bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Further problems
Authors: Bennett Peter M , Owens Ian P F
Published: November 2023

Interspecific brood-parasitism occurs in approximatelly 80 species but has probably only evolved about six times: in the ducks, honeyguides, cuckoos, whydahs, weavers, and cowbirds (Lack 1968; Johnsgard 1998; Ligon 1999; Davies 2000; Robert and Sorci 2001). At most, the habit may have evolved ten times, depending on the number of separate instances among the cuckoos (Old World cuckoos versus South American cuckoos), the ducks (Heteronetta atricapilla is the only species that shows obligate interspecific brood-parasitism, its hosts being coots, but at least two other genera contain facultative interspecific brood parasites), and the whydahs. In either case, such a small number of independent occurrences make meaningful statistical analyses very difficult, even if one assumes that interspecific parasitism has only ever evolved via one route.
Further problems
Authors: Bennett Peter M , Owens Ian P F
Published: November 2023

There are a number of sources of information on extinction in birds. The subfossil and historical records provide evidence of true extinctions of bird species, while the list of threatened species compiled by BirdLife International provides a comprehensive review of extinction risk among living bird species (BirdLife International 2000). In collaboration with Jonathan Baillie, we compared the pattern of variation revealed by these different sources of information on extinction (Bennett et al. 2001). This comparison is important because it has been widely suggested that both the rates and the causes of extinction may have changed over recent evolutionary time. However, a number of problematic assumptions must be made in order to compare past and present extinction patterns.
Spinor representation
Authors: Neretin Yu. A , Gould G G
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we investigate one of the fundamental constructions of this book, namely, the spinor representation of the orthogonal category. The spinor representation will be studied in full generality in Chapter 4. Here we shall discuss only its ‘finite-dimensional part’.
The heavy groups
Authors: Neretin Yu. A , Gould G G
Published: November 2023

The concept of a heavy group is a heuristic one. AU the following groups are examples of heavy groups. 1. The fall infinite symmetric group S  ∞. 2. The group U(∞) of all unitary operators in complex Hilbert space, as well as the group O(∞) of all orthogonal operators in real Hilbert space and the group Sp(∞) of all unitary operators in quaternionic Hilbert space. 3. The group of automorphisms of a Lebesgue space with finite (or σ-finite) measure.
Recent Results in the Theory of Program Flowgraphs
Authors: Bainbridge J R , Whitty R W
Published: November 2023

Attributed grammars, which play a major role in the theory of compiler design, provide a neat way of deflning flowgraph functions (that is, digraph functions where the digraphs are modelling programs). We use this idea to review some recent research in which flowgraph functions are used as complexity metrics for programs. The choice of grammar is seen to influence the expressive power of this approach: some aspects of program complexity, expressed as flowgraph functions, cannot be deflned using some grammars. The lesson seems to be that, at least from a mathematical viewpoint, we are not comparing like with like when we study the many complexity metrics which have been proposed. Graph theory has a natural role in the study of control flow in computer programs. The different possible routes of execution through the program code correspond to the walks from a source to a termination vertex in a digraph called a “flowgraph”.
Applications of Combinatorics to Security
Authors: Blackburn Simon R , Piper Fred
Published: November 2023

There are now many areas where users communicating over public channels require either secrecy or assurance of the integrity of their data. Not surprisingly, cryptography is one of the main tools used to meet these requirements and this use of cryptography leads to a number of interesting problems in a wide range of mathematical areas. In this paper we discuss three particular security requirements and show how they lead to interesting problems in three different branches of combinatorics. The paper places the emphasis on how the security application gives rise to the mathematical problems rather than concentrating on the detailed proofs of the mathematical solutions.
The Weight Distribution of KM Codes
Authors: Hoggar Stuart , Pickavance Keith
Published: November 2023

This paper is about linear error-correcting codes which adapt to the degree of interference encountered. The idea was mooted by Mandelbaum [1] in 1974, and in succeeding years various schemes were proposed.
When Constraints are Easy to Satisfy
Authors: Jeavons* P , Cohen* D , Cooper; M
Published: November 2023

Many practical combinatorial search problems may be expressed as constraint satisfaction problems, in which values must be assigned to a set of variables subject to a given set of constraints. Finding solutions to a constraint satisfaction problem is known to be an NP-complete problem in general, bi1t may be tractable in cases where the form of allowed constraints is restricted. In this paper we describe two sets of constraints which give rise to tractable problems and give polynomial time algorithms for solving such problems. We also prove that the class of problems generated by any superset of these sets of constraints is NP-complete. A number of important problems in artiflcial intelligence, graph theory and operational research may be formulated very naturally as constraint satisfaction problems [14,16]: they involve putting together pieces of information (constraints) to obtain a global solution which simultaneously satisfles all of them. Recent examples include object recognition problems for robots [9], generalized graph coloring[13] and stock cutting problems [6].
A Graph Theoretic Solution to the Interface Equation
Authors: Pengelly A D , Ince D C
Published: November 2023

