bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
EVALUATION OF DISPERSANTS FOR USE IN THE AZERBAIJAN REGION OF THE CASPIAN SEA
Authors: Abbasova Afag , Bagirova Khabiba , Campbell Gary , Clark James , Gallagher Ronnie , Garajayeva Nargis , George-Ares Anita , Huseynova Latifa , Neilson David , Roddie Brian , Tait Russell
Published: January 2013

Open marine water (salinity 30–35°/00) is the environment where dispersants are used most frequently in oil spill response. In the Azerbaijan sector of the Caspian Sea, offshore oil and gas reserves are being developed in areas where salinity ranges from 10 to 12 °loo. Because salinity can affect dispersant efficacy and toxicity, the effectiveness and aquatic toxicity of six commercially available dispersants were tested using Azerbaijan crude oil, Caspian species and 12°/oo seawater.

Effectiveness for the dispersants tested with Chirag crude oil and Caspian seawater ranged from 72% to 86%, using USEPA's baffled flask method. Dispersant toxicities were in the ranges: diatom (Chaetoceros tenuissimus) 72 hr EC50 (effective concentrations inhibiting growth rate by 50%) 18 to > 100 mg/l; copepod (Calanipeda aquae dulcis) 48 hr LC50 (effective concentration for immobilizing 50% test organisms) 12 to 49 mg/l; amphipod (Pontogammarus maeoticus) 48 hr LC50 (concentration lethal to 50% test organisms) 50 to > 100 mg/l.

For dispersant use, the key toxicity concern is that of dispersed oil, not dispersant. Aquatic toxicity was determined for water—accommodated fractions (WAFs) of Chirag crude in Caspian seawater. Toxicity results for the WAFs were: diatom 72 hr EC50 > 10,000 mg/l nominal; copepod 48 hr LC50 3.9 mg/l; amphipod 48 hr LC50 >15 mg/l. Chirag crude was mixed with dispersant at 20:1 oil: dispersant ratio and resulting WAFs were tested for toxicity. Results were: diatom 72 hr EC50 < 18 to 208 mg/l nominal; copepod 48 hr LC50 2.1 to 37 mg/l; amphipod 48 hr LC50 20 to 89 mg/l. Dispersant and dispersed oil toxicity for Caspian species are similar to published toxicity data for marine species tested at typical ocean salinity.

Prolonged exposure (24 to 96hrs.) to constant concentrations of dispersant or dispersed oil used in laboratory tests may overestimate potential field toxicity, where dilution and mixing can decrease concentrations to low ppm's within hours of application. Dispersant use decisions for any Caspian Sea oil spills will focus on net environmental benefits of moving oil into the water column where it can be quickly diluted compared to potentially greater impacts from oil reaching nearshore environments.
OIL POLLUTION RISK ASSESSMENT AND PREPAREDNESS IN THE EAST MEDITERRANEAN
Authors: Martini Natalia , Patruno Roberto
Published: January 2013

The East Mediterranean is an area of high oil traffic because it is an important transit centre between Middle Eastern/Russian oil and the western European countries/USA. Recent traffic developments show that the importance of this centre is expected to increase. ITOPF and REMPEC carried out a joint risk assessment study of the area. For the purpose of this paper the “East Mediterranean” includes the Adriatic Sea and the East Mediterranean Basin; this was necessary to carry out a comprehensive analysis of the issue, as the oil traffic in the Adriatic is strictly linked with the activities occurring in the East Mediterranean basin. The aim of this study is to test the hypothesis that the East Mediterranean is a high risk area for oil spills. For this analysis the ITOPF oil spill data set was used (1974 to 2003). Results show that the majority of spills involving a quantity of less than 7 tonnes are operational, whereas medium and major spills result from accidents. Crude oil spills appear to have the highest occurrence in each of the spill size categories, with the highest value for major spills; the accident occurrence appears to be closely related to the import flow. A risk analysis for the East Mediterranean has been overdue, as this area is characterised by a very heterogeneous level of preparedness and response, by several sensitive areas, and a lack of active bi/tri-lateral cooperation agreements. It is concluded that the Eastern Mediterranean is a high risk area for tanker spills, and the risk is likely to increase with the predicted increases in tanker traffic.
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT – A HIGH SPEED VERSION USED IN NEW ZEALAND
Authors: Stevens Leigh , Gibbs Mark , Roberts Julian , Maxwell Dayne , Service Rob
Published: January 2013

Cooperative oil spill Ecological Risk Assessment (C-ERA) is a preparedness tool that seeks consensus-based decisions regarding potential spill and spill response impacts. The established US Coast Guard ERA approach has generally used 1–2 multi-day workshops, several weeks apart, to identify and work through key issues. In New Zealand (NZ), funding limitations required a faster approach. This paper describes the advantages and disadvantages encountered during a modified 1-day version of the ERA conducted for the Fiordland region.

Fiordland is a highly valued and remote National Park and World Heritage Area of 1.25 million Ha, with ∼200km of exposed coastline, and ∼1800km internal coastline including 15 main fiords. The unique climate, topography, bathymetry and oceanography, in addition to limited access and infrastructure, make marine pollution response inherently difficult. Recent increases in cruise ship and commercial maritime activity has increased the spill risk, especially for fuel oil.

