bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On some questions about selective separability
Authors: Babinkostova Liljana
Published: September 2009

CH implies that selective separability is not preserved by finite powers (solving [3, Problems 3.7 and 3.9]). In ZFC, selective separability does not imply H‐separability (solving [4, Problem 34]) (© 2009 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
β‐Carotene and β‐cryptoxanthin but not lutein evoke redox and immune changes in RAW264 murine macrophages
Authors: Katsuura Sakurako , Imamura Tomomi , Bando Noriko , Yamanishi Rintaro
Published: September 2009

The mechanism of immunological benefits induced by carotenoids has not been fully elucidated. Here, we investigated some of the immunity‐related properties of β‐carotene and two other carotenoids, β‐cryptoxanthin, and lutein, on the murine macrophages cell line RAW264. β‐Carotene added to the culture medium accumulated in the cells in a time‐ and dose‐dependent manner. The accumulation was positively correlated with cellular lipid peroxidation, demonstrating the pro‐oxidative activity of β‐carotene, and also with the synthesis of glutathione, an intracellular antioxidant. Conversely, accumulation of β‐carotene was negatively correlated with the transcription of immune‐active molecules, such as IL‐1β, IL‐6, and IL‐12 p40, in cells stimulated by LPS and INF‐γ. The transcription of the pro‐inflammatory cytokines IL‐1β and IL‐6 was more sensitive to the accumulation of β‐carotene than was IL‐12 p40. The accumulation of β‐cryptoxanthin in cells resulted in effects similar to those of β‐carotene. However, lutein accumulated minimally and did not significantly affect the cells. These results demonstrate that β‐carotene, and β‐cryptoxanthin as well, can accumulate in RAW264 cells and induce changes in intracellular redox status, which in turn regulate the immune function of macrophages.
Particle‐in‐Cell/Monte Carlo Collisions Model for the Reactive Sputter Deposition of Nitride Layers
Authors: Bultinck Evi , Mahieu Stijn , Depla Diederik , Bogaerts Annemie
Published: September 2009

A 2d3v Particle‐in‐cell/Monte Carlo collisions (PIC/MCC) model was constructed for an Ar/N2 reactive gas mixture in a magnetron discharge. A titanium target was used, in order to study the sputter deposition of a TiNx thin film. Cathode currents and voltages were calculated self‐consistently and compared with experiments. Also, ion fluxes to the cathode were calculated, which cause sputtering of the target. The sputtered atom fluxes from the target, and to the substrate were calculated, in order to visualize the deposition of the TiNx film.
Vapor condensation growth and evolution mechanism of ZnO nanorod flower structures
Authors: Haldar S. R. , Nayak A. , Chini T. K. , Ray S. K. , Yamamoto N. , Bhunia S.
Published: September 2009

ZnO flower‐like nanostructures were grown on Ge (100) substrate, by a modified chemical vapor condensation technique of zinc acetate dihydrate at 300 °C, without using any catalyst. These self‐organized three‐dimensional nanostructures were composed of hierarchical arrangement of ZnO nanorods of diameter ∼50 nm around a common nucleus and were distributed uniformly over the entire substrate surface. Evolution study of these structures indicates that the growth begins with a two‐dimensional planar arrangement of 〈0001〉‐oriented ZnO nanorods. With increasing growth time, the expanding adjacent two‐dimensional growth fronts approach each other, followed by which, the formation of three‐dimensional flower‐like structures evolve. Surface diffusion mechanism seems to play an important role in forming these nanostructures, which has been discussed in detail. Elaborate electron microscopic (SEM, TEM) techniques have been used to investigate the growth characteristics of the flower structures. The photoluminescence measurements showed pure free excitonic transition centered at about 3.249 eV with full width at half‐maximum of about 141 meV at 300 K, which blue shifted to 3.361 eV at 10 K with corresponding half width of 7 meV with no defect‐related bandgap peak due to relatively low growth temperature. The optical emission area was imaged through a cathodoluminescence technique.

magnified image

Scanning electron micrograph of a typical ZnO nanorod flower structure grown at 300 °C on Ge (100).
Assessing toxicity of nanoparticles using Brachionus manjavacas (Rotifera)
Authors: Snell Terry W. , Hicks Daniel G.
Published: September 2009

Rotifers are major components of zooplankton in freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems throughout the world and could be useful indicator species, providing valuable insight into the effects of nanoparticles on microinvertebrate grazers. Here we report initial efforts to characterize the immediate and longer‐term effects of nanoparticle exposure on the reproduction of the coastal marine and salt lake rotifer Brachionus manjavacas. We used chemically unreactive fluorescent nanoparticles to probe how size and concentration affects the mode of uptake, distribution within the rotifer body, reproductive rate, feeding behavior, and offspring fitness. Population growth rate (r) was depressed 50% in rotifer populations exposed to 0.30 μg mL−1 of 37‐nm particles, and 89% in populations exposed to 1.1 μg mL−1. Larger particles of identical chemical composition, but with diameters up to 3000 nm, caused no reduction in population growth rate. These larger particles remain confined in the gut, implicating nanoparticle size as a critical factor in the ability to penetrate the gut wall and enter tissues. Transfer of the F1 offspring from nanoparticle exposed maternal females into nanoparticle‐free media demonstrated that nanoparticles are rapidly cleared from the animals with no significant residual adverse effects. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 26: 146–152, 2011.
Erosionsschutzschichten für Flugtriebwerke
Authors: Ortner Kai , Kohns Andreas , Turley Felix , Jung Thomas
Published: September 2009

