bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Parental Self‐Efficacy and Asthma Self‐Management Skills
Authors: Hanson Jean
Published: February 2007

Purpose. To determine whether a formal asthma self‐management program and social support using lay health advisors increases parent self‐efficacy in the management of their child's asthma, and whether parent self‐efficacy predicts asthma self‐management skills.

DESIGN. Quasi‐experimental with four time points measured over 2 years.

PARTICIPANTS. Low‐income, primarily Hispanic parents (N = 303) of children with moderately severe to severe asthma.

SETTING. A Southwestern university medical setting in a rural state.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES. Parent self‐efficacy and parent asthma self‐management skill score scales.

RESULTS. Parent self‐efficacy increased significantly from baseline, but there were no significant differences between the control and treatment groups. The increase in self‐efficacy was apparent at 6 months, then leveled off. Parent self‐efficacy at either baseline or 12 months did not predict parents' asthma self‐management skill score.

CONCLUSIONS. Individual education was just as effective as group education in increasing parental self‐efficacy. Parents felt more comfortable treating asthma episodes than preventing them, thus clinicians need to spend time teaching preventive strategies.
Practice Guidelines for the Assessment of Children With Sickle Cell Pain
Authors: Beyer Judith E. , Platt Alan F. , Kinney Thomas R. , Treadwell Marsha
Published: February 2007

issues and purpose. Pain is the most frequent and important problem for children with sickle cell disease (SCD), but it has been undertreated and understudied. A multidisciplinary group of healthcare providers, academics, and people with SCD and their families met to (1) examine the pain of vaso‐occlusive events (VOE) in children and adults with SCD and (2) reach consensus about necessary improvements in care.

conclusions. Accurate assessment of pain is at the crux of effective care for children with VOE. This requires a trusting interactive relationship among patient, family, and healthcare team. Comprehensive pain assessment is a lifelong process in need of continued updating.

practice implications. Children with SCD seek treatment from nurses in many settings. Traditional care has been frustrating to both families and care providers. Children and adolescents with SCD pain would benefit from nursing care that considers patients' perspectives about pain and comfort as key determinants for treatment. A unified approach to pain assessment may be a significant factor in improving pain control.
Case Management: Facing Future Challenges
Authors: Kuntz Kathleen Ryan , Winch Anne , Kuntz Kathleen Ryan
Published: February 2007

Role Play Is an issues‐related forum to engender dialogue about the roles assumed by nurses who care for children and their families.
Genetic Discoveries: Challenges for Nurses Who Care for Children and Their Families
Authors: Lessick Mira , Anderson Laurel , Woodring Barbara
Published: February 2007

Role Play is an issues‐related forum to engender dialogue about the roles assumed by nurses who care for children and their families.
Dog Bites in Children Treated in a Pediatric Emergency Department
Authors: Bernardo Lisa Marie , Gardner Mary Jane , O'Connor Joan , Amon Nicole
Published: February 2007

ISSUES AND PURPOSE.Unintentional injury is the leading cause of death and disability among children. This study sought to describe the characteristics of dog bite injuries to aid in promoting healthy environments for children.

DESIGN AND METHODS.This descriptive, retrospective study of one hospital's 1997 emergency department records detailed dog bite injuries to children and adolescents and resultant emergency treatment (N = 204).

RESULTS.Children ≤5 years of age accounted for 49% of the injuries. The biting dog's owner was generally a parent or neighbor. Only 2 children received rabies prophylaxis.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS.Parents and children need information about safe interactions with dogs, including community leash laws and quarantine guidelines. Nurses should know the procedures for reporting dog bite injuries to local health authorities. Interested nurses can find many opportunities to assist with community safety campaigns.
Family‐Centered Care When Abuse or Neglect is Suspected
Authors: Barton Sharon Jackson , Froese‐Fretz Ann
Published: February 2007

Ask the Expert provides answers to clinical questions for nurses in practice settings. Where possible, evidence from research is used to support the experts' recommendations.
Low‐Income Mothers' Perceptions of Health in Their Children With Growth Delay
Authors: Reifsnider Elizabeth , Allan Janet , Percy Melanie
Published: February 2007

ISSUES AND PURPOSE. Parental characteristics are the strongest predictor of poor health for children. This study examined how low‐income mothers of children with growth delay define health for their children, and the behaviors they use to monitor their children's health.

DESIGN AND METHODS. Naturalistic design using Kleinman's Explanatory Model approach and interviews with 22 mothers.

RESULTS. Mothers consider nutritious food as a primary contributor to their children's health and consider healthy children to be chubby. Other indicators of health include children's energy levels, provision of nutritious food, and physical and mental activity balanced with rest.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS. A mother's explanatory model of health for her child can guide health promotion targeted to the mother's beliefs.
Chronic Intestinal Pseudo‐Obstruction: Pediatric Case Presentations and Review of the Literature
Authors: Beth Barr J. Mari
Published: February 2007

ISSUES AND PURPOSE. Chronic intestinal pseudo‐obstruction (CIP) is a rare condition characterized by small bowel dysmotility. Its effects are severe and disabling in pediatric clients. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of CIP and summarize information useful to pediatric nurses.

