bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Porfirian Labor Politics: Working Class Organizations in Mexico City and Porfirio Diaz, 1876-1902
Authors: Walker David W.
Published: July 2006

Most studies of relations between government and organized labor in Mexico stand firmly on the supposition that the Revolution of 1910 marked a sharp break with the past. The labor policies of the Díaz regime have alternately been described as either brutally repressive or as neutral and aloof in keeping with nineteenth century liberal doctrine (especially before 1906). If either of these somewhat contradictory characterizations are true, then the case for discontinuity in labor policies is clearly confirmed.

This essay will argue that neither description of labor policies during the Díaz regime is accurate. Rather, patterns of interaction between the Díaz government and urban working class organizations, especially in Mexico City, shaped the evolution of the Mexican labor movement and national labor policy along lines followed ever since. The Díaz government developed a flexible and sophisticated array of labor policy instruments that was based upon cooperation with and subsidies to progovernment labor organizations as well as political rewards and the other fruits of cooptation for labor leaders loyal to the regime. With its labor allies, the Díaz government promoted modes of organization which retarded labor militancy, sponsored informal as well as official mediation between workers and employers during strikes and other conflicts, and disseminated propaganda and instituted educational programs, including pro-government labor newspapers and schools for the working class, designed to promote labor's identification of its own well-being with the interests of the state. While the Revolution of 1910 and the later developments of the Cárdenas era institutionalized statelabor relations as never before, the objectives and instrumentalities of contemporary labor relations have their origin in the Porfiriato.
French Missionaries and Latin American Catholicism in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Pomerleau Claude
Published: July 2006

French Catholicism inspired one of the most ambitious missionary movements in the history of Roman Catholicism in the nineteenth century. French missionaries went to Latin America to build a new Church. In France, new missionary societies were founded for this task. Older, established religious societies were renewed in order to participate in the missionary movement of the day. French missionaries travelled across the globe establishing a network of missions linking the continents to France, and France to Rome. The missionary revival constituted the leading edge of religious renewal sweeping Europe and France during the nineteenth century.

The Latin American Church was especially receptive to French religious currents. Latin American religious leaders were preoccupied with internal struggles and absorbed with social and political conflicts. They disposed of few resources and of limited energy for evangelization and religious renewal within their newly-formed nations. The French were anxious and able to supply what was needed in Latin America. The French saw the missionary challenge as a struggle against secularization and liberalism, even though that battle was far from over within France itself.
Reading the Inquisitorial Record in Yucatán: Fact or Fantasy?
Authors: Clendinnen Inga
Published: July 2006

Richard Greenleaf, in urging ethnohistorians of Indian response to Spanish Catholic culture to be attentive to the inquisitorial record, pointed especially to two unusually rich bodies of documentation, one generated by the Oaxacan enquiry of the 1540's and 1550's; the other by the “idolatry trials” of Yucatán in 1562. Most of the material relating to the Yucatecan episode has long been easily accessible to scholars through France Scholes' and Eleanor Adams' magnificent publication of 1938. Scholes, in his introduction to that work, and then in an article he wrote in conjunction with the great ethnographer of the Maya, Ralph Roys, judged the Indian confessions elicited in the course of the inquisition to be largely based on fact, and therefore concluded that the Maya Indians of Yucatán, after their apparent conversion, had not only continued to worship their old idols, but had returned to an intensified practice of human sacrifice in which some victims had been subjected to preliminary crucifixion.
Maritime Defence of the Viceroyalty of Peru (1600-1700)
Authors: Bradley Peter T.
Published: July 2006

The intrusion into the South Sea in the seventeenth century first of Dutch fleets of exploration and trade, and later of English traders and English and French buccaneers, was to make the development of some measures for defence if not a constant preoccupation, at least from time to time a very urgent necessity, and a costly one. The reluctance on the part of the Crown to support and give financial aid to permanent land based defences, the great length of the coastline of the viceroyalty, and above all the overriding concern for the protection of the Peruvian treasure fleet, are clear indications that the provision of defence at sea was to become an issue of the first importance.
The Wealth of The Jesuits in Mexico, 1670–1767
Authors: Riley James D.
Published: July 2006

The issues involved in the topic of Jesuit wealth have excited observers and investigators since the sixteenth century. Their contemporaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries commonly believed that financial shrewdness and a deep involvement in commerce made the Order fabulously wealthy. From the time of the celebrated disputes with Bishop Cárdenas in Paraguay and Bishop Palaf ox in Mexico in the 1640’s, their detractors have considered the fact of their apparent wealth and rumored activities primafacie evidence of scandalous behavior, and so published many unsubstantiated allegations in their attacks on the Order. Even their admirers held the same views of Jesuit wealth and financial ability although they drew different conclusions concerning the effect of involvement with Mammon on Jesuit morals.
The Indian Population of Southern Guatemala, 1549-1551: An Analysis of López de Cerrato'sTasaciones de Tributos
Authors: Lovell W. George , Lutz Christopher H. , Swezey William R.
Published: July 2006

