bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Effect of Communication Mode on Learning Outcomes for Children with Severe–Profound Hearing Loss
Authors: Sarant Julia , Geers Ann
Published: June 2020

Hearing loss has well-reported and significant detrimental effects on learning in children. In particular, it negatively impacts the development of language, through which most other learning occurs. It is therefore of the utmost importance for parents of children with hearing loss to determine which communication approach will give their children the best possible chance of achieving age-appropriate language. Parents are often presented with conflicting information about what their choice of communication mode should be. This chapter reviews the evidence regarding learning outcomes for children using oral communication versus oral plus signed communication across a variety of outcomes, including language, reading, speech production, speech perception, and social and academic development. The cognitive/learning differences observed between children with normal hearing and hearing loss, and between children using different communication modes, are discussed, and conclusions are drawn to assist parents and clinicians with optimizing learning opportunities for children with hearing loss.
Making “Normal” Count
Authors: Kritzer Karen L.
Published: June 2020

This chapter describes research documenting learning behaviors demonstrated by young deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children that contribute to early mathematics development. Much research has been done over the years documenting the low academic achievement levels demonstrated by DHH students. The more substantial problem, however, may be that DHH students arrive at school not yet knowing how to learn and therefore lack even the most basic cognitive skill already owned by their peers. By the time they start school, young hearing children have had several years of learning experiences in the home environment. Through incidental experiences, hearing children learn how to focus their attention on meaningful stimuli, reflect on cause and effect, and solve problems during situations involving conflict. Given language restrictions, young DHH children may not have these same opportunities, thereby putting them at a disadvantage when they enter the classroom. It is essential that early learning for young DHH children focus on mediating within natural environmental learning opportunities in order to stimulate their ability to take cognitive advantage of what is happening normally around them. Only in this way can we begin to provide young DHH children with the cognitive foundation they need for early mathematics and other future academics.
Tickets for the Inclusive Museum
Authors: Nikolaraizi Magda , Kanari Charikleia , Marschark Marc
Published: June 2020

In recent years, museums of various kinds have broadened their mission and made systematic efforts to develop a dynamic role in learning by offering a wide range of less formal experiences for individuals with diverse characteristics, including individuals who are deaf or hard-of-hearing (DHH). Despite the worthwhile efforts, in the case of DHH individuals, museums frequently neglect to consider their unique communication, cognitive, cultural, and learning characteristics, thus limiting their access and opportunities for fully experiencing what museums have to offer. This chapter examines the potential for creating accessible museum environments and methods that reflect an understanding of the diverse communication, cognitive, cultural, and learning needs of DHH visitors, all of which enhance their access and participation in the museum activities. The role of the physical features of museum spaces for the access and behavior of DHH visitors is emphasized, together with attention to exhibition methods and the communication and cognitive challenges that need to be considered so DHH visitors can get the maximum benefit. The chapter emphasizes the right of individuals who are DHH to nonformal learning and analyzes how museums could become more accessible to DHH individuals by designing, from the beginning, participatory learning experiences that address their diverse needs.
Executive Function, Memory, and Literacy in Deaf Learners
Authors: Morere Donna
Published: June 2020

This chapter discusses the interactions among executive function (EF), memory, and literacy skills. Research with hearing populations has suggested a relationship between EF and academic achievement, and there has been particular interest in its relationship with reading. While the majority of research on memory and reading has focused on working memory (WM), there appears to be a broader relationship between memory and reading than just that involving WM. This chapter presents and reviews the general literature and the research with deaf learners on the relationships among EF, memory, and reading and writing. It also presents research with deaf college students that demonstrates the relationships between reading and writing tasks and measures of memory and EF. A general discussion of the integration of EF and memory and their effects on reading and writing skills of individuals who are deaf is presented.
Triggering, Configuration, and Engagement
Authors: Lund Emily
Published: June 2020

Word learning and vocabulary knowledge, although related, represent distinct constructs. The process by which a child learns new words will affect both the quantity of words learned and the quality of word representations in a child’s lexicon. Children with normal hearing experience predictable patterns of learning via the processes of triggering, configuration, and engagement. Children with hearing loss may experience, for various reasons, disruptions at all three levels. Those difficulties with the process of word learning may then lead to delays and differences in vocabulary knowledge, with cascading effects on other linguistic and academic skill development. Cultivating an understanding of how hearing loss affects not only vocabulary outcomes but also word-learning processes in children with hearing loss may provide avenues for future educational interventions that interrupt the adverse consequences of poor lexical knowledge. This chapter addresses the process of spoken word learning in children with normal hearing and the ways in which hearing loss affects this the subprocesses of triggering, configuration and engagement. The consequences of word-learning differences on other later-developing skills, such as phonological awareness, are discussed.
Executive Functions and Access to Language
Authors: Morgan Gary , Dye Matthew W. G.
Published: June 2020

