bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Healthcare public health in disasters and emergencies
Authors: Jessop Edmund
Published: September 2020

Public health and health systems must prepare a plan for the emergencies and disasters that will inevitably occur sooner or later. Such plans are needed at global, national, and local levels. A basic framework for emergency preparedness will include a cycle of plan–prepare–respond–recover–report. Planning includes consideration of all events that may occur, prioritized by severity and likelihood. Preparation includes consideration of staff, supplies, structures, and systems—including decision and communication systems. For mass casualty incidents, public health will likely have a lesser role in the response phase; but for pandemics, public health expertise is crucial. A prolonged recovery phase must be expected, even for acute incidents such as earthquakes and terrorism. Post-disaster incident reports allow learning to be shared; such reports also feed back into a revised plan. Mental healthcare and service abroad require specific attention. The concept of ‘everyday resilience’ can help systems to cope.
Introduction
Authors: Treiber Hubert
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of Max Weber's works. Taking a comparative approach that spans legal systems both inside and outside Western societal formations, Weber pursues above all the developmental conditions which ultimately led to the rational form of law in the West, conceiving this development as a process of rationalization. Before using Weber's Rechtssoziologie (Sociology of Law)—or, following the new edition of the text in the Max Weber complete works, the Entwicklungsbedingungen des Rechts (Developmental Conditions of the Law)—as the basis for a detailed consideration of the process of legal rationalization, it is necessary to explore what Weber understood by the law and the legal system and how he defined these terms. It is also important to clarify his distinction between juristic and sociological conceptions of law and validity. The chapter then considers the date when Weber is presumed to have written his texts. The precise identification and collation of groups of texts shed light not only on Weber's methods, but also on the history of his oeuvre.
Extending State Authority
Authors: Rendle Matthew
Published: September 2020

Chapter 2 examines how the creation of a justice system, like other institution-building exercises, formed an important part of re-establishing central state authority during this period. The Bolsheviks inherited a shattered state and their weaknesses, alongside widespread opposition, exacerbated the problem initially. As political courts targeting a wide variety of counter-revolutionary crimes, staffed by party members who proactively targeted criminals, tribunals were better placed to convey the authority and objectives of the state than other courts. Law became the ‘emissary of the state’, extending the state’s reach across Russia. This chapter explores the steady expansion of tribunals, including the establishment of military tribunals, transport tribunals, and travelling sessions of tribunals, as a means of exerting state authority from the end of 1918. Gradual unification of the system followed, but the Bolsheviks had re-established the state by 1922, and this achievement, the end of the civil war, and the publication of new law codes rendered many tribunals obsolete. Law’s purpose changed in a more stable Soviet Union, moving from revolutionary consciousness to revolutionary legality, although this chapter finishes by exploring the legacy of exceptional forms of justice and its continuance in the military and in the form of show trials.
Publicizing Revolutionary Justice
Authors: Rendle Matthew
Published: September 2020

Chapter 6 discusses how all courts were, as officials liked to note, schoolrooms where people could learn about the revolution, the new proletarian state, and its ideals. Only a minority of people, however, were involved directly in tribunals or able to watch trials in person. The chapter analyses, therefore, the wider publicity surrounding trials, making extensive use of national and local newspapers, images, and newsreels to examine how tribunals were portrayed, the language and images used, and how this fitted in with broader agitational attempts to mobilize people. The chapter concludes with a systematic analysis of the publicity surrounding the trial of the Socialist Revolutionaries in 1922—the first ‘show’ trial—to explore how the Bolsheviks used various forms of media in tandem to convey their narrative of the trial, a major advance on previous efforts even if it still enjoyed mixed success among the population.
From Discontinuity to Interruption
Authors: Robbins Joel
Published: September 2020

Some influential theologians argue that God’s presence in the world, and in the life of believers, takes place as an interruption. Central to the work of both the Lutheran theologian Eberhard Jüngel and the Catholics Lieven Boeve and Christian Metz, the concept of interruption resonates with but is not the same as the ideas of rupture and discontinuity that anthropologists of Christianity have rendered important for anthropological debates about the nature of conversion and Christian understandings of time. This chapter examines what it would mean for these anthropological debates about the nature of cultural change and Christian temporality to shift toward a discussion of interruption understood in theological terms. The discussion is illustrated by materials drawn from the author’s fieldwork among the Urapmin of Papua New Guinea.
Conclusion
Authors: Robbins Joel
Published: September 2020

