bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Self-Blame Following a Traumatic Event: The Role of Perceived Avoidability
Authors: Davis Christopher G. , Lehman Darrin R. , Silver Roxane Cohen , Wortman Camille B. , Ellard John H.
Published: March 2007

People who have experienced a traumatic life event may blame themselves, in part, because they perceive that they could have avoided the event. A study of respondents with spinal cord injuries shows that their causal attributions for the event are distinguishable from their perceptions of avoidability, the latter frequently focusing on mutable aspects of their own behavior. Respondents with spinal cord injuries and trained raters attributed the same degree of causal significance to the respondent but differed in their assignment of blame: Respondents assumed more personal blame than raters gave them. Regression analyses suggest that a significant portion of respondents' self-blame can be attributed to their self-implicating perceptions of avoidability. The degree to which respondents believed that they could have avoided their accident predicted self-blame even after controlling for their causal attributions for the event. Implications for the study of self-blame and perceived avoidability are discussed.
Individual Differences in the Extent and Development of Aggressive Cognitive-Associative Networks
Authors: Bushman Brad J.
Published: March 2007

This article extends Berkowitz's cognitive neoassociationist aggression model by considering the role of personality variables. Experiment 1 tested the hypothesis that high-trait-aggressive individuals have more developed aggressive cognitive-associative networks than low-trait-aggressive individuals. Participants provided similarity ratings of word pairs; some words were aggressive (e.g., fight), and some were ambiguous with respect to aggression (e.g., alley). Associations among aggressive words, and associations between aggressive and ambiguous words, were stronger for high-trait-aggressive individuals. In Experiment 2, participants rated the stimulus words used in Experiment 1. Individuals afraid of becoming the victims of aggression rated the stimulus words as both aggressive and frightening, whereas individuals likely to be the perpetrators of aggression rated the words as aggressive but not frightening.
The Construction of Victim and Perpetrator Memories: Accuracy and Distortion in Role-Based Accounts
Authors: Stillweli Arlene M. , Baumeister Roy F.
Published: March 2007

To study how roles shape the construction of narrative accounts, participants read a story while identifying with its victim or perpetrator and then retold the story in their own words. In Study 2, participants told the story twice, the second time after a 3-to 5-day retention interval. In Study 3, some participants were given instructions to tell as accurate a story as possible. In all three studies, victims and perpetrators distorted to about the same extent, significantly more than control participants and especially by selective omission of uncongenial facts. Specific distortions suggested self-serving, role-based motivations. Perpetrators embellished mitigating circumstances and their own benevolent actions while omitting facts that emphasized severity and responsibility. Victims concentrated on details that described the severity of the offense and downplayed the perpetrator's positive actions.
Gender Differences in Seff-Perceptions: Convergent Evidence from Three Measures of Accuracy and Bias
Authors: Beyer Sylvia , Bowden Edward M.
Published: March 2007

This research assessed gender differences in the accuracy of self-perceptions. Do males and females with equal ability have similar self-perceptions of their ability? Three measures of accuracy were used: accuracy of self-evaluations, calibration for individual questions, and response bias. As hypothesized, for a masculine task, significant gender differences were found for all three measures: Females' self-evaluations of performance were inaccurately low, their confidence statements for individual questions were less wel calibrated than males; and their response bias was more conservative than males'. None of these gender differences were found for feminine and neutral tasks. As hypothesized, strong self-consistency tendencies were found. Expectancies emerged as an important predictor of self-evaluations of performance for both genders and could account for females' inaccurately low self-evaluations on the masculine task. How females' inaccurate self-perceptions might negatively affect achievement behavior and curtail their participation in masculine domains is discussed.
The Representation of Women in Management: The more, the Merrier?
Authors: Beaton Ann M. , Tougas Francine
Published: March 2007

The purpose of the present study is to examine how the numerical restructuring of the workforce affects the experiences of women within management. Research suggests that when considering numerical restructuring, a distinction should be made between the numerical representation of women and their level of intrusiveness. The effects of these two factors on the experiences of discrimination among female managers were examined in light of the concept of relative deprivation. Moreover; relative deprivation was used to account for women's motivation to promote their personal and collective situation. Reactions from a total of 253 female managers were investigated. Structural equation modeling technique (EQS) confirmed in part the proposed model Practical and theoretical issues are discussed.
Perceiving Others as Intrinsically or Extrinsically Motivated: Effects on Expectancy Formation and Task Engagement
Authors: Wild T. Cameron , Enzle Michael E. , Nix Glen , Deci Edward L.
Published: March 2007