Thetasaciones de tributoscompiled between 1548 and 1554 under the supervision of Alonso López de Cerrato have long been recognized as the most important tribute documentation extant for mid sixteenth-century Central America, being of particular interest to all those whose inquiries have focussed on various aspects of the economy and demography of regions stretching from Chiapas and Yucatán in the north to Honduras and Nicaragua in the south. For the purpose of this paper, we wish to concentrate simply on one spatial component of theLibro de tasacionesforming part of the celebrated legajo 128, a rich set of documents housed in the Archivo General de Indias in the section of the archive classified as the Audiencia de Guatemala: that spatial component referred to by contemporary Spanish officials as “los términos y jurisdictión de la ciudad de Santiago de Guatemala,” that is, the territory which in early colonial times fell under the administrative authority of the city of Santiago.
Latin American Women Workers in Transition: Sexual Division of the Labor Force in Mexico and Colombia in the Textile Industry
Authors: Keremitsis Dawn
Published: July 2006

When the cottage textile industries in 18th century England were moved to urban factories, women and children also left their private existence and moved into public work in the mills. The situation was similar in Mexico and Colombia when their factories started to produce cloth, but after an urban labor force developed, men replaced women in the plants. In developed nations, women still dominate the textile work force, especially when products compete on a world market. Few studies have attempted to analyze the difference historically as the labor force divides into sexual roles, either in advanced or underdeveloped nations. Although Ester Boserup's study of third world women indicates that this transition occurs (in one direction) when mechanization advances to replace manual or simple tasks, lately her conclusions have been questioned as technologically advanced industries such as computers have hired women rather than men to assemble instruments. The textile industry has often been viewed as a force in the beginning of industrialization and can illustrate how women are used as a transition element as they first move from private home activities into public roles in the factories and then as plants become more capitalintensive, they are again returned to their private space. At first their willingness to accept low wages in the mills left the men performing agricultural labor. As promotion of industrialization brought an urban labor force into existence, a variety of social and economic pressures removed them from participation in production of goods. Their reserve labor remained available for other functions as the need arose.
Media of Exchange in 16th Century New Spain and the Spanish Response
Authors: Seeger Martin L.
Published: July 2006

There were many kinds of money in use in New Spain from the time of the conquest to the opening of the mint in Mexico City in 1537. Some was Spanish; other was Indian and dated back centuries before the arrival of the Spaniards. After the conquest, Spanish coins were the official media of exchange, but there were very few in New Spain.

Once the mint was in operation, Spanish coins became the first legal tender in the New World—begun 256 years before the first authorized coin was struck at Philadelphia. Furthermore, these “Mexican” coins served as a medium of exchange the world over. Therealcirculated freely in the Orient; many specimens bear “chop-marks” indicating the official validation of each individual bank through which they passed.

In fact, the Spanishrealbecame the standard of the currency of the United States and circulated with official sanction until 1857. Onerealwas equal to twelve and one-half cents and was called a bit. A quarter of a dollar or twenty-five cents was equal to two bits, hence the present day expression.
Afro-American Emigration to Haiti During the American Civil War
Authors: Seraille William
Published: July 2006

By 1860, racism had taken its toll on the psyche of thousands of free blacks. The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, the South's demands for the extension of slavery and the re-opening of the African slave trade, the Dred Scott decision of 1857 and the denial of suffrage, the right to hold public office, the right to be a juror, policeman or judge convinced thousands of free blacks to seek dignity away from the country's shores. Liberia, which had attracted Afro-Americans since the 1820's, was too far away and considered unhealthy for expatriates. But Haiti, jewel of the Caribbean, was near and most importantly, she beckoned to her northern brothers to come south.

In 1859 Fabre Geffrard, military hero of the wars with the Dominican Republic, overthrew the despotic regime of Emperor Faustin I and formed a republican form of government with himself as president for life. Haiti needed to be developed. President Geffrard looked to America's black agriculturists to replace the thousands of Haitians killed in the nation's wars and revolutions.
“That Demonic Game”: The Campaign to Stop IndianPelotaPlaying in Spanish Florida, 1675-1684
Authors: Bushnell Amy
Published: July 2006

In the last quarter of the seventeenth century the Spanish officials of Florida, both religious and civil, became convinced that a certain game of ball played by the Christian Indians was detrimental to their bodies, their souls, and the peace of the provinces of Apalache and Ustaqua. During a ten-year campaign this time-honored custom was investigated, argued over and finally outlawed. The story of this crusade against a ballgame is valuable for both the ethnologist and the Spanish colonial historian. For the ethnologist it is important because among the documents is a lengthy description of the game and its associated myths and magic: “Origin and beginnings of the game of pelota which the Apalache and Ustaqua Indians have played since pagan times up to the year 1676, brought to light by the Reverend Father Fray Juan de Paiva, Father of the mission of San Luis de Talimali. September 23, 1676.” For the colonial historian, the campaign demonstrates the identification of conversion with sovereignty long past contact and conquest, as well as the interwoven relationships among civil and religious authorities, unofficial Spanish residents, and native nobility.
The Ryukyuans in Peru 1906-1952
Authors: Tigner James L.
Published: July 2006

