bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Malea Cape
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Malea is the easternmost cape of the three peninsulas of the southern part of the Peloponnese, extending into the Aegean Sea from a plain lying at the foothills of the Parnon range, east of Sparta.
Marakanda/Samarkand
Authors: Rapin Claude
Published: December 2012

During antiquity, the city of Samarkand was the capital of Sogdiana under the name Marakanda (Curtius Rufus, Arrian, Strabo, and Ptolemy).
Methymna
Authors: Schaus Gerald
Published: December 2012

Methymna, on the north coast of Lesbos, was the second leading city‐state of the island, and close rival of Mytilene.
Mykonos
Authors: Constantakopoulou Christy
Published: December 2012

Mykonos is an island in the Cyclades (Strabo 10.5.3), situated to the north of Delos.
Myrina
Authors: Dimitrova Nora
Published: December 2012

Myrina, a pre‐Greek name, secondarily associated with the homonymous Amazon, was, together with Hephaestia, one of the two major cities in ancient Lemnos.
Nikopiolis
Authors: Wacker Christian
Published: December 2012

Nikopolis (Nicopolis; Actia Nicopolis) was founded by Octavian after his victory against Antonius at the battle of Actium in the year 30
BCE
.
Oiniadai
Authors: Freitag Klaus
Published: December 2012

Oiniadai was an Akarnanian polis near the delta of the Acheloos River.
Pantikapaion, Bosphorus
Authors: Muratov Maya B.
Published: December 2012

Pantikapaion was a Greek city located on a hill, known since the nineteenth century as Mount Mithradates, in the center of the modern city of Kerch in the easternmost part of the Crimean Peninsula in the northern Black Sea.
Paropamisos mountains
Authors: Gupta Sunil
Published: December 2012

Paropamisos is the ancient Greek name of the Hindu Kush mountain range that divided ancient Bactria (northern Afghanistan) from India (
Ptol. Geog
. 6.18; McCrindle 1884/1994: 86–7).
Paros
Authors: Constantakopoulou Christy
Published: December 2012

Paros is the second largest island of the Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea, famous throughout Antiquity for its white marble.
Pasargadai
Authors: Maras Sabrina
Published: December 2012

The archaeological remains of Pasargadai, the capital city and final resting place of Cyrus the Great (r. 559–530BCE), are located in the present‐day province of Fars, in southwestern Iran.
Philadelphia
Authors: Lichtenberger Achim
Published: December 2012

Philadelphia is a Greco‐Roman city of the Syrian Dekapolis (cf. Plin.
HN
5.18.74) in Jordan, present day Amman.
Phokis
Authors: McInerney Jeremy
Published: December 2012

Phokis lies in central Greece and encompasses a broad swath of territory dominated by Mount Parnassos.
Poseidon Sounion sanctuary
Authors: Steinhauer Julietta
Published: December 2012

The sanctuary of Poseidon at Sounion marked the point where Aegeus, the mythical Athenian king, threw himself into the sea in grief, thinking his son Theseus dead, and so giving his name to the Aegean Sea.
Samos
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Samos is an island of the eastern Aegean, lying opposite the cape formed from Mount Mycale and southwest of Ephesos.
Sardis
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Sardis is located in Lydia, at the foot of the Tmolos Mountain range, on its north side, along the route of the Paktolos River, which rises at a higher elevation of the Tmolos and flows northward.
Seleukeia ad Calycadnum/Tracheia
Authors: Iossif Panagiotis P.
Published: December 2012

Seleukeia ad Calycadnum (modern Silifke) or Tracheia (Ptol. 5.7.5) was a foundation of Seleukos I (Alexander PolyhistorFGH273 F132; Amm. Marc. 14.8.2; Steph. s.v. “Seleukeia”) near the River Calycadnos. The foundation must be dated after 295BCE, when the king conquered Cilicia on his way to Macedonia. The new foundation was populated by different synoecisms, such as Antioch on the Orontes, especially with the population of the city of Holmoi (Strabo 14.5.4) or of Hermia (Plin.HN5.93). According to one source, the city was a re‐foundation of the earlier settlements of Olbia and Hyria (Steph. s.v. “Seleukeia”).
Sidon
Authors: Jigoulov Vadim
Published: December 2012

Sidon, a Phoenician city‐state located 35 km north of Tyre and 40 km south of Beirut in Lebanon, was an important maritime and political center in the Iron Age and Persian periods.
Smyrna
Authors: Hernández Juan Pablo Sánchez
Published: December 2012

Smyrna (modern Izmir) is a Greek city located on the Aegean coast of Anatolia.
Sogdia
Authors: Lerner Jeffrey D.
Published: December 2012

Sogdia, corresponding to Tadjikistan and Uzbekistan, was bounded in the north by the river Jaxartes (modern Syr‐Daria), along which ran a series of forts established by Cyrus, as well as Alexander the Great's foundation of Alexandria Eschate, and by the River Oxus (modern Amu‐Daria) to the south.
Stageira
Authors: Loukopoulou Louisa
Published: December 2012

Stageira, the birthplace of the great philosopher Aristotle, was a Greek city founded in 655
BCE
by Ionian settlers from Andros and Chalcis on the northeast coast of the Chalcidic peninsula.
Taygetos mountain
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

The Taygetos mountain range overlooks the Eurotas River valley on the west and the city of Sparta on the east in the southern Peloponnese.
Termessos
Authors: Brandt Hartwin
Published: December 2012

Termessos, presumably an Archaic Anatolian settlement, occupies a place in southern Anatolia set in a spectacular landscape.
Thasos
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Thasos is an island in the North Aegean, lying about 25 km southeast of Kavala, Greece (ancient Neapolis).
T
molos mountain
Authors: Daubner Frank
Published: December 2012

