bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction of SRI Technique for Paddy Growers as a Part of CBM-Raniganj Development
Authors: Tawde Vilas , Banerjee Monalisa
Published: April 2019

Objective/ Scope

Paddy cultivation contributes 12% of the total methane emitted in the environment by various sources. At EOGEPL, Systematic Rice Intensification (SRI) has been introduced among the paddy farmers which not only increased their crops’ yield but also controlled the emission of methane directly into atmosphere.

Method Procedures, Process

CBM Development requires numerous parcels of land. The farmers who were apprehensive about selling land for the CBM project, or those who were trying to get rid of their land as farming did not seem a good enough source of income, were targeted for this project. Training on the SRI method was conducted along with education on the benefits of the system from a farmer's perspective. In addition, the beneficiaries were given support in the form of seeds, rudimentary machinery and SOS medicines, required for the paddy farming.

Result, Observation, Conclusion

The result was awakening for the farmers. In comparison to the traditional method the yield of paddy increased from minimum 37% to maximum 83%, resulting in an increase net income of the farming community. The success factor for EOGEPL, was that by working with 37 farmers on total land area of 4.99 hectare, 45.37 tons of methane emission was controlled. It could be concluded from this project that, the SRI method has the capacity to address 3 major aspects of the modern day. At a time when due to increase of population per head availability of food grain is decreasing, SRI method can double the yield on the same area available. In addition, with decrease in required inputs i.e. the investment and growth of marketable output i.e. yield, the net income of the farmer increases. Most importantly, the practice of SRI controls methane emission which is responsible for greenhouse effect.

Additive Information

The additive information in this paper is that, a single move of SRI practice can address very important problems associated with a CBM-Project and can contribute to the nationwide movement of developing a clean environment and increasing the availability of food grain for the future with increase income to farmers.
Integrated Approach for Proper Resource Assessment of a Challenging Over-Pressured Gas Condensate Reservoir: Case Study of Analytical and Numerical Modeling of a Central Luconia Carbonate Field
Authors: Hajizadeh Mobaraki Alireza , Bashir Aamir , Shen Sow Chia , Deo Tewari Raj , B M Zakei Amran
Published: April 2019

Proper and reliable resource assessment of hydrocarbons in-place and recoverable volumes is one of the key factors in field development planning (FDP) and determines the commitments made to the host government for the reserves to be developed (RTBD). Many times, it is critical to update the resources and reserves of a producing asset through full field reviews (FFR) to gauge the production attainment and success of initial forecasts in FDP and also to locate any upside/locked-in potential.

Often uncertainties in the field development are expected to reduce as the field produces, but in many cases the results show otherwise due to lack/ inaccuracy of data or existing reservoir complexities. This paper elaborates how an integrated approach utilizing analytical methods (material balance, pressure and rate transient analysis) combined to numerical reservoir simulation is used for accurate resource assessment of an over-pressured gas condensate reservoir that suffers from lack of geological and petrophysical data, faulty production data measurement system and complex fluid and pressure behavior.

A comprehensive workflow comprising of different methodologies is used to harness the available geological, petrophysical, production and pressure data. Over-pressured and compressibility corrected gas material balance and pressure and rate transient analysis (RTA) are conducted using static and flowing data to encompass the existing uncertainties on resource numbers and generate low, base and high cases. The results of these methods are then successfully utilized to construct the dynamic reservoir model for evaluation of the upside and near field exploitation (NFE) potential. The results of the full field review lead to a 50% increase in the gas initially in-place compared to FDP volumes and a significant addition in the proven reserve. This increase in volumes was investigated through proactive surveillance for a period of time and was well supported by the reservoir and well performance.

A novel approach to numerically model the over-pressured gas reservoirs is developed using a simple concept of compressibility modifications supported by production data history match and analogue core data. The results of the study greatly benefited the production sharing contract (PSC) and lead to production enhancement from the field through a proper debottlenecking project.
Implications of Pressure Interference on Production Performance of Coal Bed Methane CBM wells
Authors: Thakuria Nityam
Published: April 2019

Well interference in unconventional CBM reservoirs is often desired. It reduces reservoir pressure; significantly increasing gas production through desorption. However, identifying interference between wells and extracting quantitative reservoir information using production data analysis is a challenge. The primary objectives of this study are to identify production characteristics of interfering CBM wells, evaluate reservoir parameters, demonstrate the application of interference data using field examples to predict well performance and develop guidelines to optimize geospatial well-pattern.

A field wide interference study has been undertaken to track changes in gas rate, water rate, wellhead pressure and fluid level in each well. An ‘event-based’ filter is applied to the dataset to correlate production behaviour of a well with any unplanned ‘event’ in its offset well. Planned well tests are then conducted to ascertain these evidences of interference. Using production data analysis of interfering wells, a set of semi-analytical correlations have been developed based on the transient drainage radius model to determine production-governing permeability of coal formation, and also quantify the flow contribution of natural fractures and reservoir matrix.

