bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Critique on Theories Predicting Thermoelastic Properties of Fibrous Composites
Authors: Chamis C.C. , Sendeckyj G.P.
Published: March 2007

A critique on the theories predicting the thermoelastic properties of unidirectional fibrous composites is presented. The method of approach in these theories varies from netting analysis to complex statistical methods. This critique provides a concise description and evaluation of those theories which are instructive or illustrate an interesting approach in the prediction of the thermoelastic proper ties. It is intended to contribute to better understanding and judicious application of these theories, to familiarize the researcher with the state of the art and to provide him with a basis for future effort. Thermoelastic properties predicted by the various theories are arranged in check-list form for quick reference. Typical results are included for comparison purposes and current trends are dis cussed. References and publications which provide working equa tions and/or result comparison of these theories are cited.
Adhesive Joints Involving Composites and Laminates. Measurement of Stresses Caused by Resin Swelling
Authors: Sargent J.P. , Ashbee K.H.G.
Published: March 2007

An optical interference technique employing Moire patterns has been ap plied to the determination of swelling geometry in composite adhesive jonts. The test data reveal anisotropic water absorption behavior. One consequence of this anisotropy can be fracture of the miscroscope cover slip used as one adherend and this has enabled a comparison to be made between experimen tally and theoretically derived normal displacement fields for mode III frac tures in glass.
Clamping Methods for Tensile Test of Carbon Fiber Strand
Authors: Sawada Yoshihiro , Shindo Akio
Published: March 2007

Clamping methods for evaluating tensile properties of carbon fibers in a form of strand were studied. When clamped with the three-plates aluminum tab and loaded through pins, the strand specimens in which the carbon fiber was impregnated with resin so as to penetrate fully among filaments exhibited the highest tensile forces. In this case, the strand specimens often broke into several pieces. With the clamping method using abrasive cloth, the strand specimens exhibited 95% of them, but their preparations were less time- consuming.
The New South Wales Public Service Industrial Relations System
Authors: Macdonald Duncan K.
Published: March 2007

Despite the growing overseas interest in public sector industrial relations this field has received very little attention in Australia. Using Dunlop's "systems" approach this paper analyses industrial relations in the N.S.W. Public Service with the intention of comparing industrial relations in this public sector with the situation prevailing in most private sectors. Firstly, the legal and economic frameworks within which the system operates are examined and this is followed by an investigation of the relevant unions and the employer group. Then, attention is focused on the wage adjustment procedures: negotiation and arbitration.

The analysis reveals that this public sector industrial relations system pos sesses a number of features of considerable analytical interest: features which clearly differentiate it from the systems common to the private sector.
Redundancy: Some Insights from Overseas Experience
Authors: Hughes Barry
Published: March 2007

Based on a survey of British, European and American experience, a range of questions are canvassed concerning desirable approaches to the redundancy problem. In particular, there are discussions of the strengths and weaknesses of attempts to avoid worker redundancy when jobs become superfluous, of the pros and cons of advance notice and of incentives introduced by traditional Australian severence pay based upon length of service. Length-of-service compensation for redundancy is criticised on the basis of its implications for national manpower policy and on equity grounds.
Economic Factors and Wage Fixation Principles: Developments in New South Wales in 1974
Authors: Shaw J.W.
Published: March 2007

The inflationary movement of 1974 presented a challenge for the time- honoured principles of wage-fixatian developed by the New South Wales system of industrial relations.

An examination of the key wages decisions of the State Industrial Commission shows how recognition of the concept of "community-wide movement in wages" enabled the tribunal to flexibly deal with the new economic reality. However, it also demonstrates the difficulty exposed in the previous approach of segregating "economic" and "work value" factors in the wage assessment process—a difficulty ultimately recognized by the Commission.
The Significance of the Legal Status of Trade Unions in Britain and Australia
Authors: Simpson R.C.
Published: March 2007

The legal status of trade unions has been the subject of judicial comment and legislation in both Britain and Australia in recent years. This paper examines the significance of this issue. An outline of the current law in both countries is prefaced by a summary of the status established under the original Trade Union Acts. The present legal position is discussed against the background of proposals for changes in the law in the last decade and the policy behind the changes that have in fact occurred. In conclusion it is suggested that providing the most appropriate legal status is not a simple technical matter; the status provided is indicative of wider judicial and legislative policy towards trade unions in particular and collective labour relations in general.
Workers' Attitudes: An Empirical Study of the "Technology" Thesis
Authors: Inkson J.H. Kerr
Published: March 2007

