bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Kierkegaard, Søren
Authors: Hannay Alastair
Published: December 2012

Ethics (or the “ethical”) is a pivotal notion in the writings of Søren Kierkegaard (1813–55). A pseudonymous series published between 1843 and 1846 presents the ethical not in the form of a theory of the good, right, duty, and so forth, but as an “existence‐stage,” or life‐view, with the “aesthetic” and “religious” life‐views on either side. For this reason Kierkegaard's writings do not lend themselves readily or even profitably to categorizing in terms of moral theories current today. Their form is that of a critique of the manners and professed ideals of the time, in particular of the ways in which the former failed to measure up to the latter, and, centrally, of what Kierkegaard considered was a systematic marginalizing of the individual. A sense of his response can be gained in his claim that “[t]he individual's own ethical actuality is the only actuality” (2009: 274). Kierkegaard's focus on “existence” and the “single individual” set the stage for existentialism, for which his work provides several central notions (
see
Existentialism). But besides being the hinge on which the transition turns from the aesthetic stage, so‐called for its focus on pleasurable moments and their cultivation, to the religious stage, the “ethical” is pivotal also in forming the fulcrum for a development from a secular to a Christian ethics (or the “ethico‐religious”).
Informed Consent
Authors: Manson Neil C.
Published: December 2012

Informed consent is a central concept of contemporary medical ethics. Clinicians and medical researchers are under an obligation to inform patients and research subjects about the nature, purposes, risks, and side effects of proposed courses of action (and, if relevant, a specification of the risks ofnotacting in the suggested way). A vast body of literature has been produced, over the past 30 years or so, about the nature, justification, scope, and limits of informed consent. Here we will focus on what informed consent is, how it came to have a central place in medical ethics, and then briefly introduce some of the main problems and issues with informed consent.
Mackie, J. L.
Authors: Kirchin Simon
Published: December 2012

John Leslie Mackie (1917–81) was born in Sydney and taught at the universities of (in chronological order) Sydney, Otago, York, and Oxford. He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1974.
Is–Ought Gap
Authors: Pigden Charles
Published: December 2012

Is it possible to deduce a moral conclusion from nonmoral premises, anoughtfrom anis? David Hume famously thought not:

In every system of morality which I have hitherto met with, I have always remarked, that the author proceeds for some time in the ordinary way of reasoning, and establishes the being of a God, or makes observations concerning human affairs; when of a sudden I am surprised to find, that instead of the usual copulations of propositions,is,andis not,I meet with no proposition that is not connected with anought,or anought not.… [But] as thisought,orought not,expresses some new relation or affirmation, it is necessary that it should be observed and explained; and at the same time that a reason should be given, for what seems altogether inconceivable, how this new relation can be a deduction from others, which are entirely different from it. (1978: 469–70;seeHume, David)

Some think this passage expresses an important truth fraught with metaethical implications (seeMetaethics); some think it true but not that important since it tells us nothing of any consequence about the nature of ethics; and some that it is important but not true, since it expresses a mistaken dogma which has led many philosophers down the primrose path to non‐cognitivist perdition (seeNon‐ Cognitivism).
Journalistic Ethics
Authors: Meyers Christopher
Published: December 2012

What does it mean to be an ethical journalist? It is tempting to answer this by simply and approvingly citing the Society of Professional Journalists' (SPJ) Code of Ethics, whose Preamble describes ethical journalism as follows:

Public enlightenment is the forerunner of justice and the foundation of democracy. The duty of the journalist is to further those ends by seeking truth and providing a fair and comprehensive account of events and issues. Conscientious journalists from all media and specialties strive to serve the public with thoroughness and honesty.

Grand words, all, and ones that seem to capture most persons' sense of ethical journalism and to serve, thus, as a sufficient foundation for journalistic ethics.
Environmental Virtue Ethics
Authors: Sandler Ronald L.
Published: December 2012

Environmental ethics (
see
Environmental Ethics) is the study of the ethical relationships between human beings and the natural environment, including the nonhuman individuals that populate and constitute it. It involves developing a proper understanding of the human–nature relationship, identifying the goods and values that are part of or emerge from that relationship, determining the norms (rules/principles) that those goods and values justify, and applying those norms to generate guidance on environmental issues and interactions. Environmental virtue ethics is that part of environmental ethics that concerns character (
see
Virtue Ethics). The core questions of environmental virtue ethics are these:
Addiction
Authors: Husak Douglas
Published: December 2012

What is the relevance of addiction to ethics? I propose to focus on one small but important aspect of this topic: the impact of addiction on autonomy.
Life, Meaning of
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: December 2012

