bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Applications of minimally invasive immune response and glucocorticoid biomarkers of physiological stress responses in rescued wild koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus)
Authors: Narayan Edward J. , Charalambous Renae
Published: January 2021

Australasian biodiversity is facing immense challenges with losses of prime habitats and food sources through increased anthropogenic factors such as climate change, bushfires, and habitat modification. Wildlife species are requiring greater conservation intervention supported through numerous wildlife rescue and rehabilitation programmes in this region. It is important to record the physiological stress responses of rescued wildlife and currently available conservation physiology tools can certainly aid the conservation management and rehabilitation of rescued wildlife. In this chapter, we showcase the applications of minimally invasive stress hormone and immune response (haematological blood cell profiling) biomarkers using case studies of rescued koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) to quantify their physiological stress responses to environmental trauma and disease conditions, and clinical intervention. Applications of these physiological biomarkers can advance our understanding of how wildlife respond towards and cope with environmental challenges and support conservation goals of rescue centres to strengthen wildlife rehabilitation and release back to the wild once the proximate stressors have been eliminated.
How thermal ecophysiology assists the conservation of reptiles: case studies from New Zealand’s endemic fauna
Authors: Cree Alison , Hare Kelly M. , Nelson Nicola J. , Chukwuka Christian , Virens Jo
Published: January 2021

Environmental temperature profoundly influences the body temperatures of reptiles, and hence the rates at which physiological processes occur. We review progress in understanding the thermal ecophysiology of New Zealand’s endemic, terrestrial reptiles (tuatara, geckos, and skinks), and in applying this knowledge to conservation. By understanding the constraints and opportunities that environmental temperature places on different life-history stages, including embryos in nests and those that develop within live-bearing females, we can plan better translocations, improve captive management, and make stronger predictions about risks from changes in climate. We encourage conservation physiologists to offer leadership in demonstrating the societal transformations necessary to sustain a liveable planet.
Optimism and opportunities for conservation physiology in the Anthropocene
Authors: Cooke Steven J. , Madliger Christine L. , Bergman Jordanna N. , Nguyen Vivian M. , Landsman Sean J. , Love Oliver P. , Rummer Jodie L. , Franklin Craig E.
Published: January 2021

We discuss 12 themes that emerged from the set of case studies comprising the text, namely: (1) mechanisms matter for conservation; (2) physiology is just one source of knowledge; (3) physiology and behaviour are intertwined; (4) new tools and technologies should be embraced; (5) physiology can be valuable in captive settings; (6) conservation physiology extends across scales; (7) physiology can be incorporated into long-term monitoring programmes; (8) conservation physiology is applicable to invertebrates; (9) non-imperilled species deserve attention; (10) successful application is increased by co-production; (11) sharing success stories is important; and (12) findings should be communicated across a variety of platforms. We end the chapter with a discussion of some of the challenges currently being faced in the discipline, and with a message of optimism for the future.
Forced interpretation
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt , Butters Marielle
Published: January 2021

The main aim of Chapter 3 is to describe forced interpretation as a motivation for the emergence of functions. A language may encode in its grammatical structure formal means to ensure that the listener infer the meaning desired by the speaker and only the meaning desired by the speaker. The importance of this motivation for the emergence of functions is that most likely it is present in many functional domains. The second aim of the Chapter is to demonstrate that as a result of the postulated motivation, an identical function can emerge independently in the grammatical systems of related and unrelated languages. Moreover, languages can independently come to use the same type of formal means to code identical functions. The Chapter demonstrates that several languages have encoded in their grammatical systems a ‘comment clause’ that forces the listener to interpret the clause with a preceding clause or with some situation. Unrelated languages, independently, came to use similar means to code the comment clause.
The emergence of goal-orientation
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt , Butters Marielle
Published: January 2021

The category ‘goal orientation’ tells the listener to interpret the event from the point of view of the goal. The goal could be either an argument, such as object, indirect object, or a directional locative complement. In some languages, the marker of goal orientation is used when the clause does not overtly code a specific goal. The Chapter defines the category ‘goal orientation’ and describes some motivations for the emergence of the goal orientation as an overtly coded function. Two motivations are considered: the initial state representing the point of view of the subject and the initial state that does not code any point of view. To demonstrate this cause-effect relationship in the emergence of functions, the Chapter first demonstrates that the function ‘goal orientation’ is encoded in the grammatical system of some languages. The Chapter also explains why the function goal orientation emerged in some languages but no others.
The principle of functional transparency as a motivation for the emergence of functions
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt , Butters Marielle
Published: January 2021

