bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Probability
Authors: McCall Storrs
Published: October 2011

This chapter is concerned with objective probability or objective chance. The entire branched model in fact can be regarded as embodying an inexhaustible variety of objective, de re probability values. This chapter explores the consequences of employing a branched definition of probability, and examines the similarities and differences between this approach and other theories of probability which philosophers have proposed and adopted. There are four main different conceptions of probability currently accepted by probability theorists: the logical, relative frequency, subjective, and propensity theories. This chapter surveys each of them briefly and then compares them with the branched interpretation.
Decision and Free Will
Authors: McCall Storrs
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on chance, deliberation, and decision. It explains various kinds of deliberation and examines what is involved in the familiar process of deliberation. Responsibility is another topic to be discussed in the context of decision. It is incorrect to assert that responsibility requires determinism. Using branched alternatives, and the concept of decision, an indeterministic account of responsibility can be constructed which accords with our intuitions as well as, or better than, any other account. The metaphysics of the branched model provides a framework for the conceiving of human beings, or indeed of any agent with similar powers of deliberation and decision, as free and responsible individuals.
Cinema: Photography, Comedy, Melodrama
Authors: Mulhall Stephen
Published: October 2011

Cavell's work on cinema can be divided into two types: analyses of specific films and examinations of the medium of cinema itself (with particular reference to the relationship between the screened image and the viewer of that image). Nonetheless, his work possesses real unity; in part, this is because he finds that the films he studies themselves study their relation to their medium and its audience; but it is also because his work focuses upon precisely the same issue at both levels — that of scepticism. In other words, Cavell claims to detect a thematic doubling or mirroring which itself is a version of the doubling examined with respect to Shakespeare: scepticism is not simply a topic examined by certain films but an issue central to the any real understanding of our relationship to the medium of cinema. This chapter begins by examining Cavell's reflections on the medium, before looking into the two genres of film to which he paid most attention in his work, i.e., melodrama and comedy.
Values and Valuing
Authors: Denham A. E.
Published: October 2011

The combination of Platonic requirements on objectivity and those imposed by the role of values in ordinary practical reasoning appears to be fatal, at least, for any theory of value which eschews appeal to transcendental postulates. Plato's transcendental metaphysics — his theory of forms — yields a conception of moral values which radically distances them from familiar human experience. Were values like Plato's forms, they would have to be eternal, invariant, and wholly mind-independent; their existence and specific character could be in no way determined by one's (merely finite and infinitely variable) evaluative beliefs and attitudes. This chapter also discusses judgement-dependent concepts of moral value and presents an analogy between values and secondary qualities.
Chapter 2
Authors: Hallaq Wael B.
Published: October 2011

The main concept for the second point has to do with the doctrine that states that definition leads to the conception of things. It is asserted against this doctrine that verifiers amongst the thinkers know that the function of a definition is to distinguish between the definiendum and other things, just like name, whose function is not to give a concept of the definiendum, nor to delimit its reality. The claim that definitions lead to forming a concept of things is that of the Greek logicians, the followers of Aristotle, as well as those Muslims and others who have followed their path by believing and imitating them. However, the majority of Muslim thinkers, theologians, and others hold a different view.
The Nature ofde reThought
Authors: Bach Kent
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on de re thoughts about concrete individuals other than oneself. It first schematizes the general form of de re thought and then characterizes the de re representations and relations associated with each of the three kinds of de re thought: perception-based, memory-based, and communication-based. All three have been recognized by others, but the author presents a different view. One theme that will gradually emerge here will prove relevant to the inquiry later into the theory of singular reference: the main insights that underlie the causal theory of names properly belong to the theory of singular thought.
Semantics, Pragmatics, and Reference
Authors: Bach Kent
Published: October 2011

For both singular terms and sentences containing them, we should take care not to confuse the theory of their meaning with the theory of their use. We should avoid trying to explain their pragmatic properties semantically. Grammar is complex enough without letting it be further complicated by phenomena which can be explained independently with the help of general pragmatic principles. For example, when an expression has two uses, if we can explain one use in terms of the other pragmatically, we can regard just the one use as literal and avoid taking the expression to be (semantically) ambiguous. We should keep the semantics of sentences containing singular terms separate from the pragmatics of their use. This chapter draws certain distinctions, terminological and otherwise, to help us keep them separate. It then explains more fully the rationale of keeping them separate. The various distinctions to be drawn here will not only sharpen the boundary between semantics and pragmatics but also enable us to understand the connections between them.
Reference and Natural Kinds
Authors: Bach Kent
Published: October 2011

