bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
O desafio de diagnosticar tromboembolia pulmonar aguda em pacientes com doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica
Authors: Menna-Barreto Sérgio Saldanha
Published: April 2006

Tromboembolia pulmonar aguda e exacerbação aguda de doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica são doenças comuns. A doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica é um fator clínico de risco para tromboembolia pulmonar aguda. As apresentações clínicas da tromboembolia pulmonar aguda e da exacerbação aguda da doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica freqüentemente mimetizam-se tanto que pode ser difícil distingui-las. Anormalidades estruturais nos pulmões com doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica tornam também difícil a interpretação de testes não invasivos de diagnóstico, como o mapeamento de ventilação e perfusão pulmonares. Assim, diagnosticar tromboembolia pulmonar aguda em pacientes com doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica é uma tarefa desafiadora. Com o objetivo de atualizar o assunto e oferecer sugestões de conduta, nós avaliamos artigos abordando este tema, incluindo relatos e séries de casos, abordagens diagnósticas de tromboembolia pulmonar aguda e fizemos algumas reflexões. A probabilidade clínica de tromboembolia pulmonar aguda em cenários de doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica é usualmente intermediária, o mapeamento de ventilação e perfusão pulmonares é predominantemente de probabilidade intermediária e os algoritmos de conduta os deveriam assim considerar.
Gas Storage and Flow in Coalbed Reservoirs: Implementation of a Bidisperse Pore Model for Gas Diffusion in a Coal Matrix
Authors: Shi Ji-Quan , Durucan Sevket
Published: April 2006

Unipore diffusion models are used widely to model gas transport in a coal matrix in conventional dual-porosity coalbed-reservoir simulators. The unipore models implemented in conventional coalbed-reservoir simulators assume that there is a negligible free-gas phase in the coal matrix and that gas exists only in an adsorbed state under hydrostatic pressure. In low-rank coals, however, a substantial amount of free gas may exist in the macropores of the coal matrix.

There is strong laboratory evidence that many coals exhibit bi-or multimodal pore structure. This paper describes the implementation of a bidisperse pore-diffusion model in a coalbed-reservoir simulator. In the bidisperse model, gas adsorption is assumed to take place only in the micropores, with the macropores providing storage for free gas, as well as tortuous paths for gas transport between the micropores and cleats. Gas-production performance from a sub-bituminous Powder River basin coalbed reservoir has been studied using an in-house coalbed-reservoir simulator. The implementation of the triple-porosity formulation in the simulator overcame the reported inconsistency between field gas-production rates and predicted rates obtained with conventional dual-porosity simulators. With the introduction of an appropriate storage volume of free gas in the macropores, the predicted increase in gas-production rates are consistent with the published field data.
Evaluation Methods for Suspended Solids and Produced Water as an Aid in Determining Effectiveness of Scale Control Both Downhole and Topside
Authors: Jordan M. M. , Johnston C. J. , Robb M.
Published: April 2006

The formation of mineral scale (carbonate/sulfate/sulfide) within the near wellbore, production tubing, and topside process equipment has presented a challenge to the oil and gas industry for more than 50 years. Chemical methods to control scale have been developed including scale squeeze treatments and continual chemical injection. A key factor in the success of such treatments is the understanding of chemical placement and the effectiveness of the treatment chemicals. Evaluation of residual chemical concentration and scaling ion chemistry have long been used in monitoring programs, and more recently, probes have been developed that increase the rate of evaluation/interpretation. All these methods prove that the chemical is present in the brine when sampled or that scale formation is not occurring at the point of brine analysis. Evaluation of suspended solids in terms of amount, mineral type, composition, and texture has been used along with brine chemistry to improve our understanding of the location of scale formation within production environments. This paper outlines the experimental methods developed and will cite examples from the North Sea of the use of suspended solids analysis by environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) and the associated brine chemistry to evaluate the scale risk within the produced brine. The combination of these methods has improved integrated scale management in terms of evaluating scale squeeze placement effectiveness, squeeze lifetime, and topside scale-control challenges vs. separation problems.

