bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A micron resolution optical scanner for characterization of silicon detectors
Authors: Shukla R. A. , Dugad S. R. , Garde C. S. , Gopal A. V. , Gupta S. K. , Prabhu S. S.
Published: February 2014

The emergence of high position resolution (∼10 μm) silicon detectors in recent times have highlighted the urgent need for the development of new automated optical scanners of micron level resolution suited for characterizing microscopic features of these detectors. More specifically, for the newly developed silicon photo-multipliers (SiPM) that are compact, possessing excellent photon detection efficiency with gain comparable to photo-multiplier tube. In a short time, since their invention the SiPMs are already being widely used in several high-energy physics and astrophysics experiments as the photon readout element. The SiPM is a high quantum efficiency, multi-pixel photon counting detector with fast timing and high gain. The presence of a wide variety of photo sensitive silicon detectors with high spatial resolution requires their performance evaluation to be carried out by photon beams of very compact spot size. We have designed a high resolution optical scanner that provides a monochromatic focused beam on a target plane. The transverse size of the beam was measured by the knife-edge method to be 1.7 μm at 1 − σ level. Since the beam size was an order of magnitude smaller than the typical feature size of silicon detectors, this optical scanner can be used for selective excitation of these detectors. The design and operational details of the optical scanner, high precision programmed movement of target plane (0.1 μm) integrated with general purpose data acquisition system developed for recording static and transient response photo sensitive silicon detector are reported in this paper. Entire functionality of scanner is validated by using it for selective excitation of individual pixels in a SiPM and identifying response of active and dead regions within SiPM. Results from these studies are presented in this paper.
Tunable atomic termination in nano-necklace BiFeO3
Authors: Sobhan Mushtaq , Xu Qiang , Yang Qian , Anariba Franklin , Wu Ping
Published: February 2014

We investigate the growth kinetics of BiFeO3 (BFO) nano-necklace based on first principles modeling and electrospinning experiments. A two-step layered growth mechanism is proposed to control the atomic termination of each nano-necklace. X-ray diffraction (XRD) results agree well with our model predictions; (1) samples calcined at 500 and 550 °C consist of FeO2 (F-F) terminated nano-necklace, (2) samples calcined at 650 °C consist of either BiO (B-B) or BiO and FeO2 (B-F) terminated ones. The XRD diffraction peaks are located at lower 2θ values with a magnetic moment of 3.0 emu/g for the former and at higher 2θ values with a decrease in the magnetic moment to 0.4 emu/g for the later samples. The activation energy associated with the growth of the nano-necklaces was experimentally determined to be 0.37 eV/atom. This study provides fundamental understanding for the long-sought layer-by-layer assembly of BFO nanostructures.
Small feature sizes and high aperture ratio organic light-emitting diodes by using laser-patterned polyimide shadow masks
Authors: Kajiyama Yoshitaka , Joseph Kevin , Kajiyama Koichi , Kudo Shuji , Aziz Hany
Published: February 2014

A shadow mask technique capable of realizing high resolution (>330 pixel-per-inch) and ∼100% aperture ratio Organic Light-Emitting Diode (OLED) full color displays is demonstrated. The technique utilizes polyimide contact shadow masks, patterned by laser ablation. Red, green, and blue OLEDs with very small feature sizes (<25 μm) are fabricated side by side on one substrate. OLEDs fabricated via this technique have the same performance as those made by established technology. This technique has a strong potential to achieve high resolution OLED displays via standard vacuum deposition processes even on flexible substrates.
Negative differential resistance in low Al-composition p-GaN/Mg-doped Al0.15Ga0.85N/n+-GaN hetero-junction grown by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition on sapphire substrate
Authors: Zhang Kexiong , Liang Hongwei , Shen Rensheng , Wang Dongsheng , Tao Pengcheng , Liu Yang , Xia Xiaochuan , Luo Yingmin , Du Guotong
Published: February 2014

Negative differential resistance (NDR) behavior was observed in low Al-composition p-GaN/Mg-doped-Al0.15Ga0.85N/n+-GaN hetero-junction grown by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition on sapphire substrate. The energy band and free carrier concentration of hetero-junction were studied by the model of the self-consistent solution of Schrödinger-Poisson equations combined with polarization engineering theory. At the forward bias of 0.95 V, the NDR effect has a high peak-to-valley current ratio of ∼9 with a peak current of 22.4 mA (∼current density of 11.4 A/cm2). An interesting phenomenon of NDR disappearance after consecutive scans and recurrence after electrical treatment was observed, which was associated with Poole-Frenkel effect.
Propagation of Lamb waves in one-dimensional radial phononic crystal plates with periodic corrugations
Authors: Li Yinggang , Chen Tianning , Wang Xiaopeng , Yu Kunpeng , Chen Weihua
Published: February 2014

