bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Indian Conceptions of Order and Justice: Nehruvian, Gandhian, Hindutva, and Neo‐Liberal
Authors: Bajpai Kanti
Published: October 2003

Bajpai begins by examining these four dominant traditions of thought and compares the attitudes of the four traditions towards state sovereignty, the use of force, the utility of rules and institutions, and inequality. The author shows the degree of compatibility between these four perspectives and the Westphalian concept of order and justice as well as with more solidarist approaches. He concludes by outlining what a just world order would look like from the four perspectives, and notes that a three‐way conversation on this topic is taking place between the Nehruvians, the increasingly influential Hindutvas, and the nascent neo‐liberals.
Plato's Utopia Recast
Authors: Bobonich Christopher
Published: October 2003

Argues that Plato in his middle period (roughly at the time of the Phaedo and the Republic) had a radically pessimistic view of non‐philosophers: they could not be genuinely virtuous or happy, and their lives were inevitably deeply undesirable ones to live. This pessimistic conclusion, I argue, rests on Plato's middle‐period epistemology, psychology, and metaphysics. But in the later dialogues (e.g. the Laws and the Statesman), Plato comes to a strikingly different conclusion. At least some non‐philosophers can be virtuous and lead lives that are well worth living. This book traces and explores the backward and forward connections to Plato's new estimate of non‐philosophers’ ethical capacities. On the backward side, these changes rest on significant developments in Plato's psychology and epistemology. In particular, in Plato's late period, he develops a more unified view of the soul's capacities and a richer understanding of how reason structures and influences the rest of the soul's capacities. On the forward side, these differences in non‐philosophers’ ethical capacities have significant implications for Plato's political philosophy. Since non‐philosophers are capable of more, the political and social institutions appropriate for them must also be differ ent.

This book thus reads the Laws in the context provided by Plato's other post‐Republic dialogues—especially the Phaedrus, the Philebus, the Statesman, the Theaetetus, and the Timaeus—and tries to show how the Laws’ novel ethical and political conclusions depend on the epistemology, psychology, and metaphysics of these later dialogues.
Philosophers and Non‐Philosophers in the Phaedo and the Republic
Authors: Bobonich Christopher
Published: October 2003

Explores Plato's two most important earlier discussions of non‐philosophers: that in the Phaedo, in which Plato for the first time takes as a central theme the differences between philosophers and non‐philosophers, and that of the Republic, which is the most extensive and philosophically rich account of non‐philosophers in the middle period. It examines the psychology and the epistemology of the Phaedo and the Republic and shows that they have pessimistic implications for the ethical capacities of non‐philosophers and for Plato's political theory.
Parts of the Soul and Non‐Rational Motivations
Authors: Bobonich Christopher
Published: October 2003

Argues that the Phaedrus, the Theaetetus, and the Timaeus develop Plato's rationale for the abandonment of the Republic's psychological theory. In these dialogues, Plato comes to deny to the lower parts of the soul the sort of epistemic independence that they had in the Republic. The perceptual resources they drew upon in the Republic are no longer sufficient to allow them to be goal‐setting agents or the possessors of beliefs and desires. This chapter then examines the implications of Plato's later psychology for the place of the emotions and pleasure in the virtuous life.
The Citizens of Magnesia
Authors: Bobonich Christopher
Published: October 2003

Since in the Laws Plato comes to think that non‐philosophers are capable of genuine virtue, new conceptions of what a good city is and of what a good citizen is are both possible and required. This chapter explores these conceptions and in doing so examines Plato's understanding of proper political rule, the goodness of ethical activity, and the city's theology. I also discuss some of the details of the political and social structure of the city of the Laws (Magnesia) and the ways in which such a city is ‘second best’.
Theory and Truth
Authors: Sklar Lawrence
Published: October 2003

Sceptics have often cast doubt on the legitimacy of claims to the effect that our best scientific theories are true. One ground for such scepticism is the fact that our theories advert to the existence and nature of unobservable entities and features of the world. Another ground for such scepticism is the fact that our theories rest upon our idealization of the world in their descriptions and explanations. A third ground for scepticism is the claim that all of our theories are but transient. If we expect even our best theories to ultimately be replaced, how can we think of them as truly describing the world? Each kind of sceptical argument plays a role within the scientific project of theory construction and evaluation itself. But there are clear and important differences between the kinds of internal role such arguments play within science and the way that they function in the more abstract philosophical context.
The Concept of Knowledge
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

