bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Changing job boundaries and workforce reform: the case of teaching assistants
Authors: Bach Stephen , Kessler Ian , Heron Paul
Published: January 2006

A prominent feature of the restructuring of work in the public services has been the growing importance of assistant roles. This article examines the regulation of teaching assistant (TA) roles in 10 primary schools. It examines entry into TA roles, the structure of TA roles and the consequences of TA roles for teachers and assistants. The article develops a series of arguments to explain the variations in the TA workforce between authorities and schools.
Adjusting to the national minimum wage: constraints and incentives to change in six low‐paying sectors
Authors: Grimshaw Damian , Carroll Marilyn
Published: January 2006

Interest in the national minimum wage (NMW) includes not only its direct impact on employment and wages, but also its indirect impact on organisational performance resulting from a reorientation of employer behaviour with regard to employment practices and product market competition. Drawing on data from small firms in six low‐paying sectors, this article identifies three key constraints that have undermined the possible effect of the NMW in generating a virtuous cycle between employment practices and product market approach. These constraints relate to product market conditions, employer norms and labour market institutions (especially training).
The German model of employee relations on trial: negotiated and unilaterally imposed change in multi‐national companies
Authors: Williams Karen , Geppert Mike
Published: January 2006

This article investigates the effects of negotiated and unilaterally imposed change on employee relations in the German subsidiaries of a Finnish and a German multi‐national company (MNC). We look at how the strategies affect the sustainability of the current German model of employee relations and highlight some of the disadvantages of this model for global MNCs.
Effects of the ‘principle of non‐discrimination’ on temporary agency work: compensation and working conditions of temporary agency workers in 15 European countries
Authors: Nienhüser Werner , Matiaske Wenzel
Published: January 2006

This article examines, with reference to Europe (EU‐15), whether temporary agency workers experience less favourable working conditions and compensation than employees with a standard employment contract. Furthermore, it analyses whether the same differences exist in European countries with and without the principle of non‐discrimination in force. The results show that discrimination of temporary workers persists even when we control for other factors. Second, in countries with the principle of non‐discrimination in force, the discrimination is higher with respect to employer‐provided training.
Sociopolitical control among parents of school‐age children in a post‐socialist city
Authors: Markward Martha , Mateeva Antoaneta , Markova Tania , Petrov Rumen , Markova Galina , Chernova Anna
Published: January 2006

This study explored sociopolitical control among parents of school‐age children in a suburban municipality of a large post‐socialist city. The participants completed a questionnaire that asked them about their sense of sociopolitical control in terms of leadership competence and policy control, as well as about other aspects of their lives, including mental health. The findings show that the participants have a greater sense of sociopolitical control in terms of leadership competence than in terms of policy control. Moreover, the findings show that voting in the last presidential election and degree of depression influenced negatively the sense of leadership competence among parti‐cipants. Within the context of empowerment, the findings have implications for practice which focuses on consumer‐based activities that allow citizens more leadership opportunities and control at the local level. Future research is needed that replicates this study, taking into account its limitations. In order for citizens in post‐socialist countries to create civil societies at the same time that they implement market economies, they must be empowered. Some evidence suggests that several factors, including mental health problems, may influence the sense of empowerment among citizens in post‐socialist coun‐tries. Within the context of empowerment, this study examines sociopolitical control among citizens in a suburb of a large post‐socialist city. The findings in the study have implications for social welfare practice in this city and for future research.
European schemes of social assistance: an empirical analysis of set‐ups and distributive impacts
Authors: Hölsch Katja , Kraus Margit
Published: January 2006

This article analyses the distributive impacts of various statutory and institutional settings of European schemes of social assistance. For this purpose, two sets of classifications of European schemes of social assistance are introduced, which classify the systems according to their level and statutory settings and according to their degree of centralisation, respectively. Subsequently, the distributive impacts of seven selected EU systems are calculated on the basis of Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) data and their relationship to class assignment is investigated. We find that a high share of social assistance recipients in the population concurs with better distributive effectiveness, while a higher social assistance budget or higher benefit levels do not necessarily yield a better performance. Various forms of targeting seem to enhance distributive efficiency. Concerning centralisation, the results do not show that a certain degree of centralisation yields better results with regard to distributive effectiveness or efficiency.
Intake strategies: organising the intake of new social assistance inquirers
Authors: Minas Renate
Published: January 2006

This article looks at how the intake of new social assistance clients is organised in Sweden and which factors affect the existence of special intake units, using interview and register data from 100 Swedish municipalities. The discussion is organised along two distributional principles: that of general access for all citizens and that of social assistance only to those who are in need. The results show that different intake types can be distinguished: to promote or limit both access to the social assistance units and the possibility for selection among the callers. Examining factors that affect the organisation of intake in special intake units, the results show that factors related to the economic and demographic structure of the municipalities have no, or only in indirect, effect on the organisation of intake. Intake is instead mainly related to the structure of the whole social assistance unit. In addition, some factors related to professional norms have an impact.
Towards a better understanding of welfare policy development in developing nations: a case study of South Korea's pension system
Authors: Kim Shinyoung
Published: January 2006

