bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Buckley Jorunn Jacobsen
Published: October 2003

Starts by tracing the origin of the Mandaeans to the Jordan/Palestine area (from whence they emigrated, in the first to third centuries CE, to Iran and Iraq), and gives a brief history to the present. Next, the characteristics of the religion are outlined: Mandaeans are the only still surviving group of Gnostics; their religion has an extensive literature with multifarious mythological traditions and intricate rituals; and their world is essentially three‐tiered, with an upper (heavenly) Lightworld on which much emphasis is placed, a middle earthly human world (Tibil), and a gloomy Underworld (which does not receive much attention). An overview is given of ancient Mandaean literature (the Ginza; the liturgies; the Book of John; ritual commentaries; and other works). There is then a brief note on European traditional Mandaean scholarship, which also covers the work of Lady Ethel S. Drower (1879–1972), who broke traditional scholarly moulds and did much of her work on the Mandaeans in the field. Lastly, the parameters and purpose of the book are described.
The Ṭabahata Masiqta
Authors: Buckley Jorunn Jacobsen
Published: October 2003

Investigates another creation of the Mandaean laufa (the connection between earth and the Lightworld), that of the masiqta or death mass. The specific masiqta described here is the Ṭabahata masiqta, the masiqta of the Parents’, an event that only occurs once a year, on the last day of the five‐day intercalary period Panja; it takes even longer than a regular masiqta (which takes 12 hours) . This is a double masiqta, performed in two parts, the first of which has two segments. The account relies on Drower's fieldwork accounts, and on her editions and translations of Mandaean texts. Prayers, priestly instructions, commentaries, and activities are laid out in conjunction with one another to show the complex interactions of religious thought, imagery, and ritual proceedings.
An Inscribed Mandaean Body
Authors: Buckley Jorunn Jacobsen
Published: October 2003

The Great ‘First World’ and its companion text, The Lesser ‘First World’, are both examples of Mandaean priestly esoteric literature, and have been hardly studied since their publication in 1963. An odd figure appears in the scroll of the The Great ‘First World’, along with a number of other illustrations, but the identity of the figure depicted is not specified, although it is in the same style as other Mandaean Lightworld beings and priestly prototypes in illustrated documents. Drower, the translator, hazards no guess at its identity. The author gives her own translation of the text on the body, and suggests on the basis of various arguments that the enigmatic figure might be the priestly prototype Hibil Ziwa, but might also invite interpretation as the mystic sage Dinanukht; it might, in fact, intentionally invite both interpretations.
“The Comprehensive Theme of Revealed Theology”
Authors: Sweeney Douglas A.
Published: October 2003

A striking emphasis on God's justice and goodness and on the truly moral nature of divine government pervades Taylor's entire corpus. In his famous Concio ad Clerum, Taylor upheld a firm commitment to both predestination and general divine providence, which were understood together as the doctrine of the eternal divine decrees. For Taylor, his infralapsarian Calvinistic solution to the problem of theodicy becomes the foundation for his opposition to the high Calvinist's limited and forensic understanding of the atonement. Even though Taylor made use of Scottish Common Sense Realism to arrive at his conclusions, Sweeney argues that this philosophy neither set him apart from his Edwardsian peers nor placed him in league with Old Calvinism.
Natural Law
Authors: Feinberg Joel
Published: October 2003

This chapter addresses the ‘Nuremberg Problem’, which questions whether the punishment of Nazi war criminals represented a departure from law or the use of a norm implicit in the law of every nation. In analyzing the debate between H. L. A. Hart (who argued that the laws of the Nazi regime were valid, but too evil to obey) and Lon Fuller (who held that the Nazi regime was not a valid legal system, so there was no obligation to obey), we see the extent to which these thinkers would have been political allies. The famous differences between the legal positivist and the natural law theorist on the question of private citizens' moral obligation to obey the law do not amount to much. It does not follow from this, however, that no substantive differences exist between legal positivism and natural law theory as general accounts of the relation between law and morality.
Criminal Attempts
Authors: Feinberg Joel
Published: October 2003

One perennial philosophical question is whether a failed attempt to perform a criminal action should be punished as severely as a successfully completed crime. Attempting to resolve this issue generates other philosophical problems relating to desert, guilt, remorse, and the aims and grounds for lawful punishment. The reformist approach to sentencing defended in this chapter, which treats completed crimes and failed attempts ceteris paribus as essentially the same, contrasts with the traditional approach, which places more weight on the actual harm done and does not rule out good or bad luck as determinants of the severity of the penalty. Thus, the traditional approach allows arbitrariness to govern and to corrupt the judicial system.
Monetary Union
Authors: Cohen Benjamin J.
Published: October 2003

