bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Increasing Returns to City Size in the Face of an Impending Decline in the Sizes of Large Cities: Which is the Bogus Fact?
Authors: Vining D R , Kontuly T
Published: October 2006

A summary of recently published statistics show an actual or imminent population decline in the great metropolitan regions of many, if not all, of the major industrialized nations (Japan, France, Great Britain, Sweden, Norway, Italy, the USA). The only exceptions so far found to this emerging trend are Finland and Hungary.
Place Attributes in a Migration Decision Context
Authors: Gustavus Susan O , Brown L A
Published: October 2006

The research reported in this paper used four different survey methods to elucidate the importance of thirteen place attributes in the decision to migrate to Columbus, Ohio; (1) a Likert-type assessment of the general importance of each attribute; (2) a paired-comparison technique for ascertaining attribute trade-off possibilities; (3) measures of saliency and satisfaction with each attribute in the former place of residence, in the town that was the second choice for migration, and in Columbus, the migration destination; and (4) open-ended self-reports of reasons for moving. Use of these varying methodological approaches allows observations both on research strategies for migration studies and on substantive findings concerning place attributes. Relative to the latter, a two-step process is proposed.

The first stage of the migration process is identifying a set of alternative destinations in comparison with the former place of residence. Although all thirteen attributes are important in the abstract, housing, jobs, schools, and health care facilities are particularly critical should trade-offs be necessary. Nearness to home and shopping would be traded off most readily, as would ‘city lights’ amenities, which are generally regarded as important in migration literature.

In the second stage, a destination is chosen. Attributes appear to function primarily as threshold conditions in this process. Thus, Columbus and the second choice were both perceived as dramatically different from the former place of residence, but were nearly identical to one another. In this context personal contacts in a potential migration destination are apparently crucial in confirming for the migrant that perceptions of attributes are correct and in easing assimilation and adjustment problems.
Predicting Neighborhood Decline within a Large Central City: An Application of Discriminant Analysis
Authors: Fogarty M S
Published: October 2006

This paper investigates the use of discriminant analysis as an empirical technique for assisting the urban planner in predicting patterns of neighborhood change. A discriminant model estimated for ninety low-income census tracts within the city of Pittsburgh predicts 97% of upgrading income paths and 92% of downgrading paths over the period 1960 to 1970. Some form of the discriminant model would appear to be a useful guide to policymakers and a reasonable technique for limiting the areas of immediate policy concern.
Perceived Environmental Utility under the Influence of Alternative Transportation Systems: A Framework for Analysis
Authors: Burnett Pat
Published: October 2006

The view that citizens should be involved in transportation planning is now widely accepted. However, there have been few attempts to measure residents' perceptions of the effect of alternative transportation proposals on their environment. The study reported here draws up a conceptual framework for measuring firstly the perceived attributes of a residential environment, and secondly how a population evaluates such an environment under different transportation options. In each instance the conceptual framework is tested by making use of case study data. At the first stage it is demonstrated how Kelly's Personal Construct Theory and related procedures can be applied to elicit cognised environmental components of urban places. One urban place is selected and population clusters which are ‘homogeneous' in socioeconomic characteristics and activity patterns are defined. The INDSCAL model is then specified and applied to determine whether members of each population cluster evaluate the attributes of their environment in the same way under alternative transportation proposals. The measures of environmental utility for each proposal which the model produces show considerable variation within the groups. However, the model successfully defines each group's response to the effects of different transportation options.
The Countryside Image: An Investigation of Structure and Meaning
Authors: Palmer C J , Robinson M E , Thomas R W
Published: October 2006

Images of places in the countryside are structured along a number of dimensions corresponding to the attributes perceived in a place. A suitably constructed semantic differential measures the verbal representation of such images. A factor analysis identifies the dimensions, and an oblique solution gives a realistic appraisal of the structure. A second-order factor analysis reveals the nature of the basic structure underlying the images of differing countryside places. It appears that the structure is composed of three composite dimensions (second-order factors) which subsume the initial dimensions (first-order factors) of the image.
A Demonstration That the Current Deconcentration of Population in the United States is a Clean Break with the Past
Authors: Vining D R , Strauss A
Published: October 2006

