bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE CHALLENGES OF IMPLEMENTING DISPERSANT EFFECTIVENESS MONITORING FOR A GLOBAL RESPONSE
Authors: Benns Gemma
Published: January 2013

Recent developments in dispersant effectiveness monitoring have led to huge benefits for the response communities. Successfully interpreting dispersant effectiveness monitoring fluorometric data in situ has managed to speed scientific results to the Incident Command in almost real time which is becoming increasingly important in the promotion of dispersant as a response tool across the globe, particularly as more and more countries look to developing legislation permitting their use. The ability to present data linking dispersed oil to chemical dispersant is a compelling method of persuasion for their utilisation.

OSRL/EARL is unique in that it is the only industry owned oil spill response company with a global remit, this presents a number of challenges in respect of the practicalities of responding with dispersant monitoring capabilities. The equipment surrounding the use of the fluorometer requires flexibility and portability dependant upon the circumstance of the spills that arise. With the possibility of application of dispersant operations resting upon the ability to monitor as soon as possible after the operations commence, the challenges surrounding the logistics of operation must be overcome, If dispersant monitoring equipment is delayed in its deployment it is not reasonable to delay application given the limited window of opportunity however aerial observations alone present a margin for human error.

Monitoring dispersant effectiveness with the aid of fluorometry is still only a quantitative tool, although its capabilities are well respected, there is scope for further improvement to reduce its limitations. Currently the Turner 10 AU is the predominant tool in dispersant monitoring response; its replacement with a smaller in-situ fluorometer could not only improve the means of collating the data but also reduce the equipment that is required to be transported with the monitoring team. There are presently few obstacles that would prevent new fluorometer equipment being configured with the current software set up.

This paper will look at how an international response organisation has prepared for dispersant monitoring and the tools it has put in place for operational deployment. The system is operated by response personnel rather than scientists so provides a practical solution to the problem based on their experience.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SYSTEM
Authors: Lamarche Alain , Samson Pierre
Published: January 2013

The effectiveness of spill response organizations to handle incidents much depends on the use of well trained personnel and specialized equipment. Knowing where equipment is located, and ensuring that it is ready to use and in good working order are both vital to the planning and management of a response.

It is with these goals and concerns that the Eastern Canada Response Corporation (ECRC) recently decided to update its computerized equipment inventory and maintenance system. An analysis showed that commercially equipment maintenance support systems were not well adapted to the general maintenance processes and tasks used within the organization, were too complex and were not flexible enough.

For this reason, an entirely new system was created to support the management of equipment maintenance. The system was developed using Microsoft Access, with a file server architecture allowing many users to access each of 6 regionally maintained equipment databases. A simple internet based mechanism was developed to enable merging of each of the database for consultation for inventory purposes. Some of the functions included:– Support for the planning of each of 4 types of maintenance, including preventive, license renewal, safety inspections and enhancements or repairs;– A simple mechanism allowing the user to indicate that a piece of equipment is located within another piece of equipment.– The capacity to associate lists of accessories to pieces of equipment– Storage and retrieval of predefined maintenance processes description

Support was also provided to the planning of equipment repair or enhancements through the production of itemized and dated tasks lists.

Some other additional features included: the management of equipment names, to prevent proliferation of names for essentially similar pieces of equipment; the inclusion of a “query-by-example” mechanism for equipment search; and the capacity to export any or all data to a spreadsheet, in order to enable flexible analysis and planning.

The system was also designed in a way to make it easy to upgrade to a database server architecture, should the need arise.

The approach used for the system development and implementation would be applicable to any small to medium size response organization.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN OIL SKIMMER OPERATED BY CRANE BARGES
Authors: Yoshie Muneo , Fujita Isamu , Takezaki Kenji
Published: January 2013

This paper reports about an oil skimming system for crane barges. It was tested with heavy fuel oil and emulsion in a large test tank and its operational test was carried out at SAKAI PORT in Japan. We can estimate performance of the skimmer from experiment data in large test tank, recovering C heavy fuel oil and its emulsion in waves. Estimated oil recovery rate is 5.9tlh and recovery efficiency is 70% when the oil slick thickness is about 2 cm. The recovery rate is equal to, and the recovery efficiency is 2 times higher than the performance of the grab-bucket (capacity 4m3). As a result of the field test, we can propose the oil skimmer as the most immediate oil recovery equipment with a crane barge'S operation.
TIER-2 IN EAST ASIA1: CHALLENGES AND ANSWERS
Authors: Nicolau Alexander
Published: January 2013

On numerous occasions, East Asia has been affected by marine oil spills incidents, originating from tankers and other types of ships. Important spills incidents that involved the IOPC Funds in the last decade (e.g. Nakhodka, Evoikos, Natuna Sea and Solar 1 …) indicate an average occurrence of one spill per year. This figure remains significantly high when considering that some States in the region are still not parties to international compensation regimes. In addition, numerous incidents do not benefit of international media coverage, thus making them often unnoticed.

