bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Categories for Quantum Theory
Authors: Heunen Chris , Vicary Jamie
Published: January 2020

Monoidal category theory serves as a powerful framework for describing logical aspects of quantum theory, giving an abstract language for parallel and sequential composition and a conceptual way to understand many high-level quantum phenomena. Here, we lay the foundations for this categorical quantum mechanics, with an emphasis on the graphical calculus that makes computation intuitive. We describe superposition and entanglement using biproducts and dual objects, and show how quantum teleportation can be studied abstractly using these structures. We investigate monoids, Frobenius structures and Hopf algebras, showing how they can be used to model classical information and complementary observables. We describe the CP construction, a categorical tool to describe probabilistic quantum systems. The last chapter introduces higher categories, surface diagrams and 2-Hilbert spaces, and shows how the language of duality in monoidal 2-categories can be used to reason about quantum protocols, including quantum teleportation and dense coding. Previous knowledge of linear algebra, quantum information or category theory would give an ideal background for studying this text, but it is not assumed, with essential background material given in a self-contained introductory chapter. Throughout the text, we point out links with many other areas, such as representation theory, topology, quantum algebra, knot theory and probability theory, and present nonstandard models including sets and relations. All results are stated rigorously and full proofs are given as far as possible, making this book an invaluable reference for modern techniques in quantum logic, with much of the material not available in any other textbook.
Roots and foundations
Authors: Ashton John
Published: January 2020

This chapter traces the roots of modern public health to its foundations in the early nineteenth century. By describing the impact of rapid urbanization on the health conditions of the labouring poor, it sets the scene for an account of the work of the early pioneers such as Edwin Chadwick nationally, John Snow in London, and William Henry Duncan in Liverpool. It identifies a series of themes to guide the work of public health practitioners into the twenty-first century. These themes recur throughout the book as public health challenges evolve and mutate, society changes, and science offers greater opportunities for effective intervention.
Promoting and improving health
Authors: Ashton John
Published: January 2020

This chapter reports on the New Public Health initiatives in the Mersey region, based in Liverpool and traces their antecedents from the post war period. Beginning with the first large-scale lifestyle interventions at the International Garden Festival in 1984, other aspects of the work based on agenda setting, consciousness raising, and developing models of good practice are described. These include exploring the use of public spaces, facilities, and assets to engage with the public and popularize ideas associated with the New Public Health. They also include landmark initiatives in Finland and Sweden to tackle the contemporary challenges of heart disease and teenage pregnancy, deploying methods based on the new thinking. The issue of the ‘Nanny State’ in the context of a libertarian society is confronted together with the role of public agencies as enablers, and asset-based community development is identified as a vital approach. The ways in which this early work paved the way for later developments, including the World Health Organization Healthy Cities project, by building foundations based on extensive personal and organizational partnership working are recorded.
Law in Common
Authors: Johnson Tom
Published: January 2020

There were tens of thousands of different local law-courts in late-medieval England, providing the most common forums for the working out of disputes and the making of decisions about local governance. While historians have long studied these institutions, there have been very few attempts to understand this complex institutional form of ‘legal pluralism’. Law in Common provides a way of apprehending this complexity by drawing out broader patterns of legal engagement. The first half of the book explores four ‘local legal cultures’ – in the countryside, towns and cities, the maritime world, and Forests – that grew up around legal institutions, landscapes, and forms of socio-economic practice in these places, and produced distinctive senses of law. The second half of the book turns to examine ‘common legalities’, widespread forms of social practice that emerge across these different localities, through which people aimed to invoke the power of law. Through studies of the physical landscape, the production of legitimate knowledge, the emergence of English as a legal vernacular, and the proliferation of legal documents, it offers a new way to understand how common people engaged with law in the course of their everyday lives. Drawing on a huge body of archival research from the plenitude of different local institutions, Law in Common offers a new social history of law that aims to explain how common people negotiated the transformational changes of the long fifteenth century through legality.
The Economy of Legitimate Knowledge
Authors: Johnson Tom
Published: January 2020