An initial reaction among many observers of urban America to recently released data showing a net migration out of its metropolitan areas is that this phenomenon must reflect nothing more than an accelerated expansion of these areas beyond their conventionally defined borders. This paper tests this hypothesis by tracing out the behavior of the Hoover index for five levels of areal disaggregation in the US. In Statistical Geography, Duncan and his collaborators found that for the period 1900–1950 there was dispersal at the finest and coarsest grains of areal disaggregation (reflecting city—suburb and East—West dispersal, respectively) and concentration at intermediate grains (reflecting rural-urban migration). We find that, by 1970, dispersal was occurring at all levels of areal disaggregation. That is, using the county as our basic unit of analysis, and building up increasingly more aggregated regions based on these units, we are unable to find an increase in concentration at any level of areal aggregation. We conclude that dispersal is more than a statistical artifact of the way in which metropolitan areas are defined.
The Decomposition of Correlation Coefficients into Causal Effects
Authors: Davidson R N
Published: October 2006

The correlation coefficient is commonly used, yet its potential for drawing causal inferences is hardly tapped. Given even quite a simple correlation matrix, any coefficient may be readily decomposed into direct and indirect effects; joint effects with other specified variables; and coordinated error effects due to unspecified causes. A worked example relating to crime rates is given.
Rank Tests for Spatial Correlation
Authors: Sen A K , Sööt S
Published: October 2006

If spatial data do not have an underlying normal distribution, the traditional tests for spatial correlation may lead to erroneous conclusions. This is illustrated by means of an example. A class of tests based on the ranks of the observations is proposed and the large sample normality of each test is established. A theorem providing the basis for locally most powerful tests is also presented.
Some Reconsiderations of Simon's City-Size Distribution Model
Authors: Okabe A
Published: October 2006

In conjunction with the empirical findings that the form of city-size distributions is stable over time, this paper reexamines Simon's (1955) model and provides a better understanding of that model. First, a Simon-type model is proposed which is a generalization of Simon's model. Second, Simon's model is reexamined with respect to the ‘steady state’. Third, in the context of the Simon-type model, the necessary and sufficient conditions for the ‘steady state’ with the Yule (1924) city-size distributions are investigated. Last, the necessary and sufficient conditions for the ‘asymptotically steady state’ are obtained.
Hiérarchie des places centrales et graphes Φ-Flous
Authors: Ponsard C
Published: October 2006

This paper discusses the nature of the dominance relationships in a central-place system. The author takes account of the indeterminacy which fundamentally characterises the dominance relationship; one central place dominating another more or less. The formalisation put forward depends on the theory of fuzzy Φ-graphs. The first part describes the space of the influencing relations between agglomerations, and in the second part the indeterminate dominance relations are analysed. A central-place hierarchy exists if and only if the dominance-relations space can be partitioned into like classes. The author develops several theorems on fuzzy Φ-graphs. The model is operational. A numerical example is given in the three appendices which present, in conclusion, the necessary algorithms for putting it into practice.
Urban Dynamics and Urban Cycles
Authors: Dendrinos D S
Published: October 2006

Some basic elements of catastrophe theory are discussed insofar as they relate to discontinuities observed in the allocation of economic activities in urban settings. The case of a dynamic model of the allocation of manufacturing and residential activities is presented in an open urban area as a model of a hyperbolic umbilic catastrophe. The dynamic equilibrium allocations of these two activities are identified as possible paths in the bifurcation set of the three parameter (control variables) and two behavioral-variables catastrophe type. A regulating function governing the urban system at the macroscale is discussed.
Trade-off Surveys in Planning: Theory and Application
Authors: Dowall D E , Juhasz J B
Published: October 2006

We report on two innovations in survey methodology for land-use planning: The use of trade-off choices and the application of cluster analysis to the data.

Cluster analysis is used to reduce the attitudinal items to significant dimensions. Cluster-score patterns can then provide empirical typologies of residents according to meaningful data-based distinctions. These subgroups of citizens can be found in homogeneous or heterogeneous subregions with differing consequences for the regional plan.

We report on an initial application of this methodology to the mountain area of Jefferson County, Colorado. A questionnaire utilizing the trade-off approach was administered to 316 citizens. The analysis of the citizens' responses yielded eight clusters, four general and four local in orientation. On the basis of the patterns of cluster scores, thirteen subgroups were identified, which were then arranged on a continuum of convenience-versus-environment orientation. The subgroups were found to occupy heterogeneous and homogeneous subregions of the mountain area. We discuss possible implications of these findings for a comprehensive plan, and argue that the findings, although of tentative substance, provide a confirmation of the methodology.
Reilly's Challenge: New Laws of Retail Gravitation Which Define Systems of Central Places
Authors: Batty M
Published: October 2006