The phrase “meaning of life” is difficult to define. Discussions of meaningful lives frequently deal with, among others, lives that have to them high degrees of worth, lives focused on goals or purposes that people ought to pursue, or lives that relate to plans and issues that are “beyond” one's own individual self. Metz 2001 has suggested that no definition (in the sense of a set of necessary and sufficient conditions) of the phrase could be found, and that discussions of the meaning of life are united by family resemblance. Although the phrase has come to be used only in the last two and a half centuries, questions and considerations that we would include today under this rubric are old, and can be found already in Ecclesiastes. Some influential discussions of the topic, such as Tolstoy's 1983 autobiographical essay, are not, strictly speaking, philosophical. In philosophy, many of Schopenhauer's pessimistic claims (seeSchopenhauer, Arthur) should be seen as arguments about the meaninglessness of life, although he too does not employ the term. And many classical philosophical discussions about the good life, the happy life (seeHappiness), and the right way to live are relevant for discussions on the meaning of life, although the notions are distinct. Until recent decades, the meaning of life was mostly discussed within continental philosophy, and analytic philosophers usually refrained from dealing with it. But in the last few decades, there has been growing interest in the topic also within analytic philosophy, and further work on it comes out every year. This essay discusses both continental and analytic work on the subject.
Humanitarian Intervention
Authors: Nardin Terry
Published: December 2012

What should be done when a massacre or similar atrocity occurs in a country other than one's own? The thought that the governments of other countries should halt the atrocity, using force if necessary, yields the doctrine of humanitarian intervention. The moral rationale underlying that doctrine is not hard to grasp. When human lives are threatened by violence, those who are able to rescue the victims and to resist the violence should intervene, if they can do so without imposing disproportionate costs and by morally permissible means. The rationale is strongest when violence rises to the level of “crimes against humanity,” an expression adopted for the trial of German leaders at Nuremberg in 1945 to cover degrading, large‐scale violence by a government against its own people. Because it is in tension with the idea of state sovereignty, humanitarian intervention has an insecure place in international law and is problematic on practical grounds as well, but that tension has only fueled debate on the circumstances in which forcible interference by one state in the territory of another is justified to prevent such crimes.
Legal Ethics
Authors: Wendel W. Bradley
Published: December 2012

The ethics of the legal profession may be seen as an instance of role‐differentiated morality. People acting in professional roles remain moral agents, who must respond appropriately to moral reasons. At the same time, a role may impose demands that are inconsistent with the obligations of ordinary, nonprofessional morality. The role of lawyer may, for example, require asserting a procedural defense to defeat a morally compelling claim for compensation. Lawyers may be permitted or required to cross‐examine a truthful witness to suggest to the jury that she is lying, or to put on testimony that will similarly mislead the trier of fact. They may keep information secret that, if disclosed, would prevent serious harm to others. Lawyers also may take up the cause of an unworthy client, seeking to obtain some advantage that is contrary to considerations of justice. Familiarly, criminal defense lawyers may try to obtain the acquittal of a client who in fact committed the crime charged. In each of these cases, lawyers believe themselves to be justifiably obligated to follow the demands of their role, even though there appear to be good moral reasons to act to the contrary. The discipline of philosophical legal ethics (as distinguished from what lawyers often mean by the term, i.e., the rules of professional conduct promulgated by courts regulating things like fees and conflicts of interest) is largely devoted to working out the relationship between the demands of the professional role and ordinary moral considerations. This inquiry was stated concisely in an influential paper which asked, “Can a good lawyer be a good person?” (Fried 1976). Because of the relationship between individual moral agency, political institutions, and the law, legal ethics draws from moral, political, and legal philosophy.
Internet Ethics
Authors: Matthews Steve
Published: December 2012

“The World Wide Web can be a wild and unruly place.”Sophy Silver
Loyalty
Authors: Keller Simon
Published: December 2012

Loyalty is a part of every person's life and a source of many everyday ethical quandaries. Friendship, for example, involves loyalty, and in the course of a friendship you may face questions about what your loyalty to your friend demands (Are you a bad friend if you forget her birthday?), how its demands should be weighed against the demands of other loyalties (Should you have dinner at your mother's or give your friend a ride home from the airport?), and what you should do when its demands conflict with other moral considerations (Should you tell a lie to help your friend keep a secret?). Similar kinds of questions may be produced by loyalty to a sibling or a colleague, a country or an employer, a club or a business (seeFilial Duties; Personal Relationships).
Allocating Scarce Medical Resources
Authors: McConnell Terrance
Published: December 2012

When discussing the allocation of medical resources, it is common to distinguish between macroallocation and microallocation. The former refers to an entire system of healthcare; it determines who gets access to what healthcare and on the basis of what criteria.
Animals, Moral Status of
Authors: Horta Oscar
Published: December 2012

It is now widely assumed that all and only human beings merit full moral consideration, that human interests count for more than similar interests of other creatures. Thus, if a human being feels exactly the same pain as a nonhuman animal, then barring some other morally relevant consideration, ending the human's pain is morally more important. However, even many who claim that human interests take moral priority think that (at least some) nonhuman animals havesomeinterests that we should consider morally, even if they also think these interests are relatively minor.
Authority
Authors: McCabe David
Published: December 2012

