bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Promoting Social Integration of Young Children at Risk for Learning Disabilities
Authors: Odom Samuel L. , Jenkins Joseph R. , Speltz Matthew L. , DeKlyen Michelle
Published: April 2006

The Integrated Preschool Curriculum (IPC), designed to facilitate the social integration of young children at risk for learning disabilities into mainstreamed and integrated special education classes, was compared with a standard early childhood education model curriculum. Social interaction data during play are reported for four integrated and two nonintegrated special education classes. Children in the IPC classes were found to exhibit significantly greater proportions of interactive and proximity play, while those in the contrast classes engaged in significantly greater proportions of isolate play. In the integrated classes implementing the IPC, a significantly greater proportion of the nonhandicapped children's interactive play involved handicapped children, as compared to the integrated classes employing the contrast curriculum. Similarly, in the IPC classes handicapped children played with their nonhandicapped peers more often. These data indicate that the IPC successfully promoted social interaction between handicapped and nonhandicapped students in integrated special education classes.
Social Skills Training of LD Adolescents: A Generalization Study
Authors: Schumaker Jean B. , Ellis Edwin S.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine the reliability of role playing as a device for assessing generalization of social skills training and to determine the extent to which LD adolescents generalize specific social skills to the natural setting following training. LD high-school students' social skills were observed in two types of situations before and after training: (a) contrived (but unobtrusive) situations in the subjects' natural environment, and (b) novel role-playing situations. Results suggested that LD adolescents do not automatically generalize recently learned social skills to novel role-playing situations and the natural environment. Also, high performance in a novel role-playing situation does not necessarily mean that a student will show a correspondingly high performance in the natural environment. Consequently, it appears that learning disabled adolescents must be trained to generalize newly learned social skills, and that generalization of newly learned social skills should be measured in the learner's natural environment.
Reliability of Standardized Assessment Instruments When Used with Learning Disabled Children
Authors: Smith Monte D. , Rogers Carl M.
Published: April 2006

Many practitioners and researchers in the learning disability field work under the basic assumption that the various assessment instruments commonly used with learning disabled populations exhibit the same reliability when used with learning disabled students as when used with a more normative population. The purpose of this study was to test this assumption by examining the reliabilities of several tests of intellectual, academic, and affective assessment when administered to learning disabled students.
Effects of Contextualized and Decontextualized Practice Conditions on Word Recognition
Authors: Fleisher Lisa S. , Jenkins Joseph R.
Published: April 2006

Two commonly used teaching strategies in reading are reading in context alone (contextualized practice) and reading in context supplemented with isolated word practice (decontextualized practice). This study by Fleisher and Jenkins was designed to compare the effectiveness and efficiency of the two strategies with a population of learning disabled boys. Results indicated that decontextualized practice produced significantly greater isolated word recognition, and that performance following contextualized practice exceeded that of a no instruction control. However, the instructional treatments did not differentially affect oral reading in context as measured by rate or accuracy. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to the selection of reading objectives and reading measures by remedial reading teachers.
Adolescents with Learning Disabilities: Perspectives from An Educational Clinic
Authors: Johnson Doris J. , Blalock Jane W. , Nesbitt John A.
Published: April 2006

In recent years, diagnosis and treatment of LD adolescents have primarily been considered from the public school perspective. This article, however, examines the characteristics, diagnosis, and treatment of LD adolescents from a clinical perspective. Johnson, Blalock, and Nesbitt present data on LD adolescents that have been gathered at the diagnostic-remedial clinic at Northwestern University. Specifically, the following areas are discussed: (a) detailed descriptive data on the characteristics of the populations, (b) diagnostic and data coding strategies, (c) remedial goals, philosophy, and techniques for adolescents, and (d) issues related to programming for older students. This article clearly illustrates the value of studying LD populations in clinical settings as a means of better understanding their characteristics and their responsiveness to intervention procedures.
Mathematics and Learning Disabled Youth: The Upper Grade Levels
Authors: Cawley John F. , Fitzmaurice Anne M. , Shaw Robert A. , Kahn Harris , Bates Herman
Published: April 2006

Compared to disorders in reading, spelling, and written expression, mathematics disorders have received little attention by learning disabilities specialists. However, in recent years, Cawley and his associates at the University of Connecticut have made significant contributions in this area through their research and development efforts with learning disabled populations. This represents the first in a series of three articles which will focus upon mathematics and learning disabled students. Specifically, this article presents a model for mathematics programming for handicapped youth that considers both the characteristics of the learner and the appropriate representation of mathematics. The second article will present an interpretive review of the literature and the characteristics of learning disabled youth and mathematics. The final article will focus on problem solving and the application of mathematical skills and concepts to “real-life” situations.
The Effects of Syntactic Complexity upon Arithmetic Performance
Authors: Larsen Stephen C. , Parker Randall M. , Trenholme Barbara
Published: April 2006

