bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Physician-assisted Suicide and Euthanasia
Authors: Foley Alan Carver Kathleen M
Published: November 2023

Physician-assisted suicide (PAS) and euthanasia are now legal in the Netherlands and in Belgium; PAS is legal in one state, Oregon, in the United States. Although guidelines for PAS/euthanasia have been developed, they are not consistently followed. Health-care professionals’ attitudes, behaviors, and knowledge influence their willingness to provide PAS/euthanasia. Such professionals lack adequate training in pain and symptom management, psychological assessment and treatment, communication skills, and ethical guidelines. Broad educational initiatives in palliative care are necessary to enable healthcare professionals to care for patients who request assistance in death, providing them with competent, compassionate care.
General introduction
Authors: Fraústo da Silva J J R , Williams R J P
Published: November 2023

In effect, we believe that the understanding of the chemistry of life has been seriously hampered by the ways in which chemists have looked upon living organisms. At first, this study was conducted very largely by (bio-)organic chemists who made remarkable discoveries concerning the small molecules which go to make biological substrates (sugars, amino-acids, fatty substances and so on, and then the polymers) proteins, polysaccharides, and finally reaching the genetic material, DNA and RNA.
Kinetic considerations of chemical reactions, catalysis, and control
Authors: Fraústo da Silva J J R , Williams R J P
Published: November 2023

In Chapters 1 to 3 we have described the chemical elements of life, the principles behind their chemical speciation, and the observed compartmentalization of biological systems. Now, in their special places, the elements are used in a functional sense, e.g. to provide structure and to assist chemical transformation.
The functional value of the chemical elements in biological systems
Authors: Fraústo da Silva J J R , Williams R J P
Published: November 2023

The major aim of this book is to describe the requirements by any living system for a series of chemical elements and the functional value they have within organisms. We can do this in two different but complementary ways, showing what each element, taken separately, does in living organisms on the one hand, and illustrating, on the other hand, how the whole of cellular activity is based upon the cooperative functioning of these many elements.
Sodium, Potassium, and Chlorine: Osmotic Control, Electrolytic Equilibria, and Currents
Authors: Fraústo da Silva J J R , Williams R J P
Published: November 2023

There are large amounts of sodium, potassium, and chloride ions in sea waters but not very much in fresh waters, yet life abounds in both media and to a very good approximation it holds the internal free ion concentrations of these elements constant, not only in cells but also in the circulating fluids of higher organisms (Table 8.1). Even small deviations from normal levels in man are recognized as symptoms of malfunction or disease. (Common salt is not to be despised within organisms.)
Molybdenum, Tungsten, Vanadium and Chromium
Authors: Fraústo da Silva J J R , Williams R J P
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall describe the biological chemistry of the metals molybdenum, tungsten, and vanadium, and mention the possible involvement in organisms of chromium. There is some stress in the chapter on the relationship of Group 6 elements (see Aside) with the non-metal elements of Group 16, i.e. with sulphur and selenium.
The first job
Authors: Trevor Burke F J , Freeman Ruth
Published: November 2023

While it could be considered that a career in dentistry is limited by the fact that the new graduate is trained only as a dentist, there is indeed a wide variety of careers within dentistry itself (Table 1.1).
Practice building—the need for excellence in treatment
Authors: Trevor Burke F J , Freeman Ruth
Published: November 2023

Many aspects of dental practice contribute to overall patient satisfaction. This may include comfortable surroundings and helpful, efficient staff, but these will count for nought if the treatment which is provided is not of a good standard. Excellence in treatment therefore is central. This may be considered to include correct diagnosis and treatment planning, health promotion, prevention rather than intervention, and, where intervention is indicated, the use of minimally invasive (MI) treatment techniques. It also includes the efficient diagnosis and treatment of dental emergencies, knowing when and whom to refer, and the ability of the clinician to manage the increasing number of patients with special needs. This chapter includes sections on treatment planning, oral health promotion and prevention, MI techniques, dental emergencies, the management of patients with special needs, the evidencebased concept for treatment and clinical governance.
Replication, repair, and recombination of mitochondrial DNA
Authors: Spelbrink Johannes N
Published: November 2023

Faithful copying and maintenance of the mitochondrial genome is fundamental to aerobic metabolism and therefore life. Many of the factors involved in mitochondrial DNA metabolism are unknown, or poorly characterized and even the basic mechanism of mitochondrial DNA replication is not well understood. Nevertheless, considerable progress has been made in recent years and this is undoubtedly a field that will benefit enormously from the characterization of the human genome sequence. Current knowledge of the machinery of mtDNA replication is discussed together with a review of the often-contentious areas of repair and recombination. Other topics covered here include the organization and segregation of mtDNA, and auxiliary requirements for mtDNA maintenance, notably nucleotide metabolism.
Oxidative phosphorylation: an overview
Authors: WikstrÖm Mårten
Published: November 2023