Trans-Pacific relations of Japan and Latin America began toward the end of the sixteenth century, but it was not until almost three centuries later that continuous contact was established. A seclusion law, adopted in 1638 by the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan, was enforced until the late nineteenth century. During this period Japanese citizens going abroad were subject to the death penalty upon returning, and foreigners, except for a limited number of Chinese and Dutch traders, were excluded from Japan. The expedition of Commodore Matthew C. Perry was instrumental in reestablishing Japan's relations with the West. Following the restoration of the Meiji Emperor, Mitsuhito, in 1868, Japanese were encouraged to seek knowledge throughout the world; however, the emigration of Japanese subjects, in general, was not legalized until 1885.
Guayaquil Through Independence: Urban Development in a Colonial System
Authors: Conniff Michael L.
Published: July 2006

In the 1530’s, as Mexico and then Peru began sending eastward the treasure which would so profoundly affect European life, the town of Guayaquil was established on the coast of present-day Ecuador. During the next three centuries Guayaquil developed into a society fundamentally different from and even antithetical to those of the great highland capitals. Agriculture, industry, and commerce, rather than mining, became the mainstays of Guayaquil’s economy. The decline of indigenous population on the coast and an influx of free Negroes from the north rendered an egalitarian and racially mixed people of low social differentiation. Cacao grown on the coastal lowlands provided the thrust for a wide range of trade and manufacturing activities. Yet tensions between location on a main imperial trade route and the stifling commercial control of nearby Lima resolved into a rough-and-tumble political system which thrived on contraband and autonomy. By the early nineteenth century Guayaquil had achieved a large measure of independence from Spain, and it played an important role in the liberation movements of western South America. After sketching the early development of the city, we will examine in some detail the system of labor and production in Guayaquil during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Then the city’s precocious autonomy within the colonial system will be discussed, prior to a concluding assessment of the social outcomes of Guayaquil’s development by the time of Independence.
New Light on the Sources of Torquemada's Monarchia Indiana
Authors: León-Portilla Miguel
Published: July 2006

In this discussion of the sources used by Fray Juan de Torquemada it is not our intention to reopen the question of plagiarism in his historical writings. The purpose of this study, as will be explained, is simply to find out the varied and rich sources which Torquemada used as well as to judge objectively how he employed them throughout his “Veintiún libros rituales.” It has been said, and correctly so, that the Monarquía Indiana is a sort of “crónica de las crónicas.” In fact, the sources consulted by its author are very numerous. As we shall see, these embrace various kinds of indigenous records, many unedited chronicles and other Spanish documents likewise unpublished, as well as, lastly, a rather small group of printed works.
Jaime Balmes, Spanish Traditionalist: His Influence in Spanish America
Authors: Davis Harold Eugene
Published: July 2006

It is often assumed that the most creative aspect of Latin American thought, since independence, has been revolutionary. To a considerable degree this is true, as this author has himself pointed out in previous writings. But Latin America has also felt the impact of a different stream of creative thought, Spanish in origin to a considerable degree, though not completely so—the stream of Hispanic and Christian traditionalism. But this traditionalism is a mixed current. Thus, Pablo González Casanova of Mexico has shown that while reactionary forces often opposed it, “modern” Christian thought in Spain and New Spain was absorbing the new philosophy and science of the eighteenth century. Alberto Caturelli and Enrique Zuleta Álvarez. of Argentina, in somewhat different ways, have pointed out a mixture of Christian traditionalism with liberal streams of thought in that country. Moisés González Navarro of Mexico found in the historian-statesman, Lucas Alamán, a mixture of Christian traditionalism and economic liberalism. Carlos Valderrama Andrade of Colombia has found that traditionalists such as Miguel Antonio Caro (1843-1909), and his father before him, mixed with the conservative elements of traditionalist thought progressive elements not unlike those of modern Christian democracy.
Bartolomé de las Casas, Judge Alonso de Zorita, and the Franciscans: A Collaborative Effort for the Spiritual Conquest of the Borderlands
Authors: Vigil Ralph H.
Published: July 2006

These brief remarks on the Dominican friar Bartolomé de Las Casas, Licenciate Alonso de Zorita, and the Franciscan Order in sixteenth-century Mexico should not be interpreted as characteristic of either the century or the colonial period as a whole. Church and state generally complemented each other, but the origins “of the longenduring conflict between clerical and anticlerical forces” in Mexico and the Borderlands “reach into earliest colonial times.” An example is the jurisdictional dispute between Archbishop Juan Pérez de la Serna and Viceroy Diego Carrillo de Mendoza y Pimental in the 1620s. Another is the long and bitter conflict between Franciscan missionaries and Spanish governors in seventeenth-century New Mexico. Nevertheless, cooperation between representatives of Church and State in New Spain is apparent even before the arrival of the saintly “Twelve Apostles” headed by Fray Martín de Valencia in 1524.
Survival and Abolition: The Eighteenth Century Paraguayan Encomienda
Authors: Saeger James Schofield
Published: July 2006

The history of theencomiendais an oft' told tale, although certain questions about the institution still provoke debate. Even the Paraguayan encomienda has received conscientious scholarly attention, most of which concentrates on the Habsburg period rather than the eighteenth century, when the institution had been eliminated in many areas.