In this paper, we theoretically investigate the propagation characteristics of Lamb waves in one-dimensional radial phononic crystal plates with periodic corrugations. The dispersion relations, the power transmission spectra, and the displacement fields of the eigenmodes are calculated by using the finite element method based on two-dimensional axial symmetry models in cylindrical coordinates. The axial symmetry model is validated by three-dimensional finite element model in rectangular coordinates. The effects of the geometrical parameters on the band gaps are further explored numerically. Numerical results show that several complete band gaps with a variable bandwidth exist for Lamb waves in the proposed structures. The formation mechanism of opening the acoustic band gaps is attributed to the coupling between the Lamb modes and the corrugation mode. The band gaps are significantly dependent upon the geometrical parameters such as the corrugation height, the corrugation width, and the plate thickness. Significantly, as the increase of corrugation height, band width shifts, new band gaps appear, the bands become flat, and the corrugation mode plays a more prominent role in the opening of Lamb wave band gaps. These properties of Lamb waves in the radial phononic crystal plates can potentially be applied to optimize band gaps, generate filters, and design acoustic devices.
Preparation and Photocatalysis of Nano-Zn/Ce Composite Oxides
Authors: Li Xiuping , Zhai Yuchun , Ma Peihua , Zhao Rongxiang
Published: February 2014

Metal oxide photocatalysts often lead to partial or complete mineralization of organic pollutants. On irradiation with UV-visible light, metal oxides catalyze redox reactions in the presence of air and O2 and water. Using ascorbic acid as a new combustion agent, ZnO was rapidly synthesized. Nano-Zn/CeO2 composites were prepared by a heterogeneous-precipitation method using (NH4)2CO3 as precipitation agent. X-ray diffraction, field-emission scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry, ultraviolet spectrophotometry, and differential thermal analysis were used to analyse the microstructures of the synthesized materials. Differential thermal analysis, transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction analyses indicated that ZnO was coated by CeO2. Herein, a nano-Zn/Ce composite was explored as a catalyst for Rhodamine B photodegradation with a 125-W lamp as the UV radiation source in a batch reactor. The results show the photocatalytic properties of the nano-Zn/Ce composite were superior to ZnO, CeO2, and nano-Ce/Zn composites.
Does the hydrocooling of Vitis vinifera cv. Semillon vines protect the vegetative and reproductive growth processes and vine performance against high summer temperatures?
Authors: Greer Dennis H. , Weedon Mark M.
Published: February 2014

A hydrocooling system applied to Semillon (Vitis vinifera L.) grapevines as a means of protecting the vines from recurrent high temperatures. This system was assessed for impacts on vegetative and reproductive growth and development as well as for carbon economy of vines growing in vineyard conditions. The system maintained canopy temperatures at 35°C over the growing season. Leaf and bunch biomass and yield were all higher in the hydrocooled compared with control vines: the major effect was on dynamics of leaf and berry expansion. Leaf expansion was delayed and occurred over a longer duration whereas berry expansion was advanced and occurred over a longer duration than in control vines. Berry ripening was also faster in the hydrocooled vines and berries had accumulated more sugar at harvest. Leaf photosynthesis along the shoot was also higher in hydrocooled than control vines and there was a significant effect of leaf position on rates of photosynthesis of the hydrocooled vines but not with control vines. However, no differences were observed in the net shoot carbon budget. Lowered canopy temperatures were beneficial for yield and berry composition and, therefore, the cooling system warrants adoption in vineyards at risk from high temperature events during the growing season.
An evaluation of fire danger and behaviour indices in the Great Lakes Region calculated from station and gridded weather information
Authors: Horel John D. , Ziel Robert , Galli Chris , Pechmann Judith , Dong Xia
Published: February 2014

A web-based set of tools has been developed to integrate weather, fire danger and fire behaviour information for the Great Lakes region of the United States. Weather parameters obtained from selected observational networks are combined with operational high-resolution gridded analyses and forecast products from the United States National Weather Service. Fuel moisture codes and fire behaviour indices in the Fire Weather Index subsystem of the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System are computed from these sources for current and forecast conditions. Applications of this Great Lakes Fire and Fuels System are demonstrated for the 2012 fire season. Fuel moisture codes and fire behaviour indices computed from gridded analyses differ from those derived from observations in a manner similar to the analysis errors typical for the underlying weather parameters. Indices that are particularly sensitive to seasonally accumulating precipitation, such as the Drought Code, exhibit the largest differences. The gridded analyses and forecasts provide considerable additional information for fire weather professionals to evaluate weather and fuel state in the region. The potential utility of these gridded analyses and forecasts throughout the continental United States is highlighted.
Tribal Constitutions and Native Sovereignty
Authors: Miller Robert
Published: February 2014

