bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Foreign States in Domestic Markets
Authors: Thatcher Mark , Vlandas Tim
Published: December 2021

Political economy debates have focused on the internationalization of private capital. But foreign states increasingly enter domestic markets as financial investors. How do policy makers in recipient countries react? Do they treat purchases as a threat and impose restrictions or see them as beneficial and welcome them? What are the wider implications for debates about state capacities to govern domestic economies in the face of internationalization of financial markets? In response, the book develops the concept of ‘internationalized statism’—governments welcoming and using foreign state investments to govern their domestic economies—and applies it to the most prominent overseas state investors: Sovereign Wealth Funds (SWFs). Many SWFs are from Asia and the Middle East and their number and size have greatly expanded, reaching $9 trillion by 2020. The book examines policies towards non-Western SWFs buying company shares in four countries: the US, the UK, France, and Germany. Although the US has imposed significant legal restrictions, the others have pursued internationalized statism in ways that are surprising given both popular and political economy classifications. The book argues that the policy patterns found are related to domestic politics, notably the preferences and capacities of the political executive and legislature, rather than solely economic needs or national security risks. The phenomenon of internationalized statism underlines that overseas state investment provides policy makers in recipient states with new allies and resources. The study of SWFs shows how and why internationalization and liberalization of financial markets offer national policy makers opportunities to govern their domestic economies.
Contested Internationalized Statism in the US
Authors: Thatcher Mark , Vlandas Tim
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines debates about openness towards Sovereign Wealth Fund (SWF) investments in the United States. Although the US is often seen as economically liberal and open, there has been powerful political pressure to restrict overseas investment. Congress has sought increased restrictions on grounds of national security. In contrast, traditionally the executive has favoured openness on grounds of free trade and foreign policy, although recent presidents have also supported greater controls. The outcome of these contending views has been low but directed internationalized statism as the legislative framework has become increasingly restrictive and discriminated against state investment. The case of the US shows the importance of executive and legislative interests and powers in influencing the level and form of internationalized statism. It also points to the need to go beyond labels of ‘liberal’ or ‘statist’ in analysing policies towards overseas states entering domestic financial markets.
Recovering Roman London
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

This chapter presents a short history of relevant archaeological research in London. It traces a long story of discovery that was born of seventeenth-century antiquarianism, stimulated by opportunities for discovery in rescue archaeology during Victorian rebuilding in the City of London, and came to maturity in England’s post-war development-led urban archaeology. This historiographic review explains how archaeological research has been organized in London, and how opportunities for study are a product of programmes of urban regeneration. The complex dialogue between archaeologists and developers has made a major contribution to the study and management of historic urban landscapes. It is explained that many hundreds of archaeological excavations have taken place in London over the last 400 years, but that many of the more important results remain relatively inaccessible.
The region and its resources
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

This chapter describes the landscapes of production found around London. Salterns and stone quarries in the Thames estuary, managed woodlands upriver of the city, and the ironworking sites of the High Weald are considered, along with the evidence for livestock and arable farming. These extraction industries responded to the creation of the Roman city, and saw considerable intensification from the Flavian period into the second century. This drew on the development of a supporting infrastructure that benefitted from military engineering and management, and is argued to have responded to elevated procuratorial demand. Some surplus may have been raised by taxes and rents in kind, and parallels are drawn with sharecropping arrangements for tenant farming documented in North Africa. The potential importance of imperial and other estates is also reviewed. Whilst direct evidence is lacking it is argued that imperial land-holdings would have been extensive in conquered territories, and this may account for some of the particularities of the economic relationship between London and its hinterland.
People and society
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

The social composition of Roman London is described from the evidence of written sources and archaeological finds. Burials, funerary monuments, and writing tablets identify an elite community dominated by the military and administrative establishments—surrounded by businessmen, merchants, and craftsmen—where slaves were an important presence. Many can be identified as immigrants, whose presence can also be read from the evidence of a DNA and isotope analysis. Most of these powerful foreigners wouldn’t have been citizens of London but incolae. Britons were not widely in evidence. Hybrid identities, varied patterns of consumption, and ritual and ceremonial performance are also described from the finds assemblages.
Severan revival (c. AD 180–225)
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

