bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Washington,George (1732–99)
Authors: Mayo‐Bobee Dinah
Published: May 2018

From 1789 through 1797, George Washington (1732–99) was first president of the United States under the new Constitution. He was responsible for establishing the State Department, appointing an effective secretary of state, staffing a new diplomatic corps, and building international alliances. The offices staffed and personnel Washington dispatched represented a restructured republic set to establish its place in the international community. Washington demonstrated his command of foreign policy while adhering to the congressional stipulations (Article 2, section 2) regarding appointments and treaty ratifications. Despite his prestige and talented appointments, Washington's neutrality during the Wars of the French Revolution and the treaty with the British ratified in 1795 stoked domestic divisions and hostility from France. As a result, Washington fostered a two‐party political system and initiated France's later declarations to attack US neutral shipping (French Spoliation). Nevertheless, by the time he left office Washington had clearly defined the role presidents would play in international diplomacy.
Wilson,Woodrow (1856–1924)
Authors: Wright Micah
Published: May 2018

Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924) was the twenty‐eighth president of the United States, who led the country during World War I. The architect of the League of Nations, Wilson is best remembered for popularizing the concepts of self‐determination and the rights of small nations. Paradoxically, he also repeatedly intervened in the internal affairs of other nations, from Mexico to Russia, and condescendingly pledged to teach Latin America to “elect good men.” Wilsonianism, though oftentimes erroneously interpreted, influenced US foreign policy for much of the twentieth century.
AbyssinianCrisis (1935)
Authors: Wright Owain
Published: May 2018

The Abyssinian Crisis resulted from fascist Italy's first foreign war. After thirteen years in power, Mussolini decided to expand the Italian Empire. Although this episode can be seen as a turning point in fascist foreign policy, it was simultaneously a resumption of Liberal Italy's policy of pursuing Great Power status by carving out an empire for itself in Africa. The war brought serious international tension to Europe, by challenging the authority of the League of Nations and revealing the ineffectiveness of that organization. The role played by Britain and France in seeking to resolve the crisis encouraged Mussolini to consider Nazi Germany as a potential ally. It also marked the beginning of a series of international events by which Hitler and Mussolini overturned the Versailles settlement that had established international peace at the end of the First World War, paving the way for the Second.
Acheson,DeanG. (1893–1971)
Authors: Hopkins Michael F.
Published: May 2018

Dean Acheson (1893–1971) was one of the most important figures in the foreign policy of the United States during a pivotal period in the nation's history. He wielded influence as assistant secretary of state (1941–45), under secretary of state (1945–49), secretary of state (1949–53), and as an unpaid consultant to presidents Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon (1961–71). He played the principal role during Truman's presidency in shaping US Cold War policy from the Truman Doctrine to the Marshall Plan, from NATO to the Korean War. Acheson offered robust advice on NATO, Berlin, and the Cuban Missile Crisis in the 1960s. But, in 1968, he forswore military action in Vietnam as a solution. Although a forceful advocate of powerful armed forces as an essential support for national policy, he recognized their limitations and the importance of a restrained sense of national priorities and adept use of diplomacy to achieve those goals.
Anglo‐German Naval Race
Authors: Menning Ralph
Published: May 2018

The pre‐World War I Anglo‐German naval rivalry can be seen variously as arms race, as refracting political culture, as newspaper histrionics and media feeding frenzy, as a morality play wherein larger‐than‐life personalities come to the defense of the homeland, as a chapter in the rise of the military‐industrial complex, as domestic crisis and exercise in transnational history, as a diplomatic issue figuring prominently in the origins of the First World War, or even as historiography.

The naval hysteria subsided after 1912, when it became clear that Britain would outbuild Germany; thus, the naval race was more an indirect than a direct cause of the First World War.
A
nnan,
K
ofi (1938–)
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

Kofi Annan (1938–) was the seventh United Nations secretary‐general, serving from 1997 to 2006. Prior to taking up the post he had been head of the UN's Department of Peacekeeping where he had something of a baptism of fire having experienced the Rwanda and Bosnian crises in the mid‐1990s. His first term as secretary‐general was marked by success as the UN launched a range of peacekeeping operations and Annan attempted to redefine the question of the UN's responsibility to intervene where states were persecuting their own people; for this he received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001. The second term was less successful, marred as it was by the poor relations between the UN and the US administration of President George W. Bush, the latter's war in Iraq, and its marginalizing of the organization. Throughout his two terms he sought to reform the UN and place it more centrally in the new post‐Cold War world.
C
rowe,
S
ir
E
yre (1864–1925)
Authors: Menning Ralph
Published: May 2018

After a thirty‐five‐year career in the British Foreign Office, Sir Eyre Crowe (1864–1925) in 1920 was appointed permanent under secretary and thus became its top‐ranking civil servant. He held that post until his death in 1925. Since the turn of the century, Crowe had been a close bystander and, increasingly, a participant in every major British foreign policy decision. While Crowe privately was critical of his superiors' administrative and organizational acumen, his political attitudes and his position on the issues of the day at first reflected, and, as his career progressed, shaped Foreign Office thinking.
Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907
Authors: Abbenhuis Maartje
Published: May 2018

