bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Science, Theory, and Reality in the “New Archaeology”
Authors: Bayard Donn T.
Published: April 2006

Recent developments in American archaeological theory are criticized with regard to inaccuracies in the use of the concepts of science, theory, and reality. The author argues that archaeology (like anthropology) is a discipline rather than a "hard" science dealing with large amounts of rigorously quantifiable, replicable data; thus attempts to "prove laws" through the use of statistical methods and models borrowed from the physical sciences are often spurious. He believes that theory is primarily explanatory rather than methodological, and hence should be presented as an explanation of a number of cases rather than of one or two selected examples. In addition, rigorous methods of data collection should not be sacrificed in the search for more "rigorous" theory, a search which too often seems to stem from a defensive desire to make archaeology a "hard" science. The author argues that objective reality is too commonly confused with both logical constructs abstracted from this reality and with constructs such as "cultural reality" which are in turn abstracted from these constructs. He feels models describing objective reality are simply utilitarian, explanatory abstractions not related to such concepts as absolute truth and absolute reality. Little is offered in the way of constructive conclusions save for the suggestions that there may be no need for a set of specifically archaeological theory, and that archaeological knowledge is neither power nor defensive justification but merely its own reward.
Geology and Age of the Early Man Site at Taber, Alberta
Authors: Stalker A. MacS.
Published: April 2006

Human bones, found by the writer's geological field party in 1961, came from a cliff (Woodpecker Island Bluff) on the east side of Oldman River about 3 mi. north of Taber, Alberta. This paper discusses stratigraphy of the bluff and age of the bones, which have been described by Langston and Oschinsky (1963). The bones cannot be dated directly; however, they were found about 60 ft. below prairie level, in a sand unit lying beneath a till sheet. As the till was deposited by a Classical Wisconsin ice sheet that spread over the area more than 22,000 years ago, the bones are at least that old. Correlation with other bluffs along Oldman River indicates they are more than 32,000 years, and probably more than 37,000 years, old.
Microblades: A Long-Standing Gulf of Georgia Tradition
Authors: Mitchell Donald H.
Published: April 2006

Recent excavations in the Gulf of Georgia region have added microblades and microcores to assemblages of the Locarno Beach and Marpole culture types. The production of microblades is now seen as a regional tradition lasting from at least 1200 B.C. until around A.D. 400. Persistence of this technology may indicate more continuity of culture growth than has until now been ascribed to the Gulf of Georgia sequence.
The Mines and Mining Techniques of the Chalchihuites Culture
Authors: Weigand Phil C.
Published: April 2006

The Chalchihuites culture of the Colorado-Suchil river drainage of western Zacatecas began about A.D. 100 as a somewhat evolved and belated Early Preclassic colonization of simple agriculturalists. By the Alta Vista phase (ca. A.D. 350-550) it had assumed the role of a much more complex society. A great expansion of population occurred. This transition was very rapid and present evidence supports the hypothesis that highly organized social groups colonized the area in order to exploit the mineral resources located there. Extensive mining operations, coupled with self-supporting agricultural patterns, characterize the zenith of the period. The extent of mining was much more than local consumption could possibly require and therefore points to the economic dependence of the exploitative organization upon the high cultures farther south and southeast. This paper reviews the 1963 and 1965 surveys of the Alta Vista mining operations and draws some conclusions about the character of the society which sponsored them.
Lafitau's Hoes
Authors: Sturtevant William C.
Published: April 2006

Lafitau's 1724 engraving of Huron agriculture, previously taken as evidence for triangular stone hoes in the Northeast, actually is a copy of de Bry"s engraving of Timucua agriculture, and the hoes shown are a European type.
Metal Artifacts from Amapa, Nayarit, Mexico
Authors: Pendergast David M.
Published: April 2006

Artifacts recovered during U.C.L.A. excavations in 1959 are described in terms of a new typological classification for Mesoamerican metal artifacts. In addition to a number of artifact types known elsewhere in Mesoamerica, the excavations yielded several new forms. Possible relationships of Amapa, and West Mexico in general, to other areas of Mesoamerica, suggested by similarities in metal artifacts, are discussed. Association of metals with Mazapan figurines suggests an initial date for appearance of metal artifacts at Amapa of roughly A.D. 900; terminal date for the Amapa occupation may be around 1200.
Problems Relating to the Neothermal Climatic Sequence
Authors: Bryan Alan Lyle , Gruhn Ruth
Published: April 2006