This paper attempts a reformulation and generalisation of Reilly's (1931) law of retail gravitation. Reilly himself challenged workers in the field to produce new evidence which would refute or strengthen his law, and developments in spatial-interaction theory during the last decade are used here in taking up this challenge. A critique of Reilly's law sets the scene: By adopting a gravity model more general than the Newtonian model used by Reilly, it is shown how the limitations of the law with respect to hierarchy, spatial competition, locational size, and the symmetry of trade flows, are overcome. In particular the notion of Reilly's law as a special case of the market-area analysis originating from Fetter (1924) and Hotelling (1929) is demonstrated in terms of a theory of the breakpoint implying spatial price–cost indifference. Another approach, through entropy-maximisation and its dual problem, leads to similar conclusions with regard to prices, and it also serves to introduce multicentred spatial competition. These ideas are then generalised in several ways: through notions about the influence of prior spatial information, through concepts of consumer as well as producer market areas or fields, and through the implications of the analysis for the family of spatial-interaction models. A speculation on the relationship of price differentials to Tobler's (1975) interaction winds is made, and the paper is concluded with an application of these models to the definition of an urban hierarchy in the Reading subregion.
The Optimal Pricing of Undepletable Externalities
Authors: Uri N D
Published: October 2006

In this paper, the quasi-optimal Pareto solution resulting from the imposition of an emission standard on an undepletable (public good) externality is derived. The basic vehicle around which the analysis is performed is a competitive general equilibrium model in the Negishi framework. The solution proves to be Pareto quasi-optimal in the sense that consumers will have maximized their utility for the given emissions level.
Estimating Spatial-Interaction Models
Authors: Haining R P
Published: October 2006

The problems that arise when estimating the unknown parameters of models of spatial interaction are considered. Two models are analysed and the large-lattice theory outlined. The need for a small-lattice theory is discussed, and those aspects of the theory that distinguish it from the large-lattice theory are emphasized. The border-value problem, a central feature of small-lattice estimation theory, is discussed in relation to estimator bias. Properties of the least-squares and maximum-likelihood estimators in small-lattice situations are analysed.
Dynamic Properties of the 1966–1971 Canadian Spatial Population System
Authors: Liaw Kao-Lee
Published: October 2006

This paper uses an extended Rogers model of multiregional demographic growth to characterize the 1966–1971 Canadian spatial population system, which is disaggregated simultaneously into two sexes, fourteen age groups, and eight regions. It is assumed that much foresight about the future of a spatial population system can be gained by studying the dynamic implications of a fixed matrix of empirically estimated demographic rates.

The analysis reveals that during the period 1966–1971 the Canadian spatial population system had very strong growth potential, over 40% of which was due to foreign net immigration, and that the system's long-run redistributional trend is: (1) a continued dominance by Ontario; (2) a strong westward-shifting potential; (3) a drastic reduction in Quebec's competitiveness; (4) a substantial increase in the mean age of every regional subpopulation, except in the North; and (5) a switch from male to female dominance. It is also shown that the convergence toward the long-run distribution can be divided into two stages: First a quick convergence toward relatively smooth regional age profiles, and then a slow but persistent spatial convergence.
Regional Labour Supply and National Fluctuations: Canadian Evidence for 1969–1975
Authors: Clark G L
Published: October 2006

Despite many years of research into the determinants of labour-force participation there is still a large degree of ignorance as to the impact of national fluctuations upon local labour-market supply. In the context of the recent recession, the effects of fluctuations in national money-wage rates and unemployment are related to variations in regional labour supply. A tentative model is presented and problems of testing economic relationships over time are discussed. With the Canadian case as an example, the model is then analysed and the results discussed.
Spatial Diffusion Processes 1: A Model and an Approximation Method
Authors: Webber M J , Joseph A E
Published: October 2006

This paper describes a model of the diffusion of a message among the cities of a system. The diffusion process depends upon the flow of information about the message from prior adopters. Two cases are identified: (1) in which adopters are individuals within cities, so that information relevant to adoption may flow from adopters in one city to other individuals in that city, and (2) in which the city is the adopting unit, so that information relevant to adoption may only arrive from other adopter cities. In both cases an approximation must be made in order that the differential equations can be solved. The simpler case is case (1), which is analysed fully; calculations reveal a close negative relationship between the total interaction into a city and the mean and variance of the time of arrival of the message in that city. Case (2) can only be solved in series form, and so the second paper in this set examines this case numerically.
On Searching for the Most Informative Spatial Pattern
Authors: Batty M , Sammons R
Published: October 2006