Many deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children who acquire a natural sign language from deaf parents develop typical executive function (EF) skills and are able to successfully sustain attention, monitor and plan behavior, and avoid distraction. However, for the 90% to 95% of DHH children born into hearing, families, the picture is different. There is now clear evidence that these children are at risk for delayed EF development and therefore weaker academic performance. This chapter reviews what is known about the development of EF in DHH children and its relationship with language development. This is important in light of competing theoretical accounts that attribute EF deficits to either auditory or linguistic deprivation. An account is proposed that takes into consideration the development of intersubjectivity—the ability of an infant to engage in shared and reciprocal exchanges with caregivers. It is argued that the focus should be on early detection and interventions during the first 18 months that promote successful communicative interactions regardless of modality of language.
Eurolects and EU Legal Translation
Authors: Biel Łucja
Published: June 2020

In the European Union, legal discourses involve an unprecedented degree of mediation by translators and filtering through 24 official languages. Combined with a complex array of institutional, political, procedural and supranational factors, it results in an emergence of “Europeanized” parallel varieties of national legal languages—hybrids known as Eurolects. Eurolects have developed a distinct supranational terminology, as well as stylistic and grammatical features, which depart from certain conventions of national languages. With the advent of corpus methods, it has recently become possible to explore the nature of Eurolects empirically on a large scale. This chapter overviews corpus studies into Eurolects, focusing on the development of the idea of Eurolects and their “textual fit” to domestic nontranslated varieties of legal languages.
Translatability of Law and Legal Technology
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang , Keyes John Mark
Published: June 2020

Lawyers and citizens increasingly engage with law through technology intermediaries. For example, to declare their taxes, they consult tax software rather than tax legislation. This greater role of legal technology raises new issues for bilingual jurisdictions. In Canada, for instance, federal legislation is not translated but simultaneously codrafted by francophone and anglophone lawyers, resulting in small differences in the expression of the law and occasional inconsistencies. This contribution showcases how these differences can affect legal technology applications. Depending on the language they work with, lawyers may encode different interpretations in software, and algorithms may yield different results. Using a bilingual corpus of 3,000 Canadian federal regulations as a case study, the authors demonstrate that the same artificial intelligence techniques applied to the same legal texts in different languages yield different results. As a consequence, they argue that legal technology cannot simply be developed for one language and then translated to another language. Instead, it has to be “codeveloped” for different languages, similar to how legislation can be “codrafted.”
Using Translation to Develop Plurilingual Competence in High-Complexity Schools
Authors: Davies Maria González
Published: June 2020

The guiding thought behind this chapter is that an inclusive society starts in inclusive schools. With this is mind, a team of researchers set out to explore how to empower teachers and how to develop learners’ plurilingual competence and plurilingual identities in six high-complexity schools in Barcelona (Spain). The research team applied a sociocultural approach to their research and developed their own formative model based on socioconstructivist premises and a cyclical process of analyzing beliefs and actions to help teachers and learners gradually introduce natural plurilingual practices, specifically use of translation for other learning contexts, that is, translation to acquire linguistic and intercultural mediation skills in fields other than translator training proper. The main findings of this ongoing research project, based on an integrated plurilingual approach to language learning, will be outlined. According to the results, this approach also favors social integration and the co-construction of plurilingual identities.
Legal Interpreting and Social Discourse
Authors: Kadrić Mira
Published: June 2020

Legal interpreting covers a broad spectrum of interpreting activities related to law. This chapter takes a sociopolitical point of view to discuss interpreting in legal matters in judicial as well as extrajudicial settings. Based on international regulations and democratic ideals, it shows the importance of interpreting for equal access to law, with a focus on the possibilities and scope of action available to interpreters rather than the restrictions. By presenting the legal activities and text types that occur, the chapter develops strategies for interpreters for use in different settings and situations to ensure the best possible communication for all participants. In this context, the chapter also addresses the demand for multipartiality and equiproximity between the interpreter and the other participants in the communication process.
Translation and Interpreting in Conflict
Authors: Ruiz Rosendo Lucía
Published: June 2020

