bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Multilevel Model of Collaboration and Creativity
Authors: Beyerlein Michael , Han Soo Jeoung , Prasad Ambika
Published: December 2017

This chapter provides a framework for making sense of multilevel collaboration for enabling creative knowledge work. The work environment can be deliberately designed, but it must allow for emergent properties as the flow of information creates changes in the team members, the process, the structure, and the outcomes. The interrelationships that provide the channels for the flow represent a complex system subject to both enhancing and constraining influences from multiple sources. We examine network structure, learning, and complexity as key facets of that complex system that generate intangible forms of capital that fuel the creative work.
Selection and Team Creativity
Authors: Hunter Samuel T. , Neely Brett H. , Gutworth Melissa B.
Published: December 2017

The growth and application of teams in organizations have left decision makers, Human Resources professionals, and hiring managers with the difficult and complex task of how to best hire individuals that will thrive in a team-based environment. When paired with the unique challenges surrounding what is required to develop and implement novel ideas, hiring for innovative team members becomes an even more daunting task. In this chapter, we highlight key challenges to recognize when hiring for team innovation and offer solutions, when available, to meet these challenges. We conclude with recommendations on developing a broader strategy for team-based innovation selection with particular emphasis on selecting for functional diversity as a means to achieve the flexibility and agility needed for current and future innovative efforts.
Genetic Epidemiology of Cancer
Authors: Penney Kathryn L. , Michailidou Kyriaki , Carere Deanna Alexis , Zhang Chenan , Pierce Brandon , Lindström Sara , Kraft Peter
Published: December 2017

Chapter 5 reviews epidemiologic studies conducted to identify germline (inherited) susceptibility loci. These studies can involve associations observed within high-risk family pedigrees or in large studies of unrelated individuals. The chapter reviews the methods used to estimate the aggregate contribution of inherited genetic susceptibility and to identify specific genetic loci associated with risk. Although there is considerable variability across cancers, most cancers exhibit familial clustering, driven in part by a small number of known rare variants with large relative risks and a larger number of common variants with modest relative risks. The chapter discusses the implications of these findings for clinical care, public health, and tumor biology. It closes with a discussion of open questions, most notably the puzzle of “missing heritability”: the fact that—despite tremendous advances—multiple lines of evidence suggest that most specific risk variants, both rare and common, have yet to be discovered.
Alcohol and Cancer Risk
Authors: Gapstur Susan M. , Brooks Philip John
Published: December 2017

In 2010, alcoholic beverage consumption caused an estimated 3.3 million deaths worldwide, and contributed to injuries, violence, liver cirrhosis, social disruption and at least seven different types of cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies exposure to both ethanol in alcoholic beverages and acetaldehyde, the primary metabolite of ethanol, as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) based on “sufficient” evidence that alcoholic beverage consumption is causally related to cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, liver, colorectum and female breast. The biologic mechanisms by which alcohol and its primary metabolite acetaldehyde affect cancer risk appear to vary across anatomic sites. Broadly, these mechanisms involve DNA and protein damage from acetaldehyde and oxidative stress, nutritional malabsorption and metabolic effects, and for breast cancer, increased estrogen levels. The World Health Organization has increased global surveillance of alcohol consumption and encourages national efforts to apply evidence-based policies to reduce consumption.
Ionizing Radiation
Authors: GonzÁlez Amy Berrington de , Bouville André , Rajaraman Preetha , Schubauer-Berigan Mary
Published: December 2017

Ionizing radiation is a universal carcinogen due to its ability to induce cancer in most organs following exposure at any age, including in utero. Several organs are especially radiosensitive, particularly when exposure occurs in childhood. These include the female breast, thyroid, brain, and red bone marrow. Very few cancers, notably cervical and Hodgkin lymphoma, do not seem to be related to ionizing radiation, for unknown reasons. For most cancers (lung may be the exception) the relative risk decreases with attained age and time since exposure. Currently the main sources of radiation exposure to the general population involve very low-dose (<50 mGy) natural background exposure (including residential radon) and medical exposures, such as computed tomography (CT) scans. Natural background exposure varies by location but is generally stable over time. Medical exposure has been increasing in many countries due to the expanded use of advanced imaging technologies.
Ultraviolet Radiation
Authors: Green Adèle C. , Whiteman David C.
Published: December 2017

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is the principal cause of over 95% of keratinocyte cancers (basal cell carcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas of the skin), the most common cancers in white populations worldwide. UV radiation also causes an estimated 60%–90% of cutaneous melanoma, the cancer affecting the skin’s pigment-producing cells. In addition, UV radiation is the major cause of many eye diseases, including ocular cancers and cataract, the commonest cause of blindness, and is responsible for the underlying changes in skin aging, on which billions of dollars are spent annually in efforts to repair the damage. The sun is the principal source of human exposure to UV radiation. However, artificial sources are encountered in a wide range of industrial and medical settings, and increasingly from commercial tanning facilities. By the late twentieth century, nearly epidemic increases in skin cancer incidence had occurred in white populations, especially in Australia and New Zealand.
Occupational Cancer
Authors: Steenland Kyle , Zahm Shelia Hoar , Blair A.
Published: December 2017