This chapter looks at the ways in which common people participated in legal institutions as jurors, witnesses, and as part of a more general ‘common opinion’. It argues that as institutions asked people to produce information for the purposes of governance, those who performed this work requested, in return, some effective responses to their local problems. This institutional demand for knowledge thus opened up a space of negotiation in which common people were able to exert some pressure on the terms of their own governance. The chapter examines the range of forms of ‘knowledge work’ that legal institutions asked people to perform, from the mnemonic labour of remembering to the deliberative tasks of evaluating and inquiring, and argues that the laboriousness of this work helped to legitimate the knowledge it produced. It then turns to look at what people wanted from their negotiations over knowledge. Supplying information was a way for people to establish their credibility, to belong to an influential group, and to perform an ethical duty; it could also be a powerful stimulus for collective action, and to effect material change to living conditions, rents and dues, and local infrastructure. Considering these spirals of information through the anachronistic heuristic of economy and work, this chapter aims to draw attention to the ways that people found out information from legal institutions, and how such communications affected the way that those institutions operated.
Legal English and the Vernacularization of Law
Authors: Johnson Tom
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores the growing use of English as a written ‘legal vernacular’ over the course of the fifteenth century. It argues that one can only understand the emergence of vernacular writing in legal discourse by looking to the local contexts of legal production. The emergence of English as a legal vernacular did not take hold uniformly across late-medieval society, and so we need to think more carefully about the specific kinds of discursive value that it held; the chapter argues that, as a legal language, English worked as a signifier of authenticity, a mode of signalling fidelity to real speech, and as a way of gesturing towards wider audiences or publics. This leads to the third argument that the growing significance granted to English as a legal language affected common people in late-medieval England in ambivalent ways. While in some ways the processes of vernacularization in the fifteenth century seem to follow a trajectory towards a more inclusive public discourse, as the ‘common tongue’ spoken by the majority of the populace became a language appropriate for expressing ideas about legitimacy, it was ultimately constrained by the relatively limited modes in which English was allowed to be legal.
Politics of Last Resort
Authors: White Jonathan
Published: January 2020

Prominent in the EU’s recent transformations has been the tendency to advance extraordinary measures in the name of crisis response. From emergency lending to macro-economics, border management to Brexit, policies are pursued unconventionally and as measures of last resort. This book investigates the nature, rise, and implications of this politics of emergency as it appears in the transnational setting. As the author argues, recourse to this method of rule is an expression of the deeper weakness of executive power in today’s Europe. It is how policy-makers contend with rising socio-economic power and diminishing representative ties, seeking fall-back authority in the management of crises. In the structure of the EU they find incentives and few impediments. Whereas political exceptionalism tends to be associated with sovereign power, here it is power’s diffusion and functional disaggregation that spurs politics in the emergency mode. The effect of these governing patterns is not just to challenge and reshape ideas of EU legitimacy rooted in constitutionalism and technocracy. The politics of emergency fosters a counter-politics in its mirror image, as populists and others play with themes of necessity and claim the right to disobedience in extremis. The book examines the prospects for democracy once the politics of emergency takes hold, and what it might mean to put transnational politics on a different footing.
Structural Vulnerabilities of the Transnational Sphere
Authors: White Jonathan
Published: January 2020

Since its origins in the 1950s, European integration has entailed the creation of institutions whose rationale is to advance and maintain certain policy ends, notably the ‘four freedoms’ of the common market. As this chapter argues, the effect is that policy commitments have tended to be privileged over procedural arrangements. Rather than self-standing entities that can be put to different ends, broadly on the model of the modern state, one sees institutions evolving with the policies, and liable to be side-stepped should they fail to serve those ends. A non-hierarchical constitutional structure does little to inhibit these restructurings, indeed arguably gives further encouragement. The ideas and practices of emergency become ways to galvanize action, coordination, and innovation across a diverse and potentially recalcitrant institutional field.
Principled Disobedience
Authors: White Jonathan
Published: January 2020

One legacy of yesterday’s politics of emergency is that the contestation of policy in today’s EU may depend on a willingness to break rules. The concept of disobedience provides both an interpretative frame for analysing such actions and the basis for their evaluation. As a contribution to theories of civil disobedience, the chapter reflects on the kinds of political agent that can lead such actions, showing how one of the distinctive features of the transnational realm is to make possible a form of disobedience waged through institutions by collectives such as parties. The chapter goes on to develop criteria by which to distinguish principled disobedience from illegitimate forms of extra-legality, connecting them to developments on the ground. The chapter concludes with some reflections on the normativity of exceptionalism more generally.
Beyond a Politics of Singularities
Authors: White Jonathan
Published: January 2020

The concluding chapter offers a restatement of why the transnational politics of emergency, rather than a benign process of functional adaptation, is something one should wish to see restrained. It explains how emergency rule reinforces an enduring problem of EU political culture: the tendency to cast events as sui generis episodes, each detached from a larger historical and normative frame. With their emphasis on exceptional measures of last resort, the agents of emergency rule assert the extraordinary nature of the situation they face, and govern it in ways that reinforce its uniqueness. Theirs is a politics grounded in the particularity of the moment—a politics of the avowedly singular. By contrast, the critical scrutiny of power and the identification with its demands depend on the recognition of what is not particular to the moment—on moving beyond the politics of singularities.
The Natural Law Foundations of Medical Law
Authors: George Robert P , Tollefsen Christopher O
Published: January 2020

