bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The French Riots: Questioning Spaces of Surveillance and Sovereignty
Authors: Ossman Susan , Terrio Susan
Published: May 2006

This paper examines the riots in France in late 2005 in terms of how they lead to a reconceptualization of the spaces of danger, culture, territory, and sovereignty. It traces a brief history of danger zones and immigration, noting how these two terms have increasingly overlapped. We analyse key discursive formations ‐ legal, political, social scientific, and media ‐ whose explanation for the emergence of the “immigrant” delinquent is linked to what is identified as a culture of poverty. They provide a sustained examination of recent legal reforms of juvenile law as well as judicial practices within the juvenile justice system to show the systematic exclusionary practices of what is claimed to be a colour blind republican system. They reveal a consensus across the political spectrum and among police, prosecutors, investigating magistrates, and new security experts on the need to privilege accountability, restitution, and retribution in the treatment of juvenile offenders. We present evidence from interviews and ethnographic observation among youths of all backgrounds. Ironically, while the children of immigrants seek to claim a voice in the national community, their peers from more privileged social milieu express increasing distance from national concerns, seeking to lead lives as Europeans or global citizens. We end by arguing that this needs to be taken into account in any analysis of frustrated and disenfranchised suburban youths. A transnational or supra‐national sociology that accounts for the itineraries of immigrants of all kinds must be developed.
The October Riots in France: A Failed Immigration Policy or the Empire Strikes Back?
Authors: Haddad Yvonne Yazbeck , Balz Michael J.
Published: May 2006

In October 2005, the predominately Arab‐immigrant suburbs of Paris, Lyon, Lille and other French cities erupted in riots by socially alienated teenagers, many of them second‐ or third‐generation immigrants. For many French observers, it was a painful reminder that France's immigration policy had, quite bluntly, failed. The grand French ideal of égalité, the equality of all citizens of the Republic, itself a by‐product of France's colonial past, demonstrated its incompatibility with twenty‐first century reality.

The French immigration experience is markedly different than those of other European countries, as France's is tainted by colonial history, republican idealism, a rigidly centralized government structure, and deep‐seeded traditions of xenophobia. Indeed, the nineteenth century French policy of the mission civilicatrice (civilizing mission) still influences French policy toward its immigrants today: rather than accept cultural differences, the French government demands that all its citizens adhere to a rigid and exclusive “French” identity.

As such, the children of the generation of immigrants that the French government actively brought to France to fuel its post‐war expansion now find themselves unemployed and socially marginalized. Government social structures meant to ease the disparity between social classes, such as public housing and education, generally do more to aggravate problems than to solve them; public housing is woefully inadequate and the education structure institutionalizes the poor quality of schools in immigrant communities. Despite this generally poor outlook, the French have recently made some progress toward better integration of their immigrant communities, though these efforts are generally met with wide‐spread demagogic and populist opposition.
Retirement Return Migration from Sweden
Authors: Klinthäll Martin
Published: May 2006

This study deals with return migration among immigrants in Sweden who are between 51 and 80 years old. An important question regards the impact of retirement on return migration. Some circumstances connected to the withdrawal from the labour market suggest an increased propensity to return, such as the transition from a wage income to a pension, which weakens the link between place of residence and income. In addition, patterns of return migration at the end of working life may indicate whether or not temporary migration is a planned strategy. It is found that when reaching the age of 65, the legal retirement age in Sweden, the probability of return migration increases, in particular for men. The effect of retirement is immediate; the probability of return migration declines again beyond the age of 65, indicating a conscious plan to return to the home country when the labour market career is over.

Furthermore, immigrants who receive early retirement compensation have a considerably higher probability of return migration compared to those who are not retired. These clear “retirement effects” show that return migration can be an important ingredient in the welfare optimization strategies of migrants. When it comes to income selectivity, the analysis shows that there is a positive selection, something that is expected when migrants are target savers with a temporary migration strategy.
Effects of variability in prey abundance on reproduction and foraging in chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarctica)
Authors: Croll D. A. , Demer D. A. , Hewitt R. P. , Jansen J. K. , Goebel M. E. , Tershy B. R.
Published: May 2006

Life‐history theory predicts that adults of long‐lived species such as seabirds should optimally balance investment in current and future offspring. However, when trying to optimize investment in offspring provisioning, the most energetically costly component of seabird parental care, adults need to contend with large interannual fluctuations in prey availability and hence the cost of chick provisioning. Adults faced with this uncertainty can mechanistically balance parental care by adopting a strategy somewhere along the continuum between maintaining constant investment in foraging effort between years and letting chick provisioning fluctuate or holding chick provisioning constant and varying investment in foraging effort. Using ship‐based hydroacoustic assessment of prey, time‐depth recorders attached to penguins and land‐based observations at the breeding colony, we examined how foraging and reproductive effort in breeding chinstrap penguins Pygoscelis antarctica responded to interannual variation in the abundance of Antarctic krill Euphausia superba in the vicinity of Seal Island, South Shetland Islands, 1990–1992. Regional measures of krill density varied by a factor of 2.5 (47.0, 23.8 and 61.2 g m−2 in 1990, 1991 and 1992, respectively) and was correlated with annual measures of breeding adult body weight and reproductive performance (breeding population size, duration of chick rearing, chick growth, breeding success and fledgling weight). In contrast, measures of penguin foraging effort (dive depth, dive duration, number of trips day−1, trip duration, number of dives trip−1 and dive rate) did not differ between years. We conclude that chinstrap penguins reduce reproductive success rather than increase foraging effort in response to decreases in prey abundance in a manner consistent with predictions of life‐history strategies for long‐lived seabirds.
Cozumel Island fox (Urocyon sp.) dwarfism and possible divergence history based on subfossil bones
Authors: Gompper M. E. , Petrites A. E. , Lyman R. L.
Published: May 2006