In this essay, McGinn argues for a version of reliabilism, contending that a belief counts as knowledge just in case ‘it is produced by a method capable of yielding true beliefs in a range of relevant cases’. This view diverges from other versions of reliabilism, notably Robert Nozick's counter‐factionalist tracking theory, which, McGinn argues, ‘localizes the conditions for knowledge into a relation between the knower and a unique proposition’. Against this local analysis of propositional knowledge, McGinn presents a global reliabilism in which the notion of discrimination is basic. On McGinn's view, global reliability consists in a subject's capacity to distinguish the true from the false within a relevant class of propositions. McGinn concludes by considering the implications of his view for sceptical arguments—in particular, the claim that knowledge is not closed under known logical implication.
A Priori and A Posteriori Knowledge
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

McGinn defends a causal criterion for distinguishing a priori from a posteriori knowledge. In the case of a posteriori knowledge, the subject matter of a knower's ground for believing a proposition is the cause of that knower's coming to believe that proposition. In the case of a priori knowledge, it is not the case that the subject matter of the knower's ground for believing a proposition is the cause of that knower's coming to believe that proposition. In this essay's first section, McGinn argues that a causal condition for knowledge is no part of an analysis of knowledge tout court, but merely part of a naturalized account of a posteriori knowledge. McGinn then argues for the extensional adequacy of his account of a priori knowledge for the cases of mathematical, logical, and analytic knowledge. He concludes by considering the connections between the a priori and the a posteriori, on the one hand, and the modal notions of necessity and contingency, on the other.
A Note on the Essence of Natural Kinds
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

In this, his first philosophical publication, McGinn introduces a distinction between epistemic possibility and metaphysical possibility, in order to diagnose the reason for Mackie's misinterpretation of Kripke's essentialism about natural kinds. McGinn then argues—on behalf of Kripke and pace Mackie—that the secondary qualities of natural kind substances (e.g. gold, water) are rigidly identical to the underlying primary qualities.
Modal Reality
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

In this essay, McGinn argues for a version of ‘modal realism’ that denies the reality of possible worlds. Central to this discussion is a distinction between objectual and non‐objectual interpretations of modal expressions. Objectual interpretations affirm the reality of possible worlds, the existence of which McGinn flatly denies; whereas on the non‐objectual alternative, the semantic role of modal expressions is non‐referential. According to McGinn, the modal truth is to be grounded not in a realist ontology of possible worlds but in the manner in which real objects have the properties they do. In this way, McGinn remains a modal realist by locating modality in the modes of objects.
The Structure of Content
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

In this precursor to his Mental Content (1989), McGinn defends and explores the implications of his dual‐component theory of mental and linguistic content. According to McGinn, our concept of belief combines two components: the first (apropos of belief's causal‐explanatory role) consists in a mode of representation of things in the world, the second (apropos of belief's truth‐bearing role) involves the semantic relations between such representations and the things represented. The case is analogous for linguistic content, which is also structurally duplex; meaning, for McGinn, consists in both reference and mode of presentation. Having situated his dual‐component theory relative to several standard accounts of meaning, McGinn concludes the essay by considering its implications, notably for the conditions under which mental and linguistic content can be ascribed, and for the nature of radical interpretation.
Charity, Interpretation, and Belief
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

McGinn argues that, pace Davidson, relational belief attributions do not require a principle of charity. According to McGinn, the requirement of Davidsonian charity turns on the false presumption that ‘most of what others say and believe is going to be true’. But, in this early statement of externalism about the mind, McGinn argues that a subject ‘may be intentionally related to an object … without being able to conceive it aright’; this is because a subject may see an object (which is sufficient for relational attribution) without having preponderantly true beliefs about the object she sees. Thus, because ‘intentionality is prior to veridicality’, we cannot discount the possibility of ‘widespread and deep‐going disagreement between interpreter and interpreted’. McGinn concludes by considering how his externalism about propositional attitudes mirrors Putnam's externalism about meaning, and how rejecting the principle of charity impacts Davidson's method of radical interpretation.
Radical Interpretation and Epistemology
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

