bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
S
ussman,
R
obert
Authors: Bartlett Thad Q.
Published: April 2017

Robert Wald Sussman (1941–2016) was an American primatologist best known for his work on the socioecology, demography, and conservation of lemurs. He received his Ph.D. in physical anthropology from Duke University in 1972, working under the direction of John Buettner‐Janusch, and joined the Anthropology program at Washington University in St Louis in 1973. During an academic career spanning nearly five decades, he mentored nearly 30 graduate students, published scores of scientific papers, and authored, coauthored, or edited a dozen books, on topics ranging from
Primate Ecology
to
The Myth of Race
.
Epizootiology
Authors: Wolf Tiffany M. , Travis Dominic A.
Published: April 2017

Epizootiology is an area of epidemiological science which entails the study and control of disease in animals. This term is synonymous with the more popular idiom veterinary epidemiology. Epizootiologic activities include herd or population health surveillance, outbreak investigation, clinical trials, diagnostic test validation, mathematical disease modeling, and risk assessment to support the control and prevention of disease in animal populations.
Habituation
Authors: Hanson Katherine T.
Published: April 2017

Habituation, a process by which wild animals learn to accept human observers as neutral elements in their environment, has long been considered a fundamental feature of field primatology. Successful habituation is generally defined by increased researcher–primate contact duration, significant decreases in flight, avoidance, and display behaviors, and increased “ignore” responses. This entry details the history and significance of habituation in primate fieldwork, habituation processes and outcomes, and ethical and research reliability concerns related to habituated primates.
Brain: Development
Authors: Sherwood Chet C.
Published: April 2017

The primate brain undergoes developmental changes in morphology, cellular composition, connectivity, and molecular expression. During ontogeny, environmental and social factors shape the maturation of brain structure and function. Primates are especially dependent on learning to navigate their complex social world, requiring neural plasticity. Evolutionary changes in the timing of developmental events, such as brain growth rate, synaptogenesis, and myelination, might underlie differences in cognition and learning among primate species.
Great Ape Nest‐Building
Authors: Fruth Barbara I.
Published: April 2017

All great apes (Hominidae) make nests. These sleeping platforms are similarly constructed, despite species' differences in habitat and social organization. However, these simple shelters vary, not only across but also within great ape species. Nests serve mainly for rest but also have other purposes. Nest‐building in great apes ranges from simple to more sophisticated constructions. Proposed hypotheses for the origin, evolution, and persistence of nest‐building include functions such as comfort, thermoregulation, and predator and disease vector avoidance, plus sleep improvement with resulting memory consolidation. Nests remain visible for months, and remnants of basic construction sometimes persist for decades. They are useful to other disciplines such as paleoanthropology, where they aid the reconstruction of early hominin behavior, and wildlife conservation, where they allow estimates of great ape distribution and abundance.
Communication
Authors: Micheletta Jérôme
Published: April 2017

Primates communicate via four different sensory modalities—olfaction, vision, touch, and audition—which are often intertwined in complex multimodal signals. Primates use communication in different contexts and it is crucial to regulate their complex social lives. Like other aspects of primate behavior and cognition, social and ecological pressures have shaped communication signals and systems. A number of objective tools can be used to study communication, and the generalized use of these tools across species and context will lead to a better understanding of the evolution and function of communication in all primates, including humans.
Ecological Morphology
Authors: Wright Kristin A.
Published: April 2017

Ecological morphology is a subfield of evolutionary morphology that examines how a species' morphology is related to the environment in which it lives and how variation in a given morphological feature within or among species is related to ecology. Important concepts considered in ecological morphological studies include the biological role of morphological features; niche partitioning and the evolutionary processes driven by competition within and among species living in the same environment; and anatomical and morphological convergence among distantly related species with similar ecology, performance, and fitness.
Seed Dispersal
Authors: Russo Sabrina E.
Published: April 2017

Frugivorous primates disperse the seeds of an enormous number of plant species in a wide variety of vegetation types across the globe. This facultative mutualism has contributed to the species and functional diversification of primates, in addition to influencing the reproductive ecology of plant species producing fleshy fruits. By generating heterogeneous seed shadows often characterized by the dispersal of seeds long distances, into multiple habitats, and with varying degrees of spatial aggregation, primates are often effective seed dispersers that are critical to the regeneration of plant communities, especially in an era of rapid global change.
Tri Hita Karana
Authors: Peterson Jeffrey V.
Published: April 2017

Tri Hita Karana
is a central philosophy of Balinese Hinduism. It holds that living a happy and healthy life is accomplished by maintaining harmony with fellow humans, the spiritual world, and the surrounding universe. Often
Tri Hita Karana
manifests in ritual performances and the sanctification of offerings, but it also serves as guidance for daily interactions with people and ecologies. Long‐tailed macaques (
Macaca fascicularis
) are linked to this philosophy directly by living in the forests surrounding certain Balinese Hindu temples. Therefore the effects and implications of
Tri Hita Karana
on local macaque behavioral ecology, and the interface between macaques and humans vis‐à‐vis
Tri Hita Karana
, is of interest to primatologists.
K
ano,
T
akayoshi
Authors: Furuichi Takeshi
Published: April 2017

