bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Unusual Sound Combinations in the Greek Vocabulary
Authors: Shipp G.P.
Published: July 2016

The primary purpose of this essay is to illustrate from Greek the tendency for rare phonetic features of a language to become still rarer or completely lost. In the main the period studied will be that from Homer to classical Attic and Ionic, and the features studied will be initial consonant groups. This will lead sometimes to the consideration of the circumstances in which words with such features that have become rare are used in classical literature.

Some attempt is made also to account for the rarity of some phonetic features and for the presence in Greek of combinations rare in it and related languages, from some point of view abnormal to their patterning. The raw material and occasionally the interpretation of it is taken from standard works.
Columella, De Re Rustica vii 3.26
Authors: Ashworth W.D.
Published: July 2016

tum qui sequitur gregem circumspectus ac uigilans—id quod omnibus et omnium quadripedum custodibus praecipitur—magna dementia moderetur idemque propior quia silent et in agendis recipiendisque ouibus adclamatione ac baculo minetur nee umquam telum emittat in eas neque ab his longius recedat nec aut recubet aut considat. nam nisi procedit, stare debet, quoniam quidem custodis officium sublimem celsissimamque oculorum ueluti speculam desiderat, ut neque tardiores grauidas, dum cunctantur, neque agiles et fetas, dum procurrunt, separari a ceteris sinat, ne fur aut bestia halucinantem pastorem decipiat.
The Collegium Funeraticium of the Innocentii
Authors: Clarke G.W.
Published: July 2016

In A.D. 258 Valerian, for one reason or another, issued his second edict against the Christians; the victims envisaged included Caesariani. How numerous a body these Christian Caesariani were is difficult to assess for this period (as indeed, for other periods). One looks hopefully—but not very profitably—through martyr Acta for illustrative examples. One might also have recourse to archaeology as another possible source of information; and here inscriptions first published in 1923 have sometimes been enlisted for illustration.
Some Problems of the Lex Quisquis
Authors: Bauman R.A.
Published: July 2016

The Lex Quisquis of Arcadius and Honorius was given at Ancyra on 4 September, 397, in a constitution addressed to Eutychianus, praetorian prefect in the East. This law, which is said to have been the last lex maiestatis, raises a number of difficulties, particularly in respect of the substantive category of wrongful acts which it laid down. The problems in this regard do not seem to have been satisfactorily resolved, nor even to have been fully noticed, and it is proposed to re-examine the position. Some attention will also be given to the penalties imposed by the lex, especially the rule denying the accused legal representation. Finally two postulates will be put forward: (i) that the law of 397 was no more than a restatement, in whole or substantial part, of an earlier law; and (ii) that the law of 397 was itself largely repealed in 399, but was subsequently re-enacted.
Once More the Indirect Reflexive
Authors: Meritt Benjamin D. , McGregor Malcolm F.
Published: July 2016

This is the text of Meritt, McGregor and H.T. Wade-Gery published in ATL as D 22, except that has replaced their in line 20.

In 1980 the restoration of line 22 was challenged by A.S. Henry: Vindex Humanitatis, Essays in Honour of John Huntly Bishop, edited by B.A. Marshall (University of New England Publishing Unit, Armidale), 17-33. He pointed out that is a reflexive pronoun, which must refer to the subject of the verb to which it is attached. The subject of on the other hand, is ; our restoration, he concluded, is therefore impossible.
Et in Arcadia ego? — The Finding of Telephos
Authors: Hannah Robert
Published: July 2016

In her recent re-interpretation of the major frieze of the Altar of Zeus from Pergamon, Erika Simon made a relatively minor new identification whose ramifications beyond the immediate confines of the Altar are somewhat larger but appear to have gone unnoticed. The figure in question is a winged female, fighting on the Gods’ side, whom Simon suggested may be Hemera, a personification of Day. Within the context of the frieze alone, the identification seems reasonable, but it presents some difficulties in the interpretation of two other similarly endowed females elsewhere. These are the winged daimon in the Dionysiac frieze in the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii, and the girl who occupies the top right corner of the painting of the Finding of Telephos from the ‘Basilica’ in Herculaneum (Fig. 1). Fourteen years earlier Simon herself had grouped all three together as representations of something completely different: as images of the constellation Parthenos, better known nowadays under its Latin name of Virgo. It is the aim of this paper to examine the identification of the winged girl in the Herculaneum painting: can she still be regarded as Parthenos, now that the Pergamene parallel has been removed and so long as the identification of the Pompeian daimon remains a contentious issue? If so, then on what grounds can the identification be maintained? And how does this affect the interpretation of the other figures in the fresco, and of the painting as a whole?
A Geometric Greek Horse in the Nicholson Museum
Authors: Zimmermann Jean-Louis
Published: July 2016

