bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
“Now You Are in Business for Yourself”
Authors: Manko Katina
Published: June 2021

The California Perfume Company (CPC) was the only direct sales organization to hire women exclusively as its sales representatives. The size of the force increased from about 10,000 in 1910 to more than 30,000 by 1929. A demographic profile built from an analysis of company newsletters and census data shows that the vast majority of CPC representatives worked in small rural towns of fewer than 1,000 people. Most were married and were forty years of age or older. Selling door-to-door allowed women to bridge the gap between home and work. CPC promised women an independent business opportunity, and their testimonials showed that most regarded the work as business, not labor. Their sales records, however, suggest that only a minority of women would rely on CPC as their main source of income.
The Key Role of Supervisors for Supporting Veterans in the Workplace
Authors: Hammer Leslie B. , Brockwood Krista , Haverly Sarah N.
Published: June 2021

This chapter focuses on the role of leadership in hiring and retaining military veterans in civilian organizations—both the leadership experience and abilities a veteran brings to an employer and the importance of civilian workplace supervisors. Supervisors are key in supporting and recognizing the unique knowledge, skills, and abilities that veterans bring to the workplace, enhancing not only the quality of business outcomes but also the social relationships within organizations. This chapter begins with a focus on the importance of managers and supervisors providing a culture of support for veterans by addressing how such support leads to improvements in self-efficacy, health, well-being, and job outcomes, such as increased retention of veterans in the civilian workplace. It then addresses the importance of both the leadership skills and qualities brought to the workplace by our veterans—and how organizations can recognize, utilize, and maximize the leadership skills of veterans.
Representational Kinds
Authors: Smortchkova Joulia , Murez Michael
Published: June 2021

Many debates in philosophy of mind and cognitive science focus on whether folk or scientific psychological notions pick out cognitive natural kinds. Examples include memory, emotions, and concepts. A potentially interesting type of kind is kinds of mental representations (as opposed, for example, to kinds of psychological faculties). This chapter outlines a proposal for a theory of representational kinds in cognitive science. It argues that the explanatory role of representational kinds in scientific theories, in conjunction with a mainstream approach to explanation in cognitive science, suggests that representational kinds are multilevel. This is to say that representational kinds’ properties cluster at different levels of explanation and allow for intra- and interlevel projections.
Functionalist Interrelations among Human Psychological States Inter Se, Ditto for Martians
Authors: Shea Nicholas
Published: June 2021

Functionalism is designed to allow that psychological states can be multiply realized. Mark Sprevak has argued that, for a functionalist account of psychological states to apply to creatures that are organized in a very different way from humans (call them Martians), the way a psychological state is functionally individuated has to be relatively coarse-grained (Sprevak 2009). The argument for coarse-grained individuation fails if we distinguish functionalism about what it takes to be a psychological state in general from functionalism about a particular state type such as belief. Theorists are not precluded from including functional relations to consciousness or deliberate judgment in their account of (human) belief, consistent with allowing that Martians would have their own collection of functionally interrelated psychological states. Sprevak’s coarse-grained functionalism implies an implausibly liberal form of extended cognition. The point about functional interrelations allows us to avoid that conclusion without jettisoning functionalism (as Sprevak suggests we should): records in a human notebook may not enter into the right interrelations with other human psychological states to count as beliefs; nor do they enter into any interrelations with Martian psychological states.
Holding the Violin
Authors: Reiter Walter S.
Published: June 2021

Lesson Two explores the ways in which the violin was held during the Baroque period, using both textual and iconographic evidence. It begins by demonstrating why adapting one’s hold is considered a necessary step toward reproducing the music of the Baroque period. Certain advantages of the ‘chin off’ way of playing are explained, although not insisted on, while aspects of modern technique thus rendered impossible are arguably proven to be unhistorical. A thorough investigation of the sources takes up much of the lesson, with quotations by numerous writers from Philibert Jambe de Fer (1556) to Bartolomeo Campagnoli (1797). Having presented the evidence, some of it contradictory, the lesson has detailed recommendations, acknowledging that, although the advice given constitutes a proven starting point, all students must find a way that feels right and comfortable for them.
The Bow, Creator of Sound
Authors: Reiter Walter S.
Published: June 2021

The art of playing the Baroque violin is primarily the art of the bow, for without the bow, the violin is silent. This lesson discusses the intrinsic qualities of the old bow and explains why the modern bow is ill suited to the demands of the Baroque repertoire. Quoting from a number of historical sources ( Georg Muffat, John Playford, Bartolomeo Bismantova, Michel Corrette, Roger North, Francesco Geminiani, Leopold Mozart, and L’Abbé le Fils), it provides information on the ways the bow was held and explains how holding the violin in the way advocated in the previous lesson impacts on essential aspects of bow technique and posture.
Applying the Messa di voce
Authors: Reiter Walter S.
Published: June 2021