Lower scale incidents (within the range of hundreds of tonnes) occur on a more frequent basis and may appear trivial to respond to. Nevertheless, they represent the same range of difficulties experienced during larger scale incidents (logistics, suitable means to apply dispersants promptly and effectively, availability of temporary storage, lack of plan and training …)

In terms of response, the ultimate authority in the coordination of spill response activities is in the hands of Government Agencies. However, the equipment and manpower available belong in various proportions to both Government Agencies and the Oil Industry.

The latter operates numerous oil terminals and offshore facilities and is responsible to respond to minor spills defined as Tier 1. In the case of a large spill that exceeds the on-site capability, Tier 3 Cooperatives funded by the vast majority of major companies were created to assist and complement the local response, by offering access to a large range of special supplementary resources and services, such as the Airborne Dispersant Delivery System.

Whilst Tiers 1 and 3 are well defined and are respectively synonyms of small and huge oil spill incidents, there is a lack of clarity and consistency in-between, thus making the Tier 2 response difficult to define. This gap that is often underestimated and may result in a preparedness weakness leading to unfortunate consequences.

The aim of this paper is to analyse the Tier-2 response requirements and to discuss on the challenges of implementing effective measures in a region where the only imports of crude oil of China have more than doubled in the past five years.
RESPONSE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE WEST AFRICAN REGION ∼ A NEW PARADIGM?
Authors: Salt David
Published: January 2013

West Africa is one of the fastest growing oil industry regions in the world at present. The operations range from Floating production and storage units in the newly developing provinces, whilst mature oil production facilities in places such as Angola, Cameroon and Nigeria are being further developed by the introduction of offshore facilities in the previously unexplored deepwater areas, vastly increasing oil outputs and bringing with it attendant risks. The new challenge is how to provide oil spill response to these operations in the event of an incident. Limited personnel numbers in each operation, poor infrastructure and difficult logistics, coupled with security political and transboundary issues makes response operations complicated. There is a significant amount of equipment in the region but its response readiness is often poor. In the newly developed oil provinces, the level of equipment is generally suited to respond to the operational type of incident and is generally stored in a manner where it is ready for immediate deployment, but not stored in a manner that makes it ready to transport, as a result the combined use of tier 1 equipment does not provide for an adequate regional tier 2 resource. Even if the equipment was transportable, transboundary and political difficulties make this approach response less effective. Industry Tier 2 resources co-operatives do exist in some countries in the region, but in the main these resources are not new and have not been updated to reflect the expanded risk profile and the move of industry to the deep offshore. Tier 3 response in the region is reliant on gaining access into country, the issues of visas, security, landing, overflight rights and customs are all obstacles to providing an effective response. Recent history has shown that whilst tier 3 incidents remain the exception, spills that are consistent with a tier 2 categorisation are proving challenging for the industry to deal with. The author, using evidence gained from extensive experience in the region and practical lessons learned from case histories will look at the issues and propose some solutions to the problems.
FIELD MEASUREMENTS OF FLUORESCEIN DYE DISPERSION TO INFORM DISPERSED-OIL PLUME SAMPLING AND PROVIDE INPUT FOR OIL-TRANSPORT MODELING1
Authors: Payne James R. , Terrill Eric , Carter Melissa , Otero Mark , Middleton William , Chen Andy , Nordhausen Walter , Lewis Robin , Lampinen Mark , Evans Thomas , Via Greg L. , Ruiz-Santana Hector , Maly Mike , Willoughby Butch , Varela Charles , French-McCay Deborah , Mueller Chris , Jayko Kathy , Ohlmann Carter , Lynch Paul , Sanchez Paul
Published: January 2013

The California Department of Fish and Game Office of Spill Prevention and Response (CA OSPR) is utilizing oil-spill fate and transport modeling to develop the time and spatial scales, and equipment needs, for a formal Dispersed Oil Monitoring Plan (DOMP). When fully implemented, the DOMP will aid in documenting hydrocarbon concentrations in the water column, potentially exposed organisms (zooplankton), and the impacts of entrained oil and dissolved hydrocarbons with and without dispersant applications.

Fluorescein dye studies off San Diego, California (USA) have been completed to test the operational framework for repeated sampling of dispersed oil plumes as outlined in the DOMP, to allow evaluation of high-frequency radar (HP-Radar) for providing surface current input data to oil spill models, and to provide verification of model-predicted movement of subsurface oil (dye) by comparison with drogue movement and measured dye concentrations over three dimensions and time. Aerial photodocumentation, subsurface drogues, dye transport, and HF-Radar were used to measure near-surface current fields at varying depths. High-resolution subsurface dye-plume structure was mapped using an in situ GPS-coupled towed fluorometer equipped with pressure sensors to provide dye concentration data as a function of time, position, and depth. In addition, data from the more traditional Special Monitoring of Applied Response Technology (SMART) protocols utilized by the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) were compared with the in situ towed-fluorometer measurements, and conventional CTD data were collected to determine the mixed layer depth, an important variable in monitoring dispersion of oil in the water column.