This chapter describes extensive rebuilding along London’s Severan waterfront. The first phase is tentatively associated with preparations for Clodius Albinus’ naval expedition to Gaul that was launched from Britain. The second is more certainly associated with the reoccupation of Britain by Severus’ general Virius Lupus in AD 197, for which precise tree-ring dating is available. Subsequent enhancements are likely to date to a phase of busy rebuilding c. AD 215/220, which may also be the approximate date of London’s masonry town wall. These various works were associated with busy traffic between Britain and the continent at times of major campaigns, the conduct of which required the revival of the city. The Severan renewal of London also included temples and other monuments arranged along the undefended waterfront. It is suggested that some of these works were the product of imperial patronage at the time of administrative reforms made by Caracalla on the conclusion of Severus’ Scottish wars. This was when Britain was subdivided into two separate provinces. London was made capital of Britannia Superior and perhaps elevated to the status of colonia following similar arrangements made for York as the capital of Britannia Inferior. The new town wall and temples are interpreted as the monumental expression of London’s revived role as a city of importance to the Roman government of Britain. The architectural details of these monuments are also described.
Trust and Distrust
Authors: Knights Mark
Published: December 2021

The book offers the first overview of Britain’s history of corruption in office in the pre-modern era, 1600–1850. As such, it is intended to appeal to historians but also to political and social scientists, whose work is extensively cited in an expansive and evaluative bibliography. Another distinctive feature of the book is the interaction of the domestic and imperial stories of corruption in office—a key argument is that these were intertwined and related. Linking corruption in office to the domestic and imperial state has not been attempted before, and the book makes extensive use of material relating to the East India Company as well as other colonial officials in the Atlantic world and elsewhere in Britain’s emerging empire. Both ‘corruption’ and ‘office’ were evolving concepts during the period 1600–1850 and underwent very significant but protracted change which the book charts and seeks to explain. To do so, the book makes innovative use of the concept of trust, which helped to shape office in ways that underlined principles of selflessness, disinterestedness, integrity, and accountability of officials. The reader’s report suggested that ‘no historian of this long period can afford to ignore the book, and it will certainly appeal to a large readership not only among historians of Britain and its empire but among political scientists more generally’. There is a brief concluding section highlighting policy implications.
Freedom of the Press and Anti-Corruption
Authors: Knights Mark
Published: December 2021

Public discussion of corruption was very important in shaping cultural norms as well as scrutinising and pressing for the reform of Britain’s domestic and imperial administrations. The focus of this chapter is on the debates surrounding the nature and extent of the freedom of Britain’s precociously free press to expose corruption. The chapter argues that there was a close connection between justifications for anti-corruption and ideological defences of a free press: freedom of the press and freedom from corruption often went hand in hand. Some critics argued that the press should not be shackled by those in office whose desire to restrict it was rooted in a concern to screen themselves. But officials (in both domestic and imperial contexts) often had a very different view, seeing the press as seditious, libellous, and destructive of authority. This tension existed both at home and abroad for much of the period.
Medievalism Disoriented
Authors: D'Arcens Louise
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines the valency of the Middle Ages in the recent French political imaginary, tracing how the nationalist medievalisms of recent decades can be read as a response to the perceived threats and uncertainties of globalization. The chapter explores the heated debates sparked by neoreactionary commentator Éric Zemmour’s use of the Middle Ages to account for France’s apparent loss of identity in the era of multiculturalism and the globalized economy. It also analyses how these debates play out in three recent novels that offer medievalist explorations of contemporary French identity: Jérôme Ferrari’s Sermon on the Fall of Rome (2012), Michel Houellebecq’s notorious 2015 novel Submission, and Mathias Enard’s 2015 novel Compass. By examining these texts together, the chapter offers an account of how France in the age of globalization has used the Middle Ages to understand its own long, contradictory love affair with ideas of nation, empire, and world.
Medievalism Re-oriented
Authors: D'Arcens Louise
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines interfaith encounter and conflict in the Islam Quintet, a suite of historical novels written between 1992 and 2010 by British-Pakistani author and commentator Tariq Ali. It explores the novels’ engagement with ‘Clash of Civilisations’ ideologies and with neocolonial politics, particularly in the three novels that are set in medieval Islamicate contexts shaped by interfaith and intercultural encounters: Shadows of the Pomegranate Tree, set in fifteenth-century al-Andalus, A Sultan in Palermo, set in twelfth-century Sicily, and The Book of Saladin, set in Crusade-era Egypt, Syria, and Palestine. The chapter argues that the novels develop a tension between convivencia, interfaith cohabitation achieved under Arab governance, and occupation, a hostile monocultural regime imposed under Christian rule. The chapter does not recuperate the Islamicate world into Western chronologies; rather, it complicates Western understandings of ‘the medieval’ by exploring how these novels highlight the linked destinies of Western and Islamic societies.
The Philosophical History of Philosophy
Authors: Frede Michael
Published: December 2021

