bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Amalgamated Codazzi-Raychaudhuri Identity for Foliation
Authors: Carter Brandon
Published: November 2023

I wish to thank the editors of this volume for the opportunity of again expressing appreciation for the beautifully geometric way of perceiving the physical world that Roger Penrose communicated to so many students of my generation. In particular it was Roger’s emphasis (Penrose 1964) on the importance of features that are conformally invariant that led me, with his help, to develop the systematic use (Carter 1966) of 2-dimensional conformal projections (the Lorentz signature analogue of Mercator type projections in ordinary terrestrial mapping) of the kind that have since become widely and appropriately known as “Penrose diagrams”. An outstanding example of the kind of conformally invariant structure whose analysis was specially developed and applied under Roger’s leadership is that of null-geodesic foliations: in particular, it was his derivation, with Ted Newman (Newman and Penrose 1962) of the null limit of the famous divergence identity obtained originally for a time like flow by Raychaudhuri (1957), that provided the essential tool for deriving the singularity theorems that were subsequently developed, first by Roger himself (Penrose 1965), and later on by Stephen Hawking and others (Hawking and Penrose 1970; Hawking and Ellis 1973).
Twistor Solution of the Holonomy Problem
Authors: Merkulov S A , Schwachhofer L J
Published: November 2023

The holonomy group is one of the most informative characteristics of an affine connection. The problem of classifying all possible holonomy groups has a long history, beginning in the 1920s with the works of Cartan (1926a, b) who used this notion to classify locally symmetric Riemannian manifolds. Berger (1955) showed that the list of irreducibly acting matrix Lie groups which can, in principle, occur as the holonomy of a torsion-free affine connection must be very restrictive. This sharply contrasts a result of Hano and Ozeki (1956) which says that there is no interesting holonomy classification in the class of arbitrary affine connections—any closed subgroup of GL(n, ℝ) can be realized as the holonomy of an affine connection (with torsion, in general).
Afterword
Authors: Penrose Roger
Published: November 2023

Geometry, in its various forms, has always been one of my greatest delights—and even obsessions. In addition to the intrinsic beauty of the subject, there is the fact that geometry can also shed profound light on the deepest issues of science and philosophy—a wondrous fact that is indeed one of Nature’s miracles. One such a miracle was Einstein’s general relativity. But quantum theory, also, can in many respects be vastly illuminated by the geometrical perspective.
Geometry—formalisms and intuitions
Authors: Gray Jeremy
Published: November 2023

The change in our understanding of geometry in the nineteenth century, and especially around the end of that century, is astonishing. From being a core subject of elementary instruction, little changed from Euclid ‘s day, around which stood a modest number of more advanced ideas (algebraic curves, and the differential geometry of curves and surfaces) it embraced non-Euclidean geometry, new foundations in projective geometry, complex spaces, axiomatization, a transition from space to space-time, and numerous further alterations. Not least of these was a widening gap between the study of geometry and ideas about physical space. Its philosophical position was buffeted by these gales, its role as a supplier of intellectual certainty was severely questioned and some would say that in philosophical and psychological terms its former role has been severely eroded. All of this could have been regarded as highly technical and esoteric, of no practical relevance whatever, but it became one of the most notorious, well publicized changes in the whole of mathematics. It is worth picking through why this is. Some of the changes naturally interested philosophers. Some reasonably caught the attention of physicists, although quantum mechanics proved to be their consuming passion. But other such changes in mathematics and science have occurred without much public notice. It was not so with Poincare ‘s work, nor with Einstein ‘s. The extensive list of factors that promoted special and general relativity to center stage and made such an idol out of Einstein has been profitably debated at length. It includes many social aspects, such as the symbolic status of Eddington ‘s observations so soon after the First World War, and Einstein ‘s own personality.
Hilbert and physics (1900-1915)
Authors: Corry1 Leo
Published: November 2023

The name of David Hilbert (1862-1943) usually arises in connection with the history of physics in three different and rather circumscribed contexts. The first of these is the famous list of twenty three problems that Hilbert presented in 1900 in Paris, on the occasion of the Second International Congress of Mathematicians. The sixth problem of this list deals specifically with physics. Only one year before the Paris Congress Hilbert had published his seminal study on the foundations of geometry, Die Grundlagen der Geometrie. The axiomatic approach adopted by Hilbert in this book was to have an enormous influence on the development of twentieth century mathematics and on the way mathematicians looked at their science. Hilbert ‘s sixth problem was the suggestion that an analysis similar to that performed for the case of geometry in the Grundlagen should also be applied to individual physical disciplines.
The Göttingen response to general relativity and Emmy Noether ‘s theorems
Authors: Rowe David
Published: November 2023