CONCLUSION. Nursing management of the pediatric client with CIP is challenging, not only in terms of direct care provided to the child, but also in ongoing support and education of the child and family.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS. Nurses practicing in either inpatient or outpatient settings may encounter children and families dealing with this disorder. Nurses are in a key position to educate others and influence the outcomes of care provided to children with CIP and their families.
The Healthcare Needs of Children in Foster Care
Authors: Scahill Michael , Froese‐Fretz Ann
Published: February 2007

Ask the Expert provides research‐based answers to practice questions submitted by JSPN readers.
Benchmarking: What's in It for Nurses?
Authors: McCarthy Margaret , Curley Martha
Published: February 2007

Scientific Inquiry provides a forum to facilitate the ongoing process of questioning and evaluating practice, presents informed practice based on available data, and innovates new practices through research and experimental learning.
Grassroots Advocacy in Action: Successes and Opportunities for Pediatric Nurses
Authors: Kotzer Anne Marie , Smyth Marilynn , Gill Anne , Rapstine Theresa , Thomas Lori , Ekegren Kathryn
Published: February 2007

The Advocate is a forum for exploring our roles as advocates for the children and families we serve.
A Nurse's Role in Helping Well Children Cope With a Parent's Serious Illness and/or Hospitalization
Authors: Winch Anne
Published: February 2007

Role Play is an issues‐related forum to engender dialogue about the roles assumed by nurses who care for children and their families.
Children in Foster Care: A Nursing Perspective on Research, Policy, and Child Health Issues
Authors: Gottesman Mary Margaret
Published: February 2007

ISSUES AND PURPOSE. To examine the roles of public policy and poverty on the rising number of children in family foster care, and to examine the impact of different types of family foster care on children's well‐being.

CONCLUSIONS. Recent changes in welfare legislation increase the likelihood of family poverty, with a subsequent increase in the number of children in out‐of‐home care. Greater emphasis needs to be placed on preventing entry into out‐of‐home care, improving the quality of foster care, and giving children a voice in care decisions.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS. Nurses have important roles to play in the prevention of family dissolution, the design of healthcare delivery systems for children in foster care, in evaluating and educating all types of foster families, and as advocates in legal and legislative proceedings.
Mentoring, Membership in Professional Organizations, and the Pursuit of Excellence in Nursing
Authors: Haley‐Andrews Stephanie , Winch Anne
Published: February 2007

Role Play is an issues‐related forum to engender dialogue about the roles assumed by nurses who care for children and their families.
Caring for Street Youth: A Nursing Challenge
Authors: Hagedorn Susan , Ekegren Kathryn
Published: February 2007

The Advocate is a forum for exploring our roles as advocates for the children and families we serve.
Relationships of Sexual Abuse, Connectedness, and Loneliness to Perceived Well‐Being in Homeless Youth
Authors: Rew Lynn
Published: February 2007

ISSUES AND PURPOSE. To describe respondents' perceptions of connectedness, loneliness, and well‐being; and to explore relationships among these variables.

DESIGN AND METHOD. Survey data from 96 participants, focus group interviews with 32 participants, and 10 individual interviews were analyzed.

RESULTS. Sixty percent of the sample reported sexual abuse, which was significantly related to loneliness and inversely related to connectedness and perceived well‐being. Subjects felt lonely and disconnected. They perceived their well‐being in terms of current health status.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS. High rates of sexual abuse, lack of connectedness, and loneliness may help to explain poor perceived well‐being in homeless youth.
Identifying Risk Factors for Maternal Depression in Families of Adolescents With Epilepsy
Authors: Shore Cheryl P. , Austin Joan K. , Huster Gertrude A. , Dunn David W.
Published: February 2007

ISSUES AND PURPOSE. To investigate factors associated with depressive symptoms in mothers of children with chronic seizure disorders.

DESIGN AND METHODS. A cross‐sectional correlational design was used with a sample of 115 mother‐child dyads in families where the child had chronic epilepsy.

