bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Primitive and Advanced Water Harvesting Technology
Authors: Oweis Theib , Hachum Ahmed
Published: July 2005

Rainwater harvesting is the process of concentrating precipitation through runoff and storing it for beneficial use. It differs from traditional soil‐water conservation where runoff is prevented. Water harvesting is mostly applicable for agriculture in regions where direct precipitation cannot support economical rainfed production. It is also used to collect rainwater for domestic, livestock, and environmental uses. It involves inducing runoff, collecting or directing it to the inrended use. In arid environments, where ecosystems are fragile and no other water resources exist, rainwater harvesting can make farming possible and economical, can improve water productivity, and can combat desertification. A wealth of indigenous knowledge exists about this ancient practice. Water‐harvesting methods are classified based on the type of use or storage, but mostly on the size of the catchment generating the runoff. Microcatchment systems are on farms where macrocatchment systems extend beyond farmers control.
Water—Here, There, and Everywhere in
C
anada
Authors:   Environment Canada
Published: July 2005

How much water is there in the world? Scientists estimate over one billion cubic kilometers (one cubic kilometer of water would fill 300 Olympic‐sized swimming pools). Water covers nearly three quarters of the earth's surface in oceans as well as rivers, lakes, snow and glaciers. There is water in the atmosphere and water underground. Water evaporates and returns to the land surface in what is known as the
hydrologic cycle
.

In the hydrologic cycle, water evaporates from the ocean into the atmosphere, from there it can precipitate back into the ocean, or onto the land surface. From the land, it can evaporate or transpire back into the atmosphere, or flow overland or percolate underground before flowing back into the ocean. The distribution of the water around the globe varies from season to season and year to year, but the total quantity of water on the earth's surface remains essentially constant.
Water Conservation—Every Drop Counts in
C
anada
Authors:   Environment Canada
Published: July 2005

The quantity, quality and economic problems we face as a result of our use of water are complex but, at least
one
of the causes of these problems is easy to manage—the way we waste water. And, the solution is straight forward—
water conservation
. Simply stated, water conservation means doing the same with less, by using water more efficiently or reducing where appropriate, in order to protect the resource now, and for the future. Using water wisely will reduce pollution and health risks, lower water costs, and extend the useful life of existing supply and waste treatment facilities.
River Basin Decisions Support Systems
Authors: Howard Charles D. D.
Published: July 2005

The interacting components of water resource systems incorporate physical, biological, chemical, and institutional constraints and objectives (Fig.). Water projects are difficult to manage efficiently within potentially conflicting objectives and constraints on water quality, river flows, and lake levels. There are many types of decisions, and these must be made on a timely and reliable basis. Decisions vary from timescales of minutes for assigning loads to hydroelectric generating units to weeks and months for managing water quality, reservoir levels, and pumping from groundwater. On shorter timescales, decisions are based on deterministic analyses. On longer timescales, decisions are dominated by consideration of probabilities.

Planning can benefit from decision support systems developed for actual operations. Sound plans require realistic analysis that these systems provide for changes in operating parameters, capacity expansion, and the benefits and costs of potential new environmental objectives.
Water Resources Systems Analysis
Authors: Simonovic Slobodan P.
Published: July 2005

Water resources planning and management process is a search for the solution of how to meet the needs of a population with the available resources (1). Water resources planning and management is as old as humanity. However, with knowledge and technology development, a change in the living standard of people, and further economic development, the analysis procedure changes.

An example of the principal water resources planning and management objectives for industrialized countries is based on the
Principles and Standards for Planning Water and Related Land Resources
used in the United States and introduced by the U.S. Water Resources Council in 1973 and modified in 1979 and 1980 (2). According to them the overall purpose of water resources planning and management is improvement of the quality of life through contributions to national economic development, environmental quality, regional economic development, and other social effects.
Globalization of Water
Authors: Hoekstra A. Y.
Published: July 2005

People in Japan can affect the hydrological system in the United States. People in Europe can affect regional water systems in Thailand or Brazil. There are basically two mechanisms that make global connections between seemingly local water systems. First, the climate system connects different places on earth, because evaporation in one place results in precipitation in another place. The climate system is inherently global: local emissions of greenhouse gases contribute to a changing global climate, thus affecting temperature, evaporation, and precipitation patterns elsewhere. In this way, human activities in the economic centers of the world affect base and peak flows in rivers throughout the world. There is, however, a second mechanism through which people can affect water systems in other parts of the world. A European consumer of Thai rice raises rice demand in Thailand and subsequently the use of water for rice irrigation in Thailand. Globally, roughly one‐fifth of the water used in agriculture is applied in areas used for producing export commodities. This fraction is increasing in line with the increase of global trade. Scientists have known for several decades that human activities within a river basin strongly impact on the water flows and water quality in such a river basin. It is more recent that scientists have started to realize that local water problems are often, in their roots, problems that cannot be solved locally or regionally, because the driving forces lay outside the region. The gradual disappearance of the Aral Lake in Uzbekistan–Kazakhstan, for instance, is directly linked to the global demand for cotton.
Macrophytes as Biomonitors of Polychlorinated Biphenyls
Authors: Miglioranza Karina S.B. , Menone Mirta L. , Aizpún De Moreno Julia E. , Moreno Víctor J.
Published: July 2005

