bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
DIMENSIONS OF POLITICAL CLEAVAGE IN MULTI‐PARTY SYSTEMS
Authors: PESONEN PERTTI
Published: May 2006

Recent research on political dimensions in the Scandinavian party systems at five non‐electorate “levels” of dimensional analysis (content analysis of party programs, content analysis of expressions of party stances on current issues, positions taken by the parliamentary parties as behaving units, roll call analysis and interviews of individual legislators, and interviews with leaders and members of party organizations) justify the rejection of the unidimensional spatial model of party competition. Data on the social structure, attitudes and opinions, and voting behavior of the supporters of different parties provide indirect information about the dimensions of political cleavage. More directly, the “perceived party dimensions” can be concluded from aggregates of individual assessments for which the parties as such are the stimuli Averaged rank orderings of the parties provide ordinal measures that have been used as inputs for multidimensional scaling techniques.

An experiment of measuring the mutual distances of political parties in Finland used percentages of the second and the two last party choices as measures of party distance. A qualitative analysis of the exceptions to regular orderings along the basic left/right dimension suggested the presence of six additional political dimensions: the producers and agriculture/the consumers and urban industries; the established parties/the temporary small parties; recognized and noted centers/the “forgotten people” (populist dimension); Finnish/Swedish; communism/non‐communism; and victorious/losing.

Three developments can be envisaged in future dimensional analysis of multiparty systems: comparisons across countries, comparisons between different levels in the political system, and predictions of emerging political changes.
GOVERNMENT COALITIONS IN WESTERN EUROPE*
Authors: TAYLOR MICHAEL , LAVER MICHAEL
Published: May 2006

Several simple theories of government coalition formation are described and tested. A statistical method is presented for comparing the theories and evaluating each of them relative to a certain null hypothesis. The statistical tests are based upon the formation of 132 government coalitions in twelve countries of Western Europe during 1945–71.
THEORIES OF PUBLIC POLICY MAKING AND THF LOCATION OF NORWEGIAN DISTRICT COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
Authors: STAVA PER
Published: May 2006

Four theories for explaining public policy decisions are briefly presented. The theories are applied to the question of the location of Norwegian district colleges and universities (location by county, scope and timing). Eleven operational models provide the link between theory and data. The conclusion is that the legal‐bureaucratic theory best explains the location decisions. This structural theory works better than the three behavioral ones. It is argued that this shows how norms of equity and justice constitute the main constraints on these decision processes.
FEDERALISM, REGIONALISM, AND ASSOCIATION
Authors: FRIEDRICH CARL J.
Published: May 2006

This article reviews recent trends in the theory and practice of federalism as well as in the closely related field of regionalism. The second part of the article is devoted to a discussion of the novel concept of associated membership in federations.
THE UNCERTAINTY OF THE PAST: ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING UNDER AMBIGUITY*
Authors: MARCH JAMES G. , OLSEN JOHAN P.
Published: May 2006

Classical theories of omniscient rationality in organizational decision‐making have largely been replaced by a view of limited rationality, but no similar concern has been reflected in the analysis of organizational learning. There has been a tendency to model a simple complete cycle of learning from unambiguous experience and to ignore cognitive and evaluative limits on learning in organizations. This paper examines some theoretical possibilities for assuming that individuals in organizations modify their understanding in a way that is intendedly adaptive even though faced with ambiguity about what happened, why it happened, and whether it is good. To develop a theory of learning under such conditions, we probably require ideas about information exposure, memory, and retrieval; learning incentives; belief structures; and the micro development of belief in organizations. We exhibit one example by specifying a structural theory of the relations among liking, seeing, trusting, contact, and integration in an organization. The argument is made that some understanding of factors affecting learning from experience will not only be important to the improvement of policy making in an organizational context, but also a necessary part of a theory of organizational choice.
THE IDEOLOGICAL DISTANCE BETWEEN THE TWO MAJOR PARTIES IN BRITAIN1
Authors: CHARLOT MONICA
Published: May 2006

The commonly held idea that the two major British political parties are drawing nearer and nearer together is not belied by the facts. The ideological gap between the parties, measured on a series of left/right scales, has decreased since 1945. The closing of the gap is neither automatic–in 1970, for instance, the two parties drew apart–nor unilateral–both parties contribute to it.
THE GEOGRAPHICAL MATRIX OF PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION: A SPATIAL MODEL OF POLITICAL RECRUITMENT*
Authors: PEDERSEN MOGENS N.
Published: May 2006

