bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Intelligence, Espionage, and the Ethics of Surveillance in Defoe’s Writings
Authors: Ellison Katherine
Published: December 2023

This chapter situates Daniel Defoe’s writings about ‘intelligence’ and ‘espionage’ in the contexts of developing practices and theories of secret service work and the writer’s own career as a political agent. The first section surveys ideas about intelligence and espionage inherited by Defoe and his contemporaries from Renaissance writers and secretaries of state. It then moves to Defoe’s career, under William III, Queen Anne, and George I, during which time he undertook extensive government work, as an anonymous writer, as a disperser of propaganda, and as a political operative, including on location in Edinburgh during the parliamentary debates leading to the ratification of the Anglo-Scottish Union in 1707. After 1714, Defoe worked as a counter-propagandist, managing and contributing to newspapers, attenuating their criticisms of the Whig ministry. In the final section, the essay turns to intelligence systems and networks in Defoe’s fictions.
Racial and National Identities in Defoe’s Writings
Authors: Swaminathan Srividhya
Published: December 2023

This chapter attends to the fluid and contradictory constructions of racial and national identity in Daniel Defoe’s writings. Defoe’s sense of Englishness is bound up with broader ideas about Britishness and Europeanness, and in his writings traits associated with these groups are often compared to ‘Other’ groups of ‘foreign’ or ‘savage’ or ‘barbarous’ origins. However, none of Defoe’s opinions about racial or national character appear fixed and often come into conflict within the same work. Works across several genres, including his poem The True-Born Englishman (1700/1) and novel Captain Singleton (1720), demonstrate the conflation of nation and race, the contradictions inherent in descriptions of specific peoples, and the burgeoning justifications for colonialism and imperialism that would form the backbone of English and British identity in the later part of the eighteenth century.
Defoe and Drama
Authors: Wall Cynthia
Published: December 2023

Although he experimented with almost every other available genre, Daniel Defoe did not write plays, and across his writings, he condemned the theatre as an immoral entertainment. As a devout Dissenter, he could not approve of drama. But as a ‘fabulous Proteus’, he could not help but be drawn to it. He acknowledged the possibility that the stage could promote moral conduct if it really wanted to; in Moll Flanders (1722), ‘there is not a superlative Villain brought upon the Stage, but either he is brought to an unhappy End, or brought to be a Penitent’. Of his own Family Instructor (1715), he notes with satisfaction that ‘some have call’d it a Religious Play’: its scenes of dialogue are designed to ‘divert and instruct’. This chapter traces Defoe’s exploitation of dramatic form in his conduct books and novels, in which he lavishly embedded scenes of dramatic dialogue, complete with stage directions.
Defoe’s Periodical Journalism
Authors: Marshall Ashley
Published: December 2023

This chapter situates Daniel Defoe’s prolific production of periodical journalism in the broader context of a burgeoning media culture in early eighteenth-century Britain which followed the lapse of the Licensing Act in 1695. Defoe’s most sustained and successful venture was the Review (1704–13), and the chapter traces the developing political objectives and allegiances of this journal, as well as its social commentary, its formal innovations, and the commentary it attracted from Defoe’s contemporaries. The chapter also attends to Defoe’s less long-lived periodicals, including The Master Mercury (1704), Mercator (1713–14), and The Manufacturer (1719–21), which address developments in international affairs, finance, and commerce. Periodical journalism was a major means through which Defoe propagated his ideas on a range of subjects, and he contributed significantly to the advent of regular public commentary on political and social topics.
Defoe as Historian
Authors: Bullard Rebecca
Published: December 2023

Across his lifetime, Daniel Defoe wrote a number of works of history in a range of genres. These include pamphlets that survey recent developments in state affairs, secret histories that purport to expose behind-the-scenes political machinations, full-scale histories such as The History of the Union of Great Britain (1709/10), and historical novels such as Memoirs of a Cavalier (1720). This chapter argues that to understand Defoe as a historian we must acknowledge his work as a political agent and recognize that the writing of history in this period was not a dispassionate exercise that strove for objectivity, but rather a means to promulgate a particular partisan outlook. Defoe’s historical fictions grow out of his practice as a political writer, but they also reach for imaginative and affective engagements with the past, and thereby constitute a new kind of historical writing.
Theory of Education
Authors: Winkler Michael
Published: December 2023

Schleiermacher’s “Lectures on Education” enjoy ongoing importance for the scientific and theoretical approach to education broadly conceived. Although the lectures follow a concept of general pedagogy (Allgemeine Pädagogik), they remain valuable both for research and for the training of professionals in social pedagogy and social work. They offer a complex understanding of education, grounded in the relationship between successive generations and the development of the individual person living at a certain time in a given society. Schleiermacher developed his theory amidst the historical changes he faced in his own time, enabling a modern understanding of education with its own dignity and logic. He understood that education has to be focused on equipping the young person for a life in freedom and autonomy within the limitations necessary for modern societies.
Psychology and Anthropology
Authors: Meier Dorothea
Published: December 2023