RESULTS. A three‐factor model consisting of family income, satisfaction with family relationships, and presence of child behavior problems explained 32% of the variance in maternal depressive symptoms.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS. Childhood epilepsy has a negative effect on the mother's mood in many families. Child behavior problems were found to be the strongest predictor of maternal depressive symptoms. Assessing for behavior problems and maternal depression should become a routine part of the family nursing assessment.
Obtaining Accurate Growth Measurements in Children
Authors: Winch Anne E. , McDowell Betsy M.
Published: February 2007

Ask the Expert provides research‐based answers to practice questions submitted by JSPN readers.
Children and the Courts: Advocacy Roles for Pediatric Nurses
Authors: Johnson Merrilyn O. , O'Sullivan Ann L. , Ekegren Kathryn
Published: February 2007

The Advocate is a forum for exploring our roles as advocates for the children and families we serve.
SITUATIONAL JUDGMENT TESTS, RESPONSE INSTRUCTIONS, AND VALIDITY: A META‐ANALYSIS
Authors: McDANIEL MICHAEL A. , HARTMAN NATHAN S. , WHETZEL DEBORAH L. , GRUBB W. LEE
Published: February 2007

Situational judgment tests (SJTs) are personnel selection instruments that present job applicants with work‐related situations and possible responses to the situations. There are typically 2 types of instructions: behavioral tendency and knowledge. Behavioral tendency instructions ask respondents to identify how they would likely behave in a given situation. Knowledge instructions ask respondents to evaluate the effectiveness of possible responses to a given situation. Results showed that response instructions influenced the constructs measured by the tests. Tests with knowledge instructions had higher correlations with cognitive ability. Tests with behavioral tendency instructions showed higher correlations with personality constructs. Results also showed that response instructions had little moderating effect on criterion‐related validity. Supplemental analyses showed that the moderating effect of response instructions on construct validity was not due to systematic differences in item content. SJTs have incremental validity over cognitive ability, the Big 5, and over a composite of cognitive ability and the Big 5.
A Portable Well Point Sampler for Plume Tracking
Authors: Kerfoot William B.
Published: February 2007

For regions of shallow ground water, a shallow well point sampler can provide cost‐effective sampling of contaminant plumes. A miniature well point sampler allows rapid sampling of ground water down to a maximum depth of 12 feet below grade. A high ratio of striking force to cross‐sectional area of the shaft enables the well point to penetrate soils grading from silt through sand to fine gravel. Three slot sizes have proved satisfactory for the slotted well point. For fine gravel through silty sand, a receiver flask serving as a silt trap with a hand pump can withdraw water samples. For silt or clay, a special shielded point is used to expose a porous screen upon withdrawal of the shaft. The points can be left imbedded in the strata and a vacuum drawn to recover a sample under saturated or unsaturated conditions.

Such a sampler has been shown to be effective in tracing plumes from individual on‐site septic systems and hazardous waste sites. The text describes a simple procedure for plume analysis and description of the extent of dewatered strata near the point based upon different sample volumes. The probe has been used with conductivity meters and fluorometers for profiling subsurface plumes. A cost comparison is shown between monitoring well installation and the portable well point for varying sample frequency and depth.
Some Observations on Field Experiences With Monitor Wells
Authors: Hunkin Geoffrey G. , Reed Thomas A. , Brand Gregory N.
Published: February 2007

In recent years we have seen major advances in the variety and quality of ground water sampling instrumentation, in almost every case involving increases in sensitivity of one or more orders of magnitude. Software number‐crunching ability brings us the capability of running sophisticated mathematical and statistical programs, while modern analytical chemistry routinely makes determinations of metals, organics and radioactive elements accurate in the parts per billion range.

The construction of sample points rarely supports these levels of precision. The well is the basic sampling machine for the ground water industry and its ability to produce a truly representative sample underpins all data and conclusions. Regardless of the type of instrumentation employed, a sample point that cannot be shown to be truly representative and that fails to provide a series of reliable samples over the long term–let us say 25 years minimum–is a negative investment.

In the authors’professional sampling work, it has been observed that, wherever it is possible to improve the quality of the ground water sample point, a reduction in the measured level of pollutant elements in the sample is found and the confidence level improves. Volatile organic values are the sole exception to this observed reduction in concentration, the reason being that sample point and method improvements capture the fully representative water sample, thus reducing volatile losses.

It is not possible to address all hydrogeologic environments and sampling methods in this review. Instead, features were selected that had been found to be important in commercial, high‐precision, water quality sampling in Western U.S. environments. In this area, water movement is slow and little or no exchange of water occurs between wells and the surrounding aquifer without artificial stimulation. Water quality stabilization requires multiple casing volume evacuations in wells ranging to 1,000 feet deep. High‐volume pumping or mechanized bailing is an economic requirement. Dedicated installations cannot supply the volume of water required for comprehensive analytical programs.

It is the nature of these sources, as well as practical recommendations for corrective action, that will be addressed in this article.

Any attempted improvement in utilization of data by mathematical processing or statistical treatment will be inadequate because:

Samplings are infrequent and often accumulate at rates of only two or four sample suites per year. Seasonal variations may obscure evidence of passage of a low‐intensity pollution front and some years may elapse before the true situation becomes apparent from statistical analyses. By such time, the problem pollutant may have escaped from the treatment area.

