bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pre-Revolutionary Society and Economy in Pastoral Inner Mongolia
Authors: Sneath David
Published: November 2023

The early twentieth century had seen the emergence of a new political elite of young, educated, Inner Mongolian intellectuals, with experience of Japanese, nationalist, and communist administrations, a number of whom had eventually joined Ulanhu’s following. However, at the time that the communists gained control of Inner Mongolia many rural and pastoral areas had a social order that had hardly changed since the days of the Qlng dynasty. Although the Japanese had introduced a system for appointing a qualified banner head in the areas they had administered, in general there had been no radical changes to social or political institutions. The Japanese had begun to introduce a new administrative and educational system, but they had also continued to recognize the titles, honours, and prerogatives of hereditary princes within their banners.1 Furthermore, Mongolian banners throughout Inner Mongolia had continued to use Manchu law as the basis of civil administration, right up until the advent of communist rule.
Arguments and Icons
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: November 2023

Why do initiations in Papua New Guinea often subject novices to violence and terror? Why do some cargo cults lead to regional unity and others to regional divisions? How have features of cognitive processing in missionary Christianity contributed to new forms of identity among Melanesians? The theory of `modes of religiosity' which Whitehouse here develops answers these and a range of other questions about Melanesia with reference to a set of interconnections between styles of religious transmission, systems of memory, and patterns of political association. Although building his argument on detailed Melanesian ethnography, Whitehouse goes on to suggest that the theory of modes of religiosity may have wider applicability. Thus, in the final two chapters of this book, he explores such diverse topics as the spread of Reformed Christianity in sixteenth-century Europe, the interpretation of Upper Palaeolithic cave art, the genesis of tribal warfare, and the impact of literacy on social transmission and organization.
Sustainable Livelihoods in Kalahari Environments
Authors: Sporton Deborah , Thomas David S G
Published: November 2023

This edited collection provides a comprehensive overview of the dynamics of contemporary natural resource based livelihoods and implications for their sustainability in the context of the Kalahari environment of southern Africa, a region subject to marked spatial and temporal natural variability. Each chapter is written by an active Kalahari researcher and addresses, from an environmental or a social perspective, the implications of different policies for rural livelihoods and coping strategies. In each chapter one or more of the key tenets of environment, policy and structural land use change provides the central element around which the sustainable livelihoods theme is considered. Although the focus of the book is the Kalahari, introductory and concluding chapters, in turn, contextualise the research and discuss key enviro-development issues which resonate across the individual chapters with relevance for wider global debates.
Sustainable Livelihoods in Kalahari Environments: A Contribution to Global Debates
Authors: Thomas David S G , Sporton Deborah
Published: November 2023

The role of the environment now figures prominently in development rhetoric and discourse (World Bank 1992). Peet and Watts (1996) have argued, for example, that poverty and its reduction through the creation of environmen tally sustainable livelihoods is central to the environment-development dialectic. Contemporary academic debates informing our understanding of this nexus have shifted in recent years away from normative First World modernist explanations that seek to generalize, to approaches that recognize both the complexity and spatiotemporal diversity of society-environment links. Emphasis is now placed on grass-roots participation and the harnessing of local knowledge to improve livelihoods that are environmentally sustainable and appropriate for successful development.
Local Lessons for Global Problems: Contributions to Global Debates
Authors: Sporton Deborah , Thomas David S G
Published: November 2023

The Kalahari has often been romanticized in the popular Western imagina tion as one of the last wilderness environments inhabited by ‘first peoples’ whose livelihoods, sustained by subsistence practices, are symbiotically attuned to the harsh natural environment (see for example, van der Post 1958). This interdisciplinary collection has drawn together a range of exam ples that highlight the Kalahari today as a landscape criss-crossed with fences, populated by cattle, and inhabited by ‘real’ people for whom contemporary enviro-social relations and livelihood outcomes are both embedded within a long and complex history of social and environmental change and increasingly subject to the commercial pressures of the global economy.
The Management and Staffing of Yoōgoshisetsu
Authors: Goodman Roger
Published: November 2023

Much writing on Japanese society has concentrated on the way in which the state,mainly through the Ministry of Education (Monbushoō), attempts to standardize the experience of all children from birth onwards so as to support an ideology of adult status in society being the result of hard work during the pre-adult period (a meritocracy) rather than of birth or class background. Uniformity is particularly emphasized in those institutions (hospitals, nurseries, schools) which are directly under the control of central government ministries.
The Social Organization of Life in Yoōgoshisetsu
Authors: Goodman Roger
Published: November 2023