On the basis of all available textual witnesses, this chapter discusses crucial characteristics of Schleiermacher’s psychology and interprets it as a hermeneutic explication of the soul. More particularly, the chapter focuses on the relationship between psychology and anthropology, schematically traces the outline of the theory of mental operations, sketches the systematic location of this important discipline within Schleiermacher’s thinking, and provides historical information on the genesis of his four lectures on psychology. Although Schleiermacher’s philosophical doctrine of the soul has not had a formative influence on modern scientific psychology, it crosses multiple disciplines, and has a well-established place in Schleiermacher research.
Introduction to the Glaubenslehre and on the Glaubenslehre
Authors: Pedersen Daniel
Published: December 2023

This chapter outlines some of the main topics and themes found in the Introduction to the Glaubenslehre (i.e. The Christian Faith) and Schleiermacher’s Letters to Lücke. These include many of the most central and controversial terms Schleiermacher uses, terms such as piety, feeling, immediacy, and more. Following Schleiermacher’s own claims in the Letters, I offer an explicitly Christian theological interpretation of the Introduction that, contrary to the way this material is often taught and read, strongly recommends reading the Introduction through the body of The Christian Faith, and reading both together as a recognizably theological work supplemented by philosophy when useful, rather than the other way around.
The Christian Faith as Liberal Theology
Authors: Wyman Walter E.
Published: December 2023

It is sometimes claimed that Schleiermacher’s The Christian Faith is liberal theology. What does that claim actually mean? What is the overarching vision of this theology, and is it a liberal vision? This chapter addresses these two questions. It argues the thesis that Schleiermacher’s liberalism is characterized by his revision of traditional doctrines to be consistent with natural science, historical research, and its cultural context. A distinctive method, conceptuality, and historical consciousness are constitutive of the revisionism of the work, and its orientation to supernaturalism is a critical issue. While Schleiermacher’s theology has been criticized from both conservative and liberal perspectives, the chapter concludes by suggesting that from the perspective of two centuries later Schleiermacher’s revisionism did not go far enough.
Person and Work of Christ
Authors: Junker-Kenny Maureen
Published: December 2023

Schleiermacher’s theory of Christ as the archetype of God-consciousness, developed in the framework of his implementation of the anthropological turn in theology, is analyzed in four steps: (1) the first edition’s outline of the consequences of the essence definition of Christianity in the Introduction for a conception of “natural heresies,” and the material dogmatics’ critique of the inherited substance ontological categories, to be replaced by terms expressing the unity of the Redeemer; (2) the key critique by F. C. Baur that an “ideal Christ” takes the place of a historical account of Jesus Christ in the New Testament; (3) the corrections of the second edition highlighting his “total impression” and his function for the perfection of creation; and (4) ongoing questions on the insight into God provided by his historical appearance and on the reasons and consequences of the decisive step of uniting creation and redemption into one single divine decree.
Christian Ethics
Authors: Brandt James M.
Published: December 2023

This essay considers Friedrich Schleiermacher’s Christian Ethics, identifying how its achievement is comparable to the better-known Christian Faith. The latter work is regarded as inaugurating modern Protestant theology. Christian Ethics, at once distinctively Christian and consonant with modern critical and historical consciousness, similarly transcends contemporaneous options in ethics. Grounded in the pious apprehension of redemption in Christ, Christian Ethics describes the life of the church and its engagement with the larger society and culture. Christian Ethics completes Schleiermacher’s theological system, setting forth the actions that constitute the ongoing manifestation of Christ through the church as it lives toward the Reign of God.
On Religion
Authors: Korsch Dietrich
Published: December 2023

Schleiermacher’s On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers of 1799 is a unique milestone in the history of modern theology, and this for two reasons. First, the book makes “religion”—as a phenomenon of life, not of doctrine—the field of theological discourse. And second, in “religion” there is an immediate access to reality in general, which also founds philosophical investigations of the competence of reason. Schleiermacher argues for this using the rhetorical style of Enlightenment rationality, pursuing the Enlightenment’s aims of deepening insight into the function of reason and of broadening its competence for understanding the world. Schleiermacher’s notion of religion also opens the space for the empirical study of religion.
Spinoza
Authors: Ellsiepen Christof
Published: December 2023