The publication of this method with clear examples of the value it can bring to an integrated scale-management program for a field throughout its life cycle will benefit both emerging deepwater operations (evaluation of placement) and more established oilfield operations (reducing chemical costs).
Sperm Nuclear Histone to Protamine Ratio in Fertile and Infertile Men: Evidence of Heterogeneous Subpopulations of Spermatozoa in the Ejaculate
Authors: Zhang Xiaoyang , Gabriel Maria San , Zini Armand
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT:Sperm protamine deficiency is observed in a subset of infertile men, suggesting that the relative histone to protamine ratio may be altered in the spermatozoa of these men. We measured the ratio of nuclear histones to protamines in the spermatozoa of fertile (n = 10) and infertile men (n = 20). Sperm nuclear proteins were extracted and subsequently separated by acid‐urea (AU) polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The relative histone (H2B) to protamine (PRM1 + PRM2) and PRM1 to PRM2 ratios were estimated by densitometric analysis of the AU gels. Immunoblotting experiments (using H2B, PRM1, and PRM2 antibodies) were conducted to confirm the specificity of the bands. The pattern and intensity of H2B staining in human spermatozoa was assessed by immunocytochemistry. Sperm samples from the infertile men in this study had a significantly higher proportion of histone H2B to protamine (PRM1 + PRM2) than did samples from the fertile men in this study (0.38 vs 0.08,P< .001). Immunocytochemistry experiments demonstrated a punctuated staining pattern (with strong, intermediate, or weak H2B staining intensity) throughout the sperm head. Infertile men had a higher proportion of spermatozoa exhibiting strong and intermediate staining than did samples from fertile men. These findings suggest that infertile men possess a higher proportion of spermatozoa with an increased histone to protamine ratio than fertile controls.
Traders, brokers and market ‘crisis’ in southern Somalia
Authors: Little Peter D.
Published: April 2006

This article examines the behaviour of cattle traders in southern Somalia under conditions of market uncertainty, macroeconomic decline and political instability. It draws attention to the types of dyadic relationships and diversification strategies that allow livestock traders to endure prolonged periods of uncertainty. By distinguishing among four different markets and five types of market actors, the analysis attempts to unravel the complexities of the livestock trade in southern Somalia, and to differentiate the categories of traders that have benefited from those that have been hurt by recent changes. The analysis suggests that under the current crisis conditions in Somalia those traders who have become ‘agents’ of large, export-oriented merchants focused on a single market suffer most, while traders based in small villages and involved in both domestic and export markets have sometimes prospered. The so-called ‘unofficial’ trade in livestock to neighbouring countries, such as Kenya, permits certain groups of Somali traders to weather an environment of extreme economic and political volatility that is exceptional even in the African context. The article concludes with a general discussion of the importance of social relations in marketing and the responses of traders to changes in macroeconomic indicators.
The ‘Community of Helpers of the Sunna’: Islamic reform among the Songhay of Gao (Mali)
Authors: Niezen R. W.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

In recent decades a scripturalist, anti-Sufi interpretation of Islam has made steady gains in several parts of sub-Saharan Africa. For non-reformers who are confronted with this phenomenon it is easy to consider all active reformers as emerging from the same mould, as turning for inspiration and guidance to the same religious sources, differing only in the intensity of their fervour or commitment. The task of a more scholarly approach to ‘puritan’ Islamic reform, however, is to consider how it is integrated into different social contexts, how it can be used to change or reinforce the social arrangements and institutions of particular groups. This is the general aim of the present article, which considers the social background of factionalism in the emergence of a reform movement among the Songhay of Gao.
The Bobo ‘house’ and the uses of categories of descent
Authors: şaul Mahir
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this article is to show how conceptual systems of classification in the case of Bobo ethnography enter into the construction of social life without narrowly determining people's conduct. The southern Bobo recognise both patrilineal and matrilineal descent categories in which people are included by patrifiliation and matrifiliation. The inclusion occurs at the birth of the person and there are cultural mechanisms that make the change or the misrepresentation of this identity especially difficult. However, the unilineal sets do not frequently materialise as social groups. Agnatic segments may join each other to form the core of associations which constitute the social groups most in evidence in the political and economic life of the village. These associations in turn establish larger confederations of varying strength and different time depth on the basis of common settlement history and political interest. All these forms of association are achieved without the constituent segments losing their separate agnatic identities. The article shows how land, and offices in important cults such as the public do and Kono can be claimed on the basis of any of these organisational principles in a political game that implicitly questions the constitutive norms that shape community life.
Tone and tune: the evidence for Northern Ewe music
Authors: Agawu V. Kofi
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

