bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Digital Inequality: Internet Technologies in Activation of Consumer Behavior
Authors:   Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Ivashinenko Nina , Teodorovich Mikhail ,   Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Varyzgina Alla ,   Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod
Published: January 2021

The paper is focused on the analysis of the territorial distribution of digital inequality in the Russian region and its influence on the level of online trading in the region. The paper presents the results of monitoring studies of the development of competition and of anti-monopoly regulation in the Nizhny Novgorod region, conducted since 2014, and the results of the last survey in 2018 (comparable methodology was used) on 3,000 respondents out of 20 districts of the region, different by their socio-economic situation. The sample is territorially random, representing the population by sex and age. The authors use the concept of digital inequality of the third generation developed by Ragneddа (Ragnedda, 2017) for study of digital inequality in shopping online possibilities. This approach defines digital inequality not only as an information and technological and educational elements in differences of social groups and communities in the Internet access, but also as an inequality of the advantages that groups might get from its use. This type of inequality cannot be overcome only due to technological and popularizing decisions; inequality should be controlled by the state and communities to prevent its escalation and of excluding entire territories from social and economic development. The paper presents the invented methodology for the typology of administrative municipalities of the region, which helps in implementation of state control over competition. All territories of the region were divided into four zones with different degree of government regulation needed. It helps to reduce the imbalance in market development and to lower the digital divide in Internet shopping. A study of the interrelation between online shopping and retail population satisfaction in administrative regions of Russian regions shows the urgent need to expand municipal competition development maps to include shopping online indicators.
Economic Practices of a Rural Lifestyle in Russia and Colombia: A Sociological Analysis
Authors:   Pedagogical and Technological University of Colombia, Krasnov Mikhail , Skobelina Natalia ,   Volgograd State University
Published: January 2021

The article analyzes the lifestyle activities of the rural population of Russia and Colombia in the economic sphere. The possibility of comparing data for both countries, provided by similar methods of statistical observations adopted by the statistical agencies of both countries, and the unified principles of organizing a sociological study conducted by the authors, is shown. The features of rural economic and economic practices identified through indicators of the labor market and employment are revealed. In Russia, these are the dominance of wage employment to the detriment of entrepreneurship, the high proportion of informal self-employment, in which agricultural activity predominates (with its systemic reduction in the official labor market), the growth of pendulum labor migration to cities. In Colombia, there are a steady dominance of agricultural activity in the field of rural employment, a high proportion of laborers and small non-agricultural businesses, usually informal, high employment of women in the household, and an increase in permanent labor migration to cities. It has been established that the main motivational factors of rural lifestyle practices are determined by living conditions and are the same in Russia and Colombia; are objective and rational. These include, first of all, the location of the village: proximity to the city everywhere promotes a plurality of labor strategies; changes in welfare and employment structure: abandonment of agricultural activities, job loss, low incomes stimulate self-employment, entrepreneurial activity and labor migration (pendulum and permanent) to cities. Rational, objectively conditioned motives lead to the emergence of essentially identical lifestyle practices, which may differ in forms and frequency of manifestation, reflecting national specificity. It is shown that a change in the external socio-economic environment causes a similar rational socio-behavioral reaction in rural society, regardless of national characteristics.
Transformations of Hegemonic Masculinity and Functions of Female Images in Contemporary Western Films
Authors:   Minin Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University (Minin University), Igaeva Ksenia
Published: January 2021

The controversy about modern transformations of consumer society typically is not related to gender studies. At the same time, the spread of mass culture in the consumer society has had a significant impact on the redistribution of gender roles. Gender studies have long been dominated by the study of women's history through criticism of hegemonic masculinity as a system for the distribution of social roles, and economic inequality was only their derivative. Moreover, starting from the first decade of the XXI century, many researchers appear (M. Kimmel, S. Bordeaux, S. Robinson) striving to move away from the established tradition. Thus, according to modern researchers, the concept of "hegemonic masculinity" is controversial. However, it is generally well established in gender studies to describe the power of middle-class white men, their everyday behavior, and normative representations in culture. The purpose of this article is to identify the feedback – the growing influence of the consumption laws, as well as the consumer culture formed on their basis, on the distribution of gender roles in popular Western cinema, which is both a representation and a reinforcement of normative models of social behavior. In modern cinema, the image of a man belonging to the hegemonic type of masculinity undergoes several stylistic changes that allow preserving the former normative ideal. Male images are mimicking in the new social space that has developed in the post-industrial economy, imitating changes in the dominant type of masculinity, which, however, does not lose its power positions. At the same time, the female heroine in popular cinema fails to fundamentally change the established model of normativity: she tries on traditional male roles and becomes a consumer of established stereotypes, refusing to try to change the very system of hegemony.
Intellectual Forum “Frankfurt School: Reading Habermas”
Authors:   Volgograd State University, Mityagina Vera , Rebrina Larisa ,   Volgograd State University, Strizoe Alexander ,   Volgograd State University, Tokareva Svetlana ,   Volgograd State University, Javorskiy Dmitriy ,   Volgograd State University, Chemeteva Yuliya ,   Volgograd State University
Published: January 2021