This chapter offers an overview and analysis of Schleiermacher’s encounter with Spinoza’s thought. It first gives an introduction to Schleiermacher’s engagement with Spinoza (1). Through the correspondence between Jacobi and Mendelssohn, Schleiermacher learned about Spinoza with a focus on the metaphysical problem of individuation. Through combining Kant’s critical transcendentalism with Spinoza’s concept of oneness and infinity Schleiermacher sought to create a coherent Spinozism and developed a systematic approach influenced by Spinoza (2). The third section outlines Spinozistic traits in some of Schleiermacher’s mature works (3), beginning with the reflection of the Spinozistic approach to the individuation problem in the early theory of religion in Speeches (3.1). The concept of religion as Anschauung des Universums is then interpreted against the backdrop of these Spinoza studies. The final section interprets the claim of the correlation of God and World in the lectures on Dialectic as a systematic line back to Spinoza’s system (3.2).
Schleiermacher and Mediating Theology
Authors: Aubert Annette G.
Published: December 2023

This chapter examines Friedrich Schleiermacher’s relationship with the mediating theology movement that emerged from German universities. The chapter begins with a discussion of mediation as a core concept in Schleiermacher’s modern theology agenda, followed by an explanation of how his scientific-theological system offered a new method for doing theology at the modern university and provided a foundation for analyzing various religious topics. These efforts achieved further success due to the support he received from his students, who formed a “mediating school” beginning in the 1820s, and who applied ideas from philosophy, historicism, and science to their theological mediating project. The list of authors who built on Schleiermacher’s system in their historical, theological, and encyclopedic works includes Isaak Dorner, Karl Hagenbach, Johann Peter Lange, Carl Ullmann, Friedrich Lücke, Carl Nitzsch, August Neander, August Tholuck, August Twesten, Richard Rothe, and Alexander Schweitzer. Individually and collectively, they reconfigured Schleiermacher’s original mediating theology.
Schleiermacher and Protestant Liberalism
Authors: von Scheliha Arnulf
Published: December 2023

While Schleiermacher is often labeled as the founder of liberal Protestant theology, the relationship between his own theological vision and the successive forms of modern Protestant liberalism proves more complex. This chapter examines the dimensions and limits of Schleiermacher’s influence on Protestant liberalism, a developing tradition that at once reflects distinctive features of his theology yet also extends beyond these. It first considers specific features of Schleiermacher’s approach that have endured in this liberal theological tradition. It next indicates Protestant liberalism’s primary nineteenth-century representatives, most notably Richard Rothe and Albrecht Ritschl. It then explores the reappraisal of this tradition at the beginning of the twentieth century by Adolf von Harnack and Ernst Troeltsch. Finally, it takes up contemporary perspectives and considers the resurgent interest and international growth of Protestant liberalism from the mid-twentieth century onward.
Schleiermacher, Neo-Orthodoxy, and Dialectical Theology
Authors: Jones Paul Dafydd
Published: December 2023

This chapter begins by delineating and rejecting neo-orthodoxy as a paradigm for understanding twentieth-century theology, while granting that the category reveals something of the character of mid-century Anglophone scholarship. It then shows that, if one were to take this paradigm seriously, Schleiermacher would be best read as an ally, not an opponent. The chapter next considers dialectical theology. Focusing on the work of Karl Barth and Rudolf Bultmann in the 1920s, I show that Schleiermacher anticipates key dimensions of their theological programs, even as those programs put his thought under valuable pressure. Finally, I offer remarks on how best to approach Christian theology in the West after Schleiermacher.
Schleiermacher’s Influence on Roman Catholic Theology
Authors: Kaplan Grant
Published: December 2023

Taking up the subject of Schleiermacher’s influence on Catholic theology, this chapter focuses on Schleiermacher’s profound and lasting influence on two of his contemporaries, Johann Sebastian Drey and Johann Adam Möhler. It selects these two figures both on the basis of their stature in Catholic theology and the importance of Schleiermacher’s thought on their own development. Although Schleiermacher’s influence seems undeniable, for nearly two hundred years scholars have contested the weight and consequence of this influence. This chapter weighs those arguments, from their first appearance in the 1820s and 1830s, through the groundbreaking work by Max Seckler on Drey. The chapter also identifies the Catholic Tübingen School, to which both Drey and Möhler belonged, as a precursor of the ressourcement theology that would impact the course of twentieth-century theology in general, and the Second Vatican Council in particular. The chapter concludes by examining Schleiermacher’s influence on Karl Rahner, and an important attempt by Francis Fiorenza to chart Schleiermacher’s impact on theological method in Catholic circles.
Constructive Theology
Authors: Poe Shelli M.
Published: December 2023

This chapter demonstrates that early in the history of the Workgroup on Constructive Theology, its members drew on the inheritance of modern theology left to them by Schleiermacher. Within a decade of the Workgroup’s founding, prominent liberation theologians and scholars substantially influenced by liberation theology began to identify as constructive theologians and/or join the Workgroup. Wittingly or unwittingly, they offer doctrinal approaches and content that were prefigured in Schleiermacher’s theology. This chapter first offers a brief overview of the Workgroup on Constructive Theology, focusing on its roots in liberal and liberation theologies. Then it turns to the relationship between Schleiermacher and constructive theology, demonstrating the ways in which Schleiermacher’s work prepares the ground for methodological and doctrinal proposals and trends we now find in liberation theology.
Gender
Authors: Jackson Ravenscroft Ruth
Published: December 2023