Biomonitoring is the use of organismsin situto identify and quantify toxicants in an environment. This technique takes advantage of the ability of organisms to accumulate contaminants in their tissues through bioaccumulation and bioconcentration. In general, three historical stages exist in the biomonitoring with plants, based on the use of different parameters: (a) various physiological, morphological, and community parameters; (b) environmental concentrations of pollutants in plant tissues; and (c) early warning systems or biomarkers (histological, biochemical, or genetic).

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are one of the more ubiquitous and toxic organic pollutants. PCBs are very hydrophobic contaminants and preferentially adsorb onto sediment particles. Depending on their morphology, aquatic macrophytes grow at the interface of distinct environments, such as water, sediment, and air. Despite not many studies being conducted using aquatic macrophytes for biomonitoring PCBs in freshwater ecosystem—as evidenced by a lack of literature reports—research under field conditions have demonstrated that rooted macrophytes play a crucial role in the removal of PCBs from the environment, not only accumulating but transforming them. For this reason, phytoremediation has been proposed as an alternative or complementary technique to treat sediment polluted by PCBs, but still needs much basic research.
Introduction to Wastewater Modeling and Treatment Plant Design
Authors: Russell David L.
Published: July 2005

There are many ways of approaching the design of a wastewater treatment plant. Of the many methods, the field of practice generally uses three or four: design codes, rules of thumb, simple Monod calculations; and rigorous mathematical modeling. Most states still subscribe to variants of the first two methods because they work and are written in code documents. Depending on the backgrounds of designers, they may or may not have been exposed to the Monod equation and/or mathematically rigorous approaches to development of a static or dynamic model.

We confine this article to discussing readily available activated sludge and related models. Anaerobic digestion or film type of biological treatment systems is not discussed because the modeling effort for film modeling is not well enough defined to permit accurate modeling, and anaerobic modeling is still relatively new and has not become widely available. Another reason is that many of the models would require a full book to summarize adequately, and their use and calibration are often the subject of Ph.D. theses.
Basics of Underground Water and Sewer Pipeline Assessment, Repair, and Rehabilitation
Authors: Gokhale Sanjiv
Published: July 2005

Traditionally, municipalities have constantly been a “step behind” in managing the municipal, and this is especially true of sewer systems. Municipalities have addressed the design, construction, maintenance, and rehabilitation of sewer systems by a “crisis‐based” approach. Sewers are not built and/or rehabilitated until a major failure (i.e., overflow, collapse) occurs. This reactive management practice has led to inefficient use of funds and causes more frequent sewer failures, which end in difficult and costly repairs. For municipalities to be a “step ahead” in managing sewer systems, they need to have a better understanding of the existing condition of the network, which in turn will help them plan and manage maintenance to prevent major failures.
Trenchless Repair and Rehabilitation Techniques
Authors: Gokhale Sanjiv
Published: July 2005

Trenchless technology (TT) consists of a wide range of methods, materials, and equipment for installing new or rehabilitating existing underground pipelines and utility systems with minimal excavation of the ground. According to the North America Society of Trenchless Technology (NASTT), trenchless construction is “a family of methods, materials, and equipment capable of being used for the installation of new or replacement or rehabilitation of existing underground infrastructure with minimal disruption to surface traffic, business, and other activities.”

The development and use of trenchless techniques has expanded rapidly over the past 10 years. The reason for this exceptional growth is the desire to install or rehabilitate underground pipeline systems with minimum impact on society and the environment. The benefits of trenchless technology are quite apparent compared to the conventional open‐cut process. However, it is necessary to evaluate the suitability and appropriateness of any rehabilitation system, trenchless or otherwise, on a project‐by‐project basis with due consideration of all project criteria, such as size and material of pipe, level of deterioration, hydraulic capacity, etc.
The Role of Organoclay in Water Cleanup
Authors: Alther George R.
Published: July 2005

Organophilic clays, also called organoclays, have been used in the wastewater industry since 1985. Their main purpose is as a prepolisher to activated carbon. Their utility arises from the fact that their chemistry permits partitioning into organic hydrocarbon compounds of low solubility, particularly oil and grease. Those types of compounds cause activated carbon to become blinded quickly because their molecular size is equal or larger than the pores of activated carbon. Prepolishing water for activated carbon makes the carbon last seven times longer than when used in a stand‐alone mode and can save the end users 50% or more of their operating costs.