More than 565 Indigenous tribal governments exercise extensive sovereign and political powers within the United States today. Only about 230 of the native communities that created these governments, however, have chosen to adopt written tribal constitutions to define and control the political powers of their governments. Many observers would no doubt ask how a government can function without a written constitution to guide its formation and operation, and how the rights of citizens can be defined and protected without a written constitution. This chapter addresses these questions and many more concerning American Indian and Alaska Native tribal constitutions. It examines whether modern day tribal constitutions adequately serve the needs of native communities and help these communities and their political entities to exercise and protect their sovereignty.
The Political Dangers of Western Philosophical Approaches
Authors: Hendrix Burke A.
Published: February 2014

Colonialism has shaped the world at a fundamental level. At least some aspects of the philosophical worldviews of the colonizers must have been flawed to allow the violence and fraud of colonialism to occur. But which elements of these worldviews were mistaken, and in what ways? This essay’s goal is primarily typological, to outline four stages of philosophical inclusiveness at which these flaws might be found. They might be found (1) in Western philosophy as a whole, including its conceptions of epistemology and metaphysics, so that for example Western philosophical approaches are unable to recognize the existence of animal beings and spiritual powers; (2) in Western philosophy’s basic moral orientation to the world, which sees morality as burdensome rule-following rather than basic attention to relationships and awareness of others’ interests, or (3) in specific flawed ideas, such as the concept of sovereignty, which allows political institutions to override individual consciences, or the concept of individual “rights,” which encourages individuals to see themselves as more fully separate from others than they are. Or, finally, (4) the problem could primarily be one of dangerous double standards, in which colonizing populations refused to allow Indigenous peoples the same treatment they wanted for themselves. Locating the social dangers of Western philosophical approaches at one stage of inclusiveness rather than another leads to divergent analyses of the roots of colonialism and different ways of responding to it in the present.
Indigenous Representation and Political Parties in Canada and Latin America
Authors: Rice Roberta
Published: February 2014

Indigenous movements in Canada and Latin America have adopted contrasting stances in relation to electoral politics. Whereas Indigenous peoples in Latin America have generally made demands on the state through electoral and legislative means, Aboriginal peoples in Canada have tended to reject the electoral process, relying instead on the courts and legal system to press their demands. What explains the variation in Indigenous movement strategies in Canada and Latin America? How effective have the respective strategies been in reintroducing the Indigenous Question into national political debates? This chapter explores the common challenges and pitfalls associated with electoral participation for Indigenous peoples. The chapter contrasts the experiences of Aboriginal peoples in Canada with their counterparts in Ecuador and Bolivia, home to Latin America’s most nationally successful Indigenous-based parties to date. The central argument of the study is that institutional rules and arrangements create incentives for social actors to work from within or outside of the formal political system. Permissive institutional environments, such as the proportional representation systems in Ecuador and Bolivia, create ample opportunities for Indigenous groups to form their own political parties and contest elections. Canada’s “first past the post” electoral system raises significant barriers to new party formation and minority representation. In Ecuador and Bolivia, Indigenous movements entered into mainstream politics in the mid-1990s after electoral reforms created a more favorable set of institutional opportunities. In Canada, voting system reform campaigns have largely been unsuccessful. The chapter also suggests that in areas where Indigenous groups tend to be more isolated or remote from the state and the dominant society, such as the Amazonian lowlands of Ecuador and Bolivia and portions of northern Canada, Indigenous peoples are more likely to engage in electoral politics. In such cases, electoral participation serves as a means for excluded groups to gain a political foothold, advance Indigenous agendas, and obtain resources for community development.
The Rise of the Organic Foods Movement as a Transnational Phenomenon
Authors: Larsson Tomas
Published: February 2014

This article examines the rise of the organic foods movement to a position of power and influence around the world. The movement’s rise is attributed to the efficacy of “organic” as a mobilizing frame for a social movement, as well as to the institutional opportunities offered by states and international organizations. The article also discusses the organic foods movement as a model for other social movements seeking to attain transnational status.
Food Security, Productivity, and Gender Inequality
Authors: Agarwal Bina
Published: February 2014

This chapter examines the relationship between gender inequality and food security, with a particular focus on women as food producers, consumers, and family food managers. The discussion is set against the backdrop of rising and volatile food prices, the vulnerabilities created by regional concentrations of food production, imports and exports, the feminization of agriculture, and the projected effect of climate change on crop yields. The chapter outlines the constraints women face as farmers, in terms of their access to land, credit, production inputs, technology, and markets. It argues that there is substantial potential for increasing agricultural output by helping women farmers overcome these production constraints and so bridging the productivity differentials between them and male farmers. This becomes even more of an imperative, given the feminization of agriculture. The chapter spells out the mechanisms, especially institutional, for overcoming the constraints and the inequalities women face as producers, consumers, and home food managers. Institutionally, a group approach to farming could, for instance, enable women and other small holders to enhance their access to land and inputs, benefit from economies of scale, and increase their bargaining power. Other innovative solutions discussed here include the creation of Public Land Banks that would empower the smallholder, and the establishment of agricultural resource centers that would cater especially to small-scale women farmers.
The Hardest Case
Authors: Paarlberg Robert L.
Published: February 2014

