bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Loyalty: The Missing Virtue
Authors: Konstan David
Published: July 2018

Ancient Greek and Roman moralists seem not to have identified loyalty as a specific virtue, and for good reason: loyalties can be divided or misdirected. Affection or love (philia) was the ground of commitment. As the sociologist Georg Simmel observed, “If love continues to exist in a relationship between persons, why does it need faithfulness . . . ? Faithfulness might be called the inertia of the soul. It keeps the soul on the path on which it started, even after the original occasion that led it onto it no longer exists.” The contrast between the classical emphasis on love as the basis of constancy and the modern regard for loyalty is illustrated by way of analyses of Euripides’ tragedy Orestes and Menander’s comedy Epitrepontes (Arbitrants), on the one hand, and John Galsworthy’s drama Loyalties and Edward Albee’s A Delicate Balance, on the other.
Protestant Dissent in Scotland
Authors: Brown Stewart J.
Published: July 2018

The revolution of 1688–9 brought the re-establishment of a Presbyterianism within the national Church of Scotland, after a period of Episcopacy. The decline in state interest in enforcing religious uniformity created space for the growth and diversification of Dissent. Some Presbyterians refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the post-Revolution state and withdrew from the parish structures. Episcopalians also found themselves dissenters from the Presbyterian Establishment after 1688. The Church of Scotland itself experienced a series of secessions during the eighteenth century. Concerns about orthodoxy and disquiet about the ways in which lay patrons were appointing ministers, often without consulting congregations, were crucial. Scottish Dissent was strengthened by the Evangelical Revival and both Whitefield and Wesley preached extensively in Scotland. As in Ireland, other Dissenting groups were small in number and mainly originated from the period of Cromwellian occupation. Scottish religion became more diverse and dynamic across this period.
Missionary Societies
Authors: Stanley Brian
Published: July 2018

While some of the global reach of Dissenting traditions is due to the vagaries of migration from Britain in the early modern period, much of it is also the result of the deliberate propagation of the faith in which the Missionary Societies, formed between the French Revolution and the early nineteenth century, were key. Older scholarship tended to celebrate evangelical Dissent as being central to this movement. More recent exploration has shown that unlike earlier Pietist and Anglican missionary activity, the Baptist Missionary Society (1792) and London Missionary Society (1795) had a global reach, rather than being limited to strong national/colonial networks. Given the independence from state control of these new societies, they were also entirely reliant on philanthropic giving to finance their activities.
Sermons
Authors: Deconinck-Brossard Françoise
Published: July 2018

Both liturgically and architecturally, sermons were central to Dissenting life. Listening to the Word was at the heart of Dissenting worship and pulpits were frequently in prominent positions within the meeting house. While printed sermons have, understandably, been the focus of much work in this area, manuscript sermons also offer important insights into how sermons were used, the occasions on which they were delivered, and the reactions of their auditors. While many Dissenting sermons were devoted to themes in practical divinity—how to lead a good life (or die a good death)—they could also enable Dissenters to demonstrate their loyalty to the state or to engage in philanthropic activity. Unlike their Anglican counterparts, Dissenters were more inclined to give extemporary sermons but sermon notes allow historians to gain some insights into how the majority of sermons, which were not printed, might have been received.
Introduction to Dispositional Pluralism
Authors: McKitrick Jennifer
Published: July 2018

To say that something has a certain disposition is to indicate what it might do in certain circumstances. One can tell if a property, concept, or predicate is dispositional if it bears the Marks of Dispositionality. These marks include manifestations, triggers, the possibility of possession without manifestation, as well as connections with counterfactuals and overtly dispositional locutions. Dispositions can be distinguished from non-dispositional properties. The broad range of dispositional concepts employed in ordinary language, science, and philosophy shows that they are abundant and diverse. The chapter concludes with an outline of the book’s chapters.
The Failure of Conceptual Analysis
Authors: McKitrick Jennifer
Published: July 2018

Dispositions are often regarded with suspicion. Consequently, some philosophers try to semantically reduce disposition ascriptions to sentences containing only non-dispositional vocabulary. Typically, reductionists attempt to analyze disposition ascriptions in terms of conditional statements. These conditional statements, like other modal claims, are often interpreted in terms of possible worlds semantics. However, conditional analyses are subject to a number of problems and counterexamples, including random coincidences, void satisfaction, masks, antidotes, mimics, altering, and finks. Some analyses fail to reduce disposition ascriptions to non-modal vocabulary. If reductive analysis of disposition ascriptions fails, then perhaps there can be metaphysical reduction of dispositions without semantic reduction. However, the reductionist still owes us an account of what makes disposition ascriptions true. But to posit a causal power for every unreduced dispositional predicate is an overreaction to the failure of conceptual analysis.
Ungrounded Dispositions
Authors: McKitrick Jennifer
Published: July 2018