The Hague Conferences, also known as the Hague Peace Conferences, of 1899 and 1907 were important multilateral conferences held to discuss common international concerns. They initiated several key developments in the codification of the law of war and neutrality and in the creation of an international judicial system. They established a mechanism by which arbitration could solve bilateral disputes. The conferences witnessed a change in global diplomacy through the inclusion of non‐European governments, heralding the end of the Congress of Europe. The two Hague conferences mark key characteristics of twentieth‐century diplomacy including: the involvement of non‐governmental and public activists in diplomacy, the use of multilateral forums and international organizations to conduct diplomacy, and the rising importance of international law in diplomacy. The conferences legitimized central topics for diplomatic negotiation including disarmament, arms' limitation, arbitration, neutrality, and the humanitarian conduct of war.
International Sanctions
Authors: Coates Benjamin A.
Published: May 2018

International sanctions are coercive measures used to compel others to change their behavior. Since the mid‐twentieth century international organizations like the United Nations have imposed sanctions to enforce international norms, while countries like the United States have deployed them unilaterally for strategic, humanitarian, and other reasons. Although most sanctions fail, they remain a frequently used and vital component of world order.
Lebanese Civil Wars (1958, 1975–90)
Authors: Fraser T. G.
Published: May 2018

The Lebanese civil war of 1958 was a relatively brief affair but nevertheless one that exposed the serious tensions that had rankled under the surface of the country almost from its inception. These tensions were to burst out again in 1975, heralding one of the bloodiest and most intractable civil conflicts of the post‐1945 era. The implications extended beyond Lebanon, affecting Syria, Israel, and the Palestinians. American, British, French, and Italian troops also became involved.
P
almerston,
L
ord (1784–1865)
Authors: Wright Owain
Published: May 2018

Viscount Palmerston (1784–1865), commonly styled Lord Palmerston, is one of the most controversial and enigmatic leaders in British parliamentary history. As foreign secretary and, later, as prime minister, he dominated British foreign policy at the peak of Britain's power, and during a time of considerable upheaval in European affairs. The traditional view of Palmerston is that of a conservative at home and a liberal abroad. Throughout his later career, he opposed pressure to extend further the electoral franchise and was unsympathetic towards Irish nationalism, yet he lent British support to various nationalist and revolutionary movements in continental Europe. His bullish determination to use force or the threat of force to protect British interests overseas and to preserve international peace was the definition of “gunboat diplomacy.”
Treaty ofSanFrancisco (1951)
Authors: Hopkins Michael F.
Published: May 2018

On September 8, 1951, forty‐nine countries signed the Japanese Peace Treaty and thereby ended World War II in Asia and the occupation of Japan. The American‐dominated settlement removed all of Japan's colonies, restored Japanese sovereignty, and ensured a continued US military presence. It achieved a central goal of the United States by securing the adherence of East Asia's strongest economy to the American camp in the Cold War.
Chivalry and Diplomacy
Authors: Huffman Joseph P.
Published: May 2018

The confluence of chivalric culture and diplomacy found its fullest and most mature expression during the period of the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), in which the forms, ideals, and institutions of chivalry were employed in new ways to serve princely and seigneurial diplomatic goals. Armorial heralds emerged as diplomatic couriers with immunity from violence, chivalric orders were created not merely as cultural expressions of chivalric domestic politics and propaganda, but also as extensions of princely diplomacy, and a kind of pan‐European notion of chivalric fraternity among noblemen developed that mitigated (at least for the nobility) the brutalities of warfare through agreed‐upon protocols for the treatment of aristocratic military leaders and their ransom. From the legal principles of diplomatic immunity and the humane treatment of prisoners of war to international orders of honor (e.g., French Legion of Honor and the Charlemagne Prize), these forms of modern diplomacy all originated in the honor code of medieval chivalry.
DeGaulle,Charles (1890–1970)
Authors: Mangold Peter
Published: May 2018

General Charles de Gaulle (1890–1970) was a French soldier who played a key role in French politics during and after the Second World War. As leader of the Free French movement during the war he had difficult relations with his British and American allies. As French premier and president from 1958 to 1969, he pursued an independent, often maverick foreign policy aimed at restoring France's independence and its status as a Great Power lost in the defeat of 1940.
Diplomatic Immunity/Privilege
Authors: Frey Linda S. , Frey Marsha L.
Published: May 2018

Diplomatic immunity is the protection accorded to a recognized foreign representative in the country to which he is accredited. In contrast, diplomatic privileges are courtesies extended to such individuals. Both immunities and courtesies are often extended, though usually limited, to members of the envoy's family and entourage. From ancient times to the present many civilizations have respected the inviolability of envoys. Necessity forced most cultures to accord envoys basic protections because only then was intercourse between peoples possible. Rooted in necessity, immunity was buttressed by religion, sanctioned by custom, and fortified by reciprocity. As the essential foundations of immunity shifted from religious to legal, what had once been an expedient became over time a precedent. Courtesies hardened and over time became “rights.” When expedients evolved into “precedents” and earlier courtesies into “rights,” the issue of whether and under what circumstances envoys were entitled to immunity became a legal one. Ultimately, national laws and international treaties codified these privileges.
Diplomatic Recognition
Authors: Carroll Francis M.
Published: May 2018

