bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Juvenile Salmonid Use of Freshwater Emergent Wetlands in the Floodplain and Its Implications for Conservation Management
Authors: Henning Julie A. , Gresswell Robert E. , Fleming Ian A.
Published: April 2006

A recent trend of enhancing freshwater emergent wetlands for waterfowl and other wildlife has raised concern about the effects of such measures on juvenile salmonids. We undertook this study to quantify the degree and extent of juvenile Pacific salmon Oncorhynchus spp. utilization of enhanced and unenhanced emergent wetlands within the floodplain of the lower Chehalis River, Washington, and to determine the fate of the salmon using them. Enhanced emergent wetlands contained water control structures that provided an outlet for fish emigration and a longer hydroperiod for rearing than unenhanced wetlands. Age-0 and age-1 coho salmon O. kisutch were the most common salmonid at all sites, enhanced wetlands having significantly higher age-1 abundance than unenhanced wetlands that were a similar distance from the main-stem river. Yearling coho salmon benefited from rearing in two enhanced wetland habitats, where their specific growth rate and minimum estimates of survival (1.43%/d by weight and 30%; 1.37%/d and 57%) were comparable to those in other side-channel rearing studies. Dissolved oxygen concentrations decreased in emergent wetlands throughout the season and approached the limits lethal to juvenile salmon by May or June each year. Emigration patterns suggested that age-0 and age-1 coho salmon emigrated as habitat conditions declined. This observation was further supported by the results of an experimental release of coho salmon. Survival of fish utilizing emergent wetlands was dependent on movement to the river before water quality decreased or stranding occurred from wetland desiccation. Thus, our results suggest that enhancing freshwater wetlands via water control structures can benefit juvenile salmonids, at least in the short term, by providing conditions for greater growth, survival, and emigration.
The Relation of Largemouth Bass Virus to Largemouth Bass Population Metrics in Five Alabama Reservoirs
Authors: Maceina Michael J. , Grizzle John M.
Published: April 2006

Between the early to mid‐1990s and 1998–2000, angler and electrofishing catch rates of memorable‐size (≥2.27‐kg or 51‐cm) largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides declined 3–20‐fold in five Alabama reservoirs. Largemouth bass virus (LMBV) has been implicated in widespread fish kills of this species, and we documented the prevalence of LMBV and attempted to quantify the impact of LMBV on growth, body condition, and size and age structure to account for the loss of memorable‐size fish in these five populations. Fish were collected primarily with electrofishing between 2000 and 2002, and two methods were used to detect LMBV from Lakes Wheeler, Demopolis, Eufaula, Guntersville, and Weiss. Among these five reservoirs, LMBV infection was most common in fish that ranged from about 25 to 40 cm and in young to intermediate‐age fish (range = 1–2 to 6 years). The virus was rare in fish under 100 mm (age 0) and over 500 mm (≥age 7). Fish infected with LMBV generally had lower relative weight and grew more slowly after age 3 than uninfected fish. The prevalence of LMBV was not as great in older and larger fish, possibly because these fish died prior to our collection. The decline in memorable‐size fish in these five reservoirs in the late 1990s to 2000 was due to slower growth, poorer body condition, and increased mortality of older fish and was circumstantially linked to LMBV. However, the prevalence of LMBV in the Lake Eufaula population was nil after 2001, whereas a fish kill was associated with LMBV in 1997. None of 349 fish we assayed from Lake Eufaula in 2002 were infected with LMBV, growth rates improved, and memorable‐size fish were more common in electrofishing samples and angler catches in 2003. Although we could not definitively demonstrate that LMBV caused the loss of memorable‐size largemouth bass in Alabama reservoirs, the virus appeared to be linked to this phenomenon.
Management of Asthma during Pregnancy
Authors: Namazy Jennifer Altamura , Schatz Michael
Published: April 2006

The prevalence of asthma in pregnant women appears to be increasing. Recent evidence demonstrates that pregnant asthmatic women with moderate-to-severe asthma may have an increased risk of adverse perinatal outcomes. The goal of asthma management during pregnancy is to optimize maternal and fetal health.
Parathyroid Hormone (1–84) and Teriparatide in the Treatment of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis
Authors: Bogado César E , Massari Fabio E , Zanchetta José R
Published: April 2006

Osteoporosis-related fractures are a major public health problem worldwide. Antiresorptive drugs, which work principally by suppressing bone resorption, are the established therapeutic approach for the prevention of fragility fractures in patients with osteoporosis. Parathyroid hormone and its analogs represent a new class of agents with anabolic effects on the skeleton. The results of double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials have shown that both the full length, 84 amino acid parathyroid hormone and teriparatide, the parathyroid hormone fragment (1–34) increase bone mineral density and reduce the risk of fracture when administered intermittently to postmenopausal osteoporotic women. Therefore, these drugs should be considered an alternative therapy in postmenopausal osteoporosis.
Fertility Preservation in Cancer Patients
Authors: Bedaiwy Mohamed A , Falcone Tommaso
Published: April 2006

