bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A court judgment as dialogue
Authors: Cheng Le , Sin King Kui
Published: March 2014

Dialogue is of cardinal importance in maintaining the interpersonal relationship between judges and facilitating judgment drafting as collaborative problem solving. It is also important for the check and balance between courts and the legislature. A court judgment can therefore be taken as a dialogue between judges as well as that between courts and the legislature. Based on the analysis of some judgments in Hong Kong, the purpose of the paper is to exemplify rhetorical preferences of the dialogue and to unravel the underlying pragmatic rationale. The paper further identifies rhetorical strategies such as modality and intertextuality as creating space for dialogue.
Semantic motivation of the English auxiliary
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: March 2014

Motivation offers a viable middle ground to extreme positions that are clearly untenable. Here I consider the semantic motivation of grammar, as exemplified by the English auxiliary. Properly characterized in terms of systems of elements serving particular semantic functions, the auxiliary is seen as being efficient and highly motivated. Its apparent idiosyncrasies reflect the functions served and the meanings of the elements employed.
The socio-cultural motivation of referent honorifics in Korean and Japanese
Authors: Uehara Satoshi
Published: March 2014

The highly developed honorific systems in Korean and Japanese are functionally similar but differ with respect to non-subject referent honorifics, which indicate the speaker’s deference toward a non-subject referent participant in the event described. Korean expresses non-subject referent honorifics lexically, whereas Japanese expresses them morphologically. Moreover, the Korean pattern of non-subject referent honorifics is limited to a handful of verbs while the Japanese pattern is fairly productive. This paper compares expressions of honorifics for objectively identical situations in the two languages and argues that their different usages and productivities are motivated by socio-cultural factors.
Motivational networks
Authors: Umbreit Birgit
Published: March 2014

The notion motivational network is proposed to describe the existence of various possibilities of motivation for a given form. As shown in questionnaire studies, this phenomenon is quite common for non-linguist native speakers. But the notion of motivational network is also justified from a cognitive perspective: in the mental lexicon, words in a word family are structured as multidirectional networks, resulting in the co-activation of all family members. Thus, the coexistence of various equally salient motivational partners should not be regarded as exceptional but rather as the default case in lexical motivation.
Metonymic matrix domains and multiple formations in indirect speech acts
Authors: Chen Xianglan
Published: March 2014

The notion of matrix domain in metonymy needs further exploration in connection to its role in the unfolding of contextual elements in discourse. On the basis of different dialogues in Chinese, I examine the way shifts in indirect speech act meaning relate to changes in the metonymic source and target domains underlying such meaning. I claim that matrix domains can have different configurations within the same discourse: in some situations, one source domain can map onto more than one target domain, while in others several source domains can map onto only one target domain. I propose that speech acts sometimes change from one (sub)type to another as the speaker–hearer interaction develops, remodeling the initial configuration of the matrix domain
Cognitive poetics and the negotiation of knowledge
Authors: Freissmann Stephan
Published: March 2014

Cognitive poetics is a movement in literary theory that researches the cognitive processes involved in understanding literary texts. Mostly, this research results in models of how processes of comprehension work in the minds of human beings. This chapter investigates the relationship of text understanding with the formation of knowledge on the basis of narrative fiction. The central question addressed is which cognitive processes of text understanding are involved in and contribute to the formation of knowledge about an extra-literary field on the basis of narrative fiction. Two tutor texts that enable an especially fruitful discussion of this question in the exemplary field of knowledge of cognition are David Lodge’s novel Thinks… (2001) and Richard Powers’s novel Galatea 2.2 (1995).
Collective aesthetics and the Mere Exposure Effect
Authors: Kleeman Alexandra
Published: March 2014

Gertrude Stein’s seminal essay “Composition as Explanation” analyzes the temporal and social factors contributing to the perception of beauty in a work of art. Readers processing Stein’s text, composed of many repetitions of highly convoluted grammatical structures, find that they acquire the ability to comprehend the text through the very process of reading it. Thus, Stein’s writing is closely linked to the Mere Exposure Effect (MEE), a psychological phenomenon related to implicit learning and conditioning. These two artistic and empirical bodies of knowledge constitute an interdisciplinary perspective from which we may challenge both the assumptions of the cognitive sciences concerning the “non-aesthetic­” dimensions of experimental stimuli, and the premise that aesthetic value may be dissociated from the contingencies of production and distribution.
The mind and the text / the mind in the text
Authors: Vanderbeke Dirk
Published: March 2014

Reading is famously an exercise in gap filling, and from select and occasionally contradictory information the reader creates coherent characters and believable stories. Our mental faculties are obviously geared to produce a smooth experience and to homogenize disjunctive information and conflicting sensorial data. Over the last decade, several novels have dealt with neuroscientific topics. Novels like Richard Powers’s The Echo Maker or Ian McEwan’s Enduring Love, while explaining the relevant concepts and theories, also employ devices that play on the reader’s mind in the process of reading. The “willful suspension of disbelief” is disrupted, and the reader is made aware of the internal processes of construction involved in reading. Such meta-narrative devices may contribute to our understanding of cognition and the mental mapping of the world. Literary studies may thus enter a bi-directional exchange with the cognitive sciences.
Conceptualizations of cheshm ‘eye’ in Persian
Authors: Sharifian Farzad
Published: March 2014