Unter bestimmten Betriebsbedingungen gelangen verstärkt mineralische Partikel, z.B. Sand, in die Luftströmung von Flugtriebwerken. Aufgrund der hohen Gasgeschwindigkeit und der großen Schaufelgeschwindigkeit im Verdichter können diese Partikel einen intensiven Materialabtrag an den Schaufelblättern bewirken (Erosion) und damit deren Funktionalität ernsthaft beeinträchtigen. Eine Beschichtung der Schaufeln mit speziellen Schutzschichten ermöglicht eine beträchtliche Verlängerung der Einsatzdauer der Schaufeln.
Emery-Dreifuss-Muskeldystrophie
Authors: Wehnert M.
Published: September 2009

Die Emery-Dreifuss-Muskeldystrophie (EDMD) ist eine seltene neuromuskuläre Erkrankung, die durch frühe Kontrakturen, eine langsam progrediente Muskelschwäche und lebensbedrohliche Herzrhythmusstörungen gekennzeichnet ist. Sowohl klinisch als auch genetisch findet man eine große intra- und interfamiliäre Variabilität. Genetisch lassen sich X-chromosomal rezessive (EMD1), autosomal-dominante (EMD2) und autosomal-rezessive (EMD3) Formen unterscheiden, die mit Mutationen in den Genen STA, LMNA, SYNE1, SYNE2 und FHL1 assoziiert sind. Nur bei etwa 46% nicht miteinander verwandter EDMD-Patienten findet man Mutationen in diesen Genen, sodass mit einer weiteren genetischen Heterogenität der EDMD zu rechnen ist.
Mitochondriale Erkrankungen
Authors: von Kleist-Retzow J.-C. , Kornblum C.
Published: September 2009

Mitochondriale Erkrankungen sind klinisch, biochemisch und genetisch heterogen, das klinische Spektrum reicht von schweren Erkrankungen des frühen Kindesalters bis zu milden monosymptomatischen spätadulten Verläufen. Ursache mitochondrialer Funktionsstörungen können Defekte in nukleären Genen oder Mutationen der mitochondrialen DNA (mtDNA) sein. In den letzten Jahren wurden große Fortschritte in der Entschlüsselung der genetischen Ursachen erzielt, welche auch die Diagnostik in vielen Fällen erleichterten. Andererseits zeigen sich eine z. T. noch weiter anwachsende klinische Komplexität und Variabilität, die pathogenetisch vielfach unverstanden bleibt.
Kongenitale Strukturmyopathien
Authors: Lutz S. , Stiegler B. , Kress W. , von der Hagen M. , Schara U.
Published: September 2009

Bei den kongenitalen Strukturmyopathien handelt es sich um eine heterogene Gruppe seltener erblicher Myopathien, die durch charakteristische licht- oder elektronenmikroskopisch sichtbare morphologische Einschlüsse oder Umlagerungen von Zellorganellen in der Muskelfaser der quergestreiften Muskulatur gekennzeichnet sind. Die ersten Symptome werden in der Regel bereits bei der Geburt und/oder im Kindesalter, seltener mit einer milderen Symptomatik im Erwachsenenalter manifest. Der Verlauf ist in der Regel nur langsam progredient, sehr selten rasch fortschreitend. Die kongenitalen Strukturmyopathien werden derzeit nach histologischen, immunhistologischen, ultrastrukturellen und auch molekulargenetischen Gesichtspunkten eingeteilt. Eine wachsende Zahl von Gendefekten wird für die Muskelveränderungen verantwortlich gemacht, wobei sowohl die phänotypische Variabilität bei Mutationen im gleichen Gen als auch die genetische Heterogenität bei ähnlichem Phänotyp zu berücksichtigen sind. Zu den häufigsten Formen gehören die nemaline Myopathie, die Core-Myopathien, die zentronukleären Myopathien sowie die kongenitale Fasertypendisproportion.
The Auction of Redemptioner Servants, Philadelphia, 1771–1804: An Economic Analysis
Authors: Grubb Farley
Published: September 2009

The redemption system transformed the American auction of immigrant servants. The potential for exploiting immigrants was created by search restrictions in the redemption auction. A model of the auction was estimated using 4,455 German and British servant contracts. Average servant compensation equaled resident free labor compensation, and the variance in servant compensation was systematically related to the variance in servant productivity, contract restrictions, and work amenities. Competition among buyers overcame the search restrictions placed on immigrants in the redemption auction.
Credit as a Production-Smoothing Device: The Case of Automobiles, 1913–1938
Authors: Olney Martha L.
Published: September 2009