The Tmolos mountain, today Boz Dağ, is part of a mountain range that also forms the Erythraean peninsula and the island of Chios.
Tanais
Authors: Rapin Claude
Published: December 2012

In the Greco‐Roman sources, the name Tanais is related to various geographic entities. Originally, it represented the Don River in Russia, which flows into the Sea of Azov (Palus Maeotis), connected to the northern shore of the black sea (Pontus Euxinus) through the straits of Kertch (Kimmerian Bosphorus) (Strabo 11.1.5).
Nisa
Authors: Rapin Claude
Published: December 2012

Situated at the foot of the Kopet‐dag to the west of Ashgabat in Turkmenistan, Nisa (known as Nisaia in theMargianaof Ptolemy) was the first capital of the Parthian kingdom, founded by Arsaces in the middle of the third centuryBCE.
Methone, Messenia
Authors: West William
Published: December 2012

Methone is located in the southwest corner of the Peloponnese on the peninsula of Messenia.
Prayer, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Meyrat Pierre
Published: December 2012

In ancient Egypt, a prayer was an oral invocation, addressed to one or several gods or goddesses, by a man or woman of any social status, usually requesting divine assistance to solve problems related to their current personal situation. Intercessions on behalf of a third party were also common. It is not known how loudly a prayer was whispered, spoken, or even sung. Many of them were probably kept in the oral tradition, but modern scholars can only rely on those preserved in writing. Although most prayers are related to danger, captivity, illness, pregnancy, professional achievement, or a peaceful afterlife, wide‐ranging topics such as the well‐being of the country or the victory of the king in battle could also be the object of such calls. When the aim is to praise the god, without mentioning any specific query, it is referred to as a
hymn
, but the boundary between prayer and hymn is often blurred.
Abu Gurob
Authors: Bárta Miroslav
Published: December 2012

Abu Gurob is an Old Kingdom site lying about 20 km south of Cairo with two 5th Dynasty sun temples.
Abu Simbel
Authors: Gohary Jocelyn
Published: December 2012

One of the finest temples of New Kingdom Egypt lies only a few kilometers from the Sudanese border and in ancient times was located in Lower Nubia, which was a province of Egypt during that period. The Great Temple at Abu Simbel was built by Rameses II during the first half of his reign and was dedicated to the king and the gods Amun‐Re and Re‐Harakhti. Rameses II also built a smaller temple at the same site dedicated jointly to his first chief wife, Nefertari, and the goddess Hathor. Both of these rock‐cut temples were salvaged during the UNESCO‐sponsored Nubian Rescue Campaign in the 1960s and now stand 65 m above their former positions, each covered with an artificial mountain to replicate their original locations.
Afterlife, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Haikal Fayza
Published: December 2012

Introduction

Resurrection and afterlife for the Egyptian were a fact, evidenced by the movement of the stars, the daily cycle of the sun, and the yearly cycle of the flood and vegetation. Ever since Egyptian burials were found, funerary equipment, indicating the belief in an afterlife where the deceased might need such objects, accompanied the body. Thus the question was not whether afterlife existed, but rather what it was like, how to prepare for it, communicate with it, reach it, and survive in it eternally.
Hor‐Aha
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Generally regarded as the second king of the 1st Egyptian Dynasty, Hor‐Aha has sometimes been argued as the being the prototype for Menes, the traditional unifier of Egypt at the beginning of the third millenniumBCE; on the other hand, others have equated Menes with Narmer, apparently Hor‐Aha's predecessor.
Amenhotep, son of Hapu
Authors: Haikal Fayza
Published: December 2012

Amenhotep, son of Hapu (also known as Huy, ca. 1430
BCE
– 1350
BCE
) was born at Athribis in the Delta near modern Benha in the time of Thutmose III (or Amenhotep II) to a father called Hapu and a mother called Itu.
Amun‐Re
Authors: Bednarski Andrew
Published: December 2012

Amun was one of the most important deities in ancient Egypt and remains one of the best represented in the surviving material culture. His name means the “hidden” or “secret one” and represents his unknowable nature.
Antiquities Service, Egypt, history of
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

In 1835, an ordinance by the Governor of Egypt prohibited the export or destruction of antiquities, required that all excavators acquire an official permit, and founded a national museum. However, its collections were steadily given away to official visitors, the residue going to the Austrian Archduke Maximillian in 1855.
Wahibre (Apries)
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Haaibre Wahibre (Greek Apries, the Biblical Hophra) was the son and successor of Psamtik II, coming to the throne in 589BCE.
Architecture, Egyptian
Authors: Rossi Corinna
Published: December 2012

Pharaonic architecture includes some of the most famous monuments of the world, as well as the remains of many other lesser‐known buildings; they all contribute, however, to our knowledge of ancient Egyptian architecture.
Athribis, Tell Atrib
Authors: Mynářová Jana
Published: December 2012

