bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Army, Late Antiquity
Authors: Whately Conor
Published: December 2012

In 235CE, at the beginning of Late Antiquity, the Roman army was not all that different from the army of 14CEat the end of the reign of Augustus. By the seventh century, and in the aftermath of the Arab invasion of the Near East, the Roman army had been transformed, with significant differences with regard to its organization, size, tactics, strategy, and operations. What had been a heavily armed force, which sought to engage its foes head‐on and whose primary strength lay in its infantry, had become a force that often sought to avoid pitched battle unless left with no alternative, and whose strength lay in its cavalry.
Artisans, trades,and guilds, Late Antiquity
Authors: Gibbs Matt
Published: December 2012

In Late Antiquity, artisans — ranging from goldsmiths, shippers, builders, carpenters, butchers, bakers, weavers, to ferrymen, and including a further significant range of other trades‐ and crafts‐workers – formed into associations, or more commonly, guilds. Such an illustration of collective life was hardly an innovation of this period; rather it continued a phenomenon that had prevailed in ancient societies for a significant period of time. As earlier, these guilds fulfilled a variety of economic, religious, and social needs, both for their members and for the ruling state.
Ausonius
Authors: Sogno Cristiana
Published: December 2012

Gibbon's typically trenchant judgment (“the poetical fame of Ausonius condemns the taste of his age”) has had a negative and lasting impact on Ausonian scholarship, and only relatively recent studies have tried (successfully) to redress the balance.
Caesarius of Arles
Authors: Arnold Jonathan J.
Published: December 2012

Caesarius (ca. 469/470–542CE) was born to a noble Gallo‐Roman family in Chalonsur‐Saône, then a part of the Burgundian kingdom in eastern Gaul.
Catenae
Authors: Ceulemans Reinhart
Published: December 2012

The Latin term catenae (“chains”) is used to denote a specific genre of biblical commentary that was practiced in Late Antiquity and Byzantium.
Circus factions
Authors: Bell Peter
Published: December 2012

Although chariot racing, sponsored by (rich) private individuals, was introduced into the Olympic Games at the twenty‐fifth Olympiad (680BCE), the circus factions (factions; Gk. Merē, dēmoi) were a Roman institution, originally comprising syndicates of rich men.
Demography, Late Antiquity
Authors: Horden Peregrine
Published: December 2012

Across the ancient world there were probably fewer people in 700 CE than there were in 300 CE.
Demons, Late Antiquity
Authors: Schwarz Sarah L.
Published: December 2012

The Greek termdaimonhas had a range of possible meanings over time, from relatively neutral characterizations of the “inner voice” who spoke to Socrates to the highly dualistic characterizations of the forces of evil who opposed Jesus in the Gospel traditions and elsewhere.
Dioskoros of Aphrodito
Authors: Fournet Jean‐Luc
Published: December 2012

Dioskoros was born around 525
CE
and died between 573 and 585.
Dream interpretation
Authors: Oberhelman Steven M.
Published: December 2012

Dream interpretation (oneirocriticism), a practice evidenced by Pharaonic and Demotic Egyptian, Old Babylonian, and Assyrian dreambooks, was prevalent throughout Greek, Roman, and Byzantine culture. Oneirocriticism was a private form of divination that individuals used to uncover answers about the present and future (the past was never a concern).
Edessa
Authors: Wood Philip , Heal Kristian S.
Published: December 2012

Edessa (ancient Adme, Aramaic Urhoy, modern Urfa), once hailed as the “the mother of all the cities of Mesopotamia,” lies to the north of Harran near the Balikh River, a branch of the upper Euphrates.
Erotapokriseis
Authors: Papadogiannakis Yannis
Published: December 2012

Erotaprokriseis(otherwise known asproblemata,aporiai,lyseis,zetemata,quaestiones,responsa,capita/capitula,kephalaia, etc.) is a later coinage of Byzantine grammarians to designate one of the oldest and most popular literary formats of the ancient world.
Eunapius of Sardis
Authors: Simelidis Christos
Published: December 2012

Eunapius (ca. 348–414
CE
) was a pagan Platonic philosopher, a historian, and a biographer of philosophers and rhetors of the third and fourth centuries.
Evagrius of Pontus
Authors: Simelidis Christos
Published: December 2012

Evagrius (ca. 345–399CE), a monastic writer and calligrapher, was born in Pontus. He accompanied Gregory of Nazianzus to Constantinople and became a preacher there under Gregory and his successor, Nektarios. After a short stay in Palestine, where he met Melania the Elder, he spent the rest of his life (from ca. 383) in the Nitrian desert, where he associated with Makarios of Egypt.
Rome, Fall of
Authors: Ward‐Perkins Bryan
Published: December 2012

The Roman Empire did not fall until May 29, 1453, when a Turkish army under Mehmet the Conqueror marched into Constantinople.
Babylon‐Fustat
Authors: Power Timothy
Published: December 2012

Late Period Settlement

The settlement of Babylon‐Fustat is situated at the strategic apex of the Nile Delta where it meets the Nile Valley, and is as such the successor of the ancient Pharaonic cities of Memphis and Heliopolis. Later sources variably ascribe its foundation to the brief Neo‐Babylonian or longer Achaemenid occupations (Butler 1914; Toy 1937), so that Babylon‐in‐Egypt could have been established as a strategic fortress by an invading army of the east. One tradition holds that it was founded by Babylonian exiles or prisoners of war, who apparently comprised the first garrison of the fortress, settled there by the legendary Egyptian king Sesostris. So Babylon would have been built by a native king seeking to guard the approaches to the Nile Valley. The Saïtes (664–525BCE) had recourse to foreign mercenaries, most famously the Greeks ofnaukratisand the Jewish barracks at Elephantine, providing firm historical parallels for an eponymous Babylonian garrison guarding the approach to Memphis. These alternative traditions need not be mutually exclusive, given the tendency for fortresses to be sacked, rebuilt, and relocated over successive generations.
Gaza (Hellenistic to Late Antiquity)
Authors: Saliou Catherine
Published: December 2012