This paper is concerned with an inquiry into the way in which the organisation of a spatial data set affects the interpretation of the spatial phenomena which it records, in terms of its underlying pattern or density. It is argued that the number and configuration of zones affects the level of information which is imparted to the spatial analyst, and thus the quest becomes one in which the data set is to be reorganised spatially to impart maximum information. The paper sets out to define an appropriate measure of information and an algorithm designed to optimise its value. The information measure developed is in essence a modified Shannon entropy, modified to account for uneven zonal configurations and converging to Shannon entropy when the zoning system is equal-area and the distribution the best approximation to the density. The measure has some well-known aggregation properties which are presented and several interpretations of its form in spatial terms are made. Empirical measurements of this information measure on the distribution of population in seven metropolitan areas indicate that by aggregation of zones to equal areas, increases in information might be possible and a clearer picture of the underlying density perceived. Accordingly a simple algorithm embodying an heuristic to optimise towards the equal-area norm is developed and applied to the Los Angeles region. The results, in fact, indicate that information cannot be improved in this case, and this leads to a reexamination of the nature of the problem and to suggestions for further research.
A Highly Disaggregated Modal-Split Model—Some Tests
Authors: Southworth F
Published: October 2006

This paper investigates the usefulness of parameter disaggregation within a logistic modal-split model. Changes in parameter values caused by different origin-location and household characteristics are compared with parameter changes due to slight alterations to the model's structure. This spatial and sectoral parameter disaggregation scheme is used to link a modal-split model with a previously developed trip-distribution model at the same level of resolution. The disaggregations are seen as offering useful insights into intraregional variations in modal choice.
Consistency and Commitment in the Realisation of Extended Plans
Authors: Coddington A
Published: October 2006

This paper is concerned with the problems arising from the changing temporal perspective that accompanies the execution of extended plans. In particular it raises the question of the intertemporal consistency of a sequence of decisions, each consisting of the implementation of the early stages of an extended plan, when the passage of time leaves the underlying objective of the decisionmaker unchanged but nevertheless leads to revisions of the plans. The paper contains a discussion of the possibility of achieving intertemporal consistency in various ways: Through the prior commitment of actions (that is, the deliberate foreclosing of future options); through modifications in the procedure for discounting the future; and through the adoption of a dynamic-programming approach to the problem (that is, the construction of the plan by starting with the final element and successively choosing each previous element in the light of the subsequent sequence).
Gravity-Model Estimates and Exact Maximum-Entropy Solutions: Their Differences
Authors: Slater P B
Published: October 2006

The trip-distribution problem is discrete in formulation and combinatorial in nature. This truism has been ignored, as well as obscured, by the total attention focused on the use of the asymptotic methods of the gravity model for the maximum-entropy estimation of interzonal trips. These estimates appear to be reasonably reliable in indicating the regions—not the exact states—of highest probability. The Darwin–Fowler derivation of the gravity model demonstrates that the asymptotic solution is exactly equal to the average of all feasible microstates. Calibration of the model can be based on this proposition. An approach to testing the principle that all microstates are equally probable is outlined.
Towards a More Rational Consideration of Census Areal Units: Daily Urban Systems in Britain
Authors: Coombes M G , Dixon J S , Goddard J B , Openshaw S , Taylor P J
Published: October 2006

The utility of data based on areal units, such as British censuses, depends at least as much on the definition of these areal units as on the variables measured. The discontinuation of the local-authority areas used for all previous censuses allows a radical evaluation of the alternative areas for census-data presentation. A conceptual basis is discussed which contrasts simple areal aggregates with genuine ‘objects of interest’. It is suggested that the daily urban system is the candidate which best meets these criteria for a meaningful areal unit for census-data presentation.
Interstate Migration and Economic Growth: A Simultaneous Equations Approach
Authors: Gober-Meyers P
Published: October 2006

An objective of this study is to outline a migrant disaggregation procedure that compares the characteristics of those entering, leaving, or remaining in a state during a specified period of time so that migration induced changes in population composition can be evaluated. This index of migrant selectivity is then integrated as an endogenous variable, along with net migration and per capita income growth, into a system of simultaneous equations which recognizes the interdependent nature of the relationship between migration and per capita income growth. Exogenous variables represent various aspects of regional attractiveness, and they include growth in nonagricultural employment, unemployment, fertility, educational attainment, climate, and population density. The analysis is conducted for US states during the time period 1965 to 1970.
Employees' Experience of New Factories in North East England; Survey Evidence on Some Implications of British Regional Policy
Authors: Townsend A R , Smith E , Johnson M R D
Published: October 2006

In contrast with many surveys of the movement of industry conducted exclusively through management, this study was conducted principally through interviews with employees at new factories, focussing on their experience and labour market behaviour, and thereby reveals relatively unknown implications of British regional policy. It is also unusual for a survey of workers to concentrate exclusively on people who have changed jobs, whether voluntarily or not. Recruitment by plants new to the North East must be seen within the context of employees' complex labour market behaviour, but many aspects of the process are conditioned by the plants' relatively high demand for semiskilled labour. Recruits show rational behaviour and high occupational and industrial mobility within the limitations of restricted travel to work areas and a restricted flow of information about the new jobs. Several aspects of the jobs themselves appear disappointing when set against implicit assumptions and hopes in regional policy.
Freight Distribution Model Predictions Compared: A Comment
Authors: Gordon I R
Published: October 2006