Information previously gathered from interest/advocate groups and government agencies was used to identify priority resources and summarise the spill risk. Then, at a 1-day workshop, six experts in Fiordland ecology, spill response and ERA processes defined the most ecologically important areas and priority resources across the region, and their susceptibility to oil. Levels of concern were applied to each area and identified resource, and the preferred response options and their feasibility defined. Outputs were presented on a series of planning maps and site sheets completed for each priority area after the workshop which were circulated for stakeholder review.

The approach enabled a defensible response plan to be generated quickly and cheaply. It secured input from agencies who would not have participated had a greater time input been required and generated a concise document for public consultation and a template for ongoing refinement. The success of the approach was due largely to the high level of trust between scientific and response agencies in NZ, and a shared desire to rapidly improve response planning outcomes. Disadvantages were the inability to fully review and include all available technical information, limited public consultation, and tight time pressures. Examples are given of the benefit of the plan following its use during a recent spill of marine diesel.
IMPROVING MARINE FIREFIGHTING AND SALVAGE RESPONSE USING A NON-REGULATORY APPROACH THROUGH KEY STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT
Authors: Leonard Joseph J. , Drieu Michael , Royall Robert W.
Published: January 2013

While catastrophic marine fires are a rare event, minor shipboard fires do have a significant potential for damage and a potential impact on the marine transportation system. As such, it is critical that responders at the federal, state, local, industrial, and contractor levels be trained and prepared to conduct timely operations to mitigate any incidents that occur. Due to the nature of services performed in the firefighting community today (fire suppression, rescue, hazardous materials response, and emergency medical services, to name but a few), time and effort is not always dedicated towards responding to events onboard vessels. As over 70% of fire departments in the United States are volunteer departments, this has the potential to become even more of an issue. In addition, shipboard fires typically require some level of participation from a marine salvor. Depending on the damage to the vessel, this may involve significant salvage activities. The number of salvors scattered throughout the United States is somewhat limited, and their home base locations dictate their response times to specific geographic areas. Critical issues that need to be addressed by senior response managers who may find themselves involved in responding to vessel fires include: 1. Establishment of an effective Unified Command to address all stakeholder issues, 2. Enhancing knowledge of regional capabilities and resources to respond to shipboard fires and resultant salvage activities, 3. Ensuring appropriate training of response personnel that meets recognized standards (such as NFPA 1405), and 4. Developing, exercising, and validating plans to respond to shipboard fires and salvage activities. Efforts throughout the Eighth Coast Guard District over the past several years have begun to address many of these issues, with enhanced incident management training, challenging exercises to validate plans, and extensive workshops to improve responder knowledge being a few of the positive steps. Only by addressing these four critical areas can response managers be assured of an effective and efficient response that would minimize the impact to the marine transportation system.
U.S. APPROACH TO IMPLEMENTING IMO GUIDELINES ON PLACES OF REFUGE1
Authors: Albertson Paul
Published: January 2013

When the oil tanker Prestige broke apart and sank off the coast of Spain in November 2002, it joined an infamous line of environmental catastrophes in maritime history. The way in which the Prestige incident unfolded and, in particular, the denial of a place of refuge for the tanker intensified existing pressures on the IMO to finalize and adopt guidelines intended to assist all concerned parties in dealing with similar circumstances.

At the 23rd Assembly, the IMO answered by adopting two resolutions on the issue. These resolutions offer excellent planning, preparedness, and response guidelines and a framework for effectively dealing with the next Prestige. The IMO guidelines are compatible with the U.S. National Response System and existing laws designed to protect the environment, public health, and welfare. As such, their implementation requires neither regulation nor significant adjustments to U.S. policy. With few exceptions, the National Response System should assimilate the IMO guidelines. Specifically, Area Committees and Harbor Safety Committees should plow the IMO guidelines into current planning, preparedness, and response activities in order to ensure effective response to places of refuge scenarios.

The most critical and urgent issue is to ensure the decisionmaking criteria and process for both allowing and taking a ship in need of assistance to a place of refuge is well developed, agreed upon, and exercised beforehand, so that when the real thing occurs those who need to make the decision know exactly what to do and who to contact.

This paper discusses relevant aspects of the National Response System and authorities as they pertain to the IMO guidelines and the role of the U.S. Coast Guard as the federal agency charged with their implementation.
A CFR 1910 SOLUTION TO A MOBILE AND CHANGING WORK FORCE
Authors: Manning Diana L. , Parsons Martin M. , Weaver Lou
Published: January 2013

Ship Escort Response Vessel System (SERVS) has a large contingency of fishing vessels, from Alaska coastal communities, on contract for specialized oil spill response. To Hazwoper train this vast, mobile and changing work force meant a 24-hour Hazwoper class and yearly refreshers for all crewmembers. SERVS found it difficult to keep records current on this mobile workforce. Federal Occupational Safety Health Association (OSHA) and SERVS made an alliance allowing SERVS to teach 24-hour Marine Hazwoper. The 24-hour Marine Hazwoper format keeps the fishermen current each year without the annual refresher or the detailed tracking of the 24-hour Hazwoper. The 24-hour Marine Hazwoper gives SERVS the flexibility to meet our Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) 1910 training demands and to directly structure the skills training.