This study examines the developmental trajectory of South Korea's public pension programme from 1973 to 1999. Its theoretical aim is to use the South Korean case to verify the partial relevance of existing welfare state theories and to develop a more incorporated theoretical framework in which the evolution of welfare in nations other than affluent Western democracies can be understood. For this purpose, the South Korean case holds a unique strategic advantage as a result of the significant democratisation of the political regime that has taken place. South Korea additionally possesses several qualities usually considered critical for the development of a welfare state, such as economic development, expansion of civil society and globalisation.
Social capital and children's wellbeing: a critical synthesis of the international social capital literature
Authors: Ferguson Kristin M.
Published: January 2006

Drawing on social capital literature from the international realm, this article presents a critical synthesis of this social resource in relation to children's and youth's wellbeing. Although considerable evidence indicates that social capital can have a positive impact on future outcomes for children and youth, no prior comprehensive review exists of the literature on social capital and children's wellbeing. Adopting the systematic review method (SR), the author explores how social capital has been conceptualised and operationalised as an explanatory variable in research on individual and collective wellbeing with children and youth. Oft‐cited indicators of family social capital and community social capital are identified, together with common control variables, such as human and financial capital. The author concludes by examining several social capital trends in relation to children's wellbeing and offering recommendations for future research using a social capital theoretical framework to explore additional outcomes related to children's and youth's wellbeing.
The importance of social circumstances for Swedish women's subjective wellbeing
Authors: Bergman Lars R. , Daukantaite Daiva
Published: January 2006

The importance of social circumstances for middle‐age women's general subjective wellbeing (SWB) was investigated in a representative sample of Swedish women, aged 43 (N = 369). The results showed non‐existent to moderate relationships between a number of social circumstances variables and general SWB. The strongest relationship was found between marital status and global life satisfaction. Being off work because of illness and household income were the strongest predictors of negative affect. A moderate relationship was found between a cumulated social disadvantage index and SWB, indicating that extreme differences in this index were related to fairly large differences in SWB. In person‐oriented analyses, social circumstances were compared between women with a typical profile of generalised low SWB and women with a typical profile of generalised above‐average SWB. The results indicated stronger relationships between SWB and the cumulative disadvantage index and unemployment than was the case in the variable‐oriented analyses. When personality factors were controlled for, they eliminated nearly all relationships between the social circumstances variables and SWB, except for those between global life satisfaction and marital status or unemployment.
In support of mothers’ employment: limits to policy convergence in the EU?
Authors: Avdeyeva Olga
Published: January 2006

This article compares 11 Western European countries with respect to public policies that promote the employment of mothers: maternity and parental leave, childcare provisions and family‐related tax credits and allowances. The goal of this analysis is to characterise trends in the development of these policies from the mid‐1980s to the present and identify the degree of policy convergence in this area of social policy. The process of convergence is analysed along two sets of criteria: the amount and forms of provisions, and the coherence of policies (eligibility, funding mechanisms, locus of regulation and quality control). The analysis is informed by theories of welfare regimes that identify distinctive patterns in which national policies shape the employment of women: general family support, dual‐earner families and market‐oriented families. Findings of the study reveal limited development towards harmonisation of national social policies. Such resilience of national welfare regimes can be attributed to institutional path dependence, on the one hand, and to minimal EU efforts to harmonise social policies, on the other. The article suggests that integrating markets have so far had a limited effect on social policy development, but that there are positive signs that convergence is possible in the future.
The role of law in welfare reform: critical perspectives on the relationship between law and social work practice
Authors: Braye Suzy , Preston‐Shoot Michael
Published: January 2006

This article considers the complex relationships between law, welfare policy and social work practice, in order to address the question of what role legal frameworks might play in achieving welfare policy and professional practice goals. It traces how law has developed as a core component of professional practice, and challenges some of the false expectations placed upon it. It then draws on findings from an international knowledge review of law teaching in social work education to propose a model for understanding how professional practice incorporates legal perspectives, and proposes ways in which legal frameworks can provide positive and constructive vehicles for accountable practice.
Cardiovascular Autonomic Function Tests in Cluster Headache
Authors: van Vliet JA , Vein AA , Ferrari MD , van Dijk JG
Published: January 2006

