bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
ACUTE AQUATIC EFFECTS OF CHEMICALLY DISPERSED AND UNDISPERSED CRUDE OIL
Authors: Singer Michael M. , George Saji , Jacobson Susan , Weetman Lisa L. , Tjeerdema Ronald S. , Aurand Donald , Blondina Gloria , Sowby Michael L.
Published: January 2013

The acute aquatic toxicity of untreated and chemically dispersed Prudhoe Bay crude oil has been investigated using spiked-exposure toxicity tests. Testing was accomplished under closed, flow-through conditions using the sensitive early life stages of three coastal California marine species. Water-accommodated fractions of untreated oil were prepared using low-energy, equilibrium methods, whereas chemical dispersions were prepared at somewhat higher energies. Results showed substantial differences in toxicity both among species and between dispersed and undispersed oil.
JOINT TRUSTEE/INDUSTRY COOPERATIVE PRESPILL AND NRDA PLANNING
Authors: Helm Roger C. , Ammann Michael
Published: January 2013

On the west coast of North America, representatives of several natural resource trustee agencies and several major oil companies have organized a cooperative working group named the Joint Assessment Team (JAT). To date, the JAT has (1) improved the working relationships among the trustees and oil companies, (2) discussed how each agency and company is organized and the role each plays if a spill occurs, (3) reached considerable consensus on how the trustees will interact with a company in the event of a spill, and (4) shared in the review of oil-spill response and damage assessment documents. Future goals are to (I) continue to develop the relationships between the groups, (2) develop geography-specific pre-spill NRDA planning exercises, (3) develop written agreements between trustees and industry, and (4) jointly understand the principles and applications of basic restoration methodologies and economic valuation techniques.

This paper reports on the formation of a unique association between several state and federal natural resource trustee agencies and several major oil companies for the purpose of improving the effectiveness and efficiency of conducting natural resource injury and damage assessments. It discusses the impetus for formation of the group, the persons involved, the group's goals and accomplishments, and future plans.
COMPARATIVE PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE METULA SPILL SITE, 21 YEARS LATER
Authors: Gundlach Erich R.
Published: January 2013

The area subjected to heavy oiling from the 1974 Metula spill of 53,500 tons along the south side of the First Narrows in the eastern Strait of Magellan (Chile) was revisited in December 1995. The marsh/tidal flat at Espora marsh shows some regrowth of vegetation, but oiled areas remain common with 5 to 15 cm of liquid oil present below a thin layer of fine sediment. The asphalt pavement in the sheltered area behind Espora split shows only a minor (≈2 m) reduction in extent. The previous band of asphalt pavement on the exposed, gravel-dominated low-tide terrace along the First Narrows of the strait has mostly been eroded, but disconnected remnants still remain. The Metula spill site continues to provide a field laboratory to study the long-term persistence of spilled oil.
HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES DURING COLD WEATHER OIL SPILL RESPONSES
Authors: Hazel William Edward , Rancilio Michael J.
Published: January 2013

Oil spill operations present responders with the difficult task of establishing site safety protocols during emergency conditions. Often these safety protocols must be established when standard operating procedures have either broken down, as is the case during disasters at sea, or are nonexistent, as occurs when spills happen in remote areas. To perform oil spill operations in a safe and effective manner, recovery technicians on the management and field level must initially prepare themselves for dangerous operations by an extensive training program (including that training required of hazardous materials workers by OSHA 1910.120). Beyond this, oil spill responders must develop, implement, and monitor safety protocols at the outset and through the conclusion of each response operation. This paper will present a case study of an operation where these principles were successfully implemented despite the fact that weather conditions on the site were extremely harsh.
FACTORS AFFECTING CRISIS MANAGEMENT1
Authors: Roosen John T.
Published: January 2013

Effective crisis management depends on good judgment, good information, effective preplanning, and luck. Three out of these four elements can be affected before a catastrophic event occurs. If successful strategies are used for the first three elements, they greatly influence the fourth. This paper discusses these three areas against the backdrop of a crisis. Of these, first and foremost is judgment. In normal decision making, many errors in judgment occur. These errors are greatly accelerated during a crisis event. We will examine how being aware of these errors can facilitate an efficient and effective response. Another characteristic of crises, especially in the early hours, is lack of information. Ambiguity overlies initial actions as the emergency unfolds and sometimes escalates uncontrollably. Crisis management includes defining information needs, dealing with short time frames and only a few hard facts, coping with pressure from inside and outside, eliminating destructive reaction patterns, and firmly deciding on and executing a plan for recovery. Lastly, this paper examines crisis in relation to contingency planning. There is little that can be done after an emergency that has not been thought about before the event. Preplanning must be part of any integrated system for emergencies. Dealing with “crises” begins with handling day-to-day procedures, identifying the best practices, developing the “what if's” within contingency planning, and exercising as a continuous process system.
UNITED KINGDOM IN-SITU BURN TRIALS, LOWESTOFT, 1996
Authors: Thornborough James
Published: January 2013

