bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
War Crimes
Authors: Talbert Matthew , Wolfendale Jessica
Published: October 2018

In 2005, US Marines killed 24 unarmed Iraqi civilians in the town of Haditha. How should we assess the perpetrators of this and other war crimes? Is it unfair to blame the Marines because they were subject to situational pressures such as combat stress? Or should they be held responsible for their actions, since they intentionally chose to kill civilians? In this book, we take up these questions and propose a provocative theory of the causes of war crimes and the responsibility of perpetrators. In the first half of the book, we criticize accounts that explain war crimes by reference to external situational pressures, such as peer pressure, combat stress, and propaganda. We develop an alternative theory of war crimes that explains how military personnel make sense of their participation in war crimes through the lens of their self-conceptions, goals, and values. In the second half of the book, we reject theories of responsibility that excuse perpetrators on the grounds that situational pressures often lead them to believe that their behavior is permissible. Such theories are, we contend, unacceptably exculpating and imply that it’s unreasonable for victims of war crimes to blame their attackers. In contrast, we argue that perpetrators of war crimes may be blameworthy if their actions express objectionable attitudes toward their victims, even if they sincerely believe that what they are doing is right. In addition, we show that the demand that victims of war crimes forego blame fails to show sufficient regard for their moral standing.
A Wolf in the City
Authors: Arruzza Cinzia
Published: October 2018

A Wolf in the City is a study of tyranny and of the tyrant’s soul in Plato’s Republic. It argues that Plato’s critique of tyranny is an intervention in an ancient debate concerning the sources of the crisis of Athenian democracy and the relation between political leaders and the demos in the last decades of the fifth century BCE. The book shows that Plato’s critique of tyranny should not be taken as a veiled critique of the Syracusan tyrannical regime but, rather, as an integral part of his critique of Athenian democracy. The book also offers an in-depth and detailed analysis of all three parts of the tyrant’s soul, and contends that this approach is necessary to both fully appraise the complex psychic dynamics taking place in the description of the tyrannical man and shed light on Plato’s moral psychology and its relation with his political theory.
When Fiction Feels Real
Authors: Auyoung Elaine
Published: October 2018

This book explores questions that are central to literary experience but remain difficult for critics to explain, such as how novels can seem to transport readers to fictional worlds that feel real, why literary characters can come to seem like intimate friends, and what is uniquely pleasurable about reading fiction. By drawing on psychological research on reading and cognition, this book provides literary studies with a new set of tools for analyzing the relationship between narrative technique and the phenomenology of reading. Focusing on classic novels by Leo Tolstoy, Jane Austen, Charles Dickens, George Eliot, and Leo Tolstoy, and on poems by Thomas Hardy, this study makes it possible to specify what is distinctive about realist aesthetics. It changes the way critics think about literary language, mimesis, and what readers bring to fictional texts, opening up a new field of inquiry centered on the relationship between representational technique and comprehension.
The World Underfoot
Authors: Franks Hallie M.
Published: October 2018

In the Greek Classical period, the symposium—the social gathering at which male citizens gathered to drink wine and engage in conversation—was held in a room called the andron. From couches set up around the perimeter of the andron, symposiasts looked inward to the room’s center, which often was decorated with a pebble mosaic floor. These mosaics provided visual treats for the guests, presenting them with images of mythological scenes, exotic flora, dangerous beasts, hunting parties, or the specter of Dionysos, the god of wine, riding in his chariot or on the back of a panther. This book takes as its subject these mosaics and the context of their viewing. Relying on discourses in the sociology and anthropology of space, it argues that the andron’s mosaic imagery actively contributed to a complex, metaphorical experience of the symposium. In combination with the ritualized circling of the wine cup from couch to couch around the room and the physiological reaction to wine, the images of mosaic floors called to mind other images, spaces, or experiences, and, in doing so, prompted drinkers to reimagine the symposium as another kind of event—a nautical voyage, a journey to a foreign land, the circling heavens or a choral dance, or the luxury of an abundant past. Such spatial metaphors helped to forge the intimate bonds of friendship that are the ideal result of the symposium and that make up the political and social fabric of the Greek polis.
Justification and Truth
Authors: Matthewson Lisa , Glougie Jennifer
Published: October 2018

