bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
10. Introduction to Employment Equality Law
Authors: Cabrelli David
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the pros and cons of interfering in the labour market via the promulgation of anti-discrimination laws. It evaluates the basic theoretical constructs which are relevant to a proper understanding of anti-discrimination law in the UK and the EU, including the possible policy responses (e.g. the distinction between formal equality and substantive equality). It briefly assesses the historical development of anti-discrimination laws in the workplace, and then analyses key statutory concepts such as direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, harassment, and sexual harassment. Finally, the chapter considers victimization—an important issue since there is little purpose in statutory concepts if the employer can intimidate the employee, thus preventing him/her from bringing or continuing proceedings on one of these bases and/or by subjecting him/her to retaliation.
13. Part-Time and Fixed-Term Work
Authors: Cabrelli David
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the policies that have been adopted to strike a balance between the twin objectives of labour market flexibility and enhanced job quality in the context of the regulation of part-time work and fixed-term work. It discusses the benefits and drawbacks of part-time and fixed-term working: for workers the flexibility which accompanies such positions can enable them to secure working hours that are tailored around their domestic and social responsibilities; however, such work often comes at a cost in terms of low pay, low status, and insecurity. These working patterns are attractive to employers as they generate cost efficiencies. The chapter evaluates the equal treatment regimes contained in the Part-Time Workers Regulations and the Fixed-Term Employees Regulations. In so doing, it addresses the Framework Agreement and Directive on Part-time Work and the Agreement on Fixed-term Work and the Fixed-term Work Directive.
3. Unregistered Land
Authors: Bevan Chris
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on unregistered land. Unregistered land continues to play a residual (if diminishing) role in contemporary land law. Although its influence is dwindling, there will remain a core clutch of land for which, for the foreseeable future, there will be no trigger for compulsory land registration and it will therefore remain unregistered. An appreciation of the principles of unregistered land gives students better insight into and a more informed angle on the principles of registered land and their effectiveness. Almost 100 years after the 1925 raft of legislation, much of which was designed to facilitate land registration, unregistered land principles therefore retain a significance. The chapter considers how dealings with unregistered land known as ‘title deeds conveyancing’ operate.
13. Mortgages
Authors: Bevan Chris
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines mortgages—a form of proprietary security for the advancement of a loan. A bank or lender advances a loan and in return they are granted a mortgage: an interest in the borrower’s land. This chapter explores the nature and creation of mortgages; the rights and powers enjoyed by mortgagors and the rights of mortgagees. Beyond this, the chapter discusses the effect of undue influence on mortgages and the priority of mortgages.
12. Performance of the contract
Authors: Fox D , Munday RJC , Soyer B , Tettenborn AM , Turner PG
Published: September 2020

This chapter considers the duties of the seller to give a good title to the goods he sells and physically to deliver those goods to the buyer in accordance with the terms of the contract of sale. The chapter also examines the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act 1979 relevant to the sale of a limited title and the implied warranties as to freedom from encumbrances and quiet possession. Finally, it describes the statutory duties of the buyer to take delivery, to accept the goods, and to pay the price.
14. Remedies of the buyer
Authors: Fox D , Munday RJC , Soyer B , Tettenborn AM , Turner PG
Published: September 2020

This chapter, the mirror image of the previous one, focuses on the remedies of the buyer who either does not receive goods or receives a defective delivery. The topic is relatively straightforward, largely restating principles of the general law of contract in the specialised field of sale of goods. The chapter concentrates on three forms of remedy: (1) damages for non-delivery, late delivery, or breach of warranty, (2) the recovery of money paid for a consideration that has totally failed or been validly rejected, and (3) specific performance and injunctions.
28. Insolvency
Authors: Fox D , Munday RJC , Soyer B , Tettenborn AM , Turner PG
Published: September 2020

This chapter deals with insolvency and the principles of insolvency law. It begins with a brief historical background. It then considers the basic objectives of insolvency law as it relates to the bankruptcy of individuals and to corporate insolvency. In particular, it highlights the importance of the pari passu principle to ensure that all creditors participate on an equal footing in the estate in question. The chapter goes on to discuss the various definitions of insolvency before concluding with an overview of insolvency procedures for both individual insolvency and corporate insolvency.
7. The Americas
Authors: Smith Rhona K. M.
Published: September 2020

