bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
IX. Viscount Cecil, the Government and the Far Eastern Crisis of 1931
Authors: Thorne Christopher
Published: June 2009

It is often suggested that the Far Eastern crisis of 1931–3 marked tlie beginning of the Second World War, that ‘the road… is now clearly visible… from the railway tracks near Mukden to the operations of two bombers over Hiroshima and Nagasaki’. In many eyes, too, this episode was also crucial for die League of Nations and the cause of collective security, an opportunity to vindicate the peace-keeping machinery of 1919 which, had it been taken, might have proved decisive in preventing the slide into international anarchy which followed. ‘This has been the vital test for the League,’ Philip Noel-Baker wrote to Gilbert Murray at the time, ’-– and the greatest opportunity it has ever had, especially in view of U.S.A. cooperation’. When Japan had triumphed nearly two years later, he saw the whole structure of organized international co-operation as being ‘in grave danger’, and the League as ‘never having sunk to so low an ebb in influence and prestige’.
Sir Nicholas Bacon and the Elizabethan via media
Authors: Collinson Patrick
Published: June 2009

There exists in the British Museum a copy of the prayer book of 1559 bearing the signature of Sir Nicholas Bacon. It would be reasonable to infer that the book was once the lord keeper's property, but a pleasing fancy to pretend that he autographed it for a friend and well-wisher. He was not the author of this all but final recension of the Anglican liturgy but he was one of its principal sponsors. For in the words of Ralph Churton,’the business of that important parliament… in which the acts of uniformity and supremacy for the settlement of religion were passed was principally managed by the Lord Keeper Bacon’. It was Bacon who presided, not only in the House of Lords but over the theological disputation in Westminster Hall which was staged as a public signal that the English Church was to be once more reformed according to the protestant model. In a speech at the conclusion of the 1559 parliament he defended the newly made settlement against opponents and detractors, and in so doing scratched in the sand, as it were, the line of the Anglican via media:’Amongst thease I meane to comprehende aswell those that be to swifte as those that be to slowe, those I say that goe before the lawe or beyond the lawe as those that will not followe.’
Pietro Giannone and Great Britain
Authors: Trevor-Roper Hugh
Published: June 2009

Pietro Giannone was a revolutionary thinker who sought in the early decades of the eighteenth century to free Italy from the inveterate, legally entrenched feudal power of the church and then to free Christianity itself from the stifling and corrupting embrace of the political church. This essay tells the improbable story of how his writings were taken up and disseminated in Britain by the non-juring bishop and antiquary Richard Rawlinson, the learned but morally unsound Scottish journalist Archibald Bower, and an odd crew of Jacobites. It is shown that the translations of Giannone got into some very influential hands and represent part of an undervalued Jacobite contribution to the origins of the Scottish Enlightenment and to the thought of Edward Gibbon.
Confessional policy and the limits of state action: Frederick William III and the Prussian Church Union 1817–40
Authors: Clark Christopher
Published: June 2009

The merging of the Lutheran and Calvinist (Reformed) confessions to form the United Church of Prussia was one of the most controversial policies pursued by Frederick William III after 1815. By the late 1830s it had provoked a large and well-organised movement of opposition, particularly among those ‘Old Lutherans’ in Silesia and neighbouring provinces who refused to abandon their liturgical traditions. This article examines the government's attempts to complete the process of unification through measures designed to atomize and silence Lutheran protest. Neither Prussian law nor Prussian law enforcement agencies, the article suggests, furnished an adequate foundation for Frederick William III's confessional policy. The unsuccessful campaign against Old Lutheranism exacerbated latent tensions between the executive and judicial branches of the administration and revealed the limits of government power and authority in the sensitive area of confessional policy. The aggressive and systematic confessional statism of the administration under Frederick William III was unprecedented in Prussian history; in this as in other areas of policy, the term ‘Restoration’ misrepresents political reality in post-Napoleonic Prussia.
The transformation of fiscal reform: reciprocity, modernization, and the fiscal debate within the business community in early twentieth century Britain
Authors: Trentmann Frank
Published: June 2009

The debate over Free Trade was central to modem British history. This essay shifts attention from party politics to the changing discourse and perception of state and economy within the business community. It distinguishes three phases in the erosion of liberal political economy: reciprocity, defensive tariff reform, and modernizing protectionism. An analysis of the changing argument for protection points to the emergency of a new politico-economic settlement in the age of war and coordinated capitalism. The Free Trade culture of individualism and market was displaced by a new economic vision of combination and regulation. In political culture, however, state and economy continued to be viewed as separate spheres. Instead of a corporatist system, the new settlement between state and business was marked by a dissociation of economic from political pluralism.
14. The Effect of Heat upon the Rennin Coagulation. I
Authors: Moir George M.
Published: June 2009

1. Milk of varied hygienic quality has been “flash”-pasteurised at different temperatures and portions have been coagulated with rennin at intervals after pasteurisation.

2. Analyses performed upon the whey separated from the coagula of the raw and pasteurised milk have shown that the mineral content of the whey depends largely upon the acidity.

