bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
DESIGN AND INVESTIGATION OF THE HYDRAULIC PERFORMANCE OF BIONIC HYDROFOIL BASED ON THE GEOMETRIC FEATURES OF STURGEONS
Authors: YAN HAO , YU CHAO , CHAI LIPING , LI YUNQING , VNENKOVSKAIA VALENTINA , CHEN HAO
Published: April 2019

The airfoils designed by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) are currently adopted in the blades of hydraulic machinery (pump, water turbine). However, the NACA series are designed on the basis of the aerodynamics theory, so their performance are inevitably affected when they are applied directly to hydraulic machinery. Thus, the mechanism affecting the hydrodynamic characteristics of a hydrofoil based on aquatic organisms must be further investigated. In this study, a sturgeon hydrofoil based on the water environment was designed by using a 3D laser scanner, and the hydrodynamic performance of the hydrofoil was integrated by numerical simulation. A k–? SST model was adopted at Reynolds numbers 1E6, 3E6, and 5E6 under 0°–27° angle of attack for the analysis of the lift and drag coefficients, tip vortices, and pressure distribution on the upper surface of the sturgeon hydrofoil as compared with those of the NACA0012 and NACA0015 hydrofoils. Results show that the lift coefficients of the sturgeon hydrofoil are greater than those of the NACA0012 and NACA0015 hydrofoils at different Reynolds numbers. The NACA0012 and NACA0015 hydrofoils generate and spread tip vortices easier than the sturgeon hydrofoil, but the sturgeon hydrofoil generates a larger lift force before reaching the stall angle of attack, especially in the maximum-thickness region on the upper surface. Conclusions obtained in the study have important implications for designing a bionic airfoil suitable for hydraulic machinery.

Keywords: Bionics hydrofoil, Fluid flow, Tip vortices, Pressure distribution, Hydrodynamic performance
Genomic diversity of antibiotic multi-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis isolated from a tertiary care hospital in México City
Authors: Cabrera-Contreras Roberto , Santamaría Rosa I , Bustos Patricia , Martínez-Flores Irma , Meléndez Enrique , Morelos Rubén , Barbosa-Amezcua Martín , González-Covarrubias Vanessa , Soberón Xavier , González Víctor
Published: April 2019

Staphylococcus epidermidis is a human commensal and opportunistic pathogen worldwide distributed. To ascertain which pathogenic S. epidermidis clones are circulating in a local tertiary hospital setting, we sequenced the complete genomes of 17 S. epidermidis isolates obtained from neonatal infections at a Hospital Care Unit in México City. Genomic comparisons between S. epidermidis isolates revealed high pairwise whole genome nucleotide identities of about 97% to 99% and essentially a clonal structure. We inferred eight Multilocus Sequence Types (MLST´s), six of them of worldwide distribution, and two showing allelic variants, not in MLST databases. The profile of virulence includes genes involved in biofilm and modulin formation; most of the strains are multi-resistant to methicillin and several other beta-lactams, fluoroquinolones, and macrolides. Uneven distribution of insertion sequences, phages, and CRISPR-Cas immunity phage systems suggest frequent horizontal gene transfer. Rates of recombination between S. epidermidis strains were more frequent than the mutation rate and affected the whole genome. Therefore, recombination properties shape the population structure of local nosocomial S. epidermidis strains, formed by pathogenic and probably, non-pathogenic clones.
Why Does Clostridium difficile Infection Recur?
Authors: Orenstein Robert , Patron Roberto L. , Seville M. Teresa
Published: April 2019

Clostridium (or Clostridioides) difficile infection affects more than 500,000 people annually in the United States, one-third of whom have recurrent symptoms. The evolution of C difficile as a resilient pathogen has to do with its ability to persist in the environment and in the host, leading to recurrence and environmental spread. Understanding the mechanisms by which this microbe interacts with the environment, the host, and the gut microbiota are critical to solving this problem. This article presents a brief clinical vignette; discusses the current state of understanding of colonization, transmission, and recurrence; and considers the role the host plays in eliminating this infection. The understanding of these mechanisms and application of osteopathic principles has the potential to improve patient outcomes.
Monolithic integration of tricolor micro-LEDs and color mixing investigation by analog and digital dimming
Authors: Robin Yoann , Hemeret François , D’Inca Gillian , Pristovsek Markus , Trassoudaine Agnès , Amano Hiroshi
Published: April 2019