Emmy Noether ‘s name is usually connected with the emergence of modern algebra at Gottingen during the 1920s. Although widely regarded by con temporary algebraists as the leading figure in the field, she was also known to both mathematicians and physicists-including Klein, Hilbert, Weyl, and Einstein-for her work on differential invariants and the connections between variational principles and conservation laws in physics. During the war years in Gottingen, Noether served as an assistant to Felix Klein and David Hilbert when both were immersed in work on general relativity theory. In this paper, I will not enter deeply into Naether ‘s published work nor will I discuss its impact on subsequent research. My purpose instead is to show the central part she played in the context of the overall response to general relativity by Gottingen mathematicians beginning with the ‘codiscovery ‘ of the gravitational field equations by Einstein and Hilbert in November 1915.
Characters
Authors: Freer Stephen
Published: November 2023

The FOUNDATION of botany (4) is two-fold, arrangement and nomenclature. [My] Systema naturae, veget. 2. ‘The foundation of botany consists in the systematic classification and nomenclature of plants: generic and specific.’ [My] Classes plantarum 4. ‘The names of plants ought to be definite, and accordingly placed in definite genera.’ Arrangement is the foundation of nomenclature.
Potencies
Authors: Freer Stephen
Published: November 2023

Plants that agree in genus (165) also agree in effective properties: those that are included in one natural order also approximate to each other in effective properties; and those that are of the same natural class are also to some extent of the same potencies.
Continuous functions on compact intervals
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

The last chapter concentrated on ‘integral as area’, for step functions. We wish to reconcile this with ‘integral as antiderivative’. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, as stated in Chapter 1, concerned continuous functions on compact intervals. We therefore investigate how we can extend our integral to such functions, using step function approximations.
Uniform convergence and power series
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

As far as the development of integration theory is concerned much of this chapter is a side-track. It rounds off the study of continuous functions on compact intervals, investigating limits and infinite sums of such functions, and in particular power series. The arguments are quite elementary, but firmly rooted in the ε-δtradition. Our main technique is that of uniform convergence. We stress that uniform convergence rarely occurs (except locally) for sequences of functions on unbounded intervals. This makes it of limited value in our general theory. The powerful and widely applicable convergence theorems proved in Chapter 14 subsume the elementary results on limits of integrals we derive in this chapter.
The class L of integrable functions
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

We have reached the final stages of the construction of the integral. Most of the hard work has already been done and the properties to be verified are familiar. We finish the construction without presenting further concrete examples. Succeeding chapters abound with examples.
Techniques of integration II
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

The result in 16.2 has worthwhile practical consequences, foreshadowed in 15.9. Remember that the FTC and its corollaries apply to suitable functions on a compact interval. We can now extend these to intervals which are unbounded or not closed. To illustrate how to proceed we consider the FTC itself.
Sums and integrals
Authors: Priestley H A
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 8 we considered term-by-term integration of series in the context of continuous functions on compact intervals. It is important to realize that the elementary arguments applicable there do not extend to functions on unbounded sets. In the general setting the convergence theorems can be used instead. The examples and exercises in this chapter make use of well-known series expansions; most of these are recalled in Appendix IL.
Three sequential algorithms
Authors: Karpinski Marek , Rytter Wojciech
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we present basic, sequential, polynomial time algorithms for matchings. The existence of any polynomial time algorithm for matchings in general graphs is a nontrivial fact. We discuss why these algorithms are hard to parallelize (in the sense of NC implementations). The first algorithm (of Hopcroft and Karp, see [HK73]) works efficiently for bipartite graphs and the two others work for general graphs. All of them have many variations which are quite interesting from the point of view of sequential computations. However, these variations would deserve a separate monograph and, as our main concern is parallel complexity, we concentrate only on basic sequential algorithms. They use augmenting paths as a main tool.
Special summability methods
Authors: Boos Johann , Cass Peter
Published: November 2023

After having become acquainted in Chapter 2 with several inclusion, comparison and consistency results it is time to put some life into the theory by considering (classes of) examples of summability methods. In this way we shall have the opportunity to apply theorems, proved in Chapter 2, to special matrix methods. In particular, we investigate the members of the classes concerning the properties defined in Chapter 2 like conservative (for null sequences), regular (for null sequences), coercive, type M, mean value property, potent, and so on.
A Few More Questions
Authors: David Guy , Semmes Stephen
Published: November 2023

We have already mentioned a lot of questions about the looking-down relation between BPI sets, but here is another one.

