bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fatigue Crack-Tip Mechanics in 7075-T6 Aluminum Alloy from High-Sensitivity Displacement Field Measurements
Authors: Nicoletto G
Published: March 2009

The fatigue crack-tip deformation in the 7075-T6 aluminum alloy has been studied by moiré interferometry, which is a coherent optics technique for full-field in-plane displacement measurements in the submicrometre range. For constant-amplitude-loading conditions the local strain distributions and the crack-tip plasticity have been correlated with theoretical descriptions and models. The effects of a 60% overload on crack propagation has been investigated in terms of flaw profiles and the effective stress-intensity factor. Cyclic plasticity was originally found to depend qualitatively on crack length as much as on the overload-affected growth rate. The implications on crack closure of the moiré results are also discussed.
Nonlinear Fracture of Concrete and Ceramics
Authors: Kobayashi AS , Du J-J , Hawkins NM , Bradt RC
Published: March 2009

The nonlinear fracture process zones in an impacted unnotched concrete bend specimen, a prenotched ceramic bend specimen, and an unnotched ceramic/ceramic composite bend specimen were estimated through hybrid experimental numerical analysis. Aggregate bridging in concrete, particulate bridging in ceramics, and fiber bridging in ceramic/ceramic composite are modeled by Barenblatt-type cohesive zones which are incorporated into the finite-element models of the bend specimens. Both generation and propagation analyses are used to estimate the distribution of crack closure stresses in the nonlinear fracture process zones. The finite-element models are then used to simulate fracture tests consisting of rapid crack propagation in an impacted concrete bend specimen, and stable crack growth and strain softening in a ceramic and a ceramic/ceramic composite bend specimens.
Acrylic Sealants
Authors: Young HC
Published: March 2009

The uses and advantages of acrylic polymers for solvent or water based sealant applications are reviewed. Emphasis is placed on recent advances in the development of acrylic polymers for solvent based sealants having significantly improved elastomeric properties. The cost/performance benefits obtained with these new elastomeric acrylic sealants merits considering them as replacement for the more expensive types (for example, one component polysulfide). The history of the development of acrylic latexes for aqueous caulks is presented with emphasis on improvements in polymer design. The latest development of an internally plasticized acrylic latex which eliminates the need for external plasticizers in latex caulk is reviewed.
Solvent-Base Acrylic Sealants
Authors: Mraz JS
Published: March 2009

Solvent-base acrylic sealants have the outstanding ability to achieve and maintain adhesion to construction building joint materials despite adverse on-site conditions of dust, dirt, and moisture. The acrylic sealants have excellent weathering properties.
Acrylic Emulsion Sealants
Authors: Bullman AR , Hale WF
Published: March 2009

Over the last ten years water-based caulks and sealants prepared from acrylic emulsions have shown a steady growth pattern. Performance cost versatility, ease of handling, and lack of toxicity and ecological problems have been the primary reasons for this increased usage. This paper presents some basic formulating technology and performance parameters that should serve as guidelines to potential producers and end users of water-based caulks and sealants. Excellent weathering resistance combined with good extensibility has resulted in some penetration of these products into higher performance applications.
A Sealant Applicator's Viewpoint
Authors: Grenadier G
Published: March 2009

The author pioneered the use of exotic sealants in the construction industry. The experience dates back to 1952 with the advent of curtain wall structures as we know them today.

The article is concerned with a positive approach to minimizing and hopefully eliminating some basic problems encountered in the sealant field.

There is a dominant reference to the training of applicator personnel. It is interesting to note that since this article was written, a school has been organized under the joint sponsorship of both contractors and a labor union. Considerable progress has been made and the venture is highly successful. The labor union initially was most negative and is now enthusiastically supporting it.

The role of sealant compounders and general contractors is pointed to and exposed. Their contribution to “incidents in the field” is detailed critically and constructively.
Fabrication Processing
Authors: Elliott SY
Published: March 2009

A considerable factor in the cost of a composite structure is the cost of fabrication. Because composite fabrication techniques differ substantially from metal fabrication techniques, new technology is required. This chapter summarizes progress in the areas of automated tape layup, filament winding, and molding plus secondary bonding.
A Chemical Method for the Direct Determination of Aluminum Oxide in Portland Cement
Authors: Ford CL
Published: March 2009

A direct method for the determination of aluminum oxide in portland cement is described. By using the precipitate of the ammonium hydroxide group for the determination, the method can be included as a part of the ASTM scheme of analysis of portland cement.
Interaction of Engineers and Biologists in Water Quality Management
Authors: Eckenfelder WW
Published: March 2009

This paper discusses the need for a closer interaction between the biologist and engineer in water quality management. Various interdisciplinary programs are reviewed which include the academic scene and the technical literature. The author gives an example of how the two disciplines need to work closely in order to meet the requirements to maintain and preserve the aquatic environment.
Use of Algae, Especially Diatoms, in the Assessment of Water Quality
Authors: Patrick R
Published: March 2009