The site of Tell Atrib (Greek Athribis, ancient Egyptian
Ḥwt‐hry‐jb(t)
) is located in the southern part of the Delta, approximately 50 km north of Cairo, in the suburbs of the modern‐day city of Benha (Vernus 1975). Athribis was an important political, religious, and administrative center of the Nile Delta and the capital city of the Tenth nome of Lower Egypt. According to written sources, the earliest history of the site can be dated to the early Old Kingdom, but the city only reached its peak during the second half of the first millennium
bce
(Ptolemaic and Roman periods). A small brick pyramid first documented by Napoleon's expedition and still visible at the site during the nineteenth century is now completely lost (Ćwiek 1998: 41). The city's development during the New Kingdom (18th Dynasty), documented by an amount of archaeological material, can be associated with the reign of Amenhotep III (ca. 1388–1351) and more concretely with a figure of his notable court: the official and subsequently deified architect
amenhotep, son of hapu
. Amenhotep contributed significantly to the growth of his hometown. There are references to a temple constructed by Amenhotep III at the site. During the 25th and 26th Dynasties, two temples were erected at the site, as attested by two foundation deposits (dated to the reigns of Taharka and Ahmose II, respectively). A large Greco‐Roman settlement, with extensive complexes of workshops, public and private baths, as well as a cemetery (including the tomb of Queen Takhut, a wife of Psamtek II), have been identified. During the fourth century
bce
and in the Hellenistic period, Athribis was known as an important multinational and multicultural center in theMediterranean world, with inhabitants of Egyptian and Greek as well as Near Eastern origin, first living in the neighborhood of the temple of Horus‐Khenty‐khety. Based on texts, it is possible to postulate the presence of a Jewish colony in Athribis. The prominent position of Athribis as an important metropolis in the Mediterranean continued into the Roman period.
Beni Hasan
Authors: Kamrin Janice
Published: December 2012

The necropolis of Beni Hasan lies on the east bank of the Nile in Middle Egypt, about 23 km south of the modern town of Minya. Actively used from the Old Kingdom through the late periods, with a hiatus in the New Kingdom, it was associated with the 16th Upper Egyptian, or Oryx, Nome. The principal monuments here are a series of thirty‐nine Middle Kingdom tombs cut into the cliffs of the eastern high desert. The slopes below these are honeycombed with chamber, pit, and shaft tombs dating primarily from the late Old Kingdom and the early Middle Kingdom.
Bes
Authors: Kraemer Bryan
Published: December 2012

Bes is an ancient Egyptian apotropaic god, who protects children, women in childbirth, and sleeping people.
Bitumen, ancient Egypt
Authors: Harrell James A.
Published: December 2012

Petroleum seeping at the Earth's surface thickens by evaporation of volatiles and bio‐degradation to form viscous heavy oil, commonly referred to as tar or pitch, and semi‐solid to solid asphalt.
Building materials and techniques, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Rossi Corinna
Published: December 2012

Ancient Egyptian architecture was mainly built of mud brick and stone. Mud bricks were used from the earliest period to construct houses, palaces, granaries, magazines, workshops, forts, and enclosure walls, as well as temples and tombs; stone was the main building material of the most important temples and tombs from the Old Kingdom onwards.
Burial, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

The ideal Egyptian tomb comprised two distinct elements: an offering place that was open to the public and burial apartments that were intended to be closed for good after the burial had taken place.
Cemeteries, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

In Egyptian mortuary belief, the abode of the dead lay in the west, where the sun set.
Cenotaphs
Authors: Nelson‐Hurst M. G.
Published: December 2012

The term“cenotaph” is borrowed from classical archaeology, where it refers to an empty tomb erected for a person whose body was missing or who died away from home. However, in Egyptology the term is used rather loosely for structures of a funerary nature that did not contain an actual burial, including Ka‐chapels, secondary tombs, and symbolic tombs of deities. These different types of structure embodied different concepts and no single word in Egyptian is used for them. Use of the term “cenotaph” is a modern convention with no basis in the ancient Egyptian record.
Cities, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Adams Matthew Douglas
Published: December 2012

The nature of the settlement system in Pharaonic Egypt and, more specifically, whether settlements of a scale and density sufficient to be termed “cities” comprised a significant component of it, have long been the subjects of scholarly debate, much of which has taken place on the basis of meager or problematic evidence.
Deir el‐Medina
Authors: Shazly Yasmin El
Published: December 2012

Deir el‐Medina is the modern Arabic name of a settlement site located on the west bank of the Nile, opposite Luxor. It is situated in a bay in the cliffs between the Ramesseum and Medinet Habu. The ancient name of the site, when it was first established in the 18th Dynasty, was
Set Aa
or “The Great Place.”
Demotic, legal texts
Authors: Manning Joseph
Published: December 2012

Demotic law refers to the legal tradition in the period ca. 650BCE‐second centuryCE, when the demotic script/language was used in the writing of legal texts. Demotic legal texts form one of the best pre‐Roman legal corpora.
Den
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

The Horus Den was a king of the 1st Egyptian Dynasty, around the thirtieth/twenty‐ninth centuryBCE. He was presumably a son of his predecessor Djet; that his mother was Merneith is confirmed by the king's necropolis sealing. It seems that she ruled as regent during Den's earlier years. To judge from the later Abydos temple offering lists, his personal name seems to have been Semti.
Djoser
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

The Horus Netjerkhet Djoser was the first king of the 3rd Egyptian Dynasty, apparently a son of Khasekhemwy, last king of the 2nd Dynasty, and his wife Nimaathap. The discovery of a sealing naming Djoser in Khasekhemwy's tomb has now proved that he did indeed found the dynasty, rather than being preceded by another king as was long believed. That Djoser's reign was felt to be an important point in Egyptian history by New Kingdom scribes is indicated by the fact that his title is exceptionally inscribed in red ink in the Turin King List, which gives him a reign of nineteen years. Two daughters, Hetephirnebty and Intkaes, are known from a number of sources.
Early Dynastic Period, Egypt
Authors: Bestock Laurel
Published: December 2012

The Early Dynastic period is the time of transition between the Predynastic and the Old Kingdom in Egypt.
Late Period, Egypt
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

