bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
New Developments in the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia: Prominent Leaders Indicted and Jurisdiction Established
Authors: Dixon Rodney
Published: July 2009

The first indictments against high-ranking political and military leaders were issued by the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) on 25 July 1995. Those indicted include Radovan Karadžić, the President of the Bosnian Serb Administration of Pale;Ratko Mladić, the commander of the army of the Bosnian Serb Administration;and Milan Martic, the President of the former Croatian Serb Administration of Knin. On the same day, the defence motion challenging the jurisdiction of the ICTY to try the accused currently before it, Dusko Tadicwas argued before the Trial Chamber. On 10 August 1995, this motion was dismissed.These recent developments, amongst others, are the culmination of the Prosecution's work in confronting the immense challenges of this unique international jurisdiction. Although the task is far from complete, the achievements to date provide a stable foundation upon which to progress with confidence. This article will comment on the significance of these new developments.
Experiments on Human Beings and International Law
Authors: de Blois Matthus
Published: July 2009

Experiments on human beings are often beneficial for mankind in general and individuals in particular. They may, however, also present a threat to the right to the personal integrity. Existing provisions of the international law on human rights as well as of humanitarian law are instruments to protect this right against certain forms of experimentation. They leave, therefore, many questions open. Several non-binding texts give suggestions to answer them. They are also useful as materials for an international convention to protect human beings against unwarranted experimentation.
Access to Education in the European Communities
Authors: Hennis Edgard
Published: July 2009

This study contains a short informative survey of rights and obligations, according to European Community Law, incumbent on students who intend to follow educational courses in another member state of the European Communities. It is concluded that those students may not be hindered whatsoever as to the access to schools and universities of their host state, however, they have no rights in respect of maintenance allowances.
Private Enterprises in Space Related Activities: Questions of Responsibility and Liability
Authors: Henaku Kofi
Published: July 2009

Classical international law was characterised by its insistence on the state as a sovereign who within its borders had no equal and thus permitted no interference in its acts. States were the only subjects of international law. All other entities were objects of the law which was inevitably dominated and dictated by states. Modern international law has seen a drastic shift from these views. For instance, legal theory now recognises other subjects of the international regime. States have yielded parts of their sovereign powers to personalities like international organisations. To a certain extent, natural and legal persons have found a place in the emerging international law. It must be emphasised, however, that this position of the latter does not go unchecked. States still regulate the activities of other international legal personalities. States are also seen jealously guarding their status as the prime subjects of international law.
Predicting loneliness in old people living in the community
Authors: Paúl Constança , Ribeiro Oscar
Published: July 2009

Loneliness and social isolation are two core concepts regarding social relationships in human life that are particularly relevant in old age. This article focuses on the prevalence of loneliness in a community sample of 1266 autonomous people aged 50 or more and on the structural circumstances (demographic social network and general health condition) that could better contribute to its experience. The prevalence of loneliness was 16.3% (n = 206) and a small number of people presented low social network (7%). Predictors of loneliness (explaining 29% of variance) were being widowed, perceiving own health as poor or very poor, and having psychological distress and cognitive impairment. The authors emphasize the importance of psychological distress as a predictor of loneliness and the need for social and psychological interventions to prevent its consequences in morbidity and mortality.
Maintaining independence after a fall
Authors: Spinks AB , Wasiak J
Published: July 2009

Falls have a significant impact upon independent living ability in older people, with fall-related fractures one of the leading predictors of having to move into assisted living facilities. The loss of independence associated with a severe fall is often accompanied by a decline in physical, social, emotional and economic well-being. Rehabilitation programmes to restore functional ability following a fall have a greater chance of success if they adopt a multi-disciplinary approach and, if appropriate, are conducted in the patient's own home. Additional multi-component interventions that improve confidence and reduce the risk of subsequent falls may confer benefits by assisting individuals independently to perform activities of daily living.
The Alabama Insert
Authors: Dawkins Richard
Published: July 2009

Creationists believe that the Biblical account of the creation of the universe is literally true. God brought into existence the Earth and all its life forms in just six days. According to creationists, this event took place less than ten thousand years ago (they base their calculation of the age of the universe on the number of generations listed in the Bible).

Creationists have succeeded in persuading large swathes of the general public that their theory is at least as scientifically respectable as the Big Bang/evolution alternative. A recent Gallup poll indicated that about 45% of US citizens currently believe that God created human beings ‘pretty much in [their] present form at one time or another within the last 10,000 years’.