SERVS wanted to develop a training program, which met Federal Regulations, was easy to track, and maintained a well-trained fishing vessel fleet.

SERVS, Federal and Alaska State OSHA developed a training regiment for SERVS and the Fishing Vessel Program. During the annual Fishing Vessel Training each spring and fall the fishermen are given 5 hours of classroom training. Four hours are devoted to regulatory requirements related to spills. The fifth hour builds on training they have already had or on a new subject. The remaining 20 hours are spent on water, training the fishing fleet in oil spill tactics. SERVS has two methods of checking the fleet's proficiency. The Equipment Proficiency Matrix allows SERVS to keep a detailed accounting of the equipment each fishing vessel/fishermen has operated. The Hazwoper Evaluation Matrix allows SERVS to evaluate each unit in the various on-water activities, assuring compliance with OSHA. The first roll out of 24 Hour Marine Hazwoper was Fall 2003. It successfully met the requirements of CFR 1910.

The 24 Hour Marine Hazwoper could be the answer to compliance of Federal Regulation for many organizations and companies, which are challenged by a mobile and changing workforce. The 24 Hour Marine Hazwoper meets the needs of SERVS vast, mobile and changing fishing vessel fleet, which keeps our Fishing Vessel Program in compliance.
LESSONS LEARNED, BEST PRACTICES, AND COMMON SENSE FROM U.S. GOVERNMENT-LED NATIONAL PREPAREDNESS FOR RESPONSE EXERCISE PROGRAM (PREP) DRILLS
Authors: Cashman Dennis
Published: January 2013

Professionals who design or participate in oil and hazardous material exercises would benefit from knowing historical lessons learned and best practices relative to the design and execution of exercises before they begin to develop or participate in similar exercises. In accordance with the “National Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP) Guidelines” the staff at the USCG National Strike Force Coordination Center in Elizabeth City, NC has been in the business of designing, executing, and evaluating U.S. government-led PREP drills since 1993 and have accumulated abundant lessons learned and best practices relative to large scale exercises that would be beneficial to share with the response community. PREP exercises typically require six months to plan and design, three days to execute the drill with up to 300 participants, and three days to draft lessons learned. This paper will focus on lessons learned, problem areas, best practices, work arounds, and common sense pertaining to numerous subjects during the life cycle of designing and executing an exercise such as: Initial Design Phase; Functions of a Joint Design Team; Pre exercise Training; Play and Control Spaces; Communications; Incident Command System; Funding; Logistics; Notifications; Objectives; Public Affairs; and Improvements to Area Contingency Plans.
THE USE OF CONSENSUS ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENTS TO EVALUATE OIL SPILL RESPONSE OPTIONS: LESSONS LEARNED FROM WORKSHOPS IN NINE DIFFERENT LOCATIONS
Authors: Aurand Don , Pond Robert , Coelho Gina , Cunningham Mark , Cocanaur Amy , Stevens Leigh
Published: January 2013

Since 1998, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) and various partners in industry and government have applied a standardized consensus ecological risk assessment process in workshops around the US to evaluate oil spill response options. Each series of workshops focuses on the evaluation of a location-specific near shore spill scenario. Participants then use the results to identify more general regional conclusions. Workshop goals are to 1) encourage local response community consensus risk-based evaluation of oil spill impacts and 2) facilitate the resolution of conflicts related to potential ecological costs and benefits of various response options, including natural recovery, which was always analyzed in order to establish a baseline. For each workshop series, a summary report is prepared to capture analytical results and participant interpretations. Sessions have been completed in six coastal areas of the United States (US), on the upper Mississippi River, the US Virgin Islands, and a bay in New Zealand. The data from all of these workshops have been analyzed to identify consistent “lessons learned” about the process and the relative risks associated with various response options. The mix of response options varied, depending upon local conditions. All eight coastal assessments examined on-water mechanical recovery and the use of dispersants, and several looked at in-situ burning (on-shore or on-water) as well as shoreline cleanup. The freshwater workshop emphasized use of the methodology to define the relative risk to various habitats, rather than to evaluate specific response options. In all nine workshops the participants reported that the methodology helped them to more effectively structure their discussions about potential costs and benefits. In general, participants felt that dispersants (and in some cases in-situ burning) should receive more consideration than they do currently, that on-water mechanical recovery alone was unlikely to meet their response objectives, and that the risk assessment process improved their ability to analyze oil spill response issues. In each case, participants also identified specific activities which they felt were appropriate to integrate the results into local response planning efforts.
CORROSION ON DEEP GULF SHIPWRECKS OF WORLD WAR II1
Authors: Overfield Michael L.
Published: January 2013

During the summer of 2004, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) National Marine Sanctuary Program (NMSP) participated with Minerals Management Service (MMS), NOAA's Office of Ocean Exploration (NOAA OE) and C&C Technologies, under the auspices of the National Oceanographic Partnership Program (NOPP), in an investigation to study the “artificial reef effect” of manmade structures in differing depths, and conversely, the effect of the environment on those structures over the course of 60 years, by studying six steel-hulled vessels sunk in the Gulf of Mexico.

