bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
La enseñanza española de la historia y su dimensión Iberoamericana
Authors: Valls Montés Rafael
Published: January 2013

La presencia de los países iberoamericanos es una cuestión que ha estado permanentemente asegurada en los libros de texto de la educación secundaria española desde la implantación del sistema educativo liberal, a mediados del siglo XIX, hasta la actualidad. Esta atención se ha dado tradicionalmente tanto en los manuales dedicados a la historia de España como en los que se ocupan de la llamada historia universal, así definida a pesar de su marcado carácter eurocéntrico. Esta presencia continuada de países iberoamericanos ha conocido, sin embargo, distintos grados de intensidad según las épocas, en el sentido de que se ha dedicado mayor o menor extensión en las páginas de los manuales a los contenidos históricos relacionados con el conjunto de estos procesos históricos: esta es la cuestión que abordamos detalladamente en nuestra investigación.
Oil Pollution Control Experience And Measures In The Delaware River Basin
Authors: Selzer Seymour D.
Published: January 2013

The Delaware River Basin, in the area from Trenton, N.J., to Wilmington, Del, including the Philadelphia, Pa.–Camden, N. J. metropolitan area, is the site of one of the major municipal-industrial complexes in the United States. Enormous quantities of oil are transported, processed, and used in the area. There are continuous oil discharges in the form of wastes, as well as accidental spills, to the waters of the area.

The Delaware River Basin Commission (DRBC), in its comprehensive water resources management role, is concerned with all forms of oil pollution. The developing oil pollution control program in the Delaware River Basin includes a broad cooperative effort on the part of the Federal Government, the DRBC, the states, local agencies, and private interests. Included are preventive measures, such as special requirements in design and construction of petroleum handling and transportation facilities, and emergency planning at all levels, both public and private. An emergency alert system is operative, and a corrective action program is authorized and developing at the various levels of government and industry.
The Submarine Pipeline And Single Buoy Mooring
Authors: Small S.W.
Published: January 2013

The subject of the paper is introduced by means of a description of the submarine pipeline-single buoy mooring system. This description covers the components of the system, its purpose and its operation.

Discussion then centers on pollution prevention in the design and operation of such a system. In discussing design, each component of the total system is discussed. These are the submarine pipeline, the bottom manifold, the underbuoy hose, the buoy and the floating hose strings.

Discussion of operation of the system points out that methods of operation vary from one terminal to the next depending upon local conditions and the operator's preference. However, a generalized description is given of mooring the tanker, connecting the floating hoses, loading or off-loading cargo, disconnecting the floating hoses and leaving the mooring.

In conclusion the paper summarizes those areas of design and operation that must receive critical attention to maximize the pollution prevention aspects of the system and to insure that these systems continue to improve and continue to have a low risk of pollution associated with their use.
Beach Cleanup
Authors: Lamp'l Howard J. , Rhodes Ralph L.
Published: January 2013

The present “state-of-the-art” on cleanup of oil polluted beaches. Examples of past and present beach cleanup techniques. A brief report on present research efforts to remove oil from pollution stained beaches.
Oil Soaked Straw Harvesting Techniques
Authors: Harper John D.
Published: January 2013

The use of straw as an adsorbent material in the mechanical recovery of oily pollutants is reviewed with emphasis given to existing methods for the harvesting of the oil soaked straw. State-of-the-art harvesting techniques, while admittedly crude and needing improvement, is complicated by the wide variety of conditions and subtleties encountered in oil pollution incidents. The development of oil soaked straw harvesting equipment, possibly by the agricultural implement industry, to be used by various types and configurations of vessels will permit greater usage of the demonstratably effective application of straw in oil pollution incidents.
Identification Of Oil Spills: Comparison Of Several Methods
Authors: Horowitz J. , Gumtz G.D. , Nemchin R.G. , Meloy T.P.
Published: January 2013

Based only on analysis of oil slicks, several methods of identifying the source of oil pollution are critically examined. These methods are grouped into two categories: passive tagging and active tagging. Passive tagging assumes that oils are so chemically diverse that their contents constitute a stable chemical fingerprint that can be unequivocally disclosed in the laboratory. Active tagging requires that an inexpensive, coded material be added to oil; this material must be chemically and physically stable in both oil and oil slicks; it must also be readily identifiable by available analytical techniques.

We have examined three methods of passive tagging (trace metals, sulfur-isotope ratios, and paper chromatography) and three methods of active tagging (halogenated polycyclic aromatics, organo metallic s, and coded micro-spheroids). Passive tags cannot be recommended because the passive tags are quite likely to mingle, to evaporate, to be dissolved, or to be oxidized; even if these processes do not. occur, they can create formidable forensic problems for the prosecution and telling counter-arguments for the defense. Since active tags are designed to be stable and identifiable, they are made for the job; we have found promise and merit (though unequal) in the three types of active tags we reviewed.
The Santa Barbara Study
Authors: Straughan Dale
Published: January 2013

This paper gives an outline of the unique problems associated with determining the effects of the oil spill in the Santa Barbara Channel and a general outline of biological studies associated with the spill
Some Ecological Effects Of Marine Oil Pollution
Authors: Spooner Molly
Published: January 2013

Oil at sea affects chiefly species associated with the surface; damage at sea by oil and dispersants after Torrey Canyon were not as bad as expected.

