bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Tanagra Theater and the Fishbowl Mermaid
Authors: Wilk Stephen R.
Published: April 2021

In the early 20th century, an optical arrangement started appearing at exhibitions, fairs, and department stores that produced a convincing illusion of miniaturized people walking on a tiny stage. It could be viewed from a variety of angles and gave a convincing illusion of a three-dimensional figure. This was named Tanagra Theater after “Tanagra”, a location in Greece where miniature figures had recently been discovered. How did they create the illusion so convincingly? How do you produce the same effect if you’re a sideshow operator with little access to precision optics and no optical training?
The First 3D Movies
Authors: Wilk Stephen R.
Published: April 2021

3-D movies have gone through several waves of popularity. They have appeared several times in the 20th and 21st centuries, with new developments in technology enabling better effects with each new incarnation. Rotating discs, polarizing glasses, anaglyphic glasses, coupled polarizers and optical retarders, and the use of electro-optic shutters each provided small advantages over previous technology. But the basic idea is simple, and was used in the 19th century stereoscope—present each eye with an independent view from a different perspective so that the parallax enables the brain to fuse them into one stereoscopic image. Who invented the first 3D movies? The idea is much older than most people suspect, dating back to the very beginning of cinema.
Let’s Be Practical
Authors: Adler Stephen J. , Brown Bruce D.
Published: April 2021

The proliferation of leak cases over the last decade suggests that a case against the press for publishing government secrets may be on the horizon. Before 2009, an unwritten understanding between the government and the press of governmental forbearance and press responsibility provided more effective press protection than the First Amendment. While continued reliance on this understanding would be preferable to a changed law, the scales have tipped toward the suppression of speech in national security reporting, which has shaken that understanding. The current situation is so bad that it is now time to consider reforming the Espionage Act. Reformed legislation should provide a floor that permits First Amendment defenses, the law should act as a backstop if those arguments fail, and it should be as limited and precise as possible so that it does not inadvertently create a dangerous new power to prosecute the press.
Information Is Power
Authors: Papandrea Mary-Rose
Published: April 2021

Balancing the equally important but sometimes conflicting priorities of government transparency for public accountability versus government secrecy for national security seems intractable. One possibility is to recognize a constitutional right of access to government information. This would support democratic self-governance, allow the public to engage in meaningful oversight, and provide access to necessary information without the game of leaks. It could radically refocus arguments regarding the rights of government employees to reveal national security information and of third parties to publish it. Recognizing this right faces an uphill battle against decades of First Amendment jurisprudence. It also faces innumerable logistical and practical obstacles. It would not eliminate the need to determine when the public, the press, and government insiders can disclose national security information. Nevertheless, the ongoing collapse of press access norms and government’s increasing desire to operate outside public view may warrant dramatically rethinking First Amendment scope and protections.
The Ubiquitous Presidency in Its Contexts
Authors: Scacco Joshua M. , Coe Kevin
Published: April 2021

Across six American presidencies, this chapter introduces and examines three key contexts within the broader socio-technological environment that intersect with the goals of presidential communication: accessibility, personalization, and pluralism. First, it defines accessibility based on where the president appears and how the president chooses to engage with audiences. This section tracks the frequency and type of media interviews presidents grant and how the White House website has evolved to include various degrees of interactivity. Second, this chapter reviews personalization and its significance, including techniques of informality and disclosure. This section chronicles how symbolic presidential behaviors disclose aspects of personality. The chapter concludes by discussing pluralism in terms of growing multiculturalism and heightened salience of group identity in the United States. This section analyzes communication that references pluralism or prejudice, awardees of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the frequency with which presidents grant interviews to media outlets marketed to minority audiences.
The Ubiquitous Presidency and Democratic Possibility
Authors: Scacco Joshua M. , Coe Kevin
Published: April 2021

This chapter considers the various implications of the ubiquitous presidency. It first explores the ubiquitous presidency as a research paradigm, making the case for new scholarship that examines how the contexts of the ubiquitous presidency intersect, that considers expanded forms of effects, that brings together different subfields of communication, and that engages with normative questions. The chapter then explores who will hold ubiquitous presidents accountable, focusing on two constitutional (Congress, the judiciary) and three extra-constitutional (networks and platforms, the press, the public) sites of accountability. The chapter concludes by thinking about the president per se. It argues for the enduring importance of presidents in changing times, and considers the fluidity of presidential legacies in this era. Ultimately, a president’s own strength of conscience is crucial in upholding the presidency and the democracy it is meant to serve.
Women’s Work
Authors: Lauve-Moon Katie
Published: April 2021