The idea of authority allows broader and narrower construals. Broadly, it denotes the condition wherein an individual ought to conform to some standard outside himself (e.g., canons of reasoning, moral norms, human ideals) irrespective of his own preference or judgment in the matter.
Animal Rights
Authors: Rowlands Mark
Published: December 2012

The expression “animal rights” is employed in two different ways:
Marcel,Gabriel
Authors: Anderson Thomas
Published: December 2012

Gabriel Marcel, twentieth‐century French philosopher (1889–1973), was often classified as a Christian existentialist (
see
Existentialism) not only because he was a Roman Catholic but also to distinguish his thought from that of atheistic existentialists such as Jean‐Paul Sartre (
see
Sartre, Jean‐Paul) and Simone de Beauvoir (
see
Beauvoir, Simone de). Marcel was noted for his investigations into lived human experiences, in particular those like love, fidelity, and trust involved in interpersonal (intersubjective) relationships (
see
Personal Relationships; Intersubjectivity). He was among the first to enunciate the distinction between intimate interpersonal I–thou relations and impersonal, objective I–him or I–her relations. His distinction between having and being, his critique of mind–body dualism by insisting on the embodiment of human persons, his emphasis on the thoroughly situated and vulnerable character of human existence and the profound influence human beings have on each other, his criticism of reductive explanations of sensation as well as his critiques of scientism and technocracy, all were major influences on other twentieth‐century thinkers.
Agricultural Ethics
Authors: Thompson Paul B.
Published: December 2012

The International Encyclopedia of Ethics. Edited by Hugh LaFollette, print pages 171–177
Intuitionism, Moral
Authors: Russell Bruce
Published: December 2012

Moral intuitionism is a view about how we can be justified in believing, and have knowledge of, moral propositions (seeEpistemology, Moral). To be more specific, moral intuitionism is the view thatmoral intuitionscan provide evidence for the truth of moral propositions. To be intuitively justified, the justification must be noninferential and based on intuition, and so not based on some sort of reasoning in which the relevant proposition is the conclusion. In a moment I will say more about the nature of intuitions, but, roughly, a person has an intuition of some proposition just in case that proposition seems obviously true to him and its seeming that way is basedsolelyon his understanding the proposition (for example, the proposition that bachelors are unmarried males).
Abortion
Authors: Dwyer Susan
Published: December 2012

Abortion is the intentional killing of an embryo or fetus.
African Ethics
Authors: Metz Thaddeus
Published: December 2012

In this essay I critically discuss contemporary work in African, i.e., sub‐Saharan, moral philosophy that has been written in English (I largely set aside Francophone texts, as they have not been nearly as influential in ethics as they have been in metaphysics and method).
Liberalism
Authors: Martin and Rex , Reidy David A.
Published: December 2012

We begin this essay by briefly recounting the views of main figures in the liberal tradition: John Locke, Adam Smith, the Philosophical Radicals, John Stuart Mill (seeLocke, John; Smith, Adam; Mill, John Stuart). Other accounts of the liberal tradition are possible and different names could be included, e.g., Rousseau, Kant, von Humboldt, and Hegel (seeKant, Immanuel; Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich; Rousseau, Jean‐Jacques). But the one we have suggested is a typical and widely accepted genealogy. We conclude this thumbnail genealogy by providing a summary of liberal values that can be harvested from attending to this particular tradition.
Imperatives, Categorical and Hypothetical
Authors: Kerstein Samuel J.
Published: December 2012

Ethicists distinguish between categorical and hypothetical imperatives. Categorical imperatives specify actions we ought to take regardless of whether doing so would enable us to get anything we want. An example of a categorical imperative might be “Keep your promises.” Hypothetical imperatives identify actions we ought to take, but only if we have some particular goal. They are rules such as “If you want to visit Grant's tomb, then travel to New York.” Many ethicists believe that moral rules are categorical imperatives: they express what we ought to do, regardless of whether doing it would satisfy our desires or promote our happiness. For example, a person ought to keep a promise she has made even if she no longer wants to keep it because doing so would be unpleasant and in no way serve her purposes.
Imagination In Ethics
Authors: Thomson‐Jones Katherine
Published: December 2012

Despite a recent resurgence of interest in its cognitive and aesthetic significance, the imagination continues to receive relatively short shrift in philosophical ethics. In Western philosophy there is a long tradition of thinking that morality is just too serious a business to leave up to the imagination. Yet there is another tradition of thinking that, in relation to feeling, failure to cultivate and discipline the imagination is a serious moral error. A proper understanding of the various activities of and constraints on the imagination helps to reconcile these two traditions. It also reveals the variety and complexity of roles for the imagination in ethics.
Integrity
Authors: Miller Christian
Published: December 2012