This chapter offers a theological engagement with Schleiermacher’s theorization of gender. It argues that the sexist and heterosexist assumptions underpinning the dimorphic approach to gender that pervades his ethics and politics can be unsettled and challenged by aspects of his theological thought. The chapter begins with a critical survey of the understanding of gender Schleiermacher offers in his ethics. It then suggests some resources for unravelling the sexist principles at play in his wider ethical thought, before culminating in an exploration of two important facets of his theology: his expression of divine transcendence (i.e. God is beyond all differences of sex and gender), and his understanding of the God-World relationship underpinned by divine transcendence. In contrast to the narrow perspectives on gender we find in Schleiermacher’s ethics, his theological account of the God-World relationship is shown to have promise for facilitating a more open conception of human relationality and difference.
Schleiermacher and the Philosophy of Culture
Authors: Gräb Wilhelm
Published: December 2023

Against the background of prominent cultural philosophical drafts of the early twentieth century (Simmel, Cassirer), this chapter shows why Schleiermacher’s contributions to a philosophy of culture still deserve attention today. Schleiermacher’s Philosophical Ethics in particular is an interesting and still sustainable cultural-philosophical draft. The profiling of Schleiermacher’s philosophy of culture in the context of his time shows the comparison with Rousseau, Kant, Herder, and Hegel. The singularity of Schleiermacher’s cultural philosophy lies in the fact that it is complemented by a cultural theology that presents the practice of a good life, supported by the Christian spirit, within modern culture. At the end, a critical discussion of this statement highlights the impulses Schleiermacher still gives to both a critical diagnosis and a practical treatment of the crisis of modern culture.
Schelling and Steffens
Authors: Purvis Zachary
Published: December 2023

This chapter considers Friedrich Schleiermacher in proximity to two important contemporaries: the philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775–1854) and the natural philosopher, mineralogist, and theologian Henrik (Henrich) Steffens (1773–1845). Schleiermacher was distant and distrusting with Schelling, but they shared commonalities that informed Schleiermacher’s labors. Steffens, Schelling’s disciple, initially enjoyed a close relationship with Schleiermacher as young professors at the University of Halle. He contributed to Schleiermacher’s scholarly development, before becoming estranged. This chapter argues that the intellectual lines of influence among these three cannot be divorced from their personal connections.
“Domestic Disputes” in the Kantian Heritage
Authors: Dierken Jörg
Published: December 2023

Schleiermacher and Hegel both developed systems of thought that left their marks in nearly all areas of humanities and which share characteristics due to their Kantian heritage basic affinities. Notwithstanding, they are often perceived as antipodes. Without questioning the differences between their conceptions, however, also substantial similarities can be found. The complex relation between the two authors will be examined regarding their understanding of religion and Christianity, with a special focus on subject theory and social philosophy. In this perspective, the differences between Schleiermacher and Hegel are not be interpreted as an exclusive alternative but as an expression of a plurality that is intrinsic to reason.
Schleiermacher and the University of Berlin
Authors: Zachhuber Johannes
Published: December 2023

This chapter analyzes the unique connection between Schleiermacher and the University of Berlin by considering two interlocking aspects of this relationship. On the one hand, Schleiermacher played a major part in the foundation of this institution; on the other hand, his work from 1810 was inextricably intertwined with his professional role as a university teacher and administrator. Beginning from a description of the context in which the foundation of the university took place, the chapter considers Schleiermacher’s contribution both to the wider debate about university reform and the more specific question of the future of university theology. It then turns to the ways in which Schleiermacher’s activity from 1810 was shaped by his professional duties as a university teacher. It is argued that Schleiermacher strove to embody the professorial ideal envisioned in his theoretical writings about the university.
Adjectives
Authors: Beck David
Published: December 2023

The lexical class of adjective is in many ways ideal for the typological study of parts-of-speech systems across languages. It is neither as common or consistent as the classes of noun and verb, which are found in virtually every language, nor are adjectives as language specifically idiosyncratic as adverbs or ideophones. In many languages, they represent a flexible class, filling secondary syntactic roles more typical of other parts of speech, while in others the typical role of adjective, adnominal modification, can be served by other kinds of word. Depending on the language, and the linguist who describes it, adjectives can be either present or absent, mono- or polyfunctional, or belong to an open or closed class, all key areas for understanding the typology of lexical classification.
Adpositions
Authors: Herce Borja
Published: December 2023

