bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Industrial Applications of Metals at Various Temperatures
Authors: Spring L. W.
Published: January 2024

From the time that James Watt utilized a pressure of 10 lb. per sq. in. in his steam-expansion engine, pressures have gone up very gradually to the 350 lb. per sq. in. now in common use. Increase in superheating temperature has been more rapid, but steady, during the twenty years since its general introduction. The author points out, however, that at the present moment a drastic and perhaps unwise change is taking place, since working pressures of 600 lb. per sq. in. will shortly be used in two or three plants, experiments with 1200 lb. pressure are to be tried out in small units in a commercial way and in England steam at its critical pressure of 3200 lb., when it is as heavy as water, is to be essayed. This increase in pressure holds out fascinating possibilities of high efficiency, and in the author’s opinion can be taken care of by increase in metal thickness. But since metals lose considerably in strength above 600 deg. fahr., he advises caution in going beyond the present limit of 315 deg. super-heat or a total temperature of about 750 deg. fahr.

There is another direction in which the properties of metals at high temperatures will have to be studied, and that is in the numerous gasoline cracking processes, where pressure has never exceeded 350 lb., but temperatures have risen to the high value of 1000 deg. fahr. in some instances. While little or no trouble with regard to materials in cracking processes has been experienced as yet, anxiety exists as to the consequences should any material containing flaws get into service. Cast steel has served welt under these conditions of moderate pressure and high temperature. For steam-turbine blades and valve seals certain non-ferrous materials (alloys containing a considerable percentage of nickel and copper) are being used and must be thoroughly studied at high temperatures. It may also be necessary to consider ferrous alloys in lieu of the plain carbon steels which have given satisfaction in steam work thus far.
Available Data on the Properties of Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys at Various Temperatures
Authors: Upthegrove Clair , White A. E.
Published: January 2024

The properties of non-ferrous materials at high temperatures have received far less attention than has been given ferrous materials, and even present interest is less than their importance warrants. The purpose of the paper is not to present all the work that has been done in this field but to set forth typical properties of various non-ferrous materials. Annealed electrolytic copper, for example, falls off rapidly in strength with increasing temperatures, while the elongation decreases somewhat slowly up to 400 or 500 deg. fahr., and then very rapidly to a minimum. In the rolled condition, electrolytic copper shows a slightly greater decrease in strength at lower temperatures. But this applies to tests in air. When copper is tested in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, both strength and elongation remain practically unchanged until a temperature of about 950 deg. fahr. is reached. Similar phenomena indicate how readily the properties of copper at elevated temperatures are influenced by other factors than temperature, such as the presence of impurities, oxidizing or non-oxidizing conditions, degree of annealing, and so forth. Similar decreases in value with high temperature are observed for hardness of copper. As a rule similar effects are also observable for copper-tin, phosphor-bronze, gun metal, and other alloys, but the properties vary largely with the composition of any given type of alloy. Copper-nickel alloys in particular seem to possess very desirable properties for use at elevated temperatures.

The paper is a thorough and authoritative digest of existing information embracing almost the entire range of non-ferrous metals and alloys used on a large scale industrially.
The Increase in Thermal Efficiency Due to Resuperheating in Steam Turbines
Authors: Blowney W. E. , Warren G. B.
Published: January 2024

Experience has shown that as the ratio of the number of stages of a turbine operating in the superheated region to the number operating in the moisture region is increased, the actual thermal efficiency is improved at a rate far in excess of the theoretical value. The results of a large number of tests on turbines at different superheats have been analyzed to form a basis for calculating the gain in thermal efficiency due to resuperheating. In this paper, these results are given showing that the heat consumption of a turbine installation may be decreased from 6 to 7 per cent as a result of resuperheating the steam. There seems to be a rather broad pressure range at which the resuperheating may take place in order to show approximately the maximum saving. The probable gain due to more than one resuperheating has been obtained. These results indicate that, when taking into account the pressure drop in the resuperheaters, the gain possible by going to more than two stages of resuperheating would be very small. The effect of resuperheating upon the exhaust conditions and capacity of the turbine is discussed. Curves are presented to show that the gains due to the resuperheating and the regenerative cycles are very nearly independent of each other and that these features may be used in the same turbine, with the expectation that the savings due to both will be nearly additive.
High-Pressure-Bearing Research
Authors: Illmer Louis
Published: January 2024

This paper presents a synopsis of some research investigations into the laws of friction and deduces a practical method for determining friction coefficients as based upon a wide range of high-pressure-bearing practice. The author’s previously published study relating to perfect oil-borne lubrication is briefly reviewed, and it is now found that the identical underlying principles lead to a solution of friction problems where the oil film has been partially or wholly broken down under extreme pressure.