The National Marine Sanctuary used this opportunity to conduct research on the effects of corrosion on the six vessels identified for study. Corrosion on Deep Gulf Shipwrecks of World War II project represents Phase II of NOAA's RUST database project. Through this study, we addressed the following questions:Does depth of a wreck effect state of corrosion?Is this primarily a chemical, physical or biological process?Do ferrous-hulled shipwrecks follow a fairly consistent degradation process as they age?Is it possible to attach a specific timeline to the degradation scale?

The corrosion processes affecting the structural integrity of these vessels is important for two reasons. If we begin to gain an understanding on the corrosive processes at work, we may be able to develop an approximate time line on the eventual fate of these vessels. Second, applying this corrosion timeline, it may enable us to anticipate when tanks and holds containing fuel oils or other hazardous materials will fail and release their cargos into the environment. Using this information, resource protection personnel can assess sites and determine which vessels are considered for direct intervention such as the removal of the threat sources, isolation of the threat, and management plan development or establishment of a monitoring protocol for the site.

The survey has added valuable assessment data on steel-hulled vessels and contributes to our understanding of both chemical and biological corrosion in the marine environment. The survey also contributes to the field of underwater research, allowing interpretation and peer review of the results, provides baseline data to examine long-term protection strategies for National Marine Sanctuaries currently threatened by shipwrecks containing oil within or in close proximity to their boundaries.
EVALUATION OF TURBULENCE PARAMETERS IN LABORATORY FLASKS USED FOR DISPERSANT EFFECTIVENESS TESTING
Authors: Kaku Vikram J. , Boufadel Michel C. , Venosa Albert D.
Published: January 2013

The effectiveness of dispersants used as countermeasures for oil spills is commonly evaluated by conducting tests in laboratory flasks. The success of the test relies on the replication of sea conditions in the flasks. We used a Hot-wire Anemometer (HWA) to characterize the hydraulics in the Swirling Flask (SF) and the Baffled Flask (BF) at orbital shaker speeds of 150 and 200 rpm's. We used these measurements to compute velocity gradient, G, turbulence microscale, η, and energy dissipation rate per unit mass, ɛ. The flask average energy dissipation rates in the SF were about two orders of magnitude smaller than those in the BF. The sizes of the microscales in the SF were found to be much smaller than that in the SF. Also, in the BF, the sizes of the microscales approached the size of oil droplets observed at sea (50 to 400 micron), which means that the hydraulics in the BF closely resembles the hydraulics occurring in the top few cm of a breaking wave. Hence, the BF is preferable for dispersant effectiveness testing in the laboratory.
DESIGNING A GEOGRAPHIC RESPONSE STRATEGY TO PROTECT AN ENDANGERED SPECIES: THE NELSON LAGOON GRS PROJECT
Authors: Robertson Tim L. , DeCola Elise G. , Lance Ellen W.
Published: January 2013

Geographic Response Strategies (GRS) have become an accepted industry standard for protecting environmentally sensitive areas. In Alaska, GRS have been developed for hundreds of sensitive sites. Typically, the GRS process involves an extensive site selection phase where resource agencies, stakeholder groups, and other interested parties prioritize potential GRS sites based on a number of factors, such as wildlife populations, cultural resources, human use, coastal habitat sensitivity, and feasibility of protecting the site from oil spill impacts.

The process used to select and design a GRS for Nelson Lagoon has deviated from this established pattern. Nelson Lagoon, which is located on the north coast of the Alaska Peninsula and included in the Port Moller State Critical Habitat Area, is a biologically rich and ecologically sensitive area in its own right. But, the impetus to develop the Nelson Lagoon GRS arose from a single species: the threatened Steller's eider, which has been listed under the federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) since 1997.

The Nelson Lagoon GRS project is unique not only because it has its roots in the ESA process, but because the GRS itself includes a risk-minimization component as well as a response strategy. This paper reports on the GRS development process at Nelson Lagoon, Alaska, and considers whether the model is applicable elsewhere in the United States.
CALIFORNIA OIL SPILL DISPERSANT PLAN-ACHIEVEMENT THROUGH COOPERATION
Authors: Addassi Yvonne Najah , Faurot-Daniels Ellen
Published: January 2013