The sequence of three phases (Anathermal, Altithermal, Medithermal) of the Postglacial or Neothermal temperature curve, although demonstrably a reality, has been used improperly to determine absolute dates and past climatic conditions from archaeological deposits. A review of the historic development of the concept of the three sequent Neothermal temperature phases reveals the assumptions on which absolute dating of these phases has been based. Analysis of the variable radio-carbon dates now available for deposits attributed to these phases in a number of different localities in North America indicates that these phases cannot be considered as universal time periods bracketed by definite absolute dates; and consideration of the ecological diversity within North America at any particular time, especially in the West, indicates that climatic conditions inferred for a given span of Neothermal time in one area cannot be projected into another area without direct independent evidence of the actual climatic conditions which existed in the second area at that time. It is suggested that Anathermal, Altithermal, and Medithermal be used not as time periods with fixed absolute dates or climatic periods with defined characteristics, but rather be considered as phases of the Neothermal temperature curve which in different ecological areas resulted in locally varying climatic conditions which must be determined by direct evidence, dated by independent means, and designated by local terms.
A Probable Paleo-Indian Site in Wisconsin
Authors: Ritzenthaler Robert
Published: April 2006

Evidence is presented for the delineation of a Paleo-Indian site in Wisconsin. Surface finds from the Kouba site in Dane County include an assemblage of fluted points, gravers, and scrapers of similar types to those from Paleo-Indian sites in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Vermont.
Assertions, Assumptions, and Early Horizon (Oak Grove) Settlement Patterns in Southern California: A Rejoinder
Authors: Owen Roger C.
Published: April 2006

C. N. Warren makes six criticisms of a paper by Owen (Owen 1964), each of which can easily be rejected. The six comments, accompanied briefly by the grounds for their rebuttal, are: 1) that “Early horizon” cannot be used to label the period, when in reality “Early horizon” is as appropriate as any other term, and more so than many that are in use; 2) that a negligent comment is directed at a paper by W. J. Wallace, which though unimportant, is temperate and accurate in the estimation of the author; 3) that a reference to a paper by Warren and True is groundless and misleading when it indeed is pertinent and direct; 4) that an analogy used is weak, although the argument does not proceed by analogy; 5) that suggestions regarding the utility of radiocarbon are optimistic when in fact insight in the use of radiocarbon dates can provide information on duration of habitation on any site; 6) that comparisons between the probable settlement pattern of Early horizon California coastal populations and some of the Fuegian Canoe Indians are inappropriate, an opinion which indicates that Warren’s knowledge of the basis of the comparison is faulty. It is suggested that despite Warren’s criticism, the Glen Annie Canyon site report and the associated paper may stand unamended and lead to a better understanding of the settlement patterns of early Southern California coastal populations during the so-called Milling Stone horizon.
Review of Radiocarbon Dates from Tikal and the Maya Calendar Correlation Problem
Authors: Ralph Elizabeth K.
Published: April 2006

Radiocarbon dates for samples from three buildings at Tikal, Guatemala, the lintel beams of which bear Maya hieroglyphs, are presented. These include dates recently determined at the University of California at Los Angeles and two UCLA and University of Pennsylvania inter-laboratory cross-checks. Two dates from the inner and outer portions of a sapote log have been determined in order to assess the growth rates of the logs from which the temple beams were fashioned and thereby help to explain some of the differences among radiocarbon dates which were previously determined. The dates for samples considered to be reliable continue to support the Goodman-Thompson-Martinez “Correlation B” hypothesis for Temples IV and I, but they also indicate that the previous chronological interpretation of the hieroglyphs of Structure 10 should be revised.
The Dugout Canoe in Ontario
Authors: Rogers Edward S.
Published: April 2006

This paper presents data on the age and origin of the dugout canoe in Ontario derived from Indian informants and Euro-Americans, from the literature, and from information in the files of the Department of Ethnology, Royal Ontario Museum, University of Toronto. Accounts of two dugouts from Ontario have been published, but the problems of the age and origin have not been investigated. Indians and Euro-Americans both made and used dugouts during the last century and the first part of this one. It is suggested that the Euro-Americans brought the idea with them from Europe. The Indians, it is believed, adopted the dugout either from the Euro-Americans or from Indian immigrants from the south, where the dugout is known to have existed since the time of contact. The Indians were now leading a more sedentary life, negating the necessity for an easily portable craft, such as the birchbark canoe. Another factor was the increasing difficulty of getting adequate supplies of birchbark for canoe-making because of the destruction of the forests by lumber companies. Furthermore, the recently acquired iron tools facilitated their manufacture.
Concerning Girard's Reply to de Borhegyi's Review of Los Mayas Eternos
Authors: Borhegyi Stephan F. de
Published: April 2006

In his reply to de Borhegyi's review of his book Los Mayas Eternos, Girard succeeds in bringing greater confusion to the picture of Quiché and Maya cultural and history. In this rebuttal to Girard's reply, some pertinent archaeological facts relevant to the Classic period in Highland Guatemala are used to point out weaknesses in Girard's untenable theory that the Quiché-Mayas were responsible for the origin and development of such Mexican high cultures as Classic period Teotihuacán and Postclassic Tula.
A Lead Lip Plug from Western Mexico
Authors: Caley Earle R. , Easby Dudley T.
Published: April 2006

