bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Strategic or Tactical Air Traffic Control?
Authors: Ratcliffe S.
Published: November 2009

In an earlier paper I suggested that ATC could be depicted as a hierarchy of processes which differ from each other in the distance ahead in time at which they attempt to solve their problems. When the look-ahead time is very long (several weeks, say) we are usually concerned with the problems of traffic en-masse. These problems are here regarded as the province of Air Traffic Management (ATM) rather than of ATC, which is concerned in general with issuing commands to individual aircraft. It is possible that ATC may attempt to plan say, one hour ahead, but there will be a residue of problems, some of which may require action within seconds. The relatively long-term (or upstream) process is often called ‘strategic’ ATC and the short-term (or downstream) process ‘tactical’ ATC. The present paper is concerned with the problem of distributing the control effort between upstream and downstream activity. Other things being equal, upstream planning can offer a more efficient flight and a more orderly process, with less immediate pressures on pilot and controller. One drawback is that, in Western Europe at least where there are a multiplicity of agencies, the ATC authority may not have adequate data to attempt to plan more than about 15 minutes ahead.
Marine Encounter Rates
Authors: Goodwin Elisabeth M.
Published: November 2009

One of the major topics of discussion at the moment is the subject of control in marine traffic systems. For many years the principle of the freedom of the sea and in particular the freedom of navigation was recognized universally, but recent advances in many directions have led people to question it closely. The increasing size of ships, and especially those used to transport cargoes such as oil, chemicals and liquid natural gas, is one factor, since various incidents have led to a growing awareness of the human and ecological consequences of even a minor incident at sea. Another factor has been the expansion of oildrilling operations and explorations for other resources, usually in areas such as the North Sea where the available navigable sea room was already restricted, especially for the modern deeper-draught ships. Purely economic factors have also been contributory; modern ships spend less and less time in port with more time at sea and the commercial world demands that the sea voyages should be completed as efficiently as possible, usually with respect to time. For these and other local reasons there is a growing demand for some form of marine traffic control system. Most of the world's major ports have traffic control to some extent and attention is now being paid to restricted seaways such as the Dover Strait.
Numerical Models of Tide and Surge Propagation as an Aid to Navigation
Authors: Prandle D.
Published: November 2009

A number of numerical models of various sections of the North Sea have been developed, primarily for flood prediction; these simulate both the propagation of the astronomical tide and the generation and propagation of storm surges. The tides effectively originate in the deep ocean and their propagation into shallow seas can be simulated for an almost infinite period ahead. Surges are generated by the action of wind and pressure gradients, particularly over the shallow sea regions in the northern and central North Sea.
The Risk of a Ship Encounter Leading to a Collision
Authors: Lewison G. R. G.
Published: November 2009

An area of sea in which there are several traffic streams may be characterized by the number of potential encounters between two ships that would be expected to take place. The traffic flow in an area of 300 sq. n.m. of the Dover Strait over a nine-year period has been analysed to give the numbers of such potential encounters of head-on, crossing, and overtaking ships in three conditions of visibility. The number of collisions occurring has been similarly broken down and hence the risk of each different type of encounter leading to a collision has been determined. It is shown that decreasing visibility makes collision very much more likely, whereas the direction of encounter makes a comparatively minor difference to the probability.
An Outline History of Marine Pilotage in Britain
Authors: Hignett H. M.
Published: November 2009

The term marine pilot is applied to the man with local knowledge who acts as a guide to mariners in his own specific and limited district, but it is difficult to confine the work of a pilot to anything so specific. Over eight centuries Cinque Ports' pilots have conducted snipping from the Dungeness-Dover sector of the English Channel both into the Cinque Ports and into the ports of the Thames. They have also taken ships to the more northerly waters of the British Isles and were often asked to pilot ships along the European coast as far as the Baltic. They do this today and for the purposes of this paper they are pilots who work in a defined district but who are not necessarily confined to that district.
Collecting Digital Data on H.M. Survey Ships
Authors: Huddy W. A. A.
Published: November 2009

Prior to the introduction of three Ocean Surveying Ships in the years 1965–66, the Hydrographer's surveys were generally concerned with the recording of depth against a geographical position obtained from manually reading and plotting sextant angles, radar ranges or, more recently, electronic navigational aid data. The new ships were however the first Royal Naval ships to be designed with combined oceanographic, geophysical and hydrographic roles and to have no supplementary naval function. They contained instruments for measuring the Earth's gravitational and magnetic fields as well as depth; as a consequence the number of men required to read, record and plot this data increased. With the use of an electronic positioning system to provide the horizontal control for the surveys it became possible to carry out surveys throughout the full 24 hours each day.
Automatic Landing Systems or Fog-dispersal Devices?
Authors: Warren D. V. , Bernard M. , McGrath I. L.
Published: November 2009

