bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fatigue and Its Relationship to End-Use Performance
Authors: Loveless HS , Ingle LR , Gerrard CE
Published: March 2009

This paper describes two types of fatigue tests, cyclic and static, and their abilities to predict the long-term behavior of glass-fiber reinforced plastics in a marine and an electrical utility application.

Employing a modification of the existing ASTM Test for Flexural Fatigue of Plastics by Constant-Amplitude-of-Force (D671-78), a procedure was devised for differentiating styrene-suppressed polyester orthophthalic resin systems used as secondary bonding media for the encapsulation of wooden stringers to the hull section of marine craft. Using specimens machined from overlapped panels processed with various resin systems, the laboratory test employs a fixed stress at the overlap of 13.8 MPa (2000 psi). The resistance of the overlap to the completely reversed bending load is measured in terms of the number of cycles endured to failure by the overlap. Correlation of these laboratory measurements with actual service tests of pleasure craft in the Gulf of Mexico has been excellent, thus attesting to the validity and usefulness of such data for predicting the fatigue resistance of the bond between the stringers and hull section of the boat under a fatigue environment imposed by choppy waters in end use.

The paper concludes with a discussion of the Prot method for the prediction of the long-term tensile strength of plastics under static (fatigue) loading, together with an analysis of an electrical cable application of reinforced plastics, based upon the Prot test and elastic modulus considerations.
ASTM Committee A-9 and the Steel Industry
Authors: Huhn WP
Published: March 2009

Since iron metallurgy began, constant effort has been expended to improve the normal product. A major method of improving the metallurgical properties of iron and steel is by alloying with other elements. Committee A-9 of ASTM on Ferroalloys and Alloying Additives is devoted to standardizing these alloying additives so that all within the industry will obtain comparable products.

The concept for A-9 occurred in 1923 when the first standards for ferroalloys were established. The next 50-odd years of operation have seen these standards expanded, deleted, altered, and new additions created to reflect the changes in steel technology. The complexity of this technology has involved A-9 with other ASTM committees and also with other domestic associations, not to mention the interrelationship with comparable foreign associations to establish worldwide standards on ferroalloys.

To prepare for the future of ferroalloys, A-9 will incorporate various facets into their present standards to constantly improve their performance and acceptance by not only domestic steel industry but worldwide as well. The flexibility of the committee's structure and membership permits attaining this goal.
Market Position of Ferroalloys Produced from Ocean Nodules
Authors: Balash JP
Published: March 2009

There has been little discussion in most technical circles about the commercial importance of ocean-mined minerals. This paper outlines the market position in the United States and the free world of ferroalloys of manganese, nickel, and cobalt which can be produced from this new source of minerals. The national security value for the United States and the free world of these metals which can be produced from nodules is significant. In contrast, the market share impact under normal circumstances of material produced from nodules is likely to be moderate to small on a world scale, except in the case of cobalt. The market impact was determined by a study of publicly available information on the size and nature of the market for the subject ferroalloys. The results of these studies and other information indicate that the timing of market entry of those consortia now doing exploration and development depends on the resolution of political, technical, and economic barriers. Past investments in ocean mining activity of several consortia are substantial. The capital needs of the existing consortia to commercialize these ventures are large. The development of this embryonic industry is at a critical stage and its long-range potential depends on favorable political support in the United States and the rest of the free world.
Trends in Rare-Earth Metal Consumption for Steel Applications in the 1980's
Authors: Trethewey WH , Jackman JR
Published: March 2009

During the 1920's and 1930's, rare-earth metals (REM's), periodic chart Group IIIA—lanthanides, were virtually unknown to wrought, carbon, and steel alloy steel producers. Between 1940 and the late 1960's the proven hot and cold formability benefits of rare-earth usage in carbon, alloy, and stainless steels were over shadowed by inconsistent addition recoveries and poor microcleanliness. As a result, rare-earth metals had limited application until the late 1960's, when the development of 550 000-kPa (80 000 psi) high-strength low-alloy steel demonstrated that the formulation of stable globular rare-earth sulfide and oxysulfide inclusions led to substantial improvements in toughness and formability. As metallurgical technology advanced throughout the 1970's, REM consumption increased by a factor of five. The benefits of sulfide-shape control and hydrogen-induced cracking control aided diversification of REM's application while desulfurization technology and continuous casting to some extent had a negative impact upon consumption. It will be concluded that, as the demand for higher-performance steels increases, the steel producer will continue intensifying individualized plant searches toward sulfur control. Moreover, REM consumption during the 1980's will continue to increase as the diversification into additional steel applications continues.
Rare-Earth Additions to Blast Furnace Iron for the Production of Large Castings
Authors: Cornell HH , Loper CR , Pan E-N
Published: March 2009

Additions have been made to foundry iron for castings to modify the graphite shape from flake to compacted form. This has been done to improve the mechanical properties of the iron to a level desirable for more diverse applications. The graphite modification has been accomplished by treatment with controlled levels of magnesium, magnesium-titanium combinations, and also rare-earth alloys.

