bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Time and Place
Authors: Adamson Peter
Published: March 2021

The final two principles of Razi’s cosmology are time and place, which he considers to be an eternal framework in which the world is created. Both “absolute time” or eternity and “absolute place” or void are seen as independent of bodies or motion. This is shown to be a critique of Aristotelian’s physics inspired by Plato, by way of Galen. The chapter argues that for Razi, Aristotle’s definitions of time and place are accurate but only as concerns “relative” time and place, that is, the time and place of individual bodies. More fundamental are eternal duration and void, which are based on the concepts of time and place found in Plato’s Timaeus.
Prophecy
Authors: Adamson Peter
Published: March 2021

The most controversial aspect of Razi’s thought is his apparent critique of revealed religion, as reported by hostile opponents who depict him as an outright denier of prophecy. This chapter argues instead that Razi was concerned to attack a narrower target, namely groups within Islam that he considered to have schismatic religious views. In particular he took aim at the Ismailis, whom he accused of slavish devotion to their Imams. This, it is suggested, provoked a response which distorted and oversimplified Razi’s position. In fact Razi’s position was likely not dissimilar to that of other rationalist philosophers in the Islamic world, like his near contemporary al-Farabi, who held that one should ideally form one’s beliefs through philosophical inquiry, but that the Quran when understood correctly agrees with the deliverances of philosophy.
God and Suffering
Authors: Ekstrom Laura W.
Published: March 2021

This chapter launches a new investigation of the question of God’s existence, examining it against the reality of human suffering and bringing to the fore contentious presuppositions concerning agency and value at the core of the debate. When we survey the world, we observe an enormous amount of pain, including virtually unspeakable kinds of maltreatment and agony, many instances of which seem patently unfair, unearned, and pointless. This chapter initiates the book’s argument that, in light of these observations, it is reasonable to conclude that God does not exist. The chapter critically examines and extends the work of William Rowe, John Hick, and Alvin Plantinga, taking up apparently pointless instances of suffering and the proposed justifying goods of character-building and free will.
The Value of Free Will
Authors: Ekstrom Laura W.
Published: March 2021

This chapter closely examines the free will theodicy and free will defense as responses to arguments from evil for atheism. It sets out three types of accounts of the nature of free will in the contemporary literature on agency and argues that only one of them is suitable for the free will theodicist’s (and defender’s) use. The chapter then takes up the question of whether or not God’s giving created beings free will, as characterized by that suitable sort of account, would make sense—that is, whether or not it would be worth the price. It argues that it would not, or at least that it is not unreasonable to refrain from believing that free will is worth the costs. If free will is not worth the costs, then it is unsuitable to serve as the central good that is alleged to provide a God-justifying reason for allowing evils in the world.
Narrating the Women, Peace and Security Agenda
Authors: Shepherd Laura J.
Published: March 2021

This history of UN Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1325, and its articulation of the Women, Peace and Security (WPS) agenda that grew from its adoption, are as familiar to anyone working on the agenda as the alphabet, the rules of grammar and syntax, or the spelling of their own name. This book encounters WPS as a policy agenda that emerges in and through the stories that are told about it, focusing on the world of WPS work at the United Nations Headquarters in New York (noting, of course, that many other equally rich and important stories could be told about the agenda in other contexts). Part of how the WPS agenda is formed as (and simultaneously forming) a knowable reality is through the narration of its beginnings, its ongoing unfolding, and its plural futures. These stories account for the inception of the agenda, outline its priorities, and delimit its possibilities, through the arrangement of discourse into narrative formations that communicate and constitute the agenda’s triumphs and disasters. This is a book about the stories of the WPS agenda and the worlds they contain.
Tools to Think with
Authors: Shepherd Laura J.
Published: March 2021

People learn from stories, from the ways in which stories are told. In the context of this investigation, which explores the narration of the WPS agenda at the headquarters of the United Nations in New York, the stories that are told about the agenda—the events that are made prominent, the actors, the timelines, and the points of contestation—are constitutive of WPS as a knowable policy agenda in world politics. Moreover, the specific ways in which the WPS agenda is narrated function to hold open the meaning of the agenda, to resist—in fact, to render impossible—the closure of the agenda around a single and stable meaning, thus shaping and informing the futures of the agenda. This chapter develops the theoretical and conceptual framework that sustains such a claim.
Creating Buildings
Authors: Kingwell Mark
Published: March 2021

What are the basic issues of responsible building? This chapter addresses that question by analyzing not only the codes and conduct necessary to produce buildings of “commodity, firmness, and delight,” but also buildings that speak their site and surroundings. Ethics building is simply good design in the abstract, but appropriate and perhaps even harmonious design—or, when thought possible and necessary, design that is disharmonious to good effect.
Epilogue: Afterthoughts, or Thoughts After Walking
Authors: Kingwell Mark
Published: March 2021

