deep political and economic incentives. The status quo is unsustainable in the long run because of budgetary pressures and restiveness on the part of the public. Only systemic change, made possible by a Grand Agreement that separates the tasks, can bring realistic and lasting improvement. “Toward a Productive Divorce” analyzes the dynamics that have led to failure and outlines first steps for actions that will satisfy conflicting goals effectively and efficiently.
HEALTH AND PRODUCTIVITY GAINS FROM BETTER INDOOR ENVIRONMENTS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH BUILDING ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Authors: Fisk William J.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Theoretical considerations and empirical data suggest that existing technologies and procedures can improve indoor environments in a manner that significantly increases productivity and health. The existing literature contains moderate to strong evidence that characteristics of buildings and indoor environments significantly influence rates of communicable respiratory illness, allergy and asthma symptoms, sick building symptoms, and worker performance. Whereas there is considerable uncertainty in the estimates of the magnitudes of productivity gains that may be obtained by providing better indoor environments, the projected gains are very large. For the United States, the estimated potential annual savings and productivity gains are $6 to $14 billion from reduced respiratory disease, $1 to $4 billion from reduced allergies and asthma, $10 to $30 billion from reduced sick building syndrome symptoms, and $20 to $160 billion from direct improvements in worker performance that are unrelated to health. Productivity gains that are quantified and demonstrated could serve as a strong stimulus for energy efficiency measures that simultaneously improve the indoor environment.
INDOOR AIR QUALITY FACTORS IN DESIGNING A HEALTHY BUILDING
Authors: Spengler John D. , Chen Qingyan
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Current guidelines for green buildings are cursory and inadequate for specifying materials and designing ventilation systems to ensure a healthful indoor environment, i.e. a “healthy building,” by design. Public perception, cultural preferences, litigation trends, current codes and regulations, and rapid introduction of new building materials and commercial products, as well as the prevailing design-build practices, pose challenges to systems integration in the design, construction and operation phases of modern buildings. We are on the verge of a paradigm shift in ventilation design thinking. In the past, thermal properties of air within a zone determined heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning specifications. In the future, occupant-specific and highly responsive systems will become the norm. Natural ventilation, displacement ventilation, and microzoning with subfloor plenums, along with the use of point-of-source heat control and point-of-use sensors, will evolve to create a “smart,” responsive ventilation-building dynamic system. Advanced ventilation design tools such as the modeling of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) will be used routinely. CFD will be integrated into air quality and risk assessment models.
Fluid Mechanics in the Driven Cavity
Authors: Shankar P. N. , Deshpande M. D.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This review pertains to the body of work dealing with internal recirculating flows generated by the motion of one or more of the containing walls. These flows are not only technologically important, they are of great scientific interest because they display almost all fluid mechanical phenomena in the simplest of geometrical settings. Thus corner eddies, longitudinal vortices, nonuniqueness, transition, and turbulence all occur naturally and can be studied in the same closed geometry. This facilitates the comparison of results from experiment, analysis, and computation over the whole range of Reynolds numbers. Considerable progress has been made in recent years in the understanding of three-dimensional flows and in the study of turbulence. The use of direct numerical simulation appears very promising.
Two Centuries of Genetics: A View from Halftime
Authors: Crow James F.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  In the first half-century of genetics, 1900 to 1953, the main techniques were breeding experiments and microscopy. Emphasis was on transmission genetics and cytogenetics, and during the half-century these became mature sciences. But the gene remained elusive. In 1953, thanks to Watson and Crick, the nature of the gene was no longer a mystery. In the second half of the century, the techniques became more chemical and computers played an indispensable role. The emphasis was then on gene action and, in the human, on increasingly accurate gene mapping and the soon-to-be-completed DNA sequence. During the first half-century, human genetics was very primitive, but by the end of the century it was comparable to that of the best-studied species. This trend will surely extend to the next century. The humanitarian possibilities of new techniques are enormous, but social judgments about their use and the problems of an increasingly crowded planet temper our optimism.
INTERLEUKIN-1 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST: Role in Biology
Authors: Arend William P. , Malyak Mark , Guthridge Carla J. , Gabay Cem
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) is a member of the IL-1 family that binds to IL-1 receptors but does not induce any intracellular response. Two structural variants of IL-1Ra have previously been described: a 17-kDa form that is secreted from monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, and other cells (sIL-1Ra) and an 18-kDa form that remains in the cytoplasm of keratinocytes and other epithelial cells, monocytes, and fibroblasts (icIL-1Ra). An additional 16-kDa intracellular isoform of IL-1Ra has recently been described in neutrophils, monocytes, and hepatic cells. Both of the major isoforms of IL-1Ra are transcribed from the same gene through the use of alternative first exons. The two promoters regulating transcription of the secreted and intracellular forms have been cloned, and some of the functional cis-acting DNA regions have been characterized. The production of IL-1Ra is stimulated by many substances including adherent IgG, other cytokines, and bacterial or viral components. The tissue distribution of IL-1Ra in mice indicates that sIL-1Ra is found predominantly in peripheral blood cells, lungs, spleen, and liver, while icIL-1Ra is found in large amounts in skin. Studies in transgenic and knockout mice indicate that IL-1Ra is important in host defense against endotoxin-induced injury. IL-1Ra is produced by hepatic cells with the characteristics of an acute phase protein. Endogenous IL-1Ra is produced in numerous experimental animal models of disease as well as in human autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases. The use of neutralizing anti-IL-1Ra antibodies has demonstrated that endogenous IL-1Ra is an important natural antiinflammatory protein in arthritis, colitis, and granulomatous pulmonary disease. Treatment of human diseases with recombinant human IL-1Ra showed an absence of benefit in sepsis syndrome. However, patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with IL-1Ra for six months exhibited improvements in clinical parameters and in radiographic evidence of joint damage.
THE IL-4 RECEPTOR: Signaling Mechanisms and Biologic Functions
Authors: Nelms Keats , Keegan Achsah D. , Zamorano José , Ryan John J. , Paul William E.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Interleukin-4 is a multifunctional cytokine that plays a critical role in the regulation of immune responses. Its effects depend upon binding to and signaling through a receptor complex consisting of the IL-4Rα chain and the common gamma chain (γc), resulting in a series of phosphorylation events mediated by receptor-associated kinases. In turn, these cause the recruitment of mediators of cell growth, of resistance to apoptosis, and of gene activation and differentiation. Here we describe our current understanding of the organization of the IL-4 receptor, of the signaling pathways that are induced as a result of receptor occupancy, and of the various mechanisms through which receptor function is modulated. We particularly emphasize the modular nature of the receptor and the specialization of different receptor regions for distinct functions, most notably the independent regulation of cell growth and gene activation.
Innate Immune Recognition
Authors: Janeway Charles A. , Medzhitov Ruslan
Published: July 2002