The principle of functional transparency has two components: The first component states that the role of every constituent in the utterance must be transparent to the listener. The role of the constituents in the utterance is quite distinct from the role of the referents of the constituents in extralinguistic reality. The second component states that if a function is encoded in the grammatical system and the scope of the situation described includes the function, this function must be coded in the utterance. The Chapter demonstrates the role of the principle of functional transparency in the emergence of a functions. The discussion also includes a consideration of language contact. It is demonstrated that the same function might have emerged through language internal motivation and through language contact. The specific function whose emergence is described is the codding of an additional argument in the proposition.
Inherent properties of verbs and nouns and the emergence of the locative function
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt , Butters Marielle
Published: January 2021

Inherent properties of lexical items can create an initial state which may trigger the emergence of a function. The importance of this part is that it demonstrates the existence of a cycle whereby semantic properties of lexical items contribute to the emergence of functions and the emerged functions in turn trigger the syntactic properties of lexical items. The inherent locative meaning of verbs and nouns can contribute to the emergence of locative predication. Once either the types of verbs or the types of nouns that generated the specific function are replaced by verbs or nouns that do not have the characteristics that made the emergence of functions possible, some coding means emerge to ensure the coding of the function that first emerged as a product of co-occurrence of lexical items. The Chapter demonstrates the emergence of locative predicator and of prepositions that have locative function only, i.e. that unlike prepositions in IE languages do not code spatial relations.
The emergence of grammatical relations
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt , Butters Marielle
Published: January 2021

The domain examined in Chapter 13 can be broadly described as the domain of relationships between the predicate and noun phrases. The Chapter addresses a narrow but an important issue, viz. the emergence of a binary distinction between the grammatical relations subject and object. Unlike various theoretical approaches, generative and functional alike that take the dichotomy of subject and object to be basic components of clausal structure, the study demonstrates that in some languages this dichotomy is a product of functional changes that start from an initial state with undifferentiated relations, in which there is no distinction between the subject and object. In other languages the distinction between the subject and object is a product of the reduction of a rich system of coding semantic relations between the predicate and noun phrases.
Conclusions and implications
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt , Butters Marielle
Published: January 2021

The descriptions of individual languages demonstrate that their grammatical systems encode different functions. Given common physiological make up, common biological and social needs, and common physical characteristics of the environment (for languages spoken in the same geographical area), one must ask why grammatical systems encode different functions. The present book has offered methodology to study this question as well as a number of conditions and motivations for the emergence of functions which include: forced interpretation; avoiding systemic ambiguity; initial state; principle of functional transparency; properties of lexical items; metonymic change; opportunistic emergence of functions; and language contact. The study also postulates that the availability of rich inflectional systems provides opportunities for the emergence of new types of functions. The study concludes with a set of open questions, viz. whether there is a hierarchy of which functions are grammaticalized more often, and under what conditions a given function becomes a default value of a given formal means.
The Precautionary Principle
Authors: de Sadeleer Nicolas
Published: January 2021

This chapter explains that precaution is the end point of a range of public measures intended to counter ecological damage. It reviews the definitions given to the principle in various legal systems, as well as representative court decisions, in order to set out the problematic elements inherent in this principle. The chapter takes a critical look at the implementation of the precautionary principle (PP) on a sector-by-sector basis (water resources, fisheries, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), electromagnetic fields, climate change, etc.). The various thresholds for application of the precautionary principle in international law, EU law, as well as in several domestic legal orders is considered. The difficulties that characterize the principle are set out and the chapter recommends ways in which these weaknesses might be remedied. The chapter then assesses how the principle might fuel the evolution of environmental law by introducing uncertainty to an unparalleled extent in both decisions and sanctions. It shows that opposing science to precaution is unproductive and proposes practical solutions in the field of risk assessment and management. How the principle could influence the elaboration of regulatory standards, procedural requirements (impact assessment), and civil liability is demonstrated.
Final Conclusions
Authors: de Sadeleer Nicolas
Published: January 2021