This chapter traces the development of human rights protection in the Americas. It discusses the declarations, conventions, and the institutional framework of the Organization of American States tasked with ensuring the compliance of States with the provisions of the American Convention.
20. Freedom of expression
Authors: Smith Rhona K. M.
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines freedom of expression in international human rights law. It discusses the freedom of the press and media; overlap with other rights (correspondence, privacy, and association); and exceptions to freedom of expression. The chapter concludes that the scope of the freedom of expression is still evolving and that international bodies are struggling with the challenges of the information technology age.
23. Current issues: non-State actors
Authors: Smith Rhona K. M.
Published: September 2020

This chapter outlines the future agenda for international human rights and provides an overview of some is-sues that are likely to characterize the evolution of international human rights in the future. These include non-State actors, including businesses.
2. The Structure of the National Health Service and the Rationing of Healthcare Resources
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the structure of the National Health Service (NHS) and some of the key issues facing those dealing with its management. Topics discussed include policymaking and central planning in the NHS; quality control; commissioning and planning services; the provision of services; structural issues; rationing; health inequalities; the General Medical Council; and efforts to control infectious diseases and prevent illness. The chapter also discusses the complex issue of the rationing of healthcare resources. The case law on the topic is set out and there is a consideration of the ethical issues which are raised when decisions need to be made about who gets medical treatment.
8. Reproduction
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines legal and ethical aspects of assisted reproduction. Topics discussed include infertility; the concept of reproductive autonomy; criticisms of assisted reproduction; regulation of assisted reproductive technologies; criticisms of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990; gamete donation; surrogacy; cloning; and genetic enhancement and eugenics. The chapter explores the extent to which the state should regulate decisions around reproduction or whether they should be left to the decision of the individuals concerned. Some people believe that the interests of children to be born should be taken into account, although there is extensive debates over how this should be done.
2. Separation of powers
Authors: Parpworth Neil
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the origins and meaning of the separation of powers doctrine. It highlights the contribution of French nobleman and parliamentary magistrate Charles Louis de Secondat, otherwise known as Baron de Montesquieu, to political theory: L’Esprit des Lois (The Spirit of the Laws). The chapter also addresses the question of whether there is a separation of powers in the UK constitution. Differences of opinion between academics and judges as to the importance of the separation of powers doctrine to an understanding of the UK constitution are reviewed. Examples of overlap between the three functions of government are presented, and the key reforms made by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 are discussed.
5. Parliament
Authors: Parpworth Neil
Published: September 2020

This chapter is concerned with the two chambers of Parliament, which, together with the Queen, collectively form Parliament: these are the House of Commons (HC) and the House of Lords (HL). The composition of both Houses is considered in this chapter, and attention is given to the officers of the House of Commons; the life of Parliament; House of Commons sittings; and the committee system. The electoral franchise is discussed and attention is focused on the important issues of electoral reform and the reform of the House of Lords. The chapter concludes by considering what is meant by the term ‘parliamentary privilege’.
12. The royal prerogative
Authors: Parpworth Neil
Published: September 2020

This chapter begins by discussing the origins and meaning of the term ‘royal prerogative’. It identifies some examples of prerogative powers and considers how certain personal or reserve powers of the monarch might be exercised in practice. The chapter also explores the relationship between prerogative power and statutes, and focuses on how the courts have dealt with the prerogative. The chapter also discusses the adaptation of prerogative powers, the relationship between the prerogative and the courts, and the courts’ recent willingness to review the exercise of certain prerogative powers. The chapter concludes by looking at several ways in which the prerogative could be reformed.
9. Obligations: Common Principles and Obligations Arising from Contracts
Authors: du Plessis Paul J.
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the Roman law of obligations. The ‘obligation’, as a seminal part of Roman (and indeed modern) private law, is a legal tie created between individuals on account of voluntary interactions (such as contracts) or involuntary interactions (such as delicts). It begins with a general discussion of the nature and classification of obligations. This is an important aspect of the discussion as it links this particular branch of private law to other areas of Roman private law. It then covers the general features of Roman contracts; consensual contracts; verbal contracts; contracts re; contracts litteris; innominate contracts; pacts; and the quasi-contract. The next chapter is devoted to the other source of obligations, namely delicts and quasi-delicts. These two sources of obligations, namely contract and delict, form the substance of the law of obligations.
1. Introduction to company law
Authors: Dignam Alan , Lowry John
Published: September 2020