On June 12, 1996, in a location 40 miles offshore of Lowestoft, an international audience gathered to watch Oil Spill Response Limited conduct the first controlled in-situ burn (ISB) in the United Kingdom. Two burns were completed using a response-prepared ISB system. The first burn involved fresh crude oil and was lit with a hand-held igniter using a standard gel mix. The second burn involved an emulsified crude and was lit using the Helitorch and an emulsion-breaking ignition mix. The trials were performed with the aim of determining operational practicalities under realistic conditions when responding to a weathered oil situation in an offshore location. Peripheral attention was paid to atmospheric sampling, except that air samples were collected aboard the main deployment vessel to assess worker safety. Oil analysis was carried out primarily to assess the values of the emulsion that was left as residue.
TANK BARGE BUFFALO 292: A UNIFIED RESPONSE
Authors: Eldridge Kevin J. , Leonard Joseph J. , Kutz Dean W. , Rochester Monica L.
Published: January 2013

Buffalo 292 was a 275-foot bunker barge loaded with 17,000 barrels of IFO 380. On March 18, 1996, Buffalo 292 was heading southbound along the Houston Ship Channel. High winds, rough seas, and the barge's loading condition caused the barge to buckle and spill 3000 barrels of product into Galveston Bay. Operational success was linked to the training and experience of the responding agencies, local government assistance, rapid assessment team operations, and the dedicated efforts of the planning section. Responding agencies demonstrated that a unified response is the only way to cope with an environmental disaster of this magnitude.
SEA EMPRESS SPILL: IMPACTS ON MARINE AND COASTAL HABITATS
Authors: Moore Jon , Evans Stephen , Bullimore Blaise , Hodges Jane , Crump Robin , Cremona Julian , Bunker Francis , Rostron Dale , Little Annette , Chamberlain Yvonne , Dyrynda Peter , Worley Adrian
Published: January 2013

Oil from the Sea Empress spill in February 1996 contaminated more than 120 miles of South Wales coastline, including rocky shores, sand and shingle shores, mudflats, and salt marsh. Some aerosol sprays also contaminated some maritime cliff along wave-exposed coasts. Some areas of shore, including areas with a high nature conservation value, were heavily oiled. Although much of the affected shore lies on the open coast and is exposed to wave action, large amounts of oil remained on the shores for many months, becoming buried and bound with sediments, percolating deep into cobble and shingle shores, and pooling behind rock features. Oil persistence has been greatest on sheltered shores, particularly where heavy fuel oil stranded. Cleanup activities on these shores have included the use of dispersants, high-pressure washing, low-pressure deluge, trenching, and berm relocation. Numerous studies of the effects of the oil and the cleanup techniques on the intertidal and coastal communities are being undertaken by biologists from various organizations. This paper presents a summary of the results so far.
THE IMPACT OF THE SEA EMPRESS OIL SPILL ON BIRDS OF THE PEMBROKESHIRE COAST AND ISLANDS
Authors: Parr Stephen J. , Haycock Robert J. , Smith Malcolm E.
Published: January 2013

Much of the Pembrokeshire coast and islands, together with its inshore waters, are of international importance for their breeding seabirds and wintering seaduck. Although the Sea Empress oil spill occurred before the breeding season, some 7000 oiled birds were recovered dead or alive. The impact of the oil spill on birds can be classified as follows: immediate mortality especially of more than 4500 wintering common scoter in Carmarthen Bay; sublethal effects on productivity of colonies and reduced adult survival from oil or dispersant ingestion; and chronic effects on bird populations from long-term pollution, particularly of prey. A range of monitoring and research projects are under way to investigate the impact, but it is premature to provide many results. The oil spill probably caused significant local declines in seabird colony sizes, especially of guillemot. The impact on common scoter will prove difficult to determine because of the poor quality and high variability of preincident data. Large numbers of oiled birds, particularly common scoter, were treated and subsequently released. The successful rehabilitation of such released birds is controversial; research and review results will be reported.
THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE SEA EMPRESS SPILLAGE
Authors: Hill Stephen , Bryan Jane
Published: January 2013

The Sea Empress oil spillage has had a substantial impoverishing effect on what was already a poor part of a poor region. The major negative impact has been on the local tourism industry, although the much smaller local fishing industry was also badly hit. However, the cleanup operation did provide a much needed, albeit temporary, injection of local spending. The Sea Empress spillage has also colored local attitudes to other environmentally sensitive projects, with long-term consequences that may dwarf the direct effects of the oil spillage.
SHORELINE CLEANUP BY ACCELERATION OF CLAY-OIL FLOCCULATION PROCESSES
Authors: Lee Kenneth , Lunel Tim , Wood Peter , Swannell Richard , Stoffyn-Egli Patricia
Published: January 2013