We report on the growth, processing and optical characterization of monolithically integrated tricolor micro-LEDs. The 100 × 100 μm2 active area of the devices is composed of independent subpixels emitting in the blue, green and yellow–orange range with color saturation of over 90% for all bands. The gamut of the device is recorded by both digital and analog dimming, i.e. by pulse width modulation or by varying the current density. Results indicate color mixing performed by both methods leads to a rotated or distorted gamut significantly different from the one predicted by the CIE color model. We explain our findings in terms of quantum-confined Stark effect screening and efficiency droop at high current density, which modify the expected hue and brightness of mixed colors.
Controlled oxide interlayer for improving reliability of SiO2/GaN MOS devices
Authors: Yamada Takahiro , Terashima Daiki , Nozaki Mikito , Yamada Hisashi , Takahashi Tokio , Shimizu Mitsuaki , Yoshigoe Akitaka , Hosoi Takuji , Shimura Takayoshi , Watanabe Heiji
Published: April 2019

Abstarct

The impact of controlling Ga-oxide (GaO
x
) interlayers in SiO2/GaO
x
/GaN gate stacks is investigated by means of physical and electrical characterizations. Direct deposition of SiO2 insulators produces thin GaO
x
interlayers, and subsequent oxidation treatment attains high-quality insulator/GaN interface. However, the Ga diffusion into the SiO2 layers severely degrades the breakdown characteristics of GaN-MOS devices. To improve reliability of such devices, we proposed a two-step procedure with the initial SiO2 deposition conducted under nitrogen-rich ambient, followed by thick SiO2 capping. We found that this two-step procedure enables nitrogen incorporation in the insulator/GaN interface to stabilize GaN surface. Consequently, the Ga diffusion into the SiO2 overlayer during the oxidation annealing is effectively suppressed. The proposed method allows us to achieve a SiO2/GaO
x
/GaN stacked structure of superior electrical property with improved Weibull distribution of an oxide breakdown field and with interface state density below 1010 cm−2 eV−1.
Maintaining fixation does not increase demands on working memory relative to free viewing
Authors: Armson Michael J. , Ryan Jennifer D. , Levine Brian
Published: April 2019

The comparison of memory performance during free and fixed viewing conditions has been used to demonstrate the involvement of eye movements in memory encoding and retrieval, with stronger effects at encoding than retrieval. Relative to conditions of free viewing, participants generally show reduced memory performance following sustained fixation, suggesting that unrestricted eye movements benefit memory. However, the cognitive basis of the memory reduction during fixed viewing is uncertain, with possible mechanisms including disruption of visual-mnemonic and/or imagery processes with sustained fixation, or greater working memory demands required for fixed relative to free viewing. To investigate one possible mechanism for this reduction, we had participants perform a working memory task—an auditory n-back task—during free and fixed viewing, as well as a repetitive finger tapping condition, included to isolate the effects of motor interference independent of the oculomotor system. As expected, finger tapping significantly interfered with n-back performance relative to free viewing, as indexed by a decrease in accuracy and increase in response times. By contrast, there was no evidence that fixed viewing interfered with n-back performance relative to free viewing. Our findings failed to support a hypothesis of increased working memory load during fixation. They are consistent with the notion that fixation disrupts long-term memory performance through interference with visual processes.
Chemical and Physical Quality of the Entisol in a Natural Regeneration Area in the Semiarid Region of Paraiba
Authors: Costa Cássio Ricardo Gonçalves da , Silva Fraga Vânia Da , Lambais George Rodrigues , Soares Kilmer Oliveira , Prazeres Suddarth Stella Ribeiro , Medeiros Salomão De Sousa
Published: April 2019

The change in the use of the soil causes an imbalance in the ecosystems, altering the chemical and physical properties, which can make their natural recovery unviable. This study aimed to characterize chemically and physically an Entisol under the Caatinga area in a 30 years ecological succession stage in the Semiarid region of Paraiba. The experiment was carried out at the Experimental Station Professor Ignácio Salcêdo, belonging to the National Institute of Semiarid (INSA), located in the municipality of Campina Grande, in the state of Paraíba, soil samples were collected in the 0-10 cm layer, for the determination of pH levels (H2O), exchangeable acidity (Al3+) and potential acidity (H + Al), Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, P, Na+, CTC and SB, Total organic carbon (TOC) and organic matter (OM). In the physical analyses, texture, soil density, particle density, total porosity and aggregate stability were determined. The chemical characterization observed the presence of high levels of K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, CTC and SB, and low levels of Al3+ and Na+ with reduced OM and TOC contents in the 0-10 cm layer. As for physics, the textural classification was sandy loam soil, the soil density, soil porosity and aggregate stability showed values below the critical root growth index in sandy soils. The soil presented recovery characteristics of its chemical and physical quality. The description of the Entisol in the field in soil surveys contributes to a new database in order to predict a better way of use, and these results are references in studies of soil quality recovery in degraded areas in the Caatinga area.
First-Principles Calculation of Optoelectronic Properties of Antimony Sulfides Thin Film
Authors: Suleiman A. B. , Gidado A. S. , Lawal Abdullahi
Published: April 2019

