bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Communication Management Guidelines for Software Organizations in Pakistan with clients from Afghanistan
Authors: Shah Muhammad Arif , Hashim Rathiah , Shah Adil Ali , Khattak Umar Farooq
Published: December 2016

Developing software through Global Software Development (GSD) became very common now days in the software industry. Pakistan is one of the countries where projects are taken and designed from different countries including Afghanistan. The purpose of this paper is to identify and provide an analysis on several communication barriers that can have a negative impact on the project and to provide management guidelines for medium size software organizations working in Pakistan with clients from Afghanistan and to overcome these communication barriers and challenges organizations face when coordinating with client. Initially we performed a literature review to identify different communication barriers and to check if there are any standardized communications management guidelines for medium size software houses provided in the past. The second stage of the research paper involves guidelines with vendor's perspective that include interviews and focus group discussions with different stakeholders and employees of software houses with clients from Afghanistan. Based on those interviews and discussions we established communication management guidelines in order to overcome the communication problems and barriers working with clients from Afghanistan. As a result of the literature review, we have identified that barriers such as cultural barriers and language barrier were one of the main reasons behind the project failure and suggested that software organizations working in Pakistan should follow certain defined communication guidelines in order to overcome communication barriers that affect the project directly.
Reviews on Security Issues and Challenges in Cloud Computing
Authors: An Y Z , Zaaba Z F , Samsudin N F
Published: December 2016

Cloud computing is an Internet-based computing service provided by the third party allowing share of resources and data among devices. It is widely used in many organizations nowadays and becoming more popular because it changes the way of how the Information Technology (IT) of an organization is organized and managed. It provides lots of benefits such as simplicity and lower costs, almost unlimited storage, least maintenance, easy utilization, backup and recovery, continuous availability, quality of service, automated software integration, scalability, flexibility and reliability, easy access to information, elasticity, quick deployment and lower barrier to entry. While there is increasing use of cloud computing service in this new era, the security issues of the cloud computing become a challenges. Cloud computing must be safe and secure enough to ensure the privacy of the users. This paper firstly lists out the architecture of the cloud computing, then discuss the most common security issues of using cloud and some solutions to the security issues since security is one of the most critical aspect in cloud computing due to the sensitivity of user's data.
Most binary forms come from a pencil of quadrics
Authors: Creutz Brendan
Published: December 2016

A pair of symmetric bilinear forms

A
A

and

B
B

determine a binary form

f
(
x
,
y
)
:=
disc
⁡
(
A
x
−
B
y
)

f(x,y) := \operatorname {disc}(Ax-By)

. We prove that the question of whether a given binary form can be written in this way as a discriminant form generically satisfies a local-global principle and deduce from this that most binary forms over

Q

\mathbb {Q}

are discriminant forms. This is related to the arithmetic of the hyperelliptic curve

z
2

=
f
(
x
,
y
)

z^2 = f(x,y)

. Analogous results for nonhyperelliptic curves are also given.
How Meat Demand Elasticities Vary with Price, Income, and Product Category
Authors: Lusk Jayson L. , Tonsor Glynn T.
Published: December 2016

As US beef and pork prices approached record high levels in 2014, industry analysts expressed surprised at consumer response. Because the relative price swings have occurred only recently, traditional approaches to demand analysis that rely on historical data series may be less useful than is typically the case. Employing one of the largest and longest‐running choice experiments, we analyze data on 110,295 choices made by 12,255 consumers observed over a year‐long time period coinciding with historically high meat prices. Our findings reveal nonlinear demands for meat products, with demand being more inelastic at higher prices. Ground beef, steak, and pork chop demands are more sensitive to changes in chicken breast price than the reverse. Moreover, cross‐price elasticities between disaggregate meat products shrink as prices rise. Consumers' incomes significantly affect demand inter‐relationships. Higher income consumers are more likely to choose steak and chicken breasts and are less likely to choose ground beef, chicken wings, and deli ham than are lower income consumers. High‐income consumers tend to be less responsive to own‐price changes and more responsive to cross‐price changes than lower income consumers. This analysis provides estimates of structural demand parameters that help explain current meat expenditure patterns, and the results have implications for the assumption of linearity often invoked in policy analyses.
Agricultural (Dis)Incentives and Food Security: Is There a Link?
Authors: Magrini Emiliano , Montalbano Pierluigi , Nenci Silvia , Salvatici Luca
Published: December 2016