This lesson explains how to integrate the Messa di voce into playing and how to temper it according to the demands of the music. We learn how to synchronize the gestures of the bow with our breathing (another step toward connecting the inner artist with the outer one). The lesson discusses how dissonances and consonances relate and, in the ‘Observations’ section, the different functions of the trill, the importance of being at ease in second position, the question of hemiolas, and what the sources say about chromatic fingering. Finaarchy among them, on breathing the Messa di voce and on replicating Corelli’s exercise for increasing the power of sound.
Corelli: Sonata, op. 5, no. 7
Authors: Reiter Walter S.
Published: June 2021

This lesson contains detailed observations about the remaining movements of the Corelli sonata, the Corrente, Sarabanda, and Giga, all of whose origins are discussed. The student learns how to perceive and express polyphony within a single line; the characteristics of tonalities as seen by contemporary composers are discussed, and an exercise entitled “Cheating the Metronome” shows how to practice being rhythmically flexible within a steady pulse. There are more tips on shifting, as students learn to infuse more bounce into the stroke of the Giga. The lesson also investigates a mysterious phenomenon, the “silent crescendo.” In Corelli’s day, string-crossing patterns were a cherished resource of infinite fascination; staying in the first position, rather than being a symptom of technical primitivism, enabled that resource to be exploited while assuring the maximum resonance of the violin.
Straight from the Heart: The Great Vibrato Debate
Authors: Reiter Walter S.
Published: June 2021

Vibrato, its uses and misuses, has been a topic debated for centuries, with sources from all periods agreeing that it is an ornament to heighten expression that should not be over-used, which apparently it often was! This lesson traces the history of vibrato from the sixteenth century until today, using numerous quotes referring both to the violin and to other instruments. The continuous vibrato taught today as an essential aspect of sound production developed only in the twentieth century and was criticized at the time by prominent musicians. The lesson asks for what purpose and how much it was used in the Baroque period, by what technical means it was produced, and to what extent, if at all, it altered the pitch of a note. Two exercises seek to reproduce vibrato techniques as described at the start of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and another investigates how playing chinless affects vibrato.
Why Should We Teach Ethics and Civics?
Authors: Schrier Karen
Published: June 2021

Chapter 2 reviews the reasons for learning ethics and civics. Why do these skills matter and why should they be taught—now? This chapter dives into 10 reasons why ethics and civics education should be prioritized, and why it is currently lacking. It includes evidence-based research and data-driven perspectives. These reasons include the need to navigate an increasingly interconnected, global, and diverse world; the need to close the gaps in civics knowledge and skills; the fact that ethics and civics skills prepare students for success more generally; the need to navigate disinformation, trolling, and other disruptive communication; and the need to reduce hate, harassment, and toxicity, both online and offline.
Bioprinting
Authors: Douglas Kenneth
Published: June 2021

Abstract: This book describes how bioprinting emerged from 3D printing and details the accomplishments and challenges in bioprinting tissues of cartilage, skin, bone, muscle, neuromuscular junctions, liver, heart, lung, and kidney. It explains how scientists are attempting to provide these bioprinted tissues with a blood supply and the ability to carry nerve signals so that the tissues might be used for transplantation into persons with diseased or damaged organs. The book presents all the common terms in the bioprinting field and clarifies their meaning using plain language. Readers will learn about bioink—a bioprinting material containing living cells and supportive biomaterials. In addition, readers will become at ease with concepts such as fugitive inks (sacrificial inks used to make channels for blood flow), extracellular matrices (the biological environment surrounding cells), decellularization (the process of isolating cells from their native environment), hydrogels (water-based substances that can substitute for the extracellular matrix), rheology (the flow properties of a bioink), and bioreactors (containers to provide the environment cells need to thrive and multiply). Further vocabulary that will become familiar includes diffusion (passive movement of oxygen and nutrients from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration), stem cells (cells with the potential to develop into different bodily cell types), progenitor cells (early descendants of stem cells), gene expression (the process by which proteins develop from instructions in our DNA), and growth factors (substances—often proteins—that stimulate cell growth, proliferation, and differentiation). The book contains an extensive glossary for quick reference.
Printing Paradigms
Authors: Douglas Kenneth
Published: June 2021

Abstract: This chapter introduces the invention of 3D printing in the mid-1980s and discusses how bioprinting emerged from that technology some 15 years later, the significantly more formidable requirements that bioprinting presents compared to 3D printing, and the scientists who were the trailblazers of bioprinting. Mention is made of several medical successes of 3D printing prior to the advent of bioprinting. The chapter describes three of the principal bioprinting techniques and the steps that comprise the fundamental process regardless of the specific technique employed. It provides an introduction to some of the basic lexicon of bioprinting—words such as bioinks, bioreactors, extracellular matrices, rheology, and scaffolds. The chapter acquaints the reader with new and novel developments such as the Kenzan method style of bioprinting as well as the innovation of rotational 3D printing and its possible use in bioprinting.
Bioprinted Cartilage
Authors: Douglas Kenneth
Published: June 2021