The paper is more particularly directed toward the intermediate field of friction that lies between perfect film and dry metallic friction. The analysis arrives at basic values for the corresponding friction coefficients and introduces a number of modifying constants for use under any given set of operating conditions.

The various kinds of bearing practice have been coördinated to secure results which will harmonize with expectations in practice. Suitable values are presented for determining the coefficient of friction for oil-borne journals; it is shown that the transition from a perfect film to a partial oil-film lubrication causes the friction coefficient to undergo a gradual change rather than an abrupt increase, depending primarily upon the ratio of the actual working pressure to the critical pressure. The friction coefficient applying to high working pressures is also found to vary inversely as the rubbing velocity and the temperature assumed by the bearing.

The oil supply, attendance, location, and structural conditions affect friction losses. Coefficients are furthermore dependent upon the method of working the lubricant between the rubbing surfaces since parallel flat faces do not have the same capacity for building up an oil film that is possessed by rotating journals. Certain factors have therefore been introduced to make due allowances for such differences in the bearing type.

The matter of pressure limits for slow-moving bearings has also been investigated and it is shown that the ultimate load capacity is partly fixed by the composition and the abrasive limits of the materials in rubbing contact.

The friction coefficient applying to partially oil-borne journals is found to be substantially independent of the materials in contact, but when such journals operate at slow speeds under extreme pressures, the character of materials used assumes a greater significance.
Mechanical Springs
Authors: Wood Joseph Kaye
Published: January 2024

The paper treats the subject of mechanical springs collectively in the hope of clarifying theories of design and of assisting in the ultimate standardization of springs. After defining a mechanical spring and a mechanical spring material, it considers the general cases of a unit cube stretched by a tensile force, of replacing the cube by a bar, and of applying the load, transversely. From these are established load-deflection-rate formulas for flexure and torsion. Formulas for safe maximum load, safe maximum deflection, and safe maximum work are then derived in general terms containing constants which may be determined for stress method, material, form, etc. Under spring requirements of mechanical design, load-deflection characteristics are first considered, followed by those for safe maximum load and deflection and safe maximum work of resiliency. The paper then discusses the adaptability of springs to the requirements of mechanical design and the constants of material, dimension, stress method, and form of section. In the conclusion it is stated that the general or collective method of treating mechanical springs should eliminate much of the complexity and diversity of the subject.
An Experimental Investigation of Nozzle Efficiency
Authors: Wirt H. Loring
Published: January 2024

The paper describes air-testing methods developed by the General Electric Co. for testing elements of turbines by simulating the conditions in the turbine with models and determining their relative performance, and from these results predicting the effect of similar changes on the turbine. The streamline and eddy flow through the passageway tested is clearly indicated by flow casts that show both the flow lines and the shape that caused them. The issuing stream of air is explored with impact tubes, static tubes and angle-measuring devices. A combined traversing, plotting and enlarging mechanism makes it possible to take a series of accurate impact traverses covering the whole of the jet. These traverses are mechanically evaluated and from them the efficiency of the nozzle is found by a method of graphical triple integration.

The paper gives curves from tests of two types of nozzles showing how improvement has been made and illustrating the value of the method in designing turbine elements. Illustrations of casts of other types of nozzles, right-angle bends and turbine exhaust hoods further emphasize the value and generality of the method.
The Zoelly Turbine-Driven Locomotive
Authors: Zoelly H.
Published: January 2024

This paper, by the general manager of the Escher-Wyss Company and designer of the well-known locomotive turbine bearing his name, gives particulars regarding a 1000-hp. experimental condensing locomotive driven by a six-stage impulse turbine and employing a cooler for the condensing water in which air is brought into intimate contact with the water, heated and saturated with vapor, the heat necessary for evaporation being withdrawn from the water to be cooled. Mention is also made of a 2000-hp. locomotive of the same type now being built at the Krupp Works, Essen, which differs from the experimental machine only in a few sundry details; after which theoretical considerations regarding feedwater heating and recooling are discussed at some length. A table is included which presents calculations of the steam and coal consumptions of simple and compound condensing and non-condensing piston locomotives using superheated steam, and of the Krupp turbo-locomotive, all with and without feedwater heating, and shows the turbo-locomotive when employing feedwater heating and preheating of combustion air to have a coal consumption of but one-half that of a simple locomotive provided with a feedwater heater.
Boiler Furnaces for Pulverized Coal
Authors: Christie A. G.
Published: January 2024

Powdered coal is used more widely every year for furnaces under boilers. An analysis of the fundamentals of the combustion of the coal and of the effect of radiant heat and flame on the performance of such furnaces is presented in this paper. Certain features secondary to the furnace and dealing with preparing and drying coal and handling ash are also discussed briefly.

