bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Motherless Child: The Death of the Heart (1938)
Authors: Corcoran Neil
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines Bowen's novel, The Death of the Heart, proposing that its analysis of class relations in 1930s England has affinities with the work of Waugh, Green, and Lawrence. This analysis is focused on the fate of the orphan and ingénue Portia, and emphasizes her various states of mind partly by concentrated close readings of particular passages. Portia's developing sexuality and her awareness of it impels the plot, and is extensively treated in the context of the history of the child and sexuality in the English novel. The chapter also considers a number of related themes, in particular those of survival, money, doubling, servitude, and writing itself (since Portia is presented as a putative writer), suggesting that Bowen's work may be profitably related to later writing by Harold Pinter and Kazuo Ishiguro.
Words in the Dark:The Demon Lover and Other Stories(1945)
Authors: Corcoran Neil
Published: September 2007

This chapter offers a reading of Bowen's collection of Second World War short stories, The Demon Lover and Other Stories, proposing it as a book of unhappy returns. Studies of dislocation, the stories have their Anglo-Irish element, even though they are set mainly in the London of the Blitz. The chapter also considers matters of literary allusion and reference, as well as issues of gender together with sexual and social disruption. The chapter concludes with a lengthy reading of the figure of the apparently supernatural ghost in one of Bowen's greatest short stories, The Demon Lover, suggesting an influence from T. S. Eliot, an affinity with William Golding, and an alliance with Freud's conception of the ‘uncanny’. Thus, in various ways the story is the representation of crisis.
Lexical Storage versus Online Construction
Authors: Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

Traditional generative grammar makes two related assumptions: first, that lexical items — the stored elements that are combined into larger expressions — enter the combinatorial system by virtue of being inserted into syntactic structures; and second, that lexical items are always words. In the parallel model of Chapter 5, lexical items emerge instead as parts of the interfaces among generative components. Moreover, by taking seriously the question of what is stored in memory, we will arrive at the view that lexical (i.e., stored) items are of heterogeneous sizes, from affixes to idioms and more abstract structures. This reconceptualization of the lexicon leads to striking consequences for linguistic theory, in particular it breaks down some of the traditional distinctions between lexical items and rules of grammar. It also leads to a reconsideration of the formal character of language learning.
The Voice Continuum
Authors: Croft William
Published: September 2007

Some constructions are claimed to be universal, including the passive and the inverse voice constructions. In fact, the syntactic properties used to define passive and inverse constructions, and contrast them with active/direct constructions, do not coincide across languages. This chapter surveys the great diversity of voice constructions across languages to demonstrate that there is no universal structural definition of passive and inverse constructions. Instead, one must construct a syntactic space to represent the continuum of structural properties of voice constructions across languages. But this continuum is constrained, both in terms of the structural properties of the voice construction and the function of the construction. The more salient/topical participant will be coded with the typologically less marked, more subject-like structural properties, and the less salient participant will be coded with less subject-like properties. The continuum is also reinforced by the fact that constructions shift across the syntactic space via grammaticalization.
Complex-valued harmonic morphisms on three-dimensional Euclidean space
Authors: Baird Paul , Wood John C.
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents an introduction to the theory of harmonic morphisms for the case of maps from open subsets of Euclidean 3-space to the complex plane. Harmonic morphisms are characterized by elementary means which involve only a little simple geometry. In subsequent chapters some of the results are generalized and interpreted the context of differential geometry. Some results apply to maps from open subsets of higher-dimensional Euclidean spaces to the complex plane, but many methods are special to Euclidean 3-space, in that case, giving us all harmonic morphisms both locally and globally.
Harmonic mappings between Riemannian manifolds
Authors: Baird Paul , Wood John C.
Published: September 2007

A harmonic morphism between arbitrary Riemannian manifolds is a type of harmonic map. This chapter is devoted to the description of those properties of harmonic maps, which are essential to the development. Harmonic maps are extremals of a natural energy integral; they can be characterized as maps whose tension field vanishes, where the tension field is a natural generalization of the Laplacian. The first three sections in this chapter give the necessary formalism, the basic definitions, examples, and properties of harmonic maps. In Section 3.4, a conservation law involving the stress-energy is given. Harmonic maps from surfaces have special properties and include (branched) minimal immersions, which are discussed in Section 3.5. The chapter ends with a treatment of the second variation.
Holomorphic harmonic morphisms
Authors: Baird Paul , Wood John C.
Published: September 2007

The first section of this chapter investigates the general question of when holomorphic maps between almost Hermitian manifolds are harmonic maps or harmonic morphisms. In particular, a holomorphic map from a Kaehler manifold to a Riemann surface is always a harmonic morphism. It is shown how harmonic morphisms into a Riemann surface can sometimes be combined to give new ones. The construction of harmonic morphisms from domains of Euclidean and related spaces is discussed, which are holomorphic with respect to a Hermitian structure, thus finding interesting globally defined complex-valued harmonic morphisms on a Euclidean space of arbitrary dimension.
Multivalued harmonic morphisms
Authors: Baird Paul , Wood John C.
Published: September 2007