This article describes organoclays in detail and provides some case histories.
Effluent Limitations and the
NPDES
Permit
Authors: Donald Duke L.
Published: July 2005

The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) is the mechanism developed in the CWA to specify numeric limitations for effluent from both industrial facilities and POTWs. In the 1972 CWA, Congress authorized the newly‐organized Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop, promulgate, and enforce NPDES requirements.

Uniform numeric limitations for industry are specified in two forms. The first is by substance: EPA is directed to develop a list of allowable limitations for both “conventional pollutants,” which were widely recognized as of 1972, and “priority pollutants,” consisting largely of toxic substances about which information was and is still emerging. The second is by industrial category: numeric limitations are listed for each of a range of industry groups (categories) selected by EPA according to facility types likely to have similar wastewater characteristics and problems, and similarity of the treatment technologies likely to be successful in removing pollutants from wastewater typical of that industry's characteristics. These categorical standards within a given industry recognize two types of discharges: direct discharges into waters of the United States and indirect discharges into municipal wastewater systems, known as “pretreatment” standards, because after onsite treatment, the discharges are intermingled and treated again by the receiving POTW. For some substances in some industry categories, the specified numeric limitations are somewhat different for direct and for indirect discharges.
Inadequate Treatment of Wastewater: A Source of Coliform Bacteria in Receiving Surface Water Bodies in Developing Countries—Case Study: Eastern Cape Province of South Africa
Authors: Momba M. N. B. , Mfenyana C.
Published: July 2005

In developing countries, most people do not have access to adequate water supply services, and the receiving water bodies are used for various purposes. Treated sewage effluent should therefore comply with a standard of nil fecal coliforms/100 ml before its discharge into the receiving surface water body, and this standard can only be achieved by disinfection. The present study aimed at evaluating the efficiency of four wastewater treatment plants for the removal of coliforms in order to establish the relationship between the microbiological quality of the final effluent and that of the receiving water body, which may influence infections and diseases in the community of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The disinfection practice in terms of chlorine residual concentrations was found not to be sufficient for the removal of coliforms from the effluent. The Dimbaza plant removed coliform organisms at 85.71%. In Alice, Fort Beaufort, and East London wastewater treatment plants, 62.5%, 60%, and 43% of the organisms found in treated final effluents were also prevalent in receiving water bodies, respectively. The results suggest that the microbiological quality of the effluents examined pose a serious health risk to the communities because various potentially pathogenic organisms were identified.
Microbial Foaming in the Activated Sludge Process
Authors: Gerardi Michael H.
Published: July 2005

Microbial foaming in the activated sludge process reviews the major operational conditions responsible for microbial (bacterial) foam production and accumulation. Major causes of foam production presented include foam‐producing filamentous organisms, nutrient deficiency, sludge aging, and zoogloeal growth or viscous floc formation. Foam is described by color and texture. Foam‐producing filamentous organisms described include
Microthrix parvicella
, nocardioforms, and type 1863. Operational conditions that promote the rapid and undesired growth of these filamentous organisms are listed as well as treatment measures that are available for the control of these filamentous organisms. Corrective measures for a nutrient deficiency and zoogloeal growth also are provided.
Denitrification in The Activated Sludge Process
Authors: Gerardi Michael H.
Published: July 2005

Denitrification in the activated sludge process is the use of nitrate ions (NO
3
−
) by facultative anaerobic (denitrifying) bacteria to degrade soluble carbonaceous BOD (cBOD). Although denitrification most often is observed in the secondary clarifier, denitrification occurs whenever an anoxic condition exists. Denitrification in the secondary clarifier often is referred to as “clumping,” “rising sludge,” and “dark sludge rising.” Clumping is highly undesired, because it results in poor compaction of solids, loss of solids, increased operational costs, and possible permit violations.
Wastewater Management for Developing Countries
Authors: Tsagarakis Konstantinos P.
Published: July 2005

Conditions applicable when planning wastewater treatment facilities for developing countries are not identical to those prevalent during planning in developed countries in the past. Today, technology is available for the treatment of wastewaters of any origin and strength. However, research is needed to be applied to specific country‐region conditions. The number and location of the wastewater treatment facilities in an area is a crucial factor to be determined. A combination of onsite and centralized treatment cannot be overruled. No ideal solution exists applicable to all conditions, and each sanitation project should be considered individually. Local experts should always be involved when planning new wastewater treatment projects. Historical data on the flow rate is necessary for design purposes. Daily, seasonal, and annual variations should be acquired, instead of adopting such values from text books. Low levels for effluent requirements and standards are frequently introduced in developing countries (DC), but these levels are in reality rarely met. The above‐mentioned key points are among those discussed in this entry.
Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse
Authors: Ahmad Rasheed
Published: July 2005

Because of growing population and increasing urbanization, many communities throughout the world are approaching or reaching the limits of their available water supplies. Wastewater reclamation and reuse has become an attractive option for conserving and extending available water supplies. Wastewater reclamation and reuse may also present communities an opportunity for pollution abatement when it replaces effluent discharge to sensitive surface waters.

