bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The unconscious transference effect: Are innocent bystanders ever misidentified?
Authors: Read J. D. , Tollestrup P. , Hammersley R. , McFadzen E. , Christensen A.
Published: June 2007

Unconscious transference refers to an eyewitness's misidentification of an innocent bystander for a criminal perpetrator because of the witness's exposure to the bystander in another context. In a series of five field studies involving 330 retail store clerks and 340 students, five retention intervals from 2 hours to 2 weeks, seven bystander‐perpetrator intervals from 2 minutes to 2 weeks, three line‐up types, two levels of line‐up similarity, four different bystanders and four different targets, with one exception no evidence was obtained that could be interpreted to demonstrate the phenomenon of unconscious transference. That is, the resultsr repeatedly failed to reveal more misidentifications of an innocent bystander by witnesses who had been previously exposed to the bystander than by control evewitnesses who had not. To the contrary, the prior observation of the bystander often served to reduce the frequency of misidentification. In the final experiment the kind of misidentification error referred to as unconscious transference did occur, but only within a particular combination of bystander‐perpetrator similarity and line‐up construction: a combination that, in conjunction with the kind of event used, seems unlikely in real‐world settings. Nevertheless, the inclusion of a familiar face in the line‐ups often altered witnesses' choices in such a way that choosing someone was more likely when the lineup included a familiar face than when it did not. Finally, in contrast to the current explanations of unconscious transference, it is argued that it may not be a sense of familiarity with the bystander that is the basis of misidentifications; rather, it may also include incorrect inferences about the likelihood that the bystander might be the perpetrator.
Applied cognitive gerontology: Some problems, methodologies and data
Authors: Rabbitt Patrick
Published: June 2007

The main research goals for applied cognitive gerontology are deceptively simple: When do age changes in cognition first appear? How fast do they then proceed? Are changes ‘global’ so that all cognitive systems and the skills that they support change at similar rates and to the same extent, or does ageing affect some independent ‘modules’ and their ‘domain‐specific’ skills before others? We may ask parallel questions about variations in the rates of ageing between individuals: Are there marked individual differences in the ages of onset and in the rates of progression of cognitive ageing? Do all individuals experience the same patterns of cognitive change with age, or are there a variety of distinct patterns with characteristic time‐scales and aetiologies? These last questions imply the most interesting issue of all for applied cognitive psychologists: Can we slow or abolish cognitive ageing? A review of the current state of the field can be structured in these terms.
Rehabilitation for cognitive impairment: Does cognitive psychology apply?
Authors: Wilson Barbara , Patterson Karalyn
Published: June 2007

The most obvious neuropsychological application of cognitive psychology would concern rehabilitation for neurological patients with deficits in cognitive processes. We debate here the extent to which theoretical cognitive psychology is currently contributing to the design of rehabilitation. On one side of the debate our assessment suggests that, at present, theories from cognitive psychology have little impact on the majority of treatment programmes; on the other side we note some current and future theoretical developments which could enhance rapport between theory and therapy.
Cognitive failures and accidents
Authors: Wagenaar Willem A. , Hudson Patrick T. W. , Reason James T.
Published: June 2007

In this paper we argue that industrial accidents are the end‐results of long chains of events that start with decisions at management level. Often these decisions create latent failures, which may remain hidden for a long time. Latent failures can be grouped into a limited number of classes, which are called general failure types. Examples are: wrongly designed machines, unsuitable work procedures, and incompatible goals. Latent failures will affect the psychological processes determining the actual behaviour of workers on the shop floor. Consequently, these workers will commit unsafe acts that, provided the system lacks appropriate defences, will cause accidents. Our discussion of accidents and their cognitive causes follows this logic, and stresses the point that, in modern industries, preventive action will be more effective when aimed at changes based on management decisions. The reason for this is that many unsafe acts are not simple slips, but intentional and reasoned actions that end in unforeseen results. Erroneous plans are not easily avoided on the shop floor, once they are invited by operational conditions replete with latent failures. However, the removal of latent failures requires a more thorough understanding of how they shape behaviour, than is provided by our current insights in cognition.
The acquisition and retention of knowledge: Exploring mutual benefits to memory research and the educational setting
Authors: Naveh‐Benjamin Moshe
Published: June 2007