The "technology" thesis states that workers on assembly-line and other rationalized mass-production jobs have their higher-order needs for autonomy, responsibility and job-interest frustrated by the routine nature of their tasks and hence have low job satisfaction. Opponents of the thesis assert that the manual worker's primary values are determined by extra-organizational factors such as social-class membership and social role, and are typically oriented to extrinsic rewards such as pay and security; hence the thesis is of limited value. Data gaihered from three samples of manual workers generally supported the thesis, showing a group of assembly-line type freezing workers to have lower satis faction, lower self-esteem, and a more instrumental orientation to work than groups of construction carpenters and watersiders. However, the results sug gested that worker values are dynamic and vary according to the issue under consideration. Extrinsic factors had a relatively high influence in determining job occupancy, while intrinsic and technological factors had more influence on job satisfaction. Hence the technology thesis must be set in its total context of worker priorities and opportunities.
The Founding of the ACTU: The Origins of a Central Trade Union Federation
Authors: Donn Clifford B. , Dunkley Graham
Published: March 2007

The need for a central trade union federation was one of the most important problems facing the Australian Labor Movement prior to 1927. This article traces the events that led to the founding of the ACTU and then follows that body through its first year. Some issues raised by these events are examined, with special emphasis on the characteristics of the ACTU which enabled it to succeed where its predecessors had failed. The compromise structure of the ACTU and the personalities of its officers are found to be especially important.
Staff Relations in the Hong Kong Civil Service
Authors: Morris Richard , Quinlan Michael
Published: March 2007

Staff Relations in the Hong Kong Civil Service are in a state of flux after a history of relative quiescence. Union organization and activity is gathering momentum against a background of renewed economic growth following the 1974-5 recession. In the context of the Colony as a whole, government employ ment is the only field where industrial relations are "maturing" in the style of the advanced economies. Demands for union recognition and negotiating rights place the management of senior civil servants in a position where procedural reform is viewed as a more attractive option than inertia. The problems of public sector pay determination familiar in the OECD economies are replicated in an economy in transit from "Third World" to "First World" status, and are probably exacerbated by the dominant free market orientation of the Colorty's commerce and industry.
Unions and Youth: A Step in the Right Direction
Authors: Cupper Les
Published: March 2007

In recent years Australia has witnessed considerable community pressure for a closer link between "education and work". Employer organisations have been particularly vocal in demanding that new entrants to the workforce be more familiar with the functioning of the world of work. The Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU), while perhaps less vocal on the subject, has recently produced a "Trade Union Information Kit" for distribution to secondary school students. This paper examines the ACTU's initiative and details the findings of a survey of senior students' knowledge of, and attitudes toward unionism which prompted the Council's action. In brief, it argues that the ACTU's "Schools Kit" is both long overdue and a step in the right direction to filling a demonstrable gap in the information that many students appear to receive on trade unionism.
Factors Influencing Workers' Involvement in their Unions
Authors: Inkson J.H. Kerr
Published: March 2007

Two sets of factors which have been held to influence union members' participa tion in union activities are their general orientations to work and employment, and the organisation of union activities at local level. The relative influences of these two sets of factors were examined by reference to data from a survey of union members' attitudes in four male occupational groups. It was concluded that union involvement depended mainly on work-force solidarism of orientation and on-site union organisation, and that these in turn depended on labour characteristics such as stability and geographical dispersion.
Productivity-geared Wages Policies: Some Problems Arising from the Recent Growth in Self-employment
Authors: Covick Owen
Published: March 2007

The gearing of wage increases to recorded productivity improvements has become a central feature of Australian wage-fixing arrangements. Any well-defined policy rule for such purposes requires an operational definition of wages, an operational defini tion of labour productivity and a stipulated policy on timing. This paper argues that the particular wage adjustment rule which might be called the 'standard formula tion' in Australia today has been rendered seriously defective by recent developments in the economy. The dramatic growth since the mid-1970s in the proportion of Australia's working population recorded as self-employed and the simultaneous rapid decline in the unincorporated enterprise sector's real gross operating surplus per worker employed have together produced serious problems for the interpretation of the 'standard' labour productivity measures for wage policy purposes. Modifica tions to the 'standard formulation', to take account of these developments, are examined and an alternative wage policy rule suggested.
Labour Administration and 'Voluntarism': The Hong Kong Case
Authors: Ng Sek Hong
Published: March 2007