Antimony sulfide (Sb2S3) thin film have received great interests as an absorbing layer for solar cell technology. Electronic and optical properties of Sb2S3 thin films were studied by first principles approach. Highly accurate full-potential linearized augmented plane wave (FP-LAPW) method within density functional theory (DFT) as implemented in WIEN2k package. The simulated film is in the [001] direction using supercell method with a vacuum along z-direction so that slab and periodic images can be treated independently. The calculated values of indirect band gaps of Sb2S3 for various slabs were found to be 0.568, 0.596 and 0.609 eV for 1, 2 and 4 slabs respectively. This trend is consistent with the experimental work where the band gap reduced when the thickness increased. Optical properties comprising of real and imaginary parts of complex dielectric function, absorption coefficient, refractive index was also investigated to understand the optical behavior of Sb2S3 thin films. From analysis of optical properties, it is clearly shown that Sb2S3 thin films have good optical absorption in the visible light and ultraviolet wavelengths, it is anticipated that these films can be used as an absorbing layer for solar cell and optoelectronic devices.
Journalism Studies
Authors: Tumber Howard
Published: April 2019

This entry traces the history of journalism studies and asks whether journalism studies are a discipline or field or research method. Different interests involved in journalism studies—journalists, journalism educators, and journalism scholars—make it difficult to find a single vision of what it entails. As a new field it requires its own methodologies even though these may be borrowed from other disciplines. It also requires its own body of literature. The origins of journalism studies are somewhat imprecise but we can identify five phases of evolution: normative, empirical turn, sociological turn, global‐comparative turn, and digital turn. Journalism studies also encompass the education of journalists. Many journalism scholars now reside in journalism departments side by side with their practitioner colleagues. Historically the study and practice of journalism was entwined over the debate of whether the occupation of journalism should be regarded as a craft or a profession and indeed its place in the academy.
College and University Journalism Education
Authors: Mensing Donica
Published: April 2019

Colleges and universities are the most important source of education for journalists through their curricula and research, influence trends, and practices throughout the journalism industry. By the end of the twentieth century most journalism jobs worldwide required a college degree. Thousands of journalism education programs now exist on six continents, serving thousands of students annually. This professionalization of the journalistic workforce impacts how journalists conceive their roles, how the journalism industry operates, and how journalism is understood and practiced around the world. As journalism as a field undergoes profound shifts, educators are also changing what and how they teach, redefining their mission and purpose.
Licensing and Certification of Journalists
Authors: Shemberger Melony
Published: April 2019

This entry provides a global examination of the licensing and certification of journalists, the opportunities and threats, and theoretical frameworks of the concepts. Scholars and journalists often see licensing and certification as intrusive and pervasive ways to keep citizens away from mass media in a country. Practices that became more robust after World War II and especially during the Cold War era, the licensing and certification of the news media allow government authorities to decide who controls the media. However, for countries seeking stability through a strong government, politicians often argue that they need a press that would promote patriotism and unity.
Scholarly Organizations in Journalism
Authors: Steyn Elanie
Published: April 2019

Scholarly and professional organizations are a common phenomenon across disciplines. They implement ways for scholars to establish themselves in their discipline and they aim to achieve public and scholarly awareness of the issues for which they stand. In addition, they bring together like‐minded individuals who share the same goals and objectives. Some of these organizations have a global reach and international membership. Others are focused on a more national and local audience. As change has become the only constant in many spheres of societies of the twenty‐first century, scholarly organizations are working toward finding ways to manage this change, remain relevant, and continue to grow. This entry looks at some of these challenges and how scholarly organizations in journalism manage this changing environment.
Teachers of Journalism
Authors: Lee Alice Y. L.
Published: April 2019

This entry introduces continuities and changes in the role of journalism educators in the digital era. As technology advances and the world continues to become a networked knowledge society, journalism is reinventing itself. Teachers of journalism are now providing journalistic training in a new social, technological, and educational context. In this new era, on the one hand, they must fulfill their traditional missions; on the other hand, they have new tasks to accomplish. There is a call for reconsidering their social function, pedagogical approach, and curriculum design. They are also encouraged to strengthen their professional and academic exchanges at the international level and to participate in the global community of journalism educators.
Training Institutes and Organizations
Authors: Self Charles C. , Richards Ian
Published: April 2019

This entry examines journalism education outside of universities. It reviews the types of non‐university education; advantages and disadvantages of the approaches; recent trends and developments in journalism training; and an introduction to the mix of approaches in different regions of the world.
Actor‐Network Theory
Authors: Primo Alex
Published: April 2019