Slicks sometimes disappear naturally, how apart from physical actions may this be taking place? Bacteria can, under experimental conditions very favorable to their growth, assist in dispersal, sinking and decomposition of oil, and zooplankton can ingest oil droplets, but are these factors of significance at sea?

On shores after Torrey Canyon, far more damage was done by excess detergent than by oil. Repopulation is following the expected sequence, most affected shores being still abnormal. Observations on oil left untreated in Cornwall, at Eleuthera and on the Devon coast show slow removal by various natural means, including the browsing action of fauna.

Toxic detergents can affect the sublittoral zone, including species of economic importance. Areas liable to repeated pollution, such as estuaries and salt marshes, require special care. The use of newer dispersants of low toxicity is desirable here and on shores.
Microbial Degradation Of Normal Paraffin Hydrocarbons In Crude Oil
Authors: Miget R.J. , Oppenheimer C.H. , Kator H.I. , LaRock P.A.
Published: January 2013

Experiments designed to measure the oxidation and degradation of crude oils by naturally occurring marine microorganisms are presently being conducted. Fifty active oil degrading cultures have been isolated in enriched seawater containing crude oil. Oil degradation has been determined with gas chromatography, wet combustion, and by measurement of surface tension. Normal paraffin hydrocarbons through C-26 are degraded by two different groups of micro organisms-those growing in the oil phase only and those growing in the aqueous phase. Emulsification of the crude oil through production of surfactants was observed in many of the enriched cultures. Microbial degradation of 35 to 55 per cent of oxidizable crude oil occurred within 60 hours.
Prevention Of Pollution By Oil And Hazardous Materials In Marine Operations
Authors: Stirling Albert G.
Published: January 2013

A brief summary of legislation and international treaties applicable to pollution by marine operations is given. Pollution is defined as the discharge of anything which affects or is harmful to the ecology, use, or esthetic quality of the receiving body either temporarily or permanently. The causes of pollution are deliberate violations, poor practices, and unavoidable accidents. The solution to pollution is prevention, minimizing effects when total prevention is not realistic, and finally cleanup. These solutions are best effected by education, engineering, and enforcement, in that order. Data is presented which points out the major operational causes of pollution with the not too surprising result that human error, manifested in overfilling, vessel mishandling, and improper system operation, is the major contributor. Possible corrective measures are discussed with emphasis that all such measures must meet the test of necessity, effectiveness, and practicality.
National Multiagency Oil And Hazardous Materials Pollution Contingency Plan
Authors: Hyland John R.
Published: January 2013

The National Multiagency Contingency Plan, prepared at the Direction of the President, provides a mechanism for coordinating the Federal response to a spill of oil or other hazardous materials. Agencies signatory to the Plan are: Department of the Interior; Department of Transportation; Department of Defense; Department of Health, Education and Welfare; and Office of Emergency Preparedness. The objectives of this Plan are: to develop appropriate preventive and preparedness measures and effective systems for discovering and reporting the existence of a pollution spill; to institute, promptly, measures to restrict the further spread of the pollutant; to assure that the public health and welfare are provided adequate protection; to apply techniques to cleanup and dispose of the collected pollutants; and to institute actions to recover cleanup costs and to effect enforcement of existing Federal statutes. The Plan is effective for all United States navigable waters and contiguous zone. The President has established the policy that appropriate Federal resources will be used for dealing with the pollution aspects of oil or hazardous substance spill problems and to protect our natural resources from their consequences. A primary thrust of regional plans is to encourage the person responsible for the discharge of oil or other hazardous substances to remove the pollutant or adequately mitigate its effects. The National Response Team (NRT) consists of representatives of the signatory agencies and acts as an emergency response team to be activated in the event of a pollution incident involving oil or other hazardous materials. The Regional Response Center (RRC) is the regional headquarters site for pollution control activities under this Plan. Coordination and direction of Federal pollution control efforts at the scene of a pollution incident is accomplished through an On-Scene Commander (OSC). The OSC is the single executive agent predesignated by the regional plan to coordinate and direct such pollution control activities in each area of the region. The actions taken to respond to a spill or pollution incident can be separated into five relatively distinct phases.