Preliminary analysis of the study demonstrates several forms of interference. Well specific field examples have been presented for each case. Interference between producing wells having long production history show a trend reversal in gas flow rate due to additional dewatering support by its offset well. Similar behaviour is observed in the production characteristics of an old producer when a new well is drilled in a nearby location. However, effects of interference are more dominant when a well stimulation activity (fracturing or re-fracturing) is carried out in an offset well. During stimulation activity, offset wells show an abnormal decline in gas rate and wellhead pressure due to fracking fluid (water) load up in the reservoir. Conversely, a significant positive impact is seen in gas rate of both wells after the well is put back on production due to improved water production rate in the stimulated well. Permeability calculations show that natural and artificial fractures dominate production behaviour of CBM wells. The study also presents results of various simulated geo-spatial well patterns. Furthermore, it is shown that planned interference at an early time with an economically designed well spacing can maximize the production NPV of an asset for an operator.

The optimal well spacing to maintain and/or increase gas production with the right amount of resources is critical for maximised returns. This result of this study can be used as foundation to help operators optimize multi-well pad and future infill well development program based on the assessment of short-term and long-term recovery targets.
Prosper & Cerberus Modelling for Efficient WBCOs in Artificial Lift Flowing Wells
Authors: Varma Nakul , Nagar Ankesh , Manish Kumar , Srivastav Pranay , Nekkanti Satish , Bohra Avinash , Srivastav Preyas
Published: April 2019

This paper describes simulation solution for CT(Coil Tubing) based WBCO in flowing ESP/Jet Pump wells for scale/polymer debris deposition removal prior to any treatment in well, such as – Formation stimulation, ESP treatment, etc. It also describes prediction for requirement of Surface Well Test spread support to assist Nitrogen assisted WBCO. The paper describes new way of simulation for CT WBCO job in artificially flowing wells to predict decreased Liquid rate from reservoir, CT pressure & friction pressure losses. The modelling is done in Prosper and Cerberus, the results of which are validated with surface well test and Multiphase flow meter data recorded during the jobs. The results observed were very close to modelled with a number of advantages such as – No loss returns, higher lifting velocities, prediction of increased/decreased reservoir liquid rate affecting Motor winding temperature in ESPs, no settling of debris, post job Increased Liquid gain from well, decreased tubing friction pressure loss
Utilizing Advanced Logs for Flow Unit Classification in Vertical Interference Test Modeling
Authors: Kumar Arvind , Gidwani Arjit , Singh Suraj , Wydiabhakti Tety , Mishra Siddhartha
Published: April 2019

Vertical Interference tests (VIT) are used to determine the hydraulic connectivity between the formation sand intervals. This paper showcases an innovative workflow of using the petrophysical log attributes to characterize a heterogeneous reservoir sand by making use of ANN (Artificial Neural Net) and SMLP (Stratigraphic Modified Lorentz) based rock typing techniques as well as image based advanced sand layer computation techniques.

Vertical interference test is either performed using a wireline formation testing tool with multiple flow probes deployed in a vertical sequence at desired depth points on the borehole wall or using a drill stem test configuration. Based on the test design, flow rates are changed using downhole pumps, which induces pressure transients in the formation. The measured pressure response is then compared with a numerical model to derive the reservoir parameters such as vertical permeability, hydraulic connectivity etc. The conventional way of model generation is to consider a section of reservoir sand as homogenous, which generally leads to over estimation or underestimation of vertical permeabilities. The technique proposed in this paper utilizes advanced logs such as image logs; magnetic resonance logs, water saturation and other advanced lithology logs to obey heterogeneity in the reservoir model by utilizing ANN/SMLP based rock-typing techniques. These rock types would be helpful in making a multi layer formation model for the VIT modeling and regression approach. The vertical interference test model is then used to determine the vertical permeability values for each of the individual rock types. The paper displays the workflow to utilize the rock type based layered formation model in vertical interference test modeling for a channel sand scenario.
A Blueprint to Manage Large Scale Unconventional Multistage Fracturing Operations: A Case Study of Raniganj CBM Field.
Authors: Kumar Anjani , Goswami Rishiraj
Published: April 2019

Unconventional oil and gas reservoirs are being explored significantly around the globe nowadays. The economical production of hydrocarbons from these unconventional oil and gas reservoirs like CBM requires very advanced and cost effective technologies. Hydraulic fracturing is such a technology which is being used in the oil and gas industry for many decades to create highly conductive channels in the formations having very low permeability values. Multistage hydraulic fracturing has been proved to be a great achievement in oil and gas industry to enhance the production from unconventional reservoirs. An effective hydraulic fracturing planning & execution is a key to achieve the expected results in terms of production from unconventional reservoirs such as tight gas, shale gas, coal bed methane or other very low permeability reservoirs.