Integrity is one of the leading normative concepts employed in our society. We frequently talk about the degree of integrity of community leaders and famous historical figures, and we highly value integrity in our elected public officials. But philosophers have had a difficult time arriving at consensus about what integrity consists in. Some claim that it is a purely formal relation of consistency, others that it has to do primarily with one's identity, and still others that it involves subjective or objective moral requirements. The primarily goal here is to outline the leading facets of integrity in the contemporary philosophical literature.
Aid, Ethics of
Authors: Cullity Garrett
Published: December 2012

Aid, in the sense of coordinated, voluntary material assistance provided by well‐off groups to address the needs of the less well off, can be divided into two broad categories.
A Posteriori
Ethical Knowledge
Authors: McBrayer Justin P.
Published: December 2012

It is clear that people have moral
beliefs
.
Analogical Arguments
Authors: Walton Douglas
Published: December 2012

Analogical reasoning works by a process of comparison between two cases that appear to be similar, and where some particular proposition appears to be true in the one case, called the source case.
Intersubjectivity
Authors: Zahavi and Dan , Overgaard Søren
Published: December 2012

The notion of intersubjectivity is a relatively new concept. The German term
Intersubjektivität
made its first sporadic appearance in 1885 in a work by Johannes Volkelt. It was picked up by James Ward and first used in English in 1896. Initially, the concept was used to describe something with universal validity, something that was valid for everybody, something that was valid independently of every subject. This sporadic use of the term subsequently found its way into philosophy of science. The first systematic and extensive philosophical discussion and treatment of the notion of intersubjectivity can, however, be found in the work of the German philosopher Edmund Husserl, the founder of phenomenology (
see
Husserl, Edmund). Although Husserl remained deeply interested in the link between intersubjectivity and objectivity, he ultimately used the former term to designate a plurality of subjects and the relation that exists between them (Husserl 1973). This understanding of the term, which was subsequently taken up by later phenomenologists and which then (through the work of Schütz) found its way into sociology and social theory, places the term alongside related terms such as sociality, social cognition, and interpersonal understanding.
Insanity Defense
Authors: Morse Stephen J.
Published: December 2012

Legal insanity is a complete defense to a criminal charge (seeCriminal Law). Crimes are defined by their criteria, what lawyers call the “elements” of the crime, which the prosecution must prove beyond a reasonable doubt. These usually include an intentional act and a further mental state, called themens rea. For example, murder is defined generally as the intentional killing of a human being. The prosecution must prove that the defendant intentionally performed a killing act with the intent to kill. Even if the prosecution is able to prove the elements beyond a reasonable doubt, however, a criminal defendant can avoid conviction by establishing an “affirmative” defense of justification or excuse. Many jurisdictions permit placing the burden of proof for legal insanity on the defense, a procedural rule that disadvantages defendants and may be more outcome determinative than the wording of the test for legal insanity.
Age Discrimination
Authors: Cupit Geoffrey
Published: December 2012

Discrimination by age is common in all societies. While the potential for differential treatment exists across the span of life, discrimination based on age is especially associated with the young and the old. The young may be required to attend schools, be restricted in employment, be barred from voting and standing for office, be denied access to various goods and services available to adults, and be unable to make enforceable contracts.
Kant, Immanuel
Authors: Wood Allen W.
Published: December 2012

The ethical theory of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) is one of the greatest and most characteristic creations of the European Enlightenment. It exercises continuing influence on moral philosophers and the wider moral and political culture generally. The fundamental idea on which Kantian ethics is based is that the same basic moral principles are objectively binding on all of us because they can be regarded by us as legislated by our own rational capacity to govern our lives. An equally important part of the Kantian vision is that all human beings have equal dignity as members of the moral community, constituting an ideal “realm of ends.” Ethical principles are conceived as the ones that would require people to join with others in the shared pursuit of a system of ends that respects the dignity (or absolute worth) and provides equally for the happiness of all (
see
Happiness).
Laozi
Authors: Lee Jung H.
Published: December 2012

TheLaozi, orDaodejing(lit. “The Classic of the Way and Its Power”), occupies a unique place in classical Chinese literature: it is at once a work of philosophy, religion, poetry, and government. Perhaps because of its polysemic nature, theLaoziresists easy interpretation, particularly when we examine its meaning in regard to the realm of ethics. Having said that, there does seem to be a distinctive normative voice within the text that addresses the concerns of the moral life (seeNormativity). In essence, theLaozicommends a life modeled on theDao(lit. “the Way”) in the cultivation of virtues like naturalness, spontaneity, and selflessness, which are all intended to help the practitioner achieve the Good (seeGoodness, Varieties of; Virtue; Virtue Ethics). The authors suggest that human nature (xing), once pure and unblemished, has been corrupted by the pressures of society – unnatural in many cases – and that political decline can be traced to the indifference, cruelty, and excessive desires of its ruling bodies. Accordingly, rather than following Confucians or Mohists into more “learning” and knowledge, the authors counsel the reader (perhaps a potential ruler) to “unlearn” what she has learned and to act naturally (ziran) and without self‐conscious effort (wu‐wei), in the process revealing the “inner power” (de) of the Way (seeConfucius; Daoist Ethics; Mozi).
Advertising, Ethics of
Authors: Dow Jamie
Published: December 2012