This chapter describes the study of translation and interpreting in conflict as an emerging discipline. It provides a survey of its history and characteristics, a summary of the research carried out so far, and a description of the current state of the field. It provides some background on the different terms used to refer to this field and the evolution of research over time. The chapter contends that positionality is the key notion around which the different accounts of translators and interpreters turn. It is an essential concept that impacts on their behavior and the decisions they take. A range of issues—including unfamiliar locations; legal, psychological, and ethical considerations; and security—complicate the work undertaken by translators and interpreters in such settings. The chapter concludes with a discussion of areas of current scholarly interest and predictions for future directions for research.
Healthcare Translation in Mental Health Research
Authors: Heath Melissa Allen , Cutrer-Párraga Elizabeth A.
Published: June 2020

Over 350 languages are spoken in the United States, and over 7,000 known languages are spoken around the world. Considering such linguistic diversity, effectively communicating within and across nations and communities is challenging. This chapter includes several issues to consider when translating and distributing mental health assessment instruments and surveys, gathering and interpreting data from translated instruments, and using the data to change policy and practice. Ultimately, data should inform policy and assist communities/countries in monitoring and tracking progress on mental health issues. A list of resources identifies several critical issues that help inform translation practice across cultures and languages.
Accessible Filmmaking and Media Accessibility
Authors: Romero-Fresco Pablo
Published: June 2020

Despite their importance in the reception and distribution of films, translation and accessibility have traditionally been neglected in the film industry. They are regarded as an afterthought, which results in translators being isolated from the creative team and working in conditions that hamper their attempts to maintain the filmmaker’s original vision. As a potential solution to this problem, accessible filmmaking (AFM) aims to integrate translation and accessibility into the production process through the collaboration between the creative team and the translator. This chapter outlines, firstly, the theoretical framework that underlies AFM, drawing on both translation/media accessibility and film studies and incorporating the notion of the global film. It then reviews the application of AFM in the filmmaking industry through the collaboration between accessible filmmakers and directors of translation and access. Finally, it introduces a new engagement-based approach to media accessibility that has resulted from AFM and compares it to the comprehension-based approach that has traditionally been used in this area.
Social Applications of Speech-Translation Technology
Authors: Seligman Mark
Published: June 2020

Automatic spoken language translation has finally entered widespread use. Still emerging, however, are speech-translation systems directed at various demanding and socially significant use cases. Because speech-recognition and -translation technologies remain error-prone, speech-translation output is often below the threshold of usability when accuracy is essential; and present use is still largely restricted to areas like social networking or travel in which no representation concerning accuracy is demanded. This chapter, while recognizing the importance of continued improvements in speech-recognition and -translation accuracy per se, aims to support the conviction that the path toward widespread use of socially substantial spoken language translation can be shortened by emphasizing reliability (accountability and user confidence) and customization (tight adaptation for the targeted use case). Examined here are several socially significant speech-translation systems which aim to meet those requirements, with focus upon current systems in (1) healthcare and (2) presentations for education, academic conferences, and government.
Designing Terminology Resources for Environmental Translation
Authors: Faber Pamela , León-Araúz Pilar
Published: June 2020

A well-designed terminological knowledge base is a structured repository of linguistic data, which is enriched with metadata and structured according to specific classification schemes and concept-based analysis. There is now no limit to the quantity and type of information in each entry since the digital age has liberated lexicographical and terminological resources from space constraints. More specifically, a terminological knowledge resource for environmental translators should be tailored to the specific needs of users who work with this multifaceted type of specialized text. Accordingly, the type and configuration of the environmental information should reflect the micro- and macrostructural design of the resource and provide frame-like structures in which concepts and terms are dynamically related to others. Designers must also decide how each type should be accessed and in what sequence. The map of the resource can have an underlying conceptual frame that allows users to derive the maximum benefit from it. This chapter provides an overview of the needs of environmental translators and explains how they can be met in the design of a knowledge resource. This is illustrated by the type and number of data fields, their underlying principles, and their mode of visualization.
Policy Translation and Energy Transition in China
Authors: Delman Jørgen
Published: June 2020

China’s leadership is in the middle of overseeing a green transition of the Chinese energy system that aims to replace fossil fuels with clean energy. To move the energy transition ahead, there has been an acute need to continuously develop and adapt guiding policies and regulatory frameworks to stimulate the development of green technologies, complex reform solutions, and appropriate institutions. The responsible Chinese authorities and energy policy actors have chosen to collaborate with international partners to do this. They see Denmark as a best-practice learning case, and through a strategic government-to-government partnership, Denmark has gradually become one of China’s preferred strategic policy interlocutors on energy politics. This chapter examines the role of international policy learning and policy translation in energy policy design in China. It elaborates an analytical model to guide the analysis of policy translation practices, which views policy translation as a process of pragmatic, interactional, adaptive, solution-oriented collaborative efforts that combine a variety of tools to translate foreign energy policy meanings into Chinese energy politics.
Traumatic Stress in Older Adults
Authors: Cook Joan M. , Simiola Vanessa
Published: June 2020