Multivalued analytic functions are considered to be functions on a Riemann surface, which can be defined either by cutting and pasting or by a graph construction. Multivalued maps in general are considered, and it is shown how the concept of multivalued analytic functions generalizes to harmonic morphisms using the graph construction. An alternative treatment for space forms is presented, and some specific examples are given. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the behaviour on the branching set of the projection map for a multivalued harmonic morphism on a three-dimensional space form.
Curvature considerations
Authors: Baird Paul , Wood John C.
Published: September 2007

The curvature of the domain on various combinations of horizontal and vertical vectors is calculated for a horizontally conformal submersion and for a (submersive) harmonic morphism. It is related to the dilation and the curvature of the codomain, and local and global non-existence results are deduced for maps with or without critical points. It is shown that any harmonic morphism with totally geodesic fibres — defined on a Euclidean space with values in a manifold of dimension not equal to two — is orthogonal projection to a subspace followed by a surjective homothetic covering. Together with Theorem 6.7.3, this gives a complete picture of the globally defined harmonic morphisms with totally geodesic fibres on Euclidean space.
Reduction techniques
Authors: Baird Paul , Wood John C.
Published: September 2007

When a map has a certain symmetry, the equations for a harmonic morphism reduce to equations in a smaller number of variables. Here, the appropriate symmetry is equivariant with respect to isoparametric mappings. The latter is discussed and the concept of eigen-harmonic morphism — reduction theorem — is given. The modification of reduction equations by suitable conformal changes of metric is discussed, which allows us to find equivariant harmonic morphisms by first finding an equivariant map which is horizontally weakly conformal, and then rendering it harmonic by a suitable conformal change of metric. This way, solving the second-order system for a harmonic morphism is reduced to solving two first-order systems in turn. This technique allows the construction of many harmonic morphisms by reduction to an ordinary or partial differential equation (ODE or PDE).
Modelling Marine Ecosystems and Their Environmental Forcing
Authors: Werner Francisco E. , Aretxabaleta Alfredo , Edwards Karen Pehrson
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents a brief review and description of some of the issues in modelling and the status of modelling efforts. It attempts to link and explain changes in climate and in pelagic marine communities in the North Atlantic systems, drawing from knowledge gained from studies of all oceans. The chapter's structure is as follows. First, it briefly discusses aspects of the relationship between variability in the environment and variability in marine populations. It then presents approaches that are being taken for understanding this variability and highlights areas where progress has been made. It ends with recommendations and suggestions for new approaches necessary for further advances.
The Responses of Fish Populations to Ocean Climate Fluctuations
Authors: Ottersen Geir , Alheit Jürgen , Drinkwater Ken , Friedland Kevin , Hagen Eberhard , Stenseth Nils Chr.
Published: September 2007

Understanding how climate variability affects fish and fisheries and how the effects differ between species is of paramount importance when trying to predict the potential impacts of anthropogenically introduced climate change. This chapter shows how climate variability may influence North Atlantic fish populations by affecting spawning and reproduction, abundance and recruitment, individual growth rates, distribution and migration, natural mortality, and catchability and availability to fisheries. Although, they are principally derived from the northwest Atlantic Ocean, the results are representative of many species around the world. The impact of climate on some of the most important fish species in the North Atlantic: the demersal cod, the pelagic herring, sardines, and the anadromous salmon, is discussed.
Climatic Influences on Marine Fish Community Ecology
Authors: Lekve Kyrre , Stenseth Nils Chr.
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on biodiversity as a dependent variable. It reviews some proposed mechanisms for fish community responses to climatic variability, it then details some case studies illustrating possible examples of these mechanisms. The chapter begins with the simplest example, that of two interacting species (or really two complexes of species), before moving on to studies on different aspects of community responses to climatic variability.
Climate and Fisheries: An Insight from the Central Pacific Ocean
Authors: Lehodey Patrick
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents a brief description of the climate oscillations in the Pacific Ocean and their biological consequences. It then provides another illustration of the connection between climate and fisheries using the example of tuna species in the Pacific Ocean. A modeling approach is also presented and used to explore the underlying mechanisms linking changes in climate and tuna populations.
A Fresh (Water) Perspective on the Impacts of the NAO on North Atlantic ecology
Authors: Straile Dietmar
Published: September 2007

