bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Martial Arts into Media Culture
Authors: Bowman Paul
Published: November 2020

After reflecting on the convulsions and tectonic shifts in attitudes and approaches to interpersonal combat caused by the horrors of the First World War, Chapter 3 explores the movements of ‘Martial Arts into Media Culture’. This chapter covers the emergence of different kinds of comic (from war comics to Marvel) which feature impressive feats of combat, and the early appearance of arts such as judo and karate in various media. It analyses memorable media moments, such as the influential TV series, The Avengers, and the long-running series of adverts for the aftershave ‘Hai Karate’, before opening out into the discursive explosion of martial arts texts in the 1970s.
Everybody Was Kung Fu Citing
Authors: Bowman Paul
Published: November 2020

Key among influential texts in the movement of martial arts texts into popular consciousness is the 1974 international hit disco song, ‘Kung Fu Fighting’ by Carl Douglas. Chapter 4, ‘Everybody Was Kung Fu Citing: Inventing Popular Martial Arts Aesthetics’ consists of a sustained close reading of this song, focusing on its lyrics, its aural and visual semiotics, its intertextual relations with other sound effects and songs, and some controversial instances of its reiteration and redeployment in different cultural contexts. Following the main questions that arise about this song in journalistic contexts, news stories, and conversations online, the chapter poses the well-worn question, ‘Is it racist?’ In doing so, the chapter enters into debates about orientalism, ethnic stereotyping, and cultural appropriation, but does so in a way that recasts the orientations of these debates, away from moralism and judgmentalism and towards questions of interest, desire, investment in, and involvement or encounters with ‘other cultures’.
From Linear History to Discursive Constellation
Authors: Bowman Paul
Published: November 2020

This chapter argues that any attempt to construct a linear history of martial arts in media and popular culture as it exploded after the 1970s cannot but fail. The sheer proliferation of martial arts images, themes, texts, and practices precludes easy linear narrativization. Accordingly, Chapter 5 argues for the need to move ‘From Linear History to Discursive Constellation’ in our approach to martial arts in media and popular culture. The chapter attempts to establish the main discursive contours that appeared and developed through the 1980s—a decade in which ninjas and Shaolin monks explode onto the cultural landscape. This is followed by attention to the 1990s, in which three major events took place in the same year: the first Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC), the Wu-Tang Clan’s release of their enormously popular album, Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers), and the appearance on children’s television screens around the world of ‘The Power Rangers’—all of which took place in 1993. The chapter then attempts to track the major discursive tendencies and contours of martial arts aesthetics through the first decade of the twenty-first century, up to the mainstreaming of combat sports in more recent years.
The Meaning of Martial Arts
Authors: Bowman Paul
Published: November 2020

Having taken the time to identify several discursive regularities and recurring motifs in martial arts imagery, Chapter 6 moves further into ‘delineating a discursive constellation’. This chapter combines a deeper theorization of the discursive entity of martial arts as a floating signifier with a study of martial arts in the British national press and a discussion of the cacophony of images of martial arts in recent media history. In further clarifying the shifting and variable status of martial arts in anglophone contexts, the chapter reflects on its similarities and differences in terms of a consideration of the range of terms used for Chinese martial arts. It argues that all of these reflect different cultural and political interests, and turns to reflect on what it terms the narrative arc of appropriation in martial arts. The chapter closes on a discussion of martial arts and issues in gender and feminism, before returning to the fragmented and fragmentary character of encounters with and representations of martial arts.
I Want My TKD
Authors: Bowman Paul
Published: November 2020

Chapter 7 picks up the idea of the fragmentariness of contemporary media culture in examining martial arts in music videos. Called ‘I want my TKD: Martial Arts in Music Videos’, this chapter is a wide-ranging survey of pop, hip-hop, and rock videos. The chapter begins with a discussion of the historical emergence of music videos as a powerful player in international popular culture with the appearance of MTV, before moving into an analysis of the earliest music videos to feature martial arts—several of which were, interestingly, parodic, comic, novelty, or eccentric rap songs, performed by white artists. Later texts demonstrate chaotic relationships with and (mis)understandings of Asian countries and cultures. The chapter argues that martial arts themes are particularly significant in progressive rap and hip-hop music videos, while in pop and rock videos martial arts are often treated as comic.
Darwin's Psychology
Authors: Bradley Ben
Published: November 2020

