bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
GAL‐ and VIP‐Immunoreactive Nerve Structures in the Ileum and Large Intestine of Pigs with Dysentery
Authors: Sienkiewicz W. , Kaleczyc J. , Pidsudko Z. , ŁAkomy M.
Published: November 2005

The morphology, neurochemistry and function of intramural nerve structures in the mammalian gastrointestinal tract are relatively well known, but in normal, healthy individuals. The present study was aimed at investigating the chemical coding of nerve structures in the wall of the ileum and large intestine in normal pigs (n = 3) and in pigs undergoing dysentery (n = 6). Dysentery was evoked by artificial infection of the clinically healthy animals per os with Brachyspira hyodysenteriae. All the animals were deeply anaesthetized and transcardially perfused with 4% paraformaldehyde. The cryostat sections of the intestines were processed for double‐labelling immunohistochemistry using antisera against PGP 9.5, GAL and VIP. In the intramural plexuses of the control pigs, the percentage of GAL‐immunoreactive (GAL‐IR) perykarya varied from 11% (descending colon) to 19% (centrifugal turns of the ascending colon) whereas in the dysenteric pigs, it was distinctly higher, reaching from 28% (ileum) up to 48% (cecum). In the control animals, the percentage of VIP‐IR neuronal somata varied from 3% (descending colon) to 19% (ileum). In dysenteric pigs, it was from 6% (descending colon) up to 28% (cecum). In the muscular coat (MC) and mucous membrane (MM) of the normal intestine, very numerous GAL‐ and VIP‐IR nerve fibres were observed. The nerve fibres in the myenteric plexus (MP) were even more numerous than those in the muscular coat while in the outer (OSP) and inner (ISP) submucous plexuses, they were less abundant. In the dysenteric pigs, the nerve fibres found in MC, MP and OSP were less numerous, whereas those observed in ISP and MM were more abundant than those in the control animals. The present results suggest that GAL and VIP are involved in the regulation of inflammatory processes developing in the porcine gastrointestinal tract during dysentery.
Fractures of Ossified Rib Cartilages in the Horse – a Concern of Veterinarians?
Authors: Sjøvold T.
Published: November 2005

In connection with an osteological study of more than one hundred complete, disarticulated skeletons of the Norwegian Fjord and Døle horse breeds in the collection of the University Museum of Bergen, attention was drawn to the ossified parts of the rib cartilages because of frequent healed fractures transverse to the cartilages. Unossified cartilage had been removed, so the ossified cartilages were available as dry specimens. The skeletons derive from pedigreed stallions as well as some few mares, so both name, year of birth and age are known. Most often the age was between 15 and 30 years, but some few horses were younger, the youngest 5‐year‐old. Ocular inspection of each skeleton revealed that healed fractures occurred in ossified rib cartilages of every horse, varying from some few instances to >30. Skeletons of horses of other races in the museum collection corroborated this. Healing of the fractures was obvious. Four kinds were observed: The first, and probably least sincere fracture appeared as a visible transverse ring, the second displayed callus elevation around the fracture, the third showed dislocation and callus formation, and the fourth concerns pseudoarthrosis, when fractured parts fail to unite during healing. Even a fifth kind may be considered, with circumferential callus formation leaving the interior healed but unfused. X‐ray displays the fractures as white, cross‐sectional bands of bone repair. However, such fractures appear not to be considered in contemporary veterinary pathology, but the large number of fractures observed in some cases, callus formation and dislocation of fractures in others, indicates that some period following these fractures is likely to have been traumatic to the horse, so that fracture of ossified rib cartilages should not be ruled out concerning horses showing unexplained symptoms of pain.
Teaching of Practical Anatomy in the University of Veterinary Science
Authors: Sótonyi P.
Published: November 2005

Morphology subjects taught by our department are very important parts of the veterinary medical studies. Functional anatomy, concluded with a final exam, provides knowledge of classical anatomy and is taught for three semesters. The lectures are followed by the plenary sessions where the dissection is done under a camcorder, which shows the students the methods used. Topographical anatomy is taught in the fourth semester – mostly demonstrated on live animals – the visible, palpable structures and the projections of the inner organs on the surface of the body. Introduction to biology summarizes the study of cell biology and also the general knowledge of developmental anatomy. Histology is also given in the second and third semesters, ending with a final exam. However, for the 25 years I have been teaching the anatomy and the subjects taught by our department, I always had the feeling that the students do not pay enough attention or show much appreciation of these studies after the initial enthusiasm. Anatomical knowledge should also be well known during the later year studies at our university. Until recently our teaching program lacked the repetition of systemic anatomical studies that is mostly for applied science. The very recently introduced elective courses, such as radiological anatomy, surgical anatomy, organogenesis and the anatomy of birds are all scheduled for the late evening hours, but the lecture hall are still always full with students of all grades. The enquirers could find the needed anatomical information in special books and atlases until now. However, practising vets say it takes a lot of time and making uncomfortable difficulties to analyse the books. Because of forgetting the details that are less important for the vet's everyday work it can be hard to find solutions for small but urgent problems. That is why we decided to picturise and make a summary in an edition for demonstrating different elements of certain species of animals. The multimedia CD‐ROM was made based on clinical view providing the opportunity for the vet to analysing and studying the part that is the actually subject of his work. After 30 years long break, today there is no graduate or continuing education program without teaching anatomy, which means to give the knowledge to our colleagues applying to their needs also to their everyday work.
Distinct Fibro‐vascular Arrangements in the Equine Periodontal Ligament
Authors: Staszyk C. , Gasse H.
Published: November 2005