North Atlantic climate variability not only influences North Atlantic ecosystems, but also influences terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems across the Northern Hemisphere. This chapter discusses selected aspects of NAO impacts on freshwater ecosystems, which might shed some light or pose new questions on the NAO impacts on the North Atlantic. Fluctuations originating with the NAO affect hydrology as well as phytoplankton and zooplankton biology. Effects include timing of phytoplankton blooms, balance between abundance of diatoms and other phytoplankton species, and population dynamics of Daphnia.
The Impacts of ENSO on Terrestrial Ecosystems: A Comparison With NAO
Authors: Lima Mauricio , Jaksic Fabian M.
Published: September 2007

This chapter aims to cast new light upon the preceding chapters, drawing upon the authors' experience along the western fringe of South America, especially on data gained from Chilean ecosystems. The eastern side of the tropical Pacific — where El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) plays a highly significant role — is linked closely to the NAO impacts in the North Atlantic sector. Specifically, the impacts on plants, invertebrates, amphibians, birds, and mammals are considered.
Jackals
Authors: Macdonald David W. , Loveridge Andrew J. , Atkinson Robert P. D.
Published: September 2007

The side-striped jackal (Canis adustus) is a medium-sized canid found throughout much of East and central Africa, excluding the equatorial zone, and extending as far south as Zimbabwe and northeastern South Africa. Between 1990 and 1997, a study of side-striped jackals in Zimbabwe was carried out to determine intraspecific variation between two populations in contrasting environments, and this comparison sheds light on the epidemiology and control of jackal rabies. This chapter presents the results.
Dholes
Authors: Venkataraman Arun B. , Johnsingh A. J. T.
Published: September 2007

Research on the dhole or Asiatic wild dog (Cuon alpinus), though steadily increasing, has been less intense compared to research on the grey wolf (Canis lupus) and the African hunting dog (Lycaon pictus). Research on the dhole has largely occurred in southern and Central India that comprise only a small portion of its distribution. Research has mainly focused on the ecology and behaviour of the species and has contributed little towards its conservation and management. This chapter discusses the taxonomy and morphology, foraging ecology, prey preference and cooperative hunting, social organization, and breeding biology of dholes.
PHILOSOPHICAL BACKGROUND
Authors: Chatterjee Shoutir Kishore
Published: September 2007

The core of statistics is concerned with the solution of special types of problems of induction following special modes of reasoning. In the inductive process, some at least of the premises are empirical, and there is always an element of uncertainty about the truth of the conclusion. Historically, examination of the basis of inductive and empirical reasoning started in the 17th century with Francis Bacon and John Locke, but later encountered a stumbling block when Hume raised a serious objection about the logic underlying such reasoning. Statistical inference seeks to get round Hume’s objection pragmatically by invoking probability calculus at various stages of the inductive process.
Numerical Methods for Structured Markov Chains
Authors: Bini Dario A. , Latouche Guy , Meini Beatrice
Published: September 2007

The book deals with the numerical solution of structured Markov chains which include M/G/1 and G/M/1-type Markov chains, QBD processes, non-skip-free queues, and tree-like stochastic processes and has a wide applicability in queueing theory and stochastic modeling. It presents in a unified language the most up to date algorithms, which are so far scattered in diverse papers, written with different languages and notation. It contains a thorough treatment of numerical algorithms to solve these problems, from the simplest to the most advanced and most efficient. Nonlinear matrix equations are at the heart of the analysis of structured Markov chains, they are analysed both from the theoretical, from the probabilistic, and from the computational point of view. The set of methods for solution contains functional iterations, doubling methods, logarithmic reduction, cyclic reduction, and subspace iteration, all are described and analysed in detail. They are also adapted to interesting specific queueing models coming from applications. The book also offers a comprehensive and self-contained treatment of the structured matrix tools which are at the basis of the fastest algorithmic techniques for structured Markov chains. Results about Toeplitz matrices, displacement operators, and Wiener-Hopf factorizations are reported to the extent that they are useful for the numerical treatment of Markov chains. Every and all solution methods are reported in detailed algorithmic form so that they can be coded in a high-level language with minimum effort.
LOGARITHMIC REDUCTION AND CYCLIC REDUCTION
Authors: Bini D. A. , Latouche G. , Meini B.
Published: September 2007