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter presents an overview of company law, first by considering the company’s place within the various forms of business organisation. To get some comparative perspective on the relative merits of each type of organisation, three criteria for judging them are discussed: whether the form of business organisation facilitates investment in the business, mitigates or minimises the risk involved in the business venture, and whether it provides a clear organisational structure. Using these criteria, three forms of business organisation are analysed: the sole trader, a partnership, or a registered company. The chapter also explains the importance of the memorandum as part of the company’s constitution, as well as the distinction between private companies and public companies. Finally, it outlines the benefits of forming a company as opposed to the sole trader or a partnership.
3. Lifting the veil
Authors: Dignam Alan , Lowry John
Published: September 2020

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter discusses ‘lifting the veil’, a phrase that refers to situations where the judiciary or the legislature have decided that the separation of corporate personality from the members must not be maintained. In this case, the veil of incorporation is said to be lifted. ‘Lifting’ is also known as ‘peeping’, ‘penetrating’, ‘piercing’, or ‘parting’. The chapter presents statutory examples of veil lifting, many of which involve corporate group structures and others involve straightforward shareholder limitation of liability issues. It also considers cases of veil lifting by the courts as well as classical veil lifting during the periods of 1897 to 1966, 1966 to 1989, and 1989 to the present. Three cases are highlighted: Adams v Cape Industries (1990), Chandler v Cape Plc (2012), and Prest v Petrodel Industries Ltd (2013) as well as important recent case development. The chapter also examines claims of tortious liability, the liability of a parent company for personal injury, and commercial tort. Finally, it looks at the costs and benefits of limited liability.
11. Statutory shareholder remedies
Authors: Dignam Alan , Lowry John
Published: September 2020

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter deals with statutory remedies available to aggrieved minority shareholders, particularly their right to seek relief through a winding-up order on the just and equitable ground. It first considers the classic case of Ebrahimi v Westbourne Galleries Ltd (1973), which addressed the scope of the court’s jurisdiction under the just and equitable ground, and presents illustrations of the grounds which will support a petition under s 122(1)(g) of the Insolvency Act 1986. It also examines the issue of whether the principles promulgated in Ebrahimi extend beyond the statutory context of just and equitable winding-up by focusing on the case of Clemens v Clemens Bros Ltd (1976). In addition, the chapter gives examples of unfair prejudice, explains locus standi and procedural aspects of s 994 of the Companies Act 2006, and looks at other specific statutory rights available to aggrieved minority shareholders. Finally, it explains the Law Commission’s proposed reforms for the unfair prejudice provision.
15. Corporate governance 1: corporate governance and corporate theory
Authors: Dignam Alan , Lowry John
Published: September 2020

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter looks at history and theory associated with corporate governance. It first considers Berle and Means’ concern about the separation of ownership from control, particularly managers’ lack of accountability not only to investors but also to society in general. It then traces the emergence of the Berle and Means corporation and examines major influences on corporate theory, citing concession theory, fiction theory, corporate realism, and aggregate theory. It also discusses economic theories that have influenced scholarship on corporate law.
2. Actus reus: acts, omissions and causation
Authors: Loveless Janet , Allen Mischa , Derry Caroline
Published: September 2020

