bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Aljama, or the Republic of Difference
Authors: Graubart Karen B.
Published: August 2022

Despite the lack of internal evidence, it is possible to discern many of the activities of the late fifteenth-century Muslim and Jewish aljamas, including religious practices, the management of property and resources, and inheritance law. The physical space of the city, its synagogues and cemeteries, reveals public and private rituals. Its officers and leaders help us to envision its governance, the distribution of tax burdens, and the promulgation of law. And the analysis of what is missing from the Christian notarial records is a guide to what must have taken place within the community: the writing of wills and tutelage agreements, the distribution of property, documentation of credit arrangements, and other activities that supported the communities’ existence.
Caciques and Local Governance in the Andes
Authors: Graubart Karen B.
Published: August 2022

In Peru, Spaniards embraced native self-governance as a colonial strategy but also fomented distrust of caciques as leaders. The need to organize Indigenous labor and provide effective access to Catholic catechism led viceroys to promote reducción, the relocation of dispersed populations to concentrated Indian towns with elected officers. These were intended to transform native peoples into Christian tributaries with policía or civic virtues. But caciques were not sidelined, they continued to function, alongside native cabildos, as judges within certain jurisdictions accepted by Spanish courts. While there are few records of their internal deliberations, the refusal of Spanish judges to hear certain kinds of cases indicates some of what they did and all these officials managed the tensions of early colonial rule.
Walls and Law in Lima and Its Cercado
Authors: Graubart Karen B.
Published: August 2022

In 1580, Lima received its own pueblo de indios, known as Santiago del Cercado, to host the temporary laborers who came to the city each year to labor on behalf of the Spanish authorities. It was placed under the guidance of the Jesuit order, and encircled with a wall. Lima’s authorities fought over who would be required to live within it, and the king banned forced relocations. But many Indigenous residents in Lima moved to the Cercado voluntarily, creating a new social order under an Indian alcalde, with its own governance and law. That law responded to the tensions on the site, between those who saw it as a support for transient forced “mita” labor and those who understood it as a city on its own terms. These conflicts, which played out within Indigenous as well as Spanish spheres, helped to construct a racialized notion of Indianness in the colonial world.
Florence B. Price, Piano Sonata in E minor (1932)
Authors: Maxile Horace J.
Published: August 2022

The first movement of Florence Price’s Piano Sonata in E minor (1932) highlights a strong sense of conventional form while exploring the possibilities of thematic material based on Black musical emblems. The melodies feature syncopations, modal inflections, and pentatonic collections. These features, among others, signify a distinctive vernacular presence, and yet her penchant for neo-Romanticism, replete with intriguing chromatic excursions, denotes an undeniable western European influence. This essay investigates the interactions of Price’s use of Black folk elements within the prevailingly learned style of the sonata’s first movement. Because of the cultural potency and historical bearing of Black vernacular emblems, ideas and approaches to musical signification and meaning are particularly viable in this analytical reading. Thus, her use of such emblems not only offers effective surface-level subtleties, but also poses veritable signifiers that affect the formal and expressive trajectories of the work.
Galina Ustvolskaya, Sonata for Violin and Piano (1952)
Authors: Sullivan Tim
Published: August 2022

Galina Ustvolskaya’s Sonata for Violin and Piano (1952) was her first work to garner international attention, and while it is a relatively early work in her oeuvre, the Sonata for Violin and Piano is a superb example of Ustvolskaya’s mature aesthetic. This essay begins with a reading of the sonata from a listening perspective, followed by an analytical exploration of the work’s structure based on those initial observations. The foreground structure of the sonata is constructed with blocks of motivic material that interact unpredictably across long stretches of time; yet as the title of the work suggests, there is a background structure that engages with traditional formal archetypes. This essay is concerned primarily with Ustvolskaya’s compositional craft, and in particular avoids the gendered nicknames and aesthetic descriptors that commonly accompany any discussion of Ustvolskaya’s music.
Language
Authors: Spelke Elizabeth S.
Published: August 2022

Although infants do not begin to speak intelligibly until the end of the first year, they begin to learn their native language before birth. Throughout the first year, language learning progresses at multiple levels in parallel: Infants learn not only to identify the sounds of their language but to distinguish the content words that refer to things and events from the function words that convey the relationships between things and events: relationships captured by the grammar of their language. Well before infants have confidently mastered the meanings of any content words, they make considerable progress in deciphering the forms, functions, and ordering of elements in their native language. They appear to do so, in part, by mapping function words to representations from core knowledge.
Establishing an Absolute Chronology of the Middle Bronze Age
Authors: Höflmayer Felix
Published: August 2022