Diplomatic recognition is the public acknowledgment by one sovereign and independent state of the existence of another sovereign and independent state. Recognition is voluntary and is largely a political decision, although it has ramifications in international law. Both states accept the duties, responsibilities, and privileges embraced in the treaty obligations codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961). Recognition of the state is regarded as permanent; recognition of the government may change with differing circumstances. Turbulent events that change the form of government may cause the sending country to reconsider recognition of the receiving state by withholding recognition or extending conditional recognition until such time as the sending state is satisfied that the receiving state meets its specific requirements. International law does not speak to the correctness or legality of any form of changed government. Many countries refuse to address the question of the form of government of the receiving state and consider primarily the extent to which the receiving state exercises effective control over its territory. The objective of diplomatic recognition is the establishment of effective relations between two countries.
Grotius,Hugo (1583–1645)
Authors: Thomson Erik
Published: May 2018

Hugo Grotius (1583–1645), the Latin form of Huig de Groot, was a statesman, jurist, diplomat, and theologian during the early seventeenth century. His works have had a lasting influence, both on debates about the freedom of the seas and trade, and about the laws of war and peace.
I
tō
H
irobumi (1841–1909)
Authors: Boyd James
Published: May 2018

Itō Hirobumi (1841–1909) cast a long shadow over modern Japan's diplomatic history. Among his many achievements are that he was the principal architect of Japan's first constitution, served as prime minister on four separate occasions, and steered Japan through its reintegration into the larger diplomatic community following the diplomatic isolation of the Tokugawa Shogunate.
I
wakura
M
ission (1871–73)
Authors: Boyd James
Published: May 2018

When Japan was forced from nearly two‐and‐a‐half centuries of self‐imposed isolation in 1853 the country found that the world had changed dramatically. The fledgling Meiji government soon realized that to survive it would need to modernize and to modernize it needed to learn from the West. In December 1871 the government dispatched the Iwakura Mission on an eighteen‐month embassy to the United States and Europe. The mission paid goodwill visits to the countries with which the Meiji government had concluded treaties of friendship and commerce. One objective was to enable Japan to determine how the provisions of these treaties of friendship, which were often skewed against Japan, might be revised to be more equitable. Another objective was to examine Western society and determine what Japan could learn to speed the process of modernization. While the mission was unsuccessful with the first objective, its examination of Western society shaped government policy for the remainder of the Meiji era and beyond.
K
ellogg–
B
riand
P
act (1928)
Authors: Carroll Francis M.
Published: May 2018

The Kellogg–Briand Pact was signed in Paris on August 27, 1928. Fifteen nations agreed to renounce war “as an instrument of national policy,” and to settle all disputes by “pacific means.” Eventually most of the international community committed themselves by treaty to the principle of making war illegal. United States Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg was given the Nobel Peace Prize for 1929 for his part in drafting the treaty. The treaty was regarded by many as the beginning of a new era of permanent peace.
K
hrushchev,
N
ikita (1894–1971)
Authors: Stanke Jaclyn
Published: May 2018

Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) led the Soviet Union as first secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) from 1953 to 1964 and chairman of the Council of Ministers from 1958 to 1964. During his years in power he sought détente with the West, as well as recognition from the West of the Soviet Union's superpower status. In addition, he worked to expand Soviet influence around the world, particularly in the developing world, and vied for leadership of international communism with Mao Zedong, the leader of Communist China. The blusterous and crude Khrushchev advanced bold, though not always well‐thought‐out, policies that often resulted in not only the opposite of what he hoped to achieve, but also the intensification of the Cold War. For these reasons, members of the CPSU Politburo removed him from power in 1964.
Nazi–Soviet Pact (1939)
Authors: Stone Glyn
Published: May 2018

The Nazi–Soviet Pact was a neutrality pact signed on August 23, 1939. Attached was a secret protocol delineating the spheres of influence in Eastern Europe (Poland, the Baltic States, Bessarabia) of the two powers. The pact, which was made despite clear ideological differences, ended the prospects of a triple alliance between Britain, France, and the Soviet Union and ensured that Germany would be able to fight a short, localized, one‐front war over Poland. In addition to the pact itself, a mutually beneficial Credit and Trade Agreement had been signed two days previously. By making the pact, the Soviet Union bought time to continue with rearmament and reconstruction of their armed forces, acquired strategically significant territory, improved their prospects for a rapprochement with Japan, and possibly also for the advancement of Soviet communism as the result of an imperialist war fought by the advanced capitalist powers.
Peace ofAugsburg (1555)
Authors: Riches Daniel L.
Published: May 2018

The onset of the Protestant Reformation in the 1520s ignited a crisis in the Holy Roman Empire. As religious unity remained the recognized foundation of social and political harmony, the rise of religious divisions in the realm threatened to bring chaos, disunity, and bloodshed – fears that appeared to be confirmed by the outbreak of substantial armed conflict in the empire between 1546 and 1554. The Peace of Augsburg (1555) was the empire's most concerted effort to date to address the challenges posed by the Protestant Reformation to the maintenance of public order, and it did so by establishing a purely legal means of peacefully managing religious difference. The peace made no efforts to heal the religious rift but rather bracketed it entirely as a separate matter to be dealt with elsewhere. In so doing it produced a novel approach to peacemaking that brought stability to the empire for over sixty years.
PhilipII(1527–98)
Authors: Levin Michael J.
Published: May 2018