Powerful biases occur due to the failure of the sample point to eliminate false contributions to the sample from sources other than the natural environment or a pollution source, most frequently originating in casing materials and annular seal leakage.
Comparison of Electrical Resistivity Methods for Investigation of Ground Water Conditions at a Landfill Site
Authors: Sweeney Jerry J.
Published: February 2007

Two electrical methods were used and compared in the Investigation of a solid waste landfill site in the central Coast Ranges of California Terrain conductivity measurements and dipole‐dipole resistivity surveys were used in support of an investigation of the hydrology and geochemistry of the site with main concerns being: 1) establishment of baseline conditions, 2) determination of possible contamination and 3) design of a sampling/ monitoring system. Geophysical data were obtained prior to the start of the drilling program and later integrated with reconnaissance geologic data for the purpose of selecting sites for monitoring wells. Two electrical methods were used: 1) dipole‐dipole resistivity; best suited for determining changes in electrical properties with depth and 2) terrain conductivity; best suited for determining lateral changes in electrical properties at a particular depth. Interpretations of the surveys were used in making inferences about the geometry of the saturated zone, ground water gradients, and relative depths to the saturated zone in areas with highly variable conditions. The data were useful in checking for possible ground water contamination and for extrapolating well data across the site.

Electrical properties of rock at low frequencies are dominated by effects due to the presence of pore fluids. Differences in conductivity between saturated and unsaturated rock depend primarily on inherent electrical properties of the rock, porosity and conductivity of the fluid. Electrical detection of subsurface zones of contamination, sometimes referred to as “plumes”, in either the saturated or unsaturated zones, requires the existence of a zone of contrasting electrical behavior produced by the contamination. Such contrasts, or anomalies, can be caused by the presence of increased (higher conductivity) or decreased (lower conductivity) concentration of ions. In areas where materials with contrasting electrical properties (such as sandstone and claystone) are present in the subsurface with irregular geometry, anomalies can be difficult to interpret and additional information about geology and ground water conditions must be relied upon.

The geophysical survey for this study began with dipole‐dipole resistivity measurements carried out along orthogonal lines in the landfill area. Subsequently, terrain conductivity measurements were carried out and compared with this data. A brief explanation and comparison of the methods used and the results of the surveys are discussed. Following completion of the surveys, the dipole‐dipole data were modeled with the use of a finite‐element computer algorithm. The models are compared with geological and hydrological data obtained during the drilling phase of the program.
Transport of Organic Compounds Dissolved in Ground Water
Authors: Newsom Joan M.
Published: February 2007

Organic compounds, such as trichlomethylene (TCE) and chlorobenzene, that have been found in drinking water supplies are of public concern because they are possibly carcinogenic. These substances can now be routinely detected in trace amounts with gas chromatograph mass spectrometers. There are some polar organic compounds, which are not detectable individually by common methods and therefore little is known about them.

The transport of organic compounds is more difficult to predict than the flow of ground water because:

Trace amounts of pollutants are difficult to measure

Transport is complicated if the compound is partitioned into several phases

The concentration of organics in ground water may vary due to aquifer heterogeneity and other hydrologic factors

Reactions with other organic compounds and reactions with the aquifer material (such as adsorption) may affect the mobility of the organics

Biodegradation may also affect net transport.

Adsorption is a factor in the attenuation of non‐polar organics in aquifers with significant organic content (>0.1 percent organic carbon). The organic material adsorbs the non‐polar organic chemicals. The mobility of a pollutant in such an aquifer depends on at least two parameters: the levels of dissolved organic matter and the content of organic carbon in the aquifer material. The partition coefficient of the chemical pollutant between the aquifer and water is commonly calculated as a function of the organic content of the aquifer and the partition coefficient between octanol and water.

Field and laboratory results reported in the literature indicate that the following organic compounds may be biodegradable under aerobic conditions: alkyl benzenes and chlorobenzenes. Under anaerobic conditions halogenated aliphatics, alkyl benzenes, several pesticides and phenolic compounds may be biodegradable. Halogenated aliphatics appear not to degrade under aerobic conditions and non‐chlorinated aro‐matics and chlorobenzenes appear not to degrade under anaerobic conditions. Alkyl benzenes biode‐grade more rapidly than their halogenated counterparts.
Subsurface Disposal of Liquid Low‐Level Radioactive Wastes at Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Authors: Stow Stephen H. , Haase C. Stephen
Published: February 2007

Liquid low‐level radioactive wastes have been disposed of by subsurface injection at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, for the last two decades. The process entails mixing the wastes with cement and other additives, then pumping the slurry under pressure into a highly impermeable shale; the pressure is sufficient to create bedding plane fractures in which the grout, containing the wastes, sets. Research is being conducted to develop an understanding of the hydrology of the site and monitoring methods. The present regulatory climate regarding injection wells has created an uncertain future for this technique.
The Effect of Sampling Frequency on Ground Water Quality Characterization
Authors: Rajagopal R.
Published: February 2007