The conclusion considers what the limits to transformative dialogue set by different theological and anthropological understandings of human and divine agency suggest for the future of the relationship between the two disciplines. Examining recent anthropological and wider discussions of the secular with an eye to this issue, and considering current anthropological attempts to rethink the role of divine agency in its theoretical agenda and ethnographic practice, the chapter explores some fundamental differences that remain between anthropology and theology in order to specify the ways in which dialogue between them may be fruitful even if, or perhaps precisely because, it cannot take as its goal a move toward disciplinary identity in relation to this key issue.
Metalepsis and Metaphysics
Authors: Kennedy Duncan
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the narratological concept of metalepsis in relation to metaphysical texts, investigating how competing metaphysical assumptions affect the ways in which metalepsis is thought to operate in relation to empirical experience. It takes as a major point of reference Christopher Nolan’s 2010 movie Inception, in which three distinct narrative levels are troped as dreams within dreams. The film’s closing scene raises and leaves unanswered the question whether the level inhabited at that point by the central character is his ‘reality’ (as he believes) or whether he is still within a dream. For many people who inhabit the world of empirical experience, that world is not ultimate ‘reality’, which lies at one level removed. As examples of this attitude in texts concerned with metaphysics, the chapter explores Fate in Virgil’s Aeneid and the apostrophized God in Augustine’s Confessions before focusing on the Platonic appeal to the world of the Forms. In the emergence of a ‘classical’ metaphysics of an ultimate reality lying beyond time, change, and narrative, however, the key ancient figure is Parmenides; but ancient texts that embrace those very features, such as Ovid’s Metamorphoses, already point to the ‘counter-classical’ metaphysics which has come to the fore in the wake of Heidegger’s Being and Time and has recently achieved remarkable prominence. The conclusion of the chapter explores how, within such a ‘counter-classical’ metaphysics, the narrative frames by which we order and project our empirical experience break in on each other as they establish what we accept as our ‘reality’.
The alphabet *
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

This chapter presents the Latin-based alphabet of Turkish, which differs from that of English in the extra letters ç, ğ, ı, ö, ş, and ü, whereas it lacks q, w, and x. A detailed account is given of vowels, of consonants not present in the English alphabet, and of consonants shared by both languages. The notions front and back for vowels are introduced, as well as the notions voiced versus voiceless for consonants. Next, attention is given to aspiration of voiceless plosives. The most conspicuous letters for which the phonological environment determines their sound value are r and ğ; the former being pronounced with a kind of rustling at the end of a word, and the latter functioning either as a lengthening marker or as a symbol representing the y-sound. This chapter ends with the Turkish telephone alphabet.
Nouns
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

This chapter elaborates on the difference between the two stem forms nouns may have and it is argued that linguistic rules which derive one stem from the other do not work. A plausible explanation is based on statistical information and is further motivated by the huge number of exceptions typical for such rules. A case is put up for just memorizing nouns with two stems. Next, the types of suffix that may be added to nominal stems are discussed together with the order in which they must appear. Sections on nominal inflection instantiating these types follow: plural, possessive, and case markers. Since the six case markers fulfil several non-related functions in the sentence, relatively much space is given to this topic. A short section on the spelling of proper names in relation to suffixation concludes this chapter.
Adjectives
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

Most adjectives can be used attributively and predicatively. After a short introduction on these functions, it is investigated which other parts of speech can occupy the syntactic position of an attributively used adjective. The results of this lead to further explorations concerning the structure of the noun phrase. Not only bare adjectives are discussed, but also the degrees of comparison and other means of modifying the property expressed by an adjective. A particular adjectival construction is formed by adding –ki(n) to a noun case-marked for locative. In the final sections it is explained that not all adjectives are equal in Turkish; some adjectives can be used independently, that is, as a noun, but others cannot. Another type of adjective must take a complement, for it doesn't make sense without.
Times and dates
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

A thorough treatment of adverbial expressions should include indications of time and dates. It is for that reason that this chapter starts out with the clock. Next are notions related to periods such as days, months, years, and centuries, whether or not combined with expressions specifying the beginning, middle, or end of some period. Other notions in the scope of the current topic are next and last, after and before, names of the days, months, seasons, and the formulation of dates. Not surprisingly, many forms can be combined and a peculiarity is that certain combinations are exclusively formed by compounding. Quite like genitive and locative phrases, phrases based on a temporal noun can also take the suffix –ki(n). The final section discusses a property that –ki(n) shares with the possessive suffix –(s)i(n), namely anaphoric and cataphoric reference.
Indirect imperative forms
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

