bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Testing tasks: issues in task design and the group oral
Authors: Fulcher Glenn
Published: March 2008

This article investigates some of the issues which surround the use of tasks in oral tests, with particular reference to the group discussion. This is done from the perspective of a group of students who were asked to attempt three oral tasks. Questionnaire techniques and retrospective reports were used to collect data from the students. The principle is that test-takers have a great deal to offer to the test researcher in making judgements about the value of the tests which they take (Brown, 1993).

The issues surrounding task design and use are complex, and are currently being debated not only in language-testing circles but also in the fields of second language acquisition and discourse analysis. For this reason, this article will refer to discussions in all three areas to shed light on the selection of tasks for use in oral tests. Information from the statistical analysis of tests will also be presented. All views about tests and tasks used in tests, however much some authors might eschew theory or statistical analysis (Underhill, 1987), spring from inherent theoretical positions. These positions make predictions about test scores under particular conditions, and the results of analysis enable the researcher to assess whether a view can be supported by empirical evidence.

Finally, the article will look at what is possibly one of the most problematic questions in proficiency testing: the generalizability of a test score given on one task to another task or tasks. It is arguably the case that, if this is not possible, there is no justification for proficiency testing.
An investigation of patterns of discontinuous learning: implications for ESL measurement
Authors: Perkins Kyle , Brutten Sheila R. , Gass Susan M.
Published: March 2008

Research from cognitive psychology, L2 acquisition and psychometry sug gests that competence/proficiency is multidimensional, and that proficiency does not always develop at the same rate in all its domains. In particular, L2 acquisition research indicates that competence does not always develop in a linear, monotonic pattern at an equal rate in all its component parts owing to restructuring and reorganization. Rehearsal, automatic and controlled pro cessing, creative simplification, task constraints and attention to form have been adduced to explain restructuring and reorganization. Classical test theory and item response theory models are not consonant with findings from cognitive psychology and L2 acquisition, because these models pinpoint individuals on a single continuum of proficiency.

The study reported here tested the experimental hypothesis that there would not be a monotonic relationship between increasing competence in different linguistic domains and growth in L2 proficiency. There was general support for the hypothesis. The article concludes with a brief introduction to some assessment models which can accommodate discontinuous patterns of growth. The models examined can be used to describe and model a student's qualitative cognitive state and knowledge structures.
The use of test method characteristics in the content analysis and design of EFL proficiency tests
Authors: Bachman Lyle F. , Davidson Fred , Milanovic Michael
Published: March 2008

Content considerations are widely viewed to be essential in the design of language tests, and evidence of content relevance and coverage provides an important component in the validation of score interpretations. Content analysis can be viewed as the application of a model of test design to a particular measurement instrument, using judgements of trained analysts. Following Bachman (1990), a content analysis of test method characteristics and components of communicative language ability was performed by five raters on six forms of an EFL test from the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate. To investigate rater agreement, generalizability analysis and a new agreement statistic (the rater agree ment proportion or 'RAP') were used. Results indicate that the overall level of rater agreement was very high, and that raters were more consistent in rating method than ability. To examine interform comparability, method/ability content analysis characteristics (called 'facets') which differed by more than one standard deviation of either form were deemed to be salient. Results indicated that not all facets yielded substantive information about interform content comparability, although certain test characteristics could be targeted for further revision and development. The relationships between content analysis ratings and two-para meter IRT item parameter estimates (difficulty and discrimination) were also investigated. Neither test method nor ability ratings by themselves yielded consist ent predictions of either item discrimination or difficulty across the six forms examined. Fairly high predictions were consistently obtained, however, when method and ability ratings were combined. The implications of these findings, as well as the utility of content analysis in operational test development, are dis cussed.
Does thick description lead to smart tests? A data-based approach to rating scale construction
Authors: Fulcher Glenn
Published: March 2008

Within the fields of applied linguistics and language testing, there has been a recent interest in rating scales, and how rating scales are constructed (Upshur and Turner, 1995). This is not surprising, as there is increasing concern that scores from language tests should be meaningful in applied linguistics terms. However, applied linguistics research and second language acquisition research have done little to provide descriptions of language abilities or performances which can be operationalized by language testers. Many existing descriptors for bands in rating scales are therefore barely tenable as definitions of constructs.