A recent paper by Pitfield (1978) concluded from an analysis of freight flows, employing a range of tests, that there was no means of predicting whether a linear-programming solution or a gravity model provided the better approximation to an actual flow matrix. However, it can be shown theoretically that the gravity model should always be at least as good as the linear-programming solution. The source of Pitfield's inconsistent results is traced and it is argued that plural tests should be used to identify specification errors rather than to promote agnosticism.
Freight Distribution Model Predictions Compared: Some Further Evidence
Authors: Pitfield D E
Published: October 2006

This paper reviews the comments made by Gordon (1979) on the paper by Pitfield (1978) and, where appropriate, provides further evidence. In particular, intrazonal error in the gravity model is examined for twenty-eight commodities and it is concluded that the error is not as serious as implied. There is no evidence for bias in the diagonal elements of the distance matrix, and a deterrence function, used as an alternative to the negative-power function, does not provide better predictions. It is also shown that the PEP statistic is not corrected for scale in the same way as the other standardised statistics and so its correlation with these other statistics is strongly influenced by the scale of entries in the matrices. Minor points are made on the questions of speed of gravity-model convergence as β → ∞ and on the suitability of the χ2 test.
Spatial Diffusion Processes 2: Numerical Analysis
Authors: Webber M J , Joseph A E
Published: October 2006

An earlier paper (Webber and Joseph, 1978) proposed a model of the process whereby messages diffuse between a system of cities and provided a means of approximating the solution to that model if cities can ‘self-infect’ themselves with the message. This paper continues the analysis of this model by investigating the case in which a city cannot send the message to itself. The analysis is numerical, and an alternative to Monte Carlo simulation is used. The results indicate that the diffusion process described by the model is highly predictable if information on the accessibility of cities is available. A second part of the paper shows that the approximation used in the earlier paper provides a reasonable description of the model solution for at least some parameter values.
Convergence and Related Properties for a Modified Biproportional Matrix Problem
Authors: Macgill S M
Published: October 2006

This paper establishes the convergence of iterative routines for matrix balancing in which some row and some column totals must equal prespecified positive numbers. This balancing procedure is called a modified biproportional problem. Applications of the procedure are cited, various theoretical properties discussed, and its relationship with the full biproportional problem, treated in an earlier paper (Macgill, 1977a), is noted.
Autocorrelation in Spaces
Authors: Gatrell A C
Published: October 2006

Autocorrelation provides a means of characterising spatial structure, yet different kinds of structure are revealed in different spaces. The choice of weights when calculating an autocorrelation statistic is discussed. An examination of autocorrelation in transformed spaces is suggested and illustrated empirically by use of correlograms for German population data and autocorrelation statistics for Swedish population data. Transformations are accomplished by use of multidimensional scaling.
Economic Forces Underlying Urban Decentralization Trends: A Structural Model for Density Gradients Applied to Korea
Authors: Follain J R , Renaud B , Lim G-C
Published: October 2006

With the rapid pace of urbanization the structure of cities in developing countries is subjected to the very strong pressures of rapidly increasing population, rising incomes, and shifting factor prices. The standard procedure to document shifts in the structure of cities has been the use of density gradients. There is a quasi-universal tendency towards decentralization and the flattening of population-density gradients in all cities of the world. The shifting of density gradients is of great empirical importance to policymakers and we need to know more on how various economic and demographic forces operate to yield decentralization. Using a unique set of structural estimates for the housing and residential-land markets in Korea, this paper shows how an estimable structural model can be used to explore the specific economic forces affecting the shape of density gradients of Korean cities. Crucial estimates of the elasticity of substitution for housing in various Korean cities are presented. The indirect estimates of the shifts in the density gradients derived from the structural model are compared with the trends yielded by directly estimated density gradients. The implications of the analysis for our understanding of density gradients are drawn.
Corporate Organisation and Regional Office Employment
Authors: Marshall J N
Published: October 2006

Research in the United Kingdom focussed on large multisite organisations has suggested that they play an important role in accounting for the distribution of office employment. It is generally suggested that deficits in peripheral-region office employment may be related to the increasing concentration of office employment in manufacturing industry close to corporate headquarters, usually in the Southeast of England.