This chapter concludes by presenting a number of arguments that support tilting the balance in favour of environmental concerns. It explains that the directing principles have a common denominator which is the battle against environmental risks. It stresses that these principles could be best described using three distinct models representing three paradigms of protection: a curative model, a preventive model, and an anticipatory model. The fact that directing principles represent the interface between modern and post-modern law is clarified. The chapter argues that while concentric circles are taking shape around environmental interests, each of those interests still provides evidence of a certain fragility. They must, however, be strengthened for the environmental directing principles to succeed and come to maturity.
From the Classical World to the Medieval
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the presence of the police and policing from the classical world to the medieval. The Greek city states had no significant bodies of people organized specifically to ensure survival and welfare, though militias could be brought together to defend the state and suppress popular disorder. Some officials were charged with checking weights and measures and grain supplies. However, there were no institutions to prevent assaults and thefts, or to detect and pursue offenders. Both Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome were similar. Offences that affected the individual rather than the state were usually left to victims, their kin, or passers-by, if they were prepared to get involved. Victims, any servants that they had, their kin, or passers-by did not have to fight, though they sometimes did; but they could act as witnesses when a suspect was accused or brought before a court. Sources for police and policing in the classical world are thin, and much has to be gleaned from between the lines. Meanwhile, the sources for the medieval period are better, and, while these show the similar kinds of divisions and institutions, there are gaps in the sources and little to explore for those looking for police institutions.
Monks, Bailiffs, Constables, and Others
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses how, during the period known as the Dark Ages and then the Middle Ages, a few policing institutions began to be developed, but often their existence could be brief and limited in scope. Throughout the period, princes had to fight to gain or maintain territory, and ensuring the safety of frontiers meant that they appointed administrators and/or warriors to protect territory, or to bring in soldiers and revenue as and when necessary. The warriors, increasingly known as knights, established themselves as hereditary rulers over the territory granted to them by the prince. Municipalities could acquire a significant degree of independence from the local prince, and they were permitted to establish their own laws; they also recruited men to enforce those laws, which included market regulation, the supervision of abattoirs, watching for fire, and ensuring the safety and tidiness of the streets. The municipal guards, often backed by all fit men in a town, might also be called upon occasionally to defend the walls and outlying territory. The chapter then considers the role of warrior monks, clergy, and feudal municipalities. Ultimately, officers such as bailiffs, sheriffs, or constables, and institutions such as the watch, emerged across medieval Europe, but they were not police officers in the sense of people seeking to prevent crime or regularly gathering information about offences and pursuing offenders beyond their boundaries.
Patrolmen, Detectives, and Policing by the Community
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: January 2021

This chapter assesses the different kinds of police trades that emerged during the nineteenth century, looking at patrolmen and detectives. The new police institutions were permanent, disciplined bodies, but they continued to do the kind of things that had been done by various others, such as watches and constables, or their equivalents. They maintained order on the streets and the highways and byways; and order meant relative tidiness and no obstructions as well as breaking up fights. They arrested offenders, and, in some places, they were responsible for fighting fires. Specialist units began to take on specialist tasks. The detection of offenders, for example, had long been a role for those engaged in the wider role of policing, but detective bureaux became significant, if relatively small, branches of many police institutions, especially in the big cities. The new police, however, could not be everywhere and cover every policing problem. In some instances, the local population continued to act on its own, sometimes with the knowledge and agreement, even the participation, of the police, and sometimes without. The chapter then examines popular policing, as well as representations of the police in fiction.
Beyond Europe
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: January 2021

This chapter looks at other parts of the world that were mainly absorbed into European empires and what this meant for their experience of policing. Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century colonists tended to see native peoples as primitive and without any of their own ‘civilized’ ideas and institutions like police. As a result, and where possible, they increasingly re-created versions of the police in their homelands when they arrived in the virgin lands which they intended either to exploit or to make their new homes. A re-creation of the police deployed in the metropole was claimed to be something towards which the empires were moving, especially during the nineteenth century. It was assumed to be another aspect of the white Europeans’ civilizing process. Yet a police similar to that at home was most often to be found in the colonial towns and cities where white men made the city their own and were seen as requiring the same kind of police protection and order maintenance. The indigenous peoples, especially those living nomadic lifestyles, were thought to require something different, and, while some of the white men deployed to deal with them might be called ‘police’, their organization and behaviour were often far away from Europeans’ behaviour in their lands of origin.
Conclusions
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: January 2021

This concluding chapter explores how, over the last half century, there has been a change in police investigations. Almost everyone drives a motor vehicle of some sort now, and this, together with the spread of urban areas, has required the police to become mechanized also. The internet and increased computer literacy and use have also created new difficulties. Yet probably the most serious problem, in particular for Western police, has been the rise of terrorism and its encouragement on the web by both the extreme right and Muslim extremists. Much of the corresponding investigation is done by the security services, but the police usually have to confront the radicals. The chapter then considers the attitude towards the police shown by an ordinary member of the public, which probably depends on the kind of faith an individual has in the institution. Attitudes can depend on the tradition from which people come—political, racial, and social. Moreover, they can depend on what people have recently gathered from news reports, or from a recent meeting with a policeman. The chapter also studies police attitudes towards and relations with the public.
Why Constituent Power?
Authors: Patberg Markus
Published: January 2021