After studying Japanese macaques in Takasakiyama, Japan, Takayoshi Kano opened a study site for wild bonobos (
Pan paniscus
) in Wamba village, the Congo basin, in 1973. As a pioneer researcher, he revealed various aspects of the ecology and social behaviors of wild bonobos. His study site was gazetted as Luo Scientific Reserve in 1992, and his successors have been carrying out studies there ever since.
Stable Isotope Ecology
Authors: Crowley Brooke E.
Published: April 2017

Stable isotope ecology is a geochemical technique for interpreting a wide range of research questions related to primate diets, foraging strategies, and life histories, as well as niche partitioning, habitat characteristics, and environmental conditions for living and extinct ecological communities. Isotopic data complement data obtained via observational methods, and may be particularly useful for studying the behavior of cryptic, rare, or extinct species.
Skull Diversity
Authors: Ross Callum F.
Published: April 2017

The primate skull (cranium and mandible) houses the brain and the organs of balance, communication, feeding, hearing, olfaction, respiration, and vision. Diversity of primate skull design reflects the functional and spatial requirements of these sensory and motor systems, along with the tradeoffs attendant on their aggregation. The evolution of these functional systems can be studied from fossils of the cranium and mandible, providing clues as to the selective forces driving the origin and evolution of Primates. The complex morphology of the skull is a rich source of evidence on primate adaptation and phylogenetic relationships.
Cultural and Religious Aspects of Primate Conservation
Authors: Radhakrishna Sindhu
Published: April 2017

Primates occupy a special place in human consciousness that extends to significant roles in human social, cultural, and religious lives. This is due to both the biological connection and the behavioral similarities between nonhuman primates and humans. The rise of ethnoprimatology has contributed to a growing realization that primate conservation efforts cannot ignore the cultural relationships between people and nonhuman primates, and since the turn of the century, many studies have explicitly and implicitly addressed the cultural associations between humans and nonhuman primates and how these impact primate conservation. This entry assesses how people's beliefs regarding the religious and cultural significance of nonhuman primates impinge upon primate conservation in five main ways: primate translocation by humans, human–nonhuman primate sympatry, hunting and trapping of primates, human provisioning of primates, and pathogen transfer between humans and primates.
Primate Conservation Education
Authors: Patricia Wright , Katherine Kling , Cornejo Fanny
Published: April 2017

Primate conservation education is a commonly implemented strategy for confronting and combating the many threats facing primate species, particularly anthropogenic dangers. The field utilizes a wide variety of strategies and reaches audiences from the local to international scale. Conservation education's strength in conservation planning is widely held to be its ability to influence the knowledge, attitude, and behaviors (KAB) of relevant stakeholders toward primate well‐being. Strategies and programs practiced by case studies in primate range countries in Africa, Asia, Madagascar, and the Neotropics are explored. While the importance of conservation education as a strategy for primate conservation has long been recognized, numerous challenges encumber its practice, particularly lack of robust evaluation techniques. Primate conservation education, as a dynamic and highly adaptable method, stands as a priority for primate conservation efforts.
Duke Lemur Center
Authors: Yoder Anne D.
Published: April 2017

The Duke Lemur Center (DLC, formerly the Duke University Primate Center) has housed, cared for, and made available for study nearly 4,000 animals across 31 species of nonhuman primates. Today, it houses nearly 250 individuals across more than 18 species.
Paleocene and Eocene Primates
Authors: Godinot Marc
Published: April 2017

True primates, almost unknown in the Paleocene, diversified rapidly on northern continents during the Eocene. The most abundant and best known are North American and European lemur‐like adapiforms and smaller omomyiforms. Several Asiatic groups remain controversial because they are incompletely known, whereas anthropoideans are documented in the late Eocene of Africa.
D
e
W
aal,
F
rans
Authors: Brosnan Sarah F.
Published: April 2017

Frans de Waal is a Dutch‐born primatologist whose observational and experimental research on nonhuman primates has demonstrated the cognitive and emotional continuity between humans and other primates. His areas of influence include conflict resolution, social strategizing, reconciliation and consolation, cooperation, inequity responses, culture, and empathy. Regarding the latter, he was one of the first modern scientists to take seriously the idea that animals besides humans show empathy, and has developed an influential model of how empathy may have evolved. In addition to his academic research, Professor de Waal is a prolific writer and speaker with a passion for making scientific research available to nonscientists. Through his books and lectures, he has introduced numerous people to primate social behavior and cognition.
Arboreal Locomotion
Authors: MCabe Sharon C. J.
Published: April 2017