In Study 1, participants who read about an extrinsically motivated target expected that task engagement would be less enjoyable and associated with less positive affect and that there would be poorer quality of interpersonal relations, compared with participants reading about an intrinsically motivated target. These effects were reversed when additional information disconfirmed initial perceptions of the target's motivation. In Study 2, participants who were taught a skill by an extrinsically motivated (paid) target reported lower interest in learning and lower task enjoyment than those taught by an intrinsically motivated (volunteer) target, despite receiving identical lessons and learning to the same criterion level. Lower levels of interest, task enjoyment, and positive mood "infected" a second learner when the first participant attempted to teach him or her the same skill. Results support a model linking social perception, expectancy formation, and motivational orientations toward activities.
Religious Belief and the Self-Concept: Evaluating the Implications for Psychological Adjustment
Authors: Blaine Bruce Evan , Trivedi Pamala , Eshleman Amy
Published: March 2007

It was proposed that (a) religious belief has implications for properties of the self-concept and that (b) the relationship between religious belief and psychological adjustment can be understood in self-theoretical terms. In two studies ( Ns = 145, 52) religious belief strength was associated with more positive and certain self-conceptions, and the influence of religiousness on the self-concept was evident in multiple self-knowledge domains. The results also demonstrated that self-concept positivity partially mediated the relationship between religious belief and psychological adjustment. In addition, self-concept and coping models of the association of religiousness and adjustment were compared. The results indicated that religious belief had a small, positive indirect effect on adjustment through self-concept positivity and a larger but negative indirect effect through a measure of God-related control attributions. Theoretical links between religious belief and the self-concept are discussed.
Person-Environment Fit and its Limits: Agreeableness, Neuroticism, and Emotional Reactivity to Interpersonal Conflict
Authors: Suls Jerry , Martin Rene , David James P.
Published: March 2007

A naturalistic diary study was conducted to investigate the degree to which agreeableness and neuroticism moderate emotional reactions to conflict and nonconflict problems. Healthy community-residing males made diary recordings at the end of each of 8 successive days concerning problem occurrence and daily mood. Consistent with predictions based on person-environment fit, participants who scored higher in agreeableness experienced more subjective distress when they encountered more interpersonal conflicts than did their less agreeable counterparts. Neuroticism was related to a small but consistent reactivity to both conflict and nonconflict problems, contrary to person-environment fit. Reasons for the differences in the affective dynamics of agreeableness and neuroticism are discussed.
The Measurement of Values and Individualism-Collectivism
Authors: Oishi Shigehiro , Schimmack Uhich , Diener Ed , Suh Eunkook M.
Published: March 2007

This study presents alternative measures of S. H. Schwartz's theory of values using pairwise comparisons and goal concepts. Not only did the three measures of values-the Schwartz Value Survey (SVS), the Pairwise Comparison Value Survey (PCVS), and the Personal Striving Value Survey (PSVS) -converge but they were also correlated in similar ways with the Individualism-Collectivism Scale (ICS). This provides evidence that the newly developed scales can be alternatives to the SVS, which allows future studies of values using multiple measures. Moreover, the findings provide support for Schwartz's conception of values as higher order goals. The present findings have several implications for the study of values and their linkage to the study of individualism-collectivism and the self-concept.
How Priming the Private Self or Collective Self Affects the Relative Weights of Attitudes and Subjective Norms
Authors: Ybarra Oscar , Trafimow David
Published: March 2007

Three experiments tested the hypothesis that the accessibility of the private self and the collective self affects the relative weights given to attitudes and subjective norms when forming a behavioral intention. The results of Experiment 1 indicate that increasing the accessibility of the private self caused participants to place more weight on attitudes than subjective norms but that increasing the accessibility of the collective self caused participants to place more weight on subjective norms than on attitudes. Experiments 2 and 3, using a subtle priming procedure, replicated this pattern of results. In addition, the findings of Experiment 3 provided direct evidence for the differential priming of the two self-concepts. Hence, the data suggest an intimate connection between the accessibility of the private and collective selves and whether people use attitudes or subjective norms to make behavioral intentions.
Not all Personal Goals are Personal: Comparing Autonomous and Controlled Reasons for Goals as Predictors of Effort and Attainment
Authors: Sheldon Kennon M. , Elliot Andrew J.
Published: March 2007

Even when goals are self-generated, they may not feel truly "personal," that is, autonomous and self-integrated. In three studies (one concurrent and two prospective), we found that the autonomy of personal goals predicted goal attainment. In contrast, the strength of "controlled" motivation did not predict attainment. Studies 2 and 3 validated a mediational model in which autonomy led to attainment because it promoted sustained effort investment. In Study 3, the Goal Attainment Scaling methodology was used to provide a more objective measure of goal attainment, and additional analyses were performed to rule out expectancy, value, and expectancy x value explanations of the autonomy-to-attainment effects. Results are discussed in terms of contemporary models of volition and self-regulation.
A Structural Analysis of Attitudes toward Alcohol and Marijuana Use
Authors: Simons Jeffrey , Carey Kate B.
Published: March 2007