The innate immune system is a universal and ancient form of host defense against infection. Innate immune recognition relies on a limited number of germline-encoded receptors. These receptors evolved to recognize conserved products of microbial metabolism produced by microbial pathogens, but not by the host. Recognition of these molecular structures allows the immune system to distinguish infectious nonself from noninfectious self. Toll-like receptors play a major role in pathogen recognition and initiation of inflammatory and immune responses. Stimulation of Toll-like receptors by microbial products leads to the activation of signaling pathways that result in the induction of antimicrobial genes and inflammatory cytokines. In addition, stimulation of Toll-like receptors triggers dendritic cell maturation and results in the induction of costimulatory molecules and increased antigen-presenting capacity. Thus, microbial recognition by Toll-like receptors helps to direct adaptive immune responses to antigens derived from microbial pathogens.
CpG Motifs in Bacterial DNA and Their Immune Effects
Authors: Krieg Arthur M.
Published: July 2002

Unmethylated CpG motifs are prevalent in bacterial but not vertebrate genomic DNAs. Oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) containing CpG motifs activate host defense mechanisms leading to innate and acquired immune responses. The recognition of CpG motifs requires Toll-like receptor (TLR) 9, which triggers alterations in cellular redox balance and the induction of cell signaling pathways including the mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and NFκB. Cells that express TLR-9, which include plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs) and B cells, produce Th1-like proinflammatory cytokines, interferons, and chemokines. Certain CpG motifs (CpG-A) are especially potent at activating NK cells and inducing IFN-α production by PDCs, while other motifs (CpG-B) are especially potent B cell activators. CpG-induced activation of innate immunity protects against lethal challenge with a wide variety of pathogens, and has therapeutic activity in murine models of cancer and allergy. CpG ODN also enhance the development of acquired immune responses for prophylactic and therapeutic vaccination.
GOODPASTURE'S DISEASE AND ALPORT'S SYNDROMES
Authors: Turner, Ph.D., M.R.C.P A. Neil , Rees, M.Sc., F.R.C.P Andrew J.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Goodpasture's, or anti-glomerular basement membrane, disease is an uncommon, usually severe disease caused by autoimmunity to a component of certain basement membranes. Alport's syndrome is an inherited, degenerative disorder that affects specific basement membranes. The two are linked by the involvement of type-IV collagen (basement membrane collagen) in their pathogenesis.
LOCAL CIRCUITS IN PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX OF THE MACAQUE MONKEY
Authors: Callaway Edward M.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The basic laminar organization of excitatory local circuitry in the primary visual cortex of the macaque monkey is similar to that described previously in the cat's visual cortex ( Gilbert 1983 ). This circuitry is described here in the context of a two-level model that distinguishes between feedforward and feedback connections. Embedded within this basic framework is a more complex organization. Within the strictly feedforward pathway, these circuits distribute unique combinations of magno-, parvo-, and koniocellular input from the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) to neurons in layers 2–4B. Their input is dependent on the extrastriate cortical areas they target. The local feedback connections from deep layers (5 and 6) arise from a diverse population of pyramidal neurons. Each type forms local connections with a unique relationship to more superficial layers. In the case of layer 6 neurons, these connections are closely related to layer 4 subdivisions receiving input from different functional streams.
The Quantum Physics of Black Holes: Results from String Theory
Authors: Das Sumit R. , Mathur Samir D.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  We review recent progress in our understanding of the physics of black holes. In particular, we discuss the ideas from string theory that explain the entropy of black holes from a counting of microstates of the hole, and the related derivation of unitary Hawking radiation from such holes.
HIGHLIGHTS OF THE SLD PHYSICS PROGRAM AT THE SLAC LINEAR COLLIDER
Authors: Rowson P. C. , Su Dong , Willocq Stéphane
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Starting in 1989, and continuing through the 1990s, high-energy physics witnessed a flowering of precision measurements in general and tests of the standard model in particular, led by e+e− collider experiments operating at the Z0 resonance. Key contributions to this work came from the SLD collaboration at the SLAC Linear Collider. By exploiting the unique capabilities of this pioneering accelerator and the SLD detector, including a polarized electron beam, exceptionally small beam dimensions, and a CCD pixel vertex detector, SLD produced a broad array of electroweak, heavy-flavor, and QCD measurements. Many of these results are one of a kind or represent the world's standard in precision. This article reviews the highlights of the SLD physics program, with an eye toward associated advances in experimental technique, and the contribution of these measurements to our dramatically improved present understanding of the standard model and its possible extensions.
BIOAVAILABILITY AND BIOCONVERSION OF CAROTENOIDS