Archeological evidence indicates that a dwarf fox (Urocyon sp.) has inhabited Cozumel Island, Mexico at least since the arrival of Mayan peoples, but no taxonomic descriptions or morphological assessments of the animal exist. A recent field study indicates that this fox is on the verge of extinction and therefore it is critical to describe the population. Because no skins or complete skulls of the Cozumel fox exist in museum collections, we examined subfossils collected during archeological excavations of the human‐waste middens of Mayans who inhabited the island c. 1500–500 years before present. Measurements of 37 bones from a minimum of 12 adult individuals suggest that this animal is diminutive (the body size was c. 60–80% of mainland specimens), similar to other Carnivora from Cozumel that are recognized as distinct species. Estimated rates of character differentiation for mainland and island foxes under a range of possible divergence periods (1000–130 000 years) suggest that the Cozumel fox population has been isolated for a minimum of 5000–13 000 years, and perhaps far longer. Colonization of the island by Urocyon therefore likely predates the colonization of Cozumel by humans.
Embryonic stem cell‐derived neuron models of Parkinson's disease exhibit delayed neuronal death
Authors: Yamashita Hiroshi , Nakamura Takeshi , Takahashi Tetsuya , Nagano Yoshito , Hiji Masanori , Hirabayashi Takahiro , Amano Taku , Yagi Takeshi , Sakai Norio , Kohriyama Tatsuo , Matsumoto Masayasu
Published: May 2006

Establishment of a Parkinson's disease (PD) neuron model was attempted with mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells. ES cell lines over‐expressing mouse nuclear receptor‐related 1 (Nurr1), together with human wild‐type and alanine 30 → proline (A30P) and alanine 53 → threonine (A53T) mutant α‐synuclein were established and subjected to differentiation into dopaminergic neurons. The ES cell‐derived dopaminergic neurons expressing wild‐type or mutant α‐synuclein exhibited the fundamental characteristics consistent with dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. The ES cell‐derived PD model neurons exhibited increased susceptibility to oxidative stress, proteasome inhibition, and mitochondrial inhibition. Cell viability of PD model neurons and the control neurons was similar until 28 days after differentiation. Nonetheless, after that time, PD model neurons gradually began to undergo neuronal death over the course of 1 month, showing cytoplasmic aggregate formation and an increase of insoluble α‐synuclein protein. Such delayed neuronal death was observed in a mutant α‐synuclein protein level‐dependent manner, which was slightly inhibited by a c‐jun N‐terminal kinase inhibitor and a caspase inhibitor. Such cell death was not observed when the same ES cell lines were differentiated into oligodendrocytes. The ES cell‐derived PD model neurons are considered as prospective candidates for a new prototype modelling PD that would allow better investigation of the underlying neurodegenerative pathophysiology.
Interleukin‐1‐induced neurotoxicity is mediated by glia and requires caspase activation and free radical release
Authors: Thornton Peter , Pinteaux Emmanuel , Gibson Rosemary M. , Allan Stuart M. , Rothwell Nancy J.
Published: May 2006

Interleukin (IL)‐1 expression is induced rapidly in response to diverse CNS insults and is a key mediator of experimentally induced neuronal injury. However, the mechanisms of IL‐1‐induced neurotoxicity are unknown. The aim of the present study was to examine the toxic effects of IL‐1 on rat cortical cell cultures. Treatment with IL‐1β did not affect the viability of pure cortical neurones. However, IL‐1 treatment of cocultures of neurones with glia or purified astrocytes induced caspase activation resulting in neuronal death. Neuronal cell death induced by IL‐1 was prevented by pre‐treatment with the IL‐1 receptor antagonist, the broad spectrum caspase inhibitor Boc‐Asp‐(OMe)‐CH2F or the antioxidant α‐tocopherol. The NMDA receptor antagonist dizolcipine (MK‐801) attenuated cell death induced by low doses of IL‐1β but the α‐amino‐3‐hydroxy‐5‐methylisoxazole‐4‐propionic acid receptor antagonist 2,3‐dihydroxy‐6‐nitro‐7‐sulfamoyl‐benzo(F)quinoxaline (NBQX) had no effect. Inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase with N(ω)‐nitro‐l‐arginine methyl ester had no effect on neuronal cell death induced by IL‐1β. Thus, IL‐1 activates the IL‐1 type 1 receptor in astrocytes to induce caspase‐dependent neuronal death, which is dependent on the release of free radicals and may contribute to neuronal cell death in CNS diseases.
Regulation of ApC/EBP mRNA by the Aplysia AU‐rich element‐binding protein, ApELAV, and its effects on 5‐hydroxytryptamine‐induced long‐term facilitation
Authors: Yim Se‐Jeong , Lee Yong‐Seok , Lee Jin‐A , Chang Deok‐Jin , Han Jin‐Hee , Kim Hyoung , Park Hyungju , Jun Heejung , Kim V. Narry , Kaang Bong‐Kiun
Published: May 2006