The synthesis and subsequent generation of protocol converters can be a time consuming and tedious affair. An automatic means of generating these converters, given a formal description of the interfacing protocols, has been researched by a number of academics and industrialists. While there is a strong standards movement within the protocol community, the output from that process is likely to be slow in terms of its dissemination to the communications world at large. Hence, the development of convertors will be a key issue for many years to come. The work in this paper can be seen as a natural extension of the earlier work of Norris, Martin and Shields. The theory developed adopts a completely novel approach - moving the problem into the domain of graph theory and topology. The resulting theory has spawned a number of interesting results, which include extensions to CCS, further development of the quotient machine concept, the notion of symmetric validation and a further uniflcation between automata and graph theory.
Boundary Element Methods
Authors: Sloan Ian H
Published: November 2023

What are boundary element methodsã They are methods for the approximate solution of two- or three-dimensional boundary value problems, which rely on casting the problem into the form of an integral equation over the boundary; then chopping the boundary into pieces (‘elements’), on each of which a low-degree polynomial approximation is assumed; and then approximating the resulting discrete problem numerically. Approximate solutions to the original problem can then be obtained by carrying out a suitable approximate integration over the boundary.
Fractal Image Compression
Authors: Barnsley M , Barnsley L
Published: November 2023

What is multimedia? It is a special publication or “title”; it can be “read” inter actively on a computer screen and it is made up of text, pictures and probably sound and motion video as well. Early multimedia titles ran on microcomputers such as the Apple Mac or IBM PCs and popular sources of material for such early titles were the text and pictures in old-fashioned, paper-based encyclopaedias. These days however, multimedia titles do not need to be tied to one computer; they can be stored on company-wide networks or even on the information super-highway.
Logical completeness, truth, and proofs
Authors: Lolli Gabriele
Published: November 2023

When discussing such topics as ‘truth in mathematics’, it would be culpable negligence to ignore what logic has to say on the subject. What logic has to offer are theorems, not speculations. We teach these theorems in logic classes, out apparently to no avail, since the teaching does not seem to leave any trace in grown-up mathematicians. Perhaps this is due to the fact that when proving cheorems their significance is seldom discussed; only their mathematical usefulness, as opposed to general wisdom, is stressed. Theorems are admittedly not a detailed description of reality; they refer to idealized models; logic deals only with models of reasoning; but mathematicians, and scientists in general, should know what a tremendous amount of reliable and useful information is conveyed by properties of abstract models. We should sometimes pause to reflect on theprems, besides proving new ones, especially when, as is the case in logic, they concern our own activity.
A credo of sorts
Authors: Jones V F R
Published: November 2023

Let me begin by claiming to be quite ordinary among mathematicians in my attitude to my subject, with little understanding of its philosophical underpinnings. I remember being worried by Russell’s paradox as a youngster, and am still worried by it, but I hope to demonstrate, by a series of anecdotes and musings, that it is not at all difficult to live with that worry while having complete confidence in one’s mathematics. Let us start on very very solid ground.
Foundations of set theory
Authors: Tait W W
Published: November 2023

The topic of our conference is truth in mathematics, and certainly the implied question is in part: what constitutes truth in mathematics where, in contrast to the natural sciences, there are no phenomena to be saved? In the fourth century BC, Plato answered this question by observing that we begin with the idea of a certain structure, perhaps derived from experience, and, by analysis (which he called ‘dialectic’), we arrive at the principles which define this structure. What is true of the structure then is what can be derived from those first principles. This prescription works very well in the cases of Euclidean geometry, the theory of real numbers, and the theory of finite sets (or of sets of rank less than the least inaccessible cardinal, etc.), where we have ultimately agreed on certain (second-order) axioms which characterize the structures in question to within isomorphism. However, even in these cases, the status of certain propositions about these structures — for example, the Continuum Hypothesis — remains undetermined, pointing to an incompleteness of the laws of the underlying higher-order logic and, in particular, the laws governing the logical notion of set (to use the term of (Shapiro 1991)) implicit in the second-order comprehension axiom. In another direction, Godel’s incompleteness theorems yield propositions in predicate logic of any order which are not provable in that system, but which are provable l?y passing to logic of still higher-order. In this direction we are led to the theory of transfinite ordinals and to set theory; in particular, we are led to the question of the existence of large cardinals. However, in this case, as opposed to the case of Euclidean geometry et al., there does not seem to be just one generally accepted idea of the universe of set theory and of the laws defining it. Thus, perhaps there is no one notion of truth in this subject; there may be different conceptions, each carrying its own notion of truth-as in the case of different geometries.
Which undecidable mathematical sentences have determinate truth values?
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: November 2023