Fertility preservation is an important but often neglected need of cancer patients. There are several options available but many are considered experimental or are unproven. Most require interventions that can postpone the initiation of cancer treatment. The options include surgical procedures to move the ovaries out of the path of a radiation field, prophylactic medical therapy with gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists and storage of gametes, embryos or gonadal tissue. Embryo freezing after conventional in vitro fertilization has a high success rate. Experimental fertility preservation procedures such as oocyte freezing and ovarian tissue cryopreservation/transplantation should be offered to cancer patients only under institutional review board oversight. Laparoscopic ovarian transposition is a viable option if radiotherapy is to be used alone. Oncologists, reproductive endocrinologists and other healthcare professionals should be part of a multidisciplinary team that offers cancer patients options to preserve their reproductive potential if they desire to do so.
Interrelationship of Business Enterprise and Political Development
Authors: Robinson Richard D.
Published: April 2006

Merely by existing, the United States and the Western world as a whole bring to bear … a constant cultural pressure. But even though the idea of industrialization, expanded consumption, and political egalitarianism may pour forth equally for all … countries, what is absorbed varies widely from one to another. How and why and toward what ends each nation moves is conditioned by its own traditions and appreciations as well as by the historical course of its particular set of involvements with the industrially advanced nations.
Market Speculation in the Muckraker Era: The Popular Reaction
Authors: Cowing Cedric B.
Published: April 2006

In the 1890–1907 period Populist-Progressive protests, public ignorance of the economic functions involved, and obvious abuses in the performance of those functions combined to produce a major peak of adverse opinion. Public protest shaped the course of stock exchange history through subsequent decades and yielded operator prototypes that have become classic Americana.
An Origin of The New South: The South Carolina Homespun Company, 1808-1815
Authors: Griffin Richard W.
Published: April 2006

The effort to establish a cotton factory in South Carolina in 1808 was aborted by inexperience, lack of capital, and unfavorable economic circumstance, but the episode provides a few more bits of evidence to add to the fragmentary history of early textile manufacturing in America.
From Benevolence to Business: The Story of Two Savings Banks
Authors: Davis Lance Edwin , Payne Peter Lester
Published: April 2006

This comparative study deals with objectives, administration, and portfolio policies of two banks that were among the earliest institutional lenders in America. Founded to assist the “frugal poor,” both banks faced the handicaps of provincialism, capital immobility, and regulation in their efforts to enlarge their services to the community. Both contributed much to a growing public understanding of banks and banking.
Investment Banking and Security Speculation in the Late 1920's
Authors: Pontecorvo Giulio
Published: April 2006

The stock market boom and bust of the late 1920's has been closely associated by scholars and public alike with the great changes in American life that followed closely thereafter. Actually, the interrelationship is far from clear, and a better understanding of the capital market is needed. Historical evidence points to the absence of effective market regulation and to the violation of accepted norms of monetary policy, but the only clear-cut causal connection between levels of economic activity and the stock boom lies in the effect of security inflation on the psychological climate of the business community.
Success and Failure Factors: American Merchants in Foreign Trade in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries
Authors: Bruchey Stuart
Published: April 2006

No definitive comparison of factors contributing to success and failure in business is possible. Yet a look at some of those factors, operative in a number of similar circumstances, helps sharpen the customary vague generalizations. An examination of the elements of prudence, diligence, housekeeping habits, intelligence, foresight, use of agents, degree of control, and teamwork suggests that in commerce of the period luck was probably of less influence than commonly supposed. A by-product of this broad inquiry is a specific and highly illuminating comparative picture of mercantile business practice.
Systematic Management: The Search for Order and Integration
Authors: Litterer Joseph A.
Published: April 2006

A comparative examination of late nineteenth-century worker productivity, machine utilization, and management methodology reveals the importance of process-oriented organization in American factories, where the highest technical skills were directed not at making products, as in Europe, but at making production lines. This orientation, together with a rapidly changing environment, required a particular kind of management and a new awareness of the management function.
A Study in Merger: Formation of the International Mercantile Marine Company
Authors: Navin Thomas R. , Sears Marian V.
Published: April 2006

Generalizations about the merger movement in America at the turn of the century have too open been predicated upon inadequate information about the motives and mechanisms involved and the results achieved. This has been particularly true of those combinations in which the firm of J. P. Morgan & Company was involved. The International Mercantile Marine Company merger of 1902 has hitherto been misrepresented as a promotion of Wall Street. The subsequent course of this venture shows how even a combination of the world's most astute bankers and shipping men could be misled in analysis and held powerless to affect their own destiny by the march of economic and political events. Not all the grand combinations of the early twentieth century yielded lush promotional profits; neither should the evidence of overcapitalization in such combinations always be accepted at face value.
A Study of Small Business Failure: Smith & Griggs of Waterbury
Authors: Marburg Theodore F.
Published: April 2006