This chapter addresses the question of why a theory of constituent power in the EU is needed. While the EU has long since taken on a constitutional character, this is in no way reflected in adequate popular participation in decisions about its basic legal order. The EU is shaped through a combination of intergovernmental treaty making and integration through law that sidelines citizens. Constitutional mutation further decouples the EU’s constitutional development from popular control and shields fundamental decisions from democratic contestation. To capture the legitimacy gap that opens up here, the chapter introduces an understanding of constituent power as political autonomy at the level of constitutional politics. It argues that European integration is based on a usurpation, with constituted powers operating as de facto constituent powers. As executives and courts shape the EU in a largely self-referential manner, citizens are deprived of a crucial dimension of political autonomy. The chapter concludes with preliminary considerations on a theory of constituent power in the EU, addressing substantive and methodological challenges involved in its elaboration, as well as possible objections to the project as such.
Destituent Power
Authors: Patberg Markus
Published: January 2021

This chapter takes up the public narrative of ‘We, the multitude of Europe’, which suggests that the only hope for progressive change in the EU lies in a politics of disruption, and asks whether this idea can be defended based on a systematic model. To that end, it resorts to the political theory of destituent power, according to which opposition to or withdrawal from public authority can function as a legitimate trigger for constitutional change. Distinguishing between anti-juridical and juridical conceptions of destituent power, the chapter discusses to what extent the disruptive political strategies put forward by protest movements in the EU can be regarded as justifiable. Focusing on the juridical strand as the more plausible one, it argues that ideas of destituent power as ‘state civil disobedience’ run into a problem of authorization. By contrast, popular sovereignty-based approaches illuminate a neglected dimension of constituent power: the right to dismantle public authorities without the intention to create new ones. While such a model of destituent power in part captures the actions and demands of EU protest movements, it can only complement, not replace, the constructive side of constituent power.
Extraordinary Partisanship
Authors: Patberg Markus
Published: January 2021

This chapter addresses the question of what kind of a political agent could bring about a supranational separation of constituent and constituted powers in the EU. Given that an endogenous process of change seems unlikely, it asks which exogenous forces could trigger the establishment of a higher-level constituent power. In particular, the chapter engages with the idea that transnational partisanship could function as a vehicle for constituent power in the EU. It argues that the model of networked constituent power, according to which cross-border deliberation between members of like-minded parties should initiate and guide intergovernmental treaty making at the EU level, is unconvincing because it relies on establishes parties, which must be regarded as quasi-constituted powers. By means of a rational reconstruction of the Democracy in Europe Movement 2025, the chapter then develops an alternative model of extraordinary partisanship. An extraordinary partisan association ‘co-opts’ regular parliamentary elections to acquire a mandate for a project of constitutional change. Such an organization could enable citizens from various member states to promote an opening up of the EU polity for the exercise of constituent power.
Animal Welfare: The Science and Its Words
Authors: Stamp Dawkins Marian
Published: January 2021

Despite growing public concern over the way humans treat animals, there is still no agreed definition of what ‘animal welfare’ is. This lack of a proper definition has been detrimental to animals themselves and has made the whole subject of animal welfare look vague, unscientific and unclear about its core concept. Real improvements in the lives of animals would be greatly helped by a definition of welfare that can be agreed to by everyone, scientists and non-scientists alike, and that could bring together the many different ways in which ‘welfare’ is now measured. The aim of this book is to give such a definition and to make the case that any attempt to definition should be animal-centred and take into account the animals’ own point of view.
Behavioural Correlates of Welfare
Authors: Stamp Dawkins Marian
Published: January 2021

In everyday life, it is often not practical to conduct choice tests or operant conditioning tests, and what vets, farmers, zoo keepers, pet owners and others concerned with the day-to-day care of animals need are quicker and easier ways of assessing whether animals have what they want. Sounds, gestures, facial expressions or other behaviours often provide information about whether animals have, or do not have what they want and so are potential correlates of welfare. However, deciphering the body language of animals correctly take time and effort and it is often not easy to find behaviour that reliably distinguishes between situations that animals want and those that they want to avoid. In order to establish the valence of behaviour such as stereotypies, anticipation behaviour, changes in activity levels or diversity, it has to be shown that these are reliable indicators of what animals want.
Natural Behaviour
Authors: Stamp Dawkins Marian
Published: January 2021