Every species within the Order Primates is arboreal to some degree (ranging from semiarboreal to primarily arboreal). The diversity of the species within this Order is echoed by the myriad physical adaptations and postural behaviors developed to exploit the resources of their respective arboreal environments. Such behaviors and adaptations allow primates to not only expand their feeding sphere to include food that would otherwise have been unobtainable (such as suspending from a stronger support in order to feed on items on a lower, weaker support) but also flee from predators quickly and quietly (such as in brachiation).
Extinction
Authors: Covert Herbert H.
Published: April 2017

Extinction is when a taxon no longer has living members (when the population size is zero). In contemporary primatology, one most frequently contemplates extinction in the context of trying to avoid this fate; within the context of conservation; or within the context of primate natural history. Most extinctions during primate history are thought to be the outcome of natural causes including climate change, disease, and habitat disruption. Presently, 56 percent of extant primate species are considered at risk of extinction by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). This is a startling percentage and reflects that modern biodiversity is threatened by unnatural causes that are clearly linked to human behavior. The two most discussed causes of primates being at risk of extinction are hunting and habitat destruction by humans.
Primates in Film
Authors: Morrow Kristen S. , Jameson Katherine A. , Trinidad Joshua S.
Published: April 2017

Nonhuman primates have been represented in filmed media since its inception in the late 1800s. Both entertainment and documentary films portray primates in diverse ways, and these representations have multifaceted implications for public understanding of primate behavior and conservation. This entry explores the history, ethics, and consequences of how nonhuman primates have been portrayed in feature‐length films over time. Additionally, we explore how growing changes in film practices are diminishing the need for live primates in entertainment films and directing attention toward the conservation of wild primates.
I
manishi,
K
inji
Authors: Takasaki Hiroyuki
Published: April 2017

Kinji Imanishi (1902–92) led primatology in Japan from its beginnings to its establishment phase. Moreover, Imanishi was a mountaineer, entomologist, ecologist, anthropologist, and expeditionist—a versatile outdoor philosopher of man and nature. With the master skills of a leader and organizer, he had pioneer spirit indispensable for trailblazing new fields of sciences.
Monogamy
Authors: Reichard Ulrich H.
Published: April 2017

The condition of having a single partner, or monogamy, is a complex social system in animals including humans. There are three related levels of monogamous relationships: (1) social monogamy describes being paired with a single social partner, (2) while mating monogamy relates to a single sexual partner, and (3) reproductive monogamy signals the exclusive contributions of two individuals to an offspring. Parental monogamy is a subset of social monogamy, when partners together care for offspring. Lifelong social monogamy has to date not been confirmed in pair‐living animals, who usually practice serial social monogamy. In many pair‐living species, males and females opportunistically engage in extrapair copulations, but only in some cases has the conception of extrapair young been confirmed. The origin of social monogamy has been related to females living solitarily and males being unable to defend more than one female, although the risk of male infanticide may also lead to pair living.
Non‐Invasive Sampling: Genetic
Authors: Fiore Anthony Di
Published: April 2017

Modern molecular techniques now make it possible for biologists to conduct genetic studies of wild animals using many different types of non‐invasively collected samples (including feces, hair, urine, saliva, semen, and other biomaterials) as sources of nucleic acids for analysis. Non‐invasive genetic sampling is now used routinely in studies of parentage, kinship, population structure, phylogenetics, and biogeography in primates, as well as to obtain data relevant to conservation planning from elusive or endangered taxa. When coupled with “next‐generation” sequencing, non‐invasive sampling may provide researchers of wild primates with an unprecedented ability to study patterns of gene flow, hybridization, population structure, and adaptive evolution at the level of the genome.
R
ichard,
A
lison
Authors: Pyle Jenna J.
Published: April 2017

Alison Richard has made significant contributions to theory pertaining to the evolution and ecology of Madagascar's lemurs. Dr. Richard's longitudinal research involving the sifaka (
Propithecus verreauxi
) in southwestern Madagascar has provided unique insight into demographic and socioecological characteristics of the species.
The Messel Pit
Authors: Franzen Jens Lorenz
Published: April 2017

The Messel Pit (Germany) is famous for the quality of preservation of its fossils. To date, eight primate specimens dating to the early Middle Eocene, 47.6–47.8 million years ago, have been found. They all belong to the Cercamoniinae, a subfamily of the adapiform family Notharctidae.
Europolemur koenigswaldi
and
Europolemur kelleri
are represented by partial skeletons, and
Darwinius masillae
by a complete skeleton, soft tissue, and digestive tract contents.
Speciation
Authors: McCabe Sharon C. J.
Published: April 2017