This chapter investigates how languages encode justification and truth. The authors argue that many, perhaps all, languages have conventionalized ways to track speakers’ justification for and commitment to the truth of their assertions. With respect to justification, some evidentials track whether the speaker’s evidence meets a certain threshold of reliability. They illustrate justification-based evidentials in Cuzco Quechua, Nivacle, St’át’imcets, Nɬeʔkepmxcín, and English. They further show that the types of evidence that count as providing justification are very similar across all these languages. With respect to truth, they investigate verum emphasis in German, English, and Gitksan; they find striking cross-linguistic similarities in the properties of the construction. Finally, they propose that the discourse conditions under which speakers encode truth are similar to those under which they encode justification. Both justification-based evidentials and verum appear when the speaker needs to defend his assertions against implied or explicit disagreement or skepticism.
Reconstructing Morality
Authors: Pettit Philip
Published: October 2018

Ethics requires people not just to be moved by relatively altruistic feelings to perform relatively altruisic actions, but to be moved in this way by considerations that they conceptualize in ethical terms or concepts. Those concepts come in many forms, but two important families cluster around, first, the idea of desirable options and, second, the idea of agents who are fit to be held responsible for taking or not taking such options. The aim of this book is to explain the emergence of ethical concepts and practices in a naturalistic manner that vindicates realism. Such a story of emergence would help to make sense of ethics, directing us to the sorts of properties predicated in talk of desirability and responsibility. But in order to do so, it would have to start from a naturalistically intelligible, pre-moral starting point—ground zero—and explain in naturalistic terms how people in that society would be likely to make a cascading series of adjustments that would eventually lead them into ethical space. The project of developing such a story is akin to various approaches taken in other branches of philosophy, embodying a conceptual genealogy, and employing something like the method of creature-construction, but has not been undertaken before for ethics, at least not in the way it is undertaken here.
Voice of the Buddha
Authors: Heim Maria
Published: October 2018

Voice of the Buddha is a study of the intellectual practices and theories of scripture developed by the fifth-century thinker Buddhaghosa, the principal commentator, editor, and translator of the Theravada Buddhist intellectual tradition. Buddhaghosa considered the Buddha to be omniscient and his words “oceanic”: every word, passage, book, and the corpus as a whole are taken to be “endless and immeasurable.” Commentarial practice then requires disciplined methods of expansion, drawing out the endless possibilities for meaning and application. This book considers Buddhaghosa’s explicit theories of texts, and follows his practices of exegesis to discover how he explored scripture’s infinity. Reading with Buddhaghosa yields fresh insight into all three collections of the early Pali texts—Vinaya, the Suttas, and the Abhidhamma. By exploring the philosophical and hermeneutic significance of the immeasurability of scripture as a general principle and in commentarial practice, this book offers new tools to understand the huge scriptural and commentarial literature of the Pali tradition. And by taking seriously a traditional commentator’s theory of texts, it beckons us to learn from commentaries themselves how we might read and interpret them and the texts on which they comment.
Introduction
Authors: Sykes Jim
Published: October 2018

The introduction to The Musical Gift discusses problems (for music studies and the world at large) with assuming there is an inherent connection between music, the self, expression, and identity. The chapter argues that while many scholars have noted the historical emergence of these links in European modernity, there is a tendency in scholarly research and public culture to subordinate “ontologies of the otherwise” to European-derived notions of the link between music and identity. The author argues that while music scholars have spent much time questioning what music is, the same energy has not been devoted in music studies to what a self is, how sound relates to the self differently in different contexts, and what this should mean for music history. The chapter raises questions about Buddhist notions of “not-self” and karma, setting the stage for a consideration of “musical giving” in Sri Lanka that is explored in Chapter 1.
Sonic Generosity
Authors: Sykes Jim
Published: October 2018

This chapter introduces the concept of the “musical gift” and locates its presence in Sri Lankan contexts. It also considers the historic relations between musical giving and the identity paradigm in European history, and the relations between musical gifts and musical commodities. Finally, the chapter considers writings in the ontological turn and new materialism in religious studies in tandem with writings on secularism to argue for a new narrative on global music history for music studies. Contra Jacques Attali and numerous other writers on the political economy of music, the chapter argues for the persistence of musical efficacy, enchantment, and giving in the modern world.
Beravā Secrecy and the Hoarding of Musical Gifts
Authors: Sykes Jim
Published: October 2018

This chapter provides an introduction to Sinhala Buddhist music-making, focusing on the domain of drumming in religious ritual. These genres, with their accompanying dances, have become the most esteemed traditional music genres in Sri Lanka. The chapter also considers the ways that nationalism has influenced the use and placement of these genres, discussing a riot that broke out when Sinhala students agitated for Sinhala drumming to be performed at the head of a graduation ceremony at the Tamil-dominated University of Jaffna. The chapter provides basic information on drumming for the caste of drummers, dancers, and ritualists called the Beravā, and discusses the life and work of my drum teacher, a performer of the low-country Sinhala drum (pahata rata beraya, yak beraya).
Network Propaganda
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal
Published: October 2018

