bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Some Aspects of the Metamorphosis of the Alimentary System in the Wasp, Vespa vulgaris (Hymenoptera)
Authors: Green T. L.
Published: August 2010

This paper describes the morphological changes of the gut of Vespa during metamorphosis, and also the histological changes which occur in the mid‐gut epithelium.

The first histological changes are observed in the late larval stage (pre‐pupa), when phenomena of disputed significance occur—the formation of globules and their apparent liberation into the gut‐lumen

This is followed by rapid multiplication of the replacement‐cells.

The bases of the histolyzing epithelial cells contain large vacuoles, and it is probable that these exert a mechanical force, pushing the epithelium away from the basement‐membrane. This process of casting is probably aided also by chemical disintegration of the cell‐bases and basement‐membrane, by the force exerted by the rapidly growing replacement‐cells, and by severe muscular peristalsis of the intestinal muscle‐layers.

The rapid proliferation of the replacement‐cells leads to the formation of the new epithelium. This is at first irregularly disposed and thrown into folds which disappear as the diameter of the gut increases.

The cast epithelium lies in the gut‐lumen, and is removed by an undetermined method, probably a combination of “auto‐digestion” and by enzymes liberated from the new cell‐layer. Phagocytosis plays no part in the process.

The early epithelium shows certain characteristic features, particularly a refringent edge, which splits away by delamination and gives rise in this manner to the peritrophic membrane which thus arises during the pupal period. There is only one pupal epithelium.

The adult morphology is attained before the imago emerges, but the cells of the epithelium are small and “cuboid.” The final histological characters (such as greater size, perinuclear space, etc.), are not at first present, and probably do not appear until after the first meal.

A discussion of the time‐relations of these various processes and consideration of the results of other investigations leads to the theory that metamorphosis is started by a single original stimulus, and though some amount of progress may follow from this, its completion appears to depend upon the serial development of other succeeding stimuli each responsible for some particular phase.
The Later Developmental Features in the Skull of Sus barbatus barbatus
Authors: Todd T. Wingate , Cooke E. V.
Published: August 2010

Abstract.

Skull growth after eruption of the third permanent molar in Sus barbatus presents the following features:–

Extension of maxilla accompanies eruption of the canine tooth. Following this additional growth takes place in the region of maxillary tuberosity.

Meantime bodily size of the animal increases and there is a vertical expansion of upper or respiratory area of face. Fronto‐parietal forward growth overbalances maxillary extension, and face buckles down and back on cranium, as in the sheep, with sliding of zygomatic processes of malar and temporal on each other. This facial buckling terminates on closure of the coronal suture.

Between the dates of closure of coronal and squamous sutures the swing of the face changes. There being no more growth above, that in the maxillary area causes the fronto‐nasal contour to increaae its forward concavity by adjustments in the hafting zone which runs from nasion to palato‐pterygoid plate. There is further sliding of malar and temporal zygomatic processes on each other, but it occurs in the reverse direction.

Increase of the muscular scaffolding now occurs, more particularly for cranio‐vertebral musculature than for masticatory muscles. Zygomata move laterally. The lambdoid crests but not the sagittal enlarge.

Some elongation of face follows by additions along the hafting line, mainly on the orbital side. Fronto‐nasal contour is not changed.

The last skull modification is produced by great masticatory muscle development. Elevation of the sagittal crest exaggerates the already existing fronto‐nasal concavity, while extension and lateral movement of the zygomata indicate the increased size of the masticatory musculature.

So‐called individual differences can thus be resolved into simple orderly growth changes,
Coral Faunas of the Red Sea and Tahiti.
Authors: Crossland C.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

The coral faunas of these extreme ends of the Indo‐Pacific area differnotably,e.g., in the predominance of Pavoniide and reduction of Astræide in Tahiti.

The reduced building power of individual Astræans of Tahiti is not found in the Red Sea.

Excessive variability and confusion of species in Tahitian collections, especially of Lobophyllia, Leptastrea, and Herpetolitha, does not occur in the Red Sea.

Growth‐form is a specific character in some corals, but seven distinct forms of growth in the genus Echinopora are described, at least six of which belong to the species E. gemmacea.

Evidence is given indicating the connection between the genera Echinopora, Orbicella, and Favia. The two former genera are very closely related.
The Ecology of Young Tadpoles, with special reference to some Adaptations to the Habit of Mass‐Spawning in Rana temporaria temporaries Linn.
Authors: Savage R. Maxwell
Published: August 2010

Summary.

Tadpoles of the Common Frog live for a few days after hatching under conditions of extreme oxygen deficiency, which would be lethal if opportunity for the exercise of the special reflexes possed by the animals were denied.