Aplysia CCAAT enhancer‐binding protein (ApC/EBP), a key molecular switch in 5‐hydroxytryptamine (5‐HT)‐induced long‐term facilitation of Aplysia, is quickly and transiently expressed in response to a 5‐HT stimulus, but the mechanism underlying this dynamic expression profile remains obscure. Here, we report that the dynamic expression of ApC/EBP during long‐term facilitation is regulated at the post‐transcriptional level by AU‐rich element (ARE)‐binding proteins. We found that the 3′UTR of ApC/EBP mRNA contains putative sequences for ARE, which is a representative post‐transcriptional cis‐acting regulatory element that modulates the stability and/or the translatability of a distinct subset of labile mRNAs. We cloned the Aplysia homologue of embryonic lethal abnormal visual system homologue (ELAV/Hu) protein, one of the best‐studied RNA‐binding proteins that associate with ARE, and elucidated the involvement of Aplysia ELAV/Hu protein in ApC/EBP gene expressional regulation. Cloned Aplysia ELAV/Hu protein, Aplysia embryonic lethal abnormal visual system (ApELAV), bound to an AU‐rich region within the 3′UTR of ApC/EBP mRNA. Additionally, ApELAV controlled the expression of ApC/EBP 3′UTR‐containing reporter gene by functioning as a stability‐enhancing factor. In particular, 5‐HT‐induced long‐term facilitation was impaired when the AU‐rich region within the 3′UTR of ApC/EBP was over‐expressed, which suggests the significance of this region in 5‐HT‐induced ApC/EBP expression, and in the resultant formation of long‐term facilitation. Our results imply that the Aplysia ARE‐binding protein, ApELAV, can regulate ApC/EBP gene expression at the mRNA level, and accordingly, ARE‐mediated post‐transcriptional mechanism may serve a crucial function in regulating the expression of ApC/EBP in response to a 5‐HT stimulus.
A REASSESSMENT OF SPECIES BOUNDARIES IN CYSTOSEIRA AND HALIDRYS (PHAEOPHYCEAE, FUCALES) ALONG THE NORTH AMERICAN WEST COAST1
Authors: Harvey Julio B. J. , Goff Lynda J.
Published: May 2006

Application of phylogenetic species recognition to morphologically recognized species in the genera Cystoseira Agardh and Halidrys Lyngbye on North American west coasts revealed little genetic variation despite a remarkable degree of morphological variation currently used to recognize and delineate species. Whereas morphological characteristics allow recognition of two genera, four morphological species and three informal forms, maximum genetic variation among them was similar to that characteristic of the intraspecific level in European congeners and other Fucales. Among morphological species and forms, nucleotide variation in a combined 26S (large subunit (LSU)) and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) ribosomal DNA analysis was below 3% while it was 1% or less for the RUBISCO spacer of the chloroplast DNA. Comparison of the LSU data to available data for European congeners showed that the genera Cystoseira and Halidrys are not monophyletic and that the previously recognized Cystoseiraceae should be included within the family Sargassaceae. These observations suggest that the current taxonomy for the Sargassaceae fails to reflect evolutionary history because Atlantic and Pacific Cystoseira and Halidrys appear to have arrived at similar morphologies independently. Our results indicate a comparatively recent establishment on the west coast of North America of a sargassacean progenitor whose descendant taxa have experienced limited genetic divergence and are characterized by a high capacity for phenotypic variation despite their overall genetic similarity.
EXAMINATION OF DIEL CHANGES IN GLOBAL TRANSCRIPT ACCUMULATION IN SYNECHOCYSTIS (CYANOBACTERIA)1
Authors: Labiosa Rochelle G. , Arrigo Kevin R. , Tu Chao J. , Bhaya Devaki , Bay Stephen , Grossman Arthur R. , Shrager Jeff
Published: May 2006

Phytoplankton in nature must acclimate to a wide range of light conditions resulting from diel light cycles, ocean circulation and mixing, cloud cover, and the variable bio‐optical characteristics of the water column. In this study, we used whole‐genome cDNA microarrays to investigate the effects of a gradually fluctuating daily light cycle on gene expression in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC6803. From these data, we developed a conceptual framework depicting the diel regulation of metabolic pathways in the cell. The framework is focused on potential photoacclimation responses, including the regulation of the photosystems, cell division, and DNA replication. The mRNA abundance of genes involved in many metabolic pathways, and particularly those encoding proteins that function in photosynthesis and DNA replication, changed markedly over the course of the day. The levels of mRNA encoding polypeptides important for the formation of the light‐harvesting apparatus, photosystems I and II, and cell division were found in high concentrations during the day. The transcript levels of many genes encoding enzymes involved in anabolic processes also increased considerably during the day. In contrast, transposon transcripts and mRNAs encoding proteins involved in DNA replication, cell wall synthesis, and respiratory activity were not found in high concentrations during the day. Although gradually varying light exposure induced significant changes in transcript accumulation within Synechocystis, the direction of these changes differed between our study and previous studies in which there was an abrupt transition between irradiances.
PHYLOGENY OF THE EUGLENALES BASED UPON COMBINED SSU AND LSU RDNA SEQUENCE COMPARISONS AND DESCRIPTION OF DISCOPLASTIS GEN. NOV. (EUGLENOPHYTA)1
Authors: Triemer Richard E. , Linton Eric , Shin Woongghi , Nudelman Alejandra , Monfils Anna , Bennett Matthew , Brosnan Stacy
Published: May 2006