As a result of these efforts, significant progress has been made on developing and testing sampling protocols for the DOMP, and nearly continuous and synoptic data have been obtained from seven cruises conducted over a 12-month period. These data sets (available on-line through the Coastal Response Research Center (CRRC) website: http://www.crrc.unh.edu/) are being analyzed and integrated to support oil spill model development and verification with direct applicability to spill response decision making, net environmental benefit analysis, natural resource damage assessments, and educating the spill community and public.
EFFECT OF SAND PARTICLE SIZE, OIL CONTAMINATION, AND WATER TABLE LEVEL ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SORBENTS IN WICKING OIL FROM CONTAMINATED WETLAND
Authors: Chung Seungjoon , Gandee Jaclyn , Suidan Makram T. , Venosa Albert D.
Published: January 2013

Oil spill cleanup in wetlands is problematic because of the limited remediation techniques that can be applied in such environments. The use of sorbents to clean up oil spills presents many advantages due to simplicity of approach and the inexpensive nature of these materials. Furthermore, sorbents can be used not only as wicking agents but also as microbial media that mediate hydrocarbon biodegradation. Once a sorbent is applied to an impacted wetland, it absorbs the contaminating oil. It retains the oil for a sufficient length of time to allow biodegradation of hydrocarbons by indigenous bacteria under aerobic conditions. In addition, plant-derived organic sorbents are biodegradable, thus leaving no permanent residue. Ammoniated bagasse is one of the biodegradable organic sorbents that contain nitrogen as a nutrient needed to support the activity of oil degrading bacteria.

In this study, we evaluated the effectiveness of sorbents in wicking oil from the subsurface of oil-contaminated sediments under various conditions. Several microcosms were prepared to simulate saturated wetland environments. Glass cylinders, 10 cm in diameter and 10 cm in height, enclosed these microcosms. Each microcosm was layered in the following sequence (from the bottom to the top): a clean sand layer, an oiled-sand layer, and an overlying sorbent layer. Sand, sorbent, and water were sterilized prior to use to ensure that no biodegradation occurs during the experiment. The different conditions included: 2 particle sizes of sand (20 × 30 and 60 × 80 U.S. Mesh), 2 levels of oil contamination (25% and 75% of saturation), 3 water levels (at the oiled-layer/clean sand interface, at the oiled-layer/sorbent-layer interface, and at the sorbent-layer/air interface), and 2 levels of sorbent (presence or absence).

Oil wicking experiments were performed in airtight microcosms for a period of 3 months. At the termination of an experiment, each layer of the microcosms was separated and samples were taken. Samples were extracted with dichloromethane and quantified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Mass balances in each microcosm were established in terms of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH). TPH includes alkanes (C10-C35); pristane; phytane; hopane; 2-, 3-, and 4-ring PAHs; and pyrogenic PAHs (5- & 6-rings). The TPH change in each layer from time zero to 3 months was used to determine the effectiveness of the sorbent under each condition tested.
MANAGING OIL SPILL LIABILITY RISKS
Authors: Day Rebecca , Rodgers Peter , Lafferty Susan
Published: January 2013

Possibly the most costly mistake for companies that transport petroleum and chemicals is the failure to fully understand potential liability for an oil spill. A company that does not understand its legal position may respond to an incident that is not its responsibility, or fail to respond to an incident that is. It may wrongly assume that international conventions (such as the CLC 92) apply, and fail to protect against the liability it will bear if they do not. This failure to understand and manage liability risks has created notorious oil spill headlines in recent months, as companies and corporate officers find themselves prosecuted for actions they thought were innocent - or even helpful - and under laws they never expected to apply.

This paper will consider, through concrete examples provided by oil spill lawyers from all over the world, how this legal liability can arise and particularly how parties who do not expect to be responsible for a spill can become so through well-meaning actions and incomplete understanding of international conventions. This paper will then suggest a variety of practical steps companies can take to manage the risk, including: vetting, contingency planning for non-shipowners, tabletop exercises, liability analyses, and education within the corporate structure.
REVIEW OF OIL SPILL INCIDENTS REPORTED TO THE NATIONAL RESPONSE CENTER FROM ONSHORE OIL PRODUCTION FACILITIES
Authors: Howard Mark , Morin Isabelle , Watts Kristina
Published: January 2013

The paper discusses considerations for prevention requirements under the Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure (SPCC) regulation (40 CFR part 112) of onshore oil production facilities. The paper summarizes findings from a recent review of oil spill incidents reported to the National Response Center (NRC) during the period of 2000 through 2005.