A crime consists of conduct (actus reus or AR) and a mental element (mens rea or MR). This chapter focuses on actus reus (AR), the external elements of a criminal offence. It discusses the key components of AR. These key components are omissions or the liability for failing to act and causation, which represents the connection between the conduct and the result of an act. The chapter explains that AR must be proved, must be voluntary and can also include a mental element. It also considers several examples of cases relevant to AR and analyses the bases of the court decisions.
8. Defences of incapacity and mental conditions
Authors: Loveless Janet , Allen Mischa , Derry Caroline
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the use of incapacity and mental condition defences for criminal offences in Great Britain. It discusses the general principles of the excusatory defence of insanity and automatism as distinct from diminished responsibility and explores the notion that insanity is out of date and unrelated to contemporary classifications of mental illness. It considers whether insanity can be pleaded for all crimes. The chapter explains that intoxication is often not considered a valid defence although it may negate mens rea and provide partial defence to crimes of specific intent. It explains and clarifies the Majewski rule and how it works. It also considers intoxicated mistake. The chapter evaluates arguments for and against the age of criminal responsibility and analyses court decisions in relevant cases.
14. Property offences 3: burglary, blackmail and criminal damage
Authors: Loveless Janet , Allen Mischa , Derry Caroline
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the most frequently committed property offences in Great Britain, focusing on burglary, aggravated burglary and criminal damage. It also discusses blackmail, a less frequent but equally serious offence. The general principles of these offences are explored and their actus reus and mens rea elements are discussed. The chapter explains the key provisions of the Theft Act 1968 and identifies the types of legal defence that can be successfully employed for these offences. It considers racially and religiously aggravated criminal damage, criminal damage endangering life, and arson. The chapter also provides examples of several relevant cases and analyses the bases of court decisions in each of them.
3. Mens Rea: The Mental Element
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2020

Mens rea is the legal term used to describe the element of a criminal offence that relates to the defendant’s mental state. Different crimes have different mentes reae: some require intention, others recklessness, negligence, or knowledge. Some crimes do not require proof of any mental state of the defendant. This chapter considers the following concepts that are used throughout criminal law: (a) intention; (b) recklessness; (c) negligence; and (d) knowledge.
4. Strict Liability
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2020

A strict liability offence is one where it is not necessary to prove any mental state of the defendant. All that needs to be shown is that the defendant caused a particular result or carried out a particular act. This chapter discusses the offences that are strict liability; when a court will not presume mens rea; what mens rea will be presumed; the Human Rights Act 1998 and strict liability offences; common law defences and strict liability offences; possession offences; and the arguments for and against strict liability.
14. Inchoate Offences
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the law and theory of inchoate offences, which are those that seek to deal with defendants who have taken steps towards the commission of an offence but who have not (yet) committed it. The two best-known examples are attempts and conspiracies. In attempt cases, the defendant has gone beyond mere preparation and taken steps towards carrying out a complete crime. Conspiracy involves agreeing with others to commit an offence. The Serious Crime Act 2007 offences involve encouraging or assisting a person to commit an offence. With all of these inchoate offences the defendant has not him or herself performed the actus reus but is sufficiently close to doing so, or persuading others to do so, for the law to find it appropriate to punish them. The second part of the chapter shows that there is much debate about the justification for inchoate offences.
4. Proof of facts without evidence
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2020

Facts in issue and relevant facts are treated as established by the courts only insofar as they are proved by evidence. This chapter discusses three exceptions to this general rule: (i) some facts may be presumed in a party’s favour in the absence of proof or complete proof, including marriage, legitimacy, death, the regular and proper performance of public or official acts, sanity, and negligence; (ii) a fact will be treated as established where the court takes judicial notice of it either (a) without enquiry, in the case of facts that are beyond serious dispute, notorious or of common knowledge or (b) after enquiry (usually political facts, customs, professional practices and historical and geographical facts); and (iii) a fact ceases to be in issue when a party has formally admitted it.
6. Examination-in-chief
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2020

The questioning of witnesses, which generally falls into three stages known as examination-in-chief, cross-examination, and re-examination, is central to the English adversary system of justice. This chapter focuses on the first stage, examination-in-chief. In this stage the party calling a witness, or counsel on his behalf, will seek to elicit evidence that supports his version of the facts in issue. The discussions cover young and vulnerable witnesses; the rule against leading questions and the exceptions to the rule; refreshing the memory in court and out of court; the rule against previous consistent or self-serving statements and the common law exceptions to the rule (complaints in sexual cases, statements admissible to rebut allegations of recent fabrication, statements made on accusation, previous identification, statements admissible as part of the res gestae and statements in documents used to refresh the memory and received in evidence); and unfavourable and hostile witnesses.
10. Documentary and real evidence
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the law on documentary evidence and real evidence. It addresses the following key issues: Where a party to litigation wishes to adduce in evidence a statement contained in a document, (a) should it be open to proof by production of a copy of the document and, if so, (b) in what circumstances and subject to what safeguards? Where a party to litigation wishes to admit a document in evidence, (a) should he be required to establish that it was written, signed, or attested by the person by whom it purports to be written, signed, or attested and, if so, (b) how should these matters be established? When should material objects and other types of real evidence be admissible in evidence and why do they need to be accompanied by oral testimony? When, and subject to what safeguards, should a court inspect a place or object out of court?
13. Hearsay admissible by statute in civil proceedings
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2020