In political systems that do not require the legislator to have his residence in the constituency which elects him, a data matrix can be created by juxtaposing the two variables of constituency affiliation and residence affiliation of legislators. This geographical matrix of representation will display a characteristic pattern which can be rendered understandable by means of a simple axiomatic model of political recruitment The model is based upon the assumption that rational office‐seekers and agents of selection will make their decisions with regard to nomination in such a way that the costs of communication between the representative and his constituency are minimized. This decisional premise is operationalized by means of the three spatial distances between residence, constituency, and the site of the legislature. From the triadic distance model a number of hypotheses are derived. These are tested by means of data on Danish legislators. As the model gains considerable support, the article concludes with a discussion of the possibilities of refining and further testing the model.
ON THE MODELLING OF POLITICO‐ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE*
Authors: FREY BRUNO S. , SCHNEIDER FRIEDRICH
Published: May 2006

Various analytic and simulation models designed to integrate the political and economic sectors are surveyed, stressing the interacting links going from the economy to the polity through the popularity function and in the reverse direction through the government's reaction function. Partial politico‐economic models concentrate on a particular trade‐off between goals, in particular between inflation and unemployment. The models of total politico‐economic interdependence study the interrelationship of the economy as a whole with the polity. They are studied theoretically and by simulation techniques. Ongoing research by the authors indicates that such models can be applied empirically; as an example an already existing econometric model of the German economy is extended by an endogenous government sector.
CONSOCIATIONAL DEMOCRACY IN THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM*
Authors: LEHMBRUCH GERHARD
Published: May 2006

The theory of consociational democracy has emphasized the internal conditions under which elites in “segmented pluralist” countries may choose such a strategy. This article suggests a distinction between genetic and sustaining conditions of this type of conflict management and, with the aid of this distinction, seeks to analyze the complex relationships between the internal structure of consociational democracies and their position in the international system. Consociationalism serves as a strategy for the settlement of international conflict (and may be imposed from outside) or for the preservation of national integrity in a situation of international conflict. On the other hand a reduction of foreign policy loads may contribute to the stabilization of consociational democracy; this may explain why most consociational democracies are small countries.
ON THE PRIORITIES OF GOVERNMENT: A DEVELOPMENTAL ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC POLICIES *
Authors: ROSE RICHARD
Published: May 2006

The article provides a classification of the activities of the modern state, embracing 32 Western‐type nations from 1849. The first two sections of the paper elaborate a comprehensive conceptual framework for classifying activities as defining, mobilizing of physical resources, and providing social benefits. These three types of activities are shown to have developed sequentially in the order named. A mortmain proposition is tested and confirmed demonstrating that states tend not to abandon activities. A convergence proposition is tested and rejected; there is no common pattern of resource mobilization and social services in contemporary industrial nations. The concluding section considers the priorities of states when constrained by resource limitations. Priorities are examined in terms of effectiveness and efficiency; the likelihood of creating losers as well as beneficiaries; and the need to maintain defining activities as a sine qua non of the existence of the state.
THE FOREIGN SOURCES OF FOREIGN POLICY: CAUSES, CONDITIONS, OR INPUTS?*
Authors: GOLDMANN KJELL
Published: May 2006

Against the background of the current tendency of foreign policy analysts to emphasize the so‐called domestic sources of foreign policy, this article discusses the role played by external factors. Three different ways in which the student of domestic sources of foreign policy may conceive of the interplay between foreign and domestic factors are suggested. The significance of domestic factors for the analyst whose primary focus is on the foreign ones is then discussed. Empirical illustrations are taken from Sweden's foreign and defence policy.
POLITICS, DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL POLICY: A CROSS‐NATIONAL ANALYSIS
Authors: HANIFF GHULAM M.
Published: May 2006

Social policies, of the type examined in this study, are greatly shaped by a nation's level of socioeconomic development rather than by political conditions. The socioeconomic variables that best account for policy differentials among nation‐states are wealth and literacy. On the whole, wealth is the best predictor of social policy output. Ceteris paribus, political variables which seem to be important for social policy are political competition and political stability, despite the generally weaker relations between political system characteristics and policy outputs.

Generally, it could be predicted with a high degree of probability that nation‐states which are stable and which enjoy a high per capita income would also have a comprehensive system of social welfare measures.
POLITICAL DIMENSIONS AND MODELS OF POLITICAL PARTY SYMPATHY: EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF SWEDISH ATTITUDE DATA *
Authors: LINDÉN MICHAEL
Published: May 2006

Main theoretical considerations, methodological strategies, and empirical results of a research project based on Swedish political attitude data are summarized. The goals of the research project were, first, to suggest basic dimensions relevant for descriptions of Swedish political attitudes and parties and, second, to judge the cognitive relevance of these dimensions for political party sympathy. Data were collected from attitude questionnaires answered by representatives of the five largest Swedish political parties (serving as subjects). Analyses and empirical tests were based on factor analytical and Euclidean distance approaches. Results indicate five “party‐politicized” dimensions and a strictly (alternative modified) hierarchical model is suggested as the most relevant reflection of cognitive structures and processes involved in political party sympathy.
THE OSTROGORSKI PARADOX: A PECULIARITY OF COMPOUND MAJORITY DECISION *
Authors: RAE DOUGLAS W. , DAUDT HANS
Published: May 2006

In the article it is shown that if during an election each voter picks the party with which he agrees on a majority of issues, it is nevertheless possible that a majority of voters disagrees with the winning majority party on every issue. This ‘inverted majority decision’, here called the Ostrogorski‐paradox, resembles the structure underlying the Condorcet paradox and Simpson's paradox. Each concerns a relation of pairwise decision or observation functioning in an n‐wise world.