Philip II of Spain (1527–98) was one of the most powerful monarchs of early modern Europe, and arguably the first to rule a world empire. Through a combination of colonization, military conquest, and marriage diplomacy, Spain reached the height of its power during Philip's reign. Philip's political and religious policies, however, led directly to many wars (including wars against France, England, the Ottoman Turks, and the Eighty Years' War fought in the Netherlands). This near‐constant state of war was extremely costly, and many historians date the beginning of the decline of Spain to this period.
Ranke,Leopoldvon(1795–1886)
Authors: Riches Daniel L.
Published: May 2018

Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886) was a nineteenth‐century German historian and one of the founding fathers of the modern, professional study of history. His extensive use of diplomatic sources and belief in the primacy of foreign policy established him as one of the most important figures in the development of diplomatic history as a field. Ranke saw states as the prime movers of historical change, and believed that the systematic and critical study of diplomatic sources offered a privileged window into the state activities that should serve as the central objects of historical study. His own voluminous writings, as well as his pedagogical innovations in training generations of young historians during his long career at the University of Berlin (1824–71) to center their studies on state documents housed in state archives, contributed significantly to ensuring diplomatic history a central place in the developing historical profession.
Treaty of Nijmegen (1678–79)
Authors: Onnekink David
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Nijmegen (1678–79) concluded the Franco‐Dutch War that had begun in 1672 and involved France, the Dutch Republic, the Holy Roman Empire, Brandenburg, Denmark, Münster, and Sweden. It marked a high point of French power in Europe, giving France a strong and defensible border on the north as well as Franche‐Comté. It may be regarded in the context of the ongoing struggle for dominion between France and the Habsburgs that was ultimately decided with the Peace of Utrecht in 1713.
USCivil War (1861–65)
Authors: Carroll Francis M.
Published: May 2018

The secession of the eleven Southern states from the Federal Union of the United States in 1860 and 1861 led to the American Civil War and created a very complicated international situation. The primary objective foreign policy of the Union government was to prevent the European powers from extending diplomatic recognition or opening trade relations with the Confederacy, while the Southern government worked to obtain diplomatic recognition, purchase needed military supplies, and acquire ships from Europe for its navy. Periodic crises emerged over theTrentaffair, the building of Confederate ships in British shipyards, France's incursions into Mexico, and hostile Confederate activities based in British North America. When the Civil War finally ended in April of 1865, relations between the United States and Britain and France were strained but hostilities had been avoided.
Demosthenes (384–322bce)
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav
Published: May 2018

Arguably the best ancient Greek orator ever, and the most influential Athenian politician and diplomat of his time, Demosthenes (384–322bce) personified the Greek resistance to the establishment of Macedonian domination over the Greek world. His death, together with the death of Alexander III (the Great), marked the end of classical Greek civilization. Later rhetorical tradition idealized the image of Demosthenes, as opposed to a much more critical view by contemporaries and in historical accounts.
Treaty of
V
ervins (1598)
Authors: Lesaffer Randall
Published: May 2018

On May 2, 1598, the Treaty of Vervins ended the war between France and Spain which had formally started with the French declaration of war of January 17, 1595. This open rupture had only signaled the start of the final phase of the Spanish intervention in the French Wars of Religion, which dated back to the 1560s. Just weeks before the peace was signed, Henri IV sealed a compromise with the French Huguenots through the Edict of Nantes and secured the end of religious war in France. With the Treaty of Vervins, the French king, now a Catholic but formerly the leader of the Huguenot faction, achieved the recognition of his regime by the foremost Catholic prince, Philip II of Spain. For the latter, Vervins was a crucial step towards disengaging the exhausted Spanish monarchy from its triple war against Protestantism in the north. The process of pacification was eventually completed by the Peace of London (1604) with the British monarchy and the Twelve Years' Truce (1609–21) with the republic.
Pozzodi Borgo,CarloAndrea (1764–1842)
Authors: Cahen Raphaël
Published: May 2018

Carlo Andrea Pozzo di Borgo (1764–1842) was a Corsican opponent of Napoleon and an important diplomat in the service of the Russian Empire. After working closely with the tsar during the French campaign of 1814 he became the long‐time (twenty‐one years) ambassador of Russia in France.
Late AntiqueEastRoman Diplomacy
Authors: Nechaeva Ekaterina
Published: May 2018

Late antique diplomacy was a complex system of methods and instruments, governed by elaborate protocol, rich in ceremony, and based on a strict hierarchy of partners and adversaries. While the decision‐making power mainly belonged to the emperor, diplomatic communication was mostly indirect, mediated by traveling embassies. High‐level negotiations were split into several phases and organized in series (“blocks”) of exchanged embassies. The system of gift exchange functioned in accordance with the “block” principle of embassy exchange. Gifts were perceived as indicators of the status and prestige of diplomatic partners. Mistakes in gift‐distribution could lead to international conflicts. Diplomatic inviolability was not always respected, while diplomatic missions often involved long and dangerous journeys which, however, provided an ideal cover for intelligence‐gathering. Clandestine diplomacy complemented official diplomacy.
International Arbitration
Authors: Harris Steve
Published: May 2018

