bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Electronic Payment
Authors: O'Mahony Donal
Published: July 2008

In conventional commerce, many different ways of making payments have evolved but most of these are based on the principle that the bulk of the payments occur locally. The conventional payment method that works best globally is the credit card, and this had carried over well to the Internet, where the buyer and seller very often are very far apart. The bulk of Internet payments today are made using credit cards across a secure socket layer, which although it protects against some of the risks involved is still far from ideal. This paper reviews popular electronic payment methods used for transactions over the Internet, including credit‐card online purchasing, account‐based systems, smart‐card‐based systems, electronic checks, mobile payments, and micropayments.
Electronic Procurement
Authors: Goffman Robert H.
Published: July 2008

Over the past decade, electronic commerce (e‐commerce) has started to revolutionize business processes and transactions. The emergence of user‐friendly browsers for the World Wide Web (WWW), and consequently the increased viability and usage of the Internet, has influenced top executives to initiate business‐to‐business (B2B) e‐commerce and supply chain management (SCM) technology solutions. One aspect of e‐business and SCM is electronic procurement (e‐procurement) that currently entails purchasing items and services through the Internet. Substantial cost savings may easily be realized in both the public sector (government entities and public schools) and the private sector (hospitals and nonprofit organizations). E‐procurement continues to evolve quickly as enterprise resource planning (ERP) vendors either partner with software procurement specialists or develop new procurement modules for the already existing ERP software. Today's e‐procurement solutions are replacing electronic data interchange (EDI) and closing the gap on division of purchasing. Indirect and direct procurement are slowly becoming a single entity therefore causing operating resource management (ORM) as well as maintenance, repair, and operations (MRO) purchasing processes to merge. The evolution of technology has allowed procurement to be a straight‐through process from the time a person browses a catalog until the invoice is paid and all information is stored for future use. This core of this chapter will focus on the strategic aspects of electronic procurement from a management viewpoint. It will concentrate on business‐to‐business purchasing, the e‐procurement decision, and the benefits and challenges of an e‐procurement solution. It touches on some of the technical detail and difficulties in e‐procurement but is not a “deep technical” document on choosing or implementing e‐procurement solutions.
E‐mail and Instant Messaging
Authors: Grubbs Jim
Published: July 2008

At the core of human interaction is communication. Long before electrical waves were harnessed for message transmission, humankind developed ways to transmit and receive messages in two primary forms. Individuals needed ways to communicate “in the moment” or synchronously with both parties present. They also developed ways to communicate over time, or asynchronously, so that messages could transcend time. In the age of the Internet, this type of communication has taken the form of instant messaging, or IM, for synchronous communication, and electronic mail, or e‐mail, for asynchronous communication. In 2001, e‐mail, in the general form that we know today, celebrated its 30th birthday with 9.8 billion messages sent daily and rising steadily. In the same year, three out of four online teens said they used instant messaging. This chapter explores the history of these two forms of electronic communication, explores the underlying technology that makes each possible, considers the social and cultural impact of each of these technologies, and considers the future of these means of communication. This chapter assumes a basic knowledge of networking terminology. The specifics of the networking protocols used can be found elsewhere in this encyclopedia.
E‐marketplaces
Authors: Prabhaker Paul R.
Published: July 2008

E‐marketplaces are an outcome of the interest in jointly managed supply chains and efficient matching of demand and supply, resulting in greater service integration, more collaboration, and operational cost savings. Increasingly, competition is between supply chains rather than between corporations. Such corporations should treat their participation in e‐marketplaces as strategic investments and suppliers must prepare themselves for new rules in these dynamic marketplaces that aim to parallel commodity and security exchanges. The fundamentals of e‐marketplaces are reviewed in this chapter, along with discussions of appropriate strategic business capabilities.
Encryption
Authors: Juels Ari
Published: July 2008

This chapter treats the topic of encryption, the process of rendering a message into a concealed form for private transmission in a potentially hostile environment. Explored here are the concepts and history underlying contemporary encryption techniques employed on the Internet, in addition to security issues such as key lengths, modes of operation, and message formatting. Also included is an exposition on symmetric‐key ciphers such as DES, AES, and RC4, and also two public‐key cryptosystems, namely Diffie–Hellman and RSA. The use of encryption on the Internet, as well as some of the limitations of the technique, is discussed, with supplemental references to more extensive treatments of encryption systems and cryptology more generally.
Enterprise Resource Planning (
ERP
)
Authors: Radovilsky Zinovy
Published: July 2008