This chapter seeks to identify the basic human goods that are the foundational principles of the natural law; a derived set of moral norms that emerge from consideration of the integral directiveness or prescriptivity of those foundational principles; and the implications of these norms for medical practice and medical law as regards four questions. First, how should medical practice and medical law be structured with respect to the intentional taking of human life by members of the medical profession? Second, who, in the clinical setting, has authority for medical decision making, and what standards should guide their decisions? Third, what standards should govern the distribution of health-care resources in society, and do those standards give reasons for thinking, from the natural law standpoint, that there is a ‘right to health care’? Fourth, what concern should be shown in medical practice and medical law for the rights of ‘physician conscience’?
Ageing and Fertility
Authors: Jolliffe Pia , Jolliffe William
Published: January 2020

This chapter assesses the relationship between fertility and population ageing. Population ageing is a consequence of a global fertility decline. This fertility decline, in turn, is the result of various factors, including changing patterns of family life and anti-natal techniques. Legal and ethical perspectives on these issues are manifold and the chapter focuses on the question of when fertility control becomes population control, and on ethical issues around in vitro fertilization, which is promoted as a remedy to infertility caused by old age. Ultimately, population control and fertility control have been policy concerns during the era of the building of modern nation states. Indeed, the attempt to either curb or encourage childbearing has been and continues to be a major concern of governments across the globe.
The Age of Personalized Medicine—From Patients to Consumers
Authors: Phillips Andelka M
Published: January 2020

How many online contracts have you entered into this year and how many of those did you actually read? This chapter explores the impact that the designed environment of websites and electronic contracts have on the exercise of individual autonomy in the context of the example of direct-to-consumer genetic tests (DTC). DTC tests for health purposes can be viewed as an example of Personalized Medicine, but as the mode of sale usually lacks the involvement of a physician or genetic counsellor and the industry is largely unregulated, companies often rely on their contracts and privacy policies to govern relationships with consumers. This chapter seeks to shed light on the impact that offering these services online and relying on electronic contracts, which people have grown accustomed to ignoring, has on the exercise of autonomy and an individual’s ability to make an informed choice in this context.
Scotland
Authors: Fieldhouse Edward , Green Jane , Evans Geoffrey , Mellon Jonathan , Prosser Christopher , Schmitt Hermann , van der Eijk Cees
Published: January 2020

The 2015 General Election saw a collapse in Labour support in Scotland resulting in almost total annihilation in terms of parliamentary seats north of the border. In this chapter we show how the referendum on independence in Scotland in September 2014 precipitated this upheaval. We show that the Scottish independence referendum had a realigning effect on party identification in Scotland, cementing the link between SNP voting and pro-independence attitudes. Two years later, a second electoral shock in the form of the EU referendum disrupted this new political equilibrium in Scotland.
Moral Knowledge
Authors: McGrath Sarah
Published: January 2020

This book is an exploration of moral knowledge: its possibility, its sources, and its characteristic vulnerabilities. It addresses such questions as: what are the strengths and weaknesses of the method of reflective equilibrium as an account of how we should make up our minds about moral questions? What would count as evidence for or against a fundamental moral conviction? Are observation and testimony potential sources of moral knowledge? What, if anything, would be wrong with simply outsourcing your views about moral questions to a moral expert? How fragile is our knowledge of morality, compared to other kinds of knowledge? Does knowledge of the difference between right and wrong fundamentally differ from knowledge of other kinds in that it cannot be forgotten? To what extent are our moral views vulnerable to being “debunked” by empirical discoveries about why we hold them? What is the relationship between being able to justify a moral judgment and knowing that it is true? Should we invest more confidence in relatively abstract, general moral principles that strike us as true, or more confidence in our judgments about the rightness and wrongness of particular actions?
Introduction
Authors: McGrath Sarah
Published: January 2020

This introductory chapter contains a brief overview of the topics the book addresses, together with a discussion of the working hypothesis: that moral knowledge can be acquired in any of the ways in which we acquire ordinary empirical knowledge, and that our efforts to acquire and preserve such knowledge are subject to frustration in all of the same ways that our efforts to acquire and preserve ordinary empirical knowledge are. Section 1.2 discusses methodological preliminaries and assumptions concerning the relative priority of moral epistemology (as opposed to metaphysics or semantics), the standards of moral vs. non-moral knowledge, and the relationship between moral knowledge and justified belief. Section 1.3 introduces another theme that unifies many of the arguments and views presented in this book, namely that our access to moral knowledge has an important social dimension.
Losing Moral Knowledge
Authors: McGrath Sarah
Published: January 2020