The terminology currently used in wastewater reuse engineering is derived from sanitary and environmental engineering practice. The water potentially available for reuse includes municipal and industrial wastewater, agricultural return flows, and storm water. Of these, return flows from agriculture irrigation and storm water are usually collected and reused without further treatment.
Wastewater reclamation
involves treating or processing wastewater to make it reusable, and
wastewater reuse
or
water reuse
is the beneficial use of the treated water. Reclamation and reuse of water frequently require water conveyance facilities for delivering the reclaimed water and may require intermittent storage of the reclaimed water prior to reuse. In contrast to reuse,
wastewater recycling
or
water recycling
normally involves only one use or user, and the effluent from the user is captured and redirected back into that use scheme. In this context, the term
wastewater recycling
is applied predominantly to industrial applications such as in the steam—electric, manufacturing, and mineral industries.
Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse Treatment Technology
Authors: Ahmad Rasheed
Published: July 2005

The effective treatment of wastewater to meet water quality objectives for water reuse applications and to protect public health is a critical element of water reuse systems. Municipal wastewater treatment consists of a combination of physical, chemical, and biological processes and operations to remove solids, organic matter, pathogens, metals, and sometimes nutrients from wastewater. General terms used to describe different degrees of treatment, in order of increasing treatment level, are preliminary, primary, secondary, tertiary, and advanced treatment. A disinfection step for control of pathogenic organisms is often the final treatment step prior to distribution or storage of reclaimed wastewater. Wastewater reclamation, recycling, and reuse treatment systems are derived from applying technologies used for conventional wastewater treatment and drinking water treatment. The goal in designing a wastewater reclamation and reuse system is to develop an integrated cost‐effective treatment scheme that can reliably meet water quality objectives.
Wastewater Treatment Processes and Water Reuse
Authors: McLeary Kevin S.
Published: July 2005

The selection of wastewater treatment processes depends on the influent characteristics, the quality of effluent required, and the cost. Treatment can be divided into these stages: preliminary, primary, secondary, and advanced treatment.

The objective of preliminary treatment is to prepare wastewater for further treatment by removing large objects and grit from the wastewater. These materials may otherwise impede the efficiency or increase the maintenance of downstream processes. Typical preliminary treatment may include screening, grit removal, comminution, and flow equalization.
Water and Wastewater Properties and Characteristics
Authors: Kazmi Absar A.
Published: July 2005

Water in nature is most nearly pure in its evaporative state. Because the very act of condensation usually requires a surface, or nuclei, water may acquire impurities at the very moment of condensation. Additional impurities are added as the liquid travels through the remainder of the hydrologic cycle and comes into contact with materials in the air and on or beneath the surface of the earth. Human activities contribute further impurities in the form of industrial and domestic wastes, agricultural chemicals, and other less obvious contaminants. Ultimately, these impure waters complete the hydrologic cycle and return to the atmosphere as relatively pure water molecules. However, the water quality in the intermediate stage is of greatest concern because the quality at this stage affects human use of water.

The impurities accumulated by water throughout the hydrologic cycle and from human activities may be in both suspended and dissolved form. Suspended material consists of particles larger than molecular size that are supported by buoyant and viscous forces within the water. Dissolved material consists of molecules and ions that are held by the molecular structure of water. Colloids are very small particles that technically are suspended but often exhibit many of the characteristics of dissolved substances.

Water pollution is the presence of impurities in water in such quantity and of such nature as to impair the use of the water for a stated purpose. Many parameters and characteristics have evolved that qualitatively reflect the impact that various impurities have on selected water uses. Knowledge of properties/characteristics/parameters of water and wastewater treatment processes is essential for environmental scientists and engineers.
Aeration
Authors: Hertle Arnim R. H.
Published: July 2005

The aeration of wastewater and byproducts is a key process in the operation of most modern wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), which is reflected in the energy consumption of a WWTP's aeration system, which can be up to 70% of the WWTP's total energy consumption.

As most wastewater treatment plants and many sludge treatment plants include aerobic biological processes, the transfer of oxygen into the wastewater (or sludge) is a key operation.

