bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Gas plant and fuel handling facilities: An insurer's view
Authors: Davenport John A.
Published: June 2004

A program to aid management in developing loss prevention procedures and how this program can be applied to gas plants.
Review of literature related to human spark scenarios
Authors: Berkey Brian D. , Pratt Thomas H. , Williams George M.
Published: June 2004

This paper presents a summary of articles from the literature concerning human spark ignition scenarios. Two basic subject areas are covered. These are (1) articles related to charge generation, particularly those associated with clothing and textiles, (2) articles related to energy storage and discharge. The papers have been organized according to their primary subject. However, it should be recognized that many of the papers relate to both subject areas. The key conclusions and recommendations from each of the cited articles are included, as well as a summary of conclusions drawn from the overall literature review.
Systems for electrostatic evaluation in industrial silos
Authors: Britton Laurence G.
Published: June 2004

While a primary strategy for avoiding ignition during silos filling lies in control of the ignition energy of the suspension, it may also be possible to control the energy of on‐bed brush discharges created during filling. Two instrument systems are described for investigations in operational, full‐scale process equipment. A discussion is made of the effective energies of brush discharges, the effects of process variables on static, and types of charge neutralizer that have been used or proposed. The instrument systems allow pragmatic, in‐plant evaluation of the effects of process variables and the benefits of any charge neutralizer system that is used.
Laboratory shielding for projectiles
Authors: Ciolek William H.
Published: June 2004

A survey of techniques for shielding against projectiles originating from process equipment.
Laboratory safety design criteria
Authors: Le Ngoc B. , Santay Anthony J. , Zabrenski John S.
Published: June 2004

When handling and processing developmental chemicals for the first time in laboratory, bench scale or pilot plant scale setting, it is important to ascertain the thermal and physical properties of that material early on. Several screening methods for property evaluation are surveyed and the results discussed.
Should undergraduates be instructed in loss prevention?
Authors: Kletz Trevor A.
Published: June 2004

The reasons why process safety and loss prevention should be included in the training of undergraduate chemical engineers.
Vaporization and dispersion modeling of contained refrigerated liquid spills
Authors: Studer D. W. , Cooper B. A. , Doelp L. C.
Published: June 2004

The modeling of evaporation and dispersion from chemical spills has been an active area. The available models span the range of very simple calculational methods, for quick response at the time of accidents, to more complex transient models that predict the results of hypothesized events. Conservative assumptions are often used in all of these models in place of more accurate and more complicated computational techniques.
Safety in multistream ammonia plants utilizing common utility services
Authors: Mall Ram Ditta
Published: June 2004

A multistream plant has a definite advantage of achieving an overall lesser downtime as compared to a single‐stream plant based on Partial Oxidation because the outage of individual stream does not necessarily put the plant out of operation. But the safety considerations in the design, operation and maintenance of a multistream plant should be all the more elaborate and well defined. Usually the multistreams have common utility sources and a number of interconnections provided for the side streams. The present paper is a case study of an incident that occurred in the Ammonia Plant when the maintenance work was in progress in one stream and the other two were under operation.
Brittle fracture of a high pressure heat exchanger
Authors: Snyder P. G.
Published: June 2004

The lesson from the E‐440 incident is that we must establish minimum pressurizing temperatures for all heavy‐wall equipment, not just reactors. We must also exercise care in the design of new equipment and modifications plus repairs to existing equipment.
A burner management emphasis program
Authors: Murphy John F.
Published: June 2004

An emphasis program instituted at Dow Chemical to improve the company's performance as related to the operation of fired heaters.
Formation of diacrylic acid during acrylic acid storage
Authors: Wampler Francis M.
Published: June 2004

Diacrylic acid (β‐acryloxypropionic acid) forms spontaneously in bulk acrylic acid by a Michael‐addition reaction. Fresh samples of acrylic acid containing 0.08–2.9% (m/m) levels of water were stored at constant temperatures of 15, 25, 35, and 45°C up to 65 days. An empirical equation to predict diacrylic acid formation was generated from the data.
Safety, health, and loss prevention in the undergraduate chemical engineering curriculum
Authors: Levitzky Joseph J.
Published: June 2004

Through this medium, the students have developed a better understanding of their responsibilities as engineers to protect both occupational and public health and safety.
Performance of aqueous hazmat foams on selected hazardous materials
Authors: DiMaio L. R. , Norman E. C.
Published: June 2004

This exploratory research program represents a continuing commitment that was undertaken to provide, where possible, some solution to vapor control problems through the use of special foams, equipment and technical information.
Effect of operating conditions on pressure drop in a pulse‐jet cleaned fabric filter
Authors: Templin B. R. , Leith David
Published: June 2004