During antiquity, Gaza was prosperous. Located at the point of arrival of caravans from the Arabian Peninsula and Arabian Gulf and connected with the Mediterranean Sea by two ports, Anthedon and Maiuma, the city was an important commercial center, which played a particularly significant role in the incense trade.
Horapollon
Authors: Fournet Jean‐luc
Published: December 2012

Horapollon is known as the author of a treatise on the Hieroglyphs (Hieroglyphica), the only one in all preserved Greco‐Latin literature.
John Chrysostom
Authors: Mayer Wendy
Published: December 2012

There are two chief reasons why John Chrysostom (ca. 350‐407CE) is significant: the vast size and quality of his surviving works (more than one thousand letters, treatises, and sermons), and his role at the center of a schism that split the Christian world in the first decades of the fifth century.
John Moschos
Authors: Deroche Vincent
Published: December 2012

The
Pratum
(understood as a flower‐rich spiritual meadow) of John Moschos, his only extant work, is among the finest Greek anthologies of edifying tales, with 219 chapters.
Land and landholding, Late Antiquity
Authors: Mazza Roberta
Published: December 2012

Despite the profound changes of the third to seventh centuriesCE, from the economic pointof view, the Late Roman Empire remained a pre‐modern agricultural economy, and as aconsequence the ownership, exploitation, and control of the land were essential for both the State and its elite members.
Law and legal practice, Late Antiquity
Authors: Humfress Caroline
Published: December 2012

Traditional approaches to law in Late Antiquity adopt a“top‐down” perspective, focusing on emperors as lawgivers, jurists (legal experts) as bureaucratic functionaries, and imperial magistrates as judges. “The principal change in the field of law brought about by the Principate was that there existed from then on a final instance and an ultimate source of decision about the law, as about politics and everything else” (Crook 1995: 45). Working from the premise that law itself was an almost exclusively imperial domain in Late Antiquity, traditional approaches are nonetheless also fundamentally concerned with questions of legal practice: “what happened daily in thestreets and in the court‐rooms” (Stolte 2009: 80).
Libanius
Authors: Malosse Pierre‐Louis
Published: December 2012

Libanius (314–ca. 393) was a Sophist, that is, professor of rhetoric, and the main Greek‐speaking non‐Christian author of the fourth centuryCE, as well as amajor source on political and social life during Late Antiquity.
Mandylion
Authors: Caseau Béatrice
Published: December 2012

The mandylion was a very popular relic.
Medina
Authors: Lecker Michael
Published: December 2012

Medina, or
al‐madīna
(Arabic: “the city”) in northwestern Arabia is second only to Mecca in sanctity.
P
oll tax,
R
oman
Authors: Capponi Livia
Published: December 2012

Under the Roman Republic, different indirect and direct taxes, assessed on different bases and according to different rates, were levied in the provinces. Direct taxes were levied on all the population; indirect taxes applied only to some goods or services.
Rabbula of Edessa
Authors: Traina Giusto
Published: December 2012

The main evidence for the biography of Rabbula is a Syriac hagiography written around 450.
Serapeum, destruction of
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: December 2012

The Serapeum of Alexandria was the city's greatest pagan sanctuary and one of the most famous sanctuaries of antiquity. Its destruction in 391
CE
was an iconic episode in the Christianization of Alexandria and of the later Roman Empire.
Theodoret of Cyrrhus
Authors: Borrelli Daniela
Published: December 2012

Theodoret of Cyrrhus was born in 393CEin Antioch, to a rich family belonging to the curial class; his father and mother were both very devout, but with different experiences of faith.
TheodosiusI
Authors: Destephen Sylvain
Published: December 2012

The birthplace of Flavius Theodosius, born in 347, is uncertain. The Galician bishop Hydatius (fifth century) mentions Cauca, near Segovia in central Spain, but the pagan historian Zosimus (sixth century) places it in Italica, close to Seville in southern Spain.
Tribonian
Authors: du Plessis Paul J.
Published: December 2012

For a figure who had such a profound impact on one of the ancient world's greatest attempts at legal reform, relatively little is known about Tribonian.
Vandals
Authors: Lawrence Thomas Christopher
Published: December 2012

Before the fifth century, the Vandals receive scant attention in the sources.
Welfare institutions, Late Antiquity
Authors: Stathakopoulos Dionysios
Published: December 2012

In the fourth century
CE
, a genuine Christian invention emerged: charitable institutions that catered to the needs of various categories of indigent individuals.
Zurvan
Authors: Vevaina Yuhan Sohrab‐Dinshaw
Published: December 2012

Zurvan is a deity associated with Time in Zoroastrianism and is the supreme deity in Middle Persian texts in Manichaeism.
Gibbon, Edward (1737–1794)
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: December 2012

Edward Gibbon was an English Enlightenment historian most famous for his hugely influentialHistory of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire(1776–1788).
Agnatio
Authors: Harders Ann‐Cathrin
Published: December 2012

Agnatiois defined as the group of persons related to each other exclusively by patrilineal descent. The expression originates from Roman law, but has found its way into modern ethnology and anthropology to define patrilateral kin groups (ethnology) or socially privileged kin groups (anthropology).
Album
Authors: Kantor Georgy
Published: December 2012