Our object here is to point out a possible paradox of parliamentary democracy, and to sketch some of its relationships to other paradoxes.
THE FRENCH REFERENDUM OF APRIL 23, 1972
Authors: LELEU CLAUDE
Published: May 2006

The French referendum of April 23, 1972, on the treaty concerning the entry into the EEC of Great Britain, Denmark, Ireland and Norway is analysed with the help of new index numbers and a new method of cartography. Compared to the general election of March 1973, this referendum, despite an exceptionally low participation stemming more from indifference towards the European question which affected all the political groups than from the Socialist Party's appeal for non‐participation, remained characteristic of traditional patterns of electoral behaviour.
ITALY'S REFERENDUM ON DIVORCE: SURVEY AND ECOLOGICAL EVIDENCE ANALYZED*
Authors: MARRADI ALBERTO
Published: May 2006

This article is a much‐abridged version of a study appearing in the Italian political science journal after the referendum of May 12, 1974. Data from twelve nationwide sample surveys and results of the 1972 national election are put to use in the analysis. Changes in opinions pro and anti‐divorce are mapped through the seven years preceding the vote. Male sex, bigger commune size, higher education, social class, income, and political involvement are found to be associated with pro‐divorce feelings; age, religiosity, and church attendance with anti‐divorce feelings. In step‐wise regressions, the influence of these variables appears to vary greatly from one area to another, while the influence of party preference is uniformly high. This provides the ground for running ecological regressions of the percentage votes against divorce on the joint percentage polled in 1972 by the two parties who campaigned against divorce (the Christian Democrats and the neo‐fascist MSI). At various levels of aggregation, the correlation coefficients are uniformly high, ranging from .81 to .94. Through detailed analysis of scattergrams, nine ecological areas are singled out and mapped; historical and sociological reasons for the existence of such areas, as well as deviant provinces, are given.
THE CUMULATION PROBLEM IN POLITICAL SCIENCE AN ESSAY ON RESEARCH STRATEGIES*
Authors: SJÖBLOM GUNNAR
Published: May 2006

After a discussion of possible components in a definition of “cumulation” and of the relative lack of cumulation in political science, a scheme for research strategies is outlined with the aim of facilitating cumulation, or at least facilitating a diagnosis of the state of political science in this respect. The scheme includes three types of studies: (1) analysis of the formal properties of theoretical approaches in political science, (2) content analyses in the form of inventories of problems, propositions and concepts in the discipline, (3) evaluational analysis, i.e. an assessment of what “theory criteria” to use for evaluating the approaches and of the probable relations between these criteria.
THE CONNECTION BETWEEN SNP VOTING AND THE DEMAND FOR SCOTTISH SELF‐GOVERNMENT
Authors: MILLER WILLIAM L. , SARLVIK BO , CREWE IVOR , ALT JIM
Published: May 2006

Evidence is presented both for and against several explanatory models of SNP electoral support. There are remarkable similarities of timing and psychology between SNP support and support for Liberals or abstention in England. Yet SNP support matches attitudes towards more self‐government. It would appear that SNP support has been caused by Britain‐wide influences breaking the constraints that formerly kept the self‐government cleavage out of party politics.
POLITICAL GENERATIONS: THE CASE OF CLASS AND PARTY IN BRITAIN1
Authors: THORBURN PHYLLIS
Published: May 2006

Political generation effects on British party preference and on the association between class and party are examined through cohort analysis of the Oxford Mobility Study, a survey of men aged 20–64. The evidence shows a decline in Conservative strength across the cohorts along with higher levels of non‐partisanship in the younger cohorts. There is a decrease in class polarisation, but it is not symmetrical: Labour appears to have maintained its position as the party of the working class whereas middle class radicalism has increased.
GENERATIONAL CHANGE WITHIN THE ITALIAN CHRISTIAN DEMOCRATIC PARTY ELITE
Authors: DALTON RICHARD
Published: May 2006

The Italian Christian Democratic Party leadership is presently being challenged by a third generation of members who seek to substantially alter party policy. Because of resistance from the center to this encroachment two important effects can be noted. First, a significant number of the younger generation are deserting the DC and seeking alternate political solutions. This group is largely leftist in sentiment and have sought to create either a “new left” or have actually joined Communist and Socialist electoral lists. With the removal of this first group from party participation a second group, rightist in political orientation, is gaining in strength. Although this is a slow movement, and not necessarily irreversible, it does reflect the increased importance of the laical left on Italian politics and the removal of the DC left from active support of the party.
ANALYZING PAIRS IN CROSS‐NATIONAL SURVEY RESEARCH
Authors: JENNINGS M. KENT
Published: May 2006