This book examines the shape, composition, and practices of the United States political media landscape. It explores the roots of the current epistemic crisis in political communication with a focus on the remarkable 2016 U.S. president election culminating in the victory of Donald Trump and the first year of his presidency. The authors present a detailed map of the American political media landscape based on the analysis of millions of stories and social media posts, revealing a highly polarized and asymmetric media ecosystem. Detailed case studies track the emergence and propagation of disinformation in the American public sphere that took advantage of structural weaknesses in the media institutions across the political spectrum. This book describes how the conservative faction led by Steve Bannon and funded by Robert Mercer was able to inject opposition research into the mainstream media agenda that left an unsubstantiated but indelible stain of corruption on the Clinton campaign. The authors also document how Fox News deflects negative coverage of President Trump and has promoted a series of exaggerated and fabricated counter narratives to defend the president against the damaging news coming out of the Mueller investigation. Based on an analysis of the actors that sought to influence political public discourse, this book argues that the current problems of media and democracy are not the result of Russian interference, behavioral microtargeting and algorithms on social media, political clickbait, hackers, sockpuppets, or trolls, but of asymmetric media structures decades in the making. The crisis is political, not technological.
The Architecture of Our Discontent
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal
Published: October 2018

This chapter presents the book’s macrolevel findings about the architecture of political communication and the news media ecosystem in the United States from 2015 to 2018. Two million stories published during the 2016 presidential election campaign are analyzed, along with another 1.9 million stories about Donald Trump’s presidency during his first year. The chapter examines patterns of interlinking between online media sources to understand the relations of authority and credibility among publishers, as well as the media sharing practices of Twitter and Facebook users to elucidate social media attention patterns. The data and mapping reveal not only a profoundly polarized media landscape but stark asymmetry: the right is more insular, skewed towards the extreme, and set apart from the more integrated media ecosystem of the center, center-left, and left.
Immigration and Islamophobia: Breitbart and the Trump Party
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines how Breitbart, interacting with Donald Trump the candidate, made immigration the Republican Party’s main election agenda, despite the desire of party leadership to stay away from that issue. It shows that Breitbart did so by keeping up a steady flow of misleading stories that associated immigration wigth terrorism, the spread of incurable disease, criminality, and abuse of the welfare system. It also considers how Islamophobia allowed Breitbart to serve as a link between the frank racism and anti-semitism of the white nationalists and the more muted racial anxiety of the more mainstream white- and Christian-identity pillars of the Republican coalition. Finally, it discusses the ways in which the network of right-wing sites interacted during the month before the 2016 presidential election to weave together the Islamophobia frame and the Clinton corruption frame to make for a coherent narrative designed to convince wavering Republicans to vote for Trump.
The Fox Diet
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal
Published: October 2018