The use of dispersants in marine waters off California requires detailed foresight and planning. In an effort to expedite a decision to use dispersants and reduce first strike response time, the Region IX Regional Response Team tasked Californias Marine Area Committees to recommend dispersant approval zones. Each Area Committee conducted Net Environmental Benefit Analyses for their areas of responsibility, and from those analyses recommended dispersant zone designations to the U.S. Coast Guard and the Regional Response Team (RRT). All zone recommendations were approved by the RRT in July 2002, and development of the remaining elements of the dispersant plan began. Using primarily a model developed in New Zealand, the authors drafted a comprehensive dispersant use plan for the waters off California. The U.S. Coast Guard Captains of the Port in California reviewed the draft plan, and tested it during the April, 2004 Spill of National Significance (SONS) drill in southern California. The streamlined decision flowcharts, imbedded “Decision Boxes” and operational appendices with further instructions, forms and resource contact information, proved the California Dispersant Plan was a very intuitive and workable response decision tool. During the SONS drill, this greatly improved the ability of the Unified Command to make a decision regarding dispersant use, get the resources in place, and begin dispersant sorties within the operational “window” for dispersant use. It is expected that the same expedited and informed response process will serve California well during an actual oil spill response.
A COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF OILED WILDLIFE RESPONSE
Authors: Massey J. Gregory , Hampton Steve , Ziccardi Michael
Published: January 2013

In discussions about the value of cleaning and rehabilitating oiled wildlife, much attention is focused on the costs to provide such care. Several references have made widely varying claims regarding these costs, yet none have provided a detailed accounting of costs associated with rehabilitation. Therefore, this paper focuses on three oil spill responses conducted in northern California (M/V Kure, M/V Stuyvesant, and S.S. Jacob Luckenbach) since 1997. We examine the costs associated with wildlife care using detailed accounting provided by the Oiled Wildlife Care Network. We include all variable costs (including labor and travel expenses for staff at the facility, facility expenses such as utilities and other indirect costs, and supplies) and compare these amounts to the numbers of birds collected live and dead, as well as the number treated and released. We discuss other fixed and variable costs that are not included, as well as characteristics of the spill responses that impacted rehabilitation costs. Finally, we discuss the results with regard to natural resource damage assessments, the costs of restoring birds in the wild, and non-economic criteria relevant to an evaluation of the value of oiled bird rehabilitation. We conclude that costs and benefits vary based on factors that include the temporal nature of the spill, the level of preparation, and the behavior of the responsible party.
MODELING IMPACTS OF RESPONSE METHOD AND CAPABILITY ON OIL SPILL COSTS AND DAMAGES FOR WASHINGTON STATE SPILL SCENARIOS
Authors: Etkin Dagmar Schmidt , McCay Deborah French , Rowe Jill , Pilkey-Jarvis Linda
Published: January 2013

The issues and results of modeling major crude oil spill scenarios in outer coast and sound locations in the state of Washington, USA, to determine relative costs and impacts are explored. Oil spill trajectory and fate and effects modeling were coupled with modeling of response operation strategies (conventional mechanical containment and recovery operations; dispersant application with concurrent mechanical containment and recovery; and in-situ burning with concurrent mechanical containment and recovery) to estimate oil spill response costs and socioeconomic and environmental impacts. The complex issues in modeling the impact of response capability and timing of initial response operations were also examined, comparing the US Coast Guard (USCG) federal response capability standards, proposed Washington State standards, and potential theoretical higher response capability standards.

Results of initial modeling showed little difference in costs and impacts between on-water response options and capability levels, with the exception of being significantly lower than the “no response” option, in which only protective shoreline response, but no on-water removal, were employed. The extremely high level of theoretical oil recovery (50 to 70%) that occurred in the modeling was adjusted in a second analysis to account for increasing inefficiencies in recovery capability with time, demonstrating that oil recovery under Washington State's earlier and more aggressive response standard was three times as high as under the federal response standard. Greater differences in costs and impacts were then realized. Increasing on-water oil removal through more efficient oil slick surveillance, training in strategic response, and more timely response can all contribute to reducing spill impacts and costs.
LONG-TERM WILDLIFE OPERATIONS: ADAPTATIONS TO TRADITIONAL INCIDENT COMMAND (OR ICS) STRUCTURE. A CASE STUDY OF THE SS JACOB LUCKENBACH.*
Authors: Addassi Yvonne Najah , Jennings Kathleen , Ziccardi Michael , Yamamoto Julie , Hampton Steve
Published: January 2013

From 2001–2002, oiled birds were found along 220 miles of California's central coastline, with more than 2,000 birds recovered and transported for care. No significant slicks or other obvious sources of oil were observed. Response activities were coordinated to address a prolonged wildlife event, rather than proceeding as a typical short-term oil spill response. This event was part of a long pattern of repeat “mystery” oil spills in this region that puzzled investigators for 10 years, most believing the oil resulted from illegal dumping; but when the 2001/2002 event extended well beyond the winter season, investigators looked deeper. After an extensive investigation by state and federal agencies, the sunken vessel, SS Jacob Luckenbach was identified. A six month, $19 million, multi-agency response operation was undertaken by the U.S. Coast Guard with operations concluding October 2002.

To address the 11-month wildlife response for the 2001/2002 season, the Incident Command Structure was modified to address the unique needs of this event, including: activation and deactivation criteria for beach searches; weather prediction for oil release and animal stranding patterns; hybridization of field team functions; changing response priorities for key species; and long-term staffing, communication and coordination among the multiple agencies. Spill-specific policies and protocols were established, and information was made available to remote personnel through a website. On-going staff debriefs were conducted and adjustments implemented. Based on lessons learned, California's Wildlife Operations Plan is being revised and an electronic data collection system is being implemented to streamline animal tracking.

