bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Women’s work? Altogether now
Authors: Britnell Mark
Published: April 2019

Women make up a large and increasing proportion of the global healthcare workforce. As an industry, healthcare seems to welcome more women than most industries, typically ranking alongside sectors such as education and childcare in female participation rates. Nursing and clerical roles within the sector have been predominately female for some time, so much of the recent growth has been driven by a steady rise in the number of female doctors. This worldwide phenomenon, which began in the 1970s, is dubbed the ‘feminization of medicine’. Yet despite such strong female representation in the health workforce there are wide inequalities between men and women within it. In the face of acute workforce shortages, efforts to tackle these issues to attract, engage, and retain female staff will become increasingly important to both employers and governments. This chapter argues that pursuing gender equality in healthcare is a moral necessity to create a prosperous society. It also argues that there is an overwhelming business case for gender equity in the workplace—countries and companies with greater equity are better off for it.
AI, robotics and digital disruption—rise of the humans?
Authors: Britnell Mark
Published: April 2019

The McKinsey Global Institute suggests productivity could increase by nearly 50%, boosting the economy at a time of lacklustre productivity growth and helping offset the impact of a declining share of the population being of working age. Investing in automation at scale can enhance productivity. Today, advances in robotics, artificial intelligence, and machine learning, in which machines mimic cognitive functions such as learning and problem solving, are ushering in a new age of automation as machines match or outperform humans in a range of work activities, including those requiring cognitive capabilities. In this chapter, Mark Britnell looks at the advances in artificial intelligence, robotics, and digital tools in relation to healthcare systems and healthcare workers, all with the aim of improving the quality of care.
Japan—centenarians and robots
Authors: Britnell Mark
Published: April 2019

Japan’s population is 127 million. In 40 years’ time, it is expected to have fallen by a third. That might not have been a big problem for health if it were not for the shifting balance between generations. The over-65s will grow from 26% of the population to nearly 40%. Meanwhile the working age population will shrink at about 1% a year. Supporting Japan’s elderly population is placing a growing financial and physical strain on its younger generations. In this chapter, Mark Britnell analyses the structures in place to increase the number of Japanese healthcare workers, and to keep the national healthcare at its high standard.
Brazil—power to the people
Authors: Britnell Mark
Published: April 2019

Thirty years ago, Brazil’s health system was patchy and elitist, serving mainly the rich or unionized white-collar workers and neglecting the poorest—those living without access even to clean water, sewage, or housing. Today, the country’s Sistema Ùnico de Saúde (SUS) is one of the largest free universal health systems in the world. Conceived of as the country emerged from a brutal 20-year dictatorship and ushered into being by the same political movement that delivered Brazil back its civil democracy, 79% of Brazil’s population now rely solely on the SUS for health services. In this chapter, Mark Britnell takes a closer look at the Brazilian SUS, and PSF, the family health programme, and argues that both of these need to be protected and championed during these difficult times.
Conclusion—why some rabbits outrun foxes
Authors: Britnell Mark
Published: April 2019