An element particularly conspicuous in day-to-day conversation is the frequent occurrence of a verb form by means of which the desirability or advisability of some state of affairs is expressed. This form is often compared to the so-called subjunctive in other languages. However, the function of the indirect imperative in Turkish is quite different. There is one suffix for the third-person singular and one for the third-person plural. Such forms can be negated or questioned, as well as negated and questioned at the same time. And what is more, the projectional suffix for the past is applicable as well. The occurrence of indirect imperative forms in many fixed expressions based on olsun ‘may it be’ shows how important these structures are in interpersonal situations.
Abilitative forms *
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses mainly a number of different environments in which the stem bil- ‘know’ is found. First, it forms a complex suffix expressing ability (possibility or permission). Since the special negated abilitative suffix is its counterpart, many grammarians speak of a potential conflict in that neither suffix can follow a negated stem. However, examples drawn from a text corpus reveal that if one can do something, one might also be able not to do that thing, and similarly, one might also not be able not to do “something.” Secondly, the abilitative forms are contrasted with other applications of bil-; ‘know how to’ is expressed by an inflected infinitival complement of bil-, but a full infinitive preceding the negative stem bil-me- stands for duration or continuity.
Formation of verbs
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

Whereas inflection (and conjugation) are the essentials in the first four parts of this book, the next two chapters are devoted to derivational issues, or rather, to the question of how words are made using existing material. Not surprisingly, the grammar of Turkish has plenty of solutions. In the formation of verbs, auxiliary verbs and nouns are primarily used to form words for new concepts, but devices such as suffixes for causative, passive, and reflexive produce a meaning derived from an existing one. Also many formations which suggest that they were once made on the basis of rules now no longer productive deserve, of course, the necessary attention. A special section deals with forms rarely discussed in grammars: the indirect imperative of causative and passive verbs. The upbeat to an account of fixed verb combinations, the structure and semantics of couplings with –(y)Ip are discussed.
Postposition-like constructions
Authors: van Schaaik Gerjan
Published: September 2020

There are a relatively small number of linguistic structures that seemingly consists of a noun expanded by a possessive suffix third-person singular and a locative, ablative, or instrumental case marker. They are used as adverbial phrases. The possessive element, however, has no antecedent, and that is why these constructions bear the semblance of postpositions more than that of real nouns. In particular, temporal constructions based on a noun denoting some moment, period, or duration behave like real postpositions in that they allow for indefinite and finite complements. Various postposition-like structures can also be used in predicate position and thus take a person marker. These constructions are typical for the description of mental states and mental content and of instances of intention, decision, and obligation.
The Avrami Equation
Authors: Cantor Brian
Published: September 2020

When materials are heated or cooled, their structure often changes. This is called a phase transformation. Phase transformations are used extensively to modify and control the final microstructure and properties of a material during manufacturing into its final product form. The Avrami equation describes the sigmoidal (S-shaped) way in which the amount of a new phase evolves, initially accelerating as particles of the new phase nucleate and grow, and then decelerating as the old phase becomes progressively exhausted. This chapter explains the development of new phases by nucleation and growth, the mechanisms of precipitation, eutectoid and martensite reactions, and the use of time–temperature–transformation curves to understand and control transformation behaviour. The Avrami equation was derived independently in the mid-20th century by Melvin Avrami at Columbia University, Robert Mehl and his student W. Johnson at Carnegie Tech, and Andrei Kolmogorov at Moscow State University. Avrami was horrified by the development of the atomic bomb at the end of the Second World War and dropped out of society to work as a caretaker on Orcas Island off the West Coast of America, before changing his name and returning as a physicist some years later; Mehl is known as one of the father figures of metallurgical science in the United States; and Kolmogorov made important advances in fields such as trigonometry, probability, topology, turbulence and genetics.
Hooke’s Law
Authors: Cantor Brian
Published: September 2020

When a material is stretched, the extension is proportional to the stretching force, with the elastic modulus defined as the constant of proportionality. This is called Hooke’s law and was discovered by Robert Hooke, just after the end of the English civil wars in the mid-17th century. This chapter examines the underlying atomic forces responsible for Hooke’s law, the use of tensors to describe three-dimensional stresses and strains in a material, and the relationships between the different elastic moduli under different loading conditions. Hooke was the son of a clergyman, born and brought up on the Isle of Wight, a royalist stronghold, where King Charles I fled after his imprisonment by Parliament, only to be recaptured and executed. Hooke was smuggled to London and then Oxford under the protection of Royalist academics, where he became a member of the group of intellectuals who, after the restoration of the monarchy, led the Enlightenment and set up the Royal Society. He took on many jobs: Lab Assistant to Robert Boyle, Curator at the Royal Society, Professor of Geometry at Gresham’s College, City Surveyor for the rebuilding of London after the Great Fire, and First Officer in Christopher Wren’s architectural firm. He was paranoid about his need for money and about people stealing his scientific ideas. He feuded with many of the great scientists of his age, claiming that he invented their ideas first, notably with Newton about his theories of gravity.
The Burgers Vector
Authors: Cantor Brian
Published: September 2020