Common Persian expressions containing cheshm ‘eye’ convey conceptualizations of emotions, including love, envy, and greed, as well as denote character traits such as naiveté and willfulness. This body part is also associated with a Persian cultural schema that equates ‘eye do’ or ‘eye hit’, with ‘casting a charm or spell’ on someone, believed to invite bad luck in the form of sickness or loss. Overall, Persian ‘eye’ expressions do not reflect the metaphor understanding is seeing as a dominant conceptualization in the everyday use of speakers. The findings of this study provide further support for the claim that there is close interaction among language, body, and culture. In other words, it confirms the position that figurative meanings based on the body do not draw their power from an assumption that there is but one natural way in which we interact physically with our environment.
Metaphor in language and thought
Authors: Steen Gerard J.
Published: March 2014

This chapter suggests that metaphor research can benefit from a clearer description of the field of research. Three dimensions of doing metaphor research are distinguished: metaphor can be studied as part of grammar or usage, it can be studied as part of language or thought, and it can be studied as part of sign systems or behavior. When these three dimensions are crossed, eight distinct areas of research emerge that have their own assumptions about metaphorical meaning, which have their own implications and consequences for the aims and evaluation of research. It is suggested that these distinctions will help in clarifying the validity of claims about the role of conceptual metaphor in language.
Schematic meaning of the Croatian verbal prefix iz-
Authors: Belaj Branimir
Published: March 2014

In contrast to the traditional approach where all verbs with the same prefix form a cluster of homonymic relations, this chapter proposes a single underlying schematic meaning as more or less common to all such verbs. Although these verbs differ in their more specific individual meanings, on the schematic level they form a category motivated by the single superschema. The schematic meaning of the Croatian verbal prefix iz- and its allomorphs is-, iš-, iž-, i- and iza- (jointly referred to as iz-) is best characterized as ‘transition from an intralocative to an extralocative position’. Its semantic span runs from prototypical to peripheral cases, and is defined by the conceptual status and relations among the agentive trajector, trajector and landmark.
Issues in collecting converging evidence
Authors: Steen Gerard J.
Published: March 2014

In empirical research, metaphor constitutes a showcase for the difficulties involved in handling converging evidence, which typically displays a conflation between two scientific phenomena, ‘phenomenological pluralism’ and ‘methodological pluralism’. Phenomenological pluralism is exciting but problematic, and involves the evaluation of evidence produced by different methods of data collection and analysis across distinct areas of research, pertaining to distinct phenomena of investigation. Methodological pluralism, by contrast, is widely accepted as able to produce converging evidence – it pertains to using different methods of data collection and analysis within one distinct area of research, so that evidence may be legitimately claimed to point to the same conclusion about the same phenomenon.
5. Cross-linguistic differences in expressing time and universal principles of utterance interpretation
Authors: Jaszczolt Katarzyna M.
Published: March 2014

This chapter addresses the question how linguistic diversity and universalism in the domain of representing time can be reconciled. It is demonstrated how the contextualist theory of Default Semantics (Jaszczolt 2005, 2009, 2010a) accounts for cross-linguistic differences in conveying temporal location, utilising at the same time universal pragmatic principles. This is achieved by allocating information about temporality to different but universally available sources of information about meaning and to different universal processes which interact in producing a representation of the primary, intended meaning. It offers some examples of how lexicon/grammar/pragmatics trade-offs in conveying temporality can be represented in merger representations of Default Semantics, at the same time reflecting the underlying universal principles of the composition of meaning.
9. L2 acquisition of tense-aspect morphology
Authors: Chan Ho Leung , Finberg Jessica , Costello Willie , Shirai Yasuhiro
Published: March 2014

Comparing universal against language-specific factors, this chapter examines the roles of lexical aspect, morphological regularity, and transfer in the developmental emergence of past and progressive morphology among four adult learners of English from Italian and Punjabi L1 backgrounds. The learner production data were obtained from the European Science Foundation SLA corpus (Perdue 1993). In contrast to qualitative findings by Klein (1995), quantitative results reveal that lexical aspect correlates with the distribution of tense-aspect morphology, supporting the core predictions of the Aspect Hypothesis (Andersen and Shirai 1994) that learners predominantly use past/perfective markers with telic predicates, and progressive morphology with activity verbs. A paucity of production data makes it difficult to pinpoint effects of morphological regularity and transfer.
11. ‘He walked up the pole with arms and legs’
Authors: Vidaković Ivana
Published: March 2014