Two states, Arkansas and Louisiana, have even passed ‘balanced treatment’ laws requiring that creationism be taught alongside evolution in all state public schools. It was in Auburn, Alabama, shortly after that state required that a piece of paper be pasted into every biology school text book explaining why evolution is merely a ‘theory’ — and a highly questionable theory at that — that Richard Dawkins delivered the impromptu speech which forms the basis of the following.
Arguments from Design
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: July 2009

Is it reasonable to believe in God? Many suppose that belief in God is a matter of faith, not reason. Here, Richard Swinburne, Nolloth Professor of the Philosophy of the Christian Religion at Oxford University, argues that there are a number of arguments which, taken together, actually provide good grounds for supposing that God exists.
Could a Machine Think?
Authors: Law Stephen
Published: July 2009

The year is 2100. Geena is the proud new owner of Emit, a state-of-the-art robot. She has just unwrapped him, the packaging strewn across the dining room floor. Emit is designed to replicate the outward behaviour of a human being down to the last detail (except that he is rather more compliant and obedient). Emit responds to questions in much the same way humans do. Ask him how he feels and he will say he has had a tough day, has a slight headache, is sorry he broke that vase, and so on. Geena flips the switch at the back of Emit's neck to ‘on’. Emit springs to life.
Is Beauty in the Eye of the Beholder?
Authors: Hyman John
Published: July 2009

In this article, John Hyman argues that beauty does not consist in mathematical perfection; that Hume was mistaken in claiming that beauty exists only in the mind; that we can discover what is really beautiful by learning to give reasons for our preferences; and that some things in the world are beautiful—probably many more than we imagine.
Dawkins and The Alabama Insert
Authors: Plantinga Alvin
Published: July 2009

In issue one, Richard Dawkins attacked the Alabama State Board of Education for pasting into biology schoolbooks an insert (reproduced overleaf) that explained that the theory of evolution is an ‘unproven’ and ‘controversial’ theory that ‘some’ scientists accept. The insert also raised a number of important questions that (the suggestion seems to be) the theory of evolution still struggles to answer. Here, philosopher Alvin Plantinga responds to Dawkins' criticisms of the insert.
How real are you?
Authors: Midgley Mary
Published: July 2009

Has science shown that people are, in some sense, an illusion? According to Mary Midgley, that is precisely what some scientists now preach. Focusing particularly on a claim made by Richard Dawkins, she explains why she believes these scientists are making a serious mistake.
Is it all relative?
Authors: Law Stephen
Published: July 2009

According to relativists, people who speak simply of what's ‘true’ are naïve. ‘Whose truth?’ asks the relativist. ‘No claim is ever true, period. What's true is always true for someone. It's true relative to a particular person or culture. There's no such thing as the absolute truth on any issue.’

This sort of relativism is certainly popular. For example, many claim that we are wrong to condemn cultures with moral codes different from our own: their moralities are no less valid. Similarly, some claim that while astrology and Feng Shui might be ‘false’ from a Western, scientific viewpoint, they are ‘true’ when viewed from alternative, New Age points of view. What's ‘true’ and what's ‘false’ ultimately depend on where one is standing.

Is this sort of relativism about truth tenable?
The paranormal, miracles and David Hume
Authors: Penelhum Terence
Published: July 2009

Is parapsychology a pseudo-science? Many believe that the Eighteenth century philosopher David Hume showed, in effect, that it must be. In this article, Terence Penelhum explains and endorses Hume's arguments concerning testimony of the miraculous, but also explains why he believes there is now evidence of sufficient quality concerning the paranormal to make further investigation scientifically worth-while.
Thinking about telepathy
Authors: Radin Dean
Published: July 2009

Dean Radin, laboratory director at The Institute of Noetic Sciences (California, USA), argues that telepathy is real, and suggests that quantum mechanics may ultimately provide an explanation of how it works.
Thinking tools 3: Flying saucers and open minds
Authors: Law Stephen
Published: July 2009

Thinking Tools is a regular feature that introduces pointers on thinking clearly and rigorously. Here I tell a cautionary tale about flying saucers and take a brief look at the virtues of ‘open-mindedness’.
Paradoxes 3: Buridan's ass
Authors: Clark Michael
Published: July 2009

In this regular series, Michael Clark, editor of Analysis, presents some of the most intriguing philosophical paradoxes. Here we examine the paradox of Buridan's ass.
Soham, Widdecombe and the death penalty
Authors: Benn Piers
Published: July 2009

The recent murder of two schoolgirls in Soham provoked calls for a return of the death penalty. Piers Benn examines the case for execution.
God and the history of time
Authors: Helm Paul
Published: July 2009

Paul Helm examines some of Stephen Hawking's scientific arguments concerning God, and finds them unpersuasive.
Can God explain anything?
Authors: Schick Theodore
Published: July 2009

Ted Schick submits the ‘God hypothesis’ to close scientific and logical scrutiny and finds it seriously lacking.
The perennial problem of evil
Authors: Piper Mark
Published: July 2009

Mark Piper introduces the best-known and perhaps most powerful of all the arguments against the existence of God.
Faith on Trial
Authors: Baggini Julian
Published: July 2009

Julian Baggini's inspector Gore is puzzled by Abraham's faith in God, which, Gore suspects, boils down to a form of mental illness.
Thinking tools 4: How to sound like a guru
Authors: Law Stephen
Published: July 2009

Thinking Tools is a regular feature that introduces pointers on thinking clearly and rigorously. Here l explain some of the techniques commonly used by ‘gurus’ to dupe people into thinking they have something profound to say.
Paradoxes 4: the paradox of democracy
Authors: Clark Michael
Published: July 2009