Darwin has long been hailed as forefather to behavioural science, and even more so nowadays, with the growing popularity of evolutionary psychologies. This is the first book to examine Darwin’s own extensive writings about psychological matters. It finds that Darwin’s fulcrum was the agency of living creatures—both in his psychology and in his theory of evolution. A careful reading of Darwin’s writings on topics from climbing plants to babies shows that no individual-based theory of evolution can explain everything about human action. The interpersonal domain, group-life and culture, are also key, whether we consider the dynamics of conscience, emotional expressions or the dramas of desire. For example, Darwin argues that the anatomy and physiology of evolutionarily ‘purposeless’ facial movements gain meaning through their perception by others. His explanation of blushing adds a layer of complexity to such recognition—my blush results from my perception of how you are reading me. A similar reflexive dynamic governs how Darwin understands sexual desire, conscience, the setting of social standards, and the place of culture in human agency. Testing the main plank of Darwin’s psychology—that a capacity for group-interaction underpins the most human aspects of human agency—has awaited contemporary research, being recently confirmed by film-studies of young babies. Darwin’s writings frame a surprisingly well-resourced arena for elaboration of a socialized, agentic account of how we and our fellow creatures live. Moreover, Darwin stands at the forefront of moves toward an evolutionary biology in which organisms lead and genes follow.
Being Read
Authors: Bradley Ben
Published: November 2020

Blushing is unique to humans. So Darwin could not show it had evolved by studying its occurrence in animals. Neither do infants blush. Hence, unlike crying, it was not easily shown to be innate. Furthermore its triggers appear to be immaterial. Expression solves the problem of why and when people blush by hypothesizing a reflexive process of reading: I blush because I read you as reading and judging me—my appearance, or conduct. This dynamic of meta-recognition or self-attention requires the construction of a complex theory of human agency, involving: a dual self; the operation of innate sympathy; a physiological hypothesis; and an evolutionary derivation. Meta-recognition underpinned Darwin’s understanding of sexual attraction, group cohesion, and conscience. It also served as a formative influence on later psychologies of symbolic interaction.
Reasoning and reason judgements
Authors: Müller Andreas
Published: November 2020

This chapter takes the first step in developing a constructivist theory of practical reasons. It does so by giving an account of the cognitive role that judgements about those reasons play in an agent’s psychology. In particular, it presents the Normative Guidance Account of practical reasoning, according to which such reasoning always involves a reason judgement that guides it. This account is shown to be preferable to competing accounts in the literature and defended against two influential objections: the objection that it requires too much conceptual sophistication and thus excludes certain reasoners, and the objection that it leads into an infinite regress.
Hamiltonians and solution techniques
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

Chapter 1 introduces several of the common principles, techniques and approximations that will be employed throughout the text. Classically, the Hamiltonian is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy. In quantum mechanics, it is an operator that, by operating on the statefunction, leads to the energy observable. The chapter begins with a preliminary description of the crystal’s Hamiltonian and then introduces approximation techniques that permit useful solutions. Beginning with the simple jellium model, Hartree and Hartree-Fock approaches are developed, exchange interactions and correlation effects are explored, and both time-independent perturbation and time-dependent perturbation techniques discussed. Examples illustrate scattering by perturbation as well as adiabatic evolution. The centrality of fast-and-slow interactions is stressed, the Born-Oppenheimer approximation is illustrated through the configuration coordinate diagram, and interacting electron systems are analyzed. The multi-electron aspects are stressed by discussing static screening, dynamic screening and the meaning of permittivity therein.
Major scattering processes
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

This chapter discusses major scattering processes found in semiconductors, including phonon scattering (deformation scattering, piezoelectric scattering, polar scattering and non-polar scattering), scattering arising from impurities (charged, so a Coulomb scattering, and charge neutral) and scattering arising in compositional randomness, from carrier-carrier events and due to coupled-particle interactions. The discussion starts by making connections between the classical scattering cross-section and its quantum-mechanical origins through the matrix elements for scattering. The ability to write the matrix element is employed for describing scattering by phonons in its various forms, for impurities and their various levels of accuracy of the description. Umklapp processes are described. When multiple scattering processes are present, the resulting transport manifests the processes’ independence and dependence. With an understanding of the scattering, observed behavior in semiconductors of interest is summarized to show their relative importance. The chapter concludes by discussing frequency and high field behavior manifested by electron ensembles.
Light interactions with semiconductors
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines how electromagnetic waves—light, photons—interact with semiconductors through coupling between the electromagnetic wave and dipoles of various kinds and analyzed via a dipole interaction Hamiltonian. Phenomena in the energy range of micro eV to several eVs are explored, stressing surface interactions, absorption, emission and luminescence. The first involves coupled plasmon interactions. Absorption and emission arise across energy and through multiple mechanisms. Free carrier processes are pronounced for low energy. Direct electron-photon interactions—a direct transition—can involve allowed transitions and forbidden transitions across the gap. Indirect transitions of both these varieties can arise in phonon-assisted processes. Oscillator strength is fleshed out. Field dependence, doping dependence and temperature dependence are analyzed, broadening the discussion to the Franz-Keldysh effect as well as dependence due to impurities, excitons, plasmons and crystal oscillations, to unravel the dielectric function and reflectivity’s behavior at high frequencies and restrahlen often observed.
Stress and strain effects
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