The results of fiedl observations and laboratory experiments can be simply explained by the existence of a tendeyncy to swim upwards under the influence of deficient oxygen. This reflex is developed at a very early age, for tadpoles which are insensitive to various tactile stimuli can swin 3 cm. in a vertical direction if appropriately stimulated. These young tadpoles remain motionless in well aerated water. consequently the tadpoles at the edge of the colony do not dispres, and the colony remians intact.
The Developmental Stages of Three English Barnacles, Balanus balanoides (Linn.), Chlhamalas stellatas (Poli), and Verruca stroemia (O. F. Müller).
Authors: Bassindale R.
Published: August 2010

Three English barnacles were successfully reared in cultures showing a marked plant growth. Each of the three species has six naupliar stages and a cypris stage. Tables give the sizes and the setation of the appendages of all six naupliar stages of all three species. Notes on the discrimination of the nauplii of the three species are followed by a discussion of the general features of development, and reference is made to the eight naupliar stages found in Balanus crmalus by Herz (1933).
The Subcutaneous Venous System of the Common Dogfish, Scyliorhinus [Scylliwm] caniculus (L).
Authors: Marples B. J.
Published: August 2010

This paper describes the subcutaneous venous system of Scyliorhinus (Scyllium) caniculus, the Common Dogfish. Previously no complete account of this system appears to have been given for any Selachian.

Practically the whole surface of the animal is covered by a dense network of veins.

In the trunk and tail these superficial networks drain into dorsal, ventral, and lateral longitudinal vessels.

In the pharyngeal region the superficial networks are connected directly to the underlying venous sinuses.

The veins of the fins are connected to the cutaneous venous system.

Immediately below the skin lining the mouth and pharynx are the bucco‐pharyngeal networks of veins. They cover both the dorsal and ventral walls of these cavities, and drain into the principal sinuses of the anterior part of the fish. Posteriorly they are continuous with a fine plexus of vessels surrounding the esophagus. Only the dorsal bucco‐pharyngeal vessels have been previously described.
13. Notes on the Chondrooranium and Branchial Skeleton of Salmo.
Authors: Tchernavin V.
Published: August 2010

In the adult Salmo the lower end of the hyomandibular and the upper end of the synxplectic are well ossified, but divided by a cartilage. A long palato‐quadrate cartilage is present and has a well‐developed orbital process reaching the inner edge of the mesopterygoid. In some specimens of Salmo trutta in the region of the orbital process are found two ossifications lying upon the mesopterygoid.

The branchiostegals in Salmo are asymmetrical, the left being better developed and often exceeding the right in number.

There are two copulas in the adult Salmo; the anterior is related to the hyoid arch and the first two branchial arches; the posterior copula is related to the three posterior branchial arches.

The third branchial arch has a complicated articulation with the posterior copula, i. e., by means of the anterior ends of the cerato‐branchials 3 and the posterior ends of the hypo‐branchials 3.

There are two supra‐copularies which in adult Salmo are usually fused with the basi‐branchial 3, but in some large specimens of Salmo trutta caspius the supra‐copularies are found to be independent of the proper elements of the copula.

There are two pairs of dentigerous pharyngeal plates which even in the adult Salmo do not fuse with the proper elements of the branchial arches. Separate pharyngeal teeth are usually present on the pharyngo‐branchial 3.

There are double rows of gill‐rakers (outer and inner rows) on the first four branchial arches, and one outer row on the fifth arch. The inner row of the first arch is often feebly developed, but always present.

The roof of the ethmoid cavity (anterior myodome) is present in adult Salmo, but is differently developed in different species. It is comparatively strong in S. salar, thin in S. trutta, and very thin and pierced with holes in S. trutta caspius. Small pre‐ethmoidal cavities or ducts in the cartilage of the rostrum are also present.

No true mesethmoid bone is to be found in S. salar, S. irideus, and the freshwater forms of S. trutta, but in the migratory form of S. trutta more or less developed ossifications of the ethmoid cartilage were found in some of the specimens investigated. In S. trutta caspius such ossifications were found more frequently and in fuller development. In the genus Stenodus of the same family a well‐developed true mesethmoid bone seems to be constantly present.

In no case in Salmo or in Stenodus does the supra‐ethmoid fuse with the true mesethmoid bone. In one of the specimens of Salmo salar examined no nasal was present on the right side, and the mucous canals, which normally would be present in the nasal bone, were enclosed in the right side of the supra‐ethmoid.

Some of the characters of the skull of Salmo have undoubted taxonomic significance, and, anticipating the account of my investigations on the group of Oncorhynchus, these characters are summarised in the following table.
The Ecology of Young Tadpoles, with Special Reference to Carbohydrate Changes in Development, and to the Function of the Envelope
Authors: Savage R. Maxwell
Published: August 2010

Comparisons have been made between the final quantities of total carbohydrate in young tadpoles, just before they commence to feed, which have been left on the jelly envelopes, removed into plain water, or placed on a number of artificial media containing carbohydrates. There are no significant differences.

 Microscopical comparisons have been made on tadpoles from the same batches. No differences have been found.

 Batches of eggs from four species have been followed day by day all through development and the total carbohydrate determined. It is found that all show similar features: an initial period with only small changes, but a tendency for an increase to take place in the first few days; a sharp drop just about hatching time; and, finally, a period to the end of embryonic development in which there are only very slight changes.

 Nutrition is not a function of the envelope.

 It is suggested that the envelope is a heat storage device.
The Growth of Coenis horaria (L.), Leptophlebia vespertina (L.), and L. marginata (L.) (Ephemeroptera)
Authors: Moon H. P.
Published: August 2010

The results obtained from the measurements of the growth in length of three Ephemeropteran nymphs are described. The nymphs were Coenis horaria (L.), Leptophlebia vespertina (L.), and L. marginata (L.).