The article presents an overview of the events in the framework of the intellectual forum "Frankfurt School: Reading Habermas" held at Volgograd State University with the support of the Moscow branch of the Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung.
Numerical Simulations of Instability in the Shell of a Supernova Remnant Expanding in a Weakly in Inhomogeneous Interstellar Medium
Authors: Korolev Vitaliy , Eremin Mikhail , Kovalenko Ilya , Zankovich Andrey
Published: January 2021

Astronomical observations show that the supernova remnants, even with a close to spherical shape, usually have multiscale ripple-like distortions. For example 15 bends on the shock front are clearly visible in the remnant 0509-67.5. The global instability of the flow is considered as one of the possible mechanisms for generating such structures. In the frame of linear analysis [26] was shown that this instability has a resonance character. It means that the perturbations with a certain wavelength number should grow faster, therefore ripples in the remnant shell will manifest itself predominantly in a certain range of scales. In this paper we present the results of numerical simulations of the nonlinear stage of this instability, caused by small perturbations in the external environment, depending on their scale and intensity. The unpertubed gas is supposed to has a power-law spartial dependence ρ0(r) ~ r-ω, where ω is a constant. The blast wave generated by a supernova expolosion is descibed by a Sedov type similarity solution. We have developed two-dimensional numerical model of adiabatic flow with a blast wave in a comoving frame of reference based on parallel code AstroChemHydro [1]. It was shown that, according to the predictions of linear analysis, perturbations in the external flow amplify behind the front of the shock wave, which leads to the development of convective instability and the development of turbulence. The results of numerical simulations demonstrated that in shell-type flows (for omega = 2,7 and gamma = 4/3) external disturbances along with the characteristic rearrangement of the shock front and turbulization of the flow behind it, cause the formation of radially elongated filaments with a vortex structure behind the shock, the number of which is determined by the harmonic number of the perturbation l.
Nursing and "being with" in a world with COVID-19: an existentialist look
Authors: Silva Carolina Giordani da , Crossetti Maria da Graça Oliveira , Giménez-Fernández Maravilla
Published: January 2021

ABSTRACT Objective To reflect on nursing from an existentialist perspective, in which "being-with" has been shown to be the best type of care in a world with Covid-19. Method Reflective theoretical study on nursing in the context of a pandemic using an existentialist philosophical theoretical framework. Results Nursing is now perceived by society as a profession whose practices are beyond the clinical conditions that affect individuals who live with this pandemic, as taking care of others is not only performing technical actions, but means, fundamentally, taking sensitive ones, like “being-with” in a present and authentic way. Final considerations The pandemic has caused changes in the way human beings relate to the world, leading to reflections on values due to the restrictions imposed by it. In this scenario, nurses becomes visible, being the protagonists in the different care spaces, since the focus of its practice is existential care, which is established through relationships in encounters between beings, thus making “being-with” possible.
What Should Students Pay for University Course Readings? An Empirical, Economic, and Legal Analysis
Authors: Willinsky John , Baron Catherine
Published: January 2021

In the context of the significant court battles that are being fought over the potential copyright infringement involved in distributing the articles and excerpts assigned to students in university courses, this study analyzes 3,391 course syllabuses (2015-2020) from nine provinces and 34 universities across Canada. It identifies the types and proportions of required readings among academic and non-academic sources. Academic readings are assigned on 26.6 percent of the syllabuses, compared to 8.3 percent of syllabuses for media articles and trade book chapters. Among the assigned readings, journal articles lead the list (with 54.3% of all readings), compared to scholarly book chapters (33.5%), media articles (6.0%), and trade book chapters (6.3%). The social sciences lead in the assignment of journal articles and the humanities in  trade book chapters, while science was least likely to have assigned readings of any type. The study also found that textbooks are required on a majority of syllabuses (66.0%), with only minor differences in this proportion across science, social sciences, and humanities. The data enable a further analysis at the page level of what the average student is asked to read annually, which, at the Access Copyright current tariff of $14.31 (approved by the Canadian Copyright Board), amounts to a $0.021 per page. This rate is applied in a proposed new “three-step syllabus rule” that avoids double-charging students for academic materials (90.1% of readings by pages), while fairly compensating professional authors and their publishers (9.9%), with the data analyzed here suggesting a $1.40 annual charge per student for their assigned readings. Version 2 of this preprint contains an appendix setting out how the Open Syllabus Project can be used with the three-step syllabus rule.
The Traditional Background of Partonopeus de Blois
Authors: Newstead Helaine
Published: January 2021

The romance of Partonopeus de Blois, though widely read and much admired in the Middle Ages, has not aroused a comparable interest among modern scholars. No edition of the French text has been published since 1834, and no exhaustive investigation of its literary sources has yet appeared. The story is usually explained as a medievalized version of the legend of Cupid and Psyche, with the roles of hero and heroine reversed under the influence of Breton lais of the fairy mistress type. Since critical discussions have tended to emphasize—perhaps overemphasize—the indebtedness of Partonopeus to the classical legend and its folk tale analogues, the connections with the Breton lais and the matière de Bretagne have been explored only in a general and rather tentative way. A more specific study of these connections based on the available French edition may help us to reach a clearer understanding of the materials which compose this charming romance, although a comprehensive analysis must await a critical edition of the text.
Analysis of the Berlin MS Germ. Quart. 414
Authors: Ellis Frances H.
Published: January 2021