Historians have recorded some of the more spectacular failures in American business, but the subject of business failure in itself has not been intensively studied. To lay the groundwork for such a study, the experience of individual firms should be examined in detail and attention should be directed to small as well as large business units. The history of Smith & Griggs provides an example of “discontinuance” which came about not as a result of a single catastrophic event but by a process of long-time attrition involving every phase of the company's operations.
Approaches To Business History
Authors: Redlich Fritz
Published: April 2006

Everybody in this group will be aware of the fact that business history is neither of American nor of recent vintage. The first full-fledged company history was published in 1825 to celebrate the one hundredth anniversary of the Lauchhammer Iron Works in Saxony; and Professor Herman Freudenberger has recently been able to trace the beginnings of company history to the eighteenth century. His research will be published this spring. As early as the 1900's, Professor Richard Ehrenberg of the University of Rostock was the first to see that what we call business history could be developed into an academic discipline, and his book on the enterprises of the Siemens Brothers marks the beginning of company history satisfying the most rigid modern scientific standards. In fact, Ehrenberg's work had an influence on the thinking of Professor N. S. B. Gras.
An Early Industrial Community – The Evans' Cotton Mill at Darley Abbey Derbyshire, 1783–1810
Authors: Lindsay Jean
Published: April 2006

“Second generation” historical efforts are shedding new light on the beginnings of the textile industry. Even fragmentary records, minutely examined, yield vignettes that may one day be merged to form important new chapters of industry history. The Darley Abbey story reveals rare operational detail and an interesting variant in the British pattern of development.
A Tidewater Merchant In New Hampshire
Authors: Lovett Robert W.
Published: April 2006

In post-Colonial days and well into the nineteenth century the merchant's role in smaller communities was incredibly versatile and complicated. This study calls attention to one such “Yankee trader,” who was the focal point for scores of enterprises but whose nonspecialized adventures became progressively restricted with changing times.
The Cotton-Textile Institute and the Government: A Case Study in Interacting Value Systems
Authors: Galambos Louis P.
Published: April 2006

The process of mutual accommodation between government and business in the United States is well illustrated in this study of the strategy and tactics of a key twentieth-century business association.
John Cockerill in Southern Russia, 1885-1905: A Study of Aggressive Foreign Entrepreneurship
Authors: McKay John P.
Published: April 2006

A case study of two ventures undertaken by a Belgian company in Russia focuses upon several of the major problems experienced by foreign entrepreneurs under the Czars at the turn of the century.
Walter Dill Scott: Pioneer Industrial Psychologist
Authors: Lynch Edmund C.
Published: April 2006

In the history of personnel management and salesmanship in the United States, the concepts and techniques developed by Professor Walter Dill Scott of Northwestern University have been pervasive. As an introduction to Scott's ideas and to his activities, Professor Lynch summarizes his contributions in the application of psychology to business problems.
The Bonanza King Myth: Western Mine Owners and the Remonetization of Silver
Authors: Weinstein Allen
Published: April 2006

Were congressional demands for the remonetization of silver in the 1870's triggered and supported by large-scale mining interests seeking a guaranteed market for their product? Contemporaries and historians have generally answered “yes.” Professor Weinstein revises this traditional interpretation by analyzing the actual interrelationships between American silver producers and government coinage policies.
The Economics of Industrial Slavery In the Old South
Authors: Starobin Robert S.
Published: April 2006

The economics of slavery in the United States has long been a subject of great interest to historians, but the use of bondsmen in southern industries has been little studied. Professor Starobin not only provides new information on industrial slavery, but also offers important conclusions concerning the profitability, efficiency, and viability of this “peculiar institution.”
Underground Social Capital
Authors: Cole Arthur H.
Published: April 2006

In the manner of the Creole tradesmen of Louisiana, whose lagniappe to their patrons is legendary, the Editor offers a similar bonus to readers of the Review. Instead of trifling presents added to a purchase, however, our lagniappe will be notes and documents illustrative of the evolution of business enterprise.
Ecclesiae Mercatorumand the Rise of Merchant Colonies
Authors: Slessarev Vsevolod
Published: April 2006

The incidence of churches as forerunners of merchant colonies in the Mediterranean is suggested in this exploratory study of medieval business and religion.
Evolution of the Japanese System of Employer-Employee Relations, 1868–1945
Authors: Evans Robert
Published: April 2006

In analyzing the evolution of the modern Japanese system of industrial labor relations, Professor Evans argues that Japan's culture and history played dominant roles in the formation of employer-employee relations, and that convergence with western practices was Largely absent.
The Emerging Organizational Synthesis In Modern American History
Authors: Galambos Louis
Published: April 2006