Tests were conducted to determine the effect of operating conditions on pressure drop in a pulse‐jet cleaned fabric filter. A three‐bag, pilot‐scale filter was used. Polyester bags with ptfe‐laminated surface and untreated surface collected fly ash and limestone dust at 30, 120, and 480 seconds between cleaning pulses to each bag. Tests were conducted using off‐line and on‐line cleaning. Results were compared to predictions of theoretical models. The models should be used only when sufficient dust is on the fabric to cause model parameters to remain constant.
Reliable detection of runaway reaction precursors in liquid phase reactions
Authors: Spence John P. , Noronha John A.
Published: June 2004

A theoretical approach for early on‐line detection of runaway reactions based on temperature derivative estimates is described and shown to be feasible in the laboratory. On‐line process measurements were processed to yield smoothed derivative estimates and confidence intervals. These estimates were then compared to characteristics of potentially hazardous situations. If a match was sensed, preventive or emergency measures could be initiated. The problem lies in the tradeoff between earliest possible detection and false alarm avoidance.
Failure mode management: A loss prevention philosophy for programmable logic controllers
Authors: Wilson Dean K.
Published: June 2004

Programmable logic controllers are microprocessor‐based solid state switches that can be programmed to operate in a particular sequence in response to such external inputs as pressure or temperature indication. These units are now being installed to control primary and peripheral processes, including the burner management/safety environment, in place of the more traditional electromechanical controls. Specific design guidelines that will successfully manage the several identified failure modes of programmable logic controllers are discussed. Suggestions as to how this philosophy may be applied to actual installations are provided.
Loss prevention features perform in fired heater loss incident
Authors: Gibson T. O.
Published: June 2004

An incident at a small manufacturing site is described. Minimum impact resulted because of proper maintenance and the loss prevention features.
Commercialization of an on‐line hydrogen monitor
Authors: Anderson Robert F. , Schnell Robert P.
Published: June 2004

UOP Monirex® Systems has recently introduced an on‐line Hydrogen Monitor based on a unique, hydrogen specific sensor.
Tank failure modes and their consequences
Authors: Trbojevic Vladimir M. , Slater David H.
Published: June 2004

The question of tank failure is addressed for both cryogenic (LFG) and atmospheric (Crude Oil) designs. An analysis of the consequences of an assumed axisymmetric mode of failure of a liquid storage tank is presented in an effort to answer the question.
Lessons learned from a hydrogen explosion in a process unit
Authors: MacDiarmid J. A. , North G. J. T.
Published: June 2004

Polysar Limited operates a large petrochemical complex in Sarnia, Canada with several plants that produce monomers and synthetic rubber. On Good Friday, April 20th, 1984, there was a hydrogen explosion and fire in the Litol benzene unit of Polysar's Styrene I plant. Two men were killed and two more were injured. Injury and loss of life would likely have been greater had the explosion not happened on a plant holiday.

The explosion occurred when the unit was being restarted following a scheduled shutdown for maintenance. The explosion followed the release of about 30 kilograms of hydrogen gas into a compressor shed from a burst flange operating at 4800 kPa (700 psig). The findings of the investigation into the explosion and the actions taken to prevent a re‐occurrence are discussed.
The anatomy of an acrylic acid runaway polymerization
Authors: Levy Leon B. , Penrod James D.
Published: June 2004

The details of an unscheduled polymerization of acrylic acid initiated by indirect heating have been characterized by in‐depth analysis of the polymer, kinetic and thermodynamic calculations, and heat and material balances on the system. The data fit together to give a consistent picture of the polymerization scenario. The fact that the acrylic acid polymerization was not violent was primarily due to the presence of about 10 ppm phenothiazine, which delayed the onset of free radical polymerization until about 2 to 3 hours after the monomer had reached its boiling point. Since much of the acrylic acid was converted to dimer during this induction period, the ultimate energy release was greatly limited. Other moderating factors were a relatively slow heatup of the tank contents in the external heat exchange recycle loop, free vapor venting, and the incursion of fire monitor water into the tank.
Preventing fires and explosions in pilot plants
Authors: Capraro M. A. , Strickland J. H.
Published: June 2004

While the magnitude of potential consequences might vary, most hazards encountered in pilot plant operations are the same as those experienced in full scale commercial facilities. For example, safeguarding hazardous chemicals storage and transfer, protecting reaction vessels against catastrophic failure or runaways, all require careful consideration regardless of scale. We, however, want to address some aspects of pilot plants which can introduce hazards unique or more common to their operation. To illustrate, we present some case histories from our own pilot plant experience in BASF's Chemical Engineering Department, and include a brief discussion of some corresponding safeguards to mitigate these situations.
Columbia nitrogen's spill alert computer system
Authors: McPherson S. W.
Published: June 2004

The spill alert computer system was installed and started up at Columbia Nitrogen in 1986. Discussed in this paper are routine operations of the system and how the system was used during an emergency drill.
Learning value from a blown fuse
Authors: Gibson Thomas O.
Published: June 2004