The notion of 'voluntarism' now looks obsolete as a state philosophy for labour policy prescription in its motherland, Britain. However, this concept which essen tially preaches state 'non-intervention' has left strong imprints on the current industrial relations system of its major overseas dependent territory—Hong Kong. One notable sign is the adamant resistance to introduce legislation on an economy- wide minimum wage. This paper traces the historical linkage between the British and Hong Kong institutional systems to explain the transfer of the 'voluntarist' framework to, and its persisting presence in, Hong Kong's industrial relations. It argues that while 'voluntarism' in Britain assumed an approximate equality in collective bargaining power between labour and capital, its application to Hong Kong has been justified by labour market conditions that are alleged to produce a rough equality of individual bargaining power between workers and employers. The paper goes on to examine implications for labour administration and asks whether the Hong Kong Government's recent series of 'discretionary' initiatives at labour reforms is an 'uneasy' recognition of and a 'reluctant' response to the strains and pressures endemic in such a purportedly 'free-market' laissez-faire economy.
The Unionization of Young People in Australia
Authors: Sloan Judith
Published: March 2007

In 1982, 53 per cent of adult employees (25 years and older) in Australia belonged to a trade union while 44 per cent of young adult employees (20 to 24 years old) and 31 per cent of teenage employees were union members. This article describes and analyses the unionization of young people in A ustralia. The principal issue addressed is why the unionization of young people is low relative to that of adults. Several key reasons emerge. These are the non-unionization of apprentices, the industrial distribution of the employment of young people (with their over-representation in low-unianized sectors) and high turnover rates among young employees. Contrary to expectations, the number of hours worked does not contribute to the explanation of the relatively low unionization of young people.
Equal Employment Opportunity and Industrial Relations: The Path to Equality
Authors: Strachan Glenda
Published: March 2007

Since the passage of anti-discrimination legislation in Australia, there has been an increasing overlap between these new legislated areas and traditional industrial relations. Remedies for individual complaints of discrimination may now be handled in both arenas. Individual, complaint-based systems are limited in the remedies they offer and cannot redress discrimination that is perpetuated within organizational practices. Measures such as affirmative action programmes are needed to overcome this systemic discrimination. These have the potential to produce changes within an organization so that policies and practices become more accountable. These programmes will deal with many work issues that are also industrial relations issues. One major determinant of their success will be the amount and level of union consultation. The achievement of equal employment opportunity, through the new legislation and programmes in Australia is therefore inextricably tied to industrial relations.
New Right or Old Wrong? Ideology and Industrial Relations
Authors: Dabscheck Braham
Published: March 2007

The H. R. Nicholls Society, which held its first meeting early in 1986, represents an industrial relations expression of the New Right, preaching a philosophy of management militancy and the need to take on, if not abolish, trade unions and industrial tribunals. It first came to national prominence with the Robe River lock-out in the second half of 1986. This paper provides information on who H. R. Nicholls was, and examines why he was chosen as the society's mascot and factors that contributed to the formation of the society. It then critically examines various views held by the society—the notion of the Industrial Relations Club, the role of industrial tribunals, the use of equity courts and common law contracts, and the role of markets, with particular reference to the issue of youth unemployment.
The Relationship Between Youth and Adult Award Wages from 1930 to 1985
Authors: Short Christine
Published: March 2007

The important and sometimes controversial subject of relativities between youth and adult award wages is examined in this paper. For the first time a historical index of award wages applying to youth and adults in Victoria has been constructed. Trends in relative youth/adult wages are shown using the index and explanations of these trends are suggested. Both male and female youth wages have tended to track women's wages from 1930 to 1970, and hence they rose relative to men's wages. Between 1970 and 1975, male youth wages declined relative to all other wage groups, thus more closely paralleling female youth wages. From 1975 a new trend is shown to have appeared, with both types of youth wages continuing to rise relative to men's wages. It is suggested that this break in trend shown in the index is due to the application of different wage principles to women's wage fixation after the equal pay cases of 1969 and 1972. From this time women's wages have no longer been adjusted according to their social needs but according to work value, as with men's wages. The second part of the paper illustrates the wage-fixing principles historically applied and presents some evidence of the social needs principles still being used in youth wage-fixation, leading to unequal pay for equal work for some youth.
The Determinants of Strikes in Australia
Authors: Drago Robert , Wooden Mark
Published: March 2007

This paper presents the first detailed analysis of strike determinants in Australia using micro-economic data. Multiple regression analysis, undertaken on data collected from a survey of over 300 workplaces conducted in 1988, leads the authors to conclude that while stoppage frequency is associated with union power, serious stoppages are most affected by employee morale and the nature of the bargaining relationship. This suggests that serious stoppages could be reduced ivith out reducing union power per se, though changes in the award system and management style may be warranted.
Unemployment and Labour Market Policies and Programmes in Britain: Experience and Evaluation
Authors: Towers Brian
Published: March 2007

Although high unemployment and the search for solutions are widespread among most industrialized countries, the purpose of this article is to review and assess British experience, especially in the past twenty years.