This paper argues that such a view of ownership and in particular of external control as an explanation for variations in office employment is oversimplistic. By use of empirical evidence from an establishment survey conducted in the Northern Region of England it is argued that the role of independent (not externally owned) establishments in explaining variations in office employment has been underestimated. Further, by use of concepts derived from the organisational-science literature, a more complex explanation for variations in office employment is presented.
Daily Urban Systems in Britain: From Theory to Practice
Authors: Coombes M G , Dixon J S , Goddard J B , Openshaw S , Taylor P J
Published: October 2006

The theoretical issues of an earlier paper by the authors concerning daily urban systems are now followed by the problems of applying this concept to British data. The complexities of the British urban system pose difficulties for any approach which prohibits overlapping areas, multinodal regions, and recognition of the differing travel patterns of social groups. No single, simple algorithm can cope consistently both with the major metropolitan regions and with the peripheral areas. To overcome these problems, the additional concepts of ‘self-containment’ and ‘metropolitan dominance’ are introduced into the consideration of journey-to-work patterns. These developments result in a regionalisation which takes the form of an urban hierarchy by creating a two-tier structure in the densely populated parts of the country, and free-standing daily urban systems elsewhere.
Quasi-Dynamic Urban-Location Models with Endogenously Determined Travel Costs
Authors: Boyce D E , Southworth F
Published: October 2006

A quasi-dynamic model of residential and job location is fused with the equilibrium trip-assignment model in the manner suggested by the combined model of trip distribution and assignment. The implications of this combined model for assumptions about future levels of interaction are examined. Extensions of the model to include explicit housing stocks and prices and the determination of residential- and job-location attractiveness are considered.
Dynamic Models of Competition between Transportation Modes
Authors: Deneubourg J L , de Palma A , Kahn D
Published: October 2006

We present a methodology to study the choice of transportation mode. It is dynamic and allows inherent fluctuations in individual behavior to play a role. The methodology has a deterministic aspect which yields the time evolution of the number of users for a transportation mode and it is based on certain assumptions about the attractivities of each mode, but it is always subject to fluctuations in human behavior. The problem then is to find the solutions of the deterministic equations describing the system and to examine the evolutionary path the system will take. Two models of competition between transportation-mode choice are developed to illustrate the methodology and to justify the dynamic approach to travel choice.
A Rapid Dual Method for the Hitchcock Problem
Authors: Harris B
Published: October 2006

Building on the analysis of simple problems with three source zones, a general but approximate method for solving the transportation problem of linear programming is proposed. The method uses successive adjustments to the row dual variables, and rapidly reduces the number of columns which need to be considered. It offers promising computational capabilities for problems where the ratio of the number of columns to the number of rows is very large.
A Theory of Displaced Ideals: An Analysis of Interdependent Decisions via Nonlinear Multiobjective Optimization
Authors: Nijkamp P
Published: October 2006

This paper is devoted to a discussion of the use of nonlinear multiobjective models for the analysis of environmental policy. The central focus of the paper is on an interactive procedure by way of a so-called displaced ideal approach. The conflicting nature of multiple objectives in a spatial and environmental system is analyzed by means of a spatial variant of the ‘keeping up with the Joneses' effect.

Geometric programming appears to be a useful tool to solve these nonlinear spatial—environmental multiobjective models.
Labour and the Location of Mobile Industry: Observations from the Instruments Industry
Authors: Oakey R P
Published: October 2006

There has been a tendency in certain recent studies of industrial location to use aggregated samples which draw together, and consider similarly, wide-ranging types of industrial production. With regard to labour considerations in mobile firms, interest has frequently gravitated towards an analysis of the variation in managerial competence to solve labour difficulties and has largely ignored the reality that the extent of the labour problem will vary between firms. This paper, with the aid of empirical data from the scientific and industrial instruments and systems industry, will argue that the product and process technologies of individual industries dictate the complexity of the labour requirement of firms. It is concluded that the effect of labour requirements on mobile industrial firms can only be realistically examined in studies of the labour problems of mobile industry if production technology, and its influence on the subsequent labour requirement, is acknowledged and included as a key variable.
Maps in Minds: An Empirical Study
Authors: Wong K Y
Published: October 2006

The notion of a mental map implies that the spatial actor possesses some kind of internal mental ordering of the external environment that he consults in the process of making movement decisions or responding to environmental stimuli. The aim of mental-map studies is to elicit information about the environment from the individual in terms of the characteristics and locational relationship of spatial forms, the qualities attributed to environmental elements, as well as the preferences for and the evaluation of spatial opportunities. This paper is concerned only with the locational aspects of mental maps. A direct mapping method was employed to extract information on the way in which the spatial actor mentally structured the environment into a coherent picture. Analysis was focussed on map styles and map sophistication and their relationships with various characteristics of the respondents. Findings indicate a strong inclination towards the sequential-type maps, which are organised around major paths. This implies that most residents conceive of the city as a set of movement experiences. Most maps produced are lacking in detail, pointing to a low legibility of environmental elements in the study area. Map styles and map sophistication show statistically significant relationships with the respondents' sex, education, occupation, and income, but not with their age, length of residence, and mode of transport. The results are generally in congruence with research findings in Western cities.
If Cities are So Great, Why are People Leaving? A Comment
Authors: Schaeffer P
Published: October 2006

