bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Extraprise
Authors: Brandon‐Jones Emma , Karlsson Christer
Published: January 2015

An extraprise is made up of a core organisation and coordinated network of additional actors. These work together to deliver value to the end‐customer. Activities are only carried out internally when there is the potential for competitive advantage and therefore outsourcing is commonly utilised.
Service Productivity
Authors: Armistead Colin
Published: January 2015

It is necessary to understand the balance between service quality and productivity. Although it may be possible to increase productivity by serving more customers, it has to be recognized that many operations choose not to adopt such a strategy if it might detrimentally affect service quality. Service productivity measurements should only be taken with a counter‐check on service quality and customer satisfaction.
Ethics
Authors: Brandon‐Jones Emma
Published: January 2015

There have always been, often complex, “ethical” consequences associated with almost every sphere of operations management (OM) activity.
Innovator'S Dilemma
Authors: Lawson Benn
Published: January 2015

The innovator's dilemma explores the reasons why incumbent companies fail in the face of certain types of market and/or technological change. They fail because they listen to their customers, and focus of investing in sustaining technologies. However, this leaves them unable to cope with rise of disruptive technologies.
Lean Production
Authors: Radnor Zoe
Published: January 2015

Originating from the Toyota Motor Corporation, Lean (also referred to as the
T
oyota
P
roduction
S
ystem,
TPS
) is considered to be a radical alternative to the traditional method of mass production and batching principles for optimal efficiency, quality, speed, and cost.
New Product Development Process
Authors: Lawson Benn
Published: January 2015

New product development is the process by which new ideas, and technologies are brought to the market. Product development may be conducted to improve an existing product or to introduce a new one to the market.
Importance–Performance Matrix
Authors: Slack Nigel , Brandon‐Jones Alistair
Published: January 2015

One of the most significant activities in the operations strategy formulation process is the derivation of a list of competitive factors prioritized in terms of their relative importance.
Queuing Analysis
Authors: Slack Nigel , Brandon‐Jones Alistair
Published: January 2015

Queuing theory (also called waiting line theory) is a mathematical approach that models random arrival and processing activities in order to predict the behavior of queuing systems.
Scheduling
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

Scheduling is the process of formulating a plan to indicate which jobs will be completed within a given timescale.
Add/Delete Bill of Materials
Authors: Danese Pamela
Published: January 2015

The add/delete bill of material defines a special product in terms of a standard product, specifying which component needs to be added and which components need to be removed. For example, if a company defines a standard product including the components A, B, C, and D, when the company receives a customer order specifying product characteristics, it can configure the required product by identifying its differences from the standard product. For instance, the required product can be obtained by eliminating from the standard product component A and adding components E and F. The add/delete bill of material is utilized not in elaborating forecasts but in the phase of order generation.
Collaborative Planning, Forecasting, and Replenishment
Authors: Goodwin Paul
Published: January 2015

Collaborative planning, forecasting, and replenishment (
CPFR
) is an initiative where members of a supply chain agree to share information and manage planning processes together. Demand forecasts are also shared and discrepancies between them reconciled. It can lead to reduced forecast errors, lower inventories, reduced replenishment cycle times, higher order fill rates, improved customer service and lower production planning and deployment costs for suppliers. It can also help to mitigate the bull whip effect where suppliers who operate early in the supply chain face highly volatile demand. Implementing
CPFR
can require change management skills. Barriers to successful implementation include lack of trust between organizations, the need to reconcile discrepancies in very large numbers of forecasts and the fragmentation of forecasting systems within some organizations.
Forecasting Process
Authors: Goodwin Paul
Published: January 2015

The forecasting process refers to the activities that are used to produce, monitor and disseminate forecasts within an organization. Often the production of forecasts involves a combination of statistical methods and management judgment. Research suggests that judgment is often used excessively so that forecast accuracy is decreased. Monitoring forecasts involves measuring their accuracy and bias. Ideally, the measures used should reflect the effect of forecast errors on operational performance. The forecasting process should be integrated across the entire organization with a specialized forecasting unit coordinating the process. However, in some organizations separate non‐interfacing processes may operate simultaneously leading to a duplication of effort and reduced accuracy.
Supply Chain Coordination
Authors: Romano Pietro
Published: January 2015

Malone defines coordination as a pattern of decision‐making and communication among a set of actors who perform tasks to achieve goals.
Supply Chain Integration
Authors: Romano Pietro , Roden Sinéad
Published: January 2015

The concept of integration as a mechanism to support business processes across a supply chain is closely related with the effort to overcome intra and interorganizational boundaries.
Zone Of Tolerance
Authors: Johnston Robert , Brandon‐Jones Alistair
Published: January 2015