While facial autonomic signs are prominent during cluster headache (CH) attacks, cardiovascular autonomic changes have been described in few CH patients. Cardiovascular autonomic function tests (AFT) can be used to assess general autonomic function in CH patients in different stages of the disease. We aimed to assess whether general autonomic function is changed in CH patients during a cluster period. AFT was performed both during a cluster period, but outside an actual attack, and outside a cluster period in 18 patients. Heart rate variability was studied at rest, during deep breathing, after standing up and during a Valsalva manoeuvre. Blood pressure (BP) changes were recorded at rest, during standing up and during sustained handgrip. Measurements during and outside the cluster period were compared using the paired t-test. AFT measurements revealed no significant differences between the two measurements, except for diastolic BP in rest, which was higher during the cluster period [80.3 (SD 12.2) vs. 74.8 (SD 9.0), P = 0.04]. Autonomic dysfunction during a cluster period, but outside an attack, does not include systemic cardiovascular control.
What is Genetic Information, and why is it Significant? A Contextual, Contrastive, Approach
Authors: MANSON NEIL C.
Published: January 2006

abstract  Is genetic information of special ethical significance? Does it require special regulation? There is considerable contemporary debate about this question (the ‘genetic exceptionalism’ debate). ‘Genetic information’ is an ambiguous term and, as an aid to avoiding conflation in the genetic exceptionalism debate, a detailed account is given of just how and why ‘genetic information’ is ambiguous. Whilst ambiguity is a ubiquitous problem of communication, it is suggested that ‘genetic information’ is ambiguous in a particular way, one that gives rise to the problem of ‘significance creep’ (i.e., where claims about the significance of certain kinds of genetic information in one context influence our thinking about the significance of other kinds of genetic information in other contexts).

A contextual and contrastive methodology is proposed: evaluating the significance of genetic information requires us to be sensitive to the polysemy of ‘genetic information’ across contexts and then examine the contrast in significance (if any) of genetic, as opposed to nongenetic, information within contexts. This, in turn, suggests that a proper solution to the regulatory question requires us to pay more attention to how and why information, and its acquisition, possession and use, come to be of ethical significance.
Killing for Knowledge
Authors: ZAMIR TZACHI
Published: January 2006

abstract  I distinguish between four arguments commonly used to justify experimentation on animals (I). After delineating the autonomy of the question of experiments from other topics within animal ethics (II), I examine and reject each of these justifications (III–VI). I then explore two arguments according to which animal‐dependent experimentation should continue even if it is immoral (VII). I close with the way in which liberationists’ strategic considerations modify the moral conclusions of my analysis.
Organ Sales and Moral Distress
Authors: RIVERA‐LÓPEZ EDUARDO
Published: January 2006

abstract  The possibility that organ sales by living adults might be made legal is morally distressing to many of us. However, powerful arguments have been provided recently supporting legalisation (I consider two of those arguments: the Consequentialist Argument and the Autonomy Argument). Is our instinctive reaction against a market of organs irrational then? The aim of this paper is not to prove that legalization would be immoral, all things considered, but rather to show, first, that there are some kinds of arguments, offered in favour of legalisation, that are, in an important sense, illegitimate, and second, that even if legalisation might not be wrong all things considered, there are good reasons for our negative moral intuitions. Moreover, identifying these reasons will help highlight some features of moral decisions in non‐ideal situations, which in turn might be relevant to some other moral or policy choices.
Cultural Exemptions, Expensive Tastes, and Equal Opportunities
Authors: QUONG JONATHAN
Published: January 2006

abstract  The most well‐known liberal‐egalitarian defence of cultural rights, provided by Will Kymlicka, presents culture as a primary good, and thus a resource that ought to be distributed according to some fair egalitarian criteria. Kymlicka relies on the intuition that inequalities between persons that are the result of brute luck rather than personal choice are unjust in making the case for various multicultural rights. This article makes two main claims. First, the standard luck egalitarian intuition on which Kymlicka's argument relies cannot justify what he calls ‘polyethnic rights,’ in particular cultural and religious exemptions from generally applicable laws. Second, I argue that such exemptions are justifiable by appealing to the public value of fair equality of opportunity, properly construed.
Luck and Decision
Authors: BARRETT WILL
Published: January 2006

abstract  Much recent work on moral responsibility and on distributive justice has addressed the concept of luck. Very little attention has been given to the relation of luck to rationality. How does luck bear on our choices? Can beliefs about luck lead to unwise decisions? These questions have particular relevance for understanding gambling behaviour, and for public policy on gambling. In this paper I argue that no one is reliably lucky, and that projecting luck can undermine rational decision‐making. I give various examples to show the conceptual connection between luck and unpredictability. I present an a posteriori conception of projectibility, and argue that because lucky events are rationally unexpected, regularity statements about luck fail to satisfy the conditions of projectibility. I reject the claim that ‘lucky’ is a dispositional term, and thus projectible, on the ground that a dispositional interpretation leads to contradiction. I then defend my claim that luck is not projectible against three objections. I conclude with some thoughts about rational responses to luck, using gambling as an illustration.
Defending Luck Egalitarianism
Authors: BARRY NICHOLAS
Published: January 2006

