bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Scandal
Authors: Banerjee Mukulika
Published: October 2021

Chapter 3 presents the first of the four “events” presented in this book. It outlines the happenings of a “scandal” that was caused by the Comrade’s intervention in a sexual affair between two youngsters in the village. The analysis shows how resolving the scandal required members of Madanpur and Chishti to draw on ties of friendship, kinship, party loyalty, and marriage to counter the vile machinations of the Comrade’s politics. It shows how this process taught them something of the art of politics that required them to put aside differences and learn to accommodate a diversity of opinion in order to create new solidarities. This unprecedented unity sowed the seeds of the emergence of a rival political party in the village, the fruits of which were harvested only a decade later. Victor Turner’s model of the “social drama” is utilized, as is Max Gluckman’s work on “gossip.”
Harvest
Authors: Banerjee Mukulika
Published: October 2021

The second event of the book—a paddy harvest—is presented in Chapter 4. Such an event encapsulates within it a number of dynamics, between landowners and workers, between members of the agricultural unions and others, and between the Comrade and the rest of the village. The examination of the minutiae of one particular harvest lays bare these dynamics and the importance of the legacy of a violent land reform movement in the 1980s that effected radical change. Such an analysis of the division of labor during a harvest allows for some new conclusions to be gained about cooperation and solidarity that emerge despite deep caste and class divisions. The account also shows how prayer meetings in the evenings for the holy month of Ramzan that happened to coincide with the harvest one year allowed for public and social expression of these newly forged solidarities.
Election
Authors: Banerjee Mukulika
Published: October 2021

Chapter 6 presents the final “event” of the book: an election. The analysis moves between the macro level of the region and the micro level of village-based electoral dynamics. The argument states that big electoral stories, such as the routing of the Left Front after thirty-four years can be explained only by studying processes at the local level. The chapter reintroduces the cast of characters from the first event, the Scandal, and it shows how a painstaking process over a dozen years turned a scratchy coalition of beleaguered opponents of the Comrade into a powerful opposition party. The formidable machinery of election campaigns, hustings, and a network of campaigners is studied in detail over nine different elections covered by this book. Vast public rallies, door-to-door campaigns, and private discussions within families are presented to understand the creation of political subjectivity among citizens of India.
Zhuangzi’s Lone Project of Personal Freedom
Authors: Jiang Tao
Published: October 2021

This chapter argues that Zhuangzi was an intellectual outlier who was not a significant participant in the debate on humaneness versus justice, carried out primarily among the Confucians, the Mohists, the Laoists, and the fajia thinkers during the classical period. He ridiculed the misguided character of the dominant intellectual projects and warned against their potential for inhumanity and injustice, the very opposite of what is intended by the participants of the mainstream discourse. He extoled personal freedom within the context of overwhelming emphasis on order, structured by humaneness and/or justice, and single-handedly opened up a critical space for the discourse on personal freedom in Chinese intellectual history. However, the marginal nature of the Zhuangist vision of personal freedom did not portend well its prospect in the subsequent Chinese history. The kind of freedom envisioned by Zhuangzi is an effortless navigation through and around the constraints of the human lifeworld, not a reimagining of those very constraints.
Perpetual War or Perpetual Peace
Authors: Ripstein Arthur
Published: October 2021

This chapter introduces the Kantian conception of right in war, arguing that Kant regards peace as the principle through which everything about war must be judged. The Kantian position is contrasted with two other ways of thinking about war. The just war tradition conceives of war as an enforcement action against wrongdoer. The regular war tradition understands war as a mode of dispute resolution between sovereigns. Both go wrong in their conception of the moral nature of the state. The just war tradition conceives of the state as having universal jurisdiction to right wrongs of any kind anywhere on earth; the regular war tradition conceives it as the private domain of its sovereign. In place of these conceptions, Kant develops a distinctively public conception of the state, and an account of what is distinctively wrong with war. This account has fundamental implications for each of the right to go to war, right in war, and right after war.
Universal Health Coverage
Authors: Mukherjee Joia S.
Published: October 2021

As part of the Sustainable Development Goals the right to health is captured under the rubric of universal health coverage (UHC). That is that all people should have access to the high quality care they need without suffering financial hardship. This chapter explores this seminal topic reviewing the theory of universal coverage and definitions that shape the current conversation about UHC. This chapter also highlights some important steps taken by countries to expand access to quality health care but challenges the rhetoric that financing care through insurance schemes, a common approach to UHC) is sufficient when the inputs into the health systems do not match the disease burden. Finally, the chapter investigates the theory and practice behind a morbidity-based approach to strengthening health systems and achieving UHC.
Community Health Workers
Authors: Mukherjee Joia S.
Published: October 2021

