bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Petroleum implications of the REI09 2D Reconnaissance Survey, Reinga/Northland Basin, northwest New Zealand
Authors: Bache Francois , Stagpoole Vaughan , Uruski Chris
Published: August 2017

The Reinga/Northland Basin is located offshore northwest of New Zealand, adjacent to the petroleum producing Taranaki Basin. Water depths range from shelfal to more than 2,000 m. Analysis of a large multichannel 2D seismic-reflection dataset, tied to Taranaki Basin, constrains seismic stratigraphic units and unconformities formed during successive deformational events in the region. Five phases are identified.
Phase one: extension that created major northwest-trending structures. The age of the graben-filling sediments is inferred to be Jurassic and/or Cretaceous. Source rocks are interpreted to have been deposited widely during this phase.
Phase two: Late Cretaceous to Late Eocene regional subsidence with increasing marine influence in the Reinga region. Source and reservoir successions are inferred to have been deposited during this interval.
Phase three: Late Eocene compression resulted in folding of the northwest Reinga region.
Phase four: Oligocene to Early Miocene regional subsidence and emplacement of the Northern Allochthon and eruption of the Northland Volcanic Arc in earliest Miocene time. The Early Miocene deformation and volcanism relate to development of the subduction zone to the northeast of the basin. Reservoir facies were deposited in regions affected by deformation and seal facies were deposited in distal regions.
Phase five: From the mid-Miocene to the present day subsidence continued in the Reinga Basin with deposition of pelagic sediments. Uplift of the Wanganella Ridge, in the northwest part of the Reinga region in the Middle Miocene and intermittent deformation in the northeast through to Pliocene time resulted in localised deposition of channel and fan reservoir facies.
Reservoir management of the mature Windalia waterflood field by optimising water injection allocation
Authors: Haynes Andrew , Hartanto Lina , Gan Wee Yong , Sayarpour Morteza
Published: August 2017

Barrow Island’s Windalia reservoir is Australia’s largest onshore waterflooding operation, developed in 1965 with waterflooding starting in 1967. The Windalia reservoir is highly heterogeneous and geologically complex, showing low permeabilities and extensive fault networks. Presently, injection rates are constrained by water availability because of aging source water facilities and increased injector failures because of high integrity risks, highlighting the importance of optimised distribution of injection volumes.
Static allocation of injection water has historically been conducted on a pattern basis. This approach, however, is not grounded on the relationships between injection and production wells; instead, it honours the geometric layout of the wells. A more dynamic approach was required to account for the changes in status of injectors and water availability that are often encountered in mature waterflood systems.
The successful completion of the Windalia capacitance-resistance model (CRM) was leveraged to develop a comprehensive ranking system of all capable injectors, quantifying short-term normalised oil response to maximise the oil production achieved for a given volume of water injected. Improved understanding of injector-producer communication has also provided the ability to extract the maximum value from limited injection water volumes and has the potential to reduce water cycling and the associated water-handling costs. It can also improve the ability to identify and prioritise workover and stimulation opportunities. This work describes the advances in reservoir management capabilities by quantifying the relationships between injector-producer pairs and the dynamic allocation of injection volumes.
The role of engineering innovation in Blue Carbon solutions
Authors: Ridley J
Published: August 2017

Humanity faces the global challenge of safely removing CO2 from the atmosphere to secure a stable climate. Broadly, there are three options: terrestrial, soils and ocean, and coastal blue carbon sinks. Each option has unique characteristics in relation to permanence, leakage, environmental integrity and co-bene?ts.
This extended abstract explores opportunities for blue carbon projects and highlights the important role of engineers in advancing the success of these innovative techniques. Examples of blue carbon include salt marshes, mangroves, seagrasses, macro-algae, coral reefs and open-ocean micro-algae. Regional case studies for mangrove rehabilitation and pioneering research in Australia on micro-algae and open-ocean sequestration are also presented.
The world’s oceans contain about 90% of the global carbon budget. Nearly half of global primary productivity occurs in the open-ocean; this productivity has been achieved using only 0.05% of the earth’s biomass. Coastal and marine systems are ef?cient at the continuous storage of carbon, retaining it for centuries.
Co-bene?ts include coastal protection, ?sh nurseries, marine biodiversity and improved water quality. Blue carbon is therefore not only direct mitigation, but also a major contributor to the adaptation of changing climate, building a more resilient ecology and supporting long-term sustainability, including that of the major carbon-based industries.
Engineers are well equipped to lead this blue revolution while working with scientists and carbon professionals. This extended absrtact highlights opportunities for fast-track implementation and the engineering challenges; it draws on case studies to show scaleable solutions for achieving climate and food security.
Delivering healthcare in remote locations—telemedicine can save lives
Authors: Black Hamish , Heywood Louise
Published: August 2017