This chapter extends this book’s discussion of bandstructure, band discontinuities and transport—much of the text up to this point—to a manipulation of them through stress and strain. Semiconductors can be strained through a variety of techniques, with strained growth leading to a strained layer, and pattern definition leading to local strained region, being the most common. Strain changes bandstructures and interface bandedge energies, distorts and warps bands, removes degeneracies, affects scattering and thus changes a variety of properties. Following a continuum description of stress-strain relationships, effects of stress—biaxial, hydrostatic and uniaxial—are analyzed for bandstructure and transport in electron bands, light-hole bands, heavy-hole bands and split-off bands in group IV and group III-V semiconductors. Transport effects can be particularly strong in quantum-confined conditions, where changes in density of states can be significant, along with other bandstructure and scattering changes.
Introduction
Authors: Hordern Joshua
Published: November 2020

This chapter situates the enquiry by considering the transitions which healthcare practice is undergoing because of turns in healthcare thinking towards philosophy, person-centredness, and social theory. Such changes accentuate a problem inherent in other trends in modern healthcare which have tended to reduce the scope for exploring the human condition and morally worthy ways of living life within it. The historic response of Christian ethicists to such transitions and trends is reviewed as a kind of cautionary tale which, by distinguishing different theological approaches, discloses the contested nature of an enquiry such as this. Options for the proper mode of the enquiry are thereby considered, with an argument made for a version of ‘faithful secularity’ being predominant, drawing on Nigel Biggar and Luke Bretherton, while incorporating other insights. The structure of the book is then outlined, the political context is introduced, some distinctions are highlighted, and a guide to reading is offered.
Compassion in Healthcare Policy and Practice
Authors: Hordern Joshua
Published: November 2020

This chapter considers three areas of healthcare practice and policy, selected because of collaborative work that has been pursued by the author and in light of the challenges they pose to compassion. For the first, healthcare professionalism, it draws on work with the Royal College of Physicians London to consider how the doctor’s roles as healer, patient-partner, advocate, and innovator, matter for compassionate relationships in practice, addressing especially the challenge of machine learning. The second concerns marketisation in healthcare, including both its corrosive and beneficial effects on compassionate relationships. The role of faithfulness and covenant in healthcare practice is explored, resulting in a recommendation for a Healthcare Covenant binding together public, healthcare professionals, researchers, and corporate actors. The third, drawing on partnership with biomedical researchers and clinicians, concerns the technologisation of healthcare, specifically in the field of precision medicine. The discussion examines problems with the culture of precision medicine and practical ideas to strengthen compassionate relationships.
Places and Spaces
Authors: Thomas Hugh M.
Published: November 2020

This chapter studies royal residences, reactions to various landscapes, and ceremonial practices that formed part of royal itineration. King John and his court travelled constantly, meaning that court life was not centred on a small number of palaces but on multiple castles, palaces, and other residences. Until recently, work on medieval royal residences focused largely on castles and their military functions, but now scholars are studying domestic aspects, including in castles, and the designed landscapes that surrounded castles and palaces. This chapter applies the new approach to John’s reign. In particular, it studies attitudes towards landscapes, both designed landscapes and the less heavily manipulated environments in which the court hunted. Because of the king’s travels, the court spent much time on the road, and the chapter also studies certain associated ceremonies, such as processions to greet the king and formal entries into important towns, also known as the adventus.
King John and the Wielding of Soft Power
Authors: Thomas Hugh M.
Published: November 2020

Drawing on earlier parts of the book, this chapter focuses on the court as a source of soft power and investigates John’s effectiveness in wielding that power. Much recent scholarship on the early Middle Ages investigates ritual, gestures, and the display of emotions, activities that may be grouped together as symbolic communication. Major themes will be how John used various forms of symbolic communication to build power and how his enemies sought to contest his efforts. Gift exchange and its impact on power relations is another subject. The chapter then challenges the assumption that the rise of administrative kingship made traditional forms of soft power obsolete, arguing that increased bureaucratic and financial capacity allowed kings to employ soft power more effectively. However, though John and his officials created a magnificent court, well designed to enhance soft power, John, through his own blunders and desire for self-gratification, forfeited many of the advantages.
The Right of Redress
Authors: Gold Andrew S.
Published: November 2020