But in eighteenth century Paraguay the encomienda was still an important institution. Members of the provincial elite placed great value on its possession. Since high position in the province was synonymous with encomendero status, membership in the encomendero class was exceedingly important. The crown's decision to abolish the system in the 1770s had important consequences for the future of Paraguay. In the short run it meant a gain for royal interests; in the long run it spelled disaster for the Spanish crown.
The Middle American Exile of Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre
Authors: Salisbury Richard V.
Published: July 2006

On August 23, 1931, the galleries of Lima's bull ring, the Plaza de Acho, rang with deafening applause. The object of this public tribute was Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, a young provincial politician who had just finished exhorting his fellow countrymen to join him in a movement for the regeneration of Peru. This day truly belonged to Haya, for it symbolized his return to the lists of Peruvian politics and the resumption of an active national political career that would be stilled only by death almost half a century later. This moment of triumph in the Plaza de Acho must have been especially sweet, for a little over eight years before, on May 23, 1923, Haya, as a young student leader, had organized a protest against the government of President Augusto B. Leguía. Military forces, however, dispersed the demonstrators killing several and wounding many in the process. Haya's reward for this manifestation of anti-establishment behavior was arrest, imprisonment, and ultimately, in October of 1923, deportation. Thus Haya's triumph of 1931 served, at least in part, as a vindication for the events of 1923 and the subsequent years of exile.
The Role of Women in the Mexican Cristero Rebellion: Las Señoras Y Las Religiosas
Authors: Miller Barbara
Published: July 2006

Participation of women in the Cristero rebellion, the Catholic uprising against the anti-clerical revolutionary government of Mexico, has largely been ignored by historians. A fresh reading of the documents, and more important, conversations with the principal women in the movement, reveal that the traditional role of women in the church gave way to changed behavior in the 1920s. Not only were Catholic women of a traditionally oriented society capable of assuming leadership in a violent enterprise, but they were equally capable of falling back into their conservative patterns once the crisis had ended. Nevertheless, the vital role women played in the church-state conflict prepared them for the emerging role of women in the twentieth century.
The Evolution of Land and Labor in the Haitian Revolution, 1791-1820
Authors: Lacerte Robert K.
Published: July 2006

Between 1791 when the Haitian revolution began, and the death of Henri Christophe in 1820, important economic changes occurred in Haiti which transformed one of the most prosperous plantation economies in the New World into a republic of peasant proprietors. While the political history of the revolution has received a moderate amount of attention, the economic and social changes which accompanied it have been poorly understood. It is the purpose of this study to focus on the internal developments which were occurring in an irresistible way to bring about a peasant economy and to delineate the responses of a variety of governments, both French and Haitian, to try to halt these changes.
Jeremy Bentham and the Colombian Liberators
Authors: McKennan Theodora L.
Published: July 2006

No English reformer of the early nineteenth century was so much admired by his Latin American contemporaries as was Jeremy Bentham, the prolific author of utilitarian treatises on government, economics, and law. The fundamental reasons for the Colombian liberators' interest in Bentham were undoubtedly the attractive manner in which he treated the explosive question of sovereignty, and his demand for a complete reconstruction of all legal systems upon utilitarian principles. It is even more certain that Bentham's most important entrée to the Spanish-American world was afforded by the popularity of his works, many of them published first on the Continent and in the French language, among the Spanish liberals. Yet the story of Bentham's personal contacts with a number of the próceres of Gran Colombia formed a noteworthy chapter in the history of the Bentham vogue in South America, as they sought him out during their journeys to Europe and the British Isles. Bentham himself was more than a passive partner in this exchange. Especially in the case of Bolívar, he pursued his acquaintances rather relentlessly by correspondence in his high-minded efforts to provide men in positions of power with the models for introducing utilitarian reforms.
Rebellion in the Colombian Llanos: The Arauca Affair of 1917
Authors: Loy Jane M.
Published: July 2006

On January 8, 1917 Bogotanos who glanced at the morning newspapers were startled to learn of a rebellion in the Llanos. Ten days before Humberto Gómez and a band of armed men had seized the town of Arauca. Ordinarily such an event would excite little concern in the capital. A small village on the Venezuelan border, Arauca was surrounded by vast tropical plains and lacked even a telegraph connection with Bogotá. It was a favorite refuge for Colombian and Venezuelan outlaws who routinely defied with impunity the laws of both countries. Yet Humberto, by killing the principal Colombian authority, the Comisario Especial and proclaiming himself Civil and Military Chief of the “Republic of Arauca” sounded a challenge that could not be ignored. Anxious to safeguard precarious treaty negotiations then in progress with Venezuela, President José Vicente Concha took swift action. He declared a state of siege and ordered two separate military expeditions commanded by General Jeśus García to Arauca. The daily periodicals gave full coverage to the ensuing drama. Their interest continued even after Humberto's capture in Venezuela on February 9, when eye-witness reports of atrocities committed in the Llanos by García's soldiers brought demands for an investigation. Between May and September, the editor of El Diario Nacional and future president, Enrique Olaya Herrera fanned the border incident into a major scandal by attacking the government in the columns of his newspaper and on the floor of the Chamber of Representatives. An analysis of what came to be called “The Arauca Affair” brings to light a little-known aspect of Concha's administration and explores a neglected theme of Colombian history—the interrelationship between the Andean interior and the Llanos frontier.
The Search for the Lost Father-Figure in Spanish American History: A Freudian View
Authors: Goldwert Marvin
Published: July 2006

