bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Keeping Cool
Authors: Mitchell Graham
Published: August 2021

Measurement of giraffe body temperature has shown that it is ~38.5oC but it can vary by ~5oC over the course of a day. Body heat is derived from fermentation of browse, other metabolic processes and radiant heat. Heat loss mechanisms partly depend on body surface area. Despite their unusual shape the body surface area of giraffes is similar to that in other equivalent body mass mammals: a shorter trunk is offset by a longer neck and legs. Heat loss by radiation is constant, by conduction rare and minimal. Their long, slender legs and neck are an advantage for convective and evaporative heat loss from the skin: heat transfer is inversely proportional to the square root of diameter. Evaporation from the respiratory system occurs through the nasal mucosa, the surface area of which in giraffes is large. Cooling of the nasal mucosa and blood follows and cool blood drains in to the jugular vein and contributes to whole body cooling and cooling of the blood supplying the brain by heat exchange in the carotid rete. Similar heat exchange may occur across the surface of the ossicones. Behavior changes when ambient temperature exceeds skin temperature. Giraffes re-orientate their bodies to minimize radiant heat gain and seek shade. A unique arrangement of blood vessels supplying blood to skin patches allows patches to act as thermal windows through which heat can be lost an arrangement enhanced by evaporation: sweat gland density in the skin of patches is greater than it is elsewhere.
The Skeleton of Giraffes
Authors: Mitchell Graham
Published: August 2021

The giraffe skeleton consists of ~170 bones. The dry mass of the skeleton is 70 g.kg-1 body mass. The average chemical composition of their bones is 33% minerals (mainly calcium and phosphorus in a ratio of 2:1), 34% collagen, and 33% water. The skull contributes ~10%, the vertebrae ~25% and the limb bones ~65% to skeleton mass. The average density of all bones is 1.6 g cm-3, ranging from 0.8 g cm-3 (cervical vertebrae) to 2.0 g cm-3 (limb bones). Resistance to fracture by vertebrae depends on their cross-sectional area, and is greatest in cervical and the first few thoracic vertebrae. Resistance to fracture by limb bones depends on wall thickness (the difference between inner and outer diameter), which is uniquely thick. The growth of all limb bones except the humerus follows a geometric pattern (length and diameter increase at the same rate) which confers resistance to compression stress. The humerus follows an elastic pattern (diameter increases faster than length) a pattern that resists bending stress. Giraffes bones are exceptionally straight which further reduces bending stresses. The torque generated by the mass of the head and neck is resisted by the ligamentum nuchae which is exceptionally well-developed in giraffes, extends from the lumbar vertebrae to the occipital crest, can have a diameter of ~10 cm, and can support loads of ~1.8 tonnes before rupturing. As a giraffe grows muscle cross-sectional area (and contraction strength) declines and the duty factor reduces, both of which reduce the risk of fracture.
A Shape to Die for?
Authors: Mitchell Graham
Published: August 2021

The product of natural selection over at least 15 million years is the elongated, slender shape of giraffes that fits the natural habitat giraffes now occupy. What selection pressures operated to produce their shape? Their shape is partly the product of gravity and could have been an accidental by-product of selection for a large body mass and the protection from predation that large size brings, but the prevailing explanation is that their shape confers a browsing advantage. Preferred browse is concentrated at a height easily reached by giraffes but not by other browsers and natural selection would have favored those giraffes that could reach it. An alternative hypothesis is that their shape confers thermoregulatory benefits in addition to improved vigilance. Another hypothesis is that a long neck evolved to counter long legs allowing giraffes to drink surface water. An attractive hypothesis is that their shape is a product of ‘runaway’ sexual selection by females for males with long heavy necks, but analysis of this hypothesis has shown that the morphology of male and female giraffe does not differ. Nevertheless, all these possibilities could have contributed. A consequence of selection for their shape is over-specialization: giraffes seem to be inextricably dependent on a narrow diet, a diet that is subject to the vagaries of climate and competition for resources. The greatest threat to their survival is, therefore, their shape.
Explaining Research
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

Explaining Research is the most comprehensive guide to research communication. It offers practical tools and techniques to effectively reach professional and lay audiences important to researchers’ success. These audiences include colleagues, potential collaborators, officers in funding agencies and foundations, donors, institutional leaders, corporate partners, students, legislators, family and friends, journalists, and the public. The book also includes strategies to guide research communication, as well as insights from leading science journalists and research communicators. The book shows how to develop a communication “strategy of synergy”; give compelling talks; build a professional website; create quality posters, images, animations, graphs, charts, videos, e-newsletters, blogs, podcasts, and webinars; write popular articles and books; persuade funding decision makers; produce news releases and other content that attract media coverage; give effective media interviews; serve as a public educator in schools and science centers; and protect against communication traps.
Plan Your Research Communication Strategy
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