This article looks at the definition of fluency in the literature, and proposes a qualitative and quantitative approach which may be used to produce a 'thick' description of language use, which can be used in rating scale construction. A fluency rating scale is described, and its reliability and validity assessed. The arti cle suggests that validity considerations must be addressed in the construction phase of developing rating scales, through the careful consideration of the linguis tic meaning of constructs, rather than merely as a post hoc enterprise.
Validity and washback in language testing
Authors: Messick Samuel
Published: March 2008

Washback, a concept prominent in applied linguistics, refers to the extent to which the introduction and use of a test influences language teachers and learners to do things they would not otherwise do that promote or inhibit language learning. Some proponents have even maintained that a test's validity should be appraised by the degree to which it manifests positive or negative washback, a notion akin to the proposal of 'systemic validity' in the educational measurement literature. This article examines the concept of washback as an instance of the consequential aspect of construct validity, linking positive washback to so-called authentic and direct assessments and, more basically, to the need to minimize construct under- representation and construct-irrelevant difficulty in the test.
Introducing new tests into traditional systems: insights from general education and from innovation theory
Authors: Wall Dianne
Published: March 2008

Educators are concerned about the effects that tests may have on teaching, and want to know what they should do to ensure that these effects are beneficial. Some ELT specialists have offered advice on how to produce positive washback, calling for attention to test design and the communication between testers and teachers. Research in general education has pointed out the need for feedback from testers to many key players in the educational system, and for adequate resourcing and training. Innovation theory provides further insights into why attempts to introduce change in the classroom are often not as effective as their designers hoped they would be. This article reviews several key concepts in educational innovation, showing how these concepts are manifested in a case study in washback and out lining how they are being applied in recent test development projects.
Theoretical models, assessment frameworks and test construction
Authors: Chalhoub-Deville Micheline
Published: March 2008

The article reviews the usefulness of several models of proficiency that have influenced second language testing in the last two decades. The review indicates that several factors contribute to the lack of congruence between models and test construction, and makes a case for distinguishing between theoretical models, which attempt to represent the proficiency construct in various contexts and oper ational assessment frameworks, which depict the construct in particular contexts. Additionally, the article underscores the significance of an empirical, contex tualized and structured approach to the development of assessment frameworks.
Testing the language proficiency of bilingual teachers: Arizona's Spanish proficiency test
Authors: Grant Leslie
Published: March 2008

Currently in the USA, a total of 28 states offer bilingual teacher certification and/or endorsement. Of these states, 17 require that the prospective teachers dem onstrate proficiency in their second language, in English, or in both languages. In the context of nationwide bilingual teacher testing procedures, this article describes a criterion-referenced test for bilingual endorsement used in Arizona. Test scores and questionnaires provided information with respect to classification depend ability and rater consistency. Examinee questionnaire responses, teacher question naire responses and test section analysis all contributed evidence for validity. As a result of this study, further research on testing teachers' language proficiency is recommended and considerations for bilingual teacher training are discussed.
The assessment of writing ability: expert readers versus lay readers
Authors: Schoonen Rob , Vergeer Margaretha , Eiting Mindert
Published: March 2008

This article reports on three studies about the reading reliability of lay and expert readers in rating three kinds of writing assignments. Readers had to rate the Con tent and Language Usage of students' writing performances. The studies show that expert readers are more reliable in rating Usage, whereas both lay readers and expert readers prove to be reliable raters of Content. When the writing assignment becomes more restrictive, as is the case with interlinear revision tasks, lay readers are also reliable raters of Usage. The conclusion is that the effect of expertise is dependent on the rating task the readers have to perform. Expertise pertains most to language usage and to the cases in which the writing assignments as well as the scoring instructions are relatively free.
The effect of question preview in listening comprehension tests
Authors: Sherman Jane
Published: March 2008

Previewed comprehension questions in listening tests pose questions of construct validity: how does this test method affect the test results? An examination of the construct of listening comprehension suggests that question preview may affect comprehension positively by focusing the attention or supplying information about the text, or negatively by interfering with subjective comprehension processes, increasing the burden on the attention or imposing shallower processing. Alterna tively it may have no significant effect. The quantitative effect on test results and the qualitative effect on recall were predicted for each possibility. In the study, 78 subjects took listening tests in four different versions, one with questions before, one with questions after, one with questions sandwiched between two hear ings and one with no questions. Subjects also completed questionnaires designed to elicit reactions to each version and, a week later, wrote a free recall of what they had heard. Results from the recall were inconclusive but in the tests the `sandwich' version produced significantly more correct answers. Questionnaire responses indicated that subjects felt the sandwich version facilitated comprehen sion most, but also showed a strong affective attachment to previewed questions. It is concluded that previewed questions seem more helpful than they really are.
Introduction: the limits of ethics in language testing
Authors: Davies Alan
Published: March 2008