I will begin by contrasting three metaphysical pictures about mathematics. The first, about which I will have little to say in what follows, is the fictionalist picture. This says that strictly speaking, there are no mathematical entities; still, we can perfectly well reason from premises that postulate such entities, and systematic reasoning from such premises is both intrinsically interesting and highly useful in our practical affairs. On this view, mathematical theories are not literally true. Of course, a fictionalist needs to say something about why these theories are useful if they are not true: in disciplines other than mathematics, the utility of a theory is generally taken as good reason to believe that the theory is at least approximately true, and, if it is not a good reason in the mathematical case, then we need to know what the relevant differences between the mathematical and the non-mathematical are. Myself, I think that there are such relevant differences, and that the fictionalist view can be defended,1 but I will almost completely ignore it in what follows.
Metric and topological spaces
Authors: Meise Reinhold , Vogt Dietmar
Published: November 2023

In order to be able to cruise through functional analysis one needs, in the general set up of metric or topological spaces, the notions of continuity and convergence learnt in earlier analysis courses. The relevant notions, definitions, and facts are briefly introduced here and it is recommended that the reader carries out the simple proofs unless they are already known.
Complete metric spaces
Authors: Meise Reinhold , Vogt Dietmar
Published: November 2023

It is easy to show that a convergent sequence is a Cauchy sequence. Also, a Cauchy sequence converges if, and only if, it contains a convergent subsequence.
Projections
Authors: Meise Reinhold , Vogt Dietmar
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall consider the question: When does it happen that for a subspace E0of a metric linear space E there exists a subspace E1, with the property that + : E0 × E1 → E is an isomorphism? It is closely tied to the following question: For a given surjective continuous linear map A between metric linear spaces, when can one find a solution x = x(y), to the equation Ax = y, which is linearly and continuously dependent on y? Next, we recall a few notions from linear algebra.
Fourier transformation and Sobolev spaces
Authors: Meise Reinhold , Vogt Dietmar
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall deal with Fourier transformation which is an important tool in analysis, especially in the theory of linear partial differential equations. In a limited context, we shall also be concerned with Hilbert spaces of differentiable functions.
Compact operators
Authors: Meise Reinhold , Vogt Dietmar
Published: November 2023

We begin this part on spectral theory with a chapter on compact operators. These operators provide the abstract framework to treat integral equations. As was shown by F. Riesz, their spectral behavior is similar to that of operators on finite dimensional spaces.
Compact operators spaces in Hilbert
Authors: Meise Reinhold , Vogt Dietmar
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we show that the compact operators between Hilbert spaces have a certain normal representation. This allows us to introduce special classes of compact operators; among them, those of special interest are the Hilbert—Schmidt operators and the operators of the trace class.
Power series spaces
Authors: Meise Reinhold , Vogt Dietmar
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall consider the class of power series spaces. This is important since many spaces in analysis are isomorphic to power series spaces through classical series representations. At the same time this is a class of Fréchet spaces whose structure is fully understood.
Asymptotic Analysis of Fields in Multi-Structures
Authors: Kozlov Vladimir , Maz’ya Vladimir , Movchan Alexander
Published: November 2023

The asymptotic analysis of boundary value problems in parameter-dependent domains is a rapidly developing field of research in the theory of partial differential equations, with important applications in electrostatics, elasticity, hydrodynamics and fracture mechanics. Building on the work of Ciarlet and Destuynder, this book provides a systematic coverage of these methods in multi-structures, i.e. domains which are dependent on a small parameter e in such a way that the limit region consists of subsets of different space dimensions. An undergraduate knowledge of partial differential equations and functional analysis is assumed.
Introduction to Compound Asymptotic Expansions
Authors: Kozlov Vladimir , Maz’ya Vladimir , Movchan Alexander
Published: November 2023

This chapter contains an introduction to the technique of compound asymptotic expansions. We demonstrate the main features of this method by examples of several comparatively simple singularly perturbed boundary value problems. By ‘singularly perturbed’ we mean that the problem involves a small parameter ε, and it degenerates in some sense as ε → 0: for example, the equation reduces its order or a part of the boundary reduces its dimension.
Elastic Multi-Structure
Authors: Kozlov Vladimir , Maz’ya Vladimir , Movchan Alexander
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we analyse a mixed boundary value problem for the Lame system in an elastic multi-structure which consists of a union of a three-dimensional domain and thin cylinders and has the same geometry as in Chapter 2. In addition, we assume that the number of thin cylinders exceeds two and that the junction points do not belong to the same straight line. Just for the sake of simplicity of presentation we assume that the cylinders have the same cross-sections.
Spectral Analysis for 3d–1d
Authors: Kozlov Vladimir , Maz’ya Vladimir , Movchan Alexander
Published: November 2023