3. The increase in the coagulation time with rennin caused by pasteurisation is associated with a decrease in the whey nitrogen, so that the one is approximately a linear function of the other.

4. The chemical changes produced by “flash”-pasteurisation of milk appear to be increased both by the use of higher temperatures, and also by the treatment of milk of low hygienic quality, as compared with clean milk.
Part II. The “Coconut” or “Carbolic” Taint. A Study of the Causal Organism and the Factors Governing its Spore-Formation
Authors: Christian M. I.
Published: June 2009

The characters are given of the organism causing the “coconut” or “carbolic” taint of commercial sterilised milk. Although certain similarities with B. novus (Plectridium novum) Huss are shown to exist, the organism remains unidentified and the question of its identity has been reserved for a subsequent paper.

In laboratory culture the organism exists in a stable vegetative form which has resisted all efforts to induce it to sporulate. Under commercial conditions, on the other hand, it occurs in a spore form in the bottles of tainted sterilised milk.

Propagated by ordinary laboratory methods, the spore form is rapidly replaced by a vegetative race. Five serial transplants are sufficient to bring about this transformation.

Sporulation can be induced and maintained indefinitely if sporing cultures are heated at 100°C. for 30 minutes at the time of inoculation. The function of the heating process appears to be the destruction of a growth product inhibitory to the germination of the spores. This substance is associated with the growth of the vegetative form and its presence in unheated cultures is inhibitory to the germination of the spores.

Spore formation takes place at temperatures below 22°C., the spore cycle occupying 3 days at 22°C., 6 days at 15°C., and 15 days at 5°C. At higher temperatures, e.g. 30 and 37°C., it is inhibited and the normal process is replaced by an abortive effort at spore formation. The optimum temperature for the propagation of the spores is 22°C.
39. An Auxiliary Evaporating and Preheating Apparatus for Drying Whey, Milk and other Liquids by the Roller Process
Authors: Golding J. , Rowsell E.
Published: June 2009

The development of the factory-cheese industry in this, and other countries, is handicapped by the wastage of the by-product. In Great Britain alone, approximately 20,000,000 gallons of whey are produced annually by cheese factories(i), and most of it is thrown down the drains. When it is considered that whey, which constitutes half the valuable food material of milk, is so wasted, the development of the industry to even its present dimensions is a matter for surprise.
58. Coliform Organisms in Milk and Bovine Faeces
Authors: Kon Phyllis M.
Published: June 2009

The lactose-fermenting coliform organisms in milk and dung have been investigated.

A large proportion of those recovered from raw milk by direct plating proved to be of theBact. aerogenestype and a number of “intermediates” was also present.

In dung faecalBact. colilargely predominated, the proportion ofBact. aerogenesbeing very small.

If the implication of these experiments be accepted it is possible that many of the coliform types found in milk are derived, not from faeces, in which the proportion ofaerogenesis small, but from external sources, such as contaminated utensils, and from food-stuffs.
59. Studies in the Bacteriology of Low-Temperature Pasteurisation. I. The Significance of Heat-Resisting Organisms in Raw Milk Supplies
Authors: Anderson Edward B. , Meanwell Leonard J.
Published: June 2009

In the course of routine bacteriological examinations of milk carried out at one of the United Dairies pasteurising depots during the past three years, a remarkable lack of constant relationship between the numbers of colonies reported on the 1/10, 1/100 and 1/1000 dilution plates, when standard agar (the Ministry of Health formula) was used, has been observed. When, however, standard agar, enriched with 0·5 per cent, milk, has been used as a plating medium, many of the discrepancies between different dilutions of the same milk have disappeared.
62. Variation in the Composition of Milk in Certain Midland Districts of England during the Years 1923–31
Authors: Baker A. G. , Cranfield H. T.
Published: June 2009

1. Records of the percentages of fat and solids-not-fat in the milk supplies received at twelve depots in the counties of Cheshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire and Leicestershire during the period 1923–31 have been analysed and the results of analysis given in the form of graphs.

2. The yearly averages for the whole area and for the three sections of the area are illustrated and compared with graphs based upon meteorological data (rainfall and temperature) recorded at stations in, or adjacent to, the area.

3. The monthly average figures for the whole period are shown in the form of graphs and compared with graphs based upon data recorded by Richmond.

4. The data upon which this paper is based indicate a positive correlation between rainfall and average composition of milk for each year
63. The Mode of Combination and Distribution of Traces of Heavy Metals in Dairy Products
Authors: Davies William Lewis
Published: June 2009

Small amounts of heavy metal are distributed between cream and separated milk in proportion to the curd nitrogen, but on completely centrifuging the fat a higher concentration of metal occurs in the cream, showing adsorption of complex proteinate at the fat-globule surface.

The heavy metal entering into butter from cream of different acidities is not affected by the acidity but by the curd-nitrogen content of the butter, but the copper associated with the curd in butter is roughly twice that associated with the protein nitrogen of the buttermilk. This is explained by adsorption of heavy metal on the fat-globule surface, which holds alike in water in oil as well as oil in water emulsion.

