bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Title II: The Policy Structure of Old Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance
Authors: Dobelstein Andrew W.
Published: April 2010

This chapter discusses the social welfare policy construction that provides the political and economic principles that have determined the development of the social insurance programs discussed in Chapters 1 and 2. While the vision of early social security administrators sought a form of comprehensive social insurance, their dream has been constrained by a complex, characteristically American, political economy that has had more influence on its multifaceted development than usually is discussed. The payroll tax, trust funds, expansion of the beneficiary pool, and benefit increases all emerged from divergent views over an economic philosophy and the shrewd political leadership of Congressman Wilbur Mills. This many-sided policy environment explains the “back door” program development of Title II discussed in the previous chapter.
Title III: Unemployment Insurance
Authors: Dobelstein Andrew W.
Published: April 2010

Cash payments to persons who become unemployed through no fault of their own was a part of the original Social Security Act and continues to function under the Act's authority, although today it is administered by the United States Department of Labor. Even though the cash payments are essential for the unemployed who are unable to find work, the program is hobbled by its funding mechanisms, definitions of employment, complex state differences over the extent of unemployment coverage, and policy questions of whether this program best serves the unemployed or their employers. This social insurance program is most in need of drastic reform if it is to meet the requirements of American labor in twenty-first century America.
Who’s Taking Care of the Children? Title IV: Temporary Assistance to Needy Families and Related Programs for Children and Families
Authors: Dobelstein Andrew W.
Published: April 2010

Efforts to provide financial support to economically dependent children have emerged from some of America's most confusing social welfare policy objectives. As a result, at least five major programs are now administered under the authority of Title IV of the Social Security Act: several modified forms of cash assistance for children and their families, support for children in substitute homes (foster and institutional care), child support enforcement, long term planning for children not living in their own homes, and temporary assistance for needy families (TANF) that limits the amount of time some families and children can receive financial support. Title IV has become the part of the Social Security Act that addresses a comprehensive social welfare concern for America's children.
The varieties of normal human visual processing
Authors: JACOB PIERRE , JEANNEROD MARC
Published: April 2010

Numerous psychophysical experiments have revealed in normal human vision a rich and intriguing set of dissociations between different ways of processing one and the same visual stimulus. Of particular interest are dissociations between perceptual and visuomotor responses to a given visual stimulus. The two previous chapters focused, respectively, on anatomical and electrophysiological evidence gathered mostly on the brain of macaque monkeys and on neuropsychological research on brain-lesioned human patients. This chapter focuses on psychological evidence gathered on normal human adults. Primates in general, and humans in particular, are unique among animals in being able to grasp and manipulate objects in their environment using their arms and the dexterity of their hands. Thus, many relevant visuomotor tasks involve visually guided actions constituted by arm and hand movements directed towards objects, such as pointing, reaching and grasping. The chapter highlights the major differences between the visual computations underlying perceptual and visuomotor responses in normal subjects.
Structure of Receptive Field Centers of Midget Retinal Ganglion Cells
Authors: Lee Barry B.
Published: April 2010

This chapter discusses factors influencing measurement of midget ganglion cell receptive field centres and relevant recent physiological evidence. Receptive field centre size of midget ganglion cells is much larger than the aperture of a single cone. This is partly due to the effects of optical blur. The cone-specific midget anatomy may not have evolved to achieve small centre size — since this would be lost by optical blurring anyway — but to help provide cone specificity. On the other hand recent physiological data suggest that the centre structure of midget ganglion cells may derive from more than one cone even in central retina, and that cone-specific mechanisms exist that contribute to centre structure. It appears that the centre structure of these cells is more complex than anticipated from the anatomy.
Coding of Position of Achromatic and Chromatic Edges by Retinal Ganglion Cells
Authors: Sun Hao , Lee Barry B. , RÜttiger Lukas
Published: April 2010

This chapter examines how accurately ganglion cells carry positional information about chromatic and achromatic moving edges, and compares results with pathophysical thresholds to similar stimuli. Physiological data showed that spatial precision of magnocellular (MC)-cells' responses was determined solely by luminance contrast, but that of parvocellular (PC)-cells was dependent on chromatic contrast. Psychophysical vernier thresholds for edges of the same luminance, but different chromatic contrasts were similar when plotted as a function of luminance contrast, but were different when plotted in detection threshold units. Taken together, the physiological and psychophysical data suggest that positional information delivered by MC-cells is important for vernier performance.
Reaction Times to Stimuli in Isoluminant Colour Space
Authors: Mckeefry D. J. , Parry N. R. A. , Murray D I. J.
Published: April 2010

Simple reaction times (RTs) are a useful measure of supra-threshold information processing. This chapter examines how the metric used to scale coloured stimuli influences the variation in RT with chromaticity. The variation of simple RT with chromaticity appears to be strongly dependent upon the extent to which stimulus activates either the L/M or S/(L+M) colour opponent mechanism. The dominant influence of these two mechanisms suggests that pre-cortical as opposed to cortical colour processing has a strong influence on the RT to chromatic isoluminant stimuli.
Temporal Frequency and Contrast Adaptation
Authors: Shapiro G. , Mary Hood S. , Mollon J. D.
Published: April 2010