Tregarthen (1977) claims that an increase in agglomeration economies may be the cause of migration to smaller cities. In this comment I show that his analysis does not lead to this conclusion.
Industrial Movement in North West England: 1966–1975
Authors: Lloyd P E , Mason C M
Published: October 2006

By use of data provided by the Department of Industry the temporal, spatial, and industrial characteristics of plants moving within and into North West England between 1966 and 1975 are explored. Details from a data bank of all industrial establishments in North West England allows greater spatial detail concerning the locations of migrant plants within each subregion. Merseyside is the dominant destination for newly opened plants whereas Manchester provides a pool of new entrepreneurship and a source of regionally mobile enterprise. Within Merseyside new openings concentrate in suburban locations, and the new towns also fare well. The policy implications of the research point toward the need for a flexible approach, geared less toward traditional sources of mobile industry but able to promote growth wherever it may occur within the region.
The Measurement of Relationships between Regional Structure and its Evolution
Authors: Beguin H
Published: October 2006

Using a regional case study, the paper investigates some methodological problems concerning the measure of the relationships between two sets of variables. Canonical analysis seems a good tool, but discussion of its advantages and drawbacks shows it is not fully satisfactory. Other methods are tested and their efficiency discussed: Regression, joint-set component analysis, canonical-subspace interpretation by communalities, component-based redundancy. In conclusion, simultaneous use of canonical analysis and other methods is recommended since their results appear complementary.
Growth and Change in the Analysis of Rank—Size Distributions: Empirical Findings
Authors: Malecki E J
Published: October 2006

This paper analyzes the interrelationships of city size and growth in the American Midwest from 1940 to 1970 in an effort to synthesize the study of urban growth rates and of city-size distributions. Changes in the rank–size distribution are related to the differential growth of different-size urban places; some relationship in changes over time is evident, but there is little correspondence in static analyses. The urban system analyzed by various threshold sizes examines the sensitivity of rank–size coefficients and urban growth-rate stability to the threshold. The threshold size appears to be far more important than previous research has considered, and noticeably influences the analysis of urban growth rates and rank–size distributions.
The Optimal Management of Natural Recreational Resources: A Mathematical Model
Authors: Bertuglia C S , Tadei R , Leonardi G
Published: October 2006

A mathematical model of the dynamic behaviour of natural recreational resources in the presence of ‘disturbance’ elements is presented, with a park taken as the natural resource and its users as the element of ‘disturbance’. A thorough analysis of the park/users system makes it possible to establish its response to external stimuli as well as the conditions under which it admits equilibrium states. Several models for the optimal management of the system are considered, both from the standpoint of ecological conservation and from that of the enjoyment of the natural environment. It is thus hoped this paper will contribute to the building of a method for optimal control of recreational resources, in order to prevent the onset of environmental degradation processes.
Determinants and Impact of Padi Farm Fragmentation in the Muda Area, Kedah, Northwest Malaysia
Authors: Wong S T , Tan S H
Published: October 2006

In this study two sets of hypotheses—a general set and a specific set—are advanced for testing. Whereas principal-axes factor analysis is applied to identify the major underlying dimensions that are postulated to be associated with padi farm fragmentation for 207 farms, stepwise multiple-regression analysis is employed to determine which among the twenty-six hypothesized variables have the strongest influence in predicting the extent of padi farm fragmentation in the Muda Irrigation Scheme Area of Kedah in northwest Malaysia. The impact which the extent of farm fragmentation has on padi productivity, irrigation, mechanization, and the neglect of parcels located at a distance from the farm house for the three size categories of farms—one-parcel, two-parcel, and three-or-more-parcel farms—is evaluated by the use of the chi-square test.
Locational Models for Systems of Private and Public Facilities Based on Concepts of Accessibility and Access Opportunity
Authors: Bach L
Published: October 2006

In the context of systems of nodal infrastructure facilities such as schools, kindergartens, libraries, fire stations, and waste-disposal sites, the adequate equipment of a region with these facilities depends mainly on their central location with respect to demand. Central location is considered to be the dominant locational factor. Based on principles of spatial behavior and on locational goals, ten mathematical models for the location–allocation problem are derived. The models relate to concepts of accessibility and access opportunity.
Vacancy Chains, Information Filters, and Interregional Migration
Authors: MacKinnon R D , Rogerson P
Published: October 2006