Two main systems of approach used to determine if algae can reliably indicate water quality are discussed in this paper. One approach is to observe and analyze natural communities. The effect of a pollutant can be estimated by shifts in species composition and structure of the community in this type of study. The second approach studies a single or a few species in cultures in the laboratory under known and carefully regulated conditions. These studies are valuable in determining the physiological and morphological changes in function rates and polymorphism due to concentration of a given chemical or physical factor.
Continuous-Flow Bioassays with Aquatic Organisms: Procedures and Applications
Authors: Brungs WA
Published: March 2009

The current concern for protection of important water uses has greatly increased the use of aquatic bioassays. Their use in quality control of products and effluents and the development of water-quality criteria have led to a proliferation of techniques and approaches. The results of bioassays with aquatic organisms are subject to a great degree of variability depending on the quality of the dilution water, the test species, and the quality of the organisms and of the testing system. Several types of continuous-flow methodology are evaluated, and the advantages and disadvantages of each are discussed. Fail-safe devices, measured concentrations, and as much care and expertise as one would expect with measurements by various types of analytical instruments are essential to obtaining the best bioassay data.
Use of Toxicity Tests with Fish in Water Pollution Control
Authors: Stephan CE , Mount DI
Published: March 2009

The recent growth of interest in water pollution control programs has fostered the development of applied fish toxicology. One of the functions of applied fish toxicologists is to make the best possible decisions concerning the effects of pollution on fish based on existing data. A second function is to help make available the additional data most needed for the protection of important species of fish. A third function is to evaluate the usefulness of specific toxicity tests and ways of using them to fulfill needs that have been identified and to suggest improvements in existing tests or new tests that should be developed. The acute mortality test provides data that are useful in some situations, but the chronic test which studies effects of a toxic agent on survival, growth, and reproduction is probably the most useful toxicity test for estimating long-term safe concentrations. Other important adverse effects that should be studied include avoidance, flavor impairment, and the accumulation of toxic residues.
Stabilization Oxygen Demand
Authors: Stack VT
Published: March 2009

Oxygen required in biological stabilization of organic materials is a fundamental approach in assaying the presence of such biodegradable materials. Comparative results present the status of biological stabilization reactions in natural systems and biological processes. The bio-chemical oxygen demand procedure (5-day incubation) has been utilized as a limited measurement of the desired data. A stabilization oxygen demand technique for more definitive examination of biological stabilization is being developed by a Task of Committee D—19 on Water. The analytical technique is based on measurements of energy oxygen utilized in support of synthesis reactions and of the resulting synthesis of microorganisms. Completion of analysis in about 1 h is an objective.
Mobile Bioassay Laboratories
Authors: Gerhold RM
Published: March 2009

Mobile laboratories with flow-through systems utilize actual receiving waters with their unique physical, chemical, and biological characteristics which are known to influence the toxicity of environmental contaminants. Mobile bioassay laboratories have definite advantages over fixed laboratories with reference to data collection for enforcement of water-quality standards, for pest-control studies, and for pollution-engineering and research. Such laboratories may also be used to investigate the tainting of edible aquatic organisms.

A survey of mobile bioassay equipment was provided, with a listing of informational sources.

Greater use can be made of the mobile bioassay concept in research applied to pollution abatement than has been previously done. The equipment should be designed for maximum versatility consistent with the objectives of the study and with the budgetary limitations. In many instances, mobile or semi-permanent streamside or floating laboratories can be used to gain basic understanding of the environmental factors affecting the growth, development, reproduction, and behavior of aquatic organisms. This information is needed to better understand the long-term effects of pollutants on these organisms.
Problems in Determining Viscosity of Asphalts at Low Temperatures with Shell Sliding Plate Microviscometer
Authors: Busby EO , Rader LF
Published: March 2009

A shell sliding plate microviscometer with improved steel plates was used for low-temperature testing of asphalt but was found to be inadequate for the stresses imposed. There is need for low-temperature viscosity values to establish properties influential in determining resistance to thermal cracking of asphalt concrete pavements. Manufacturers should redesign a microviscometer to withstand the stresses imposed by low-temperature testing.
Problems in Sampling Ferroalloys with Emphasis on Ferrosilicon
Authors: Cline JC
Published: March 2009

This discussion is limited to the problems involved in obtaining a representative sample for chemical analysis of silicon alloys and L. C. Fe Cr alloys. The problems of segregation of elements within a product are discussed and comparative analysis as taken at the furnace, shipment preparation, and spot checks after preparation are given. The problems of taking samples by the customer and the related problem of processing them is also covered.