The asymptotic analysis developed in previous chapters can be applied to the study of spectral properties of boundary value problems in multi-structures. In this chapter we show this for the multi-structure depicted in Fig. 2.1, which was studied in Chapters 2 and 4. Here, we obtain asymptotic formulae for the first eigenvalues of the Laplace and Lame operators with the same boundary conditions as before.
Introduction
Authors: Wilson Robin J
Published: November 2023

We present those definitions and theorems in graph theory that are assumed throughout this book. Further explanation of these terms, together with the proofs of stated results, can be found in the standard texts listed below, although not all of the terminology is standardized. Definitions and results not included here are introduced later, as needed. A graph G consists of a finite non-empty set V (G) of elements called vertices and a finite set E(G) of distinct unordered pairs of distinct elements of V(G) called edges (see Fig. 1.1). We call V(G) the vertex set of G and E(G) the edge set of G; these are sometimes abbreviated to V and E, respectively. The number n of vertices of G is the order of G, and the number of edges of G is denoted by m. The edge {v, w} (where v and w are vertices of G) is often denoted by v w.
Covering spaces
Authors: Lawson Terry
Published: November 2023

This chapter elaborates upon the ideas used in Chapter 3 to compute the fundamental group of the circle using the covering space p ; JR -+ 81 to develop the theory of covering spaces. We will show that there is an intimate connection between the covering spaces of B and the subgroups of the fundamental group 1r1 ( B, b). As before, we are assuming that the spaces A, B in a covering space p ; A -+ B are each path connected and locally path connected. We start with some basic examples and properties. We can also take the product of a covering space with itself and get a new covering space. For example, we can take the product of the covering space of the reals over the circle with itself and get the covering space of the plane over.
Generalized kinetic theory
Authors: Balucani Umberto , Zoppi Marco
Published: November 2023

Up to the early 1970s, a ‘kinetic approach’ to the time-dependent properties of fluids was synonymous with a framework based on statistical mechanics in which a central role is played by those dynamical events referred to as uncorrelated binary collisions. Although the details of these collisional events depend on the specific form of the interatomic potential, in most cases the relevant effects are due to the harsh repulsion prevailing at small separations, often modelled as a ‘hard sphere’ interaction. As a consequence, a collision may usually be considered as an event strongly localized both in space and time. Because of this character, it seems reasonable to assume that two subsequent collisions are mutually uncorrelated. This assumption is actually one of the cornerstones of the traditional kinetic frameworks since their invention by Boltzmann more than a century ago. If we explore at a deeper qualitative level the physical content of the uncorrelated-collisions assumption, we arrive at the conclusion that this ansatz is indeed justified for dilute fluids, where the collisional events are comparatively rare so that, in a sense, a particle has available an amount of space and time sufficient to ‘forget’ a collision before the occurrence of another one.
The Impact Parameter Model
Authors: Bransden B H , McDowell M R C
Published: November 2023

In the last chapter the theory of ion-atom scattering at very low energies was discussed in terms of an angular momentum decomposition of the quantum mechanical coupled equations. As we saw in Chapters 2 and 3, the number of partial waves required for convergence becomes very large when the initial relative velocity v0 is greater than a few tenths of an atomic unit of velocity (as shown in Table 3.1). Also, as v0 is increased the kinetic energy of the heavy particle motion becomes large compared with changes in electronic energy. Under these conditions the impact parameter model is accurate and is more convenient to use than the partial-wave method. In the impact parameter model we have to solve the time-dependent Schrodinger equation (3.163a).
Approximate Solutions of Coupled Equations
Authors: Bransden B H , McDowell M R C
Published: November 2023

Most of the theoretical descriptions of inelastic ion-atom collisions, discussed in the preceding chapters, have resulted in sets of coupled equations, either for radial functions in partial-wave models or for probability amplitudes in the case of the impact parameter model. These equations have to be solved numerically. However, under certain conditions, usually rather restrictive, approximate analytical solutions have been developed, which provide rapid means of calculating cross sections and which may also illuminate the general nature of the theory. In this chapter two rather different groups of approximation will be discussed. The first group is concerned with the approximate solutions of the two-state coupled equations, particularly in situations where a transition is dominated by a curve crossing between two molecular states, and the extension of these solutions to systems which exhibit multiple crossings. The second group is different in character and is based on perturbation and distorted wave methods, which apply in cases of weak coupling.
Psychotherapy With Older Adults
Authors: Cook Joan M , Gallagher–Thompson Dolores , Hepple Jason
Published: November 2023

The application of psychotherapy to older adults began with much skepticism. Sigmund Freud believed that psychological treatment of individuals over the age of 50 was ineffective (Freud, 1904/1959).
Gender Issues in Psychotherapy
Authors: Nadelson Carol C , Notman Malkah T , McCarthy Mary K
Published: November 2023