This chapter investigates the philosophical history of philosophy. It begins with a short account of its history before considering it systematically. The philosophical history of philosophy is best understood as a viable enterprise if one looks at it as a certain kind of retrospective history. Thus understood, the philosophical historian adopts a certain contemporary philosophical position as philosophically the correct position to take. They then proceed to look back at the history of philosophy to see how philosophers, step by step, advanced in the direction of the favoured position. This kind of retrospective history has certain inherent dangers and considerable limitations. There is the inherent danger that one takes the picture of the history of philosophy, which one thus gets, to be a representative picture of the history of philosophy. The enterprise thus interpreted seems to suffer mainly from the limitation that it yields a highly selective, rather anachronistic, and somewhat distorted picture of the history of philosophy.
The Account and the Explanation of the Historical Development
Authors: Frede Michael
Published: December 2021

This chapter explores the account and the explanation of the historical development of philosophy. It was only at the end of the eighteenth century that this development itself became the focus of attention, and thus the phrase ‘history of philosophy’ came to take on the now familiar meaning of an account of the historical development of philosophy from its beginning to the present day. What characterizes the historian’s approach to the historical development of philosophy is that they refuse to resort to such philosophical assumptions about philosophy, about history, and about the history of philosophy to understand and to explain this historical development. The historian tries to understand and to explain it, as well as it can be explained, purely in terms of historical facts, facts which can be ascertained on the basis of the available historical evidence. Meanwhile, if one is concerned with the factual development of philosophy, one should focus on the fact that sometimes, when a philosopher does something, this affects other philosophers, who take notice of what he or she is doing in such a way that, as a result of their taking note of what the philosopher is doing, they modify their way of thinking about things philosophically, which, in turn, might make some difference to the further course of the history of philosophy. In this way, later philosophical activity is shaped or influenced by earlier activity.
Ludic Design for Accessibility in the Global South
Authors: Swaminathan Manohar , Pal Joyojeet
Published: December 2021

Technology solutions for accessibility have long been created using a narrow utilitarian lens, especially in the Global South, due to multi-dimensional challenges and resource constraints: an emphasis on purely functional outcomes supported by sterile cost–benefit analysis that ignores the fact that people with disability are people first, with their own aspirations for leisure and enjoyment in addition to skills and employment. We propose an alternative design methodology called the ludic design for accessibility (LDA) that puts play and playfulness at the center of all assistive technology design and use. We then describe a seven-step framework for designers to apply this methodology to create impactful solutions. Though LDA is universally applicable, we highlight the factors that make it especially relevant in the context of accessibility in the Global South.
An Anatomy of International Thought
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

International relations encompass three aspects: international anarchy, with sovereign states recognizing no political superior; routine interactions in diplomatic, legal, and commercial institutions; and moral solidarity, with cultural and psychological links more profound than those of politics and economics. Thinkers who underscore international anarchy regard the idea of international society as fictional. Hobbes, for example, maintains that the only remedy for anarchical competition is to make a contract for a ruler or an assembly to take power and act to ensure security. Grotius and other thinkers who emphasize the extensive informal, legal, and customary interactions in international affairs highlight humanity’s sociability and its potential for constitutionalism and the rule of law. Kant and others anticipate the vindication of humanity’s potential for peace through the deepening of the material and moral interdependence of people around the world. This may come about through uniformity of independent states in standards of virtue and legitimacy or through the political and moral unification of humanity.
The Idea of Just War
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

In this note Wight describes pendulum swings in opinion about the requirements of justice in war in Western civilization since the Middle Ages. Medieval Catholicism emphasized the righteousness of the ruler’s cause and asserted orthodoxy against infidels or heretics. Prominent writers on international law in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (Gentili, Grotius, and Vattel) marked a shift toward secularization and rationalism (with both sides usually able to claim justice) and restraint in the laws of war governing the methods of combat. Moser’s study of international law, published in 1777–1780, was representative of an ‘age of positivism’ (1763–1918) in which all sovereign states had a right to resort to war or to remain neutral, while codifying obligations concerning the conduct of war. The Covenant of the League of Nations, signed in 1919, initiated a return to restrictions on the right to resort to war, reinforced by the 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact, also known as the General Treaty for the Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy, which was upheld by the Nuremberg Tribunals. The Covenant ruled out aggression as unjust, while action in defence of the Covenant would be just by enforcing collective security. The Soviet Union reintroduced Holy War with its view of the Great Patriotic War (World War II) and the Cold War as just causes that advanced Communist revolutionary objectives. Counter-force strategies of nuclear deterrence may be regarded as strengthening restraint in the methods of war, compared to counter-value or ‘anti-city’ approaches.
Dynastic Legitimacy
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