The entry of heavy metal into the fat phase in the absence of protein is greatest at neutrality but decreases with increasing acidity. The presence of protein increases slightly the amount of heavy metal entering into the fat owing to adsorptive and buffering effects of the protein at the oil-water interface in the emulsion.

The amount of diffusible heavy metal increases directly with the acidity and runs parallel with the diffusion of hydrogen ions.

The concentration of the ionic form of heavy metal in milk is of a low order, but increase in acidity causes more ionic metal to form. Evidence from potentiometric measurements in milk containing known amounts of heavy metal, or from the addition of milk to a standard copper solution at various acidities, confirms this finding.
64. Factors Affecting the Solubility of Milk Powders. II. The Influence of Temperature of Reconstitution on Protein Solubility
Authors: Howat George R. , Wright Norman C.
Published: June 2009

In the previous paper(1) it was shown that the heat treatment to which a milk powder is subjected during manufacture may result in the production of two distinct types of protein insolubility, namely insolubility due to denaturation of the protein while still in solution, and insolubility caused by over-heating the milk powder while in a dry state. The insolubility due to denaturation was shown to be independent of the temperature of reconstitution of the milk powder. On the other hand the insolubility due to dry heating was found to vary with the temperature of reconstitution, the protein being relatively insoluble when reconstituted in water held at 20° C, but completely soluble when mechanically stirred for 30 min. in water held at 90° C. It was suggested that this latter type of insolubility might be due to the removal of water of imbibition from the protein particles, since such an explanation would account for the effect of hot water in restoring the solubility of the protein. In the previous paper, however, observations on the effect of temperature of reconstitution were limited to the two extreme temperatures, i.e. 20 and 90° C.
89. Seasonal Variation of the Percentage Butterfat Content of Milk. An Examination of the Results of Certain Individual Cow Tests
Authors: Oxley C. D.
Published: June 2009

Figures showing the means and the standard deviation of butterfat percentage of milk samples, at the afternoon and morning milkings res-pectively, during the four quarters of the year are presented.

The probable sources of error due to the nature of the sample are discussed and the seasonal variability of mean and of standard deviation is considered.The likelihood of the mean of afternoon or of morning milk failing to reach certain specified minima during the respective seasons is calculated.
94. A Study of the Titratable Acidity of Milk. I. The Influence of the Various Milk Buffers on the Titration Curves of Fresh and Sour Milk
Authors: Wiley W. J.
Published: June 2009

The titratable acidity of fresh milk has been studied by several investigators, but the effects of the various buffers present have not been precisely defined. Early statements as to the cause of the titratable acidity were expressions of opinion unsupported by experimental evidence; the theories of indicators and buffer action were not considered. The acids and bases present were calculated by arbitrary rules to various combinations of salts, and the acidity was stated to be due to the presence of acid salts in these hypothetical mixtures.
101. The Occurrence of Coliform Organisms in Cream and their Effect upon Cream Quality
Authors: Pont Edwin G.
Published: June 2009

In a study of coliform organisms in cream attention has been directed towards the occurrence of specific types within the group, and to their effect upon flavour and quality.

Coliform organisms were isolated from eighty-eight (or 72 per cent.) of 112 samples of cream examined. By preliminary enrichment methods 128 strains were isolated, of which ninety-eight (or 76·5 per cent.) were typical coli strains, fourteen (or 11 per cent.) aerogenes, and sixteen (or 12·5 per cent.) intermediate.

Twenty-nine coliform organisms were tested for their effect upon cream flavour and quality. The aerogenes and intermediate types were found to be similar in their effect and to produce a more rapid and serious deterioration in quality than the coli strains of faecal type.
103. Studies on the Mycological Problems of Dairying. II. The Internal and Subsurface Discolorations of Butter
Authors: Vernon T. R.
Published: June 2009

1. A description is given of internal and subsurface discolorations in unsalted and lightly salted butter.

2. Six strains of the causative organism Cladosporium herbarum are described.

3. These strains are shown to be capable of reproducing the defect under experimental conditions.

4. Four of the strains tested proved capable of slight growth at 20–24° F. (−6·6 to −4·4° C.). after 3½ months.

5. None of the strains grew at normal cold store temperatures, 15–18° F. (−9·4 to −7·7° C).

6. Salt retards the development of internal spotting. Under favourable conditions it was shown that discolorations developed in 6, 10, 16 and 25 days in butter containing 0, 5, 10 and 15 per cent, of salt in the butter serum.
113. The Yield and Composition of the Milk of the Ewe
Authors: Godden William , Puddy Claude Austin
Published: June 2009

Figures are given for the yield, specific gravity and composition of samples of milk collected at varying intervals throughout lactation from eight Cheviotewes kept under experimental conditions and of odd samples taken from ewesunder natural grazing conditions in different parts of Scotland.

The figures recorded do not show any marked differences in compositionas a result of wide differences in the calcium content of the rations.
118. Investigations on the Milk of a Typical Herd of Shorthorn Cows. III. Nitrogen Distribution, Chloride, Lactose, Copper and Iron Content over a Period of two Years
Authors: Davies William Lewis
Published: June 2009

The weekly samples of typical milk from a small herd of Shorthorn cows have been analysed for chlorine content and nitrogen distribution (ninety-six samples). Lactose has been determined in seventy-five samples and copper and iron in twenty-four samples. The results are tabulated and discussed.