For descriptive purposes these are: Phase I. Discovery and Notification; Phase II. Containment and Counter-measures; Phase III. Cleanup and Disposal; Phase IV. Restoration; and Phase V. Recovery of Damages and Enforcement.
OIL POLLUTION CONTROL LEGISLATION AND THE WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT ACT OF 1970, THE FEDERAL VIEWPOINT
Authors: Biglane K.E. , Wyer R.H.
Published: January 2013

The Water Quality Improvement Act of 1970 was enacted and signed into law on April 3, 1970. This Act provides the mechanism for strong Federal actions relating to oil removal, prevention and enforcement. This paper discusses the most significant provisions of the Act and describes the Federal point of view relating to key provisions. Emphasis is placed on the rationale behind the designation of a harmful quantity of oil, the impact of the notification requirement, adequacy of oil removal procedures, prevention of spills, and enforcement provisions.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN AIR DELIVERABLE ANTIPOLLUTION TRANSFER SYSTEM INCLUDING THE DEVELOPMENT OF OF AN OPTIMUM OIL STORAGE CONTAINER
Authors: Ketchel Commander R.J. , Smith H.D.
Published: January 2013

During the past two years development of a special purpose emergency tanker unloading system was accomplished. The Air Deliverable Transfer Pumping and Storage System (ADAPTS) is now being provided for operational use. This paper traces the development of the system from inception to procurement specifications preparation. Problems encountered during the development effort are identified. Solutions, and the rationale behind them, obtained to overcome the technical and operational problems are discussed. Field test experience and performance data on the ADAPTS system are presented.
THE ROLE OF THE OIL SPILL COOPERATIVE IN THE OIL PRODUCING INDUSTRY
Authors: Mut S. C.
Published: January 2013

When an oil spill occurs there is one question that is paramount to all who have an interest in that very unhappy occurrence. That question is— “Does the spiller have the capability to clean up the mess quickly and effectively?” The answer is “Yes” if everything he needs is available to him. If his requirements are to be readily available, it is necessary that the capability to respond has been developed before the spill occurs. This capability can be developed either by the operator acting for himself alone or in a joint effort with other members of industry in an oil spill cooperative.

Oil spill cooperatives have been patterned after associations formed by oil companies to assist each other in the event of fires, hurricanes, and other disasters. One of the first active spill cooperatives was formed in Boston in 1967. Reportedly, more than 60 such cooperatives are now active. These are principally, however, harbor cooperatives involving refining, terminal, and transportation facilities. This paper deals only with those cooperatives which involve oil producing facilities with significant spill potential. At the beginning of 1971, there were seven such cooperatives and several others in various stages of formation. Their locations range from the Gulf Coast to Alaska.
CAUSES OF OIL SPILLS FROM SHIPS IN PORT
Authors: Putman Captain W.H.
Published: January 2013

This is a summary of causes of oil spills from ships in the ports of Los Angeles/Long Beach during the period 1962–1969. The data presented are a matter of record, and believed to be statistically sound. These data should be helpful to the Naval and Maritime communities as well as those concerned with oil spill contingency plans.
SORBENTS FOR OIL SPILL REMOVAL
Authors: Schatzberg Paul , Nagy K. V.
Published: January 2013

Materials that float on water, attract and absorb oil and can easily be removed from the water constitute one of the most effective means for completely separating spilled oil from the water environment. Three classes of materials can be used for this purpose inorganic products, natural organic products and synthetic organic products. Several examples of each of these classes are evaluated for their potential use as sorbents. Laboratory procedures are utilized to determine oil and water sorption capacity, oil retention capacity, buoyancy with and without absorbed oil, effect of petroleum product variation, and sorbent/oil coherence. Of twenty sorbent materials evaluated, the polymeric foams exhibited the highest sorption capacities for oils. These foams also absorb water. While this reduces their capacity for oil, some of the foams still retain a high sorption capacity. On the average, much lower oil sorption capacities were exhibited by the inorganic and the natural organic materials.
MICROBIAL DEGRADATION OF A LOUISIANA CRUDE OIL IN CLOSED FLASKS AND UNDER SIMULATED FIELD CONDITIONS
Authors: Kator Howard , Oppenheimer C. H. , Miget R. J.
Published: January 2013

Petroleum utilizing microorganisms in flasks containing enriched seawater exhibited a clear metabolic preference for saturated paraffins in a Louisiana crude oil. The rates of oxidation of these compounds were directly proportional to incubation temperature and roughly doubled with a ten degree increase. A pattern of growth consisting of an initially large rate of saturated paraffin oxidation, followed by a decrease and another increase in rate was observed. The initially large rates were attributed to the metabolism of n-paraffins smaller than C-18. No even or odd chain length preference for n-paraffins was indicated. There was no evidence of utilization for aromatic compounds.

Application of a microbial culture to an oil slick under simulated field conditions, clearly showed that microbes could accelerate the removal of a Louisiana crude oil from an oil slick on seawater. The rates of oil removal in outdoor, exposed conditions, were twice as large as the rates of evaporative oil loss. The microbes produced a significant change in oil “stickiness”. Measurements indicated the oil was dispersed through microbial activity. The cells preferentially remained at the oil-water interface during the experimental periods.
FREE VORTEX RECOVERY OF FLOATING OIL
Authors: Nebeker Eugene B. , Rodrigues Sergio E. , Mikolaj Paul G.
Published: January 2013

A concept employing a free vortex for use in recovering oil from high seas oil spills is presented. An experimental evaluation program has been completed which demonstrates the feasibility of this concept as well as design limitations.