Adpositions are words which typically take a noun phrase as their complement and mark its semantic (e.g. spatial, temporal) or grammatical role within the clause. Although adpositional systems are highly variable and not universal, they often constitute a relatively small word class whose members are usually among the most frequent words in a language. Adpositions tend to share many properties with (and are often diachronically derived from) other word classes such as verbs, nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. These properties make adpositions particularly relevant for research into the nature of word classes and linguistic categorization. On the one hand, their high token frequency makes it possible for different adpositions to have quite different grammatical properties. On the other hand, their close synchronic and diachronic links to other word classes make the boundaries of adpositions blurry and permeable. This chapter will reflect on these issues by looking at the grammatical properties of adpositions in Hungarian, Basque, German, and Spanish, among others.
Interjections
Authors: Dingemanse Mark
Published: December 2023

No class of words has a better claim to universality than interjections. At the same time, no category has more variable content than this one, traditionally the catch-all basket for linguistic items that bear a complicated relation to sentential syntax. Interjections are a mirror reflecting methodological and theoretical assumptions more than a coherent linguistic category that affords unitary treatment. This chapter focuses on linguistic items that typically function as free-standing utterances, and on some of the conceptual, methodological, and theoretical questions generated by such items. A key move is to study these items in the context of conversational sequences, rather than as a mere sideshow to sentences. This makes visible how some of the most frequent interjections streamline everyday language use and scaffold complex language. Approaching interjections in terms of their sequential positions and interactional functions has the potential to reveal and explain patterns of universality and diversity in interjections.
Word Classes in Egyptian, Semitic, and Cushitic (Afroasiatic)
Authors: Oréal Elsa , Vanhove Martine
Published: December 2023

This chapter provides an overview of the word classes in Ancient Egyptian, Semitic, and Cushitic languages. It illustrates different scenarios in the make-up and evolution of word categories, which focuses on verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Afroasiatic provides linguists with a wealth of documentation that shows the fluidity of some word categories on a long-term scale. The chapter elaborates on the history of Afroasiatic phylum languages that showcased strong divergences and similarities among different languages, referring to the growing dispute about the exact number of living Afroasiatic languages. It also highlights other categories playing an important role in the grammaticalization of verbs.
Word Classes in Indo-European Languages
Authors: Ramat Paolo
Published: December 2023

The chapter sketches the history of linguistic–philosophical discussions on word classes in the Western tradition, linked in modern times to the typological discussion on the universality of some categories, and introduces the categories that may be reconstructed for (Proto)Indo-European and their continuation to modern Indo-European languages. The chapter aims to show the breaks and/or the uninterrupted tradition from the reconstructed starting point up to the contemporary state of the art. The following word classes are presented: Nouns and the various morphological means (mainly suffixes) used to form Nouns, Adjectives, and Participles, Verbs with their derivations, Adverbs, and Adpositions, Articles, Determinatives, and Demonstratives are considered as a hyperclass of noun modifiers. Different types of pronouns are also discussed, which show a clear Indo-European basis, as well as Conjunctions.
Word Classes in Classical Chinese
Authors: Bisang Walter
Published: December 2023

Parts of speech in Classical Chinese as it is transmitted through philosophical and historical texts between the 5th and the 3rd centuries bc have been a challenge for Chinese linguistics both in the East and in the West. While most Western approaches describe Classical Chinese in terms of word-class flexibility, current research in China clearly opts for word-class determination in the lexicon. The chapter describes and compares both perspectives as they were developed on the basis of Chinese characters and their use in syntax. The chapter also sketches a potential scenario of how to combine current reconstructions of Old Chinese morphology with the findings from character-based studies of word-class flexibility in Classical Chinese.
Word Classes in Maweti–Guarani Languages
Authors: Rose Françoise
Published: December 2023

This chapter discusses how Maweti–Guaraní languages challenge the definition of major word classes. The relation between major word classes and syntactic/discourse functions is rather flexible throughout this group of languages. The first issue is the blurred distinction between nouns and verbs, as many nouns can function as predicates without any derivational morphology and with almost all the ‘verbal’ morphology. The second issue is the classification of descriptive roots (expressing qualities, i.e. with ‘adjectival’ meaning) as either nouns, verbs, or adjectives. Once we apply clear syntactic and morphological criteria to classify parts of speech, it becomes clear that most Maweti–Guaraní languages have three major lexical word classes, i.e. nouns, verbs, and postpositions, and that these share some morphological and structural properties, involving a much debated ‘relational prefix’. Minor word classes that are often discussed in grammars of Maweti–Guaraní languages are adverbs, ideophones, interjections, and particles.
Word Classes in Psycholinguistics
Authors: Ibbotson Paul
Published: December 2023

