bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
OIL SPILL INTELLIGENCE REPORT INTERNATIONAL OIL SPILL DATABASE: TRENDS IN OIL SPILL VOLUMES AND FREQUENCY1
Authors: Etkin Dagmar Schmidt , Welch Jeff
Published: January 2013

The Oil Spill Intelligence Report International Oil Spill Database contains records of more than 4100 major oil spill incidents (involving at least 10,000 gallons) that have occurred worldwide since Oil Spill Intelligence Report began publication in 1978. The database tracks the date, source, owner, gallons spilled, location, causes, and type of oil spilled. This poster also presents graphs that illustrate various trends in spill patterns over the 1978–1995 period. The OSIR research staff updates the database weekly after contact with various sources from around the world
MANAGING PERSONNEL IN SUSTAINED SPILL RESPONSE EFFORTS
Authors: Cantwell Vincent
Published: January 2013

Although human performance varies greatly between and within individuals, it can generally be predicted from a number of physiological and psychophysiological factors that are common to all humankind, regardless of the operational environment. These include the effects that circadian influences, disrupted sleep, sleep loss, physical exertion, and other factors, including caffeine, alcohol, and over-the-counter medications, have on performance, cognition, and response time, and therefore on the safety of any planned or emergency response operation. Particularly when operational demands require sustained performance in a hazardous time- and cost-sensitive environment, such as during spill response operations, these physiological considerations must be factored into the planning and execution of response operations if maximal safety, effectiveness, and cost efficiency are to be preserved.
NUTSHELL SUMMARY OF EPA'S NATIONAL SURVEY OF OIL STORAGE FACILITIES
Authors: Weiner Janet LaFiandra
Published: January 2013

In April 1995, EPA conducted a national survey of oil storage facilities potentially subject to its Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) regulation (40 CFR Part 112). The purpose of the survey was to answer five specific questions: (1) How many facilities are regulated by EPA's SPCC program? (2) What types of facilities does the SPCC program regulate? (3) What do these facilities look like? (4) Which facilities pose the greatest oil spill risk? And (5) How effective is the SPCC program in reducing oil spill risk? This nutshell summary briefly discusses EPA's analysis of the survey data.
CANADA'S SYSTEM OF SPILL RESPONSE: WILL IT ACTUALLY WORK?
Authors: Chapman Philip , Holm Huestis
Published: January 2013

Canadian policy on marine spill response and preparedness has undergone a significant transformation since the OPRC Convention. An ambitious plan was launched in 1993 that sought to achieve two things: the privatization of response operations and the enhancement of response capabilities. Various steps have been undertaken to implement an effective framework within which government and industry can operate. Substantial legislative, regulatory, and policy changes have gone a long way toward achieving the spirit and intent of the OPRC Convention. However, the implementation of that new system has not been without its problems.
INTEGRATED CONTINGENCY PLANNING: THE ONE PLAN APPROACH TO FACILITY RESPONSE PLANS
Authors: Gugg LCDR Paul M.
Published: January 2013

Facility operators face myriad federal, state, and local emergency response planning requirements. The traditional approach to satisfying these requirements has been to develop separate plans for each set of regulations. Guidance recently published by the National Response Team (NRT) offers an efficient format for combining planning criteria into one effective document that will be readily accepted by regulatory authorities. The NRT is composed of 15 federal agencies identified in Subpart ? of the National Contingency Plan as having responsibility for federal environmental emergency response. The “One Plan” format avoids unnecessary duplication of effort and offers significant time, paper, and dollar savings. It also promotes an all-incident approach to response planning across facility divisions.
USING GIS TO AID IN SPILL PREVENTION, PREPAREDNESS, AND RESPONSE
Authors: Worley Ray , Stalcup Dana , Kaiman Brad , Balassiano Kim
Published: January 2013

This poster presentation demonstrates how geographic information systems (GISs) are being employed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Oil Pollution Response and Prevention Center (OPRPC) and regional oil program offices to assist in preventing, preparing for, and responding to oil spills within the United States. Over the past 2 years, EPA's OPRPC has played a key role in facilitating the exchange of spatial data within EPA as well as with various federal, state, and local organizations. Significant advancements have been made in collecting, analyzing, managing, and sharing spatial data, and many opportunities for additional coordination lie ahead.
INTEGRATED INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR OIL SPILL PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE IN KOREA
Authors: Kahng Sung-Hyun , Lee Soo Hyung , Oh Jae Ryoung , Joh Sung-Eok , Lee Chang-Sup , Yoon Joo-Ryoung , Ryu Cheong-Ro
Published: January 2013

Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute (KORDI) has developed an integrated oil spill information system that provides on-scene coordinators (OSCs) and scientific support coordinators (SSCs) with various management tools for contingency planning and pollution response. This system contains databases, digital maps, prediction models, decision support programs, and communication tools. Key to the design is the systematic arrangement of six modules, each of which resembles a flow sequence of oil spill planning and response activities. The sequential and user-friendly features of the system facilitate the tracking and treatment of an actual spill incident in a geographic context more quickly and efficiently.
FORECASTING OIL SPILL DRIFT AT METEO-FRANCE
Authors: Daniel Pierre
Published: January 2013

METEO-FRANCE developed an oil spill response system designed to simulate the transport of oil in three dimensions. This system is applicable anywhere in the world (with a coarser resolution far from the French coastlines) and is available around the clock. It was validated on a few well-documented pollution incidents, and it was tested twice in real time.

