bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Philosophy of Race in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Bernasconi Robert
Published: November 2022

Although toward the end of the eighteenth century Immanuel Kant had introduced a conception of race based on hereditary characteristics, both natural and moral, the dominant conception of race for much of the nineteenth century was based in readings of history. Racial differences were visible in history, and to a large extent they were understood to determine history. This tendency is illustrated with reference to Hegel and Gobineau. For much of the century the debate between monogenists and polygenists was at the forefront of the discussion of race, but in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, race mixing or miscegenation, which was increasingly seen as a biological threat, became the center of attention. The philosophers discussed in this chapter include John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Friedrich Nietzsche, and W. E. B. Du Bois.
Racial Science in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Bernasconi Robert
Published: November 2022

In the middle of the nineteenth century, Josiah Nott of Mobile, Alabama, was on the hunt for arguments that would help to defend the so-called Southern way of life. He had some success at the time in attracting some support for polygenesis from American scientists more reputable than he was, such as Louis Agassiz and Samuel George Morton, but it was only as the Civil War was drawing to a close that his ideas began to take hold in France. It was around that time, too, that his argument against race mixing as a potential threat to human survival began to find an audience. By the end of the nineteenth century, it was being incorporated into the new science of eugenics.
Ottobah Cugoano’s Place in the History of Political Philosophy
Authors: Bernasconi Robert
Published: November 2022

Ottobah Cugoano’s Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery is perhaps the most powerful attack on slavery of the late eighteenth century. It is also remarkably relevant still today for its account of responsibility, its attack on gradualism, and its understanding that any judgment about the means appropriate to ending slavery should be proportionate to the evil of slavery itself, which was considerable. Cugoano’s significance is established by contrasting his arguments with those of other philosophers from Francis Hutcheson to William Paley and Thomas Gisborne. Seen in this light, the neglect by historians of philosophy of Cugoano in particular and of the debate around slavery in particular is a blot on the discipline.
“Our Duty to Conserve”
Authors: Bernasconi Robert
Published: November 2022

W. E. B. Du Bois’s “The Conservation of Races” is removed from the philosophical debates surrounding it during the 1990s in order to restore it to its original context. The question Du Bois was asking was not whether the concept of race as such should be preserved but whether racial differences, specifically those that defined the Black race, should be preserved or obliterated, a question he answered by referencing the ideals associated with each race. For him it was an existential question. To what extent was he a Negro and to what extent an American? The question impressed itself upon him in this form not only because of the “separate but equal” doctrine but also because race mixing was being seen by many White Americans as an existential threat to both the Black and the White race.
Frantz Fanon’s Engagement with Phenomenology
Authors: Bernasconi Robert
Published: November 2022

With the recent heightened interest in Frantz Fanon’s relation to psychopathology, his relation to phenomenology is in danger of being overlooked in spite of the fact that he seems to have focused a great deal of his attention on how they work in combination in a number of authors he cited, none more so than Karl Jaspers. The importance of existential phenomenology for Fanon in Black Skin, White Masks is especially profound in the enigmatic conclusion with its references to Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Günther Anders, and, of course, Jean-Paul Sartre. Using the conclusion as a decisive clue, one can return to Fanon’s initial account of the relation of regressive analysis to what he called the book’s progressive infrastructure and unlock a reading in which the central aim of the book is an account of temporality that allows for an open future.
Nature, Culture, and Race
Authors: Bernasconi Robert
Published: November 2022

When in 1950 UNESCO proposed a strategy against racism that is still widely appealed to, it relied heavily on a distinction between biology and social anthropology that was rooted in a certain way of distinguishing nature and culture. Following a genealogy of that distinction, this chapter argues that the core of the UNESCO argument against racism was that race was exclusively a biological concept and that once use of the word came into conformity with the best biology, racism, in the sense of discriminating against someone on account of their biological race, would be eradicated. Racism was thereby narrowly defined as parasitical on a false biology: it was no more than an epistemological error that could be corrected by education. Meanwhile, discriminating against people on account of their culture was left intact. Claude Lévi-Strauss, who had participated in formulating the 1950 UNESCO Statement on Race and who had at that time written in its support, subsequently saw some of its shortcomings.
Existentialism against Colonialism
Authors: Bernasconi Robert
Published: November 2022

Jean-Paul Sartre’s Critique of Dialectical Reason and Frantz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth both sought to offer accounts of colonialism as a form of systemic racism. They did so starting from lived experience, but they understood that accounts of lived experience remain fundamentally unintelligible when abstracted from the material system in which that experience is located. This is true even for those who share that experience. Lived experience becomes concrete only in the light of the material system that produces it, while the material system remains opaque without the illumination brought to it by concrete lived experience. They shared the conviction, first, that only dialectics can bring these two together and, second, that the colonial system is only fully revealed in revolutionary praxis.
Mandates and Colonies
Authors: Raustiala Kal
Published: November 2022