A Bayesian analysis, utilizing a combined data set developed from the small subunit (SSU) and large subunit (LSU) rDNA gene sequences, was used to resolve relationships and clarify generic boundaries among 84 strains of plastid‐containing euglenophytes representing 11 genera. The analysis produced a tree with three major clades: a Phacus and Lepocinlis clade, a Discoplastis clade, and a Euglena, Colacium, Trachelomonas, Strombomonas, Monomorphina, and Cryptoglena clade. The majority of the species in the genus Euglena formed a well‐supported clade, but two species formed a separate clade near the base of the tree. A new genus, Discoplastis, was erected to accommodate these taxa, thus making the genus Euglena monophyletic. The analysis also supported the monophyly of Colacium, Trachelomonas, Strombomonas, Monomorphina, and Cryptoglena, which formed two subclades sister to the Euglena clade. Colacium, Trachelomonas, and Strombomonas, all of which produce copious amounts of mucilage to form loricas or mucilaginous stalks, formed a well‐supported lineage. Our analysis supported retaining Strombomonas and Trachelomonas as separate genera. Monomorphina and Cryptoglena formed two well‐supported clades that were sister to the Colacium, Trachelomonas, and Strombomonas clade. Phacus and Lepocinclis, both of which have numerous small discoid chloroplasts without pyrenoids and lack peristaltic euglenoid movement (metaboly), formed a well‐supported monophyletic lineage that was sister to the larger Euglena through Cryptoglena containing clade. This study demonstrated that increased taxon sampling, multiple genes, and combined data sets provided increased support for internal nodes on the euglenoid phylogenetic tree and resolved relationships among the major genera in the photosynthetic euglenoid lineage.
Ethics, Policy, and Educational Issues in Genetic Testing
Authors: Williams Janet K. , Skirton Heather , Masny Agnes
Published: May 2006

Purpose: Analyze ethics, public policy, and education issues that arise in the United States (US) and the United Kingdom (UK) when genomic information acquired as a result of genetic testing is introduced into healthcare services.

Organizing Construct: Priorities in the Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues Research Program include privacy, integration of genetic services into clinical health care, and educational preparation of the nursing workforce. These constructs are used to examine health policies in the US and UK, and professional interactions of individuals and families with healthcare providers.

Findings: Individual, family, and societal goals may conflict with current healthcare practices and policies when genetic testing is done. Current health policies do not fully address these concerns. Unresolved issues include protection of privacy of individuals while considering genetic information needs of family members, determination of appropriate monitoring of genetic tests, addressing genetic healthcare discrepancies, and assuring appropriate nursing workforce preparation.

Conclusions: Introduction of genetic testing into health care requires that providers are knowledgeable regarding ethical, policy, and practice issues in order to minimize risk for harm, protect the rights of individuals and families, and consider societal context in the management of genetic test results. Understanding of these issues is a component of genetic nursing competency that must be addressed at all levels of nursing education.
Concept Analysis of Good Death in the Japanese Community
Authors: Hattori Keiko , McCubbin Marilyn A. , Ishida Dianne N.
Published: May 2006

Purpose: To describe the meaning of a good death in the Japanese community.

Organizing Framework: Rogers's (2000) concept analysis strategy.

Methods: A review of the literature was done in March 2004, with a focus on older adults' experiences of good death in the Japanese community; “good death” was the subject heading or key words; and literature was published in English or Japanese.

Findings: Attributes of a good death include sociocultural norms, personal experiences, and continuous process. The person's experience of dying, the social context, the patient's autonomy and control over the dying process, and quality of end‐of‐life health care are the consequences of the concept. When good death occurs, it leads to family satisfaction, positive bereavement process, and work satisfaction for healthcare professionals.

Conclusions: Integration of findings from the concept analysis and field research results in more accurate understanding of good death. Knowing the individual concept of good death enables nurses to provide culturally competent care to achieve an optimum death experience for both patients and families.
Prejudice and schizophrenia: a review of the ‘mental illness is an illness like any other’ approach
Authors: Read J. , Haslam N. , Sayce L. , Davies E.
Published: May 2006

Objective:  Many anti‐stigma programmes use the ‘mental illness is an illness like any other’ approach. This review evaluates the effectiveness of this approach in relation to schizophrenia.

Method:  The academic literature was searched, via PsycINFO and MEDLINE, to identify peer‐reviewed studies addressing whether public espousal of a biogenetic paradigm has increased over time, and whether biogenetic causal beliefs and diagnostic labelling are associated with less negative attitudes.

Results:  The public, internationally, continues to prefer psychosocial to biogenetic explanations and treatments for schizophrenia. Biogenetic causal theories and diagnostic labelling as ‘illness’, are both positively related to perceptions of dangerousness and unpredictability, and to fear and desire for social distance.