A corroded white-metal lip plug from Guerrero was shown by wet-chemical and spectrographic analyses to have originally contained over 99% lead. After reviewing 16th-century eyewitness accounts, linguistic evidence, the mineral resources of Mexico, the technological problems involved in the primitive extraction of lead from its most common ore, galena (PbS), and the few early lead artifacts reported from Mexico, the authors state their opinion that the smelting of lead ore and use of metallic lead were known before the arrival of the Spaniards and that there is no valid reason to doubt that this object was made before the Conquest.
Agricultural Terraces in Chibcha Territory, Colombia
Authors: Broadbent Sylvia M.
Published: April 2006

Reinvestigation of terraces first reported by Haury and Cubillos indicates that they were made by man, although some natural formations exist that resemble terraces. The terraces near Tocancipá and Facatativá are probably prehistoric, but those at the Chocontá, Tunja, and Soacha localities are of a different type, consisting of ridges designed to carry drainage ditches. Such ditchridges have been built in recent years and thus far have no prehistoric associations.
Preclassic Ceramics from Chalchuapa, El Salvador, and Their Relationships with the Maya Lowlands
Authors: Sharer Robert J. , Gifford James C.
Published: April 2006

Application of the type-variety analytical procedure to Preclassic ceramic material excavated from mound-fill deposits at Chalchuapa, El Salvador, has provided important indications of possible ceramic relationships between this site-zone and the Maya Lowlands. Of the five ceramic complexes, the earliest (the Tok ceramic complex) seems related to the Early Preclassic (Cuadros phase) of south coastal Guatemala and Mexico. Pottery of the early Middle Preclassic (the Colos and Kal ceramic complexes) appears to involve certain direct type-variety relationships with the Lowland Maya Xe and Mamom ceramic spheres. Late Middle Preclassic pottery (the Chul ceramic complex) is evidently almost exclusively affiliated with Highland Guatemala (the Providencia phase at Kaminaljuyu). Pottery of the Late Preclassic and "Protoclassic" (the Caynac ceramic complex) at Chalchuapa continues to reflect these ties (now with the Miraflores, Arenal, and Santa Clara phases at Kaminaljuyu). Apart from such ties, however, there are also significant indications of renewed ceramic connections with the Maya Lowlands during this time interval that we believe might have been of some consequence for the development of the Classic Lowland Maya. The implications of these ceramic relationships for the problem of the initial occupation of the east-central Maya Lowlands and the later intrusive Floral Park ceramic sphere at Barton Ramie are discussed. The paper also considers the implications of this evidence for the type-variety analytic procedure and proposes a tentative outline of Preclassic ceramic relationships in the Maya area.
Notes on Uniface Retouch Technology
Authors: Shafer Harry J.
Published: April 2006

The repeated occurrence of flakes possessing remnants of unifacially trimmed edges was noted in the analysis of chipping refuse from two late prehistoric sites in west central Texas. Attributes on these flakes suggest three techniques of removal–by a burin technique, by striking the uniface on the ventral surface near the edge, and by striking the uniface on the dorsal surface near the edge. Examples of these retouch techniques were evident on certain unifacially chipped scrapers from the two sites, and, together with wear patterns and edge angle values, support inferences that the flakes are by-products of uniface retouch.
A Technique for Illustrating Pottery Designs
Authors: Young Karen Sue
Published: April 2006

A problem commonly encountered in transferring pottery designs from curved vessel surfaces to flat drawing surfaces is that of controlling the type and placement of the distortion which results from this transfer. Elimination of all distortion is impossible. Control of the distortion may be accomplished by tracing the design onto a polyethylene sheet prior to making a pen and ink reproduction.
A Quantitative Law in Anthropology
Authors: Carneiro Robert L.
Published: April 2006

The contention by Donn T. Bayard that anthropology is not rigorous enough to be a science or to formulate scientific laws is challenged, and an example is presented of a regularity in cultural evolution with a claim to being considered a statistical law.
The Aboriginal Southwestern Indian Dog
Authors: Colton Harold S.
Published: April 2006

Since a large number of dog remains have been unearthed in the last few years in the Southwest, a review of the material is important. An attempt has been made to record dogs as to time and space as well as noting anatomical deviations such as the presence or absence of the first premolar on the lower jaw, and the presence or absence of large dogs and their distribution.
An Artifact Cleaning Technique
Authors: Rhine Stanley
Published: April 2006

Dental hygiene devices can be used to clean artifacts. Dirt and debris can quickly, easily, and safely be flushed from very delicate materials.
Archaeological Pollen Studies of the Colorado Plateau
Authors: Schoenwetter James
Published: April 2006

The proposition is advanced that archaeologists are not justified in considering pollen analysis a technique of investigation restricted to the biological or earth scientist. This is shown not to be true in theory because of the nature of the technique itself. Comparison of pollen studies of samples from archaeological proveniences on the Colorado Plateau serves to illustrate the fact that research designs in pollen analysis do actually allow collection of cultural data and directly serve the purposes of cultural reconstruction. The comparison also serves to summarize the nature of the archaeological and nonarchaeological pollen research carried on to date in this region. A second portion of the paper synthesizes much of the available information for the presentation of a reconstruction of effective moisture variation on the Colorado Plateau over the past 1,500 years. This reconstruction was designed to serve the purposes of archaeological chronology and cultural ecology in the region. It also illustrates the flexibility of pollen analytic research as a technique of archaeology.
Monument Thievery in Mesoamerica
Authors: Robertson Merle Greene
Published: April 2006