Results of segregation studies and the significance of the lack of homogeneity within a given heat and also within a lot or composite of several heats are discussed. Supporting data shows that a proper sample can only be taken at one phase in the production—customer usage process.
Sampling and Analysis for an Oxygen Steel Shop
Authors: Jenkins CB , Soth GC
Published: March 2009

Preliminary and final samples from the basic oxygen steel shop are analyzed for a variety of elements to control the steelmaking process and determine the chemical analysis of the final product. Faster and more accurate methods of sampling and analysis are being sought to minimize the time required to produce a heat of steel. Rapid sampling and analysis of slag and bath oxygen content are needed to improve control over the oxygen steel-making process.
Visually Perceived Attributes of the Appearance of Materials and ASTM Progress Toward Their Measurement
Authors: Hunter RS
Published: March 2009

To analyze appearance attributes optically, one first separates the chromatic attributes from the geometric ones. The chromatic, or color, attributes may be represented in a variety of forms which start with the purely physical spectrophotometric curves. By incorporating the sensory processes of the human observer, one converts spectrophotometric data to colorimetric specification by use of the CIE Standard Observer and Coordinate System. To obtain analyses which relate closely to the observer's sensory impressions, one can convert CIE specifications to one of several opponent-colors (L,a,b-type) analyses or to hue, value, and chroma of the Munsell-type analyses. These sensory-related color specification systems can be used to locate points representing colors in three-dimensional coordinate systems. Geometric attributes are those related to the geometric manners in which objects and materials distribute light and are known by terms such as gloss, turbidity, texture, and the like. Measurement methods for many of the various geometric attributes have been developed.

Total instrumental analyses of the physical correlates of appearance are so complex that measurement is not feasible and is never attempted. There do exist, however, a large number of practical, useful methods for instrumentally measuring specific attributes of the appearance of materials. Many of these have been standardized in print by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), which now has the largest published collection of appearance analyses in existence. Although ASTM has accomplished much in promoting measurements of appearance attributes, there exist important requirements for test procedures not yet prepared. The technical state of the art has recently progressed so that ASTM should now be able to meet these unsatisfied requirements.
Connotative Meaning of Visual Properties of Surfaces
Authors: Burnham CA , Grimm CT
Published: March 2009

The goals of the research efforts described in this paper were (1) to establish a rational technique for the selection of the visual properties of architectural surfaces and (2) to determine the psychophysical relationships between objective measurements of surfaces and their psychological meaning. Respondents rated samples of architectural surfaces (brick surfaces varying in size, texture, and color) and design concepts (home, prison, etc.) on a series of bipolar adjective scales selected to measure the meaning of the object on the three commonly identified dimensions of connotative meaning-the evaluative, potency, and activity dimensions (the semantic differential technique). The validity and reliability of this application of the semantic differential were assessed and found to be satisfactory.

Since each rated object receives a score on each of the three dimensions and can be localized as a point in three-dimensional semantic space, one can obtain quantitative differences between the connotative meaning of diverse objects. A rational technique for the selection of the visual properties of architectural surfaces would involve selecting surfaces whose meaning matched the meaning of the design concept.

Psychophysical relationships were obtained between the meaning of the visual properties of the surfaces on each of the dimensions of connotative meaning and physical measurements of the surfaces. Several of these relationships indicated an association between the physical and psychological aspects of the surfaces. Hence, it is probable that surfaces could be manufactured which would permit one to obtain a close match between the meaning of the surfaces and the meaning of design concepts.

The results of these preliminary studies indicate that further research on the connotative meaning of visual properties of surfaces is warranted.
Irradiation Strengthening and Fracture Embrittlement of A533-B Pressure Vessel Steel Plate and Submerged-Arc Weld
Authors: Williams JA , Hunter CW
Published: March 2009

Plate and weld material of ASTM A533 Grade B, Class 1 steel furnished by the Heavy Section Steel Technology Program was characterized for irradiation strengthening and fracture embrittlement. Plane strain fracture toughness, K Ic, in the longitudinal orientation was determined ftom specimens irradiated at 540 F (282 C) to neutron fluence levels of 2 and 8 × 1019 n/cm2 (E > 1 MeV); longitudinal tension specimens were irradiated at 510 F (265 C) at 2, 4, 6, and 8 × 1019 n/cm2 (E > 1 MeV). Yield strength was more sensitive to irradiation strengthening than the ultimate strength, and the yield strength increase (Δσys, ksi) as a function of fluence (Ф) and temperature (T, deg. F) may be described by:

Δσys = 22 [1- exp (-Φ/5 × 1018)] + Φ/1019(4.3−0.0038T)

Irradiation levels of 2 and 8 × 1019 produced shifts of 185 F (103 C) and 275 F (153 C) in the 50-ksi√in KIc fracture toughness transition of A533 plate; the measured shifts agree closely with those predicted, 153 F (85 C) and 282 F (157 C), from a proposed correlation of shift in transition and change in yield strength. Fracture toughness KIc and tensile properties of plate material were independent of the orientation. The fracture toughness of ASTM A533-B submerged-arc weldment metal irradiated at 540 F (282 C) to a fluence of 3 × 1019 n/cm2 (E > 1 MeV) exhibited a marked sensitivity for irradiation embrittlement; the indicated shift of the 50-ksi√in KIc fracture toughness transition level was approximately 390 F. The yield and ultimate tensile strengths of ASTM A533-B sub-arc weld were determined for 510 F (265 C) irradiations to fluences of 0.5 × 1019 n/cm2 and 4.0 to 4.6 × 1019 n/cm2 (E > 1 MeV). Irradiation strengthening of weld yield properties is slightly greater than the longitudinal base properties.
Effect of Composition on the Sensitivity of Structural Steel to Irradiation Embrittlement
Authors: Powers AE
Published: March 2009