Chromatic contrast adaptation is a valuable technique for delineating cardinal and higher-order colour mechanisms. This chapter presents the results of three experiments: the first measures threshold elevation production by contrast adaptation along the cardinal axes as a function of temporal frequency at two light levels; the second investigates whether the cardinal mechanisms remain independent at these temporal frequencies and light levels; and the third measures the temporal contrast sensitivity to the cardinal mechanisms in conditions similar to those used for the first experiment. It is shown that contrast adaptation can occur at frequencies greater than 1 Hz; that the cardinal mechanisms remain independent at the temporal frequencies and light levels measured; and that contrast adaptation cannot easily be related to the temporal sensitivity of the cardinal mechanisms.
Stimulus Duration Affects Rod Influence on Hue Perception
Authors: Buck Steven L. , Knight Roger
Published: April 2010

This chapter explores the effects of simultaneous rod and cone stimulation on rod hue influences. It shows that the balance among rod hue biases varies with test-stimulus duration. There appears to be little effect of prolonged cone stimulation on the balance of rod hue biases, which appears to be primarily controlled by the duration of rod stimulation. The ‘faster’ rod green bias is determined by a differential rod influence on M- versus L-cone pathways. The ‘slower’ red and blue hue biases could result from rod signals having the same sign of influence as S-cone signals in chromatic pathways.
Tritanopic Colour Constancy Under Daylight Changes?
Authors: Foster David H. , Amano Kinjiro , Nascimento SÉrgio M. C.
Published: April 2010

This chapter addresses the question of how colour constancy judgments vary under daylight changes. An experiment was performed to estimate the distributional properties of colour-constancy. An operational approach was adopted in which observers were required to distinguish illuminant changes on a scene from changes in the reflecting properties of the surfaces comprising it. The distribution of responses was anisotropic: observers were less able to detect spectral reflectance changes in one direction than in another. The long axis of the distribution is close to the tritanopic confusion line, although biased towards the daylight locus.
Calculating Appearances in Complex and Simple Images
Authors: Mccann John J.
Published: April 2010

This chapter studies the visual effects of segmented surrounds to understand the transition from contrast to assimilation. Contrast is a complex spatial mechanism that is evident with simple centre-surround displays. It can be shut off, and reintroduced by the spatial pattern of outer-surround elements. Assimilation in periodic displays is a simple mechanism found in the absence of contrast. It depends on the average value of very large-receptive fields.
The Effect of Global Contrast Distribution on Colour Appearance
Authors: Wolf K. , Hurlbert A.C.
Published: April 2010

This chapter tests the hypothesis that increasing the number of distinct surfaces that change consistently with the local background causes stronger reinforcement of the illuminant colour signalled by the background change, using the temporal-change paradigm. It also tests whether segmenting the remote surfaces from the local background by increasing the luminance contrast against it, and thereby weakening the evidence that they belong to the same illuminant, attenuates the contrast enhancement effect. The final experiment probes the locus of the ‘contrast enhancement’ effect by presenting the remote inducers and the target surface to different eyes using haploscopic viewing. The results provide inconclusive support for the notion that contrast enhancement by remote inducers is linked to estimation of the illuminant colour in a constancy mechanism.
Representing an Observer’s Matches in an Alien Colour Space
Authors: Knoblauch Kenneth
Published: April 2010

This chapter describes procedure for evaluating the range of excitation in one observer's colour matching space generated by the set of metamers from a different observer's space. The approach lends itself to visualizing the results geometrically, which is helpful in generating intuitions about multi-dimensional problems.
Genotypic Variation in Multi-Gene Dichromats
Authors: Deeb S. S. , Jagla W. , Jägle H. , Hayashi T. , Sharpe L. T.
Published: April 2010

The gene arrays of multi-gene dichromats are quite heterogeneous with respect to both the type of hybrid gene and the total number of genes. Hybrid genes play a major role in causing dichromacy. This chapter shows that dichromacy results if the first two pigments encoded by the first two genes have identical or near identical spectral sensitivities. The difference in sequence of exon 2 does not confer any colour discrimination capacity.
Hybrid Pigment Genes, Dichromacy, and Anomalous Trichromacy
Authors: Jagla Wolfgang , Breitsprecher Tanja , Kucsera Itala , Kovacs Gyula , Wissinger Bernd , Deeb Samir S. , Sharpe Lindsay T.
Published: April 2010

This chapter determines the variability in genotype among anomalous trichromats and dichromats, and correlates this to their colour vision phenotype. It shows that the severity of anomalous trichromacy roughly correlates with the estimated spectral separation between the normal and the hybrid pigment. However, considerable phenotypic variability is associated with any given phenotype. The variation found with L2M3 or M3L4-hybrid genes is greater than that found with other hybrids, and cannot merely be associated with coding sequence differences in exon 2. These findings underscore an important issue in colour vision: how spectral differences between two photopigments actually translate to colour discrimination performance, and about how other retinal and cortical factors act upon photopigment differences and influence discrimination.
Preliminary Norms for the Cambridge Colour Test
Authors: Ventura D. F. , Silveira L. C. L. , Rodrigues A. R. , De Souza J. M. , Gualtieri M. , Bonci D. , Costa M. F.
Published: April 2010