Reportedly, compacted graphite iron has also been produced in blast furnace iron modified to near foundry iron composition.

The work reported here was instituted on the premise that compacted graphite iron could be made from blast furnace iron with only modest modification as would be possible and practical in a foundry producing large castings, such as ingot molds.

Preliminary work involved the confirmation of the ability of rare earths to produce compacted graphite in blast furnace irons. Three-hundred-pound laboratory heats were evaluated for a range of major element levels (carbon, sulfur, silicon, manganese, and silicon-manganese ratios), the effect of pouring temperatures, and cooling rates.

The castings were examined for graphite type and amount, as well as possible presence of carbides. The matrix structures were examined for ferrite and pearlite amounts and distributions. Mechanical properties were also determined.

With production of a desirable structure of compacted graphite surrounded by ferrite and containing a minimum of pearlite, it should be possible to produce castings from blast furnace iron with high strength, good thermal conductivity, and acceptable erosion resistance for an application such as ingot molds, with a resultant major improvement in the life of the mold.
Ferroaluminum—Properties and Uses
Authors: Deeley PD
Published: March 2009

The use of ferroaluminum is increasing in steel mills and foundries in the United States and overseas. The paper reviews aluminum deoxidation briefly, with emphasis on efficiency and oxide inclusion removal, then discusses the properties of ferroaluminum which give it superiority over metallic aluminum as a deoxidizer. Current steel mill and foundry experience and operating practice are reviewed, with special attention to the use of ferroaluminum as a furnace blocking addition, a primary and final deoxidizer, and as a means for increasing the accuracy and precision of oxygen probe measurements.
Alloys and Metals for the Production of High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels
Authors: Silver J
Published: March 2009

The production of high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels represents the fastest-growing segment of the flat rolled steel market. Weight reduction programs by automotive producers and other steel consumers have provided the impetus for developing efficient production practices for these grades. Yield strength levels of 276 000 to 966 000 kPa (40 000 to 140 000 psi) are currently available.

The majority of HSLA grades are microalloyed with either columbium, vanadium, titanium, or combinations of these elements. The columbium and vanadium steels are produced either as semikilled or fully killed grades, with and without inclusion shape control. Titanium-alloyed grades are produced fully killed. These three alloy grade series are routinely produced using ferroalloys added to the steel ladle in conjunction with ferrosilicon and aluminum to control deoxidation. Selection of the alloying element depends upon end use, mill processing parameters, and customer specifications and requirements.

Other grades, produced on a less-frequent basis, require the additions of copper, nickel, chromium, and molybdenum. The form of these alloy additions varies, and all but chromium can be added to the furnace during charging.

This paper emphasizes the relative cost of the alloys and the methods used to achieve the desired analysis of each element. Particular attention is devoted to melt shop practices used to maximize alloy recovery, and thereby minimize costs. Included are considerations of ferroalloy sizing, packaging, and sequence of addition to the steel ladle. The importance of consistent quality from the alloy supplier has become rather apparent; the methods employed by Jones and Laughlin's Cleveland Works to monitor the quality of alloying materials is also reviewed.
Alloy Additions for the Production of Fine-Grain Strand-Cast Special-Quality Steel Billets
Authors: Wright PH
Published: March 2009

The grain refinement of steel has traditionally been achieved by the addition of aluminum to the ingot mold.

In the production of fine-grain strand-cast billets it has been necessary for the steel-maker to develop alternative methods of grain refinement because of the detrimental effect of aluminum on surface quality.

Elements used for this purpose are columbium and vanadium, added in the form of ferroalloys.

This paper discusses the reasons for the development of these practices, the effect of these additions on the finished product, and asks the question, “Why fine grain”?
Scanning Reference Electrode Techniques in Localized Corrosion
Authors: Isaacs HS , Vyas B
Published: March 2009

The principles, advantages, and implementations of scanning reference electrode techniques are reviewed. The technique locates the position of localized corrosion, and can be used to monitor the development of corrosion and changes in the corrosion rate under a wide range of conditions. Data related to pitting, intergranular corrosion, welds, and stress-corrosion cracking are presented.
A Strain-Control Technique for Assessing the Corrosion-Fatigue Sensitivity of Stainless Steels
Authors: Amzallag C , Mayonobe B , Rabbe P
Published: March 2009

Recent studies have clearly shown the effect of mechanical depassivation on the behavior of stainless steels subject to stress corrosion. When these steels are cyclically deformed, the passive film can be locally perturbed by cyclic modifications of the topography of the underlying metal. Under these conditions the sensitivity of a stainless steel to fatigue in a corrosive medium depends, to a large extent, on the respective kinetics of mechanical depassivation and electrochemical repassivation.

