bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
General-Purpose Dictionaries and Society
Authors: Béjoint Henri
Published: November 2023

Lexicographers have always determined the form and contents of dictionaries by posing as dictionary users themselves (Rey 197T 96). But lexicographers and linguists are probably the least representative of all dictionary users: they both share the same peculiar interest for the more frequent words, because they know that those are the more difficult to describe; lexicographers may tend to excuse all mistakes because they know how difficult it is to write a dictionary, whereas linguists will typically find fault with everything (see below, 6. 1 .2.2). The front matter’ of dictionaries is a fair enough indication of what their authors were trying to achieve. Dubois and Dubois (1971: 15-17), after having examined the front matter of French dictionaries published in the sixties, came to conclusions that were not particularly surprising: some dictionaries introduce themselves as ‘portraits’ of the language, and others as instruments for its acquisition—and the distinction is not always very clear.
Plain and Conjugated Infinitives
Authors: Gary Miller D
Published: November 2023

Traditionally, infinitiveand nonfinitehave referred to some verbal form without subject (especially person) agreement (Agr). The four case studies in this chapter present problems for that definition. Phrasing the problem loosely, PRO transmits (Agr) features obligatorily in Modern Greek, only when assigned absolutive case in West Greenlandic (Chapter 5), and never in Portuguese, Hungarian, or Welsh core subject control structures. The question is: what, if anything, do these have in common to warrant generalizing nonfiniteto constructions that are patently finite in the traditional sense?
Infinitives in Older English
Authors: Gary Miller D
Published: November 2023

Old English had an infinitive in -an, a dative-declined infinitive in -ennewith proclitic to, and a rare undeclined infinitive with to. The toinfinitive originated as a purposive but spread as a complement, in the earliest Old English poetry already, to nouns, adjectives, and a few verbs that assigned inherent case. By later Early Old English, the tostructure had spread to verbs that assigned structural or no case to their complements, and served as goal argument of verbs of urging, persuading, and conatives. In short, it spread to various control structures at the expense of the subjunctive. Verbs that assigned no theta roles, such as the (pre-)modals, resisted the spread of to, which, I will argue, was not yet of the category M.
History of English Gerundials
Authors: Gary Miller D
Published: November 2023

Toward the end of the West Saxon period, there was an incipient gerund (pro- ductive nominal) in -ung-ing, but no homomorphic gerundive. Through the tenth century -ungprevails, but by the first quarter of the thirteenth century-ungis preserved only in the west, and only residually (three relics) in La3amon. Several views of the replacement of -ungby -ingare discussed. Based on (i) the numerous -ingevent nominals in Middle English borrowed from Scandinavian, (ii) the well-attested Anglicized Scandinavian idiom a(n) skenting‘(a-)reveling’, and (iii) the fact that Middle English MSS with a higher percentage of Scandinavianisms feature -ingmore exclusively, it is shown that -ingdiffused from the old Danelaw. It follows that the change of OE -ung!-ingto standard ME -ingwas a simple generalization of -ingaccompanied by morphological restriction of -ung.
What can the Utterance ‘Tan, Tan’ of Broca’s Patient Leborgne Tell Us about the Hypothesis of an Emergent ‘Babble-Syllable’ Downloaded by SMA?
Authors: Abry Christian , Stefanuto Muriel , Vilain Anne , Rafael Laboissiere
Published: November 2023

We wish to thank the following people for comments and references: Monica BaciuRaybaudi, Pierre Badin, Pierre Bessiere, Catherine Best, Gerhard Blanken, Driss Boussaoud, Benedicte de Boysson-Bardies, Stephanie Brosda, Marie-Agnes Cathiard, Patrick Chauvel, Barbara Davis, Jean Decety, Jean-Frarn;ois Demonet, Jacques Durand, Christopher Frith, Vincent Gracco, Julie Grezes, Pierre Halle, Marc Jeannerod, Jean-Pierre Joseph, Catherine Liegeois-Chauvel, Helene Lrevenbruck, Peter MacNeilage, Jean-Luc Nespoulous, David Ostry, Yohan Payan, Claude Prablanc, Giacomo Rizzolatti, Jean-Luc Schwartz, Christoph Segebarth, Saul Sternberg, Carol Stoel-Gammon, Jacques Vauclair, Marilyn Vihman; we also received the help of the teams involved in the ‘Speech Emergence and Robotics’ project (ARASSH, Lyon) and in the French Cogniscience Programme (Paris).
Introduction: The Computational Study of Language Acquisition
Authors: Broeder Peter , Murre Jaap
Published: November 2023

The field of language acquisition is a particularly interesting area for (computational) modelling, because it is now feasible to test very complicated models using simulation techniques. In particular, the renewed interest in learning neural networks and the ability to test ‘in practice’ new solutions to fundamental questions of language acquisition has fuelled the debates in an already very active field. This book captures some of these issues. Two principal questions about the nature and origins of language as ‘an individual phenomenon’ were formulated by Chomsky (1986) as ‘What constitutes knowledge of language?’ and ‘How is knowledge of language acquired?’ Suggestions for answering these questions can be found within different cognitive models of language acquisition that derive from strongly contrastive research paradigms. The paradigms start from fundamentally different assumptions on how language is represented, namely either symbolic or subsymbolic. They also take opposing viewpoints with regard to the hypothesized mechanisms that drive the process of language acquisition, namely deductive or inductive.
Statistical and Connectionist Modelling of the Development of Speech Segmentation
Authors: Shillcock Richard , Cairns Paul , Chater Nick , Levy Joe
Published: November 2023