One of the most intriguing features of most African languages is that of tone, by which variations in speech tone generate different meanings (Pike, 1948, offers a valuable introduction to this subject and includes an extensive bibliography; Fromkin, 1972, is a comprehensive evaluation of specialised studies). In the Ewe language, for example, the word to [H] pronounced with a high tone means ‘ear’, as in To le venye (HLMM), ‘I have an earache.’ To can also mean ‘through’, Meto akonta me [MHLHML], ‘I have gone through the accounts.’ But as soon as the high tone is replaced by a low one the meaning of the word changes drastically: to [L] means ‘thick’ as in Dzogbo la to [LHHL], ‘The porridge is thick’. Similarly, mi [H] is a pronoun for the first person plural (Mieto adegbe, ‘We are on the way to the hunt’). The same word refers to ‘faeces’ as in [HL], ‘goat's faeces’. A shift of tone from high to low results in a change of meaning. Mi [L] is a pronoun for the second person plural (Mile tsi [LLM], ‘You (should) take a bath’); it also means ‘swallow’ (mi amatsi, ‘swallow [or take] the medicine’). The phenomenon is not restricted to monosyllables. Kuku [HH] refers to a ‘hat’ (Meɖe kuku na wo, ‘I remove your hat,’ which is a figurative way of saying ‘I beg you’). Kuku [LH] on the other hand refers to ‘death’. Asi [LH] is the word for ‘hand’, while asi [LM] denotes ‘market’. Tone is operative on a number of levels within the syntagmatic chain: on the level of syllable, word, phrase and sentence. Furthermore, a number of constraints—syntactic, international or natural factors—influence the disposition of speech tones (consult Ansre, 1961, for information about Ewe tone and Dakubu, 1988, for the most recent study of this and other aspects of Ghanaian languages).
Chiefs and colonial rule in Cameroon: inventing chieftaincy, French and British Style
Authors: Geschiere Peter
Published: April 2006

Given the crisis today over the proper power of the State in modern Cameroon (as elsewhere in Africa), chiefs are sometimes considered as a possible alternative focus of authority. Yet chieftaincy is a very variable, context-dependent phenomenon, even when it originated only in the colonial period. The article illustrates this point by examining the different fortunes of the office of chief in two Cameroonian societies, the Maka (who came under French rule) and the Bakweri (who came under British rule). In neither instance (but for different reasons) does chieftaincy appear to offer the alternative, middle-range authority that is needed.
Witch-hunting and political legitimacy: continuity and change in Green Valley, Lebowa, 1930–91
Authors: Niehaus Isak A.
Published: April 2006

With reference to the history of the village of Green Valley in the South Africanbantustanof Lebowa over the past six decades, this article examines the complex relation-ship between witch-hunting and political action. I argue against common notions in anthropological literature that political actors engage in witch-hunting in an attempt to mystify exploitation or to intimidate opponents. Such notions overemphasise the instrumental dimensions of the witchcraft complex and pay insufficient attention to its intrinsic/existential dimension as a personalised explanation of misfortune. By taking full cognisance of the latter, witch-hunting can be seen as a creative attempt to eliminate evil and avoid the future occurrence of misfortune. It is argued that, through time, chiefs and Comrades have found it politically convenient to identify and punish witches in their efforts to attain legitimacy among villagers.
The ‘head dance’, contested self, and art as a balancing act in Tuareg spirit possession
Authors: Rasmussen Susan J.
Published: April 2006

Among the Kel Ewey Tuareg of north-eastern Niger, particularly in noble circles, spirit possession is associated with Sudanic/servile cultural origins; so, too, are dancing and drumming. I argue that, in performing a sideways swaying motion of the head and shoulders referred to locally as a dance, women in possession trance transform Sudanic culture. The head dance as flowing, controlled movement, and its central trope of ‘swaying like the branch of a tree’, encapsulate key cultural symbols to make them almost acceptable in traditional noble Tuareg aesthetic/symbolic terms. Yet this motion implies that one is ‘ill’ or ‘in solitude or in the wild’, in need of exorcism that has to be performed on the fringes of the camp or village, outside the tent, after dark, yet in public with an audience.

This article uses a synaesthetic approach to show the interconnectedness of symbols. It illustrates the tensions and contradictions of a traditionally stratified society where women now perform a range of semi-servile activities, activities that Moslems, nobles and men generally disapprove of and sometimes oppose. The ‘head dance’ is an elegant compromise that blurs the line between dance and possession, takes on acceptable images from song and the ‘proper’ ways of moving, and ‘grafts’ them on to a particular drum pattern—the whole complex making use of the homonym ‘song/branch’ as the core image or metaphor. Symbols work synergistically in this process.
Commensality, process and the moral order: an example from southern Ethiopia
Authors: Hamer John
Published: April 2006

The ritual sharing of food by elders is shown to serve as a metaphor for the cultural code of the Sadāma of Ethiopia. It is a means of demonstrating that just as socio-political events change so does the ritual surrounding food consumption, and that the latter must be continuously discussed and debated to reach a consensus about commensal correctness. This elaborate means of ritual procedure constitutes a comparison for the way in which elders must consensually make policy and settle disputes. It is shown that there are definite limits to this system, and to the values of the cultural code, beyond the boundaries of Sidāmoland. This serves to bring into focus the current dilemma of state and ethnic relations in Africa.
The power of sex: some reflections on the Caldwells' ‘African sexuality’ thesis
Authors: Heald Suzette
Published: April 2006