Chapter 2 explores the birth and structure of the League of Nations’ mandates system for former colonies of the defeated powers; Bunche’s early fieldwork in French West Africa; and his move to Howard University to become a professor of political science.
Rebuilding the World
Authors: Raustiala Kal
Published: November 2022

Chapter 5 focuses on the planning for the new UN and Bunche’s efforts to develop the concept of trusteeship for colonies captured from Germany and Japan.
Showdown at Suez
Authors: Raustiala Kal
Published: November 2022

Chapter 14 covers Egypt’s nationalization of the Suez Canal and the resulting Suez Crisis; the Bandung Conference of 1955; and Bunche’s key role in creating the first UN peacekeeping force.
Corporal Bunche
Authors: Raustiala Kal
Published: November 2022

Chapter 15 focuses on the implementation of peacekeeping resulting from the Suez Crisis; Bunche’s visit to Ghana for the 1957 independence ceremonies; and the vexing problem of Gaza.
But It Shall Not Come Nigh Thee
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: November 2022

Over the past century, many modern people have resorted to Psalm 91 in very traditional ways. They particularly seek its aid in times of war or political chaos, such as the Second World War. The psalm has enjoyed a major revival during times of sickness such as the COVID pandemic. The psalm is the subject of extensive writing and myth-making by many churches and religious leaders, and it has developed a huge presence on the internet. The range of legends and folktales is immense, and so is the number of material items available with Psalm 91–related themes or texts. This reflects the widespread belief in demons in evangelical and Pentecostal subcultures in many countries. The psalm has inspired authors and composers, including C. S. Lewis and Charles Williams. The psalm is the source for the very popular hymn “On Eagle’s Wings.”
The Anvil Chorus
Authors: Rothstein William
Published: November 2022

The so-called Anvil Chorus from Verdi’s Il trovatore is a peculiar piece, and its peculiarity is only partly explained by its othering of the ethnic group portrayed, the Romani of northern Spain. The piece is not in a single key, but certain pitches and groups of pitches recur. Insight is gained by applying modal rather than tonal categories and by considering harmony secondary to melody. The piece’s form does not fit any standard category, but it approximates the verse–prechorus–chorus form of late twentieth-century rock music. The piece illustrates differences between Italian and German music of the early and mid-nineteenth century.
Musical Form
Authors: Rothstein William
Published: November 2022

To understand the conventions of primo ottocento opera requires an understanding of its musical forms. Philip Gossett’s distinction between kinetic and static movements is key. Kinetic movements include action and are harmonically open-ended; static movements contain reflection and reach full closure. For static movements, the lyric form becomes very common after 1830. Lyric forms exist along a continuum from simple to complex to borderline. For numbers in multiple movements, the solita forma described by Basevi, Gossett, and others establishes a set of formal expectations against which unfamiliar numbers may be understood. These expectations differ for each movement of the form.
Tonal Coherence in Rossini’s Italian Operas
Authors: Rothstein William
Published: November 2022

Rossini usually begins and ends his operas in different keys, but with rare exceptions he begins and ends each operatic number in the same key, perhaps with a change from minor to parallel major. Some of Rossini’s numbers last twenty minutes or more; occasionally, two potentially separate numbers are fused into one. The significance of tonal return on such a large scale is not always clear in Rossini’s operas. Long numbers do not necessarily compose out a single triad in Schenker’s sense; tonal return is not equivalent to Auskomponierung. Later Italian composers did not consider tonal return an aesthetic requirement in opera.
Ernani to Attila (1844–1846)
Authors: Rothstein William
Published: November 2022

The musical coloration, or tinta, of Verdi’s Ernani has multiple aspects, including a predominance of lyric form, recurring motives, and a distinctive handling of harmonic systems (relative major–minor pairs). Several of the principal characters use a focal melodic pitch, or sonorità, as a means of characterization; in the final trio, Silva’s horn acts as a sonorità. Act 3 of Giovanna d’Arco qualifies as a super-number, a series of numbers that coheres as a musical whole. The prologue to Attila exhibits an unusual degree of tonal coherence: one can speak of a global tonic, C, to which other keys relate.
Wittgenstein on Rules
Authors: Shaw James R.
Published: November 2022

This book offers a new “bipartite” reading of Wittgenstein’s treatment of rule-following and the foundations of semantics in his seminal Philosophical Investigations. On this reading, Wittgenstein’s remarks are split between two logically distinct projects marked by different guiding questions, presuppositions, and methodologies. The attribution of this thoroughgoing bipartite structure resolves a number of internal tensions in the text, and reveals Wittgenstein’s controversial remarks on human agreement to exhibit a surprising attentiveness to, and plausible treatment of, a blurring of the semantics/metasemantics distinction arising in Wittgenstein’s treatment of foundational semantic questions. The book then turns to an extended engagement with Kripkensteinean meaning skepticism. While on the reading offered Wittgenstein never countenanced meaning skepticism, his work in the foundations of semantics gives us the resources to develop an unusual naive reply to the skeptic not yet explored in literature. It is argued that the Wittgensteinean reply is simple, effective, generalizable, and theoretically “light-weight,” so that a theorist of almost any stripe could in principle take it up.
The Grammatical Investigation (§§199–242)
Authors: Shaw James R.
Published: November 2022

