bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Content Analysis of Environmental Sustainability Research in a Sport-Related Journal Sample
Authors: Mallen Cheryl , Stevens Julie , Adams Lorne J.
Published: August 2016

This study systematically examined the extent of environmental sustainability (ES) research within the sport-related journal sample of academic literature to identify areas of under-emphasis and recommend directions for future research. The data collection and analysis followed a content analysis framework. The investigation involved a total of 21 sport-related academic journals that included 4,639 peer-reviewed articles published from 1987 to 2008. Findings indicated a paucity of sport-ES research articles (n = 17) during this time period. Further analysis compared the sport-ES studies within the sample to research in the broader management literature. A research agenda is suggested to advance sport-ES beyond the infancy stage.
Nonprofit Sport Board Performance: A Review and Directions for Future Research
Authors: Hoye Russell , Doherty Alison
Published: August 2016

Given the growing body of research pertaining to nonprofit sport board performance, it is timely to review the focus and findings of this body of work, and to identify what might be priorities for further investigation. An integrated model of board performance that provides a framework for this review, and for the further discussion of current findings, gaps, and areas for future research, is presented. Relatively few studies have examined nonprofit sport board performance directly, with the majority of research focused on individual and group level board processes. The impact of environmental, organizational, or individual factors on board structure or processes, or on board performance, has received limited attention. Research questions that identify gaps in the literature and thus may guide future efforts are presented.
Sport Facilities as a Broadcast Studio for Human Extensibility? Geographic Information System-Based Diagrams of a High- and Low-Identified Sport Fan
Authors: Seifried Chad
Published: August 2016

This exploratory research investigation focused on the concept of human extensibility and sought to introduce the topic to the sport management literature. The purpose of this inquiry on human extensibility centered on attempting to better understand how professionalized sport facilities embrace communication technology to help virtual and remote spectators become extensible agents. The space-time path of both a high and low-identified sport fan was tracked through the creation of a Geographic Information System (GIS) based model to help explain the extensibility phenomenon. The GIS-based diagrams were established with the help of data collected from a space-time diary, video camera, and participant interviews. Professionalized sport facilities enjoy the space and ability to incorporate highly technical structures within their confines to help improve human extensibility, however, people must possess the resources (i.e., time and money), desire, and knowledge to exploit the technology. The researcher suggests future producers of sport products will benefit both publicly and financially with this emphasis. Finally, this research endeavor offers further discussion and predictions on newer technology emerging that professionalized sport facilities will or should likely embrace in the future to improve extensibility for all types of fans and to create, maintain, and/or secure greater fan identification.
The Influence of Personal Values and Goals on Cognitive and Behavioral Involvement in Sport
Authors: Lee Donghun , Trail Galen
Published: August 2016

This exploratory study examined the relationships among personal values, life goals, and individuals’ cognitive and behavioral involvement in sport. Multiple regression analyses revealed that personal values and goals explained a small to large amount of variance in General Sport Fanship (28%), Team Identification (28%), Televised Sports Viewership (19%), Game Attendance (13%), Internet Use specific to Sport (13%), Sport Listenership (12%), Sport Merchandise Purchasing (9%), and Sport Readership (8%). Comprehending the practical implications of identifying personal values, and in some cases personal goals, that influence cognitive loyalty and sport consumer behavior might improve sport marketers’ abilities to predict various types of sport involvement.
Loyalty in Sport Participation Services: An Examination of the Mediating Role of Psychological Commitment
Authors: Bodet Guillaume
Published: August 2016

This study aimed to increase the understanding of loyalty’s formative processes in fitness organizations. Building upon recent conceptualizations, the purpose of this study was to test the mediating role of psychological commitment in the relationships between consumers’ satisfaction, perceived value, involvement, identification, informational, and volitional processes and their attitudinal and behavioral loyalty toward a fitness organization. We conducted a questionnaire-based study in a French health and fitness club context with a sample of 252 club members, of which we were able to collect data in regard to repurchasing behavior for 110. This allowed us to confirm the relevance of the research model in regard to behavioral intentions, although including the behavioral-loyalty dimensions of the length of the relationship, frequency of participation, and repurchasing behavior failed to validate it. These findings have managerial implications for sustaining club membership levels.
Team Dynamics: A Social Network Perspective
Authors: Warner Stacy , Bowers Matthew T. , Dixon Marlene A.
Published: August 2016