Chapter 6 surveys the historical relationship between feminization and devaluation, particularly as it relates to work and compensation. This chapter illustrates how more feminized church positions like children’s pastors and office managers are often constrained by assumptions associated with their position; those occupying these positions are typically understood in relation to femininity and, therefore, overworked, underpaid, and underresourced. This chapter also shows how more masculinized positions like associate pastors are perceived as more feminine when occupied by a woman and, therefore, subsequently carry less monetary status and overall value. Finally, this chapter presents connections between feminized work and the persistence of the gender wage gap within pastoral positions.
Conclusion
Authors: Chung-Kim Esther
Published: April 2021

Religious reformers in sixteenth-century Europe were integral to the development and implementation of poor relief programs. They effectively utilized theological justification through writings, sermons, and strategic political persuasion to gain support and funding for social welfare. The reformers’ unique positions as ecclesiastical authorities allowed them to connect care for the poor with one’s practice of devotion to God and religious ideals of generosity and compassion. The establishment of these reforms emerged in the context of an expanding migration of religious refugees, who required relief but were at first poorly received by city residents. One of the key components of determining poor relief was the importance of community formation and the demarcations in the process of determining poor relief coverage. Ultimately, religious reformers served as a major driving force in the efforts toward poverty alleviation and community motivation in the care for the poor; and their efforts impacted the development of poor relief.
The Institutionalization of Religious Organizations in Muslim-Majority Countries: Statistical Evidence
Authors: Yadav Vineeta
Published: April 2021

This chapter begins the empirical analysis in this book. It first presents the logic and the details of the research design adopted to test the two hypotheses and their associated corollaries. The research design combines large-N analysis of a comprehensive set of 49 Muslim-majority countries from 1970 to 2016 with in-depth case studies of two insightful cases—Turkey and Pakistan. The cases are selected to leverage the advantages of temporal variation in all the theoretically important factors within each country using a within-subjects design. The rest of the chapter introduces a new measure of religious organizations’ socioeconomic institutionalization and the sample used in the analysis. It then presents the results from systematic tests of Hypothesis 1 and its corollaries, explaining when religious organizations experience an increase in their institutionalization. The tests provide strong and robust support for the first part of the argument.
Managing National Memory
Authors: Wertsch James V.
Published: April 2021

This chapter explores how mnemonic disputes can be managed. It begins by noting that simply transcending or erasing differences in national memory is unrealistic and hence not an option, leaving us with the goal of managing them instead. Special attention is paid to efforts of diplomats and other professional negotiators as they seek to address disputes grounded in national memory. This is done with an eye to showing that even such professionals have difficulty resisting the mental habits grounded in national narrative templates. One strategy they emply is keeping national memory out of the discussion, and this is outlined by using an illustration involving Franklin Roosevelt’s efforts to work with Stalin in 1943. But this strategy is often not a viable option, and hence negotiators emply other strategies for managing mnemonic disputes. In outlining these strategies, I use an illustration involving Chinese and American accounts of the bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade in 1999. One of America’s most respected negotiators was sent to Beijing after this event to discuss it, but the two sides remain deeply divided to this day, raising the question of the power of narrative templates to shape “strategic trust and distrust.” In a discussion of the role of irony some surprising twists in narrative dialogism come to light that make managing differences in national memory all the more difficult. The chapter concludes with a short list of concrete strategies for managing national memory.
The Regime of Nothing
Authors: Pippin Robert
Published: April 2021

In the last fiction, David is now ten and falls ill with a serious disease, a form of neuropathy, must be hospitalized, and he eventually dies. The many conversations in the book about dying and death, and whether David has a “message,” confront the reader with issues of redemption, consolation, and despair, and are treated here as reflections on literary meaning, the status of art in the modern world, and finitude. Special attention is given to Simón’s view that if there is nothing to be said about death, then there is nothing for philosophy to say at all (except that there is nothing to be said about anything that matters, nothing philosophical (or rational) anyway). Philosophy’s goal would be to destroy the illusion that there could be traditional, or rationalist philosophy.
Verb-verb sequences in Mandarin and Hindi-Urdu
Authors: Liang Hsin-hsin , Hook Peter E.
Published: April 2021