As a result of the large quantities of CO
2
produced in the course of the aerobic degradation of organic matter, the pH in such a reactor can be significantly lower than that of its feed. These CO
2
‐related effects can be amplified when nitrification occurs or when the liquor's alkalinity is low. This drop in pH can lead to decreased performance of the plant as well as to impacts such as concrete and metal corrosion if not managed properly. The second key function of an aeration system is therefore to remove CO
2
from the reactor (1).
Getting Our Clean Water Act Together
Authors: Wolz Dan
Published: July 2005

Sometimes, having ideas or understanding ideas takes a long time. Maybe it is like fine wine. This idea was born in the current business climate of mission statements, defining the product, public perception, reality and principles and practices of Total Quality Management (TQM—which has reached the stage of maturity where an individual can now be a Certified Master TQMer). The idea: our industry's main product is clean water. No duh! (Not a TQM phrase.) This may not be a great revelation to anyone except maybe me. So what is my point? It is simply a question, “Why do we call them wastewater plants when the main product is clean water?” This could be rephrased to say “What cookie factory calls itself the flour, lard, baking soda, raisin, cinnamon, chocolate chip factory?” This is the topic of this article.
Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment of Wastewater
Authors: Chagnon Frédéric J. F. , Harleman Donald R. F.
Published: July 2005

Chemically enhanced primary treatment (CEPT) is a wastewater treatment process in which small doses of chemical compounds are added to wastewater in order to increase the operating efficiency of sedimentation basins. The chemicals cause the suspended particles to clump together via the processes of coagulation and flocculation. The particle aggregates, or flocs, settle faster and thus enhance the treatment efficiency, which is measured as the removal of solids, organic matter, and nutrients from the wastewater. The chemicals utilized in CEPT are the same ones commonly added in potable water treatment (e.g., metal salts and/or organic polymers).
Domestic Sewage
Authors: McLeary Kevin S.
Published: July 2005

Fresh sewage typically has a light brown color. As it ages, oxygen is depleted, and anaerobic microorganisms begin to use other electron acceptors, including sulfates, nitrates, iron, and manganese. As sulfates are reduced, hydrogen sulfide is produced, which can combine with metals in the sewage. The color gradually changes from light brown to gray and eventually to black as a result of the metal sulfides.

The odor of fresh sewage is usually not objectionable, but as it ages, anaerobic microorganisms produce odors that are much more offensive than the odor of fresh sewage.

Total solids are made up of soluble solids and suspended solids and are determined by evaporating a known volume of sewage at a temperature of 103–105°C and weighing the residue.

The temperature of sewage is generally warmer than that of the water supply because of heat added by homes, businesses, and industrial activities. Sewage temperatures vary with the seasons and geography.

The organic strength of sewage is measured by a test called biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The test does not directly measure the concentration of the organics, but rather measures the amount of oxygen that is used as the organic compounds are degraded by microorganisms.
Flotation as a Separation Process
Authors: Matis Kostas A.
Published: July 2005

The importance of the flotation process to the economy of the whole industrial world is considered enormous. Without this process, many familiar metals and inorganic raw materials would be exceedingly scarce and costly because the high‐grade ores that could be processed by simple physical and mechanical methods have long since been used up (1). Flotation initially originated from the field of mineral processing, usually termed froth flotation. For many years, various particulate solids besides minerals have been extracted from water by using this effective gravity separation method that is based on the idea of applying rising gas bubbles as the transport medium; the attachment of bubbles to particles transfers the solids from the body of water to the surface. As opposed to settling, flotation is a solid–liquid separation technique that is applied to particles whose density is lower or has been made lower than the liquid they are in. These flotation applications include mainly the treatment of water and wastewater.
Practical Applications of Wastewater Modeling and Treatment Plant Design
Authors: Russell David L.
Published: July 2005

Your objective is to make a model that represents a form of reality. That reality may represent either the dynamic behavior of a new facility or the dynamic behavior of an existing facility. The purposes are predictive and or historical. In the first case, you may want to find out how the facility will work and whether a specific design is adequate. In the second case, you may be looking to duplicate the performance of a real plant by preparing a model and matching the data from the model to the data from the real plant. In this latter instance, you can then use the data to predict future performance or investigate plant modifications.
Anthrax Hoaxes: Case Studies and Discussion
Authors:   Monterey WMD‐Terrorism Database Staff
Published: July 2005

This article reviews four well‐described cases involving the threat of
Bacillus anthracis
use, as documented in the Monterey Institute's Weapons of Mass Destruction Database. These cases in chronological order are: the counter Holocaust Lobbyists of Hillel (1997); Brothers for the Freedom of Americans (1998); unknown perpetrator (1999); and Secret Operating Base (2001).
Army ofGod
Authors: Blanchard Dallas A.
Published: July 2005

This article reviews the history of the use of the term “Army of God,” evaluates the relationships among the uses, and concludes that the use of the term for an organized underground body of violent anti‐abortionists is a convenient and useful fiction—convenient and useful to both anti‐abortion activists and pro‐choice organizations
D
epartment of
S
tate
Authors: Harbaugh Erin
Published: July 2005