This final chapter argues that walking remains the best way to experience architecture in its fully temporalized conditions, works of art and politics that must be lived with to be appreciated (or deprecated, as the case may be). Architects therefore shoulder heavy and complicated burdens of ethical responsibility. They do not tread lightly on our environments, natural and otherwise. A noble profession is made nobler by its best exemplars, and pulled down by its mediocrities. Only by appreciating all dimensions of this responsibility can we say that we are performing an “ethics of architecture.”
Why Fed Power Matters
Authors: Jacobs Lawrence R. , King Desmond
Published: March 2021

Chapter 1 introduces the unrivaled political and economic power of America’s Central Bank, the Federal Reserve System. The Federal Reserve Bank is a mutant institution of government. It has enjoyed anonymity from Americans for most of its history even though it wields unparalleled power on domestic policy that is largely free of the traditional system of checks and balances, which routinely grind down presidential and congressional proposals. The exceptionalism of Fed power stands out among the three branches of government within the United States and among democratic capitalist countries. Instead of studying the Federal Reserve as merely a state agency implementing technical monetary and interest rate policy, this book analyzes the Fed as a powerful political institution with its own interests (and market favorites), which its leaders pursue and which contribute to rising economic inequality and racial disparities. The Fed’s exceptional independent capacity and favoritism were spotlighted in its responses to the 2008–2009 Great Recession and the economic and financial turmoil created by the start of the coronavirus in 2020.
Women in the history of linguistics
Authors: Ayres-Bennett Wendy , Sanson Helena
Published: March 2021

This Introduction outlines the need for a ‘true history’ (Lerner 1976) of the role of women in the history of linguistics, which considers them on their own terms, and challenges categories and concepts devised for traditional male-dominated accounts. We start by considering what research has already been conducted in the field, before exploring some of the reasons for the relative dearth of studies. We outline some of the challenges and opportunities encountered by women who wished to study the nature of language and languages in the past. The geographical and chronological scope of this volume is then discussed. In a central section we examine some of the major recurring themes in the volume. These include attitudes towards women’s language, both positive and negative; women and language acquisition and teaching; and women as creators of new languages and scripts. We further explore women as authors, dedicatees, or intended readers of metalinguistic texts, as interpreters and translators, and as contributors to the linguistic documentation and maintenance. We consider how women supported male relatives and colleagues in their endeavours, sometimes in invisible ways, before reviewing the early stages of their entry into institutionalized contexts. The chapter concludes with a brief section on future directions for research.
British women’s roles in the standardization and study of English
Authors: Percy Carol
Published: March 2021

This chapter traces key developments in the history and historiography of English, identifying women’s most-representative opportunities to engage with the linguistics of English and describing works that have earned their authors attention in modern scholarship. Women have shaped and studied the English language since speakers of a West Germanic language invaded Britain in the fifth century CE. Yet, given the subordinate status of women’s intellectual activities, their work was often oral, unacknowledged, or published pseudonymously or under a male’s name. While identifying individual women’s contributions to the standardization and study of English, I consider women’s educational opportunities and their stereotypical social roles. Their family’s status and (typically) male relatives’ support gave some women unusual advantages. Women’s stereotypical associations with domestic conversation and elementary pedagogy gave later women space to work and write on the vernacular, though persistently in ways that were low-prestige.
Early American women’s participation in language scholarship
Authors: Thomas Margaret
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines the contributions of early American women to the study of language. For the most part, ‘American women’ designates immigrants to North America and their descendants, although there is some presence of native women. An initial historical sketch shows that women’s access to language-related intellectual life from the 1600s was more restricted, and limited in scope, compared to that of men. Although gendered expectations and constraints generally inhibited their participation in language scholarship, those same constraints sometimes positioned women to make unique contributions to the study of language. American women played roles in six domains bearing on language. They worked as lexicographers, set social standards for language, and wrote grammars. Women contributed to translation and cross-linguistic communication, and to educating deaf students. Finally, women were active in missionary linguistics, a field in which their accomplishments may have opened the way to public acceptance of women language scholars.
Women’s contributions to early American Indian linguistics
Authors: Heaton Raina , Koller Eve , Campbell Lyle
Published: March 2021