This chapter focuses on the political dimension of monetary union — key domestic and international political issues involved when sovereign states consider either currency unification or formal dollarization. It examines the role of policies in the context of two distinct stages: at the time when the initial decision is made to create a monetary union, and as part of what determines the sustainability of the endeavor. Implications for Canada and Latin America are discussed.
Should Latin America's Common‐Law Marriage to the U.S. Dollar Be Legalized?
Authors: Dean James W.
Published: October 2003

Informal or “de facto” dollarization, which is well established all over Latin America, may be irreversible. It has rendered monetary policy relatively impotent, and active exchange rate policy dangerous. Thus, full, de jure dollarization may be the only remaining option for these countries.
Eliminating Chlorofluorocarbons
Authors: Parson Edward A.
Published: October 2003

Examines major changes in scientific understanding that followed the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987 and the completion of the period of initial formation of the ozone protection regime. Returns to the two disturbing claims made in 1985 — extreme seasonal ozone loss in Antarctica, and large ozone loss worldwide — and traces their investigation over the following three years, their initial resolution in the year after the Protocol, and the consequences of their resolution in spreading calls to completely eliminate ozone‐depleting chemicals (chlorofluorohydrocarbons (CFCs)). The early development of the Protocol's expert assessment panels is also discussed; these are the centrepieces of the regime's structure to adapt to changing knowledge and capabilities.
Two Approaches to Ostensible Intuitions
Authors: Unger Peter
Published: October 2003

Explores the distinction between the prevalent approach to ostensible intuitions, which takes such intuitions to be indicative of semantic conditions, and the broadly psychological approach, which does not. An attack is made against Kripke and Putnam's causal theory of (semantic) reference (for words, as opposed to names) via Putnam's Twin Earth thought experiments. Our responses to such examples may be distinguished into two types, (1) a dominant response, and (2) a dominated response. The common aspect to all demonstrable counterexamples to the causal theory of reference turns on the individual differences among the responses. The prevalent approach must deny semantic competence to dissenting agents. We may maintain, in a relativist spirit, that there is no absolutely right answer in such cases. Kripke's distinction between epistemological examples and metaphysical examples is noted and the two are united in order to generate combined examples. The failure of the causal theory of reference to deal with any such examples in a successful and systematic way tells against the prospect of maintaining an internalized semantics. Historical and current versions of the causal theory of reference are explored, with neither accurately capturing our natural responses, strengthening the objection against the prevalent approach and supporting the broadly psychological approach, which in contrast to the prevalent approach attributes agents’ responses to the examples to their (the agents’) egocentric bias, which may not be fully rational. As such, the relativist now has a direct reply to the objection from semantic intuitions, this being that such common sense intuitions are not a function of an internalized semantics. Supposing that the broadly psychological approach is no stronger than the prevalent approach merely strengthens the relativist's position.
The Status of Philosophical Problems
Authors: Unger Peter
Published: October 2003

Examines a different objection against the relativity hypotheses, the objection from superficiality, which takes the relativity hypotheses to be leaving deep philosophical issues aside. A similar objection is that the relativity hypotheses take many traditional philosophical problems to have the status of pseudoproblems. The objection from superficiality comes in several forms: the objection from particular expressions (that the relativity hypotheses rely on, restricting themselves to a limited set of locutions), the objection from a particular language (that the relativity hypotheses are too provincial and language‐centric), the objection from overgeneralization (that the relativity hypotheses have a scope so wide that all terms will be affected), and the objection from unnaturalness (that the relativity hypotheses are so unnatural that they should not be applied to venerable philosophical problems). All four forms of the objection from superficiality are countered and the point is argued that many traditional philosophical problems (universals being just one example) are left untouched by the relativity hypotheses. With regards to those that are not (“causation” and “freewill and determinism” for example), there is still much philosophical work to be done in these areas. The relativity hypotheses do not imply that such philosophical problems may be easily solved. The positive aspect of the relativity hypotheses is that the specific areas where they are active may be identified and distinguished in order to reveal the aspects of particular philosophical problems that may admit of nonarbitrary solutions.
Equality Without Vision
Authors: Fletcher George P.
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses the paradoxical ways that the Civil War served to strengthen states’ rights. Abolition was countered in many states by the enactment of “the Black Codes”, undermining the voting rights and equal protection that had ostensibly been granted to newly freed slaves. The author argues that these developments affect American life to this day, in the forms of felon disenfranchisement and discrimination, and in instances of denial of equal justice under law, such as the 1973 Rodriguez case.
The Secret Constitution Resurgent
Authors: Fletcher George P.
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the role of constitutional amendments in American legal culture. Amendments that have already been approved – such as those that instituted the income tax, the popular election of senators, various forms of suffrage, and Prohibition – and those now being proposed, such as the victims’ rights amendment and a proposed amendment to outlaw flag‐burning – are discussed. The tension between the concept of a “civil society” and such values as freedom of speech and freedom of religion is also examined in a comparative context.
Election Blues 2000
Authors: Fletcher George P.
Published: October 2003