This entry summarizes the main ontological and epistemological contributions from actor‐network theory (ANT) and how they have been applied to journalism studies. ANT describes the social as a connection between entities that can just be seen as social during the brief period when their associations occur. Those entities, however, are not just humans. ANT considers as social actors (or actants) everyone and everything that transform associations and make other actors do things. Human and nonhuman actants have a symmetrical relevance in associations. Such a concatenation underlines ANT's singular conception of a network. The actor is defined by its network and the network is defined by its actors. By adopting ANT's perspective, the anthropocentric approach to journalism and its aprioristic definitions are denied. Typically, nonhuman actants have been naturalized or overseen in journalism studies. However, technological artifacts are not mere instruments, as they also have agency in the creation of journalism.
Collective Memory
Authors: Edy Jill A.
Published: April 2019

The term
collective memory
refers to a community's understanding of its shared past. Journalism is a key source of raw materials for generating collective memory and contributes to the evolution of collective memory by narrating and re‐narrating the past in different social contexts. Journalism uses collective memory as a storytelling tool for making sense of contemporary events and as a means for understanding itself as a profession.
Critical and Cultural Studies
Authors: Bødker Henrik
Published: April 2019

Critical and cultural studies are concerned with complex and conflictual processes within the realm of culture and meaning. Cultural practices and representations are thus seen as deeply interwoven with larger ideological canvasses shaping and being shaped by nations, politics, economies, markets, and identities. From this perspective, journalism is not merely imparting information but a set of cultural practices, enactments, and representations through which broader cultures and identities continually are constructed, maintained, contested, and reformulated.
Effects Theories and Journalism
Authors: Thorson Esther
Published: April 2019

Media effects theories are defined and it is noted that journalism effects theories are a subset. The main concepts and theories that help to explain them include gatekeeping, two‐step flow, selective exposure, knowledge gap, spiral of silence, third‐person effect, agenda setting, priming, framing, news credibility, motivated reasoning, and hostile media.
Political Economy of News
Authors: Hardy Jonathan
Published: April 2019

Political economic analysis of news is a general description for examination of the political and economic organization of resources relevant for news production, content, distribution, and use. This entry discusses the range of topics addressed in political economic analysis of news, including media ownership and control, the organization of journalistic labor, the financing of news, and the influence of advertising, sales, subscription, and subsidies. The entry traces the development of critical political economy perspectives on news, contemporary research themes and debates, and emergent topics such as automation and branded content.
Journalistic Roles
Authors: Hanitzsch Thomas
Published: April 2019

The notion of journalistic roles refers to the way journalists perceive, articulate, and enact generalized expectations as to how journalism is serving society, both in normative and descriptive terms. Journalistic roles are constructed in professional discourse, which is about journalism's identity and place in society. Journalists articulate and enact journalistic roles on four levels: Normative role orientations encompass generalized and aggregate expectations that journalists believe are deemed desirable in society, while cognitive role orientations comprise the institutional values, attitudes, and beliefs that journalists embrace as a result of their occupational socialization. Practiced role performance captures the roles that journalists enact in practice, and narrated role performance denominates journalists' subjective perceptions and articulations of these roles. The universe of journalistic roles can be mapped onto two analytically distinct but empirically related domains that are central to people's lives: the domain of politics and the domain of everyday life.
Sociology of News Work
Authors: Belair‐Gagnon Valerie
Published: April 2019

Since the early days of the sociology of news work, sociologists have considered news work to be “socially constructed,” “purposive behavior,” “ideological construct,” “ritual behavior,” and a “gatekeeping process.” These scholarly concepts refer to ways that journalists produce news and the factors that affect its production. Early sociology of news work perceived journalism as rational: top‐down (i.e., individual, media routines, organizational, institutional) and influenced by social and cultural factors. News was understood to be a self‐contained profession that was influenced by internal and external forces, and there was little acknowledgment of human agency among news workers, who were working with the forces of news production. Yet, since the emergence of the Internet and the potential for audience members to be involved in news production processes, qualitative sociological accounts of news work see journalism as a complex web of networks. This change in perception poses challenges for scholars who conceive and deploy methodological, conceptual, and practical studies on news work.
Emotionality and News
Authors: Wahl‐Jorgensen Karin
Published: April 2019

This entry discusses the role of emotionality in journalism, demonstrating that even if journalism has always been emotional, research on the topic has been slower to arrive. This is due to a historical suspicion of emotionality, tied to ideals of liberal democratic theory and the allegiance to journalistic objectivity. The entry provides an overview of scholarship on the varied roles of emotion in journalistic practices, texts, and audience. As such work has matured and taken into consideration developments such as the rise of social media and the emergence of citizen journalism, we now have a more nuanced understanding of emotion as a tool and a force in journalism.
Public Interest in Broadcasting
Authors: Brotman Stuart N.
Published: April 2019