Problem 20.1  Suppose that M and N are BPI spaces of equal dimension which are not BPI equivalent (or even look-down equivalent) and that M looks down on N. Can we find a third BPI space T of the same dimension such that M looks down on T, T looks down on N, and T is not look-down equivalent to either M or N ?
Discretised Equations and Domain Decomposition Methods
Authors: Quarteroni Alfio , Valli Alberto
Published: November 2023

In this chapter the general principles previously introduced will be accommodated to treat the finite dimensional approximation of differential problems. We confine our analysis to the Poisson problem. However, its extension to the case of the more general symmetric elliptic boundary value problem (1.4.1) is straightforward and will be left to the interested reader. On the other hand, other kind of equations, either stationary or time-dependent, will be addressed from Chapter 5 onwards.
Longitudinal Vortices in Wavy Boundary Layers
Authors: Phillips W R C , Wu Z , Jahnke C C
Published: November 2023

Wind driven water waves are thought to arise owing to an instability in the atmospheric boundary layer above (2] and (3] or in the oceanic boundary layer beneath (4] the water surface. Both mean velocity profiles can be inflectional (5] although to date only non-inflectional profiles have been studied (6) and (7). Coupled with this instability is a further instability between the growing (or grown) waves and the boundary layer(s), giving rise to vortices more or less aligned with the wind. These vortices are essentially spanwise periodic with wavelengths as large as one kilometer in the ocean and three kilometers in the atmosphere. The former are known (after their discoverer) as Langmuir circulations (LC’s) and for clarity we shall refer to the latter as atmospheric Langmuir circulations (ALC’s).
Some Aspects of Wind-Wave Coupling at High Winds: an Experimental Study
Authors: Giovanangeli J P , Reul N , Garat M H , Branger H
Published: November 2023

Experiments were conducted in the IRPHE wind-wave facility in order to study the evidence and occurrence of air-flow separation above short wind waves. An original air-flow separation probe was designed and a Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique in the air close to the surface was carried on. Measurements above steep waves clearly show air-flow separation at the crest, organised vortex motions with reverse flow above the leeward face and reattachment on the windward face of the downstream wave. Occurrence of air-flow separation grows linearly with wave steepness and decreases with wave age. The associated effects on wind-wave coupling are investigated.
Does the Wind Stress Depend on the Sea State?
Authors: Yelland Margaret J , Taylor Peter K
Published: November 2023

This paper discusses the effect of sea state on the drag coefficient (C  D10N) to 10 m neutral wind speed (U10N) relationship, with particular emphasis on open ocean conditions. A large set of open ocean wind stress measurements were made using the inertial dissipation method during three cruises of the RRS Discovery in the Southern Ocean (Yelland and Taylor, 1996; Yelland et al., 1998; Yelland, 1997). These data were used to determine the mean CmoN to U10N relationship for open ocean conditions, and the extent of the influence of the sea state on this relationship is investigated (Section 2). Possible causes of the observed deviations of the drag coefficient from the mean relationship are discussed in Section 3. Section 4 contains a brief discussion on the disparity between results from open-ocean studies and those obtained by previous authors in coastal or other shallow water sites.
Observational Studies of the Surface Velocity Phase Structure of Microscale Breaking Wind Waves
Authors: Peirson W L
Published: November 2023

The phase structure of the surface velocity associated with wind-driven microscale breaking waves has been measured in a laboratory wind-wave flume using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) techniques. Contrary to previous studies, it is found that, on average, the surface flow at the crest does not contribute directly to the spilling regions of these small waves. In general, the net surface transport relative to the wave form is rear ward along the entire wave surface except in the immediate vicinity of the spilling region itself. Such findings have important implications in the de termination of appropriate surface boundary conditions for models of air flow over waves and theoretical and physical investigations of air-sea mass transfer.
Minimisers of Free Discontinuity Problems
Authors: Ambrosio Luigi , Fusco Nicola , Pallara Diego
Published: November 2023

In this chapter and in the next one we study existence and regularity of solutions of a class of free discontinuity problems whose model is the Mumford-Shah functional introduced in Chapter 4.
Increasing set functions
Authors: Braides Andrea , Defranceschi Anneliese
Published: November 2023

It will be useful to characterize measures as increasing set functions enjoying special properties which are often satisfied by ┌-limits. The following criterion is due to De Giorgi and Letta (1977).
Helix-Loop-Helix Transcription Factors
Authors: Littlewood Trevor D , Evan Gerard I
Published: November 2023

Helix-Loop-Helix (HLH) proteins are involved in transcriptional regulation of gene expression. The HLH domain is a DNA-binding dimerization domain which mediates homodimerization and heterodimerization with other HLH proteins. This new volume in the Protein Profile series explores the sequence specificity of DNA binding, the nature of dimerization partners, the regulation of target genes by HLH proteins, and the negative regulation of some bHLH proteins by HLH proteins which lack a functional DNA-binding domain. Topics include the role of HLH proteins in such diverse areas as myogenesis, neurogenesis, haematopoeisis, and sex determination; tissue specific HLH proteins; the role of HLH proteins in yeast and plants; nuclear localization of HLH proteins, transactivation domains and post-translational modification.
Introduction
Authors: Littlewood Trevor D , Evan Gerard I
Published: November 2023