Some dispositions have causal bases or grounding properties. However, ungrounded dispositions do not have causal bases. Ungrounded dispositions are also known as powers, baseless dispositions, and bare dispositions. Ungrounded dispositions are not supplanted by mechanistic explanations, for even mechanistic explanations ultimately reference dispositions. While some argue that citing dispositions does not really explain anything, dispositions can in fact figure in adequate explanations. Furthermore, scientific explanations reference dispositions with no known grounds. This lends some support for the view that ungrounded dispositions are metaphysically possible. Philosophical arguments based on multiple realizability or the demand for truth-makers fail to show that ungrounded dispositions are impossible.
Extrinsic Dispositions
Authors: McKitrick Jennifer
Published: July 2018

Some dispositions are intrinsic properties while others are extrinsic properties. Many extrinsic properties bear the Marks of Dispositionality. Perfect intrinsic duplicates could differ with respect to certain dispositions. A thing could lose a disposition merely by changing its location. Examples of extrinsic dispositions include visibility, vulnerability, and recognizability. Some philosophers argue that extrinsic dispositions are unnatural or derivative, and that this is some reason to think that extrinsic dispositions do not really exist. However, all but the most fundamental properties are derivative. Unless one is committed to a sparse theory of properties, a property’s being non-fundamental is no reason to think that it does not exist. Furthermore, it is not obvious that all extrinsic dispositions must be derivative. It is possible, and perhaps scientifically plausible, to think that some fundamental powers such as mass, are extrinsic.
Causal Efficacy of Dispositions
Authors: McKitrick Jennifer
Published: July 2018

Some dispositions are causally relevant to or causally efficacious for their manifestations. But according to the Inert Dispositions Thesis, dispositions are causally inert. Some philosophers claim that grounded dispositions are causally impotent. According to Analyticity Arguments, the analytic connection between a disposition term and a manifestation term indicates that there is no causal connection between their referents. According to Independence Arguments, cause and effect must be independent in a way that dispositions and manifestation are not. According to Exclusion Arguments, a disposition’s causal basis causally explains its manifestation, leaving no causal work for the disposition to do. These arguments for the Inert Dispositions Thesis do not succeed. Higher-level, grounded dispositions can be causally efficacious with respect to their manifestations.
Causal Relevance
Authors: McKitrick Jennifer
Published: July 2018

A causally efficacious or relevant property is a property of a cause. However, not every property of a cause is causally relevant to its effect. Further conditions are needed to screen off causally irrelevant properties. Proposals for further conditions include: The causally relevant property must have explanatory power; there must be counterfactual dependence of the effect on the causally relevant property; there must be a lawful connection between the causally relevant property and its effect; the complete set of causally relevant properties must exclude any other properties from playing a causal role; the causally relevant property must be independent from its effect, in some sense; and finally, the causally relevant property is a member of a set of properties that is minimally sufficient for the effect. The most plausible accounts count dispositions as causally relevant.
Odours as Olfactibilia
Authors: Richardson Louise
Published: July 2018

It is natural to think that sight is distinctive amongst the senses in that we typically see ordinary objects directly, rather than seeing a visual equivalent to a sound or odour. It is also natural to think that sounds and odours (like rainbows and holograms) are sensibilia, in that they are each intimately related to just one of our senses. In this chapter, I defend these natural-seeming claims. I present a view on which odours are indeed sensibilia, a claim that is in need of defence when confronted with the suggestion that they are clouds of molecules. Furthermore, I argue that odours and rainbows, whilst both sensibilia, differ in ways that reflect their different roles for perceivers.
Spectacular Absences
Authors: Sorensen Roy
Published: July 2018

Whereas the positive tourist travels to see what is there, the negative tourist travels to see what is not there. Travel he must, because the absences are only visible at specific sites. Tourist agencies promote the visibility of these spectacles with pointers, telescopes, and helicopter rides. Other parties try to render the absences invisible. For instance, after the theft of the Mona Lisa in 1911, crowds thronged to the Louvre to view its absence. Curators eventually filled the gap by shuffling the order of the ambient paintings. Efforts to erase the absence sometimes yield new ways to perceive the absence. Once the suppresser detects the backfire, he attempts another erasure. Since this may itself backfire (thanks to the machinations of the friends of the absence) an arms race develops. This tug of war helps us to articulate the conditions under which absences are visible—and invisible.
No More than Meets the Eye
Authors: Phillips Ian
Published: July 2018

This chapter develops a view of shadows as pure visibilia: objects constitutively and exhaustively connected in nature, existence and qualities to our experience of them. It takes as its stalking horse Sorensen’s very different view, arguing that, contrary to his intended purpose, the hypothesis that shadows are pure visibilia provides a more satisfying account of his striking cases of shadow movement. The claim that shadows are pure visibilia is further motivated by drawing on considerations from aesthetics and vision science. The chapter ends with a puzzle: if shadows do not strictly represent independent elements of our environments, why do we perceive them at all? A speculative answer is tendered. Shadows are visual artefacts: creatures of the light world, carved by our visual systems in the service of the better detection and discrimination of ordinary material objects.
Lykophron's Alexandra, Rome, and the Hellenistic World
Authors: Hornblower Simon
Published: July 2018