In this chapter Mark Britnell brings together his ideas for solving the global workforce shortage in healthcare. He argues for a total reimagination of how we conduct healthcare and construct healthcare systems to avoid the coming global workforce shortage in healthcare that will harm patients, citizens, and societies. He argues for a more innovative, concerted, and collaborative approach to policies and practice. This way productivity will improve in a key section of the economy and national wealth will increase, helping individual prosperity, families, communities, and social cohesion. He is careful to point out that solving the global workforce crisis in healthcare is a complex problem, but that it can be solved.
Territorial Cleavages and the Bolivian Constitutional Transition
Authors: Moreno Gustavo Bonifaz , Molina George Gray
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines the territorial dynamics behind Bolivia’s constitutional transition of 2006–08 and the political process during that period. Evo Morales’s landslide win in the presidential election of December 2005 set the stage for a protracted constitutional transformation that is still playing out in Bolivia. The chapter first provides a historical background on Bolivian politics marked by constitutional, legal, and policy reform and periods of social unrest, political mobilization, and popular revolt before discussing the period of constitutional engagement and the outcome of the 2009 general elections. It argues that territorial cleavages played a crucial role in Bolivia’s constitutional transition, which broadened territorial support for the Movimiento al Socialismo (MAS) from western enclaves to the eastern lowlands over a five-year period. The chapter also identifies two key institutions that secured the broad legitimacy for constitutional reform: an impartial electoral court and a functioning constitutional tribunal.
Constitutional Transitions and Territorial Cleavages
Authors: Ghai Yash , Cottrell Jill
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines how the question of territorial cleavage affected constitutional transitions in Kenya by focusing on the work of the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC) and the National Constitutional Conference (NCC). More specifically, it explores issues surrounding devolution of power and how they were resolved, along with the actors involved. The chapter first provides a background that led to the move for constitutional reform, placing emphasis on the political “mobilization”—engineered by political parties and interests—behind the debate over the issue of devolution. It then considers the process of constitutional engagement from the late 2000 to early 2004, the CKRC proposals for a new Constitution that was eventually adopted via referendum in August 2010, and the devolution discussion in the NCC. It also analyzes the outcome of the constitutional transition and the lessons that can be learned from the Kenyan experience.
The Philippines
Authors: Lau Bryony
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines how political interests in Mindanao and in Manila have made it difficult to resolve the territorial cleavage in southern Philippines, even though the 1987 Constitution envisioned Muslim autonomy within the unitary republic. It first provides a historical background on the Muslim insurgency in Mindanao, led by the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and later, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). It also considers the 1976 Tripoli agreement signed under martial law, the drafting of the 1987 Constitution, and the creation of the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao in 1989. It goes on to describe the period of constitutional engagement and more specifically, the “constitutional moment” for resolving the Mindanao question that began in mid-2010. Finally, it analyzes the outcome of the peace talks between the government and the Moro insurgents, along with some of significant the lessons that can be drawn from the experience.
The Withering Away of Politically Salient Territorial Cleavages in South Africa and the Emergence of Watermark Ethnic Federalism
Authors: Steytler Nico
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines how a stable, legitimate, and highly regarded constitutional dispensation has successfully withered away the political salience of territorial cleavages in South Africa and paved the way for a stronger form of ethnic federalism. It first explains the context that led to South Africa’s transition from apartheid to democracy before discussing the period of constitutional engagement in 1990–96, focusing on the deal between the National Party (NP) and the African National Congress (ANC) that resulted in the adoption of an interim Constitution in December 1993. It also explores the constitutional provisions that sought to address the demands of the right-wing Afrikaners and the Zulu nationalists, along with the ratification of the final Constitution in 1996. The chapter concludes with an analysis of the outcome of the South African constitutional settlement and the important lessons that can be drawn from the unmaking of territorial politics in the country.
Sri Lanka’s Failed Peace Process and the Continuing Challenge of Ethno-Territorial Cleavages
Authors: Welikala Asanga
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines why the peace process in Sri Lanka failed to find a constitutional settlement for the country’s ethno-territorial cleavage, and even enthroned a government hostile to Tamil aspirations for regional autonomy. It first provides a historical background on the ethnic division between Sinhalese and Tamils before turning to the period of constitutional engagement in Sri Lanka, focusing in particular on the Norwegian-facilitated peace process between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and highlighting its various weaknesses as a model of conflict transformation and constitutional transition. The chapter also analyzes the outcomes of the peace process and the lessons that can be drawn from it. Two features of Sri Lanka’s political culture that became evident in the failure of the peace negotiations are identified: the hyper-competitive nature of party politics and the elitism of constitutional politics.
Words by Convention
Authors: Leckie Gail , Williams J. R. G.
Published: April 2019

Existing metasemantic projects presuppose that word- (or sentence-) types are part of the non-semantic base. This paper proposes a new strategy: an endogenous account of word types, that is, one where word types are fixed as part of the metasemantics. On this view, it is the conventions of truthfulness and trust that ground not only the meaning of the words (meaning by convention) but also what the word type is of each particular token utterance (words by convention). The same treatment extends to identifying the populations through which the conventions prevail. The paper considers whether this proposal leads to new underdetermination challenges for metasemantics, and makes a case that it does not.
Standards Applied in Relevant Copyright Rulings
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: April 2019

This chapter discusses the nature and content of eleven key standards that the Court has consistently employed in its copyright case law. They are: high level of protection, autonomous concepts of EU law, effectiveness, proportionality, fair balance of different rights and interests, interpretation in light of international instruments, interpretation in light of wording and context of provisions, interpretation in light of objectives pursued by legislation at issue, interpretation in light of fundamental rights as granted by the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, preventive nature of economic rights, and strict interpretation of exceptions and limitations. This chapter also conducts a statistical analysis of the selected rulings, to identify relationships between these standards (considered in pairs), both in general and with particular regard to selected areas (economic rights, exceptions and limitations, and enforcement). The goal is to facilitate the understanding of how different standards interact with each other.
Religion and History in Nineteenth-Century Britain
Authors: Bennett Joshua
Published: April 2019