This article examines the relationship between laboratory‐based memory research and educational research and practice. The first section addresses possible contributions of laboratory research to education. It shows that such research provides meta‐theoretical, theoretical, and conceptual frameworks to explain educationally relevant phenomena, as well as solid empirical contributions that can be applied in relevant educational settings. The second section presents several examples of empirical, educationally relevant memory research. Analysis of these studies shows the potential mutual benefits to both educatioal practice and memory research. In addition to demonstrating the relevance of memory research to education and educational practice, such research can also increase the external validity of memory research, put constraints on the scope of laboratory findings, and help refine theoretical positions. The third section of the article discusses principles to be used in evaluating the applicability and relevance of laboratory research and memory phenomena to education, and looks at ways to increase the applicability of research to educational practice. Among the outlined suggestions are choosing parameters in laboratoy‐based memory research similar to those existing in educational settings, and considering relevant interactions, laboratory effects size, and variation of relevant variables. Using broad categories of variables, including those of individual differences and non‐cognitive ones, will benefit ecologically oriented memory research.
Judgmental asymmetry in the exercise of police discretion
Authors: Stradling S. G. , Tuohy A. P. , Harper K. J.
Published: June 2007

Police officers and probationer constables rated 40 sets of circumstances as to how far each would influence them to prosecute or not prosecute a motorist stopped for speeding. The distribution of responses about the ipsative means exhibited an asymmetry, consistent with the maximum salience bias towards a negative proportion of 1/e (Tuohy and Stradling, 1987). This asymmetry occurred in both directions, differentiating between a minority group for whom ‘prosecute’ was the negative pole and a majority for whom ‘not prosecute’ was negative. These groups did not differ significantly on overall mean rating, but did so on the primary underlying factor (‘lack of deference’), where the former group was significantly more likely to prosecute. Significant differences were also found between probationer and experienced officers in their susceptibility to the bias, and in their distribution between the two groups.
Learning implications of field dependence‐independence: Cognitive style versus cognitive ability
Authors: McKenna Frank P.
Published: June 2007

The relationship between field dependence‐independence and learning has been the subject of much research. In particular it has been suggested that matching teachers and students on cognitive style may produce beneficial results. Much research has also related cognitive style to the way students learn, the way teachers teach, and the way students make choices and perform in various academic areas. While cognitive style has provided the theoretical framework, it is found upon re‐examination that a contrasting interpretation in terms of cognitive ability is readily applicable.
Commercial memory aids
Authors: Herrmann Douglas J. , Petro Susan J.
Published: June 2007

This article examines the psychological properties of commercial memory aids, i. e. products whose primary purpose is either to facilitate performance (a memory prosthetic), correct memory errors (a memory‐failure corrective device) or perform a memory task (a memory‐task robot). An analysis of 74 kinds of commerical memory aids indicated that they help memory in a specific manner, i. e. by assisting performance of a particular task (e. g. remembering what to buy, when to meet someone) which arises in a certain context (e. g. shopping, making phone calls, keeping obligations) and which involves a certain type of content (e. g. knowledge, event, intention, location, possession). Thus, commercial memory aids apear to vary in effectiveness according to the appropriateness of an aid for the task and content to which the aid is applied. It remains for clinical observation and validity tests to determine whether the effectiveness of these aids is broader or narrower than what advertisements claim for them.
The use of verbal report methods in the development and testing of survey questionnaires
Authors: Willis Gordon B. , Royston Patricia , Bercini Deborah
Published: June 2007

Increasingly, verbal report techniques are being used in the development and testing of survey questions. The present investigation examined the cognitive processes involved in responding to health survey questionnaires by conducting laboratory interviews which collected verbal reports. Analysis of these reports identified problems with questions that relate to the compre‐hension, recall, and decision processes the subjects used to answer those questions. This paper describes how questionnaire problems have been detected in the laboratory, and how these have been classified according to a cognitive model. We conclude that the laboratory verbal‐report techniques appear to be useful in detecting a variety of questionnaire flaws that are related to the operation of cognitive processes.
Retrieval from memory of dietary information
Authors: Smith Albert F. , Jobe Jared B. , Mingay David J.
Published: June 2007

Two experiments investigated the accuracy with which subjects report their dietary intake for specified periods. In Experiment 1, subjects recorded their diets for 2 or 4 weeks, and returned 0, 2, 4, or 6 weeks after the end of the recording period for a memory test which required that they attempt to report all items that they had eaten or drunk during the recording period. The reported items were scored against the recorded ones. Overall memory performance deteriorated as retention interval increased. In addition, the intrusion rates of subjects who reported for 2 weeks increased steeply as a function of retention interval length, whereas those of subjects who reported for 4 weeks were roughly constant across retention interval length, whereas those of subjects who reported for 4 weeks were roughly constant across retention intervals. Encouraging subjects to report by food groups elevated intrusion rates, relative to other instructions, without increasing the proportion of targets that was reported. In Experiment 2, subjects recorded their dietary intake for two separate periods, and reported for both periods at the end of the second. The items reported for the second period better matched the record for that period than the record for the first period, but there was no such difference for the items reported for the first period. Taken together, the results of the two experiments suggest that subjects rely on generic memory about their own diets when they attempt to report their intake for extended or remote periods.
Learning sound/symbol correspondences: Transfer effects of pattern detection and phonics instruction
Authors: Gelzheiser Lynn M.
Published: June 2007