This chapter reviews the past and current history of occupational cancer epidemiology, and indicates which occupational exposures are presently considered to be definite or probable carcinogens. It describes the basic study designs of occupational cancer research, particularly in regard to exposure assessment. It discusses the types of evidence that have stimulated studies of occupational cancer and considers how data generated by occupational studies are used in risk assessment for workplace regulations, and in the calculation of attributable fractions to quantify the burden of occupational cancer. Finally, it discusses some current controversies and proposes likely future directions for occupational epidemiology. These include a focus on exposures such as shift work and sedentary work habits, which are not traditional toxins. In addition, it will be important to document the carcinogenic effects of established occupational carcinogens in less developed countries where they have not been studied, as a means to affect policy and ensure safe workplaces.
Air Pollution
Authors: Samet Jonathan M. , Cohen Aaron J.
Published: December 2017

A wide variety of manmade and naturally occurring air pollutants are known to cause cancer. Diverse exposures such as tobacco smoke, radionuclides (radon), chemicals (benzene, mustard gas, and volatile organic compounds), fibers (asbestos), and metals and metalloids (chromium, nickel, and arsenic) have long been classified as carcinogenic to humans. Historically, these classifications were based predominantly on high levels of exposure in occupational settings. Over the last thirty to forty years, scientific attention has focused on quantifying the adverse health effects of indoor and outdoor air pollutants at exposure levels several orders of magnitude lower than were studied initially. These include secondhand smoke, household exposure to radon, residential and environmental exposure to asbestos, soot from diesel-powered engines, ambient exposures to small particles (PM2.5), and indoor air pollution from the combustion of biomass and coal. This chapter provides an overview of recent epidemiologic studies of air pollutants and cancer.
Pharmaceutical Drugs Other Than Hormones
Authors: Bradley Marie C. , O’Rorke Michael A. , Cooper Janine A. , Friis Søren , Habel Laurel A.
Published: December 2017

Current regulatory programs for drug safety are not designed to identify adverse events that have a long induction time or are rare, such as most cancers. Meta-analyses of randomized clinical trials of medications can sometimes provide information on shorter-term risk of common cancer types, though large observational studies with long follow-up are needed to examine most drug–cancer associations. Over the last few decades, a number of new methods have been developed to address several types of confounding and bias of particular concern in pharmacoepidemiology, and better data sources have become available. Of the approximately twenty medications with sufficient evidence to be classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as human carcinogens, most are anti-neoplastic agents or immunosuppressants. Substantial data from studies in humans indicate that use of aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) protects against colorectal cancer and possibly a number of other common cancers.
Biliary Tract Cancer
Authors: Koshiol Jill , Ferreccio Catterina , Devesa Susan S. , Roa Juan Carlos , Fraumeni Joseph F.
Published: December 2017

Biliary tract cancers encompass tumors of the gallbladder, extrahepatic bile ducts, and ampulla of Vater. In the United States, biliary tract cancer is the fifth most common malignant neoplasm of the digestive tract, accounting for about 3,700 deaths per year. The gallbladder is the primary subsite for 40% of biliary tract cancers, followed by the extrahepatic bile ducts (33%), ampulla of Vater (20%), and unspecified subsite (8%). Gallbladder cancer occurs twice as often in women than men, while other biliary tumors are more common in men. Risk of gallbladder cancer is elevated in Amerindians, including the Pima Indians in the United States and the Mapuches in Chile, and in certain Hispanic populations. While a significant fraction of these tumors are related to underlying gallstones (cholelithiasis), information on other risk factors is limited, due to the rarity of the tumors, the often rapidly fatal course, and small number of epidemiologic studies.
Small Intestine Cancer
Authors: Beebe-Dimmer Jennifer L. , Vigneau Fawn D. , Schottenfeld David
Published: December 2017

The small intestine extends 6–7 meters from the gastric pylorus to its insertion into the large intestine. Its mucosal surface contains 90% of the absorptive surface area of the digestive tract. Remarkably, in 2015, only about 3% of digestive system cancers and less than 1% of digestive cancer deaths in the United States were observed in the small intestine. In contrast, approximately 50% of cancers in the digestive tract were diagnosed in the large intestine, which measures just 1.5 meters in length. Cancers of the small intestine are among the most heterogeneous of gastrointestinal neoplasms, encompassing pathologic subtypes of neuroendocrine carcinoid, adenocarcinoma, lymphoma, and gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Adenocarcinoma accounted for ~25% to–35% of cancers in the small intestine, in contrast to over 90% of cancers in the large intestine. Genetic syndromes, such as familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) and hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), predispose to adenocarcinoma in the small intestine.
Hodgkin Lymphoma
Authors: Hjalgrim Henrik , Chang Ellen T. , Glaser Sally L.
Published: December 2017

Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) is a malignant neoplasm of the lymphatic system. The malignant cell clone derives from germinal center B lymphocytes in ~98% of cases, the rest being of T-lymphocyte origin. Each year, HL is diagnosed in roughly 66,000 individuals worldwide. HL is curable with modern therapy in the vast majority of patients, with five-year survival rates exceeding 90% for early-stage disease. However, so far this excellent prognosis has been achieved at the expense of a high incidence of severe long-term treatment complications such as secondary malignancies, and endocrine and cardiovascular diseases. In affluent Western countries, HL occurrence follows a distinctive and unusual bimodal age distribution, with one incidence peak among adolescents and younger adults and another in older adults. In socioeconomically less affluent populations, in contrast, the adolescent and younger-adult incidence peak is less pronounced, whereas incidence of HL in young boys may be higher than in affluent populations.
Soft Tissue Sarcoma
Authors: Berwick Marianne , Wiggins Charles
Published: December 2017

Soft tissue sarcoma (STS) is a rare tumor, occurring in approximately one to four of every 100,000 individuals worldwide. Soft tissue sarcomas can form anywhere in the body, including muscle, tendons, fat, blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves, and tissues around joints. They are most common in the head, neck, arms, legs, trunk, and abdomen. Prognosis is generally poor, with a relative survival rate of approximately 65% at five years, with little difference by race. Approximately 11,930 cases and 4,870 deaths from STS occurred in the United States in 2015. The etiology of STS is still poorly understood, which makes prevention of this relatively rare cancer difficult. A major complication in studying STS is the histologic diversity —more than 100 subtypes. Newer investigations are evaluating molecular characteristics and prognostic factors but continue to be hampered by a lack of standardized histology.
Choriocarcinoma
Authors: Palmer Julie R.
Published: December 2017

Gestational choriocarcinoma is an extremely rare cancer that occurs in women of childbearing age. The malignancy arises from the trophoblastic epithelium of the placenta, which is formed from embryonic tissue. Choriocarcinoma is one of several related gestational trophoblastic diseases, which include complete and partial hydatidiform mole, invasive mole, and the extremely rare placental site and epithelioid trophoblastic tumors. Because at least 50% of choriocarcinomas occur after a recognized hydatidiform mole, incidence patterns of the latter are of interest. The only established risk factors for choriocarcinoma are history of hydatidiform mole and maternal age. Both teenage mothers and mothers over age 35 have increased risk. Incidence rates appear to be highest in parts of Asia and in the Philippines. There is also evidence of an increased incidence among American Indians and among Inuits living in Canada and Greenland.
Renal Cancer
Authors: Chow Wong-Ho , Scelo Ghislaine , Tarone Robert E.
Published: December 2017

Renal cancers in adults are classified into two major groups according to the anatomic subsite of origin. The predominant group, originating from the renal parenchyma, is mostly renal cell carcinoma, which, in turn, is further classified into morphologically, clinically, and genetically distinct subtypes. Over 75% of renal cell carcinomas are designated clear cell, which is closely linked to alterations in the VHL gene. Almost all cancers arising from the renal pelvis and ureter are urothelial carcinomas, previously known as transitional cell carcinomas. Renal cell cancer incidence rates have increased globally over the past few decades. In the United States, incidence rates among blacks have surpassed rates for whites. Modifiable risk factors such as cigarette smoking, obesity, and hypertension, are more common among blacks than whites, partly explaining the racial disparity in renal cell cancer incidence. Having a first-degree relative with kidney cancer also has been linked to a two- to five-fold elevated risk.
Penile Cancer
Authors: Frisch Morten
Published: December 2017

Penile cancers are rare primary malignancies located on the glans, foreskin, or shaft of the penis, excluding the urethra. The vast majority of penile cancers are epithelial tumors representing histological subtypes of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). Most penile SCCs are believed to develop through pre-invasive lesions known as penile intraepithelial neoplasia and penile carcinoma in situ. They account for 0.1%–0.3% of all incident cancers (excluding non-melanoma skin cancers) in the United States and other developed countries and up to 1% of all cancers in some countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Penile cancers are rare in men younger than 40 years, and are typically diagnosed among men above age 60. The two most important risk factors are pathological phimosis and infection with high-risk types of human papillomaviruses (HPV), both of which are preventable conditions.
Keratinocyte Cancers
Authors: Gossai Anala , Barton Dorothea T. , Rees Judy R. , Nelson Heather H. , Karagas Margaret R.
Published: December 2017