Using the World Bank database “Distortions to agricultural incentives,” this paper analyzes the impact that agricultural (dis)incentives have on food security for a wide sample of countries over the 1990–2010 period. We adopt a continuous treatment approach applying generalized propensity score matching to reduce potential biases stemming from differences in observed country characteristics. The results provide strong evidence of self‐selection and heterogeneous food security impacts at different levels of policy intensity. Estimates of the dose‐response functions show that both discrimination against agriculture and large support for it lead to poor performance in the availability, access, and utilization dimensions of food security.
The super-n-motifs model: a novel alignment-free approach for representing and comparing RNA secondary structures
Authors: Glouzon Jean-Pierre Séhi , Perreault Jean-Pierre , Wang Shengrui
Published: December 2016

Motivation

Comparing ribonucleic acid (RNA) secondary structures of arbitrary size uncovers structural patterns that can provide a better understanding of RNA functions. However, performing fast and accurate secondary structure comparisons is challenging when we take into account the RNA configuration (i.e. linear or circular), the presence of pseudoknot and G-quadruplex (G4) motifs and the increasing number of secondary structures generated by high-throughput probing techniques. To address this challenge, we propose the super-n-motifs model based on a latent analysis of enhanced motifs comprising not only basic motifs but also adjacency relations. The super-n-motifs model computes a vector representation of secondary structures as linear combinations of these motifs.

Results

We demonstrate the accuracy of our model for comparison of secondary structures from linear and circular RNA while also considering pseudoknot and G4 motifs. We show that the super-n-motifs representation effectively captures the most important structural features of secondary structures, as compared to other representations such as ordered tree, arc-annotated and string representations. Finally, we demonstrate the time efficiency of our model, which is alignment free and capable of performing large-scale comparisons of 10 000 secondary structures with an efficiency up to 4 orders of magnitude faster than existing approaches.

Availability and Implementation

The super-n-motifs model was implemented in C ++. Source code and Linux binary are freely available at http://jpsglouzon.github.io/supernmotifs/.

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Issues in Polling Methodologies
Authors: Gill Jeff , Homola Jonathan
Published: December 2016

This chapter presents issues and complications in statistical inference and uncertainty assessment using public opinion and polling data. It emphasizes the methodologically appropriate treatment of polling results as binomial and multinomial outcomes, and highlights methodological issues with correctly specifying and explaining the margin of error. The chapter also examines the log-ratio transformation of compositional data such as proportions of candidate support as one possible approach for the difficult analysis of such information. The deeply flawed Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST) is discussed, along with common inferential misinterpretations. The relevance of this discussion is illustrated using specific examples of errors from journalistic sources as well as from academic journals focused on measures of public opinion.
Remote Acculturation
Authors: Ferguson Gail , Tran Steve , Mendez Shawn , Vijver Fons van de
Published: December 2016

Globalization has accelerated the exposure of nonmigrants to remote cultures in which they have never lived, producing remote acculturation (RA). The health implications of RA may reach further than those of immigrant acculturation because nonmigrants constitute the majority of the world’s population. This chapter describes the conceptualization of RA, reviews the body of empirical research on RA, discusses measurement of RA, and explores the health implications of RA. The review suggests that RA to faraway cultures may have both negative and positive health outcomes, some of which are also common to immigrants (e.g., acculturation gap between adolescents and parents). Acculturation and health researchers, as well as health practitioners, need to be alert to this new cultural landscape if they are to effectively address the health needs of modern individuals who may be acculturating remotely in their own backyards.
Acculturation and Risky Sexual Behavior Among Adolescents and Emerging Adults from Immigrant Families
Authors: Tsai Jennifer , Becker Davida , Sussman Steve , Bluthenthal Ricky , Unger Jennifer , Schwartz Seth J.
Published: December 2016

Adolescents and emerging adults who engage in risky sexual behaviors (RSBs), such as inconsistent condom use, having multiple partners, having sex at a young age, and having sex while intoxicated or high, are at elevated risk of acquiring sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and unplanned pregnancy. The chapter discusses the relationship of acculturation (along with associated intrapersonal and interpersonal mediators and moderators) with RSB outcomes. Acculturation can be a protective or risk-enhancing factor for RSBs among adolescents. Intrapersonal variables, such as academic achievement, sexual intention, and sexual health knowledge, and interpersonal variables, such as parent, peer, and partner relationships, can act as mediators between acculturation and RSBs. The strength of these relationships may be further moderated by religiosity and gender. Implications for future research and interventions are proposed.
Women at the Top
Authors: Kulik Carol T. , Metz Isabel
Published: December 2016

There is now an international agenda to increase women’s representation at the top of organizations. This agenda is driven in part by a business case arguing that gender diversity brings value, particularly economic value, to organizations. In this article, we review the empirical evidence linking women’s representation in senior leadership roles to countable, verifiable organizational outcomes (e.g., organizational financial performance, practices, and demographics). We consider women’s impact when they are CEOs, directors on corporate boards, members of the top management team, and managers. We conclude that women at the top have an impact on organizational outcomes, but this impact is more visible on organizational practices and organizational demography than on financial performance. We recommend that researchers studying the gender-performance link at the organizational level make their theoretical perspectives explicit, distinguish among mediating mechanisms, be selective in their outcome choices, and increase their emphasis on contextual moderators.
The Rise of Short Fiction
Authors: Hunter Adrian
Published: December 2016