The analysis covers the relative frequencies and magnitudes of reported oil discharges from onshore oil production facilities by material discharged, source, and cause. The findings are complemented by findings from reviews of spill data obtained for selected states (Arkansas, Colorado, Kansas, and Oklahoma) and by field observations of EPA inspectors.

1 The SPCC rule provides specific requirements for different types of E&P facilities, including: onshore oil production facilities (§112.9), onshore oil drilling and workover facilities (§112.10), and offshore oil drilling, production, or workover facilities (§112.11).
CANADA-UNITED STATES-DIXON ENTRANCE (CANUSDIX) EXERCISE A MODEL OF INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION FOR PLANNING AND PREPAREDNESS
Authors: Gardner Kevin J. , Mattson Robert D. , Owings David R. , Rodden Don , Sifling John
Published: January 2013

Since 1992, the Canadian and U.S. Coast Guard, Province of British Columbia, State of Alaska, OSRO'S, and several other organizations and authorities have joined together in a unique annual exercise program held near Dixon Entrance, a remote waterway marking the U.S./Canadian border at the southern tip of the Alaskan panhandle. Following a continuous improvement philosophy, a growing number of participants from both nations have made great strides in improving preparedness and response at the trans-boundary. Conducted over a 4 day period, CANUSDIX is an innovative combination of spill scenarios, training workshops, equipment deployment, and coordinated multi-year planning. Unlike conventional exercises, CANUSDIX is a year-round program with continuous effort directed toward achieving goals outlined in a formal 2-year workplan. Multi-year efforts include communications and logistics planning and evaluation of web-based information sharing systems. Canadian and U.S. OSRO'S also conduct a periodic review of equipment inventories and jointly plan future capital purchases to ensure equipment compatibility and avoid redundancy. Coordinated planning and exercising by partner agencies is a necessity for Dixon Entrance, an extremely remote, environmentally sensitive, region with severe weather, limited infrastructure, and a sparse road system. Resource trustees on both sides of the border are also key participants, due to crucial subsistence fisheries and numerous historical resources such as culturally important archeological sites. Innovation is a hallmark of CANUSDIX. For example, logistics skills were robustly tested by the “logistics board game,” debuted at CANUSDIX 2003 in Prince Rupert, BC. Resembling sophisticated tabletop war games, the board game employs tokens representing different types of oil spill cleanup equipment and personnel. Tokens are deployed on a board based on a chart of the response area. The logistics game required players to confront realistic equipment mobilization time constraints, while simulating the uncertainties associated with all spill responses. Other significant milestones of CANUSDIX include publication of Geographic and Wildlife Response Guideline Annexes to the Canada-United States Joint Marine Pollution Contingency Plan, a landmark bi-lateral planning, preparedness and response agreement. Embracing innovation while fostering teamwork and continuous improvement, CANUSDIX is a modern, goal driven, exercise regime and a model for international cooperation.
OIL SPILL RISK ANALYSIS FOR CAPE WIND ENERGY PROJECT
Authors: Etkin Dagmar Schmidt
Published: January 2013

The oil spill risk associated with an offshore wind farm was analyzed. This paper describes the methodology employed to determine the probability that a spill would occur, as well as the size probability distribution of potential spills, including worst-case discharge scenarios from the facility. Spills from vessels transiting surrounding waters due to collisions, allisions, and groundings were also evaluated. The analysis involved: evaluating events that might cause damage to the electric service platform (ESP) and wind turbine generators (WTG) components of the wind farm; analysis of the probability of each of these events occurring; analysis of the probability that these events cause damage to the ESP/WTGs; and estimation of the probability of the events causing damage sufficient to cause an oil spill. Data were aggregated for all spill causes to determine the overall probability distribution function of spill volumes. Probability size distributions for all spill causes were coupled with the probability of spill occurrence to provide an overall function to predict the probability of a particular spill of a certain volume occurring over 5, 10, and 30 years.
RISK BASED PLANNING WILL YOUR REGULATORY COMPLIANT PLAN MEET YOUR ENVIRONMENTAL GOALS?
Authors: Wilson Kelly L.
Published: January 2013

During the 2004 and 2005 Hurricane Season, one of the lesser known results, but potentially more environmentally threatening, were damaged, downed production platforms and the associated production.

Downed production platforms have multiple sources of potential releases. Combine multiple downed and damaged production platforms with the need to intervene and secure production, and the risk of an oil release is increased. One question that needs to be answered: What are the related risks to the many different scenarios that could possibly occur during impending, multiple, simultaneous operations?

One of the goals BP established was to not have oil impact the shoreline or nearby economically significant marine facilities. Both shoreline and economically sensitive areas are within 12 miles or less of the downed production platforms.