While typological discussions of verb-verb sequences in the languages of Asia over the past fifty years have included data from Hindi-Urdu and Mandarin (Masica 1976; Maisak 1999; Butt 2003), detailed comparison has not been attempted. In such studies parallels are stressed and differences largely ignored. This chapter examines the verb-verb sequences of Mandarin Chinese in an attempt to determine more precisely the extent to which they are formally and functionally similar to those found in South Asian languages. It is shown that Chinese verb-verb sequences are less productive and less systematic than their Hindi-Urdu counterparts and possess a very different syntax and semantics. As such they resist inclusion in the four-part typology put forward in Chapter 2 for Japanese.
A Convenient Truth?
Authors: Railton Peter
Published: April 2021

Justice would appear to require that those who are the principal beneficiaries of a history of economic and political behavior that has produced dramatic climate change bear a correspondingly large share of the costs of getting it under control. Yet a widespread material ideology of happiness suggests that this would require sacrificing “quality of life” in the most-developed countries—hardly a popular program. However, an empirically-grounded understanding of the nature and function of “subjective well-being”, and of the factors that most influence it, challenges this ideology and suggests instead that well-being in more-developed as well as less-developed societies could be improved consistently with sustainable resource-utilization. If right, this could refocus debates over climate change from the sacrifice of “quality of life” to the enhancement and more equitable distribution of well-being within a framework of sustainable relations with one another and with the rest of nature.
Climate Change and Cultural Cognition
Authors: Greco Daniel
Published: April 2021

How should we form beliefs concerning global climate change? For most of us, directly evaluating the evidence isn’t feasible; we lack expertise. So, any rational beliefs we form will have to be based in part on deference to those who have it. But in this domain, questions about how to identify experts can be fraught. This chapter discusses a partial answer to the question of how we in fact identify experts: Dan Kahan’s cultural cognition thesis, according to which we treat experts on factual questions of political import only insofar as they share our moral and cultural values. The chapter then poses some normative questions about cultural cognition: is it a species of irrationality that must be overcome if we are to communicate scientific results effectively, or is it instead an inescapable part of rational belief management? Ultimately, it is argued that cultural cognition is substantively unreasonable, though not formally irrational.
Political Realism, Feasibility Wedges, and Opportunities for Collective Action on Climate Change
Authors: Budolfson Mark
Published: April 2021

This chapter raises objections to the argument that a highly unjust response to the problem of climate change is the best that we can currently hope for and is thus the solution that we should actively promote even from an ethical point of view. Such an argument has been put forward by a wide range of commentators in philosophy, economics, law, and international affairs including John Broome, Eric Posner, David Weisbach, and Cass Sunstein. Among other things, the author argues that the way in which this argument fails is both ethically and practically instructive, as its failure reveals how a realist approach to climate policy is consistent with a more equity-focused approach than is commonly appreciated. As a concrete illustration, it is explained how the lessons could be incorporated into a more ethical climate treaty architecture that shares structural features with proposals from William Nordhaus, Joseph Stiglitz, and others.
Lucretia Bradshaw
Authors: Roos Anna Marie
Published: April 2021

Chapter three reconstructs the enigmatic life and career of Folkes’s wife, the actress Lucretia Bradshaw whose glittering Drury Lane career ended in tragedy; she was eventually confined to a Chelsea madhouse. Lucretia’s life is used as a case study to understand how her relationship with Folkes was an example of the profound shift in ideas about marriage in this period, as well as Georgian conceptions of insanity and medical treatment.
Oxide thin film properties
Authors: Netzer Falko P. , Noguera Claudine
Published: April 2021

Chapter 4 focuses on the various physico-chemical properties of thin films, and in particular on their thickness dependence. It aims at bridging the gap between the well established knowledge acquired on oxide surfaces and truely two-dimensional oxides. It reviews the consequences of the reduced local environment of their atoms and of the confinement effects due to their finite thickness. It analyzes the various manifestations of structural, electronic, vibrational, ferroelectric and magnetic modifications. A special focus is put on the interaction of thin films with metal or oxide substrates, possibly leading to interfacial dislocations, electron transfer or mixing, with consequences on their chemical reactivity.
Policing Prostitution
Authors: Hearne Siobhán
Published: April 2021