In many people’s eyes, the ability for animals to be able to behave ‘naturally’ is essential for their welfare. However, animals do not necessarily want to do behaviour just because it is ‘natural’ or is seen in wild animals. Being chased by a predator is not necessarily good for welfare. Natural behaviour is important because it gives us a baseline for what animals might want to do but it cannot define good welfare on its own. It has to be validated in exactly the same way as other behavioural correlates of welfare, as either contributing to health or being what the animals want to do.
Physiological Correlates of Welfare
Authors: Stamp Dawkins Marian
Published: January 2021

The idea that there might be physiological markers of welfare such as ‘stress’ or ‘feel-good’ hormones is a very attractive prospect for animal welfare scientists as it seems to hold out the prospect of simple, objective ways of distinguishing between good and poor welfare. However, many of the proposed physiological measures such as hormones, body temperature and heart rate variability turn out to be much more useful as indicators of arousal than valence. In other words, they tell us that an animal is aroused and motivated but not whether it is aroused because it is receiving something it wants or aroused because it is attempting to escape from something it does not want. Only if physiological measures can be shown to be clearly correlated with health or what animals want should they be used to indicate welfare.
Consequences
Authors: Stamp Dawkins Marian
Published: January 2021

Scientific facts about animal welfare are distinct from ethical decisions about what ought to be done about those facts. This final chapter covers some of the ideas that readers are likely to come across in thinking about the connection between animal welfare and animal ethics and provides a map or guide through the main areas of controversy. These include the difference between animal welfare and animal rights, speciesism and the conflicts that can arise between animal welfare and conservation. The chapter ends with a look at how humans can benefit in many different ways from improving animal welfare and that, far from devaluing animals as important in their own right, human benefits are likely to strengthen the case for making improved animal welfare part of a sustainable future for the whole planet.
The Bhāṭṭa School of Benares
Authors: Fleming Christopher T.
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the reception of Dāyabhāga-centred, Gauḍa jurisprudence and Navya-Nyāya theories of ownership in the Dharmaśāstra and Mīmāṃsā writings of the Bhaṭṭa family of Mahārāṣṭrian Deśastha brāhmaṇas who led the southern (Dākṣinātya) community of paṇḍitas in Vārāṇasī between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Bhaṭṭas’ polemic against the Navadvīpan, Navya-Nyāya-inflected school of jurisprudence marks a watershed moment when the Mitākṣarā and its Mīmāṃsā-derived theory of ownership were incorporated into a broader, distinctively southern scale of Dharmaśāstra texts that framed the Mitākṣarā/Dāyabhāga divide as a debate between Mīmāṃsā and Navya-Nyāya theories of property. By the close of the seventeenth century, one could speak of two complex, comprehensive schools of Dharmaśāstric thought, inflected by Mīmāṃsā and Navya-Nyāya philosophy, centred around pedagogical networks in Vārāṇasī and Navadvīpa, taking paradigmatically divergent approaches to the problem of inheritance, and emanating from commentarial literature on the Mitākṣarā and Dāyabhāga respectively.
Romantic Prayer
Authors: Stokes Christopher
Published: January 2021

Whilst religion and the secular have been continually debated contexts for literature of the Romantic era, the dominant scholarly focus has always been on doctrines and denominations. In analysing the motif of devotion, this book shifts attention to the quintessential articulation of religion as lived experience, as practice, and as a performative rather than descriptive phenomenon. In an era when the tenability and rationality of prayer were much contested, poetry—a form with its own interlinked history with prayer, especially via lyric—was a unique place to register what prayer meant in modernity. This study illustrates how the discourse of prayer continually intervened in the way that poetic practices evolved and responded to the religious and secular questions of the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century moment. After laying out the details of prayer’s historical position in the Romantic era across a spread of religious traditions, it turns to a range of writers, from the identifiably religious to the staunchly sceptical. William Cowper and Anna Letitia Barbauld are shown to use poetry to reflect and reinvent the ideals of prayer inherited from their own Dissenting denominational histories. Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s work is analysed as part of a long engagement with the rationality of prayer in modernity, culminating in an explicit ‘philosophy’ of prayer; William Wordsworth—by contrast—keeps prayer at an aesthetic distance, continually alluding to prayerful language but rarely committing to a devotional voice itself. John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Byron are treated in the context of departing from Christianity, under the influence of Enlightenment, materialist and atheist critique—what happens to prayer in poetry when prayer as a language is becoming impossible to maintain?
‘Too late for antique vows’
Authors: Stokes Christopher
Published: January 2021