Abstract: This chapter chronicles the difficulties in bioprinting any of the three types of cartilage, with emphasis on the articular cartilage, which is so often damaged in our knees and hips. The chapter sets out the disparity between the apparent simplicity of cartilage (no blood vessels, no nerves, and composed of a single, sparse cell type) and the complexity of its zonal architecture (disparate cell structure and orientation in different regions of the same cartilage tissue). The chapter presents examples of the bioprinting of all three cartilage types: articular cartilage (belonging to the hyaline family of cartilage), elastic cartilage (such as is found in our ears), and fibrocartilage (such as the meniscus in our knees). The chapter discusses the promise of decellularized extracellular matrix (which is extracellular matrix—the cells’ immediate environment—with the cells removed) as a bioink.
Innervation
Authors: Douglas Kenneth
Published: June 2021

Abstract: This chapter informs the reader of the discovery of nerve growth factor, how it plays an important role in bioprinting by directing the growth of the axons of nerve cells along specific paths to repair peripheral nerve injuries, and of the nascent efforts in bioprinting spinal cord scaffolds that may aid in the repair of spinal cord injuries. The chapter apprises the reader of the glial family of cells that provide myelination (insulation) for nerves in the central nervous system. Glial cells are as numerous in the central nervous system (i.e., the brain and spinal cord) as neurons (nerve cells). The chapter also explains fluorescently tagged calcium ion flow within bioprinted nerve tissue. Intracellular calcium—calcium within cells—controls key cellular functions in all types of neurons. For example, nerve cells cause a release of calcium ions that initiate muscle contraction.
Skin and Bones—and Muscle Too
Authors: Douglas Kenneth
Published: June 2021

Abstract: This chapter recounts bioprinting studies of skin, bone, skeletal muscle, and neuromuscular junctions. The chapter begins with a study of bioprinted skin designed to enable the creation of skin with a uniform pigmentation. The chapter relates two very different approaches to bioprinted bone: a synthetic bone called hyperelastic bone and a strategy that prints cartilage precursors to bone and then induces the conversion of the cartilage to bone by judicious choice of bioinks. Muscles move bone, and the chapter discusses an investigation of bioprinted skeletal muscle. Finally, the chapter considers an attempt to bioprint a neuromuscular junction, a synapse—a minute gap—of about 20 billionths of a meter between a motor neuron and the cell membrane of a skeletal muscle cell. A motor neuron is a nerve in the central nervous system that sends signals to the muscles of the body.
The Liver
Authors: Douglas Kenneth
Published: June 2021

Abstract: This chapter reports on efforts to bioprint liver tissue, including the important types of liver cells and also the liver’s cytoarchitecture—the typical pattern of cellular arrangement within liver tissue. The chapter gives an account of the liver’s remarkable regenerative ability, its over 500 vital functions, its unusual blood supply, and the difficulty of growing liver cells in vitro (in the laboratory). The chapter includes a description of a hybrid printing/casting method employing human hepatocytes (liver cells) encapsulated in a hydrogel called a “liver tissue seed.” Implanted into mice with a liver injury, the seed tissue provided functional support to the failing liver and expanded in size by 50-fold over the course of 11 weeks. The chapter also mentions Organovo, the first commercial bioprinting company and a pioneer in bioprinting commercially available human tissues, notably their lead product, liver tissue.
The Kidney
Authors: Douglas Kenneth
Published: June 2021

Abstract: This chapter puts forward a series of experiments in which scientists bioprinted one of the critical components of a kidney’s nephron (the filtering unit of the kidney), namely the proximal convoluted tubule where the majority of nutrient absorption back into the bloodstream takes place (and where most drug-induced toxicities of the kidney occur). The same team of researchers bioprinted colocalized (printed very close together) proximal tubules and blood vessels and, with the use of fluorescence microscopy, were able to observe vectorial transport, the process in which valuable nutrients such as serum albumin are selectively reabsorbed into the bloodstream. They also induced a state of hyperglycemia and administered a countermeasure drug, thus demonstrating the ability of their bioprinted kidney tissue to functionally respond as native kidney tissue does to an overdose of glucose and to a drug designed to mitigate this undesirable condition.
Thinking In and About Music
Authors: Bernstein Zachary
Published: June 2021