The results of this study suggest that the syntactic complexity of written mathematical problems influences the student's ability to solve the problems. Although the study used low-achieving eighth-grade students and a relatively small n, the implications for assessment and instructional planning for LD students are nevertheless apparent. The study stresses the importance of considering factors other than just a youngster's mathematical ability to explain below-average performance in arithmetic.
Comparison of the Story Production of LD, Normal-Achieving, and Low-Achieving Children under Two Modes of Production
Authors: Newcomer Phyllis L. , Barenbaum Edna M. , Nodine Barbara F.
Published: April 2006

Using two modes of production, writing and dictation, this study compared the story production, coherence, and fluency of learning disabled (LD) children with that of normal-achieving and low-achieving subjects across three grade levels. Results indicated that: (a) mode of production had no effect upon story production or fluency for any of the subjects; (b) all children made more errors in coherence using dictation; (c) LD children produced fewer stories, were less fluent than the other subjects regardless of mode, and did not improve greatly with maturation; (d) third-grade children of all ability levels produced few stories; (e) there were few differences between the performance of the fifth- and seventh-grade students on all variables; and (6) story producers were more fluent than producers of other types of compositions.
The Effects of Social Support and School Placement on the Self—Concept of LD Students
Authors: Forman Ellice Ann
Published: April 2006

The effects of two types of environmental influences on the self-concept of LD students were examined: social support and school placement. The 51 children and adolescents who participated in the study were receiving LD services in self-contained classes or resource rooms, or had been diagnosed as learning disabled but were not yet receiving services. Social support and self-concept were assessed using two self-report measures developed by Harter (1985). Students with higher levels of perceived social support were found to score higher in general self-worth, athletic competence, scholastic competence, and behavioral conduct than students with fewer social supports. In addition, support from classmates was the most important predictor of high self-concept. School placement was not found to be related to self-concept. The findings of this study suggest that future research needs to examine the social contextual factors that may foster positive self-concepts in LD students.
Criteria for Defining the Regular Classroom as the Least Restrictive Environment for LD Students
Authors: Heron Timothy E. , Skinner Michael E.
Published: April 2006

Members of placement teams expend considerable time and effort on determining least restrictive environments for learning disabled children and youth. Unfortunately, the placement team must use criteria which are vague and subject to interpretation. The purpose of this paper is to delineate three observable and measurable variables in the regular classroom—response opportunity, teacher-student interaction, and social acceptance—which the team can use to make the initial placement decision and to evaluate educational progress in the future.
Children's and Parents' Views of Ingratiation Tactics
Authors: Bryan James H. , Sonnefeld L. Joseph , Greenberg Flora Zaken
Published: April 2006

Three studies were conducted. In Study I, 272 children were individually administered, via tape recordings, a questionnaire designed to assess their preferences for ingratiation tactics given particular targets. It was found that learning disabled children preferred ingratiation strategies which were judged less socially desirable by adults than those selected by non-learning disabled children. Additionally, scores on the questionnaire were not correlated with intelligence test scores, but were correlated with the child's sociometric ratings from peers and teacher ratings of the child's academic and attentional competence. In Study II parents of learning disabled and nondisabled children were compared as to their ratings of the social desirability of various ingratiation tactics. While no differences were found which were attributable to parent differences, parents made reliable discriminations as to the social desirability of various tactics addressed to particular targets. Study III attempted to replicate the results of adult judgments of ingratiation tactics obtained in studies I and II by employing an additional group of college students as subjects. Results across the studies suggest that adults agree on the social desirability of some forms of ingratiation tactics as used in interaction with particular targets. The implications of these findings for social-skills training are discussed.
Interpersonal Problem Solving and Creativity in Boys with and Boys without Learning Disabilities
Authors: Shondrick Denise D. , Serafica Felicisima C. , Clark Philip , Miller Karen G.
Published: April 2006

The present study compared the interpersonal problem-solving skills and creativity of 46 boys with (LD) and 46 boys without (NLD) learning disabilities. In addition, it examined the relationships between interpersonal problem solving and creativity. The Test of Interpersonal Problem Solving (TIPS), based on D'Zurilla and Goldfried's (1971) model of the interpersonal problem-solving process, and two measures of creativity — the Alternate Uses Test (AUT) and Eisen's Test of Remoteness (ETR) — were administered individually.