The Cambridge Colour Test (CCT) was developed to measure hue discrimination in a spatial and luminance noise situation. However, normative data for the CCT are not available since both the original and commercial versions are fairly recent developments. This chapter presents preliminary norms and compares a self-built and the commercial version of the test. The results are compared with the Farnsworth–Munsell 100 Hue test.
Evaluation of “Colour Vision Testing Made Easy”
Authors: Dain Stephen J.
Published: April 2010

The ‘Colour Vision Testing Made Easy’ (CVTME) is a colour vision test specifically designed for children and based on the pseudo-isochromatic (PIC) principle. This chapter shows that the colorimetric design of the CVTME is reasonable and colour vision deficient adults are identified. Colorimetrically, the task is less demanding than Ishihara's and this is consistent with the previously identified propensity to pass very mild deuteroanomals.
Survey of the Colour Vision Demands in Fire-Fighting
Authors: Dain Stephen J. , Hughes Laura E.
Published: April 2010

This chapter describes a survey of colour contingent tasks with regard to colours used, redundancy of coding, and significance of error, both safety and financial. From this, researchers identified the most critical issues on the basis that the worst case sets the colour vision testing and pass criteria needed. This was carried out at the New South Wales Fire Brigades Training College and selected fire stations in Sydney with the assistance of fire-fighters at those locations.
Colour Vision in Central Serous Chorioretinopathy
Authors: MÄntyjÄrvi Maija , Maaranen Tarja
Published: April 2010

Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) is an eye disorder where serous fluid causes localized detachment of the sensory retina, most commonly in the macular area. This chapter examines colour vision in twelve patients with active CSC and after a follow-up of one and a half years.
Early Vision Loss in Diabetic Patients Assessed by the Cambridge Colour Test
Authors: Ventura D. F. , Costa M. F. , Gualtieri M. , Nishi M. , Bernick M. , Bonci D. , De Souza J. M.
Published: April 2010

This chapter describes the use of the Cambridge Colour Test (CCT) to measure colour vision in diabetic patients with clinically normal fundi and in age-matched controls. The results were compared with those obtained with other traditionally used tests. CCT has full clinical testability and was the most sensitive of the tests use to detect colour vision loss.
Phylogeny reconstruction: overview
Authors: YANG ZIHENG
Published: April 2010

This chapter provides an overview of phylogeny reconstruction methods. It introduces some basic concepts used to describe trees and discusses general features of tree-reconstruction methods. Distance and parsimony methods are also discussed.
Neutral and adaptive protein evolution
Authors: YANG ZIHENG
Published: April 2010

This chapter introduces the basic concepts of negative and positive selection and the major theories of molecular evolution, and reviews tests of neutrality developed in population genetics. It discusses the use of codon models in phylogenetic analysis to detect positive selection driving the fixation of advantageous replacement mutations. The rest of the chapter proceeds as follows. Sections 8.3 and 8.4 consider methods to detect positive selection affecting particular lineages on the phylogeny or individual sites in the protein. Section 8.5 discusses methods aimed at detecting positive selection affecting only a few sites along particular lineages. Section 8.6 discusses assumptions and limitations of methods based on the ω ratio, in comparison with the tests of neutrality. Section 8.7 reviews examples of genes detected to be undergoing adaptive evolution.
Perspectives
Authors: YANG ZIHENG
Published: April 2010

This chapter discusses current challenges and future perspectives of the field. Topics covered include theoretical issues in phylogeny reconstruction, computational issues in analysis of large and heterogeneous data sets, genome rearrangement data, and comparative genomics.
Medically relevant variation in the human genome
Authors: Govindaraju Diddahally R. , Jorde Lynn B
Published: April 2010

Geneticists can now use several million markers to discover genes contributing to human disorders. Some findings confirm classical patterns on the extent and distribution of variation among populations. Others, including recombination hotspots, are completely new. Large collaborative projects have shown that linkage disequilibrium patterns vary among continental populations, with the ‘older’ African populations showing substantially less linkage disequilibrium. These resources have facilitated discovery of several genes that underlie common disease susceptibility, and suggest that a number of genes and haplotypes have been the targets of natural selection. The recombination hotspots that punctuate the human genome appear to have evolved recently and are not shared with chimpanzees. While several issues complicate the use and interpretation of these data, these new advances contribute to studies of evolutionary biology and human health, and forge stronger links between them.
Intimate relations: Evolutionary conflicts of pregnancy and childhood
Authors: Haig David
Published: April 2010