Milton Babbitt (1916–2011) was, at once, one of the century’s foremost composers and a founder of American music theory. These two aspects of his creative life—“thinking in” and “thinking about” music, as he would put it—nourished each other. Theory and analysis inspired fresh compositional ideas, and compositional concerns focused theoretical and analytical inquiry. Accordingly, this book undertakes an excavation of the sources of his theorizing as a guide to analysis of his music. Babbitt’s idiosyncratic synthesis of ideas from Heinrich Schenker, analytic philosophy, and cognitive science—at least as much as more obviously relevant, and more frequently cited, predecessors such as Arnold Schoenberg—provide insight into his aesthetics and compositional technique. Examination of Babbitt’s newly available sketch materials sheds additional light on his procedures. But a close look at his music reveals a host of concerns unaccounted for in his theories, some of which seem to directly contradict theoretical expectations. New analytical models are needed to complement those suggested by Babbitt’s theories. Departing from the serial logic of Babbitt’s writings, his compositional procedures, and most previous work on the subject—and in an attempt to discuss Babbitt’s music as it is actually heard rather than just deciphered—the book brings to bear theories of gesture and embodiment, rhetoric, text setting, and temporality. The result is a richly multifaceted look at one of the twentieth century’s most fascinating musical minds.
Introduction
Authors: Ferguson Kate
Published: June 2021

This book addresses the persistent—and growing—challenge facing the international community of how to respond to mass atrocities in situations where the perpetrating and/or defensive military structures contain irregular elements. This chapter introduces the term ‘architectures of violence’ as a means of better understanding the structures, networks, and relationships of command, control and influence that connect states, localities, organised crime and society with the perpetration of international crimes. The perception that irregular military dynamics were propelling the Yugoslav conflagration seemingly legitimised existing prejudices—both in the region and abroad—of the Balkans and its history. The introduction explains that those tasked with predicting, preventing and responding to modern mass atrocities, from policy makers to civil society, are not learning lessons from patterns of behaviour that are too frequently repeated.
Architectures of Violence and Atrocity
Authors: Ferguson Kate
Published: June 2021

Almost all states use paramilitary groups, but even the most militarised regimes shy away from parading their covert and clandestine purveyors of violence. Therefore, despite the prevalence of armed formations that exist outside formal armies, understanding how these groups operate remains a challenge for global peacekeeping, civilian protection, and atrocity prevention efforts. As this chapter explains, the problem arises when extra-ordinary units participate, and do so apparently independently of state or other external control. The ambiguity of command can conceal the intentions that sometimes lie behind the participation and objectives of those groups, thereby obscuring responsibility and accountability. It is for these reasons that irregular combatants have, in various guises, been present during virtually every case of genocide in the twentieth century.
Constructing an Architecture of Atrocity
Authors: Ferguson Kate
Published: June 2021

The visible participation of paramilitaries in Serbia from 1991 succeeded in simultaneously downplaying the capacity (and intent) of the Serbian irregulars while exaggerating the capabilities of the Croatian or Bosniak opposition. Most importantly, it also elevated the roles played by the (largely imagined) communities. This chapter explains how revisionist history provided an analogy by which the Serbian leadership could falsely equate the Serbian and Bosnian forces, while continuing to exercise command over well-trained, well-equipped irregular units behind the scenes. Throughout the crisis, the Serbian and Bosnian Serb political leaderships offered explanations for the decentralised nature of the violence in Bosnia that exaggerated the presence of paramilitary and irregular units to provide evidence that it was a non-linear, community-based conflict, concealing the calculated political rationale of the organised violence against civilian communities.
Conclusions and Lessons
Authors: Ferguson Kate
Published: June 2021

Within perpetrating structures, elite architects are able to manipulate domestic and international prejudices by perpetuating myths of non-state violence as part of their imagined exclusionary narrative, in order not only to legitimise violence but seemingly to explain or even predict it. This dimension of atrocity architecture has emerged in part as a response to the apparent rise in proxy wars and the perceived prevalence of irregular structures of violence around the world. Atrocity crimes are political acts, increasingly framed in a context of uncontrollable civilian struggle. In the modern world, mass murder, ethnic cleansing and genocide often require a significant degree of social complicity. Perpetuating narratives of non-state violence enables state elites to encourage and sanction a spectrum of actors—civilian or otherwise—to participate in armed struggle while themselves remaining on the margins. When identity-based crimes are committed by combatants claiming to represent the perpetrating identity rather than the state, the objectives of the crimes are fulfilled as much by the symbolism of their implementation as by their violent actualisation.
The Basis of Political Equality
Authors: Christiano Thomas
Published: June 2021