Mitochondria are intracellular organelles characteristic of all eukaryotic cells. They are the sole site of oxidative phosphorylation, a process where free energy from aerobic cell respiration is converted into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the major energy currency of the cell. In aerobic cells oxidative phosphorylation is the major mechanism of ATP formation and is hence of key importance for their survival. There is compelling evidence for the view that mitochondria evolved from aerobic bacteria in an endosymbiotic process some 2–3 billion years ago.1,2 Larger anaerobic cells engulfed the aerobic bacteria, followed over time by sequential transfer of most of their genes to the developing nucleus of the host cell.
The curtain rises on the final act
Authors: Ulfstrand Staffan
Published: November 2023

In 1758, Carl von Linné gave our own species the scientific name of Homo sapiens—wise humans—and almost all evolutionary biologists agree that we have lived most of our history on the African savannah. Living in the shadow of acacia trees and congregating around receding water-holes underneath the African sun, those species that included the direct ancestors of modern humans also originated, evolved, and perished. First, Homo erectus—upright humans—and then later our own species, Homo sapiens, spread out of Africa in waves across the habitable reaches of the globe. Today’s six thousand million people, a number that increases by almost 90 million each year, are the result of the last of these waves.
Pillars of the earth
Authors: Ulfstrand Staffan
Published: November 2023

Thus writes the famous Swedish adventurer Charles John Anders son in 1861 in his book entitled ‘The Okavango River’. During the 1850s, this remarkable man travelled in the area now known as Namibia and Botswana, and his book is a virtual gold mine, especially for those who appreciate gruesome hunting tales of wounded animals.
Introduction
Authors: Hartley Sarah , Gill Deborah , Carter Frances , Walters Kate , Bryant Pauline
Published: November 2023

We will all be asked to teach at some time in our professional lives. If asked to imagine teaching in the medical setting, most of us would think of a large lecture or bedside clinical teaching. However, in the last two decades both medicine and teaching have moved on. Higher patient turnover and the introduction of day surgery have reduced the numbers of patients available for students to clerk in hospitals and increased the amount of teaching done in the community.
Basic teaching skills
Authors: Hartley Sarah , Gill Deborah , Carter Frances , Walters Kate , Bryant Pauline
Published: November 2023

Once you have prepared your session and made a teaching plan you are ready to teach. Most of your preparation will have focused on the content of what you plan to teach, and the teaching methods you will use. However, to deliver a good teaching session you need to get both the content and the process of teaching right. Just as you can learn to plan the content of a session, so you can learn the basic teaching skills used by all teachers. These skills can be thought of as a ‘toolkit’.
Developing as a teacher
Authors: Hartley Sarah , Gill Deborah , Carter Frances , Walters Kate , Bryant Pauline
Published: November 2023

To have read this far in the book you will already be a motivated and dedicated teacher, who is keen to deliver a good quality product. Hopefully this book will have equipped you with some of the tools to teach more effectively and efficiently. In this chapter we will explore things a little more and look at the possible pathways and opportunities to develop your skills further.
Some properties of the body clock
Authors: Waterhouse J M , Minors D S , Waterhouse M E , Reilly T , Atkinson G
Published: November 2023

Even though the role of the body clock as the internal cause of a rhythm can be investigated by performing a constant routine, this routine lasts only for 24 hours or so, and so enables us to assess the effects of the clock over the course of one cycle only. We need to study the clock for much longer periods of time to assess its ability to keep time, for example. Experiments in which volunteers have been deprived of sleep are fairly common and have been used to establish how an individual’s physiology, physical performance, and, particularly, mood and mental performance, respond to sleep loss. From the present view- point, such experiments are of very limited use since subjects have continued to be exposed to the alternation of day and night and to other rhythmic inputs.
Your body clock and mental activity
Authors: Waterhouse J M , Minors D S , Waterhouse M E , Reilly T , Atkinson G
Published: November 2023

At night, physical work seems harder to do than normal, and it is done less well. Does the same apply to ‘mental performance’? Here we consider mental performance to include using our senses to take in information about the external world (sensory input), understanding events in our external environment (cognitive performance), decision making and other intellectual processes, and producing coordinated muscular activity to achieve a particular task (motor performance).

We are likely to be concerned if we perform badly at some times, and the effects of poor performance will also be of interest to managers and the general public. Managers will wish to know if the body clock means that there are times when the output of their workforce is below standard; and the general public will be concerned about the possibility that safety in industrial processes, public services, transportation, and so on will be adversely affected at some times.
Food, metabolism, and the removal of waste
Authors: Waterhouse J M , Minors D S , Waterhouse M E , Reilly T , Atkinson G
Published: November 2023

The circadian rhythm of metabolism is part of another group of rhythms, which includes also rhythms in the intake and digestion of food, and in the removal of waste material from the body. Metabolism, the processes by which food is broken down chemically to release its energy, has already been mentioned in Chapter 4. There, it was pointed out that metabolism is essential for enabling physical exercise to take place, and that it requires the uptake of oxygen into the body.