In this regular series, Michael Clark, editor of Analysis, presents some of the most intriguing philosophical paradoxes. Here we examine the paradox of democracy.
Ockham's Razor
Authors: Kaye Sharon
Published: July 2009

Ockham's razor is one of the best-known and most useful tools in the philosopher's toolkit. Here Sharon Kaye explains how the razor works, and also how it may have come by its name.
The gambler's argument: Blaise pascal
Authors: Warburton Nigel
Published: July 2009

Nigel Warburton is not betting that God exists…
A meaning to life for £15
Authors: Cave Peter
Published: July 2009

Peter Cave gets to grips with maths, God and the meaning of life.
Locke's key to meaning: Why the key matters to us now
Authors: Moore Terence
Published: July 2009

If, as Locke believed, our words stand for Ideas hidden away inside our minds, how do we know that we all mean the same thing by them?
Statistical injustice
Authors: Whyte Jamie
Published: July 2009

When is a society egalitarian? When is it a meritocracy? The answers to these questions are not as obvious as some seem to think.
Can there be a just war?
Authors: Norman Richard
Published: July 2009

Richard Norman examines justifications for war that are rooted in the right of self-defence.
The ethics of the Iraq war
Authors: Ryder Richard D
Published: July 2009

In the second of our two articles focusing on the war in Iraq, Richard Ryder looks at a range of possible justifications, and finds them all wanting.
Pascal speaks from the grave
Authors: Groothuis Douglas
Published: July 2009

In Think 7, Nigel Warburton attacked Pascal's famous wager on the existence of God. Here, Douglas Groothuis resurrects Pascal to defend the wager.
God and morality
Authors: Farnell Derrick
Published: July 2009

Is morality laid down by God? Many think there is a fatal objection to this view, an objection rooted in Plato's famous Euthyphro dilemma. Derrick Farnell explains why he is not convinced by the objection.
Michael Martin on divine omniscience (1)
Authors: Wanchick Tom
Published: July 2009

In this article, Tom Wanchick addresses a common criticism of theism — that the concept of God is logically incoherent. Elizabeth Burns responds to Wanchick in the piece that follows.
Michael Martin on divine omniscience (2)
Authors: Burns Elizabeth
Published: July 2009

A response to the preceding article by Tom Wanchick.
Do we need nature? Getting to grips with a doubly misleading question
Authors: Fox Warwick
Published: July 2009

Warwick Fox questions the question set by Shell and The Economist for their year 2003 essay prize.
Intelligent design theory and its context
Authors: Ruse Michael
Published: July 2009

Michael Ruse introduces the debate over intelligent design creationism.
Darwin v. intelligent design (again)
Authors: Orr H. Allen
Published: July 2009

Orr argues that the latest attack on evolution is cleverly argued, biologically informed — and wrong. This is his review of Behe's book, Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution.

‘Just don't pull the knot tight before being certain that you have got hold of the right end.’ Wittgenstein.
Accepting the universe
Authors: Mellor Hugh
Published: July 2009

Hugh Mellor examines both the fine-tuning argument and the suggestion that this is but one of many universes within a great ‘multiverse’.
Thinking tools: The lottery fallacy
Authors: Law Stephen
Published: July 2009

Thinking Tools is a regular feature that introduces tips and pointers on thinking clearly and rigorously.
The wrong way to infer design
Authors: Bebbington Dene
Published: July 2009

Dene Bebbbington explains, and criticises, the intelligent design creationism of William Dembski.
The case against hunting and for democracy
Authors: Ryder Richard D.
Published: July 2009

The British Government has finally banned fox hunting. Richard Ryder explains why he believes it was the right decision.
Michael Levin on gay sex
Authors: Riggins Thomas
Published: July 2009

Thomas Riggins responds to Michael Levin's provocative piece on homosexuality (in Issue 10).
Why open-mindedness matters
Authors: Hare William
Published: July 2009

William Hare defends ‘open-mindedness’ against a number of popular attacks.
Thinking tools: The genetic fallacy
Authors: Law Stephen
Published: July 2009

Thinking Tools is a regular feature that introduces tips and pointers on thinking clearly and rigorously.
Some probabilistic paradoxes
Authors: Haigh John
Published: July 2009

Here's a short introduction to some mind-boggling paradoxes concerning probability.
Fantasy football – the penalty shootout: The god squad v humanists united
Authors: Cape Jon
Published: July 2009

As the Fantasy Football Philosopher's League heads for its climax, we join one of the key matches, The God Squad v Humanists United. The God Squad led at half time, but the Humanists made a strong showing in the second half and after 25 minutes injury time, the score is equal and we move to the penalty shootout. In this league, the penalty shootout is held between the two team captains — each in goal against the other. The games take place in the twenty first century and team captains have been able to watch all the past matches they may have missed. Team captains are Thomas Aquinas and Bertrand Russell. You, the reader, keep the score.
Hunting metaphysical snarks
Authors: Best David
Published: July 2009

They sought it with thimbles, they sought it with care;

They pursued it with forks and hope;

They threatened its life with a railway share;

They charmed it with smiles and soap.