 The measurements were made with a projection apparatus.

 The growth curves show that in winter Coenis does not grow, while in Leptophlebia growth continues.

 The factors responsible for this difference in growth appear to be food and temperature. Both Leptophlebia and Coenis are detritus feeders, but Coenis evidently requires a detritus enriched by the fragments of filamentous littoral algae.

 The renewal of growth in Coenis coincides with the increased growth of littoral algae and rise of temperature in spring. At this time the gut contents of Coenis contains large quantities of filamentous algae.
The Coral Reefs at Ghardaqa, Red Sea
Authors: Crossland Cyril
Published: August 2010

After supplementary notes on the structure of the Red Sea coast, the coral fauna, and decay of corals, the distribution of corals in the neighbourhood of the Biological Station of the Egyptian University is described and charted, showing that extension and recession of reefs go on in the same area. The latter is connected with the breadth of the reef, and consequent cooling and fouling of the water. A series of small reefs showing stages from embryonic to senile is described, and the ecologic puzzle of shoals covered with Galaxea alone, while others in the neighbourhood of these bear mixed corals and alcyonaria. The relationship between coral and alcyonaria is an important problem for reef students.
The Distribution of the Spawn‐ponds of the Common Frog, Rana temporaria temporaria Linn., over a portion of the London Clay and associated Drift
Authors: Savage R. Maxwell
Published: August 2010

The distribution of spawn ponds of the frog in an area with a varied geology is not at random. The frogs avoid London Clay ponds.

 Significant relationships have been found between the potassium content of the water of ponds and the presence or absence of spawn. Carbonates also affect the spawn distribution.

 There is some evidence that concrete ponds or concrete structures in streams favourably affect the chances that frogs will spawn at such places.

 Pollution by sewage seems a favourable factor.

 The mechanism by which such factors can act is discussed, and it is suggested that indirect action is most likely, through the intermediary of the micro‐flora.
Hypophysectomy and Growth in the Axolotl, Amblystoma tigrinum (Green), Neotenic Form
Authors: Howes N. H.
Published: August 2010

Hypophysectomy has little or no effect upon growth in neotenous Amblystoma tigrinum.

 Regression of the gonads appears to be compensated at least partly by increase in size of the fat‐body and possibly also by slightly accelerated growth of the remainder of the body.

 The ratio food intake/weight gained is unaltered by hypophysectomy in young actively‐growing axolotls, and slightly but not significantly raised in sexually mature larvæ.

 Following the operation the behaviour of the gonads is exactly like that already described by Burns and Buyse (1931) for this species. This closely resembles their behaviour in Xenopus lævis (Bellerby and Hogben, 1938).
The Function of the Halteres of Flies (Diptera)
Authors: Fraenkel Gottfried
Published: August 2010

In agreement with nearly all the older authors, and in disagreement with v. Buddenbrock, the disturbance of flight after removal of the halteres in flies consists of a loss of equilibrium. The effects of the removal of the halteres are almost eliminated by fixing a piece of cotton to the tip of the abdomen. This stabilizes the flight and largely compensates for the loss of equilibrium otherwise incurred.

 v. Buddenbrock's conception of a purely stimulatory function for the halteres cannot be maintained; the loss in irritability and spontaneity produced in flies by removing the halteres is largely a shock effect.

 The halteres vibrate during walking. No explanation for this phenomenon has been so far found.

 In the Drosophila mutant “vestigial” reduction of wings and halteres runs parallel. In the mutant “bithorax” the increase in size of the halteres is accompanied by a complete loss of their function, so that flight of the intact “bithorax” is of the same unbalanced type as of the normal wild Drosophila without halteres.

 Generally in Diptera reduction of wings and halteres runs parallel.

 In co‐operation with Dr. J. W. S. Pringle a new theory of the function of the halteres has been advanced which regards the halteres as equilibrium organs functioning by the gyroscopic action of the vibrating haltere on the sense‐organs in the base of the haltere.
ADAPTATION PECTJTJAB TO SOME DIPBOTODONT MABSUPIALS: 15. A Masticatory Adaptation peculiar to some Diprotodont Marsupials
Authors: Abbie A. A.
Published: August 2010

1. A foramen and a canal, referred to respectively as the masseteric foramen and masseteric canal, which occur in the mandible of many of the Diprotodontia, are described, and their incidence is recorded.

2. The foramen transmits a branch of the inferior dental artery to a specialized expansion of the deep part of the masseter in the canal.

3. This masseteric development supplements the lateral pterygoid in the production of lateral movements of the jaw; it affords also increased leverage to the mandible.