The organization of children in different yoōgoshisetsu is normally discussed around two different axes: whether children are placed in small groups (shoōshasei) or large groups (taishasei) and whether they are placed in groups of those who are roughly the same age as themselves (yokowarisei) or in groups of children of a range of ages (tatewarisei). There is considerable debate about the merits and demerits of all four of these systems, as there is about the proximity in which boys and girls should be placed within a home and the extent to which residents should be required to participate in communal activities.
Towards a New Role for Yoōgoshisetsu
Authors: Goodman Roger
Published: November 2023

On 8 January 1996 the Koōseishoō vice-minister Tada Hiroshi held a press conference on the Ministry’s plan to reform Japan’s post-war child welfare system. In what appears to have been an unusually frank speech, he picked out yoōgoshisetsu as an institution particularly in need of change: ‘Yoōgoshisetsu were built to take in orphans in the post-war period’, he is quoted as saying in one newspaper (Kumamoto Nichinichi Shinbun, 9 Jan. 1996), ‘but times have changed.’
Keo Wayu and the Domain of Gera Ga’e
Authors: Forth Gregory
Published: November 2023

Compared to the domain of Lape, which comprises villages occupied by more than ten Defenders, the Pau territories described in the previous chapter may seem small. Yet equally small is the domain of the Ga’e sibling Gera, which at present includes just two extant villages: Keo (or Keo Belo) and Munde. At the same time, lands of Gera form one half of a larger territorial whole designated binomially as Keo Wayu, and more completely as Tana Keo, Watu Wayu (Land of Keo, Stones of Wayu).
The Domain of Gewo and the Land of Pogo Raga
Authors: Forth Gregory
Published: November 2023

Although larger than the ancestral territory of Gera Ga’e, the original domain of Gewo Ga’e does not approach in size that of Lape, the eldest of the Ga’e siblings. Gewo’s domain lies mostly inland, to the north of lands claimed by Gera. Originally, the territory extended to the sea, as far as Cape Loya (Ngalu Loya) near Ma’u Ponggo. Referring also to its northern limit, a stream called Lowo Koto, the entire domain is thus formally designated as Ulu Lowo Koto, Eko Ngalu Loya.
Learning and Conceptual Change: The View from the Neurons
Authors: Churchland Paul M
Published: November 2023

The quest to produce an artificial but genuine intelligence presupposes or anticipates some criterion for recognizing when success has been achieved. Here the ‘Turing Test’ is often cited (Turing, 1950). This narrowly behavioural test gains its appeal from two sources. First, it focuses exclusively on empirically accessible data the output of the candidate system’s teletype. Inaccessible metaphysical and neuronal matters are thus deliberately pushed aside. And second, it evaluates that empirical data by comparison with the behaviour of a paradigm case of intelligence-a human being. The candidate system’s teletyped behaviour must be indistinguish able from the teletyped behaviour of a human in the same situation.
Causation in the Philosophy of Mind
Authors: Jackson Frank , Pettit Philip
Published: November 2023

Causation has come to play an increasingly important role in the philosophy of mind, reaching its apotheosis in the doctrine that to be a mental state of kind K is to fill the causal role definitive of that kind of mental state: the typology of mental states is a typology of causal roles. However, ironically, there is, from this very functionalist perspective, a problem about how to understand the causal role of mental properties, those properties which make a mental state the kind of mental state that it is. This problem surfaces in one way or another in the debates over the language of thought (for instance, in the argument that only if intentional states have syntactic-like structure can they play the required causal roles); over the explanatory role of broad content (for instance, in the argument that broad content is explanatorily irrelevant to behaviour because doppelgangers behave alike while possibly differing in broad content); and over the eliminativist implications of connectionism (for instance, in the argument that certain versions of connectionism falsify the propositional modularity component of the folk conception of the causes of behaviour).
Identity and Predication
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

A translation is one thing, a theory of meaning another. A manual of translation aims to provide, for each sentence of the language under study, a way of arriving at a quoted sentence of another language which has the same meaning. A theory of meaning, on the other hand, entails, for each sentence of the language under study, a statement of what it means. A translator states no semantical truths at all, nor has he any need of the concepts of truth, denotation, and satisfaction. Semantical truths relate expressions to the world, and can be stated only by using, not mentioning, expressions of some language or other. Such truths arise inevitably in the construction of a theory of meaning, for statements of what a sentence means can be made only by using an equivalent sentence of the theory’s language, and, if the theory is to be finite, must be deduced from statements assigning semantical properties to its parts.
Pronouns, Quantifiers, and Relative Clauses (II)
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

It is occasionally tempting, after climbing a mountain, to use the elevation one has gained to dash up to the top of a connected peak which does not have sufficient interest to induce one to climb so high for its sake alone. It is in this spirit that I tum to Geach’s Latin Prose theory of relative clauses. The matter itself is of no very great moment, and some new ground will have to be covered in dealing with Geach’s arguments. Nevertheless we shall primarily be applying the theory constructed in the body of the paper, and when one is in a position to expose bad arguments relatively rapidly, it is perhaps a good idea not to leave them unchallenged, especially when they appear to be gaining currency.
Pronouns
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