Unconventional reservoirs such as Shale & CBM require large scale hydraulic fracturing operations, where multiple frac fleets, wire-line units, coiled tubing units; work-over rigs & ancillary services are mobilized. A scheduling software based project management approach was followed at CBM Raniganj for planning & modeling of operations. This paper aims to study how the operational resource deployed in Raniganj field for hydraulic fracturing was optimized in terms of time, cost & load for fracturing operations.

The approach of modeling & planning the hydraulic fracturing operations is based on project management & scheduling software. Assumptions were finalized based on experience. The loopholes, possible schedule slippages and other deterrents which could cause a lag in the hydro fracturing campaign aimed to pump over 1,600 frac jobs in CBM Raniganj field, over a period of 30 rig months, were identified clearly. The scope, time, budget & quality standards were clearly defined and a schedule was prepared with the help of the scheduling software to run the fleets in a clockwork manner. Activities like perforation, Acidizing, data fracturing, main fracturing, flowback, sand plug and finally sand cleanout were defined as series & simultaneous operation.
Rapid Flood Operation Analysis and Optimization: A Case Study from the Midland Basin
Authors: Liu Guoxiang , Bruns Alex , Murrell Glen
Published: April 2019

The effectiveness of secondary and tertiary recovery projects depends heavily on the operator's understanding of the fluid flow characteristics within the reservoir. 3D geo-cellular models and finite element/difference-based simulators may be used to investigate reservoir dynamics, but the approach generally entails a computationally expensive and time-consuming workflow. This paper presents a workflow that integrates rapid analytical method and data-analytics technique to quickly analyze fluid flow and reservoir characteristics for producing near "real-time" results. This fast-track workflow guides reservoir operations including injection fluid allocation, well performance monitoring, surveillance, and optimization, and delivers solutions to the operator using a website application on a cloud-based environment. This web-based system employs a continuity governing equation (Capacitance Resistance Modelling, CRM) to analyze inter-well communication using only injection and production data. The analytic initially matches production history to determine a potential time response between injectors and producers, and simultaneously calculates the connectivity between each pair of wells. Based on the inter-well relationships described by the connectivity network, the workflow facilitates what-if scenarios. This workflow is suitable to study the impact of different injection plans, constraints, and events on production estimation, performance monitoring, anomaly alerts, flood breakthrough, injection fluid supply, and equipment constraints. The system also allows automatic injection re-design based on different number of injection wells to guide injection allocation and drainage volume management for flood optimization solutions. A field located in the Midland basin was analyzed to optimize flood recovery efficiency and apply surveillance assistance. The unit consists of 11 injectors and 22 producers. After optimization, a solution delivering a 30% incremental oil production over an 18-month period was derived. The analysis also predicted several instances of early water breakthrough and high water cut, and subsequent mitigation options. This system couples established waterflood analytics, CRM and modern data-analytics, with a web-based deliverable to provide operators with near "real-time" surveillance and operational optimizations.
Single Point High Pressure Gas Lift Replaces ESP in Permian Basin Pilot Test
Authors: Pronk Branden , Elmer William , Harms Larry , Nelle Will , Hacksma James
Published: April 2019

Long known for its tolerance of solids-laden fluid and wellbore deviation, gas lift is an increasingly popular artificial lift method for horizontal unconventional wells. A variation of gas lift known as Single Point High Pressure Gas Lift (SPHPGL), noted for the absence of gas lift valves, is now practical because of the availability of high discharge pressure compression equipment.

In SPE 187443 (Elmer 2017), the authors of this paper proffered that Annular SPHPGL could lift large liquid volumes. Further, this lift method was potentially a competitive alternative to failure prone Electric Submersible Pumps (ESPs) which are often used early in the life of horizontal wells to produce at high rates. The authors provided Nodal Systems Analysis to support this claim but lacked actual data from field testing. Finally, they appealed to industry to implement and perfect this "not new" but timely technology.

When the referenced paper was presented at the October 2017 SPE ATCE, high pressure compressors were not available from industry for lease. This situation changed in early 2018, with rental equipment becoming available in the Permian Basin. Subsequently, a Permian Basin operator (SM Energy) agreed to perform a pilot test in Howard County, Texas to test the conclusions listed in the paper, primarily that Annular SPHPGL could compete rate-wise with ESPs. Plans for a pilot test were made. Additionally, the production facility was modified to handle the possibility of higher flowrates than normally observed with ESPs, as well as increased slugging.

Injection down the tubing with returning flow up the tubing-casing annulus began in September 2018. Initial production rates were close to Nodal Systems Analysis predictions, and comparable with ESP flowrates. This proved that this technique could in fact compete rate-wise with ESPs.

