bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Trading Greenbacks For Green Behaviour: Oregon’S And The City Of Portland’s Environmental Incentives
Authors: Hymel Mona L , Mann Roberta F , Wolfsong1 Beth S
Published: November 2023

Both the State of Oregon and its largest city, Portland, believe environmental stewardship is a top priority. Through fiscal and other economic instruments, they have undertaken a cooperative effort to redevelop the state environmentally. This chapter examines whether the environmental initiatives implemented by Oregon and Portland are effective by weighing the cost of the initiatives against three measures: (1) environmental improvement; (2) impact on economic growth; and (3) equity. This chapter first describes how states and localities use financial incentives to improve the environment. Next, it describes the initiatives implemented by Oregon and Portland, which include both tax incentives and other financial incentives such as low interest loans and grant programmes. As these economic incentives have been implemented at different levels of government, the chapter next discusses how Oregon and Portland have addressed issues under shared jurisdiction.2 Thirdly, based on a review of available studies and other information, the chapter considers whether or not these incentives have been successful, examining not only environmental and economic success, but also how these incentives affect different segments of society. This chapter considers issues of equity in analysing the impact of both environmental degradation and its remediation through fiscal instruments. Finally, the analysis concludes with several observations regarding existing and future use of economic instruments for environmental reform.
Climate Change Post-Kyoto: A Tax Policy Perspective
Authors: Hansford1 Ann , McKerchar2 Margaret
Published: November 2023

The United Kingdom, under the then new government of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, was an enthusiastic signatory to the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. One of the most significant developments in the United Kingdom that arose as a consequence of this commitment was the introduction of an environmental tax—the Climate Change Levy (CCL)—with effect from April 2001. In contrast, while Australia pledged its commitment to reducing energy usage and emissions in accordance with the Kyoto Protocol, it refused to support the core penalties, targets, and emissions trading provisions which underpinned the Protocol. Instead, Australia favoured voluntary agreements and technological development as the means by which to meet its commitment. Thus the two countries, which are normally staunch allies, adopted conflicting positions to the Kyoto Protocol. This chapter seeks to explore these positions, why they were adopted, and how they may impact on post-Kyoto environmental tax policies in both the United Kingdom and Australia. The chapter begins by considering the background to developments in environmental policy within the United Kingdom and Australia since 1997 to provide an understanding of how these two countries responded to the Kyoto Protocol. It then considers the current political perspectives in both countries and speculates on how this may impact on their post-Kyoto environmental policies, particularly in respect of taxation. The chapter concludes with an examination of alternative tax policies that could be relevant to these countries in seeking to achieve their post-Kyoto environmental goals, but which may require a shift in their political perspectives.
Which Fiscal Instruments Are Effective In Reducing Carbon Emissions From Road Transport? Australia’s Greenhouse Measures And Tax Instruments Compared Internationally
Authors: Mortimore* Anna
Published: November 2023

Australia may have the third lowest fuel taxes and the fourth lowest petrol prices in the OECD,1 but Australians have the unenviable record of being the ‘highest polluters per person in the developed world’.2 Australia’s carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from fuel combustion per unit of GDP are 43 per cent above the International Energy Agency (IEA) average.3 The highest growth in greenhouse emissions is in the transport sector, increasing from 11.4 per cent of total emissions in 1990 to 14.3 per cent in 2003.4 This represents an increase of,28.8 per cent compared to total emissions growth of only 1.1 per cent for the same period.5 Road transport is by far the largest source of emissions in this sector, representing 88 per cent of transport emissions.6 The significant growth in road emissions is attributable to Australia having one of the highest rates of passenger car ownership in the world.7 When compared to the European Union, Australia is sparsely populated with long distances between cities, which, coupled with a poor public transport system, has meant a higher reliance on road transport. Even so, Australia’s environmental and taxation policies do not encourage Australians to choose fuel-efficient vehicles, with low fuel prices being identified as the most common impediment.
Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research in Central and Eastern Europe: A Comparative Analysis of Regulatory and Policy Approaches
Authors: Kuˇre* Josef
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a comparative outline of practices, policies, and regulation of human embryonic stem cell (hESC) research in the majority of the new EU Members. First, some preliminary remarks and introductory clarifications are necessary.
Stem Cells Patenting and Competition Law
Authors: Engelbrekt* Antonina Bakardjieva
Published: November 2023

The patenting of biotechnological inventions, and of stem cells in particular, raises not only ethical dilemmas but has likewise important economic implications. In a market economy patents are often described as legal monopolies. They grant the patent holder a time-limited exclusive right to commercially exploit the invention and to exclude others from such exploitation. As known from economic theory, monopolies imply considerable social cost.
Statistical mechanics and chemical kinetics
Authors: Lindsay S M
Published: November 2023