A very natural, preliminary classification of the uses of pronouns would include the following three categories: Pronouns used to make a reference to an object (or objects) present in the shared perceptual environment, or rendered salient in some way.
Anamnesis in the Phaedo: Remarks on 73c-75c
Authors: Ackrill J L
Published: November 2023

The Platonic doctrine of reminiscence, that what we call learning is really recalling what we already know, is argued for at length in two places. The argument in the Meno concerns our knowledge of necessary truths. Leibniz spoke well of this argument, saying that Plato’s doctrine ‘is very sound provided that it is taken aright and purged of the error of pre-existence’.More recently Professor Vlastos has shown in detail how the Meno brings out the special character of a priori knowledge. The Phaedo argument differs in that it is about our acquisition of concepts rather than of necessary truths. There is also this difference, that the pre-existence of the soul certainly cannot in the Phaedo be treated as a myth or metaphor; the context makes it impossible to see the doctrine of reminiscence as simply making a point about concept formation and not really referring to the passage of time and the recovery of what was already known.
Aristole's Distinction between Energeia and Kinesis
Authors: Ackrill J L
Published: November 2023

In Metaphysics 0. 6 Aristotle first gives a general explanation of the notion of energeia as opposed to dunamis-actuality as opposed to potentiality. He then draws a distinction between energeia and kin  sis. ‘Kin  sis’ is Aristotle’s regular word for change, including movement. Kinesis is itself an energeia in the wide sense, an actuality as opposed to a potentiality. So in distinguishing it from energeia, Aristotle is evidently using ‘energeia’ in a new and narrower sense. This distinction between energeia and kinesis occurs in a number of places in Aristotle, and the commentators seem to be fairly happy about it. Yet it is not easy to understand precisely what distinction Aristotle has in mind.
Aristotle on ‘Good’ and the Categories
Authors: Ackrill J L
Published: November 2023

In the Nicomachean Ethics 1. 6, 1096323-9 Aristotle argues that goodness is not a single common universal: if it were, it would be ‘said’ in only one category, whereas in fact it is, like being, ‘said’ in all the categories. Aristotle discusses in many places the transcategorial character of and of , but most of his accounts of types of goodness or senses of ‘good’ do not rest upon the point about categories-a point which is, however, taken up in the traditional treatment of bonum along with ens and unum as categorially unclassifiable. The Ethics passage is therefore of considerable interest, and it has not, I think, received sufficient attention or final elucidation from the commentators. The present discussion will be far from exhaustive, but it may raise some questions worth further examination. It is perhaps a matter for apology that in a paper written in honour or Dr Walzer I have neglected to consider the relevant passage of the Eudemian Ethics (A. 8, 1217b25-34); but since the argument there may be different from that in the Nicomachean version, it seems safer to start by looking at the latter on its own.
Spontaneous Spoken Language
Authors: Miller Jim , Weinert Regina
Published: November 2023

Jim Miller and Regina Weinert investigate syntactic structure and the organization of discourse in spontaneous spoken language. Using data from English, German, and Russian, they develop a systematic analysis of spoken English and highlight properties that hold across languages. The authors argue that the differences in syntax and the construction of discourse between spontaneous speech and written language bear on various areas of linguistic theory, apart from having obvious implications for syntactic analysis. In particular, they bear on typology, Chomskyan theories of first language acquisition, and the perennial problem of language in education. In current typological practice written and spontaneous spoken texts are often compared; the authors show convincingly that typological research should compare like with like. The consequences for Chomskyan, and indeed all, theories of first language acquisition flow from the central fact that children acquire spoken language but learn written language.
Thinking that One Thinks
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: November 2023

There are two distinct kinds of things we describe as being conscious or not conscious, and when we describe the two kinds of thing as being conscious we attribute two distinct properties. The term ‘conscious’ thus conceals a certain ambiguity. In one use, we speak of mental states as being conscious or not conscious. Mental states, such as thoughts, desires, emotions, and sensations, are conscious if we are aware of them in some intuitively immediate way. But we also apply the term ‘conscious’ to the creatures that are in those mental states. A creature’s being conscious consists, roughly, of its being awake and being mentally responsive.
The Child as Patient
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman
Published: November 2023

Most of the medical care which children receive from physicians is not experimental. Non-experimental medical care includes preventive health care (e.g. immunizations), the treatment of acute illnesses or injuries, and the treatment of chronic conditions. The care may be sought electively or emergently; and the treatment may serve to prevent disability, to enhance quality of life, to alleviate pain, or to treat life-threatening conditions.
Formlessness and the Priority of Form: Metaphysics: Z 7-9 and A 3
Authors: Judson Lindsay
Published: November 2023