In this afterword, the author discusses the events surrounding the 2000 U.S. Presidential election, in which George W. Bush became President based on a Supreme Court ruling that gave him the majority in the electoral college, defeating Vice President Al Gore, who had won the popular vote. The widely held ideal of a popular democracy is contrasted with the reality of the Twelfth Amendment system of electoral votes, and the author asserts that such contrasts point to the ongoing conflict between our “two constitutions” and our own sense of nationhood. Issues of voter disenfranchisement raised in the election are also examined.
American Genesis, American Captivity
Authors: Saillant John
Published: October 2003

A new racism arose in the early American republic that set aside the antislavery arguments of men and women who were, like Lemuel Haynes, rooted in eighteenth‐century modes of thought like Edwardsean theology and republican ideology. Haynes had always argued that blacks and whites must live harmoniously in an integrated society if Americans wished to be true to Calvinism and republicanism. In the early nineteenth century, many Americans became convinced that blacks and whites were so separate cognitively and physically that they could never coexist as equals. Haynes set himself against what he saw as divisive forces, including Universalism, a new Christian denomination led by Hosea Ballou. Haynes invoked as a standard for race relations the godly unity idealized in American Puritanism and expressed in early American texts such as the captivity narrative of Mary Rowlandson. In his last years, Haynes worked as an itinerant preacher but never held a reliable pulpit between his dismissal in 1818 from his Rutland, Vermont, church and his death in 1833 in Granville, Massachusetts.
Combining Efficiency With Equity: A Pragmatic Approach
Authors: Blanchard Odile , Criqui Patrick , Kitous Alban , Viguier Laurent
Published: October 2003

The global public good of climate stabilization, pursued in the negotiations leading up to the Kyoto Protocol, provides a useful case study of the political problems that can arise in attempts to reconcile structural or procedural aspects of justice and fairness with aspects of efficiency in securing just and fair outcomes.
The Multilateral Trade Regime: A Global Public Good for All?
Authors: Mendoza Ronald U.
Published: October 2003

The structure of arrangements for multilateral trade has caused much controversy, as was witnessed by the WTO ministerial conference at Seattle in 1999 and on other occasions. Examines the problem through the lens of the global public goods concept. It suggests that to become a global public good in substance rather than merely in form, the multilateral trade regime requires adjustments to correct a distributional imbalance favouring developed countries at the expense of developing countries.
The Inconsistency of the Majority Justices With Their Previously Expressed Views
Authors: Dershowitz Alan M.
Published: October 2003

Aims to demonstrate that, during the (Bush vs Gore) US presidential election of 2000, by any reasonable standard of evaluation, the majority justices of the US Supreme Court failed to test the US constitutional system in ways that it had never been tested before, and did so not because of incompetence, but because of malice aforethought. Contrasts the prior decisions and writings of the particular majority justices with the opinions that they joined in this case; the dramatic discrepancies found raise troubling questions. Moves from this concrete evidence to a more speculative consideration of what may have motivated these inconsistencies. The different sections of the chapter look first at the decisions of Justice Antonin Scalia, Justice Sandra Day O’Connor, Justice Anthony Kennedy, Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist, and Justice Clarence Thomas. The following speculative sections first ask generally why each justice behaved as they did, and then go on to devote separate sections on the motives of each of the five justices.
St.Francis and His Audience
Authors: Wolf Kenneth Baxter
Published: October 2003

Francis was the son of a prominent cloth merchant and as such his early life was spent immersed in burgher culture. When he decided to renounce his place in society and live a life of voluntary poverty, he constructed that life as the antithesis of the life of a wealthy burgher. As a result, his form of poverty quite naturally spoke to the particular spiritual needs of the urban elite. By providing his former peer group with a way of dealing with the guilt surrounding their mercantile lifestyles, he found himself elevated to a position of great popularity and influence. His sermons, in which he preached penance, encouraged burghers either to follow his example and become “perfectly poor” or to support him and his fellow friars as they tried to perfect their own poverty. The natural “fit” between Francis's new, postconversion lifestyle and the experiences of the other members of the urban elite paved the way for the cult of St. Francis to assume proportions that dwarfed the cults of the rest of the urban saints of his day.
The Intrinsic Value of Sense Pleasure and Pain
Authors: Rudebusch George
Published: October 2003

I interpret and defend Socrates’ account of sensate pleasure and pain. Lovers of sensations (in the Epicurean tradition) will find Socrates’ restriction of pleasure's value to modal (in particular, moral) activity incredible. Nevertheless, I argue (following the Stoic tradition) that the value sensations have, lies not in their being sensations but in their being activities. On my interpretation, the measuring skill of the value of pleasure is idealized Socratic cross‐examination or dialectic.
The Righteous Are Happy
Authors: Rudebusch George
Published: October 2003