This chapter summarizes the present state of debate on the absolute dating of the Middle Bronze Age in the Near East. The chapter presents the historical chronologies based on political events/periods, relative chronologies based on archaeological stratigraphy and the development of material culture, as well as scientific dating based on radiocarbon data. While absolute dating schemes for the Middle Bronze Age are traditionally dependent on the Egyptian historical chronology, recent radiocarbon dating programs have provided a growing data set of reliable measurements that allow independent synchronization of the various chronologies of Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Egypt. The chapter compares the results of the various approaches, juxtaposing the results of historical and archaeological assessments with the results gained from current radiocarbon data.
The Neoliberal Perspective
Authors: Sabbagh Clara
Published: August 2022

Chapter 9 examines the neoliberal perspective and how it challenges the traditional roles of schools in distributing access to schools, grades, and pedagogies. Under neoliberalism, the state intervenes to provide the conditions necessary for optimal market operation and control of the school system. Accountability and marketization are central themes in the neoliberal discourse on educational justice. For instance, school choice is part of a market-oriented justice discourse that strongly influences access to schools. Testing requirements are increased, in keeping with the accountability approach in evaluating students’ achievements. This policy is designed to foster competition and promote privatization, particularly among marginalized groups. Finally, pedagogies are governed by a new notion of managerialism that stresses efficiency and competition rather than teachers’ professional autonomy and concern with learning. The chapter discusses the shortcomings of the neoliberal education justice discourse and its susceptibility to local neoconservative values, manifested, for example, in the religionization of Israeli education.
Sisters, Please, I’d Rather Do It Myself
Authors: Antony Louise
Published: August 2022

Many feminist philosophers have criticized the “individualism” of much analytic epistemology on the grounds that its individualistic idealizations obscure or falsify central features of human knowledge, and that, by doing so, serve to preserve oppressive epistemic practices and structures. This essay argues that, on the contrary, certain individualistic idealizations are both theoretically defensible and politically useful. More specifically, the essay distinguishes three independent individualistic theses—interchangeability, self-sufficiency, and methodological individualism—and argues that an engaged epistemology must retain some version of each. It concludes by showing how even a descriptively false form of individualism can have value for feminists when treated as a “cognitive heuristic.”
Is There a “Feminist” Philosophy of Language?
Authors: Antony Louise
Published: August 2022

Feminist uncovering of masculinist bias within philosophy has given rise to two types of feminist project: the “replacement” project, which aims to replace philosophical programs held to be irreparably biased with distinctively feminist programs, and the “practicalist” project, which aims to mine male-constructed philosophical theories for ideas useful to feminist work. I argue against pursuing replacement projects, on the grounds that they depend on a prior delegitimation of opposing views, and ad feminem dismissal of philosophers who hold them. Practicalist projects, on the other hand, acknowledge that even theories infected by masculinist bias can contain ideas that are not only cogent, but of practical value to feminists. I illustrate these claims with a case study: Jennifer Hornsby’s claim that individualistic theories of language ought to be rejected by feminists because they spring from masculinist bias. I happen to be a defender of the sort of theory Hornsby dismisses.
Be What I Say
Authors: Antony Louise
Published: August 2022

This essay argues against Rae Langton’s view that pornography is a verdictive or exercitive speech act that makes it the case that women are subordinate to men. There are two problems. First, Langton also says that pornography says that women are subordinate, but verdictive and exercitive speech acts do not, and cannot, describe the states of affairs they bring about. Second, pornography does not satisfy the conditions necessary for a speech act to be verdictive or exercitive. There do not exist accepted background conventions that would give the pornographer authority to render verdicts or to take executive action. Langton’s response betrays a confusion of authority with power.
Back to Androgyny: What Bathrooms Can Teach Us About Equality
Authors: Antony Louise
Published: August 2022

Feminism strives to establish equality between the sexes—but what would such equality consist in? This essay embraces an option described by Richard Wasserstrom—viz., an ideal of gender equality according to which sexual difference has no more systematic social significance than eye color currently does. The essay contends that, since gender itself is a social system that brings into concordance sets of properties that have no natural or rational connection to each other, gender equality in the preferred sense requires the elimination of gender. The essay concludes by considering and responding to several objections to this conception of equality as applied to gender.
Natures and Norms
Authors: Antony Louise
Published: August 2022

This essay defends the claim that there is, in at least one interesting sense, such a thing as human nature. But it retracts the author’s earlier view that such a notion is needed to provide a foundation for a liberatory ethics. Martha Nussbaum has made particularly compelling arguments that a notion of human essence is needed to address three ethical challenges that feminism faces. This essay contends, however, that it’s enough to meet these challenges to show that it is an empirically robust fact about human (and perhaps other) beings that they possess normatively significant properties. These properties are “innate” in the sense that human genotypes express these properties through an extremely wide range of environments. But this etiology, while it gives us confidence that these properties are (close to) universal, it is in itself ethically unimportant. That human beings possess these properties is neither a universal nor a necessary truth, but a robust contingent truth that makes ethical community possible.
Different Voices or Perfect Storm
Authors: Antony Louise
Published: August 2022

This essay identifies and describes two different paradigms for explaining the dearth of women in academic philosophy. The “Different Voices” model posits intrinsic differences between men and women that make philosophy less appealing to women. The “Perfect Storm” model appeals to the interaction effects of a variety of discriminatory practices that come together synergistically in academic philosophy. The essay argues that we ought to abandon the Different Voices model and embrace the Perfect Storm model, because the expected utility of pursuing the second is considerably higher than the expected utility of pursing the first. The essays cite several reasons for thinking this is true. Most importantly, the essay argues, Different Voices models have, both historically and currently, failed to provide appropriate empirical backing for their claims, whereas the existence of the component phenomena of the Perfect Storm model has been empirically documented. As a case study, this essay criticizes a version of the Different Voices model recently advanced by Wesley Buckwalter and Stephen Stich.
Foundation Programme selection
Authors: Dev Harveer , Metcalfe David
Published: August 2022

This chapter presents an introduction to the UK Foundation Programme and Foundation Year 1 role, allocation of posts, assignment of scores, Educational Performance Measure, and the Situational Judgement Test itself.
How can you prepare?
Authors: Dev Harveer , Metcalfe David
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses preparation to take the SJT, including if the SJT is worth preparing for, how to prepare, and the benefits of practice questions.
Patient focus
Authors: Dev Harveer , Metcalfe David
Published: August 2022

This chapter presents questions on working with a patient focus. It includes SJT scenarios on topics such as refusal of live-saving treatment and decision-making and capacity, as well as the often-competing interests of one’s bosses, supervisors, patients’ relatives, other healthcare professionals, ancillary services, and representatives of the Trust. In among all of these is a patient, if not many, for whom all of these individuals are also working.
Practice tests
Authors: Dev Harveer , Metcalfe David
Published: August 2022

This chapter presents two practice tests for the SJT, with a mix of question types (e.g. multiple choice or ranking), content (e.g. domain tested), and styles (e.g. patient, colleague, or personal). Each includes 30 questions and broadly reflects the type of questions likely to be asked in the SJT.
The structuralist ascendancy in American linguistics
Authors: Newmeyer Frederick J.
Published: August 2022

When the Linguistic Society of America (LSA) was founded in 1924, structural linguists formed a small minority of the membership. Most of the members had philological interests. Twenty years later, structuralists and structurally-oriented historical linguists had become predominant. Several factors contributed to the success of American structuralism: the conviction of its leading practitioners that they were doing ‘scientific linguistics’; the feeling that knowledge and understanding were growing by leaps and bounds; the ‘egalitarian’ message that all languages could be analyzed by the same methods; the LSA-sponsored summer institutes that helped spread knowledge of structuralist theory; the government-sponsored work in linguistics during the Second World War; and the change in the LSA leadership around 1940.
American structuralism and European structuralism
Authors: Newmeyer Frederick J.
Published: August 2022

The leading American linguists from the twenties to the forties had their roots in the European linguistic tradition. However, starting in the late thirties, American structuralists had an overwhelmingly negative view of the theories and analyses being developed by their European colleagues. The Americans had a positivist world view and avoided analysis of meaning, while for the European structuralists, meaning was central. This mutual animosity started to change in the late forties to a certain extent, in particular after the arrival of European refugee scholars such as Roman Jakobson. Importantly, in the mid-fifties many ‘European ideas’ were incorporated into early generative grammar by Noam Chomsky and, especially, Morris Halle. Nevertheless, the leading European structuralists in the fifties and the sixties almost all rejected transformational grammar. Modern functional linguistics in the US owes a great debt to linguistics of the Prague school and their ideas about ‘functional sentence perspective’.
Early transformational generative grammar
Authors: Newmeyer Frederick J.
Published: August 2022

The chapter begins by outlining the major features of Chomsky and Halle’s transformational generative grammar (TGG) in the 1950s. It discusses whether one can speak of a ‘Chomskyan revolution in the field’. The conclusion is that the vagueness of the concept of ‘scientific revolution’ means that the question will never be answered to everyone’s satisfaction. However it is not hard to pinpoint the two most original features of early TGG: the generative rules’ provision of a structural representation for every sentence generated and for the theory’s rejection of the structuralist phoneme. The chapter goes on to discuss the reaction of structural linguists to TGG, to examine the veracity of some of Chomsky’s statements about the ‘early days’, and concludes by discussing military funding in linguistics and the Chomsky and MIT in particular.
The European reception of early transformational generative grammar
Authors: Newmeyer Frederick J.
Published: August 2022