This chapter focuses on older adult trauma survivors. Information is presented on prevalence of acute stress disorder (ASD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD); course, functional impairment, suicide risk, cognitive impairment, accelerated aging, healthcare utilization in older adults with PTSD, and the impact of demographic factors such as gender, ethnicity, and race on PTSD in older individuals. In general, rates of ASD and PTSD are lower in older adults compared to other age groups. PTSD in older adults has been linked to suicidal ideation and attempts, functional impairment, physical health, cognitive impairment, accelerated aging, and increased healthcare utilization. Although delayed onset of PTSD has been empirically verified in some military samples with veterans and younger adult civilians, it is rare in the absence of any prior symptoms and might more accurately be labeled “delayed recognition.” More information on trauma and PTSD in diverse populations of older adults is needed, such as racial/ethnic as well as sexual and gender minorities, those with severe physical or mental impairment, non–community-residing groups, and those from non-industrialized countries.
Introduction
Authors: Cureton Adam , Wasserman David
Published: June 2020

This introductory chapter, by volume editors Adam Cureton and David Wasserman, provides an overview of the Handbook. Its first section covers the history of philosophical thinking about disability, from the 19th century to the disability rights movements of the 20th century and present-day. Following this is an outline of the purpose of the book, discussing how disability raises some of the deepest conceptual and normative issues about human embodiment and well-being; dignity, respect, justice and equality; and personal and social identity. Chapters will cover these as well as pressing practical questions for educational, health, reproductive, and technology policy, and confront controversial questions about the scope and direction of the human and civil rights movements. The introduction concludes with chapter summaries.
Communication and Language Interventions for Children With Down Syndrome
Authors: Warren Steven F. , Bredin-Oja Shelley L. , Hahn Laura J. , Brady Nancy
Published: June 2020

Delayed and disordered speech and language development are among the primary challenges for young children with Down syndrome. Common sources of these delays include frequent ear infections and fluctuating hearing loss early in life, significant oral motor impairments, and delayed onset of joint attention and related cognitive skills. This chapter is focused on the early childhood period up to 8 years of age because most of the intervention research has been conducted during this period. The review is limited to two types of intervention: milieu teaching (MT) and augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) because much of the published research has focused on these two approaches. The review reveals the strengths and weaknesses of the research to date. Four directions for future research are proposed, most importantly combining MT and AAC approaches in a single flexible model of early communication and language intervention for young children with DS.
Introduction to Access to Healthcare
Authors: den Exter André , Hall Mark A. , Hoffman Allison K. , Syrett Keith
Published: June 2020

This chapter demonstrates how the comparison between Europe and the United States reveals two very different approaches to dealing with the fundamental question of access to healthcare. Here, ‘access to care’ consists of both availability and affordability. Affordability is determined by how a country helps people to pay for care, including by means of healthcare coverage that entitles or enables a patient to access affordable care. Coverage is commonly provided by some type of insurance that pays for the costs of treatment. But care can be arranged and paid for more directly, without insurance, through a program that simply operates facilities or clinics serving an eligible population, as in the United Kingdom. Typically, these direct-access programs are run by government, but they may also be privately operated, as for instance the free clinics and ‘safety net’ hospitals that serve the uninsured in the United States.
Introduction to the Right to Procreate and Assisted Reproductive Technologies
Authors: Cohen I. Glenn , Jackson Emily
Published: June 2020

This chapter briefly discusses the right to procreate and related technological assistance. The right to procreate is one of the most important personal rights, and it has received widespread recognition under the law. Yet its protections can be tenuous for many people, particularly those who are poor and those who need assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) to have children. This chapter highlights the complications arising from the right to procreate with technological assistance. Of all the areas of health law and bioethics, this may be the one with the largest disagreements across countries. On whether (and under what conditions) to permit surrogacy, anonymous gamete donation, pre-embryo disposition agreements, and posthumous reproduction, to name but a few examples, there are sharp divergences among, and even within, countries (in the United States, much of this is committed to state not federal law).
Sleep Problems in Autism Spectrum Disorder
Authors: Kuschner Emily S. , Wallace Gregory L.
Published: June 2020