Burge interprets the thought experiment in a way that is even more radical than rejecting either the Fregean claim that meaning determines extension or the Fregean conception of meaning. Burge holds that the meaning of ‘water’ does determine its extension, hence that it has a different meaning on Twin Earth, and he holds that the meaning of a term is the concept conventionally associated with it. However, he takes the radical course of denying that concepts are in the head. Thus, he is rejecting the ‘methodological solipsism’ endorsed by Putnam (1975). For Burge the Twin Earth experiment extends beyond the theory of the meaning to the theory of mental contents. He is rejecting what amounts to a Fregean conception of concepts. This chapter takes up Burge's position first, because the points to be made about identifying concepts and determining their extensions will be germane to the later discussion of Putnam's and Kripke's views about the meanings and extensions of terms.
Psychoneural Nomic Correlation
Authors: Honderich Ted
Published: October 2011

Each of the three hypotheses making up the theory of determinism expounded in the first part of this book has to do with mental events, which is to say events within consciousness. Thus, it is important first to have a conception of consciousness. Attention is paid to the logico-linguistic conception of consciousness, in terms of independent and dependent truth-values, precisely because of its literalness and precision but those virtues are in short supply in connection with conceptions of consciousness. The objection from domains, then, appears to be like its predecessors in failing to prevent further consideration of the Correlation Hypothesis. The hypothesis may not be true, but it does not fall victim to the philosophical and theoretical objections that have been considered.
The Difficulty about Negation
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

This chapter investigates the difficulty about negation. Because of the principle that pM[S] = I − pM[not-S], the mathematicist analysis implies that in civil cases the Anglo-American system is officially prepared to tolerate a quite substantial mathematical probability that a losing defendant deserved to succeed. There is a limit to the extent that this difficulty can be avoided by supposing a higher threshold for the balance of probability. Nor are the proper amounts of damages held to be proportional to the strength of a winning plaintiff's proof. If there were a legal rule excluding statistical evidence in relation to voluntary acts much of the paradox here would disappear. But it would be unnecessary to suppose such a rule if the outcome of civil litigation could be construed as a victory for case-strength rather than as the division of a determinate quantity of case-merit.
The Incommensurability of Inductive Support and Mathematical Probability
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

This chapter provides an elaboration on the incommensurability of inductive support and mathematical probability. It begins by presenting the argument from the possibility of anomalies. If inductive support-grading is to allow for the existence of anomalies, it cannot depend on the mathematical probabilities involved. A second argument for the incommensurability of inductive support with mathematical probability may be built up on the basis of the conjunction principle for inductive support. If s[H,E] conforms to this principle, the actual value of pM[H] must be irrelevant to that of s[H,E] unless intolerable constraints are to restrict the mathematical probability of one conjunct on another. Since the actual value of pM[E,H] must also be irrelevant to that of s[H,E], and s[H,E] cannot possibly be a function of pM[E] alone, it follows that s[H,E] cannot be a function of the mathematical probabilities involved.
Introduction
Authors: Bealer George
Published: October 2011

This introductory chapter first sets out the purpose of the book, which is to develop an adequate theory of properties, relations, and propositions (PRPs). It discusses two traditional conceptions of properties, relations, and propositions and outlines several desiderata guiding the development of this theory of qualities and concepts. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
The Paradox of Analysis
Authors: Bealer George
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the paradox of analysis, a particularly recalcitrant problem in the logic for intentional matters and one that has deep implications for philosophical method, philosophical psychology, and cognitive psychology. The problem may be put as follows: how, if correct, can a definition (or analysis) be informative? After a critical examination of Alonzo Church's resolution of the paradox, the chapter shows how to extend the new approach to intensional logic to include a more acceptable resolution.
Predication
Authors: Bealer George
Published: October 2011

First-order quantifier logic is complete; higher-order quantifier logic is not. A few formally minded philosophers of logic — such as Quine and some of his followers — appear to believe that this is sufficient grounds for concluding that the only legitimate quantifier logic is first-order, not higher-order. However, most leading formally minded philosophers of logic over the past hundred years — Frege, Russell, Church, Carnap, Henkin, Montague, Kaplan — believe that the higher-order approach is a natural generalization of the first-order approach and therefore that quantifier logic is properly identified with higher-order quantifier logic. This chapter departs from this majority opinion. It discusses the underlying philosophical differences between the two approaches to quantifier logic, and attempts to illustrate the greater naturalness and generality of the first-order approach.
Logic
Authors: Bealer George
Published: October 2011

This chapter uses the theory of qualities and concepts to obtain solutions to a number of outstanding problems in classical modern philosophy, problems that have resisted solution to a large extent because they are typically thought of in terms of representationalism rather than realism. Specifically, the theory is applied to problems concerning the definitions of truth, necessity, and analyticity.
Space—Relational or Absolute?
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian
Published: October 2011