New developments, exercises, and training are conducted jointly with the collaboration of CEDRE (Centre de Documentation de Recherche et d'Expérimentation sur les pollutions accidentelles des eaux).
COSS: A TESTING FACILITY FOR OIL SPILL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Authors: Reilly Timothy J. , Jamail Robin
Published: January 2013

A facility known as the Coastal Oil Spill Simulation (COSS) system has been constructed to test the efficacy and environmental effects of physical, chemical, and biological oil spill response technologies under realistic coastal and nearshore environmental conditions. The COSS facility is located in Corpus Christi, Texas. Oil spill research and development experiments will begin at the COSS facility in the summer of 1997. The Texas General Land Office and the Marine Spill Response Corporation have sponsored the design and construction of the COSS facility.
Weathered Petroleum “Bioavailability” to Intertidal Bivalve Species After the T/V Exxon Valdez Incident
Authors: Roberts Paulene O. , Henry Charles B. , Shigenaka Gary , Fukuyama Allan
Published: January 2013

Sediment and bivalve samples were collected annually to assess residual oil concentration, degradation and persistence after the T/V Exxon Valdez incident through NOAA's Prince William Sound Shoreline Monitoring Program. Detailed gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MS) analyses of samples from various sites still contain residual oil. The residual oil from the 1989 spill shows a similar though altered aromatic hydrocarbon (AH) profile in the bivalve body burden. The residual oil profile of bivalves and sediments contain components not highly water soluble, therefore mechanisms other than dissolution are the primary mode of petroleum transport. The presence of altered whole oil within the mussel and clam tissues provides inferences into the oil transport and exposure mechanisms.
Acute Toxicological Consequences of Oil Dispersal To Marine Organisms
Authors: Singer Michael M. , Jacobson Susan , Hodgins Maureen , Tjeerdema Ronald S. , Sowby Michael L.
Published: January 2013

The acute effects of untreated and chemically dispersed Prudhoe Bay crude oil was investigated using modeledexposure toxicity tests. Testing was accomplished under closed, flow-through conditions using the sensitive early life-stages of two coastal California marine species. Water-accommodated fractions of untreated oil were prepared using low-energy equilibrium methods, whereas chemical dispersions were prepared at somewhat higher energies. Exposure concentrations were measured using gas chromatography. Results showed substantial differences in toxicity both among species, and between dispersed and undispersed oil.
Microbial Degradation of Biosurfactant Dispersed Oil
Authors: Crescenzi Francesco , Camilli Marcello , Fascetti Eugenio , Porcelli Filippo , Prosperi Giulio , Sacceddu Pasquale
Published: January 2013

Biological degradation of a light crude dispersed in sea water by a surfactant produced by an hydrocarbon degrading microorganism has been monitored in laboratory tests. Oligotrophic natural sea water was used with no additions. Results showed that the oil dispersed by the biosurfactant was more easily degraded than chemically dispersed oil. In adhesion tests it has been found that the number of microbial cells adhering to a water/hexadecane interface increases in presence of the biosurfactant. It is suggested that the biodegradation enhancement may be linked to a promoting action carried by the biosurfactant on the adhesion of degrading microorganisms onto the surface of the oil.
Investigation of Nutrient Limitation On Oil Spill Bioremediation Using a 1-D Mathematical Model
Authors: Meyers LT Timothy E. , Chandran Jayanth , Jin Minghui , Ford Roseanne M.
Published: January 2013

Bioremediation provides a means of enhancing the natural degradation process in which organic molecules are converted to biomass and harmless products such as carbon dioxide and water. Natural levels of nitrogen and phosphorus are often unable to support the microbial requirements following a sudden increase in hydrocarbon levels associated with an oil spill. The authors used a mathematical model to study the impact of adding fertilizer (nitrogen and phosphorus) to enhance the bioremediation process. Conservation equations for benzene, naphthalene, nitrogen and phosphorous were solved using an upstream-biased Eulerian algorithm for transport equations with sources (UpBEATES). Bacterial growth and contaminant degradation were modeled with multiple-substrate Monod kinetics and transport of the components was restricted to diffusion. The authors' computer algorithm allowed for the distribution of nitrogen and phosphorus at various locations and timed-release of the compounds. These features permitted a systematic study of various treatment options which may aid in the design of future bioremediation efforts. Three cases were considered. The base case assumed nitrogen at a level naturally occurring in seawater; a second case uniformly increased the level of nitrogen in the bulk seawater and a third case supplemented nitrogen at the oil/water interface. Adding nitrogen at the oil-water interface was the most effective strategy for dealing with the nitrogen limitation.
Influence of Zeolites On The Degradation of Arabian Light Crude Oil
Authors: Bergueiro J. R. , Pita A. , Mayol M. A. , Rallo M. , López-Ruiz J.
Published: January 2013