The present chapter, based on Vidaković (2006), investigates the frequency with which Manner and Path of motion are expressed in speech in English and Serbian and explores language-specific and universal factors influencing L2 acquisition in this domain. It reveals that Manner information is omitted by Serbian native speakers in certain contexts in their L1, which places Serbian closer to the verb-framed end of the typological continuum. English learners of Serbian and Serbian learners of English are influenced by their L1 in terms of Manner mention, but the interplay of L1 and L2 influences is also attested. The universal tendencies in reference to Path are discussed, as well as implications for L2 acquisition, teaching and research on language and cognition.
12. Caused motion events across languages and learner types
Authors: Engemann Helen , Harr Anne-Katharina , Hickmann Maya
Published: March 2014

The present chapter shares the interest of preceding contributions in the consequences of cross-linguistic diversity for language acquisition. We explore the implications of Talmy’s motion event typology (see also Luk and Vidaković, this volume) for bilingual first and adult second language acquisition. In line with previous contributions, we address the role of typological and general cognitive factors, with a particular focus on cross-linguistic interactions (see also Chan et al. and Saddour, this volume). A bidirectional production experiment indicated that bilingual children’s motion descriptions display parallels both with monolinguals and second language learners. Unidirectional cross-linguistic interactions suggest that typological properties affect online production strategies in both acquisition situations. Finally, we discuss implications for the dynamics of event processing in bilingualism.
1. Event-based time intervals in an Amazonian culture
Authors: da Silva Sinha Vera , Sinha Chris , Sampaio Wany , Zinken Jörg
Published: March 2014

We report an ethnographic and field-experiment-based study of time intervals in Amondawa, a Tupi language and culture of Amazonia. We analyse two Amondawa time interval systems based on natural environmental events (seasons and days), as well as the Amondawa system for categorising lifespan time (“age”). Amondawa time intervals are exclusively event-based, as opposed to time-based (i.e. they are based on event-duration, rather than measured abstract time units). Amondawa has no lexicalised abstract concept of time and no practices of time reckoning, as conventionally understood in the anthropological literature. Our findings indicate that not only are time interval systems and categories linguistically and culturally specific, but that they do not depend upon a universal “concept of time”. We conclude that the abstract conceptual domain of time is not a human cognitive universal, but a cultural historical construction, semiotically mediated by symbolic and cultural-cognitive artefacts for time reckoning.
4. Back to the future
Authors: Wallington Alan M.
Published: March 2014

This chapter addresses the question posed in these volumes of the interrelationship of
time and space. It contrasts the view that the concept of space structures that of
time with the alternative that there is a close relationship between time and epistemic
modality. Focusing on metaphors, the chapter argues that casting events as physical
objects located in positions around Ego, i.e. an individual at the deictic centre,
allows the degree to which Ego can physically interact with the event-objects to be
inferred. It is argued that mental interaction can be metaphorically cast as physical
interaction and consequently the location of an event allows the degree of epistemic
detachment from the event (a modal concept) to be determined.
14. Conceptualizing the present through construal aspects
Authors: Drożdż Grzegorz
Published: March 2014

Since the grammar of every language can divide temporal reality in a different manner, this chapter aims to present a method of arriving at the understanding of one of its dimensions – the present – encoded in the structures of English. These structures consist of eleven temporal and aspectual constructions, which are analysed by means of Cognitive Grammar tools, namely construal aspects. To be able to make detailed observations concerning temporal reality, the author proposes to operationalise the construal aspects by ascribing specific values to them. With this approach it is possible to formulate precise conclusions concerning such facets of the present as its extent and its two boundaries – the past and future.
Chapter 1. An assessment of metaphor retrieval methods
Authors: Berber Sardinha Tony
Published: March 2014

This chapter offers a quantitative assessment of different techniques and tools for retrieving metaphors from large electronic corpora. These are (i) reading parts of a larger corpus in order to find candidates that are then sought for in the whole corpus; (ii) searching for metaphors using different search terms; (iii) looking for metaphor clusters; (iv) finding metaphor candidates through keywords; (v) finding metaphor candidates through the Metaphor Candidate Identifier; and (vi) finding metaphor candidates by computing semantic relatedness between neighbouring words.
Chapter 10. The limits of comprehension  in cross-cultural metaphor
Authors: Trim Richard
Published: March 2014

This chapter examines the conceptual patterns involved in the interpretation of metaphors primarily in English, French, German, and Italian from the field of drugs terminology. It suggests that the process defined here as conceptual networking constitutes a substantial aid in cross-cultural comprehension. Many features of networks are shared among languages, such as similar analogies, cultural overlap in linguistic metaphors, and universal components in both specific and more generalized metaphors. However, there are cases in which shared conceptual metaphors display considerable cross-language variation with regard to the types of linguistic metaphors linked to their networks. These cases demonstrate the limits of cross-cultural comprehension and reveal that non-contextual features are required to establish a reasonable interpretation of the metaphor in question.
Referring to colour and taste in Kilivila
Authors: Senft Gunter
Published: March 2014