4. This condition is peculiar to, but not constantly present in, the Diprotodontia.
Reproduction of the Field Vole, Microtus agrestis hirtus Bellamy
Authors: Brambell F. W. Rogers , Hall Kathleen
Published: August 2010

The reproduction of the Field Vole, Microtus agrestis hirtus (Bellamy), was investigated. The sex‐ratio was found to be 50.45±2.26 males per cent. The breeding season extends from the middle of March to September or even October, but males are fecund a month earlier in spring. Animals born early in the year breed during the same season, when only a few weeks old. Animals born late in the season do not attain puberty until the following year. The mean number of ova ovulated at oestrus is 5.5; the mean number of embryos in utero is 5.0. The female has a polycestrous cycle. Young females frequently experience one or more diœstrous cycles after puberty before becoming pregnant. A post partum oestrus follows parturition; many animals then becoming pregnant although lactating. Animals which do not become pregnant at the post partum oestrus enter a period of ancestrus while lactating, which may be followed by the recurrence of oestrus.

We wish to express our thanks to Mr. D. H. S. Davis for providing us with the 22 females of M. agrestis neglectus (Thompson) and to all those who assisted in the collection of the material. Our thanks are due to the Rt. Hon. Lord Penrhyn for permission to trap on his estates. The expenses of this research were defrayed in part by a grant from the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society to one of us (F, W. R, B.), which we gratefully acknowledge.
On the Birth and Upbringing of the Female Chimpanzee “Jacqueline” (born 28/11/37 in the Zoological Gardens, London).
Authors: Budd Arthur , Smith L. G.
Published: August 2010

.In summarising these short surveys, we find the progress of “Jubilee” was assured by the keepers' disciplinary powers over the mother in enforcing her to nurse the baby, plus their additional individual help to the infant. Without this, “Jubilee's” satisfactory development would have been very doubtful.

Careful nursing of “June,” owing to her weakness at birth, was of vital importance. “Sally,” in addition to being a good mother, allowed her keepers to attend her baby, and in consequence of this co‐operation, “June's” development was very progressive. The very cold spell which intervened was responsible for the decline in the mother's health and the cause of the infant developing broncho‐pneumonia. The refusal of “Sally” to allow us to nurse her young one during her illness finally decided her baby's death. The good development of “June,” aided by the co‐operative nursing, and her death caused by the cold and lack of nursing, further demonstrated the necessity for human aid.

“Jacqueline,” the third of our captive‐born Chimpanzees, developed with artificial feeding, under conditions of a modern nursery. Through this individual attention and treatment given to the infant, her rate of progress was in advance, and her final physical condition was better than any of the other apes born in the gardens.

Slow and very poor physical development was the result of “Sally” nursing her second infant “Noel.” This seems to prove conclusively that the chances of successfully rearing young captive‐born Chimpanzees depends on the sociability and understanding between the mothers and their keepers. It also suggests the similarity to human nursing and the beneficial results of the modern nutritional and anti‐deficiency disease diets.
The Reproductive Cycle of the Female Weasel (Mustela nivalis)
Authors: Deanesly Ruth
Published: August 2010

The reproductive cycle of the female weasel (Mustela nivalis) has been studied by the examination of the ovaries, uterus, etc., in 114 animals killed in the field. Some additional weasels were kept in captivity for periods varying up to sixteen months. Pregnancies are most common in April or May, but they will occur in any month from March till August. Weasels having their first litter in the spring can breed again in the summer. The majority of weasels do not breed until their second season, but some born in spring become pregnant in late summer. Anœstrus commonly lasts from September till February, but in individual animals the first œstrus may not occur until May or even June. It is estimated that pregnancy and lactation together last about 10 weeks. Histologically, the reproductive organs resemble those of the ferret and stoat. The number of corpora lutea in the two ovaries varies from 4–11, with an average of 7. Six or seven fœtuses were found in the small number of pregnancies in which they could be counted. It seems probable that in the weasel ovulation is dependent upon copulation.

The collection of weasels described in this paper was begun by Dr. A. S. Parkes, F.R.S., in 1930, and later continued by Dr. M. Hill. I am much indebted to Dr. Hill for transferring to me her sectioned material, with extensive records, notes, measurements anti micro‐photographs, when circumstances made it impossible for her to complete the work. The micro‐photographs, except for two, are the work of Mr. F. J. Pittock.

Rather more than half the female weasels were obtained through the co‐operation of Professor F. W. R. Brambell, and his continued help has been greatly appreciated.
11. A Systematic Study of the Main Arteries in the Region of the Heart. Aves: Piciformes*
Authors: Glenny Fred H.
Published: August 2010

Eight species of Ramphastidæ, 11 species of Capitonidæ, six species of Bucconidæ, two species of Indicatoridæ, and 45 species of Picidæ were studied, and descriptions with diagrams of the main arteries in the region of the neck and thorax prepared. Suggestive differences in the arrangement‐patterns of the arteries were recorded with reference to the basic Order pattern and the Family variation. Presence of the ligamentous vestiges of the left radix aortæ, right ductus botalli, and right ductus caroticus were noted along with the presence of a patent ductus caroticus in Dryobates v. villosus. Possible phyletic relationships between other orders of birds were indicated by the arterial arrangement. All families of the Picidæ were found to be “laevo‐carotidinæ” whereas in the Coraciiformes some families were “lævo‐carotidinæ” while others were “bicarotidinæ normales.” The ductus shawi was shown to be the functionally modified ductus caroticus and was found to be a vessel which results from anastomoses with other smaller arteries which form in situ during middle to late embryogeny. The tendency for a large number of anastomoses of major embryonic vessels, with a few pertinent examples, was noted.
A Revision of the Type‐localities of Mammals occurring in the Tanganyika Territory
Authors: Swynnerton G. H.
Published: August 2010

This paper deals with the type‐localities of mammals.