This article consists of a series of reflections about the nature of sexuality in East Africa framed in response to the theories put forward by J. C. Caldwell and his collaborators. It argues that their views fail to grasp the way sexual restraints and restrictions form the basis of the moral order in East African societies. Their model of a distinctively African sexual system overemphasises descent in a way that systematically underplays the importance of marriage and reduces ancestor cults to exclusive concern with lineage, reproduction and continuity. By contrast, it is argued with reference to the Gisu of Uganda, ancestral beliefs in their general form are associated with the overall templates for correct social living and these hinge not on lineality but on sexuality and its control. In this light, most East African cultures can be labelled ‘respect cultures’, in that they see their social orders as rooted in respect, respect which implies deference, attention to proper decorum and above all self-restraint. The rules problematise sexuality. The article then turns to the sacred power attributed to coitus itself. This is addressed by looking at the metaphor of the mingling of bloods, widely used of sexual intercourse in East Africa. In the last section of the article attention is paid to the contrast between consanguinity and alliance and the idea that the union of man and woman serves as the prototype of contractual relationships.
The politics of the 1996 cerebrospinal meningitis epidemic in Nigeria
Authors: Ejembi C. L. , Renne E. P. , Adamu H. A.
Published: April 2006

The 1996 cerebrospinal meningitis epidemic in Nigeria exemplified a medical situation that was linked with political concerns at the local, national, and international levels. It is argued that these political aspects must be understood, as they have implications for the treatment of future outbreaks. This article examines local attempts to stem the epidemic, on the basis of participant observation and epidemiological data collected from the north of Kaduna State. The epidemic is then considered in the national context: general deterioration of the health care system associated with economic decline, a national structural adjustment programme and crisis of political leadership. The local and national contexts of the 1996 epidemic are related to the view, held by many Nigerians, that reports of the epidemic's severity and the subsequent Saudi ban on Nigerians making the pilgrimage to Mecca reflected international politics, particularly the uneasy relations between the Nigerian, Saudi Arabian, and US governments, as well as health concerns. The article concludes with some recommendations for a national policy and for community health initiatives that take the politics and economics of cerebrospinal meningitis immunisation and treatment into account.
Migration and changing divisions of labour: gender relations and economic change in Koguta, western Kenya
Authors: Francis Elizabeth
Published: April 2006

A case study from western Kenya is used to explore the links between labour migration, rural economic decline and changes in key domestic relationships. Twentieth-century transformations in the regional political economy, together with processes of differentiation, have been closely bound up with changes, and continuities, in relationships within households, and in the ideologies which justify them. A central concept in the analysis is that of divisions of labour, which covers the division of tasks, divisions of spheres of responsibility and authority and contributions to the reproduction of the household. Changes in all these have shaped, and have been shaped, by the trajectory of economic decline in the region. Changing divisions of labour have been slow, piecemeal, non-uniform and non-linear. They have been the subject of intense conflicts within households which have centred on questions of access to and control over resources and in which, as well as power relations, ideas about rights and responsibilities have been crucially important.
A Yoruba woman remembers servitude in a palace of Dahomey, in the reigns of Kings Glele and Behanzin
Authors: Morton-Williams Peter
Published: April 2006

A Yoruba woman in the Ketu-Yoruba town of Meko, in western Nigeria, gave an interview in January 1951 to the anthropologists William R. Bascom and Paul Mercier, in which she talked of her time in Dahomey as a servant in Simboji palace, some sixty years earlier. The conversation was written down by the author of this article and is offered to mark the centenary of the destruction of Abomey in 1992. She had served two mistresses, both of the same high rank. The first had committed suicide on the death of Glele, and the other she had served throughout the reign of Behanzin, during the defence against the French campaign led by General Dodds and the time of refuge in the north of the kingdom until the king's surrender. She had seen the king shut in a cage before his exile, when she had returned home. She gave new information about the ranking of royal wives, how they were ordered in groups, and the cries announcing their approach when out of the palace. The article ends with notes identifying places mentioned, matching Fon and Yoruba names, and relating her story to published accounts of events.
Metaphor Comprehension by Language Learning Disabled and Normally Achieving Adolescent Boys
Authors: Jones Jacqueline , Stone C. Addison
Published: April 2006

The ability of language learning disabled (LLD) and normally achieving (NA) adolescents to interpret metaphors embedded in semantically appropriate verbal contexts was examined. The effects of response mode (verbal explanation and paraphrase selection), order of response mode, and type of ground (perceptual attributes and psychological characteristics) were also analyzed. Thirty-two male subjects (16 LLD and 16 NA), ages 16 to 18 years, interpreted 24 metaphors in which the task-specific vocabulary was controlled. The LLD subjects provided significantly fewer correct metaphor interpretations than the NA subjects. The magnitude of difference between the LLD and the NLA subjects was twice as large when the initial mode of response was paraphrase selection. For both groups, metaphors were easier to interpret by paraphrase selection than by verbal explanation, and perceptual metaphors were easier to interpret than psychological metaphors, but only in the explanation condition. The two groups' performance showed no striking qualitative differences. The relatively poor performance of the LLD adolescents was not related to general vocabulary knowledge or to knowledge of task-specific vocabulary. The possible roles of impoverished or poorly organized semantic knowledge and of deficient inferential skills in the LLD subjects' poor performance are discussed.
Teaching Self-Management Skills to Learning Disabled Adolescents
Authors: Shapiro Edward S.
Published: April 2006