This analysis indicates that the following conditions are desirable for the highest efficiency and maximum capacity of a given furnace. Coal should be finely ground, thoroughly dry, and preheated before entering the furnace. Primary and secondary air should be highly preheated. Turbulence should exist inside the furnace. The walls should be water-cooled. New methods of handling ash and preventing the discharge of dust into the air should be developed. These will lead toward greater capacity for a given furnace volume and to higher boiler efficiencies.
Mechanical Problems of Hydraulic-Turbine Design
Authors: White William Monroe
Published: January 2024

Having determined the general characteristics of a hydraulic turbine to suit a given set of hydraulic conditions, the various mechanical problems arising must then be solved. These relate to the casing, which may be either of concrete, steel plate, or a casting; the guide rancs, with reference to their shape, support, clearance, and material of construction; the runner, its shaft and bearings; the governing mechanism; etc. The solution of these problems is indicated by the methods used in the design of the 70,000-hp. unit recently put in service at the plant of the Niagara Falls Power Company, Niagara Falls, N. Y.
Test of a Uniflow Engine
Authors: Barrus Geo. H.
Published: January 2024

Records of tests of uniflow engines are rare. The paper describes tests of a four-cylinder, vertical engine of 400-kw. capacity at a speed of 300 r.p.m. Four series of tests were run at 100, 200, 300, and 400 kw., under the following conditions: saturated steam at 125 lb. pressure, atmospheric exhaust; saturated steam at 125 lb. pressure, 5 lb. back pressure; saturated steam at 150 lb. pressure, atmospheric exhaust; superheated steam at 150 lb. pressure, atmospheric exhaust.

The steam consumption ranged from 20.7 lb. per i.hp-hr. at 125 lb. pressure with atmospheric exhaust to 15.3 lb. per i.hp-hr. with superheated steam.
Normal Pitch—The Index of Gear Performance
Authors: Eaton G. M.
Published: January 2024

The paper brings out certain departures from previously accepted practice which are useful in the manufacture of heavy involute gearing, as they ease the performance during the breaking-in stage of operation. It shows that material improvement in performance may be secured by adopting the proper relation between the normal pitches of the driving and driven gears, measured at the point of tooth engagement. Finally, it outlines the development of normal-pitch indicators.
The Gas Engines of the Maryland Plant of the Bethlehem Steel Company
Authors: Raymond A. A.
Published: January 2024

This paper presents details of an installation at the Sparrows Point plant of the Bethlehem Steel Company of eighteen large engines using blast-furnace gas. It includes tables showing results of tests, operating records, and the amount of total heat available from exhaust gases of blowing and generator-unit engines.
Steam Bleeding and Turbine Performance: Tests Showing Effect of Steam Bleeding on Total Power-Plant Efficiency, Also Effect of Changes in Vacuum and Superheat on Turbine and Condenser Performance
Authors: Zimmerman C. D.
Published: January 2024

The primary object of this paper is to give the results of tests which show the improvement in overall steam-power-plant economy due to single-stage steam bleeding. Detailed results of the tests are also described which show the changes due to steam bleeding in boiler-unit efficiency, degree of superheat, and the performance of the turbine-condenser unit.

In order to complete the study of the effects of steam bleeding it was necessary to show the effects of changes in superheat and condenser back pressure on the turbine performance. The results of these tests are given in the second part of the paper and are of interest as a separate study of steam-turbine performance. With this in mind, additional data such as the effect of air in the turbine exhaust steam and effect of changes in initial steam pressure are also given. The change in superheat covered the range from 100 to 300 deg. fahr. and the condenser back pressure was of sufficiently low value to show the economical value for loads above 25,000 kw.

The tests were made at the Lake Shore Station of the Cleveland Electric Illuminating Co. and the turbine tested was a Curtis-type, 17-stage machine of 30,000 kw. capacity. Steam was bled from the 13th stage.
Charts for Studying the Oil Film in Bearings
Authors: Karelitz George B.
Published: January 2024

It has been shown several times that the hydrodynamical theory of lubrication satisfactorily explains the mechanism of lubrication. Since the necessary calculations are very complicated, the practical application of the theory, up to the present time, has been very difficult. The charts presented in the paper give the designer or investigator a means of determining with sufficient accuracy the shape and pressures in the oil film for bearings under different conditions.
The Heat-Balance Method of Testing Centrifugal Compressors
Authors: Robinson M. G.
Published: January 2024

Centrifugal compressors are often driven by steam turbines with and without intervening gear trains. To determine the shaft power transmitted to the compressor by its driver, from efficiency tests on the turbine and estimates of the gear losses, involves considerable labor, time, and expense. The Heat-Balance Method herein described is simpler, and more direct. In this method, the principle is used that a balance exists between the mechanical energy supplied by the rotation of the shaft and the heat-energy increase in the air which is being compressed, the heat-energy increase in the cooling water used, and the heat lost from the casing, bearings and packings. With proper testing apparatus and due precautions, this heat energy may be accurately measured, and hence the power input established. Very satisfactory results have been secured by the application of this method. There are given details of the fundamental theory, some representative test data, and a complete description of the apparatus used.
The Specification and Control of Mechanical Springs
Authors: Wood Joseph Kaye
Published: January 2024