The area covered is that enclosed within the political boundaries of the Tanganyika Territory, together with the adjacent islands comprising the Zanzibar Protectorate. With two exceptions, no localities lying outside this area are mentioned.

Type‐localities are considered alphabetically. After the description of a type‐locality follows a list of the species and sub‐species described from that locality. Alternate and obsolete names are included.

To those interested in statistics it may be recorded that this paper contains 217 localities of which 38 are obsolete or alternate names or cross‐references, leaving a balance of 179 actual type‐localities.

The names of 304 species and sub‐species which have been described from the above area are given, of which the large number of 98 have been described wholly or in part by the German systematist, Dr. P. Matschie.

A result of the lack of suitable books of reference during the compilation of this paper is that it has been impossible to come to any definite conclusions concerning the exact type‐localities of about ten species. It is hoped that these outstanding problems will be cleared up at a later date.
The Delayed Development of the Stomach in the Frog (Rana temporaria) and the Toad (Bufo bufo).
Authors: Barrington E. J. W.
Published: August 2010

Summary

An account is given of the structure of the anterior end of the alimentary canal of the frog and toad tadpole. It is shown that there lies between the pharynx and the main intestine (mid‐gut) a clearly defined fore‐gut, characterized by the possession of an epithelium composed of ciliated and mucous cells which are distributed according to a definite pattern.

At metamorphosis the oesophagus and stomach differentiate out of the fore‐gut, and the presence in the latter of the ciliated and mucous cells clearly foreshadows this fate, since cilia are found in the oesophagus of the adult, and mucous cells characterize both this region and the stomach. It is further possible that two types of mucous cell visible in the fore‐gut may foreshadow the goblet cells of the future oesophagus and the gastric epithelial cells of the future stomach, but this is less certain.

The so‐called “stomach” of the frog tadpole lies in the fore‐gut region and possesses gland‐like structures which, however, differ histologically from those of the adult stomach. Tests for pepsin and amylase have given negative results, and it is doubtful whether the organ is zymogenous. It is altogether absent from the toad.

Pepsin first becomes identifiable in the fore‐gut region of the frog and toad after the emergence of the anterior limbs, at the time when the definitive glands are forming. Thus gastric digestion does not occur in the larva, and the structure of the epithelium indicates that this may be ascribed to a retardation in the rate of differentiation of the oesophagus and stomach. Possible reasons for this are discussed in the light of the reported occurrence of true gastric digestion in urodele larvae, and of the differences in feeding habits of the larvae of the two groups.
The Fibre Tracts of the Fore brain of the American Diamond ‐ Back Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus)
Authors: Warner Francis James
Published: August 2010

The septa1 nuclei are larger than the corresponding cell groups in Varanus salvator or Chameleon vulgaris.

The corpus striatum consists of three cell groups, which are the paleostriatum, neostriatum, and the archistriatum.

The cortex of the forebrain has three divisions as in other reptiles, the lateral pyriform cortex, the dorsal parahippocampal cortex, and the hippocampal cortex.

The hippocampal and anterior commissures in Crotalus adam, nteus are similar to those of Varanus salvator.

The fornix is not as large or as heavily medullated as the one described in Varanus salvator by De Lange (1911).

A tractus cortico‐archistriaticus was found, similar to the one noted by De Lange (1911) and Herman (1925) in Varanus salvator.

A tractus cortico‐neostriaticus was noted in Crotalus adamanteus which was not, however, as large as in Varanus salvator.

The nuclei of the forebrainand the arrangement of the fibre tracts resemble those of the Lacertilia more closely than those of the Chelonia or the Hydrosauria.
On an Intersexual Wild Brown Rat. Rattus norvegicus (Erxleben).
Authors: Matthews L Harrison
Published: August 2010

An intersexual specimen of the wild brown rat R. norvegicus is described, in which the derivatives of the urogenital sinus have developed so that externally the animal is a female, whereas internally the gonads, ducts and accessory glands are male, though imperfect. The possibility of this condition being produced by the ante‐natal action of oestrogenic substances on a genetic male is discussed.
The Moult and Gonad Cycles of Three Species of Birds at Five Degrees South of the Equator.
Authors: Moreau R. E. , Wilk A. L. , Rowan. W.
Published: August 2010

Histological and moult data are given for series of three species collected at fortnightly intervals over one year at Amani, an evergreen locality in Africa at 5 °. The species are Colius (Mousebird, a small non‐passerine) and two Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls), one, Phyllastrephus, living inside the forest, and the other, Pycnonotus, outside.

Moult is regular, concentrated and seasonal in both Pycnonotidae; “early” stage and even “mid” stage of wing‐moult are found in both these birds concurrently with enlarged testes and free sperms. These conditions do not seem to have been reported before for small passerines. In Colius moult is irregular and proceeds indefinitely irrespective of testis‐state: continuance of wing‐moult through the breeding season seems hitherto to have been recognized only in large birds dependent on full wing‐efficiency for their livelihood.

