bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Direction of Foot Force for Pushes against a Fixed Pedal: Variation with Pedal Position
Authors: Gruben Kreg G. , Rogers Lynn M. , Schmidt Matthew W. , Tan Liming
Published: August 2016

The force that healthy humans generated against a fixed pedal was measured and compared with that predicted by four models. The participants (n = 11) were seated on a stationary bicycle and performed brief pushing efforts against an instrumented pedal with the crank fixed. Pushes were performed to 10 force magnitude targets and at 12 crank angles. The increasing magnitude portion of the sagittal-plane force path for each push effort was fitted with a line to determine the direction of the muscle component of the foot force. Those directions varied systematically with the position of the pedal (crank angle) such that the force path lines intersected a common region superior and slightly anterior to the hip. The ability of four models to predict force path direction was tested. All four models captured the general variation of direction with pedal position. Two of the models provided the best performance. One was a musculoskeletal model consisting of nine muscles with parameters adjusted to provide the best possible ft. The other model was derived from (a) observations that the lines-of-action of the muscle component of foot force tended to intersect in a common region near the hip, and (b) the corresponding need for foot force to intersect the center-of-mass during walking. Thus, this model predicted force direction at each pedal position as that of a line intersecting the pedal pivot and a common point located near the hip (divergent point). The results suggest that the control strategy employed in this seated pushing task reflects the extensive experience of the leg in directing force appropriately to maintain upright posture and that relative muscle strengths have adapted to that pattern of typical activation.
Intermittent Vision and One-Handed Catching: The Temporal Limits of Binocular and Monocular Integration
Authors: Bennett Simon , Ashford Derek , Elliott Digby
Published: August 2016

The aim of this research was to examine the temporal limits of binocular and monocular integration useful for one-handed catching. Participants performed 20 one-handed catching trials in 12 conditions (N = 240) defined according to the type of viewing (binocular, monocular) and the manipulation of the visual sample (continuous, intermittent). Catching performance deteriorated significantly when there was no visual information available for 80 ms between 20-ms visual samples provided simultaneously to each eye. However, there was no change in catching performance when continuous monocular vision was available for 80 ms between the binocular samples. Performance under monocular viewing decreased significantly when intermittent samples were separated by less than 20 ms. These results confirm that the equivocality in previously reported temporal limits of binocular integration is due to the different arrangement of the intermittent vision conditions and hence the information available between intermittent samples.
Bimanual Coordination: An Unbalanced Field of Research
Authors: Obhi Sukhvinder S.
Published: August 2016

Using more than one limb to perform functional, goal-directed actions is arguably one of the most important abilities that human beings possess. In many everyday tasks, the hands, in particular, must be used to accomplish all manner of goals. From buttoning a shirt to opening a jam jar and driving to work, good bimanual coordination is of great utility. In addition to the tasks mentioned above, there are also other tasks involving the functional use of more than one limb, including walking or cycling and typing a report. With a little thought, it becomes apparent that there is at least one important difference between these categories of coordination tasks. On one hand, in some tasks the effectors must perform markedly different motor outputs that are bound together in some functionally defined and usually object-oriented manner (e.g., buttoning a shirt) yet, in others, the effectors produce very similar motor outputs but in a specific temporal order, which may or may not repeat itself periodically (e.g., walking and cycling compared to typing or drumming). In this short article, I will argue that the second category of coordination task and, in particular, cyclical coordination, has been studied extensively and, at least at the level of behavior, is relatively well understood. In contrast the former category of bimanual task is seldom studied and, even at the descriptive level, is rather poorly understood. One of the reasons for this may be the complexity of such tasks and the technical difficulties involved in attempting to study them. By highlighting some key studies, I hope to illustrate that such tasks can be fruitfully studied in the laboratory. Last, since the neural control processes underlying both classes of coordination task are not yet well known, I aim to draw attention to the potential value of the interventional technique of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) as a tool for investigating the functions of brain regions contributing to bimanual coordination.
An Analysis of OSHA Compliance and Selected Risk-Management Practices of NIRSA Fitness Directors
Authors: Connaughton Daniel , DeMichele Douglas , Horodyski Mary Beth , Dannecker Erin
Published: August 2016