For operators using liquids-rich produced gas for gas lift, the importance of maintaining gas temperatures elevated throughout the compression process is documented. Also, the positive results of the production facility modifications to handle higher flowrates and possible slugging are presented.
A Critical Review of Using High Viscosity Friction Reducers as Fracturing Fluids for Hydraulic Fracturing Applications
Authors: Ba Geri Mohammed , Imqam Abdulmohsin , Flori Ralph
Published: April 2019

The primary purpose of using traditional friction reducers in stimulation treatments is to overcome the tubular drag while pumping at high flow rates. Hydraulic fracturing is the main technology used to produce hydrocarbon from extremely low permeability rock. Even though slickwater (water fracturing with few chemical additives) used to be one of the most common fracturing fluids, several concerns are still associated with its use, including usage of freshwater, high-cost operation, and environmental issues. Therefore, current practice in hydraulic fracturing is to use alternative fluid systems that are cost effective and have less environmental impact, such as fluids which utilize high viscosity friction reducers (HVFRs), which typically are high molecular weight polyacrylamides. This paper carefully reviews and summarizes over 40 published papers, including experimental work, field case studies, and simulation work. This work summarizes the most recent improvements of using HVFR’s, including capability of carrying proppant, reducing water and chemical requirements, its compatibility with produced water, and environmental benefits in hydraulic fracturing treatments. A further goal is to gain insight into the effective design of HVFR based fluid systems.

The findings of this study are analyzed from over 26 field case studies of many unconventional reservoirs. In comparing to the traditional hydraulic fracture fluids system, the paper summaries many potential advantages offered by HVFR fluids, including: superior proppant transport capability, almost 100% retained conductivity, cost reduction, minimizing chemicals usage by 50%, less operating equipment on location, reducing water consumption by 30%, and fewer environmental concerns. The study also reported that the common HVFR concentration used was 4gpt. HVFRs were used in the field at temperature ranges from 120°F to 340°F. Finally, this work addresses up-to-date challenges and emphasizes necessities for using high viscosity friction reducers as alternative fracture fluids.
Data-Driven Analysis of Natural Gas EOR in Unconventional Shale Oils
Authors: Temizel Cenk , Balaji Karthik , Canbaz Celal Hakan , Palabiyik Yildiray , Moreno Raul , Rabiei Minou , Zhou Zifu , Ranjith Rahul
Published: April 2019

Due to complex characteristics of shale reservoirs, data-driven techniques offer fast and practical solutions in optimization and better management of shale assets. Developments in data-driven techniques enable robust analysis of not only the primary depletion mechanisms, but also the enhanced oil recovery in unconventionals such as natural gas injection. This study provides a comprehensive background on application of data-driven methods in the O&G industry, the process, methodology and learnings along with examples of data-driven analysis of natural gas injection in shale oil reservoirs through the use of publicly-available data.

Data is obtained and organized. Patterns in production data are analyzed using data-driven methods to understand key parameters in the recovery process as well as the optimum operational strategies to improve recovery. The complete process is illustrated step-by-step for clarity and to serve as a practical guide for readers. This study also provides information on what other alternative physics-based evaluation methods will be able to offer in the current conditions of data availability and the understanding of physics of recovery in shale oil assets together with the comparison of outcomes of those methods with respect to the data-driven methods. Thereby, a thorough comparison of physics-based and data-driven methods, their advantages, drawbacks and challenges are provided.

It has been observed that data organization and filtering take significant time before application of the actual data-driven method, yet data-driven methods serve as a practical solution in fields that are mature enough to bear data for analysis as long as the methodology is carefully applied. The advantages, challenges and associated risks of using data-driven methods are also included. The results of data-driven methods illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of the methods and a guideline for when to use what kind of strategy and evaluation in an asset.

A comprehensive understanding of the interactions between key components of the formation and the way various elements of an EOR process impact these interactions, is of paramount importance. Among the few existing studies on the use of data-driven method for natural gas injection in shale oil, a comparative approach including the physics-based methods is included but they lack the interrelationship between physics-based and data-driven methods as a complementary and a competitor within the era of rise of unconventionals. This study closes the gap and serves as an up-to-date reference for industry professionals.
Quantifying a New Horizontal Well Gas Anchor Performance
Authors: Karmon Isaac , Panacharoensawad Ekarit , Watson Marshall
Published: April 2019

The separation of gas from gas-liquid mixture in horizontal wells has become a growing concern in the oil and gas industry. The produced free gas reduces the efficiency of rod pump systems, minimizes oil production and can lead to the failure of the rod pump system due to gas locking phenomena. The impact of two-phase flow on the new horizontal well gas anchor’s performance was investigated experimentally. Each experiment was conducted in a transparent horizontal well flow loop by using water and air as the test fluids. Experiments with and without the new gas anchor in the flow loop cases were studied. The new tool has two mechanisms to prevent gas phase from entering the tubing. The first mechanism is the breakage of the mixture’s wave by the bull plug of the tool. The second mechanism is the separation of small gas bubbles due to the flow through the tortuous path inside the tool. This experimental program quantifies the tool performance regarding the first working mechanism only. The bubble separation via the tortuous path mechanism was not investigated.