Public international arbitration – as an alternative to diplomacy or war – was a significant component of international relations in the nineteenth century, although it has both ancient roots and a contemporary practice. From 1794 to World War I, there were over 1000 arbitration agreements that addressed political and economic disputes and relationships involving virtually every country. Now primarily seen as an early form of international adjudication, public international arbitration has also contributed to international organization and was part of the implementation of major diplomatic conferences. Despite its avid promotion by peace advocates, arbitration never prevented a war. Nonetheless, it was a regular and valuable tool for states to resolve disputes and manage their relationships.
Zn‐Catalyzed Diastereo‐ and Enantioselective Dearomative [3+2] Cycloaddition Reaction of 2‐Nitroindoles and 2‐Nitrobenzothiophenes
Authors: Zhao Jian‐Qiang , Zhou Xiao‐Jian , Chen Yong‐Zheng , Xu Xiao‐Ying , Zhang Xiao‐Mei , Yuan Wei‐Cheng
Published: May 2018

An efficient asymmetric dearomative [3+2] cycloaddition reaction of 2‐nitroindoles and 2‐nitrobenzothiophenes with 3‐isothiocyanato oxindoles was developed by using a chiral Zn(OTf)2/bis(oxazoline) complex as a catalyst. With the developed protocol, a range of enantioenriched complex heterocyclic compounds containing three contiguous stereocenters, one of which is spirocyclic center, could be obtained in quantitative yields with excellent diastereo‐ and enantioselectivities. The potential utility of this method was showcased by the diverse transformations of the products.

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Boronsäuren als bioorthogonale Sonden für zentrenselektives Protein‐Labeling
Authors: Akgun Burcin , Hall Dennis G.
Published: May 2018

In den vergangenen zwei Jahrzehnten hat sich die bioorthogonale Chemie zu einem beliebten Hilfsmittel entwickelt, um zentrenselektive Modifikationen an Proteinen zu erzielen. Dennoch sind nur einige wenige bioorthogonale Reaktionen bekannt, die zudem Limitierungen aufweisen können, wie etwa geringe Reaktionsgeschwindigkeiten, die Verwendung instabiler oder zytotoxischer Reagenzien und das Auftreten von Nebenreaktionen. Folglich besteht ein großes Interesse an der Erweiterung der Methodik in der bioorthogonalen Chemie. In diesem Zusammenhang wurden kürzlich Boronsäuren in den Bereich der bioorthogonalen Chemie eingeführt, welche in drei verschiedenen Strategien zum Einsatz kommen: 1) Bildung eines Boronsäureesters zwischen der Boronsäure und einem 1,2‐cis‐Diol; 2) Bildung eines Iminoboronates zwischen 2‐Acetyl‐/Formyl‐Arylboronsäure und Hydrazin‐/Hydroxylamin‐/Semicarbazid‐Derivaten; 3) Verwendung einer Boronsäure als Transfergruppe in einer Suzuki‐Miyaura‐Kreuzkupplung oder einer anderen Reaktion, in deren Verlauf die Boronylgruppe das Intermediat verlässt. In diesem Aufsatz fassen wir die Fortschritte der Anwendung von Boronsäuren in der bioorthogonalen Chemie zusammen, welche das zentrenspezifische Labeling von Proteinen ermöglicht, und vergleichen diese Methoden mit den gängigsten bioorthogonalen Reaktionen.
Highly Luminescent Inks: Aggregation‐Induced Emission of Copper–Iodine Hybrid Clusters
Authors: Chen Chen , Li Rui‐Han , Zhu Bai‐Sheng , Wang Kun‐Hua , Yao Ji‐Song , Yin Yi‐Chen , Yao Ming‐Ming , Yao Hong‐Bin , Yu Shu‐Hong
Published: May 2018

Aggregation‐induced emission (AIE) is an attractive phenomenon in which materials display strong luminescence in the aggregated solid states rather than in the conventional dissolved molecular states. However, highly luminescent inks based on AIE are hard to be obtained because of the difficulty in finely controlling the crystallinity of AIE materials at nanoscale. Herein, we report the preparation of highly luminescent inks via oil‐in‐water microemulsion induced aggregation of Cu–I hybrid clusters based on the highly soluble copper iodide‐tris(3‐methylphenyl)phosphine (Cu4I4(P‐(m‐Tol)3)4) hybrid. Furthermore, we can synthesize a series of AIE inks with different light‐emission colors to cover the whole visible spectrum range via a facile ligand exchange processes. The assemblies of Cu–I hybrid clusters with AIE characteristics will pave the way to fabricate low‐cost highly luminescent inks.
Dissecting the conformational determinants of chitosan and chitlac oligomers
Authors: Esteban Carmen , Donati Ivan , Pantano Sergio , Villegas Myriam , Benegas Julio , Paoletti Sergio
Published: May 2018

Chitosan and its highly hydrophilic 1‐deoxy‐lactit‐1‐yl derivative (Chitlac) are polysaccharides with increasing biomedical applications. Aimed to unravel their conformational properties we have performed a series of molecular dynamics simulations of Chitosan/Chitlac decamers, exploring different degrees of substitution (DS) of lactitol side chains. At low DS, two conformational regions with different populations are visited, while for DS ≥ 20% the oligomers remain mostly linear and only one main region of the glycosidic angles is sampled. These conformers are (locally) characterized by extended helical “propensities”. Helical conformations 32 and 21, by far the most abundant, only develop in the main region. The accessible conformational space is clearly enlarged at high ionic strength, evidencing also a new region accessible to the glycosidic angles, with short and frequent interchange between regions. Simulations of neutral decamers share these features, pointing to a central role of electrostatic repulsion between charged moieties. These interactions seem to determine the conformational behavior of the chitosan backbone, with no evident influence of H‐bond interactions. Finally, it is also shown that increasing temperature only slightly enlarges the available conformational space, but certainly without signs of a temperature‐induced conformational transition.
Agglomeration Dynamics of Magnetite Nanoparticles at Low Magnetic Field Gradient
Authors: Jin Daeseong , Kim Hackjin
Published: May 2018