Album(Latin “whitened board”) was a form of publication of official lists, calendars, and regulations in Rome from the republican to the late imperial period. The text was written on white‐washed wooden boards in black ink (in atramento), with the section‐headings in red, whence the termrubrica(Mayor 1886–8 on Juvenal 14.192–3; Nappo 1989: 88 n. 14). The term is commonly used in modern historiography to denote any Roman official list.
Anakrisis
Authors: Scafuro Adele C.
Published: December 2012

Before most private and public charges came to court in Athens, the accuser orally summoned his opponent to meet before a magistrate on a specified day when he would submit his charge.
Assault, Greek and Roman
Authors: Fuhrmann Christopher
Published: December 2012

People experienced various kinds of legitimate violence in the ancient world, such as military service, corporal discipline within the house‐hold, or judicial penalties.
Assessores
Authors: Steiner Anja
Published: December 2012

Assessores
(
adsessores
,
consiliarii
, πάρεδρoι) were legal assistants to Roman magistrates who had studied law at law schools, eventually in advanced training (
iuris studiosi
).
Bona fides
Authors: Schermaier Martin J. , Dedek Helge
Published: December 2012

Bona fides
is a Roman legal term that was probably first employed in certain
formulae
of the Praetorian edict. In Classical law, the term assumes both a subjective and an objective meaning. In the subjective sense,
bona fides
describes the mistaken but excusable belief that somebody who alienates property is also its owner.
Codicilli
Authors: Schermaier Martin J. , Dedek Helge
Published: December 2012

In a legal context, the term
codicilli
(“little books”–used only in the plural form: Justinian
Dig
. 50.16.148) initially referred to wishes a person put in writing that were intended to take effect upon his death, but did not meet the formal requirements of a Testamentum.
Consilium
Authors: Steiner Anja
Published: December 2012

Aconsiliumwas a Roman advisory council to a person who had to render judgment about an issue. In earliest times theconsiliumwas a group of relatives (consilium domesticum)or friends (consilium propinquorum) that apaterfamiliaswas by custom expected to consult before exercising his absolute power over the members of his family, especially theius vitae necisque(power of life and death).
Constitutiones
Authors: Miglietta Massimo
Published: December 2012

Imperial constitutions are mentioned among the sources of Roman law by Gaius the jurist in his
Institutiones
(1.2 and 1.5). Of these,
decreta
,
edicta
, and
epistulae
are specifically described as the means by which the
princeps
stated his normative will (Just.
Inst
.
Debt, Greece and Rome
Authors: Tompkins Daniel P.
Published: December 2012

Debt suffused the ancient world at all levels, from impoverished peasants to the elite of Rome and Athens.
Decretum
Authors: Peachin Michael
Published: December 2012

The termdecretum(from the verbdecernere, “decide, determine, settle, ordain, declare a judgment, vote for”) was used to refer to various types of decision or resolution enacted by various organs of government in the Roman world.
Defensor
Authors: Steiner Anja
Published: December 2012

In a narrow sense, a Roman
defensor
was either an agent without authority who defended an absent private person in legal procedures only (
Dig
. 3.3) or somebody who undertook litigation for a corporation (
defensor universitatis
or
civitatis, Dig
. 3.4.1.3;).
Digest
Authors: Kaiser Wolfgang
Published: December 2012

In Late Antiquity the works of the classical Roman jurists (dating from the first to about the middle of the third centuryCE) were a subject of study at the law schools and were used by the courts in deciding cases.
Emphyteusis
Authors: Kehoe Dennis
Published: December 2012

The term
emphyteusis
denotes a permanent right to land in Late Antiquity that a possessor acquired from its owner, often the Roman state or even the Church, in exchange for the payment of an annual rent, or
canon
. The emphyteutic right was defined as distinct from sale and lease, two forms of contract with which it was recognized as sharing commonalities (Zeno,
CJ
4.66.1; Just.
Inst
. 3.24.3). This right could be sold or bequeathed, so the emphyteutic possessor had many of the rights of an owner, but at the same time he also had to pay rent, as in a lease.
Gesta
Authors: Harter‐Uibopuu Kaja
Published: December 2012

In the Roman Republic,
gesta
referred to the journal of magistrates in which they recorded and archived their orders.
Ius liberorum
Authors: McGinn Thomas A. J.
Published: December 2012

The “privilege of children” was a set of benefits originally established by the Augustan marriage legislation.
Jurisprudence, Greek and Roman
Authors: Miglietta Massimo
Published: December 2012

The different concepts of “jurisprudence” in Greece and Rome allow us to draw a strong distinction between the juridical systems of the Greekpoleis(the “city‐states”) and of theUrbs(“the City,” as Rome was simply called).
Laokritai
Authors: Rowlandson Jane
Published: December 2012

The
laokritai
(“people's judges”) were Egyptian judges who provided justice for the native population of Ptolemaic Egypt in courts using Egyptian law and language.
Law courts, Greek and Roman
Authors: Harris Edward M. , Alexander Michael C.
Published: December 2012

The earliest evidence for judges and law courts in the Greek world is found in the Homeric and Hesiodic poems (seventh centuryBCE).
Law of the sea, Rhodian
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno
Published: December 2012

The
lex Rhodia de iactu
(Rhodian law about jettison, i.e., about throwing goods overboard in order to lighten and consequently save the vessel) is the subject of title 14.2 of the
Digest
, which includes commentaries by several jurists upon an enigmatic Rhodian law apparently about jettison, but also tackling other problems in navigation law, including fiscal issues.
Law schools
Authors: Avenarius Martin
Published: December 2012

In the ancient world, traditions of scientific legal thought were mainly practiced in schools of Jewish law and of Roman law.
Law, books of
Authors: Karambelas Dimitris
Published: December 2012

A survey of books of law in Greek and Roman antiquity has to be, fatefully, alamentation forlost books.
Law, literary sources for (Greek and Roman)
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno
Published: December 2012