Policing Prostitution examines the complex world of commercial sex in the final two decades of the Russian Empire before its collapse in 1917. From the 1840s until 1917, prostitution was legally tolerated across the Empire under a system known as regulation. Medical-police were in charge of compiling information about registered prostitutes and ensuring that they followed the strict rules prescribed by the imperial state governing their visibility and behaviour. The vast majority of women who sold sex hailed from the lower classes, as did their managers and clients. Official interest in prostitution generated a mass of documentation, which allows us to glimpse the lives and challenges of various groups of the Empire’s urban lower classes, including women who sold sex, their clients, brothel madams, police, and wider urban communities. In the late imperial period, prostitution was not just an urban ‘problem’ to be controlled and contained, but also a lucrative commodity due to the formal and informal financial relationships forged between brothel madams, registered prostitutes, and the police. This study is a social history of prostitution, drawing on archival material from Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia. It focuses on how regulation was implemented, experienced, and resisted in various urban centres in the northwest of the Russian Empire, and how everyday experiences of regulation varied widely from place to place. In principle, the tsarist state regulated prostitution in the name of public order and public health; in practice, that regulation was both modulated by provincial police forces who had different local priorities, resources, and strategies, and contested by registered prostitutes, brothel madams, and others who interacted with the world of commercial sex.
Functional integrals
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L.
Published: April 2021

This chapter presents an alternative approach to the quantization of fields, an approach that will be critically important for the development of quantum field theory in curved space, which is the subject of the second part of the book. It starts by providing a description of a functional integral in quantum mechanics, concentrating on the representation of an evolution operator. It then considers the functional representation of the Green functions and the generating functional in quantum field theory, including for fermionic theories. After that, perturbative calculations of the generating functionals and their general properties are formulated. The chapter ends with a brief description of ζ-regularization as a technique for defining functional determinants.
Quantum gauge theories
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L.
Published: April 2021

This chapter, which is the last chapter in Part I, is devoted to an extensive discussion of quantum gauge theories, which is based on functional integrals and Lagrangian quantization. After introducing the notion of a Yang-Mills gauge theory, the Faddeev-Popov method (also known as the DeWitt-Faddeev-Popov procedure) is explained. Starting from this point, the BRST symmetry is formulated, and the corresponding Ward identities (called Slavnov-Taylor identities in some cases) established. More specialized subjects, such as the gauge dependence of effective action and the background field method, are dealt with in detail. In addition, Yang-Mills theory is analyzed as a primary example of general theorems concerning the renormalization of gauge theories.
Classical fields in curved spacetime
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L.
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses classical fields in an arbitrary Riemann spacetime. General considerations are followed by the formulation of scalar fields with non-minimal coupling. Spontaneous symmetry breaking in curved space is shown to provide the induced gravity action with a cosmological constant. The construction of spinor fields in curved spacetime is based on the notions of group theory from Part I and on the local Lorentz invariance. Massless vector fields (massless vector gauge fields) are described and the interactions between scalar, fermion and gauge fields formulated. A detailed discussion of classical conformal transformations and conformal symmetry for both matter fields and vacuum action is also provided.
One-loop divergences
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L.
Published: April 2021

This chapter focuses on one-loop calculations and related issues such as practical renormalization and the derivation of beta functions. The general result for the one-loop divergences from chapter 13 is applied to a sequence of practical calculations. The starting point is the derivation of vacuum divergences of free matter fields. The beta functions in the vacuum sector are calculated. Asymptotic freedom is discussed. In addition, examples of one-loop divergences in interacting theories are elaborated, including the Yang-Mills field coupled to fermions and scalars, and the Yukawa model.
How Can Buddhists Prove That Non-Existent Things Do Not Exist?
Authors: Tanaka Koji
Published: April 2021

This paper explores a Buddhist view that denies the existence of all truths and facts, and how Buddhists have supported this doctrine. Tanaka clarifies the meaning of the doctrine, objections against it, and how Buddhist have engaged and might have engaged with the objections.
Why It Matters What Might Have Been
Authors: Ahmed Arif
Published: April 2021

Genuinely counterfactual thought concerns situations that typically both are, and are known, not to exist. This raises a puzzle about the point of counterfactual thinking, and in particular in connection with the counterfactual conditional. It is unclear why a conditional whose truth turns on what happens in imaginary situations should occupy the central role that counterfactuals do have in our serious intellectual practices, in particular in connection with decision-making. This paper sets out the ways in which thinking about the non- actual constrain deliberation about the actual, and locates the value of these constraints in their effect on (a) risk-aversion and (b) future discounting.
Responsibility and the Metaphysics of Omissions
Authors: Sartorio Carolina
Published: April 2021

What is the bearing of the metaphysics of omissions on debates about moral responsibility? If it turned out that omissions and absences in general don’t have any causal powers, what would follow about the moral responsibility of agents in certain cases where omissions and absences seem to be involved? This paper examines these and related questions. It will look at the significance of the distinction between views on which omissions and absences can have causal powers. It will examine cases where the moral responsibility of agents seems to involve absences as either causes, effects, or causal intermediaries. It will also examine the bearing of the metaphysics of omissions on views according to which the moral responsibility of agents for their choices depends on the agent’s sensitivity to negative features of the world around them.
The Microfoundations
Authors: Koinova Maria
Published: April 2021