The morphological pre‐requisites to sustain pressure loads and tractive forces during mastication are examined histologically in the periodontal ligament (PDL) of cheek teeth from 17 horses. The upper and lower jaws were dissected and perfused via the infraorbital and the inferior alveolar arteries with Bouin's solution or, alternatively, with Karnovsky's solution. After perfusion, the jaws were subdivided with a steel band saw and subsequently with a diamond saw to obtain PDL specimens from the first molar tooth. After decalcification, specimens were processed for (1) collagen labelling with fluorescein, (2) oxytalan‐fibre staining, (3) immunostaining of vascular smooth muscle actin, and (4) TEM examinations. The periodontal ligament (PDL) of equine cheek teeth is composed of two distinct functional units: (1) a collagen‐oxytalan‐fibre apparatus, (2) a specific vascular system. These elements are associated with each other in characteristic ways: (1) extremely wide, ‘ballooned’, venules are accompanied by collagen fibres that run parallel to the cemental surface. Plenty of oxytalan fibres are packed between the venous walls and the dental cementum. This is a typical feature for regions of the PDL that are supposed to receive compression (related data concerning entheses, osteoclasts, osteoblasts have been presented by Staszyk and Gasse, 2003, 2004*). (2) Regions that are defined to sustain tractive loads – instead of pressure – are distinguished by the so‐called ‘anchored’ venules. The vessels are ‘embraced’ bilaterally by thick bundles of dense collagen fibres, which are orientated in an alveolo dental direction. The fibre bundles are directly linked to the venous walls by means of a complex of oxytalan fibres, veil cells, and smooth muscle cells. These different fibrovascular arrangements (a,b) represent morphological adaptations that may be suitable to withstand either compression or traction. The first (a) provides the pre‐requisites for a ‘hemodynamic cushion’ to receive pressure forces; the latter (b) is suggested to receive tractive forces by means of an elaborate ‘lateral compression’ mechanism that shall be presented in detail.
Myosin Heavy Chain Transitions in Dog Skeletal Muscle Fibres during Post‐natal Development
Authors: Strbenc M. , Smerdu V. , Tozon N. , Vrecl M. , Uršic M. , Pogacnik A. , Fazarinc G.
Published: November 2005

Myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform expression was established in the masseter, axial and limb skeletal muscles in 18 young dogs from late prenatal to 6 months of age. Results obtained by immunohistochemical procedure using 11 monoclonal antibodies, SDS‐PAGE electrophoresis, Western‐blotting and enzyme‐histochemical reactions were compared to those found in skeletal muscles of adult dogs. In the skeletal muscles of both fetuses in the last stages of development and neonatal dogs, the developmental isoforms MHC‐emb and MHC‐neo were prevalent. During the first 10 days after birth, the level of embryonic isoform expression declined, as did that of the neonatal isoform during the second and third weeks. Correspondingly, the expression of MHC‐IIa, and later, of MHC‐I increased. By 6 weeks of age the presence of MHC‐IIx became obvious. This transitional pattern was similar in all muscles except in the rhomboideus, where secondary slow fibres were present before birth. In the other muscles, only one primary, centrally located, slow fibre was present in a fascicle and the secondary slow fibres evolved from developmentally fast fibres between the second and third weeks of age. Our results indicate that timing of muscle maturation depends on its activity right after birth. The fastest developing muscles were the masseter muscle and the diaphragm. They were followed by others, postural and locomotory muscles. A pronounced swap from developmental to adult isoforms was noted between the 4th and 6th week of age. At this age puppies are weaned and begin playing intensively and investigating their surroundings. The results of our study indicate that dog skeletal muscles exhibit an immature morphology at birth and develop relatively slowly compared to those of other domestic animals.
The Prenatal Development of the Canine Claw
Authors: Süsskind‐Schwendi M. V. , Bragulla H. , Hirschberg R. M.
Published: November 2005

Introduction:  The mammalian digital end organ has developed in three basic functional forms, i.e., claw, hoof and nail. Whereas detailed information on the ontogeny and phylogeny of the equine and bovine hooves, and the human nail, respectively, are on hand, such data are still not available for the canine claw. Because phylogenetically the carnivore claw is considered as a primary form of digital end organ, data on the organogenesis of the canine claw will complement current knowledge on onto‐ and phylogeny of the carnivore claw, and digital end organs in general.

Materials and Methods:  Light and electron microscopy of 18 canine fetuses of 40–150 mm crown‐rump‐length and five puppies aged 1 day–4 weeks post‐partum.

Results:  The development of the canine claw can be divided into four periods. The first stage is initiated by the differentiation of the connective tissue layers of the claw anlage. The second stage is characterized by formation of the specific claw shape, and the third stage by further regional function‐related modifications resulting in the development of the five different segments of the digital end organ. The fourth stage proceeds post‐natally when the influence of increasing body weight and weight bearing leads to the final functional adaptation of the papillary body.