This chapter first elaborates the terminology of space. It also considers relational and absolute theories of space. Some relational theories of space treat the logic of ‘space’ much as one treats the logic of ‘friendship’, at least in the following respect. To say that ‘friendship’ exists is just to say that someone is a friend of someone else. To say that space exists is just to say that something is apart, or at a distance from, something else. The chapter then covers the distinctions between four different kinds of reduction. ‘Reduction’, in the sense used by philosophers, is a technical word, yet one whose usage is not cut and dried. It is used to describe the replacement of one manner of speech by another, such that the new manner of speech does not use some word, term, or expression that the original one did.
The New Logic and the Old Metaphysics
Authors: Harris H. S.
Published: October 2011

In a letter to Schelling in November 1800, Hegel expressed that he thought that Schelling knew enough about the progress of his reflections and the nature of the ‘Ideal’ that he was formulating in them. His letter showed his desire to be invited to collaborate with Schelling in the academic world of Jena. For Schelling, philosophical insight was an end in itself, while for Hegel, at this stage, it was primarily an instrument for social regeneration. This chapter discusses the Ideal in reflective form, absolute reflection and speculation, logic, metaphysics, concept, judgement, and syllogism.
Legitimation and History
Authors: Jardine Nicholas
Published: October 2011

This chapter deals with strategies of legitimation that can be used to promote and defend practices. These strategies have a huge role in all scientific disciplines in securing compliance with new methods and continued adherence to old ones. The discussion highlights the diversity of different types of legitimation operative in the sciences: appeal to interests; norms of logic and epistemology; authority; literary and aesthetic sensibilities; and exemplary successes. The chapter goes on to point out the relevance of writing about the history of disciplines as a main context for the various types of legitimation.
Absolute Reality and Dissociation
Authors: Jardine Nicholas
Published: October 2011

This chapter gives an account of the absolute reality of questions regarding the amenability in principle to evidential considerations. It shows that the historical diversity of styles of inquiry in the sciences poses a clear challenge to the absolute reality of the questions in the sciences. It explores different strategies for resisting this challenge. In this regard, the chapter argues that the challenge can be met if calibration against precedents and standards can be shown to be a predominant factor in bringing about methodological changes in the sciences.
The Temporal Strategy: Time and Aspect
Authors: Steward Helen
Published: October 2011

This chapter begins by trying to build on the suggestion, adumbrated at the end of Chapter 2, that what is common and peculiar to events, and what distinguishes them from states, is a certain kind of ‘temporal shape’ — to exploit a so-called ‘temporal strategy’. The temporal strategy appears promising as far as the events needed by the philosophy of mind are concerned, for the following reason. There is room for dispute about whether or not, and in what sense, mental phenomena are physical, whether they are spatially located, and whether they have subjects, and if so, what those subjects might be. The chapter tries to shed some light on the differences between events, processes, and states by drawing on the phenomenon of verb aspect. Though some insight is gained into the category of state by this discussion, the main focus of the chapter is the event-process distinction. It shows how the invocation of aspect can permit us to regard the distinction between events and processes as akin, in some respects, to the familiar distinction between substantial objects and the matter of which they are made.
The Coptic Versions
Authors: METZGER BRUCE M.
Published: October 2011

This chapter begins by discussing the introduction of Christianity into Egypt and the translation of the New Testament into Egyptian (Coptic) language. Coptic represents the last phase in the development of the ancient Egyptian language. It then discusses the early manuscripts of the Coptic versions of the Bible such as the Sahidic version, Achmimic version, Sub-Achmimic version, middle Egyptian version, Fayyumic version, and the Bohairic version. Finally, it analyses several Coptic versions, which reveal textual profiles characteristic of the several sections of the New Testament.
The Armenian Version
Authors: METZGER BRUCE M.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the introduction of Christianity into Armenia and the translation of the New Testament in Armenia. Armenia claims the honour of being the first kingdom to accept Christianity as its official religion. The most ancient Armenian manuscripts of the Gospels, all dates from the 9th and 10th centuries. Among the noteworthy features of the Armenian version of the Bible was the inclusion of the History of Joseph and Asenath and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs in the Old Testament, and the Epistle of the Corinthians to Paul and a Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians in the New Testament. Another characteristic feature of the Armenian version involves ‘Targum Translations’. These are readings that provide the reader with a generally faithful and idiomatic rendering praised for its clarity and dignity of expressions.
The Latin Versions
Authors: METZGER BRUCE M.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the history of the Latin versions of the New Testament. The exact date of the first Latin version of the Bible or any part of the Bible is uncertain. Although it might have been supposed that the Latin Bible had its origin at Rome, the matter is actually very complicated and far from certain. To many scholars, it appears probable that no later than the beginning of the 3rd century, Christians in Rome are likely to have produced a Latin version of the New Testament. This chapter also provides a list of the manuscripts of the Old Latin versions and examines their linguistic and textual characteristics.
Variety and Unity in New Testament Thought
Authors: Reumann John
Published: October 2011