During the cleanup operations following the Sea Empress oil spill, it was observed that the oil emulsion did not adhere strongly to the shoreline and that fine mineral particles present in the surf waters interacted with oil to form clay-oil floes. In an attempt to enhance clay-oil flocculation, Amroth beach was subjected to repeated “surf washing”: the oiled cobbles from the high water mark were moved down to the intertidal zone using an excavator at low tide. After 4 days of treatment, most of the oil emulsion was removed from the cobbles. We estimate that the majority of the oil was removed as clay-oil flocs and that the remainder was released from the cobbles as a broken surface slick. Microscopic and chemical analysis of samples of flocs and oiled sediments showed that energy imparted to the surf zone resulted in clay-oil flocculation, which increased biodegradation rates of the residual oil. Surf washing increased the availability of fine mineral particles, which (1) minimized the contact of oil directly with the substrate, thereby reducing the adhesion of oil to the shoreline, and (2) prevented the recoalescence of oil droplets, thereby promoting the dispersion of oil within the surf zone.
THE “ONE PLAN” PROJECT: GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY WORKING TO SIMPLIFY FACILITY EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLANNING
Authors: Staves Jim , Taylor Jim
Published: January 2013

The current approach to preparedness for oil and hazardous materials spills in the United States is a maze of federal, state, and local programs that often overlap. The National Response Team (NRT), in cooperation with the Region 6 Response Team (RRT), has developed a contingency plan format that simplifies existing federal regulatory requirements into a single integrated contingency plan (ICP). This format, which was developed by a working group chaired by the EPA Region 6, with representatives from government, industry, labor, and environmental groups, can be used as a model for cooperative projects involving the public and private sectors. The purpose of the ICP is to simplify emergency response plans at facilities. A facility using the ICP format would benefit from the reduced costs of maintaining and updating plans and from the simplified training for responders. Use of the ICP format should also reduce confusion about which plan to use during a response and should improve coordination between facilities and state and federal response agencies.
UTILIZATION OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN AN OHIO RIVER SPILLS DETECTION SYSTEM
Authors: McSayles Jonathan A. , Caputa Isabel E. , Tennant Peter A.
Published: January 2013

The Organics Detection System (ODS) is a spill detection network cooperatively operated by the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission (ORSANCO), 11 water utilities, and 3 industries at strategic locations along the Ohio, Allegheny, Monongahela, and Kanawha rivers. The ODS uses purge and trap gas chromatography to analyze for 20 volatile organic compounds (US EPA, 1986).

Since its inception in 1977, the network has undergone several advancements in its ability to monitor, analyze, and detect volatile organic compounds in the Ohio River. The present instrumentation used in the network was purchased from 1986 through 1990. The network's capabilities have progressed to the monitoring of raw intake water 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and processing raw data with computers.

The most noticeable advance has been in the use of computers to manipulate chromatograms, generate final reports, and transfer information. Additionally, computers and modems have enhanced communication between ORSANCO and ODS locations by accelerating the dissemination of information to downstream water users, allowing the observation of chromatograms and general troubleshooting.

New technology under consideration includes the ability to remotely control a gas Chromatograph, incorporate automated check samples, and control alarm settings and the notification of such alarms. The ideal system would run independently until one of two conditions occurred—a compound exceeded the alarm threshold, or there was an instrument malfunction.
RELATIONSHIPS WITH THE MEDIA DURING THE BUFFALO 292 OIL SPILL
Authors: DeLong Gregory N.
Published: January 2013

In 1996 the tank barge Buffalo 292 suffered a catastrophic structural failure, spilling nearly 5000 barrels of heavy fuel oil into Galveston Bay. The oil severely impacted Galveston Island and Bolivar Peninsula and was blown out to sea, threatening hundreds of miles of shoreline in the Gulf of Mexico. The cleanup following the spill was reported on a national news level. The response efforts received fair, accurate, and favorable news coverage as the result of an aggressive and well-managed public information system. This favorable coverage was due in part to public relations contingency planning and media relationships developed during the planning process.
WILDLIFE RESPONSE IN A REMOTE ALASKAN SPILL: TESTING A CENTRALIZED SYSTEM
Authors: Clumpner Curt
Published: January 2013