Speciation is the process through which new species arise through the splitting of lineages within parent species. There is much debate regarding both the rate and mode of speciation among living populations. Phyletic gradualism and punctuated equilibrium represent two ends of a spectrum regarding the rate at which speciation occurs—painting two very different pictures of these events. Meanwhile, the mode of speciation is often classified in terms of spatial context by researchers to produce a continuum of mechanisms ranging from complete geographic isolation between populations in allopatric speciation to no geographic separation in sympatric speciation. However, many scientists agree that speciation is far too prolonged and complex a process to be easily classified into concrete categories. It is considered more prudent to view this process as a collection of stages, each with its own set of evolutionary forces driving the course of speciation itself.
Remote Sensing
Authors: Emerson Charles W. , Anemone Robert L.
Published: April 2017

Remote sensing obtains information about objects without direct contact. In observations of the earth, passive sensors measure electromagnetic energy either reflected from the sun or emitted by the earth itself. Active sensors such as radar and LiDAR (light or laser detection and ranging) supply their own energy. Analog imagery that uses photographic film is the oldest form of remote sensing and is being replaced by digital technology that represents areas of the earth as arrays of pixels. Aerial or satellite imagery, when coupled with geographic information systems, can assist primatologists in assessing habitat or predicting species diversity and abundance.
Diets and Nutrition
Authors: Amato Katherine R.
Published: April 2017

Because primates must obtain sufficient energy and nutrients from the environments they inhabit to reproduce, diet and nutrition strongly influence many aspects of primate ecology and evolution. Constraints on energy and nutrient acquisition shape patterns in primate abundance, diversity, life history, and social behavior and, as such, primate diets and nutrition are often at the foundation of primate studies. Furthermore, information describing primate strategies for meeting nutritional demands can also enrich perspectives on human diet and nutrition in a broader evolutionary context.
Hunting and Habitat Degradation
Authors: Rovero Francesco , Barelli Claudia
Published: April 2017

Hunting and habitat degradation are the most important, pan‐tropical threats driving primates' extinction risk. While they often co‐occur, they have different impacts when considered alone. Habitat degradation, mostly resulting from encroaching agriculture and logging, has a complex impact on primates, with room for variable resilience, depending on the type and the intensity of the anthropic activity, the time lag since the modification took place, and the vicinity of the remaining primary forested areas. Instead, large‐scale and market‐driven hunting for commercial gain has a relatively more disruptive, direct, and often irreversible impact on primate populations. In particular, trade in primate meat, as well as trade in live animals (biomedical research, animals for zoos and circus) or parts (skins and organs for medical and ornamental use) represent an escalating threat to a number of highly demanded species. However, forms of subsistence hunting, that is, for personal consumption or local markets, may still occur at offtake levels compatible with primate viability. Primate species' vulnerability is highly influenced by species‐specific biological traits, primarily body size, diet, and social system, with variable importance depending on the threat type itself; this implies that vulnerability to one anthropogenic threat does not predict vulnerability to other threats.
African Colobines
Authors: Teichroeb Julie A.
Published: April 2017

The African colobines are the colobus monkeys of Africa, a diverse group of forest‐dwelling monkeys that have the ability to rely on mature leaves when other foods are scarce, due to their digestive strategy. This wide‐ranging and successful group of primates includes the olive colobus, red colobus monkeys, and black‐and‐white colobus monkeys and shows variability in its social organizations, diets, activity budgets, and dispersal patterns. Due to anthropogenic habitat change and hunting, many populations of colobus monkeys are in danger of extinction, and red colobus appear particularly vulnerable.
Gender
Authors: Meredith Stephanie L.
Published: April 2017

Scholarly conceptions of gender have historically been contested, but common threads are its distinction from biological sex and its susceptibility to shaping by social factors. Broadening definitions of gender to apply to nonhuman life may be useful for understanding human gender construction. Nonhuman primates are less likely than humans to experience overt gender socialization, and gender identity cannot be assessed. Both human and nonhuman primates probably are born with some gender differences, but these become elaborated through various types of experience. Both use modeling of same‐sex behavior, but this mechanism deserves more study. It is assumed that gendered experience becomes embodied, but the physiological mechanisms by which this occurs remain unknown and will hopefully be revealed by future work. This area of primatological inquiry would benefit from cross‐cultural studies of gender acquisition and more regular interrogation of binary gender constructions.
K
ummer,
H
ans
Authors: Falk Barbara , Anzenberger Gustl
Published: April 2017

Hans Kummer (1930–2013), a Swiss zoologist, had a strong and lasting influence on modern primatology with his research on hamadryas baboons (
Papio hamadryas
). It is not an overstatement to call him one of the true pioneers of our discipline.
Next‐Generation Sequencing
Authors: Valencia Lina M. , Fiore Anthony Di , Martins Amely Branquinho
Published: April 2017