The blend of variety and unity apparent in the thought of the New Testament has been a subject for theological debate through the ages. Certain themes, teachings, and characterizations are clearly consistent, but others are perplexing in their diversity. This distinction was acknowledged by the New Testament writers themselves. For example, the author of 2 Peter looking back at the letters of ‘our beloved brother Paul’ confesses that they contain ‘some things hard to understand’. This book explores in detail the different aspects of variety and unity in the entire New Testament. The book gives special attention to the sixteen books which fall outside the central Gospels and Pauline epistles and which offer the greatest challenge to the defence of unity. These include such important writings as Revelation, 1 Peter, Hebrews, and James. The discussion shows that, despite contemporary emphasis on the pluralism of the writings, there remains a central unifying focus: faith in Jesus as the Christ. Emphases on social setting, rhetoric, and narrative are shown to enrich traditional historical criticism and to open up the New Testament for readers today.
The New Testament Canon and the Techniques of Modern Scholarship
Authors: Reumann John
Published: October 2011

Just as the idea of an ‘historical introduction’ exists as a field of study for the rise of early Christian literature or Christian beginnings, thus there is also historical study of the development of the New Testament canon. Establishment of the New Testament canon had its own long, slow evolution. It was at points interrelated with questions of what books to take over from ancient Israel. Happily, today, virtually all Christian groups agree on the same twenty-seven items for their New Testament list. The story of the canonization process which stretched over three or four centuries after the final book was written which eventually was accepted into the Christian collection known as the New Testament. For some in canonical criticism, to address merely unity and diversity in the New Testament is too little; one must think of the Bible as Scripture, not two testaments.
Ways Proposed toward New Testament Unity
Authors: Reumann John
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the aims and priorities of this volume with regard to the challenge that diversity presents to New Testament unity. This chapter gives a striking account of some surface similarities among the twenty-seven documents. Given such likenesses and differences, many of New Testament books may be thought of so as to sense a unity. Every writing in the New Testament collection is a ‘Jesus book’. However, distinctions must be made between them. Each book of the New Testament has a view of Jesus of one sort or another. Of all the topics taught by Jesus, the one that has the widest use throughout the New Testament writings is his chief theme, ‘the kingdom of heaven’. While the synoptics present the concept far more than does John, almost every book in the canon uses it in one way or another.
The Witness of the Four Gospels
Authors: Reumann John
Published: October 2011

In the years between the death of Jesus and the gospel-writing period, sayings from Jesus, stories about him, collections of parables or miracle stories, glimpses of the Passion, and resurrection experiences had been told, heard, and eagerly told. For centuries, Christianity assumed the priority of Matthew as the first gospel book to be written and the historical eyewitness value of John. After all, both were held to be by ‘apostles’. Throughout this account Matthew lays strong emphasis on continuity. The message preached by John the Baptist, Jesus, and the disciples is the same, about the kingdom at hand. The achievement of Matthew's Gospel was to take up the Jesus story, as presented by Mark and supplemented from sayings out of teaching material, and anchor it more firmly in Scripture, God's broad plan, and the church's mission, with a call for ethical rigour before God.
The Pauline School: Colossians, Ephesians, and 2 Thessalonians, Paulinists during and after Paul's Lifetime
Authors: Reumann John
Published: October 2011

Critics have been questioning, for more than a century and a half, the six letters, which carry the name of Paul as author (Ephesians and the pastorals) or co-author (Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). However, none of the six is by Paul himself, but the evidence is more compelling in some instances than in others. In each case, Paul is presented as writing a medium-sized letter from prison to cities in the province of Asia. The Letter to the Colossians seeks to rescue the Pauline understanding of Christ and salvation from a syncretistic onslaught. This restatement of Paul's gospel is carried through in a way that comes to terms with the Gentile-pagan world in which those addressed were living. The Letter to the Ephesians has also called forth vigorous debate in recent years over its context in the history of religions. Furthermore, the 2 Thessalonians has given new directions in apocalyptic eschatology.
1 Peter: Apostolic Exhortation to Living Hope, Confidence, and Holiness, wwdfcr Pressure
Authors: Reumann John
Published: October 2011