In 1991 the International Bird Rescue Research Center, Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, and Alaska Clean Seas teamed up to design and implement a wildlife response system that could work successfully in a state with an area of nearly 600,000 square miles, more than 6000 miles of coastline, and hundreds of islands. In a state that is spread over more than 15 degrees of latitude and 45 degrees of longitude, the system would need to work in all sorts of weather and at all times of the year in three major climatic zones (marine coastal, subarctic, and arctic). It was decided that the best way to maximize resources and coverage was to design a system with a centralized oiled wildlife rehabilitation center in Anchorage: the Alaska Wildlife Response Center. This would allow one to use resources that would otherwise be unavailable in a timely fashion in many of the areas at greatest risk for an oil spill. It would also maximize cost effectiveness by minimizing the amount of equipment and personnel that would have to be moved and supported in remote areas of the state. A centralized system would, however, potentially require that the affected wildlife be transported long distances to be rehabilitated. In February 1996, a spill off the north coast of St. Paul Island in the Bering Sea provided the first real test of this system. It required the capture, stabilization, and transport of nearly 200 oiled birds under quite difficult and typical Alaska conditions. This paper will discuss the problems and solutions encountered in mounting a wildlife response to an oil spill in a remote area with inclement weather conditions and few local resources. It will focus on what makes responding in Alaska different from responding in most other parts of the United States, and on what was done differently in this response to make it a success. This paper will show how a system based on a centralized facility can work successfully, as was evidenced by the high percentage of released wildlife, when it involves teamwork among all organizations, agencies, and individuals involved.
CLEANUP OF THE ABANDONED BUNKER BARGES1
Authors: Bock LTJG Edward L. , McCarthy Dennis J.
Published: January 2013

An estimated 1300 abandoned vessels are decaying on U.S. waterways. An unknown number of these vessels contain oil or hazardous substances and pose a substantial threat of discharge into the environment. Historically, the Coast Guard has responded to environmentally harmful oil and hazardous material spills from abandoned vessels after they occur, sometimes spending millions of unrecoverable dollars in cleanup and disposal costs. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act as amended gives the Coast Guard jurisdiction to mitigate a “substantial threat of discharge” of oil or hazardous substances into the water. Responding to a substantial threat of discharge prevents environmental damage, reduces the number of medium or major spills, and costs substantially less than large shoreline or open water cleanups. Recently, Coast Guard Marine Safety Office (MSO) Hampton Roads initiated the first federal removal action in response to a substantial threat posed by abandoned barges; the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund was used to remove 691,000 gallons of oily waste and to clean and render gas-free the abandoned tank barges Bunker Delaware, Bunker 1000, and VTL-1.
PERSISTENCE OF OIL IN BEACH SAND FOLLOWING A CATASTROPHIC RELEASE OF NO. 2 FUEL OIL
Authors: Mulhare Michael J. , Therrien Paula-Jean
Published: January 2013

Contamination of beach sand from two large releases of no. 2 fuel oil was found to persist for years in intertidal sand and for months in sand at the storm high tide line. This information on the unexpected persistence of this light, volatile fuel oil in the beach environment is invaluable in determining whether active remediation or natural attenuation is appropriate for the restoration of a contaminated beach.

The major receptors of the impact of this contamination are a driving force in deciding what remedial approach should be taken. The two releases reported had different receptors. The major impact from the World Prodigy spill was to a public bathing beach. The oil contamination was of primary importance to residents of the town of Jamestown. Active remediation was conducted to restore an important socioeconomic resource. The major impact from the North Cape spill was to a beach in a wildlife refuge that is a protected nesting area for the threatened bird species, the piping plover. Active remediation was not conducted because of concern over disturbing the plover habitat, but would have been conducted had this been a public bathing beach.
RECOVERY OF TARMATS USING COMMERCIAL SHRIMPING BOATS DURING THE BUFFALO 292 SPILL
Authors: Clark Tricia , Stong Beatrice , Benson Ben
Published: January 2013

One of the greatest challenges facing responders to a recent intermediate fuel oil (IFO 380) spill was the recovery of tar mats and patties from the surface waters of the Gulf of Mexico before they could impact the barrier islands of Texas. When the marine barge Buffalo 292 spilled approximately 3000 barrels of IFO 380 in heavy weather conditions in Galveston Bay in March 1996, it is estimated that more than half of the spilled IFO 380 was swept out into the Gulf of Mexico by high northerly winds. There was great success in tracking the oil as it moved around the Gulf and eventually formed into large tar mats and patties. The overall weathered condition of the IFO 380 soon made use of conventional offshore skimmers ineffective, so responders began looking at ways to effectively recover the tar mats and patties before they could impact the barrier island beaches of Texas during the busy spring break season. Since commercial shrimping vessels could tow a net and were designed for slow operating speeds, it was decided to try using these vessels to recover the tar mats and patties. By modifying traditional nets and using a spotter aircraft to move the shrimping vessels to the greatest concentration of tar mats and patties, participants made the operation a success.
ORIMULSION®
Authors: Sommerville Matthew , Lunel Tim , Bailey Nick , Oland Dave , Miles Chris , Gunter Paul A. , Waldhoff Thomas
Published: January 2013