This book is an original, accessibly written, contribution to Roman and Hellenistic history. Its subject is a long (1474-line) ancient Greek poem, Lykophron’s Alexandra, probably written about 190 BC. The Trojan Kassandra foretells the conflicts between Europe and Asia from the Trojan Wars to the establishment of Roman ascendancy over the Greek world in the poet’s own time, including the founding of new cities by returning Greeks through the Mediterranean zone, and of Rome by the Trojan refugee Aineias, Kassandra’s kinsman. Simon Hornblower now follows his detailed commentary (OUP 2015, paperback 2017) with a monograph asserting the Alexandra’s importance as a historical document of interest to political, cultural, and religious historians and students of myths of identity. Part One explores Lykophron’s geopolitical world, especially south Italy (perhaps the poet’s area of origin), Sicily, and Rhodes, and argues that the recent (in the 190s) hostile presence of Hannibal in south Italy is a frequent if indirectly expressed concern of the poem. Part Two investigates the poem’s relation to Sibylline and other anti-Roman writings, and argues for its cultural and religious topicality. The Conclusion shows that the 190s BC were a turning-point in Roman history, and that Lykophron was aware of this.
The Hellenistic Kingdoms
Authors: Hornblower Simon
Published: July 2018

Political and literary considerations alike suggest that the Alexandra dates from about 190 BC and that its closing sections celebrate the victory of the Roman consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus over Philip V of Macedon at the battle of Kynoskephalai in 197 BC. Lykophron’s world is essentially the Mediterranean and Black Sea zones. It ranges from Spain across to Phoenicia. All the kingdoms which succeeded Alexander the Great are featured in the poem, but the Seleukids less prominently than the rest. The poem’s Spartan and Theban myths are shown to have resonance for the Hellenistic period. Only Athens is regarded as a place of memory. Some great federations, notably the Boiotian, Aitolian, and Lokrian, are traceable in the poem, and with a particularly Hellenistic twist.
Conclusion
Authors: Hornblower Simon
Published: July 2018

The Alexandra is a strongly political poem. Other candidates for the description are considered. The 190s BC are argued to be a turning-point in Roman history, especially in the sphere of colonizing policy. The poem reflects this, especially in connection with Croton (citizen colony sent out in 194). The intended audience/readership of the poem is discussed. It is suggested that the poet was a bilingual citizen of south Italy and was excited at the possibility of blending Greek and Roman myths.
Consolidation
Authors: Williams Paul D.
Published: July 2018

After explaining the creation of a new FGS in August and September 2012, this chapter analyses how AMISOM consolidated its positions across south-central Somalia. It then provides a summary of the different reviews and mandate revisions overseen by the AU, UN, and AMISOM’s other international partners that took place during late 2012 and 2013. Next, it assesses Sierra Leone’s decision to become AMISOM’s fifth TCC in 2013. The penultimate section explores some of the problems that were raised for AMISOM by the creation of the new Interim Jubaland Administration in mid-2013, while the final section discusses how al-Shabaab’s terrorist attack on the Westgate shopping mall in Nairobi, Kenya stimulated a renewed push for AMISOM to end its period of consolidation.
Security Sector Reform
Authors: Williams Paul D.
Published: July 2018

This chapter analyses how AMISOM tried to cooperate and coordinate with the existing Somali security forces in order to fight an effective war against al-Shabaab and simultaneously help build a new set of ‘national’ security forces that could make the AU mission redundant. After explaining the key challenges involved in security sector reform, it starts with a brief overview of how Somalia’s armed forces evolved since independence, focusing on the period since 2008 when the basis of today’s Somali National Army (SNA) was formed. Throughout the twenty-first century, the Somali armed forces remained fragmented and their institutions and structures largely dysfunctional. The second section then examines seven major challenges that made AMISOM’s mandate to enhance the SNA particularly difficult. The final section reflects on some of the principal lessons that can be identified from AMISOM’s experience.
Strategic Communications
Authors: Williams Paul D.
Published: July 2018

When AMISOM initially deployed, the AU had almost zero strategic communications capabilities and so the mission began without the ability to wage an effective media campaign. This chapter therefore analyses how AMISOM developed a strategic communications capability. It begins with an analysis of how its principal opponent, al-Shabaab, utilized strategic communications and a brief assessment of its effectiveness. The second section then provides an overview of the AU–UN Information Support Team (IST) and its efforts to promote a particular strategic narrative about AMISOM and Somalia. The third section discusses the major challenges faced by the IST, paying particular attention to some of the obstacles posed by the policies of AMISOM’s contributing countries. The conclusion briefly identifies four main lessons that should be drawn from AMISOM’s experiences with strategic communications.
Zombies and Dolls
Authors: Massimini Marcello , Tononi Giulio
Published: July 2018