Although its origins are unknown, this small bronze statuette could well have come from Olympia, judging by its patina and by eight very similar figurines found in this sanctuary. These animals, which are distinguished by an exaggeratedly large head, and by the very noticeable contrast between the substantial body and the feet, which are considerably wider than they are thick, are typical products of the craftsmen of Olympia.
Statius’ Retirement from Rome: Silvae 3.5
Authors: Garthwaite John
Published: July 2016

In Silvae 3.5, published towards the end of A.D. 94, Statius announced his intention to leave Rome and spend his remaining years in Naples, his birthplace. The tranquility offered by his native city seems particularly appealing to the poet. For here, he says, is a place where both the climate and the sea are gentle, and where it is possible to enjoy an untroubled life, in sharp contrast to the violence and litigiousness of Rome (3.5.83-88). Here too, graceful architecture is complemented by literary festivals which rival those of the capital (89-92). In addition, Naples was also the home of some of Statius’ patrons, most prominently Pollius Felix to whom this third book of Silvae is addressed, and whose newly built shrine to Hercules on his Surrentine estate is the subject of Silv. 3.1. The latter poem, it has been noted, seems to be intended as a counterweight to Silv. 3.5, with the aim of establishing Naples as a primary focus of the whole book.
Nouns in σις and -τύς in Homer
Authors: Shipp G.P.
Published: July 2016

The study of verbal nouns in Homer is of considerable importance for the understanding of the development of Greek language and thought and hence of methods of expression in the languages of Western Europe. Verbal nouns function primarily in much the same way as verbs, i.e. they express the same ideas as do verbs, and on the other hand they play similar parts in the structure of the sentence to other nouns. From this second aspect there evolves the tendency to particular reference, the ‘concrete’ use. The two functions of verbal nouns are a commonplace of semantic studies. In English we can say (1) in the building of houses=when one is building houses, (2) he came out of the building, and, in the plural, an important step, these buildings are to be demolished. The suffix -ing would be the nearest equivalent to -σις, capable like it of construction from any verb. The particular interest of nouns in -σις and -τύς in Homer is that the secondary type of use is still very rare, for example these nouns hardly ever occur in the plural, and thus the development of the ‘concrete’ use can be observed at a very early stage. The only functionally similar nouns in Homer, of types still in ‘free’ use, are those in -θμóς and -σἰη, which for reasons of space will be mentioned only incidentally, as their use impinges on that of the two other classes.
Crime and Punishment in Kallimachos’ Hymn to Delos
Authors: McKay K.J.
Published: July 2016

In an earlier study I advanced a new interpretation of the poet’s purpose in the Fourth Hymn. Since the study was appended to an analysis of the Sixth Hymn and may have escaped notice, it may profit now from a fresh presentation with some new definition of detail.
Superstitio and ’Eπἰσταμαι
Authors: Shipp G.P.
Published: July 2016

As this word is so important for the student of Roman religion, and for the student of religion in general, since it has in western Europe helped to fix a pattern of thought in which ‘superstition‘ is contrasted with ‘religion’, it is natural that there should have been many attempts to explain its semantic origin, i.e. how the historical senses have come from that of‘standing over’.
The Ψóφoς of the House-Door in Greek New Comedy
Authors: Bader B.
Published: July 2016

If in New Comedy someone opens the door of a stage-house from within to come out, a person already on the stage often describes this occurrence by a phrase including the verb ψοφεϊν, such as άλλα την θύραν ψοφεϊ τις έξιών (Perik. 126), or έψόφηκεν ή θύρα, προέρχεται τις (Pap. Hibeh 6.1). Owing to an odd ancient explanation, the derivation and exact signification of these expressions have long been doubtful, in spite of their frequency and stereotyped form. Today most scholars agree on their meaning, but the case has not been put as cogently and extensively as it could have been, so that some uncertainty still remains. Therefore it seems reasonable to undertake a fresh consideration, which is to set out the whole material (considerably augmented since 1958), point out the problems, and show what evidence is available to tackle them.
The Zeus Hymns of Cleanthes and Aratus
Authors: James A.W.
Published: July 2016

The following notes on two well-known passages of Hellenistic epic, part of Cleanthes’ so-called hymn to Zeus and Aratus’ proem, may be of some interest as affording a detailed comparison of how the poets use, adapt and add to the traditional epic vocabulary and phraseology to convey closely related subject-matter that both belongs to and goes beyond the normal range of epic.
Three Passages in Persae
Authors: Podlecki Anthony J.
Published: July 2016