Chapter 3 is the second theoretical chapter focusing on the individual-level perspective on diaspora mobilizations and the two-level typological theory. How do the four types of diaspora entrepreneurs—Broker, Local, Distant, and Reserved—interact with exogenous factors? How do these interactions lead to different modes of contention and channelling of interest through host-states, transnational networks, and supranational organizations? The two-level typological theory is unpacked through each of its constitutive elements: (1) diaspora entrepreneurs, (2) exogenous factors affecting them, and (3) contentiousness and channelling of their mobilizations, through their conjunctural variations. The chapter first conceptualizes diaspora entrepreneurs’ socio-spatial linkages and the typology developed through novel relational coding. Building on earlier work in International Relations, the Politically Relevant Environment (PRE) is discussed next. It is useful to theoretically narrow down the numerous factors affecting diaspora entrepreneurs in a particular context, namely when they are socio-spatially contiguous and affecting existing grievances related to conflict-generated identities of diaspora entrepreneurs. The chapter further theorizes about causal mechanisms and the nine causal pathways emerging through interactions between diaspora entrepreneurs and PRE factors such as host-land foreign policies, homeland governments, parties, non-state actors, critical events, and limited global influences. Four non-contentious pathways, four characterized by a dual-pronged approach, and one more contentious are presented.
Albanian Diaspora Mobilization for Kosovo Statehood
Authors: Koinova Maria
Published: April 2021

This chapter and the previous Chapter 4 are interconnected as they both discuss Albanian diaspora mobilizations. This chapter unpacks the typological theory through seven causal pathways in the Kosovo Albanian transnational social field. Three of these are associated with the secessionist period of the 1990s, when the foreign policies of host-states diverged from the diaspora goal of Kosovo independence. A relatively rare non-contentious pathway occurred when diaspora entrepreneurs acted autonomously under limited global influences. A more common dual-pronged approach pathway was visible when diaspora entrepreneurs were exposed to two non-state actors, the non-violent Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK) and the radical Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). In a contentious pathway, almost everyone in the diaspora was engulfed in response to the 1998–9 warfare. Four causal pathways occurred when host-land foreign policies were more open to endorse Kosovo’s statehood. Dual-pronged mobilization was visible under the influences of mob violence in Kosovo in 2004. The rest of the pathways were non-contentious. Acting autonomously, diaspora entrepreneurs developed political and cultural projects aimed to raise Kosovo’s status abroad. Under the homeland government’s influence diaspora entrepreneurs pursued public diplomacy, celebrity and football diplomacy, the building of cultural centres, education exchanges, and curriculum for the diaspora. When exposed to homeland parties, diaspora entrepreneurs followed political party dynamics, whether supporting or challenging them.
Armenian Diaspora Mobilization for Nagorno-Karabakh and Genocide Recognition
Authors: Koinova Maria
Published: April 2021

This chapter and the previous Chapter 8 are interconnected as they both discuss Armenian diaspora mobilizations. This chapter unravels the typological theory through five causal pathways. Mobilizations took place most often when host-state foreign policies diverged from the diaspora goals for Karabakh’s statehood, and Armenian genocide recognition. The most contentious pathway is associated with the response to violent critical events in the homeland, most notably the 1988 Sumgait pogrom and Karabakh war in the 1990s. Dual-pronged contention occurred when Armenia’s government clashed with the diaspora on issues of genocide recognition throughout the 1990s. Although the conflict diminished thereafter, the Armenian government has been reluctant to turn to the diaspora for political support in Europe, but it seeks it primarily for economic, social, and development projects. Dual-pronged contention also occurred when transnationalized parties mobilized for genocide recognition. For Dashnaks this has been the most important homeland-oriented goal. Other diaspora entrepreneurs lobbied and protested as well, even if they also mobilized on different social, cultural, and educational projects. Largely non-contentious activities followed political parties in France, leader of European efforts for genocide recognition, as well as when diaspora entrepreneurs acted on limited global influences, building business platforms, or engaging in medical, social, and economic support for Armenia and Karabakh.
Making deeper insights part 2
Authors: Petchey Owen L. , Beckerman Andrew P. , Cooper Natalie , Childs Dylan Z.
Published: April 2021