The chapter introduces the process by which progressive and developmental ideas of history became authoritative in Protestant intellectual culture: a process affecting Anglicans and nonconformists; liberals and evangelicals; and religious and secular critics. It argues that the religious revivalism of the earlier part of the century tended to express itself in terms of static conceptions of religious tradition. Religious and secular varieties of liberalism, by contrast, began to rely upon more dynamic ideas of the religious past. Religious liberals challenged traditionalists by interpreting religion in developmental terms. Rooting the wider progress of civilization in the different phases of the history of the church, they elevated history into a new kind of natural theology, often with reference to different kinds of German Idealism. Their unbelieving critics, on the other hand, understood progress as the history of secularization. The chapter grounds these debates in the institutions and publishing culture of the Victorian public sphere.
The Involuntary Watchdog
Authors: Weise Tobias
Published: April 2019

The chapter reconstructs the ways in which the legitimacy standards applied to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) have changed since the 1970s. While these standards remain more stable than in other cases we study, two normative developments are noteworthy. First, the nuclear accident in Chernobyl in 1986 meant that the safety pillar gained relevance not only in the policies but also in the legitimation of the Agency. Second, after the verification pillar was strengthened and then politicized in the wake of a post-Cold War expansion of the Agency’s authority, the organization sought to depoliticize and stress the development component of its work. Analytically, the relative stability of the IAEA’s legitimation discourse in a highly turbulent political environment lends support to the idea that field-specific legitimation cultures matter, and that international security governance remains more stable than most other fields.
Did Jesus Rise from the Dead?
Authors: Levering Matthew
Published: April 2019

This book defends the reasonableness of believing that Jesus of Nazareth rose from the dead. It mounts both historical arguments and theological arguments. There are only two alternatives as a historical matter: either Jesus actually rose from the dead, or else his bereaved disciples saw hallucinatory visions and were fooled by them. Indebted to N. T. Wright, this book argues that historical evidence points to the former scenario. The Gospels were backed by eyewitnesses who were living and telling their stories even during the time of the writing of the Gospels. In addition, “history” is not a neutral category; to know what history actually is, it is necessary to know whether or not there is a Creator God who loves his creatures. Furthermore, there is every reason to consider the Scriptures of Israel to belong to the background evidence by which scholars and inquirers evaluate the credibility of the testimony to Jesus’ Resurrection. The historical evidence for this event will be more credible to those who cultivate an ability to contemplate the whole. The book also addresses the question of why, after Jesus rose from the dead, he did not continue to show himself in his glorified flesh. Jesus’ entire mission is predicated upon helping us to avoid cleaving to the present world over God. He is leading us to where he is—the kingdom of God, the beginning of the new creation at the Father’s right hand.
Law for Sale
Authors: Stark Johanna
Published: April 2019

The book focuses on the philosophical underpinnings, problems, and consequences of regulatory competition. The term ‘regulatory competition’ describes a dynamic in which states as producers of legal rules compete for the favour of mobile consumers of their legal products. Besides discussing regulatory competition, a factual phenomenon, identifying the structural conditions for law markets to occur and referring to particular fields of law where competitive dynamics among legislators can be observed, arguments critical of regulatory competition as a policy approach are presented from the perspective of political theory and philosophy. These arguments provide a clearer picture of the incompatibilities between the theoretical pedigree of regulatory competition—the assumptions we must accept in order to see its promises and its appeal—and other sets of beliefs and commitments that shape our thinking about law and the state. They come to the conclusion that the existence of so-called ‘law markets’ that come with a commodification of law itself is at odds with both our conception of the functions of legal rules and of key political ideals and principles such as democracy, state autonomy, and political authority.
Law as a Contested Commodity
Authors: Stark Johanna
Published: April 2019

Several types of philosophical arguments have been offered as to why some things should not, or cannot, consistently be bought and sold, such as human organs, Nobel Prizes, or democratic votes. Starting from the debate about so-called ‘contested commodities’, this chapter deals with the commodification of law itself and discusses whether philosophical criticism regarding the commodification of certain types of goods and practices is applicable in the context of law as a product as well. The argument’s starting point is that regulatory competition leads to the law being perceived as a commodity that is subject to the market mechanism. It proceeds with a discussion of the premise that the market mechanism comes with its own kind of valuation, with the price mechanism serving as the primary indicator of value. Criticism of commodification and commercialization is often based on the perception that market valuation tends to be dominant over other evaluative standards, sometimes ‘crowding out’ considerations that cannot be directly translated into market vocabulary. Under conditions of regulatory competition, there is a case to be made that some of the normative considerations, the values and principles that underlie legal rules would in case of conflict be ‘crowded out’ by the imperatives of success in a global law market.
Elements of Classical Electrodynamics
Authors: Milonni Peter W.
Published: April 2019