The following loss incident is one that would not typically be recognized before it occurs. When investigating safety and loss prevention incidents, failure to execute operating procedures is most often the cause of the problem.
Case histories of dust explosions
Authors: Skinner S. J.
Published: June 2004

Three dust explosion incidents that occurred within Monsanto Europe are discussed. The company carries out a wide range of operations involving powdered solids, and the incidents illustrate the range of situations that can cause dust explosions. The design approaches used now, covered by guides such as the NFPA 68 and 69 usually prevent major losses, but there are some lessons to be learned from the three incidents described. The most basic one is that there are so many different ways of igniting flammable dusts that we should never use elimination of ignition sources as the sole method of protection. The other lesson is a very old one: the need to maintain all our equipment and safety systems in operational condition at all times. This is particularly difficult in practice because these systems are not required for day‐to‐day production, but still must operate effectively when they are needed.
Foam‐water sprinkler protection for flammable liquids
Authors: Tabar David C.
Published: June 2004

Companies involved in the handling, processing, and storage of flammable liquids all share a common denominator: the hazards of the business. Loss experience within chemical and related industries, and their respective distribution chains, continues to reaffirm the need to maintain active and aggressive internal loss‐prevention programs. Losses, fire research, technological advances, the code‐making process, and the individual efforts of loss prevention professionals have produced design concepts and standards for sprinkler protection of flammable liquids. Industrial fire losses have been widely publicized. These losses have heightened to invoke concern with respect to “real‐world” ignition scenarios, sprinkler system design criteria, and hazardous material runoff. While thorough investigations have not been made public in all cases, industry knowledge of causal and other loss‐related factors is vital for the prevention of future losses. At the same time, industry is facing reaction—in the form of high building construction costs—called for by model fire and building codes when hazardous materials are involved.
Introduction to expert systems and potential ammonia plant applications
Authors: Madhavan S. , Kirsten R. A.
Published: June 2004

A conceptual approach for applying expert systems to ammonia plants, on an off‐line basis, is discussed. These systems can be used for plant problem diagnostics, operator training, safety studies, and risk analysis.
An expert system for scheduling production in a multipurpose specialty chemicals plant
Authors: Daugherty David P. , Felder Richard M.
Published: June 2004

A prolog‐based system that attempts to duplicate the human expert's approach to short‐term scheduling of multipurpose facilities.
Thermal stability and deflagration of ethylene oxide
Authors: Britton Laurence G.
Published: June 2004

Some initiating causes of ethylene oxide decomposition are examined. Experimental data are presented for thermal decomposition limits, autoignition temperature and minimum ignition energy. It is shown that flame propagation through liquid filled lines may occur via decomposition of a vapor pocket. Insulation fires are discussed in terms of a series of exothermic reactions initiated by low tempertaure formation of polyethylene glycols. Some case histories are reviewed.
Prediction of decomposition limits for ethylene oxide‐nitrogen vapor mixtures
Authors: Brockwell Jonathan L.
Published: June 2004

A decomposition limit equation applicable to liquid ethylene oxide storage conditions based on recently obtained data is presented. Comparison is made with a second correlation equation developed from literature data.

Adjustment of predicted decomposition limits to produce recommended safe operating limits is discussed.
Dealing with the process safety “management gap”
Authors: Knowlton R. E.
Published: June 2004

The Process Industry has Corporate Safety Policies, codes of practice, skilled engineers and safety specialists and powerful techniques for Hazard Identification, Assessment and Control. Despite the above and a strong commitment to safety, accidents still occur. Many accidents appear to be due to “gaps” in the management systems rather than to failures of professional skills or to a lack of commitment. This paper will review the many stages in designing, constructing and operating a facility between the initial appraisal of a potential project and the final taking out of service of a facility. The “primary” and “secondary” safety checks will be described. The paper will give examples of gaps in management systems which have led to problems. Finally the paper will suggest ways in which these gaps can be minimized.
Continuing studies of hazardous material vapor mitigation using aqueous foams
Authors: DiMaio L. R. , Norman E. C.
Published: June 2004

Earlier work [1, 2, 3] has shown that aqueous foams can be used successfully to suppress vapors and/or fumes and mitigate reactivity of many hazardous materials. Chubb National Foam, in concert with numerous major chemical manufacturers and users, is committed to a continuing hazardous materials control program which provides experimental data from actual field tests.

Studies of this nature produce valuable information on techniques used to apply special foams, types of equipment required and the courses of action to avoid in a hazardous material incident.

The tests covered in this report were conducted at the Department of Energy Nevada Test Site, Mercury, NV.
Restoring public confidence in the safety of chemical plants
Authors: Buzzelli David T.
Published: June 2004

The following is the keynote address. Mr. Buzzelli is Chairman of the Canadian Chemical Producers' Association as well as President and Chief Executive of Dow Chemical Canada Inc.
Management of process safety at Kerr‐McGee corporation
Authors: Emerson Steven D.
Published: June 2004

In 1986, the executive management of Kerr‐McGee Corporation directed that each operating unit examine its facilities for process hazards so that any deficiencies could be corrected.