This article reports and discusses the results of a study designed to assess selected risk-management practices of NIRSA fitness directors. The purpose of this study was to examine: (a) compliance with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration's (OSHA) bloodborne pathogens standard, (b) adherence to selected American Heart Association (AHA)/ACSM recommendations for cardiovascular screening, staffing, and emergency policies at health/fitness facilities, and (c) selected risk-management practices. A cover letter and questionnaire were electronically mailed to all NIRSA members who subscribed to the association's listserv asking them to forward the message to their institution's fitness director. A total of 53 responses were received. Data were analyzed using SPSS and descriptive statistics are provided. Results suggest that most programs were complying with many of the OSHA bloodborne pathogen standards. Likewise, most respondents indicated that their programs were following many of the AHA/ACSM recommendations. However, several responses suggested that programs were in violation of certain OSHA standards and/or were not adhering to the AHA/ACSM recommendations. In today's litigious society, and in an effort to reduce injuries and deaths, it has become imperative for fitness directors to practice sound risk-management techniques.
Examining the Role of Perceived Service Quality in Predicting User Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions in a Campus Recreation Setting
Authors: Osman Robert W. , Cole Shu Tian , Vessell C. Randal
Published: August 2016

Since participant numbers are no longer sufficient to assess the success of campus recreation centers, alternative methods such as students' perceived quality of service, levels of satisfaction, and their intentions to reuse and recommend the programs and facilities were investigated. This study examined the impacts of three service quality dimensions, i.e., ambiance of the facility, operations quality and staff competency, and user satisfaction and behavioral intentions. Two hundred and forty-nine student users of a campus recreation center were surveyed. Participants reported relatively high levels of service quality perceptions, satisfaction, and intentions to re-use and recommend the center. Results reaffirmed the significant contribution of service quality to user satisfaction. However, improved staff competency and user satisfaction did not increase users' intentions to use the center again. Users' overall satisfaction, along with operations quality, explained 25% of the variance in users' intentions to recommend the center to others. Findings suggest management personnel of campus recreation centers should focus on improving service quality, which in turn will increase users' satisfaction levels with the center, and ultimately, will lead to positive word-of-mouth. Future studies should recognize the unique characteristics of campus recreation center clientele so that factors influencing users' intentions to re-use the campus recreation center can be identified.
Assessment of a Campus Recreation Program on Student Recruitment, Retention, and Frequency of Participation across Certain Demographic Variables
Authors: Lindsey Robert , Sessoms Eugene
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of campus recreational sports facilities and programs on student recruitment and retention and to provide analysis regarding the number of times students participate in recreational sports activity. A convenience sample of students from classes in the Department of Physical Education and Health at a small southeastern university was used in the study. The instrument consisted of a modified version of the National Intramural-Recreational Sport Association's Quality and Importance of Recreational Services Survey. The chi-square test of homogeneity was used to test for differences, alpha = .05. Significant differences were found on the gender and class standing variables studied. Although limitations of the study exist, the results provide further evidence that students report that the availability of recreational sports facilities and programs has an impact on both their decisions to attend and remain at an institution. Furthermore, the study shows that differences exist across gender and class standing variables in frequency of participation, a finding that can only serve to increase the practitioner's understanding of those who use such facilities and programs.
Participation in a Campus Recreation Program and its Effect on Student Retention
Authors: Hall David A.
Published: August 2016

The following qualitative research project was a case study review of the campus recreation program at the University of the Pacific. The study contains a brief literature review, participant observations, analysis of departmental participation rates, and in-depth interviews with University of the Pacific students. The study intended to understand the role of a campus recreation program in retaining students at the University of the Pacific. The type of research design, method, discussion, and measures of validity and reliability are incorporated in this paper. The method of analysis chosen was in-depth interviewing. Historical records, archival documents, and an analysis of the in-depth interviews were used to describe the case and analyze the findings.
Intramurals and College Student Development: The Role of Intramurals on Values Clarification
Authors: Rothwell Erin , Theodore Philip
Published: August 2016

Intramural programs on college campuses enforce standards of moral conduct, otherwise known as “good sportsmanship,” in their programs. Moral development education focuses on helping students reach higher levels of moral reasoning (Kohlberg, 1981). To achieve higher levels of moral reasoning requires one to first clarify her or his values. This research explores the relationship between participation in intramural programs and values clarification. Values clarification assumes if an individual is successful in clarifying her or his own values, then changes in behavior will result. When values are not clear, students' lives lack direction and decisions about how to spend their time and energy (Raths, Harmin, & Simon, 1966). According the theory of values clarification, individuals who are confused or unclear about their values will tend to behave in immature, over-conforming, or over-dissenting ways, while individuals who possess clarified values behave in calm, confident, and purposeful ways (Kinnier, 1995). Through the enforcement of good sportsmanship in an intramural program, opportunities are provided for individuals to clarify their values, thus contributing to the overall development of the student.
A Study on Job Satisfaction among Campus Recreation Administrators at Four-Year Public and Private Institutions
Authors: Kaltenbaugh Lance Peter
Published: August 2016