This chapter reviews some topics in classical electrodynamics that are fundamental for modern quantum optics and that appear throughout the remaining chapters, includingelectric dipole radiation, electromagnetic energy, Abraham and Minkowski momenta in dielectric media, photon momentum, and Rayleigh scattering. Other foundational topics treatedare Earnshaw’s theorem, gauges and Lorentz transformations of fields, radiation reaction, the Ewald-Oseen extinction theorem, different forms of stress tensors in dielectric media, and the optical theorem.
Fluctuations, Dissipation, and Noise
Authors: Milonni Peter W.
Published: April 2019

General concepts in the theory of fluctuations and dissipation are reviewed and applied to examples in quantum optics. Brownian motion, Fokker-Planck and Langevin equations, and the Wiener-Khintchine theorem are reviewed, followed by a derivation and discussion of the fluctuation-dissipation theorem. The general problem of an oscillator coupled to a heat bath is revisited, as is the nonrelativistic theory of radiation reaction. The general ideas about fluctuations and dissipation developed in the first part of the chapter are then applied to the theory of the fundamental laser linewidth, the photon statistics of linear amplifiers and attenuators, the noise figure, amplified spontaneous emission, and the quantum theory of the beam slitter and homodyne detection.
Dipole Interactions and Fluctuation-Induced Forces
Authors: Milonni Peter W.
Published: April 2019

Concepts considered in earlier chapters, especially vacuum field fluctuations and zero-point energy, are applied to van der Waals, Casimir, and dipole-dipole resonance interactions, and to field quantization in dissipative dielectric media. Detailed but physically motivated calculations are presented regarding the Lifshitz theory, Casimir and Casimir-Polder forces, and the many-body theory of van der Waals and Casimir interactions based on dyadic Green functions. Expressions for quantized fields in dispersive and dissipative media are derived straightforwardly from Langevin noise theory, and it is shown how this approach is related to the more complicated Fano diagonalization method. Zero-point field energy in dissipative media and its role in Casimir and other effects is discussed in relation to other physical interpretations. Other topics discussed are (Forster) fluorescence resonance energy transfer and the modification of spontaneous emission rates by reflectors and host dielectric media.
After the Vote
Authors: Perry Elisabeth Israels
Published: April 2019

Soon after his first inauguration in 1934, New York City mayor Fiorello La Guardia began appointing women into his administration. By the end of his three terms he had installed almost a hundred women as lawyers, board and commission members and secretaries, deputy commissioners, and judges. No previous mayor had done anything comparable. These “Women of the La Guardia Administration” met frequently for mutual support and political strategizing. This book tells their stories. It begins with the city’s suffrage movement, which prepared them for political action. After they won the vote in 1917, they joined political party clubs and began to run for office. Their plan was to use political platforms to enact feminist and progressive public policies. Circumstances unique to mid-twentieth-century New York City advanced their progress. In 1930, Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized an inquiry into alleged corruption in the city’s government, long dominated by the Democratic Party’s machine, Tammany Hall. The inquiry turned first to charges of Vice Squad entrapment of women for sex crimes and their treatment in the city’s Women’s Court. Outraged by the inquiry’s disclosures and impressed by La Guardia’s pledge to rein in Tammany, many New York City women activists supported him for mayor. As appointees in his administration, they then helped him fulfill his plans for modernizing city government. This book argues that La Guardia’s women appointees contributed to his administration’s success and left a rich legacy of experience and political wisdom to oncoming generations of women in politics.
Legacy
Authors: Perry Elisabeth Israels
Published: April 2019

In the post–La Guardia era, New York City women politicians experienced some successes but also many frustrations. The “glass ceiling” prevailed: many seemed on their way to higher and more prominent posts, only to be thwarted in the end. Although their quest for power in the early postsuffrage era remained unfulfilled, their story was not all disappointment. Contrary to the stereotypes about woman suffrage—that too few women voted to make a difference, that women voted just as their husbands did, or that women failed to win political office (as if it was their fault)—New York women voters gradually increased their numbers, voted independently from men, and often chose sides with women’s policy agendas in mind. Despite enduring biases against them, hundreds entered partisan political arenas, drawing strength, example, and tactics from their suffrage-era networks and forming strategic coalitions across racial, class, and ideological lines to achieve specific goals.
The Other Consequences of Conviction
Authors: Hoskins Zachary
Published: April 2019

This chapter sets out the numerous different types of collateral legal consequences (CLCs) facing people with criminal records, including restrictions on employment, housing, welfare, and the vote. It distinguishes CLCs from the myriad informal collateral consequences experienced by offenders. Then it discusses various dimensions along which particular CLCs may be distinguished, such as their content, scope, and duration. It makes the case that CLCs raise serious moral challenges, which require greater attention from moral, legal, and political philosophers than they have received to date. The chapter concludes with an overview of the remainder of the book.
Communal Politics in Uttar Pradesh from Independence to the 1990s
Authors: Pai Sudha , Kumar Sajjan
Published: April 2019