Researchers should chart a communication strategy to maximize the benefit of their communications to their research and career. They first need to free themselves from the attitude that they should fear communicating to lay audiences because of the inherent imprecision of lay communications. Also, they should overcome the fear of communicating beyond their peers because their peers might judge them harshly. They should have a “do-tell” strategy that they communicate as much as possible about their goals and research advances. Such a strategy ensures that their work will reach audiences that they might not have expected. They should also have a “strategy of synergy,” in which they use such content as news releases to reach multiple audiences beyond the media.
Create Effective Poster Presentations
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

Poster presentations, like professional talks, can be more broadly useful than just to display your findings at conferences; the poster is a jumping-off point for discussion with viewers. Creating effective posters means using accessible designs that are easy for audiences to scan. It also means using newspaper-type headlines for subheads, rather than the uninformative “Abstract,” “Introduction,” “Materials and Methods,” “Results,” and “Conclusions.” Because text is very limited on a poster, make every word count; use short sentences, avoid the passive voice, and explicitly state your finding and its broad implications. In addition to tightly edited text, “grabber” graphics can enhance communication and should be colorful and attractive. Presenting the poster effectively means formulating concise verbal explanations and offering takeaways such as handouts, business cards, or URLs of relevant websites.
Write Clear Research Explanations
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

Writing clear research explanations for scientific papers and other professional publications means using short, concise “thrifty” words and eliminating unnecessary “padding” words. Choosing precisely the right word will improve your writing, but also seek out the most vivid, compelling word. Structure sentences to communicate an idea clearly: keep the average sentence short to improve comprehension and give ideas punch, write longer sentences for more complex ideas, and place the concept at the beginning or end. Use the active voice to strengthen your explanations and engage the reader. Proofread exhaustively, performing each of the three levels of proofreading separately. Composing readable prose also means writing for the “reading eye,” taking into account the perceptual process of reading by creating layouts that offer visual landmarks such as paragraph indents, white space, drop caps, and pull quotes.
Manage Media Relations at Scientific Meetings
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

This chapter will help you effectively communicate your meeting’s news to the media. To successfully manage media relations at a scientific meeting, a researcher should first visit press rooms at major scientific society meetings to see how they are run. Some steps to running a newsroom include identifying newsworthy papers and suggesting that scientists contact their public information officers to do news releases, as well as notifying the media of the meeting. The role of a conference press officer also includes organizing the newsroom to include all the facilities journalists will need, setting embargoes on presentations, and planning and conducting news conferences. Arranging interviews and making experts available for background discussion are also important steps.
Forms and Structure in Plato's Metaphysics
Authors: Marmodoro Anna
Published: August 2021

This book investigates the thought of two of the most influential philosophers of antiquity, Plato and his predecessor Anaxagoras, with respect to their metaphysical accounts of objects and properties. It introduces a fresh perspective on these two thinkers’ ideas, displaying the debt of Plato’s theory to Anaxagoras’s, and principally arguing that their core metaphysical concept is overlap; overlap between properties and things in the world. Initially Plato endorses Anaxagoras’s model of constitutional overlap, and subsequently develops qualitative overlap. Overlap is the crux to our understanding of Plato’s theory of participation of objects in Forms; of his account of relatives without relations; of the role of Forms as causes; of the transcendent normativity of Forms; of the metaphysics of necessity; and of the role of the Great Kinds and of the paradeigma in the development of Plato’s thought. This book shows Plato as ground-breaking in the history of metaphysics, in different ways from those acknowledged so far, and with respect to more metaphysical questions than had been hitherto appreciated; for example, Plato’s treatment of structure as a property of things, and his introduction of the first ever account of metaphysical emergence. In addition to these results, the book makes Anaxagoras’s and Plato’s systems philosophically accessible to us, today’s philosophers, by applying conceptual tools from analytic metaphysics to the study of ancient metaphysics. In this way, the book brings Anaxagoras’s and Plato’s ideas to bear on todays’ philosophical discussions and opens up new venues of research for current philosophical discussions.
Introduction
Authors: Marmodoro Anna
Published: August 2021