"Stela Stealing" has reached such momentous proportions that if something is not done immediately it will be too late to save remaining monuments. Of the 50 archaeological sites in Guatemala and Mexico at which I have recorded monuments in the past 7 years, 18 have either had stelae removed by thieves just prior to my arrival, or "in-process sawing" was taking place at the time of my investigations. Monuments are being stolen in jungle areas. Two important effects will be felt. First, archaeological investigations will be hindered, and second, a source of tourist income for affected countries will be jeopardized. Lives of archaeologists are already in jeopardy, as indicated by incidents in the Peten during the past several years. Part of this paper was read at the annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology in Norman, Oklahoma, 6 May 1971.
Archaeological Context and Systemic Context
Authors: Schiffer Michael B.
Published: April 2006

The cultural aspect of the processes responsible for forming the archaeological record is argued to be an underdeveloped branch of archaeological theory. A flow model is presented by which to view the "life history" or processes of systemic context of any material element. This model accounts for the production of a substantial portion of the archaeological record. The basic processes of this model are: procurement, manufacture, use, maintenance, and discard. Refuse labels the state of an element in archaeological context. The spatial implications of the model suggest a largely untapped source of behavioral information. Differential refuse disposal patterns are examined as they affect artifact location and association. The meaning of element relative frequencies in refuse is discussed.
Ridged Fields and Associated Features in Southern Campeche: New Perspectives on the Lowland Maya
Authors: Siemens Alfred H. , Puleston Dennis E.
Published: April 2006

Prehistoric ridged fields and canals were recognized from the air in 1968 along the Candelaria River of Campeche, Mexico, in the vicinity of sites described by E. Willys Andrews in 1943. These remains were subsequently identified by Scholes and Roys as the settlements of Acalan, a native province along the route of the journey by Cortes to Honduras. Ground exploration in 1969 and 1970 has suggested that the fields were used over a considerable period of time under a system of diversified horticulture. The extensive canal system apparently provided access from the rivers to firm ground and allowed shortcuts and bypasses alongside the rivers themselves. The landscape suggests a considerable prehistoric population, vigorously engaged in major public works projects over a large area. It invites further integrated investigation of its past human ecology, particularly for information on variants of basic Lowland Maya subsistence patterns and the new perspectives this may give on the structure, success and demise of this civilization. An earlier version of this paper was read at the 39th International Congress of Americanists in Lima, 1970.
A Training Program for Salvage Archaeology
Authors: Hester James J.
Published: April 2006

The archaeological profession is currently faced with a shortage of trained personnel, primarily field archaeologists with experience in salvage archaeology. A training program is outlined whereby this shortage can be alleviated. The program recommended consists of a series of courses on the undergraduate level which specifically train the student to meet the demands of a professional position in salvage archaeology. It is anticipated that such a program will attract more students to consider archaeology as a career.
Testing Stratigraphy and Artifact Reuse through Obsidian Hydration Dating
Authors: Michels Joseph W.
Published: April 2006

Dating a moderately large sample of obsidian artifacts from a site can contribute highly accurate knowledge about three basic unknowns for site deposits: (1) the presence or absence of a statistically significant tendency towards superposition in the deposit; (2) the nature and degree of disturbance inhibiting the full expression of the superpositional tendency; and (3) the directional bias associated with the disturbance.

Deposits of the following three sites are analyzed: Mammoth Junction site, California; La Victoria site, Guatemala; and the Chorrera R-B-1 site, Ecuador. A test for artifact reuse is described and is applied to the three sites.
The Archaeological Record of Chili Peppers (Capsicum spp.) and the Sequence of Plant Domestication in Peru
Authors: Pickersgill Barbara
Published: April 2006

Study of archaeological material of chili peppers (Capsicum spp.) from the sites of Huaca Prieta and Punta Grande on the coast of Peru has shown that the first species to be cultivated was C. baccatum, which was probably domesticated in Bolivia. This pepper reached the Peruvian coast during the same period as four other crop plants of probably southern Peruvian or Bolivian origin, which suggests that southern contacts were important during the late Preceramic stage. During the Initial period, maize (probably of Mexican origin) and peanuts (possibly domesticated in Bolivia) spread along the coast. Another pepper, Capsicum chinense, which is thought to have been domesticated in the lowlands of the Amazon Basin, apparently also reached the coast at about the same time as pottery. Manioc likewise arrived on the coast during this period, and there may have been an introduction of new varieties of maize from Mexico. These crops suggest a mixture of tropical forest and Middle American contacts during the Initial period and the Early horizon.
Design Structure and Social Interaction: Archaeological Implications of an Ethnographic Analysis
Authors: Friedrich Margaret Hardin
Published: April 2006