The law enables private parties to undo the wrongs committed against them. In other words, the law enables victims to seek redress. This book shows how a distinctive kind of justice governs our legal rights of redress, different from the leading corrective justice approaches. In the process, it helps to make sense of tort, contract, fiduciary law, and unjust enrichment doctrine. As developed in The Right of Redress, when a wrong is remedied, the authorship of that remedy matters. The justice in private law is sensitive to a right holder’s authorship, and understanding how solves a number of legal theory puzzles. This book also offers a novel account of the state’s obligations. Many forms of redress are only available with state assistance, and a full account of private law requires an account of the state’s responsibility to assist. It also requires an explanation of those cases in which the state declines to assist. Prior accounts have drawn on Kantian principles or a Lockean social contract theory. Drawing on public fiduciary theory, The Right of Redress develops a distinctive account of the state’s role. Lastly, this book offers a new take on various modern features of the private law landscape, ranging from equity, to damage caps, to arbitration, to corporate claims, to class actions. The Right of Redress thus offers a path-breaking account of the justice in private law, of the political theory that underlies it, and of the contemporary features that shape our rights of redress today.
Twenty-Five Centuries of Debate
Authors: Boraud Thomas
Published: November 2020

This chapter traces the history of decision-making and rationality in Western culture. Despite the fact that the concept of rationality has been tackled by philosophers since early Greek antiquity, it only really emerged in popular culture after the Middle Ages. The science of rationality culminated in the twentieth century with the axiomatization of preferences and theories of decision-making development by economists. Ultimately, psychologists and economists agree that the concept of rationality is relative. To summarize: when a subject decides, they do not usually optimize choice. For behaviourists, explanation is to be found in exploratory behaviour: evolutionary pressure has selected behaviours that anticipate possible changes in environmental conditions. The subject (animal or human) exchanges some immediate efficacy against information which may serve him later. For economists, the answer is more complex. It is a combination of the inability to understand all of the options relating to the problem (bounded rationality) associated with biases that cloud judgement.
Open Questions
Authors: Boraud Thomas
Published: November 2020

This chapter addresses open, unsolved questions in neuroscience, such as the complexity of the network (which is larger than described in this book), the issue of perception, and the central role of emotions. The book's model has ignored the external globus pallidus because it simplifies the interactions and the dynamic properties of the indirect pathway. Meanwhile, considering specific properties of the cortical columns allows us to briefly address a whole new topic in neuroscience: perception. However, the chapter argues that decision-making cannot be considered as a continuation of the perception process; this is rather a different process with its own dynamics. The chapter also examines the idea that there are no ‘cold’ decisions, but simply decisions influenced by different kinds of emotions. These add an extra dimension by modulating the scalars on which the decision-making system is based to make its choices.
Introduction Part I
Authors: Rapp Christof
Published: November 2020

The treatise that has come down to us under the title De Motu Animalium (MA) holds a peculiar place within the Aristotelian oeuvre.1 It treats the phenomenon of animal self-motion—that animals, both human and non-human, are capable of moving themselves. Although animals do so in several different ways—e.g. by walking, flying, swimming, crawling, creeping, and hopping—there is a common cause of this movement that ...
Sigla
Authors: Rapp Christof
Published: November 2020

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a1| Περὶ δὲ τῆς τῶν ζώιων κινήσεως‎, ὅσα μὲν αὐτῶν περὶ‎ |2| ἕκαστον ὑπάρχει γένος‎ – καὶ τίνες διαφοραὶ καὶ τίνες αἰτίαι‎ |3| τῶν καθ‎’ ἕκαστον συμβεβηκότων αὐτοῖς‎ –, ἐπέσκεπται περὶ‎ |4|ἁπάντων ἐν ἑτέροις‎. ...
Resuming Discussion of the Common Cause of Animal Self-Motion: How Does the Soul Move the Body?
Authors: Corcilius Klaus
Published: November 2020

This contribution comments on Aristotle’s De Motu Animalium 6 (MA 6). In this chapter Aristotle resumes the discussion of the common cause of animal self-motion. For this purpose the chapter introduces the technical vocabulary from De Anima III 9–11, e.g. desire, phantasia, nous, perception. The contribution argues, among other things, that MA 6 marks the beginning, not of Aristotle’s teleological explanation of animal motion, but of his common causal explanation of animal self-motion in the sense of the efficient cause common to all sublunary living beings capable of moving themselves locally.
Introduction
Authors: Petit Nicolas
Published: November 2020