Credit financing of automobile sales and dealer inventories was provided primarily by hundreds of sales finance companies in the interwar United States. The few finance companies tied to auto manufacturers wrote 90 percent of credit business. Manufacturers initially established finance companies not to bolster retail sales but to finance dealers' wholesale inventory so manufacturers could lower average costs by smoothing seasonal production patterns. Moreover, until the Justice Department intervened, manufacturers apparently illegally coerced franchised dealers into using the manufacturer's preferred finance company rather than an independent.
Land, Labor, and Economies of Scale in Early Maryland: Some Limits to Growth in the Chesapeake System of Husbandry
Authors: Carr Lois Green , Menard Russell R.
Published: September 2009

Seventeenth-century planters developed a new system of husbandry, a long fallow, hoe-based agriculture that raised tobacco for export and Indian corn for subsistence. Plentiful land and shortages of labor characterized the system, which had few economies of scale. It provided rapid increases in wealth during the farm building stages, but its land and labor constraints set limits on growth. Eighteenth-century adaptations created economies of scale that permitted planters to grow grains for export without reducing tobacco crops. Planters who did not adopt these changes did not share in the resulting prosperity, and many left.
Managing Competition in German Coal, 1893–1913
Authors: Peters Lon L.
Published: September 2009

The history of the Rhenish-Westphalian Coal Syndicate before World War I demonstrates that a cartel can be established and maintained in the face of significant disintegrative forces, including many members, heterogeneous production and cost conditions, dynamic markets, competition from outside producers, and cheating. Opportunities for individualistic behavior, including contractual loopholes and horizontal combinations, combined with a collusive objective function that emphasized overall control and stability, allowed the cartel to survive for over two decades without government interference or support.
The Price Revolution: A Monetary Interpretation
Authors: Fisher Douglas
Published: September 2009

This article presents tests of the role of money in the price revolution (1525–1618). The hypothesis is that American specie drove European prices, and that the mechanism was the quantity theory of money buttressed by the specie-flow mechanism. Specie entered Spain, increasing Spanish prices, and then spread over Western Europe as a result of the Spanish balance-of-payments deficit, enlarging European monetary bases and price levels. Empirical verification is achieved through Granger-causality tests.
Employment Duration and Industrial Labor Mobility in the United States, 1880–1980
Authors: Jacoby Sanford M. , Sharma Sunil
Published: September 2009

Recent studies of job tenure raise the question of the appropriate duration statistic to use in historical research. This article compares duration measures and examines their empirical and theoretical implications for historical research on employment tenure. Using a variety of data from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, we find that although there existed a sector of stable jobs, most industrial jobs were brief. Since World War I, however, there has been a sharp shift in the relative size and importance of the short- and long-term job sectors.
64thers, Syndicates, and Stock Promotions: Information Flows and Fund-raising Techniques of British Shipowners Before 1914
Authors: Boyce Gordon
Published: September 2009

Analysis of British capital market operations before 1914 has focused on institutional and investor behavior without fully considering entrepreneurial conduct. Consequently, those who argue that industrial performance was impaired because capital flows were obstructed by information blockages have overlooked the role company owners could play in shaping communication lines. The fund-raising techniques used by shipowners reveal that private capital attracted through preferential communication channels supported the rise of large-scale enterprise. Founders were not motivated by supply constraints, nor did they forego profits to retain control. Rather, shipowners created asymmetric information flows to attract resources and shape institutional development.
AT&T's Strategic Response to Competition: Why Not Preempt Entry?
Authors: Nix Joan , Gabel David
Published: September 2009

The idea that a monopolist would adopt a pricing strategy to deter entry is found in a wide body of research. We explore why the monopolist in the American telephone industry, AT&T, did not pursue such a strategy when its initial patents expired.
Agricultural Productivity Growth During the Decade of the Civil War
Authors: Craig Lee A. , Weiss Thomas
Published: September 2009

New evidence based on census data indicates that output per agricultural worker grew faster between 1860 and 1870 than during any other decade of the nineteenth century. Although this evidence seems to support the traditional view that the Civil War was a catalyst for an increasingly productive agricultural sector, we contend that this apparent robust performance results from a measurement problem that afflicts census-based labor force series. An alternative estimate of labor force performance during the decade reveals the importance of increased labor inputs of women and children, in numbers, effort, and—especially—time.
Factory Discipline
Authors: Clark Gregory
Published: September 2009

Before the Industrial Revolution in Britain most workers controlled their pace, timing, and conduct at work. Factory discipline radically changed this. Employers now dictated how, when, and in what manner work was done. Why did discipline triumph? Was it required by the need to tightly coordinate workers with new technologies? Or was it successful because it coerced more effort from workers than they would freely give? The empirical evidence shows that discipline succeeded mainly by increasing work effort. Workers effectively hired capitalists to make them work harder. They lacked the self-control to achieve higher earnings on their own.
The Scale of Production in Western Economic Development: A Comparison of Official Industry Statistics in the United States, Britain, France, and Germany, 1905–1913
Authors: Kinghorn Janice Rye , Nye John Vincent
Published: September 2009