The name Orimulsion has been increasingly heard around the world as power stations and industry look to the new cheaper fuels that are becoming available through the use of modern extraction techniques. As Orimulsion use increases, worldwide interest in the product and in how to respond to a spillage has increased. Bitumenes Orinoco and its affiliates have spent many thousands of pounds and dollars in researching the fate and cleanup strategies for Orimulsion, but until now information has only slowly been disseminated. This paper draws together information from 8 years of research to present the state of our knowledge about this product. It discusses the fate of spilled Orimulsion, its behavior in various environments, and the methods, equipment, and techniques that are applicable to Orimulsion. The fate of an Orimulsion spill, like that of any other spill, is governed by the location and the prevailing conditions. The effects of salinity, dilution, mixing energy, turbulence, and the scale of the spill are crucial in determining the outcome. The technologies to deal with Orimulsion spills are equally important; tests to date show that the majority of cases require no more than the careful selection and use of existing systems. Orimulsion presents a number of new considerations and challenges, and in many cases new solutions have been developed.
MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (MEGIS) DEVELOPMENT FOR JAPAN
Authors: Morita Ichiro , Sasagawa Akio , Oka Kenji , Maxwell Garrey
Published: January 2013

A response management system for accidents, such as oil well blowouts and oil spills at sea, is being developed by the Safety and Environment Center for Petroleum Development (SEC) under the supervision of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) of Japan. The 5-year program, which is designed to minimize environmental damage in the event of an oil spill, commenced in 1992. The system, known as the Marine Environmental Geographic Information System (MEGIS), consists of five subsystems: (1) detection and monitoring, (2) oil and pollution spill trajectory prediction by computer simulation, (3) contingency planning for response and cleanup operations, (4) a communication and information network of all responsible agencies and participants, and (5) a geographic information system.
INTEGRATING SCAT DATA AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS TO SUPPORT SHORELINE CLEANUP OPERATIONS
Authors: Lamarche Alain , Owens Edward H.
Published: January 2013

An analysis of the work performed by the various teams involved in shoreline cleanup operations has been applied to the design of an approach for the integration of data collected by the SCAT process with electronic maps produced by geographical information system (GIS) technology. This has led to the implementation of a PC-based system that incorporates a database of SCAT information, a knowledge base on oil behavior and shoreline cleanup, and a GIS. The system provides support to data collection using the SCAT approach for field teams and to map-based data analysis for planners and managers.

In the course of this work, a set of the maps that are considered the most useful for summarizing information about shoreline conditions was designed and evaluated. This evaluation initially involved consultation with individuals experienced in shoreline cleanup. The applicability of the map representation for decision making was further tested during spill drills.

SCAT surveys generate a large volume of data that need to be captured and integrated. There is a risk that this large amount of information might overwhelm decision makers involved in the management of shoreline cleanup operations.

The paper describes the various modifications that were made to the SHORECLEAN software package to provide some solutions to these problems. These include providing specialized SCAT data entry forms, automating the links between a SCAT database and a GIS, and producing map representations that provide clear, useful, and nonmisleading information for decision makers.
SEA EMPRESS: AN EXERCISE IN REALITY
Authors: Salt David
Published: January 2013

Since OSRL was established in 1985, one of the key objectives of the organization has been to try and build relationships with member companies’ response teams to ensure that when the time comes to work together in a spill situation a team approach to the problem is possible.

Since 1985, the Texaco Response Team has trained and exercised with OSRL annually, forging strong relationships and an understanding of the roles to be adopted in an incident. In the same time period, OSRL has been involved in the devlopment and testing of the Texaco Pembroke contingency plan and the planning and execution of response exercises in the Milford Haven area. The system was tested in 1995 following the grounding of the Borga in the entrance to Milford Haven. Fortunately no oil was spilled on this occasion, but the teams worked together and the logistics of a response in Wales were exercised.

The real test came on February 15, 1996, with the grounding of the Sea Empress. Would all the preparation make a difference in the response? The case study shows the benefit of good contingency planning by the facility and integration of the response teams in a real-life situation, which may make the difference between success or failure.
ASSESSING FACILITY-SPECIFIC RISK: A REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Smith Donald P.
Published: January 2013

It's been six years since the passage of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. Most facilities and regulatory agencies are just now beginning to reflect upon their initial efforts to develop and review facility response plans. The plan reviews and inspections conducted to date within the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region VI area have identified some common deficiencies. The most prominent and common are the facilities’ planning efforts relative to risk. OPA 90 required facilities to assess spill events under adverse weather conditions. Unfortunately, most plans were prepared with the intent to meet a regulatory deadline and not necessarily to properly reflect specific risk. This paper will seek to identify the varying risks posed to each facility within Region VI. The following is a list of adverse weather conditions and phenomena that will be examined throughout the region and applied to specific categories of facilities: fire, lightning, earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, hail and severe storms, rainfall, drought, floods, temperature extremes, soil corrosivity, and groundwater protection. After the review is completed, facilities will be grouped by their specific hazard and their most probable risk.
A TWO-PHASE RIVERINE SPILL MODEL
Authors: Hibbs David E. , Chen Yih-Farn , Gulliver John S. , Voller Vaughan R.
Published: January 2013