Almost unnoticed in the midst of revisionist attacks on progressive history and the rise of the New Left, an organizational synthesis has been emerging which offers much to the student of modern America. Professor Galambos presents a historiographical survey of this synthesis and concludes that its chief strength is a mode of analysis blending the traditional tools of historical thought with ideas from the behavioral sciences.
The Steel Industry and Price-Fixing During World War I
Authors: Cuff Robert D. , Urofsky Melvin I.
Published: April 2006

American entry into World War I presented complex problems in the adjustment of the private economy to the needs of a nation in crisis. Professors Cuff and Urofsky analyze the process by which the steel industry and the Wilson Administration reached a pragmatic accommodation on the regulation of wartime prices.
Systematic Management: Design for Organizational Recoupling in American Manufacturing Firms
Authors: Litterer Joseph A.
Published: April 2006

In developing techniques and guides for many of the regular or routine activities of managers, the Systematic Management movement of the late nineteenth century performed an important service for American business. The movement's response to breakdowns in the internal co-ordination of manufacturing firms was especially significant and forms the basis for Professor Litterer's analysis of the relevant literature.
Taylorism Versus Welfare Work in American Industry: H. L. Gantt and the Bancrofts
Authors: Nelson Daniel , Campbell Stuart
Published: April 2006

Two differing managerial philosophies competed for the support of American businessmen around the beginning of the twentieth century — the “scientific management” of Frederick W. Taylor and a general set of practices known as “welfare work.” This study examines the experience of a Brandywine River textile firm which tried to employ both approaches at the same time.
The New Deal, Cuba, and the Rise of a Global Foreign Economic Policy
Authors: Benjamin Jules R.
Published: April 2006

By early 1933 President Roosevelt's advisors concluded that the United States Government would have to play a direct role in the Cuban economy. That nation, economically dependent upon the North American sugar market and politically dependent through the Platt amendment that gave the United States the right to intervene in its internal affairs, was economically prostrate and on the verge of civil war. The United States proceeded to abandon both the free trade and protectionist doctrines that had divided the President's advisors for a program that structurally integrated United States-Cuban trade and employed federal funds to support cooperative Cuban leaders. All of this, Professor Benjamin believes, foreshadowed the massive foreign trade and lending programs so common to American foreign policy after World War II.
Secretary Hoover and the Emergence of Macroeconomic Management
Authors: Metcalf Evan B.
Published: April 2006

This study describes the 1920s movement (spearheaded by Herbert Hoover) to reduce unemployment by reducing fluctuations in business production and investment. Although the efforts had very limited success, they anticipated later attempts to manage prosperity for the economy as a whole.
The Development of Za in Medieval Japan
Authors: Yamamura Kozo
Published: April 2006

The za was a leading medieval Japanese economic institution, often likened to the European guild. Professor Yamamura analyzes the rise and subsequent decline of za from the eleventh through the sixteenth centuries, paying special attention to their influence on the development of commercial activity.
The Development of Diversified and Conglomerate Firms in the United States, 1920–1970
Authors: Didrichsen Jon
Published: April 2006

A study of the development of fifty large, diversified American corporations in recent decades reveals some of the paths business has followed since the innovation of the multidivisional firm half a century ago.
Mountaineer Mine Wars: An Analysis of the West Virginia Mine Wars of 1912–1913 and 1920–1921
Authors: Wheeler Hoyt N.
Published: April 2006

Professor Wheeler describes and analyzes the extreme violence that marked labor-management relations in the West Virginia coal fields.
Industrial Research and the Pursuit of Corporate Security: The Early Years of Bell Labs
Authors: Reich Leonard S.
Published: April 2006

Among the industries that owe their existence to technological innovation, voice communication by wire and by radio is an outstanding example. Professor Reich explains that during its first quarter century, however, the telephone enterprise developed a “business-technology mind-set” (he credits Reese Jenkins with the term) that held back further progress until after the thoroughgoing reorganization of American Telephone & Telegraph in 1907. Thereafter, an initial strong focus on applied science was gradually modified as the company sought to solve problems that stood in the way of important new services, such as long-distance telephony; to stay in the vanguard of major innovations, such as radio, that threatened the dominance of wired telephone systems; and to extend new capabilities into as many alternative techniques as necessary to “box the compass” of the patent laws. In the process, AT&T developed a highly structured research and development facility that pushed businessmen's respect for science and technology to new heights.
Copperbelt Merger: The Formation of the Rhokana Corporation, 1930–1932
Authors: Alford B.W.E. , Harvey C.E.
Published: April 2006

The concerted actions of giant companies operating on the international stage, notably in mining and petroleum, rival the Schleswig-Holstein question in complexity. In the absence of any clear understanding of the reasons for huge mergers such as that which took place in the southern African copper mining industry at the depth of the Great Depression, rationalizations that reflect Marxist-Leninist simplism and populist paranoia have been popular. Messrs. Alford and Harvey undertake to unravel the reasons for the copper merger, concluding that this merger defies modern, formal merger theory and teaches that there is no substitute for a close study of the motives of “corporate insiders.”
The Pressure of Shortage: Platinum Policy and the Wilson Administration During World War I
Authors: Lael Richard L. , Killen Linda
Published: April 2006