The chapter provides a historical narrative of Hindu–Muslim relations in UP from independence till the early 1990s. The 1950s witnessed gradual emergence of a composite culture and relative peace with the adoption of a secular, democratic constitution and the leadership of Nehru and other nationalist leaders. The Muslim community supported the Congress viewing it as a secular party that would protect their interests. There was some improvement in the economic condition of the Muslim community. However, from the mid-1960s, communal forces kept under check by Nehru’s leadership, revived. The brief period of interreligious peace and promise of increasing communal harmony and secularization of society and polity did not materialize. A trajectory began of estrangement of the Muslim community, a feeling of being deprived and of insecurity due to the reappearance of communal tension and riots which reached a peak by the early 1990s with the destruction of the Babri Masjid.
Agrarian Crisis, Changing Jat–Muslim Relations, and Everyday Communalism in Western Uttar Pradesh
Authors: Pai Sudha , Kumar Sajjan
Published: April 2019

This chapter analyses the reasons underlying the revival of communalism in western UP in the 2000s, culminating in one of the most extremely violent riots in recent decades in UP in Muzaffarnagar and adjoining districts in 2013. Two longer-term developments played a key role: sustained construction of everyday communalism by the BJP–RSS at the grass roots from the early 2000s, followed by the long and divisive electoral campaign for the 2014 national elections under Narendra Modi; a deepening agrarian crisis which contributed to the breakdown of the relatively harmonious, socioeconomic relationship between Hindus—primarily Jats—and Muslims in the rural areas, making them highly vulnerable to communal feelings. These shifts allowed the BJP through well-organized and sustained mobilization to deepen the sociopolitical divide between these communities, leading to communal tension and riots. While the former constitutes the political and aggressively visible form, the latter constitutes the underlying political economy aspect.
Communal Mobilization and Riots in Western Uttar Pradesh
Authors: Pai Sudha , Kumar Sajjan
Published: April 2019

This chapter based on fieldwork in Muzaffarnagar and Shamli districts describes the communal incidents from 2011 onwards and the riots in September 2013. Contrasting narratives emerged from discussions with community leaders in Muzaffarnagar town and selected Jat-dominated and Muslim-majority villages forming the epicentre of the riots, which indicate high levels of aggression, a pogrom and Muslim exodus in some villages. The fieldwork revealed the deeply implicating role of political parties: local BJP leaders were aware of and in some cases involved in the rioting; SP leaders remained largely silent hoping to gain Muslim support in the 2014 elections. As the BSP’s support base and cadre straddles the Hindu, that is, Dalit and Muslim community, local leaders found it difficult to deal with the rioters. These developments indicate the successful creation in these districts particularly in the sample villages, of a system of institutionalized everyday communalism, visible two years after the riots.
Conclusion
Authors: Pai Sudha , Kumar Sajjan
Published: April 2019

The book concludes that the pattern of communalism and riots in the 2000s marks a new chapter in UP society. The reasons lie in momentous changes within UP society, and a ‘new’ BJP, its leadership, re-invented ideology and strategies. Our model of ‘institutionalization of everyday communalism’ suggests that the relationship between communalism and riots has undergone profound change: it is not riots that promote communalism; rather it is the steady and long-term work at the grass roots by right-wing forces that promotes the growth of constant communal tension. Rather than big riots, the aim is to communalize trivial, daily incidents and create small, low-intensity, calibrated incidents whose purpose is to create deep-seated Hindu–Muslim polarization. UP with its divisive communal past, economic backwardness, pervasive social inequalities, continuing conservative outlook and entrenched caste/communal identities, has produced a specific variant of communalism that will impact on the democratic fabric of our country.
Kashmir Summer (1975–89)
Authors: Wani Aijaz Ashraf
Published: April 2019

The failure of ‘liberalization’ to neutralize the dissident voice further convinced the central leadership that despite deploying all persuasive measures by the governments, Bakhshi onwards, peace in Kashmir was only hanging on to its eyelids. This realization, together with pulls and pressures on the Sheikh, led to Indira–Abdullah Accord of 1975. With the coming of Abdullah to power, Kashmir witnessed almost a decade of ‘peace’. It seemed that, at least, the internal dimension of conflict is buried for all times to come. However, hopes belied. Around the same time a new voice was born out of the debris of buried Plebiscite Front culminating in armed resistance in 1989-90. The fifth chapter delineates the processes that resulted only in a short-lived peace.
Introduction
Authors: Singh Zorawar Daulet
Published: April 2019