abstract  This article defends luck egalitarianism as an interpretation of the egalitarian ideal against two major criticisms levelled against it by Elizabeth Anderson — that it is trapped in the distributive paradigm, and that it treats the victims of bad option luck too harshly to be considered an egalitarian theory. Against the first criticism, I argue that luck egalitarianism will condemn non‐material inequalities and injustices if an appropriate conception of well‐being is adopted. I demonstrate this by showing how the approach is sensitive to the five faces of oppression developed by Iris Young. Although the second criticism is more troubling, it does not defeat luck egalitarianism, either. I will show that few of the inequalities that arise in the real world result from option luck. Further, if cases do occur, rather than abandoning the theory, the best response is to combine luck egalitarianism with another egalitarian principle that will ensure that the basic needs of all citizens are satisfied. The paper concludes by defending the appeal of the distinction between option luck and brute luck, in light of the preceding discussion.
A Theory of Religious Accommodation
Authors: BOU‐HABIB PAUL
Published: January 2006

abstract  This paper examines the moral case for a right to religious accommodation, which requires that religious conduct be free of any serious burdens placed on it by the state. Two different types of normative argument for this right are outlined and rejected. The first appeals to religion as a ‘basic good’, and the second to religion as an ‘intense preference’. In place of these, I suggest that a third type of argument has greater prospects of success. Religious accommodation is justified on the grounds that religious conduct is a ‘derivative good’— that is, it derives its value from its being necessary for something else, namely, the integrity of the religious person.
Experimental determination of the periodicity of incremental features in enamel
Authors: Smith T. M.
Published: January 2006

Vital labelling of hard tissues was used to examine the periodicity of features of dental enamel microstructure. Fluorescent labels were administered pre‐ and postnatally to developing macaques (Macaca nemestrina), which were identified histologically in dentine and related to accentuated lines in enamel, allowing for counts of features within known‐period intervals. This study demonstrates that cross‐striations represent a daily rhythm in enamel secretion, and suggests that intradian lines are the result of a similar 12‐h rhythm. Retzius lines were found to have a regular periodicity within individual dentitions, and laminations appear to represent a daily rhythm that also shows 12‐h subdivisions. The inclusion of intradian lines and laminations represents the first empirical evidence for their periodicities in primates; these features frequently complicate precise measurements of secretion rate and Retzius line periodicity, which are necessary for determination of crown formation time. The biological basis of incremental feature formation is not completely understood; long‐period features may result from interactions between short‐period rhythms, although this does not explain the known range of Retzius line periodicities within humans or among primates. Studies of the genetic, neurological and hormonal basis of incremental feature formation are needed to provide more insight into their physiological and structural basis.
The accuracy of histological assessments of dental development and age at death
Authors: Smith T. M. , Reid D. J. , Sirianni J. E.
Published: January 2006

Histological analyses of dental development have been conducted for several decades despite few studies assessing the accuracy of such methods. Using known‐period incremental features, the crown formation time and age at death of five pig‐tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) were estimated with standard histological techniques and compared with known ages. Estimates of age at death ranged from 8.6% underestimations to 15.0% overestimations, with an average 3.5% overestimate and a 7.2% average absolute difference. Several sources of error were identified relating to preparation quality and section obliquity. These results demonstrate that histological analyses of dental development involving counts and measurements of short‐ and long‐period incremental features may yield accurate estimates, particularly in well‐prepared material. Values from oblique sections (or most naturally fractured teeth) should be regarded with caution, as obliquity leads to inflated cuspal enamel formation time and underestimated imbricational formation time. Additionally, Shellis's formula for extension rate and crown formation time estimation was tested, which significantly overestimated crown formation time due to underestimated extension rate. It is suggested that Shellis’ method should not be applied to teeth with short, rapid periods of development, and further study is necessary to validate this application in other material.
Regional variations in human patellar trabecular architecture and the structure of the proximal patellar tendon enthesis
Authors: Toumi H. , Higashiyama I. , Suzuki D. , Kumai T. , Bydder G. , McGonagle D. , Emery P. , Fairclough J. , Benjamin M.
Published: January 2006