The introduction raises the main question the book investigates, namely how some of the greatest metaphysicians of antiquity discovered, reified in their ontologies, and explained what structure is. Structure is to be found in the natural world, in our mental life, in any work of craftsmanship and art: a plant, an intention, an engine are all instances of structured entities. Anaxagoras treats structures as primitive entities in his ontology; Plato pioneers a conception of structure as a property, which leads to many metaphysical innovations in his system. The book’s introduction sketches its overall argument, starting with an investigation of structure in Anaxagoras’s ontology, which will serve as a foil for understanding the development of Plato’s views concerning structure and their fundamental impact on those of Aristotle.
The paradeigma shift
Authors: Marmodoro Anna
Published: August 2021

This chapter focuses on the metaphysical innovations Plato introduces in the Timaeus to solve (some of) the difficulties he has wrestled with in the preceding dialogues. It argues that by introducing the paradeigma, Plato reifies structure into a single Form. The paradeigma is all the Forms, which are now primitively structured into one single Form, as qualitative aspects of it. This radical change in Plato’s conception of the Forms brings about an equally significant change in his account of participating in the Forms. Plato comes to endorse a new explanatory ‘mechanism’ for property qualification, that is, similarity, and moves from constitutional to qualitative overlap between Forms and objects. In the Timaeus, Plato enriches his account by introducing efficient causation in his system: the operation of a divine agent, the Demiurge, to implement imitation. Further, the chapter shows how Plato finds in the Timaeus his own solution to the Third Man regress.
The Presidency Before Trump
Authors: Ball Carlos A.
Published: August 2021

This chapter explores how Congress, the courts, and we the people have permitted presidents for the last ninety years to accumulate an immense amount of power with few meaningful and effective restraints. In doing so, the chapter shows how Trump’s abuses of presidential authority were not only the actions of a reckless and autocratic leader, but were also the outgrowth of the steady accumulation of presidential powers that has taken place since the 1930s under both Republican and Democratic administrations. Although progressives since the Vietnam War have worked to limit presidential authority in matters related to armed conflicts and national security, they generally have not pushed for restraining that authority in domestic matters. It is time for progressives to take into account the extent to which proposed laws, regulations, and executive orders expand presidential domestic powers when determining whether such measures merit their political support. This means that there may be times when progressives should refuse to support measures that unduly expand presidential authority even in instances in which the exercise of that authority advances progressive goals. To illustrate this point, the chapter argues that progressives should have been more cognizant of the extent to which President Barack Obama’s humanitarian but unilateral decision to cease deporting Dreamers—the large number of undocumented immigrants brought to the United States as children—expanded presidential powers.
The Presidency During the Trump Era and Beyond
Authors: Ball Carlos A.
Published: August 2021

This chapter explores the many ways in which Trump abused the powers of his office to create what it calls a Madisonian nightmare. Trump’s abuses of power included his efforts (1) to obstruct the special counsel’s investigation of Russia’s interference with the 2016 election; (2) to gain personal, political advantages from Ukraine and other countries while carrying out his official duties as president; (3) to obstruct the exercise of Congress’s impeachment and other investigatory powers; (4) to push the Department of Justice to investigate his political enemies and to protect his political allies from the enforcement of federal law; (5) to punish sanctuary jurisdictions for refusing to help implement the administration’s harsh immigration policies; and (6) to defy Congress by reallocating funds to pay for a border wall despite congressional disapproval of such action. These abuses of power show why it is crucial for progressives going forward to prioritize the reining in of presidential power in domestic affairs as a political issue, adding it to traditional liberal concerns such as economic justice and civil rights protections. The chapter ends with specific suggestions on how Congress and the courts can constitutionally limit the powers of the presidency in domestic affairs in ways that can help deter the types of repeated and dangerous presidential abuses of power that the nation experienced during the Trump era.
The Nature of Host–Pathogen Interactions
Authors: Owen Jennifer C. , Adelman James S. , Henschen Amberleigh E.
Published: August 2021

The dynamics of infectious disease are driven by the fundamental processes that mediate host–pathogen interactions. A basic understanding of the mechanisms underlying these interactions is essential for disease ecologists regardless of their scale of inquiry. This chapter covers the terms and concepts commonly used in ecological studies of infectious disease across levels of organization and scales of inquiry, from the individual host organism to host populations and multispecies communities. When applicable, aspects that are unique to birds and their biology are highlighted. The between-host processes discussed in the beginning of the chapter arise from the within-host processes between the pathogen and the host’s immune system. These processes are then used as a framework to introduce the basics of epidemiological modeling and the population-level disease dynamics. The chapter is not meant to be exhaustive but, instead, to provide a common foundation for readers approaching this topic from unique backgrounds. Given the transdisciplinary nature of avian infectious disease ecology, many of the terms used have multiple meanings assigned to them that are taxon- or discipline-specific. Such variation in key terminology is, in large part, a consequence of the transdisciplinary and multiscaled approaches inherent in studying host–pathogen–vector–environment interactions.
Climate Change and Avian Disease
Authors: Hall Richard J.
Published: August 2021