The authors have studied the biodegradation of an Arabian Light crude oil in sterile marine water by the CUES229 marine bacteria and the BIOLEN IG30 biologic activator, both in the presence and the absence of zeolites. Two different types of zeolites, a natural one (NZ) and an artificial one (Zestek56), were used to degrade the crude in the first experiment, arising a 20% increment in the degradation in the presence of natural zeolite when compared with a similar sample without zeolites, and a 9% in the artificial zeolite. Next set of experiment were made using reactors filled with 250 g of sea water and 0.02 g of zeolite and injecting CUES 229 bacteria up to 108 cells/ml. Samples were introduced in a shaker at 110 rpm and with regulated temperature at 30-C. Time evolution of the biodegradation was deduced from gas chromatography at the time intervals 1; 7 and 15 days. Later, a similar experiment, but with BIOLEN IG30, was also made. Biodegradation of aliphatic hydrocarbons was observed –after 15 days- until the C14 fractions, using zeolites plus Biolen IG30, and until the C18 fractions, using zeolite plus CUES 229 bacteria.
What Has Been Happening After Oil Spill On Sand Beach
Authors: Sawano Nobuhiro
Published: January 2013

The Russian tanker Nakhodka spilled approximately 86,600 kiloliters of heavy C oil in the Sea of Japan on January 2, 1997. By this accident, more than 2,000 kilometers of coastline along the Sea of Japan has been affected.

Spilt oil was stranded on a 4-kilometer sand beach from Katano to Shioya on January 7. Soon after the oil beached, recovery works were done by heavy machinery without taking account of plant vegetation. These recovery works were completed with a large amount of oil mixed in with the sand.

Plant vegetation on this beach was seriously damaged. One year after the oil spill, many parts of the plant vegetation disappeared here and there on this beach. It has become clear that plant vegetation plays a great role in protecting sand beach from erosion., Observing this case, environmental sensitivity of sand beaches should be classified into two groups: one is sand beach with plant vegetation, the other is without plant vegetation. The former is more sensitive.
Estimates of Oil Entering the Marine Environment in the Past Decade: Gesamp Working Group 32 Project
Authors: Nauke Manfred , Wells Peter , Johnston Paul , Meyer Trygve , Etkin Dagmar Schmidt , Koefoed Jens , Campbell John , Grey Catherine J.
Published: January 2013

The Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Protection (GESAMP) Working Group on Estimates of Oil Entering the Marine Environment: Sea Based Activities (Working Group 32), began meeting at International Maritime Organization (IMO) headquarters in London in November 1997 to discuss a new approach to evaluating all available data sources on the input of oil into the marine environment from sea-based activities. The group will collect and analyze data on oil inputs over the last decade from shipping (tankers and other vessels), offshore and coastal exploration and production, pipelines, atmospheric emissions from sea-based activities, coastal refineries and storage facilities, oil reception facilities, materials disposed of at sea, and natural seepage.

The group, sponsored by the United Nations (UN), IMO, UN Environment Program, Food and Agriculture Organization, UN Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization, World Health Organization, World Meteorological Organization, and International Atomic Energy Agency, will compare its oil input estimate model to estimates made by GESAMP in previous decades to determine if there have been significant reductions in oil input in order to evaluate the efficacy of IMO conventions and other pollution reduction efforts in the past decade. The group will consider the amounts of oil entering the sea through operational and accidental spillage in relation to the quantities of oil transported by ship and through pipelines, and in relation to offshore and coastal oil production. The group will also consider temporal and spatial variability in oil inputs, as well as evaluate the accuracy of input estimates. These results will be presented in the poster presentation
San Jorge Oil Spill: An Experience from Uruguay
Authors: Nodar Miguel Alberto , Martino Maria del Rosario
Published: January 2013

This poster presentation refers to the response actions to an oil spill that took place in front of the Maldonado coast line, near Punta del Este, the principal tourist resort in Uruguay, South America. The spill was caused by the collision of the tanker San Jorge against a rocky formation that did not appear on the nautical charts.