The snark is pursued with forks and hope. The hunters are unclear about where to find it, and the appropriate methods for catching it, because they are not even clear what it is that they are seeking. We do not pursue metaphysical quarry with forks, although we often pursue such quarry with inappropriate logical tools and misplaced hope, for often we are equally confused about what it is we are seeking, and the appropriate methods for finding it. So what we find may be very surprising: we may find that there is nothing to find.
Is free will real?
Authors: Machan Tibor R.
Published: July 2009

Tibor Machan introduces an ancient and infernal puzzle.
The harms of violent imagery
Authors: Sokol Daniel
Published: July 2009

Might viewing a violent horror film damage your moral compass? Daniel Sokol suggests that watching gratuitously violent imagery may be ‘bad for the soul’.
Old dogs new tricks: A Cynical legacy
Authors: Cutler Ian
Published: July 2009

Ian Cutler introduces the history and philosophy of cynicism.

[T]rue cynics are often the kindest people, for they see the hollowness of life, and from the realization of that hollowness is generated a kind of cosmic pity. Raymond Federman
Utilitarianism: A coffeehouse conversation
Authors: Davis Paul
Published: July 2009

Some classic criticisms of utilitarianism explored.
Are morals relative?
Authors: Alchin Nicholas
Published: July 2009

The question of the existence (or otherwise) of ‘absolute truths’ has been debated for thousands of years. The position that there are no such truths — relativism — comes in several varieties. In this, the first of two consecutive articles by Alchin, we hear a debate on the most common form of relativism: moral relativism.
Is everything relative?
Authors: Alchin Nicholas
Published: July 2009

We can contrast moral relativism, which was discussed in the previous article, with cognitive relativism, which holds that there are no universal truths about the world at all; that the world has no universal characteristics and that there are only different ways of interpreting it. Cognitive relativism is the subject of this article.
Fine-tuning a circular argument
Authors: Bebbington Dene
Published: July 2009

In issue 12 of Think, Rodney Holder developed a version of the fine-tuning argument for the existence of God, claiming that certain features of our universe make the probability that God exists high. Here, Dene Bebbington responds.
Collecting pebbles: An insight into machine aesthetics
Authors: Mealing Stuart
Published: July 2009

Could a machine possess an aesthetic sense? Could it appreciate the beauty of a pebble?
Communicating with aliens
Authors: Farnell Derrick
Published: July 2009

Wittgenstein once said that if a lion could speak, we would not be able to understand it. No doubt he would say the same about aliens. But is Wittgenstein correct? Derrick Farnell thinks not.
Law and morality in evolutionary competition: Law: 1, morality: 0
Authors: Jones Colin P.A.
Published: July 2009

Is the law displacing morality? And should it?

‘Law is a bottomless pit and I have no inclination to fathom its depths.’
Thinking Tools: The prosecutor's Fallacy
Authors: Bebbington Dene
Published: July 2009

Thinking Tools is a regular feature that introduces pointers on thinking clearly and rigorously.
Civil rights and the abortion debate
Authors: McErlean Jennifer
Published: July 2009

Do fetuses have rights, including a right to life?
Thinking tools: The relativist fallacy
Authors: Law Stephen
Published: July 2009

Thinking Tools is a regular feature that introduces tips and pointers on thinking clearly and rigorously.
Should philosophers ‘apply ethics’?
Authors: Gaus Gerald
Published: July 2009

By ‘applying ethics’, do philosophers actually succeed in corrupting philosophy?
‘I should rather be a man of paradoxes than a man of prejudices’
Authors: O'Hagan Timothy
Published: July 2009

Timothy O'Hagan explores some of the apparent paradoxes in the writings of Rousseau.
A multicultural dialogue on the transmigration of souls
Authors: Lerner Berel Dov
Published: July 2009

Three students, namely Walid, a Druze man, Fatimah, a Muslim woman and Sigal, a secular Jewish woman are eating lunch in the cafeteria at the Western Galilee Academic College.
Why liberty is necessary for morality
Authors: Machan Tibor
Published: July 2009

In this short article Tibor Machan questions whether those who reject Western liberalism yet call for a return to morality are being entirely consistent.
Morality is natural
Authors: Kurtz Paul
Published: July 2009

Many philosophers, including perhaps most famously G.E. Moore, have argued that morality is non-natural. Here, Paul Kurtz defends the view that it is, in fact, natural and can in fact be justified empirically.
Euthanasia — the power of proximity
Authors: Berry Philip
Published: July 2009

Philip Berry examines the case of euthanasia from very close emotional range.
Evidentialism for everyone
Authors: Aikin Scott
Published: July 2009

Should we always proportion belief to the available evidence? Scott Aikin believes so.
Fear of the future
Authors: Shand John
Published: July 2009

Here is an unusual and intriguing philosophical response to current concerns about global warming.
Gavagai goulash: Growing organs for food
Authors: Hale Benjamin
Published: July 2009

The suggestion that we might grow human tissue for the dinner table is likely to provoke a ‘yuk’ response in many of us. But would it be morally wrong? Might it not, in fact, be far preferable to the current situation?
Civic friendship and the third term
Authors: Vernon Mark
Published: July 2009