In all three species testes are biggest from September to March, when they regress sharply and do not approach the maximum again till August. These results accord with field observations on nests. In the resting period, which covers the “long rains” and the subsequent cool season, the internal state of the testes is like that of temperate‐zone birds in winter. Recrudescence takes place when there has been practically no increase in temperature above the annual minimum and day‐length is increasing at less than 20 seconds a day. Lines of further research are suggested.

The annual increase in testis size is about 30 times in the Pycnonotidae and 8 in the Colius. Other data for tropical and temperate‐zone species are quoted, from which it appears that the latter tend to have a much greater increase in testis size (up to 2,000 times). In Amani birds spermatogenesis commonly takes place in testes that have not attained full size.

In the ovaries atretic follicles, rare in temperate‐zone birds, are abundant and may be an adaptation to high nest‐mortality.
The Biology of Two Species of Folliculinidae (Ciliata, Heterolricha) found at Cullercoats, with a Note on the British Species of the Family.
Authors: Das S. M.
Published: August 2010

(1) Two species of Folliculinidae are recorded from Cullercoats which have not been previously reported from Great Britain.

(2) The size, shape, and structure of Folliculinopsis producta Wright var. nov. elongata is somewhat different from the F. producta Wright described by various workers from the Continent and U.S.A.

(3) Fission, formation of larva, case secretion, and metamorphosis into adult have been described in F. producta Wright var. nov. elongata.

(4) Folliculina simplex Dons has the characteristic structure and life‐history described by Faureć‐Fremiet (1936). The mode of feeding in F. simplex has been recorded.

(5) It has been established that the extremely long tube of F. producta var. nov. elongata is single and is formed by one larva alone. In this variety it is not the result of an end to end arrangement of the secondary tubes of successive daughter individuals described by Andrews and Fauré‐Fremiet in Folliciulinopsis producta Wright.

(6) It has been shown for the first time that the spiral ridge on the tube of F. producta is formed by a specialized spiral band of cilia on the neck of the larva.
A Revision of our Knowledge of African Elephants' Teeth, with notes on Forest and “Pygmy” Elephants.
Authors: Morrison‐Scott T. C. S.
Published: August 2010

The problem is to decide, given an African elephant's tooth, the position of that tooth in the series of six.

This has been done hitherto by reference to the “ridge formula” whose origin is discussed, and which is shown (a) to have been commonly misinterpreted, and (b) to have been inaccurate in any case.

The misleading results, including alleged evidence in support of the existence of a “pygmy” elephant, which resulted from this, are discussed.

It has been found impossible to construct a ridge formula which would be of any use in the determination of the position of a tooth in the series and other methods are proposed including the use of two new indices—the laminary index and the enamel‐loop index.

The conclusion is arrived at that teeth numbers I and II may always be identified with certainty, number III with fair certainty, and number VI with much less certainty. Numbers IV and V are not at all easily to be distinguished.
The interaction of Environmental and Genetic Factors in determining the Weight of Grain Weevils, Calandra granaria (L.) (Col., Curculionidae)
Authors: Richards O. W.
Published: August 2010

Cultures which are deep (up to 11‐0 cm.), more densely inhabited by larvae (up to 150 life per 100 grains), produce heavier weevils. The central part or the bottom half of a culture produces heavier weevils than the top part. Cultures left undisturbed produce heavier weevils than those which are disturbed earlier.

The weevils from nearly all cultures exhibit a weight‐cycle. The first ones to emerge are light; those that emerge at the time of maximum emergence are heaviest and those which emerge last are lightest. On the whole, conditions which produce heavier weevils induce a more marked weight‐cycle.

Nearly all the effects described in (1) and (2) must be ascribed to the influence of the metabolic products which accumulate to a greater extent in deep and crowded cultures. Part of the weight‐cycle, however, is due to genetic factors, so that it may be observed in very shallow cultures, A weight above the mean is correlated with a shorter developmental period and both characters are inherited.

There is no evidence that reduction of weight in overcrowded cultures or at the end of the emergence period is due to competition of larvae within the grain.

Larger grains produce heavier weevils, even though the whole of the grain is not utilized by the larva.

Deeper, more heavily infested cultures become hotter, damper and accumulate more CO2. Some evidence was obtained that accumulated CO2 reduces the weight of weevils. None was found for the view that water affects weight. The physiological basis for the increase in weight in deeper, more crowded cultures is not known.

There appear to be two principal genetic weight types in Calandra granaria. When cultured in 3times1‐in. tubes, these have mean weights of 1–90 and 2–46 mg. In the small line a subsidiary type of mean weight 2–07 mg. could later be selected out. In both lines weevils whose mean weight was more than 5 per cent, below the mean of the line produced very few offspring. Selection for larger size in the large line was ineffective, partly because of differential fecundity.

There was some evidence for the occurrence of a gene producing premature death of the adult weevils in the last two inbred generations.

Weevils increase in weight by about 5 per cent, in about the first third of their lives. On the whole, lighter weevils and those with a shorter developmental period tend to put on more weight, though not enough to obscure any initial weight‐cycle.