Male and female undergraduates (N = 316) completed affective, cognitive, and global evaluations of alcohol and marijuana use. The discriminant validity of the attitude components was supported. As predicted, relationships between global attitude and the affective component varied across use experience groups; for both drugs, the affective component was more related to the global scale among the most experienced users. Attitude components predicted current marijuana use in a manner that was consistent with the analyses of attitude structure. However, the affective and cognitive attitude scales were relatively poor predictors of current alcohol use, suggesting that additional information may contribute to global attitude for alcohol use. Thus, similarities on attitude structure emerged across drugs, but the ability of the attitude components to predict use behavior differentiated the drug types.
Standard Errors of Item Response Theory Equating/Linking by Response Function Methods
Authors: Ogasawara Haruhiko
Published: March 2007

Asymptotic standard errors (SEs) of item response theory equating coefficient estimates are derived using response functions or their transformations. SEs are obtained by the method for the two- and three-parameter logistic models when the asymptotic variance-covariance matrix of the item parameter estimates is given. Two variations of the item and test response function methods and SEs of their parameter estimates are presented that use logit transformations of the item response functions. Numerical examples are given that show that the SEs of the item and test response function methods are smaller than those of other methods, particularly for the three-parameter model.
The Effect of Item Parameter Drift on Examinee Ability Estimates
Authors: Wells Craig S. , Subkoviak Michael J. , Serlin Ronald C.
Published: March 2007

This study investigated the effect of item parameter drift on ability estimates under item response theory. Item response data for two testing occasions were simulated for the two-parameter logistic model under the following crossed conditions: test length, sample size, percentage of drifting items, and type of drift. Results indicated that item parameter drift, under the conditions simulated, had a small effect on ability estimates.
Validity of the ACT Assessment as an Indicator of Reading Ability
Authors: Stiggins Richard J. , Schmeiser Cynthia B. , Ferguson Richard L.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this research was to explore the validity of ACT Assessment test results as indi cators of reading skill. This was considered impor tant because of the large and growing number of postsecondary institutions using open admission policies and admitting students with a wide range of reading ability. If ACT scores were found to be predictive of reading performance, ACT data could be used to identify those students who might profit from remedial reading training. Various test score combinations were used to predict students' per formance on numerous reading tests at a large number of postsecondary institutions. These studies indicated a high level of predictive accuracy.
Dimensions and Clusters: A Hybrid Approach to Classification
Authors: Skinner Harvey A.
Published: March 2007

A hybrid strategy is described for integrating the dimensional and discrete clusters approaches to classification research. First, a parsimonious set of dimensions is sought through a multiple repli cations design. The computations employ a two- stage least squares solution that is based on a se quential application of the Eckart and Young (1936) decomposition. Second, relatively homo geneous subgroups are identified within this low dimensional space using a clustering or density search algorithm. To facilitate interpretation of the final solution, an ideal type concept is introduced that is similar to the "idealized individual" inter pretation of multidimensional scaling. Depending upon the model chosen, the independent contri bution of elevation, scatter, and shape parameters may be differentiated in defining profile similarity.
The Rasch Model, Objective Measurement, Equating, and Robustness
Authors: Slinde Jeffrey A. , Linn Robert L.
Published: March 2007

This study investigated the adequacy of the Rasch model in providing objective measurement when equating existing standardized reading achievement tests with groups of examinees not widely separated in ability. To provide the context for the assessment of objectivity with the Rasch model, information relevant to several assumptions of the model was provided. An anchor test procedure was used to equate the various pairs of existing achievement tests. Despite the considerable lack of fit of the data to the model found for all tests used, the Rasch difficulty estimates were reasonably invariant for replications with random samples as well as samples that differed in ability by one grade level. Furthermore, with the exception of the data for one test pair and one grade level, the Rasch model using the anchor test procedure provided a reason ably satisfactory means of equating three test pairs on the log ability scale for the examinees at two grade levels.
The Appropriateness of Using the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness to Measure Sources of Behavioral Variability
Authors: Kameoka Velma A. , Tanaka-Matsumi Junko
Published: March 2007

The S-R Inventory of Anxiousness is critically ex amined for its appropriateness as a research strate gy to demonstrate sources of behavioral variance. The purpose, development, use of the inventory, and ensuing analysis are reviewed. Three major problems are discussed in light of the research questions. These problems include (1) the apparent lack of distinction between person and mode of response, (2) influence of the nonrandom selection of situation and mode of response on the results of the analysis, and (3) problems in specifying and as sessing the nature of person-situation interactions. Although initial efforts to statistically demonstrate variance contribution of interactions deserve recog nition, it is maintained that the variance compon ents approach and previous application of the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness do not lead to clarifying the specific nature of person-situation interactions in influencing anxiousness. Rather, it is suggested that future research on person-situation interactions would benefit by identifying specific person and situation characteristics and incorporating aspects of both these factors into a systematic research de sign.
Group Differentiated Prediction
Authors: Linn Robert L. , Hastings C. Nicholas
Published: March 2007