Some philosophers—including Gilbert Ryle, Ronald Dworkin, and Thomas Nagel—have held that there are important respects in which our cognitive relationship to morality is more secure than our cognitive relationship to ordinary empirical knowledge. I defend the claim that moral knowledge is susceptible to being lost in the same ways in which non-moral knowledge is, including by being forgotten and by being debunked. I offer a novel solution to Ryle’s puzzle about “forgetting the difference between right and wrong.” The chapter raises, and suggests answers to, a number of underexplored questions, including questions about the extent to which some cases of moral corruption are best understood as cognitive processes (i.e. processes involving a loss of knowledge), as well as questions about the kinds of considerations that could in principle make it reasonable for us to lose confidence even in moral claims that strike us as obviously correct.
The Invention of Papal History
Authors: Bauer Stefan
Published: January 2020

How was the history of post-classical Rome and of the Church written in the Catholic Reformation? Historical texts composed in Rome at this time have been considered secondary to the city’s significance for the history of art. The Invention of Papal History corrects this distorting emphasis and shows how history-writing became part of a comprehensive formation of the image and self-perception of the papacy. By presenting and fully contextualizing the path-breaking works of the Augustinian historian Onofrio Panvinio (1530–68), this book shows what type of historical research was possible in the late Renaissance and the Catholic Reformation. Historiography in this period by no means consisted entirely of commissioned works written for patrons; rather, a creative interplay existed between, on the one hand, the endeavours of authors to explore the past and, on the other hand, the constraints of patronage and ideology placed on them. This book sheds new light on the changing priorities, mentalities, and cultural standards that flourished in the transition from the Renaissance to the Catholic Reformation.
Editing Shadows
Authors: Burden Mark
Published: January 2020

Since its first publication in 1806, Lucy Hutchinson’s Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson has been praised for its sensitive political analysis and its literary excellence. However, both these features are editorial constructions which conceal aspects of the text’s revolutionary energy and smooth over its syntactical rough edges. The beginnings of this process may be viewed in the manuscript annotations of Hutchinson’s nephew, the text’s early custodian, whose response to the growing tide of anti-regicide literature was to conceal his aunt’s republican writings from public view. The main responsibility for reshaping Hutchinson’s prose and injecting a Whiggish flavour into the text was Julius Hutchinson the younger, the text’s first editor. His work formed the basis of all nineteenth-century editions, but eventually led to a bifurcation in Hutchinson scholarship between those who emphasized the text’s feminine literary qualities, and those who questioned its authority as a historical record.
Coleridge’s Shakespearean Transformation of Schiller’s Wallenstein Plays
Authors: Vigus James
Published: January 2020

In 1800, Samuel Taylor Coleridge published translations of Friedrich Schiller’s historical dramas The Piccolomini and The Death of Wallenstein. Despite his dislike of the process of translating, Coleridge eventually recognized the importance of his own work. In particular, the translations assisted the intellectual development through which Coleridge came to present Shakespeare as the profoundest English moralist. This chapter shows how Coleridge’s English versions pivoted on the intensification of Shakespearean echoes, especially of Macbeth, in Schiller’s original. The chapter then analyses Coleridge’s marginalia in copies of his translations, in which the translator persistently drew comparisons and contrasts between Schiller and Shakespeare. It emerges that Wallenstein was a significant influence on Coleridge’s subsequent Shakespeare criticism and on his moral philosophy, briefly summed up in the phrase ‘Conscience is God ’.
The Call of Conscience
Authors: Pattison George
Published: January 2020

Although it is common to speak of the call of conscience, the specifically linguistic character of this call is frequently occluded in the history of thought. This is clear in the modern history of the idea, in which ideas of moral intuition or moral sentiment predominate, from Cambridge Platonism through to neo-Kantianism. This occlusion is flagged by Gerhard Ebeling, who emphasizes the word-event character of conscience. This is further developed through reference to Emmanuel Levinas and his distinction between Le Dit and Le Dire, and it is contrasted with the seemingly silent ethical demand proposed by K. E. Løgstrup. This difference is interpreted further through a discussion of an incident in writings of the Japanese poet Bashō and the Good Samaritan.
Rewriting History
Authors: Harding Dennis
Published: January 2020

