bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
PRIMARY MEMORY AND ASSOCIATIVE INTERFERENCE
Authors: COHEN RONALD L.
Published: April 2011

RI and PI effects were investigated in two probe digit experiments when varying (a) the nature of the retroactive and proactive items and (b) the number of proactive items. Two of Waugh & Norman's criteria for a PM experiment were met: no rehearsal during presentation and recall probability curve reached zero. With a presentation rate of 1 digit/sec. both PI and RI effects were found; with a rate of 4 digits/sec. only the presence of PI effects could be established. The discussion deals with the inconsistency between these results and the Waugh & Norman PM model.
SELF‐REPORT AND ERROR CHOICE: INTER‐INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE OPERATION OF THE ERROR‐CHOICE PRINCIPLE AND THEIR VALIDITY IN PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE TESTS
Authors: WILDE G. J. S. , de WIT O. E.
Published: April 2011

An investigation was made of the possibilities of the error‐choice principle as an alternative to direct questioning in personality questionnaires. A standard personality inventory consisting of 91 items was administered to 150 subjects (normals and neurotics), who were also given an error‐choice version of the same items, written on the basis of exact p‐values of the self‐report items. The error‐choice version consisted of items followed by two response percentages (‘representing’ the p‐values in the general population), each of which was equally wrong, but in opposite directions from the correct p‐value. The subject had to encircle the percentage that he believed to be correct, and the test form was presented to him as a test of the subject's ability to be insightful of other people.

Of all the 150 subjects, 141 showed positive correlations between self‐report response and error‐choice response to the corresponding items. This phenomenon was interpreted as a manifestation of dissonance reduction and it was found in the majority of subjects in all kinds of items studied. The strength of the phenomenon was found to differ between different subjects (as well as between different items) and to be positively related to behavioural adjustment as measured by an external criterion and self‐report questionnaire variables. Personality scales were derived from the error‐choice items in a way similar to the familiar self‐report procedure, and these scales showed consistent correlations with the corresponding self‐report scales as well as with the external adjustment criterion. Varimax and criterion‐orientated graphical rotations of centroid factors of all variables in the investigation showed very satisfactory factorial validities for the error‐choice scales. Moreover, a salient error‐choice (or dissonance reduction) factor was found. The results suggest some interesting practical and theoretical implications of the error‐choice principle in the measurement of personality differences.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SERIAL COMPLETION STRATEGIES: AN INFORMATION PROCESSING ANALYSIS
Authors: KLAHR DAVID , WALLACE JOHN G.
Published: April 2011

An information processing model of a complex task involving several important Piagetian concepts is introduced and then extended to a more difficult class of problems often used to test adult cognitive abilities. In comparing this extended model both to human performance and to the process model by Simon & Kotovsky, the criterion of developmental tractability is introduced. A detailed study of a child's performance during a crucial transition from one stage of problem complexity to another indicates that a mixture of both models seems to provide the best explanation of problem‐solving behaviour.
DONDERS‘c‐REACTIONS AND IRRELEVANT STIMULUS VARIETY
Authors: GORDON IAN E.
Published: April 2011

With coloured lights as stimuli, doubling the size of the irrelevant stimulus subset in the Donders' c‐reaction situation from one to two (Expt. I) and from three to six (Expt. II) did not lead to any significant increase in mean reaction times. The results are discussed with reference to John's model of the c‐reaction situation.
THE MISUSE OF TASTE NAMES BY UNTRAINED OBSERVERS
Authors: ROBINSON J. O.
Published: April 2011

Many subjects cannot identify sour and bitter solutions which they can clearly taste. Subjects show a great deal of agreement on the taste of predominantly sweet and predominantly salt substances, but much less agreement on predominantly bitter and predominantly sour substances. The argument is put forward that we do not easily learn the sour/bitter distinction because few food substances taste strongly bitter. Because bitter has an unpleasant connotation a large minority tends to use it wrongly for substances that are unpleasantly sour.
EYE‐CONTACT, DISTANCE AND AFFILIATION: A RE‐EVALUATION
Authors: STEPHENSON GEOFFREY M. , RUTTER D. R.
Published: April 2011

Argyle & Dean (1965) presented and tested the affiliative–conflict theory of eye‐contact and the Intimacy model which stems from it. Their finding that, as the distance between subjects in a dyadic discussion increased, recorded eye‐contact increased, was held to support the theory and model, and has assumed a central place in Argyle's work on social skill. The present experiment tests the hypothesis that, with increasing distance, gaze directed at the ear and shoulder is increasingly recorded as eye‐contact by observers in the Argyle & Dean situation. The hypothesis is strongly confirmed: recorded eye‐contact increases with distance but as a function of observer performance, not subject performance. It is suggested that Argyle & Dean's results may have been an artifact of observer performance, not subject performance. Implications both for the methodology of work on eye‐contact and for the models of Intimacy and social skill are discussed.
‘CHILDREN ARE NICE TO UNDERSTAND’: SURFACE STRUCTURE CLUES FOR THE RECOVERY OF A DEEP STRUCTURE
Authors: CROMER RICHARD F.
Published: April 2011