Next‐generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have dramatically altered the technological landscape for genetic studies. In contrast to traditional approaches such as chain‐terminator (or Sanger) sequencing, NGS allows for the discovery, sequencing, and genotyping of thousands of genetic markers distributed throughout the genome rapidly, at relatively low cost, and without relying on the availability of a reference genome. Using massively parallel engineering principles, next‐generation sequencers have improved sequencing throughput while decreasing the cost‐per‐nucleotide, albeit sometimes with a high initial investment. Until recently, genetic studies of nonhuman primates have typically relied on analyses of mitochondrial DNA sequence data and/or data from a small number of nuclear DNA markers, which can limit our understanding of primate population genetics and phylogenetic relationships. However, NGS approaches now allow researchers to conduct powerful and sensitive genomic analyses of population structure, demographic history, phylogenetic relationships, adaptive evolution, gene expression, and epigenetics, even of species for which little genetic information is yet available.
Behavioral Repertoire
Authors: Lindshield Stacy M.
Published: April 2017

A behavioral repertoire is a holistic compilation of behaviors that are observed and then described by an ethologist for a particular animal species. These catalogs are essential to the scientific study of behavior for purposes of standardization. Repertoires are designed to be comprehensive. However, primatologists recognize that they are incomplete due to the inherent limitations to studying behavior, as well the tremendous behavioral flexibility of primates, resulting in a continuously expanding catalog. Behaviors can occur within a specific group, age, or sex class, and comprehensive catalogs attempt to represent the species as a whole.
Genito–Genital Rubbing
Authors: Waller Michel T.
Published: April 2017

Bonobos (
Pan paniscus
) are well known for their sociosexual behaviors, the most common of which is genito–genital (GG) rubbing. GG rubbing occurs when two females embrace each other face to face and rub their genitalia together. Several hypotheses have been proposed attempting to explain this behavior, all of which are related to the formation of a more cooperative and less aggressive social world when compared with the closely related chimpanzee (
Pan troglodytes
).
Observational Methods
Authors: Van Belle Sarie
Published: April 2017

In behavioral studies, observers need to decide which animals to observe, what behaviors to record, and when to do so. The behavioral sampling method chosen will depend on the research question but should yield accurate data relevant to test hypotheses and predictions, while also considering the practicality of these sampling methods within the habitat of the study site. Sampling methods include focusing on one particular individual for a predetermined period of time (focal animal sampling), observing several or all group members for an extended period of time (group‐level scan sampling), or concentrating on one particular behavior whenever it occurs (all‐occurrence sampling). Behavior can be recorded continuously or at fixed time intervals. Generally, a combination of sampling methods is used to record various features of the behavior of the species studied. When multiple observers contribute to data collection, interobserver reliability, the degree of consistency among observers, should be high.
Primate Conservation and Human Livelihoods
Authors: Hofner Alexandra N.
Published: April 2017

Primate conservation involves careful consideration of nonhuman primate species populations and threats to them; however, human livelihoods cannot be ignored and should be carefully understood in order to make a conservation initiative successful. Cohabitation of human and nonhuman primates is imperative to ensure a future for nonhuman primate species as the human population continues to grow; yet, conserving primates can have devastating consequences on human populations. Conservation biologists and primatologists will likely need to take into account detriment to the livelihoods of human populations surrounding nonhuman primate habitats. It is particularly important to be sensitive in situations where human communities are translocated from their homes, lose crops, or lose the use of land that had in the past been culturally and economically important to them in order to gain support for conservation programs and tolerance for nonhuman primates.
Ovarian Cycle
Authors: Thompson Melissa Emery
Published: April 2017

The ovarian cycle is the recurring pattern of hormonal events, and associated changes to reproductive tissues, that governs ovulation, conception, and zygotic implantation in mammalian females. Primate ovarian cycles follow a general template, whereby the hormones estradiol, luteinizing hormone (LH), and progesterone regulate the physiology of gamete maturation, ovulation, and conception, respectively. In addition to their effects on the reproductive tissues, these hormones have important influences on sexual behavior.
Anthrax
Authors: Leendertz Fabian H. , Hoffmann Constanze , Zimmermann Fee
Published: April 2017

Anthrax is a fatal disease, commonly known to infect ruminants. The causative agent of anthrax is typically
Bacillus anthracis
, a Gram‐positive spore‐forming bacterium. Conclusive data on anthrax in wild nonhuman primates are missing, but great apes have been shown to die from anthrax‐like disease, caused by another member of the
Bacillus cereus
group,
Bacillus cereus
biovar
anthracis
(
Bcbva
), a bacterium with pathogenic properties similar to that of
B. anthracis
. Cases of
Bcbva
have been described in tropical rainforests in Côte d'Ivoire, Cameroon, and the Central African Republic.
Primate Phylogeny
Authors: Roos Christian , Zinner Dietmar
Published: April 2017

Understanding the evolutionary history of groups of organisms, that is, their phylogeny, is central to many biological and evolutionary questions. Due to the application of molecular methods, many open questions about the phylogeny of primates could be solved. In several cases, this has led to dramatic modifications of traditional phylogenetic views. This entry presents the currently recognized primate phylogeny down to genus level as inferred from genetic and genomic data and highlights those relationships that have changed in comparison with traditional views. However, it should be pointed out that a phylogeny represents only a hypothesis about the true relationships, and changes might be necessary if new information becomes available.
G
aldikas,
B
irute
Authors: Bell Sarah A.
Published: April 2017