The major differences between the Greek and Roman legal systems imply, among other things, a significantly different value placed on literary evidence as a source from which to reconstruct their original content.
Litis denuntiatio
Authors: Rüfner Thomas
Published: December 2012

Litis denuntiatio
(giving notice of suit) was the standard way to initiate civil proceedings in the Roman Empire between the late third and the middle of the fifth century
CE
. It is unknown how exactly the procedure was introduced, since early sources like
CT
2.4.2 already presuppose its existence.
Parabyston
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

The
Parabyston
was the name of the Athenian court in which the Eleven supervised trials of thieves, “clothes‐snatchers,” and enslavers ([Arist.]
Ath. Pol
. 52.1; Poll. 8.121).
Parapherna
Authors: Yiftach‐Firanko Uri
Published: December 2012

The
parapherna
was a Greek dowry category in the Roman period, alongside the
phernê
and the
prosphora
.
Precedent, Greek
Authors: Lanni Adriaan
Published: December 2012

Contemporary common‐law jurisdictions employ the doctrine of binding precedent, that is, the requirement that courts follow legal rules announced in prior decisions rendered by courts of equal or higher rank. Classical Athens had no notion of binding precedent, but litigants in the surviving court speeches frequently refer to past court verdicts in making their arguments.
Property, Greek and Roman
Authors: J. Schermaier Martin , Dedek Helge
Published: December 2012

“Property” is a legal concept that relates a person to an object in the sense that the person “owns” the object: it is legally his.
Purchase, Greek and Roman
Authors: Kehoe Dennis
Published: December 2012

The buying and selling of property was basic to economic life in Greece and Rome. Most sales were simple transactions in which the buyer paid cash for an item of property. However, the law surrounding sale is important for the ways in which Greek and Roman society arranged more complex transactions, such as sales of farmland or other real estate, sales on credit, and advance sales, especially of crops. In addition, complex contracts of sale created risks for the seller and the buyer, which the law had to allocate between the two parties in order to encourage business arrangements useful to the economy.
Querela inofficiosi testamenti
Authors: Schermaier Martin J. , Dedek Helge
Published: December 2012

As long as a Roman testator complied with the formal requirements of the Testamentum, he was, as a rule, free as to the content of the will.
Stuprum
Authors: McGinn Thomas A. J.
Published: December 2012

From an early period,stuprummeant “disgrace” in a general sense. Naevius in hisBellum Punicumemploys it to signify cowardice, desertion, and/or defeat in a military context (46, 47 Strzelecki).
Tabula Heracleensis
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno
Published: December 2012

TheTabula Heracleensis(CILI2593 =ILS6085 =FIRAI2no. 13; Crawford 1996: 335–91 no. 24) is a bronze tablet discovered in 1732 around Ucio, near Masseria Andrace (Italy).
Ususfructus
Authors: Straumann Benjamin
Published: December 2012

A concept of Roman property law,
ususfructus
gave a certain person – the usufructuary – the right (
ius
) to the use and enjoyment of fruits of a thing for a certain amount of time, without destroying the thing or fundamentally altering its substance (Paul.
Dig
. 7.1.1:
usus fructus est ius alienis rebus utendi fruendi salva rerum substantia
).
Vis
Authors: Fuhrmann Christopher
Published: December 2012

As the conspirators began their attack on the Ides of March, Julius Caesar shouted “But this isvis!” to no avail (Suet.Iul. 82).
Repudium
Authors: McGinn Thomas A. J.
Published: December 2012

Just as Roman marriage itself was mainly a matter of agreement between the husband and wife (and those in whosepotestasthey stood, if applicable), so Roman divorce demanded little by way of formality in principle.
Idios Logos, Gnomon of the – Law
Authors: Speidel Michael A.
Published: December 2012

TheGnomonof theidios logoswas a handbook or code of regulations that consisted of a list of legal rulings relevant to the affairs of the institution of the “Private” or “Special Account” (idios logos) in the Roman province of Egypt.
Adriatic Sea
Authors: Iacono Francesco
Published: December 2012

The Adriatic is located in the northernmost part of the Mediterranean Sea.
Alexandria Ariana
Authors: Lerner Jeffrey D.
Published: December 2012

Alexandria Ariana (modern Herāt) was once thought to have been founded by Alexander the Great in ca. 330BCE, when he repopulated the Achaemenid capital of Artacoana or Articaudna in the satrapy of Aria with Greeks. This view is now regarded as suspect, for Alexandria and Artacoana are considered separate cities, with the latter situated along the Hari Rud (Greek Areios) River near Herāt, while the whereabouts of the former is perhaps somewhere nearby (Koshelenko 1979: 136–7; Bosworth 1980: 356–7; Fraser 1996: 109–31). Until excavations beyond the medieval period are undertaken at Herāt, the whereabouts of both ancient cities will remain unknown.
Alexandria Eschate
Authors: Lerner Jeffrey D.
Published: December 2012

Alexandria Eschate, “Alexandria the Furthest,” near modern Khozhent (formerly Leninabad in Tadjikistan) was founded by Alexander the Great in August 329BCEon the southern bank of the Jaxartes in Sogdia, forming the northeastern border of his kingdom (Bosworth 1995).
Alinda
Authors: Blümel Wolfgang
Published: December 2012

Alinda

Strabo 14.2.17, 657) was an ancient city in Caria, ca. 30 km west of Çine, on a hill above the modern town of Karpuzlu (formerly Demircideresi). To the west is the Latmos range of mountains, to the east, a fertile plain.
Ambrakos
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Ambrakos was a settlement located on a narrow peninsula extending to the east within the Gulf of Preveza.
Amorgos
Authors: Cazemier Annelies
Published: December 2012