Advertising is a type of communication between two parties. It covers a range of formats from small newspaper listings to video campaigns. It is often classified within the wider category of marketing, which includes many other activities, such as pricing.
Supererogation
Authors: Hill, Thomas E. , Cureton Adam
Published: December 2012

“Supererogation” is now a technical term in philosophy for a range of ideas expressed by terms such as “good but not required,” “beyond the call of duty,” “praiseworthy but not obligatory,” and “good to do but not bad not to do” (
see
Duty and Obligation; Intrinsic Value). Examples often cited are extremely generous acts of charity, heroic self‐sacrifice, extraordinary service to morally worthy causes, and sometimes forgiveness and minor favors. These concepts are familiar in institutional contexts, for example, when teachers give points for “extra credit” work, corporations give “bonuses” for profitable leadership, and armies award medals for extraordinary service and valor. Moral philosophers, however, have generally focused on whether or not some of these terms refer to a fundamental moral category and, if so, how the category should be defined, which acts the category includes, and whether various moral theories adequately acknowledge it. The idea that acts can be good and praiseworthy but beyond duty has seemed puzzling for several reasons. For example, it seems that “good and praiseworthy” appeals to scalar standards of (“more or less”) value and virtue whereas “duty,” “required,” and “obligatory” invoke nonscalar norms that make (“all or nothing”) demands. This raises the theoretical question whether morality presupposes two distinct conceptual schemes, and, if so, to what extent and how these can be unified in a consistent and coherent moral theory.
Al‐Farabi
Authors: Parens Joshua
Published: December 2012

Al‐Farabi (ca. 870–950CE) was born in what is now southern Kazakhstan. He studied in Bukhara, then Marv, and eventually Baghdad.
Ayer,A.J.
Authors: Macdonald Graham
Published: December 2012

Alfred Jules Ayer was born in London on October 29, 1910. He took an early interest in philosophy, reading G. E. Moore'sPrincipia Ethicaat the age of 16, claiming that Moore's articulation of the naturalistic fallacy had a lasting effect.
Advance Directives
Authors: John Doukas David
Published: December 2012

Advance directives are statements by a competent patient indicating who should act as surrogate or what treatment the patient would accept or refuse in the event of a future incapacity, particularly one in which terminal illness or irreversible loss of consciousness could occur.
Just War Theory, History of
Authors: Reichberg Gregory M.
Published: December 2012

Moral reflection on war (seeWar) has a long pedigree in Western civilization. The idea that warfare should be guided by norms of justice is given voice in both the Hebrew Scriptures and in the writings of Plato and Aristotle. The idea is developed more explicitly by Cicero and St. Augustine, both of whom emphasized how war can be justifiable only when it is waged without cruelty and to restore a peace that has been wrongly violated. However, it was not until the Latin Middle Ages (twelfth–thirteenth centuries) – when canon lawyers and theologians adopted the term of artbellum justum(just war) – that a systematic approach to this subject emerged.
International Research Ethics
Authors: Schuklenk Udo , Philpott Sean
Published: December 2012

Research ethics came into its own as an ongoing academic and regulatory concern in the aftermath of the Nuremberg Trials. Knowledge of the Nazi experiments led to the first international guidelines stipulating basic ethics standards for research involving human participants (Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law 1994 [1949]). Subsequent scandals – including but not limited to the Tuskegee syphilis study – led to further and improved ethics guidelines such as the World Medical Association's Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association 1964–2008) as well as such national documents as the landmark Belmont Report in the USA (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research 1979).
Adultery
Authors: Brake Elizabeth
Published: December 2012

The term “adultery” itself is controversial because, like “murder,” it seems to carry with it a judgment that such an act is wrong.
AIDS
Authors: Schuklenk Udo , Viens A. M.
Published: December 2012

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), has emerged as the paradigmatic disease for ethical analyses addressing issues in infectious disease control and public health. The ethical issues surrounding HIV/AIDS are best divided conceptually into two parts: life prior to and after the advent of life‐preserving therapies. This division not only provides a natural way to categorize how ethical issues were dealt with historically compared to recent times, but also in terms of mapping out the ethical relevance of HIV/AIDS in relation to developed and developing nations.
Justice
Authors: Rainbolt George W.
Published: December 2012

It is not possible to do justice to justice in one essay. Justice has been a central concern of philosophy from the time of Plato (1992;seePlato) until today. As the many essays in this encyclopedia with “just” or “justice” in the title illustrate, the scope of justice is vast (seeCompensatory Justice; Criminal Justice Ethics; Global Distributive Justice; International Criminal Justice; Just Cause [In War]; Just Price; Just War Theory, History of; Juvenile Justice). Moreover, justice is a central theme in other essays as well (see, for example, Punishment; Affirmative Action). Finally, many different kinds of things can be just: decisions, thoughts, actions, people, rules, institutions, etc.
Anarchism
Authors: Crowder George
Published: December 2012