Sigmund Freud was more than the father of psychoanalysis; he was also one of the great classical philosophers of history. In Freud's historical thought, we have the framework for an analysis of the past which parallels the formation of neuroses in the life history of the individual. Like psychological man, historical man is the victim of events (trauma) from the past. Etched on the brain of historical man, are memories which endure through time, become part of the “archaic heritage,” and are transmitted from one generation to another. Then, like the “return of the repressed” in neurotic individuals, societies feel the afflictions of the past, which return to haunt them. That Freud stressed the killing of the primeval father by his jealous sons, an event of dubious historical veracity, should not obscure the value of his historical framework. In Freudian thought, the psychic stages of the individual unfold in the collective societies of history.
Clerical Education in Nineteenth-Century Mexico: The Conciliar Seminaries of Mexico City and Guadalajara, 1821-1910
Authors: Lee James H.
Published: July 2006

The nineteenth century represented an era of declining influence for the Catholic church in Mexico, and no aspect of that trend created broader repercussions than the eclipse of the clergy's traditional role in higher education. Before the midcentury civil wars the conciliar seminaries graduated nearly as many laymen as did the public colegios, the majority of which in any case employed priests on their faculties. The seminaries, consequently, forged a vital link between the church and civil society, a link which potentially enhanced the political and social influence of the episcopate.
A New Millenarian: Georges Baudot
Authors: Frost Elsa Cecilia
Published: July 2006

Georges Baudot has written a lengthy book (554 pages) which bears a beautiful and suggestive title: Utopia and History in Mexico. In publishing this work, he seems to have had two very clear purposes in mind. The first is to fill an enormous gap since “strange as it may seem, the authentic sources for most of our knowledge about pre-Columbian civilization in central Mexico have never been studied.” (p. ix) The second, is to demonstrate the grandeur of the Franciscan work in the sixteenth century, impelled by millenarian fervor.

With respect to the manner in which Baudot fulfills his first and commendable purpose, there is nothing more to be said after the two articles Dr. Edmundo O'Gorman has published in Historia Mexicana. With regard to the second, I must admit that the reading of the book provoked in me, in almost equal measures, amazement and envy. I will explain. It amazes me (and not just a little) that an author who confronts what is for me, at least, such a difficult topic as Franciscan millenarianism can establish the antecedents of this tendency in only twenty pages (71-90) and utilize for it only a single biblical citation (p. 78, note 14: Revelations XX:4-6). Envy presents itself after concluding that such frugality must be due to the vast culture of the French public to whom the work is addressed.
An Ohio Yankee at Dom Pedro's Court: Notes on Brazilian Life in the 1850's by an American Diplomat, Robert C. Schenck
Authors: Peskin Allan , Ramos Donald
Published: July 2006

In 1850, after four terms in the United States Congress as a Whig from the Dayton, Ohio district, Robert Cumming Schenck decided not to run for reelection. Despondent over the recent death of his wife, Schenck yearned for a restful stay in a warmer clime. Consequently, he applied for a diplomatic post, the customary reward for loyal party service. President Millard Fillmore, a fellow Whig, obliged Schenck with an appointment as Minister Plenipotentiary and Envoy Extraordinary to Brazil. A railroad promoter, land speculator and politician, Schenck had few formal qualifications for diplomatic service other than the confidence of Secretary of State Daniel Webster and a fluent command of the French language. These were, however, more substantial assets than most nineteenth century American diplomats could boast, and to them Schenck added a brisk, businesslike manner, immense energy and a certain gruff charm.
Power, Class, and Family: Men and Women in the Mexican Elite, 1750-1810
Authors: Tutino John
Published: July 2006

This essay explores the social relations within a landed elite—the dominant class in eighteenth-century Mexico. It aims to outline the nature of the powers that sustained that elite, to determine who directly exercised those powers, and to detail the relations between those pivotal powerholders and the remaining majority of elite class members. My primary concern, then, is the relationship between elite power and class membership.

That, in turn, brings atttention to the roles of elite men and women, and the relations between them. Powerholders were usually men while class membership was shared equally between men and women. Was the internal structure of the elite thus based on sexual stratification? Were men able to be powerful and thus wealthy, while women could be wealthy only through subordination to a powerful man? To a great extent, that was true. But the majority of men within the Mexican elite were also wealthy while subordinate to a powerful man. And in a few notable cases, elite women exercised great power while men and women lived as their dependents. Sex was not the only principle of stratification among late colonial Mexican elites. Rather, sexual differentiation interacted with inequalities primarily based on economic power. This essay attempts to study the relations between economic power and sexual differentiation to approach an understanding of life within the late colonial landed elite in Mexico.
Rio Grande do sul in the Portuguese Empire: The Formative Years, 1777-1808
Authors: Bauss Rudy
Published: July 2006

This analysis and survey of economic activities in Rio Grande do Sul aim to shed new light on the crucial importance of the southernmost captaincy to overall Brazilian development at the close of the colonial period. Rio Grande do Sul was unique in economic growth, compared to the Center-South, Northeast and North, because the extreme South produced for a variety of markets: the internal Brazilian, the internal Portuguese, the Portuguese reexport to Europe and the Rio de Janeiro reexport to Angola. This market diversification made Rio Grande do Sul less dependent on the commercial vagaries of any particular geographical area. The focus of this article is the importance of economic growth in Rio Grande do Sul prior to 1808.
The Inquisition as Economic and Political Agent: The Campaign of the Mexican Holy Office Against the Crypto-Jews in the Mid-Seventeenth Century
Authors: Hordes Stanley M.
Published: July 2006