Proximal patellar tendinopathy occurs as an overuse injury in sport and is also characteristic of ankylosing spondylitis patients. It particularly affects the posteromedial part of the patellar tendon enthesis, although the reason for this is unclear. We investigated whether there are regional differences in the trabecular architecture of the patella or in the histology of the patellar tendon enthesis that could suggest unequal force transmission from bone to tendon. Trabecular architecture was analysed from X‐rays taken with a Faxitron radiography system of the patellae of dissecting room cadavers and in magnetic resonance images of the knees of living volunteers. Structural and fractal analyses were performed on the Faxitron digital images using MatLab software. Regional differences at the enthesis in the thickness of the uncalcified fibrocartilage and the subchondral plate were evaluated histologically in cadaveric material. The radiological studies showed that the quantity of bone and the apparent trabecular thickness in the patella were greatest medially, and that in the lateral part of the patella there were fewer trabeculae which were orientated either antero‐posteriorly or superiorly inferiorly. The histological study showed that the uncalcified fibrocartilage was most prominent medially and that the subchondral plate was thinner laterally. Overall, the results indicate that mechanical stress at the proximal patellar tendon enthesis is asymmetrically distributed and greater on the medial than on the lateral side. Thus, we suggest that the functional anatomy of the knee is closely related to regional variations in force transmission, which in turn relates to the posteromedial site of pathology in proximal patellar tendinopathy.
Multiple‐image radiography for human soft tissue
Authors: Muehleman Carol , Li Jun , Zhong Zhong , Brankov Jovan G. , Wernick Miles N.
Published: January 2006

Conventional radiography only provides a measure of the X‐ray attenuation caused by an object; thus, it is insensitive to other inherent informative effects, such as refraction. Furthermore, conventional radiographs are degraded by X‐ray scatter that can obscure important details of the object being imaged. The novel X‐ray technology diffraction‐enhanced imaging (DEI) has recently allowed the visualization of nearly scatter‐free images displaying both attenuation and refraction properties. A new method termed multiple‐image radiography (MIR) is a significant improvement over DEI, corrects errors in DEI, is more robust to noise and produces an additional image that is entirely new to medical imaging. This new image, which portrays ultra‐small‐angle X‐ray scattering (USAXS) conveys the presence of microstructure in the object, thus differentiating homogeneous tissues from tissues that are irregular on a scale of micrometres. The aim of this study was to examine the use of MIR for evaluation of soft tissue, and in particular to conduct a preliminary investigation of the USAXS image, which has not previously been used in tissue imaging.
Cortical bone development under the growth plate is regulated by mechanical load transfer
Authors: Tanck E. , Hannink G. , Ruimerman R. , Buma P. , Burger E. H. , Huiskes R.
Published: January 2006

Longitudinal growth of long bones takes place at the growth plates. The growth plate produces new bone trabeculae, which are later resorbed or merged into the cortical shell. This process implies transition of trabecular metaphyseal sections into diaphyseal sections. We hypothesize that the development of cortical bone is governed by mechanical stimuli. We also hypothesize that trabecular and cortical bone share the same regulatory mechanisms for adaptation to mechanical loads. To test these hypotheses, we monitored the development of the tibial cortex in growing pigs, using micro‐computer tomography and histology. We then tested the concept that regulatory mechanisms for trabecular bone adaptation can also explain cortical bone development using our mechanical stimulation theory, which could explain trabecular bone (re)modelling. The main results showed that, from the growth plate towards the diaphysis, the pores of the trabecular structure were gradually filled in with bone, which resulted in increased density and cortical bone. The computer model largely predicted this morphological development. We conclude that merging of metaphyseal trabeculae into cortex is likely to be governed by mechanical stimuli. Furthermore, cortex development of growing long bones can be explained as a form of trabecular bone adaptation, without the need for different regulatory mechanisms for cortical and trabecular bone.
Calcium phosphate microcrystal deposition in the human intervertebral disc
Authors: Lee Robert S. , Kayser Mike V. , Ali S. Yousuf
Published: January 2006

A variety of crystals have been identified in both normal and pathological connective tissues. Calcium phosphate ‘cuboidal’ microcrystal deposition has been found, using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), in femoral articular cartilage, where they are distributed as a band 5–50 µm beneath the articular surface. These cuboid microcrystals have been identified as magnesium whitlockite. Our objective was to investigate their presence in the human intervertebral disc. In this study, two degenerate and 15 scoliotic discs were examined using light microscopy and TEM techniques to determine the presence of calcium phosphate crystals. Calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD) deposition was identified in one degenerate disc specimen. Using TEM and electron probe analysis, cuboid microcrystals were identified in the annulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposus of both degenerate specimens, but not in the discs from young scoliotic patients. Cuboid microcrystal deposition was found predominantly around cells, which were mainly necrotic, with some association with extracellular lipidic/membranous debris. This is the first TEM report of whitlockite in the intervertebral disc. In one specimen coexistence of cuboid and CPPD crystal deposition was found.
The elephant knee joint: morphological and biomechanical considerations
Authors: Weissengruber G. E. , Fuss F. K. , Egger G. , Stanek G. , Hittmair K. M. , Forstenpointner G.
Published: January 2006