At the end of Republic Book 1, Socrates leads Thrasymachus to the conclusion that unrighteousness is never more profitable than righteousness, by showing that the righteous are happy and the unrighteous miserable. This argument, although the cornerstone of Socratic ethics, has seemed laughable to many interpreters. I defend the argument.
Frame Dependence: The Second Theme
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

A frame is a description. Frame dependence means that people make decisions that are influenced by the manner in which the information is presented. Frame dependence manifests itself in the way that people form attitudes towards gains and losses. Many people make one decision if a problem is framed in terms of losses, but behave differently if the same problem is framed in terms of gains. An important reason for this behavior is loss aversion. Hedonic editing is the practice of choosing frames that are attractive relative to other frames. People with self‐control problems often use hedonic editing to help them deal with those problems. There is evidence that some investors use dividends in this way. Money illusion, the failure to factor in inflation or deflation correctly, provides another illustration of a framing issue.
Inefficient Markets: The Third Theme
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

Markets are efficient when prices coincide with intrinsic value. Heuristic‐driven bias and frame dependence combine to render markets inefficient. Representativeness leads to the winner–loser effect, whereby investor overreaction causes prior long‐term winners to become future long‐term losers, and prior long‐term losers to become future short‐term winners. Conservatism leads security analysts to underreact to earnings surprises, thereby generating short‐term momentum in stock prices. Frame dependence leads investors to frame stock returns in terms of short horizons instead of long horizons. As a result, investors require a larger equity premium than they would if they framed returns using longer horizons. Prices can deviate from fundamental value for long periods, with excess volatility the result.
Trying to Predict the Market
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

Wall Street strategists are susceptible to gambler's fallacy. In general, four important behavioral elements affect the market predictions of investors: overconfidence, betting on trends, anchoring and adjustment, and salience. Although gambler's fallacy generally afflicts Wall Street strategists, it typically does not afflict individual investors and technical analysts—they succumb to other errors. This point leads to a discussion about some of the key illusions that most people have about randomness, and why these illusions bias their predictions. Inflation adds an additional element of confusion.
Corporate Takeovers and the Winner's Curse
Authors: Shefrin Hersh
Published: October 2003

There is general evidence that corporate executives exhibit hubris, that they are impressed with their own abilities. Since July 1996, the Financial Executives Institute and Duke University have been jointly surveying corporate executives on a quarterly basis. During the first two years of the survey, executives of companies whose stocks are publicly traded have consistently indicated that their companies were undervalued. Corporate decisions offer ample examples of heuristic‐driven bias and frame dependence. In this chapter, I discuss several: excessive optimism, the illusion of control, gambler's fallacy, and loss aversion—the tendency to throw good money after bad. However, the primary bias involved in corporate takeovers is hubris, because it leads to the phenomenon of winner's curse, where the acquiring firm overpays for the target. The chapter describes the takeover of computer maker NCR by American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T).
The Passionate Life
Authors: Solomon Robert C.
Published: October 2003

The most virtuous life need not be the life of calm tranquility, peace of mind, and merely intellectual contemplation. There is also a good life to be had that is defined by emotions, by impassioned engagements and quests, by embracing affections, by constant striving, even frenzy, typified by insatiability and impossible passions. So, too, the virtues are not all about moderation. Not all passions are irrational, out of control, or “violent.” A life without passion would be a life barely worth living.
Content
Authors: Scruton Roger
Published: October 2003

Develops a theory of expression that will incorporate the insights developed in Chs. 7–10, and also to the constraints laid down in Ch. 6. Understanding expression is likened to ’knowing what it's like’, which is in turn analysed in terms of a Wittgensteinian theory of first‐person awareness. Expression, so understood, is integral to the meaning and value of any work that possesses it, and can be fully understood only in the context of a theory of aesthetic value.
Mathematical Knowledge and Reliable Authority
Authors: Coady C. A. J.
Published: October 2003

There is a common view that mathematical truths can be known only a priori, by intuition or grasping a proof, but the possibility of transmitting mathematical knowledge by testimony cuts against this view. This chapter discusses the tension between the common view and the realities of testimonial knowledge. It examines the attempts to show that mathematical knowledge cannot be conveyed by telling, and argues that they are unsuccessful.
Is an Aristotelian Philosophy of Mind Still Credible? (A Draft)
Authors: Burnyeat M. F.
Published: October 2003

This essay argues that the Putnam-Nussbaum thesis that modern functionalism is Aristotelian is false. It fails as an interpretation of Aristotle since it fails to notice that Aristotle’s conception of the material or physical side of the soul-body relation is one which no modern functionalist could share. The Putnam-Nussbaum thesis is examined within the context of the theory of perception. This involves the need to understand one of the most mysterious Aristotelian doctrines – the doctrine that in perception, the sense-organ assumes the sensible form of the object perceived without its matter.
Psuchē versus the Mind
Authors: Wilkes K. V.
Published: October 2003