This article examines the worsening food crisis in sub-Saharan Africa. It discusses how food production has failed to keep pace with population growth, partly due to low farm productivity. Because most Africans are farmers, lagging production per capita translates into little or no rural income growth, and hence little or no increase in the capacity to purchase food. Decades of lagging farm productivity have resulted in a doubling of the number of Africans living in extreme poverty, from 150 million in 1980 to approximately 300 million in 2013. The analysis then turns to the reasons behind the government’s failure to boost farm productivity. The article also considers the potential solutions to the current food and farming crisis.
The Poor, Malnutrition, Biofortification, and Biotechnology
Authors: Stein Alexander J.
Published: February 2014

While less apparent than outright hunger or obesity, the lack of essential vitamins and minerals in people’s diets is one of the leading contributors to the global burden of disease. Current interventions, such as supplementation or fortification, are being implemented with varying success, but—while important—overall progress in the fight against micronutrient malnutrition has been limited. Biofortification, the breeding of crops for higher contents of vitamins and minerals, is a new approach to complement existing interventions. This chapter gives an overview of the problem of micronutrient malnutrition and how it is measured; it briefly discusses current micronutrient interventions, and then presents the reasoning behind biofortification before it examines the feasibility of biofortifying crops and summarizes studies on their potential impact and economic justification. After listing current biofortification programs, the chapter looks into the political controversy surrounding genetic engineering in agriculture and how it relates to biofortification; it then concludes with an assessment of the current status of biofortification and its potential.
Agroecological Intensification of Smallholder Farming
Authors: Nelson Rebecca , Coe Richard
Published: February 2014

The smallholder farmers who cultivate many of the planet’s diverse production systems are faced with numerous challenges, including poverty, shrinking farm sizes, degrading natural resources, and climate variability and change. Efforts to improve the performance of smallholder farming systems focus on improving access to input and output markets, improving farm resource use efficiency, and improving resources invested in smallholder farming. In order to support market-oriented production and self-provisioning, there is a need for greater focus on agroecological intensification (AEI) of smallholder production systems. This chapter provides an overview of some of the research frontiers supporting AEI. Market-oriented and agroecological approaches may or may not conflict, and more effort should be made to ensure that they are mutually reinforcing. To be reliable, value chains must be founded on sound production ecology. Agroecological options may be limited if farmers cannot participate in markets that support investment in the intensification and diversification of these systems. Because options must be adapted to farmers’ heterogeneous and dynamic contexts, successful AEI will require that specifics be optimized locally. Researchers must therefore understand and communicate relevant agroecological principles, and farmers and intermediaries must develop their capacity to adapt the principles to local needs and realities.
The Politics of Grocery Shopping
Authors: Johnston Josée , MacKendrick Norah
Published: February 2014

This chapter examines key debates about consumption and food system reform. It begins with a brief overview of the history and characteristics of consumer food politics. It then introduces a typology of consumer food politics in order to examine the different meanings consumers attach to food politics. It considers the “eco-shopping” perspective, which views political food shopping as an opportunity to replace conventional commodities with options that seem less harmful for people, animals, and the environment. This is followed by a discussion of the limits of eco-shopping.
Food Price and Trade Policy Biases
Authors: Anderson Kym
Published: February 2014

This article demonstrates how governments have distorted food markets in high-income countries, primarily through ineffective trade policies. It begins by reviewing theories on agriculture’s perceived role in development. It then considers a recent World Bank study, which presents evidence of price-distorting policies in both high-income and developing countries. Next, it discusses the contribution of agriculture to the current global welfare cost of distortions to farm and nonfarm goods markets, and the impact of those distortionary policies on income inequality and poverty. The article concludes by assessing the policy implications of the study’s empirical findings.
The Social Vision of the Alternative Food Movement
Authors: Shome Siddhartha
Published: February 2014

This article examines the social vision and ideology of the alternative food movement. The movement is based on a vision of American pastoralism, which is accompanied by an ideology of limits and a deep suspicion of scientific and technological progress. It also rests on a vision of heroic Third World peasants, who are depicted as living lives close to nature and to God. The article begins by considering the ideas of Wendell Berry, one of the founders of the movement. It then turns to the views of Indian environmentalist and food activist Vandana Shiva, who is also one of the strongest proponents of the vision of heroic Third World peasants. This is followed by a discussion of the alternative food movement’s environmental vision, which is contrasted with that of two prominent American environmentalists. Finally, the analysis moves on to India, where the underlying ideology shaping the alternative food movement has long found expression in the broader political discourse. The ideas of two prominent Indian thinkers—Mahatma Gandhi and B. R. (Babasaheb) Ambedkar— are presented.
Alternative Paths to Food Security
Authors: Uphoff Norman
Published: February 2014