This chapter reads John Keats in the context of the influence of Leigh Hunt and the wider radical Enlightenment. One problem posed by a secular modernity is whether prayer—and forms of religious practice more generally—can be maintained as part of an increasingly abstracted philosophical religion that exits the form of Christianity. Circles of elegy, nostalgia, and scepticism pose this problem of a ‘post-Christian’ prayer. In ‘Ode to Psyche’, Keats tries to imagine a prayer detached from Christianity’s mournful theology; in the Catholic and Gothic tones of ‘The Eve of St. Agnes’, he is repeatedly drawn by the seductive lure of superstition and the rich concrete forms of devotion. The chapter concludes by reading ‘The Fall of Hyperion’ as stylizing a scene of prayer to Moneta, a goddess embodying the uncertain transitions between religious epochs, thus dramatizing his most pressing spiritual dilemma.
May Sinclair
Authors: Jones Charlotte
Published: January 2021

Chapter 2 extends the previous chapter’s inquiry into the relationship between realist aesthetics and figurative language as it might be oriented towards an unimaginable term—an unknowable, noumenal category—by considering its collision with what May Sinclair posits as its psychological equivalent, the unconscious. Sinclair combined a career as a novelist with philosophical research, mounting a vindication of neo-Hegelian idealist philosophy. For Sinclair, idealism’s impetus for thinking about immaterial and unseen realities led to the intangible and unseen realms of the mind, and a metaphysical absolute becomes the conduit for her early realist novels to begin to imagine a form for the uncertain boundaries and contours of consciousness. Both lack a verifiable content and are therefore apparently beyond the power of language to define or accommodate. This chapter suggests that the models of subjectivity presented in her fiction seek to integrate a revelatory encounter with an idealist absolute with the incontrovertible material evidence of alternative forms of consciousness being presented by the ‘new psychology’.
Attributing Beliefs and Judgements In plato’s gorgias, meno, and theaetetus
Authors: Long Alex
Published: January 2021

In Plato’s Theaetetus, Socrates explains what it is to have a doxa, a judgement or belief. A doxa is a self-addressed affirmation or denial that comes into existence when, after giving a question thought, the subject settles on one answer. Two passages seem to conflict with this account of doxa. In the Gorgias, a belief is attributed to Polus on the strength of what he is committed to by his other beliefs. But Socrates is trying to show complexity in an apparently universal consensus on Polus’ side, and the point of the belief-attribution cannot be understood without recognizing that Socrates speaks of what other people, not only Polus himself, believe. In the Meno, a slave in the grip of perplexity is said to contain true doxai. But Socrates does not mean that the slave at that time believes the answer to the geometrical problem.
Dialectics, Irony, and The Well of the Saints
Authors: Hewitt Seán
Published: January 2021

Beginning with a reading of a short manuscript fragment, A Rabelaisian Rhapsody (1898–1900), this chapter shows that this short dramatic dialogue affords us a unique and overlooked insight into the structures and key concerns of Synge’s entire dramatic oeuvre. In doing so, the chapter excavates many new influences on Synge’s work through a close reading of new source materials by Jacob Boehme, Spinoza, Blavatsky, Nietzsche, Hegel, Rabelais, Paracelsus, and a number of esoteric figures, reinforcing the continued importance of mysticism to his dramatic development. In The Well of the Saints (1905), we find the final synthesis of the dialectical structure of ‘A Rabelaisian Rhapsody’, and the preparation for Synge’s overt sociological statements regarding modernization in Ireland in his articles ‘From the Congested Districts’, published later the same year. Synge established a spiritual basis for his aesthetic, countering asceticism with pantheism, restriction with Rabelaisian excess. The various iterations of this conflict can be traced over numerous dialogues, scenarios, and plays in his oeuvre, and this dialectical structure became subsumed into a larger literary vision of nonconformity and multidirectional irony. In turn, Synge’s spiritual and aesthetic opposition to ascetic or conforming figures began to influence his understanding of political and social change in contemporary Ireland. Finally, this chapter demonstrates that by reading The Well of the Saints as a play based in Ossianic dialogues, nineteenth-century Celticist readings of racial difference, and conflicting modes of production, we can begin to understand Synge’s drama as one urging consciously towards protest and designed political impact.
Romantic Capabilities
Authors: Goode Mike
Published: January 2021