Using the OECD distinction Britain, as other countries, continues to spend substantially more on the 'passive' measures of unemployment compensation and redundancy payments than on 'active' measures to create jobs, develop job skills and encourage more active job search. Within the active group, although training remains important, its development, funding and implementation have recently been devolved to regional agencies while job search has been given additional funding and a higher policy profile.

This shift towards short-term approaches to unemployment may prove to be an error, given the long-term implications for British attempts to raise skill levels. However, policy remains in flux. Alternative means of reducing unemployment and creating jobs are discussed, including those that incorporate macroeconomic stimuli alongside supply-side measures. These alternatives are currently under active dis cussion in the European union and among other leading industrialized countries. For Britain, such a radical shift in policy is unlikely without a change in government.
Gender and Activism in Australian Unions
Authors: Pocock Barbara
Published: March 2007

Australian unions are acting-with varying levels of intensity-to increase wom en's activism. Are these strategies addressing real problems, in the most appropri ate ways? New research in six Australian unions or union divisions reveals that significant differences exist in the activism of women and men union members. Gender differences persist beyond variations in age, income, occupation or years in the union. These differences in activism are not explained by stronger anti-union attitudes among women, or by a lack of interest in involvement; no significant differences exist between the sexes on these issues. Instead, women nominate a range of factors that inhibit their involvement, most significantly in relation to the double load of paid work and home work, and a variety of ways in which unions traditionally have worked. Some women also perceive that personal characteris tics like lack of information or confidence are barriers to their involvement. There is strong support among union members for more women leaders. The study suggests that unions should turn existing strategies (which tend to over-emphasize assumed deficiencies in women) on their heads, and give much greater priority to reforming union methods, culture and structure.
Casual Employment, Labour Regulation and Australian Trade Unions
Authors: Campbell Iain
Published: March 2007

This article explores the implications for trade unions of the rapid expansion in Australia of casual employment—a distinctive form of non-standard employment characterized by a lack of entitlement to most employment benefits and forms of employment protection. The article summarizes the main features of casual em ployment and the evidertce for its growth since 1982. It highlights the role of award regulation in shaping casual employment. Casual employment is identified as unprotected employment, which survived within the award system and indeed flourished in the gaps created by officially sanctioned exemptions from protection and limits in the enforcement and reach of award regulation. Labour market deregulation in the 1990s has in turn widened these gaps and facilitated both an expansion of casual employment and an extension of some casual conditions of employment into sections of the permanent workforce. These developments offer a major challenge to Australian trade unions. They underline the failure of tradi tional trade union policies, oriented to a simple rejection of all forms of non- standard employment. They pose a threat both to the set of employment rights and benefits slowly built up by trade union action in the course of past decades and to the legitimacy of trade unions as representative institutions. Australian trade unions are still struggling to come to grips with this threat. Traditional policies remain dominant, but recent trade union policy and practical efforts point towards a new approach that builds on a less hostile and more discriminating attitude to non-standard employment. In relation to the crucial issue of labour regulation the new approach pivots on the important theme of decasualization. The direction of change is promising. But the article argues that the new approach remains weak and underdeveloped as a result of its narrow orientation to the redesign of agreements within the shrinking sphere of effective regulation, its focus on casual status rather than casual conditions of employment and its inability to find effective levers for implementation
Fixing Wages for Aborigines in the Queensland Cattle Industry 1901-1965
Authors: Hagan Jim , Castle Rob , Clothier Craig
Published: March 2007

Wages for Aborigines in the Queensland cattle industry between 1901 and 1965 were set not by a tribunal but on the advice of the Chief Protector of Aborigines and his successors. These men did not fix wages according to the 'needs' of Aborigines; rather, they proclaimed wage rates that represented tbe resolution of a variety of considerations, some economic and some political. This paper analyses the fixing of wages for Aboriginal station bands in Queensland under the protectorate system, and contrasts these wages with developments in wages for white workers in the industry.
The Accord: Background Changes and Aggregate Outcomes
Authors: Chapman Bruce
Published: March 2007