The primary purpose of this study was to investigate aspects of the job that influence job satisfaction among campus recreation administrators. Job satisfaction was measured by the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) which consisted of nine subscale measures that relate to employee job satisfaction and strongly examines perceptual and attitudinal variables (Spector, 1997). Participants, consisting of 104 campus recreation administrators, were affiliated with the National Intramural Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA). According to the data, the degree to which campus recreation administrators are satisfied with their job is significant in two subscales. Results from this research suggest that supervision and nature of work were the two highest ranking measures of job satisfaction among campus recreation administrators at 4-year institutions. The second part of the Job Satisfaction Survey requested demographic information. Results from this research suggest that the demographic information was not significant to explain the overall level of job satisfaction.
Service Quality and Satisfaction within Campus Recreation: The Moderating Role of Identification
Authors: Shonk David J. , Carr Julie Wallace , De Michele Peter E.
Published: August 2016

The current study integrated the services marketing and social identity literature to examine the moderating effect of Identification on the relationship between service quality factors (i.e., Program Quality, Interaction Quality, Outcome Quality, Physical Environment Quality) and Satisfaction. The study was administered using a modified version of Ko and Pastore's (2007) Scale of Service Quality in Recreational Sports (SSQRS) and Wann and Branscombe's (1990) team identification questionnaire. Data were collected from more than 4,000 campus faculty and undergraduate student recreational users attending a university within the Middle Atlantic region of the United States. Results of the regression analysis demonstrated that Identification had a significant interactive effect when added to Outcome Quality, F(1, 3663) = 105.869, p < .001, such that higher Identification is related to higher Satisfaction. Identification also had a significant interactive effect with Program Quality, F(1, 3850) = 25.281, p < .001, such that higher Identification is related to lower Satisfaction. There was no significant interactive effect between Identification and Interaction Quality, F(1, 3692) = 1.464, p = .226; and Physical Environment Quality, F(1, 3721) = 1.977, p = .160. The findings have important implications for campus recreation professionals.
Pentagon of Sport Sales Training: A 21st Century Sport Sales Training Model
Authors: Irwin Richard. L. , Southall Richard M. , Sutton William A.
Published: August 2016

In 2004, Andy Dolich (president of business operations for the National Basketball Association’s [NBA] Memphis Grizzlies), decried the lack of sales training in sport management curricula. In response to that criticism, this paper provides a history and description of a metadiscrete sales-training program recently developed and implemented at two universities. This paper is designed to serve as a blueprint for faculty interested in enhancing their understanding of the theoretical underpinnings and practical logistics of implementing a similar sales-training program in their curriculum. It is the authors’ contention that such programs, based on sound pedagogical principles, can enhance the process of reconnecting sport management curriculum to the 21st-century sport-industry.
Sport Management Students’ Attitudes Toward Women: A Challenge for Educators
Authors: Ross Sally R. , Parks Janet B.
Published: August 2016

This study examined 115 undergraduate sport management students’ attitudes toward women’s roles in the workplace and three variables that might explain those attitudes: perspective taking, gender self-esteem, and attitudes toward sexist language. The participants, 88 men and 27 women, were enrolled in one midsize university in the Midwestern United States. On average, the participants were ambivalent about women’s roles. Women were significantly more supportive of women’s roles than were men (p < .001). Taken together, the ability to take the perspective of others and attitudes toward sexist language uniquely explained 16% of the variance in men’s attitudes toward women. Neither perspective taking, nor gender self-esteem, nor attitudes toward sexist language correlated significantly with the women’s attitudes toward women. Women’s gender self-esteem was inversely related to their attitudes toward women. Based on the results, suggestions for recruitment, curriculum development, and classroom strategies for enhancing sport management students’ attitudes toward women are presented.
Interns in Professional Sport: An Investigation of Gender Parity on the Job
Authors: Cuneen Jacquelyn , Sidwell M. Joy
Published: August 2016

Internships permit sport management students to link classroom learning to the professional environment. Since internships provide students with opportunities to learn on-the-job and test their skills in the marketplace, the experiences should be uniformly beneficial to all students regardless of gender. This study was conducted to describe internship work conditions (i.e., opportunities to perform in essential marketplace functions) for male and female sport management interns assigned to ‘Big Four’ professional sport organizations. Participants were 74 sport industry professionals who supervised a total of 103 interns over a one-year period. A X2 Test of Independence found that male and female interns working in professional sport had comparable opportunities to perform and learn on the job. Differences in opportunity, hiring practices, and on-the-job benefits emerged primarily as a function of job specialization (e.g., operations, marketing, venue management), league/association, or gender of the internship supervisor rather than gender of the interns.
Use of the Responsible Decision Making Model for Athletics (RDMMA) to Address Conflicting Priorities at NCAA Division I Member Institutions
Authors: Yiamouyiannis Athena , Lawrence Heather J. , Hums Mary A. , Ridpath B. David
Published: August 2016