There is an implicit relationship between the frequency of sampling and the value of information obtained. This relationship is briefly explored by a study of nitrates in aquifers of the Quaternary age and fluorides and sulfates in aquifers of the Cambro‐Ordovician age in Iowa. The ambient distribution of these chemicals, in general, is positively skewed with a significant number of observations in the lower end of the feasible range. It is shown that a much broader perspective of the distribution of these chemicals in ground water can be obtained by studying a whole spectrum of parameters (quantiles) ranging from the minimum to the maximum, rather than just the mean or the median alone. Simple random samples of varying sizes drawn from the available data base revealed that many parameters of location, such as the quantiles, of nitrates, fluorides, and sulfates in selected aquifers can be estimated closely by samples of sizes 50, 100 and 250. Results based on such hindsight warrant further investigation of the behavior of sampling distributions of a set of high priority chemicals in different hydrogeological environments.
Interpretation of VLF Resistivity Data for Ground Water Contamination Surveys
Authors: Stewart Mark , Bretnall Robert
Published: February 2007

Very low frequency (VLF) military communications systems provide a primary field that can be used for shallow geophysical surveys to locate ground water contamination and vertical geologic contacts. Useful properties that can be easily obtained from the interaction of the earth and the primary field are the magnitude of the vertical secondary magnetic field, the surface impedence, and the phase angle between the electrical and magnetic horizontal components. The variations in the secondary magnetic field can be related to vertical geologic contacts, such as the edges of landfill trenches. The surface impedence yields an apparent terrain conductivity, which can be used to locate low‐resistivity anomalies often associated with contaminated ground water. The phase angle gives information on vertical variations in resistivity, phase angles less than 45° indicating increasing resistivity with depth. The depth of penetration of the VLF field is about one skin depth. For a frequency of 20 kHz, the skin depth in meters is approximately equal to 3.67 where p is terrain resistivity in ohmmeters.
A Computer Data Base for Overview of Ground Water Pollution Investigations
Authors: Hoffman Jeffrey L.
Published: February 2007

A vast amount of managerial information is needed to efficiently conduct and monitor concurrent investigations of ground water pollution sites. The New Jersey Geological Survey has developed a computer data base to summarize these data and provide a template for their systematic collection. A series of computer programs access the data base and produce a variety of reports. These reports greatly simplify the review of ground water pollution case loads, geographical distribution and allocation of resources. The accuracy and usefulness of the reports are directly related to the timeliness of the information in the data base. Descriptions of the input data and the output reports show the utility of this method for information storage and retrieval. These programs could easily be adapted to other situations requiring similar types of data. Copies of the programs are available from the author.
Multiple Completion Monitor Wells
Authors: Nakamoto Dennis B. , McLaren Frederick R. , Phillips Peter J.
Published: February 2007

This paper discusses the multiple completion monitor well design concept in terms of drilling methods, construction methods, cost considerations, and potentially adverse effects caused by interactions between construction materials and ground water. The report is based on McLaren Environmental Engineering's experiences in constructing monitor wells containing up to seven piezometers within a single 10‐inch diameter borehole.

The air rotary casing hammer method is used to penetrate unconsolidated sediments and the remainder of the hole is drilled by the direct mud rotary method. Intervals for piezometer completions are based upon lithologic descriptions and downhole electrical logging.

Piezometers are 2½‐inch and 1‐inch blank pipe with 2½‐inch mill slotted and 1½‐ihch wire wound perforated pipe. Each perforated pipe interval is within a gravel envelope. Cement grout (4½ gallons water to 94 pounds cement) is used to seal the annular space between perforated intervals.

Contracting costs for multiple completion monitor wells are less than for an equal set of single completion monitor wells. For example, a six completion monitor well, 300 feet deep, costs $15,300. Six single completion monitor wells with the same perforated intervals cost $46,800. The cost differences are mainly for drilling extra footage and installing more grout.

McLaren Environmental Engineering uses multiple completion monitor wells to investigate ground water conditions in stratified alluvium. We have demonstrated the effectiveness of cement grout hydraulic seals by measuring differences in hydraulic heads
An Effective and Inexpensive Gas‐Drive Ground Water Sampler
Authors: Norman William R.
Published: February 2007

Ground water scientists engaged in assessment of contaminant occurrence and migration are faced with a number of practical problems. These problems include, but are not limited to, escalating drilling costs, labor costs for proper sampling of monitoring wells, collection of ground water samples that are representative of aquifer conditions and accurate delineation of hydrogeologic regimes and the areal and vertical distribution of ground water contaminants.

In response to these problems, a number of ground water sampling devices have been developed. One device is a gas‐driven ground water sampler developed for multilevel installation. Use of these samplers have been shown to decrease project costs and allow easy collection of high quality samples. However, the currently available samplers are relatively expensive, some of them operate on a closed check valve system, which does not allow determination of piezometric heads in aquifers with fluctuating water tables and they are not adaptable to design changes in the field necessitated by site‐specific hydrogeologic conditions.