This tanker, of Panamanian flag, was transporting 60,000 tons of Cañadon Seco crude oil from Comodoro Rivadavia (Argentina) to San Sebastian (Brazil). The collision caused initially a spill that was controlled with dispersants, but 2 days later adverse meteorological conditions drove the spill toward the coast, impacting an extension of 25 km. Floating booms were deployed before at the entrance of a creek and a lagoon, both of them of high ecological sensitivity, so it only remained to prepare cleanup actions at the beaches. These response actions had to be very quick because the spill occurred in the middle of the summer, with Punta del Este full of tourists. The actions were successful, and in 2 weeks the beaches were kept almost completely clean.
Protocols for Sample Design and Implementation—Collecting Ephemeral Data During Emergency Response for Natural Resource Damage Assessments
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Zengel Scott A. , Payne James R. , Helton Douglas
Published: January 2013

During the emergency phase of an oil or hazardous material spill, natural resource managers and trustees must quickly develop and implement study plans to collect ephemeral data on the extent and degree of contamination and the potential biological injury resulting from the spill. Manuals and guidelines have been developed by various groups, yet these documents have proven to be too difficult to use during the chaotic, early days of a spill emergency. To provide better guidance, a series of brief (two-page) protocol summaries have been prepared for the types of sampling activities likely to be conducted during the emergency phase of spill, supporting both response and natural resource damage assessment (NRDA) objectives. Protocols have been prepared for collection of samples of the source oil(s), water samples, intertidal sediments, subtidal sediments, and shellfish tissues for chemical and histopathological analysis. Protocols are also being prepared for procedures to measure salt marsh injury, visual estimates of abundance and percent cover in quadrats, and quantitative measurements of infaunal abundance.
Nissos Amorgos Oil Spill Experience
Authors: Masciangioli Panfilo , Febres German , Viale-Rigo María Elena
Published: January 2013

The behavior of the Bachaquero crude oil spilled by tanker Nissos Amorgos, when it grounded in the Gulf of Venezuela, was studied through modelling its fate using the SIMAP model (Applied Science Associates, Inc.). The purpose of the simulations was to improve the cleanup activities, and to help in evaluating the environmental impact.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency/U.S. Coast Guard Peer Exchange Program1
Authors: Babb Jeffrey C. , Cekus Glenn
Published: January 2013

Nationwide, the U.S. Coast Guard (CG) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are both tasked with the implementation of several environmental and safety statutes (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liabilities Act [CERCLA], Oil Pollution Act of 1990 [OPA 90], Clean Water Act [CWA], international Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships [MARPOL], etc.). They share important leadership roles on the National Response Team (NRT), Regional Response Team (RRT) and several other response planning bodies. Often EPA On-Scene Coordinators (OSCs) and CG OSC representatives work together in oil and chemical response operations and on various planning and exercise committees. However, the joint efforts of both organizations are often impacted by a mutual lack of understanding of each other's authorities, policies, procedures, internal structures, and leadership roles. Even the response zones for CG and EPA are often based on factors other than geography and often may not be well understood.

USCG Marine Safety Office (MSO) Chicago and EPA Region V are bridging this gap in understanding by sponsoring a Peer Exchange Program. Representatives from each agency are spending up to a week with the other agency for hands-on training and education. The program was initiated in April 1996 and has produced excellent results. As a result, joint CGIEPA responses run more smoothly, mutual understanding and accessibility are enhanced, and overall public health and welfare and the environment are better protected.
Spill Management Teams and Legal Implications of Controlling a Response
Authors: Waldron Jonathan K.
Published: January 2013

The evolution of Spill Management Teams (SMTs) has revolutionized how spill response efforts are conducted. The SMT is often contracted out by the responsible party and relied on to spearhead an effective and efficient response. The importance of SMTs was not envisioned by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. There are detailed planning requirements applicable to the responsible party, Oil Spill Removal Organizations, and Qualified Individual, but few requirements apply to the SMT, the entity that generally takes over and controls the response. This paper will analyze the planning standards applicable to SMTs and compare the roles, duties, and responsibilities of the SMT as compared to the responsible party and other stake-holders. The legal exposures of SMTs in controlling a response effort will be explored, and the practical recommendations and guidelines that follow will be provided to assist stakeholders and SMTs in understanding and minimizing the potential legal liabilities associated with SMTs providing critical spill management services.
Planning Oil Spill Response Tactics for Offshore Production Islands
Authors: Bronson Michael , Chappie Thomas , Dietrick Larry , Hocking Ronald , McHale James
Published: January 2013

In anticipation of the Beaufort Sea's first two offshore production islands, Alaska's North Slope oil producers recently expanded their oil spill recovery tactical plans and equipment. To seek regulatory approval for offshore oil production, industry responders joined agency regulators and made plans to clean up as much as 225,000 barrels of oil from potential blowouts over 15 days. Response technicians are configuring new and existing skimmers, vessels, and barges on the North Slope to implement those planning standards. This paper outlines the oil spill tactical plans and equipment that Alaska's North Slope oil industry recently assembled in seeking regulatory approval for the first offshore production islands in the Arctic. The operators of North America's largest oil fields are beginning the first production from oil wells separated from roads and most spill response vessels. For example, the new Badami production pad lies on the Arctic coast more than 25 miles from the Prudhoe Bay facilities, across river courses and roadless tundra. Eight miles of ice-infested sea will separate the proposed Northstar and Liberty production islands from response vessel berths. The new fields regularly experience waves, cold, and ice invasions that constrain oil recovery efforts. Yet regulatory approval to begin oil production requires that the industry have plans and equipment to clean up all the oil that may enter open water, even from the largest spills, within 72 hours.
The Minerals Management Service Cutting-Edge Oil Spill Response Research
Authors: Mullin Joseph V.
Published: January 2013