It is suggested that population studies should pay more attention to the quality as well as to the numbers of the insects produced.
Polythelia in a Chimpanzee
Authors: Matthews L. Harrison , Baxter James S.
Published: August 2010

The first recorded case of symmetrical functional supernumerary nipples in a female Chimpanzee is reported and described.
The Cerebral Blood Supply in the Giraffidae
Authors: Lawrence W.E. , Rewell R.E.
Published: August 2010

The course of the external carotid artery in the Giraffe and Okapi is described. Unfortunately, the Okapi was a defective specimen.

In both there is a well‐developed carotid sinus with the usual innervation from the ninth and tenth cranial nerves.

In the Giraffe only the external carotid runs into the rete mirabile caroticum. This has no connection with the vertebral artery, and blood can be shunted from it through the occipital artery and another vessel which is possibly homologous with the internal carotid, into the vertebral artery when the animal lowers its head. Both these short circuits arise together from the carotid sinus and presumably are controlled by reflexes from it.

In the Okapi any connection between occipital and vertebral must be very small. The second connection with the carotid sinus is present, but this may not act a shunt since it was not possible to be certain that was no connections between the vertebral artery and the rete mirabile.

The shunt mechanism would thus appear to be an adaptation to the presence of the excessively long neck in the Giraffe.
On the Evolution of the Skull and Teeth in the Erinaceidae, with Special Reference to Fossil Material in the British Museum
Authors: Butler P. M.
Published: August 2010

A comparative study is made of external features of the skull in the recent genera of Erinaceidae. An account of the dentition and occlusal relations is also given, including some characteristic features of the root‐pattern, hitherto undescribed.

A description is given of the Oligoccne and Miocene Erinaceid material in the British Museum (Natural History). This includes a well‐preserved cranium of Neurogymnurus cayluxi which shows the structure of the tympanic cavity, the orbitotemporal region and the ethmoturbinals.

Neurogymnurus minor Lydekker is transferred to the genus Galerix. A new genus (Mioechinus) is created for Erinaceus oeningensis Lydekker, and Erinaceus sansaniensis Lartet is provisionally placed in this genus. The name Amphechinus Aymard is substituted for Palaeoerinaceus Filhol on grounds of priority, and certain differences between specimens from the L. Oligocene, U. Oligocene and L. Miocene are noted.

The inter‐relationships of the genera of Erinaceidae are discussed, and the conclusions reached differ in some respects from those of Leche (1902). Echinosorex (Gynmura) is rather closely related to Hylomys, but specialized in various characters, though showing a more primitive arrangement of the anterior teeth. Galerix, which appears to resemble Hylomys in its skull, is probably not far from the ancestry of the recent Echinosoricinae. Lanthanotherium shares with the recent Echinosoricinae a characteristic type of M3. Tupaiodon, which possesses the most primitive upper molar pattern known in the family, is probably related to Galerix. Neurogymnurus is placed in a new subfamily, Neurogymnurinae, on account of the structure of the mastoid region of the skull. The North American genera Brachyerix and Metechinus are not closely related to the Erinaceinae, but should probably be placed in the Neurogymnurinae. The recent Erinaceinae are probably derived from Amphechinus, the enlarged incisors of that genus becoming secondarily reduced. Mioechinus is in a number of respects intermediate between Amphechinus and the recent Erinaceinae. Amphechinus approaches the Echinosoricinae in many cranial characters.

The following tribal names are proposed: Galericini, Echinosoricini, Neurogymnurini, Brachyericini, Protericini, Erinaceini.

The hypothetical Eocene Erinaceidae probably had skulls like Hylomys, and dentitions like Galerix except that the molar pattern resembled Tupaiodon. It is most likely that they were mainly Old World in distribution. The North American genera Entomolestes, Xenacodon and Nyctitherium are considered as possible early Erinaceidae, though probably not ancestral types.

A new family, Metacodontidae, is created for Metacodon, Plesiosorex and Meterix, which are of very doubtful affinities.

The arrangement of turbinal bones in Neurogymnurus is very similar to that of Erinaceus. A scheme of homologies between the ethmoturbinals of Insectivores and Marsupials is put forward, and a new nomenclature suggested.
Notes on the Keeping of a Baby Common Seal (Phoca vitulina).
Authors: Bossanyi. J.
Published: August 2010

An attempt has been made at the Marine Station, Millport, to rear a baby female common seal. It was found in an obviously unhappy condition, following a yacht, and was therefore picked up and brought in. Although the attempt was unsuccessful, a few notes on it may be of interest for future reference.
The larval stages of Balanus crenatus Bruguière
Authors: Pyefinch K.A.
Published: August 2010

A description is given of the larval stages of Balanus crenatus and the number of naupliar stages found compared with those described for this species by Herz (1933).

Six naupliar stages were found in the present investigation, whereas Herz has described eight naupliar stages. It is suggested that the second and fifth stages described by Herz are missing from the present sequence.