This chapter provides evidence that after the termination of the Justificatory Investigation, Wittgenstein takes up a second project that I call the “Grammatical Investigation.” This project is governed by a methodology Wittgenstein describes in his scattered remarks on “philosophical grammar,” which show that the investigation is metalinguistic (that is, about the use of words) and metasemantic (that is, about the use of semantic words like “meaning” in particular). The chapter runs through four particular grammatical investigations given in the text, and uses them to extract a number of characteristic features of the Grammatical Investigation that distinguish it from the Justificatory Investigation. In particular, grammatical investigations are not marked by substantive presuppositions and they employ the methodology of enumerating cases (especially “contrast cases”) that Wittgenstein reserves for family resemblance terminology.
Agreement (§§240–242)
Authors: Shaw James R.
Published: November 2022

This chapter exploits the bipartite reading to frame Wittgenstein’s controversial remarks on human agreement at the end of the rule-following sections of the Philosophical Investigations. It begins by distinguishing several senses of the word “agreement,” and shows how these senses figure in different ways in the Justificatory and Grammatical Investigations. This reveals how easy it is to conflate the senses of agreement and their involvement in these different projects. Finally, against prevailing views, the chapter defends the claim that human agreement plays a role for Wittgenstein no different from several other “grammatical” features (regularity, training, purposeful activity), and that Wittgenstein instead singles human agreement out for special treatment because it raises a distinctive kind of circularity challenge for his grammatical methodology. The chapter concludes by showing how Wittgenstein took himself to be able to avoid that circularity challenge by exploiting analogies with measurement.
The Twofold Investigation
Authors: Shaw James R.
Published: November 2022

This chapter steps back to explain why Wittgenstein engaged in two distinct projects in the rule-following sections of the Philosophical Investigations, and why he juxtaposed and even interwove those projects. The chapter begins by showing how anxiety caused by the abrupt termination of the Justificatory Investigation is helpfully allayed by the upshot of the Grammatical Investigation. It then explores how the twofold project helpfully exhibits precisely the overarching structure for addressing philosophical problems that Wittgenstein describes in his explicit remarks on philosophical methodology. Finally, the chapter notes how the treatment of the Justificatory Question can be viewed as Wittgenstein’s attempt to critique some of his earlier philosophical views in the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.
Kripkensteinean Skepticism through a Wittgensteinean Lens
Authors: Shaw James R.
Published: November 2022

This chapter develops one way of understanding of the force behind Saul Kripke’s formulation of meaning skepticism and explains how this challenge takes on a distinctive shape within Wittgenstein’s approach to foundational questions. The chapter begins by arguing that on the reading of Part I, Wittgenstein is beholden to produce a nontrivial answer to the meaning skeptic that does not merely dismiss skeptical worries as borne out of confusion. The chapter then explains that because of Wittgenstein’s commitment to “meaning” being a family resemblance term, the answer we should expect Wittgenstein to supply to the meaning skeptic would take on a form that the skeptic may not have anticipated.
Relativism
Authors: Shaw James R.
Published: November 2022

This chapter notes that although the “Wittgensteinean” reply to the meaning skeptic through the use of notions of uniformity is importantly distinct from the reply to the skeptic that Kripke attributes to Wittgenstein, it may share with the latter reply a commitment to a certain kind of relativism. Ultimately, this relativism is a familiar, benign form of relativism of language—a relativism in what our words can mean. What is distinctive about the Wittgensteinean view is when and how this kind of relativism arises. Several thought experiments giving rise to this relativism are explored, and its distinctive features are discussed.
Kripke v. Wittgenstein
Authors: Shaw James R.
Published: November 2022

This chapter sides with many standard critics of Kripke’s reading of Wittgenstein, but stresses that the exegetical problems with Kripke’s approach all trace to a single failure: the failure to distinguish between the Justificatory and the Grammatical Investigations. The chapter emphasizes that in spite of this misstep, Kripke manages to keep many of the most important lessons of Wittgenstein’s discussion in view. A further consequence of this reading is that the form of skepticism attributed by Saul Kripke to Wittgenstein is (as some have suspected) in fact an ingenious creation of Kripke himself. Wittgenstein is not to be credited with formulating the problem, but rather for giving rich foundations for semantics among which we can locate the resources for a solution.
Identity Meanings and Resources
Authors: Burke Peter J. , Stets Jan E.
Published: November 2022