This paper is another of a series on the general subject of springs which the author has presented recently. In the present paper the subject of specifications for the manufacture of springs and for spring materials is discussed. A list of the available specifications for heavy springs is given and the features of these specifications are tabulated. In the absence of specifications for small springs the author discusses the outline for such specifications and illustrates his method by a hypothetical case. He introduces the idea of a “load-deflection sector” to be used in place of a load-deflection curve and employs the idea in framing his sample specification.
Balancing Factors in the Use and Obligations Covering Ownership of Freight-Train Cars
Authors: Sillcox L. K.
Published: January 2024

In this paper the author discusses the development of railroad equipment to dale and points out some of the principles to be observed if railroads would continue to expand and become more efficient transportation agents.

The functions of transportation are first defined, following which is a general discussion of the limitations of railroad capacity because of terminal facilities. Terminal expenses also are treated at some length. There is a discussion of the slow-freight problem and recommendations for speeding up traffic are made. The matter of attaining the greatest utilization of equipment and materials is emphasized and recommendations made. Under this part of the paper the latest methods of car and locomotive repair are mentioned and their effect on the movement of freight emphasized. A very important part of the paper deals with the depreciation and retirement factors. A discussion of the aspects of design shows the great opportunity of engineers to assist in the solution of the problem of transportation by providing better equipment that will not require frequent repairs and which will, consequently, spend more time in actual service. In this connection the importance of standardization is emphasized.
Worm-Wheel Contact: Preliminary Report of A.S.M.E. Special Research Committee on Worm Gears
Authors: Buckingham Earle
Published: January 2024

The object of this paper is to show how any worm-wheel contact condition can be determined by analysis and to point out in particular the probable influence of the nature of the contact lines between a worm and a worm wheel upon the lubrication conditions, efficiency, and load-carrying ability. Analyses of three helicoids are made and their equations given. The first of these, a convolute helicoid, had its generatrix tangent to a cylinder of any diameter concentric with the axis of the helicoid. The second, a screw helicoid, had its generatrix passing through the axis of the helicoid, and was one limiting case of the first, with the diameter of the base cylinder reduced to zero. The third, an involute helicoid, had its generatrix tangent to a concentric cylinder of such diameter that the helix angle at this diameter was the same as the angle of the generatrix with a plane perpendicular to the axis. The conjugate action of racks is discussed and equations given. An analysis of worm contact is made. Contact lines of screw helicoids used as worms and those of involute helicoids used as worms are discussed. Contact lines of screw helicoids with large helix angles, and involute helicoids with large helix angles also are treated.
The Plastic Behavior of Metal in Drawing
Authors: Eksergian C. L.
Published: January 2024

Metal drawing, unlike other classes of engineering work, has proceeded mostly as an art rather than a science. The empirical method has of necessity been the basis of advancement, due to the limited knowledge of the attending phenomena.

The purpose of this study is to foster the development of analysis in drawing as an aid to subsequent development. Toward this end no attempt has been made to set forth any concrete analysis, since the subject is regarded as too complex for such a discussion at present. However, as a preliminary step in this direction, an attempt is made to outline a manner of attack by which a proper conception of the phenomena may be realized. For the present a general discussion is made of the manner of working the metal with reference to its state end behavior in comparison with that found in drawing. A survey of the conditions observed in the forming of a stamping is also made along with a report of certain experimental investigations which were conducted by the author.
Work-Hardening Properties of Metals: Their Relation to Metal-Cutting Operations and Cutting Temperatures
Authors: Herbert Edward G.
Published: January 2024

It is the principal object of the present work to bring into correlation with the operation of cutting tools certain groups of well established and generally recognized facts, the chief among them being: (1) the fact that metals are hardened by any process which deforms them so as to cause a permanent change of shape while they are at low or moderate temperatures, a process which is generally referred to as “cold work”; (2) the fact that metals are deformed and are therefore hardened by cutting tools; (3) the fact that heat is generated by deformation of metals and in a preëminent degree by metal-cutting operations; and (4) the fact which has now been known for some time, that the degree of hardness induced by working metals, with cutting tools, or otherwise, is greatly influenced by the temperature at which the deformation takes place.

An attempt will be made to show the bearing of these correlated facts on the resistance offered by metals to the cutting tool, and on the rate of wear of the cutting tool.

A further and most important branch of the same subject, the relation between the temperature generated in cutting and the heat resisting properties or “hot hardness” of the cutting tool, will be barely touched upon.