Learning disabled adolescents often display deficiencies in problem-solving and interpersonal social skills. These deficiencies tend to pose particular difficulties for successful transitions from the school to work environments. The present 3-year study investigated the impact of a self-management training program for LD adolescents ( N = 67 across all three years) who were attending a vocational-technical school. The study specifically examined changes in subjects' problem-solving and job-related social skills. Results showed significant and substantial improvements in LD students who received the self-management training program compared to both LD and non-learning disabled students who were not trained. Implications for enhancing the curriculum for LD adolescents as well as the potential limitations of the findings are discussed.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Aspects of Learning Disabled Adolescents' Composing Problems
Authors: Wong Bernice Y.L. , Wong Roderick , Blenkinsop Jennifer
Published: April 2006

This study investigated the cognitive and metacognitive aspects of writing problems in learning disabled adolescents. Twenty-one learning disabled eighth and eleventh graders constituted the target population. The comparison groups included 15 normally achieving eighth graders and a reading-age control group of 23 normally achieving sixth graders. The participants wrote two reportive essays and one argument essay, and answered a questionnaire designed to probe their metacognition about the writing process.

Results indicated that normally achieving eighth graders consistently and clearly surpassed their learning disabled counterparts in both quality and quantity of essay writing. Adult judges rated normally achieving eighth graders' essays to be substantially more interesting, much clearer in communicating the goals, and to contain a substantially more felicitous word choice than those of learning disabled eighth and eleventh graders. Moreover, they wrote longer essays with much fewer spelling errors than learning disabled eighth and eleventh graders. Finally, they possessed more mature and articulate conceptions of the writing task, and were more aware of the relevance of planning and audience in writing.

In striking contrast, the learning disabled eighth and eleventh graders were comparable to the normally achieving sixth graders in their performances across a broad front. This comparability occurred in the three categories of holistic ratings of essays (interestingness, clarity in communication of goals, and word choice), structural ratings of paragraphs, and metacognition about the writing process. Interestingly, learning disabled eighth and eleventh graders were superior to normally achieving sixth graders in length of essays. However, the consistent, broad picture was that the learning disabled adolescents performed at a very similar level to that of younger normally achieving children. These findings permit the conclusion that the learning disabled adolescents in this study showed a developmental delay in the cognitive and metacognitive aspects of writing.
Teaching LD Students Critical Reading Skills: A Systematic Replication
Authors: Darch Craig , Kameenui Edward J.
Published: April 2006

Two approaches to teaching elementary-level LD students three critical reading skills were contrasted. Students were randomly assigned to one of two treatment conditions: (a) direct instruction and (b) discussion/workbook. The former featured training in using specific rules and strategies to detect instances of faulty arguments whereas subjects in the latter group were taught via a discussion/workbook approach, encouraging student involvement through discussions on how to use critical reading skills. Both treatment groups received 40-minute lessons for 12 consecutive school days. Three dependent measures designed to assess students' knowledge of the three critical reading skills were administered. Subjects in the direct instruction group were found to significantly outperform their counterparts in the discussion/workbook group on each measure. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for development of effective practices for teaching comprehension.
Comprehension Monitoring: Detection and Identification of Text Inconsistencies by LD and Normal Students
Authors: Chan Lorna K.S. , Cole Peter G. , Barfett Shirley
Published: April 2006

Thirty-two learning disabled and 32 regular class children matched on reading age were randomly assigned to either a general or a specific instruction condition. In both treatments subjects were shown how to monitor text for internal inconsistency. In addition, the specific instruction condition provided explicit instruction in how to use a cross-referencing technique to evaluate the internal consistency of a given text. Results indicated significant Subject Group x Instruction Condition interactions on all three dependent measures: detection, identification, and comprehension competence. Learning disabled subjects exhibited an initial production deficit in comprehension-monitoring skills. Subjects who received explicit instruction in the use of the cross-referencing evaluative technique demonstrated higher performance levels in both comprehension monitoring and reading comprehension.
Perspective from the other Side: A Message of Hope for Learning Disability Teachers and Students
Authors: Quinn David
Published: April 2006