This essay explores the aspects of the Aristotelian psuchē that accounts for its contemporary appeal. The poverty of the notion of the mind is discussed. The superiority of the psuchē over the mind is emphasized.
Nous Poiētikos: Survey of Earlier Interpretations
Authors: Brentano Franz
Published: October 2003

This essay explores Aristotle’s conception of the active intellect or nous poiētikos. The earliest, medieval, and most recent interpretations of this concept are discussed. It is argued that even Aristotle’s immediate disciples disagreed in their conception of the active intellect, nor was there any more unanimity in the Middle Ages. According to Trendelenburg, the difficulty of the Aristotelian doctrine lies in the fact that the nous is sometimes said to be so intimately connected with the other faculties of the soul that it appears to be incapable of existing without them. When it is viewed the highest nous, as nous poiētikos, it is separated from the rest of human nature and contrasted with it as something higher and its ruler.
What Does the Appeal to Use Do for the Theory of Meaning?
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: October 2003

Wittgenstein's notion of use, occurring in the slogan ’meaning is use’, comprised anything that could be counted as belonging to the rôle of the sentence in the language‐game. It included not only the communicatory function of an utterance of the sentence itself but also of an utterance of a complex sentence of which it was a constituent. This makes any feature of our linguistic practice that relates to the sentence affect its meaning. The source of this view lies in rejecting the Fregean distinction between sense and force.
Language and Communication
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: October 2003

There is a contest between the view that the primary function of language is that of an instrument of communication and the view that it is that of a vehicle of thought. But such a dilemma is misconceived. The true opposition is between language as representation and language as activity. The representation picture of language is misleading in so far as it assumes that the representative power can be isolated from other features of language and that it consists in the speaker's being in the correct interior states. That would render understanding completely mysterious, and therefore, we should demand an outward manifestation of understanding expressed in linguistic exchange and other actions.
Mood, Force, and Convention
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: October 2003

Donald Davidson raised the issue of the link between mood, force, and convention. Because he does not make a distinction between the force of an utterance and the point of it, subsuming both under a general notion of use to which he put his utterance, Davidson attempts to delete any account of force from a theory of meaning, and associate it with the general procedure of divining someone else's intentions. This he cannot maintain, since, to grasp what it is for a sentence to carry a particular kind of force is to be master of a practice, of something that has to be learned and whose existence depends upon a common participation in it by the speakers of the language.
Frege and Husserl on Reference
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: October 2003

David Bell argued in his book Husserl that Frege's notion of reference was realist, whereas Husserl's notion of reference in Logical Investigations was non‐realist. The suitable notion of reference should reconcile between extensional and intensional modes of speaking of the object. According to Husserl, intentional objects do not form an ontological category: to speak of them is to adopt the material mode of saying what, in the formal mode, relates to a singular term standing in an intensional context. Thus, Husserl's solution closely resembles Frege's, and both are essentially realist ones.
Could There Be Unicorns?
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: October 2003

Kripke argued that there might not have been unicorns: since unicorns are fictional species, they are necessarily fictional. There are three arguments aimed at showing the fictionality of unicorns, but all of them fail. There would be unicorns if there were a single species or genus of animals resembling the unicorns of pictures. This also serves as an instructive example of the failure of the accessibility relation between possible worlds to be both transitive and symmetrical.
Merleau‐Ponty
Authors: Crowther Paul
Published: October 2003

Involves further development of the ideas from Merleau–Ponty broached in the previous chapter. Merleau–Ponty's account of the relation between perception and art is given a detailed exposition. It is then critically appraised and defended in a broader philosophical context. Particular attention is paid to the concept of style, and the significance of painting.
Sublimity and Postmodern Culture
Authors: Crowther Paul
Published: October 2003

Explores the links made by Lyotard between postmodernism and the sublime in relation to the exhibition Les Immateriaux (curated by him in Paris, in 1985). Argues that the exhibition rightly identifies a sublimicism, which is a strong characteristic of postmodern sensibility. Offers an analysis of the ethics and politics of this sensibility.
Creativity, Contemporary Art, and Critical Aesthetics
Authors: Crowther Paul
Published: October 2003

Concludes by paying further attention to the relation between creativity, contemporary art, and critical aesthetics. The discussion moves by way of a critique of Barthes's notion of the text, using ideas from throughout the present book. The final section explicitly summarizes the more important of these.
Interpretationism
Authors: Child William
Published: October 2003

Interpretation is the process of ascribing propositional attitudes to an individual on the basis of what she says and does. Interpretationism is the view (exemplified in the writings of Donald Davidson and Daniel Dennett) that we can gain an understanding of the nature of the mental by reflecting on the nature of interpretation. The chapter examines the arguments for and against holding (1) that the interpretation of propositional attitudes is inseparable from the interpretation of language, (2) that being interpretable as possessing a given attitude is a necessary condition for possessing it, and (3) that being interpretable as possessing an attitude is sufficient for possessing it. And it discusses whether interpretationists should claim that being interpretable as having thoughts is actually constitutive of having thoughts.
Vision and Experience: The Causal Theory and the Disjunctive Conception
Authors: Child William
Published: October 2003