This study tested predictions derived from Gibson and Levin (1975) and Gough and Hillinger (1980) regarding the effects of different forms of reading instruction on a test of ‘far generalization’, where students were asked read nonsense words containing untaught sound/symbol correspondences. Two instructional methods were compared, pattern detection training and a synthetic phonics lesson which taught the specific correspondences used on a first post‐test. A control group received no treatment. The transfer effects of pattern detection training were demonstrated on a first post‐test and with a measure of correspondence induction at the end of testing. A first and second post‐test revealed that specific correspondence training increased decoding scores but did not transfer to novel correspondences. On a second post‐test, pattern detection and specific correspondence groups did not differ in decoding score; apparently the induction skill of the pattern detection group was balanced by the knowledge base of the specific correspondence group. It is concluded that pattern detection training more readily fosters those abilities that allow students to independently induce sound/symbol correspondences than the traditional approach of direct teaching of specific correspondences.
Memory anxiety and memory performance in adulthood
Authors: Davidson H. A. , Dixon R. A. , Hultsch D. F.
Published: June 2007

The present study examined the contribution of general and domain‐specific anxiety to the prediction of memory performance in a sample of 350 young, middle‐aged and old adults. In a preliminary stage of this investigation, psychometric analyses revealed that the predictive validity of the Anxiety scale of the Metamemory in Adulthood questionnaire, used to assess memory‐related anxiety, could be improved by using an abbreviated version of the scale. This Memory Anxiety subscale predicted level of state anxiety experienced by middle‐aged and older subjects in anticipation of a memory‐demanding task. It was superior to the general state measures in predicting actual memory performance, but only for the oldest age group. Results thus provide support for domain‐ and age‐specificity in the assessment of anxiety performance relationships.
A brief history of applied cognitive psychology
Authors: Hoffman Robert R. , Deffenbacher Kenneth A.
Published: June 2007

Currently, applied cognitive psychology seems to be a ‘hot topic’. What are the origins of this area of specialization? In this article we survey the history of applied cognitive psychology, beginning with the earliest applied psychological research of the late 1800s, through the impact on psychology of the World Wars, through the advent of the information processing view of the 1950s, and up to the recent flurry of work on topics in cognitive science, such as human–computer interaction. We also consider recent changes in the structure of American professional societies, economic changes and funding patterns, and other factors that have contributed to the advent of this new field. Although our discussion is largely descriptive, we point to some of the influences on applied psychology, such as the practical concerns that have arisen outside the laboratory. Our discussion is best characterized as a historically contextualized cautionary tale that asserts the values of neofunctionalism for applied cognitive psychology.
Children's memory for a personally experienced event: Implications for testimony
Authors: Ornstein Peter A. , Gordon Betty N. , Larus Deanna M.
Published: June 2007

This study was prompted by an interest in children's abilities to testify in legal settings. Based on the fundamental premise that children cannot provide accurate testimony about events that cannot be remembered, this investigation focused on 3‐ and 6‐year‐olds' memory of a salient, personally experienced event. The event selected was that of a visit to the doctor for a physical examination. Children at both ages remembered most of the features of the check‐up at an immediate memory test, although the older children performed somewhat better than younger children. In addition, the performance of the 3‐year‐olds decreased over delay intervals of 1 and 3 weeks, whereas that of the 6‐year‐olds remained constant over this period. Moreover, at all assessment points the older children provided more information in response to open‐ended general questions than did the younger children. Both groups of children were quite good at giving accurate responses to misleading questions, although the 3‐year‐olds performed below the level of 6‐year‐olds. The need for further controlled studies of children's memory capabilities is discussed.
Visuospatial and articulatory interference in chess players' information intake
Authors: Saariluoma Pertti
Published: June 2007

Modularity of the human information processing system has been widely accepted. Research based on this theoretical construction has been successful in many areas of cognitive psychology. Surprisingly little work has, however, been done towards understanding the consequences of modularity in thinking skills. In this paper the functions of visuospatial and articulatory processing will be compared in the context of chess skill to obtain information concerning the cognitive resources needed in this skill. Two experiments on chess players' information intake will be made, in which the effects of visuospatial and an articulatory secondary tasks will be compared. In both experiments a visuospatial secondary task causes strong interference, while an articulatory task has no effect on processing. So chess is a highly visual task but articulation, contrary to some pre‐theoretical beliefs, has no real significance.
Recognition memory performance and residential burglary
Authors: Logie Robert , Wright Richard , Decker Scott
Published: June 2007