Topside support has traditionally been based on conversations by phone. With increasing access to greater bandwidth at site, a number of other telemedicine tools—from transmission of data (store and forward) to synchronous transmissions (video conferencing)—can be used. For remote sites, this implies that the level of care can be improved, making decisions about therapy and evacuation more accurate.
It is also possible that onsite staffing and equipment can be altered as a result of telemedicine. The cost advantages of using telemedicine at site could be significant. Customer Care™ is the sole support centre for the tempus IC unit in the Southern Hemisphere.
There are also other monitors with simple internet connectivity and common software such as Skype that can be used as telemedicine tools; however, what are the issues regarding security and privacy of transmitted information?
The other advantage of telemedicine is that data can be stored for incident review and feedback. The issue of who has the duty of care is best managed by having a good working relationship between assistance provider and onsite clinical staff. This extended abstract presents relevant case studies and an overview of tools in use. Comments about the possible errors when using telemedicine are also provided.
The climate change problem: is an LNG sectoral agreement part of the solution?
Authors: Hodgkinson David
Published: August 2017

Recent reports and papers reveal the scope of the global climate change problem. The Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Climate Analytics (2012) concludes the sum total of existing policies, in place or pledged, will very likely lead to warming in excess of 2°C. Additionally, a report from Vieweg et al (2012) concludes limiting global warming to below 2°C remains feasible if there is sufficient political ambition and action to introduce the required measures and policy changes now.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol have failed to address this climate change problem; other ways to address the problem should be considered. One alternative way forward would be to break the climate change problem into different pieces, to contemplate a more decentralised arrangement in which particular issues are discussed and negotiated—a regime complex, for example. Indeed, the UNFCCC regime may actually constrain agreement on addressing the climate change problem, and a shift away from a top-down, Kyoto-style architecture for international climate action—to a more bottom-up approach, with smaller agreements between particular groups of states and sectors—could result.
An international LNG sectoral agreement could form part of such an approach, or as a stand-alone agreement, because natural gas offers the most immediate method of transitioning to a lower-emissions global economy. After examining the UNFCC/Kyoto regime and other approaches to, and frameworks for, addressing the climate change problem, this peer-reviewed paper outlines the nature of sectoral agreements and their advantages, together with the rationale for, and benefits of, a sectoral agreement for the LNG industry.
2012 PESA industry review—exploration
Authors: Brooks Deidre
Published: August 2017

The Australian exploration landscape experienced an escalation of unconventional activity in 2012. Drilling targeting shale oil and gas, basin-centred tight gas, and coal gas is on the increase compared to previous years. Drilling for onshore oil and large offshore gas continued to be a staple activity for the year although, in general, offshore, the number of wells drilled is continuing to decline, in line with previous years. A number of very large 3D seismic surveys were acquired in 2012 and this is hoped to provide many future drilling targets.
Within Australia, 19 new offshore conventional petroleum exploration permits were awarded within the Commonwealth jurisdiction (compared to 24 in 2011), of which 15 are located in WA, two in Victoria, one in NT, and one in the Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands (NT). Onshore exploration tenures awarded in 2012 included four in WA, 14 in NT, six in Queensland, and nine conventional and six geothermal in SA.
At least 25 3D and six 2D seismic surveys were acquired offshore in 2012, including some very large 3D marine surveys, the largest covering an area of 12,417 km2. Onshore seismic activity was highest in Queensland and SA where 33 and 11 surveys were acquired, respectively.
Offshore, 21 conventional petroleum exploration wells were drilled during the year, which resulted in 11 announced discoveries. Two exploration wells, which were spudded late in 2011, were announced as discoveries early in 2012. Five wells, which were spudded in 2012, were still drilling at year end. This equates to a better than 50% technical success rate for offshore exploration drilling for all well results known at year end. All but two of these wells were located in WA waters, the others being located in NT and Victoria.
Australia-wide onshore drilling was more active than in 2011 and, as is reflected in the seismic activity, the most wells (1,048) were drilled in Queensland (dominated by CSG drilling), followed by SA (77).
Present-day in-situ stresses versus paleo-stresses for locating sweet spots in unconventional reservoirs
Authors: Khair Hani Abul , Cooke Dennis , Hand Martin
Published: August 2017