The Late Period is a term used to classify either the 26th through 31st or the 27th through 31st Egyptian Dynasties (663/525–332
BCE
); the 26th Dynasty is sometimes placed in its own separate “Saite Period.”.
Egypt, Lower
Authors: Wilson Penelope
Published: December 2012

Lower Egypt is the term used for the Delta or northern part of Egypt, where the “lower” reaches of the Nile continue north of Memphis (and modern Cairo) to the Mediterranean sea.
Old Kingdom, Egypt
Authors: Bárta Miroslav
Published: December 2012

The Old Kingdom, together with the Early Dynastic Period, is the earliest period of Egyptian Pharaonic history. The Old Kingdom is comprised of Dynasties 3–6, ca. 2592–2150BCE.
Saite Period, Egypt
Authors: Wilson Penelope
Published: December 2012

The Saite Period, 664–525BCE, is so named because its kings ruled from their “hometown” Sais in the central‐western Delta, forming Egypt's 26th Dynasty.
Third Intermediate Period, Egypt
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

The 21st through 25th Egyptian Dynasties (late eleventh century to 664BCE) are now generally referred to as the Third Intermediate Period, although other terminology has been used in the past, including “Late New Kingdom,” or classifying the era as part of the Late Period.
Egyptomania, western
Authors: Lupton Carter
Published: December 2012

Egyptomania is generally taken to mean more than just an intense fascination or mania for all things Egyptian, a concept better described as Egyptophilia. Egyptomania refers rather to the modifying rather than simply copying of Egyptian forms, often providing new symbolic meanings never inherent in the Egyptian originals.
El‐Lahun
Authors: Szpakowska Kasia
Published: December 2012

El‐Lahun refers to a Late Middle Kingdom Phyramid complex and its associated settlement in Egypt's fertile Fayyum district.
Farafra Oasis
Authors: Barich Barbara E.
Published: December 2012

The Farafra Oasis is located in the Egyptian Western Desert, also identified as the Egyptian‐Libyan Desert.
Fate, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Nelson‐hurst M. G.
Published: December 2012

The concept of fate in ancient Egypt seems most closely related to the word
shau,
something fixed or ordained by a god. Several aspects of a person's life were believed to be ordained at birth, including one's profession, social status, level of wealth, and the time and nature of one's death.
Festivals, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: L. Kimpton Jennifer
Published: December 2012

Festivals played a vital role in the cultic life of ancient Egypt from its earliest history. The rituals, offerings, and processions characteristic of most festivals created moments of interaction between the human world and the divine. Their function was to maintain the essential order of the universe, whereby the gods would grant the conditions necessary for human prosperity in exchange for the requirements of their own existence. Even festivals of a seemingly secular nature, such as the king's annually observed coronation festival, should be understood in a cosmological context: as a human steward of divine kingship, the king embodied a conduit between mankind and the gods (seekingship, pharaonic egypt).
Funerary cult, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: M. Hays Harold
Published: December 2012

Upon death, an Egyptian was the beneficiary of a set of rituals performed by priests. The steps of the process corresponded to the practical steps after death: taking the corpse to a place of embalming, the embalming itself, taking the corpse to the tomb, and interment. The words and actions ofthe rituals superimposed a clear metaphysical purpose upon these practical activities: the rituals of the funerary cult were thought to raise the mortal to the superhuman. Where best preserved and represented, the rituals make him out to be a god (specifically the god of resurrection, Osiris), and also to be an
akh
(an exalted spirit), as well as one who was “true of voice” (i.e., found worthy at post‐mortem judgment).
Gaza (Bronze Age)
Authors: Fischer Peter M.
Published: December 2012

The Bronze Age of Gaza is divided into three main periods: the Early (roughly 3600–1950BCE), Middle (1950–1530), and Late Bronze ages (1530–1200).
Gebelein
Authors: Warden Leslie Anne
Published: December 2012

Gebelein is an archaeological site on the west bank of the Nile in Upper Egypt, near the modern village of Naga el‐Gherira and across the river from El‐Mo'alla, in the fourth nome of Upper Egypt.
Harmachis
Authors: Shaw Garry J.
Published: December 2012

Harmachis was a manifestation of the god Horus, specific to the Giza pyramids zone, with his cult focused on the Great Sphinx – this royal statue, originally carved to represent King Khafre of the Old Kingdom, having become regarded as an image of Harmachis by the early New Kingdom (Zivie‐Coche 1976: 307–8).
Herihor
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Herihor was a High Priest of Amun at Karnak around the end of the 20th Egyptian Dynasty, who eventually also depicted himself as a king, enclosing his name and priestly title in cartouches in the forecourt of the temple of Khonsu at Karnak.
Ibis
Authors: Wyatt John
Published: December 2012

Three species of large, long‐legged Ibis, all with long decurved bills – the African Sacred Ibis (
Threskiornis aethiopicus
), the Northern Bald Ibis (
Geronticus eremite
), and the Glossy Ibis (
Plegadis falcinellus
), can be shown, from mummies, bone remains, hieroglyphs, art, and artifacts, to have existed in ancient Egypt.
Imhotep
Authors: Bárta Miroslav
Published: December 2012

Imhotep (translated as “he who comes in peace”) is known as the builder of the step pyramid complex of King Djoser in Saqqara.
Inundation, Egypt
Authors: Espinel Andres D.
Published: December 2012

Nile floods are caused by summer tropical monsoon rains falling on the Ethiopian plateau, where the Blue Nile and the Atbara River originate.
Irrigation, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Butzer Karl W.
Published: December 2012

The earliest irrigation in ancient Egypt can best be understood in terms of traditional flood recession (décrue) agriculture in West Africa, where the clayey river plains of the Senegal, Niger, and Logone rivers flood naturally.
Kalabsha
Authors: Smith Stuart Tyson
Published: December 2012