This paper presents a riverine spill model that computes the concentration of oil components in both the oil phase and the water phase by mathematically simulating the processes that affect the fate of the spilled oil. Processes simulated by the model include evaporation from the slick, dissolution of the slick into the water, volatilization from the water, and longitudinal dispersion in the river. The model also computes the location and size of the slick as it drifts downstream and spreads across the water surface. The model is versatile yet relatively simple and easy to use. The model requires minimum information on the river and oil, and it can be applied whenever the assumption of a laterally well-mixed river is acceptable. Most applications can be solved in several minutes on a 486-based personal computer. Sample applications show that the concentration of a compound in the water phase is strongly linked to its concentration in the oil phase and to its aqueous solubility. Concentrations in the water phase were also found to be most sensitive to variations in the dissolution rate. Concentrations were much less sensitive to variations in the volatilization rate, slick evaporation rate, and longitudinal dispersion.
INTERVENTION: IS IT THE ANSWER?
Authors: Noble John M.
Published: January 2013

Intervention during a casualty response can be defined as interference by an authority imposing or trying to impose its will upon responders, notably salvors. This paper seeks to differentiate between intervention imposed with statutory authority (official) and unofficial intervention, where an authority seeks to influence operations without actually using statutory powers. The acknowledged reduction in available salvage capability has resulted in a number of states taking specific action to ensure that tugs are available at high-risk locations. The stationing of tugs is perhaps the most conspicuous type of intervention.

The paper examines circumstances where authorities impose their will on salvors without actually invoking any statutory power, relying on “voluntary” compliance. It is suggested that salvors might seek to clarify the status of any intervention before complying and that responders, including salvors, might then know where they stand, especially when an action required by an authority has exposed salvors to recourse action by ship and cargo owners.

In addressing the question “Is it the answer?” the paper concludes that the apparent reluctance by authority to use available intervention power, but rather to rely on salvors acceding to an implied preferred course of action voluntarily (unofficial intervention), means that intervention alone is not the answer. Salvors, as responders, must know who is in charge. Two recommendations are tabled.
INTERNATIONAL PLANNING AS LOCALIZED PLANNING
Authors: Christenson Chris , Bart Helen
Published: January 2013

The Canada-United States Joint Inland Pollution Contingency Plan was signed on July 25, 1994, by the minister of the Department of the Environment for Canada and the administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency. As stated in the letter of promulgation, the document provides for cooperative measures for dealing with accidental and unauthorized releases of pollutants that may cause damage to the environment and that may constitute a threat to the public health, property, or welfare along the shared inland boundary of the two nations.

The plan divided the international boundary into five regional planning areas and mandated regional annexes that define the jurisdiction, roles, and response procedures of the regulatory and support agencies within each planning area.

In our work on this project it is being made clear again and again that responders on both sides of our countries’ land border do not want to have their efforts hampered by what in an emergency could be arbitrary borders. We are committed to ensuring that the regulatory agencies in both countries are truly supportive of the on-scene responders, and that these annexes will only serve to enhance this support.
ALL-WEATHER, ALL-TERRAIN EMERGENCY RESPONSE PREPAREDNESS
Authors: (Ian) Lambton J. W. , Cavanaugh Romilly J. K. , Eng. P.
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the comprehensive emergency preparedness program of one pipeline company that operates in diverse environmental conditions. It touches on aspects such as inland mobile equipment units, including boats, and the advances that have been made in helicopter deployment of emergency response resources. Featured is a summary of a 1996 training exercise where a test medium was recovered from under river ice in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. The exercise, which was conducted in—35°C (—31°F) conditions, tested improvements made to winter containment and recovery equipment and ice response techniques.

The pipeline crosses beneath 440 streams, rivers, and lakes, and approximately 60% of the right-of-way parallels waterways to an extent where a spill could impact them. A release could adversely affect a considerable variety of wildlife and habitats as well as the communities that use these waterways for their water supplies.

The company has many spill prevention strategies integrated into its operation and maintenance activities. In addition, an ongoing comprehensive education program and extensive outfitting and upgrading of spill response equipment were deemed necessary to ensure quality stewardship of the resources within its operating area. The paper describes these initiatives, which were instituted in 1989 and continue to this day.
SHOULD THE LIMITS OF LIABILITY BE CHANGED?1
Authors: Hartley D. S. , Beckerman Barbara G.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Coast Guard commissioned an evaluation of the appropriateness of adjusting the current limits of liability for oil spills from transportation-related onshore facilities, based on the requirements of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. Extensive data collection and analysis revealed that the type and quality of the data needed to support recommendations for setting limits of liability for oil spills from specific categories of facilities were either not available or not reliable. Therefore, no recommendation can be made regarding a change in the limits of liability. Further, the lack of accessible data cripples decision making in the entire subject of oil spills. Recommendations are made regarding the data acquisition process and the systems needed to support it.
DEVELOPMENT OF A DISPERSANT USE PLAN FOR A COASTAL OIL TERMINAL
Authors: Reed Mark , Aamo Ole Morten , Brandvik Per Johan , Daling Per Snorre , Nilsen Per Erik , Furnes Gunnar
Published: January 2013