Community health workers (CHWs) represent an important cadre of health workers, particularly in impoverished countries. The CHW program began with China’s barefoot doctor campaign. The barefoot doctors were laypeople who were educated to provide basic medical education and care in rural China in the 1950s to the 1970s. CHWs have evolved over the years and now perform a variety of functions in many countries, from education to prevention, case finding to treatments, and referral to follow-up. They are often used to fill the gap in human resources. There are a number of challenges in scaling up and sustaining CHW programs, including providing adequate training, compensation, and supervision for them within the health system. This chapter begins with a look back at the roots of CHW programs and goes on to explore the current status of CHWs and to address some of the challenges to using their full potential.
Governance and International Cooperation
Authors: Mukherjee Joia S.
Published: October 2021

Governance represents a key building block of a health system. A government is responsible for the health of its people. It sets the health strategy and oversees the implementation of health programs. External forces and actors influence the governance of the health sector. This chapter explores governance of health from the perspective of the nation-state (sometimes called governance for global health). The chapter also examines the importance of international cooperation, particularly in the setting of a pandemic. In the interconnected and globalized world, global governance for health is needed to coordinate the geopolitical forces that impact health and its social determinants.
Justice
Authors: Mukherjee Joia S.
Published: October 2021

A biosocial analysis (chapter 5) of the health of the world’s population reveals deep structural inequality. Impoverishment based on the historical and present-day impact of racist, nationalism, and neoliberalism assure will continue cause death and suffering unless the status quo changes. There is reason to hope because, as we saw with the movement for AIDS treatment access, activism works. This chapter introduces the concept of social movements. It highlights the strategies and tactics used by successful and ongoing movements that seek global health equity and justice. The chapter also presents concrete examples for action that can be used to help build and support the social movement needed to realize the universal right to health care. The chapter also includes the fight for COVID-19 vaccine equity.
Science Against Interests
Authors: Fèvre Raphaël
Published: October 2021

The second chapter shows that, in the eyes of ordoliberals, power is the source of an epistemological problem. Eucken tried to acquire a scientific understanding of the driving forces underlying the economic order, what he called the actual economic reality. His ambition rested on a method to escape the given and immediate aspects of the reality, which seemed contaminated by vested interests. Thus, Eucken updated the old German methodological quarrel (Methodenstreit). In order to resolve the great antinomy between theory and history, Eucken suggested articulating these two approaches by means of his theory of orders. Eucken aimed at applying theoretical analysis to the uses and abuses of power in the economy but without falling under the influence of the expression of vested interests.
Economy Through Orders
Authors: Fèvre Raphaël
Published: October 2021

Ordoliberals studied the manifestations of power through a “morphological” lens (opposing the centrally administered economy to the economy of exchange), leading Eucken to take a stand in relation to two of the great international discussions of the discipline in the interwar years: the feasibility of a socialist calculation and the debate over imperfect/monopolistic market structures. The theoretical substance of these two debates is closely related to a political quest for stability of the economic and social order. The centrally administered economy is characterized by the strong influence of what ordoliberals saw as illegitimate powers on the economic process. But ordoliberals considered that, within the exchange economy system itself, markets were not free from power relations. The contribution of Stackelberg to the analysis of unbalanced market structures is therefore indispensable for understanding the literary marginalism of the ordoliberals.
The Threat of Skepticism
Authors: Kornblith Hilary
Published: October 2021

What is a theory of knowledge and why do we need one? Traditionally, the need for a theory of knowledge is motivated by way of skeptical argument. Arguments for skepticism start with seemingly obvious premises and move by way of apparently forced inferences to a conclusion—that knowledge is impossible—which is frankly unbelievable. A theory of knowledge is called upon to respond to these arguments and explain how knowledge is possible. This chapter presents an important argument for skepticism and discusses how we should understand it. The view presented here motivates an approach to epistemological questions which deemphasizes the importance of responding to skepticism.
The Phenomenon of Knowledge
Authors: Kornblith Hilary
Published: October 2021

There is a robust phenomenon of knowledge and the theory of knowledge should provide an understanding of it in much the same way that the physical, biological, and social sciences provide an understanding of various physical, biological, and social phenomena. This chapter offers a pretheoretical view of the phenomenon of knowledge in order to pave the way for such a theoretical understanding. The role of perception and inference in gaining knowledge is briefly surveyed, as is the role which social factors play here. The reasons for thinking that knowledge is not the exclusive property of adult human beings are briefly discussed as well.
From the Individual to the Social
Authors: Kornblith Hilary
Published: October 2021