The U.S. model for broadcast regulation is based on a broad, undefined “public interest, convenience and necessity” standard embodied in the Communications Act of 1934, as amended. The continuing interpretation and implementation by the Federal Communications Commission reflects the vagueness of this standard, leaving stakeholders and the public at large with little guidance regarding how the standard will be applied in any given case. Several approaches are discussed that may help address this deficiency by providing more defined parameters for applying the public interest standard in practice.
Audience Measurement
Authors: Tandoc Edson C. , Maitra Julian
Published: April 2019

Audience measurement refers to the goal‐oriented process of collecting, analyzing, reporting, and interpreting data about the size, composition, behavior, characteristics, and preferences of individuals interacting with particular media brands or products. Traditional tools include focus group interviews, circulation audits, media diaries, surveys, and people meters. These were usually conducted by ratings or audit firms. But the rise of digital journalism also led to new tools, such as web and social media analytics, conducted by news organizations themselves or by third‐party applications, such as Facebook. Unlike traditional tools, analytics are (a) faster to collect; (b) automatic, as both deliberate and incidental feedback are recorded; (c) more inclusive, as data come from a much larger number of the audience; and (d) more comprehensive. Thus, audience measurement has evolved from a state when data points were few and collection was expensive to a situation of abundant data and low‐cost analytics, presenting new challenges.
Citizen Journalism
Authors: Charles Mathew , Allan Stuart
Published: April 2019

It is increasingly the case that the person first on the scene of a newsworthy event and that is prepared to document what is transpiring is an ordinary citizen carrying their smartphone. These so‐called “accidental journalists” have changed the contemporary news ecology as their contributions have redefined and reshaped professional news work. The citizen–professional binary can, however, project oversimplifications, which ignore how these “old” and “new” (sometimes contradicting) journalistic cultures simultaneously compete and collaborate. Citizen journalism raises questions not just about how news is produced and why citizens may choose to intervene, but also challenges our assumptions about what journalism is and the purpose it is supposed to serve.
Fragmentation of News Audience
Authors: Ksiazek Thomas B.
Published: April 2019

Audience fragmentation is a phenomenon where over time the mass audience becomes more diverse in their overall media consumption as individuals become more selective and specialized. It is a macro‐level pattern emerging from the tendency of media consumers to spread their attention across increasingly specialized content options. This results in smaller audience segments forming. While the audience was once concentrated on only a limited number of options in the marketplace, the increasing abundance of options enables audience fragmentation. Although fragmentation results from micro‐level behaviors like selective exposure and a reliance on relatively limited media repertoires to cope with a virtually unknowable universe of content, it becomes consequential at an aggregate level, where fragmentation, and the related phenomenon of audience polarization, have important social, political, cultural, economic, and policy implications.
Public Trust in News Media
Authors: Kohring Matthias
Published: April 2019

This entry provides an overview of the research concerning trust in media, which emerged almost entirely under the label of media credibility. Initially, the crucial aspects of measurement, predictors, and consequences of trust in media are discussed. This entry argues that research should put additional effort into the theoretical consideration of the key variable of “trust in news media.” Furthermore, it would be worthwhile to focus on the external consequences of (dis)trust in media for other social fields, such as trust in other professions and social trust in general.
Recommendation Tools
Authors: Leino Juha
Published: April 2019

Recommendation tools are an integral part of the news consumption environment online where news is increasingly consumed. With overwhelming numbers of fresh news items available at any given moment, recommenders are necessary for discovering items of interest—navigating and searching are simply not practical alternatives. Simultaneously, recommenders potentially envelop readers in filter bubbles, reinforcing their existing beliefs and contributing to group polarization, by exposing them only to news they like. A multidisciplinary approach is necessary to study news recommenders, as there is both a need for technological understanding of how they work and how they can be developed into various directions and a need to understand the impact they have on individual, group, and societal levels.
Reader Commenting
Authors: Ziegele Marc
Published: April 2019

Reader commenting is a widespread form of audience participation in online journalism. It refers to the activities of Internet users to publicly express and discuss their thoughts and emotions on current events directly below news articles on the websites or social media outlets of news media. This entry explains reader commenting (or user comments), distinguishes it from related phenomena, and provides an overview of theories and empirical research on reader commenting and public online discussions in journalism studies, political communication, media effects research, and reception studies.
Commodification of News
Authors: McManus John H.
Published: April 2019