This chapter first compares data collected on Kilivila colour terms in 1983 with data collected in 2008. The Kilivila lexicon has changed from a typical stage IIIb into a stage VII colour term lexicon (Berlin & Kay 1969). The chapter then compares data on the Kilivila taste vocabulary collected in 1982/83 with data collected in 2008. No substantial change was found. Finally the chapter compares the 2008 results on taste terms with a paper on the taste vocabulary of the Torres Strait Islanders published in 1904 by Charles S. Myers. Kilivila provides evidence that traditional terms used for talking about colour and terms used to refer to tastes have remained relatively stable over time. Keywords:﻿﻿language of perception; Papua New Guinea; Trobriand Islanders
Many languages, one knowledge base
Authors: Schalley Andrea C.
Published: March 2014

Linguists traditionally have published their research in book and paper publications. However, advances in technology enable new innovative electronic dissemination paths, coupled with an immediate reuse potential and flexible accessibility of both the data and their analysis. In this chapter, a new computational research tool that is currently still under development is presented: TYTO (‘Typology Tool’) is specifically tailored to typological work carried out by a group of researchers. The first application domain of TYTO is social cognition and its cross-linguistic grammaticalisation. I outline TYTO’s features, describe its backbone ontology, and in what way it is envisaged to be able to support typologists and other linguists in their work. Keywords:﻿﻿ e-research; ontology; social cognition; typology; TYTO
Nen assentives and the phenomenon of dialogic parallelisms
Authors: Evans Nicholas
Published: March 2014

A task for ontolinguistics is to delimit the set of grammatical devices sensitive to the speech-act nexus – whether speech-act role (speaker, hearer, etc.), knowledge asymmetries (ignoratives and demonstratives), speech-act goals (imperatives, questions, etc.), or social relations (e.g. honorifics). These devices are co-constructed by speaker-hearer dyads, and a convincing framework for dealing with them needs a typology of dialogic parallelisms: grammatical constructions in which there are tight formal and grammatical links between the contributions of the two parties. In the first part of this chapter I survey a number of known phenomena, including interrogative-demonstrative parallelisms, question-answer parallels, and conjunct/disjunct systems. In the second part I introduce a further, previously unreported example of dialogic parallelisms: assentives are a category used to supply assenting answers to imperatives. In the Papuan language Nen these show tight formal parallels to imperatives. I conclude by arguing for the need for greater attention to dialogic coordination in the shaping of core grammatical morphology. Keywords:﻿﻿ adjacency pairs; conversational analysis; dialogism; ignoratives; interaction
Evidentiality, modality, focus and other puzzles
Authors: Behrens Leila
Published: March 2014

Metadiscourse is a fundamental property of human communication in a way similar to speech acts. From a cross-linguistic study of metadiscourse, we can learn ‘how humans bridge the divide between self and others’ in communication. This chapter concentrates on those pragmatic aspects of metadiscourse which are associated, in some languages, with markers of evidentiality, epistemic modality, and focus (information structure). With respect to typological comparison, I advocate a domain-centered, onomasiologically-oriented approach. I argue that we have to distinguish between a subjective, speaker-related dimension of metadiscourse and an intersubjective, interactionally-oriented one in order to solve some longstanding puzzles in this domain. Data from Quechua, Tibetan, Hungarian, Albanian, and some other languages is used to support the presented claims. Keywords:﻿﻿ Albanian; epistemic modality; evidentiality; focus; Hungarian; information structure; metadiscourse; mirative; Quechua; Tibetan
Implicature of complex sentences in error models
Authors: Benz Anton
Published: March 2014

Due to their intensive discussion, implicatures of complex sentences became a kind of benchmark for testing different frameworks of Gricean pragmatics. We propose a novel approach which is based on a communication model with feedback and speaker errors in signal selection. The communication model is introduced as an extension of standard signalling games. In this model, implicatures are explained by the speaker’s tendency to omit parts of their utterances. In this explanation, the error coping strategy of the hearer plays an essential role. In order to account for implicature cancellation, clausal implicatures, and implicatures of complex sentences with disjunction, an additional nonmonotonic component is needed which represents normality assumptions about the level of speaker expertise. Keywords:﻿﻿ complex sentences; error models; game theory; preferential models; scalar implicatures
The semantics of functional spaces
Authors: Pustejovsky James
Published: March 2014

In this chapter I examine the ways in which languages encode the distinction between location and place, generally, and between objects and their uses in space, in particular. I develop a type-theoretic semantic formalism to model the notion of ‘function’, whether associated with a region or location on the one hand, or a class of objects, such as artifactual devices, on the other hand. The functional value of an object is encoded as a modal expression in the Telic role of the Qualia Structure associated with a lexical item. Finally, I illustrate how this representation helps explain the linguistic behaviour of such expressions in language. Keywords:﻿﻿ Generative Lexicon; preposition; qualia; space; type-theoretic semantics
Motion events in Turkish-German contact varieties
Authors: Goschler Juliana
Published: March 2014

It is generally assumed that the typological characteristics of a language regarding the encoding of motion events have an influence on the usage preferences of native speakers of this language. These preferences could also be reflected in a second language with different typological characteristics. This chapter deals with the question of how motion events are encoded in the L2 German by native speakers of Turkish and how they differ in their preferences from monolingual speakers of German. I show that there are subtle differences between varieties in the encoding of motion events. However, these differences can be described more appropriately in terms of specific preferred and avoided construction types and differing semantic complexity than in the satellite- vs. verb-framed distinction.
The physical basis for phonological iconicity
Authors: Masuda Keiko
Published: March 2014