The effect of stresses on permeability is a combination of external stress and pore pressure. The authors examine if and how present-day in-situ stresses and the spatial distribution of permeable locations in the Moomba-Big Lake fields in the Cooper Basin are correlated. Image logs, well logs, and formation tests are analysed and the orientation and magnitudes of the three principal stresses are calculated. A 3D model was constructed and the calculated stress magnitudes and orientations were applied to the model using the software Poly3D. The resulting stress distribution in the present-day stress state showed a potential sweet spot in the Big Lake field, which is presently the location of a gas pool that forms, with the Moomba field, one-third of the gas reserve in SA. No potential sweet spots, however, are located in the Moomba area.
The authors also used the finite element method (FEM) and the boundary element method (BEM) for modelling the behaviour of folds, fractures, and faults and for mimicking the tectonic history of the basin. Software codes Dynel3D and Traptester were used to examine the validity of geomechanical restoration techniques for locating sweet spots in the Moomba-Big Lake fields. The methodology attempts to reconstruct the present-day structural and geometrical placement and to predict fractures generated due to stresses released during past tectonic events. Predicted stresses succeeded in mapping the same sweet spot in the Big Lake field using both software codes. Accordingly, the present permeability and production rate is controlled by a combination of present-day and stored stresses.
CSG well testing—Santos' experience in Queensland
Authors: Tan Czek Hoong , Demircan Guncel , Satyagraha Mathias
Published: August 2017

Permeability of the cleat system is a key factor controlling the productivity of CSG reservoirs and, therefore, the commerciality of development projects. Well testing is routinely used to provide representative values of coal permeability. The authors’ experience has shown pressure transient behaviour in coal reservoirs to be similar to those in primary porosity systems, with pseudo radial flow frequently observed, and the dual-porosity signature largely absent. Despite the authors’ best efforts in test design, large permeability variation and extremely high skin factors have been seen. The authors have run variations of drill stem tests (DSTs), injection tests, and wireline tests to understand the dependency of results to test methods, and the validity of results obtained. Pertinent examples of each type of test are discussed. Finally, recommendations to reconcile well test results to actual well performance are presented.
Assessing the environmental impact of water discharge in a sensitive near-shore marine environment
Authors: Hall Katrina , Chidgey Scott
Published: August 2017

Esso’s Long Island Point facility has been operating for more than 40 years beside Western Port in Victoria, and has discharged treated wastewater and storm water to the bay for most of these years. The 2001 State Environment Protection Policy Schedule F8 for Waters of Western Port is part of Victoria’s Environment Protection Authority’s (EPA) legal framework for licensing discharges to the waters of Victoria, and requires that discharges ‘cause no detrimental change in the environmental quality of the receiving waters, as determined by an environmental monitoring program’.
As part of Esso’s ongoing commitment to continuous improvement, a major upgrade to the water treatment facility was completed to further improve the quality of waters discharged to Western Port. In conjunction with this upgrade, Esso is undertaking a study on the effects of the discharge on the environmental quality of Western Port.
This peer-reviewed paper presents an example of the practical application of managing discharges to ensure that the stated environmental values of a receiving environment are protected.
The environmental study focuses on four key aspects of marine-environment quality relevant to key Western Port ecosystem values in the vicinity of the facility’s effluent discharge, which are: ambient water quality; seagrass biomass; jetty pile epibiota; and, ecological risk through toxicity testing.
The study demonstrates the implications of basing regulatory requirements on the quality of the site-specific environmental characteristics, rather than merely effluent quality and generalised water quality objectives. Furthermore, it validates the need for sound science to underpin regulatory limits and industry practices when operating in sensitive environments.
Emerging unconventional shale plays in Western Australia
Authors: R. Ghori K. Ameed
Published: August 2017

Production of shale gas in the US has changed its position from a gas importer to a potential gas exporter. This has stimulated exploration for shale-gas resources in WA. The search started with Woodada Deep–1 (2010) and Arrowsmith–2 (2011) in the Perth Basin to evaluate the shale-gas potential of the Permian Carynginia Formation and the Triassic Kockatea Shale, and Nicolay–1 (2011) in the Canning Basin to evaluate the shale-gas potential of the Ordovician Goldwyer Formation. Estimated total shale-gas potential for these formations is about 288 trillion cubic feet (Tcf). Other petroleum source rocks include the Devonian Gogo and Lower Carboniferous Laurel formations of the Canning Basin, the Lower Permian Wooramel and Byro groups of the onshore Carnarvon Basin, and the Neoproterozoic shales of the Officer Basin. The Canning and Perth basins are producing petroleum, whereas the onshore Carnarvon and Officer basins are not producing, but they have indications for petroleum source rocks, generation, and migration from geochemistry data. Exploration is at a very early stage, and more work is needed to estimate the shale-gas potential of all source rocks and to verify estimated resources.
Exploration for shale gas in WA will benefit from new drilling and production techniques and technologies developed during the past 15 years in the US, where more than 102,000 successful gas production wells have been drilled. WA shale-gas plays are stratigraphically and geochemically comparable to producing plays in the Upper Ordovician Utica Shale, Middle Devonian Marcellus Shale and Upper Devonian Bakken Formation, Upper Mississippian Barnett Shale, Upper Jurassic Haynesville-Bossier formations, and Upper Cretaceous Eagle Ford Shale of the US. WA is vastly under-explored and emerging self-sourcing shale plays have revived onshore exploration in the Canning, Carnarvon, and Perth basins.
A new approach to evaluate the performance of partially propped hydraulic fractures
Authors: Bortolan Neto Luiz , Khanna Aditya , Kotousov Andrei
Published: August 2017