This chapter explains that identities are meanings, and individuals act to maintain these identity meanings in interaction. The analysis of meanings begins with a discussion of signs and symbols, which is an important distinction when understanding other issues that follow in the chapter such as how to measure meaning, and how to understand resources. The measurement of meaning is then reviewed, including using a semantic differential to measure people’s responses to how they see themselves. People control and maintain meanings by manipulating actual and potential resources. The distinction between actual and potential resources is discussed. Because identities maintain the patterned and coordinated flow of resources, known as the social structure, the reader sees how identities create and maintain the social structure. However, the connection between identities and social structure is a two-way street. Identities create social structure, but it also is true that social structure provides the situations and context in which identities operate.
Multiple Identities
Authors: Burke Peter J. , Stets Jan E.
Published: November 2022

This chapter examines the complexities when two or more identities operate at the same time to verify themselves. Unless the identities agree on the meanings appropriate in the situation, each will be a disturbance for the others, making verification impossible. This is true whether the meanings are held by different identities within a single person (e.g., being a student and a friend) or in separate individuals (e.g., spouses or two friends); the meanings must be consistent or at least independent. Mutual verification can occur if the identities exist in different persons and share meanings. The hierarchical arrangement of multiple identities that exist within a person also is discussed.
The Conatus Project
Authors: Goldstein Rebecca Newberger
Published: November 2022

Spinoza explained that the essence of each individual thing is conatus: the drive to persist and to flourish. Appealing to both the physics of entropy and modern evolutionary theory, this chapter explains both why conatus is so fundamental to biological systems and why, in humans, it is transformed into the striving to matter. The uniquely human striving to matter need not be to matter more than others (which is obnoxious), nor to matter cosmically and for all eternity (which generates the religious impulse); rather it is the striving to matter at least to the extent commensurate with all the energy, attention, planning, and emotional outlay that it takes to pursue a human life. Humans are creatures of matter who long to matter. Rather than undermining the human striving to matter, the scientific worldview can be seen to buttress the recognition of what matters above all: that all people matter.
Flourishing in the Flesh
Authors: Johnson Mark
Published: November 2022

The conditions of human flourishing transcend those of mere survival and fitness, yet they are built upon and recruit those conditions of human biological well-being. In this sense, flourishing is rooted deeply in embodiment. Antonio Damasio argues that the fundamental value for organic life is homeostasis—the maintenance of a suitable dynamic equilibrium within the boundaries of the organism as it interacts with its physical, interpersonal, and cultural environments. This chapter investigates the issue of how far the notion of homeostasis can be taken as the supreme value underlying human flourishing at four levels of functional organization and complexity: (1) biological functioning, (2) interpersonal relations, (3) communal practices and institutions, and (4) the quest for lives that are meaningful and significant.
A Reconsideration of the Role of Philosophy in the Reconstruction and Promotion of Leisure
Authors: Hansen Jennifer L.
Published: November 2022

This chapter considers Mihalyi Cskikszentmihalyi’s concept of “autotelic” or “flow experience” as a way of characterizing philosophical activity. In so doing, the chapter argues that philosophical activity may promote human flourishing insofar as it cultivates positive traits and positive emotions. Drawing on John Sadler and Albert Borgmann’s acute analyses of how instrumental rationality typically overwhelms all other values in democratic institutions, including the university, the chapter endorses their defense of “engagement” as a possible suspension of the “rule of technology” to make space for “eudaimonic values”—specifically the cultivation of leisure—to redirect the priorities of higher education.
The Lost Optimism of Modern Movie Fairytales
Authors: Fletcher Angus
Published: November 2022

By comparing the narrative methods of modern movie fairytales (e.g., Disney’s Beauty and the Beast) with those of pre-Enlightenment fairytales (e.g., Giovanni Straparola’s Adamantina and the Doll), this chapter explains why the former are less psychologically effective at generating durable optimism.
Introduction
Authors: May Isaac Barnes
Published: November 2022

The introduction defines the term “God-optional,” which is used to describe religious groups that made theism something that was not required for members. The introduction outlines the term God-optional in its connection to Quakers, Reconstructionist Jews, and Unitarians, who are the groups that embraced the concept. The introduction situates this study within the contemporary scholarship on the religious left and secularization. The relationship of God-optional religion to other movements on the American religious left is explained. The perspective of the author, as well as his status as a religious “insider” to God-optional religion, is discussed. The structure of the rest of the book is outlined.
Scientists and Mystics
Authors: May Isaac Barnes
Published: November 2022