Defends the causal theory of vision and the disjunctive conception of visual experience and argues that they can be coherently combined. Reasons are given for accepting the causal theory of vision and the disjunctive conception of experience. Then, an objection (due to Paul Snowdon) is set out, according to which the disjunctive conception undermines the causal theory, either (1) because the disjunctive conception is incompatible with the idea that visual experiences are caused by the objects we see or (2) because the disjunctive conception removes the main motivation for accepting a causal theory. Against this objection, it is shown how a disjunctive conception of experience can be combined with the causal theory. And it is argued that, even if we accept the disjunctive conception, the causal theory is still needed in order to understand two features of experiences: why they occur and how they have the objective content they do.
On a Question of Frege's About Right‐Ordered Groups
Authors: Dummett Michael , Adeleke S. A. , Neumann P. M.
Published: October 2003

Concerns a problem posed, but not solved, by Frege in part III of his Grundgesetze. As a preliminary to defining ‘real number’, Frege attempts to analyse the notion of a quantitative domain (e.g. that of distances or of masses). He was unaware of the previous attempt of Otto Holder to do this; it is remarked how much weaker Frege's assumptions were in deriving theorems than Holder's. Frege deals with groups on which there is a right‐invariant semilinear ordering, although he does not use this terminology. He is uncertain whether it can be deduced that the ordering is also left‐invariant, and proves as much as possible without invoking the assumption that it is. The independence proof, due to Dr Peter Neumann, establishes that it could not be deduced.
Frege as a Realist
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: October 2003

Argues, against Hans Sluga, that Frege's philosophy can only be interpreted as realist.
An Unsuccessful Dig
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: October 2003

A detailed review of the book on Frege by the late Gordon Baker and Peter Hacker. They regard his philosophy as having no real affinity or important links with the work of later philosophers and logicians, and as irretrievably confused. The chapter comprehensively refutes these views.
Which End of the Telescope?
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: October 2003

In this chapter, I reply to a view by Stuart Shanker of two books of mine about Frege.
Plato's Metaphysics of Structure
Authors: Harte Verity
Published: October 2003

The role of structure as the proper object of Platonic science is placed within the context of the exploration of holistic models of knowledge and understanding, which has often been identified as a central feature of Plato's later works. The normativity of structure may also be seen to have an ethical dimension. Finally, there are some thoughts on the areas in which one might need to develop Plato's model for the modern age, including the model's rejection of unrestricted composition and its view that the parts of a whole are structure‐laden.
One Way to Read Hume
Authors: Craig Edward
Published: October 2003

In this chapter, Craig shows how the Image of God doctrine works as an interpretative tool. Applied to the philosophy of Hume, it helps to illuminate textual detail that would otherwise not be fully intelligible, and it modifies, sometimes reverses, the received view of his philosophy. Craig argues that, in combining a sceptical epistemology with a thoroughgoing naturalism, Hume aimed at nothing less than the destruction of the doctrine of the image of God, and substituted for it an anthropology which looked not to the divine but to the natural world for its methods and results. This claim is supported by detailed analyses of Hume’s epistemology, ontology, and philosophy of mind.
The Works of Man
Authors: Craig Edward
Published: October 2003

Chapter 5 aims to understand the contemporary philosophical climate in terms of a dominant philosophy, and argues that it is found in the ‘Agency Theory’, or ‘Practice Ideal’: the thesis that we are the creators of our own environment and values, that the realities which we meet with are the works of man. Craig argues that from about 1780, ‘activity’, ‘practice’ and similar concepts began to come to the fore, and provided new solutions of metaphysical and epistemological problems. The idea was to some extent anticipated in writers of the eighteenth century: in Pascal’s famous wager on the existence of God the value of truth has receded, and considerations of what serves a certain purpose have come to regulate belief; Hume saw in our imagination, not in our reason, the governing, and essentially active, principle that supports our beliefs; finally Kant’s transcendental idealism not only provided the key concept of ‘the world as we experience it’ that incorporated both concepts and impressions, but amounted to the claim that the world of our experience is of our own making. But the real rise of the Agency Theory took place in the nineteenth century: Marx and Engels, rejecting both theistic and idealist metaphysics, set up a new ideal for man, who was to be the free architect and builder of his own social world, in virtue of his grasp of the laws governing society and the processes of social change; following Peirce, William James and other American Pragmatists argued that belief is primarily an instrument for the attainment of our goals, and that man is fully autonomous, his creations subject to no controls or standards other than those which he himself imposes; Nietzsche, the most vociferous champion of agency and creativity, affirmed the idea, and constructed his account of reality, truth, and knowledge, and his aspirations for man around it.
The Evolution of the Soul
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