This chapter vindicates democracy against recent criticism and shows how democracy can be improved and made more egalitarian. Critics argue that democracy is rule by the ignorant or by those who must appease the ignorant, basing this idea on an economic theory of information, backed by data suggesting widespread ignorance among citizens. They argue either for radically diminishing the size of the state or for rule by experts. But this pessimism is unfounded. There are good grounds for thinking that democracy can work well despite having to work in a context of low information decision-making. The critics point usefully to an underdeveloped aspect of political equality: the theory of citizen participation. To remedy this shortcoming, this chapter first argues for the instrumental and intrinsic values of democracy, relying on the expectation that citizens can act on the basis of adequate information about politics. Second, it critiques the crude model of citizen participation which is meant to undermine the expectation that citizens act on the basis of adequate information. Third, it proposes a collaborative conception of how citizens participate in a democracy and fourth, it suggests how democracy can be made more effective and egalitarian.
Reply to Parfit’s ‘Innumerate Ethics’
Authors: Ashford Elizabeth
Published: June 2021

This is the text of a presentation by Taurek that replies to Parfit’s ‘Innumerate Ethics’, which is itself a reply to Taurek’s ‘Should the Numbers Count?’
Introduction
Authors: Dougherty Tom
Published: June 2021

This chapter introduces this book’s investigation into the question of which normative principle governs the scope of consent. The scope of someone’s consent is the range of actions that they permit by giving consent. The ultimate conclusion of this book is that the scope of consent is determined by certain evidence that bears on the appropriate interpretation of the consent. To reach this conclusion, this book’s investigation involves taking a stance on what constitutes consent. By appealing to the idea that someone can justify their behaviour by appealing to another person’s consent, this book defends the view that consent consists in behaviour that expresses a consent-giver’s will for how a consent-receiver behaves. Discovering the principle for consent scope’s is important for a variety of practical applications, including sexual deception: by engaging in deception, a perpetrator can unwittingly manipulate their victim into taking part in a sexual encounter that lies outside the scope of their consent.
The Available Reliable Evidence Principle
Authors: Dougherty Tom
Published: June 2021

This chapter develops a principle that grounds the scope of consent in the appropriate interpretation of the consent. The appropriate interpretation is determined not by conventions but by certain evidence about what the consent-giver intends to authorize with their consent. To formulate a precise principle for the scope of consent, the chapter introduces the notion of ‘reliable evidence’. This is the evidence such that both the consent-giver and the consent-receiver must reasonably accept that this evidence bears on the appropriate interpretation of the consent. According to ‘Available Reliable Evidence Principle’, an action falls within the scope of someone’s consent when the reliable evidence that is actually available sufficiently supports interpreting the consent-giver’s behaviour as motivated by an intention to authorize this action. This principle is almost correct, but requires an important modification that comes in Chapter 11.
Trinitarian Grace in Martin Luther's The Bondage of the Will
Authors: Ruokanen Miikka
Published: June 2021

Professor Miikka Ruokanen reveals the powerfully Trinitarian and participatory nature of Martin Luther’s conception of divine grace in his magnum opus The Bondage of the Will, largely ignored in the previous research. The study establishes a genuinely new understanding of Luther’s major treatise opening up its ecumenical potential. Luther’s debate with Erasmus signifies not only a disagreement concerning free will, but the dispute reveals two contrasting understandings of the very core idea of the Christian faith. For Erasmus, the relationship of the human being with God is based on the rationally and morally acceptable principles of fair play. For Luther, the human being is captivated by the overwhelming power of unfaith and transcendental evil, Satan; only the monergistic grace of the Triune God and the power of the Holy Spirit can liberate him/her. Ruokanen verifies the Trinitarian vision of salvation “by grace alone” as the center of Luther’s theology. This doctrine has three dimensions: (1) The conversion of the sinner and the birth of faith in Christ are effected by prevenient divine grace; justification “through faith alone,” is the sole work of God’s Spirit, comparable to creation ex nihilo. (2) Participation in the person, life, and divine properties of Christ, as well as participation in his salvific work, his cross, and resurrection, are possible solely because of the presence of the Holy Spirit in the believer. Justification means simultaneously the forensic declaration of the guilty non-guilty on the basis of the atonement by Jesus’ cross, as well as a union with Christ in the Holy Spirit. (3) Sanctification means the gradual growth of love for God and neighbor enabled by the believer’s participation in divine love in the Holy Spirit. Ruokanen’s work offers a crucial modification and advance to the world-renowned Finnish school of Luther interpretation: Luther’s classic use of Pneumatological language avoids the problems caused by using an ontological language.
Introduction
Authors: Ruokanen Miikka
Published: June 2021