A new approach for evaluating the performance of hydraulic fractures that are partially packed with proppant (propping agent) particles is presented. The residual opening of the partially propped fracture is determined as a function of the initial fracture geometry, the propped length of the fracture, the compressive rock stresses, the elastic properties of the rock, and the compressibility of the proppant pack. A mathematical model for fluid flow towards the fracture is developed, which incorporates the effects of the residual opening profile of the fracture and the high conductivity of the unpropped fracture length.
The residual opening profile of the fracture is calculated for a particular case where the proppant pack is nearly rigid and there is no closure of the fracture faces due to the confining (compressive) stresses. A sensitivity study is performed to demonstrate the dependence of the well productivity index on the propped length of the fracture, the proppant pack permeability, and the dimensionless fracture conductivity. The sensitivity study suggests that the residual opening of a fracture has a significant impact on production, and that partially propped fractures can be more productive than fully propped fractures. Application of this new approach can lead to economic benefits.
Optimisation and economical evaluation of infill drilling in CSG reservoirs using a multi-objective genetic algorithm
Authors: Salmachi Alireza , Sayyafzadeh Mohammad , Haghighi Manouchehr
Published: August 2017

Water production in the early life of Coal Seam Gas (CSG) recovery makes these reservoirs different from conventional gas reservoirs. Normally, a large amount of water is produced during the early production period, while the gas-rate is negligible. It is essential to drill infill wells in optimum locations to reduce the water production and increase the gas recovery. To optimise infill locations in a CSG reservoir, an integrated framework is developed to couple the reservoir flow simulator (ECLIPSE) and the genetic algorithm (GA) optimisation toolbox of (MATLAB). In this study, the desired objective function is the NPV of the infill drilling. To obtain the economics of the infill drilling project, the objective function is split into two objectives. The first objective is the gas income; the second objective is the cost associated with water production. The optimisation problem is then solved using the multi-objective solver.
The economics of the infill drilling program is investigated for a case study constructed based on the available data from the Tiffany unit in San Juan basin when gas price and water treatment cost are variable. Best obtained optimal locations of 20 new wells in the reservoir are attained using this optimisation framework to maximise the profit of this project. The results indicate that when the gas price is less than $2/Mscf, the infill plan, regardless of the cost of water treatment, is not economical and drilling additional wells cannot be economically justified. When the cost of water treatment and disposal increases from $0.01/STB to $4/STB, the optimisation framework intelligently distributes the infill wells across the reservoir in a way that the total water production of infill wells is reduced by 26%. Simulation results also indicate that when water treatment is an expensive operation, lower water production is attained by placing the infill wells in depleted sections of the coal bed, close to the existing wells. When water treatment cost is low, however, infill wells are freely allocated in virgin sections of the coal bed, where both coal gas content and reservoir pressure are high.
CSIRO research and development activities to address environmental issues related to offshore oil and gas development
Authors: Lee Kenneth , Smith David , Ross Andrew
Published: August 2017

In 2013, the Wealth from Oceans Flagship of the Commonwealth Science and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) started a new research strategy in environmental sciences to support the future needs of the offshore oil and gas industry, regulatory agencies, and the oil spill response community. Using its world class laboratory facilities and research vessels, CSIRO intends to further apply its scientific expertise in the Australasian region towards the assessment and mitigation of environmental risks related to offshore oil and gas development and accidental oil spills.
This paper provides an overview of ongoing and planned research activities by CSIRO in collaboration with academia, the private sector and other government agencies to ensure the protection and sustainability of Australia’s marine resources. The program includes the conduct of integrated environmental baseline studies, the development of improved protocols for environmental effects monitoring (EEM) of operational waste discharges (e.g., drilling muds/fluids and production waters), and the application of risk assessment protocols in support of ecosystem-based management. In support of oil spill response operations, the program will also develop remediation technologies and systems to detect and model the fate and transport of contaminant hydrocarbons in the marine environment. Project deliverables of this research, which integrate operational and scientific monitoring efforts with evaluation of oil spill response technologies, will result in new equipment and standard methods that will be used by the oil industry on a global scale to reduce the cost and time spent on monitoring programs while enhancing capability, response readiness and capacity.
Geochemical interpretation of partially filled hydrocarbon traps in the nearshore Gippsland Basin
Authors: Hoffman Nick , Preston James
Published: August 2017