This chapter focuses on the role of the dominant player in conservative media, Fox News, during the first year of Donald Trump’s presidency. It looks at three case studies to illustrate how Fox News used its position at the core of the right-wing media ecosystem repeatedly to mount propaganda attacks in support of Trump: the Michael Flynn firing in March 2017, when Fox adopted the “deep state” framing of the entire controversy; the James Comey firing and Robert Mueller appointment in May 2017; when Fox propagated the Seth Rich murder conspiracy; and in October and November, when the arrests of Paul Manafort and guilty plea of Flynn seemed to mark a new level of threat to the president, Fox reframed the Uranium One story as an attack on the integrity of the FBI and Justice Department officials in charge of the investigation.
Mainstream Media Failure Modes and Self-Healing in a Propaganda-Rich Environment
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines how mainstream media operated in a propaganda-rich environment by focusing on its failure and recovery modes. In particular, this chapter analyzes two central attributes of mainstream media and professional journalism that shaped election coverage, and in some cases made them particularly susceptible to being manipulated into spreading right-wing propaganda: balance and the scoop culture. The chapter first considers how internal dynamics of news reporting led mainstream media to emphasize the email investigation over substantive discussion of politics. The chapter then shows how Breitbart exploited the hunger for scoops, along with the public performance of objectivity and critical remove of mainstream journalism, to utilize the credibility of the New York Times, and later other major publications, to propagate and accredit the “Clinton corruption” frame. Finally, the chapter describes the failures and corrective mechanisms surrounding the recipients of President Donald Trump’s Fake News Awards for 2017.
The Propaganda Pipeline: Hacking the Core from the Periphery
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines the claim that alt-right activists hacked the media ecosystem byinserting various destructive memes into the mainstream media that helped DonaldTrump win the 2016 presidential election. In particular, this chapter considers thepropaganda pipeline—the path from the periphery to the core through a series ofwell-known amplifi cation sites, most prominently Infowars and Drudge. Th e “spiritcooking” stories as seen on Infowars, Washington Times, and Sean Hannity perfectlyencapsulate the propaganda pipeline from the periphery to the core, drawingin the various suspects in producing information disorder. Th e chapter also showshow statements by marginal actors on Reddit and 4chan were collated and preparedfor propagation by more visible sites, and how this technique was exploited by bothalt-right and Russia-related actors successfully to get a story from the periphery toHannity.
Are the Russians Coming?
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines the evidence supporting the claim that Russia mounted sustained and significant information operations in the United States. It finds that the evidence of Russian inference is strong but that the evidence of its impact is scant. The documented efforts of Russian interference typically entail piling onto existing debates and seeking to exacerbate existing social divisions. This chapter emphasizes that it is critical not only to understand that Russian propaganda efforts occurred but also to evaluate the effectiveness of these operations. If the biggest win for Russian information operations was to disorient American political communications then overstating the impact of those efforts actually helps consolidate their success. But it is important not to confuse the high degree to which Russian operations are observable with the extent to which they actually made a difference to politically active beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors on America.
Mammon’s Algorithm
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines three main threats to American democracy related to Facebook: Facebook microtargeting and dark ads, behavioral manipulation by Cambridge Analytica, and political clickbait factories. The chapter considers the effectiveness of psychographically microtargeted advertising and the question of exposure to “fake news” on Facebook during the months leading up to the 2016 presidential election. The chapter explains why behaviorally informed, microtargeted dark ads are an important novel threat to democratic practice independent of the overall architecture of the media environment, even as it cautions that there is no evidence to support this theory. It also argues that both the Cambridge Analytica and political clickbait threats were overstated.
Can the Internet Survive Democracy?
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines whether the internet can—or cannot—contribute to democratization, and under what conditions. This chapter discusses five major failure modes that limit the benefits of decentralized digitally-mediated collective action. The first is the failure to convert from a moment’s surge of decentralized passion into a longer-term, sustained effort with competence to engage political institutions systematically over time. The second is the failure to sustain the decentralized openness in the transition to more structured political organization. The third failure mode of the internet and democracy refers to the power of well-organized, data-informed central powers to move millions of people from the center out, instead of the other way around. The fourth failure mode is that precisely what makes decentralized networks so effective at circumventing established forms of control can also make them the vehicles of repressive mobs. The final failure mode is the susceptibility to disinformation and propaganda.
What Can Men Do Against Such Reckless Hate?
Authors: Benkler Yochai , Faris Robert , Roberts Hal
Published: October 2018

This chapter explores possible responses to the epistemic crisis in current media ecosystems. It explains why the complex, long-term causes outlined in this book do not lend themselves to small technocratic solutions but also emphasizes adaptations that traditional media can undertake, in particular shifting the performance of objectivity from demonstrating neutrality to institutionalized accountability in truth-seeking, as well as reforms in rules surrounding political advertising and data collection and use in behavioral advertising. The chapter describes meaningful incremental steps that might contain the extension of the unhealthy propaganda dynamics to deeper and more invidious forms. It also explains that, given the decades-long effects of the propaganda feedback loop on the architecture of right-wing media in America, broader systematic solutions are only likely to come with sustained political change.
Necessity and Nature in Spinoza's Philosophy
Authors: Garrett Don
Published: October 2018

Spinoza’s guiding commitment to the thesis that nothing exists or occurs outside of the scope of nature and its necessary laws makes him one of the great seventeenth-century exemplars of both philosophical naturalism and explanatory rationalism. Nature and Necessity in Spinoza’s Philosophy brings together for the first time eighteen articles by Don Garrett on Spinoza’s philosophy, ranging over the fields of metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of mind, ethics, and political philosophy. Taken together, they provide a comprehensive analysis of Spinoza’s theories of substance, thought and extension, causation, truth, knowledge, individuation, representation, consciousness, conatus, teleology, emotion, freedom, responsibility, virtue, contract, the state, and eternity—and of the deep interrelations among them. Each article aims to resolve problems in the interpretation of Spinoza’s philosophy in such a way as to make evident both his reasons for his views and the enduring value of his ideas. At the same time, they elucidate the relations between his philosophy and those of such predecessors and contemporaries as Aristotle, Hobbes, Descartes, Locke, and Leibniz. The book also offers four important and substantial new replies to leading critics on four crucial topics: the necessary existence of God (Nature), substance monism, necessitarianism, and consciousness.
Introduction
Authors: Gold Barbara K.
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the key issues surrounding Perpetua’s life and her narrative, the Passio Sanctarum Perpetuae et Felicitatis. It introduces the most perplexing circumstances around her life and times: the authorship of her Passio (which is written in at least three different hands); her life and family; the conditions of her martyrdom and of martyrdoms during the pre-Constantinian period; the status of martyrdom texts as personal, social, or historical documents; whether persecutions can be historically verified or were exaggerated by the Christians and others; and the afterlife of Perpetua and her text in writers from the third century to contemporary times. The introduction lays out the arguments for these thorny issues and tries to find a reasonable position on each one.
The Maghrebi dialects of Arabic
Authors: Aguadé Jordi
Published: October 2018