GHR Engineering Associates Inc. has designed an effective gas‐driven sampler, which accomplishes the same objectives as the commercially available models, but is on the average, one‐tenth the cost of currently available samplers. It offers the advantages of being more cost‐effective than commercially available models, has an open check valve system to allow measurements of water table fluctuation and is easily adaptable in the field to meet site‐specific hydrogeologic conditions.
Sampling for Toxic Contaminants in Ground Water
Authors: Bryden Gregg W. , Mabey William R. , Robine Keith M.
Published: February 2007

In this paper, we relate recent developments in ground water sampling techniques to the practical application of sampling for toxic contaminants in ground water. We address the choices that must be made in choosing equipment for a particular project by going through a step‐by‐step procedure for collecting a ground water sample from a typical monitoring well. Ground water sampling topics that are discussed include: choice of equipment for purging and sampling a well, monitoring for purged ground water indicators and quality assurance/quality control.
Use of a Geo Flowmeter for the Determination of Ground Water Flow Direction
Authors: Guthrie Marilyn
Published: February 2007

The Geo Flowmeter is manufactured by K.V. Associates of Falmouth, Massachusetts, and is used to determine ground water flow direction and velocity in monitoring wells or open boreholes. It operates by emitting heat pulses and measuring subsequent temperature increases carried by the ground water movement. The meter can be used in wells as small as 2 inches in diameter and only a single well is required for determination of ground water flow direction and rate.

This paper is a case history of the use of the Geo Flowmeter in a complex hydrogeologic setting consisting of a partially above grade landfill located between a navigable waterway and a large storm water impoundment basin. Mounding effects of the landfill, tidal changes in the channel, varying water levels in the impoundment basin and a complex substrate (alternating layers of sand, silt and clay) presented a challenge for ground water interpretation and analysis. The Geo Flowmeter was lowered into existing monitoring wells surrounding the landfill to determine ground water flow direction and rate. Sensitivity of the meter was sufficient to distinguish two separate flow directions in a single well screen. Later investigation involving installation of piezometers, long‐term ground water level monitoring and plotting of ground water contours verified initial findings of the meter.

This article presents numerous graphs and pictures to illustrate field use of the instrument and discusses advantages and disadvantages of its use. Actual field data collected is included to provide a basis for evaluating the accuracy of the instrument and identifying situations where it may be used.
Determining Head and Pressure Distribution in Low Transmissivity Formations and Soils
Authors: Kennedy K.G. , Hollingshead S.C. , Leech R.E.J.
Published: February 2007

There has been increased interest in low transmissivity formations as barriers to, and hosts for, different hazardous waste. Long periods of time are generally required to measure their in situ pressures or hydraulic heads. Sites need extensive instrumentation and monitoring schemes, which may be costly and may require long periods of time prior to providing well documented site‐specific data. A method has been developed that allows pressure and head distribution to be determined based on limited formation testing. This distribution can then be used to refine the final design of the borehole monitoring instrumentation.

Recent work on shallow and deep, hazardous and nuclear waste disposal studies in Canada and Europe has provided the opportunity to investigate different methods for extrapolating and estimating the distribution of pressure and equivalent hydraulic head of the pore water in tight formations. The result is an approach that is cost‐effective, technically reasonable and relatively rapid. The technical basis of the method is not new. However, its application to determining profiles of either formation pressure or hydraulic head has not been well documented. This approach has potential for use in many site investigation studies.

The method determines the profile of head or pressure between two “input” layers or formations, which have been well characterized with respect to their pressures or hydraulic heads and associated fluid characteristics. The pressure profile between the two layers is a function principally of the transmissivity of the tight formations between the input layers. Therefore, the primary objective of testing of the zones between the two input layers is designed to quantify this parameter. This testing can be relatively rapid compared to the time required to measure a representative formation pressure or water level. The technique is computerized for efficient tabulation and graphical data display. This paper presents the rationale associated with the extrapolation technique. Examples are given where the technique has been applied to both soil and rock formations with transmissivities less than 10‐8 m2/s and at depths up to 2,000m.
Interpretation of Gas Chromatographic Data in Subsurface Hydrocarbon Investigations
Authors: Senn Randolph B. , Johnson Martin S.
Published: February 2007

Capillary column gas chromatography (GC) is extremely useful in investigations of subsurface contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons. Fluid samples collected from observation wells are evaluated by GC methods to detect and analyze petroleum hydrocarbons in dissolved and liquid phases. The presence, types and concentrations of many petroleum‐derived hydrocarbons dissolved in ground water can be determined. GC analysis can also be used to determine the composition of liquid hydrocarbon products, including gasoline, distillates and heavier oils. The degree of degradation of sampled liquid hydrocarbon product can be estimated from GC information, and this information can be helpful in estimating the length of time the product has been in the subsurface. Determination of the hydrocarbon source and migration path can be made from GC analysis of fluid samples collected at two or more locations.