When a material is stretched beyond its elastic limit, the atoms and molecules begin to slide over each other. This is called plasticity, and is dominated by the motion of defects in the crystal structure of the material, notably line defects called dislocations. The structure and magnitude of a dislocation is defined by its Burgers vector, which is a topological constant for a given dislocation line in a given material, so there is an effective Burgers equation: b = constant. This chapter describes: the structure of edge; screw and mixed dislocations and their associated line energy; the way in which dislocations are generated and interact under stress, leading to the yield point, work hardening and a permanent set in the material; and the use during manufacturing of deformation processing, annealing, recovery and recrystallisation. Jan Burgers’ early life in Arnhem at the beginning of the 20th century is described, as are: his time as a student with the charismatic but depressive Paul Ehrenfest, who later committed suicide; his appointment as the first Professor of Aerodynamics at Technische Universiteit Delft at a time of massive growth in the aviation industry; his contributions to aerodynamic and hydrodynamic flow as well as major Dutch engineering projects such as the Zuiderzee dams and the Maas river tunnel; his growing disaffection with the commercialisation of science and its use in warfare; and his philosophical dalliance with Soviet communism and then American capitalism.
Introduction A Magic Carpet Ride
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: September 2020

If you think this universe is bad, you should see some of the others.

PHILIP K. DICK

We live in an orderly universe. We would not be here if this were not so.

Often the words universe and cosmos are used interchangeably. They do, in fact, have subtly different meanings. The universe is the physical world in its entirety, the totality of everything. This is also covered by the term cosmos, but cosmos has an additional implicit meaning that suggests the pattern and order of the universe. So it not only describes the matter from which the universe is formed, but also the idea that this matter is organized in an intelligible way....
Into the Labyrinth
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: September 2020

Chapter 1 discusses labyrinths and mazes as motifs symbolizing the solar cycle from mythology to the Christian era. The labyrinth is engraved on neolithic monuments such as Newgrange in Ireland’s Boyne Valley. The tale is told of Daedalus and the Cretan labyrinth and how Theseus overcame the Minotaur and escaped with the help of Ariadne’s thread. The meaning of the labyrinth in classical mythology is considered. The labyrinth remained an important symbol in the Middle Ages. It is found on the Mappa Mundi in Hereford Cathedral and in other medieval cathedrals such as Chartres. The chapter also discusses the relationship between the labyrinth and the cosmography of Dante’s Divine Comedy.
Doctor Illuminatus
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: September 2020

The thirteenth-century Catalan mystic Ramón Llull devised a mechanical procedure, possibly derived from the Kaballah, for finding knowledge that he claimed would banish all erroneous opinion. Llull’s methods used rotating discs to generate combinations of simple statements. Although his strange ideas could not provide the solutions that he sought they were very influential down the ages. They inspired a cryptographic device known as a cipher wheel. They also influenced the philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz, who aimed to break down arguments into their fundamental components and then combine them using an automatic process to reach philosophical truths. In this way Leibniz hoped to put an end to human conflicts.
The Golden Number
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: September 2020

The golden number or divine proportion was defined by Euclid. It is sometimes claimed that it was used in classical architecture, but it is not mentioned by Vitruvius, so this seems unlikely. The illustrations for Luca Pacioli’s book The Divine Proportion were drawn by Leonardo. The golden number is related to the structure of polyhedra with five-fold symmetry. Chapter 13 considers some of the properties of the regular and semi-regular or Archimedean polyhedra, and also considers the suggestion that the pupil in the famous painting of Luca Pacioli is a young Albrecht Dürer.
The Laws of Thought
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: September 2020

Chapter 16 tells the story of George Boole, his wife Mary Everest Boole, and their five daughters. Boole was largely self-taught and was appointed the first Professor of Mathematics at Queen’s College Cork, now University College Cork, in 1849. When he died, his wife Mary and young daughters returned to London, where Mary made the acquaintance of James Hinton and his circle of literary friends. Mary developed methods of teaching mathematics that she passed on to her daughters, who all lived remarkable lives. Ethel Lily Boole was a very successful novelist, author of The Gadfly. She married Wilfrid Michael Voynich, famous for discovering the Voynich manuscript. Mary Ellen Boole married Charles Howard Hinton, who would popularize the notion of higher dimensions.
Painting By Numbers
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: September 2020

Fractals have a property of self-similarity. They are similar to themselves in different regions, and similar to themselves on different length scales, so an enlargement of part of a fractal looks similar to the whole fractal. Benoit Mandelbrot pointed out that many objects, including coastlines, have a fractal structure. The mathematics of fractals dates back to Gaston Julia, who was seriously injured during the First World War and completed much of his work while recovering in hospital. Computer-generated imagery (CGI) is widely used in the video game and film industries. One technique for generating images of virtual scenes is known as ray-tracing. Filmed footage can be combined with computer-generated imagery using a technique known as chroma key. One of the most creative examples of computer art is the beautiful panoramic video in Pursuit of Venus by Lisa Reihana.
The Flat Earth Society
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: September 2020