This chapter surveys how linguists in each European country greeted the advent of TGG in the 1960s and 1970s. There is no overarching generalization—the situation differed from country to country. A partial generalization, however, is that the stronger a home-grown structuralist tradition in a country, the less likely the linguists there would be to accept TGG. So the theory made few inroads in Czechoslovakia and Denmark, given the predominance of the Prague School and the Copenhagen School respectively, but did quite well in the Netherlands and Norway, where no indigenous approach was predominant. There are exceptions in both directions, however. The United Kingdom warmly greeted TGG, despite the importance of the structuralist model associated with J. R. Firth, and in any number of European countries, despite the absence of a structuralist presence, TGG fell upon deaf ears.
Charles Hockett’s attempt to resign from the LSA in 1982
Authors: Newmeyer Frederick J.
Published: August 2022

This chapter documents an episode in the history of American linguistics. In 1982 Charles Hockett, perhaps the most prominent American linguist of the preceding generation, attempted to resign from the Linguistic Society of America on the grounds that the organization had fallen into the hands of generative grammarians. The interest of this episode derives, not from the simple fact of Hockett’s resignation attempt, but rather from the light it sheds on the personal and professional interrelationships between the leading linguists of the time. Examining personal correspondence between such figures as Victoria Fromkin, William Bright, Dell Hymes, Kenneth Pike, and others brings into clear focus the dynamics at the centre of the LSA, as well as highlighting the generational shift that was ongoing in the American linguistics scene.
Introduction
Authors: Brown Hilary
Published: August 2022

The Introduction sets out the debate about the significance of gender in translation history, introduces the material covered in the study, and explains the approach which will be taken. The work of women translators in the early modern period and throughout history has traditionally been read through the lens of gender. The Introduction argues that the time is ripe for a revisionist account of this history, given new understandings of the role of translation in early modern culture, as well as developments in scholarly thinking more generally about translation and about gender. The study will juxtapose early modern England with the much less familiar case of Germany in order to interrogate the relationship between translation and gender and to challenge claims about the existence of a female translation tradition which transcends the boundaries of time and place. Rather than pursuing the traditional ‘gynocritical’ line, the study will adopt a contextualizing approach, i.e., women will be discussed alongside their male counterparts and within broad literary and historical developments.
Conclusion
Authors: Brown Hilary
Published: August 2022

The Conclusion summarizes the main findings and reflects on their implications. It reiterates the argument that gender had a less significant impact on the activities of women translators in early modern England and Germany than often thought. The Conclusion emphasizes at the same time that gender has not lost its relevance as a category of analysis, and that critics would do well to adopt a contextualizing, ‘woman-interrogated’ approach to translation history (to borrow a term from Carol Maier). This means not starting out from a position which regards gender as the defining factor in shaping a person’s identity and experiences but as one factor which works alongside others such as social class, family milieu, religious confession, political beliefs, and regional or national context.
A Modern Primer in Particle and Nuclear Physics
Authors: Terranova Francesco
Published: August 2022

A Modern Primer in Particle and Nuclear Physics introduces the fundamentals of the field at a level amenable to undergraduate students. The textbook provides an ideal entry point and presents the modern concepts, theories, and experiments that explain the elementary constituents and basic forces of the Universe. The author does not follow the historical development of the field and all subjects are introduced at the state-of-the-art. We deal with the most basic questions (“what is an elementary particle”) gradually reaching highly sophisticated developments (Quantum Chromodynamics and its Nuclear Physics applications, the Higgs boson, the first observation of Gravitational Waves, etc.). New concepts are introduced softly and clarified by intuitive explanations, examples, and exercises. The only prerequisites are a basic knowledge of Special Relativity and non-relativistic Quantum Mechanics. Both are briefly recalled in the Appendices. This textbook shows the inbred unity of the discipline. Each theory is mathematically proven at the undergraduate level and supported by detailed descriptions of the experiments that put the theory on solid ground. Particle physics is strongly linked to Nuclear Physics, Astrophysics, and Gravitation by concrete examples, which include the latest findings in these fields. We want the students to have a grand view of the forest before choosing their tree. Choices will come later—in a natural way—following their inclinations, inspiration, and curiosity.
Scattering and decay
Authors: Terranova Francesco
Published: August 2022

Chapter 2 introduces the language of particle physics offering a student-friendly and detailed explanation of the covariant formalism and the rationale behind it. It introduces relativistic kinematics from the conservation of four-momentum and apply it to one- two- and three-particle decays. The Fermi golden rule is the anchor to describe the dynamics of particles and the rule is extended to be compatible with special relativity. Here the chapter clarifies the concept of “unstable particles” and derives the Breit–Wignet distribution from Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Particle scattering and cross-sections are introduced in analogy with decays, with special emphasis on fixed-target and collider experiments. The chapter closes by providing the fully covariant formula for the scattering of two particles.
Measurements in particle physics
Authors: Terranova Francesco
Published: August 2022