If we seek to make informed assessments about India’s future foreign policy and possible contestations, we must revisit a much larger and earlier slice of its strategic past, in order to discern prior policy patterns during times of inflexion and change. The Cold War period offers a rich and relatively untapped empirical reserve that can provide much needed depth to understanding Indian strategic thought and geopolitical practices. And, to truly understand Indian statecraft one must go beyond the study of non-alignment and examine more concrete ideas that have informed Indian geopolitics over the years. This book attempts to explicate some of these ideas and their application during some of the most significant events and crises in India’s immediate and extended neighbourhood over three decades during the Cold War. This chapter sets up the book’s main argument, lays out the conceptual framework, elaborates on the historical scope of the case studies, and, finally on the archival material that has been consulted by the author.
Indira Gandhi’s Role Conception
Authors: Singh Zorawar Daulet
Published: April 2019

This chapter reconstructs Indira Gandhi’s role conception by analysing the Prime Minister and her core advisors’ public and private communication record. Indira Gandhi’s regional role conception of India as a security seeker, it is contended, was shaped by three core inter-related beliefs: a definition of India’s interests in more narrow terms compared to Nehru’s beliefs, and, a regional image centred on the subcontinent rather than on an extended Asian space that lay at the heart of Nehru’s image; a divisible conception of security rather than an indivisible one, and an inclination to leverage the balance of power for geopolitical advantage rather than to reform Asia’s interaction culture as per Nehru’s role conception; and, an inclination to employ coercive means to solve disputes or to pursue geopolitical ends in South Asia rather than a preference for ethical statecraft and strategic restraint embodied in Nehru’s worldview.
Vietnam War and India, 1965–6
Authors: Singh Zorawar Daulet
Published: April 2019

Even though the escalation of the Vietnam war was the most significant Asian crisis of the 1960s, we rarely ever think about Indian diplomacy during this conflict. But what makes the second Indochina crisis of 1965–6 particularly interesting is that the post-Nehruvian foreign policy shifts vividly reflected in the contestations and debates on India’s posture and strategy towards the Vietnam war. Hence, we will be able to evaluate Indira Gandhi’s foreign policy in the extended neighbourhood very early in her tenure when domestic rivals contested her leadership and authority at a time of significant flux in Indian politics. In many ways, this phase marks the final displacement of Nehru’s peacemaker role conception with an alternative security seeker role.
Sanitation and State Planning
Authors: Shree Ruchi
Published: April 2019

Five-Year Plans help understand the policy and planning approach of the State to issues of water supply and sanitation in India. This chapter examines the policy focus on sanitation as reflected in various Five-Year Plans and analyses the changes that have taken place over the last six decades. At first, in urban areas, the focus is on slums whose demolition is seen as the only solution while in the later plans, there is a shift towards the creation of basic amenities. In rural areas, the Plans limit their focus to ‘problem villages’ and those suffering from endemic diseases. There is a progressive move towards decentralization, but important challenges persist in respect of how local bodies would raise the required economic resources. Towards the later Plan periods, a distinct market-based approach to water supply and sanitation emerges. Welfare measures are redesignated as economic imperatives and water is considered an economic asset.
The Environmental Dimension of the Right to Sanitation
Authors: Bhullar Lovleen
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines and analyses the law and policy framework governing treatment and disposal of human waste in India. It finds that sanitation (and the disposal of human waste) is largely viewed as a sub-set of provision of water. Social, economic, and environmental changes that necessitate amendments in existing laws and/or the enactment of new laws have not been considered. An infrastructure focused, top-down approach has been adopted insofar as treatment is concerned and there is limited or no discussion about the appropriateness of existing human waste disposal technologies or consideration of alternatives in other cases, either in laws or policies. There is poor implementation of binding and non-binding instruments laying down standards for sewage disposal in order to avoid water pollution. Despite courts’ directions in cases concerning the failure or inability of public authorities to discharge their duties, there is no change in status quo.
Safai Karmachari Andolan
Authors: Wilson Bezwada
Published: April 2019

This chapter is a first-hand exposition of the issue of manual scavenging from the point of view of the community. It provides a brief narrative history of how the manual scavenging community in India emerged as a critical organized voice against the practice of manual scavenging and the underlying link between caste and sanitation work in India. In particular, this chapter explains the emergence of Safai Karmachari Andolan as a platform for the manual scavenging community to fight against discrimination, exploitation, and violation of rights politically, socially, and legally. It provides a brief account of the unwritten history of Safai Karmachari Andolan, the gradual progression of the movement, its engagement with the government and judiciary, and challenges in achieving the goal of complete eradication of manual scavenging.
Invisible Inequalities
Authors: Khanna Shomona
Published: April 2019