Nanosystems are interesting precisely because they generally contain too many atoms to be thought of as simple mechanical systems, but too few to be described by the bulk properties we assign to materials that contain vast numbers of atoms. This chapter starts with a review of the properties of bulk systems, as described in terms of the possible arrangements of the atoms of which they are composed. We then review fluctuations in these bulk properties and show how their relative importance depends on the size of the system. Fluctuations drive chemical reactions, so we follow this discussion with a review of the thermodynamics of chemical reactions, and a discussion of the factors that control the rates (i.e., kinetics) of reactions. At the end of this chapter, we touch on questions such as the relationship between thermodynamic equilibrium and kinetic phenomena and the tricky subject of how thermal fluctuations affect quantum mechanical phenomena.
Making nanostructures: bottom up
Authors: Lindsay S M
Published: November 2023

Chemical synthesis has been the primary route to self-assembly of complex materials since the time of the alchemists. Its importance is even more today, and skill in making new compounds and adding functional groups to existing compounds is a key tool in nanoscience. This chapter begins with a brief outline of the synthetic methods, tools, and analytical techniques used by organic chemists. We then turn to review the many interactions, weaker than a covalent bond, but somewhat stronger (in binding energy) than thermal fluctuations, that permit the self-assembly of complex systems in biology, and ever increasingly in nanotechnology. We consider the formation of lipid vesicles (fatty spheres that self-assemble in water) as our example of equilibrium self-assembly. Clever synthesis techniques exploit chemical kinetics to allow certain kinds of structures to be made with a narrow size range not possible in thermodynamic equilibrium (examples are the synthesis of quantum dots and nanowires). We end with a look at a new strategy for self-assembly of very complex systems based on the remarkable properties of the DNA that carries the genetic code in biology. DNA nanotechnology is sowing the seeds of a revolution in self-assembly.
Electrons in nanostructures
Authors: Lindsay S M
Published: November 2023

The electronic properties of materials change when electrons are confined to structures that are smaller than the distance between scattering events (i.e., the mean free path) of electrons in normal solids. In this chapter, we will discuss what happens to electrons that are confined to one-dimensional structures (i.e., constrictions or “wires”) and zero-dimensional structures (i.e., small particles). Two-dimensional confinement will be dealt with in a discussion of semiconductor heterostructures in Chapter 9. As a prerequisite for this material, we begin with a broad overview of conduction in normal solids, including the “free electron” model of metals and the band structure theory of the electronic states in periodic solids.
Molecular electronics
Authors: Lindsay S M
Published: November 2023

Molecular electronics lies at the intersection of chemistry with nanoelectronics, and many of the concepts learned in Chapter 7 will be combined with chemical concepts in this chapter. We begin by considering two examples of molecular electronic devices. The ﬁrst is a molecular diode, proposed in the 1970s, though still not a commercial device. The second is the photovoltaic molecule that con-verts light to chemical energy, introduced as an example of chemical synthesis in Fig. 6.1. It has been successfully synthesized and could be producing electricity commercially one day. We use these as examples in this chapter.
Kamerlingh Onnes – Liquid Helium and Superconductivity (1911)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

Superconductivity is the property of some conductors to completely lose their electric resistance below some, usually very low, temperature. It was discovered in mercury in 1911 by Kamerlingh Onnes [1,2], who, in 1908, had succeeded in liquefying helium and thus in producing the ‘the lowest temperature on earth’ at the time.
The Franck–Hertz Experiment (1914)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

In 1914 James Franck [1] and Gustav Hertz [2], a nephew of Heinrich Hertz, were working together in the Physics Institute of Berlin University led by Rubens. Both were from Hamburg and knew each other since their student days. At that time, Hertz was assistant and Franck Privatdozent, i.e., a scientist with the right to give lectures but not having a professorship.
The Compton Effect – The Light Quantum Gains Momentum (1923)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

The concept of the light quantum or photon, as it is now mostly called, is one of the most interesting of modern physics. It took nearly the whole first quarter of the twentieth century for it to become fully developed and accepted. The development was essentially completed by the work of Compton [1,2].
Spin (1925)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

We have seen in the preceding episode that early in 1925 Pauli attributed to the electron a ‘classically not describable two-valuedness’. Within a few months this property of the electron was given a physical description which, it is true, is not satisfactory from the viewpoint of classical physics. This description is regarded as the discovery of the intrinsic angular momentum or spin of the electron. In fact the description was given twice. Already in January Kronig discussed it with Pauli who was completely opposed to the idea so that Kronig did not publish it. The concept of the electron spin was independently proposed and published [1] by Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit who thus became the discoverers of spin.
Nonlinear Optics (1961)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