This chapter presents the main principles, features, applications, and future development of enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems. In more than 30 years of evolution, ERP systems have undertaken a significant transformation from function‐specific applications to fully integrated process‐driven systems that operate over the Internet. ERP is identified as an extended enterprise management system that integrates traditional ERP applications (manufacturing, distribution, financials, human resources, marketing, and sales) with supply chain management (SCM), customer relationship management (CRM), and B2B e‐commerce applications. The chapter describes the main ERP principles—integration and automation—as well as ERP features—process‐driven systems, single database, company‐wide information, scalability, etc. It also focuses on the ERP groups of applications emphasizing the core applications, application enhancements, and e‐commerce solutions. The chapter details ERP benefits and drawbacks. It discusses ERP solutions for various industries and small companies and presents ERP hosting utilizing applications service providers (ASP). Finally, the chapter describes the ERP selection and implementation process, concentrating on selection criteria and implementation measurements.
Extensible Markup Language (
XML
)
Authors: Dorfman Rich
Published: July 2008

The extensible markup language (XML) is the
lingua franca
of Web‐based data exchange. This chapter presents an introduction to XML syntax, semantics, and processing. Related technologies, such as XML schemas and namespaces, are more briefly covered. The three main uses of XML are explored through theory and example: sharing data across a network, displaying data in a browser, and structuring data in configuration files. The issues and design tradeoffs in storing and retrieving XML documents from databases are discussed. Finally, this chapter presents a survey of XML editing tools and then considers the future of XML technologies.
File Types
Authors: Lagier Jennifer
Published: July 2008

Internet searching results in retrieval of information in the form of a file that can be displayed, downloaded, or executed. The organization of the file is called its format. The type of information as well as the way the information will be used determines the choice of file format. File formats and their file name extensions provide users with clues about what kinds of information the file contains—text, image, sound, video, animation, or data. To view, play back, manipulate, interpret, or alter the contents of a file requires different software tools or hardware configurationsfor different file types. This chapter examines a variety of file types: text, compressed, data, images, and multimedia formats. Possible uses and specific examples of each format are explored. Various file transfer tools and procedures are examined.
Firewalls
Authors: Goldman James E.
Published: July 2008

The Internet is the no‐man's‐land of global networking. Most users and organizations have no control over who is able to access the Internet or what actions they are able to take once they get there. At the same time, however, the Internet is a wonderful method to connect to anyone in the world relatively easily. As a result, it is usually essential for individuals and organizations that are connected to the Internet to protect their private or internal networks from unwanted effects of outsiders and potentially dangerous network traffic. Firewalls are a primary technology employed to protect private networks from the public nonsecure domain of the Internet. Firewalls vary widely in both makeup and purpose. This chapter outlines advantages and disadvantages of various firewalls, basic firewall functionality, the different types of firewalls, how those firewalls can be arranged in diverse enterprise architectures, and categories of firewall technology.
Fuzzy Logic
Authors: Zhang Yan‐Qing
Published: July 2008

With explosive growth of e‐business on the Internet and of wireless networks, both users and managers face more and more challenging application problems on the Internet in terms of intelligent e‐applications. Intelligent fuzzy e‐brainware using fuzzy logic techniques plays an important role in increasing the quality of intelligence of e‐business. In this chapter, fundamental concepts, basic methods, major applications, and future trends of the fuzzy Internet and of fuzzy e‐commerce are described. For clarity, several simple examples are introduced. In general, computational Web intelligence (CWI) uses computational intelligence and Web technology to make intelligent e‐business applications on the Internet and wireless networks. Fuzzy Web intelligence, an important technology of CWI, is the fundamental technology for building smart fuzzy e‐commerce applications on the Internet.
Global Diffusion of the Internet
Authors: Dholakia Nikhilesh , Dholakia Ruby Roy , Kshetri Nir
Published: July 2008

This chapter provides an overview of the global diffusion of the Internet and examines the factors that shaped and are continuing to shape its diffusion dynamics. The diffusion pattern of an innovation such as the Internet is a function of economic, political, cultural, and geographical factors. In addition, business models vis‐à‐vis the cost to access the Internet also influence the diffusion of the Internet. Because social systems worldwide differ significantly in terms of these factors, diffusion patterns of the Internet also vary widely. Among the factors hampering the faster diffusion of Internet in many countries are low income levels, authoritarian governments with a distaste for the openness of the Internet, sociocultural environments that are incompatible with the Internet, and terrestrial and topographical barriers to landline networks. As a result, developing countries account for disproportionately fewer Internet users and Internet hosts worldwide, creating a global digital divide.
Health Insurance and Managed Care
Authors: Pracht Etienne E.
Published: July 2008