Studies of predictive bias have frequently shown that a prediction equation based on majority group members tends to overpredict the criterion perfor mance of minority group members. Two statistical ar tifacts that may cause the overprediction finding are reviewed and evaluated using data for black and white students at 30 law schools. It is shown that (1) the de gree of overprediction decreases as the predictive ac curacy for white students increases, and (2) that ov erprediction can be caused by the effects of selection on variables not included in the regression model. Use of Heckman's (1979) procedure to adjust the estimates of the regression parameters was found to essentially eliminate overprediction.
Modeling Guessing Behavior: A Comparison of Two IRT Models
Authors: Waller Michael I.
Published: March 2007

This study compared the fit of the three-parameter model to that of the Ability Removing Random Guessing (ARRG) model (Waller, 1973) on data from a wide range of tests of cognitive ability in three repre sentative samples. Although both models were de signed to remove only the effects of random guessing, the results of this study indicated that the three-param eter model also makes an adjustment for partial- knowledge guessing. Fit of the three-parameter model with guessing parameters estimated at a constant value of 1 divided by the number of alternatives was com pared to fit with individually estimated guessing pa rameters. The latter were found to produce fit far su perior to those estimated at a constant value. A solution to the convergence problems often encoun tered with the three-parameter model is discussed.
A Structural Theory of Spatial Abilities
Authors: Guttman Ruth , Epstein Elizabeth E. , Amir Marianne , Guttman Louis
Published: March 2007

A cylindrical-wedge model is proposed to represent the correlational structure of a variety of spatial ability tests. The model corresponds to the design of the tests' content, according to three facets: (1) type of rule task, (2) dimensionality of the test items, and (3) need to mentally rotate test objects in space. Additional facets are suggested to refine the theoretical and empirical structure. The model emphasizes regionality for representing in terrelationships as an alternative to factor analytic models which seek meaningful reference axes. The axis approach has not supplied an unambiguous theory that unifies content classification with the empirical structure of spatial abilities; it is also technically more awkward and less parsimonious than the regional approach. This paper advances theory and data analysis in the field of spatial ability by providing a unified conceptual frame work that can be refined and expanded systemati cally, and that serves as an actual experimental design that can be easily executed by other workers in the field. Existing data are shown to support the regional cylindrical-wedge model.
Stability Coefficients in Longitudinal Studies
Authors: Levin Joseph
Published: March 2007

Longitudinal studies of personality traits and intelligence have used an exponential function to relate the magnitudes of the correlations between occasions to the time interval. This exponential function is shown to be equivalent to a quasi- simplex model of a stationary process with con stant reliability. Two numerical illustrations are provided that compare the least-squares fit of the logarithm of the exponential function to an analy sis of the covariance structure.
Fitting Polytomous Item Response Theory Models to Multiple-Choice Tests
Authors: Drasgow Fritz , Levine Michael V , Tsien Sherman , Williams Bruce , Mead Alan D.
Published: March 2007

This study examined how well current software implementations of four polytomous item response theory models fit several multiple-choice tests. The models were Bock's (1972) nominal model, Samejima's (1979) multiple-choice Model C, Thissen & Steinberg's (1984) multiple-choice model, and Levine's (1993) maximum-likelihood formula scoring model. The parameters of the first three of these models were estimated with Thissen's (1986) MULTILOG computer program; Williams & Levine's (1993) FORSCORE program was used for Levine's model. Tests from the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery,the Scholastic Aptitude Test, and the American College Test Assessment were analyzed. The models were fit in estimation samples of approximately 3,000; cross-validation samples of approximately 3,000 were used to evaluate goodness of fit. Both fit plots and X2 statistics were used to determine the adequacy of fit. Bock's model provided surprisingly good fit; adding parameters to the nominal model did not yield improvements in fit. FORSCORE provided generally good fit for Levine's nonparametric model across all tests. Index terms: Bock's nominal model, FORSCORE, maximum likelihood formula scoring, MULTILOG, polytomous IRT.
The Rasch Poisson Counts Model for Incomplete Data: An Application of the EM Algorithm
Authors: Jansen Margo G. H.
Published: March 2007