Conclusion:  An evidence‐based approach to reducing discrimination would seek a range of alternatives to the ‘mental illness is an illness like any other’ approach, based on enhanced understanding, from multi‐disciplinary research, of the causes of prejudice.
The effect of bilayer and hexagonal HII phase lipid films on transepidermal water loss
Authors: Raney Sameersingh G. , Hope Michael J.
Published: May 2006

Abstract:  The common membrane phospholipids tend to adopt either the familiar bilayer phase or the less familiar hexagonal HII phase when isolated and hydrated in excess water. The objective of this study was to compare the effects of these very different macroscopic lipid structures on transepidermal water loss (TEWL) when they are applied to the surface of pig skin mounted in Franz diffusion cells. First, a novel in vitro method for monitoring TEWL was developed and characterized in which the flux of water from the subphase through skin was measured through the absorption of (3H)‐water by lyophilized polyethylene glycol (PEG) mounted above the skin surface. TEWL was varied by disrupting the skin barrier to different degrees by tape stripping or solvent extraction. Bilayer‐forming egg phosphatidylcholine (EPC) or hexagonal HII‐forming dioleoyl phosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE) were applied topically as solutions in ethanol and subsequently dried to films. The molecular configuration adopted by each lipid at the skin surface was confirmed by phosphorus NMR. TEWL for normal skin was approximately 2 g H2O/h/m2, increasing to a maximum of 80 g H2O/h/m2 after the stratum corneum was completely removed by tape stripping. On tape‐stripped skin, films of lipid doses as low as 10 mg/cm2 significantly reduced TEWL, and DOPE (hexagonal HII) was approximately twofold more effective than EPC (bilayer). Furthermore, the effects of EPC and Vaseline™ on reducing TEWL from damaged skin were readily reversed by a simple aqueous wash, whereas the DOPE effect was unaltered even by vigorous washing. Similar results were obtained with lipid films applied to solvent‐extracted skin. The data are consistent with the formation of extensive hydrophobic interactions between the skin and the outwardly facing acyl chains of the inverted, hexagonal HII phase adopted by DOPE. This results in the formation of a durable surface barrier capable of significantly reducing TEWL from damaged skin.
Jane Austen and the Public Sphere
Authors: Jones Chris
Published: May 2006

Without renouncing his speculations on the historical emergence of the idea of the public sphere, Habermas’s later writings explore the potential of language itself, when oriented towards reaching understanding, to sustain public sphere values. Stressing transformation rather than structure, he sees such intersubjective understandings as the means by which social norms are maintained and critiqued. The works of Austen and her family show a similar eighteenth‐century faith that society can be reformed by social means. Austen’s novels criticise restricted views of who constitutes society, use a common language, go beyond politeness in robust argumentation, and mediate between private and public in ways that answer to Habermas’s ideas. While the values of the public sphere are used to satirically critique society’s values and practices, Austen resists polarised antagonisms and Romantic pessimism, granting authority neither to unexamined traditions, professionalised ‘reason’ nor one class. Conversation is allowed to frame problems and, in the ‘utopian’ conclusions granted to principal characters, suggest solutions. Habermas might not deal adequately with non‐verbal communication, but his concept of communicative rationality can be usefully applied to major aspects of Austen’s work.
Influence of breathing route on upper airway lining liquid surface tension in humans
Authors: Verma Manisha , Seto‐Poon Margaret , Wheatley John R. , Amis Terence C. , Kirkness Jason P.
Published: May 2006

We have recently demonstrated that the severity of sleep‐disordered breathing in obstructive sleep apnoea hypopnoea syndrome (OSAHS) can be reduced by lowering the surface tension (γ) of the upper airway lining liquid (UAL). Morning xerostomia (related to oral breathing during sleep) is reported by most OSAHS patients. In the present study we examine relationships between breathing route, oral mucosal ‘wetness’ and the γ of UAL. We studied eight healthy subjects (age, 25 ± 5 years [mean ±s.d.]; body‐mass index, 23 ± 2 kg m−2) during a 120 min challenge of both nasal‐only breathing (mouth taped) and oral‐only breathing (nose clip), each on a separate day (randomized). Both oral mucosal ‘wetness’ (5 s contact gravimetric absorbent paper strip method) and the γ (‘pull‐off’ force technique) of 0.2 μl samples of UAL obtained from the posterior pharyngeal wall were measured at 15 min intervals (mouth tape removed and replaced as required). Upper airway mucosal ‘wetness’ increased during 120 min of nasal breathing from 4.0 ± 0.4 (mean ±s.e.m.) to 5.3 ± 0.3 μl (5 s)−1 but decreased from 4.5 ± 0.4 to 0.1 ± 0.2 μl (5 s)−1 with oral breathing (both P < 0.001, repeated‐measures ANOVA, Tukey's multiple comparison test, post hoc test). Concurrently, the γ of UAL decreased from 59.3 ± 2.2 to 51.8 ± 0.98 mN m−1 with nasal breathing but increased from 64.4 ± 2.7 to 77.4 ± 1.1 mN m−1 with oral breathing (P < 0.001). For the group and all conditions studied, γ of UAL values strongly correlated with upper airway mucosal ‘wetness’ (correlation coefficient, r2=−0.34, P < 0.001; linear regression). We conclude that oral breathing increases and nasal breathing decreases the γ of UAL in healthy subjects during wakefulness. We speculate that nasal breathing in OSAHS patients during sleep may promote a low γ of UAL that may contribute to reducing the severity of sleep‐disordered breathing.
Hyperpolarization‐activated cation channels in fast‐spiking interneurons of rat hippocampus
Authors: Aponte Yexica , Lien Cheng‐Chang , Reisinger Ellen , Jonas Peter
Published: May 2006