The results showed that both with and without tool cases can separate 90 – 100% gas from the mixture, if the inlet of tubing or the tool was fully submerged under liquid phase of the mixture at all time. This condition was achieved under stratified flow where the horizontal part of the well was toe flat or toe-up (0°, +1°, and +2°). The wave breakage mechanism by the bull plug of the tool was confirmed visually. This breakage mechanism established the advantage of using the new gas anchor over no-tool condition.
Numerical Study on Casing Integrity During Hydraulic Fracturing Shale Formation
Authors: Wu Xiaye , Han Lihong , Yang Shangyu , Yin Fei , Teodoriu Catalin , Wu Xingru
Published: April 2019

Due to the layered texture and sedimentation environment, shale formations usually characterized as high heterogeneity and anisotropy in in-situ stresses. During the hydraulic fracturing process, fracturing fluid is injected at a pressure above the formation pressure. This injection process changes the local in-situ stresses in a quick and significant manner while generating fracture systems. In the regions of existing geo-features such as natural fractures and faults, local stress changes could lead to the activation of formation movement, which in return impacts the casing going through the locale. Casing deformations during hydraulic fracturing have been observed in Southwest China Sichuan basin, and it have impeded completion operations in certain regions. In order to ensure further exploring, we analyszed this phenomenon and propose practical solutions for fault reactivation prevention.

To study the mechanism of local slippage and the impact on casing integrity, we set up a 2D finite element model with considerations of in-situ stresses acquired from fields, natural fracture orientation from available seismic data, and we simulated water injection process in order to quantify potential slippage and displacement. The finite element model features an integration of casing, cementing, and formation under the hydraulic fracturing conditions. For particular parameters such as permeability and leak-off coefficeint, we conducted sensitivity studies to quantify their impacts on displacement amount.

The theoretical geomechanics studies indicate water induced slippage existence in shale due to its fracture reactivation. Using the finite element model, this paper interpreted and quantified the impact of fracturing fluid injection on casing from strike-slip fault regiems. Simulation results revealed that water injection into natural fractured shale formation can induce finite displacement characterized as fault slippage along discontinues surfaces. This study could help engineers to have a better prediction as how hydraulic fracture intereact with subsurface structures and potential risks that comes along with it. This type of casing damage can be reduced by improving well trajectory design, completion operation, and higher strength level of casing-cement system.

The findings from this study not only can be applied to naturally fractured formations, but also to other pre-existing geo-features such as discountinues surfaces. It also provides fundamental basis for more practical solution to find the measures and overcome the casing deformation problems in hydraulic fracturing.
Prevent Fouling and Corrosion During Mill-Out Operations: Case Studies
Authors: Galindo Tanhee
Published: April 2019

Case studies of mill-out operations in the Permian Basin which evaluate chemical programs and processes used. Results show how existing processes and chemicals used or lack thereof, can affect equipment and undo the preventative chemical treatments used during the hydraulic fracturing process.

The study looks at field water testing performed during various mill-out operations and considered workover rig vs coiled tubing, equipment set up, water & chemicals used, and operational challenges. Water analyses were completed on the injection water and returns at various intervals of the mill-out. Effectiveness of chemical treatment was also monitored when biocide was used.

Field case studies of horizontal wells for two operators in the Permian Basin are presented. Wells were milled-out utilizing workover rigs or coiled tubing units. Testing results show the impact of equipment setup and operations process on the water quality and efficiency of the chemicals used. Water fouling was prevalent in all cases, with coiled tubing jobs showing the highest degree of water contamination and chemical inefficiency. Changes in the water treatment program during operations showed significant improvement and sustainable results. Potential corrosion of the work string due to water fouling and water composition were also observed. The effects of changes to chemical dosages were also monitored. This was important because it identified operational improvements that can reduce equipment replacement costs, reduce chemical overuse and help protect wells from fouling due to high bacteria.

These case study provides a comprehensive review of mill-out operations, which provides guidelines for improving chemical efficiency and potential of extending life of the work string.
Methods and Apparatus for Artificial Lift of Water-in-Oil Emulsions
Authors: Gomez Sergio , Al Munif Eiman , Fahes Mashhad
Published: April 2019

Understanding the behavior of water-in-crude-oil emulsions is necessary to determine its effect on oil and gas production. The presence of emulsions in any part of the production system could cause many problems such as large pressure drop in pipelines due to its high viscosity. Electrical submersible pumps (ESPs) and gas lift are commonly used separately in lifting crude oil from wells. However, the use of downhole equipment and instruments such as ESPs that cause mixing can result in the formation of an emulsion with a high viscosity. The pressure required to lift emulsions is greater than the pressure required to lift non-emulsified liquids. Lifting an emulsion decreases the pressure drawdown capabilities, lowers production rate, increases the load on the equipment, shortens its life expectancy and can result in permanent equipment damage. Methods and apparatus which reduce the load on the pump, therefore, are desirable. The present paper is directed to understand the behavior of water-in-oil emulsions in artificial lift systems, mainly through gas lift.