The temple and fortified settlement of Kalabsha (or Talmis) were located south of Aswan, one of a series of Ptolemaic and later Roman settlements established in the Dodekaschoinos.
Kawa
Authors: Smith Stuart Tyson
Published: December 2012

Kawa lies on the east bank of the Nile, south of the third cataract opposite the modern town of Dongola.
Khaemwaset
Authors: Kawai Nozomu
Published: December 2012

Khaemwaset was the son of Rameses II by his second great wife Isisnofret, who was also the mother of king Merenptah. He was born during the reign of Sety I, when his father was prince regent. A study of a series of princes in procession reliefs in Rameses II's temples proposed that he was the fourth son of Rameses II.
Kom Abu Billo/Terenuthis
Authors: Hawass Zahi
Published: December 2012

Kom Abu Billo is a small village on the western edge of the Delta in the governorate of Beheira, about 70 km northwest of Cairo. This site is best known for its Greco‐Roman and early Coptic Period monuments. The first exploration of this site was in 1935, when the University of Michigan carried out a one‐month project focused on the Greco‐Roman tombs at the western edge of the site.
Kom Ombo
Authors: Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

Kom Ombo, ancientNb(j)t(Nubt, city of gold), Greek Ombos, is located on a promontory overlooking a bend in the Nile, and was sometimes regarded as part of the frontier in the Greco‐Roman Period.
Libya and Libyans
Authors: Sagrillo Troy Leiland
Published: December 2012

Libya (broadly, the region immediately west of the Nile Valley) and its inhabitants are little known before the fifth century
BCE
, when they feature prominently in Book 4 of the
Histories
of Herodotus (Colin 2000).
Maps, Egypt
Authors: Rossi Corinna
Published: December 2012

Representations of landscape are not uncommon in Egyptian art, but the only topographical map that survives from ancient Egypt dates to the New Kingdom and represents an itinerary across the Eastern Desert (Shore 1987). It was originally drawn on a sheet of papyrus, 41 cm wide and more than 2 m long, and has belonged to the collection of the Turin Museum since this institution was first established (Gardiner 1914). The papyrus, broken in several fragments, was found in the early nineteenth century in a private tomb at Deir el‐Medina, on the west bank of Luxor.
Medamud
Authors: Larcher Cédric
Published: December 2012

Medamud is located on the Nile's east bank, 5 km north of the karnak temple. Early excavations revealed the remains of an irregular enclosed space dating from the First Intermediate Period and erected around two oval structures considered to be the primeval mounds (Kemp 2006: 134). During the Middle Kingdom, the site became increasingly important when Senwosret III built a new temple dedicated to the falcon‐god Montu, protected by a large enclosure. Several inscribed and decorated doorways from this period have been discovered. They show the king, either officiating in front of the god or celebrating his Heb‐Sed. Thutmose III was the first king from the New Kingdom to transform the temple, although only partially. Other pharaohs followed his example later by enlarging the main building. During the Ramesside Period, interest in the place started to decline. Interest was rekindled in the Ptolemaic era, with a new building program instituted at the site. A small temple was first built close to the main one, then, spurred on by ptolemy v epiphanes, a more impressive one was erected on the axis of the old sanctuary. A portico, a monumental gate, and three kiosks were added later. In the Roman era, the emperor Augustus finally initiated the construction of a large wall to protect the sacred area. This construction was completed by his successor, Tiberius, who added a large gate to mark the entrance, the last monumental edifice erected in pharaonic style at Medamud.
Meretseger
Authors: Ryan Donald P.
Published: December 2012

Meretseger was an Egyptian goddess worshipped as the protector of the New Kingdom necropoleis of Thebes and especially the royal cemeteries of the Valley of the Kings and Valley of the Queens.
Merykare
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Merykare was theprenomenof one of the last kings of the 10th Dynasty, which ruled the northern part of Egypt from the city of Herakleopolis Magna during the disunity of the First Intermediate Period; hisnomenis unknown.
Metallurgy, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Eccleston Mark A. J.
Published: December 2012

There was a strong tradition of metalworking from the earliest periods of Pre‐Dynastic Egyptian history. From the Badarian period, copper objects such as beads and pins made from “native copper” are known. Objects made from smelted copper, with alloying elements such as antimony and tin, are known from ca. 4000
BCE
and represent some of the earliest copper alloy objects in the world.
Models (stone and wood)
Authors: Orel Sara E.
Published: December 2012

Providing sustenance for the afterlife was a primary goal for preparers of Egyptian tombs.
Mummies and mummification
Authors: Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

The ancient Egyptians preserved the body through mummification so that the soul (baandka) could have a “house” for the eternal Afterlife (seeFunerary Cult, Pharaonic Egypt). Anyone who could afford it was mummified; even the poorest people attempted basic mummification. Ultimately the mummified body showed the individual in a semi‐divine state, as a result of the metamorphosis occasioned by death. Ideally, as the individual would become divine, the flesh would be transformed to gold and the hair to lapis lazuli. This is reflected in the colors chosen for coffins and funerary masks.
Nekau (Nekho)I‐II
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Nekau (Greek Nekho, Nekos) was the name of two Egyptian kings originating from the city of Sais (seeSais, Sa El‐Hagar).
Nefertum
Authors: Krämer Sabine
Published: December 2012

The Egyptian god Nefertum was originally identified with the lotus flower (blue waterlily,Nymphaea caerulea).
Naeferud (Nepherites)
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Naeferud (Greek: Nepherites) was the name of two kings of the 29th Egyptian Dynasty.
Nile
Authors: Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