I am a learning disabled adult deeply concerned about the education of atypical children in general and the learning handicapped in particular. Now in my early thirties, I entered the school system before enactment of state and federal legislation mandating equal access to public education for the handicapped. Although great strides have been made since special education and learning disabilities were neophyte disciplines, glaring inequities remain. My purpose in writing this essay is to use my experience within and outside the educational system to reflect upon the distance we have traveled and the difficult path we still must traverse. Additionally, I will offer hope and encouragement to both teachers of the learning disabled and their students in the form of valid avenues of improvement.
A Holistic Approach to Language Arts Instruction in the Resource Room
Authors: McNutt Gaye
Published: April 2006

Before leaving the resource room, two students file their folders. The four students just entering the room retrieve their folders: two continue working on written products they started several days earlier; one goes to the reading center to choose a new book to read; and one joins the students working with Ms. T., the teacher. Ms. T. is working with students who need specific help with punctuation in their own work. A pair of students sit together in a corner discussing material they have just read, while several others work independently, but occasionally stop to confer with one another. There are no worksheets, workbooks, or required basals in the room, but everyone is working on language arts.
Strategy Instruction Research Comes of Age
Authors: Pressley Michael , Symons Sonya , Snyder Barbara L. , Cariglia-Bull Teresa
Published: April 2006

There is enormous contemporary interest in strategy instruction and in conducting research on this topic, with many researchers attempting to develop strategy interventions for use with both normal and learning disabled populations. Four factors fuel the current enthusiasm: (a) There are now some very convincing information-processing analyses of important educational tasks. (b) There are better models of autonomous cognitive performance. (c) These models of performance have stimulated the development of more complete models of instruction. And (d) Those interested in strategy instruction are becoming sophisticated in the design of experiments that are methodologically sound and conceptually convincing. After reviewing these four influences in the following sections, we argue that complete study of strategy instruction includes research aimed at (a) diagnosing what students do without instruction, (b) determining what they can do when given instruction, and (c) establishing how materials can be adapted to improve performance when inefficient or ineffective student processing cannot be modified by instruction. Such a comprehensive research program requires both laboratory and classroom studies.
Strategy Instruction in Mathematics
Authors: Goldman Susan R.
Published: April 2006

Mathematics performance is conceptualized as a problem-solving situation consisting of cognitive and metacognitive processes associated with (a) representing the problem, (b) planning a solution, (c) carrying out the operations entailed by the plan, and (d) monitoring the course of solution. Strategies for accomplishing these activities have been instructed within a variety of instructional models, three of which are discussed: direct instruction, self-instruction, and mediated performance (guided learning). Strategy instruction studies representative of each method have been applied to mathematics computation tasks and to word problem solving. These studies are reviewed with a focus on what makes for effective strategy instruction for learning disabled children. Conclusions center on the need to deal explicitly with problem representation and conceptual understanding of the task, task-specific planning and computation skills, and general organizational frameworks for systematically monitoring solution progress. Finally, it is recommended that strategy instruction studies make provision for component practice sufficient to develop efficient access to and use of the available knowledge base as well as of the instructed strategies.
Opportunity to Learn for LD Students Receiving Different Levels of Special Education Services
Authors: Thurlow Martha L. , Ysseldyke James E. , Graden Janet , Algozzine Bob
Published: April 2006

Twenty-six LD students were observed over two entire school days to examine the extent to which instructional approaches and opportunities to learn varied according to service delivery level. Although instructional approaches varied, no differences were found in students' opportunities to learn through active academic responding. Thus, academic responding time was low for all students, averaging less than 45 minutes per day. Furthermore, variability among students was great, even within one service delivery level. Relationships among student response times and achievement gains generally confirmed the positive relationship between active academic responding and achievement and the negative relationship between inappropriate responding and achievement. Implications of the findings for LD service provision are explored.
Reading Flexibility of Learning Disabled and Normal Students at Three Grade Levels
Authors: Dowdy Carol A. , Crump W. Donald , Welch Michael W.
Published: April 2006

Reading flexibility refers to a person's ability to adjust both reading rate and method to the specific purpose for reading. Proficient readers exhibit reading flexibility by paying attention to the information in print that is most relevant to their purpose. Poor readers, on the other hand, do not exhibit reading flexibility and, instead, become bound to the print. Only limited research has been undertaken to investigate the degree of reading flexibility in the learning disabled population. This study compared reading flexibility among learning disabled and normal students at three grade levels. Methods included a measure of reading rate and reading comprehension under two separate conditions or purposes for reading. Results are reported in terms of differences between the two populations as well as trends across grade levels for each population.
But What are They Learning? The Dilemma of Using Microcomputers in Special Education
Authors: Russell Susan Jo
Published: April 2006

The introduction of computers into education is not important because it is getting us to talk about computers. It is important because it is getting us to talk about education. Because the computer offers such a range of applications, we are forced to ask what we are going to use it for and why we are choosing to use it in a certain way with certain students. It is an excuse, and a good one, to reflect on our practice, to articulate our educational goals, and to surface hidden assumptions and values, which may be guiding our practice without our being aware of what a powerful influence they are having. Although this article is about special education and computers, in some ways it is neither about special education nor about computers. Rather, it is about what education is and should be for all students.
Initial Learning and Transfer Effects of Microcomputer Drills on LD Students' Multiplication Skills
Authors: Chiang Berttram
Published: April 2006