The ideas that drive the design of particle detectors are presented in Chapter 3. It starts from the interactions of heavy charged particles with matter deriving the Bohr formula and extending it to the Bethe formula. Electron interactions with matter are discussed in general and illustrated in detail thanks to Anderson’s experiment, which brought the discovery of the first anti-particle. Photon interactions are introduced on the general ground as a function of the photon energy (photoelectric, Compton, and pair production) and described together with photon detectors for energy measurements. The basic principles – from the Bethe formula to the Shockley–Ramo theorem – are applied to gaseous detectors (ionization and proportional chambers, Multi-Wire Proportional Chamber (MWPC), time projection chamber (TPC), and Geiger counters). We then describe the physics of trajectory trackers and multiple Coulomb scattering. Finally, the most important tool for detector simulation is introduced: the Monte Carlo technique.
The modern theory of strong interactions
Authors: Terranova Francesco
Published: August 2022

This chapter focuses on the modern theory of strong forces: quantum chromodynamics (QCD). It introduces this theory by analogy to quantum electrodynamics (QED) starting from the only elementary fermions that undergo strong interactions, the quarks. The chapter generalizes the concept of electric charge to three color charges. It shows that QCD is based on the assumption that the color charge assignments are conventional and then, the QCD Lagrangian must have a symmetry accounting for it. The corresponding gauge symmetry SU(3)c originates all QCD diagrams. The chapter thus presents the most prominent feature of QCD, asymptotic freedom and its link to quark confinement. Finally, it describes the experimental proofs that quarks are real physical particles and can be identified with Feynman’s partons. It discusses modern methods to test QCD predictions from the observation of jets.
From QCD to nuclear physics
Authors: Terranova Francesco
Published: August 2022

This chapter explains why nuclear physics (NP) could be derived in principle by quantum chromodynamics (QCD) but – due to tremendous computational challenges – has developed its own methods, which are useful and predictive. It begins by introducing nuclear physics terminology in detail and recalls how the neutron was discovered at the dawn of NP. It studies the analog of the hydrogen atom in NP, the deuteron. Many-body nuclei are treated employing the shell model and the semi-empirical mass formula (SEMF). We see the QCD origin of NP through the appearance of the isospin in the classification and properties of nuclides, and the effectiveness of lattice-QCD potentials. The chapter then discussed the kinematics of nuclear reactions and, in particular, nuclear fission. Fission gives the possibility to produce a large amount of energy in nuclear reactors and weapons. Reactors and fission bombs are discussed at the end of the chapter.
Weak interactions
Authors: Terranova Francesco
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides readers with a way to identify weak processes by looking at violations of the flavor symmetry. It discusses neutrinos, the ideal probes of weak forces. It examines the symmetries of weak forces, introducing baryon and lepton numbers. These quantities are defined in their modern form, which accounts for massive and oscillating neutrinos. Pauli once asked: “how can a force violate parity if the orientation of the reference frame is conventional?”. Pauli’s question is answered first using a hypothetical massless particle and then with neutrinos. Helicity and chirality are introduced to show how a chiral theory is built and this possibility is substantiated with a detailed description of the experiments by Wu and Goldhaber. Once we have all ingredients, we present the modern theory of weak interactions (V-A theory) in a rigorous form and its more striking prediction: the solution of Fidecaro’s puzzle.
Radioactivity and cosmic engines
Authors: Terranova Francesco
Published: August 2022

Radioactivity occurs by weak, electromagnetic, and strong forces but can be described in a common framework introduced at the beginning of the chapter. Alpha decays in the old-fashioned Condon–Gourney approach and modern developments are discussed. Beta decays are described from first principles using the V-A theory, while gamma decays employ classical and quantum electromagnetism. The chapter then introduces natural radioactivity and the main decay chains. Emphasis is given to many important applications: Majorana neutrinos, radiocarbon dating, M\"ossbauer spectroscopy, the Wu experiment, etc. These applications impact particle physics, gravitation, archeology, anthropology, medicine, and other disciplines. A prime example is the explanation of the life-cycle of stars and the origin of cosmic rays. The chapter discussed fusion reactors and thermonuclear weapons, where weak forces play a leading role.
At the forefront of the Standard Model
Authors: Terranova Francesco
Published: August 2022