Rapid and intensifying impacts of climate change are having profound influences on bird populations worldwide, altering their exposure and vulnerability to diverse parasites of conservation or public health concern. This chapter highlights theory and assesses empirical evidence for how climate change will affect avian host–parasite interactions through multiscale processes that jointly determine transmission potential. Shifts in the distribution and phenology of bird populations shape the diversity of parasites they encounter, while behavioral and physiological responses influence individuals’ susceptibility to infection. Additionally, direct and often non-linear effects of abiotic conditions on parasite stages in arthropod vectors or the external environment can be crucial determinants of avian exposure risk. This chapter underscores the necessity of quantifying responses to environmental change in both birds and their parasites and highlights key knowledge gaps and priorities for future research, in order to improve predictions of when climate change will intensify or reduce avian–parasite interactions.
Roman Citizenship in the Cypriot Context
Authors: Hussein Ersin
Published: August 2021

The implications of attaining Roman citizenship in the provinces, whether an opportunity for personal advancement through access to privileges and citizen rights or a symbolic badge of honour, were potentially substantial for individuals and their wider community. The last study of the spread of Roman citizenship across the whole of Cyprus was undertaken by Terence Mitford, and his findings were published posthumously in 1980. He focused solely on epigraphic evidence from the island and offered speculative conclusions for the sporadic instances of citizenship across the island. This chapter presents a systematic, revised study of the impact and significance of Roman citizenship across Cyprus. It begins with an overview of the self-representation and commemoration of outsiders who were Roman citizens. Discussion focuses on the evidence for other notable and high-profile visitors such as negotiatores, Marcia first cousin of the Emperor Augustus, and the pet Lucius Septimius Nestor of Laranda. This not only establishes the contact that locals and communities had with high-profile outsiders but also reveals how outsider identities were commemorated, providing useful comparative evidence for the analysis of strategies that locals used to articulate their new-found status. The remainder of the chapter assesses firm instances of citizenship to examine the spread of Roman citizenship across the island and to explore how this was celebrated by individuals and communities. The chapter closes with a brief overview of evidence for Cypriots abroad to further contextualize local responses to and experiences of the Roman Empire
On the Concept and the Nature of Law
Authors: Alexy Robert
Published: August 2021

The central argument of this chapter turns on the dual-nature thesis. This thesis sets out the claim that law necessarily comprises both a real or factual dimension and an ideal or critical dimension. The dual-nature thesis is incompatible with both exclusive legal positivism and inclusive legal positivism. It is also incompatible with variants of non-positivism according to which legal validity is lost in all cases of moral defect or demerit or, alternatively, is affected in no way at all by moral defects or demerits. The dual nature of law is expressed, on the one hand, by the Radbruch Formula, which says that extreme injustice is no law, and, on the other, by the correctness argument, which says that law’s claim to correctness necessarily includes a claim to moral correctness. Thus, what the law is depends not only on social facts but also on what the law ought to be.
The Dual Nature of Law
Authors: Alexy Robert
Published: August 2021

The argument of this chapter is that the dual-nature thesis is not only capable of solving the problem of legal positivism but also addresses all fundamental questions of law. Examples are the relation between deliberative democracy and democracy qua decision-making procedure along the lines of the majority principle, the connection between human rights as moral rights and constitutional rights as positive rights, the relation between constitutional review qua ideal representation of the people and parliamentary legislation, the commitment of legal argumentation to both authoritative and non-authoritative reasons, and the distinction between rules as expressing a real ‘ought’ and principles as expressing its ideal counterpart. All of this underscores the point that the dual nature of law is the single most essential feature of law.
Problems of Discourse Theory
Authors: Alexy Robert
Published: August 2021

There are three groups of problems in discourse theory. The first group concerns the status of discourse theory as a theory of truth. The second group enquires into the practical applicability of discourse theory. The third group takes up the justification of discourse theory. The first two problems, namely the status and the applicability problems, are discussed in this chapter. The result is that the distinction between ideal discourse and real discourse provides an answer to the main questions. For the ideal discourse the idea of absolute procedural correctness is constitutive. The real procedural correctness plays its most important role as far as real discourses are concerned.
Introduction
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