Two stable water-in-oil synthetic emulsions were created in the laboratory and their rheology and stability characteristics were measured. One contained crude oil and the other, mineral oil. The second stage included measuring the effect of gas lift exposure on the emulsion behavior and characteristics. The results of the present work indicate that water-in-oil emulsions can be destabilized, and their viscosities lowered under gas exposure. The effect of gas injection on the emulsion was linked to the initial conditions of the emulsion as well as the gas type, injection rate and exposure time.

The present study is directed to methods and systems for combining both ESPs and gas lift for the purpose of improving and simplifying the lift of water-in-oil emulsions from oil wells. The novel methods and apparatus are based on the discovery that by adding gas above the ESPs in the wellbore, the viscosity of an oil-in-water emulsion is actually reduced, thus making it easier to lift oil from the well and extending the life of the ESP. Therefore, in addition to the normal benefits of gas in aiding the lift of liquids, if the gas lift valve is installed at a calculated distance above the pump location, the emulsion viscosity can be reduced. This reduces the load on the ESP.
Evaluation of Small-Scale Gas-to-Liquid Economic Feasibility to Mitigate North Dakota Flaring Issue
Authors: da Silva Sequeira Pascoela , Ghanbarnezhad Moghanloo Rouzbeh
Published: April 2019

The booming of shale gas production has affected the natural gas price in the United States (U.S). Natural gas price has plummeted due to the excessive capacity. On the other hand, the import of crude oil and its production of diesel, gasoline, and others are increasing. The problem lies in finding a practical, economical and efficient way of making natural gas marketable. A potential solution is Small-scale Gas-to-Liquids plants. Small-scale GTL can fulfill some of the petroleum products demand such as Gasoline, Ultra-low-sulfur diesel, and jet-fuel. Small-scale GTL plants especially can benefit countries where the gas production is higher than gas demand, yet these countries depend on imported oil.

A Monte Carlo simulation approach is used to conduct sensitivity analysis on various parameters such as the feedstock/natural gas price, plant capacity, plant efficiency, capital expenditure (CAPEX), operational expenditure (OPEX), and products selling prices. The range for natural gas prices and gasoline prices are obtained from average historical data in the United States for the past five (10) years where the shale gas production is booming. The CAPEX is attained from previous GTL project plants before using the Power-Sizing model and literature. The annual OPEX is the percentage fraction of the CAPEX. The plant capacity was chosen based on the diseconomy factor estimated from previous GTL projects. Even with the premium quality of GTL products, the selling price for the products is equal to regular crude oil products.

Economic metrics such as Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), Cost-to-Profit (C/P) ratio and Payback Period were used to assess the success of GTL technology at each given business case. Results showed that NPV, IRR, C/P ratio and payback period are most affected by CAPEX, products selling price, OPEX, and capacity of the plant, in respected order. Based on these case scenarios and parameters, sensitivity analysis is conducted using Monte Carlo's simulation of 10,000 iterations the results for NPV, IRR, C/P ratio and payback period showed that the GTL project is profitable. The NPVs for the GTL plant in this study are positive for all case scenarios.

It is expected that the outcome of this research would guide shale gas producers and private investors when considering GTL investment to monetize their assets in the United States and beyond.
Haynesville Shale: Predicting Long-Term Production and Residual Analysis to Identify Well Intereference and Frac Hits
Authors: Gupta Ishank , Rai Chandra , Devegowda Deepak , Sondergeld Carl
Published: April 2019

This study analyzes the production data from 2,755 horizontal wells in the Haynesville shale. Correlations were generated to predict 4,5,6, and 7-year cumulative productions from initial 6,12 and 24-months production data. These correlations can help in field development planning and economic analysis. The residuals (Predicted – Actual Cumulative Production) from these correlations were also analyzed and this technique can be used to identify wells affected by interference, refracturing, frac-hits, etc.

The cumulative production estimates from the developed correlations were also compared with the corresponding estimates from the DCA equations (seven different DCA methods used). The accuracy of prediction based on correlations developed in this study is at par with the various standard DCA methods published and used in the industry. The correlations are much faster to use and easier to implement for a large number of wells.

Another objective of the paper was to develop P10, P50 and P90 type curves for the Haynesville shale using the available production data. A subset of the total wells i.e. 150 wells evenly distributed throughout the study area, were used for predicting type curves. These type curves were generated and compared using different Decline Curve Analysis (DCA) models. The different DCA methods predicted an uncertainty of 5 to 27 % for the P10, P50 and P90 production profiles.
What Tier Sand Should You Use for Your Well? Practical Use of Data Analytics to Determine Proppant Type and Quality
Authors: Sedillos Lia , Roundtree Russell , Saxena Jayant , Convers Carlos , Dean Elio
Published: April 2019