This paper reports two studies of recognition memory performance in groups of juvenile residential burglars. Memory performance of the burglars was compared in Experiment 1 with police officers and a group of adult householders. In Experiment 2 a second group of juvenile burglars was compared with a group of juvenile offenders who had no experience of housebreaking. All groups were asked first to identify houses in photographs that would be attractive or otherwise to burglars. Subsequently, subjects were given a surprise recognition test where, in some photographs, physical features had been changed. Recognition memory for information about physical features of houses was significantly better for the burglary group than for the police officers, who in turn were better than members of the law‐abiding public. In Experiment 2 the juvenile burglars' recognition memory performance was significantly better than the other offenders. These results are interpreted in terms of the burglary subjects possessing a level of expertise associated with their experience of offending. This is a finding with implications for criminology and for the application of cognitive psychology to crime prevention, an area of considerable practical importance.
Environmental context‐dependent eyewitness recognition
Authors: Smith Steven M. , Vela Edward
Published: June 2007

The present study helped resolve the apparent conflict between many laboratory list‐learning studies, which have not found environmental context‐dependent recognition memory, and staged field studies (e.g. Malpass and Devine, 1981), whose results with ‘guided memory’ techniques suggest that eyewitness face recognition should depend upon environmental context reinstatement. It was found in two different experiments that, relative to testing in a new place, returning participants to the environment where a live staged event had occurred improved performance on identification of a confederate's face (i.e., hit rate). Although physical reinstatement improved identification performance in Experiment 1, mental reinstatement instructions to subjects tested in a new environment did not improve identification performance over an uninstructed group. The environmental reinstatement effect did not interact with test delay or confederate. In Experiment 2 it was found that environmental reinstatement improved accuracy (hit rate and foil identification rate) when the correct target was present in the test line‐up, and that false identifications were not significantly affected by contextual manipulations when the correct target was absent from the line‐up. The results provide an empirical basis for the hypothesis that returning to the scene of an event improves eyewitness face recognition.
How accurate are time‐use reports? Effects of cognitive enhancement and cultural differences on recall accuracy
Authors: Engle Patrice L. , Lumpkin J. Bradley
Published: June 2007

In order to assess the accuracy of time‐use reports, 80 young adults were observed for 2‐hour periods, and were interviewed about their activities by a different person the following day. Two experiments were performed. In the first, three different levels of cognitive enhancement were used to improve recall accuracy. Subjects were 60 California college students, 20 per group. In the second study the maximum enhancement condition was replicated with 20 Guatemalan subjects, similar in age, sex and level of education to the California subjects. Both the accuracy of their recall of specific activities, and the accuracy of their time‐duration estimates were calculated. Results indicated that the enhancement conditions in Study 1 significantly increased both the number of activities recalled accurately (from 40 to 63 per cent) and the amount of time accurately recalled (from 58 to 70 per cent). In Study 2 the Guatemalans recalled 60 per cent of their activities accurately, and recalled as much time accurately as the Californians. The Guatemalans were significantly more likely to underestimate their time. In other words, when they made errors, these were almost always underestimations. Most of the recall error could be accounted for by forgetting an activity altogether, rather than by estimating its time inaccurately.
The effect of expectation on the identification of known and unknown persons
Authors: Kerstholt José H. , Raaijmakers Jeroen G. W. , Valeton J. Mathieu
Published: June 2007

In this experiment we investigated the influence of expectation, exposure time and jacket hood positioning on person identification. Thirty subjects, all employees of the TNO Institute for Perception, participated in the experiment. They were presented with slides showing known and unknown persons who were photographed under bad lighting conditions. Limited viewing conditions considerably deteriorated subjects' performance and under these circumstances all experimental manipulations significantly affected identification accuracy. Contrary to what was expected longer exposure times impaired performance. The results are discussed in light of recent research on face recognition (Bruce and Young, 1986; Read, Vokey, and Hammersley, 1990).
Becoming a bartender: The role of external memory cues in a work‐directed educational activity
Authors: Beach King
Published: June 2007