Health insurance is a fundamental component of the health care industry. Its structure influences the quantity of health care that will be provided, who will receive that care, and which inputs will be used in the production of that care. Efficiency in the health insurance sector is, therefore, critical to the value of the industry as a whole. Information technologies, in particular the Internet, are discussed as the means to achieve substantial improvements, not only in the efficiency of the administration of health insurance, but also in the effectiveness of health care. Fragmentation within the industry and security of information are identified as important obstacles to system‐wide implementation of Web‐based, or other electronic applications. Nonetheless, the electronic transformation of the industry is well on its way in key areas, such as health plan selection and benefits management, network development, claims management, health education, and medical management.
Human Factors and Ergonomics
Authors: Proctor Robert W. , Vu Kim‐Phuong L.
Published: July 2008

Human factors and ergonomics (HFE) is a field devoted to designing products for human use. A related field, human–computer interaction, focuses specifically on usability of computers. Application of HFE principles has been shown to be essential for ensuring the success of Web‐based interfaces. In this chapter, we review the main tenets of HFE and its role in development of Internet applications. We discuss issues pertaining to Web search, content preparation and management, universal access, and information security. We describe methods of task analysis and usability testing that can be used to evaluate the usability of Web designs and interactions at all phases of the design process. In closing, we provide general guidelines for incorporating HFE principles into designing for the Internet.
Information Quality in Internet and E‐business Environments
Authors: English Larry P.
Published: July 2008

This chapter defines information quality (IQ) and methods for information quality management applied to Internet and e‐business information. It describes IQ problems unique to Web information and e‐business processes. This chapter describes components of information quality along with categories of information to which quality principles must be applied across the customer‐centric e‐business value chain for e‐business effectiveness. It describes IQ principles and processes, and the 14 points of IQ applied to the Internet and transformation for an information quality culture. It describes specific quality techniques for: (1) Web‐based documents, Web content, and information presentation quality; (2) data shared by internal and Internet processes; (3) Internet‐collected information; and (4) e‐business supply‐chain management. The chapter describes how to use clickstream quality analysis to discover unstated customer “complaints.”
Integrated Services Digital Network (
ISDN
): Narrowband and Broadband Services and Applications
Authors: Thompson John S.
Published: July 2008

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) began development as a set of international standards in the 1960s, well before the conversion of the analog public switched telephone network to digital technology. Its promises were uniform, high‐function services to end users, common interfaces for network components that assured interoperability for service providers, and standards for products that would simplify markets for equipment vendors. This vision was never fully realized for ISDN because of slow and incomplete deployment. Nevertheless, ISDN, ISDN standards, and the standards development process have had a significant impact on telecommunications well beyond the magnitude of its deployment. This chapter explores both the narrowband definition of ISDN that is deployed today in telephone administrations around the world and the broadband definitions that have appeared in the form of Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) products and services. It also discusses the other key services and technologies derived from ISDN that have helped shape telecommunication networks today and for the future.
International Supply Chain Management
Authors: LaPoint Gary , Webster Scott
Published: July 2008

Effective supply chain management increasingly depends on information technology. Many of these technologies are relevant for both domestic and international supply chains, and many of these are discussed in other chapters of this book. Our focus is on international supply chain management. Information technologies that are unique to international trade draw on a complex and extensive array of regulations. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an introductory primer for understanding what underlies these technologies and, more important, for a firm considering a shift from supply chains that are largely domestic in scope to a broader international orientation. Although we briefly discuss software specific to international supply chains, most of our discussion pertains to laws, service providers, and ways of doing business that any firm must understand to take advantage of opportunities for international buying and selling. We also provide references and links to more detailed information.
Internet Architecture
Authors: Knight Graham
Published: July 2008

The Internet is a collection of many independent networks. Interconnection of these networks is achieved through the implementation, on each network, of a common service provided by the Internet Protocol (IP). This service allows systems attached to the Internet (called “hosts”) to direct packets of data (called “IP datagrams”) at each other—the service provides confirmation neither of success nor failure. Applications that require guarantees about delivery must employ a suitable “transport protocol” between the hosts on which they run. This chapter describes the IP service and gives a detailed account of its implementation, including the use of IP addresses and the operation of “routers” that relay IP datagrams between networks. It covers multicast transmission, mobility, security, and a new version of IP, IPv6. It describes the “end‐to‐end” protocols used on the Internet, the transport and application protocols. Finally, the chapter describes recent additions to the Internet architecture intended to support real‐time interactive applications.
Internet Etiquette (Netiquette)
Authors: Kayany Joseph M.
Published: July 2008