This chapter uses thought experiments and practical examples to introduce, in a very accessible way, the hard problem of consciousness. Soon, machines may behave like us to pass the Turing test and scientists may succeed in copying and simulating the inner workings of the brain. Will all this take us any closer to solving the mysteries of consciousness? The reader is taken to meet different kind of zombies, the philosophical, the digital, and the inner ones, to understand why many, scientists and philosophers alike, doubt that the mind–body problem will ever be solved.
Inferring Consciousness Out There
Authors: Massimini Marcello , Tononi Giulio
Published: July 2018

This chapter describes a preliminary exploration in search of criteria for consciousness in the biological and physical world beyond the human skull, including dolphins, octopuses, parrots, bees, and computers. It argues that assessing the complexity of behavior and measuring the size of the brain may not provide a reliable estimate in animals. Likewise, it explains why some artificial systems, such as such as feed-forward deep learning networks, that are composed by many elements and that perform incredible feats, may not be conscious. Finally, it suggests that in the future precise empirical measurements of information integration may offer a valid tool to infer on the capacity of consciousness in non-human entities.
Introduction
Authors: Ophir Adi , Rosen-Zvi Ishay
Published: July 2018

Much scholarship has been devoted to Jewish relations with and attitudes toward gentiles in different periods. This book explores the category itself and its formation. The concept of the goy divides humanity in a binary manner, separating Jews from all non-Jews, and lumping the latter together into one group. This division also assumes, tacitly or explicitly, God, His Law, and His relation to one people. Such naming, partition, and structure is anything but self-evident, and was not always a part of the thinking patterns and discursive practices of Jews. Where did it come from? What forces made it possible? How and why did it overcome alternative categorizations? What happened to other discursive formations once the Jew/goy opposition won the day? This introduction documents the scholarly lacuna, presents the novel perspective, details the questions asked, and defines the various tools—historical, philological, and philosophical—used to tackle them.
Nokhri, Ger, and the Art of Separation in the Hebrew Bible
Authors: Ophir Adi , Rosen-Zvi Ishay
Published: July 2018

This chapter traces the developments of various terms denoting “others” in biblical literature. In much of the biblical corpus, Israel is still one goy among many, and the difference between it and its Others is neither binary nor stable. After a brief analysis of the dynamics of familial and ethnwic separations in Genesis and Exodus, this chapter concentrates on the priestly and Deuteronomistic modes of separating peoples, examines the novelty and limitedness of the Deuteronomistic legislation, where the nokhri (stranger) is systematically contrasted for the first time with the Israelite (referred to as “your brother”), and follows the various modes of separations and their rationales.
Configurational change in Indo-European coordinate constructions
Authors: Mitrović Moreno
Published: July 2018

This chapter presents a case study of word order change in coordinate constructions across a wide range of Indo-European languages. Early Indo-European languages had two available patterns of coordination at their disposal: one in which the coordinating particle was placed in first and another in which it was placed in the second position with respect to the second coordinand (‘Wackernagel effect’). Diachronically, the two competing configurations reduce to a single winning one, namely the head-initial one that all contemporary Indo-European languages retained. This is accounted for as the result of the loss of ‘Wackernagel movement’ and the development of a lexicalized J(unction)-morpheme. Resting on the notion of Junction, the analysis succeeds in explaining the bimorphemicity signature of initial conjunctions by deriving the morpheme count as a fusional exponent of two functional heads. The analysis stands on the assumption that narrow- and postsyntactic processes operate in derivationally delimited chunks, qua phases.
The decline of Latin VOAux
Authors: Danckaert Lieven
Published: July 2018

This chapter is concerned with the diachrony of the Latin word order pattern ‘verb-object-auxiliary’ (VOAux). In the classical and late classical period (c.100 BC–200 AD), this order is productively available, but it is by and large absent in Late Latin. It is suggested that this change is related to the order VPAux being derived differently in Classical and in Late Latin. More specifically, it is proposed that only Late Latin VPAux-clauses are derived by means of roll-up movement, which gives rise to restrictions on possible word orders inside the verb phrase (Biberauer, Holmberg, and Roberts’s Final-Over-Final Constraint). In addition, it is proposed that this difference between Classical and Late Latin is an indirect result of an independent change, namely, the incorporation of the pre-verbal sentential negator non into the hierarchically highest verb, an evolution which can be considered part of Jespersen’s Cycle.
On the decline of edge-fronting from Latin to Romance
Authors: Ledgeway Adam
Published: July 2018