This chapter surveys the impact of evolutionary conflicts on maternal and fetal health in pregnancy and childhood. Some adaptations that have evolved to benefit mothers may be costly to offspring and vice versa, for natural selection can act at cross-purposes on maternal and fetal genes. For example, the typical duration of lactation in our evolutionary past was suboptimal for offspring fitness. Communication between mothers and fetuses is compromised by evolutionary incentives to send misleading signals. Mothers have evolved mechanisms for testing offspring and terminating investment in offspring of low perceived quality. Offspring have evolved features that reduce their chances of failing these tests. When fetal genes manipulate maternal physiology to increase the flow of maternal blood through the placenta, pre-eclampsia may result. The unusually large fat deposits of human babies may have provided a store of structural lipids and energy, for growth and maintenance of the infant brain.
Functional significance of MHC variation in mate choice, reproductive outcome, and disease risk
Authors: Loisel Dagan A. , Alberts Susan C. , Ober Carole
Published: April 2010

This chapter surveys connections between the nervous system and the immune system, and suggests that their connections mediate many significant health outcomes. The nervous and immune systems are intimately connected by shared developmental, functional and biochemical pathways. The extraordinary diversity and remarkable evolution of MHC genes have been influenced by several distinct forces, including pathogen-mediated selection, and sexual and reproductive selection. MHC diversity influences the risk and progression of infectious, reproductive, autoimmune, and inflammatory diseases. MHC genes play a significant role in olfactory communication, behavior, and mate choice in vertebrates, including humans. The unique evolution of MHC genes contributed to the prevalence of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases in modern human populations.
The ecology and evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
Authors: Bergstrom Carl T. , Feldgarden Michael
Published: April 2010

Bacteria evolve resistance to antibiotics with near certainty after several years of widespread use. Resistance can evolve via several genetic mechanisms and spread through and between species via gene transfer. Resistance that evolves in agricultural settings can transfer into human populations. Associations among resistance genes, and the process of compensatory evolution, can cause retention of resistance genes, even in the absence of selection favoring resistance. Novel approaches to antimicrobial therapy may provide alternatives to traditional broad-spectrum antibiotics for which resistance is less quick to evolve. To eradicate antibiotic resistance from a hospital setting, researchers need a thorough understanding of the underlying ecology. For example, antibiotic cycling, the hospital equivalent of crop rotation, does not necessarily reduce the environmental heterogeneity at the scale relevant to bacterial clones spreading through the hospital and thus may be ineffective at reducing the frequency of resistant strains in a hospital setting.
The evolution and expression of virulence
Authors: Ebert Dieter , Bull James J.
Published: April 2010

This chapter reviews the evolution of pathogen virulence. The evolution of virulence has 3 phases. Phase 1: the first contact of host and parasite, as in accidental infections. Phase 2: the evolution towards an optimal virulence soon after successful invasion of a new host species. Phase 3: evolution of virulence after the disease is well established. Most efforts to understand, predict, and manage the evolution of virulence have been applied to phase 3. The most common model of virulence evolution assumes a simple trade-off between virulence and transmission and selection that optimizes the net transmission between hosts. Host variability affects the expression of virulence, but its impact has not been satisfactorily incorporated into the models. Untested general models should not guide attempts to manage infectious diseases.
Evolutionary origins of diversity in human viruses
Authors: Sharp Paul M. , Bailes Elizabeth , Wain Louise V
Published: April 2010

Our knowledge of the amount, pattern, and origins of genetic diversity varies enormously among human viruses. The four groups of viruses discussed in detail here (herpes viruses, AIDS viruses, influenza A viruses, and dengue viruses) exhibit varied patterns of diversity, with different factors important in each case. Rates of evolution vary by 5-6 orders of magnitude, from slowly evolving DNA viruses (herpes viruses), to rapidly evolving RNA viruses (AIDS and influenza A viruses). The timescales of diversification within a clade of human viruses vary by 4-5 orders of magnitude, from a few years for H3N2 influenza viruses, to perhaps 100,000 years or more for some herpes viruses. This depends on how long the viruses have been infecting humans, and whether the virus has been subject to random genetic drift, founder effects, selective sweeps of an advantageous variant, its route of transmission, and its interaction with the host immune system.
The population structure of pathogenic bacteria
Authors: Dykhuizen Daniel , Kalia Awdhesh
Published: April 2010

The structure of bacterial populations affects their potential to cause disease and respond to human interventions, and we can infer some of that structure from species differences in nucleotide diversity. If there is no natural selection, mutation rate and effective population size determine nucleotide diversity. Mutation rate will not usually influence species differences in nucleotide diversity. In some species an elevated mutation rate may signal that the species has undergone recent rapid evolutionary change. Recombination does not affect effective population size but does determine the effect that natural selection has on the system. Selective sweeps will eliminate diversity, while diversifying selection maintains diversity. When there is little or no recombination, selection will strongly influence nucleotide diversity generally. When there is much recombination, selection will only influence nucleotide diversity locally. Thus, the nucleotide diversity (both local and genomic) gives us information about how pathogens have adapted to changing conditions.
Evolutionary biology as a foundation for studying aging and aging-related disease
Authors: Ackermann Martin , Pletcher Scott D.
Published: April 2010