Keratinocyte cancers (KC) include basal and squamous cell carcinomas that arise from keratinocytes or their precursors. KCs are the most common malignancies in humans. Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) has higher incidence rates, but squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) causes most deaths. Despite increasing incidence rates, the mortality rates have not changed markedly in recent years. The geographic and demographic features of these tumors have remained consistent over the past several decades, with a gradient of increasing incidence rates with proximity to the equator, predominantly affecting fair-skinned populations. Risk increases with age, is higher in men than women, and is associated with artificial as well as natural exposure to UV light. There is emerging evidence that these malignancies, particularly BCCs, may be increasing in younger adults and among women. While basal and squamous cell carcinomas share etiological factors, the relative importance of these factors, pattern of exposure, molecular alterations, and even the factors themselves differ.
Cancer Screening
Authors: Croswell Jennifer M. , Harris Russell P. , Kramer Barnett S.
Published: December 2017

Screening has long been portrayed as an inherently beneficial activity that saves lives, rather than as a complex mixture of potential benefits and harms that must be carefully weighed for each modality. The early success of the Pap smear in reducing deaths from cervical cancer may have inadvertently fostered simplistic messaging about unqualified benefits of screening. Over time, large-scale randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of prostate and other cancers have highlighted the potential harms caused by mass screening programs (especially those related to overdiagnosis and unnecessary treatment) and have revealed the counterintuitive elements involved in evaluating such programs. The criteria for evaluation now extend beyond the performance criteria of the test itself to include the net balance of benefits, risks, and costs. PSA screening, widely used in the United States since the late 1980s, has now been removed from the list of routinely recommended procedures, based on evidence from RCTs.
Ozu to Asia via Hasumi
Authors: Gerow Aaron
Published: December 2017

Considering Ozu Yasujiro in Asia involves asking the role of discursive definitions of “Ozu” in the establishment of a transnational Ozu. This will be done with regard to Hasumi Shigehiko, whose Director Ozu Yasujiro (1983) is arguably the most influential book on Ozu in Japan. The chapter considers how Hasumi has helped create a transnational “Ozu” within Japan, in part by promoting another director, Hou Hsiao-hsien. The chapter sketches a triangulation in which a Taiwanese director becomes prominent in Japan via a critic looking at him through Ozu. It then explores Hasumi’s potential objections to this project. Not only has he disagreed with terming Hou “Ozuesque,” but his Ozu book begins with an argument against the very concept of “Ozuesque.” The relationships between Ozu and Hou that Hasumi enables are ultimately shaped by the theoretical and discursive context of imagining a border-crossing Ozu in 1980s and 1990s Japan.
A New Form of Silent Cinema
Authors: Raine Michael
Published: December 2017

Ozu Yasujiro wanted to make a “new form” of silent cinema before it disappeared, something sophisticated in a fragile medium that was forced to do obvious things. His goal was to create, for the first and only time in Japanese cinema, films in which audible dialogue was displaced in favor of the intertitle as a form of “visual repartee.” After Western cinema switched to the talkie and while Japan was in the process of converting, Ozu took advantage of the transition from benshi-dialogue to actor-dialogue cinema to invent something like Hollywood silent film: a visual mode of narration with musical accompaniment and speech carried as intertitles. Ozu used the “sound version” to shut the benshi up, allowing emotion in An Inn in Tokyo to “float” as the unspoken disappointment behind banal dialogue, heard synaesthetically in the rhythm of alternating titles and images in a lyrical mise en scène.
Ozu and the Aesthetics of Shadow
Authors: Miyao Daisuke
Published: December 2017

If the cohesive image of Ozu Yasujiro in auteur criticism by far is the director who consistently uses high-key lighting, this chapter questions and complicates it by examining the technologies and techniques of cinematography and lighting employed in There Was a Father (Chichi ariki, 1942). The chapter aims to underscore the internal challenge that Ozu’s films issued to the dominant mode of filmmaking at Shochiku, the company that maintained the kabuki-style lighting at least during the black-and-white period of filmmaking in Japan, especially when the so-called aesthetics of shadow (kage no bigaku) was emerging as the dominant discourse in film criticism and practice.
Laughing in the Shadows of Empire
Authors: Yoshida Junji
Published: December 2017

Ozu Yasujiro’s apprenticeship coincided with the steady rise of comedy in Japanese film. Before he developed his signature “urban petit bourgeois genre” films (shōshimin geki), he was influenced by the work of Charlie Chaplin, Harold Lloyd, and Ernst Lubitsch. It is widely believed, however, that Ozu’s interest in comedy had dissipated during World War II. The idea of a polarization between early and late Ozu is bolstered by his wartime production of two so-called national policy films. The chapter aims to critique this by recalling the way in which the rising tide of nativist xenophobia impinged on Ozu’s caricature of anti-mobo/moga jingoists. He began to employ a range of humorous strategies to recalibrate shōshimin geki for the requirements of patriotic war efforts. His film projected and made visible not only the society at war but the very structure and process of embodied fascist vision.
Playing the Holes
Authors: Garin Manuel , Elduque Albert
Published: December 2017