LD students had significantly lower scores on Problem Formulation, Consequential Thinking, and Total Problem Solving Ability than their NLD peers. However, no group differences were noted on either the verbal (AUT) or the nonverbal (ETR) measure of creativity. Some significant relationships emerged among interpersonal problem solving and creativity scores.
Do State Methods of Quantifying a Severe Discrepancy Result in Fewer Students with Learning Disabilities?
Authors: Finlan Thomas G.
Published: April 2006

Minimizing misclassification of students with LD is a major concern for policymakers, particularly if financial incentives are available for placing children in such programs. In the current study, individual states' methods of defining a severe discrepancy for determining LD eligibility are examined, as well as the way use of such methods influences misclassification. The percentage of the total population identified as LD by individual states (as reported to the federal government) was compared. Results showed variations from 2.19% to 8.66% in the percentage of students aged 7 to 16 identified as LD across states. Seven of the states in the lowest percentage decile used a method for determining a severe discrepancy; in comparison, only two of the states in the decile identifying the most students used a method of determining a severe discrepancy. It was concluded that use of any method to determine a severe discrepancy may help reduce the number of inappropriate placements resulting from labeling students as LD.
Self-Monitoring of Attention as a Treatment for a Learning Disabled Boy's Off-Task Behavior
Authors: Hallahan Daniel P. , Lloyd John , Kosiewicz Marianne Myron , Kauffman James M. , Graves Anne W.
Published: April 2006

A 7-year, 11-month-old, learning disabled boy with attentional problems was taught to self-monitor his on- and off-task behavior by using an audiotape recorder to cue his self-recording. Using a combination of multiple baseline across responses (handwriting and math) and reversal designs, on-task behavior increased dramatically under treatment conditions for both handwriting and math. Academic response rate also increased for handwriting and, especially, math. In an attempt to “wean” the child from possible reliance on the external (tape recorder) signal to self-record, two other treatment conditions were added. The subject was first instructed to self-record without the aid of tape-recorded signals; then, self-recording was discontinued and he was simply to praise himself for being on task. Both conditions led to high levels of on-task behavior and academic output. A one-month followup for math after the experiment found a continued high level of on-task behavior. The relative efficacy of external reinforcement treatments versus more cognitively based approaches such as self-monitoring is discussed.
An Experimental Analysis of the Nature of Reversal Errors in Children with Severe Learning Disabilities
Authors: Deno Stanley L. , Chiang Berttram
Published: April 2006

Reversal errors in letter identification are frequently used as diagnostic evidence of neurological dysfunction. An alternative explanation for reversals is that they represent learned behaviors susceptible to training. The purpose of the present study was to provide evidence bearing on this issue. Five severely learning disabled students from grades three through five were presented with the task of naming lower-case letters b, d, p, and q in 30-second trials and un-timed, respectively. A multiple-baseline design across subjects was used experimentally to determine the extent to which changes in the incentive conditions would have any clear and immediate affect on the students' reversal errors. The results, in general, showed that reversal errors decreased abruptly when incentives were introduced and, in some instances, did not increase when incentives were removed. The findings provide a basis for viewing reversals optimistically as behaviors which may be changed through training rather than pessimistically as signs of neurological or perceptual defects.
The Effects of Psycholinguistic Training on Improving Psycholinguistic Skills
Authors: Sowell Virginia , Parker Randall , Poplin Mary , Larsen Stephen
Published: April 2006

The practice of measuring and instructing learning disabled youngsters in psycholinguistic skills has for several years been under question. In numerous reviews of the effectiveness of such procedures, Hammill and Larsen (1974) noted that the efficacy of these approaches remained nonvalidated. Minskoff (1975) proposed several guidelines to be followed when conducting methodologically sound research on the efficacy of psycholinguistic training. The purpose of this study was to utilize Minskoff's criteria to determine if, in fact, psycholinguistic training would lead to improved psycholinguistic abilities in children. Although Minskoff's stringent criteria were followed, attempts to train psycholinguistic abilities proved unsuccessful.
Effectiveness of a Concept Teaching Routine in Enhancing the Performance of LD Students in Secondary-Level Mainstream Classes
Authors: Bulgren Janis , Schumaker Jean B. , Deshler Donald D.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study was to design and evaluate the effectiveness of Concept Diagrams and a related Concept Teaching Routine when used by regular class teachers to present concepts to heterogeneous groupings of students, including learning disabled pupils, in regular classrooms. The study focused upon both teachers and students. The teachers' ability to prepare Concept Diagrams and to implement a Concept Teaching Routine in the classroom was measured. Students were evaluated relative to performance on Tests of Concept Acquisition, regular classroom tests, and notetaking before and after implementation of the Concept Teaching Routine. Results indicated that teachers can select concepts from content material, prepare Concept Diagrams from those concepts, and present concepts to their classes. Both students with learning disabilities and students without learning disabilities showed gains in their performance on Tests of Concept Acquisition and in notetaking when the Concept Teaching Routine was used in the classroom. Gains in performance on regular tests were associated with the Concept Teaching Routine combined with a review procedure.
Effects of Peer-Previewing on LD Students' Oral Reading Skills
Authors: Salend Spencer J. , Nowak Miriam Roslyn
Published: April 2006