Mobilization for World War I carried the United States government into an unprecedented role in the American economy. Entire industries came under the regulation, if not outright control, of new federal boards and bureaucracies. Although this was a vast departure from American tradition, it was naturally justified by the exigencies of global warfare. Platinum was hardly a well-known commodity, but it was indeed a strategic metal that came into increasing demand as burgeoning military needs overwhelmed consumer uses. The result was that platinum gradually came under federal controls. Domestic supplies were limited, however, and as the war continued, worried federal officials looked abroad for additional sources in case of a prolonged conflict, a turn of events that subtly carried them far beyond the ken of domestic regulation. In this article professors Lael and Killen look in detail at the development of platinum controls. Aside from presenting a case study in the evolving relations between business, government, and international politics, they offer new insights into the philosophical assumptions and managerial skills of those who ostensibly masterminded the American economy during World War I.
From Competitor to Consumer: The Changing Focus of Federal Regulation of Advertising, 1914–1938
Authors: Tedlow Richard S.
Published: April 2006

It is a truism that government regulation of business, like all institutions of the political economy, has been evolutionary in nature. Yet few regulatory programs have metamorphosed quite so completely as that of the Federal Trade Commission, which converted itself in the period covered by this article from a watchdog of “competitive practices” that might militate against preservation of atomistic industrial organization, to an agency bent on protecting the interests of consumers. Professor Tedlow shows how this process worked itself out in the important case of truth in advertising.
Herbert Hoover and the Development of Commercial Aviation, 1921–1926
Authors: Lee David D.
Published: April 2006

Between 1921 and 1926, Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover took an active role in shaping the relationship between the federal government and the fledgling commercial aviation industry. In this article, Professor Lee shows how Hoover, drawing largely on a form of American corporatism, prompted the industry to formulate answers to its own problems through trade associations, groups which would then cooperate with government to implement those solutions. Such thinking was an important ingredient in the Air Commerce Act of 1926, the first federal law regulating commercial aviation.
Arms, Guano, and Shipping: The W. R. Grace Interests in Peru, 1865–1885
Authors: de Secada C. Alexander G.
Published: April 2006

In this article Mr. Secada analyzes the origins of W. R. Grace and Company and its rise as a dominant actor in Peruvian economic history. He attributes this ascendancy primarily to the arms trade in which Grace engaged on behalf of the Peruvian government during the War of the Pacific (1879–84). Grace's early status as an intimate of the dominant Peruvian elite, its deft manipulation of its ambiguous position as an American shipping house, its imaginative construction of a nascent intercontinental trading network utilizing both sea and rail transport, and its willingness to invest its own capital in the development of potential product lines—all served to catapult the firm within a period of thirty years into a powerful trading house and foreign investor in Latin America.
Enrique C. Creel: Business and Politics in Mexico, 1880–1930
Authors: Wasserman Mark
Published: April 2006

Enrique C. Creel was Mexico's leading banker, an innovative industralist, venture capitlist, and representative of the nation's largest land and cattle owner; he was also the political boss of the state of Chihuahua and the key conciliator of the conflicting intersts of the north and the national regime of dictator Porfirio Díaz. In this essay, Professor Wasserman describes Creel's activities, showing how he and his family built the greatest business empire in Mexico before 1910, survived the decade-long destruction of the revolution (1910–20), and rebuilt their empire in the 1920s. Better than any of his contemporaries, Creel combined managerial talent and vision with a mastery of the interplay of politics, regional interests, and foreign capital that comprised his economic entrepreneurship and the special nature of economic entrepreneurship and the intimate relationship between business and politics in pre-and post-revolutionary Mexico.
State-Chartered American Commercial Banks, 1781–1801
Authors: Klebaner Benjamin J.
Published: April 2006

As is generally known, the 1790s was the first decade in which the American banking system expanded. Professor Klebaner has taken the trouble to ascertain the fate of the state-chartered banks founded in that decade. He has put his material into lists that we are glad to publish as a unique source of banking history.
Foundations of United States International Financial Power: Gold Standard Diplomacy, 1900–1905
Authors: Rosenberg Emily S.
Published: April 2006