The laws of reflection and refraction of light were, at first, found empirically and later derived from various theories of light and matter. In his doctoral thesis of 1875 and, in more detail, in his book of 1895 [1] Lorentz gave a derivation from Maxwell’s equations and a model of matter which agreed with experiments until 1961. His model was based on the assumption (by no means generally accepted at the time) that matter consists of molecules and that these may exist in charged form as ions. He pointed out that the existence of ions had proved necessary to explain electric conduction in gases and continued [1]:
There is More than One Kind of Neutrino (1962)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

In Episode 79 we mentioned that the muon decays into an electron and two neutrinos and that this fact was ascertained, in particular, on the basis of measurements which Steinberger performed for his thesis and published in 1949. A dozen years later he was the senior scientist in a group demonstrating that these two neutrinos are of different nature.
The expanding universe
Authors: Perkins D H
Published: November 2023

Everyone is familiar with the fact that the universe is populated by stars and that these stars occur in huge assemblies called galaxies. Atypical galaxy such as our own Milky Way will contain of order 10 stars, together with clouds of gas and dust. Various forms of galaxy are observed. One of the most common forms are the spiral galaxies, in which the older, population II stars are located in a central spherical hub, which is surrounded by a flattened structure or disc in the form of a spiral, associated with the formation of younger, population I stars moving in roughly circular orbits, and concentrated in spiral arms. Figure 5.1(a) shows a picture of the spiral galaxy M31, which is similar in structure to our own Milky Way, sketched in Fig. 5.1(b), and which, together with our nearest neighbour galaxy, the Large Magellanic Cloud, forms part of the Local Group of around 30 galaxies. Other forms of galaxy are the oval galaxies and the irregular galaxies, the latter being important as the apparent source of γ-ray bursts, which are some of the most energetic events in the universe (discussed in Chapter 9). The total number of observable galaxies is enormous, of order 10. They occur in clusters—see Fig. 5.2(a) for the Coma cluster—and superclusters separated by enormous voids as in Fig. 5.2(b) and (c). In other words, the material of the universe is not distributed at random, but there is structure on the very largest scales. Typical sizes and masses are given in Table 5.1.
Nucleosynthesis and baryogenesis
Authors: Perkins D H
Published: November 2023

In continuation of this discussion of the early universe, we next turn our attention to the synthesis of the nuclei of the light elements—He, H, He, and Li. The agreement between the predicted and measured abundances of these elements provided early support for the Big Bang hypothesis. As discussed in Section 5.10, once the universe had cooled to a temperature kT < 100 MeV, or after a time t > 10 s, essentially all the hadrons, with the sole exception of neutrons and protons and their antiparticles, would have disappeared by decay. The nucleons and antinucleons would have been present in equal numbers and have nearly, but not quite completely, annihilated to radiation. As described in the next section, once the temperature had fallen below kT 20 MeV, a tiny residue of about one billionth of the original numbers of protons and neutrons must have survived to form the stuff of the material universe we inhabit today.
Cosmic particles
Authors: Perkins D H
Published: November 2023

The particles circulating in the cosmos include the so-called cosmic rays, which have been intensively studied ever since their discovery by Hess in 1912. Karl K. Darrow, a past chairman of the American Physical Society, caught some of the atmosphere of this early research when he described their study as remarkable ‘for the delicacy of the apparatus, the minuteness of the phenomena, the adventurous excursions of the experimenters and the grandeur of the inferences’. Cosmic rays consist of high-energy particles incident on the Earth from outer space, plus the secondary particles which they generate as they traverse the atmosphere. Their study has a special place in physics, not only in its own right, but because of the pioneering role that cosmic ray research has played—and is still playing—in the study of elementary particles and their interactions. We can recall the discovery in cosmic rays of antimatter, in the form of the positron and e*e– pair production in 1932, and of pions and muons and strange particles in the late 1940s. In those days, before 1950, the cosmic radiation was the only available source of high-energy particles (those above about 1 GeV). These discoveries indeed kick-started the building of large particle accelerators and the development of their associated detecting equipment, developments which were essential in broadening the scope of the subject and putting elementary particle physics on a sound quantitative basis.
Particle physics in stars and galaxies
Authors: Perkins D H
Published: November 2023

In previous chapters we have traced the primordial development of the universe, principally through the properties and interactions of the elementary particle constituents of matter. This phase came to an end when the temperature of the fireball fell below a value kT 0.3 eV and z 10, when the radiation and (baryonic) matter decoupled, and not long after the time when the universe became matter dominated. The previously opaque universe, consisting of a plasma of electrons, hydrogen and helium nuclei, and photons, was then replaced by a relatively transparent but almost totally dark universe, consisting very largely of clouds of neutral atoms and molecules. From these clouds, stars were able to form by gravitational in fall as soon as the redshift fell to z 12. Then there was light. The process of star formation has of course been continuous since that time. The evolution of the stars, at least during most of their life, is only peripherally linked with elementary particle physics as such, so we shall discuss it rather briefly and in particular contexts, for example, with respect to solar neutrinos described in Chapter 9. However, the later stages of stellar evolution do depend very directly on particle processes at a fundamental level and at quite high energies, involving some of the most violent events in the universe, and we describe these in more detail.
Management information systems
Authors: Heijden Hans Van Der
Published: November 2023