Netiquette is etiquette on the Internet. It is the collection of broadly accepted guidelines for appropriate online behavior. These norms are by‐products of the collective experience of those who have explored the strengths and constraints of the Internet in diverse communication contexts. Therefore, knowledge of these conventions and practices is important to anyone who proposes to participate effectively in Internet‐based communication. The chapter begins with a discussion of the origins and significance of netiquette, followed by a detailed review of broadly accepted norms for the use of popular Internet applications such as e‐mail, bulletin boards, chat rooms, file transfer, and the World Wide Web. The author recommends that individuals and groups use these guidelines as starting points to discern appropriate behavior in specific communication contexts.
Internet Navigation (Basics, Services, and Portals)
Authors: Reddy Pratap
Published: July 2008

The Internet is a system of computer networks designed to send and receive data. This chapter introduces the basic concepts of Internet navigation. It explains what the Internet is, the infrastructure (both hardware and software) needed to access it, and the services and facilities available. Internet navigation includes the use of communication services such as electronic mail (e‐mail), listserv/mailing lists, news groups, Internet relay chat, downloading services such as file transfer protocol, and the search services such as the World Wide Web and the ubiquitous Web portals.
Internet Relay Chat (
IRC
)
Authors: Witt Paul L.
Published: July 2008

This chapter analyzes the communication medium known as Internet relay chat (IRC), a worldwide system of real‐time, text‐based conferencing on the Internet. After a brief look at the background and development of IRC, attention is given to the infrastructure of IRC networks, servers, and channels, as well as to the most widely used client software. The chapter discusses the specific roles of IRC operators, channel operators, and users, as well as the basic commands they most often employ. Principles of computer‐mediated communication are identified and applied to the process of relationship development and community building in the IRC environment. Special attention is given to social, legal, and security issues related to interpersonal communication in a global networking environment. The chapter concludes with a survey of IRC's potential usefulness in various organizational and educational contexts.
Internet Security Standards
Authors: Panko Raymond R.
Published: July 2008

The Internet Engineering Task Force, under the Danvers Doctrine, is attempting to offer strong security in all or nearly all TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) standards. In the meantime, organizations can overlay security on top of the Internet with dialog protection systems, most notably Point‐to‐Point Tunneling Protocol and IPsec (IP security) virtual private networks. This chapter discusses both of these approaches to making the Internet more secure. It also looks at how we can make the Internet more forensic, that is, more capable of stopping attacks when they occur and more capable of identifying attackers.
Internet2
Authors: Bruenjes Linda S. , Siccama Carolyn J. , LeBaron John
Published: July 2008

The Internet2 project, which is managed by the University Corporation for Advanced Internet Development (UCAID), is a consortium of over 200 U.S. educational institutions. These higher education institutions have partnered with corporate and government agencies to establish the advanced backbones of Internet2, Abilene, and vBNS+. These partnerships and collaborations support a variety of academic innovations requiring advanced networking capabilities, which the current‐generation network cannot accommodate. Essential partnerships and research and development initiatives revolve around five technical areas of Internet2: applications, middleware, engineering, end‐to‐end performance, and backbone network infrastructure. Having collaborative efforts serve as the foundation for Internet2 initiatives allows members to focus on increasing access to information for the teaching, learning, research, and clinical missions of member institutions. In all academic disciplines, there are endless possibilities for using Internet2 for teaching and learning through such advanced technologies as video conferencing,, digital libraries, and high‐definition television.
Java
Authors: Simon Judith C. , Campbell Charles J.
Published: July 2008

Java is an object‐oriented programming language. It has some similarity to other traditional programming languages in that it can be used for a variety of business applications. In addition, it can be used within Internet Web pages to create unique capabilities within the Web pages. Java has some unique features that make it the programming language of choice for many business applications when those features are the best fit for the needs of the business. These special features include its portability to a wide variety of hardware platforms, its multithreading capabilities, and its method of handling errors.
Java
B
eans and Software Architecture
Authors: Medvidovic Nenad , Mehta Nikunj R.
Published: July 2008