This chapter is concerned with quadratically convergent algorithms for solving nonlinear matrix equations encountered in M/G/1, G/M/1, and QBD processes. The algorithm of logarithmic reduction for solving QBDs is described and analysed, and an algebraic proof of its convergence is provided. Then the cyclic reduction technique for QBDs is explained and related to logarithmic reduction. Cyclic reduction is extended to M/G/1 and G/M/1 processes, convergence and applicability results are proved. Computational issues concerning the implementation of cyclic reduction are treated by relying on the tools introduced in Chapters 2 and 3.
MICROSCOPIC THEORY OF FLUCTUATION CONDUCTIVITY
Authors: Larkin Anatoly , Varlamov Andrei
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents a microscopic analysis of the different fluctuation contributions to the conductivity tensor. The physical origin and a qualitative evaluation of Aslamazov-Larkin, Maki-Thompson, and density of states renormalization corrections are discussed. The ‘secrets of the theoretical kitchen’ are demonstrated in detail using the example of an impure layered superconductor both near and far from the critical temperature. The case of an ultra-clean superconductor and the corresponding cancellation of the quantum corrections are discussed. The non-local and non-linear effects in fluctuation conductivity are considered. Special sections are devoted to the comparison of theory with experiment, with a detailed discussion of the phase-breaking time problem.
SPIN SUSCEPTIBILITY AND NMR
Authors: Larkin Anatoly , Varlamov Andrei
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the contributions of superconducting fluctuations to the spin susceptibility and the NMR relaxation rate. It is shown that for both these effects, the interplay of different fluctuation contributions is unusual with respect to the case of the conductivity.
PHASE FLUCTUATIONS IN A 2D SUPERCONDUCTING SYSTEM
Authors: Larkin Anatoly , Varlamov Andrei
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the crucial role of phase fluctuations in two-dimensional (2D) systems. The exponential tail in Josephson current is found close to Tc. The physics of the Berezinskii-Kosterlitz-Thouless transition is discussed. The effect of order parameters and vortex fluctuations of the critical temperature of 2D superconductors are compared. The manifestation of vortex fluctuations above BKT transition is discussed.
THE HUMAN NEUROSCANNING PROJECT
Authors: Modersitzki Jan
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents a typical application for image registration. The particular goal of the Human Neuro-Scanning Project is a three-dimensional reconstruction down to particular neurons of a whole human brain based on microscopic modalities. The workflow that leads to stained histological slides and their digitalization is explained. The process is illustrated by various figures showing the sectioning process, the paraffin embedded brain, a sectioned slide, and the digitalization. It is shown that these processes lead to unwanted highly non-linear distortion of the sections that inhibits a direct reconstruction.
IMPURITY DIAGRAMMATICS AND THE PHYSICS OF DISORDERED METALS
Authors: Khmelnitskii D.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the role of diagrammatic methods of quantum field theory for transport and localization in disordered solids.
GRANULAR MEDIA: THREE SEMINAL IDEAS OF SIR SAM
Authors: Bouchaud J.-P. , Cates M. E.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the statics and dynamics of granular media, emphasizing three linked insights of Sam Edwards. These are: the idea of ‘force propagation’ in models of rigid grains; the thermodynamic analogy for the statistics of jammed states; and the idea that granular assemblies arrest in a state of marginal coordination number, just enough to ensure mechanical stability.
THE CASE FOR EDWARDSIAN RESEARCH IN SOLID MECHANICS: A SERMON
Authors: Langer J. S.
Published: September 2007

Sam Edwards has very successfully brought new insights and methods of theoretical study to many areas of condensed matter physics where clear quantitative formation did not earlier exist. This chapter argues the case for an Edwardsian approach to the theory of solid mechanics and fracture.
Disruptive colouration
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

Disruptive patterning is patterning which makes an entity difficult to detect and/or identify, but which is independent of the specific local environment, and thus distinct from the background matching mechanism discussed in the previous chapter. This chapter discusses the historical and theoretical underpinnings of this idea, and examines the empirical evidence for its existence. Its relationship with backgrounds matching is carefully considered, especially with regards to whether the two work synergistically or antagonistically.
The evolution and maintenance of Müllerian mimicry
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

The individuals of a population using an aposematic signal must pay a mortality cost during the period when predators are educated about the signal. The per-capita cost could be reduced if two or more defended species shared the same signal. This is the basis of Mullerian mimicry. This chapter examines the history, theory, and empirical evidence for this phenomenon, and identifies the outstanding questions and controversies in Mullerian mimicry.
The relationship between Batesian and Müllerian mimicry
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

If two species share the same signal, both are defended but differ in the type or level of their defence. The nature of the mimicry between them is an area of current controversy. Is it inherently parasitic (Batesian) or mutualistic (Mullerian)? This chapter reviews the empirical evidence that this is a real question and the recent theoretical literature addressing the question.
General conclusions
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

This chapter provides a synthesis of the current state of the field of sensory aspects of predator-prey interactions. Suggestions are made for what the key outstanding questions are and how they might be addressed.
Ecological network analysis: an escape from the machine
Authors: Ulanowicz Robert E.
Published: September 2007

Recent advances in the theory of complexity have engendered a shift away from ‘physicalism’, where all nature is reducible to fundamental physical laws towards ‘naturalism’, where natural phenomena are considered within a circumscribed domain of time and space. The study of ecological networks has led the way in this shift, because it can be demonstrated that ecological dynamics are incompatible with the fundamental assumptions that have supported science since Newton. The direction in which causality operates in ecosystems proves more likely to come from the larger configurations of processes (networks) towards their more ephemeral and complicated constituents and their attendant mechanisms. This focus on the macroscopic makes possible a self-consistent description of ecosystem dynamics based solely on the attributes of the network of processes.
PARAMETERIZED COMPLEXITY THEORY—A PRIMER
Authors: Niedermeier Rolf
Published: September 2007