The author is indebted to Mr A. Wagstaff for carrying out the determinations of lactose.
119. Mastitis Streptococci in Bulk Milk
Authors: Pullinger E. J.
Published: June 2009

1. A technique for examining bulk milk, by cultural and microscopical means, for evidence of mastitis among the cows is described. To demonstratea light contamination with haemolytic streptococci, cultural examination of gravity cream is advocated, whilst, if much significance is to be attached to the actual count, whole milk should be cultured.

2. Forty–two samples of Certified milk from sixteen producers wereexamined, and twenty–four of these contained beta-haemolytic streptococci when whole milk was cultured. Twelve of these herds were examined on three occasions during fifteen months, and samples from only two were free frombeta-haemolytic streptococci at every test.
Factors in the Reduction of Methylene Blue in Milk
Authors: Jackson Christopher James
Published: June 2009

1. Bacteria may play but an insignificant part in the reduction of methylene blue in milk, though their de-oxygenating effect may be of influence in the commercial application of the test.

2. Milk as it exists in the udder, or milk drawn anaerobically, reducesmethylene blue almost instantaneously, whereas the same milk exposed to oxygen will usually take more than 10 hours to reduce.

3. The oxidation-reduction potential of anaerobically drawn milk is much lower than the same milk exposed to oxygen, and in accordance with its behaviour toward methylene blue.

4. Evidence is given for the presence of a redox system, present in low concentration, as responsible for the reduction of methylene blue.

5. Although the addition of small amounts of cysteine or glutathione to milk leads to the reduction of methylene blue, their absence from milk excludes them as possible factors in the normal reduction.

6. The possibility that lactoflavin may furnish the redox system is suggested.

7. The reduction of methylene blue in milk is catalysed by light in the visible spectrum.
133. Influence of Mastitis and of Brucella abortus Infection upon the Milk Yield of Cows
Authors: Minett F. C. , Martin W. J.
Published: June 2009

The influence of mastitis and of Br. abortus infection, separately and combined, has been observed in two tuberculosis-free herds during the years 1929–31 and 1930–4 respectively. Actual abortions in these herds were few, but many cows were affected with Streptococcus mastitis in a subclinical form. The results, comprising the examination of 180 lactations in Ayrshires and 193 in Friesians, have been considered in relation to the results of others who have investigated the influence of Br. abortus infection on the yield.

When all the lactations of all cows were considered, the average reduction in yield per lactation was 954 lb. due to mastitis and 1685 lb. due to mastitis and abortion combined. Among the Ayrshires of one herd the average reduction due to mastitis was 892 lb.
135. Studies on the Chemistry of Cheddar Cheese making
Authors: McDowall F. H. , Dolby R. M.
Published: June 2009

1. Determinations have been made of lactose and lactic acid in whey, curd and curd juice throughout the cheese-making process.

2. The effect of adding salt to curd at various stages of the process on the concentration of lactose and lactic acid in the whey has been investigated.

3. The rate of penetration of salt into curd has been determined, and it has been shown that by the time the cheese is normally hooped but little salt has reached the centre of each curd strip. Within 12 hours after hooping the distribution of salt is substantially uniform.

4. It has been shown that the conversion of lactose to lactic acid by starter bacteria in the cheese vat is almost quantitative.

5. Evidence has been brought forward indicating the presence of bound water in cheese curd.

6. It has been shown that a Donnan equilibrium controls the partition of electrolytes between curd and whey.
136. Acid Production and Protein Degradation of Some Acid-Proteolytic Cocci
Authors: Knowles N. R.
Published: June 2009

Various types of proteolytic cocci, including several acid-proteolytic strains, have been isolated from foremilk and rennet extract (l) and subsequently from ripened Cheddar cheese. A study of the proteolytic activities of these cultures in milk forms the subject of this investigation.
137. Studies in the Bacteriology of Low-Temperature Pasteurization. Part II. The Heat Resistance of a Thermoduric Streptococcus grown at Different Temperatures
Authors: Anderson Edward B. , Meanwell Leonard J.
Published: June 2009

Since the publication on physiological youth in bacteria by Sherman & Albus(1), many workers have demonstrated that the resistance of microorganisms to environmental changes is greatly influenced by the age or stage of growth of the organism under consideration.
138. Effect of Breed, Size of Cow, Yield of Milk and Stage of Lactation upon Efficiency of Milk Production
Authors: Edwards Joseph
Published: June 2009

The records of 2400 cows on test at the London Dairy Show between the years 1922 and 1934 have been examined for the relationship between the gross physiological efficiency of milk production and the factors of breed, size of cow within a breed, actual yield of milk and stage of lactation. (“Gross Efficiency” is here the ratio of energy in the milk to the energy in the digestible nutrients consumed.)

(1) It is shown that among the best representatives of the various dairy breeds there is little difference in gross efficiency of milk production. The lactation stimulus has been bred approximately in proportion to the size of the breed.