One device for studying political generations and political socialization is the use of parent‐offspring sampling designs. A key advantage of such linkage designs is that they permit two types of analysis. First, aggregates may be compared, thus allowing an assessment of generational or group correspondence and congruence. Second, the pairs can be used as the unit of analysis for assessing the degree of pair or lineage correspondence. Levels of pair and group correspondence are not necessarily identical for the same set of data. Examples of four major combinations of correspondence levels were found in a study of Austria, Great Britain, the Netherlands, West Germany, and the United States.

Among the problems attending pair analysis are the usage of percentage agreement versus correlational techniques and the tendency to view pair correspondence as static rather than dynamic. Illustrations of these problems come from an American socialization panel study. Problems in studying group correspondence include efforts to specify life cycle, generational, and period effects. Alternatives to simple aggregate comparisons include a variety of regression and analysis of variance techniques as well as simpler devices for depicting generation and lineage gaps. For both pair and aggregate analysis the availability of cross‐national data is an opportunity for theoretical and substantive advancement.
SOCIAL CLASS, EQUALITY AND ANTI‐SMOKING CAMPAIGNS
Authors: GRØNHAUG KJELL
Published: May 2006

Consumer policy is an important part of total welfare policy. A prime political goal in many societies is equality among their members. On the basis of secondary data from several countries the manifest and latent functions of anti‐smoking policies are evaluated. The main conclusion is that in several cases they contribute to increasing inequality among social groups.
THE DECONCENTRATION OF LEGISLATIVE POWER: THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMITTEES IN THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT *
Authors: HAGGER MARK , WING MARTIN
Published: May 2006

With a constitutional framework that provides only weak formal powers over the Council and Commission of the European Community, the European Parliament has adopted a constructive focus on policy control through its committee system. In this study, the organisation and powers of the committees are examined in a developmental perspective, and the manner in which they influence the policy process is analysed through a specific study of the Regional Policy and Social Affairs Committees in 1976–1977. This closer analysis uses both subjective and objective data to show: that the process of legislative scrutiny ‐ and to a lesser extent the initiative of legislation – has become a major focus of committee activity, which in turn absorbs most of the energy of MEPs; that control rests in the hands of a small number of committee members; but that party control over most of the institutional processes prevents the development of autonomous and powerful committees on the model of the U.S. Congress [1].
GURR'S “PERSISTENCE AND CHANGE” REVISITED: SOME CONSEQUENCES OF USING DIFFERENT OPERATIONALIZATIONS OF “CHANGE OF POLITY”
Authors: HARMEL ROBERT
Published: May 2006

T.R. Gurr's article, which appeared in the December 1974, issue of the American Political Science Review, reported several important findings from analysis of the authority characteristics of 336 polities that functioned between 1800 and 1971. While other methodological points are addressed throughout, this study is primarily a comparison of the findings of Gurr's analysis with those of two reanalyses based upon less‐inclusive conceptual and operational definitions of what constitutes system‐transforming change. Among other departures from Gurr's findings is substantially less consistent support for the hypothesis that polity durability is enhanced by coherence among authority traits. Analysis of a dynamic version of Eckstein's consonance theory reveals that incoherent historical polities which adapted in any direction were more long‐living than their non‐changing counterparts, and equally long‐living as polities with coherent authority patterns. Thus, the study revealed not only that some of Gurr's findings were dependent upon his operationalization of “end of polity”, but also the need for further examination of the data in light of discrepant findings among the three analyses.
PROPORTIONALITY PROFILES OF WEST EUROPEAN ELECTORAL SYSTEMS
Authors: TAAGEPERA REIN , LAAKSO MARKKU
Published: May 2006

How proportional are the results of electoral systems designed to ensure proportional representation? How large is the deviation from proportionality for relative majority systems? Does a given system favor large, small or medium‐sized parties? Are some parties consistently advantaged? Is the system predictable or erratic? Plotting the percentage of seats–percentage of votes ratio versus percentage of votes for all parties, is found to be a simple and yet powerful graphical method to answer such questions. Application of such “proportionality profiles” to West European multi‐party systems leads to a typology of electoral systems based on their actual effect (rather than their formal procedure or intended effect). District magnitude, the number of rounds, and nationwide adjustment rules are found to be more important than formal seat distribution rules such as d'Hondt or Sainte‐Laguë.
THE RULES OF THE EUROPEAN ELECTION GAME*
Authors: AVRIL PIERRE , BEAUFAYS JEAN , BIBES GENEVIEVE , BRENNAN PAUL , CHARLOT MONICA , MENUDIER HENRI , ORENGO PHILIPPE
Published: May 2006