To start off this book I shall first provide a broad introduction to a number of important terms and concepts. I will cover some basic definitions of data, information, and information systems, and then discuss the differences between transaction processing systems and management information systems. This will enable us to discuss the configurations of transaction and management systems that are commonly in use in organizations.
Structuring data, part 2
Authors: Heijden Hans Van Der
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter we discussed the fundamentals of structuring data. In this chapter we will be building on this material and discuss an important alternative to ER diagrams, UML class diagrams. The Unified Modeling Language or UML is a diagramming language that, among other things, recasts entities into classes. The fundamental notions of entities and classes are very similar, but the terminology is slightly different. I will discuss the UML concepts in a bit more detail in this chapter, because you will frequently encounter class diagrams instead of ER diagrams.
Selecting alternatives
Authors: Heijden Hans Van Der
Published: November 2023

This chapter covers a second class of decisions that managers frequently have to make: selecting the most appropriate alternative out of a list of alternatives. We will discuss this particular type of decision in more detail and then focus on the ways that management information systems can help to support these types of decisions. There are many examples of these types of decisions. Typical ones include the selection of an appropriate supplier of a certain material or service, or the selection of an appropriate candidate out of a list of suitable candidates for a particular vacancy.
Employee Status And The Contract Of Employment
Authors: Palca Julia , Taylor Catherine
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers the contract of employment, which is the agreement between the individual and employer, overlaying the statutory rights an individual enjoys. Specific aspects of the contract are considered and, in particular, those contractual terms which are determined by statute, such as working time, at least as far as an employer’s minimum obligations are concerned. The chapter also considers the status of the individual and what rights the individual will enjoy depending on this status as this underpins the employee’s rights and employer’s obligations in relation to the contract of employment and other rights described in the remainder of this book. As this topic is fundamental to employment rights and underpins the contractual position it is dealt with first.
Union Recognition
Authors: Palca Julia , Taylor Catherine
Published: November 2023

One of the innovations which the Labour Government introduced to UK industrial relations, in 1999, was a mechanism by which an independent union could require employers to recognize it for certain minimum collective bargaining purposes. The Employment Relations Act 1999, via TULR(C)A 1992, s 70 and Sch A1 introduced the relevant legislation. The process governing union recognition is policed by the Central Arbitration Committee (CAC). It is tortuous and complicated, almost as if it were designed to encourage the parties to reach a recognition agreement voluntarily, rather than go through all the hoops. Indeed the CAC positively encourages voluntary union recognition agreements. In this chapter, we summarize the process in checklists and flowcharts, but given the complexity of the process this summary should only be regarded as an outline of the likely steps and ultimately recourse must be had to the detailed provisions of Sch A1 of TULR(C)A 1992 for the definitive position.
Table Of Recent Tribunal Awards In Discrimination Cases
Authors: Palca Julia , Taylor Catherine
Published: November 2023

The amount of compensation may be uplifted by up to 50 per cent pursuant to ss 31 and 32 of EA 2002 should an employer fail to follow the disciplinary procedure or deal with a grievance brought by the employee and where this has occurred it is noted in the summaries. There is equally a power to reduce the amount of compensation, where the process is not complied with, but this is rare and none of the cases summarized include a reduction. If individuals are named as defendants in the proceedings, a tribunal may make an award against the individual as well as the employer, or even if the employer is not found to be liable. Interest will be awarded on the compensation award made(Employment Tribunals (Interest on Awards in Discrimination Cases) Regulations 1996 (SI 1996/2803)).
Introduction
Authors: Sambei Arvinder , Plessis Anton du , Polaine Martin
Published: November 2023

Although not a new phenomenon, terrorism has become an increasingly serious threat to international peace, security, and stability. Traditionally considered a domestic security problem, terrorism has evolved over time to become a sophisticated form of transnational crime that poses a threat to all nations. The attacks on the United States (US) on 11 September 2001 (9/11) were the most stark acts of terrorism in recent history. Together with a number of other serious incidents in several parts of the world in the 1990s,they demonstrated that terrorists had developed the capacity and global infrastructure to launch attacks capable of causing massive destruction of life and property.
The United Nations Counter-Terrorism Instruments
Authors: Sambei Arvinder , Plessis Anton du , Polaine Martin
Published: November 2023