Agglomeration of magnetite nanoparticles in the aqueous solution is studied at the low magnetic field gradients of 23–34 T/m by monitoring the temporal change of magnetic weight. A conventional electronic balance is used to measure the magnetic weight that is the magnetic force on the magnetic sample by the magnetic field gradient. The magnetic weight grows slowly following the stretched exponential after the instantaneous jump by the Neel and Brown relaxation. Magnetization of the magnetite nanoparticles is estimated from the magnetic weight and compared with the Langevin function. The magnetization is close to the saturation in the studied magnetic field range and the saturation magnetization of the agglomerate of nanoparticles is about 60% of that of the bulk magnetite. Kinetic parameters of the stretched exponential show little the magnetic field dependence in the investigated range. Complex energy landscape is involved in the agglomeration as the stretched exponential dynamics indicates. The half‐life of the response function for the magnetic weight change suggests that the pathways of low energy barriers are activated by magnetic field at the early stage of agglomeration.
Simultaneous determination of multicomponent of acetylkitasamycin and kitasamycin by LC–MS/MS in swine plasma and its application in a pharmacokinetic study
Authors: Pan Yuanhu , Zhang Heying , Xi Chenglong , Huang Lingli , Xie Shuyu , Chen Dongmei , Tao Yanfei , Liu Zhenli , Yuan Zonghui
Published: May 2018

A simple and reliable LC–MS/MS method was established for simultaneous determination of 12 components from acetylkitasamycin and kitasamycin in swine plasma. The analytes were separated on a Shim‐pack VP‐ODS column with a 25 min gradient elution using 5 mmol/L ammonium acetate and acetonitrile as the mobile phase at a flow rate of 0.2 mL/min. Identification and quantification were accomplished by electrospray ionization) in positive mode using multiple reaction monitoring. The limits of quantitation of acetylkitasamycin A1A3, A13 and kitasamycin A3, A13 were 3 μg/L, and that of the other eight components was 5 μg/L. The mean recoveries of kitasamycin and acetylkitasamycin ranged from 85.3 to 103.5%. The developed method was successfully applied to a pharmacokinetic study in swine after intravenous (i.v.) and oral (p.o.) administration of acetylkitasamycin. The result showed that the plasma concentrations of acetylkitsamycin components were much higher than that of kitasamycin in swine after i.v. and p.o., in which acetylkitsamycin A4A5 was the highest component at each time point.
Liquid chromatographic–tandem mass spectrometry assay for the quantification of MDT‐637 in human nasal wash
Authors: Karnik Shane C. , Cook Robert , Gorman Steve H. , Bakhtiar Ray
Published: May 2018

MDT‐637 is a new chemical entity that shows potent and selective antiviral activity against respiratory syncytial virus. As part of the new drug development program, a method for quantitating MDT‐637 in nasal wash collected from human subjects was required. This article describes the method development and validation and application of a bioanalytical assay for MDT‐637 in human nasal wash using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Sample pretreatment utilized supported liquid extraction and final extracts were injected onto an Agilent Poroshell 120 EC‐C18 column and eluted under isocratic conditions of 65:35 (v/v) 10 mm ammonium formate in water and acetonitrile Detection was performed on an API 5000 tandem mass spectrometer operating in negative electrospray ionization mode applying multiple reaction monitoring. The assay was validated in accordance with the US Food and Drug Administration guidance on bioanalytical method validation and was applied in support of a Phase IIa human safety and tolerability study.
External involvement and green product innovation: The moderating role of environmental uncertainty
Authors: Zhao Yunhui , Feng Taiwen , Shi Hongbo
Published: May 2018

Although the importance of external involvement has been recognized, under what conditions it is more effective is still unclear. To address this research gap, this study explores the moderating roles of three dimensions of environmental uncertainty on the relationship between external involvement and green product innovation based on contingency theory and organizational information processing theory. We examine the research hypotheses employing survey data collected from 198 Chinese manufacturing firms and using hierarchical moderated regression analyses. The results indicate that both customer involvement and supplier involvement have positive effects on green product innovation. Technological uncertainty strengthens the effects of customer involvement and supplier involvement on green product innovation. However, demand uncertainty fails to moderate the relationship between customer involvement and green product innovation, and supply uncertainty fails to moderate the relationship between supplier involvement and green product innovation. This study provides novel and fruitful research avenues for stakeholder involvement and suggests future directions.
How past decisions affect future behavior on eco‐innovation: An empirical study
Authors: Peiró-Signes Ángel , Segarra-Oña Marival
Published: May 2018