Aging does not have a function. It exists because individuals often die for other reasons, and therefore natural selection cannot maintain late-life performance. The rate of aging is influenced by genes that affect the allocation of resources to somatic maintenance or reproduction, and are under the control of specific regulatory pathways. Mutations in these pathways, which are shared among diverse organisms ranging from unicellular fungi to humans, can lead to significant changes in the rate of aging. Some of these conserved pathways detect environmental cues, suggesting that environmental conditions affect life-history decisions. The ability to alter investment in maintenance in response to external cues might be advantageous for organisms living in a variable environment. If conditions are harsh, increased investment in maintenance and repair would improve survival to better times. Genetic interventions may short-circuit normal processing of environmental cues and trigger life-history decisions that result in an increased lifespan.
Cancer: evolutionary origins of vulnerability
Authors: Greaves Mel
Published: April 2010

The origin and spread of every cancer is an evolutionary process. Clonal neoplasias are ubiquitous, and the cumulative, lifetime risk of clinical malignant cancer in homosapiens is very high (1 in 3). Clonal proliferation in cancer is a mutation-driven, cellular, evolutionary process; the genetic abnormalities arise either as inherited germ line mutations (in 10%) or as acquired mutations in stem cells. Many adaptive, beneficial biological processes inadvertently contribute positively to the emergence of cancer clones via fragility of control, trade-offs or collateral damage. The mismatch between homosapiens' exotic lifestyles and constitutive genetics greatly exacerbates the intrinsic risk derived from evolutionary ‘design’ constraints. Most cancers emerge in ageing individuals. Our socially engineered post-reproductive longevity provides the opportunity for trade-offs to escalate (antagonistic pleiotropy) but also, critically, provides the extended time for chronic exposures (via mismatches) to drive the slow evolutionary expansion of cancer clones to pathological end-points.
Cancer as a microevolutionary process
Authors: Komarova Natalia L. , Wodarz Dominik
Published: April 2010

Mathematical models of cancer evolution can provide helpful insights. This chapter describes a way to model cancer in which carcinogenesis is a microevolutionary process inside an organ. It uses both stochastic methods and methods of evolutionary population dynamics and focuses on two particular problems: (a) the role of genetic instability in cancer initiation and progression; and (b) the problem of resistance in cancer treatment with small molecule inhibitors. The dynamics are generated by cell reproduction and mutation, and by the selection pressures that act on the different cell variants. These dynamics can be captured in equations which yield insights into the outcome of these complex processes that would otherwise not be possible. The general message of this review is that population dynamics and evolutionary thinking can provide a new dimension to cancer research, which complements the molecular and cell-focused approach that is primarily used.
Relative Susceptibility of Selected Apple Cultivars to Apple Scab Caused by Venturia inaequalis
Authors: Biggs Alan R. , Sundin George W. , Rosenberger David A. , Yoder Keith S. , Sutton Turner B.
Published: April 2010

Apple scab is the most important disease of apples (Malus domestica) in the cool temperate regions where apples are grown. Data were collected over several years from plantings of new apple cultivars and selections established at multiple locations in 1995 (23 entries) and 1999 (24 entries) as part of regional project NE-183. Golden Delicious and McIntosh were the standards in both plantings. Data on incidence of scab on leaves and fruit were collected and analyzed to determine differences due to location and cultivar. None of the analyses indicated significant cultivar differences due to location, likely confirming the diversity of the apple scab fungus in the eastern United States. In general, for scab on leaves, the cultivars Ginger Gold, Orin, Cripps Pink, Silken, and Delblush were as susceptible as McIntosh, a common standard for scab susceptibility in the eastern United States. For scab on fruit, the cultivars Fuji, Cameo, Cripps Pink, Ambrosia, and Silken, and the selection NJ 90, were as susceptible as McIntosh. As expected, the cultivars and selections with genetic resistance to the scab pathogen exhibited the lowest incidences of apple scab on foliage and fruit. Gala Supreme, Sansa, and Honeycrisp, while susceptible to scab, exhibited relatively low levels of the disease.

Accepted for publication 2 February 2010. Published 8 April 2010.
Litigation related to regional anaesthesia: an analysis of claims against the NHS in England 1995–2007*
Authors: Szypula K. , Ashpole K. J. , Bogod D. , Yentis S. M. , Mihai R. , Scott S. , Cook T. M.
Published: April 2010

We analysed 366 claims related to regional anaesthesia and analgesia from the 841 anaesthesia‐related claims handled by the National Health Service Litigation Authority between 1995 and 2007. The majority of claims (281/366, 77%) were closed at the time of analysis. The total cost of closed claims was £12 724 017 (34% of the cost of the anaesthesia dataset) with a median (IQR [range]) of £4772 (£0–28 907 [£0–2 070 092]). Approximately half of the claims (186/366; 51%) were related to obstetric anaesthesia and analgesia and of the non‐obstetric claims, the majority (148/180; 82%) were related to neuraxial block. The total cost for obstetric closed claims was £5 433 920 (median (IQR [range]) £5678 (£0–27 690 [£0–1 597 565]) while that for non‐obstetric closed claims was £7 290 097 (£3337 (£0–31 405 [£0–2 070 062]). Non‐obstetric claims were more likely to relate to severe outcomes than obstetric ones. The maximum values of claims were higher for claims related to neuraxial blocks and eye blocks than for peripheral nerve blocks. Despite many limitations, including lack of clinical detail for each case, the dataset provides a useful overview of the extent, patterns and cost associated with the claims.
A comparison of the Airway Scope® and McCoy laryngoscope in patients with simulated restricted neck mobility
Authors: Komatsu R. , Kamata K. , Sessler D. I. , Ozaki M.
Published: April 2010