Java has emerged as a popular programming language and platform for Web applications. JavaBeans defines the software component model in the Java programming language that is used for creating reusable, coarse‐grained components. Beans are used in numerous complementary technologies including Enterprise JavaBeans, Java Abstract Windowing Toolkit, Java Database Connectivity, JavaMail, and Java Management Extensions to create software components. Beans provide a hybrid of object‐oriented and loosely coupled architectural styles, where the interaction between components is in the form of both events and method calls. This chapter focuses on the support for component technology in Java, specifically in the form of JavaBeans and its technology variants that fulfil the needs of Web application development. The chapter also discusses the role of JavaBeans and its technology variants in architecture‐based software development.
Java
S
cript
Authors: Roussos Constantine
Published: July 2008

The JavaScript programming language has become a core technology of the World Wide Web. It was created in response to the need to transform Web pages from static presentations of text and graphics to documents that could change dynamically in response to user input. In this chapter we trace the development of the language as well as the historical events and technologies that motivated its creation. In reviewing its history we look at the people, events, and companies that have made the Internet the ubiquitous repository of human knowledge and achievement that it is today.
Knowledge Management
Authors: Tidd Ronald R.
Published: July 2008

Organizations confront a significantly different economic environment in the information age than existed in the industrial and agricultural ages. There is a greater need for speed and innovation, an increasingly competitive global marketplace, and a mobile workforce that possesses the knowledge that organizations need to compete. Organizational survival depends on the ability to manage that knowledge and the knowledge of workers who create and use it. Computer networks provide an enabling technology that organizations can use to develop a knowledge management system that identifies, collects, stores, and delivers information and knowledge to workers who can use it to help fulfill their organization's mission. When that knowledge sharing system is extended to include all participants in an e‐commerce value chain, the participating organizations leverage each other's knowledge resources to maximize customer satisfaction. The successful knowledge management effort must overcome significant cultural issues and individuals' tendencies to hoard knowledge, however.
Law Enforcement
Authors: Vaughn Robert , Simon Judith C.
Published: July 2008

Globalization resulting from the explosive growth of the Internet has had a profound effect upon law enforcement. Law enforcement has historically relied upon information to protect and to serve. The Internet has increased information‐sharing capabilities on a global scale. Not only can law enforcement benefit from the volume of readily accessible information available over the Internet, but that information can now be readily shared with numerous other agencies and the public. On the other hand, the Internet has also negatively affected law enforcement, because now criminals and organized crime have at hand a tool that makes them anonymous, gives them accessibility to the world, and the speed with which to strike quickly and escape detection. Law enforcement faces issues of jurisdiction, security, and privacy, all of which must be taken into consideration in serving the interests of the public.
Local Area Networks
Authors: Summers Wayne C.
Published: July 2008

Local area networks (LANs) have become ubiquitous, not only in businesses and academia, but in homes. As more and more locations need access to the Internet and shared resources, LANs are being installed as a cheap alternative. Where once computer users worked in isolation on personal computers, local area networks allow computer users to share hardware, software, and data as well as enhance communications. This chapter summarizes the variety of local area network configurations, looks briefly at the importance of local area networks to the Internet, and explores the emerging wireless technology. The chapter also provides an outline for readers who are interested in setting up their own local area networks.
Marketing Communication Strategies
Authors: Strauss Judy
Published: July 2008

Widely regarded as the fastest growing communication medium in history, the Internet offers marketers unique ways to reach and build relationships with their prospects and customers. Communication, along with product distribution and transaction functions (e‐commerce), yield the Internet's greatest value for marketers. Interactive advertising, e‐mail, free software and music samples, online communities, and Web sites are just a few of the online communication tactics that draw customers, move them to product trial, and entice them to return for more. This article explores the roots, role, and context of online marketing communication; examines online advertising; direct marketing, sales promotion, and marketing public relations in depth; and looks into the future of the marriage of technology and communication as expressed on the Internet.
Marketing Plans for E‐commerce Projects
Authors: Roldan Malu
Published: July 2008

A marketing plan is a valuable tool for ensuring that an e‐commerce project balances the creativity of its core team with the realities of the business setting and its target customers. The key to building a useful marketing plan is a thorough marketing research effort that builds a well‐founded understanding of a company's target markets, product design, and industry. A company considering an e‐commerce offering would be well advised to consider incorporating marketing approaches engendered by the Internet boom including bricks and clicks approaches, viral marketing, permission marketing, and m‐commerce. This chapter offers an overview of these approaches and a practical guide for conducting the research and analysis required to build a comprehensive and credible e‐commerce marketing plan.
Medical Care Delivery
Authors: Schwaitzberg Steven D.
Published: July 2008