Elephant limbs display unique morphological features which are related mainly to supporting the enormous body weight of the animal. In elephants, the knee joint plays important roles in weight bearing and locomotion, but anatomical data are sparse and lacking in functional analyses. In addition, the knee joint is affected frequently by arthrosis. Here we examined structures of the knee joint by means of standard anatomical techniques in eight African (Loxodonta africana) and three Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Furthermore, we performed radiography in five African and two Asian elephants and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in one African elephant. Macerated bones of 11 individuals (four African, seven Asian elephants) were measured with a pair of callipers to give standardized measurements of the articular parts. In one Asian and three African elephants, kinematic and functional analyses were carried out using a digitizer and according to the helical axis concept. Some peculiarities of healthy and arthrotic knee joints of elephants were compared with human knees. In contrast to those of other quadruped mammals, the knee joint of elephants displays an extended resting position. The femorotibial joint of elephants shows a high grade of congruency and the menisci are extremely narrow and thin. The four‐bar mechanism of the cruciate ligaments exists also in the elephant. The main motion of the knee joint is extension–flexion with a range of motion of 142°. In elephants, arthrotic alterations of the knee joint can lead to injury or loss of the cranial (anterior) cruciate ligament.
Osteonal crack barriers in ovine compact bone
Authors: Mohsin S. , O'Brien F. J. , Lee T. C.
Published: January 2006

Bone is an anisotropic structure which can be compared to a composite material. Discontinuities within its microstructure may provide stress concentration sites for crack initiation, but act as a barrier to its propagation. This study looks specifically at the relationship between crack length and propagation in compact bone. Beam‐shaped bone samples from sheep radii were prepared and stained with fluorochrome dyes and tested in cyclic fatigue under four‐point bending in an INSTRON 1341 servo‐hydraulic fatigue‐testing machine. Samples were tested at a frequency of 30 Hz and stress range of 100 MPa under load control. Specimens were sectioned transversely using a diamond saw, slides prepared and examined using epifluorescence microscopy. Cracks in transverse sections were classified in terms of their location relative to cement lines surrounding secondary osteons. Mean crack length, crack numerical density and crack surface density were examined. Short microcracks (100 µm or less) were stopped at the cement lines surrounding osteons, microcracks of intermediate length (100–300 µm) were deflected as they hit the cement line, and microcracks that were able to penetrate through cement lines were longer (> 400 µm). These data show that bone microstructure allows the initiation of microcracks but acts as a barrier to crack propagation.
The functional anatomy of Kager's fat pad in relation to retrocalcaneal problems and other hindfoot disorders
Authors: Theobald P. , Bydder G. , Dent C. , Nokes L. , Pugh N. , Benjamin M.
Published: January 2006

Kager's fat pad is a mass of adipose tissue occupying Kager's triangle. By means of a combined magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasound, gross anatomical and histological study, we show that it has three regions that are closely related to the sides of the triangle. Thus, it has parts related to the Achilles and flexor hallucis longus (FHL) tendons and a wedge of fat adjacent to the calcaneus. The calcaneal wedge moves into the bursa during plantarflexion, as a consequence of both an upward displacement of the calcaneus relative to the wedge and a downward displacement of the wedge relative to the calcaneus. During dorsiflexion, the bursal wedge is retracted. The movements are promoted by the tapering shape of the bursal wedge and by its deep synovial infolds. Fibrous connections linking the fat to the Achilles tendon anchor and stabilize it proximally and thus contribute to the motility of its tip. We conclude that the three regions of Kager's fat pad have specialized functions: an FHL part which contributes to moving the bursal wedge during plantarflexion, an Achilles part which protects blood vessels entering this tendon, and a bursal wedge which we suggest minimizes pressure changes in the bursa. All three regions contribute to reducing the risk of tendon kinking and each may be implicated in heel pain syndromes.
Morphological characterization of GFP stably transfected adult mesenchymal bone marrow stem cells
Authors: Raimondo Stefania , Penna Claudia , Pagliaro Pasquale , Geuna Stefano
Published: January 2006

Increasing attention is being given to the use of adult rather than embryonic stem cells, both for research and for the development of transplantation treatments for human disease. In particular, mesenchymal bone marrow stem cells have been studied extensively because of their ability to self‐renew and to give rise to various differentiated cell types, and because of the relative ease with which they can be obtained and cultured. In addition, the possibility of labelling stem cells with green fluorescent protein before transplantation has opened new and promising perspectives for their use in basic research. Because no structural or ultrastructural description of adult mesenchymal stem cells is available in the literature, this paper describes their morphology as revealed by light, confocal and electron microscopy, focusing on cells that are particularly suitable for transplantation studies, i.e. those derived from rat bone marrow transfected with green fluorescent protein. The results provide a basis for experimental studies of the differentiation of these cells in normal and pathological tissues.
Geometric morphometrics of the shoulder girdle in extant turtles (Chelonii)
Authors: Depecker Marion , Berge Christine , Penin Xavier , Renous Sabine
Published: January 2006