Amorgos is a mountainous island, elongated in shape, located to the southeast of Naxos and northwest of Astypalaia.
Argos
Authors: Piérart Marcel
Published: December 2012

Argos is a city in the Peloponnese, lying at the western end of a plain of ca. 250 sq km. Triangular in shape, the plain looks southward to the gulf of Nauplia. To the west, high mountains formed the boundary between Argos and Arcadia. Mount Tretos was the boundary line between Argos and Kleonai to the north, while Mount Arachnaion isolated the plain from the independent cities of Argolis to the east.
Artemis Limnatis sanctuary
Authors: West III William C.
Published: December 2012

The sanctuary of Artemis Limnatis is located on a western slope of Mount Taygetos, roughly on the border between Lakonia and Messenia. It was accessible from the Asinaeus Sinus, the Gulf of Asine, via the Choireios River. Control of the sanctuary was disputed by the Lakonians and Messenians from early times (Paus. 4.4.2, 31.3; Strabo 8.4.9), arising from a tradition of violation byMessenians of Spartan maidens who had come to the sanctuary for a religious rite (cf. Baladié 1980: 69, 270). Before this outrage, according to Strabo (op. cit.), both groups had used the sanctuary in common for assemblies. The sanctuary continued to be the object of dispute between Lakonia and Messenia, possibly until the time of Tiberius. Archaic dedications to Artemis Limnatis cut on bronze vases, from Lakonia and Messenia, written in Doric, are known.
Aspendos
Authors: Brandt Hartwin
Published: December 2012

Aspendos is an ancient city located in southern modern Turkey, whose name is not only known to experts of the ancient world, but also to thousands of modern tourists who visit the impressive ruins; the Roman theater, built in the second centuryCE, is one of the best preserved Roman monuments.
Baitokaike
Authors: Freyberger Klaus
Published: December 2012

Baitokaike, identified as today's village of Hossn Soleiman, is about 20 km northeast of Safita, in a valley of the Syrian coastal mountains, 750 m above sea level.
Barbarikon
Authors: Gupta Sunil
Published: December 2012

Barbarikon was an ancient port on the Indus estuary.
Chios
Authors: Beaumont Lesley A.
Published: December 2012

Chios is an island in the eastern Aegean, located close to the coast of Asia Minor and situated on well‐traveled routes of maritime communication.
Dion
Authors: Michaleas Spyridon
Published: December 2012

Dion in Pieria, on the foothill of Mount Olympos (Ps.‐Skylax 26;
CIL
III 1.591), bordered Leibethra to the south and Pydna to the north; the river Baphyras offered an opening to the sea (Strabo 7.17; Livy 44.6.15; Paus. 9.30.8; Ptol. 3.13).
Dokimeion
Authors: Vandeput Lutgarde
Published: December 2012

Dokimeion and its subsidiary Quarries in the Upper Tembris valley (Altıntaşovası) are located in central Phrygia, north of the city of Afyon and about 1.5 km east of İscehisar.
Dyme
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Dyme is located in the northwest corner of the Peloponnese, on the plain of Elis, about 20 km southwest of Patras and about 40 km from Cape Araxos at the entrance to the Corinthian Gulf.
Epirus
Authors: Bowden William
Published: December 2012

The Epirus of antiquity was a region that lay at the heart of the Mediterranean, between the Greek and Roman worlds. It covered an area now divided between the modern states of Greece and Albania, stretching from the Akrokeraunian mountains in the north to the Ambrakian Gulf in the south, and bounded to the west by the Ionian Sea and to the east by the Pindos and Grammos mountain ranges. The region is dominated by mountain ranges that traverse the country from north‐northwest to south‐southeast, separated by river valleys that have formed the principal lines of land communication from the past to the present day.
Granikos
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: December 2012

Granikos is a river running through the plain of Adrasteia in Hellespontine Phrygia, and is the site of Alexander the Great's first battle in Asia in 334
BCE
.
Halikarnassos
Authors: Pedersen Poul
Published: December 2012

Except for a few pieces of worked obsidian noticed by G.E. Bean, the first substantial remains in Halikarnassos are of Mycenaean date.
Halys
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

The Halys River rises in the mountains of eastern Turkey near Zara (mod.) and flows in a southwesterly direction to Avanos (mod.), where it bends around and meanders northward, reaching the Black Sea near Bafra and Samsun.
Hermos
Authors: Daubner Frank
Published: December 2012

The Hermos River, today Gediz Nehri, flows from the Dindymos Mountain in the Mysian borderland.
Hyphasis
Authors: Gupta Sunil
Published: December 2012

Hyphasis is the ancient Greek name for the Beas River (Sanskrit: Vipasa), one of the five tributaries of the Indus.
Ilion
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Ancient Troy is located at the hill Hisarlik on the plain south of the entrance to the Dardanelles, about 15 km southwest of Cannakale.
Ithome mountain
Authors: Mueth Silke
Published: December 2012

Mount Ithome (802 m) is one of the most prominent elevations in the southwestern Peloponnese and, with its important sanctuary of Zeus Ithomatas, played a key role for the Messenians.
Kalykadnos
Authors: West III William C.
Published: December 2012

The Kalykadnos is a river of Cilicia Tracheia, which rises in Isauria and flows south through the province, eventually creating a wide valley, and empties into the Mediterranean at Seleukeia ad Calycadnum/Tracheia, on the coast between Celenderis and Korykos.
Katakekaumene
Authors: Daubner Frank
Published: December 2012