The debate between Luther and Erasmus was basically about to what degree, if any, a sinner can freely prepare him/herself for the reception of divine grace. When rejecting the bull of Pope Leo X, Luther had used an exaggerating deterministic or necessitarian theological language which alarmed Erasmus. Erasmus concentrated on the application of God’s grace into the human situation “from below”; Luther, on the contrary, focused on the theocentric nature of grace “from above.” Erasmus promoted the commonly accepted rational view of Late Medieval Catholic soteriology: “to those who do what they can God does not deny his grace,” God’s justice requires that he necessarily grant grace to anyone who freely prepares him/herself to receive it, while Luther spoke the language of Biblical realism: Although human will is free in relation to the natural world, the human being is captivated by the overwhelming power of unfaith, sin, and Satan, being incapable of changing his/her ultimate psychic orientation. In his criticism Luther rehabilitated Augustine’s teaching on the radical limits of human freedom and on the Pneumatological dynamism of divine grace, the view neglected in Medieval theology. Research on Luther’s The Bondage of the Will has not recognized the strong Pneumatological and Trinitarian accent of his theology. Instead, the contradiction between Luther and Erasmus has been explained in philosophical terms such as free will, determinism, necessity, and predestination; this has not revealed the true nature of the profoundly theological conflict between the two “forms of Christianity.” The work at hand makes critical comments on Luther research of the last hundred years and launches the task of a detailed and thorough systematic-theological analysis of the major treatise of Luther.
A Comprehensive View of Luther’s Doctrine of Grace
Authors: Ruokanen Miikka
Published: June 2021

This chapter offers a comprehensive presentation of the three dimensions of Luther’s Trinitarian doctrine of grace. (1) The conversion of the sinner and the birth of faith in Christ, justification “through faith alone,” is effected by prevenient grace, the sole work of God’s Spirit. (2) Participation in (2a) the cross and resurrection of Christ as well as in his (2b) person, life, and divine properties, are possible solely because of the presence of the Holy Spirit in the believer. Justification means simultaneously (2a) the forensic declaration of the guilty non-guilty on the basis of the atonement by Jesus’ cross (favor), as well as (2b) a union with Christ in the Holy Spirit (donum). The believer participates both in the person and life of the incarnated Son of God and in the historical facts of salvation in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. (3) Sanctification means the gradual growth of love for God and neighbor enabled by participation in divine love in the Holy Spirit who also enables the believer to cooperate with grace. Luther’s dependence on Augustine’s doctrine of grace is pointed out. The three-dimensional structure of Trinitarian grace offers an advancement to the Finnish school of Luther interpretation initiated by Tuomo Mannermaa. His fundamental finding of the participatory nature of justification, rooted in Patristic soteriology, is verified in the present study, but an amendment is also offered, based on a critical analysis of Mannermaa’s interpretation of Luther’s Lectures on Galatians (1531/1535).
Wellbeing Cost-effectiveness Analysis and Existing Approaches
Authors: Frijters Paul , Krekel Christian
Published: June 2021

The fourth chapter is targeted mainly at readers who wish to quantify how much benefits and costs are generated by future or existing policies and programmes. The chapter compares the authors’ basic methodology for wellbeing cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) with existing approaches to decide on public resource allocations. The main comparison is with cost-benefit analysis (CBA), but they also compare it with multi-criterion approaches, social rates of return analyses, and business case scenarios or impact assessments. The authors start with a quick reminder of their basic methodology for wellbeing CEA, after which they sketch the current practice of CBA, highlighting the differences in a stylized, non-technical manner. They also sketch the relationship between WELLBYs (wellbeing years) and QALYs (quality-adjusted life-years), deriving a proper translation between the two measures, which will culminate in the important distinction between the individual willingness-to-pay for a WELLBY and the social costs of producing a WELLBY. They then answer some crucial questions as to how more wellbeing knowledge can be incorporated into existing approaches, including the question of the monetization of wellbeing effects for current-practice CBA. Apart from analysts, this chapter is also of interest to academics in the fields of health and wellbeing as it discusses in depth the differences between WELLBYs and QALYs. The discussion on wellbeing approaches from around the world is of importance to all those tasked with embedding wellbeing into their own country’s public-sector systems.
Applying Wellbeing Insights to Existing Policy Evaluations and Appraisals
Authors: Frijters Paul , Krekel Christian
Published: June 2021

The fifth chapter shows how insights from wellbeing could complement existing policy evaluations and appraisals, using real-world case studies from government departments and agencies. For each case study, it first summarizes the current evaluation or appraisal approach, including its internal logic. It also makes general remarks to give some academic and policy context. The chapter goes on to show how insights from wellbeing could be brought to bear on these cases. In most cases, the authors sketch what a wellbeing-augmented cost-benefit analysis (CBA) or a fully fledged wellbeing cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) might look like. A final case study applies a wellbeing CBA at the global level for illustrative purposes to assess two very different policy responses during the Covid-19 crisis, one the being a laissez-faire, business-as-usual response to the pandemic and one being a containment and eradication response involving the kind of lockdowns and preventive measures we have seen in most countries worldwide.
An Autonomy-Based Argument for Democracy
Authors: Wilson James Lindley
Published: June 2021