The aim of this study was to identify shape patterns of the shoulder girdle in relation to different functional and environmental behaviours in turtles. The Procrustes method was used to compare the shoulder girdles (scapula and coracoid) of 88 adult extant turtles. The results indicate that four shape patterns can be distinguished. The shoulder girdles of (1) terrestrial (Testudinidae), (2) highly aquatic freshwater (Trionychidae, Carettochelyidae) and (3) marine turtles (Cheloniidae, Dermochelyidae) correspond to three specialized morphological patterns, whereas the shoulder girdle of (4) semi‐aquatic freshwater turtles (Bataguridae, Chelidae, Chelydridae, Emydidae, Kinosternidae, Pelomedusidae, Platysternidae, Podocnemididae) is more generalized. In terrestrial turtles, the long scapular prong and the short coracoid are associated with a domed shell and a mode of locomotion in which walking is predominant. By contrast, highly aquatic freshwater turtles share traits with marine turtles. In both, the short scapular prong and the long coracoid are associated with a flat shell, and swimming locomotion. The enlarged attachment sites of the biceps, coracobrachialis magnus, and supracoracoideus also give these strong swimmers a mechanical advantage during adduction and retraction of the arm. Increasing size leads to allometrical shape changes that emphasize mechanical efficiency both in terrestrial and in aquatic turtles.
Three‐dimensional study of pelvic asymmetry on anatomical specimens and its clinical perspectives
Authors: Boulay Christophe , Tardieu Christine , Bénaim Charles , Hecquet Jérome , Marty Catherine , Prat‐Pradal Dominique , Legaye Jean , Duval‐Beaupère Ginette , Pélissier Jacques
Published: January 2006

The aim of this study was to assess pelvic asymmetry (i.e. to determine whether the right iliac bone and the right part of the sacrum are mirror images of the left), both quantitatively and qualitatively, using three‐dimensional measurements. Pelvic symmetry was described osteologically using a common reference coordinate system for a large sample of pelvises. Landmarks were established on 12 anatomical specimens with an electromagnetic Fastrak system. Seventy‐one paired variables were tested with a paired t‐test and a non‐parametric test (Wilcoxon). A Pearson correlation matrix between the right and left values of the same variable was applied exclusively to values that were significantly asymmetric in order to calculate a dimensionless asymmetry index, ABGi, for each variable. Fifteen variables were significantly asymmetric and correlated with the right vs. left sides for the following anatomical regions: sacrum, iliac blades, iliac width, acetabulum and the superior lunate surface of the acetabulum. ABGi values above a threshold of ± 4.8% were considered significantly asymmetric in seven variables of the pelvic area. Total asymmetry involving the right and the left pelvis seems to follow a spiral path in the pelvis; in the upper part, the iliac blades rotate clockwise, and in the lower part, the pubic symphysis rotates anticlockwise. Thus, pelvic asymmetry may be evaluated in clinical examinations by measuring iliac crest orientation.
Computer interviewing in urogynaecology: concept, development and psychometric testing of an electronic pelvic floor assessment questionnaire in primary and secondary care
Authors: Radley SC , Jones GL , Tanguy EA , Stevens VG , Nelson C , Mathers NJ
Published: January 2006

Objective  To develop and evaluate a Web‐based, electronic pelvic floor symptoms assessment questionnaire (e‐PAQ)1 for women.

Design  A cross‐sectional study in primary and secondary care.

Setting  Two general practices, two community health clinics and a secondary care urogynaecology clinic.

Sample  A total of 432 women (204 in primary care and 228 in secondary care) were recruited between June 2003 and January 2004.

Methods  The e‐PAQ was located on a workstation (computer, touchscreen and printer). Women completed the e‐PAQ prior to their appointment. Untreated women in primary care were asked to return seven days later to complete the e‐PAQ a second time (test–retest).

Main outcome measures  Factor analysis, reliability, validity, patient satisfaction, completion times and system costs.

Results  In secondary care, factor analysis identified 14 domains within the four dimensions (urinary, bowel, vaginal and sexual symptoms) with internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) ≥ 0.7 in 11 of these. In primary care, alpha values were all ≥ 0.7 and test–retest analysis found acceptable intraclass correlations of 0.50−0.95 (P < 0.001) for all domains. A measure of face validity and utility was gained using a nine‐item questionnaire, which yielded strongly positive patient views on relevance and acceptability.

Conclusions  The e‐PAQ offers a user‐friendly clinical tool, which provides valid and reliable data. The system offers comprehensive symptoms and quality of life evaluation and may enhance the clinical episode as well as the quality of care for women with pelvic floor disorders.
Comparison of the maternal experience and duration of labour in two upright delivery positions—a randomised controlled trial
Authors: Ragnar I , Altman D , Tydén T , Olsson S‐E
Published: January 2006

Objective  To compare two upright delivery positions at the second stage of labour in healthy primiparous women with regard to duration of the second stage of labour and maternal experience.