To accomplish the no impact goal, a three phased approach was used to create a supplemental response capability.

Phase 1: A risk matrix was created to address the multiple potential sources and impacts while evaluating the potential for environmental and economic impact.

Phase 2: Utilizing the existing response plan, which met or exceeded regulatory compliance, evaluated the effective ability to respond to the potential risk in the varied prevailing weather conditions and provide the best opportunity for preventing impact to environmental and economic priorities.

Phase 3: Developed a fiscally responsible plan to address the short-comings of the existing plan and secured resources based on the evaluation that would provide the best opportunity to meet the BP goals.

The paper will provide a discussion of the technical processes used during each phase and present practical means for assessing multiple risks and scenarios. This will include a unique application of a safety risk matrix evaluation. The second area of emphases will expand on the process of using the risk matrix results for resource planning.

The principles employed to prepare the response capability are well developed and historically substantiated, but they have been combined in a practical, technical and unique way to planning for environmental response in a real world risk.
OIL SPILL RESPONSES - THE POLITICAL DIMENSION
Authors: Weng Ho Yew
Published: January 2013

There are always lessons to be learnt from every oil spill response. Similarly, critics are always quick to point out how a response was too slow, the inadequacy of equipment / manpower resources and, inevitably, how the response lacks proper coordination. Yet many of these common criticisms can be resolved if artificial ‘roadblocks and red tape’ are removed so that Responders can go about doing their jobs, providing prompt responses in mitigating damages caused by oil spills. This paper will discuss the challenges of mounting an international oil spill response in the Asia Pacific with specific references to political roadblocks and red tape put up by ‘recipient’ countries.

Tier 3 Oil Spill Response organizations, namely Oil Spill Response and East Asia Response Limited (OSRL/EARL), regularly practices activations and resource deployments through exercises with different scenarios. These exercises can take the form of tabletop exercises or full scale deployment of equipment, recall of Members’ regional and worldwide teams. The larger scale exercises involve trans-boundary movement of people and equipment, including boats and aircrafts.

OSRL/EARL has conducted large scale exercises successfully. Unfortunately, there are also times when red tape prevented the company from responding in the swift and efficient manner that it endeavors. Various reasons given are ‘national security’ and the need for very ‘high level approvals’ as the recipient country will be deemed to be calling outside assistance for a national incident.

The paper will discuss some of OSRL/EARL'S experiences like:Response organizations refusing to participate in exercises due to ‘national security’ reasonsNational agencies refusing import of equipment due to taxation lawsProtracted approval processes, and sometimes outright refusal, for materials like dispersantRefusing entry of international aircraftsClearance and complicated permit requirements for Responders entering a country to assist in the response

The challenge to remove these road blocks is an uphill task.

OSRL/EARL has an on-going Advocacy program to engage and cooperate on these issues with Government Agencies and relevant bodies. The Author believes that the removal of ‘road blocks’ will expedite responses to oil spills.
OIL DROPLET SIZE DISTRIBUTION AS A FUNCTION OF ENERGY DISSIPATION RATE IN AN EXPERIMENTAL WAVE TANK
Authors: Li Zhengkai , Lee Kenneth , King Thomas , Boufadel Michel C. , Venosa Albert D.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. National Research Council (NRC) Committee on Understanding Oil Spill Dispersants: Efficacy and Effects (2005) identified two factors that require further investigation in chemical oil dispersant efficacy studies: 1) quantification of mixing energy at sea as energy dissipation rate and 2) dispersed particle size distribution. To fully evaluate the significance of these factors, a wave tank facility was designed and constructed to conduct controlled oil dispersion studies. A factorial experimental design was used to study the dispersant effectiveness as a function of energy dissipation rate for two oils and two dispersants under three different wave conditions, namely regular non-breaking waves, spilling breakers, and plunging breakers. The oils tested were weathered MESA and fresh ANS crude. The dispersants tested were Corexit 9500 and SPC 1000 plus water for no-dispersant control. The wave tank surface energy dissipatation rates of the three waves were determined to be 0.005, 0.1, and 1 m2/s3, respectively. The dispersed oil concentrations and droplet size distribution, measured by in-situ laser diffraction, were compared to quantify the chemical dispersant effectiveness as a function of energy dissipation rate. The results indicate that high energy dissipation rate of breaking waves enhanced chemical dispersant effectiveness by significantly increasing dispersed oil concentration and reducing droplet sizes in the water column (p <0.05). The presence of dispersants and breaking waves stimulated the oil dispersion kinetics. The findings of this research are expected to provide guidance to disperant application on oil spill responses.
SVALBARD 2006 EXPERIMENTAL OIL SPILL UNDER ICE: REMOTE SENSING, OIL WEATHERING UNDER ARCTIC CONDITIONS AND ASSESSMENT OF OIL REMOVAL BY IN-SITUBURNING
Authors: Dickins David , Brandvik Per Johan , Bradford John , Faksness Liv-Guri , Liberty Lee , Daniloff Roger
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the findings from an experimental spill of 3,400 liters of Statfjord crude under first-year sea ice in Svalbard, Norway in March 2006. The objectives were to:1. Test commercially available radar and acoustics systems for detecting oil spilled under ice.2. Document the weathering processes governing crude oil behaviour in ice.3. Confirm the effectiveness of in-situ burning as an oil removal strategy.