Within the scope of Mexican history, the subjects of the Church and the Inquisition have long been the focus of emotion, heated controversy, and misplaced value judgments. As a result, a lack of understanding surrounding these institutions has developed, and to a certain extent still exists today. Many authors have placed a heavy emphasis on the role that the Holy Office of the Inquisition played in the persecution of crypto-Jews, despite the fact that the inquisitors concerned themselves far more with more mundane breaches of faith and morals as blasphemy, bigamy, witchcraft, impersonation of priests, and solicitation of women in the confessional. These same writers demonstrate a certain emotional preoccupation with torture and burnings at the stake, phenomena which, while spectacular, occurred infrequently. The continual preoccupation with the theme of inquisitorial persecution of crypto-Jews, furthermore, seems to obscure other important areas of research in colonial Mexican history.
International Relations/Social Theory in a Small State: An Analysis of the Thought of Dantés Bellegarde
Authors: Bellegarde-Smith Patrick
Published: July 2006

L'Idée, quand elle s'estcompletement incorporée à l'êtremoral, devient aussi impulsiveque le sentiment, se transformeon peut dire en sentiment.— D. Bellegarde.

Louis-Dantès Bellegarde, (1877-1966), is acknowledged generally to have been the most significant and influential diplomat produced by the Republic of Haiti in this century. His first diplomatic assignment came fortuitously at age forty-four, when President Philippe-Sudre Dartiguenave appointed him on an impulse to the Paris legation, the Holy See, and to the League of Nations in 1921. In that period, he also served as a member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration (The Hague), and was the Honorary President of the Second Pan-African Congress held under the aegis of W. E. B. DuBois. Previously, from age twenty-seven, he had occupied high governmental positions at the sub-cabinet and then cabinet level, primarily in the fields of education and agriculture. His formal training had been in law, banking, and commerce. That particular training was to serve him well, but color his perspective. The League's Council named him to the Commission of Slavery and Forced Labour in 1924. In 1927, he was a special guest at the Fourth Pan-African Congress held in New York. Later, in 1930, President Louis-Eugène Roy appointed him anew to France and the League of Nations where again he created a sensation.
The Suppression of the Religious Orders in Peru, 1826-1830 or The King Versus the Peruvian Friars: The King Won
Authors: Tibesar Antonine S.
Published: July 2006

For many years, the sudden collapse of the major religious orders in Peru shortly after independence has interested this author. For the religious orders, Lima had been what it was for the viceroy: the center of the organizational structure for most of the continent with the stately conventos and lavishly endowed churches to attest to the importance of that position. Yet, within a relatively short period, 1826-1830, the grandeur faded and the power disappeared. Why?
Estradiol and its metabolites and their association with knee osteoarthritis
Authors: Sowers MaryFran R. , McConnell Daniel , Jannausch Mary , Buyuktur Ayse G. , Hochberg Marc , Jamadar David A.
Published: July 2006

Objective

To determine if levels of endogenous estrogen or estrogen metabolites are associated with an increased risk of developing knee osteoarthritis (OA) in women.

Methods

Serum estradiol (E2) and 2 urinary estrogen metabolites (2‐hydroxyestrone and 16α‐hydroxyestrone) with radiographically defined prevalent and incident knee OA in 842 white and African American women from the Southeast Michigan Arthritis Cohort.

Results

The mean age and body mass index (BMI) of women in the cohort were 42.3 years and 28.5 kg/m2, respectively. Women who developed radiographically defined knee OA had significantly greater odds of having baseline endogenous early follicular phase estradiol concentrations in the lowest tertile (<47 pg/ml; odds ratio [OR] 1.88, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.07–3.51) compared with those with estradiol concentrations in the middle tertile [47–77 pg/ml]), after adjustment for age, BMI, and other covariates. Women who developed knee OA also had greater odds of having baseline urinary concentrations of 2‐hydroxyestrone in the lowest tertile (OR 2.9, 95% CI 1.49–5.68) compared with women with 2‐hydroxyestrone concentrations in the middle tertile), after adjustment for covariates. Women who developed knee OA were more likely to have a ratio of 16α‐hydroxyestrone to 2‐hydroxyestrone in the highest tertile (>0.86; OR 1.86, 95% CI 1.01–3.44 compared with women with ratios in the 0.54–0.86 range), after adjustment for other covariates.