The Minerals Management Service (MMS), is the principal U.S. government agency funding offshore oil spill response research. The MMS, a bureau of the Department of the Interior, maintains a comprehensive Oil Spill Response Research program in support of oil spill prevention and response. Through funding provided by MMS, scientists and engineers from the public and private sectors worldwide are working to address outstanding gaps in information and technology concerning the cleanup of oil spills. Joint research projects with Environment Canada (EC) continue to focus on determining the physical and chemical properties of crude oil, the fate and behavior of spilled oil, remote sensing and mapping of oil slicks, chemical treating agents including dispersants, and innovative shoreline cleanup strategies. In joint projects with the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), MMS continues to assess the capabilities of in situ burning as an oil spill response tool. Also discussed is OHMSETT, the national Oil Spill Response Test Facility. OHMSETT is the only facility in the world where government agencies, universities, and private companies can conduct full-scale oil spill response equipment testing, research, and training with oil under controlled conditions.
Monitoring Oil Concentration In The Field
Authors: Lambert Patrick , Fieldhouse B. , Fingas Mervin F. , Goldthorp Mike
Published: January 2013

The performance of three field kits was compared using prepared diesel fuel-in-sand samples and environmental field samples. The field kits were the EnviroGard Petroleum Fuels in Soil Test kit (EnviroGard, Millipore Canada, Mississauga, Ontario), PetroFlag Hydrocarbon Test Kit for Soil (Dexsil, Hamden, Connecticut), and a modified version of the method for oil and grease and petroleum hydrocarbons solvent extraction with infrared (IR) analysis (Buck Scientific, East Norwalk, Connecticut). The EnviroGard kit was affected by the sample matrix and was not capable of detecting the petroleum concentration. The Petroflag kit tended to generate results higher than the accepted concentration. The IR method was the most sensitive and produced values similar to the accepted concentration data.
Country Profiles: A Summary of Oil Spill Response Arrangements and Resources Worldwide
Authors: Wadsworth Tim
Published: January 2013

To assist shipowners comply with their requirements under the international conventions, International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) has produced a series of Country Profiles. These documents are intended to provide a greater overall understanding of oil spill response and state of preparedness nationally, and to promote co-operation between shipowners and the various government and private bodies involved in such matters. The Profiles, available to all via the Internet (at www.itopf.com/country_profiles), cover approximately 160 maritime nations and allow users to obtain a quick snapshot of national response arrangements.
Temporary Response System for Viscous Oil By Fishery Technique
Authors: Saito Masaki , Ouchl Joji
Published: January 2013

Generally it takes at least several hours (a few weeks if unlucky) for the vessels, instruments, and responders to arrive at the polluted area. Until that happens, there are no means for preventing the oil spreading except “self-defense” by neighboring people such as fishermen, volunteers, and staff of the local government. After spreading out along the shoreline, they should keep their own local shoreline clean from oil landing while the professional response in the central area is operated. temporary response instruments are necessary for such initial response and self-defense; otherwise, amateur responders have little more than their hands for products to use for the oil spill response. This paper describes that the fishery net system with bark is one of the effective instruments for such a purpose, especially for recovering the viscous oil.
Two-Level Oil Recovery Protection System Used At Pechora River Basin
Authors: Kurchenko Alexander
Published: January 2013

The development of oil production in Timan-Pechora oil and gas basin substantially added to the increase of the environmental pollution risk, especially pollution due to the oil products. The main impact to the environment was caused by Vosei-Golovnye pipeline break (Russia, Komi Republic) in 1994, where large areas were covered with oil. In order to prevent oil spill of Pechora River, a two-level protection system was designed and constructed in 1995 by PRIRODA specialists. The first level of protection consists of containment devises at creeks in oil production placed at possible oil penetration on creeks. The second level of protection is situated at Kolva River and consists of up to eight specialized vessels, with approximately 1,700 meters of booms; the moorage has been constructed with oil pipeline for the recovered oil to the oil treatment facility. The system is operated by qualified specialists. Three years of experience to operate multilevel protection system in Pechora basin showed a high level of efficiency which assists in prevention of negative impact of oil pipeline breaks at the environment.
Orimulsion®-400, the Next Generation: Environmental Fate, Effects, and Recovery
Authors: Tavel Nelson Garcia , Johnson Isabel C.
Published: January 2013

Orimulsion “First Generation,” commonly known as Orimulsion®-100, is a commercial boiler fuel presently used at power plants worldwide (e.g., Canada, Denmark, Japan, Italy, Lithuania, and China). This fuel is manufactured by PDVSA-BITOR (PDVSA, Petroleos de Venezuela South America) from the vast bitumen reserves of the Orinoco Belt, Venezuela. Orimulsion® is a liquid fossil fuel made up of 70% bitumen, and 30% water. Orimulsion®-400 is part of the “New Generation” of Orimulsion-type fuels being developed by PDVSA-BITOR; this formulation includes modifications which enhance the fuel's combustion and transport, while continuing to improve its environmental and economic benefits.