The first European Assembly Election was not governed by a simple electoral law nor by any common electioneering policy. This article evaluates to what extent the rules of the European Election game varied from one country to the next.
Public opinion about social assistance in Sweden
Authors: AGUILAR RENATO , GUSTAFSSON BJÖRN
Published: May 2006

Abstract. When studying public opinion about income‐tested programmes, it is important to distinguish between expenditures and parameters regulating supply of social assistance. We suggest that the latter might be the most interesting. Using data from a survey study over a Swedish sample, we investigate public opinion about income thresholds in Swedish welfare programmes. The results show the public as being in favour of rather higher income thresholds, as compared to that decided by the politicians. We found that public opinion is more homogeneous concerning the income needs of adults than those of children. Although data on several background characteristics were available, we had difficulties in relating the answers to systematic factors of the individuals in the sample. Thus, we conclude that the Swedish population is rather homogeneous in their opinions about income thresholds in welfare programmes.
Convergence or divergence?: change in welfare effort in OECD countries 1960–1980
Authors: O'CONNOR JULIA S.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. This paper examines changes in welfare effort from 1960 to 1980 and two intervening periods. Analysis of data on 17 OECD countries indicates that there is increasing divergence in welfare effort, as reflected in expenditure and policy orientation, although this statement masks important nuances relating to measures of welfare effort and time periods. The findings illustrate the importance of considering the elements of welfare effort. The patterns of variation in social transfer and government civil consumption expenditure differ as do the explanations of these patterns particularly those relating to the impact of working class mobilisation variables. These variables are positively and relatively strongly associated with change in consumption expenditure in both the 1960–73 and 1973–80 periods but only weakly associated with change in social transfer expenditure. This has implications for findings relating to the widely used ILO measure of welfare effort. Since it is skewed towards social transfer payments and includes only a small part of consumption expenditure, the impact of working class mobilization variables is not evident. Finally, the standardization of change in welfare effort for average annual change in real GDP results in interesting insights relating to the impact of independent variables on ‘real’ as opposed to nominal change in welfare effort.
Decentralisation in Spain: a review
Authors: VALLES JOSEP MA , FOIX MONTSERRAT CUCHILLO
Published: May 2006

Abstract. This paper describes the process of territorial redistribution of political power that has accompanied the restoration of democratic institutions in Spain. This schematic description is divided into three parts. First, an assessment of the historical context in which the process by which the Autonomous Communities appeared. Second, a classification of this process, recording three subsequent stages, in each of which the dynamics of the process have relatively different aspects. Finally, a consideration of ‘pending problems’, some of which are already present in the political arena, while others are less visible in spite of their influence on the final result of the process.
Decentralisation in France: new citizenship or restructuring hegemony?
Authors: PRETECEILLE EDMOND
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The recent decentralist reforms in France are generally regarded as a major change with important political consequences. This paper highlights some of the historical processes leading to the reforms, showing the competing political dynamisms of both the Left and the Right in France which helps us to understand the apparent ambiguity of the reforms. It continues with a discussion of the reforms in terms of the stakes in local politics, urban structures and class relations in France, and then reviews the changes which have taken place in local politics and policies, and concludes by assessing the impacts of the changes for local democracy.
Understanding recent trends in central‐local relations: centralisation in Great Britain and decentralisation in the United States
Authors: WOLMAN HAROLD
Published: May 2006

Abstract. This article starts by noting that, whilst Mrs Thatcher and President Reagan apparently share similar conservative objectives, their policies differ radically with respect to intergovernmental relations. The author briefly reviews the trends towards centralisation and decentralisation in Britain and America respectively and suggests that the difference is because both leaders see ‘intergovernmental relations’ as a means to an end rather than an end in themselves. Both leaders share the same objectives of reducing tax levels and the amount of government expenditure and of rewarding their supporters: objectives which, at least in part, both have achieved. But both have used different means, reflecting the different structure of government with which both leaders have to work. This view is supported by a brief review of policy on intergovernmental grants in both countries.
The dynamics of policy change:
Authors: CASTLES FRANCIS G.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The paper seeks to identify the reasons why the English‐speaking advanced capitalist nations experienced a greater impetus to transform established policy strategies in the 1980s than did other OECD nations. Although the particular manifestation of the challenge to policy orthodoxy varied in each of these nations, all were characterized by the emergence of political forces committed to a fundamental redefinition of the role of state and economy in the direction of lessened state intervention and greater scope for market forces. A variety of exploratory hypotheses seeking to account for the differences between the English‐speaking and other OECD countries in this respect are examined, including the impact of state size, the state of the economy, the extent of policy effectiveness and the political dynamics of party and electoral systems.
European elections and the pre‐electoral period: Media use and campaign evaluations
Authors: CAYROL ROLAND
Published: May 2006

Abstract: This article addresses the problems of the campaign period of the 1989 Euro‐elections: frequency of following the campaign, media use, preferences for various channels of communication (conversations, encounters with party workers, political meetings, mailed material, posters, advertisements, press, TV, radio). It demonstrates that, even if important national variations can be found, common socio‐economic and political stratifications are at work, across borders, on the continent.