An experiment tested understanding by children of sentences of the type ‘John is easy to see’. It was found that correct interpretation of this structure is a late acquisition (after age 6). Youngest children usually interpreted the surface structure subject as being the actor or deep subject. Only children above mental age 6:8 were able to recover deep structure correctly. Using ‘new’ (nonsense) adjectives in conjunction with the test structure, it was found that older children made use of transformations so that they only needed to hear a new adjective once in a single differentiating frame in order to assign correct interpretations to sentences where that adjective was the only clue for the recovery of the proper deep structure. The problem of test–retest consistency in language acquisition tasks is also discussed.
A FIELD THEORY OF VISUAL ILLUSIONS
Authors: ERIKSSON E. STURE
Published: April 2011

An outline of a field theory for visual illusions is proposed. The main components of the theory are two kinds of interaction functions: an attraction function, effective over empty distance, and an attraction‐repulsion function, effective within filled distance. The theory is tested in some experiments and is discussed in the context of some well‐known illusions.
TEMPORAL COURSE OF PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE IN SHORT‐TERM MEMORY
Authors: TURVEY M. T. , BRICK P. , OSBORN J.
Published: April 2011

In each of three experiments, each subject in each condition received five successive short‐term memory (STM) tests with phonemically similar consonant trigrams as the items to be remembered. The retention interval for tests 1–4 of all conditions in the three experiments was held constant at 16·5 sec. On test 5 the retention interval was varied across conditions with the three experiments exploring retention intervals in the range 1–21·5 sec. In all three experiments little, if any, forgetting was observed on test 1; in all three experiments proactive interference (PI) was observed to develop across tests. Analysis of the test 5 data indicated that the PI effect of prior test items upon the test 5 target item reached a maximum by 6·5 sec., with no further forgetting beyond this interval. The test 5 data also suggested a reminiscence effect at the longest retention interval of 21·5 sec. The implications of the data for a theory of PI in STM are discussed.
PHONETIC HOMOGENEITY AND ARTICULATORY LENGTHENING
Authors: BRADSHAW JOHN L.
Published: April 2011

Two experiments were performed to determine the extent of increase in articulation times with nonsense words containing strings of phonetically similar consonants, compared with when the successive consonants belonged to different articulatory categories. An average increase in excess of 33 per cent was found even when stuttering and other speech prolongations were controlled. This figure exceeded the increase in articulation times obtained under delayed auditory feedback. The absence of an interaction between the latter and the degree of articulatory difficulty of the material was considered consistent with a motor hypothesis, rather than with a model emphasizing such sensory effects as feedback or trace monitoring. Articulation was considered as a complex motor skill subject to such phenomena as interference between components and process overlap.
BINOCULAR RESOLUTION AND PERCEPTION OF RACE IN THE UNITED STATES
Authors: LENT RICHARD H.
Published: April 2011

The broad conclusion that ‘group memberships play a part in the resolution of binocular conflict’ is extended by this study beyond the single geographic entity and the specific ethnic groups with respect to which it was derived. The variant forms in which the resolutions of binocular conflict was manifested, and the failure to provide an ‘explanation’ of the descriptive results by introducing certain conceptually associated variables, are taken as suggesting the need for an experimental design in which relevant social situational variables complement those with specifically ‘individual’ reference.
ADOLESCENT PERSONALITY STRUCTURE, IN Q‐DATA, CHECKED IN THE HIGH SCHOOL PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE
Authors: CATTELL RAYMOND B. , WAGNER ANKA , CATTELL MARY D.
Published: April 2011

Since developmental and other personality research hinges on structured measurement, in which Q‐data is most used of the three media, a check on the nature of factors stated by present theory is urgent. Programmatic research—indispensable in factor analysis—over 20 years has indicated 18 to 20 primary factors, for 16 of which at the adult level and 14 at the high school level scales have been constructed (the 16 PF and HSPQ). Taking 560 items in the 56 10‐item HSPQ scales (Forms A, B, C and D for each factor), and administering them to 399 girls and 401 boys of mean ages 13·6 and 14·3 years respectively, the experimenters set out to answer the following: (1) How many primary factors appear? (2) Are they measured by the scales as now labelled? (3) If so, to what validity? Regarding (1), the scree test showed 14 matchable factors. At a blind Oblimax and Rotoplot simple structure, reaching, in both, 73 per cent in the ±0·10 hyperplane, all but factors C, J and Q2 reach Bargmann significance of structure. Congruences of resolutions across the samples were beyond P < 0·01 on all factors. Validities, lowest on E and O, were above 0·9 for more than half, and 0·8 for the rest. Second‐order results and theoretical indications for research are given elsewhere.
ARTS/SCIENCE DIFFERENCES: THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO CURRICULUM SPECIALIZATION
Authors: POVEY ROBERT M.
Published: April 2011