This chapter gives a striking account on ‘the First Epistle General of Peter’, a letter of five chapters that addresses people who reside in Turkey. Over the centuries, the document has received all sorts of interpretations, ranging from the view that it is first-hand encouragement about ‘the true grace of God’ by the prince of the apostles himself. The document begins and ends like most New Testament letters. One characteristic of i Peter is that, instead of the pattern in Paul's letters—where indicative statements come first, spread over several chapters about what God has done to us, then imperatives or exhortations—here short kerygmatic statements are followed by exhortations, then another indicative declaration together with an exhortation. There is also a discussion of the body of the letter, which consists of assertions and admonitions about the Christian life. Finally, this chapter explores the themes in i Peter.
Another Look at Luke's ‘Acts of the Apostles’: History? Theology? Narrative? Canonical Connective?
Authors: Reumann John
Published: October 2011

This chapter looks at The Book of Acts again, briefly, in its own right. Sometimes Luke-Acts has been treated as one. Sometimes each book is taken up separately, the way the canonical arrangement presents them. In The Oxford Bible Series, Acts has been referred to in fixing Luke's Gospel as to place and time. There are also connections between Acts and Paul, Acts and Peter, and Acts and Timothy. By its contents and location in the canon, the Book of Acts links the gospels with the epistles, Jesus with the Church, a time when Jesus went about doing good and healing with a time when Christians are also to do good and heal all in light of God's benefactions. However, for Luke, the experiences, even though he moulded them into a certain unity, were too powerful to be put into a neat uniformity of doctrine.
Will a Centre Hold?
Authors: Reumann John
Published: October 2011

The previous chapters have shown how modern scholarship has moved again to stress the pluralism of these writings. This exacerbates the unity question. The matter is difficult enough for the gospels, Jesus, and Paul's letters. The examination of individual New Testament books for signs of unity has assumed attention to the wider issues, both historical and theological, with which the Bible is concerned. For most centuries of the Christian era, biblical studies were under the management of systematic theology or of philosophy. Since the Renaissance and Reformation, however, there has been a swing away from the dominance of dogma and philosophy over biblical exegesis, and, since the Enlightenment, more and more a move toward history as the chief frame of reference. The importance of faith in its several aspects has long been appreciated ecumenically.
Paul and Midrash Pesher
Authors: Lim Timothy H.
Published: October 2011

Pauline exegesis may be compared to the pesherite interpretation of the Qumran scrolls. While formal distinctions between the two should not be ignored, and the pesher as a genre is sui generis, they nevertheless manifest commonalities that cannot be denied. The existence of ‘Midrash pesher’, however, is based upon a dubious reading of 4Q174 and this alleged hybrid genre should, this chapter argues, be left out of a discussion of pesherite or Pauline exegeses.
Paul as Exegete
Authors: Lim Timothy H.
Published: October 2011

This chapter draws out the significance of Paul’s multicultural and multilingual background. Despite the frequent mention in scholarship of his upbringing, it is sometimes assumed that Paul operated in only one linguistic mode, namely Hellenistic Greek. Central to Paul’s hermeneutics is his own experience of Jesus and understanding of the significance of the cross. On this basis, all his exegetical techniques and scriptural interpretation depended. The variety of biblical texts would not have disturbed him, for his belief in Jesus, as the Christ did not result from a study of the Torah, but in an experiential encounter with the divine. The authoritative writings of Israel constituted the framework in which he worked, but his hermeneutics and exegetical endeavours have their source beyond these boundaries.
Faith, Hope, and Love
Authors: HARRISON CAROL
Published: October 2011