The speech signal is typically continuous; only a minority of word boundaries are marked by any recognizable acoustic cue such as a pause. The continuous nature of speech poses a problem for the adult speaker of the language, in that processing the signal requires a complete parse into words yet any string of more than a few segments is locally multiply ambiguous: given only a phonetic transcription, most words contain other words, in the way that curtain contains cur, or floor contains or. Segmentation strategies are available to the adult listener that are not given to the infant, as the former possesses both a lexicon containing the phonological specification of the words of the language, and a knowledge of the syntax and semantics of the language. For instance, the adult listener may recognize a word before its acoustic offset and hence may be able to predict the end of the current word and the start of the next; indeed, this strategy featured explicitly in one early model of word recognition (Cole and Jakimik 1980 ). The adult listener may be able to recruit syntactic knowledge to predict and identify closed-class words (the short grammatical, or function words) (Shillcock and Bard 1993), and hence identify their boundaries too. The infant, faced with the speech sounds of an unknown language, is unable to draw on such knowledge, yet over the first two years of life individual words are isolated in comprehension, stored and begin to be deployed in production. This chapter is concerned with the nature of the information that the infant might exploit to obtain a foothold on the segmentation problem.
A Recurrent Network with Shortterm Memory Capacity Learning the German -s plural
Authors: Goebel Rainer , Indefrey Peter
Published: November 2023

It is part of the language competence of human speakers to be able to produce correctly inflected word forms and to generalize the inflectional regularities of their language to novel words. Traditionally this has been taken as evidence for a tacit knowledge about rules and exceptional forms. Following linguistic theory, models seeking to simulate the morphological competence or the acquisition of this competence were of a dual nature. They assumed symbolic, rule-like processes on the one hand and memory stores for exceptional words on the other (Lebeaux 1982; Pinker 1984; Halle and Mohanan 1985, Clahsen et al. 1992). This view on morphology was challenged when connectionist models postulated a common representation of regular and irregular morphology (Rumelhart and McClelland 1986; MacWhinney et al. 1989; Plunkett and Marchman 1991, 1993; Hare and Elman 1992; Daugherty and Seidenberg 1992). By now it is widely accepted that the connectionist networks deal satisfactorily with irregular morphology and even simulate empirical findings that pure symbolic processing models cannot account for. Thus human subjects have been found sometimes to generalize irregular past tense forms (pling–plang) to novel verbs that share a ‘family resemblance’ with strong irregular clusters (sing, ring, spring, see Bybee and Moder 1983; Prasada and Pinker 1993). What is not accepted by criticists, however, is the claim that regular morphology is also successfully represented in connectionist models. Therefore dual models that consist of a regular rule-based component and an irregular associative component have been proposed (Pinker and Prince 1988; Pinker 1991; Kim et al. 1991; Marcus et al. 1993; Prasada and Pinker 1993; Wunderlich and Fabri 1995).
Spatiotemporal aspects of avian long-distance migration
Authors: Berthold Peter
Published: November 2023

Far-reaching migratory movements define the birds as the most mobile group of animals, whose network of migration routes cover most of the earth’s surface. Most conspicuous are the long-distance intercontinental and transoceanic migratory movements. The record holder, the Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea) regularly migrates from Arctic breeding grounds to winter quarters around the Antarctic continent and may cover up to 50 000 km per year. This distance is approximately equivalent to the circumference of our planet and some individual terns may reach a lifetime mileage of more than a million kilometres (Berthold I 993). Even passerines such as the Alaskan population of the wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe), which winters in southeastern Africa, can make annual journeys of about 30 000 km (Kiepenheuer 1984).
Inhibitors of cytokine processing
Authors: Mantovani A , Dinarello C A , Ghezzi P
Published: November 2023

A classical approach in pharmacology has always been to identify and develop inhibitors of enzymes. Enzyme inhibitors are powerful therapeutic tools for diseases ranging from cancer to infection and inflammation. In the field of inflammation, suffice it to mention acetylsalicylic acid and cyclo-oxygenase inhibitors, which have been revisited in the light of the recognition of cyclo-oxygenase-2 as the main prostaglandin-producing enzyme induced in inflammation. Proteolytic enzymes are involved in processing TNFa and IL- 1 /3 to the mature soluble protein. Therefore, considerable effort has focused on inhibiting TNF processing and IL-1 converting enzyme. As discussed in the chapter on chemokines (Chapter 7), these molecules may be processed extracellularly by dipeptidyl peptidase IV/CD26 and by other undefined proteases.
Cohomology of profinite groups
Authors: Wilson John S
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we lay the foundations for the cohomology theory of profinite groups. The basic results have much in common with the cohomology of finite groups, and readers with some experience of this will be prepared to take Section 9.3, and possibly much more, on trust. In Chapter 6, we defined some low-dimensional cohomology groups connected with profinite modules. However, the best-developed aspects of the cohomology theory of profinite groups concern discrete modules. The class of discrete modules is a natural one to consider in this context: it is closed for direct limits, and cohomology behaves well with respect to direct limits.
Further cohomological methods
Authors: Wilson John S
Published: November 2023