Conclusion:  The organogenesis of the canine claw resembles that of the feline claw in many aspects, but also shows some specific deviations. In particular, the development of the dorsal ridge – characteristic for the carnivore claw – differs between both species. The results of our study therefore raise the question whether the current hypothesis on allocation of the different segments of the canine claw has to be reconsidered.
Comparative Morphology of Trigeminal Ganglion in Some Species of Vertebrates
Authors: Szczurkowski A.
Published: November 2005

The reported examinations were carried out on turtles, Japanese quails and chinchillas of either sex. The trigeminal nerve was studied with the modified thiocholine method and routine histological techniques. The trigeminal ganglion of the turtle is a single, compact structure connected with the trigeminal nerve. Analysis of consecutive sections showed a presence of ganglionic neurocytes only at the medial side of the trigeminal nerve. A small number of nerve cells and large number of fibres is characteristic for the investigated structure.

The trigeminal ganglion of Japanese quail is a structure connected with two branches (ophthalmic and mandibular) of the trigeminal nerve. Both parts of the ganglion distinctly differ in their morphology. The part connected with the ophthalmic branch – V1 forms a thickening of the nerve, which becomes narrow approaching the orbital cavity. The second part connected with the mandibular branch – V2 is of regular shape. This part of the ganglion is located in the vicinity of a delicate maxillary branch. Histological investigations allow us to observe a characteristic arrangement of neurocytes with only one layer of nerve cells on the surface of the ganglion. The trigeminal ganglion in chinchilla is a single, irregular cluster of neurocytes closely connected with trigeminal nerve where this nerve divides into ophthalmic and maxillary nerves. Agglomerations of neurocytes allow us to distinguish two parts of trigeminal ganglion. From the medial aspect, the nasal part of ganglion is connected with this part of the trigeminal nerve, which is not distinctly divided into ophthalmic and maxillary branches. The caudal part of the trigeminal ganglion is connected with the mandibular branch of trigeminal nerve. These two parts are separated from each other by the motor radix of the trigeminal nerve. From the lateral side all parts of the ganglion form one structure and it is difficult to distinguish precisely different cell aggregations corresponding to the particular branches of trigeminal nerve.
Canine Endothelial Remodelling During the Estrus Cycle: an Overview
Authors: Van Cruchten S. , Simoens P. , Van den Broeck W.
Published: November 2005

The present study in 58 dogs aimed to verify the changes of the canine endometrial surface epithelium during the estrous cycle using electron microscopy and to investigate the roles of apoptosis, cell proliferation and matrix metalloproteinases in canine endometrial remodelling using immunohistochemistry. Possible correlations between these phenomena and serum levels of estradiol‐17β and progesterone were assessed. Prominent scanning electron microscopic changes of the canine endometrium were observed during early metestrus and included a variable height and number of microvilli of the surface epithelium. Using transmission electron microscopy, pronounced features of the surface epithelial cells were noticed in late metestrus and anestrus, during which a highly vacuolized cytoplasm and deformed nuclei due to fat accumulation were present. In these stages no prominent signs of cell death were noticed and also very low apoptotic numbers were observed using immunohistochemistry. Cell proliferation in the endometrial surface epithelium seemed to be in balance with apoptosis. Most prominent features of apoptosis and proliferation were found in the basal glands and to a lesser extent also in the crypts. In contrast, only low amounts of apoptosis and proliferation were observed in the stroma, in which high collagenase‐1 scores coincided with a decreased amount of collagen in the deep part of the endometrium and a massive increase of glandular cells during early metestrus. No cyclic differences were noticed for the expression of TIMP‐1, the collagenase‐1 inhibitor. Finally, no or only low correlations were found between apoptosis, cell proliferation and MMP‐1 expression in the canine endometrium, and the serum levels of estradiol‐17β and progesterone. In conclusion, these findings indicate that there is no desquamation of the canine endometrial surface epithelium at the end of the estrous cycle, but a regular turnover of cells throughout the estrous cycle. Furthermore, our data also suggest a role for MMP‐1 in cellular proliferation.

This study was supported by the BOF (#011B4101) of Ghent University.
Scanning Electron Microscopic and Immunohistochemical Study of Uterine and Placental Vascularization in the Rat During Different Stages of Pregnancy
Authors: Betti E. , Zeiler M. , Leiser R. , Dantzer V. , Pfarrer C.
Published: November 2005