This research sets out to examine whether academic bias is evident in the test performance of future arts students and scientists before they have begun to specialize. It also considers what effect increased age and length of specialization has upon the development of arts/science differences. A group of non‐specialist fourth‐form grammar schoolboys were given three cognitive tests (AH 5, Self‐judging Vocabulary and Word‐in‐context). The boys were followed through to the sixth‐form and two subgroups of arts and science specialists constructed according to their final choice of sixth‐form course. The test performance of this sample was compared with the performance of two groups of students who had received further arts or science training, one group at sixth‐form and the other at college of education level. The results provide firm evidence that differences of cognitive bias exist between future arts students and scientists before they have received any specialist education. There is some indication that such differences increase with age and further academic specialization. These findings lend support to the view advanced by Hudson (1966, 1968) that arts/science differences amongst schoolboys are related to more general personality differences which are fairly clearly defined before a choice of specialism is made. It is suggested that curriculum factors assume importance in helping to determine the strength and direction of such predispositions in the personalities of schoolboys. The research is related to earlier work into arts/science differences and to the current debate concerning the ‘swing away from science’ in higher education (cf. Dainton, 1968).
STIMULUS SIMILARITY AND TRANSFER IN LONG‐TERM PAIRED‐ASSOCIATE LEARNING
Authors: McGLAUGHLIN ALEX , DALE H. C. A.
Published: April 2011

Acoustic, semantic, visual and formal similarity were studied in the A‐B, A′‐B transfer paradigm. Substantial, highly significant, positive transfer was obtained with stimuli that were acoustically or semantically related. For those visually or formally related, the transfer was not significant. It was concluded that the failure to find significant effects of acoustic similarity in previous long‐term memory paired‐associate learning studies has been due to a combination of low levels of acoustic similarity with the use of the relatively insensitive retroactive‐interference technique.
MEMORY AS A RECONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS
Authors: POLLIO HOWARD R. , FOOTE RUSSELL
Published: April 2011

This experiment investigated the effects of subject‐defined structure on the free recall of verbal material. Four separate groups of 15 subjects each sorted four different word lists into individually defined categories. Immediately after sorting, the subjects were unexpectedly asked for a free recall of these words. All subjects' recall outputs were organized in concord with their sorting categories. Over all subjects a number of common categories emerged. In addition, recall categories were found to be temporally distinct in individual recall records. The results were taken to support the view that memory is a reconstructive rather than an associative process when task constraints do not preclude the subject from using subject‐defined organizational factors.
THE EFFECT OF VARYING THE TIME INTERVAL BETWEEN EQUAL AND OPPOSITE CORIOLIS ACCELERATIONS
Authors: REASON JAMES T. , GRAYBIEL ASHTON
Published: April 2011

The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the effect of varying the time interval between two equal and opposite Coriolis accelerations upon the duration of the subjective responses evoked by the second stimulus. It was also designed to evaluate certain predictions generated from a ‘torsion pendulum’ model of the neural events mediating these subjective phenomena.

Theoretical curves derived from the torsion pendulum model approximated fairly closely the way in which the reported durations of the subjective phenomena increased as a function of the time interval between the two Coriolis accelerations. This result supported the a priori assumption that the neural events underlying the subjective phenomena are closely linked to mechanical events occurring within the cupula‐endolymph system. However, an explanation resting entirely upon peripheral phenomena would be inadequate to account for two additional findings: (1) the estimated time constants of signal decay were shorter than those expected on the basis of the known mechanics of the semicircular canal system, and (2) the persistence of the Coriolis sensation (feelings of apparent whole body motion without visual reference) was greater at all intervals than the Coriolis oculogyral illusion. Adequate explanation of these findings requires the postulation of additional central mechanisms.
STRATEGIES IN ROTARY PURSUIT TRACKING
Authors: FRITH C. D.
Published: April 2011

Ten measures were derived describing different aspects of the pursuit rotor performance of 30 subjects. These included variables indicating the shapes of the distribution of hit and miss lengths and also variables indicating the amount of rhythmicity present in performance. The relationship between the various measures suggested that performance could be described in terms of two factors. The first represented the level of attainment (total time on target). The second was independent of the first and represented different strategies of performance. The measures defining these strategies suggested that at one extreme people were concerned only with velocity‐matching, while at the other extreme they were concerned only with position‐matching. There was a strong relationship between strategy and personality, extraverts adopting velocity‐matching and introverts adopting position‐matching. There was no evidence that these differences in response style were due to the greater production of rest pauses by the extraverts.
A STUDY OF IMPERFECTLY ACQUIRED VOCABULARY
Authors: LOEWENTHAL KATE
Published: April 2011

Three experiments examined behaviour with words which could be used and defined by the subjects, words which were simply ‘familiar’, and unknown words. Known and familiar words were recognized equally readily after brief tachistoscopic presentations; known words elicit semantically related responses, while familiar and unknown words usually elicit phonologically related or phonologically mediated responses. In a word‐selection task, the subjects had to choose the word most similar to the stimulus, from a set of four words: semantically related, phonologically related, phonologically mediated and unrelated. For familiar words a semantically related word was more likely to be recognized in this choice task than it was to be produced in the word‐association task. The same was true but to a lesser extent for unknown words. A simple scheme for word‐processing is proposed to fit the findings, in which there are separate stores for the surface‐structure (phonological/visual) features and dictionary entries of words. For known words there is ready access to entries in the surface‐structure stores, and ready access between surface‐structure and dictionary‐entry stores. Access to any entries which may exist is very limited in the case of unknown words. For familiar words, there is ready access to surface‐structure entries, but access to the dictionary‐entry store is limited.
MICHOTTE'S EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Authors: JOYNSON R. B.
Published: April 2011