This chapter examines an agroecological approach to agricultural development called the System of Rice Intensification (SRI). SRI can boost paddy yields by 50 to 100 percent using less inputs of seed, water, fertilizer, and labor. The article first considers the opportunities offered by SRI methods compared to current agricultural practices. It then looks at the effects of agroecological management with other crops and the dynamics of an agroecological innovation. The concluding section discusses broader implications for politics and society.
Wild Foods
Authors: Bharucha Zareen Pervez , Pretty Jules
Published: February 2014

This article examines the role of wild foods in food security. It discusses the continuum between “wild” and domesticated food; the management of nonagricultural environments; the nutritional and economic value of wild foods and the drivers of change in wild food availability and use. It argues that the emphasis on the contributions of cultivated species to food security has downplayed the importance of wild food species, which form a large part of the total food basket for households from agricultural, hunter, gatherer, and forager systems.
Delivering Food Subsidy
Authors: Kotwal Ashok , Ramaswami Bharat
Published: February 2014

This article begins by tracing the development of the Indian model of food distribution. Food subsidies in India are delivered through the public distribution system, consisting of a network of retail outlets through which the government sells grain. The discussions then turn to the outcomes and the performance of the distribution system, food security legislation, the rights approach to food security, debates over food security legislation, lessons from social assistance programs across the world, and political opposition to cash transfers.
Thinking the African Food Crisis
Authors: Watts Michael J.
Published: February 2014

This chapter reviews food security in the West African Sahel, exploring the question of why, since the great drought-famines, of the late 1960s and early 1970s, food security and vulnerability to both climatic and market perturbations have not substantially improved and in some respects has deteriorated. Using my book Silent Violence, which was published in 1983, I revisit and review theories of famine and food security as they have been developed in and around African development. Using a village study in northern Nigeria, I argue that the precariousness of rural life can be explained by the shifting political economy of Nigeria and the forms of rural differentiation and inequality associated with, in the Nigerian case, the emergence of oil as the economic backbone of the country. While Nigeria as a petrostate is a special case, the dynamics at work point to general conditions prevailing across the West African Sahel. Since the 1970s there have been important shifts in policy regarding food and famine, and the ruling orthodoxy is now building resilience through the combination of traditional adaptability and decentralized forms of market integration. I investigate the origins and consequences of this approach and whether it can address the looming problems of global climate change.
Biofuels
Authors: Pimentel David , Burgess Michael
Published: February 2014

A rapidly growing world population and an even more rapidly growing consumption of fossil fuels are increasing demand for both food and biofuels, which will exaggerate both the food and fuel shortages around the world. Producing biofuels requires huge amounts of both fossil energy and food resources, which will intensify conflicts over these resources. Using food crops to produce ethanol raises major nutritional and ethical concerns. More than 66% of the world human population is currently malnourished, so the need for grains and other basic foods is critical. Growing crops for fuel squanders land, water, and energy resources vital for the production of food for people. Using food and feed crops for ethanol production has brought increases in the prices of US beef, chicken, pork, eggs, breads, cereals, and milk of 10% to 20%. In addition, Jacques Diouf, Director General of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reports that using food grains to produce biofuels is already causing food shortages for the poor of the world. Growing crops for biofuel ignores the need to reduce natural resource consumption and exacerbates the problem of malnourishment worldwide by turning food grain into biofuel.
Making Publics and Making Novels
Authors: Cowan Brian
Published: February 2014

The two most influential works for the study of eighteenth-century literary culture in the last half-century must surely be Ian Watt’s The Rise of the Novel (1957) and Jürgen Habermas’s The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (1962). This essay discusses the influence of both Watt and Habermas on studies of the novel and the public sphere, and it explores the reasons for the endurance of their arguments despite decades of substantial criticism devoted to their interpretative shortcomings. It also explains the emergence of a post-Habermasian approach to the history of public-making in response to these criticisms. It concludes by discussing how recent post-Habermasian studies of news culture and political partisanship may illuminate the history of the origins of the English novel.
The Continental Influence on the Eighteenth-Century Novel
Authors: Reed Walter L.
Published: February 2014

The eighteenth-century English novel was influenced by earlier prose fiction from the Continent; the English improved what others had invented. Individual novels from the Continent were imitated by British novelists; particular genres first developed abroad were adapted by them as well. Spanish novels like Don Quixote and the picaresque preceded and influenced novels of Defoe, Fielding, Smollett, and Sterne. Seventeenth-century French romances influenced novels of amorous intrigue by Behn, Manley, and Haywood. These in turn provoked the novel of women’s virtuous resistance created by Richardson. Earlier prose fiction from the Continent was translated into English and widely read throughout the eighteenth century. The transnational traffic in fiction flowed in the other direction as well. Rousseau’s enthusiastic embrace of Richardson popularized the transnational genre of the sentimental novel. From the 1770s onwards German fiction became influential in England, and German-derived tales of terror came to dominate the popular British market.
Criss-Crossing the Channel
Authors: Dow Gillian
Published: February 2014