The zone of tolerance is usually defined as the range of customer perception of a service between desired and minimum acceptable standards.
Purchasing
Authors: Karjalainen Katri
Published: January 2015

To carry out their activities, most organizations require resources provided by other organizations, that is, suppliers. Organizations purchase for example materials and components for production, finished goods for sale, and services and supplies to support their internal activities. Typically, the ratio of an organization's purchasing volume compared to sales is between 50% and 60% for manufacturing firms, but it can be as high as 80% in certain industries, especially in trade. Consequently, purchases form the major costs for organizations and their strategic management is important to ensure competitiveness.
Supply Management
Authors: Roden Sinéad
Published: January 2015

Supply management is a systematic management activity that oversees the coordination of material and service inputs into an organization, the management of the suppliers and support of processes that enable the acquisition of inputs.
Adaptation
Authors: Harney Brian
Published: January 2015

Adaptation constitutes the endeavours of an organization to find a better fit with its external environment. The concept of adaptation found particular significance with the rise of open system theories of organizations. These theories highlighted the importance of understanding how organizations align and interact with their external environment. The nature of adaptation required is shaped by the characteristics of the external environment.
Context
Authors: McDermott Aoife
Published: January 2015

Context refers to situational conditions that may affect (enable or constrain) individual or organization behavior and functional relationships between variables. This article considers the nature and dimensions of context; its' historical neglect in organization behavior research and approaches to integrating context into research.
Business Ethics
Authors: de Colle Simone
Published: January 2015

Business ethics is a form of applied philosophy. Its research domain focuses on the evaluation of the moral dimension of business activity at various levels – including individual decisions, corporate strategies, policies and procedures, and the rules of the economic order. The main development of business ethics can be traced back to the 1980s, even if its conceptual roots date back to the Greek philosophers. The three main ethical theories applied in business ethics are Kantian ethics, utilitarianism, and virtue ethics. From an organizational behavior perspective, the role and effectiveness of ethics and compliance programs and the field of behavioral ethics are very relevant research streams in contemporary business ethics.
Justice, Organizational
Authors: Fellenz Martin R.
Published: January 2015

Organizational justice, one of the most active research areas in organizational behavior (OB), considers the role of fairness in organizations. Organizational justice refers to individuals' fairness perceptions regarding their work and conditions of employment. Contemporary approaches identify up to four dimensions of organizational justice (distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational), and research has identified typical behavioral and attitudinal reactions to experiences of (un)fairness including direct links to issues such as trust; extra‐role and prosocial behavior; theft, sabotage, and other deviant behavior; motivation; commitment; and ultimately, performance.
Survivor Syndrome
Authors: Li Pingshu , Guthrie James P.
Published: January 2015

The concept of survivor syndrome is a phenomenon associated with layoffs and downsizing. Research suggests that along with those who have been downsized, survivors of these traumatic events are also likely to experience significant and adverse effects. These negative effects are wide ranging and include an erosion of satisfaction, commitment, motivation, trust, performance, creativity, social networks, and work‐life balance.
Toxic Leadership
Authors: O'Hara Teresa
Published: January 2015

Much of the literature on leadership emphasises the positive, transformational aspects and avoids or ignores the more destructive or darker characteristics of leaders. Toxic leaders have been defined as “leaders who engage in numerous destructive behaviours and who exhibit certain dysfunctional personal characteristics”. There is some overlap with the concept of toxic leadership and other types of leadership definitions or approaches such as destructive leadership, bullying, and styles of leadership such as autocratic, lassiez faire, and non‐contingent punishment leadership. However one of the key distinguishing attributes of toxic leadership is the multi‐dimensional nature of the concept and the influence of the organisational context on the toxic leader's behaviour. Organizational settings and institutions may actually encourage toxic behaviour and isolate leaders from outside scrutiny. Therefore, to deal effectively with toxic leaders and understand their behaviour, it is often important to analyse the leader's behaviour in context.
Age
Authors: Griffiths Amanda
Published: January 2015

In many industrialized countries, declining birth rates and increased longevity are the major factors contributing to population aging.
Careers
Authors: Arnold John
Published: January 2015

Careers involve the sequence of a person's work experiences over time, and are not confined to high prestige occupations, nor to “climbing a ladder”. These experiences can be influenced by objective circumstances and individual perceptions and interpretations. Recent models of career emphasize the need for people to exert control over their own future, staying true to their own identity whilst also adjusting to labor market demands. This is not an easy combination. In an unpredictable world, a key task is to construct and reconstruct coherent narratives of their own career so that they can retain a sense of continuity and identity. This includes knowing what kind(s) of career success matter most to them. Organizational attempts to manage the careers of employees using techniques such as succession planning and mentoring schemes can have positive effects on the deployment of human capital, but need to be carefully meshed with the aspirations of individual employees.
Change, Evaluation
Authors: Woodman Richard W.
Published: January 2015