In the Library of Congress there is a micro-film of the cod. germ. quart-414, Berlin, Preussische Staatsbibliothek, a manuscript valuable for those interested in the study of Meistergesang. It contains Meisterlieder which Hans Sachs had collected and includes forty which he wrote himself. Begun in July, 1517, the copying was probably completed by the end of the next year, since none of the poems carry a date later than 1518. For this article a detailed account of the history of the manuscript is not essential. Various scholars have described it briefly, and Goedeke noted its contents, to a certain extent, in his Grundriß. The manuscript is a long one, 459 leaves in addition to a Preface and twenty folios of Index. It is hoped that the following analysis may prove of assistance to those who, like myself, might want to investigate particular problems.
Grimmelshausens Simplicissimus als Verhüllte Religionssatire
Authors: Scholte J. H.
Published: January 2021

Wer von der alten Universitätsstadt Besançon den Doubs stromaufwärts verfolgt bis da, wo er die bezeichnende Schleife bildet, die dem Departement Form und Namen gegeben hat, trifft kurz vor der Krümmung einen linken Nebenfluß, die Alaine, deren malerisches Tal von dem alten Städtchen Montbéliard beherrscht wird. Zur Römerzeit als Mons Peligardi schon ein strategisch wichtiger Punkt, erreichte Montbéliard in der Geschichte Europas seine Hauptbedeutung als Bollwerk und Zufluchtsort des Protestantismus. Das hing mit seiner Regierung zusammen. Gegen Ende des vierzehnten Jahrhunderts, als das Grafengeschlecht Montbéliard in der männlichen Linie ausgestorben war, kam es infolge eines Familienvertrags an die Herzoge von Württemberg. Schon in ihrer gräflichen Zeit hatte die württembergische Dynastie im linksrheinischen Gebiet Interessen begründet, indem Graf Ulrich der Dritte 1324 Schloß und Herrschaft Horbourg im Elsaß kaufte. Später kamen dann Schloß und Herrschaft Riquewihr und die Grafschaft Montbéliard hinzu. Diese linksrheinischen Enklaven, die seitdem auf deutscher Seite regelmäßig mit den deutschen Namen Horburg, Reichenweier und Mömpelgard bezw. Mompelgard, Mompelgart, Monpelgart, bezeichnet werden, dienten durchweg jüngeren Mitgliedern des regierenden Hauses und verwitweten Fürstinnen zum Aufenthalt, waren auch in Zeiten der Not ein willkommenes Refugium. Als Herzog Ulrich 1519 vom Schwäbischen Bund aus Stuttgart vertrieben wurde, wandte er sich nach Mömpelgard, um erst fünfzehn Jahre später in sein Herzogtum zurückzukehren und es als Lehen vom Kaiser Ferdinand zurückzuempfangen. Während dieses Mömpelgarder Aufenthalts war er mit dem schweizerischen Reformator Guillaume Farel bekannt geworden und hatte unter seinem Einfluß in der Grafschaft die neue Religion eingeführt. Seitdem blieb Montbéliard eine Hochburg des Protestantismus. Ihre Bedeutung in Glaubenssachen trat in ein besonders helles Licht, als im Verlauf des Jahrhunderts Graf Friedrich von Württemberg-Montbéliard zwei berühmte Theologen, den Nachfolger Calvins Theodor Beza und den rührigen Jakob Andreae, dahin einlud um in Gegenwart vornehmer weltlicher und geistlicher Zeugen die Vorzüge des Kalvinismus und des Luthertums gegeneinander abzugrenzen.
On Espronceda's Personality
Authors: Pattison Walter T.
Published: January 2021

Two schools of thought exist today concerning the Byronic attitude revealed in Espronceda's works: the traditional school declares that it is a reflection of the rebellious, irreligious, Bohemian character of the poet, while the new school believes that Espronceda deliberately acted and wrote in such a way as to make the public think that he was a dangerous rebel, merely to cast an aura of romanticism about his own person. According to the latter critics, Espronceda was playing a part or maintaining a pose. They claim that his friends knowingly contributed to the false portrait and that their accounts of Espronceda's disdain for conventionality—which are taken quite literally by the traditional school—are but fabrications intended to foster a legend. Hence the new critics give no credence to Ferrer del Río's statement that Espronceda was depicting himself in the hero of El estudiante de Salamanca or Escosura's implication that Byron's romantic adventures and disordered existence influenced profoundly Espronceda's fiery soul, “not less naturally rebellious against the common rules of life.”
La Particule Mon
Authors: Spitzer Leo
Published: January 2021