This chapter analyses synchronically and diachronically the Maghrebi Arabic dialects spoken in North Africa, whose most outstanding features are the prefix n- for the first person singular of the imperfect and a vowel system characterized by elision of short vowels in open syllable. Maghrebi Arabic shows less variety than do Middle Eastern dialects and has been influenced by only two substrate languages, Berber and Latin (the latter especially in Mediterranean coastal towns). All Maghrebi dialects have far fewer Turkish loanwords than do Middle Eastern dialects. On the other hand, French influence on the vocabularies of Tunisian, Algerian, and Moroccan dialects is strong, and code-switching between Arabic and French common in North African language use (except in Libya and Malta). Diachronically, Maghrebi Arabic dialects are divided into two types—pre-Hilālī and Hilālī— depending on whether they go back to the first or the second wave of the Arabization of North Africa.
Dialects (speech communities), the apparent past, and grammaticalization
Authors: Owens Jonathan
Published: October 2018

Over a long-term time frame in a language with several discrete dialects, how far does grammaticalization theory elucidate the history of individual morphemes? This issue is addressed using the tense/mode prefix b-, found in Gulf/Najdi, Yemeni, Uzbekistan, Nigerian, and Egyptian/Levantine Arabic. It is argued that while standard grammaticalization theory correctly predicts its assumed origin, from a variant of the verb ‘want’ (yibġa, yiba, yibbi > *b-), it does little to predict its further development. This paper first examines the functions of the prefix *b-. Once integrated as a prefix, *b- takes odd twists and turns, sometimes a tense marker, sometimes a marker of deontic modality, sometimes a generalized modal/indicative marker. Grammaticalization theory says nothing about why *b- should have developed in one way in one dialect and in another way in another. As a step towards answering these questions, the idea of dialects as speech communities is introduced.
The emotional and embodied nature of human understanding: Sharing narratives of meaning
Authors: Delafield-Butt Jonathan
Published: October 2018

This chapter explores the emotional and embodied nature of children’s learning to discover biological principles of social awareness, affective contact, and shared sense-making before school. From mid-gestation, the fetus learns to anticipate the sensory effects of simple, self-generated actions. Actions generate a small ‘story’ that progresses through time, giving meaningful satisfaction on their successful completion. Self-made stories become organized after birth into complex projects requiring greater appreciation of their consequences, which are communicated. They are mediated first by brainstem conscious control made with vital feelings, which motivates a more abstract, cortically mediated cognitive and cultural intelligence in later life. By tracing the development of meaning-making from simple projects of the infant to complex shared projects in early childhood, we appreciate the embodied narrative form of human understanding in healthy affective contact, how it may be disrupted in children with clinical disorders or educational difficulties, and how it responds in joyful projects to an understanding teacher’s support for learning.
Children’s aesthetic agency: The pleasures and power of imagination
Authors: von Bonsdorff Pauline
Published: October 2018