The characteristics of Orimulsion® fuels are conducive to the conversion to this fuel in any kind of boiler designed to burn Fuel Oil No. 6 or coal. The introduction of this fuel alternative for utility repowering will have a significant impact on power generation worldwide.

The environmental fate and effects of Orimulsion®-400 has been studied by several groups of scientists (e.g., Battelle, 1998; Bjornstead et al., 1998; Environment Canada, 1998; Esclapés et al., 7997, 1998; Johnson et al., 1998a), and this paper is an overview of these studies. This presentation includes: chemical and physical properties of the fuel; behavior of bitumen particles in freshwater and seawater; environmental toxicity studies using Orimulsion®-400 and its new surfactant package; and spill prevention and cleanup methods.
Control of Oil Spills In Fast-Water Currents—A Technology Assessment1
Authors: Coe Thomas
Published: January 2013

A technology assessment was conducted to quantify the oil spill threat in fast waters, and then identify promising equipment and strategies for those threat scenarios. Recommendations are made to pursue methods, equipment, and training that show the most promise to improve response capabilities in currents from 1 to 6 knots.

Containment and removal of oil spilled in rivers and coastal tidal regions where currents exceed 0.7 knots is difficult because many skimmers and conventional booming methods are not effective in fast currents. The oil will generally entrain and follow the water path under the boom or skimmer for faster currents unless it is tricked by a device for deflection, containment, or recovery. This can be accomplished using specialized equipment and strategies; however, properly trained response personnel are essential. The benefits and liabilities of high speed skimmers and specialized boom systems that use a number of techniques are summarized.

Shallow-draft high-current boom can be used to deflect the oil to shore at steep angles where the currents are slowed by the rising shoreline and conventional skimmers can be effectively used. Promising deflection strategies are listed. Alternate containment and diversion techniques also presented include: pneumatic boom, horizontal air and water jets, plunging water jets, diversion paravanes, and floating paddle wheel.
Operational Parameters for In Situ Burning of Six U.S. Outer Continental Shelf Crude Oils
Authors: McCourt James , Buist Ian , Mullin Joseph V.
Published: January 2013

A laboratory test program was conducted with six crude oils to determine the following parameters with respect to in situ burning:The limits to ignition using gelled-gasoline igniters imposed by evaporation and emulsion-formationThe ability of commercially-available emulsion breakers and alternative fuel igniters to extend the window-of-opportunity for ignition of stable emulsionsThe effects of wave action on the combustion of emulsion slicks,The likelihood of the residues sinking after efficient burns of thick slicks of the crude oils

As well as providing valuable spill-response oriented data, the study has shown that in situ burning may not be an appropriate response option for all oils. Some oils were easily ignited and burned efficiently, even when emulsified to high water contents. One oil could not be ignited even when fresh. The ability of emulsion breakers to promote emulsion ignition and burning was found to be oil-dependent.
Protection of Sensitive Coastal Areas in the United Kingdom: From Torrey Canyon to the New Millenium1
Authors: Perry Robin
Published: January 2013

The tanker Torrey Canyon grounded in 1967 beginning the era of the major oil spill. The United Kingdom was unprepared for this event. Nevertheless, following the spill, much research was carried out, including methods for the protection of environmental and socio-economic sensitive areas.

However, little was done to produce detailed protection plans for such sites. These can save hours of response time, as boom locations, priorities, layouts, deployment methods, equipment requirements, access and temporary oil storage arrangements will be specified. Yet in the United Kingdom, the Shoreline Response Centre (Command Centre) continued to decide these things after the spill had occurred, which was often too late.

In 1990, a spill from the tanker Rosebay occurred in the English Channel, off the sensitive South Devon coast. Protection plans were non-existent. This gave an impetus to develop coastal protection planning, which the SW Region of the National Rivers Authority (NRA) commenced. In 1995, it was recommended that this should be extended throughout the United Kingdom to a common standard. Unfortunately, various factors delayed commencement of this work, which was jointly carried out in 1998 by the Environment Agency (EA), the successor to the NRA, the Maritime and Coastguard Agency, Marine Pollution Control Unit and the Northern Ireland Environment and Heritage Service. In the meantime, many unsatisfactory plans were produced for the upstream oil industry.