The results of this project will be used in planning new Arctic oil exploration and development programs. With the growing awareness of the Arctic basin as a potentially important province for new oil and gas discoveries, there is a critical need to: (1) develop new technologies to detect and map spills under ice; (2) increase the understanding of oil behaviour in ice and: (3) continue to demonstrate the capabilities of in-situ burning as an important and safe Arctic response tool.

Tank tests conducted in 2004 (Dickins et al., 2005) showed that radar systems could detect and map oil pools as thin as 2 to 3 cm under controlled conditions under model sea ice up to 40 cm thick. This field experiment created a much larger-scale spill under thicker 65 cm natural sea ice to further evaluate potential remote sensing systems as practical operational spill response tools.

The findings of the 2006 experiment: (1) demonstrated for the first time the ability of ground penetrating radar to detect and map oil under natural sea ice from the surface; (2) documented oil weathering with a relatively warm ice sheet under spring conditions; and (3) confirmed the effectiveness of in situ burning as a primary oil removal strategy under Arctic conditions.

Oil weathering results are discussed and compared with small-scale field experiments performed on Svalbard during the period 2003–2006. Low temperatures and lack of waves in ice act to reduce oil spreading, evaporation, emulsification and dispersion. As a result, the operational time window for several spill response strategies such as dispersants and in-situ burning may be significantly extended compared to oil spills in open water.
MAINTAINING DISPERSANT STOCKPILES AND ASSESSING THEIR QUALITY
Authors: Clark James , Becker Ken , Lessard Richard
Published: January 2013

Ensuring the capability to mount a rapid and effective dispersant response when needed for an oil spill includes a proactive approach to manage dispersant stockpiles in such a way as to ensure that the quality of the product has not deteriorated over time. This includes 1) storage strategies that minimize potential adverse impacts of environmental elements (heat, cold, and humidity) on the chemical products and on their containers, 2) considerations to check the integrity of storage containers on a regular basis to ensure there is no loss of volatiles or introduction of water vapors (or endeavor to keep these processes to absolute minimums); 3) development and execution of a plan to rotate stock and use up older batches of product during response operations before mobilizing newer product; and 4) design and execution of a rational plan to sample the stored products on a logical and systematic schedule and have them analyzed for chemical quality and effectiveness.

This paper provides guidance on approaches to address these 4 areas using information from dispersant manufacturers, response organizations that manage dispersant stockpiles, and results of testing for chemical quality and effectiveness completed for dispersant samples taken from various U.S. stockpiles of Corexit 9527. These data demonstrate that where recommended practices have been followed to ensure quality storage of the dispersants, batches of Corexit that have been held for over 30 years can remain acceptable for spill response contingencies. The recommended stockpile storage and management practices will also be effective in prolonging the useful life of other dispersant products; however their effective shelf life must be determined individually due to differences in the chemical composition of various product lines.
PHOTOGRAPHIC TIMELINE OF PRUDHOE BAY GC−2 SPILL CLEANUP AND TUNDRA REVEGETATION
Authors: Parson John
Published: January 2013

Photographic timeline (March 2006 to Current) of the GC-2 spill clean up (Prudhoe Bay, Alaska) and revegetation technique. This will include a discussion of the tactics used and lessons learned. This spill occurred during very inclement weather and utilized several new tactics for the clean up and revegetation of the effected area.
ASSESSING THE INCREASING RISK OF MARINE OIL POLLUTION SPILLS IN CHINA
Authors: Woolgar Lisa
Published: January 2013

As the Chinese economy continues to develop at a rapid pace, shipping has also increased significantly over recent years. This rise in traffic brings a greater threat of oil pollution from vessels. Assessing the risk of oil spills can be a complex process, yet by modelling and analysing the amount of oil transported around coastal areas during 2001 and 2005, using data obtained from Lloyds’ Marine Intelligence Unit (LMIU) and comparing it with the historical data from ITOPF'S tanker spills database, an improved representation of risk can be made. Using a GIS platform to graphically visualise this information and integrate further datasets regarding local sensitivities we can understand the risk more thoroughly and present the aggregated information more effectively.

In response to the increased risk experienced in and around Chinese waters, ITOPF and other international organisations are working to build awareness of the risks and develop links with key parties through training courses and seminars. By working closely with the Chinese Maritime Safety Administration (MSA) and with the Northwest Pacific Action Plan (NOWPAP), a regional UNEP initiative, the threat of future incidents can be minimised and handled in a rational manner.