This study aims to analyse the relative importance of competing processes in determining the distribution of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbon accumulations in the nearshore Gippsland Basin. These processes include primary source/charge factors such as kerogen type and maturity at the time of expulsion, fractionation processes during migration, and secondary alteration effects such as biodegradation and/or water-washing in the presence of a strong low-salinity water-wedge that has pushed out 20–40 km from the coastline during Quaternary time.
The authors find that small accumulations of liquid petroleum predominate west of Emperor, Snapper, and Bream. These small accumulations show evidence of primary charges of wet-gas, and various stages of in-reservoir alteration. Compared to liquids in the Central Deep and in the basal oil-legs of the giant wet-gas fields at Snapper and Marlin, wax contents are low, and API gravities are high, close to the Emperor-Bream line, but then decrease westwards towards the coastal region. Oil bubble-point pressures decrease westwards (despite shallower burial than the Bream, Snapper, and Marlin fields, further offshore), due to increasing under-saturation with respect to dissolved gas.
The authors note that the dominance of gas in the Barracouta Field is probably due to strong recharge with unaltered wet gas but that dry gas in the Golden Beach Field suggests biogenic methane, as proven for the Baleen gasfield by carbon isotopes. The authors infer that the presence or absence of thin oil-legs in the Barracouta, Snapper, Marlin and Bream wet gas fields reflects a balance of water-washing and fresh charge.
Residual oil shows below the Dolphin and Perch OWCs, and a lost column at Amberjack–1, demonstrate volume reduction following peak charge. The authors, therefore, conclude that observed underfill of structures is generally a result of in-reservoir processes post-charge, rather than a deficiency of charge or seal.
Fluvial reservoirs in dryland endorheic basins: the Lake Eyre Basin as a world-class modern analogue
Authors: Morón Sara , Amos Kathryn , Mann Sandra
Published: August 2017

Intracratonic dryland basins have been common throughout geological time and significant hydrocarbon reservoirs are contained in these basins. Based on a literature compilation of fluvial dryland reservoirs, the authors demonstrate the need for new modern analogue data from dryland fluvial systems, and present new field data from the Neales River, in the Lake Eyre catchment. The selected study reach has a complex planform, with a downstream transition from single channel to anabranching. Results of the observations of the channel bed grain size, the geomorphology and the channel geometry (width and depth) allow the authors to infer that the channel bed grain size is more strongly related to planform geomorphology than the channel geometry (width to depth ratios). Based on the grain size and channel geometry data the authors present, the authors conclude that the planform geomorphology exerts a greater control on channel bed material size than channel geometry. This interpretation is based on the analysis of satellite imagery, topographic survey data and grain size descriptions. In this paper, the authors provide channel geometry data and grain size data that will improve understanding of dryland fluvial sedimentology. The authors hope this contributes to enhancing hydrocarbon exploration and production in petroleum reservoirs developed in dryland fluvial settings.
A rapid and flexible method for simulation of CSG water production: application in the Surat and Bowen basins
Authors: Strand Roald , Keir Greg , Reading Lucy , Usher Brent , Dickinson Chris
Published: August 2017

There is significant interest in estimating volumes of water extracted during production as the CSG industry develops in the Surat and Bowen basins in Queensland, Australia. Klohn Crippen Berger Ltd (KCB) was commissioned by the Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines (DNRM) to develop a tool to estimate where, when, and how much CSG water will be produced in these areas under various industry expansion scenarios. The tool, which is now being maintained and further developed to interface with GIS software by the Centre for Water in the Minerals Industry (CWiMI), was built to balance numerical complexity against relative flexibility and simulation speed. This was achieved by an approach that differs from conventional reservoir engineering models, including:

the use of non-equilibrium groundwater flow equations (the Theis equation) in conjunction with semi-empirical type-curve based methods;
calculation of well interference effects and corresponding spatial scaling effects in a relatively large-scale spatially discretised model; and,
modification of flows predicted using the Theis equation to reflect the dual-phase nature of CSG extraction, and the unique hydrogeological setting of the eastern margin of the Surat Basin.