(2) Cows, in spite of their greater weight, are more efficient than heifers, and animals milked thrice daily than those milked twice daily.

(3) Within the breed there is a slight though definite tendency for gross efficiency to decrease with increase in live weight.

(4) Greater than any of the foregoing differences in gross efficiency is that which exists within a breed due to differences in actual milk yield.

(5) Stage of lactation has also much to do with gross efficiency. There is a steady decline in efficiency with advance in lactation from 38·75 to 29·25 per cent.
151. The reactions and properties of annatto as a cheese colour, with particular reference to the chemistry of cheese discoloration
Authors: Barnicoat C. R.
Published: June 2009

The properties of commercial annatto solutions have been examined from the point of view of the cheese-making process.

(1) The effect of initial colour strength, pH of the medium and distribution during manufacture are recorded.

(2) Methods are described for the extraction of the annatto colour from milk products.

(3) The effects of old annatto solutions, metallic impurities (copper and iron) and sulphydryl are shown.

(4) It is suggested that the mechanism underlying the development of “bleached” and “pink” discoloration in cheese is an oxidation process, and the effect of oxidation on annatto solutions has been studied in some detail.

(5) Suggested standards for annatto extracts for use as cheese colours are appended.
152. Studies on the chemistry of Cheddar cheese making. V. Factors influencing the acidity and mineral content of cheese
Authors: Dolby R. M. , McDowall F. H. , McDowell A. K. R.
Published: June 2009

It has been shown that the acidity developed in a vat of milk at the “running” stage has a very important influence on the quality of the resultant cheese. A high acidity causes increased mineral losses in the whey and a corresponding lowering of the mineral content of the cheese, while it also has a detrimental effect on the body of the cheese. The acidity at “running” also controls to a great extent the acidity of the cheese produced. Even where the acidities at the late stages of the process are kept the same, vats of cheese made at a high “running” acidity show more acid characteristics than cheese made at low “running” acidity.

The quantity of lactose incorporated in the cheese is also of importance in determining the acidity of the cheese. An increase in the lactose content, either by raising the lactose concentration of the cheese milk or by the addition of lactose to the curd, produces a more acid type of cheese at maturity, although some unfermented lactose is still present in the cheese at 4 months after manufacture.
166. The relative values of raw and pasteurized milk in the feeding of calves
Authors: Wilkie J. , Edwards S. J. , Fowler A. B. , Wright N. C.
Published: June 2009

1. Bull calves from tuberculin-tested Ayrshire herds were fed on raw or commercially pasteurized milk up to 12 weeks of age, in amounts strictly in relation to their body weight. This diet was supplemented from the eighth week by hay at the rate of 2/3 lb. per head per day.

The milk used was mixed milk from untested herds, the raw and pasteurized milk being derived from the same bulk sample. The quality of the milk was controlled by daily butterfat and phosphatase tests and by inoculation of grouped daily aliquots twice weekly into duplicate guinea-pigs.

2. The total number of calves used in the experiment was ninety-two. Of these, forty-two received pasteurized milk and fifty raw milk. Nineteen calves died before completion of the experiment, five in the pasteurized milk-fed group and fourteen in the raw milk-fed group. The mean ages of these calves at death were 44 and 27 days respectively.

Seventy-three calves completed the full 12 weeks of the experimental feeding. Of these, thirty-seven received pasteurized milk and thirty-six raw milk. The former group showed a mean percentage gain in live weight of 80·2 ± 3·1, the corresponding figure for the latter group being 74·5 ± 2·7. The difference, i.e. 5·7 + 4·1, was not significant. Reasons are given for the relatively low growth rate observed.

3. No appreciable differences were noted in the skeletal growth of the two groups. Marks awarded by experienced stock judges showed consistent differences in favour of the pasteurized milk-fed group, although the significance of such differences cannot be assessed.

4. Inoculations of grouped daily aliquots of raw milk twice weekly into duplicate guinea-pigs resulted in finding viable tubercle bacilli in 70% of the samples and Br. abortus in 38% of them. The pasteurized milk samples were uniformly negative to both tests.

The differences in tuberculous infection of the two types of milk were reflected in the results of tuberculin tests and post-mortem examinations on the calves at the conclusion of the experiment. Twenty-four out of thirty-six calves fed on raw milk reacted to the test, and the presence of tuberculous lesions was confirmed in twenty-three by post-mortem examination. One calf in the pasteurized milk-fed group reacted to the test, but exhaustive post-mortem examination and inoculation of glandular material into guineapigs failed to confirm the presence of any tuberculosis.