‘Every generation re-writes history in its own way’. Re-writing History applies Collingwood’s dictum to a series of topics and themes, some of which have been central to prehistoric and protohistoric archaeology for the past century or more, while some have been triggered by more recent changes in technology or social attitudes. Some issues are highly controversial, like the proposals for the Stonehenge World Heritage sites. Others challenge long-held popular myths, like the deconstruction of the Celts and by extension the Picts. Yet some traditional tenets of scholarship have gone unchallenged for too long, like the classical definition of civilization itself. But why should it matter? Surely it is in the order of things that each generation rejects received wisdom and adopts ideas that are radical or might offend previous generations? Is this not simply symptomatic of healthy and vibrant debate? Or are there grounds for believing that current changes are of a more disquieting character, denying the basic assumptions of rational argument and freedom of enquiry and expression that have been the foundation of western scholarship since the eighteenth century Enlightenment? Re-writing History addresses contemporary concerns about information and its interpretation, including issues of misinformation and airbrushing of politically-incorrect history. Its subject matter is the archaeology of prehistoric and early historic Britain, and the changes witnessed over two centuries and more in the interpretation of the archaeological heritage by changes in the prevailing political and social as well as intellectual climate. Far from being topics of concern only to academics in ivory towers, the way in which seemingly innocuous issues such as cultural diffusion or social reconstruction in the remote past are studied and presented reflects important shifts in contemporary thinking that challenge long-accepted conventions of free speech and debate.
Victimological Imaginations
Authors: Lohne Kjersti
Published: January 2020

The figure of the victim is the sine qua non of the fight against impunity for international crimes. Engaging the victimological imagination of international criminal justice, the chapter shows how victims are represented, and how justice for victims is imagined. The first part focuses on imaginations of ‘justice for victims’, and argues that the ICC represents a form of hybrid justice by incorporating ‘restorative’ and ‘transformative’ rationales for justice. Unlike ordinary courts, the ICC incorporates what can be thought of as both ‘punitive’ and ‘reparative’ arms. Part of the latter is the Rome Statute’s provisions for victims’ rights to participation and reparation. However, a closer look at the implementation of these processes reveal a conspicuous discrepancy between ideologies and realities. The second part of the chapter situates victims as a source of moral authority, and one that is claimed in representational practices by both human rights NGOs and international criminal justice generally. The chapter explores suffering as a type of ‘currency’, both on an individual level for victims’ advocates, as their source of ‘purpose’, and on a broader cultural level as the source of ‘global’ moral outcry. The chapter demonstrates how the victim is culturally represented through imaginations from the global North and becomes universalized as a symbol of humanity, of which the gendered and racialized victim of sexual and gender-based violence provides particularly powerful victim imagery. In this way, the image of the victim of international crimes is characterized by her essential ‘otherness’: it is humanity that suffers.
Emergencies and Human Rights
Authors: Dyzenhaus David
Published: January 2020

‘May the safety of the people be the supreme law!’ Cicero’s slogan is invoked to justify the claim that during a state of emergency, the political sovereign may do whatever in his judgement is required to secure the people, including acting against the law. It would seem to follow that when human rights are made into legal entitlements, they may legitimately be suspended along with other legal protections during a state of emergency. As a result, human rights would be relativized to what we can think of as a political judgement about when the safety of the people is not in issue. The author contests this claim through an argument based in Hobbes’s political and legal theory that the safety of the people is a juridical concept, as is sovereignty itself. The sovereign cannot act outside of law and his exercises of power have to be justified to his subjects as being according to law, where accordance with law requires respect for human rights. These ideas are located in the constitutionalist tradition which stretches back to Cicero and his much-misinterpreted slogan.
What’s Wrong with This Picture?
Authors: Baggott Jim
Published: January 2020

Despite its intuitive appeal, classical mechanics is just as fraught with conceptual difficulties and problems of interpretation as its quantum replacement. The problems just happen to be rather less obvious, and so more easily overlooked or ignored. Quantum mechanics was born not only from the failure wrought by trying to extend classical physical principles into the microscopic world of atoms and molecules, but also from the failure of some of its most familiar and cherished concepts. To set the scene and prepare for what follows, this Prologue highlights some of the worst offenders, including: space and time; force and energy; the troublesome concept of mass; light waves and the ether; and atoms and the second law of thermodynamics.
Heisenberg, Bohr, Robertson, and the Uncertainty Principle
Authors: Baggott Jim
Published: January 2020

From the outset, Heisenberg had resolved to eliminate classical space-time pictures involving particles and waves from the quantum mechanics of the atom. He had wanted to focus instead on the properties actually observed and recorded in laboratory experiments, such as the positions and intensities of spectral lines. Alone in Copenhagen in February 1927, he now pondered on the significance and meaning of such experimental observables. Feeling the need to introduce at least some form of ‘visualizability’, he asked himself some fundamental questions, such as: What do we actually mean when we talk about the position of an electron? He went on to discover the uncertainty principle: the product of the ‘uncertainties’ in certain pairs of variables—called complementary variables—such as position and momentum cannot be smaller than Planck’s constant h (now h / 4π‎).
Epilogue A Game of Theories
Authors: Baggott Jim
Published: January 2020

The Quantum Cookbook shows that whilst quantum mechanics is mathematically challenging, some basic knowledge and a bit of effort will carry you a long way. It also explains how quantum mechanics was derived from the physics. The abstract formalism based on state vectors in Hilbert space was introduced only when it was deemed desirable to lend the theory greater mathematical consistency, and to reject some of its historical baggage. The best way to come to terms with this formalism is to understand how and why it came about. Debates about interpretation continue to this day and, by providing some historical context, you should get the impression that any lack of comprehension of its meaning on your part is absolutely not your fault. Quantum mechanics challenges our comprehension of what any (and all) scientific theories are meant to be telling us about the nature of reality. It’s okay to have doubts.
Regression and optimization
Authors: Trappenberg Thomas P.
Published: January 2020

This chapter returns to the more theoretical embedding of machine learning in regression. Prior chapters have shown that writing machine learning programs is easy using high-level computer languages and with the help of good machine learning libraries. However, applying such algorithms appropriately with superior performance requires considerable experience and a deeper knowledge of the underlying ideas and algorithms. This chapter takes a step back to consider basic regression in more detail, which in turn will form the foundation for discussing probabilistic models in following chapters. This includes the important discussion of gradient descent as a learning algorithm.
A drive down memory lane
Authors: Murray Elisabeth A. , Wise Steven P. , Baldwin Mary K. L. , Graham Kim S.
Published: January 2020

In this chapter, a man with amnesia sparks a new era in memory research; monkeys play a matching game; and a 19th-century politician explains how he seemed so clever. But mainly we consider the nature of memory and amnesia. The ‘man with amnesia’ was named Henry Molaison, better known as H. M., and he suffered from debilitating epilepsy. Brain surgery alleviated his seizures, but it had a shocking side effect: amnesia. His memory loss led scientists down two roads: one exploring the memories he lost; the other identifying the brain areas needed for normal memory. In this book, we consider memory from a different angle, examining how it evolved. We begin with a recent history of memory science and some background material on two important concepts: representation and homology.
Mammalian memories
Authors: Murray Elisabeth A. , Wise Steven P. , Baldwin Mary K. L. , Graham Kim S.
Published: January 2020

In this chapter, Toto chases a cat, so the Wizard of Oz goes home alone; a woman is attacked by her own hand; and a mouse plunders a pantry. But mainly we consider memories that evolved in early mammals. These ancestors developed a new part of the brain called the neocortex, and it changed memory forever. The neocortex endowed early mammals with an ability to manage contradictory memories, each appropriate in certain contexts. Obsolete memories could be retained and used in case the ‘good old days’ returned, and new memories received a boost when it mattered most. The neocortex empowered early mammals to strike a balance among alternative ways of surviving: spending versus conserving energy; acting habitually versus making good choices; and acting with urgency versus patience.
The story of your life
Authors: Murray Elisabeth A. , Wise Steven P. , Baldwin Mary K. L. , Graham Kim S.
Published: January 2020

In this chapter, a wizard reads Dorothy’s mind; a hurricane lashes the Florida coast; and Gatsby remembers his long-lost love. But mainly we discuss what makes memories our own. During human evolution, our brains developed a new form of memory that helped support our complex societies. New levels of “self” representation evolved in an expanding cortex, and they empowered people to infer the intentions and mental states of others. Eventually, these new memories became incorporated into older kinds. Embedding memories of “self” into memories of events established participatory memories; and embedding them into memories of facts or fictions established cultural memories. When these memories first evolved, the sense of participating in events and owning knowledge came into the world and made human memory what it is today.
Epilogue
Authors: Murray Elisabeth A. , Wise Steven P. , Baldwin Mary K. L. , Graham Kim S.
Published: January 2020

In the epilogue, a couple of kids befriend a shy stegosaurus; a different stegosaurus worries about the rise of mammals; and a tyrannosaurus presents a situation report. But mainly we consider reptilian brains, the relationship of brain size to intelligence, and the evolutionary success of mammals. Contrary to an internet meme, no one has a “reptilian” or “lizard” brain lurking within. Our entire brain is human. Regarding intelligence, brain organization matters as much as brain size and maybe more. Once dinosaurs became extinct, the mammals that supplanted them had much smaller brains than large dinosaurs had. Instead, the success of mammals depended on the emergence of the neocortex, a new part of the brain. Eventually, this evolutionary innovation came to dominate both the brain and the memories that it contains.
Life in the Fast Lane, 1945–1971
Authors: Bertrams Kenneth , Marmol Julien Del , Geerts Sander , Poelmans Eline
Published: January 2020

Although Artois and Piedboeuf were relatively spared by the bombings of the Second World War, both breweries had to struggle with a very difficult economic environment in the immediate post-war years. Due to massive investment, organizational capabilities, and clear-sighted management, they were able to overcome the scarcity of raw materials, increasing state regulations, and sluggish consumption. They entered the following decades with a common drive for expansion, diversification, and internationalization. While Artois became the largest European beer producer at the end of the 1960s, Piedboeuf experienced a staggering performance by reaching the second national position. Despite their different production levels, the breweries showed growing signs of convergence. The nature of their managerial culture and the form of their structure, however, were still very distinct and had to face several phases of readjustment to cope with their respective strategy.
The Impact of Social Innovation
Authors: Nicholls Alex , Jacobi Nadia von , Chiappero-Martinetti Enrica , Mildenberger Georg
Published: January 2020

This chapter addresses key questions in terms of the evaluation of the impact of social innovation processes. After reviewing the existing approaches to capturing impact, the chapter presents a new Critical Issues Framework for social impact measurement to inform the development of the most appropriate and accurate evaluative space for data collection and analysis. As such it advocates standardization in the process of developing social impact indicators and methodologies, rather than in the metrics and units of analysis themselves. This framework is related to the three elements of the Social Grid in so far as they shape normative models of social impact measurement that entrench marginalization and limit stakeholder voice. Moreover, particular attention is paid to issues around capturing changes in human capabilities and how this relates to beneficiary empowerment and voice. The chapter, thus, offers a framework for optimizing impact measurement processes and systems.
Introduction
Authors: Riquet Johannes
Published: January 2020

Drawing on (post-)phenomenological and geopoetic perspectives, the introduction explains the book’s interest in considering islands at the intersection of material and poetic production on the one hand, and aesthetic experience of the phenomenal world on the other. It suggests that the modern experience of islands in the age of discovery went hand in hand with a disintegration of received models of understanding global space, and that fictional and non-fictional representations of islands negotiate these perceptual challenges. It thereby explains how The Aesthetic of Island Space complicates the common account of islands as discrete shapes, geometrical abstractions, and easily understandable images. Instead, it foregrounds the importance of water, mobility, and a range of dynamic geo(morpho)logical and poetic processes in the figuration of islands. The introduction ends by discussing the significance of considering islands in relation to an ‘aesthetics of the earth’ (DeLoughrey and Handley) and a poetics of the material world.
From Island to Island, and Beyond
Authors: Riquet Johannes
Published: January 2020

Chapter 1 examines the centrality of islands as gateways to the New World. The texts examined in it poeticize spatial experiences that oscillate between a sense of emergence and possibility and a corresponding fear of submergence and dissolution. The chapter begins by discussing accounts by immigrants passing through Angel Island and Ellis Island in the context of a long tradition of real and imaginary voyages to America. It then turns to two transoceanic island narratives. The first is Shakespeare’s The Tempest (1611), which is read alongside accounts of England’s early colonial experiments on Roanoke Island. It is argued that Shakespeare’s play and the Roanoke documents negotiate an island arrival that is both hopeful and fraught with uncertainty. The second is Cecil B. DeMille’s film Male and Female (1919), which imagines a sort of fictional Ellis Island, thereby responding to a long line of island arrivals in the New World.
The Value of Humanity
Authors: Theunissen L. Nandi
Published: January 2020

In this book Nandi Theunissen develops a non-Kantian account of the value of humanity. Against the Kantian tradition, in which humanity is absolutely valuable and unlike the value of anything else, Theunissen develops a relational proposal according to which the value of human beings is continuous with the value of other valuable things. The book takes the Socratic starting point that good is affecting, or in other words, that good is a notion of benefit. If people are bearers of value, the proposal is that our value is no exception. Theunissen explores the possibility that our value is explained through reciprocal relations, or relations of interdependence, as when—as daughters, or teachers, or friends—we benefit others by being part or constitutive of relationships with them. She also investigates the possibility that we can be said to stand in a valuable relationship with ourselves. Ultimately she proposes that people are of value because we are constituted in such a way that we can be good for ourselves in the sense that we are able to lead flourishing lives. Intuitively, a person matters because she matters to herself in a very particular sort of way. To appropriate a phrase, she is a being for whom her life can be an issue.
Introduction
Authors: Theunissen L. Nandi
Published: January 2020

The aim of this book is to develop a positive account of the value of human beings. This involves thinking about the nature of value itself. Following Judith Jarvis Thomson, when we say of something that it is “of value” we mean that it has some property that makes it reason-giving. Theunissen takes the humanist position that the relevant property is being such as to contribute to the quality of the life of human beings (or individuals more generally), and she explores the implications for the value of human beings themselves. The author situates her proposal between absolutist and eliminativist positions—between views that see human beings as absolutely valuable, and views that deny that there is a meaningful sense in which human beings are bearers of value at all.
Conceptualizing IO Emergency Powers
Authors: Kreuder-Sonnen Christian
Published: January 2020

This chapter introduces a constitutional perspective on international organizations (IOs) that foregrounds the legally constituted relationship between authority-holders and authority-addressees. Distinct from the common principal–agent perspective, it paves the way for understanding IOs’ crisis-induced authority-leaps as an assumption of emergency powers—an act defined as the constitutionally deviant widening of executive discretion at the expense of the political autonomy of the rule-addressees that is justified by exceptional necessity. The chapter taxonomizes the possible institutional embodiments of IO exceptionalism according to its constitution, reach, and intrusiveness and highlights its phenomenological differences with respect to domestic exceptionalism. Given the structural conditions of the international spheres of authority in which IO exceptionalism operates, it is expected to rely on the acquiescence of the most powerful member states, to be stratified in scope and application according to states’ power differentials, and to instrumentalize rather than openly suspend norms of international law.
Emergency Powers of the UN Security Council
Authors: Kreuder-Sonnen Christian
Published: January 2020

Chapter 4 applies the proportionality model to two cases of IO exceptionalism at the United Nations (UN) Security Council. First, it explains the normalization of the Council’s self-asserted emergency power to act as a global legislator. After 9/11, the Council, for the first time, decreed abstract, general, and indefinite rules to the entire international community. Despite opposition in the aftermath, it was capable to arrogate a permanent de facto legislative competence by credibly justifying the measures as necessary. Second, the chapter accounts for the constitutional containment of the Council’s regime of targeted sanctions against terror suspects. Through Resolution 1390 (2002), the UN Security Council implemented the so-called “terror lists” financially sanctioning all listed individuals without providing for a legal remedy. Against the preferences of the most powerful states, a coalition of societal actors and courts successfully induced procedural improvements by delegitimizing the measures as excessive.
Conclusion
Authors: Kreuder-Sonnen Christian
Published: January 2020

The concluding chapter revisits the proportionality theory and assesses its explanatory power relative to the theoretical competitors by way of an aggregated cross-case comparison. It finds that the theory fares exceptionally well in both explaining single case outcomes and accounting for variance across cases. The model holds across a variety of institutional designs, levels of authority, issue areas, and crisis types. Second, this chapter turns to the question of how to normatively evaluate IO exceptionalism. It proposes to distinguish three different questions about the normative legitimacy of (a) the adoption and exercise of emergency powers by IOs, (b) the process of constitutional change after IO exceptionalism, and (c) the post-exceptionalist political order of IOs. While the preliminary assessments of the cases on these dimensions are not uniform, overall they warrant skepticism regarding the normative legitimacy of mostly unregulated emergency politics at the global level.
Emotions in a Crusading Context, 1095-1291
Authors: Spencer Stephen J.
Published: January 2020

Emotions in a Crusading Context is the first book-length study of the emotional rhetoric of crusading. It investigates the ways in which a number of emotions and affective displays—primarily fear, anger, and weeping—were understood, represented, and utilized in twelfth- and thirteenth-century western narratives of the crusades, making use of a broad range of comparative material to gauge the distinctiveness of those texts: crusader letters, papal encyclicals, model sermons, chansons de geste, lyrics, and an array of theological and philosophical treatises. In addition to charting continuities and changes over time in the emotional landscape of crusading, this book identifies the underlying influences which shaped how medieval authors represented and used emotions; analyses the passions crusade participants were expected to embrace and reject; and assesses whether the idea of crusading created a profoundly new set of attitudes towards emotions. Emotions in a Crusading Context calls on scholars of the crusades to reject the traditional methodological approach of taking the emotional descriptions embedded within historical narratives as straightforward reflections of protagonists’ lived feelings, and in so doing challenges the long historiographical tradition of reconstructing participants’ beliefs and experiences from these texts. Within the history of emotions, it demonstrates that, despite the ongoing drive to develop new methodologies for studying the emotional standards of the past, typified by recent experiments in ‘neurohistory’, the social constructionist (or cultural-historical) approach still has much to offer the historian of medieval emotions.
Discourses of Tears and Sorrow
Authors: Spencer Stephen J.
Published: January 2020

This chapter extends from Chapter 3 by exploring the interplay between ‘religious’ and ‘non-religious’ weeping in a crusading context, and then broadens the scope of enquiry to consider discourses of grief in crusade texts. It starts with a discussion of the social value of the crusaders’ tears, principally as expressions of the fraternal love which supposedly bound participants together in a Christian community and as devices for arousing the mercy of co-religionists. An analysis of these interrelated themes reveals that the boundaries between ‘religious’ and ‘non-religious’ modes of weeping were frequently blurred, especially in ecclesiastical texts. The remainder of the chapter treats tears as part of the broader rhetoric of lamentation and sorrow to assess their implications in terms of the texts’ gendered presentation of crusading and power dynamics.