The tool was verified against equivalent Theis equation calculations and type curves provided by CSG proponents. The tool was demonstrated to adequately represent the unique physical mechanisms of CSG extraction, and produce robust estimates of CSG water production at a regional scale, while not relying on excessively complex numerical models or excessive data input requirements.
Cenozoic salt tectonics in the Officer Basin, Western Australia: implications for hydrocarbon exploration
Authors: Cunneen Jane , Crowe Warwick , Peters Geoff
Published: August 2017

The Neoproterozoic western Officer Basin has a total sedimentary fill of up to 8 km and a depositional history with similarities to other central Australian basins, particularly the Amadeus Basin. The size and remoteness of the basin has traditionally been an impediment to exploration, and only sparse seismic and well data are available. In such areas, potential field data can be a powerful exploration tool to assess petroleum prospectively.
Salt distribution and mobilisation in the Officer Basin is poorly understood and has been significantly under-estimated due to a lack of quality seismic data. Examination of the existing aeromagnetic, gravity and seismic data, along with satellite and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data, indicate that surface and shallow salt is abundant in the northern and central parts of the basin. Remobilisation of salt is greatest in the eastern part of the study area, decreasing towards the west, although the extent of salt occurrence to the west is unclear.
Salt diapirs occur along structural trends; east to west in the northeastern (Gibson) part of the basin, and northwest to southeast in the central (Yowalga) area. Neotectonic features such as surface lineaments and recent earthquake data suggest that minor tectonic reactivation is occurring in the present day, and is consistent with a present-day stress orientation of approximately 095°. Miocene to recent stress orientations suggest that structures in the Gibson area may have been reactivated as right lateral faults, whereas those in the Yowalga area are reactivated as left lateral faults.
Potential trap styles in the western Officer Basin include structural plays related to salt movement, such as drape folds, diaper overhangs, and thrusts. Late-stage movement of salt must, therefore, be considered when assessing the timing of migration pathways and possible seal breach. An improved understanding of the extent of salt in the Officer Basin, and the degree of reactivation during the Cenozoic, is vital for successful exploration in the region. Acquisition of high-resolution magnetic and gravity data would be a cost-effective exploration tool for better definition of salt and associated hydrocarbon traps.
The internationalisation of liability regimes for offshore petroleum exploration and production
Authors: Wawryk Alexandra , van Hende Katelijn
Published: August 2017

The pollution caused by the explosion of the Deepwater Horizon oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico, and the Montara blowout in the Timor Sea, put the call for an international regulatory framework for oil pollution liability on the global agenda. Although international law regulates the prevention of offshore oil pollution and protection of the marine environment, certain activities do not fall inside the ambit of international regulations. For example, while new technology has made it possible for companies to drill to deeper depths and explore further away from the coastline, existing international conventions generally do not extend to liability for, and restoration of, damage caused by oil pollution from offshore installations. These issues are regulated by the national laws of the country that governs the continental shelf where the petroleum activities are conducted. Thus, from an international perspective, the legal regime is disperse and complex. The amount and complexity of claims arising from large-scale incidents has raised interest in creating a consistent international liability regime. This could be done through a multilateral treaty. Alternatively, the development and application of common principles across national and regional jurisdictions can lead to the increased internationalisation of liability regimes. This paper compares the laws of Australia, the USA and the UK to identify common principles for liability and environmental restoration. The authors argue that as the legal framework becomes internationalised, increasing pressure will be placed on companies to accept the highest standards of liability, rather than the lowest national standard.
Challenges in hydraulic fracturing from perforated boreholes in unconventional reservoirs
Authors: Abarghooei Seyed Hassan Fallahzadeh , Rasouli Vamegh
Published: August 2017

In recent years, with the evolution of unconventional reservoirs, hydraulic fracturing has been applied to tight sandstone and shale formations to improve the hydrocarbon production. The application of hydraulic fracturing in cased boreholes is always associated with many difficulties because the fracture has to be initiated from the perforations. There have been many cases of improper fracture initiation in tight formations, which have then resulted in premature screen out, and have not improved reservoir production.
In this study, initiation of hydraulic fracturing from a perforated tunnel was studied numerically using a finite element method. The numerical model was generated to represent a laboratory experimental test, which has been carried out on tight concrete cubic samples. A perforated wellbore in a linearly elastic tight formation was modelled using Abaqus software through three-dimensional numerical analysis. Two different perforation orientations were considered to analyse the fracture initiation pressure (FIP) and the location and initial direction of the crack. Different far field stresses were considered to study the effect of in-situ stresses and perforation directions on the fracture initiation mechanism. The results were then compared to laboratory and analytical outcomes, and good agreement was observed. The results provide a better understanding on how the stress regime, stress anisotropy, and perforation orientation could affect the pressure and geometry of fracture initiation in tight formations. Based on the outcomes of this study, better strategies can be decided for perforating a cased wellbore in a tight formation so that lower FIP is experienced and a better near wellbore fracture is created.
Project execution and TMP™ (Theoretical Maximum Performance): a tool for management's greatest challenge
Authors: Aplanalp Benjamin
Published: August 2017