Psycholinguistics is concerned with how word classes are produced, comprehended, and acquired by the mind and brain. To that end, psycholinguists attempt to show not only that theoretical frameworks adequately describe word classes, but they are also predictive of how people use them. This chapter discusses word classes as a specific solution to a general problem of behavioural prediction; the extent to which word classes are different from other linguistic and non-linguistic classes; the representational structure of word classes and how they are constructed in development; how thought shapes word classes and word classes are shaped by thought; and finally how word classes have been used as a test case for the universality or otherwise of linguistic categories themselves. The conclusion is that, while the utility of forming a word class remains universal—behavioural prediction—and the processes that form them psychologically similar, the content of those classes is best understood as an invitation to share a perspective on something meaningful and specific to the culture from which language emerges.
Lexical vs Grammatical Words
Authors: Boye Kasper
Published: December 2023

This chapter provides an introduction to the distinction between lexical and grammatical words. It gives an overview of features that are characteristic of the two types of words. It discusses the differences between the lexical–grammatical distinction and related distinctions between content and function words, and open- and closed-class words. It goes through a number of definitions of the lexical–grammatical distinction. It also discusses to which extent word classes like nouns, verbs, adjectives, pronouns, and adpositions are homogeneous with respect to the distinction. Finally, it considers similarities between the lexical–grammatical distinction and word–class distinctions with special focus on the notions of structured complexity and division of labour, and in relation to holophrases.
Word Classes and Gradience
Authors: Keizer Evelien
Published: December 2023

For a long time, word classes (and categories in general) were assumed to be well delineated, distinguishable on the basis of well-defined features, and with strict boundaries between them. In the course of the twentieth century, this classical view of categorization came to be challenged, first in philosophy and psychology, and subsequently also in linguistics. What emerged was a gradience approach to categorization, which also affected the way linguists looked at word classes. After a brief introduction, the chapter sketches the background against which this alternative view on linguistic categorization developed. The chapter then presents some of the most important evidence (synchronic and diachronic) for the existence of gradience within and between word classes. The chapter ends with a brief overview of how linguists from different linguistic backgrounds have dealt with the non-discrete nature of word classes, the kinds of definitions they have provided, and the explanations they have offered for the gradience observed.
Word Classes in Lexical Functional Grammar
Authors: Dalrymple Mary , Toivonen Ida
Published: December 2023

This chapter focuses on word classes in Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG). LFG assumes that word order and phrasal constituency are modelled at a syntactic level called constituent structure. The inventory of word classes that most LFG analyses assume includes the distinction between projecting and nonprojecting categories. The chapter explores the featural decomposition of category labels, citing how word classes are composed of more primitive features that allow generalizations across classes, which allows explicit constraints on how lexical and functional categories interact. It also elaborates on the concept of lexical sharing and the theory of mixed category, while also considering the difference between projecting and nonprojecting categories.
Word-Class Systems and Other Grammatical Properties
Authors: Foley William A.
Published: December 2023

This chapter explores how and to what degree languages have word classes and the parameters of variation. The two minor classes, adjectives and adpositions, can vary from very large lexical inventories to very small or even null ones, and have unique properties or be subsumed into the major classes, nouns and verbs. Cross-linguistically, each of the two major word classes seems to be specialized for a different linguistic function, argumenthood for nouns and predication for verbs. But how much is this specialization built into the grammatical organization of a given language? The greater the degree of specialization is lexically built in, the stricter a noun–verb distinction holds for a language. But clearly this degree of specialization is highly variable, and so our grammatical models need a more typologically nuanced view of the noun–verb distinction, the outlines of which this chapter develops.
Nouns
Authors: Rijkhoff Jan
Published: December 2023

This chapter investigates the word-class Noun from a cross-linguistic perspective. Since nouns can be used to talk about many different things, ranging from concrete objects (cup, car) to very abstract entities (objection, trapezium, courage) and anything in between (game, wedding), the chapter will mostly focus on nouns with the widest cross-linguistic distribution: nouns used to talk about spatial entities, in particular physical objects. Nouns will be classified on the basis of the semantic features Shape and Homogeneity, resulting in six distinct nominal subcategories (Seinsarten): singular object nouns, collective nouns, and set nouns (which can be counted directly), as well as sort nouns, mass nouns, and general nouns (which need a special construction when numerated). Additionally, the chapter will pay attention to the prominent role of Shape in lexical semantics, and nouns (attested in numerous languages) that do not seem to be specified for the count vs mass distinction.
Irish English Corpus Linguistics
Authors: O’Keeffe Anne
Published: December 2023

This chapter surveys the development, evolution, and application of corpus linguistics to the study of Irish English. It notes that, while there are only two Irish English corpora, there are many corpus linguists creating and using small specialized corpora to gain both pragmatic and sociolinguistic insights into language use, especially in the context of spoken data. These include work on family and other intimate discourse; advertising; teacher and classroom discourse; Irish literature; and media discourse and Irish immigrant letters. The point is made that most studies hitherto have focused on single-word or discourse features, using a form-to-function approach. Using empirical data from the Limerick Corpus of Irish English, the chapter exemplifies how a function-to-form approaches can also be used to move beyond single item focus. The chapter asserts that corpus research on pragmatics in Irish English is flourishing and that, in the process, it appears to be helping to shape corpus pragmatics as a methodology.
Irish English in the Media
Authors: Walshe Shane
Published: December 2023