In this chapter further cohomological tools are developed for use in Chapter 11 and Chapter 12. After proving the Eckmann-Shapiro lemma, we establish the existence of the five-term cohomology sequence, an exact sequence which relates the cohomology of a profinite group G to the cohomology of a normal subgroup K and the quotient group G / K.
Silicon(IV) reagents
Authors: Hosomi Akira , Miura Katsukiyo
Published: November 2023

Organosilicon compounds are one of the most widely and frequently used organometallics in organic synthesis. They are easy to handle and synthesize due to their thermal and aerial stability, and exhibit a variety of reactivities derived from the electropositive nature of silicon as well as the steric and electronic effects of the silyl group.1-2 Silicon reagents play important roles as not only protecting agents and masked nucleophiles but also Lewis acids. The Lewis acidity of alkyl- and alkoxysilanes is much weaker than that of the corresponding group III metal compounds. However, when one of the four ligands on silicon is changed to a soft Lewis base such as triflate (OTf) or iodide (I), the acidity becomes strong enough for synthetic use as Lewis acid catalyst.3-8 Trimethylsilyl trifluoromethanesulfonate (TMSOTf) and iodotrimethylsilane (TMSI), bearing one Lewis-acidic co-ordination site, interact strongly to various heteroatoms, particularly oxygen, to activate the carbonheteroatom bond. Although it is also known that five co-ordinated silicates and angle strained silanes have moderate Lewis acidity, these types of Lewis acids are only utilized to intramolecularly assist the addition of silylated nucleophiles as shown in the reactions of allylsilicates9.1° and enoxysilacyclobutane.11 The synthetic reactions mediated by TMSOTf3-5 and TMSI6-8 have been extensively developed in the last two decades.
Silver and gold reagents
Authors: Mura Masaya Saw a
Published: November 2023

Owing to their weak Lewis-acidity, reagents involving a silver(!) or gold(I) ion have attracted little attention as a Lewis-acid reagent to date. As described in this chapter, however, phosphine-co-ordinated silver(!) and gold(I) complexes have been successfully applied to the aldol-type condensation of isocyanides with aldehydes, where the silver(I) and gold(I) complexes activate the isocyanide through 111-co-ordination of the isocyano carbon (see Section 2). Although these complexes show rather low affinity to an oxygen functional group such as a carbonyl group, an example of carbonyl group activation can be seen in the silver(I)-catalysed allylation of aldehydes with allyltin reagents as a Lewis acid catalyst (see Section 3).
Preparation and use of organozinc halides
Authors: Jackson Richard f. W
Published: November 2023

Organozinc halides have a very significant place in the development of organic synthesis. Ethylzinc iodide was first prepared by Edward Frankland in work reported in 1849, and the preparation and use of simple organozinc compounds (organozinc halides and diorganozincs) was explored during the latter half of the 19th century. However, the discovery of Grignard reagents, which possessed higher reactivity and (at that time) were easier to prepare, pushed organozinc compounds into the background. It was very much later that it was realized that the lower reactivity of organozinc halides might be a significant advantage, and raised the possibility of incorporating reactive functional groups into the zinc reagent.
Transport properties
Authors: Clifford Tony
Published: November 2023

The three transport properties that will be discussed in this chapter, in order of their importance in supercritical fluids, are diffusion, viscosity and thermal conductivity. Diffusion is the transport of mixture components down a concentration gradient. Viscosity is the transport of transverse momentum along a transverse velocity gradient, which requires pressure gradients to cause fluid flow. Thermal conductivity is the transport of energy down a temperature gradient. As the critical point is approached closely, these transport properties can exhibit interesting behaviour. This is a subject much researched (e.g. Sengers 1994), but will not be discussed here. However, even in supercritical fluids in general, and particularly in the region around the critical point, there is some notable behaviour, which will be discussed.
Reactions of selenones
Authors: Toshimitsu Akio , Uemura Sakae
Published: November 2023

Various diorganyl selenones, R2SeO2, including diaryl, dialkyl, alkyl aryl, aryl vinyl and aryl cyclopropyl derivatives, have been prepared mostly by oxidation of the corresponding selenides or selenoxides (Equation 13.1).1-5 MCPBA and H2<OrPhSeO2H are the oxidants of choice. Compared with the fruitful synthetic use of selenoxides in selenoxide eliminations, giving alkenes (see Chapter 2), the study of the chemistry and synthetic uses of selenones is still limited. However, the excellent leaving-group properties of the benzene selenonyl group (PhSeO2) should be synthetically useful for intermolecular nucleophilic substitutions, as shown in Equation 13.2. When selenides are employed as starting materials, it is not always necessary to isolate the selenones to obtain the corresponding substitution products. This chapter deals with several useful procedures for such substitution reactions.
Seagrasses
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim
Published: November 2023