This paper reviews organization of the corporatewide process safety program and the deployment of review teams at particular facilities. It also focuses on how one operation in the chemical subsidiary was affected by events at a nearby competitor's facility. Lessons learned in managing the reviews have helped improve ongoing programs throughout the corporation.
Quantitative assessment of process safety programs
Authors: Pitblado R. M. , Williams J. C. , Slater D. H.
Published: June 2004

Increasingly it is being recognized that the quality and effectiveness of process safety programs have a direct quantitative bearing on a company's accident performance and show up most directly in equipment failure and incident frequency. A technique is currently under development, being partially funded by the Dutch and UK Governments, to address these factors. This paper reviews the underlying basis of the system, with its qualitative and simple quantitative outputs, describes a typical application and suggests the important areas for future development. It is anticipated that this system in its eventual configuration could prove useful for site management audits and compliance reviews as it is targeted specifically towards the chemical industry and derives its basis from CPI accident statistics and underlying management principles.
The major risk index system
Authors: Lapp Steven A.
Published: June 2004

An index system to evaluate the relative risks of different operations has been developed and is currently in use. It is based on fault tree analysis methods and considers both probabilities as well as consequences of failure scenarios. Concepts behind the technique are discussed and its use is illustrated with an example.
Rising American expectations for a larger public role to prevent chemical accidents
Authors: Poje Gerald V.
Published: June 2004

Last year the President articulated an important national goal: People living near industrial facilities should not have to fear for their health.

President George Bush. June 12, 1989

Serious policy initiatives to guarantee freedom from fear must contain provisions to prevent chemical accidents through an open, cooperative dialogue involving community safety advocates, organized labor, and industry.
Facility risk review as an approach to prioritizing loss prevention efforts
Authors: Casada M. L. , Kirkman J. Q. , Paula H. M.
Published: June 2004

In large, complex facilities such as refineries and chemical facilities, it is difficult to identify and compare the risks from many different threats to personnel and production activities. Such a comparison, however, is worthwhile because managers can use this information in allocating limited loss prevention resources. A facility risk review (FRR), as described in this paper, is an effective means of identifying and ranking risks in a facility.
Semi‐quantitative risk assessment method for product management
Authors: Fraser W. J. , Bussey R. J. , Johnston J. C.
Published: June 2004

The workshop presented a semi‐quantitative risk assessment technique that can be used to judge the total risk on all undesired consequences/events for a product manufacturing operation. The technique requires an experienced team to judge risk utilizing a numerical rating system that, although arbitrarily chosen, is self consistent and provides a relative assessment of product manufacturing risk. Once calculated, the risk is compared to the product's net income for making risk management and product planning decisions. The workshop included an exercise where all participants could try the technique.
An overview of emergency relief system design practice
Authors: Fisher Harold G.
Published: June 2004

Cost effective loss prevention requires an optimizing strategy to prevent, moderate (relieve) and contain runaway reactions. Ensuring that an emergency relief system design will either avoid or accommodate two‐phase vapor‐liquid flow is of particular importance. Use of adiabatic runaway reaction test information in combination with digital computer simulation is a powerful method to design an emergency relief system.
Worker hazard communications: The regulatory framework
Authors: West A. S.
Published: June 2004

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) are a key element in the communication of chemical hazards in the workplace. Their use has grown far faster than earlier anticipated. This paper describes aspects of the regulatory requirements in the United States, in Canada, and in Europe. Some concern is expressed that the length and complexity of some of the data sheets currently being published may be deleterious to the original intent.
Foam system design for ammonia storage tank areas
Authors: Norman Edward C. , Swihart Thomas M.
Published: June 2004

Foam application is a successful method of reducing the release of vapors from anhydrous ammonia spills. It is a simple process also proving to be the most economical.
Structured packings for use in oxygen service: Flammability considerations
Authors: Dunbobbin B. R. , Werley B. L. , Hansel J. G.
Published: June 2004

Metallic structured packings have found increasing use in the cryogenic distillation of air. An experimental program was performed to test the flammability of selected metal packings under simulated high oxygen concentration operating conditions. Aluminum flammability in gaseous oxygen has been shown to be very dependent upon argon dilution, and in the presence of liquid oxygen, strong energy releases have been observed. Brass packing exhibited an unexpectedly high relative flammability whereas copper has been found to be non‐flammable in all tested oxygen purities. These findings suggest the use of copper structured packing in higher purity GOX/LOX regions of an air separation distillation column and aluminum structured packing in the remainder of the column.
Case history of a deflagration involving an organic solvent/oxygen system below its flash point
Authors: Kohlbrand Henry T.
Published: June 2004