In recent years, big tech’s entry into new markets like entertainment, banking, or healthcare has aroused monopoly complaints from established players. Both in the European Union (EU) and the United States, congressional institutions, antitrust agencies, and market regulators appear to be increasingly concerned. Whilst US antitrust authorities are yet to act, the European Union has adopted aggressive decisions against big tech. In addition, regulatory reform is on the tables of European lawmakers with proposals to limit big tech’s acquisitions of startups or mandate data sharing with competitors. Contemporary policy reliance on a monopoly explanation is, however, inconsistent with descriptions of intense levels of big tech oligopoly competition found in financial reports, market research, and competitive intelligence analysis. This chapter attempts to sketch out the book’s ambition to give a fuller account of big tech competition.
The Data Imperative
Authors: Schildt Henri
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines digitalization as a set of new normative ideals for managing and organizing businesses, enabled by new technologies. The data imperative consists of two mutually reinforcing goals: the pursuit of omniscience—the aspiration of management to capture the world relevant to the company through digital data; and the pursuit of omnipotence—an aspiration of managers to control and optimize activities in real-time and around the world through software. The data imperative model captures a self-reinforcing cycle of four sequential steps: (1) the creation and capture of data, (2) the combination and analysis of data, (3) the redesign of business processes around smart algorithms, and (4) the ability to control the world through digital information flows. The logical end-point of the data imperative is a ‘programmable world’, a conception of society saturated with Internet-connected hardware that is able to capture processes in real time and control them in order to optimize desired outcomes.
Complexity and Modularity
Authors: Schildt Henri
Published: November 2020

Modularity is the single most important concept related to software and digitalization, and one that every manager and many experts should understand. This chapter elaborates modularity as a central response to complexity that relates to the design, production, and operation of technological systems. Digital technologies increase modularity by facilitating the creation of clear interfaces between sub-systems and processes. This, in turn, allows complex systems to be split into autonomous parts that can be developed and installed independently. Modularity allows companies to scale up their activities more quickly and cheaply, while also facilitating innovation both within modules, by eliminating interdependencies that hamper development efforts, and at the architectural level, through the creative recombination of pre-existing modules.
Artificial Intelligence and Human Expertise
Authors: Schildt Henri
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines in detail the structure and functioning of work routines that involve collaboration between human experts and advanced algorithms. Despite the intuitive complementarity of human intelligence and AI, it is often challenging to combine the two effectively. Building on case company examples, such as Finnair and Stich Fix, the chapter introduces a typology of different human–algorithm hybrids and a framework for understanding challenges and pitfalls in in human–AI interactions. I conclude by suggesting four idealized approaches to solving these issues and helping companies take full advantage of digital technologies.
Algorithmic Management of Humans
Authors: Schildt Henri
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines software-based control of employees and work tasks. To leverage digital data and optimize the productivity of human workers, companies have piloted algorithmic management systems that survey, incentivize, instruct, and sanction human workers, commonly through their smartphones. We have entered an era in which a substantial portion of the workforce will no longer have a human supervisor or manager to whom to report, constituting the ‘Uberification’ of the labour market. While the first generation of algorithmic management was designed for the narrow optimization of the efficiency of customer-facing business processes, I suggest that the next generation of algorithmic management could—and should—attend more carefully to the employee experience. There are clear incentives to develop algorithmic management that make work more meaningful and motivating.
The Promises and Pitfalls of the Data Imperative
Authors: Schildt Henri
Published: November 2020

This chapter charts the future developments of data-driven businesses and digitalization. The chapter first elaborates a vision of the artificially intelligent organizations that utilize AI technologies, such as natural language processing, to capture the skills and knowledge of their employees. This will allow corporations to automatically orchestrate expert tasks to increase productivity and, hopefully, meaningfulness of knowledge work. Looking at the potential risks of ongoing digitalization, the chapter examines ‘optimization traps’, a set of organizational myopias that may arise from increasing reliance on algorithmic processing and smart automation. The chapter concludes by examining the new skills and attitudes managers and professionals are likely to need to remain relevant in the digital workplace, arguing that current use of data to create ‘insights’ may soon be outdated.
Cities Real and Desired
Authors: O'Daly Gerard
Published: November 2020

This chapter gives an overview of the Christianization of the Roman Empire in the fourth and early fifth centuries ad, especially in the Latin-speaking West. The emperor Constantine’s importance is discussed, as well as the survival of paganism and the increasing attempts from late in the fourth century onwards, under Theodosius and his successors, to undermine and suppress it. The evidence for continuity in Roman civic life, focusing on North Africa, is briefly considered. A survey is provided of ideological presentations, pagan and Christian, of the city of Rome as the symbol of empire in panegyric, in the Altar of Victory controversy, in historiography, in Christian martyr poems, and in architecture. The correspondence between Augustine and Nectarius in the aftermath of Christian-pagan violence in Calama in 408 is briefly explored for its exposure of conflicting values.
The Apologetic Tradition
Authors: O'Daly Gerard
Published: November 2020

The City of God is arguably the culmination of the Latin Christian apologetic tradition in antiquity, and Augustine’s work concludes a series of writings that begins in the late second and early third centuries with Tertullian and Minucius Felix. The Latin Christian apologetic tradition before Augustine and its themes are discussed, with extensive references, focusing on Tertullian, Minucius Felix, Arnobius, Lactantius, and Prudentius. The literary form and scope of key works—Tertullian’s Apologeticum, the Octavius of Minucius Felix, Arnobius’ Adversus Nationes, Lactantius’ Divine Institutes—are outlined, and the use in the Latin tradition of Varro and Cicero is briefly discussed. Similarities to, and differences from, Augustine’s apologetic are noted.
The Theme of the Two Cities
Authors: O'Daly Gerard
Published: November 2020