The aims of this chapter are to present the state of the science of sleep in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), including hypotheses for the high prevalence of chronic insomnia, possible etiologies of insomnia, and ecological and behavioral interventions for promoting optimal sleep. About two thirds of children with ASD have chronic insomnia, and these sleep problems have been shown to persist. The strongest evidence on promoting sleep in individuals with ASD is for sleep education, ecological changes, behavioral interventions, and exogenous melatonin. In 2012, the Sleep Committee of the Autism Treatment Network developed a practice pathway, based on expert consensus, to capture best practices for screening, identification, and treatment of sleep problems in ASD. An exemplar case is presented to integrate key constructs of the practice pathway.
Understanding Executive Function Challenges in Autism Spectrum Disorder
Authors: Mazurek Micah O.
Published: June 2020

The construct of executive function (EF) has been referred to as an “umbrella” term for a collection of higher order cognitive processes that guide and manage goal-directed behavior and problem solving. EF impairments are common in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). EF is centrally related to characteristics of ASD and real-world outcomes such as adaptive behavior and quality of life. This chapter describes the profile of EF impairment in ASD and reviews its development across the lifespan and how it affects various aspects of daily functioning (social skills, adaptive behavior, co-occurring psychiatric conditions). The chapter also addresses the challenges assessing of EF and describes promising interventions to promote executive skills in ASD.
Anxiety in Autism Spectrum Disorder
Authors: van Wijngaarden-Cremers Patricia J. M.
Published: June 2020

Anxiety disorders are relatively common in children and adults in the general population. Available evidence suggests that youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are at elevated risk for anxiety disorders. Moreover, some behavioral manifestations of ASD may overlap and confound the measurement of anxiety in youth and adults with ASD. There is no reason to expect, however, that the emotional and physiological state that defines anxiety would be different in youth or adults with ASD than in youth or adults in the general population. This chapter focuses on common anxiety disorders in children and adolescents, the phenomenology of fear and anxiety, and the challenges of measuring anxiety in youth with ASD. The chapter reviews the traditional fear circuitry and an emerging model that may have a profound impact on our understanding and treatment of anxiety disorders in youth. It summarizes a line of research on improving the measurement of anxiety in youth with ASD. Finally, it provides an update on empirically supported treatments for anxiety in this population.
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders in Autism Spectrum Disorder
Authors: Scahill Lawrence , Evans Andrea N.
Published: June 2020

Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders (OCRDs) are a group of diagnoses that center on compulsive behaviors and/or obsessive thoughts. They include obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), hoarding disorder, excoriation disorder, and trichotillomania. Each of the OCRDs are associated with significant psychosocial impairment and family/caregiver burden. Furthermore, these disorders frequently co-occur with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) traits and diagnoses, and differential diagnosis can be difficult. OCD represents the most common of the OCRDs, and also the most well researched to date. Consequently, this chapter focuses on the nature and impact of comorbid OCD and ASD across the lifespan. Unfortunately, preliminary research indicates that individuals with OCD and ASD are significantly more disadvantaged by way of poorer psychosocial functioning, increased family burden/accommodation to symptoms, greater number of other comorbid conditions, and more likely to present with comorbid externalizing disorders. Future research is needed to determine what impact these unique complexities may have on treatment success. Preliminary research suggests that cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is of benefit to these individuals with comorbid ASD and OCD; however, modification may be necessary to improve engagement and outcomes (e.g., family inclusion in therapy). This chapter presents a case example of modified CBT for a child with comorbid ASD and OCD, delivered intensively. Future research should focus on the related OCRDs in individuals with ASD, as well as improving current assessment and treatment practices.
Humanism and Its Critics
Authors: Jakelić Slavica
Published: June 2020

The most significant contemporary challenges to humanism do not come from critics who relegate it to anti-religiousness or exclusively immanent concerns, but from those who critique humanitarianism and human rights as the most powerful humanist discourses of our time. These critics bring two important insights: they identify humanism as both religious and secular in character, and they point to it as an enacted rather than merely an intellectual disposition. The critics in question, however, sustain a narrow, Western centric understanding of what humanism is. This chapter seeks to destabilize that view but also to move beyond the mere “critique of critics” (Rita Felski, The Limits of Critique) to gesture toward the particularity and plurality of humanist traditions as platforms for ethical and political practices—humanitarianism and human rights included.
Political Violence and the Liberation Movements: 1960–1990
Authors: Simpson Thula
Published: June 2020