This chapter is about the integrity of A 3. In philosophy, as in life, integrity comes in a number of forms. I am concerned both with what might be called the internal integrity of the chapter—does it have a unified aim or line of thought? —and with its external integrity: is it integrated in a satisfactory way with the surrounding chapters, and for that matter with the overall project of A? In other words, what, if anything, is A 3 about, and if it is about something, is that what this part of A ought to be about?’ These questions may seem all too easy to answer. A 3 is the ugly duckling of A: at first glance, at least, it looks like a set of discrete passages with no purpose that unifies it internally or externally.
Some Remarks on Metaphysics A 5
Authors: Code Alan
Published: November 2023

Metaphysics A 5 consists of a set of fairly unpolished notes, assembled in aid of an inquiry into the causes and principles of substances. It clearly belongs to that part of the inquiry that concerns the causes of perceptible substances. The class of perceptibles includes, but is not limited to, these perceptible substances, and this chapter is intended as the conclusion of a discussion answering the questions (i) what are the principles of perceptibles? (ii) how many principles of perceptibles are there? (iii) in what way are the principles of perceptibles the same? and (iv) in what way are the principles of perceptibles different?’ Progress towards answering all of these had already been made by the end of the previous chapter. The opening lines of chapter 4 had stated that in one way the causes and principles of different things are different, but in another way-speaking generally and analogically-the causes and principles of all things are the same. There are four principles that are the same in an analogical sense for all perceptibles: matter, form, privation, and a mover that effects change. My matter and the matter for a colour are, for instance, analogically the same in that as my matter stands to me, so the matter for that colour stands to it. However, these four principles are different for different perceptibles.
Unmoved mover(s) as efficient cause(s) in Metaphysics A 6
Authors: Berti Enrico
Published: November 2023

There are three kinds of substance—one that is sensible (of which one subdivision is eternal and another perishable; the latter is recognized by all men, and includes e.g. plants and animals), ... ; and another that is immovable, and this certain thinkers assert to be capable of existing apart, some dividing it in two, others identifying the Forms and the objects of mathematics, and others positing, of these two, only the objects of mathematics. The former two kinds of substance are the subject of the physics (for they imply movement); but the third kind belongs to another science, if there is no principle common to it and to the other kinds.
Metaphysics A 9: Divine Thought
Authors: Kosman Aryeh
Published: November 2023

The chapter is to be about thought; (2) the burden of the discussion is to be aporetic, the exploration of perplexities generated by or presupposed in what has been said in earlier chapters (particularly A 7) about thought and its relation to the divine. Note that in this opening Aristotle expresses perplexity simply about thought, not about the particular workings of divine thought. This fact should suggest to us that the chapter is predicated not so much on difficulties that we may associate with the thought of a divine being as on difficulties with thought itself, or, given the location of the discussion, with the identification of thought as divine or of the divine as something importantly connected to thought. And indeed, this suggestion is confirmed in the very next sentence:
Systematic Lexicography
Authors: Apresjan Juri
Published: November 2023

This book unites lexicography with theoretical linguistics. The two fields tend to ignore each other: lexicographers produce dictionaries, linguists grammars. As a result grammars and dictionaries are often discordant and sometimes glaringly incompatible. In Systematic Lexicography Juri Apresjan shows the insights linguistics has to offer lexicography, and equally that the achievements and challenges of lexicography provide a rewarding field for linguistic inquiry. The author presents the vocabulary of a language as a complicated system reflecting a specific view of the world. He does so within an integrated theory of language, in which grammatical and lexical meanings, and the conceptualizations underlying them, blend and interact. Each lexeme, he argues, is a point of intersection of various lexicographic types classes of lexemes with shared semantic, syntactic, pragmatic or mental properties, that are sensitive to the same rules, and which should thus be uniformly described in the dictionary. When any lexeme is viewed against the whole set of linguistic rules, new facets emerge, and these reveal, he shows, key characteristics of words that dictionaries do not currently record. Professor Apresjan not only presents an original, unified theory of language, inspired by the Moscow school of semantics. He also works out its consequences and describes the problems he faced in applying it to the description of Russian. The reader will find that travelling with the author through Russian semantic space is both enlightening and entertaining. The books wealth of lexical facts, illuminated by systematic thought, give it unique character and importance: it will be of great interest to theoretical linguists and to all concerned with writing of dictionaries as well as to semanticists and students of Russian.
Fungu la nane Matamshi — Pronunciation
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The letter a in Swahili represents a vowel sound somewhere between that represented by ‘a’ in the English word ‘man’ and that in ‘father’. The native English learner should aim at making that same vowel wherever it may occur in the Swahili word. He/she should particularly beware of making the ‘reduced’ sound as heard in the first syllable of the English word ‘about’, or as in the last syllable of ‘fella’.
Fungu la kumi Ngapi? — How many?
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