The articles in this special issue were written for a symposium on the ethics of language testing held at the triennial congress of the Association Internationale de Linguistique Appliquée in August 1996 in Finland. This special issue addresses the role of ethics (and the limits of that role) in professional activities such as language testing. The nine articles that follow can be divided into four sections. The two articles in the first section (Spolsky and Hawthorne) consider language testing as a means of political control. The two in the second section (Elder, and Norton and Starfield) are concerned essentially with the definition of the test con struct — Elder considering whether the construct has the same meaning for differ ent groups and Norton and Starfield questioning whether it is form or content that is being assessed. The two articles in the third section (Hamp-Lyons and Rea- Dickins) consider the effects of language tests on the various stakeholders who are involved. In the fourth section, the three articles (Shohamy, Lynch and Davies) offer criteria for promoting ethicality in language testing, Lynch by an approach from principle (deontological), Davies through the professionalizing of the activity (teleological), and Shohamy through attention both to method and to consequence.
The ethics of gatekeeping tests: what have we learned in a hundred years?
Authors: Spolsky Bernard
Published: March 2008

Tests have always been used as a means of political and social control. Critics have emphasized their unfairness and what Edgeworth called their 'unavoidable uncertainty'. Test results are unreliable, especially at the extremes, and their pre dictive power is weak. Language testers above all need to be sceptical; they should insist that the most complete information about candidates be made available for selection decision-making.
So, why do we need relationships with stakeholders in language testing? A view from the UK
Authors: Rea-Dickins Pauline
Published: March 2008

Stakeholders are identified as those who make decisions and those who are affec ted by those decisions. Such a definition makes the range of possible stakes in assessment and testing very wide. These 'stakes' are categorized in terms of test research and development functions, curriculum innovation and implementation, and accountability functions. The article examines some of the contributions that stakeholders such as learners, teachers and parents have in the assessment process. It also examines the relationship between experts and government. Participation by stakeholders is not limited to providing a forum for stakeholders to express their views but it is also about equipping teachers, parents and others with infor mation so that they may take appropriate action. In this way a stakeholder approach to assessment has the effect of democratizing assessment processes, of improving relationships between those involved, and thereby of promoting greater fairness.
Demands of being professional in language testing
Authors: Davies Alan
Published: March 2008

The need for a strong ethical foundation in the social sciences, which include language testing, is discussed. Such a foundation can be developed through the process of professionalizing. The need for a professional morality in addition to public and individual moralities is proposed and the importance of a professional morality to individual members and to other stakeholders is explained: professions establish contracts with the public and at the same time must protect their mem bers. The intrusive nature of language testing research and the normative role of language tests raise ethical questions regarding professional practice. Critical approaches to language testing expose the importance of carefully examining alter native assessment proposals and of making clear the validity of the assessment methods used by the profession. Given the weakness of sanctions for a social science profession such as language testing, what members are now doing is cre ating an 'ethical milieu' through professional training and professional activities (forming an association, establishing journals and WWW pages, issuing codes of practice, developing qualifications), thereby making explicit the public engage ment of members in a common task. Such explicitness shows both the reach and the limits of the profession's morality.
Introduced versus native plants in austral forests
Authors: Holland Peter , Olson Sherry
Published: March 2008

Despite the concern of some nineteenth- and early twentieth-century biologists, relatively few alien species have become established in undisturbed forests of Australia, Madagascar or New Zealand. All three countries have large 'naturalized' floras adapted to frequent disturbance. The short-term advantages of these alien plants - short life cycles, fast growth, abundant seed and plasticity of habit - have allowed them to cover large areas of disturbed ground and to coexist with native plants in early successional vegetation. Very few persist in mature forest. The threat to the austral forests is human disturbance, and there is need for research on the native plants which perform the specialized role of repairing canopy after disturbance.
Recent trends in the ecology and management of the world's savanna formations
Authors: Stott Philip
Published: March 2008

The trees had become hydra-headed bronze statues so ancient that only blunt residual features remained on their faces, like anthills surviving to tell the new grass of the savannah about last year's brush fires (Achebe: 1987).
Information technology in real-time for monitoring and managing natural disasters
Authors: Alexander David
Published: March 2008

This paper considers the rôle of information technology in forecasting, monitoring and managing disasters in real-time (i.e., by analysis of data as soon as they are collected). First, the advantages and pitfalls of a technological approach to natural hazards are discussed, then the general nature of real-time technology is described. There follows a review of the appropriate techniques of monitoring the physical impacts of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, floods and landslides. Next the rôle of information technology in disaster management is assessed, with emphasis on telecommunications and simulation modelling. As a cautionary note, two notorious failures of prediction and warning are discussed (the storm of October 1987 in England and the volcanic eruption disaster of November 1985 in Colombia), both of which would have benefited from more careful use of real-time monitoring. It is concluded that microcomputers, earth resources satellites, communications satellites and Geographical Information Systems offer considerable potential for natural disaster management, especially if real-time uses are developed by integrating these technologies.
Gully erosion: processes and models
Authors: Bocco Gerardo
Published: March 2008