This chapter focuses on social factors in cognition. There is a puzzle about the human capacity to reflect on our beliefs. As argued in Chapter 4, this capacity, when exercised privately, does not make our belief acquisition more reliable. If we assume, however, that this capacity was selected for by evolution, like other features of the human body and human mind, then the question arises as to what it was selected for. This chapter focuses on a hypothesis due to Hugo Mercier and Dan Sperber: that our capacity to reflect was selected for its role in cooperative activity. The upshot of this hypothesis, if it should prove correct, is that reflection does indeed contribute to greater reliability in belief acquisition, but only when it is used in cooperative problem-solving rather than private reflection.
Of Sovereignty and Saints
Authors: Lechterman Theodore M.
Published: October 2021

The chapter considers what kinds of goods and services a democratic polity should furnish via donation. Donations are a well-known solution to the problem of “public goods,” goods with characteristics that prevent efficient market provision. But are all such goods equally appropriate objects of philanthropy? Common arguments fail to appreciate that part of democracy’s value lies in reserving certain decisions for collective control. Democracy, the chapter argues, makes citizens sovereign over the legislation and administration of matters of basic justice. Citizens’ interests in democratic sovereignty supply a strong reason to maintain public control over public goods that are intimately linked to fundamental rights, duties, and opportunities. The argument helps to justify and explain discomfort that many share about privately sponsored social assistance and private funding of public schools. It also indicates that philanthropy for goods more distant from basic justice—such as the arts, research, sport, and religion—may be easier to justify in democratic terms.
Donation and Deliberation
Authors: Lechterman Theodore M.
Published: October 2021

How should opportunities for donation be distributed? Laissez-faire treatment of the ability to convert wealth into voice allows wealthier citizens to augment their influence over public affairs, further marginalizing poorer citizens. The present chapter contends that this state of affairs is ultimately incompatible with the requirements of political equality. The reasons to regulate political spending, it argues, also apply to certain kinds of philanthropic donations. It explores various policy proposals for redressing this problem, including a progressive voucher scheme that would replace cash donations for expressive activities with vouchers whose price increases the more vouchers one purchases. Such a proposal seeks to balance interests in liberty and efficiency with the demands of political equality.
In Usufruct to the Living
Authors: Lechterman Theodore M.
Published: October 2021

An especially underappreciated problem regarding philanthropic power concerns the way in which charitable gifts exercise control over future generations. Charitable bequests and trusts, which are popular instruments of donation, bind future generations to respect the wills of past donors. This chapter draws on views of Thomas Jefferson—noted critic of institutions that favor the dead over the living—to illustrate the problem of “dead-hand control.” Jefferson’s perspective helps us to appreciate that donations meant to benefit future persons may also mistreat them by imposing conditions on their use of resources. The chapter argues that generations have an interest in sovereignty over their common affairs that qualifies how resources can be donated across time. Though it ultimately defends the practice of intergenerational philanthropy, the chapter also shows how taking the value of sovereignty seriously recommends restrictions on the duration that donors can expect to have their wills honored.
The Effective Altruist’s Political Problem
Authors: Lechterman Theodore M.
Published: October 2021

What does it mean to give well? This chapter argues that political considerations are essential—though often neglected—ingredients in the practical ethics of giving. It develops through an examination of effective altruism, an increasingly popular and sophisticated perspective on the ethics of philanthropy. A core component of effective altruism is the relief of poverty through targeted interventions in the developing world. The chapter rearticulates and expands on the moral challenges of relieving the symptoms of poverty through philanthropic interventions. It counters that redirecting philanthropists to institutional reform—as effective altruism’s critics often advocate—falls unwittingly into some of the same traps. Unqualified recommendations for diverting more money into politics stumble right into to the challenges of political injustice observed in Chapter 4. The chapter suggests that donors can mitigate these challenges by (e.g.) making assistance projects self-consciously transitional and investing in community organizing rather than direct policy change.
The State
Authors: Lee Daniel
Published: October 2021

The principal focus of Bodin’s major work of political theory wasn’t sovereignty. It was the state [république; respublica], which he conceptualized as a compound pluralistic and ‘harmonious’ association of families and corporate bodies united under the authority of one common sovereign. Applying a typically ‘Ramist’ method of analysis, Bodin sought to separate genuine statehood from those state-like entities that were common in medieval politics, such as feudalities, leagues and alliances, and captive populations subdued under the unlawful force of brigands and pirates [latrones]. Bodin’s respublica marked a theoretical concept of statehood in the most generic sense possible, a category inclusive of all possible forms of state, encompassing the smallest city-republics as well as vast empires. The chapter investigates the principal constituent elements of Bodinian statehood. What binds these elements together to form a sovereign state is more than the bond of friendship. For Bodin, it must be a bond of obligation.
Introduction
Authors: Textor Mark
Published: October 2021