In the previous chapter we looked at individual variables; however, a sample may involve more than one variable. Moreover, data analysis is usually concerned with the relationships among two or more variables. These relationships might involve the same (e.g. numeric versus numeric) or different (e.g. numeric versus categorical) types of variable. In either case, we need to understand how the values of one variable relate to and/or depend on those of the other. Just as with single-variable analyses, we use both descriptive statistics and graphical summaries to explore such relationships. This chapter focuses on associations between variables. An association is any relationship between two variables that makes them dependent, i.e. knowing the value of one variable gives us some information about the possible values of the second variable. The main goal of this chapter is to show how to use descriptive statistics and visualizations to explore associations among different kinds of variables.
Economic Complexity Perspectives on Structural Change
Authors: Freire Clovis
Published: April 2021

Recent collaborations between economists and physicists have cleared the way for innovative research on the relationship between economic diversification, international specialization, trade and economic development. The resulting literature rests on the idea that the products that countries produce provide information about the non-tradable productive capabilities that countries have. These capabilities include infrastructure, institutions, regulations, and specific productive knowledge and skills. The greater a country’s capabilities, the greater the variety of goods a country can produce. Therefore, economic diversification is considered a quintessential characteristic of economic development. Within this framework a diversified economy is considered to be a complex one. This complexity is not simply due to the mere number of productive sectors but also to the interconnections that arise because of the shared capabilities that they require for production. To study these interconnections, the recent literature proposes and uses tools, methods, and measures of network theory and systems dynamics. This chapter summarizes this literature and links it to important debates on structural change.
Cinematic Terror
Authors: Haacke Paul
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses Alfred Hitchcock’s American films after he moved from England to Hollywood, and especially the ways in which they displaced transatlantic fears and anxieties of wartime onto cinematic and urban spaces as well as what Chris Marker called the “vertigo of time.” After considering the history of embodied suspense and terror from Thomas Hardy’s invention of the “cliffhanger” to Harold Lloyd’s comic dangling in Safety Last!, it focuses above all on Hitchcock’s Vertigo while also examining other key films from Rebecca to The Birds. In turn, it considers relations between history and geography, depth psychology and the built environment, and conceptions of memory, temporality, and contingency from Henri Bergson and Marcel Proust to Gilles Deleuze.
Monetary Policy and the Future of Central Banking
Authors: Furusawa Mitsuhiro
Published: April 2021

The chapter highlights the state of monetary policy in Africa and explores the challenges that central banks face as they address the increasingly complex forces at work in the global economy. It sequences the evolution of monetary policy from the time of World War II under the Bretton Woods system to the more recent forward-looking monetary policy in advanced economies and relates it to influencing the evolution of monetary policy frameworks in Africa. Some challenges affecting African countries are identified, including the collapse of commodity prices, persistent high interest rates spreads, and limitations of high frequency data that constrain monetary authorities’ abilities to take corrective actions in a timely manner. The chapter concludes by providing seven principles towards increasing the effectiveness of monetary policy for countries seeking to move towards forward-looking monetary policy frameworks.
The "Third" United Nations
Authors: Carayannis Tatiana , Weiss Thomas G.
Published: April 2021

This book is about the Third UN: the ecology of supportive non-state actors—intellectuals, scholars, consultants, think tanks, NGOs, the for-profit private sector, and the media—that interacts with the intergovernmental machinery of the First UN (member states) and the Second UN (staff members of international secretariats) to formulate and refine ideas and decision-making at key junctures in policy processes. Some advocate for particular ideas, others help analyze or operationalize their testing and implementation; many thus help the UN “think.” While think tanks, knowledge brokers, and epistemic communities are phenomena that have entered both the academic and policy lexicons, their intellectual role remains marginal to analyses of such intergovernmental organizations as the United Nations. The Third UN in this volume connotes those working toward knowledge and normative advances for the realization of the values underlying the UN Charter; the book does not discuss armed belligerents and criminals, the main focus of previous analyses of non-state actors and the UN system.
Commissions and Panels
Authors: Carayannis Tatiana , Weiss Thomas G.
Published: April 2021

The chapter analyzes the over-sized role of one visible component of the Third UN. Prominent individuals—many of whom made their government and international civil servant careers as members of the First and the Second UNs—have come to constitute essential and frequent contributors to the advance of knowledge and norms. The case studies concern peace operations (the Brahimi report of 2001 and HIPPO of 2015); the protection of human beings in war zones (the ICISS report of 2001); and for sustainable development (the Brundtland report of 1987 and the ongoing work by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC). Less successful or even counterproductive group efforts also figure in the discussion, but the main examples seek to demonstrate how and when such blue-ribbon groups make a difference.
Introduction
Authors: Mysoor Poorna
Published: April 2021