Faith, hope, and love are the terms most often used by Augustine to describe man's response to divine revelation, including the revelation of divine beauty. They have in common the fact that their object is at once hidden and veiled. According to Augustine, faith, hope, and love are the pre-eminent lessons which the account of God's revelation in the Old and New Testaments offers. It is the faith, hope and love inspired by the revelation of God's beauty on earth which purifies, heals, and reforms man in order to see God's supreme beauty. This chapter considers how they contribute to Augustine's thought on the beauty of God's revelation, bringing man to an ultimate vision of supreme beauty in the life to come.
Origen and the Stars
Authors: SCOTT ALAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses Origen's views on philosophy and astronomy. In Origen's view, the only proper use for philosophy was strictly to understand scripture, for it was scripture and not philosophy which was the means to true knowledge. For him, discussion of the nature and destiny of the soul and discussion of the physical heavens are intertwined. Following the Stoics, he speaks about rational souls in terms of fire. He is distinctly Christian in his division of the soul in its highest sense into mind, which is fallen and capable of sin, and the unfallen portion of mind, namely spirit. His theories on the nature of the life after death were also subtle and controversial, where his views are explicable in terms of the life already possessed by the stars.
The Caused Beginning of the Universe
Authors: Craig William Lane
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues against Quentin Smith's proposition about the uncaused beginning of the universe. It suggests that Smith failed to carry the second prong of his argument that the universe began to exist without being caused to do so. It also shows that Smith misconstrued the causal principle in question, appealed to false analogies of ex nihilo, contradicted himself in holding the singularity to be the source of the universe, and trivialized his own argument through reduction of causation to predictability in principle.
The Wave Function of a Godless Universe
Authors: Smith Quentin
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the wave function of a Godless universe. It analyses the concept of nothingness, the interpretation of quantum cosmology, and Stephen Hawking's quasi-instrumentalist interpretation of quantum mechanics. It comments on the concept of imaginary time in Hawking's quantum cosmology and his physical interpretations of the exponential part of the wave function, and suggests that Hawking's quantum cosmology is rationally preferable to theism. It could be argued that his cosmology has greater predictive power since it predicts that it is highly probable there is a universe with properties we observe and that the universe is near the critical density.
The Early Federal Theologians
Authors: Weir David A.
Published: October 2011

The origins and development of the early federal theology, with its key identifying feature of a prelapsarian covenant, can be traced to a certain group of theologians of the late 16th century. Zacharias Ursinus was the first Reformed theologian to propose this idea, and it is logical to examine the view of some of his followers and colleagues to see whether they follow suit. After examining the theological works of Ursinus's colleagues, this chapter affirms that the federal theology has its origins in the Palatinate of the Holy Roman Empire between 1560 and 1590. The chapter gives a brief overview of the political and religious history of the Palatinate, identifies the first generation of federal theologians emanating from Heidelberg, and gives a brief survey of the history of the schools to which these theologians belonged: the Faculty of Theology of the University of Heidelberg, the Casimirianum in Neustadt an der Hardt, and the Herborn Academy.
Conclusion
Authors: LYMAN J. REBECCA
Published: October 2011

Logos Christology was not a passive product of cosmological categories, but a creative, passionate model of an emerging world-view. In their apologetic and polemical presentations of Christology, Origen, Eusebius, and Athanasius each borrowed and modified common formulas of Late Antiquity to express particular theological concerns. These concerns were not only individual beliefs, however; they also represented the spiritual and social realities of the communities which shaped the focus and language of each man: small urban study groups, public civic apologetics, and the emerging ascetical church. Defining the subordination of the Son as an essentially soteriological error unfortunately forced early reflection into later Trinitarian or Christological models. In conclusion, some ‘correlations’ which appear to exist between the cosmological models and historical communities of the three authors are outlined.
Introduction
Authors: Johansen Julian
Published: October 2011

Sufism is the term which designates the inner, experiential aspects of Islam. It is often translated as ‘Islamic mysticism’, a term which presents certain methodological difficulties to the researcher. As the inner dimension of Muslim worship, Sufism can be said to be the essence of Islam. Religious debate is no stranger in Egypt, which has been a centre for Islamic scholarship almost since the entry of the Muslims in the mid-seventh century AD. Given Egypt's long tradition of Islamic scholarship and Sūfī activity, it is not surprising that Sufism should be a significant element in Egypt's public religious discourse. The use of what might be called the ‘floating arbiter’, a religious authority whose opinion is cited in support of two conflicting sides in a given dispute, is emphasized. The chapter also presents the ways in which the writers respond to criticisms of Sūfī ideas and practices.
Introduction
Authors: Goldfajn Tal
Published: October 2011

This introductory chapter explains the coverage and objective of this book, which is the temporal interpretation of word order and expression of time in the biblical Hebrew (BH) verb. This book postulates that the use of BH verb forms in classical BH is not arbitrary. It proposes two parameters that may be used to organize more consistently the observations concerning the time indications of the BH verb. The first parameter deals with the existence of two initial temporal set-ups and the second is about the role of verb order sequences in setting the temporal relations between the events within each temporal set-up.
On Biblical Hebrew Temporality
Authors: Goldfajn Tal
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the unique encounter offered in biblical Hebrew (BH) studies between the distinct disciplines of linguistics and theology. It suggests that the temporal interpretation of the classical BH verb forms may be more fully understood if their role in biblical narrative is analysed and that the fundamental temporal meanings of the verb forms are associated with their particular role in the structuring of the text. This chapter also provides a discussion of the historical explanations of the origins of the Hebrew verbal system.
Biblical Hebrew and Tense
Authors: Goldfajn Tal
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the verb tense and the past-present-future axis in biblical Hebrew (BH) language. It explains the standard linear representation of time in linguistics and highlights some of the objections which have been raised with regard to this interpretation. The most famous objections to the threefold division of time into past, present, and future have come from linguists who claim that certain cultures have absolutely no concept of time.
The Perfect System
Authors: Evans T. V.
Published: October 2011