The book is a problem-oriented presentation of (the anti-metaphysical phase of) Austrian philosophy. The introduction motivates the problems that drive the inquiry and gives a characterization of Austrian philosophy. I will outline how the science of psychology was initially conceived by Herbart and other so-called ‘Metaphysical Psychologists’ as the science of the soul and it activities and states. Austro-German Philosophers aim to develop a conception of psychology that is independent of the soul. This serves as a model for the emancipation of empirical science from metaphysics. The introduction relates part I to IV of the book to this narrative and provides a motivation for the final fourth part of the book that assesses epistemological arguments for anti-metaphysics.
‘Psychology without a Soul’
Authors: Textor Mark
Published: October 2021

Empirical psychologists aimed to liberate psychology from the metaphysics of the soul. Psychology is an empirical science independent of metaphysics. This line of argument is inspired by Hume and Lichtenberg’s famous claim that our immediate consciousness is consciousness of subjectless processes and events. The leading empirical psychologists—Brentano, Mach, Wundt—are encouraged by Lange to dare to develop ‘a psychology without a soul’. The chapter assesses the empiricists’s arguments for this conclusion and the suggested replacements for the soul. The chapter closes by considering Lotze’s response to the empirical psychologists that dispensing with a subject of experience is not in line with the spirit of the empirical approach to psychology.
From Substance and Accident to Complex and Element
Authors: Textor Mark
Published: October 2021

The anti-metaphysical orientation of empirical psychology inspired and provided a model for the criticism of the metaphysics of substance and accident. Lotze and Stumpf, Avenarius and Mach argue for different reasons that the notion of substance is an instrument to simplify our view of the world that seems initially advantages but then gives rise to pseudo-questions about the nature of substance and the distinction between reality and appearance. Just as the soul needs to go, substance needs to go ! But common sense and, following it, philosophy had conceived of reality in terms of substances and properties of them. Hence, properties also need to go. The new ontology that sits better with science and avoids pseudo-questions replaces substances with complexes that have elements. The chapter looks at the development of the new metaphysics and its problems.
Brentano’s One-Term View of Judgement
Authors: Textor Mark
Published: October 2021

The view that (atomic) judgements have at least ‘two terms’—predicate something of an object or objects—is a widely held one in philosophy. The chapter introduces the two-term dogma about judgement as the background for Brentano’s view of judgement. Brentano challenged the dogma and argued that an acknowledgement of an object is a judgement but has only one term. The chapter considers Brentano’s argument in favour of the one-term view and connects them to our understanding of non-epistemic perception. Brentano’s one-term view of judgement will be the philosophical contrary to the two-term views of judgement of the positivists that will figure in chapter 11.
Normativity, Rationality and Reasoning
Authors: Broome John
Published: October 2021

This book is a selection of my recent papers on normativity, rationality and reasoning. It covers a variety of topics that fall under these three subjects: the meanings of ‘ought’, ‘reason’ and ‘reasons’; the fundamental structure of normativity and the metaphysical priority of ought over reasons; the ownership—or agent-relativity—of oughts and reasons; the distinction between rationality and normativity; the notion of rational motivation; what characterizes the human activity of reasoning, and what is the role of normativity within it; the nature of preferences and of reasoning with preferences; and others. In recent decades, many philosophers have given a high priority to reasons in their accounts of normativity, rationality and reasoning. One purpose of this book is to counter this ‘reasons first’ movement in philosophy.
Reason fundamentalism and what is wrong with it
Authors: Broome John
Published: October 2021

Is there a fundamental feature of normativity, to which other features can be reduced? One defensible view is ‘reason fundamentalism’: that the fundamental feature is the relation that holds between a person and F-ing when the person has reason to F. (‘F’ stands for any verb phrase, such as ‘run for the bus’ or ‘hope for relief’ or ‘believe Kampala is in Ghana’.) Another defensible view is ‘ought fundamentalism’: that the fundamental feature is the relation that holds between a person and F-ing when the person ought to F. The popular view that the fundamental feature of normativity is the property of being a reason is not defensible, since that property can be reduced to either of the two relations I have just described. I argue that ought fundamentalism is more credible that reason fundamentalism because it is more faithful to our ordinary normative concepts.
Giving reasons and given reasons
Authors: Broome John
Published: October 2021

Derek Parfit, as a leader of the ‘reasons-first’ movement, says that the concept of a reason is fundamental and indefinable. But his concept of a reason differs from most philosophers’. Most philosophers take a reason to be a fact, whereas Parfit says that reasons are given by facts, not that they are facts. This paper distinguishes Parfit’s concept of a reason, which I call a ‘given reason’, from the more common one, which I call a ‘giving reason’. It argues that, whereas the concept of a giving reason is easily defined, the concept of a given reason is not. Parfit is therefore better placed than most philosophers to defend the claim that the concept of a reason is fundamental and indefinable.
The first normative ‘reason’
Authors: Broome John
Published: October 2021