Democracy uniquely respects an important set of persons’ autonomy claims. Along with standard first-order autonomy claims to act without interference, persons have second-order autonomy claims to authority over the social context of their choice. These second-order claims are grounded in the same ideal self-direction that grounds first-order claims. One triggers another’s second-order claims when one directs another’s will by shaping the context of her choice, or when one implicates another’s will by shaping the nature of her responsibility for her actions. When a basic structure exists in which individuals continuously direct and implicate one another’s wills, each person has a second-order autonomy claim to authority over the terms of that structure. Because each person is equally entitled to respect for her autonomy, each is equally entitled to authority over the basic structure. Political equality—the equal authority of each citizen over the terms of common life—therefore uniquely respects these autonomy claims of each citizen. We therefore have non-instrumental, autonomy-based reasons to support democratic decision-making.
The Theoretical Foundations of EU Law
Authors: Walker Neil
Published: June 2021

This chapter investigates the contribution of legal theory in understanding the distinctiveness of law’s role in the EU. It does so by evaluating which theoretical approach, or approaches, generate the best conception of law’s place in a wider political vision of supranational community. Key candidate conceptions are positivism, culturalism, idealism, and pragmatism. For positivism, the focus is on ‘the authorized law’; for culturalism, ‘the appropriate law’; for idealism, ‘the good law’, and for pragmatism, ‘the law that works’. Whereas EU law lacks the direct democratic resources, the common cultural identity, and the plausible claim to universalism to support robust versions of positivism, culturalism, and idealism, its investment in the security and versatility of law in providing positive-sum policy outputs has instead supported a primarily pragmatic vision of law’s legitimacy. The chapter concludes by examining the fragility of excessive dependence on pragmatism in an environment where various crises increasingly undermine even modest levels of secondary reliance on positivist, culturalist, and idealist justifications, and by addressing the possibilities inherent in an alternative proceduralist model of EU law.
Accession to International Instruments as an EU Legality Constraint
Authors: De Witte Bruno
Published: June 2021

When the EU becomes a party to an international legal instrument, whether bilateral or multilateral, that international agreement is incorporated automatically in the EU legal order and becomes a legality constraint within that legal order, due to the recognition, by EU law itself, of the precedence of those international commitments over secondary EU law. In the multilevel European legal space, agreements concluded by the EU also become a legality constraint for the Member States of the EU, even if they are not parties to the international instrument themselves. Ensuring compliance with the EU’s international obligations sets in motion the adoption of internal legislation to implement those international obligations or to repeal existing EU law measures that are inconsistent with them; and the Court of Justice of the European Union can review the compliance of EU secondary law (and Member State law) with the EU’s international agreements. However, the Court has self-limited this review power through the development of a doctrine on the limited direct effect of international agreements.
From Classic Distinctions Between Legal Principles and Rules
Authors: Neves Marcelo
Published: June 2021

This chapter analyses the main theoretical currents that have addressed the matter of legal principles and rules before the explosion of the theory of constitutional principles. This is about the division between legal principles and legal rules based on the criteria of discretion, imprecision, and generality of these two types of legal norms, or on the criterion of their reference to goals and values. At this point, the general theory can hardly be distinguished from the constitutional conception of principles and rules. The chapter is divided into three sections: norms between texts and facts; imprecision, discretion, and generality as criteria for distinguishing between principles and rules; and reference to goals and values as a criterion for distinguishing between principle and rules.
Final Comment
Authors: Neves Marcelo
Published: June 2021

The final chapter deals with the metaphor expressed in the book’s subtitle, in order to consider what type of judge is best prepared to face and overcome the paradox of the relation between principles and rules in each concrete case: Judge Hercules or Judge Hydra? The answer will ultimately be the following: neither of them, but instead Judge Iolaus. Based on this metaphor, the paradox of constitutional principles and constitutional rules is presented as a special case of the paradox of justice in terms of systems theory: the paradoxical relationship between closure and consistency of legal system and its openness and adequacy to society. Rules relate primarily to the closure and consistency of law and principles concern primarily its openness and adequacy to society. While the former are associated predominately to the formal argumentation, the latter are linked first and foremost to the substantive argumentation. In this way, the ideas of ‘a single right answer’ and of optimizing balancing are rejected head on, and the precariousness of legal rationality is affirmed.
Introduction
Authors: Ivanič Suzanna
Published: June 2021

By combining the study of early modern everyday religion and the study of material culture, new light is shed on daily religious beliefs, practices, and identities. This chapter examines what the material record discloses about everyday religion in the light of new theoretical developments in material culture studies and studies of material religion in anthropology and sociology. It sets out how detailed, qualitative analysis of inventories and objects provides access to the inner devotional lives of Prague burghers. The analysis is embedded in a broader discourse of religion and material culture across the early modern world. It situates the study in a wider context by comparing and contrasting seventeenth-century Prague to milieus elsewhere in Europe.
The Back-to-Nature Crowd
Authors: Young Phoebe S.K.
Published: June 2021