Rasch's Poisson counts model is a latent trait model for the situation in which K tests are administered to N examinees and the test score is a count [e.g., the repeated occurrence of some event, such as the number of items completed or the number of items answered (in)correctly]. The Rasch Poisson counts model assumes that the test scores are Poisson distributed random variables. In the approach presented here, the Poisson parameter is assumed to be a product of a fixed test difficulty and a gamma-distributed random examinee latent trait parameter. From these assumptions, marginal maximum likelihood estimators can be derived for the test difficulties and the parameters of the prior gamma distribution. For the examinee parameters, there are a number of options. The model can be applied in a situa tion in which observations result from an incomplete design. When examinees are assigned to different sub sets of tests using background information, this informa tion must be taken into account when using marginal maximum likelihood estimation. If the focus is on test calibration and there is no interest in the characteristics of the latent traits in relation to the background informa tion, conditional maximum likelihood methods may be preferred because they are easier to implement and are justified for incomplete data for test parameter estima tion.
Linking Multidimensional Item Calibrations
Authors: Davey Tim , Oshima T.C. , Lee Kevin
Published: March 2007

Invariance of trait scales across changing samples of items and examinees is a central tenet of item re sponse theory (IRT). However, scales defined by most IRT models are truly invariant with respect to certain linear transformations of the parameters. The problem is to find the proper transformation that places separate calibrations on a common scale. A variety of proce dures for estimating transformations have been pro posed for unidimensional models. This paper explores some issues involved in extending and adapting unidi mensional linking procedures for use with multidimen sional IRT models.
Methodology Review: Estimation of Population Validity and Cross-Validity, and the Use of Equal Weights in Prediction
Authors: Raju Nambury S. , Bilgic Reyhan , Edwards Jack E. , Fleer Paul F.
Published: March 2007

In multiple regression, optimal linear weights are obtained using an ordinary least squares (OLS) procedure. However, these linear weighted combinations of predictors may not optimally predict the same criterion in the population from which the sample was drawn (population validity) or other samples drawn from the same population (population cross-validity). To achieve more accurate estimates of population validity and population cross-validity, some researchers and practitioners use formulas or traditional empirical methods to obtain the estimates. Others have suggested using the equal weights procedure as an alternative to the formula-based and empirical procedures. This review found that formula-based procedures can be used in place of empirical validation for estimating population validity or in place of empirical cross-validation for estimating population cross-validity. The equal weights procedure is a viable alternative when the observed multiple correlation is low to moderate and the variability among predictor-criterion correlations is low. Despite these findings, it is difficult to recommend one formula-based estimate over another because no single study has included all of the currently available formulas. Suggestions are offered for future research and application of these techniques.
Simple Question, Not So Simple Answer: Interpreting Interaction Terms in Moderated Multiple Regression
Authors: Bedeian Arthur G. , Mossholder Kevin W.
Published: March 2007

The appropriate interpretation of interaction terms in studies employing moderated multiple regression ( MMR) analysis is considered. It is argued that given a theory-based, a priori hypothesis, an MMR analysis is analogous to a planned statistical comparison and, thus, a significant overall F value is not a prerequisite for interpreting a significant interaction term.
Estimating State-Level Input-Output Relationships from U.S. Multiregional Data
Authors: Miller Ronald E. , Blair Peter
Published: March 2007

State input-output coefficient matrices can be obtained from the data embedded in the U.S. Multiregional Input-output Model (MRIO). Individual cells and multipliers in the survey-based tables for Kansas and West Virginia are compared to their counterparts extracted from the MRIO model. The MRIO data, although by no means perfect, are found to be much better than has previously been suggested. Evidence also is presented indicating that for certain kinds of questions a single-region input-output model may be adequate, that is, that interregional feedbacks will be negligible.
Regional Income Differences and the Definition of Income: The Case of Malaysia
Authors: DaVanzo Julie , Kusnic Michael
Published: March 2007

Data from the Malaysian Family Life Survey are used to examine the sensitivity of urban/rural income differentials to the definition and measurement of income. Measured income differentials vary with the extent to which nonmarket activities are included in the scope of income, how the distribution of income is summarized, and whether one adjusts for differences in hours of work, household size and composition, ethnic composition, and other sociodemographic characteristics. For example, depending on the measure chosen, estimates of the amount by which urban income exceeds rural income in Malaysia range from 9 percent to 141 percent.
Uncertain Paternalism: Tensions in Recent Regional Restructuring in China
Authors: Solinger Dorothy J.
Published: March 2007

This paper explains the reform of the regional structure of the Chinese economy in the late 1970s and 1980s in light of the concept of uncertain paternalism. This qualified state protectivism encourages local dependence on the central government but also trains localities in tactics of encapsulation, self-reliance, and hoarding. The concept of uncertain paternalism is used to elucidate the dynamics operating in four classes of spatial economic reforms, and the progress and problems of these reforms are discussed, as well as their potential contribution to the modernization of the Chinese economy.
Interregional Migration in an Extended Input-Output Model
Authors: Madden Moss , Trigg Andrew B.
Published: March 2007