Research has consistently revealed that team cohesion is positively related to team performance under certain conditions. In response to the need for understanding this relationship more fully, and because of the promising new insights that can be garnered with the use of social network analysis (SNA), this study employs SNA as a tool to explore a case study of the structural cohesiveness of two women’s collegiate basketball teams. Members of the two teams completed online roster-based surveys related to different types of structural cohesion levels at four points during the season. This case study revealed that the higher performing team showed improved structural cohesion in the efficacy network over the four phases, and highlighted the movement of key players in the different networks (friendship, trust, advice, and efficacy) over time. These patterns demonstrate the potential for SNA to function as a diagnostic tool for organizations and researchers to generate testable hypotheses even in instances where statistical inference may be precluded by sampling constraints. In short, SNA was found to be a valuable new tool for exploring, depicting, and informing explanations about the individual relationships that impact team dynamics.
What Would Kim Do: A Choice Study of Projected Athlete Doping Considerations
Authors: Huybers Twan , Mazanov Jason
Published: August 2016

This paper reports on an empirical discrete choice model of the factors influencing a hypothetical athlete’s deliberations around using prohibited performance enhancing substances (doping) developed from a sample of 259 elite Australian athletes (76% Australian, Worlds or Olympic). Kim was constructed as a gender neutral athlete at the same level and stage of career as the respondent. The results indicate athletes felt Kim would be more at risk of considering doping if convinced by a coach or senior athlete of disproportionate immediate gains to performance with little or no consequences (e.g., low risk of prosecution). Conversely, athletes indicated Kim was felt to be less inclined to consider doping if doping would be fatal, to achieve or maintain performance, large fines ($150,000) or no financial gain. The choice model also indicates elite athletes’ projections about doping considerations were rational in character. The implications for managing the role of drugs in sport suggest antidoping could be improved with precisely timed testing, changing incentive structures within sport, concealing test accuracy and publicly humiliating athletes caught doping.
Exploring the Relationship Between Sponsorship Characteristics and Sponsorship Asking Price
Authors: Wishart Taryn , Lee Seung Pil , Cornwell T. Bettina
Published: August 2016

Price setting in the sponsorship of sport, charity, arts and entertainment is usually negotiated, and private, so we know little about what determines price. With a sample of publicly available sponsorship proposals, the relationship between sponsorship characteristics and price set by the property is examined. Media coverage and attendance levels are hypothesized to have a positive impact on property price, as are a host of on-site communications. Overall the most influential variable explaining the property’s asking price is media coverage. In contrast, on-site communications are not important in price setting. Interestingly, access to property offerings such as celebrities and venues has a significant positive impact on property price. While the empirical investigation is limited to the relationship between communication characteristics and asking price, the price negotiation process and property-based characteristics that lead to the final price are also discussed.
Sport Teams as Promoters of Pro-Environmental Behavior: An Empirical Study
Authors: Inoue Yuhei , Kent Aubrey
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to explain the process of how a sport team could induce consumers to engage in proenvironmental behavior. Building on Kelman’s (1958, 1961, 2006) internalization perspective, this study demonstrated that positive environmental practices by a team increased consumer internalization of the team’s values. In turn, this increased internalization mediated the relationship between environmental practices and proenvironmental behavior measured by two behavioral intentions: intention to support the team’s environmental initiative and intention to engage in proenvironmental behavior in daily life. The results of this study contribute to the literature by highlighting the significant role of internalization. This research further provides a significant insight into the social impacts of sport organizations.
The Viewer’s Reception and Processing of Sponsorship Information in Sport Telecasts
Authors: Breuer Christoph , Rumpf Christopher
Published: August 2016

Although enormous sums are spent on sport sponsorships, knowledge of sponsorship information processing is still limited. For a continuing growth of sponsorship as a field significant improvements in our understanding of sponsoring effectiveness are required. Whereas the direct effect of sponsor signage exposure on sponsor recall has been identified in several studies, attention to sponsor signage as the mediator of sponsorship information has not been investigated thoroughly. Based on spotlight theory and the associative network model of memory, the present paper addresses this research gap and investigates the viewer’s visual attention to sponsorship information by applying eye tracking methodology. Regression models have been estimated to analyze information reception and processing in sport telecasts. The results reveal that the capture of attention is determined by the placement of sponsor signage and by exposure variables. Furthermore, sponsor recall is found to be a function of attention and brand-related variables.
Determinants of Pay-Per-View Broadcast Viewership in Sports: The Case of the Ultimate Fighting Championship
Authors: Tainsky Scott , Salaga Steven , Santos Carla Almeida
Published: August 2016