By the 1960s and 1970s, generational dynamics and modern environmentalism fostered new camping experiences that led away from amenity-rich and resource-heavy family campgrounds. Youth who came of age in this era shaped new forms of camping to support interests in self-discovery, countercultural values, and environmental awareness. Organizers and participants of the National Outdoor Leadership School, launched in 1965, began to link backcountry camping with countercultural mindsets, personal freedom, and connection with nature. In so doing they experimented with new social contracts in microcosm, and after 1970 increasingly began to align their mission with environmentalist agendas. Echoing the popular belief that the personal is political, many began to embrace specific forms of camping like backpacking as a way of expressing their identity and viewpoints. The new popularity of minimum-impact forms of camping in turn generated a growing market for high-tech outdoor gear intended to enhance experience and advance conservation.
Introduction
Authors: Westerkamp Marilyn J.
Published: June 2021

Underscores the focus upon Anne Hutchinson, not ministers and magistrates, and lays out kay scholarship and the problems driving this study. Acknowledges scholarship upon sexual politics and patriarchal oppression, but turns attention to the questions: Hutchinson’s religious background, her belief that she had received revelations from God, and her charismatic leadership in Boston. The essay identifies scope of study, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and transatlantic and provides a foreshadowing of the scholarship on Puritans as dissenters, Puritan radicalism and the appeal to women, and the transformation of New England’s religious culture.
The Puritan Experiment
Authors: Westerkamp Marilyn J.
Published: June 2021

This chapter describes the social and political background of English Puritanism and New England’s colonization, 1590–1645, through the lens of Hutchinson’s life and experience. It begins with Puritan politics in England (partly through the problematic career of Hutchinson’s father Francis Marbury), rising political and religious discontent, and the decision of many to emigrate. The chapter then explores the first fifteen years of Massachusetts’s history, emphasizing Winthrop’s personal political battles, church politics, and the colony's social divisions. The chapter analyzes this socio/economic/political world as a world of men, acknowledging that much of the Hutchinsonian crisis can be seen as a power battle among men. However, in this world Hutchinson played a dominant “male” role, faction leader, and while many have argued that she was treated like any male disrupter, in fact she was not. The chapter ends with the attacks upon her usurpation.
Sectarian Mysticism and Spiritual Power
Authors: Westerkamp Marilyn J.
Published: June 2021

This chapter explores the religious culture of Puritanism. Beginning with the amorphous, pluralistic character of early English dissenters, the chapter discusses the problem of establishing orthodoxy in Massachusetts, particularly the issues central to the Hutchinsonian crisis: sanctification as evidence of election, the conversion experience as evidence, and preparationism. From here the chapter considers the gendering of Puritan religiosity through the privileging of formal education and the rationalist preparation for grace and examines the construction of female spirituality as grounded in biology. The perceptions of woman as weak and woman as evil are developed in great detail. The chapter then places Puritan theologians’ understanding of women within a reconsideration of Puritans’ construction of sin, salvation, and election. It returns to conversion as a mystical experience available to all regardless of rank or gender, thus fostering a radical egalitarianism.
The New Federal Arbitration Law
Authors: Cohen Julius Henry , Dayton Kenneth
Published: June 2021

This article focuses on the federal arbitration law. On February 12, 1925, President Calvin Coolidge signed the United States Arbitration Law, which became effective on January 1, 1926. This act reversed the hoary doctrine that agreements for arbitration are revocable at will and are unenforceable, and in the language of the statute itself, they are made “valid, enforceable and irrevocable” within the limits of federal jurisdiction. There are three evils which arbitration is intended to correct: (1) the long delay usually incident to a proceeding at law, in equity or in admiralty, especially in recent years in centers of commercial activity, where there has arisen great congestion of the court calendars; (2) the expense of litigation; and (3) the failure, through litigation, to reach a decision regarded as just when measured by the standards of the business world. The article then argues that the proposed law rests upon the constitutional provision by which Congress is authorized to establish and control inferior federal courts. It also contends that sound public policy demands specific enforcement of arbitration agreements by the law.
Why the “Haves” Come Out Ahead: Speculations on the Limits of Legal Change
Authors: Galanter Marc
Published: June 2021

This article proposes some conjectures about the way in which the basic architecture of the legal system creates and limits the possibilities of using the system as a means of redistributive change. Specifically, the question is under what conditions litigation can be redistributive, taking litigation in the broadest sense of the presentation of claims to be decided by courts. Because of differences in their size, differences in the state of the law, and differences in their resources, some of the actors in society have many occasions to utilize the courts; others do so only rarely. One can divide these actors into those claimants who have only occasional recourse to the courts (one-shotters) and repeat players who are engaged in many similar litigations over time. The article then looks at alternatives to the official litigation system.