Pers. 165-9

166-7 obscuri Page | Lacunam statuit post 168 Merkel

The Medicean Scholiast on 168 paraphrases The Scholiast has apparently misunderstood the image, since it does not seem to be a question of the ‘poor enjoying the pleasure [or the power] of light’. Broadhead’s explanation of 166-7 seems plausible: ‘wealth, deprived of men, will not win respect, and … ἀναρχία may follow the news of a great disaster’ (The Persae of Aeschylus [Cambridge, 1960], p. 74). But how can this be got out of the Greek? R. D. Dawe’s Repertory of Conjectures on Aeschylus (Leiden, 1965) lists numerous attempts to emend 166, but the real trouble seems to lie in 167. After discussing various interpretations of 167 as it stands, Broadhead expresses some doubts (‘if the text is sound’). He notes Lawson’s suggestion of φωσίν ὅ for φς ὅσον. Dawe records Blaydes’ ὅσοις. Broadhead also reports a suggested transposition of 166 and 167 (A. ‘Ludwig and others’), which does not really affect the issue of how 167 is to be interpreted. Πάρα at the end of 167 = πάρεστι according to LSJ, of which I fail to make any acceptable sense; Broadhead gives the words the only meaning they will bear: ‘For those lacking in wealth what strength they possess does not shine as a light’ (p. 74 n. 1), but his paraphrase, ‘does not bring salvation, or success’, is hardly justified by the Greek.
Catullus 64: The Descent of Man
Authors: Forsyth Phyllis Young
Published: July 2016

Editors and critics of Catullus, both recent and not so recent, seem content with viewing lines 384-408 of Catullus’ sixty-fourth poem as a ‘moralizing epilogue’ which contrasts the poet’s own time with that of the Age of Heroes as represented by Peleus and Thetis, Ariadne and Theseus. For example, E. T. Merrill in his venerable school edition of Catullus comments succinctly: ‘Epilogue, commenting upon the withdrawal of divine presence from the ceremonies of men after the heroic age, on account of the impiety of the race’.
Policy-making in the Spartan Assembly
Authors: Kelly D.H.
Published: July 2016

Emphasizing what he saw as the weakness and docility of the Spartan assembly M.I. Finley wrote:

‘I will put the question very bluntly. Can we imagine that the obedient, disciplined Spartan soldier dropped his normal habits when he was assembled not as a soldier but as a citizen, while he listened to debates among those from whom he otherwise was taught to take orders without questioning or hesitation?‘
Supply Relationships in the South—What have we Learned?
Authors: Shumway C. Richard
Published: July 2016

Accurate estimation of the responsiveness of agricultural commodity supplies is vitally important. Government policy negotiations rely on supply estimates in predicting both commodity and intercommodity effects of changing programs and in anticipating their consequent social benefits and costs. Individual farmers and agribusiness firms need them and associated price predictions in making investment and production decisions.
Changes in Domestic Demand for Food: Impacts on Southern Agriculture
Authors: Capps Oral
Published: July 2016

Since the early 1970s, the economic environment and the agricultural sector in particular have been characterized by constant change. Technologies are rapidly changing from the farm level through the various processing stages to the marketing of food products. New food products and markets, both domestic and international, are continuously emerging (Connor). Unprecedented linkages to world markets and to domestic macroeconomic policies have also been factors shaping the agricultural and nonagricultural sectors in the past 10 to 15 years. For the most part, the effects of these changes on the demand for agricultural products have not generally been empirically determined. Little attention has been paid to keeping abreast of changes and their implications for farmers and processors in any systematic fashion.
Impact of Domestic Policy on Comparative Advantage of Agriculture in the South
Authors: Tweeten Luther
Published: July 2016

The objective of this paper is to estimate the impact of domestic policy on comparative advantage of agriculture in the South. I utilize estimates of projected prices in a market-centered agriculture to examine the degree of insulation from market forces for major crops produced in the South and to calculate the relative net returns per acre in the absence of commodity programs. The price and net returns are probably below long-term equilibriums but are useful measures of relative prices and returns among commodities even if the returns are negative.
Changes in Selected Characteristics of U. S. Farms During the 1970s and Early 1980s: An Investigation Based on Current and Constant Dollar Sales Categories
Authors: Zulauf Carl R.
Published: July 2016

Changes since 1970 in the distribution of selected farm characteristics among constant and current dollar farm sales categories were examined. In general, the same trends emerged but changes were less dramatic after adjusting for inflation. The increasing concentration of net farm income among farms with sales exceeding $500,000 was attributed in part to their continuing high ratio of gross farm income to expenses (approximately 145 percent). Farms with sales between $10,000 and $500,000 became more dependent on nonfarm income. This dependency is postulated to result from a farm income treadmill and use of nonfarm income to cope with the treadmill.
Simple and Multiple Cross-Hedging of Rice Bran
Authors: Elam Emmett W. , Miller Stephen E. , Holder Shelby H.
Published: July 2016

Feasibility of forward pricing sales of rice bran via cross-hedging was investigated. Corn, oats, wheat, and soybean meal futures were considered as simple and multiple cross-hedging media. Simulation results indicated that simple cross-hedging using corn futures would be most effective in reducing price risks.
Evaluating Privately Funded Public Research: An Example With Poultry And Eggs
Authors: Martinez Stephen , Norton George W.
Published: July 2016