Dr. Birute M. F. Galdikas is a primatologist, most well known for her work with Louis Leakey pioneering the long‐term study of the Bornean orangutan (
Pongo pygmaeus
).
Pair Bonds
Authors: Light Lydia E. O. , Bartlett Thad Q.
Published: April 2017

Pair bonds are long‐term social relationships between opposite‐sex individuals that are characterized by mutual preferences for pair mates over others as measured by proximity, physical contact, and a variety of species‐specific behaviors. Pair bonds occur in species exhibiting a variety of grouping patterns and may or may not involve sexual exclusivity. Hormones, including oxytocin and vasopressin, have been shown to be correlated with pair‐bonding behavior and strong pair bonds appear to provide a buffering effect against physiological responses to stress, resulting in improved health. Pair bonds can influence reproductive success for both males and females and have been suggested to play a critical role in human evolution.
Primates as Propaganda
Authors: Bell Sarah A.
Published: April 2017

Primates appear in viral commercials, television commercials, print advertisements, and web advertisements constantly, being used by everyone from big businesses to local enterprises. Advertisers have discovered that primates in commercials and other types of advertisements can boost product likability and commercial ratings, a fact that they utilize to their advantage no matter the cost to the species being used. The public is constantly exposed to primates in unnatural environments conducting unnatural behaviors. Because of this, many people have skewed perceptions about the safety of being in close proximity to primate species, their threat status in the wild, and their natural behaviors. Using primates as propaganda is detrimental to humans through the perpetuation of misinformation and harmful to primates who suffer as a result of this misinformation.
Mirror Neurons
Authors: Ferrari Pier Francesco , Coudé Gino
Published: April 2017

Mirror neurons are a class of visuomotor neurons that have been discovered in the ventral premotor (areaF5) and the posterior parietal cortex (areaPFG) of the macaque monkey. They are activated both when a monkey performs a goal‐directed motor act and when the monkey observes the same, or similar, act performed by the experimenter or by a conspecific. They are thought to play a role in action understanding and imitation. Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that a mirror system is activated also in humans and chimpanzees. Mirror neurons were found in the premotor cortex of the marmoset, a New World monkey, indicating that such mirroring mechanism has been highly preserved in the course of evolution. Indeed, neuronal mirroring of observed behaviors has been shown in phylogenetically ancient structures, such as the basal ganglia, and in subcortical regions related to visceromotor reactions, such as the insular and cingulate cortices. It is possible that the involvement of such brain structures during the direct experience and perception of others' emotions has been instrumental for sharing similar emotional experience and could represent the building block of the emergence of empathic behaviors in several species of primates.
Theory of Mind
Authors: Dufour Valérie
Published: April 2017

Theory of mind is the capacity to attribute mental states to others. In cognitive research, the notion that great apes and other nonhuman primates possess theory of mind is one of the most debated topics today. Since the 1980s, a series of tests have been conducted involving various paradigms testing what chimpanzees and other species understand about what others see, know, believe, and feel. To date, there seems to be a consensus that great apes at least might have some kind of representation of others' mental states. However, there is no evidence that this representation strictly resembles the refined full grown theory of mind of which humans are capable. Most efforts are currently oriented towards designing experimental setups that would be sufficiently controlled to provide inescapable evidence of exactly what animals understand about others' mental states.
Biogeography and Primate Biogeography
Authors: Kamilar Jason M.
Published: April 2017

Biogeography is the study of how organisms are distributed across the world. Modern primate distributions result from the interplay between environmental characteristics and evolutionary history, with an increasing impact from human‐induced habitat destruction. Primates are considered tropical mammals, though some species are able to successfully persist in more temperate regions. Africa and Asia contain the greatest diversity of primates, represented by ape, monkey, and loris species, as well as tarsiers in Asia. In contrast, only monkeys are found in the Neotropics and only lemurs inhabit Madagascar.
Knuckle Walking
Authors: McCabe Sharon C. J.
Published: April 2017

Knuckle walking is a mode of quadrupedalism employed by the African apes within the genera
Gorilla
and
Pan
wherein a large portion of the body weight is supported by the arms, with the dorsal middle phalanges making contact with the ground on each weight‐bearing stride. Several morphological features may be associated with knuckle walking, such as limited dorsiflexion in the wrist joint, dorsal concavities and ridges along the hamate and capitate bones, and the presence of knuckle pads on the dorsal surface of the phalanges. Though the trait is unique to the African apes among primates, there is a high level of variation between
Gorilla
and
Pan
in regard to technique and frequency of knuckle walking. Whether these differences are the consequence of varying degrees of arboreality and body size or evidence of parallel evolution of knuckle walking within the genera has yet to be resolved. Further research into traits indicative of knuckle walking in the fossil record of ancestral apes will enable future scientists to determine whether or not knuckle walking is the ancestral locomotive state for all African apes, including humans.
Territory
Authors: Bartlett Thad Q. , Light Lydia E. O.
Published: April 2017