Time in Swahili runs from sunset to dawn, dawn to sunset; not from midnight to midday. So when the clock shows 12, that is 6 o’clock in Swahili. (look at the opposite number from the one the hour hand shows.)
Fungu la kumi na sita Kwenda Mombasa (2) Behewa la kulalia — In the sleeping—car
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

You will have noticed some nouns with new plural forms, e.g. kitanda ‘bed’: vitanda ‘beds’. Nouns which have ki∼ in the singular have vi— in the

plural. Other examples in the text are kitu ‘thing’: vitu ‘things’, and kitabu ‘book’: vitabu ‘books’. A few words in this class have ch—: vy— as their prefixes; such nouns are those whose stems begin with a vowel, e.g. choo ‘lavatory, toilet’: vyoo. chakula ‘food’ (plural vyakula) is also in this class, which is given the numbers 7/8 in the Bantu system of class numbering; in other words, chakula may be said to be In’ class 7, and vyakula In’ class 8.
Fungu fa kumi na nane Mwoga — The coward
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

As well as having a prefix marking the subject, verbs in Swahili may also have a prefix marking the object. In fact they must normally have an object prefix if the ‘object’ is a person or animal.
— Fungu la ishirini Kutodanganywa — Not being cheated
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

corresponding roughly in English to ‘this/these’ and ‘that/ those’; and the third a kind of reference, somewhat as in colloquial English ‘that—there’ or ‘yon’. In Swahili we have already used some place words: pale ‘there’, hapa ‘here’, hapa  hapa ‘right here’, and huko ‘the place referred to’. Bw. Harris said once, speaking of Bi.
Fungu la ishirini na moja Lini? — When?
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The tense sign —li— is used to refer to an action in the past, without reference to the present. Care should be taken to distinguish this from —me—, which refers to an action in the past but with present implications. Thus in the text, Bi. Maw’s question:
Fungu la ishirini na mbili Nchi yetu — Our country
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The first would mean ‘you will be without money’ (perhaps you will lose or waste any you may now have); the second would mean ‘you won’t have any money’ (perhaps you haven’t any now and you won’t get any either).
Fungu la ishirini na tatu Ajali — An accident
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

This ‘tense’ is much used in narrative, and its meaning is to express a sequential action, often causally related or naturally arising out of the first. So in the text, Bwana Harris says Gari  iliteleza  kutoka  njiani, tukagongana  na  mti, basi ‘The car skidded off the road and we collided with a tree, and that was that’. The collision was seen as a natural progression after the skid. A story might begin:
Fungu la ishirini na sita Kwenda Tamarind — Going to the Tamarind
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

You will have noticed examples of the prefix vi— (and now vyo) used adverbially. Unit 12 had vizuri ‘well’ (manner); Unit 20 had hivi ‘thus’, and vibaya ‘badly’; Unit 18 had hivyo ‘thus, like that’; and now we have a relative form with ndi—: ndivyo like this is’, and a verbal form, e.g. tulivyopotea ‘how we got lost’. (We could also have sivyo ‘not like this, not this way’
Fungu la thelathini na moja Kuibiwa — A robbery
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The stative extension, as its name implies, normally is used to express a state of affairs. It is formed by the addition of a morpheme including k to the verb root. If the root ends in a consonant, the stative morpheme is —ik— or —ek— according to the rules of vowel harmony, e.g.
Fungu la thelathini na nne Mwanasesere — The doll
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The passage in section I is an example of modern prose style, not too difficult, since the work it comes from is a piece of fiction, intended to entertain as well as instruct. The story is set on the coast of East Africa and the Swahili has some features typical of Zanzibar Swahili.
On Being and Essence: II
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

So far, the teaching of St Thomas in On Being and Essence has been comparatively straightforward. We have been introduced to a number of concepts, such as matter and form, genus and species, that are the common stock-in-trade of the Aristotelian tradition. These concepts have been related to the notion of essence, which is the main theme of the book: but the entities whose essences have been investigated have been the everyday entities of our familiar world: human beings and other animals, statues and puddings. True, there has been discussion of the souls of human beings; but for all that has been said so far, these need not in any way be spiritual or supernatural beings. St Thomas, as a good Aristotelian, believed that plants and animals had souls, no less than human beings. A soul was simply the principle of life–something that might, on investigation, turn out to be material or immaterial. If (as Aquinas believed) a human soul was immortal, that was not because it was a soul, but because of features peculiar to humanity. No appeal to these features is necessary to understand the concept of soul as employed in the first half of the treatise.
Summa Contra Gentiles
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