A procedure is described for evaluating poultry and egg research projects. A peer review questionnaire and benefit-cost analysis are utilized incorporating elasticities from an econometric model for poultry and eggs. Production, cost, and price changes are used to calculate changes in producer surplus and net economic surplus for a set of privately funded publicly conducted research projects.
Some Conceptual Problems in the Evaluation of Water Pollution Damages
Authors: Long Burl F.
Published: July 2016

A great deal of attention has recently been focused on the problems of environmental pollution and the search for desirable solutions to environmental quality problems. While water and air pollution problems may appear to be of less significance than many other ills confronting society, they nevertheless must be considered serious problems which have aroused a great deal of public concern. It is becoming increasingly popular to advocate the importance of economic, social, and political inputs in the decision-making process regarding pollution abatement and control. I have no quarrel with such advocacy as the need for better information inputs of all types is obviously a necessary condition for improved decision-making.
Empirical Testing of a Farm Firm Growth Theory
Authors: Rafeld Frederick J. , Shaudys Edgar T.
Published: July 2016

Researchers in agricultural economics have become increasingly concerned with the effects of structural and technical changes in agriculture upon the size of the farm firm. These researchers not only want to understand firm growth in order to make suggestions for necessary changes in social institutions but also to advise the managers of farm firms.

Recent farm firm growth research studies were conducted using empirically based mathematical programming models to explore growth and to test hypotheses concerning the influence of various economic factors upon growth. For examples, see. Growth in these studies is a function of the assumptions of the particular programming model.
Price and the Structure of Freight Car Ownership
Authors: Boles Patrick P. , Gerald John O.
Published: July 2016

The recurring shortage of railcars to haul agricultural and forest products continues to be of utmost interest to farmers and agriculturally related enterprises. Pricing systems internal to the railroad industry prior to 1964 may have discouraged railroads from purchasing an adequate supply of railcars to meet the needs of shippers. These same pricing systems also may have discouraged railroads from purchasing high cost market-oriented equipment. An endeavor has been made to examine the performance of railroads in upgrading the quality of their fleets in response to a significant change in the pricing system in 1964.
A Theoretical Framework for Viewing Pollution Problems
Authors: Langham Max R.
Published: July 2016

In the 1960's, we developed a strong public conscience about the environment. The 1970's will reveal a great deal about our ability to better understand and manage the environment in socially acceptable ways. This task will require both theories and measurement techniques to empirically verify them. A welfare theory (based largely on Paretian welfare economics) states that we can say one system is preferable to another if the system makes at least one person better off and no one worse off. Most alternative systems in the real world, including those available to resolve pollution conflicts, do not meet this criterion. A change in the system normally makes someone worse off. Thus, Paretian, or the “new,” welfare economics, is not really useful in making most policy decisions. The problem is compounded, because often we do not know how to measure the real effects of pollution on parties involved in and influenced by pollution. This later problem is aggravated by the fact that we have done very little to systematically record observations on pollution processes.
Intergovernmental Arrangements for Dealing with Pollution Problems
Authors: Hammond Leigh H.
Published: July 2016

The past year launched us, not only into the decade of the 70's, but also into a period of intense concern about our environment. We have been bombarded by prophesies that range from those expressing no real concern to those saying the very survival of man is questionable.

There is a general consensus that we do have problems, but that we can deal with these problems if the nation will just get serious and place a high priority on environmental programs. We can cite past records of success, once specific objectives have been accepted as national goals. World War II and the conquest of space are but two recent examples.
Local Market Information Services in the Strategy of Agricultural Development
Authors: Smith Eldon D. , Srisuruksa Nguen , Phillipp Perry
Published: July 2016

The general economic functions of market information are familiar and can be logically related to the concepts of workable competition and the perfect market in space, form, and time. However, the importance of a formal market news service to the efficiency of performance of markets must be viewed within the context of the particular situation and the manner in which present information systems function. Wherever there is a market, an information network exists, even though (in some cases), slow, inaccurate, discriminatory in its availability to market participants or limited in the scope of information collected and diffused. Therefore, in assessing the need for introducing or expanding formal market news services, the adequacy of the present system, the cost of effecting improvements and the consequences that may be derived from them must be determined and evaluated.
Demand Theory: Time Allocation and Outdoor Recreation
Authors: Wilson Robert R.
Published: July 2016

The concept of demand has evolved through the centuries, enriched by the natural-value, exchange-value controversy and the diamond, water paradox of the classicists [11], the intuitive insights of Marshall [8], and the mathematical rigor of Slutsky [10], and Hicks and Men [6]. These developments led to the conceptualization of a demand function as a solution function to a constrained extremum problem [5,6,9, 10].
Toward a Possibly Practical Framework for Rural Development Policies and Programs
Authors: Daft Lynn M.
Published: July 2016