Ethnographic study of painting patterns in a small Tarascan village showed that some variables reflected variation in the intensity of communication between painters while others did not. An analysis of the pottery painting style as a complex, multi-dimensional, hierarchically organized structure facilitated the selection of variables that were good indicators of communication patterns. Patterns of stylistic variation included 1) a distinct variant of the village style that was used only by members of one family painting group and 2) individual style in painting, which characterized the work of every painter. The concepts used in this analysis could be adapted to the study of similar archaeologically known styles so that the patterning of interaction between artisans might be established.
Prehistoric Cultural Development in the Southern Californian Deserts
Authors: Wallace William J.
Published: April 2006

Archaeological remains from the southern Californian desert region, spanning a period from 7000 B.C. to historic times, are segregated into four broad cultural horizons. The earliest certain evidences of human occupation consist of stone tools and weapons from the shore line of ancient Lake Mohave. The Lake Mohave artifacts comprise types designed primarily for hunting and related activities. Next in sequence are the lithic materials from Pinto Basin and other localities that demonstrate a mixed hunting-gathering economy. The third or Amargosa period is inadequately known. Triangular arrowpoints, pottery, and numerous seed-grinding implements distinguish the closing aboriginal phase. The major research needs are indicated.
The Machalilla Culture: An Early Formative Complex on the Ecuadorian Coast
Authors: Meggers Betty J. , Evans Clifford
Published: April 2006

Excavations at the site of G-110: La Cabuya provide significant new data on the content and chronological position of the Machalilla culture. Trade pottery establishes its contemporaneity with the late period of the Valdivia culture, estimated at between 1800 and 1500 B.C. While seafood appears to have provided the main subsistence in both cultures, the ceramics and other artifacts are distinct. Machalilla pottery is well made, with thin walls and a high frequency of polished surfaces. Vessel shapes include carinated bowls and stirrup-spout jars. Typical decoration is by incision or thick red painting, separately or in combination, in simple but distinctive patterns. The Machalilla culture cannot be related to any of the known Formative complexes in Mesoamerica or South America, so that its origin cannot be suggested. Its termination was brought about by Mesoamerican contact, which added new traits to the Machalilla complex, producing the combination of elements characterizing the Chorrera culture.
Late Quaternary Climates in Arizona
Authors: Antevs Ernst
Published: April 2006

This study makes a comparative evaluation of geological and biological evidence, on the one hand, and of plant pollen data, on the other, bearing on late Quaternary climates in southeastern Arizona. The findings support the conclusions based on the former and reject the contrary claims based on pollen by Martin, Schoenwetter, and Arms. The increase of pine pollen in the Cochise-Sulphur Spring and the Cochise-Cazador beds at Double Adobe from a few per cent to 28% was much too sudden to be accounted for by the spread of pine from the mountains to Double Adobe, and does not prove a change of the climate from arid to subhumid. The beds themselves indicate a subhumid climate throughout. The low frequency of pine may be due to such causes as scanty production, decomposition, and failure of the pollen to settle in flowing water.

No pollen data are at hand from the mid-postpluvial or Altithermal age of erosion. The preceding and the succeeding beds have long been referred by Antevs to the pluvial/postpluvial transition and to the relatively moist early Medithermal, respectively. The most typical features of the age, arroyo cutting and accumulation of caliche, are most competently explained by a long sharp drought. There seems to be no evidence for the view of Martin and associates that the Altithermal was an age of intense summer precipitation.

The entire synthetic postpluvial pollen profile is alternately dominated by composites and chenopods-amaranths. The last shift to chenopods-amaranths occurred at times ranging from about 4000 years ago to the 19th century. The dominations are apparently controlled by unknown edaphic conditions and are therefore of little or no use for correlation, dating, or climatic conclusions. Still, because of their great numbers, these pollens together with pine pollen are used as the main basis for the division into pollen zones. This leads to incorrect dating of Medithermal deposits and to disregard of documented arroyo erosions and droughts. Schulman's finding, that the radial growth of the ponderosa (yellow) pine, which is completed by the end of July, shows best agreement with the October-July precipitation, implies that the ring width is in accord with some 75 to 80% of the annual rainfall. Thus normally a narrow ring means deficient rainfall. The Great Drought of the 1200's did exist and caused arroyo erosion.
Laurel and North Bay: Diffusional Networks in the Upper Great Lakes
Authors: Mason Ronald J.
Published: April 2006

Laurel-North Bay ceramic affinities are briefly stated. Possible objections to a northern Minnesota Laurel source and a northwest to southeast diffusion of pseudo-scallopshell stamping and other modes to North Bay are discussed. Archaeological complexes around the Upper Great Lakes are examined for pertinent information, and data drawn from Ontario Laurel sites are used to delimit the probable direction from whence came the Laurel-ascribed elements in northeastern Wisconsin. Diffusional connections with Ontario are favored over Minnesota.
A Quantitative Law Defended
Authors: Carneiro Robert L.
Published: April 2006

The criticisms raised by Donn T. Bayard against a proposed statistical law of culture are examined, and an attempt is made to refute them.
Evidence of Early Teotihucan-Lowland Maya Contact at Altun Ha
Authors: Pendergast David M.
Published: April 2006

Discovery of a typical Miccaotli phase offering at Altun Ha, British Honduras (Belize) indicates contact between Teotihuacan and the central Maya lowlands in the second century A.D., 2.5 to 3 centuries earlier than previously recognized.
Modern Chultun Construction in Western Campeche, Mexico
Authors: Matheny Ray T.
Published: April 2006

Test excavations at Aguacatal, located on the Xicalango peninsula, western Campeche, revealed chultuns (water cisterns) of the Late Classic period. Modern chultun construction by Chontal Indians, as late as the 1940's, followed the Late Classic period methods and style. First hand descriptions of the construction and use of chultuns by the Chontol is an aid in archaeological interpretation.
Soil pH as a Tool in Archaeological Site Interpretation
Authors: Deetz James , Dethlefsen Edwin
Published: April 2006

Midden profiles encountered in archaeological excavation frequently appear homogeneous despite their known stratigraphic complexity. As an aid to definition of significant zones of deposition, soil pH profiles can be constructed to supplement visual recordings. Such a profile was constructed and shown to be of considerable value in site interpretation. Soil pH zones agreed with known artifact distributions and visual features. The method employed is simple, adaptable to field use, and of sufficient accuracy to provide useful results.
Stone Sinkers from Western Nevada
Authors: Tuohy Donald R.
Published: April 2006

Very few stone fishing sinkers are reported in the archaeological literature pertaining to the western Great Basin. It has been apparent for quite some time, however, that stone fishing sinkers are frequently found by amateurs surface collecting in the Lahontan Basin. This paper describes 17 such specimens from a private collection of nearly 300. All 17, of which there are five major types, were collected on the shores of Pyramid Lake, a living remnant of Pleistocene Lake Lahontan, located about 30 mi. northeast of Reno, Nevada. Pending further study of excavated types, it is suggested that the five types reported in this paper are referable to either the Lovelock (ca. 2000 B.C. to A.D. 1400) or to Paiute (post-A.D. 1400) horizons in western Nevada.
Miniature Ball-Game Objects from Mesoamerica
Authors: Dockstader Frederick J.
Published: April 2006

Five objects from Mexico and Guatemala, thought to be replicas of ball-game paraphernalia, are described and illustrated. They seem to fit into a pattern of other small-sized reproductions from the region and were perhaps intended for ritual use.
Hypotheses on the Origin of Canadian Thule Culture
Authors: Taylor William E.
Published: April 2006

J. A. Ford has recently (1959) offered a revision of the traditional view on Canadian Thule culture origins. He suggests that Canadian Thule is not derived directly from Birnirk, but that the eastern Thule migrants were contemporaries of the post-Birnirk Nunagiak stage. The further revised hypotheses of this paper are based on data generally unavailable for Ford's analysis. These hypotheses state that: (a) byA.D.900 Birnirk existed as far east as Amundsen Gulf, (b) a Nunagiak-like culture was carried to Victoria Island, (c) the Birnirk-Nunagiak development occurred generally along these coasts, (d) a proto-Thule stage existed aboutA.D.900-1100 between Birnirk and Nunagiak, and (e) this proto-Thule, developing into Canadian Thule in transit, spread across the eastern Arctic, entering Greenland byA.D.1100.
Time Perspective within the Coalescent Tradition in South Dakota
Authors: Smith Carlyle S.
Published: April 2006

Six sites attributable to the Coalescent tradition in the Fort Randall and Big Bend reservoir areas of South Dakota are arranged in a seriation indicative of their temporal relationships on the basis of the popularities of certain pottery types and the presence or absence of European trade goods. Three sites fall within the prehistoric segment of the continuum, ca.A.D.1500-1700, and three in the protohistoric segment, ca, 1700-1750. It is postulated that the sites were occupied by Arikara prior to their movement upriver to join others of the same tribal affiliation after invasion of the region by the Dakota. Certain ceramic types are proposed as time markers and sequences are revised in the light of new data.
Environmental Potential and the Postglacial Readaptation in Eastern North America
Authors: Fitting James E.
Published: April 2006

In definitions of the postglacial readaptation in eastern North America, attempts have been made to apply a single standard to the entire area. Such definitions are inadequate since a number of environmental zones existed in the region during late glacial and early postglacial times. These consisted of a periglacial zone with a fairly high carrying capacity supporting a cold-climate hunting adaptation; a zone of closed boreal forest with a relatively low carrying capacity; and a region of broadleaf and southern forests with a relatively high carrying capacity for a mixed gathering-and-hunting base. In the southeast there is a gradual transition from formally defined Paleo-Indian to Archaic culture, although both groups, if separation is possible, had potentially the same subsistence base. In the northeast there is a low population density hiatus between two periods of higher population density.
Mesoamerican Polyhedral Cores and Prismatic Blades
Authors: Crabtree Don E.
Published: April 2006

This paper deals with the results of the author"s attempts to replicate the obsidian polyhedral cores and prismatic blades of Mesoamerica. Blades have been produced by the direct percussion, indirect percussion, and pressure methods. The pressure method using a chest crutch and a clamp produces cores and blades which are true replicas of aboriginal specimens. The importance of preforming the core and of platform preparation is stressed, and it is pointed out that, usually, actual removal of the blade offers few problems. However, to produce exhausted cores which show the perfection of aboriginal specimens and a large series of nearly identical blades requires good muscular coordination, high quality material, the establishment of patterns or rhythms of motor habits, and the absence of distractions. The author also discusses the difficulties of recovering from mistakes in manufacture.