Although application of microcomputer-assisted instruction with learning disabled students is rapidly expanding, only limited research is available on the efficacy of such instruction. The primary purpose of this single-subject design study was to investigate whether learning of multiplication tables via computer programs transfers to paper-and-pencil tasks. Three male and three female fourth-grade LD students participated in the three phases of the study: baseline, microcomputer-assisted instruction, and transfer. Results of the daily 4-minute timings of each subject's multiplication facts indicated that about 12 days' drill and practice on a computer yielded an average gain of 4.7 and 6.1 facts per minute for the girls and boys, respectively, as evidenced by their worksheet performance. Implications for using microcomputer-assisted instruction with LD students are discussed.
Post-Secondary Community Placement of Handicapped Students: A Five-Year Follow-Up
Authors: Schalock Robert L. , Wolzen Brent , Ross Irv , Elliott Barb , Werbel Ginger , Peterson Kathy
Published: April 2006

This article presents the results of an evaluation of the employment and living status of 108 moderately to severely handicapped individuals who had graduated during a five-year period (1979–1983) from rural schools employing a community-based job exploration and training model. Nineteen predictor variables including student characteristics, school variables, and county characteristics were statistically related to nine employment-related outcome variables. The results showed that (a) 61% of the graduates were working competitively; (b) 22% were living independently; (c) the specific-learning disabled student was more likely to be employed, live independently and be self-sufficient than the educable mentally handicapped or the student with mental retardation; (d) students whose families were moderately to highly involved with the students' programs were more successful on the employment-related outcome variables; and (e) significant predictors included both student characteristics and environmental variables. Implications are discussed relative to the current emphasis on post-graduation job placement, program accountability, training in the natural environment and support systems.
Two-Year Evaluation of the Tomatis Listening Training Program with Learning Disabled Children
Authors: Kershner John R. , Cummings Richard L. , Clarke Kenneth A. , Hadfield Audrey J. , Kershner Barbara A.
Published: April 2006

Our previous 1-year evaluation (Kershner, Cummings, Clarke, Hadfield, & Kershner, 1986) of the school-based Tomatis Program (LTP) failed to support its purported remedial effectiveness. Children with learning disabilities (LD) had been assigned randomly to an LTP plus direct instruction group or to a placebo group receiving only direct instruction. The purpose of the present study was to address the argument that favorable treatment effects of such process-oriented, neuropsychological training programs may occur over a longer span of time. Retesting the original sample one year after cessation of treatment revealed only a single group effect; the placebo children were superior on the Seashore Rhythm test, a measure of auditory discrimination. These results more firmly substantiate our earlier negative conclusions. But, more importantly, the longitudinal achievement gains observed in both groups of children, irrespective of their original treatment assignment, strongly support the efficacy of less exotic currently available remedial procedures.
A Profile of Learning Disabled Twelfth-Graders in Regular Classes
Authors: Gregory James F. , Shanahan Timothy , Walberg Herbert
Published: April 2006

Of the 26,147 twelfth-graders on whom survey data from the national High School and Beyond study were complete, 439 (1.7%) identified themselves as having specific learning disabilities. Comparisons between the data on these students and those on their nonimpaired peers showed that the learning disabled group (a) was older, (b) included a disproportionately high number of minority members, and (c) reported significantly more other handicapping conditions. Likewise, the learning disabled students scored significantly lower on all measures of academic achievement tested and on most indices of self-esteem and motivation. They also reported more serious trouble with the law. Parity was only uncovered on such variables as amount of television viewing and school-based extracurricular activities. Implications of the findings are discussed.
Mathematics Instruction in Resource Rooms: Instruction Time and Teacher Competence
Authors: Carpenter Robert L.
Published: April 2006

A survey of resource room teachers (N = 101) was used to determine: (a) the amount of time resource room teachers spend in mathematics instruction, (b) the amount of those teachers' formal training in mathematics and mathematics instruction, (c) their self-reported degrees of competence in assessing and teaching mathematics skills and concepts, and (d) the importance these teachers assign to general knowledge of mathematics, mathematics assessment, and mathematics instruction. Mathematics instruction was found to occupy about one-third of the average resource room teacher's teaching time. Although subjects reported considerable college coursework in mathematics and mathematics instructional methods, they felt inadequate at several competencies considered necessary for teachers of learning disabled students. Differences between elementary and secondary teachers are reported.
Patterns of Behavior Problems among the Learning Disabled: Boys Aged 12–18, Girls Aged 6–11, and Girls Aged 12–18
Authors: Epstein Michael H. , Bursuck William , Cullinan Douglas
Published: April 2006