Anarchists believe that the state is a deeply harmful institution and that the good society is one without a state or government – without, that is, a permanent body entitled to use force to ensure compliance with its decisions within a given territory.
Associative Duties
Authors: Wellman Christopher Heath
Published: December 2012

Associative duties are the special obligations people are commonly thought to have toward certain associates, such as siblings, friends, colleagues, teammates, compatriots, and co‐nationals. While some doubt that associative duties are genuine, many take their existence to be necessary for explaining obligations which, upon reflection, appear difficult to ground in any other source.
Agent‐Centered Options
Authors: Portmore Douglas W.
Published: December 2012

On commonsense morality, agents are not always required to bring about the impersonally best outcome.
Attention, Moral
Authors: Clarke Bridget
Published: December 2012

The concept of moral attention originates in the writings of Simone Weil (1909–43) and achieved wide influence through Iris Murdoch's
The Sovereignty of Good
Intransitivity
Authors: Carlson Erik
Published: December 2012

It is usually taken for granted that ifais better thanb, andbis better thanc, thenais better thanc. In other words, betterness is normally thought to be atransitiverelation. Transitivity is a crucial assumption in theories of value aggregation and measurement, and it appears essential for normative theories, as well. Arguably, any plausible moral theory puts some weight on promoting the good. If betterness is not always transitive, it may be that optionahas a better outcome than optionb, andbhas a better outcome than optionc, butchas a better outcome thana. In such a case, the requirement to promote the good provides no guide to action.
Liberation Theology and Ethics
Authors: Mendieta Eduardo
Published: December 2012

Theology, as the word indicates etymologically, is the rational elucidation of God. Most concretely, it is the explication, justification, and clarification of a specific community of faith witnessing to its God. Religion, the name for what binds a community in a ritual, issues in theology. There is no religion that is merely personal, which is why theology takes shape in a community of faith. A personal theology would be an oxymoron. There is first the practice of a certain belief in a God that has been revealed, and then subsequently there is an attempt to understand what that revelation or belief entails. For this reason theology in the most general sense is also considered “apologetics,” that is, it is a defense of what is taken to be a certain truth and what that truth entails. A classic example of how theology is apologetics is St. Augustine's
The City of God against the Pagans
(413–26), a book that elaborates an apologetics of the Christian faith against the imputation that Christians were to blame for the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410
AD
(
see
Augustine, Saint). Saint Thomas of Aquinas'
Summa Theologica
(1265–74) dispenses with the “against Pagans,” but it is nonetheless a compendium of all the possible objections and rebuttals that could have been brought against the Christian conception of God (
see
Aquinas, Saint Thomas). As such it is the most comprehensive apologetics ever written by a Christian theologian. From Augustine to twentieth‐century theologians, apologetics has been the subtext of theological reflection. That all theology is always apologetics directs us to another fundamental aspect of theology, namely that all theology has ethical consequences. How faith is justified among a community of believers and before others entails how relationships internal and external to that community are established, preserved, nourished, and respected. Theology and ethics are intricately linked. If theology is “faith seeking understanding (
fides quaerens intellectum
)” as St. Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) put it, then all theology is also an ethics. To seek to understand one's faith is to seek to understand what is required of one with respect to God, and therefore with respect to other human beings. Theology aims to clarify a right relation to God so as to be in a right relation to other human beings and to creation. For this reason, theology has an eminently practical dimension. All religious beliefs imply certain ethical commitments.
Agent‐Centered Restrictions
Authors: Portmore Douglas W.
Published: December 2012

According to commonsense morality, agents are sometimes prohibited from bringing about the impersonally best outcome.
Jefferson, Thomas
Authors: Butler Brian E.
Published: December 2012

Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) occupies a significant place in history as the most clear and forceful advocate of a universal ethics based on a mix of natural law (seeNatural Law) and human rights (seeRights). He is unique among political theorists in his ability to translate such ideas into action. Jefferson is also the most famous American historical figure to represent a localized and agrarian ethics and to advocate a state's right of constitutional nullification. Finally, the various aspects of Jefferson's life are difficult to harmonize – it has therefore been argued that his life and his projects show the ethical ambiguities of the United States in stark relief.
Identity, Politics of
Authors: Nicholson Linda
Published: December 2012

The phrase “identity politics” refers to a type of political movement where the issue of social identity is a central concern of the political movement itself. The phrase emerged in the early 1970s, in particular with reference to the kind of political turn taken in the late 1960s and early 1970s by many of those fighting on behalf of African Americans and women in the United States.
Ancillary‐Care Obligations
Authors: Richardson Henry S.
Published: December 2012