About 75 low alloy steels that have been irradiation tested at 450 to 550 F (232 to 288 C) have been chemically analyzed for copper, aluminum, total nitrogen, and combined nitrogen. Uncombined nitrogen content has been found to have a strong modifying action on the effectiveness of copper in controlling sensitivity to irradiation embrittlement at 450 to 550 F (232 to 288 C).
Void Formation in Type 1.4988 Stabilized Stainless Steel
Authors: Ehrlich K , Packan NH
Published: March 2009

A 16Cr-13Ni columbium-stabilized stainless steel (Type 1.4988) was irradiated as fuel pin cladding in the Dounreay fast reactor (DFR) and Mol BR 2 reactors and also in the Harwell Variable Energy cyclotron (VEC) up to 4.0 × 1022 n/cm2(E > 0.1 MeV) or 3 × 1017 C2+ ions/cm2. The irradiation temperatures ranged from 300 to 650 C (572 to 1202 F). The material investigated was in an essentially solution-treated condition.

Postirradiation measurements included immersion density determinations, diametral change measurements, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations.

Void formation was observed in the temperature range 350 to 600 C (662 to 1112 F). Swelling in Type 1.4988 was found to be lower than that reported previously for Types 304 and 316 unstabilized steel, especially at higher temperatures. Void concentration values at lower temperatures were comparable to those cited for 304 and 316 steels; however, they too decreased more strongly with increasing irradiation temperature. The stabilizing elements may have affected this behavior by a partial suppression of intragranular precipitates that were frequently associated with voids.
Effects of Irradiation on the Tensile and Structural Properties of FV548 Stainless Steel
Authors: Watkin JS , Shepherd JP , Standring J
Published: March 2009

The tensile properties of the columbium-stabilized austenitic steel FV548 have been investigated after irradiation in a thermal reactor up to fluences of 4 · 1020 n/cm2 (thermal) and in a fast reactor up to fluences of 2.7 · 1022 n/cm2 (total).

The parameters that have been studied include the effects of irradiation temperature, covering the temperature range 550 to 750 C (1022 to 1382 F); the effects of solute level produced by increasing the solution heat-treatment temperature from 950 to 1300 C (1742 to 2372 F); and the effects of pre- and postirradiation aging. Testing has been carried out over the strain-rate range 5 · 10−4 to 5 · 10−6 per second and at temperatures between 550 and 750 C (1022 and 1382 F). The microstructures obtained during irradiation have also been investigated and the results correlated with the tensile properties. Suggested mechanisms for the effects observed are discussed.
Chapter 4—Quality in Concrete Testing
Authors: Dise JR
Published: March 2009

The purpose of inspection and testing of concrete and concrete-making materials is to determine whether their characteristics and qualities as used in construction comply with contract documents. Quality of testing has a direct bearing on the reliability of such determinations, and on quality control, and is therefore a key element in the construction process.
Chapter 11—Petrographic Examination
Authors: Mather K
Published: March 2009

Petrography is the scientific description of the composition and texture of rock, including the systematic classification of rocks. Petrographic examination of hardened concrete—a man-made rock—is the examination of concrete by the techniques used in petrography to determine the formation, composition, and internal structure of the concrete and to classify it as to its type, condition, and serviceability.
Chapter 25—Resistance to High Temperatures
Authors: Smith P
Published: March 2009

One of the main reasons why portland cement concrete is so widely used in building construction is that it can help satisfy a cardinal need for public safety in face of the hazards of fire better than most of its competitors. Concrete is incombustible and a reasonable insulator against the transmission of heat. These qualities alone help confine the fire and limit the extent of the damage, and though the surface may crumble or spall, the essential engineering properties of the body of the concrete remain intact. A temperature of 649°C (1200°F) may be reached before 25 percent of the original compressive strength of a calcareous aggregate concrete is lost (the corresponding temperature for a siliceous aggregate concrete is about 427°C (800°F)). However, the main role of concrete in a fire is to protect any embedded steel for as long as possible against a rise in temperature to the point where its physical properties are reduced significantly, causing excessive structural deflections that might lead ultimately to collapse. Fifty percent of the yield strength of mild steel is lost by about 593°C (1100°F) (the corresponding temperature in the case of the tensile strength of prestressing wire is about 427°C (800°F)).
Chapter 33—Petrographic Examination
Authors: Mielenz RC
Published: March 2009

Petrographic examination of concrete aggregate is visual examination and analysis in terms of both lithology and properties of the individual particles. The procedure requires use of a hand lens and petrographic and stereoscopic microscopes; less commonly, X-ray diffraction, differential thermal analysis, or electron microscopy is used to supplement the examination with optical microscopes. By petrographic examination, the relative abundance of specific types of rocks and minerals is established; the physical and chemical attributes of each, such as particle shape, surface texture, pore characteristics, hardness, and potential alkali reactivity, are described; coatings are identified and described; and the presence of contaminating substances is determined.
Chapter 45—Air-Entraining Admixtures
Authors: Klieger P
Published: March 2009