Michotte's account of his experiments on the perception of causality is incomplete and imprecise. There is considerable evidence, however, that subjective variables were very poorly controlled. It follows that little reliance can be placed on his conclusions.
VERBAL TRANSFORMATIONS ON REPEATED LISTENING TO SOME ENGLISH CONSONANTS
Authors: CLEGG J. M.
Published: April 2011

Verbal transformations of common English consonants were analysed according to five linguistic features. A consonant and its transform tended to share the features of voicing, nasality and affrication, but not of duration and place of articulation.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ABILITY TO DECENTER IN TIME
Authors: CROMER RICHARD F.
Published: April 2011

In order to study children's developing ability to decenter temporally, an experiment was designed analogous to Piaget's three‐mountain problem concerned with spatial decentering. Two types of temporal decentering were studied. It was found that decentering correlated with verbal mental age. Children did not begin to decenter until after MA 4:11; it was not until after MA 5:11 that essentially all children decentered. Analysis of errors and of repetitions of the sentences used showed that ability to decenter did not depend on linguistic form, although some forms (e.g. the perfect tenses) led to more incorrect responses. Decentering which involved coordination of temporal viewpoints proved the most difficult.
BEHAVIOURAL CONTRAST AND PEAK SHIFT IN CHILDREN
Authors: NICHOLSON JOHN N. , GRAY JEFFREY A.
Published: April 2011

The phenomena of behavioural contrast and peak shift, previously reported in operant conditioning studies using pigeons and rats, were obtained with school children after training on an angular‐orientation discrimination task.
WHY DO CHILDREN REVERSE LETTERS?
Authors: FRITH UTA
Published: April 2011

When normal letters and their mirror‐image forms were presented for copying and matching, school children made more reversal errors with mirror‐image forms than with normal letters. Preschool children made equally many reversal errors with both types of material. This was also true for older children when unfamiliar letter‐like symbols were presented. The results are described in terms of discriminability and response bias as derived from signal detection analysis. Keeping discriminability constant, a significant increase in response bias was shown by 5‐year‐olds as compared to 4‐year‐olds, due presumably to the effect of one year's normal school practice. It is hypothesized that children showing persistent reversal errors fail to acquire a preference for the given spatial orientation of letters as rapidly as normal readers.
EXAMINATION AND SEARCH IN INFANTS
Authors: HARRIS P. L.
Published: April 2011

Infants aged 8 months and 1 year were compared in their search for an object following visual presentation, for various intervals of time, either with or without manual contact. The major finding was that if manual contact was allowed, the younger infants searched as persistently as older infants. If the object was only seen prior to its disappearance, the younger group searched much less persistently. The findings are related to the development of an ability to relate visual and manual information; attention is drawn to the advantages of a new dependent variable ‘persistence of search’ as compared with the usual two‐fold classification of ‘search’ v. ‘no search’.
PRAGMATIC ASPECTS OF NEGATION IN SENTENCE EVALUATION AND COMPLETION TASKS
Authors: CORNISH E. R.
Published: April 2011

The appropriateness of a sentence such as ‘The circle is not all red’ was examined in relation to circles in which the proportion of red was varied. Expt. I showed that subjects took longest to evaluate this sentence when the circle contained only a small proportion of red. Expt. II showed that the tendency to complete an incomplete sentence with ‘red’, and to consider such a completion as appropriate, increased with the proportion of red in the circle. These results suggest that the appropriateness of a negative copulative sentence is frequently a function of a correlated affirmative presupposition.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF MANUAL ASYMMETRY
Authors: ANNETT MARIAN
Published: April 2011

Four different descriptions of lateral asymmetry are reviewed and their probable interrelations examined. Two main features are distinguished: first, a normal distribution of relative efficiency of the two sides which probably applies to all species subject to lateral differences; second, a factor specific to humans which induces a shift of the normal distribution toward dextrality. A brief discussion of the origins of asymmetry leads to the conclusion that the basic normal distribution probably depends on accidental variation while the human shift to the right may be a product of both cultural and genetic influences. The latter could imply that human right handedness is inherited while left handedness is not.
REASONING AND A SENSE OF REALITY
Authors: JOHNSON‐LAIRD P. N. , LEGRENZI PAOLO , LEGRENZI MARIA SONINO
Published: April 2011

An experiment was performed to determine whether the use of realistic materials would improve performance in a deceptive reasoning problem. The task involved selecting from a set of envelopes those which, if they were turned over, could violate a given rule. The rule concerned either a realistic relation (‘if a letter is sealed, then it has a 50 lire stamp on it’) or else an arbitrary relation between symbols (‘if a letter has an A on one side, then it has a 3 on the other side’). Twenty‐two of the 24 subjects made at least one correct answer with the realistic material but only seven of them did so with the symbolic materials. The verbal formulation of the rule was also varied but yielded only a marginal interaction with the main variable. It is argued that the critical factor is the intrinsic connexion between items rather than their specific nature.
QUALITATIVE REWARD SHIFT IN THE DOUBLE RUNWAY
Authors: WOOKEY P. E. , STRONGMAN K. T.
Published: April 2011