High-speed photography of prismatic blade removal, at 5,000 frames per second, has helped illustrate the behavior of the material and of the stoneworker. These photographs also indicate that under the present experimental and photographic conditions the author (Crabtree) is able to remove a prismatic blade from a core in about 1,250th of a second.
More About Earth-Shaking Equipment
Authors: Bird Junius B.
Published: April 2006

Specifications are given for the construction and use of two types of excavation sifters.
Texcoco Fabric-Marked Pottery and Salt-Making: A Further Note
Authors: Charlton Thomas H.
Published: April 2006

Documentary data of the sixteenth century indicate the manufacture of ceramic vessels for salt-making and trade. Texcoco Fabric-marked pottery is the archaeological manifestation of these vessels. Use of a special ware is related to increased salt-making in the Aztec period. Implications of this for the economic integration of Central Mexico are mentioned.
Lévi-Strauss, Poverty Point, and the Misuse of Analogy
Authors: Rackerby Frank
Published: April 2006

An analysis is made of an argument from analogy for similarities between the structure of the Poverty Point earthworks and the social organization of the Bororo of Brazil. A valid analogy must be based on demonstrably similar entities. Since some of the data used in Levi-Strauss's argument are not demonstrable as fact, the argument must be judged invalid. Archaeologists are urged to show caution in expressing in writing their inferences and interpretations since their work ultimately may be used by other anthropologists for making cultural generalizations.
Small Pressures and Cultural Drift as Explanations for Abandonment of the San Juan Area, New Mexico and Arizona
Authors: Davis Emma Lou
Published: April 2006

During the 12th and 13th centuries A.D., diverse populations of Pueblo Indians gradually withdrew from the drainages of the San Juan River and its tributaries, leaving the area uninhabited and open to future reoccupancy by Navajos. Two hypotheses have been put forward to explain these emigrations: the great drought theory and the Athabaskan raider theory. However, data from recent field work in the Four Corners area can be put together with clues from the literature to construct a third hypothesis: that late Pueblo II population shifts from the north created multiple, small pressures which slowly built into a chain-reaction of anxieties, producing widespread population rearrangements in the San Juan regions, cultural and stylistic changes and, finally, an increasing trend toward emigration. Paiute pressures in the north may have combined with climatic deterioration to initiate withdrawal of the Utah peripheral farmers who, in retreating, disturbed precarious balances of San Juan groups who were already maximally expanded in population. These, in turn, began to move about more frequently than previously, disturbing one another. Stylistic changes in pottery and architecture, large towns, and defensive sites reflect the unrest which resulted in final migration to more peaceful drainages.
A UNIVAC Analysis of Sherd Frequencies from the Carter Ranch Pueblo, Eastern Arizona
Authors: Brown J. A. , Freeman L. G.
Published: April 2006

Three factors contribute to differences between archaeological samples: sampling error and functional and temporal differences between the parent populations from which the samples are drawn. Many archaeologists have explained such differences as due only to temporal variations between the parent populations, thereby ignoring sampling error and relegating functional specificity to a minor role.

A statistical analysis of potsherd frequencies in samples made by the Chicago Natural History Museum from an eastern Arizona pueblo, the Carter Ranch site, was undertaken using UNIVAC. By taking into account sampling error, differences between parent populations appeared that could most logically be attributed to functional differences. From the calculations, four possible functional constellations of pottery types were discovered, four types of rooms were isolated, a probable ceremonial complex of five pottery types was established, and differential areal disposal of sherds was found. It was impossible to demonstrate temporal differences between provenience units on the basis of sherd frequencies. Any such differences played a minor part in contributing to sample variation as compared to functional differences between provenience units.
Cire Perdue Copper Casting in Pre-Columbian Mexico: An Experimental Approach
Authors: Long Stanley
Published: April 2006

Sahagún's General History of the Things of New Spain, a Nahuatl text completed in 1555, contains an ethnographic description of cire perdue gold casting. Aboriginal copper casting was not described. However, it is believed that his gold-casting description also constitutes a basically valid description of copper casting. To test this, experiments were undertaken to cast copper bells following Sahagún's description of gold casting and using native materials whenever possible. From the resultant successful casting of several copper bells it is inferred that the above belief is valid.
Ancient Maya and Contemporary Tzotzil Cosmology: A Comment on Some Methodological Problems
Authors: Vogt Evon Z.
Published: April 2006

Recent ethnographic work among the Tzotzil Indians in Highland Chiapas has revealed the presence of cosmological concepts and patterns of behavior that may have an important historical relationship to the ancient Lowland Maya. While these data offer exciting possibilities for inferences concerning the ancient Maya, we need to proceed with caution and to take account of a number of critical methodological problems before we project these patterns back into the prehistoric past. We know that all cultural systems are in a constant state of change; hence we should not assume that we are finding any exact survivals from the past, but rather hope that the trends of change in the Tzotzil area have been consistent enough to make inferences possible and productive. We also know that there is a great deal of variation among Tzotzil municipios (and even within municipios), so that statements about “Tzotzil cosmological concepts” need to be treated with caution. Finally, the hypotheses I have advanced in previous papers — such as the possible relationship between sacred mountains in contemporary Zinacantan and pyramids in ancient Maya archaeological sites, or the possibility that some system of rotation in priestly roles was functioning in the ancient Maya ceremonial centers — should be treated strictly as hypotheses and not converted into statements or propositions as Holland did in his recent paper.
Fremont Culture: Restatement of Some Problems
Authors: Aikens C. Melvin
Published: April 2006

Current emphasis on the definition of areal variation within the Fremont culture requires a re-examination of existing hypotheses of Fremont origins. The evidently very early appearance of regional variation suggests that Fremont crystallized out of a partial unification of several already differentiated Archaic (Desert culture) variants. This crystallization occurred at least partially as a result of adoption by Archaic groups of a horticultural complex of ultimately Mexican origin. Many of the characteristics which bind the Fremont regional patterns into a broader Fremont culture are elements of this horticultural complex, although the earlier Archaic variants presumably also shared basic similarities which contributed to the general unity of the later Fremont culture. Earlier hypotheses of Fremont origins are evaluated from this viewpoint. This is a revised version of a paper delivered in the Fremont Culture Symposium, 35th annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, April 30-May 2, 1970, Mexico City, D. F., Mexico.
Arikara Native-Made Glass Pendants: Their Probable Function
Authors: Howard James H.
Published: April 2006

Archaeological finds from the Leavenworth and Sully sites in South Dakota have served to revive interest in the use of native-made glass beads by the Arikara and neighboring tribes of the Upper Missouri region. Although the distribution of these objects and the techniques involved in their manufacture are known, little has been said concerning their function. Ethnographic data suggests that one type of native-made bead, the sub-triangular pendant, was a forelock ornament employed in a ceremony known as the Blue Bead rite. Associations of native-made pendants with skulls from the Leavenworth site would tend to support this hypothesis.
Deerskins and Hunting Territories: Competition for a Scarce Resource of the Northeastern Woodlands
Authors: Gramly Richard Michael
Published: April 2006

It is argued that conflict and the need for defense arose in the Late Woodland Stage of the Northeast and Ontario in response to competition for a vital resource, deer hides. Furthermore, the distribution of populations and the size of hunting territories can be directly linked to sustained yields of this scarce good.
A Critical Appraisal of “Significance” in Contract Archaeology
Authors: Raab L. Mark , Klinger Timothy C.
Published: April 2006

Four current approaches to assessing archaeological significance in contract archaeology are reviewed. It is argued that three of these approaches are inadequate bases for assessing significance. Explicit, problem-oriented research designs seem to provide the most promising approach to the problem of archaeological significance.
Pre-Valdivia Occupations on the Southwest Coast of Ecuador
Authors: Bischof Henning , Gamboa Julio Viteri
Published: April 2006

Recent excavations at the Valdivia site (G-31) have led to the discovery of a pre-Valdivia pottery complex named San Pedro, and of apparently preceramic occupation layers, below deposits of the Valdivia phase. A description of the San Pedro pottery is offered and the implications of the new evidence are discussed.
The Grand Canyon Figurine Complex
Authors: Schroedl Alan R.
Published: April 2006

A reexamination of all the published reports on split-twig figurine sites in light of the excavation of Cowboy Cave where 20 whole and fragmentary specimens were recovered under good stratigraphic control provides a foundation for discussing the possible cultural affiliation of the Grand Canyon figurine complex. A hypothesis is presented which may account for the known distribution of figurine finds and their lack of cultural associations at some sites.
The Trouble with Significance Tests and What We Can Do About It
Authors: Cowgill George L.
Published: April 2006

The rationale of customary "null hypothesis testing" procedures of statistical inference is examined. This approach is not incorrect, but it is prone to misuse and misinterpretation, including neglect of "power" and inappropriate conclusions based on conventional significance levels. The estimation approach, which often seems preferable, is briefly described. The kind of reasoning involved in statistical inference is required whenever we wish to assess the evidence relevant for or against any general proposition, whether we make any formal computations or not, and whether or not we have observed all possible real instances of relevant evidence. Statistical inference is logically unproblematic if we interpret it as a way of assessing the evidence more clearly. But statistical results cannot be directly converted into probabilities of the truth of hypotheses. This requires additional assumptions about appropriate probabilities of the hypotheses prior to consideration of the research evidence.