This chapter points out that, by contrast with histories of the novel, discussion of short fiction has been, to an overwhelming and limiting extent, formal and aesthetic rather than cultural and historical. Furthermore, it suggests that the problematic homogenizing of the years 1880-1920 within the modernist paradigm (which this volume as a whole questions and subverts) has mainly been responsible for the critical failure to understand the short story’s simultaneous rise to prominence. It is argued that it was in the 1890s and not the 1910s ‘that the short story became aligned with values and practices of a literary avant-garde, and entered into a distinctively modernist phase’. There are, for example, significant connections between the ‘plotless’ short story (produced by Arthur Morrison) and ‘the representational demands of urban modernity’. References to such women writers as George Egerton explore the relationship between the ‘interrogative short story form’ and female selfhood.
Race and Biology
Authors: Greenslade William
Published: December 2016

This chapter reminds us that, amid the surge of interest in eugenics, were the ‘countervailing’ voices of writers such as Mona Caird, William James, and the anthropologist Franz Boas. These thinkers contested biological and racial determinism’s apparent hegemony, even while many of their contemporaries like Ibsen, Hardy, and Gissing were ‘creatively entangled’ in deterministic discourses around heredity, race, and biology. The chapter examines the centrality of these widely circulating discourses to the development of eugenic ideas in this period. It also explores the typological resources granted to writers, both to voice such deterministic ideas and to offer points of resistance through the different subject positions that their texts could adopt.
Life writing
Authors: Saunders Max
Published: December 2016

Starting with Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray, the chapter argues that the mimetic concept of portraiture is disturbed at the fin de siècle as it becomes increasingly subjectivized: portraits come to be read as autobiographical; as expressing the artist as well as the sitter. It explores two literary experiments with portraiture: Pater’s variations on the idea of the ‘Imaginary Portrait’; and William Hale White’s creation in The Autobiography of Mark Rutherford of a self-portrait by an imaginary author (who is also in many ways a self-portrait). These and other texts are read as examples of what Stephen Reynolds termed (in 1906) ‘autobiografiction’: a paradigm for a vital strand of modern literature.
WhenwasModernism?
Authors: Whitworth Michael H.
Published: December 2016

The chapter considers the dates at which modernism might be taken to have started and ended, and the ideological and aesthetic judgements we implicitly make when we periodize the movement. It examines the history of the idea of 1922 as modernism’s annus mirabilis, and its consequences for the modernist canon. It asks about the value of tying aesthetic modernism to socio-historical modernity. It presents a taxonomy of the different modernities currently in use, and examines how modernity was treated by the New Criticism and how it has figured in feminist and Marxist accounts of modernism. It concludes by examining transnational accounts of modernism, and investigating the assumptions about modernism and modernity that they involve.
From Corporate Law to Corporate Governance
Authors: Gilson Ronald J.
Published: December 2016

In the 1960s and 1970s, corporate law and finance scholars gave up on their traditional approaches. Corporate law had become “towering skyscrapers of rusted girders, internally welded together and containing nothing but wind.” In finance, the theory of the firm was recognized as an “empty box.” This essay tracks how corporate law was reborn as corporate governance through three examples of how we have usefully complicated the inquiry into corporate behavior. Part I frames the first complication, defining governance broadly as the company’s operating system, a braided framework of legal and non-legal elements. Part II adds a second complication by making the inquiry dynamic: corporate governance as a path dependent process that co-evolves with the elements of the broader capitalist regime. Part III considers unsuccessful efforts to simplify rather than complicate corporate governance analysis through static single factor models: stakeholder, team production, director primacy, and shareholder primacy. Part IV concludes by highlighting the tradeoff between a governance system’s capacity to adapt to change and its ability to support long-term investment.
Contemporary Vietnamese Buddhism
Authors: Soucy Alexander
Published: December 2016

The Vietnamese have had a particularly traumatic experience throughout the twentieth century. Colonial domination, decades of some of the most brutal warfare the world has ever seen, and the dispersal of Vietnamese refugees throughout the globe have made a strong impact on the way that Vietnamese Buddhism is practiced and perceived. Vietnamese Buddhism, while still mainly devotional in nature, is increasingly being influenced by the notion that Zen Buddhism is a central part of the tradition. This chapter will examine the history that has led to these changes, while describing some elements of the way that Buddhism is practiced today in Vietnam and by the overseas Vietnamese communities.
European Buddhist Traditions
Authors: Cox Laurence
Published: December 2016