This chapter sets out the aims of the book, the approach, what is covered in the book, and what is not. The chapter introduces the R and RStudio software packages. It also summarizes the changes made to the second edition of the book. The book starts by introducing several different variations of the basic linear-model analysis (analysis of variance, linear regression, analysis of covariance, etc.). The later part of the book covers generalized linear models (for data with non-normal distributions). The book ends by combining these two extensions into generalized linear mixed-effects models. To allow a learning-by-doing approach, the R code necessary to perform the basic analysis is embedded in the text along with the key output from R.
Motivation
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

This chapter introduces a motivating example (which is returned to at the end of the book)—analysis of data from the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. The chapter illustrates the importance of statistics, including informal graphical analysis.
Prediction
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

In this chapter we use linear regression to model the relationship between wood density and timber hardness. Our first goal is to estimate the coefficients of the linear model—the regression intercept and slope. The aim of this chapter is to put those coefficients to work in predicting timber hardness from wood density.
Intervals
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

This chapter pulls together material from earlier chapters to give an introductory user’s guide to error bars and intervals. There is no ‘best’ interval that suits all needs. Several different types of intervals are compared: standard deviations, standard errors of means, standard errors of differences, confidence intervals, and least significant differences. The pros and cons of these main types of interval are reviewed. The results are presented using R graphics.
Analysis of Variance
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

Analysis of variance is introduced using a worked analysis of some data collected by Charles Darwin on inbreeding depression in experimental maize plants. ANOVA is used to compare the heights of a group of cross-pollinated plants with a group of self-fertilized seedlings. The least squares process is explained, including the calculation of sums of squares and variances and the calculation of F-ratios. The organization of the results of a linear model into an ANOVA table is explained. The R code necessary to perform the analysis is worked through and explained in terms of the underlying statistical concepts, and the interpretation of the R output is demonstrated.
Factorial Designs
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

This chapter moves on from simple ‘one-way’ designs to more complex factorial designs. It extends the simple linear model to include interactions as well as average main effects. Interactions are assessed relative to a null additive expectation where the treatments have no effect on each other. Interactions can be positive, when effects are more than additive, or negative, when they are less than expected. The chapter considers in detail the analysis of an example data set concerning the mechanisms of loss of plant diversity following fertilizer treatment.
Generalized Linear Models
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

This chapter revisits a regression analysis to explore the normal least squares assumption of approximately equal variance. It also considers some of the data transformations that can be used to achieve this. A linear regression of transformed data is compared with a generalized linear-model equivalent that avoids transformation by using a link function and non-normal distributions. Generalized linear models based on maximum likelihood use a link function to model the mean (in this case a square-root link) and a variance function to model the variability (in this case the gamma distribution, where the variance increases as the square of the mean). The Box–Cox family of transformations is explained in detail.
GLMs for Binary Data
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

Binomial GLMs can also be used to analyse binary data as a special case, with some minor differences introduced into the analysis by the constrained nature of the binary data.
A Very Short Introduction to R
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

One of the challenges of learning analysis is that it means getting to grips with both the statistics and the software being used to implement it. The book has tried to strike a balance that keeps the R code relatively short and simple, especially at the start of the book. This chapter gives only a very brief introduction to R tailored to its use in this book. This very short introduction aims to be enough to allow offline readers to understand the basics of R so that they can focus on the applied details of the statistical analysis that are the real focus of the book.
Introducing Regulatory Standards
Authors: Foster Caroline E.
Published: August 2021

The three global regulatory standards seen in the disputes studied in this book comprise: a regulatory coherence standard calling for certain relationships between regulatory measures and their purposes, a standard requiring that a regulating State has demonstrated due regard for the interests of other States, and a standard requiring the exercise of due diligence in the exercise of States’ obligations to prevent transboundary harm. These three core regulatory standards consistently characterise the environmental and health disputes in this book, and they appear to be gaining status as global regulatory standards for the future. The appearance of regulatory standards is best understood as an aspect of the functioning of the plural world legal order rather than as a constitutionalisation of this order in a stronger sense. Theories of legitimate authority in plural legal orders cast valuable light on the legitimacy of the emerging standards-enriched international law.
Regulatory Coherence
Authors: Foster Caroline E.
Published: August 2021