The scholarship on the economics of individual sports is scant relative to that of team sports. This study advances sport management scholarship, particularly sport economics, by using consumer-theory modeling to estimate Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) pay-per-view purchases. Our generalized linear models show fan preferences for certain weight classes, star fighters, outcome uncertainty and comain event quality factors as well as scheduling preferences for holiday weekends. The popular notion that The Ultimate Fighter reality series served as the impetus for the UFC’s growth is supported in part. The study concludes by showing how the modeling results impact firm revenue generation via fight card characteristics.
Sustainable Surf Tourism: A Community Centered Approach in Papua New Guinea
Authors: O’Brien Danny , Ponting Jess
Published: August 2016

This research analyzes a strategic approach to managing surf tourism in Papua New Guinea (PNG). Surf tourists travel to often remote destinations for the purpose of riding surfboards, and earlier research suggests the mismanagement of surf tourism in some destinations has resulted in significant deleterious impacts on host communities. The research question in this study addresses how surf tourism can be managed to achieve sustainable host community benefits in the context of a developing country. Primary data came from semistructured interviews and participant observation. The findings demonstrate how sport governing bodies can engage host communities in a collaborative framework for the sustainable utilization of sport tourism resources. The derived knowledge from this research may decrease host communities’ reliance on less sustainable commercial activities, and inform policy and practice on sustainable approaches to using sport tourism for community building and poverty alleviation.
Do Charity Sport Events Function as “Brandfests” in the Development of Brand Community?
Authors: Woolf Jules , Heere Bob , Walker Matthew
Published: August 2016

Given the ubiquity of charitable organizations and the events used to solicit donations for a cause, many charity-based organizations are continually looking for ways to expand their fundraising efforts. In this quest, many have added endurance sport events to their fundraising portfolios. Anecdotally, we know that building long-term and meaningful relationships with current (and potential) donors is critical for a nonprofit organization’s success. However, there is a paucity of research regarding whether these charity sport events serve as relationship-building mechanisms (i.e., ‘brandfests’) to assist in developing attachments to the charity. The purpose of this mixed-methods investigation was to explore to what extent a charity sport event served as a brandfest to foster a sense of identity with the charity. For this particular case study, the charity event had little effect on participants’ relationship with the charity.
Brand Architecture, Drivers of Consumer Involvement, and Brand Loyalty With Professional Sport Leagues and Teams
Authors: Kunkel Thilo , Funk Daniel , Hill Brad
Published: August 2016

Understanding brand relationships as perceived by consumers is important for the successful management and marketing of connected brands. Brand architecture and consumer behavior literature was integrated in this study to examine brand relationships between professional sport leagues and teams from a consumers’ perspective. Online questionnaire data were gathered from football consumers (N = 752) to test the influence of leagues and teams on consumer loyalty. Consumers were segmented into three theoretically identified sport brand architecture groups: league dominant, team dominant, and codominant. Findings of CFA, MANOVA, paired-sample t tests, frequency analysis, chi-square and linear regression analysis revealed that leagues and teams were in a codominant relationship with one another. Results revealed the brand architecture of leagues and teams as perceived by consumers, provide a reliable and valid tool to segment sport spectators, and showcase the influence of external factors on consumer loyalty with a team. Suggestions for league and team management and marketing are presented to better leverage their brand relationship and increase consumer loyalty with both brands.
Hometown Proximity, Coaching Change, and the Success of College Basketball Recruits
Authors: Barden Jeffrey Q. , Bluhm Dustin J. , Mitchell Terence R. , Lee Thomas W.
Published: August 2016

In this study, we examine the influence of hometown proximity on collegiate athletic recruit performance. The geographic proximity of a new recruit’s local community to a recruiting organization can influence the recruit’s performance after joining an organization. However, the direction of the effect of such proximity is not clear. Previous research suggests that human resource proximity facilitates recruits’ social embeddedness in the community in and around the recruiting organization. In turn, proximity may increase recruit performance by facilitating learning, trust-building, and social commitment. However, prior research also suggests that proximity could have some negative influences. Our empirical analysis of collegiate basketball recruits suggests that the geographic proximity of an organization to a new recruit’s hometown generally has a positive influence on both individual and team performance. However, proximity may become a disadvantage when there is a disruptive, involuntary coaching change after the recruit joins the organization.
Officiating Attrition: The Experiences of Former Referees Via a Sport Development Lens
Authors: Warner Stacy , Tingle Jacob K. , Kellett Pamm
Published: August 2016

Referees are key sport personnel who have important responsibilities both on- and off- the field. Organized competition would not survive without referees, yet little is known about what cause referees to discontinue in the role. This research examines the experiences of former referees so that managers may better understand strategies that might encourage more referees to be retained. Fifteen previous basketball referees were interviewed about their refereeing experience. Ten themes emerged that were related to the sport development stages of referee recruitment, referee retention, and referee advancement. The results indicate that issues experienced during the retention phase (Problematic Social Interaction, Training/Mentoring, and Lack of Referee Community) and then at the advancing stage (Lack of Administrator Consideration, Administrator Decision Making, and Sport Policies) are linked to eventual departure from the role. Interestingly, off-court factors were reported as more influential in the decision to leave. Managerial strategies and implications are discussed.
Reconstructing the Community-Based Youth Sport Experience: How Children Derive Meaning from Unstructured and Organized Settings
Authors: Bowers Matthew T. , Green B. Christine
Published: August 2016

Youth sport participation often provides the most salient forum for connecting sport with local communities. In this phenomenological examination of preteen youth sport participants, we consider the experiences and attendant meanings derived from participation in both organized and unstructured youth sport settings within a community. Phenomenology offers a paradigm for understanding youth sport participation, not in terms of the dialectical differences between the settings, but in terms of how the experiences in the different settings inform one another in the creation of meanings for participants. The analysis reveals that playing in unstructured settings actually changes the way participants think about their experiences playing organized sports (and vice versa) with both settings providing meaningful experiences capable of connecting participants to the community. Therefore, taxonomically separating the experiences engendered in the organized and unstructured settings creates a false dichotomy that fails to account for the important meanings to emerge from their synthesis.
Social Inclusion in Community Sport: A Case Study of Muslim Women in Australia
Authors: Maxwell Hazel , Foley Carmel , Taylor Tracy , Burton Christine
Published: August 2016

This paper considers how organizational practices facilitate and inhibit the social inclusion of Muslim women in a community sport setting. A case study of social inclusion practices in an Australian community sport organization (CSO) was built through interviews, focus groups, secondary data, and documentary evidence. Drawing on the work of Bailey (2005, 2008) the analysis employed a social inclusion framework comprised of spatial, functional, relational, and power dimensions. Findings indicated that there are a range of practices which facilitate social inclusion. Paradoxically, some of the practices that contributed to social inclusion at the club for Muslim women resulted in social exclusion for non-Muslim women. Examining each practice from multiple perspectives provided by the social inclusion framework allowed a thorough analysis to be made of the significance of each practice to the social inclusion of Muslim women at the club. Implications for social inclusion research and sport management practice are discussed.
Assessing the Impact and Effectiveness of Stadium Advertising on Sport Spectators at Division I Institutions
Authors: Stotlar David K. , Johnson David A.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the effectiveness of stadium advertising on sports spectators in selected NCAA Division I football and basketball programs, utilizing intermediate measures and recognition testing techniques. Research questions included whether sport spectators would recognize the presence of stadium advertising and could identify all of it. The factors of age, income level, seat location, number of games attended, and location of stadium advertising were analyzed as to their effects on spectator recognition. Based on the findings of this research, sport facilities have been shown to be an ideal medium for products that appeal to sport spectators. A majority of spectators noticed advertising, and approximately 7 out of 10 correctly identified it. Advertising locations that were “part of the game” were shown to be more effective than those on the scoreboards. Results of this study demonstrated that stadium advertising effectiveness can be assessed and that it provides the sponsors with an effective means for reaching sport spectators.
Sport Management Careers: A Descriptive Analysis
Authors: Kjeldsen Erik K.M.
Published: August 2016

This study utilized alumni of one sport management graduate program in an effort to investigate career paths in sport management. A representative sample of 126 alumni was selected from a population of 251 students who had graduated over a 10-year period. A total of 69 usable returns were received, for a response rate of 54.8%. Specific points during the professional, preparation period and during the working career were examined as benchmarks in the career path. The number of alumni maintaining jobs in the field at each benchmark shed light on career retention and on the factors contributing to attrition. The five benchmarks selected were entry into the graduate program, exit from the program, the internship, first job, and final job. Salary at each job level and satisfaction were measured in an effort to better understand the nature of a sport management career. The analysis was differentiated by sex and by the various subfields in the sport management profession.
Athletic Director Leader Behavior as a Predictor of Intercollegiate Athletic Organizational Effectiveness
Authors: Branch Dallas
Published: August 2016

Intercollegiate athletics has come under increasing scrutiny. Questions of leadership and the NCAA’s Presidents’ Commission reflect new levels of exposure and commitment to clean the athletic house. The problem of defining the academic/athletic balance in big-time college sports has polarized faculty, administrators, and athletic leaders at many colleges and universities. The purpose of this study was to examine athletic director and selected assistant perceptions of leader behavior to determine whether their perceptions contributed significantly to the prediction of intercollegiate organizational effectiveness. Findings indicate that effective athletic organizations have leaders who are more predisposed to goal and task accomplishment than to developing good interpersonal relationships with their subordinates. Contemporary leadership theory and management philosophy suggests that organizations that can accomplish both are most effective. Athletic directors may want to adjust their leadership behaviors to meet the managerial demands of today’s intercollegiate athletic program.
Employment Status of Alumni of an Undergraduate Sport Management Program
Authors: Parks Janet B.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the employment status of the alumni of a large undergraduate sport management program. Information was collected and analyzed relative to demographics, graduate school status, placement strategies, current positions, and salaries. Data treatment included descriptive statistics and chi-square. Statistically significant differences were found (a) between women and men relative to placement strategies, (b) between women and men relative to salaries, (c) between salaries of the major employment classifications, and (d) between salaries in positions related to sport management and those unrelated to sport management. Recommendations included encouragement of further investigation of the significant differences found in this study, utilization of the findings in career education, additional research focusing on career development rather than on employment status, and the use of more sophisticated research designs and more powerful statistical analyses in future studies of sport management career paths.
Participation Rates in Selected Sport and Fitness Activities
Authors: Howard Dennis R.
Published: August 2016

The extent to which American adults reported participating in selected sport and fitness activities over the past decade was examined. Data were obtained from Simmons Market Research Bureau, Inc., which produces annually the largest and most representative measure of adult sport, recreation, and fitness participation in the United States. Despite optimistic projections for sustained growth in participation rates by sport and fitness industry representatives, trend analysis revealed that participation in all but one of the activities examined had declined substantially. For each of the sport and fitness activities analyzed, active participation was confined to a very small percentage of the total adult population. Participants were divided into three segments (light, medium, and heavy) based on the frequency of their participation. Segment analysis supported the core/fringe concept—a small, active core of heavy users accounted for the majority of total participation volume, particularly in sport activities. Analysis of gender differences found female representation as a proportion of total participation declined substantially over the decade in racquetball, tennis, and jogging. Implications for professional practice and suggestions for future research are discussed.
The Presence of Occupational Burnout and Its Correlates in University Physical Education Personnel
Authors: Danylchuk Karen E.
Published: August 2016

The prevalence of occupational burnout and its relationship to job Stressors and job attitudes were examined in physical education faculties/departments as a function of sex, age, marital status, family status, years of work experience in higher education, and type of appointment. The Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson, 1986), which measures burnout in terms of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment, was the instrument used. Females, individuals 39 years or under, single subjects, coaches, and nontenured faculty/staff reported significantly higher levels of emotional exhaustion than their counterparts. None of the demographic factors was significantly associated with depersonalization or personal accomplishment. Regression analyses indicated that three Stressors—quantitative overload, job scope, and time pressure-—explained the greatest amount of variance in emotional exhaustion; organization structure and human resource development contributed the most to depersonalization. None of the job Stressors contributed to the variance in personal accomplishment.
Determining the Problem of Order in the Australian Football League
Authors: Shilbury David
Published: August 2016

This paper examines the means available to management to establish order within organizations. Three variables, bureaucracy, industrial democracy, and corporate culture, are examined in relation to Australia's largest professional sporting organization, the Australian Football League. The paper traces how the organization of sport in Australia emanated from a pure form of democracy that in the early 1980s impeded the Australian Football League's progress toward a professional competition. Establishing order within the league is complicated by the trichotomy formed between the league, the clubs, and the players.
Career Patterns of Athletic Directors: Challenging the Conventional Wisdom
Authors: Fitzgerald Maureen P. , Sagaria Mary Ann D. , Nelson Barbara
Published: August 2016

This study used a sociological career trajectory model to examine the career patterns of 200 male and female NCAA Division I, II, and III athletic directors. A normative career pattern derived from the literature on athletic directors was posited to compare the histories of incumbent NCAA athletic directors (ADs). The actual career experiences of ADs challenged the norm of the posited five-position sequence that begins with collegiate athlete; progresses through high school coach, collegiate coach, and associate or assistant director; and culminates with athletic director. Competing as a collegiate athlete and coaching at the college level were the two most frequent experiences underpinning the AD position. Differences from the posited norms were most likely to be associated with directors of NCAA Division II and III institutions and with women.
Employment Process for NCAA Female Coaches
Authors: Pastore Donna L. , Meacci William G.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the process by which female coaches of NCAA Division I, II, and III institutions are recruited, selected, and retained. A total of 501 administrators and coaches of women's teams responded to a questionnaire consisting of 22 employment process statements that elicited (a) the extent to which each process was used, and (b) the importance attached to each process by the subjects. Principal component analyses of the two data sets yielded five factors: Organizational Policies, Candidate's Experience, Informal Recruiting, Formal Recruiting, and Candidate's Credentials. A 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 (Gender × Position × Division × Use of Factors) repeated measures ANOVA showed significant two-way interaction effects for gender, position, and division. Tukey's post hoc analyses indicated that Candidate's Credentials was rated highest by all subgroups. A 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 (Gender × Position × Division × Importance of Factors) repeated measures ANOVA showed a significant two-way interaction effect for division. Tukey's post hoc analyses indicated that respondents rated Candidate's Credentials and Organizational Policies highest.
Toward an Understanding of the Role of Agency and Choice in the Changing Structure of Canada's National Sport Organizations
Authors: Kikulis Lisa M. , Slack Trevor , Hinings C.R.
Published: August 2016

The period between 1984 and 1988 was one of considerable change in the Canadian sport system. National sport organizations (NSOs) were subject to institutional pressures from the government agency Sport Canada to dispense with their traditional operating procedures and move to a more professional bureaucratic organizational design. Researchers who have studied this time period have suggested that NSOs were passive receptors of these government pressures and that they acquiesced to the changes promoted by Sport Canada. This paper challenges this idea and suggests that the role of human agents and the choices they made in response to the pressures emanating from the state agency are important aspects of the change dynamic. Using data from a study of 36 NSOs, this paper shows that NSOs demonstrated resistance in the form of pacifying activities and ceremonial conformity.
QUESC: An Instrument for Assessing the Service Quality of Sport Centers in Korea
Authors: Kim Daeshik , Kim Susan Y.
Published: August 2016

This research study developed an instrument that would serve as an important part of a quality improvement program for sport centers. The developed instrument may be used on an ongoing basis to identify the kinds of services customers want, the level of service they desire, and specific areas requiring managerial attention. An analysis of survey data from sport center users in Korea shows 33 important customer needs that can be classified into 11 distinct dimensions. Using the QUESC instrument, this study found that the performance of Korean sport centers is lagging behind user expectations. Although data was obtained from Korean sport centers, the approach of this Study and most of its findings may be applied to the North American sport center market as well.
Women and the NCAA: Not Separate—Not Equal
Authors: Lovett Dorothy J. , Lowry Carla D.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper is to present a historical overview of the role of women in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) since the demise of the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW). The paper traces the reluctance of some men and women to form this uneasy alliance. The paper presents evidence showing that the NCAA recognizes that women's athletics are part of the organization and that they deserve recognition and concern. However, the paper also shows that when substantive changes in the NCAA appeared imminent and the degree of recognition approached proportional equity, the pervasive and strong loyalty to the status quo quelled any proactive legislation that might include equal voice for reform in the organization.
Coach Effectiveness Training: A Cognitive-Behavioral Approach to Enhancing Relationship Skills in Youth Sport Coaches
Authors: Smith Ronald E. , Smoll Frank L. , Curtis Bill
Published: August 2016

Little League Baseball coaches were exposed to a preseason training program designed to assist them in relating more effectively to children. Empirically derived behavioral guidelines were presented and modeled, and behavioral feedback and self-monitoring were used to enhance self-awareness and to encourage compliance with the guidelines. Trained coaches differed from controls in both overt and player-perceived behaviors in a manner consistent with the behavioral guidelines. They were also evaluated more positively by their players, and a higher level of intrateam attraction was found on their teams despite the fact that they did not differ from controls in won-lost records. Children who played for the trained coaches exhibited a significant increase in general self-esteem compared with scores obtained a year earlier; control group children did not. The greatest differences in attitudes toward trained and control coaches were found among children low in self-esteem, and such children appeared most sensitive to variations in coaches' use of encouragement, punishment, and technical instruction.
Perception in Sport: Volleyball
Authors: Allard Fran , Starkes Janet L.
Published: August 2016

Volleyball players and nonplayers were compared for speed and accuracy of performance in a task involving detecting the presence of a volleyball in a rapidly presented slide of a volleyball situation. The volleyball situations depicted both game action and nongame events, for example, timeouts and warm-ups. Players and nonplayers did not differ in accuracy of response, but players were much faster in responding for both game and nongame slides. Further experiments showed that volleyball players' speed of response in ball detection was not a function of a simple athlete-nonathlete difference, nor of volleyball players' being fast at visual search in a nonvolleyball environment. The perceptual skill shown by volleyball players in this series of experiments is best described as a rapid visual search specific to the ball as target.
The Effect of Visuo-motor Behavior Rehearsal on Tennis Performance
Authors: Noel Richard C.
Published: August 2016

The effect of visuo-motor behavioral rehearsal (VMBR) training on tennis service performance during a tournament was investigated with 14 male tennis players. Seven participants were trained in relaxation I0 days before a major tournament, and then given a. relaxation and visualization audiocassette tape to use on a daily basis prior to the tournament. The visualization part of the tape led them to imagine themselves performing in their first tournament match, and guided them in repetitive practice on their serves. Seven other participants also competed in the tournament but did not receive the VMBR training. The higher ability training group achieved a marginally significant improvement in their percentage of good first serves, while the lower ability training group declined in their accuracy. Overall performance, as measured by their ratio of winners to errors, also favored the higher ability training group. Possible explanations of the results are discussed in terms of the interaction between the training program and the type of performer.
Psychobiologic Influences on Exercise Adherence
Authors: Dishman Rod K. , Gettman Larry R.
Published: August 2016

A 20-week behavioral study was conducted involving adult males (N = 66) in programs of cardiovascular and muscular endurance training. The relationship between exercise adherence and selected psychological and biological variables was examined as was the ability of these variables to discriminate between exercise adherers and dropouts. Results indicated that percent body fat, self-motivation, and body weight discriminated (p < .05) between eventual adherers and dropouts. When combined within a psychobiologic prediction model, these variables accurately classified actual adherers and dropouts in approximately 80% of all cases and accounted for nearly 50% of the variance in adherence behavior. In addition, participants symptomatic with regard to coronary heart disease adhered for a shorter period of time (p < .01) than did those who were asymptomatic. Results did not support theoretical expectations related to the roles of attitude toward physical activity, self-perceptions of physical ability, or locus of health control in the adherence process. These data suggest that the assessment of self-motivation and body composition may substantially enhance the initial diagnosis of the dropout-prone exercise participant and may ultimately assist in adherence facilitation.
Cohesiveness in Sport Groups: Interpretations ani Considerations
Authors: Carron Albert V.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the paper was to outline (a) the present conceptual perspective associated with important constructs in the area of cohesiveness, (b) the manner in which these have been operationally defined or considered in sport research, (c) the implications and/or limitations of the sport approach, and (d) possible future directions.
The Effects of Mental Practice on Motor Skill Learning and Performance: A Meta-analysis
Authors: Feltz Deborah L. , Landers Daniel M.
Published: August 2016

A longstanding research question in the sport psychology literature has been whether a given amount of mental practice prior to performing a motor skill will enhance one's subsequent performance. The research literature, however, has not provided any clear-cut answers to this question and this has prompted the present, more comprehensive review of existing research using the meta-analytic strategy proposed by Glass (1977). From the 60 studies yielding 146 effect sizes the overall average effect size was .48, which suggests, as did Richardson (1967a), that mentally practicing a motor skill influences performance somewhat better than no practice at all. Effect sizes were also compared on a number of variables thought to moderate the effects of mental practice. Results from these comparisons indicated that studies employing cognitive tasks had larger average effect sizes than motor or strength tasks and that published studies had larger average effect sizes than unpublished studies. These findings are discussed in relation to several existing explanations for mental practice and four theoretical propositions are advanced.
Identity Crises in North American Sport Psychology: Academics in Professional Issues
Authors: Dishman Rod K.
Published: August 2016

Recent views of professional concerns facing sport psychology have not addressed academic dimensions of service delivery. The perspective developed in this paper suggests that defining sport psychology by what sport psychologists do or by who offers services may permit, but cannot ensure, professional competence. The assumption is made that in order for a field of study to sanction applied services it must possess an applied body of knowledge and a reliable technology. The current availability of these for sport is not clear. It is proposed that an acceleration is needed in development of applied technology and theory through creation of sport psychology models rather than exclusive reliance on applying clinical or educational models borrowed from general psychology. It is also proposed that errors associated with available techniques be better defined. Scientific cautions are re-emphasized in the hope that issues over professional services not overshadow the need for a reciprocity between applied questions and theoretical attempts at answering them.
Sources of Stress in Junior Elite Wrestlers
Authors: Gould Daniel , Horn Thelma , Spreemann Janie
Published: August 2016

This investigation was designed to assess perceived sources of stress in junior elite wrestlers. Wrestlers (N = 458) participating in the United States Wrestling Federation Junior National Championships rated the frequency with which they typically experienced 33 sources of stress before competitions. Descriptive statistics revealed that performing up to one's ability, improving on one's last performance, participating in championship meets, not wrestling well, and losing were identified as major sources of stress. Factor analytic results showed that the 33 sources of stress loaded on three factors, including: fear of failure-feelings of inadequacy, external control-guilt, and social evaluation. Multiple regression analyses revealed that both wrestler trait anxiety and years of wrestling experience were significant predictors of the fear of failure-feelings of inadequacy factor, while trait anxiety also was found to be a significant predictor of the social evaluation factor. Although both the most and least frequently experienced sources of stress were identified in this investigation, it was concluded that large individual differences existed in perceived sources of stress. In addition, the need for replicating and extending these findings with other samples was emphasized.
Fear of Failure, Fear of Evaluation, Perceived Competence, and Self-esteem In Competitive-Trait-Anxious Children
Authors: Passer Michael W.
Published: August 2016

The competitive trait anxiety of 316 male youth soccer participants was assessed prior to the start of a season. Players' performance expectancies, anticipated affective reactions to success-failure, expectations of criticism for failure, performance- and evaluation-related worries, perceived competence, and self-esteem also were recorded. The responses of players in the upper (n = 79) and lower (n = 84) competitive trait-anxiety quartiles indicated that, as predicted, high-anxious players expected to play less well and experience greater shame, upset, and more frequent criticism from parents and coaches in the event of poor performance. Even when these expectancies were controlled, high-anxious players worried more frequently than low-anxious players about not playing well, losing, and being evaluated by parents, coaches, and teammates. No between-group differences existed in players' self-perceived athletic competence or in their ability as rated by coaches. Competitive trait anxiety was weakly related to self-esteem. The findings support the general hypothesis that fear of failure and fear of evaluation are significant sources of threat in competitive-trait-anxious children.
Judging Bias Induced by Viewing Contrived Videotapes: A Function of Selected Psychological Variables
Authors: Scheer John K. , Ansorge Charles J. , Howard James
Published: August 2016

Gymnastics judges, scoring videotaped routines, were subjected to false feedback in the form of artificially high or low scores to determine if selected psychological differences between judges would have an effect on the amount of influence observed due to the false feedback. The subjects were 24 certified male gymnastics judges. Half of the subjects were randomly assigned to score routines on a videotape in which, through editing procedures, high falsified scores appeared in the background of the tape following each routine. The remaining subjects scored the same routines from a second tape in which low falsified scores appeared. An ANOVA revealed that judges' scores were significantly affected by the false feedback (p < .001). Further analysis revealed that judges who scored high on dominance, autonomy, deference, and internal locus of control were significantly less influenced than judges who scored low on those variables.
Peer Behavioral Coaching: Soccer
Authors: Rush David B. , Ayllon Teodoro
Published: August 2016

Behavioral coaching has recently been found effective in developing a variety of sports skills in children, adolescents, and adults. These studies have relied on adult coaches using various behavioral techniques to develop sports skills. The present study attempted to extend these findings by substituting a peer coach for an experienced coach. The subjects were nine boys, ages 8 to 10, identified by the head coach as being deficit in three soccer skills: heading the ball, throw-ins, and goal kicking. The effects of a conventional form of coaching was compared to the behavioral one when each was conducted by the peer coach. The behavioral method included: (a) systematic use of verbal instructions and feedback, (b) positive and negative reinforcement, (c) positive practice, and (d) time out. A multiple baseline design across individuals, a reversal, and a changing criterion design were employed to evaluate the behavioral method. The results show a two- or threefold increase in soccer skill performance when behavioral coaching was used. The results were consistent for all nine players. The peer coach was found to be an effective instructor and trainer, thus demonstrating the versatility of the behavioral coaching method and the usefulness of a peer coach in extending the efforts of the head coach.
Conceptualization of Sport-Confidence and Competitive Orientation: Preliminary Investigation and Instrument Development
Authors: Vealey Robin S.
Published: August 2016

An interactional, sport-specific model of self-confidence was developed in which sport-confidence was conceptualized into trait (SC-trait) and state (SC-state) components. A competitive orientation construct was also included in the model to account for individual differences in defining success in sport. In order to test the relationship represented in the conceptual model, an instrument to measure SC-trait (Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory or TSCI), an instrument to measure SC-state (State Sport-Confidence Inventory or SSCI), and an instrument to measure competitive orientation (Competitive Orientation Inventory or COI) were developed and validated. Validation procedures included five phases of data collection involving 666 high school, college, and adult athletes. All three instruments demonstrated adequate item discrimination, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, content validity, and concurrent validity. In the construct validation phase, the results supported several predictions based on the conceptual model.