This chapter introduces basic concepts which are necessary for an understanding of this subject, beginning with a close look at parameterized algorithmics. It briefly highlights the central aspects of the theory, defining parameterized problems, fixed-parameter tractability, parameterized reductions, and the parameterized complexity class W[1] representing parameterized hardness. In addition, it also indicates the limitations of the theory, focussing on different sorts of combinatorial explosions.
DATA REDUCTION AND PROBLEM KERNELS
Authors: Niedermeier Rolf
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents one of the most basic and most important techniques for developing fixed-parameter algorithms: data reduction and problem kernelization. It starts with some basic definitions and facts, in particular defining the notion of reduction to a problem kernel (kernelization for short). After having presented some simple examples, the chapter continues with several specific kernelization results, including problem kernels for problems such as Maximum Satisfiability, Cluster Editing, Vertex Cover, 3-Hitting Set, and Dominating Set in Planar Graphs. The chapter concludes with some initial results on lower bounds for problem kernel sizes and a general summary.
FURTHER ADVANCED TECHNIQUES
Authors: Niedermeier Rolf
Published: September 2007

This chapter surveys further important techniques for designing fixed-parameter algorithms. These include color-coding, integer linear programming, iterative compression, greedy localization, and graph minor theory. The practical relevance of each technique is also evaluated. From a practical point of view, the two most important techniques are colour-coding and iterative compression.
PRESHEAF MODELS FOR CONSTRUCTIVE SET THEORIES
Authors: Gambino Nicola
Published: September 2007

This chapter introduces new kinds of models for constructive set theories based on categories of presheaves. It concentrates on categories of classes rather than sets, following the lines of algebraic set theory. It defines a general notion of what is a categorical model for CST, and shows that categories of presheaves provide examples of such models. To do so, it considers presheaves as functors with values in a category of classes. The models introduced are a counterpart of the presheaf models for intuitionistic set theories defined by Dana Scott in the 1980s. In this work, the author has to overcome the challenges intrinsic to dealing with generalized predicative formal systems rather than impredicative ones. An application to an independence result is discussed.
TOWARD A MINIMALIST FOUNDATION FOR CONSTRUCTIVE MATHEMATICS
Authors: Maietti Maria Emilia , Sambin Giovanni
Published: September 2007

The two main views in modern constructive mathematics usually associated with constructive type theory and topos theory are compatible with the classical view, but they are incompatible with each other, in a sense explained by some specific results which are briefly reviewed. This chapter argues in favour of a minimal foundational theory. On the one hand, this has to satisfy the proofs-as-programs paradigm, and thus be suitable for the implementation of mathematics on a computer. On the other hand, it has to be compatible with all the theories in which mathematics has been developed, like Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory, topos theory, and Martin-Löf's type theory. As a first step towards a foundational theory of this kind, the chapter formulates a specific intensional type theory, but it also warns that one should give up the expectation of an all-embracing foundation.
SOME CONSTRUCTIVE ROADS TO TYCHONOFF
Authors: Vickers Steven
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the Tychonoff Theorem with respect to point-free topology from the point of view of both topos-valid and predicative mathematics. A new proof of the infinitary Tychonoff Theorem is given using predicative, choice-free methods for possibly undecidable index set. It yields a complete description of the finite basic covers of the product. In contrast to the formal-topological treatment previously given by Negri and Valentini, who followed Coquand's first paper on this subject, the index set of the product under consideration need not be decidable in this chapter's proof. While a more recent approach by Coquand is based on the assumption that each locale under consideration is presented by a distributive lattice of generators, this chapter does not assume the presence of any such presentation. In passing, it highlights the differences and connections between the point-set and the point-free approaches to topology, and between the major varieties of the latter, locale theory, and formal topology.
General body organization
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A.
Published: September 2007

This chapter deals with a number of topics not related to particular organ systems, but to the general body organization. These include: complexity (is there a constantly growing complexity during animal evolution?), size (can events of evolutionary size change be spotted?), symmetry (what are the basic symmetrical properties and what is their phylogenetic importance?), the anteroposterior axis (what is its significance for bilaterian evolution and did it predate Bilateria?), the dorsoventral axis (was there an inversion of this axis during metazoan evolution?), germ layers (what is the phylogenetic significance of germ layers?), segmentation (how often did segmentation and segmental patterns evolve?), skeletons (are skeletons phylogenetically informative?), locomotory appendages (are appendages comparable among animals?), and parasitism (what are the evolutionary changes in becoming parasitic?).
Body cavities
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A.
Published: September 2007