Two kinds of external mnemonic cues are distinguished within the activity of becoming a bartender. Verbal mnemonic symbols (VMS) are materially arbitrary with respect to their referents. Material mnemonic symbols (MMS) bear a direct material relation to their referents. Both sets of cues are socially constituted. Combined ethnographic and experimental analyses indicate that external mnemonic cue use shifts from VMS, to MMS, to the use of neither with increasing experience. These shifts are interpreted within an activity theory framework as they occur in relation to the changing goals of becoming a bartender.
An observational study of skilled memory in waitresses
Authors: Stevens Joy
Published: June 2007

A two‐phase observational study was done on skilled waitresses as they served lunch orders in a Manhattan restaurant. Three months of participant observation provided a job description which characterized the skilled use of memory by waitresses. A second set of observations tracked the handling of orders for five confederate customers, and looked at ways in which waitresses had to reorganize information in order to do their job quickly and accurately. The date revealed that waitresses sort‐order information into different organizational configurations to match locations in the restaurant, and that they adaptively utilized these configurations in the flow of their activity.
Very long‐term retention of a novel
Authors: Stanhope Nicola , Cohen Gillian , Conway Martin
Published: June 2007

This study investigated the very long‐term retention of a full‐length novel originally studied as part of a university undergraduate course. One hundred and forty former students completed three tests designed to assess retention of Charles Dickens' Hard Times. Retention intervals ranged from 3 to 39 months. Subjects' responses when they were asked to report their most vivid and enduring memory of the novel were consistent with story grammar models which claim that components of a story which are higher in a hierarchy are remembered better than those lower in the hierarchy. A free recall test of the names and roles of the characters in the novel found that retention of both declined rapidly in the first few months following acquisition, that names were forgotten more quickly than roles, and that retention of both had stabilized above baseline before the longest retention interval. These data are interpreted in terms of a schema account of memory retention, in which retention of schematic knowledge (roles), but not non‐schematic knowledge (names) can be mediated by abstract knowledge structures. The results of a fact verification test showed that memory for events of high importance in the novel was better than memory for events of low importance, consistent with models that suggest that texts and stories are represented hierarchically in memory. Confidence ratings also declined over time and showed that subjects generally assessed the accuracy of their responses correctly. The significant predictors of memory for the novel were retention interval and the mark obtained on a coursework essay on Hard Times.
Interrelationships among students' study activities, self‐concept of academic ability, and achievement as a function of characteristics of high‐school biology courses
Authors: Thomas John W. , Bol Linda , Warkentin Robert W. , Wilson Mark , Strage Amy , Rohwer William D.
Published: June 2007

This investigation focused on the interrelationships among students' study activities, students' self‐concept of academic ability ratings, students' academic achievement, and instructional practices in 12 high school biology courses. Using a framework derived from a previous investigation, course features were classified into those that appear to (a) place demands on, (b) support, or (c) compensate for student engagement in particular study activities. Students' study activities, self‐concept of academic ability ratings, and achievement were measured with experimenter‐developed instruments. Results are reported for (a) characteristics of instruments and course features, (b) relationships between central factors of the investigation, and (c) multi‐level relationships between course features and student variables. Results at the student level indicated that self‐concept of academic ability and, to a lesser extent, students' study activities were positively associated with student achievement. Students' self‐concept of academic ability ratings were also linked to students' engagement in generative, proactive study activities. At the course level the supportive practices of providing challenging homework assignments and extensive feedback on student coursework were associated with student engagement in effortful, generative, proactive study activities. The provision of extensive feedback was also associated with high student achievement. Multi‐level relationships were analysed using hierarchical linear modelling (HLM) analyses. These analyses revealed, for example, that in courses in which little or no feedback is given on homework assignments, the relationship between achievement and student engagement in diligent effort management activities was enhanced. Other HLM analyses were conducted to examine the mediating role of course features on the relationship between students' self‐concept of academic ability and their study activities and achievement. For example, the presence of challenging course demands was associated with an enhancement of the relationship between self‐concept of academic ability and achievement whereas the presence of instructor provisions (supports and compensations) designed to reduce course demands was associated with a reduction in this relationship.
Perception of clusters in statistical maps
Authors: Lewandowsky Stephan , Herrmann Douglas J. , Behrens John T. , Li Shu‐Chen , Pickle Linda , Jobe Jared B.
Published: June 2007

Two experiments observed performance on a cluster identification task across a variety of common statistical maps. Stimulus maps displayed mortality rates for several diseases and subjects had to identify regions of the map that were perceived to form a cluster of particularly high (or low) mortality. Subjects marked the perceived centroid of each cluster, and analyses focused on the dispersion of centroid location across subjects. Under these circumstances, monochrome classed choropleth maps were found to minimize dispersion, compared to a two opposing colours scheme, a dot density map, a pie map, and a categorical (hue‐based) colour scheme. Maps using a familiar geographical unit (i. e. a U. S. state) supported better recall of the information than maps using less familiar and smaller geographical units. The results were found to be interpretable within current cognitive theory.
The need to expand the horizons of the practical aspects of memory movement
Authors: Herrmann Douglas , Gruneberg Michael
Published: June 2007