This paper is intended to demonstrate interpretative techniques that can be used by hydrogeologists to facilitate the detection, identification and mitigation of subsurface hydrocarbons.
A Wireline Piston Core Barrel for Sampling Cohesionless Sand and Gravel Below the Water Table
Authors: Zapico Michael M. , Vales Samuel , Cherry John A.
Published: February 2007

A coring device has been developed to obtain long and minimally disturbed samples of saturated cohesionless sand and gravel. The coring device, which includes a wireline and piston, was developed specifically for use during hollow‐stem auger drilling but it also offers possibilities for cable tool and rotary drilling. The core barrel consists of an inner liner made of inexpensive aluminum or plastic tubing, a piston for core recovery, and an exterior steel housing that protects the liner when the core barrel is driven into the aquifer. The core barrel, which is approximately 1.6m (5.6 feet) long, is advanced ahead of the lead auger by hammering at the surface on drill rods that are attached to the core barrel. After the sampler has been driven 1.5m (5 feet), the drill rods are detached and a wireline is used to hoist the core barrel, with the sample contained in the aluminum or plastic liner, to the surface. A vacuum developed by the piston during the coring operation provides good recovery of both the sediment and aquifer fluids contained in the sediment. In the field the sample tubes can be easily split along their length for on‐site inspection or they can be capped with the pore water fluids inside and transported to the laboratory. The cores are 5cm (2 inches) in diameter by 1.5m (5 feet) long. Core acquisition to depths of 35m (115 feet), with a recovery greater than 90 percent, has become routine in University of Waterloo aquifer studies. A large diameter (12.7cm [5 inch]) version has also been used successfully. Nearly continuous sample sequences from sand and gravel aquifers have been obtained for studies of sedimentology, hydraulic conductivity, hydrogeochemistry and microbiology.
Drilling and Constructing Monitoring Wells with Hollow‐Stem Augers Part 2: Monitoring Well Installation
Authors: Hackett Glen
Published: February 2007

The procedures used to construct monitoring wells with hollow‐stem augers may vary depending on the hydrogeologic conditions at the site. In cohesive materials in which the borehole stands open, the auger column may be fully retracted from the borehole prior to the construction of the monitoring well. In non‐cohesive materials in which the borehole will not stand open, the monitoring well may be constructed through the hollow axis of the auger column.

The techniques used to construct monitoring wells through the hollow axis of the auger column may vary depending on the specific site conditions and the experience of the driller. Selection of an appropriately sized diameter hollow‐stem auger for the installation of the required size of well casing is necessary to permit an adequate working space between the casing and augers, through which filter pack and annular seal materials are emplaced. Assurance that the filter pack and annular seal are properly emplaced is typically limited to careful measurements taken and recorded during construction of the monitoring well.
A Critical Examination of Approximations Implicit in Cochran's Procedure
Authors: McBean Edward A. , Kompter Michel , Rovers Frank
Published: February 2007

The approximations implicit in Cochran's approximation to the Behrens‐Fisher test are examined. This test is often used in evaluating ground water quality problems with temporal and spatial variabilities. Concern is focused on the impact of the number of samples and the magnitude of the variances at the sampling locations. Recommendations are presented for utilization of the t‐test and Cochran's approximation, because Cochran's test is an approximation formula. Indications are provided for where the results may be giving answers different from those intended.
Nitrate in the Intermediate Vadose Zone Beneath Irrigated Cropland
Authors: Spalding Roy F. , Kitchen Lisa A.
Published: February 2007

More than 1000 feet of fine‐textured, unsaturated zone core beneath nitrogen‐fertilized and irrigated farmland was collected, leached and analyzed for nitrate‐nitrogen. Fertility plots treated with 200, 300, and 400 Ibs N/acre/yr accumulated significant quantities of nitrate‐nitrogen in the vadose zone below the crop rooting zone. The average nitrate‐nitrogen concentration approximately doubled with each 100 lbs N/acre/yr increment above the 100 lbs N/ acre/ yr treatment. Nitrate loading estimates for the plots treated with 400 lbs N/ acre/ yr indicate that over 1200 lbs N/ acre was in the vadose zone beneath the crop rooting zone. In 15 years, the nitrate moved vertically at least 60 feet through these fine‐textured, unsaturated sediments. As much as 600 lbs N/acre have accumulated in the vadose zone under independent corn producers’fields.

Vadose zone sampling is effective in predicting future non‐point nitrate‐contaminated areas.
Solute Transport Simulation of Aquifer Restoration after In Situ Uranium Mining
Authors: Osiensky James L. , Peterson Kent A. , Williams Roy E.
Published: February 2007

In situ mining of uranium was conducted in two well fields at a research and development site in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming from March 1980 to July 1981. Subsequent aquifer restoration activities continued until December 1982. During the restoration phases of operation, complex pumping‐injection schemes, necessitated by the absence of adequate disposal facilities, were employed by the mining company in an attempt to satisfy the conditions imposed by the mine permit.