This paper looks at the risks associated with increased traffic and developments taking place to meet the threat of marine oil spills in Chinese waters.
THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS IN ADDRESSING PREVENTION, PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE TO OIL POLLUTION AND THE EXTENSION OF THESE TO ADDRESS THE CHALLENGE OF HAZARDOUS AND Noxious Substances (HNS)
Authors: Charlebois Patricia
Published: January 2013

As knowledge, policies and infrastructure related to marine oil spill prevention, preparedness and response have continued to evolve and are now considered to have reached a state of relative maturity; attention has more recently turned to developing systems to address spills of hazardous and noxious substances (HNS) in the marine environment.

The International Maritime Organization (IMO), as the specialized agency of the United Nations with a global mandate for the protection of the marine environment from pollution caused by shipping, discharges its commitment to protecting the marine environment from pollution from oil and HNS at the global level along four different but interdependent paths: prevention, preparedness and response, and technical co-operation.

Two mutually supporting IMO instruments that together address the Prevention-Preparedness-Response (PPR) continuum for HNS are: The International Convention for the Prevention of pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocols of 1978 and 1997 relating thereto (MARPOL Convention), notably Annexes II (noxious liquid substances in bulk) and III (harmful substances carried by sea in packaged form), covering prevention, and the Protocol on Preparedness, Response and Co-operation to Pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances, 2000 (HNS Protocol), which addresses preparedness, response and cooperation to spills of HNS.

Together, these instruments provide a framework for countries to establish the necessary systems for tackling the complex issue of prevention, preparedness and response to HNS, with the goal of embedding the principles set out in these instruments into national legislation and policy that are fully implemented at both institutional and operational levels. At the same time, it is equally recognized that the topic of preparedness and response to HNS is still in its infancy and that any systems developed must borrow heavily from the established systems for oil pollution, in order to maximize the use of existing capacity in planning and preparing for HNS, at the same time acknowledging the unique issues presented by these substances.

The paper will examine these elements in greater detail and will discuss the requirements for developing systems for preparedness and response for oil and HNS, comparing areas of similarity, contrasting the differences and identifying the distinct considerations that are necessary for each.
EVALUATING THE CONSENSUS ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT WORKSHOP AS A TOOL FOR FACILITATING DECISION-MAKING DURING SPILL RESPONSE AND PLANNING
Authors: Mearns Alan , Evans Mary
Published: January 2013

In early 2007, NOAA'S Environmental Response Division (ERD) initiated a project to evaluate the effectiveness of Consensus Ecological Risk Assessment (CERA) workshops in improving spill response planning and increasing awareness of response options and their limitations. A CERA workshop is a spill drill in which participants, especially resource trustees, learn and practice a risk-based method for assessing the relative benefits and impacts of alternative response actions, including no response, open water cleanup, dispersion, in situ burning, and shoreline cleanup. Most CERAs have been sponsored by the US Coast Guard and all have been co-facilitated by ERD.

Since 1998, 15 regional CERA workshops and four national spill drills have involved more than 700 people from about two dozen nations. While anecdotal information indicates that the workshops have prompted some changes in spill response and response planning, ERD'S research project is the first directed effort to systematically investigate the nature and extent of these changes.

ERD'S inquiry is designed to answer three questions: (1) What has been the importance of the ERA process to people who have participated in them? (2) What has been the impact of the CERA process on spill response and spill response planning in the US? (3) How can the CERA workshop format be improved? ERD'S evaluation process relies on two primary methods widely used by social scientists: (1) surveys and unstructured interviews of CERA participants, and (2) qualitative analysis of participant comments and recommendations captured during past workshops.

Initial results of ERD'S research will be reported
NOAA NATIONAL MARINE SANCTUARIES AS RESOURCE TRUSTEES IN THE UNIFIED COMMAND: GOOD OR BAD?
Authors: Symons Lisa C. , Pavia Robert
Published: January 2013