This essay examines the reception of the French novel in Britain in the long eighteenth century and argues that prose fiction in the period developed through translation. Through case studies of novelist-translators, and some of the most important and influential French fictions such as La Fayette’s La Princesse de Clèves (1678), Marivaux’s La Vie de Marianne (1731–42), Rousseau’s Julie, ou la Nouvelle Héloïse (1761), and Genlis’s Adèle et Théodore (1782), the essay focuses on the French novel in translation, and on British readers of these fictions. Particular attention is paid to women translators, a largely neglected group. Moreover, the roman de sensibilité is prioritized over the roman-à-thèse, since it is through these largely forgotten and now unfashionable works that the ways in which fiction criss-crossed the Channel in the long eighteenth century can best be observed.
Religious Writings and the Early Novel
Authors: Owens W. R.
Published: February 2014

Religious writings formed the largest category of publications in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and were read on a vast scale. This essay focuses on the relationships between these writings and the early novel, discussing how religious ideas and controversies were represented in fiction, and the extent to which some novels were regarded by their authors—and valued by readers—as ‘religious’ works. The literary form of early novels drew upon conventions made familiar in popular religious writings, such as the use of dialogue and allegory. John Bunyan’s spiritual autobiography, Grace Abounding, and, even more, his extraordinarily successful fictional representation of the Christian life, The Pilgrim’s Progress were among the most significant influences on the narrative shape and concerns of early novels.
Secret History, Politics, and the Early Novel
Authors: Bullard Rebecca
Published: February 2014

This essay analyses the relationship between politics and literature, history and fiction, in secret history—a polemical form of historiography that flourished around the end of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth. It shows that early novelists, including Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift, and Delarivier Manley, created a number of different rhetorical effects by reworking the conventions of secret history. It also argues, however, that literary histories which read secret history only as a transient precursor to its more durable cousin, the novel, invariably pass over or flatten out some of this genre’s most distinctive and unusual characteristics.
Restoration Fiction
Authors: Keymer Thomas
Published: February 2014

Fiction before Defoe had little or no place in the histories and anthologies that defined the novel genre in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. In twentieth-century scholarship, it proved hard to accommodate in accounts of generic development emphasizing formal realism as the sine qua non of the modern novel. Yet a large and lively body of prose fiction was produced between the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the lapse of the Licensing Act in 1695, of interest not only for its anticipation of later developments but also for characteristics impossible to assimilate in linear stories of generic evolution. Fiction of the period (by authors and translators including Aphra Behn, Walter Charleton, William Congreve, John Dunton, Roger L’Estrange, and Henry Neville) was eclectic, experimental, and heterogeneous, and it displays modes and procedures in the process of formation, not any settled consensus about narrative practice.
‘Labours of the Press’
Authors: Sabor Peter
Published: February 2014

The impact of Samuel Richardson’s best-seller, Pamela (1740), on eighteenth-century novel-writing cannot be exaggerated. It was a prime target for pirated editions, some of which included unauthorized additional material and illustrations, and for spurious continuations. Henry Fielding, Eliza Haywood, and John Cleland were among the many contemporary authors who wrote novels responding to Pamela: Shamela (1741), Anti-Pamela (1741), and Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure (1748–9). The controversy over its merits which raged in the early 1740s was still alive in the early 1800s. Richardson’s attempts to manage the controversy through repeated textual revisions were ultimately futile: the text read by many nineteenth-century and twentieth-century readers was one not prepared by Richardson but an abridgement, first published by the entrepreneurial bookseller Charles Cooke.
Samuel Richardson and the Epistolary Novel
Authors: Dussinger John
Published: February 2014

Despite having turned 50 before publishing his first novel, Samuel Richardson’s literary career began already in his youth as a precocious letter-writer and developed during the 1720s after launching his London printing business. Richardson’s letter-writing style stresses continual flux as living experience, and this emphasis on temporality is continued in his three experimental ‘histories’ of characters struggling under the pressure of momentary perceptions. As a ‘dramatic’ novel, Clarissa exploits the resources of theatrical presentation as direct discourse and of narrative storytelling as indirect and free indirect discourse. Its epistolary form obviates an omniscient narrator and, except for an occasional ‘editor’, depends wholly on the individual voices that comprise piecemeal the story. This focus on temporality, however, has ultimately a religious and moral dimension: beyond the sound and the fury of present time is an intimation of eternal order.
Henry Fielding and the Progress of Romance
Authors: Black Scott
Published: February 2014