A deflagration occurred in a pilot scale vessel containing an oxygen atmosphere and an organic solvent well below the flash point. This was unexpected since the experiment had been carried out on a smaller scale over 50 times. Further investigation of the incident showed that the loading of the vessel and agitation system produced a flammable mist which was capable of explosion at temperatures below the flash point. Simulation studies of the mist conditions in a controlled flammability system were also conducted. Ignition sources were also investigated and at least two were shown to be feasible.
Experimental errors in predictions of thermal hazards
Authors: Duswalt Allen A.
Published: June 2004

Predictions of critical conditions for thermal runaways are generally based on heat balance models using experimentally generated heat and kinetic data. The accuracy of the predictions depends on the fit of the models and the quality of the thermal data. The relative importance of these factors to the calculated critical reaction conditions are discussed. Some additional procedures for evaluating and improving results are recommended.
Design of quench system for runaway reactions using bench‐scale equipment
Authors: Singh Jasbir , Boey David
Published: June 2004

Runaway chemical reactions are a potential problem in many sectors of the chemical industry. The typical hazard scenario involves a batch (or semi‐batch) chemical reaction where, due to an operator error or instrument failure, the reaction temperature begins to accelerate rapidly. The rise in temperature is, of course, accompanied by a rise in pressure and in order to prevent vessel rupture, some means of protection must be provided. The common approach to overpressure protection in the industry is to fit a relief device to the reactor vessel in question; the device opens at a predetermined pressure and, provided it is sized correctly, the maximum pressure can be kept within acceptable limits. The Design Institute for Emergency Relief Systems (DIERS), organized through the auspices of the AIChE [1], undertook several years of research to develop the methodology for the sizing of relief systems to cope with runaway reactions. The emphasis in industry has changed so considerably since the DIERS work that companies are interested in avoiding the release of chemicals to the environment in addition to preventing equipment damage. This adds considerable complexity to the relief system and must be evaluated with the same thoroughness as the vent design.
Guidelines for technical management of chemical process safety
Authors: Schreiber Sanford
Published: June 2004

The American Institute for Chemical Engineers formed the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) in March, 1985, shortly after the Bhopal tragedy. CCPS has published several technical guidelines and has sponsored needed research projects to fill gaps in technology. In addition, CCPS has sponsored several international symposia in the interest of providing forums for the interchange of the latest technology in the prevention of catastrophic events.
Dow Chemical Western Division Research pre‐operational review for new projects
Authors: DesJardin Michael , Gustafson Douglas , Helling Richard , Ladd Mary Jo , Steele Kent , Vanderhoof Danae
Published: June 2004

Previous authors have documented reviews for design projects prior to construction [1,2]. Very little has been written about research reviews and systems to adequately review new projects. Within the Dow Chemical U.S.A. Research community, a different set of procedures have been developed at each site. The process discussed in this report is the most documented review system of any site within Dow Chemcial U.S.A. Research.
The process safety impact of distributed control systems
Authors: Franke Walter L. , Zodeh Oli M.
Published: June 2004

Experience has shown that a Distributed Control System (DCS) can provide enhanced process monitoring and control capabilities, as well as system self‐diagnostics, that permit increased safety of process operations. However, this enhanced safety does not come about automatically with the installation of a DCS. The complexity and versatility of the DCS can introduce new failure scenarios leading to process upset and potential relization of process hazards. This paper reviews some novel considerations that should be taken into account when conducting process hazards reviews on facilities controlled by a DCS.
Hydrodynamic aspects of venting for vessels containing viscous fluids
Authors: Skouloudis Andreas N. , Kottowski Heinz M.
Published: June 2004

Nine depressurization experiments for vessels containing water, freon‐114 and high viscosity fluids have been analyzed. These experiments were carried out at different plants and provide information about the dependence of the depressurization process on the size of the vessel, the type of vent installed, and the initial conditions. The differences of venting into the atmosphere or venting into a catch tank have been also examined. The accuracy of the two‐phase flow model used for the analysis of these experiments has been demonstrated by comparisons with steady state data referring to co‐current liquid/vapor flow as well as to batch type of flows, where the liquid phase is stagnant.
Reliability performance of fault‐tolerant digital control systems
Authors: Paula Henrique M. , Roberts Michael W. , Battle Ronald E.
Published: June 2004

This paper presents the results of a generic reliability analysis of fault‐tolerant digital control systems (F‐T DCS). This analysis differs from previous efforts at estimating the reliability performance of F‐T DCS in the sense that this analysis relies extensively on actual experience with redundant computer systems rather than on theoretical evaluations. The dominant contributors to the frequency of failure of F‐T DCS are (1) failures within common or shared equipment, (2) software failures, and (3) inadvertent operator actions. Other contributors include loss of electric power, spurious signals that originate from within the DCS, lack of coverage, common cause failure (CCF) of redundant hardware, CCF of instrument channels, and physical damage from externally initiated events (e.g., high temperature). Much variation is expected in the reliability performance of F‐T DCSs. Although some systems may operate for 10 or 15 years without experiencing system failures, other systems may fail several times during the same time interval. This variation is expected among systems of different architectures as well as among systems of the same architecture. Because most failures of DCSs can be traced to some kind of CCF, particularly software failures and inadvertent operator actions, CCFs should probably receive more attention than they are presently given when selecting an F‐T DCS.
The role of instrumentation and process controls in minimizing accidental releases
Authors: Hill Ronald
Published: June 2004