In this essay Wight clarified the importance of dynastic legitimacy—that is, hereditary monarchy—in European history. In the Middle Ages and subsequent centuries, rulers were mainly princes who inherited their crowns. The principal exceptions were the leaders of republics, including Venice, Ragusa, Genoa, and Lucca in Italy; the Swiss confederation; and the United Provinces of the Low Countries. Dynastic principles included the theory that the ruler was chosen by God through hereditary succession, and that the monarch represented his or her subjects, notably with regard to the official religious denomination of the country. Such principles made dynastic marriages valuable means to provide heirs to the crown, to clarify succession to the throne, to consolidate alliances, to gain influence and wealth, and to legitimize territorial gains. Despite imprudent and egocentric behaviour by some royal leaders, monarchs were increasingly expected to pursue national rather than personal dynastic interests. After the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna reaffirmed dynastic principles of legitimacy, including in Venice and the Netherlands; the Swiss confederation was a conspicuous exception. Dynastic rulers have, however, tended to become symbols and instruments of national unity and self-determination. Popular support for dynastic houses has in many cases led to popular legitimacy for constitutional monarchies.
Review of Hans J. Morgenthau,Dilemmas of Politics, and Correspondence (University of Chicago Press; and London, Cambridge University Press, 1958)
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

In Wight’s view, ‘Perhaps the most interesting thing about this book is that it does not mention Morgenthau’s colleague at Chicago, Leo Strauss [ … ] Agreed in their concern about the retreat of political science into “the trivial, the formal, the methodological, the purely theoretical, the remotely historical”, they are divided by the gulf of natural law.’ Morgenthau asserted, however, that Wight in his review had made ‘a factual error’. Morgenthau quoted another one of his books, In Defense of the National Interest: ‘There is a profound and neglected truth hidden in Hobbes’s extreme dictum that the state creates morality as well as law and that there is neither morality nor law outside the state. Universal moral principles, such as justice or equality, are capable of guiding political action only to the extent that they have been given concrete content and have been related to political situations by society.’ Morgenthau wrote in criticism of Wight’s review: ‘To say that a truth is “hidden” in an “extreme” dictum can hardly be called an endorsement of the dictum. To call a position “extreme” is not to identify oneself with the position but to disassociate oneself from it. In the quoted passage I was trying to establish the point, in contrast to Hobbes’s, that moral principles are universal and, hence, are not created by the state.’ Wight replied: ‘I am sorry to have misinterpreted Professor Morgenthau, but I rejoice that my error has evoked an authoritative exegesis of a disputed passage.’
Disagreement, Testimony, and Religious Understanding
Authors: Callahan Laura Frances
Published: December 2021

In Chapter 2, questions about appropriate responses to religious disagreement are related to questions about appropriate responses to religious testimony. If it is appropriate to alter one’s credence on the basis of encountering a disagreeing peer, it is also appropriate to alter one’s credence in a religious proposition on the basis of encountering a testifier who is at least as competent and informed as oneself, when one is antecedently unopinionated on the matter at hand. However, recent literature on moral testimony should give one pause; there is distinctive value or importance in acquiring not merely knowledge but understanding. It is argued in this chapter that it may often also be inappropriate to adjust one’s credence on the basis of religious disagreement, for the reason that in so doing one would threaten or disincentivize one’s religious understanding.
The Loyalty of Religious Disagreement
Authors: Dormandy Katherine
Published: December 2021

Chapter 10 addresses how religious disagreement, like disagreement in science, stands to deliver important epistemic benefits. But religious communities typically think believers should be loyal to God; and since engaging with religious disagreement opens oneself to considering negative beliefs about God, doing so is disloyal. The chapter discusses two arguments that aim to show that religious disagreement is typically disloyal. It then argues that religious disagreement is not typically disloyal, and can in fact be loyal. Finally, the chapter argues for a superior form of loyalty that is epistemically oriented: concerned with knowing the other party as she really is.
Cognitive control
Authors: Toner John , Gail Montero Barbara , Moran Aidan
Published: December 2021

What role might intuition and deliberation play during the performance of well-learned skills? Dreyfus and Dreyfus’ (1986) influential phenomenological analysis of skill-acquisition proposes that expert performance is guided by non-cognitive responses which are fast, effortless, and intuitive in nature. Although Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986) recognize that, on occasions (e.g. when performance goes awry for some reason), a form of ‘detached deliberative rationality’ may be used by experts to improve their performance, they see no role for calculative problem solving or deliberation (i.e. drawing on rules or mental representations) when performance is going well. The current chapter counters this argument by drawing on empirical evidence and phenomenological description to argue that skilled performers use cognitive control (an executive function) across a range of sporting situations (i.e. in training, pre-performance routines, on-line skill execution) in order to maintain and enhance performance proficiency.
Pygmalion or the Poetics of Fiction
Authors: Rosati Gianpiero
Published: December 2021