The use of intentional air entrainment in concrete is a well-established means of greatly enhancing the ability of concrete to resist the potentially destructive effect of freezing and thawing. Its use should be mandatory when concrete is to be exposed to such an environment, particularly when chemical deicers are being used, as on pavements and bridge decks.
Proposed Working Document for the Development of an ASTM Draft Standard on Standard Practice for a Laboratory Testing Scheme to Evaluate Hazard to Non-Target Aquatic Organisms
Authors:   ASTM Subcommittee E35.21 on Safety to Man and Environment
Published: March 2009

“This document is presently only in draft status within ASTM Subcommittee E35.21 on Safety to Man and Environment. Thus, when or if this draft becomes an ASTM standard it may be changed significantly after going through the full ASTM concensus due process system.”
Graphite Fiber Tensile Property Evaluation
Authors: McMahon PE
Published: March 2009

Existing techniques for the evaluation of single graphite fiber tensile properties are reviewed. Several problems associated with these techniques are identified and evaluated. Alternate procedures are demonstrated which significantly reduce the uncertainty introduced in denier measurement and operator selectivity.

In a separate approach to improved tensile property evaluation, dry bundle tension test procedures and analysis techniques are developed and demonstrated. With this approach average fiber tensile properties for the entire bundle can be generated by coupling the bundle breaking energy with the modulus determined by electrical resistivity. Moreover, analysis of the bundle stress-strain curve enables one to generate cumulative strength distribution data for the fibers involved. Both the average and cumulative data agree very well with results obtained via extensive single fil evaluation.
Considerations for Design Specifications and Testing of Low Temperature Cryogenic Equipment
Authors: Leonard RD , McCarty J
Published: March 2009

The growth of the cryogenic industry has allowed low temperature experimenters the option to purchase (commerically) low temperature cryogenic equipment for sophisticated and exacting needs. Suggestions and considerations are presented for the specifications, design, testing, and use of such equipment.
Mass Spectrometric Analysis of the Volatiles Released by Heating or Crushing Rocks
Authors: Barker C , Sommer MA
Published: March 2009

The volatiles trapped in rocks can be released either by heating or by crushing. Unfortunately crushing generates new, clean surfaces which adsorb chemically active gases and thus change both the amount and composition of the evolved gases. For quantitative analysis the volatiles were released by heating 0.1-g samples in fused silica tubes at temperatures up to 1200°C. The evolved volatiles were separated into two fractions by fractional freezing. Volatiles which were not condensed in a liquid nitrogen-cooled trap (hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, nitrogen, helium, etc.) were mixed with a known amount of argon internal standard and leaked into a calibrated E.A.I. QUAD 1110 mass spectrometer for analysis. The condensable volatiles (water, carbon dioxide, higher hydrocarbons) were subsequently evaporated and analyzed in the same way. The analog output from the mass spectrometer was fed to a digital integrator which printed the areas of the peaks on a teletype and simultaneously punched a paper tape. The tape was later transmitted over a telephone line to a time-shared computer for data processing.
Electronic Hysteresigraphs
Authors: Fredrik AH
Published: March 2009

Four instruments are described: (1) A Miller integrator using an operational amplifier with specially developed low drift circuitry and means to convert maxwell-turns to gauss by directly inserting equivalent sample area-turns in panel control. The integrating band-width is from direct current to 100 kHz. Full-scale range is essentially 1 to 106 kilomaxwell turns with 1 V output. A modification with an additional Hall probe channel is also mentioned. (2) A complete hysteresigraph with X-Y recorder and yoke permeameter for blocks of hard magnetic material. Preset calibrations are provided to check accuracy through recorder and to match special papers developed for ferrite and for alnico materials. Second quadrant plus compressed first quadrant plotting with means for correctly locating B-H curve on the recorder paper, plus comments on pole coil measuring technique are included. Another paper contains additional information on the meaning of pole coil measurements. (3) A complete hysteresigraph for soft material in toroids, solenoids, or other permeameters. This has d-c curve plotting capability with built in X-Y recorder, and output for an oscilloscope when alternating current is involved. Power supply produces up to 10 amps d-c to 10 kHz, sine, triangular and square wave with autostart for plotting initial magnetization. Computer elements enable insertion of magnetic length and turns on power winding to give oersteds directly for toroids without further calculation. Maxwell turns are similarly converted directly to gauss as in the integrator. (4) A universal magnetic testing instrument consisting of a combination of the hard and soft hysteresigraph mentioned previously without duplication of sections that can be used in common. Soft material section has power supply and instrumentation that is adaptable to many traditional types of permeameters such as Epstein, Fahy Simplex, Medium H, Burroughs, etc., when impedance is reasonable match. When H is sensed through flux change in coil in the permeameter, or with a Chattock potentiometer, an additional integrator is needed otherwise no additional equipment is needed except for oscilloscope when it is desired to display a-c loops.
Introduction
Authors: Cocks FH
Published: March 2009