The Summa contra Gentiles was the major achievement of the middle period of St Thomas’s life, begun just before he left Paris for Italy in 1259 and completed while he was living in Orvieto around 1265. Its title, literally translated, means Summary, or Synopsis, against Unbelievers; its most frequently used English translation bears the title On the Truth of the Catholic Faith. I shall refer to it by its Latin title. According to a fourteenth-century tradition, now often discounted by scholars, the book was a missionary manual, written at the request of the Spanish Dominican Raymond of Penafort, who was evangelizing non-Christians in Spain and North Africa. Whatever the truth of this story, the book differs from St Thomas’ other major treatises in taking its initial stand (throughout the first three of its four books) not on Christian doctrine, but on philosophical premisses that could be accepted by Jewish and Muslim thinkers versed in Aristotelian learning. It is a work not of revealed theology, but of natural theology; and natural theology is a branch of philosophy. This makes it, naturally, a treatise particularly attractive to philosophers, even though Aquinas’s more theological works contains a great deal of philosophical interest.
Questions Disputed in Rome
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

The Summa contra Gentiles was completed at Orvieto in 1264. In 1265 St Thomas went to Rome, to establish a Dominican institute at Santa Sabina. While acting as regent master there, he presided over a number of disputations. The first group of these, Disputed Questions on Power (DP), probably dates from 1265-6. Several important passages in these questions throw light on Aquinas’ theory of being. A particularly long question, the third question of nineteen articles, is devoted to the topic of creation. The first of these articles is entitled ‘Can God create anything from nothing?’ and begins with seventeen arguments for a negative answer. St Thomas, of course, on the basis of the book of Genesis, believed that the answer was positive; and in his reponses to the negative arguments he displays great skill in disentangling the complexity and ambiguity of phrases like ‘making out of nothing’ and ‘coming to be from nothing’.
The Sun-Language Theory and After
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Sometime in 1935 Ataturk received a forty-seven-page typescript in French, entitled ‘La Psychologic de quelques elements des langues turques’, by a Dr Hermann F. Kvergic of Vienna. The theme was that man first realized his own identity when he conceived the idea of establishing what the external objects surrounding him were. Language first consisted of gestures, to which some significant sounds were then added. Kvergic saw evidence for his view in the Turkish pronouns. M indicates oneself, as in men, the ancient form of ben ‘I’, and elim ‘my hand’. N indicates what is near oneself, as in sen ‘you’ and elin ‘your hand’. Z indicates a broader area, as in biz ‘we’ and siz ‘you’. Further, Kvergic considered that Turkish was the first human language to take shape. Nothing could have been more timely.
Atay, Ataç, Sayili
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Two people besides Ataturk made significant contributions to the vocabulary of modern Turkish: Falih R1fk1 Atay and Nurullah Ataü. The third subject of this chapter, Aydin Sayih, did not, but his efforts to do so deserve to be commemorated. Atay and Ataç both believed that the language had to be modernized and both saw the futility of merely producing lists of neologisms; the new words had to be used in the sort of newspaper and magazine that ordinary people read. As Atay was fond of saying, the neologisms were dead butterflies pinned into collections; what they needed was the life and colour they could be given by stylists. On how the new words were to be arrived at, however, the two men’s views could not have been more different.
The New Turkish
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

There are two questions we have to address: has the reform eliminated the gap between the language of the intellectuals and the language of the people, and has it impoverished the language? The answer to the first question is that the gap, though not so huge as it once was, is still there. But that is natural, because some people need and use more words than others. No one ever expected the intellectuals to stop talking about bacteriology or astronomy or political science or whatever their particular interests might be. The hope was simply that they would give up the use of Ottoman words for everyday concepts; they would not, so to speak, say ‘domicile’ when they meant ‘house’, or ‘animadvert on’ when they meant ‘find fault with’, or ‘I shall exercise cogitation on this topic’ when they meant ‘I’ll think about it’.
What Happened to the Language Society
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

The years from 1932 to 1950 were TDK’s high noon. It had the support of Atatürk’s Republican People’s Party, which after his death was led by his faithful Ïsmet Inönü. The Society, however, had no shortage of opponents. Those who disapproved of Ataturk’s secularist policies took exception to the change of alphabet and to the language reform, rightly judging that at least part of the purpose behind both was to make the language of the Koran less accessible.
Introduction
Authors: Wright Laura
Published: November 2023

This book has several aims, all connected with the overall theme of investigating the development of London English. They can be broadly defined as describing some hitherto-untreated evidence for the dialect of London during the Middle English and early Early Modern period; recovering some Middle English technical vocabulary concerned with life on the River Thames; identifying and defining a hitherto-untreated text type, that of macaronic business records; and attempting to place this information in the context of the development of Standard English.
Methodology
Authors: Wright Laura
Published: November 2023