From a study conducted on different stainless steels, a method is proposed for evaluating the sensitivity of stainless steels to corrosion fatigue. Low-cycle fatigue tests under strain control have been carried out in a chloride solution. Evaluation of transient electrochemical parameters recorded during the tests enables us to give a coherent explanation of the behavior of these materials during long-life fatigue tests and of the fatigue crack growth rates. The experimental apparatus and methods used to interpret the mechanical and electrochemical results are discussed.
Digital Faradaic Impedance Measurements on Corroding Copper in Acid Solutions
Authors: Smyrl WH
Published: March 2009

The faradaic impedance of a rotating copper disk has been investigated in oxygenated acid solutions. The impedance measurement system is based on a digital acquisition and analysis of multiple frequency signals. The frequency range investigated was 0.1 to 500 Hz. In sulfuric acid the corrosion involves the peroxide intermediate whose transport behavior strongly influences the impedance results. Peroxide is not important in hydrochloric acid, but the transport of cuprous ions determines the impedance behavior. Measurements at frequencies higher than about 400 Hz in sulfuric acid show a strong frequency dispersion of the capacitance due to a nonuniform current distribution.
Practical Experience with an Electrochemical Technique for Atmospheric Corrosion Monitoring
Authors: Kucera V , Gullman J
Published: March 2009

An electrochemical technique based on integration of the current in electrolytic cells with an external impressed voltage has been used in various investigations. Cells that permit measurements extending over several years without risk of short-circuiting by corrosion products have been developed. The electronic integrator has been proved to function reliably during all measurements. Even if the electrochemical background of the technique is not well defined, a relation has been found to exist between the cell current and the corrosion rate. The relation is fairly constant in measurements at one site, but depends to some extent on the degree of pollution, which is a serious limitation. The technique appears, however, to be well suited for comparative studies of different alloys and the protective effect of corrosion products, and for studies of copper and zinc in run-off from building structures. The time of wetness measured by the technique may be of interest in the study of the influence of climatic factors.
An Electrochemical Technique to Measure Diffusible Hydrogen in Metals (Barnacle Electrode)
Authors: DeLuccia JJ , Berman DA
Published: March 2009

The electrochemical measurement of mobile hydrogen, utilized in hydrogen-through-iron permeation studies, is adapted to yield an extremely sensitive, yet simple, practical device to assess embrittlement in high-strength steel parts. The electrochemical permeation of hydrogen through metal foils is achieved by causing an electrochemical source and sink for hydrogen to co-exist on either side of a foil. The hydrogen is cathodically introduced at the input side and anodically extracted (oxidized to water) at the exit side. The extraction side of the permeation cell provides the basis for the barnacle electrode hydrogen measurement device. The hydrogen oxidation current is measured and related to the mobile hydrogen concentration by the solution to the diffusion equation using the appropriate boundary conditions. The device can accurately detect and measure diffusible hydrogen contents in the range of 100 parts per billion by weight. Its effectiveness has been demonstrated in (1) indexing embrittlement of high-strength AISI 4340 steel as a function of hydrogen content, (2) the loss of hydrogen in an HY-130 steel weldment, and (3) changes in hydrogen content of cadmium plated steel which were measured, leading to a better understanding of bakeout and delayed failure mechanisms.
Cyclic Polarization Measurements—Experimental Procedure and Evaluation of Test Data
Authors: Baboian R , Haynes GS
Published: March 2009

ASTM Subcommittee G01.11 on Electrochemical Measurements in Corrosion Testing has conducted round-robin testing on the reproducibility of cyclic potentiodynamic polarization measurements for determining susceptibility to localized corrosion. This work was used in the development of a practice that provides a standard experimental procedure for conducting these tests. This paper presents the experimental procedure and results of the round-robin tests with statistical analysis of the data. The reproducibility of the measurements and sources of error are discussed.
Application of Potentiokinetic Hysteresis Technique to Characterize the Chloride Corrosion of High-Copper Dental Amalgams
Authors: Sarkar NK
Published: March 2009

The potentiokinetic hysteresis technique was utilized to characterize the electrochemical reactions involved in the corrosion of six silver-tin dental amalgams containing approximately 2.0 to 15.0 weight percent copper in a 1.0 percent sodium chloride (NaCl) solution at 23°C over a potential range of −1200 to 0 mV (saturated calomel electrode). The results indicated that the corrosion of these amalgams is associated with several oxidation-reduction reactions, namely, Sn/Sn (OH)2, Sn/Sn (OH)4, SN/SN(OH)Cl, H2O, Cu/Cu2O, and Cu/CuCl, which are thermodynamically possible in the range of potentials scanned. The occurrence of these reactions at around their respective thermodynamic potentials was clearly indicated during the reverse scan of the potentiokinetic measurement. From the height of the peak currents associated with these various reactions, it is possible to rank these amalgams from the standpoint of electrochemical activities of copper and tin in each amalgam. These results offer an insight into the mechanism of corrosion of dental amalgams, and at the same time demonstrate the usefulness of the potentiokinetic technique in the evaluation of the corrosion resistance of dental amalgams.
Galvanic Corrosion of Copper Alloys
Authors: Ishikawa Y , Hosaka N , Hioki S
Published: March 2009