Across his entire career, from the early nansensu films to the late family dramas, Ozu consistently used gags and humor to alleviate the tension of dramatic situations, further enriching their significance. This chapter explores how such Ozuesque gags combine irony and nostalgia in order to balance the overall tone of the narrative, relying on formal strategies such as modularity and repetition. By discussing Wayne C. Booth’s concept of stable irony and other critical sources, the chapter argues that Ozu’s aging (not just running) gags are capable of bringing characters and audiences together because they counterbalance the difficulties of everyday family life and the weight of time. In an attempt to grant a wider comparative analysis, the chapter studies his own gags as well as their influence on contemporary filmmakers like Jim Jarmusch and Aki Kaurismäki, who readapt Ozu’s mixture of playfulness and solitude in their explorations of the contemporary world.
Henry Purcell's Dido and Aeneas
Authors: Harris Ellen T.
Published: December 2017

Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas stands as the greatest operatic achievement of seventeenth-century England, and yet the work remains cloaked in mystery. The date and place of its first performance cannot be fixed with precision, and the accuracy of the surviving scores cannot be assumed. In this thirtieth-anniversary new edition of her book, Ellen Harris provides a detailed consideration of the many theories that have been proposed for the opera’s origin and chronology. She re-evaluates the surviving sources for the various readings they offer and examines the work’s historical position in Restoration theater. She also offers a detailed discussion of Purcell’s musical declamation and use of ground bass. The final section of the book is devoted to the performance history of Dido and Aeneas from the eighteenth century to the present.
Musical Declamation
Authors: Harris Ellen T.
Published: December 2017

As happens in many other aspects of Dido and Aeneas, Purcell forges his style of musical declamation on the base of seventeenth-century tradition. Many before him espoused theories about English musical declamation, and Purcell had models of the declamatory style in the music of Matthew Locke, John Blow, and others. Purcell’s unique contribution was to combine an acute attention to word meaning, accent, and rhythm with melismatic virtuosity. A comparison to period declamation in other languages reveals Purcell’s particular success in crafting declamation in English.
The Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries
Authors: Harris Ellen T.
Published: December 2017

The performance history of Dido and Aeneas in the nineteenth century is marked by two, seemingly conflicting, trends: attempts to create a more authentic score and the increased use of added orchestration. Many of the most important contributions to the reception history of the opera in this era, including new editions and major revivals, can be attributed to the faculties at the Royal Academy of Music and the Royal College of Music. The founding of the Purcell Society by William Cummings, his biography of the composer, and his edition of the opera mark a watershed in the modern history of the opera. Within the so-called “English Musical Renaissance” of musical composition, Dido and Aeneas became a stylistic touchstone to which composers through the mid-twentieth century returned.
Introduction
Authors: Pieth Mark
Published: December 2017

The last two years have brought unprecedented movement into the world of anticorruption. The growing concern about corruption has come to a head in particular with a series of huge scandals. This chapter highlights those scandals. The discussion covers whether FIFA, the regulator of world soccer, should be treated as a criminal enterprise. It also relates how the original purpose of the Malaysian Wealth Fund was subverted via embezzlement, and describes the impact of new US whistleblower laws allowing for remuneration, in particular in relation to the Panama Papers. Other scandals involve Odebrecht, Petrobras, Lula da Silva, and Michel Temer.
Evolution of Transparency International
Authors: Heimann Fritz
Published: December 2017

This chapter describes the development of Transparency International (TI) through the remarkable story of the transformation of the personal idea of its founder, Peter Eigen, and its esteemed recognition as one of the world’s most influential NGOs. Peter Eigen founded TI in May 1993 after two decades at the World Bank, in response to his frustration over the refusal of the World Bank to take action against corruption. The discussion includes a description of the central ideas on which TI was founded, the initial resistance to the use of transparency in its name, and the strategic choice of a headquarters that would not be linked to the United States.
Finance and the “Shadow Economy”
Authors: Pieth Mark
Published: December 2017

This chapter focuses on corruption in the banking and finance industry, and the steps that have been taken to combat the problem. Overall the financial services industry carries a heavy responsibility for large-scale corruption. Financial intermediaries and banks are used typically in grand corruption schemes by corporations, let alone by kleptocratic regimes, and frequently, they are fully aware of what they are involved in. To prevent them from being inadvertently used for such purposes, compliance systems need to be in place reacting to the specific risks related to graft and corruption by clients. Rules need to be implemented and applied, which can be a challenging task for an industry above all interested in making money. The authors discuss “slush funds,” the development and infiltration of money laundering, and how the FATF established an action plan to deal with this issue. They evaluate the current status of rules against corruption-money laundering.
Extractive Industries
Authors: Pieth Mark
Published: December 2017