The final chapter covers the least-known territories of the Standard Model (SM). It describes the Higgs mechanism using classical relativistic fields. We present the greatest achievement of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC): the discovery of the Higgs boson in 2012. The Higgs mechanism originates fermion masses, too. Lepton masses are covered first: the discovery of neutrino oscillations and the Pontecorvo–Maki–Nakagawa–Sakata (PMNS) mixing matrix. It then turns to the quark sector, stressing similarities and differences with leptons, especially in meson oscillations. The complex phase of the quark mixing matrix (CKM) and the evidence for CP violation are covered. Finally, the chapter looks at the failures of the Standard Model, introducing the idea of naturalness and the dark matter–dark energy problem. The book concludes with two masterpieces of experimental ingenuity that address these issues. The direct search of dark matter by XENON1T (2017) and the observation of gravitational waves by LIGO (2016).
Modal Angst or: How I Stopped Worrying and Learned to Love Modal Realism
Authors: Heil John
Published: August 2022

Could you have been a different height? Are the laws of nature contingent? Are talking donkeys possible? Such questions admit of no easy answers. Could you have been a different height? For that to be so, myriad other things would have had to be different. Could they have been? Again, for each of those things, still other things would have had to be different. Modal questions of this sort evidently pose epistemological challenges of the highest order. The suggestion that modal truths are epistemologically vexed might be thought to be deeply at odds with the account of modality associated with David Lewis. Lewis’s approach to modality has been widely misunderstood, however, by its advocates and its detractors alike. Rightly understood, Lewis’s ‘Humean’ cosmos has more in common with Spinoza than with Hume. The upshot is a rapprochement between Lewis’s Humeanism and an increasingly popular Aristotelian challenger.
Two Kinds of Platonism and Categorial Semantics
Authors: Bigelow John , Leckey Martin
Published: August 2022

David Lewis was gripped by two philosophical visions that are in tension with one another, one in metaphysics, one in the philosophy of language. The first was a metaphysical vision that countenanced only concrete individuals, and aggregates and classes of these. The second vision emerges from ‘categorial languages’ like those that were articulated by Richard Montague, Max Cresswell, Angelika Kratzer, Lewis and others—these languages speak of not only individuals but also ‘ways for individuals to be’ and ‘ways for those ways to be’,  …  and so on ad infinitum. Lewis resolved the tension between these two visions by identifying ‘ways for things to be’ with properties and relations, and properties and relations with classes. An alternative response to this tension results in a different kind of Platonism. The chapter argues that classes, properties, relations and Lewis’s non-actual possibilia can all be identified with universals, re-conceived as ways for things to be.
What Would Lewis Do?
Authors: Nolan Daniel
Published: August 2022

David Lewis rejected consequentialism in ethics. However, two aspects of his meta-ethical views do not sit naturally with this anti-consequentialism. Lewis endorses a conception of rationality where to be rational is to maximise value of a certain sort; it seems possible to be both rational and moral; and yet he rejects conceptions of moral action as acting to maximise moral value, and arguably suggests that maximising moral value is sometimes impermissible. The second tension is that his meta-ethics is primarily an account of value, including moral value, and his story about moral motivation goes via a motivational connection to value. Yet his anti-consequentialism seems to commit him to rejecting a story of moral action given entirely in terms of pursuit of moral value. This chapter explores what a Lewisian’s options are here. It also makes the case that, despite first appearances, Lewis is perhaps best interpreted as an agent-relative consequentialist.
Faustina
Authors: Niederhuber Christian
Published: August 2022

Chapter 4 is a brief combined analysis of all portrait types of Faustina the Younger in both media (coins and sculpture). Approximate dates for their creation and introduction in the mint are suggested and different reasons as to why the many types were conceived are explored.
Living With An Unpromised End
Authors: Frank Arthur W.
Published: August 2022

The aftermath of the victory of Goneril, Regan, and Edmund unfolds in multiple acts of revenge, both justified and useless. The play’s presentation of forms of anger can now be seen in all their variation. As Cordelia goes to her death, whether she too had a ‘darker purpose’ is considered. A central question is why Shakespeare changes the ending of an earlier play based on a traditional story. In that story, Cordelia is victorious and Lear restored. Shakespeare chooses a tragic ending, culminating in Lear’s repetitions of ‘Nothing, nothing, nothing’ as he holds Cordelia’s dead body. How do we live with this nothing? Lear dies, and Kent describes him as having usurped his life; how to understand that choice of verb is a final question.
William James
Authors: Davis Philip
Published: August 2022

William James (1842–1910) was elder brother to the novelist Henry James and a founder of the study of psychology. But he was also a thinker who sought to work across conventional boundaries, and did not believe in separate disciplines or over-professionalized ways of thinking. Not a formal, academic philosopher, James was above all interested in those moments when thoughts suddenly come into being, ‘hot’ and ‘alive’. William James is for anyone who has experienced the personal need for such thinking and feels the excitement of ideas. It concerns the personal experience of reading James, involving extensive quotation from his work in relation to Philip Davis’s own inner life and the lives of other readers of James—a thinker who is defiantly convinced of the fundamental validity of the inner life in the perception and the making of the Real. William James is about William James’s life-writing, writing for the sake of existence, that puts together a mix of literature, psychology, philosophy, and biography in the search for purpose and human flourishing, in place of formal religion. Philip Davis is a reader of literature who feels that readers of novels and poems also need the help of psychology and philosophy, to get the thinking out, to make it into a working part of a life. His book is for readers, especially readers of literature, seeking to create, like William James, a literary way of thinking outside the realm of literature.
The Proud Hotel Termite Inspector of Yangon: Otherings and Conflicts in Myanmar
Authors: Magcamit Michael
Published: August 2022