Mark Vernon contrasts the Aristotelean conception of civic respect and virtues with what contemporary politicians seem to have in mind.
The Danish cartoons: Considering the consequences
Authors: Burley Mikel
Published: July 2009

Should publishing decisions be influenced by the potential for violent reactions?
Creativity in a nutshell
Authors: Boden Margaret A.
Published: July 2009

Clarifying what creativity is the first step towards answering the question: could a computer be creative?
A proof of the existence of fairies
Authors: Bell Tink R.
Published: July 2009

Here is the third of our three responses to Dawkins's The God Delusion.
Utilitarianism is inhuman
Authors: Pollard Luke
Published: July 2009

In this article Luke Pollard examines and expounds the integrity objections to Utilitarianism. He argues for their veracity, and concludes that any ethical theory, such as Utilitarianism, which makes itself impossible for humans to follow, is not what may be considered as a ‘valid moral framework’.
Education, indoctrination and a re-focussing of the liberal agenda
Authors: Watson Brenda
Published: July 2009

Brenda Watson asks where moral and religious indoctrination ends and education begins, and tackles the arguments of some liberals (myself included).
Abortion and capital punishment: No contradiction
Authors: Flannagan Matthew
Published: July 2009

Matthew Flannagan explains why Christians can consistently both oppose abortion and support the death penalty.
The ‘new science of memetics’: The case for Susan Blackmore
Authors: Blackmore Susuan
Published: July 2009

In this article and the following one, Susan Blackmore and Michael Bradie take contrary positions on the ‘science of memetics’, an approach to explaining human behaviour and culture based on the idea that our minds and cultures are in large part determined by self-replicating gene-like entities called ‘memes’. Memes would seem to allow the application of evolutionary ideas to both biology and culture. Many find that thought exciting and appealing. Others consider it arrogant and scientistic. Who is right?
The ‘new science of memetics’: The case against
Authors: Bradie Michael
Published: July 2009

Michael Bradie does not share Blackmore's enthusiasm for the ‘new science of memetics’.
Behaviourism
Authors: Stout Rowland
Published: July 2009

Behaviourists take the view that mental states are essentially behavioural: to be in pain, for example, is just to behave, or be disposed to behave, in certain ways (to writhe and go ‘Ow!’, and so on). Behavourism, if true, would neatly explain how mind and body are related. Minds are not queer, ethereal entities that exist in addition to our physical bodies, and that are hidden behind our behaviour. Rather, to have a mind just is to be disposed to behave in certain ways, and that is something even a physical object can be. Nowadays behaviourism, as a philosophy of mind, is philosophically out of fashion. But here, Rowland Stout explains why he still believes it may be true.
Paradoxes 5: Bertrand's box Paradox
Authors: Clark Michael
Published: July 2009

In this regular series Michael Clark, editor of the journal Analysis, presents a number of the most intriguing philosophical paradaoxes. Here we examine the paradox of Bertrand's box.
Kant and the categorical imperative
Authors: Montefiore Alan
Published: July 2009

Alan Montefiore explains how Kant's moral philosophy fits into and depends on the wider sweep of his work.
Leibniz's solution to the problem of evil
Authors: Franklin James
Published: July 2009

In issue 4, Mark piper presented the famous problem of evil, which appears to show that there is no God, that is to say, no all-powerful, all-knowing and all-good being. Here James Franklin suggests that there may, after all, be a solution to the problem.
Dead fetuses and insulting displays
Authors: Benn Piers
Published: July 2009

Piers Benn explores the moral ramifications of a recent court case involving the Pro-Life Alliance.
Speciesism revisited
Authors: Ryder Richard D
Published: July 2009

Richard Ryder recounts the birth of the term ‘speciesism’
Philosophers and the ritual of marriage
Authors: Danto Arthur C.
Published: July 2009

A philosophical inquiry into whether, and, if so, why, marriage is good.
Apocalypse Now Does The Matrix: Anthropic adventures from doomsday to simulation
Authors: Richmond Alasdair
Published: July 2009

Following on from Nick Bostrom's discussion of the Doomsday argument, Alasdair Richmond considers how anthropic reasoning can lead from Doomsday to some odd conclusions about computation and our place in reality.
Cartoons and consequences
Authors: Benatar David
Published: July 2009

Philosophical debate over the infamous Danish cartoons of Muhammad continues.
The problem of divine inefficiency
Authors: Di Muzio Gianluca
Published: July 2009

Gianluca Di Muzio develops a novel objection to theism.
In defence of four socratic doctrines
Authors: Sandis Constantine
Published: July 2009

In this article, Sandis defends four of the most notorious doctrines which Plato attributes to Socrates. The first is the ‘theory’ of forms, the second is the doctrine of recollection, the third Socrates'contention that philosophers ought to be the guardian-kings of the ideal state, and the fourth his rejection of rhetoric. Sandis does not claim that his interpretation (which owes a lot to Wittgenstein) is correct, but only that it renders the doctrines both relevant and plausible.
Sandis in defence of four Socratic doctrines
Authors: Shand John
Published: July 2009

John Shand also critically discusses Sandis' preceding paper.
Should philosophers be consistent? (Part One)
Authors: Lerner Berel Dov
Published: July 2009

Berel Dov Lerner argues for inconsistency.