The animal and plant kingdoms provide examples of a wide range of eating habits. For example, fungi ‘eat’ continuously, and cause decay at all times. Many parasites probably do the same, feeding on their host throughout the 24 hours. Animals such as sheep and cattle tend to for- age throughout the daylight hours, whereas predators hunt whenever their prey is around, day or night. Green plants photosynthesize (make food by using the energy of sunlight) whenever it is light. Mosquitoes and other blood-sucking insects feed whenever they are active, often in the evening.
Treatment of cognitive deficits in first episode psychosis
Authors: Keefe Richard S E , Kang Joseph W
Published: November 2023

Cognitive deficits are a core feature of schizophrenia. Compared to healthy controls, schizophrenia patients perform an average of two standard deviations below the mean of their healthy counterparts in several areas of cognition, especially attention, executive function, and memory (Addington and Addington 2002; Harvey and Keefe 1997). Impairment in these areas of cognition is an important factor in the long-term outcome and adaptive functioning of these patients (Green et al. 1996; Harvey et al. 1998; Velligan et al. 1997). Vigilance, memory, and card-sorting deficits have been found to be related to poor functional outcome in a large number of studies (see reviews by Green 1996, 2000).
Conservative Difference Scheme for Boussinesq Model of Surface Waves
Authors: Christov C I
Published: November 2023

After John Scott-Russell discovered the ‘great wave’ there were different attempts to find its appropriate model. Boussinesq [2] introduced the fundamental idea of balance between the nonlinearity and dispersion and derived the first approximate expression for the dispersion in the case of weakly nonlinear long waves. We call this balance the “Boussinesq Paradigm” together with the set of different Boussinesq equations that are derived under the said assumption. They are generalized wave equations which offers the opportunity to investigate the generic features of wave systems, such as head-on collisions of localized structures (solitary waves/ quasi-particles). Some of the Boussinesq equations are fully integrable, others possess just three conservation/balance laws: for mass, energy and momentum.
Multidimensional U pwinding and Grid Adaptation
Authors: Hubbard M E , Baines M J
Published: November 2023

Over the past ten years, multidimensional upwinding techniques have been developed with the intention of superseding traditional conservative upwind finite volume methods which rely on the solution of one-dimensional Riemann problems. The new methods attempt a more genuinely multidimensional approach to the solution of the Euler equations by considering a piecewise linear continuous representation of the flow with the data stored at the nodes of the grid. The schemes are then constructed from three separate components: a wave decomposition model, a conservative linearisation and a scalar fluctuation distribution scheme. A detailed description of these can be found in ([1],[2]) while some more recent developments are presented in these proceedings [3].
Unstructured Grid Generation and Flow Adaptation for External Aerodynamic Flows
Authors: Jahangirian A R , Johnston L J
Published: November 2023

The generation of high-quality computational grids for complex aerodynamic configurations remains an important area of concern, hindering the routine application of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The block-structured approach has proved to be highly successful, but it does in general require extensive user intervention and expertise. Alternatively, unstructured grids can be made to fit very complex geometries in a relatively straightforward manner and has been shown to be highly effective for grid adaptivity[4]. Therefore, much progress has been made over the past few years to develop fast and robust unstructured grid generators. Two well-known approaches commonly used for construction of triangular unstructured grids are the Delaunay criterion and the advancing front method. The Delaunay triangulation, although it has many interesting properties [7] does not address the issues of grid point creation and boundary conformity. Additionally this method is not naturally capable of generating high aspect ratio cells required for viscous flow calculations. The advancing front method has received much attention, particularly because of its self-sufficiency and grid quality ([1],[4]). However, special care must be taken when choosing the data structure to efficiently perform the relevant searches.
Adaptive Unstructured Grid Solutions of Hypersonic Viscous Flows
Authors: Lyra P R M , Hassan O , Morgan K
Published: November 2023

The major problems which have to be faced in the area of hypersonic viscous flow modelling, when using unstructured methodologies, are the construction of suitable algorithms for the generation of unstructured meshes, the incorporation of suitable adaptive meshing and the development of robust and accurate flow solvers for implementation on such meshes. The ultimate goal is to develop numerical schemes having the desired high-order and high-resolution properties for generic grids.
Minimum Residual Methods for the Navier-Stokes Equations: Indefiniteness vs Asymmetry
Authors: Ramage A , Fischer B , Silvester D J , Wathen A J
Published: November 2023