This introductory chapter provides an overview of implied licences. Copyright confers exclusive rights on copyright owners to perform certain acts in relation to their works. A person infringes copyright if she performs any of these acts in relation to a copyright work without ‘the licence of the owner of the copyright’. Alternatively, the user’s actions must be covered by one of the statutory limitations or exceptions, which address specific instances of permitted use of copyright works to achieve specific policy goals. If, however, a certain use is not authorised by either an express licence of the copyright owner or by the statutory limitations or exceptions, it does not always amount to an infringement. It may be possible for courts to imply a copyright licence to cover such use. The strength of implied licences lies in their flexibility to address a diverse set of circumstances. This may prove particularly useful in resolving issues arising from the interaction of copyright with new technologies. Armed with this flexibility and the ability to respond in a case-specific manner, implied licences can bring about a better balance among the interests of different stakeholders within the copyright system.
Frameworks for Implying Copyright Licences
Authors: Mysoor Poorna
Published: April 2021

This chapter proposes frameworks under each category of copyright licences which help assess the facts and circumstances and determine whether a licence may be implied and, if so, the scope of the licence. Given that the advantage of implied licences is their flexibility, any rigid set of rules governing the implication could strike at the heart of such flexibility. Therefore, the chapter presents frameworks as opposed to rigid rules, and seeks to balance guidance and flexibility. These frameworks are developed based on the constituents that each category of licence would need to have, had it been an express licence; and when the express licence is absent, these frameworks indicate how the facts and circumstances can be marshalled, so that one can ascertain whether a licence is to be implied. In addition, these frameworks approach bare licences differently from contractual licences.
Policy-based Implied Contractual Licences
Authors: Mysoor Poorna
Published: April 2021

This chapter assesses policy-based implied contractual licences, focusing on situations where there is a pre-existing contract and a policy-based licence is implied into such contract. To the extent that a contract exists, there is a certain voluntariness to the conduct of the copyright owner in entering into the contract. However, the copyright licence is implied into the contract to achieve a policy objective regardless of the consent of the copyright owner. The framework for implication underlying this chapter is inspired by the rules of implying a term by law into a contract, but made more transparent to acknowledge the role of policy as the basis of implication and the need for the policy to be identified. The chapter illustrates the arguments by examining the transfer of ownership of products incorporating copyright works and the possible licences that may need to be implied into such transfer. It also discusses the highly regulated industry of hazardous substances, and how the information flow in this sector can be explained using the framework proposed here for policy-based implied contractual licences.
Hyperlinking
Authors: Mysoor Poorna
Published: April 2021

This chapter studies hyperlinking and how implied licence can help better understand it both when the content was placed on the internet by or with the copyright owner’s consent and when it was not. Hyperlinking enables establishing links between different webpages and is critical to enhancing the efficacy of the internet. Although scholars are still divided, courts have held that hyperlinking engages the right of communication to the public. However, the approach adopted by the courts suffers from inconsistencies. This chapter instead argues that it makes sense to regard hyperlinking as amounting to the exercise of the right of communication to the public based on a consistent interpretation, and asks whether such exercise does not infringe the right because of the licence implied on different bases.
Indexing
Authors: Mysoor Poorna
Published: April 2021

This chapter deals with indexing. Indexing is typically engaged in by internet service providers of different kinds, such as search engines, content aggregators, and online content sharing platforms, including social media. Indexing is the background process that tries to achieve greater accessibility of the content on the internet. However, this process may engage the right of reproduction and the right of communication to the public, and therefore, must be considered separately. Based on the indexing capabilities and to facilitate deeper analysis, this chapter classifies the providers into search engines, content sharing platforms, news aggregators and other content aggregators. The chapter explains how courts have tried to deal with this issue and argues for a greater role of implied licences to address the issues of copyright infringement. While indexing of content that is placed on the internet by or with the copyright owner’s consent can benefit from consent-based implied licence, indexing of the content that is placed on the internet without the copyright owner’s consent may benefit from a policy-based implied licence, saving them from liability for indexing infringing content under certain circumstances.
Introspection, Adverbialism, and Rich Contents
Authors: Papineau David
Published: April 2021

The qualitative view is distinguished from sense-datum theories. Introspection is distinguished from attention. An account of sensory introspection is developed. A new theory of phenomenal concepts is outlined. The qualitative theory is compared with adverbialism and shown not to be subject to the same criticisms. The qualitative theory is shown to transform the debate about rich contents and allow a wide range of such contents.
Introduction
Authors: Sutton Rebecca
Published: April 2021