The story of Pygmalion, the artist who carves a statue of a perfect woman with whom he falls in love, and thanks to Venus sees her transforming into a living woman, celebrates the triumph of the artistic illusionism, and has become for European culture a symbol of the creative power of art. The myth, which has many analogies with that of Narcissus (Pygmalion falls in love with a work that is a projection of himself), explores the relationship between art and nature, a theme at the heart of Ovid’s innovative anti-mimetic poetics. For him art is independent of reality, not its mirror: it is a model for nature (the poem everywhere thematizes viewing, and appeals to artworks) and its space is fiction. Similarly, every literary text is made up of other texts: literature has in intertextuality its very essence and condition of existence.
Background to the Village of Kala
Authors: Toulmin Camilla
Published: December 2021

The village setting is described, patterns of settlement, the presence of different ethnic groups, and village and lineage structures. Bambara peasant society and household organisation are presented, and the role of individual and collective activity, assets and incomes. The impacts of French colonisation and Independence, on government administration, taxation, health and education are described, before discussion of recent economic and political developments in Mali.
Corporate Personality
Authors: Micheler Eva
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses how separate legal personality can be explained as a solution developed by company law to address the problem that organizations are social rather than brute facts. For a company to come into existence, certain documents need to be registered. These contain information that facilitates the interaction between the company and third parties. Registration as a company then gives an organization a public legal manifestation. The Companies Act does not limit the corporate form to organizational action. The corporate form can therefore be used for other purposes and organizational boundaries do not align with legal personality. But this does not undermine the observation that company law is designed for the operation of organizations.
Limited Liability
Authors: Micheler Eva
Published: December 2021

This chapter analyses rules that remove limited liability for shareholders and directors as well as for companies. While separate legal personality is immovably robust, limited liability is a more nuanced concept. It is worth stressing from the outset that the Companies Act permits veil piercing, if at all, then only in extremely rare cases. These are now referred to as evasion cases. But the courts have used the common law and legislation to identify instances in which shareholders or directors as well as the companies they control share liability. Abuses of the corporate form are addressed through the modification of the limited liability principle rather than through a rule removing the separate legal personality of the company on an ad hoc basis.
Spirited Motivation and the Novelty of Reason
Authors: Wilburn Josh
Published: December 2021

Chapter 5 examines “early” works that anticipate the Republic’s account of the role of spirited motivations in social and political life and the related challenges of promoting proper moral education and civic unity. It surveys Plato’s early depictions of traditional moral education and popular values, as well as his early treatment of political unity, civic strife, and the ethics of helping friends and harming enemies. The chapter also argues against the common view that the spirited part of the soul represented the main innovation of Plato’s tripartite theory. Rather, it suggests, the reasoning part was his contribution to received folk psychology and ethics, and that is why “early” dialogues focus so heavily on intellectual and rational aspects of human psychology.
Politics, Education, and Spirit in the Laws
Authors: Wilburn Josh
Published: December 2021

Chapter 10 argues that although Plato does not explicitly present tripartition in the Laws, the theory continues to inform his social and political philosophy. His thinking about spirit is evident through the Athenian Visitor’s response to what he perceives as undue Cretan and Spartan emphasis on cultivating courage, competitiveness, and martial virtue at the expense of moderation, cooperation, and friendship. Much of the text is designed to stress the importance of the latter set of civic qualities, and Plato’s exploration of ways to develop them reflects the influence of his two-sided theory of thumos. The dialogue’s extensive treatment of moral education, moreover, shows that Plato continues to view spirited motivation, and even a distinct spirited part of the soul, as a primary target of both musical and gymnastic education, as well as of education provided by the laws themselves.
Effects of Combined Hedging
Authors: Ruse-Khan Henning Grosse
Published: December 2021

This chapter provides a broad systemic overview of the regimes that regulate intellectual property and hedge exclusivity at the international level, focusing on the interplay of some of the core constitutional hedges in the international IP, investment law, and human rights fields. Such hedges include concepts of private rights (as well as negative rights), concepts of minimum standards, non-discrimination protections, the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) as a comprehensive supra-national code, and IP protection via broad investment concepts. The chapter then discusses some potential effects of accumulation—that is, the impact of situations in which several constitutional hedges overlap and operate together on a state's ability to regulate IP rights. For the protection conferred by international IP treaties—such as the Paris Convention and the Berne Convention, as well as TRIPS and free trade agreements (FTAs)—this follows from the minimum standards principle, where a later treaty does not override or extinguish existing protections but simply adds to them. This accumulation effect means that states have to consider all forms of protection when deciding on a measure that potentially interferes with IP rights.
A Market-Friendly Human Rights Paradigm for Intellectual Property Rights in Europe?
Authors: Plomer Aurora
Published: December 2021