Discontinuous structures produced by edge-fronting represent one distinctive feature of Latin regarding Romance. This difference follows from the head parameter: whereas Romance is consistently head-initial, Latin fluctuates between different settings as a result of its occupying an intermediate position in the gradual shift from head-finality to head-initiality. In turn, this difference in the head parameter is responsible for the observed variation in edge-fronting, since its setting determines the application of antilocality in constraining movement. Concretely, if head-finality is the output of a roll-up operation raising the complement to the specifier to the left of its head, suspension of antilocality constitutes a sine qua non for head-final languages like Latin. In Romance, by contrast, the head parameter is aligned with the head-initial setting such that roll-up (hence antilocal) movement never arises. This investigation thus derives from the different settings of the head parameter a concomitant parametrization in the role of antilocality.
Called Unto Liberty
Authors: Larsen Timothy
Published: July 2018

This chapter explores Mill’s classic text, On Liberty (1859), and what it reveals about his attitudes towards organized religion, as well as religious reactions to it and his responses to them. It shows the origin of the project during a visit to St Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Mill’s harm principle is presented as is the contents of On Liberty in general, including his conflicted view of social disapproval and his critique of Christian morality. The chapter ends with an account of Mill’s friendship with the members of the Society of Friends, Barclay Fox and Caroline Fox. Mill is surprisingly spiritual in his Cornish reflections with them.
Multilayer Networks in Nature, Society and Infrastructures
Authors: Bianconi Ginestra
Published: July 2018

Chapter 4 opens Part III of the book, ‘Multilayer Networks’, which comprises chapters 4–15. The chapter starts with an informal definition of multiplex networks, multi-slice networks and networks of networks, and motivates the research interest on multilayer networks by providing a general overview of the multiple applications of the multilayer network framework in different disciplines and contexts, including social networks, complex infrastructures, financial networks, molecular networks and network medicine, brain networks, ecological networks and climate networks. This chapter discusses the major examples of multilayer network datasets studied so far in the different disciplines and highlights the main research questions emerging from the study of these real datasets.
Centrality Measures
Authors: Bianconi Ginestra
Published: July 2018

Defining the centrality of nodes and layers in multilayer networks is of fundamental importance for a variety of applications from sociology to biology and finance. This chapter presents the state-of-the-art centrality measures able to characterize the centrality of nodes, the influences of layers or the centrality of replica nodes in multilayer and multiplex networks. These centrality measures include modifications of the eigenvector centrality, Katz centrality, PageRank centrality and Communicability to the multilayer network scenario. The chapter provides a comprehensive description of the research of the field and discusses the main advantages and limitations of the different definitions, allowing the readers that wish to apply these techniques to choose the most suitable definition for his or her case study.
Classical Percolation, Generalized Percolation and Cascades
Authors: Bianconi Ginestra
Published: July 2018

This chapter characterizes the robustness of multiplex and multilayer networks using classical percolation, directed percolation and antagonistic percolation. Classical percolation determines whether a finite fraction of nodes of the multilayer networks are connected by any type of connection. Classical percolation can be affected by multiplexity since the degree correlations among different layers can modulate the robustness of the entire multilayer network. Directed percolation describes the propagation of a disease requiring cooperative infection from different layers of the multiplex network. It displays a rich phase diagram including both continuous and discontinuous phase transitions. Antagonist percolation on a duplex network describes the competition between two layers and can give rise to hysteresis loops corresponding to phases that either one layer or the other can percolate Avalanches generated by the generalized Sandpile Model and Watts–Strogatz Model are also discussed, emphasizing their relevance for studying the stability of power grids and financial systems.
Diffusion
Authors: Bianconi Ginestra
Published: July 2018

This chapter addresses diffusion, random walks and congestion in multilayer networks. Here it is revealed that diffusion on a multilayer network can be significantly speed up with respect to diffusion taking place on its single layers taken in isolation, and that sometimes it is possible also to observe super-diffusion. Diffusion is here characterized on multilayer network structures by studying the spectral properties of the supra-Laplacian and the dependence on the diffusion constant among different layers. Random walks and its variations including the Lévy Walk are shown to reflect the improved navigability of multilayer networks with more layers. These results are here compared with the results of traffic on multilayer networks that, on the contrary, point out that increasing the number of layers could be detrimental and could lead to congestion.
The Pragmatic Approach
Authors: Pattison James
Published: July 2018

This chapter explicates the Pragmatic Approach, which is used to assess the ethics of the alternatives to war. This approach is pragmatic in that it is significantly instrumentalist and takes seriously the nonideal and contingent features of the contemporary international system. The chapter first outlines a series of tests any moral theory should meet, before going on to present the central features of the Pragmatic Approach. The chapter then defends this approach, showing how it meets the four tests outlined and is superior to alternative approaches. It also delineates the links to Just War Theory, and especially the jus ad bellum principles of necessity and proportionality. The end of the chapter considers how the values on the Pragmatic Approach should be weighed.
Secondary Measures
Authors: Pattison James
Published: July 2018