The first recorded use in English of the word ‘reason’ to refer to a normative reason occurs in a manuscript of the Ancrene Riwle from about 1225. It was used to refer to an explanation of why one ought to do something.
A linguistic turn in the philosophy of normativity?
Authors: Broome John
Published: October 2021

The theory of deontic modality within linguistics, led particularly by Angelika Kratzer, offers an account of the meaning of normative terms including ‘ought’. It is largely based on the standard semantics of deontic logic as it was extended. How should the philosophy of normativity be affected by this theory? I argue that it should not be affected much. For one thing, the philosophy of normativity needs to go beyond the grammatical constraints that ‘ought’, as an auxiliary verb, is subject to. Moreover ‘ought’ in the sense that is central in normativity does not conform to the standard semantics of deontic logic. For this reason, the theory of deontic modality would be improved by adopting a neighbourhood semantics rather than the standard semantics.
Rationality versus normativity
Authors: Broome John
Published: October 2021

Philosophers often do not make as sharp a distinction as they should between rationality and normativity. Partly this is because the word ‘reason’ can be used to refer to either, and partly it is because of substantive arguments that purport to show there is no real distinction. Many philosophers give a reductive account of rationality in terms of reasons. In particular, many claim that rationality consists in responding correctly to reasons. Since responding correctly to reasons is the concern of normativity, this in effect identifies rationality with normativity. After clarifying the meanings of ‘normativity’ and ‘rationality’, this paper refutes the claim that rationality consists in responding correctly to reasons, by means of a ‘quick objection’. The quick objection is that rationality supervenes on the mind whereas complying with normativity does not.
Normativity in reasoning
Authors: Broome John
Published: October 2021

Reasoning is a process through which premise-attitudes give rise to a conclusion-attitude. When you reason actively you operate on the propositions that are the contents of your premise-attitudes, following a rule, to derive a new proposition that is the content of your conclusion-attitude. It may seem that, when you follow a rule, you must, at least implicitly, have the normative belief that you ought to comply with the rule, which guides you to comply. But I argue that to follow a rule is to manifest a particular sort of disposition, which can be interpreted as an intention. An intention is itself a guiding disposition. It can guide you to comply with a rule, and no normative belief is required.
A linking belief is not essential for reasoning
Authors: Broome John
Published: October 2021

In reasoning, you acquire a new conclusion-attitude on the basis of premise-attitudes. It is commonly thought that an essential feature of reasoning is that you have a linking belief, which is a belief that the premises imply the conclusion. This paper shows that a linking belief is not essential for reasoning. A genuinely essential feature of reasoning is that you acquire the conclusion-attitude by following a rule. A linking belief may be a necessary feature of theoretical reasoning, because it may be a consequence of having the disposition to follow a rule. But it is not essential for reasoning, which is to say that it does not contribute to making the process reasoning. For other sorts of reasoning including practical reasoning, a linking belief is not even necessary.
Picturing England between the Wars
Authors: Sillars Stuart
Published: October 2021

This book discusses the relationship between word and image in writing of many kinds during the inter-war years, seeing it as central to the presentation of factual and fictional material. It first examines studies of an England increasingly felt as threatened by suburban expansion, and then moves to consider official and independent house designs, seeing them as another form of imagined involvement and experience of the actual. It goes on to argue that visual material was for the first time central to book publishing, in dust jackets, internal illustration, and the design of books as part of the period’s social structures. Magazines aimed at general readers, for men, and for women are explored to show word and image unite to convey information, give advice and show shared interests. The final section considers ways in which the need for protection in the air and on the ground were treated, with official presence in magazines. A final section explores other uses of word and image, and the ways in which they contributed to wartime material and the construction of an ideal nation.
Some Versions of Arcady
Authors: Sillars Stuart
Published: October 2021

Even before the War, a sadness at the loss of the countryside was strong; later, it became far stronger. Edric Holmes’s London’s Countryside shows this well, combining text with vignette illustrations of places felt to be under threat by speculative building and an invasion of day-trippers. The feeling was already strong in the writings of E. M. Forster, Edward Thomas, and others. Maps for travellers both showed a rural ideal in their covers and made possible further intrusions in the contents. Books such as Macmillan’s Highways and Byways series, begun before the War, had much the same effect in their combination of word and image, now made increasingly available in cheaper editions which retained the designs of F. L. Griggs. But for some, including the poet and composer Ivor Gurney, looking at maps offered a retreat into earlier, happier times.
Modern Pilgrims
Authors: Sillars Stuart
Published: October 2021