Romantic Capabilities argues that popular new media uses of literary texts often activate and make visible ways the texts were already about their relationship to medium. Devising and modelling a methodology that bridges historicist literary criticism and reception studies with media studies and formalism, it contends that how a literary text behaves when it encounters new media reveals capabilities in media that can transform how we understand the text’s significance for the original historical context in which it was created. Following an introductory chapter that explains and justifies its approach to the archive, the book analyses significant popular “media behaviors” exhibited by three major Romantic British literary corpuses: the viral circulation of William Blake’s pictures and proverbs across contemporary media, the gravitation of Victorian panorama painters and stereoscopic photographers to Walter Scott’s historical fictions, and the ongoing popular practice of writing fanfiction set in the worlds of Jane Austen’s novels and their imaginary country estates. Blake emerges from the study as an important theorist of how viral media can be used to undermine law, someone whose art deregulates through the medium of its audiences’ heterogeneous tastes and conflicting demands for wisdom. Scott’s novels are shown to have fostered a new experience of vision and understanding of frame that helped launch modern immersive media. Finally, Austenian realism is revealed as a mode of ecological design whose project fanfiction grasps and extends.
Is our health system ready for the future?
Authors: and Davies
Published: January 2021

This chapter looks at how the National Health Service (NHS) and the UK health system as a whole are understood now, and some of the issues that must be addressed. It also explores how to envisage a future that, after the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, looks very different to what might have been predicted six months ago. The NHS is a source of deep pride to British citizens because of its founding principles—universal access to healthcare for all, free at the point of use. However, things have changed since the NHS was founded in 1948. Ageing populations present with more and more complex chronic health conditions, but the health and care services have not kept pace and continue to use a single-illness model. This does not work well for patients and is expensive for the payer.
Does the healthcare system help or hinder our health?
Authors: and Davies
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the problems inherent in the healthcare system today, and explores what a health system that copes with illness and also helps us to live well for longer might look like. Whether the healthcare system helps or hinders our health may seem a silly question. After all, the NHS has been crucial in saving the lives of tens of thousands of people during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic; without it the death toll would have been many times higher. But is our healthcare system helping us to be and remain healthy in the long term? Despite the efforts of the health and care workforce, there were more than 60,000 excess deaths in England and Wales in the three months from March to May 2020. The NHS was not set up, nor was it resilient enough, to cope with normal care and COVID-19 together.
The promise of technology
Authors: and Davies
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on how technology can contribute by helping the healthcare system to do more with less, empowering individuals with chronic conditions to live well for longer, and providing the tools to make populations healthier in the 21st century. Healthcare owes much of its success to technology, from penicillin, aspirin, and blood transfusions to transplantation, monoclonal antibodies, genomics, modern imaging, and surgery. Today, emerging and digital technologies—the fourth industrial revolution—have the potential to transform health and care services, making it better and easier for staff and patients, but unfortunately health and healthcare are yet to participate fully in the digital era. Public services as a whole lag way behind other sectors, let alone their users, the public. To drive change, both users of healthcare and those working in it must demand better and play their part in making it happen.
So whose health is it? Time to value total health
Authors: and Davies
Published: January 2021

This chapter reviews some of the key issues around total health and describes a multi-pronged approach that starts from a true understanding of the value of health to individuals and to society. We outline the entities and processes that could underpin a new total health system, one that could serve to take us into a happier and more prosperous future. Everything we value as humans depends on health. But as a society, we do not seem to place a value on health that is concomitant with what it means to us, as individuals and as part of a wider community. Our vulnerability to COVID-19 has taught us that health is our most untapped opportunity for prosperity and fairness in the 21st century. It has brought us together, and shown us the stark realities of living in an unequal society. Good health, total health, must be at the centre of our recovery.
Introduction
Authors: Zaritt Saul Noam
Published: January 2021

This chapter introduces the book’s critical terminology, including discussions of how to define world literature and its relationships with Jewish American writing. The chapter views world literature as a normative institution of cultural value, a construct of Euro-American modernity that systematizes literature through a global imaginary linked to notions of empire and colonialization. The terms “American” and “Jewish” could, at first, name certain knowable enclaves within this larger network. However, on closer examination, these terms are revealed to be fractured things that at times implicate writers within the world-making project of world literature and at other times lead them to advocate for its disavowal. In proposing a multidirectional reading practice, the book takes up the undecidability of translation and the cultural uncertainty of Yiddish in the US as ways to account for the shifting locations of vernacular Jewish culture.
A Monolingual World Literature
Authors: Zaritt Saul Noam
Published: January 2021

This chapter is devoted to the writer Sholem Asch, arguably the Yiddish writer most aligned with the normative demands of world literature—as market, network, and idealized transnational republic. Asch’s fame in the interwar period, in Europe and then in the US, in Yiddish and in translation, relied on his belief in the possibility for reconciliation between Jews and Christians, especially through the creation of a unified redemptive literary institution. Focusing on his novels Three Cities and Salvation, the chapter posits that Asch is a model for a monolingual world literature, which may be written in multiple languages but whose texts seek to employ a mutually translatable universal vocabulary. This chapter counters this faith in translation by reading vernacular incongruity back into Asch’s texts, revealing a disjunction between Asch’s institutional longings and the realities of his vernacular commitments.
Non-Identity Theodicy
Authors: Vitale Vince R.
Published: January 2021