Hyperpolarization‐activated channels (Ih or HCN channels) are widely expressed in principal neurons in the central nervous system. However, Ih in inhibitory GABAergic interneurons is less well characterized. We examined the functional properties of Ih in fast‐spiking basket cells (BCs) of the dentate gyrus, using hippocampal slices from 17‐ to 21‐day‐old rats. Bath application of the Ih channel blocker ZD 7288 at a concentration of 30 μm induced a hyperpolarization of 5.7 ± 1.5 mV, an increase in input resistance and a correlated increase in apparent membrane time constant. ZD 7288 blocked a hyperpolarization‐activated current in a concentration‐dependent manner (IC50, 1.4 μm). The effects of ZD 7288 were mimicked by external Cs+. The reversal potential of Ih was −27.4 mV, corresponding to a Na+ to K+ permeability ratio (PNa/PK) of 0.36. The midpoint potential of the activation curve of Ih was −83.9 mV, and the activation time constant at −120 mV was 190 ms. Single‐cell expression analysis using reverse transcription followed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction revealed that BCs coexpress HCN1 and HCN2 subunit mRNA, suggesting the formation of heteromeric HCN1/2 channels. ZD 7288 increased the current threshold for evoking antidromic action potentials by extracellular stimulation, consistent with the expression of Ih in BC axons. Finally, ZD 7288 decreased the frequency of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) in hippocampal granule cells, the main target cells of BCs, to 70 ± 4% of the control value. In contrast, the amplitude of mIPSCs was unchanged, consistent with the presence of Ih in inhibitory terminals. In conclusion, our results suggest that Ih channels are expressed in the somatodendritic region, axon and presynaptic elements of fast‐spiking BCs in the hippocampus.
The role of adenosine in the early respiratory and cardiovascular changes evoked by chronic hypoxia in the rat
Authors: Walsh Martin P. , Marshall Janice M.
Published: May 2006

Experiments were performed on anaesthetized normoxic (N) rats and chronically hypoxic rats that had been exposed to 12% O2for 1, 3 or 7 days (1, 3 or 7CH rats). The adenosine A1receptor antagonist DPCPX did not affect the resting hyperventilation of 1–7CH rats breathing 12% O2and increased resting heart rate (HR) in 1CH rats only. DPCPX partially restored the decreased baseline arterial pressure (ABP) and increased femoral vascular conductance (FVC) of 1 and 3CH rats, but had no effect in N or 7CH rats. DPCPX also attenuated the decrease in arterial blood pressure (ABP) and increase in FVC evoked by acute hypoxia in N and 1–7CH rats. The non‐selective adenosine receptor antagonist 8‐SPT had no further effect on baselines or cardiovascular responses to acute hypoxia, but attenuated the hypoxia‐evoked increase in respiratory frequency in 1–7CH rats. In N, and 1 and 3CH rats, the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) inhibitor aminoguanidine had no effect on baselines or increases in FVC evoked by acetylcholine. We propose: (i) that tonically released adenosine acting on A1receptors reduces HR in 1CH rats and stimulates endothelial NOS in 1 and 3CH rats to decrease ABP and increase FVC, the remaining NO‐dependent tonic vasodilatation being independent of iNOS activity; (ii) that in 7CH rats, tonic adenosine release has waned; (iii) that in 1–7CH rats, adenosine released by acute hypoxia stimulates A1but not A2receptors to produce muscle vasodilatation, and stimulates carotid body A2receptors to increase respiration.
Role of AMPK in skeletal muscle metabolic regulation and adaptation in relation to exercise
Authors: Jørgensen Sebastian B. , Richter Erik A. , Wojtaszewski Jørgen F. P.
Published: May 2006

The 5′‐AMP‐activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a potent regulator of skeletal muscle metabolism and gene expression. AMPK is activated both in response to in vivo exercise and ex vivo contraction. AMPK is therefore believed to be an important signalling molecule in regulating muscle metabolism during exercise as well as in adaptation of skeletal muscle to exercise training. The first part of this review is focused on different mechanisms regulating AMPK activity during muscle work such as alterations in nucleotide concentrations, availability of energy substrates and upstream AMPK kinases. We furthermore discuss the possible role of AMPK as a master switch in skeletal muscle metabolism with the main focus on AMPK in metabolic regulation during muscle work. Finally, AMPK has a well established role in regulating expression of genes encoding various enzymes in muscle, and this issue is discussed in relation to adaptation of skeletal muscle to exercise training.
The Mpemba effect: When can hot water freeze faster than cold?
Authors: Jeng Monwhea
Published: May 2006

We review the Mpemba effect, where initially hot water freezes faster than initially cold water. Although the effect might appear impossible, it has been observed in numerous experiments and was discussed by Aristotle, Francis Bacon, Roger Bacon, and Descartes. It has a rich and fascinating history, including the story of the secondary school student, Erasto Mpemba, who reintroduced the effect to the twentieth century scientific community. The phenomenon is simple to describe and illustrates numerous important issues about the scientific method: the role of skepticism in scientific inquiry, the influence of theory on experiment and observation, the need for precision in the statement of a scientific hypothesis, and the nature of falsifiability. Proposed theoretical mechanisms for the Mpemba effect and the results of contemporary experiments on the phenomenon are surveyed. The observation that hot water pipes are more likely to burst than cold water pipes is also discussed.
An analysis of asynchronous online homework discussions in introductory physics courses
Authors: Kortemeyer Gerd
Published: May 2006