An interregional migration model based on vacancy chains, on an intervening-opportunities interaction hypothesis, and incorporating endogenously generated imperfect information flows is developed. Analytical results are determined for the case of perfect information. Numerical experiments are undertaken for the case of imperfect information. Cyclical behavior in the state variables occurs around the perfect-information equilibrium. Suggestions for extending the modeling framework are identified.
The Effect of Relative Coefficient Size on Input—Output Multipliers
Authors: Jensen R C , West G R
Published: October 2006

This paper provides a measure of the effect of relative coefficient size on input–output multipliers. Fourteen input–output tables, including a national table and tables for state, metropolitan region, city, rural town, and large and small rural region economies are included in experiments which measure the effect on output, income, and employment multipliers of (1) removal with replacement and (2) cumulative removal without replacement of coefficients from the A matrix. The experimental results illustrate the dominant role of the larger coefficients in multiplier formation and enable the derivation of a multiplier accuracy-maximising approach to table preparation.
Higher-Order Factor Analysis and Functional Regionalization: A Case Study in South Wales, 1971
Authors: Davies W K D
Published: October 2006

A method for functional regionalization based on higher-order factor analysis is proposed. The utility of the method when using alternative factorial procedures is described by reference to a study of journey-to-work flows in South Wales in 1971, in which the stability of the results under alternative factorial procedures is explored. The advantages of the higher-order factorial approach compared with previously suggested methodologies are documented.
The Classification of Local Authorities in the UK Inner Urban Areas Act 1978
Authors: Bentham C G
Published: October 2006

In the Inner Urban Areas Act (1978), the British government has classified urban areas into three groups each of which will benefit from markedly different levels of financial support. By the use of the indicators said to form the basis of the classification, discriminant analysis is carried out to evaluate the validity of the groupings. Only the rate of population change is found to discriminate strongly between the groups, whereas most of the other variables contribute little to the discriminant function. Overall the groups are found to be not very distinct with strong indications that several areas are not appropriately classified. Doubts are therefore raised about the validity of the classification produced by the government.
Industrial Heterogeneity and Spatial Hierarchy in Multiregional Freight-Generation Models
Authors: Benheddi A , Pitfield D E
Published: October 2006

Covariance analysis is used to explore two questions encountered in modelling freight generation for a multizonal system. At the level of the British standard region, where employment data by industry are readily available, experiments are conducted on a variety of aggregations of freight-flow data to see whether explanatory-variable data collection and manipulation can be minimized. This would be the case if common relationships between freight generated and employment data hold for broad groupings such as ‘heavy’ industry, chemicals, and engineering. At the zonal level an examination is made of the spatial distribution of residuals from the regression of total road freight generated on resident population. It is shown that for different zone types different relationships hold, and it is demonstrated that the centre–periphery explanation of the spatial distribution of residuals can be seen to be valid if ‘centre’ and ‘periphery’ are defined in a functional sense.
A Shortcut Method for Computing Final Demand Multipliers for Small Regions
Authors: Phibbs P J , Holsman A J
Published: October 2006

In recent years substantial interest has developed in shortcut methods for estimating final-demand multipliers. This paper proposes a procedure which simplifies the mathematical formulae for such multipliers. It is considered that the procedure developed is most appropriate for investigating interindustry relationships of small regions, and its greatest advantage lies in its value as a resource saving alternative to traditional input–output final-demand multipliers.
Some Models of Age-Specific Fertility Rates
Authors: Pittenger D B
Published: October 2006

This report deals with age-specific fertility rate (ASFR) models from the perspective of their possible use in subnational population forecasting, as opposed to graduating empirical data. Gompertz, beta-1, Mazur, Coale–Trussell, and Page models are discussed first, with attention being paid to correspondence of functional elements to empirical ASFR component behavior. New functional models or descriptions of natural fertility rates, cumulative nuptiality proportions, deviations from natural fertility, and mean age at nuptiality for females of various marriage durations are then presented. Existing model elements and the new functional forms are combined into three new ASFR models. The report concludes with an evaluation of all the models.
Measurement of the Effects of Regional Policy Instruments
Authors: Folmer H
Published: October 2006

In the literature on measuring of the effects of regional policy four methodological problems can be distinguished: First, handling the multidimensional nature of the regional profile; second, separation of policy effects from autonomous developments; third, comparison of different policy instruments; and fourth, handling theoretical constructs and measurement errors. In this paper a linear structural equation model is formulated that overcomes these problems. The paper concludes with a case study of the situation in Holland during the period 1974–1975.