We use census data and information on large firms to generate descriptions of structural features of Western industry around 1906. We find that although the United States conforms to existing stereotypes, most other nations do not. German industry stands out as having the smallest plants and firms and the lowest concentration levels both in the aggregate and when grouped by industrial classifications. Equally startling, French levels of plant size and concentration are comparable to those of the United States. We speculate on the importance of these results for rethinking the traditional analysis of industrial development in the early twentieth century.
Human Capital and Other Determinants of the Price Life Cycle of a Slave: Peru and La Plata in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Newland Carlos , San segundo María Jesús
Published: September 2009

Toward the end of the eighteenth century Spanish America had about 400,000 slaves, which made 3 percent of the population. Before this time the importance of slavery had been greater, having received a large stimulus because of the sharp demographic decline of the natives following the Conquest. The arrival of Africans meant that in 1650 the proportion of slaves to total population was from 5 to 10 percent.
Productivity of a Commune: The Shakers, 1850–1880
Authors: Coşgel Metin M. , Murray John E.
Published: September 2009

Focusing on a religious commune known as the Shakers and utilizing the information recorded in the enumeration schedules of the U.S. manufacturing and agriculture censuses, this article estimates the productivities of Shaker enterprises and compares them with those of other producers randomly selected from the same data source. The results provide support to the contention that communes need not always suffer from reduced productivity. Shaker farms and shops generally performed just as productively as their neighbors; when differences did exist between their productivities, there are good reasons to attribute them to factors other than the organizational form.
Pessimism Perpetuated: Real Wages and the Standard of Living in Britain during and after the Industrial Revolution
Authors: Feinstein Charles H.
Published: September 2009

New estimates of nominal earnings and the cost of living are presented and used to make a fresh assessment of changes in the real earnings of male and female manual workers in Britain from 1770 to 1870. Workers' average real earnings are then adjusted for factors such as unemployment, the number of their dependants, and the costs of urbanization. The main finding is that the standard of living of the average working-class family improved by less than 15 percent between the 1780s and 1850s. This long plateau is shown to be consistent with other economic, political, and demographic indicators.
Domestic Exchange Rates and Regional Economic Growth in the United States, 1899–1908: Evidence from Cointegration Analysis
Authors: Phillips Ronnie J. , Cutler Harvey
Published: September 2009

This article examines one feature of the pre—Federal Reserve financial system that has not been widely researched: the market for bank drafts (the “domestic exchanges”). Though the exchanges existed for nearly a century, critics argued that exchange rate fluctuations exacerbated financial panics. We find, using cointegration analysis over the period from 1899 to 1908, that differences in growth rates across regions caused predictable movements in rates. We conclude that the exchanges promoted efficiency in the payments system. This supports the view that the private sector might have developed a unified national system had the Fed not abolished the exchanges.
A Reformulation of Marxian Theory and Historical Analysis
Authors: Resnick Stephen , Wolff Richard
Published: September 2009

The paper develops a Marxian approach to economic history utilizing some recent, far-reaching reformulations of Marxist theory. On the basis of a new specification of class structures, the approach permits a nondeterminist analysis of the interactions of class and nonclass aspects of social change.
Influences on the Distribution of Landholdings in Early Colonial North Carolina
Authors: Gallman Robert E.
Published: September 2009

The economy of North Carolina in the early colonial period was agrarian. Land was a central element in the wealth stock and it was distributed unevenly among households. This paper analyzes the distribution of land by means of multiple regression models employing measures of the principal life events of households. This paper analyzes the distribution of land by means of multiple regression models employing measures of the principal life events of households. The data are drawn from an eastern community, Perquimans County, and refer to the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century.
New Thinking about the Marker, 1896–1904: Some American Economists on Investment and the Theory of Surplus Captial
Authors: Parrini Carl P. , Sklar Martin J.
Published: September 2009

Some neglected turn-of-the century American economists, who influenced or participated in the formation of U.S. foreign policy, argued that modern capitalism tended toward recurrent crises as a result of oversaving and surplus capital. These economists held that the construction of an international investment system offered a partial solution to the surplus-capital problem. Focusing on China, U.S. foreign policy at the outset of the twentieth century sought to install the gold-exchange standard in monetary relations between industrial and nonindustrial countries as a condition of such an international investment system.
Agency Contracts, Institutional Modes, and the Transition to Foreign Direct Investment by British Manufacturing Multinationals Before 1939
Authors: Nicholas Stephen
Published: September 2009