This chapter explains that in the new variants of constitutionalism, human rights are perceived as critical normative counterweights to the extension of market-friendly rights privileging the protection of fiscal policies, the free movement of capital assets across borders, and the interests of investors over democratic processes, communities, and people. From this perspective, the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, which extend the right of property to legal persons, strike a discordant note by comparison with other international human rights instruments. The chapter investigates the origins of this incongruity. It shows that, paradoxically and contrary to the prevailing view, the rationale for the extension in the ECHR was to enable states to counteract the adverse social and economic impact of untrammelled exploitation of property and accumulation of profit. The chapter then examines the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) through this prism and considers how the Court may recover the normative ideals of human rights law. It also draws out the implications and challenges for the interpretation of IP rights in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights.
Copyright, Human Rights, and the Social Function of Property in Brazil
Authors: de Souza Allan Rocha
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses copyright dynamics under the Brazilian Federal Constitution, which positions human rights at the core of the entire legal system, opening the law to the influence of new international human rights treaties. The protection of property rights, as well as the obligation to fulfil property's social function, are inscribed within such rights, establishing a dynamic between individual and collective interests in proprietary institutions. In this context, how is the constitutional copyright system to be understood and applied in the courts of Brazil? How do proprietary and non-proprietary, economic and social, individual and collective interests, arguments and rationales relate to one another in shaping copyright protection under the Brazilian Constitution? The chapter addresses these questions with a particular focus on two key issues that have recently been faced: the regulation of collective management and the interpretation of limitations. After an explanation of the legal structure supporting copyright in Brazil and a description of the process of constitutionalisation of private law in general, the chapter examines both key issues, with reference to relevant leading cases in the highest courts in Brazil.
A Literary Diplomat
Authors: Kumojima Tomoe
Published: December 2021

Chapter 3 discusses Mary Crawford Fraser and her Japan-related literary works to highlight political affordances of literature for cross-cultural female friendship and solidarity. Fraser opened up her writing space to her Japanese friends and enabled her readers to hear their voices in her writings. It examines Fraser’s friendships with Japanese people in A Diplomatist’s Wife in Japan (1898) and analyses the influence of these friendships on her fictional works. It brings to light the existence of a long-forgotten international reading society of women in Meiji Japan. It provides real-life examples of cross-racial, international female friendship, an underdeveloped resource in recent scholarship on Victorian travelogues. It demonstrates how Fraser mobilized literature as a safe space for a woman to carry out diplomatic tasks during the tumultuous period of treaty revision and the conclusion of Anglo-Japanese Alliance and strove to redress demeaning stereotypes of Japanese women.
A Scientist in Love
Authors: Kumojima Tomoe
Published: December 2021

Chapter 4 investigates Marie Stopes’s interracial, cross-gender relationships with Fujii Kenjirō and Sakurai Jōji through her three published Japanese-related works—A Journal from Japan (1910), Love-Letters of a Japanese (1911), and Plays of Old Japan: The ‘Nō’ (1913)—along with her unpublished transcripts and correspondence. It unveils an unconventional, stormy romance, a warm friendship, and literary collaboration. It considers the gender and racial complexities Stopes textually negotiated for the sake of her love and friendship against the rigid imperial ideology and the Victorian notion of femininity, which produced a distinct representation of humanized Japan as Britain’s masculine ally with feminine sensibility. It also discusses particular challenges Western women in a cross-racial relationship faced in Victorian Britain and Meiji Japan. The close examination of this underexplored phase of Stopes’s career reveals the incipience of her sexology and complicates the posthumous, more controversial aspect of her as eugenicist.
Coda
Authors: Kumojima Tomoe
Published: December 2021

This concluding chapter reverses the perspective of the preceding chapters and explores travel writings of Meiji Japanese women who sailed to Victorian Britain. It focuses on the writings of three Japanese women—namely, Tsuda Umeko, Yasui Tetsu, and Yosano Akiko—with diverse backgrounds and purposes. It picks up testimonies of travelling women in Meiji Japan who encountered British people and culture and unveils cross-racial female intimacy and burgeoning transnational feminist alliance on the issues of women’s education and civil rights. It documents their connections with Victorian female educationists such as Dorothea Beale and Elizabeth Phillips Hughes and discovers a long-forgotten link between Isabella Bird and Meiji women’s education.
The Limits of Europe
Authors: Thomas Daniel C.
Published: December 2021