Conclusion

There were significant associations of lower baseline serum estradiol and urinary 2‐hydroxyestrone with developing knee OA in middle‐aged women.
Lyme myositis
Authors: Holmgren Aaron R. , Matteson Eric L.
Published: July 2006

Myositis has been reported as a rare manifestation of Lyme disease, and Lyme myositis can be an important consideration in the differential diagnosis of unusual cases, especially in patients who live in or travel to endemic areas. We report the case of a 43‐year‐old man who presented with focal myositis of the proximal lower extremity and was subsequently diagnosed as having Lyme myositis. The patient had previously experienced a febrile illness and rash, but had no ongoing symptoms of Lyme disease. Myositis was confirmed by magnetic resonance imaging and muscle biopsy; Borrelia burgdorferi infection was confirmed by Lyme serology and polymerase chain reaction testing of synovial fluid and biopsy material. The current case is reviewed in the context of findings from previous case descriptions.
Inhibitory effect of stobadine on FMLP‐induced chemiluminescence in human whole blood and isolated polymorphonuclear leukocytes
Authors: Drábiková Katarína , Jančinová Viera , Nosál Radomír , Pečivová Jana , Mačičková Tatiana , Turčáni Peter
Published: July 2006

The chemiluminescence (CL) technique with luminol and isoluminol was used to characterize the effect of stobadine on reactive oxygen metabolites (ROM) generation in human whole blood and in isolated polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNL) stimulated with N‐formyl‐methionyl‐leucyl‐phenyl‐alanine (FMLP). In whole blood and in isolated PMNL, stobadine in the concentrations of 1, 10 and 100 µmol/L significantly inhibited the CL signal after FMLP, which activated predominantly extracellular generation of ROM. The same concentrations of stobadine were effective on CL in a cell‐free system. On the other hand, myeloperoxidase (MPO) liberation was decreased by stobadine only in the concentration of 100 µmol/L. The results showed stobadine to act as a potent inhibitor/scavenger of extracellularly produced ROM in human PMNL and indicated interference of stobadine with ROM as well as with signalling events resulting in NADPH‐oxidase activation and MPO liberation. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The Venomous Secrets of the Web Droplets from the Viscid Spiral of the Orb‐Weaver Spider Nephila clavipes (Araneae, Tetragnatidae)
Authors: Salles Heliana C. , Volsi Evelyn Cristina F. R. , Marques Maurício R. , Souza Bibiana M. , dos Santos Lucilene D. , Tormena Cláudio F. , Mendes Maria A. , Palma Mario S.
Published: July 2006

The capture web of N. clavipes presents viscous droplets, which play important roles in web mechanics and prey capture. By using scanning and transmission electron microscopy, it was demonstrated that the web droplets are constituted of different chemical environments, provided by the existence both of an aqueous and a lipid layer, which, in turn, present a suspension of tenths of vesicles containing polypeptides and/or lipids. GC/EI‐MS Analysis of the contents of these vesicles led to the identification of some saturated fatty acids, such as decanoic acid, undecanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, octadecanoic acid, and icosanoic acid, while other components were unsaturated fatty acids, such as (Z)‐tetradec‐9‐enoic acid, (Z)‐octadec‐9‐enoic acid, and (Z)‐icosa‐11‐enoic acid; and polyunsaturated fatty acids like (9Z,12Z)‐octadeca‐9,12‐dienoic acid, (9Z,12Z,15Z)‐octadeca‐9,12,15‐trienoic acid, and (11Z,14Z)‐icosa‐11,14‐dienoic acid. Toxic proteins such as calcium‐activated proteinase and metalloproteinase jararhagin‐like precursor were also identified by using a proteomic approach, indicating the possible involvement of these enzymes in the pre‐digestion of spiders' preys web‐captured. Apparently, the mixture of fatty acids are relatively toxic to insects by topical application (LD50 64.3±7.6 ng mg−1 honeybee), while the proteins alone present no topical effect; however, when injected into the prey‐insects, these proteins presented a moderate toxicity (LD50 40.3±4.8 ng mg−1 honeybee); the mixture of fatty acids and proteins is very toxic to the preys captured by the web droplets of the viscid spiral of Nephila clavipes when topically applied on them (LD50 14.3±1.8 ng mg−1 honeybee).
New Bisabolane Sesquiterpenes and Coumarin from Leontopodium longifolium
Authors: Li Ji‐Xin , Lin Chang‐Jun , Yang Xiu‐Ping , Jia Zhong‐Jian
Published: July 2006

From the roots of Leontopotium longifolium, three new bisabolane sesquiterpenes, rel‐(1S,4R,5S,6R)‐4,5‐diacetoxy‐6‐[(R)‐1,5‐dimethylhexa‐3,5‐dienyl]‐3‐methylcyclohex‐2‐enyl (Z)‐2‐methylbut‐2‐enoate (1), rel‐(1S,4R,5S,6R)‐4,5‐diacetoxy‐6‐[(R)‐5‐hydroxy‐1,5‐dimethylhex‐3‐enyl]‐3‐methylcyclohex‐2‐enyl (Z)‐2‐methylbut‐2‐enoate (2), rel‐(1R,2S,4R,5S)‐4‐acetoxy‐2‐[(R)‐5‐hydroxy‐1,5‐dimethylhex‐3‐enyl]‐5‐methylcyclohexyl (Z)‐2‐methylbut‐2‐enoate (3), and a new coumarin, 2,3‐dihydro‐5‐hydroxy‐2‐(1‐methylethenyl)‐7H‐pyrano[2,3‐g][1,4]benzodioxin‐7‐one (4) together with nine known compounds have been isolated. The structures of these compounds were established by spectroscopic methods. Compounds 1 and 2 exhibited moderate cytotoxic activities against human promyelocytic leukemia (HL‐60) cells.
Fluorescent N2,N3‐ε‐Adenine Nucleoside and Nucleotide Probes: Synthesis, Spectroscopic Properties, and Biochemical Evaluation
Authors: Sharon Einat , Lévesque Sébastien A. , Munkonda Mercedes N. , Sévigny Jean , Ecke Denise , Reiser Georg , Fischer Bilha
Published: July 2006