This chapter focuses on extractive industries, which are among the business sectors most exposed to corruption. Typically, they are dependent on licenses by government agencies, frequently in states with little income other than royalties from mining or from the oil industry. Often these states are located in the global South with weak government structures. It is a common feature in these states that a small elite rapidly become extraordinarily rich, while the population at large remains in deep poverty. Oil and mining companies, traders, and the finance industries may not actually be in the driving seat, but they very frequently go along and participate in the organized plunder. They are regularly fully aware that the funds they pay to officials are going to be stolen. Sometimes they actively engage in bribery to secure drilling or mining licenses. Other players, like traders, indirectly profit of the systemic graft by elites.
Infrastructure and Construction
Authors: Pieth Mark
Published: December 2017

This chapter studies the infrastructure and construction sector, which is the second-most exposed to corruption, just after extractive industries. The reasons are rather obvious: typically, underdeveloped areas are most in need of motorways, bridges, railway lines, ports, and airports. Most always these projects are about big money. Competition is fierce amongst bidders and frequently government agencies in insufficiently governed states decide who gets the job. Even where multinational development banks (MDBs) are involved as loan providers, they may find it difficult to prevent extortion and bribery, as they are required to respect their country client’s sovereignty. Many case examples of bribe-affected constructions are known. Of particular significance is the example of the project to build a bridge in Bangladesh, as further discussed in this chapter.
The Pharmaceutical Industry
Authors: Pieth Mark
Published: December 2017

This chapter focuses on the pharmaceutical industry, which faces some very straightforward corruption risks, just as real as any other sector. Their sales force has been buying prescriptions, and bribing practitioners and hospital staff to buy their products, and sometimes they have been caught using more indirect means, such as fake follow-up research programs (so called “patient experience surveys”). The real wake-up call came when China, under its new leadership, cracked down systematically on the pharmaceutical industry. Not only did the industry have to accept that it had a systemic problem in its biggest growth market, it (and maybe other sectors) was confronted with a new legal front: beyond the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) and the UK Bribery Act one of the biggest victim countries took action and did not just target ethnic Chinese managers this time.
Sports Governing Bodies
Authors: Pieth Mark
Published: December 2017

This chapter studies corruption in the sports arena focusing more specifically on the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA). FIFA has recently been so much in the media as the lack of governance has allowed a vast graft and corruption network to evolve. If an association decides to distribute its funds amongst its members, this is hardly a crime—even if the stakeholders, who have an interest in the sports they govern, may be aggrieved. Matters are different obviously where officials of the association secretly syphon off funds of the association into their private pockets (embezzlement), or where event organizers are solicited for private bribes by game regulators, this could a problem, in countries where private bribery is an offense.
Development Assistance
Authors: Pieth Mark
Published: December 2017

Amongst the key players in combatting corruption are the institutions promoting development assistance, the International Financial Institutions (or Multilateral Development Banks, MDBs) and the bilateral development aid agencies. This chapter questions the effectiveness of development assistance, particularly the autocratic states’ tolerating embezzlement. That discussion also touches on the logic of development assistance and describes donor interest. The chapter then turns to the Oil-for-Food Programme, describing its planned distribution of oil proceeds, and then notes what went wrong, including the topic of the impact of oil surcharges and humanitarian contract kickbacks on the flow of funds. It concludes with a discussion of the contributions of the International Financial Institutions (IFIs) toward improving aid effectiveness.
Collective Action
Authors: Pieth Mark
Published: December 2017

This chapter discusses the advantages of collective action. Collective action allows dealing with the wider context of corruption risks by assembling competitors and other stakeholders to come to agreement on ways to reduce corruption and the risks. Collective action has the additional advantage that it enables an entire business sector to manage expectations: in its talks with regulators and the wider public, it can indicate what it considers reasonable. The chapter poses the question: Why collective action? It defines collective action, and discusses its traditional use to illustrate aspects of the so-called “prisoner’s dilemma.” The chapter ends by posing the question: Is collective action really necessary?
What Have We Achieved?
Authors: Pieth Mark
Published: December 2017

This chapter reviews the progress that has been made over the last twenty-five years of fighting corruption. First, the issue has been pushed up on the political agenda, and governments are elected on an anticorruption ticket; others are deposed for corruption. Second, laws have been enacted in most nation-states, and even if enforcement remains uneven, the risks of being caught and subjected to trials have grown substantially. Additionally, every year there is at least one major conference uniting governments, NGOs, and increasingly also the private sector against corruption. The official anticorruption groups have multiplied, including now the OECD Working Group on Bribery (WGB), the Anti-Corruption Working Groups of the G20 and of the B20, and the work on corruption of the Global Compact, among others.
A Primer on Inequality
Authors: Hitlin Steven , Harkness Sarah K.
Published: December 2017

One of sociology’s biggest contributions is an interrogation of broad social structures, including the consequences and continuation of social inequalities. We begin by setting the stage for the overall project by outlining issues of economic inequality across societies. We discuss some of the ramifications inequality has within a society, including how inequality becomes internalized and shapes beliefs about right, wrong, and possible futures for people in these systems. We will conclude with some prominent ideas that link structure, culture, and the individual often captured in the notion of “structuration.”
The Difficulty of Studying Morality Across Cultures
Authors: Hitlin Steven , Harkness Sarah K.
Published: December 2017