Part 1 (Chs. 2–7) argues that mental events (consisting in the instantiation of mental properties – sensations, thoughts, purposes, desires, and beliefs) are distinct from physical events (such as brain events), although in causal interaction with them. Part 2 argues that these mental events consist in the instantiations of properties in immaterial substances, souls. A human being (and any higher animal) consists of two parts, the essential part – his soul, and a contingent part – his body. It is extremely unlikely that there could be a scientific explanation of the creation of souls. Humans are distinguished from the higher animals by an ability to reason logically, and by having moral awareness, free will, and an integrated system of beliefs and desires. Neither direct empirical evidence nor pure a priori philosophical argument can show what will happen to the soul after death. This could only be shown by some very general metaphysical system.
Purposes
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

Intentional actions consist in agents purposing, that is ‘trying’, to bring about effects (where ‘trying’ carries no implication of difficulty or failure) or allowing some effect to occur. Purposing is an active state of exerting causal influence, and cannot be analysed in terms of passive states such as desires. We have infallible beliefs about our own purposes, but only fallible beliefs about the purposes of others. Purposes have effects, and so epiphenomenalism is false.
The Evidence of Personal Identity
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

Apparent personal memory (of who one was) is fallible evidence of personal identity – in virtue of the principle of credulity. Because it is found empirically that memory of who one was normally goes with having the same brain matter as that person, brain continuity constitutes indirect evidence of personal identity – and so, even less directly and more fallibly, do similarity of appearance and fingerprints.
Schopenhauer's Addendum on Homosexuality
Authors: Magee Bryan
Published: October 2003

Schopenhauer wrote candidly about sex at a time when almost nobody did. He saw consideration of it as the means of reproduction whereby human beings come into existence as inescapable for metaphysics, indeed for serious thinking. He conjectured that homosexual impulses were implanted by nature in adolescent and elderly males because, although they have sexual urges and can procreate, it is undesirable that they should do so, and therefore the urge is diverted. This, he thinks, is why homosexual activity has been widespread in all known societies. The manner in which he writes about it suggests that he had felt homosexual impulses himself but had not given way to them.
A Conjecture About Dylan Thomas
Authors: Magee Bryan
Published: October 2003

Dylan Thomas made his name with one particular poem, ‘The Force that Through the Green Fuse Drives the Flower’, which he wrote and published in his teens. Not only the theme but also the imagery in detail is too close to certain passages in Schopenhauer for a coincidence to be likely. It is more probable that there was some influence. This is made more likely by the fact that there are good reasons to believe that the young Thomas had read a book called Thomas Hardy's Universe, by Ernest Brennecke, which contains many quotations from Schopenhauer, including, in its first chapter, the one closest to Thomas's poem.
A New Beginning 1629–1630
Authors: Gaukroger Stephen
Published: October 2003

Discusses possible reasons for Descartes's move to the Netherlands, and his avoidance of patronage there. Considers his work on optics (including the sine law of refraction and the grinding of hyperbolic lenses), music, and metaphysics (arguments for the existence of God, his transcendence, and the immortality of the soul). Also deals with Descartes's construction of an artificial, universal language, changes in his thinking about the doctrine of clarity and distinctness, his solution to the Pappus problem, his classification of curves, and his work on meteorology that he expanded into a project to explain the whole of physics. This work was considerably slowed down by his dispute with Beeckman over the authorship of ideas.
Nature and Politics
Authors: Miller Fred D.
Published: October 2003

Aristotle's politics may be characterized as ‘naturalistic’, in the sense that it assigns a fundamental role to the concept of nature in the explanation and evaluation of the political community. Aristotle's naturalism is summed up in three claims: the polis (city‐state) exists by nature, human beings are by nature political animals, and the polis is by nature prior to the individual. Aristotle has been accused of inconsistency because he also asserts that the human lawgiver brings the polis into existence. This chapter, however, defends Aristotle's theory by arguing that his complex natural teleology permits nature and legislation to be cooperative causes of the political community. Also compares and contrasts his political naturalism with modern theories on the state.
The Limits of Knowledge
Authors: Lloyd A. C.
Published: October 2003