This chapter considers measures that often aim to tackle mass atrocities and external aggression as a secondary aim. It focuses on three measures: actions by the International Criminal Court (ICC), (2) accepting refugees, and (3) humanitarian assistance. The chapter examines the question of whether we should frame these measures as major policy options to tackle mass atrocities and serious external aggression. On the one hand, it argues that international criminal prosecutions by the ICC should be seen as a central part of the toolkit for responses to mass atrocities. This is despite worries about its politicization and linking it to R2P. On the other hand, it argues that we should not view accepting refugees and humanitarian aid as part of the R2P toolkit, in large part due to worries about buck-passing.
Prayers
Authors: Seligmann Matthew S.
Published: July 2018

The Edwardian Navy had a pronounced Anglican ethos. Three quarters of its sailors were members of the Church of England, as were all of its chaplains. If there was, thus, ample spiritual provision for the conformist majority, the religious needs of the non-conformist minority were less well catered for. Such discrimination was becoming increasingly unsustainable in the more pluralist era of the early twentieth century. Consequently, in the run-up to 1914, the Admiralty enhanced provision for Presbyterian, Methodist, and Catholic sailors, who were afforded ever-greater access to their clergy when ashore. However, the naval leadership consistently refused to allow non-Anglican clergy to minister aboard its warships. With the outbreak of war, there was considerable pressure to change this. It was accepted that those who might fight and die deserved a priest of their choice. Accordingly, Churchill introduced reforms that broadened the religious character of the Navy for ever.
Cosmological, Devotional, and Social Perspectives on the Hindu Goddess
Authors: Pintchman Tracy
Published: July 2018

Although Hindus recognize and revere a variety of different, discrete goddesses, they also tend to speak of “The Goddess” as a singular and unifying deity. This chapter focuses on three dimensions of the Goddess in Hindu traditions, grounding all observations in specific texts and contexts. First, the chapter examines the nature of the Goddess as a cosmogonic/cosmological creative force that creates, sustains, and permeates the universe. Second, it explores the Goddess as a being worthy of devotion who is also manifest as individual goddesses. Finally, it probes the nature of the Goddess as potential role model for human women, who in many contexts are viewed as special manifestations of the Goddess. The chapter looks at major themes in each category and the critical issues that these themes raise.
Bathukamma
Authors: Reddy Prabhavati C.
Published: July 2018

The centuries-old autumn festival of goddess Bathukamma of Telangana celebrates her life through Telugu folk songs and dances, emphasizing her importance in the life of women. This “mother of life” is represented as a mound of flowers signifying life, death, and rebirth, invested with the spirit of Lakṣmī or Gaurī, around which women sing and dance before immersing the flower shrines in local waters. Not a mainstream Hindu goddess, Bathukamma has no temple or icon of her own but is thought by her devotees to be a form of Lakṣmī, Gaurī, and Durgā, and like these goddesses she is supplicated for gifts that enrich agrarian life. Though not worshiped daily or through pilgrimage, she remains a sacred presence for women, for whom she represents the fullness of life that autumn brings, signaling hope for the rejuvenation of nature and humanity.
Biological Processes
Authors: DiFrisco James
Published: July 2018

This chapter investigates the identity and persistence conditions for processes as a task of biological process ontology. It argues that the problem of intrinsic variation in evolution, development, and metabolism motivates viewing biological individuals as processes rather than as substances. Different criteria of identity for processes are then evaluated, including causal and spatio-temporal relations. The chapter ultimately settles on the view that processes are individuated by causal cohesion and are identical if they share the same cohesive properties and spatio-temporal region. The persistence of processes is interpreted on the model of perdurance, as a form of causal continuity or genidentity.
Ontological Tools for the Process Turn in Biology
Authors: Seibt Johanna
Published: July 2018

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce an outline of general process theory (GPT), a non-Whiteheadian systematic process ontology, and to provide some pointers on how this framework could be applied in philosophy of biology to clarify questions of individuality, composition, and emergence. GPT is a mono-categorial framework based on the new category of more or less generic (non-particular) dynamic individuals called ‘general processes’ or ‘dynamics’. According to GPT, the world is the interaction of (more or less generic) dynamics. The chapter sets out some elements of a non-standard mereology (with non-transitive part relations) on processes and introduces the five-dimensional classification system of GPT. It is shown how the theoretical predicates of homeomereity and automereity can be used to distinguish between developments and ‘non-developmental’ or ‘dynamically stable’ temporally unbounded activities that persist in time by literal recurrence.
Between Wolffianism and Pietism
Authors: Dyck Corey W.
Published: July 2018

This chapter looks at Baumgarten’s attempt at mediating between the Pietists and the Leibnizian–Wolffian philosophy. Dyck shows how it leads Baumgarten to develop an original doctrine of rational psychology that later served Kant as his primary source for the views of his predecessors. Dyck devotes particular attention to original contributions Baumgarten makes to the understanding of the nature of the soul, the harmony of the soul and the body, as well as of its state before birth and after death.
Contradiction and Privation
Authors: Hymers John
Published: July 2018