Since Gutenberg invented his press, the central problem of journalism has been how to balance the public interest with the self‐interest of those who control news production. Royalty, clergy, and later, authoritarian governments used the news's power to define reality as a means of social control. Eventually the proliferation of printing cracked the information monopoly of European kings and bishops, enabling the Enlightenment. In the mid‐nineteenth century, the steam press allowed media moguls to provide news as a mass commodity—a cheap, popular kind of journalism designed more to turn than fill heads. Although less monolithic than state control, the demands of the marketplace conflicted more than coincided with production of the quality of journalism democracy requires. In the twenty‐first century, as digital technologies allow advertisers direct access to consumers without subsidizing journalism, hybrid forms of news combining government support and independent ownership hold promise.
Crowdfunding for Journalism
Authors: Aitamurto Tanja
Published: April 2019

In crowdfunded journalism, individual journalists or news organizations gather funding from online crowds on digital platforms. Journalists pitch their stories to online crowds, who are asked to donate to the story process. The power of crowdfunding is created by a large amount of small donations. In recent years, crowdfunding has become an important revenue source for journalism that may otherwise remain unfunded. Apart from funding, crowdfunding creates value by helping journalists to connect with audiences and access information that otherwise would remain beyond their reach. With its increased transparency and collaborative aspects, crowdfunding both enhances and challenges journalistic norms.
Profits and Profitability of News Media
Authors: Sen Ananya
Published: April 2019

The news industry has been declining over the recent past due to drastic reductions in advertising revenue and circulation numbers. This phenomenon has been attributed to the rise of the Internet. This essay analyzes business models used by news outlets over the past few decades and how the status quo has been disrupted with the advent of the Internet. It lays out the fundamental economics behind news production and how news outlets need to adapt their business strategy in the digital age.
Checkbook Journalism/Payment for Coverage
Authors: Skjerdal Terje
Published: April 2019

“Checkbook journalism” and “payment for coverage” are occasionally used interchangeably, although the terms refer to different practices. While checkbook journalism concerns media businesses which pay sources for stories or information, payment for coverage (popularly known as brown envelope journalism) occurs when sources reimburse journalists for media exposure. Both practices are regarded as ethically problematic, although some argue that the habits can be defended within certain social and cultural contexts. Both checkbook journalism and payment for coverage proliferated in the last part of the twentieth century, though in different areas of the world. Checkbook journalism is mostly confined to the media in western Europe and North America and is particularly prevalent in the tabloid press. Payment for coverage is more common in developing societies. Studies indicate that although journalists in weak media economies see ethical problems with receiving brown envelopes from sources, they still engage in the practice.
Errors and Corrections
Authors: Gilboa Eytan , Paz Uri
Published: April 2019

Correction of errors in media reporting is essential to address damages, maintain credibility, protect independence, and fulfill societal functions. The media in liberal democracies correct very few errors and reluctantly make them. The digital media and the “fake news” syndrome have exacerbated the already complex professional and ethical issues of correction. Theory construction and research on these issues are sporadic, limited, and lacking depth. Professional and ethical codes are deficient and not sufficiently enforced. Future research should focus on both correction and prevention.
Objectivity
Authors: Thomas Ryan J.
Published: April 2019

Objectivity is one of the most widely‐discussed concepts in journalism studies. This entry discusses definitions of objectivity as a signal of journalistic empiricism (at least, in intent). In this regard, objectivity ought to be considered a manifestation of a broader commitment to truth‐telling. The entry also addresses where objectivity can be found, noting that objectivity is not the eternal, transnational, and trans‐platform norm it is sometimes suggested to be. The entry also discusses some of the most prominent and incisive critiques made of objectivity before concluding with a defense of the norm.
Plagiarism
Authors: Lewis Norman P.
Published: April 2019

Journalists generally condemn plagiarism as a grave offense yet accept the omission of attribution as normative practice. They disagree over whether material requires attribution based on the type of job they hold and the medium for which they work. They also see attribution as optional for material derived from press releases and generally accept copying ideas without credit. Plagiarists do not differ from their peers in demographics or personality types, though they are more likely to take a flexible approach to integrity. Sanctions for plagiarism vary widely even among similar offenses within the same organization. Plagiarism is not a monolithic offense but one that, like many ethical issues, involves a complex interplay among individual and situational factors.
Right of Reply
Authors: Johnson Brett G.
Published: April 2019

The right of reply allows individuals to respond, within the same medium in which those statements were originally published, to statements made about them that violate their right of dignity or reputation. It is related to the right of correction, which legally mandates the press to simply correct factual inaccuracies or outright falsities published about a person. Factors influencing the extent of the right include whether the subject of a story is a public official or private citizen and whether the story was published during an election. The right of reply is founded on the theory that government must play an integral role in holding the press accountable for its reporting in order to enhance the goals of a free press. This theory contrasts with the libertarian view (prominent in the United States) that laws dictating press conduct are categorically antithetical to these goals. Some news organizations voluntarily offer opportunities for aggrieved subjects to reply in an effort to protect their journalistic autonomy from legal control.
Self‐Censorship
Authors: Lee Francis L. F.
Published: April 2019