As the inevitable march toward ubiquity continues, the Internet has crept into nearly every aspect of medical care delivery. From the way health care personnel research current medical information to the methods by which patients are educated, the practice of medicine has been revolutionarily changed. On the other hand, the very open nature of the Internet, arguably its greatest strength, is also its Achilles heel in the medical arena. The massive volumes of medically related information that are frequent targets of the lay population vary in quality and accuracy. Tremendous amounts of personal information find their way through cyberspace, perhaps subject to any number of prying eyes. Clearly this digital transformation is not yet complete. Privacy legislation (e.g., Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) will place significant limitations as to what can be transmitted electronically and to whom without a patient's express permission. Yet at the same time, practitioners' access to up‐to‐date, multimedia medical data has never been better, potentially raising the standard and safety of medical care delivery.
Middleware
Authors: Simon Robert
Published: July 2008

Middleware is the software layer programmers use to develop distributed applications that run on different kinds of computers and need to communicate through networks. Middleware is one of the essential enabling technologies behind the explosive growth of Internet‐delivered services and products, including e‐commerce. This chapter provides an
introduction
to the fundamental software technology underlying modern middleware systems. I describe the
basic system architecture
for distributed middleware systems and then discuss key concepts in distributed programming, including remote procedure calls and distributed object systems. I then present an
overview of the basics of current middleware systems
, including
object request brokers
,
message‐oriented middleware
and transactional servers. The chapter concludes with a description of
current trends
.
Mobile Commerce
Authors: Cronin Mary J.
Published: July 2008

Wireless networks, cellular subscribers, and mobile equipment sales have soared over the past 5 years. Analysts agree that there will be more than a billion mobile phone users worldwide by the end of 2003, surpassing the number of Internet users and giving rise to optimistic forecasts about mobile commerce revenues in the billions of dollars by 2005. Mobile‐commerce, however, is not simply a wireless extension of e‐commerce on the Internet. This chapter defines m‐commerce and its unique mobile value proposition and presents a typology of leading mobile commerce applications. It discusses the technical foundations for deployment of mobile commerce worldwide including the migration from second‐ to third‐generation wireless networks, the roll out of more sophisticated and feature‐rich mobile devices, and the role of standards in supporting interoperability between wireless networks, mobile devices, and mobile commerce applications. This technical discussion provides the foundation for an analysis of the regional differences in adoption rates for mobile commerce and a detailed comparison of mobile commerce adoption drivers and barriers in Japan and the United States. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the key success factors for mobile commerce.
Nonprofit Organizations
Authors: Nesbary Dale
Published: July 2008

Facing competition on a number of levels, nonprofits are turning to the Internet and e‐commerce to solicit funds and seek volunteers. Many nonprofit and nongovernmental organizations are working to determine the best methods of integrating Internet and e‐commerce into their organizations. This chapter examines volunteerism and fundraising as they are affected by the Internet and e‐commerce. Along with a literature review, case studies of nonprofit Internet and e‐commerce use are presented. Recommendations to nonprofit managers with respect to implementing Internet and e‐commerce technologies are made. Finally, key nonprofit Web directories and search engines are listed to give the reader additional examples of nonprofit use of the Internet for e‐commerce purposes.
Online Analytical Processing (
OLAP
)
Authors: Morabito Joseph , Stohr Edward A.
Published: July 2008

Online analytical processing (OLAP) represents a natural extension to traditional reporting in decision support environments. Generally, decision support has followed two tracks: the first driven by the information technology (IT) professional leveraging database technology and the second by the computer scientist utilizing artificial intelligence. The associated concepts of data warehousing and OLAP are driven by business needs and the IT industry. In this chapter, we review the technology of OLAP, its utility in e‐commerce applications, sample OLAP designs, and a sample information architecture for enabling clickstream analysis. We also advance a business intelligence architecture to support knowledge‐based work.
Online Auctions
Authors: Anders Gary C.
Published: July 2008

This chapter is devoted to an in‐depth discussion of online auctions. It begins with a basic description of an online auction and provides examples of some of the largest retail and industrial auctions. Among the topics covered are the online auction leaders, the various types of auctions, how auctions make money based on various types of fees. This is followed by a discussion of the nature of competition in the online auctions industry. We show that competitiveness of the dominant global online auctions is based on economies of scale and scope. New local auctions specializing in localized products and services have begun to enter this industry dominated by global auctions such as eBay andAmazon.com. I compare local auctions to global auction sites to identify the competitive advantages needed to offset the economies of scale. Next, a review of the academic literature on auctions, and particularly online auctions is presented. Afterward is a consideration the transactions costs and bidding behavior that often leads to the “winner's curse.” The conclusion raises the issue of taxing online auctions and discusses the need for new teaching and research approaches.
Online Auction Site Management
Authors: Wurman Peter R.
Published: July 2008