My assignment is to suggest a policy framework for the pursuit of rural community development objectives. I propose to do this in three steps: First, I will describe some major elements of existing policy. As an outgrowth of my interpretation of the' performance of this policy, I will then explore an alternative approach to formulation of the rural development issue. Finally, I will outline a policy framework consistent with this approach.
Community and Rural Development – Implications for Economic Extension Programs
Authors: Schaller W. Neill
Published: July 2016

Few topics in recent years have captured the attention of agricultural economists more than community and rural development. But seldom has the extension of economics been the principal concern. As I worked on this paper with that concern in mind, the topic took on the appearance of an iceberg. Beneath the surface I have encountered many new challenges to economics and the economist, and some that are not so new.
Marginal Farms – A Micro Development Opportunity
Authors: Schneeberger K. C. , West J. G.
Published: July 2016

Practically all major speeches on the agenda of farm policy issues have listed the problems of non-commercial farmers as a major item. Operators of non-commercial, or marginal, farms are a very heterogeneous group. They include: (1) operators of medium sized, undercapitalized farms, (2) farm operators who work part-time off-farm to supplement farm income, (3) operators of small, inefficient farms who, because of age, education or handicap, have limited prospects of becoming fully self-supporting either in farming or non-farm occupations, and (4) rural residents who own farms which provide some income; the owner works full-time off-farm.Farmers in this group generally gross less than $10,000 from agricultural production. This is normally considered inadequate for providing an acceptable level of living.
Import Demand for Rice in the EEC: Implications of U.S. Market Promotion
Authors: Junghare Yashwant N. , Stelly Randall , Wilson Robert R.
Published: July 2016

The European Economic Community (hereafter referred to as EEC) market for rice has been undergoing significant reorganization since the formation of the economic union in 1957, and the initiation of the common agricultural policy in 1962 in general and the common rice policy in particular, which became effective September, 1964. The rice trade policies of the EEC have continually influenced the domestic consumption demand, production, exports and imports of rice. Although the proportion of the EEC imports of rice from the United States increased from 28 percent in the pre-common rice policy period to 41 percent in the post-common rice policy period, the effects of these policies on rice imports into the EEC continue to concern exporters of rice.
Specification of Supplies and Demands For Subsector and Submarket Studies
Authors: Harrington David H.
Published: July 2016

Regional supply-adjustment studies are either underway or completed for milk, feed grain-livestock, wheat, rice, cotton, and beef. Other related studies take subsectors as units of analysis for studying markets for such inputs as labor and fertilizer, or for studying regional comparative advantage.

This paper reviews the specification of supply and demand for both kinds of studies and develops the concept of effective subsectoral demands and supplies from the standard Walrasian adjustment behavioral assumptions. These concepts are applied to both the input markets and the product markets. Two commonly used specifications of subsectoral functions: (1) the method of equal elasticity as the aggregate, and (2) the method of equal slope as the aggregate, are found to be incorrect specifications of subsectoral functions in perfectly competitive adjustment studies, except in very restrictive circumstances. The theoretically consistent specifications are developed and shown to be operationally useable for future studies.
Appraising the Effects of the Agricultural Act of 1970 Upon Oklahoma's Economy
Authors: Harwell R. Lynn , Doeksen Gerald A. , Strickland P. Leo
Published: July 2016

The Agricultural Act of 1970 embodies a new approach to supply adjustment policy, swinging away from acreage allotment and diversion provisions of the previous Act. Employing a “set-aside” provision, cotton, feed grains or wheat land is diverted, or set aside, in order that producers may become eligible for support payments. The allotment no longer serves as an upper limit on the permitted acreage of these crops nor, cotton excepted, is planting of a specific crop necessary for a producer to become eligible for price support benefits. Flexibilities have been written into the program whereby the Secretary may make participation more or less attractive to the producer in accordance with needs.
Economic Incentives to Reduce the Quantity of Chemicals Used in Commercial Agriculture
Authors: Lacewell Ronald D. , Masch William R.
Published: July 2016

In recent years, considerable national attention has focused on the use of chemicals by the agriculture sector. Recent descriptive analyses have addressed the problem.of attempting to determine, or to describe, some of the social “costs” of chemicals used in agriculture which later move to non-agricultural areas. The primary effect of the attention on chemical use in agriculture has been legislative action relative to specific pesticides such as DDT and 2,4,5-T. These actions have made national news along with reports of measured residues of these pesticides in wildlife, fish and other forms of foodstuffs.
Agricultural Programs in the Seventies: The Political-Economic Environment
Authors: Paarlberg Don
Published: July 2016

I shall treat my subject, not as a Government official, which I am, but as a university professor, which I also am, on leave from Purdue University. I begin, like a professor, by defining terms.

