Teaching and Learning Guide for: Sacred Space in the Ancient Near East
Authors: Wasilewska Ewa 
Published: April 2010

This guide accompanies the following article: Ewa Wasilewska, Sacred Space in the Ancient Near East, Religion Compass 3/3 (2009) pp. 395–416, 10.1111/j.1749‐8171.2009.00138.x

Author’s Introduction

Although the topic of sacred spaces in the Near East is an interesting one, it is also quite challenging to teach. The amount of available data regarding discoveries of sacral enclosures in the area is enormous. The complexity in methodological issues encompasses many disciplines of social sciences and humanities. Thus, any instructor who attempts such a task must make his/her own choices as to the leading themes and/or areas that shall be covered in a course. The following is just a suggestion of basic sources that may make a personal selection of both literature and topics easier for an instructor.

General Reading List

This list focuses on basic sources intended to provide background information about archeology and the ancient Near East in general. More sources are listed under specific topics of the proposed syllabus.

Introduction to archeology

Chazan, M. World Prehistory and Archaeology: Pathways through Time. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. 2008.

This is a comprehensive and thoughtful introduction to methods and theories in modern archeology. Although examples used are not only from the Near East, the strong point of this introduction is its organization that includes summaries of key points, review questions, and recommendations for further readings.

Introduction to anthropology of religion

Crapo, R. H. Anthropology of Religion: The Unity and Diversity of Religions. McGraw Hill. 2002.

As a basic source of information on anthropology of religion this book is quite sufficient. However, it is recommended that, if possible, various Readers in Anthropology of Religion might be used as supplemental readings.

Introduction to ancient sacred spaces

Wightman, G. J. Sacred Spaces: Religious Architecture in the Ancient World. Leuven: Peeters. 2007.

This book is a comprehensive introduction to the most famous sacred spaces of the ancient world. However, the reader must be warned that due to the wealth of information (different civilizations, different time periods) presented, this book is somewhat uneven.

Introduction to archeology of Mesopotamia

Matthews, R. The Archaeology of Mesopotamia. Theories and Approaches. London and New York: Routledge. 2003.

Roaf, M. Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East. Oxford: Andromeda Oxford Limited. 2002.

These books are excellent introductions to the region, both from the descriptive and methodological points of view.

Mieroop, M. Van De. A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000–323 B.C. Blackwell Publishing. 2007.

Mieroop’s works provides a very valuable source on the ancient Near East while combining archeological data with available written records.

Introduction to archeology of Egypt

Bard, K. An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell Publishing. 2008.

This is the most comprehensive and updated book on archeology of Egypt.

Wilkinson, R. H. Egyptology Today. Cambridge University Press. 2008.

This is a valuable collection of articles written by leading Egyptologists who focus on variety of methodological and theoretical issues in modern Egyptology.

Introduction to archeology of Anatolia (mostly Hittite period)

Bryce, T. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. 2002.

Macqueen, J. G. The Hittites and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor. Thames & Hudson. 2003.

Both books are basics for learning about Anatolia of the second millennium B.C.

Introduction to archeology of Levant (Syria Palestine)

Akkermans, M. M. G. & Schwartz, G. M. The Archaeology of Syria. From Complex Hunter‐Gatherers to Early Urban Societies (ca. 16,000–300 B.C.). Cambridge University Press. 2003.

This is the only comprehensive source of knowledge on archeology of Syria focusing on archeological data and their interpretation.

Introduction to archeology of Iran

Curtis, J. E. and N. Tallis, eds. Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. 2005.

Potts, D. T. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge University Press. 1999.

These two books focus on different periods in the history of Iranian civilizations. While the first one combines both archeology and historical sources to provide a comprehensive discussion of the Persian empire, the second one utilizes mostly archeological data.

General introduction to cosmology of the ancient Near East

Clifford, R. Creation Accounts in the Ancient Near East and in the Bible. The Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series, 26. Washington, DC: The Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1994.

or

Wasilewska, E. Creation Stories of the Middle East. London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 2000.