As described in the opening chapter, international efforts to combat terrorism have been evolving for several decades, originating with the drafting of the Convention for the Prevention and Suppression of Terrorism by the League of Nations in 1937and culminating most recently in the adoption of the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy by the United Nations General Assembly on 6 September 2006. Terrorism remained an item on the agenda of the international community throughout these years, but in the 1970s it became a much more pressing priority following a number of serious terrorist incidents, including the hijackings of several transnational airliners and the assault on the Olympic Games in Munich, Germany in 1972. The kidnapping of Ministers of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in Vienna, Austria in 1975, and the increasing prevalence and severity of terrorist attacks in the following decades, further strengthened international resolve to respond to the growing threat.
Investigations and Prosecutions
Authors: Sambei Arvinder , Plessis Anton du , Polaine Martin
Published: November 2023

The nature of the terrorist threat has changed since the 1990s, with ensuing practical impact upon the way that investigations are conducted. The threat now for many States is of a network, or networks, of loosely-affiliated terrorist groups stretching to many parts of the world and having the aim, intent, and capability to attack without warning and to inflict mass casualties upon the public at large. Investigations, as a result, have become increasingly transnational, complex, and more likely to rely upon covert, or so-called ‘special investigative’ techniques.
Pre-Trial and Trial Issues
Authors: Sambei Arvinder , Plessis Anton du , Polaine Martin
Published: November 2023

In balancing human rights considerations, some jurisdictions have introduced offences which place an evidential burden on the defendant. For example, section 57 of the UK’s Terrorism Act (2000) creates the offence of possession of an article for a terrorist purpose and provides that, if someone resides at or is in habitual use of the premises, the court may assume that he is in possession of articles there, unless he adduces evidence sufficient to raise an issue as to his lack of knowledge in relation to the presence of the articles on the premises or as to his lack of control over them.
The Two Principal Market Structures
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter
Published: November 2023

The buy side of the derivative market comprises the end-users of derivatives. Any of the different types of counterparty described in paragraph 1.16 can potentially use a derivative, whether to decrease exposure to movements in the price of the underlying or to increase that exposure. Essentially, risk is either reduced or increased, depending on the end-user’s objective (whether to hedge or to express an investment view) and overall tolerance to risk. It is important to appreciate that the use of derivatives by certain types of counterparty (for example, investment funds) is governed very carefully by one set of regulations and the sale of derivatives to certain types of counterparty (for example, retail investors) is controlled by another set of regulations. Certain types of derivatives, credit derivatives, were actually created and developed in response to yet another set of regulations.
Accounting and Tax
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter
Published: November 2023

Financial services industry regulators already require authorized firms to make reports as to their exposure to the markets and to a variety of risks. This reporting is needed in order to monitor metrics such as whether or not compliance is being achieved with the requirement that adequate financial resources are maintained, and for other purposes such as the prevention of market abuse. Chapter 10 shows that compliance with the requirement that adequate financial resources are maintained is especially important in the context of the derivative markets, given the inherently greater risks that derivatives give rise to if they are not used properly. Financial institutions active in the derivative markets on both the sell side, such as investment banks, and the buy side, such as investment managers, should there-fore already be familiar with the methodology required to monitor and to account for derivative transactions. However, other participants in the market such as corporate treasuries might not be so readily acquainted with the particular subtleties that derivatives can give rise to.
Classical systems: reduced distribution functions
Authors: Pottier No¨elle
Published: November 2023

In order to determine the distribution function of a classical system such as a gas or a liquid, it is necessary to know its Hamiltonian. The structure of this depends on the nature of the interactions between the particles, as well as on the possible presence of external fields. In this , we focus on a system of particles whose interactions are limited to pair interactions. Even in this case, solving the Liouville equation constitutes an impracticable task, mainly because the distribution function concerns the whole set of interacting particles.
Brownian motion: the Fokker–Planck equation
Authors: Pottier No¨elle
Published: November 2023

Like the preceding one, this deals with the Brownian motion of a free particle, but from a diﬀerent point of view. We aim here to determine the temporal evolution of the distribution function of the Brownian particle’s velocity. This ‘a` la Schr¨odinger’ approach is complementary to the previously adopted ‘a` la Heisenberg’ one, which consists in determining the solution of the Langevin equation.
General linear response theory
Authors: Pottier No¨elle
Published: November 2023

Linear response theory is a general formalism applicable to any physical system slightly departing from equilibrium. It allows us to express the linear response functions and the generalized susceptibilities in terms of the equilibrium correlation functions of the relevant dynamical variables. For instance, in the case of the response to an applied external field, one of the two relevant dynamical variables represents the physical quantity conjugate to the field whereas the other represents the physical quantity whose out-of-equilibrium average is measured. The computation of the linear response functions relies on a first-order perturbation expansion of the density operator (or of the phase space distribution function) of the system coupled to the field. The expressions thus obtained constitute the Kubo formulas of linear response theory.
The ﬂuctuation-dissipation theorem
Authors: Pottier No¨elle
Published: November 2023