The second chapter charts theological shifts among liberal Quakers during the interwar period, which would ultimately lead Quakerism to become remarkably tolerant of differing views about the nature of God. The chapter focuses on three Quaker leaders who had different approaches on how to adapt religion to modernity. The first of these individuals is Jesse Holmes, a professor of religion who argued that Quakerism was an ideal religion for skeptics and that “God” was not a being or person. The second figure, Jane Rushmore, was a denominational leader who championed the idea that Quakerism allowed total freedom of belief and opened the door for more radical theological views. Finally, the chapter looks at Rufus Jones, perhaps the most famous Quaker religious leader of the century, who argued that Quakerism was a mystical religion and different from traditional Christianity.
Outgrowing the Past
Authors: May Isaac Barnes
Published: November 2022

The chapter focuses on two Unitarian ministers, John Dietrich and William Sullivan, who were at the center of the Unitarian humanist-theist debates in the late 1920s. Sullivan had been a Catholic priest and wanted to keep Unitarianism focused on God, while John Dietrich began to preach a faith in humanity that rejected appeals to the divine. Dietrich’s side prevailed, but Unitarians managed to keep both positions alive in the denomination. The chapter also explores how in later years, Dietrich began to reconsider his earlier theology; by the end of his life, he had begun to believe he had been wrong, and that there was an order in the universe that could be described as “God.”
The New Jus ad Bellum
Authors: Ocampo Luis Moreno
Published: November 2022

This chapter presents the decision to treat Al Qaeda terrorists as enemies that could be killed in any country rather than consider them as criminals. It analyzes the options to face the conflict that the Bush administration did not contemplate, including making efforts to arrest and prosecute before US courts Osama bin Laden and the Taliban government members that supported him. The chapter discusses the Noriega precedent that showed the possibility to use the military forces to arrest individuals in a foreign country. To protect its personnel from prosecution, the US vetoed the UN Security Council resolution, forced the adoption of a Rome Statute Article 16 deferral, and enacted the American Service Members Protection Act (ASPA), prohibiting US cooperation with the court, including funding or sharing classified information.
Building the Office of the Prosecutor
Authors: Ocampo Luis Moreno
Published: November 2022

This chapter explains how from his first day in office, the prosecutor consulted his plans with scholars, state representatives, and members of civil society. It also describes the interaction with the other organs to establish the ICC’s foundations and the selection and recruitment of the personnel. In September 2003, the office issued a public policy explaining the “Positive complementarity” approach, and the focus of the investigations on those more responsible. Later, the office made public its policy on “Interest of Justice,” “Victims Participation,” and the draft of its “Policy on Preliminary Examination.”
President Obama’s Jus ad Bellum and Jus in Bello Decisions in Iraq and Afghanistan
Authors: Ocampo Luis Moreno
Published: November 2022

This chapter describes the jus ad Bellum decision to defeat terrorism renewed by President Obama and its implementation. During his Nobel lecture receiving the Peace Prize, President Obama proposed to use war for humanitarian purposes contradicting the UN Charter. Killing those labeled as enemy combatants in sovereign countries that were not at war with the US became the new accepted norm. The War on Terror created an almost permanent and worldwide exception to the constitutional Due Process Clause. The military plans and superior commands became the most relevant legal systems for US personnel and aliens living in countries considered by the United States “unwilling or unable” to control international terrorism. Even if the War on Terror focused on killing the insurgents could be considered legal, it should be questioned as a matter of efficiency.
The Libya Jus ad Curiam Decision
Authors: Ocampo Luis Moreno
Published: November 2022

This chapter describes how the UN Security Council took a jus ad Curiam decision by consensus and referred the Libya situation to the ICC in just a few days after the beginning of the conflict. The situation was admissible, and the ICC Office of the Prosecutor took a jus ad Curiam decision in a few days. The ICC opened an investigation into the ongoing crimes committed in Libya two weeks after the conflict started. The chapter explores the preventative impact of the Libya preliminary examination.
Thinking as Interrupted Conversation
Authors: Zoloth Laurie
Published: November 2022

In this chapter we consider a case in which a Buddhist family with a child with MELAS syndrome wishes to continue life support based on a faith claim about the most auspicious time to die. The committee needs to decide how to think about such claims, especially when we become aware that their interpretation of Buddhist norms is not widely shared. We consider how the term “futility” is used in the clinical setting to make legible the difficulty in using that term. When I was in the clinic, I had a different task—we would have to make decisions within the bounds of the present. Later, my task was the task of memory and reflection; of second thoughts; of fitting the piece of the case, heard in the small rooms, into the larger picture of American health care, the larger picture of befalleness, fate, and hope that is the pediatric clinic; and later, I came to reflect on the centrality of faith commitments in each of these cases. In this chapter, the second in the book, I return the problem of Jewish thought as it operates in ethical decision-making and consider how applications of theory change over time.
Suffering and Its Uselessness
Authors: Zoloth Laurie
Published: November 2022