Time-dependent linear systems which have the character of Stokes problems for creeping flow arise frequently in many areas of computational fluid dynamics. For example, they occur at each time-step in the solution of the time-dependent Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible viscous flow. In particular, they result from methods of Lagrange-Galerkin type, including the modified method of characteristics and the transport-diffusion algorithm, both of which treat the viscous terms implicitly and approximate inertial terms explicitly via discretisation along trajectories. The operator-split ‘0-scheme’ also involves a time-dependent Stokes solve at each step, as well as the inversion of an advection-diffusion operator. It is therefore very important to be able to solva such systems efficiently.
Improved Accuracy and Effectiveness for Navier-Stokes Solvers on Unstructured Grids
Authors: Rexroth C -H , Wittig S
Published: November 2023

For the numerical calculation of flows the Finite-Volume approach is widely used. Applying this method the transport equations are usually evaluated on structured meshes. For domains of complex shape the generation of suitable structured grids is difficult and time consuming. In many cases the numerical computation suffers from distorted mesh cells or a division of the domain into several subdomains. A remedy for these problems is the application of unstructured grids. Here the possibility to construct meshes of arbitrary shape with triangles for two-dimensional flows and tetrahedra for three-dimensional flows is exploited. Unstructured meshes can easily be adapted to geometrical as well as to physical properties of the flow field.
Development and Use of an Advanced Numerical Model using the Volume of Fluid Method for the Design of Coastal Structures
Authors: Sabeur Z A , Roberts W , Cooper A J
Published: November 2023

In coastal engineering, there is considerable interest in the study of breaking and overturning waves at impact. Knowledge of the internal dynamics of such waves is necessary for the computation of forces and jet velocities at impact so that good coastal defences and sea walls are designed.
A Combined Geometric Approach for Solving the Navier-Stokes Equations on Dynamic Grids
Authors: Slater J W
Published: November 2023

The computation of the unsteady flow about mechanisms with components in relative motion has become an important topic in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) ([3], [1], [8], [6]). One such mechanism is the NASA Variable Diameter Centerbody (VDC) inlet in which the axisymmetric centerbody can translate and change diameter to adjust the mass flow rate and stabilize the flow.
Viscous Inviscid Interaction Techniques Using Unstructured Meshes
Authors: Szmelter J , Pagano* A
Published: November 2023

The work reported in this paper has been specifically directed towards civil aircraft applications, for which the numerical modelling of complex configurations and complex flows, combined with the requirement for accurate modelling of viscous effects pose an important class of problems.
Lying as an executive function
Authors: Halligan Peter W , Bass Christopher , Oakley David A
Published: November 2023

Sean Spence, Tom Farrow, David Leung, Samir Shah, Becky Reilly, Anna Rahman, and Amy Herford

A number of lines of evidence suggest that lying represents a ‘higher’, executive function supported by relatively recently evolved brain systems. However, brain activity during lying is only beginning to be elucidated. We developed an objective approach to its investigation, utilizing a computer-based ‘interrogation’ and tMRI. Interrogatory questions probed recent episodic memory in three cohorts of healthy volunteers (n = 30, 31, and 48, respectively) studied outside, and 10 volunteers studied inside the MR scanner. In a counter-balanced design subjects answered 36 questions both truthfully and with ‘lies’. Lying was associated with longer response times (P < 0.001) and greater activity in bilateral ventrolateral prefrontal cortices (P < 0.05, correc ted). Less significant foci were observed in other, dorsal and medial prefrontal regions (including anterior cingulate cortex).
Genetic principles and techniques
Authors: Catto Andrew J , Carter Angela M
Published: November 2023

Considerable progress has been made in defining the underlying genetic basis of many Mendelian and mitochondrial diseases which can cause stroke and other cerebrovascular diseases.
Genetics of conventional stroke risk factors
Authors: Sagnella Giuseppe A
Published: November 2023

Several of the major risk factors for stroke have long been recognized and include hypertension, vessel wall abnormalities, dyslipidemia, defects in haemostasis, diabetes and life-style factors such as smoking. This chapter focuses on the genetics of three major classical risk factors, namely hypertension, diabetes and dyslipidaemia.
The genetics of paediatric stroke
Authors: Kirkham Fenella , Prengler Mara
Published: November 2023

Unlike in adults atherosclerosis is a relatively uncommon cause of stroke in childhood, while Mendelian conditions, and some chromosomal abnormalities, causing stroke are much more common. There is a long list of inherited conditions which predispose to cerebrovascular disease and stroke in childhood (Natowicz and Kelley 1987, Pavlakis et al. 2000), but our understanding of the precise mechanisms has been limited until recently. Several conditions with cerebral vascular manifestations are now being intensively studied.
Useful web sites for stroke genetics
Authors: Markus Hugh S
Published: November 2023