The Katakekaumene, the “burnt country,” is a region of ca. 1,800 km
2
in northeastern Lydia. It is characterized by the remains of volcanism, which lasted until about 12,000 years ago. Black volcanic cones, rugged basalt plateaus, and canyons flanked by basalt columns form the unique nature of this area, which is crossed by the Hermos. The land was famous for its wine, the Katakekaumenites. Another rare resource that led to its relative prosperity in Roman times was the pozzolan, which was needed for concrete constructions (Vitr. 2.6.3).
Kios/Prusias ad Mare
Authors: Corsten Thomas
Published: December 2012

Kios was a Greek colonial city in northwestern Asia Minor (modern Gemlik). It was founded, according to Greek historians, in 626/5
BCE
by colonists from Miletos in what was then Mysia; local and literary myths, however, attributed the foundation to Herakles (or Polyphemos) when he accompanied the Argonauts.
Koroni
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Koroni is the modern name of a peninsular headland which is the site of a Hellenistic fort on the east coast of Attica, near Porto Raphti, about midway between Marathon and Sounion.
Kos
Authors: Cojocaru Victor
Published: December 2012

As one of the largest (290 km2) of the Sporades Islands, with fertile agricultural land, Kos was populated already in the Neolithic period.
Kyzikos
Authors: Cojocaru Victor
Published: December 2012

Kyzikos is located at modern Balkiz, on the isthmus of the Kapu Daği Peninsula (ancient Arctonnesos), on the southwestern coast of the Sea of Marmara.
Lagina sanctuary
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Lagina was a sanctuary of Hekate in the territory of Stratonikeia, Caria.
Lamia
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Lamia is located on the Acheloos River, at the head of the Gulf of Malis, in northeastern Greece, controlling access to the Phourka pass into Thessaly and points north.
Lemnos
Authors: Dimitrova Nora
Published: December 2012

“Smouldering” Lemnos, as the Homeric hymn to Apollo aptly describes it, is the largest of the Thracian islands (in the northern Aegean), occupying 477 km
2
, with an elevation of up to 470 m.
Malis
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Malis is the name given in antiquity to a plain on the shore of the Maliac Gulf, which extends westward from the strait between Euboea and the mainland of Thessaly in Magnesia.
Margiana
Authors: Coloru Omar
Published: December 2012

Margiana was a region corresponding to modern southern Turkmenistan.
Media Atropatene
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Media Atropatene is a vast mountainous region in Iran and Turkey north of Media proper, west of the Caspian Sea, south of Armenia, east of the Zagros Mountains and the Matiene/Kapauta Limne.
Myndos
Authors: Harl Kenneth W.
Published: December 2012

Myndos (today Gümüşlük, Turkey) was founded by Dorians from Troizen.
Nisibis
Authors: Heal Kristian S.
Published: December 2012

Nisibis (ancient Nasibina, Seleucid Antioch on the Mygdonius, modern Nusaybin) was a Mesopotamian city of strategic and commercial importance, and thus often besieged and conquered in the millennium between Alexander and the coming of Islam.
Patara
Authors: Harl Kenneth W.
Published: December 2012

Patara, Lycia, near Gelemi, Turkey, was a Lycian city that later claimed Dorian ancestry and eponymous hero Patareus, son of Apollo (Strabo 14.666).
Perrhaibia
Authors: Daubner Frank
Published: December 2012

Perrhaibia was a region on the Macedonian–Thessalian border. It occupied a fertile valley of about 1,800 km
2
, which was confined by ranges of mountains in all directions. The strategic importance of the area was a result of its control over two passes: that of Petra, crossing the lower Olympos to the east and leading to Lower Macedonia, and the Volustana pass, leading to the valley of the Haliakmon and to Upper Macedonia.
Pessinous
Authors: West III William C.
Published: December 2012

Pessinous is a city of Phrygia, located on a route, between Germa and Amorion, running southwest from Ankyra, with many turns and twists, to the Maeander Valley.
Phleious
Authors: Freitag Klaus
Published: December 2012

Phleious (Phlious) was a
polis
in the northern Argolid near the border with Arcadia.
Pronnoi
Authors: West III William C.
Published: December 2012

Pronnoi is an ancient city located on the southeast coast of the island of Kephallania, close to the southernmost part of the island.
Samothrace
Authors: Dimitrova Nora
Published: December 2012

Samothrace (Greek: Samothrake) is the smallest of the Thracian islands (178 km
2
) in the northern Aegean, shaped as a spectacular mountain (1,611 m) rising out of the sea.
Sangarios
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

The Sangarios River rises in
PHRYGIA
, flows northward, meanders to the west, then bends northward and flows into the Black Sea at the Mariandinus Sinus, west of Herakleia.
Seriphos
Authors: Constantakopoulou Christy
Published: December 2012

A relatively small island in the western Cyclades, Seriphos had important iron deposits, which were exploited already from the third millennium.
Sikinos
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Sikinos is one of the Cyclades Islands, north‐east of Thera, and between Ios and Pholegandros.
Skyros
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Skyros is the largest and easternmost of the northern Sporades islands. Its name is pre‐Greek. It was settled from Mesolithic times onward. In the Neolithic period, it was a staging area for trade in Obsidian from Melos to the northern Aegean.
Soloi
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Soloi is a city of northwestern Cyprus, located at the southernmost point of the bay of Morphou.
Sphakteria island
Authors: Rubincam Catherine
Published: December 2012

Sphakteria is an uninhabited, rocky island, approximately 5 km by 1 km, which divides the Bay of Navarino from the Ionian Sea, on the southwest coast of the Greek peninsula.
Sporades islands
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

The Sporades islands in Antiquity were a group of islands in the southeastern Aegean, including Astypalaia, Kalymna, Kos, Nisyros, Telos, Syme, Rhodes, Karpathos, Kasos, Saria, Gyali, and Chalke.
Stratonikeia/ Hadrianopolis
Authors: Daubner Frank
Published: December 2012