The effects of a peer-previewing system on the oral reading skills of three LD students were examined using a multiple-baseline design across subjects. Results indicated that peer-previewing led to a marked decrease in the oral reading errors of all subjects. Reasons for the effectiveness of the procedure as well as its advantages are presented.
Issues Related to WAIS-R Testing Modifications for Individuals with Learning Disabilities or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Authors: Hishinuma Earl S.
Published: April 2006

The stakes are high: diagnosis for better self-understanding, test adjustments for more meaningful scores, program eligibility for treatment and services, college admissions, and employment accommodations. These benefits could be available to adolescents and adults with learning disabilities or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. In deriving such diagnoses, professional ethics and federal legislation require high standards, especially when testing special populations. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS-R; Wechsler, 1981) is the most commonly used and well-respected adolescent and adult intelligence test (Spruill, 1987). However, not enough discussion and research have centered around test accommodations when assessing individuals with mild disabilities using the WAIS-R. The purposes of this article are to provide an overview of the WAIS-R, present ethical and legal issues, discuss the schism of standardized testing vs. modifications, provide assessment alternatives, summarize practitioner guidelines, and suggest further research.
Social Competence as a Multifaceted Construct: How do Students with Learning Disabilities Fare?
Authors: Vaughn Sharon , Haager Diane
Published: April 2006

This article summarizes and extends the findings from a prospective, longitudinal study that examined the social competence of students with learning disabilities (LD) from kindergarten through fifth grade. Four components that represent a model of social competence were measured: peer relations, social cognition, behavior problems, and social skills. Findings revealed that over time youngsters with LD demonstrated the same trends on all aspects of social competence as nonLD students. Students with LD did not differ significantly from low-achieving (LA) nonLD students on any of the measures of social competence; however, they were significantly different from average/high-achieving (AHA) nonLD students on social skills and behavior problems, but not peer acceptance or self-concept. The discussion addresses the social competence of students with LD from a developmental perspective as well as how they contrast with other achievement groups (LA and AHA). Issues and suggestions for future directions for research on the social-emotional development of youngsters with LD are presented.
Adaptive Behavior of Adults and Young Adults with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Weller Carol , Watteyne Lisa , Herbert Michael , Crelly Clifford
Published: April 2006

This article reviews the conceptual foundations of adaptive behavior as they relate to adults and young adults who exhibit different subtypes and severities of learning disabilities. Research findings about adaptation to education, employment, and social settings are presented. Implications of the role of adaptive behavior in self-determination are hypothesized.
Perceptions of Competence and Control and the Use of Coping Strategies by Children with Disabilities
Authors: Halmhuber Nancy L. , Paris Scott G.
Published: April 2006

This study examined the interaction between children's self-perceptions of competence, perceptions of control, and the use of effective coping strategies. Fifty-six children in grades 2–6, who were identified as either physically impaired (PI), learning disabled (LD), or regular education (RE) students, participated. Children completed paper-and-pencil tasks tapping their knowledge of handicaps and their perceptions of competence and control. The children's general education teachers, special education teachers, and parents completed questionnaires rating each child's coping skills. Results revealed different patterns among groups of children. Subjects were then divided into three groups, children with highly effective coping skills ( n=16), those with less successful coping skills ( n=17), and those in the middle ( n=23). All groups contained PI, LD, and RE students. Comparisons between successful copers and the children with least successful coping skills indicated that the former perceived themselves as competent and made few attributions to unknown sources of control. Results suggest that children representing a range of intelligence levels and educational handicaps can learn to adapt successfully.
Definitions of Learning Disabilities from Adults with Learning Disabilities: The Insiders' Perspectives
Authors: Reiff Henry B. , Gerber Paul J. , Ginsberg Rick
Published: April 2006