The Nile River is the longest river in the world, measuring 6,741 km. It originates in East Africa.
Osiris
Authors: Bednarski Andrew
Published: December 2012

The supreme god of the afterlife and a god of regeneration, Osiris is traditionally depicted as a royal mummified, green‐skinned man.
Osorkon
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Osorkon was a Libyan name borne by five kings of the Egyptian Third Intermediate period.
Paint and painting, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Hartwig Melinda
Published: December 2012

Painting decorated most surfaces in ancient Pharaonic Egypt, from reliefs on tomb and temple stone walls; mud brick structures such as palaces, domestic shrines and houses; stone and wooden sculpture; coffins, sarcophagi, and cartonnage; to cosmetic objects, furniture, leather, linen, ostraca, papyri, pottery, faience, and tomb models. Painting added detail to carved, sculpted, and molded images, and created the form and design itself on flat surfaces. The color of pigment had symbolic value and gave information about the nature of the image. Specific styles, representational types, and scenes in painting were created in response to political, social, and religious demands.
Pan Grave culture
Authors: Warden Leslie Anne
Published: December 2012

Pan Grave culture refers to a nomadic Nubian group identifiable in the archaeological record from the end of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom through the Second Intermediate period (ca. 1775–1500BCE).
Pepi I and II
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Pepi was the name of two kings of the 6th Egyptian Dynasty.
Perfumes and unguents, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Zimmerle William
Published: December 2012

Perfumes and oils were essential elements for enhancing and preserving the life and afterlife of the ancient Egyptians.
Peribsen
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

During the earliest Egyptian dynasties, the most commonly used name from a king's titulary was the “Horus name,” linking the king with the patron god of the Egyptian monarchy.
Pharaoh
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

The term “pharaoh” is today used as a general term to describe a king of ancient Egypt. It is taken directly from the biblical books of Genesis and Exodus, where Joseph and Moses are described as dealing with “Pharaoh King of Egypt.”
Qasr Ibrim
Authors: Rose Pamela
Published: December 2012

The fortress of Qasr Ibrim lies about 200 km south of Aswan on the east bank of the Nile, and was, before the building of the High Dam at Aswan and the creation of Lake Nasser, located on a cliff top some 60 m above the river.
Rameses I–XI
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Rameses (“the one born of Re”) was a name incorporated into thenominaof a number of kings of Egypt, either on its own or alongside a further name. In addition to the eleven given ordinal numbers in modern times, king Siptah was at one stage in his reign known as Rameses‐Siptah, while Psusennes I was on occasion Rameses‐Pasebkhanut. The prevalence of the name during the 19th and 20th Dynasties has led to this period being referred to as the Ramesside period.
Religion, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Warburton David A. , Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

Egyptian religion is the only religion that was continuously practiced from prehistory until well into Christian times.
Reserve heads
Authors: Lacovara Peter
Published: December 2012

The so‐called reserve heads, life‐size human portraits ending at a flat, finished neck, are a unique feature of Old Kingdom sculpture.
Rock art
Authors: Huyge Dirk
Published: December 2012

Rock art, to be defined as non‐utilitarian, non‐textual anthropic markings on natural rock surfaces, was an extremely widespread graphical practice in ancient Egypt.
Senenmut
Authors: Schneider Thomas
Published: December 2012

Senenmut was an important court official and administrator of the temple of Amun at Karnak in the 18th Dynasty, during Hatshepsut's regency for Thutmose III and the reign of Hatshepsut (1479–1457
BCE
).
Serket, Selket
Authors: Bednarski Andrew
Published: December 2012

Serket is an Egyptian goddess usually depicted as a woman with an incomplete scorpion atop her head.
Seshat
Authors: Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

Seshat, meaning female scribe, was the quintessential Egyptian goddess of writing, record keeping, and drawing architectural plans.
Sex and sexuality, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Jacobson Courtney
Published: December 2012

Sexuality was interwoven with almost every aspect of life in ancient Egypt. The gods engaged in various forms of sex in mythology. Sexual innuendo decorated the walls of tombs. Sexual potency was the unseen force necessary to create all life; it was considered just as essential to food production on the Nile flood‐plains and navigating the afterlife as it was to human procreation.
SheshonqI–VI
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Sheshonq is a Libyan name, borne by a number of kings and notables during the 22nd and 23rd Egyptian Dynasties. The kings' regnal numbers were revised at an international conference in 2008 (Broekmann, Demarée, and Kaper 2008).
Speos Artemidos
Authors: Liszka Kate
Published: December 2012

Speos Artemidos (Greek for “Grotto of Artemis”) is modern Istabl ‘Antar, 3 km south ofBENI HASANin the Wadi Batn al‐Baqara, Egypt. The ancient Egyptian name for the site is unknown. It was in the sixteenth Upper EgyptianNOME.
Tanutamun, Tanwetamani
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Bakare Tanutamun (also transcribed as Tanwetamani) was the last king of the Nubian 25th Dynasty to rule in Egypt proper.
Tefnut
Authors: Nelson‐Hurst M. G.
Published: December 2012

Tefnut (
Tfnt
) was the first female deity in the Heliopolitan cosmogony.
Tell el‐Borg
Authors: Heagren Brett H.
Published: December 2012

Tell el‐Borg was one of the New Kingdom (1550–1069BCE) fortified stations situated along the “Ways‐of‐Horus,” the militarily vital road that served as the main thoroughfare across the North Sinai for Egyptian military operations into Asia.
Tell el‐Maskhuta
Authors: Redmount Carol A.
Published: December 2012