Confusing and sometimes contradictory results and reports have led to a sizeable body of literature on, but unfortunately not to a clear understanding of, gully erosion processes. In the following review, relevant concepts on gully erosion are summarized. Their implications for gully erosion modelling are presented along with some recommendations for future research.
Gas Production Parameters in Sanitary Landfill Simulators
Authors: Barlaz M.A. , Milke M.W. , Ham R.K.
Published: March 2008

The decomposition of shredded municipal refuse was studied in 19 drums (208 1). Gas production and composition were monitored for two years. The addition of old, anaerobically degraded refuse as a seed of anaerobic bacteria and the neutralization of the refuse were the two techniques which stimulated methane production. Yields of 80-150 1 of methane per kilogram of dry, grindable, volatile solids were measured. The addition of anaerobic sewage sludge, acetate, and the initial removal of oxygen from a drum, were not stimulatory. Initially, it was the development of the methanogen population and not polymer hydrolysis which limited methane production.
Long-Term Leaching Scenarios for Cement-Based Waste Forms
Authors: Côté Pierre L. , Bridle Trevor R.
Published: March 2008

Cement-based waste forms (solidified wastes) are used for the long-term land disposal of industrial hazardous wastes. A cement-based waste form can be prepared by mixing a hydraulic cement and, if needed, a bulking agent with an aqueous waste to cause it to solidify.

This article presents eight long-term leaching scenarios based on various properties of waste forms and contaminants as well as different hydraulic regimes and characteristics of groundwater. Each scenario takes the form of a simplified mathematical model used to predict leaching rates for periods of up to 100 years.

The analysis demonstrates the importance of chemically fixing the contaminants in the matrix and illustrates the advantages of avoiding situations where groundwater flows through the waste. In situations where advective transport is negligible, leaching rates are limited by pore diffusion and tend to decrease with time.
Testing Large Landfill Sites Before Construction of Gas Recovery Facilities ‡
Authors: Siegal Joan P.
Published: March 2008

The great variability in landfill refuse characteristics such as moisture, pH, temperature, cellulose content, age. and cover make it difficult to extrapolate test data from one site to another. The quantity of raw extractable gas from 23 GSF test sites was found to range from 4 to 29 1 m-3 day-1 (0.11-0.78 CFD/CY) of refuse. By field testing of sites, the probability of a successful project can be greatly enhanced. On large landfills, the benefits of extensive testing outweigh initial costs. In addition to determining potential gas production, well tests also determine: the location of high perched water zones; concentrations of corrosive trace contaminants so that adequate pretreatment facilities can be designed; and composition of refuse samples to determine the rate of decay. This allows the developer to optimize plant size, resulting in maximum return on investment. As data from landfill tests are used in simulation modelling to predict gas generation rates for designing plant capacity, simulation models that do not use actual site-derived test data can create erroneous results.
High Btu Landfill Gas Recovery Utilizing Pressure Swing Mdea Process
Authors: Dinsmore Harold L.
Published: March 2008

The extraction and processing of landfill gas to pipeline quality specifications is a viable method for recovering landfill gas. A plant operating at the Central Disposal Sanitary Landfill in Pompano Beach, Florida, employs a proprietary process involving a methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) based solvent. The process utilizes a combination pressure-swing and thermal solvent-regeneration procedure which dramatically reduces energy requirements relative to those of traditional amine processes. Much of the equipment is skid mounted and modularized which reduces field installation costs and facilitates future removal to other sites.
Treatment of Waste Water From Refuse Incineration Plants
Authors: Reimann Dieter O.
Published: March 2008

The waste-water purification systems used at the Bamberg waste incinerator are described as an example of how easily such critical waste water can be treated. Water from flue gas scrubbers and ash washing which contains mercury, heavy metals and salts is precipitated with lime and trimercaptotriazine (TMT15) in two stages to produce an effluent that meets the strong discharge standards of the F.R.G.
Total Organic Carbon Emissions From Municipal Incinerators
Authors: Brunner Paul H. , Müller Markus D. , McDow Stephen R. , Moench Hermann
Published: March 2008