Seagrasses have a wide distribution throughout the world’s oceans, being absent only from the polar seas, although the genera Phyllospadix and Zostera are present as far north as the Bering Sea and as far south as the Tasman Sea. From the cold subpolar regions to the equator, seagrasses inhabit a variety of shallow-water coastal habitats where they play a key ecological role (Hartog 1970). These marine phanerogams (i.e., seed-bearing plants) are well-known components of temperate intertidal “salt-marsh” communities (e.g., Zostera marina), recognized for their ability to help stabilize coastlines and to provide food and shelter for a host of marine organisms (Chapman 1974).
The Cuckoos
Authors: Payne Robert B
Published: November 2023

The cuckoos are the most variable birds in social behavior and parental care: a few cuckoos are among the most social of all birds and rear their young in a common nest; most cuckoos are caring parents that rear their own young with some females laying a few eggs in the nests of others; while many cuckoo species are brood parasites who leave their eggs in the nests of other birds to rear, with their young maturing to kill their foster nestmates. In The Cuckoos, Robert B. Payne presents a new evolutionary history of the family based on molecular genetics, and uses the family tree to explore the origins and diversity of their behaviour. He traces details of the cuckoos’ biology to their original sources, includes descriptions of previously unpublished field observations, and reveals new comparisons of songs showing previously overlooked cuckoo species. Lavishly illustrated with specially commissioned colour plates and numerous maps, halftones, and line drawings, The Cuckoos provides the most comprehensive and up-to-date account of this family yet available.
A molecular genetic analysis of cuckoo phylogeny
Authors: Payne Robert B
Published: November 2023

Historically, taxonomists organized the diversity of life into a system of names (or taxonomy) that reflected the general similarities and differences among different kinds of organisms. As information became available, the many species of cuckoos were recognized as belonging to a single avian family (or order) on the basis of the similarities in their behavior and morphology. Early taxonomists used a qualitative approach, in which species with similar appearance were grouped together. Systematists now agree that taxonomy should explicitly reflect the evolutionary relationships among organisms. Grouping species together in the family Cuculidae, for example, implies that they are descended from a single common ancestor that is more recent in time than the common ancestor of cuckoos and other more distantly related birds. Cuculidae also includes every species that is descended from their most recent common ancestor.
The Wittig and related reactions
Authors: Abell Andrew D , Edmonds Michael K
Published: November 2023

The synthesis of alkenes, by replacement of the carbonyl oxygen of an aldehyde or a ketone with a ==CRR ’ group, was first developed by Georg Wittig in 1953. Over the ensuing years, this reaction has been modified and refined to provide one of the most powerful carbon–carbon bond forming reactions in organic synthesis. The classic Wittig reaction involves the nucleophilic attack on a carbonyl carbon by a phosphorane (phosphorus ylide) to give an oxaphosphetane, which then undergoes loss of triphenylphosphine oxide to give an alkene product (Scheme 1). It was long assumed that a diionic betaine intermediate was the initially formed species in this reaction but little or no evidence for its formation has come forth. On the other hand, much evidence for the intermediacy of an oxaphosphetane has been obtained, primarily from low temperature P NMR studies.
Phospho-transfer processes leading to [P − C] bond formation
Authors: Fletcher Matthew D
Published: November 2023

A phospho-transfer process is the transfer of a phospho group, [(RO)2P=O] or derivative thereof, between chemical sites. When this process results in the formation of a new [P − O] bond it is called phosphorylation, a ubiquitous biological process, and the product is a phosphate ester, 1 (or derivative thereof) (Scheme 1). Phospho-transfer leading to [P − C] bond formation is termed phosphonylation, the product of which is a phosphonate, 2 (or derivative thereof) (Scheme 1).
Biological roles of oligosaccharides
Authors: Osborn Helen M I , Khan Tariq H
Published: November 2023

Oligosaccharides are fascinating biomolecules which are gaining in importance at a phenomenal pace compared with other well-studied biomolecules such as proteins and oligonucleotides. The current interest in oligosaccharides is a consequence of recent developments in sensitive and informative analytical techniques such as matrix-assisted laser-desorption ionisation-time of flight MALDI-TOF spectroscopy, 3D-nuclear magnetic resonance (n.m.r.), and capillary electrophoresis. Furthermore, this interest is driven by the constant need to further understand the biological roles of oligosaccharides, since they are reported to be involved in many fundamental processes including immune defence, fertilisation, viral replication, parasite infection, cell growth, cell-cell adhesion, degradation of blood clots and inflammation. One major obstacle in the study of biologically important oligosaccharides is the low availability of stereo-chemically pure samples from natural sources. However, with the exciting development of synthetic strategies which allow access to comparatively large quantities of natural and unnatural oligosaccharides, further advances in glycobiology are anticipated in the future.
Assembly of oligosaccharides
Authors: Osborn Helen M I , Khan Tariq H
Published: November 2023

Now that we have learnt how to synthesise specific donors and acceptors, we are in a position to consider the combination of these species to allow formation of oligosaccharides. A number of points must be considered for efficient synthesis of oligosaccharides. Suitable donor and acceptor molecules must be synthesised for each step of the reaction and care must be taken to ensure that any protecting groups incorporated within the molecules will remain intact until deprotection is required. Specific reagents are employed to activate the donor molecule and the reactive species thus formed is subsequently intercepted by the free hydroxyl group of an acceptor molecule, allowing formation of a glycosidic bond.
Algebraic Preliminaries
Authors: Schatzman Michelle , Taylor John
Published: November 2023