Quantitative galvanic corrosion data have been obtained for brass and bronze couples in flowing fresh water. Laboratory measurements of galvanic current flow between brass and bronze were made employing an automatic balancing zero impedance ammeter. The galvanic current data have been discussed with the polarization behavior of uncoupled brass and bronze determined by a separate experiment. Good agreement has been found between the dissolution current density and the rate of penetration of the brass in the couple determined by the weight-loss measurement. Furthermore, a correction has been made for the anodic current density of the brass with respect to the amount of beta brass phase, which has yielded a fair agreement between the anodic current density and the average depth of dezincification. The effect of flow rate on the galvanic current density is discussed with reference to the mass transfer treatment.
Electrochemical Investigation of Cavitation-Corrosion Damages of a Pump Casing
Authors: Ishikawa Y , Ozaki T , Sudo S , Hioki S
Published: March 2009

In order to clarify the roles of cavitation and erosion in the cavitation-corrosion damage of a pump casing used for pumping a corrosive chlorinated fresh water, an electrochemical study has been performed using a one-third scale prototype double-suction volute pump.

Three electrochemical corrosion monitoring electrodes consisting of a medium carbon cast steel test electrode, a stainless-steel counter electrode, and a 0.5 mm diameter stainless-steel capillary, each being separated by epoxy resin, were mounted at different locations of the casing wall. The polarization resistance was determined from the potentiodynamic polarization curves, and the corrosion current density was calculated.

Determination of the corrosion current density as a function of flow quantity revealed that at 10 percent of the normal flow capacity the corrosion current density increased to 50 mA/cm2 for the eye area of the casing throat, compared with 0.03–0.08 mA/cm2 measured at above 20 percent of the normal flow capacity and for the other locations at any flow range.

It may be suggested that this high corrosion current density results from the synergystic effect of cavitation induced from the reversed flow and corrosion enhancement by chlorine in the water.
A Method of Evaluating Polarization Curves for Stainless Steel via a Simple Passivation Model
Authors: Bernhardsson S-O , Mellström R
Published: March 2009

If it is assumed that the passivation process of stainless steels in acid solutions follows Langmuir's adsorption isotherm, a relatively simple function is obtained that describes the form of an anodic polarization curve. This function has been adapted to experimental results obtained with stainless steels in sulfuric acid in order to study the effect of alloying elements on the rate of different partial reactions. Adjustment to experimental data can be effected by nonlinear regression analysis or by a simpler manual method. The results show that, among other things, chromium in concentrations ≥12 percent accelerates anodic dissolution and passivation, while nickel and molybdenum have the contrary effect.
Progress in Mini-Potentiostat Development for Corrosion Testing
Authors: Newborn HA , Bratlie DC , Crowe CR
Published: March 2009

There is considerable interest in developing mini-potentiostats to perform both long-term and multispecimen corrosion tests. Various options utilizing state-of-the-art electronic components were tested with both resistive loads and actual electrochemical cells to compare their performances. Attention was then focused on a particular design that was economically competitive and performed adequately over a wide range of effective cell resistance. Accuracy must be maintained despite large cell resistance variations occurring in corrosion studies.
A Microprocessor-Based Corrosion Measurement System
Authors: Peterson WM , Siegerman H
Published: March 2009

An instrument for the performance of electrochemical corrosion measurements has been developed, which includes a 16-bit built-in microprocessor. Electrochemical corrosion measurements, by their very nature, benefit by being placed under microprocessor control. These measurements include pretimed equilibration periods, examination of corrosion potentials for stability, initiation of scans at potentials relative to the corrosion potential, and reversal of scans at selected potentials or current densities or both. Similarly, the calculations usually performed on electrochemical corrosion rate data can be performed and even optimized through the use of a built-in microprocessor. The instrument described here utilizes the microprocessor as completely as possible—to define the measurement, perform the experiment, and replay the data in a format that is most meaningful to the operator.