The successful deployment and operation of an online auction system requires knowledge of mechanism design, system architecture, and successful Internet business practices. Online auctions pose several challenges to Web developers because they are intensely data driven and have temporal behaviors that must be faithfully implemented. This chapter discusses many of the issues that an auction provider should consider when selecting or developing an auction software system. Auctions can be seen as a mechanism that is precisely defined by sets of rules that govern bidding, quoting, and clearing. These activities will have natural components in the software system, and the choices made in the architecture of the auction system will affect its scalability, temporal integrity, and overall complexity. Complementary features of auction systems, such as catalogs, search tools, and reputation mechanisms, are also discussed.
Online Communities
Authors: Sproull Lee
Published: July 2008

This chapter traces the development and nature of online communities. It discusses technology, processes, and attributes common to many online communities. It then demonstrates how underlying technologies and social processes can result in many types of communities, depending on member and sponsor interests. Just as community types can differ, so too can the positive and negative consequences that accrue to members, sponsors, and the larger society. The chapter concludes with an overview of research methodologies and issues for understanding online communities.
Online Dispute Resolution
Authors: Gaitenby Alan
Published: July 2008

Online dispute resolution (ODR) is the application of alternative dispute resolution practices and theories with networked information technology to manage conflict. Comprising primarily online mediation, negotiation, or arbitration systems, ODR also includes information management tools for informal conflict management by individuals and organizations.
Online Publishing
Authors: Brooks Randy M.
Published: July 2008

Online publishing is the process of designing electronic texts for public distribution and display on a computer screen. The computer screen requires a remediation of print design conventions, because the orientation of the screen is horizontal rather than vertical. All aspects of the publishing process are changed by moving from paper to online publishing—the acquisition and preparation of digital content, the distribution of texts, and the usability of text all become more dynamic, flexible and user‐controlled. This chapter examines the remediation of the print publication into emerging conventions of online publishing and hypertext, in which documents are broken into small modules with carefully designed navigation. Effective design of usable online documents depends on clear orientation, strategic navigation, consistent publication style and the publisher's ability to maintain the electronic text as a living, dynamic publication.
Online Stalking
Authors: Loundy David J.
Published: July 2008

As more conduct of every type moves online, increasing numbers of stalkers turn to the Internet to engage in unwelcome behavior as well. Although there is no agreed‐on definition of “cyberstalking,” online stalking is just that, stalking‐like behaviors conducted online. Although different jurisdictions have different approaches to addressing such behavior, there is often a remedy available to those who are being harassed online. This article discusses the problem of online stalking, motivations of stalkers, examples, and types of remedies that may be available to victims.
Open Source Development and Licensing
Authors: Henry Steven J.
Published: July 2008

The practice of collaborative development via an open source software model and the use of open source licensing started as a grassroots movement and have graduated to the mainstream. The historical development of the open source movement is explored, as well as the set of terms and principles defining open source licenses. Recent survey information on the impact of open source software is presented.
Passwords
Authors: Rasmussen Jeremy
Published: July 2008

A password is a sequence of characters required for access to a computer system. A password is used to identify and authenticate each user in a multiuser system and to prevent users from accessing data that they are not meant to see. Passwords are widely used on the Internet, from logging onto a Web site to accessing a particular application on a server. In fact, passwords are the most commonly used form of authentication on computer systems today because they are easy to set up and administer in automated systems. However, they present several security issues of which system administrators should be cognizant. These include password guessing, sniffing, and cracking. Administrators should implement policies and mechanisms to help prevent against these threats. Even so, the sophistication of modern password cracking tools is such that passwords alone may be insufficient to provide strong authentication and ought to be combined with some other sort of authentication to strengthen system access controls.
Peer‐to‐Peer Systems
Authors: Camp L. Jean
Published: July 2008

Peer to peer systems are bringing Windows‐based computers onto the Internet as full participants. Peer to peer systems utilize the connectivity and capacity to share resources offered by the Internet without being bound by the constraints imposed by the domain name system. Peer to peer (P2P) systems are so named because each computer has the same software as the other—every computer is a peer. In contrast, an application on a server is far more powerful than the client that accesses the server. Peer computers are fundamentally equals. In the history of the network, computation has cycled, from distributed on the desktop to concentrated in one centralized location. Peer to peer systems are at the decentralized end of the continuum. P2P systems utilize the processing power or data storage capacities at the end points of the Internet.