The field is interested in valid evaluation of organizational change programs for both theoretical and practical reasons. Evaluation of organizational change will be most valuable when several important criteria are met.
Change, Methods
Authors: Woodman Richard W.
Published: January 2015

Specific methods used to change organization are called interventions. A key challenge in change management is linking an organizational diagnosis with effective actions to address concerns, problems, and needed improvements. Applied theories used to guide change methods are often labeled as implementation theories. These theories typically suggest that system‐wide congruent changes are needed in various aspects of organizational functioning in order to be successful.
Coalition Formation
Authors: Murnighan J. Keith
Published: January 2015

Coalitions are an essential form of organizational decision making: people come together to reach a decision that affects more than the set of individuals who favor a particular decision. Thus, coalition formation can be an important political process in organizations. Ironically, it has not been often studied.
Commitment, Escalating
Authors: McMackin John
Published: January 2015

Escalation of commitment describes a tendency among decision makers, when faced with negative feedback about a prior decision, to invest further resources such as time, energy, or money in that choice beyond what a rational analysis would prescribe.
Emotional Intelligence
Authors: Hamel Lauren M.
Published: January 2015

Emotional intelligence (
EI
), the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions, has been shown to influence improvements in organizational productivity, individual cognitive‐based performance, and leadership effectiveness. Controversy exists around the conceptualization of
EI
, whether to consider
EI
an intelligence or a skill, and if the consideration of
EI
adds any unique predictive ability beyond general measures of personality and intelligence. Several scales of
EI
exist, each reflecting the variety of conceptualizations and definitions of the construct. Despite the academic debate surrounding
EI
, it has offered both theoretical and practical applications.
Ethnography
Authors: Barley Stephen R. , de Rond Mark
Published: January 2015

This has traditionally been the methodology of choice in cultural anthropology, although numerous sociologists and an increasing number of organizational theorists have pursued ethnographic research (
see
Research Design).
Corporate Governance
Authors: Stiles Philip
Published: January 2015

Corporate governance focuses on the way organizations are run and is therefore fundamental to understanding of effectiveness and probity. Corporate governance can be viewed through two broad lenses; first, a national lens, which includes the systems of ownership and regulation within countries, and second, an organisational lens, looking at the arrangements made by companies in terms of boards, incentives, and relationships with stakeholders. Progress in governance has been dominated by reform to regulation and structures but attention to strengthening relationships within and outside the boardroom is also essential.
Group Cohesiveness
Authors: Harvey Sarah , Peterson Randall S.
Published: January 2015

Group cohesiveness represents the extent to which group members are motivated to stay in the group. Some degree of group cohesiveness is relatively straightforward to establish and benefits group performance. At high levels of cohesiveness, however, group performance can be badly affected. We review the meaning of cohesiveness and its role in group life.
Group Decision‐Making
Authors: West Michael A.
Published: January 2015

Groups and teams in organizations are constantly making decisions that influence the effectiveness of their performance and that of their organizations. The quality of group decision making is prone to a variety of threats including conformity processes, status, personality, hidden profile and satisficing. Even traditional idea generation groups are much less effective than is supposed. Methods of improving group decision making have been developed such that leaders can use them to ensure high‐quality decisions in organizational settings.
Identification
Authors: Chughtai Aamir A.
Published: January 2015

This article provides a brief introduction to the concept of identification. The concept of identification has its roots in the social identity theory and refers to the perception of “oneness” with a group. A strong identification with a group can have a profound impact on an individual's attitudes and behaviours. Identification can be influenced by a variety of factors such as perceived similarity between the individual and the group, the distinctiveness of the group and the size of the group. In addition, it is now widely accepted that identification is a multifaceted construct that can be directed toward different foci such as the organization, department, or the workgroup.
Ideology
Authors: Clegg Stewart
Published: January 2015

An ideology is a coherent set of beliefs, attitudes, and opinions.
Influence
Authors: Guadagno Rosanna E. , Ewell Patrick J. , Cialdini Robert B.
Published: January 2015

This article reviews the recent literature on
influence
, also referred to as
social influence
. According to Cialdini (2009), there are six primary principles of influence: scarcity, reciprocity, consistency/commitment, authority, social validation, and liking. These principles can be grouped into three major influence‐relevant organizational goals: (i) to enhance effectiveness of decision‐making; (ii) to maintain and build social connections; and (iii) to maintain self‐concept. The principles of authority, social validation, and scarcity meet the effectiveness goal. Liking and reciprocity are effective for meeting the goal of building and maintaining social connections. Commitment/consistency is the principle that meets the final goal of managing the self‐concept. Implications for the future of organizational behavior is discussed in this article.
Job Design
Authors: Jayewardene Dharshana , Clegg Chris W.
Published: January 2015