In Australia’s current environment of unprecedented capital expenditure oil and gas companies face a new paradigm where a culture of superb project execution has become critical. Managers will need to employ powerful new tools to overcome the challenges of this environment. One such tool has proven itself at aiding teams to deliver routine maintenance projects as well as regular operations activities on time, on budget, and with enhanced safety performance. That tool is TMP™ (Theoretical Maximum Performance).
The TMP™ tool uses facilitated workshops and ongoing 1–1 coaching to create a platform whereby key individuals from disparate teams across various functions assemble to optimise, then execute a project plan by focusing on that which is possible (theoretical maximum), not constraining itself by prior conceptions and habits.
While TMP™ lends itself to a myriad of applications, it is perhaps most often used for, and best suited to, well-defined processes that will be repeated again and again, thereby compounding the efficiencies gained via the tool’s employment. Prime examples of these applications are: drilling activities; regular blowout preventer maintenance and rig moves; and, routine maintenance of an asset such as turbine engine changes or major overhaul of an offshore drilling rig, all of which presently take place daily in Australia’s booming oil and gas landscape. This paper will introduce the reader to the basic tenants of the TMP™ tool, its benefits, and its applications.
Geochemical underpinnings of Australia's offshore hydrocarbon prospectivity
Authors: Bradshaw Marita , Edwards Dianne , Boreham Chris , Grosjean Emmanuelle , Totterdell Jennifer , Bernecker Thomas , Heap Andrew
Published: August 2017

Molecular and isotopic analyses of oils and gases can provide information on the depositional environment, maturation and age of their source rocks, and the post expulsion history of the hydrocarbons generated. Source rock analyses can determine their potential to generate hydrocarbons of varying type over specific thermal ranges, as well as demonstrating the strength of oil- or gas-to-source correlations. Together, this geochemical interpretation can provide insights about the extent of petroleum systems and can help delineate the relationships between hydrocarbon occurrences in a basin and across the continent. Oils that do not fit the well-established framework of oil families and Australian petroleum systems point to new source rock fairways. Examples include vagrant oils with lacustrine affinities found at various locations on the western Australian margin. Other examples are oil occurrences in the Gippsland Basin whose geochemical signatures contrast with the dominant non-marine oils, supporting the existence of a viable marine source rock facies. In under-explored and frontier basins, geochemical analyses of potential source rocks can provide key evidence to underpin new exploration efforts. For example, the recent acreage uptake in the Bight Basin was supported by Geoscience Australia’s recovery and analysis of oil-prone marine source rocks, and in the northern Perth Basin by new geochemical analysis extending the distribution of Lower Triassic Hovea marine source rocks offshore. Geoscience Australia has now embarked on a regional petroleum geological program that includes a national source rock study aimed at identifying and characterising Australia’s hydrocarbon sources, families and systems.
General financial environment 2014
Authors: Williamson Max
Published: August 2017

Research available from oil and gas industry commodity traders and bankers suggests relatively stable pricing of key commodities for the next two to three years. Barring another oil shock, or similar major international event, that will mean a positive atmosphere for longer term decision making by project developers and regulators. With a new, stable Federal Government and similar persuasion State Governments focused on repealing the carbon tax and developing key infrastructure around Australia including ports, it is not unreasonable to expect a period of real growth and project development, including a resurgence of interest in oil and gas exploration. Doubtless continuing pressure from political lobby groups and parties to try and claim some ground in areas like groundwater re-treatment and usage, and the repeal of the Mineral Resource Rent Tax and the carbon tax legislation packages, will be apparent. How the government may achieve these legislation changes will have significant impact on project feasibility and how projects are designed, operated and managed. Some of the fascinating developments in researching aspects of how the Australian industry will achieve its technical objectives and how they are supported by the research and development tax incentives are worth more than a cursory financial review. With a historically cheap cost of capital there will be increased focus on borrowing methodologies and supporting techniques, with equity only being freely available to the majors. The funding of exploration programs and the determination of what is research and development in those programs will be critical for smaller companies.
Ichthys Project update
Authors: Bon Louis
Published: August 2017

The US$34 billion Ichthys LNG Project is one of the most complex oil and gas developments attempted.
It is effectively three mega-projects in one: an onshore project, an offshore project, and a pipeline project.
The Ichthys Project represents:

the largest semi-submersible platform in the world;
the first semi-submersible production platform in Australia;
the largest Japanese investment outside Japan;
the largest single French investment in Australia;
the biggest ever project financing;
the longest subsea pipeline in the southern hemisphere; and,
the second largest resource Project in Australia, by CAPEX.