The World Wide Web offers access to a large number of sites relevant to both research and clinical aspects of stroke genetics. A number useful for research studies are covered in Chapter 2. The ones listed below are primarily of use to the clinician looking after patients with monogenic stroke disorders, and to the patients themselves.
Economic evaluation of HIV prevention activities: dynamic challenges for cost-effectiveness analysis
Authors: Kumaranayake Lilani
Published: November 2023

Current estimates suggest that globally there about 40 million people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), and 3 million people died of AIDs in 2004. Of the nearly 5 million new infections in 2004, 2.7–3.8 million occurred in sub-Saharan Africa, where across the region the adult prevalence rates are between 6.9 and 8.3%. In a belt across Southern Africa, the epidemic is rampant, and population levels of HIV infection are high—antenatal HIV prevalence is levelling off at 40% in Gaberone, Botswana and Manzini, Swaziland, at 16% in Blantyre, Malawi, 18% in Maputo, Mozambique, 20% in Lusaka, Zambia and over 25% in Kinshasa, Zaire. Antenatal HIV prevalence is above 25% in South African 20–34 year olds, and in Windhoek, Namibia (UNAIDS 2004). However, there is also evidence of declining incidence—with declining HIV prevalence among 15–19 year olds attending antenatal services in Addis Abbaba, Kigali and Kampala. In other regions in sub-Saharan Africa, levels of infection are lower, but do not show signs of abating (UNAIDS 2004).
Complexity and the attribution of cost to hospital-acquired infection
Authors: Graves Nicholas
Published: November 2023

Estimates of the cost of hospital-acquired infection (HAI) have been used for two purposes. Haley (1998) argues they are required to create ‘political urgency’ and raise the profile of the various infections patients may acquire during their hospital stay. Also, champions for infection control activities use the estimates to argue that incremental investment in effective prevention programmes, which incur their own cost, are justified and might well lead to net benefits for the health care system (see Sperry and Craddock 1968; Sencer and Axnick 1975; Haley 1978; Lambert and February 1985; Haley 1986; Lambert 1987; Currie and Maynard 1989; Miller et al. 1989; Olsen 1990; Plowman et al. 1997, 2001).
Willingness to pay for insecticide-treated mosquito nets in Surat, India
Authors: Bhatia Mrigesh
Published: November 2023

Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is the only type of economic evaluation to put costs and benefits in monetary terms. The valuation of benefits is not restricted to health gain and can incorporate non-health benefits. Therefore, CBA can compare interventions across sectors and is the only type of economic evaluation that can question the size of resources to the health sector. However, many challenges arise in putting monetary values on benefits.
Evaluating US food safety regulations which use benefit and cost information
Authors: Buzby Jean
Published: November 2023

This chapter highlights some of the key challenges and common themes in economic analyses for US food safety regulations. After a brief overview of economic analyses for US regulations, this chapter discusses three food safety rules which have incorporated the costs of food-borne illnesses in their economic analyses: (i) the 1996 Pathogen Reduction/Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (PR/HACCP) rule for meat and poultry; (ii) the 2000 Salmonella enteritis rule for shell eggs; and (iii) the proposed rule for ready-to-eat (RTE) meat and poultry products (MPPs). One particular focus here is the valuation of premature deaths from food-borne illness because it can be a large component of the total costs of Federal food safety regulations. The discussion explains and illustrates how the economic methodology to handle the valuation of premature death is evolving. The chapter concludes with a forward-looking discussion about private and public incentives to improve food safety.
Good Vibrations
Authors: Acheson David
Published: November 2023

I play a bit of jazz guitar in my spare time, and my great hero is Django Reinhardt. Django was a Belgian gypsy, and made his name as a jazz guitar genius in the late 1930s with the Quintette du Hot Club de France, pictured above. (Django is second from the right.) Despite losing the use of two fingers in a caravan fire, he had a devastating guitar technique, and was famous for blisteringly fast solos.
Great Mistakes
Authors: Acheson David
Published: November 2023

Generally speaking, mathematicians are a cautious lot. There is a story, for example, about an astronomer, a physicist and a mathematician who were on a train journey together in Scotland. Glancing from the window, they observed a black sheep in the middle of a field.
Not Quite the Indian Rope Trick
Authors: Acheson David
Published: November 2023

Mathematics pops up in the most peculiar places. For instance, you wouldn’t think it had much to do with the Indian Rope Trick, would you? This is, perhaps, the most famous trick in the whole history of magic: a length of rope is thrown up into the air, and instead of falling back down again it stays up there, defying gravity. A small child then climbs up the rope, and disappears at the top.
Local Patterns of Persecution: England and Wales
Authors: Lovegrove Roger
Published: November 2023