‘Consistency is a virtue for trains: what we want from a philosopher is insights, whether he comes by them consistently or not.’

Stephen Vizinczey.
The Case for a Multiple-Utility Conception
Authors: Etzioni Amitai
Published: July 2009

In recent decades, neoclassical economists have made heroic efforts to accommodate within the confines of the concept of rational utility maximization the fact that individual behavior is significantly affected by moral considerations. This article argues the merits of using an alternative approach: recognizing that individuals pursue at least two irreducible sources of value or “utility”, pleasure and morality. The possibility that some additional utilities may have to be recognized is explored. This raises the concern that conceptual anarchy will break out, which in turn will force a search for a common denominator, and thus a return to one overarching utility. Arguments are presented to show that this concern is unfounded. The main focus of the article is a criticism of the monoutility conception and a brief for separating the sense of discharging one's moral obligations from all other satisfactions. The article first deals with general conceptual points, and then cites both everyday observations and empirical evidence in support of this position.
Economic Equality: Rawls versus Utilitarianism
Authors: Ball Stephen W.
Published: July 2009

Perhaps the most salient feature of Rawls's theory of justice (Rawls, 1971) which at once attracts supporters and repels critics is its apparent egalitarian conclusion as to how economic goods are to be distributed. Indeed, many of Rawls's sympathizers may find this result intuitively appealing, and regard it as Rawls's enduring contribution to the topic of economic justice, despite technical deficiencies in Rawls's contractarian, decision-theoretic argument for it (see, e.g., Nagel, 1973, p. 234) which occupy the bulk of the critical literature. Rawls himself, having proposed a “coherence” theory of justification in metaethics, must regard the claim that his distributive criterion “is a strongly egalitarian conception” (Rawls, 1971, p. 76) as independently a part of the overarching moral argument. The alleged egalitarian impact of Rawls's theory is crucial again in normative ethics where Rawls is thought to have developed a major counter-theory to utilitarianism (cf. Braybrooke, 1975, p. 304), one of the most popular criticisms of which has been its alleged inadequacy in handling questions of distributive justice. Utilitarians can argue, however, as Brandt recently has, that the diminishing marginal utility of money, along with ignorance of income-welfare curves, would require a utility-maximizing distribution to be substantially egalitarian (Brandt, 1979, pp. 311f., 315f.; cf. Brandt, 1983, p. 102f.). The challenge is therefore for Rawls to show that his theory yields an ethically preferable degree of equality.
Evaluation of tropical and extratropical Southern Hemisphere African aerosol properties simulated by a climate model
Authors: Magi Brian I. , Ginoux Paul , Ming Yi , Ramaswamy V.
Published: July 2009

We compare aerosol optical depth (AOD) and single scattering albedo (SSA) simulated by updated configurations of a version of the atmospheric model (AM2) component of the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory general circulation model over Southern Hemisphere Africa with AOD and SSA derived from research aircraft measurements and NASA Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) stations and with regional AOD from the NASA Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer satellite. The results of the comparisons suggest that AM2 AOD is biased low by 30–40% in the tropics and 0–20% in the extratropics, while AM2 SSA is biased high by 4–8%. The AM2 SSA bias is higher during the biomass burning season, and the monthly variations in AM2 SSA are poorly correlated with AERONET. On the basis of a comparison of aerosol mass in the models with measurements from southern Africa, and a detailed analysis of aerosol treatment in AM2, we suggest that the low bias in AOD and high bias in SSA are related to an underestimate of carbonaceous aerosol emissions in the biomass burning inventories used by AM2. Increases in organic matter and black carbon emissions by factors of 1.6 and 3.8 over southern Africa improve the biases in AOD and especially SSA. We estimate that the AM2 biases in AOD and SSA imply that the magnitude of annual top of the atmosphere radiative forcing in clear‐sky conditions over southern Africa is overestimated (too negative) by ∼8% while surface radiative forcing is underestimated (not negative enough) by ∼20%.
Observed and modeled evolution of the tropical mean radiation budget at the top of the atmosphere since 1985
Authors: Andronova Natalia , Penner Joyce E. , Wong Takmeng
Published: July 2009

We have used satellite‐based broadband radiation observations to construct a long‐term continuous 1985–2005 record of the radiative budget components at the top of the atmosphere for the tropical region (20°S–20°N). On the basis of the constructed record we have derived the most conservative estimate of their trends. We compared the interannual variability of the net radiative fluxes at the top of the tropical atmosphere with model simulations from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change fourth assessment report (AR4) archive available up to 2000 and showed that most of the models capture the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption signal in both its timing and amplitude; however, none of them simulate the observed trends. Further comparison showed that among the “best skilled” models, which are those that showed the highest value of the correlation in simulating one or all of the observed net, shortwave, and longwave radiative fluxes at the top of the atmosphere, the model with an equilibrium climate sensitivity ∼3.4°C for the doubling CO2 represents the observed amplifying total feedback effect in the tropical atmosphere better than the models with a climate sensitivity ∼2.7°C or 4.3°C. This total feedback effect was calculated on the basis of an assumed simplified system of interactions between the near‐surface temperature and the net radiation at the top of the atmosphere.
Modes of eastern equatorial Pacific thermocline variability: Implications for ENSO dynamics over the last glacial period
Authors: Leduc Guillaume , Vidal Laurence , Cartapanis Olivier , Bard Edouard
Published: July 2009