As in all areas of health care, gender is an important variable in the treatment of a variety of psychiatric symptoms and disorders. Gender is mediated by psychosocial factors and the physiological and metabolic differences between men and women.
Implications of Research in Cognitive Neuroscience For Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
Authors: Westen Drew
Published: November 2023

All of these processes rely on learning, memory, and cognitive change, which suggests that relevant developments in the basic sciences should be useful in conceptualizing, reformulating, and adding to our repertoire of psychotherapeutic interventions.
Psychotherapy Research
Authors: Aveline Mark , Strauss Bernhard , Stiles William B
Published: November 2023

In principle, clinicians and researchers have a common purpose; they want practice to be as effective, relevant, and safe as possible. One of the most important contributions that research can make to this end is to minimize bias.
Brief and Time–Limited Psychotherapy
Authors: Parry Glenys , Roth Anthony D , Kerr Ian B
Published: November 2023

A major shift has occurred in the last 20 years from delivery of long–term psychotherapy to briefer, time–limited approaches. This is most marked in ‘managed care’ and public service contexts.
Introduction
Authors: Coolen A C C
Published: November 2023

Minority Games (MGs) are relatively simple mathematical models that were initially designed to increase our understanding of the cooperative phenomena and fluctuations that are observed in financial markets. They apply in fact more generally to any situation where a large number of selfish decision-making ‘agents’ all try to achieve individual gain by predicting (inductively, on the basis of incomplete public information, and often with an element of irrationality) and anticipating the decisions to be taken by their competitors. Such situations arise quite frequently, e.g. in queuing and traffic problems, in politics, sociology, etc. Not just in markets. Although there is a considerable history of mathematical studies aimed at understanding the interaction between agents in socio-economic systems, such as game theory, the key advantage of models such as MG is that in the latter one does not assume or rely on the participants in these systems to act fully rationally.
Preparing the stage for statistical mechanics
Authors: Coolen A C C
Published: November 2023

We seem to have collected most of the information needed to launch a statistical mechanical analysis of the MG. We have established that the key control parameter in the MG should be α = 2M /N , and that for infinte α we may expect the limit N∞ to give well-defined statistics for the overall bids A(.e). We know which quantities to inspect, e.g. the volatility and the fraction of frozen agents. However, there remain issues that have not yet been resolved, such as the scaling with N of the characteristic timescales of the process (which do influence theory and simulations); these will be dealt with in the present chapter.
Dynamics of MGs with true market history
Authors: Coolen A C C
Published: November 2023

Except for the early chapters of this book, where we just presented numerical simulations in order to appreciate the phenomenology of the standard versions of MG, we have in all theoretical chapters so far carefully steered away from having to analyze MG models with true market history, and instead analyzed exclusively the mathematically more manageable Markovian ‘fake history’ versions. This was at least partly justified by the earlier observation in numerical simulations that the differences in behaviour between MGs with true market history and those with ‘fake’ history’ were surprisingly small.
Variations and generalizations
Authors: Coolen A C C
Published: November 2023

The initial motivation to introduce and study MG was largely to increase our under-standing of the collective effects of inductive decision making by large numbers of agents in (financial) markets. It is therefore no surprise that the model’s conception subsequently generated a large body of generalizations, variations, and spin-off models, which all tried to introduce further details into the basic MG in order to bring the model closer to economic reality. It is neither possible nor helpful to give an exhaustive overview of all such variations and generalizations which have been published. Instead, here we will limit ourselves to a selection that has been made largely on the basis of whether the proposed variation not only makes sense but also allows for the resulting model to be solved and understood mathematically with the techniques presently available.
Disintegration into stereotypy induced by drugs or brain damage: a microdescriptive behavioural analysis
Authors: Teitelbaum Philip , Pellis, Sergio M , Devietti Terry L
Published: November 2023