We compared the efficacy of the Airway Scope® and McCoy laryngoscope as intubation tools with the neck stabilised by a rigid cervical collar. After induction of anaesthesia and neck stabilisation, 100 patients were randomly assigned to tracheal intubation with an Airway Scope or McCoy laryngoscope. Overall intubation success rate, time required for intubation, number of intubation attempts required for successful intubation, and airway complications related to intubation were recorded. Overall intubation success rates were 100% with both devices and a similar number of intubation attempts were required. However, the mean (SD) time required for successful intubation was shorter with the Airway Scope (30 (7) s) than with the McCoy laryngoscope (40 (14) s; p < 0.0001). The incidences of intubation complications were similar, but oesophageal intubation (in six cases) occurred only with McCoy laryngoscope.
Gene expression profiling of erythroblasts from refractory anaemia with ring sideroblasts (RARS) and effects of G‐CSF
Authors: Nikpour Maryam , Pellagatti Andrea , Liu Anquan , Karimi Mohsen , Malcovati Luca , Gogvadze Vladimir , Forsblom Ann‐Mari , Wainscoat James S. , Cazzola Mario , Zhivotovsky Boris , Grandien Alf , Boultwood Jacqueline , Hellström‐Lindberg Eva
Published: April 2010

Refractory anaemia with ring sideroblasts (RARS) is characterized by anaemia, erythroid apoptosis, cytochrome c release and mitochondrial ferritin accumulation. Granulocyte‐colony‐stimulating factor (G‐CSF) inhibits the first three of these features in vitro and in vivo. To dissect the molecular mechanisms underlying the RARS phenotype and anti‐apoptotic effects of G‐CSF, erythroblasts generated from normal (NBM) and RARS marrow CD34+ cells were cultured ±G‐CSF and subjected to gene expression analysis (GEP). Several erythropoiesis‐associated genes that were deregulated in RARS CD34+ cells showed normal expression in erythroblasts, underscoring the importance of differentiation‐specific GEP. RARS erythroblasts showed a marked deregulation of several pathways including apoptosis, DNA damage repair, mitochondrial function and the JAK/Stat pathway. ABCB7, transporting iron from mitochondria to cytosol and associated with inherited ring sideroblast formation was severely suppressed and expression decreased with differentiation, while increasing in NBM cultures. The same pattern was observed for the mitochondrial integrity gene MFN2. Other downregulated key genes included STAT5B, HSPA5, FANCC and the negative apoptosis regulator MAP3K7. Methylation status of key downregulated genes was normal. The mitochondrial pathway including MFN2 was significantly modified by G‐CSF, and several heat shock protein genes were upregulated, as evidence of anti‐apoptotic protection of erythropoiesis. By contrast, G‐CSF had no effect on iron‐transport or erythropoiesis‐associated genes.
Mutant protein kinase C gamma that causes spinocerebellar ataxia type 14 (SCA14) is selectively degraded by autophagy
Authors: Yamamoto Kazuhiro , Seki Takahiro , Adachi Naoko , Takahashi Tetsuya , Tanaka Shigeru , Hide Izumi , Saito Naoaki , Sakai Norio
Published: April 2010

Several causal missense mutations in the protein kinase Cγ (γPKC) gene have been found in spinocerebellar ataxia type 14 (SCA14), an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease. We previously showed that mutant γPKC found in SCA14 is susceptible to aggregation and causes apoptosis. Aggregation of misfolded proteins is generally involved in the pathogenesis of many neurodegenerative diseases. Growing evidence indicates that macroautophagy (autophagy) is important for the degradation of misfolded proteins and the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases. In the present study, we examined whether autophagy is involved in the degradation of the mutant γPKC that causes SCA14. Mutant γPKC‐GFP was transiently expressed in SH‐SY5Y cells by using an adenoviral tetracycline‐regulated system. Subsequently, temporal changes in clearance of aggregates and degradation of γPKC‐GFP were evaluated. Rapamycin, an autophagic inducer, accelerated clearance of aggregates and promoted degradation of mutant γPKC‐GFP, but it did not affect degradation of wild‐type γPKC‐GFP. These effects of rapamycin were not observed in embryonic fibroblast cells from Atg5‐deficient mice, which are not able to perform autophagy. Furthermore, lithium, another type of autophagic inducer, also promoted the clearance of mutant γPKC aggregates. These results indicate that autophagy contributes to the degradation of mutant γPKC, suggesting that autophagic inducers could provide therapeutic potential for SCA14.
Arthrodesis of the ankle and subtalar joints in patients with haemophilic arthropathy
Authors: TSAILAS P. G. , WIEDEL J. D.
Published: April 2010