This chapter focuses on women who contributed significantly to American Indian linguistics before World War II. It highlights the lives, work, and impact of the influential scholars Mary Haas, Gladys Reichard, and Lucy Freeland, as well as the contributions of Native American women such as Ella Deloria and Flora Zuni in this period of early linguistic work on Native American languages. The personal and professional histories of these women and the challenges they faced in male-dominated academia are discussed. Despite those challenges, they contributed significantly to the discipline through their fieldwork on Native American languages, their commitment to language documentation and to their students, and the knowledge they passed on to subsequent generations. Their perseverance at a turning point in American linguistics advanced the role of women and has had a lasting effect on the climate of American scholarship.
Women and language in imperial China
Authors: Gianninoto Mariarosaria
Published: March 2021

China has an ancient and impressive tradition of philological studies, most notably in the fields connected with the needs of the imperial examination system. The authors as well as the intended readers of this outstanding production of linguistic works were essentially men. Women did not participate to the imperial examinations and were almost completely absent from the landscape of Chinese philology. Nevertheless, Chinese history shows examples of erudite women and their linguistic education should be taken into account. Several textbooks were explicitly conceived for women’s education, and were often written by women. Moreover, women played an important role in the transmission of literacy in the familial context. This chapter investigates the reasons for the almost complete absence of women in Chinese philology, and describes the main examples of women’s contribution to the history of Chinese linguistic studies.
Women and language in the early Indian tradition
Authors: Patton Laurie L.
Published: March 2021

While Indian history contains few records of women ‘linguists’ per se, there are traditions of women’s relationship to language. In the Vedic period, there is evidence of women’s use of ritual mantras. Vedic texts understand language (Vāc) as an all-encompassing goddess. The philosophical Upaniṣads also mention brahmavādiṇis, women speakers about brahman, the monistic force animating the universe. In their early technical discourse about language, the pre-Pāṇinean grammarians as well as Pāṇini and his commentators discuss women in some of their examples and explain gender as a concept. In the medieval period, Hindu tantric practices and philosophies emphasize the coincidence of opposites. Female energy (śakti) features prominently, and is identified with language itself. In the second millennium Sanskrit traditions, women provided poetic and linguistic commentaries, but many are not translated, and some are no longer extant. These traditions may have provided a basis for women linguists to flourish in contemporary India.
Benthic animals and plants and what they do to sediments
Authors: Thrush Simon F. , Hewitt Judi E. , Pilditch Conrad A. , Norkko Alf
Published: March 2021

This chapter explores the interactions of plants and animals with their immediate sedimentary environment. Plants and animals fundamentally change the physical and chemical characteristics of their sedimentary environment. The changes they effect are dependent on their size, living position, feeding mode and mobility. The types of changes are discussed as well as the resultant ability of plants and animals to actually create seafloor habitats and contribute to sediment heterogeneity at both small and large scales. Seafloor habitats are therefore best defined by a mix of physical and biology rather than physical descriptors alone. But the differences between how different animals feed and move and their ability to create structures such as tubes and burrows that influence the flows of oxygen and porewater within the sediments and across the sediment–water interface mean that there are not only a variety of vegetated seafloor habitats but a variety of non-vegetated ones.
Describing assemblages and biodiversity of sediment-living organisms
Authors: Thrush Simon F. , Hewitt Judi E. , Pilditch Conrad A. , Norkko Alf
Published: March 2021

This chapter provides insight into the biodiversity of soft sediments, and how it can be measured using a range of univariate, bivariate and multivariate techniques. It highlights that biodiversity can be described across a range of organisational scales and includes the extension of diversity to cover habitats, behavioural characteristics (biological traits) and functional traits. Scale is an important characterisation of biodiversity and the chapter discusses scale both in its effect on the measurement of biodiversity and also for how it links the components of α‎-, β‎- and γ‎-diversity. These linkages are crucial to help us understand the roles of heterogeneity, species turnover and the ecological connections between local species richness and regional species pools. Most species are rare and thus any description of biodiversity would not be complete without consideration of rarity and its contribution to community structure and dynamics.
Ecosystem functions and the work of soft sediments
Authors: Thrush Simon F. , Hewitt Judi E. , Pilditch Conrad A. , Norkko Alf
Published: March 2021

This chapter describes various aspects of how we can define ecosystem function and situations ecosystem function in a continuum from ecosystem processes to services. Illustrating that functions are about connections, the chapter uses examples of productivity, organic matter decomposition, ecosystem metabolism, habitat creation and foodwebs. Changes in the contributions of function to ecosystem dynamics are considered. Sedimentary ecosystems are multifunctional, requiring the development of new methods to assess this aspect of sediments and trait-based approaches are discussed. The role of ecosystem functions in underpinning ecosystem services is described to ensure that valuation and mapping exercises do not lose sight of the foundational role of ecosystem functions.
The Concept of Technopopulism
Authors: Bickerton Christopher J. , Accetti Carlo Invernizzi
Published: March 2021