This chapter covers those Buddhist traditions that are largely based in Europe, noting some of the specificities of this history as against the North American with which it is sometimes conflated. While the reception history of Buddhism in Europe stretches back to Alexander, Buddhist organization in Europe begins in the later nineteenth century, with the partial exception of indigenous Buddhisms in the Russian Empire. The chapter discusses Asian-oriented Buddhisms with a strong European base; European neo-traditionalisms founded by charismatic individuals; explicitly new beginnings; and the broader world of “fuzzy religion” with Buddhist components, including New Age, “nightstand Buddhists,” Christian creolizations, secular mindfulness, and Engaged Buddhism. In general terms, European Buddhist traditions reproduce the wider decline of religious institutionalization and boundary formation that shapes much of European religion generally.
Contemporary Burmese Buddhism
Authors: Foxeus Niklas
Published: December 2016

Contemporary Buddhism in Burma/Myanmar is diverse and manifold, and the variety of “modern” forms of Buddhism have evolved since the colonial period in dynamic interplay with modernization, colonization, nation-building, and shifting socioeconomic circumstances. Complex hybrids have emerged, combining a wide variety of sources and influences, drawing both on the pre-colonial developments and novel ones introduced during the colonial period onward, reflecting the interests of those involved, identity politics, and power struggles. This chapter investigates the development of a textual, doctrinal Buddhism, defense and promotion of the Buddha’s sasana, moral community, and national identity in a diversity of movements: the Buddhist lay associations, systematic meditation, and Abhidhamma studies for the laypeople, the insight meditation movement and the esoteric congregations, Buddhist nationalism, socially engaged Buddhism, and individualist trends and prosperity Buddhism.
Buddhist Relics and Pilgrimage
Authors: Maud Jovan
Published: December 2016

The expansion of Buddhist traditions throughout Asia and beyond has not only involved the transmission of doctrine but also the establishment and expansion of a material presence of Buddhist institutions and sacred sites. Through the history of Buddhism, the closely related practices of relic veneration and pilgrimage have been central to the formation and expansion of a sacred geography, the exchange of Buddhist ideas and cultural forms, and to claims of political legitimacy. This chapter provides an overview of these practices—their origins, historical development, and their ongoing significance in contemporary times. Focusing in particular on two domains in which both practices are implicated—power and politics, and tourism and consumption—it shows that far from disappearing with modernity, both relic veneration and pilgrimage continue to be creatively adapted to contemporary social, political and economic circumstances.
Diasporic Buddhisms and Convert Communities
Authors: Nelson John
Published: December 2016

This chapter explores issues of diasporic Buddhist movement and cultural adaptation, as well as how individuals affiliate with Buddhist denominations in diverse settings worldwide. One of the enduring features of religion worldwide is mobility. Ideas, concepts, practices, prohibitions, and cosmologies circulate beyond cultural and political boundaries in ways ranging from intentional to spontaneous. The transregional and multicultural dimensions of Buddhism have been central to its history, institutional growth, and conceptual development, yet we also see specific ethnic versions of Buddhist practice shaped by very local concerns. Using the term “diaspora” for coerced as well as voluntary relocations of Buddhist traditions and practitioners helps track issues of accommodation, hybridity, discourse, and experimentation as new sociocultural contexts shape existing practices and patterns. The discussion also investigates how individuals affiliating with Buddhist traditions, whether as a form of heritage or as new converts, experience “taking refuge” in the Three Jewels in culturally conditioned ways.
Introduction
Authors: Jerryson Michael
Published: December 2016

This Handbook examines the transformations to Buddhists, their beliefs, and practices throughout the nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first centuries. Over the centuries, Buddhism changed with modernity. These changes accelerated in diverse manners during the colonial and postcolonial periods. As each tradition offers its own distinctive historical and cultural context, Part I in the Handbook reviews the development of specific traditions. There are seven subsections that demarcate the regions from which various traditions emerged: South Asia, East Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, Europe/Americas, Southern, and Global. Part II tracks patterns and themes that relate to the diverse Buddhist traditions. In this section, chapters address the modes or manners in which Buddhist traditions manifest in the contemporary age.
Contemporary Buddhism and Ecology
Authors: Darlington Susan M.
Published: December 2016