At an open meeting of the Technical Committee held in London on 26 April 1978, with Dr. J. F. KEMP in the Chair, the broad question was discussed of the relative benefits of carrying navigational devices in an aircraft as against installing them on the ground. Introducing the discussion Captain B. J. CALVERT of British Airways suggested that for landing in very poor visibility there was no either-or choice; any system must be cooperative and involve the combination of air and ground components. The question was where to strike the balance. With the redevelopment of a fog-dispersal device (for one was used in World War II) it seemed possible to re-examine the question. The fact that there were now many years of airline experience of low visibility landings made the discussion even more appropriate.
Estimating the Average Taxi Speed of Departing Aircraft
Authors: Nagaoka Sakae , Muto Paul T. , Yoshioka Eijiro
Published: November 2009

Operational research has been developed and introduced into air transportation problems since the late 1940s, mainly in the U.K. and the U.S.A., and simulation techniques have also been used for designing or evaluating air traffic control systems. Some data on the actual operations are needed for carrying out these studies. The data on the time and motion of taxiing aircraft, especially jet aircraft, were collected at Tokyo International Airport (TIA) in 1975 and 1976 and the relation between average taxi speed and taxi distance was stated on the basis of the observed data. In this paper, a theoretical method for estimating the average taxi speed of departing aircraft is considered, using simplified models, and the results are compared with the empirical data.
A Standard-Time Sundial
Authors: Atkinson R. d'E.
Published: November 2009

As is generally known to navigators (though the statement surprises most laymen) the Sun is a poor timekeeper; rated against its own average behaviour, it is over 14 minutes slow in mid-February, over 16 minutes fast in early November, and more than 5 minutes wrong, one way or the other, on more than half of all the days in the year. The ‘errors’ are however very nearly the same from year to year; the principal variation is a slight oscillation in phase due to the incidence of leap-years and the effect of this is too small to be detected on a sundial, where the accuracy is limited to about the nearest minute by the Sun's apparent diameter however large or small the dial may be. It is thus possible to make a table of the ‘errors’ (i.e. of the ‘Equation of Time’), say for every tenth day and to the nearest minute only, and to engrave it permanently on the dial, leaving the observer to interpolate to the actual date and add or subtract the correction. Provided the table includes also the allowance for the longitude-difference from the standard meridian of the zone, the result (if the observer does his arithmetic correctly) will be standard time for that zone. But it is quite possible to save the observer this labour.
From Analog to Digital Implementation
Authors: Hall J. C.
Published: November 2009

Some discussion of the L-1011 analog system will be given before discussing the problems and advantages of digital implementation. It is the most advanced flight control system in operation today and one for which Category III certification was achieved simultaneously with the airframe certification. All L-1011s have been delivered with a full Category III system and all operators are performing automatic landings in service.
The Impact of Special-Purpose Computers on Aircraft Equipment
Authors: Severwright R. A.
Published: November 2009

Computer techniques have made an increasing contribution to airborne navigation equipment, particularly in the field of radio navigation where in the past computers had generally been too powerful and much too costly to be of practical use. This paper sets out to review some of the progress achieved during the last decade and then to illustrate the impact this has had on airborne radio navigation equipment. In recent years computers have made very significant strides from almost every viewpoint; they have increased in capability and speed of operation, decreased in cost and power consumption, and improved in ruggedness. One characteristic that is particularly relevant to the field of radio navigation is the cost of the minimum practical computer. There is always a limit to how simple a computer can be made before it ceases to be practical and this limit is interesting because it has dropped dramatically over the last decade to a level which makes a computer competitive for solving the simpler problems which were previously solved by other means.
Hardware and Software Trade-offs in Digital Avionic Systems
Authors: Eccles E. S.
Published: November 2009

Many papers have dealt with the advantages of using digital techniques and digital hardware in avionic systems. Attention has also been devoted to the special problems of software and the programming of digital computers, although not much of it has been devoted to specifically avionic applications. Very little has been published on the interaction between the hardware and software aspects of the design of avionic systems or on the trade-offs which are possible between the two. This paper deals with various aspects of these trade-offs.
Advances in Inertial Navigation: Sensor Technology
Authors: McKinlay W. H.
Published: November 2009

The purpose of this paper is to look at the nature of the advances being made in inertial navigation and in navigation displays. In avionics as a whole the advance from one generation of equipment to another can take different forms; sometimes, notably in flight control and instrumentation, the potential of new technologies is exploited almost immediately to provide more advanced operational facilities and systems become more complex. Alternatively, as in the application of solid state electronics to produce equipment for general aviation, the technology is exploited to reduce weight, volume and costs. Inertial navigation exhibits both trends but to a comparatively small degree; the basic system requirement is simple to define and has changed very little, one of the reasons being the particularly demanding nature of the technology and the very long development time scales involved.
I.—The Ship Master's Job
Authors: Hatfield M. R. , Smith M. H.
Published: November 2009