During gestation, the uterus of eutherian mammals is subject to extensive modifications, which are most prominent in species with a haemochorial placenta. Pregnancy‐associated changes in haemochorial placental types includes a rearrangement of endometrial blood vessels together with a rapid invasion of the endometrium by trophoblast cells, inducing the alteration of the phenotype of stroma cells, which is called decidualization. The aim of this study is to re‐evaluate these modifications with special reference to the development of the placental vascularization during gestation of the rat. 15 Wistar rats were sacrificed on days 4, 6, 9, 12, 16, 19 and 20 of gestation (2 per day) and during estrous cycle (1) and perfusion‐fixed. Implantation chambers and/or placental tissues were excised and paraffin‐embedded. Additionally vascular corrosion casts were produced on the same days of gestation from another series of rats, and examined scanning electron microscopically. Paraffin‐embedded sections were used for immunohistochemistry with antibodies against cytokeratin, α‐smooth muscle (sm) actin, and histochemistry with lectin (Lycopersicum esculentum). The histological findings were compared to the scanning electron microscopical results. Cytokeratin labelled epithelial cells, namely uterine luminal and glandular epithelium as well as most types of trophoblast cells. α‐sm actin was observed in smooth muscle cells, maternal vascular endothelium and decidua cells. Lycopersicum esculentum lectin was detected in endothelial cells and in yolk sac epithelium. The uterine microvasculature in the course of gestation showed specific alterations, like the development of spiral arteries and a central artery running straight to the fetal placental surface where it branches into arterioles. These arterioles feed the placental labyrinth through blood channels, which are lined by syncytiotrophoblast instead of endothelial cells. In parallel, the vascular diameter increases distinctly, and comparison to histology confirms the presence of protruding endovascular trophoblast cells as indentations on vascular casts. The present findings allow to establishing a reference defining the principal stages of the constitution and development of the chorioallantoic placenta, particularly with regard to the modifications concerning the morphology of the placental and uterine vessel tree, and the development of the cellular composition in different parts of the placenta.
Dissociated and Explant Cultures of Myenteric Neurons of Pig Small Intestine
Authors: Van Ginneken C. , Rauch U. , Weyns A. , Schäfer K. ‐H.
Published: November 2005

The gastrointestinal tract of pig is a good and available (slaughterhouse material) model to study the enteric nervous system in relation to nutrition, inflammation, development and disease in general. In order to investigate the responses of the enteric nervous network to a variety of stimuli, e.g. growth factors, hormones, extracellular matrix components, but also noxious compounds in a controlled manner, an in vitro experimental set‐up is most appropriate. Methods to obtain in vitro cultures of enteric neurons of rodents, chicken and human are well described. This study attempted to use these methods on pig material. The muscle layer containing the myenteric plexus was dissected from pieces of fetal, neonatal and adult pig jejunum. They were rinsed in Hanks basal salt solution (BSS) in which antibiotics were added. Pieces of ±25 mm2 were transferred to BSS with 1 mg/ml collagenase and 1 mg/ml trypsin inhibitor and incubated for 60 min (5% CO2, 90% RH). Subsequently, they were vortexed for 20 s and ganglia were selected. The procedure was repeated ±4 times. Myenteric ganglia could then be plated or further dissociated in 1 mg/ml trypsin in BSS for 30 min in the incubator. Afterwards, the dissociated ganglia were centrifuged (5 min 1500 rpm) and the trypsin‐solution was replaced with Dulbecco's minimal essential medium (DMEM). The explants or dissociated myenteric ganglia were transferred on non‐coated or coated (poly‐L‐lysine, laminin, fibronectin, collagen or extracellular matrix gel) cover slips. After incubating for 45 min they were topped with 1 ml of DMEM with antibiotics and with or without fetal calf serum (5%). Medium was replaced twice a week. Using immunohistochemistry, both neurons (PGP9.5) and glial cells (S100) could be identified in both culture types. When cultivated under harsh conditions, the dissociated cultures gave rise to neurosphere‐like bodies, containing neurons and glial cells. Thus, the digestion and dissociation technique is applicable to pig material.
Assessment and Development Centre and E‐Learning in the Teaching of Anatomy
Authors: Van Ginneken C. , Vanthournhout G. , Oste M. , Philips W. , Weyns A.
Published: November 2005

Today's students belong to an interactive generation and receive information through multiple channels. Curricula in veterinary medicine are changing due to trends such as ‘student centred education’ and ‘competence based learning’. Taking in account these changes, we were encouraged to rethink the way in which we teach and assess the knowledge of veterinary anatomy. The amount of dissection (90 h) and lecture hours (90 h) has not changed, but the way they are used and how the ‘knowledge’ is assessed has been revised. First, goals were defined: students have to acquire knowledge and insight in the structure, function and relationships of anatomical structures of various species. They have to be able to observe, palpate and expose the structures properly. Additionally, they must attain general skills, e.g. communication. Secondly a new learning environment was developed so students could accomplish these goals. The three main components, constituting this new environment were: the introduction of an assessment and development centre (ADC) as a means of assessing students as well as giving them feedback, the incorporation of e‐learning and the raise of student‐lecturer interactions during lecture hours. During the ADC the students have to go through three set‐ups: they demonstrate structures, they name structures and they ‘solve’ a problem (e.g. cut tendon). They report their findings both verbally and written. Using checklists the student's practical skills are assessed during the dissections and during the ADC. Students receive feedback at four different times. An E‐learning environment was devised, giving the students the possibility to consult photographs of the dissections, to discuss the course on a discussion board and to take self‐assessment tests to monitor their progress. During the student‐lecturer interactions, photographs, clinical examples, are discussed using various teaching methods, resulting in a more ‘active’ approach to the learning content. Students are enthusiastic about this way of teaching although they experience it as difficult. Student scores seem not different from previously. In the future the practical checklists and the ADC will be optimized.
Culture of Differentiated Adult Rabbit Auricular Chondrocytes
Authors: Villar V. , Colaço B. , Calles‐Venal I. , Fernández‐Álvarez J. G. , Fernández‐Caso M. , Villar J. M.
Published: November 2005