This entry reviews the concept and empirical studies on self‐censorship in journalism. It explicates why self‐censorship is present in contexts ranging from democracies to authoritarian systems, and it also discusses the different manifestations of self‐censorship in varying contexts.
Transparency
Authors: Craft Stephanie
Published: April 2019

This entry addresses how transparency has been defined as a norm of journalism, particularly since the term came into widespread use in the early 2000s. Transparency has been employed with reference to various news‐gathering practices and ethical guidelines and in light of the increasing availability and capability of technological tools that make greater transparency possible. Its rise has been fueled by perceptions of transparency's link to accountability, greater public trust, and belief in journalism's credibility. While the openness at the heart of transparency is a long‐standing principle of journalism, the digital age context has led some to conclude that transparency, not objectivity, is or ought to be journalism's key norm.
Legal Regulatory Bodies
Authors: Terry Christopher
Published: April 2019

This entry explores the role of administrative agencies and focuses on the regulation of communication in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission, the Federal Trade Commission, and the Federal Elections Commission as a model of the agencies charged with regulation of media and journalism. While the focus is on U.S. media regulation, this entry draws comparisons with similar agencies in the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada, the countries whose media systems are the closest in design to the United States.
Libel, Slander, and Defamation
Authors: Kenyon Andrew T.
Published: April 2019

This entry examines traditional defamation law's “chilling effect” on journalism and legal developments in light of that self‐censorship, including aspects of U.S., Commonwealth, Continental European, and Asian laws. It considers what defamation plaintiffs must prove, common defenses for media publications, the treatment of opinion, privacy's interaction with defamation, criminal defamation, remedies, the law's effects on media production and content, and challenges posed by Internet publication.
Source Protection and Shield Laws
Authors: Fargo Anthony L.
Published: April 2019

Journalists sometimes rely on confidential sources in the gathering of news. Constitutional provisions, statutes, and common‐law court decisions provide qualified protection against the forced disclosure of source identities in about 120 countries. There are some questions about whether existing laws in most countries have adequately kept up with changes in media institutions that have complicated the problem of determining who qualifies for protection. Crackdowns on leaks of classified information, concerns about fake news, antiterrorism laws, mass surveillance of electronic communications, and data retention policies have further strained journalist–source relationships.
Alternative Journalism
Authors: Dimitrakopoulou Dimitra
Published: April 2019

Alternative journalism can be defined as the direct involvement of citizens in collecting, editing, commenting on, and disseminating news. The objective of alternative journalism is to provide the public with information that is free of the biases of mainstream media and not manipulated by any political, financial, or commercial interests. Alternative journalism is considered a grassroots movement that rejects the vertical organization of the media business as well as the formality and professionalism of mainstream journalism.
Entrepreneurial Journalism
Authors: Rafter Kevin
Published: April 2019

Entrepreneurialism has emerged as a topic of considerable interest to those keen to see journalism deal with the ongoing disruptive processes of digital and economic transformation. A number of recent publications have sought to address the connection of entrepreneurialism to journalism (Rafter, 2018). As a result, entrepreneurialism—traditionally considered a topic in the realm of business—has moved centrally into discourse and analysis when consideration is given to the “future of journalism.” Three strands of this research are identified, namely, defining entrepreneurial journalism, the ethical issues associated with the close proximity of finance and editorial, and the role of higher‐level education when integrating entrepreneurialism into the journalism curriculum.
News as Comedy
Authors: Harrington Stephen
Published: April 2019

This entry provides a brief overview of the intersections of news and comedy, and their consequences for politics, journalism, and society. It examines the phenomenon of both “comedy as news” and “news as comedy.” Outlining some of the historical roots of each, the entry notes key moments in the public uses of political satire and how its underpinning ethos has been pervasive in the media more generally over the past two decades. The entry also outlines the ways that serious news has begun to be viewed through a comedic lens, in part driven by the increased “mediatization” of the political process. It concludes by noting some of the instances in which “fake” (i.e., satirical) news has been mistaken for “real” news by some high‐profile public figures.
Hyperlocal Journalism
Authors: Hess Kristy , Waller Lisa
Published: April 2019

Hyperlocal media is a growing area of scholarly interest in this period of digital disruption. Where traditional local media have struggled financially and cut back on staff and editorial resources, many parts of the world have witnessed the rise of small digital start‐ups and community‐ or citizen‐initiated journalism and information sharing, which is creating new services as well as communication platforms that are often hyperlocal in character.
Spatial Journalism
Authors: Schmitz‐Weiss Amy
Published: April 2019