This article develops a two-region version of an extended input-output model that disaggregates consumption among employed, unemployed, and inmigrant households, and which explicitly models the influx into a region of migrants to take up a proportion of any jobs created in the regional economy. The model is empirically tested using real data for the Scotland (UK) regions of Strathclyde and Rest-of-Scotland. Sets of interregional economic, demographic, demo-economic, and econo-demographic multipliers are developed and discussed, and the effects of a range of economic and demographic impacts are modeled. The circumstances under which Hawkins-Simon conditions for non-negativity are breached are identified, and the limits of the model discussed. A selection of social accounts matrices is presented to show flows within the system under different conditions.
Locational Planning and Regional Economic Development: Appropriate Methods in Developing Countries
Authors: Rondinelli Dennis A.
Published: March 2007

The functional integration approach is a method for locating services and infrastructure needed for rural development. Applied methods of regional analysis based on the concept of functional integration organize and assess basic information on investments needed to strengthen the roles of settlements as marketing and service centers in developing countries. Critics often misinterpret its intent and purposes. These methods do not maximize access for a portion of the rural population to individual urban functions. Location-allocation algorithms focus on issues of access, but they cannot provide the information needed by regional planners and policy-makers to improve rural-urban linkages and strengthen the functions of economic growth centers in poor rural regions.
Employment and Economic Restructuring in the Former Soviet Union
Authors: Doroguntsov Sergey I. , Onishchenko Vladimir F.
Published: March 2007

Massive unemployment in the former Soviet Union is inevitable as the transition to a market economy takes place. Central planning's goal of maximizing output and maintaining full employment has led to inefficient, labor-intensive production methods that are inconsistent with a competitive market. During the transition, enterprises will be forced to lay off workers, but the legacies of central planning will prevent rapid formation of new employment opportunities to absorb these workers. The prospect of civil unrest looms ahead unless government can find a way to support these workers during their unemployment.
Cognitive Structures in the Perception of Modern Technologies
Authors: Daamen Dancker D. L. , Van der Lans Ivo A. , Midden Cees J. H.
Published: March 2007

Results of two survey studies (N = 197 and N = 2037) are presented. It is shown that attitudes of the public about "technology in general" are not stable and can easily be affected by how the subject is introduced. Eight areas of technology are compared on the basis of empirical relations in attitudinal judgments, in attribute ratings, in self- assigned importance weights of attributes, and in importance of reference groups and persons. On the basis of similarities in these four kinds of judgments, three clusters of technology areas were identified: (1) a cluster of modern reproductive technologies, (2) an information cluster containing automation, computer, and communication technologies, and (3) a cluster containing nuclear energy and military technology. The attitude toward "technology in general" can not be considered as an aggregation of attitudes toward these areas of technology: The relations between general attitude and specific attitudes are only moderate to negligible.
Public Understanding of Science
Authors: Ziman John
Published: March 2007

[Editor's introduction: The following are excerpts from three talks given at the conference "Policies and Publics for Science and Technology, " London, April 1990. They introduce a British research initiative in public understanding of science and point to early results. The program was developed and coordinated by the Science Policy Support Group. At the meeting, a new journal for specialists in this area was launched: Public Understanding of Science, to be edited by John Durant, Science Museum, London SW7 2DD, UK. The first issue of the journal is expected to appear in April 1991. Science, Technology, & Human Values reaffirms its long commitment to publishing research on public attitudes toward science and particularly welcomes articles on this topic of general interest to the field of science and technology studies.]
Computerization and Social Transformations
Authors: Kling Rob
Published: March 2007

This article examines the relationship between the use of computer-based systems and transformations in parts of the social order. Answers to this question rest heavily on the way computer-based systems are consumed -not just produced or dissemtnated. The discourse about computerezation advanced in many professional magazines and the mass media is saturated with talk about "revolution, " and yet substantial social changes are often difficult to cdentcfy in carefully designed empirical studies. The article examines qualitative case studies of computerization in welfare agencies, urban planning, accounting, marketing, and manufacturing to examine the ways that computerization alters social life in varced ways: sometemes restructuring relationships and in other cases reinforcing existing social relationships. The article also examines some of the theoret ical issues in studies of computerization, such as drawing boundaries. It concludes with some observations about the sociology of computer sctence as an academic discipline.
Beyond Harmony and Consensus: A Social Conflict Approach to Technology
Authors: Hård Mikael
Published: March 2007