5. This work has failed to show any significant differences in the nutritive value of raw and of pasteurized milk for the rearing of young calves. The use of pasteurized milk, however, had a clear advantage in that it preserved the animals from infection through drinking milk containing living tubercle bacillli.
207. Protein metabolism and acid production by the lactic acid bacteria in milk. Influence of yeast extract and chalk
Authors: Braz M. , Allen L. A.
Published: June 2009

Though the lactic acid bacteria are recognized primarily as saccharolytic, several workers have recorded observations on their slow proteolytic activity. Von Freudenreich(1) was the first to record the fact that cultures of these organisms in milk, to which chalk had been added to neutralize the acidity, formed appreciable amounts of soluble nitrogen, and these findings were confirmed by Orla-Jensen (2), Barthel(3), and Barthel & Sandberg(4). Anderegg & Hammer (5), in a study of a large number of strains ofStr. Lactis, found an increase in soluble nitrogen in some cases and a decrease in others, while occasionally the same strain differed in different tests. In general, cultures which clotted rapidly were more inclined to proteolysis than those which were slower in forming acid.Str. citrovorusandStr. paracitrovorusdid not cause protein breakdown. Addition of 0·3% peptone to the milk tended to retard proteolysis or to increase negative values while addition of chalk resulted in more extensive proteolysis. Barthel & Sadler (6) found that starters consisting of mixed cultures of streptococci produced more extensive proteolysis than single species, indicating a symbiotic effect. Sherwood & Whitehead (7) tested the proteolytic powers of several strains ofStr. cremorisin chalk milk cultures and found some active and some comparatively inactive. Two strains appear to have formed surprisingly large amounts of non-protein nitrogen. In general they found that acid-producing power was linked with proteolytic power.
221. The effect of serum and blood on the growth of lactic acid bacteria in milk
Authors: Davis J. G.
Published: June 2009

Generally speaking, serum and blood do not have a marked effect on the growth of lactic acid bacteria in milk, although certain types appear to be specifically stimulated or inhibited. Heated serum and, to a greater extent, heated blood, usually stimulate growth.

Unheated serum may inhibit certain types, e.g.Str. lactis, when a small inoculum of washed cells is used. Under conditions similar to those in practice, no effect was noticeable. It is unlikely, therefore, that “slow starter” is ever attributable to infiltration of serum or the constituents of serum.

Small amounts of dextrose are without effect on growth (apart from fermentation of the added sugar) and do not initiate the fermentation of lactose.
223. Bacteriological studies of canned milk products
Authors: Nichols Agnes A.
Published: June 2009

1. A survey of evaporated milk and canned cream samples from three condensed milk factories and from general sources has been undertaken to determine to what extent non-sterility occurred in commercial practice. In addition to the examination of sound samples many others have been tested which were obviously defective or which were associated with defective packs. 100% of the tins examined from general sources were sterile. The factory samples, especially those of canned cream, had a lower sterility percentage, although it appeared that this was associated with some special circumstance of operation and that a sterile pack should ordinarily be quite attainable.

2. An account is given of the methods used for sampling the can contents and for the recovery of bacteria from unsterile cans and their identification. The necessity for a large inoculum in such sampling is emphasized, since although the bacteria may survive for many months in the tins, they may be present in small numbers.

3. Data are presented regarding the types of defective samples encountered and the associated bacteriological flora. “Bloats” in evaporated milk and thin bitter and putrid cream were the two main causes of spoilage encountered.

4. By using the heat resistance of the organisms which were recovered from the cans as a basis of classification the. defects have been divided into two groups, namely (1) a mixed general flora which does not withstand high temperatures, and (2) a restricted heat resistant flora which is of the sporeforming type.
261. A study of the mortality rates of calves in 335 herds in England and Wales (together with some limited observations for Scotland)
Authors: Lovell R. , Hill A. Bradford
Published: June 2009

1. With the assistance of the Central Council of Milk Recording Societies of England and Wales and its affiliated Societies, particulars were obtained of the calf losses, pre-natal and post-natal, sustained in 1936–7 by 315 herds situated in different counties of England and Wales. Further data were collected from twenty private owners in England and from forty-seven herds in a limited area in Scotland.

2. The herds in England and Wales were chosen in such a way as to give a fair representation of the geographical distribution of the cow population throughout the country. It is obvious, however, that they are a selected sample in which a relatively high standard of husbandry might be expected to prevail and their rates of mortality, therefore, will probably be below that of the general run of herds.

3. Owing to the early disposal of bull calves the losses of males after the first week of life are likely to be considerably understated. It is, therefore, wise to confine attention mainly to the figures for females.

4. In the 335 herds of England and Wales 12,544 female calves were born and of these 693, or 5°5 %, died before the age of 6 months.

5. Of 26,440 total births reported in England and Wales, 1231, or 4°4 %, were of stillborn animals.
282. A preliminary study of the effects of varying pitching consistency and rate of scald on the physical and chemical properties of Cheddar cheese and on the firmness of the cheese as judged by cheese-makers, bakers and others
Authors: Blair G. W. Scott , Coppen F. M. V. , Dearden D. V.
Published: June 2009

1. Six cheese of Cheddar type were made under conditions as similar as possible, except that the consistency of the curd at pitching, and in two cases the rate of scald, were varied.

2. Chemical and rheological analyses, as well as measurements of moisture content and vapour pressure, were made on the cheese and also judgements of firmness under various conditions were given by cheese-makers, bakers and non-experts.

