bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Adaptation of the Incident Command System to Oil Spill Response During the American Trader Spill
Authors: Rolan Robert G. , Cameron Keith H.
Published: January 2013

While developing its new crisis management plan in 1989, BP America (BPA) modified the incident command system (ICS) for use as the organizational structure of its oil spill response team. This was done to be compatible with the post-Exxon Valdez organization of the Alyeska response team and for certain advantages it would provide for responses in other locations and in other types of crisis situations. The ICS was originally developed for fighting wildfires in California and has since been widely adopted by other fire and emergency services in the U. S. While retaining most of the ICS structure, ?PA developed modifications necessary to fit the unique requirements of oil spill response.

The modified ICS was used during a full scale test of ?PA's draft crisis management plan in December 1989, and thus was familiar to ?PA's top executives and other participating response team members. When the American Trader spill occurred in February 1990, BPA's management used the modified ICS organization even though the crisis management plan had not been finalized or widely distributed within the company. Details of the organizational structure evolved as the spill response progressed, in part due to the changing requirements of the response over time and in part because of previously unrecognized issues. This paper describes that evolution and the resulting final structure. Essential differences between the original ICS and BPA's oil spill version of it are highlighted. Despite the unrecognized issues and the unfamiliarity of some team members with the ICS, the organization worked well and can be credited with a share of the success of the American Trader response.
Response to the American Trader Oil Spill1
Authors: Card Capt. James C. , Meehan Lt. John A.
Published: January 2013

A spill of approximately 9,500 bbl of Alaskan North Slope crude oil (27.5 API gravity) occurred on February 7, 1990, when the 818-foot, 37,768-gross-ton, U.S.-flag tank vessel American Trader grounded on one of her anchors while attempting to maneuver into Golden West Refining Company's Huntington Beach offshore mooring at position 33°37.7’N, 118°00.5’W. Oil flowed from a three-foot-by-five-foot puncture in the No. 1 starboard wing tank, and a 40-square-mile slick developed during the next three days. By February 13, 14 miles of recreational beach along Southern California's heavily populated coast had been affected by the spill.

The response mounted by the federal on-scene coordinator (OSC) and the responsible party as a result of this accident became one of the most successful open sea oil recovery operations in U. S. history and has been called a textbook example of shoreline cleanup and interagency cooperation. The relative effectiveness and short duration of the cleanup were due to favorable weather, fast response, availability of oil spill recovery equipment, good strategic planning, and cooperation between the responsible party and the government.

An extensive offshore response effort (15 major skimming systems, 25 support vessels), coupled with fair weather and mild sea conditions, resulted in unusually high open sea oil recovery rate (25.1 percent of the total crude spilled). Major wetlands, including the Bolsa Chica National Wildlife Refuge, Newport Bay, and the Santa Ana River, were protected with containment booms within eight hours after the accident, excluding the oil slick from these vital estuaries. An intensive beach cleanup with sorbents and shovels began with initial shoreline oiling on February 8 and peaked on February 13, when some 1,300 workers were deployed to combat heavy oil sludge forced ashore by southerly storm winds. By employing people in lieu of heavy machinery on these fragile beaches (Huntington Beach, Newport Beach, Bolsa Chica Beach), environmental impact was minimized and a rapid, thorough cleanup was attained. By March 2, all beaches had been cleaned; the rest of the cleanup consisted of low-pressure cold water flushing and high-pressure hot water spraying of oil-contaminated jetties, piers, and rocky shorelines. On April 3, 1990, final cleanup operations were completed, and the OSC concluded all monitoring activities associated with this incident.
An Overview of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Authors: Harrison O. R.
Published: January 2013

While the Exxon Valdez oil spill had a significant and far-reaching impact, important progress has been made since the massive cleanup operation was launched in the spring of 1989. In 1989, Exxon treated almost 1,100 miles of shoreline identified to be impacted. This effort involved more than 11,000 people and 1,400 marine vessels. Environmental recovery is well under way in areas impacted by the spill, thanks to nature's own cleansing power and man's efforts. The 1990 cleanup primarily used nonintrusive techniques and addressed 10 to 15 percent of the shoreline treated in 1989. Much has been learned about how to prevent and respond to such an incident in the future.
Public Perceptions in Spill Response
Authors: Meidt Richard M.
Published: January 2013

The federal on-scene coordinator's public information mechanism is an often underused resource that can help responders overcome communications problems and better accomplish goals in spill situations. Media coverage of recent spills indicates recurring problems with regard to the way the responses were perceived. Responders’ actions tended to be characterized by contradiction and misunderstanding, questions about leadership, and failure to act in a timely manner. This paper examines some of that media coverage and outlines the basic guidelines which federal on-scene coordinators use to avoid such problems: access, focus, and control/coordination. The paper is intended to help the response community better understand the OSC's public information role and missions; it may help the response community make greater use of the OSC public information program to communicate vital information during a spill response.
Crisis Management During an Oil Spill Response
Authors: Noble John M.
Published: January 2013

In an oil spill response operation, events generate an “incident personality.” How this personality develops depends greatly upon how control is exercised. This paper considers the crisis management element in an oil spill response and seeks to differentiate between response management and crisis management. Three incidents are briefly used as examples of how a crisis management role was defined and implemented, or not, as the case may be.