Total carbon (TC), carbonate carbon (CC) and total organic carbon (TOC) were determined in bottom ash, filter dust and flue gas of Swiss municipal solid waste (MSW) incinerators. The highest TOC load was found in the bottom ash (2-3 g kg-1 MSW), followed by the filter dust (0.1-1.0 g kg-1 MSW) and the flue gas (0.05-0.3 g kg-1 MSW). The composition and behaviour of the bulk of TOC in these products is not yet known. In order to minimize the risk of leaching organic substances as well as metals due to biological, chemical and physical reactions of the products of incineration in a landfill, it is suggested the incineration process be optimized towards complete combustion.
Statistical Assessment of PCDD and PCDF Emission Data
Authors: Pallesen Lars
Published: March 2008

Real PCDD and PCDF emission data from a statistically planned measurement programme at Amagerforbrænding, Copenhagen, 1985 are analyzed. It is demonstrated how statistical analysis of variance can be used to break down the total variability in the data into interpretable components. Crossed and nested data structures are considered. Emission differences over time are significant, but less so than differences due to alternative sample taking methods, and even greater differences were found between laboratories.
The Impact of the Dioxin Issue On Resource Recovery in the United States
Authors: Steisel Norman , Morris Regina , Clarke Marjorie J.
Published: March 2008

Alternative solutions to the solid waste disposal crisis include recycling and waste reduction and large-scale energy and materials recovery facilities (known as resource recovery and RDF, respectively). The discovery of dioxin and furan emissions from resource recovery plants has led to an intensive focus on the dioxin issue by the public, the regulators, and the builders of the plants. This paper discusses the issues concerning dioxin currently being debated by the scientific community, including dioxin and furan toxicity in animals (and extrapolation to humans), toxic equivalents, the processes of dioxin formation in resource recovery plants, the role of source separation of plastics and paper from refuse in mitigation of dioxin formation, and the roles of combustion-regulation and air-pollution control devices in the destruction and reduction of dioxin emissions. In addition, the steps that the New York City Sanitation Department has chosen for exploring the health risk of dioxin emissions (the Fred C. Hart Risk Assessment) and to reduce emissions of dioxins from its proposed resource recovery plants (both in terms of combustion regulation and control devices) are discussed.
Water and Element Balances of Municipal Solid Waste Landfills
Authors: Baccini P. , Henseler G. , Figi R. , Belevi H.
Published: March 2008

A major problem of sanitary landfills is the assessment of element transfers from inputs to outputs as a function of time. The prediction of gas and leachate generation is necessary for this purpose. Water and element balances for the non-metals carbon, nitrogen, fluorine, phosphorus, sulfur and chlorine and the metals iron, copper, zinc, cadmium, mercury and lead were investigated in four municipal solid waste landfills of various ages. Data from these mass balances were then used to develop a method that permits elucidation of the behaviour of landfill in its most active phase, i.e. that in which relatively high gas generation occurs.
Analytical Characterization of Composts of Different Origins: Agronomic Properties and Risk Factors of the Environment
Authors: Genevini P.L. , Mezzanotte V. , Garbarino A.
Published: March 2008

Ten samples of compost produced in Italy were analysed for fertilizing elements and heavy metals. Different extraction methods [H2O, NaNO3, EDTA, DTPA and potassium pyrophosphate (K-Pyr)] were compared as indicators of heavy metals availability to plants. There was a high variability in composition even with composts of similar origin. Compost is comparable to farmyard manure (FYM) in organic content but has lower potassium and higher ash and silica contents. In most cases the concentration of metals is below the limits imposed by Italian regulations for town refuse compost, however not all samples had sufficient organic matter, total nitrogren or potassium and some exceeded the C/N ratio. K-Pyr was the most effective extracting agent collecting up to half the total metals. EDTA was more effective than DTPA, while H 2O and NaNO3 extracted very low percentages of the total metals.
Boron Release From Town Refuse Compost as Measured By Sequential Plant Uptake
Authors: Nogales R. , Robles J. , Gallardo-Lara F.
Published: March 2008

The effect of applied town refuse compost, either alone or supplemented with different mineral fertilizers, on sequential boron uptake by ryegrass, under greenhouse conditions was determined. The experiment included 19 treatments: soil alone (T), two treatments containing soil + mineral fertilizers mixtures, soil + compost (C) at 60 t ha-1 and 15 treatments including soil + compost + different individual or combined mineral complements of N, P, K and S. Four harvests of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L. c.v. Argo) were carried out. Application of compost alone to soil caused an increase, especially during the second, third and fourth harvests, both in the boron concentration and in boron plant uptake, although no toxic effects were observed. The ability of town refuse to make boron available is reduced by mineral fertilizers additions. This fact could turn out to be extremely useful in avoiding the possible toxic effect of boron which might be caused by the application of large doses of compost.
Planning for Future Waste Management Operations in Developing Countries
Authors: Rushbrook P.E. , Finnecy E.E.
Published: March 2008

The proper management of waste has several aspects: political, social, environmental, economic and technical. While the objectives of waste management policy differ little from country to country, the methods used to achieve them must be adapted to the prevailing circumstances in each. These factors include the availability of technical, economic, and human resources, and the competition that exists for them from other demands of national policy, especially in developing countries.