Intercollegiate athletics administrators face many difficult and complex issues throughout the course of their careers related to balancing athletics budgets, remaining competitive in select sports and complying with Title IX. To better prepare future athletics administrators to handle these challenges, the authors provide background information on the complexities of the issue, discuss use of the Responsible Decision Making Model for Athletics (RDMMA) as a tool to assist in the process, and demonstrate the use of this model as applied to intercollegiate athletics. The RDMMA provides a framework from which to organize information, ensure all constituencies are considered, save time in decision making, and evaluate intended and unintended consequences of decisions. Professors can use the RDMMA as a tool in the classroom to bridge the gap between academic theory and practical application of these concepts to help guide future athletics administrators on how to approach complex issues and responsibilities.
A Critical Management Studies Approach to Sport Management Education: Insights, Challenges and Opportunities
Authors: Shaw Sally , Wolfe Richard , Frisby Wendy
Published: August 2016

Sport management education has developed in a manner consistent with conventional management education, focusing on traditional instrumental performance measures and largely ignoring wider social considerations. We endeavour to contribute to the advancement of critical approaches in sport management education. While arguing for the benefits of a sport management education that addresses the complex social issues faced in sport, we provide illustrations of critical teaching in sport management, offering examples from personal pedagogical experience. We conclude with a discussion of pragmatic issues faced in adopting a critical orientation within sport management. Our aim is to provide an approach framed by critical thought that can be used to complement existing teaching paradigms to enhance and bolster the rigour and depth of teaching in sport management.
“Sometimes Good, Sometimes not so Good”: Student Satisfaction with a Sport Management Exchange Program
Authors: Bennett Gregg , Ballouli Khalid , Sosa Jason
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the effectiveness of a sport management student exchange program. During a summer semester, Wilson University1 faculty hosted a 39-day exchange and study tour made possible due to funding from the U.S. Department of State’s Fusion Arts Exchange program. The theme of the program, the American Sports Brand, was based on an original model focused on creating a deeper understanding of U.S. society, culture, and values among a multinational group of students through an intensive study of the formation, development, and business practices of the American Sports Brand. Participants included 15 international students and five American undergraduate students. A mixed methodological framework was used to examine student learning, perceptions, and experiences. Findings indicate that the exchange was perceived as “sometimes good, sometimes not so good” by the participants. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Utilizing Ethnographic Projects Within Sport Management Curriculum: Bridging the Gap Between Research and Practice Through Personal Knowledge
Authors: Sartore-Baldwin Melanie , Quatman-Yates Catherine
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to introduce ethnographic research to students in two graduate-level sport management courses, assess the extent to which the students benefited throughout the duration of the project, and anticipate future benefits as a result of the project. In response to previous calls for a more thorough integration of theory, research, and practice within sport management curricula, a plan to integrate ethnography projects into a sport management human resource management course and a contemporary issues course was developed and implemented. The strengths and weaknesses of the project are discussed relative to student feedback received through journal excerpts and interviews from the students and instructor fieldnotes. Suggestions and guidelines for future uses of ethnography as a teaching tool are offered.
Creating Experiential Learning Opportunities for Sport Management Students: The Case of Grand Slam Marketing
Authors: Dees Windy , Hall Todd
Published: August 2016

Experiential learning (EL) is a pedagogical approach in which students are given the opportunity to apply conceptual knowledge to practical situations (Muir & van der Linden, 2009; Rogers, 1969). Experiential learning opportunities are one way that sport management programs are preparing graduates for employment in the industry. Southall et al. (2003) suggest the creation of a metadiscrete EL model in which sport management programs provide out-of-classroom learning opportunities under the guidance of faculty mentors, which are offered throughout the entire college experience. Grand Slam Marketing (GSM) at Georgia Southern University is a prime example of the metadiscrete EL model prescribed by Southall. GSM is a faculty-guided, student organization at Georgia Southern University (GSU) that is comprised of undergraduate and graduate students from a variety of majors including sport management. A plethora of implications for professors and students can be formulated from evaluating the GSM model and are discussed in the manuscript.
Engaging Students Beyond Just the Experience: Integrating Reflection Learning into Sport Event Management
Authors: Pauline Gina
Published: August 2016