L'étymologie de la particule anc. française mon, qui se trouve encore dans des passages fameux du théâtre classique (“Ça mon vraiment! il y a fort à gagner à fréquenter vos nobles!”, Molière, Bourg. gent.iii, 3; “Ardez, vraiment, c'est mon, on vous l'endurera,” Corneille, Galerie du Palais, v. 1392), est loin d'être sûrement établie. “Ce petit mot a fait verser des flots d'encre,” nous dit Livet, Lex. de Mol., s.v., ça mon: il a inspiré aux philologues depuis Silvius (1531), R. Estienne et J. Thierry, jusqu'à Ebeling (1900) les explications les plus fantaisistes (v. pour la bibliographie, en outre de Livet, Behrens, Beitr. z. frz. Wortgeschichte, p. 305): multum, meum, munde, minus, germ, mund, suédois monne, grec. et (c'est la dernière, la plus phantastique, qui avait séduit l'esprit bizarre d'un Furetière et qu'un Ebeling, grave et vétilleux élève de Tobler, devait rééditer). On s'arrête généralement aujourd'hui à l'explication de Diez: munde (l'adverbe de mundus ‘pur,’ donc littéralement = ‘proprement, nettement’), que répètent Littré, Meyer-Lübke, Gamillscheg, Dauzat. Cette étymologie, certainement acceptable au point de vue sémantique (cf. l'ital. pure), se heurte pourtant à un fait phonétique: jamais nous ne trouvons en anc. français de -t final, qui pourtant devrait se présenter au moins d'une façon sporadique (cf. mundus ‘monde’ > a.fr. mont à côté du latinisme monde; Meyer-Lübke donne lui-même un a.fr. mont ‘pur’ sous mundus, que je n'ai pu, il est vrai, trouver dans les dictionnaires: il ne me semble exister que le latinisme monde et son opposé immonde). On comprendrait p. ex. qu'on trouve mon pour ∗mont dans des textes du Sud-Ouest ou anglo-normands où -t final disparaît d'assez bonne heure (cf. Pope, From Latin to Mod. French, p. 453: Gaimar rime sumun < submonet avec gerun, passiun)—mais nous ne trouvons pas de trace de mont dans le reste de la France, au moins au moyen âge. Un mont variante de la particule mon n'apparaît qu'assez tard en français, au moment où la spéculation étymologique se mêle à l'orthographe: chez Oresme, qui offre aussi la forme altérée moult (v. Godefroy), et chez des grammairiens du XVIe siècle, avides, comme on sait, d'étymologie. En face de la forme mon, seule usitée en anc. français, l'étymologie munde est intenable. Il y a encore un argument contre l'admission d'un adverbe: c'est le manque total de formes avec -s adverbial, si fréquent dans l'adverbe voir(s) ‘vraiment’: on ne trouve pas de forme ∗mons. Si nous comparons l'adverbe anc. français espoir ‘peut-être,’ qui est la forme pétrifiée de la le pers. du présent de esperer, nous remarquerons là aussi le manque de l’ -s adverbial.
A Caveat for Critics Against Invoking Elizabethan Psychology
Authors: Forest Louise C. Turner
Published: January 2021

A few years ago one bold critic rose in defense of Jaques and protested against “the disturbing intrusion of antiquarian learning” in the interpretation of Shakespeare. Apparently, however, this troublesome academic ghost is still unlaid. Indeed, so much erudite nonsense has been talked about “Elizabethan psychology” in the last quarter of a century that it has come to seem either mortal ignorance or scholarly apostasy to challenge it. We may no longer read the Elizabethans and Jacobeans for their plain poetical meanings: any phrase that speaks however faintly of souls and deeds, or of thoughts and feelings, we must interpret literally in terms of a dutifully mastered sixteenth century jargon. If a plotting villain who sees his intended victim approaching so much as cries “Dive, thoughts, down to my soul!” his words are found heavy with psychological import he little dreamed of: he is using “words which represent the final perversion of the will. In the light of Elizabethan thinking, they probably mean the wilful subjection of intellect to a mode of thought and action guided by the desires of the heart.”
The Conte Philosphique Evolves Its Solitaire
Authors: McGhee Dorothy M.
Published: January 2021

It is generally conceded that the varied personages of the eighteenth-century conte philosophique are not sufficiently developed to merit the label of characters. Whether in satiric or in pleasant guise, they but project ideas. However, as the conte itself covered a multiplicity of fields and lent itself to a variety of interpretations, so do these personages, the various divisions of ‘philosophes,’ possess numerous phases or nuances. Even a casual reader of the philosophic tale will have met, in the array of types on parade—an oft-repeated “naïf” (who was anything but naïve), at least one famed “candide,” and several “ingénus.” Another of these types engaged in his journey, and one whom a reader can scarcely fail to encounter, is “le solitaire.” He too is evolved by formula, and for his special century. Representing a nuance of the ‘philosophe,’ he is fully as potent an individual as were ever his various brother “naïfs.” If one grants that certain familiar and well-tempered themes have traversed the Encyclopedic and Revolutionary era,—one might say correlatively that this “solitaire” has contributed his very effective share to the creation of one great thematic personage. This philosophe’ could be a variety of entities, each one in turn representing and including a rather set formula of characteristics. Some aspects of the “solitaire” formula for this era alone, are to be considered in the present study.
Árabe st>esp. ç.—Esp. st>Árabe ch
Authors: Alonso Amado
Published: January 2021

Extraña condición. Ni el árabe ni el español reducen el grupo consonántico st dentro de su propio material, pero lo hace cada uno si la palabra procede del otro idioma.
Neo-Classical Criticism of the Ode for Music
Authors: Myers Robert Manson
Published: January 2021

The power of music all our hearts allow,

And what Timotheus was is Dryden now.