Part II comprises two chapters, Chapter Three and Chapter Four. These chapters together investigate the decisions and advisory opinions of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) and United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Annex VII tribunals, as well as other Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) cases. The courts and tribunals studied in these chapters make use of a broad range of interpretive methodologies in identifying emerging global regulatory standards, including reliance on the inbuilt logic of the regulatory schemes they are applying. The standards articulated make relatively minimal demands on domestic legal systems compared with more demanding standards that could have been developed. In this respect the standards appear to enhance traditional procedural justifications for international law’s claim to legitimate authority. Chapter Three focuses on tests for ‘regulatory coherence’.
Necessity Testing
Authors: Foster Caroline E.
Published: August 2021

Part III comprises two chapters, Chapter Five and Chapter Six. These chapters together investigate the decisions of WTO panels and the Appellate Body in environmental and health cases. The chapters examine the major contribution made through WTO dispute settlement to the emerging global regulatory standard of regulatory coherence. Specifically, Chapter Five analyses the elaboration of the ‘necessity’ formula in the GATT and the GATS general exceptions’ subparagraphs, as well as under the TBT and SPS Agreements. The WTO adjudicatory process appears to have been protecting the traditional procedural justification of international law’s relative authority claim by enabling respect for domestic decision-making through democratic processes. Members’ entitlement to choose their level of protection against a risk is still at present fully recognised and there is vital scope for recognition of the importance to WTO Members of long-term non-economic interests requiring a multifaceted policy response.
Rational Relationships
Authors: Foster Caroline E.
Published: August 2021

Chapter Six continues Chapter Five’s examination of the regulatory coherence standard in WTO dispute settlement, this time focusing on ‘rational relationship’ testing under the non-discrimination provisions in the chapeau to the GATT and GATS general exceptions, as well as under the TBT and SPS Agreements. WTO non-discrimination jurisprudence looks for a rational relationship between a regulatory measure’s otherwise discriminatory aspects and the measure’s policy objectives. Rational relationship tests, like necessity tests, embody the emerging global regulatory standard of regulatory coherence, calling for a certain relationship between trade measures and their objectives. Like necessity testing, rational relationship testing lends itself to application in a way that accommodates decision-making at the domestic level on matters requiring important value judgements.
The Dragon in the West
Authors: Ogden Daniel
Published: August 2021

The book describes the evolution of the modern dragon from its ancient forebears, in terms both of its form and of its narrative contexts. In physical form dragons are broadly serpentine, but have animalian heads, thick central bodies, wings, and clawed legs. In their stories they live in caves, lie on treasure, maraud, and burn; they are extraordinarily powerful, but even so ultimately worsted in their battles with humans. Despite the inestimable success of this physical form and this broad story-type, there is nothing obvious, inevitable, or natural about them. Rather, both are mature, complex, and artificial constructs. The book traces the evolution of the dragon’s form from the purely serpentine drakon of classical antiquity, through its merging with the forms of the ancient sea monster and the winged, humanoid demon, into that of the first recognizably modern dragon, the two-legged wyvern that emerged in the illustrated manuscripts of the ninth century AD, which has previously been described as the ‘Romanesque’ or ‘Gothic’ dragon. It traces the evolution of the dragon’s typical story-type again from classical antiquity, across the vast tradition of medieval hagiography (saints’ lives), and into the Germanic world, where particular attention is given to the wealth of dragons featured in the Norse sagas.
Introduction
Authors: Ogden Daniel
Published: August 2021

The Introduction establishes the argument of the book (see general abstract) and lays out its structure. It explains the current volume’s origin in the author’s earlier books on dragons in the ancient world, Drakōn and Dragons, Serpents, and Slayers, and in the desirability of tracing the story of how the modern western dragon evolved out of the ancient one described there. The book is divided into three parts, bearing upon (I) classical antiquity, (II) the world of hagiography (saints’ lives), and (III) the Germanic world, principally the Norse one. It is stipulated that the book confines itself to documenting the development of a particular tradition, albeit a vast one, and that it is not an attempt to explain the dragon, or man’s obsession with it, at any universal level, psychological or other.
Drakōn
Authors: Ogden Daniel
Published: August 2021

A working definition of the classical drakōn is established: ‘a large snake and something more’, i.e. a snake with a supernatural quality or affinity, and often too with additional or exceptional physical or behavioural attributes. This model, which will serve as the baseline for the investigation, draws on the author’s two previous volumes on the subject, whilst new points of substance are made on, inter alia, the origin of the dragon’s beard and the form of Typhon. The principal dragon-fight traditions of myth are reviewed, those of the Dragon of Ares, Nemea, the Hesperides (Ladon) and Colchis, Python and the Hydra. The principal dragon-gods of cult are similarly surveyed: Asclepius, Zeus Meilichios, and Agathos Daimon. Note is made of six core narrative motifs, to be significant throughout the study: marauding, fieriness, pestilential breath, cave-lairs, water-sources, and generation from a corpse.
Drakaina
Authors: Ogden Daniel
Published: August 2021