In this chapter we meet a Black family with an unusual request. They wish to surgically sterilize their twin girls and block puberty to alleviate the suffering of children with a serious neurological condition. Puberty, growth, and mensuration would create unsurmountable difficulties in caring for the twins at home, but California has careful laws to prevent unjust and unconsented sterilization because of tragic history of misuse. This chapter considers the problem of the suffering Other in all her innocence.
Seeing the Doubting Judge
Authors: Zoloth Laurie
Published: November 2022

In this chapter, I consider some of the problems of uncertainty in bioethics case consultation and the way it is written and memorialized, using the way doubtful cases are resolved in Jewish law. We think about the case of a brain cancer and consider what it means to get a court order to do lifesaving surgery against the families’ desires. I think about the limits of scripture and the way that bioethics often turns to the law. Yet the finality of the law may obscure the important details of the case. The chapter also considers that limits of our ability to respond to the complexities of families who are far from home, new immigrants, who are deeply rooted in cultures and religious traditions that are puzzling or even disturbing to the clinicians who have to decide in this case.
Trading in Futures
Authors: Zoloth Laurie
Published: November 2022

In this chapter about the particular world of the NICU, I think about this question: What does it mean to stop death? We consider a text about Romans and babies from the Gemora and raise the question about whether the NICU is a site of therapeutic intervention or a site of clinical research. In the case, of phased research interventions, we must ask for consent, and the subjects are clearly told that any given intervention is an experiment that might indeed fail. But in the NICU, many interventions are tried, without either the parents or at times the staff, understanding the deeply experimental nature of the act. The text we will use shows the way violence is implicated in the act of rescue, even if it is unintended.
Final Clearance
Authors: Brier Bob
Published: November 2022

It took Carter nearly ten years to empty the tomb, and this chapter tells why. In addition to the Antechamber and the Burial Chamber there were two smaller rooms packed with Tutankhamun’s treasures. The room called the Treasury seemed to be devoted to Tutankhamun’s funerary equipment and the quest for life after death. There was an alabaster canopic chest that contained four miniature coffins holding the boy-king’s internal organs, which had been removed at the time of mummification. There was also a pair of small mysterious coffins that when opened revealed two fetuses, almost certainly miscarriages of Tutankhamun’s young wife, Ankhesenamun. This chapter traces the journey of these two fetuses, which disappeared for decades and resurfaced in modern times. After the Treasury was emptied, Carter worked on the Annex, which contained exquisite alabaster jars and other treasures. Finally, when Carter’s work on the tomb was done, he seems to have settled into a mild depression from which he never emerged.
X-raying Tutankhamun
Authors: Brier Bob
Published: November 2022

For fifty years the mummy of Tutankhamun remained in the sarcophagus in his tomb, unseen by tourists or researchers. This chapter recounts the first scientific study of the mummy of Tutankhamun since its discovery. However, it first traces the history of mummy studies from early mummy unrollers like Thomas Pettigrew to scientific investigations of mummies at the beginning of the twentieth century. Most of the chapter focuses on the first X-rays of Tutankhamun, taken by Dr. R. G. Harrison, and what was discovered from them, including how Tutankhamun had been mummified. The research also revealed that at some point in modern times, the tomb had been broken into and the mummy severely damaged in an attempt to remove jewelry fragments imbedded in the resin coating the mummy.
Tutankhamun as Warrior
Authors: Brier Bob
Published: November 2022

Various objects found in Tutankhamun’s tomb suggest that he may have actually been a warrior. He was buried with a leather suit of armor called a cuirass that had indications of wear. Also supporting the warrior-king thesis is the large number of bows and arrows that Tutankhamun took with him to the next world. In addition to scenes showing the king in battle, which could have been just propaganda, there are scenes of him hunting in the desert, making it probable that he was at least a sportsman. Perhaps the strongest evidence for a warrior pharaoh comes from the stone blocks recovered from Tutankhamun’s now destroyed mortuary temple. Dr. Ray Johnson has reassembled these on paper to show that they depict Tutankhamun in battle against the Syrians. The chapter concludes that all this evidence taken together suggests that Tutankhamun may have actually have been to war.
CSI Thebes: The Case of the Missing Pectoral
Authors: Brier Bob
Published: November 2022

This chapter highlights the research of Dr. Marc Gabolde, who has been searching for the pectoral stolen from Tutankhamun’s mummy sometime between the 1930s and the 1980s. Using auction catalogues and museum records, Gabolde has been able to identify several pieces of restrung jewelry made from beads originally found in Tutankhamun’s tomb. It is well established that Carter had these objects in his London apartment and that they were sold as part of his estate after he died. However, they may have been originally taken out of Egypt by Lord Carnarvon and then passed on to Carter after Carnarvon’s death. This chapter shows that far more objects from the tomb than might be expected are in collections around the world.
Tutankhamun as Activist
Authors: Brier Bob
Published: November 2022