Under the common law rule against hearsay, any assertion, other than one made by a person while giving oral evidence in the proceedings, was inadmissible if tendered as evidence of the facts asserted. The Civil Evidence Act 1968 constituted a major assault upon the common law rule in civil proceedings by making provisions for the admissibility of both oral and written hearsay subject to certain conditions. In June 1988 the Civil Justice Review recommended an inquiry by a law reform agency into the usefulness of the hearsay rule in civil proceedings and the machinery for rendering it admissible. The subsequent recommendations of the Law Commission were put into effect by the Civil Evidence Act 1995. This chapter discusses the admissibility of hearsay under the Civil Evidence Act 1995; safeguards; proof of statements contained in documents; evidence formerly admissible at common law; and Ogden tables.
15. Confessions
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the admissibility of confessions under the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (the 1984 Act). It considers how, under s 76(2) of the 1984 Act, confessions may be excluded as a matter of law where obtained by oppression or in consequence of something said or done which was likely to render any such confession unreliable. It also considers the discretion to exclude confessions under s 78(1) of the 1984 Act; the effect of breaches of the Codes of Practice issued under the 1984 Act; the voir dire; statements made in the presence of the accused; and facts discovered in consequence of inadmissible confessions.
18. Evidence of character: evidence of the good character of the accused
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the circumstances in which, in criminal proceedings, evidence of the good character of the accused may be adduced because of its relevance either to a fact in issue or to his credibility. It addresses the following issues: Why should an accused be allowed to call evidence of his previous good character? What is meant by ‘good character?’ Linked to this, where an accused has previous convictions, in what circumstances might it be acceptable for a judge to tell a jury that they should consider the accused as a person of good character? Where an accused has no previous convictions, in what circumstances might it be acceptable for a judge to refuse to tell a jury that they should treat the accused as a person of good character? Other issues discussed include the admissibility of evidence of the good character of prosecution witnesses.
19. Evidence of character: evidence of bad character in criminal cases
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2020

This chapter begins with an introduction to the statutory framework governing the admissibility of bad character evidence. It goes on to consider the statutory definition of ‘bad character’ and to discuss the admissibility of evidence of bad character in criminal cases under the Criminal Justice Act 2003, namely: the admissibility of the bad character of a person other than the defendant and the requirement of leave; the admissibility of evidence of the bad character of the defendant under various statutory ‘gateways’, including the gateway by which evidence may be admitted if it is relevant to an important matter in issue between the defendant and the prosecution; and safeguards including the discretion to exclude evidence of bad character and the judge’s power to stop a case where the evidence is contaminated. Procedural rules are also considered, as is the defendant’s right to challenge evidence of bad character.
20. Experts and opinion evidence
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the law on experts and opinion evidence. As a general rule, opinion evidence is inadmissible: a witness may only speak of facts that he personally perceived, not of inferences drawn from those facts. However, there are two exceptions to this general rule: (i) an appropriately qualified expert may state his opinion on a matter calling for the expertise that he possesses; and (ii) a non-expert witness may state his opinion on a matter not calling for any particular expertise as a way of conveying the facts that he personally perceived. Experts may also give evidence of fact based on their expertise. The chapter covers the duties of experts and the rules which apply where parties propose to call expert evidence
21. Public policy
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2020

The public interest in efficient and fair trials may be seen as underlying the rules of disclosure in civil litigation, whereby a litigant is obliged to make pre-trial disclosure of the documents on which he relies and the documents that adversely affect his own case or adversely affect, or support, another party’s case, even though such documents may not be admissible evidence at the trial. There is also a public interest in enabling material to be withheld where its production would harm the nation or the public service. Where these two kinds of public interest clash and the latter prevails over the former, relevant and otherwise admissible evidence is excluded at trial. Such material is said to be withheld by reason of ‘public interest immunity’. This chapter discusses the development of the modern law on public interest immunity; the scope of exclusion on grounds of public policy; and related procedural issues in civil and criminal cases.
1. Introduction to criminal law
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2020