Asynchronous online student discussions of online homework problems in introductory physics courses are analyzed with respect to course type, student course performance, student gender, problem difficulty, and problem type. It is found that these variables can significantly change the character of online student collaborations.
Statistical Independence of Escalatory Ecological Trends in Phanerozoic Marine Invertebrates
Authors: Madin Joshua S. , Alroy John , Aberhan Martin , Fürsich Franz T. , Kiessling Wolfgang , Kosnik Matthew A. , Wagner Peter J.
Published: May 2006

Ecological interactions, such as predation and bioturbation, are thought to be fundamental determinants of macroevolutionary trends. A data set containing global occurrences of Phanerozoic fossils of benthic marine invertebrates shows escalatory trends in the relative frequency of ecological groups, such as carnivores and noncarnivorous infaunal or mobile organisms. Associations between these trends are either statistically insignificant or interpretable as preservational effects. Thus, there is no evidence that escalation drives macroecological trends at global and million-year time scales. We also find that taxonomic richness and occurrence data are cross-correlated, which justifies the traditional use of one as a proxy of the other.
Formation and Subdivision of Deformation Structures During Plastic Deformation
Authors: Jakobsen Bo , Poulsen Henning F. , Lienert Ulrich , Almer Jonathan , Shastri Sarvjit D. , Sørensen Henning O. , Gundlach Carsten , Pantleon Wolfgang
Published: May 2006

During plastic deformation of metals and alloys, dislocations arrange in ordered patterns. How and when these self-organization processes take place have remained elusive, because in situ observations have not been feasible. We present an x-ray diffraction method that provided data on the dynamics of individual, deeply embedded dislocation structures. During tensile deformation of pure copper, dislocation-free regions were identified. They showed an unexpected intermittent dynamics, for example, appearing and disappearing with proceeding deformation and even displaying transient splitting behavior. Insight into these processes is relevant for an understanding of the strength and work-hardening of deformed materials.
Hypothalamic mTOR Signaling Regulates Food Intake
Authors: Cota Daniela , Proulx Karine , Smith Kathi A. Blake , Kozma Sara C. , Thomas George , Woods Stephen C. , Seeley Randy J.
Published: May 2006

The mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) protein is a serine-threonine kinase that regulates cell-cycle progression and growth by sensing changes in energy status. We demonstrated that mTOR signaling plays a role in the brain mechanisms that respond to nutrient availability, regulating energy balance. In the rat, mTOR signaling is controlled by energy status in specific regions of the hypothalamus and colocalizes with neuropeptide Y and proopiomelanocortin neurons in the arcuate nucleus. Central administration of leucine increases hypothalamic mTOR signaling and decreases food intake and body weight. The hormone leptin increases hypothalamic mTOR activity, and the inhibition of mTOR signaling blunts leptin's anorectic effect. Thus, mTOR is a cellular fuel sensor whose hypothalamic activity is directly tied to the regulation of energy intake.
Observation of Backward Pulse Propagation Through a Medium with a Negative Group Velocity
Authors: Gehring George M. , Schweinsberg Aaron , Barsi Christopher , Kostinski Natalie , Boyd Robert W.
Published: May 2006

The nature of pulse propagation through a material with a negative value of the group velocity has been mysterious, as simple models seem to predict that pulses will propagate “backward” through such a material. Using an erbium-doped optical fiber and measuring the time evolution of the pulse intensity at many points within the fiber, we demonstrate that the peak of the pulse does propagate backward inside the fiber, even though the energy flow is always in the forward direction.
Overshadowed Ports of Call
Authors: Sponsel Alistair
Published: May 2006

Darwin's Other Islands
.
By Patrick Armstrong
. Continuum, London, 2004. 280 pp. $150, £75. ISBN 0-8264-7531-0.

Drawing on both archival sources and recent fieldwork, the author considers how the
Beagle
's visits to islands other than the Galapagos influenced Darwin's subsequent work.
The Herpesvirus Capsid Surface Protein, VP26, and the Majority of the Tegument Proteins Are Dispensable for Capsid Transport toward the Nucleus
Authors: Antinone Sarah E. , Shubeita George T. , Coller Kelly E. , Lee Joy I. , Haverlock-Moyns Sarah , Gross Steven P. , Smith Gregory A.
Published: May 2006

Upon entering a cell, alphaherpesvirus capsids are transported toward the minus ends of microtubules and ultimately deposit virus DNA within the host nucleus. The virus proteins that mediate this centripetal transport are unknown but are expected to be either viral tegument proteins, which are a group of capsid-associated proteins, or a surface component of the capsid itself. Starting with derivatives of pseudorabies virus that encode a fluorescent protein fused to a structural component of the virus, we have made a collection of 12 mutant viruses that lack either the VP26 capsid protein or an individual tegument protein. Using live-cell fluorescence microscopy, we tracked individual virus particles in axons following infection of primary sensory neurons. Quantitative analysis of the VP26-null virus indicates that this protein plays no observable role in capsid transport. Furthermore, viruses lacking tegument proteins that are nonessential for virus propagation in cell culture were also competent for axonal transport. These results indicate that a protein essential for viral propagation mediates transport of the capsid to the nucleus.
The Cytoplasmic Tail of the Influenza A Virus M2 Protein Plays a Role in Viral Assembly
Authors: Iwatsuki-Horimoto Kiyoko , Horimoto Taisuke , Noda Takeshi , Kiso Maki , Maeda Junko , Watanabe Shinji , Muramoto Yukiko , Fujii Ken , Kawaoka Yoshihiro
Published: May 2006