The variables of sex, occupation and political affiliations clearly play a role which frequently is transnational, and sometimes more active than the variable of nation. It is also true that, compared to the 1979 campaign, the 1989 one is marked by a problem of significant alignments: the last campaign tends to be less sexist, less ‘socially privileged’ and less biased to right wing voters than the first one. But these alignments take place among weak figures of interest and participation.
European parties' performance in electoral competition
Authors: VAN DER EIJK CEES , OPPENHUIS ERIK V.
Published: May 2006

Abstract: This article focuses on competition for votes between parties, as it existed in Western Europe in the period of the direct election to the European Parliament in 1989. Following earlier research by Van der Eijk and Niemöller, an instrument is introduced to measure the probability of party choice of EC citizens which establishes the likelihood of respondents to vote for any of the nationally relevant options/parties. A number of substantive conclusions about political parties'competitive performance result from this research. First, a single mechanism seems to structure electoral competition in all EC member‐countries. Second, the competitive performance of political parties is not affected by their governmental status, their ideological position, and the degree of politicisation of the electoral environment. And third, parties'competitive performance is strongly affected by the degree of uniqueness of their electoral potential, their mobilising capacities, their ideological extremity and their sheer size.
Recording system for the Danish Child Dental Health Services
Authors: Helm Sven
Published: May 2006

ABSTRACT In pursuance of an Act on Child Dental Health of 1971, free preventive and therapeutic dental care will eventually be available to all schoolchildren in Denmark. For regional and national evaluation and planning of the Child Dental Health Services, a standardized data system was developed to record information on (1) identification, (2) caries status, (3) plaque and gingivitis indices, (4) oral mucosal diseases, and (5) malocclusion. The system is based on registrations of all children receiving public dental care. Computer processing utilizes Optical Character Recognition, which permits handwritten signs to be entered as input for identification by an optical reading unit. The record form serves as direct computer input. A duplicate provides a supplement to the patient's records to assist in the planning of dental care for the individual child. Analysis of the data will provide summary statistics, comprising DMF‐S and def‐s indices, gingivitis and plaque indices, and frequencies of malocclusion. These will be published annually for the country as a whole. Furthermore, similar statistics applying to the individual dental services will be available to the municipalities.
The effect of controlled oral hygiene and topical fluoride application on caries and gingivitis in Swedish schoolchildren
Authors: Lindhe Jan , Axelsson Per
Published: May 2006

ABSTRACT An attempt was made to assess the effect of regularly repeated professional mechanical tooth cleaning on caries development and gingivitis in schoolchildren. A total of 209 children from the first (7–8 years old), fourth (10–11 years), and seventh (13–14 years) classes of an elementary school in Sweden participated. Children from each age group were assigned to one test and one control group. At a baseline examination the state of the gingiva, the oral hygiene and the number of decayed and filled tooth surfaces were determined. Once every second week after the baseline examination the members of the test groups were given careful oral prophylaxis including topical application of monofluoro‐phosphate. Once a month the members of the control group brushed their teeth under the supervision of a dental nurse. Twelve months after the initial examination the test and control groups were re‐examined. The results show that children given frequent oral prophylaxis combined with topical fluoride applications had clean teeth, only negligible signs of gingivitis, and practically no caries.
A retrospective longitudinal study of caries prevalence during and 7 years after free dental care at school in Finland
Authors: Ainamo Jukka , Holmberg Stig
Published: May 2006

ABSTRACT The objective of the study was to evaluate the benefit left from free dental care at public school after an average time interval of 7 years (mean: 7.03 years). The school dental service given to 66 Army recruits was extracted from their respective school dental care records, and then compared with the caries situation at the time of their military service. The results showed that the average number of 10.42 filled and extracted tooth surfaces at the end of school dental care had increased to a score of 36.72 DMFS 7 years later. The increase was significantly higher than expected on the basis of the average caries development between ages 7 and 15 years. Of the teeth filled during school dental care, only 26% were in no need of additional treatment, 15% had been properly retreated afterwards and the rest were either decayed (35%), retreated and redecayed (13%) or extracted (11%). Of the teeth that had been given root canal treatment at school, 27% had been extracted within the following 7 years. The caries situation was worst in the group of recruits who had had free dental care for the longest period of time. It was concluded that constant free repair of the teeth does not seem to give long term relief from the caries problem.
A review of systemic and topical fluorides for the prevention of dental caries
Authors: Horowitz Herschel S.
Published: May 2006