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter begins by addressing the question: What is a crime? It then discusses the difference between criminal law, the law of tort, and contract law; the function of criminal law; sources of criminal law; the classification of offences; the criminal justice process; the hierarchy of the criminal courts; the burden and standard of proof; and the elements of an offence.
4. Strict, vicarious, and corporate liability
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2020

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter discusses the three special forms of criminal liability: strict liability (including absolute liability), vicarious liability, and corporate liability. A strict liability offence is an offence which does not require proof of at least one mens rea element. An absolute liability offence does not require proof of any mens rea elements. Vicarious liability imposes liability on the defendant for the acts or omissions of another person. Corporate liability relates to the liability of a company for a criminal offence.
6. Involuntary manslaughter
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2020

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter explores the main types of involuntary manslaughter: unlawful act manslaughter, gross negligence manslaughter, and reckless manslaughter, as well as the offence of corporate manslaughter. Unlawful act manslaughter arises where the defendant intentionally commits an unlawful act which a reasonable person would recognise exposes the victim to the risk of some harm and the victim dies as a result. Gross negligence manslaughter arises where the defendant causes the death of the victim through the breach of a duty of care owed to that victim.
8. Sexual offences
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2020

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter explores the main sexual offences, including rape, assault by penetration, sexual assault, and intentionally causing a person to engage in sexual activity. It considers the defence of consent in sexual offences and the statutory presumptions relating to consent. Finally, it explores sexual offences committed against children, including rape of a child under 13, assault of a child under 13 by penetration, sexual assault of a child under 13, and causing or inciting a child under 13 to engage in sexual activity. Sexual offences against children under 16 and other child sexual offences are also briefly mentioned.
16. Accessorial liability
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2020

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter explores the law relating to accessorial liability or parties to crime. It discusses liability for aiding, abetting, counselling, or procuring the commission of an offence under the Accessories and Abettors Act 1861, the scope of accessorial liability after the decision in R v Jogee [2016] UKSC 8, the effect of withdrawing participation, liability for participation after the offence, protection of the victim, and recommended reforms to the law.
4. Dispute Resolution for Businesses
Authors: Marson James , Ferris Katy
Published: September 2020

This chapter identifies courts and tribunals as the place where the laws discussed in the previous chapters are interpreted and utilized in the legal system. The jurisdiction of the courts and the personnel within them are described and a comparison is drawn between these forums for the administration of justice. It is important for those in business to be aware of the work of at least one tribunal—the Employment Tribunal, as many employment-related disputes ultimately end up here. Also, the courts in the English legal system, and the increasing use of alternative dispute resolution mechanisms, are relevant to businesses as they are used either to settle disputes or to avoid them altogether. Because the term ‘court’ is difficult to define in any practical sense, the chapter uses a description of what a court does.
5. Establishing an Agreement: Offer and Acceptance
Authors: Marson James , Ferris Katy
Published: September 2020

This chapter identifies the essential features necessary in the establishment of a legally binding contract. Most contracts need not be given in writing, and a contract could be regarding as something as simple as buying a newspaper or a cup of coffee. In fact, many contracts that are established are not done so in writing, even if a receipt is received. However, each of the essential features noted in this chapter is present in forming those contracts. Before the essential features are considered, it is important to note that contracts can be established by the parties exchanging promises, or by one party promising to perform an act in return for some action by the other. In the latter scenario, the second party has no obligation to take any action unless it wishes to enter into a contract.
9. Statutory regulation of contracts
Authors: Marson James , Ferris Katy
Published: September 2020

This chapter studies the features of legally binding contracts by examining the manner in which the terms of a contract are regulated through statutory intervention. Such legislative measures have come about as a response to the unequal bargaining positions of consumers as contracting parties in business contracts, and the idea that laissez-faire can be contrary to public policy and fairness, for example with certain exclusion clauses. Some examples include statutes such as the Consumer Rights Act 2015 and the Sale of Goods Act 1979 that imply terms into contracts, and the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 that regulates the parties’ use of exclusion clauses. This protects the weaker party to a contract from exploitation and provides minimum rights that may not be waived.
Entitlement
Authors: Sloan Brian
Published: September 2020