Ten rats received 90 trials, one per day, in an L‐shaped double runway. For 70 acquisition trials reward in both goal boxes was two 45 mg standard diet Noyes pellets. On 10 of the subsequent 20 test trials reward in the first goal box was changed to two 45 mg sucrose pellets (a preferred food). During the test period first alley run times fell below the training level. Second alley start times following sucrose were greater than those following normal reward, although this difference decreased over trials. There was no difference between second alley run times following normal and shifted reward. Results are discussed in relation to ‘elation’ effects following a quantitative upshift in reward.
DISCRIMINATION LEARNING IN THE PIGEON WITH TWO RELEVANT CUES, ONE HARD AND ONE EASY
Authors: WILLIAMS D. I.
Published: April 2011

Pigeons were trained on a colour/shape discrimination. Colour was shown to be the operative cue. No learning of shape was demonstrated after 500 overtraining trials, whereas the shape cue alone was learned in fewer trials than this. Learning of the ‘hard’ shape cue was thus suppressed by the presence of the ‘easy’ colour cue. It was not eliminated, however, for the shape cue was learned after 1000 overtraining trials.
THE RELATIONSHIP OF WORD‐ASSOCIATION COMMONALITY RESPONSE SET TO COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY VARIABLES
Authors: INNES JOHN M.
Published: April 2011

A form of the Kent‐Rosanoff Word‐Association Test was given to a sample of male and female undergraduate students, together with tests of Ideational and Associational Fluency, Verbal Ability and of Neuroticism and Extraversion. Analysis of the data indicates little relationship between various measures of associative commonality and originality and the tests of fluency and ability. A significant correlation between Neuroticism and giving common responses to non‐opposite evoking stimuli was of interest in the light of the previous paucity of results in this area. The chaotic nature of research in this field is indicated by demonstrating the way in which investigators claimed support for their hypotheses through the mislabelling of the tests they have used. The manipulation of instructions and of the social conditions of the test situation is necessary for understanding of this behaviour to advance.
CONTINUITIES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CONSERVATION
Authors: HAMILTON VERNON
Published: April 2011

An analysis of present conceptions of conservation capacity suggested that they might be unduly influenced by developmental stage theory, to the extent that continuities and individual differences at one particular stage of development are insufficiently stressed. In order to achieve a finer discrimination between individual differences in conservation of continuous quantity (solid and liquid), a new test instrument was devised. This departs from traditional experimental procedures by being presented largely in pictorial form, and by progressively increasing the number of standards, variables and distributions and redistributions of material. The results indicate that ordinal scaling of conservation at one particular developmental level is possible. It is suggested that the demonstrated individual differences may reflect differences in syllogistic reasoning and information‐processing capacity.
EXTRAVERSION AND THE VISUAL FIGURAL AFTER‐EFFECT WITH TACHISTOSCOPIC PRESENTATION
Authors: BYTH WILLIAM
Published: April 2011

It may be argued that the failure of previous studies to find a significant relationship between extraversion and visual FAEs lies in their use of inspection times of ‘intermediate’ duration, where in fact the theory predicts no difference between extraverts and introverts. In the present study, where very short inspection times were used, the hypothesis that extraverts show larger FAE than introverts was not supported.
SAFETY SIGNALS AND THE ACQUISITION AND EXTINCTION OF LEVER‐PRESS DISCRIMINATED AVOIDANCE IN RATS
Authors: DILLOW PAUL V. , MYERSON JOEL , SLAUGHTER LETTA , HURWITZ HARRY M. B.
Published: April 2011

Rats learned a discriminated avoidance response more rapidly when a safety signal occurred following an escape or avoidance response. Two extinction procodures were used: complete omission of shock or delivery of an unavoidable shock at the end of the warning period. Under the latter procedure, avoidance‐extinction responding was initially higher but subsequently declined to the same level as under the omission procedure. Under each extinction procedure animals were divided into two subgroups: safety signal and no‐safety signal. The safety signal did not significantly effect avoidance responses in extinction per se, but it did result in fewer extra responses during the inter‐trial and safety periods following an avoidance—extinction response. With no‐safety signal there was an increase over extinction sessions in the numbers of such extra responses, especially in the shock delivery subgroup.
THE SIZE CONSTANCY PROBLEM IN SCHIZOPHRENIA: A COGNITIVE SKILL ANALYSIS
Authors: HAMILTON VERNON
Published: April 2011