Job design has been of long‐standing practical and theoretical interest to students of organizational behavior (OB). This article summarizes developments in job design theory from the early twentieth century to the present day, describes the most influential theoretical models, and identifies recent developments such as job crafting. Recommendations are made as to how job design theory needs to evolve to meet challenges in contemporary workplaces, with particular emphasis on the need to utilize different research designs and methods in order to advance knowledge and theory in this key area.
Job Satisfaction
Authors: Burt Christopher D.B.
Published: January 2015

Definitions of job satisfaction (the appraisal of one's job and the resulting affective reaction) are discussed, as are the numerous facets which make up job satisfaction, and the influence of dispositional factors in its development. Historically important theoretical developments are noted, as are measurement options and issues. The controversial issue of the relationship between job satisfaction and performance is described. Finally, the importance of job satisfaction to general happiness is noted.
Justice, Distributive
Authors: Fellenz Martin R.
Published: January 2015

Distributive justice refers to the perceived fairness of outcomes an individual receives in an exchange relationship. Such distributive fairness judgments are made in social and rule‐ or norm‐based comparison processes. Distributive justice is an important dimension of organizational justice.
Justice, Procedural
Authors: Fellenz Martin R.
Published: January 2015

Procedural justice refers to the fairness perceptions regarding the processes by which outcomes are determined. It is a central dimension of organizational justice and an important determinant of attitudinal and behavioral reactions.
Managerial Roles
Authors: Harney Brian
Published: January 2015

Drawing on role theory this article examines definitions and meaning of managerial roles. It explores the evolution of understanding of managerial roles from tight associations with traditional managerial functions toward a broader understanding informed by in‐depth inductive studies. Commonalities in constitutive roles are identified before an exploration of recent research examining continuity in roles overtime and the implication of context and levels on managerial roles.
Motivation
Authors: Kanfer Ruth
Published: January 2015

Work motivation refers to the psychological processes and strategies that govern the direction, intensity, and persistence of discretionary actions in the workplace or related to work. This article summarizes key tenets in work motivation theory and practice, historical trends in work motivation research, and modern approaches to work motivation that emphasize the importance of an employee's work goals and the self‐regulatory processes by which employees strive to accomplish his/her objectives. It also reviews research findings on the differential influence of universal motives (e.g., justice and task enjoyment), individual differences (e.g., achievement motivation and intrinsic rewards), and contextual factors (e.g., task demands and the social environment) on goal setting and self‐regulation in the context of work. Future directions in work motivation research and practice that view employee motivation as a resource are described.
Network Theory and Analysis
Authors: Lincoln James R.
Published: January 2015

This article reviews developments in network analysis and its applications to problems of organization. From an arcane social science tradition focused chiefly on methods, it has evolved into a major paradigm for thinking about and researching relationships and social structure within and among organizations. Network ideas and methods have been embraced by organizational theorists in part because the world of organizations has itself changed: from centrally coordinated hierarchies to loosely linked strategic alliances and “network forms.” Methods issues continue to be important in network analysis; however, the data and the statistical methods appropriate to network study are quite different from those of other social and behavioral science domains. Network methods and models at varying levels of analysis are reviewed – node, dyad, subnetwork (clique or cluster), and network – and how they have been applied to recent subfields of organizational study.
Organization Development
Authors: Woodman Richard W.
Published: January 2015

Organization development (OD) is an applied behavioral science focused on understanding and managing organizational change. The field is informed by an interdisciplinary set of theoretical perspectives and research traditions. OD is characterized by a dual emphasis on both increasing organizational effectiveness and improving the work experience of organizational participants. Likewise, there is a dual focus on both: solving immediate problems and on the development of an adaptive learning, and on organizations capable of effectively addressing future issues.
Organizational Climate
Authors: Ehrhart Mark G. , Ehrhart Karen H. , Schneider Benjamin
Published: January 2015

Organizational climate refers to employees' shared perceptions of the policies, practices and procedures and the behaviors that get rewarded, supported, and expected in a work setting. As a distinct construct from individual work attitudes like job satisfaction, climate exists at the group or organization level of analysis, and captures the human experience of the organizational environment. The organizational climate construct has received extensive conceptual and methodological attention since its introduction. When studied with a strategic focus, climate has been shown to predict important organizational outcomes, and the burgeoning work on boundary conditions has refined the understanding of those relationships. The ongoing analysis of the antecedents and outcomes of climate holds promise for further insight into how and why organizational climate has effects in and on organizations.
Skill
Authors: Hogan Joyce
Published: January 2015