This paper analyzes the transition from agents to branch selling as alternative institutional modes for transacting abroad by pre-1939 British manufacturing multinationals. A model to explain the shift between alternative modes is specified in terms of transaction costs. Agent opportunism and contract monitoring costs are the major transaction costs. Besides transaction costs, the frequency of transactions and the accumulation of market-specific knowledge by the principal were found to be important variables.
Farm Foreclosures in the United States During the Interwar Period
Authors: Alston Lee J.
Published: September 2009

Farm foreclosures in the United States during the 1920s and 1930s reached heights never previously or since exceeded. In this paper hypotheses are proposed and tested to account for the cross-state variation in farm foreclosures during the interwar period. Foreclosures are modeled to depend on depressed farm earnings throughout the 1920s and 1930s, optimistic agricultural expansion brought on by World War I, and cross-state variation in mortgage debt structure. The empirical results are consistent with the proposed multiple causal model.
Wealth and Growth of the Thirteen Colonies: Some Implications
Authors: Jones Alice Hanson
Published: September 2009

Private wealth of the inhabitants of three regions and of the Thirteen American Colonies as a whole, in 1774, estimated from a statistical sample of probate inventories and supplementary data, is the focus. The author's prior interest in consumption and levels of living led to these innovative estimates which supplement national wealth estimates for the United States in later centuries. Levels of wealth compared on a per capita basis with other times and places, as well as wealth inequalities among regions and among individuals, and rates of growth in real wealth per capita are all considered. Some complexities of intertemporal and interspatial wealth comparisons are indicated, in particular the implications of the striking North-South differences in 1774 with their fateful implications for the American dilemma.
The Presidential Political Business Cycle of 1972
Authors: Keller Robert R. , May Ann Mari
Published: September 2009

Previous studies of the political business cycle have examined time series data to determine whether a pattern of pre-election boom and post-election slump exists. The studies do not investigate the behavior and mechanisms by which a politician may effectuate a political business cycle. We focus on one time period, 1969 to 1972, and conclude that President Nixon's personality and operating environment explain why he manipulated the economy for political gain. The mechanisms he utilized to improve macroeconomic conditions before the 1972 election include monetary policy, fiscal policy, and wage-price controls.
The Supply of Money and Reichsbank Financing of Government and Corporate Debt in Germany, 1919–1923
Authors: Webb Steven B.
Published: September 2009

During the five years of inflation, price stability, and hyperinflation in Germany after World War I, three factors determined the growth of the money supply. First, the Reichsbank freely issued money in exchange for whatever government or corporate debt the private sector did not wish to hold at the official discount rate. Second, the government persistently ran large deficits. Political instability and the inflation itself prevented taxation adequate to pay for social programs, subsidies to the railroad and businesses, and reparations to the Allies. The third factor was expectations of inflation, which, as they became more pessimistic, led people to hold less and monetize more of the outstanding stock of debt. Thus, the money supply was partly endogenous and partly dependent on government fiscal policy. The monetary policy of the Reichsbank, although essential to the inflation process, was a constant and passive one until stabilization at the end of 1923.
Segregation in Job Hierarchies: West Virginia Coal Mining, 1906–1932
Authors: Fishback Price
Published: September 2009

When blacks began to leave the South, one of their first stops was the West Virginia coal fields. There they met with reasonable success. Until the Depression, high-paying machine jobs were open to them and job segregation had almost no impact on their wages, but management positions were off-limits with a few exceptions for all-black workforces. The findings suggest two patterns worth more attention in studies of other industries.
Import Substitution, Structural Change, and Regional Economic Growth in the United States: The Northeast, 1870–1910
Authors: Hutchinson William K.
Published: September 2009

This article uses data on regional output and imports to examine the relationship between imports and regional growth in the Northeast. The tariff rates, both nominal and effective, are considered as evidence of national policy that may have benefited this particular region. The findings are that particular industries do benefit from tariff protection, but their location is due to regional resource advantages.
Local Lending Practice: Borrowers in a Small Northeastern Industrial City, 1832–1915
Authors: Beveridge Andrew A.
Published: September 2009

An analysis of over 10,000 loans made by a major credit source in Keene, New Hampshire, from 1832 to 1897 is presented. The data sources are unique and include information on property ownership and wealth, occupation, involvement in businesses, age, and connections with the credit source. As time passed more funds were lent to borrowers out of the city and county, lending was used to support many new industrial and other enterprises, as well as for infrastructural and social capital investments. Many loans were made to individuals and businesses with close ties to the source of credit.
Integration in the American Foreign-Exchange Market, 1791–1900
Authors: Officer Lawrence H.
Published: September 2009

Integration in the American foreign-exchange market under the nineteenthcentury specie standard is examined using a newly developed series of the dollar- sterling exchange rate and estimates of specie-point spreads. A distinction is made between internal and external integration. The latter is much more important over the entire 1791 to 1900 time span, but by 1881–1900 the market is tightly integrated in both senses. The long-term trend of improved integration is interrupted only by wartime.
Market Structure and the Profits of the British African Trade in the Late Eighteenth Century: A Rejoinder Rebutted
Authors: Anderson B. L. , Richardson David
Published: September 2009