Ancillary‐care obligations are a type of special obligation of beneficence that arise in the context of focused, special relationships – fleeting or established, professional or informal – between people. Other sorts of special obligations of beneficence are traditionally understood in terms of the aim or focus of a relationship, such as sharing friendship or obtaining a professional's service.
Austin, J. L.
Authors: Warner Richard
Published: December 2012

John Langshaw Austin (1911–60), known as J. L. Austin, held the White Chair of Philosophy at Oxford. He regarded ethics as the study of “what actions are good or bad, right or wrong” (Urmson and Warnock 1979: 142), and he focused primarily on the concept of responsibility, where his investigations concerned promissory obligations, and the relation between free action, justification, and excuse.
Abelard, Peter
Authors: Hause Jeffrey
Published: December 2012

Renowned for his work in logic and philosophy of language, Peter Abelard (1079–1142) saw the related disciplines of theology and ethics as the culmination of all other philosophical disciplines.
Malebranche, Nicolas
Authors: Walsh Julie
Published: December 2012

The French Oratorian Nicolas Malebranche (1638–1715) was one of the most famous philosophers of his time. While his status as an important intellectual figure declined following his death, a resurrection of his works began in the latter half of the twentieth century. This renewed interest in Malebranche's thought was certainly promoted by the publication and subsequent wide availability of his complete works in the original French (20 volumes published between 1958 and 1984), and several translations, most notably of Malebranche's magnum opus
The Search After Truth
, which served to make the philosopher more accessible to the English‐speaking world. The push to establish Malebranche as a valuable figure in the history of philosophy is well motivated. His collected works illustrate a careful and unorthodox synthesis of the philosophies of Saint Augustine (
see
AUGUSTINE, SAINT
) and René Descartes that exercised many of Malebranche's contemporaries, the reactions of whom (often in the form of zealous objection) are found in correspondence and volumes of published works. Malebranche's influence on eighteenth‐century British philosophy in particular has been well chronicled (McCracken 1983). Given his range of influence and his unique system, it is no longer idiosyncratic to affirm that a familiarity with Malebranche's views is critical for an understanding of the evolution of philosophical thought through the early modern period and beyond (
see
EARLY MODERN ETHICS
).
Affirmative Action
Authors: Beauchamp Tom L.
Published: December 2012

For decades women and minorities were effectively barred in the United States from prestigious schools and from the opportunity to obtain the most desirable jobs.
Addams, Jane
Authors: Haddock Seigfried Charlene
Published: December 2012

As an advocate of social justice, Jane Addams (1860–1935) was one of the most admired women of her time.
Arrogance
Authors: Dillon Robin S.
Published: December 2012

In ordinary conversation the term “arrogant” is used to describe things such as organizations and policies, but it is more commonly applied to people's actions, attitudes, or their personality or character. Interestingly, it can express both strong moral criticism (as for a disrespectful action) and admiration (as for a quality it might be thought beneficial for a leader to have).
Austin, John
Authors: Bix Brian H.
Published: December 2012

John Austin (1790–1859) was a follower of Jeremy Bentham and a friend of John Stuart Mill
Arendt, Hannah
Authors: Bernasconi Robert
Published: December 2012

Hannah Arendt (1906–75) was born to Jewish parents in Hannover, Germany.
Intellectual Property
Authors: Hull Gordon
Published: December 2012

“Intellectual property” (IP) generally refers to a legal entitlement or entitlements over an intangible good such as an invention, a song, or a corporate logo. Discussion of the ethical issues raised by IP is relatively recent, and is driven both by its increasing economic importance and advances in copying technologies. Because IP rights cover culturally significant products such as movies and books, IP has always been culturally important. Today, however, as more and more economic value derives from intangible goods (i.e., to the extent that economies become “knowledge based”), while copying these goods simultaneously becomes easier and cheaper, ethical discussion of IP is poised to be increasingly significant at a global level.
Kantian Practical Ethics
Authors: Gressis Robert
Published: December 2012

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) was probably the most important philosopher of the modern era (
see
Kant, Immanuel; Late Modern British Ethics). He made groundbreaking contributions in both theoretical philosophy (especially epistemology and metaphysics) and practical philosophy (especially ethics and political philosophy). While his theoretical philosophy set the agenda for much of the theoretical philosophy that followed it, most succeeding philosophers reject its foundational claims (such as the ideality of space and time), even as they agree with certain of the conclusions that Kant drew from those claims (such as the limitation of knowledge to the spatiotemporal realm). By contrast, many post‐Kantian philosophers agree with the foundational principle of Kant's normative ethics, the “Formula of Humanity” (treat humanity, wherever you find it, always as an end in itself and never as a mere means to your ends), while rejecting some of the specific conclusions that Kant drew from it (e.g., the wrongness of masturbation and homosexual sex).
Action
Authors: McCann Hugh J.
Published: December 2012