ABSTRACT Because community fluoridation constitutes nearly an ideal public health method, it should be the cornerstone of all national programs of dental caries prevention. Where fluoridation is not possible for technical or political reasons, some alternative methods of providing benefits from systemic fluorides are available, including school water fluoridation, dietary supplements of fluoride and the fluoridation of salt. Dietary supplements of fluoride are not recommended for pregnant women for caries protection in their offspring. In areas with low fluoride levels in drinking water, solutions of 2 % sodium fluoride, 8% stannous fluoride and acidulated phosphate‐fluoride (APF) (1.2% F ion) and the same concentration of an APF gel applied professionally can prevent dental caries. APF is currently the choice for these applications. Fluoride prophylaxis pastes should be used, particularly when a topical fluoride application is not scheduled to follow the prophylaxis. Effective unsupervised topical fluoride applications occur with use of fluoride containing dentifrices. Supervised self‐applications of fluoride for public health programs overcome the inefficiencies of individual professional applications. Many studies continue to be reported on mouth‐rinsing with fluoride solutions, toothbrushing with fluoride solutions and gels, toothbrushing with fluoride prophylaxis pastes and the application of fluoride gels in mouthpieces. Fluoride mouth‐rinsing has several advantages. Self‐application of fluorides will undoubtedly become the method of choice for delivering topical fluorides.
National statistics on caries and oral hygiene derived from the Danish Child Dental Health recording system
Authors: Helm Sven
Published: May 2006

ABSTRACT The new recording system for the Danish Child Dental Services is based on registrations of clinical examination findings for all children receiving public dental care in pursuance of the Act on Child Dental Health. During the school year 1972/73, dental information was derived from about 84,000 children in 127 municipalities. Recordings applying to the children in the first grade were obtained from all participating dental services, some of which also reported the findings for earlier age groups or higher grades. National statistics, comprising def‐s and DMF‐S indices and plaque and gingivitis indices are presented. Similar statistics applying to the individual dental services have been made available to the participating services, and certain applications of this annual documentation are emphasized. No working time in the dental services was used solely for the purpose of obtaining the statistics, the examination findings for the individual children being used routinely in the clinic.
The effect of sorbitol‐containing chewing gum on the incidence of dental caries; plaque and gingivitis in Danish schoolchildren
Authors: Möller I. J. , Poulson S.
Published: May 2006

ABSTRACT
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The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of long‐term systematic chewing of sugarless, sorbitol‐containing chewing gum on the incidence of dental caries, plaque and gingivitis. Eight‐ to 12‐year‐old children from two schools in the town of Nörresundby, Denmark participated in the study, which took place from 1968–1970. A total of 174 children from School T were given 3 pieces of sorbitol‐containing chewing gum daily (Sor‐bits®, identical to Ben‐bits®) to be chewed after breakfast, lunch and supper; 166 children from School K acted as a control group. After two years the caries increment in children from School T was 5.6 decayed and filled surfaces per child as compared to 6.2 in children from School K. This difference (approx. 10 %) was statistically significant. The results indicate a depression in the caries progression rate in children who have been chewing sorbitol‐containing chewing gum for 2 years. On the other hand, a series of practical circumstances in connection with the planning and performance of the study would suggest that the results obtained cannot with certainty be attributed to Sor‐bits alone, but only taken as an indication thereof. Chewing of Sor‐bits did not cause any change in the occurrence of gingivitis and plaque.
ECSI ‐ A new index for evaluating caries progression
Authors: Wagg B. J.
Published: May 2006

abstract ECSI (Extrapolated Carious Surface Increment Index) is a caries progression index which takes into account the enlargement of existing lesions as well as the initiation of new ones. It differs in principle from previously described progression indices in that it is de‐fined as an interval scale which allows expression of the increment as a single figure. It is also unique in that it relates fillings and extractions to their preceding caries state. Detailed analysis of data from caries clinical trials shows that different populations which are apparently similar as judged on the basis of conventional DMF indices can in fact be shown to be grossly different as a result of different denial treatment patterns. Furthermore, the fundamental assumption of the DMFS index that an extracted tooth is equivalent to four or five‐carious surfaces is demonstrably false; the true figure obtained from the data studied is nearer 2.25. These shortcomings have been corrected in the ECSI logic.
Dental injuries in Copenhagen schoolchildren, school years 1967–1972
Authors: Ravn J. J.
Published: May 2006