There are no studies, so far as I know, that address the medieval mixed-language business text type. The Corporation of London Records Office documents have been used for philological purposes, but when surveying the documents, dictionaries tended to rely upon published calendars of records, which are condensed. Of the records considered here, the Journals, some of the Custumals, and all the Bridge House Estate documents are entirely unpublished. Ekwall (1947, 1954, 1956, and others (see Bibliography)) and Bohman (1944) used Corporation of London Records Office documents for Old English and Middle English dialect studies; and Loefvenberg (1942, 1946), Fransson (1935), and Thuresson (1950) used Corporation of London Records Office documents for studies on names and occupations. These studies all yielded vocabulary unrecorded by OED. Sandahl (1951, 1958, 1982), in the three volumes published so far of Middle English Sea Terms, has used Corporation of London Records Office documents among many others to discover and elucidate Middle English vocabulary pertaining to ships. Salzman (1923) used Corporation of London Records Office documents, including the unpublished Bridge House Estate documents, to present a history of building in the Middle Ages. Other studies on Middle English vocabulary to do with topics relevant to this treatise (apart from dictionaries) include Arngart (1943), 161 9, Burwash (1947), and Köhler (1906).
Introduction
Authors: Spector Horacio
Published: November 2023

This book is about the moral foundation of the classical conception of liberalism. The basic idea of this conception is that people have fundamental moral rights the respect for which and protection of which are the necessary condition of the moral legitimacy of government and the decisions it adopts. This is the conception of liberalism embraced by its very founders, notably John Locke, David Hume, Benjamin Constant, and Wilhelm von Humboldt. According to a familiar view, classical liberalism is characterized essentially by maintaining that all or the greater part of the rights which individuals possess are negative ones. Such rights require that the government or private persons should refrain from committing certain actions, as, for example, limiting the use of the Press or confiscating property. By contrast, the so-called economic and social rights are positive ones, i.e. rights that the government shall perform certain actions, as, for example, administering a system of old-age and service pensions or providing transport and communications services.
Acts and Omissions
Authors: Spector Horacio
Published: November 2023

According to the deontological conception of practical rationality there are moral reasons that are not based on the results of human conduct but on the form the intervention of the agent takes in the production of these results. It is clear that in upholding the pre-eminence of negative moral rights one is committed to the thesis that the duty not to actively attack positive freedom prevails over the duty to prevent any injury to positive freedom. This chapter will be devoted precisely to the defence of this thesis, which accounts for one difference or ‘asymmetry’ present in the common-sense moral evaluation of pairs of actions which, at first sight, are not distinguishable as regards their morally significant results. But before that, in the first section, I am going to reject another possible view for taking account of that difference or ‘asymmetry’, namely, the view that holds that to injure positive freedom intentionally is not morally equivalent to performing an act which it can be foreseen will produce some injury to positive freedom. Although a large part of the relevant literature for a discussion of these issues is concerned with acts and omissions which contribute in some way to death or to some less serious physical harm, I believe that it is open to reinterpretation in terms of attacks on or injuries to positive freedom. To bring about someone’s death is to make an extreme attack on his positive freedom. Something qualitatively similar but less important in degree may be said of physical harms less serious than death. Therefore, whenever in this chapter I use the term ‘harm’, it is to be understood that I am referring to restraints on positive freedom.
The Role Of The Commentaries On Aristotle In The Teaching Of Philosophy According To The Prefaces Of The Neoplatonic Commentaries On The Categories
Authors: Hadot Llsetraut
Published: November 2023

I FEEL honoured to be invited to participate in the volume which will be presented to Professor A. C. Lloyd on his seventy-fifth birthday-all the more so since I am most keenly aware of the enormous debt I owe to this great scholar. Indeed, it was reading his contribution on ‘The Later Neoplatonists’ in The Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy1 which gave decisive direction to my own research.
Moral Problems about the Control of Behaviour
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

4.1 Behaviour control, whether voluntary or compulsory, is an area of medical and also of penal practice which rightly arouses much moral discussion, not only in the professions but in the newspapers. It has also been the subject of films such as A Clockwork Orange. But it is best to take real cases. Most of mine will come (some of them verbatim) from an excellent paper by Professor David Wexler (1975), delivered at the same conference for which I wrote an earlier version of the present paper.
Possible People
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

5.1 Can we have duties to people who will never actually exist? That the answer is ‘No’ has seemed obvious to many writers. I shall be arguing to the contrary that, where we have a choice between bringing someone into existence and not doing so, the interests of that possible person have to be con sidered. The question has an obvious relevance to such topics as abortion, embryo experimentation, and above all population policy, which will be the main subject of this paper. I discuss the other two topics on similar lines elsewhere in this volume.
A Kantian Approach to Abortion
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