Chondrocytes dedifferentiate to a fibroblast‐like phenotype on plastic surfaces. Dedifferentiation is reversible if these cells are then cultured embedded in gels as alginate, agarose or collagen. Chondrocytes cultured in suspension on a non‐adherent surface are also known to form aggregates of differentiated cells. The knowledge of chondrocyte behavior in culture is relevant for tissue engineering purposes. In this report we describe a simple method to culture differentiated or redifferentiated rabbit auricular chondrocytes on plastic surfaces with a stable phenotype. When chondrocyte aggregates formed in suspension are next seeded on plastic surfaces, most of them attach to the plastic as round or polygonal cells, and this morphological differentiation, confirmed by the presence of type II collagen, is stable for long culture periods. We also report that the addition of aggregates to monolayer cultures of dedifferentiated chondrocytes results in their redifferentiation, as is shown by their morphological changes and the synthesis of type II collagen. Therefore, this simple method can be useful for the study of chondrocyte behavior on plastic surfaces and for redifferentiating previously proliferated chondrocytes in tissue engineering techniques. Furthermore, these results demonstrate that, in addition to culture conditions such as cell isolation method or cell‐density, chondrocyte behavior on plastic depends on the presence or absence of aggregates resulting from the dissociation process.
Occurrence and Distribution of Lactate Dehydrogenase in Knee Joint Carilage in Healthy and Osteoarthrotic Dogs
Authors: Walter E. , Spreng D. , Friess A. E. , Stoffel M. H.
Published: November 2005

According to clinical studies, degenerative diseases of canine joints lead to higher lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels in synovial fluid. The goal of the present study was to examine the intraarticular distribution of LDH in healthy and osteoarthrotic knee joints in order to identify possible sources of LDH in synovial fluid. As synovial LDH concentrations neither correlate with the number of leukocytes nor with synovitis, our investigation focused on the articular cartilage. Samples from healthy and osteoarthrotic knee joints were fixed and processed for transmission electron microscopy (TEM), immunohistochemistry (IHC), and immunocytochemistry (ICC). In addition, fresh cartilage samples were investigated cytochemically by the tetrazolium‐formazan reaction. Analyses of blood and synovial fluid samples were used to confirm the absence of inflammatory disease. Morphology of articular cartilage was assessed macroscopically and by means of TEM. IHC revealed highest levels of LDH in chondrones and a diffuse labelling of the matrix with a distinctive decrease in signal from superficial to deeper cartilage layers. Ultrastructural localization by ICC showed LDH to be present in the cytoplasm of all chondrocytes and confirmed the density gradient in the matrix. Labelling was absent from nuclei and from pericellular rims. Cytochemistry confirmed the distribution pattern and, thus, expanded our findings beyond immunological evidence by providing proof of enzymatic activity of LDH in articular cartilage. The present results indicate that LDH is transferred from chondrocytes to the cartilaginous matrix. We suggest, therefore, that LDH found in synovial fluid originates from the articular cartilage and that osteoarthrotic processes promote LDH release from the cartilaginous matrix.
Something Different: the Articulatio Genus of African Elephants (Loxodonta africana)
Authors: Weissengruber G. E. , Egger G. , Stanek G. , Forstenpointner G. , Janach K.
Published: November 2005

In elephants, the limb posture in general and the angle of the knee joint in particular differs to those of most mammals. Although previous studies on the osteology of elephants are available, knowledge of the structure of their joints is sparse. The aim of this study was to provide an anatomical description of the African elephant's knee joint. Hindlimbs of six juvenile individuals of Loxodonta africana were dissected at the Department of Anatomy and Physiology, University of Pretoria (Onderstepoort, South Africa). All animals had lived in the Kruger National Park and were shot due to the regular culling program during the 1990s. The tight joint capsule encloses both the articulatio femorotibialis and the articulatio femoropatellaris. The articular surfaces of the tibial and femoral condyli show a high grade of congruency. The meniscuslateralis and especially the meniscusmedialis are very narrow merely resembling folds of the joint capsule. A ligamentum meniscofemorale is present. The Ligamentum cruciatum craniale attaches to the caudomedial surface of the condyluslateralisfemoris, passes the proximally flattened surface of the eminentiaintercondylaris tibiae and inserts on a craniolateral impression of this eminentia. The ligamentumcruciatumcaudale courses far caudally from the lateral surface of the condylusmedialisfemoris to the area intercondylariscaudalis. The tendon of origin of the m. popliteus passes caudoproximally over the meniscus lateralis and a recess of the joint capsule lies between this muscle and the condylus lateralis tibiae or the caput fibulae respectively. The ligamentumcollateralemediale and the smaller laterale are embedded within the thick fascial layers surrounding the knee. Retinacula patellae are not discernible. The ligamentum patellae attaches to the tuberositas tibiae and the distal tendon of the m. rectus femoris lies cranial to this ligament. It is likely that the structural peculiarities of the elephant's knee stand in close relationship with limb posture and weight bearing.
‘Sonobasics’, a Computer‐based Program for Self‐Education on Sonographic Anatomy of the Urinary Bladder and Kidneys in Small Animals
Authors: Weißflog N. , Nautrup C. P.
Published: November 2005