This deals with the ﬂuctuation-dissipation theorem, which constitutes one of the fundamental statements of the statistical physics of linear irreversible processes.The ﬂuctuation-dissipation theorem expresses a relation between the dissipative part of a generalized susceptibility and the associated equilibrium correlation function. In practice, this relation is used either to describe the intrinsic ﬂuctuations of a dynamical variable using the characteristics of the susceptibility or, inversely, to deduce the susceptibility from the relevant equilibrium ﬂuctuations.
Electromagnetic interactions
Authors: Konishi Kenichi , Paffuti Giampiero
Published: November 2023

In quantum mechanics, in contrast to what happens in classical mechanics, the physical meaning of electromagnetism is to be attributed to the phase factor where Aμ =(Φ, A) are the scalar and vector potential, rather than to the electric and magnetic ﬁelds E, B themselves.
Atoms
Authors: Konishi Kenichi , Paffuti Giampiero
Published: November 2023

The attempt to explain atomic structure was one of the main motives for the genesis of quantum mechanics (Bohr’s atomic model, spectral lines, etc.); at the same time it represented the first true testing ground for the new theory. The explanation of the existence of discrete atomic levels, their quantitative prediction, understanding of the periodic structure of the elements, the correct interpretation of chemical bonds, etc., can be regarded without exaggeration as one of the greatest achievements of the scientific thought of our time. A door to an entirely new world— that of the atomic and subatomic phenomena—opened, triggering an impressive advance in basic scientific knowledge and modern technology, unprecedented in human history. The very concepts and many of the mathematical tools of quantum mechanics have, in many cases, sprung from the efforts to solve these problems. In this chapter, we study atomic structure, and try to illustrate some of these features.
Atomic nuclei and elementary particles
Authors: Konishi Kenichi , Paffuti Giampiero
Published: November 2023

A few salient features of atomic nuclei and elementary particles are discussed in this chapter. The need for relativistic quantum field theories for describing fundamental interactions among the elementary particles in Nature is explained. Locality, the existence of anti-particles, causality, and the spin–statistics connection, some of which are part of the constituent principles of ordinary (non-relativistic) quantum mechanics, are all deeply rooted in the relativistic quantum field theories of elementary particles.
Supplements for Part II
Authors: Konishi Kenichi , Paffuti Giampiero
Published: November 2023

Supplements on perturbation theory Change of boundary conditions Some problems in quantum mechanics can be approximated by a motion of a particle conflned in a definite region of space, bounded by certain surface, S0(x) = 0 In the case of Schro¨dinger’s equation a typical eigenvalue problem is of the form,: Supposing that we know how to solve the problem (21.1), what about the problem in which the boundary is slightly changed, i.e., in which the boundary is now given by A possible strategy is to seek for a change of the variables such that i.e., such that in terms of the new variables the equation determining the boundary has the original form S0 and therefore with the same problem as the original one (whose solution is known).
Supplements for Part III
Authors: Konishi Kenichi , Paffuti Giampiero
Published: November 2023

After their production K mesons decay, mainly in two or three π mesons. The very existence of the decay violating the strangeness S suggests that the process is not a strong interaction process (Hs), but is due to the weak interactions, Hw.
Article 12: Anti-Absorption
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor
Published: November 2023

Article 12 is the only Article of Basic Regulation 384/96 which has no title. The type of procedure governed by Article 12 is normally referred to as an ‘antiabsorption procedure’and, for the sake of clarity and brevity, this term will be used in this book. According to Article 13(11)(a) of the old Basic Regulation 2423/88, there was absorption if the exporter bore the anti-dumping duty imposed. This definition has not been reproduced by Article 12 of the new Basic Regulation 384/96, although such a situation can still be considered as a classical example of absorption under the new provisions. Article 12 adopted a broader approach by defining absorption indirectly, i.e. that there was ‘& no movement, or insufficient movement, in resale prices or subsequent selling prices in the Community although, given the measures imposed, there should have been such movement. This is, incidentally, precisely one of the purposes of anti-dumping measures. Under Basic Regulation 384/96, it is therefore no longer necessary to find direct proof that the anti-dumping duty had been borne by the exporter. Rather, the text is now directed towards the commercial effects of the duty.
Article 14: General Provisions
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor
Published: November 2023