Sport management as an academic discipline requires a balance of theory and practice through endowing students with knowledge, critical thinking skills, and expertise (Cuneen & Parks, 1997). Professionals call for students being “prepared” for the demands of the sport industry through the acquisition of a quality education and a significant amount of hands-on experience before entering the work force. Researchers have recommended utilizing experiential pedagogical strategies to not only provide the hands-on engagement but also to challenge students to use their knowledge for the public good (e.g., Bruening, Madsen, Evanovich, & Fuller, 2010; Chalip, 2006; McKelvey & Southall, 2008; Pauline & Pauline, 2008). It also supports the recent trend to educate students in the world beyond the confines of the college campus. Boyer (1996) noted engaging outside the confines of campus will not only give students hands on experience but also, cultivate a student’s cognitive and moral development, which is often underestimated in higher education.
Development and Organization of a Student-Operated Sport Management Cocurricular Club: Partners in Sports
Authors: Hardin Robin , Bemiller James , Pate Joshua
Published: August 2016

Experiential learning is a critical component to a college education in the area of sport management as students must enter the workforce with hands-on industry experience. One experiential learning tool is a cocurricular club that offers volunteer work experience for sport management majors. The University of Tennessee’s Partners in Sports is an example of a sport management cocurricular club that prepares students for working in the sport industry through volunteer experiences. The purpose of this study was to provide a governance and organizational framework of a student-operated sport management cocurricular club and explore how it fits into the Foster Five-Step Experiential Learning Model (Foster & Dollar, 2010). This study examines the governance, student involvement, leadership, opportunities, financials, and yearly activities of Partners in Sports and offers practical applications for each area. The exploration revealed that a cocurricular club fits on the Volunteer Exploration step of the Foster Five-Step Experiential Learning Model as it introduces students to the sport industry by offering experiential learning opportunities. Providing a cocurricular club allows sport management programs to maximize initial industry exposure to students.
The Utility of Moral Stage Analysis in the Investigation of Athletic Aggression
Authors: Bredemeier Brenda Jo , Shields David L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the theoretical and empirical relationship between stages of moral reasoning and athletic aggression, and thus to offer a new model for the investigation of aggression in sport. In this pilot work, 22 female and 24 male basketball players’ moral reasoning levels were determined through the administration of Rest’s Defining Issues Test (DIT); athletic aggression measures included coaches’ ranking and ratings of player aggressiveness, and statistics pertaining to players’ fouls per season game. Significant judgment-action results were congruent with hypothesized relationships. The results are discussed within a cognitive-developmental framework.
The Production of Fairness: Officiating in the National Hockey League
Authors: Rains Prue
Published: August 2016

The work that rule enforcement officials do in sports is more difficult to evaluate than popular imagination would suggest. Officials are not expected to call every infraction of the rules; in fact, they are expected not to. It is not the correctness of a call (or non-call) that is at issue, therefore, but the fairness of a pattern of discretionary calls. Using the work of National Hockey League linesmen and referees as examples, this article describes three methods used by professional sports leagues to produce fairness on the part of officials and, more importantly, to prove that fairness has been accomplished. I have characterized these methods as the procedural production of consistency, the substantive production of consistency, and the supervision of officials’ work. The failure of these methods to produce compelling and objective evidence of fairness supplies a persistent and essentially unresolvable problem for those who man the social control apparatus. Ironically, the tension that this problem generates, and the attention therefore paid to the issue of fairness, is probably the best guarantee that fairness is produced.
The Creation of Appropriate Integration Opportunities in Sport for Disabled and Nondisabled People: A Guide for Research and Action
Authors: Nixon Howard L.
Published: August 2016

Despite the stigma usually attached to disabled people, and the attendant difficulty in picturing disabled people in “normal” societal roles interacting and competing with nondisabled people, a mandate for integrating disabled and nondisabled people in all areas of society has been thrust upon Americans during the past decade through judicial, legal, and social pressures and political action. This paper focuses on the appropriate integration of disabled and nondisabled people in sport. It considers some potentially salient personal attribute and background parameters (i.e., type and severity of disability and amount of sports background) and sports structure parameters (i.e., type of sport, amount of disability adaptation, and degree of competition) that could affect the extent to which integration efforts in sport result in genuine integration and a reduction in the stigmatization and handicapped minority status of disabled people. It is hoped that this paper, and the general hypotheses it proposes about appropriate integration, will serve to guide future research and informed action in program planning and implementation aimed at integrating disabled and nondisabled people in sport.
Self-Images of Women Bodybuilders
Authors: Duff Robert W. , Hong Lawrence K.
Published: August 2016