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is a federal trustee within the National Contingency Plan (NCP) in addition to providing scientific and technical support to the Incident Command System (ICS) during a response. NOAA is also the home of the National Marine Sanctuary Program (NMSP), a system of 14 marine protected areas that encompass 150,000 square miles of coastal and oceanic waters. NOAA is increasing its capacity for addressing a significant incident through participating in and leading spill response exercises. One of the most intense aspects of those experiences is often the discussion of the role of NOAA as a trustee and whether they should be part of the Unified Command (UC). While the NCP outlines the expectations of Regional Response Team (RRT) members from the Department of the Interior and the Department of Commerce (NOAA), it provides the Federal On Scene Coordinator (FOSC) considerable flexibility in determining whether to include trustees within the UC or working with the Liaison or through the Environmental Unit. A recent Technical Assistance Document from the National Response Team speaks directly to this issue and provides RRT'S more specific guidance. There are some RRT'S that feel strongly that the only trustee in the UC should be the states. NOAA and the DOI believe that they should be afforded the same considerations in the marine and coastal environment as trustees or landowners in the terrestrial environment. Both the Safe Sanctuaries 2005 in Florida and the Safe Seas 2006 in California provided a forum for dialogue on this issue. In both instances, the FOSC did engage the trustees in the UC. It is not always necessary or appropriate for NOAA to participate as a member of the UC. In some situations it could be more effective to participate in other capacities within the ICS and NOAA may not be the trustee with the most significant resources at risk. When participating in a UC, it is incumbent upon the NOAA representative to work with other members of the UC to manage the response under a single, collaborative approach.
IMPACTS AND RESPONSE CHALLENGES OF THE TANKER SOLAR 1OIL SPILL, GUIMARAS, PHILIPPINES: OBSERVATIONS OF INTERNATIONAL ADVISORS
Authors: Yender Ruth , Stanzel Katharina , Lloyd Anthony
Published: January 2013

The tanker SOLAR 1 sank in the Guimaras Strait in the central Philippines on August 11, 2006, spilling a significant part of her 2,100 tonne cargo of IFO 217. The Philippine Coast Guard led the challenging response to this spill, which impacted sensitive tropical habitats, disrupted fisheries, and affected coastal communities. The spill oiled shorelines along the southern coasts of Guimaras Island and several smaller islands in the Guimaras Strait. This area is rich in mangroves, coral reefs, and seagrass beds, which makes it very important for fisheries and aquaculture. Extensive areas of mangroves were oiled, including stands in the Taklong Island National Marine Reserve. Oil also stranded along sand, pebble, and cobble beaches, often seeping into the substrate or becoming buried. The remoteness and rugged terrain of the affected area made shoreside access for cleanup difficult and oversight of cleanup operations complicated. Political demands and press attention frequently made it more difficult for response managers to direct response operations. Shoreline cleanup, organized under the auspices of the national oil company Petron, was conducted manually by hired local residents. The removal of heavy contamination was completed in most areas within three weeks but more detailed cleaning and clearing recovered oily waste continued for approximately three months. As recommended by mangrove experts, little cleanup was conducted in oiled mangroves. Monitoring a year after the spill indicates that impacted mangroves are recovering naturally and suffered only minor mortality. Perceptions that seafood might be contaminated affected fisheries far beyond the areas actually contaminated by oil. Misunderstanding of the health risks associated with the spilled oil led to prolonged evacuation of a number of villages and hardship for coastal subsistence communities.

Several international oil spill experts provided guidance to Philippine responders. A U.S. advisory team, including representatives of the U.S. Coast Guard Pacific Strike Team and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration'S Emergency Response Division, spent three weeks on-scene in the spill area, working with Philippine responders and natural resource managers. Representatives of the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation provided technical guidance and advice on-scene for several months. Based on the observations of external advisors, this paper summarizes the impacts and challenges responders confronted in cleaning up the SOLAR 1 oil spill.
DISPERSANT EFFECTIVENESS AS A FUNCTION OF ENERGY DISSIPATION RATE IN AN EXPERIMENTAL WAVE TANK
Authors: Venosa A.D. , Lee K. , Boufadel M. , Li Z. , Wickley-Olsen E. , King T.
Published: January 2013

In 2005, the National Research Council (NRC) published a comprehensive treatise on oil spill dispersants. Among other things, it concluded that research on dispersion effectiveness as a function of energy dissipation rate and particle size distribution was a high priority. Energy dissipation rate (turbulence and existence of breaking waves) is important to initiate and promote effective dispersion, and the particle size distribution of dispersed oil droplets affects dispersion and the ultimate fate of oil in the water column. In this paper, we discuss the use of a wave tank built on the premises of the Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada as part of collaborative research begun in 2003 by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). This tank is able to produce breaking waves of various energy levels at precise locations in the tank. We studied the effects of 2 commercial dispersants (Corexit 9500 and SPC 1000) and a no dispersant control on two different crude oils (unweathered Alaska North Slope and weathered MESA Light) at 3 different energy dissipation rates (regular non-breaking waves, spilling breakers, and plunging breakers), amounting to 18 different treatments. We quantified the energy dissipation rates under those 3 wave conditions and measured oil dispersion in a factorial experiment involving 3 replicates of the 18 treatments over the course of the summer of 2006. Results clearly showed the importance of wave energy and the presence of a chemical dispersant on the ability to produce effective dispersion of oil into the water column. The presence of dispersants at increasing wave energies produced significantly better dispersion (p <0.05) than the no-dispersant controls. This study was conducted under batch conditions. Future work will be done under continuous flow conditions.