Within bilaterian animals several taxa have spacious body cavities. The structural basis of such cavities can be divided into primary and secondary body cavities, the latter being the coelom. Body cavities are absent in compact (‘acoelomate’) animals. Primary and secondary body cavities can also fuse to form a mixocoel. More than one type of body cavity can be present in one animal at the same time or during its life cycle. Some phylogenetic hypotheses include the evolution of body cavities as a central part. Nevertheless, it appears that both types of body cavities evolved in parallel in several cases.
Gametes (Spermatozoa)
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A.
Published: September 2007

Although spermatozoa have no organ system, they are the product of organ systems and are of enormous evolutionary importance. Spermatozoa typically possess an acrosome, a nucleus, mitochondria, and a cilium, but these compartments can vary considerably in their shape, arrangement, number, or by being absent. There is a general correlation between external fertilization and the so-called round-headed spermatozoon. In connection with the various modes of modified external and internal fertilization, spermatozoa change their shape to aciliary, filiform, spirally coiled, and others. An evolution from a round-headed to a derived spermatozoon is likely, but some exceptions are possible.
Error propagation and scaling for tropical forest biomass estimates
Authors: Chave Jerome , Chust Guillem , Condit Richard , Aguilar Salomon , Hernandez Andres , Lao Suzanne , Perez Rolando
Published: September 2007

The dry above-ground biomass (AGB) of tropical forests is a crucial variable for ecologists, biogeochemists, foresters, and policy makers. Permanent tree inventories provide an efficient way of assessing this variable. In order to make correct inferences about long-term changes in biomass stocks, it is essential to know the uncertainty associated with AGB estimates, yet this uncertainty is seldom evaluated carefully. Here, four types of uncertainties that could lead to statistical error in AGB estimates are quantified: error due to tree measurement; error due to the choice of allometric model relating AGB to other tree dimensions; sampling uncertainty, related to the size of the study plot; representativeness of a network of small plots across a forest landscape. All four are estimated for a 50-hectare plot on Barro Colorado Island, and for a network of 1-hectare plots scattered across the Panama Canal Watershed, Central Panama. This chapter finds that the most important source of error is currently related to the choice of the allometric model. More work should be devoted to improving the predictive power of allometric models for biomass.
Amazonian ecosystems and atmospheric change since the last glacial maximum
Authors: Mayle Francis E. , Bush Mark B.
Published: September 2007

This chapter reviews previously published palaeovegetation and independent palaeoclimatic datasets to determine the responses of Amazonian ecosystems to changes in temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric CO2 concentrations that occurred since the last glacial maximum (LGM), about 21,000 years ago, and it uses this long-term perspective to predict the likely vegetation responses to future climate change. Amazonia remained predominantly forested at the LGM, although savannas expanded at the margins of the basin. The combination of reduced temperatures, precipitation, and atmospheric CO2 concentrations resulted in forests structurally and floristically quite different from those of today. Evergreen rainforest distribution increased during the glacial-Holocene transition due to ameliorating climatic and CO2 conditions. However, reduced precipitation in the early-mid Holocene (about 8000-3600 years ago) period caused widespread, frequent fires in seasonal southern Amazonia, with increased abundance of drought-tolerant dry forest taxa and savanna in ecotonal areas. Rainforests expanded once again in the late Holocene period as a result of increased precipitation. The plant communities that existed during the early-mid Holocene period may constitute the closest analogues to the kinds of vegetation responses expected from similar increases in temperature and aridity posited for the 21st century.
Chern-Simons Theory, Matrix Models, and Topological Strings
Authors: Mariño Marcos
Published: September 2007

In recent years, the old idea that gauge theories and string theories are equivalent has been implemented and developed in various ways, and there are by now various models where the string theory/gauge theory correspondence is at work. One of the most important examples of this correspondence relates Chern-Simons theory, a topological gauge theory in three dimensions which describes knot and three-manifold invariants, to topological string theory, which is deeply related to Gromov-Witten invariants. This has led to some surprising relations between three-manifold geometry and enumerative geometry. This book gives the first presentation of this and other related topics. After an introduction to matrix models and Chern-Simons theory, the book describes in detail the topological string theories that correspond to these gauge theories and develops the mathematical implications of this duality for the enumerative geometry of Calabi-Yau manifolds and knot theory.
TOPOLOGICAL SIGMA MODELS
Authors: Mariño Marcos
Published: September 2007