The concept of crisis management is introduced. The crisis management team, or manager, will assume a role that allows for flexibility, without direct involvement in response activities. Many major companies already operate, or have plans for, a crisis management team. However, in many instances, shipowners or operators rely on their P&I clubs to step into the role of crisis management, without actively contributing themselves.
Linkages between Oil Spill Removal Activities and Natural Resource Damages
Authors: Dunford Richard W. , Hudson Sara P. , Desvousges William H.
Published: January 2013

The new Oil Pollution Act of 1990 defines natural resource damages from oil spills as the sum of the cost to restore foregone natural resource services, the diminution of value of natural resource services prior to restoration, and damage assessment costs. Natural resource damages are usually determined once removal activities (containment, protection, and cleanup) are completed. Nevertheless, removal activities affect the magnitude of all three natural resource damage components. Consequently, to minimize the total cost of oil spills, decisions on removal activities should consider the linkages between removal activities and natural resource damages.

Successful containment results in minimal natural resource damages, because oil generally does far less damage to natural resources in open water than on shore. If oil cannot be contained, the potential natural resource damages from oil coming ashore in certain areas can help determine priorities for protection activities. In particular, oil may harm natural resource services much more in some areas than in others. Furthermore, some natural resource services are more costly to restore and assess than others. Finally, some cleanup activities do more harm than good to natural resource services. If the effects of cleanup activities on natural resource damages are ignored, “excessive” cleanup activities are likely.
Toward a French Approval Procedure for the use of Dispersants in Inland Waters
Authors: Merlin F. , Bocard C. , Cabridenc R. , Oudot J. , Vindimian E.
Published: January 2013

The use of dispersant at sea has been well defined in many studies. For inland waters the situation is not the same. At the request of the French authorities, a study was performed to assess the use of dispersants in fresh water. This study leads to the conclusion that dispersant use in fresh water is possible only in running and turbulent waters. The toxicity of a light crude oil and a diesel oil to some freshwater animals was assessed, leading to preliminary recommendations. In other respects, too, the effectiveness of dispersants has been tested; many products that are effective in seawater give poor results in fresh water. Consequently, dispersants must be controlled prior to their use in rivers. As it has for dispersant use at sea, France is establishing a procedure for approving use of dispersants in fresh water. This procedure involves specific laboratory tests to test their effectiveness, toxicity, and biodegradability in fresh water.
The Region III Regional Response Team Technical Symposium on Dispersants: An Interactive, Educational Approach to Enlightened Decision Making
Authors: Walker Ann Hayward , Henne Donald R.
Published: January 2013

Chemical dispersant use is one of the most controversial, complex, and time-critical issues facing officials with the responsibility for making decisions about the response methods used on coastal oil spills. Under U. S. law affected states have the authority to veto the use of dispersants. Consequently, the responsible government officials and their technical support staffs need to be prepared to make informed decisions when requested to approve dispersant use.

This paper describes the conceptual approach and structure used in the Region III Regional Response Team (RRT) technical symposium, held in April 1990. The purpose of this symposium was to provide detailed and balanced technical information on the environmental effects of dispersant use to state officials, and other key members of the response community, including the federal on-scene coordinators and those members of the RRT that would be involved in a dispersant use decision.

The symposium was designed to overcome many of the information transfer obstacles associated with communicating technical information to the technically and organizationally diverse audience of the Region III decision makers and advisors. Based on a decision-making practicum following the information presentations, where the technical information was applied in scenario-based exercises, the overall approach was successful in enhancing the decision-making climate among the affected response community in the mid-Atlantic.
Testing the Effectiveness of Spill-Treating Agents: Laboratory Test Development and Initial Results
Authors: Fingas Mervin F. , Stoodley Robert , Stone Nanci , Hollins Russel , Bier Ian
Published: January 2013

Laboratory effectiveness tests have been developed for four classes of spill treating agents: solidifiers, demulsifying agents, surface-washing agents, and dispersants. Many of the currently available treating agents in these four categories have been tested for effectiveness. These results are presented.

Solidifiers or gelling agents change liquid oil to a solid. Tests show that these require a large amount of agent to solidify oil, ranging from 16 percent by weight to over 200 percent. Demoussifiers or emulsion breakers are used to prevent or reverse the formation of water-in-oil emulsions. A newly developed effectiveness test shows that only one product is highly effective. However, many products will work, but require large amounts of spill treating agent.