This paper will describe in detail how the microprocessor is utilized to set up an experiment, acquire, validate, and store the experimental data, and then recall all, or selected portions, of that data. Typical applications of the instrument will be described in detail showing how the device can be used for the evaluation of potentiodynamic polarizations, cyclic polarizations, Tafel plots, polarization resistance plots, galvanic corrosion measurements, corrosion behavior diagrams, sensitization tests, and current integration measurements of a number of typical alloys in a variety of corrosive environments. The advantages enjoyed by a microprocessor-based device as compared to an analog instrument will be described.
Guidelines for Corrosion Testing of Titanium
Authors: Schutz RW , Covington LC
Published: March 2009

This paper presents guidelines for corrosion testing of titanium with respect to five general modes of corrosion failure that are known to titanium. These modes are general corrosion, crevice corrosion, hydrogen embrittlement, stress-corrosion cracking, and anodic breakdown pitting.
Effects of Metal Chemistry on Behavior of Titanium in Industrial Applications
Authors: Forrest AL
Published: March 2009

Small amounts of interstitial or alloying elements can have significant effects on the behavior of titanium in chemical process equipment. Within the range of chemistries permitted by the ASTM specifications for commercially pure titanium, significant variations can occur in the physical, mechanical, and corrosion properties of titanium. As an example, Canadian research is cited which illustrates anomalous behavior within the range of “commercially pure titanium” iron levels, with significant effects on the electrical conductivity.

This paper will review the sources and types of additions of commercially pure metal. The mechanism and effects in both the bulk metal and the surface films will be discussed.

General comments will be made related to the economic process and design considerations that result from the presence of elements other than titanium.
Corrosion of Titanium and Zirconium Alloys in Zinc Chloride Solutions
Authors: Smallwood RE
Published: March 2009

The laboratory and in-plant service corrosion properties of titanium, Ti-0.15Pd, and zirconium alloys in zinc chloride and zinc ammonium chloride solutions are discussed. An example of texturing of Ti-0.15Pd tubing, which significantly affects corrosion resistance, is also discussed.
Evaluation of the Hartford Crime Control Experiment: Some Lessons for Future Evaluations
Authors: Mock L
Published: March 2009

The Hartford Residential Neighborhood Crime Control Program was a comprehensive, environmentally oriented research effort aimed at examining the process involved in successful crime prevention programming. This innovative “process approach” to crime control involved three major research activities: (a) the conduct of a detailed crime problem analysis in the target area, using comprehensive data to identify the particular features of the neighborhood which were creating opportunities for crime occurrence; (b) the design of a multi-strategy (environmental, police, and community) crime control program directed specifically toward the improvement of those conditions found to be contributing to neighborhood crime; and (c) the in-depth evaluation of this approach to crime prevention, including extensive monitoring of the implementation process and a detailed assessment of program impact on crime, fear, and the quality of life in the target area.

This paper presents six major evaluation problems confronting most crime control program assessments and describes how each was resolved by Hartford Program evaluators. It is hoped that this discussion of a model program evaluation will be of help to future crime control program researchers in designing their own program evaluations.
Use of Victimization Surveys in Security Planning
Authors: Ryan PM
Published: March 2009

Current methods in planning for security improvements in residential areas generally proceed with an inadequate empirical base. As a result, security plans often fail to address a community's real problems or to employ realistic methodology to ameliorate the apparent problem. Such methodological weakness can cause a security program to have no impact or to exhibit poor benefit-to-cost ratios. This paper examines these problems and outlines a methodology by which to improve security planning, refine the allocation of security resources and enhance benefit-cost relationships. The following parts of this paper: (a) describe the scope of the residential security problem; (b) delineate the most common failings of current planning practices; and (c) propose a methodology for addressing the problem more effectively.
Reducing Vandalism in Naval Bachelor Enlisted Quarters
Authors: Brady C , Brill M , Bender L , Raeke C
Published: March 2009

The Navy knew from observation by its personnel that it had a continuing and seemingly expensive problem with property damage in its Bachelor Enlisted Quarters (BEQs). But what it did not have was any hard information quantifying these incidents, their causes, or their costs. The object of the research by BOSTI (the Buffalo Organization for Social and Technological Innovation), through a contract with the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, was to describe the scope and costs of vandalism in Naval BEQs, to identify environmental and other factors causing or preventing vandalism, to describe environmental and other changes which could reduce vandalism, and to describe a program to test and evaluate these proposed changes.

The four-volume report which BOSTI prepared for the Navy drew on questionnaires completed by 105 commanding officers, 262 BEQ managers, and 34 public works officers. The data base represented 83 percent of all stateside berthing in Naval BEQs and is thus considered highly representative.

In addition to analyzing the nature, extent, and costs of vandalism in BEQs, BOSTI analyzed the data to determine the most damaged and most costly building elements and found that almost 60 percent of the damage (by cost) occurred in two BEQ spaces: sleeping rooms (38 percent) and hallways (20 percent).