This paper presents a data driven approach to answer the question of whether premium, high strength white sand proppant, while more expensive than regional (brown) sand, is justified due to its alleged ability to make better producing wells. For this study, 739 horizontal wells with production, and stimulation data were used in a robust statistical approach to conclude that, for the most common set of well characteristics, white sand will produce a superior NPV weighted economic outcome than lower cost regional (brown) sand alternatives. While there are wells in this analysis that did not produce this robust conclusion of "white sand is better", none of them produced an outcome that "brown sand was better". Rather, several of the wells simply had results that were statistically inconclusive. This paper serves as a good example of what data are needed to perform such an analysis and the challenges of normalizing ‘first order effects’ that dominate the influence on well productivity (TVD, lateral length, and proppant intensity) while attempting to ascertain the influence of 'second order’ factors such as Sand Type. Becoming familiar and adept at these analysis methods should facilitate the statistical verification of other second order effects on finding the optimal stimulation treatment.
Uncertainty Analysis of Production Forecast in Permian Basin
Authors: Mabadeje Ademide O. , Ghanbarnezhad Moghanloo Rouzbeh
Published: April 2019

This paper evaluates the impact of decision making and uncertainty associated with production forecast for 2000+ wells completed in Permian basin. Existing studies show that unconventional reservoirs have complex reservoir characteristics making traditional methods for ultimate recovery estimation insufficient. Based on these limitations, uncertainty is increased during the estimation of reservoir properties, reserve quantification and, evaluation of economic viability. Thus, it is necessary to determine and recommend favorable conditions in which these reservoirs are developed.

In this study, cumulative production is predicted using four different decline curve analysis (DCA) − power law exponential, stretched exponential, extended exponential and Duong models. A comparison between the predicted cumulative production from the models using a subset of historical data (0-3months) and actual production data observed over the same time period determines the accuracy of DCA's; repeating the evaluation for subsequent time intervals (0-6 months, 0-9 months,) provides a basis to monitor the performance of each DCA with time. Moreover, the best predictive models as a combination of DCA's predictions is determined via multivariate regression. Afterwards, uncertainty due to prediction errors excluding any bias is estimated and expected disappointment (ED) is calculated using probability density function on the results obtained.

In this paper, uncertainty is estimated from the plot of ED versus time for all wells considered. ED drops for wells having longer production history as more data are used for estimation. Also, the surprise/disappointment an operator experiences when using various DCA methods is estimated for each scenario. However, it appears that whilst Duong (DNG) method always overpredicts, power law exponential (PLE) decline mostly under predicts, the stretched exponential lies between DNG & PLE estimates and the extended exponential DCA demonstrates an erratic behavior crossing over the actual trend multiple times with time. In conclusion, profitability zones for producing oil in the Permian basin are defined implicitly based on drilling and completion practices which paves the path to determine the "sweet spot" via optimization of fracture spacing and horizontal length in the wells.

The outcome of the paper helps improve the industry's take on uncertainty analysis in production forecast, especially the concept of expected disappointment/surprise. This study suggests that effects of bias due to decision making can be much greater than what has often regarded, which can change the performance evaluation of the Permian basin in terms of economic feasibility.
Multiplex Polymerase chain reaction to diagnose bloodstream infections in patients after cardiothoracic surgery
Authors: Pilarczyk Kevin , Rath Peter-Michael , Steinmann Jörg , Thielmann Matthias , Dürbeck Maximillian , Padosch Stephan A. , Jakob Heinz G. , Dusse Fabian
Published: April 2019

Background: Sepsis and other infectious complications are major causes of mortality and mor-bidity in patients after cardiac surgery. Whereas conventional blood culture (BC) suffers from low sensitivity as well as a reporting delay of approximately 48–72 h, real-time multiplex poly-merase chain reaction (PCR) based technologies like “SeptiFast” (SF) might offer a fast and reliable alternative for detection of bloodstream infections (BSI). The aim of this study was to compare the performance of SF with BC testing in patients suspected of having BSI after cardi-ac surgery.
Methods: 279 blood samples from 168 individuals with suspected BSI were analyzed by SF and BC. After excluding results attributable to contaminants, a comparison between the two groups were carried out. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were generated to de-termine the accuracy of clinical and laboratory values for the prediction of positive SF results.
Results: 14.7% (n = 41) of blood samples were positive using SF and 17.2% (n=49) using BC (n.s. [p>0.05]). In six samples SF detected more than one pathogen. Among the 47 microorgan-isms identified by SF, only 11 (23.4%) could be confirmed by BC. SF identified a higher num-ber of Gram-negative bacteria than BC did (28 vs. 12, χ2=7.97, p=0.005). The combination of BC and SF increased the number of detected microorganisms, including fungi, compared to BC alone (86 vs. 49, χ2=13.51, p<0.001). C-reactive protein (CRP) (21.7±11.41 vs. 16.0±16.9 mg/dl, p=0.009), procalcitonin (28.7±70.9 vs. 11.5±30.4 ng/dl, p=0.015), and interleukin 6 (IL 6) (932.3±1306.7 vs. 313.3±686.6 pg/ml, p=0.010) plasma concentrations were higher in patients with a positive SF result. Using ROC analysis, IL-6 (AUC 0.836) and CRP (AUC 0.804) showed the best predictive values for positive SF results.
Conclusion: The SF test represent a valuable method for rapid etiologic diagnosis of BSI in patients after cardiothoracic surgery. In particular this method applies for individuals with sus-pected Gram-negative blood stream. Due to the low performance in detecting Gram-positive pathogens and the inability to determine antibiotic susceptibility, it should be used in addition to BC only.
Negative pressure pulmonary edema: a case report
Authors: Xiong Jun , Sun Yongxing
Published: April 2019