In the 1930s B. T. Batsford published many books about English life and landscape. All had modern-style dust jackets and contained around 150 photographs. Series titles including ‘The Modern Pilgrim’s Library’ suggest readers far from rural life. Introductions deplore loss of fields to suburbs and trippers with special disdain for bungalows, although the books encourage visitors to the very places being laying waste. Photographs include very few people, with only an occasional child or young woman: this is still a time of mourning. Other books discuss London, with up to date metropolitan images and a satirical tone; and Speed, in which outmoded English record-holders are proudly shown, while German aircraft display menacing strength. All the books match image and text with care and precision, and the layout makes careful use of current printing techniques; yet the effect is again one of a description from exile.
Moving towards Truths
Authors: Sillars Stuart
Published: October 2021

Later in the period, more realistic views of the countryside began to emerge, with concern to protect open spaces and see farming as an endangered industry, not a pleasing spectacle. Writers reflected these changes with less idealistic views. Francis Brett Young’s Portrait of a Village did this, but its illustrations by Joan Hassall continued the romanticised approach. William Beach Thomas is forward-looking in The English Countryside, with more contemporary photographs and even the discussion of national parks. Yet even here there is a yearning for the older village and its traditions. The chapter ends with a discussion of the vocabulary of country writing, with villages that ‘nestle’ in hills, and vistas that are ‘charming’, ‘graceful’, all seen from a sentimental distance. Propaganda films of 1939 return to similar imagery: all contrast sharply with the directness of writing about the ruined villages of Belgium and France.
Modernism
Authors: Sillars Stuart
Published: October 2021

The popular rejection of Modernist architecture is shown in the response to Highpoint II, an apartment building in Hampstead. The Architectural Review, however, argued in its favour in an article that itself followed Modernist design, matching word and image to its subject. Despite public conservatism, modern building techniques were common, but concealed within traditional, especially neo-Georgian, exteriors. The Review’s 1928 survey of domestic architecture contained very few modernist buildings. The Silver End village, Crowsteps, and High and Over were among the Modernist buildings discussed in both the Review and Country Life, the latter voicing caution, beneath a heading designed by the Edwardian illustrator Arthur Rackham. Modernism was accepted, but in commercial buildings or homes of wealthy intellectuals. Some books, such as Broadcasting House, matched Modernism of subject with modern design; most others, including those of Randal Phillips, used the same technique of image-description-plan as that for traditional buildings.
The Practical Habit
Authors: Sillars Stuart
Published: October 2021

Although men’s magazines of the time appear to focus on a single subject, many, include articles on a range of subjects. One of the earliest, Hobbies, includes pieces on football, stamp collecting or gardening alongside those on making picture frames or pipe racks. Later magazines had a sharper focus, as revealed in titles such as Practical Motorist, Practical and Amateur Wireless and Popular Flying. Many described tasks of maintenance and construction with complex diagrams, yet still gave instructions in continuous prose, not simple lists. In this, they lagged behind women’s magazines. Like them, though, they carried pages of readers’ tips, suggesting the importance of being part of a group. They also focus on activities done in or around the home, again resembling magazines for women. Other magazines contained first-hand war recollections, often with maps and drawings by the authors, as important ways of sharing events familiar to many.
Air-Mindedness
Authors: Sillars Stuart
Published: October 2021

In the 1930s, magazines on flying became increasingly conscious of possible war, and included items matching government policy on flying. The King’s Air Force booklet used images skilfully to make RAF careers attractive to young men. Like the magazine Flying, it used images of obsolete and new aircraft to stress readiness for war, while making subtle illustrated reference to German warplanes and military exercises. Its verbal-visual reporting of a 1939 raid on Germany used techniques from the earlier war to stress heroism and involvement for readers. Air Raid Precautions were publicised by cigarette cards, making them widely accessible, but also in the Illustrated London News and a Government publication, both unconsciously aimed at higher social groups. Anderson Shelters for protection against air raids were also publicised; only the ILN did so to reveal their inadequacies for working-class terraced houses, showing a more complex word–picture relationship.
Ireland and Northern Ireland
Authors: Dougan Michael
Published: October 2021