N1,N6‐ethenoadenine, ε‐A, nucleos(t)ides have been previously applied as fluorescent probes in numerous biochemical systems. However, these ε‐A analogues lack the H‐bonding capability of adenine. To improve the fluorescence characteristics while preserving the H‐bonding pattern required for molecular recognition, we designed a novel probe: N2,N3‐etheno‐adenosine, (N2,N3‐ε‐A). Here, we describe four novel syntheses of the target ε‐nucleoside and related analogues. These methods are short, facile, and provide the product regiospecifically. In addition, we report the absorption and emission spectra of N2,N3‐ε‐A and the dependence of the spectral features on the pH and polarity of the medium. Specifically, maximum emission of N2,N3‐ε‐A in water is observed at 420 nm (ϕ=0.03, excitation at 290 nm). The biochemical relevance of the new probe was evaluated with respect to the P2Y1 receptor and NTPDases 1 and 2. N2,N3‐ε‐ATP was found to be almost equipotent with ATP at the P2Y1 receptor and was hydrolyzed by NTPDases 1 and 2 at about 80 % of the rate of ATP. Furthermore, protein binding does not seem to shift the fluorescence of N2,N3‐ε‐ATP. Based on the fluorescence and full recognition by ATP‐binding proteins, we propose N2,N3‐ε‐ATP and related nucleo(s)tides as unique probes for the investigation of adenine nucleo(s)tide‐binding proteins as well as for other biochemical applications.
Phosphate‐Group Recognition by the Aptamer Domain of the Thiamine Pyrophosphate Sensing Riboswitch
Authors: Noeske Jonas , Richter Christian , Stirnal Elke , Schwalbe Harald , Wöhnert Jens
Published: July 2006

Riboswitches are highly structured RNA elements that control gene expression by binding directly to small metabolite molecules. Remarkably, many of these metabolites contain negatively charged phosphate groups that contribute significantly to the binding affinity. An example is the thiamine pyrophosphate‐sensing riboswitch in the 5′‐untranslated region of the E. coli thiM mRNA. This riboswitch binds, in order of decreasing affinity, to thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), thiamine monophosphate (TMP), and thiamine, which contain two, one, and no phosphate groups, respectively. We examined the binding of TPP and TMP to this riboswitch by using 31P NMR spectroscopy. Chemical‐shift changes were observed for the α‐ and β‐phosphate group of TPP and the phosphate group of TMP upon RNA binding; this indicates that they are in close contact with the RNA. Titration experiments with paramagnetic Mn2+ ions revealed strong line‐broadening effects for both 31P signals of the bound TPP; this indicates a Mg2+ binding site in close proximity and suggests that the phosphate group(s) of the ligand is/are recognized in a magnesium ion‐mediated manner by the RNA.
Transcatheter occlusion of a residual muscular ventricular septal defect using an Amplatzer duct occluder in a child with congenitally corrected transposition of the great arteries
Authors: Stapleton Gary E. , Carlson Karina M. , Justino Henri
Published: July 2006

Transcatheter occlusion has become an acceptable alternative to surgery in patients with congenital muscular and residual post‐surgical ventricular septal defects (VSD). We present a case of an 11 year old male with congenitally corrected transposition of the great arteries, dextrocardia, pulmonary atresia, VSD, and advanced second degree atrioventricular block who underwent successful transcatheter occlusion of a residual post‐surgical VSD with an Amplatzer duct occluder, in preparation for transvenous pacemaker implantation. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
A Theoretical Proposal for the Synthesis of Carbapenems from 4‐(2‐Propynyl)azetidinones Promoted by [W(CO)5] as an Alternative to the Ag+‐Assisted Process
Authors: Campomanes Pablo , Menéndez M. Isabel , Sordo Tomás L.
Published: July 2006

The synthesis of carbapenems from 4‐(2‐propynyl)azetidinones assisted by both Ag+ and [W(CO)5] was theoretically investigated by using the B3LYP/6‐31+G(d)‐LANL2DZ level, taking into account the effect of solvent by the PB‐SCRF model implemented in Jaguar. According to our results, the silver‐assisted cyclization is a concerted process for which the low yield experimentally observed could mainly stem from the alkaline hydrolysis of the β‐lactam ring. This process is very efficiently catalyzed by Ag+, making it competitive with the formation of the carbapenem. The cycloisomerization of 4‐(2‐propynyl)azetidinone promoted by [W(CO)5] is proposed as an alternative synthetic strategy to obtain the carbapenem. The endo cycloisomerization is by far the most favorable one. When the process is assisted by [(thf)W(CO)5], although the main product is the carbapenem, the formation of a carbene complex represents a certain competition. The presence of a Me3N molecule from the very start of the reaction causes an important catalytic effect considerably reducing the energy barriers corresponding to the H atom transfers and rendering a very efficient process. Moreover, this catalytic action determines the evolution of the system through only one mechanistic route which produces the carbapenem, hindering the formation of the carbene. Therefore, the cycloisomerization of 4‐(2‐propynyl)azetidinone promoted by [(Me3N)W(CO)5] constitutes an interesting alternative to the silver‐assisted cyclization.