Behavioural science research on seafarers has snowballed throughout the maritime industries of the western world in the last five years or so. The reasons for this may be quite complex, but there is one significant identifiable factor that has given impetus to this research; those countries which are most active in this specialized field extensively employ their own nationals as ships' officers, and increasingly they have had to choose whether or not they wished to continue to do so. Seafaring as a career has few attractions in competition with the wider career opportunities provided by economic growth. That growth has also provided higher standards of education for young people, and consequently a greater awareness of the career choices available to them. The difficulties in recruiting and retaining the able seafarer have become more pressing within each country.
II.—The Future Role of the Master
Authors: Wepster A.
Published: November 2009

Perhaps the main concern of the Master today should be to foresee the future and adapt himself to it, but that is true for everybody. The gradual change in his position is apparent. Sixty years ago sailing announcements always mentioned the ship's name and her Master's name together, they formed an inseparable unit; today we may look in vain for the Master's name in such announcements. Such outward signs merely illustrate a gradual decline in the Master's position within the overall shipping company hierarchy, though not in the hierarchy on board. It is the result of totally new involvements of shipping management as our society in general becomes more complex and interdependent.
A Centennial Tribute to Marcq St. Hilaire
Authors: Cotter Charles H.
Published: November 2009

Evidence exists which demonstrates that primitive attempts to employ astronomical principles for the purposes of navigation were made by Mediterranean seamen at least a thousand years before the beginning of the Christian Era. But the significant development of nautical astronomy as a science came about at the time when the Atlantic Ocean was being opened up by maritime explorers during the Golden Age of Discoveries, and the lead at the time was taken by the Portuguese under the sponsorship of Prince Henry the Navigator.
Common Reference: Yes or No?
Authors: Powell Claud
Published: November 2009

It can be said of the oldest form of radio position-fixing for ships and aircraft, by direction finding, that two or more position lines in the form of the bearings of known radio stations provide a ‘common-reference’ fix: within the accuracy limits of the technique, all craft visiting a given spot will get the same bearings, and hence the same fix, at that spot. Similarly, the modern hyperbolic systems Decca, Loran and Omega each provide, within their respective accuracy limits, a common frame of navigational reference for all users. As the term implies, the users can fix position at will within this frame of reference without first having to undertake a calibration or similar procedure at some accurately known position.
Navigational Principles as Applied to Animals
Authors: Anderson E. W.
Published: November 2009

A deeper understanding and love for the creatures with whom we share this planet must develop as we read the works of animal specialists. These great men and women will surely forgive a navigator who suggests alternative methods by which creatures may find their ways, methods which do not seem to conflict with the remarkable facts they have brought to light but which happen to conform to modern navigational principles.
The Arithmetic of Navigation Position Errors
Authors: Parker J. B.
Published: November 2009

In a notable series of articles, Hsu advances theoretical models which are used to graduate 7582 observations of aircraft lateral deviations. The goodness of fit of these models, as judged by the χ2 test, is satisfactory. Hsu's main theoretical model is the Double Double Exponential distribution (DDE), a three parameter model whose probability density function is given by

Other model types are also considered, such as the family of exponential power distributions whose probability density is cited by Hsu insection 9. This leads to a four-parameter model, and the fit is (not surprisingly) better even than that of the DDE.
Further Progress with Risk Simulation
Authors: Tanner P. H.
Published: November 2009

In an earlier contribution to this Journal the Author described some striking characteristics of the casualty statistics for the airline operations of the western world and proposed a model for the generation of a perceived risk by an individual living in a dangerous environment. It was hoped that a simulation including a population of such risk observers in the feedback loop of a control system might help with the understanding of what was happening in the real world of operations. Since then he has published an account of the development of the model, including some results from the simulation.
The Lizard as a Landfall
Authors: Ravenhill William
Published: November 2009

On the whole global surface of land and sea it falls to the lot of some few places to emerge through time to be of immense importance. Lizard Point is just one such place. Who were the first mariners to realize that it was the most southerly point of the English mainland or to use it for landfall and for caping, we shall probably never know. What is clear, however, is that, by the time Claudius Ptolemy was compiling hisGuide to Geography, C. AD 160, it was sufficiently well known to the Roman world for the name by which it was then called,Damnonium or Ocrinum Promontorium, to be included, with its geographical coordinates, in his famous gazetteer. It is of academic interest only for us to query whether those coordinate values were right or wrong, whether they were a good approximation or not: what is important for us, with the benefit of very long hindsight, is to marvel at the sheer brilliance of the conception of a spherical coordinate system, and at the industry and far-sightedness of one or more men who set about compiling lists of known places with assigned coordinates. What, in so doing, they handed down to posterity is of inestimable value.
Crossing the Dover Strait Separation Scheme
Authors: Irving I. D.
Published: November 2009

In this paper Captain I. D. Irving, master of a cross-channel ferry, discusses some of the problems which arise from the operation of the 1972 Collision Regulations within the Dover Strait Traffic Separation Scheme. The paper is a revised version of one presented at the Fourth International Symposium on Vessel Traffic Services.