What was the significance of the term drakaina, the female-denoting reflex of the term drakōn? It is contended that, whilst the term could be applied merely to a creature that resembled a pure-serpent drakōn in all respects, save for being female, the concept it more typically evoked was that of a female anguipede, a creature with the lower half of a serpent and the upper half of a woman. Particular attention is given to the cases of the Echidna (in her various manifestations), Delphyne (the female reflex of the Delphic dragon), Harmonia, Hecate, the Erinyes, the Lamias (a complex case), and Campe. These female anguipedes, for all their numbers and their continuity, never seem to have occupied the centre-ground of Greek mythology, but ever to have been somewhat occluded. The greatest occlusion is in the visual realm: they have left very little impact on the iconographic record.
Theodore and George
Authors: Ogden Daniel
Published: August 2021

Consideration is given to the two major military saints to be associated with dragon fights, Theodore Tyron and George. In contrast to the majority of their saintly peers, they fight their dragons in a duly martial fashion. However, within the span of their narratives, the physical fight itself is typically brief, desultory, and anticlimactic, a coda to a more spiritual battle that has already been won. The two saints’ traditions are contexualized in different ways. The structure and motifs of a fourteenth-century AD account of Theodore’s fight against the Dragon of King Samuel’s City is aligned with those of the dragon fight of a roughly contemporary Byzantine romance, Callimachus and Chrysorrhoe. Whilst the earliest extant narrative of George’s fight against his dragon is relatively late, eleventh-century AD, what today survives as the principal living relic of his dragon-fight, its iconography, can be shown to have its roots in the very beginning of classical antiquity.
Advancing Trade and Investment Rules for the World’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

This chapter sets out the focus and four principal objectives of the volume. It canvasses how the volume explores the nature of the legal provisions that States are starting to use in trade and investment agreements to reconcile and integrate environmental, social and economic development norms, and makes recommendations for how such measures might be taken into account in the WTO and future regional trade and investment agreements. The chapter sets out the methods and classification system (typology) adopted for the book, as well as the research undertaken, including an analysis of over sixty bilateral and regional economic agreements featuring references to sustainable development, and over 110 environmental assessments, environmental reviews, human rights reviews or sustainability impact assessments. It also introduces selected case studies of experiences under existing treaties, which will offer insights into how sustainable development concerns can be addressed in bilateral and regional economic agreements.
Normative Intersections of Trade, Investment and Sustainability Measures
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

This chapter briefly discusses the three ‘key points of tension’ or normative effects identified between the demands of trade and investment agreements that focus mainly on economic growth, and regulations for the environmental and social development, including the efforts of States to comply with specific trade and investment obligations in other international treaties. These points of tension are described and illustrated with interesting examples. The first tension involves the concern that new trade liberalization obligations of non-discrimination and most-favoured nation (MFN) treatment and new investment liberalization obligations, in certain specific sectors, could prevent States from effectively enacting trade-related measures to prevent unsustainable development. A second tension involves concerns that through a new trade and investment agreement, there will be increased incentives for trade or investment-led economic growth, which can exacerbate environmental and social problems that already exist at the domestic level due to lack of enforcement of the law. The third tension involves concerns that application of trade or investment rules for liberalization will inadvertently support unsustainable growth in obsolete technologies and sectors.
Policy and ‘Soft Law’ Rationales for Addressing Social and Environmental Concerns in Trade and Investment Treaties
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

This chapter addresses and discusses the international policy and soft law rationales that exist for states to include sustainable development concerns in their trade and investment treaties. First, it discusses reasons why the negative impacts of trade liberalization should not just be left to roll downhill onto the fragile ecosystems and vulnerable populations of developing states, using indications from the 1972 Conference on Human Environment (UNCHE), the 1992 Rio Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), the UN Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD) deliberations, the 1997 General Assembly Special Session (UNGASS), the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) and the 2012 Conference on Sustainable Development (UN CSD) to support this argument, and it specifically analyses the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as they frame the new consensus. It then goes on to discuss how these soft laws, while not legally binding, constitute a legitimate expectation that States will promote sustainable development in their trade and investment treaties. It finds that there is a convincing international policy rationale for States to undertake measures to prevent, or at least mitigate, the environment and social development impacts of trade and investment agreements, addressing the main tensions identified in this volume.
International Trade and Investment Agreements in Light of the Integration Principle
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