Implicit in the phenomenon of stereotyped behaviour is a puzzle: the term stereotype applies to a behavioural act that is repeated again and again, but unlike a motivated act, it makes no sense because it does not seem to achieve an adaptive outcome: Drug-induced stereotypy, such as that produced by high doses of central stimulants, has that character. The wide variety of seemingly unrelated independent stereotypies generated by central stimulants is also puzzling. In rodents, for instance, drugs such as apomorphine and amphetamine have been reported to elicit climbing, jumping, rearing, prancing, running, walking, circling, revolving, pivoting, gnawing, licking, nose-poking, sniffing, verticalization, side-to-side head and paw movements, backward locomotion, and underwater swimming without surfacing (e.g. Alander etal.1983; Cole 1977; Costall and Naylor 1973; Decsi et al.1979; Fray et al.1980; Janssen et al.1960; Jerussi and Glick 1976; Kokkinidis and Anisman 1979; Schijljrring 1971; Schoenfeld et al.1975; Segal et al.1980; Szechtman et al.1982; Teitelbaum 1986; Thomas and Handley 1978; Voigtlander eta/.1975). What do they have in common?
Elements of bivariate time-series analysis
Authors: Diggle Peter J
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter we give a brief introduction to the analysis of data in the form of a pair of possibly inter-dependent time series. Our notation for this will be {(xt,Yt): t = l, ... , n }. For motivation, consider Example 1.4 involving monthly numbers of male and female deaths in the UK due to bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma. Both series show an obvious seasonal pattern. Might there also be a more subtle form of inter¬ dependence, for example arising out of a common response in both series to unusually harsh or mild weather conditions? How should we analyse the data to see if this is indeed the case? Our theoretical model will be a pair of random processes, which we write as {(Xt, Yt)}.
Conditional independence and Markov properties
Authors: Lauritzen Steffen L
Published: November 2023

Throughout this text a central notion is that of conditional independence of random variables, the graphs keeping track of the conditional independence relations.
Use of a quadratic exponential model to generate estimating equations for means, variances, and covariances
Authors: Zhao Lue Ping , Prentice Ross L
Published: November 2023

A quadratic exponential family model has been shown (Gouricroux et al., 1984) to be unique in quite generally yielding consistent ‘pseudo-maximum likelihood’ e timates of parameters in the marginal means, variances and covariances even if sampling takes place from outside this family. Furthermore, this class of models can be shown to generate simple score-estimating equations for mean, variance and covariance parameters that extend standard equations for mean parameters arising as solution to score equations from generalized linear models. In fact, these equations are quite similar to those that have been proposed on ad hoc grounds for marginal means and correlations.
Statistical Methods, Experimental Design, and Scientific Inference
Authors: Fisher R A , Yates F
Published: November 2023

R.A. Fisher has had more influence on the development of statistical theory and practice than any other twentieth-century statistician. His writings (both in paper and book form) have proved to be as relevant to present-day statisticians as they were when first published. This book brings together as a single volume three of Fisher's most influential textbooks: Statistical Methods for Research Workers, The Design of Experiments , and Statistical Methods and Scientific Inference . In this new edition Frank Yates has provided a foreword which sheds fresh light on Fisher's thinking and on the writing and reception of each of the books. He discusses some of the key issues tackled in the three books and reflects on how the ideas expressed have come to permeate modern statistical practice.R.A. Fisher has had more influence on the development of statistical theory and practice than any other twentieth-century statistician. His writings (both in paper and book form) have proved to be as relevant to present-day statisticians as they were when first published. This book brings together as a single volume three of Fisher's most influential textbooks: Statistical Methods for Research Workers, The Design of Experiments , and Statistical Methods and Scientific Inference . In this new edition Frank Yates has provided a foreword which sheds fresh light on Fisher's thinking and on the writing and reception of each of the books. He discusses some of the key issues tackled in the three books and reflects on how the ideas expressed have come to permeate modern statistical practice.
Dutch employee relations: supervisors’ and subordinates’ perspectives
Authors: DeRidder Richard
Published: November 2023

The present chapter focuses on relations between employees in The Netherlands. We report a study on subordinates’ and supervisors’ reactions to norm violations or rule breaking behaviour. As spelled out in Chapter 1, reactions to norm violations are expected to be determined by a number of context factors, such as supervisors’ and subordinates’ identification with their own group, their attitudes towards one another and existent differences in power. The strength of these factors, in turn, is the result of a historically grown social-economic, ideological, and political relationship between supervisors and sub-ordinates. Therefore, before reporting the actual study, we will provide a brief overview of the Dutch employment situation.
Neurophysiological mechanisms underlying face processing within and beyond the temporal cortical visual areas
Authors: Rolls Edmund T
Published: November 2023

The ways in which information about faces is represented and stored in the temporal lobe visual areas of primates, as shown by recordings from single neurons in macaques, are considered. Some neurons that respond primarily to faces are found in the cortex in the anterior part of the superior temporal sulcus (in which neurons are especially likely to be tuned to facial expression and to face movement involved in gesture), and in the TE areas more ventrally forming the inferior temporal gyms (in which neurons are more likely to have responses related to the identity of faces). Quantitative studies of the responses of the neurons that respond differently to the faces of different individuals show that information about the identity of the individual is represented by the responses of a population of neurons, that is, ensemble encoding rather than ‘grandmother cell’ encoding is used.
Who Knows what Alternative Lurks in the Hearts of Significance Tests?
Authors: Hodges Jim
Published: November 2023