“They [Rohingya Muslims] are like termites, eating and destroying the house of Burma … many foreign people think we Buddhists are the bad people. They are the bad people!,” bemoaned a local hotel inspector from Yangon. Burman Buddhist nationalism, as Chapter 4 illuminates, is a cornerstone and a perennial legitimizing force of “Burmeseness.” Using the ethnoreligious othering framework, Chapter 4 examines the conflicts involving Buddhist and Muslim factions in Myanmar by probing the emotive, symbolic, and perceptual mechanisms driving these phenomena. It opens with a discussion of how ethnoreligious nationalism provides an affective lexicon for initiating and framing the othering of a target group. It then scrutinizes how securitizing actors project the blame and facilitate the “necessary” extraordinary measures against their designated enemies. The chapter concludes by dissecting how the Burman Buddhists’ attempts at sacralizing their ideal construction of “Burmese” identity, homeland, and nation-state, justify the extermination of the othered.
Introduction
Authors: Schonhardt-Bailey Cheryl
Published: August 2022

This introductory chapter sets out the theoretical foundations for ‘deliberative accountability’ and describes the three metrics by which to evaluate the quality of deliberative accountability—namely, respect among actors, the extent to which partisan-point scoring replaces reason-giving, and a reciprocal dialogue. The context in which these are explored is parliamentary select committee hearings on monetary policy, financial stability and fiscal policy. In these hearings, parliamentarians in the Treasury Select Committee and the Economic Affairs Committee hold central bankers, Treasury officials, and the Chancellor of the Exchequer to account for their policy decisions. In this adversarial context, the relationship between parliamentarians and witnesses is hierarchical, which makes deliberative accountability a unique term which is distinct from either deliberation or accountability. The chapter also outlines briefly the mixed methods applied to gauge deliberative accountability, including quantitative text analysis, an experimental approach to gauge nonverbal behaviour by actors, and elite interviews with key participants in the hearings.
Nonverbal Behaviour in Parliamentary Hearings on Economic Policy1
Authors: Schonhardt-Bailey Cheryl
Published: August 2022