This chapter offers a formal definition of the concept of technopopulism. We begin by surveying the various ways in which this concept has already been employed in the existing academic literature. Since we identify several layers of confusion in this domain, we propose to systematize it by defining technopopulism as an organizing logic of electoral competition based on the combination of populist and technocratic discursive tropes and modes of political organization. To clarify what we mean by this, we first explain what we take an organizing logic of electoral competition to be. We then offer formal definitions of the two main modes of political action that characterize the technopopulist political logic; i.e. populism and technocracy. Finally, we contrast the technopopulist political logic with what we take to be its main historical antecedent and contemporary rival; that is what we call the ideological political logic.
Taxing Profit in a Global Economy
Authors: Devereux Michael P. , Auerbach Alan J. , Keen Michael , Oosterhuis Paul , Schön Wolfgang , Vella John
Published: March 2021

This book undertakes a fundamental review of the existing international regime for taxing business profit. It steps back from the current political debates on how to combat profit shifting and how taxing rights over the profits of the digitalized economy should be allocated. Instead, it starts from first principles to ask how we should evaluate a tax on business profit—and whether there is any good rationale for such a tax in the first place. It then goes on to evaluate the existing regime and a number of alternatives that have been proposed. It argues that the existing regime is fundamentally flawed, and that there is a need for radical reform. The key conclusion from the analysis is that there would be significant gains from a reform that moved the regime towards taxing profit in the country in which a business made its sales to third parties. That conclusion informs two proposals that are put forward in detail and evaluated: the Residual Profit Allocation by Income (RPAI) and the Destination-based Cash Flow Tax (DBCFT). The book is authored by group of economists and lawyers—the Oxford International Tax Group, chaired by Michael Devereux. It draws insights from both economics and law—including economic theory, empirical evidence on the impact of taxes, and a detailed examination of practical issues of implementation—to assess the existing system and to consider fundamental reforms. This book will be useful to tax policy makers, tax professionals, academics, and anyone interested in tax policy.
Introduction
Authors: Devereux Michael P. , Auerbach Alan J. , Keen Michael , Oosterhuis Paul , Schön Wolfgang , Vella John
Published: March 2021

The key problems confronting the international tax system are introduced in this chapter—including problems of tax avoidance through shifting profit to low tax countries, distortions to international investment and trade created by the existing system, and two different forms of competition between countries. The main ideas of the book are introduced, including the approach of the book which addresses the issue of designing an international tax system on business profit from first principles. It explains the key direction of reform—moving to allocating tax rights to the country in which businesses sell their goods and services.
Basic Choices in Considering Reform
Authors: Devereux Michael P. , Auerbach Alan J. , Keen Michael , Oosterhuis Paul , Schön Wolfgang , Vella John
Published: March 2021

In this chapter we explain the broad approach taken in the two detailed proposals set out in Chapters 6 and 7, namely the RPAI and DBCFT respectively. We discuss the extent to which international coordination would be required, or desired. We then consider the costs of transition to a new system. In broad terms, we can compare incremental reforms which are based on the existing structure, with more fundamental reforms that more radically change that fundamental structure. We also discuss what should be required in terms of revenue requirements, and the likely redistribution of revenues among countries. We then discuss two issues which are common to the two options: the scope of the tax and the concept and definition of destination.
Destination-Based Cash Flow Taxation
Authors: Devereux Michael P. , Auerbach Alan J. , Keen Michael , Oosterhuis Paul , Schön Wolfgang , Vella John
Published: March 2021