While the choice of creation accounts in both books is very similar, the first book’s approach is more theological than of the second one that focuses on evolution of different concepts.

Sample Syllabus

This sample syllabus includes sample readings appropriate to students at different levels: introductory, advanced, and, at occasions, general audience interest. While whole books are often recommended, the selection of relevant chapters is left to an instructor to focus on issues that he/she finds most valuable for addressing the topic of sacred space in the ancient Near East.

1. Welcome to the Past: A Brief Introduction to History of Archeology and Its Methods and Theories

Focus: The topic of sacred spaces in the ancient Near East cannot be fully discussed without understanding limitations archeological and historical data present for recognition and interpretation of ancient beliefs.

Introductory level

Chazan, M. World Prehistory and Archaeology: Pathways through Time. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. 2008.

Advanced level

Hodder, I. & Hutson, S. Reading the Past. Current Approaches to Interpretation in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press. 2003. Third edition.

Recommended for general audience

Balter, M. The Goddess and the Bull. Çatal Hüyük: An Archaeological Journey to the Dawn of Civilization. New York: Free Press. 2005.

This is a fascinating book written in an excellent journalistic style introducing a reader not only to one of the most famous sites of the Near East, Çatal Hüyük, but also personalizing archeological disputes regarding both excavating, reporting, and interpreting the past.

2. Anthropology and Archeology of Religion

Focus: This discussion shall focus on introducing students to the variety of approaches in understanding and researching such concepts as ‘religion,’‘sacral space,’‘sacred vs. profane,’ etc.

Introductory level

Crapo, R. H. Anthropology of Religion: The Unity and Diversity of Religions. McGraw Hill. 2002.

Insoll, T. Archaeology, Ritual, Religion. Routledge Press. 2004.

Advanced level

Durkheim, E. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. London: George Allen &Linwin Ltd. 1954.

Eliade, M. The Sacred Space and the Profane: The Nature of Religion. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers. 1959.

Recommended for general audience

Website: Understanding the Sacred. http://www.bytrent.demon.co.uk/eliadesp01.html.

An interesting website that presents, summarizes, and discusses various approaches to understanding of the sacred.

3. First was the temple, then was the food…? The Neolithic Period and its sacral places

Focus: The transition from food gathering to food producing economies in the Neolithic Period has likely resulted in changes in ideological systems and selections as well as character of sacred spaces. ‘Is such a change reflected in archeological material’ becomes then a quite challenging question to modern archeologists.

Introductory level

Cauvin, J. The Birth of the Gods and the Origins of Agriculture. Cambridge University Press. 2003.

This is quite a controversial book that challenges conventional approaches to the understanding of the beginnings of agriculture and domestication of animals in the ancient Near East.

Curry, A. ‘Göbekli Tepe: The World’s First Temple?’ In Smithsonian Magazine. November 2008. Electronic version at http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history‐archaeology/gobekli‐tepe.html.

or

Scham, S. ‘The World’s First Temple.’ In Archaeology 61–6. 2008. Pp. 22–7.

Advanced level

Matthews, R. ‘Chapter 3. Tracking a transition: Hunters becoming farmers.’ In The Archaeology of Mesopotamia. Theories and Approaches. London & New York: Routledge. 2003. Pp. 67–92.

Kuijit, I. and M. S. Chesson: ‘Lumps of Clay and Pieces of Stone: Ambiguity, Bodies, and Identity as Portrayed in Neolithic Figurines.’ In S. Pollock and R. Bernbeck eds., Archaeologies of the Middle East. Critical Perspectives. Blackwell Publishing. 2005. Pp. 152–83.

This chapter demonstrates challenges and ‘options’ in interpreting figural representations of the Neolithic Period.

4. The temple and the state: temples as centers of collection and redistribution of wealth and ideology in ancient Mesopotamia

Focus: The most important part of any of Mesopotamian city was its temple or a sacral precinct in general. Its central physical location and organization reflected not only socioeconomic, ideological, and political views of ancient populations of the area but also a personal relationship both the elite and non‐elite had with their deities.