Skill is proficiency on a specific task.
Statistical Methods
Authors: Koput Kenneth W. , Podsakoff Nathan P.
Published: January 2015

Two kinds of statistical methods enjoy widespread use in organizational behavior: descriptive and inferential. Descriptive statistics summarize data about a population, whereas inferential statistics use sampling and probability theory to make conclusions about a population based on a sample. Three components to inferential statistics are presented: models, estimators, and test statistics; factors influencing their selection and use by organizational scholars are considered.
Theory
Authors: Weick Karl E.
Published: January 2015

Theory, which is about suppositions that are general, idealized, and abstract, can easily be misunderstood in a field like organizational behavior where pragmatists, practitioners, and positivists worry about practice, profits, and precision.
Work Groups/Teams
Authors: West Michael A.
Published: January 2015

Human beings work and live in groups because groups enable survival and reproduction.
Action Research
Authors: Fryer David
Published: January 2015

Action research is concerned with action implicit or explicit within research and knowledge claims implicit or explicit within action. There are two traditions of action research. One tradition is fundamentally ideologically conservative and regressive, minimizes participant involvement, and is associated with mainstream modernism. The other tradition is fundamentally ideologically progressive and emancipatory, maximizes participant involvement, and is associated with critical post modernism.
CEO
s
Authors: Hambrick Donald C.
Published: January 2015

The chief executive officer, or CEO, of an organization is the manager who has overall responsibility for the conduct and performance of the entire entity, not just a subunit.
Communications Technology
Authors: Poole Marshall Scott
Published: January 2015

Communication technologies are increasingly important to the operation and integration of organizations. This article discusses dimensions underlying communication technologies and their potential for and impacts on organizations.
Computer Simulation
Authors: Lomi Alessandro
Published: January 2015

Computer simulation is a distinctive approach to the representation of organizational theories. In this article I discuss some of the premises and promises of computer simulation as an approach to studying organizations.
Equity Theory
Authors: Fellenz Martin R.
Published: January 2015

Equity theory is a theory of work motivation that has grown out of social exchange theory coupled with the motivational elements of cognitive dissonance theory. It argues that individuals seek to restore and maintain preferred ratios of the inputs they give (e.g., time and effort) and the outcomes they receive (e.g., pay and status) in a social interaction or other exchange relationship. Inequity is perceived based on comparisons with relevant referent others and is addressed, according to the theory, by attempts to change one's own or the referent others inputs or outcomes, by cognitive reevaluations of any of these elements, or by leaving the exchange relationship.
Feedback
Authors: DeNisi Angelo S. , Smith Caitlin E.
Published: January 2015

Feedback has long been seen as an essential part of any program of motivation or performance management, especially when goal‐setting was part of the process. Traditionally, it has also been assumed that feedback had generally positive effects on motivation and performance. More recent views of feedback, however, suggest that the effects of feedback on motivation and performance may be more complex than had been believed and that feedback seeking is as important as a reaction to feedback received.
Group Dynamics
Authors: Harvey Sarah , Peterson Randall S.
Published: January 2015

We briefly review the study of group dynamics and suggest how future research may examine group topics in more dynamic ways.
Metaphor
Authors: Gubbins Claire , Andriessen Daan
Published: January 2015

An agreed definition of metaphor does not appear to exist, with agreement only for a more general description of metaphor where metaphor is described as carrying meaning from one domain to another. Metaphors are argued to enable us to fill gaps in our language and transfer meaning by utilizing a metaphor which fits the characteristics of the concept that we wish to highlight. Metaphors are argued to add new meanings to both the source and target concepts. However, metaphors only generate partial truths as not every aspect of the metaphor in use transfers to the concept being described. For example, the man is a lion emphasizes the lion‐like aspects of man but does not suggest that the man is a lion.
Achievement, Need for
Authors: Nicholson Nigel
Published: January 2015

Need theory flourished as a school of Motivation theory from the 1930s to the 1970s, especially through the work of scholars such as Murray, Maslow, and Herzberg.
Attitude Theory
Authors: Griffin Ricky W.
Published: January 2015

This connotes the body of extant knowledge concerned with the structure of attitudes and the determination and consequences of attitudes.
Authoritarian Personality
Authors: Nicholson Nigel
Published: January 2015

This personality syndrome was identified in the 1940s by émigré psychologist refugees from Nazism, in response to a felt need to understand the dynamics of anti‐Semitism.
Bounded Rationality
Authors: Miller Susan
Published: January 2015

Classical economic theories assume that decision makers make choices in rational ways, selecting the best alternative to achieve optimal outcomes.
Brainstorming
Authors: Schuler Randall S.
Published: January 2015