This chapter establishes what evidence the Greek Pentateuch has to offer for the function of the perfect system. It shows that the choice of the perfect forms in these documents is largely free from Hebrew interference. These forms provide an important sample of early Koine usage, as it relates to Classical usage on the one hand, to that of the later Koine period on the other. The perfect system in the Pentateuch is free of formal interference from the underlying Hebrew. Lexical interference affects only the perfect participle, and is limited to the issue of frequency. The Greek verbal adjectives are in general vulnerable to such influence, through use as characteristic translation equivalents of common Hebrew expressions. This yields distortion of comparative frequencies among the tense forms of the participle.
General Conclusion
Authors: Evans T. V.
Published: October 2011

The use of aspect, tense, and mood in the Greek Pentateuch represents essentially idiomatic Greek, in accord with the usage of the early Koine vernacular. The evidence of these verbal categories contradicts the ‘LXX syntax equals Hebrew syntax’ view, for the Pentateuch at least. This is not to claim that Hebrew interference is entirely absent from these categories. However, apart from a few rather rare functional traits, interference is mainly manifested through the feature of frequency of occurrence. Thus, the Greek Pentateuch — and indeed the entire LXX — is an important witness for the history of the Greek verbal system during the early post-Classical period, when important changes were in progress. The verbal categories of translation Greek documents richly reward the intense scrutiny they have recently begun to attract.
Miracles
Authors: BARTHOLOMEW DAVID J.
Published: October 2011

The notion of a miracle is established as an act by some power external to the natural world. Aside from presenting points made by Hume, Lewis, Babbage, and other contributors, this chapter presents three categories that address the arguments against miracles: 1) theological objections that assert how miracles are inconsistent with God's nature; 2) scientific objections that claim miracles break physical law; and 3) historical objections that question whether these events actually happened or not. An investigation of these objections leads to the following conclusions: miracles do not directly defy worldly laws; the strength of the evidence of a miracle depends not only on the evidence, but on the probability that a God capable of acting in the world exists; many alleged miracles provide insufficient evidence for divine involvement; and the logic of uncertain inference can measure the value of human testimony as evidence.
Political Culture in Contemporary Britain
Authors: Miller William L. , Timpson Annis May , Lessnoff Michael
Published: October 2011

This book examines what the British people and their politicians really think about the fundamentals of politics. Based on new and revealing survey data, it presents an analysis of British attitudes to civil, political, and social rights. The book uncovers two broad ‘macro-dimensions’ of political principle — liberty and equality — which underlie a large number of more specific principles and shape people’s responses to many practical issues. Controversially, it claims that commitments to liberty and equality tend to run together — only the least educated treat them as alternatives; left-wingers support both and right-wingers oppose both. It explores the influence of social background, personal experience, and the institutional setting on attitudes towards political principles, highlighting in particular age and the complex influences of education and religion. It also shows how arguments and propaganda combine with political principles and party loyalties to influence opinion on practical issues. The final chapter presents an overall model and quantifies the relative power of all these different influences.
Argumemt
Authors: Miller William L. , Timpson Annis May , Lessnoff Michael
Published: October 2011

It is reasonable to take account of arguments that do have content. They may not change the nature and circumstances of the question but they may present genuinely different perspectives and remind us of different factors that have a bearing on the question, and it would not be an act of weak-mindedness to respond to them. This chapter attempts to discover the power of genuine arguments of different kinds and the sensitivity of the respondent to them, as well as the purely manipulative power of the interview. It looks at the impact of using arguments without content, of adding arguments that do have content, of presenting alternative and opposed arguments, and of challenging people to change their minds.
Personal Experience
Authors: Miller William L. , Timpson Annis May , Lessnoff Michael
Published: October 2011