In this companion to ‘Charity, Interpretation, and Belief’, McGinn broadens his attack on Davidson's principle of charity, arguing that charity is no more required for the ascription of notional beliefs (i.e. shared concepts) than it is for the ascription of relational beliefs. His argument takes the form of a reductio: if Davidson were right that about the inherently charitable nature of interpretation, then, McGinn argues, traditional sceptical worries (e.g. concerning the external world, other minds) would not even arise. But that is absurd. In the concluding section, McGinn presents his preferred (Quinean) method of interpretation, according to which the ascription of beliefs and meanings proceeds only after the attribution of perceptual experiences.
The Mechanism of Reference
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

McGinn's aim is two‐fold: to undermine both descriptive and causal theories of reference, and to argue for his preferred, ‘contextual’ theory of reference. McGinn is moved to this position by emphasizing indexicals—which he takes to be the primary referential devices—rather than proper names. Linguistic reference, for McGinn, is a conventional activity governed by rules that prescribe the spatio‐temporal conditions of correct use; the semantic referent of a speaker's term is given by combining its linguistic meaning with the spatio‐temporal context in which the speaker is located. McGinn concludes his defence of this theory by demonstrating the plausibility of its implications for such topics as abstract objects, self‐reference, attribution, the language of thought hypothesis, truth, and the reducibility of reference.
Truth and Use
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

In this response to the work of Michael Dummett, McGinn aims to vindicate the plausibility of a realist outlook. Realism claims that a sentence's truth is ‘epistemically unconstrained’ or ‘knowledge‐transcendent’, in the sense that the world is as it is independently of our knowing truths about it. Contra Dummett's arguments against the tenability of this realist conviction, McGinn's counter‐argument proceeds by showing, first, ‘that it is an empiricist dogma to suppose that we cannot acquire conceptions that transcend our experience (“recognitional capacities”),’ and second, ‘that we can connect experience‐transcendent conceptions with linguistic use by making the (deflationary) observation that such conceptions are fit subjects for communicative speech acts’.
Two Notions of Realism?
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

McGinn's narrow aim in this essay is to complicate Dummett's simplistic, logico‐linguistic formulation of the debate between realism and anti‐realism, by undermining the presumption that the law of bivalence captures the intuitive notion of realism. Drawing on a wide variety of illustrations (e.g. statements of personal identity, ethical statements, Quinean theories of radical interpretation, mathematical statements), McGinn counters that realism is better characterized as the claim of evidence independence, arguing that this claim is independent of the truth or falsity of bivalence. Thus, McGinn's wider aim is to formulate the dispute between realism and anti‐realism as a metaphysical, rather than logico‐linguistic, debate.
Another Look at Colour
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

In this essay—the first of two essays on colour included in this collection—McGinn abandons the dispositional theory that he first defended in The Subjective View (1983). In its standard formulation, the dispositional theory of colour claims that an object's being red consists in its possession of some physical property which, in turn, has the causal role of generating experiences of red in perceivers; this property is what disposes the object to cause red experiences. Following a demonstration of how this dispositional analysis fails to account for the phenomenology of colour perception, McGinn defends a revised position that combines ‘a form of naïve realism about colour perception’ with a ‘natural descendent’ of the dispositional theory, according to which primitive colour properties are not identical to, but rather supervene on, complex dispositional properties.
The Appearance of Colour
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

In this previously unpublished follow‐up to ‘Another Look at Colour’, McGinn evaluates a possible objection to the account developed there. In McGinn's view, ‘colours are simple monadic primitive properties whose instantiation supervenes on complex relational dispositions to appear to perceivers in such‐and‐such ways’. According to the objection (which McGinn labels ‘the neutrality thesis’), the phenomenology of colour experience is wholly uninformative with respect to the ontological nature of colour (i.e. the kind of property colours must be); thus, for instance, the question of whether colours are identical to, or rather supervene on, dispositions need not arise. McGinn argues against the neutrality thesis, ultimately defending a kind of externalism about perceptual content, according to which ‘visual experience is a relation between a conscious subject and a cluster of properties, which may or may not be instantiated’. McGinn concludes by criticizing McDowell's neo‐Kantian view of perceptual appearance.
The Varieties of Realism
Authors: Niiniluoto Ilkka
Published: October 2003