This manual is a working source book of procedures, equipment, and standards currently being used to solve industrial testing and control problems. It is intended as a guide to those in university and government, as well as in industrial laboratories, who are faced with combatting corrosion problems or developing more corrosion resistant materials. The aim throughout is to combine a brief discussion of fundamental principles with clear descriptions of concomitant techniques and methods as well as the types of problems to which these have been and are being applied.
Introduction to Corrosion
Authors: Cocks FH
Published: March 2009

Webster [1] defines corrosion as “the action or process of corrosive chemical change ⃨ a gradual wearing away or alteration by a chemical or electrochemical essentially oxidizing process as in the atmospheric rusting of iron.” This definition does not restrict corrosion to any one class of materials, nor to any one environment. It does, however, imply a degradation in properties through the reaction of a material with its surroundings. This environment may be liquid, gaseous, or even solid as in the case of the reaction of filaments of SiC with an aluminum matrix they are intended to reinforce. Although many such new corrosion reactions are being encountered as more complex materials are applied in increasingly varied and unusual situations, the problems associated with far more mundane and widespread corrosion reactions have by no means been satisfactorily solved. The formation of oxides on iron exposed to the atmosphere at both ambient and elevated temperatures, for example, in automobile mufflers, year after year continues to extract a cost of hundreds of millions of dollars. Considerable progress has been and continues to be made, however, in reducing these corrosion losses. It is to the further control and reduction of practical and industrially important corrosion problems that this manual is directed.
Corrosion Standards and Control in the Telephone Industry
Authors: Schick G
Published: March 2009

The discussion of corrosion and corrosion protection in the telephone industry requires the division of the telephone plant into two major areas: outside plant and central office equipment. The outside plant, which includes all the cables, closures, hardware, radio towers, etc., requires relatively advanced corrosive degradation before it stops functioning properly. It is also the part of the plant which is the most exposed to the corrosive environment. Central office equipment on the other hand is always located in a building and exposed to a relatively controlled environment. However, technological advances have resulted in the development of sophisticated components, usually small in size, and this has led to closer component spacings, with separable electrical contacts having lower contact forces and voltages than previously possible. In this type of equipment even microgram quantities of corrosion products can result in premature failure.
Sunlight, and the Microbial Susceptibility of Thermoplastics
Authors: Cooney JD , Colin G , Wiles DM
Published: March 2009

The chemical effects of near ultraviolet light (equivalent to that in terrestrial sunlight) on polypropylene and on poly(ethylene terephthalate) are described in some detail with particular emphasis on identification of the important primary bond-breaking reactions. It is shown that the critical processes are a Norrish Type I, a Norrish Type II, and polymer hydroperoxide formation and photolysis in the case of both these thermoplastics. The degradative changes result in the buildup of polar groups and polymer end groups primarily on or near the surfaces of irradiated films.

Surface growing fungus tests do not indicate microbial susceptibility for films of commercial-grade polypropylene, poly(ethylene terephthalate), or several other common thermoplastics. Even after extensive photodegradation, which might be expected to enhance biodegradability, these materials do not appear to support significant surface growth.
Relationship Between Thermal Fatigue and Low-cycle Fatigue at Elevated Temperature
Authors: Taira S
Published: March 2009

This paper discusses the correlation between thermal fatigue and low-cycle fatigue at elevated temperature in terms of the change in microstructure of materials during the fatigue process. It substantiates the formula for life prediction in fatigue at elevated temperature which has been proposed by the author and co-workers with experimental proof. It is found that the characteristic feature of the low-cycle fatigue of a low-carbon steel at the test temperature above 500 C is taken as a diffusion controlled process characterized by the formation of subgrains in the change of microstructure, proved by observations with an optical microscope as well as X-ray diffraction techniques. The same feature is observed in the case of thermal fatigue where the upper bound of temperature in temperature cycling is close to or above 500 C. The temperature level of low-cycle fatigue giving the same fatigue life as a thermal fatigue testing, that is, the equivalent temperature of thermal fatigue is close to the upper bound of temperature of thermal fatigue. In contrast, for the test of thermal fatigue or low-cycle fatigue where such a high temperature is not included in either the range or the level of test temperature, the fatigue damage is taken as controlled by the slip mechanism. The equivalent test temperature is close to the mean of the upper and the lower bound of thermal fatigue.
Extent to Which Material Properties Control Fatigue Failure at Elevated Temperatures
Authors: Wareing J , Tomkins B , Sumner G
Published: March 2009

Fatigue failure at room temperature in most structural metals and alloys occurs by the rapid initiation and subsequent controlled propagation of a surface crack. Propagation is transgranular and is controlled to a large extent by continuum plasticity effects ahead of the crack. With increasing temperature, other factors affect this simple fatigue process; namely, the weakening of grain boundaries leading to intergranular propagation, the initiation and growth of other cracks in the bulk of the material by creep processes, and the more rapid oxidation effects which can occur at elevated temperatures. This paper shows the extent to which continuum material properties still control fatigue failure in elevated temperature situations, by reference to recently developed theories and the observed fatigue behavior of a stainless steel and a magnesium alloy over a range of temperatures (up to 0.73 Tm) and strain rates. The influence of secondary creep fracture is examined in the light of results of holdtime tests.
Threshold for Fatigue Crack Growth in Ferritic Steels at 300 C
Authors: Pook LP , Beveridge AA
Published: March 2009

Edge-cracked test specimens of two ferritic steels were subjected to the loading cycle σm ± σa at 300 C. The results showed that whether a crack grows or remains dormant can be predicted from the value of ΔK, the range of stress intensity factor during the fatigue cycle. The threshold value ΔKc necessary for crack growth was slightly greater than that of similar steels at room temperature and depended on the ratio σm/σa. Crack growth data at low rates of crack growth were deduced from an integrated version of the crack growth equation da/dN = B(ΔK)m, where B and m are material constants. Crack growth rates at 300 C were similar to those at room temperature. The minimum possible rate of fatigue crack growth appeared to be somewhat greater than one lattice spacing/cycle. The methods used have the advantage that no crack growth monitoring instrumentation is required.
High-Strain Fatigue Properties of Cast ½Cr-Mo-V Steels
Authors: Elder WJ , Marriott JB , Murphy MC
Published: March 2009

Reverse-bend and push-pull tests at 550 C on small specimens of ½ Cr-Mo-V cast blocks have been used to obtain data relevant to crack formation in steam turbine components. A dwell period at peak tensile strain reduced the endurance, but increases in the length of the dwell did not reduce the endurance proportionately because the peak stress relaxed rapidly.

Neither forging, aging, nor differences in the normalizing cooling rates significantly affected the endurance of the ½Cr-Mo-V steels tested, but oil quenching to produce fully bainitic structures altered the slope of the strain/endurance relationship. The data obtained from tests in air appeared to give conservative life predictions for components in service in steam.
Thermal Fatigue Characterization of Cast Cobalt and Nickel-Base Superalloys
Authors: Mowbray DF , Woodford DA , Brandt DE
Published: March 2009

Tapered disk thermal fatigue tests have been conducted on one cobalt- and one nickel-base superalloy for the purpose of characterizing crack growth behavior. It is shown that linear elastic fracture mechanics can be used to represent the crack growth rate data, and that the propagation mode prefers favorably-oriented carbides.
High-Cycle Fatigue Properties of a Dispersion Strengthened Nickel-Base Superalloy
Authors: Weber JH , Bomford MJ
Published: March 2009

IN-853 is a nickel-base alloy which combines precipitation hardening at low and intermediate temperatures (≲ 1400 F) and dispersion strengthening by Y2O3 at elevated temperatures (≳ 1400 F) with good oxidation resistance.

Rotating beam fatigue tests were conducted in air on IN-853 at room temperature, 1000, 1400, and 1750 F, and on a conventional superalloy with a composition close to that of the IN-853 matrix at room temperature, 1000 and 1400 F. Axial fatigue tests were also conducted on IN-853 at room temperature and 1400 F for minimum stress/maximum stress ratios of +0.1 and -1.0.

At testing temperatures up to 1400 F the 107 cycle fatigue strength of IN-853 was higher than that of the conventional superalloy. At 1750 F the fatigue strength of IN-853 was greater than the ultimate tensile strength measured in a standard (low strain rate) tension test at this temperature.

The modes of crack propagation and fracture have been determined using optical metallography and transmission electron microscopy. The effects of γ́ precipitate, Y2O3 dispersoid, carbides, and grain boundaries on the fatigue damage and failure are presented.
Review of Thermal Ratchetting
Authors: Burgreen D
Published: March 2009

The subject of structural ratchetting, or cyclic strain accumulation has been developed primarily during the past 20 years. The major contributions to the literature in this area are reviewed, with particular attention to thermal ratchetting.

An attempt is made to classify the various types of strain accumulations that can be experienced by structures when they are subjected to cyclic loading. Under isothermal cyclic loading, ratchetting mechanisms may be classified as: (a) isothermal coaxial cyclic strain accumulation, (b) isothermal conjugate cyclic strain accumulation, and (c) complex isothermal cyclic strain accumulation. Cumulative stress relaxation growth, sometimes considered to be a form of ratchetting, is time dependent and therefore not properly a form of structural ratchetting.

Most investigations in structural ratchetting have been concerned with simple thermal ratchetting produced by cyclic temperature applications, in the presence of a sustained load or in materials exhibiting different yield points in tension and compression. Studies are reviewed which take into account: (a) changes in material properties, (b) strain hardening, and (c) biaxial stresses. Stress relaxation is studied by some investigators, but this cannot be considered to be bonafide thermal ratchetting, as the strain accumulation is time dependent.