The Dover Strait and its approaches form one of the world's busiest waterways. Perhaps inevitably therefore it has been the scene of a large proportion of the world's collisions and strandings, and for this very reason became the site of the first offshore Traffic Separation Scheme. At first the scheme was only voluntary, but with the introduction ten years later of the 1972 International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, compliance with the IMCO-approved scheme became mandatory for all vessels.
The Avoidance of Close Quarters in Clear Weather
Authors: Cahill R. A.
Published: November 2009

What constitutes a minimum safe distance of approach in an overtaking or meeting situation is a problem that has engaged the interest of seamen since steam began to supplant sail. Prior to that time vessels were often obliged to steer zig-zag courses in tacking against the wind, and though they were probably no less concerned with avoiding a collision the problem was of a different order.
A Design Study for a Correlation Log to Measure Speed at Sea
Authors: Denbigh P. N.
Published: November 2009

In recent years acoustic logs have begun to replace mechanical and electromagnetic logs as a technique for measuring the speed of ships at sea. The acoustic Doppler log has become well established and, although its performance is usually far from ideal, there are many models available commercially, including those from Krupp Atlas, Thomson CSF, Simrad, Magnavox, Edo Western, Marquardt, Sperry and Amatek Straza. The acoustic correlation log has only made its appearance relatively recently.
Navigation and Technology
Authors: Beck G. E.
Published: November 2009

Many of the tasks which have occupied the navigator ever since measurement and calculation were first applied to the subject are now being carried out or aided by technical devices. This has been going on for a long time, and I would like to consider how far we have got, and what will remain for the concern and interest of our Institute when this technical growth has fully matured.
The Course of Navigation
Authors: Lindsay Douglas J.
Published: November 2009

It is commonplace nowadays to assume that modern technology is rendering inevitable the demise of the traditional navigator—in the commercial shipping world at least—and there is much discussion of what this can signify for the future. Yet at the same time there is no little confusion over what is meant, and will be meant, by the term ‘Navigator’. In the context of the Merchant Navy the truism can be made that all deck officers are navigators, and indeed that navigation has been a prime source of satisfaction to many of them; but very few are or ever have been lifetime navigators to the exclusion of all else. Certainly there are the small bands of hydrographers and specific navigators engaged in such fields as offshore work needing a high degree of accuracy, whose prime job in life this is. But they are a select and specialised group whose existence does not negate the view that for the majority of deck officers their navigation is at best part of a wider whole. So to talk of the demise of the navigator is misleading; no deck officers on merchant ships will be out of a job simply because navigation becomes less important. What they will lose is a most interesting part of their work.
Navigation for the Fishing Industry
Authors: Haines Gregory
Published: November 2009

Commander Haines examines the more stringent navigational requirements of fishing vessels, reviews the instruments in use, both radio and acoustic, and discusses the significance of a number of navigational factors, such as speed over the ground when trawling and the avoidance of obstacles on the sea-bed. The paper was presented in London on 14 May 1975 with the President, G. E. Beck in the Chair.
On Error Distributions in Navigation
Authors: Anderson O. D.
Published: November 2009

In this note I wish to enter however belatedly into the discussion of error distributions in navigation (cf. Anderson and Anderson and Ellis). Not being a navigator my arguments will be purely statistical, but I hope that they will throw some light on the problem, which seems to be an important one.

Hampton and Mills have commented that large errors occur more frequently than is predicted by gaussian behaviour; and Anderson remarks that in practice the ‘skirts’ of the empirical distribution are commonly hitched high over the estimated gaussian tails. The conclusion drawn is that navigational errors follow a distribution closer to the two-sided negative exponential than to the normal though, instead of peaking to a sharp point at the centre, the empirical distributions seem to have rounded heads.
Misalignment Angle and Calibration of a Two-component Electromagnetic Log
Authors: Fasham M. J. R.
Published: November 2009

A simple method is described for estimating the angle of misalignment of a two-component electromagnetic log, using the covariance properties of the measured components when a ship is steered in a constant cross wind at a number of different speeds. It is shown that, with the present accuracy of radar fixing, allowing for misalignment has a very small effect on the determination of sensitivities for an absolute calibration. However the effect of misalignment is important when cross-calibrating the athwartships components of two electromagnetic logs.
An Automated Integrated Ship's Bridge Layout
Authors: Abramowski C.
Published: November 2009