—Alexander Pope, An Essay on Criticism

Augustan England was no nest of singing birds. An age of prose and reason found small predilection for

those melodious bursts that fillThe spacious times of great ElizabethWith sounds that echo still.
Keats and Hazlitt: A Record of Personal Relationship and Critical Estimate
Authors: Thorpe Clarence D.
Published: January 2021

Keats had many and intense literary admirations. Some of these were seasonal and passed away with maturity: such were his youthful fondness for Beattie and Mrs. Tighe. Others were permanent and deepened with time: among these were his affection for Shakespeare, Milton, Spenser, and Chaucer and his continued love for Homer and Dante. Keats's attitudes toward important writers of his day were varied. Toward a considerable group of them he appears to have been more or less neutral, at least non-committal; for others early admiration was later wholly or partially reversed, with Hazlitt, among those he first esteemed, virtually the sole exception to a modified estimate. Thus, his early devotion to Leigh Hunt gave way to critical coolness as he began to see through the fellow's weakness; and though he once read Byron with pleasure and praised his poetry in a sonnet, he later learned to despise him for what he regarded as insincerity and perverted taste. He sometimes praised Moore and on occasion imitated his verse, but in a more final judgment he classed him with Southey and Rogers as poets he did not like. His feeling for Wordsworth alternated between almost reverential acceptance and modified rejection. Keats owed much to Wordsworth and was, perhaps, in one way or another influenced by him to the end; but after meeting the poet in London in the winter of 1817-1818, he began to see traits in him not to his taste and was thereafter inclined to speak of him and of some of his work with reservations.
“Pushed” or 'Painted“? (Inferno, ix, 1)
Authors: Austin H. D.
Published: January 2021

At the end of Canto VIII of the Inferno we read that the devils shut the gates of Dis against Vergil, leaving him—the context suggests—pale with anger. Dante, who had himself turned pale with fear on seeing his leader's change of color, says at the beginning of the next canto: ‘That color which cowardize pinse in (or ‘on′) me, as I saw my leader turn back, the more quickly repressed within him his own new color';1 that is, caused him to dissemble, for Dante's sake, his own evidences of perturbation. “Pinse,” in this context, is interpreted “painted” (Italian “dipinto”) by part of the commentators and translators, and by the rest “pushed forth,” “brought out,” “impressed,” “imprinted,” etc. (among the Italian commentators “spinse,” or “sospinse”). Among the later interpreters there is rather a distinct leaning away from the former explanation: while Scartazzini hesitates, for instance, Vandelli says “spinse,” and Grandgent shifts from “painted” to “pushed forth” between his first and second editions. Perhaps Vittorio Rossi's authoritative voice may be accountable for this; he says: ‘Fuor mi spinse is contrasted to “dentro ristrinse” of verse 3; which seems to me to exclude the more common interpretation: “painted on my countenance.” ‘
Shelley's on Life
Authors: Jones Frederick L.
Published: January 2021

The fragmentary essay On Life is so significant a piece of writing, and its connection with Shelley's mental development and with some of his poems so obvious, that its comparative neglect by commentators and biographers is rather remarkable. This essay (1) is the prose basis for the Hymn to Intellectual Beauty, (2) is saturated with the influence of Wordsworth, whose Ode: Intimations of Immortality served as a model for Shelley's Hymn, and (3) not only contains Shelley's first definite announcement of his rejection of a materialistic philosophy and adoption of a spiritual “intellectual system,” but also marks an important point in his mental growth.
The Tinker's Wedding, a Revaluation
Authors: Greene David H.
Published: January 2021

The Tinker's Wedding is the most unattractive of the plays of J. M. Synge. This unruly little farce, the only two-act play Synge attempted, has been generally labelled an ugly duckling. But the manuscript drafts of the play tell an interesting story which, if it does not cause us to revise our estimate of the play, assigns it a proper place in the Synge canon and partly explains its deficiencies. The manuscripts show, for instance, that The Tinker's Wedding was the dramatist's first attempt to break away from the one-act form and that possibly Synge's only mistake was in publishing the results of his experiment. They afford an interesting insight into Synge's method; and they include, in an earlier version of the preface to the play an apology to the Irish clergy. They also throw light on Synge's development toward the mastery of the full, three-act play.
Anti-Statism in German Literature, as Exemplified by the Work of John Henry Mackay
Authors: Riley Thomas A.
Published: January 2021

Emerson's and Thoreau's individualistic, anti-government writings, it is said, developed out of an American background. Our land of liberty, out of fear that government might come to concern itself too familiarly with matters pertaining to the personal thinking and behavior of individuals, has nurtured from its beginning a lively suspicion for concentrations of political power. This suspicion is everywhere in American letters, which have been ever eager to slap government's fingers when it became over-forward. Each individual, as our thinkers and writers repeatedly tell us, should insist on solving his own problems without dictation from external forces, whether from the laws of a too aggressive legislature or from a next-door neighbor who considers himself an arbiter of behavior and taste. Of seekers for political office, Emerson predicted: “Wake them, and they shall quit the false good and leap to the true and leave government to clerks and desks.” A recent article on the American individualist maintained, “His political ideal will, of course, be Jefferson, his prophets will be Emerson and Thoreau; his poet, Whitman.”
The Interpretation of Jonson's Courtly Spectacles
Authors: Talbert Ernest William
Published: January 2021