Surfactant-containing materials are of two types, surface-washing agents and dispersants. Testing has shown that an agent that is a good dispersant is conversely a poor surface-washing agent, and vice versa. Tests of surface washing agents show that only a few agents have effectiveness of 25 to 40 percent, where this effectiveness is defined as the percentage of oil removed from a test surface. Extensive work has been done on dispersant testing and comparison of laboratory tests. All laboratory tests will yield the same effectiveness value if the oil-to-water ratio is about 1:1,000 or greater, and if a settling time of 10 or more minutes is employed. Extensive results using the “swirling flask” testare reported. Heavy oils show effectiveness values of about 1 percent, medium crudes of about 10 percent, light crude oils of about 30 percent, and very light oils of about 90 percent.
The Development of a Beaufort Sea Shoreline Cleanup Response and Operations Manual
Authors: Vanderkooy Nick , Owens Edward H. , Sartor Michael , Lumpkin Michael
Published: January 2013

The coast of the Canadian Beaufort Sea has been analyzed into segments, and for each the shoreline character and sensitivity were described in detail and a protection and cleanup plan developed. These “miniplans” together provide a regional response plan and define resource and logistic requirements for spills of different sizes in any part of the Canadian Beaufort Sea. In the event of a spill, low-altitude videotape reconnaissance surveys would first define the location of the oil and be followed by ground surveys to document the oiling conditions and to develop cleanup recommendations and strategies. Such information would be collected systematically, using standardized forms and terminology, and could be archived in a data base or Geographical Information System (GIS).
Subsistence Fisheries and the Exxon Valdez: Human Health Concerns
Authors: Walker Ann Hayward , Field L. Jay
Published: January 2013

As a result of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, many residents of villages in Prince William Sound, Lower Cook Inlet, the Alaska Peninsula, and Kodiak Island were alarmed by the prospect that their subsistence food supply might have been contaminated by oil and thus present an increased health risk.

Although major oil spills have occurred in the past, no database has been developed on human health effects resulting from the consumption of oil-contaminated food. This information gap and the time lag of several months required to develop relevant data were the principal impediments to rapidly addressing the villagers’ concerns. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) was asked by the federal on-scene coordinator and the Alaska Oil Spill Health Task Force to take an active role in addressing the subsistence food safety concerns of native villagers. Specific issues of concern to villagers included the following: Were subsistence foods contaminated as a result of the spill? Could subsistence foods be screened or tested by villagers to detect contamination? Did consumption of subsistence foods pose a health risk, either immediate (acute) or long-term (chronic)? What species in what areas were safe to eat?

Answering these questions involved researching the screening and testing equipment and protocols in existence, developing and implementing a sampling program, selecting techniques and a laboratory to conduct the analyses, and identifying experts to evaluate the analytical data as they might relate to the human health risk. This paper describes the activities and findings of the NOAA subsistence program; it does not address occupational health issues associated with the oil spill.
Upland Soil and Fertilizer in Rhizophora Mangrove Growth on Oiled Soil
Authors: Teas Howard J. , Diego Maria E. De , L. Elias Luque , Lasday Albert H.
Published: January 2013

Upland soil placed in small excavated holes in an oiled mangrove forest was found to be markedly superior to adjacent oiled soil as a medium for growing Rhizophora mangrove propagules and seedlings, even though the oil from the 1986 spill had weathered to the extent that it caused no mortality in planted propagules. The low value of oiled soil was not ameliorated by fertilizer. The inferior value of the oiled mangrove soil compared to upland soil appears to derive from the nature of old Rhizophora mangrove peat as a poor substrate for growth of young seedlings, rather than to residual oil toxicity. Planting of propagules in upland soil in the field was substantially less expensive than growing and planting out nursery plants.
Synergistic Contingency Planning by WRTs: An Inland Zone Watershed Response Team Contingency Planning Concept1
Authors: Robinson James L.
Published: January 2013

Legislative mandates of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 call for comprehensive Area Contingency Planning which, for the inland zone, may be best accomplished through novel multi-jurisdictional efforts of existing Regional Response Teams (RRTs) to form Watershed Response Teams (WRTs).
Bioremediation Technology Development and Application to the Alaskan Spill
Authors: Chianelli R. R. , Aczel T. , Bare R. E. , George G. N. , Genowitz M. W. , Grossman M. J. , Haith C. E. , Kaiser F. J. , Lessard R. R. , Liotta R. , Mastracchio R. L. , Minak-Bernero V. , Prince R. C. , Robbins W. K. , Stiefel E. I. , Wilkinson J. B. , Hinton S. M. , Bragg J. R. , McMillen S. J. , Atlas R. M.
Published: January 2013