This chapter details ideas in psychology and sociology that focus on individuals and groups, the locus of the majority of morality research. Durkheim wrote about social structure as an influence on morality, but outside of a handful of anthropological theoretical pieces and some sociological ideas, there is a paucity of recent theory (much less empirical work) on links between social structure and culture as they inform moral codes and functioning. More commonly, different cultures are treated as if they a priori developed differently, even though there is evidence to suggest that structural features such as economic growth shape moral imperatives. We provide an overview of these ideas but offer a wider, more critical assessment of the various theories to more thoroughly link individual moral experience with broader social structure.
Morality as a Measure of Society
Authors: Hitlin Steven , Harkness Sarah K.
Published: December 2017

This chapter theorizes what it means to say a person is a member of a particular society, thus carrying the “typical” moral worldview as a member of that society. Much sociological work explores variation within a particular society, but people also colloquially understand what it means to say that somebody is emblematically “French” or “American.” The chapter defends the proposition that a national “habitus” or “background” can be measured and is a way of quantifying the collective understanding and sentiments held by members of a society. It explains how this understanding captures a sense of national identity that we can use to compare countries. It also introduces a typology of moral emotions that is used in both psychology and sociology as a theoretical indicator of how individuals fit themselves into societal moral codes.
Affect Control Theory
Authors: Hitlin Steven , Harkness Sarah K.
Published: December 2017

This chapter draws on the theoretical and methodological insights from Affect Control theory (ACT), a theory with decades of research and empirical support, to set up our cross-cultural analyses examing our theory of societal inequality. ACT is a formal mathematical theory used to examine how the various facets of social events (such as the identities and emotions) shape ongoing social action. ACT distills the representation of these various facets to their simplest, most universally recognized dimensions of meaning: evaluation (good vs. bad), potency (powerful vs. weak), and activity (fast vs. slow). ACT then provides a way of understanding and modeling social interactions so that it is possible to empirically compare the likely emotions resulting from the same types of interactions in various cultures. The chapter gives a broad overview of the theory so that the reader understands why it is useful and provides justification for the empirical analysis used in the book.
Nihilism and Boredom in Hedda Gabler
Authors: Lisi Leonardo F.
Published: December 2017

This chapter focuses on Hedda’s experience of boredom and its relation to the modern condition of nihilism. While Hedda’s character has traditionally been seen as mysterious and erratic in her motivations, she in fact consistently pursues a project of existential and aesthetic autonomy as a way to overcome the alienation of modern life. In Ibsen’s play, however, her project ultimately founders through the disclosure of an ontological condition that undermines all attempts at establishing human values and meanings, whether relative or absolute.
“My Life had stood, a Loaded Gun”
Authors: Weinstein Arnold
Published: December 2017

Using Emily Dickinson’s well-known poem about ‘female self-portrait-as-male’ as a reference, this chapter examines issues of rage, gender prison, marriage and agency-via-writing. The entrapped Hedda and the play’s obsession with guns—ostensibly owned by General Gabler, flaunted and then suicidally used by Hedda—testifies to a displaced or even ‘stolen’ phallic power, now reconceived as rage. The notion of another male power, writing, is prophetically upended when Hedda burns Løvborg’s manuscript on the ‘History of the Future,’ calling it her ‘child,’: and ultimately also killing both herself and her unborn fetus. Hedda’s story is as much about ‘doing’ as it is about constraints, and so her experience and her acts become a genuine ‘history of the future’: how a caged woman breaks free. Hedda Gabler is thus literature as ideological utterance, bringing a culture’s arrangements to visibility in a way that so-called objective discourse—be it history or philosophy—cannot easily manage.
Hedda’s Words
Authors: Moi Toril
Published: December 2017

For ordinary language philosophy—the philosophical tradition after Ludwig Wittgenstein and J. L. Austin, as constituted and extended by Stanley Cavell—meaning arises in use. Utterances are actions and expressions. This philosophy, therefore, is closely attuned to the work of language in theater. This paper shows that ordinary language philosophy gives rise to a kind of literary criticism that considers reading an practice of acknowledgment, as en effort to understand exactly why the characters say precisely these words in precisely this situation. By paying close attention to Hedda’s interactions with three different linguistic worlds—the Tesman world, the Brack world, and the world she shared with Løvborg in the past—this chapter brings out the contrast between the conventionality and brutality of Hedda’s surroundings and Hedda’s ideals of courage and freedom, and shows that Hedda is more vulnerable, and more damaged, than previous readings have assumed.
Against Interpretation?
Authors: Shepherd-Barr Kirsten E.
Published: December 2017