For about forty years farm policy people have considered the term “agricultural programs” to mean programs for controlling production and price and increasing the income from our major crops. This ignores other agricultural programs like rural development, research and education, regulatory activities, environmental programs, and food distribution. In dollars spent and numbers of persons affected, these other programs bulk larger than the commodity programs. But I interpret my assignment as relating to the commodity programs.
The Entry-Growth-Exit Processes in Agriculture
Authors: Boehlje Michael
Published: July 2016

The recent emphasis in farm management research has centered on issues of financial management and firm growth. Consequently, a number of studies have identified and evaluated alternative production, financial and marketing strategies that result in growth or expansion of the farm firm. These studies have explicitly or implicitly assumed that the firm is a viable economic unit and the ownership structure will not change during the growth process. Thus, the life cycle of the firm has been severed from the typical life cycle of the enterpreneur, and the financial, economic and human problems of entry and exit of farm entrepreneurs into and out of the agricultural production sector have not been confronted. The following discussion will briefly review the characteristics of the life cycle of the family firm and indicate why entry-exit problems are particularly acute in the agricultural production sector. Then, specific micro and macro issues that merit empirical investigation, including the firm and industry implications of coordination (or the lack thereof) of the entry and exit processes, will be identified and discussed.
Discussion: Rural Housing Needs and Barriers, The Case of Central Appalachia
Authors: Klindt Thomas H.
Published: July 2016

Deaton and Hanrahan provided an excellent report on the situation of housing in Central Appalachia. Their arguments concerning the implications to be drawn from the situation are that Central Appalachia had a disproportionate share of substandard housing in 1960 and 1970, examination of some barriers to increase housing construction indicates that public policy has not been effective in reaching the very poor, and therefore, public housing policy should be altered.

Three questions may be raised that need to be answered before implementing new public housing policy for Central Appalachia.
Alternative Forms of Taxation to Achieve Equitable Levels of Educational Expenditures
Authors: White Fred C. , Miller Bill R.
Published: July 2016

Pressures are increasing for reforms in financing of local government services. At the local level, the property tax is a major source of concern. Two major charges leveled against the property tax are (1) that the property tax is regressive and (2) that financing local government services through the property tax leads to inequities in services received.

The charge that the property tax is regressive stems from the fact that it is a tax on wealth and not on income. The amount of real property owned by a person is not necessarily proportional to his ability to pay taxes. Several studies have shown that property taxes are regressive; i.e., that low-income families pay a greater percentage of their income for public services than do middle- and upper-income families.
Model to Evaluate Alternative Irrigation Distribution Systems with an Exhaustible Water Supply
Authors: Lacewell Ronald D. , Pearce John C.
Published: July 2016

In many regions, irrigation water is pumped from an underground aquifer that receives little or no recharge. With an exhaustible water supply, water available in year t + 1 depends on quantity of water available in year t − 1 and the quantity withdrawn in year t. As the water supply decreases, pumping costs increase and returns to water and management decline.

The exhaustible nature of the water supply causes an especially difficult problem for the farm operator in that he must allocate water within and among years. In addition, the farm operator is faced with irrigation investment decisions; e.g., type of irrigation distribution system to use. He must consider simultaneously, labor intensive versus capital intensive systems and effect of each system on present value and economic life of his specific water supply. To manually evaluate the alternatives, making the necessary calculations would be prohibitive in terms of both cost and time.
Role of Marketing and Procurement Systems in the Control of Agriculture
Authors: Rhodes V. James
Published: July 2016

Issues ancient and modern in the structural organization of agriculture are newly being legitimized. As one evidence, hundreds of extension meetings this winter will utilize a new set of leaflets entitled, “Who Will Control Agriculture?”. In popular articles, speeches, and research reports various aspects of the question are being examined. Even Secretary of Agriculture Earl Butz, himself an agricultural economist, has proclaimed the relevance of the subject, not to mention his chief economist, Don Paarlberg, who has addressed the same subject frequently.

Among these several sources the focus varies: optimal size of farm or feedlot; tax issues; the comparative advantage of the corporate and other forms of organization; economies of vertical coordination; the nature of contractual integration; and bargaining power for farmers and farm workers.
Agricultural Loan Evaluation with Discriminant Analysis
Authors: Johnson R. Bruce , Hagan Albert R.
Published: July 2016

Agricultural lending institutions are faced with a perpetual task of periodically evaluating personal and financial attributes of their borrowers. This examination is necessary in order to determine the present quality of the loans and to assess the current financial position of each borrower. Moreover, analysis of each borrower's financial performance establishes a basis for extending, limiting or withdrawing the present line of credit and for determining the amount and kind of supervision needed.
Evaluating Cost and Output Levels for Agricultural Utilization Research
Authors: Jones Harold B.
Published: July 2016

Public expenditures for research and development have increased very rapidly in the last two decades. Despite the apparent high payoff from this research, there is an increasingly greater reluctance on the part of legislative groups and the general public to support such research. This problem revolves around the question of social priorities, but it also involves an assessment of the value of the research investment.
Incorporating Multiple Goals into the Decision-Making Process: A Simulation Approach to Firm Growth Analysis
Authors: Hatch Roy E. , Harman Wyatte L. , Eidman Vernon R.
Published: July 2016