The decision of whether to use dispersants in a given oil spill situation must be made extremely rapidly. The information basis for the decision must take into account the potential environmental consequences of alternative response strategies, and the response chosen must be practical to use. The OSCAR (Oil Spill Contingency And Response) model was used to simulate a series of 24 oil spill scenarios to quantify the environmental effects of alternate spill response strategies under various environmental conditions. OSCAR was used to create color-coded maps of a coastal fjord area surrounding a Norwegian oil terminal; with these maps the expected effectiveness of a dispersant application is immediately available to the responsible decision maker. The legislative framework and development process behind the plan are described, and examples of the maps are given.
PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND INTERTIDAL BIOTA SEVEN YEARS LATER: HAS IT RECOVERED?
Authors: Houghton Jonathan P. , Gilmour Robert H. , Lees Dennis C. , Driskell William B. , Lindstrom Sandra C. , Mearns Alan
Published: January 2013

Eight years of quantitative biological and chemical data have been analyzed for trends in recovery of biota inhabiting beaches in Prince William Sound following the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill and subsequent shoreline treatments. Sampling has focused on biota at sheltered rocky and mixed-soft sites subjected to three degrees of disturbance (unoiled, oiled but not hot-water washed, and oiled/hot-water washed). Only epibiota on sheltered rocky habitats are covered in this paper.

The majority of community dominants survived 1989 on oiled rocky shores that were not high-pressure, hot-water washed. These areas appeared to be nearly completely recovered by 1991, although subsequent monitoring has revealed oscillations in species abundances that exceed those on unoiled beaches. Hot-water treatments used in 1989 had severe short-term impacts on intertidal epibenthos. Some high-pressure, hot-water-treated rocky shores stripped of biota in 1989 showed very slow colonization through 1995; other areas that appeared to be nearly recovered in 1992 suffered severe declines in dominant taxa in 1995. The dominant age class of rockweed, which began life following hot-water treatment, matured in 1993 and died off in 1994 and 1995, resulting in declines of associated fauna. A new cycle of rockweed colonization has begun, and some recovery of rockweed and associated fauna was observed in 1996.
TEXAS AUTOMATED BUOY SYSTEM: REAL-TIME CURRENTS FOR OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Martin Robert D. , Kelly F. J. , Lee Linwood L. , Guinasso Norman L.
Published: January 2013

If the question asked of the oil spill R&D community is, “What have you done for me lately?,” a solid answer is the Texas Automated Buoy System (TABS) and its contribution to the response effort in the 3000-barrel Buffalo Barge 292 oil spill. The TABS network consists of five automated buoys anchored off the Texas coast that report half-hourly current measurements every 6 hours under normal conditions and every 2 hours during spill events. Public access to TABS is provided via an easy-to-use Internet Web page. Because of TABS, trajectory modelers knew the offshore currents within minutes of the Buffalo Barge 292 spill and were able to continuously track the currents along the Texas coast over the next 24 days. TABS also provided the first indications of a critical current reversal during the spill that allowed planners and managers to confidently stand down response preparations (and their associated costs) in some areas while redirecting response resources to truly threatened sections of the coast. Industry partners to date include Aramco Services Company, the Marine Spill Response Corporation, and the Marine Industry Response Group. Industry involvement is critical to maintaining the operational focus of TABS.
UNDERWATER RECOVERY OF SUBMERGED OIL DURING A COLD WEATHER RESPONSE
Authors: Heiland CDR Randolph C. , Smith LTJG Benjamin L. , Hazel William Edward , Popa Michael , McCarthy Dennis J.
Published: January 2013

On February 5, 1996, a failed gasket on a transfer system between two 700,000-gallon storage tanks caused a spill of coal tar. The spill migrated through an outfall and entered the Detroit River. Eventually it was determined that 3500 gallons of the heavy coal tar had entered the river and sunk to the bottom. Responders used submersible pumps powered by hydraulic power packs and an environmental clamshell dredge to recover the submerged coal tar. Responders constantly battled subzero temperatures on the shore and frigid temperatures below the surface throughout the entire operation. Water recovered during the operation was filtered and discharged on site under the direction of the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality. This case study presents the spill response community with an in-depth view of submerged oil recovery during unusual and harsh conditions.
THE ILWACO, WASHINGTON, TIRE FIRE OIL SPILL
Authors: Heinitz Eric F. , Lee Melany
Published: January 2013

The Ilwaco tire fire oil spill occurred when oil generated by the pyrolysis of rubber tire chips began seeping from a hillside into an adjacent coastal wetland. The tire chips were used as road fill material to repair a section of State Route 100 damaged by a landslide. This paper discusses not only the complexities of the response to the oil spill, but also the elaborate cofferdam system and containment berm constructed to control and contain the continual flow of oil from the site until mitigation measures could be taken to eliminate the source. Because exposure to oxygen could potentially increase the risk of a tire fire, several in-situ cooling methods were evaluated. The unique properties of this oil, the environmental effects and restoration concerns, the excavation methods, and disposal problems are all discussed. This is one of two sites in the state of Washington where a road fill, constructed of shredded tire chips, has begun burning. A comparison between these two sites, along with some assumptions as to the causes and possible preventative measures, will be briefly discussed.
SPECIALIZED MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT FOR SHORELINE CLEANUP
Authors: Taylor Elliott , Owens Edward H.
Published: January 2013