From 1900 to 1905 the United States government, working with a small group within the emerging profession of economics, developed—for the first time—a financial policy toward foreign dependent areas. The policy devised and carried out by this first generation of experts in foreign currency reform—who included Charles Conant, Jeremiah Jenks, and Edwin Kemmerer—sought to bring nations onto a gold-exchange standard, with their gold funds deposited in New York and their coinage denominated on American money. In this article, Professor Rosenberg describes this gold standard diplomacy, suggesting that it reflected the nation's growing economic power; its increasing stake in maintaining an integrated, stable, and accessible international order; the emergence of a new profession of foreign financial advising; and the government's new desire to play a leading role in international currency matters. She concludes that policymakers and economists would build on this foundation in developing the gold-exchange standard and currency stabilization programs of the 1920s.
The Naval Aircraft Factory, the American Aviation Industry, and Government Competition, 1919–1928
Authors: Trimble William F.
Published: April 2006

The economics of the American aircraft manufacturing industry have been determined in large measure by government aviation policies and the market for military airplanes. This was most apparent in the 1920s, when the industry suffered from sharply reduced military orders and an almost nonexistent demand for civilian aircraft. Struggling for survival, manufacturers singled out the Naval Aircraft Factory, a large navy-owned and run facility in Philadelphia, as at least partially responsible for the dislocation of their industry; they insisted that it and other forms of “government competition” be eliminated. Professor Trimble explores in this article how the ensuing controversy caused naval and civilian officials in the 1920s to develop policies that integrated the factory into naval aircraft procurement and helped to ameliorate the problems of private aircraft contractors.
Lost Opportunities for Compromise in the Bank War: A Reassessment of Jackson's Veto Message
Authors: Perkins Edwin J.
Published: April 2006

In this article Professor Perkins reexamines President Andrew Jackson's objections to the bill to recharter the Second Bank of the United States, as expressed in his famous veto message of 1832. He observes that, in addition to its exaggerated rhetoric, the veto message discusses at length a number of alleged deficiencies in the existing charter provisions. Professor Perkins's systematic analysis of the probable ramifications of a series of judicious alterations reveals that a compromise bill reformulated to meet most of the president's stated objections would not have seriously undermined the institution's position in American financial markets. Although several opportunities for sensible compromise arose, Nicholas Biddle and other members of the probank faction disregarded them. Perkins argues that the failure of bank supporters to consider comparatively modest modifications in the terms of recharter was a major blunder that ultimately doomed the Second Bank.
“A Triumph in Modern Philanthropy”: Age Criteria in Labor Management at the Pennsylvania Railroad, 1875–1930
Authors: Gratton Brian
Published: April 2006

Labor policies based on age have been variously explained as benevolent, maliciously anti-union, rational, or prejudicial. Nineteenth-century devices to stabilize the work force set the stage for the Pennsylvania Railroad's 1900 program of age limits, mandatory retirement, and pensions, but its immediate cause was the conviction that the seniority system already in place seriously reduced the efficiency of older workers. As the following article shows, this economic calculation remained appealing to some executives in the twentieth century, even as the actual costs of pensions became painfully apparent. For others, the old fear of workers' unrest reappeared as a justification for ignoring the impending crisis of the 1930s.
Family Partnerships and International Trade in Early Modern Europe: Merchants from Burgos in England and France, 1470–1570
Authors: Mathers Constance Jones
Published: April 2006

In fifteenth– and sixteenth–century Europe, international trade was often conducted by family partnerships. Commonly, one partner remained in the family's native land, while one or more family members established themselves temporarily or permanently abroad. In this article, Professor Mathers describes the mercantile activity of three families from the Spanish city of Burgos who profited from family partnerships that linked trade from northern Spain to England and France. She also examines the ways in which family inheritance practices and alternative family investments and expenditures affected the capital and continuity of the partnerships.
Risk and Control in Multinational Enterprise: German Businesses in Scandinavia, 1918–1939
Authors: Schröter Harm
Published: April 2006

In the following essay, Dr. Schröter examines a specific case, German multinational activity in Scandinavia between the wars, and uses that information to raise more general questions about the nature of multinational enterprise. Before 1914, patterns of German foreign direct investment resembled those of the nation's competitors. After the First World War, however, having lost almost all their overseas holdings and suffering from a severe shortage of capital, German industries tried to replace foreign direct investment with other financial tools, principally cartels and long–term contracts. Using extensive German archival materials, Dr. Schröter describes the forces motivating these businesses.
Competition and Regulation: The Railroad Model
Authors: Klein Maury
Published: April 2006

In the following essay on the railroad industry, Maury Klein examines preconceptions and misunderstandings surrounding Americans' views of regulation and competition. He argues that the United States seems to want competition without losers and that, at least in the case of railroads, regulation has often tried to ensure this outcome without a real understanding of the economics of the industry.
Saving the Fisherman as Well as the Fish: Conservation and Commercial Rivalry in Maine's Lobster Industry, 1872–1933
Authors: Judd Richard W.
Published: April 2006

Historians of Progressive Era conservation measures have focused on the efforts of government resource experts to free environmental management decisions from special-interest groups. Professor Judd argues that this emphasis has obscured the importance of economic factions in securing conservation legislation reflecting their various interests. His examination of Maine's ongoing efforts to manage its lobster industry demonstrates that scientific conservation codes received legislative sanction only when they could be made to conform to the commercial needs of the industry's competing groups.
How Britain Turned to Free Trade
Authors: Grampp William D.
Published: April 2006