This chapter studies how parliamentarians, central bankers, and Treasury witnesses communicate in a deliberative setting, by gauging the extent to which nonverbal communication—in the form of facial expressions, vocal cues, and gestures—influences deliberation in two parliamentary select committee hearings. Comparisons are made between accountability hearings for monetary policy, financial stability, and fiscal policy, which lend insights into latent aspects of respect between and among Treasury ministers, central bankers and parliamentarians. The first part of the chapter systematically examines facial expressions, vocal cues and gestures, based upon a qualitative coding of a sample of the full set of hearings during the 2010–15 Parliament. The second part analyses findings from a laboratory experiment (with 120 participants), which sought to gauge the effect of nonverbal behaviour on perceptions of credibility, competence, and persuasiveness.
A View from the Inside
Authors: Schonhardt-Bailey Cheryl
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines how participants in select committee hearings on economic policy perceive their own behaviour, expressions, and intentions, as well as those of other actors in these hearings. It explores deliberation by directly asking the participants in the hearings—parliamentarians, Treasury officials, central bankers, staff—for their views and assessments. Using about two dozen in-depth elite interviews, this chapter uncovers a number of the dimensions of deliberative accountability, including the motivations of the actors themselves, and their perceptions as to the value of deliberation within the hearings. The interviews also serve as a check on the findings from the quantitative text analysis of the hearing transcripts as well as those from both the coding and the experiment on nonverbal communication. It does so by asking the participants themselves whether the findings from these analyses accorded with their own experiences in the hearings.
The OSS Model
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter opens with a discussion of the views of Ray S. Cline, who joined the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) after he successfully completed his dissertation on the US Army High Command in World War II. It details how Cline became head of the CIA’s directorate of intelligence from 1962 to 1966 and published a book reflecting on the CIA’s present, past, and origins. It also highlights Cline’s interpretation of the CIA’s origins, reflecting views regularly held within the agency, even if the CIA was a pluralistic institution whose personnel had differences of opinion on a number of issues. The chapter challenges Cline’s view that the OSS was a British-inspired ‘miracle’ that underpinned the later CIA. It finds that the CIA drew on American traditions.
The Founding of the CIA, 1947
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter mentions the Gallup polls that indicated a 77 percent approval rating for the CIA, the world’s first democratically sanctioned secret service, which was founded in 1947. It explores the democratic nature of the CIA’s founding, which gave it instant authority and standing. It recounts President Harry Truman’s termination of the OSS on 20 September 1945, which is considered his first significant action regarding secret intelligence. The chapter explains President Truman’s animosity toward William Donovan, director of the OSS. It cites President Truman’s initial reservations about a large-scale peacetime central intelligence agency, reservations that were in tune with contemporary sentiment expressed by a vibrant segment of the press.
Covert Action in the 1950s
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter refers to the CIA’s covert action program, which became a gradually evolving disaster as it alienated the majority of the world’s nations and destroyed America’s claim to moral leadership. It explains how the covert action program undermined the domestic standing of the CIA and its leaders’ ability to promote an intelligent understanding of world affairs. It also mentions the architects of the “dirty tricks” policy who saw themselves as having good intentions that conformed with American tradition and the law. The chapter highlights the popular image of the OSS that was almost synonymous with covert operations as the CIA undertook operations in parallel with America’s enemies, friends, and companion institutions. It looks at projects launched in America’s peacetime program of covert action, such as the overthrow of left-leaning democracies in Iran and Guatemala.
Intelligence in the 1950s
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter focuses on how the CIA did its intelligence job, for example, by asking traveling businessmen and tourists to photograph military installations while on flights over Russia. It talks about memories of Pearl Harbor that had helped to dictate the demand for the CIA to avert another surprise attack. It also points out the difficulty of avoiding surprise events such as the communists’ blockade of West Berlin from 1948 to 1949 and North Korea’s attack on South Korea in 1950. The chapter mentions intelligence veteran and philosopher Willmoore Kendall, who warned the CIA against the compulsive preoccupation with prediction and the elimination of surprises from foreign affairs. It highlights reforms of the CIA in 1952 that created an Office of National Estimates under Sherman Kent, a leading intelligence theorist who worked toward higher standards.
Bay of Pigs, 1961
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter recounts the Bay of Pigs fiasco, which was triggered by Fidel Castro’s seizure of power in Cuba, which overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista in 1959. It explains that the dictatorial President Batista ran Cuba as a compliant friend of the United States and partner of US mobsters who took a significant stake in the island’s flourishing casino and brothel industries. It also discusses Washington’s treatment of Castro as a communist, which started after he abolished the vice trade and announced land reforms that affected US interests. The chapter details the Bay of Pigs invasion that took place from 17 to 20 April 1961. It goes on to discuss the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 and the possible links between the CIA’s program to assassinate Castro and the assassination in 1963 of President John F. Kennedy.
Vietnam: The Roles of the CIA
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter analyzes the pessimistic tendency in CIA’s reports of the Vietnam War, in which the assumption was that the war was unwinnable. However, the chapter discusses how the CIA embraced the principle of “intelligence to please” and showed itself vulnerable to manipulation. It recounts how the CIA loyally helped the Johnson and Nixon administrations to prosecute the Vietnam War, in which it did not believe, and how it killed people contrary to its own counterinsurgency principles. It discusses the intelligence dimensions of the Gulf of Tonkin incident that drew America into the war, the Rolling Thunder bombing campaign, the order-of-battle controversy that preceded the Tet Offensive of 1968, and Nixon’s Vietnamization program.
From Reformation to Counter-Reformation in the 1970s
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter talks about a multipronged political attack that endangered the CIA’s standing, resulting in reforms in 1975 and the restoration of popular faith in the agency. It explains the causes of the attack in terms of factors such as détente, Watergate, and the outbreak of controversy about the CIA’s alleged complicity in the overthrow of democracy in Chile. The chapter considers the work of the Church inquiry into the CIA and the debate over the use of assassination as a way of achieving foreign-policy goals. It lists the likely causes of the subsidence of the “intelligence flap”. It reviews the evidence for the proposition that the 1970s reforms such as congressional oversight were hollow and impermanent and suggests that the reforms did restore the CIA’s standing.
The Collapse of Soviet Communism in the 1980s
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri
Published: August 2022

This chapter traces the history of the CIA in the 1980s, which is inseparable from the demise of communism in Europe and the end of the Cold War. It analyzes the victory hypothesis, and details how the CIA penetrated the darkness beyond the Iron Curtain and estimated that Moscow was intensifying its military preparations. It also discusses the United States’ escalation of its defenses against Moscow, particularly with the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). The chapter explains that SDI was a space- and laser-based system for destroying incoming enemy missiles before they hit their targets. It refers to Moscow’s planned escalation on SDI in response, which did not happen, as the Soviet Union proved to be unequal to the challenge of matching US spending.