This chapter sets out and evaluates our second main proposal: the Destination-based Cash Flow Tax (DBCFT). This has two basic components: (a) a ‘cash flow’ element, which gives immediate relief to all expenditure, and (b) a ‘destination-based’ element, which introduces border adjustments of the same form as under the value added tax (VAT): exports are untaxed, while imports are taxed. This is equivalent in its economic impact to introducing a broad-based, uniform rate VAT and making a corresponding reduction in taxes on wages and salaries. A central motivation for the DBCFT is to improve economic efficiency by taxing business income in a relatively immobile location; the DBCFT should not distort either the scale or the location of business investment. It also has the considerable advantage of being robust against avoidance through inter-company transactions.
Parameters of Sustainable Peace
Authors: Wählisch Martin
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines normative principles for peacemakers and peacebuilding that define the parameters for just and sustainable peace in the UN system. It argues that an ‘imperfect’ peace is better than ‘just war’. It shows that UN notions of peace have been developed through practice. It explores how just peace approaches intersect with the UN peacebuilding architecture and Sustainable Development Goal 16. The author identifies core principles which shape UN post-conflict transitions, such as national ownership, inclusivity, rule of law, effective leadership, coordination, and accountability.
Legal Protection of the Environment
Authors: Fleck Dieter
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines principles and rules on environmental protection in two critical situations: non-international armed conflicts and post-conflict peacebuilding. What kind of environmental obligations apply in bello between a government and rebels? In what sense are parties to the conflict accountable for environmental devastation? May states be liable also for injurious consequences of acts not explicitly prohibited under international law? How can their obligations be enforced? Furthermore, issues of post-conflict peacebuilding are discussed to explore whether specific principles and rules of jus post bellum are relevant for the protection of the natural environment. While certain aspects of the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts appear to be still unclear, some recommendations are developed in support of efforts currently undertaken by the International Law Commission.
Power Shift
Authors: Wall Patrick C.J.
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines the relationship between the proliferation of mediation as a tool of conflict resolution and the emergence of the jus post bellum, as observed in the law of peace (lex pacificatoria). It seeks to understand whether the presence and/or identity of a mediator is likely to influence the degree to which the resulting peace agreement complies with crucial aspects of the law of peace, such as self-determination, accountability, demobilization or reconciliation. It identifies correlation between independent mediation and observance of the law of peace and offers some tentative thoughts on the implications for jus post bellum.
Right to Land, Housing, and Property
Authors: Martínez Elisenda Calvet , Anabitarte Aitor Díaz
Published: March 2021

The enforcement of economic, social, and cultural rights is often neglected in transitions from conflict to peace. Reconstruction programmes and initiatives of justice in post-conflict situations are still based on the paradigms of state security and criminal prosecution. However, there is a trend to recognize the importance of safeguarding the right of refugees and displaced persons to restitution of land, housing and property so that they can return to their homes and places of residence in safe and dignified conditions, with the aim of promoting the rule of law and achieving a just and lasting peace. The chapter shows the need to deepen and advance the empowerment of the right to restitution as a principle of jus post bellum in order to attain a just and sustainable peace. It claims that jus post bellum should promote ‘positive peace’.
Jus Post Bellum as Definition and Practice
Authors: Grasten Maj
Published: March 2021

This chapter traces the materialization of the rule of law in post-conflict Kosovo to argue that jus post bellum involves contestation and enactment. It suggests that just peace requires negotiations over what is ‘just’ in any specific context and advocates a more general argument for a sociologically informed approach to international law. This includes due attention to the effects of indeterminacy. Drawing on field research on UNMIK and EULEX in Kosovo, the chapter takes a practice- and process-oriented approach in tracing how international policy concerns entered international legal and policy documents, institutions, and practices. It concludes that just peace, and legal form more generally, are political and never objective.
The Long Tail of World War II
Authors: Webster Timothy
Published: March 2021

The shadow of World War II still looms over East Asia. Unlike the West, issues of state accountability, corporate liability, and individual reparation roil the victims, governments, and civil society organizations. It stills form a critical, often controversial, backdrop for international relations among China, Japan, Korea, and other Asian nations. This chapter fills an important gap by focusing on jus post bellum outside of the West. The chapter examines the results, motivations, and achievements of civil litigation, namely approximately one hundred World War II reparations lawsuits filed in Japan. In so doing, it answers three related questions. Why does World War II still generate controversy in the contemporary geopolitical triangle of China, Japan, and Korea? How has litigation contributed to the reconciliation process? What are the broader prospects in the future?
Learning through Programming
Authors: Láruson Áki J. , Reed Floyd A.
Published: March 2021

A brief summary of the way the authors hope this book can be used. It explains how the book will attempt to tie each concept to a set of practical exercises and justify the idea that implementing concepts via programming can help in understanding even seemingly insurmountably complex concepts. This chapter briefly introduces population genetics as a discipline and the R statistical language, as well as describing the basic formatting and organization of the book.
Allele and Genotype Frequencies
Authors: Láruson Áki J. , Reed Floyd A.
Published: March 2021

An introduction to basic terminology in population genetics such as alleles, genotypes, and loci. This chapter introduces the basics of Hardy-Weinberg assumptions and predictions and explains how these assumptions can be used to provide insights and make basic inferences for real populations. It provides examples from real data showing how these inferences are consistent, even though the theory underlying them seems to make too many unrealistic assumptions.
Factors Limiting Face Matching at Passport Control and in Police Investigations
Authors: Fysh Matthew C.
Published: March 2021