The rapid developments of mini-computer technology and the introduction of integrated navigational electronic equipment in ships calls for a reappraisal of bridge design as a matter of urgency. Several research projects have been carried out in recent years and all have concluded that ‘a completely fresh outlook is required rather than work on existing designs and on methods which are regarded as both accepted and acceptable’. Shipowners and shipbuilders need to understand the requirements of the men who will be responsible for the safe handling and navigation of the ship and to choose between stagnant inefficiency and economical gain through proficiency. The standard central command-post layout design should comprise flexible units adaptable to every type of merchant ship, except of course such specialized vessels as oil rigs.
Rate and Ratio in Radar Collision Avoidance
Authors: Vendrell J.
Published: November 2009

Most authorities are agreed that detailed plotting is an essential part of a ship's radar collision-avoidance system, and teaching on the subject includes the calm intellectual detachment of the radar simulator; with First and Second Officers respectively to plot the data and evaluate the developing situation, decide upon the appropriate action and initiate the conn. In conflict with this ideal executive bridge manning concept is the increasing tendency towards automation and resultant crew reduction, to the point where in an increasing number of vessels (in particular the ever increasing number of specialized supply vessels in the offshore oil industry) spare capacity no longer exists to permit the separation of bridge functions such as lookout (Rule 29), radar observer, radar plotter and anti-collision conning. The dictates of low manning, long hours and arduous and often dangerous work on low freeboard, heaving sea-swept decks, all combine in such vessels to restrict bridge manning to a single navigating officer—as a rule on a six-hour shift—overseeing the gyro-steering, reading out and plotting from the position fixing system, operating the radios, keeping a weather eye on the various bridge-mounted engine gauges, observing the radar and, when necessary, overriding the gyro steering to manœuvre the ship manually in any collision-potential situation. Radar plotting is seldom undertaken in this class of vessel, there being a limit even to the accomplishments of the one-man-band.
Education and the Sea
Authors: Fifield L. W. J.
Published: November 2009

Professor M'Pherson's paper on ‘Education and the Sea’ does somewhat less than justice to the non-university sector of the British educational system; his Appendix A lists only two university undergraduate courses in nautical—maritime studies, whereas six such courses are offered by polytechnics and the first of these was approved ten years ago.

More recent developments have included a B.Sc. in Fishery Science; a number of degree courses in Environmental Studies and Geography, which contain substantial elements of meteorology, oceanography, cartography and marine surveying; and post-graduate courses in Shipping Management and in Hydro-graphic Surveying. These courses gain awards of a first degree or the diploma of the Council for National Academic Awards—a body which deserves much credit for encouraging experimentation in many ‘new’ areas of study.
Multiple Sun Sights with One Reduction
Authors: Budlong John P.
Published: November 2009

The small-craft navigator is beset by a number of problems in taking sextant observations; of these wave motion is foremost for the constantly changing height of eye makes the dip correction uncertain. One alternative is to take a number of sights and average the times and altitudes; but averaging angles, and especially times, is an error-prone occupation and if one of the sights is badly in error it will probably not be noticed, and will bias the resulting average. This would be avoided if all the sights were individually reduced and plotted, but the work involved is prohibitive. The method here described permits several sights to be taken and the individual position lines plotted, but requires practically no increase in work over a single sight. Inspection of the position lines will give a very accurate average and also indicate immediately if one of the sights was in error either in recorded altitude or time.
Further Comments on the Calculation of Position Line Data with a Computer Calculator
Authors: Read John A.
Published: November 2009

Mr. Podmore's article1 will certainly cause several people to write to you, as he is not suggesting the best use of the HP-35. One advantage of the Hewlett-Packard calculators is that one does not need to convert degrees and minutes to degrees and fractions of a degree before beginning the problem. Also one should use the cosine law again to find the azimuth. The usefulness of the calculator is that it can find with ease, both the calculated zenith distance and azimuth (no more tables!).
Megalithic Astronomy
Authors: Thom A. , Thom Archibald S.
Published: November 2009

When we started surveying Megalithic sites in Britain we used a cloth tape, but after some years it was realized that it was necessary to be more precise and now we use a steel tape for the important sites. Similarly with astronomy; at first we considered it sufficiently accurate to work to ¼° but now we know that it is advisable to work always to within a minute of arc. This is because we have found out that the erectors of the stones sometimes used distant foresights, either artificial or natural, and by using these they could get an accuracy of better than a minute. The method of observing was for the operator to watch the edge of the celestial body grazing a foresight or running down the edge of a hill. He moved sideways until he got exact coincidence and then marked the position. This first came to our attention when we measured up the site at Ballochroy on the west side of Kintyre.
The Military Chartmaker
Authors: Cramer Shannon D.
Published: November 2009