Stratonikeia is situated near the modern village of Siledik in the border region of Mysia and Lydia on the Kaikos River.
Tanagra
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Tanagra is a city in eastern Boiotia, north of the Asopos River.
Troodos mountains
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

The Troodos mountains are a vast range in western Cyprus and the source of the copper for which the island was named.
Zakynthos
Authors: Bonelou Elena
Published: December 2012

Zakynthos is situated on an island of the same name opposite the northwestern Peloponnese, at the opening of the Corinthian Gulf, and was regarded as an Achaian colony.
Pangaion
Authors: Archibald Zosia H.
Published: December 2012

Mount Pangaion is a substantial rocky outcrop (maximum height 1956 m) situated close to the north Aegean coast, east of the estuary of the River Strymon, extending ca.
Strymon
Authors: Archibald Zosia H.
Published: December 2012

The Strymon River (ca. 250 km in length) rises in Mount Vitosha, which Thucydides calls Mount Skombros (2.96.4), south of the Bulgarian capital city, Sofia.
Andros, history and political organization
Authors: Michaleas Spyridon
Published: December 2012

Located in the northern Cyclades, between Euboea and Tenos, the island was named after Andros, its first king according to tradition. He received the island as a gift from Rhadamanthys, the king of Crete; the Andrians dedicated a statue of him at Delphi (Diod. Sic. 5.79; Paus. 10.13.3–4). Settled by Ionians ca. 1000–900
bce
, it had connections with the Thessalo‐Euboean region in the Geometric period. During the seventh century
bce
, the Andrians founded the colonies of Acanthos (Thuc. 4.84–5; Strabo 7.330.31; 8.31), Sane (Hdt. 8.22–4; Thuc. 4.109.3), Stagiros (Thuc. 5.6.1), and Argilos (Thuc. 4.103.3) on the peninsula of Chalcidice.
Sacrifice, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

Animals were sacrificed in ancient Egypt primarily as part of religious rituals and festivals, although celebrations, particularly royal (e.g., marking marriages or births), also called for the large‐scale slaughter of animals, their meat being given to participants as food or distributed among the populace. Animal sacrifice was a manifestation of piety, as well as a practical way of distributing food throughout different social classes, giving gifts/payment, and winning support.
Slavery, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Shaw Garry J.
Published: December 2012

Discussions of slavery in Pharaonic Egypt are hindered by the complicated terminology used by the Egyptians to refer to different classes of people with limited freedom; these terms also changed in meaning over the course of dynastic history.
Abu Sir
Authors: Bárta Miroslav
Published: December 2012

One of the large cemeteries of the Old Kingdom kings, located approximately 30 km south of Cairo, on the western bank of the Nile.
Abydos, Egypt
Authors: Bestock Laurel
Published: December 2012

The site of Abydos is located in southern Egypt on the west bank of the Nile, in the ancient Upper Egyptian Eight nome, or province.
Hagar (Akhoris)
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Khnemmaatre Hagar (Greek Akhoris) was a king of the 29th Egyptian Dynasty, coming to the throne in 393 or 392
BCE
.
Ahhotep
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

There remains scholarly debate over the question of whether there were one or two queens of Egypt named Ahhotep around the transition between the 17th and 18th Egyptian Dynasties (sixteenth centuryBCE).
Amenemhat I–VII
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Seven kings of the 12th (I–IV) and 13th (V–VII) Egyptian Dynasties (twentieth–eighteenth centuriesBCE) bore the name Amenemhat. It wasalso a very common private name throughout that period and into the 18th Dynasty, and it could commonly be shortened to “Ameny.”
Avaris/Tell el‐Dab'a
Authors: Bietak Manfred
Published: December 2012

Ancient Avaris (Greek rendering of the Ancient Egyptian toponymHw.t war.t)was the capital of the Hyksos, and was conquered by Ahmose I ca. 1530BCE, as we know from a tomb inscription of his namesake, the naval officer Ahmose, the son of Ibana in El‐Kab.
Bahariya Oasis
Authors: Barta Miroslav
Published: December 2012

Bahariya Oasis is one of the five principal oases in the Egyptian Western Desert.
Behbeit el‐Hagar
Authors: Wilson Penelope
Published: December 2012

The site is close to the modern city of Mansura and was known by the ancient name Hebytet or Per‐Hebytet, then Hebyt and Per‐Hebyt, and is preserved as Behbeit.
Childhood, Egypt
Authors: Janssen Rosalind
Published: December 2012

Egyptian art generally depicts children as adults‐in‐miniature. Similarly, while there are a large number of designations for children, even more than in modern English, the vague terminology does not indicate specific ages.
Color symbolism
Authors: Corcoran Lorelei H.
Published: December 2012

An understanding of color symbolism entails a study of color terms as well as color use. The first study of color terms on a universalist level was conducted in the 1960s by the anthropologist Brent Berlin and the linguist Paul Kay (1969; hereafter B&K), who proposed, with respect to the acquisition and use of color terms in all contemporary natural languages, that there are seven stages of color term usage; that color terms are acquired in a fixed, chronological order in an evolutionary sequence; and that there is a correlation between the complexity of color terms and cultural and technological complexity.
Crime, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Müller‐Wollermann Renate
Published: December 2012

Egyptian sources for crimes and punishments are extremely diverse. They mainly consist of royal texts, particularly decrees, administrative texts, specifically court proceedings, and texts of private origin, including biographies or letters. A written code of criminal law does not exist. Religious texts, especially chapter 125 of theBook of the dead, curses, and literary texts, especially didactic literature, also provide hints about criminal behavior and justice.
Deir el‐Bahari
Authors: Spence Kate
Published: December 2012