The number of naupliar stages found in the present survey agrees with that of other species of barnacle which have feeding nauplii. Though the sequence described by Herz may not be typical, variations in the larval sequence of one species at different points in its area of distribution cannot be dismissed as completely impossible.
The Lateral Sensory Canals of Larval Notopterus.
Authors: Omarkhan M.
Published: August 2010

In larval Notopterus the latero‐sensory canals in the head are extraordinarily spacious and run through the head like huge tunnels. The canal‐system is remarkable in not possessing any opening to the exterior. The disposition of the canals follows the generalized Teleostean pattern. The cavity of the supraorbital canal is isolated from the rest of the system. There are, altogether, 36 neuromasts enclosed within the canals on each side of the head innervated in the typical Teleostean manner. The lateral canal of the body has not yet been formed, and is represented by a row of sense organs located in the epidermis and opening to the exterior. The course of the various canals, the bones associated with them, the histology of the canals and the neuromasts, and the structure of the cupulae, are described. The chemical nature of the cupulae is discussed. It has proved to be problematical. The: development of the latero‐sensory system shows some modifications in comparison to other teleosts. Primary pores are not formed, the system arises from the early stages as a closed system in the head region. The nature of the secondary association of the latero‐sensory canal system with the ear in Notopterus and Gymnarchus, and in some members of Gadidae, Muraenidae and Clupeidae is discussed. It is suggested that as a result of this association the latero‐sensory canal system tends to become modified in two ways; reduction in the external communication, ultimately in some forms leading to a total loss; and increase in the size of the canals. Notopterus shows a high degree of specialization in these directions.
The Anatomy and Histology of the Head, Gut and Associated Structures of Typhlocyba ulmi.
Authors: Willis Daphne M.
Published: August 2010

The arrangement of the sclerites forming the head‐capsule, and the internal anatomy of the head are described. The tentorium consists of one transverse and two longitudinal bars. The sucking‐pump is composed of a thin dorsal epipharynx and a thick, ventral hypopharynx. This structure does not represent a true pharynx. The method of suction is described. Evidence regarding the structure and function of the gustatory organ is given.

The salivary pump lies in the hypopharynx and has two large pumpmuscles inserted on it. No valvular arrangement is present at the point of entry of the salivary duct. The ejaculatory duct runs along the hypopharynx lip to the salivary canal within the stylets.

The two pairs of stylets and their musculature are described. Retort organs are present in the nymphal stages. A maxillary bar has been observed, but no mandibular lever is present.
Caballine and Zebrine Horses in the Norfolk Forest Beds
Authors: Pirlot Paul
Published: August 2010

The fossil remains of a large form of Equus caballus L. and of Equus robustus Pomel found in the Norfolk Forest Beds have been described. Most of the specimens are upper or lower cheek‐teeth, but there is a small number of limb‐bones.

The variability of the dimensions of the third and fourth lower pre‐molars has been expressed numerically.

There is not enough material known from the different localities at which the fossils were collected to show whether there are any significant differences between the various lots of fossils.
A theory of the relations of lateral lines to dermal bones.
Authors: PARRINGTON F. R.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

The current view that the pattern of the dermal bones of early fishes was determined primarily by the neuromasts of the lateral‐liue system is considered to be unsatisfactory for three reasons. It results in the establishment of homologies which are suspect on general grounds, it fails to account for the established relations between dermal bones and lateral lines of early amphibia, and it is not in accordance with experimental evidence.

It is maintained that developmental relations between the lateral‐line system and dermal bones of at least the early fishes and early amphibia must be held to exist because in the majority of cases the lateral lines pass directly from one centre of ossification to the next, because lateral lines are in the majority of cases associated with bones which are apparently homologous, because bones associated with branches of the lateral‐line system both develop and evolve ahead of those not so associated, and because in the case of certain modern fishes the earliest appearance of bone cells is known to be in the immediate neighbourhood of neuromasts.

It is contended that if the assumption is made that precursors of dermal bones affect the courses of developing lateral‐line primordia, the developmental association between lateral lines and dermal bones can be accounted for without introducing the difficulties engendered by the current hypotheses. Fields are hypothesized, with their centres at the points of future centres of ossification, which have the property of attracting growing lateral‐line primordia towards them, and changes in either the spatial relations or the relative intensities of these fields are believed to account for changes in the courses of lateral lines. It is held that this conception does not invalidate the belief that the presence of neuromasts may be responsible for the early appearance of osteoblasts in their neighbourhood.

The courses of certain branches of the lateral line system close to the sutures between dermal bones are accounted for as a result of lateral lines developing under the direction of gradient‐fields through areas in which the bone‐precursor fields are relatively weak.

It is suggested that the lateral‐line branches of certain labyrinthodonts which pass neither to centres of ossification nor along sutures indicate the presence of bone‐precursor fields the areas of which were later swamped by neighbouring ossifications. They probably indicate the temporary survival of the precursors of the intertemporal bones.
A comparative study of the anterior superior dental nerve
Authors: RAY L. J.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

A comparative study of the course of the anterior superior dental nerve has been made.

In all the types studied the nerve to the incisor teeth was derived from the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve.

The anterior superior dental nerve affords an example, in these forms, of a nerve crossing a suture line whilst traversing a canal in bone.

Some of the implications of the observations have been mentioned.