This chapter reads Hedda Gabler as self-conscious actor and director of her own drama. It builds on the groundbreaking work of Gay Gibson Cima on Elizabeth Robins’s depiction of Hedda in 1891. Cima traced Robins’s development of an “autistic gesture” in acting the role of Hedda, whereby she would pause and gaze directly out at the audience. This created a tension between private mental state and public action, which in turn was part of a wider movement by actresses like Eleonora Duse and Janet Achurch to carve out a specific interior female space on stage through their gestures, expressions, and readings of roles. At the same time as Ibsen’s plays were premiering, suffrage theatre was beginning to highlight the related theme of how women were always performing a role and following a script someone else had written. Hedda is perhaps Ibsen’s strongest representation of women’s self-suppression and adoption of another’s identity.
Climbing the Capitoline Hill
Authors: Moralee Jason
Published: December 2017

Chapter 1 introduces the transformations of the traditional uses of the hill from the third to the sixth century, in particular when emperors climbed the Capitoline Hill, when they chose not to do so, and the dynamics that eventually led to the abandonment of the Capitoline Hill. By the end of the fourth century, Christian rulers and administrators began to treat Rome as pilgrims did, thus terminating processions not at the Capitoline Hill, as they had in the past, but instead at St. Peter’s, the Lateran Palace, or the Forum of Trajan. Far from signaling the end of the hill’s history, the absence from the hill of emperors and their ritual power lifts the hill from the shadow of late Roman high politics and allows us to see how the hill functioned in other ways.
Experiencing and Remembering the Capitoline Hill
Authors: Moralee Jason
Published: December 2017

Chapter 4 examines the ways in which the Capitoline Hill was experienced by those living in late antique Rome, from the ongoing visibility of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus to toponyms that supplied a bridge to events from the distant past. Just as the Capitoline Hill was deeply rooted in the Romans’ sense of themselves as an urban community, the image of the Capitol reverberated into literary productions in the last half of the fourth century, first in Roman intellectual circles and then beyond. The Capitol’s linkage to the eternity of the empire, and the waning importance placed on stopping on the Capitol for legitimating the emperor’s authority, became a way for historians, such as Eunapius, Olympiodorus, and Procopius, to talk about and understand the fragility of the Roman state as it faced the barbarian wars of the fifth and sixth centuries.
Learning from the Capitol’s Destruction
Authors: Moralee Jason
Published: December 2017

Chapter 6 asks what Christians were supposed to learn from the Capitol’s cycle of destructions. When temples were destroyed in antiquity, through either the violence of nature or violent intentional acts, invariably the event was seen as a portentous disaster. The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was destroyed three times, in 83 BCE, 69 CE, and 80 CE. Christian intellectuals simplified the Capitol’s history of destructions by equating them with those of other famous temples, such as the Jerusalem Temple and the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. No matter the time or the place, temple destructions had a single cause: an interconnected history of God’s anger stretching from the past to the present and even into the future.
Epilogue
Authors: Moralee Jason
Published: December 2017

The epilogue traces the afterlife of the Capitoline Hill’s late antique history, the unresolved tension between the valuation and devaluation of the Capitol’s multiplying and variegated histories into the Middle Ages. The Capitol was a physical space that structured the lives and urban environment of postclassical Rome, and it was an imaginary location that animated an affective engagement with the hill’s traditions as well as Christian polemics against the materiality of pagan cults. It became one of the Seven Wonders of the World, a notable stop for sightseeing tours, and the location of an incredible collection of statues called the Salvatio Civium. In the Middle Ages, the Capitoline Hill became even more mystically charged than it had ever been in its long history. What ended the hill’s ancient legacy was not the so-called Dark Ages but Fascist urban planning and modern assertions of the value of heritage.
“God’s Caliph” Revisited
Authors: Marsham Andrew
Published: December 2017

This chapter reviews the evidence for the use of the title “God’s caliph” in the early Islamic period. It makes the case that the Islamic ruler’s titles closely resembled those of their Roman rivals and, like their Roman counterparts, should be understood as addressing diverse audiences, with the “protocollary” title “commander of the faithful” being used most commonly and in all contexts, and with “God’s caliph” being used less frequently and often in courtly or panegyric contexts. Intertextualities between the Qurʾān, the caliphal title, and wider Late Antique discourse around the idea of Man as being made in God’s image are placed in the context of conflict between Rome and the Umayyads.
A Qurʾanic Script from Umayyad Times
Authors: Déroche François
Published: December 2017

This is a study of two major Umayyad Qur’an manuscripts: the Codex of Fustat and Codex of Damascus, which survive as fragments scattered between different collections. The growing formality represented by their script, their degree of orthographic notation, the approach of their scribes to layout, and the varying quality of their illumination will be analyzed, serving as a basis for a reflection about the processes that led to their production at both the levels of scribes and patrons. The new form given to manuscripts of the Qur’an in this period, it will be argued, reflects emerging concerns about its visual and aesthetical dimensions, but also a drive towards increased control by the authorities over the Qur’anic text and its transmission.