A study of mechanical equipment for shoreline cleaning, sponsored by the Marine Spill Response Corporation (MSRC), resulted in a catalog of over 100 products. The compilation includes mobile and stationary units, lifters and separators, washer and flood systems, vacuum and suction, and treatment equipment. A review of equipment performance identified machinery that is potentially capable of treating up to 3 ha/hr of shoreline. Sediment processing rates vary from 2 m3/hr to 130 m3/hr. Oil removal efficiencies of over 99% are reported for some treatment units. Despite the encouraging numbers, most equipment is suited only for a limited range of substrates or oil types. Numerous systems are available for medium- to high-viscosity oil on solid, impermeable substrates and for sand shorelines, but few devices are effective for the cleanup of mixed coarse sediment and boulder beaches or for mud and organic substrates. Test protocols are required to evaluate the efficiency or effects of these systems and to make comparisons. Guidelines for equipment selection are provided for four oil groups and six substrate classes.
HISTORICAL DISPERSANT AND IN-SITU BURNING OPPORTUNITIES IN THE UNITED STATES
Authors: Kucklick Janet H. , Aurand Don
Published: January 2013

Evaluating the value of using dispersants or in-situ burning in various regions of the United States requires an estimate of how often such technology might reasonably be considered. This study collected information on marine oil spills of 1000 barrels or more occurring in the coastal and offshore waters of the United States (excluding Alaska) from 1973 through June 1994. Each incident was examined using criteria for oil type, weather conditions, water depth, and distance from the shoreline. This allowed the frequency and geographic distribution of dispersible and burnable spills to be estimated. The effect of modifying the criteria on the frequency distribution of dispersible and burnable spills was evaluated.

Data were obtained on 138 refined product and 69 crude oil spills. The majority of these spills occurred in shallow water, close to the shoreline, and/or close to a sensitive receptor. Depending on the severity of the criteria, between 10% and 51% of the crude oil spills and 4% and 18% of the refined oil spills studied were realistic candidates for dispersant use. Between 35% and 58% of the crude and 22% and 38% of the refined oil spills were realistic candidates for burning.
NATURAL RESOURCE IMPACTS FROM THE NORTH CAPE OIL SPILL
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Csulak Frank , French Deborah , Sperduto Molly
Published: January 2013

The North Cape spill of 828,000 gallons of home heating oil was unique in that the natural resources most affected by the spill were water column and benthic resources. There was a fishery closure, extensive mortality of offshore benthic organisms (e.g., lobsters, surf clams, crabs), oil contamination of the water and sediments of the coastal salt ponds, and exposure offish in the salt ponds. Studies initiated during the preassessment phase of the natural resource damage assessment included assessment of: direct mortality and reduced reproduction of lobster, winter flounder, and piping plovers; sublethal impacts on juvenile fish growth rates and survival; sediment toxicity; prey base impacts in the ponds; and extent and weathering of oil in the water column and sediments. Four technical working groups were formed to assist injury quantification and identification of restoration alternatives: salt pond communities; marine communities; birds; and economics. Each group was responsible for coordinating all aspects of damage assessment for the identified resource; ensuring that the damage assessment for the identified resource is complete and defensible; and assisting in the development and scaling of restoration options for the injured resource. This paper presents an overview of the natural resource impacts for each of the major habitats and/or resources affected by the spill.
THE ROLE OF ARPEL IN CONTINGENCY PLANNING COOPERATION: THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OPERATING IN LATIN AMERICA
Authors: Moyano Juan Miguel
Published: January 2013

ARPEL leads the activities of 26 state, private, and mixed oil and gas companies in Latin America, aiming at a regional cooperation in contingency planning preparedness and response.

This decade has marked a milestone for the petroleum industry in Latin America. Market deregulation, a growing environmental legislative framework, and the privatization of former state-owned companies imply a need to reduce industry's environmental protection-related costs and to optimize its resources. The role of ARPEL in this context is examined.

ARPEL is developing the Contingency Planning Project (PLACON), which aims to ensure a timely, efficient, cost-effective, joint response for an oil spill emergency at both the company and regional levels. The project embraces the following topics: computerized resources inventory, sensitivity mapping, training courses, and regional integration analysis.

Results of the PLACON project to date and the present situation of the companies surveyed are analyzed as they relate to the objectives of the project. Information about the oil spill contingency planning process of companies operating in countries responsible for 99.9% exportation and 85.3% importation of the crude oil in Latin America is evaluated. Data included are from companies whose operations represent approximately 91.5% of oil production and 89.9% of oil refining in the region.