One of the many unexpected findings of the historical searches, particularly through examination of more than 1,500 parish records, has been the enormous differences in the intensity of persecution in different areas. Naturally, agricultural practices and systems vary from one part of the country to another, depending on climate, soils, altitude, etc. and these factors help to determine the species of mammals and birds that occur there, and those that have been regarded as pests, and are persecuted as vermin. In terms of wildlife management (aka vermin control), upland sheep-rearing areas, for example, have totally different priorities from corn-growing or fruit-growing ones. Nonetheless, the difference in the intensity of control, from almost wholesale slaughter in some counties to virtually none in others, is sometimes difficult to explain. Why should widescale control throughout many parishes in Kent and Hampshire, for example, not be matched by anything approaching that in East or West Sussex, where there was almost none? This chapter gives a brief summary of these regional differences.
Prenatal testing: 18–22 weeks
Authors: Crespigny Lachlan De , Chervenak Frank
Published: November 2023

You are now approximately half way through your pregnancy. You will soon be able to feel your fetus move, or you may already have felt it. It is time for your last prenatal test—the ‘routine’ mid trimester ultrasound examination. This scan is much awaited, often a family event, and a major photo opportunity. But don’t forget that it is an important medical examination for your fetus. Within 30 years ultrasound has developed from primitive black and white images giving only the most basic information, to sophisticated images showing exquisite detail of the physical structure of a fetus.
Glossary of Terms
Authors: Crespigny Lachlan De , Chervenak Frank
Published: November 2023

This is a protein in the fetal circulation, some of which passes into the amniotic fluid, and an even smaller amount into the blood stream of the pregnant woman (maternal serum AFP). AFP levels rise in the maternal blood and amniotic fluid of fetuses with NTDs. The level tends to be low in the blood of the pregnant woman when the fetus has Down syndrome, and is one of the substances tested in screening for Down syndrome.
Probability structure
Authors: Tong Howell
Published: November 2023

Let us start with a simple example which illustrates the intimate relation between stability and stationarity. This important topic is often neglected in standard time series texts. Readers might wish to refresh their memories of 2.12. The idea of stochastic stability has been around in an implicit form in the theory of Markov chains for quite some time. although it was really.
Non-linear least-squares prediction based on non-linear models
Authors: Tong Howell
Published: November 2023

The stationary distribution. In practice, the evaluation of the conditional expectation is non-trivial if only a model for the time series has been given. The assumptions and notations introduced in this section will be adopted in the rest of this chapter without further mention.
D-optimum designs
Authors: Atkinson A C , Doney A N
Published: November 2023

In this section we list a variety of results for D-and G-optimum designs. In §11.2 an illustration is given of the use of the variance function in the iterative construction of a D-optimum design. The next section returns to the example of the desorption of carbon monoxide with which the book opened. A comparison is made of the design generating the data of Table 1.1 with several of the D-and /),-optimum designs derived in later chapters. The last two sections of the chapter list D-optimum designs which might be useful in practice, particularly for second-order models. But, to begin, we consider general properties of D-optimum designs.
Algorithms for the construction of exact D-optirnurn designs
Authors: Atkinson A C , Doney A N
Published: November 2023

The difference between exact and continuous designs was stressed in §9.1 and exemplified in Chapters 13 and 14 for models with both qualitative and quantitative factors. For such models it was shown that the continuous product designs are very different from the exact designs with a specified number of trials N. ln this chapter we describe algorithms for the construction of exact D-optimum designs. The emphasis is on the methods behind the KL exchange algorithm which was used to calculate many of the examples in this book. A Fortran version of the algorithm and its extension, the BLKL algorithm for blocking response surfaces designs, is given in Appendix A.
Discrimination between models
Authors: Atkinson A C , Doney A N
Published: November 2023

So far in this book it has been assumed that the model generating the data is known. Although the model may be quite general, for example a second-order polynomial in m factors, any of the terms in the model may be needed to explain the data. Experiments have therefore been designed to make possible the estimation of all the parameters of interest. In this chapter we consider instead design when a choice is to be made between two or more competing models neither of which is, in general, a special case of the other.
Further topics
Authors: Atkinson A C , Doney A N
Published: November 2023