Started in 1997, Safai Karmachari Andolan (SKA) is a national movement for eradicating the practice of manual scavenging—an occupation which involves cleaning of dry latrines with tin plates and brooms and carrying of human excreta by members of lower castes. The SKA has been leading the public campaign to destroy illegal dry latrines and for the proper implementation of the Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993. In 2003, SKA, with 18 other organizations, filed a public interest litigation petition in the Supreme Court of India seeking eradication of manual scavenging, liberation of all manual scavengers from their degrading jobs, and initiation of measures for their rehabilitation. The SKA also works for the dignity and better working conditions for sanitation workers such as sewage workers, pit workers, and sweepers. This chapter seeks to record the work of SKA including its influence on the law and policymaking process.
Rights of Sanitation Workers in India
Authors: Sakthivel P. , Nirmalkumar M. , Benjamin Akshayaa
Published: April 2019

The legal framework in India recognizes the right to sanitation and the rights of workers in hazardous employment. But it has failed to regulate the safety of sanitation workers. The agencies of the state and local bodies that employ sanitation workers ignore the safety dimensions of their work. In this context, the higher judiciary has granted relief to sanitation workers who were victims of accidents or to their families after their death. This chapter analyses the legal framework relating to sanitation workers and highlights the importance of making laws to achieve their right to sanitation. It focuses on two dimensions. First, sanitation work is primarily a caste based and poverty driven occupation and this explains the indifferent attitude of the public and State. Second, the realization of the right to sanitation depends on the safety of sanitation workers and their recognition as right holders.
Tracing the History of the Legal System in India
Authors: Singh Mahendra Pal , Kumar Niraj
Published: April 2019

Examination of Indian legal history illustrates the presence of multiple legal orders that coexisted in India through the ages. Moreover, certain ‘modern’ conceptions of law were present in similar forms in India before the medieval period, contrary to Western assumptions. Largely ignoring these legal traditions, the British attempted to re-give law and legal systems to the Indians. This was part of the larger project of ideologically justifying the presence of the British Raj in India. The British used India’s extant legal diversity to argue for the lack of a dominant legal tradition, leading to the introduction of British common law as the law of the land.
Is Gandhi a Vedantist?
Authors: Allen Douglas
Published: April 2019

There is a strong tendency among many scholars to claim that true Hinduism is Vedanta and its highest form is Advaita. Many scholars claim that Gandhi is a Hindu Vedantist and especially an Advaitin. Gandhi does identify with Advaita Vedanta, but also with Hindu and other approaches that reject nondualistic Vedanta. The proposed answer to the question of whether Gandhi is a Vedantist is a qualified yes and a qualified no. Gandhi's philosophy and practice cannot be understood without recognizing the essential contributions of Advaita. However, Gandhi is not a traditional Advaitin and, in many respects, he is not a traditional Hindu. He embraces many presuppositions, values, principles, and practices that are radical critiques of traditional Vedanta and Hinduism. Is Gandhi’s approach to Vedanta hopelessly muddle-headed, uncritical, and incoherent or is he challenging us to rethink traditional religious, ethical, and philosophical positions of greatest significance today?
Gandhi and Socialism
Authors: Allen Douglas
Published: April 2019

Gandhi, along with other leaders in India’s Freedom Movement, clearly identifies himself as a socialist. We now live in an India and world dominated by finance capital and big corporate capitalism. It has seemed to most that Gandhian socialism is dead and irrelevant in our contemporary world of economic, social, political, and other power relations. Disagreeing with this view, this essay examines the relationship between Gandhi, capitalism, and socialism and asks what Gandhian socialism might mean today. After examining the nature of socialism and Gandhi’s writings on socialism, we delineate the major distinctive characteristics of Gandhian socialism. After analyzing serious weaknesses and confusion in Gandhi’s approach and strengths that are invaluable for what socialists and others can learn from a creatively developed Gandhian socialism, we conclude with a section on Gandhian socialism today, formulating the significance of such a new developing philosophy and practice for the contemporary world.
Rights as Security
Authors: Powell Rhonda
Published: April 2019