The transcription of genes within eukaryotic cells is controlled by complex interactions between transcription factors and specific DNA recognition sequences in target genes. These DNA-binding transcription factors fall into a number of groups, each defined by shared sequence and, presumably structural, motifs. One such motif is the helix-loop-helix (HLH), first identified in an immunoglobulin enhancer-binding polypeptide as well as several other proteins known, or suspected, to be transcription factors [741]. The HLH region has also sometimes been referred to as the ‘Myc homology domain’, doubtless in deference to the notoriety and perceived importance of Myc proteins in carcinogenesis. However, the HLH motif is present in many proteins of diverse biological function and unified only by their common involvement in transcriptional regulation (reviewed in [3, 4, 32, 34, 43, 51, 62, 64, 69, 1312]). The HLH domain is a dimerization domain that mediates homo- and/or hetero-dimerization with other HLH proteins. The HLH domain is usually adjacent to a short region of basic residues that constitutes the sequence-specific DNA interaction interface; hence such proteins are often referred to as bHLH proteins. A second group of bHLH proteins contains an additional dimerization domain, the leucine zipper [1148], immediately C-terminal to the HLH. These proteins are commonly referred to as bHLHZ proteins. Members of a third group of HLH proteins lack a functional DNA-binding domain and act as negative regulators of bHLH proteins.
Structure/function relationships of HLH proteins
Authors: Littlewood Trevor D , Evan Gerard I
Published: November 2023

The bHLH proteins bind DNA as dimers and usually recognize short palindromic sequences (CANNTG) such that each protein monomer binds one haif-site. Immediately N-terminal to the HLH or HLHZ dimerization domain is a region of basic amino acids (b) presumed to mediate DNA binding. Sequence specificity is assumed to reside in the combination of the two basic domains in the dimer. Exceptions to this linear arrangement of basic domain and dimerization domain are a number of proteins with no recognizable basic domain such as Extramacrochaetae and Id (Fig. 2). These proteins, which are unable to bind DNA, inhibit the activity of bHLH proteins fry dimerizing with them to form inactive, non-DNA-binding, heterodimers. In structure, the bHLH domain comprises a short stretch of hydrophilic (often basic) residues (b) followed by a set of mainly hydrophobic residues located in two short segments (helix 1 and helix 2) and separated by a non-conserved sequence of variable length (the loop). The distribution of conserved residues within the HLH is consistent with the formation of two helices separated by a stretch of amino acids unfavourable for helix formation. Several groups have investigated the identities of amino acids at the beginning and end of such helices [1134, 1138, 1153, 1155] (reviewed in [1154]). These studies indicate that, apart from proline and glycine, there are certain amino acids that are more likely to be found at the boundaries of helices (referred to as the N cap and C cap residues). The N cap preferences, asparagine, serine and threonine, are often conserved at the beginning of the helices of HLH proteins. Recently the co-crystal structures of isolated homodimers of the E47, MyoD and USF bHLH and the Max bHLHZ each complexed with its specific recognition site have been reported [1142, 1143, 1144, 1149] (reviewed in [1137, 1141, 1152, 2049]) (Fig. 3).
Sequence-specific DNA binding by HLH proteins
Authors: Littlewood Trevor D , Evan Gerard I
Published: November 2023

Virtually all bHLH and bHLHZ proteins bind specifically to a consensus hexameric DNA sequence (CANNTG) known as the E box. E box sequences are often palindromic and contain identical half-sites, each of which may be bound by one component of the dimer. Although the central dinucleotides of the E box are usually GC or CG, exceptions have been noted. The preferred E box sequences bound by known HLH proteins are summarized in Table 3. It is of note that several independent HLH factors within one species often bind the same sequence, implying the existence of mechanisms for regulating precisely which HLH protein is bound to the E box in the control region of a given gene at any one time. Sometimes, this involves differential expression of iso-specific factors within specific cell lineages. Often, however, several bHLH/bHLHZ factors coexist within a cell. One possible mechanism dictating specificity of binding may reside in additional sequence specificities flanking the consensus E box element.
From Calculus to Chaos
Authors: Acheson David
Published: November 2023

What is calculus really for? This book is a highly readable introduction to applications of calculus, from Newton's time to the present day. These often involve questions of dynamics, i.e. of how - and why - things change with time. Problems of this kind lie at the heart of much of applied mathematics, physics, and engineering. From Calculus to Chaos takes a fresh approach to the subject as a whole, by moving from first steps to the frontiers, and by highlighting only the most important and interesting ideas, which can get lost amid a snowstorm of detail in conventional texts. The book is aimed at a wide readership, and assumes only some knowledge of elementary calculus. There are exercises (with full solutions) and simple but powerful computer programs which are suitable even for readers with no previous computing experience. David Acheson's book will inspire new students by providing a foretaste of more advanced mathematics and showing just how interesting the subject can be.
Ordinary differential equations
Authors: Acheson David
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we consider some methods for solving first and second order differential equations.
Conscious awareness
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Books on memory tend to shy away from the discussion of consciousness and related issues. This is surprising on the one hand yet understandable on the other. It is surprising because the relation of consciousness to memory is of great importance in memory research (*amnesia, *declarative memory, *episodic memory), and conscious awareness is a major *criterion in the *zeitgeist *taxonomy of memory *systems. Avoiding the discussion of consciousness is, however, understandable, because despite many centuries of systematic thinking, and the fact that we all know subjectively what it is, consciousness is still an *enigma.
Consolidation
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