The level of anti-dumping duties is determined in accordance with the lesser duty-rule, i.e. on the basis of the dumping margin or the injury margin, whichever is lower. Therefore, it is irrelevant if exporters or importers argue that the level of an anti-dumping duty imposed is too high on the grounds that imports from the country concerned decreased significantly after the adoption of anti-dumping measures. Anti-dumping measures are meant to outweigh injurious dumping, i.e. a pricing behaviour considered as unfair competition. A decrease of imports following the imposition of measures is therefore a rather normal trade pattern because such measures remove the unfair price advantage previously enjoyed by such dumped imports. According to Articles 7(2) and 9(4), two benchmarks exist for the level of an anti-dumping duty, i.e. the level of the duty should be equal either to the margin of dumping or to the amount necessary to remove injury sustained by the Community industry, whichever is lower. The same applies pursuant to Article 8(1) with regard to the determination of the level of a price undertaking.
Article 20: Disclosure
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor
Published: November 2023

Disclosure as provided for by Article 20 is of primary importance for all parties concerned by an anti-dumping proceeding. It is an expression of two general principles of EC law, i.e. the principle of right to a fair hearing and the principle that the rights of the defence should be assured. The jurisprudence of the Court has contributed considerably to defining the Commission’s obligation to disclose to the parties concerned the essential facts and considerations on the basis of which the outcome of anti-dumping investigations will be determined or have been determined. Article 6.9 of the WTO Anti-dumping Agreement refers to ‘essential facts under consideration’ while Article 20 (2) of the Basic Regulation refers to ‘essential facts and considerations’. Thus, the WTO Anti-dumping Agreement does not seem to require an investigating authority to also share its legal assessment of the facts with the parties concerned. However, despite this apparently restricted scope of Article 6.9, an investigating authority cannot discharge itself of the obligations resulting from this provision by invoking that the parties have had access to the non-confidential file pursuant to Article 6.4 of the WTO Anti-dumping Agreement. Otherwise, the provisions on disclosure would be redundant. Moreover, if the investigating authority rejects certain information on the grounds that the party did not co-operate properly, the reasons for such rejection have to be given pursuant to paragraph 6 of Annex II to WTO Anti-dumping Agreement.
Article 21: Community Interest
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor
Published: November 2023

Taking public interest into consideration before imposing anti-dumping measures is not a requirement contained in the GATT 1947 or the WTO Anti-dumping Agreement. Some GATT signatories like Australia and Canada occasionally refer to public interest but only the Community systematically applies a Community interest test before any measures are adopted. Community interest was one of the central points of discussion when the Community’s anti-dumping law was reformed in 1994 to reflect the results of the Uruguay Round. The provisions on Community interest contained in Basic Regulation 384/96 are more elaborate than the corresponding provisions of Article 11(1) and 12(1) of Basic Regulation 2423/88. An important innovation can be noted with regard to procedural provisions. The degree of detail in which the procedural rights and obligations are set out in Article 21 emphasizes the need for Community Institutions to have at their disposal more comprehensive information than under Basic Regulation 2423/88 when determining the question of Community interest. The new rules have also considerably clarified the analytical framework. Therefore, the Community interest analysis relating to investigations which have been carried out under the old Basic Regulation, can today only serve to a limited extent as guidance.
Impacts of environmental policy instruments on technological change
Authors: Braathen Nils Axel
Published: November 2023

While anecdotal evidence on positive impacts on innovation of more stringent environmental policies have been around for some time, stringent empirical analyses of the links between the two phenomena are more recent. However, despite the problems in measuring the impact of different instruments directly, an increasing amount of material now documents that environmental policy can have a significant impact on technological change. This chapter summarizes some of the empirical findings that have been made in the literature and makes some suggestions for additional empirical research.
The Environmental Tax Reforms In Europe: Mitigation, Compensation, And Co2 Stabilization
Authors: Andersen Mikael Skou , Speck Stefan
Published: November 2023

It has been suggested that carbon-energy taxes would need to be increased to a level of €20 to €30 per tonne CO2 in 2020 in order to achieve a stabilization target for greenhouse gas concentrations. While increases in carbon-energy taxes inevitably raise questions concerning negative impacts on economic growth and competitiveness, the European experience shows that governments, as part of environmental tax reforms (ETRs) which are already in place, in fact have implicit carbon-energy taxes with a nominal level that in many cases exceeds the €20 to €30 per tonne level. Still, European governments have provided exemptions, especially to energy-intensive industries. To some extent, therefore, the incentives to improve energy efficiency and shift towards low-carbon fuels for the biggest polluters have been weaker than the nominal rates would suggest. In view of the need to increase the real level of carbon-energy taxation, while retaining the competitiveness of the European economy, this chapter addresses the mitigation approaches applied to energy-intensive industries in the EU.
The Sky Is The Limit Or Limits To The Sky? A Political Economy Perspective On Market-Based Environmental Policy Instruments In Eu Aviation
Authors: Rudolph Sven
Published: November 2023