Baumgarten identifies the principle of contradiction with the concept of nothing, defining both as “both A and not A.” Thus, rather than deriving the concept from experience, as Kant criticized him of having done, Baumgarten sees the principle as necessary for the possibility of experience: something can only be understood as not nothing, as either A or not A. Kant contests Baumgarten’s identification of nothing and contradiction, and instead develops a quadripartite categorical concept of nothing in the Critique of Pure Reason. The first three of Kant’s nothings are variously privative, and the fourth corresponds to Baumgarten. Kant thus claims that Baumgarten should have unified something and nothing in the object in general, but since the object in general is only possible if the categories apply to it, this chapter questions whether or not Kant himself was successful in unifying nothing and something in a higher concept.
Freedom of the Will in Baumgarten and Kant’s ML1
Authors: Allison Henry E.
Published: July 2018

Henry E. Allison continues the line of research initiated by Schwaiger in this volume. Allison first returns us to the analysis of Baumgarten’s understanding of freedom, pointing out, much as Schwaiger does, how it seeks to continue the theory of freedom developed in the Leibnizian–Wolffian philosophy, while also avoiding what Allison calls the “shadow of Spinoza,” that is, the charge of thoroughgoing determinism. In contrast to Schwaiger, Allison argues that what is distinctive to Baumgarten is his attempt to articulate a notion of freedom within a broadly necessitarian and rationalist framework akin to Spinoza’s. By comparing this with Kant’s discussion of freedom in the mid-1770s, Allison argues for a new way of understanding the relation between Baumgarten’s and Kant’s accounts.
Experiential Pluralism and the Power of Perception
Authors: Kalderon Mark Eli
Published: July 2018

In this chapter the apparent inadequacy of what Charles Travis calls the Stuff-Happens model prompts an investigation of the different dependency relations that obtain between a perceptual capacity and its exercise. On the Stuff-Happens model, the proximal stimulation of the sense organ sets off a sequence of alterations that terminates with the conscious perception. Such a process is purely mechanical, qua a sequence of alterations. But perception is the exercise of a capacity and the exercise of a capacity is not another alteration in a sequence. The distinctive pattern of dependence between a perceptual capacity and its non-defective exercise is marshalled in an argument for disjunctivism.
Narrow Content
Authors: Yli-Vakkuri Juhani , Hawthorne John
Published: July 2018

Narrow mental content, if there is such a thing, is content that is entirely determined by the goings-on inside the head of the thinker. A central topic in the philosophy of mind since the mid-1970s has been whether there is a kind of mental content that is narrow in this sense. It is widely conceded, thanks to famous thought experiments by Hilary Putnam and Tyler Burge, that there is a kind of mental content that is not narrow. But it is often maintained that there is also a kind of mental content that is narrow, and that such content can play various key explanatory roles relating, inter alia, to epistemology and the explanation of action. This book argues that this is a forlorn hope. It carefully distinguishes a variety of conceptions of narrow content and a variety of explanatory roles that might be assigned to narrow content. It then argues that, once we pay sufficient attention to the details, there is no promising theory of narrow content in the offing.
Council of Europe
Authors: Lewis Oliver
Published: July 2018

This chapter presents an overview of the adjudicative bodies of the Council of Europe—namely, the European Court of Human Rights (established by the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR)) and the European Committee of Social Rights—and outlines their mandates with regard to integrating UN human rights treaties. It analyses how these two bodies have cited the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). The dataset was forty-five cases dealt with by the Court and two collective complaints decided by the Committee that cite the CRPD up to 2016. Notwithstanding the relatively small size of the dataset, the conclusions are that the Council of Europe system has yet to engage seriously in the CRPD’s jurisprudential opportunities. The reasons for this cannot be ascertained from a desk-based methodology, and further research is required.
Spain and Portugal
Authors: Arteaga Félix
Published: July 2018

This chapter examines divergences and commonalities between Spain’s and Portugal’s defence policies. Both countries share the Iberian Peninsula but they do not constitute a single strategic entity. Their national defence policies show different patterns according to their own history and strategic culture, with no military joint venture so far. Both countries maintain strong defence relationships with the United States and are strengthening their bilateral cooperation at the political and military levels to cope with the new threats and risks emerging on the southern flank of NATO and the EU. Militarily, they are not comparable, because Spain has more expeditionary, industrial, and budgetary capabilities than Portugal. Both countries have developed national security strategies since 2001 to adjust their military capabilities and force structures to the new strategic environment despite their unfavourable economic situation.
Denmark and Norway
Authors: Petersson Magnus
Published: July 2018