The Department of State (DOS) is the principal U.S. Foreign affairs agency dedicated to American interests and objectives abroad. The DOS maintains 250 posts worldwide to support diplomatic relations with some 180 countries and a variety of international organizations. The Civil Service works in tandem with the Foreign Service, serving stateside assignments to provide logistical support to posts, negotiations, formulates and analyzes reports, issues travel warnings, offers assistance to citizens traveling abroad, and communicates with Congress. The DOS addresses a range of biological weapons issues through a variety of bureaus and offices. It is primarily concerned with areas on nonproliferation and arms control, counter‐terrorism and peaceful use of science and technology.
Dugway Proving Ground
Authors: Glass Michael
Published: July 2005

Dugway Proving Ground is the Department of Defense's (DoD) primary chemical and biological defense testing center. In addition to performing chemical and biological defensive testing, Dugway scientists conduct environmental characterization and remediation technology testing, battlefield smokes and obscurants and munitions testing, and reliability and survivability testing of all types of military equipment in a chemical or biological environment. Recently, the facility has taken on a larger role in homeland defense. Past, present, and future activities at Dugway Proving Ground are discussed.
Education for Biodefense
Authors: Wehling Fred
Published: July 2005

Significant efforts have been made since 2001 to provide education on the potential threats from, and the range of, possible responses to bioterrorism. These efforts have been directed toward both professionals and the general public. While the development of educational programs in bioterrorism defense is still in its early stages, such programs have great potential for reducing the impact of biological attacks, increasing the effectiveness of first response and consequence management, and encouraging students and professionals to pursue careers in homeland security and biological arms control and disarmament.
Food and Waterborne Pathogens
Authors: Dembek Zygmunt F. , Noah Donald L.
Published: July 2005

Food and waterborne pathogens are listed categorically by the Centers or Disease Control and Prevention as Category B agents, of second highest priority in terms of public health and national security. These agents generally represent what is considered the “high probability, low impact” threat, as opposed to such “low probability, high impact” threats as the smallpox virus or Ebola virus. Their acquisition, production, and delivery are relatively straightforward, but their effects are primarily limited to incapacitation. Regardless, a natural or deliberate outbreak could still be severe in terms of economic and social impact. The major food and waterborne pathogens are reviewed.

Food and waterborne diseases are significant causes of illness. Purposeful introduction of the pathogens that cause illness into food or water could be used as a weapon of bioterrorism. Many of these agents are considered Category B diseases by CDC, in that they are moderately easy to disseminate, result in moderate morbidity and low mortality rates, and require specific enhancements of CDC's diagnostic capacity and enhanced disease surveillance. The study of the occurrence and epidemiology of these pathogens can help to determine their potential for purposeful use, and hence to prepare the biodefense of our food and water supplies.
DoDPolicies on Force Health Protection: Medical Defense Against Biological Warfare Agents
Authors: Lebeda Frank J.
Published: July 2005

Force health protection (FHP) defines the medical defense approaches to maintain the health of the men and women who serve in the U.S. Armed Forces, to minimize or eliminate casualties, and to provide superior casualty care. Medical defense against biological warfare (BW) agents, whether encountered on a battlefield or as a result of bioterrorism, forms an important part of this strategy. Today, FHP related to biodefense primarily involves developing effective countermeasures against BW agents, performing appropriate surveillance, performing occupational and environmental health risk assessments, and providing medical training. These and other aspects of FHP are discussed.
F
ort
D
etrick and
USAMRIID
Authors: Covert Norman M.
Published: July 2005

Fort Detrick is a U.S. Army military reservation within the city limits of Frederick, Maryland. It serves several branches of the military. It is the premier biomedical research and development reservation of the Department of Defense. The primary military research facility on the installation is the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Disease (USAMRIID). Camp Detrick's research involves many fields of science. Scientific articles based on the research have been published and remain definitive scientific discussions on diseases of significance. Some classified material has been released in the interest of advancing science. Other articles have been downgraded making them available to the public. Fort Detrick came into the spotlight after the September 11, 2001 when letters containing Anthrax were discovered.
A
rmed
I
slamic
G
roup: A Case Study
Authors:   Monterey WMD‐Terrorism Database Staff
Published: July 2005

The Armed Islamic Group (GIA) is an Algerian Islamic fundamentalist group with anti‐government, anti‐intellectual, anti‐secular, and anti‐West policies. The precise numbers of members is unknown, probably fewer than 100. The GIA began its violent activity in 1992. Since 1992 the group has conducted a terrorist campaign of massacres. It routinely carries out assassinations and bombings. It also high‐jacked an Air France flight to Algiers on 1994. Two members were sentenced to life in prison for bombings in France.
HAMAS
Authors: Bhattacharjee Anjali
Published: July 2005