This chapter asks how the principle of integration can translate to the international level, and reviews and discusses trade and investment treaties in the context of this principle. It begins by proving that sustainable development is a ‘purpose’ of over thirty treaties, and that they explicitly commit to achieve this purpose in very diverse sectors and ways, using the FAO Seed Treaty as an example to prove this point. It considers the role of the ‘purposive approach’ in treaty interpretation, in light of the interpretive rules of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), and the limitations of this approach, noting alternative views that are equally relevant. The chapter then goes on to discuss how the integration principle might assist in interpreting provisions of trade and investment agreements, as a basis for later examination of progress in the World Trade Organization (WTO), and in bilateral and regional economic negotiations which make an explicit commitment to sustainable development.
Sustainable Development Provisions in the 1994 GATT/WTO Agreements
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

This chapter argues that, while the World Trade Organization (WTO) may have accepted sustainable development as an objective of its members, it is not clear that the WTO has successfully integrated either environment or social development concerns into trade policy-making, to date. It considers the three opportunities for integration discussed in Chapter 3, and the implications of attempts to respond to them within the WTO, in two phases. First, it considers the WTO Agreements after the conclusion of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), and the 1994 Uruguay Round, and how they are interpreted by the WTO Panel and Appellate Body in trade disputes, as well as any progress in WTO negotiations with respect to the tensions identified earlier during that period. Second, it considers developments in the WTO Doha Round of trade negotiations that were launched in 2001, directly before the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), and how subsequent WTO disputes have addressed these tensions.
Provisions to Integrate Environmental and Social Considerations into a Bilateral and Regional Trade and Investment Agreements for Sustainable Development
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

In this chapter, a comparative review of over regional trade and investment agreements (RTAs) provides analysis of how innovative mechanisms to address sustainable development issues can be interpreted in the context of a free trade agreement (FTA). The chapter explains how the measures identified through the volume’s analytical framework (typology) may assist Parties to a trade or investment agreement to deliver on a commitment to sustainable development in their treaty. The chapter then explains and analyses how States are starting to signal a commitment to sustainable development in carefully worded introductory provisions in their RTAs and investment treaties. It then moves to examine innovative operational provisions from bilateral or regional economic treaties discussed in this volume which explicitly mention sustainable development. The provisions are examined in light of their potential to respond to the three tensions identified earlier in this volume, and the corresponding rationale and opportunities for integration identified, including the potential interpretations of the mechanisms in light of the integration principle. Finally, the chapter considers examples highlighted from the survey of trade and investment liberalization impact assessments discussed earlier in this volume: sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures, government procurement and investment liberalization, before exploring more advanced and innovative new measures.
Trade and Investment Accords for Sustainable Development Goals 1–5
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set aspirational objectives for governments, international organizations and other stakeholders seeking to support sustainable development to achieve by 2030 or before, as well as indicators to facilitate measurement of attainment levels. Chapter 19 is the first of three chapters exploring provisions from over 110 innovative bilateral and regional economic treaties that could facilitate achievement of certain SDGs and their associated targets, to enable countries to maximize opportunities for their economic accords to assist in effectively contributing towards achievement of the SDG targets, particularly in a time of post-pandemic economic recovery. This chapter addresses trade and investment agreements provisions relevant to a first set of SDGs which target ‘basic needs’ challenges: eradicating poverty (SDG 1); ending hunger (SDG 2); promoting health and wellbeing (SDG 3); ensuring quality education (SDG 4) and achieving gender equality (SDG 5). The chapter canvasses the requirements of each goal and provides examples of treaty provisions that address each SDG.
Trade and Investment Accords for Sustainable Development Goals 6–11
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

Following on from Chapter 19, this chapter addresses trade and investment provisions which may serve as mechanisms for enabling countries to advance their achievement of their targets under Sustainability Development Goals (SDGs) 6 to 11. These seek to secure access to clean water and sanitation (SDG 6) and affordable, clean energy (SDG 7), decent work and economic growth (SDG 8), innovation, and infrastructure (SDG 9), reduced inequality (SDG 10) and sustainable cities and communities (SDG 11). The chapter explores the diverse array of angles from which trade and investment agreements have addressed these SDGs, drawing on examples from recent agreements including the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), the Japan-Switzerland Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and the CARIFORUM-EU Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA).