bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Meloxicam ameliorates the cartilage and subchondral bone deterioration in monoiodoacetate-induced rat osteoarthritis
Authors: Nagy Előd , Vajda Enikő , Vari Camil , Sipka Sándor , Fárr Ana-Maria , Horváth Emőke
Published: April 2017

Objective

This study aimed to quantify the cartilage- and subchondral bone-related effects of low-dose and high-dose meloxicam treatment in the late phase of mono-iodoacetate-induced osteoarthritis of the stifle.

Methods

Thirty-four male Wistar rats received intra-articular injection of mono-iodoacetate to trigger osteoarthritis; 10 control animals (Grp Co) received saline. The mono-iodoacetate-injected rats were assigned to three groups and treated from week 4 to the end of week 7 with placebo (Grp P,n = 11), low-dose (GrpM Lo, 0.2 mg/kg,n = 12) or high-dose (GrpM Hi, 1 mg/kg,n = 11) meloxicam. After a period of 4 additional weeks (end of week 11) the animals were sacrificed, and the stifle joints were examined histologically and immunohistochemically for cyclooxygenase 2, in conformity with recommendations of the Osteoarthritis Research Society International. Serum cytokines IL-6, TNFα and IL-10 were measured at the end of weeks 3, 7, and 11.

Results

Compared with saline-treated controls, animals treated with mono-iodoacetate developed various degrees of osteoarthritis. The cartilage degeneration score and the total cartilage degeneration width were significantly lower in both the low-dose (p = 0.012 andp = 0.014) and high-dose (p = 0.003 andp = 0.006) meloxicam-treated groups than in the placebo group. In the subchondral bone, only high-dose meloxicam exerted a significant protective effect (p = 0.011). Low-grade Cox-2 expression observed in placebo-treated animals was abolished in both meloxicam groups. Increase with borderline significance of TNFα in GrpP from week 3 to week 7 (p = 0.049) and reduction of IL-6 in GrpM Lo from week 3 to week 11 (p = 0.044) were observed.

Conclusion

In this rat model of osteoarthritis, both low-dose and high-dose meloxicam had a chondroprotective effect, and the high dose also protected against subchondral bone lesions. The results suggest a superior protection of the high-dose meloxicam arresting the low-grade inflammatory pathway accompanied by chronic cartilage deterioration.
3‐D basin‐scale reconstruction of natural gas hydrate system of the Green Canyon, Gulf of Mexico
Authors: Burwicz Ewa , Reichel Thomas , Wallmann Klaus , Rottke Wolf , Haeckel Matthias , Hensen Christian
Published: April 2017

Our study presents a basin‐scale 3‐D modeling solution, quantifying and exploring gas hydrate accumulations in the marine environment around the Green Canyon (GC955) area, Gulf of Mexico. It is the first modeling study that considers the full complexity of gas hydrate formation in a natural geological system. Overall, it comprises a comprehensive basin reconstruction, accounting for depositional and transient thermal history of the basin, source rock maturation, petroleum components generation, expulsion and migration, salt tectonics, and associated multistage fault development. The resulting 3‐D gas hydrate distribution in the Green Canyon area is consistent with independent borehole observations. An important mechanism identified in this study and leading to high gas hydrate saturation (>80 vol %) at the base of the gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) is the recycling of gas hydrate and free gas enhanced by high Neogene sedimentation rates in the region. Our model predicts the rapid development of secondary intrasalt minibasins situated on top of the allochthonous salt deposits which leads to significant sediment subsidence and an ensuing dislocation of the lower GHSZ boundary. Consequently, large amounts of gas hydrates located in the deepest parts of the basin dissociate and the released free methane gas migrates upward to recharge the GHSZ. In total, we have predicted the gas hydrate budget for the Green Canyon area that amounts to ∼3256 Mt of gas hydrate, which is equivalent to ∼340 Mt of carbon (∼7 × 1011 m3 of CH4 at STP conditions), and consists mostly of biogenic hydrates.
Finite Element Methods and Approaches
Authors: Benson Simon , Collette Matthew D.
Published: April 2017

The principles of the finite element method, including the mathematical basis for the method and the key equations, are reviewed. The common element types for representing ship structure are reviewed. Structural modeling approaches for full‐ship, partial or “hold” models, and local models are presented. Details of typical mesh size, structural representation, loads, and boundary conditions for all three types of models are compared. Typical acceptance criteria from regulators are listed. Finite element procedures for determining nominal, structural, and notch stress for fatigue crack initiation in ship structures are discussed. Using finite element analysis and the extended finite element method for determining crack tip stress intensity factors and crack propagation are reviewed. Nonlinear problem formulations and solution strategies are presented, along with differences in model set‐up and material definition.
Dynamic Hull‐Girder Response to Waves
Authors: Wu Yousheng
Published: April 2017

The dynamic hull‐girder responses to waves involve complicated fluid–structure interaction problems. This article describes the concepts involved in this kind of interactions and summarizes the linear and nonlinear, frequency‐ and time‐domain procedures for the fluid–structure interaction theories of ships advancing in waves. The focus is on springing‐induced dynamic responses. Prediction examples as well as some full‐scale measurement results are presented.
Accidental Loads
Authors: Amdahl Jørgen
Published: April 2017

The article deals with the analysis and design of ships against accidental actions with focus placed on the consequences of collision and grounding. Compared to offshore structures, the design against accidental actions is more indirect; the relatively few rules that exist for quantitative design against ship collisions and residual strength requirements are reviewed. Principles for design against collisions based on relative strength are discussed. Methods for analysis of the local behavior in the contact area and global hull motions during grounding and collision are described; for collisions, the decoupled approach of internal and external mechanics is explained. Assessment of local damage and energy dissipation during accidental actions by means of simplified plastic mechanism analysis is discussed. More recently, damage analysis with the nonlinear finite element method has become popular. The method has enormous potential, but a few challenges still exist, which are discussed. The assessment of hull girder strength, notably regarding bending moment capacity in damaged condition, and is addressed. Finally, some proposed improvements in ship design with respect to collision robustness are briefly discussed.
Machinery Noise and Vibration Sources
Authors: Pestelli Carlo , Tienhaara Hannu , Almerigogna Moreno
Published: April 2017

The vision expressed and summarized in this work is the result of the practical and theoretical experiences gained by Wärtsilä experts in more than 100 years of history. Noise and vibration have always been a major priority for engine builders; at the beginning of time, the scope was the structural integrity of parts, while it slowly moved to comfort, health, and safety. The purposes of this article are as follows: enumerate some of the main and typical noise and vibration sources onboard modern ships; propose a schematic classification; take as exhaustive example the four‐stroke diesel engines; and explain basic principle of propagation through ship structure and propose a problem solving and control strategy. The study focuses on the major effects of noise and vibration such as comfort, health, and safety of human receivers, while other aspects such as structural integrity of ship's hull or superstructure are not considered. At the end of this article, the reader will have an overview of noise and vibration source mechanisms, which may be expanded with the help of the books listed in the Reference section.
Classification Societies
Authors: Muncer Anthony D.
Published: April 2017

Classification societies have been in existence for 250 years and form an integral and unique part of the maritime safety regime. They develop the technical standards for the design, construction, and through‐life maintenance as well as the survey of ships and their essential equipment. In addition they also support and fund research, development, and education for the improvement of safety of life at sea.
Maritime Education and Training (
MET
)
Authors: Russell Paul
Published: April 2017

Modern shipping is becoming more and more sophisticated. Therefore highly trained seafarers are essential today as it always has been. Despite modern communications ships staff must still be capable of diagnosing faults and a minimum global standard of Competence, for all on‐board staff, is therefore necessary. Provided by the International Maritime Organization this framework is known as the Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW).
Propulsor Types
Authors: Ligtelijn Do , Dang Jie
Published: April 2017

The article provides a brief history of ship propulsion, followed by a review of contemporary ship propulsor types. For each type a short description is given of the device itself, and the typical field of application. Typical sizes and levels of transmitted power are also indicated. First propulsor types are described that are commonly applied. Then special arrangements of commonly applied propulsors are treated. A range of special propulsor types which are less often applied, including wind propulsion, is described separately. The article concludes with brief descriptions of energy saving devices (ESDs) and a summary of aspects that have to be considered when a choice for the most suitable type of propulsor has to be made for a certain application.
Propeller Maintenance and Repair
Authors: van Kooij Adri J.
Published: April 2017

Information is provided concerning propeller maintenance and repairs. Rules and standards relevant to these activities are reviewed, and the properties of different propeller materials concerning reparability are summarized. Several reasons for the need of propeller maintenance are described, like marine growth, corrosion, and cavitation erosion. Repair techniques are reviewed, and due consideration is given to ways of cathodic protection to avoid corrosion. Possible techniques to repair and modify propeller blades are described including nondestructive testing (NDT), together with the locations where several of these techniques can be applied, like in under water, drydock, or a workshop.
Fundamentals of Cavitation
Authors: Sipilä Tuomas P.
Published: April 2017

This article describes the fundamental phenomena of cavitation. The distinctive characteristics of cavitation in the marine applications, especially in the propellers, are introduced. This article explains first the quasi‐steady processes in phase transitions of pure substances. Next, the bubble dynamics are explained as well as the Rayleigh–Plesset equation that is used to describe the single bubble dynamics in a liquid medium. The bubble stability and its effect on cavitation inception are also discussed.

The noise and erosion that may be induced by cavitation bubble or cavitating cloud collapse are shortly introduced. The common cavitation types on marine propellers and the conditions in which they occur are described. The cavitation types are demonstrated by photographs of cavitating model propellers.

Finally, the dynamics of sheet and tip vortex cavitation are explained in more detail. The inception conditions and the shedding mechanisms of sheet cavitation are explained. The potential flow vortex model is introduced as well as the viscous effects in the vortex core. The disturbances in the vaporous vortex core are discussed shortly.
Wind, Wave and Current Modeling and Prediction
Authors: Kaihatu James M.
Published: April 2017

Numerical modeling of wind, wave and current fields in the ocean environment is discussed, with emphasis on commonly‐used models and gridding systems. After a brief introduction to numerical modeling, comparisons between Cartesian and curvilinear coordinate system reveal the utility of the latter when accommodating curved boundaries such as shorelines. Wind models are discussed next, with the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model used as a general example. It is noted that both the US Navy and the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory have their own weather models which also provide operational forecasts. Wave models are next, with distinctions made between first, second and third generation models. The Wave Model (WAM) serves as the example model, with discussion of models with more advanced physics following. Ocean circulation models are then outlined, starting with the Princeton Ocean Model (POM) and following through more advanced models. In addition, distinctions between various vertical discretization schemes (z‐coordinate, σ‐coordinate, isopycnal, or hybrids of these) are made clear. Prediction methodology and ensemble generation are also discussed and their utility for evaluating the robustness of predictions outlined. Finally, various methods for forecast dissemination are discussed.
MetOcean Parameters and Processes
Authors: DiMarco Steven F.
Published: April 2017

MetOcean is the collection, processing, and analysis of meteorological and oceanographic environmental parameters that are relevant to the design of offshore oil and gas exploration, drilling, and production structures and in the near real‐time reporting of environmental parameters that may influence offshore operations or may be used in oil spill response and readiness. The basic environmental parameters that are typically associated with MetOcean data collection are temperature, salinity, sea level height, atmospheric pressure, significant wave height, wind speed and direction, water current speed, and direction. Environmental observations are collected using a wide variety of collection platforms, which include Eulerian (moored and fixed platform) systems, Lagrangian (drifting) systems, gliders, remote sensing, and airborne systems. The most common environmental processes that impact operations and structures are currents and waves caused by extreme weather events, mesoscale circulation features such as eddies and current jets; however, other properties such as precipitation, ice coverage, turbidity flows, and other processes specific to geographic region can also be of great value.
Composite Materials
Authors: Guild Felicity J. , Taylor Ambrose C. , Downes Jon
Published: April 2017

Composite materials have advantageous properties for many marine applications and are already in widespread use. However, there is great potential for further use of these materials if they can become better understood within the marine environment. This article introduces the composite materials in most use in the marine environment and describes their mechanical properties. Since composite materials will almost always be used in conjunction with other materials such as metals, the joining of composite materials is discussed since particular care is needed for joining of these materials. Finally, the present applications of composite materials in the marine environment are presented.
Maneuvering Applications of Steerable Pods and Duct Units
Authors: Sasaki Noriyuki , Atlar Mehmet
Published: April 2017

Podded propulsion systems were introduced in the late 1980s and are now a respected and proven propulsion system for cruise liners and ice‐going vessels. The concept has many benefits such as excellent maneuverability in harbors in addition to the major advantage of exploiting electric propulsion in a novel way by housing the electric motor inside the propulsor. Within the framework of maneuvering enhancement, there are other steerable devices and transverse thrusters that have been around for many years as the “dark horses” of the propulsion task. This article presents a general introduction to steerable (azimuthing) podded propulsors, ducted units, and transverse thrusters with a specific emphasis on their maneuverability characteristics.

The article describes the main components and different types of the azimuthing podded propulsors including an insight to their superior maneuverability based on trials with prominent full‐scale ships, model‐scale tests, and numerical simulations. Insight is also provided into the maneuvering equations dedicated to pod‐driven ships based on analytical formulations as well as computational and experimental fluid dynamics. The validity of the current International Maritime Organisation (IMO) maneuvering criteria for pod‐driven ships is evaluated. Finally, the major types of steerable duct units and transverse thrusters are reviewed in terms of their operating principles from the maneuverability point of view.
Hydrodynamic Scale Model Tests for Offshore Structures
Authors: Cozijn Hans , Serraris Jorrit‐Jan
Published: April 2017

Hydrodynamic scalemodel tests are an indispensible part of the design of offshore structures, delivering information on platform motions and accelerations, mooring loads, impact pressures, relative wave heights, and other design aspects. The modelling capabilities of calculation tools have increased significantly in the past decades and their results are more and more reliable. However, in many cases, model tests do still have a fundamental role in the design and assessment of the platform or vessel, for example, to confirm calculation results for proven concepts or to investigate the behavior of new floater types. The main advantage of scale model tests is that all relevant physics are automatically included. This does not mean that the correct execution of model tests is an easy task. The models, instrumentation, environmental conditions, test procedures, and data analysis all require careful attention. The article aims at discussing these aspects and can thus be considered as an introduction for those new to hydrodynamic scale model testing.
Introduction
Authors: Khan Faisal , Hashemi Seyed Javad
Published: April 2017

Development of natural resources in offshore and marine environments presents significant technical and logistical challenges. There is a collective need for the offshore and marine operators to demonstrate that risks are being adequately controlled. The purpose of risk assessment is to help all stakeholders understand the risks to people, assets, and the environment and address potential major hazards in a structured manner. This article provides a general outline for risk assessment and reviews different approaches for risk assessment of offshore and marine operations. It also identifies the key marine hazards and review methods for the assessment of probabilities and consequences of marine hazards. A general framework for development, implementation, and maintenance of risk management process is provided and methods for risk mitigation and reduction are discussed. The purpose of the article is to give the operators a general overview of the process of conducting risk assessments and management in the context of offshore and marine operations to ensure all applicable hazards are identified and the risks are reduced to a level that is as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP).
Flow Assurance
Authors: Kak Ashutosh , Meng Weihong , Carnahan Norman F.
Published: April 2017

This article provides an overview of flow assurance analysis required for design, operation, and maintenance of petroleum fluid flow in a production system.

Of specific importance is formation of solids in the production stream, causing deposition/plug of pipelines and processing vessels. The solids are sands, scales, waxes, hydrates, and asphaltenes. Each of those components or their combination presents challenges for designers and operators. The second aspect is erosion caused by multiphase flow, especially when solids are present. The third is liquid flow rate fluctuation (severe slugging or liquid surge) exceeding the process facilities handling capacities.

Flow assurancerefers to the methods and technologies ensuring successful and economical flow of hydrocarbon stream from reservoir to the point of sale. The term was coined by Petrobras in the early 1990s. Flow assurance requires knowledge of extremely diverse sciences, testing skills from different engineering disciplines. For flow assurance analysis of the production system, fluid sampling and laboratory tests are the foundation; steady and transient multiphase simulation are the basic requirements; and knowledge of production chemistry and operations are the necessities. Flow assurance engineers provide the system operating information and help facilities engineers and operators to design and effectively prevent/manage solid deposits such as, gas hydrates, asphaltene, wax, and scales (inorganic and/or naphthenates). Flow assurance review is a critical task during deep water petroleum asset development and operations. The financial loss from production interruption or asset damage due to flow assurance mishap can be astronomical. The following sections present the basic concepts and analysis methods of flow assurance technologies.
Mega‐Float
Authors: Ohmatsu Shigeo
Published: April 2017

Mega‐Float is a very large artificial island floating on the sea. The total system consists of floating main structure, mooring system, and access facility. Mega‐Float has various possible applications, for examples, floating airport, offshore container terminal, and leisure facility.

Compared with the land reclamation method, Mega‐Float seems to have advantages or merits such as (i) easy construction regardless of its depth or subsoil condition, (ii) lower construction cost and shorter construction period, (iii) easy extension or removal, (iv) vast inner space under the deck, (v) earthquake effect free, and (vi) Few environmental impact.

However, Mega‐Float has also some technical challenges caused by its own structural characteristics. In general, Mega‐Float will be far thinner than conventional floating structures in term of depth to horizontal length ratio and it behaves almost like an elastic plate under wave actions. Therefore, it is necessary to give consideration to hydroelasticity, a coupled response between fluid and structural deformation, in the design of Mega‐Float. The structure is too large to be built at any building dock yard or other site on land, it is inevitably constructed by joining floating units together at sea. Achievements of these technical subjects, including others, are described in the text.
Mobile Offshore Base
Authors: Suzuki Hideyuki
Published: April 2017

Mobile offshore base (MOB) was first conceived in the 1990s under “SeaBasing” concept of US Navy. Three concepts, discrete connectors MOB, flexible bridge MOB, and dynamically positioned MOB, were developed followed by preliminary investigation. MOB Science and Technology project by Office of Naval Research (ONR) was initiated to advance engineering design capabilities sufficient to design of MOB by industry. Engineering design tasks and associated design tools were reviewed and industry state‐of‐the‐art standard, deficiencies in the engineering design and attainable advancement goals and performers were identified. Highlights of MOB S&T project are development of multiple‐module dynamic positioning system, numerical hydrodynamic modeling and hydroelastic response, wave field characteristics, and MOB classification guide.
Pile Foundations: Installation
Authors: Schneider James , Randolph Mark , Stevens Bob , Erbrich Carl
Published: April 2017

Pile foundations for offshore structures can be installed in different ways, with this article focusing on two main pile types: (i) driven; and (ii) drilled and grouted. An overview of simplified mechanics‐based concepts for issues affecting analysis of pile installation is provided. For driven piles, the concepts considered include soil resistance to driving, dynamic soil models, and pile damage. For drilled and grouted piles, attention is focused on methods to avoid hole collapse and hydraulic fracture. With these concepts in mind, a designer can minimize the potential for costly remedial activities that may be required during pile installation if the above issues have not been adequately addressed.
Condition Monitoring of Steerable Thrusters, An Overview, Practical Considerations and Example Cases
Authors: Velthuis Frank
Published: April 2017

It is a common misunderstanding that doing an overhaul every five years is a requirement from the thruster manufacturers, or from the class societies. In reality the overhaul is done simultaneously with the obligatory five yearly inspection carried out by a class surveyor. From a technical point of view many thrusters can reliably operate beyond a five year period. Whether or not such is advisable depends on the actual condition of the thruster, which can be determined with condition monitoring. Furthermore the original equipment manufacturer may be able to assess the future reliability using stochastic models and recorded operational data; this is normally referred to as prognostics. This article will describe both methods as well as several vibration analysis cases on thrusters.
Pipeline Technology—Expansion and Global Buckling
Authors: Bruton David A.S.
Published: April 2017

A pipeline is a long slender structure that in operation develops compressive axial force, with increasing internal temperature and pressure. The severity of the compressive force depends on the pipeline length, geometry, and seabed conditions. Long slender structures under compression are susceptible to Euler (column‐type) global buckling. This is commonly observed in railway tracks and pipelines.

Pipelines may buckle upward (upheaval buckling) or sideways (lateral buckling). This leads to two distinctly different design strategies: (i) Upheaval buckling is considered in the design of trenched and buried pipelines. Upheaval buckling of a trenched pipeline is usually considered a failure condition, due to the loss of protection (from the trench) and the high level of strain that typically occurs. Therefore, the design aim is to prevent upheaval buckling by placing sufficient backfill over the pipe in the trench. (ii) Lateral buckling is considered in the design of pipelines laid on the seabed. Lateral buckling can often be tolerated in low temperature pipelines, or deliberately encouraged in higher temperature pipelines. The design aim is to encourage and control buckling at regular intervals along the pipeline, to relieve the axial compressive load in the pipeline and share the thermal expansion between adjacent buckles.

The associated phenomenon of pipeline walking (axial ratcheting displacement) occurs due to differential expansion and contraction during startup and shutdown. Limits on allowable end expansion for pipelines susceptible to walking often require that walking must be controlled by the installation of pipeline anchors.

This article addresses pipeline buckling and walking, highlighting the important aspects of pipe–soil interaction and mitigation measures to ensure that design limit states are not exceeded.
Human Factors
Authors: Parker Christopher , Ranasinghe Sam
Published: April 2017

Due to high risk nature of the maritime and offshore industries, it is crucial to consider human factors (HF) as part of the system design and operation in order to adequately affect safety, operations, process, and ultimately total ownership costs (TOCs). The defence, aerospace and nuclear industries historically have led the initiative to integrate HF into the acquisition, design, and operation of large complex systems. In response to this global initiative, the maritime and offshore industries are progressing in efforts to recognize and integrate considerations for the human element and incorporate HF principles consistently and comprehensively.

Federal government entities, like the US Navy and Coast Guard, initially addressed HF ad hoc from project to project. In addition, the government's expectations for HF efforts (i.e., standards, requirements, and responsibilities of the contractor or designer) were not adequately communicated. As a result, standardization and formal guidance on HF integration slowly evolved. Some key practical components to come from this evolution were a combination of policy, adequate resource allocation, meaningful and appropriate requirements, and clear expectations between roles of oversight and execution. This slow evolution helped facilitate effective HF integration that is applicable to the oil and gas industry.

One element that the US government experience could not provide was the consideration of HF in risk management and management systems to support the design and operation of oil and gas installations. There have been oil and gas projects that have included HF in their development, but the adoption is still evolving. This is illustrated by the formal promulgation of Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement's (BSEE) rule on Safety Environment Management Systems (SEMS) in 2010. However, this approach needs to be comprehensive and treated as part of a management system. The latter half of this section addresses the elements of management systems and organizational factors as they relate to the human element where both process and personnel safety are critical.

The goal when authoring this section is that the human element is considered throughout the lifecycle of systems that are developed in the marine and offshore industries. A systematic and comprehensive approach will ensure that industry to be more proactive in affecting the reduction of hazards in design and operation through the appropriate consideration of human element. The section is divided into the following areas: what is HF; history of HF; purpose and benefits of HF; goals of integrating HF into the project lifecycle; HF in design; integrating the human element in risk management; HF in management systems; and organizational factors.
Infrared Thermography
Authors: Edmondson Simon
Published: April 2017

Thermography is a proven money saving tool for diagnostics and predictive maintenance of all types of commercial buildings and residential structures. Utilising Infrared Thermography within a predictive maintenance program will provide information that will effectively reduce energy consumption, increase equipment reliability, decrease overall maintenance costs, minimise interruption to equipment, increase safety and eliminate most surprise equipment failures.

In a nut shell Thermography is a must in the Marine industry.
Ancient Naval Warfare, 700BC–AD600
Authors: Rankov Boris
Published: April 2017

The military capabilities of ancient navies were determined by the muscle power of massed oarsmen and the inability of warships to remain at sea for long or in rough weather. Phoenicia, the first naval innovator, was the source of Persian power, after which Athens dominated the eastern Mediterranean in the fifth centurybc. Ships’ sizes and costs increased significantly in the fourth century, with Carthage and then Rome emerging as the dominant powers in the western Mediterranean, and Rome was eventually dominant everywhere. Navies required substantial infrastructures of harbors and dockyards, of which important remains survive at Athens and Carthage.
The Lelantine War,

C

.700 or

C

.540
BC
Authors: van Wees Hans
Published: April 2017

Almost everything about the Lelantine War is disputed, other than that it was perceived to be a significant development in Greek interstate relations, since the dispute between two neighboring cities on Euboea attracted involvement on the part of individuals and communities from across the Greek world.
Greeks in Italy, 342–303BC
Authors: Whitby Michael
Published: April 2017

In the 340 s the Greek cities of southern Italy, led by Taras (Tarentum), asked for help from mainland Greece to protect them from encroachment by Italian tribes. King Archidamus II of Sparta was killed while supporting Taras and in the 330 s another external savior, Alexander of Epirus, also perished on campaign in southern Italy. The Italian Greeks continued to look for an external champion, turning next to King Pyrrhus of Epirus.
Campaigns in Pannonia, 35
BC–AD
9
Authors: Campbell Brian
Published: April 2017

There was intermitted Roman interest in Illyria from the second century
bc
onward, but, when Augustus achieved sole mastery of the Roman empire in 31 
bc
, he made it a priority to secure Rome's east–west communications by pushing its empire to the Danube. The Pannonians precipitated matters by invading Istria; in response, the Romans annexed Noricum in 16. Agrippa campaigned in the Drava and Sava valleys in 13; on his death, command was assumed by Augustus’ stepson, Tiberius, who succeeded in subduing the Pannonians. While Roman attention was fixed on the Rhine frontier, in
ad
 6 the Pannonians and Dalmatians rose in revolt. Faced with guerrilla warfare, the Romans changed tactics and began to employ smaller, more agile units. The revolt was eventually put down in 9, and Pannonia and Dalmatia were made provinces.
Campaigns in Armenia, 58–66
Authors: Campbell Brian
Published: April 2017

Roman involvement in Armenia began with the Mithridatic Wars of the first century
bc
, though, rather than the kingdom being annexed, pro‐Roman rulers were placed on the throne. Armenia later became a pawn in the political maneuverings between Rome and Parthia. Assertive Parthian rulers often installed their own nominees, destabilizing the situation. In
ad
58 the Romans invaded Armenia to eject the Parthian Tiridates and replace him with Tigranes. The latter soon attacked Parthian interests; diplomacy led to the withdrawal of all troops from Armenia and the restoration of Tiridates. A final agreement was not reached, however, and, with Roman forces massing in Cappadocia, Parthia now invaded Armenia. The Roman forces were ineffectually led and forced to call a truce despite the approach of reinforcements. In the subsequent negotiations, a compromise was reached that Tiridates would be acknowledged if crowned in Rome by the emperor Nero. Relative stability followed, until Trajan annexed Armenia in 114 and made war on Parthia.
Attila and the Huns, 442–455
Authors: Whitby Michael
Published: April 2017

In the 430 s the Huns, whose main impact on the Roman empire had previously been to stimulate other tribes to invade and provide a resource of effective mercenary soldiers, consolidated their authority north of the Danube under the leadership of Attila. Attila terrorized the eastern empire via destructive invasions (managing to capture fortified cities, an achievement beyond most tribes) and diplomatic bullying. In 451 he turned west, but his invasion of Gaul ended in defeat at the Catalaunian plains and then an attack on Italy was bought off. Attila's death was followed by the rapid disintegration of his federation.
Anastasius and Persia, 502–506
Authors: Whitby Michael
Published: April 2017

In 502, over a century of almost unbroken peace ended on Rome's eastern frontier when the Persian king Kavadh invaded in search of military glory and booty. Amida fell after a long siege. Operations then moved south and focused on Edessa, whose guarantee of divine protection irked Kavadh. Edessa and Constantina survived attacks, and hostilities eventually petered out after four years when threats to Persia's northeastern frontier distracted Kavadh. A truce signed in 506 gradually evolved into a longer‐term arrangement.
The Lombard Conquest of Italy, 569–572
Authors: Sarantis Alexander
Published: April 2017

The Lombards migrated west from their territory in modern Hungary in the 560 s in order to evade Avar domination and find secure territory in Italy, where they rapidly overran much of the Po valley before extending their control southward in the face of ineffective opposition from unpopular Roman authorities.
The Genetic Basis of Natural Variation in Bryophyte Model Systems
Authors: McDaniel Stuart F.
Published: April 2017