The onshore project is being developed in Darwin and involves two processing trains rated to produce a total of 8.4 million tonnes of LNG a year. Offshore, construction of the central processing facility (CPF) and floating, production storage, and off-take (FPSO) vessel is underway. Both facilities will be permanently moored and are designed to withstand the most extreme weather conditions for more than four decades. An 889-km pipeline will link the Ichthys Field, 200 km off the Western Australian coast, to the onshore facilities in Darwin. The project’s final investment decision was announced in January 2012. This triggered intense construction activity and created hundreds of new construction jobs in Darwin and more globally. Since the discovery of the gas-condensate field in 2000, the Ichthys journey has been one of identifying and overcoming geographical, political, technical, financial, and commercial challenges. The project is a global effort, drawing on worldwide expertise to overcome these challenges and work towards first gas in late 2016.
Benefits of establishing ecological and socio-economic baselines during the exploration phase: case study in the Great Australian Bight
Authors: Ward Tim , Lukatelich Rod , Smith David , Begg Gavin , Smith Rochelle
Published: August 2017

The Great Australian Bight (GAB) Collaborative Research Science Program is a partnership between BP Australia, leading Australian marine research agencies CSIRO and SARDI, and the University of Adelaide and Flinders University of South Australia. This four-year $20 million investigation of the ecological processes and socio-economic importance of the GAB is being conducted as a single integrated program. Importantly, the program is being conducted during the period in which BP will be drilling four exploratory wells in the hope of establishing a new deepwater oil and gas province in the GAB.
Eighteen inter-related projects are being conducted across seven themes:

Physical oceanography
Pelagic ecosystem and environmental drivers
Benthic biodiversity
Ecology of iconic and apex predators
Petroleum geology and geochemistry
Socio-economic values
Data integration and ecosystem modelling

Scientific peer review is undertaken by an independent science panel comprised of six eminent scientists and BP’s international team of subject matter experts. Findings will be presented directly to stakeholders and regulators and published in technical reports and scientific papers during the course of the program. The program is one the few whole-of-system studies undertaken in Australia and the first large-scale, integrated study of the GAB. Advantages of the approach include: use and development of local scientific capability will enhance social licence to operate; developing knowledge of the system prior to the production phase will provide a sound basis for predicting, monitoring, and assessing potential future impacts; ecosystem modelling will provide a framework for developing decision-support tools to assist future management.
An operational and scientific monitoring program (OSMP) for the Prelude and Ichthys fields: a case study from the Browse Basin
Authors: Souter David , Rogers Steve , Oliver Jamie
Published: August 2017

An OSMP is the principle tool for determining the extent, severity, and persistence of environmental impacts from an oil spill. The OSMP developed for the Shell Prelude and Inpex Ichthys gas fields has 13 operational monitoring programs (OMPs) and 12 scientific monitoring programs (SMPs) reflecting the complexity of the environment in which the developments are located. A partnership of organisations led by the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) will provide specialist expertise to help implement the OSMP. This unique multi-disciplinary partnership, comprising AIMS, CSIRO, University of Western Australia, Curtin University, WA ChemCentre, and Monash University, guarantees capability and capacity, reducing the level of risk incurred by individual organisations within the partnership.
Fundamental to the success of any OSMP is the existence of adequate, fit-for-purpose baseline data against which post spill observations can be compared to determine the extent and severity of the spill and assess effectiveness of oil spill response. In addition, we believe adequate baselines with sufficient temporal resolution are essential for OSMP credibility and maintenance of the scientific reputations of partners. In committing capability to the OSMP implementation, AIMS and its partners have adopted a risk-based approach to assessing the adequacy of existing baseline data, to identify knowledge gaps, and assess the significance of those gaps and the feasibility of filling them. This extended abstract describes the structured approach taken to analyse the various risks and to develop a balanced suite of environmental baseline studies to address these risks.
Integration of exploration, drilling and installation activities given regulatory challenges
Authors: Lewis Roger
Published: August 2017

Coordination and integration of exploration activities, both seismic and drilling, development drilling and offshore installation campaigns is difficult at the best of times. Add to this the regulatory requirements, which included the establishment of NOPSEMA and the associated regulations in January 2012, and the already complex task of executing work efficiently became even more challenging. The paper explores the development and application of an integrated schedule that met the overall business needs as well as key stakeholders (Environment, Exploration, Drilling, Projects and Operations). Factors and constraints that had to be addressed included existing drilling rig and installation contracts with significant associated costs, maintaining project schedules that were sanctioned prior to regulatory changes coming into effect, resourcing levels and an environmental regulatory regime seeking continuous improvement. Individual stakeholders tended to focus on their own areas yet there are schedule inter-relationships with others that had knock on effects. The integrated schedule provided a proactive management tool that was and continues to be used to plan and review key activities in a constantly changing environment.