Summary.  There have been only a few studies in the literature that reported on the outcome of ankle arthrodesis in patients with haemophilia; furthermore, the number of patients was usually low and the operative technique has not been uniform. The aim of this study was to evaluate the outcome of surgery in haemophilic arthropathy of the ankle and subtalar joints, using internal fixation. From 1983 to 2006, 20 fusions were performed in 13 patients with advanced haemophilic arthropathy of the ankle and subtalar joints. There were 11 ankle fusions, one isolated subtalar fusion and eight combined ankle and subtalar fusions. Three of the latter had a subtalar fusion at a second operation. The mean age at operation was 38.7 years and the mean followup was 9.4 years. In the majority of the cases, the ankle fusion was achieved by two crossing screws. For the subtalar fusion, either staples were used or the tibiotalar screws were extended to the calcaneus. Arthrodesis of the ankle was successful in all but one patient, in whose case the procedure was revised and eventually his condition was progressed to fusion. There was also one case of painless non‐union of the subtalar joint which was not revised. There was no recurrent bleeding, and no deep infection. Arthrodesis with cross screw fixation is an effective method for fusion of the ankle and subtalar joints in patients with haemophilia.
The need for speed in the management of haemophilia patients with inhibitors
Authors: ŠALEK S. Z. , BENSON G. M. , ELEZOVIĆ I. , KRENN V. , LJUNG R. C. R. , MORFINI M. , REMOR E. , SANTAGOSTINO E. , SØRENSEN B.
Published: April 2010

Summary.  Rapid control of bleeding is the key to reducing bleeding complications and thereby preserving joint and musculoskeletal function in haemophilia patients with inhibitors. However, this requires early diagnosis following the onset of bleeding and strategies for rapid treatment in an outpatient setting. Overarching themes on the need for speed in managing bleeds in haemophilia patients were examined by a panel of clinicians experienced in managing inhibitor patients and joint disease during the Third Zürich Haemophilia Forum on 8 May 2009. This report summarizes the opinions of the panel on how to achieve rapid bleeding control in inhibitor patients and areas that were identified by the panel for future research or as needing new consensus guidelines. The consensus was that home treatment should be established for haemophilia patients with inhibitors, as it is associated with a faster time to treatment, as well as improvements in the quality of life of patients and their carers. In addition, as improved haemostatic control now allows inhibitor patients to participate in a wider range of physical activities, specific guidelines are required on which types of sport and work are appropriate. It was agreed that clear, systematic approaches are needed for early diagnosis of joint and muscle bleeds in inhibitor patients, which could facilitate rapid treatment. There may be opportunities for exploiting new diagnostic techniques from osteoarthritis to enable earlier diagnosis of haemophilic arthropathy. Overall, it was concluded that greater emphasis should be placed on education and patients’ psychological needs, to enable inhibitor patients to cope up more effectively with their disease.
Decay‐accelerating factor 1 (Daf1) deficiency exacerbates xenobiotic‐induced autoimmunity
Authors: Toomey Christopher B. , Cauvi David M. , Song Wen‐Chao , Pollard Kenneth M.
Published: April 2010

Absence of decay‐accelerating factor 1 (Daf1) has been shown to enhance T‐cell responses and autoimmunity via increased expression of specific cytokines, most notably interferon (IFN)‐γ. To determine if Daf1 deficiency can exacerbate IFN‐γ‐dependent murine mercury‐induced autoimmunity (mHgIA), C57/BL6 Daf1+/+ and Daf1−/− mice were exposed to mercuric chloride (HgCl2) and examined for differences in cytokine expression, T‐cell activation and features of humoral autoimmunity. In the absence of Daf1, mHgIA was exacerbated, with increased serum immunoglobulin G (IgG), anti‐nuclear autoantibodies (ANAs) and anti‐chromatin autoantibodies. This aggravated response could not be explained by increased T‐cell activation but was associated with increased levels of IFN‐γ, interleukin (IL)‐2, IL‐4 and IL‐10 but not IL‐17 in Daf1‐deficient mice. Anti‐CD3/anti‐CD28 costimulation of Daf1−/− CD4+ T cells in vitro was also found to increase cytokine expression, but the profile was different from that of mHgIA, suggesting that the cytokine changes observed in Daf1 deficiency reflect a response to mercury. The role of Daf1 in influencing cytokine expression was further examined by stimulation of CD4+ T cells in the presence of anti‐CD3 and CD97, a molecular partner for Daf1. This resulted in increased IL‐10, decreased IL‐17 and IL‐21 and decreased IFN‐γ. These findings demonstrate that the absence of Daf1 exacerbates mHgIA, with changes in the profile of expressed cytokines. Interaction between Daf1 and its molecular partner CD97 was found to modify expression of mHgIA‐promoting cytokines, suggesting a possible approach for the suppression of overaggressive cytokine production in autoimmunity.
Oestrogen Regulates Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain Enzyme Transcription in the Mouse Spinal Cord
Authors: Johann S. , Dahm M. , Kipp M. , Beyer C. , Arnold S.
Published: April 2010