A territory is a fixed portion of an individual's or group's overall home range that it actively defends against encroachment by other animals of the same species, and which exhibits a high degree of spatial and temporal stability. By defending a fixed area, territorial animals maintain a portion of their range for their more or less exclusive use. Thus the concept entails elements of geography, exclusivity, and persistence, and implies the presence of a recognizable territorial border. The key benefits of territoriality are thought to relate to guaranteed access to resources, including feeding sites, but territoriality also entails energetic expense and the potential for injury. Therefore animals will only defend an area if the benefits, such as resources access or mating exclusivity, outweigh the costs.
Health Assessment
Authors: Muehlenbein Michael P.
Published: April 2017

Assessing an animal's physical and psychological condition to identify the presence of pathogens, mental stressors, or chronic illness can be accomplished in both captive and wild populations through employing a number of standardized techniques and measures typically utilized by disease ecologists and veterinarians. Systematic health assessment of wild primate populations is not just useful for conserving a long‐term, viable field site (particularly for endangered species), but also aids in our understanding of emerging zoonotic diseases into human populations, as well as risks of anthroponotic pathogen transmission from humans to wild primates. When it comes to sampling and diagnostic methods, it is advisable to consult a trained expert in correct methods selection.
Baboon (Papio)
Authors: Palombit Ryne A.
Published: April 2017

Members ofPapio—the baboons—are among the most abundant and widely distributed primates of Africa. Much of this success likely derives from the pronounced variation characterizing this genus, reflected at numerous levels, such as: a complex phylogenetic history of genetic exchange among allotaxa, omnivorous diets, variable and complex social systems, and flexibility of individual behavior. This has allowed baboons to adapt to an extraordinary range of habitats and conditions.
Vocal Communication
Authors: Zuberbühler Klaus
Published: April 2017

Communication in primates is biased towards vocal behavior, and humans are a particularly dramatic example. Across species, sounds are produced by an anatomically similar vocal tract, with humans having exceptionally large amounts of control over it. Vocal communication has also been one of the most formidable windows into the primate mind, which has resulted in considerable progress in understanding the cognitive capacities of primates. There is good evidence that primates understand a call as produced by a specific individual engaged in a specific social interaction or with an external event. In chimpanzees and bonobos, call production is goal‐directed, often strategic, and individuals can be aware of the social consequences of their calls, based on their prior interaction histories. However, so far, there is little evidence that any primate, apart from humans, communicates just to maintain a social bond or actively provides information for another.
Niche Construction
Authors: Fuentes Agustín
Published: April 2017

Niche construction is the modification by organisms of the functional relationship between themselves and their environment through an active change of one of the factors in that environment. It impacts/alters energy flows in ecosystems through ecosystem engineering. It holds that organisms modify their, and other, organisms' selective environments, creating an ecological inheritance, including modified selection pressures, for subsequent populations. Niche construction is a process, in addition to natural selection, that contributes to changes over time in the relationship between organisms and environments. Given that high social density and complexity and a tendency to actively manipulate social and ecological contexts are widespread patterns among primates, a niche construction approach can facilitate better understandings of the evolution of primate social structures and systems.
Dermatoglyphics
Authors: Organ Jason M.
Published: April 2017

All primates possess dermatoglyphic patterns on the volar surfaces of their hands and feet. Dermatoglyphics are skin ridges on the tactile surfaces of fingers and toes, but some primates possess them on other anatomical regions too. In humans, dermatoglyphic patterns are utilized for personal identification in criminal investigations, and some patterns have been implicated as predictors of health risks.
Female Reproductive Endocrinology
Authors: Milich Krista M. , van Belle Sarie
Published: April 2017

Progesterone and estrogens, such as estradiol, are an integral part of female reproductive endocrinology in primates. In coordination with pituitary hormones (follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone), they regulate ovarian cycles and other physiological processes that are necessary for successful reproduction through the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis. Many social and ecological factors can impact the HPG axis primarily because they activate the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, which inhibits the production of hormones along the HPG axis. In addition to impairing reproduction in response to social and ecological stressors, the HPA axis regulates ovarian function in seasonally breeding primates. While anthropoid primates do not have an estrus period to which they confine their mating behaviors, there is evidence that variation in hormone concentrations throughout the cycle impacts female sexual behaviors. Variation in the concentration of female reproductive hormones can be measured non‐invasively in urine and feces, providing a useful tool for studying reproductive health and physiology in wild primates.
Nematodes
Authors: Gillespie Thomas R. , Ghai Ria , Petrzelkova Klara J.
Published: April 2017