Bioremediation was used to clean oil-contaminated shorelines in Prince William Sound following the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Among the approaches considered for enhancing natural rates of oil biodegradation, nutrient applications became the principal focus. Bioremediation studies were conducted in a cooperative effort of Exxon, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and scientists in academia. Field testing of nutriation of indigenous oil-eating microorganisms was conducted early in the summer of 1989, and full-scale application followed. Monitoring during the fall and winter of 1989–90 revealed the evident benefit of the technique and supported additional applications in 1990. The efficacy of bioremediation was demonstrated by measurement of numbers of hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms, microbial hydrocarbon-degrading activities, and chemical changes in residual oil. This paper discusses laboratory and field programs demonstrating the efficacy and environmental safety of bioremediation, and reviews the materials and methods chosen for large-scale application.
Oil Spills in the Great Barrier Reef Region
Authors: Craik Wendy
Published: January 2013

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority is charged with conservation of the Great Barrier Reef while allowing reasonable use to continue. One of the major challenges facing the authority is the risk of a major oil spill in the Great Barrier Reef region. An oil spill contingency plan, Reefplan, developed for the Great Barrier Reef region and part of Torres Strait, is a component of the Australian National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil. The authority provides scientific advice to the on-scene coordinator, who is in charge of responding to any spill. This paper reviews the history of oil spills in the Great Barrier Reef and discusses the authority's role in prevention and preparation for oil spills. The difficulty of coping with a large spill and the issue of environmental damage are highlighted, given the relatively remote nature of the region, the sparse population, and the logistic difficulties of working in such an area.
Enhancement of Biodegradation of Alaskan Weathered Crude Oil Components by Indigenous Microbiota with the use of Fertilizers and Nutrients
Authors: Tabak Henry H. , Haines John R. , Venosa Albert D. , Glaser John A. , Desai Sanjay , Nisamaneepong Wipawan
Published: January 2013

Bench-scale biodegradability studies of the Alaskan weathered crude oil were undertaken as part of the bioremediation project for the shorelines of Prince William Sound Alaska, contaminated by the Exxon Valdez oil spill. The purpose of the studies was to evaluate the ability of the indigenous microbial consortium of the seawater and island beach areas to biodegrade the weathered crude oil's alkane hydrocarbon and polynuclear aromatic (PAH) constituents in batch-type respirometric reactors and shaker flask systems.

Biodegradation studies used Inipol EAP22 and water-soluble nitrogen and phosphorus-containing solution (OECD) as the fertilizer nutrient source. In the respirometric studies, the unpolluted beach material in seawater was spiked with 1,000, 300, and 100 mg/L of weathered crude oil and with Inipol at 5 percent of oil weight or with OECD stock solution concentrates. The contents were brought up to 1,000 mL with seawter. Unpolluted beach material spiked with 10,000, 3,000, and 1,000 mg/L of weathered crude oil and with either Inipol at 5 percent of oil weight or with OECD inorganic salts in 1,000 mL of seawater were used in shaker flask microcosm studies. Temperature of incubation in both studies was 15° C, and culture systems were incubated in darkness.

Cumulative oxygen uptake data, growth data, and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis data demonstrate almost complete utilization of the alkane hydrocarbon constituents in the presence of Inipol fertilizer and OECD synthetic medium, and significant biodegradation of the PAH constituents after six weeks of incubation. Control experiments without Inipol or OECD nutrients demonstrated absence of biodegradative activity.
Trajectory Analysis for the Exxon Valdez: Hindcast Study
Authors: Galt J. A. , Watabayashi G. Y. , Payton D. L. , Petersen J. C.
Published: January 2013

The movement and spreading of the oil from the tanker Exxon Valdez accident was a vital issue in the massive response activities launched by industry, private groups, state governments and the federal government. To address this issue, a number of observational and forecast programs were carried out. These accumulated an unprecedented amount of observational data ranging from visual and remote-sensing distribution information to fairly complex adaptations of standard trajectory analysis routines.

This paper reports on a hindcast study that used observational data and computational procedures to provide a quantitative estimate of the oil distribution over time. The major difficulty in doing this work was associated with the fact that both the observational and computational data had errors. Typically, the observational distribution data were nonquantitative and tended to have a number of false positives, while the wind and current data used in the computational procedure lacked detail or were improperly scaled. To reconcile these difficulties, a statistical procedure was developed that helped identify various types of errors. This procedure was used to produce an observationally corrected, mass-balanced trajectory hindcast model.

The results of the hindcast model are available in a variety of formats and indicate the following general conclusions: by the end of the second week of April, approximately 30 percent of the spilled oil may have been lost to weathering processes, 40 percent beached within Prince William Sound, 25 percent exited Prince William Sound, and about 5 percent remained floating within Prince William Sound. Further analysis indicates that, of the oil leaving the Prince William Sound system, approximately 10 percent traveled beyond Gore Point, and about 2 percent got as far as Shelikof Strait.
CAMEO—Valdez: Charting the Progress of the Spill Cleanup1
Authors: Haas Thomas J.
Published: January 2013

On the morning of March 24, 1989, the tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground on Bligh Reef in Alaska's Prince William Sound. The vessel was carrying more than 53 million gallons of North Slope crude oil of which almost 11 million gallons were spilled into the water. The immediately impacted area included most of the western part of the sound, but as the time went by the impacted area expanded to include parts of Seward, Homer, and Kodiak.

This event became the worst oil spill in the history of this country—identified as a “spill of national significance.” Exxon's major cleanup response was closely monitored by federal, state, and various interest groups. Early in the response it was obvious to the federal on-scene coordinator (FOSC) that a computer-aided management system was necessary to monitor the progress of the spill cleanup operations. CAMEO (computer-aided management of emergency operations)—Valdez then was developed for the FOSC by the scientific support coordinator (SSC) through the efforts of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and immediately put to use.
Burning of Oil Spills
Authors: Evans D.D. , Mulholland G.W. , Lawson J.R. , Tennyson E.J. , Fingas M.F. , Tebeau P.A. , Gould J.R.
Published: January 2013

The Center for Fire Research (CFR) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is conducting research related to safety in offshore drilling and oil spill pollution under joint funding from Minerals Management Service (MMS), U.S. Coast Guard, and the American Petroleum Institute. Technical assistance in measurement has been donated by Environment Canada. This research has focused on examining the phenomena associated with crude oil combustion and the impact of using burning as a spill response method.

The process of burning crude oil on water as a means to mitigate oil spills has been investigated with a research effort combining both small-scale experiments and calculations. As a result of these studies, there has been increased understanding of the burning process, including burning rate, heat radiation, smoke emission, smoke composition, and smoke dispersion in the atmosphere.

A key to gaining acceptance of burning as a spill response technique is the demonstration that favorable results obtained at laboratory scale can be shown to continue in test burns representing the size of fires expected in actual operations. Field-scale burn tests are being planned and coordinated jointly by MMS, API, USCG, and Environment Canada to document the use of burning technology under conditions simulating actual oil spill cleanup operations. The purpose of this project is to measure the effects of oil spill burning in laboratory and field tests.
The Oil Pollution act of 1990: Key Provisions and Implications
Authors: Bovet David M. , Corbett Charles R.
Published: January 2013

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 establishes a system of oil spill liability, compensation and financial responsibility at levels not contemplated prior to the Exxon Valdez incident. Furthermore, it does so while preserving states’ prerogatives and rejects the international solution embodied in the 1984 Protocols to the 1969 Civil Liability and 1971 Fund Conventions.

The act requires new contingency planning by both industry and government and sets new construction, manning, and licensing requirements. It increases penalties, broadens enforcement responsibilities of the federal government, and enhances states’ participation in the national response program. It also establishes a billion dollar federal trust fund to supplement the liability of responsible parties.

The act is likely to result in safer tanker operations and to reduce the threat of oil spills in U.S. waters. These environmental improvements will be paid for by U.S. oil consumers. Other implications include the following:Reassessment of involvement in U.S. oil transportation by both independents and oil majorsEnhanced preparedness by responsible partiesA gradual rise in freight ratesCorporate restructuring to shield liabilityFewer small oil companies and independent carriers in U.S. tradesPotential disruptions linked to new certificates of financial responsibilityPotential shortages of Alaskan trade tonnageHeightened presence of state governments in oil spill incidents, oil spill legislation, and enforcement
Baseline Studies and Risk Analyses in the Baltic Sea
Authors: Bender Klavs , Østfeldt Preben , Bach Hanne
Published: January 2013

In 1986 an oil and gas concession in the Baltic Sea was granted by the Danish Ministry of Energy to a group of oil companies, with Norsk Hydro as operator. A paper describing the goals achieved midway through the program was presented at the 1989 Oil Spill Conference in San Antonio, Texas. This paper presents the final results of the program.

The chemical baseline study has shown that the only parameter that exhibits a marked variation is the total hydrocarbon content, where values are seven to eight times higher in the 1989 samples than in the 1987 and 1988 samples. It is suspected that the reason is seasonal variation, since the 1989 samples were collected in June, while the 1987 and 1988 samples were collected in September.

Even though the total hydrocarbon content varies significantly between some of the sample suites, only biomarkers related to recent organic material or immature petroleum source rocks are present in the samples. Petrogenic hydrocarbons related to spilled crude oil or exploration activities were not found in the area.

The spreading and weathering calculations revealed the zones along the coast where an oil spill was most likely to occur. The transport time for an oil spill to reach the coast was also calculated by the model. In combination with mapping of sensitive resources, the results from the model test runs were used in risk assessments.

The information gained in this study was used in the oil spill contingency plan.
WASTE MINIMIZATION CONCEPTS APPLIED TO OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Ferriere Dale
Published: January 2013

Lessons learned from past U.S. oil spill response histories show that prudent waste management principles have not been a primary consideration in making decisions for tactical response to major open-water oil spills. Contingency planners (government and industry) consistently choose a mechanical response strategy usually resulting in significant shoreline impact and waste generation (secondary pollution from response actions). Generally, the Environmental Protection Agency's waste minimization hierarchy is not used when managing a major open-water oil spill, subsequent cleanup of oiled shorelines, response to oiled wildlife, and final disposal of oily waste. Contingency plans do not adequately weigh the ecological ramifications from response-generated waste and response-generated pollution when deciding how to protect the environment. This paper shows how the EPA's waste minimization hierarchy should be used during all phases of an oil spill response: strategic planning, tactical planning, and response execution.
OIL SPILL CLEANUP FOR SOFT SEDIMENTS
Authors: Abbott John A. , Tookey David J.
Published: January 2013

A series of experimental trials are in progress to investigate the effectiveness and consequences of oil spill cleanup methods for areas of mud flats and salt marsh.

Trials have shown that wheeled and tracked vehicles have limited utility. Field measurements of the load bearing capacity of the mud can show where such vehicles may be used. Lightweight hovercraft provide a useful means of transport. Shallow-draft boats can have a useful transport role: whether such craft can be used depends on the local topography and tidal regime.

The trials showed that practical problems associated with implementing low-pressure flushing operations (lack of water for flushing, recovery of the flushed oil) can be overcome—although the environmental effects have yet to be assessed. The use of straw matting as a sorbent material was also demonstrated.

The objective of the first two phases of the project, reported here, was to select workable methods with a view to subsequently employing them in larger-scale trials. The environmental consequences of using the selected methods will be examined in the later trials.
Seaweeds and the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Authors: Stekoll Michael S. , Deysher Lawrence , Dean Thomas A.
Published: January 2013

A three-year study, initiated in 1989, has evaluated the response of subtidal and intertidal seaweed communities to the Exxon Valdez oil spill and subsequent cleanup activities. The project was part of the coastal habitat injury assessment research sanctioned under the natural resource damage assessment program. A stratified random design was used to select oiled sites for the study. Paired control (unoiled) sites were then matched to the oiled sites.

The most consistent effect found in subtidal populations in Prince William Sound was the higher relative abundance of small-size classes of kelps at the oiled sites, indicating the prior disappearance of larger plants. This disappearance was possibly caused by activities associated with the cleanup operations. Intertidal populations of algae were affected by the spill and cleanup in all three major areas studied: Prince William Sound, Cook Inlet-Kenai, and Kodiak-Alaskan Peninsula. The most obvious effect was a significant removal of the dominant intertidal plant Fucus gardneri from the mid and upper intertidal zones. The limited dispersal of this plant combined with the relatively harsh conditions of the upper intertidal will cause a slow recovery of the upper intertidal zone in the affected areas. Effects of the spill extended to other algal species. Species such as Cladophora, Myelophycus, Odonthalia, Palmaria, and Polysiphonia showed decreases in their percent cover at oiled sites. Only Gloiopeltis populations appeared to increase in percent cover in oiled areas. In both the Cook Inlet-Kenai and the Kodiak-Alaskan Peninsula areas Fucus populations appeared to be enhanced in the lower intertidal zone—between 2 and 3 meters below the high-tide mark—in 1991.
SAVING OILED MANGROVES USING A NEW NON-DISPERSING SHORELINE CLEANER
Authors: Teas Howard J. , Lessard Richard R. , Canevari Gerard P. , Brown Claude D. , Glenn Raymond
Published: January 2013

Mangroves are ranked as one of the most sensitive marine environments. If mangroves are oiled and no further action is taken, the probability of mortality to the trees is high. One of the ways that viscous spilled oil can kill mangroves is by covering the breathing ports, called lenticels (red mangroves) and pneumatophores (black mangroves), and asphyxiating them by preventing flow of oxygen from the atmosphere into the roots.

Mangroves can also be killed by continuous inundation of their prop roots or pneumatophores for a period of ten days to two weeks, but they can survive lenticel covering by water for a few hours at high tide—so there appears to be some grace period during which lenticels can be nonfunctional and the plant can still survive once lenticel function is restored. This suggests that if oil is removed from the breathing ports during the early days after a spill, the lenticels may be able to restore oxygen delivery to the roots and spare the mangroves. Such oils are poorly removed by the washing of tidal waters or by water sprays alone. So a new shoreline cleaner, which was specially developed during the cleanup of the Valdez spill in Alaska, was tested to determine its ability to help loosen the oil so it can be washed away with water.

Laboratory experiments using excised prop roots of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) were initially conducted to determine the feasibility of the approach. Subsequently experiments were carried out using about a hundred potted red mangroves at a test site in Florida. The prop roots, including the lenticels, were coated with a heavy oil (bunker C). After various periods of time, groups of oiled trees were treated with the shoreline cleaner to loosen and remove the oil deposit and then washed with seawater. The results showed that oiled trees could be saved by cleaning within seven days after oiling, indicating that the grace period after oiling extends for about one week.

The experimental results demonstrate the potential for saving mangroves in real-world oil spills by the use of this shoreline cleaner.
MUTUAL AID IN OIL SPILL RESPONSE: THE ALASKAN NORTH SLOPE MODEL
Authors: McKenzie Bruce , Ingram Norman
Published: January 2013

The Alaskan Arctic Region provides one of the world's most remote and challenging environments in which to mount an oil spill response. To facilitate the timeliness and appropriateness of the response, Alaska Clean Seas (ACS) and the operators of the North Slope oil fields have implemented a mutual aid concept for spill response. The concept is based upon each operator on the North Slope maintaining its own inventory of personnel [a spill response team (SRT)] and equipment that is available on short notice to respond to a spill. If the spill exceeds the responsible operator's resources, additional resources can be obtained from other operators and/or ACS through mutual aid. Individuals from diverse organizations are brought together in a mutual aid event. To allow different organizations to function effectively in a multi-organizational environment, a common management structure was required. The structure chosen for the North Slope was the incident command system (ICS).

A key concern when discussing mutual aid is the provision of indemnification from liability for responders. For the North Slope, ACS and its member companies are indemnified when responding to a spill through provisions in the ACS charter and the ACS response action contract.
RESPONSE TO THE RIO ORINOCO INCIDENT: A SMALL-SCALE INCIDENT THAT LASTED A WHOLE YEAR
Authors: Audet André
Published: January 2013

When the tanker Rio Orinoco ran aground on October 16, 1990, in the Gulf of St Lawrence near Anticosti Island, approximately 200 metric tons, or 200,000 liters, of fuel oil were spilled. Most of the pollution drifted onto the shores of Anticosti Island, which is considered a hunting and fishing paradise. The island is a controlled provincial reserve that is home to more than 100,000 deer and many species of sea birds. It provides ideal grazing for deer and feeding grounds for sea birds.

Within hours of the grounding, the Canadian Coast Guard set its emergency system in motion and dispatched a team of experts to the site. Since Anticosti Island is located in the middle of the Gulf of St Lawrence, the only way to reach the area quickly was to charter a plane. The first to arrive established a command post in the municipal offices of the small community of Port Meunier. During the first few days, experts hired by the insurance company devised a salvage plan. Unfortunately, it could not be carried out owing to bad weather, and all five attempts made in the weeks that followed were also futile. All this time, cleanup operations on the shoreline continued, with about a hundred men deployed over more than 60 kilometers. Getting to the shore proved to be a challenge since roads are nonexistent on most of the island. The Canadian Coast Guard turned to an air cushion vehicle to solve a tricky problem in an isolated area.

Here in Canada, the elements are a constant challenge when trying to recover oil and clean up a shoreline. On December 21, 1990, Mother Nature got the upper hand, and there was no choice but to abandon, for the winter, the idea of removing the wreck of the Rio Orinoco. All winter long, it continued to pose a serious pollution threat.

In June 1991, restoration and cleanup work on the shoreline resumed and this was completed in late July. The wreck of the Rio Orinoco was removed on August 6, 1991.
OFFSHORE OIL SPILL RECOVERY OPERATIONS IN THE PERSIAN GULF
Authors: Williams Hugh D. , Gangsaas Gunnar Kr.
Published: January 2013

On or about January 25, 1991, Iraqi forces in Kuwait discharged more than 4 million barrels of Kuwaiti crude oil into the Persian Gulf. The counterclockwise current carried the resulting slick southeastward along the coast of Saudi Arabia. The Saudi Arabian oil company, Aramco, chartered the multiclassed tanker and response vessel Al Waasit, based in Dubai, to assist in the offshore recovery operation. The Al Waasit's response resulted in the offshore recovery of about 100,000 barrels of oil during a 42-day period, without a recovery system failure. The authors both served on board Al Waasit as operations managers during this response operation.
POLLUTION PREVENTION, PREPAREDNESS, AND RESPONSE COORDINATION EFFORTS BETWEEN THE U.S. COAST GUARD AND COASTAL, GREAT LAKES, AND INLAND RIVER STATES
Authors: Donohoe Michael J. , Russell Bruce A. , Clark Patricia
Published: January 2013

Following the passage of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) and increased public demands for action in the wake of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, many states are now aggressively redefining and expanding their marine safety and marine environmental protection programs. The U. S. Coast Guard is developing a program to coordinate these efforts with the aim toward minimizing duplicative requirements, leveraging resources, and eliminating barriers to marine transportation due to widely differing federal and state regulations.
PROCESS TO IDENTIFY AND EVALUATE RESTORATION OPTIONS
Authors: Strand John , Senner Stanley , Weiner Arthur , Rabinowitch Sanford , Brodersen Mark , Rice Kenneth , Klinge Karen , MacMullin Susan , Yender Ruth , Thompson Raymond
Published: January 2013

The restoration planning process has yielded a number of possible alternatives for restoring resources and services injured by the Exxon Valdez oil spill. They were developed by resource managers, scientists, and the public, taking into consideration the results of damage assessment and restoration studies and information from the scientific literature. The alternatives thus far identified include no action natural recovery, management of human uses, manipulation of resources, habitat protection and acquisition, acquisition of equivalent resources, and combinations of the above. Each alternative consists of a different mix of resource- or service-specific restoration options.

To decide whether it was appropriate to spend restoration funds on a particular resource or service, first criteria had to be developed that evaluated available evidence for consequential injury and the adequacy and rate of natural recovery. Then, recognizing the range of effective restoration options, a second set of criteria was applied to determine which restoration options were the most beneficial. These criteria included technical feasibility, potential to improve the rate or degree of recovery, the relationship of expected costs to benefits, cost effectiveness, and the potential to restore the ecosystem as a whole. The restoration options considered to be most beneficial will be grouped together in several or more of the above alternatives and presented in a draft restoration plan. They will be further evaluated in a companion draft environmental impact statement.
OIL EXPOSURE AND EFFECTS IN SUBTIDAL FISH FOLLOWING THE EXXON VALDEZ OIL SPILL
Authors: Collier Tracy K. , Krahn Margaret M. , Krone Cheryl A. , Johnson Lyndal L. , Myers Mark S. , Chan Sin-Lam , Varanasi Usha
Published: January 2013

The assessment of oil exposure and resulting biological effects in subtidal fish following marine oil spills is a rather challenging task, due to difficulty in sampling and a lack of methodologies that allow direct determination of petroleum exposure. Because fish can rapidly metabolize petroleum hydrocarbons, standard chemical analyses are of little use for assessing exposure of fish to oil. However, methods are now available for measuring the metabolites of petroleum hydrocarbons in fish, as described elsewhere by Krahn and her colleagues. There have also been advances in determining early biochemical effects—such as induction of the cytochrome P450 system—and more severe biological effects—such as histopathological alterations and reproductive dysfunction—in fish species following exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons and related compounds. Accordingly, following the Exxon Valdez oil spill, we have been using these approaches and methodologies to measure oil exposure in subtidal fish species, together with associated biological effects. These studies have been conducted at sites inside Prince William Sound and along the Kenai and Alaska Peninsulas. Our results show a continuing exposure of several fish species, including benthic species, which indicates petroleum contamination of subtidal areas. We have also assessed reproductive function and histopathological alterations in several of these species; and while major effects have not been documented, some suggestion of histopathological alterations of gill exists in one species of benthic fish. Still to be determined are the potential impacts on fishery resources of long-term exposure to petroleum, albeit at moderate to low levels.
HISTORICAL BUILDUP OF OIL SPILL RESPONSE CAPABILITY IN JAPAN
Authors: Shirai Sakae
Published: January 2013

With the large oil spill that occurred in 1971 as an impetus, Japan's Maritime Pollution and Disaster Prevention Law was amended in 1973 and subsequently in 1976. The amendments required owners of vessels and petroleum facilities to retain designated quantities of oil boom, sorbent, dispersant, and other items to minimize impact from spills.

A large oil spill caused by a ruptured crude oil storage tank in 1974 led to the enactment of additional legislation: the Petroleum Complex Disaster Prevention Law. Under this, petroleum facilities are required to maintain designated quantities of oil boom, oil boom deploying vessels, skimming boats, and the like.

These legislative measures, together with voluntary efforts, have contributed to a sound buildup of the nation's oil spill response force. However, the response capability including stockpiled materials and equipment has been designed primarily to cope with incidents in closed waters such as inland seas, bays, and ports, and hence not for a oil spill in open seas as large as that from the Exxon Valdez.

As one of the measures under the 1990 International Convention for Oil Spill Preparedness, Response and Cooperation, the Government of Japan has entrusted the Petroleum Association of Japan with an oil spill response capability reinforcement project to cope with a large oil spill should one occur in Japanese waters or nearby seas.

Under the scheme, during the 5 year period beginning in 1991, the Petroleum Association of Japan is scheduled to build up, using subsidies from the government, stockpiles of cleanup equipment and materials and to augment the existing response capability.