The Practical Aspects of Memory movement began as a forum for applied memory research and as and acid test for basic memory theory. Contrary to initial expectations, the movement has attracted far fewer applied researchers and, instead, has primarily drawn researchers concerned with the ecological validity of basic research. The purpose of this special issue is to demonstrate to practical memory researchers the rewards of giving more consideration to applied memory research in government, industry, education, and consulting. This article explains that the Practical Aspects of Memory movement needs to give more consideration to applied research that does not emanate from basic theory, because such research may identify phenomena that basic research should investigate. It is argued here that an examination of the potential contributions of applied memory research will facilitate communication among basic, ecological, and applied researchers, thereby strengthening the movement's ability to contribute to the solution of societal problems.
Contributions of survey research to the understanding of memory
Authors: Jobe Jared B. , Tourangeau Roger , Smith Albert F.
Published: June 2007

This article reviews the results of survey methodological research that illustrate phenomena of potential interest to investigators of memory, and also reviews psychological research designed to explore some of these phenomena under controlled laboratory conditions. We classify the phenomena reviewed into broad categories of remembering what events occurred, remembering when events occurred, and estimation and reconstruction processes used in reporting recurring events. We delineate the contributions of this research for our understanding of memory phenomena and show where this research has revealed gaps in our existing theories and knowledge. These findings present challenges for future collaboration between cognitive psychologists and survey methodologists.
Development of treatments for memory disordorders: The necessary meeting of basic and everyday memory research
Authors: Crook Thomas H. , Youngjohn James R.
Published: June 2007

A number of intriguing strategies for treating memory disorders have emerged from basic research in recent years. In many cases, these strategies have been tested in animal behavioural models, but the appropriate test of drug efficacy is obviously a clinical trial and such trials require expertise gained through everyday memory research. We provide two examples of recent clinical trials in which assessment techniques and knowledge gained through everyday memory research were employed to test hypotheses developed by preclinical investigators. We conclude that only a close collaboration between scientists in basic and everyday memory research can lead to the development of effective treatments for memory disorders.
Computer‐based instruction and the practical aspects of memory
Authors: Shlechter Theodore M.
Published: June 2007

This article examines the relationship between basic memory research and computer‐based instruction (CBI). The results of basic memory research have helped determine the current directions of computer‐assisted instruction (CAI) research and development. These directions have included examining the utility of such learning systems for facilitating memory outcomes and developing CBI systems based on cognitive instructional principles. Examples of such systems include the emerging generation of hypermedia and artificial tutoring systems. Inconclusive results, however, have been found regarding CBI's effects on memroy phenomena. The CBI literature has thus not established the utility of any memory theory for naturally occurring phenomena. Several plausible reasons for this “null finding” are discussed.
Implications of external memory for investigations of mind
Authors: Hertel Paula T.
Published: June 2007

External memory–records of experiences that are maintained in repositories that are external to their users–provides context for many everyday cognitive acts. Some initial research has shown that such context influences learning, remembering, and judgements of knowing. The scope of both basic and applied memory research should be broadened in ways that address issues about the interaction of external memory and mind.
Commercial cognitive/memory systems: A case study
Authors: Leirer Von O. , Tanke Elizabeth Decker , Morrow Daniel G.
Published: June 2007

Commercial cognitive/memory systems are products that enhance human cognition and memory. Using one of our own product developments as a case study, we describe three phases of commercial systems development and evaluation. We review published examples of Phase One research, report two quasi‐experimental investigations that are representative of successful Phase Two research, and provide some measures used to assess the product's success in the early stages of Phase Three. Finally, we discuss the use of theories and findings from basic research in cognitive psychology to develop products of value to individuals and society.
Afterword
Authors: Davies Graham
Published: June 2007

The author commends this collection of papers on applied cognitive psychology and the Guest Editor's distinction between basic, ecologically valid and applied research. The relationship of these three varieties of research is discussed in relation to the findings reported by the various contributors to this Special Issue of Applied Cognitive Psychology.
Understanding a corporate symbol
Authors: Green David , Loveluck Valerie
Published: June 2007