In his rejoinder in the September 1983 issue of this JOURNAL to our comment on his article that appeared in December 1981, J. E. Inikori claims that we fail to address effectively any of the six major points raised by his article. We confess that we did not respond to his arguments about temporal fluctuations and interfirm variations in profit margins, largely because we regarded such arguments as commonplace and the subject of little debate among historians. We do have doubts, however, about Inikori's attempt to relate profit margins to the size of firms in the trade, as we indicate below. The main concern of our comment was with several more questionable assertions made by Inikori about the market structure and general profitability of the slave trade, and we sought to challenge these. Our criticisms centered on Inikori's classification of British slaving firms, his analysis of the elasticities of supply of trade goods and export credit, his method of calculating profits, and his interpretation of the career of one Liverpool slave merchant, William Davenport, for whose ventures we have exceptionally detailed accounts. Inikori's Rejoinder rejects all of our criticisms, but the arguments he advances remain conceptually unsound and rely upon questionable interpretations of slender evidence. We propose to deal only with the main points of our criticisms that Inikori either misunderstands or still fails to meet.
Medieval English Peasants and Market Involvement
Authors: Biddick Kathleen
Published: September 2009

This paper uses a taxation assessment to analyze the relations between taxable peasant wealth and regional marketing geography. The results show cashcropping patterns for different grains and livestock. The selectivity of market involvement poses broader questions concerning economic vulnerability at the household and community levels among the English peasantry, and strategies used to contain vulnerability.
The Volume of Soviet Munitions Output, 1937–1945: A Reevaluation
Authors: Harrison Mark
Published: September 2009

The only official measure of overall Soviet munitions output in World War II, first published in 1965, was based on changes in values, not volumes, and grossly understates change in the level of real Soviet war production. Subsequently published official data on production of ground and air munitions in physical units, supplemented by information about real spending on naval munitions, provide foundations for a new index. During the war the USSR produced more munitions than Great Britain or Germany, but much less than the United States.
Information and Emigrants: Interprefectural Differences of Japanese Emigration to the Pacific Northwest, 1880–1915
Authors: Murayama Yuzo
Published: September 2009

This article examines the determinants of interprefectural patterns of Japanese emigration to the U.S. Pacific Northwest, using a multiple regression analysis. In estimating the regression equations, new proxies are introduced for the “family- and-friends” effect that are free of the statistical problems common in previous studies on long-distance migration. The result shows that the information networks that developed between pioneer immigrants and their home districts played a central role in shaping emigration patterns. The lack of an alternative means of obtaining reliable information about conditions in the United States appears to be responsible.
The stock market bubble of 1929: evidence from clsoed-end mutual funds
Authors: De Long J. Bradford , Shleifer Andrei
Published: September 2009

Economists directly observe warranted “fundamental” values in only a few cases. One is that of closed-end mutual funds: their fundamental value is simply the current market value of the securities that make up their portfolios. We use the difference between prices and net asset values of closed-end mutual funds at the end of the 1920s to estimate the degree to which the stock market was overvalued on the eve of the 1929 crash. We conclude that the stocks making up the S & P composite were priced at least 30 percent above fundamentals in late summer, 1929.
Monetary Policy and Expectations: Market-Control Techniques and the Bank of England, 1925–1931
Authors: Garrett John R.
Published: September 2009

The Bank of England depleted its open-market portfolio by secretly sterilizing large gold inflows. Thereafter interest rates were influenced by manipulating reported gold flows. Expectations manipulation as a monetary policy channel is modeled and estimated. A gold flow falsification was over two-thirds as effective as an open-market operation. These results contradict accepted new classical models and suggest that credibility benefits from new classical policy are small, despite current popularity among central bankers. The episode supports Peter Temin’s view of interwar central bankers as nonstabilizers and enforcers of a dysfunctional classical orthodoxy.
Patent Counts and Textile Invention: A Comment on Griffiths, Hunt, and O’Brien
Authors: Sullivan Richard J.
Published: September 2009

Our best estimates fail to reveal significant quantitative changes in the level of macroeconomic variables (such as per capita output or the savings rate) for Britain during the eighteenth century.1 Efforts that investigate economic activity at the industrial level are, therefore, well placed if the concept of Industrial Revolution is to remain useful. For example, N. F. R. Crafts and T. C. Mills use a segmented quadratic-trend model of industrial production and find that the trend rate of growth accelerated in 1776.2 In addition, my own research has revealed trend acceleration for industrial-level patented invention in the 1760-to-1790 period, which is consistent with Joel Mokyr’s argument that the essence of the Industrial Revolution was a cluster of pivotal “macroinventions” made in this period.3
Worker Turnover in the 1920s: What Labor-Supply Arguments Don't Tell Us
Authors: Owen Laura J.
Published: September 2009