This book offers a new approach to the dynamics of regional integration, engages the debate over the geographic and normative limits of Europe, and challenges the conventional wisdom on the enlargement of the European Union. It demonstrates that membership norms that change over time have been more influential than economic or security interests in shaping EU decisions on which states are eligible to join the community and which are not. It includes a genealogy of EU membership norms since the late 1950s, a triple analysis (cross-tabulations, logistic regression, and qualitative comparative analysis) of all EU decisions on membership eligibility, and detailed process-tracing of EU decision-making over decades on the membership eligibility of Greece, Spain, Turkey, and Ukraine. The findings challenge taken-for-granted understandings of the course of European integration and what it means for a state to be ‘European’. The argument is directly relevant to how regional communities in other parts of the world decide on their own geographic and normative limits.
The Question of Membership
Authors: Thomas Daniel C.
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses the importance of understanding how regional communities such as the European Union decide which states are eligible to join. It surveys insights and gaps in existing scholarship. It then introduces the argument that membership norms—the community’s prevailing definition of which type of state is eligible for membership—shape collective decisions by empowering certain political positions and disempowering others. It briefly surveys competing explanations focused on treaty rules, geographic location, regime type, economic and security interests, and then outlines the empirical methods used to test these various arguments. Finally, it surveys the aims and content of the chapters that follow.
Doctrinal Ritual, Identification, and Social Complexity
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: December 2021

The doctrinal mode appears to have first emerged in world history with the advent of farming, helping to establish the first truly large-scale societies, in which identification with group categories became increasingly important, paving the way for new forms of political association. Many of the first states dominated by new doctrinal religions appear to have fostered extreme forms of inequality, epitomized by the deification of rulers and cruel practices, such as human sacrifice. But once societies exceeded a certain threshold in scale and complexity, the empires that seemed best able to flourish were those that adopted more ethical forms of doctrinal religion, mobilizing strong norms enforced as much by peer-to-peer policing as by top-down coercion.
Challenges for Society
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: December 2021

The theories laid out step by step in the preceding chapters are not only of intrinsic scientific interest; they are also potentially of great practical use. Using the UK government’s response to the Covid-19 pandemic as an example, this chapter begins by exploring various ways in which attention to our three kinds of interacting landscapes might enable us to tackle various collective action problems more effectively. It then considers how insights from the study of imagistic group bonding could be used to prevent or resolve intergroup conflicts, whether by defusing groups bent on violence or by rechannelling their extreme loyalty to the group in more peaceful and consensual ways. Moving from this to the problems posed by populism and polarization in large groups, attention then turns to the role of the doctrinal mode in fuelling dissent and the breakdown of cooperation, but also its potential to help us coordinate positive action on global issues, such as the climate crisis, more effectively than ever before.
Introduction
Authors: Akkerman Nadine
Published: December 2021

This introductory chapter discusses how Elizabeth Stuart is misrepresented in historiography, with biographers often taking her words or the words of those who knew her out of context, or simply parroting Catholic propaganda. It also reflects on what it entails to write a woman’s biography. In the early modern period, royal women wielded a lot of power, yet still had to operate within tight constraints. The queen may have set events in motion, but their ultimate agency would have to be asserted through men, usually kin. This means that writing the biography of a woman such as Elizabeth, one ends up writing shadow biographies of several men: that of her father James VI/I, her brother Charles I, her husband Frederick V, her kin and mercenaries, Christian of Brunswick and Ernest, Count of Mansfeld. Mary Anne Everett Green’s biography has been invaluable as a source and as a template, but Nadine Akkerman has, through the years spent in editing The Correspondence of Elizabeth Stuart, assembled a far more substantial body of letters and documents than either she or any of Elizabeth’s other biographers had to draw from: for instance, over 1,000 letters were previously untranscribed, while 125 letters written in code had never before been deciphered. This has allowed Akkerman to paint an entirely new picture of Elizabeth Stuart as the politically active, savvy, and witty individual she was. Rather than repeating the malign cliché of calling her the Winter Queen, Akkerman shows how she was, in truth, the Queen of Hearts.
Peace, at a Price
Authors: Akkerman Nadine
Published: December 2021