It took the Muses, daughters of Memory, a single encounter with Hesiod on Mount Helicon to breathe into the poet divine voice and knowledge (Hesiod 8thC BC). Yet for most of us, who are not granted the privilege to mingle with the immortals, learning is often a much more lengthy, complicated, and frustrating process. Even if we do devote to training sufficient effort, memory may still betray us (*false memory,*forgetting). And as if the burden of confusion and forgetfulness stemming from the continuing passage of time is not enough, the period immediately after learning also contributes its share to the fragility of our engrams.
Criterion
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Meaning ‘standard’ in Greek, ‘criterion’ was advanced already by Plato, in a very capitalistic connotation:’Your success, I admit, is fine evidence of the wisdom of the present generation as compared with their predecessors, and it is a popular sentiment that the wise man must above all be wise for himself; of such wisdom the criterion is in the end the ability to make the most money’ (Hipp. Maj. 283b). Although to the naive mind the mere notion of ‘criterion’ may look straightforward, to philosophers it poses a real problem. Consider the following statements: in order to reach the conclusion that one knows a thing, one must possess criteria for the instantiation of that thing; but in order to know the criteria, one must already know what the thing is.
Development
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Biological development (des-voloper, old French for ‘to wrap’) is manifested in growth, remodelling, and specialization of cells and tissues. This is accompanied by a change in the functional capabilities of the organism, which, in the case of the nervous system, could include modification of learning capabilities (Marcus et al. 1988; Hartshorn et al. 1998; Stanton 2000). The relationship of development and growth to learning raises some of the most fundamental issues in the neurosciences, abutting molecular biology on the one hand and philosophy on the other.
Dopamine
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Dopamine (3,4-dihydroxyphenylethylamine) is the predominant catecholamine neurotransmitter in the mammalian brain. Catecholamines are so called because they are amines (compounds derived by replacing the hydrogen atoms in ammonia with organic groups) that contain the aromatic alcohol catechol. Other catecholamine neurotransmitters and hormones are adrenaline (epinephrine) and *noradrenaline (norepinephrine). The catecholamines in the body are synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine. In fact, till the 1950s, dopamine has been considered merely as an intermediate metabolite in the pathway leading to the synthesis of noradrenaline and adrenaline.
Habit
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Definition 1 refers to ‘habit’ irrespective of whether it is innate (*a priori), acquired, or induced by disease or drugs. Definition 2 restricts ‘habit’ to a type of *learned behaviour; it is a special case of definition 1, but is stated separately because this is what ‘habit’ commonly means in the contemporary learning literature. In the early learning literature, ‘habit’ was also occasionally used to denote a learned act in general, but this is now unacceptable. Habits comprise a substantial chunk of our behavioural repertoire, often to a larger degree than we tend to concede. Driving a car becomes a habit, but so is also eating junk food, or delivering the same seminar for the ninth time.
Habituation
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Habituation is commonly classified as a type of non*associative learning (*taxonomy). This is because it is assumed to be governed solely by the parameters of the habituated, unconditioned stimulus, in the absence of associations with other stimuli. This assumption may be wrong. It is questionable whether any type of learning is indeed purely no associative. In habituation, associations are formed with the *context (Wagner 1979; Marlin and Miller 1981; Rankin 2000), and possibly also with *palimpsests of the *internal representation, accumulated over the individual’s history. Another common myth concerning habituation is that because it involves a diminution of response, no new information is acquired.
Infantile amnesia
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

The observation that infancy is not remembered was noted with interest by students of the mind, and probably by others as well, throughout the ages (Augustine 400; Rousseau 1798; Freud 1901). The experimental data confirm folk psychology: adults do not remember autobiographical episodes that had occurred prior to the age of about 3 or 4 years, and report that their inner personal narratives begin to make sense (if they ever do) only about the age of 6 or 7 years (Dudycha and Dudycha 1941; Wetzler and Sweeney 1986; Nelson 1992; Eacott and Crawley 1998). Claims for the ‘rediscovery’ in adulthood of the memories of early infancy should be treated with great caution, as they could reflect *false memory.
Percept
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