‘Get Blown Away … Fly for 10 Euros’. ‘All you can ?y for only 199 Euros!’. With offers like these, airlines have successfully attracted a growing number of customers over the last decade. Aviation represents an increasingly popular and even socially desired mode of transport, connecting people from all over the world in the fastest way possible. However, aviation’s contribution to anthropo-genic climate change is often neglected. Furthermore, to this day, the aviation sector largely lacks any regulation to curb its climate impact. Only recently has the idea of combating aviation’s greenhouse gas emissions by using market-based instruments gained momentum: initially through the EU Directive on energy and fuel taxation and subsequently through an EU Commission proposal aim-ing at the inclusion of aviation in the EU’s Emission Trading Scheme.
An Evaluation Of The Fiscal Mechanisms For Fostering Solar Energy In Australia
Authors: Mortimore Anna
Published: November 2023

Why is Australia not using its abundance of solar energy to cut its greenhouse gases? Could it be that Australia’s environmental fi scal mechanisms, such as the low mandatory renewable energy target, low energy cost of fossil fuels, no Emission Trading Scheme, and inadequate deployment measures have discouraged the uptake of solar energy in Australia?

The Australian Conservative Government focused on clean coal technology and uranium as their answer to the abatement of greenhouse gases, while Australianfunded solar technology and its talented people have been leaving Australia to travel to other countries offering to invest in the commercialization and deployment of this technology. Not only has Australia forgone its investment, but economically its future export income and employment opportunities.
Ecoterra Model—Application Of Environmental Fiscal Reform In Local Government Financing In Portugal
Authors: Prates Joana , João Joanaz de Melo
Published: November 2023

Land use management is one of the least studied, more difficult, but possibly one of the most important fields for the application of economic instruments in environmental policy. Present biodiversity loss is a consequence of the decisions of many individual users of environmental products and service ?ows. This is a result of the ‘unpriced scarcity’ and ‘lack of property rights’ nature of the environment. The social value of various biodiversity goods and service ?ows is not or is insufficiently re?ected in market prices. As a result, an undesirable level of provision of these goods and services will result in their destruction or degradation.
Carbon emission rights: the key to an optimal regional approach to climate change?
Authors: Piddington Ken , Scrimgeour Frank
Published: November 2023

In policy terms, it could be said that the issue of climate change has within a remarkably short period moved to the very top of the political agenda. It is now of central concern to a greater number of countries than those who would still place terrorism in the position of highest priority. Developing countries, previously regarded as supine and resting on the exclusion from the Kyoto engagements granted under the Berlin Mandate, are voicing increasing concern as their populations suffer from drought, ?oods, and other extreme events. For instance, Margaret Okorodudu-Fubara made an eloquent appeal at the Eighth Global Conference on Environmental Taxation (GCET) for her country (Nigeria), which ?ares more gas to the atmosphere than any other oil-producing nation, to recognize that it has a generality of commitment to protect the atmosphere, completely separate from the Berlin Mandate, under the umbrella instrument which was adopted at the Earth Summit in 1992—the UNFCCC. Similarly, Cecil Morden has spoken out with a South African perspective.
Life’s Ups and Downs
Authors: Loadman John , James Francis
Published: November 2023

One of the reasons Thomas and Charles Macintosh decided not to continue with their application to extend Charlesߣ 1823 patent was the fall-off in demand for the (almost) eponymous mackintosh. For many years they had contended with the disapproval of the medical profession, which argued that close-fitting rubberized fabrics were injurious to the health of the wearer.
A New Industry
Authors: Loadman John , James Francis
Published: November 2023

Thomas had created a completely new industry, although he did point out that even his old business, before the discovery of vulcanization, was using 3–4 tons of rubber per week. The uses to which vulcanized rubber could be put were yet to be realized and would continue to expand through to the present day—and almost certainly beyond.
Gutta Percha Comes to Town
Authors: Loadman John , James Francis
Published: November 2023

At the same time that Thomas was developing the vulcanization process, a new material arrived on the shores of the United Kingdom. It was brought from the Far East by Dr William Montgomerie and was called by its Malay name—gutta-percha.
The Great Hose Controversy
Authors: Loadman John , James Francis
Published: November 2023

In Thomas’ Narrative there are virtually no references to life outside his manufactory because, as he wrote in the introduction, ‘It is simply an account of my own progress in the manufacture . . .’. While it is reasonable that he did not write about Walter and Charles’ experiences with gutta percha, it does leave some gaps in his own activities which, when filled in, provide us with some additional insight into his character.
The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations
Authors: Loadman John , James Francis
Published: November 2023

Caught in the middle of the argument between his nephew, James Lyne Hancock, and the management of Charles Macintosh & Co., Thomas had little spare time as the second half of the nineteenth century dawned, and, while he certainly would not claim to have better things to do than protect James’ interests, he was deep in thought as to how best to display the achievements and ambitions of the Macintosh company in the greatest showcase event ever to have been seen in the British Isles, the Great Exhibition of 1851.