Distinguishes between ontological, semantical, epistemological, axiological, methodological, and ethical realism. Another distinction, related to worldview, is between realism within common sense, science, and metaphysics. These distinctions help us to give a tree‐form classification of realist views and their most important alternatives. A methodological comparison is made between critical realism and philosophical naturalism.
Realism in Epistemology
Authors: Niiniluoto Ilkka
Published: October 2003

Epistemological realism claims that it is possible to obtain knowledge about mind‐independent reality. Critical realism accepts fallibilism as a via media between scepticism and dogmatism: scientific knowledge is uncertain, incomplete, and truthlike. Against Kantianism, such knowledge is directly about reality, so that the Kantian idea of unknowable things‐in‐themselves is rejected. Epistemic definitions of truth (coherence, pragmatist, and consensus theories) are rejected, but epistemic probability and estimated verisimilitude are shown to be fallible indicators of truth and truthlikeness.
Realism in Theory Construction
Authors: Niiniluoto Ilkka
Published: October 2003

Theoretical realism claims—against instrumentalism (Stegmüller), constructive empiricism (van Fraassen), entity realism (Hacking, Cartwright), and structural realism (Worrall)—that the theoretical terms of successful scientific theories refer to real entities in the world, even beyond the edge of direct observability, and the principles and laws in theories are true. Critical realism qualifies this view by employing the notion of truthlikeness, which in particular applies to theories containing approximations and idealizations. The notion of truthlikeness also allows a precise formulation of a charitable account of reference for theoretical terms: unlike in Fregean approaches, a theory may refer to an entity even though its description is only approximately true or truthlike. This shows that rival or successive theories may refer to the same entities in spite of the phenomenon of meaning variance or incommensurability. Illustrations of the realism debates are given in the fields of astronomy, quantum mechanics, psychology, and economics.
Internal Realism
Authors: Niiniluoto Ilkka
Published: October 2003

Critical scientific realism is contrasted with the neo‐pragmatist views of Goodman, Kuhn, and Putnam. Ontological realism can be combined with conceptual pluralism, which accepts that the mind‐independent world can be carved up or structured by various linguistic frameworks. The world can be regarded as a lawlike flux of causal processes, and its existing objects are individuated and identified relative to conceptual frameworks. This agrees with Putnam's criticism of metaphysical realism that presupposes a ready‐made world. But it is argued that conceptual pluralism is compatible with the non‐epistemic correspondence account of truth, so that critical realism differs also from Putnam's internal realism, Goodman's irrealist account of worldmaking, and Kuhn's Darwinian Kantianism.
Relativism
Authors: Niiniluoto Ilkka
Published: October 2003

Relativism is a bundle of different doctrines in ontology, semantics, epistemology, methodology, and ethics. This chapter starts with a defence of moderate moral relativism: morality is not a natural aspect of the world, but a human‐made social construction. Therefore, moral judgements (‘a’ is good, ‘a’ is right) receive truth‐values only relative to some historically defined system of standards. This does not entail radical moral relativism, which claims that moral systems are equally good or incomparable by some rational principles. In the same way, the epistemological notion of justification is relative to accepted standards. Again, this moderate cognitive relativism does not entail radical relativism. Further, it does not entail a corresponding relativism about truth and reality. Cognitive relativism thus fails precisely at those points where it conflicts with scientific realism. Debates about relativism are illustrated by a discussion of feminist epistemology.
Social Constructivism
Authors: Niiniluoto Ilkka
Published: October 2003

Philosophers of science should take seriously the fact, emphasized already by Peirce and Popper, that scientific knowledge is a product of the scientific community. The ontological and epistemological views associated with the sociology of science have often been interpreted as forms of relativism and anti‐realism. This chapter examines critically the position of the Edinburgh school (Bloor, Barnes). It is argued that the Strong Programme need not be in conflict with realism, but its radically nominalist doctrine of meaning finitism should be rejected. But Latour's social constructivism, if taken literally as an ontological view, cannot be reconciled with scientific realism.
Social Networks Matter. But How?
Authors: Passy Florence
Published: October 2003