British free trade has been variously attributed to the importuning of business interests, to the advanced state of manufacturing, to politicians acting on improper or unworthy motives, or to imperialism. Professor Grampp examines a critical event in the history of free trade: Parliament's declaration in 1820 that future commercial policy should be guided by that principle. By 1850, all major restrictions had been abolished. The decision of 1820, according to Thomas Tooke, a principal in the event, was made by the Tory Government with the concurrence of the Whig Opposition, both of which had come to believe free trade would increase per capita real income: that is, both acted in what they and others since have understood to be the public interest.
Heman E. Perry and Black Enterprise in Atlanta, 1908–1925
Authors: Henderson Alexa Benson
Published: April 2006

A growing number of black men and women attempted to establish businesses in the Jim Crow South of the early twentieth century. These enterprises, which ranged from small shops and retail establishments to more substantial banks and insurance companies, were organized primarily to increase the economic self-sufficiency of black Americans. In this article, Professor Henderson chronicles the efforts of Heman Perry to develop a complex business organization in Atlanta. Although Perry failed to achieve all of his entrepreneurial goals or to sustain the businesses that he founded, his endeavors nevertheless had a significant impact on the city's later development as an important center of black business activity.
“Electricity for All”: The Electric Home and Farm Authority and the Politics of Mass Consumption, 1932–1935
Authors: Field Gregory B.
Published: April 2006

The following article traces TVA director David Lilienthal's efforts to establish the Electric Home and Farm Authority the Tennessee Valley and analyzes the outcome of that program in the early 1930s. The essay demonstrates that, contrary to some interpretations, administrators like Lilienthal were advocating state-sponsored consumption-driven economic growth well before the late 1930s.
Bacchus in the East: The Chinese Grape Wine Industry, 1892-1938
Authors: Godley Michael R.
Published: April 2006

China has produced wine from grapes since the second century, B.C., but interest in Western wines did not begin until the late nineteenth century. Professor Godley describes the origins of the modern industry, which he traces back to an overseas Chinese entrepreneur from Southeast Asia who, despite the obvious advantages held by foreign competitors, began the construction of the country's first modern winery in 1892. One of the more unusual capitalist ventures in the late Qing and early Republican periods, the company ran into financial difficulties, but not before it had established a precedent for what is now a rapidly expanding business. Although the vicissitudes of the grape wine industry illustrate some important points about modern Chinese economic development, the author offers this case study in business history as something of an allegory: wine as a symbol for the meeting of East and West, yesterday and today.
The Development of Discounted Cash Flow Techniques in U. S. Industry
Authors: Dulman Scott P.
Published: April 2006

This article supplies a missing piece in the story of the growth of managerial technology—the development of discounted cash flow techniques for projecting the profitability of capital budgeting alternatives. The article traces the origins of these methods in the industrial sector to the early work of railroad locating engineers and describes the refinement of DCF practices by AT&T and chemical firms. It concludes with a discussion of the diffusion of this analytic tool through the interaction of practicing engineers, consultants, professional associations, and scholarly publications.
A Consumer Service in Interwar Britain: The Hotel Trade, 1924–1938
Authors: Pope Rex
Published: April 2006

An examination of the fortunes of three hotel groups in the 1920s and 1930s suggests that the collapse of international demand and the growth of a middle-class motorized trade were the major influences on differential performance. While trading difficulties led to an effort to exit from unprofitable outlets or to rationalize supplies and services, opportunities for economy were restricted by customers' rising expectations of facilities and the need to protect a preeminent position in the market. Company organization appears to have contributed little, with the best performance achieved by the group with the smallest individual units and the least opportunity for structural specialization or economies.
Business Diplomacy: Walter Teagle, Jersey Standard, and the Anglo-French Pipeline Conflict in the Middle East, 1930–1931
Authors: Fitzgerald Edward Peter
Published: April 2006

British, Dutch, French, and American oil companies set up a multinational consortium in 1928 with a view to dominating petroleum production in the Middle East. Development of the consortium's first oilfield in northern Iraq depended on the construction of a pipeline to the Mediterranean sea-board, but rival great-power ambitions in the region blocked selection of a suitable route. Walter Teagle, president of Standard Oil of New Jersey, devised a compromise that he successfully pressed on both the French government and the chairman of the consortium, Sir John Cadman. Using company records and state papers now available in France, this article explains how Teagle's intervention arose and why it was crucial to the resolution of the Anglo-French pipeline conflict.
German Banking between the Wars: The Crisis of the Credit Banks
Authors: Balderston Theo
Published: April 2006