Chapter 25 explains the construction and use of the astrolabe with reference to Geoffrey Chaucer’s A Treatise on the Astrolabe. The astrolabe is a rotating map of the heavens constructed using a stereographic projection of the celestial sphere. The projection techniques required to create this map is reminiscent of the projections used by artists to show perspective, and it is closely related to the techniques of cartographers. The most familiar world maps are produced using the Mercator projection devised by Gerardus Mercator in the sixteenth century. Johannes Vermeer included maps in many of his paintings, most notably The Geographer and The Astronomer, and the figure in these painting might be the great microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. The architect Philip Steadman made an in-depth study of whether Vermeer employed a camera obscura when painting.
Mapping the Cosmos
Authors: Mee Nicholas
Published: September 2020

There is no way to transcribe the features of the Earth’s spherical surface onto a flat map without some distortion. All maps distort the geography of the sphere. The familiar Mercator maps inflate regions close to the poles compared to regions in the tropics. In 1973, Arno Peters promoted the Gall–Peters projection that compensates for the expansion of polar regions compared to the tropics. Buckminster Fuller invented a map called the Dymaxion in which the globe is projected onto an icosahedron, which is then unfolded into an icosahedral net. Another interesting projection is the Pierce Quincuncial projection invented by Charles Sanders Pierce. The Milky Way galaxy was recently mapped using data from NASA’s Wide-field Infra-red Survey Explorer (WISE) and shown to be a barred spiral galaxy. Pablo Carlos Budassi has created a map of the entire visible universe using NASA images by representing radial distances on a logarithmic scale.
The Golden Calf between Bible and Qur'an
Authors: Pregill Michael E.
Published: September 2020

This book explores the story of the Israelites’ worship of the Golden Calf in its Jewish, Christian, and Muslim contexts, from ancient Israel to the emergence of Islam. It focuses in particular on the Qur’an’s presentation of the narrative and its background in Jewish and Christian retellings of the episode from Late Antiquity. Across the centuries, the interpretation of the Calf episode underwent major changes reflecting the varying cultural, religious, and ideological contexts in which various communities used the story to legitimate their own tradition, challenge the claims of others, and delineate the boundaries between self and other. The book contributes to the ongoing re-evaluation of the relationship between Bible and Qur’an, arguing for the necessity of understanding the Qur’an and Islamic interpretations of the history and narratives of ancient Israel as part of the broader biblical tradition. The Calf narrative in the Qur’an, central to the qur’anic conception of the legacy of Israel and the status of the Jews of its own time, reflects a profound engagement with the biblical account in Exodus, as well as being informed by exegetical and parascriptural traditions in circulation in the Qur’an’s milieu in Late Antiquity. The book also addresses the issue of Western approaches to the Qur’an, arguing that the historical reliance of scholars and translators on classical Muslim exegesis of scripture has led to misleading conclusions about the meaning of qur’anic episodes.
Method and Context in the Study of Bible and Qur’an
Authors: Pregill Michael E.
Published: September 2020