Face matching entails a comparison between two faces that are unfamiliar to an observer, who must then decide whether these depict the same person or different people. Despite the ubiquity of face matching in practical settings, such as passport control and police investigations, laboratory research has established that this task is highly error-prone, and that many of these errors derive from visual characteristics of to-be-compared face stimuli. Such characteristics include factors such as image quality, lighting, and natural changes in personal appearance, which influence the visual correspondence between face stimuli. In this chapter, factors that are likely to limit face-matching accuracy in real-world settings are reviewed, with the aim of providing insight into how these influence the accuracy of this process and how subsequent errors may be mitigated.
Can Face Identification Ability Be Trained?
Authors: Towler Alice , Kemp Richard I. , White David
Published: March 2021

Is it possible to train face identification ability? To answer this question, we review the literature on professional training for facial image comparison practitioners, and the broader psychology literature on training for prosopagnosia patients and the general population. Our review of these literatures finds very little evidence that training can improve face recognition or face-matching accuracy. However, one group of specialist practitioners—facial examiners—throw this conclusion into question. Facial examiners consistently outperform novices and show qualitative differences in how they perform matching tasks, suggesting they have acquired their expertise via professional training. To account for these findings, we propose that there are two routes to expertise in face identification: The core face recognition system, which cannot be trained, and an alternative feature-based route, which can be trained. We encourage academics and practitioners to work together to identify effective and efficient training methods to teach facial image comparison practitioners to extract maximal identity information from facial features.
Automatic Recognition Systems and Human Computer Interaction in Face Matching
Authors: Noyes Eilidh , Hill Matthew Q.
Published: March 2021

The human face facilitates identification in security and policing scenarios. In these settings, automatic face recognition systems have increased in prevalence and accuracy in recent years. As a result, the identification task, which once fell entirely to humans, is now a process performed by man and machine. Automatic face recognition systems provide image similarity comparisons and can create candidate lists to narrow down potential targets. There is increasing interest in the accuracy of these systems, and the role that algorithms can play in the identification effort. The design, operational usage, and effectiveness of these automatic systems, as well as the interaction of human and computer recognition are the topics of this chapter.
Selfishness and Pride
Authors: Deane-Drummond Celia E.
Published: March 2021

The ‘selfishness’ paradigm is used by biologists to mark the competitive nature of basic evolutionary processes and often refers to the self-preservation of genes. This chapter explores the implication of the use of this language and begins to tease out the relationships between individual sin, selfishness, and cooperation in a community. The evolutionary puzzle of why it is that groups are able to cooperate leads to a critical engagement with attempts to explain the origin of ‘big Gods’, who are perceived as all- seeing, all-punishing divine agencies put in place to curtail self-interested ‘free riders’. A theological approach recognizes the key place of selfishness in sin, but also gives pride a primary motivating role. How is pride dealt with in hunter-gatherer communities and what kind of clues might this provide regarding early human origins?
Despair, Anxiety, and Sloth
Authors: Deane-Drummond Celia E.
Published: March 2021

Despair is a stronger form of sadness than envy because it reflects deep inner turmoil. While it is difficult to measure mental states of animals, many behavioural studies imply that at least some social animals can become despondent: but can they reach a state of despair? Søren Kierkegaard considered despair and anxiety integral to the human condition; for him, anxiety was the prelude to original sin and the state of sin was a state of despair. Ignatius of Loyola also recognized periods of desolation as well as consolation in the spiritual life, which suggests that desolation might have a place in the human journey to God. This chapter will explore how one might distinguish licit forms of desolation, which facilitate the journey toward God, from illicit forms, which lead to fear and sin. The vice of acedia has a fascinating history. In monastic communities, it was viewed as an attack of the noonday demon and in more secularized contexts it was seen as laziness. This chapter argues that struggles to interpret the presence of acedia through history are illuminating in working out the different sources of the vice of acedia and its explicit location in the human mind. Of all the cardinal vices, acedia is the one that is arguably the most explicit with respect to its damaging impact on the religious life and its distinctive appearance in the human condition.
Consciousness Meets Lewisian Interpretation Theory
Authors: Pautz Adam
Published: March 2021

In “Radical Interpretation” (1974), David Lewis asked: by what constraints, and to what extent, do the non-intentional, physical facts about Karl determine the intentional facts about him? There are two popular approaches: the reductive externalist program and the phenomenal intentionality program. I argue against both approaches. I will agree with friends of phenomenal intentionality that reductive externalists neglect the role of our internally determined conscious experiences in grounding intentionality, but I will fault them for not adequately explaining intentionality. They cannot just say “conscious experience explains it” and leave it at that. However, I will sketch an alternative multistage account incorporating ideas from both camps. In particular, by appealing to Lewisian ideas, we can explain how Karl’s conscious experiences help to ground the contents of his other mental states.
Practical Necessity and History I
Authors: James David
Published: March 2021