Deir el‐Bahari is the name given to the desert bay in the cliffs on the west bank at Thebes (modern Luxor, Egypt;) opposite Karnak temple.
Deir el‐Bersha
Authors: Willems Harco
Published: December 2012

This archaeological site (27°45′ N 30°54′ E) in Middle Egypt is best known as the Middle Kingdom cemetery of the town of
Hmnw
, the capital of the Hare Nome.
Dendera
Authors: Moeller Nadine
Published: December 2012

The ancient site of Dendera is located on the West Bank of the Nile (26°80′ 30.39′′ N and 32° 4′ 13.01′′ E), about 6 km west of the modern town of Qena, where the Nile forms a wide bend.
Dream books, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Szpakowska Kasia
Published: December 2012

So far, only two dream books – compositions listing dream images and their interpretations – have survived from ancient Egypt.
New Kingdom, Egypt
Authors: Shirley J. J.
Published: December 2012

The New Kingdom in Egypt (ca. 1550–1069BCE) follows the Second Intermediate period and is comprised of the 18th–20th Dynasties.
Egypt/Kemet
Authors: Bednarski Andrew
Published: December 2012

The ancient Egyptians called their land
Kemet
, which literally means “the black land,” and referred to themselves as
remetch en kemet
, “people of the black land.”
Egyptomania, eastern
Authors: Haikal Fayza
Published: December 2012

Interest in the culture and arts of ancient Egypt started in antiquity, with Herodotus (5th centuryBCE), “the father of history,” dedicating a whole book of hisHistoriesto a description of Egypt. Later, under the Roman Empire, Egyptian monuments were transported to Rome to decorate the imperial city and demonstrate its power.
Elephantine, Pharaonic
Authors: von Pilgrim Cornelius
Published: December 2012

During most of Egypt's history its southern border was located in the area of the First Cataract. The region was controlled from earliest times onward from two towns: Elephantine and Syene (Aswan).
El‐Lisht
Authors: Willoughby Jennifer
Published: December 2012

The site of El‐Lisht, located approximately 65 km south of Cairo, consists mainly of the pyramid complexes of Amenemhat I and Senwosret I, which are both surrounded by private cemeteries dating from the Old Kingdom through the Roman period. El‐Lisht rose to prominence during the Middle Kingdom, with settlement remains from this time found north of the pyramid field. Amenemhat I transferred the royal residence from Thebes to a site in the Fayyum area called Itj‐tawy. Though its exact location is unknown, the archaeological evidence suggests it was likely at or near El‐Lisht.
Epigraphy, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Witthuhn Orell
Published: December 2012

In this article, the term epigraphy is used for the analysis and study of hieroglyphic inscriptions and signs on enduring substances such as stone.
Execration texts
Authors: Shaw Garry J. , Hirt Alfred
Published: December 2012

Execration is a magical practice conducted to cause destruction or harm to an enemy or group of enemies. It is evidenced archaeologically from the Old Kingdom through to the Late Period and is also found in literature, such as the tale of Meryre in P. Vandier, and religious texts, such as the Coffin Texts.
Foreigners, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Liszka Kate
Published: December 2012

Ancient Egypt was located at the crossroads between Asia, Africa, and the Mediterranean. This location favored the development of a multicultural society. Although foreigners lived, worked, and traveled in Egypt throughout its history, monumental Egyptian records often project an ethnocentric attitude. If Egyptians commonly held ethnocentric attitudes, as Herodotus reported (Historiesesp. 2.41–3), there may have been a strong compulsion for foreigners to acculturate to Egyptian standards. Foreigners who wanted to be accepted into elite or bureaucratic positions actively espoused Egyptian behaviors and material culture in public spheres. The extent to which first generation foreigners mentally acculturated cannot be known.
Geb
Authors: Ayad Mariam
Published: December 2012

The personification of Earth, Geb was the son of Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture), the grandson of Atum, and a member of the Ennead.
God's wife of Amun
Authors: Ayad Mariam
Published: December 2012

A priestly title held by prominent royal women during the 18th Egyptian Dynasty and the Third Intermediate Period.
Gods, Egyptian
Authors: Wilkinson Richard H.
Published: December 2012

The ancient Egyptians visualized their deities in many ways, as may be seen in the Egyptian word
netjer
, usually translated as “god,” but clearly encompassing a far wider range of meaning than the English word.
Harris Papyrus
Authors: Warburton David A.
Published: December 2012

P. BM 9999, known as
P.Harris
, but preferably identified as
P.Harris
I, has three main components.
Harsiese
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Around the middle of the ninth centuryBCE, during the Egyptian 22nd Dynasty, a man named Harsiese is attested holding kingly titles in the south of Egypt, while Osorkon II's continued to rule in the north.
Hatnub
Authors: Shaw Ian
Published: December 2012

A group of ancient travertine (“Egyptian alabaster”) quarries located 18 km southeast of el‐Amarna, on the eastern side of the Nile in Middle Egypt (27° 33′ N, 31° 00′ E).
Heket
Authors: Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

Heket was a goddess associated with birth, depicted as a frog‐headed woman or as a frog.
Hieroglyphs
Authors: Manley Bill
Published: December 2012

Hieroglyphic writing is an indigenous Egyptian script, which uses recognizable pictures to write the texts that accompany, explain, and dignify the sacred art of Ancient Egypt, primarily in its temples and tombs.
Inyotef I–VII
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Three rulers of the first part of the Egyptian 11th Dynasty bore the name Inyotef (variously spelled as Intef or Antef), with another in the 13th, and three more during the 17th.
Isis, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Sabbahy Lisa
Published: December 2012

The goddess Isis was important in ancient Egypt for her role in the myth of Osiris, her husband‐brother who ruled as king.