In spite of the work accomplished by such students of the court masque as Brotanek, Reyher, and Miss Welsford and such Jonsonian scholars as Castelain and Herford, I believe that Jonson's long concern with the courtly spectacle has not been fully understood. Jonson's pedantry or antiquarianism, the many excellent lyrical passages in his main masques, the “little comedies of manners” in his antimasques, and the “usual flattery” of the courtly entertainment have been the critics' points of emphasis. Very recently Mr. Gordon pointed out that in The Masque of Blacknesse and The Masque of Beautie Jonson attempted to elucidate solid Renaissance doctrine, but only Mr. Gilbert, as far as I know, has questioned the correctness of interpreting as flattery some of the passages praising James in Jonson's courtly spectacles. Usually Jonson's “weighty antiquarianism” and “unabashed flattery” have been either censured or indulgently condoned in these “strictly occasional” works wherein the greatest persons in the realm exhibited themselves and their riches in the intricate dances that formed the center of the Masque and the sumptuous tournament that formed the center of the Barriers.
Zola's L'œuvre and Reconquista of Gamboa
Authors: Niess Robert J.
Published: January 2021

Although Federico Gamboa is often called the leading exponent of literary naturalism in Mexico and as such was inevitably a follower of Zola, it is difficult to demonstrate that he borrowed heavily or continuously from the French master. His work provides only scattered examples of direct appropriation from Zola and the latter's influence on him was rather general than specific, bearing mainly on his choice of subject-matter, method of treatment and overall social outlook. But in at least one novel it is possible to see more than this general influence, to find evidence of an attempt on Gamboa's part not only to imitate Zola but to take a form already developed by his predecessor and to turn it to his own philosophic and artistic ends. That novel is Reconquista. Lacking specific declarations from Gamboa himself, we cannot reach definite conclusions, but certain evidence indicates that the work may have been based on Zola's L'Œuvre, based on it not as an imitation but as an answer to the basic idea that Zola had expressed in that long and turgid novel.
The Uses of James's Imagery: Drama Through Metaphor
Authors: Gibson Priscilla
Published: January 2021

A study such as Wolfgang Clemen's The Development of Shakespeare's Imagery (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1951) indicates that something other than the content of a metaphor, or even its simple recurrence, will prove important for the investigator of images. The skill of the artist may better be revealed in the functioning of his images or the great variety of uses which they are made to serve in different contexts. This suggestion has especial validity when applied to such a craftsman as Henry James. The changing conditions under which he applies certain figures in part explain why James's later fiction becomes more dramatic, at the same time that it remains realistic and more exclusively concerns itself with subjective events.
The Original Source of Hardy's Dynasts
Authors: Cassidy John A.
Published: January 2021

Professor Hoxie N. Fairchild has conclusively shown that Thomas Hardy took much of the inspiration, the thought, and the structure of his epic poem of the Napoleonic Wars, The Dynasts, from Robert Buchanan's Drama of Kings, published in 1871. But the story does not end there. The purpose of this article is to make clear that Buchanan was, in turn, a liegeman of Victor Hugo and borrowed extensively from the poetry of the great French exile for the form and much of the matter of his Drama of Kings; that, specifically, Hugo's La Légende des siècles furnished much of the inspiration and the substance of Buchanan's poem; and that Hugo, rather than Buchanan, is thus the original source of Hardy's epic.
Browning's Sordello as a Study of the Will
Authors: Hilton Earl
Published: January 2021

Browning's critics and biographers never tire of recounting the original reception of Sordello. We are told again and again Tennyson's remark that only the first and last lines are intelligible and they are both false, or Mrs. Carlyle's comment that after reading the poem through she had still not discovered whether Sordello was a man, a city, or a book. But even more discouraging to the modern reader who wishes to take Sordello seriously is the tendency of later critics, including those otherwise friendly to Browning, to ignore the poem or pass it by with brief praise for what are sometimes called its “incidental beauties.” Sir Henry Jones, writing on Browning in the Cambridge History of English Literature, passes it by without an attempt at interpretation. Chesterton does the same in the English Men of Letters Series biography, while Phelps, conceding that “in its inmost citadel is some precious secret,” adds “but not only has no one found it, no one knows what it is.” The few studies since 1920 listed in the CBEL all deal with sources and composition, and the yearly bibliographies in PMLA since the publication of the CBEL (1941) list only one interpretive paper. DeVane, in his valuable Browning Handbook (1935), continues the study of sources and methods of composition, showing the evolution of the poem through three successive plans over a period of seven years. As might be expected, DeVane does not find the poem unified. It is, he concludes, “a bewildering potpourri of poetry, psychology, love, romance, humanitarianism, philosophy, fiction, and history.”
The Contrarieties: Wordsworth's Dualistic Imagery
Authors: Smith Charles J.
Published: January 2021