This chapter critically investigates the relationship between Buddhism and ecology, emphasizing the behaviors and intentions of practitioners rather than interpretations of early Buddhist scriptures. Through examination of the contemporary interpretations and implementations of the concept of interdependence (Pali: paticca-samuppada), animal release rituals, and the activities of Thai forest monks and environmental monks, the author aims to understand both what influences Buddhist environmental activists and the degree to which their actions are effectual. Part of this context is to understand the motivations of practitioners and the degree of environmental awareness underlying Buddhist practices that are often perceived to be ecologically friendly. Acts such as animal release rituals often result in unintentional negative ecological consequences. Yet Buddhists can have positive environmental impacts when Buddhist practices are consciously integrated with ecological principles and consequences rather than simply being labeled as environmentally friendly on an abstract level.
Contemporary Buddhist Chanting and Music
Authors: Greene Paul D.
Published: December 2016

Music and patterned expressions of sound (whether classified as music or not) serve Buddhist cultures and practices in many important ways. This chapter takes stock of the many diverse practices of the world’s Buddhist cultures, in the vehicles of Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana, and Zen. Functions of music, sound, and chanting include proclaiming, memorizing, and contemplating the Dhamma; signaling transitions in rituals; repeating mantras; narrating Jataka stories; cultivating a sense of community within Buddhist lay groups; and performing a rich pageantry of processual music to glorify shrines. Scholarship on Buddhist chanting and music is rapidly growing, though it is divided by language and dispersed among many fields of study. The emerging Buddhist musicology holds great promise, if lingering obstacles between fields of study and languages of scholarship can be overcome.
Contemporary Lao Buddhism
Authors: Ladwig Patrice
Published: December 2016

Lao Buddhism’s histories are deeply fragmented. Most Lao were deported to Siam in the nineteenth century, and after the demise of the French colonial regime, the country was drawn into the Second Indochina War. After two decades of brutal warfare and massive destructions, the Lao communist movement took power in 1975. This chapter examines the history of Lao Buddhism in the context of these events, and puts its main focus on the entanglement of religion and politics in the postcolonial phase, as the political polarization of the Lao sangha during the Cold War and the impact of the subsequent revolution remain crucial for understanding Buddhism’s position in the current Lao PDR. While under reformed socialism there has been a resurgence of Buddhism in the last two decades, the social and religious transformations resulting from rapid modernization through the capitalist economy and globalization bring new challenges for the Lao sangha.
Contemporary Buddhism and Death
Authors: Rowe Mark
Published: December 2016

Funerary Buddhism emerges out of Buddhism’s encounter with modernization, both in Asia and the West from the nineteenth century. It refers to a broad spectrum of textual, material, ritual, sociocultural, and institutional forms connected to the immediate and ongoing care of the dead. It implicates everything from Buddhist institutions to local temples, local civil codes to international law, and sectarian intellectuals to popular culture. A crucial aspect of funerary Buddhism includes its use as a foil, particularly the ways in which Buddhist modernists have tried to explain away many aspects of Buddhist funerary practices as not real Buddhism. Forced to act as the “other” to various notions of true Buddhism, funerary Buddhism thus also represents, in countries such as Japan, a sort of existential crisis whereby local priests are told that their ongoing dependence on funerary ritual is at odds with the true teachings of their sects.
Buddhism in Australia and Oceania
Authors: Barker Michelle
Published: December 2016

Buddhism’s development in Australia and Oceania is a history of transnational global flows in these regions, with the evolution of Buddhism in these countries being closely tied to immigration and travel. Here the history and demographic developments in Australia and the nations of Oceania are analyzed, with a case study examining in greater depth how the growth of Buddhism in Australia reflects the effects of both cultural contexts and the influence of transnational Buddhist organizations. The emerging field of transnational Buddhism is identifying the conditions that may be necessary for the nations of Australia and Oceania to take the evolutionary step necessary to strategically position Buddhism so that these nations become global Buddhist hubs.
Buddhist Healing and Taming in Tibet
Authors: Gerke Barbara
Published: December 2016

This chapter centers on Tibetan Buddhist patterns and themes of healing and addresses the inter-relationship of medicine and religion in the practice of Tibetan medicine, also called Sowa Rigpa (gso ba rig pa), the “science of healing,” and how Buddhist rituals are employed to enhance the potency of medicines and to protect the pharmacy and the people working in it from accidents and obstacles during difficult manufacturing processes. Examples focus on the refinement of mercury in mercury sulphide ash for use in “precious pills” (rin chen ril bu). The chapter establishes an argument for a parallel between Buddhist ideas of “taming” demons into becoming protectors of the religious teachings and the pharmacological transformation of poisonous substances, especially the pharmacological practices of “taming” mercury into a potent elixir, and what this tells us about Tibetan medical approaches to what is considered “beneficial” and “harmful.”
The Contemporary Study of Buddhism
Authors: McGovern Nathan
Published: December 2016