This chapter first considers the various types of gift to which beneficiaries under a will may be entitled. The basic classification of testamentary gifts is into legacies and devises. Legacies are gifts of personalty; devises comprise real estate. The second part of the chapter discusses the grounds on which there may be a failure of entitlement under the will. A gift may fail for various reasons, including divorce/dissolution or nullity, lapse, ademption, forfeiture, failure to satisfy a condition, or uncertainty.
Public Law
Authors: Stanton John , Prescott Craig
Published: September 2020

Public Law provides an interesting approach to constitutional and administrative law. Topics include: the UK Constitution; the institutions of government and the separation of powers; the rule of law; parliamentary sovereignty; the European Union; and Brexit. It also looks at the Crown and the royal prerogative; central government; Parliament; and devolution and local government. Next it presents a number of judicial reviews in the following: illegality, irrationality and proportionality, and procedural impropriety. Finally, it considers administrative justice, the European Convention on Human Rights and the Human Rights Act, and human rights in the UK.
3. The rule of law
Authors: Stanton John , Prescott Craig
Published: September 2020

This chapter starts by defining the rule of law, explaining its importance, and placing its origins in Ancient Greece and the writings of Aristotle. Following a brief consideration of how the principle has developed since that time, it discusses the consideration provided by Dicey who, writing his seminal text An Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution—(1885), explored the meaning of the rule of law and its place in the UK Constitution. The chapter then considers broader theories of the rule of law, dividing these into those that support what are known as ‘formal conceptions’ of the rule of law, and ‘substantive conceptions’ of the rule of law. Finally, it explores the way in which the rule of law can be said to apply in the UK Constitution, both historically and in terms of modern-day authorities.
4. Certainty
Authors: O’Sullivan Janet
Published: September 2020

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter examines the certainty requirement in contractual formation and discusses the factors that influence the courts in deciding whether an agreement possesses the requisite degree of certainty, in the context of issues such as agreements to agree, agreements to negotiate in good faith, and agreements to use reasonable or best endeavours to negotiate or agree.
11. Undue influence
Authors: O’Sullivan Janet
Published: September 2020

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter examines undue influence in a contract, which is a vitiating factor and also a ground of restitution. It explains that undue influence is hard to define and can more easily be recognised when found than exhaustively analysed in the abstract. This chapter investigates how undue influence is proved by means of a rebuttable presumption based on a relationship of trust and confidence coupled with a transaction that calls for an explanation, and how the resulting presumption is rebutted. It then covers the remedy of rescission for undue influence. Finally it explores undue influence in three party cases, where relief depends on whether the contracting party had notice, actual or constructive, of the undue influence and whether it had taken reasonable steps.
3. Legislation and the law-making process
Authors: Wilson Steve , Rutherford Helen , Storey Tony , Wortley Natalie , Kotecha Birju
Published: September 2020

The UK Parliament makes legislation in the form of primary legislation called Acts of Parliament and grants powers to other bodies to make legislation on Parliament’s behalf, in the form of secondary legislation or delegated legislation. Parliament is composed of three bodies, the Queen in Parliament, the House of Commons, and the House of Lords. A draft piece of legislation, a bill, to become an Act of Parliament must be passed by the House of Commons and the House of Lords and then receive the royal assent. If the House of Commons and House of Lords cannot agree on legislation this is dealt with under the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949. Secondary or delegated legislation is necessary for a number of reasons but is subject to controls both parliamentary and in the courts.
13. The criminal process: pre-trial and trial
Authors: Wilson Steve , Rutherford Helen , Storey Tony , Wortley Natalie , Kotecha Birju
Published: September 2020