This chapter contains some elementary and some very elementary information. Normally, at level one has not entirely assimilated the lessons of level .
Linear multistep schemes
Authors: Schatzman Michelle , Taylor John
Published: November 2023

When calculating an approximation at time tn+1 , the Runge- Kutta methods do not use information on the results obtained at times prior to tn; on the contrary, the multistep methods will use this information systematically.
Partitions
Authors: Hirschfeld J W P
Published: November 2023

A spread ℱ of PG(n, q) by r-spaces is a set of r-spaces which partitions PG(n, q); that is, every point of PG(n, q) lies in exactly one r-space of ℱ. Hence any two r-spaces of ℱ are disjoint. Here it is convenient to write θ (n, q) for ϕ (0;n, q).
Ovals
Authors: Hirschfeld J W P
Published: November 2023

As in Section 3.3 a k-arc in PG(2,q) is a set of k points no three of which are collinear. It is also called an arc of degree two. A k-arc is complete if it is not contained in a (k+l)-arc. The maximum value of k for a k-arc to exist is denoted by m(2, q), and a k-arc with this number of points is an oval.
Small planes
Authors: Hirschfeld J W P
Published: November 2023

Since a quadrangle Q has four vertices and six sides, there remain in the plane the three diagonal points of Q and one line l. Through each vertex of Q there are three sides and through each diagonal point two sides. Hence the three diagonal points are collinear on l.
Unsteady Forced Convective Heat Transfer About a Sphere in a Porous Medium
Authors: Yan B , Pop I
Published: November 2023

In this paper comprehensive numerical computations are carried out for the unsteady forced convective flow past a sphere which is embedded in a porous medium. The sphere is suddenly heated and subsequently maintained at a constant temperature which is greater than the ambient temperature. The velocity field is given by the Darcy’s law, whilst the temperature distribution around the sphere is governed by the unsteady energy equation. The evolution of the isotherms with time for different values of the Peclet number are presented.
The drug discovery process: towards a new paradigm
Authors: Cabri Walter , Fabio Romano Di
Published: November 2023

By definition, a pharmaceutical company is a risky business. Its existence depends on the identification and marketing of drugs that are able to acquire a significant share of the market in a highly competitive environment. Failure of projects at any stage of the drug discovery process is common. It has been estimated that only one in a thousand of the new chemical entities synthesized and tested reaches the phase of ‘first administration in man’, and only one in ten of the potential drugs developed is registered and marketed. Remarkably, only one in three drugs is able to make a sufficient return to compensate the total research and development costs, which have arisen steeply in the last decades. Today, the estimated average expenditure to bring a new chemical entity to the market is at least US $500 million, at least ten times more than 20 years ago.
Singular Vortex Patches
Authors: Chemin Jean-Yves , Gallagher Isabelle , Iftimie Dragos
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter, we are interested in the case when the geometric structure degenerates, which in Chapters 3 and 5 enabled us to prove that the divergence free vector field associated with a vorticity which was bounded and tangentially, smooth with respect to that structure, was Lipschitzian. We have encountered this case before, when we considered vortices that were constant in squares. The corners of those squares are of course singularities of the geometry. The aim of this last chapter is to study this type of situation in a general way. The examples of sections 3.2 and 5.3 seem to indicate that the derivatives of the vector field increase in the neighbourhood of the singular point as the logarithm of the distance to the singular point. One can easily prove, from Theorem 3.3.1, that this fact is general. This logarithmic increase will be one of the key points in the proof of the persistence of the singular geometric structures, whose statement is the aim of this section.
Games and Numbers
Authors: Holland John H
Published: November 2023

We were working in a room filled with hulking boxes, each bigger than a large refrigerator. Most were filled with glowing vacuum tubes. One box displayed an array of glowing cathode-ray tubes, much like small television screens, each showing row upon row of dots. Another had a large control panel filled with toggle switches and little orange diode lights. All the boxes were interconnected by large cables, accessible through panels in the false floor.
Introduction
Authors: Buttazzo Giuseppe , Giaquinta Mariano , Hildebrandt Stefan
Published: November 2023

In the first 200 years of the history of the calculus of variations the prevalent approach was what we may call the classical indirect approach. This approach is based on the optimistic, but somewhat na’ive, idea that every minimum problem has a solution. In order to determine this solution, one first looks for conditions which have to be satisfied by a minimizer; they are called necessary conditions.
Scholia
Authors: Buttazzo Giuseppe , Giaquinta Mariano , Hildebrandt Stefan
Published: November 2023

Variational problems such as the isoperimetric problem were already discussed in antiquity. However, the beginning of the calculus of variations is usually set in the year 1696 when Johann Bernoulli formulated the brachistochrone problem in the Acta Eruditorum Lipsiae. Actually Newton had already posed a true variational problem in 1686: his celebrated problem of determining the shape of a rotationally symmetric body of least resistance. The first textbook on the variational calculus was Leonhard Euler’s Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas maximi minimive proprietate gaudentes which appeared in 1744. Here Euler treated notoriously difficult questions such as variational problems with differential equations as subsidiary conditions.
Tool-use in wild chimpanzees
Authors: Boesch Christophe , Boesch-Achermann Hedwige
Published: November 2023