The theme of the two cities before Augustine is discussed, and its occurrence in Christian Scriptures (especially the Book of Revelation), with their symbolic use of the Jerusalem–Babylon antithesis, outlined. The theme and its ramifications in Tertullian, Lactantius, and Ambrose, and the role of the Donatist Tyconius as an influence on Augustine, are discussed. The possible influence on Augustine of the concept of contrasting cities, real and ideal, in Plato and the Platonic tradition, of the Stoic cosmic city, of the best city of Cicero’s Republic, and of the Jewish-Christian catechetical tradition, is investigated. The two cities’ theme in other writings of Augustine is surveyed, with extended citations.
Varro, Platonists, and Demons
Authors: O'Daly Gerard
Published: November 2020

The chapter analyses Books 6–10, which engage in polemic against philosophically influenced interpretations of pagan religious beliefs. The principal themes are: criticism of pagan critics of traditional Roman religion, and of the attempt to develop a natural theology, focusing on Varro; continuation of polemic against polytheism in Roman religion; the value of some Platonist doctrines (on God and the soul) and the flaws of others (demons as intermediaries, reincarnation, lax monotheism); criticism of philosophical views (especially those found in the Neoplatonist Porphyry) on purification, mediation between the divine and the human, sacrifice, and the afterlife; Christians and permissible passions; pagan and Jewish-Christian views contrasted; the meaning of Christian sacrifice; Christ as the true mediator.
The History of the Two Cities
Authors: O'Daly Gerard
Published: November 2020

This chapter analyses Books 15–18, which present the two cities in history, stressing that two types of human being, self-centered or God-centered, may represent allegorically the two cities: Cain and Abel are human prototypes of the two cities. The Jews, a prophetic image of the city of God, are a part of the earthly city. Biblical history is selectively outlined, with concentration on texts that are prophetic (including the tower of Babel, the Flood, Isaac and Jacob narratives). Augustine’s synchronization of biblical and secular history, using Eusebius’ Canons and their continuation by Jerome, is examined. The sequence of empires, Assyrian (confused by Augustine with Babylon) and Roman, is traced, and the oddity of Sicyon as representative of Greece is explained. Jewish prophecies contrived to relate to Christ and the Church are highlighted. The concept of the Church as a ‘mixed body’ of true and false members becomes prominent.
Influences and Sources
Authors: O'Daly Gerard
Published: November 2020

In the City of God Augustine uses a large variety of literary sources, and in a variety of ways. Some are cited in passing, others are repeatedly used; some are referred to by name, others may be inferred; in some cases, a specific use or influence is disputed by modern interpreters. This chapter collects and summarizes the literary influences upon Augustine in City, and the sources he used, often polemically. It contains sections on secular Latin writers, on Greek, mainly philosophical, writers in Latin translations, and on Jewish and Christian writers. The principal authors discussed are, in the first section, Varro, Cicero, Sallust, Virgil, and Apuleius; in the second section, Plato, Plotinus, and Porphyry; and in the third section, Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome.
Multicomponent Working Memory System with Distributed Executive Control
Authors: Vandierendonck André
Published: November 2020

The working memory model with distributed executive control accounts for the interactions between working memory and multi-tasking performance. The working memory system supports planned actions by relying on two capacity-limited domain-general and two time-limited domain-specific modules. Domain-general modules are the episodic buffer and the executive module. The episodic buffer stores multimodal representations and uses attentional refreshment to counteract information loss and to consolidate information in episodic long-term memory. The executive module maintains domain-general information relevant for the current task. The phonological buffer and the visuospatial module are domain specific; the former uses inner speech to maintain and to rehearse phonological information, whereas the latter holds visual and spatial representations active by means of image revival. For its operation, working memory interacts with declarative and procedural long-term memory, gets input from sensory registers, and uses the motor system for output.
Individual Differences in Attention Control
Authors: Mashburn Cody A. , Tsukahara Jason S. , Engle Randall W.
Published: November 2020

This chapter outlines the executive attention theory of higher-order cognition, which argues that individual differences in the ability to maintain information in working memory and disengage from irrelevant information is inextricably linked to variation in the ability to deploy domain-free attentional resources in a goal-directed fashion. It also summarizes recent addendums to the theory, particularly regarding the relationship between attention control, working memory capacity, and fluid intelligence. Specifically, the chapter argues that working memory capacity and fluid intelligence measures require different allocations of the same attentional resources, a fact which accounts for their strong correlation. At various points, it addresses theoretical alternatives to the executive attention theory of working memory capacity and empirical complications of the study of attention control, including difficulties deriving coherent attention control latent factors.
Repairing Democracy’s Disconnects
Authors: Hendriks Carolyn M. , Ercan Selen A. , Boswell John
Published: November 2020