Although most response organizations are structured to respond to “batch” spills, with hundreds of aging sunken vessels along the California coast alone and as the continuous release from the TV Prestige demonstrated, organizational modifications may be necessary to adequately prepare for and respond to the more unusual, but potentially growing risk of long-term, intermittent releases in the off-shore environment.
“EXTREME” COLD WEATHER OIL SPILL RESPONSE TECHNIQUES & STRATEGIES – ICE & SNOW ENVIRONMENTS
Authors: Oskins Carl J. , Bradley Dee
Published: January 2013

The logistics of cleaning up spilled oil in cold weather differ from those involved in cleaning up a warm water oil spill. The cleanup is complicated by climatic conditions, the presence of various forms of ice, and the changes that take place in the oil itself in response to cold temperatures. The physical constraints on the cleanup of an extreme cold weather oil spill include the fact that during winter months, it's often too cold to work and daylight becomes a premium. The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 states that when designing a Facility Response Plan, it should be based on a Worst Case Oil Spill in the Most Adverse Weather Conditions. In many parts of the country, Extreme Cold Weather qualifies as the most adverse condition. Almost every aspect of spill response is affected by extreme temperatures. The equipment changes as does the PPE worn by responders. Ice can contain and entrain oil that is spilled and may work both for and against recovery. Utilizing techniques such as ice slotting can aid immensely in recovery operations, but the safety of responders must always remain paramount.
ON THE OIL-MINERAL AGGREGATION PROCESS: A PROMISING RESPONSE TECHNOLOGY IN ICE-INFESTED WATERS
Authors: Cloutier Danielle , Gharbi Samir , Boulé Michel
Published: January 2013

The oil-mineral aggregation (OMA) process refers to oil droplets and fine sediments interaction leading to the formation of small aggregates. Previous studies have highlighted the significance of oil-mineral aggregate formation on the persistence of oil and the feasibility of its use for the development of spill countermeasures. However, the efficiency of the OMA process in ice-infested waters is not well known. Some preliminary laboratory works have reported promising results regarding the aggregation process in the presence of ice. In the light of these results, the Canadian Coast Guard has conducted a research program that aims to elaborate clean-up measures using the OMA process in ice-infested waters. The oceanographic parameters likely to affect the efficiency of the OMA process were reviewed with respect to the oceanographic conditions prevailing in the Saint-Lawrence River during winter. These results suggested that the low turbidity values and water turbulence prevailing during icing periods are likely to be important parameters influencing oil dispersion efficiency by the OMA process. Clean-up measures which would overcome these limiting effects, based on laboratory and field tests would be developed. This paper presents a literature review on the international expertise related to oil-ice-sediment interactions. The efficiency of the OMA process and the feasibility of using OMA as an oil spill countermeasure strategy in ice-infested waters is discussed herein. The main objectives of the experimental protocol designed for the development of clean-up measures aimed at enhancing oil dispersion in ice-infested waters by the OMA process are presented.
NOAA HABITAT RECOVERY MODELS USING CELLULAR AUTOMATA TECHNIQUES1
Authors: Beegle-Krause CJ , Fonseca Mark , Shigenaka Gary
Published: January 2013

Models that predict characteristics of habitat recovery following disturbance are useful tools for ecological risk assessment as well as natural resource damage assessment. NOAA is evaluating the suitability of cellular automata as a single modeling framework for simulating several habitat types (seagrass, coral, rocky intertidal and marsh). The primary challenge is creating rules that reflect biological relationships and complexity. The desire for biological realism in the model is balanced by the need for simplicity in the defined relationships. Once the rules are defined, cellular automata models are straightforward to construct and modify during development.

The cellular automata technique divides a domain into discrete cells with a finite number of states. For habitat models dominated or characterized by a single species (e.g. seagrass, coral or marsh), the cells are defined with two states: empty and occupied. For the multiple species models (e.g. rocky intertidal), the cells are either empty (bare rock) or occupied by one of four biological covers: Fucus, barnacles, mussels, or “other” (e.g., coralline algae or red algal turf). Probabilistic rules are generated for cell transitions from one state (or dominant species) to another. In cases where there is not spatial influence, the model can be collapsed into a simple spreadsheet calculation.

Though some ecosystems recover in timescales shorter than decades, some of these ecosystems recover over time periods longer than a human lifespan. Thus simulation modeling is the only feasible means to provide reasonable guidance for their final recovery. Within this modeling system, the user can create an initial distribution of species, and then choose either to run the simulation from the initial beach, or to selectively empty cells to create a specific type of disturbance before running the simulation. The goal for this work is to both intuitively (graphically) (1) display tradeoffs from the use of different cleanup and restoration techniques and (2) to provide a defensible and quantitative recovery forecast for computing monetary damages against responsible parties.
TEN YEARS OF REALTIME, NEAR-SURFACE CURRENT OBSERVATIONS SUPPORTING OIL SPILL RESPONSE1
Authors: Martin Robert D. , Guinasso Norman L. , Lee Linwood L. , Walpert John N. , Bender Leslie C. , Hetland Robert D. , Baum Steven K. , Howard Mathew K.
Published: January 2013