After discussing the nature of corporate symbols and the factors involved in understanding them, this paper reports two studies. We test various conjectures about the process of comprehension using a single, complex corporate symbol. Three sources of information are shown to contribute to an individual's understanding of the symbol: (1) the purpose ofthe communication; (2) the properties of the symbol–graphical and referential; and (3) the context in which the symbol is seen. We also show that the process is constrained in predictable ways. We consider these studies to be a step in the development of a psychological theory to inform the process of designing symbols.
Consequentiality and eyewitness person identification
Authors: Foster Rachel Ann , Libkuman Terry M. , Schooler Jonathan W. , Loftus Elizabeth F.
Published: June 2007

The role of consequentiality in eyewitness person identification was examined. Subjects viewed a videotape depicting a simulated bank robbery and were then asked to identify the robber from a photographic lineup. Consequentiality was induced by leading some subjects to believe that the video tape was of an actual bank robbery, and that performance on the identification task would be influential in the suspected robber's court trial. The following manipulations were included to determine the interaction of consequentiality with commonly investigated eyewitness variables: lineup instructions, accountability and suspect presence in the lineup. In addition, the data were analysed for sex differences. Analyses of identification attempts and hits revealed interactions indicating that men were more influenced by consequentiality and lineup instructions than women. The results suggest that consequentiality does play a role in certain eyewitness identification situations.
Cognitive influences on perceived change in social support, motivation, and symptoms of depression
Authors: Foster David A. , Caplan Robert D.
Published: June 2007

In settings ranging from informal conversation to medical interviews and surveys, people are often asked to judge changes in subjective states that are important to them, such as perceived social support, motivation to cope with a negative life event, and symptoms of depression. How accurate are such reports, and are there theories of cognitive processes that can predict the most likely types of misperception? To address these questions, self‐report survey data were collected from 224 recently unemployed adults. The measures assessed current subjective states of self and social environment at two times, separated by 4 months. Among the results, persons with high self‐esteem were particularly likely to underestimate changes for the worse between the two survey waves–evidence of an optimistic response bias. When the dimension being judged was unstable and ambiguous, people were more likely to overestimate improvement–evidence of an optimistic response style. The findings were evaluated in terms of alternate theories of cognitive bias and in terms of implications for subsequent studies and application.
Hiding valuables: A questionnaire study of mnemonically risky behavior
Authors: Brown Alan S. , Rahhal Tamara A.
Published: June 2007

A survey investigated incidences where individuals intentionally hid objects but later forgot the item's location. Surveys from 111 younger and 99 older adults yielded the following prototypical scenario: the person hid the valuable 1 year ago to prevent theft, and waited 1 month before an initial 30‐minute search, which included looking in dresser drawers plus 1.5 other locations. The person made three additional searches (total searches = 4) for the missing valuable over a 2 week period. Three‐quarters of the hidden valuables were eventually found (usually by accident) about 1 month after hiding the object. About half of the time, the person had already searched the hiding area. Older adults typically hid jewellery from thieves, while younger adults hid money from friends and relatives. Older adults searched more often for longer periods of time for the hidden object, and took longer to eventually find the object, compared with younger adults.
Construction of activity duration and time management potential
Authors: Burt Christopher D. B. , Kemp Simon
Published: June 2007

Two experiments examined the estimation of event duration. In Experiment 1 subjects estimated the expected duration of five everyday activities, performed the activities, and then made retrospective estimates of the duration of the activities. Expected and retrospective estimates were positively correlated, even when actual duration was taken into account suggesting both estimates may have been constructed partly from general knowledge of activity duration. Experiment 2 examined the ability to predict activity duration within a time management framework. Results indicated that subjects' accuracy in predicting the duration of a series of events was not related to time management ability as measured by the Time Structure Questionnaire (TSQ). Subjects generally made overestimations, and this tendency may be a strategy that gives a feeling of control over time and helps avoid stress caused by an inability to complete tasks in the allocated time. No relationship was found between expected duration estimation ability and academic performance.
Visual–perceptual and cognitive differences between expert, intermediate, and novice snooker players
Authors: Abernethy Bruce , Neal Robert J. , Koning Paul
Published: June 2007