This article presents a sociological perspective that suggests that technology should be seen as a means for groups to retain or rearrange social relations. Claiming, first, that the sociotechnical systems approach in technology-and-society studies often tend to bring out harmony and cooperation as an ideal and, second, that central social construc tivists tend to interpret closure and stabilization processes in terms of consensus, this article, instead, argues that technology should be regarded as the outcome of conflicting interests and ideas. To make the perspective plausible, a number of analytic concepts are put forth and illustrated, some case studies are reinterpreted in conflict language, and a few tentative research hypotheses are formulated.
Democracy and Super Technologies: The Politics of the Space Shuttle and Space Station Freedom
Authors: Kay W.D.
Published: March 2007

A significant share of the U.S. federal R&D budget is devoted to large-scale, complex technological systems commonly referred to as "big science. " Over the last two decades, these systems have continued to grow in size, complexity, development time, and cost. At the same time, political changes in the United States, particularly the concern over government spending and the federal budget deficit, have made it more difficult for proponents to secure and preserve support for these programs over their (increasingly long) lifetimes. Using the U.S. space shuttle and space station programs as examples, the article shows that the political requirements for obtaining approval and funding for large and expensive research and development projects create conditions that reduce the likelihood that they will succeed technologically. The problems of technology-based projects like those of the U.S. space program are in fact deeply rooted in the American political process itself.
At the Margins of Humanity: Fetal Positions in Science and Medicine
Authors: Casper Monica J.
Published: March 2007

This article offers a comparative analysis of experimental fetal surgery and fetal tissue research. The author argues that fetuses are positioned differently across each set of practices, with significant implications for actors in these domains. By empirically charting the ways in which humanity is or is not attributed to fetal work objects, the author's argument challenges contemporary debates in science studies that tend to conceptualize human and nonhuman in dualistic terms. This analysis instead shows the heterogeneous attribution of these categories, as well as the spaces, margins, and positions, which constitute them as distinct.
Do Public Electronic Bulletin Boards Help Create Scientific Knowledge?
Authors: Lewenstein Bruce V.
Published: March 2007

The impact of new technologies on the transformation of information into knowledge is not clear. Especially problematic is the degree to which electronic communication can replace traditional forums in which information is judged and social consensus about its value is achieved. This article uses electronic bulletin boards active during the cold fusion saga that began in 1989 to explore these issues. Dividing the contents of the bulletin boards into big ideas and little ideas, the article suggests that only about half of all messages on the boards were big ideas, and only half of those were on technical issues. The study suggests that the substantial volume of irrelevant material and the difficulty of applying extratextual cues to the judgment of information made the bulletin boards an ineffective tool for creating knowledge in this case.
The Rhetoric and Counter-Rhetoric of a "Bionic" Technology
Authors: Blume Stuart S.
Published: March 2007

Development of the cochlear implant, discussed in this article, depended vitally on deaf people being persuaded to undergo implantation. Media "reconstruction" of the device as the "bionic ear" was typically encouraged by implant pioneers. Unexpectedly, however, a "counter-rhetoric" based on a very different understanding of deafness emerged. With it, deaf people are slowly succeeding in gaining influence over the further deployment of the technology. The analysis suggests modifications to existing theoretical models of technological change in medicine.
Problematic Publics: A Critical Review of Surveys of Public Attitudes to Biotechnology
Authors: Davison Aidan , Barns Ian , Schibeci Renato
Published: March 2007

This article discusses a range of recent major surveys of public attitudes toward biotechnology. The authors identify a number of problematic features of the surveys: the use of predominantly consumerist rather than civic conception of public discourse; the assumption of a unitary "general public," a "cognitive deficit" approach to public understanding of science; and the presumption of a politically neutral and instrumental ist model of science and technology. The authors then examine some alternative ap proaches to exploring perceptions of biotechnology among a diversity of interested publics, including more focused dialogical surveys, consensus conferences, and parlia mentary inquiries.
Comparative Risk Assessment: Where Does the Public Fit In?
Authors: Perhac Ralph M.
Published: March 2007

Comparative risk assessment (CRA) is playing an ever-increasing role in environmental policy priority setting, as manifested in national and numerous subnational comparative risk projects. It is widely accepted that public values, interests, and concerns should play an important role in CRA. However, the philosophical basis for public involvement in CRA has not been adequately explored, nor have comparative risk projects always made explicit their rationales for public involvement. The author examines the political, normative, and epistemic rationales for public involvement and explores the case for public involvement in the making of ethical, valuation, and evidentiary judgments. The author considers key issues each rationale raises, problems eachfaces, and some of the implications of each for specific aspects of CRA.
Caffeine, Cajoling, and Other Strategies to Maximize Clinician Survey Response Rates
Authors: Puleo Elaine , Zapka Jane , White Mary Jo , Mouchawar Judy , Somkin Carol , Taplin Stephen
Published: March 2007