Like so many Americans in this Bicentennial Year I find myself reflecting more and more on our heritage, the present state of affairs and our future. As Director of the Defense Mapping Agency I am especially aware that I am in a line of succession that can be traced back to Robert Erskine, the first Geographer-Surveyor to the Continental Army under command of George Washington. This has naturally impressed upon me the more than 200-year service that my organization and its predecessors have rendered to the Armed Forces of the United States, and incidentally our maritime fleet.
Torres Strait and the Inner Route
Authors: Osborn J. H. S.
Published: November 2009

The north-east coast of Australia is fronted by the world's longest coral reef system, which stretches in a north/south direction between latitudes 9° and 24° South. Although its outer limit is at distances of between 20 and 120 miles from the coast the enclosed waters are relatively shallow and contain many islands, detached reefs and shoals. The shipping lane between the coast and the Great Barrier Reef is known as the Inner Route. Torres Strait, its northern entrance, although extensive is shallow throughout and encumbered by reefs and islands to such an extent that only one route through it has been lit. The alternative routes are shallow or tortuous.
From Two-Star Instruments to Modern Star Trackers
Authors: Freiesleben H. C.
Published: November 2009

For a long while now positions on the surface of the Earth have been fixed by observing the altitudes of two heavenly bodies. The equations:

include on their left-hand side two observed zenith distances and on their right-hand sides the required values of latitude and longitude. The history of celestial navigation records many different solutions to the problem, one of them being the observation of equal altitudes of the same body east and west of the meridian, usually the Sun, or of two different stars. If only the local time is required it is not even necessary to measure the exact altitude.
The Italian Navy and Marconi's Early Experiments
Authors:   The Italian Navy Staff
Published: November 2009

There has been, and always will be, some debate about Marconi's probable mood when in the summer of 1897 he left Italy by train for London, where his new invention was at last to find the encouragement and financial backing needed for its practical realization. His enthusiasm must have been damped by a marginal note by the Italian Minister of Posts and Telegraphs in his report on the historical experiment at Pontecchio—that young Marconi should have himself admitted into a well-known Roman clinic for mental diseases!
The History of Inertial Navigation
Authors: Wrigley Walter
Published: November 2009

Practical inertial navigation is a quite recent achievement, only twenty-five years for serious research and development and only five for its commercial use. However, one might possibly say that a partial understanding of some of its principles is much more ancient. For example, in the Bible1 we read that God used a plumb-line to identify a particular location!
Recent Advances in Maritime Traffic Surveillance and Control
Authors: Le Forestier F.
Published: November 2009

The increase in the number and tonnage of modern vessels, the large differences in their handling qualities, the dimensions of straits and ports, and consequently navigation difficulties encountered in poor visibility, have led the authorities involved to set up control centres responsible for the functions of traffic regulation and aids to navigation. Several systems ensuring these functions have been set up over the last few years or are currently under way. Using modern technology these systems meet a wide range of operational requirements and are characterized by extensive modularity, allowing system implementation in successive stages.
Some Applications of Human Engineering to Wheelhouse Design
Authors: Lazet A. , Schuffel H.
Published: November 2009

To optimize the man-machine relationship different approaches are possible, the adaptation of man to the machine or of the machine to man. The first relates to training and selection, the second is generally called ‘human engineering’, now of great interest both in the naval and merchant marine context. Changing factors like the density of traffic in harbours, the harbour environment, the speed of ships and problems of manning and automation have all contributed to that interest. A ship designer is increasingly confronted with design problems where the man/machine relationship involves the operator as a controller. The desired increase in performance is achieved only if human possibilities are put to their best use.
Kalman Filter Techniques in Marine Integrated Navigation Systems
Authors: Dove M. J.
Published: November 2009

Anyone concerned with navigation, be he practising navigator, design or development engineer, teacher, or amateur yachtsman, will be aware that the great majority of developments took place prior to Captain Cook's epic voyages (1768–1779) or after 1904 when the first radio time signals were transmitted. During the first period the science of astro-navigation had been developed and such aids as log, chronometer, sextant andNautical Almanacwere available. The methods developed during that period differ very little from the traditional methods which are still in use today.
III—The Efficiency of Square Rigged Ships
Authors: Villiers Alan
Published: November 2009

The big square-rigged ship, contrary to popular or ignorant view, was (or could certainly be) a most effective machine for the conversion of the sea winds into power in and by her sails, and could make useful long voyages carrying heavy bulk cargoes at minimum cost and minimum loss, while at the same time offering that rarity of these days—a good measure of contentment and satisfaction for her officers and crew. She was not—and I should think never was—a lumbering old ‘windbag’, more or less drifting about the seas from one port towards another, hopeful of arriving somewhere some day. When for example, we sailed in the four-masted barque Parma from an outport in Spencer Gulf, South Australia, bound non-stop towards Falmouth, Plymouth, or Queenstown for Orders (as the old charter parties read), with five thousand tons or more of grain in sacks stowed thoroughly well down below, we did not set out hopefully on a drifting-match vaguely in the direction of North Europe, some 15, 000 miles away.
IV—Winds, Currents and Sailing Routes
Authors: Cotter Charles H.
Published: November 2009