‘Percepts’ are glimpses of the sensory world captured by the brain in real-time (definition 1; from capere, ‘to seize’ in Latin). These short-lived representations serve as raw material for more advanced analysis of the sensory world. The brain then decides, within a few milliseconds, whether to pay *attention and use the information for further processing, or simply forget about it.
Phrenology
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Phrenology (phren, Greek for ‘mind’, -logos, ‘reasoning’) was born toward the end of the eighteenth century. It is considered pseudoscience because of postulate e above. This postulate is ‘craniometry’—the belief that one can determine a mental profile from the shape of the skull. The point is that while craniometry is indeed a preposterous claim, the rest of phrenology’s assumptions do deserve proper attention. These are the modularity of mind (a above), the localization of function in the brain (b), the individual variability in innately predisposed potential (c), and the dependence of function on neural space (d).
Priming
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Over the years the use of the term ‘priming’ has been extended to include additional protocols and meanings. The current major *taxonomies of priming are based on two types of interrelated distinctions: ‘direct’ vs. ‘indirect’, and ‘perceptual’ vs. ‘conceptual’ (Richardson-Klavehn and Bjork 1988; Roediger and McDermott 1993). In direct priming, also termed ‘repetition priming’, the item presented in the training (‘study’) *phase is identical to, or is composed of fragments of, the item to be produced in the test phase.
Recall
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Recall is a type of memory (definition 1), brain process (definition 2), and test situation (definition 3). It is important to distinguish between the three. Recall as a memory faculty is the phenomenon that most people have in mind when they refer to ‘remembrance’ or ‘recollection’. It is ‘memory par excellence’ (Bergson 1908). Some authors, especially in the older literature, equate recall with *retrieval. This should be avoided, is the spin-off of a stream of *associations, it is incidental recall. When the recall yields what is judged to be the complete target, it is complete or total recall. But in many cases recall is only partial. Two examples of partial recall are provided by the ‘feeling of knowing’ (FOK) and the ‘tip of the tongue’ (TOT) phenomena.
Reduction
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

‘Reductionism’ is a tenet of modern neuroscience. Only its version and explicitness vary among sub disciplines and their practitioners. Neuroscientists attempt to explain mental faculties by brain faculties, hence mental phenomena by biology. In that they are different, for is best epitomized by Johnson (1751), who noticed that ‘Divide and conquer is a principle equally just in science as in policy’. A ‘simplifying step’ may also mean switching to a simpler organism or circuit that display the phenomenon, process, or mechanism in question (*model, *simple system).
Sensitization
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Sensitization is a type of non*associative learning. The sensitizing stimulus is usually strong or noxious. Sensitization contrasts with another type of nonassociative learning, *habituation, in which there is a *generalized diminution of response following the presentation of a weak or monotonous stimulus. If the response is already habituated, the effect of the sensitizing experience is termed ‘dishabituation’. Thus, whether the *subject is said to undergo sensitization or dishabituation, depends on what we know about its history.
Surprise
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Surprises are effective incentives for behavioural modifications that contribute to survival. This is probably why the ability to detect them had been embedded effectively in our brain. Seen this way, the most important ones are the bad surprises, because they may kill; hence, Darwin was not off-track when he emphasized startling, nasty surprises (Darwin 1872; also ‘startle reflex’ under *attention, *sensitization). With the emergence of human *culture, our capacity to note mismatches with predictions of organized knowledge has gained additional functions, some of which are geared to create pleasure, not pain.
Activation of the zymogen forms of MMPs
Authors: Woessner J Frederick , Nagase Hideaki
Published: November 2023

Early work on collagenase demonstrated that the enzyme was present in tissue or cultured cells largely in a latent form. Activation of the enzyme could be achieved by treating the conditioned medium or the tissue extracts with trypsin [162, 193,209,214,279,328,340], mast cell proteinases [163, 307], cathepsin B [193], tissue kallikrein [193] or plasmin [171, 1931-Activation of the latent collagenase also occurred spontaneously during purification or storage l157, 179, 193, 290, 313]. Activation with proteolytic enzymes suggested that the latent form of collagenase was a proenzyme [164, 193, 313, 329, 351J. It had also been proposed that the latent collagenase was an enzyme-inhibitor complex, since non-proteolytic agents such as mercurial compounds [66, 301, 333], Nal [306] and NaSCN [152] can activate the latent collagenase. The enzyme-inhibitor concept was further supported by the observation that latent collagenase from the medium of cultured rabbit bone was eluted at about 40 kDa on gel fil-tration chromatography [ 301], but when the medium was treated with 4-aminophenylmercuric acetate (AP JA) the activated collagenase was eluted at 28 kDa. Furthermore, when the activated collagenase fraction was mixed with an endogen ous inhibitor, the latent collagenase was eluted at 40 kDa. This collagenase-inhibitor complex was activated by treating with APMA [301]. Similar observations were also reported for human rheu matoid synovial collagenase [333], suggesting that APMA and other non-proteolytic agents activated the latent collagenase by dissociating the inhibitor from the collagcnase-inhibitor complex.
Functions of the TIMPs
Authors: Woessner J Frederick , Nagase Hideaki
Published: November 2023