HAMAS emerged shortly after the 1987 outbreak of the first Palestinianintifada(uprising). It is one of the leading resistance groups in the disputed territories of Gaza and The West Bank. HAMAS serves as a strong internal opposition to the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), which has now become the more bureaucratized Palestinian Authority (PA). HAMAS has rejected the secular nationalist and socialist ideology propagated by the PA and in its place has promoted a radical Islamic doctrine to bring about social and political change. In addition to its agenda to liberate Palestine from Israeli occupation, it has sought to mobilize popular support and set up medical, educational, and charitable facilities in Gaza and the West Bank. HAMAS's membership is in the tens of thousands with many sympathizers in other parts of the world. It remains unclear as to whether the group would acquire biological weapons (BW). At present, it would appear that the use of BWs would not serve HAMAS's interest.
L
arry
W
ayne
H
arris
Authors: Harrison Lauren
Published: July 2005

Larry Wayne Harris, a trained microbiological technician from Lancaster, Ohio has been implicated in two cases of possession of biological materials that are of particular concern in weapons. In 1995, he was charged with misrepresenting himself while ordering three vials of the causative agent of plague. He was also arrested on suspected possession of the causative agent of anthrax. This substance was later found to be a harmless veterinary strain. He is thought to be a lone actor and not maintaining ties with any terrorist groups or states. He did have, at one time, ties with Aryan Nations and other neo‐Nazi groups. He renounced his racist views in mid‐1990s.
H
uman
I
mmunodeficiency
V
irus
Authors:   Monterey WMD‐Terrorism Database Staff
Published: July 2005

When human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), first appeared in the 1980s, The Soviet Union alleged that the virus had been created at Fort Detrick, Maryland as part of the United States' biological weaponry. Epidemiologists were quick to demonstrate that this argument could not be supported scientifically. However, the threat of HIV as an apparent weapon has reemerged. HIV possesses a number of characteristics that make it poorly suited as a biological warfare weapon. Widespread contamination is hard to achieve, but a single individual could be infected with a simple needle prick. Precedents do not exist for illicit use, however, this threat may warrant a greater degree of concern.

This article reviews four cases of deliberate contamination with HIV and one threatened use in order to gain insight into the possible use as a terror weapon.
Influenza
Authors: Pouliot Yannick
Published: July 2005

Influenza (“flu”) is a highly infective respiratory virus. Because of the severity of its symptoms, it is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Flu epidemics occur yearly, and sporadic pandemics can be highly destructive, as was the case for the 1918 flu epidemic, the most devastating infective event in history. Influenza also causes substantial economic losses due to its ability to infect economically important animal species. Notwithstanding its lack of weaponization or consideration by terrorist organizations, the likelihood of synthetic strains of influenza created for nefarious purposes is increasing, as voluminous influenza sequence data are now widely available. Combined with novel genetic techniques which obviate the need to obtain viral isolates, these developments facilitate the creation of artificial influenza strains with substantial destructive potential.
Intelligence Collection and Analysis
Authors: Marrin Stephen
Published: July 2005

The Director of Central Intelligence's (DCI's) Counterterrorist Center (CTC), located at Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Headquarters in Langley, Virginia, provides a focal point for the U.S. foreign intelligence community's efforts to prevent, deter, disrupt, and destroy the bioterrorist threat. The CTC contributes to bioterrorism defense by coordinating the U.S. intelligence community's efforts to collect and analyze intelligence on terrorist groups and state sponsors of terrorism. The CTC contributes to bioterrorism defense by providing decision makers involved in bioterrorism defense policymaking and implementation with information that enables them to use their military, economic, and political power with greater effectiveness and precision.
Islamism
Authors: Bale Jeffrey M.
Published: July 2005

Islam is a radically anti‐Western political current of contemporary thought with both revolutionary and restorationist characteristics. This article gives details on the background of Islamism and its ideological characteristics. Islamic terrorists groups have displayed few qualms about carrying out mass casualty attacks and have already engaged in obtaining weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Since they believe that they are doing God's bidding, virtually any action that they decide to undertake can be considered justified. However, there is not necessarily any direct correlation between religious extremism and any particular group's decision to employ WMDs. Extreme religious beliefs, however, could cause the group's rationalization to use WMDs. A recent series of toxic terror arrests in Europe could suggest that this is a possibility.
K
orea,
D
emocratic
P
eople's
R
epublic of
Authors: Pinkston Daniel A.
Published: July 2005

North Korea acceded to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention in 1987, but the country is suspected of having an active biological weapons program. According to South Korea's Ministry of National Defense, former North Korean leader Kim ll Sung issued a directive that poisonous gas and bacteria could be used in war. One source reported that Kim ordered the development of biological weapons in the early 1960s.