Charles Louis signed the Peace of Westphalia, consenting to a partial restitution, the one result Elizabeth had tried to prevent all these years. Charles Stuart authorised James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, to subdue the Covenanters by force. Amalia von Solms and William II supported a Presbyterian alliance. Elizabeth disagreed, hoping that through Montrose the Scottish Covenant could be avoided. Amalia wanted Charles Stuart for Albertine Agnes, Elizabeth wanted him for Sophia. Rupert, blockaded into Cork, escaped with 7 ships, setting sail for Portugal. Yet Charles signed his agreement with the Scottish kirk and parliament at Breda - abandoning Montrose who was hanged. Elizabeth, disillusioned, abandoned the plan to marry Sophia to Charles and sent her to Heidelberg to join with Charles Louis instead. Charles Louis demanded the tapestries etc. from Rhenen. William II died unexpectedly. Elizabeth, who wanted nothing to do with Parliament following her brother’s execution, turned to the States General for pensions. She became Honthorst's debtor. Both the States of Holland and the States General tried to get money from Parliament for her, unsuccessfully. Elizabeth sent Edward to Germany, as news had arrived Frankenthal had been given back to Charles Louis but also out of harm’s way as he had offended Cromwell's ambassadors in The Hague. Henriette married a prince of Transylvania, amidst arguments between Elizabeth and Charles Louis who did not want his mother’s title Queen of Bohemia mentioned in the marriage contract. Both Henriette and her husband died within the year.
Rasch Validation and Comparison of the Mini-BESTest and S-BESTest in Individuals With Stroke
Authors: Miyata Kazuhiro , Hasegawa Satoshi , Iwamoto Hiroki , Kaizu Yoichi , Otani Tomohiro , Shinohara Tomoyuki , Usuda Shigeru
Published: December 2021

Objective

The purpose of this study was to compare the psychometric properties of the Mini-Balance Evaluation Systems Test (Mini-BESTest) and S-BESTest and to evaluate which is more suitable for use in clinical settings for individuals with stroke.

Methods

This multicenter retrospective cross-sectional study investigated 115 individuals with stroke (mean age, 70.8 y [SD = 11.2 y]) who were able to stand without physical assistance. All individuals were examined with the BESTest and with the Mini-BESTest and S-BESTest scored based on the BESTest results. The data were analyzed using a Rasch analysis (partial credit model).

Results

The Mini-BESTest results revealed a correctly functioning rating scale, good fit of the data to the model (apart from 1 overfit item), good reliability for both persons and items (6 statistically detectable levels of balance ability), local dependence between 1 item pair, and essential unidimensionality. The S-BESTest results demonstrated disordered rating scale thresholds (1 response option required collapsing), good fit of the data to the model (apart from 1 underfit item), good reliability for both persons and items (5 statistically detectable levels of balance ability), local dependence between 2 item pairs, and essential unidimensionality.

Conclusion

The analyses confirmed that the reliability of the S-BESTest was good and unidimensional and that the test provides several improved points, such as item redundancy and local independence of items. Nevertheless, the Mini-BESTest results supported previous findings as a whole and were better than those from the S-BESTest.

Impact

Rasch analysis demonstrated that the Mini-BESTest was a better balance assessment scale than the S-BESTest for individuals with stroke based on its psychometric properties. The Mini-BESTest may serve as a useful scale for assessing balance in individuals with stroke, and a keyform plot and strata may help clinical decision-making in terms of interpreting scores and goal setting.
The Effect of 2 Different Dual-Task Balance Training Methods on Balance and Gait in Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Authors: Yuzlu Volkan , Oguz Semra , Timurtas Eren , Aykutoglu Elcin , Polat M Gulden
Published: December 2021

Objective

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of integrated and consecutive cognitive dual-task balance training in older adults on balance, fear of falling, and gait performance.

Methods

Fifty-eight participants (age >65 years) were randomly assigned to an integrated dual-task training group (IDTT) (n = 29) and consecutive dual-task training group (CDTT) (n = 29). Balance exercises and cognitive tasks were performed simultaneously by the IDTT group and consecutively by the CDTT group for 8 weeks. Balance was assessed using the Berg Balance Scale as a primary outcome measure and the Timed “Up & Go” Test (TUG) (standard-cognitive), fear of falling was assessed using the Tinetti Falls Efficacy Scale, and gait speed was assessed using the 10-Meter Walk Test (10MWT) (under single-task and dual-task conditions). All tests were performed before and after the training.

Results

There was no difference in group-time interaction in the Berg Balance Scale, TUG-standard, 10MWT-single task, and 10MWT-dual task tests. Group-time interaction was different in the TUG-cognitive and Tinetti Falls Efficacy Scale scores. Also, the effect of time was significantly different in all scales except for the 10MWT-single task in both groups.

Conclusion

At the end of the 8-week training period, the impact of integrated and consecutive dual-task balance training on balance and gait performance in older adults was not statistically significantly different. This study suggests that consecutive dual-task balance training can be used as an alternative method to increase balance performance and gait speed in older adults who cannot perform integrated dual-task activities.

Impact

There were no significant differences between the effects of the 2 dual-task training methods on balance and gait speed, suggesting that the consecutive dual-task balance training method can be used to improve the balance and gait of older adults. CDTT can be performed safely and considered as an alternative method for use in many rehabilitation training programs with older adults who cannot perform simultaneous activities.