This chapter discusses the history of Buddhist studies as a modern academic discipline. Rather than giving a broad bibliographic survey of the field, it explores the way in which power has structured its genesis and development as a system for the production of knowledge. The first section of the chapter describes the confluence of Orientalism and Western presuppositions about the nature of “religion” that shaped the direction of Buddhist studies in its first century. The second section then turns to older systems of knowledge-cum-power that were both drawn upon and disrupted by colonial Buddhist studies. Finally, the third section makes the argument that “decolonization,” while allowing for a critique of colonial Buddhist studies, has not led to an end to the intertwining of power and knowledge production in Buddhist studies, but rather to its transformation.
Buddhism and Science as Ethical Discourse
Authors: Cho Francisca
Published: December 2016

The discourse about the similarity and compatibility between Buddhism and science has persisted from the late nineteenth century into the current day as a central feature of contemporary Buddhism. A consistent aspect of this meeting of traditional Buddhism and modern Western science is the desire to turn the moral narratives implied by scientific theories toward ethical and spiritual visions, in explicit opposition to mechanistic and matter-reductionistic worldviews. This chapter examines the most recent expressions of this impulse, which focus on the Buddhist doctrine of dependent arising (pratitya-samutpada) and displace reductionistic theories in evolutionary biology, cognitive science, and physics with new insights from systems science.
Contemporary Buddhism and Iconography
Authors: Patterson Jessica Lee
Published: December 2016

This chapter examines the historical usage of the term “iconography,” how Erwin Panofsky (1892–1968) developed it into a fundamental method of art historical analysis, and considers the applications of this method to the contemporary study of Buddhist art. It explores the broad range of signification of the term “icon,” and contends that the polysemic potential of images matches that of words, which can complicate attempts to oversimplify the relationship between iconography and identity. Various possibilities for compound layering, slippage, or disjunction between iconography and identity are enumerated, using examples from Buddhist art. It concludes that the iconography of contemporary Buddhist is poised between regional developments and broader global trends, manifesting in imaginative innovations and the creative adaptation or revival of earlier forms.
Contemporary Mongolian Buddhism
Authors: Wallace Vesna A. , Murphy Christine
Published: December 2016

This chapter consists of two main sections. The first section is concerned with a brief and broad overview of the emergence and development of Buddhism during different periods, namely, those of the Mongol Empire, the colonial Qing rule in Mongolia, and the establishment of the Autonomous Mongolian State. This is followed by descriptions of the demise of institutional Buddhism in Mongolia, prohibition of religious freedom during the communist period, and the re-emergence of Buddhism in the early 1980s. The first section of the chapter focuses on the challenges of the early phase of the revitalization of Buddhism and on the current progress made in the effort to rebuild Buddhism as a genuine Mongolian tradition. The second section of the chapter is dedicated to the development of modern interpretations of Buddhism within contemporary Mongolia. Looking specifically at the relationship between sexuality and monasticism in contemporary Mongolia and at the tradition of married monastics, we develop a fuller understanding of contemporary Buddhist practices and identity in contemporary Mongolian Buddhism.
Law, Regulation, and Technology
Authors: Brownsword Roger , Scotford Eloise , Yeung Karen
Published: December 2016

This chapter introduces law, regulation, and technology as a rapidly developing field of research. It offers a frame for an ambitious set of scholarly inquiries by suggesting three connected themes for research, each evoking ideas of ‘disruption’: (1) technology’s disruption of legal doctrine and its normative foundations; (2) its disruption of regulatory frameworks more generally, often provoking concerns about regulatory legitimacy; and (3) challenges in constructing regulatory environments that are ‘fit for purpose’ in light of rapid technological development and disruption. The chapter then outlines the Handbook’s structure, reflecting on the core values that underpin the law and regulation of technology; the doctrinal questions posed by new technologies; and how regulatory governance processes and institutions have been shaped by technological innovation. The final section examines these issues across six key policy spheres for technological development. We conclude by reflecting on the future of research and education in the field.
Legal Evolution in Response to Technological Change
Authors: Mandel Gregory N.
Published: December 2016

This introductory chapter to Part III examines whether there are generalizable lessons concerning law and its regulation of technology that we can learn from past experience with the law reacting to technological evolution. I suggest three insights from historical interactions between law and technological change: (1) pre-existing legal categories may no longer apply to new law and technology disputes; (2) legal decision makers should be mindful to avoid letting the marvels of a new technology distort their legal analysis; and (3) the types of legal disputes that will arise from new technology are often unforeseeable. These lessons are applicable across a wide range of technologies, legal fields, and contexts to aid in determining current and future legal responses to technological development.
Transcending the Myth of Law’s Stifling Technological Innovation
Authors: Dorbeck-Jung Bärbel
Published: December 2016