Changes in El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability are difficult to extract from paleoceanographic reconstructions because they are superimposed on changes in seasonal variability that modulate the first‐order climate signal. Here we address this problem by reconstructing thermocline structure from a marine sediment core retrieved from the eastern equatorial Pacific. At the core location, changes in hydrologic parameters within the thermocline are linked to ENSO activity, with a reduced influence of seasonal variability compared to surface waters. We performed repeated isotopic analyses (δ18O) on single specimens of the thermocline‐dwelling planktonic foraminifera Neogloboquadrina dutertrei at several targeted time periods over the last 50 ka to extract the total thermocline variance, a parameter supposed to reveal changes in ENSO. No fundamental changes in amplitude and frequency of the events were detected despite differences in climatic background. However, our data suggest that long‐term variations in the thermocline variability occurred over the last 50 ka, with the highest and lowest ENSO activities occurring during the last glacial period and the Last Glacial Maximum, respectively.
Source characterization from ambient measurements of aerosol optical properties
Authors: Cappa Christopher D. , Bates Timothy S. , Quinn Patricia K. , Lack Daniel A.
Published: July 2009

A general method to identify air masses impacted by distinct primary aerosol sources from in situ observations of optical properties of atmospheric aerosols is developed theoretically and tested against measurements made during the second New England Air Quality Study (NEAQS 2004) on board the NOAA R/V Ronald H. Brown. Distinct events are identified based on the observation of a temporal coherence in the relationship between a measured intensive optical property (i.e., single scatter albedo) and the extensive property of total light absorption of the sub‐micron aerosol. We show that this relationship can be used to differentiate between and quantitatively determine properties of the background aerosol and recent inputs of primary aerosol. Additionally, we show that the fraction of aerosol extinction (or aerosol mass) from primary emissions can be estimated from the albedo‐absorption relationship. During the NEAQS 2004 study, the primary aerosol was usually found to be highly absorbing, and thus likely to be derived from anthropogenic combustion sources. Overall primary aerosol contributed a relatively small amount (ca. 11%) to the total sub‐micron aerosol burden sampled onboard R/V Ron Brown.
Determination of the age distribution of primary and secondary aerosol species using a chemical transport model
Authors: Wagstrom Kristina M. , Pandis Spyros N.
Published: July 2009

A computationally efficient scheme to allow tracking of aerosol species age as a function of space and time within a three‐dimensional chemical transport model (CTM) has been developed. The aerosol age distribution is calculated by utilizing the Particulate Matter Source Apportionment Technology (PSAT) algorithm which allows the calculation of different source contributions to both primary and secondary particulate matter concentrations in the modeling domain. As an example, the aerosol age in the eastern United States, including both primary and secondary species, is examined using the regional CTM PMCAMx. The average calculated ages are on the order of a few days for particulate matter near the ground but are highly variable in space and time. Primary aerosol species had average ages of approximately 24 h over this polluted continental region while the average ages for secondary species were 48–72 h near the surface. As expected, the average age of all aerosol components increases vertically in the atmosphere. Age increases rapidly away from the sources of aerosol and its precursors, and for nonvolatile species it increases with particle size.
Glucocorticoids can activate the α-ENaC gene promoter independently of SGK1
Authors: McTavish Niall , Getty Jennet , Burchell Ann , Wilson Stuart M.
Published: July 2009

The role of SGK1 (serum- and glucocorticoid-induced protein kinase 1) in the glucocorticoid induction of α-ENaC (epithelial Na+ channel α subunit) gene transcription was explored by monitoring the transcriptional activity of a luciferase-linked, α-ENaC reporter gene construct (pGL3-KR1) expressed in H441 airway epithelial cells. Dexamethasone evoked a concentration-dependent (EC50∼4 μM) increase in transcriptional activity dependent upon a glucocorticoid response element in the α-ENaC sequence. Although dexamethasone also activated endogenous SGK1, artificially increasing cellular SGK1 activity by expressing a constitutively active SGK1 mutant (SGK1-S422D) in hormone-deprived cells did not activate pGL3-KR1. Moreover, expression of catalytically inactive SGK1 (SGK1-K127A) suppressed the activation of endogenous SGK1 without affecting the transcriptional response to dexamethasone. Increasing cellular PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) activity by expressing a membrane-anchored form of the catalytic PI3K-P110α subunit [CD2 (cluster of differentiation 2)-P110α] also activated endogenous SGK1 without affecting pGL3-KR1activity. A catalytically inactive form of CD2-P110α (R1130P), on the other hand, prevented the dexamethasone-induced activation of SGK1, but did not inhibit the activation of pGL3-KR1. However, expression of SGK1-S422D or CD2-P110α enhanced the transcriptional responses to maximally effective concentrations of dexamethasone and this effect occurred with no change in EC50. Dexamethasone-induced (0.3–300 nM) activation of pGL3-KR1 was unaffected by inhibitors of PI3K (PI-103 and wortmanin) and by rapamycin, a selective inhibitor of the TORC1 (target of rapamycin complex 1) signalling complex. Dexamethasone-induced activation of the α-ENaC gene promoter can thus occur independently of SGK1/PI3K, although this pathway does provide a mechanism that allows this transcriptional response to dexamethasone to be enhanced.
Potentiation of flagellin responses in gut epithelial cells by interferon-γ is associated with STAT-independent regulation of MyD88 expression
Authors: Bannon Ciara , Davies Pam J. , Collett Andrew , Warhurst Geoffrey
Published: July 2009