This chapter looks at the history of the armed struggles waged by South Africa’s liberation movements between 1960 and 1990. Among the organisations considered are the African National Congress (ANC), the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), the National Committee of Liberation/Armed Resistance Movement (NCL/ARM), the Yu Chi Chan Club, and the Black Consciousness Movement, along with their military offshoots Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), Poqo, the Azanian People’s Liberation Army (APLA), the Azanian National Liberation Army (AZANLA) and others. The respective insurgencies are considered individually and comparatively, focusing on the tactical and strategic approaches adopted by the movements. The military methods employed by the organisations included sabotage, insurrection, guerrilla warfare and conventional conflict. The choices that they made regarding strategies and tactics were influenced by demographic, geographic, political and socio-economic considerations. But in addition to these South African factors, geopolitics also influenced the scope and intensity of armed resistance. This was because for the greater part of the period considered in the chapter, the organisations were movements-in-exile. Accordingly, their access to training, weapons, camps and infiltration routes was dependent on external goodwill. Operations within South Africa had to take cognisance of this external feature. The chapter concludes with a consideration of the process of the integration of the guerrilla armies into South Africa’s new national defence force after 1990.
The Sociology of Religion in Latin Americafrom Theoretical Dependence to Its Specificity
Authors: Blancarte Roberto J.
Published: June 2020

Latin American sociology of religion is a relatively young discipline, although institutionally speaking, it has not lagged as far behind European sociology as we usually think. There is, in fact, an early link between Continental Europe and Latin America in the development of institutions dedicated to the study of religions. They have witnessed an incredible expansion, particularly over the past three decades. The author offers a general panorama of the trajectory of the subdiscipline and the development of a robust academic field. The reasons for this intellectual explosion go from the development of a scientific institutional framework for social sciences in emerging economies to the changing structure of religions and the social awareness of a historical plurality of beliefs in Latin America.
Religious Diversity, Popular Religions and Multiple Modernities
Authors: Parker Gumucio Cristián
Published: June 2020

Religious diversity and pluralism are increasing in Latin America. The religious field that some decades ago was mainly Catholic has changed radically. In addition to Pentecostalism and Neo-Pentecostalism, other Evangelical as well as independent churches of various denominations and forms, non-affiliated believers, and many diverse (ethnic, Afro-American, New Age, etc.) and diffuse religious expressions are growing. These religious changes toward pluralism can be understood from a revised theory of multiple modernities. The classical sociological concepts and theories, beginning with secularization, need to be criticized and replaced with a new theoretical approach. Latin American historical processes must be compared with what is happening in other regions of the world and not only with Western history. To understand key changes, popular religions worldwide need to be carefully analyzed. Latin American religions offer a good example of popular forms of religious revitalization that are useful to contrast with the Northern European case. This comparative exercise demonstrates new ways of producing sense and spiritual search in non-Western geocultural areas that are framing specific relationships between religion and modernities, bringing about new religious pluralisms.
The Trajectory and Identity of Sociology of Health in Brazil
Authors: Duarte Nunes Everardo , de Souza Minayo Maria Cecília
Published: June 2020

This article addresses the construction and development of sociology of health in Brazil. This discipline is inserted into the social space where actors, institutions, and scientific knowledge interact and theoretical narratives, methodologies, teaching, and social practices are constructed. Thus it is a part of the field of medicine, public health, and sociology. The introduction shows that sociology of health in Brazil has developed on two pillars: the field of stricto sensu sociology and a very specific area within the field of health sciences. The first section describes the background and institutionalization of the discipline in Brazil. The second analyzes the theoretical sociological schools that influenced the construction of this discipline. The third discuss the scientific output and related trends. Finally, the article ends by showing the current situation of sociology of health and its limitations within the field of health and in an interdisciplinary dialogue. The conclusion is that sociology of health currently constitutes a mature field of study, having an undeniable investigative and proactive force involving a significant number of scientists.
Capitalism and the State in Latin America
Authors: Torres Esteban , Borrastero Carina
Published: June 2020

This article analyzes how the research on the relation between capitalism and the state in Latin America has developed from the 1950s up to the present. It starts from the premise that knowledge of this relation in sociology and other social sciences in Latin America has been taking shape through the disputes that have opposed three intellectual standpoints: autonomist, denialist, and North-centric. It analyzes how these standpoints envision the relationship between economy and politics and how they conceptualize three regionally and globally growing trends: the concentration of power, social inequality, and environmental depletion. It concludes with a series of challenges aimed at restoring the theoretical and political potency of the autonomist program in Latin American sociology.
From Social Insurance to Poverty Relief
Authors: Uribe Gómez Mónica
Published: June 2020