An ongoing objective in health services research is to increase response rates to clinician surveys to ensure generalizability of findings. Three HMOs in the Cancer Research Network participated in a primary care clinician survey to better understand organizational characteristics affecting adoption and implementation of breast and cervical cancer screening guidelines. A four-stage data collection strategy was implemented to maximize response. This included careful attention to survey design and layout, extensive piloting, choice of token incentive, use of “local champions,” and denominator management. An overall response rate of 91% was attained, ranging from83 to 100% among the plans(N = 621). Although the response rate after the second stage of data collection met commonly used standards, the authors argue for the four-stage method due to the possibility of differences when comparing early and late responders. This is important when multiple plans with differing structure and internal characteristics are surveyed.
Using Multiple Measures in the Interpretation of Student Ratings of Instruction
Authors: Sackoff Kaplan Judith , Orr T. , Bartell Pasquale F.
Published: March 2007

This study investigated a multiple measurement approach to validating the inter pretation of student ratings of a medical school course. Concerns of priority to students were isolated from the ratings and data on student opinion collected by an open-ended question and student faculty documents. An interpretation consonant with all data was derived. Influences on student opinion, including demographic, academic, and personal characteristics of students, teaching practices, and the instructional context were explored through a comparison of the present class with a previous class. Ratings of the course by the two classes differed in the absence of significant differences in the students or teaching practices. Divergences in the ratings were attributed to changes in the instruc tional context reported in the multiple measures of student opinion. It was concluded that a multiple measurement approach allows greater precision in the interpretation of student opinion than is afforded by ratings alone.
Standard-Setting in Written and Interactive (Oral) Specialty Certification Examinations
Authors: Meskauskas John A. , Norcini John J.
Published: March 2007

This article addresses standard-setting for written and interactive (oral) examinations in the health professions. The currently used methods are explained and classified, and their strengths and weaknesses are discussed. We argue that standard-setting must be understood as an interactive system involving decision maker(s), subject area, and methods. Thus, standard-setting is a methods. Thus, standard-setting is a psychological/social psychological process as well as a psychometric one. It rests upon a foundation ofjudgment. For written examinations, normative and content-referenced (absolute) methods are discussed. In interactive examinations, judges' standards are inherently absolute; design considerations are presented to systematize the context for these judgments.
The Woodhaven Short-Term Model Reconsidered
Authors: Conroy James W. , Lemanowicz James , Feinstein Celia
Published: March 2007

This article concerns the issues surrounding discharge of mentally retarded clients from a short-term, intensive residential service setting. The Temple University Woodhaven Center is designed as a two- year setting for about 270 clients. They require intensive assistance in acquiring behaviors necessary for independent functioning and in learning appropriate social behavior, so that they can adapt to and thrive in a less restrictive, more integrated setting. Woodhaven, however, serves clients at all levels of retardation. The question arises: How is it decided who is to be dis charged and when? Upon entry to Woodhaven, a contract is written with the family and client, specifying what behavioral changes are expected as preconditions for discharge. In this approach, a client should be discharged upon attainment of contract goals. A second approach uses adaptive behavior skills as a criterion of progress, and attempts to determine the level of skills displayed by other, similar clients who are already living in the community. This second, criterion-referenced approach is important not only for discharge decisions from one facility, but for broad service system planning as well. The results of the present study supported the notion of a two-year intensive residential program.
Evaluating Reasons for Nursing Turnover
Authors: Weisman Carol S. , Alexander Cheryl S. , Chase Gary A.
Published: March 2007

Data from a study of nursing turnover are used to compare findings based on two techniques for evaluating the reasons for resignations within the same population of hospital nurses during one year. The techniques are: (1) exit interviews, in which resigning nurses were asked to report in an open-ended format their major reasons for leaving their jobs; and (2) a prospective panel study, in which nurses who resigned are compared with nurses who remained, and actual turnover is predicted. Results show that due to the absence of a compari son group of remaining nurses and of baseline data, causal inferences based on exit interview data alone are overly simplistic and misleading for management purposes. Results of thepanel study are more inform ative, although implications for hospital management are more complex. Use of the prospective panel design is recommended for hospitals concerned with evaluating nursing job conditions during a period of high turnover and staff nurse shortages.
Manpower Utilization and Task Delegation:
Authors: Fottler Myron D.
Published: March 2007

The manpower utilization patterns in physician practices are examined with regard to present employment and task delegation patterns, willingness to delegate tasks to physician extenders, and correlates of both. The study concludes that little task delegation has occurred in the clinical areas with the exception of the provision of information and counseling. However, there does appear to be an acceptance of significantly more task delegation than has occurred up to the present. Policy implications and recommendations are presented.