Definitions of learning disabilities typically include the perspectives of professionals from educational, psychological, medical, and sociopolitical fields. Decision-makers in learning disabilities have rarely solicited the views of an important population of individuals who live with this label, adults with learning disabilities. This article presents responses from a sample of successful adults with learning disabilities who were asked to define the term learning disabilities. In addition to a number of constructs found in many existing definitions, responses include perceptions and conceptualizations that are only available from first-hand experience of living with learning disabilities into the adult years. Even when these perceptions evidence technical inaccuracies, their personal nature offers important insights into the effects of learning disabilities throughout the lifespan. Future attempts to arrive at a uniform definition of learning disabilities, especially in adulthood, should include or at least consider input from adults with learning disabilities.
Dyslexia the Invisible, Treatable Disorder: the Story of Einstein's Ninja Turtles
Authors: Berninger Virginia W.
Published: April 2006

In this longitudinal, multiple case study, I describe and compare the early development, instructional history, repeated administrations of a test battery, and response to instructional intervention for seven boys (in third to fifth grade at time of intervention), who were brain imaged prior to intervention and found to differ from controls in brain chemical activation during a phonological task. The instructional intervention was phonologically driven reading instruction in a science/reading workshop. At follow-up, phonological skills (phonological manipulation, phonological memory, and phonological decoding) had improved compared to initial assessment, but the boys were better at silent reading comprehension than oral reading, and had rate impairments and considerable difficulties with writing skills (handwriting automaticity, spelling, and speed of composing). Based on recent research on the genetic phenotype (language markers) and on early intervention, a case is made that dyslexia should be diagnosed early in schooling, on the basis of markers for deficient language processes and response to early intervention, so that appropriate instruction can be instituted early and continued throughout schooling as long as necessary. Dyslexia is a developmental disorder that manifests in different ways at different developmental stages, initially as difficulty in learning letters and letter-sound correspondence, next in learning to read words accurately, and finally in impaired reading rate and written expression skills (handwriting automaticity, spelling, and compositional fluency).
Promoting Strategic Writing by Postsecondary Students with Learning Disabilities: A Report of Three Case Studies
Authors: Butler Deborah L. , Elaschuk Cory L. , Poole Shannon
Published: April 2006

To date, seven intervention studies have been completed evaluating the efficacy of the Strategic Content Learning (SCL) approach as a model for promoting self-regulated learning by postsecondary students with learning disabilities. Summaries of outcomes from those studies suggest that SCL participation can be associated with gains for students in task performance, metacognitive knowledge, motivational beliefs, and strategic processing across a range of academic tasks (i.e., reading, writing, math). Previous SCL research reports have focused on general outcomes across participants and across tasks, rather than describing the details of individual cases. This article redresses that omission by describing the process of SCL intervention and associated outcomes for three SCL participants working on a common task, namely, writing. By reporting three in-depth parallel case studies, this article clarifies how SCL instruction is implemented to promote strategic writing, illustrates how SCL instructional principles can be personalized in response to individuals' needs, and traces the relationship between SCL instructional activities and outcomes. The article closes with a discussion of implications for theory, research, and practice.
Comparison of Faster and Slower Responders to Early Intervention in Reading: Differentiating Features of their Language Profiles
Authors: Berninger Virginia W. , Abbott Robert D. , Vermeulen Karin , Ogier Stacy , Brooksher Rebecca , Zook Dori , Lemos Zenia
Published: April 2006

In the longitudinal research reported in this article we examine issues related to the nature and duration of early intervention of relatively low intensity. Specifically, we consider (a) how children who respond faster and slower differ at the end of a 24-lesson intervention spaced over four months in first grade, (b) whether the faster responders maintained their gains during second grade, (c) whether the slower responders could make relative gains with additional intervention, and (d) how the faster and slower responders during the first-grade intervention differed in second grade. In comparing these children who varied in rate of response to early intervention, we focus on differences in their language profiles for potential instructional cues for enhancing the reading of slower responders.
Technology for Persons with Learning Disabilities: Report on an International Symposium
Authors: Raskind Marshall H. , Herman Kenneth L. , Torgesen Joseph K.
Published: April 2006

In July of 1993 an international symposium on “Technology for Persons with Learning Disabilities” was held in Missillac, France. The purpose of the symposium was to bring together an international panel of experts in learning disabilities and technology to promote international dialogue and cooperation; identify technologies/technological approaches for enhancing the lives of persons with learning disabilities; and establish a series of research priorities. This article synthesizes and highlights the information, ideas, and issues that emerged from individual presentations and ensuing discussions.
Reading Styles in Children with Dyslexia: A Neuropsychological Evaluation of Modality Preference on the Reading Style Inventory
Authors: Graham Norris A. , Kershner John R.
Published: April 2006