Although the topics covered in this chapter receive relatively brief treatment, this is not because they are of little practical importance. Indeed, the design of experiments for quality described in the next section has aroused appreciable interest in manufacturing industry, often under the name Taguchi methods’. One purpose of the experiments is to reduce the variability in performance of a product which is caused by variability in the environment in which the product is used. The requisite changes in the product are revealed by planned experiments which include environmental factors. A second application is to design products to be robust to fluctuations in the manufacturing process, a procedure sometimes called ‘off-line quality control’. The distinction is with ‘on-line control’, where production is monitored to remove substandard product. Off-line control removes the wastage caused by rejection of substandard product and by the effort in detecting it. The experimental designs for both purposes are often simple when compared with those of earlier chapters. Some suitably simple first-order designs are listed in §22.3. The designs of the following two sections are more complicated. In §22.4 optimum design is used for the sequential allocation of treatments to patients in a clinical trial. The method combines the iterative algorithm for the construction of optimum designs with randomization to provide allocations which have some balance but which also guard against biases in treatment allocation. The designs of the succeeding §22.5 have more in common with those of earlier chapters, but the methods are now extended to include generalized linear models. Designs are thus found for responses which might, for example, follow the gamma, Poisson, or binomial distributions. The examples given are for binary data.
Infant and childhood mortality
Authors: Pennington Renee , Harpending Henry
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we discuss levels and trends in infant and childhood mortality. Early mortality is a standard indicator of the overall health of a population, so we are interested in comparing Herero rates at different periods and with infant and childhood mortality in other populations. In particular the !Kung Bushmen, the subjects of Nancy Howell’s (1979) pioneering demographic study, inhabit the same area and should be exposed to similar pathogens. The !Kung have less food than the Herero and they are thinner. A comparison between the two groups may show the effects of diet on early mortality.
Life history and marriage
Authors: Pennington Renee , Harpending Henry
Published: November 2023

Demographers and anthropologists typically consider marriage the normal context for child-bearing in human societies. Common approaches to dealing with non-marital reproduction are to ignore it because it is rare or to treat it as an abnormality that requires an explanation. Because there are no universal biological or social constraints limiting reproduction to marital unions, we are hesitant to adopt this view. Instead, we suggest that marriage and reproduction are understood by viewing them as concurrent rather than equivalent states of the life course such that one state is affected by the other but is not dependent upon it. Since a reproductive advantage conferred by marriage can vary among individuals and across ecological and social environments, rather than trying to understand why women do not marry, we might just as well ask why they marry at all.
Herero and !Kung comparative demography
Authors: Pennington Renee , Harpending Henry
Published: November 2023

In the last two decades anthropologists have become increasingly interested in the possibility that variability in caloric intake and energy expenditure affect fertility. Much of the impetus for this interest was the finding that !Kung Bushmen, hunting and gathering people who occupy the same valleys of north-western Ngami land as Herero, had low completed family sizes of four to five live births. The low fertility of the !Kung became incorporated into an anthropological legend about Bushmen–that they were affluent, cheerful, and gentle people who ate a lot of high fibre natural foods, lactated a long time, and got a lot of exercise (Sahlins 1968; Kolata 1974). This way of life led to ‘natural’ fertility control, according to the ideology, so that they had near zero population growth and were in long term balance with their environment. The natural state was lost when Herero and other pastoralists moved into their range. !Kung settled with Herero, began drinking milk and eating grain, quit walking long distances to forage, and their fertility increased dramatically through shorter birth intervals.
The Biological Anthropology of Disease
Authors: Mascie-Taylor C G N
Published: November 2023

The study of disease in past and present-day human populations provides insight into the relationship between people and their environments. Changing disease patterns reflect the net effect of differences in demography, climate, nutrition, vegetation, dietary habits, religion, culture, behaviour, migration, occupation, economic exploitation, social structure, and genetic make up of populations.
Fitting distributions
Authors: Lindsey J k.
Published: November 2023

Categorical data models have traditionally been used to study nominal, and ordinal, response variables. However, empirically, ‘continuous’ variables are also always observed as discrete categories, defined by the precision of the measuring instrument. Thus, log linear modelling techniques can be applied to such data, at least if the frequencies for the categories are reasonably large.
Overdispersion and cluster models
Authors: Lindsey J k.
Published: November 2023

As we have seen in previous chapters of this part, count data arise from the enumeration of events on individual units. If no explanatory variables, or time, distinguish among the events, they may be aggregated as counts. In fact, this can only be done legitimately for Poisson or binomial data if the events are independent. One may expect that such would not be the case for repeated events on each unit. This is usually known as over- or underdispersion, depending on whether dependence is positive or negative. Over- (or under-) dispersion in counts can arise for at least two reasons.
Factoring the likelihood function
Authors: Lindsey J K
Published: November 2023