Introductory level

Collon, D. ‘Chapter 2. Temple, Cemetery and Palace: the 3rd millennium B.C.’ In Ancient Near Eastern Art. University of California Press. 1995. Pp. 56–89.

Mieroop, M. Van De. A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000–323 B.C. Blackwell Publishing. 2007.

Advanced level

Cohen, A. C. ‘Chapter 8. Conclusion: ED III Death Rituals as a Locus for Negotiating Power Relations.’ In Death Rituals, Ideology, and the Development of Early Mesopotamian Kingship. Toward a New Understanding of Iraq’s Royal Cemetery at Ur. Leiden: Brill. 2005. Pp. 147–56.

Quaegebeur, J., ed. Ritual and Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Orientalistiek. 1993.

Recommended for general audience

Wasilewska, E. Creation Stories of the Middle East. London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 2000.

This is a comprehensive introduction to ancient creation stories from the Near East that would aid a student in understanding dynamics between the divine and profane world in which the gods’ subjects lived.

5. And to the Afterlife they’ve gone…Archeology of death in ancient Egypt

Focus: While ancient Mesopotamians enjoyed their earthly lives to the fullest since there was so little to look forward after death, ancient Egyptians spent their lives on pleasing their deities and preparing themselves for an extended and better life after death. Thus, though official temple architecture was as important in Egypt as in Mesopotamia, the ancient Egyptian ‘obsession’ was with death and all challenges the deceased were to face after his/her mortal life came to the end.

Introductory level

Dunand, F. and Ch. Zivie‐Coche. Gods and Men in Egypt. 3000 B.C.E. to 395 C.E. Cornell University Press. 2004.

Dunand, F. and R. Lichtenberg. Mummies and Death in Egypt. Cornell University Press. 2006.

Advanced level

Dijk, J. Van. ‘Retainer Sacrifice in Egypt and in Nubia.’ In J. N. Bremmer, ed. The Strange World of Human Sacrifice. Leuven: Peeters. 2007. Pp. 135–55.

Recommended for general audience

Theban Mapping Project: http://www.thebanmappingproject.com/.

An excellent website focusing on the Theban necropolis including presentations of all tombs discovered in the famed Valley of the Kings and an extensive bibliography.

6. Of horses and chariots…Nomadic traditions and royal delivery: The Hittites of Anatolia

Focus: The Hittite empire that raised to its power in the second millennium B.C. was founded on nomadic traditions of the Indo‐European newcomers and sedentary ideals of the local populations of Anatolia preceding them. The result was a vast empire of religious tolerance and mixed traditions of the sacred: from monumental temples characterizing territorial empires of the time (e.g., Hattussas) and open‐air sanctuaries ranging from the official ones (Yazilikaya) to local markings known as the huwasi stones.

Introductory level

Gurney, O. R. Some Aspects of Hittite Religion. Oxford University Press. 1977.

Bryce, T. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. 2002.

Advanced level

Alexander, R. L. The Sculpture and Sculptors of Yazilikaya. Newark: University of Delaware Press. 1986.

Wasilewska, E. ‘Organization and Meaning of Sacred Space in Prehistoric Anatolia.’ In J. Quaegebeur (ed.), Ritual and Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Orientalistiek. 1993. Pp. 471–500.

Recommended for general audience

Macqueen, J. G. The Hittites and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor. Thames & Hudson. 2003.

7. The rise of Yahweh and ‘survival’ of Canaanite pluralism: inside the Old Testament and outside of material reality (‘pagan’ sanctuaries and practices)

Focus: Syria–Palestine witnessed first hand the transition from the so‐called polytheistic religions to the so‐called monotheism of the Old Testament. King Solomon’s temple was built on the foundations of mixed traditions of high places venerated by nomadic populations of the area and aspirations of its leaders to equal the splendor of its neighbors.

Introductory level

Ottosson, M. Temples and Cult Places in Palestine. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsalensis. 1980.