Over the last several decades tbe role of incomes policy has been a critical issue in an understanding of Australian workplace and macroeconomic relationships. A significant institutional reform was the Prices and Incomes Accord, which began with the election of the Labor government in 1983, and ended with the change of govern ment in 1996. What follows is a discussion of the circumstances that led to the adoption of the Accord, and an analysis of some of its consequences for strikes and wages. Several themes are explored. One is that the success of incomes policies depends on economic, political and industrial relations factors. A second is that the origin and maintenance of the Accord depended on the Labor government's commitment to wage restraint, which had its intellectual underpinnings in corporatism. The Accord changed over thirteen years, and the industrial system became more directed to enterprise bargaining. While this might imply that it became increasingly difficult to have low strike and wage outcomes, the changes in industrial and economic relationships seem to be permanent. Conjectures are offered to explain this outcome.
Union Amalgamations and the Decline in Union Density
Authors: Wooden Mark
Published: March 2007

Confronted by a marked decline in trade union density, the union movement in Australia bas responded by promoting the restructuring and amolgamation of trade unions. As a result, the number of active trade unions in Australia has fallen markedly since 1990. Despite tbis, the decline in trade union density accelerated during the 1990s, leading some analysts to suggest that the union amalgamation process may actually have been counterproductive in terms of overall trade union membership. This article tests this hypothesis using panel data collected as part of the Australian Workplace Industrial Relations Survey. A regression model of changes in union density in the period 1989/90 to 1995 is developed and estimated. The results indicate that while declining union numbers have been associated with the decline in union density, none of the blame for the fall can be traced to the amalgamation process.
Analysing, Organising, Resisting: Union Responses to the Asian Economic Crisis in East Asia, South Korea and the Philippines
Authors: Ranald Patricia
Published: March 2007

Case studies of union responses to economic crisis in East Asia contest the proposition that unions are powerless in tbe face of the competitive pressures of globalisation, recently intensified by economic crisis and International Monetary Fund programs. Responses to the crisis by the regional organisations of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, and by independent unions in South Korea and tbe Philippines, are analysed. Unions in the region are generally weak and divided, but these independ ent unions have succeeded in organising in spite of repression by both governments and employers. They have formed alliances with other social forces and organised both industrial action and public demonstrations against aspects of International Monetary Fund programs, and called for alternative policies. These actions have had an impoct on the scope of employer and government action and policy.
Rethinking 'Regional Industrial Relations': Space, Place and the Social Relations of Work
Authors: Ellem Bradon , Shields John
Published: March 2007

The dismantling of centralised modes of labour regulation and the emergence of new spatial divisions of labour under 'globalisation' have produced renewed interest in 'regional industrial relations'. Yet much of the existing literature in this genre—and industrial relations scholarship in general—remains wedded to a positivist conception of space. The most promising avenues for reconceptualising the spatiality of capital-labour relations are to be found in the work of radical economic geographers. They recognise that space itself is a human construct and that capital and labour have differing mobilities and, therefore, different subjective and strategic orientations to space and to particular places. From these premises, they argue that local labour markets are the points of intersection between production and reproduction and the primary focus of attention of local modes of labour regulation. These insights, we suggest, provide the means to rethink what has been described as regional industrial relations and capital- labour relations more generally.
Some Regional Development Issues in Defense Program Shifts
Authors: Dyckman John W.
Published: March 2007

The pattern of U.S. defense expenditure has reinforced certain industrial and urban development shifts in the nation, and by accelerating the growth of certain urban areas, has created local situations of great vulnerability. The shift to California has changed the industry mix in the State, raised the defense industry complex to the principal export industry of the State, produced new location patterns within the State, and concentrated a disproportionately high number of scientists and technicians in California. Under conditions of rapid and sizable defense expenditure reduction, California would face serious problems of reduced demand for its exports. But reduction in aggregate demand would also be accompanied by severe shrinkage in demand for certain skills. Most offset programs proposed for the nation would not alleviate the prospective condition of surplus technicians in selected California areas; further, some locational 'stickiness' of these technicians is expected. One offset program now being proposed by California space industries — development of a federally assisted New Town building program — is examined in some detail. The program in several aspects promises favorable offsets to the peculiar problems of defense contracting, though the social priorities of the program may be dubious.
Foreign Policy Opinion as a Function of Social Position
Authors: Galtung Johan
Published: March 2007

In this article a theory of how foreign policy opinion depends on the social position of the opinion-holder is developed. The society is divided into a center and a periphery, where the center is the favored part and the periphery the rejected part of society. The periphery is the victim of insufficient communication and of isolation, and will for that reason represent other phases of attitude-formation than the center. Thus, the periphery will distinguish less between cognitions and evaluations of foreign policy alternatives, and be more absolutist in its orientation to change. The periphery will either favor the status quo or sudden and complete changes, whereas the center will be more revisionist in its outlook. The periphery will either keep silent or improvise demonstrations to make its attitude known.