The brainstorming technique is an informal technique or tool for Group Decision‐Making.
Charismatic Leadership
Authors: Conger Jay
Published: January 2015

Some of the most exemplary and influential leaders throughout history have been described as charismatic leaders. In the world of management, renowned entrepreneurs and corporate change agents are often described as charismatic leaders. While popular accounts often ascribe a mythical quality to their charisma, research has shed significant light on the attributes that lead to the perceptions of a leader as charismatic. To understand charismatic leadership, it is important to realize that it is an attribution based on followers' perceptions and interpretations of their leader's behavior. There are a set of leader behaviors which distinguish charismatic from non‐charismatic leadership, and these are presented in a stage model of leading others. In addition, the behaviors associated with charismatic leadership are a constellation. The expression or presence of a single behavior associated with charismatic leadership is rarely sufficient in itself to engender the attribution of charisma. Instead a critical mass of behaviors must be present.
Collaboration
Authors: Ring Peter
Published: January 2015

The richness and variety of collaborations between and among economic actors continue to grow.
Competency
Authors: Boyatzis Richard E.
Published: January 2015

Competencies have become part of the human resoruce management systems of most organizations. A competency is composed of behvioral indicators organized around a typically unconscious intent. As different from a skill or trait, the research shows high validity agianst job and life outcome measures. Because much of the research was done by consultants, many of the studies never reached publication until the last 10 years, with the notable exceptions of The Competent Manager in 1982, Competence at Work in 1993, and Emotional Intelligence in Work Organizations in 1998.
Conflict and Conflict Management
Authors: De Dreu Carsten K. W.
Published: January 2015

The current view of conflict is that it is a process that begins when a Party (e.g., an individual, or group) feels that others did or will do something that negatively affects the Party's interests, opinions, and beliefs, or norms and values.
Crises/Disasters
Authors: Osborn Richard N.
Published: January 2015

Crises and disasters are defined by levels of severity. The contribution notes the history of crises and disaster analyses in organization behavior and notes that both are often studied as embedded in organizations. It details some popular concepts in analyzing the cause of failures including, “normal accidents,” “fine tuning to disaster,” “purposeful unintended consequences,” and “crisis prone organizations.”
Cross‐Cultural Research
Authors: Earley P. Christopher
Published: January 2015

When a researcher examines how organizational forms manifest themselves in different economies or how merit systems operate in individualistic versus collectivistic cultures, what they are really assessing is the generalizability and universality of a given organizational model across multiple, shared systems of meaning, belief, and action.
Culture, National
Authors: Earley P. Christopher
Published: January 2015

A core concept in much of the current work on international aspects of organizational behavior is that of culture.
Decision‐Making
Authors: Greve Henrich R.
Published: January 2015

Organizational decision‐making occurs when individuals or groups make decisions on behalf of an organization. Decision‐making is integral to organized behavior in general, and to managerial work in particular. Theory of decision‐making comes in different flavors depending on the number of decision‐makers involved and whether multiple decision‐makers have shared preferences or conflicts. It also differs depending on whether the procedure for evaluating alternatives is maximization, satisficing, or identity confirmation. These dimensions can be crossed, producing a matrix of contexts and decision making styles, each with different theoretical insights. Work on decision making in organizations has produced findings on risk taking, performance feedback, rule change, learning, and social influence. Despite the progress, there are still many unanswered questions on how decisions are made in organizations.
Deviance
Authors: Greenberg Jerald
Published: January 2015

In the workplace, deviance refers to a type of behavior by members of organizations, which is enacted with the intent of harming either other individuals in the organization or the legitimate interests of the organization itself.
Discrimination
Authors: Nkomo Stella M. , Kinahan Mary
Published: January 2015

Discrimination can be defined as any behavior that denies persons' certain rights because they belong to specific groups. In recent years, literature on discrimination in organizations suggests that considerable progress has been made to address barriers to job entry for women and minorities; however, more subtle discrimination still exists and impacts on their career progress. This article discusses discrimination in organizations, specifically focusing on distinctions between individual and institutional discrimination and theories of disparate impact and disparate treatment.
Double‐Loop Learning
Authors: Argyris Chris
Published: January 2015

Learning occurs whenever errors are detected and corrected. An error is any mismatch between intentions and actual consequences
Downsizing
Authors: Cameron Kim
Published: January 2015