Bayesians have a long tradition of reviling significance tests as inherently un Bayesian, going back at least to the first edition of Jeffreys’ Theory of Probability. But Hodges (1990) showed that to an arbitrarily close approximation, the P-value is the posterior probability of the null hypothesis for a particular alternative, in a large class of cases to be detailed below. One could say that the alternative behind significance tests has been unmasked and can now be used as a club to beat on P-values. On the other hand, it now appears that P-values are not as un Bayesian as we have been led to think. In view of the tradition of P-value bashing, it is of some interest to examine the new alternative hypothesis to see whether we must admit P-values to the Bayesian family after all.
Recent Extensions to the EM Algorithm
Authors: Meng Xiao-Li , Rubin Donald B
Published: November 2023

Two recent extensions to the EM algorithm have made it even more powerful and applicable in practice. Both extensions follow the theme of EM by using repeated complete-data computations to handle incomplete data. The Supplemented EM or SEM algorithm (Meng and Rubin, 1991a) enables users of EM to calculate the incomplete-data asymptotic variance-covariance matrix associated with the maximum likelihood estimate obtained by EM, using only the computer code for EM and for the complete-data asymptotic variance-covariance matrix. The Expectation/Conditional Maximization or ECM algorithm (Meng and Rubin, 1991b) replaces the M-step of EM with a set of conditional maximization (CM) steps, and thus can eliminate undesirable nested iterations with EM when its M-step is not in closed form. SEM and ECM can also be combined into a Supplemented ECM (SECM) algorithm for computing the incomplete-data asymptotic variance-covariance matrix for maximum likelihood estimates found by ECM. In this paper, we provide a general description of these new techniques, as well as brief discussions of their relevance in Bayesian computations and their relationships with the popular Gibbs sampler (Geman and Geman, 1984), and its extension, GIBS.
Learning in Probabilistic Expert Systems
Authors: Spiegelhalter David J , Cowell Robert G
Published: November 2023

Probabilistic expert systems use a directed graphical structure to express conditional independence relationships, and conditional probability tables to summarise quantitative knowledge. We explore the consequences of assuming these probabilities to be parameters, where beliefs about those parameters are updated as data accumulate. A simple approximate Bayesian procedure is shown to be related to those used in ‘unsupervised learning’ and is investigated by simulations and applied to a difficult real example. The procedure has reasonable properties, although for certain missing data configurations the approximations used are clearly somewhat extreme, and further work is required to handle induced dependencies between parameters.
The Use of Expert Judgement in the Context of a Postulated Mathematical Model
Authors: French S , Cooke R M , Vogt F
Published: November 2023

We consider the expert problem in which an analyst consults one or more experts for their views about uncertain quantities required in a decision or risk analysis. We extend the expert problem to the case in which the uncertain quantities are related in the analyst’s mind by a physical model. 1be problem is first formulated as a Bayesian hierarchical model. Because of many computational difficulties, we explore a more pragmatic approach for circumstances in which the experts’ judgements are brought together through a weighted linear opinion pool. Details are worked through for the case where the physical model is a simple normal regression model and the classically weighted linear opinion pool is used. We also note that the approach may be developed to allow the physical model to be drawn from the GLIM family. Unfortunately, applications of expert judgement seem to encounter physical models which are far from linear and these methods may still not be tractable in some important practical cases. For these we indicate a further approach, which may be more computationally feasible.
Expected Logarithmic Divergence for Exponential Families
Authors: Gutierrez-Peña Eduardo
Published: November 2023

Kullback-Leibler logarithmic divergence (Kullback-Leibler information) may be used within a Bayesian framework to produce a class of utility functions in statistical decision problems concerning parametric families of distributions. In such a case it is necessary to compute the expected value of the logarithmic divergence (ELD). We show that the ELD takes a simple form when the distribution of the sampling process belongs to a regular exponential family and the natural parameter has a distribution in the corresponding conjugate family. An application is outlined.
Patterns of marriage in the Isle of Harris
Authors: Clegg E J
Published: November 2023

It is well recognized that mate selection in marriage does not occur at random (see van den Berghe 1979). Many factors may influence it, for example: the degree of relatedness (O’Brien et al. 1979); the high correlation between spouses’ ages (Hajnal 1963; Leslie 1983a,b); the decline in mating frequency with increasing separation between spouse’s residences (Boyce et al. 1967; Boyce 1984; Swedlund 1988); and the existence of assortative mating for various overt biological or cultural characteristics (Rao et al. 1979). In addition there may be a secular factor in a given population, resulting from changes in residence and social class distribution, improvements in communications, etc. (Ktichemann et al. 1967).
Living with schistosomes: adaptation, accommodation, or severe ill-health?
Authors: Parker M
Published: November 2023