Identifies specific network mechanisms at the individual level and illustrates how different social networks affect recruitment and individual participation in different voluntary organizations and social movement organizations. Socialization functions of social networks create an initial disposition to participate; structural‐connection functions generate practical opportunities for involvement; decision‐shaping functions affect the ultimate decision to take part. Empirical evidence comes from members of two political organizations active in the solidarity movement and the environmental movement in Switzerland, the Bern Declaration and WWF.
Movement Development and Organizational Networks: The Role of ‘Single Members’ In the German Nazi Party, 1925–30
Authors: Anheier Helmut
Published: October 2003

Explores the role of individual activists in promoting the growth of political organizations. His findings on single members (i.e. members who operated in areas where there were no chapters and therefore acted as individual political entrepreneurs) of the Nazi party in Germany in the 1920s and early 1930s qualify some of the propositions of mass society theory regarding the mobilization of extremist politics. Early Nazi activists were not marginal, socially isolated persons but came from ordinary middle class backgrounds, and were embedded in organizational activities: the stronger their social networks, the higher their chances of establishing a local chapter of NSDAP. On the other hand, their linkages were all within the extreme right subculture and totally separated from mainstream politics. This is actually consistent with the claim that concentric social circles (i.e. densely knit clusters of ties with little outside ramifications) rather than intersecting ones generate a fragmented society and are therefore an obstacle to democratic politics.
Networks in Opposition: Linking Organizations through Activists in the Polish People's Republic
Authors: Osa Maryjane
Published: October 2003

Explores changes in the informal networks of overlapping memberships between opposition organizations in Poland between the 1960s and the 1980s. When civic organizations are subject to severe constraints, as in Communist regimes, informal networks are particularly important as alternative sources of resources. There, networks not only operate as micro‐mobilization contexts but also provide the basic infrastructure for civil society. The chapter explicitly takes the time dimension into account, using individual affiliations to chart the evolution of networks over time, and offering an accurate reconstruction of changes in the Polish political system and the emergence of a strong democratization movement.
Community Embeddedness and Collaborative Governance in the San Francisco Bay Area Environmental Movement
Authors: Ansell Christopher
Published: October 2003

Deals with interorganizational networks in the environmental movement in the San Francisco Bay Area. It draws upon literatures on collaborative governance, social capital, and communitarianism to explore the embeddedness of social movements in local communities. Social movements can be regarded either as an expression of community embeddedness, strongly rooted in specific territorial spaces and the associated systems of relationships, or as attempts to build broader networks, based on the identification with a specific cause, which cut across local community loyalties and relations. The chapter explores which of the two models is more conducive to collaborative governance. Organizations occupying different structural positions in the environmental network display different levels of propensity towards collaborative governance.
Why Do Networks Matter? Rationalist and Structuralist Interpretations
Authors: Gould Roger V.
Published: October 2003

Evaluates the contribution of the relational perspective to our understanding of individual activism by contrasting it to traditional rational choice theory. The author exposes the limitations of rational choice reasoning by noting that future expectations are often difficult to calculate and challenging the equation of social ties with prospects of future interaction. Alternatively, he emphasizes the dynamic role of activism in transforming lives and, by doing so, changing the meaning and the impact of the ties in which prospective activists are involved. The chapter shows how discussions of networks and collective action can illuminate our understanding of social conflict and cooperation in general.
Cross‐Talk in Movements: Reconceiving the Culture‐Network Link
Authors: Mische Ann
Published: October 2003

In dialogue with recent developments in cultural sociology, this chapter looks at the forms of discourse generated by movement activists in response to the multiple relations in which they are involved. Networks are reinterpreted as multiple, cross‐cutting sets of social relations sustained by conversational dynamics within social settings. They are at the same time the location for the development of movement solidarities and for the transmission of messages, identity, etc. across movements. The chapter identifies several conversational mechanisms that characterize the process of network construction and reproduction. It also introduces a technique, Galois lattices, to map the complexity of conjunctures of actors and events in a dynamic way.
Networks and Social Movements: A Research Programme
Authors: Diani Mario
Published: October 2003