This study assessed the neuropsychological validity of the modality preference measures from the Reading Style Inventory (RSI), an instrument that claims to measure left-hemisphere (analytic, sequential, auditory) and right-hemisphere (holistic, simultaneous, visual) reading styles. Older fluent readers (age-matched to the children with disabilities) rated their reading styles more strongly auditory and visual than nondisabled beginning readers (reading-level-matched to the children with disabilities) and children with dyslexia. Compared to both control groups, the dyslexia group was unique in failing to demonstrate a high incidence of children with strong preferences in either modality. RSI ratings were unrelated to dichotic listening and, by inference, not related to the relative activation of the cerebral hemispheres in linguistic processing. RSI performance was also unrelated to reading comprehension, word recognition, word attack, and verbal/performance IQ. The results do not support the underlying biological rationale of the RSI or its claims to accurately profile nondisabled novice readers and children with dyslexia in terms of their cerebral hemispheric preferences. However, the results do suggest the potential usefulness of the RSI in educational contexts.
Teaching Phonological Processing Skills in Early Literacy: A Developmental Approach
Authors: Vandervelden Margaretha C. , Siegel Linda S.
Published: April 2006

This study evaluated an intervention to enhance early phonological processing skills and reading. Early phonological processing skills are strongly related to progress in early literacy and phonological processing deficits are found related to specific reading disability. Thirty children aged 5.1–6.0 (15 in each of two schools) were assigned to an experimental or control group and compared before and after a 12-week intervention on measures of phonological processing skills and reading. There were no pretreatment differences between groups.

The experimental intervention was based on findings of (a) early developmental phases in phonological recoding, (b) reciprocal development between phoneme awareness and phonological recoding, and (c) reciprocal development between phonological processing skills and early reading. The instruction was designed to facilitate the gradually expanding use of letter-phoneme relationships in early reading and spelling. The results indicated that, at posttest, the experimental group performed significantly better than the control group on the measures of phonological processing skills and in reading. Intervention that includes teaching the sounds of letters and phoneme awareness as part of using letter-phoneme relationships in recognizing printed words, in spelling, and in reading (pronouncing words) appears to be effective for enhancing early reading and may possibly reduce the probability of subsequent reading disability.
Research on Genre-Specific Strategies for Enhancing Writing in Adolescents with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Wong Bernice Y.L.
Published: April 2006

This article describes three years of research in intensive long-term writing intervention with adolescents with learning disabilities (LD) and low achievement. The rationale, the process of strategy development, the intervention procedures, and data obtained are all summarized, and research and practical implications presented. More important, reflections on the interventions are offered that may resonate with other intervention researchers.
State Certification Standards for Teachers of Students with Learning Disabilities: An Update
Authors: Jenkins Amelia A. , Jenkins James Leigh , Patton James
Published: April 2006

This study is an update of an earlier nationwide survey of state certification standards for teachers of students with learning disabilities conducted in conjunction with the Standards and Ethics Committee of the Council for Learning Disabilities (Leigh & Patton, 1986). Information was received from every state department and the District of Columbia teacher certification office. Data were analyzed and tabulated to include: (a) certification categories (titles) and level(s); (b) teacher training requirements (i.e., courses, standards, and hours); (c) examination requirements for certification; and (d) other additional information. The results are discussed in the context of relevant issues and trends and the relationship to the findings of the previous study.
The Early Literacy Project: Connecting across the Literacy Curriculum
Authors: Englert Carol Sue , Garmon Art , Mariage Troy , Rozendal Mary , Tarrant Kathi , Urba Joyce
Published: April 2006

Research was conducted on the efficacy of an integrated reading-writing program for primary-grade students with mild disabilities. The literacy program was designed to incorporate five principles of teaching and learning: the involvement of students in contextualized literacy activities, the development of learning-to-learn strategies, the construction of classroom dialogues about literacy, the enactment of responsive instruction designed to support learners in their zones of proximal development, and the creation of literacy communities. Furthermore, the study involved three different groups of learners: students of control teachers, students of first-year teachers, and students of second-year teachers. The results clearly indicated the effects of the integrated literacy program on students' reading and writing performance, especially the students of the most experienced teachers. Possible explanations for these findings are discussed.
Essays as Valid Measures of Learning in Middle-School Science Classes
Authors: Nolet Victor , Tindal Gerald
Published: April 2006