The “many movements” of a poet's mind are so various, the hiding-places of his power are so obscured, even to the poet himself, that any attempt to

parcel outHis intellect by geometric rules,Split like a province into round and square

is very dangerous. Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to generalize about a poet's mental or temperamental habits, and, if such habits are basic enough, an understanding of them may throw new light on his work. In Wordsworth, a pattern of basic habits of thinking and feeling unfolds itself in a kind of dualism: Wordsworth had a very strong habit of thinking in terms of paired opposites or contrarieties. Everywhere, in nature, in individual man and in society, he saw a constant interplay of opposing forces. These contrarieties were a characteristic manifestation of his mind. They found expression spontaneously in hundreds of images which are too short, too obviously unpremeditated to have been the result of conscious thought. Such images are, rather, an unconscious expression of a habitual turn of mind.
“The Sorrows” of Charles Brockden Brown
Authors: Tilton Eleanor M.
Published: January 2021

The writings of Charles Brockden Brown have evoked a number of curious judgments: Shelley's admiration of Constantia Dudley, for instance, and Margaret Fuller's intimation that she herself might have been a worthy companion for so intellectual and sensitive a man as Brown. Anyone deceived by Brown's fiction is in distinguished company certainly, for even the fastidious Hawthorne and the critical Poe thought well of his work. Whether all the extravagances he evokes redound to his credit is perhaps a matter of opinion, but it is hardly to his credit as a novelist that his fiction should not be recognized as such. Recently, however, what is clearly his attempt to write an epistolary novel of a grand passion, in the manner of Werther and La Nouvelle Héloise, has been misread and offered as providing biographical data.
Melville's Indian-Hater: A Note on a Meaning of The Confidence-Man
Authors: Pearce Roy Harvey
Published: January 2021

Recently, in his “Sources and Symbols for Melville's Confidence-Man” (PMLA, lxvi [1951], 363-380), John W. Shroeder has given us what I judge to be one of our most valuable exegeses of this difficult novel. Yet I think his exegesis must be modified somewhat—modified by working as he works, from source to symbol. In this note, meant to be complementary to Mr. Shroeder's essay, I should like to consider further one of Melville's symbols in relation to the source from which it takes its initial meaning. My concern is to try to understand Melville's Indian-hater and the “metaphysics” of his hatred in relation to the tradition from which they are derived.
An Unidentified Criticism by Coleridge Related to Christabel
Authors: Patterson Charles I.
Published: January 2021

For a brief period of about eight months, from June 1796 through February 1797, Coleridge sought to augment his income by reviewing for the Critical Review and the Monthly Magazine. The enthusiasm with which he embraced this hope is shown by numerous references in his letters and in those of Lamb. I have found evidence which identifies two more of Coleridge's uncollected reviews—one of them an essay on Greek, Latin, and English prosody which Coleridge wrote as a review of Bishop Samuel Horslèy's On the Prosodies of the Greek and Latin Languages (1796). Unknown to me, Professor George Whalley was at the same time preparing to authenticate this review, and he recently published his evidence together with a complete text. I have some further evidence to add to Whalley's and a demonstration of the significance of the review.
Shakespeare's Romantic Comedies
Authors: Thompson Karl F.
Published: January 2021

Readers of Mr. Brooks Atkinson's review (New York Times, 19 Feb. 1950) of a recent production of As You Like It must have felt that the critic was at a loss for something relevant to say. The cluttered stage elicited objections (the danger of Miss Hepburn's barking her shins made the reviewer apprehensive—her legs “deserve every possible protection”). But the play itself was dismissed as pleasant but not suitable for tough-minded modern grown-ups: Shakespeare wrote it “carelessly as far as construction and logic were concerned,” and “By modern standards the plot is silly.” After these remarks, it would seem, nothing good could be said for the play. But the day is saved for Shakespeare's fame by the redeeming fact that despite all its demerits the play shows “the matchless genius of Shakespeare.”
Chaucer's Colloquial English: Its Structural Traits
Authors: Schlauch Margaret
Published: January 2021

The recognition of levels of discourse in Chaucer's writings is no new thing, but it has hitherto been associated more often with aesthetic appreciation than with linguistic analysis. We have been aware that Chaucer was a great master in the adaptation of subject matter to style. We have observed how skilfully he was able to modify figures of speech, rhythms, and choice of words—in short, the rhetorical elements of his discourse—to its content, whether exalted or moderate or lowly (grandis, mediocris, humilis), according to the well-known medieval doctrines of composition. He himself spoke more than once of the requirements for such adaptation in matters of vocabulary “the wordes moote be cosyn to the dede” (CT A 742; cf. H 208), and burel folk in literature should accordingly use earthy terms, while clergy and aristocrats employ different words appropriate to their stations. But he does not specifically mention other matters of language which also serve to mark off, not only the various social levels, but the different types of situation which affect the structure of speech by one and the same person. The handling of sentence structure and syntax may also be shown to manifest a fine correlation with the demands of literary form and intention in Chaucer's work.
Linear Modification
Authors: Bolinger Dwight L.
Published: January 2021

[Elements as they are added one by one to form a sentence progressively limit the semantic range of all that has preceded. This causes beginning elements to have a wider semantic range than elements toward the end. The concept of linear modification thus developed knits together a number of otherwise heterogeneous manifestations of sentence order in English, and provides a plausible theory of adjective position.]