Chapter 1 argues that democracy in many societies is wearing thin due to widespread disconnects being experienced between citizens and their elected representatives, between publics in fractious and polarized public spheres, and between citizens and tangled policy processes. Collectively, these disconnects are problematic for realizing democracy at the large scale not only because they produce subtle forms of exclusion, but also because they restrict the movement of ideas and arguments between affected publics and those authorized to make and implement collective decisions. The chapter invites contemporary advocates of democratic reform to think harder both about the nature of these disconnects and about how to repair them. It begins with an overview of the prevailing ideas about contemporary democratic renewal and reform, and then introduces the concept of democratic mending as a promising pathway for advancing democratic reform especially in societies characterized by systemic disconnects.
Conceptualizing Connectivity in Deliberative Democracy
Authors: Hendriks Carolyn M. , Ercan Selen A. , Boswell John
Published: November 2020

Chapter 2 offers a critical review of three systemic accounts of deliberative democracy, focusing on their assumptions about democratic connectivity. It draws attention to the ‘communicative miracles’ that lie at the heart of each deliberative system account—‘miracles’ that are out of step with contemporary disconnects experienced in the representative process, in the public sphere itself, and along the policy process. The chapter shows that these ‘communicative miracles’ are not only theoretical blind spots, but also practical obstacles hindering deliberative democracy from speaking more directly to, and serving as a richer resource for, democratic renewal. The chapter calls for a more empirically informed account of connectivity in contemporary public deliberation, one that is grounded in the work and agency of those involved in making or strengthening connectivity. It argues that an abductive research approach that employs interpretive methods is particularly well suited for developing such empirically informed accounts of connectivity. The chapter concludes by making the case for the close study of contemporary political practices, especially focused on how diverse actors are experiencing democratic disconnects, and what actions they are taking to mend them.
Connecting Citizens and Administrative Policymaking
Authors: Hendriks Carolyn M. , Ercan Selen A. , Boswell John
Published: November 2020

Chapter 5 unpacks the problematic governance disconnect experienced in contemporary democracy where there is a gap between administrative policymaking and the democratic will of citizens. The chapter examines the work of administrators, patient activists, and advocates in the health sector in Britain through the long and confusing policymaking process. It draws on a programme of work that encompasses four closely related examples of newly formed public agencies in Britain’s health sector. The analysis shows how administrators inside these organizations have used their privileged position to ‘reach out’ in order to enable radical new opportunities for public scrutiny and participatory input, as well as how advocates and activists in civil society build and channel their capacity to ‘reach in’ and take advantage of, and at times subvert or transform, opportunities to influence policy or policymakers. The chapter outlines the ways these four agencies can repair the disconnect between citizens and complex policy processes that govern them—as well as highlighting persistent obstacles and new challenges. The chapter concludes by outlining the key insights from the case for understanding and advancing connectivity in deliberative sytems.
The “Monadology”
Authors: Strickland Lloyd
Published: November 2020

Written in 1714, the “Monadology” is widely regarded as a classic statement of much of Leibniz’s mature philosophical system. In just 90 numbered paragraphs, Leibniz outlines—and argues for—the core features of his system, starting with his famous doctrine of monads (simple substances) and ending with the uplifting claim that God is concerned not only for the world as a whole but for the welfare of the virtuous in particular. This chapter begins by considering the circumstances of composition of the “Monadology” and its publication history before offering a detailed analysis of the claims and arguments found therein; I suggest the text is best read as dealing with three distinct realms, the metaphysical (§§1–60), the physical (§§61–82), and lastly the moral (§§83–90). The chapter concludes with a consideration of the fate and influence of this seminal text.
“Discourse on the Natural Theology of the Chinese”
Authors: Cook Daniel J.
Published: November 2020

Leibniz wrote the “Discourse on the Natural Theology of the Chinese” during the last year of his life. Previously, he had praised the polity and societal peace of the Chinese empire, deeming it superior to that of Christian Europe. Various thinkers used such a claim to argue that a pagan society could be ethical and politically stable without the belief in God. Leibniz sought to demonstrate that the intellectual and spiritual foundations of ancient Confucianism were indeed monotheistic and that this was the basis of their well-ordered society. He attempted to show that the classical Chinese believed in the tenets of a natural theology (i.e. belief in the existence of a monotheistic God and an incorporeal and hence immortal soul). He even attributed the discovery of binary arithmetic, not to himself, but to the ancient founder of the Yi Jing, thus further legitimating ancient Chinese knowledge (“science”).
Customary Mechanisms of Family Protection
Authors: Rüfner Thomas
Published: November 2020