This book develops Non-Identity Theodicy as an original response to the problem of evil. It begins by recognizing that horrendous evils pose distinctive challenges for belief in God. To home in on these challenges, this book constructs an ethical framework for theodicy by sketching four cases of human action where horrendous evils are either caused, permitted, or risked, either for pure benefit (i.e. a benefit that does not avert a still greater harm) or for harm avoidance. This framework is then brought to bear on the project of theodicy. The initial conclusions drawn impugn the dominant structural approach of depicting God as causing or permitting horrors in individual lives for the sake of some merely pure benefit. This approach is insensitive to relevant asymmetries in the justificatory demands made by horrendous and non-horrendous evil and in the justificatory work done by averting harm and bestowing pure benefit. Next this book critiques Fall-based theodicies that depict God as permitting or risking horrors in order to avert greater harm. The second half of this book develops a theodicy that falls outside of the proposed taxonomy. Non-Identity Theodicy suggests that God allows evil because it is a necessary condition of creating individual people whom he desires to love. This approach to theodicy is unique because the justifying good recommended is neither harm-aversion nor pure benefit. It is not a good that betters the lives of individual human persons (for they would not exist otherwise), but it is the individual human persons themselves.
Introduction
Authors: Vitale Vince R.
Published: January 2021

This chapter introduces the problem of evil and then the more specific problem of horrendous evil (that is, the argument that the existence of horrendous evils makes the existence of God impossible or unlikely). First horrendous evil is defined as a technical term. Then, after proposing conditions for successful theodicy, prima facie reasons are given for why two of the most popular approaches to theodicy—a greater goods approach and a blame-shifting approach—are not successful where horrendous evils are concerned. The chapter ends by outlining the rest of the book.
High Fall Theodicy
Authors: Vitale Vince R.
Published: January 2021

This chapter assesses the theodicies identified in the previous chapter as structurally promising (i.e. as depicting God as ethically in the clear on the assumption that the explanatory story told by the theodicy is true). Because these fall-based theodicies conceive of humanity as having fallen at some point in history from a much more advanced state, they face a number of plausibility challenges rooted in modern science and theological tradition. Moreover and more decisively, these theodicies are implausible due to their overestimation of the extent to which finite human agents can bear primary responsibility for evils that are horrendous. The conclusion drawn is that the most influential contemporary theodicies fail either ethically or otherwise.
Conclusion
Authors: Vitale Vince R.
Published: January 2021

This concluding chapter takes a step back to consider the place of Non-Identity Theodicy in the contemporary theodicy literature. It recaps the key areas of overemphasis and underemphasis in contemporary theodicies. These misemphases include a failure to adequately appreciate the distinctive challenges that horrendous evils pose for the moral justification of harm; an overemphasis on the moral distinction between causing and permitting (especially where God is the agent in question); an overestimation of the moral significance of caretaker rights to cause or permit harm; an overemphasis on the role of free will in theodicy (resulting in a tendency towards anthropocentrism); and a questionable focus on general goods which manifests itself in a prioritizing of worlds over human persons, generic human persons over individual human persons, and all-things-considered benefit over more specific interests such as the aversion of serious harm. It is argued that Non-Identity Theodicy corrects for these various misemphases by conceiving of God first and foremost not as a creator of goods but as a lover of persons. This chapter ends by discussing how Non-Identity Theodicy can be combined with other theodicies in the formulation of a cumulative case theodicy.
The European Union
Authors: Schimmelfennig Frank , Winzen Thomas , Lenz Tobias , Rocabert Jofre , Crasnic Loriana , Gherasimov Cristina , Lipps Jana , Mumford Densua
Published: January 2021

The chapter analyses the development of the European Parliament (EP) since the European Coal and Steel Community (1952). Specifically, it includes the establishment of an international parliamentary institution (IPI) in 1952, the initial creation of legislative powers in the Single European Act (1986), the renegotiation of legislative powers ahead of the Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) and the extension and consolidation of legislative powers in the Treaty of Lisbon (2009). The EP is the earliest case of IPI establishment in the sample and the most successful case of IPI empowerment. Even though the effective conditions for IPI establishment and empowerment have varied over time, parliamentarization in the EU has generally resulted from strategic democratic legitimation in an IO characterized by a configuration of high and increasing authority, general purpose, and democratic membership.