By “action” we may understand those doings, whether mental or overt, in which the doer exercises agency – the distinctive capacity to control and direct one's behavior toward ends or objectives. Most philosophical treatments of action begin with bodily acts like moving an arm or a finger, and the first order of business in such treatments is usually to discern the difference between bodily actions and mere motions of the body that are non‐actional. My arm may move as the result of a muscle spasm, or it may move because I raise it; the question is what differentiates the two. Efforts to make out the distinction often concentrate on the notion of intention, since it seems to be the case that, when action occurs, what goes on is intentional under some description or other (Davidson 1980;seeIntention). Explorations of intentionality lead in turn to examinations of the relation of reasons to action (seeReasons), since intentional actions are usually explainable in terms of the agent's reasons. And, since one possibility is that reasons are causally related to action, questions having to do with freedom usually arise. Finally, there is a problem as to how actions are to be individuated. By moving my arm I can accomplish a lot: I may throw a stick, play with my dog, tone up my shoulder muscles, distract a passing driver, and much more. The problem of individuation is one of deciding how the many deeds that may be accomplished in one exercise of agency are related to one another.
Altruism and Biology
Authors: Joyce Richard
Published: December 2012

In the vernacular, “altruism” is a psychological term; its application depends on the motives with which an action is performed. A's action is altruistic if and only if A's ultimate motive in performing the action is the furtherance of some other individual's (or individuals') welfare. A's action remains altruistic even if, as a matter of fact, the other individual receives no benefit (because of some unforeseen interference, say). And A's action remains altruistic even if, as a matter of fact, A (and A alone) benefits from the action, so long as that outcome was not A's ultimate motive. If A acts to benefit B but A's
ultimate
motive for doing so is that furthering B's welfare promises in turn to benefit A (via boosting A's reputation, say), then A's action is not altruistic but selfish. On the face of it, there is no reason to assume that this distinction is exhaustive. It seems possible that actions can be done for motives that have nothing to do with benefiting anyone, or can be done for mixed motives where benefits to both actor and other are important motivating factors but neither is ultimate.
Authenticity
Authors: Guignon Charles
Published: December 2012

The meaning of the word “authentic” is suggested by its Greek ancestor, the adjectiveauthentikos,which means “original.”
Association, Freedom of
Authors: White Stuart
Published: December 2012

InOn Liberty(1869), John Stuart Mill argues that there are three key elements to the “appropriate region of human liberty.”
Locke, John
Authors: Stanton Timothy
Published: December 2012

John Locke (1632–1704), author of An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Two Treatises of Government, and A Letter Concerning Toleration, is known to a wide audience today for these works, as a distinguished philosopher and as an inventor and icon of liberalism.
Ancient Ethics
Authors: Nielsen Karen Margrethe
Published: December 2012

This essay will provide a survey of the major philosophical schools in ancient Greek and Roman ethics, from the time of Plato (429–347BC) until the end of the Hellenistic Period, when Cicero (106–43BC) wrote his dramatic summary of Epicurean, Stoic, and Peripatetic ethics,De finibus bonorum et malorum.
Libertarianism
Authors: Hunt Lester H.
Published: December 2012

While the word “libertarian” had been used by anarchists to describe their own views since the nineteenth century, it was apparently not used in its now current sense until the 1960s.
Autonomy
Authors: Anderson Joel
Published: December 2012

Autonomy is arguably the central concept of a distinctively modern understanding of the dignity of the person, and it is considered to be a core principle in all domains of applied ethics. Autonomy is a matter of self‐rule.
International Bill of Rights
Authors: Letsas George
Published: December 2012

The term “international bill of rights” refers to three documents drafted under the auspices of the United Nations, each proclaiming a list of fundamental human rights: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR).
Adoption
Authors: Vaughan Brakman Sarah‐
Published: December 2012

Adoption refers to the creation of a parent–child relationship between those who are not related to one another as progenitor–progeny.
Animal Experimentation
Authors: Ferdowsian Hope R. , Beauchamp Tom L.
Published: December 2012

Practices within the biomedical and behavioral sciences have generated numerous ethical concerns about the use of nonhuman animals (hereafter: animals) in education, testing, and research.
Accounting Ethics
Authors: Cowton Christopher J.
Published: December 2012

Interest in accounting ethics has increased markedly in recent years.
Multi‐objective H −  ∕ H ∞  fault detection observer design for Takagi–Sugeno fuzzy systems with unmeasurable premise variables: descriptor approach
Authors: Aouaouda S. , Chadli M. , Cocquempot V. , Tarek Khadir M.
Published: December 2012

This paper investigates the problem of robust fault detection observer design for nonlinear Takagi–Sugeno models with unmeasurable premise variables subject to sensor faults and unknown bounded disturbance. The main idea is to synthesize a robust fault detection observer by means of a mixed H −  ∕ H ∞  performance index. The considered observer is used to estimate jointly states and faults. Using the technique of descriptor system representation, we proposed a new less‐conservative approach in term of a linear matrix inequality (LMI) by considering the sensor fault as an auxiliary state variable. A solution of the problem is obtained by using an iterative LMI procedure. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.