Most accidental releases are the result of either mechanical failures or measures taken to prevent such failures, such as, venting through emergency vents, relief valves, or rupture discs. Where the mechanical failure is the result of defective materials, inadequate design, or external factors, little can be done by means of instrumentation to prevent the release. It may be possible, however, to reduce the flow. Many failures are due to process upsets such as overpressure, internal explosions, and runaway reactions. The probability of these failures occurring can be substantially reduced by proper instrumentation.
Exothermic reactions of DCPD and protection against them
Authors: Ahmed M. , Lavin M.
Published: June 2004

Dicyclopentadiene (DCPD), which is usually considered inert, undergoes exothermic reactions at high temperatures. These reactions initially lower the pressure but ultimately can generate very high pressures. Adiabatic and nonadiabatic laboratory data are presented and characterized into a kinetic model. Strategies are described for safeguarding against potentially high temperatures in DCPD containing vessels and for relieving overpressures should runaway reactions occur.
Documentation of hazard and operability studies
Authors: Freeman Raymond A.
Published: June 2004

The recently enacted Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 [1] and the proposed OSHA Process Safety Management Standard [2] both require that hazard evaluations be completed on all facilities that handle hazardous chemicals. Reports of the hazard evaluations must be kept on file and will be subject to inspection during an OSHA compliance audit. This paper outlines those concepts that are important in the preparation of the documentation of a Hazards and Operability (HAZOP) study.
An accident at a lithuanian fertilizer plant
Authors: Andersson Bengt Orval
Published: June 2004

On March 20, 1989 a tank started to leak spilling large quantities of ammonia which evaporated and caught fire. A layer of warm, unstable ammonia that had accumulated at the bottom of the tank exploded because of the hydrostatic pressure.
Health effects of ammonia
Authors: Ryer‐Powder Jill E.
Published: June 2004

Extreme overexposure to ammonia can cause irreversible pulmonary damage. There is, however, no credible evidence that inhaling a small amount of ammonia leads to chronic lung impairment.
Notes on a few vapor suppression techniques
Authors: Martinsen William E.
Published: June 2004

Water‐based foams that are commonly used to extinguish pool and tank fires of flammable liquids can also be used to suppress the vaporization of flammable liquids pools prior to ignition. To suppress vaporization from pools of water‐soluble or water‐reactive chemicals, specialized foams or dry chemical agents may be more effective than typical low expansion, water‐based foams. Water‐based high expansion foams can be used to mitigate hazardous vapor clouds created by vaporization from pools of some liquefied gases. This paper discusses the advantages and limitations of these vapor suppression techniques.
Workshop on unconfined vapor cloud explosions
Authors: Mancini R. A.
Published: June 2004

The purpose of this paper is to summarize the principle points made during the course of the workshop, identify (to whatever extent is possible) a consensus position of the panel members on key issues, and to review research needs as identified by the panel. No attempt will be made to summarize each panel members' individual presentation, as such, since there was considerable overlap both in the presentation topics and in the subsequent discussions.
Relief system design scope of CCPS effluent handling guidelines
Authors: Huff James E.
Published: June 2004

The forthcoming CCPS Guidelines for Effective Handling of Emergency Release Effluents includes the methodology for defining effluent flow rates and characteristics during emergency pressure relief event. The intent is to provide the user with relief systems in a typical process unit without requiring expert assistance or access to other documents. Cases requiring special design training and methodology due to combinations of multi‐phase, multi‐component, reactive, geometric and thermodynamic complexities are identified and illustrated in the Guidelines. However, the complete design technology for such cases is beyond the scope of these Guidelines; reference is given to applicable documents.
Using material data in static hazard assessment
Authors: Britton Laurence G.
Published: June 2004

Minimum ignition energy (MIE) test methods for gases, liquid mists and dust suspensions are reviewed. A compilation of gas MIEs is given and applications described both in assessing static ignition risks for flammable liquids and the basic requirements for static grounding. The relevance of liquid electrical properties is discussed and a large compilation provided. MIE interpretation problems are discussed with emphasis on dust suspensions.
Measuring process safety management
Authors: Sweeney Joseph C.
Published: June 2004

Many companies are developing and implementing Process Safety Management (PSM) systems. Various PSM models, including those by the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), the American Petroleum Institute (API), the Chemical Manufacturers Association (CMA) and OSHA have emerged to guide the design, development and installation of these systems. These models represent distillations of the practices, methods and procedures successfully used by those who believed that a strong correlation exists between sound PSM practices and achieving reductions in the frequency and severity of process incidents.