Downsizing refers to a set of activities, undertaken on the part of the management of an organization, designed to reduce expenses or enhance competitiveness. This is usually, but not exclusively, accomplished by shrinking the size of the workforce. Downsizing is a term used to encompass a wide range of activities from personnel layoffs and hiring freezes to consolidations and mergers of organizational units. Attributes of downsizing make it distinct from related concepts such as decline, lay‐offs, maladaptation, or reverse growth. The distinguishing attributes of downsizing are
intent (downsizing implies intention action, not loss of market share or demise), personnel (downsizing implies a reduction in employees), efficiency (downsizing implies proactive or reactive strategies to increasing efficiency), and work processes (effective downsizing implies impact on work processes). Recent research has highlighted the negative impact of downsizing as well as its positive effects in achieving efficiency. Outcomes of downsizing are controversial, but substantial evidence exists that downsizing produces negative effects including reductions in quality, labor productivity, innovation, workplace performance, social relationships, commitment, trust, workgroup support, communication, and prosocial actions, along with increases in voluntary turnover and workplace conflict.
Errors
Authors: Frese Michael , Fischer Sebastian
Published: January 2015

Errors are unintentional deviations from a goal, caused by some act or omission that is in principle avoidable. Because of negative consequences of errors, avoiding errors is a principle goal of organizations and individuals. However, errors cannot be completely avoided because cognitive capacity of humans is limited, whereas the amount of information that could in principle influence a situation goes beyond this limit. Therefore, organizations need to develop ways to reduce negative consequences of errors. This article draws attention to the error management way of handling errors in organizations. This approach seeks to avoid the negative consequences of errors, but not necessarily the errors themselves. Thereby, error management benefits both individual and organizational learning and may be a route toward sustained competitive advantage for organizations.
Exchange Relations
Authors: Murnighan J. Keith
Published: January 2015

Exchange relations is a research area that addresses the social and economic interactions that individuals and groups have with each other. It assesses the relative power and dependence of the parties and uses that analysis to explore a variety of logically expected outcomes and processes.
Executive Succession
Authors: Ocasio William
Published: January 2015

The process of selection and removal, and the transfer of power of senior organizational managers is a topic of long and continuing interest in macro‐organizational behavior.
Generalization
Authors: Klimoski Richard
Published: January 2015

One goal of research in organizational science is generalization.
Group Polarization
Authors: West Michael A.
Published: January 2015

Until the 1960s, researchers assumed that group decisions produced a rough average of the opinions of individual members.
Hardiness
Authors: Nicholson Nigel
Published: January 2015

The concept of hardiness enjoyed some popularity in the 1980s and 1990s after it was introduced by Khoshaba and Maddi to denote individuals who were more constitutionally resilient to Stress and better able to adjust to change.
High‐Reliability Organizations
Authors: Roberts Karlene H.
Published: January 2015

High‐reliability organizations (HROs) are organizations in which Errors can have catastrophic consequences, but which avoid them.
Individual Differences
Authors: Moynihan Lisa M.
Published: January 2015

Individual difference is the term used to denote any characteristic on which individuals can be compared and contrasted, generally referring to enduring rather than transient and ephemeral features of individuality.
Innovation
Authors: de Ven Andrew H. Van
Published: January 2015

This article provides an overview of research on the causes and consequences of organizational innovativeness, as well as the processes in the development of innovations from concept to implmenetation over time.
Intergroup Relations
Authors: Kramer Roderick M. , Schaffer Jennifer
Published: January 2015

Within organizational theory, the term intergroup relations refers to individual interactions involving members from different groups, as well as the collective behavior of groups in interaction with other groups at either the intra‐ or inter‐organizational level. The study of intergroup relations has focused on both the antecedents of cooperation and conflict between groups, as well as identifying the consequences of intergroup relations on organizational functioning.
Knowledge Management
Authors: Morris Timothy
Published: January 2015

For scholars, the question of what exactly is meant by knowledge is central to epistemological and ontological inquiry.
Leadership
Authors: Conger Jay
Published: January 2015

The examination of leadership as a group and organizational phenomenon has been the focus of both theoretical and empirical analyses for more than half a century.
Leadership, Contingencies
Authors: Conger Jay
Published: January 2015

This article explores the evolution of leadership research and theory from a preoccupation with supervisory roles to the study of other leadership behaviors such as the formulation and articulation of a strategic vision to empowerment processes to the staging of unconventional acts to facilitate change. Moreover, research has expanded to include more follower‐center approaches to leadership. These include an emphasis on follower perceptions, attributions, and value transformations. The more recent theories of charismatic and transformational leadership exemplify this trend.
Line/Staff
Authors: Donaldson Lex
Published: January 2015

The line refers to the hierarchy of personnel who perform the primary task of the organization; for instance, in an army, the soldiers who do the fighting and the hierarchy of sergeants, captains, and generals.
Nominal Group Technique
Authors: Schuler Randall S.
Published: January 2015

The nominal group format is a structured Group Decision‐Making technique used for the generation of a vast quantity of alternatives relevant to group issues, problems, and concerns.
Open Systems
Authors: Cummings Thomas G.
Published: January 2015