The viral replication cycle concludes with the assembly of viral components to form progeny virions. For influenza A viruses, the matrix M1 protein and two membrane integral glycoproteins, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase, function cooperatively in this process. Here, we asked whether another membrane protein, the M2 protein, plays a role in virus assembly. The M2 protein, comprising 97 amino acids, possesses the longest cytoplasmic tail (54 residues) of the three transmembrane proteins of influenza A viruses. We therefore generated a series of deletion mutants of the M2 cytoplasmic tail by reverse genetics. We found that mutants in which more than 22 amino acids were deleted from the carboxyl terminus of the M2 tail were viable but grew less efficiently than did the wild-type virus. An analysis of the virions suggested that viruses with M2 tail deletions of more than 22 carboxy-terminal residues apparently contained less viral ribonucleoprotein complex than did the wild-type virus. These M2 tail mutants also differ from the wild-type virus in their morphology: while the wild-type virus is spherical, some of the mutants were filamentous. Alanine-scanning experiments further indicated that amino acids at positions 74 to 79 of the M2 tail play a role in virion morphogenesis and affect viral infectivity. We conclude that the M2 cytoplasmic domain of influenza A viruses plays an important role in viral assembly and morphogenesis.
Human Cytomegalovirus Attenuates Interleukin-1β and Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Proinflammatory Signaling by Inhibition of NF-κB Activation
Authors: Jarvis Michael A. , Borton Jamie A. , Keech Amy M. , Wong John , Britt William J. , Magun Bruce E. , Nelson Jay A.
Published: May 2006

Viral infection is associated with a vigorous inflammatory response characterized by cellular infiltration and release of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). In the present study, we identified a novel function of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) that results in inhibition of IL-1 and TNF-α signaling pathways. The effect on these pathways was limited to cells infected with the virus, occurred at late times of infection, and was independent of cell type or virus strain. IL-1 and TNF-α signaling pathways converge at a point upstream of NF-κB activation and involve phosphorylation and degradation of the NF-κB inhibitory molecule IκBα. The HCMV inhibition of IL-1 and TNF-α pathways corresponded to a suppression of NF-κB activation. Analysis of IκBα phosphorylation and degradation suggested that HCMV induced two independent blocks in NF-κB activation, which occurred upstream from the point of convergence of the IL-1 and TNF-α pathways. We believe that the ability of HCMV to inhibit these two major proinflammatory pathways reveals a critical aspect of HCMV biology, with possible importance for immune evasion, as well as establishment of infection in cell types persistently infected by this virus.
Rapid Upregulation of Interferon-Regulated and Chemokine mRNAs upon Injection of 108International Units, but Not Lower Doses, of Adenoviral Vectors into the Brain
Authors: Zirger Jeffrey M. , Barcia Carlos , Liu Chunyan , Puntel Mariana , Mitchell Ngan , Campbell Iain , Castro Maria , Lowenstein Pedro R.
Published: May 2006

The innate immune response, characterized by the rapid induction of proinflammatory genes, plays an important role in immune responses to viral vectors utilized in gene therapy. We demonstrate that several innate proinflammatory mRNAs, i.e., those coding for the interferon (IFN)-regulated proteins interferon regulatory factor 1, 2′,5′-oligoadenylate synthetase, and double-stranded-RNA-dependent protein kinase as well as those coding for the chemokines RANTES, IFN-γ-inducible protein 10, and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, were all increased in a statistically significant manner in response to 1 × 108IU, but not lower doses, of a first-generation adenovirus injected into the naïve brain. This indicates the presence of a threshold dosage of adenovirus needed to elicit an acute innate inflammatory response.
Prediction and Identification of Herpes Simplex Virus 1-Encoded MicroRNAs
Authors: Cui Can , Griffiths Anthony , Li Guanglin , Silva Lindsey M. , Kramer Martha F. , Gaasterland Terry , Wang Xiu-Jie , Coen Donald M.
Published: May 2006

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are key regulators of gene expression in higher eukaryotes. Recently, miRNAs have been identified from viruses with double-stranded DNA genomes. To attempt to identify miRNAs encoded by herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), we applied a computational method to screen the complete genome of HSV-1 for sequences that adopt an extended stem-loop structure and display a pattern of nucleotide divergence characteristic of known miRNAs. Using this method, we identified 11 HSV-1 genomic loci predicted to encode 13 miRNA precursors and 24 miRNA candidates. Eight of the HSV-1 miRNA candidates were predicted to be conserved in HSV-2. The precursor and the mature form of one HSV-1 miRNA candidate, which is encoded ∼450 bp upstream of the transcription start site of the latency-associated transcript (LAT), were detected during infection of Vero cells by Northern blot hybridization. These RNAs, which behave as late gene products, are not predicted to be conserved in HSV-2. Additionally, small RNAs, including some that are roughly the expected size of precursor miRNAs, were detected using probes for miRNA candidates derived from sequences encoding the 8.3-kilobase LAT, from sequences complementary to

U
L

15
mRNA, and from the region between
ICP4
and

U
S

1
. However, no species the size of typical mature miRNAs were detected using these probes. Three of these latter miRNA candidates were predicted to be conserved in HSV-2. Thus, HSV-1 encodes at least one miRNA. We hypothesize that HSV-1 miRNAs regulate viral and host gene expression.