While the macroscopic anatomy of the urinary bladder and the kidneys is well known, the ultrasound anatomy of these organs still remains difficult for physicians. The objective was to develop a multimedia computer‐based program that helps to reduce the time necessary for learning ultrasonography in dogs and cats. Therefore, the program contains many ultrasound films and images, which are clearly marked. Additionally, colourful diagrams explain the ultrasound examination. Although the urinary bladder is comparatively easy to scan the surrounding structures are often confusing. Many of these structures such as the neighbouring fat are not especially mentioned in macroscopic anatomy. The program clearly demonstrates the advantages of the ultrasound method. For example, the physiological urinary jet into the urinary bladder is compared to urinary jet after application of a diuretic agent (furosemide). The ultrasound anatomy of the kidneys and the related structures are described in detail and illustrated by anatomic preparations and sketches. The comprehensive visual and audio representation of the Doppler ultrasonography of renal vessels is intended as an advanced training for already experienced physicians. The structure of the program is designed with regard to didactic and ergonomic aspects. The user can go through the program step by step or move freely using a navigation bar, visual links (viewer) or one of the various links. Nevertheless, all pages are clearly marked to keep track. The structure of the program is similar in all sections, starting with the anatomical topography and the patient preparation. After a detailed description of the scanning procedure the resulting ultrasound images are demonstrated. The last part includes different techniques of Doppler ultrasonography. The self‐explaining multimedia structure of the computer‐based program enables an autodidactic training of the ultrasound b‐mode and the Doppler ultrasonography of the urinary tract and the kidneys for physicians with little experience as well as for advanced investigators.
The Cartilage Canals of the Epiphyseal Growth Cartilage and their Role in the Formation of Lesions of Osteochondrosis
Authors: Ytrehus B.
Published: November 2005

Cartilage canals are temporary vascular structures within the growth cartilage. They were described as early as 1736 and the first perfusion study performed already in 1743. In its most complex form, the vascular structure consists of an arteriole, originating in the perichondrial plexus and branching out into an anastomosing network of capillaries. The capillaries circle back along the arteriole and rejoin into a venule that follows the course of the arteriole back to the plexus. The canals regress with age in a process designated as chondrification, where the content of the canals is replaced by cartilage. The process of chondrification is considered physiological; however, premature regression has been associated with the formation of lesions of osteochondrosis. The purpose of the present study was to gain further insight into the nature of chondrification and the initial steps in the pathogenesis of osteochondrosis and the relationship between these events and age, growth rate, weight and femoral shape of the individual animals. This involved studies of the distribution and pattern of regression of the cartilage canals. The articular‐epiphyseal cartilage complexes of the distal femur of 48 half‐siblings of the Norwegian Landrace pig breed were studied, combining techniques of perfusion and tissue clearing with histological and immunohistological methods. The results of this study indicate that the physiological regression of the cartilage canals is an orderly and time‐dependent process in which the endothelial cells at the termination of the vessels die by apoptosis, while perivascular cells differentiate into chondrocytes that fill in the cartilage canal with matrix. However, as the ossification front advances, the deepest portion of some of the canals form anastomoses with vessels of the subchondral bone, giving the axial portion of the growth cartilage a new source of blood supply. Lesions of osteochondrosis, typically occurring in the axial growth cartilage, are characterized by necrosis of the portion of the affected cartilage canal distal to a point of interruption, with subsequent necrosis of adjacent resting zone growth cartilage. This interruption occurs at the junction between cartilage and bone where anastomoses are formed between cartilage canal vessels and subchondral vessels.
The Gap Junctional Protein Connexin(Cx)43 in Testicular Cancer: its Loss Marks Progession from Carcinoma In Situ to Invasive Germ Cell Tumour
Authors: Brehm R. , Fischer P. , Kliesch S. , Gashaw I. , Winterhager E. , Bohle R. M. , Steger K. , Bergmann M.
Published: November 2005

Carcinoma‐in‐situ (CIS) of the testis is known to be the pre‐invasive stage of most human germ cell tumours (seminoma and non‐seminoma), but the mechanisms leading to an increased pubertal proliferation of CIS cells after a long latency and to progression of CIS to an invasive malignancy are still not known. Additionally, CIS and seminoma have also been reported in equine testis (Veeramachaneni and Sawyer, 1998). The gap junctional protein and tumour suppressor gene connexin(cx)43 represents the predominant cx in human, canine and rodent testis so far and it is expected to play a key role for the regulation of both proliferation and differentiation of germ cells (spermatogonia and spermatocytes), and its gene‐ and protein‐expression pattern is typical for the pubertal terminal differentiation of somatic Sertoli cells. Using cDNA‐microarray analysis, in‐situ hybridization (ISH), RT‐PCR from tissue homogenate and semi‐quantitative RT‐PCR from well defined microdissected tubules with normal spermatogenesis, CIS, intratubular seminoma (ISe) and from seminoma cells from invasive seminoma we found a downregulation of cx43 starting in intratubular CIS, leading to a complete loss in most invasive seminoma cells. This indicates that regulation of cx43 expression takes place at transcriptional level confirming and expanding earlier studies of protein expression (Brehm et al., 2002). This reduction of cx43‐expression suggests that an early intratubular derangement in cx43‐gene expression and disruption of inter‐cellular communication between Sertoli cells and/or Sertoli cells and pre‐invasive tumour cells via cx43‐gap junctions may play a role in the proliferation of CIS cells and seminoma cells and in the progression phase of testicular seminoma development.