An oil slick will migrate toward the center of the vortex due to the action of the water flow induced by an impeller. At an appropriate speed of rotation, the oil will submerge and accumulate within a central region of the vortex. This pocket will contain a concentrated mass of oil which can readily be removed by conventional pumping. Advantages of this technique include effective operation in high seas and the ability to both collect and concentrate an oil slick in a single operation.

Tests were performed with a free vortex oil recovery model having an impeller diameter of one foot. Performance data were obtained both under quiescent water conditions and also under environmental conditions that simulated 10-foot deep water waves, 20-knot winds, and 2-knot currents.

Detailed scaling considerations based on the test data indicate that a prototype device, with diameter on the order of 4-feet and larger, would be operable in all typically occurring 10-foot seas. Depending on its size, the prototype will recover in excess of 100 gallons per minute of oil with an oil-to-water ratio greater than 1.2 when operating with a crude oil film of only 0.1 inches in thickness.
SOME EFFECTS OF OIL POLLUTION IN MILFORD HAVEN, UNITED KINGDOM
Authors: Cowell E. B.
Published: January 2013

Research on the biological effects of oil pollution and detergent cleaning operations within the port of Milford Haven is described. Observations made on accidental spillages, experimental field spillages and laboratory investigations confirm that both salt marsh communities and rocky shores do normally recover from oil pollution accidents but that shore cleaning with emulsifiers can do serious damage if misused, although recovery follows. The effects of some new emulsifiers which are up to 1000X less toxic are discussed.

Chronic pollution damage from refinery discharges has been identified both in Milford Haven and elsewhere, but it has been shown that these effects are eliminated if the outfall pipes are located offshore in locations of good dispersion and currents.

Long term surveys reveal no widespread long term damage to the Fauna and Flora of Milford Haven attributable to the development of the oil port.
INITIAL AGING OF FUEL OIL FILMS OF SEA WATER
Authors: Smith Craig L. , MacIntyre William G.
Published: January 2013

The process of aging or weathering of nos. 2, 4, and 6 fuel oil films on sea water has been studied both in laboratory apparatus and at sea. Loss of oil components by evaporation and dissolution was considered to be the main mechanism of the initial weathering. The rates of evaporation of each oil type and comparison of the relative importance of evaporation and dissolution are reported. During the initial weathering period, the rate of evaporative loss of weight of a given fuel oil was found to be proportional to the percentage of volatile compounds (ie. with boiling points less than 270°C) in the oil. The experiments showed that the medium molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons comprise the greatest proportion of the dissolved compound in the sea water. Predominant are the methyl- and the dimethyl- naphthalenes. The dissolution of the lower molecular weight aromatics seems to be offset by their high rate of evaporation, while the high molecular weight aromatics are limited by their solubility. Saturated hydrocarbons were not found in detectable amounts. At sea, the onset of whitecapping and breaking waves was shown to produce large accelerations of evaporative loss of compounds with boiling points less than 270°C.
PHYSICAL PROCESSES IN THE SPREAD OF OIL ON A WATER SURFACE
Authors: Fay James A.
Published: January 2013

Formulae are recommended for calculating the extent of the spread of oil slicks on water as a function of time. They are based on empirical measurements of spreading rates and analytical and theoretical studies of the physical processes which accelerate or retard the spread of a film Both one-dimensional and two-dimensional (axisymmetric) slicks are treated. Comparisons of the recommended formulae are made with the limited number of field observations, both for the rate of spread and the maximum slick size.
EVALUATION OF SELECTED EARTHMOVING EQUIPMENT FOR THE RESTORATION OF OIL-CONTAMINATED BEACHES
Authors: Sartor James D. , Foget Carl R.
Published: January 2013

Research studies were conducted to evaluate the use of selected earthmoving equipment in oil-contaminated beach-restoration operations and to determine the cost and effectiveness of such equipment Specifically, the objectives were to:Determine modifications and cost required to improve the capacity of selected equipment.Develop optimum operating procedures for each method.Determine, through field testing, the operating cost of each method evaluated.

These objectives were accomplished in two phases. Phase I: reviewed procedures utilized in previous beach-restoration operations, plus surveyed and evaluated commercially available earthmoving equipment. Phase II: conducted full-scale tests to demonstrate the restoration procedures developed and to determine the efficiency with which each procedure/equipment item collects oil-contaminated material The flexibility and performance characteristics of the equipment were tested under a variety of beach conditions.