Although the importance of multiple goals in the decision-making process has been recognized for years by economists, economic analyses typically are based on the assumption of maximization or minimization of a single goal. Some firm growth analyses have considered two or more goals by maximizing one goal subject to constraints on the remaining goals. In other cases, utility functions that incorporate expected income and income variability have been estimated for individual farm operators. Although these approaches are an effort to incorporate more than one goal in the decision process, firm growth research in general has not been based on multiple-goal decision models.
Projections of Agricultural Capital and Credit Requirements: An Oklahoma Application
Authors: Schmedt Fred , Boehlje Michael
Published: July 2016

The growth in the capital investment in agriculture that occurred during the 1950's and 1960's and the resulting credit demands led to a number of inquiries into the future capital and credit requirements of American agriculture [2, 3, 4]. The results of these studies suggest that the aggregate capital and credit needs of the agricultural sector will increase significantly in the future. However, estimates of future capital and credit requirements of firms that are representative of different sizes and enterprise types of farms are not available. These estimates would be useful to farmers and lending institutions in determining the future amount of capital and credit needed to generate a given level of gross sales or income. Those entering farming could compare the present and future capital needed for different types of operations.
Application of Spatial Models to Improving the Efficiency of a Country Hog Marketing System
Authors: Haas John T.
Published: July 2016

Most spatial equilibrium studies done in the past have focused on macro problems of an industry or a commodity. There are, however, important applications for spatial models in analyses of efficient resource use on the micro or firm level.

One important area of application is in analysis of the efficiency of single-firm marketing systems. Many cooperatives and other agribusiness firms have developed systems for marketing agricultural commodities or distributing farm supplies. These systems involve multiple assembly and distribution points, and often some processing function is performed between the points of origin and final destination.
Some Issues Concerning Specification and Interpretation of Outdoor Recreation Demand Models
Authors: Jennings Thomas A. , Gibbs Kenneth C.
Published: July 2016

Some currently popular procedures for analyzing the demand for outdoor recreation makes use of ancillary travel and on-site expenditures of recreationists as proxy prices. It can yet regrettably be asked whether the estimates produced by those methods bear any resemblance to the market-equivalent price-quantity relationships they generally purport to quantify. To some unavoidable extent this results from the necessary reliance upon proxies, or surrogates, for both quantity and price data. The ultimate value of proxy variables and of estimated relationships between them lies in the extent to which they resemble useful concepts. Past research has been based largely on assumptions of the resemblance.
Influence of Size and Administrative Organization on Costs of Rural Roads
Authors: Lamb Steven W. , Pine Wilfred H.
Published: July 2016

Providing and maintaining roads are major public services. Costs of these services are influenced by many factors. This paper examines the influence of two factors, size of operation and type of administrative organization, on costs of rural roads.

An administrative unit providing roads for a small area, county, or township, with a given density of roads might experience higher costs per unit of area than an administrative unit providing road service for a larger area, all other conditions being the same. It likely would experience disadvantages in buying supplies and equipment, making full use of equipment, hiring competent help, and in other ways. However, the unit with a large area could run into diseconomies through high administrative and supervisional costs. Actually, it may not be that simple. This study tests the idea empirically.
Management and Policy Implications of Cost and Return Budgets: Extension's Role in Formulation and Use*
Authors: Lanpher Buel F.
Published: July 2016

In recent history, many agricultural economists have tended to view work on cost and return budgets as a pretty dull thing. They gave it very low priority. However, the attention given to production costs by the 1973 farm legislation, together with recent acceleration in cost of farm inputs, have somewhat reversed the significance attached to this subject. A casual review of articles in the AAEA Journal over the past three years shows little attention to cost of production per se, but I predict that in the next two years there will be a big increase.

About two years ago, the term “cost of production” was just coming into use as a rallying cry by farm organizations, prior to the big jump in farm prices. This concern probably was a prime reason for the focus on costs in 1973 legislation. However, the issue was temporarily forgotten when farm prices increased sharply during the 1972–73 period.
The Beef Cow-Calf Enterprise in the Georgia Piedmont: A Case Study in Conspicuous Production
Authors: Musser Wesley N. , Martin Neil R. , Wise James O.
Published: July 2016

Economists have demonstrated considerable concern with the appropriateness of profit maximization as a sole firm objective. Agricultural economists have adopted suggestions of economic theorists in writings on production economics; for example, Heady relaxed the objective of profit maximization to incorporate preferences for family consumption and risk aversion. Production economics research has supported the theoretical reasoning for multiple firm objectives; in a recent article, Lin, Dean, and Moore state “… empirical studies explicitly employing the profit maximization hypothesis … have generally provided results inconsistent with observed or plausible behavior”. Previous studies incorporating multiple objectives in analysis of agricultural production have largely been concerned with the general theoretical categories suggested by Heady. Lin, Dean, and Moore considered profit maximization and risk aversion. Patrick and Eisgruber considered accumulation of net worth, annual net income for consumption, leisure, and risk-taking; Hatch, Harmon, and Eidman included eight similar goals in their analysis. These studies have followed the tradition in micro-economic theory of separate production and consumption decision-making. While previous analyses have departed from the perfect knowledge, static basis of conventional micro-economics, the major interaction between production and consumption decisions concerns the level and variability of income available for consumption.
Projections of Acres, Yields, and Production: Four Southern Regions and the U.S.
Authors: Harrison Virden L.
Published: July 2016