This article expounds how analysts have narrated and analyzed the transformations undergone by policies of social protection in Latin America since the emergency of social security. It emphasizes the weight given in these analyses to the construction of typologies adapted to this regional context, the incidence of the consolidation of democracy, the models of economic development and corporate pacts, the role of political parties and policy makers, the legacy of previous policies, and the actions undertaken by social movements and other organized actors (such as private service providers). In general, it finds that the narratives offered in the literature specializing in this theme have shown the how of the developments undergone by welfare systems in Latin America and identified the factors that have influenced these changes, but they have rarely sought to discover the why of these transformations.
State-Making and Nation-Building
Authors: Díaz Arias David
Published: June 2020

Central America experienced the construction of multiple forms of new identities from independence in 1821 to the present. Between 1825 and 1840, Central American politicians formed a Federal Republic to keep the region integrated as a single country but failed by getting involved in civil wars. Only Costa Rica remained relatively peaceful during the first decades after independence. During much of the nineteenth century, the other four countries confronted the problem of how to achieve political centralization. But local caudillos, the confrontations between elites, internal civil wars, economic weakness, and imperial interventions limited their plans. After 1870, the Central American nation-states started developing three patterns of racial identities: first, a liberal state in Costa Rica which was able to secure the image of a homogenous, white society with juridical institutions and electoral democracy; second, mestizo nations with limited citizenship in Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Honduras where politicians and intellectuals managed to rule with the military; and third, a nation-state in Guatemala where indigenous people remained outside the national identity during most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. After 1954, social exclusion promoted revolutions commanded by guerrilla groups with the support of indigenous communities. During the 1980s, most of Central America was in civil war as a consequence of illegitimate states, a weak popular identification with national identities, and the legacy of decades of social exclusion, state violence, and inequality. By the end of the 1980s and early 1990s, local elites, political authorities, and guerrilla warriors in Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua negotiated peace. During the 1990s, access to power was decided through elections throughout Central America, and state institutions, such as supreme courts, legislative assemblies, ministers, and press, had the opportunity to bloom. Yet, democracy is still weak in this region.
The Cold War
Authors: Chávez Joaquín M.
Published: June 2020

Global and regional political and cultural trends shaped a set of interrelated and persistent conflicts between authoritarian regimes and democratic and revolutionary forces during the Cold War in Central America. US Cold War anticommunism, in particular, abetted authoritarian governments that sparked major conflicts in Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. The failure of the post-World War II wave of democratization in Central America led to persistent revolutionary and counterrevolutionary politics in the next three decades. Two successive waves of revolution emerged in the 1960s and 1970s. The reverberations of the Cuban Revolution and US counterinsurgency mainly shaped the first wave of revolution and counterrevolution in the 1960s. The Cuban Revolution, progressive Catholicism, and the Sandinista Revolution mainly shaped the second wave of revolution and counterrevolution in the 1970s and 1980s. The armed conflict in Guatemala (1960–1996), El Salvador’s Civil War (1980–1992), and the Contra War in Nicaragua (1979–1991) became the last major Cold War conflicts in Latin America. The changing dynamics of the conflicts on the ground and the international consensus in favor of peace negotiations in Central America that emerged at the end of the Cold War enabled the political settlement of the conflicts. The peace processes that put an end to the armed conflicts created fragile democracies in the midst of the neoliberal restructuring of the 1990s, which limited the meaning of social citizenship in Central America.
Literacy Attainment Among Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing
Authors: Harris Margaret , Terlektsi Emmanouela
Published: June 2020

The chapter begins by looking back at the review of literacy outcomes among children who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH), published in 1996 by Marschark and Harris. In the light of developments in hearing aid technology and the age at which hearing loss is now identified, the chapter considers whether the picture described in the review has changed significantly in the two decades that have elapsed since its publication. It assesses evidence about levels of literacy attainment across the two decades and shows that, while spoken language has improved for many children, levels of literacy have not seen a commensurate improvement. The chapter also considers how views of the skills that predict success and failure in learning to read have evolved. It ends by considering how children who are DHH can be taught most effectively to read, and it speculates about future developments both in technology and in teaching.
This Is Your Brain on Print
Authors: Henner Jonathan , Bergmann Erica
Published: June 2020