3. A table is given in which the orders of placing of the cheese are compared as between the objective tests and the subjective judgements. The cheese-makers and the non-expert testers gave, in general, characteristically different orders, the orders given by the bakers tending to fall between the two.

4. It appears that the consistency of the curd at the pitching point (W/h as determined by the Scott Blair-Coppen method) and probably the rate of scald, are prime factors in determining the firmness of the cheese.

5. The whole experiment is preliminary in character and it is intended to repeat it in an extended form in the near future.
289. The rheology of butter: I. Methods of measuring the hardness of butter
Authors: Dolby R. M.
Published: June 2009

Trials with the Scott Blair apparatus for measuring hardness of butter by compression of a cylindrical sample showed a lack of reproducibility due to splitting or crumbling of the sample. Investigation of alternative methods led to the development of an apparatus in which the resistance of butter to cutting by a wire is measured. The method gives results which are in general agreement with those obtained with the Scott Blair apparatus, but are much more reproducible. The effect of wire diameter and thickness of block of butter have been determined, and conditions for temperature control of the sample before and during the determination have been investigated.
294. The estimation of solids in milk: Part I. Determination of solids-not-fat by various methods of hydrometry
Authors: Boden S. M. , Campbell C. H.
Published: June 2009

1. Estimations of solids-not-fat by evaporation and by hydrometry were made in two laboratories on samples of the same raw and pasteurized milks.

2. General agreement was found between the results by stated evaporation techniques and those by Richmond's formula (S.N.F. = 0·25G + 0·2F + 0·14) when the latter was applied to milks which had been stored cold (i.e. Recknagel contraction complete as required by Richmond).

3. General agreement at a lower level of S.N.F. (0·2% approx.) was found between Richmond's formula and the density formula (S.N.F. = 0·25D + 0·21F + 0·66) when both were applied to milks heated as required by B.S.S. no. 734 (1937) (i.e. Recknagel effect absent).

4. Adoption of the B.S.S. technique and formula placed a very much greater proportion of samples, below the presumptive legal standard of 8·5% S.N.F.

5. The need is indicated for the standardization of evaporation technique before attempting a permanent revision of the density formula.

6. Seasonal variations between ‘calculated’ and ‘found’ results have been observed.
313. Bacteriological studies of roller-dried milk powders, roller-dried buttermilk and of roller- and spray-dried whey
Authors: Higginbottom Constance
Published: June 2009

1. Bacteriological studies have been made of some 400 samples of dried milk products comprising roller-dried separated milk, roller-dried full-cream milk, roller-dried buttermilk, roller-dried whey and spray-dried whey. The samples were derived from a total of plants operating throughout Great Britain.

2. The mean values for the plate counts at 37 and 55°C. of the roller-dried products were all below 1000 per g· as against ½–2½ million at 37°C. and 10,000–30,000 at 55°C. for the spray-dried products. The spray-dried products also gave three times as many positive presumptive coliform tests at all dilutions as did the roller-dried products.

3. The roller-dried whey and the roller-dried buttermilk both gave more variable counts at 37°C. and higher counts at 55°C. than the roller-dried separated milk and the roller-dried full-cream milk. The spray-dried whey gave higher and more variable counts at both 37 and 55°. than the spray-dried milk.

4. Marked differences were observed in the plate counts of samples derived from different plants, some plants giving consistently low counts and others giving higher and more variable figures. Differences were also observed in the counts at different stages of handling.

5. Evidence was obtained which indicates that mould counts do not provide a reliable indication of recontamination subsequent to drying.
332. The collection of quarter milk samples by milking machine
Authors: McDowall F. H.
Published: June 2009

The collection of samples of milk from individual quarters has usually been done either by hand milking or by sampling by hand at the commencement of milking, before the application of the teat-cups for milking by machine. The former method is laborious, and may not be entirely accurate, as it depends a great deal on constant care throughout the milking to ensure that each quarter is milked into the correct container. If the quarters are milked separately by hand, the yield of milk from the individual quarters may be affected, and if the cow is not accustomed to being milked by hand, hand milking for quarter sampling may disturb her, and affect the yield, and so the composition of the milk. Quarter sampling by hand before the commencement of machine milking does not provide a representative sample of the yield of milk from the quarter, and it does not permit a measurement of quantity of milk produced by each quarter. In connexion with some work on the composition of milk from quarters showing a positive brom-thymol blue test (Hume(i), McDowall(2, 3)) and on the influence of such milk on the quality of cheese and butter made from it (McDowall(4)); the collection of full quarter samples of milk on a considerable scale was required. For this purpose a special milking-machine claw, a milking-machine bucket, and a strip bucket were constructed. These are illustrated in Fig. 1, I–IV.
341. The effect of the pre-heating temperature on the bacterial count and storage life of whole milk powder spray-dried by the Krause process
Authors: Findlay J. D. , Higginbottom Constance , Smith J. A. B.
Published: June 2009

1. Storage tests on spray-dried full-cream milk powders prepared from milk preheated at 160,170,180, 190 and 200° F. for approximately 20 sec. and dried by the Krause process have been carried out at 47, 37 and 15° C. or room temperature. The storage tests were carried out independently at two different research stations. At the Hannah Institute the powders were packed in plain tin-plate containers as received from the factory. At Cambridge grease-free plain tin-plate and lacquered tin-plate containers were used. Deterioration was followed at both stations by a tasting panel and by determination of the amount of oxygen absorbed by the powder and of the accumulation of peroxide in the fat.