To fill domestic and foreign demand requirements in 1985, the U.S. is expected to produce 17% more wheat than it did in the 1970–72 period; also 30% more corn, 42% more sorghum, 20% more citrus, 32% more vegetables, 73% more soybeans, and 26% more cattle. These are a few of the baseline projections recently developed by ERS. The purpose of this report is to make available recent ERS projections of U.S. production and acreage needs with special emphasis on four Southern regions and the part they will play in producing the expected increase.

The Economic Projections Program Area was established under a recent reorganization in ERS, USDA, and given responsibility for coordinating all ERS projections of commodity production. The program area is now preparing projections through the year 2000 in a set of publications titled “Agriculture—The Third Century.”
Identifying Resource Barriers to Local Economy Growth
Authors: Roberts Kenneth J.
Published: July 2016

Congress and the majority of coastal states have recognized the complexity of public decisions concerning growth in coastal areas. The preponderance of common pool resources and regional goods in coastal areas has prompted lawmarkers to pass coastal zone management legislation prior to a national land use bill. New state level institutions have been fostered by the Office of Coastal Zone Management. However, it is at the local level where resulting institutional rules represent self-imposed natural resource barriers to growth. Communities face the task of improving income streams from expansion of existing business activity or opting for new industries. Local governments have scurried to consultants and universities for solutions of community development and natural resource problems. The study described here represents one type of response. Although an Oregon county was the researcher's focus, it involved the pith of local economy growth—income generation and natural or self-imposed resource barriers.
The Incidence of Property Taxes on Agricultural Land
Authors: Drummond H. Evan
Published: July 2016

Property tax systems have undergone rapid change in almost every state during the past few years. Consequently, their distributional impact merits investigation. The incidence of the property tax is at the heart of the distributional question. It is generally felt that land owners bear the full burden of property taxes and that changes in it are capitalized into property values. Usually it is assumed that property taxes are not shifted forward to the consumer, but there has been little empirical verification of this notion. This paper will develop a simple model of the land market to test several alternative hypotheses concerning the incidence of property taxes on agricultural land in the United States.
A Negative-Cost Approach to the Formulation of a Transhipment Problem
Authors: Stennis Earl A. , Hurt Verner G.
Published: July 2016

The transhipment problem formulation has been and is still being used extensively by researchers to solve spatial equilibrium and plant location problems. Hurt and Tramel, King and Logan, Rhody, and Judge et al. have all treated the subject of alternative formulations of transhipment problems. This paper (1) proposes an alternative formulation of these problems using a negative-cost technique and, (2) suggests a matrix reduction scheme which will reduce computational time for some problems.

King and Logan used a three region, two-stage formulation of the transhipment model which was reformulated by Hurt and Tramel. As a point of departure, the same sample problem will be used to present the negative-cost formulation. This should enable the reader to more readily determine differences between formulations and decide which formulation best serves his particular needs.
Economic, Environmental and Energy Use Implications of Short-Season Cotton Production: Texas Lower Rio Grande Valley
Authors: Larson James L. , Lacewell Ronald D. , Casey James E. , Heilman Marvin D. , Namken L. Neal , Parker Roy D.
Published: July 2016

Quantities of insecticides used per acre by cotton producers in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas are among the nation's highest. This is due to the presence of many different insect pests and especially to their increasing tolerance to insecticides. As insects become resistant to insecticides, farmers tend to increase the number of insecticide applications, further compounding the problem. Even using large amounts of insecticides, control of damaging insects has been unsatisfactory.

Typically, a long-season cotton variety, requiring a 160 to 180 day season, is grown. Because the probability of rainfall is much greater in August than in July [4], most harvesting can be expected in August.
A Simulation Game Teaching Aid for Rural Development
Authors: Nelson James , Doeksen Gerald
Published: July 2016

Teaching rural development must reflect the breadth and complexity of the real world situation. Time limitations may restrict the teacher primarily to presentation and discussion of the field's many facets, leaving little time to consider how these diverse elements interact. Even if careful course planning and strict adherence to a course outlined provide classroom time for such consideration, only advanced graduate students are likely to have sufficient expertise to readily understand the relationships, real or hypothesized, resulting from these interactions.

Alternatives in the classroom include giving these relationships only cursory, descriptive treatment, or digging into them with analytical fervor, thereby causing many students a great deal of chagrin. A third alternative is demonstrating interactive aspects of rural development with a game. Such a game is discussed in this paper.