There is no single correct method to achieve proper waste management. Nevertheless there are common needs that must be addressed by all nations that wish to manage their wastes better. These needs will include: adequate knowledge of the types of waste to be disposed of, how much there is, where it arises, who produces it, and what happens to it. It is also necessary to forecast how the present circumstances will change, and to identify appropriate methods to ensure that what should be done with waste is done. As forecasting the nature and quantity of waste that will arise in the future is difficult, an administrative mechanism is needed to ensure the regular supply of up-to-date data.

In any city it is possible to equate the standard of waste management with the overall "standard of living" enjoyed by its inhabitants. Rising expectations of environmental improvement mean that disposal facilities must be appropriately designed, engineered and managed. They must also be planned for the future. The preparation of a thorough and effective plan is a lengthy task if done manually, and the discussion introduces the benefits that can be obtained from the use of computer models to assist, but not replace, human involvement in the preparation of a plan. Brief reference will be made to waste management models already used by waste managers to produce and update plans.
Control of Volatile Organic Compound Emissions At a Landfill Site in New York: a Community Perspective
Authors: Walsh James J. , Conrad E.T. , Stubing Henry D. , Vogt W. Gregory
Published: March 2008

This paper presents a case study of a Long Island, New York, landfill where methane and VOC gases were migrating off-site. The municipally owned and operated Port Washington Landfill located adjacent to residential housing was opened in 1974 and was placed on the U.S. EPA Superfund (rehabilitation) list in 1982 because of odour complaints. Community concerns have focused on combustible gases, odour control, and exposure to trace contaminants. A comprehensive data base and corrective action program was initiated to determine: (1) the extent of off-site volatile organic compounds (VOC) migration; (2) measures to control migration and emissions; and (3) impacts on VOC concentrations under residential areas. Full data reports and monthly interpretations have been provided to the citizenry. Results to date indicate that start-up and operation of the extraction system have significantly reduced off-site VOC concentrations.
Improved Estimation of Waste Arisings Using Limited Sample Sizes
Authors: Rushbrook P.E. , Ball R.
Published: March 2008

Knowledge of the total tonnage of waste deposited at a landfill site is important if the site is to be effectively managed and appropriate plans made for the future. Unfortunately only at very large landfills is it economical to weight all the loads that are delivered. At present a number of methods for estimating the weight of wastes collected are in use. These are based on counts of bins emptied, number of properties from which waste is collected or of population served, together with knowledge of waste generated per appropriate unit based on nationally derived statistics. Experience shows, however, that the accuracy of such estimates founded on nationally derived statistics leaves much to be desired. Therefore accurate estimates of total waste deposited must be based on locally derived data. This paper describes how, in conjunction with the use of the tonnage estimation model, estimated can be made by weighing only a small, but representative, number of vehicle loads. The model is straightforward to use, requires little manpower to implement and represents a marked improvement on current techniques. The accuracy of the model was checked by using sample data from a waste disposal authority that weighed all its waste. Estimates obtained by the model were very close indeed to the actual figures. The paper gives a description of the model and how an appropriate sampling plan can be derived. A case study is then presented to illustrate how the model is used in practice.
Leachate Quality From Iron-Ore Tailings Leached With Deionized Water of Different pH
Authors: Wong M.H. , Kwan S.H.
Published: March 2008

Iron-ore tailings filled in a soil column were leached daily with deionized water at various pH 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9) for 50 days. There was a continuous decline in conductivity of all leachates during the study. The final conductivity values of all leachates were significantly lower (P < 0.001) than the initial values. Final pH values were all in the range 8.2-8.3. The lower pH treatments resulted in high leachate concentrations of magnesium, manganese, iron, lead, and zinc. Sodium, potassium and calcium concentrations were similar for all treatments.
Polishing the Big Appple: Models of How Manpower Utilization Affects Street Cleanliness in New York City
Authors: Riccio Lucius J. , Miller Joseph , Bose Gautam
Published: March 2008

The "Scorecard" system of rating cleanliness of city streets estimates the fraction of total street length that is acceptably clean, based on selected samples. A parametric model combining 12 assignable variables related to the street cleaning programme of New York City, including workers assigned to street cleaning and tickets for Sanitary Code violations, was tested on a computer for several million combinations of reasonably assigned values of the variables. The results supported earlier studies based on regression analysis and increased the understanding of important variables. Street cleaners are far more effective per man hour in keeping streets clean than are agents writing tickets for violations. The models presented can be useful for planners in other cities.
Cement-Based Solidification for the Safe Disposal of Heavy Metal Contaminated Sewage Sludge
Authors: Montgomery D.M. , Sollars C.J. , Perry R.
Published: March 2008