Flagellin acting via TLR5 (Toll-like receptor 5) is a key regulator of the host response to the gut microbial flora in both health and disease. The present study has investigated regulation of flagellin–TLR5 signalling in human colonocytes (HT29-19A) by IFNγ (interferon-γ), a cytokine released early in the inflammatory process which has multiple effects on gut epithelial function that may facilitate abnormal responses to enteric bacteria. Flagellin induced a dose-dependent secretion of chemokines CXCL8 and CCL2 in the human colonocyte line, HT29-19A. Exposure to IFNγ did not induce chemokine secretion, but markedly potentiated responses to flagellin, increasing CXL8 gene expression and protein secretion by approx. 4-fold. Potentiation by IFNγ was independent of changes in TLR5 and was associated with a rapid, sustained increase in expression of the downstream adaptor molecule MyD88 (myeloid differentiation factor 88). Knockdown of MyD88 expression using siRNA (small interfering RNA) abolished flagellin-dependent CXCL8 secretion and the potentiating effect of IFNγ. Exposure of non-transformed mouse and human colonocytes to IFNγ also increased MyD88 expression. STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) 1 knockdown and use of the broad-spectrum JAK (Janus kinase)-STAT inhibitor AG490 had no effect on IFNγ-mediated up-regulation of MyD88. The findings of the present study suggest that IFNγ sensitizes colonic epithelial cells to bacterial flagellin via a largely STAT-independent up-regulation of MyD88 expression leading to increased secretion of immunomodulatory factors. These results indicate that epithelial responses to flagellin are potentiated by IFNγ, most likely mediated by increased MyD88 expression. The present study adds to our understanding of the spectrum of effects of this cytokine on gut epithelium that may contribute to bacterial-driven inflammation in the gut.
Assessment of historic trend in mobility and energy use in India transportation sector using bottom-up approach
Authors: Zhou Nan , McNeil Michael A.
Published: July 2009

Transportation mobility in India has increased significantly in the past decades. From 1970 to 2000, motorized mobility (passenger-kilometer) has risen by 888%, compared to an 88% population growth (S. K. Singh, India: Implications For Energy Demand and CO2 Emission (Transport Policy, 2006)). This has contributed to many energy and environmental issues, and an energy strategy that incorporates efficiency improvement and other measures needs to be designed. Unfortunately, existing energy data do not provide information on driving forces behind energy use and sometimes show large inconsistencies. Many previous studies address only a single transportation mode such as passenger road travel, did not include comprehensive data collection or lack analysis or detail on energy demand by each mode and fuel mix. The current study will fill a considerable gap in current efforts, develop a database on all transport modes including passenger air and water and freight in order to facilitate the development of energy scenarios, and assess the significance of technology potential in a global climate change model. An extensive literature review and data collection has been done to establish the database with a breakdown of mobility, intensity, distance, and fuel mix of all transportation modes. Energy consumption was estimated and compared to aggregated transport consumption reported in IEA India transportation energy data. Different scenarios were estimated based on different assumptions of freight road mobility. Based on the bottom-up analysis, we estimated that the energy consumption from 1990 to 2000 increased at an annual growth rate of 7% for the midrange road freight growth case and 12% for the high range road freight growth case corresponding to the scenarios in mobility, while the IEA data only show a 1.7% growth rate in those years.
NMR evidence of the diamagnetic interaction between carbon nanotubes functionalized with polymer chains
Authors: Abou-Hamad E. , Babaa M.-R. , Goze-Bac C.
Published: July 2009

Carbon nanotubes functionalized with sulfonated polyether-ether-ketone are investigated using solid state nuclear magnetic resonance. Carbon and proton NMR experiments of the sulfonated polymer chains covalently grafted on the nanotube surface reveal a distribution of diamagnetic shifted lines. These experimental results can be interpreted at the molecular level in terms of magnetic ring currents originating from the surface of the graphitized wall of the nanotubes in agreement with recent theoretical investigations. These features can potentially be used to track the structural modifications, which take place during the functionalization of carbon nanotubes.