This paper examines the physical basis of two types of phonological iconicity from a phonetic viewpoint and attempts to unravel the mechanism of phonological iconicity in its entirety. Many researchers consider the basis of association in indirect phonological iconicity (e.g. high-front vowels being associated with smallness) to be acoustic resonance frequency, size of oral cavity, and kinesthetic sensation. The first two bases appear closely related when examined in the light of the general principle in direct phonological iconicity (e.g. BOW-WOW). The bases both involve the front oral cavity (FOC), the resonance frequency of which is also the key factor in direct phonological iconicity (Masuda 2003; 2005). Therefore FOC may be one of the most influential bases of phonological iconicity.
The beauty of life and the variety of signs
Authors: Gahl Peter
Published: March 2014

This article offers a close reading of Guillaume Apollinaire’s ‘lyrical ideogram’ La Cravate et la montre (The Tie and the Watch, 1914): an analysis of the poem’s specific form of interaction between words and images which shows how the author probably intended it to be read, and a systematic approach to the semantic structure. ‘Time’ and ‘the human body’ are identified as the main isotopies and ‘life’ vs. ‘death’ and ‘linear’ vs. ‘circular’ conception of time as the most prominent oppositions, the latter being reflected also by the poem’s graphical structure which ‘quotes’ Marc Chagall’s Hommage à Apollinaire. A second important topic is the co-presence of different modes of signification – iconic and symbolic – which corresponds to Apollinaire’s metasemiotical reflections of that period, namely to his conception of ‘surréalisme’.
Philosophical naturalism and linguistic epistemology
Authors: Formigari Lia
Published: March 2014

The first part of the article provides a general working definition of linguistic naturalism and briefly describes the forms it took in pre-modern theories of language, pointing out those aspects that are still present in the modern-day debate (Section 1). It then shows that two different notions of the a priori are at the root of two competing forms of modern linguistic naturalism (Section 2). These are discussed in the next paragraphs, in which Chomsky’s internalist naturalism is contrasted with Quine’s externalist naturalism (Section 3), and with more recent research programs that can be subsumed under the rubric of ‘developmental’ naturalism. These focus on the formation of the a priori structures of subjectivity, and on the interaction of those structures and social practices from a phylogenetic (Section 4) and ontogenetic perspective (Section 5). A last paragraph (Section 6) draws a few conclusions.
Naturalness and markedness
Authors: Andersen Henning
Published: March 2014

The following comparison of Naturalness theory and Markedness theory contrasts naturalness scales and markedness relations and the distinct notions of value in the two theories in order to focus on recent advances in the identification of rules of naturalness syntax and markedness syntax. It is shown that whereas naturalness theory offers little basis for accounts of variation and change, key notions in markedness theory play a central role both in accounts of synchronic variation and in explanations of the initiation and actualization of change. In a concluding comparison of the two theories it is argued that Markedness theory in essential respects subsumes Naturalness theory. This explains why many linguists find the two theories kindred, and it suggests that the future will see their unification.
Natural and unnatural sound patterns: A pocket field guide
Authors: Blevins Juliette
Published: March 2014

Natural sound patterns are those grounded in physical properties of speech, while unnatural sound patterns arguably have no such physical basis. This study provides a brief history of the study of natural and unnatural sound patterns from antiquity forward. Definitions of natural and unnatural sound patterns are examined in a range of frameworks, and as applied to both synchronic and diachronic phonology. Examples of natural and unnatural sound patterns are provided, with attempts to move beyond linguistic intuitions by providing documentation from phonetic research, psycholinguistics, and laboratory phonology of the types of sound patterns grounded in physical properties of speech. A final issue discussed is the logic and empirical basis for encoding naturalness in synchronic grammars. Many common and recurrent sound patterns can be explained in terms of the way humans articulate and perceive speech, but phonetic explanation should be properly segregated from grammatical description and analysis.
The iconic function of full inversion in English
Authors: Prado-Alonso José Carlos
Published: March 2014

Over the past few years, full inversion constructions in which the subject follows the entire verb phrase in a declarative clause have been the subject of extensive research (cf. Bresnan and Kanerva 1992a and 1992b, Schachter 1992, Birner 1996, Dorgeloh 1997, Chen 2003, Kreyer 2006), the focus of each individual study varying according to the nature and goals of the specific theoretical framework adopted. This paper offers a contrastive corpus-based analysis of a particular type of full inversion, namely prepositional phrase inversion (for example, “On the table beside him sat his crown, his sword and his dagger”), in English fictional and non-fictional texts. It is argued that in fictional prose prepositional phrase inversion can be considered a marker of spatial experiential iconicity through which the process of physical perception is reflected in the syntax, whereas in non-fiction prepositional phrase inversion is used merely as a text-structuring device.
What is iconic about polysemy? A contribution to research on diagrammatic Transparency
Authors: Marzo Daniela
Published: March 2014