Cement-based solidification processes for the safe disposal of metal contaminated sewage sludges in landfill have been evaluated as a possible alternative to conventional methods, such as disposal to agricultural land or sea dumping. The treatments evaluated were based on ordinary Portland cement (OPC) alone and OPC containing soluble sodium silicate as an additive. The abilities of the systems to stabilize the metal contaminants present in the sludge were determined by extensive leaching tests, using water or buffered acetic acid over a 9 day cycle, designed to simulate the most severe conditions likely to be met in a landfill. For both the OPC/sludge mix and the OPC/silicate/sludge mix, these tests indicated that the release of metals from the cement matrix was low and the patterns of release could be divided into two distinct groups. The first group, comprising zinc, lead and cadmium, gave pHdependent releases under equilibrium (crushed block) test conditions, suggesting that the metals are bound up in the cement matrix as the insoluble hydroxides at high pH. The second group, consisting of copper and nickel, were released throughout the test, suggesting that the metals were complexed by ligands present in the sludge and were, therefore, soluble under alkaline, as well as acid, leaching conditions.
Vegetation Coverage At Sanitary Landfills in Finland
Authors: Ettala Matti O. , Yrjönen Kirsti M. , Rossi Esko J.
Published: March 2008

The plant species and vegetation coverage were studied at 40 sanitary landfills in southern Finland, using 1 m wide survey lines. The vegetation coverage averaged 25%, ranging from zero to 57% of the survey line. The total number of plant species was 306. Woody plants were scarce. At least 10 cm of cover soil is needed for herbaceous vegetation. Both the quality of the cover material and the age of the refuse influenced the number of plant species and the coverage. An important factor was disturbance of the vegetation by vehicles and continuous alteration of the substrate by filling with new cover soil and refuse. Conditions for growth can best be improved by careful planning of the operations at the landfill. Completed landfills with suitable and sufficiently deep cover soil will develop a remarkably good spontaneous coverage of herbaceous vegetation in a few years. Bushes and trees need to be planted.
Effects of Self-Concept and Locus of Control On Academic Achievement: a Large-Sample Path Analysis
Authors: Keith Timothy Z. , Pottebaum Sheila M. , Eberhart Steve
Published: March 2008

School interventions are often based on the assumption that psychological variables such as self-concept and locus of control should have a meaningful impact on achievement. Yet research support for such influences is inconsistent. The purpose of the present study was to determine the extent of the influence of self-concept and locus of control on academic achievement, while controlling for other relevant influences. Data from a large, representative sample of U.S. high school students were analyzed using path analysis, a nonexperimental research technique. The results suggest that locus of control has a meaningful impact on high school seniors' achievement, that is, more internal students also achieve at a higher level. Self-concept, however, had no meaningful effect on achievement. Further, the pattern of influences of self-concept and locus of control on achievement were quite similar for males and females, suggesting no interaction with these variables and gender in their impact on achievement.
Equivalence of the Wisc-r aNd Wais-r in dElinquent Males
Authors: Grace William C.
Published: March 2008

A sample of 55 black and white male delinquents was randomly assigned to take either the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) or Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R). The two tests did not show significant differences in mean Verbal, Performance, or Full Scale IQs, but a test by race interaction consistently suggested that the scores of blacks were lower on the WISC-R than on the WAIS-R disproportionately to whites. Greater mean Performance IQ minus Verbal IQ differences were seen on the WISC-R than on the WAIS-R, and frequency analysis revealed a greater number of youths with a significant Performance minus Verbal difference on the WISC-R. These results suggest that use of the WAIS-R may be preferable to use of the WISC-R in 16-year-old delinquent males, and the possibility of relative racial bias in the WISC-R should be considered.
Educational Psychology in Newfoundland and Labrador: A Thirty-Year History
Authors: Martin Ron
Published: March 2008

The practice of School Psychology, in the most elementary sense of the role has been ongoing in this province since the early 1970s. In Newfoundland and Labrador, perhaps as a result of our strong ties to the United Kingdom, the title Educational Psychologist continues to be used as opposed to the more common North American title School Psychologist. Because Newfoundland and Labrador did not have a submission in the 1990 special issue journal, we will attempt to describe the evolution of Educational Psychology in this province during the past thirty years.
The Parent Conference: An Opportunity for Requesting Parental Collaboration
Authors: Metcalf Linda
Published: March 2008