Forest scene; April 1985: Early morning — Héra and her two sons Haschich and Eros are on their own quietly foraging. At 8.00, they arrive at the large Parinari exselsa tree that they have been visiting for the last few days. Its load of nuts covers the ground. Hera immediately gathers some nuts in her hands and settles down at the large anvil with a big granite stone. The 2½-year-old Eros is already waiting there to be fed. He begs for nuts from the start, his mother is generous and he gets many of the nuts she pounds. Haschich, 6 years old, also settles down at the same anvil and stone he has used before. A heavy stone is a great help in opening the hard-shelled Parinari nuts. It would be possible to pound them with a wooden club, but it would take more effort. Haschich has two fingers of both hands paralysed, but is nevertheless a very keen nut-cracker. He is not begging at all from his mother. Cracking about eight to ten nuts in a row before gathering some more, the two of them are eating large amounts of this highly nutritious food. Despite his young age, Haschich cracks without interruption for five hours and fifteen minutes.
Piecewise fractional linear maps
Authors: Schweiger Fritz
Published: November 2023

The main purpose of this chapter is to introduce some basic notions which will be used repeatedly. Definition 1 The pair (B, T), Ba set, T : B → B, is called a fibred system if there exists a partition {B(i) : i ∈ I} of the set B, where I is finite or countable, such that the restriction of T to B(i) is injective. The set I will be referred to as the set of digits.If Ω: = I  ℕ denotes the set of all infinite sequences ω = (i1, i2, … ) with values in/ then the operator σ defined by σ ω= (i1, i2, … ) is the shift operator.
Ergodic theory of fibred systems
Authors: Schweiger Fritz
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we collect some results which are used in the ergodic theory of fibred systems. Let ℬ(s) be the σ-algebra generated by the cylinders of orders. Let d be a metric of B and : ℱ be the σ-algebra of Borel sets. If for any admissible sequence ω = (k1, k2, … ) the relation
Güting’s algorithm
Authors: Schweiger Fritz
Published: November 2023

Güting 1975 proposed the following algorithm: The inverse branches are given by Lemma 9 (Perron 1907, Schweiger 1977): Let denote the maps corresponding to Güting’s algorithm and the Jacobi–Perron algorithm.
Brun’s algorithm
Authors: Schweiger Fritz
Published: November 2023

Let Δn+l = {b = (bo, b1, … , bn): bo ≥ bi ≥ … ≥ bn ≥ O}. Then define There is an index i = i(b), 0 ≤ i ≤ n, such that
Convergence for periodic expansions
Authors: Schweiger Fritz
Published: November 2023

The results of Chapter 13 allow us to give more precise results for periodic expansions. Throughout this chapter we assume thatβ(k1(x), … ,ks(x)) > Ofor s >: s(x) 2. The multidimensional continued fraction is uniformly weakly convergent.
The Poincaré algorithm
Authors: Schweiger Fritz
Published: November 2023

We consider the following map on B = (ℝ+)n+1 (Poincaré 1884, Nogueira 1995). Let x = (x  0  , x  1  , … , Xn) ∈ (ℝ+) n+1 and let π be a permutation such that x  π0 ≥ x  π1 ≥ … ≥ xπn. Then the Poincaré map p is defined by
How to be a spy: the mathematics of codes and ciphers
Authors: Budd C J , Sangwin C J
Published: November 2023

It is not too far from the truth to say that without the use of pure and abstract mathematics there is a very good chance that the Allies would have lost the Second World War. Mathematics had many uses during the war ranging from the design of radar sets to the use of operational research to improve the way that bombers were serviced. But the most significant of all of its applications was its use in breaking the German ciphers. The main cipher used by the Germans during the war was called Enigma and they considered it to be unbreakable. The Enigma cipher used an automatic machine (the Enigma machine) to encipher the many complex orders issued to the German Army, Air Force, and Navyespecially the U-Boat submarines. This machine had been developed before the war and it resembled a typewriter. As a typewriter key was depressed (say for the letter E) then a light illuminated to give the enciphered version of the letter (say this is A). The design of the machine was such that if E was pressed again then a different letter (say H) would light up. It was this feature that made the Enigma cipher so hard to crack. In the Enigma machine, as shown in Figure 6.1, there were three wheels (or in the U-boat version four wheels) with 26 contacts on each side. Each contact on one side was wired in a random manner to a contact on the other side. If a button for the letter E was pressed then an electrical contact was made sending an electric current through the first wheel. This would then be scrambled by the internal wiring and passed on to the next wheel. This would scramble it in tum for the next wheel and so on. Having passed through three (or four wheels) the path of the current was then reversed through a ‘reflector’ at the back of the machine, and passed through the wheels again. It would emerge fully scrambled to light the letter which was the enciphered form of E. When the next key was pressed for the next letter then the wheels moved round a bit, making the path of the current different on the next go. This is why the same letter would be enciphered in different ways on two successive presses of the same key. Every day the position of the wheels at the start of the message would be changed, making the ciphers different. Thus any attempt to break the Enigma cipher would have to start afresh each day. The Germans considered this unbreakable.
Tumor markers
Authors: Mulders Peter
Published: November 2023