Students with learning disabilities often participate in middle-school science and social studies classes. Current conceptions of achievement in content classes focus on use of complex thinking and problem-solving skills rather than acquisition of specific factual information. Increasingly, learning is measured with performance assessments that require a production response, often, an essay. This study explored the construct validity of essay tasks as measures of learning in content classes. Students in two sections of a seventh-grade general science class wrote essays in response to prompts designed to elicit use of the intellectual operation evaluation. They also wrote a compare-contrast essay and took traditional end-of-chapter criterion-referenced tests. All measures were tied to specific two-week units of instruction presented by the students' regular science teacher. Results indicated that essay tasks may be highly sensitive to both the content of instruction and the design of the prompt. The validity of essays as measures of content learning likely relates more to the goals of instruction and the desired outcomes for assessment than the task itself. Implications for the use of essay tasks as measures of learning in content classes that include students with learning disabilites are discussed.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Spectroscopic Imaging of the Brain: Application of fmri and fmrs to Reading Disabilities and Education
Authors: Richards Todd L.
Published: April 2006

This tutorial/review covers functional brain-imaging methods and results used to study language and reading disabilities. Although the main focus is on functional MRI and functional MR spectroscopy, other imaging techniques are discussed briefly such as positron emission tomography (PET), electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencepholography (MEG), and MR diffusion imaging. These functional brain-imaging studies have demonstrated that dyslexia is a brain-based disorder and that serial imaging studies can be used to study the effect of treatment on functional brain activity.
Development and Disorders of Neurocognitive Systems for Oral Language and Reading
Authors: Booth James R. , Burman Douglas D.
Published: April 2006

There are four goals of this article. First, a tentative neurocognitive model of oral language and reading is outlined. Second, our recent functional magnetic resonance imaging studies (fMRI) on the development of oral language and reading are briefly reviewed with reference to this neurocognitive model. Third, brain-imaging research on dyslexia is discussed in light of the neurocognitive model. Fourth, research on the plasticity of neural systems and the implication of this plasticity for studying normative development and disorders is presented.
Handwriting and Spelling Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities: A Review
Authors: Graham Steve
Published: April 2006

Students with learning disabilities typically have difficulties with handwriting and spelling, and such difficulties can interfere with the execution of other composing processes, constrain writing development, and mark a child as a poor writer. In order to minimize the negative impact of handwriting and spelling difficulties, I propose that explicit and systematic instruction as well as incidental or natural learning approaches are needed to maximize the development or these two basic writing tools. The application of these approaches with students with learning disabilities is examined, providing a comprehensive review of handwriting and spelling research and practice with these children.
Motivational and Attitudinal Factors in College Students with and without Learning Disabilities
Authors: Hall Cathy W. , Spruill Keely L. , Webster Raymond E.
Published: April 2006

The current study examined the emotional resiliency, stress levels, locus of control and need for achievement in 17 college students with learning disabilities (LD) by comparing them with 17 of their peers without learning disabilities. Dependent variables included performance on the Hall Resiliency Scale, the Nowicki-Duke Locus of Control Scale, the Need for Achievement Scale, and a shortened version of a stress scale focusing on typical college stressors. Results indicated that students with learning disabilities obtained significantly higher resiliency scores and significantly higher scores on the Need for Achievement Scale than their counterparts without learning disabilities. These findings suggest that LD college students show a strong goal-directed approach and problem-solving initiative. Surprisingly, college students with LD self-reported significantly fewer college stressors than the students without LD. College students with LD also demonstrated a higher need for achievement than their college peers. No significant difference was found between the two groups with regard to locus of control. Both groups obtained moderate scores on the locus of control measure, suggesting realistic assessment of environmental events as these impact their lives.
Self-Concept, Attributional Style and Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Students with Learning Disabilities with and without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Authors: Tabassam Waheeda , Grainger Jessica
Published: April 2006

A considerable comorbidity, ranging from 40% to 80%, has been reported in the literature between learning disabilities (LD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study examined how students with LD and students with comorbid ADHD (LD/ADHD) differ from typically achieving peers in self-concept, self-efficacy beliefs and attributional style. The study also explored the relationship between academic self-concept, academic self-efficacy beliefs and academic-attributional style. Both students with LD and students with LD/ADHD reported significantly lower scores on academic self-concept, academic attributional style and academic self-efficacy beliefs than typically achieving peers. No significant differences were found between students with LD and with LD/ADHD on these variables. However, the LD/ADHD group reported significantly lower scores on peer-relation self-concept than the other two groups. Results revealed that the academic self-perceptions of students with learning disabilities were not significantly influenced by their comorbidity with ADHD. The correlational analysis demonstrated a close relationship between self-concept, self-efficacy beliefs and attributional style. The need for further research and implications for self-concept enhancement of students with LD and with LD/ADHD are discussed.
Composing via Dictation and Speech Recognition Systems: Compensatory Technology for Students with Learning Disabilities
Authors: De La Paz Susan
Published: April 2006