The limiting factor in the rapid removal of metal and therefore in the productivity of the metal-working industries is, ultimately, the temperature generated in cutting in relation to the capacity of the cutting tool to withstand high temperatures. The present work deals with the heat-producing properties of the work rather than with the heat-resisting properties of the tool.
Measurement of Static Pressure
Authors: Fechheimer Carl J.
Published: January 2024

The paper describes a new instrument for measuring static pressures in air-flow determinations. Made in the form of concentric brass tubes, the outer of which is 1/4 in. diameter, the instrument is easily introduced into air ducts through small openings, such as a bolt hole. Pressure is communicated to manometers through two holes, one to the inner tube and the other to the concentric space between the tubes, about 78.5 deg. apart. The instrument is held perpendicular to the flow in such a manner that the direction of flow bisects the angle between the axes of the holes. In this position, which can be determined by balancing the pressures on one manometer, the reading on a second manometer gives the static pressure. The instrument has less error in turbulent flow than other types.
Ideal Gas-Engine Cycles
Authors: Heck Robert C. H.
Published: January 2024

The purpose of this paper is to promote the use, with the internal-combustion engine, of the ideal performance as a standard of comparison, by making that standard almost as readily convenient as is the Mollier chart for the steam engine. This purpose is accomplished in two steps: (a) developing a working chart that combines in one the temperature-entropy diagram and a diagram of internal energy and total heat on entropy, in which any horizontal line is a line of constant temperature, constant energy, and constant total heat; and (b) showing by trial upon representative examples that this chart, based on the properties of an average gas mixture, gives essentially correct output for any working mixture within the range of gas-engine practice.

Avoiding the common type of chart, with its confusing multiplicity of curves, the present scheme employs the principle of moving curves, carried by templates. The chart carries one curve of constant-volume and one of constant-pressure heating, with horizontal scales of volume and pressure and vertical scales of energy and total heat or “enthalpy.” These are so disposed that any problem can be solved by construction upon a separate working sheet, laid down across the chart, which will serve as a permanent record of the solution.

Important features of the paper are found in Figs. 9 and 10 on the specific heats of working mixtures, Figs. 11 and 12 for the general idea of chart and method, in the summary of Otto-cycle determination, Par. 73 to 76, and in that of the Diesel-cycle determination, Par. 85 and 86.
Properties of Boiler Tubing at Elevated Temperatures Determined by Expansion Tests
Authors: White A. E. , Clark C. L.
Published: January 2024

The object of this investigation was to determine safe working loads for low-carbon-steel seamless tubing at elevated temperatures.

Present-day boiler practice employs temperatures varying from 550 to 750 deg. fahr., and pressures of around 350 lb. per sq. in. There is an increasing tendency, however, to increase both temperature and pressure, but little is known of the properties of metals at elevated temperatures, particularly when temperatures are maintained for long periods of time.

The investigation recorded in this paper sets forth the preliminary findings on 0.13 carbon-steel tubing when loaded at temperatures of 900, 1000, 1250 and 1500 deg. fahr.
Air-Transport Engineering
Authors: Seymour L. D.
Published: January 2024

The author takes up and discusses briefly some of the more important subjects which come to the air-transport engineer for consideration. These are: the selection of routes; selection of aircraft; preparation of terminal field equipment; development of airways; provision of aids to aerial navigation; determination of flying schedules; establishment of sources of material supply; keeping of performance records; and the preparation of cost estimates and analyses.
Heavy-Oil Engines for Aircraft
Authors: Pye D. R.
Published: January 2024

In this paper the author first points out that the heavy-oil engine will probably provide a satisfactory practical power unit for airships long before it reaches the airplane stage. He then briefly describes early experimental work with a single-cylinder research unit to explore the possibilities of compression-ignition operation. Following this he discusses alternative designs which offer possible solutions of the main problem, and then gives results obtained in single-cylinder experiments showing the effect of maximum cylinder pressure upon brake m.e.p. and fuel consumption. Fuel-valve and nozzle design are then taken up, followed by sections dealing briefly with air swirl, valve mechanism, possibilities of the two-stroke cycle, and performance at altitude.
The High Cost of Fuel Saving
Authors: Trinks W.
Published: January 2024

In this paper the author compares the progress in engineering with the tendency toward fuel saving, and gives some of the reasons for shunning new equipment that will save a large percentage of the fuel wasted by the old. It is pointed out that in most cases it is less expensive in the long run to retain the old equipment than to install the later types with their economies. Mention is made of the well-known practice of building houses of flimsy construction but of beautiful exterior appearance, appearance being the best drawing card from the standpoint of sales, rather than to insulate the structure and thereby save fuel for the occupant. A tax on fuel is recommended as a possible stimulus in the interest of fuel saving.
The Use of Fuels in Brick Kilns
Authors: Rice W. E.
Published: January 2024