This article argues that the business policies of the German credit banks were only a secondary cause of the troubles that befell them between the wars and that the primary explanation lies in the instability of their monetary environment and of the credit sector's competitive structure. By carefully tracing the impacts of the interwar inflation and stabilization and of the 1931 crisis on the German banking industry, setting them in the context of domestic and international political developments, the article explains the limited choices available to the banks in this period and their relative eclipse during the Third Reich.
Organizing and Reorganizing the World Bank, 1946–1972: A Comparative Perspective
Authors: Galambos Louis , Milobsky David
Published: April 2006

Using a Chandlerian strategy/structure framework for comparative purposes, the authors examine the early development of an important public institution, The World Bank Group. As they demonstrate, The Bank gradually evolved toward the model provided by the multidivisional or M-form corporation. In its early years, The Bank was a centralized organization with functional departments and a unique check and balance system to control lending. Guided by signals coming from its development personnel, The Bank evolved incrementally until 1952, when a formal reorganization took place. In the years that followed, functional considerations continued to reshape this innovative institution. Then, under President Robert McNamara, The Bank acquired a new and broader mission that led to another formal reorganization in 1972. The authors analyze the cultural as well as organizational aspects of these changes, relating them to a series of long cycles of innovation at The Bank.
J. & P. Coats in Tsarist Russia, 1889–1917
Authors: Kim Dong-Woon
Published: April 2006

This article explores the activities in Russia, between 1889 and the Revolution of 1917, of J. & P. Coats, the British multinational firm that manufactured cotton thread. The main motive for Coats's local manufacturing in Russia was to avoid import duties. Manufacturing facilities were secured by means of a joint venture and acquisitions in St. Petersburg, Riga and Lodz. The Russian business was under the full control of the headquarters in Paisley, U.K., and this policy contrasts with the more decentralized management style preferred by many other British multinationals of the day. Despite the unstable political situation in Russia, Coats's mills performed better than their competitors, and accounted for some 90 percent of the national demand by the time they were confiscated in 1917.
The Emergence of the National Brewing Oligopoly: Competition in the American Market, 1933–1958
Authors: McGahan A. M.
Published: April 2006

In 1966 the Supreme Court expressed a desire to arrest consolidation of the brewing industry “in its incipiency.” This article argues that a national brewing oligopoly had already emerged by that date. In the 1930s and 1940s, restrained demand and regulatory pressure discouraged price and advertising competition and forced brewers to adopt cost-saving technologies. By the end of the Second World War, the largest brewers harbored unexploited economies of scale in processing. With relief from war shortages in the 1950s, large regional brewers expanded to pursue processing economies and secured their advantages with scale in distribution and advertising.
Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. and the Restructuring of American Capitalism
Authors: Kaufman Allen , Englander Ernest J.
Published: April 2006

Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. (KKR) played the lead role in pursuing large-scale leveraged buyouts in the U.S. market for corporate control in the 1980s by taking advantage of investment opportunities created by three decades of public policies regarding antitrust, pensions, corporate governance, and banking. KKR's innovations were its ability to overcome investors' collective action and monitoring problems by arranging takeovers through limited partnerships and by managing acquired firms through shared equity ownership with management. These organizational innovations, when combined with the financial changes of the 1980s, allowed KKR and its investor-controlled associations to challenge managerially controlled firms.
The Scottish Effort to Presbyterianize the Church of England: During the Early Months of the Long Parliament
Authors: Hudson Winthrop S.
Published: April 2006

The Reformation in Scotland, as Professor John T. McNeill has shown, was never a purely nationalistic movement. John Knox, as well as Sir David Lyndsay, viewed the Scottish church as a part of the universal “kirk,” and directed their efforts toward securing a closer uniformity with the English church and with the Reformed churches on the Continent. But it must be admitted that, until 1638, the principal drive for unity between the English and Scottish churches came from the southern kingdom. In 1638, however, with the restoration of Presbyterianism in Scotland, the process was reversed and the Scots became vigorous in their effort to presbyterianize the Church of England.
Ethical Themes in the Antioch Mosaics
Authors: Downey Glanville
Published: April 2006

Students of the cultural history of the late Roman and Byzantine periods sometimes speculate as to what may have been the ordinary daily intellectual interests—the private store of detached thought and emotion—of the average educated men of those times. To us, the literary activity of those centuries seems a barren skeleton, picked bare by the sophists, an abhorrent thing in which we can find no real interest. The formal philosophy of the schools was a wild business whose fantastic flights seem to many of us today to be quite incredible and absurd. We can perhaps understand a little better the intellectual and political interest which attached to the theological controversies, though these often went to lengths which seem to us to be excessive. Private religious experience there was, of course, and there was an emotional outlet in Christian art which we can understand quite well. But even the total of these things will not perhaps satisfy our curiosity; whether rightly or wrongly, we find it difficult to understand that a man's life can have been made up of these things alone, and we wonder what a mind of at least some independence and vigor can have found as a basis for its individual existence.