This chapter explores the lessons that can be drawn from how adaptive drug licensing processes cope with legitimacy issues of regulatory connections. The exploration assumes that a responsive approach to technology regulation offers opportunities to meet legitimacy requirements. Looking at existing and proposed adaptive drug licensing pathways through the lens of this theoretical frame we see a realistic responsive approach to regulation. By indicating that adaptive licensing can bring beneficial medicinal drugs earlier to patients this approach seems to be equipped to transcend the myth of law’s stifling technological innovation. The evaluation of the current stage of adaptive drug licensing leads to three tentative lessons. First, a shared interest, accompanied by strong drivers and enablers, is crucial; second, ongoing prudent coordination of a leading regulatory agency is essential; third, to ensure that new responsibilities and the norms of participation, transparency, integrity, and accountability are taken seriously a new social contract can be supportive.
Reproductive Technologies and the Search for Regulatory Legitimacy
Authors: Gavaghan Colin
Published: December 2016

For a variety of reasons, assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) have posed significant challenges to regulators seeking normative legitimacy. While some of those challenges relate to the sort of value pluralism common to many areas of life, it has been suggested that the challenge is made significantly harder by the presence of genuinely intractable normative problems. This chapter examines one of the most significant of these problems in relation to reproductive choices, the infamous Non Identity Problem. I examine a number of proposed solutions and regulatory strategies that have been examined to circumvent or resolve such problems, and conclude by suggesting that the extent of the challenge posed by non-identity is just beginning to become apparent.
Organizational Identity in Institutional Theory
Authors: Kraatz Mattew , Phillips Nelson , Tracey Paul
Published: December 2016

In this chapter, we explore how the concept of organizational identity has evolved in institutional theory. We begin by examining the different ways that organizational identity has been conceptualized and explain the evolving theoretical interests that lie behind the approaches that have been taken. Building on this, we discuss how organizational identity research might benefit from closer engagement with ideas from institutional theory. In particular, we discuss three possible directions for further development. First, we discuss how Selznick’s work emphasizes the historical, holistic, and value-driven nature of identity and why this is helpful for further developing thinking around organizational identity. Second, we explain how more recent developments in institutional theory such as institutional logics, institutional work, and collective identity provide an important bridge for connecting research in organizational identity and research in institutional theory. And, third, we explore how we might build a comprehensive, multi-level theory of organizational identity and institutions.
Mobilizing Organizational Action Against Identity Threats
Authors: Petriglieri Jennifer , Devine Beth A.
Published: December 2016

This chapter examines how individual members’ perceptions and responses to organizational identity threats drive (or not) an organizational threat response. We suggest that for an organizational identity threat to be recognized as such and to provoke a response from a member, the threat must put the members’ own identity at stake. Our central contention is that an organizational identity threat must translate into a threat to members’ own identity for them to respond to it. We also propose that individual members who perceive an organizational identity threat can only mobilize organizational action when there is a consensus—in other words, broad support—about the presence and significance of the threat. We highlight the role of consensus-building via bottom-up and top-down processes, and explore the role of political mechanisms that underpin and determine whether the two processes of consensus building are successful.
Organizational Identity and Innovation
Authors: Anthony Callen , Tripsas Mary
Published: December 2016

Though much work has studied organizational identity and the management of innovation, very little work explores the connection between them. Yet we argue that these separate conversations yield implications for one another and offer a rich area for future research. By its nature, innovation is about novelty and change, while identity is rooted in stability and endurance. This contrast creates a fundamental tension, which we explore. We propose that innovative activities like technological change fall on a spectrum from identity-enhancing to identity-stretching to identity-challenging. Both identity-enhancing and identity-stretching innovations result in a mutually constitutive dynamic in which identity and innovation reinforce each other. Identity-challenging innovations, however, create organizational discord and dysfunctional dynamics unless realigned with identity. We discuss the implications of these varying states and call for future research that builds upon and extends our understanding of the relationship between identity and innovation across multiple levels of analysis.
The Economics of Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation
Authors: Jakobsson Niklas , Kotsadam Andreas
Published: December 2016

This article analyzes the economics of international human trafficking of women for commercial sexual exploitation. It begins with a review of the economics literature on sex trafficking, with particular emphasis on factors that determines which type of country people are trafficked to and where people are trafficked from. It then describes the datasets that have been and can be used in studying trafficking. It also considers some economics papers that work toward integrating the analysis of trafficking to include both sending and receiving countries. It suggests that the economic literature on human smuggling is particularly promising and should be incorporated by economists studying trafficking. The article concludes by highlighting gaps in the economics trafficking literature and outlining possible areas of future research.
Male Sex Workers
Authors: Galárraga Omar , Sosa-Rubí Sandra G.
Published: December 2016