Tell el‐Maskhuta is a large stratified Delta town and cemetery site in the Wadi Tumilat, approximately 16 km west of modern Ismailia.
Tetisheri
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Tetisheri was the daughter of an otherwise unknown nobleman named Tjenna and his wife, Neferu. Tetisheri was grandmother of King Ahmose I of Egypt.
Thebes, East
Authors: Kawai Nozomu
Published: December 2012

Thebes (modern Luxor) is the ancient Greek name for the town of Waset, the main city of the Fourth Upper Egyptian nome.
Titulary, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

In its most developed form, from the latter part of the Old Kingdom onward, the titulary of the king comprised five names and associated titles.
Tiy
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Tiy (also spelled Tye or Ti; early to mid‐fourteenth century
BCE
; 18th Egyptian Dynasty) bore the titles King's Great Wife, Mistress of Upper and Lower Egypt, Mistress of the Two Lands, Lady of the Two Lands, and King's Mother, and was principal spouse of Amenhotep III and mother of Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV).
Tod
Authors: Gillam Robyn
Published: December 2012

Tod village occupies the settlement mound and temple area of the ancient city ofDjerty, Greek Tuphium, at the desert edge, on the east bank of the Nile, 25 km south of Luxor (Thebes, East), facing Armant (Iunmontu, Greek Hermonthis) on the other side of the river (Bisson de la Roque 1937a).
Transport, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Partridge Robert B.
Published: December 2012

Prehistoric Egypt comprised many separate communities along the banks of the Nile before they were united under one king around 3100
BCE
. The effective use of water‐borne and land transport facilitated the unification of Egypt and the flourishing of the ancient civilization for over three thousand years.
Tutankhamun
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Nebkheperure Tutankhaten, who later changed his name to Tutankhamun, was the successor of Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV).
Viceroy of Kush
Authors: Shirley J. J.
Published: December 2012

The position of Viceroy of Kush, a modern term for the ancient Egyptian title “king's son (of Kush) and overseer of southern countries,” was created at the very beginning of the 18th Dynasty, or perhaps slightly earlier (Spalinger 2006–53; Habachi 1980: 630).
Villages, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Warburton David A.
Published: December 2012

The vast majority of the population of Pharaonic Egypt lived in villages, but these are virtually unknown in the archaeological record, unexcavated and undocumented, in part because these areas remain inhabited to this day.
Wepwawet
Authors: Duquesne Terence
Published: December 2012

Wepwawet (Upwawet) is one of several deities in the ancient Egyptian pantheon who are represented as a jackal or a jackal‐headed human. The most important of these deities are Wepwawet and Anubis, to whom Wepwawet is a kind of divine twin. His name, meaning “He who cleaves open the paths,” was probably pronounced something like
Up‐oi
, as we can tell from its Hellenized form Ophois.
Kafr Hassan Dawood
Authors: Tassie G.J.
Published: December 2012

The site of Kafr Hassan Dawood is located on a low terrace adjacent to the southern edge of the western Wadi Tumilat, in Lower Egypt, and covers an area of 38.5 ha.
Tell Ibrahim Awad
Authors: van Haarlem Willem
Published: December 2012

From 1988 to 2004, regular excavations have been going on at Tell Ibrahim Awad, Sharqiya province, in the eastern Nile Delta, by the Netherlands Foundation for Archaeological Research in Egypt. The site of Tell Ibrahim Awad was selected for further excavation in 1986, after soundings had struck upon a rich 1st Dynasty tomb (in the zone later designated as Area B) and a large mud‐brick wall (in Area A). This later appeared to belong to a large early Middle Kingdom temple. These soundings were made during an extensive survey between 1984 and 1988 around the town of Faqus.
Piramesse
Authors: Bietak and Edgar Pusch Manfred
Published: December 2012

Piramesse was the residence and town of the 19th and 20th Dynasties, particularly of Rameses II, often identified with the biblical town Ramses/Ramesse (seeRameses I–XI).
Old age, Egypt
Authors: Janssen Rosalind
Published: December 2012

Ancient Egypt enjoyed no “golden age of senescence.”
Akragas (Agrigentum)
Authors: Pope Spencer
Published: December 2012

Akragas (modern Agrigento), a Greek colony located on the southern coast of Sicily, was founded in 582
BCE
by an expedition from Gela led by oikists Aristonous and Pystilos (Thucydides 6.4.4).
Alps
Authors: Hunt Patrick
Published: December 2012

The Alps are best understood as a mostly east–west series of mountain chains dividing Europe. Covering approximately 1200 kilometers, the Alps arch from southeastern France (west) to northern Slovenia (east), crossing modern France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, and Slovenia.
Apulia
Authors: Herring Edward
Published: December 2012

Apulia (roughly modern Puglia) in southeast Italy takes its name from a tribe from the north of the region, mentioned in sources of the Roman period. Under the Augustan reorganization of Italy, Apulia and Calabria formed Regio II, which also incorporated parts of modern Basilicata, Campania, and Molise.
Aquae Mattiacae (Wiesbaden)
Authors: Nikolic Milorad
Published: December 2012

Aquae Mattiacae
, located on the east side of the Rhine River, was the site of a Roman military garrison around which a civilian settlement (
vicus
) developed into the capital of the Germanic tribe of the
Mattiaci (civitas Mattiacorum
).
Aquae Sextiae
Authors: Owens E. J.
Published: December 2012

Aquae Sextiae Salluviorum (mod. Aix‐en‐Provence, France) was reputedly the earliest Roman foundation in Transalpine (later Narbonese) Gaul.
Aquae Sulis (Bath)
Authors: Glicksman Kristina
Published: December 2012