References  Veeramachaneni, D. N., and H. R.Sawyer, 1998: Carcinoma in situ and seminoma in equine testis. APMIS 106, 183–185.

Brehm R., A. Marks, R. Rey, S. Kliesch, M. Bergmann and K. Steger, 2002: Altered expression of connexins 26 and 43 in Sertoli cells in seminiferous tubules infiltrated with carcinoma‐in‐situ or seminoma. J. Pathol. 197, 647–653.
Development and Fine Structure of the Reticulate Scales of the Turkey Foetuses with Regard to Occurrence of the Food Pad Lesions in Turkey Poults
Authors: Breuer P. , Buda S. , Budras K. D.
Published: November 2005

Introduction:  Most of the morphological studies on the skin of birds refer to chickens. Little can be found about the specific fine structure of the foot‐pad epidermis of turkeys and almost nothing is known about the developing reticulate scales in turkey foetuses. This study deals with the question as to whether the development and morphology of the reticulate scales of turkeys are similar to those of chickens. Since the first signs of food‐pad dermatitis can be observed in turkey poults at the age of four days, it was additionally examined if these alterations can be found in turkey foetuses already.

Methods:  Foot pad samples of heavy strain BUT Big 6 turkeys were collected at different developmental stages (day 20, 23, and 28 of incubation). The specimens were compared by light‐ and electron‐microscopic methods.

Results:  On the 20th day of incubation, the reticulate scales cover the food pads as small knob‐like structures. Between the embryonic epidermal cells wide inter‐cellular spaces are visible, and in the intermediate cells multigranular bodies (MGBs) are detectable. Peridermal cells cover the reticulate scales. They are characterized by peridermal granules and protuberances of the outer cell membrane. On the 23rd day of incubation, many lipid droplets are scattered within the intermediate cells. Because a thin stratum corneum has formed, the periderm is almost completely sloughing off. On the 28th day of incubation, the turkey poults hatch. The epidermis has almost reached maturity and a broad stratum corneum is detectable.

Conclusions:  The development and morphology of the reticulate scale epidermis of turkey is comparable to that of chicken, although little differences were found. Besides former investigations, which described the peridermal protuberances as microvilli, scanning‐electron microscopy proved that they also show a fingerprint‐like surface structure that has not been observed for birds previously. Up to the hatching day, no signs of food pad alterations are seen in developing turkeys.
Innervation Pattern of Dermal Blood Vessels in the Bovine Claw Shows Functional Adaptation in Different Areas
Authors: Buda S. , Budras K. D.
Published: November 2005

Introduction:  The blood circulation in the claw plays an important role in the pathogenesis of claw diseases. The blood vessel diameter is regulated by innervation with different nerve fibre qualities. In case of inflammation or unphysiologically high mechanical load, the delicate balance of vasodilative and vasoconstrictive neurotransmitters seems to be disturbed and may aggravate the alterations. Knowledge about the innervation pattern of the dermal blood vessels could therefore help to understand some aspects in the pathogenesis of claw diseases.

Material and Methods:  The lateral claws of the hind limb of cows from a local abattoir were examined. Tissue samples were taken from different segments of the claw, fixed and processed for immunohistochemistry. Antibodies against protein gene product 9.5, tyrosine‐hydroxylase, choline acetyltransferase, substance P and calcitonin gene‐related peptide were applied and colocalization studies were carried out. Results were evaluated with a confocal laser scanning microscope.

Results:  Dermal blood vessels in the claw are surrounded by nerve fibres containing different neurotransmitters. Occurrence and density differ depending on the respective segment. In the bulbar segment, more vasodilative fibres are demonstrable while in the solear segment vasoconstrictive nerve fibres prevail. The highest innervation was found in all segments around specialized sphincteric arteries in the dermis just beneath the dermal surface modification.

Conclusion:  The innervation pattern in the claw depends on segment‐specific functional demands. The fine‐tuning of the blood flow in the dermal vascular system is mediated by a combination of different nerve fibres that emit vasoactive substances.