Overall progress in thermal ratchetting analysis is reviewed, and areas that require investigation are suggested. A failure criterion is proposed for structures undergoing cyclic strain accumulation.
A Realistic Model for the Deformation Behavior of High-Temperature Materials
Authors: Milled AK
Published: March 2009

A materials model (constitutive equation) is developed for the purpose of obtaining greater realism in high-tempera lure fatigue analysis. Creep, relaxation, strain hardening, Bauschinger effect, cyclic shakedown, rate effects, and response to more complex loadings are some of the phenomena which this model simulates. Test data from thermal-mechanical fatigue tests verify its predictions quantitatively.

The model's form is an equation for the rate of nonelastic strain as a function of current stress, current temperature, and strain history. Its use in the design of turbine blades and vanes and other high-temperature structures is discussed. A multidimensional form is presented for application to finite element programs.
Strain Rate and Holdtime Saturation in Low-Cycle Fatigue: Design-Parameter Plots
Authors: Conway JB , Berling JT , Stentz RH
Published: March 2009

A detailed study is made of the effect of strain rate and hold periods on the low-cycle fatigue behavior of AISI 304 stainless steel at 650 C (1200 F). Data are presented in terms of a logarithmic plot of Nf versus cycle time to reveal several important regimes. At very small cycle times the fatigue life is independent of strain rate. As the strain rate is decreased the fatigue life is reduced and finally a saturation effect is noted at a strain rate close to 4 × 10-4 s-1. In the region prior to saturation, strain rate and hold periods have the same effect on fatigue life as long as they are compared at the same cycle time. Hold-period effects also exhibit a saturation effect, but this occurs at a fatigue life lower than that corresponding to the strain rate saturation level. For hold periods in tension only the holdtime effect is shown to be dependent upon the strain rate employed in that portion of the cycle exclusive of the hold period. Design-parameter plots are introduced to provide an extensive presentation of fatigue data and a graphical solution for the fatigue life at a given temperature once values for strain range, strain rate, and hold period are selected.
Parametric Study to Establish Design Curves and to Evaluate Design Rules for Ratchetting
Authors: Branca TR , McLean JL
Published: March 2009

With inelastic analyses requiring a substantially greater expenditure of effort over elastic analyses, there is strong incentive to establish an elastic design criterion for ratchetting that is not excessively conservative and consequently restrictive.

To establish design curves for ratchetting, the Ansys computer program was used to develop elastic-plastic-creep solutions for several cases of a long, sodium-filled pipe. The pipe was subjected to a fluid temperature history which consists of a rapid down-transient followed by an isothermal rise to operating temperature, and a 500 h holdtime at that temperature. The parameters of the analytical solutions covered the range of interest for sodium-cooled nuclear systems. The only material considered was Type 304 stainless steel.

Design curves were developed for ratchet strain as a function of elastic primary and secondary stress intensities and temperature. The diagrams presented here are of similar format to those given by Bree.

The results of this study indicate that the existing design rules of FRA-152 Revision 3 and of the Liquid Metals Engineering Center (LMEC) supplement to the ASME Code Case 1331-5 for loading cycles with long holdtimes are very restrictive, with one exception. That exception is Rule A.2.1.2(4) of the LMEC rules. When compared to the results of the study, the rule is consistently and reasonably conservative for all loadings and temperatures studied.

In this study it was also desired to correlate the ratchetting results of the straight pipe to the analytical ratchetting results for more complex geometries. However, the correlation was not completed in time for this report.
Analysis of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Packaging Materials
Authors: Giacin JR , Gilbert SG
Published: March 2009

Polychlorinated biphenyls have been used extensively in industrial applications and are marketed in the United States under the trade name Aroclor.

The recent FDA findings, which reported the presence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in foodstuffs, have required the development of analytical procedures for monitoring PCB contamination in food packaging materials.

An analytical procedure is presented for detecting trace quantities of PCB's present in printing inks and resins which are used in the printing of food packaging materials. This procedure employs an electron capture gas chromatograph and is capable of detecting PCB's at a level below 0.3 ppm.
Packaging of Liquids with Flexible Barrier Materials
Authors: Avula XJR
Published: March 2009

In this work deformed shapes and volumes of liquid-filled packages made with flexible barrier materials that follow neo-Hookean and Mooney-Rivlin constitutive equations are determined analytically. The theory of large elastic deformations as applied to the axisymmetric membrane structures is used in the analysis. The strength and thickness of the flexible sheet and the hydrostatic pressure variation inside the package are considered in predicting the deformed shapes and volumes. Space requirements for stacking one liquid-filled flexible package over another are also calculated. The governing equations, which are nonlinear ordinary differential-integral types, are solved numerically on a digital computer. The solution suggests applications to more efficient storage and transportation of liquids in flexible containers.
Structural Performance Testing of Windows, Curtain Walls, and Doors
Authors: Trechsel HR
Published: March 2009

This paper is a commentary on the ASTM Test for Structural Performance of Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls, and Doors under the Influence of Wind Loads, Designation E 330-70. A brief historical background of the development of the test method is given, the procedure is summarized, some of its features are highlighted, and the use, application, and significance of the method are discussed.