The right to security of person is widely recognized but little understood. Courts, legislatures, scholars, and others disagree about how the right to security of person should be defined. This book investigates the meaning of the right to security of person through an analysis of its constituent parts: security and the person. Applying an original conceptual analysis of ‘security’, it is argued that the right to security of person imposes both positive and negative duties. Also, to identify the interests to be protected by the right, we need a theory of personhood or well-being such as Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum’s ‘capabilities approach’. It is accepted that any existing legal rights to security of person must be artificially delineated in order not to overstep the boundaries of other rights. In recognition of the naturally broad meaning of the right to security of person, it is proposed that human rights law as a whole should be seen as a mechanism to further security of person: rights as security.
Dissent as Mainline
Authors: Porter Laura Rominger
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines how shifts in ideas, culture, and politics reconfigured dissenter Protestantism in twentieth-century North America. The first of these shifts, the rise of modernist ideas, divided dissenter Protestants into strict biblicists and more intellectually inclusive ‘liberals,’ which set mainline denominations on a path to theological pluralism and institutional stagnation. The second, the rise of consumer capitalism, pulled these two Protestant streams away from a shared social vision of ‘Christian civilization’ and toward consumer individualism in the forms of therapeutic, prosperity-driven theologies and consumer models of outreach. The third, the expansion of the liberal pluralist state, threatened American Protestantism’s privileged cultural status, set mainline advocates of pluralism against evangelical defenders of ‘Christian America,’ and restructured the ways dissenter Protestants engaged society. By the close of the twentieth century, these changes had propelled the demographic and cultural assent of evangelical organizations over older Protestant denominations, making them the new ‘mainline.’
The Twentieth-Century Black Church
Authors: Daniels David D.
Published: April 2019

Religious dissent within the Black Church focuses on defending the Christian gospel against the alliance of Christianity and the race order of white supremacy marks the contribution of the Black Church to the wider dissenting tradition. It engages in the religious delegitimation of the dominant racial order. While the White Church in the United States has historically replicated the dominant racial order of African American subordination, the religious dissent of the Black Church has resisted and subverted the dominant racial order in a way in which grace pre-empts race in the functional ecclesiology of the Black Church with Christian egalitarianism affirming the equality of the races, envisioning a church where grace structures ecclesial life rather than racism.
Chilean Pentecostalism
Authors: Lindhardt Martin
Published: April 2019

The first independent Pentecostal denomination in Latin America was founded in early twentieth-century Chile after a schism within the Methodist Episcopal Church. This chapter explores the origins of Chilean Pentecostalism, focusing particular attention on historical and theological connections with Methodism. I argue that although scholars are certainly right in paying careful attention to intrinsic developments, Chilean agency, and processes of indigenization, the history of Chilean Pentecostalism is in fact closely related to the history of global Pentecostalism because of a shared Methodist heritage. The chapter demonstrates that some of the internal, social, and theological tensions that caused the schism within the Methodist Episcopal Church, resulting in the foundation of a new Pentecostal ministry, have deep roots within North American Methodism. What Chilean Pentecostalism inherited from certain branches of Methodism was a strong revivalist urge and a contestatory cultural character that often clashed with a ‘high church’ push towards respectability.
Dissenting Religion
Authors: Garrard Virginia
Published: April 2019

This chapter traces the trajectory of two major dissenting movements in Latin America and the Caribbean in the nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first centuries. The first is the transition of the Anglican Church in the Caribbean from a colonial church closely linked to England to a denomination that is now mainly attended by African-descendant people; this section also explores Anglicanism’s breakaway churches that promote African and black identity and empowerment. The second half of the article examines the rise of Pentecostalism in Latin America, with particular attention to dynamic and dissenting characteristics, most notably its plastic theology, organic approach to church planting and leadership, and its obverse relationships with Catholic Liberation Theology.
Localization and Indigenization of Christianity in the Pacific
Authors: Howell Brian M. , Rynkeiwich Michael A.
Published: April 2019

This chapter explores the mission of nonconformist and dissenting missionaries throughout the Pacific Islands, including the Philippine Islands. A wide variety of Christian denominations have taken root in the Pacific, as well as a great number of examples of localization and indigenization of Christianity, particularly emerging from the wake of dissenting missionary efforts. So, we ask several questions. What kinds of dissenting mission have there been, especially in the Colonial Era, and now in the post-colonial Era? In what ways have the Pacific Islands and Filipino peoples, as agents in their own right, cooperated, resisted, and indigenized and localized the gospel and the church? Finally, what can we learn from these Protestant/dissenting mission histories that contributes to our overall project in this encyclopaedia; that of analysing and explaining the historical, theological, and missiological dynamics of mission from a particular perspective?
Fijian and Tongan Methodism
Authors: Samson Jane
Published: April 2019

Pacific islanders have made Christianity their own, including the Methodism introduced by British missionaries in the early nineteenth century. At times, island Methodism has challenged political and social traditions, dissenting from racism against immigrant communities or undemocratic rule. In other cases, Methodism has enjoyed privileged status as the established religion of the land. In Tonga it thrived under royal patronage. In Fiji it attracted nationalists whose racial essentialism drew it into a military coup and the machinations of a dictator. Either way, Methodist churches have been challenged in recent decades by breakaway revival movements and new denominations, many of which seek to return Methodism to its roots in spiritual holiness. These challenges continue to reflect the active agency of islanders in shaping the religious life of their communities.