2. When fresh the powder pre-heated at 180° F. had the best flavour, followed in order of preference by those pre-heated at 190 and 200° F., which had a definite but quite pleasant ‘boiled’ or ‘cooked’ flavour, and by those pre-heated at 160 and 170° F. which had an incipient tallowy flavour, but were nevertheless still acceptable. The 200 and 190° F. powders gave a strong reaction for volatile sulphur, the 180° F. powder a much weaker but quite definite reaction, and the 170 and 160° F. powders a negative reaction. The copper content of the 180° F. powder which, with the 170° F. sample, was the highest of the group, may have been partly responsible for the weakness of the reaction for volatile sulphur given by this sample. The solubility of the 180, 190 and 200° F. powders was not adversely affected by the high pre-heating temperatures, and the moisture contents of all the powders were sufficiently low to prevent any obvious loss of solubility, which remained very good indeed throughout the storage tests.
345. Experiments on milking technique
Authors: Dodd F. H. , Foot A. S.
Published: June 2009

1. During the first 2 weeks and last 2 weeks of a 9-week period nine cows, milked by machine, were prepared for milking by hosing and washing the udders with cold water 15 min. to 1 hr. before milking, while in the intervening 5 weeks the udders only were washed with water at 115 to 120° F. immediately before milking.

2. The hot-water routine had no pronounced effect on the yield and quality of the milk from the majority of the cows, although one reacted unfavourably to a change back to the cold water routine and had to be stripped by hand.

3. The gradual restriction, over an interval of 4–6 weeks, in the milking time from 100 to 60% of the previous normal flow period for three cows in mid-lactation had no great influence on the maximum rate of milk flow from the udder, even when hot-water washing of the udder immediately before milking was introduced late in the experiment. The maximum rate of flow was, however, reached slightly sooner after putting on the teat cups.

4. The restriction in milking time caused only a small reduction in yield as the flow during the latter part of the flow period had in any case been small.

5. The fat content of the milk of the cows whose milking time was restricted fell somewhat while the solids-not-fat content remained steady.

6. Washing the udder with hot water or restricting milking time showed no clear-cut effect on the incidence of mastitis.
353. ‘Malty’ flavour in starter and butter
Authors: Virtanen A. I. , Nikkilä O. E.
Published: June 2009

A Gram-positive, aroma bacterium, the so-called ‘malt coccus’, has been isolated from malty-flavoured starters. It coagulates milk most readily at 35–37° C. The ‘malt coccus’ differs from the aroma bacteria mainly in that it forms acetaldehyde from pyruvic acid, evidently through carboxylase. Acetaldehyde is the chief factor in the formation of malty flavour. The ‘malt coccus’ sours milk feebly. If starter is heavily contaminated with the ‘malt coccus’, the acidity (SH°) is reduced but the aroma reaction (V.-P.) increases. The malty flavour persists in the starter during transfers and becomes more marked with rising temperature. The ‘malt coccus’ retains its aroma-forming ability for long periods in the laboratory.
356. Bacteriophage in cheese manufacture: Contamination from farm equipment
Authors: Whitehead H. R. , Hunter G. J. E.
Published: June 2009

Bacteriophage infection of the starter streptococci, which commonly causes ‘slowness’ in cheese manufacture, may arise from whey infection of milk cans used for the cartage of cheese whey from factory to farm. Thus ‘slowness’ can occur even when the starter itself and all the factory utensils are free from infection. The pasteurizing treatment which the cheese milk receives is not sufficient to destroy the traces of phage derived from infection of the milk cans.

Three methods for eliminating this trouble were investigated:

(i) Pasteurization of the whey at 190° F. for a few seconds immediately after removal from the cheese vat.

(ii) Treatment of the whey with chloride of lime.

(iii) The use of a series of single-strain starters in daily rotation in the cheese factory.

All three methods proved practicable, although some mechanical difficulties were encountered in the particular pasteurization system which was tried. The third method is at present undergoing an extensive trial on a commercial scale. It is preferred in the first place because it is costless, whereas the first two methods would involve a regular additional cost in steam of chloride of lime.
357. Apparatus for routine estimation of oxygen in tins of milk powder
Authors: Thiel C. C. , Hills G. Loftus , Scharp L. R.
Published: June 2009

An apparatus has been developed for the routine estimation of oxygen in the headspace gas of tins of dried milk. The sampling device is an integral part of the apparatus, which is constructed mainly of metal and is simple to operate. As many as twenty samples may be taken and analysed in an hour.

Our thanks are due to the Drawing Office and Workshop staffs of the Division of Industrial Chemistry, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, who designed and manufactured the equipment, and to the Maffra Co-operative Milk Products Co. Ltd., who permitted the apparatus to be tested in their laboratories under factory conditions.