The purpose of this paper is to familiarize fuel engineers with the peculiar requirements of brick-kiln operation. It briefly describes the firing process and the limitations this imposes upon the fuel or combustion engineer, illustrates some of the faults that are often found and the corrections that may be applied, and points to some possible improvements.
Progress in Gas-Producer Practice
Authors: Chapman Wm. B.
Published: January 2024

The purpose of this paper is to point out the progress that has been made in recent years in overcoming serious objections to the use of producer gas, and to suggest that more attention be given to the problem of unlocking the possibilities of this cheap type of fuel for use in other fields than the conventional ones to which it hitherto has been limited. Further treatment of subjects discussed by the author in his paper on “Fuel Saving in Modern Gas Producers and Industrial Furnaces,” Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 43, 1921, is offered.
The Economics of Air-Preheater Applications
Authors: Van Deventer F. M.
Published: January 2024

Part I of this paper, somewhat historical in nature, is intended to outline the several chronological steps of development which led to the air preheater, and to show why this equipment is a logical component of most modern plants.

Part II comprises brief descriptions of the principal types of air preheaters available.

Part III is a discussion of the conditions affecting the selection of a preheater and an outline of the economic problem.

Part IV explains by example the economic determination of the optimum size of plate heater for a specific application, and shows the characteristics of an air preheater as applied to a large boiler. General conclusions are summarized and a method of procedure for selecting a heater is proposed.

Part V records the detailed calculations corresponding to Part IV, so that this paper may be used as a text or guide in making analyses of similar problems where other basic conditions apply.
Economics of Dry-Quenching Coke by the Sulzer Process
Authors: Beebee A. M.
Published: January 2024

An installation of the Sulzer process of dry-quenching coke at the plant of the Rochester Gas and Electric Corporation is described in this paper. Results of operation are shown for average conditions, and no attempt has been made to select unusual results. The plant is compared with other plants employing other systems as to efficiency, ease of operation, quality of product, labor requirements, etc., and great flexibility and ease of control are disclosed.
High-Pressure Steam at Edgar Station
Authors: Moultrop I. E. , Norris E. W.
Published: January 2024

In this paper the authors describe the design of a generating plant for the Edison Electric Illuminating Company using steam at 1200 lb. This plant, known as the Edgar Station, was the first in the country to use pressures of this magnitude. The equipment of the original plant is described and operating difficulties and results are discussed. An extension to the station is described and the results of experiences with the original plant as applied to the design of the extension are set forth. As in the case of the original installation, the plant layout and equipment are described and operating results given. The capacities of the boilers, turbines, and auxiliaries are given. An interesting discussion of the possibilities of pressures above 1000 lb. is included, as well as some of the problems likely to be encountered in high-pressure equipment. The inadequacy of existing data is also mentioned. A comparison of the space requirements of high- and low-pressure equipment closes the paper.
High Steam Pressure and Temperature at Crawford Avenue Station
Authors: Bailey Alex. D.
Published: January 2024

This paper discusses some of the problems encountered in the operation of the Crawford Ave. Station of the Commonwealth Edison Co. This station is designed for 550 lb. steam pressure at the turbines and 725 deg. fahr. temperature. The fuel used is central Illinois coal having an average heat value of 10,255 B.t.u. This is fired on forced-draft, chain-grate stokers.

In the first three units the steam is reheated after passing through the high-pressure turbine by means of a special reheat boiler on each unit. The specified reheat temperature is 700 deg. The fourth unit has no reheat. The first three turbine units are bled at three points and the fourth at four. The boilers are of the interdeck superheater type, built by the Babcock & Wilcox Co., with a capacity of 150,000 to 200,000 lb. of steam per hour.

Unit No. 1, 50,000 kw., built by Parsons Co., England, was put into service in May, 1925. Unit No. 2, 60,000 kw., built by the General Electric Co., was put into service in November, 1924. Unit No. 3, 50,000 kw., built by the Westinghouse Co., was put into service in March, 1925. Unit No. 4, 75,000 kw., built by the General Electric Co., was put into service in August, 1926. Unit, No. 5, 90,000 kw., built by the General Electric Co., is under construction, and will be put into service in August, 1927. Unit No. 6, 100,000 kw., is on order with the Westinghouse Co., and will be in operation in the summer of 1928. Detailed description of the station has been given in various reports and printed articles, so it is considered unnecessary for this discussion.
Some Fundamental Considerations in the Design of Boiler Furnaces
Authors: Wohlenberg W. J. , Brooks F. W.
Published: January 2024

This paper deals with the influence of furnace water walls on the furnace volume requirements in so far as flame temperature is the limiting factor in the allowable rates of energy release. It is shown that the totally cold furnace envelope provides for the highest permissible energy-release rate at a given flame temperature. The permissible load range in a given furnace for given high and low limits of flame temperature is, however, greatest in the refractory-lined water-wall furnace.
Some Economic Factors in Power-Station Design
Authors: Brydon H. Boyd
Published: January 2024