The likelihood function provides an overall assessment of the relative merits of different members of a given family of statistical models, although this must be balanced against their relative complexity. However, as we saw in Section 3.6.3, we often require measures of precision of the estimates of individual parameters in the model. This is most often the case in a decision context (Part IV), where, for example, one might wish to decide which of two or more treatments provides the most positive effect, while controlling for various other influential factors. As in Section 3.6.3, the techniques to be discussed in this chapter should not be used for model selection, such as determining if a parameter could be set to zero. They are appropriate for interval estimation of individual parameters once an appropriate model has been selected. When the parameter vector is of low dimension, the precision of a parameter can be determined by inspecting a plot of the (profile) likelihood function. However, when many parameters are present in a statistical model, the profile likelihood will give a poor measure of the uncertainty in any one parameter component, unless it is orthogonal to the others, because it effectively assumes that the other parameter components are known to be equal to their maximum likelihood estimates (for fixed value of the parameter ofinterest). Thus, in Section 3.6.3, we introduced a modified profile likelihood to meet this problem, with a further application in Section 4.2.2. In this chapter, we shall explore in more detail the validity of such approximations.
Frequentist decision-making
Authors: Lindsey J K
Published: November 2023

abstract

Up until now, we have been studying how to extract the maximum information from data about models, and how to check their appropriateness, without being concerned about the uses to which the conclusions might be put. In this chapter and the next, we look at various approaches to handling the latter problem. These involve, in different ways, the peculiar notion (to a scientist) that the model for the phenomenon under study can be true or correct. However, in a context where one must make decisions involving irrevocable concrete actions, this is usually a necessary assumption. To incorporate the information from a study into this context requires an additional new type of model, one describing how human beings make such decisions.
Binomial regression
Authors: Lindsey J K
Published: November 2023

A biological assay, or bioassay, is an experiment to study the reaction of a living organism to some material, usually a pharmaceutical preparation. When the only response recorded is presence or absence of the reaction, it is called a quantal response. Usually, the material to be studied is applied at different dose levels in an inert diluent and the response observed. Comparison may be made to a negative control, i.e. inert material, or to a positive control, usually a competing pharmaceutical preparation. In many such assays, the material may cause irreversible change, such as death, so that the subjects can only be used once. One of the very early quantal response assays, published in 1926, concerned a study of the effect of insulin on mice, as measured by whether or not they had convulsions. The data are given in Table 10.1. We are interested in modelling how the proportion of mice with convulsions varies with the dose of insulin and with the type of preparation.
The depressed patient
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy
Published: November 2023

The appropriate management of the depressed patient is probably the key psychiatric skill for the GP to master. Not only are depressive disorders very common (1 in 10 consulting patients), but also effective primary care-based treatments can make a marked impact on patient morbidity and recovery. Depression is without question a disorder of primary care with approximately 90% of cases seen and treated without specialist referral. However, the GP has long been berated for not recognizing cases of depressive disorder, and then not adequately treating those cases which are recognized. This chapter sets out a pragmatic approach to diagnosis and treatment, which seeks to empower rather than criticize the GP. Guidance is given (evidence based where possible) to support the key management steps.
The fatigued patient
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy
Published: November 2023

Fatigue is common amongst patients in primary care (Table 8.1). There is a strong correlation between fatigue and psychological morbidity. The more severe the fatigue symptoms, the greater the chance of being a case on the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ). In a prospective study comparing patients presenting with viral illness, with matched controls, the strongest predictors of fatigue 6 months later were a past history of fatigue and psychological distress (Wessely et al., 1995). In a search for predictors for post-viral fatigue, a cohort of primary care patients presenting with viral illness were followed for 6 months. Infective symptoms did not predict fatigue at 6 months, but psychiatric morbidity, belief in vulnerability to viruses and attributional style at interview were all associated with self-designated post-viral fatigue (Cope et al., 1994).
The manic patient
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy
Published: November 2023

Mania almost invariably occurs as part of a bipolar illness. Thus, even for patients with one or more episodes of mania alone, it is likely that they will have a depressive episode at some stage in the future.
The patient with a personality disorder
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy
Published: November 2023

Patients with personality disorders can be amongst the most difficult patients to treat in general practice. All GPs will have had the experience of referring a patient to a specialist psychiatric service only to have them assessed as having a personality disorder, ,with no treatable psychiatric diagnosis, and sent back to primary care. The GP is then left with the unenviable task of attempting to manage a patient who is often very demanding and also disabled by their symptoms.
The risky patient
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy
Published: November 2023

Risk is currently an important topic within mental health. Much of the research in this area has been done in samples of high risk-patients, e.g. repeated self-harmers or those convicted of a violent offence. Evidence from such samples is not readily applicable in primary care where the prevalence of such behaviours is much lower. This chapter will focus on two areas of risk: the self-harming patient and the violent and aggressive patient.
The planning and control of reaching and grasping movements
Authors: Desmurget Michel , Baraduc, Pierre , Guigon Emmanuel
Published: November 2023

In our everyday life, we constantly interact with various objects. We reach for them, we manipulate them, and we grasp them with no apparent effort. Obviously, this simplicity has a cost in terms of the neural and functional organization of the nervous system. If our ‘motor programs’ are so powerful and easy to use, it is because their implementation is incredibly complex. A century of intense investigations have demonstrated that addressing this complexity is not a small challenge. In this chapter, we examine the most recent developments in this field of research.