This article investigates the decline in turnover of manufacturing workers in the United States that occurred in the 1920s. Three labor-supply explanations are evaluated using aggregate data on manufacturing workers and case studies of four manufacturing firms. The labor-supply analysis does not yield a satisfying explanation of the decline in quit rates of manufacturing workers. The suggestion is made that an examination of firms' employment policies is necessary to explain why workers were quitting their jobs less frequently.
Encomiendaor Slavery? The Spanish Crown's Choice of Labor Organization in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America
Authors: Yeager Timothy J.
Published: September 2009

When the Spaniards conquered the New World, they resorted to a form of native labor organization called theencomienda. Theencomiendadiffered from slavery in that the Crown imposed inheritance, trading, and relocation restrictions onencomenderos. Such restrictions cost the Crown revenue by providing incentives for colonists to deplete more quickly the stock of native labor and by keeping native labour in areas of low-revenue productivity. This loss of revenue makes the Crown's Preference for theencomiendacurious. The Crown opted for theencomienda, however, to secure its rule and to satisfy an ideological bias against slavery.
Success Story? Japanese Immigrant Economic Achievement and Return Migration, 1920–1930
Authors: Suzuki Masao
Published: September 2009

Even in a country whose patron saint is the Horatio Alger hero, there is no parallel to their [the Japanese American] success strory.

The view that Japanese and other Asian Americans constituted an economic success story gained popularity in the mass media and among scholars during the 1960s. At a time when the demands of the Civil Rights movement were challenging the government to redress the racism ingrown in American society, Japanese and other Asian Americans were often held up as “model minorities” who had overcome discrimination through their own efforts and without aid from government laws or service programs2. This practise has led to a debate over both the extent of the successs of Asian Americans and the reasons for their economic achievement3.
Economic Growth in a Transfer Society: The United States Experience
Authors: Anderson Terry L. , Hill P. J.
Published: September 2009

Economic growth occurs when individuals of a society engage in productive, positive-sum games. Conventional measures of growth, however, include measures of positive- and negative-sum games. This paper establishes a framework for distinguishing between productive (positive-sum) and transfer (negative-sum) activity. The role of the Constitution in promoting productive activity is discussed.
Planning for Peace: The Surplus Property Act of 1944
Authors: Cain Louis , Neumann George
Published: September 2009

The Surplus Property Act of 1944 established several social objectives for the disposal of war surplus. In particular, small business was to be benefited; concentration was to be reduced. Such objectives are better considered as part of the war mobilization rather than the peacetime reconversion. While suggesting that concentration was not reduced, the evidence also suggests that concentration is not an inevitable consequence of war. Social objectives can be incorporated into war mobilization, but their realization involves a substantially higher cost.
Discouraging the Use of a Common Resource: The Crees of Saskatchewan
Authors: Harper-Fender Ann
Published: September 2009

The Crees of Saskatchewan adjusted their economic life in reaction to their long and interdependent relationship with European fur traders. For the period from the late eighteenth through the mid-nineteenth century, this paper examines one aspect of the Crees' economic adjustment to the fur trade, the limiting of access to the land and its resources to conserve the fragile supply of furbearmg animals. Hudson's Bay Company documents and studies by anthropologists provide the basis for this economic study.
Production Relations, Labor Productivity, and Choice of Technique: British and U.S. Cotton Spinning
Authors: Lazonick William H.
Published: September 2009

The role of capital-labor relations in the transformation of inputs into output is central to the Marxian theory of capitalist development but is neglected by neoclassical theory. By comparing the development of cotton spinning in Britain and the U.S. in the last half of the nineteenth century, this paper analyzes the ways in which capital-labor relations affected the level and structure of wages, labor productivity, and choice of technique. This case study demonstrates the descriptive and predictive limitations of the neoclassical theory of choice of technique while at the same time pointing the way towards the development of a more incisive, and historically relevant, theory.
Eighteenth-Century Irish Population: New Perspectives from Old Sources
Authors: Daultrey Stuart , Dickson David , Gráda Cormac Ó
Published: September 2009

The lack of other data has made fiscally motivated house counts the main basis of pre-censal Irish population estimates in the past. The source is potentially treacherous: in this paper spatial autocorrelation analysis of house counts at the county level is used to monitor its reliability over time. The new house totals which emerge, coupled with new estimates of mean household size, yield a different picture of aggregate and provincial population change between 1700 and 1821 than suggested in Connell's classic work. The final section of the paper suggests an interpretation of population change consistent with our revised figures.
Market Structure and the Profits of the British African Trade in the Late Eighteenth Century
Authors: Inikori J. E.
Published: September 2009

The pendulum of scholarship has swung too far towards the position that the profits from slaving were small. Thomas and Bean in concept and Anstey and Richardson in practice have reckoned them too small. The detailed accounts of several dozen ventures in the late eighteenth century show that the trade was difficult to enter, dominated by a few large merchants, and subject to long runs of high “short-run” profits, as in 1779–1788: The best firms earned upwards of 50 percent on their investments, well above the normal profits of an easy trade.
New Estimates of Prewar Gross National Product and Unemployment
Authors: Romer Christina
Published: September 2009