String theory can be regarded, at the algebraic level, as a two-dimensional conformal field theory coupled to two-dimensional gravity. When the conformal field theory is also a topological field theory (i.e., a theory whose correlation functions do not depend on the metric on the Riemann surface), the resulting string theory turns out to be very simple and in many cases can be completely solved. A string theory that is constructed in this way is called a topological string theory. The starting point for obtaining a topological string theory is therefore a conformal field theory with topological invariance. Such theories are called topological conformal field theories and can be constructed out of N = 2 superconformal field theories in two dimensions by a procedure called twisting. This chapter considers a class of topological string theories in which the topological field theory is taken to be a topological sigma model with target space a Calabi-Yau manifold. The N = 2 supersymmetric sigma model is reviewed, and the twisting procedure is then introduced. The A-type and B-type topological sigma models resulting from two possible twists in two dimensions are examined in detail.
INTRODUCTION
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter introduces the mathematical theory of the nonlinear heat equation referred to as the porous medium equation (PME). This equation is one of the simplest examples of a nonlinear evolution equation of parabolic type. The peculiar features of the PME and nonlinear diffusion are discussed. An overview of the chapters in this volume is presented.
MAIN APPLICATIONS
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter reviews the main applications of the porous medium equation (PME). Section 2.1 describes the standard model of gas flow through a porous medium (Darcy-Leibenzon-Muskat). Section 2.2 describes the model of nonlinear heat transfer (Zel'dovich-Raizer). Section 2.3 describes Boussinesq's model of groundwater flow, and Section 2.4 presents a model of population dynamics (Gurtin-McCamy).
THE CAUCHY PROBLEM. L1-THEORY
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the Cauchy problem, or pure initial value problem, for the PME and the GPME in d-dimensional space, d = 1. It concentrates the main effort on the PME with zero forcing term. It considers solutions which are integrable with respect to the space variables, so-called solutions with finite mass, and develops the corresponding L  1 theory. It establishes well-posedness for the Cauchy problem in this setting, which is the one most often found in relevant literature and applications.
THE NEUMANN PROBLEM AND PROBLEMS ON MANIFOLDS
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter completes the investigation of previous chapters on the Dirichlet and Cauchy problems by applying the techniques to other important problems. It selects two directions, the Neumann boundary conditions and the problems posed on manifolds. Section 11.1 introduces the problem and concepts of weak solution, proves a uniqueness result, and presents examples. Section 11.2 reviews the theory for the existence and uniqueness of weak solutions and limit solutions. Section 11.3 provides proof of better estimates and boundedness of solutions in the case of the PME. Section 11.4 examines the mixed problems and problems posed in exterior space domains. The second main topic of this chapter is the theory of PME and GPME on Riemannian manifolds, which is in Section 11.5.
THE CAUCHY PROBLEM WITH GROWING INITIAL DATA
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines general conditions on the initial data under which the PME can be solved. The emphasis is on non-negative solutions and the data are locally integrable functions. Signed solutions are also considered. Section 12.1 introduces the problem and the main growth assumptions. Section 12.2 derives the well-known Aronson-Caffarelli estimate for non-negative solutions. Section 12.3 covers existence under optimal growth conditions. Section 12.4 deals with the uniqueness of growing solutions. Section 12.5 deals with further properties of the solutions and Section 12.6 studies the properties of some particular classes of solutions obtained under special assumptions on the data. As a complement to the results of this section, Section 12.7 considers the questions of boundedness of solutions defined locally and their approximation by smooth solutions. Section 12.8 constructs solutions in conical domains, which shows that growth rates as high as desired can be admissible if the aperture of the cone is small enough.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL THEORY. REGULARITY AND INTERFACES
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents an introduction to some of the main topics relating to the PME, focusing on non-negative solutions. Section 15.1 presents a detailed analysis of the regularity of the pressure, for which Lipschitz continuity is proved both in space and time. Section 15.2 introduces new comparison results. Shifting comparison, intersection comparison and lap number count are quite useful in the study of interfaces. The study of interfaces is begun in Section 15.3. The growth of the interface is estimated and the waiting time analysed. Section 15.4 deals with some of the main issues of the theory.
FACTORS GOVERNING PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses factors affecting phase equilibria. Topics covered include liquid-vapour relations, Van der Waals' equation and other equations of state, phase changes, chemical changes, and achievements of molecular and kinetic theory.
EXTENDED ARRAYS OF MOLECULES
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses molecule formations. Topics covered include assemblages formed by atoms, the crystalline state, order-disorder transitions, gradual transitions, types of solid lattice, and properties of solids.
MATTER IN DISPERSION
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses dispersed matter. Topics covered include disperse phases, stabilization of disperse systems, the Gibbs relation, adsorption isotherms, surface films of sparingly soluble substances, and colloid chemistry.
THE STATISTICAL NATURE OF CHEMICAL CHANGES
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses chemical transformations. Topics covered include the route to equilibrium, classical and quantum-mechanical principles, principle of tunnel mechanism, velocity and equilibrium, transition states, activation energy, influence of encounter rates, transformation probabilities, maximum rate of activation, thermodynamic analogies, absolute reaction rates, collision numbers, and interchanges of energy by collision.
ENERGY AND ENTROPY FACTORS IN REACTION VELOCITY
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the role of energy and entropy in chemical reactions. Topics covered include chain reactions, branching chains, catalysis, and the development of chemical kinetics.
Hilbert Modular Forms and Iwasawa Theory
Authors: Hida Haruzo
Published: September 2007