Although commercial sex transactions related to men who have sex with men have particular importance for HIV/AIDS prevention, the economic literature analyzing male sex workers is limited. A handful of studies have been published, first with descriptive analyses of specific markets and more recently taking advantage of Internet resources and larger surveys. The theoretical economic models have not yet been fully customized to fit all the nuance and specificity of this particular trade. This chapter gives a general overview of economic models relevant for the analysis of male-sex-worker transactions; it then presents a summary of relevant themes in the economics literature, with additional insights from other social sciences, and concludes with suggestions for future research, particularly combining psychosocial issues in the framework of behavioral and health economics.
Income, Income Shocks, and Transactional Sex
Authors: LoPiccalo Katherine , Robinson Jonathan , Yeh Ethan
Published: December 2016

Transactional sex is an important factor in the spread of HIV, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. This chapter reviews empirical evidence on the economic incentives that influence the decision to supply transactional sex, and it discusses several policies that may affect supply decisions. While the primary motivation for entering the transactional-sex market is the large income premium relative to other jobs, unexpected income shocks also affect sexual behavior. Based largely on a set of studies in western Kenya, the chapter shows that women are more likely to supply unprotected sex when they experience unexpected income shocks. We also show that sex workers receive informal insurance transfers from regular clients when shocks occur. Such support may induce some women into supplying sex. The chapter concludes with a discussion of possible policy options, including providing conditional cash transfers, giving information on health risks, and introducing risk-coping mechanisms such as insurance or bank accounts.
Sexual and Communication Networks of Internet-Mediated Prostitution
Authors: Rocha Luis E. C. , Liljeros Fredrik , Holme Petter
Published: December 2016

This chapter examines prostitution as a socioeconomic phenomenon and discusses its contribution to the spread of sexually transmitted infections. Using online network data from Internet-mediated prostitution in Brazil, it looks at the connectedness of individuals on a review website where clients record intimate details about encounters with sex workers. It begins with an overview of networks, including human sexual networks, along with network properties and measures and the dynamics and structure of a sexual network. It describes general models of disease spreading and introduces a specific methodology for temporal networks, where the infection coevolves with network structure. The chapter shows that the structure of the sexual network is highly clustered within cities but that minimal connections exist across cities. It also finds evidence for local bridges between cities: individual clients who frequent prostitutes nationally. Male tourists play important roles in a potential epidemic by linking otherwise distinct communities.
Violence and Entry in Prostitution Markets
Authors: Lee Samuel , Persson Petra
Published: December 2016

This chapter explores three issues in prostitution markets and their implications for prostitution law: bargaining, coercion, and entry. The discussion is organized around three different views on violence: prostitution as a product of violence, voluntary entry into prostitution markets, and transactional coercion. The chapter pays special attention to transactional coercion, which acknowledges the fact that violence against prostitutes is not restricted to pimps and traffickers. A simple model of bargaining and coercion in prostitution markets is proposed, and the various types of coercion that arise in this model are analyzed within the context of prostitution laws. More specifically, the chapter considers how prostitution laws affect coercion and bargaining between prostitutes, johns, pimps, and law-enforcement officers. It also examines which law reduces overall transactional coercion, irrespective of whom it is exercised by, and thus improves the work environment and safety of prostitutes.
Economics of Sex Work in Bangladesh
Authors: Islam Asadul , Smyth Russell
Published: December 2016

This chapter examines the economics of sex work in Bangladesh. It begins with an overview of the organization of sex markets in Bangladesh by considering two major categories of female sex workers in the country: those who work in brothels and those who work as floating sex workers. It then discusses the motives for women to engage in prostitution, along with the socioeconomic status of sex workers. It also analyzes the economic returns of sex work, the relationship between client and sex worker, and the role of government and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in improving the social status of sex workers. In particular, it looks at how NGOs promote the benefits of safe sex among sex workers. While returns of sex work as measured by income are relatively high, the chapter shows that other aspects of the job, such as assault and rape, are quite common.
Transnational Commercial Surrogacy
Authors: Choudhury Cyra Akila
Published: December 2016

With the emergence of assisted reproductive technologies, particularly in vitro fertilization, gestational surrogacy in which an woman can be hired to gestate the child of commissioning parents has grown into a multimillion dollar industry. While many countries prohibit surrogacy, others permit and some even allow women to charge for the service of gestation on a commercial basis. This article addresses the regulation of transnational surrogacy and the related legal conflicts that arise in cross-border agreements particularly in commercial contracts It starts with a brief exploration of the surrogacy industry and growth. It then goes on to describe and analyze some of the legal frameworks that affect surrogacy contracts. The article proceeds to discuss some of the most prominent cross-border controversies to highlight that these conflicts tend to arise from a lack of international or transnational regulation on parentage and citizenship. Finally, the article explores the proposals for international regulation and the prospects of solving some of the more difficult legal problems that have arisen from transnational surrogacy.