This chapter explains what happens once a person has been charged with a criminal offence. Whether a case remains in the magistrates’ court or is sent to the Crown Court depends on whether the offence is ‘summary only’, ‘indictable only’, or ‘triable either way’. Summary trial takes place before a district judge or bench of lay justices in the magistrates’ court. Trial on indictment takes place before a jury in the Crown Court. An offence that is triable either way may be allocated to the Crown Court or, if it is suitable for summary trial, the defendant may nevertheless choose Crown Court trial. Criminal proceedings are governed by the Criminal Procedure Rules (CrimPR), whose overriding objective is to deal with cases justly, including acquitting the innocent and convicting the guilty. The chapter considers those parts of the CrimPR that set out the steps to be taken before a trial in both the magistrates’ court and the Crown Court, including decisions relating to bail. It also explores key evidential and procedural rules that apply at trial, such as rules governing the disclosure of material in the possession of the prosecution and the rule that the prosecution bears the burden of proving a defendant’s guilt beyond reasonable doubt.
26. Introduction to EU competition policy
Authors: Costa Marios , Peers Steve
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the competition policy in the European Union (EU), discusses the economics of the social market, and describes the structure and objectives of EU competition provisions and policy. The chapter focuses on Articles 101 and 102 TFEU and covers the basic principles established by Regulation 1/2003. It highlights the decentralisation of the enforcement of competition policy. It also explores policies on competition with third countries. The chapter highlights the complexities that can arise when law and economics interact and reveals the difficult role of the Court of Justice (CJ) to make complex assessments of economics.
1. The establishment and development of the European Union
Authors: Foster Nigel
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the history of the establishment and development of the European Union (EU). It discusses the underlying motives for its founding, which include the desire for peace, security against the rising threat from the Soviet Union, and economic development. It describes the origins of the Union which can be traced from the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC). This chapter also explains the roles and obligations of the EU in managing the external relations of its members, particularly in international trade. It looks at the subsequent extensive developments to both the Communities and the Treaties.
2. Negligence: duty of care
Authors: Brennan Carol , Bermingham Vera
Published: September 2020

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. Negligence is a tort in its own right and involves an unintentional wrong as opposed to trespass which involves an intentional wrong. It has three main elements: duty of care (whether the defendant owes the claimant a duty of care), breach (whether the defendant has breached that duty), and damage (whether that breach has caused damage of a legally recognized kind to the claimant). Duty of care is determined by proximity, foreseeability, and policy and is most likely to be established in cases of positive acts which cause physical injury or property damage. This chapter provides an overview of the history of negligence and discusses the function of duty of care in negligence. It also considers the way duty of care has been defined and developed and applies the principles of duty of care in the areas of omissions and liability of public bodies.
3. Breach of duty
Authors: Brennan Carol , Bermingham Vera
Published: September 2020

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. The first step in establishing a negligence claim is to prove that the defendant owed the claimant a duty of care. The claimant must then show that the defendant has been negligent, that is, has breached that duty. To determine negligence, one must therefore establish how the defendant ought to have behaved in the circumstances (that is, standard of care) and whether the defendant’s behaviour fell below the desired standard (that is, breach). The basic standard of care in negligence is objectively assessed: that of the reasonable man. The objective standard can at times appear to work particularly harshly against a defendant, as exemplified by the case Nettleship v Weston (1971). This chapter examines breach of duty and the standard of care, the proof of negligence, and the application of the maxim res ipsa loquitur. It also discusses the Compensation Act 2006 which addresses the problem of the so-called compensation culture.
10. Product liability
Authors: Brennan Carol , Bermingham Vera
Published: September 2020

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. Manufacturers and producers are liable for personal injury or damage to property caused by a defective product. The claimant will not only recover in contract for personal injury and property damage caused by the defective product, but he will also be compensated for the cost of replacing the product itself. The Consumer Protection Act 1987 involves a strict liability regime for defective products on a variety of potential defendants. This discusses the limitations of the tort system in providing compensation to a victim of harm caused by a defective product, and analyses the scope and limitations of the Consumer Protection Act 1987.
2. Trusts in context
Authors: Watt Gary
Published: September 2020

This chapter places trusts in their contemporary social, economic, legal, and international context. It first discusses their significance to the world outside the lawyer’s office, and shows that they play an important social and economic role in the lives of ordinary people. The trust operates in key areas such as home, employment, and commerce. The chapter also examines the trust in the context of laws, focusing on how it corresponds to, and coexists with, other legal ideas such as contract, debt, powers, gift, agency, bailment, tax, and corporation, and concludes by looking at the international and comparative dimension of the trust.