The paper reviews this background and describes the new national coastal protection planning guidelines. It also includes completed examples, describes the testing and validation process and describes future plans.
Optimisation of Oil Spill Dispersant Use
Authors: Lunel Tim , Lewis Alun
Published: January 2013

The use of oil spill dispersants can, in some circumstances, be an effective response measure that reduces the overall environmental or economic damage caused by oil spills. In recent years, there have been some developments in dispersant formulation and in situ monitoring techniques which have led to an increase in the potential “time window” for dispersant use and also an increase in the number of oil types where dispersant treatment is considered a possibility. Perhaps more importantly, a more realistic understanding of the capabilities and limitations of oil spill dispersants combined with in situ monitoring methods for assessing the different potential impact of oil spills, has led to more informed decision-making about dispersant use. This paper considers recent technological developments that have been made relating to dispersant use, addresses the issues and identifies areas where further effort is needed.
Dispersants and Demulsifirs: Studies in the Laboratory, Harbor, and Polludrome
Authors: Guyomarch Julien , Kerfourn Olivier , Merlin François-X
Published: January 2013

When spilled at sea, many oils are known to form emulsions. These emulsions are often of high-water content and viscosity, poorly dispersible, hard to recover and pump, and likely to remain as a persistent pollutant that may come ashore. To avoid these difficulties, demulsifiers have been used, either to inhibit emulsion formation or to break emulsions that have already been created. CEDRE (Centre de Documentation de Recherche et d'Experimentations sur les Pollutions Accidentelles des Eaux) has studied the efficiency of several demulsifiers on the rate of emulsion formation and on the dispersability of emulsified oils of different types. This study was conducted in three stages. First, a study of the rate and extent of emulsification was conducted in the laboratory. Second, the effect of demulsifiers was studied in floating mesocosms placed in a harbor. The demulsifiers did not succeed in totally preventing emulsion formation, but they inhibited the degree of emulsification of the oils for some time. Third, the dispersability of weathered oils was studied in laboratory using the IFP and WSL test methods and then in the Polludrome, where the effects of different treatment strategies combining demulsifiers and dispersants applications were assessed.
Scaling Compensatory Restoration Under the 1990 Oil Pollution Act
Authors: Tomasi Theodore , Kealy Mary Jo , Rockel Mark
Published: January 2013

A major feature of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) is a requirement that compensation be resource-based. This paper discusses the implications of resource-based compensation and the OPA 90 preference for narrowly-defined in-kind compensation. A framework is developed for evaluating compensatory scaling methods on the basis of the applicability of the method to the restoration project and the cost-effectiveness of the solution. The framework places potential compensation projects along a continuum, which ranges from strict in-kind compensation applied to small injuries to full out-of-kind compensation applied to large injuries. This conceptual framework is used to augment the existing techniques for scaling compensatory restoration, which otherwise appear to us to be limited to addressing only projects at the two ends of the continuum. The advantages of this framework are that it (1) avoids the either/or nature of the scaling choices in the current situation by offering techniques to scale compensation projects that fall in between the two ends of the continuum, (2) protects both Responsible Parties (RPs) and trustees against charges that scaling has taken place in an arbitrary manner, and (3) provides some guidance and criteria to determine when a particular scaling technique and related studies may be appropriate and lead to the most cost-effective solution.
The Evaporation of Oil Spills: Development and Implementation of New Prediction Methodology
Authors: Fingas Mervin F.
Published: January 2013

Extensive experimentation was conducted on oil evaporation. The results of the regulation nature of oil evaporation experiments, show that oil is not strictly boundary-layer regulated specifically: (1) the evaporation rate of several oils with increasing wind speed shows that, unlike water, the evaporation rate does not change significantly except for the initial step over 0-level wind; (2) increasing area does not significantly change oil evaporation rate; (3) decreasing thickness does not increase oil evaporation rate; (4) the volume or mass of oil evaporating correlates with the evaporation rate; (5) evaporation of pure hydrocarbons with and without wind (turbulence) shows that compounds larger than nonane and decane are not boundary-layer regulated.

The fact that oil evaporation is not strictly boundary-layer regulated implies a simplistic evaporation equation will suffice to describe the process. A simple equation of the form, evaporation = constant × logarithm of time, is sufficient to describe evaporation. The following processes do not require consideration: wind velocity, turbulence level, area, thickness, and scale size. The factors found to be important to evaporation are time and temperature.

The equation parameters found experimentally for the evaporation of oils can be related to commonly-available distillation data for the oil. Specifically, it has been found that the distillation percentage at 180°C correlates well with the equation parameters. Relationships enabling calculation of evaporation equations directly from distillation data have been developed. These equations were combined with the equations generated to account for the temperature variations.

The results have application in oil spill prediction and modelling. The simple equations can be applied using readily-available data such as sea temperature and time. Old equations required oil vapour pressure, specialised distillation data, spill area, wind speed, and mass transfer coefficients, all of which are difficult to obtain.
Incident Command System-Based Area Contingency Plans
Authors: Plourde Kristy L. , Dix Mark
Published: January 2013