The pattern of surface winds on an ideal non-rotating uniform Earth would be related to the distribution of surface temperatures. This would lead to atmospheric pressure gradients which, in turn, would produce surface winds. The effect of the Earth's rotation produces the so-called ‘Planetary Wind System’, and the actual pattern of surface winds is often considered to be a modification of this. But many factors influence the global wind system to such an extent that the explanation of any part of the system at any given time is a matter of considerable complexity. Moreover, experience has amply demonstrated that despite the close attention of physicists the accurate forecasting of winds for more than a day or so ahead has not met with hoped-for success.
VI—Speed Prediction for the Dyna ship
Authors: Schenzle P.
Published: November 2009

This paper reviews the research carried out at the University of Hamburg on the predicted performance of the Dyna Ship, a project for an advanced sailing merchantman. The proposed rig incorporates a series of unstayed hollow rotatable masts with terylene sails set along aerodynamically curved yards. The masts and sails are handled hydraulically by remote control from the wheelhouse.

Sailing ship research at the Institut für Schiffbau (IfS) of Hamburg University probably began with a paper presented by Thieme to the Schiffbautechnische Gesellschaft (S.T.G.) in 1955 on the mechanics of sail propulsion. When during 1961–6 the Hamburg Research Council promoted a broad research programme on wind forces on ships, covering all current modern ship types, the opportunity was taken to include also the problems of wind propulsion. This part of the investigation was especially stimulated by an inquiry by Wilhelm Prolss, who proposed a new height-restricted wind propulsion system for large ships in line with modern technology and aerodynamics, now known as theDyna Ship.
VII—A Rig for Coastal Trades
Authors: Hasler H. G.
Published: November 2009

Since 1960 there has been a revival of interest in the Chinese, or junk, rig for small sailing yachts, and an increasing number of seagoing cruising boats are now appearing with it. It may therefore be appropriate to consider what, if any, application the rig could have to commercial sailing vessels in the western world.

The rig carries only one fully-battened sail on each mast, and may have any number of masts from one upwards. In its larger sizes the sail, complete with its yard, battens, and boom, is very heavy, and the whole weight has to be carried by one or more halyards from the masthead. Traditionally, and preferably, the mast is completely unstayed, being supported only at the step and the partners and standing up like a tree, or cantilever.
John Thomas Towson (1804–81): His Contributions to Navigation
Authors: Cotter Charles H.
Published: November 2009

This paper was presented at a meeting of the Bristol Channel Branch of the Institute i n Cardiff on 28 April 1976.

The work and life of John Thomas Towson falls neatly within the professional group so aptly styled by the late Professor E. G. R. Taylor as the Mathematical Practitioners. Born in Devonport in 1804, Towson was educated at Stoke Classical School in that town and on leaving school followed his father's trade as a chronometer maker. When only 22 years of age Towson invented a device for banking the balance of a chronometer and his invention was communicated to the Society of Arts in 1826.
The Fully Automatic Radar Plotter in the Context of Some Past Collisions—I
Authors: Wylie F. J.
Published: November 2009

In 196 two papers by Captain Wylie on ‘Legal aspects of radar and collision’ were published in this Journal (18, 203, 402). Captain Wylie here reviews some of these cases, and other similar cases, in the light of the further information that might have been available on the bridge had the vessels concerned been equipped with modern automatic radar plotting equipment.

The object of this series is to examine the circumstances of a number of collisions, selected at random, to see whether the various encounters would have been likely to develop adversely had either or both ships been equipped with a fully automatic radar plotter (FARP). The argument could of course have been developed using various devised situations, but it was felt that a more convincing result would be achieved against a background of documented disasters. All the incidents chosen have been the subjects of Court Cases or Official Investigations; only in the Andrea Doria–Stockholm collision was there no conclusion, as the case was withdrawn from the New York District Court after the taking of evidence from the deck officers.
Development of Pilot Navigation Procedures for Long Haul Commercial Transport
Authors: Terrell A. I.
Published: November 2009

Throughout history man has navigated himself or his vehicle; while some of the methods he has used have remained unchanged through the centuries, other methods have been developed, and when superseded by later developments often lost. The stone age cave dweller used navigation, after chasing his quarry, to find his way back to his cave and this particular form of the art of navigation is little changed today. On the other hand the arts and the techniques which enabled early Polynesian navigators to sail the South Seas, and the crews of Arabian dhows to return to their home ports unerringly, may well be lost for all time. We do not propose to regret this; it is part of the evolutionary process that as each skill is lost it is replaced by a greater skill. The modern marine sextant can trace its ancestry back to the practice of measuring the height of a star in finger breadths used by those Arab navigators. Aerial navigation entirely, and from our limited knowledge we suggest ship navigation also, is at a point in its development where the man is being replaced by the machine, and it may be that we should assess the best way to ensure that we, as navigators, remain master of that machine.
A Model for Calculating a Maritime Risk Criterion Number
Authors: van der Tak C. , Spaans J. A.
Published: November 2009