Little is known about the current status of the North Korean biological weapons program. It does have the infrastructure to produce these weapons, but it is unclear as to whether any agents have been made into weapons and if any of its rockets, aircraft, etc., are equipped to deliver such agents. North Korea does not appear to have significant, if any, ties to international terrorist organizations, but its dismal economic performance may be an incentive to sell its technology.
Laboratory Response to Bioterrorism
Authors: Zerwekh Tyler , Emery Robert
Published: July 2005

Laboratory response to bioterrorism is used to describe a single laboratory or network of laboratories equipped to quickly and efficiently identify biological agents (bacteria, viruses, or toxins) that might be used in a bioterrorism event. To respond to such an event, laboratories rely on rapid diagnostic techniques such as microscopy, agglutination, culturing, antibiotic susceptibility, and polymerase chain reaction. The necessity for a systematic cohesive response is critical for a successful response to an attack. Rapid laboratory recognition and confirmation of bioterrorism agents expedites the medical response. Not much attention was paid to develop a laboratory response to attacks until 2001 and the anthrax letters incidents. It was then that the conceptual need for a rapid laboratory response became a reality. This article gives details on the basic types of laboratories, categories of biological agents, laboratory response network, and the importance of early detection and surveillance.
L
os
A
lamos
N
ational
L
aboratory
Authors: Resnick Gary
Published: July 2005

Los Alamos National Laboratory develops multidisciplinary science‐based solutions to national security challenges. The national laboratory is focused on anticipating, characterizing, and addressing the biological threat posed by natural and anthropogenic sources in partnership with Federal, state, local, and private sector partners. Advances in basic sciences are sought that will transform how the nation prepares for and responds to current and future biological threats. This strategy has resulted in significant fielded advances in biosurveillance and bioforensics. Continued scientific innovation and technology application in such fields as predictive, biological, pathomics, and material sciences will pave the way for future capabilities to address the dynamic biological threat.
Media and Bioterrorism
Authors: Warrick Joby
Published: July 2005

Much of the pre‐2001 news coverage of biological terrorism emphasized the potentially catastrophic consequences of an attack, yet the first deadly bioterrorism episode in U.S. history found most newspapers and broadcasters woefully unprepared. A dearth of reliable information during the initial days of the October 2001 anthrax attack was followed by weeks of frenzied, saturation coverage—particularly on cable news channels—which likely contributed to a climate of confusion and fear. The incident highlighted the need for a new approach to bioterrorism coverage, one that emphasizes planning, patience and restraint
Modeling the Public Health Response to Bioterrorism
Authors: Hupert Nathaniel
Published: July 2005

Over the past three years, the United States has been faced with three separate epidemic outbreaks that have demonstrated the importance of a system‐wide preparedness for public health emergencies. The 2001 anthrax attacks, the 2002–2003 SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) epidemic, and the 2003 monkey pox outbreaks have all demonstrated the nation's vulnerability to infectious diseases of both natural and deliberate origins. The limited capacity for hospital‐based treatment of patients in response to these outbreaks has been highlighted. Preparedness for epidemics has been studied only minimally in any standardized way.

This article, therefore, reviews alternative approaches to the modeling and assessment of health system preparedness and response in order to provide a foundation for future standardized study.
NATO
and Bioterrorism Defense
Authors: Cellino Andrea
Published: July 2005

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a relative newcomer to the field of bioterrorism defense. Only after September 11, 2001 did the Alliance launch specific initiatives to address terrorism. Before this event, NATO did address the threat of biological attacks as part of the Cold War focusing on aggression from the former Soviet Union.

This article discusses the goals of NATO in the past and in the present. NATO'S Defense Ministers decided in 2002 to enhance Alliance forces' ability to defend against nuclear, biological and chemical weapons (NBC). Initiatives adopted in Prague include: a disease surveillance system; an NBC event response team, a prototype deployable NBC analytical laboratory; a NATO biological and chemical defense stockpile, and a virtual training center.
N
ational
I
nstitutes of
H
ealth and
N
ational
I
nstitute of
A
llergy and
I
nfectious
D
iseases
Authors: Harrison Lauren
Published: July 2005

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is one of the largest supporters in the United States of biomedical research and also operates a substantial number of research establishments dedicated to preventing, detecting, diagnosing, and treating diseases. It operates under the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and is constituted by 27 different institutes and centers, including the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). The NIH's mission is to improve worldwide health by uncovering new knowledge. The NIH conducts research in its own facilities, teams with researchers in universities, hospitals, and medical schools. NIAID carries out research to better understand and prevent infectious, allergic and immunologic diseases including those diseases and agents considered primary threats with respect to bioterrorism. Strategic plans for research address each of the following areas: Biology of the microbe, host response, vaccines, therapeutics, diagnostics, and research resources.