The environment is increasingly gaining importance for citizens and society and, therefore, for consumers. Eco‐innovation is a direct path for reducing the impact of production while providing companies with a source of competitive advantage. The automotive industry and its supply chain have a great impact on the environment, but no research has been developed on how the orientation toward the environment is evolving for the automotive industry and how future performance may be affected by current decisions. The aim of this paper is to bridge this gap by analyzing the eco‐innovative dynamism of the automobile industry. To do this, we use a panel analysis to see the point at which past behavior influences future decisions. The partial least square method is used to analyze the eco‐innovative dynamism of the automobile industry. We analyze a data set based on 159 responses of Spanish companies that belong to the automobile sector. Results show that environmental orientation drivers do not evolve over a short period while in the longer term there is an evolution. We prove that carryover effects have a great impact on the future behavior of the firms, showing that the evolution of organizations' environmental behavior is a long‐range consideration. Managerial implications arise from this paper's conclusions, as the decision‐making process is clarified.
Teaching arc‐length continuation in the chemical engineering graduate program using MATLAB©
Authors: Al‐Mubaiyedh Usamah A. , Binous Housam
Published: May 2018

We present the solution of six problems drawn from the chemical engineering and applied mathematics fields of study. These problems are solved using the arc‐length continuation method. Among a large number of examples, we have chosen to treat the following case studies because they illustrate basic concepts such as solution multiplicity when dealing with systems of nonlinear algebraic equations or boundary value problems: 1) Plotting an ∞‐shaped curve called the Bernoulli's Lemniscate; 2) Computing the Joule‐Thomson inversion curve for a pure gas using the Soave‐Redlich‐Kwong cubic equation of state; 3) Predicting the Compressibility Factor and Molar Volume versus the Reduced Temperature; 4) Determining region where steady‐state multiplicity is observed in a continuous stirred‐tank reactor (CSTR) with multiple reactions and heat effects; 5) Finding the steady‐state temperature and conversion of a Propylene Glycol Reactor; and 6) Investigating the Frank–Kamenetskii problem arising in the self‐heating of a reactive solid. Reader should be advised that problem 1 may seem slightly mathematical in nature. However, case studies 2–6 could be very useful to instructors involved in teaching not only numerical methods but also chemical thermodynamics and chemical reaction engineering. For one of the above listed case studies, we unveil the MATLAB© code, that we have employed, in the Appendix. In addition, we will emphasize on the versatility of this mathematical software through the extensive usage of the built‐in command fsolve, for the presently undertaken computations. Finally, we conclude this paper by sharing our experience teaching this subject to graduate students at King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals.
The role of shared social identity in mutual support among refugees of conflict: An ethnographic study of Syrian refugees in Jordan
Authors: Alfadhli Khalifah , Drury John
Published: May 2018

In the midst of an unprecedented refugee crisis and the shortfall of aid organization resources, a shift toward utilizing the capacity for collective resilience in refugee communities could be helpful. This paper explores experiences of psychosocial social support among a community of Syrian urban refugees in Jordan, especially the kind of support that helps them deal with secondary stressors. We were specifically interested in the role of shared social identity as a basis of support and the sources of such shared identity. We conducted an 8‐month ethnography that included observations and semistructured interviews with 13 refugees. We found many examples of support among refugees, on both personal and collective levels. Some of this support was based on sharing the identity of “refugee” that stemmed from a sense of common fate. This is similar to the process identified in the literature on disasters. Psychological membership in the refugee group is stigmatic, but it can also lead to positive outcomes in line with the social cure perspective. However, we also found examples of support that were value‐based or based on pre‐existing interpersonal networks. Implications of the findings for models of group processes in stressful situations and the practical question of refugee support are discussed.
Insights from Computations on the Mechanism of Reduction by Ascorbic Acid of PtIV Prodrugs with Asplatin and Its Chlorido and Bromido Analogues as Model Systems
Authors: Ponte Fortuna , Russo Nino , Sicilia Emilia
Published: May 2018

The elucidation of the mechanism by which the reduction of coordinatively saturated PtIV prodrugs occurs, leading to the release of the two axial ligands, is of foremost importance, being the key step for the activation of these anticancer compounds, and addressing their synthetic strategies. A systematic DFT computational analysis of the reduction process by small biomolecules, which is supposed to occur by inner‐ or outer‐sphere electron‐transfer mechanisms, has been undertaken using the recently synthesised Asplatin PtIV complex, c,c,t‐[PtCl2(NH3)2(OH)(aspirin)], as model system and l‐ascorbic acid as reducing agent. Further calculations have been carried out on Asplatin analogues that should be obtained replacing the OH− ligand with Cl− and Br−. The most accredited inner‐sphere mechanistic suggestions have been explored and a recently proposed computational methodology has been applied to estimate the corresponding standard redox potentials, which cannot be directly obtained from voltammetric experiments due to the irreversibility of the platinum(IV)‐to‐platinum(II) reduction process.
Multiple Hydrogen‐Bond Activation in Asymmetric Brønsted Acid Catalysis
Authors: Liao Hsuan‐Hung , Hsiao Chien‐Chi , Atodiresei Iuliana , Rueping Magnus
Published: May 2018