U.S. Coast Guard Marine Safety Office San Francisco Bay (MSO SFB) embarked on a major revision of its three Area Contingency Plans (ACPs) and published them in a new consolidated Incident Command System (ICS) based plan. Restructuring the plans to an ICS format involved consolidating over 1800 pages, adding information and reformatting the sections into recognizable divisions that are understandable to any spill responder who understands ICS. Due to the large number of sensitive sites within the San Francisco Bay and Delta (SFBD) region, this section of the ACP was reorganized and divided into Geographics Response Plans (GRPs) or geographic zones for ease of use. The SFBD GRPs have color maps that show the sensitive sites in that zone for easy identification. The new ACP can be easily accessed via any computer platform using Adobe Acrobat PDF files. The online version allows the user to zoom into any desired area with linked tables of contents and GRP map links to the sensitive sites. MSO SFB has successfully marketed this plan by publishing it on its Web site. Essential elements of an ICS based ACP and computer enhancements are presented along with problems encountered.
Filling the Void: Local Control of Oil Spill Prevention Efforts
Authors: Felleman Fred , Lentz Sally Ann
Published: January 2013

This paper examines the implementation of OPA 90 in the context of its mandates to determine if the roles undertaken by federal, state and local entities have been effective in furthering marine environmental protection on the local level and makes recommendations for increasing pollution prevention.

The analysis reveals that the federal government—through the work of the Coast Guard—has not been successful in implementing the pollution prevention provisions of OPA. This has resulted in some states exercising their authority under OPA to address issues of local concern as regards shipping and potential oil spills. Where States have stepped in to fill the void; they are often faced with industry and federal government opposition or recalcitrance. OPA's PWS RCAC provides a model for cooperative relationships between government, industry and the public to address local concerns. We conclude that the RCAC model should be extended to other regions of high volume shipping activity and that the GAO should undertake an investigation of the Coast Guard's Marine Environmental Protection and Compliance Programs for the purpose of identifying the obstacles to timely and effective implementation of OPA, and for developing a strategy for overcoming those obstacles.
Action Plan Effectiveness
Authors: Leonard Joseph J. , Gibeault Carl L.
Published: January 2013

Incident Action Plans (IAPs) are one of the most effective ways for an Incident Commander (IC) or Unified Command (UC) to convey to the established response organization the goals and objectives that must be accomplished to mitigate an event. These plans come in many forms, from simple ones written on a blank sheet of paper to book size plans produced by a computer. Regardless of the form used, they must all successfully convey the IC's or UC's intentions, while being flexible enough to handle changes brought on by unseen events. If the plan is not “user-friendly,” then field personnel in the Operations Section will develop their own strategies for mitigating the incident. This free-lancing may lead to poor resource utilization, duplication of effort, creation of safety hazards, and the general failure to accomplish the overall goals of the IC or UC. This lack of effectiveness will quickly be translated into a lack of efficiency, thereby raising response costs—something no responsible party wants or needs. IAPs must avoid being too complex, too detailed, or too lengthy, as this will limit their usefulness to response managers and supervisors. Dedicated efforts must be made by the Planning Section to assure that IAPs can be easily read and understood by response managers and supervisors. These plans must also have measurable objectives that can be accomplished by the available resources. An effective IAP is composed of four key elements—response objectives, the structure of the response management organization, assignments for response resources, and supporting plans and materials. Comprehensive development of these four essential elements is the cornerstone of an effective IAP. To translate planning into execution, IAPs must contain the four essential elements, be easily understood by response managers and supervisors, and have response objectives achievable by available resources.
Naturalistic Decision Making and Training the Incident Commander
Authors: Kuhaneck Thomas S. , Heggers Arn M. , O'Malley Mark P.
Published: January 2013

For years, the U.S. Coast Guard and other pollution response organizations have relied on traditional (analytical) decision making models as a basis for training their On-Scene Coordinators. With the Coast Guard's adoption of the Incident Command System (ICS), a more appropriate basis for a training program may be found using naturalistic decision making (NDM) models. This paper will describe both the traditional and naturalistic decision making models, compare them, explain why naturalistic decision making is more appropriate for training Incident Commanders, and propose a program for such training for use by the Coast Guard or other response organizations.
Using Human Performance Technology to Improve Performance in Ten ICS Positions1
Authors: Folsom Al , Heggers Arn M. , Coleman Peyton , Merrick Gary
Published: January 2013

Most performance improvement efforts focus on training which provides skill and knowledge interventions. This focus neglects many of the other factors that impact performance such as environmental support, tools, resources, consequences, incentives, rewards, motives, expectations, individual capacity, data, information, and feedback. The U.S. Coast Guard, in its efforts to implement the Incident Command System (ICS), chose to take that broader systematic and systemic approach found in Human Performance Technology (HPT). Using the Harless Accomplishment Based Curriculum Design (ABCD), Front-End Analysis (FEA) process, the Coast Guard Performance Technology Center, in partnership with the Coast Guard Marine Safety Schools, conducted New Performance Planning FEA's for ten of the major ICS positions. By interviewing experienced performers in each of the positions, the FEA's were able to identify the major accomplishments and outcomes produced, as well as what actions make a spill response exemplary. Probably the most enlightening aspect of the FEA's was the identification of both the contributing and inhibiting factors to good performance. This paper will explain the principles of HPT applied to this project, the ABCD-FEA process, and discuss the results of the FEA's, outlining the major accomplishments for each position and the various interventions identified for improving performance.