After a discussion of capacity factors and average loads of steam turbines over a sixteen-year life period, the author examines the costs of seven 60,000-kw. unit plants. Of these, one is to operate with steam at 400 lb. pressure, three with steam at 600 lb., and three with steam at 1200 lb., there being different reheating arrangements provided in the 600-lb. and 1200-lb. plants. Preliminary layouts of the 400-lb., 600-lb., and 1200-lb. plants are shown. It is concluded that the adoption of the 400-lb. plant is preferable on the score of simplicity, ease of operation, and cost. Should conditions ever arise under which the use of a pressure of 1200 or 1500 lb. may become attractive, the proposed pressure will fit in nicely. The 600-lb. plant will not.
Progress Toward Direct Firing of Boilers With Producer Gas: This Fuel Is Claimed to Have All the Advantages of Pulverized Coal and Atomized Oil Without Any of the Disadvantages—The Merit Possessed by Oil or Pulverized Coal Is That They Float and Burn in Suspension as an “Imitation Gas”
Authors: Chapman William B.
Published: January 2024

The purpose of this paper is to awaken interest in the subject of heating boilers with producer gas. While there are no large installations in existence, nevertheless enough experimental work, has been done on which to base grounds for further experimentation in the belief that there can be worked out a really commercial application of producer gas for boiler firing, obtaining all of the advantages of firing fuel in suspension and without the attendant disadvantages of ash in suspension. It can be done, the author believes, without any greater cost for the installation, without any greater amount of attendance, and with at least an equally good facility for adapting to changes in load. There are real possibilities, at least in all the medium-sized boilers, to justify the expectation that it will not be many years before boilers will be generally heated with producer gas and more efficiently than they are now heated in the average-sized units.
Industrial-Furnace Efficiency, Economic Consideration
Authors: Herron James H.
Published: January 2024

The determination of accurate costs of furnace operation is an intricate problem. Some of these are intangible, and therefore difficult to determine. The different factors that are evident in furnace operation are brought out, so that possible furnace users may properly evaluate them and be able to apply them to their particular need and problem.
Determination of Economic Value in the Selection of Power-Plant Equipment: Only Correct Methods of Evaluating Bids Are Those That Determine the Minimum Sum of Fixed and Operating Charges, Taking Account of Price, Thermal Performance, Other Operating Costs, and Influence Upon Other Plant Design or Equipment
Authors: Van Deventer F. M.
Published: January 2024

After reviewing the customary procedure in obtaining competitive bids on equipment, the author discusses critically the commonly used criteria of relative value. Definite conclusions are drawn concerning the correctness and merit of each. Two illustrative examples are presented to demonstrate the author’s conclusions, and the recommended method is summarized.
The Relative Value in Locomotive Service of Different Sizes of the Same Coals: Analysis of Results of Various Tests Tends to Indicate That the Evaporation per Pound of Coal Increases and the Pounds of Coal per Unit of Work Decrease as the Percentage of Slack Decreases
Authors: Crawford John G.
Published: January 2024

The paper deals with the comparative locomotive-fuel values of various grades (sizes) of coal from the same mine. It does not attempt to determine a formula which would be applicable to any grade of coal from any district, but summarizes such information as is obtainable from the various railroads and elsewhere. It deals in a general way with the characteristics of coals, their preparation, and their physical as well as chemical make-up, and with the effect of these factors on the condition of coal supplied to locomotives. It emphasizes the importance of making sure that the coals tested are representative as to size and quality and that a sufficient number of tests are made with each grade of coal to secure a reliable average.
Railway Practice in Utilization and Conservation of Coal: With a Fuel Cost for Transportation of Over a Million Dollars a Day, the Roads Have Followed the Concerted Efforts Begun During the War With a Large Further Reduction
Authors: Overmire W. J.
Published: January 2024

Detailing the organization that can make an effective cut in the cost of coal in passenger and freight service, and outlining the selection of grades suitable for a particular road’s use, the railroad practices in the utilization and conservation of coal are stated to be: Selection and purchase of suitable coal. Maintenance of a high standard of preparation on all coal shipped. Distribution of the coal to reduce mixing to a minimum. Careful accounting for all coal purchased and statistics for analyzing the fuel performance. Locomotives of proper design and size. A high standard of maintenance of motive power, rolling stock, and track. Elimination of delays and slow orders. Adopting train loadings and train schedules for the most efficient movement of trains. Reducing grades and constructing double track and other facilities for improved operating conditions. Educating officials and employees and soliciting their assistance in the conservation of coal.
Damage Due to Smoke: Enormity of the Destruction and Defacement Caused by Air Pollution Owing to the Unrestrained Products of Combustion
Authors: Meller H. B.
Published: January 2024