The human brain was not designed to encode and decode print. Writing and reading appear to have been spontaneously invented only two or three times in human history and are now an integral part of participating in the milieu. Because encoding and decoding print is not a natural skill, the human brain must deploy various mechanisms in very precise and coordinated ways to decipher linguistic meaning from it. Recruiting all the necessary mechanisms for the singular purpose of processing print requires years of practice. Adults who struggle with print literacy will have challenges utilizing social resources available to them without intervention and support. This chapter discusses the neurolinguistic processes required for print literacy, with a special emphasis on research conducted on deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals.
Eschatology and the Qur’an
Authors: Günther Sebastian
Published: June 2020

This chapter offers a wide-ranging survey of the principal ideas in the Qur’an concerning ‘the last things’ or ‘eschatology’. The focus here will be on the powerful imagery that the Qur’an employs in its portrayal of such things as the signs which herald the ‘Hour’ or the ‘End of Time’, namely the apocalyptic cessation of this world and the end of life on earth; the resurrection and judgement of the dead and their attendant reward or punishment in the afterlife; and the reign of God’s eternal kingdom in a world-to-come. Emphasis will also be placed on the manner in which these key Qur’anic eschatological themes are approached in contemporary scholarship.
Prophets and Personalities of the Qur’an
Authors: Johns Anthony H.
Published: June 2020

The message of the Qur’an is carried by a large cast of dramatis personae, the majority of whom have counterparts in the Bible. They include humankind (foremost among them the Prophets), angels, and jinn. The Qur’an has long been regarded as an epigone, lacking internal coherence, and the roles played by its characters of minor interest. The chapter outlines the stages by which it has become recognized as a definite and defining discourse in its own right, using the cultural language of late antiquity in its own way, and shaped by its interaction with the community to whom it was first revealed. The prophets and personalities known from other traditions accordingly have refashioned roles in a new framework. This shift in approach has generated new ways of viewing the Qur’anic discourse, and uncovering layers of meaning within it. These contrast with and sometimes challenge the insights of the classical tradition of exegesis.
Translations of the Qur’an: Western Languages
Authors: Elmarsafy Ziad
Published: June 2020

The chapter falls into two parts. The first traces the history of the key translations of the Qur’an in its entirety into Western languages (mainly English, French, German, and Latin) from the Middle Ages to the present day. The emphasis is on the factors that affected the production and reception of these translations, including military conflict, religious polemics within Christianity, and the growth of Arabic and Islamic Studies as an academic field within Western institutions and centres of learning. The second part investigates some theoretical issues arising from this account, including the difficulties attendant upon translating a sacred text and pleading for the value of the literary register in understanding the Qur’an and its translation.
The Qur’an and Arabic Poetry
Authors: Sperl Stefan
Published: June 2020

This chapter reviews recent scholarship on the interface between the Qur’an and Arabic Poetry, from pre-Islamic times to the modern period. It shows that Arabic poetry has for long been engaged in an inter-textual dialogue with the Qur’an which has taken numerous forms, subject to changing historical and cultural circumstances. At the core is the dual status of the Arabic language as bearer of a divinely created message and as cherished medium of poetic invention. The chapter shows that the resulting tension between the competing and mutually reinforcing claims of poetry and prophecy can be observed throughout the history of Arabic poetry up to the present day.
Early Qur’anic Commentaries
Authors: Rippin Andrew
Published: June 2020

This chapter provides a straightforward analysis of the major early existing commentaries (and related works) prior to al-Ṭabarī with a focus on their purpose and objectives. These include literary texts ascribed to revered figures such as Mujāhid ibn Jabr (d. 104/722), Muqātil ibn Sulaymān (d. 150/767), and Sufyān al-Thawrī (d. 161/778). Examining the historical significance of the early tafsīr texts and the elaborate processes which defined their composition, the chapter also reviews their transmission and dissemination. To this end, some discussion will need to follow regarding ‘resurrected’ books, the integrity of existing works and the protracted debates about these issues.
The Qur’an and the Arabic Medieval Literary Tradition
Authors: van Gelder Geert Jan
Published: June 2020

The influence of the Qur’an on all aspects of medieval Islamic culture, including the Arabic literary tradition, is immeasurable. That its language is Arabic and that it was considered God’s literal speech caused the spread and development of the Arabic language and its literature. Even when ‘literature’ is taken in its restricted sense of texts aiming to delight, to move, and to entertain, one hardly finds any work that does not quote or allude to the holy text. As a genre the Qur’an is sui generis and imitation of its form and style is considered impossible (according to the doctrine of the inimitability of the Qur’an) and even blasphemous. Qur’anic ideas and idioms, however, have imbued even thoroughly secular works.