Rousseau’s idea of ‘moral’ freedom is shown to imply an element of contingency in history. Rousseau can be seen to identify three historical models, the first of which entails the possibility of stasis, whereas the other two presuppose and incorporate the idea of a subjection to practical necessity which explains the development of the capacity for moral freedom. Once this capacity has been sufficiently developed, history may result in significantly different, equally possible, outcomes depending on whether or not this capacity is exercised and how it is exercised. One of these outcomes is a genuine social contract. Rousseau appeals to practical necessity in order to explain how individuals would agree to enter into this contract. We here encounter a potential advantage of a mode of explanation that relies on the notion of practical necessity: it requires introducing fewer assumptions about how agents are disposed to act and what motivates them.
Moral Responsibility and Voluntariness
Authors: Simester A P
Published: March 2021

This chapter explores some of the ways in which moral responsibility for events can be negated through a lack of voluntariness. It looks at how such negations are best accommodated within the criminal law. The chapter begins by identifying two ways of thinking about voluntariness. Some writers see voluntariness as a counterpart to involuntariness, envisaging behaviour ‘done in the presence of open alternatives’. Others explain voluntary behaviour in terms of ‘volitional’ behaviour that is intentional under some description; behaviour, one might say, done willingly. The chapter goes on to consider the relationship between voluntariness and the varieties of actus reus elements, including omissions, situational liability, and possession.
Holy Garments for Glory and for Beauty (Exod 28:2)
Authors: Quick Laura
Published: March 2021

In this chapter, I explore the function of dress in its wider social context, informed by anthropological and sociological approaches to the body. I consider the role of clothing as a disguise in the stories of Pughat, from the Ugaritic epic of Aqhat, and Tamar, from the book of Genesis. These stories reveal the gendered dimensions of clothing. At the same time, as something which can be changed at will, clothing allows these female characters to adopt and discard various personas, and in so doing to affect a change in their social status and positioning. Moving from female bodies to male bodies, I then consider the dress of the High Priest prescribed by the book of Exodus. The elaborate and ornate clothing worn by the High Priest manifests his liturgical power. But beyond this, these garments are what mark individuals as priests, granting them privileged access to the divine. We will see that clothing is central to the construction of identity—and the articulation of power.
She Painted Her Eyes and Looked Out of the Window (2 Kgs 9:30)
Authors: Quick Laura
Published: March 2021

Evidence for the production and application of perfumed oil and cosmetics is found throughout the ancient world. In contrast to the wider ancient Near East, where both men and women utilize cosmetics, in the Hebrew Bible cosmetics were associated with women in general—and with a certain type of woman in particular. Cosmetics are connected with immoral behaviour and deviant sexual practices. Yet certain biblical texts feature a female character applying perfumed oils without censure. This chapter considers these women and their application of perfumed oils in the books of Esther and Ruth from the Hebrew Bible, and the book of Judith and the story of Susanna from the Greek Bible. Turning from perfume to eye kohl, I then explore Jezebel’s application of eye pigment in the books of Kings. Examining evidence from the wider ancient world, we can uncover dimensions of how the painted eye communicated status and identity, anxiety and power, with implications for the relationship between self and other in the world of the Hebrew Bible.
Conclusion
Authors: Quick Laura
Published: March 2021

The conclusion brings together the threads of the preceding chapters in order to demonstrate the major insight of the book, namely, that for the biblical authors personhood was negotiated in relation to the body and bodily objects. These insights have far-reaching implications for how we understand ancient conceptions of the body, the person, and relationships. On the one hand, dress is essential to the articulation and construction of identity, and this is also the case in the modern world. On the other, the multi-material aspect to ancient bodies is very different from modern Western ontologies. Ancient constructions of dress and the body are thus like and at the same time quite unlike our own. These constructions animate and inform biblical literature, and so are essential to properly understand and unpack the Hebrew Bible.
“Surgery of the Soul”
Authors: Shams Fatemeh
Published: March 2021

Having explored the origins and profiles of the first two generations of the poets involved in the production of official poetry in Iran, this chapter presents the key organizations and mechanisms involved in publication and distribution of their work. The reader is given a firsthand historical account of the most influential state-owned cultural institution of the Islamic Republic, the Center for the Islamic Arts and Thoughts (Howzeh-ye Honar va Andisheh-ye Islāmi, 1980) to shed light on the process of the institutionalization of poetry following the establishment of the Islamic Republic. As the chapter demonstrates, the apparatus responsible has itself undergone change and conflict, mirroring the chequered development of the official poetry canon and the ruling ideologies.
Loss and Nostalgia
Authors: Shams Fatemeh
Published: March 2021