It is generally believed by those in the field that inhibition of proteolytic activity is the major function of the TIMPs. The growth effects are not widely recognized and have not received nearly the attention given to enzyme inhibition. The first point to be considered is whether all TlMPs inhibit all MMPs, and whether this is quantitatively the same for all cases. A brief overview is provided by Table 18, which shows all cases of inhibition that have been tested to date. This table is qualitative and only one case is found where inhibition \Vas not observed. In all cases studied to date, the inhibition is stoichiometric, one molecule of TLMP inhibits one molecule of active N1J\1P, as might be expected from the mechanism revealed by X-ray crystallography [428].
Guaranteed a-posteriori error estimation and a-posteriori estimation of the pollution error
Authors: Babuška Ivo , Strouboulis Theofanis
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 5 we discussed various estimators for the energy norm of the error in the finite element solution. We discussed the Neumann element residual estimator, the subdo-main residual estimator, the explicit residual estimator, the recovery estimators (e.g. the ZZ–SPR estimator, etc), and analyzed them in two ways:
An Introduction to Semilinear Evolution Equations
Authors: Cazenave Thierry , Haraux Alain , Martel Yvan
Published: November 2023

This book presents in a self-contained form the typical basic properties of solutions to semilinear evolutionary partial differential equations, with special emphasis on global properties. It considers important examples, including the heat, Klein-Gordon, and Schro"odinger equations, placing each in the analytical framework which allows the most striking statement of the key properties. With the exceptions of the treatment of the Schro"odinger equation, the book employs the most standard methods, each developed in enough generality to cover other cases. This new edition includes a chapter on stability, which contains partial answers to recent questions about the global behavior of solutions. The self-contained treatment and emphasis on central concepts make this text useful to a wide range of applied mathematicians and theoretical researchers.
Morphisms and base change
Authors: Liu Qing , Erné Reinie
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we study some properties of morphisms in relation to base change. The concept of base change is fundamental in the theory of schemes.
Sheaves of differentials
Authors: Liu Qing , Erné Reinie
Published: November 2023

Differential calculus is a very useful tool in algebraic geometry. We approached it in Section 4.2, where we studied the tangent space TX,x of a scheme X at a point x.
Peptidyl–Prolyl Cis/Trans lsomerases
Authors: Galat Andrzej , Riviere Sylvie
Published: November 2023

Peptidyl-prolyl cist/trans isomerases (PPIases) are a family of proteins that are present in a wide range of species. They display an interesting multi-domain structure, and because of their affinity for proline residues, they are involved in a diversity of biological processes. This volume presents the latest information on their sequences, structures, and functions, their distribution within the cell, their interactions with other proteins and ligands, and their involvement in signalling pathways.
Genes and the cellular localization of PPlases
Authors: Galat Andrzej , Riviere Sylvie
Published: November 2023

The gene PPIA encoding hCyP-A has been mapped to chromosome 7 in the region 7p11.2-p13 and there are 14 other CyP-A-related pseudogenes, on chromosomes 3, 7, 10, 14 and 18 [297, 353]. The gene PPIB coding for hCyP-B is on chromosome 15 [342]. The gene PPID encoding hCyP-40 is on chromosome 4 and consists of ten exons and nine introns. The exon organization of the genes encoding the CPLDs of hCyP-40 and hCyP-A are very different, suggesting that these two genes diverged early in evolution [355]. Zoo blots show that the PPID gene is highly conserved among different species. Fluorescence in situ hybridization to human metaphase chromosomes allowed the identification of another gene (PPIL1) encoding a cyclophilin of 166 amino acid residues. The gene was mapped to chromosome 2 in the region p23.3-p23.1. The protein seems to be expressed in many tissues [341].
Structural analysis of PPlases
Authors: Galat Andrzej , Riviere Sylvie
Published: November 2023

Numerous X-ray structures of recombinant cyclophilins, their complexes with linear peptides, CsA and its synthetic derivatives have been obtained using X-ray and NMR techniques (see Table 15). The first structure of hCyP-18 [749-751] and its complex with the tetrapeptide acetyl-Ala-Ala-Pro -Ala-amidomethylcoumarin [748) revealed that hCyP-18 has eight antiparallel β-strands which form a right-handed β-barrel(see Fig. 32a) with structural similarity to other β-barrel-type structures (streptavidin, β-lactoglobulin, insecticyanin, P2 myelin protein, bilinbinding protein, retinol-binding protein, superoxide dismutase and triosephosphate isomerases) [751). In general, hCyP-18, hCyP-20, periplasmic EcCyP-20 and murine CyP-23 (mCyP-23) have the same overall chain-folding pattern, but there are significant differences in the loop regions which link the eight β-strands and the α-helices (25-41, 119-123, 135-146).
Coherentist Belief Change as a Problem of Rational Choice
Authors: Rott Hans
Published: November 2023