This chapter introduces the story of the Golden Calf, comparing the biblical version found in the book of Exodus and the presentation of the episode in the Qur’an. It argues for the importance of conceiving of qur’anic and Islamic retellings of ancient Israelite narratives as part of a broader biblical tradition, of equal value and legitimacy to the canonical and paracanonical biblical literature of Jews and Christians. In support of this argument, it examines the contribution complex processes of acculturation and scripturalization made to the formation of the Qur’an in Late Antiquity; calls for the abandonment of a one-dimensional concept of “influence” of Jewish traditions on the Qur’an in favor of a conception of the Qur’an as actively engaging a variety of traditions in circulation in its environment; and suggests that this engagement was part of a larger discourse of contestation, polemic, and dispute between communities. In Late Antiquity, Jews, Christians, and Muslims were all committed to their particular visions of the legacy of ancient Israel and its significance for their community’s claims of divine favor. Scriptural rewriting and exegesis thus provided a major arena for demarcating boundaries and defining self and other through reinterpretation of episodes from Israel’s history.
Biblical Beginnings
Authors: Pregill Michael E.
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the main narrative of the Golden Calf found in Exodus 32, as well as other allusions to this episode from Israel’s history from what became the canonical Hebrew Bible. The account of the Calf in Exodus appears to have been shaped by polemical imperatives in the earliest stages of its development, and reflects complex questions surrounding sanctioned forms of divine worship, the status of different priestly groups, and the relationship of those groups to the Israelite monarchies and the cult forms they sponsored. The conception of the Calf in Exodus appears to reflect ancient ideas about the sanctioned means of worshipping the God of Israel, with an older form of Israelite cult practice—the use of bulls or calves to suggest the invisible divine presence—being critiqued here. However, rather than corroborating the Exodus narrative’s presentation of the affair, the version of the episode preserved in Deuteronomy reflects the profoundly different imperatives of a later age. While the Exodus narrative ultimately hearkens back to a time in Israel’s history in which the making of the Calf was perceived primarily as a lamentable cultic infraction, the reframing of the narrative in Deuteronomy embeds it in a larger discourse in which the making of the Calf appears as the pre-eminent example of idolatry, a distinctive ideological construction of the exilic and post-exilic periods that marked all forms of religious practice not sanctioned as “orthodox” as betrayals of the covenant and regression to the worship of false gods.
The Qur’anic Calf Episode Between Orientalism and Islamic Tradition
Authors: Pregill Michael E.
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the qur’anic Golden Calf episode as it is traditionally interpreted in both Muslim exegesis and Western scholarship. The qur’anic references to the image worshipped by the Israelites are usually understood as depicting the Calf as alive or at least possessing some semblance of life—as ? lowing image of a calf, as the Qur’an puts it. Further, the Qur’an seems to posit that the Calf was made and animated by a character called al-sāmirī—the “Samaritan”—and not Aaron as in the biblical story. Western scholars and traditional Muslim commentators have always agreed on this interpretation of the qur’anic version of the episode. However, this chapter shows that Western scholars have generally relied upon the explanation of the episode in Muslim exegesis or tafsīr, misunderstanding the role that early Muslim commentators played in introducing a radical revision of the story that was quite different in major details from the account found in the Qur’an itself. This can be demonstrated by examining historical translations of the Qur’an in the West, beginning with some of the earliest translations and commentaries of the medieval and early modern periods in Europe. In the specific case of the Calf narrative, Western scholars’ reliance on tafsīr has typically been motivated not by a desire to validate the claims of Muslim authorities, but rather by the assumption that Islam is at its root thoroughly dependent upon Judaism. This assumption has colored not only the overarching approach to the qur’anic narrative per se, but also the characterization of a number of rabbinic traditions that have been cited as the sources of that narrative.
Gods of the Common People
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: September 2020

It is sometimes argued that, despite abandoning formal organizations, the British remain religious. Beyond churches, sects, and denominations, there is supposedly a deep reservoir of folk religion (which constructs magic rituals from Christian themes and places) and superstition. This chapter examines that case in detail and argues that folk religion has declined as fast as the formal organizations on which it is parasitic. Furthermore, superstition has changed in precisely the same way as has formal religion: what were shared beliefs have become highly personalized rituals, justified not by claims of supernatural power, but by the psychology of reassurance.
Spiritualism, Spirituality, and Social Class
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: September 2020

Although Victorian spiritualism and contemporary spirituality share some common themes, they differ in important respects that reflect their very different social class bases: the former was strongest in the working-class towns of the industrial English Midlands and the North, while the latter is almost exclusively a middle-class (and female) movement. The popularity of both movements is assessed, and data on the geographical distribution of the charismatic movement is added to make an important point about the effects of individualism and consumerism on religion. The general point is made that the contrasting balance of fatalism and personal autonomy in these variations of the dominant religion resonates with the underlying realities of different social class position.
Essence and Definition by Abstraction
Authors: Hale Bob
Published: September 2020

We may define words. We may also define the things for which words stand. Definitions of words may be explicit or implicit, and may seek to report pre-existing synonymies, but they may instead be wholly or partly stipulative. Definition by abstraction seeks to define a term-forming operator by fixing the truth-conditions of identity-statements featuring terms formed by means of that operator. Such definitions are a species of implicit definition. They are typically at least partly stipulative. Definitions of things (real definitions) are typically conceived as statements about the essence of their definienda, and so not stipulative. There thus appears to be a clash between taking Hume's principle as an implicit, at least partly stipulative definition of the number operator and as a real definition of cardinal numbers. This chapter argues that this apparent tension can be resolved, and that resolving it shows how some modal knowledge can be a priori.
Ontological Categories and the Problem of Expressibility with Øystein Linnebo
Authors: Hale Bob
Published: September 2020

Frege famously held that ontological categories correspond to logico-syntactic types. Something is an object just in case it can be referred to by a singular term, and likewise for all the other ontological categories. However, this view faces an expressibility problem. In order to express the view, we need to generalize across ontological categories; but according to the view itself, any one variable can only range over a single ontological category. This chapter provides a sharp formulation of the problem of expressibility. It shows that there is no easy way out, and then explores some of the hard ways out.
What Makes True Universal Statements True?
Authors: Hale Bob
Published: September 2020