The study revealed that among 99 000 sailors berthed in 130 stateside Naval bases, there were 179 000 incidents of vandalism at a 1976 calculated cost of almost $8 million. Slightly more than half (57 percent) of the Navy-wide costs for BEQ maintenance and operations reported to BOSTI during 1976 had been spent repairing, reporting, and investigating property damage due to vandalism. Vandalism was having a negative impact on the morale of Navy personnel and on the habitability of BEQs. The BOSTI study recommended a series of design and administrative changes which could reduce property damage. Among those were a demonstration program to test design concepts aimed at reducing vandalism to certain building elements, which the Civil Engineering Laboratory contracted out last September, and many administrative steps which several Navy base commands have unofficially reported they were trying or plan to try.
Security Systems in Museums
Authors: Rutledge R
Published: March 2009

The “art boom” and record attendance at museums have been a major cause for the increase of thefts occurring in museums. Strong measures are needed to counteract the trend. With greater awareness on the part of museum administrations and improved security standards, there is now hope that the cultural heritage in museums will be preserved.
Crime Prevention Through Building Codes
Authors: Atlas R
Published: March 2009

Recently, throughout the crime prevention field, there has been a great deal of discussion concerning the advantages of strategies that prevent crime by reducing the opportunity for criminal occurrence. These discussions encompass Crime Prevention through Environmental Design, Community Crime Prevention Planning, Police Role in Crime Prevention, and, the topic of this paper, Security Code Implementation. This topic encompasses the advantages of establishing minimum security standards, increasing citizen awareness of security, and legitimizing crime prevention as a responsibility of the community.

This paper will discuss the types of building security codes and the processes by which they are implemented and complied with. The evaluation of a code's effectiveness will be elaborated upon, and sources of resistance to code implementation outlined. Finally, recommendations are made for successful adoption of security codes in your community.
Reconciling Fire Safety and Security Requirements for Buildings
Authors: Cohn BM
Published: March 2009

Conflicts between fire safety and security for buildings arise from the public official's demands that a building incorporate sufficient safeguards to protect the public from fire, while the occupant's primary interest may lie in protecting himself from personal attacks and his property from theft and vandalism. The means used to achieve an adequate level of protection for each hazard often appears contradictory, but there should be no unresolvable conflicts within a framework of reasonable rules for fire safety and security, wherein each is sensitive to the needs of the other. Many similarities exist in terminology, goals, and risk analysis, but while fire protection measures have been well codified over the years, security requirements have not found their way into building codes and standards. One exception is a building code for an international airport complex, which contains a chapter on physical security, prepared by the author. Several reasons are cited for the need to incorporate physical security requirements in building codes.

One of the principal conflicts between fire safety and security is in the locking of exit doors to prevent uncontrolled egress. Several solutions are possible, and examples are offered to minimize the problem. Standardization will permit more equitable treatment of security needs from the authorities having jurisdiction; such standards can be prepared by organizations like ASTM, ASIS or NBS to promote the orderly inclusion of physical security measures in buildings.
Jamb/Stud Wall Security
Authors: Martin A , Patrick C
Published: March 2009

This paper deals with a single specific building security problem. It is the researchers intent to point out the inherent weakness of “jamb/stud” wall construction adjacent to door jambs, specifically relating to the problem of mechanical “spreading” as a means to gain illegal entry.

Comparative data and comments were compiled as a result of testing based on ASTM Tests for Security of Swinging Door Assemblies (F476 - 76) 2 by 4 wall construction versus a modified 2 by 4 wall condition. The conclusion drawn points to sufficiently increased resistance to illegal entry by minor modification of the common wall structure adjacent to door jambs.
Progression of Analytical Technology for Trace Constituents in Metal-Bearing Systems
Authors: McMahon M
Published: March 2009

This paper will review the history and progress of technology for analysis of trace constituents in metal-bearing substances within the author's experience, beginning with definitions for the terms trace and trace elements. Analytical techniques for interstitial elements, beginning with carbon, an important control element in steel, will be traced from the conductimetric through infrared. The progression of analytical techniques for sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen will also be discussed. For trace or minor alloying elements such as aluminum, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, and silicon, the paper will address techniques from photometric analysis to atomic absorption and to atomic emission by plasma. Metallurgically, the detection of trace compounds as they exist in steel is also an important parameter. The use of infrared spectroscopy as a quantitative tool will receive limited discussion. As in all other disciplines, resolution of these problems will lead to additional interesting challenges, which include the rapid growth of lasers in analytical procedures.
Determination of Aluminum, Barium, Calcium, Lead, Magnesium, and Silver in Ferrous Alloys by Atomic Emission and Absorption Spectrometry
Authors: Rains TC
Published: March 2009

Methods have been developed for the determination of aluminum, barium, calcium, lead, magnesium and silver in ferrous alloys and steels by flame emission and atomic absorption spectrometry. The samples are dissolved in a mixture of nitric, hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, and perchloric acids. Flame emission spectrometry with repetitive optical scanning was found to be the method of choice for the determination of aluminum, barium, and calcium at the trace or subtrace levels. Atomic absorption spectrometry was used for lead, magnesium, and silver. For subtraces of lead in ferrous alloys and steels, it was necessary to use atomic absorption spectrometry with electrothermal atomization. To overcome interferences of lead in a ferrous matrix, ammonium orthophosphate was used as matrix modifier. The precision and accuracy of electrothermal atomization was improved with the L'vov platform. The techniques developed were used to characterize trace elements in NBS Standard Reference Materials of ferrous alloys and steels.
Quantitative Measurement of Trace Impurities in 99.95 Percent Palladium by d-c Plasma Emission Spectrometry
Authors: Worthington MA
Published: March 2009

A d-c plasma emission spectrometer was used to measure 20 trace metal impurities in palladium grade 99.95 percent or better. The samples were analyzed using matched matrix standards and aqueous standards with and without a lithium buffer.