More than 200 million people world-wide live with schistosomes. Academics and public health professionals generally equate schistosomal infection with ill-health and, until recently, it has been sufficient to cite epidemiological data documenting the prevalence of infection to show that schistosomiasis presents a major public health problem in the tropical and subtropical world. This chapter draws attention to our limited understanding of the relationship between infection, intensity of infection, and ill-health and raises the following questions: are there any data to suggest that people adapt or accommodate to life with schisto-somes? Is it appropriate for governments and international agencies to continue to allocate scarce resources to control schistosomiasis in the absence of information documenting severe ill-health for the majority of people harbouring schistosomes? This chapter is divided into four parts. Part one discusses the extent to which Schistosoma mansoni affects reproductive success and part two explores the relationship between S. mansoni and some of the parasitological, pathological, and clinical indicators of morbidity. The third part of the chapter examines the relationship between schistosomes and daily activities and the fourth and final part discusses the implications of this large body of work for public health policy. The chapter focuses on S. mansoni, but the questions raised are applicable to other species of schistosome, especially S. haematobium, S. intercalatum and, to a lesser extent, S. japonicum.
Nutrition Intervention
Authors: Geissler Ca Therine
Published: November 2023

The term nutrition intervention is often used in the narrow definition of feeding and education programmes. However, a broader definition covers any programme or policy that has a positive impact on nutritional status. It is the broader definition that is considered in this chapter. For an intervention to improve nutrition it must either treat existing malnutrition or prevent it by altering factors that are underlying causes.
On using crime statistics for prediction
Authors: Copas John
Published: November 2023

The uses of statistics on crime can perhaps be grouped into three somewhat overlapping categories - description, administration, and research. The first is the most important: rational discussion of crime needs to be informed by accurate statistics on the present state of the criminal justice system and how it is evolving over time. In administration, statistics are needed for the allocation of resources, for decision-making, and in consideration of issues of policy. In research we aim to understand, and to pose (if not answer) ‘what if questions. The overlaps are obvious: good administration needs both description and the results of research on policy changes and evaluation. Some applications of statistics involve prediction, uses covering both administration (decision-making) and research (policy evaluation). A classic example of the former is decision-making in parole, where it can be useful to summarize background information on a prisoner in the form of a prediction score for the risk that the subject will reoffend. An example of the latter is when a prediction score is used to stratify subjects into risk groups for the purpose of monitoring some policy development. It is the use of statistics in the construction and validation of prediction scores which forms the subject of this chapter.
The Intrinsic Bayes Factor for Linear Models¹
Authors: Berger J O , Pericchi L R
Published: November 2023

In Berger and Pericchi (1993) a general automatic Bayesian method for comparing models, the Intrinsic Bayes Factor (IBP) was proposed. One version, the Arithmetic IBF, was shown to essentially correspond to an actual Bayes factor for a reasonable Intrinsic Prior. A second version, the Geometric IBF,is justified in Pericchi and Smith (1994), using a prequential type of loss function, without assuming that one of the entertained models is the true sampling model. Here we analyze the general normal linear model, determining the intrinsic Bayes factors for any model comparisons, nested or separate, as well as for multiple model comparisons. In these situations we also calculate the Expected Arithmetic IBF. We also generalize model elaboration ideas to linear models with fixed mean structure but arbitrary error distributions. The method is illustrated on examples and compared with other model selection methods.
Testing for Mixtures: A Bayesian Entropic Approach
Authors: Mengersen* K L , Robert** C P
Published: November 2023

The determination of the number of components in a mixture of parametrised distributions has important bearing in homogeneity testing, cluster analysis and mixture modelling, among other applications. In this paper, we focus on a two-component gaussian model and a test for the presence of a mixture. The proposed test is based on an indifference zone representation of the null hypothesis defined by the Kullback-Leibler distance, and a derivation of the posterior probability that this distance is less than a given threshold using the Gibbs sampler. Due to a new parametrisation of the mixture model, estimation performances are markedly improved, while the Bayesian prior input is reduced to the specification of a single scale parameter. Moreover, the determination of this scale parameter is equivalent to the choice of the above threshold. We illustrate our approach with a Monte Carlo study.
Computation on Bayesian Graphical Models
Authors: Spiegelhalter D J , Thomas A , Best N G
Published: November 2023

We describe the graphical expression of conditional independence assumptions and associated factorisations of the joint distribution of both observed and unobserved quantities. Such factorisations encourage local computational techniques, and a language and program for Gibbs sampling is discussed with examples concerning measurement error and spatial smoothing of cancer rates.
Bayesian Analysis of Longitudinal Data Studies
Authors: Gamerman D , Smith A F M
Published: November 2023

The problem of inferring and predicting a population time trend from repeated measurements on individuals from the population is considered. Different modelling strategies incorporating the dynamic hierarchical approach are proposed. These include the use of mixtures to combine information at individual and population levels. Applications are presented and specific topics such as prediction, different follow-up intervals and design considerations are discussed.