The oil removal effectiveness was greater than 98% for all restoration procedures. The highest effectiveness was achieved using the motorized grader and motorized elevating scraper working in combination. The tracked front end loaders were least effective. On beaches possessing low shear strength, flotation tires or steel-belted half-tracks on the motorized grader and a non-self-propelled elevating scraper with a tracked prime mover should be used. Conveyor-screening systems can be effectively utilized to load oil-contaminated material into trucks for transport to disposal areas, separate oil-sand pellets from clean sand, and partially separate oil-contaminated debris (i.e., straw, kelp, seaweed) from oil-contaminated sand

The beach-restoration operations evaluated in this study were successfully utilized in the restoration of oil-contaminated beaches resulting from the recent San Francisco Bay oil spill incident.

This study was conducted in fulfillment of Contract No. 14-12-811 between The Federal Water Quality Office, and The URS Research Company.
A HOT WATER FLUIDIZATION PROCESS FOR CLEANING OIL-CONTAMINATED BEACH SAND
Authors: Mikolaj Paul G. , Curran Edward J.
Published: January 2013

A pilot device capable of cleaning one ton per hour of oil-contaminated beach sand was built and tested. The processing scheme was a variation of the hot water method used in the Athabasca Tar Sand Deposits and utilized liquid fluidization to effect the oil-sand separation. Tests performed with a sand mixture containing 1 to 2 percent of a 23° API crude oil showed that upwards of 95 percent of the oil could be removed. Operation with a 14° API residual oil was less satisfactory.

The hot water fluidization process is judged to be a technically feasible concept although there appear to be definite limitations as to its general applicability. These limitations are concerned primarily with the range of sand particle sizes that can be fluidized without excessive elutriation. Additional experimentation is needed to further delineate the range of potential application.
REMOTE SENSING OF OIL SPILLS
Authors: Catoe Clarence E. , Orthlieb Frederick L.
Published: January 2013

A prerequisite for the control of coastal oil pollution is the development of surveillance techniques which are capable of monitoring large areas of the ocean surface to detect the presence of oil slicks. The U.S. Coast Guard Office of Research and Development is currently engaged in basic and applied research to determine the feasibility of various remote sensing techniques for the detection and identification of oil slicks. To date, several remote detection techniques have shown promise for the detection and surveillance of oil slicks; these were tested in a series of airborne measurements of controlled oil spills.
EMBROILED IN OIL
Authors: Bernard Harold
Published: January 2013

The fate of used automotive crankcase oils are analyzed. It appears that current methods for handling waste oils dispose of about 0.5 billion gallons per year directly to the environment. Burning tests using the waste oils for fuel oil produced mixed results. Some tests indicated a 3:1 dillution ratio could provide adequate results; other tests indicated coking of fire tubes and clogging of burner nozzels. A novel rerefining flow sheet which uses vacuum distillation without clay treatment or chemicals to produce a No. 2 and No. 4 fuel oil is presented. Additional research and development is required, but the process has a potential for about an 85–90% yield without producing any solid or liquid pollution.
The Development of an Experimental Airborne Laser Oil Spill Remote Sensing System
Authors: Fantasia J. F. , Ingrao H. C.
Published: January 2013

An experimental airborne laser oil spill remote sensing system has been developed. Operating from a U.S. Coast Guard Search and Rescue Aircraft, the system is expected to have the capability of remote detection, coarse oil classification (heavy, medium and light weight) and under certain conditions quantification of oil spills in the marine environment. The system concept is based on a recent investigation at TSC of laser stimulated oil fluorescence as a technique for the remote sensing of oil spills, including laboratory and field measurements. The development and laboratory tests results of the experimental system are described.
Techniques for Analysis of Paraffin Hydrocarbons and for Interpretation of Data to Assess Oil Spill Effects in Aquatic Organisms
Authors: Jr. Robert C. Clark, , Finley John S.
Published: January 2013

Normal paraffin hydrocarbons are one of the major groups of compounds in crude oil and petroleum products. Since these compounds can be readily separated from aquatic organisms using solvent extraction and liquid-solid chromatography and identified by gas-liquid chromatography, the normal paraffins can serve as indicators of petroleum pollution in the aquatic environment. It is necessary, however, to differentiate between natural (or biogenic) hydrocarbons and those assimilated by the organisms from pollution sources by comparing the natural hydrocarbon content and pattern (n-C14 to n-C37) of organisms from areas of pollution with those of organisms from relatively “unpolluted” areas.

The paper suggests techniques for obtaining and analyzing petroleum hydrocarbon data which can lead to a standard method for detecting and following the biological uptake of oil by living organisms from the aquatic environment.
Determination of N-Alkane and Methylnaphthalene Compounds in Shellfish
Authors: Blaylock J. W. , O'Keefe P. W. , Roehm J. N. , Wildung R. E.
Published: January 2013

During the course of investigations to determine the possible toxicity of petroleum to marine biota, it became evident that quantitative estimates of the petroleum components in water and biota would assist in meaningful interpretation of the results of bioassays. However, published procedures for estimation of n-alkanes in marine biota were largely qualitative, and even less effort had been afforded the measurement of aromatic petroleum residues. A method originally utilized for determination of poly cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in foods was therefore adapted for the digestion of tissue and extraction of hydrocarbons from shellfish exposed to petroleum during bioassays. Tissue extracts were partitioned into saturate and aromatic fractions by column chromatography. Using gas-liquid chromatography, the n-alkanes of carbon numbers 12 to 19, and the methyl substituted naphthalenes were identified in the saturate and aromatic fractions, respectively. Both groups of compounds were quantitated by reference to an internal standard.