This paper is a contribution to research on iconicity and diagrammatic transparency in the lexicon. The focus lies on the potential contribution of polysemy to iconicity that is generally neglected by iconicity researchers. The three Peircean icon types of images, diagrams and metaphors are scrutinised with respect to their relationship to polysemy. It is shown that polysemy is diagrammatic and also closely connected to Peircean metaphor, since the icon types of metaphor and diagrams considerably overlap. Consequently, polysemy also plays a role in diagrammatic transparency and therefore must be considered as a distinct degree on scales of diagrammatic transparency. Existing scales of diagrammatic transparency should be revised. The most important problem with them is that they concentrate on the formal part of word transparency and neglect the semantic part of transparency issues. Evidence from questionnaire studies on lexical motivation suggests that diagrammatic transparency is not only a formal issue, but strongly depends on the semantic relation connecting a stimulus and its motivational base. Stimuli that are related by metaphorical similarity to a potential motivational partner are perceived more easily as motivated than stimuli that are potentially motivated by contiguity.
Arbitrary structure, cognitive grammar, and the partes orationis. A study in Polish paradigms
Authors: Glynn Dylan
Published: March 2014

This usage-based study tests the explanatory power of an iconically motivated theory of lexical class. The principle that basic level grammatical categories are motivated by our direct perceptual experience is an integral part of Cognitive Grammar (Langacker 1987, Talmy 2000). However, recent research on English, Dutch, and German (Glynn 2006, 2007) has revealed mixed results in the application of this theory, suggesting that its descriptive power may be restricted to a very abstract level of semantic structure. This investigation focuses on the above question, looking at the class-lexeme productivity of a range of relational classes, such as adverbs and adjectives, in a morphologically rich language. The lexical field is that of ‘rain’-‘snow’ for the West Slavic language Polish. This perceptually based concept should offer a best-case scenario for examining the class-lexeme compositionality with an iconically motivated grammatical category. Despite this, the results show no particular evidence for iconic motivation, throwing weight behind the position that iconic motivation in grammar is at best an abstract tendency with little semantic impact.
Chinese. Reality and representation
Authors: Zhang Hong
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction

2. Proverbs as embodiment of traditional gender ideology

3. Challenging the dominant view in proverbial lore

4. Conclusion

Notes

References
Finnish. The communication of gender in Finnish
Authors: Engelberg Mila
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction

2. Women’s position in Finland

3. Research on gender in Finnish

4. Gender in Finnish

4.1 Personal nouns: Referential and morphological aspects

4.2 Male generics

4.3 Female generics

5. The interpretation of male generics: Empirical evidence

6. The empirical investigation of covert male bias

6.1 The prototypical human being

6.2 Ihminen as ‘woman’

7. Gender in Finnish proverbs

8. Gendered terms of abuse

9. Female/male discourse

10. Language reform

11. Conclusion

Notes

References
Icelandic. Masculine generics in current Icelandic
Authors: Grönberg Anna Gunnarsdotter
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction

2. Gender in the linguistic structure of Icelandic

2.1 Grammatical gender

2.2 Grammatical gender and personal reference

2.3 Masculine generics

2.4 Occupational titles for women

3. Language and gender in Iceland

4. The use of Icelandic occupational titles: a pilot study

5. Conclusion

Notes

References
Italian. Gender and female visibility in Italian
Authors: Marcato Gianna , Thüne Eva-Maria
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction

2. Categories of gender in Italian

2.1 Grammatical gender

2.2 The structure of Italian human nouns

2.3 Derivation

2.4 Compounding

2.5 Agreement

2.6 Pronominalisation

3. The semantics of human nouns

3.1 Semantic loading

3.2 Semantic asymmetries

3.3 Masculine generics

3.4 Proper names

4. The representation of women and men in selected text types

4.1 Grammars

4.2 Teaching materials

4.3 Newspapers

4.4 Literary texts

4.5 Proverbs

5. Female and male discourse

6. Language politics

6.1 Language use and language politics

6.2 Splitting

6.3 Formation of new agentives

7. Conclusion

Notes

References
Spanish. Gender in Spanish
Authors: Nissen Uwe Kjær
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction

2. Grammatical gender in Spanish

2.1 Masculine and feminine gender

2.2 Generic words and conflicts of agreement

2.3 The psycholinguistic reality of generics

3. The asymmetrical representation of women and men in Spanish

3.1 Hombre vs. mujer

3.2 Occupational titles

3.3 Sexual terminology

3.4 Sexism in selected text types

3.4.1 School books

3.4.2 Dictionaries

4. Female and male discourse

5. Guidelines for a non-sexist use of Spanish

6. Conclusion

Notes

References
Welsh. The politics of language and gender in Wales
Authors: Awbery Gwenllian M. , Jones Kathryn E. , Morris Delyth
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction

2. Welsh versus English: Language shift and the struggle for legitimacy in the public domain

3. Selected structural properties of the Welsh language

3.1 Grammatical gender and referential gender

3.2 The pronoun system

3.3 Generic masculines

4. Bringing the language and gender debate to centre stage

5. Guidelines for non-discriminatory language use

6. The ongoing debate

Notes

References
French. Gender in French
Authors: Schafroth Elmar
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction

2.Categories of gender in French

2.1Grammatical gender

2.1.1Grammatical gender classes and agreement

2.1.2Gender assignment

2.2Lexical gender

2.3Referential gender

2.4Social gender

2.5Generic masculines

3.Gender-specification in French

3.1Word-formation

3.1.1Derivation

3.1.2Compounding

3.2Morphosyntax: Double gender

3.3Conflicts in agreement

3.3.1Textlinguistic dimension

3.3.2The principle of servitude grammaticale

4.Conclusion

Notes

References
French. Gender and language politics in France
Authors: Burr Elisabeth
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction

2.French language policy and gender-fair language

2.1The commission of 1984

2.2The circular of 1986

2.2.1The circular and the feminist debate in France

2.2.2The circular, occupational titles and sexism in discourse

2.3The so-called generic masculine

2.4The circular of 1998

2.4.1The report of the general commission of terminology and neologisms

2.4.2The guidelines of the Institut National de la Langue Française

3.Future perspectives – does it matter?

Notes

References
Japanese. Gendered structures in Japanese
Authors: Shibamoto Smith Janet S.
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction

2.Gendered structures

2.1Talking about women: Lexical bias

2.2Women talking

2.2.1Phonology

2.2.2Exclamations

2.2.3Pronouns

2.2.4Sentence particles

2.2.5The zero-rule

2.2.6Keigo (politeness forms)

3.A case study: Interpreting Ichiko

4.The feminist debate

5.Conclusion

Notes

References
Serbian. The expression of gender in Serbian
Authors: Hentschel Elke
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction

2.Gender in Serbian

2.1Grammatical and lexical gender

2.2Inflectional paradigms and agreement

2.3Coordination

2.4Pronouns

3.Word-formation

3.1Derivation

3.2Diminutives and augmentatives

4.Referring to women in Serbian

4.1Current language use in Serbia

4.2Occupational titles for women

5.Proverbs, idiomatic expressions and obscene language

5.1Gendered proverbs

5.2Idiomatic expressions

5.3Obscene language

5.4The empirical investigation of obscene language: Two pilot studies

6.Language critique and language reform

7.Conclusion

Notes

References
Swedish. Linguistic and public attitudes towards gender in Swedish
Authors: Hornscheidt Lann
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction

2.Grammatical gender and agreement

3.Personal nouns

3.1Nouns with lexical gender

3.2Gender-indefinite personal nouns

3.3Word-formation

3.3.1Compounding

3.3.2Derivation

4.Pronominalisation

4.1Grammatical agreement relations

4.2Semantic agreement relations

4.2.1Semantic agreement: Common vs. neuter gender

4.2.2Semantic agreement: Female vs. male pronouns

5.Other possibilities for gender-specific personal reference

6.Language change under the influence of the feminist movement

6.1Neutralisation

6.2Overt gender-specification

6.3Pronouns

6.4Adjectival modification

7.Public attitudes towards feminist language change in the 1990s

8.Conclusion

Notes

References
Belizean Creole. Gender, creole, and the role of women in language change
Authors: Escure Geneviève
Published: March 2014

1.Problems of definition

1.1 Gender and sex in society

1.2 Pidgins and creoles

2. Focus on Belize

2.1 Sociolinguistic background

2.2 English influence on Belizean Creole

2.3 Previous studies of gender in Belize

2.4 Gender in nominal reference and proverbs

3. Gender in Belizean conversation

3.1 Absence of referential gender-marking (generic pronouns)

3.2 Comparative distribution of pronouns in Belizean and other

Central American Creoles

4. Gender and linguistic change

4.1 Linguistic change: The copula

4.2 Linguistic change: Past tense

5. Explanations

6. Conclusion

Notes

References
Indonesian. Gender in Javanese Indonesian
Authors: Kuntjara Esther
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction: Sociolinguistic background

2. Structural properties of Bahasa Indonesia and Javanese

3. Showing respect in Javanese

4. The lexical representation of women and men in Indonesian

4.1 Generic nouns and the exclusion of women

4.2 Terms of address, reference to self others

4.2.1 Pronominal forms

4.2.2 Kinship terms

4.3 The communiaction of respect in Indonesian

4.4 Addressing women and men

4.5 Terms of endearment

5. Code-switching: The use of Javanese in Indonesian female/male discourse

6. Conclusion

Notes

References
Romanian. Deconstructing gender — The case of Romanian
Authors: Maurice Florence
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction

2. The structural properties of Romanian

2.1 Grammatical gender

2.2 Word-formation

2.2.1 Conversion

2.2.2 Derivation

2.2.3 Compounding

2.2.4 Generic nouns and neutralization of referential gender

2.3 Agreement

3. The use of human nouns

4. The lexicon, idiomatic expressions and proverbs

5. Beginning the discourse of language and gender

Notes

References
Turkish. The communication of gender in Turkish
Authors: Braun Friederike
Published: March 2014

1.Introduction

2. Gender in the Turkish language system

3. Covert gender – the semantics of terms without overt gender distinctions

3.1 Covert gender

3.2 Covert gender in context

3.3 Linguistic effects of covert gender

4. Asymmetrical gender marking

5. The male-human ambiguity

5.1 Male = human

5.2 Human > male

6. Gender in Turkish proverbs

7. Gender in terms of abuse and verbal insults

8. Feminist language critique and linguistic change in Turkish

9. Conclusion

Notes

References
The position of adverbials
Authors: Baltin Mark
Published: March 2014

This paper addresses the position of adverbials, and shows that we can solve the conflicting evidence for the structure of adverbials, some of which are outside of the VP and some very low within the VP, if we generate these elements outside of the verb phrase, with the object moving into a higher position, yielding the surface order.
Bare, generic, mass, and referential Arabic DPs
Authors: Fassi Fehri Abdelkader
Published: March 2014

This paper investigates the properties of generic, mass, quantificational, and definite reference, in relation to the overt/covert expression of determiners, and shows that Arabic bare nouns are typically indefinite, while generic and mass interpretations require the overt expression of articles. I further examine varieties of bareness, and provide motivation for a computational process of N-to-Gen movement, an Indefinite Gen Parameter, and a Bare Numeral Parameter. Finally I explore the variation in common noun derivations for proper names, and show that Arabic patterns more like Romance than Germanic in motivating N-to-D movement in proper name derivations.
In search for Phases
Authors: Johnson Kyle
Published: March 2014

In this paper, I examine Chomsky’s proposal that the phonological and semantic components interpret syntactic derivations before they are complete. According to Chomsky, syntactic representations are built up from the bottom, and at particular stages, called “phases”, the result of the derivation is interpreted semantically and phonologically. In the past, authors have determined what constitutes phases by way of reconstruction effects, which can be used to determine how a syntactic derivation has occurred. This paper argues against this method, and claims that we should use the locality condition employed for determining anaphor-antecedent relationship instead.
Prescriptive grammar
Authors: Ostler Rosemarie Whitney
Published: March 2014

Eighteenth-century prescriptive grammars were based for the most part on observable linguistic facts. Discrepancies between the prescriptive rules and actual usage usually indicate changes in progress; eventually the disputed usages either disappear or become standard. A major exception is nonstandard case marking. The same forms that grammarians condemned two hundred years ago are still in use and still marginal. I propose that case marking continues to be problematic because, as Emonds (1986) and Hudson (1995) claim, abstract case does not exist in modern English. I further argue that in opaque structural environments such as conjoined noun phrases, where the appropriate case is not immediately obvious, speakers tend to choose the more stylistically marked form. This will normally be nominative case or whom.
1. Balkan object reduplication in areal and dialectological perspective
Authors: Friedman Victor A.
Published: March 2014

When examined in its Balkan context, object reduplication tells us a number of things about language contact phenomena in general and Balkan contact phenomena in particular. It provides a striking illustration of the way a pragmatic phenomenon becomes syntactic and finally grammaticalized almost to the point of morphologization. The areal distribution of reduplication and its degree of integration into the various Balkan linguistic systems arguably reflects different diachronic stages as well as different synchronic systems. Of particular importance is the fact that the phenomenon shows varying degrees of encoding (as pragmatic or grammatical devices) on the basis of areal rather than genealogical relations. At the same time, this geographic distribution is additional evidence for the manner in which grammatical change can be triggered by pragmatic devices: object reduplication is more highly grammaticalized in the west Balkans than in the east, and the variations shown by Balkan Slavic, Balkan Romance, and Albanian point to the areality of this feature. These data also demonstrate the importance of taking dialectology and less commonly examined Balkan languages (Aromanian, Romani) into account when discussing degrees of Balkanization.
12. Romanian possessive clitics revisited
Authors: Avram Larisa , Coene Martine
Published: March 2014

This paper questions the view according to which Romanian dative/genitive possessive clitics can be placed both dp-internally and dp-externally. The clitics in the two constructions are argued to be only superficially identical. The clitic within the dp is a possessive clitic, valued genitive, which does not move out of the dp and cannot be doubled. The one placed in the clausal domain, at the left periphery of the clause, is an indirect object, base-generated inside the vp, and valued dative. Its possessive interpretation is context dependent, being semantically (or pragmatically) determined. The difference with respect to the availability of possessive clitic raising and doubling is accounted for within aDerivation by Phase framework (Chomsky 1999). The proposal is that dp-internal clitics are ‘frozen’ within the dp phase and consequently cannot move to the left periphery of the clause. Both the impossibility of their moving out of the dp to the clausal domain as well as the ambiguity of the sentences containing clausal dative clitics are accounted for in terms of the Attract Closest condition redefined in terms of phases.