The theory is tested on survey data from Norway 1959-63, and confirmed on a number of points. More particularly, the periphery is found to have a different concept of consistency than the center. A tendency to combine attitudes in favor of atomic weapons with the signing of a protest against them was found to be most pronounced in the periphery.

The importance of foreign policy attitude is seen above all in its bargaining value for a foreign minister, but also as a direct impetus provided foreign policy opinion is stabilized, and stabilized for peaceful policies. This can be done by 'making peace pay,' e.g. by including tax cuts in disarmament plans, and by tying the periphery more to the decision-makers through foreign policy oriented elections, or through government parties that also represent the periphery.
The Image of World Society and the Function of Armaments
Authors: Landheer Bart
Published: March 2007

The image of a Centralized World Society as usually presented is discussed, and the author finds that this image has to be readjusted if armaments are to be limited. Such a readjustment presupposes a more realistic image of the functioning industrial society which must furnish the foundation of the World Society. Instead of seeking only centralized and global solutions when nations operating alone have shown themselves unable to avert war, one might seek to institutionalize bloc policies, on a regional basis. This would correspond to the spreading of industrial power across the globe (instead of its being centralized), but it must be coupled with self-limitations of societies as they become highly industrialized.
Game Th Eory, Bargaining Th Eory, and Strategic Reasoning
Authors: Coddington Alan
Published: March 2007

Strategic reasoning must take place, explicitly or implicitly, within some framework, whether this be a formal one or otherwise. It is often assumed that game theory is the only formal frame work for strategic analysis. In this paper, however, strategic reasoning is distinguished from its particular bases. It is suggested that formal bases other than the game theoretic one are possible. A number of weaknesses and inadequacies of game theory, both as a direct and as an indirect basis for strategic reasoning, are pointed out. (With a game theoretic model of bargaining proces ses which in turn serves as a framework for strategic reasoning, game theory forms an indirect basis.)

An alternative approach is suggested, involving the idea of a closed loop system; and it is argued that this may serve as a more fruitful basis for strategic reasoning.
The Development of Views On Conflict, War, and Peace Among School Children
Authors: Ålvik Trond
Published: March 2007

This article continues a line of thought presented by Peter Cooper in JPR 1965, No. 1, by relating the formation of 'war' and 'peace' concepts in children to some of Jean Piaget's developmental dimensions.

114 subjects in the age groups 8, 10, and 12, chosen from different socio-economic levels, were interviewed with a fairly comprehensive instrument containing among other items a set of questions designed to tap ability of reciprocal reasoning.

1) The subjects seem to know much more about war than about peace. For both concepts they concentrate upon the 'concrete' aspects (war as fighting, killing, dying, weapons; peace as respite and inactivity) rather than upon the more 'abstract' aspects (war as a conflict situation; peace as something which must be actively obtained and maintained).

2) The relation is greater between ability of reciprocal reasoning and the concrete aspects, than between ability of reciprocal reasoning and the more abstract aspects of war and peace concepts.

3) Socio-economic level is related to conception of concrete aspects of war and peace, but subjects from high socio-economic level do not necessarily conceive of peace as something which must be actively obtained and maintained more than do subjects from low socio-economic level.

On the basis of these findings the author hypothesises that the subjects may not have been given the opportunity to apply their growing mental capacities to the development of an active peace concept, and that much more can be done in this direction through education.
A Cross Cultural Study of Hostility and Aggression
Authors: Green R.T. , Santori G.
Published: March 2007

This article analyses and compares the structure of hostile attitudes and aggressive behaviour of two national groups, English and Italian, taking into account the national stereotypes involved. While the two groups do not differ greatly in their overall level and general pattern of scoring on a questionnaire, there are nevertheless divergencies that reflect the differing norms of the two societies. In particular, the hostile/aggressive Italian has to contend with a display motive that seems to permeate his culture pattern and contributes to the stereotype of the 'Latin temperament'. To this extent, the 'kernel of truth' hypothesis is supported. Correspond ingly, the stereotype of the perfidious, hypocritical Englishman is lent credence, in that revenge cloaked in moral guise and world-weary cynicism and contempt are more apparent attributes of the hostile/aggressive Englishman as revealed by the questionnaire. Attitudes towards authority draw on both the display and cynicism aspects. While the Italian is impressed by the trappings of power, the Englishman is more concerned with its exercise.