This chapter addresses the use of Irish English (IrE) across a broad range of media, as well as its role and reception therein. Beginning with traditional outlets, such as the printed press, radio, television and cinema, the discussion then turns to IrE in new media, particularly blogs, YouTube videos, and social media. In addition to offering an overview of scholarship on the variety in the various fields, the chapter also presents the author’s previously unpublished research into the use of Gaelic loanwords in the lexicon of Irish newspapers, as well as an examination of the features used to index Irish identity in the American animated series The Simpsons and Family Guy. The chapter concludes by offering suggestions for further investigation and calling, in particular, for more research on IrE in Northern Irish media, a field that has received scant attention to date.
Dublin English and Third-Wave Sociolinguistics
Authors: Schulte Marion
Published: December 2023

Sociolinguistic research on Dublin English is a vibrant field that has led to a large number of interesting studies and important insights in various areas. A particular focus has been placed on phonetic and phonological variation and its connection with social factors, but studies also investigate the lexical and grammatical choices speakers make, as well as issues surrounding language perception and multilingualism. This chapter summarizes existing studies in these areas. It also points out topics that have so far received comparatively little attention with regard to Dublin English, including the study of language use in the media and suprasegmental and paralinguistic aspects. Recent third-wave sociolinguistic investigations complement first- and second-wave studies by considering micro-social variation and connecting this with the macro-social factors identified previously.
Discourse-Pragmatic Markers in Irish English
Authors: P. Amador-Moreno Carolina
Published: December 2023

Discourse-pragmatic variation has until recently tended to be left out of the domain of Irish English, where studies of lexical, morphosyntactic, and phonological features have traditionally dominated. The pragmatic perspective was a tendency in varietal research in general, and the research focusing on this interface has been very productive since. The study of discourse-pragmatic markers in Irish English has been part of the pragmatics research agenda since the need to focus on variational pragmatics was identified, and has become one of the most fertile grounds within the area. This chapter presents an overview of what has been covered in the last fifteen years. A number of discourse-pragmatic markers is then comprehensively examined and explained. Although some of the discourse-pragmatic markers that can be found in Irish English are not unique to this variety, their use in the Irish context provides interesting insights into the pragmatic work that they do as part of it.
The Spread of Irish English
Authors: Hickey Raymond
Published: December 2023

From the beginning of the English colonial period in the early seventeenth century Irish emigration to overseas locations figured prominently. The reasons for emigration were various: deportation, the search for religious freedom, but above all the escape from oppressive economic conditions. Emigration from Ireland can be broken down into different periods, with early input to the Caribbean during its Homestead Phase (first decades of the seventeenth century) followed by major Ulster Scots input to North America in the eighteenth century and large-scale emigration by southern Irish in the nineteenth century during the Great Famine and immediately afterwards. This was to both North America and to Britain, with an influence on the formation of new dialects in both these regions. This chapter examines features of overseas varieties, and considers whether Irish sources are likely given what is known of group status and contact and the mixing of different ethnicities.
The Language of Nineteenth-Century Irish Immigrants to New Zealand
Authors: Bonness Dania Jovanna
Published: December 2023

The Irish constituted the third largest group of the British-born founder population in New Zealand. Nevertheless, only few characteristic Irish English features seem to have survived in the colony. Letters that these settlers sent home to Ireland can provide evidence of language variation in early New Zealand English, while theoretical frameworks for the development of postcolonial languages, such as Trudgill’s New-Dialect Formation Model or Schneider’s Dynamic Model, can help us understand the different stages in the development of this variety. This chapter investigates characteristic Irish English features, in particular irregular article use and the indefinite anterior perfective, among early Irish settlers and their colonial-born children in light of Trudgill’s and Schneider’s predictions regarding the development of New Zealand English. Such real-time studies can provide a micro-perspective of the stages described in these models, and reveal how language really varied within single families.
The History of English in Ireland, 1200–1800
Authors: Hickey Raymond
Published: December 2023

Contact between Irish and English began in the late twelfth century with the coming of the Normans who arrived in the south-east of Ireland, along with some English who settled in the towns of the east coast. The French-speaking Normans came in contact with Irish, especially in the countryside, with the English residing in the towns. The relationship of English and Irish varied in later centuries, with the latter remaining the dominant language for some time. During the Elizabethan period and afterwards, English emerged clearly as the superstrate and has remained so ever since, with the linguistic effects of contact seen most clearly in the language shift which was virtually complete by the late nineteenth century. This chapter provides the necessary historical and demographical background to understand the shift, and offers discussions of key linguistic factors operating during this process.
Irish Sign Language: Ireland’s Third Language
Authors: Mohr Susanne , Leeson Lorraine
Published: December 2023