In analyzing the data from a questionnaire survey of 205 competitive women bodybuilders conducted by the International Federation of Body-Builders, the authors attempt to find out how these women define their roles. What emerges from the analysis is a new concept of femininity that combines aspects of the traditional definitions with added dimensions of muscularity and body symmetry. They see muscularity, fitness, strength, and health as increasing their femininity, adding to their attractiveness as women, and increasing their sex appeal to men. They do not see themselves as emulating men. Relatively few see themselves as feminists or androgynists.
Youth Sport Participation of Professional Baseball Players
Authors: Hill Grant M.
Published: August 2016

The youth athletic backgrounds of professional baseball players were assessed to determine whether there was early specialization in baseball, and to determine the influence of both their high school baseball coaches and parents on their baseball careers. Players were also asked to comment on the ideal activities for aspiring young baseball players. Questionnaires were administered to 152 players from six teams in the Northwest Rookie League. Players were generally multisport athletes during high school. Specialization by playing position appeared to be delayed until the professional level, with most players playing several defensive positions during their elementary, junior high, and high school years. Players generally concurred with the advice they had received from their high school baseball coaches, that young, talented baseball players should practice and train for baseball on a year-round basis and should also participate in other school sports.
Patriotic Symbols in Intercollegiate Sports during the Gulf War: A Research Note
Authors: Malec Michael A.
Published: August 2016

In the United States, one connection between sport and politics seemed to present itself during the period of the Gulf War. Although the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) normally proscribes the use of patches on team uniforms, the American flag was a prominent addition to the uniform jerseys of many teams, especially after the United States went to war. A questionnaire was mailed to sports information directors at 152 randomly selected colleges and universities. Eighty-seven usable replies were received and analyzed. Results indicate that institutions which adopted the use of a patriotic symbol tended to be members of Division I of the NCAA or made appearances on regional or national television. National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) institutions and NCAA Division II and III institutions—institutions that appear infrequently on television—tended not to wear patriotic symbols.
Becoming a World-Class City: Hallmark Events and Sport Franchises in the Growth Strategies of Western Canadian Cities
Authors: Whitson David , Macintosh Donald
Published: August 2016

This paper examines the role that the pursuit of hallmark events and of major league sports franchises has played in the growth strategies of western Canadian cities. Literature on civic boosterism illustrates the vigorous competition that developed among regional elites to establish their own cities as perceived growth centers. These competitions are sharpened today by the contemporary mobility of capital, by media/information networks that focus unprecedented attention on “world-class” events, and by the growth of event-related tourism. The predictions of the benefits from investment in sports and tourism are typically optimistic, and gloss over significant differences of interest between local elites and others who are less likely to benefit.
Social Network Analysis of Sport: Emphasizing Social Structure in Sport Sociology
Authors: Nixon Howard L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper is to focus more attention on the potential value of a structural social network approach for understanding social interaction, relationships, structures, and change in sport. Despite growing interest in this approach in sociology in general, little attention has been paid to it by sport sociologists. Examples of applications to sport are presented concerning the study of pain and injury, small groups and subcultures, organizational relations, coaching burnout and deviance, and managerial recruitment and stacking.
Sexual Violence and the Reproduction of Male Power in the Locker Room: The “Lisa Olson Incident”
Authors: Kane Mary Jo , Disch Lisa J.
Published: August 2016

Numerous media commentators have deemed the sexual harassment locker room incident between Lisa Olson and the New England Patriots to be an embarrassing case of mismanagement. Our analysis challenges this popular assumption; we argue that the event represents an overt manifestation of male power by means of sexual violence against women. The response to Olson suggests that in an era where women’s entry into sport has challenged men’s exclusive hold on that domain, the locker room, like the playing field, must be understood as contested terrain. For men to maintain control over the terrain of the locker room, the female sportswriter must be displaced from her role as authoritative critic of male performance and reassigned to her “appropriate” role of sexual object. In light of the importance of sport, and the status of the locker room as an inner sanctum of male privilege, the incident between Olson and the Patriots was not mismanaged at all but, in fact, handled effectively.
The Virtual Disappearance of the White Male Sprinter in the United States: A Speculative Essay
Authors: George John
Published: August 2016