Henry Fielding’s novels fit centrally into recent revisionist accounts of the novel as an international genre defined by translation and adaptation and even by its filiations with romance. Against the standard story of the novel rising as it moves away from romance, Fielding’s novels develop as they approach romance. His art increases in power and sophistication as he more fully explores the possibilities of romance, both structural and modal. As Fielding moves from Jonathan Wild to Joseph Andrews, Tom Jones, and Amelia, the productive tension between satire and romance that organizes all his novels is increasingly resolved by integrating the satire into the structures of romance; love is increasingly explored and not just assumed; and the romance heroine becomes increasingly central. Fielding uses the modal forces of romance to address the issues raised by its expansive, dialogic, and intertextual generic structures.
Social Structure, Class, and Gender, 1770–1832
Authors: Speck W. A.
Published: February 2014

This essay deals with the perceived emergence of a three-class social structure in the period. Between the aristocracy and the working class contemporaries observed the growth of a middle class especially in the rapidly expanding towns where urbanization gave rise to an urban bourgeoisie. These developments also affected the role of women in society, though the thesis that they created ‘separate spheres’ has been exaggerated. The creation of a bourgeois ideology of respectability was assisted by the Evangelical Revival. Increasing industrialization, though not as revolutionary as was once thought, affected the relative standards of living of the different classes. It also had an impact on the birth rate and relations between the sexes.
‘Male’ and ‘Female’ Novels? Gendered Fictions and the Reading Public, 1770–1832
Authors: Benedict Barbara M.
Published: February 2014

The fiction from 1770 to 1830 shows the strains of a society that increasingly identified cultural consumption with gender. Whereas the sentimental novels of the 1770s used epistolary narrators to relate stories of love and feeling from the perspective of both men and women, by the 1790s the new, Gothic novels were centred on women besieged by tyranny from without and uncertainty from within. This genre fiction contributed to the derogation of the novel and its association with an undiscriminating female audience. Throughout the period, women were held up as the quintessential novel-readers because more women were visibly writing and reading novels than ever before, and because the popular marriage plot, female hero, thematic focus on etiquette, and emphasis on delicacy and refinement all seemed to speak to feminine concerns. In fact, most novel-writers and novel-readers were men because men wrote and read more than women.
Developments in Sentimental Fiction
Authors: Sill Geoffrey
Published: February 2014

The sentimental strain in English fiction, which represents men of feeling and women of sensibility engaging in acts of sympathy and benevolence, became prominent in the 1760s through the novels of Charlotte Lennox, Oliver Goldsmith, Laurence Sterne, Henry Mackenzie, and others, building primarily on the work of Samuel Richardson and Henry and Sarah Fielding. The reformation of male manners, the feminization of taste and consumption, the grounding of ethics in human nature rather than rationalism or faith, and the emergence of a theory of moral sensibility all contributed to the popular reception of sentimental fiction. Frances Burney’s first two novels, Evelina and Cecilia, successfully combined sentiment with the comedy of Fielding and the moral sententiousness of Richardson, but in the third, Camilla, Burney felt the pressure of an increasing taste for realism, which eventually lessened the predominance, though it did not entirely eliminate, the sentimental form.
The Evangelical Novel
Authors: Wood Lisa
Published: February 2014

This essay explores the development of the Evangelical novel in the early years of the nineteenth century. Drawing primarily on the novels of Barbara Hofland, Hannah More, and Mary Brunton, as well as the Cheap Repository Tracts, the essay identifies key characteristics of the Evangelical novel and proposes a theoretical framework for analysing it as homiletic and didactic fiction. The essay positions the Evangelical novel within the religious and social context of the late eighteenth century, as well as within the history of the novel, where its generic connections to individualism and realism are examined.
‘Pictures of Domestic Life in Country Villages’
Authors: Fergus Jan
Published: February 2014

Though less popular and esteemed in her own time than better known novelists like Maria Edgeworth and Walter Scott, Jane Austen now occupies an exalted place in literary history, in part for inventing nineteenth-century British ‘realist’ fiction. Such fictions seem to represent ‘real life’; she found narrative techniques to give the effect of the real. One of the most important of these techniques has been called ‘free indirect speech’: loosely, a narrator’s third-person, supposedly detached voice ventriloquizes the language and thus the perspective of one of the characters. Austen’s experiments with this device, particularly in Emma, have a history; she had foremothers. Analysis of examples from Austen’s and Edgeworth’s works demonstrate that the use of free indirect speech came to Austen in part through Edgeworth’s experiments in Tales of Fashionable Life. Elaborated and extended by Austen in her novels, the device constitutes Austen’s lasting formal contribution to the realist novel.
Authorizing the Novel
Authors: Ferris Ina
Published: February 2014

Walter Scott’s historical novel achieved unprecedented success, and almost single-handedly propelled the novel as a genre into the literary field. A potent synthesis of history, romance, theory, and antiquarianism, the Waverley Novels rewrote contemporary modes of historical and national romance through a thematic of the heterogeneity of historical time. They answered to a new historical sensibility in a post-Revolutionary era of expanding readership; helped to forge a new British national identity; and were instrumental in reconfiguring literary culture for their time.
‘Ordering’ Novels
Authors: Garside Peter
Published: February 2014

This essay considers the way in which various types of fiction were projected at their original readers, primarily through the title pages, but also through reviews and circulating-library catalogues. Increasing use was made of ‘Novel’, ‘Romance’, and ‘Tale’ as main descriptors, with Novel gradually gaining prominence in the later eighteenth century, Romance enjoying a moment of popularity round the turn of the century, and Tale or Tales achieving ascendancy by the 1820s. Additional components in titles, such as the Sentimental, Gothic, and Historical, helped communicate different subgeneric types of fiction. Eventually, a three-tiered system stretched from ‘common’ circulating fiction to novels of reputation, the latter signalled by the use of the larger octavo format and through the development of distinct author identities (even when published anonymously). The Magnum Opus collected edition of Scott’s novels made him a classic in his time, finally establishing the novel as a fully established genre.
Novels of the 1750s
Authors: Dickie Simon
Published: February 2014

This essay offers a detailed overview of the full range of prose fiction produced in Britain in the 1750s. Beyond the handful of familiar canonical texts, this decade produced more than 200 now-forgotten novels, across an unexpected variety of genres. Recent expansions of the canon—most notably the feminist recovery project—still ignore most of these texts. Looked at seriously, they perturb some major preconceptions about mid-century fiction, including the importance of mimetic realism, the predominance of sentimentalism, and assumptions about the genre’s didactic functions. These questions come together, at the end of the essay, in a detailed discussion of episodic comic fiction that appeared in the wake of Fielding’s Tom Jones.
Gulliver Effects
Authors: Hawes Clement
Published: February 2014

It has been difficult to place Gulliver’s Travels within a post-Wattsian account of the novel’s emergence and consolidation. Nevertheless, Swift’s text had important effects on the genre he so tellingly satirized. There is, for instance, a Gulliverian source for Fielding’s later assaults both on ‘realism’ and on ontological individualism. The brilliant denunciation of war near the end of Gulliver is likewise extended and novelistically developed in Tristram Shandy. Smollett’s curmudgeonly narrator in Humphry Clinker can be usefully understood as his contribution to Swift’s ‘satirist-satirized’ topos. Frances Burney’s Evelina appropriates Swift’s simian ‘Yahoo’ theme by way of mocking the English upper class. Finally, Swift’s ‘degeneration’ topos is played out as an Irish family saga in Maria Edgeworth’s Castle Rackrent. Though not a novel as such, Gulliver’s Travels is necessary to understand the novel’s history.
Communism and the Artistic Intelligentsia
Authors: Gamsa Mark
Published: February 2014

This article is an effort at comparative history: it treats the intelligentsia in the Soviet Union along with the zhishi fenzi (literally, ‘knowledgeable elements’) in the People’s Republic of China. Starting from a discussion of these terms and ways in which they differ from the Western notion of intellectuals, the article then focuses on the creative work of artists under the two communist regimes. Looking also at the daily conditions, in which writers, musicians, painters, and other members of the artistic intelligentsia in both countries lived and worked, and at their collective image within their societies, the article concludes with a consideration of the legacies and possible prospects of the intelligentsia following the demise of communism in Russia and the introduction of a capitalist market in China.
Communism and Economic Modernization
Authors: Harrison Mark
Published: February 2014

This article examines the range of national experiences of communist rule in terms of the aspiration to ‘overtake and outstrip the advanced countries economically’. It reviews the causal beliefs of the rulers, the rise and fall of their economies (or, in the case of China, its continued rise), the core institutions of communist rule and their evolution, and other outcomes. The process of overcoming a development lag so as to approach the global technological frontier has required continual institutional change and policy reform in the face of resistance from established interests. So far, China is the only country where communist rule has been able to meet these requirements, enabled by a new deal with political and economic stakeholders. The article places the ‘China Deal’ on a spectrum previously limited to the Soviet Big and Little Deals.
1956
Authors: Radchenko Sergey
Published: February 2014

This article explores the impact of de-Stalinization on the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China. Writers, artists, and intellectuals welcomed the curtailment of repression—the so- called ‘thaw’—but their calls for openness and tolerance unnerved the Soviet party authorities. In 1956 Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin but he did not question the fundamentals of socialism. Still, his criticism of Stalin led to turmoil in the socialist camp, most notably unrest in Poland and the anti-Soviet insurrection in Hungary. While Khrushchev agreed to a reduction of Soviet influence in Poland, he ordered military intervention in Hungary. This intervention undermined the legitimacy of communism, as it made clear that communism in Eastern Europe was a Soviet imposition. Meanwhile, de-Stalinization untied Mao Zedong’s hands. He felt free to pursue China’s socialist transformation the way he thought best. Mao took advantage of Khrushchev’s predicament to assert China’s claim to leadership in the communist world.