This paper describes the progress of CCPS research toward developing a PSM performance measurement model. It also provides a vision for future CCPS research to define effectiveness indices.
Toronado risk analysis
Authors: Rutch Christine , Anselmo Kenneth J. , Linney Robert E. , Sheesley John H.
Published: June 2004

The object of this analysis was to estimate the frequency of tornadoes with certain wind speeds hitting areas of concern, and to display this information easily and understandably. The results serve as a tool for risk analysis and loss prevention for industrial complexes, which can have large structures that are vulnerable to tornado destruction. A database containing detailed information about 31,000 tornadoes occurring across the U.S.A., was obtained. The frequency, total damaged area, and wind speed of tornadoes occurring across the country were calculated from the historical data. This information was used to quantify the risk of tornado occurrence. The results were reported on a color‐coded map detailing the probabilities in 1° × 1° areas, where they can be easily understood and distributed.
More bang for the buck: Getting the most from accident investigations
Authors: Anderson S. E. , Skloss R. W.
Published: June 2004

An Incident Investigation system based on a combination of Fault Tree Analysis logic and the Deming Principles of Systems and Quality was developed during a three‐year period. The system was given an excellent test in the investigation of the explosion of a tank car filled with methacrylic acid. In this case, the Event Tree constructed during the investigation was easily converted into a Fault Tree. The Fault Tree so constructed was then used to evaluate the effectiveness of proposed corrective changes to the production, loading, and analytical systems before the changes were actually implemented. By making use of these tools to guide the addition of feedback loops (“And” Gates in fault Tree terminology), the intrinsic safety of the methacrylic acid production and shipping system was greatly enhanced at a relatively low cost.
Analysis of vent area estimation methods for non‐nomograph gases
Authors: Chatrathi Kris
Published: June 2004

The approach discussed in this paper is an attempt to allow a broader application of a loss prevention technique and to insure efficacy of the technique.
Measurement of flow resistance of rupture disc devices
Authors: Huff J. E. , Shaw K. R.
Published: June 2004

Present codes and practices for the design of relief systems in which rupture discs are used are based either on non‐typical system configurations or on “rule of thumb” default values of rupture disc flow parameters. There is a need to develop code methods and common practices based on actual relief system configurations, as well as test methods for determining the actual flow resistance of specific rupture disc devices. The methodology reported here is appropriate for these needs.
Ultimate capacity of blast loaded structures common to chemical plants
Authors: Whitney M. G. , Barker D. D. , Spivey K. H.
Published: June 2004

There has been a great deal of investment in development of design criteria and design and construction of heavily reinforced, blast‐resistant control rooms. This remains the best option for protective construction against severe blast loading experienced close in to a vapor cloud or other explosion hazard. However, most structures encountered at chemical plants and contemplated for future construction are conventional steel frame, metal clad buildings. In this paper we look closely at the response of such buildings to explosion loads and their ability to undergo large deformations without structural failure. The types of structural elements evaluated include metal decking of various gauge and shape along with a variety of girt and purlin sections. Building frames or bents are also evaluated, although the date base for these is much more limited. The work is based on observations made during investigations of large explosion accidents along with analytical predictions and test measurements. To conclude, we offer specific design criteria and connection recommendations for enhancing the overall strength of a building through the use of conventional components in unconventional construction.
Process safety testing program for reducing risks associated with large scale chemical manufacturing operations
Authors: Sharkey J. J. , Cutro R. S. , Fraser W. J. , Wildman G. T.
Published: June 2004

The reduction of risks associated with chemical processing operations is essential for the safe operation of chemical plants. The reduction of these risks is accomplished through a comprehensive process safety management program. Key elements of this program include Hazard and Operability Studies, Emergency Relief Venting, Process Automation, Management of Change Control Procedures, Process Specific Training, and so forth. Central to many of these elements is a thorough, in‐depth understanding of the reactive nature of chemical processing operations. This understanding can only be obtained through intensive laboratory evalutions using “leading edge” process safety testing technologies. To accomplish this goal, a systematic process safety testing program has been established aimed at characterizing the reactive nature of both the desired and undesired chemistry. The information obtained is directly applicable to the development of intrinsically safe processes and for the safe design/operation of chemical processing facilities.
Ab initio calculation of parity‐violating potential energy hypersurfaces of chiral molecules
Authors: Bakasov Ayaz , Berger Robert , Ha Tae‐Kyu , Quack Martin
Published: June 2004