The procedure allowed recovery of over 70 percent of n-alkanes and methylnaphthalenes applied to the tissues prior to digestion. Minimum detectable levels for n-alkanes and methylnaphthalenes were approximately 0.08 to 0.15 and 0.03 to 0.04 µg/g of wet tissue, respectively.
Spill Prevention — Phase II
Authors: Van Cleave Henry D.
Published: January 2013

Since the enactment of the Water Quality Improvement Act of 1970 considerable progress has been made in contingency planning and spill response. Of the estimated 10,000 oil spills which occur annually, actions have been taken in the majority of the cases to remove the spilled oil from the environment. However, the actual amount recovered is still small compared with the estimated spillage rate of ten million gallons per year. Improved cleanup technology can reduce the amount of oil remaining in the environment but only through implementation of Phase II — Spill Prevention will the number of incidents be reduced.

This paper discusses the EPA prevention program as it relates to national oil spill problems. The national program revolves around the spill prevention, control and countermeasure (SPCC) concept which incorporates contingency planning, spill response and prevention into one single comprehensive program. This approach permits flexibility in design and encourages innovation so that each facility may develop an optimum plan to eliminate spills. It is recognized that a facility's age, location and function must be evaluated to determine the best balance between prevention measures and effective spill response. The first phase of this program has been initiated through special provisions of the Refuse Act Permit Program. The program will be expanded with the promulgation of the oil prevention regulation which is being developed in accordance with Section 11(j)(l)(C) of the FWPC* Act as amended.
In-Situ Measurements of Oil Barrier Shape and Loads due to Current Action
Authors: Brown George A. , Barilett Stephen , Lamb Wilson
Published: January 2013

In-situ measurements have been made of oil barrier shape and loads created by current action. A commercial cylinder and skirt type barrier with a 100 foot length was used in these studies. The barrier was located in Narragansett Bay near the Jamestown Bridge so that the bridge could be used for certain measurements in this experimental program. The barrier shape was obtained by taking transit readings from the Jamestown Bridge on painted target areas located at various spots along the barrier's cylindrical floatation members. Pictures of the barrier also were taken from the bridge. The barrier was instrumented with two recording load cells — one at each end of the barrier—and two accelerometers located near the mid-point of the barrier for obtaining vertical and horizontal accelerations. Direct current measurements were made in the vicinity of the barrier by the drifting drogue technique. Wave data were taken with a capacitance wave staff located on the Jamestown Bridge. Local wind speed and direction were noted aboard the accompanying research vessel.

The shape, load and current data were used to calculate effective and base coefficients for the barrier. The observed shape was used with several drag coefficient calculations to calculate a predicted drag force on the barrier. The calculated results from these studies are in reasonable agreement with model barrier data taken in laboratory facilities.
Coast Guard Transfer Monitoring Program
Authors: Leotta J. V. , Taylor A. J.
Published: January 2013

The paper will discuss a pilot program conducted in the Seattle area. The program has shown that Coast Guard monitoring of significant bulk petroleum transfers has a positive effect on the prevention of intentional and accidental discharges. The six month study placed Coast Guard personnel at the site of 90% of the major transfer operations occurring in the Puget Sound area. The monitors observed transfer operations to insure that all applicable regulations were being observed.

The pilot program had a beneficial impact on both the Coast Guard and the industry. Coast Guard personnel were able to develop expertise in petroleum transfer techniques and related environmental concerns involving the Coast Guard. The resulting degree of professionalism favorably affected other areas of Coast Guard involvement in waterfront activities and provided a closer relationship with industry and a mutual appreciation of responsibilities. A marked decline in unknown source discharges indicated that monitoring was also effective in educating owners and operators of responsibilities in reporting discharges under the FW PCA, as amended.

The major benefit to industry was the assurance that its personnel were observing proper transfer procedures. In addition, training needs were more easily established, and the effectiveness of company training programs evaluated. Finally, employee morale improved with the realization of the importance and responsibility of their jobs.

The paper discusses the establishment of a monitoring program nationwide. Insights gained in the Seattle effort will be related to the implementation of an effective discharge prevention program with a minimal burden on industry.
Tropical Storm Agnes Pennsylvania's Torrey Canyon
Authors: Kaiser Robert , Jones Donald , Lamp'l Howard
Published: January 2013

This paper presents the “Agnes Story” disaster as related to the largest inland oil spill experienced in the history of the U.S. and actions taken by EPA in coping with the problem. Contrasted to the massive oceanic spill of the TORREY CANYON, other major ship oil pollution disasters, the Santa Barbara and Gulf of Mexico offshore platform oil spills, the oil pollution resulting from the flooding produced by Tropical Storm Agnes required unprecedented actions by many governmental agencies. The inland rivers of the Middle Atlantic area experienced spills of petroleum products ranging from over 3,000,000 gallons of No. 2 fuel oil, gasoline and kerosene from storage tanks in Big Flats / Elmira, N.Y. (just north of the Pennsylvania border) to 6,000,000–8,000,000 gallons of black, highly metallic waste oil and sludge from an oil reclamation plant on the Schuylkill River.