The use of high-purity matrix standards indicated whether the amounts tested for in the sample were above or below the matrix level, but the contents of the matrix had to be added in order to establish the absolute impurity level. The contents of the matrix were ascertained using a standard additions approach. Because the palladium matrix exerted an ionization enhancement on each of the 20 trace analytes, using aqueous standards gave erroneously high impurity level readings. Adding a lithium buffer to both the palladium sample and the aqueous standards compensated for the enhancement and gave more correct readings.
Spectrochemical Determination of Impurities in Uranium Following Solvent Extraction Using Tributyl Phosphate in Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
Authors: Chang JG , Graff RL
Published: March 2009

Solvent extraction using tributyl phosphate in methyl isobutyl ketone is employed to separate the uranium matrix from the trace impurities originally present in uranium. The impurities are separated quantitatively into the acidic aqueous phase, which may then be analyzed by conventional spectroscopic techniques, including flame and flameless atomic absorption. An effective concentration of impurity levels over those present in the original sample may also be obtained by incorporating the aqueous phase into a gallium nitrate solution, which is converted to a gallium oxide matrix containing the impurities, which are then analyzed by emission spectroscopy. The method provides reasonable precision and accuracy, plus increased sensitivity when the impurities are concentrated in the gallium oxide matrix.
Corrosion and Corrosivity of Steel in Norwegian Marine Sediments
Authors: Fischer KP , Bue B
Published: March 2009

Various guidelines are to be found in the literature for evaluation of soil corrosivity based on parameters like resistivity, pH, water content, redox-potential, content of salt, and bacterial activity. Corrosion studies of steel piles and pipes in Norwegian marine clayey sediments show that these parameters are not always applicable. Studies of piles in undisturbed marine clays below the groundwater table indicate a limited correlation between the resistivity and the corrosion rate. The highest corrosion rates found amount to 30 μm/year indicating that pile corrosion is not a severe problem under the aforementioned conditions. The environmental conditions for pipes are generally much more complex than for piles, as the backfill is disturbed and often includes material other than the original sediment. Studies of pipes in a heterogeneous environment indicate differential aeration to be the most common corrosion cause.

Corrosivity evaluations are also performed with electrochemical probes.
An Overview of the Anaerobic Corrosion of Underground Metallic Structures, Evidence for a New Mechanism
Authors: Iverson WP
Published: March 2009

Anaerobic corrosion of iron occurs throughout the world and, from an economic standpoint, is quite costly. Sulfate-reducing bacteria, primarily of the genus Desulfovibrio, are responsible for this type of corrosion. It has been postulated that corrosion by these bacteria is caused by their removal of hydrogen from the surface of iron causing it to go into solution. Evidence is presented which indicates that this mechanism may not be responsible for the main corrosive effect of these organisms. These bacteria appear to cause corrosion by producing extracellularly, under anaerobic conditions, a highly corrosive product in addition to hydrogen sulfide. The factors controlling the fate of iron in anaerobic environments, conducive to the growth of sulfate-reducing bacteria, may depend on whether iron sulfide film formation by hydrogen sulfide occurs first, thereby inhibiting corrosion, or whether the highly corrosive substance comes in contact with the iron before film formation has occurred, thereby accelerating corrosion. The antagonistic actions of these two compounds, hydrogen sulfide and the corrosive product, on corrosion produced by sulfate-reducing bacteria, could explain the conflicting observations on anaerobic corrosion noted by investigators in the field and laboratory.
A Statistical Probability Method for Soil Resistivity Determination
Authors: Husock B
Published: March 2009

This paper presents a new method of interpreting soil resistivity measurements by a statistical technique. The method may prove to be very useful where large variations in soil resistivity, in a given area, are found.

Actual field measurements are used to demonstrate the usefulness of this technique.
Simplified Method for the Electrical Soil Resistivity Measurement
Authors: Chaker V
Published: March 2009

The “Wenner Four Electrode” method; and the “Barnes Layer” method of computation, for the electrical soil resistivity, are both time consuming but very useful and reliable. Pre-measured cables can simplify and reduce the field time by at least 75 percent. A computerized program for calculation and graphical representation could achieve the same savings, when compared with manual production.
On the Estimation of the Corrosion Rates of Metals in Soils by Electrochemical Measurements
Authors: Serra ET , Mannheimer WA
Published: March 2009

Studies are described to characterize soil aggressivity along electrical transmission lines and substation sites.