The war ended in a ceasefire in 1988, followed a few months later by the death of the nation’s charismatic leader, Khomeini, in 1989, plunging the beleaguered country into social, political and cultural chaos. Conformist poets reacted with conflict and division, struggling to regain consensus in the wake of multiple strands of loss. This chapter analyzes the ideological ruptures and transformations experienced by these poets, and demonstrates how, to stabilize and make sense of the present, poets turned to yet another round of co-option of a distant literary past. In this chapter, the co-option of the medieval form of elegy (marsieh) will be scrutinized to show how the official poets returned to tradition to find suitable coping mechanisms to deal with three forms of loss: the loss of a charismatic leader, the losses caused by the war and the loss of a revolutionary utopia.
Balance
Authors: Larsen Signe Rehling
Published: March 2021

This chapter is about the internal contradictions of the federation as a political form manifest in its dual telos, that is, the creation of an ‘ever closer union’ and the protection of the autonomy and diversity of its Member States. The endurance of the federation is predicated on a balance between these forces and the absence of existential conflicts between its Member States. This can be achieved if there is a relative political homogeneity among the Member States. The substance of this homogeneity is not ‘natural’ or ‘pregiven’ but rather a political and constitutional construct unique to any given federation. The political homogeneity set out by the constitutional order of the EU is a part of the post-WWII project of ‘constrained democracy’, a project that has been more dominant in some Member States than others. As the rise of authoritarianism in Poland and Hungary shows, the EU’s constitutional equilibrium is precarious.
Emergency Rule without a Sovereign
Authors: Larsen Signe Rehling
Published: March 2021

This chapter is about constitutional defence and emergency politics in the federation. It shows that the government of the Eurozone crisis is a manifestation of federal emergency politics. This explains why the dominant theories of the ‘state of exception’, modelled on the political form of the state, do not apply to the EU. The chapter first develops a theory of federal constitutional defence based on the theory and praxis of the antebellum United States (the doctrine of states’ rights) and the nineteenth-century German Confederation (the theory of federal execution and federal intervention). On this basis, the chapter then analyses both ‘Euro-crisis law’ and the contestation of the emergency government of the Eurozone crisis by EU Member States, importantly the Gauweiler and Weiss cases. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the precariousness of federal emergency politics in general and the balance struck with the ‘Greek crisis’ in particular.
Is a European “Hidden Investment State” Emerging in Spain? The Role of Instituto de Crédito Oficial
Authors: Judith Clifton , Daniel Díaz Fuentes , García Clara , Gómez Ana Lara
Published: March 2021

In the context of protracted low levels of investment following the 2008 Great Recession and, with the launch of the European Commission’s “Investment Plan for Europe,” scholars have argued a new dimension of European integration may be emerging: a “hidden investment state.” Interlocking institutions through European-level policy making, and increased and innovative loans, are interpreted as a means of setting up a multilevel infrastructure for further investment. This chapter investigates how Spain and its state-owned bank, the Instituto de Crédito Oficial (ICO), has navigated—and responded to—this changing scenario. We map evolving networks, portray ICO’s institutional trajectory, compile financial information on borrowing and loans, and categorize the financial instruments deployed, in order to assess whether ICO is becoming part of this investment state. We find that, whilst the ICO reacted vigorously to the Great Recession, since then, its activities have largely returned to pre-crisis normality. We conclude that developments around a hidden investment state in Spain are modest to date.
Conclusion
Authors: Mertens Daniel , Thiemann Matthias , Volberding Peter
Published: March 2021

This chapter summarizes the key insights of this book’s contributions and links them back to field theory and the power asymmetries in the European integration process. It proceeds to discuss the role of development banks for a renewal of industrial policy in the European Union. The chapter concludes by sketching a critical research agenda on the political economy of development banking, discussing 1) the agency of NDBs and the relationship between the NDB’s principles and the private financial sector; (2) the consequences of these for transformative and distributional politics; (3) the democratic accountability of NDB activity; and (4) the future politics of a fragmented field and the threat of disintegration.
Foreign Investor Rights and Investment Relations
Authors: Perrone Nicolás M.
Published: March 2021

Investment treaties and ISDS serve not just to resolve disputes between states and foreign investors. Through interpreting foreign investor rights, they also help structure foreign investment relations. This chapter leaves the norm entrepreneurs of the late 1950s and 1960 aside to develop an analytical framework for examining how the rights of foreign investors can contribute to defining their role in and relations with states and local communities. It examines the type of rights that make foreign investment projects, their purpose, and different ways of looking at the interface between these rights, states’ right to regulate, and local communities. A transnational and socio-legal approach to property and contracts informs the analysis. The remainder of the chapter focuses on the importance of ISDS for foreign investor rights, examining the normative and distributive implications of this dispute resolution mechanism.