This chapter perceives the aesthetic sensibilities and creativity of young children through the lens of aesthetic theory and childhood studies. Understanding the aesthetic as encompassing sensitivity, emotion, imagination, and thought, I discuss how children make sense of their world, become familiar with social norms and expressive media, and create their self (including self–other relationships) through imaginative play. Aesthetic agency combines receptive and productive activity, or awareness in action—particularly evident in childhood, but not its privilege. Remembering that many pleasures of childhood relate to make-believe, I include ‘deceit’ and ‘lying’—how playful practices enlarge, change, test, and form alternatives to children’s self-conceptions and life-worlds. A moral and political perspective on make-believe (including a defence of lying) acknowledges that children’s social position is ultimately one of subordinates. Examples from research, novels about or for children (especially the work of Astrid Lindgren), and first-hand experiences emphasize the need for contextual and situated understanding.
Vector geometry
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter defines the mathematical spaces to which the geometrical quantities discussed in the previous chapter—scalars, vectors, and the metric—belong. Its goal is to go from the concept of a vector as an object whose components transform as Tⁱ → 𝓡ⱼ ⁱTj under a change of frame to the ‘intrinsic’ concept of a vector, T. These concepts are also generalized to ‘tensors’. The chapter also briefly remarks on how to deal with non-Cartesian coordinates. The velocity vector v is defined as a ‘free’ vector belonging to the vector space ε3 which subtends ε3. As such, it is not bound to the point P at which it is evaluated. It is, however, possible to attach it to that point and to interpret it as the tangent to the trajectory at P.
Curvilinear coordinates
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter presents a discussion on curvilinear coordinates in line with the introduction on Cartesian coordinates in Chapter 1. First, the chapter introduces a new system C of curvilinear coordinates xⁱ = xⁱ(Xj) (also sometimes referred to as Gaussian coordinates), which are nonlinearly related to Cartesian coordinates. It then introduces the components of the covariant derivative, before considering parallel transport in a system of curvilinear coordinates. Next, the chapter shows how connection coefficients of the covariant derivative as well as the Euclidean metric can be related to each other. Finally, this chapter turns to the kinematics of a point particle as well as the divergence and Laplacian of a vector and the Levi-Civita symbol and the volume element.
Differential geometry
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter presents some elements of differential geometry, the ‘vector’ version of Euclidean geometry in curvilinear coordinates. In doing so, it provides an intrinsic definition of the covariant derivative and establishes a relation between the moving frames attached to a trajectory introduced in Chapter 2 and the moving frames of Cartan associated with curvilinear coordinates. It illustrates a differential framework based on formulas drawn from Chapter 2, before discussing cotangent spaces and differential forms. The chapter then turns to the metric tensor, triads, and frame fields as well as vector fields, form fields, and tensor fields. Finally, it performs some vector calculus.
Conservation laws
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter defines the conserved quantities associated with an isolated dynamical system, that is, the quantities which remain constant during the motion of the system. The law of momentum conservation follows directly from Newton’s third law. The superposition principle for forces allows Newton’s law of motion for a body Pa acted on by other bodies Pa′ in an inertial Cartesian frame S. The law of angular momentum conservation holds if the forces acting on the elements of the system depend only on the separation of the elements. Finally, the conservation of total energy requires in addition that the forces be derivable from a potential.
Deformations of celestial bodies
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter studies various gravitational effects arising from the non-sphericity of celestial bodies. It first considers the quadrupole expansion of the potential, as well as the causes of the non-sphericity of the bodies. Finally, it turns to the figure of the Earth. To calculate the proper potential of the Earth, it attempts to determine its deformation due to a perturbing potential. Doing this accurately requires knowledge of the internal structure of the Earth and use of the techniques of the mechanics of continuous media. In this approach, the internal stress–strain relationships of a body are described by various phenomenological parameters and it becomes possible to study the response of the body (deformation, oscillations, etc.) to the field of an external force.
Light in Newtonian theory
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses light in Newtonian theory. Astronomy (and physics in general) is certainly not a complete science without a theory of light. However, the nature of light and its kinematical properties were not completely understood until the advent of Maxwell’s theory, special and general relativity, and quantum field theory. The answers to these questions provided by Newtonian theory were only partial and sometimes even contradictory. Thus this chapter seeks to present a few aspects of this topic, such as the influences of gravity on light, stellar aberrations, and wave propagation. It also studies the Fizeau and Michelson–Morley experiments.
Minkowski spacetime
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter presents the main features of the Minkowski spacetime, which is the geometrical framework in which the laws of relativistic dynamics are formulated. It is a very simple mathematical extension of three-dimensional Euclidean space. In special relativity, ‘relative, apparent, and common’ (in the words of Newton) space and time are represented by a mathematical set of points called events, which constitute the Minkowski spacetime. This chapter also stresses the interpretation of the fourth dimension, which in special relativity is time. Here, time now loses the ‘universal’ and ‘absolute’ nature that it had in the Newtonian theory.