It is concluded that, although culture patterns may be fruitfully compared in terms of their ways of handling and expressing hostility/aggression, it is essentially meaningless to describe one culture pattern as more or less hostile/aggressive than another in any absolute terms, since no external criterion exists that is not in some sense arbitrary.
A Partial Model of National Political-Economic Systems: Evaluation By Causal Inference
Authors: Chadwick Richard W.
Published: March 2007

This paper applies a combination of factor analysis and causal inference techniques to refine a partial model of national political systems and international behavior. The model, which is a revision and extension of one used as 'background assumptions' in an Inter-Nation Simulation at Northwestern University (1960), contains such variables as international trade and agreements (both military and economic), national economic and military capabilities, and several political system variables such as the probability of revolution; an earlier version of this model is reported in the Journal of Peace Research, No. 3, 1969. Data for the study are circa 1955-1957, cover 64 nations, and were obtained from the Dimensionality of Nations Project file (now at the University of Hawaii), to which the author contributed. Some twenty- four interlocking causal assumptions are settled upon as sufficient explanation for the matrix of correlations generated by the data.
Perception of the Basic Cleavages of Finnish Society
Authors: Eskola Antti
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this survey is to find out how Finns perceive some economic, political and social contrasts of their own society. On the basis of factor analysis these contrasts are grouped into three clusters: (1) opposition between the rulers and the ruled. (e.g. employers vs. employees, politicans vs. ordinary citizens), (2) party-political contrasts (e.g. the Right vs. the Left) and (3) opposition of old and new (e.g. urban dwellers vs. rural dwellers, young vs. old). The first cluster of contrasts resembles quite strongly the classic class contradiction model described in Marxian theory.

Of the 16 original contrasts the following ones are perceived to be greatest in magnitude: rich vs. poor, Right vs. Left, Communists vs. others, working class vs. bourgeoise and Coa lition Party (Conservatives) vs. others. It is found that supporters of the leftist parties per ceive contrasts belonging to the cluster (1) on an average greater than do supporters of the bourgeois parties, but no such difference is found in the case of other contrasts. Although the survey concentrates on the internal contrasts of the Finnish society, this method can also be applied to the study of perception of international cleavages.
Imperialism, Intervention Capacity, and Foreign Policy Making
Authors: Kramer Helmut , Bauer Helfried
Published: March 2007

This article summarizes central theoretical and methodological notions developed in an empirical analysis of US foreign policy decisionmaking, of the economic effects of war expenditures and of the evolution of public opinion in the Indochina intervention, from Kennedy to Nixon.

In the first part, the economic and political base for the US intervention policy in the Third World in general and in Indochina in particular is analyzed. In this framework the functions of military spend ing and war industry for the militarization of US intervention policy and for internal economic sta bilization in the interest of the US power elite are discussed. The link between the escalation of the Vietnam war in 1964/65 and the prevention of an impending economic recession in the US serves as an illustrating example.

In order to analyze the impact of economic and political factors determining US foreign policy towards the Third World in concrete historical situations, the concept of 'intervention capacity' is introduced. Intervention capacity does not only mean the available and applied resources and means for military actions or threats: it also sub sumes the level of economic, social, and political stability required in the imperialistic nation itself for performing and continuing interventions in the Third World. The international and national weakening of US imperialism as a consequence of its failure to achieve its military goal in Southeast Asia is analyzed in this perspective.

Besides the analysis of the strategic context and the delineated problem area of intervention ca pacity, studies of imperialist interventions should deal also with the process of foreign policy ma king. Criteria for a better understanding of this process in which political and economic goals are converted into political action consensus are dis cussed in connection with the Indochina policy decisions.