The smoke investigation conducted by the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research of Pittsburgh forms the basis of the paper, with additional data and observations as the result of studies since that time. The smoke problem in cities arises mainly from the fuels that give off during combustion part of their volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash, and sulphur. Although coke and anthracite burn without appreciable smoke and are low in volatile matter, ash is carried off in proportion to the draft. The effects on buildings, vegetation, and health are summarized, and also the economic cost.
Computation of the Tail-Water Depth of the Hydraulic Jump in Sloping Flumes
Authors: Ellms Robert W.
Published: January 2024

This investigation deals primarily with the methods of computing the tail-water depth of the hydraulic jump when it is produced in sloping flumes. The author has developed two formulas for this calculation based upon the unpublished work of A. G. Levy and J. W. Ellms of the Cleveland Water Department, and of J. R. Fleming and the author in a thesis presented to Case School of Applied Science. In this paper are given a description and the data of the latter’s thesis work, and certain data obtained by the two former investigators. From a study of the results of these experiments the author has drawn certain conclusions as to what takes place in the hydraulic jump when it is produced in sloping flumes, and attempts an explanation of this spectacular and baffling phenomenon.
Sheet Rolling
Authors: Cammen Leon
Published: January 2024

In this paper, after distinguishing between strip and sheet, and between hot and cold rolling, the author points out that mills are today rolling to surface specifications which would have been considered impossible fine years ago, and that barring certain contingencies, stricter specifications may prevail in the near future. In the course of his treatment of the subject he describes the continuous process of sheet rolling, temperature and labor, roll life, engineering economies of the sheet-rolling business, rolling with heating between passes, sheet rolling in Germany, sheet and roughing mills of the future, the price problem, etc. In the author’s opinion the economic side of the industry will have to be reorganized along lines which have proved successful throughout the entire American industry; and this will be in the direction of reduction of the number of plants and concentration of output in larger and better-equipped units capable of meeting the strenuous specifications of today in an economical manner and by those knowing enough about their costs to demand a fair price for their products.
Rolling-Mill Lubrication
Authors: Tyler L. P.
Published: January 2024

The author confines his discussion to those modern installations where lubrication is effected by means of a system which automatically circulates a single lubricant. He first considers the mill members best adapted to such lubrication, following which he outlines the conditions to be satisfied for correct lubrication. The requirements to be met by the lubricant are then enumerated, and instructions are given for its application and handling. Finally the advantages of such a system in the way of economy and in the compactness of design it permits are pointed out.
Budgetary Control
Authors: Jordan J. P.
Published: January 2024

In the influence held by a chief executive over the mentalities of his subordinates, whereby he secures from them the greatest possible producing effort, lies the real secret of his success. Many executives hold this influence by sheer personality. Others hold it by a combination of personality and the careful selection and provision of various schemes whereby the subordinates themselves are more or less automatically spurred on in their efforts.

It is a well-recognized fact that we are a nation of aggressive people; that we take business chances as a matter of course. The widespread interest in sports—golf, baseball, football, tennis, boxing, polo, etc.—is evidence of the sporting angles of the average American mind: the apparent evidence of a desire either to indulge in or to become interested in a game.

Budgetary control supplies to every one in any kind of a business institution a species of a game. The setting of quotas of performance and budgets of expense brings out a cool and calculating thought of the future and what it should yield. The daily watching of the current transactions becomes as fully absorbing as the watching of the electric score board of a World’s Series game. A par has been set and must be beaten.

The psychological effect of budgetary control is its greatest asset, and in this feature alone it takes its place as perhaps the most valuable of all more or less mechanical management aids.
Control of Factory Overhead
Authors: Perkins H. G.
Published: January 2024

The control of factory overhead is almost synonymous with good management. The so-called uncontrollable items of overhead, as well as the controllable items, are amenable to downward adjustment from many different angles.

Tactful discipline of executives, the education of supervisors in cost of materials and service of their own departments, and study or research to determine better and cheaper materials and methods, are essential to expense control.

Expectancy of promotion, personal recognition and appreciation by the higher executives, assignment of added responsibilities, and payment of bonuses to executives, often greatly influence the esprit de corps of an organization.

Uniformity in output is a factor of greatest importance in the standardization of costs, and for this reason a rate of production not in accordance with current demand for the finished product is often advisable so that costs may be maintained at their proper levels.

A properly designed and vigorously administered budget-control scheme is a very powerful means of overhead control, and should cover such points as the attainability of quotas set, a voice in setting quotas by department heads, the provision of cost data for guidance of department heads, the establishment of well-defined standards of operation for various departments to act as checks on estimates and means of forecasting future performance, and the careful comparison of results with quotas in order to determine possible future economies.