The wave vector of light
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter shows how simple world lines of zero length can describe an undulatory aspect of light—namely, its frequency. It first encodes the information about the frequency of a monochromatic light wave in the zeroth component of its wave vector. An alternative method of taking into account the wave nature of light is based on the fact that the emission of successive light corpuscles by the source also defines the period of a light signal. To illustrate, the chapter provides the example of a light source and a receiver moving along the X axis of a frame S. Finally, this chapter illustrates the idea of a particle horizon as well as the limits of validity of the spectral shift formulas introduced in the chapter by the example of two objects which exchange light signals.
Rotating systems
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter continues the discussion of the laws of relativistic dynamics for systems of point particles, beginning with the law of angular momentum conservation in collisions. It considers an ensemble of free particles each characterized by its (constant) momentum pa. The total momentum p = Σapa does not depend on the inertial frame used, but the angular momentum will depend on the frame, because its definition involves radius vectors between an event reference point and points qa on the particle world lines. Furthermore, these are chosen to be simultaneous in a given frame. The chapter also formulates the equations of motion for particles possessing an internal rotation or ‘spin’.
Fields and matter
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the laws of relativistic dynamics for continuous media, namely, the ‘fields’ that mediate interactions in relativistic theories, and also fluids. The concept of field introduced by Faraday and formalized by Maxwell lies at the heart of contemporary physics. The intuitive idea behind this concept is, on the one hand, that massive bodies, owing to their internal constitution, impregnate space with what are called ‘fields’, potential entities which are only revealed by the presence of other bodies possessing the same type of charge. On the other hand, there is the idea that the interactions between these bodies, which determine their motion, are effected through the intermediary of these fields. This physical concept of a field is represented mathematically by one or several functions of points p in Minkowski spacetime.
The classical scalar field
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter explains some of the properties of scalar fields, which are paradigmatic in relativistic field theory. It also shows how a complex scalar field can confer an effective mass to a ‘gauge’ field. The chapter first provides the Klein–Gordon equation derived from the Euler–Lagrange equations outlined in the previous chapter. It then illustrates the Fourier transform of a free field, before embarking on further discussions on complex fields, charge, and symmetry breaking. Finally, this chapter considers that the fact that global symmetry breaking leads to the appearance of a massless, and therefore long-range, scalar field is problematic because such a field is not observed experimentally. It thus takes a look at the BEH mechanism (named after its inventors, Robert Brout, François Englert, and Peter Higgs), which can make it ‘disappear’.
The Nordström theory
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter turns to the description of the interaction of a scalar field with particles which ‘feel’—that is, ‘charged’ particles. If the field is massless, and therefore long-range, and if the particle charge corresponds to its inertial mass, we have what is known as Nordström theory, a coherent theory of gravity which, however, disagrees with experiment. Nordström theory describes gravity by means of a massless scalar field φ. According to the ‘weak equivalence principle’, gravitational masses are equal to inertial masses, m = mg. When velocities are small, the gravitational field created is also weak.
The Lorentz force
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter studies Maxwell theory by defining the electromagnetic potential and field as well as the force exerted by an external field on a particle carrying an electric charge. In Maxwell theory, the fundamental mathematical quantity representing electromagnetic phenomena is a field of covariant vectors (or a field of 1-forms), the electromagnetic potential, with components Aμ(Xν) in a given inertial frame with Minkowski coordinates Xν. A quantity derived from the potential plays a central role because it is this quantity rather than the potential itself which directly represents observable phenomena. In addition, this chapter integrates the equation of motion for the cases of uniform rectilinear and circular motion. It follows the four-dimensional approach, which, being more efficient and transparent, can also give the main results in 3-vector notation.
The Maxwell equations
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter presents Maxwell equations determining the electromagnetic field created by an ensemble of charges. It also derives these equations from the variational principle. The chapter studies the equation’s invariances: gauge invariance and invariance under Poincaré transformations. These allow us to derive the conservation laws for the total charge of the system and also for the system energy, momentum, and angular momentum. To begin, the chapter introduces the first group of Maxwell equations: Gauss’s law of magnetism, and Faraday’s law of induction. It then discusses current and charge conservation, a second set of Maxwell equations, and finally the field–energy momentum tensor.
Constant fields
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter reviews the basic ideas of electrostatics (Coulomb’s law) and magnetostatics (the Biot–Savart law). It studies the motion of a charge in a Coulomb field in detail. The chapter shows how the motion of a charge q in the Coulomb field of a charge Q held fixed at the origin of an inertial frame is governed by the Lorentz equation. Moreover, it can be solved like the Kepler problem discussed in the previous Book. Next, the chapter discusses the Rutherford scattering formula which established the ‘planetary’ model of the atom, the Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization which displayed the limits of the theory, and finally the spin coupling explaining the atomic fine structure.