The aftermath of this gigantic inland oil spill was oil and gasoline soaked fields, oil coated trees, farm houses, homes, factories, an airport, and hundreds of stranded oil puddles, ponds and lagoons as the rivers receded to normal levels. The record setting flood stage along several miles of both the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Rivers and their tributaries was recorded vividly ashore on trees and buildings as if by a black grease pencil, drawing attention to the most widespread property damage suffered from the most devastating storm in recorded U.S. history.

Cleanup of the spilled oil in the midst of other rescue and restorative actions by Federal, State and Municipal agencies was fraught with emergency response problems including: identification of major impact points, availability of resources for response actions, coordination of response actions, activation of cleanup contractors, meeting administrative requirements, and the structure for making command decisions. Along with these requirements were technical decisions to be made concerning methods of physical removal procedures, containment systems, chemical treating agents and, very importantly, protecting and restoring the environment.

Major spill effects and significant cleanup operations, problems encountered, and lessons learned are presented so that future responses can be better and more efficiently dealt with in an inland oil spill disaster comparable to the “Agnes Oil Spill”.
An Effective Oil Spill Containment-Recovery System for High Seas Use
Authors: Glaeser John L.
Published: January 2013

The development and testing of a now operational oil spill containment-recovery system is discussed.

Unique designs incorporated into the system include: (1) an oil spill containment harrier utilizing a “Bottom Tension” concept to increase containment effectiveness and survival strength; and (2) a wave compensating, weir type skimmer system utilizing a droplet formation process to recover high viscosity emulsions.

A testing program has described the operational characteristics of the system. The results of this program are presented. A typical operational “package” using the basic boom and skimmer components is discussed.
Use of the Massachusetts Dip Oil Skimmer on Free Slicks in the Casco Bay (Portland) Spill
Authors: Bianchi Ralph A. , Johanson Edward E. , Farrell James H.
Published: January 2013

On July 22, 1972, the tanker Tamano, carrying a full load of No. 6 fuel oil, sustained a ruptured tank and reportedly spilled on the order of 100,000 gallons of oil in Casco Bay. For two weeks following the accident, the Tamano was anchored and surrounded by containment booms while its cargo was off-loaded and cleanup operations were performed. This paper describes the role that the Commonwealth of Massachusetts' newly developed Dynamic Inclined Plane (DIP) Skimmer played in the cleanup operation and presents observations and evidence of the need for, and effectiveness of, a mobile skimmer in large spill situations. The paper also discusses the necessity of testing an operating plan especially as it relates to the cleanup hardware to be used.

The feasibility of skimming free slicks is discussed in the paper and demonstrated in a film. The role of support vessels in maintaining the skimming operation and handling the collected liquids and solids is examined. The effective use of skimmers is demonstrated over a wide range of environmental conditions and the full range of oil debris conditions from the newly spilled, relatively clean oil to the weathered straw-seaweed-debris-laden material that exists after several days.

The oil skimmer was secured to the side of several different vessels and used in a sweeping mode to collect heavy, weathered No. 6 oil, oily straw, oily seaweed, and debris. Several conditions are presented including harvesting of windrows of oil and debris, harvesting thick oil in a free slick (in seas several feet high), and harvesting both thick oil and sheen leaking from a boom. The effectiveness of these operations is explored in terms of both pickup and transfer.

There are a number of important observations and conclusions to be gained from this experience and from the experiences of other large spills.

Skimming operations can be effective, not only at the outset of a spill, but also during all phases of the cleanup operation. Development work is needed if skimmers are to handle the large volumes of solids as well as oil present.

Skimming of free slicks, and leaks from boomed areas, is not only effective, but necessary, to reduce the environmental and economic impact of the spill.

There is an urgent need to provide mobile storage to handle the high volumes of heavy oil and debris which can be recovered by second-generation skimmers.
Prevention is Best
Authors: Hemmen G. H.
Published: January 2013

There are many things that have been developed or brought into use as a result of a desire by petroleum marketers to reduce the frequency of incidents related to the escape of petroleum products underground.

Programs, products and equipment currently in use in service stations, bulk plants and terminals can be credited with substantially reducing the total volume of products released into the soil.

The paper reviews the history of the development of fiberglass reinforced plastic tanks, tank testing equipment, line leak detectors, pre-engineered cathodic protection systems and wrapping. An indication of the extent of usage by marketers together with pros and cons will be reviewed.

Various approaches directed towards the safe disposition of waste oils will be reviewed along with a description of the joint industry efforts underway to find new and better ways of achieving ecologically sound means of handling this problem.