Over the past 30 years almost all world-class United States sprinters have been black. There were also many fast black sprinters in the United States before the 1960s, but in addition there were a considerable number of world-class white sprinters. In fact, during the 1940s and 1950s the fastest men were white. This was not the case during the 1930s, when the best male sprinters were black. This essay discusses the phenomenon and attempts to give reasons for it. Sociological explanations seem considerably more plausible than physical characteristics based on perceived racial differences.
Carrying the Ideological Ball: Text, Discourse, and Pleasure
Authors: Lalvani Suren
Published: August 2016

This study of American football illustrates the view that even though popular texts are imbricated with dominant values, they are open to multiple readings. The analysis proceeds in a dialectical manner identifying the preferred reading, and counterposing to that the opportunity for alternative readings that result from locating the football text within an extradiscursive context and in light of the contradictions in the text itself. In addressing the ambiguity in the text, the paper points to the contradictory meanings of offense and defense in football and the contrasting forms of class based masculinity conveyed by the contradiction.
The Perfect 10: “Sportspeak” in the Language of Sexual Relations
Authors: Segrave Jeffrey O.
Published: August 2016

This paper explores the use of the sports metaphor in the language of sexual relations. Data were collected from a questionnaire administered to a select sample of 127 undergraduate students. The results indicated widespread familiarity and use of this type of language, especially among males. Far from being innocuous, the use of the sports metaphor in this intimate area of life operates as a subtle, yet powerful component of a larger cultural discourse that contributes to the social construction of male hegemony in society. In particular, “sportspeak” in the language of sexual relations functions as a mechanism for transforming a human relations issue into a technical problem, for objectifying women, and for constructing notions of masculine hegemony and hegemonic masculinity.
Chilly Scenes of the 1992 Winter Games: The Mass Media and the Marginalization of Female Athletes
Authors: Daddario Gina
Published: August 2016

This article examines television’s portrayal of female athletes during the 1992 winter Games. Although women are depicted in physically challenging events that defy stereotypical notions of femininity, such as mogul skiing, luge, and the biathlon, rhetorical analysis suggests that the sports media reinforce a masculine sports hegemony through strategies of marginalization. These include the application of condescending descriptors, the use of compensatory rhetoric, the construction of female athletes according to an adolescent ideal, and the presentation of female athletes as driven by cooperation rather than competition.
Gretzky, Crisis, and Canadian Identity in 1988: Rearticulating the Americanization of Culture Debate
Authors: Jackson Steven J.
Published: August 2016

This paper contributes to the recent debates concerning sport and the “Americanization” of culture with specific reference to Canada. The analysis focuses on the media’s role in articulating specific political, economic, and cultural events in order to construct a crisis of Canadian identity. In particular, this study examines how the 1988 marriage and trade of ice hockey star Wayne Gretzky were articulated within a discourse of crisis and specifically linked to an alleged threat of “Americanization.” It is asserted that a comprehensive understanding of Americanization must address its complexity beyond a simple case of cultural imperialism and should consider such issues as appropriation and strategic use to serve particular political interests.
Do Motives Matter? Modeling Gambling on Sports among Athletes
Authors: Curry Timothy J. , Jiobu Robert M.
Published: August 2016

The importance of competition and other motive statements in explaining gambling behavior is an important but controversial issue. This study operationalizes several types of motive statements related to sports participation, and then, in a novel methodological strategy, applies these as independent variables in a causal model of sport betting among college athletes. Based on questionnaires from 492 athletes at three colleges, findings showed that competitive and extrinsic motives for sport predict sports wagering. This is the case even in a multivariate equation that includes several control variables drawn from previous studies of gambling in the general population.
The Development of Sports Medicine
Authors: Waddington Ivan
Published: August 2016

The development of sports medicine can be understood in terms of a conjuncture involving processes of medicalization and the increasing competitiveness of modern sport. It is also suggested that the growing involvement of sports physicians in the search for championship-winning performances has led them not only to develop improved mechanical and psychological techniques, but also to play an active part in the development of performance-enhancing drugs and techniques. The argument is developed via three case studies: the relationship between sports medicine and drug use in some of the former communist countries of Eastern Europe; the early development of anabolic steroids in the United States; and the development of “blood doping.”
Studying up on Sex
Authors: Messner Michael A.
Published: August 2016

Although there has been some scholarly scrutiny of gays and lesbians in sport, there has been very little “studying up” on the social construction of heterosexuality in sport. In this paper, I begin by drawing on recent historical research on sexuality to reflect on the significance of the emergence of the heterosexual at precisely the time in history when the institution of modern sport was being forged. Next, I critically examine recent theoretical issues raised by poststructuralists, postmodernists, and queer theorists. I argue for a materialist examination of sexuality as a key linking process in a socially structured matrix of domination along lines of race, class, and gender. Finally, I interrogate a “sexual story” as an example of one way the meanings of heterosexuality might be analyzed within sport.
Peers in Pain: The Experiences of Student Athletic Trainers
Authors: Walk Stephan R.
Published: August 2016

Recent work has suggested that masculinist sport subcultures (e.g., Young & White, 1995) and “conspiratorial” sports organizations (Nixon, 1992a) foster the acceptance of pain and injury by athletes. Using semistructured interviews, this study examined the experiences and beliefs of 22 student athletic trainers at a large university. The study found that student athletic trainers had conflicting alliances to student athletes and to staff trainers, held competing beliefs about athlete pain and injury, and struggled with athletes who did not properly use health care services and advice. It is recommended that future studies focus upon processes of negotiation and conflict, that more attention be directed to medical treatment of injured women athletes, and that recommendations to change medical services for athletes await further research.
A Sporting Chance? The “Dark Horse Strategy” and Winning in Professional Running
Authors: Mewett Peter G. , Perry John
Published: August 2016

Professional running, derived from 19th century pedestrianism, is a gambling sport mostly confined to working men. Runners compete for prize money and, particularly, in the hope that they will win races as “dark horses” which should ensure substantial winnings from the betting ring. This sport involves handicapping athletes to level ability differences between them and, in theory, gives each competitor an equal chance of winning. Competitors conceal their true potential and lose races, however, with the dual objectives of acquiring favorable handicaps, thereby increasing their chances of success in their targeted events and getting favorable odds from the bookmakers. People in the sport use numerous tactics of secrecy and deception to reduce the risk of discovery of their dark horse prospects. A case study of a runner is presented to demonstrate the processes involved in the use of the “dark horse” strategy to win a major race.
The Construction of Women’s Positions in Sport: A Textual Analysis of Articles on Female Athletes in Finnish Women’s Magazines
Authors: Pirinen Riitta M.
Published: August 2016

This study analyzed the treatment of female athletes in Finnish women’s magazines. The purpose was to examine how media representations constructed hierarchic relations between women. Furthermore, the aim was to examine how the construction and legitimation of the hierarchy between women and the gender hierarchy are interwoven with each other. Finally, the study discussed the possibilities to challenge, resist, and transform the ideological construction of these hierarchic relations. Briefly, the study demonstrated the ways in which media texts may both construct disempowering positions and also offer recourses of empowering positions for women.
“No-Body’s Perfect”: Women, Aerobics, and the Body Beautiful
Authors: Maguire Joseph , Mansfield Louise
Published: August 2016

This paper seeks to synthesize aspects of feminism and figurational (process) sociology. Women’s bodies are viewed as sites for studying interrelationships between power, gender, and identity construction. The behavioral and emotional rituals of women in a specific aerobics class are mapped out and located within the “exercise–body beautiful complex.” We explore the way in which social constraints and individual self-control interweave in the rationalized management of women’s bodies. The embodied experiences of these women are intertwined with long term enabling and constraining features. Covertly disempowering, the “exercise–body beautiful complex” reinforces established standards of femininity. The realignment of dominant images of femininity is advocated in order to extend the liberating features of the figuration in question.
Hail to the Redskins? Public Reactions to a Racially Insensitive Team Name
Authors: Sigelman Lee
Published: August 2016

The use of American Indian team names, mascots, and symbols has stirred considerable controversy over the last decade. This paper focuses on public attitudes toward the most frequently objected-to team name, the Redskins, Washington, DC’s professional football team. Data from 2 surveys, one local and the other national, establish that very few members of the general public see any need to change Redskins to another name. Support for a name change is significantly higher among racial or ethnic minorities; the more highly educated; and those who are not fans of professional football in general or the Washington team in particular. However, even in those parts of the public, support is far outweighed by opposition. These findings stand in stark contrast to the idea that Americans now routinely disassociate themselves from ideas and stereotypes that might convey the impression that they are racially insensitive.
When Being Female Isn’t Feminine: Uta Pippig and the Menstrual Communication Taboo in Sports Journalism
Authors: Kissling Elizabeth Arveda
Published: August 2016

In this paper, I examine newspaper coverage of Uta Pippig’s 1996 Boston Marathon. Pippig won the Boston Marathon for the third time in a row, in spite of being slowed by menstrual cramps, heavy menstrual flow, and diarrhea. These obstacles and Pippig’s victory over them, as well as her competitors, received disparate treatment in newspaper coverage of the marathon. This coverage provides a rare look at how menstruation is constructed, and erased, in sports journalism.