This entry provides an introduction to spatial journalism, its context, application in today's digital media era, and future directions for research. Spatial journalism is a theoretical framework that examines the intersection between journalism, mobile technology, and location‐based services. The role of location has always existed in the journalism practice but the connection of making location prominent in all aspects of the practice from news gathering to dissemination has been somewhat invisible. Spatial journalism provides one perspective of expanding the possibilities of location in the digital and mobile media era.
Talk Show Journalism
Authors: Ruggiero Christian
Published: April 2019

Talk shows, as one of the most traditional and simple radio and TV formats, continue to be popular, not only because of their very simple formula, but because of their ability to spectacularize conversation. By focusing on issues or topics regarding political or social matters, as well as pertaining to the guests' private domain, talk shows need to come across as spontaneous. At the same time, since home audiences have to be involved in a conversation that is not specifically addressed to them, they somehow become “ratified bystanders.” In order to represent the main interactional mechanisms studied in research and theory of sociology of communication and journalism, this entry addresses different types of talk, with particular attention to television formats. The central role of the talk show host, divided into different and complementary functions, is a key to read some of the changes in the role of journalists.
17th‐Century and Earlier Journalism
Authors: Wilkinson Alexander S.
Published: April 2019

This entry surveys the means by which news was communicated in Europe between around 1450 and 1700 as well as the culture of news in this period. It focuses on manuscript news services as well as printed news pamphlets and the stuttering and inauspicious early history of the newspaper industry. These centuries were most notable in the history of journalism and news for the growth of an accessible and regular international postal network through which news could flow; the commodification of news, and an increasing appetite for regular news which was to extend across virtually all urban classes.
19th‐Century Journalism and Notable Journalists
Authors: Chapman Jane L.
Published: April 2019

In the nineteenth century, print was the dominant media, yet the period is crucial because it represents the victory of commercialism in the press over allegiance to citizenship—all of this during a nondigital age when industrial and political revolutions fused into the modern world. In the process, journalism's core features became more evident, along with the foundations for modern globalization. Technology influenced the extent and the speed at which information was transmitted globally, as well as the presentation and nature of content. Newspapers represented a vehicle for liberty and acted as a watchdog on government, while the struggle for free expression became part of a process of the integration of journalism into a capitalist framework. Journalism moved from a controlled, shortage situation for information in the earlier part of the century to a mass supply situation, offering both consumer choice and massive societal influence by the era's end.
21st‐Century Journalism: Digital
Authors: Eldridge Scott A.
Published: April 2019

The way in which journalism was produced, accessed, and understood shifted almost entirely from analogue to digital media in the twenty‐first century. With rapidly developing technologies enabling new ways of communicating online, digital journalism emerged as a distinct type of journalism, reflected in changes to the ways news is presented to audiences, how both journalists and audiences engage with new interconnected opportunities, and how scholars conceive of journalism in this era. At the center of these shifts were changes in the relationship between the field of journalism, its practices, and its audiences. This entry highlights changes that accompanied the emergence of digital journalism and specific challenges as journalism adapted to online technologies. Key moments include traditional news media confronting the early web, the emergence of blogs, and new approaches to journalism which sprung up online, the rise of user‐generated content and interactivity, and the social web.
Global Muckraking
Authors: Schiffrin Anya
Published: April 2019

The U.S. Muckrakers were a small group of journalists who were part of the progressive era in the early twentieth century. Living in a time of income inequality, large monopolies (trusts), and rapid urbanization they wrote about corruption, urban squalor, health and safety, and labor. There are different theories about why muckraking arose when it did but scholars agree that although they lasted only a short time their work generated public outrage, catalyzed the passage of new legislation, and influenced imitators overseas. The Muckrakers' work is still remembered as a high point of U.S. journalism.
Yellow Journalism
Authors: Campbell W. Joseph
Published: April 2019

This entry presents an overview about “yellow journalism,” a term coined in the late nineteenth century to disparage the newspapers of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer. “Yellow journalism” came to define a set of practices popularized by those newspapers, especially Hearst's, before, during, and immediately after the Spanish‐American War of 1898. Also discussed is a tenacious media myth that says “yellow journalism” fomented the war.
African Journalism
Authors: Kalyango Yusuf
Published: April 2019

The complexity of political cultures, laws, economic fragilities and infrastructural challenges on the African continent curtails thorough and broad generalization of what is tagged here as “African journalism.” Some impediments on journalism practice from media systems on the continent range from controls of news content through ownership, government control of information, and state policies that are either archaic or administratively restrictive. The state control of legacy media—among other constraints—are enumerated here in subsequent sections. Some specific case studies in recent research show a shift in some journalistic routines and in supporting national development, demanding freedom of expression, advocating for social change, and using alternative forms of information dissemination. Many African journalists are also very active on social media and mobile communication generating public discourse and dialogue with state actors to effect social change.