The history of colonialism in Egypt, from Napoleon Bonaparte’s invasion in 1798 through the 1930s, is discussed. This colonialism included foreign control of the Suez Canal; the British bombardment of Alexandria, which led to their control of the government; and French control of the Antiquities Service. The rise of Egyptian nationalism and the attempt to end foreign control of Egypt coincided with the discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb, but Carter and Carnarvon, seemingly oblivious to this resentment, sold the exclusive rights to the Tutankhamun story to an English newspaper. It was thus natural that Tutankhamun would become a rallying cry for nationalists. This chapter also discusses how Carter made it worse by behaving as if he owned the tomb, and even giving some of its contents to colleagues.
Who Owns Tutankhamun?
Authors: Brier Bob
Published: November 2022

The chapter presents an overview of the history of antiquities leaving Egypt, both legally and illegally. In the early part of the nineteenth century almost anything could be taken out of Egypt, and this is when European museums such as the British Museum and the Louvre began building their impressive collections of Egyptian antiquities. In 1883, when the French were in control of the Antiquities Service, it was decreed that foreign excavation teams could keep a portion of the duplicates that they excavated. During this period of division of the finds, many American museums such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago built their collections. This policy of partage began to change shortly after the discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb. It was a slow process, but in 1983, Egypt passed Law 117, forbidding the export of any antiquities. This chapter discusses the role of the discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb in this change.
Traditions of Inquiry on Language and Writing
Authors: Demattè Paola
Published: November 2022

This chapter addresses the philosophical and philological debates about language and writing in Europe and China by comparing the different approaches concerning the nature of the bond between writing and language. It shows that classical Chinese philosophers and etymologists, like those from ancient Greece, debated language and writing in the context of larger philosophical debates on the nature of reality. However, unlike the classical Greek philosophers, who saw speech as the primary form of communication, these thinkers privileged the written form. This chapter also recounts stories and legends about the origins of Chinese writing which came into being in the Late Zhou and Han period.
The Influence of Digital on Evangelical Reader Behavior
Authors: Dyer John
Published: November 2022

This chapter compares the habits and hermeneutics of Bible readers when they shift from printed Bibles to Bible apps. It draws on quantitative research in several churches that tested participants’ comprehension rates, daily reading behaviors, and understanding of the meaning and significance of a text. These data indicate that readers have a complex relationship with their phones, and that the place of the phone in modern life affects when and how religious people engage with the Bible and the version of God they encounter when they read. The demographics of the readers also appear to be a significant factor in the way they adapt to technology and apply it to their faith.
Introduction
Authors: English James F. , Love Heather
Published: November 2022

Of all humanities disciplines, none is more resistant to the program of positive psychology or more hostile to the prevailing discourse of human flourishing than literary studies. Rather than gloss over that antagonism or launch a series of blasts against positive psychology and the happiness industry, this volume reflects on how the kinds of literary research the contributors themselves are doing, the kinds of work to which they are personally committed, might become part of an interdisciplinary conversation about human flourishing. To provide some context, a brief sketch is provided of the literary history of happiness as a major theme from Aristotle’s writing on eudaimonia to the works of Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Austen, and of the fate of happiness in the often dark and melancholic literature of modernism and into the twenty-first century. Literary studies, which emerged as a university discipline in these latter periods, has often been regarded as a killjoy profession, wedded to critique and only recently awoken to the potentialities of ameliorative or reparative reading. This introduction presents a different history of the discipline, emphasizing higher education pedagogy and the tradition of British cultural studies, to show that even at its most fiercely critical, literary studies has been deeply entangled with the search for the good life. Interdisciplinary conversations about the forms and means of human flourishing do not require literary scholars to undergo a “eudaimonic turn” away from their traditional ways of reading and teaching, simply to convey the discipline’s true aims and ambitions more clearly.
Introduction
Authors: Goudie Andrew S. , Brunsden Denys
Published: November 2022

The Jurassic Coast in southern England displays some of the world’s most important geological and geomorphological sites. The area provides one of the finest sequences of strata from the Triassic of East Devon to the Cretaceous rocks in the East of Dorset. The strata provide an almost unbroken record of Earth history between 251 and 66 million years ago, representing a remarkable range of past environments. The Jurassic Coast was inscribed by the UNESCO, not only for its geological sequence and fossils, but also for the quality, variety, and significance of the landforms and ongoing geomorphological processes. The coast has iconic landslides and beaches, with a huge variety of forms and dramatic changes. It was highly important in the history of science and was a birthplace of the geological sciences. In addition to introducing the geology of the coast, this chapter provides an introduction to the scope of geomorphology and the role of women in Earth Science.
The Fossil Collectors
Authors: Goudie Andrew S. , Brunsden Denys
Published: November 2022