abstract The Copenhagen Municipal School Dental Service examines and treats about 50,000 children each year. As from (he beginning of the 1967/68 school year, a special registration form for traumatic dental injuries was introduced with this School Dental Service. During the 5‐year period from 1967–1972 a total of 9,965 traumatic injuries was registered in the school population. The boy/girl ratio was 1.6:1 and the largest number of injuries for both sexes is found in the age 8–9 years. About 25–30 % of the traumatized children sustained traumata more than once. By means of computation it was discovered that 34.9 % of boys and 23.1 % of girls may be assumed to have sustained a trauma before leaving school in the 9th grade. In 25 % of the cases the injury was treated no later than 2 hours after the accident and 40 % were treated on the same day. A very clear connection between the number of injuries and the school year was observed. Generally one tooth was involved and it was extremely rare for a trauma to involve more than four teeth. There were a total of 12,989 injuries to 11,767 teeth. The majority of cases involved the maxillary central incisors (70 %). Soft tissue injury was the only reason for the examination in 15 % of the cases. The relation between lip closure and trauma was also examined. One‐fourth of those examined had an incomplete lip closure.
The public opinion in Norway on water fluoridation
Authors: Helöe Leif Arne , Birkeland Jan Magne
Published: May 2006

abstract A cluster sample designed to cover the total adult population in Norway was interviewed about adding fluorides to water supplies. Thirty‐four per cent favored fluoridation, 36 % opposed it, and 30 % did not know. When responses were related to background characteristics, only slight variations appeared. The finding indicated that at present there is not a sufficient attitudinal basis for introducing water fluoridation in Norway.
Teaching the principles of epidemiology to dental students
Authors: Fettersson Elof
Published: May 2006

abstract The report presents findings from a survey, conducted in early 1969, of the teaching of the principles of epidemiology at 20 schools of dentistry in the United States. The report includes information about the expectations dental students had of instruction in the subject. Students from six schools also supplied evaluative information about instruction received. Dental students anticipating instruction in epidemiology and dental students who received instruction in epidemiology considered the subject to be relevant to their education. However, six of 13 classes which received instruction in epidemiology rated the instruction as somewhat boring and ineffective. The report concludes with a few suggestions about possible ways to remedy the observed weaknesses in the teaching of epidemiology to dental students.
Subjective evaluation of functional disturbances of the masticatory system in young Swedish men
Authors: Ingervall Bengt , Hedegard Bjorn
Published: May 2006

abstract The awareness of individuals of dysfunctions or symptoms of dysfunctions of the masticatory system was studied by questionnaire in 287 men of an average age of 18 years. The occurrence of dysfunctions was related to the objectively assessed need of orthodontic treatment and the psychologic variables of general intelligence, social adaptation and emotional stability. The frequencies of reported functional disturbances and symptoms were low. The highest frequencies were found for clenching of the teeth and frequently recurring headache. Individuals who reported clenching of the teeth and difficulties in opening the mouth wide were in greater need of orthodontic treatment than those without such disturbances. General intelligence and social adaptation were not related to functional disturbances, but individuals who were in the habit of clenching their teeth or who had frequently recurring headaches were less emotionally stable than those without such disturbances.
An evaluation of a hierarchical method of describing the pattern of dental caries attack
Authors: Poulsen S. , Horowitz H. S.
Published: May 2006

abstract A number of procedures have been developed to reduce the time needed to examine and record dental caries in epidemiologic studies. One such method is described in a 1967 draft of a WHO Manual. The present report is an evaluation of that method, and is based on analysis of data from 2,123 individuals 6 to 17 years old examined in three previous studies. The method is based on assigning individuals to one of five zones of increasing severity, assuming that once an individual is classified into a given zone, he automatically belongs to all zones of lesser severity (except zero). The analysis carried out in this study shows that Zones 2 and 3 as well as Zones 4 and 5 have to be combined in order for the above mentioned assumption to be fullfilled. Furthermore, it is shown that there is good agreement between information on severity of dental caries attack obtained by this method and measurements of dental caries prevalence obtained by conventional methods (DMF). Finally, it is demonstrated that the modified method is sensitive enough to be able to detect the caries preventive effect of fluoridation of school water supplies.
A dental health study of children attending dental hospitals in Rangoon and Birmingham
Authors: Menezes D. M.
Published: May 2006

abstract A survey of dental conditions at the dental hospitals in Rangoon and Birmingham was carried out on children of two different ethnic groups, Burmese (n= 284) and English (n= 289). Caries experience as measured by the average dmf counts of the primary teeth was lower in the Birmingham children aged 3 to 6 years, compared with the children of the same age range in Rangoon. Though the causes for the lower caries prevalence in the primary dentition of the English children compared with the Burmese children cannot be established with certainty, it is likely that the artificial fluoridation of drinking water in the Birmingham area since December 1964‐ may have played a part. The DMF scores of the permanent teeth in children aged 10 to 12 years, on the other hand, were considerably lower in Rangoon than in Birmingham. It may be suggested that the lower prevalence of dental caries in the permanent dentition among the Burmese children is related to the low intake of refined carbohydrates. Gingival conditions were worse in the Burmese children and for this the lack of artificial cleansing aids and knowledge of oral hygiene procedures was probably to blame. The dietary patterns in the two populations are discussed and it is suggested that they may be relevant to some of the differences in dental conditions.