As open systems, organizations exchange resources and information with their environment. They manage these interactions by creating permeable boundaries that enable necessary exchange while affording protection from external disturbances. Organizations regulate their behaviors by using information on current performance to adjust future behaviors. They learn from this information feedback how to change and improve themselves. Organizational researchers apply an open‐systems perspective to identify how different organization designs succeed in different environments. Recently, organization's complexity has been explored to show how interactions among their highly differentiated parts can help organizations to self‐organize and change themselves.
Organization Theory
Authors: Freeman John
Published: January 2015

Organization theory is a body of scholarship that attempts to explain variations in the structure and operating processes of organizations.
Organizational Culture
Authors: Martin Joanne
Published: January 2015

Three theoretical traditions describe most organizational culture research: an integration perspective that argues cultures are characterized by consistency, organization‐wide consensus, and clarity; a Differentiation perspective that claims organizational “culture” is really a collection of quite distinct subcultures that coexist in harmony, conflict, or mutual independence; and a fragmentation perspective that perceives cultures as pervaded by ambiguities – contradictions, paradox, irony, lack of consensus, and lack of clarity. More recent research shows that cultures are best described using all three perspectives in the same study, permitting a more complex understanding to emerge.
Organizational Demography
Authors: Tsui Anne S. , Ellis Aimee
Published: January 2015

The term organizational demography denotes the composition or distribution of a group or organization on attributes such as age, company tenure, gender, “race,” educational level, and functional background.
Organizational Design
Authors: Anand N.
Published: January 2015

Organizational design encompasses two distinctive sets of ideas. The first is descriptive and theoretical.
Organizational Effectiveness
Authors: Cameron Kim
Published: January 2015

Organizational effectiveness is a construct that is grounded in the values and preferences of evaluators. Therefore, no single and correct definition of organizational effectiveness exists. Several models or definitions of effectiveness have emerged in the literature, including theideal typeor bureaucratic model (effectiveness means matching the ideal characteristics of a bureaucratic organization), thegoal model(effectiveness means accomplishing goals), thenatural systemsmodel (effectiveness means obtaining needed resources), thestrategic constituenciesmodel (effectiveness means satisfying important stakeholders), theinternal processesmodel (effectiveness means high quality internal processes), theparadox model(effectiveness means the presence of simultaneous opposites), and theabundance model(effectiveness means producing flourishing and virtuousness). The criteria for evaluating effectiveness in each of these models differ, but each has a legitimate claim to being a useful approach to assessing and producing valuable outcomes.
Organizational Geography
Authors: Audia Pino G.
Published: January 2015

Organizational geography refers to the study of spatial features of organizational activities.
Organizational Structure
Authors: Donaldson Lex
Published: January 2015

This may be defined as the structure of recurrent relationships between people in an organization.
Performance Appraisal/Performance Management
Authors: Latham Gary P.
Published: January 2015

Performance appraisals often hurt rather than help and employees improve their performance. Solutions include using an appraisal instrument that is tied to the organization's strategy, employing 360‐degree feedback on what a person should start, stop, or continue doing, coaching an individual on an on going basis, and adhering to principles of organizational justice.
Prejudice
Authors: Nkomo Stella M.
Published: January 2015

Prejudice has been conceptualized as a negative attitude toward a particular group usually based on inflexible generalizations or stereotypes. Scholars have proposed a number of theories to explain prejudicial behaviour with social identity theory holding a dominant place. Much of the research on prejudice in organization settings has focused on the effect of prejudice in the form of discrimination and discriminatory practices.
Professional Service Firms
Authors: Morris Timothy , Anand N.
Published: January 2015

The term professional service firm (PSF) refers to an organization that trades on the knowledge of its human capital (comprising owners and employers) to develop and deliver solutions to client problems.
Quality Circles
Authors: Ledford Gerald E.
Published: January 2015

Quality circles are a class of employee participation groups with several specific characteristics. The are used extensively in Japan and the U.S., but are now less common than other types of participation groups in the U.S. They appear to have some positive effects on employee performance but limited effects on attitudes. Several questions remain about use of quality circles.
Reciprocal Altruism
Authors: Murnighan J. Keith
Published: January 2015

Altruism involves action that benefits others, without respect to the actor's outcomes; it is strictly focused on others. People engage in all sorts of reciprocal altruism; at the same time, they are tempted to cheat by reciprocating less.
Research Methods
Authors: Rogelberg Steven G. , Olien Jessie L.
Published: January 2015

Carefully conducted research is the key means to the creation, integration, and appropriate application of new knowledge, without which the advancement of organizational behavior as a scientific discipline would not be possible.