An analytical “Random Walk” solute transport model was used to simulate mass transport mechanisms associated with the pumping‐injection schemes used in the A‐1 well field. Because the hydrogeology at the site is relatively simple; a more sophisticated model requiring extensive calibration was not required. The model was not used as a “predictive” tool, but as an analytical supplement to existing water quality and hydrogeologic data. As such, it provided a very useful and inexpensive means by which to evaluate the adequacy of the restoration techniques employed at the site and the effectiveness of the water quality monitoring program.

Model simulations suggest that the restoration methods used by the mining company were not adequate to remove residual lixiviant and actually tended to displace contaminants to a circular region between the well field and peripheral monitoring wells. An analysis of the water quality and operational history at the site suggests that the model results may be accurate. If this is true, the postrestoration water quality data collected at the site may not be an accurate measure of the effectiveness of aquifer restoration.
Pesticides in Nebraska's Ground Water
Authors: Spalding R.F. , Burbach M.E. , Exner M.E.
Published: February 2007

More than 2263 well water samples were collected throughout Nebraska and analyzed for pesticides. Thirteen and one‐half percent contained detectable levels of atrazine, but only 22 wells exceeded the health advisory of 3.0 ppb. Although the samples came from almost every county in the state, this sampling is not based solely on a randomly selected group of wells. The highest frequency of detections occurred in irrigated corn‐growing areas with less than 50 feet to ground water. These areas were sampled at a greater frequency than the less vulnerable areas. Cyanazine, together with the additional triazines — simazine, propazine, prometone, and ametryne, also were detected in some well waters; however, their frequency of detection was well below that of atrazine. The triazine metribuzin was not detected.

Alachlor, propachlor, and metolachlor also were detected in trace levels in several wells. Five of 2072 samples analyzed for alachlor exceeded the health advisory of 0.4 ppb. Almost all of the contaminated wells were in vulnerable areas. The relatively high frequency of propachlor detections occurred in predominately irrigated corn‐growing areas, rather than in areas where propachlor is traditionally applied.

The factors that appear most directly involved in the observed distribution of pesticides in ground water are the intensity of areal usage, pesticide persistence and mobility, irrigation, soil drainage capacity, and depth to ground water.

Fifteen pesticide residues were detected during this study. If ethylene dibromide and carbon tetrachloride, which were detected in ground water adjacent to grain elevators are included, a total of 17 pesticide residues have been detected in Nebraska's ground water.
Ground Water Loading of Pesticides in the Atlantic Coastal Plain
Authors: Shirmohammadi A. , Magette W.L. , Brinsfield R.B. , Staver K.
Published: February 2007

Pollution of ground water by agricultural practices has gained considerable attention in recent years. Mathematical models have been developed to evaluate the effects of agricultural best management practices on pesticide transport to ground water. The GLEAMS model was evaluated to determine its suitability for use in predicting managerial effects on pesticide leaching from agricultural systems in the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Model predictions of pesticide concentrations in percolation from the root zone were compared to observed concentrations in ground water beneath field‐sized areas. The model underpredicted runoff from these areas. Model predictions were used to produce rankings of the magnitudes of pesticide losses that paralleled rankings of observed ground water data in some cases but not others. Differences in observed and predicted rankings were assessed to be the result of sampling schedule inefficiences. The magnitudes of predicted pesticide concentrations in leachate from the root zone were three to seven times higher than observed concentrations in shallow ground water. Results support the use of GLEAMS for comparison of managerial effects on pesticide movement to ground water if appropriate limitations are recognized.
Coproduced Ground Water Treatment and Disposal Options During Hydrocarbon Recovery Operations
Authors: Stover Enos L.
Published: February 2007

Reinjection of untreated ground water during hydrocarbon recovery operations provides for economical water handling and can accelerate the recovery of the free hydrocarbons. However, considering current regulatory trends, water containing dissolved hydrocarbon constituents would require treatment prior to reinjection into the aquifer. The disposal of coproduced ground water is dependent on several factors, including the volume of water, level of treatment required, and availability of disposal options. Disposal options include reinjection, discharge to surface water, and beneficial use. This paper presents treatment and disposal options for coproduced water during hydrocarbon recovery operations including cost comparisons for a particular case study.

Treatment technologies for oil/water separation, inorganics and heavy metals removal, and dissolved hydrocarbon removal are presented. The primary technologies discussed for dissolved hydrocarbon removal include air stripping, activated carbon adsorption, biological treatment, and combinations of these technologies. Consideration of the use of existing refinery waste water treatment facilities for ground water treatment should be encouraged where applicable. However, separate treatment facilities are usually required because the use of existing on‐site treatment facilities is usually not feasible because of the volume of water produced during large recovery projects and the effectiveness of existing treatment facilities. A specific case example is presented with costs for applying different technologies including the use of existing on‐site facilities. Treatment costs ranged between 44 cents to $2.82 per thousand gallons (11 cents to 75 cents per thousand liters) of water treated for the specific technologies examined herein.