In the final section, the developed analytical framework is used for a critical review of liberal and radical analyses of the US Indochina inter vention. The main argument here is that critical social science, in bringing in the needed system perspective, should not neglect to apply more re fined methods of data analysis and concept re finement.
Peace Research and the Industrial Revolution
Authors: Krippendorff Ekkehart
Published: March 2007

Having quantitatively grown so fast, peace research urgently needs to clarify its research object and to dissociate itself from other approaches. A discussion of theory is not luxury. The international system, with its threat of total or partial destruction which provides the general framework of peace research, must be recognized as a phenomenon of recent history. It is the pro duct of the Industrial Revolution and the capitalist mode of production. Retracing this system to its historic genesis enables us to expose the roots from which the decisive conflict potential of modern times - the modern state, the arms race, the discrepancy between rich and poor countries, non-capitalist countries as components of the capitalist world system - have developed. Unless we reduce historically conflicts of the moment to their recent contemporary structure rooted in the capitalist revolution, peace research will only be able to cure symptoms. Today we are historically still in the epoch of the capitalist revolution of the (European) 17th and 18th centuries. It must be transcended, overcome, if we are to create conditions for the possibilities of circumstances in which conflicts are no longer warlike, i.e. mediated by states but rather articula ted and carried out as social conflicts by the agents directly concerned.
International Organization and Violence with Special Reference to the Performance of the UN System
Authors: Rittberger Volker
Published: March 2007

The article seeks to bring together perspectives of peace research and of the study of international organization. The common meeting-ground for both perspectives is the analysis of the perform ance of international organization, particularly with respect to eliminating violence in international society.

The discussion begins by ascertaining the meaning of the concept of violence as it has regularly been defined in the theory and practice of international organization. It is argued that, due to the genesis of international organization as an adaptive outgrowth of the modern state system, 'violence' is usually seen as identical with 'direct' or 'personal' violence, and that it does not encompass 'indirect' or 'structural' violence.

In the analysis of international organization per formance, it is shown that international organi zation has failed, by and large, in fulfilling its major open function: the elimination of direct violence in international society. The article then takes up the question whether and in which ways international organization activities bear on the existence of structural violence in international society. Here, we note first of all a certain lack of research - as compared with the large number of studies on the impact of international organiza tion on direct violence. Based on the available evidence, the tentative answer to the perviously- raised question is that, whereas international orga nization may have been instrumental in attacking some secondary manifestations of structural violence, it has served more often to perpetuate and even strengthen structural violence in inter national society.
Stability and Deterrence Through Strategic Nuclear Arms
Authors: Afheldt Horst , Sonntag Philipp
Published: March 2007

A quantitative simulation is carried out in order to test the political outcome of ABM and MIRVs. Technical variables serve as input: number of ICBMs, of ABMs, hit probabilities, etc. Strategic positions result as output: mutual second strike capability, effective defense of one power only, etc. The conclusion is that MIRVs, especially in com bination with ABMs, represent an extreme threat to equilibrium.
The Military-Industrial Complex in West Germany and the Consequences for Peace Policy
Authors: Vilmar Fritz
Published: March 2007

The paper summarizes the crucial concerns of the author's two major book contributions (see note above) to peace research and peace policy. On the basis of some hypotheses about militarism as a means of societal rule, the economic role of arma ment-expenditures, particularly in the Federal Re public, are described. It is shown that, since the middle of the 1950s, there has existed an intensive interest on the part of industry for high domestic armament orders of the government.

The principles of disarmament economics are discussed; and the absence of any governmental effort in this direction as well as the general aver sion of the economic power elite against effective economic alternatives (welfare planning etc.) to a militarization of (parts of) the economy are noted.

Principles for a socially oriented peace policy in Western Europe are then formulated. These are based on the ideas of strong intensification of socio-economic and socio-cultural exchange (learn ing processes) between Western and Eastern Europe and a growing cooperation of the progressive social forces in Western Europe.
Social Violence and Conservative Social Psychology: The Case of Erik Erikson
Authors: Smith Tony
Published: March 2007

Erikson links intergroup violence to the fashion communities train their members to see themselves and otherness. The result of role learning or identity formation is regrettably but typically 'pseudospeciation', a tendency to see one's own group as something more than human while deni grating other groups to an inferior position. Erikson proposes to master pseudospeciation through the practice of judiciousness or 'mutuali ty', the psychological equivalent of the political value of tolerance whose practice he claims to have found demonstrated by Gandhi.

Despite Erikson's obvious humanism, his con cept of mutuality is fundamentally unsatisfactory, for it is caught in an unresolved contradiction be tween his conviction that psychological well-being requires the sheltering environment of established social institutions and his recognition of a need for a critical analysis of social roles. Since Erik son's most fundamental theoretical tenets stress the importance of individual adaptation to socially prescribed forms of behavior, mutuality bids fair to function as a conservative political ideology. In its basic terms, Erikson's argument is common to an entire school of social psychology and the analysis of its limitations is therefore of relevance to the general discussion of the character and con trol of human aggression.