An efficient protocol for the asymmetric synthesis of chiral tetrahydroquinolines bearing multiple stereogenic centers by means of asymmetric Brønsted acid catalysis was developed. A chiral 1,1′‐spirobiindane‐7,7′‐diol (SPINOL)‐based N‐triflylphosphoramide (NTPA) proved to be an effective Brønsted acid catalyst for the in situ generation of aza‐ortho‐quinone methides (aza‐o‐QMs) and their subsequent cycloaddition reaction with unactivated alkenes to provide the products with excellent diastereo‐ and enantioselectivities. In addition, DFT calculations provided insight into the activation mode and nature of the interactions between the N‐triflylphosphoramide catalyst and the generated aza‐o‐QMs.
Assembly of ZIF‐67 Metal–Organic Framework over Tin Oxide Nanoparticles for Synergistic Chemiresistive CO2 Gas Sensing
Authors: DMello Marilyn Esclance , Sundaram Nalini G. , Kalidindi Suresh Babu
Published: May 2018

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are widely known for their record storage capacities of small gas molecules (H2, CO2, and CH4). Assembly of such porous materials onto well‐known chemiresistive gas sensing elements such as SnO2 could be an attractive prospect to achieve novel sensing properties as this affects the surface chemistry of SnO2. Cobalt‐imidazole based ZIF‐67 MOF was grown onto preformed SnO2 nanoparticles to realize core–shell like architecture and explored for greenhouse gas CO2 sensing. CO2 sensing over SnO2 is a challenge because its interaction with SnO2 surface is minimal. The ZIF‐67 coating over SnO2 improved the response of SnO2 up to 12‐fold (for 50 % CO2). The SnO2@ZIF‐67 also showed a response of 16.5±2.1 % for 5000 ppm CO2 (threshold limit value (TLV)) at 205 °C, one of the best values reported for a SnO2‐based sensor. The observed novel CO2 sensing characteristics are assigned to electronic structure changes at the interface of ZIF‐67 and SnO2.
Pentafluoroethylated Compounds of Silicon, Germanium and Tin
Authors: Wiesemann Markus , Hoge Berthold
Published: May 2018

In this contribution we present an account on pentafluoroethylated compounds of silicon, germanium and tin. The pronounced electron‐withdrawing effect of the pentafluoroethyl group leads to a markedly increased Lewis acidity at the central atom which results in the stabilization of hypervalent complexes, anionic element(II) species as well as remarkable reactivities of element‐element and element‐hydrogen bonds. By addition to unsaturated C−C bonds or by reaction with organic halides as well as transition‐metal complexes the molecules bearing a pentafluoroethyl‐element group are readily accessible. Moreover, the utilization of pentafluoroethyl groups facilitates the formation of donor‐stabilized germylenes and stannylenes. A series of such compounds serves as suitable pentafluoroethylation reagents. Conversely to the well‐studied trifluoromethyl derivatives these compounds frequently exhibit a higher thermostability, which allows a more convenient handling.
A Magnetic Chameleon: Biocompatible Lanthanide Fluoride Nanoparticles with Magnetic Field Dependent Tunable Contrast Properties as a Versatile Contrast Agent for Low to Ultrahigh Field MRI and Optical Imaging in Biological Window
Authors: Biju Silvanose , Gallo Juan , Bañobre‐López M. , Manshian Bella B. , Soenen Stefaan J. , Himmelreich Uwe , Vander Elst Luce , Parac‐Vogt Tatjana N.
Published: May 2018

Invited for the cover of this issue is the group of Tatjana N. Parac‐Vogt at the University of KU Leuven. The image depicts the chameleonic nature of the nanoparticle contrast agent, in response to external stimuli. Read the full text of the article at 10.1002/chem.201800283.
Non‐Covalent Interactions of a Neuroprotective Peptide Revealed by Photodissociative Cross‐Linking in the Gas Phase
Authors: Liu Yang , Ramey Zachary , Tureček František
Published: May 2018

The small neuroprotective peptide Cys‐Ala‐Gln‐Lys (CAQK) was selectively tagged with a diazirine group and its photochemical cross‐linking was studied with model target peptides. Experimental results in combination with Born–Oppenheimer molecular dynamics revealed the structural preferences for binding to the amino acid residues in the target peptides. Effects of the target peptide sequence and N‐ and C‐terminal modifications are discussed.
Intercepting a Transient Phosphino‐Arsinidene
Authors: Hinz Alexander , Hansmann Max M. , Bertrand Guy , Goicoechea Jose M.
Published: May 2018

A phosphino‐arsinidene derived from a diazaphospholidine scaffold (Ar**NCH2)2PAs (where Ar**=2,6‐bis[(4‐tert‐butylphenyl)methyl]‐4‐methylphenyl) was generated in situ and trapped with a range of reagents. Metathesis reactions between (Ar**NCH2)2PCl and either [Na(18‐crown‐6)][AsCO] or [Na(dioxane)x][AsCO] are believed to afford an arsaketene, (Ar**NCH2)2PAsCO, which readily loses carbon monoxide under ambient conditions. The resulting transient arsinidene was shown to undergo cycloaddition reactions with excess AsCO−, but can be stabilised in the presence of Lewis bases. It displays contrasting reactivity from a previously reported phosphino‐phosphinidene. With isonitriles, rearrangements occur, however with PPh3 a phosphine‐stabilised arsinidene could be isolated and used for subsequent reactivity studies. This species was found to be a suitable starting material for a transition metal complex of the phosphino‐arsinidene, in which the P−As moiety coordinates side‐on to the metal centre.