Authors: Castenmiller J. J. M. , West C. E.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Factors that influence the bioavailability of carotenoids and their bioconversion to retinol are species of carotenoids, molecular linkage, amount of carotenoids consumed in a meal, matrix in which the carotenoid is incorporated, effectors of absorption and bioconversion, nutrient status of the host, genetic factors, host-related factors, and mathematical interactions. In this paper, current knowledge of these factors is examined. Although data are not sufficiently comparable to allow an extensive systematic comparison of results, a number of conclusions can be drawn from the information available.
Biosynthesis of Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Authors: Bacher A. , Eberhardt S. , Fischer M. , Kis K. , Richter G.
Published: July 2002

The biosynthesis of one riboflavin molecule requires one molecule of GTP and two molecules of ribulose 5-phosphate as substrates. The imidazole ring of GTP is hydrolytically opened, yielding a 4,5-diaminopyrimidine which is converted to 5-amino-6-ribitylamino-2,4(1H,3H)-pyrimidinedione by a sequence of deamination, side chain reduction and dephosphorylation. Condensation of 5-amino-6-ribitylamino-2,4(1H,3H)-pyrimidinedione with 3,4-dihydroxy-2-butanone 4-phosphate obtained from ribulose 5-phosphate affords 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine. Dismutation of the lumazine derivative yields riboflavin and 5-amino-6-ribitylamino-2,4(1H,3H)-pyrimidinedione, which is recycled in the biosynthetic pathway. The structure of the biosynthetic enzyme, 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine synthase, has been studied in considerable detail.
THEORY OF PROTEIN FOLDING: The Energy Landscape Perspective
Authors: Onuchic José Nelson , Luthey-Schulten Zaida , Wolynes Peter G.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The energy landscape theory of protein folding is a statistical description of a protein's potential surface. It assumes that folding occurs through organizing an ensemble of structures rather than through only a few uniquely defined structural intermediates. It suggests that the most realistic model of a protein is a minimally frustrated heteropolymer with a rugged funnel-like landscape biased toward the native structure. This statistical description has been developed using tools from the statistical mechanics of disordered systems, polymers, and phase transitions of finite systems. We review here its analytical background and contrast the phenomena in homopolymers, random heteropolymers, and protein-like heteropolymers that are kinetically and thermodynamically capable of folding. The connection between these statistical concepts and the results of minimalist models used in computer simulations is discussed. The review concludes with a brief discussion of how the theory helps in the interpretation of results from fast folding experiments and in the practical task of protein structure prediction.
LUNG SURFACTANT: A Personal Perspective
Authors: Clements John A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This perspective tells the story of the discovery, characterization, and understanding of the surfactant system of the lung; of how investigators from many disciplines studied the system, stimulated by the demonstration of surfactant deficiency in respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn; and of how the resulting knowledge formed a basis for highly successful surfactant substitution treatment for this syndrome. The chapter includes personal reminiscences and reflections of the author and ends with a few thoughts about the present status and future prospects of this field of research.
THE ROLE OF VITRIFICATION IN ANHYDROBIOSIS
Authors: Crowe John H. , Carpenter John F. , Crowe Lois M.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Numerous organisms are capable of surviving more or less complete dehydration. A common feature in their biochemistry is that they accumulate large amounts of disaccharides, the most common of which are sucrose and trehalose. Over the past 20 years, we have provided evidence that these sugars stabilize membranes and proteins in the dry state, most likely by hydrogen bonding to polar residues in the dry macromolecular assemblages. This direct interaction results in maintenance of dry proteins and membranes in a physical state similar to that seen in the presence of excess water. An alternative viewpoint has been proposed, based on the fact that both sucrose and trehalose form glasses in the dry state. It has been suggested that glass formation (vitrification) is in itself sufficient to stabilize dry biomaterials. In this review we present evidence that, although vitrification is indeed required, it is not in itself sufficient. Instead, both direct interaction and vitrification are required. Special properties have often been claimed for trehalose in this regard. In fact, trehalose has been shown by many workers to be remarkably (and sometimes uniquely) effective in stabilizing dry or frozen biomolecules, cells, and tissues. Others have not observed any such special properties. We review evidence here showing that trehalose has a remarkably high glass-transition temperature (Tg). It is not anomalous in this regard because it lies at the end of a continuum of sugars with increasing Tg. However, it is unusual in that addition of small amounts of water does not depress Tg, as in other sugars. Instead, a dihydrate crystal of trehalose forms, thereby shielding the remaining glassy trehalose from effects of the added water. Thus under less than ideal conditions such as high humidity and temperature, trehalose does indeed have special properties, which may explain the stability and longevity of anhydrobiotes that contain it. Further, it makes this sugar useful in stabilization of biomolecules of use in human welfare.
FRANK LAMSON-SCRIBNER: Botanist and Pioneer Plant Pathologist in the United States
Authors: Hilty James W. , Peterson Jr Paul D.
Published: July 2002

[Figure: see text]

▪ Abstract  Frank Lamson-Scribner, in 1885, became the first scientist commissioned by the United States Department of Agriculture with the responsibility to study diseases of economic plants. His innovative approach established the foundation for applied plant pathology at the USDA. In an early international cooperative effort in plant pathology, he detailed the life history of the grape black rot pathogen. His early studies with the Bordeaux mixture introduced the American farmer to the modern era of chemical control. Scribner became the botanist and director of the University of Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station. He published the first book written on the subject of plant diseases in the United States, and described a new nematode disease of potato. He asserted that the practical value of plant pathology to farmers would only follow meticulous studies of the life history of pathogens.
BRAIN PLASTICITY AND BEHAVIOR
Authors: Kolb Bryan , Whishaw Ian Q.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Brain plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change structure and function. Experience is a major stimulant of brain plasticity in animal species as diverse as insects and humans. It is now clear that experience produces multiple, dissociable changes in the brain including increases in dendritic length, increases (or decreases) in spine density, synapse formation, increased glial activity, and altered metabolic activity. These anatomical changes are correlated with behavioral differences between subjects with and without the changes. Experience-dependent changes in neurons are affected by various factors including aging, gonadal hormones, trophic factors, stress, and brain pathology. We discuss the important role that changes in dendritic arborization play in brain plasticity and behavior, and we consider these changes in the context of changing intrinsic circuitry of the cortex in processes such as learning.
Applications of Structural Equation Modeling in Psychological Research
Authors: MacCallum Robert C. , Austin James T.
Published: July 2002

This chapter presents a review of applications of structural equation modeling (SEM) published in psychological research journals in recent years. We focus first on the variety of research designs and substantive issues to which SEM can be applied productively. We then discuss a number of methodological problems and issues of concern that characterize some of this literature. Although it is clear that SEM is a powerful tool that is being used to great benefit in psychological research, it is also clear that the applied SEM literature is characterized by some chronic problems and that this literature can be considerably improved by greater attention to these issues.
Job Burnout
Authors: Maslach Christina , Schaufeli Wilmar B. , Leiter Michael P.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Burnout is a prolonged response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors on the job, and is defined by the three dimensions of exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy. The past 25 years of research has established the complexity of the construct, and places the individual stress experience within a larger organizational context of people's relation to their work. Recently, the work on burnout has expanded internationally and has led to new conceptual models. The focus on engagement, the positive antithesis of burnout, promises to yield new perspectives on interventions to alleviate burnout. The social focus of burnout, the solid research basis concerning the syndrome, and its specific ties to the work domain make a distinct and valuable contribution to people's health and well-being.
Self and Social Identity
Authors: Ellemers Naomi , Spears Russell , Doosje Bertjan
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  In this chapter, we examine the self and identity by considering the different conditions under which these are affected by the groups to which people belong. From a social identity perspective we argue that group commitment, on the one hand, and features of the social context, on the other hand, are crucial determinants of central identity concerns. We develop a taxonomy of situations to reflect the different concerns and motives that come into play as a result of threats to personal and group identity and degree of commitment to the group. We specify for each cell in this taxonomy how these issues of self and social identity impinge upon a broad variety of responses at the perceptual, affective, and behavioral level.
CENSORING ISSUES IN SURVIVAL ANALYSIS
Authors: Leung Kwan-Moon , Elashoff Robert M. , Afifi Abdelmonem A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  A key characteristic that distinguishes survival analysis from other areas in statistics is that survival data are usually censored. Censoring occurs when incomplete information is available about the survival time of some individuals. We define censoring through some practical examples extracted from the literature in various fields of public health. With few exceptions, the censoring mechanisms in most observational studies are unknown and hence it is necessary to make assumptions about censoring when the common statistical methods are used to analyze censored data. In addition, we present situations in which censoring mechanisms can be ignored. The effects of the censoring assumptions are demonstrated through actual studies.
Focus Groups
Authors: Morgan David L.
Published: July 2002

Over the past decade, focus groups and group interviews have reemerged as a popular technique for gathering qualitative data, both among sociologists and across a wide range of academic and applied research areas. Focus groups are currently used as both a self-contained method and in combination with surveys and other research methods, most notably individual, in-depth interviews. Comparisons between focus groups and both surveys and individual interviews help to show the specific advantages and disadvantages of group interviews, concentrating on the role of the group in producing interaction and the role of the moderator in guiding this interaction. The advantages of focus groups can be maximized through careful attention to research design issues at both the project and the group level. Important future directions include: the development of standards for reporting focus group research, more methodological research on focus groups, more attention to data analysis issues, and more engagement with the concerns of the research participants.
The Legal Environments of Organizations
Authors: Edelman Lauren B. , Suchman Mark C.
Published: July 2002

Sociology has recently witnessed a rapprochement between research on organizations and research on law. This essay reviews a number of central developments and tendencies in this emerging literature, with a particular emphasis on the characteristics of law as an element of the organizational environment. We begin by distinguishing two metatheoretical perspectives on law and organizations: the materialist perspective, which portrays organizations as rational wealth-maximizers and sees the law as a system of substantive incentives and penalties; and the cultural perspective, which portrays organizations as cultural rule-followers and sees the law as a system of moral principles, scripted roles, and sacred symbols. Within each of these traditions, we examine three distinct facets of organizations' legal environments: the facilitative environment, in which law passively provides an arena for organizational action; the regulatory environment, in which law actively seeks to control organizational behavior; and the constitutive environment, in which law defines the basic building blocks of organizational forms and interorganizational relations. Finally, we distinguish between literature that sees law as an independent variable, determining organizational behavior; literature that sees law as a dependent variable, determined by organizational behavior; and a growing literature that discusses the endogeneity between law and organizations. Although any taxonomy tends to depict clear lines where they are in fact murky, we think that this approach not only provides a means of categorizing the literature on law and organizations, it also calls attention to the many different ways in which law and organizations are dynamically intertwined.
Hard and Soft Law in International Governance
Authors: Abbott Kenneth W. , Snidal Duncan
Published: July 2002

We examine why international actors—including states, firms, and activists—seek different types of legalized arrangements to solve political and substantive problems. We show how particular forms of legalization provide superior institutional solutions in different circumstances. We begin by examining the baseline advantages of “hard” legalization (that is, precise, legally binding obligations with appropriate third-party delegation). We emphasize, however, that actors often prefer softer forms of legalization (that is, various combinations of reduced precision, less stringent obligation, and weaker delegation). Soft legalization has a number of significant advantages, including that it is easier to achieve, provides strategies for dealing with uncertainty, infringes less on sovereignty, and facilitates compromise among differentiated actors.

Although our approach is largely interest-based, we explicitly incorporate the normative elements that are central in law and in recent international relations theorizing. We also consider the important role of nonstate actors who, along with states, are central participants in contemporary international legalization. We illustrate the advantages of various forms of international legal arrangements with examples drawn from articles in this special issue and elsewhere.
Investing in the Peace: Economic Interdependence and International Conflict
Authors: Gartzke Erik , Li Quan , Boehmer Charles
Published: July 2002

Research appears to substantiate the liberal conviction that trade fosters global peace. Still, existing understanding of linkages between conflict and international economics is limited in at least two ways. First, cross-border economic relationships are far broader than just trade. Global capital markets dwarf the exchange of goods and services, and states engage in varying degrees of monetary policy coordination. Second, the manner in which economics is said to inhibit conflict behavior is implausible in light of new analytical insights about the causes of war. We discuss, and then demonstrate formally, how interdependence can influence states' recourse to military violence. The risk of disrupting economic linkages—particularly access to capital—may occasionally deter minor contests between interdependent states, but such opportunity costs will typically fail to preclude militarized disputes. Instead, interdependence offers nonmilitarized avenues for communicating resolve through costly signaling. Our quantitative results show that capital interdependence contributes to peace independent of the effects of trade, democracy, interest, and other variables.
Dirty Pool
Authors: Green Donald P. , Kim Soo Yeon , Yoon David H.
Published: July 2002

International relations scholars make frequent use of pooled cross-sectional regression in which N dyads over T time points are combined to create NT observations. Unless special conditions are met, these regressions produce biased estimates of regression coefficients and their standard errors. A survey of recent publications in international relations shows little attention to this issue. Using data from the period 1951–92, we examine the consequences of pooling for models of militarized disputes and bilateral trade. When pooled models are reestimated to allow for stable but unobserved differences among dyads, the results are altered in fundamental ways.
What Happened to Fortress Europe?: External Trade Policy Liberalization in the European Union
Authors: Hanson Brian T.
Published: July 2002

In an era when many fear the breakdown of the global trading order through the emergence of relatively closed regional trading blocs, assessing the effects of European integration on external European Union trade is particularly important. Surprisingly, despite a severe recession accompanied by record levels of unemployment, a history of increasing protection under similar economic circumstances, and alarming predictions about “fortress Europe,” external trade policy in the region has liberalized in recent years. Prominent trade policy explanations emphasizing changing interest group demands or changing ideas of policymakers are inadequate to account for this significant change in trade policy. Instead, much of this liberalization can be best understood as an unforeseen consequence of the Single European Act. Completing the single market undermined the effectiveness of national trade measures and made it difficult to enact new trade barriers, thus producing a liberal bias in European policy.
The Cultural Worlds of Marco Polo
Authors: Allsen Thomas T.
Published: July 2002

In the thirteenth century, the Mongols created a vast, transcontinental empire that intensified commercial and cultural contact throughout Eurasia. As with other forms of booty generated by conquest, the Mongolian elite systematically identified, and shared out, the cultural resources oftheir more sedentary subjects. Thus, the Mongols military-political dominance ofthe continent was accompanied by—even accomplished through—cultural dependence. As a product ofthis complex, interactive world of contending cultural currents, Marco Polo viewed the East, and China in particular, through multiple cultural filters—European, Muslim, and Mongolian.
Rethinking Geminates, Long-Distance Geminates, and the OCP
Authors: Rose Sharon
Published: July 2002

Building on the analysis of long-distance geminates as reduplication, this article argues that the OCP may apply to identical consonants across an intervening vowel. This is adduced from the behavior of guttural consonants in Semitic. It is further argued that antigemination is not resistance to an OCP violation but avoidance of gemination; syncope between identical consonants avoids an OCP violation by creating a geminate. This entails that there is no surface representational distinction between true and fake geminates. Finally, cases of reduplication are examined in which the standard reduplicant is changed to avoid either gemination or an OCP violation.
Specialization of Neural Mechanisms Underlying Face Recognition in Human Infants
Authors: Haan Michelle de , Pascalis Olivier , Johnson Mark H.
Published: July 2002

Newborn infants respond preferentially to simple face-like patterns, raising the possibility that the face-specific regions identified in the adult cortex are functioning from birth. We sought to evaluate this hypothesis by characterizing the specificity of infants' electrocortical responses to faces in two ways: (1) comparing responses to faces of humans with those to faces of nonhuman primates; and 2) comparing responses to upright and inverted faces. Adults' face-responsive N170 event-related potential (ERP) component showed specificity to upright human faces that was not observable at any point in the ERPs of infants. A putative “infant N170” did show sensitivity to the species of the face, but the orientation of the face did not influence processing until a later stage. These findings suggest a process of gradual specialization of cortical face processing systems during postnatal development.
On-Line Evidence for Context Use by Right-Brain-Damaged Patients
Authors: Leonard Carol L. , Baum Shari R.
Published: July 2002

The ability of right-brain-damaged (RBD) patients to use on-line contextual information in a word-monitoring task was examined. Subjects were required to monitor for target words in the contexts of both normal and semantically anomalous sentences. Similar to previous studies with normals (e.g., Marslen-Wilson & Tyler, 1980), the semantic integrity of the context was influential in the word-recognition process. Importantly, the RBD patients performed similarly to normals in showing context effects. These results were interpreted as substantiating the findings of Leonard, Waters, and Caplan (1997a, 1997b) that RBD patients do not present with a specific deficit in the use of contextual information. The results are discussed in terms of proposals that suggest that an impaired ability to use contextual information by RBD patients may be a function of increased processing demands.
Category-Specific Semantic Deficits in Focal and Widespread Brain Damage: A Computational Account
Authors: Devlin Joseph T. , Gonnerman Laura M. , Andersen Elaine S. , Seidenberg Mark S.
Published: July 2002

Category-specific semantic impairments have been explained in terms of preferential damage to different types of features (e.g., perceptual vs. functional). This account is compatible with cases in which the impairments were the result of relatively focal lesions, as in herpes encephalitis. Recently, however, there have been reports of category-specific impairments associated with Alzheimer's disease, in which there is more widespread, patchy damage. We present experiments with a connectionist model that show how ficategory-specificfl impairments can arise in cases of both localized and wide-spread damage; in this model, types of features are topographically organized, but specific categories are not. These effects mainly depend on differences between categories in the distribution of correlated features. The model's predictions about degree of impairment on natural kinds and artifacts over the course of semantic deterioration are shown to be consistent with existing patient data. The model shows how the probabilistic nature of damage in Alzheimer's disease interacts with the structure of semantic memory to yield different patterns of impairment between patients and categories over time.
Generalized Discriminant Analysis Using a Kernel Approach
Authors: Baudat G. , Anouar F.
Published: July 2002

We present a new method that we call generalized discriminant analysis (GDA) to deal with nonlinear discriminant analysis using kernel function operator. The underlying theory is close to the support vector machines (SVM) insofar as the GDA method provides a mapping of the input vectors into high-dimensional feature space. In the transformed space, linear properties make it easy to extend and generalize the classical linear discriminant analysis (LDA) to nonlinear discriminant analysis. The formulation is expressed as an eigenvalue problem resolution. Using a different kernel, one can cover a wide class of nonlinearities. For both simulated data and alternate kernels, we give classification results, as well as the shape of the decision function. The results are confirmed using real data to perform seed classification.
New Support Vector Algorithms
Authors: Schölkopf Bernhard , Smola Alex J. , Williamson Robert C. , Bartlett Peter L.
Published: July 2002

We propose a new class of support vector algorithms for regression and classification. In these algorithms, a parameter ν lets one effectively control the number of support vectors. While this can be useful in its own right, the parameterization has the additional benefit of enabling us to eliminate one of the other free parameters of the algorithm: the accuracy parameter ε in the regression case, and the regularization constant C in the classification case. We describe the algorithms, give some theoretical results concerning the meaning and the choice of ν, and report experimental results.
Auto-SOM: Recursive Parameter Estimation for Guidance of Self-Organizing Feature Maps
Authors: Haese Karin , Goodhill Geoffrey J.
Published: July 2002

An important technique for exploratory data analysis is to form a mapping from the high-dimensional data space to a low-dimensional representation space such that neighborhoods are preserved. A popular method for achieving this is Kohonen's self-organizing map (SOM) algorithm. However, in its original form, this requires the user to choose the values of several parameters heuristically to achieve good performance. Here we present the Auto-SOM, an algorithm that estimates the learning parameters during the training of SOMs automatically. The application of Auto-SOM provides the facility to avoid neighborhood violations up to a user-defined degree in either mapping direction.

Auto-SOM consists of a Kalman filter implementation of the SOM coupled with a recursive parameter estimation method. The Kalman filter trains the neurons' weights with estimated learning coefficients so as to minimize the variance of the estimation error. The recursive parameter estimation method estimates the width of the neighborhood function by minimizing the prediction error variance of the Kalman filter. In addition, the “topographic function” is incorporated to measure neighborhood violations and prevent the map's converging to configurations with neighborhood violations. It is demonstrated that neighborhoods can be preserved in both mapping directions as desired for dimension-reducing applications. The development of neighborhood-preserving maps and their convergence behavior is demonstrated by three examples accounting for the basic applications of self-organizing feature maps.
Training v-Support Vector Classifiers: Theory and Algorithms
Authors: Chang Chih-Chung , Lin Chih-Jen
Published: July 2002

The ν-support vector machine (ν-SVM) for classification proposed by Schölkopf, Smola, Williamson, and Bartlett (2000) has the advantage of using a parameter ν on controlling the number of support vectors. In this article, we investigate the relation between ν-SVM and C-SVM in detail. We show that in general they are two different problems with the same optimal solution set. Hence, we may expect that many numerical aspects of solving them are similar. However, compared to regular C-SVM, the formulation of ν-SVM is more complicated, so up to now there have been no effective methods for solving large-scale ν-SVM. We propose a decomposition method for ν-SVM that is competitive with existing methods for C-SVM. We also discuss the behavior of ν-SVM by some numerical experiments.
Bayesian Framework for Least-Squares Support Vector Machine Classifiers, Gaussian Processes, and Kernel Fisher Discriminant Analysis
Authors: Gestel T. Van , Suykens J. A. K. , Lanckriet G. , Lambrechts A. , Moor B. De , Vandewalle J.
Published: July 2002