In addition to the preventive type of action, a brief discussion of emergency procedures will be given.

(These subjects may be expanded into two papers.)
Drain Oil Disposal in Wisconsin
Authors: Ostrander Ronald O. , Kleinert Stanton J.
Published: January 2013

Service stations handle from 55 to 65 percent of the oil drained from crankcases in Wisconsin. Of this, 97.6 percent is re-used, and 2.4 percent wasted.
Terrestrial Oil Spills in Alaska: Environmental Effects and Recovery
Authors: Hunt P. G. , Rickard W. E. , Deneke F. J. , Koutz F. R. , Murrman R. P.
Published: January 2013

Damage and natural recovery of terrestrial ecosystems affected by refined petroleum spills along the Haines to Fairbanks military pipeline in Alaska have been investigated. Since the 20-cm-diameter, 1007-km-long pipeline was opened in 1956, there have been 40 reported ruptures along it. Mosses and trees were completely killed, and vegetation is now sparse in the drier portions of the spill areas. Some new vegetation is growing in drainage pathways. The dead organic mat has provided adequate insulation, and only a few instances of slope instability, where slopes exceed 20 percent, have occurred. Through laboratory studies on the rates of microbial respiration in Fairbanks silt containing 15 percent Prudhoe crude, it has been determined that microbial activity is increased by inoculation with mixed-culture oil-degrading microorganisms, increased pH, and phosphorus additions. Microbial activity also responds positively to nitrogen addition after an initial negative response. The negative response varied with treatments, and was not caused by either ammonia or nitrite toxicity. These observations were tested in the field along the pipeline where nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers were applied in several rate combinations to small plots in a selected automotive gasoline spill area. In addition the plots were seeded with a commercial grass mixture. The objective of this experiment was to determine if microbial degradation of the fuel and revegetation could be enhanced by the addition of fertilizer. There was a positive response in terms of microbial activity and plant growth in the treated plots. It has not been determined at this point if the increase in vegetation response was solely a fertilizer response or related to the increased rate of petroleum degradation.
Effect of a Bunker Fuel on the Beach Bacterial Flora
Authors: Cobet Andre B. , Guard Harold E.
Published: January 2013

Studies at four sampling locations on three beaches in the San Francisco area affected by oil from an 840,000 gallon spill of Chevron bunker fuel have shown that the size of the bacterial population and distribution of bacterial genera within the beach was unaffected by the petroleum hydrocarbons remaining in the beach sand after completion of the cleanup operation. Only 15 percent of the beach bacteria were affected by a variety of petroleum components including the pentane soluble fraction of the bunker fuel.
The Fate of a Bunker Fuel in Beach Sand
Authors: Guard Harold E. , Cobet Andre B.
Published: January 2013

The dispersed oil concentrations in sand from three San Francisco area beaches have been measured over a 143 day period following an 840,000 gallon bunker fuel spill in San Francisco Bay. The dispersed oil remaining within the beaches after cleanup was extensively weathered while visible oil globules exhibited only minor weathering. Elevated levels of chloroform-extractable material were observed at two sampling locations following the spill. The background levels of chloroform-extractable materials determined from log-normal distribution analysis were ten-fold higher on bay beaches than on ocean beaches. Laboratory experiments indicated that in a beach system evaporation, dissolution, and microbial degradation combine to remove the lower molecular weight fractions of bunker fuel. A major effect of the beach is to disperse the oil. This dispersal has been shown to greatly enhance the effect of dissolution on the composition of bunker fuel. While the effect of exposure to water on the composition of a bunker fuel slick is minimal, significant amounts of the lower ends of bunker fuel (which is highly dispersed) in a sand column are removed by dissolution.
EVALUATION OF SOME METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS IN MARINE ORGANISMS
Authors: Farrington John W. , Medeiros Gilbert C.
Published: January 2013

Soxhlet extraction, homogenization with Na2So4 in a Virtis homogenizer, and KOH-methanol digestion methods of extracting hydrocarbons from marine organisms have been tested and compared using subsamples of a clam (Marcenaria mercenaria) homogenate. The amounts of hydrocarbons were determined gravimetrically and the composition was partially characterized by gas chromatography. There was a statistically significant difference between the results of the Virtis vs. Soxhlet and Soxhlet vs. digestion methods. However, in practice the difference is small and would be apparent only if large numbers of replicate measurements were made.

The concentration of hydrocarbons in clams from three locations, a polluted harbor area, a less polluted bay area, and a relatively clean bay have been determined. The composition was partially characterized by gas chromatography.

Subsamples of clam homogenate spiked with 10 ppm API No. 2 fuel oil have been analyzed. Only 5 to 6 ppm of the spike were detected. Gas chromatographic analysis indicated that the lower molecular weight components of the spike were lost. The gas chromatographic passive tagging parameters were altered from those of the API No. 2 fuel oil by interference from hydrocarbons already present in the clams prior to spiking.