Of all the regions of the UK, Northern Ireland will be most impacted by Brexit. Of all the Member States of the EU, the Republic of Ireland will also be most affected by UK withdrawal. As this chapter explains, the main challenge concerns how to avoid a ‘hard border’ for the movement of persons or goods across the island of Ireland, of the sort that could undermine cross-community support for the peace process based on the Good Friday Agreement. As for persons: Ireland and the UK have agreed, on a bilateral basis, to maintain the existing Common Travel Area between the two states. As for goods: the EU and the UK agreed to a dedicated Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland that seeks to manage customs and regulatory standards and controls, in a way that avoids a ‘hard border’ across the island of Ireland, while still protecting the EU’s Customs Union and Single Market, and at the same time allowing the UK to pursue regulatory divergence and an independent trade policy.
Stoic Regret
Authors: Warren James
Published: October 2021

Arius Didymus’ account of Stoic ethics includes the claim that the good (spoudaios) person will be free from regret while all others (the phauloi) will be subject to regret. The chapter offers an account of regret as a Stoic pathos and considers whether, as some critics such as Galen argued, the Stoic account of regret is incompatible with their Socratic, intellectualist picture of moral psychology. It concludes that there is no reason to think that the Stoics cannot give a satisfactory account of regret for voluntary actions without having to revise their general commitment to a Socratic and intellectualist psychology and that their account of regret helps to illustrate the rich resources available to their position.
Meeting the therapist
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio
Published: October 2021

This chapter sets the stage for the understanding of the close relationship between the doctor–patient interaction and the placebo effect. Several aspects of the doctor–patient interaction are considered, from the patient’s trust and admiration towards the therapist to the doctor’s empathic and compassionate behaviour. All these highly complex brain functions have been described from a neuroscientific perspective and represent what is called social neuroscience, a branch of the neurosciences which investigates complex social behaviours. Within this neurobiological framework, the events taking place in trust, hope, empathy, and compassion are examined so as to give a general perspective of social neuroscience. Importantly, a better understanding of these mechanisms can maximize the good interaction between doctors and patients and minimize bad interaction.
The brain of the demented patient
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio
Published: October 2021

This chapter sets the stage for better understanding of the responses to a therapy in dementia, particularly those psychological factors related to the placebo effect. The crucial point here is that the three steps ‘feeling sick’, ‘seeking relief’, ‘meeting the therapist’, are all modified, or totally absent, in the demented patient. In fact, different types of dementia may lead to changes in the perception of some symptoms, first and foremost pain. As to ‘seeking relief’, the demented patient does not have a purposive behavioural repertoire that is aimed at seeking a doctor for relieving his own symptoms, thus the demented patient does not have expectations of positive therapeutic outcomes. Similarly, in ‘meeting the therapist’ the cognitively impaired patient cannot interact with health professionals, thus the interaction is based only on the doctor’s inference of the symptoms through observation.
Immune and endocrine systems
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio
Published: October 2021

In this chapter, the placebo effect in the immune and endocrine system is described, where learning, mainly Pavlovian conditioning, is the basic mechanism. Conditioned immunosuppression affects a number of immune mediators, like interleukin-2 and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). Nocebo effects may occur in the immune system; indeed, some negative allergic reactions may be induced by the administration of nocebos. Some mechanisms in the endocrine system are also described. In fact, the responses of some hormones, like insulin, growth hormone, and cortisol, have been successfully obtained by means of a conditioning procedure. In addition, the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis may represent an important system in placebo and nocebo responsiveness in the endocrine system.
Cardiovascular and respiratory systems
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio
Published: October 2021

In this chapter it is emphasized how, compared to other systems, little is known about the mechanisms of placebo and placebo-related effects in both the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Side effects in placebo groups of cardiovascular clinical trials are common and might represent the basis of nocebo effects, although no definitive mechanism is known. Heart activity can be conditioned and can also be affected during a placebo analgesic response. Not only may placebo-activated endogenous opioids act on pain transmission, but on the heart and the respiratory centres as well. As to the respiratory system, asthma and cough are powerfully affected by placebos but the underlying mechanisms are unknown.
Gastrointestinal and genitourinary disorders
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio
Published: October 2021

This chapter describes some mechanisms in the gastrointestinal and genitourinary disorders, although little is known in this area. Irritable bowel syndrome is one of the best models of gastrointestinal disorders for understanding placebo mechanisms and several brain regions are inhibited by a placebo treatment in people suffering from irritable bowel syndrome. Gastrointestinal symptoms can be conditioned by means of a conditioning procedure, which indicates that learning may play an important role. Subjective symptoms are more affected than objective symptoms in genitourinary disorders. In addition, expectations are crucially involved in sexual functions.
How to run a placebo study
Authors: Benedetti Fabrizio
Published: October 2021