An attempt was made to reconcile discrepant findings in the size constancy performance of poor premorbid, process, non‐paranoid schizophrenic men. It was postulated that an impairment of basic cognitive skills, and particularly of conservation, differentiates schizophrenics and normals, and under‐constant and over‐constant non‐paranoid schizophrenics, and that this and an associated primitive visual centration effect may lead to paradoxical over‐constancy for some schizophrenics. The results confirm that schizophrenics may be both under‐ and over‐constant, and that they exhibit significantly low levels in primitive cognitive operations. The latter abnormalities are particularly marked in over‐constant schizophrenics, for whom there is strong evidence of centration with a distant standard. Contradictory findings of over‐ as well as under‐constancy in non‐paranoid schizophrenics may thus be a function, apart from other determinants, of differences in the availability of conserving operations, and differences in centration strategies, where the latter would be influenced by characteristics of the experimental display.
FIELD DEPENDENCE IN RELATION TO PAIN THRESHOLD
Authors: HASLAM DIANA R.
Published: April 2011

It is known that pain‐threshold values are considerably influenced by the stimulus scale‐interval used in their assessment (Haslam, 1965, 1968; Haslam & Thomas, 1967). As predicted, a significant positive correlation was found between the amount by which a subject's pain threshold was lowered by a small interval‐size and the extent of his field dependence as measured by the Embedded Figures Test (Witkin et al., 1962).
INFANTILE HANDLING AND ASSOCIATIVE PROCESSES OF RATS
Authors: WONG RODERICK
Published: April 2011

A review of the literature on the effects of infantile handling indicated that this variable has an effect upon the animal's later performance on various learning tasks. This effect may be the manifestation of at least two possible processes. As a result of its direct effects on the emotional as well as exploratory responsivity of the rat, infantile handling has an indirect effect upon the animal's associative learning processes. Because the learning criteria used in previous handling studies involve an increase in an animal's operant level of goal‐directed activity, it is difficult to determine whether handling directly facilitates later learning. On the other hand, the results of studies of the effects of handling upon tasks where activity level increase is not confounded with learning would yield less ambiguous outcomes than those from earlier experiments. The aim of the present experiment was to train handled (H) and non‐handled (NH) rats in a brightness discrimination learning situation and to examine the effects of punishment in that context. The fact that NH animals required fewer trials than H animals to relearn the formerly punished response suggests the possibility that H animals show greater retention of the learned fear response (hence greater associative ability) than NH animals.
OPERANT FACILITATION DURING A PRE‐REWARD STIMULUS: DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS IN HUMAN SUBJECTS
Authors: REMINGTON R. E. , STRONGMAN K. T.
Published: April 2011

Thirty‐two human subjects received contingent or random presentations of a conditioning stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) whilst working on one of two time‐related baseline schedules of positive reinforcement. The US consisted of a free reward of high or low magnitude. The two levels of each of these three variables were incorporated in a 2 times 2 × 2 factorial design. A response facilitation in the contingent CS–US groups was found. Results are discussed with reference to the difficulties of using simple operant techniques with human subjects.
SHORT‐TERM MEMORY FOR VISUAL INFORMATION
Authors: DALE H. C. A.
Published: April 2011

The accuracy of memory for the position of a spot in a plain visual field was measured. The variables manipulated were: (i) duration of presentation, (ii) length of retention period, (iii) presence or absence of distracting activity. In one experiment an opportunity for rehearsal was provided before the distracting activity was introduced. It was found that although a brief presentation (0–05 sec.) was sufficient for accurate perception, retention deteriorated with delay in a marked manner which resembled the classical STM forgetting curves for verbal material. The deterioration was increased by a distracting task which required vision. The asymptotic error level was decreased by prolonging presentation or by permitting rehearsal, but little advantage was gained by extending the presentation beyond 3 sec.
RECOGNITION TESTS OF VISUAL INFORMATION STORAGE
Authors: HOLDING DENNIS H.
Published: April 2011

Using recognition rather than recall test procedures gives results which are inconsistent with the main features of the visual trace model for short‐term memory. Recognition efficiency does not deteriorate over time, although rapid decay is postulated by the model. Transposed letter rows are detected as often as rows which reappear at the same position in the test array, suggesting that the storage medium is not directly visual. The number of letters stored appears far less than are presented in the array, but consistent with the perception of a single row. Correspondingly, the response times tend to group into faster reactions, in recognition problems where single row responding is appropriate, and slower reactions which imply that what is reported depends upon decisions based upon inference.
THE SEMANTICS OF HIGH‐LOW CONTINUA
Authors: HARVEY NIGEL
Published: April 2011

Subjects matched the location of a pure tone above or below a narrow band of noise with the word above or the word below presented visually on an oscilloscope screen. The position of the tone in relation to the noise was matched faster with the word above than with the word below. It is not at all obvious how this asymmetry can be explained in terms of the semantic marking analysis recently proposed by Chase & Clark to account for similar results obtained in a unimodal visual version of the experiment.
DELAYED AUDITORY FEEDBACK: CHANGES IN THE VOLUME INTENSITY AND THE DELAY INTERVAL AS VARIABLES AFFECTING THE FLUENCY OF STUTTERERS‘ SPEECH
Authors: GIBNEY NOEL J.
Published: April 2011

The effects of delayed auditory feedback (DAF) on the speech of stutterers was studied at three volume levels and three delay intervals. Using a Latin‐square design nine stutterers read nine different, carefully selected passages under the nine experimental DAF conditions. The two dependent variables were: (1) certain well‐defined disfluencies, and (2) the number of words read by each subject. The results indicated: (1) that the DAF volume level significantly affected both the dependent variables, (2) that the main effect of delay failed to reach significance, and (3) that there was no significant interaction between volume and delay.
SYNTAX AND THE RECALL OF INSTRUCTIONS IN A REALISTIC SITUATION
Authors: FILE SANDRA E. , JEW ALISON
Published: April 2011