Acknowledgement:  This work was supported by the European Communities under the Lame cow project QLK5‐CT‐2002‐00969.The authors are solely responsible and the work does not necessarily represent the opinion of the European Communities.
Occlusion of the Middle Cerebral Artery: a New Method of Focal Cerebral Ischemia in Rats
Authors: Cam E. , Becker M. , Geyer H.
Published: November 2005

The study in Wistar rats attempted to improve the occlusion technique of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) as a precise method for initiating stroke. In a first part it was necessary to study the exact anatomy of blood vessels of the brain in seven rats of 170‐410 g body weight by corrosion cast. The lengths and diameters of defined locations of the blood vessels were measured. The temporary as well as the permanent methods were refined or replaced. The first one was completed in main training the physiological blood flow after temporary occlusion, while the permanent occlusion was performed by positioning a silicone cap in the MCA. A filament guide was introduced from the common carotid artery (CCA) via internal carotid artery (ICA) to guide the silicon cap at the branch of the MCA. Histological sections of the brain of rats showed 24 h after the permanent occlusion a reproducible infarct in the brain. This area corresponded very well with the supply of the MCA. The new occlusion method with a silicon cap was compared with the occlusion methods of CCA route and external carotid artery (ECA) route. The total infarct volume was significantly larger in the CCA route and ECA route groups than in the silicon cap group (means: CCA route 261 mm3; ECA route 191 mm3 vs. 128 mm3 silicon cap group; P < 0,05). It could be demonstrated that the new silicon cap occlusion technique imitates the pathological situation of a cerebral infarct in man. Moreover it is less invasive for the animals and more precise and reproducible regarding the infarcted area in comparison to the other occlusion methods. Based on anatomical measurements of the blood vessels the described silicon cap method can be recommended for rats of a body weight between 340–370 g.
Computed Tomography of the Lungs of the Dog by a Six‐generation CT Scanner, Intravenous Contrast Medium and Different Windows
Authors: Cardoso L. , Gil F. , Teixeira M. A. , López‐Albors O. , Latorre R. , Arencibia A. , Rivero M. A. , Vázquez J. M.
Published: November 2005

Computed tomography (CT) is a modern technique of image diagnosis particularly recommended in human medicine to evaluate the existence of pulmonary pathological changes such as neoplasms, metastasis, interstitial infiltrates, etc. In veterinary medicine, however, few anatomical and clinical CT studies in the dog have used apparatus of the latest generation, including injection of intravenous contrast and application of regional specific CT windows with different window width (WW) and window level (WL) to evaluate the lungs, the pulmonary vessels and the bronchial structures. This methodology allows the obtaining of clear CT images with high capacity of tissue discrimination and different shades of attenuation. In this work we have planned a tomographic study of the lungs of the dog by using a six‐generation spiral CT scanner (Toshiba Ex Vision), belonging to the private Medical Institute of Radiology ‘Irion’ of Porto Alegre, Brazil. Four mixed‐breed mature dogs (4–6 years, 15–20 kg) were used, two males and two females. The dogs were anaesthetized and kept in a maximum inspiration when obtaining the images. Dogs were placed in a stretcher in a ventral or sternal recumbency. Previously, the contrast urografin® was injected in the cephalic vein. Different CT windows were applied in order to increase the quality of the images: pulmonary window (WW 928; WL ‐680), high‐resolution pulmonary window (WW 1085; WL ‐750), and soft tissue window (WW 652; WL ‐34). The use of intravenous contrast, different CT windows and a modern CT apparatus produced excellent images of the pulmonary parenchyma, the pleural cavity, the pulmonary veins, the lobular rami of the pulmonary artery and the lobular bronchi.
Computed Tomography of the Mediastinum of the Dog by a Six‐generation CT Scanner, Different Windows and Peroral and Intravenous Contrast Medium
Authors: Cardoso L. , Vázquez J. M. , Teixeira M. A. , Ramírez‐Zarzosa G. , Agut A. , Arencibia A. , Rivero M. A. , Gil F.
Published: November 2005

The anatomical and clinical studies of computed tomography (CT) in the dog are still scarce. Particularly, there are few CT studies combining the use of rapid apparatus of the latest generation, the supply of contrast medium (digestive or intravenous) and the application of regional specific CT windows with different window width (WW) and window level (WL). The use of this CT methodology is particularly recommended in the evaluation of mediastinal masses, heart pathologies, etc. In this work the mediastinum of the dog was studied by using a sixth generation spiral CT scanner (Toshiba Ex Vision), belonging to the private Medical Institute of Radiology ‘Irion’ of Porto Alegre, Brazil. Four mixed‐breed mature dogs (4–6 years, 15–20 kg) were used, two males and two females. The dogs were anaesthetized and kept at a maximum inspiration when getting the images. Previously, the urografin® contrast had been injected by peroral and intravenous (cephalic vein) via. Dogs were placed in a stretcher in sternal recumbency. Different CT windows were applied in order to increase the quality of the images and to obtain detailed attenuation shades of the mediastinum organs: soft tissue window (WW 652; WL ‐34), pulmonary window (WW 928; WL ‐680) and mediastinal‐vascular window (WW 352; WL 220). The mediastinal space was studied craniocaudally from the level of the cranial cava vein, brachiocephalic trunk and left subclavian artery, to the caudal end of the lumbodiaphragmatic recess. The obtained images allowed a very good tomographic evidence of the great vessels, the heart, the thoracic portion of the trachea, the principal bronchi, the thoracic portion of the oesophagus, etc.