This chapter provides an overview of the monograph, outlining the structure of the discussion and introducing the key arguments that will be advanced. The principle of distinction, as a targeting rule in international humanitarian law (IHL), is introduced along with the concept of the civilian as it circulates in IHL. Three sets of international actors are presented—humanitarian actors, peacekeepers, and military actors—and the humanitarian actor is situated as the central character of the study. The boundaries between these actors are loosely sketched, so that they can be elucidated gradually over the course of the discussion as the empirical findings are revealed. The three central claims of the monograph are outlined as follows. First, it is argued that a wide range of unconventional actors, operating in unconventional places, produce IHL rules in everyday practice. Second, it is contended that distinction, not only as a grounded practice but also as a vaunted IHL rule, is perpetually disrupted. Third, the existence of a ‘civilian plus’ status in international practice is proposed. A brief overview of the study’s methodology is also provided, along with an introduction to the Kinetic, Pedagogical, and Intellectual realms.
Brazil
Authors: Neri Marcelo
Published: April 2021

After three decades of persistently high income inequality, from 2001 onwards Brazil experienced a downward inequality trend followed by rising household income growth. Both movements lasted until 2015. This work synthesizes the results of six papers that describe the evolution of Brazilian income distribution. A common approach pursued was to jointly assess inequality, mean income, and social welfare rates of growth. We use a vast array of datasets to fill the gaps found in the literature. Top incomes’ movements reduced income inequality fall but increased mean income growth, suggesting challenges in measuring and interpreting inequality changes. Overall, inequality fall was driven by labour earnings through firm-specific effects. Rising schooling and falling returns also played a role, especially if parents’ educational background is taken into account. Missing income values did not affect inequality measures. Direct and indirect taxes increased inequality trends, while official monetary benefits helped to reduce them.
India
Authors: Dang Hai-Anh H. , Lanjouw Peter
Published: April 2021

India in the early years of the twenty-first century achieved per capita growth rates that were historically unprecedented. Poverty reduction also accelerated. There is concern, however, that this growth was accompanied by a rise in inequality. In this chapter, we report on a research project that examines inequality trends and dynamics at the all-India level over three decades up to 2011/12 and contrasts these with evidence at the level of the village or the urban block. We further unpack inequality to explore dynamics in terms of the movement of people within the income distribution over time. The assessment of mobility is informed both by evidence at the very local level, and by aggregate, national-level trends. The study attempts, further, to assess horizontal inequalities into a measure of inequality of opportunity as captured by inter-generational mobility in education outcomes.
Business ethics in the age of globalization
Authors: Lütge Christoph , Uhl Matthias
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses globalization from different angles and summarizes major critical voices raised against it. The implications of globalization for business ethics are discussed: there is substantial disagreement on a number of ethical topics across the globe, which makes it difficult for multinational companies to find a common ground for meaningful ethical dialogs. An alternative view on globalization is proposed. This view focuses on the establishment of an institutional order that enables the realization of win-win potentials through global networking. The chapter closes with illustrative case studies on the problem of child labor and the global transportation of food.
Problem areas of business ethics
Authors: Lütge Christoph , Uhl Matthias
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses three key problem areas of business ethics. The first topics covered are poverty and inequality: absolute and relative poverty are distinguished, and the concept of equality is scrutinized. Second, the authors discuss human dignity and human rights. The distinctions between negative and positive liberties and between moral universalism and relativism are explained. Default rules exemplify how the concept of human dignity can be made fruitful for the problem of institutional design. Third, the notion of sustainability is treated. Among others, the triple-bottom line approach with its economic, ecological, and social dimension illustrates the multiple facets of sustainability. Finally, time preferences are introduced and alternative solution strategies of efficiency and sufficiency are contrasted with each other.
What Does Fossil Energy Tell Us about Technology?
Authors: Vadén Tere
Published: April 2021

Fossil power gave an advantage to capitalists over workers, forming fossil capitalism, while the specific properties of fossil fuels, especially unprecedented net energy gains, framed the experience of modernity. The sheer quantity of energy provided by fossil fuels has created blindness towards their materiality. This blindness takes many forms, one of which is evident in climate change. It also extends to descriptions of the nature and role of technology. Rapid economic and technological change has produced a kind of hubris, where the material origin of economic and technological prowess has been overlooked. By concentrating on the role of fossil fuels, we also gain a more realistic assessment of the role of technology and the ways in which technology can both advance and hinder efforts towards regaining sustainability.