Teacher-completed Behavior Problem Checklists on learning disabled older boys and younger and older girls were factor-analyzed. Results replicated, in part, prior research with nonhandicapped and handicapped populations, but also revealed interesting differences. Age and sex comparisons were made between the three learning disabled groups. Implications for greater understanding of and better programming for learning disabled children's behavioral and emotional problems are discussed.
Learning Disabled Boys' Nonverbal Behaviors within a Dyadic Interview
Authors: Bryan James H. , Sherman Richard E. , Fisher Abigail
Published: April 2006

Learning disabled and nondisabled children were given instructions to either ingratiate or to act naturally with an adult interviewer while discussing their television preferences. The children's behaviors during their three-minute, individually administered interviews were videotaped. A variety of the children's nonverbal behaviors were subsequently analyzed. Differences in the nonverbal behaviors of learning disabled and nondisabled youngsters were found.
Error-Correction during Oral Reading: A Comparison of Three Techniques
Authors: Rosenberg Michael S.
Published: April 2006

Recent investigations of instructional effectiveness have identified a core of teacher behaviors that result in increased student academic performance. One such behavior, correction of student errors, was examined in the present study. An alternating-treatments design with two phases was used to investigate the relative efficacy of three error-correction procedures on the oral reading of four LD middle-school students. Results indicated that a drill procedure was more effective and efficient than a word-supply procedure and a phonic-drill rehearsal strategy. Results are presented in terms of their implications for instructional and research practices.
Sentence Elaboration and Retention of Good, Average and Poor Readers
Authors: Wong Bernice Y. L. , Sawatsky Dorothy
Published: April 2006

This paper reports two studies designed to replicate previous findings by Bransford and his associates. These investigators found that good readers produced reliably more precise sentence elaborations than average and poor readers; average readers surpassed poor readers. Poor readers were also effectively trained to produce precise elaborations. Sixty-one good, average and poor readers participated in Study I. In groups of 5/6, subjects were given sentences containing arbitrary relations between agents and events, and asked to generate elaborations to aid comprehension and retention. The results indicated that compared to average and poor readers, good readers generated substantially more precise elaborations and recalled more information. However, the groups of average and poor readers did not differ from one another in sentence elaboration or recall. This finding was attributed to low-average readers constituting the vast majority of the average reader group. Prior research indicates that low-average or low-achieving students and poor readers demonstrate much overlap in their cognitive and metacognitive deficits. Study II reports successful training of low-average and poor readers in precise sentence elaboration through a self-questioning procedure modelled on cognitive behavior modification. The results from both studies replicated previous research by Bransford and his associates, except for the performance and subsequent training of the low-average readers. Implications of the results for research and practice are discussed.
Use of Microcomputers for Spelling Assessment: Reasons to Be Cautious
Authors: Varnhagen Stanley , Gerber Michael M.
Published: April 2006

The Test of Written Spelling (Larsen & Hammill, 1976) was administered twice to underachieving students from a regular third-grade class and from an upper-grade, self-contained class for learning handicapped (LH) students. One version of the test was given in the standard fashion, the other was administered and scored by a microcomputer. Results indicated that students took less time and spelled more words correctly on the standard written version. Although LH students scored lower than regular-grade peers, effects attributable to varying administration media were similar for both groups. Therefore, it is recommended that caution be exercised in adapting standardized dictation spelling tests for computer administration.
Making Students Partners in the Comprehension Process: Organizing the Reading “Posse”
Authors: Englert Carol Sue , Mariage Troy V.
Published: April 2006

This article reports on a comprehension procedure that makes visible to students their prior knowledge about a topic and the structures in expository text. The procedure used reciprocal-like teaching formats for the design of group interactions during instruction, as well as semantic mapping to make text structures apparent to students. Results suggested that strategy instruction using this procedure significantly affected recall of expository ideas and knowledge of comprehension strategies among students with learning disabilities. More importantly, it was the extent to which teachers were able to transfer control of reading strategies to students that appeared to affect students' developing strategy knowledge.
Teacher Beliefs and Perceptions about Learning Disabilities: A Survey of Iowa Practitioners
Authors: Kavale Kenneth A. , Reese James H.
Published: April 2006

All teachers of the learning disabled in Iowa were surveyed to determine their beliefs and perceptions about learning disabilities. A 20-item questionnaire was constructed to assess opinion in four areas: nature and characteristics, assessment and diagnosis, service delivery and intervention, and information sources. Respondents were required to either choose a single option, rank order choices, or scale a response with differential weighting. Findings revealed that the teachers of the learning disabled possessed well-developed beliefs and perceptions, showing them to be knowledgeable and well informed. It was concluded, therefore, that the respondents possessed a sound information base for their practical pursuits and that they based such practice on what they believed.