The paper examines in detail revised estimates of unemployment and gross national product for the United States before 1929. It first discusses the nature of the revisions to each series and contrasts the assumptions underlying the new data with those underlying the Kuznets GNP series and the Lebergott unemployment rate series. It then examines the business cycle properties of the new prewar estimates. In analyzes the volatility and serial correlation properities of the new macroeconomic series and investigates the Okun's Law relationship between unemployment and GNP, concluding with an evaluation of the assumptions underlying the old and new data.
The Poor Law, Migration, and Economic Growth
Authors: Boyer George R.
Published: September 2009

The loss to the English economy caused by decreased migration resulting from relief payments to agricultural laborers is estimated. I conclude that, at worst, the Poor Law had a small negative impact on national product. If poor relief and wages were substitutes, the Poor Law may have had a positive impact on capital formation and economic growth.
The Impact of the Irish on British Labor Markets During the Industrial Revolution
Authors: Williamson Jeffrey G.
Published: September 2009

The Irish immigrations during the First Industrial Revolution serve to complicate any assessment of Britain's economic performance up to the 1850s. This paper estimates the size of the Irish immigrations and explores its impact on real wages, rural-urban migration, and industrialization. Using a general equilibrium model, the paper finds that the Irish did not play a significant role in accounting for rising inequality, lagging real wages, or rapid industrialization.
A Revolution of Scale in Overseas Trade: British Firms in the Chesapeake Trade, 1675–1775
Authors: Price Jacob M. , Clemens Paul G. E.
Published: September 2009

In seventeenth-century England the relatively open trades to America attracted ventures by hundreds of small merchants and shopkeepers. This ease of entry was checked after 1685 by very high customs duties on tobacco and intense regulation. Between 1685 and 1775 the number of firms in that trade was radically reduced and the size of the average firm increased ten to thirtyfold. Comparable if less extreme trends can be detected in the sugar, slave, and Levant trades. Insurance enabled large firms to use shipping more efficiently. The increased availability of credit also benefited larger and more secure firms.
Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Diagnostic Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Potential Therapeutic Applications in Neurooncology and Central Nervous System Inflammatory Pathologies, a Review
Authors: Weinstein Jason S , Varallyay Csanad G , Dosa Edit , Gahramanov Seymur , Hamilton Bronwyn , Rooney William D , Muldoon Leslie L , Neuwelt Edward A
Published: September 2009

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles have diverse diagnostic and potential therapeutic applications in the central nervous system (CNS). They are useful as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents to evaluate: areas of blood–brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction related to tumors and other neuroinflammatory pathologies, the cerebrovasculature using perfusion-weighted MRI sequences, and in vivo cellular tracking in CNS disease or injury. Novel, targeted, nanoparticle synthesis strategies will allow for a rapidly expanding range of applications in patients with brain tumors, cerebral ischemia or stroke, carotid atherosclerosis, multiple sclerosis, traumatic brain injury, and epilepsy. These strategies may ultimately improve disease detection, therapeutic monitoring, and treatment efficacy especially in the context of antiangiogenic chemotherapy and antiinflammatory medications. The purpose of this review is to outline the current status of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles in the context of biomedical nanotechnology as they apply to diagnostic MRI and potential therapeutic applications in neurooncology and other CNS inflammatory conditions.
Measurement Error Analysis for the Determination of Dopamine D2 Receptor Occupancy Using the Agonist Radioligand [11C]MNPA
Authors: Shidahara Miho , Ito Hiroshi , Otsuka Tatsui , Ikoma Yoko , Arakawa Ryosuke , Kodaka Fumitoshi , Seki Chie , Takano Harumasa , Takahashi Hidehiko , Turkheimer Federico E , Kimura Yuichi , Kanno Iwao , Suhara Tetsuya
Published: September 2009

The purpose of this study is to investigate errors in quantitative analysis for estimating dopamine D2 receptor occupancy of antipsychotics with agonist radioligand [11C]MNPA by numerical simulation, with particular attention to the validity of a quantitative approach based on the use of a reference region. Synthetic data were validated using clinical data combined with a bootstrap approach. Time–activity curves (TACs) of [11C]MNPA were simulated, and the reliability of binding potential (BPND) and occupancy estimated by nonlinear least square (NLS) fitting and a simplified reference tissue model (SRTM) were investigated for various noise levels and scan durations. In the human positron emission tomography (PET) study with and without antipsychotic, risperidone, the uncertainty of BPND and occupancy estimated by SRTM was investigated using resampled TACs based on bootstrap approach with weighted residual errors of fitting. For both NLS and SRTM, it was possible to have <3% of bias in occupancy estimates of [11C]MNPA by 60 mins. However, shortened scan duration degrades the quantification of very small binding potentials, especially in case of SRTM. Observations were replicated on the clinical data. Results showed that dopamine D2 receptor occupancy by antipsychotics can be estimated precisely in region of interest analysis by SRTM with a longer than 60-min [11C]MNPA PET scan duration.