Sperling, S. D. ‘Monotheism and Ancient Israelite Religion.’ In D. C. Snell, ed. A Companion to the Ancient Near East. Blackwell Publishing. 2005.

Advanced level

Akkermans, M. M. G. & Schwartz, G. M. The Archaeology of Syria. From Complex Hunter‐Gatherers to Early Urban Societies (ca. 16,000–300 B.C.). Cambridge University Press. 2003.

Recommended for general audience

Yahya, A. H. ‘Archaeology and Nationalism in the Holy Land.’ In S. Pollock and R. Bernbeck, eds. Archaeologies of the Middle East. Critical Perspectives. Blackwell Publishing. 2005.

A very interesting article pointing out additional challenges archeologists face when working in Syria–Palestine.

8. The enigma of Iran: too many civilizations, much more to learn…

Focus: Iran might be the only country in the world that produced three early high civilizations (Elam, Jiroft and of the ‘Burnt City’) and two nomadic civilizations, the Medes and the Persians, whose rule encompassed much of the known ‘civilized’ world.

Consequently, selection of specific sacral spaces to discuss depends solely on an instructor. The options vary from the famous ziqqurats and temple arrangements rivaling their Mesopotamian counterparts to majestic and almost flawless structures erected under very efficiently organized administration of the Persian kings. Thus, the following is just a suggestion where to start with reviewing not easily available material on civilizations of this country.

Sources to consider at any level

Covington, R. ‘What Was Jiroft?’ In Saudi Aramco World. Vol. 55:5. Sep./Oct. 2004. Also online http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200405/what.was.jiroft.htm.

Curtis, J. E. and N. Tallis, eds. Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. 2005.

Potts, D. T. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge University Press. 1999.

For an introduction to the ‘Burnt City’ see http://www.presstv.ir/detail.aspx?id=5668&sectionid=351020108

Focus Questions

 Critically review the origin, development, and modern understanding of such concepts as ‘religion,’‘myth,’‘ritual,’‘sacred,’‘profane,’ etc. When studying various forms of religious behavior, focus on elements that might be recognized (traceable) in the archeological record and consequently interpreted with and/or without written records.

 Discuss which archeological approaches are the most beneficial for learning about ideological past of our ancestors. Is this even possible and, if so, in what manner?

 ‘Sacred vs. profane’ is a phrase that has a different meaning depending on a person who is using it. Review the origin of this phrase, its strengths and weaknesses, and applicability in interpretation of the archeological record.

 The discovery of Göbekli Tepe seems to force social scientists to revise their opinions about many different socioeconomic and ideological issues. Why?

 Review the main thesis of Cauvin’s book and explain main differences in his treatment of the Neolithic Revolution and ideological ‘awakening’ vs. more conservative and typical approaches used in archeology by the most scholars. Are his ideas more helpful or less helpful when recognizing and interpreting the sacred in prehistoric societies of the ancient Near East?

 Discuss the importance of religious centers (e.g. Uruk) for the development of the first urban centers in ancient Mesopotamia. What was their function and how were they maintained?

 Why the Royal Tombs at Ur are such an anomaly in view of what we have learned about ancient Sumerians from both archeological and written records?

 Discuss the double function royal tombs such as pyramids played in the religion of ancient Egyptians. Were royal tombs as important or less important as sacred spaces dedicated to deities sensu stricto?

 What are retainer sacrifices? What is their place and what role do they play in setting up and maintaining the sacred?

 Different modes of subsistence, different sacred… Review the so‐called open‐air sanctuaries, high places, etc. (Anatolia and Levant) to discuss choices of the sacred people made depending on their lifestyles (nomadic vs. sedentary societies).

 Using the material available from ancient Mesopotamia and Iran discuss the origin, functions, appearance, and importance of ziqqurats in the ancient world. What are similarities and/or differences between ziqqurats and Egyptian pyramids?

 Discuss definitions of monotheism, henotheism, and polytheism. How would you classify religions of the ancient Near East including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam?