bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Appositive relativization
Authors: Cardoso Adriana
Published: November 2017

Chapter 4 investigates the dissimilar behavior of appositive relative clauses introduced by the complex relative pronoun o qual in Contemporary European Portuguese and earlier stages of Portuguese. From a descriptive point of view, eight contrasting properties are identified, relative to: (1) additional internal head; (2) extraposition; (3) pied-piping; (4) clausal antecedents; (5) split antecedents; (6) coordination of the wh-pronoun with another DP; (7) illocutionary force; and (8) the presence of a coordinator. From a theoretical point of view, it is argued that the same structural analysis cannot alone derive the contrasting properties of appositive relativization. To account for the variation found in the diachronic and cross-linguistic dimensions, it is claimed that appositive relatives might involve two different structures: specifying coordination and head raising.
Introduction
Authors: Strong Rowan
Published: November 2017

The Introduction looks at the historical context of British and Irish Christianity in the 1840s when the Anglican emigrant chaplaincy began. It also looks at conclusions of historians examining British and Irish emigration in the nineteenth century. Scholars have known for many years that the Victorian period in Britain was one of massive religiosity. Yet, when historians describe emigrants from this highly Christian society arriving in British colonies, the settlers are often described as generally religiously indifferent, unchurched, and even hostile to religion. On this basis it becomes difficult to understand how so many churches were built by British colonists in Australia and other settler colonies; how colonial denominations became established so quickly and effectively; and how sectarianism began, let alone flourished. Finally, this Introduction provides a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the groups of sources that have been used in this study.
Steerage Emigrants 1840–c.1880
Authors: Strong Rowan
Published: November 2017

On the floating villages that constituted the close confines of emigrant ships, emigrants found themselves encountering both the religiously like-minded and also different others, particularly in the cramped conditions of steerage. This chapter looks at the way emigrants began their voyage in ports, and how the Anglican emigrant chaplaincy endeavoured to meet their needs there. It goes on to examine the emigrant voyages and the various Christian practices and beliefs of steerage-class emigrants among the British and Irish labouring poor and skilled working class in steerage. Looking at the Christian denominations among these passengers, and draws out major areas of their religious lives, including the Bible, providence, death, worship and hymn-singing, temperance, sex, reading, and encounters between Christians and the religiously indifferent or disbelieving. It concludes by drawing out commonalities many emigrants found across their religious differences, while others found their voyage experience reinforced existing positions and prejudices.
Cabin Passenger Religion 1840s–1870s
Authors: Strong Rowan
Published: November 2017

This shorter chapter traces the religion of cabin-class emigrants, who were generally middle-class, so from the section of Victorian society keen to impose their religious and moral positions on the lower orders. While more segregated from their fellow emigrants in steerage as the century wore on, as emigrants voyaged in larger vessels, cabin passengers had religious encounters within their own class and also beyond. So the chapter looks at the similarities and contrasts with the varieties of Christianity among their fellow emigrants in steerage. Catholic–Protestant, intra-Protestant, and Christian–non-Christian encounters are all examined, as are the markers of cabin-class piety, particularly their expectation of religious leadership in the absence of clergy.
Religious Professionals in Emigrant Ships
Authors: Strong Rowan
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the religion of those emigrants, and others in emigrant ships, who earned their living from religion. These professionals were principally male clergy, but there were also some women who were nuns, deaconesses, or matrons supervising parties of single women. Among these religious professionals studied in the chapter are Anglicans emigrant chaplains, but also Nonconformists who acted unofficially as emigrant chaplains, and Catholic priests ministering to their own constituents. The chapter finds that Anglican chaplains particularly were taken seriously by emigrants and emigration officials, though some of them took advantage of the general hegemony of Anglican worship in British-flagged vessels. The chapter also looks at comparisons between the earlier and later nineteenth century, and finds that religious professionals in the latter period were remarkably cooperative with each other, notwithstanding the usual religious divisions held to by some.
Emigrant Christianity 1880–c.1914
Authors: Strong Rowan
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at emigrants’ religious experiences in the final decades of the Victorian and Edwardian periods, when emigration took place either in larger wooden sailing ships, or in steamships. These larger vessels made religious encounters across the various classes of passengers less common, but such encounters as did occur are found to be broadly similar to those in previous decades, with both the maintenance of religious difference and new sympathies across religious divides occurring. There were common elements that facilitated this experience. So the conclusion is reached that their particular form of Christianity was important to many emigrants, and the emigrant voyage gave quite a number of emigrants a surprising experience of religious similarity with different Christian denominations. These factors made Christianity a more central aspect of British colonial societies than has been maintained historically.
Marine Pollution
Authors: Frid Christopher L. J. , Caswell Bryony A.
Published: November 2017

We use more than 100 000 chemicals in our daily lives to promote health, treat disease, facilitate transportation, use in industrial processes, grow food and access clean water. While these developments have improved human lives, many of these compounds ultimately end up in our seas and oceans where they represent a threat to marine life, ourselves and our continued use of the oceans to treat our waste, provide us with food and offer us recreation. Many of the pollution problems of previous decades seem to have been resolved, in the developed world, or at least managed to minimise their environmental impacts. However, despite treatments being available that reduce their damaging qualities, a potent mixture of toxic compounds enter the marine environment every day along with other potentially harmful additions including heat, noise and light and non-native species. The question thus arises: is pollution a problem that has really been solved? How well are we managing traditional pollutants? What are the challenges we still face today? What are the upcoming marine pollution challenges that face society? This volume describes the different marine pollutants, the science behind measuring their ecological impacts and how they are monitored in the environment, including traditional and new management approaches. This is an up-to-date account of marine pollution within the broad ecological and social context of a growing, technologically advanced, global population.
‘Solved’ problems?
Authors: Frid Christopher L. J. , Caswell Bryony A.
Published: November 2017

Human wastewater (sewage) has been entering the sea for as long as there has been a coastal population and ice cores now show significant long-range movement of metal wastes dating from at least the Roman times. The human health impacts of metal poisoning were known to the Romans and the need for clean water has also been long recognised. This chapter focuses on pollutants, such as sewage, metals, pesticides, for which the impacts have long been known and for which regulations/legislative control measures are in place. As such, these types of pollution should be a thing of the past: the problem should be solved. Against this perspective, the extent to which the marine environment continues to be impacted by them and the reasons for these ongoing concerns are considered.
The future ocean
Authors: Frid Christopher L. J. , Caswell Bryony A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the future ocean: how it will be used by humanity, the threats from marine pollution and other synergistic human pressures. By 2050, the global population will have doubled in less than 100 years. Thus, more food, energy, transportation and waste disposal will be required. Increasing demands will be placed on ecosystems and their natural resilience will be tested to the limit. The oceans are complex dynamic systems and predicting their future state is difficult. Adaptation to these changes will require a robust scientific understanding of human impacts, their nature and scale and the options for remediation. As new materials are developed the challenges to marine pollution science continue to arise. However, as demonstrated in this book cost-effective technological solutions are not always possible. It is therefore critical that natural scientists, engineers, economists and social scientists work together to make marine pollution ‘a solvable problem’.
Kin Selection and Group Selection
Authors: Birch Jonathan
Published: November 2017

In group-structured populations in which some other assumptions are satisfied, kin and group selectionist methods provide formally equivalent conditions for change. However, this only shows an equivalence between two statistical methodologies, and this is compatible with there being a real, causal distinction between kin and group selection processes. This chapter pursues a Hamilton-inspired, population-centred approach to drawing that distinction, on which the differences between kin and group selection are differences of degree in the structural properties of populations. The relevant properties are K, the overall degree to which genealogical kin interact differentially, and G, the overall degree to which the population contains stable, internally integrated, and externally isolated social groups. A spatial metaphor (‘K-G space’) provides a useful framework for thinking about these differences.
Gene Mobility and the Concept of Relatedness
Authors: Birch Jonathan
Published: November 2017

Social behaviour is widespread in the microbial world, yet social evolution theory was mostly developed with multicellular animals in mind. One difference between multicellular organisms and microbes is the prevalence of mobile genetic elements, such as plasmids, in microbial populations. Plasmids are often implicated in the production of so-called public goods, and relatedness may be at the heart of this phenomenon. However, gene mobility introduces a temporal aspect to relatedness: because genotypes can change over the life cycle, two bacteria may share a gene at one time point, but not at some earlier or later time point. This chapter argues that the best concept of relatedness in this context is a diachronic concept that captures the association between actor genotypes at the moment of gene expression and recipient genotypes at the end of the life cycle.
Cultural Relatedness and Human Social Evolution
Authors: Birch Jonathan
Published: November 2017

Humans often set aside their own self-interest to help others and punish free riders, even when interacting with strangers. To explain the origin of these ‘broad-scope prosocial preferences’, we should consider the processes of cultural evolution that might have acted in early human populations. Two types of cultural selection can be distinguished: CS1, in which cultural differences between individuals cause differences in their reproductive success; and CS2, in which cultural differences between individuals cause differences in their ‘cultural fitness’. This chapter proposes, speculatively, that human social evolution involved a gradual decoupling of cultural fitness from reproductive success. A cultural version of Hamilton’s rule, in which the coefficient of genetic relatedness is replaced by a coefficient of cultural relatedness, provides a helpful organizing framework for thinking about the evolution of social behaviour by CS1, and leads to a ‘cultural relatedness hypothesis’ regarding the origins of human prosociality.
Jumping into the River …
Authors: Birch Jonathan
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an introduction to the book. Some brief background on the aims and history of social evolution theory is followed by a brief discussion of Ernst Mayr’s proximate-ultimate distinction. There follows a short overview of the book as a whole. Part I of the book ‘Foundations’, aims to construct a coherent picture of the conceptual structure of social evolution theory, a picture that distinguishes the different explanatory roles of three distinct conceptual innovations due to W. D. Hamilton that are often run together: Hamilton’s rule, kin selection, and inclusive fitness. Part II of the book, ‘Extensions’, turns to the ways in which recent expansions in the explanatory domain of social evolution theory have generated new conceptual challenges.
Age, Generations, and Participation
Authors: Dalton Russell J.
Published: November 2017

Political scientists debate whether the Millennial generation is disengaging from politics in contemporary democracies. The ISSP surveys show that the generational decline in participation is largely limited to voting and other forms of partisan activity. At the same time, younger citizens are often more engaged in non-electoral activities, such as direct action, protest, and online participation. Time-series data for the United States disentangles the effects of life-cycle changes and generations. More recent generations display a clear decline in voting across the 1967–2014 period. In contrast, life-cycle increases in participation are more common for non-electoral activity. Both factors influence participation but in contrasting ways for different modes of action.
Is the Gap Widening?
Authors: Dalton Russell J.
Published: November 2017

Using longitudinal studies, this chapter examines changes in the participation gap over time. There is a persisting social-status participation gap across all the political activities presented in the chapter. In terms of voting, the widening of the participation gap arises because lower-status individuals are less likely to vote while the better educated still turn out at relatively high levels. Higher-status individuals are increasingly active in a range of non-electoral activities—contacting, signing petitions, community activity, and protest—while the less educated lag behind. These results suggest that the overall increase in citizen participation can be problematic if only certain voices share in this increase.
Democracy in Unequal Terms
Authors: Dalton Russell J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter summarizes the results of this study: changes in social structure and participation patterns are increasing social-status-based inequality in political participation. Those with higher educational levels, incomes, or occupation have greater political voice, while lower-status individuals are less politically involved. Moreover, the politically rich are getting richer, and the politically poor are getting poorer. The chapter then discusses the implications of these results. The chapter considers claims that participation erodes governance and some form of epistocracy (rule by the knowledgeable) is preferable. Cross-national analysis shows that well-governed democracies have high levels of citizen participation, including both conventional and contentious forms of action. In addition, the size of the SES participation gap is negatively related to good governance. The conclusion discusses ways that democracies might narrow the participation gap and give voice to those citizens who need government support.
Practising Architecture
Authors: Walker Matthew
Published: November 2017

The first chapter establishes who practised architecture in the period and on what grounds they were considered to be credible practitioners of architectural design. Initially I set out the nature of the various people who designed buildings in the period and focus on one particularly important group who I term autodidactic architects, on the grounds that their credibility as architects came from their own learning from various sources. I then explore two authors who wrote extensively on this figure: Roger North, who defined the autodidactic architect in moral terms, and John Evelyn, who provided a more pragmatic definition of what he called the Architectus Ingenio. Evelyn, in contrast to North, claimed that people who had previously been builders could be included in the category of intellectual architect. This discussion sets up the rest of the book, which explores the nature of the knowledge these figures were expected to handle.
Introduction
Authors: Penrose Angela
Published: November 2017

In 1994 the Academy of International Business elected Edith Penrose an Emeritus Distinguished Fellow of the Academy—an honour only bestowed once before, on Charles Kindleberger. Her distinctive contribution was singled out in two areas; the theory of the growth of the firm and the understanding of the interface between the strategies and activities of international and multinational enterprises and the nation states—particularly the developing countries—in which they operated. The first topic engaged her in the 1950s and early 1960s, the latter in the later 1960s and 1970s. These topics led on to a third; the implications for firms and national governments of the emergence of a more liberalized and closely integrated global economy, which she addressed as a professor emeritus in the 1980s and early 1990s. Her major contribution to the field of economics was ...
The ILO
Authors: Penrose Angela
Published: November 2017

E. F. Penrose became chief of the Economic Section at the International Labour Office in Geneva under the American, John Gilbert Winant, formerly chairman of President Roosevelt’s Social Security Board; he offered Edith a position as a research assistant. In June 1939 she left her baby son with her parents and travelled to Geneva. They remained working in Geneva but fled across France and Spain to Lisbon in August 1940 after the Nazi invasion of France. Winant negotiated a wartime base for the ILO in Montreal and E. F. Penrose and Edith worked there, with her son David, until September 1941. Edith began work on Food Control in Great Britain, a study of the production, distribution, and consumption of food during the war.
The Lattimore case
Authors: Penrose Angela
Published: November 2017

Edith’s career and collaboration with Fritz Machlup at Johns Hopkins University flourished and she began work on the growth of the firm, and studied the Hercules Powder Company. As Cold War tensions increased during the 1950s she and Penrose became involved in the defence of their friend and colleague Owen Lattimore who was named as the top Soviet spy by Senator McCarthy. The chapter covers the persecution of Lattimore, his trials, the role of Judge Luther Youngdahl, and the operation of his defence fund. Other friends of E. F. Penrose became victims of the anti-communist ‘witch hunt’, he grew increasingly disillusioned with the USA, and determined he must leave. In 1953 Edith and Penrose testified before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee. They were also investigated by the FBI. After five years the case against Lattimore was dropped. Edith’s father died and her brother Harvey was killed in an air accident.
The School of Oriental and African Studies
Authors: Penrose Angela
Published: November 2017

This chapter covers the period 1960–78. A readership in economics with reference to the Middle East at the London School of Economics and School of Oriental and African Studies was followed in 1964 by taking up the first chair of economics with special reference to Asia at the School of Oriental and African Studies. Edith developed the new department and co-founded the Journal of Development Studies. She travelled extensively, particularly in the Middle East, where she taught and advised at the American Universities of Beirut and Cairo. In 1978, with E. F. Penrose, she published Iraq: International Relations and National Development, a comprehensive study of the political and economic development of the state of Iraq. She contributed to public bodies including the British Social Science Research Council and the Overseas Development Institute, the Commonwealth Development Corporation, the Monopolies Commission, and the Sainsbury Committee.
Epilogue
Authors: Penrose Angela
Published: November 2017

In 2016, anyone hurrying between Malet Street and SOAS in the centre of the University of London, past towering Senate House during its conversion into a magnificent new home for SOAS in time for its centenary celebrations, would have been surprised to see Edith, larger than life, energetically instructing them from the wooden hoarding encircling the construction site (...
Introduction
Authors: Chapdelaine Pascale
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the landscape of copyright users at the international and regional levels and describes the radically different approach taken in this book from other works on copyright user rights. The chapter explains some of the benefits of approaching copyright user rights by focusing more strictly on concepts of private law rather than through concepts of public law and policy. It describes the international and multijurisdictional scope of the book and defines key concepts and terminology used throughout the book: ‘user rights’, ‘copyright users’, ‘copyright works’, ‘copyright holders’, ‘commercial copies of copyright works’, ‘personal property’, ‘technological protection measures’, and ‘technological measures’ and provides an overview of each chapter in the book.
In Search of Copyright User Remedies
Authors: Chapdelaine Pascale
Published: November 2017

The chapter looks at the nature of copyright user rights from the perspective of the remedies users may have against copyright holders when they are restricted in their uses of copyright works. Given the almost non-existent obligations of copyright holders to users under copyright statutes, on the basis of which users could assert claims, copyright users need to resort to other bodies of law. This chapter looks at how users may construct claims for restricted uses of copyright works on the basis of a breach of contract, sale of goods law, consumer law, or as a breach of the obligation of good faith, or in tort. It demonstrates the uncertainty and obstacles around how users may assert claims under those various bodies of law. This may explain in part the relatively few cases involving copyright user claims. This account of copyright user remedies reveals another weak strain of copyright user rights.
Law and the Divine
Authors: Annas Julia
Published: November 2017

In Book 10 Plato develops the hints that have been scattered through the dialogue of the idea that law is divine. The Athenian argues from the nature of motion and of soul to the ordered movements of the heavens and to a cosmic reason directing the soul which moves them in an unfailingly ordered way. This is said to be divine, and to be the ordering force which in individuals takes the form of reason and in societies takes the form of law, the public reason on which our reasons converge when we are reasoning well and not just going for what we desire. Given this cosmic setting for the city’s rule of law, laws are established for the re-education of citizens who deny the existence or the providence of the gods, or who think that individuals can have special, non-civic relationships with them.
Cicero on Natural Law and Ideal Laws
Authors: Annas Julia
Published: November 2017

Aristotle takes over many of the political ideas of the Laws in the final two books of his Politics, but despite following Plato on some things he makes no use of the idea of preambles or getting citizens to understand their laws in terms of structuring a virtuous way of life. The Stoics do take over Plato’s idea of law as an embodiment of cosmic reason, and develop it into their conception of natural law, explicated by Cicero in his unfinished work on laws. Cicero’s work, On the Laws, is based on Stoic ideas and also on Plato’s Laws, parts of which he closely follows. A crucial difference is that Cicero looks to the ideal past of earlier Roman law. Further, he thinks that natural law is universal. Cicero claims, however, that particular (Roman) laws have ethical authority because they embody natural law better than other systems of law do.
Philo on Virtue and the Laws of Moses
Authors: Annas Julia
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses how Philo’s work on the Ten Commandments and the Special Laws is influenced by Plato’s Laws. Philo insists that the lawgiver must persuade as well as require. It explains how he sees the Jewish laws in clusters, these clusters relate to areas of life where particular virtues are developed, and he sees obeying them as leading to a grasp of the value of the way of life encouraged by living in accordance with them. These virtues and way of life, as Philo claims, are superior to those of the pagans, since they align with the natural law.
Introduction
Authors: Nagasawa Yujin
Published: November 2017

The Introduction explains how the author’s fascination with the ontological argument for perfect being theism has motivated him to write this book. It then defines perfect being theism as the view that God, as the being than which no greater is conceivable or metaphysically possible, exists, and provides an overview of each part of the book: Part I offers a detailed survey of philosophical issues concerning perfect being theism. Part II focuses on existing arguments against perfect being theism and develops a radically new, economical refutation of them based on the ‘maximal concept’ of God. Part III defends two versions of the ontological argument, the stronger of which appeals to the maximal concept.
Conceptual, Historical, and Cognitive Roots of Perfect Being Theism
Authors: Nagasawa Yujin
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a precise definition of perfect being theism and compares it with alternatives such as atheism, polytheism, pantheism, and panentheism. The chapter then considers the historical and cognitive roots of perfect being theism. It argues, contrary to what is widely believed, that perfect being theism is not Anselm’s invention or an unnatural, scholarly artefact. The chapter then explains the philosophical merits of holding perfect being theism and considers the relationship between perfect being theism and prominent arguments for the existence of God, such as the cosmological argument and the design argument. It concludes with a discussion of three types of arguments against perfect being theism.
The Challenges of History
Authors: Arnold John H. , Hilton Matthew , Rüger Jan
Published: November 2017

What does it mean—and what might it yet come to mean—to write ‘history’ in the twenty-first century? This chapter takes its cue from Eric Hobsbawm’s capacious interests in subject and method to address a series of key challenges facing history writing today. It insists that historians must think about the implications of what they write as well as about the wider societal and political frames within which their stories will be received and understood. It addresses a series of challenges historians face when trying to make their work speak out beyond the discipline and the profession. These include the challenges arising from the increasing specialization and fragmentation of the discipline, from the difficulties of making such expertise speak to a broader audience, and from the particular circumstances of the present within which they must make their work relevant.
Gendering Property, Racing Capital
Authors: Hall Catherine
Published: November 2017

This chapter takes one of the central subjects of economic and social history—the development of capitalism—and reinterprets classical debates through the lens of ‘race’ and gender. Drawing on impressive new research on British slave ownership in the Caribbean (the Legacies of British Slave-Ownership project at UCL), it argues that gender and ‘race’ not only structured the organization of property and power in slave society but were also historically dynamic axes of change. Each played a part in both cementing and dissolving the system of slavery with its particular forms of wealth creation. This significantly recalibrates traditional accounts of the relationship between slavery, capitalism, and emancipation and places culture at the heart of historical change.
Indigenous Comparisons
Authors: Morieux Renaud
Published: November 2017

What are the purposes and uses of comparison for the historian? What is the heuristic value of comparing countries, cultures, and societies in the past? And how and why did historical actors deploy comparison in practice? The chapter focuses on two archetypal contemporary and neighbouring societies, France and Britain in the eighteenth century. Instead of the classic comparisons made by philosophers or travel writers, it is the comparisons formulated in situ by a much broader variety of actors that will provide the case studies. Prisoners of war who were complaining about their jailors or criminals who requested asylum resorted to a rich stock of arguments, highlighting the universality of moral norms and legal values that transcended national state borders or the superiority of one national model over another. Ultimately the chapter emphasizes the necessity for historians to engage in a reflexive analysis of what they compare and why.
Hobsbawm and Researching the History of Nationalism
Authors: Breuilly John
Published: November 2017

Hobsbawm’s work on nationalism has three successive phases, which reflect how the subject has been approached by others. In the first phase, nationalism was subordinated to Marxist class analysis. The second phase, is marked by a spate of studies on nationalism as inventing or imagining nations. Hobsbawm’s key contribution was as co-editor of The Invention of Tradition. In the third phase, nationalism was treated as ‘identity politics’, as one finds in some of Hobsbawm’s later works. These approaches yield diminishing results. Class analysis makes nationalism an epiphenomenon; treating nationalism as an invention detaches it from social reality; identity politics turns it into social psychology. Yet Hobsbawm’s global perspective, his treatment of nationalism as an ideology, and his concern with ‘history from below’ represent three promising new avenues for nationalism research.
Postcolonial History as War History in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Khan Yasmin
Published: November 2017

How we think about warfare in the past is intrinsically linked to our political commitments today. Wars have always swept up civilians in their terrors and been linked to famine, exploitation, and misogyny. They have often enhanced relative poverty and, in the past, consolidated empire by suppressing rebellion. Reflecting on Eric Hobsbawm’s engagement with empire and warfare, this chapter considers the ways in which narratives of the two world wars in the twentieth century have tended to centre on Europe and to obscure decolonization. Focusing on the history of the British empire, this chapter argues that examining the fullest implications of warfare in the twentieth century and its ramifications for colonial civilians is a way of understanding the history of Britain’s recent past.
A Visit to the Dead
Authors: Light Alison
Published: November 2017

What can university historians learn from the recent surge in the pursuit of family history? In following their own enthusiasms, family historians often play fast and loose with conventional periodizations and forms of narrative history, making instead their own emotional connections and personal links across time; they individualize homogenizing categories of class, disaggregating group identities, and they cheerfully cross disciplinary boundaries, asking moral and metaphysical as well as political questions about the place of the dead in our memories and cultures. This chapter explores the potential that family history has, not only to revitalize the histories of the working classes, but to make us think about the limits, forms, and purposes of writing history.
We Were the Only Ones to See It
Authors: Wilson Keeley
Published: November 2017

Nokia’s executives were alone in the industry in perceiving the full potential of mobile phones as a mass consumer product. This chapter describes and analyzes how this perceptive framing emerged over time and why other firms (the leading incumbents) did not develop a comparable framing. Conceptually, the key points are that innovative winning strategies result from clear, lucid, and determined strategic opportunism, not from grand plans or a sudden awakening to a new reality. They evolve and develop incrementally and often iteratively. Nor are the most important innovations necessarily technological: Nokia grew globally very rapidly in that period by understanding the needs of new, recently licensed mobile service operators and how different their business model needs were from traditional incumbent telecoms firms.
Attracting the Planets
Authors: Wilson Keeley
Published: November 2017

In the late 1990s, after Nokia developed the first smartphone (the “Communicator”), executives became increasingly sensitive to the importance of operating systems, data communications, and multimedia. It was also becoming clear that more complex business models would be needed to tap in to new opportunities. This chapter describes and analyzes how Nokia managed this transformation. It describes the development of the Communicator smartphone, the establishment of the Symbian OS, and the creation of an innovative camera phone. As the nature of the industry was changing and becoming more complex, it also looks at how Nokia responded by engaging with a wider ecosystem to develop the visual radio concept. These examples highlight the challenges that the new world of software platforms and application ecosystems raised for Nokia.
A Supernova
Authors: Wilson Keeley
Published: November 2017

This chapter reviews the period 2004–6, opening with a description of the problems Nokia was facing due to a boycott of its products by operators. However, the problems ran deeper than this, as Nokia was losing its agility and entrepreneurialism, and focusing on scale rather than speed, so its products were constantly late to market. It goes on to analyze the implications of a reorganization into a matrix structure in 2004, which led to wide-ranging top management changes over the following two years and a subsequent deterioration of strategic thinking and strategic leadership. We also see a growing bureaucratization and loss of agility during this period, along with increasing internal competition and difficulties as Nokia grappled with the challenges of shifting from a “hardware-first” to “software-first” approach.
Toward a New Alignment?
Authors: Wilson Keeley
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins with the arrival of Nokia’s first non-Finnish CEO and his frank assessment of Nokia’s situation being akin to a man on a burning oil platform. It describes his strategy to form an alliance with Microsoft in a bid to create a third ecosystem to compete against Apple and Android. This strategy rapidly failed, leading to significant losses and the ultimate demise of Nokia’s phone business with its sale to Microsoft. The chapter also describes how, under new chairmanship, the board began to play a much stronger strategic role which resulted in the rebirth of Nokia as one of the world’s leading telecoms infrastructure players.
The Astronomer’s Perspective
Authors: Wilson Keeley
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter, which is more conceptual than descriptive, reflects on the fact that a few key decisions made in the early 1990s explain Nokia’s success, while decisions mostly made in the 2001–5 period and often based on heuristics inherited from the past, largely shaped Nokia’s subsequent decline. These latter decisions set in motion a course of events leading to a stunted evolution toward strategic stasis, and made escaping from it all but impossible. As a way to summarize the main findings and conceptual implications from the research, the chapter returns to the research questions raised in Chapter 1—whether Nokia’s decline was the result of management volition, stunted evolution, or environmental selection—and shows how analyzing and conceptualizing the story of Nokia in mobile phones helps address these and sheds valuable light on their managerial implications.
East Asia's Other Miracle
Authors: Bellamy Alex J.
Published: November 2017

East Asia, until recently a boiling pot of massacre and blood-letting, has achieved relative peace. A region that at the height of the Cold War had accounted for around 80 percent of the world’s mass atrocities has experienced such a decline in violence that by 2015 it accounted for less than 5 percent. This book explains East Asia’s “other” miracle and asks whether it is merely a temporary blip in the historical cycle or the dawning of a new, and more peaceful, era for the region. It argues that the decline of mass atrocities in East Asia resulted from four interconnected factors: the consolidation of states and emergence of responsible sovereigns; the prioritization of economic development through trade; the development of norms and habits of multilateralism; and transformations in the practice of power politics. Particular attention is paid to North Korea and Myanmar, countries whose experience has bucked regional trends largely because these states have not succeeded in consolidating themselves to the point where they no longer depend on violence to survive. Although the region faces several significant future challenges, this book argues that the much reduced incidence of mass atrocities in East Asia is likely to be sustained into the foreseeable future.
State Consolidation
Authors: Bellamy Alex J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the role of the East Asian state in the decline of mass atrocities. It suggests that the decline of mass atrocities in East Asia was driven by two, sequential, processes. First, the consolidation of states’ authority across their territory and the management or resolution of disputes about the state’s boundaries and its identity. The process of consolidation was itself often extremely violent, as different groups struggled for control of the state, disputed its boundaries and form, and tried to impose their vision of the good on the rest of the community. The second process, which began in the late 1980s, was the emergence of a new social contract between states and their citizens evident in rising expectations that, in return for loyalty, states ought to protect their citizens from mass atrocities and refrain from committing these crimes.
Power Politics
Authors: Bellamy Alex J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the role of “power politics”—the domain of national security interests and the procurement and use of military power—in the decline of mass atrocities in East Asia. It suggests that power politics made an important, but not the singularly most important, contribution. The chapter has three parts. First, it explores how conventional power politics contributed to the decline of mass atrocities in East Asia. Although not central to the overall story, once they were established, the balance of power and both conventional and nuclear deterrence played a role in limiting the further escalation of potential conflicts. Second, it examines the limits of power politics. Third, it points to specific security practices that were more consequential, including the development of omnidirectional security relations, a tendency to avoid destabilizing competition, de-polarization, and the enmeshing of great powers in the region’s norms
At the Crossroads
Authors: Bellamy Alex J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter suggests that military government became entrenched in Myanmar as a response to the conditions of the country’s birth and the failure of civilian government to consolidate. Over time, the military emerged as the only institution capable of holding the country together in the face of numerous armed threats to its very existence. The chapter explores why the regime chose to reform itself in the second decade of the twenty-first century, as a result of increasing domestic illegitimacy and dependence on China and the leadership’s recognition that it could either stage a managed and orderly transition or face a popular revolution in the future. The transition was facilitated by astute leaders, Western engagement, and the effects of economic reform.
Divine Action and the Challenges of Early Analytic Philosophy
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: November 2017

In this chapter, after indicating how analytic philosophers developed a keen interest in the debate about divine action, the author explores the seminal work of analytic philosopher I. M. Crombie. The author contends that Crombie provided an elegant way of naming two critical questions about divine action; but he failed to develop a satisfactory answer to either of them. The problems he discussed quickly became the site of a concerted attack on the whole idea of divine action. The author shows that this attack fails, even as it prompted theologians to resort to paradox to keep divine action afloat as a serious option for theology.
Reviewing the Terrain
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: November 2017

In this chapter the author provides a retrospective glance on the material reviewed thus far, and suggests a deeper history of the debates about the nature of divine action among both theologians and philosophers is needed. The author demonstrates the complexity of the debates and the assumptions brought to the table, particularly those assumptions tacit in philosophical queries into the justification of religious belief. He suggests the contours of this particular debate colored the debate on divine action. Following I. M. Crombie, the author argues that theology proper can inform how one thinks about divine actions. Moreover, he argues that theologians and their proposals ought to be considered in the ongoing debate about divine action on their own terms, rather than to be thought secondary to explicitly analytic philosophical arguments and terms for debate.
Saving Divine Action within Later Analytic Philosophy
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: November 2017

One of the most important philosophers who applied a concept of intentional action to God was William P. Alston. In this chapter, the author engages Alston’s proposals, and argues that even a robust notion of intentional action predicated of God yields very little when it comes to understanding claims about divine action that are of prime importance to the Christian tradition. The author also begins to query the concept of God as an acting agent. The author also indicates again how most philosophers commit themselves to a thin version of a doctrinal tradition even without explicitly stating it, and that the debate about divine action is better served by thick engagement with the Christian doctrinal tradition.
Unmasking the Grammar of Divine Agency and Divine Action
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: November 2017

In this chapter, the author engages another stream of recent theology similar to the analytic Thomism in Chapter 10: the theology of Kathryn Tanner. Tanner casts her proposals on divine agency and divine action largely in terms of a debate about the grammar of Christian discourse, a trope that has its provenance in the history of twentieth-century analytic theology. This chapter thus supplements the previous one, but develops its central concerns in two ways. First, the author attempts to show that Tanner’s work, despite appearances to the contrary, pursues the same themes of the Thomist tradition seen in Chapter 10. Second, he seeks to show that the proposals under review do not proceed only from the doctrine of creation, but also the attempt to resolve the problem of freedom and grace stemming from the work of Augustine in the Western tradition.
Divine Agency and Divine Action, Volume II
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: November 2017

This book builds upon the groundwork laid in the first volume, where it was established that no generic concept of action will suffice for understanding the character of divine actions explicit in the Christian faith. This volume argues that in order to understand divine action rightly, one must begin with the array of specific actions predicated of God in the Christian tradition. The author argues, in a way, that one must do theology in order to analyze properly the concept of divine action. Thus the book offers a careful review and evaluation of the particularities of divine action as they appear in the work of biblical, patristic, medieval, and Reformation-era theologians. Particular attention is given to the divine inspiration of Scripture, creation, incarnation, transubstantiation in the Eucharist, predestination, and divine concurrence. The motive here is not simply to repeat the doctrinal formulations found in the Christian tradition, but to examine them in order to find fresh ways of thinking about these issues for our own time, especially with respect to the contemporary debates about divine agency and divine action.
Actions, Agents, Agency, and Explanation in Athanasius
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: November 2017

In this chapter, the author engages the theology of the fourth-century bishop Athanasius. For Athanasius, given the kind of agent that God is, God’s coming in Christ is a coherent and intelligible action, because God has the capacity and motivation to act in the way he did in Christ. Thus the author engages this primary claim in the chapter, exploring the various facets of Athanasius’ motif of agency and action. First, the author examines the treatise Contra Gentes and there engages Athanasius’ maxim that actions make manifest the identity and nature of the agent who performs them. Second, he explores how this maxim applies to discerning the identity of Jesus Christ, and third, he concludes by offering a brief commentary that highlights how Athanasius can contribute to contemporary thinking on divine agency and divine action.
Divine Action and Pneumatology in the Cappadocians
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: November 2017

Building on the work of the previous chapter, where it was shown that Athanasius held that actions make manifest the identity and nature of the agent who performs them, the author turns to the theology of the Cappadocian Fathers and their work on the identity of the Holy Spirit. Just as Athanasius’ maxim that action manifests identity and nature contributed to our understanding of Christ’s divine nature and identity, so also does the maxim play out in the Cappadocians with respect to the Holy Spirit, among whom the conclusion is that the Holy Spirit is divine and not a creature. The author then thinks through several implications of this position.
Divine Action in Symeon the New Theologian
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the spiritual theology of Symeon the New Theologian. It examines Symeon’s thought on the role of human agents in providing forgiveness of sins in the life of the church, ordination in priesthood, divine equipping of the laity to speak on God’s behalf to those seeking salvation, and the deeper questions these questions raise about divine action in salvation. The questions about the mediation of divine forgiveness among the laity inevitably raise questions about the nature of the action of the Holy Spirit in the Christian life, whether one can know that God is present in the personal life of the believer, and how these claims can be defended epistemologically.