Fossil collectors played a very fundamental role in the study of the geology of the Jurassic Coast. Here the world’s first ichthyosaurs were identified, the world’s first complete plesiosaur followed, and the first British pterodactyl was identified. These discoveries seemed to stimulate the activities of many famous collectors, including the Philpot sisters, who founded the Lyme Regis Museum and put together the collection now in the Oxford University Museum. The work of Mary Anning and Elizabeth Philpot in Lyme Regis was especially important. Also important was the work undertaken at Durlston Bay by Samuel Beckles and Peter Brodie, by Thomas Hawkins on ‘The Great Sea Dragons’, and by Robert Damon of Weymouth. It was during this period that the nature and importance of dinosaurs became established.
Retirement and Economic Growth
Authors: Baily Martin Neil , Harris Benjamin H.
Published: November 2022

Economic growth affects retirement preparedness, and savings decisions can also affect economic growth. First, slow economic growth can threaten retirement programs’ financing. There are fewer workers for each retiree than in the past, and each new generation is not much richer than prior generations. That means that contributions to Social Security and Medicare from those who are now working no longer cover retiree benefits. Second, decisions about how much to save for retirement and when to retire affect economic growth. Saving makes available productive capital that helps drive growth, and the age at which people retire influences the size of the workforce. Quantitatively, the first of these two channels (from growth to retirement programs) is larger and will figure in future chapters. This chapter mostly explores the effect of retirement decisions on economic growth, showing how an improved retirement system can modestly contribute to faster economic growth.
Why Is Saving So Hard?
Authors: Baily Martin Neil , Harris Benjamin H.
Published: November 2022

Many families follow the life cycle model, often saving at work in a 401(k)-type plan. Owning a home and paying off the mortgage also provides an important retirement asset. For other families, though, saving is hard. Low-wage and short-term jobs, unemployment, divorce, and other setbacks can make it very hard to save. Small employers often do not have a retirement plan for their workers. Behavioral economists find that good intentions can go astray as the temptation of spending today overcomes the desire to provide for the distant future. Employers can greatly encourage participation by offering a 401(k)-type plan that automatically enrolls workers unless they choose to opt out. “Nudging” people to save is effective. There are tax incentives for retirement saving, but these are much stronger for high-income families than for those with low and moderate incomes. Policymakers and employers can do much more to encourage retirement saving.
Transitioning to Retirement in a Changing Labor Market
Authors: Baily Martin Neil , Harris Benjamin H.
Published: November 2022

This chapter examines how the labor market is changing, forcing older workers to adapt to different jobs and new ways of working. The Great Recession of 2007 and 2009 was a persistent drag on the labor market, while COVID-19 triggered a much sharper, though less enduring, disruption. A new recession is a threat to an otherwise healthy labor market though the first half of 2022. Longer-term trends are also important, notably changing technologies, globalization, and the shift away from middle-skill jobs. Older workers’ skills become obsolete in some cases, and they lose their jobs or need to retrain. Some workers have decided to scale back their work hours rather than fully retire. Perhaps they lack the money to support early retirement and need part-time work for a few years in what amounts to a so-called phased retirement. The “gig” economy is creating some new options for older workers, although evidence suggests that older workers are not much affected by this development.
A Vision for a New Retirement Paradigm
Authors: Baily Martin Neil , Harris Benjamin H.
Published: November 2022

This chapter summarizes the key points of the book. The new retirement paradigm requires action by families, policymakers, and employers. Families must better plan for their futures, saving enough to maintain their standard of living in retirement. Policymakers must preserve key government programs and improve the workings of insurance markets to help retirees handle risks. Employers no longer provide pensions to their workers, but they should help them navigate the hard and confusing choices and risks that they now face. This is not a farfetched collection of proposals; in fact there is no realistic alternative. While some may wish that companies would again provide private pensions, they are not going to do so. Social Security benefits could be more generous but—with Social Security facing long-term financing challenges—policymakers will find it hard enough to maintain Social Security retirement in its current form, let alone expand its generosity.
No Exit
Authors: Glinsky Albert
Published: November 2022

Chapter 4 is named for the Jean-Paul Sartre play, No Exit, with its iconic line, “Hell is other people.” This stands as a metaphor for the deep divides between Bob and Shirley. In their almost-daily correspondence (between Cornell, where he was pursuing his doctoral degree, and Queens College, where she was finishing her Education degree), they exchange views about politics (including Sputnik), and sex (Bob’s “Intensi-gasm” cartoon). Bob’s correspondence with his Aunt Florence reveals some of his religious and philosophical attitudes. His letters with Shirley highlight their incompatibility and impatience with each other. She’s looking forward to their wedding (June 1958), while many of his letters reveal he is not. They both oppose Shirley’s father’s demand for a Jewish wedding, preferring an Ethical Culture Society (ECS) ceremony. They secure Ies Spetter, from ECS, to marry them. The wedding, with its mishaps, reveals the underlying tensions in both Bob’s and Shirley’s families.