Airline passengers were presented with emergency landing instructions, either visually or auditorily, and subgroups received instructions of different syntactical forms. Regardless of their original form, instructions were mainly recalled in the active affirmative. Significantly fewer instructions were recalled when they were in the negative than when they were in the affirmative, but the use of the passive, rather than the active, voice did not reduce the amount recalled.
A TEST OF PIAGET'S EXPLANATION OF THE MÜLLER‐LYER ILLUSION
Authors: FELLOWS BRIAN , THORN DENNIS
Published: April 2011

Piaget's (1969) explanation of the Müller‐Lyer illusion is tested in an experiment in which the following factors are independently varied: (1) the relationship between the length of the shaft (A) and the total length of the figure (B), from B = 1·3A to B = 2·6A; (2) the angle made by the fins with the shaft, from 120 to 160°. Using 60 subjects, nine illusion figures and a paired‐comparison procedure, the results showed: (1) that the illusion varied systematically with changes in the A:B relationship, though the maximum effect occurred when B = 1·7A and not when B = 2A, as found by Piaget; and (2) that the illusion varied directly with the angle of the fins, which is not in line with Piaget's argument. However, some inconsistency was noted between this argument and the values predicted by Piaget's Prop. 15 which correspond more closely with the obtained results. A simplified formula is proposed which predicts the results perfectly with the exception of one illusion figure, which can be treated as a special case.
THE PERSONALITY OF YOUNG ARTISTS: AN EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL EXPLORATION
Authors: CSIKSZENTMIHALYI MIHALY , GETZELS JACOB W.
Published: April 2011

Despite venerable stereotypes and even some recent empirical observations regarding the personality of artists, the following questions remain unanswered in any objective way: (1) Do personality factors differentiate art students from other students of the same age and sex? (2) Is there a relationship between the personality of art students and the values they hold? (3) Are there differences in the personality factors of art students in the several fields of specialization, e.g. commercial art v. fine art? (4) Is there a relationship between the personality factors of art students and their performance in art school? (5) Finally, what is the relationship between the personality factors of successful young artists and eminent scientists, both groups presumably engaged in creative endeavour? The present investigation of a sample of 205 advanced art students applied Cattell's 16 Personality Factor Questionaire supplemented by the Allport–Vernon–Lindzey Study of Values in an attempt to answer these questions. The findings are placed in a tentative theoretical framework regarding the personality of artists and the expectations of their professional role.
LATENCY OF AUTOKINESIS AND CONVERGENCE OF THE EYES
Authors: CRASKE BRIAN , CRAWSHAW MARTIN
Published: April 2011

It is suggested that one of the determinants of autokinesis is noise associated with a hypothesized eye‐in‐head position monitor within the oculomotor system. It is argued that a decrease in convergence of the eyes is associated with a decrease in the magnitude of the signal relating to eye position. The prediction is that this will thereby produce an increase in the effectiveness of noise as a spurious signal. An experiment is described in which a just‐visible oscilloscope spot was viewed in a dark room at four distances along the subject's median sagittal plane. The latency of appearance of autokinetio movement was measured in each of these conditions. It was found that as distance increased, i.e. as convergence decreased, latency decreased also. This result is consistent with the prediction.
THE SEPTUM AND HYPER‐REACTIVITY: A REVIEW
Authors: FRIED PETER A.
Published: April 2011

The literature related to one form of septal dysfunction ‐ hyper‐reactivity ‐ is reviewed. The increase in reactivity following septal damage is considered in terms of its reliability and the many factors which influence its attenuation and release. Research discussed includes the topics of anatomical locus of septal damage, species and strain investigated, pre‐ and post‐operative handling, neurochemical factors, and the relationship of hyper‐reactivity to other septal dysfunctions and other anatomical structures.
REINFORCEMENT OF DISTRESS VOCALIZATION BY PRESENTATION OF AN IMPRINTED STIMULUS
Authors: HOFFMAN HOWARD S. , NEWBY VALERIE , STRATTON JAMES W.
Published: April 2011

For one group of ducklings distress calls were reinforced using brief presentation of an imprinted stimulus as the response contingent (reinforcing) event. For a second group of ducklings presentation of an imprinted stimulus was contingent upon a more traditional operant (the pecking response). Regardless of which response was being reinforced, the same pattern ensued. Bursts of responding were separated by periods of little or no responding. When subsequently subjected to repeated presentation and withdrawal of the imprinted stimulus under conditions in which neither response was being reinforced, ducklings with a history of reinforcement for distress calls emitted many more calls than ducklings with a history of reinforcement for pole pecks.
EFFECT OF INTERVAL BETWEEN AUDITORY AND PRECEDING VISUAL STIMULI ON AUDITORY SENSITIVITY
Authors: SHIGEHISA T. , SHIGEHISA PHYLLIS M. J. , SYMONS J. R.
Published: April 2011