Irish Sign Language (ISL) is the third official language of the Republic of Ireland and was formally recognized in 2017. In Ireland, there are about 5,000 users of ISL, including deaf, hard-of-hearing people, and their family and friends. This chapter elaborates on the history of ISL, its typological affiliation, and some structural features, as well as contact with one of the surrounding spoken languages, i.e. Irish English (IrE), and lack thereof with the other ambient spoken language, i.e. Irish. In doing so, the chapter discusses salient language contact phenomena, such as mouthings, and touches upon language attitudes and ideologies towards ISL and related modes of communication. Ultimately, the chapter presents a portrait of language variation and change of ISL in its sociocultural context.
Receiving More
Authors: Kern Darcy
Published: December 2023

In Utopia’s first 150 years Spanish bureaucrats, clerics, scholars, and courtiers on both sides of the Atlantic read it in Latin. Though its circulation may not have been as robust in Spain as it was elsewhere in Europe, it found a receptive audience, some of whom thought it worthwhile to translate the text into Castilian Spanish, though these early translations were not printed. The Inquisition’s interference in 1583 discouraged but did not eliminate interest in More’s work and hindered publication of a vernacular translation until 1637, when one appeared thanks to the efforts of a famous patron, Francisco de Quevedo. By the seventeenth century, interest in Utopia seems to have declined. The extant translations suggest that people interpreted Utopia differently in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, though in both periods it was used as a practical guide for reform. For sixteenth-century Spanish readers it served as a real guide to a new world, one with all the possibilities for reform that More laid out. Though they read it with great seriousness, they also read it humanely and as applicable to individual human beings with souls and wills of their own. In the seventeenth century Utopia continued to serve as a basis for reform but without the Neoplatonic optimism and immediate application that American exploration had provided a century earlier. It now belonged to a society in which institutional power and reason of state governed human relations and limited human knowledge. Ultimately, Utopia, that elusive no-place, proved a chimera in Spain.
Utopia and Utopian Writing in Arabic
Authors: Hill Peter
Published: December 2023

This chapter discusses the reception of Thomas More’s Utopia in Arabic from the seventeenth to the twenty-first centuries. Thomas More was initially seen by Arab Christians as a Catholic martyr. During the Arab Nahda (‘Revival’) movement in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, his Utopia was then received as a forerunner of socialism and technological modernity, and interpreted in the shadow, notably, of Marxism and H. G. Wells. Utopia was also placed alongside the Virtuous City of the earlier Islamic philosopher al-Farabi, feeding into a renewed interest in local and religious cultural forms. Finally, notions of dystopia as well as utopia have played a role in interpreting Arab politics in the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries, as utopian aspirations—most evident in the 2011 Arab uprisings—have contended with social crisis, authoritarianism, and violence.
Of Survival and Living Together
Authors: Pohl Nicole
Published: December 2023

The early novel of the eighteenth century developed from and reframed the fictional satire, romance, and prose fiction of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It thus started off as a complex hybrid, experimenting in the eighteenth century with satire, romance, the supernatural, travel writing (including the imaginary voyage), sentimentalism, and ‘formal realism’ to capture human experiences with verisimilitude and historical relevance. This chapter will show that the utopian novel of the period integrates the ‘literary’ and ‘political’ into a polygeneric and polymodal literary genre that, as a ‘literature of knowledge for living and surviving’, not only reflects the issues of the day but is also guided by a discourse on change. These concerns, as the case studies indicate, were debated across Europe in the period, in dialogue with each other.
Utopia in Tudor London
Authors: Bishop Jennifer
Published: December 2023

This chapter examines the first English translation of Utopia by Ralph Robinson in 1551, and the revised edition of his translation published in 1556. Focusing on the key contexts of citizenship, civic culture, and ideas of ‘commonwealth’ that characterized mid-sixteenth-century political discourse, the chapter reconstructs Utopia’s place within the shifting social, political, and cultural worlds of the mid-Tudor period. It shows that Robinson’s first translation was intended to appeal to a vernacular readership of citizens and the urban ‘ middling sort’ during the reforming years of Edward VI’s reign; and it asks how (and why) the book was revised and republished under the Catholic regime of Mary I. The chapter emphasizes that these two editions of Utopia were both highly collaborative projects, and analysis is accordingly extended outwards from Robinson himself to take into account his place within wider networks of patronage and friendship. Foregrounding Robinson’s social network, the chapter shows that his publication of Utopia was firmly rooted in a culture of reform and civic humanism that developed in and around the guilds and corporations of mid-sixteenth-century London.