Aquae Sulis was a Roman settlement of indefinite status located in the southwestern part of the province of Britannia at the point where the Fosse Way crossed the River Avon.
Aquileia
Authors: De Sena Eric C.
Published: December 2012

Aquileia is located at the head of the Adriatic Sea, 16 km from modern‐day Trieste.
Arausio (Orange)
Authors: Mladenović Dragana
Published: December 2012

Arausio (modern Orange in southern France) was a Roman colony in the province of Gallia Narbonensis. The city is famous for its two outstanding and exceptionally preserved monuments, the Triumphal Arch and the Theater, which became
UNESCO
World Heritage Sites in 1981.
Arretium
Authors: De Sena Eric C.
Published: December 2012

Arretium (modern‐day Arezzo) is located at an important crossroads that joins the Arno and Tiber river valleys and a corridor through the Apennine Mountains leading toward Ariminum (rimini) and the upper Adriatic region. There is evidence for the presence of man as early as the Paleolithic period; however, the earliest physical manifestations of a settlement date to the sixth centuryBCE. Arretium was a flourishing Etruscan and Roman center, but the physical layout of the city and many historical vicissitudes are not well known (Torelli 1980: 297–301).
Bibracte (Mont Beuvray)
Authors: Moore Tom
Published: December 2012

Situated on Mont Beuvray on the edge of the Morvan hills in Burgundy, Bibracte represents one of the most well excavated Oppida in Gaul and one of the type sites of the European Iron Age.
Caesar Augusta (Zaragoza)
Authors: Lloris Francisco Beltrán
Published: December 2012

A Roman colony founded by Augustus and capital of the judicial district of the same name, Caesar Augusta (or Caesaraugusta) was one of the most important cities of Hispania Citerior Tarraconensis during the Principate as well as in Late Antiquity.
Caesarea (Cherchel)
Authors: Leveau Philippe
Published: December 2012

Caesarea Mauretania (modern Cherchel) is located 96 km east of Algiers. Originally named Iol, the city was renamed Caesarea in honor of the emperor Augustus by King Juba II of Mauretania. Its origins go back to the fifth century
BCE
, when the Phoenicians established a trading post on a small island that was later connected to the mainland. In the second century
BCE
, the Massylian‐Numidian king Micipsa made the city one of the capitals of his kingdom. The Numidian city moved to the narrow coastal plain from the small island. This small city of about 8 ha has been identified by Algero‐British excavations.
Caledonia
Authors: Hunter Fraser
Published: December 2012

Today Caledonia is synonymous with Scotland, but it was a much more varied concept in antiquity, with a complex relationship to Rome.
Campania
Authors: De Sena Eric C.
Published: December 2012

Representing half of the first Augustan
regio
of Italy, Campania was defined in antiquity by the Liri River to the north and the
Sele
River to the south with the western edge of the Apennines as the inland boundary.
Carrara marble
Authors: Claridge Amanda
Published: December 2012

A high quality hard white stone from the Apuan Alps of Liguria (northwest Italy), one of the hallmarks of Roman material culture, widely employed for architecture and sculpture in Rome and elsewhere in the western empire during the first four centuries
CE
.
Cerveteri (Caere)
Authors: Pieraccini Lisa C.
Published: December 2012

The Etruscan metropolis Caere, known to the Etruscans as
Cisra
(Greeks,
Agylla
; Romans,
Caere
) and today as Cerveteri, was situated on a tufa outcrop which had a commanding view of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Located 45 km northwest of Rome and 7 km from the Tyrrhenian coast, Cerveteri is famous today for the abundance of ancient Etruscan rock‐cut tombs, numbering in the thousands, located in several necropoleis, namely, the Banditaccia, Monte Abatone, Cava Della Pozzolana, and the Iron Age necropolis of Sorbo.
Colonia Agrippinensis (Cologne)
Authors: Nikolic Milorad
Published: December 2012

In the late 50s
BCE
Julius Caesar annihilated the tribe of the Eburones, who had lived on the left (western) bank of the Rhine River.
Corduba (Corboda)
Authors: Panzram Sabine
Published: December 2012

Corduba, modern Cordoba, situated in the south of Spain, was the capital of the Hispanic province of Baetica.
Cosa
Authors: De Sena Eric C.
Published: December 2012

Founded in Etruria as a Latin colony in 273BCE, Cosa is situated on a promontory overlooking the Tyrrhenian Sea near Monte Argentario (Cosa I). Presumably named after a nearby Etruscan site Cusi or Cosia, Cosa was a thriving city whose livelihood depended upon rich agricultural production, fishing, and trade and whose leading citizens included the Sestii and Domitii Ahenobarbi.
Danube
Authors: Wells Peter S.
Published: December 2012

The Danube is Europe's second longest river (after the Volga), and it played a major role in Rome's establishing and maintaining of its empire in Europe.
Glanum
Authors: Congès Anne Roth
Published: December 2012

Originally a Celto‐Ligurian
oppidum
, Glanum later became a city within Gallia Narbonensis and a station on the
Via Domitia
east of the Rhone. Pliny the Elder, Ptolemy, and ancient itineraries all mention the site. It is named for the Celtic god Glan, who was linked to a healing spring. Famous for the ruins known as “Les Antiques” (a mausoleum and arch), the site has been excavated since 1921, mainly by H. Rolland in the period 1942–69.
Glevum (Gloucester)
Authors: Rogers Adam
Published: December 2012

Glevum lies beneath Gloucester in western Britain at the lowest point at which the River Severn could be bridged in Roman times.
Gorsium/Herculia
Authors: Fedak Janos P.
Published: December 2012

The site of Gorsium is located near the modern village of Tac in western Hungary about 65 km southwest of Budapest.