I have always thought of Parker, Quincy and Rice as honourable men. Parker, Quincy and Rice are neighbours of mine. Every Thursday evening they meet with Smith, a man living next street, for a few hours of poker. Yesterday—it was a Thursday—Smith was killed. The only persons who could have committed the crime are his poker partners. Now consider the following scenarios. Suppose I believe that situation (1) is the actual one. Considering all I know about my neighbours, as well as my opinions about them, I come to the conclusion that Parker may have been the assassin. This cautious conclusion neither excludes that I have doubts about Quincy or Rice as well, nor does it imply that I think that Parker actually is the crook. But it has implications for scenarios (2) and (3). If the number of suspects was limited to two while still including Parker, then I should still be ready to maintain that he may have been the murderer. Otherwise my judgments would justly be called incoherent.
Conic Loci and Conic Envelopes
Authors: Semple J G , Kneebone G T
Published: November 2023

IN this chapter we begin a systematic study of the conic locus and its dual figure the conic envelope. It is convenient to give, first of all, general definitions of the concepts of algebraic locus and algebraic envelope, of which conic locus and conic envelope are particular cases.
Higher Correspondences, Apolarity, and the Theory of Invariants
Authors: Semple J G , Kneebone G T
Published: November 2023

So far we have treated the geometry of the conic in a comparatively elementary manner, making use only of the simplest notions of projective geometry and often arguing directly from the definition of the curve. In this chapter we shall show how the theory can be extended by applying more advanced methods, and how the introduction of a more general concept can sometimes unify a large number of apparently disconnected theorems. We shall indicate three separate directions in which such advances are possible, touching successively upon higher correspondences, the relation of apolarity between conics, and the classical theory of invariants.
The Twisted Cubic Curve and Cubic Surfaces
Authors: Semple J G , Kneebone G T
Published: November 2023

WE come, in this section, to the second of the manifolds in space which are analogous to the conic in the plane, namely the twisted cubic curve. In the latter part of the discussion we shall make use occasionally of results which are not established until Chapter XIV or Chapter XV. This is quite harmless, as these chapters do not depend upon the present one, and the reader may refer to the later results as they are required.
Projective Geometry of n Dimensions
Authors: Semple J G , Kneebone G T
Published: November 2023

IN this concluding chapter we propose to give the reader some indication, through the medium of specific examples, of the natural extension of projective geometry to spaces of higher dimensionality, and of the important function of higher space in providing convenient and suggestive representations of variable geometrical entities in spaces of two and three dimensions. The systematic development of many-dimensional geometry, initiated in the second half of the nineteenth century by the Italian school of geometers, and by Veronese and the great Corrado Segre in particular, was a momentous undertaking and one which revealed unsuspected potentialities in the subject of projective geometry.
Introduction
Authors: Hill R
Published: November 2023

‘Theory of plasticity’ is the name given to the mathematical study of stress and strain in plastically deformed solids, especially metals. This follows the well-established precedent set by the ‘theory of elasticity’, which deals with methods of calculating stress and strain in elastically deformed solids, and not, as a literal interpretation suggests, with the physical explanation of elasticity. The relation of plastic and elastic properties of metals to crystal structure and cohesive forces belongs to the subject now known as ‘metal physics’.
Foundations Of The Theory
Authors: Hill R
Published: November 2023

With present knowledge the element of time cannot be adequately incorporated in a mathematical account of the plasticity of metals. The theory to be described is valid only at temperatures for which recovery, creep, and thermal phenomena generally, can be neglected. The absence of a high-temperature theory is due partly to insufficient data, but more to the circumstance that the stress needed to enforce plastic flow at a given temperature is not a single-valued function of the rate of strain and the total distortion (as measured conventionally). † Preliminary attempts to include thermal effects within the framework of the lowtemperature theory have always assumed a fictitious equation of state.
On electrical work and energy in a system of conductors
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

84.J On the Worlc which must be done by an external agent in order to charge an electrified system in a given manner.

The work spent in bringing a quantity of electricity o e from an infinite distance ( or from any place where th1e potential is zero) to a given part of the system where the potential is V, is, by the definition of potential (Art. 70), Vδe.

The effect of this operation is to increase the charge of the given part of the system by δ e, so that if it was e before, it will become e + δ e after the operation.
Ellectromotlve Force Between Bodies In Contact
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

The Potentials of Different Substances in Contact.

246.J If we define the potential of a hollow conducting vessel as the potential of the air inside the vessel, we may ascertain this potential by means of an electrometer as described in Part I, Art. 221.

If we now take two hollow vessels of different metals, say copper and zinc, and put them in metallic contact with each other, and then test the potential of the air inside each vessel, the potential of the air inside the zinc vessel will be positive as compared with that inside the copper vessel. The difference of potentials depends on the nature of the surface of the insides of the vessels, being greatest when the zinc is bright and when the copper is coated with oxide.
Resistance and conductivity in three dimensions
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

297.J Let the components of the current at any point be u, v,w.

Let the components of the electromotive intensity be X, Y, Z. The electromotive intensity at any point is the resultant force on a unit of positive electricity placed at that point. It may arise (1) from electrostatic action, in which case if Vis the potential,
Particular problems in magnetic induction
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

The first example of the complete solution of a problem in magnetic induction was that given by poisson for the case of a hollow spherical shell acted on by any magnetic forces whatever.