11, 1 The position of somebody wondering whether to have an abortion is usually too wretched for it to be decent for a philosopher to try to make her decision depend on the definitions of words that could in principle have several different definitions. So let us start by putting to rest the question ‘Is the foetus a person?’, which has occupied so many pages in discussions of this problem. It leads straight to a dead end, and we would best avoid it (7.9, 8.7, 10.3). We know what a foetus is, in the sense that if anybody were to ask whether an object before us or even inside us was a human foetus, there would be no difficulty in principle in determining whether it was. For the same sort of reason, we know how to determine some of the properties the foetus has. We know, for example, that it has the potentialily of becoming a human adult—that is, that if the pregnancy comes to term, it will have turned into a baby, and if the baby survives it will turn into an adult more or less like us (see below).
Directions of Change in Contemporary German
Authors: Glück Helmut , Sauer Wolfgang Werner
Published: November 2023

The German language is currently changing rapidly, perhaps more rapidly than at any other time in its history. Innumerable radio programmes and almost twenty television channels are available in almost every household and extensive use is made of them. Most people own several radios and at least one television set. The sales figures show that the publishing houses are in a state of crisis, while the figures for newspaper sales are also sinking. Listening comes before reading, and speech affects linguistic usage infinitely more than written texts. For centuries, however, standard norms were derived from the written language. Until recently, dictionaries basked in reflected glory by taking their corpus predominantly from literary texts, and illustrating it with passages by distinguished authors of the last two hundred years. There were admittedly a few selected quotations from some of the higher-quality newspapers, but this was merely paying lip service to modern developments, and colloquial language was taboo, even in its spoken form.
Aristotle’s Method in Natural Science: Physics I
Authors: Bolton Robert
Published: November 2023

Aristotle begins his Physics, and thus his studies in natural science generally, with a chapter on method. Further remarks on this subject are added at crucial junctures later in the work, particularly in the subsequent chapters of Book I and in Book IV. This concern with method in the Physics is just one prominent example of the explicit and self-conscious attention to method which is displayed in nearly all of Aristotle’s major works. Among other things, this interest reflects the lively concern, and the lively disagreement, among philosophers and scientists in Aristotle’s own day not only about positive doctrine in various areas but also about the proper method or methods to use to reach such doctrine.
Aquinas and the Infinity of Possible Worlds
Authors: Rowe William L
Published: November 2023

On the assumption that among the possible worlds there is a best world, we have considered at some length the alternatives facing God as creator. And we have reached the preliminary conclusion that God’s absolute perfection would leave him no choice other than the choice to create the very best world. Were it settled that among possible worlds there is a best world, we could now press on with our study of philosophical objections to our preliminary conclusion that God is not free with respect to creation. But there is a long tradition among religious thinkers in the West that opposes the Leibnizian view that there is a best possible world. If this tradition has it right, there is no problem about God’s freedom with respect to creating a world other than the best. For there simply is no best possible world for God to consider creating. Among important historical figures who hold this view, the medieval philosopher and theologian Thomas Aquinas (1225–74) exercised great influence on the development of philosophical theology in the West. So we can do no better than to consider some of his reasons for denying that there is a best possible world. In addition, in light of the number of philosophers who agree with Aquinas on this point, we must consider the implications of Aquinas’s view for our basic question of whether God can be free with respect to creation.
Locke and Gassendi: A Reappraisal
Authors: Milton J R
Published: November 2023

There is a general consensus among modern writers on John Locke that he was significantly indebted to Gassendi for some of the main ideas put forward in An essay concerning human understanding. Both of the major biographies of Locke, by H. R. Fox Bourne and Maurice Cranston, take this view. It can also be found in standard works such as Richard Aaron’s John Locke and in more specialized studies such as Gabriel Bonno’s Les Relations intellectuelles de Locke avec la France, as well as in many other works dependent on these. One consequence of this almost unanimous consensus is that Locke’s indebtedness to Gassendi has often come to be asserted with an air of untroubled confidence, even though no evidence is given in its support) Even those writers who have attempted to examine the (mostly manuscript) evidence have all failed to make full use of the material available.
Parents and Children
Authors: Gow Peter
Published: November 2023

It is children who transform a married couple into fully adult producers, and so the present chapter explores child-raising. The activities of raising a child form the core idioms of relations between kin, defining the category familia legitima, ‘real kin’. Native people see child-raising as a process in which adult care giving evokes the love of the child, which endures into adulthood as the memory of care given. This memory, developed in the child, forms a critical aspect of how native people believe they should behave towards each other. The category ‘real kin’, founded on child-raising, is definitional of the category of ‘distant kin’, and establishes the form of relations between affines, compadres, and all coresidents.