Denmark and Norway joined NATO in 1949. Since then, their goal has been to be a loyal alliance member. After the cold war, the two countries e transformed their defence forces into small, capabilities-based semi-professional and highly mobile units suitable for coalition warfare far away from their territories. They have participated in all major US- and NATO-led operations since 1991. The defence transformation since the end of the cold war has been more far-reaching in Denmark than in Norway. Norway kept the focus on its territory during the whole period, and saved important elements of its territorial defence, while Denmark shut down whole services, such as submarines and stationary ground-to-air defence, which in some ways became a problem after the Ukraine crisis started in 2014, when the defence of the territory again came more into focus.
Conventional Interstate Warfare
Authors: Grauer Ryan
Published: July 2018

This chapter details the challenge European states face in confronting conventional interstate warfare in the post-cold-war era. The European continent has been the site of several interstate conflicts featuring conventional operations since the collapse of the Soviet Union, and European militaries have fought in a number of similar wars waged outside the region. Conventional interstate wars are likely to manifest quite differently in the future from the way they did in the past, sometimes taking the form of ‘hybrid’ wars that involve irregular fighters and strategies alongside more traditional soldiers and efforts, but they will not disappear from the European security landscape in the near to medium term. Accordingly, while there is considerable room for improvement in the strategic allocation of resources, European states’ decisions to spend considerable sums on weaponry, equipment, and training programmes designed to maintain or improve their fighting capabilities in conventional operations are warranted.
State Failure
Authors: Rotberg Robert I.
Published: July 2018

A failed state is a country with a government that cannot or will not deliver essential public services (political goods) to its citizens. Failed states are those political entities in international politics that supply deficient qualities and quantities of political goods and, simultaneously, no longer exercise a monopoly of violence within their territories. Failed states are violent. There are no failed states that do not harbour civil wars. When there are one or more insurgencies within the state, and when other critical criteria are met, we have a failed state. This chapter examines the range of failed or failing states that have affected Europe’s security interests since the end of the cold war.
Cyber-Security Challenges
Authors: Douzet Frédérick
Published: July 2018

With the expansion of cyberspace, European armed forces are confronted by new challenges. Cyber threats keep growing more sophisticated, targeted, and powerful. Not only states, but also individuals, political groups, and criminal and terrorist organizations use these rather affordable and widely accessible technologies remotely to conduct operations such as espionage, sabotage, information warfare, or influence. Russian nationalist propaganda has made a powerful comeback on social networks, along with ISIS propaganda. Cyber attacks for neutralization or strategic espionage have increased in worrying proportions. The specificities inherent to cyberspace and the unusual intertwining of political, economic, and military issues represent a real challenge for the elaboration and the implementation of a strategic or tactical response. They also represent a challenge for international cooperation in crisis resolutions and the conduct of military operations.
Sea Warfare
Authors: Roberts Peter
Published: July 2018

Cold-war maritime strategies of European countries were threat driven and largely NATO-centric. Specialization in warfare disciplines by member states underpinned this approach; few nations retained capabilities across the spectrum of maritime warfare. Despite predictions of a maritime century after 1990, European states spent twenty-five years focusing dwindling resources on fighting inland, and spending on maritime equipment has delivered relatively few, albeit very capable, platforms. Those scarce ships are being stretched by burgeoning constabulary roles, while Europe has outsourced preparing for war-fighting at sea to the USA. In assessing the key trends in European sea warfare and doctrine since the end of the cold war, this chapter examines the maritime strategies and doctrines of, first, Western Europe’s major powers and, secondly, a selective sample of medium and lesser powers’ strategies and doctrines.
Counterterrorism
Authors: Hellmuth Dorle
Published: July 2018

This chapter assesses the strategic and doctrinal responses of Western Europe’s major powers and their armed forces to terrorism after the cold war. The chapter focuses on Europe’s ‘big three’, the United Kingdom, France, and Germany, and examines the means, ends, and ways of military counterterrorism strategies and operations in these three countries. Select examples of medium and lesser powers include Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Denmark. Critical of the central role military force played in the US global war on terror after the 9/11 attacks, many European powers called for the need to utilize alternative instruments of statecraft. Over time, they adapted their counterterrorism approaches to reflect the new realities at home and abroad. This shift became particularly apparent after the emergence of the Islamic State inspired violent attacks in various European countries, drawing a more military-centric response from Europe’s great, medium, and lesser powers.
Arms Transfers and Export-Control Policies
Authors: Bromley Mark
Published: July 2018

This chapter examines the attempt to coordinate and harmonize the dual-use and arms export control policies of EU member states, focusing in particular on the use of EU arms embargoes and the implementation of the EU Dual-Use Regulation and the EU Common Position on Arms Export. The chapter examines the original motivations that drove and sustained this effort and gives an assessment of its impact on member states’ national policies. In doing so, the chapter pays particular attention to the dual-use and arms export control policies of Europe’s major powers (France, Germany, the United Kingdom), highlighting areas where states’ policies have been affected by EU processes of coordination and convergence, and where they remain driven by primarily national considerations. The chapter also assesses and compares the impact of these processes among a selection of smaller EU member states.