This article represents an example of how a solution-focused conversation can assist everyone involved with a school problem in the creation of an atmosphere where everyone is involved in stopping "the problem." For example, identifying the role of the teacher during times when the problem is occurring less gives the teacher clues as to which lesson plans are more effective. Discovering the times when the parent observes more successful academic production at home gives the teachers clues as to how to help the student in class. Together with the student, all three parties are more likely to come up with a solution that fits the child rather than prescribing a tried and true remedy that worked for other students but not the concerned student. The result is a conversation that leaves both parent and teacher consciously working on the same issue with an understanding of what their roles are with the student and helps the student to be more successful.
Reading Disabilities Related to Word Recognition: Underlying Deficits and Diagnostic Approaches
Authors: Reiter Betty A.
Published: March 2008

This article provides an overview of the underlying core deficits (i.e., phonological processing, rapid naming speed, and the "double deficit" hypothesis) believed to be associated with reading disabilities in the word recognition area. In order to emphasize the importance of accurate diagnosis, examples of appropriate intervention strategies for the different deficit areas are presented. This is followed by a general discussion of current assessment practices. Although school systems typically utilize IQ-achievement discrepancy analysis for identifying reading disabilities in children, this procedure appears to have a number of shortcomings. Alternative approaches for identifying children with reading disabilities related to word recognition are offered.
Assessment of Mental Retardation by School Psychologists
Authors: Lecavalier Luc , Tassé Marc J. , Lévesque Stéphanie
Published: March 2008

School psychologists play an important role in the assessment and classification of mental retardation. Although the current diagnostic and classification systems contain slight differences in their diagnostic criteria for mental retardation, they contain three essential elements: (a) a presence of significant deficits in cognitive functioning, (b) a concurrent presence of significant limitations in adaptive behavior, and (c) an onset during the developmental period. Researchers have previously documented the over reliance of IQ testing alone in the diagnosis and classification of mental retardation. We explored the practices and opinions of a random sample of school psychologists regarding the assessment of children for mental retardation. The results of this study reveal that (a) the IQ test results are viewed by many school psychologists as the sole indicator needed to classify a child with mental retardation, (b) 25% of school psychologists surveyed never used a measure of adaptive behavior, and (c) less than half (45%) of psychologists surveyed reported using systematically a standardized measure of adaptive behavior when classifying children with mental retardation. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Children's Reports of Bullying and Safety at School
Authors: Beran Tanya N. , Tutty Leslie
Published: March 2008

The purpose of this research was to determine the frequency of bullying in elementary school children and to examine gender and age differences. A total of 472 students in grades 1-6 in Calgary, Alberta completed a bullying survey. The frequency of bullying was somewhat higher than previously reported by others. In grades 4 to 6,27% experienced both physical and verbal bullying, 21% experienced verbal bullying, and 5% reported physical bullying. Reports of bullying experienced by students in grades I to 3 were similar. Using self-report data from students in grades 4 to 6, a stepwise regression analysis indicated that higher perceived school safety and more teacher support were associated with less verbal bullying. The implications of these findings are discussed below.
Parental Perceptions of the Affects of Learning Disabilities Assessment on Family Adaptation
Authors: Pentyliuk Michele A.
Published: March 2008

This study explored parents'experiences, concerns, and feelings surrounding the psychoeducational assessment and diagnosis of their child with a learning disability. Two interviews were conducted with 6 sets of parents whose children had been diagnosed with learning disabilities within 6 months of the initial interview. Parents were asked to describe in detail their feelings, experiences, and concerns before, during, and following the assessment. Data was analyzed using a qualitative framework. Parents in this study viewed the assessment as a means of gainig information that would help them understand their children better, but described only minimal involvement in and understanding of the assessment process. Despite confusion over the results and diagnoses, parents utilized the information they gained to enhance their coping skills, and to continue their pursuit of support services to meet the needs of their children with learning disabilities.
A Comparison of WISC-III Short Forms for Screening Gifted Elementary Students in Canada
Authors: Reiter Betty A.
Published: March 2008

This investigation explored the accuracy of six short forms of the WISC-III in estimating the Full Scale IQ of potentially gifted elementary students in Canada. Data from the WISC-III Canadian standardization study served as the analysis sample (n = 192), while WISC-III archival data obtained from a large urban school division in Western Canada was used for the cross validation sample (n = 1,058). When psychometric soundness and clinical utility were considered together with discriminating power, the Dumont-Faro short form (Information, Vocabulary, Picture Completion, Coding, Block Design) emerged as being the best short form for screening potentially gifted elementary students. The use of this short form would save time and resources without sacrificing accuracy. Recommendations for the practical application of the Dumont-Faro short form in school psychology practice are provided.