Auditory thresholds were determined by a modified method of limits, in introverts, ambiverts and extraverts, under three intensities of light. Five determinations were made: one before, one during and three (30 sec., c. 8 and 16 min.) after the light stimulation. An analysis of variance of the data showed significant results for the interval conditions, the personality type and the interaction of these parameters, under the weak light. Interval effects were also significant under medium and strong light. A weak light increased, and a strong light decreased, auditory sensitivity when threshold determinations began 30 sec., but not more than about 8 min., after the light stimulation, in introverts.
RELIABILITY OF AUDITORY RESPONSES UNDER INCREASING INTENSITY OF VISUAL STIMULATION IN RELATION TO PERSONALITY
Authors: SHIGEHISA T. , SYMONS J. R.
Published: April 2011

Auditory thresholds were determined in each subject on two different occasions, by a modified method of limits under 10 intensities of light. Coefficients of reliability and analyses of variance of the data showed significant reliability of responses to tones in introverts (I) and extraverts (E), under increasing intensities of light. The auditory responses were most reliable in I and least in ambiverts (A). The same visual stimuli produced the same effects on auditory sensitivity, in the same subjects, on different days. These effects included facilitation and inhibition of sensitivity in I, facilitation in E and A, and interaction of intensity conditions and personality type.
MATCHING BIAS IN THE SELECTION TASK
Authors: EVANS J. ST B. T. , LYNCH J. S.
Published: April 2011

A previous study (Evans, 1972) found that subjects tend to match rather than alter named values when constructing verifying and falsifying cases of conditional rules. It was suggested that this tendency (‘matching bias’) might account for the responses normally observed in Wason's (1968, 1969) ‘selection task’. This suggestion was tested by giving subjects the selection task with conditional rules in which the presence and absence of negative components was systematically varied, to see whether subjects consistently attempted to verify the rules (Wason's theory) or whether they continued to choose the matching values despite the presence of negatives, which would reverse the logical meaning of such selections. Significant matching tendencies were observed on four independent measures, and the overall pattern, with matching bias cancelled out, gave no evidence for a verification bias, indicating instead that the logically correct values were most frequently chosen.
AN EEG INVESTIGATION OF AWARENESS DURING ANAESTHESIA
Authors: LEWIS STUART A. , JENKINSON J. , WILSON J.
Published: April 2011

Previous studies of awareness during anaesthesia have used patients undergoing surgery. In an attempt to overcome the complications of anxiety and specific stimuli of surgery, this study used healthy volunteers in a laboratory setting. No evidence of recall of events taking place during light anaesthesia was found.
VISUAL‐MANIPULATIVE RESPONSE STRATEGIES IN INFANT OPERANT CONDITIONING WITH SPATIALLY DISPLACED FEEDBACK
Authors: MILLAR W. STUART , SCHAFFER H. RUDOLPH
Published: April 2011

Six‐ and 9‐month‐old infants were exposed to contingent or non‐contingent perceptual stimulation from a source which was spatially displaced at 60° from the infant's midline. Reliable operant acquisition was observed in the case of the 9‐month‐old infants, but not in the case of the 6‐month‐old infants, whose performance was similar to that of non‐contingent controls. Examination of visual fixations of the feedback source coincidental with touching the manipulandum revealed the emergence of a strategy in the older infants which appeared to be critical for response acquisition. The emergence of this strategy is interpreted in terms of the older infants' increased capacity to remain oriented to task‐relevant stimuli which are no longer immediately visually available and to regulate behaviour on the basis of information derived from these stimuli.
THE EFFECTS OF STIMULANT AND DEPRESSANT DRUGS ON VERBAL CONDITIONING
Authors: GUPTA B. S.
Published: April 2011

The effect of stimulant and depressant drugs, affecting primarily either the CNS or the ANS, on verbal conditioning was examined. The subjects were allocated to three levels of the extraversion dimension of personality. A 5 times 3 randomized block design was replicated ten times. The sentence‐completion technique was used. The study supports the following conclusions: (1) introverted subjects are more easily conditioned than extraverted subjects; (2) dexedrine facilitates, and phenobarbitone and chlorpromazine inhibit, the conditioning process; (3) dexedrine does not improve the conditioning level of introverted subjects; (4) ephedrine does not affect the process of conditioning; (5) variability (standard deviation) tends to increase under the influence of drugs primarily affecting the CNS.
EXTRAVERSION, NEUROTICISM AND WORD‐AROUSAL
Authors: OSBORNE JOHN W.
Published: April 2011

This study examined the relationship between extraversion, neuroticism and rated word‐arousal. High‐arousal word ratings correlated with neuroticism (r = 0.37; P < 0.05). High neurotics rated high‐arousal words as more arousing than low neurotics (t = 2.9; d.f. = 38; P < 0.05). Extraverts rated low‐arousal words as more arousing than introverts (t = 2.2; d.f. = 38; P < 0.05). The association between high‐arousal word ratings and neuroticism but not introversion suggested that rated word‐arousal is primarily an index of emotionality which may not necessarily lead to the cortical arousal associated with neural consolidation.