Design  A randomised controlled trial.

Setting  A county hospital delivery ward.

Sample  Primiparous subjects (n= 271) were randomly allocated to a kneeling (n= 138) or a sitting (n= 133) position during the second stage of labour. A postpartum questionnaire was answered by 264/271 women (97%) participating in the trial.

Methods  Primiparous subjects were randomised to a kneeling or sitting delivery position during second stage of labour. Analysis was performed on an intention‐to‐treat basis.

Main outcome measure  Duration of the second stage of labour.

Results  A comparison of the duration of the second stage of labour (kneeling 48.5 minutes ± 27.6 SD, sitting 41 minutes ± 23.4 SD) revealed no significant difference between the groups. A sitting position during the second stage of labour was associated with a higher level of delivery pain (P < 0.01), a more frequent perception of the second stage as being long (P= 0.002), less comfort for giving birth (P= 0.03) and more frequent feelings of vulnerability (P= 0.05) and exposure (P= 0.02). There were no significant differences in the frequency of sphincter ruptures although a sitting position was associated with a higher degree of postpartum perineal pain (P < 0.001) (Table 3).

Qualitative outcome of second stage of labour at a sitting position compared with kneeling

Sitting, n= 133
Kneeling, n= 138
Logistic regression analysis, adjusted odds ratio (95% CI)

Did you experience the position comfortable for giving birth?*
1
1
0.5 (0.1–0.9), P= 0.03

Did you feel vulnerable in the position?*
3
2
2.1 (0.9–4.6), P= 0.05

Did you feel exposed in the position?*
2
1
1.7 (1.5–1.9), P= 0.02

Did you feel safe in the position during pushing?*
1
1
0.9 (0.7–1.3), P= 0.7

Did you experience the second stage as long?**
69
37
1.4 (0.8–0.9), P= 0.002

How much did you participate during the pushing?**
5
10
1.2 (0.9–1.2), P= 0.13

How much pain did you experience in the assigned position?**
33
17
1.3 (1.1–1.9), P= 0.01

Do you experience postpartum perineal pain?*
2
1
1.9 (1.3–2.9), P= 0.001

Do you consider your delivery difficult?*
2
1
1.7 (1.4–2.0), P= 0.01

Would you give birth in the same position again?***
95 (89)
92 (82)
0.89 (0.47–1.4), P= 0.43

Median score, 0–3: 0 = not at all; 1 = some; 2 = a lot; 3 = very much.

Visual analogue scale 0–100.

Yes, number of subjects (%).

Conclusions  Kneeling and sitting upright during the second stage of labour do not significantly differ from one another in duration of the second stage of labour. In healthy primiparous women, a kneeling position was associated with a more favourable maternal experience and less pain compared with a sitting position.
Decreased maternal lipolysis in intrauterine growth restriction in the third trimester
Authors: Diderholm B , Stridsberg M , Nordén‐Lindeberg S , Gustafsson J
Published: January 2006

Objective  Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is a common complication of pregnancy. There are many possible aetiologic factors of maternal, placental and/or fetal origin. Often there is no known explanation. The aim of this study was to investigate whether a reduction in maternal energy substrate production could be one of the factors involved in IUGR.

Design  Measurement of maternal energy substrate production and glucoregulatory hormones in women with growth‐restricted fetuses.

Settings  University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden.

Population  Ten healthy pregnant women with IUGR were compared with eight recently reported healthy women with normal pregnancies. The women were studied at 35.4 ± 1.6 weeks of gestation after an overnight fast.

Methods  Rates of glycerol and glucose production were analysed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry following constant‐rate infusion of [1,1,2,3,3‐2H5]glycerol and [6,6‐2H2]glucose.

Main outcome measure  Third trimester glycerol and glucose production.

Results  Glycerol production, reflecting lipolysis, was lower in the women with IUGR than in those with normal pregnancies, 2.36 ± 0.58 versus 3.06 ± 0.66 μmol kg−1 minute−1 (P= 0.033), whereas there was no difference in rate of glucose production (glucose production rate [GPR]), 12.1 ± 1.5 versus 13.2 ± 1.5 μmol kg−1 minute−1 (P= 0.23). Plasma glycerol levels were increased in the women with IUGR (P= 0.008).

Conclusions  Lipolysis is lower in pregnancies complicated by IUGR as compared with normal pregnancies. Increased lipolysis during pregnancy provides substrate for maternal energy metabolism, which spares glucose for the fetus. A reduced maternal production of energy substrate could be one of several factors underlying IUGR. A lack of relationship between insulin levels and either lipolysis or GPR suggests defective regulation of energy substrate production in this group of pregnant women.