Electrochemical methods of corrosion rate measurement were used in laboratory tests. Metallic specimens were exposed to actual soil specimens. Results are used together with soil properties data to furnish indication on corrosion behavior to be expected for the metals, and design possible protection methods. The ultimate goal of this program is to define in situ procedures to rapidly estimate corrosion rates and soil aggressivity.

An attempt has been also made to study the influence of counter electrode position on electrochemical measurements.
Principles of Measurement and Prevention of Buried Metal Corrosion by Electrochemical Polarization
Authors: Jones DA
Published: March 2009

Mixed potential theory has been briefly reviewed to show the basis for the measurement of corrosion rate by polarization resistance and the suppression of corrosion by cathodic protection. Polarization data on buried steel and aluminum are presented to show the applicability of the theory. Limitations on the applicability of the theory to large buried surfaces, bare and coated, are discussed. It is concluded that further experimental work is needed to determine potential distribution on large surfaces and the effects of polarization on the size, distribution, and current density of anodic and cathodic surface areas.
Practical Aspects of Underground Corrosion Control
Authors: Lankes JB
Published: March 2009

This paper presents a description of the underground jungle of structures and materials in their various environments. Methods to combat corrosion problems are given. Some of the pitfalls are discussed. A suggestion is made for American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standards that would be helpful to the corrosion control engineer.
Corrosion of Buried Pipes and Cables, Techniques of Study, Survey, and Mitigation
Authors: Compton KG
Published: March 2009

Some of the techniques for studying the corrosion behavior of buried structures in the laboratory and in the field are described with illustrations, and methods of mitigation are described and discussed. The author draws upon experience with underground corrosion of steel, lead, and copper, and discriminates between profitable and unprofitable procedures.
Eight-Year Evaluation of the sti-P3 System for Protection of Buried Steel Tanks
Authors: Vrable JB
Published: March 2009

A system termed P3 was developed by U.S. Steel Research to economically reduce the corrosion of carbon-steel tanks used in underground applications. This system combines three established methods for reducing corrosion: (1) the use of sacrificial anodes for cathodic protection; (2) the use of a protective coating; and (3) the use of insulating bushings, which are installed on the tank during manufacture. A subsequent cooperative program with a leading tank manufacturer resulted in the development of fabrication specifications for the design and the initial in-service installation in the latter part of 1969. Shortly thereafter, the Steel Tank Institute adopted the system and since that time approximately 5000 sti-P3 tanks have been installed.

This paper describes an eight-year evaluation of the system on two 18.9-m3 (5000-gal) steel tanks buried at a gasoline service station in Chicago, Illinois. Both previous experience with steel tanks used for the underground storage of gasoline at this station, and the results of various soil tests conducted on samples obtained from the tank excavation show that the soil is corrosive to steel. Readings obtained with electrical-resistance probes indicate that after eight years of service, essentially no corrosion is occurring on the sti-P3-protected tanks. Also, the results of electrochemical measurements show that the tanks are being cathodically protected by the sacrificial anodes and that the anodes should have a long life in this soil.
The Relationship of Coatings and Cathodic Protection for Underground Corrosion Control
Authors: Toncre AC
Published: March 2009

External corrosion control for buried pipelines and other metallic underground structures is accomplished industry-wide by using dielectric coatings supplemented by cathodic protection. Relationships between these two corrosion control methods are outlined to show how effective corrosion control can be achieved.

The long-term changes of protective coatings in relation to their porosity, permeability, and osmotic action under electrical potentials are discussed. Evaluation of existing criteria for adequate cathodic protection of underground metals with poor or disbonded coatings, in conditions conducive to stress corrosion cracking and other localized corrosion phenomena, indicates a need to consider revisions in corrosion control measurement techniques and criteria.
Introduction to the Panel Discussion
Authors: Rice JK
Published: March 2009

This introduction presents the motivating forces behind the gradual evolution of power plant instrumentation for the measurement of substances in high-purity water. Recent results underscore the need for precision and bias studies for each of the many different methods that are being employed.
Critical Overview of Power Station Sampling and Analysis of Water and Steam
Authors: Jonas O
Published: March 2009

Because of the potential deleterious effects of impurities in water and steam, the current sampling and analytical practices are being critically evaluated, and methods and utilization of analytical data are being improved. To control the corrosion and efficiency loss, particularly in turbines, once-through boilers, reactors, and nuclear steam generators, low parts-per-billion levels of impurities are being sampled and analyzed.

The critical areas reviewed in this presentation are sampling, grab sample, continuous, and in situ analysis; analysis of organics; and utilization of the data for system control and corrosion prediction. Certain improvements and refinements in all these areas are discussed.