The fundamental basis of P2P is cooperation. Therefore P2P systems require trust. Cooperation is required to share any resource, whether it be two children splitting chocolate cake or two million people sharing files. Discussions of P2P therefore require some discussion of trust and security. P2P systems are powerful because they are able to leverage computers that are not consistently identified by domain name or IP address, are not always connected to the network, have highly variable processing power when connected, and are not designed to have particular server capabilities other than that provided by the peering network. The systems are built to withstand high uncertainty and therefore can accept contributions from anyone with a connection, even a modem.

After considering the generic issues of P2P systems specific systems are described: Napster, SETI @home, Gnutella, Freenet, Publius, and Kazaa. Limewire and Morpheus are implementations of Gnutella. Rougher introductions are provided for commercial peer to peer systems Groove and Tenix. The specific systems are used to illustrate problems of coordination and trust. Coordination includes naming and searching. Trust includes security, privacy, and accountability (J. L. Camp,

).
Politics
Authors: Gronke Paul
Published: July 2008

This chapter provides an overview of how the Internet has affected politics for individuals and for political organizations. The substantive focus is on political participation in the United States. The Internet is popularly described as a revolutionary agent of democracy. Any technological change, however, has to be analyzed in the context of the rationality of political action. The Internet will reduce the cost of political information, but is not likely to suddenly make politics more relevant and rewarding to the mass public. The Internet is not likely to increase rates of voting or participation. The Internet has, however, dramatically lowered the costs of mobilization for pre‐existing organizations such as political parties, candidates, and interest groups. Interestingly, because of this, the Internet has primarily reinforced income, class, and racial divides in political power.
Privacy Law
Authors: Everett‐Church Ray
Published: July 2008

This chapter addresses the foundations of privacy and discusses how they are being applied to today's Internet business environment. The chapter begins by explaining
fundamental concepts in privacy law
, including constitutional and common‐law bases for protecting individual privacy. The roots of privacy‐related legislative policies are discussed, focusing on well‐established “fair information practices.”
Privacy laws in the United States and the European Union
are surveyed, as are new issues relating to national security investigations and
how businesses might be affected
.
Business privacy issues
, including personnel matters, training, and internal privacy policies, are discussed. An extensive review of
consumer privacy issues
, including “cookies” and privacy practices of the online advertising industry, is also undertaken. In the
final section
, issues surrounding the development and implementation of privacy policies are discussed, including a review of enforcement actions by the Federal Trade Commission.
Propagation Characteristics of Wireless Channels
Authors: Shankar P. M.
Published: July 2008

Abstract
An overview of the characteristics of wireless channels is given. The phenomena of attenuation and fading are described in detail. Models available in literature to estimate the attenuation are reviewed for both indoor and outdoor wireless systems. Short term fading, long term fading and methods to mitigate fading using diversity techniques are explained. A brief appendix explains the decibel units of power used in wireless systems.
Public Accounting Firms
Authors: Chang C. Janie , Nellen Annette
Published: July 2008

Certified public accounting (CPA) firms track thousands of data for clients, maintain security over financial data, perform numerous calculations, and access and use many types of information. Technology provides efficiency to firms in performing these tasks. Internet and e‐business opportunities have been embraced by CPA firms because these technologies enable the firms to expand and enhance services offered to clients and to have constant and wider access to information. New uses of technology have raised privacy and security considerations for CPAs, as well as regulatory concerns about the transmission and online reporting of financial information. In response, CPAs, often through their professional organizations, have created assurance tools, training, certifications, and practice development ideas to maximize the use of technology in providing a high level of service to clients. Continued development of new uses of the Internet will further enhance the services offered by CPA firms.
Public Networks
Authors: Thompson Dale R. , Apon Amy W.
Published: July 2008

Public networks offer a variety of choices for business networking needs. This chapter describes how private networks composed of leased lines are different from public networks. The chapter also describes the structure of public networks, including the structure of the public switched telephone system and the common technologies used in public networks. Advantages of using public networks over a private network of leased lines include value‐added services, lower cost for a given performance, and the removal of the requirement of maintaining in‐house expertise for network maintenance and support, planning, and disaster recovery. Disadvantages include potential variation in performance due to congestion on the public network and lack of control over day‐to‐day operations, upgrades, and long‐range planning for capacity changes. The chapter concludes with a description of the use of public networks in the Internet and E‐commerce environments.