The 1995 work by Wiles and Taylor-Wiles opened up a whole new technique in algebraic number theory and, a decade on, the waves caused by this incredibly important work are still being felt. This book describes a generalization of their techniques to Hilbert modular forms (towards the proof of the celebrated ‘R=T’ theorem) and applications of the theorem that have been found. Applications include a proof of the torsion of the adjoint Selmer group (over a totally real field F and over the Iwasawa tower of F) and an explicit formula of the L-invariant of the arithmetic p-adic adjoint L-functions. This implies the torsion of the classical anticyclotomic Iwasawa module of a CM field over the Iwasawa algebra. When specialized to an elliptic Tate curve over F by the L-invariant formula, the invariant of the adjoint square of the curve has exactly the same expression as the one in the conjecture of Mazur-Tate-Teitelbaum (which is for the standard L-function of the elliptic curve and is now a theorem of Greenberg-Stevens).
AUTOMORPHIC FORMS ON INNER FORMS OFGL(2)
Authors: Hida Haruzo
Published: September 2007

This chapter is an exposition of the ideas and classical (and modern) results of the theory for Hilbert modular forms and quaternionic automorphic forms. It starts with a brief exposition of the theory of quaternion algebras. After a short description of functorial algebraic geometry of Grothendieck, quaternionic automorphic forms (including Hilbert modular forms) are introduced in adelic terminology. An elementary description of the theta correspondence and the Jacquet-Langlands correspondence between quaternionic automorphic forms and Hilbert modular forms follows. Finally, the integral solution of the basis problem (of Eichler) is presented.
7 Corporate Governance Convergence in International Perspective
Authors: Martin Roderick , Casson Peter D. , Nisar Tahir M.
Published: September 2007

International convergence has been identified as a recent trend in corporate governance. However, current trends in German corporate governance point to an enhanced stakeholder form of corporate governance, rather than to shareholder value. The continuing strength of employee representation on supervisory boards and other factors colour the interpretation of shareholder value, even in companies regarded as shareholder-oriented. The case of The Bayer Group — one of the exemplars of shareholder value in Germany — illustrates both this continuity and change. The chapter concludes by arguing that the adoption of shareholder value depends upon institutional complementarity between specific corporate governance arrangements and the wider business system of which they are a part.
Introduction
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: September 2007

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the changes in the understanding of crime and criminals, and of state responses to them in terms of policing, penal policy, and forms of punishment from 1750 to 1940. It discusses also some of the key theoretical perspectives (the Whig interpretation, and the work of Elias, Foucault and Marx) that historians have deployed in their analyses of these changes and responses.
The Understanding and Nature of Crime
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: September 2007

Men of the Enlightenment used commonsense definitions of crime and criminality in their encyclopaedias, but at the same time, beggars and vagrants — those who, it was believed, were essentially idle and refused to work — were singled out as offenders. After highlighting these perceptions, the chapter moves on to explore the different kinds of bandit, criminal gang, and individual offender to be found in 18th-century Europe. It stresses the importance of environment to offending, and that while there was particular concern about forms of violent crime, most offending appears to have involved petty theft.
Penal Policies and the Impact of War
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: September 2007

Before the outbreak of the First World War across Europe, there were some general moves towards liberalization in the courts and the alleviation of punishment, most notably with regard to juveniles. The war had a noticeable impact on the statistics of crime: overall it declined, though proportionately, the number of female and juvenile offenders increased. At the end of the war, there were concerns about brutalized veterans and men with war psychoses returning to commit crimes. There appears to have been a significant increase in offending in the defeated states after the war, and Weimar Germany in particular witnessed an obsession with violence, murder and sex crimes during the post-war period. In general, however, by the mid-1920s crime levels had returned to roughly the pre-war pattern and the usual suspects — vagrants and the work-shy — continued to be stigmatized.
Logarithmic diffusion in 2D and intermediate 1D range
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter studies two transition situations where non-uniqueness plays an important role. The first deals with the range -1 < m ≤ 0 in n = 1, which looks like supercritical but contains the non-uniqueness phenomenon for the Cauchy problem. The second is the study of logarithmic diffusion in the plane, i.e., the case m = 0 for n = 2 which has many appealing features for the analyst and the geometer.
Evolution equations of thep-Laplacian type
Authors: Vázquez Juan Luis
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents the application of the foregoing ideas to the p-Laplacian evolution equation and the doubly nonlinear evolution equation. Topics covered include the doubly linear diffusion equation, symmetrization and mass comparison, source-type solutions, doubly nonlinear diffusion equation, and smoothing estimates, best constants, and decay rates for PLE and DNLE.