What makes true universal statements true? For example, what makes the statement that all aardvarks are insectivorous true? In addressing this question, this chapter focuses especially on how it is to be answered within the framework of what Kit Fine calls exact truthmaker semantics. The main aim is to promote an alternative account of the truthmakers for quantified propositions. This chapter also gives some attention to two closely-related questions: first, when, and why, we should favour an alternative to the standard account, and second, whether the alternative account proposed can be accommodated within the framework of exact truthmaker semantics, in Fine’s sense.
Relative Necessity Reformulated with Jessica Leech
Authors: Hale Bob
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses some serious difficulties for what it calls the standard account of various kinds of relative necessity, according to which any given kind of relative necessity may be defined by a strict conditional—necessarily, if C then p—where C is a suitable constant proposition, such as a conjunction of physical laws. It is argued, with the help of Humberstone (1981), that the standard account has several unpalatable consequences. It is argued that Humberstone’s alternative account has certain disadvantages, and another—considerably simpler—solution is offered. The proposed alternative takes seriously the idea that the standard account omits crucial information which, if suitably replaced, allows the problems to be solved.
Definition, Abstraction, Postulation, and Magic
Authors: Hale Bob
Published: September 2020

In recent work, Kit Fine proposes a new approach to the philosophy of mathematics, which he calls procedural postulationism: the postulates from which a mathematical theory is derived are imperatival, rather than indicative, in character. According to procedural postulationism, what is postulated in mathematics are not propositions true in a given mathematical domain, but rather procedures for the construction of that domain. Fine claims some very significant advantages for procedural postulationism over other approaches. This chapter raises some questions for the view and its promised advantages. One crucial set of questions concerns how exactly the commands of procedural postulationism are to be understood. And in particular, how literally are we to take talk of construction?
Bolzano’s Definition of Analytic Propositions with Crispin Wright
Authors: Hale Bob
Published: September 2020

The chapter begins by drawing attention to some drawbacks of the Frege-Quine definition of analytic truth. With this the definition of analytic propositions given by Bolzano in his Wissenschaftslehre is contrasted. If Bolzano’s definition is viewed, as Bolzano himself almost certainly did not view it, as attempting to capture the notion of analyticity as truth-in-virtue-of-meaning, which occupied centre stage during the first half of the last century and which, Quine’s influential assault on it notwithstanding, continues to attract philosophical attention, it runs into some very serious problems. It is argued that Bolzano’s central idea can, nevertheless, be used as the basis of a new definition which avoids these problems and possesses definite advantages over the Frege-Quine approach.
Vertical Arrangements
Authors: Ahdar Rex
Published: September 2020

Then law governing vertical arrangements is a comparatively undeveloped area in NZ competition law. With only resale price maintenance (RPM) expressly prohibited by the Act, it has fallen to the general prohibitions on anticompetitive arrangements and monopolization to address traditional antitrust mischiefs such as exclusive dealing and tying. The leading case on exclusive dealing was heavily influenced by Chicagoan thinking to the degree that the courts gave the green light to durable distribution arrangements that countenanced foreclosure on a large scale and were plainly anti-competitive. However, the few cases on tying have been more fruitful insofar as remedies have been granted to rectify blatant leveraging by dominant firms into related markets. A period of active enforcement of RPM by the Commerce Commission marked the first decade, but the swathe of prosecutions dried up as the twenty-first century began.
Introduction
Authors: Zamponi Raoul , Comrie Bernard
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides background information on the languages of the Great Andamanese and Ongan language families and more specifically on Akabea, plus information on Akabea social structure, language contact, and the nature of the extant language documentation. It also provides a typological survey of Akabea, including features interesting for areal typology.
Clauses
Authors: Zamponi Raoul , Comrie Bernard
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the syntax of clauses, including constituent order. Particular attention is paid to different clause types: declarative, imperative, interrogative (polarity questions, constituent questions), exclamatory, and differences between copular and verbal clauses.
Texts
Authors: Zamponi Raoul , Comrie Bernard
Published: September 2020

This chapter presents six original texts, three narratives and three songs, with glosses, translation, and commentary.
Neurobiology of Pleasure and Pain
Authors: Narens Louis , Skyrms Brian
Published: September 2020

Does neurobiology deliver a Utilitarian measurement of pleasure and pain? Much remains unknown, but enough is known to show that neurobiology just makes the problems more complex and difficult.
Introduction
Authors: Cheetham David
Published: September 2020