The nematodes or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda, of which more than half of the 25,000 described species are parasitic. Parasitic nematodes of wild primates include ascarids, filarias, rhabditoid nematodes, spirurids, strongylids, pinworms, and whipworms. The majority of research on the nematodes of wild primates has occurred in populations of African apes, baboons, and howler monkeys, while nematode diversity in other primate taxa is more poorly characterized. Nematode infections are common in wild primates and are frequently asymptomatic, but their effects can be magnified when combined with worsening environmental conditions. Integration of standardized empirical data collection and DNA amplification‐based molecular diagnostics has the potential to rapidly improve our knowledge of primate nematodes and the factors that influence infection.
Dolhinow, Phyllis
Authors: McKenna James J.
Published: April 2017

Profesor Phyllis Dolhinow was one of the main developers of North American Primatology from the 1960s through the early 2000s. Her career spanned five decades and she mentored a large number of Ph.D. students.
Landscape Genetics
Authors: Valencia Lina M. , Fiore Anthony Di
Published: April 2017

Landscape genetics is the study of how geographic and environmental features interact with microevolutionary processes to shape the spatial genetic structure of a taxon. Landscape genetics studies combine individual‐level georeferenced genetic data (e.g., multilocus genotypes, DNA sequences) with information about the composition, configuration, and quality of different habitats to make inferences about the causes and consequences of population genetic structure across space.
Alpha Male
Authors: Jack Katharine M.
Published: April 2017

An alpha male is the highest ranked male residing in a gregarious primate group. The ability of any individual male to gain alpha status is determined by a number of interacting factors including: age, size, hormone levels, and social network. The costs associated with being an alpha male include increased vigilance behaviors and more active defensive role, which puts alphas at greater risk of injury during aggressive intrasexual conflict and predator defense. The fitness benefits, however, can be very high, as alpha males in most species sire the majority of group infants.
Tuberculosis
Authors: Beamer Gillian , Rosenbaum Marieke Hilarides
Published: April 2017

Tuberculosis is an infectious disease of global public health importance that also affects nonhuman primates. The disease is usually acquired by nonhuman primates following contact with infected humans, and may cause significant morbidity and mortality in captive colonies and in free‐roaming groups. Manifestations of disease range from asymptomatic infections to mild respiratory symptoms, to advanced systemic disease and death. Numerous diagnostic assays exist; however, most lack demonstrated sensitivity and specificity across all species of nonhuman primates and are therefore not entirely reliable. The true epidemiology of how tuberculosis behaves in free‐roaming primate groups is not well understood. Because tuberculosis is zoonotic and infects a wide range of animals, surveillance and prevention are needed to minimize the effect of this disease in nonhuman primates.
Long‐Term Field Studies—
A
sia
Authors: Reinhardt Kathleen D. , Nekaris K. A. I.
Published: April 2017

Asia has been an enriching continent for our understanding of nonhuman primates, containing both strepsirhines and haplorrhines, with five primate families (Lorisidae, Tarsiidae, Cercopithecoidea (Cercopithecinae, Colobinae), Hylobatidae, and Hominidae (Ponginae)). Across Asia, a wide array of long‐term field studies contributes to our accumulated knowledge of primate behavior, ecology, life history, biogeography, and conservation. Asian primate populations are frequently found inhabiting geographic regions and environments characterized by extreme constraints that are still in need of more long‐term research, especially as these same environments are rapidly disappearing in light of anthropogenic expansion. In this entry, we discuss a collection of long‐term field studies in Asia conducting continuous research on a single primate species over the span of 15 years, noting species and regions that have been neglected. Studies range geographically across India, Japan, the Malay Archipelago, and Thailand.
S
truhsaker,
T
om
Authors: Gillespie Thomas R.
Published: April 2017

Thomas T. Struhsaker is an American primatologist who has made major contributions to the fields of primate ecology and behavior, tropical biology, and conservation biology. He developed critical methodologies that are now standards for understanding the relationships among demography, ecology, and behavior in wild primate populations, and he successfully applied the results of his work to policy efforts for the conservation of primates and their habitats.
Tool Use (Apes)
Authors: Musgrave Stephanie , Sanz Crickette M.
Published: April 2017

Great apes use a diverse array of objects to effect change in various ecological and social contexts; these tool behaviors offer invaluable insights into the advanced skills characterizing the hominoid clade in both the physical and social realms. Chimpanzees are exceptional in that every studied population manufactures and uses tools in natural settings. Wild orangutans and bonobos employ a much more limited tool repertoire, and gorilla tool use is rare. Studies within laboratories, sanctuaries, and zoos have confirmed that all great apes are capable tool users. Field research and captive experiments provide complementary insights into the environmental, social, and cognitive factors shaping differences in tool behavior between and within species. At the forefront of this research is the interdisciplinary endeavor to understand the rich system of social inheritance underlying the transmission and maintenance of tool traditions among great apes, which is integral to modeling the evolution of material culture.