We introduce the explicit concept of parity‐violating potential energy hypersurfaces which govern the rotation–vibration tunneling dynamics as well as the time‐dependent parity violation in chiral molecules. Calculations are reported for sections of the hypersurfaces of H2O2 and H2S2 at various levels of electroweak quantum chemistry, including CIS‐RHF, CIS‐LR, and CASSCF‐LR. Important findings concern the observed increase of the parity‐violating potentials (Epv) with increasing bond lengths rOO and rSS, which is to some extent physical and partly a consequence of the only approximate electronic wavefunction and perturbational treatment, the confirmation of lines and surfaces of “accidentally” zero Epv at chiral geometries, and the absence of a precise, simple scaling law for observables such as the measurable parity‐violating energy difference between enantiomers ΔEpv. The latter is due to the complicated geometry dependent Epv, although a rough scaling on the order of Z(5±1) with nuclear charges of the two heavy centers can be confirmed. The results are discussed in relation to possible experiments on molecular parity violation. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Int J Quantum Chem, 2004
Reine Normsache? — Ein Ansatz zum Risiko‐Assessment für den British Standard 7799
Authors: Scholz Peter
Published: June 2004

Im folgenden Beitrag wird ein Ansatz zum hierarchischen Assessment von Risiken vorgestellt, welcher die Risiken verschiedener Unternehmensebenen in Bezug setzt, eine Bewertung der Schutzziele Verfügbarkeit, Vertraulichkeit sowie Integrität ermöglicht und damit die Basis für eine gezielte Suche nach Gefahrenpotenzialen bildet. Daraus resultiert eine einerseits realistische, andererseits für die Geschäftsprozesse relevante Einschätzung der Gefährdungslage.
Herdentrieb
Authors: Erben Roland Franz
Published: June 2004

Wenn zwei Nobelpreisträger und ein ehemaliger Vizepräsident der amerikanischen Notenbank einen Hedgefonds managen, kann eigentlich nicht viel schief gehen … glaubte man zumindest bis zum September 1998. Dann bewies die Beinahepleite des „Long Term Capital Management (LTCM)”︁‐Fonds, dass auch geballter ökonomischer Sachverstand nicht vor dem Bankrott schützt. Die Schieflage von LTCM sandte Schockwellen durch das weltweite Finanzsystem, die nur durch eine konzertierte Aktion der US‐Notenbank und mehrer internationaler Großbanken eingedämmt werden konnten.
Hacker, Cracker, Datenräuber — Risiken aus dem Untergrund
Authors: Erben Roland Franz , Romeike Frank
Published: June 2004

Hacker, Cracker, Datenräuber, Virenbastler und Raubkopierer sind längst zu einem wichtigen Thema für jeden Risiko‐Manager geworden. Wir sprachen mit Patrick Kiwitter über die Hacker‐Szene, die Risiken, die von ihr ausgehen und mögliche Schutzmaßnehmen für Unternehmen.
Geomorphic controls, riffle substrate quality, and spawning site selection in two semi‐alluvial salmon rivers in the Gaspé Peninsula, Canada
Authors: Coulombe‐Pontbriand Moise , Lapointe Michel
Published: June 2004

The relationships between valley and channel morphology, spawning substrate quality (content of fine sediment < 2 mm) and the selection of spawning sites by Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) were investigated along 45 km of two semi‐alluvial, valley‐confined rivers in the Gaspé Peninsula, Canada. Linear and logistic regressions confirm that Atlantic salmon prefer spawning at riffles providing good rather than mediocre or poor spawning substrate, as defined by the percentage sand and the Sand Index of Peterson and Metcalfe. However, exceptionally large concentrations of redds were observed on the few riffles located at island heads, with sub‐optimal substrate quality. This observation suggests that, in addition to content of fine material in the substrate, the morphology of spawning reaches may be a significant factor controlling the intensity of inter‐gravel flow through redds and the consequent selection of spawning sites. In the study systems, the quality of spawning substrate was controlled by ‘large‐scale’ geomorphic attributes at the scale of valley segments (1–5 km here): segments located within a wide valley were actively meandering, had higher sinuosity and bank erosion rates, generally lower shear stresses and presented somewhat higher sand content than segments confined by a narrow valley. Although sand contents were significantly higher, laterally unstable segments in wide valleys still harboured good to excellent spawning substrate overall. The study data do not allow the roles of variations in levels of riffle‐zone shear stress to be distinguished from those of cut bank fines input, to explain the observed inter‐segment association between valley width and riffle fines content. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Random walks on the torus with several generators
Authors: Prescott Timothy , Su Francis Edward
Published: June 2004

Given n vectors {i} ∈ [0, 1)d, consider a random walk on the d‐dimensional torus 𝕋d = ℝd/ℤd generated by these vectors by successive addition and subtraction. For certain sets of vectors, this walk converges to Haar (uniform) measure on the torus. We show that the discrepancy distance D(Q*k) between the kth step distribution of the walk and Haar measure is bounded below by D(Q*k) ≥ C1k−n/2, where C1 = C(n, d) is a constant. If the vectors are badly approximated by rationals (in a sense we will define), then D(Q*k) ≤ C2k−n/2d for C2 = C(n, d, j) a constant. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Random Struct. Alg., 2004