The performance of seven expert, seven intermediate, and 15 novice snooker players was compared on a range of general visual tests and sport‐specific perceptual and cognitive tests in an attempt to determine the locus of the expert advantage. No significant expert‐novice differences were apparent on standard optometric tests of acuity, ocular muscle balance, colour vision, and depth perception, nor on the relative frequency of unilateral and cros‐lateral eye‐hand dominances. Experts, however, were found to be superior in their ability to both recall and recognize rapidly‐presented slides depicting normal game situations, but were no better than novices in recalling information from slides in which the balls were arranged randomly on the table. The expert group's superiority on the perceptual recall and recognition tasks was consistent with a deeper level of encoding for structured (meaningful) material. Experts were also shown, through the use of thinking‐aloud and evaluation paradigms, to use a greater depth of forward planning in choosing appropriate shot options and to evaluate existing situations with greater accuracy, discriminability, and prospective planing than did novices. The cognitive advantage is shown to be a potential contributor but not a total explanation of the superior performance of the experts on the perceptual tasks. The findings of this study are consistent with existing works on expertise in board games and ‘open’ skill sports in indicating that the expert's advantage is not a general but a specific one, arising not from physical capacities but from acquired processing strategies.
The development of beliefs about spelling and their relationship to spelling performance
Authors: Rankin Joan L. , Bruning Roger H. , Timme Vicky L.
Published: June 2007

This study examined relations among spelling performance and students' beliefs about spelling, including self‐efficacy for spelling ability, outcome expectancy for spelling, and attributions for good spelling across grades 4, 7, and 10. Spelling self‐efficacy remained relatively constant across grades. Spelling outcome expectancies for adult life and school declined across grades, as did effort and ability attributions for spelling success, with a disproportional decrease in ability attributions between grades 4 and 7. Self‐efficacy was the strongest predictor of spelling performance at all grade levels; attribution for ability entered into the regression for grade 4 students, while outcome expectancies for school and writing were more important in grades 7 and 10. Cluster analyses on the grade 10 sample showed that students with high efficacy as spellers and high outcome expectancy of spelling for writing were the best spellers, with the highest performance reserved for those who attributed good spelling more to effort than ability. The impact of spelling instruction on developing beliefs is discussed.
David, Goliath, and reverend Bayes: Prior beliefs about defendants' status in personal injury cases
Authors: Bornstein Brian H.
Published: June 2007

Two experiments were performed to ascertain the effect of the extra‐legal factor of defendants' status on subjects' judgements in a simulated jury task. In support of the ‘deep‐pocket’ hypothesis, high‐status defendants were perceived as less sympathetic and were more likely to lose their case, even though the factual evidence was identical, than low‐status defendants. There was a spillover effect, such that plaintiffs (Davids) suing high‐status defendants (Goliaths) were themselves viewed as more sympathetic. The effect of defendants' status was mediated by the sentiments that it aroused toward both litigants; it was negligible with sympathy partialled out. Contrary to the deep‐pocket hypothesis, high‐status defendants did not have to pay more for the same injury; subjects are able to ignore status in awarding compensation when compensatory and punitive damages are clearly separated. In treating defendants differently depending on their status, subjects relied on relevant prior beliefs about the relationship of defendants' status to wealth, propensity to cause harm, and standards of accountability. The results are discussed in terms of the sometimes conflicting norms between an optimal decision‐making model like Bayes' Theorem and legal guidelines for judgements of liability and compensation.
Self‐instruction training following neurological injury
Authors: Hux Karen , Reid Robert , Lugert Meredith
Published: June 2007

The teaching of cognitive strategies is a potentially effective intervention technique for some students with acquired neurological injuries; however, educators have only infrequently reported on the systematic application of cognitive strategies to the academic challenges of this population. This study represents such an attempt by investigating the effects of a self‐instruction strategy on the academic performance of a student with acquired neurological damage. The intervention programme pertained to performing 2‐digit by 1‐digit multiplication problems and consisted of: (1) a six‐step multiplication procedure; (2) self‐instruction cues; and (3) procedural prompts. The intervention package resulted in improved performance on the multiplication task with levels being maintained despite fading of procedural prompts and self‐instruction cues. Results are discussed in terms of implications for training and future research.
‘Memory work’: A royal road to false memories?
Authors: Ceci Stephen J. , Loftus Elizabeth F.
Published: June 2007

In this reaction to Lindsay and Read, we raise three unanswered questions, and rebut three unquestioned answers. Specifically, we ask: (1) how compelling is the evidence for repression as a mechanism, as opposed to simple forgetting, infantile amnesia, or motivated foregetting? (2) are trauma memories subject to the same type of alteration and nontraumatic memories?; and (3) should memory work techniques be used even in they entail some reliability risk, because to forsake them will result in unrecovered memories?. The three unquestioned answers we address are: (1) painful, but nonsexual, genital experiences (e.g., vaginal catheterizations), do not get recovered in therapy because they are societally sanctioned, and therefore do not rise to the level of trauma that is associated with sexual abuse by a trusted loved one; (2) it is acceptable for therapists to pursue repressed memories if their ‘index of suspicion’ is raised by the presence of multiple symptoms of childhood abuse; and 3) the problem with incest resolution therapists has been overblown, by focusing on a few bad apples.