Natural phenotypic variation is widely documented within and among populations of bryophyte species. The tools necessary to identify the molecular genetic basis of this variation are now well developed in a few bryophyte model systems. Here, I review evidence for experimentally verified genetic variation in heavy metal tolerance, mineral nutrition, gametophyte growth and sexual dimorphism in four bryophyte model systems: the mossesCeratodon purpureus,Funaria hygrometrica,Physcomitrella patensand the liverwortMarchantia polymorpha. Although classical genetic experiments needed to identify the basis of this variation have not been widely utilized among bryophyte researchers, genetic maps have recently been published forC. purpureusandP. patens. Bryophytes are well suited for such studies because a large number of recombinants can be generated with a single cross. Additionally, targeted allele replacement is a powerful technique for testing candidate genes identified by map‐based cloning. However, additional techniques, such as association mapping or combining whole‐genome expression studies with genetic mapping, may also facilitate testing candidate genes.
Comparative Genomics
Authors: Rensing Stefan A. , Lang Daniel , Zimmer Andreas D.
Published: April 2017

The mossPhyscomitrella patenshas been developed as a model organism during the last two decades. Analyses of its transcriptome and genome have revealed differences and commonalities with the genetic systems of seed plants. Comparisons with land plants and algae allowed the inference of evolutionary incidents that occurred with the transition of plant life from water to land. The established molecular tool kit and the available genome sequence together enable future research of plant evolution and development. In this chapter, we elaborate onP. patensbiology and evolution, give an overview of the analyses that have been carried out in the last decade, and envision future prospects.
Gametangia Development in the Moss
Physcomitrella Patens
Authors: Kofuji Rumiko , Yoshimura Takeshi , Inoue Haruko , Sakakibara Keiko , Hiwatashi Yuji , Kurata Tetsuya , Aoyama Tsuyoshi , Ueda Kunihiko , Hasebe Mitsuyasu
Published: April 2017

Eggs and sperm are reproductive cells produced, respectively, in archegonia and antheridia in all land plants except seed plants, in which gametangia are highly reduced. The moss
Physcomitrella patens
is a suitable model plant to study the molecular mechanisms underlying the development of archegonia and antheridia and to gain an insight into their evolutionary origin. We have described the development of gametangia and the sporophyte in
P. patens
. We have screened 4825 gene‐trap lines, in which a promoterless GUS reporter gene has been integrated, and have obtained 38 lines with GUS expression in gametangia. Expression patterns of GUS reporters have been examined during the development of gametangia and classified into several categories. We have discussed possible future approaches for the study of gametangia development and evolution.
Pathogenesis in Mosses
Authors: Lawton Michael , Saidasan Hemalatha
Published: April 2017

Physcomitrella patensis an emerging model system for functional studies of plant–pathogen interactions. The ability to create gene knockouts and site‐specific mutations in any gene, coupled with other features, such as dominance of the haploid phase, simple anatomical organization and ease of growth and propagation, allowP. patensto be used as a ‘green yeast’ in experiments with pathogens and pathogen‐derived inducers of the defence response.P. patenshas been shown to be susceptible to a range of necrotrophic bacterial and fungal pathogens, which are able to infect and multiply on the plant. Many of the cellular and molecular responses ofP. patensto attempted infection are similar to those observed in seed plants, and include the production of reactive oxygen species, the synthesis of secondary metabolites, changes in genes expression and the activation of a programmed cell death pathway (PCD). Pathogen‐derived elicitors, toxins and pathogen‐associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) can also induce many of these responses. Gene knockouts confirm that this response is under genetic control and show that this model system can be used to examine other aspects of plant–pathogen interactions. We review our current understanding ofP. patenspathology and defence responses and discuss how this system can be used to study plant defence signaling pathways, and to characterize the functional contributions of defence genes to the expression of disease resistance. We also discuss how genomic and other large‐scale approaches might be used forde novogene discovery in this system.
Seed Dispersal and Crop Domestication: Shattering, Germination and Seasonality in Evolution Under Cultivation
Authors: Fuller Dorian Q. , Allaby Robin
Published: April 2017

The transition between wild plant forms and domesticated species can be considered an evolutionary adaptation by plants in response to a human driven ecology. Evidence from archaeobotany and genetics is providing deeper insight into this evolutionary process in terms of its scale, mechanism and parallelism between species. The evidence indicates that the timescale of this evolution was considerably longer than previously supposed, raising questions about the mode of human mediated selection pressure and increasing the importance of the role of pre‐domestication cultivation. Different selection pressures were chronologically separated into at least three stages, each important at different points of the evolutionary process affecting different traits. Early selection pressures were ultimately driven by the pre‐domestication sowing activities affecting the polygenically controlled germination and seed size traits. Later, in the second stage, release of natural selection pressures of dispersal requirements led to modification of architecture such as awns loss of awns and increase in dispersal unit size. The loss of dispersal requirement combined with positive pressure through harvesting practice led to the typically monogenically controlled non‐shattering phenotypes. At the tertiary stage new selection pressures were imposed with changing climate caused by movement of the crops into different latitudes, resulting in typically monogenically controlled aseasonal phenotypes. The genetic evidence shows in most cases that genetically similar mechanisms have been affected in different plant species implying an evolutionary convergence in response to adaptation to human ecology. These adaptations can be considered various types of heterochrony; a mechanism of major importance generally in plant evolution.
Introduction
Authors: Wink Michael
Published: April 2017