One of the questions most frequently asked of physicians by patients concerns prognosis. Markers of solid tumors are the best prognosticators of the course of these tumors. The effect of these markers on the host will have a substantial impact on prognosis by affecting the performance status of the patient. The last decade has seen an explosion of research into the use of molecular markers as potential prognosticators in various malignancies. Several studies have focused on the evaluation of new molecular markers. Nevertheless, many tumors still lack adequate markers and more research is needed. Tumor markers may indicate the necessity for a certain treatment but may also make it possible to avoid useless toxic treatment strategies.
New approaches for biological therapy of kidney tumors: preclinical models and perspectives
Authors: Wiltrout Robert H , Wigginton Jon M
Published: November 2023

Tumors of the kidney are generally refractory to conventional forms of cancer therapy. However, there are some encouraging indications that these tumors may be successfully targeted by appropriately designed biological therapies. In particular, interferon f (IFN() and interleukin-2 (IL-2) have shown some effectiveness for the treatment of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) in humans. The mechanisms by which biological therapies may induce tumor regression in humans remain unclear, and there are relatively few preclinical orthotopic models of kidney cancer available for performing such studies.
Prognostic factors in advanced renal cell carcinoma
Authors: Elson Paul J
Published: November 2023

Malignant tumors of the kidney account for 2.5 per cent of the cancer incidence and 2 per cent of the cancer mortality in the US. It is estimated that over 31 000 new cases will be diagnosed in 2000 and that almost 12 000 deaths will be reported (Greenlee et al. 2000). Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the most common renal malignancy reported, and recent epidemiological studies suggest that the incidence of all stages of the disease is increasing (Chow et al. 1999). If detected early, RCC can be cured surgically. The estimated 5-year survival for patients with disease confined to the kidney (stages T1 and T2) is approximately 90–95 per cent.
Role of the excretory urogram in contemporary uroradiologic practice
Authors: Raman Steven S , Laifer-Narin, Sherelle , Cochran Sachiko T
Published: November 2023

The indications for the intravenous urogram (excretory urogram, IVU, IVP) have changed significantly in the last 20 years with the advent of sophisticated cross-sectional imaging. The IVU remains the initial test of choice in adults to survey the urothelium and pyelocaliceal systems and is an essential diagnostic study for the patient with hematuia. The role of the IVU in the detection of renal and adrenal parenchymal masses is now secondary to helical computerized tomography (CT) and ultrasound (US). In a classic study, Warshauer et al. (1988) reported that the IVU was 67 per cent sensitive for the detection for renal masses versus 79 per cent for conventional sonography and 94 per cent for conventional CT.
Ultrasound imaging
Authors: Laifer-Narin Sherelle
Published: November 2023

Ultrasound is the modality of choice for the initial evaluation of the kidneys in many clinical situations. According to the American College of Radiology appropriateness criteria, patients presenting with acute flank pain, hematuria, voiding obstruction secondary to prostate disease and an indeterminate renal mass should be referred to ultrasound (Caskey 2000).
Radical nephrectomy
Authors: Wright Mark P J , Ritchie Alastair W S
Published: November 2023

In 1948 there were almost simultaneous case reports of large renal cell carcinomas (RCC) being removed through a thoraco- abdominal approach. Robson (1963) published a paper describing the procedure of radical nephrectomy (RN) for renal tumours. In this procedure ‘ the entire envelope of perinephric fat, kidney and adrenal en-bloc and the lymphatic drainage field’ are removed. The premise for performing this procedure for renal cancer was based on the retrospective analysis of previous nephrectomies performed at his institution where 28 per cent of cases had involvement of perinephric fat and 22 per cent had lymph node involvement.
Complications of surgery for renal cell carcinoma
Authors: Corman John M
Published: November 2023

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the most common malignancy of the human kidney and accounts for 3 per cent of all adult neoplasms (Landis et al. 1999). While radical nephrectomy remains the ‘ gold standard’ , modern diagnostic instruments, contemporary operative techniques, and advances in perioperative care have expanded treatment options for the disease. With earlier diagnosis of smaller tumors (Aso et al. 1992) and with an increased incidence of RCC (Chow et al. 1999) clinicians are faced with two important controversies. First, does nephron-sparing surgery offer cancer control rates that are similar to those of traditional open radical nephrectomy? Multiple reviews have addressed this first question (Lerner et al. 1996; Frydenberg et al.
The role of interleukin in metastatic renal cell carcinoma
Authors: Bukowski Ronald M
Published: November 2023

The treatment of metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC) presents a therapeutic challenge to the medical oncologist. The traditional modality of chemotherapy has minimal activity, with most agents demonstrating response rates less than 5 per cent (Yagoda 1990). The recognition of an antitumor immune response (Finke et al. 1994) and the occurrence of spontaneous regression in patients with this neoplasm (Oliver et al. 1988; Gleave et al. 1998) led to studies investigating a variety of biologic agents in this patient population. These have included the cytokines, both natural and recombinant molecules. One class of cytokines that has been widely investigated is the interleukins. Interleukin 2 has been shown to have a limited, but reproducible antitumor activity in RCC. This chapter will review several interleukins that have been employed in metastatic RCC, including the rationale and clinical results for these agents.
Role of nephrectomy in metastatic disease
Authors: Flanigan Robert C , Yonover Paul Matthew
Published: November 2023