This chapter moves from the broad questions of social background, partisanship, and ideology to look at people’s more personal and specific experience of being a victim of discrimination, a consumer of state services, or a participant in social and political life. Although the causes of these experiences may be interesting in themselves, we are more interested here in their consequences — in the impact that these kinds of experiences may have on people’s attitudes to civil, political, and social rights.
Policy Making in a New Field of Telecommunications: Advanced Networks and Services and Customer Premises Equipment from the Late 1970s to the Mid-1990s
Authors: Thatcher Mark
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the period from the late 1970s to 1996, covering institutional changes in Britain in the 1980s and those in France in 1990. The impact of institutional arrangements is revealed in three ways. First, the role of specific institutional features in producing policy patterns within each country is analyzed. Second, the effects of institutional change on patterns within each country are studied. Third, cross-national comparison shows how increasing institutional divergence between Britain and France in the 1980s was followed by policy divergence, and that the reduction in such institutional dissimilarities after 1990 led to reduced policy disparities without causing them to disappear.
Economic Outcomes in the Telecommunications Sector in Britain and France 1970–1997: Convergence Despite Institutional Divergence
Authors: Thatcher Mark
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the possible impact of national institutions on economic performance. It considers the indicators of ‘economic outcomes’ — quantifiable results concerning the supply of telecommunications services and equipment in the policy areas analyzed in the previous chapters. Over the period 1970-97 the similarities between the two countries are seen to be much greater than dissimilarities, and several indicators showing convergence instead of divergence.
Mines and the Techniques of Mining
Authors: Hatcher John
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses mines and mining techniques. Topics covered include types of mine; exploration, boring, and sinking; methods of working, hewing and hauling, drainage, winding, and ventilation and lighting.
Life and Labour in the Collieries
Authors: Hatcher John
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the following topics: the structure of the colliery work-force, the hours and frequency of work, methods of remuneration, and wage rates and earnings.
The Coal Industry and the Economy in Early Modern Britain
Authors: Hatcher John
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the impact of the coal industry on the economy of early modern Britain. Cheap coal was beneficial to Britain's industrial development, and well before the 18th century it had become the leading industrial fuel. With the notable exception of iron-making, coal was being burnt by all the major industries in which the provision of heat was a significant part of the production process, and it was virtually the sole fuel of the leading energy consumers. The substantial benefits which accrued to the swelling ranks of manufacturers and processors who could abandon expensive wood or charcoal stimulated innovation and improved competitiveness, thereby encouraging the emergence of Britain as a ‘mineral fuel economy’ in advance of any other nation.
Development for ‘Big Fish’ or for ‘Small Fish’?: A Study of Contrasts in Tanzania’s Fishing Sector
Authors: Swantz Marja-Liisa , Tripp Aili Mari
Published: October 2011

The people-first orientation adopted by Tanzania — which originated from Julius Nyerere, who stepped down after twenty-four years of presidency — has yet to be adopted by other African nations. This approach became evident through the various public service programmes implemented within the country, especially those that concerned heath care and adult education. Some of the successes that resulted from such programmes include how adult literacy increased from 10 to 79 per cent, how life expectancy rose from 42 to 51 years, and how potable water was becoming accessible to the public. The commitment of the country in attending to the basic needs of the people involved people participating in considering, planning, and employing the plans that would advocate development and the benefit of the people. However, ‘progress’ took on a different meaning since it existed externally to development schemes. This chapter looks into the case of Tanzania’s fishing sector and the measures adopted to achieve development.
Hosting the Otherness of the Other: The Case of the Green Revolution
Authors: Esteva Gustavo
Published: October 2011

This chapter attempts attempts a radical pluralist approach in analyzing the marginalization experienced by the several different knowledge systems that were utilized during the Green Revolution. The chapter asserts that it is necessary for both modern technological measures and traditional techniques to exercise a certain degree of hospitality towards each other, since hosting another approach does not require adopting the methods of the other. Instead, hospitality embraces how these two aspects may be able to accept each other’s existence. The chapter retells the life stories of Fidel Palafox, Marte R. Gómez, and Efraím Hernández Xolocotzi, and illustrates how they reacted to and are affected by the various events brought about by the ‘Green Revolution’.
Software Development Practices
Authors: Fincham Robin , Fleck James , Procter Rob , Scarbrough Harry , Tierney Margaret , Williams Robin
Published: October 2011

This chapter explores the main process of information technology (IT) innovation, namely, the area of knowledge that has become recognized as software engineering. Throughout its history, software has been beset by problems that have their roots in the difficulties of managing expertise. This chapter traces the emergence of software engineering, outlining its principles and procedures and providing a survey of the techniques (the methodological instrumentalities) employed in financial services. The limitations of these practices and the extent of their adoption are discussed, along with the ways in which organizations have tackled the problem of making software expertise more accountable and responsive to business needs. There was evidently a consensus that improved corporate involvement in IT decision-making, systems design, and project management was the key to making the IT function more responsive to business needs. The methodologies in use, however, typically attempted to address this issue by simply formalizing user involvement as a stage at the beginning of the traditional software life cycle.