This article provides a rationale for using an oral mode of production as a means of composing. For individuals with learning disabilities (LD), composing orally may allow them to circumvent transcription or text production problems (e.g., handwriting, spelling, punctuation), which in turn may allow greater focus on higher-order concerns such as planning and content generation. Support for this position comes from research on the use of dictation as well as studies of both simulated and existing speech recognition systems involving individuals with LD. Current characteristics of speech recognition systems are described, with an emphasis on what these applications require of teachers and students. Finally, recommendations are offered for teachers who plan to use dictation or speech recognition with individuals with LD.
Tutorial Interventions for Writing Disabilities: Comparison of Transcription and Text Generation Processes
Authors: Brooks Allison , Vaughan Katherine , Berninger Virginia
Published: April 2006

Seventeen fourth and fifth graders with severe writing disabilities participated in a weekly, one-hour individual tutorial for over eight months on the average. The tutorial was equally directed to transcription (handwriting and spelling) and composition skills. Students showed reliable improvement in composition and handwriting automaticity but not in spelling. Although writing-related fine-motor, orthographic, orthographic-motor integration, and phonological segmentation skills were not directly trained, they improved. However, phonological memory skills did not improve and may be a major constraint in the development of spelling skills in students with severe learning disabilities involving written language. Remediation may need to focus on development of phonological memory and not just on teaching rules and strategies. Word recognition skills also seemed to limit response to spelling instruction, and remedial spelling instruction may need to focus on words students can already read. In addition, students with spelling disabilities may benefit from a connectionist approach that models sound-spelling connections without teaching rules and may need more repeated practice with specific words than was provided. This exploratory study generated hypotheses that require further instructional research to test.
Home Literacy Activities: Perceptions and Practices of Hispanic Parents of Children with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Hughes Marie Tejero , Schumm Jeanne Shay , Vaughn Sharon
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate Hispanic parents' perceptions and practices with respect to home reading and writing activities. Participants included 80 Hispanic parents (40 parents of children with LD and 40 parents of AHA children) who had children in grades 3 through 5. Interview and survey questions addressed three issues: types of activities children do at home; types of activities parents perceive as desirable and feasible to do with their children; and facilitators and barriers parents face when implementing reading and writing activities. Nonparametric statistical procedures were used to analyze responses related to Likert-type survey items, and the constant comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) was used to summarize data from the interviews. Hispanic parents of children with LD reported using a wide variety of reading and writing activities on a regular basis, but experienced frustration in helping their children at home. Findings also showed that parents of children with LD rated many reading and writing activities as desirable for learning to read and write but not as feasible for them to implement.
Strategy Instruction in Planning: Teaching Students with Learning and Writing Disabilities to Compose Persuasive and Expository Essays
Authors: De La Paz Susan
Published: April 2006

This article summarizes two intervention studies using the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) model of instruction. The major objective of the studies was to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching students with learning and writing disabilities an approach to planning persuasive essays before and during composing. An in-progress investigation will also be described, in which the planning strategy has been modified to accommodate a change in genre from persuasive to expository writing. Instructional effects have been investigated using different research designs (multiple-baseline-across-subjects with multiple probes in baseline and between-group comparisons); in different settings (individual instruction, small groups in resource rooms, and general education classrooms); and with different types of students (fifth through eighth graders, including students with and without learning disabilities). Instructional procedures and methodology from these studies are summarized, and the central findings from the first two investigations are presented. Suggestions for future interventions that focus on planning strategies are proposed.
Social Competencies as a Pathway to Successful Life Transitions
Authors: Mellard Daryl F. , Hazel J. Stephen
Published: April 2006

Learning disabilities have been examined most carefully in the academic setting; however, learning disabilities is a lifelong condition that impacts individuals outside the academic environments. Since the formal school setting accounts for so little of a person's life experiences, it becomes important to understand the nonacademic manifestations of learning disabilities. Impaired social competency is one of these common manifestations exhibited by young adults with learning disabilities. This article describes post-secondary outcomes of young adults with learning disabilities, specific areas of social problems encountered, and the results of an assessment of social competencies in adults with learning disabilities. The authors recommend that secondary and post-secondary curricular experiences include greater attention to improving social competencies.