When a patient presents with a diagnosis of renal cell carcinoma (RCC), a work-up for metastatic spread will be positive approximately one-third of the time. Common sites of metastatic spread include the lung, liver, bone, brain, and adrenal gland, with case reports detailing this cancer’ s capacity to appear almost anywhere in the body, including the thyroid, pancreas, labia, retina, etc. Of patients with clinically localized disease at time of diagnosis, another 20 to 50 per cent eventually will develop metastatic disease following nephrectomy (Flanigan 1996; Motzer and Russo 2000). Despite major advances in genitourinary oncology, those patients with metastatic RCC still face a dismal prognosis, with a median survival of only 6 to 10 months and a 2-year survival of 10 to 20 per cent (Figlin et al. 1997) (see Table 44.1).
Diagnosis and treatment of primary aldosteronism
Authors: Blumenfeld Jon D , Vaughan E Darracott
Published: November 2023

Primary aldosteronism is a syndrome characterized by hypertension, hypokalemia with renal potassium wasting, suppressed plasma renin activity (PRA), chloride-resistant metabolic alkalosis, and elevated levels of urinary and plasma aldosterone. The spectrum of adrenal disorders that now meet these diagnostic criteria extends beyond the functioning adrenal adenoma to include diagnostic subgroups with distinct physiologic and biochemical characteristics and with heterogeneous blood pressure responses to unilateral adrenalectomy (Biglieri et al. 1995). Although the prevalence of this disorder is thought to represent 0.5–2.0 per cent of all hypertension, this is probably an underestimate.
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia: 21-hydroxylase deficiency and 11-hydroxylase deficiency
Authors: New Maria I
Published: November 2023

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a family of autosomal recessive disorders involving impaired enzymatic function at any of the various steps in the synthesis of cortisol from cholesterol by the adrenal cortex. Blocks in cortisol synthesis impair the negative feedback control of adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) secretion, which leads to chronic stimulation of the adrenal cortex by ACTH. The enzyme deficiencies in CAH act as a dam behind which steroid precursors accumulate, which are then shunted through uninhibited pathways and result in excessive steroidogenesis. It is primarily the excess androgens and steroid precursors that determine the clinical presentation.
Screening to identify individuals at risk after exposure to trauma
Authors: Brewin Chris R , Rose, Suzanna , Andrews Bernice
Published: November 2023

Studies of psychological debriefing as a brief early intervention following exposure to trauma have not, to date, yielded evidence for the effectiveness of the procedure (e.g. Rose and Bisson, 1998; Wessely et al., 1998). Following our own study of psychological debriefing for victims of violent crime (Rose et al., 1999) we therefore proposed that clinicians should refrain from focused, symptom-orientated early intervention in favour of monitoring survivors for psycholog ical disorder, particularly post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and intervening more intensively should a diagnosable condition develop.
Early intervention strategies with traumatized children, adolescents, and families
Authors: Yule William
Published: November 2023

A high proportion of children and adolescents have been shown to develop serious stress reactions and other psychopathology after a wide variety of group and individual traumatic experiences (Bolton et al., 2000; Yule et al., 2000). This chapter will address the question of how mental health and other professionals can, through early intervention, best respond to the specific needs of these young victim groups so as both to reduce levels of distress and prevent later, more serious disorders.
Early psychosocial interventions for war-affected populations
Authors: Jong Kaz de , Kleber Rolf
Published: November 2023

Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) is an independent, humanitarian organization working with international and national volunteer staff in 87 countries worldwide. In its 29 years of existence, MSF has developed specialist knowledge in providing health support to populations in emergency and crisis settings.
Strategies for early intervention after trauma adopted by the Norwegian Armed Forces
Authors: Mehlum Lars
Published: November 2023

Acute traumatic stress reactions, in the military typically referred to as ‘combat stress reactions’ (CSR) account for 20-30% of battle losses in modem warfare (Noy, 1991). Soldiers with CSR run a considerable risk of developing chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Solomon and Kleinhauz, 1996). In many nations, therefore, large groups of psychiatrically disabled war veterans are to be found (Kulka et al., 1990; 0mer, 1992). In less severe cases, the clinical course of CSR ends in full or partial remission, although vulnerability to repeated trauma (Solomon et al., 1987) or to emotional problems in later life may persist. These are some of the reasons why prevention of and early intervention in CSR have been given such a high priority in armed forces in many countries.
Progress made towards reconstructing early intervention after trauma: emergent themes
Authors: 0rner R J , Schnyder U
Published: November 2023

Coincidence has it that the first paragraphs of the concluding chapters are being written during the weeks after the tumultuous upheavals of September 11 2001. Millions are in shock and fearful for their futures. Hardly anyone is likely to emerge unchanged from what is happening but the evidence supports optimism about most of those so affected making positive adaptations to unfolding events without accessing professional help. In this time of crisis a realization has dawned this is a special opportunity for developing some empathy for the predicament of survivors of a vast range of personal trauma.