Even before Roman law became a dominant factor in the development of the law, the power to dispose of one’s property by last will or testament was (re-) introduced into the law of succession in many areas of Europe. Customary law restricted the freedom of testamentary disposition to certain categories of property or to a certain share of the estate. Sometimes, dispositions were only possible with the consent of close family members. In the early-modern period, the customary rules restricting testamentary freedom were amalgamated with the complicated Roman system of family protection. By way of example, this chapter examines the development in the pays de droit coutumier of northern France, and in those parts of Central Europe which were influenced by the law of the Sachsenspiegel. In both areas, the Roman rule which required testators to leave a certain amount (the portio legitima) to close relatives was introduced during the sixteenth century while the customary restrictions were loosened. The provisions of the French Civil Code of 1804 and the Prussian General Land Law of 1794 mark the respective end-points of the developments considered. Codified French law, in keeping with the tradition of the Coutumes, restricted testamentary disposition to a certain share of the estate and reserved the remaining share for close family members. Prussian law contained a simplified version of the Roman portio legitima. Both codes betrayed a sceptical attitude towards freedom of testation, which was characteristic of the teachings of many natural lawyers.
Forced Heirship in Italy
Authors: Braun Alexandra
Published: November 2020

Civil law systems do not generally grant testamentary freedom without limitations. Often, the most significant constraints on the freedom to dispose of assets on death derive from legislative provisions that protect the interests of close family members by way of a forced share, even against the wishes of the deceased. These restrictions can be more or less extensive. In the case of Italy, they are significant, both in terms of how little the testator can sometimes freely dispose of, whether on death or during her lifetime, and in terms of the limited degree of autonomy with which she can modify or reduce the forced share in the estate and enter into agreements with those entitled to a forced share. This chapter provides an historical overview of forced heirship in Italy and examines its main features as well as the mechanisms that are in place to protect forced shares. It evaluates the various proposals to reform forced heirship, including proposals to abolish forced heirship altogether, none of which have been implemented. It argues that Italian law in this area is in an unsatisfactory state, for not only do forced heirship provisions impinge on a person’s freedom of testation and her freedom to make gratuitous transfers during her lifetime, they also affect the interests of donees and other third parties, ultimately hampering the free movement of goods. What is more, the provisions that are in place, including those on the calculation of the forced share and on anti-avoidance, are of considerable complexity. A reform of this area of law is therefore highly desirable.
Forced Heirship in Spain
Authors: Lapuente Sergio Cámara
Published: November 2020

The provisions on succession law in the Spanish Civil Code have been little amended since the enactment of the Code in 1889. At first sight they seem rather restrictive towards freedom of testation, both because of the number of possible forced heirs, and because of the substantial part of the estate to which they are entitled. However, from the outset the Civil Code contained mechanisms, such as the mejora (‘betterment’), which make this result more flexible. Later reforms have added other ways of escaping this rigidity, such as the possibility of paying the legítima in money, or confirmation that the ‘forced heir’ does not need to receive his share in the capacity of heir. This chapter explains the historical evolution during more than a millennium in which Roman and Germanic influences merged to give birth, in the nineteenth century, to an original system designed to protect the family and the intergenerational transmission of wealth based on family models. The latter have changed in modern times, with society now prioritizing emotional ties over those of pure kinship. The chapter reviews the arguments for and against the forced heirship and reports on the lively reformist debate that exists in Spain. It also highlights the extensive use in practice of certain testamentary clauses that guarantee greater freedom of testation (such as the cautela Socini) and explains the evolution of a new jurisprudence since 2014 that favours a broad interpretation of disinheritance due to emotional abuse.
Family Provision in England and Wales
Authors: Kerridge Roger
Published: November 2020

English law has not always applied the principle of freedom of testation. In an absolute form it dates only from 1891. Family provision legislation, based on the New Zealand model, was introduced into England and Wales in 1939 and gave the courts a discretion to award maintenance to the testator’s spouse and, in some cases, to his or her children. Subsequently, the legislation was extended and it now covers a number of different classes of claimant, as well as much greater entitlement for spouses. Although it was suggested in the 1970s that a system of fixed shares might be substituted for the discretionary family provision system, this did not happen, and the proposal seems unlikely to resurface. The present legislation is contained in the Inheritance (Provision for Family and Dependants) Act 1975 as amended. The problem areas at the present time relate to the entitlement of adult children, to the identification of dependants, and to the identification and entitlement of cohabitants. The cost of litigation in England is always a matter of concern, but in this field, where there is sometimes considerable uncertainly as to who is likely to obtain what provision, the application of the discretionary system causes some unease.