The purpose of Ch. 6 is to outline the role played by the P‐series theory in Neoplatonic epistemology. To start with, it is explained that knowledge of a P‐series consists in an order of priority and posteriority of the terms: intellect, scientific knowledge, belief, presentation, and perception. In second place, some peculiar Neoplatonic epistemological issues, e.g. how can the divine possibly know temporal truths, are carefully examined. To conclude, some particular Neoplatonic rules, which allow higher entities to have knowledge of lower ones, are investigated.
Malebranche
Authors: Jolley Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Malebranche holds that the Cartesian doctrine of ideas not merely conflates logic and psychology, but it thereby opens the door to scepticism and to a voluntarist theory of the eternal truths, which Malebranche regards as both incoherent in itself and dangerous in ethics. We shall see, then, how Malebranche attempts to solve these problems by means of his theory of ideas. We shall also examine the difficulties raised by Malebranche's insistence on locating ideas in God. Since Malebranche locates all ideas in God, there is a sense in which all mental activity involving ideas might be described as ‘vision in God’, but the term ‘vision in God’ may also be taken in a narrower sense to denote Malebranche's theory of visual perception. However, in the present chapter, we shall be concerned with his theory of ideas in general and conclude that, for Malebranche, the Cartesian mind is altogether too godlike; in spite of Descartes's assurances that all knowledge depends on God, the Cartesian mind is really ‘a light to itself’.
Some Further Developments
Authors: Jolley Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Historians of the ‘way of ideas’ tradition face a danger of falling into two opposite errors. On the one hand, by being overimpressed by the fact that they all define ideas in terms of objects of the understanding, scholars may be tempted to lump Locke, Berkeley, and Malebranche together as champions of a single theory; on the other hand, by being overimpressed by the fact that Locke, Berkeley, and Arnauld are all critics of Malebranche's theory of ideas, they may be tempted to infer that the theory of ideas as objects of some sort was not as prominent as is often supposed. In this chapter, I want to steer a middle course between these two errors by examining the reactions of Locke, Berkeley, and Reid to Malebranche's theory of ideas. I shall argue that Locke and Berkeley are critical of Malebranche not because he thought ideas are objects but because he thought they are not mental objects, and that Reid regarded this aspect of Malebranche's theory of ideas as a positive recommendation. I conclude by noting that the debate did not become central again in philosophy until the time of Frege and Husserl when the issues could be discussed without theological trappings.
Reference
Authors: Horwich Paul
Published: October 2003

This chapter begins with criticism of ‘description’ and ‘causal’ theories—arguing that they should not be regarded as theories of reference. There then follows a deflationary account according to which our meaning what we do by ‘refers’ consists, roughly speaking, in our acceptance of the schema, ‘n’ (in quotes) refers to n (out of quotes)—and, more accurately, in our acceptance of ‘(x)(refers to x ↔ n=x)’, where is the prepositional constituent expressed by the singular term, “n”. Finally, there are accounts of the utility of this notion of reference and of the meanings of names.
Proper Sensibles and Secondary Qualities
Authors: Everson Stephen
Published: October 2003

Everson argues that Aristotle does not think of colours, sounds, as secondary qualities; rather, all sensible qualities for Aristotle are primary qualities. This implies a very ‘direct’ notion of perception; for instance, I see red because my eye undergoes a change, a material alteration that can be fully accounted for in non‐perceptual terms. This alteration differs form non‐perceptual alteration in that it involves awareness. Everson concludes that the textual evidence in both the psychological and physical works supports the literalist reading.
Perceptual Content
Authors: Everson Stephen
Published: October 2003

Everson examines Aristotle's use of the term empeiria, particularly as it appears in Metaphysics I.1 and Posterior Analytics II.19. Empeiria is usually translated as ‘experience’, but Everson argues that it ought to be interpreted as ‘an acquired perceptual concept’. Such concepts are involved in determining the content of perceptual experience. On this account, perceptual awareness is a combination of phantasia and the presence or absence of a certain empeiria, i.e. of the acquired perceptual concept appropriate for the perceptual awareness in question.
Perception and Material Explanation
Authors: Everson Stephen
Published: October 2003

Everson has argued that material change does occur in the perceiving sense organ; the final chapter consists of his argument that material changes are a crucial part of the explanation of perceptual awareness of the organ. Whenever there is a formal change, Everson argues, there will also be a material change, (or changes), and these determine formal changes. Everson concludes, then, that Aristotle accepts explanatory physicalism, or the thesis that all perpetual events can be explained by reference to material alterations that determine those events. Everson argues that this thesis, despite appearances, is compatible with hypothetical necessity. In conclusion, Everson argues that neither functionalism, nor supervenience, can account adequately for explanatory physicalism.
Externalist and Internalist analyses. The first‐person case. Knowing that one knows
Authors: Craig Edward
Published: October 2003

Participates in the internalism–externalism debate and offers broad support to the latter. If we consider evaluating others as potential informants (the third‐person perspective), externalism seems right, for the subject's awareness of her fulfilment of the third condition for knowledge is neither necessary for her to be a good informant nor for her to be regarded as an informant at all. If the inquirer judges her own trustworthiness as an informant (the first‐person perspective), then she will be in that extra state, which internalism adds to the externalist account. Yet the extra state need not be built into the concept of knowledge, for being a good informant does not require being aware of fulfilling the third condition; relatedly, one can know without knowing that one knows.