Trajectory modeling is one of the few tools that allow spill managers to get ahead of an oil spill. To that end, the Texas General Land Office is committed to maintaining and improving the Texas Automated Buoy System (TABS) and its associated modeling efforts to ensure a reliable source of accurate, up-to-date information on currents along the Texas coast. As the nation embarks on the development of an Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS), TABS will be an active participant as a foundational regional component to the national backbone of ocean observations. The lessons-learned from TABS’ ten years of spill response operations will provide a valuable roadmap for the operators of new ocean observing systems to ensure that they understand and meet the unique needs of the oil spill response community. This paper describes the circumstances which led to the creation of TABS; the unique, spill response-driven philosophy behind the development and operation of the system; lessons-learned and the resulting modifications to the system; examples of TABS’ service; new TABS forecasting models and real time analysis tools; and the future direction of TABS in the context of a national Integrated Ocean Observing System.
OIL SPILL PROBLEMS AND MANAGEMENT IN THE NIGER DELTA
Authors: Nwilo P.C. , Badejo O.T.
Published: January 2013

The coastal area of the Niger Delta is the home to oil explorations and exploitations in Nigeria. Oil spill incidents are common along the Nigeria. The main sources of oil spill on the Niger Delta are: vandalisation of the oil pipelines by the local inhabitants; ageing of the pipelines; oil blow outs from the flow stations; cleaning of oil tankers on the high sea and disposal of used oil into the drains by the road side mechanics. By far the most serious source of oil spill is through the vandalisation of pipelines either as a result of civil disaffection with the political process or as a criminal activity.

To reduce the rate of oil incidents along the Nigerian Coast particularly as a result of vandalisation, the Federal Government through an act of the National Assembly created the Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC). Part of the responsibilities of the commission is to develop a master plan for the development of the Niger Delta, provide infrastructure and create an enabling environment for industrialisation and employment. There are also several other laws dealing with issues related to oil pollution in the environment. Also, standards for the development of the environmental sensitivity index maps for the coast of Nigeria have been developed by the Environmental Systems Research institute (ESRI). These standards are to be used by all the oil companies to prepare ESI maps for their areas of operations in Nigeria. Furthermore, apart from the mechanical and chemical oil spill cleaning methods that have been used in managing oil spill problems, oil spill models have on several occasions being used to manage oil spills on the Nigerian Coast.

A number of Federal and state agencies deal with the problems of oil spill in Nigeria. The agencies include: the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR), the Federal Ministry of Environment, the State Ministries of Environment and the National Maritime Authority. There is also the “Clean Nigeria Associates” which is an umbrella through which the Oil companies tackle major oil spills.

There is a need to create serious awareness among the populace on the implications of oil spill incidents on the environment. Governments must assist the rural communities in claiming their rights on oil spills and ensure that digital ESI maps are readily available for managing oil spill maps. Government should have strict rules for local oil tankers that would ply our coastal and inland waters as a result of the new cabotage law that is just being passed into law in the country.
LOS DERRAMES DE PETRÓLEO EN ECOSISTEMAS TROPICALES – IMPACTOS, CONSECUENCIAS Y PREVENCIÓN. LA EXPERIENCIA DE COLOMBIA1
Authors: Miranda Darío , Restrepo Ricardo
Published: January 2013

Colombia, uno de los paises con la mayor diversidad biológica del planeta, ha sufrido en los Ultimos años cientos de ataques terroristas que han producido el derrame de miles de barriles de petróleo crudo y otros productos hidrocarburos. Solamente en un oleoducto, más de 1,000 ataques han causado en 19 años de operatión el derrame de cerca de tres millones de barriles de petróleo. Esta cifra equivale a más de 10 veces la cantidad de petróleo derramado por el Exxon Valdez en Alaska en 1989, el cual es considerado uno de los más grandes desastres ecologicos de los Ultimos tiempos.

Las pérdidas de flora y fauna causadas por estos miles de barriles de petróleo derramados sobre la riqueza biológica de Colombia llevan a pensar que los sabotajes son realmente verdaderos ataques contra el futuro de la humanidad. En efecto, Colombia es considerada hoy una de las diez “áreas calientes” del mundo. Es decir, aquellas áreas que teniendo una alta biodiversidad, presentan una gran vulnerabilidad como consecuencia de la interventión humana (Becerra, 1993).

A escala mundial existen muchos estudios relacionados con los efectos de los derrames de hidrocarburos en aguas marinas, pero hay muy poca informatión acerca de sus efectos en aguas continentales tropicales. Se presentan en el artículo las consecuencias ecológicas de los derrames sobre los ecosistemas tropicales, haciendo énfasis en los sensibles ambientes Colombianos.