Interacting charges II
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter continues the discussion from the previous chapter. The motion of a charge (m,q) in the field of another charge (m′,q′) and in its own field can now be studied in the lowest orders of the velocities directly using the equation of motion obtained in the preceding chapter. However, the features of this motion are revealed more easily by deriving them from the Darwin Lagrangian. This allows for a rigorous establishment of a balance between the energy radiated by the system and the mechanical energy lost by the system. The chapter concludes this general study of the electromagnetic radiation of a system of charges by outlining the ‘post-Minkowski’ approach based on iteration in the ‘coupling constant’ qq′ rather than in the velocities.
Electromagnetism and differential geometry
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter begins by examining p-forms and the exterior product, as well as the dual of a p-form. Meanwhile, the exterior derivative is an operator, denoted d, which acts on a p-form to give a (p + 1)-form. It possesses the following defining properties: if f is a 0-form, df(t) = t f (where t is a vector of Eₙ), which coincides with the definition of differential 1-forms. Moreover, d(α + β) = dα + dβ, where α and β are forms of the same degree. Moreover, the exterior calculus can be used to obtain a compact and elegant formulation of Maxwell’s equations.
Conservation laws
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter studies how the ‘spacetime symmetries’ can generate first integrals of the equations of motion which simplify their solution and also make it possible to define conserved quantities, or ‘charges’, characterizing the system. As already mentioned in the introduction to matter energy–momentum tensors in Chapter 3, the concepts of energy, momentum, and angular momentum are related to the invariance properties of the solutions of the equations of motion under spacetime translations or rotations. The chapter explores these in greater detail. It first turns to isometries and Killing vectors. The chapter then examines the first integrals of the geodesic equation, and Noether charges.
The Kerr solution
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter covers the Kerr metric, which is an exact solution of the Einstein vacuum equations. The Kerr metric provides a good approximation of the spacetime near each of the many rotating black holes in the observable universe. This chapter shows that the Einstein equations are nonlinear. However, there exists a class of metrics which linearize them. It demonstrates the Kerr–Schild metrics, before arriving at the Kerr solution in the Kerr–Schild metrics. Since the Kerr solution is stationary and axially symmetric, this chapter shows that the geodesic equation possesses two first integrals. Finally, the chapter turns to the Kerr black hole, as well as its curvature singularity, horizons, static limit, and maximal extension.
The physics of black holes I
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter describes two physical processes related to the Schwarzschild and Kerr solutions which can be induced by the gravitational field of a black hole. The first is the Penrose process, which suggests that rotating black holes are large energy reservoirs. Next is superradiance, which is the first step in the study of black-hole stability. The study of the stability of black holes involves the linearization of the Einstein equations about the Schwarzschild or Kerr solution. As this chapter shows, the equations of motion for perturbations of the metric are wave equations. The problem then is to determine whether or not these solutions are bounded.
Tests in the solar system
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter describes observable relativistic effects in the solar system. In the solar system we can, as a first approximation, neglect the gravitational field of all the stars except the Sun. In Newtonian theory, the planet trajectories are then Keplerian ellipses. Relativistic effects are weak because the dimensionless ratio characterizing them is everywhere less than GM⊙/c² R⊙≃ 2 × 10–6, and so they can be added linearly to the Newtonian perturbations due to the other planets, the non-spherical shape of celestial bodies, and so on. The chapter first describes the gravitational field of the Sun using a Schwarzschild spacetime, before moving on to look at the geodesic equation. It also discusses the bending of light, the Shapiro effect, the perihelion, post-Keplerian geodesics, and spin in a gravitational field.
The post-Newtonian approximation
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter embarks on a study of the two-body problem in general relativity. In other words, it seeks to describe the motion of two compact, self-gravitating bodies which are far-separated and moving slowly. It limits the discussion to corrections proportional to v2 ~ m/R, the so-called post-Newtonian or 1PN corrections to Newton’s universal law of attraction. The chapter first examines the gravitational field, that is, the metric, created by the two bodies. It then derives the equations of motion, and finally the actual motion, that is, the post-Keplerian trajectories, which generalize the post-Keplerian geodesics obtained earlier in the chapter.
Gravitational waves and the radiative field
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter turns to the gravitational radiation produced by a system of massive objects. The discussion is confined to the linear approximation of general relativity, which is compared with the Maxwell theory of electromagnetism. In the first part of the chapter, the properties of gravitational waves, which are the general solution of the linearized vacuum Einstein equations, are studied. Next, it relates these waves to the energy–momentum tensor of the sources creating them. The chapter then turns to the ‘first quadrupole formula’, giving the gravitational radiation field of these sources when their motion is due to forces other than the gravitational force.