The regulation of mitochondrial energy metabolism is not only important for normal functioning of neurones, but also appears to be essential during acute damage and neurodegeneration in the central nervous system. This makes mitochondria an interesting regulatory target for therapeutic approaches. Oestrogen is well‐recognised as a protective hormone in the central nervous system under pathological threats. In the present study, we analysed the influence of oestrogen on the expression of mitochondria‐encoded genes and mitochondrial activity in spinal cord cells both in vitro and vivo. Hormone application increased the transcription of mitochondrial respiratory chain enzymes (MRCE). This effect was observed in cultured spinal cord neurones, where it was inhibited by a nuclear oestrogen receptor (ER) antagonist and mainly mediated by the activation of ERβ. No effect of oestrogen was observed in cultured spinal cord astroglia. In addition, the mitochondrial transcription factor A and nuclear respiratory factor 1 were up‐regulated by oestrogen in a similar way as MRCE in vitro, and ATP levels were elevated after the application of the specific ERβ agonist 2,3‐bis(4‐hydroxyphenyl)‐propionitrile in cultured spinal cord nerve cells. The exposure of young male mice to oestrogen yielded increased levels of MRCE transcripts in the spinal cord. These data clearly show that systemic application of oestrogen stimulates MRCE expression in the spinal cord and predominantly in neurones. Further studies are required to demonstrate the potency of oestrogen to counteract pathological damage by stabilising mitochondrial performance.
Pharmacokinetics of tetracycline in plasma, synovial fluid and milk using single intravenous and single intravenous regional doses in dairy cattle with papillomatous digital dermatitis
Authors: RODRIGUES C. A. , HUSSNI C. A. , NASCIMENTO E. S. , ESTEBAN C. , PERRI S. H. V.
Published: April 2010

Rodrigues, C. A., Hussni, C. A., Nascimento, E. S., Esteban, C., Perri, S. H. V. Pharmacokinetics of tetracycline in plasma, synovial fluid and milk using single intravenous and single intravenous regional doses in dairy cattle with papillomatous digital dermatitis.J. vet. Pharmacol. Therap.doi: 10.1111/j.1365‐2885.2009.01138.x.

The purpose of this study was to compare the pharmacokinetics of tetracycline in plasma, synovial fluid, and milk following either a single systemic intravenous (i.v.) injection or a single i.v. regional antibiosis (IVRA) administration of tetracycline hydrochloride to dairy cattle with papillomatous digital dermatitis (PDD). To this end, plasma and synovial fluid tetracycline concentrations were compared with the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of the major bacteria, which are known to cause digital diseases and thus assess its efficacy in PDD. Residual tetracycline concentrations in milk from cows treated by both methods were also determined. Twelve Holstein cows with various stages of PDD were randomly assigned to two groups of six animals. Group 1 received a single systemic i.v. injection of 10 mg/kg of tetracycline hydrochloride. Group 2 received 1000 mg of tetracycline hydrochloride by IVRA of the affected limb. Blood, synovial fluid and milk samples were taken prior to tetracycline administration (time 0 control), and then at 22, 45 and 82 min, and 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 48, 72, 96, and 120 h following drug administration. Tetracycline concentrations were determined by high‐performance liquid chromatography. Mean tetracycline plasma and milk concentrations in Group 1 were higher than Group 2. The opposite was observed for synovial fluid concentrations. Group 2 synovial fluid concentrations were higher than the MIC value over 24 h for the bacteria most frequently responsible for claw disease. Compared with i.v. administration, IVRA administration of tetracycline produced very high synovial fluid and low plasma and milk concentrations.
Efficacy of intramuscular polysulfated glycosaminoglycan in a controlled study of equine carpitis
Authors: VERDE C. , FERRANTE M. , SIMPSON M. I. , BABUSCI M. , BROGLIA G. , LANDONI M. F.
Published: April 2010

Verde, C., Ferrante, M., Simpson, M. I., Babusci, M., Broglia, G., Landoni I, M. F. Efficacy of intramuscular polysulfated glycosaminoglycan in a controlled study of equine carpitis.J. vet. Pharmacol. Therap. doi: 10.1111/j.1365‐2885.2009.01154.x.

Twelve healthy horses were subject to the monoioidoacetate (MIA) carpitis model, which was allowed to develop for 7 days. The horses were then randomly divided into two groups. Group A (control) received an intramuscular injection of normal saline every 4 days for a total of seven injections while group B received 500 mg of a PSGAG (SYNTEX CSY36) intramuscularly every 4 days for seven treatments. Efficacy of the PSGAG was evaluated by three clinical outcomes: lameness score, carpal circumference and maximum carpal flexion. Clinical outcomes were measured on days ‐8 (previous to carpitis induction), 0 (previous to drug treatment), 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35. Areas under the curve clinical outcome as function of time were built and used as variables for the statistical analysis. There was less joint circumference enlargement and lameness and greater carpal flexion in PSGAG‐treated horses compared with that in controls. The studied compound has demonstrated to be efficacious on the treatment of a chemically induced carpitis in horses.