A pesar de todos los esfuerzos que las autoridades Colombianas han venido realizando para prevenir la ocurrencia de sabotajes, los ataques continúan al igual que los derrames. Considerando que los ataques terroristas probablemente no podrán ser eliminados, la estrategia para mitigar los efectos nocivos de los derrames está basada en preventión, a través de acciones de respuesta estructuradas en Planes de Contingencia, conforme a los lineamientos del Plan Nacional de Contingencia de Colombia. Se muestra un resumen de las estrategias para prevenir la contaminación ambiental planteadas en los Planes de Contingencia existentes.
LPG – PIPELINE RUPTURE AT CASTELLO BRANCO HIGHWAY, BARUERI, STATE OF SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL. A FOCUS ON RESPONSE MANAGEMENT
Authors: Silva Johnson O. , Sanches Antonio R.
Published: January 2013

The objective of this paper in to summarize the emergency control phase, the community evacuation plan and subsequent plan for restoration and cleanup of the area.

The Castello Branco Highway is located near the municipality of Barueri and connects the city of São Paulo to the country-side.

On June 2001, during a four day public holiday, the citizens of Barueri reported on a large spill of LPG to the PETROBRAS Oil & Gas Terminal. The liquefied gas was spilling from a pipeline after being damaged by a pile driver during civil works being conducted alongside the road. Initial spill response activities by PETROBRAS Civil and Defense consisted of relocating the local population and stopping the road traffic.

The Emergency Response Plan was implemented immediately and the local populace removed from the hot zone to a safe location, in accordance with the Plan. Less than 1 hour after the incident, the water-sampling and inflammability program was initiated and various emergency groups from PETROBRAS Refineries in the São Paulo area were called to control the incident.

The specific behavior of LPG in open streams and confined rain water drainage systems showed that in this kind of emergency, special ventilation equipment combined with tactical and technical knowledge enabled the successful handling of this incident. The LPG leak was effectively controlled within 24 hours.

The coordination and teamwork between the emergency PETROBRAS Group, the Civil Defense Community, Public Fire Fighters and the government, municipal and private contingency organizations, combined with the environmental agency were critical to avoid the ignition of LPG and preserve lives.
INNOVATIVE TECHNIQUES FOR RECOVERY OF DIESEL-BASED DRILLING MUD-THE TRICO MARINE CASE STUDY
Authors: Baccigalopi Michael John , Sullivan Kathleen Clare (KC) , Greytok Jeff Gordon , Jensen Dave Allen
Published: January 2013

On the evening of June 3, 2003 an operational error while circulating mud tanks on the off shore supply vessel Big Horn River resulted in the discharge of 214 barrels of 75 percent diesel-based drilling mud into Redfish Bay at Harbor Island, Texas. The bulk of the drilling mud sank to the bottom of the Aransas Channel with no surface indication as to the extent the product had spread along the channel bottom. Initial response to the release was hampered by severe weather while concern grew over the sensitivity of the surrounding area. Responders were faced with a complex challenge to develop an efficient recovery plan. Divers were utilized to delineate the extent of the underwater contamination and facilitated the cleanup with a unique vacuum truck-air lift system developed on scene.
DEVELOPMENT OF A SURFACE WASHING AGENT EFFECTIVENESS PROTOCOL
Authors: Koran Karen M. , Venosa Albert D. , Vyas Saurabh , Sorial George A.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is developing a protocol for testing the effectiveness of surface washing agents (SWAs) in a laboratory setting. The criteria for evaluating SWA effectiveness is based on the amount of crude oil that can be removed from a substrate with a specified amount of test cleaner. For protocol development and testing, acid washed sand was used as the shoreline substrate. Prudhoe Bay Crude, a medium weight EPA/American Petroleum Institute (API) standard reference oil, and three SWAs were tested. Oil was applied to the sand in 2″ x2″ x2″ stainless steel mesh baskets and allowed to weather for a period of time before the SWA was applied. SWA was applied as a neat solution at a product to oil volume ratio of 2:1. The baskets were then submerged in seawater in 1-L beakers and agitated on a rotary shaker table. The effects of testing variables, including substrate hydration, mode of oil application, oil-weathering time, oil-SWA contact time, mixing speed, and mixing time were evaluated. The wash water and sand were extracted separately with DCM and the quantity of oil in the extracts was measured by UV-visible spectrophotometry. The efficiency of the SWA was determined based on the mass of oil released into the wash water relative to the total mass of oil applied.
HOW TO MODEL WATER-IN-OIL EMULSION FORMATION
Authors: Fingas Merv , Fieldhouse Ben
Published: January 2013

Water-in-oil mixtures were grouped into four states or classes: stable, mesostable, unstable, and entrained water. Only stable and mesostable states can be characterized as emulsions. These states were established according to lifetime, visual appearance, complex modulus, and differences in viscosity. Water-in-oil emulsions made from crude oils have different classes of stability as a result of the asp haltene and resin contents, as well as differences in the viscosity of the starting oil.

In this paper a new numerical modelling scheme is proposed and is based on empirical data and the corresponding physical knowledge of emulsion formation. The density, viscosity, saturate, asphaltene and resin contents are used to compute a class index which yields either an unstable or entrained water-in-oil state or a meso-stable or stable emulsion. A prediction scheme is given to estimate the water content and viscosity of the resulting water-in-oil state and the time to formation with input of wave-height.