Background: The negative pressure pulmonary edema is rare clinical situation which caused mainly by upper airway obstruction. However except upper airway obstruction, there may be other pathophysiological disorders making patients more vulnerable to pulmonary edema. Based on these disorders, upper airway obstruction is the trigger to induce negative pressure pulmonary edema.
Case presentation: This case was a 5-year-old girl with tumor on saddle area, her hormones level were abnormal preoperatively, such as cortisol, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, free T4 and total T4. During the stage of induction, negative pressure pulmonary edema took place due to mild upper airway obstruction. And the instant chest Computer tomography proved diagnosis clue. After intensive care, most lung field of this girl recovered to normal within 48 hours.
Conclusion: The patient with abnormal hormone levels is vulnerable to pulmonary edema, mild upper airway obstruction triggered negative pressure pulmonary. Thus pre-operation hormones supplement is as important as keeping upper airway unobstructed.
Electric vagal nerve stimulation inhibits inflammation and improves early postoperation cognitive dysfunction in aged rats
Authors: Xiong Jun , Wang Huijun , Bao Yin , Guo Yuliang , Sun Yongxing
Published: April 2019

Background This study aimed to evaluate effects of electric vagal nerve stimulation on early postoperation cognitive dysfunction in aged rats.
Methods: A total of 33 male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were selected and assigned randomly to three groups, control group (C, n=10), splenectomy group (S, n=10) and splenectomy+vagal nerve stimulation group (SV, n=13). Behavior and memory of rats were evaluated by Open Field Test and Morris Water Maze. Levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-10 in serum were measured by ELISA. The level of TNF-α protein in hippocampus was assessed by Western blotting. qPCR was used to detected mRNA expression of NF-κB in hippocampus.
Results: During anesthesia/operation, vital life signs of rats were stable. In SV group, vagal nerve stimulation decreased heart rate lower than 10% of basic level and kept it at a stable range by regulating stimulation intensity. After stimulation stop, heart rate returned to the basic level again. This indicated that the model of vagal nerve stimulation was successful. Serum levels of TNF-α and IL-6 increased by the operation/anesthesia, but they decreased with vagal nerve stimulation (all P<0.05). TNF-α protein and mRNA expression of NF-κB in hippocampus were also eliminated by vagal nerve stimulation compared to S group (P<0.05). Results of Morris Water Maze showed escape latency of postoperation in S group was significantly longer than C group (P<0.05), and times of crossing platform in S group was lower than that of C group (P<0.05). Although escape latency of postopration in SV group was shorter than that of S group, there was no significant difference between two groups. Meanwhile there were no significant differences of behavior test in Open Field test between three groups, although vagal nerve stimulation improved partly active explore behavior compared to S group.
Conclusion The inflammation caused by operation and general anesthesia was an important reason of early postoperation cognitive dysfunction, and electric vagal nerve stimulation could inhibit the inflammation. Meanwhile, vagal nerve stimulation could ameliorate early postoperation cognitive dysfunction partly, but its protective effects were not enough and should be studied and improved in future.
Caracterización Composicional y de Resistencia a las Calizas Explotadas en las Minas del Municipio de Bosconia, en el Departamento del Cesar
Authors: Atencio Guerrero María José , Britto López Yassuana
Published: April 2019

En el municipio de Bosconia, departamento del Cesar se encuentran en superficie rocas sedimentarias, las cuales están siendo extraídas por diferentes canteras tales como Minera de los Santos, Cantera Midas y Eliseo Cañón para su aprovechamiento industrial. En este artículo se determinaron mediante ensayos de fluorescencia de rayos x los diferentes usos de las Calizas aflorantes en dichas canteras, por medio de estos ensayos se evidencio que las calizas encontradas en la zona poseen una concentración de calcio entre 94.39% y 45.45%, sílice entre 35% y 2.88% y otros como Fe, K, Al, Mg y S que no superan el 1%; según las normas NTC 4915 [11]  (ICONTEC) equivalente a la ASTM C 911-99 [4], la utilidad de las rocas extraídas en la mina Eliseo Cañón y Minera de los Santos es para descalcificación de agua, tratamiento de aguas e hipoclorito (blanqueador), y para pulpa de papel solo las de Eliseo Cañón. De igual forma se realizaron ensayos de compresión uniaxial, arrojando valores de compresión uniaxial: 6.3Mpa; 5.9Mpa; 4.9Mpa respectivamente.