Secondary metabolites (SM) occur in plants in a high structural diversity. A typical feature of SM is their storage in relatively high concentrations, sometimes in organs which do not produce them or as inactive ‘prodrugs’ that are enzymatically activated in case of danger. Biochemical and physiological features of secondary metabolism are strongly correlated with the function of SM: SM are not useless waste products (as assumed earlier) but important tools of plants needed against herbivores, microbes (bacteria, fungi) and viruses. Some of the SM also function as signal molecules to attract pollinating arthropods or seed‐dispersing animals. During more than 500 million years of evolution, plants have evolved SM with a wide variety of biochemical and pharmacological properties. Many SM interact with proteins (receptors, ion channels, enzymes, cytoskeleton, transcription factors), DNA/RNA and/or biomembranes. Some of the interactions with molecular targets are highly specific, others have pleiotropic properties. Potential modes of action are summarized. As a consequence of the pharmacological properties of SM, several of them are used in medicine to treat disorders and infections. Others are interesting in biotechnology as rational pesticides. Phytomedicine normally employs complex mixtures, as they are present in the producing plant, which may exert additive or even synergistic properties.
Inactivation Processes
Authors: Magome Hiroshi , Kamiya Yuji
Published: April 2017

Gibberellins (GAs) play a role in many aspects of growth and development in plants. Endogenous levels of bioactive GAs are controlled by both biosynthetic and inactivation processes. There is accumulating evidence that inactivation is important for control of endogenous GA levels as well as its biosynthesis. Recent studies demonstrate that there are multiple inactivation mechanisms, and some of them are controlled by developmental and environmental cues, the latter including factors, such as light, temperature and even various stresses. In this chapter we describe our current understanding of GA inactivation and its control mechanisms in flowering plants through the action of various enzymes, including GA 13‐oxidase, which is responsible for the biosynthesis of the bioactive GA1. Recent findings following the isolation of GA 13‐oxidase genes suggest that their function is to partially decrease GA bioactivity.
Robust guaranteed cost state estimation for discrete‐time systems with random delays and random uncertainties
Authors: Nishanthi D. , Jarina Banu L. , Balasubramaniam P.
Published: April 2017

This paper investigates the guaranteed cost state estimation problem for a class of discrete‐time systems based on the Wirtinger‐based inequality with randomly occurring delays (RODs) and randomly occurring uncertainties (ROUs). The time‐varying delays and parameter uncertainties are considered to occur in random way. Certain mutually uncorrelated Bernoulli‐distributed white‐noise sequences are included to govern the random occurrences. The cost function is chosen appropriately to guarantee an adequate level of performance. New sufficient conditions are established in terms of linear matrix inequalities to ensure the estimation of state vectors for the given discrete‐time system by constructing Lyapunov‐Krasovskii functionals and using reciprocally convex lemma. The advantage of using the proposed results is illustrated via numerical examples.
Methotraxate‐Loaded Hybrid Nanoconstructs Target Vascular Lesions and Inhibit Atherosclerosis Progression in ApoE−/− Mice
Authors: Stigliano Cinzia , Ramirez Maricela R. , Singh Jaykrishna V. , Aryal Santosh , Key Jaehong , Blanco Elvin , Decuzzi Paolo
Published: April 2017

Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disorder characterized by the progressive thickening of blood vessel walls eventually resulting in acute vascular syndromes. Here, intravenously injectable hybrid nanoconstructs are synthesized for tempering immune cell inflammation locally and systemically. Lipid and polymer chains are nanoprecipitated to form 100 nm spherical polymeric nanoconstructs (SPNs), loaded with methotrexate (MTX) and subsequently labeled with Cu64 and fluorescent probes for combined nuclear/optical imaging. Upon engulfment into macrophages, MTX SPNs intracellularly release their anti‐inflammatory cargo significantly lowering the production of proinflammatory cytokine (interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor α) already at 0.06 mg mL−1 of MTX. In ApoE−/− mice, fed with high‐fat diet up to 17 weeks, nuclear and optical imaging demonstrates specific accumulation of SPNs within lipid‐rich plaques along the arterial tree. Histological analyses confirm SPN uptake into macrophages residing within atherosclerotic plaques. A 4‐week treatment with biweekly administration of MTX SPNs is sufficient to reduce the plaque burden in ApoE−/− mice by 50%, kept on high‐fat diet for 10 weeks. Systemic delivery of MTX to macrophages via multifunctional, hybrid nanoconstructs constitutes an effective strategy to inhibit atherosclerosis progression and induce, potentially, the resorption of vascular lesions.