This introduction outlines the agenda for the book. It is an agenda that seeks to bring the doctrine of creation and the theology of religions into dialogue and in so doing it comes at things from a different direction than other works. The doctrine of creation generates a new arena – one that lowers our gaze to more quotidian, finite and limited concerns. The book contains an extensive exploration of the doctrine of creation and asks how it might intervene distinctively into interfaith relations and produce a new conceptual and practical topography. In this introduction, we consider thetrajectories taken by scholars towards understanding religious pluralism and the nature of revelation. Has the ‘god of the philosophers’ dominated the debate? Is the doctrine of creation a theological home for more localized comparative theologies? It is argued that closer attention to themes of creation, phenomenology, and embodiment is required to shed a new light on the debate about interfaith relations. The second half of the introduction contains a synopsis of the book as a whole.
Logos and Sophia
Authors: Cheetham David
Published: September 2020

Here we seek to compare the approaches to other faiths through the lenses of Logos and Sophia. This chapter will propose that a creational theology calls for a contextual sense of order rather than the universal type. Attention is given to the work of Sergius Bulgakov and David Kelsey. A contrast is made between Sophia and the rational scientific logos (which is not identical to the Logos). It is argued that everyday wisdom emerges across different cultures and traditions. Kelsey seeks to separate creation from other theological themes such as redemption and consummation. That is, a theology of creation is established less on the Genesis texts and more on the Wisdom tradition. In so doing, a new territory opens up, one that provides a space for discourse between religions based on quotidian interests rather than soteriological ones.
‘Octaves’
Authors: Kahn Andrew
Published: September 2020

The Soviet regime asked of its citizens transparency of motivation in the drive towards socialist consciousness. In the cycle ‘Octaves’, Mandelstam reprised the process of internal inspection previously broached in the ‘Slate Ode’. Whereas the ode configured subjectivity as in Freudian terms still acceptable to Soviet psychology, by the early 1930s, more scientific, rationalist models of the mind dominated. In exploring whether the mind of the poet is its own internal world, and what laws determine how thought develops, Mandelstam drew on Goethe’s description of plant morphology, supplemented by the theories of speech by his own contemporary, the pioneering neuropsychologist Lev Vygotsky. What is in nature, what is in us, what is accidental and what can be controlled? The chapter ends with poems that wonder whether it would solve the problem of uncontrollable thought (and subversiveness) if the poet’s mind were like the Aeolian harp and poems like music.
From Mortal to Immortal Love
Authors: Kahn Andrew
Published: September 2020

Mandelstam wrote another set of poems marked by the contrast between love as a form of deep social feeling and love as a renunciation of the earthly. Poems that represent love as a social bond celebrate intimacy as friendship, showing a sense of ethical responsibility and protective consolation in a hostile world. Love as depicted here is, in the famous phrase of the Russian philosopher Vladimir Soloviev in On the Meaning of Love, ‘the justification and salvation of individuality through the sacrifice of egoism’. Other poems elevate love to a metaphysical category, reviving the use of archetype that Mandelstam favoured before 1918. But instead of troubled figures like Phaedra and Helen of Troy, the feminine ideal projected here takes the form of otherworldly angels who transcend death. Those visions of the eternal beloved complement the poet’s flight to safety described in the final poems of exile.
Introduction
Authors: Kolanoski Hermann , Wermes Norbert
Published: September 2020

The detection of elementary particles nuclei and high-energetic electromagnetic radiation – in this book collectively called ‘particles’ – occurs through the interaction of particles with matter. This introduction gives a short overview of the relevant interactions and the apparatuses with which the particles are detected. Finally the literature on similar subjects is pointed to and the goal and the layout of the book are explained.
Non-electronic detectors
Authors: Kolanoski Hermann , Wermes Norbert
Published: September 2020

This chapter presents the non-electronic detector types cloud chamber, bubble chamber and photoemulsions with which the trajectories of ionizing particles can be made visible. Of these ‘classical’ detectors cloud and bubble chambers have today no or at most only minor relevance in research because of their relatively cumbersome data acquisition. However, photoemulsions–despite their laborious data analysis–are still employed in modern experiments when it comes to achieving position resolutions in the micrometer regime. Therefore deployment and analysis of photoemulsions are described in some more detail. Cloud chambers are today only used for demonstration purposes to make radioactivity and cosmic radiation visible. Bubble chamber pictures are frequently drawn on to display reaction chains and event topologies.
Cherenkov detectors
Authors: Kolanoski Hermann , Wermes Norbert
Published: September 2020

Particles passing through a medium with a velocity larger than that of light in that medium emit electromagnetic radiation, called Cherenkov radiation. In this chapter the physical phenomenon and characteristic parameters of Cherenkov radiation, such as Cherenkov angle, spectrum and emission intensity, are introduced and the applications for particle detection and identification are discussed. It follows a presentation of the relevant detector types, such as threshold and differential Cherenkov detectors, ring imaging detectors (RICH and DIRC) as well as Cherenkov detectors in astroparticle experiments. The obtainable resolutions for particle identification via Cherenkov ring imaging and their limitations are discussed as well.