This chapter is addressed to those who want to run a study aimed at identifying the underlying mechanisms of placebo effects. To study a placebo effect requires specific designs that cannot be performed in the classic clinical trial setting. Complex experimental designs are particularly necessary when one wants to investigate the neurobiological mechanisms, for example by means of agonist and antagonist drugs. Complex pharmacological designs have used up to twelve experimental arms (groups) in order to answer specific questions. To study the role of learning in placebo effects, for example conditioning, one needs to control the associations between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli both in the experimental and in the clinical setting. In addition, several approaches are possible for hiding a therapy from the subject’s view, so that he is totally unaware that a treatment is being performed, thus allowing the investigation of placebo effects without the administration of placebos.
Development of Social Cognition in Adolescence and the Importance of Mating
Authors: Donaldson Sarah , Mills Kathryn
Published: October 2021

Adolescents experience rapid growth in biology, cognition, and behaviours, which are essential for navigating social complexity within the human environment. One added complexity includes the development of romantic relationships. The onset of puberty prepares the body for biological processes of reproduction, allowing for the ability to conceive, carry, and rear offspring. It follows that maturing cognitive and affective systems develop concurrently to support reproductive competence, transitioning the mind towards identifying and maintaining mating relationships. This chapter reviews current literature in the development of adolescent social cognition, and proposes ways in which these mechanisms also support the emergence of a mating-focused mentality in adolescent youth. Hormonal and neurological influences on social cognition during adolescence are discussed, followed by more focused assessments of research investigating (1) face perception, (2) mentalizing, and (3) emotional regulation/executive control. How these processes support the advancement of mating cognition across adolescence will be highlighted.
The Future of Research on Social Interaction
Authors: Bradford Elisabeth E. F. , De Lillo Martina , Ferguson Heather J.
Published: October 2021

Our daily lives involve many instances of social interactions, from parents talking with their children, friends catching up on each other’s news, to a customer interacting with a shop assistant. Throughout these instances of social interaction, human beings show a remarkable ability to compute ‘invisible’ mental states, allowing inference of what another person believes, can see, or has knowledge of. As highlighted throughout this book, these sociocognitive capacities are critical in determining successful social interactions, and thus furthering our understanding of social interactions in ‘real-world’ scenarios remains a key research topic. This chapter examines some of the cutting-edge methods used to study social cognition abilities, core research questions that are being explored within the field of social cognition (including ways to approach second-person neuroscience), and discusses factors that might influence social interaction abilities and how these could be used to develop intervention protocols for improving social cognition.
Understanding Cabinet Government
Authors: Weller Patrick , Grube Dennis C. , Rhodes R. A. W.
Published: October 2021

This chapter introduces the idea of cabinet government as a way of doing business in executive government. Even though often written off as no longer functional, it still survives, even if there is no single job description. This chapter introduces the three key questions of the book: ➢ What dilemmas do cabinet governments face? ➢ In what way do they differ across countries? ➢ Why is there a common thread to all systems despite different constitutional and institutional architecture? The chapter examines the different approaches to cabinet government: constitutional, institutional, public administration, and policy analysis. It explains why the authors adopted an interpretivist approach where traditions and beliefs shape the choices of individuals. The chapter identifies the common dilemmas that must be managed in all political systems: the process, political, policy, leadership, and accountability dilemmas. It also identifies the five examples of cabinet government systems the book considers: the United Kingdom, Australia, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Switzerland.
The Political Dilemma
Authors: Weller Patrick , Grube Dennis C. , Rhodes R. A. W.
Published: October 2021

Cabinet government is party government; members of cabinet are there because they are members of a majority or a coalition party. The position of the party and its potential future are always significant in determining policy decisions. The concept of collective responsibility for decisions of cabinet government is common to all systems, even if interpreted in different ways. Different regimes lead to variations in the dilemmas that cabinets must confront. This chapter considers the dynamics within three forms of government: majoritarian, coalition, and the Swiss non-coalition. n majoritarian governments, leaders who control party and parliament are have few restrictions on their actions as long as they retain that support. If not, they can be vulnerable to internal revolt. In coalition governments, the maintenance of the coalition often takes precedence over any individual policy issue. The Swiss non-coalition is topic driven, with each item to be separately negotiated through the Council.
Saxon Female Monasticism c.852–1024
Authors: Greer Sarah
Published: October 2021

The suggestion that early medieval Saxon female monasticism is unique or exceptional for its intensity and prestige dominates current scholarship. Explanations for this exceptionality have focused on an apparent preponderance of widows in Saxony and a regional association of commemoration with women rather than reformed monks or clerics. Instead, this chapter argues that Saxony’s later conversion to Christianity, compared to the rest of the Carolingian Empire, is a more crucial factor in the spread of female monasteries throughout this region. It traces the timeline of the known convents in Saxony to highlight that the foundation of new female monasteries was not steadily increasing across the ninth and tenth centuries, but rather experienced ebbs and flows of popularity in response to other social and political factors.