The linear geometry of the sentence imposes certain relationships upon the elements that compose it. These relationships are conveniently expressed as dichotomies. Two dichotomies are, figuratively, spatial: they are contiguous versus separate (A is next to B or is distant from B) and within versus without (A is contained within B or is outside B). Two dichotomies are temporal : first versus last and before versus after. While it does not follow that any of these pairs necessarily has linguistic importance, given their location at the very foundation of sentence structure it would be strange if they had not been seized upon for some use in communication. I think it can be shown that all of them have, probably in all languages, though I am concerned here only with the last two, the temporal dichotomies, and even with these, only in two languages.
Etymological Comments upon Certain Old Norse Proper Names in the Eddas
Authors: Sturtevant Albert Morey
Published: January 2021

I. Sága, the Name of a Goddess. Jacob Grimm, in his Mythologie (ii, 759), interpreted the name Sága as a personification of the appellative saga ‘history, story.‘ This interpretation has now been rightly rejected because the long radical vowel a in the proper name Sága is attested by its occurrence in skaldic verse. I question, however, whether this difference in the quantity of the radical vowel in these two forms warrants the conclusion that they are not etymologically related.
The Pure Flame
Authors: Hatcher Harlan
Published: January 2021

“Life is a pure flame, and we live by an invisible sun within us.”

This sentence, better than any I know, goes to the heart of letters. It defines the personal and professional quest which inspires us day by day, and brings us together in this Association year by year. It is the continuing wonder of man that the pure flame of his life is bound up in words. His greatest moments require the shape of the right words in the right order to be recognized and given meaning. Until they are uttered and recorded, the moment, the experience, is fragmentary and illusory. Emerson spoke of Shakespeare as “the man who carries the Saxon race in him.” It was no exaggeration. He said so much so simply that other men of lesser insight or gift of words have unanimously nodded their heads in agreement and offered their thanks. What they had sharply or dimly felt was given form and meaning. Henceforth it was.
Our Ph.D.'s—Where Do They Go from Here?
Authors: Rice Warner G.
Published: January 2021

Nature requires that between two neighboring hills there must be a valley. Perhaps this is a sufficient explanation for my presence here, and sufficient apology to anyone who thinks that the subject just announced intrudes vulgarly into a program of the Modern Language Association. Certainly our annual meetings should be devoted chiefly to exchanges of high thoughts about the humanities which it is our fortunate lot to profess, and the communication to each other of our discoveries in the delightful world of scholarship. But we know, too, that when we come together we talk of other things—of changes in this department or that, of resignations and retirements, of openings for young men and women of promise. Some of us, indeed, are besieged by hopeful applicants, and are forced to give attention, even in this academic company, to recruiting and placements which will sustain our professional strength. It cannot well be otherwise. Our problems are not simply those arising out of our own studies, but those of preceptors who accept as a principal responsibility the preparation of young men and women for useful careers in colleges and universities. To this end not only the learning which we impart but also the philosophy which we inculcate are of importance; and we may well spare a few minutes, therefore, to consider conditions now prevailing in the academic world which affect our outlook. I shall have little to say that is novel, nothing which cannot easily be discovered. I wish only to give emphasis to conclusions which recent experience has shaped.
Emerson and the Organic Metaphor
Authors: Adams Richard P.
Published: January 2021

The importance of the organic metaphor in Emerson's thinking and writing has been increasingly recognized in recent years. The formerly prevalent notion that Emerson was a great writer in spite of obvious faults and in the absence of most of the familiar virtues, that as a thinker he was rescued from his own contradictions only by some unexplainable, perhaps mystical, consistency in his character, has been forced into the background, though it still persists in many people's minds and in some published criticism. It has been progressively corrected by such investigations as those of Henry D. Gray, Norman Foerster, Joseph Warren Beach, F. O. Matthiessen, Robert E. Spiller, Vivian C. Hopkins, and Sherman Paul, in which the romantic origins of Emerson's thought and art are explored, and in which organic theories are increasingly used to explain his meanings and to evaluate his aesthetic achievements. I should like to carry this line of inquiry a little further, because I believe that Emerson should be placed more wholly in the romantic tradition than he has yet been, and that his importance depends on a more fundamental, consistent, and logical use than he has yet been shown to have made of the organic principle, which is one of the central concepts of romantic philosophy.
Patterns of Imagery in Pope's Arbuthnot
Authors: Mengel Elias F.
Published: January 2021

In his “‘Wit and Poetry and Pope’: Some Observations on his Imagery” Maynard Mack speaks of Pope's wide variety of patterns “that help supply the kind of unity which he is popularly not supposed to have.” An Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot offers striking illustration of this conception : analysis reveals patterns of images running throughout, each one discrete yet all so related as to give to the whole a metaphoric value which helps to tie the poem together. I do not mean to suggest that Arbuthnot has no other kind of unity apart from that given to it by these patterns of imagery, or that this imagery functions autonomously.