Early in 1976 the Navigation Research Centre of the Netherlands Maritime Institute started research to develop a ‘maritime risk criterion number’ for a specific sea area. The need was urgent as the Navigation Research Centre (NRC) became more involved in marine traffic studies in the North Sea and the approaches to Dutch harbours. The main purpose is to calculate the criteria for traffic patterns in a given area as an element in the information needed to find the best regulatory solution for the overall traffic situation. The criterion should give due recognition to such elements as the traffic density, the course and speed distribution of the traffic, and the danger classes of the ships participating in the traffic.
Two Centuries of Nautical Instruments in Japan
Authors: Mozai Torao
Published: November 2009

The first reference to western techniques of navigation in Japan is in the Genna-Kohkaisho or The Navigation Arts in the Age of Genna by Koh-un-Ikeda, written in 1618 just sixty-three years after the first Portuguese visit to Japan. During these sixty-three years the Japanese had built some western-style sailing vessels and actually used western techniques for navigation to south-east Asia. The author shows a good grasp of western navigation. For instance Ikeda had asked his teacher, the Portuguese captain Gonsaro (Japanese pronunciation) ‘Is there any method of obtaining the latitude when the sky is clouded for a short time just as the Sun or the star transits the meridian?’ Captain Gonsaro answers ‘It is of course impossible, no one in the world can ever do it.’ Ikeda suggests the possibility of estimating the altitude of the Sun or star on the meridian and one can see now that this foreshadows the famous ex-meridian method that was developed much later.
The Almanacs—Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow
Authors: Seidelmann P. K. , Janiczek P. M. , Haupt R. F.
Published: November 2009

Fragments of documents and instruments identifiable as almanacs, together with the comments of ancient writers and the circumstances surrounding historical deeds indicate that almanacs have existed from the earliest attempts at the organization of time into units larger than the day. The value of such works to navigation was slight when voyages beyond sight of land were few and of short duration; nor were they readily available when books had to be hand copied. Yet the contents of almanacs had an influence on sailing; the average mariner, being neither more ignorant nor less superstitious than the merchant or farmer, was likewise subject to occult predictions when almanacs were in the hands of the astrologers.
John Hamilton Moore and Nathaniel Bowditch
Authors: Cotter Charles H.
Published: November 2009

John Hamilton Moore (1738–1807), a well-known teacher of navigation, was born in Edinburgh, educated in Ireland, and subsequently joined the Royal Navy at Plymouth. In about 1770 Moore established a Nautical Academy in Brentford, Middlesex, and in 1772 he published his popular epitome of navigation under the title The New Practical Navigator and Daily Assistant. Later he established himself at 127, Minories, near Tower Hill, where he not only taught navigation to ‘Gentlemen designed for, or belonging to the sea‘ but carried on the business, aided by his sons and son-in-law Robert Blachford, of chart-seller and purveyor of nautical instruments. In the preface to the twelfth (1796) edition of his Practical Navigator, Moore presumed that he had been enabled to have made gradual but progressive improvements in navigation as his ‘knowledge became extended through investigation’ and as his ‘judgement matured by experience’. In this edition of his work Moore styled himself as ‘Teacher of Navigation, Hydrographer and Chart-seller to His Royal Highness the Duke of Clarence’. There can be no doubt that Moore's Practical Navigator was favourably received; and, indeed, a twentieth edition was brought out by Joseph F. Dessiou (1790–1842), a master in the Royal Navy who, on retiring from sea-service, was employed in the Admiralty Hydrographic Office where he specialized in the study of tides. Dessiou's twentieth edition of Moore appeared in 1828, some 21 years after the death of its original author.
‘The Military Chartmaker’
Authors: Harrison A.
Published: November 2009

Vice Admiral Shannon D. Cramer, Jr., presented the American contribution to the development of navigational charts in his paper (this Journal, 30, 15, Jan. 1977). He comments that:

It is seldom realized that the first flight across the Atlantic was completed by the U.S. Navy in 1919—eight years before Charles A. Lindbergh's courageous solo flight.

There are two points which appear to be equally seldom realized.

(1) The U.S. Navy flight certainly crossed from one Atlantic coast to the other, but the crossing was achieved by one flight from Newfoundland to the Azores on 16 May, 1919 and a second flight from the Azores to Lisbon nine days later on May 28.