The Bayesian evidence framework has been successfully applied to the design of multilayer perceptrons (MLPs) in the work of MacKay. Nevertheless, the training of MLPs suffers from drawbacks like the nonconvex optimization problem and the choice of the number of hidden units. In support vector machines (SVMs) for classification, as introduced by Vapnik, a nonlinear decision boundary is obtained by mapping the input vector first in a nonlinear way to a high-dimensional kernel-induced feature space in which a linear large margin classifier is constructed. Practical expressions are formulated in the dual space in terms of the related kernel function, and the solution follows from a (convex) quadratic programming (QP) problem. In least-squares SVMs (LS-SVMs), the SVM problem formulation is modified by introducing a least-squares cost function and equality instead of inequality constraints, and the solution follows from a linear system in the dual space. Implicitly, the least-squares formulation corresponds to a regression formulation and is also related to kernel Fisher discriminant analysis. The least-squares regression formulation has advantages for deriving analytic expressions in a Bayesian evidence framework, in contrast to the classification formulations used, for example, in gaussian processes (GPs). The LS-SVM formulation has clear primal-dual interpretations, and without the bias term, one explicitly constructs a model that yields the same expressions as have been obtained with GPs for regression. In this article, the Bayesian evidence frame-work is combined with the LS-SVM classifier formulation. Starting from the feature space formulation, analytic expressions are obtained in the dual space on the different levels of Bayesian inference, while posterior class probabilities are obtained by marginalizing over the model param-eters. Empirical results obtained on 10 public domain data sets show that the LS-SVM classifier designed within the Bayesian evidence framework consistently yields good generalization performances.
A Cross-Media Presence Questionnaire: The ITC-Sense of Presence Inventory
Authors: Lessiter Jane , Freeman Jonathan , Keogh Edmund , Davidoff Jules
Published: July 2002

The presence research community would benefit from a reliable and valid cross-media presence measure that allows results from different laboratories to be compared and a more comprehensive knowledge base to be developed. The ITC-Sense of Presence Inventory (ITC-SOPI) is a new state questionnaire measure whose development has been informed by previous research on the determinants of presence and current self-report measures. It focuses on users' experiences of media, with no reference to objective system parameters. More than 600 people completed the ITC-SOPI following an experience with one of a range of noninteractive and interactive media. Exploratory analysis (principal axis factoring) revealed four factors: Sense of Physical Space, Engagement, Ecological Validity, and Negative Effects. Relations between the factors and the consistency of the factor structure with others reported in the literature are discussed. Preliminary analyses described here demonstrate that the ITC-SOPI is reliable and valid, but more rigorous testing of its psychometric properties and applicability to interactive virtual environments is required. Subject to satisfactory confirmatory analyses, the ITC-SOPI will offer researchers using a range of media systems a tool with which to measure four facets of a media experience that are putatively related to presence.
The NPSNET Sound Cube
Authors: Storms Russell L. , Roesli John T. , Biggs Lloyd J. , Falby John S. , Barham Paul T. , Zyda Michael J.
Published: July 2002

This paper describes the implementation of the sound system used to generate aural cues for use in the distributed virtual environment of NPSNET. This sound system is called the NPSNET-3D Sound Server. It is a MIDI-based loudspeaker system consisting of commercial, off-the-shelf equipment. This sound system currently generates 2-D aural cues via four speakers, but is designed for the potential generation of 3-D aural cues via a cube con®guration of eight speakers.
Completely Derandomized Self-Adaptation in Evolution Strategies
Authors: Hansen Nikolaus , Ostermeier Andreas
Published: July 2002

This paper puts forward two useful methods for self-adaptation of the mutation distribution - the concepts of derandomization and cumulation. Principle shortcomings of the concept of mutative strategy parameter control and two levels of derandomization are reviewed. Basic demands on the self-adaptation of arbitrary (normal) mutation distributions are developed. Applying arbitrary, normal mutation distributions is equiv-alent to applying a general, linear problem encoding.

The underlying objective of mutative strategy parameter control is roughly to favor previously selected mutation steps in the future. If this objective is pursued rigor-ously, a completely derandomized self-adaptation scheme results, which adapts arbitrary normal mutation distributions. This scheme, called covariance matrix adaptation (CMA), meets the previously stated demands. It can still be considerably improved by cumulation - utilizing an evolution path rather than single search steps.

Simulations on various test functions reveal local and global search properties of the evolution strategy with and without covariance matrix adaptation. Their performances are comparable only on perfectly scaled functions. On badly scaled, non-separable functions usually a speed up factor of several orders of magnitude is ob-served. On moderately mis-scaled functions a speed up factor of three to ten can be expected.