Presents a case for a reorientation of social movement theory and research along network lines. While looking at networks as a powerful precondition of collective action has proved a fruitful exercise in its own right, one could also take the network idea further and make it the core of a distinctive research program. Adopting a concept of social movement as a distinctive type of social networks may reorient social movement analysis and help better specifying the relation between movements and related phenomena such as coalitions, solidarity campaigns, and political organizations. The chapter briefly sketches the basic traits of a research programme for the analysis of network social mechanisms within social movements, looking first at different network patterns, and then identifying some analytical principles, which also draw upon existing paradigms.
The Europeanization of Public Policy
Authors: Radaelli Claudio M.
Published: October 2003

This chapter deals with the Europeanization of public policy, with emphasis on the problems that researchers encounter when they try to get to grips with the concept of Europeanization, the issue of explanation, the measurement of effects and the control of alternative rival hypotheses. It covers the domestic impact of the public policy of the European Union (EU), for which the term ‘EU-ization’ could be used. Featherstone has shown in the introductory chapter that the scope of Europeanization can go beyond EU-ization, for example, it can include the transfer of policy from one European country to several other countries, but this chapter if primarily concerned with how the EU impacts on the domestic policy systems of member states. The first section of the chapter, ‘The Concept’, looks at the implications of the conceptual analysis of Europeanization and suggests ideas in the direction of conceptual precision; the next section ‘What is Europeanized and to What Extent?’ ‘unpacks’ the concept of Europeanization by using a simple taxonomy; the section ‘Vertical and Horizontal Mechanisms' illustrates the main mechanisms involved in Europeanization of public policy, before the key explanatory variables are discussed in the section ‘Towards Explanation?’. The concluding section presents suggestions for future research, the key argument throughout the chapter having been that research on Europeanization presents an opportunity to bring EU scholars closer to ‘normal’ political science.
Meeting the Demands of EU Membership: The Europeanization of National Administrative Systems
Authors: Kassim Hussein
Published: October 2003

This chapter approaches the theme of Europeanization somewhat differently from the other contributions to the book. Using the term in its broadest sense, it examines the administrative response on the part of member states to the demands of European Union (EU) membership and considers the institutional arrangements they have put in place to manage their participation in EU decision-making. European integration subjects national governments to unique and exacting pressures and imposes strict requirements on their participation in processes of EU decision-making. This chapter considers these demands by examining and comparing national responses in terms of the ambitions developed by the member states, their coordination strategies, and the structures they have put in place to manage their involvement in the Union. Finally, it considers the underlying determinants that shape national coordination arrangements.
Europeanization in Comparative Perspective: Institutional Fit and National Adaptation
Authors: Giuliani Marco
Published: October 2003

This chapter addresses the issue of whether the domestic institutional architectures of the fifteen member states of the European Union (EU) affect the way in which they react to the challenges of European governance. More specifically, it empirically tests two different models in order to assess whether macro institutional features are systematically correlated with their degree of adaptation to the EU, using a data set from all fifteen EU states for the period 1986–2000. The first model tested is that of Lijphart (1999), who drew a distinction between consensual and majoritarian institutional architecture, and suggested that the EU displays the typical features of a consensual system; tests are run to determine whether the consensual model represents a favourable precondition for a member state’s adaptation to EU politics. The second model, that of Tsebelis (2002), turns around the concept of formal veto players (VPS); tests are run to determine whether the number of VPS affects the domestic process of Europeanization. The analysis demonstrates that domestic institutions influence the way in which national political systems relate themselves to the EU and adapt their normative framework to the process of Europeanization; a low number of veto points facilitates this process, by reducing the internal decision-making costs and favouring the flexibility and promptness of the policy-making system, but institutional isomorphism and consensual style do not facilitate the interaction between the national and the European level.
Europeanization as Interpretation, Translation, and Editing of Public Policies
Authors: Mörth Ulrika
Published: October 2003

In this chapter it is argued that Europeanization is a process of institutionalization in which new rules and new ways of thinking evolve. Within these new institutional and ideational structures a policy will change and take new forms. The empirical illustrations used are based on the ongoing formation of European cooperation on defence equipment, with the analysis focusing on the institutionalization of the rules for this cooperation, and how these rules are edited at the domestic level. The first main section of the chapter elaborates on the concept of institutionalization and how it can be useful in empirical research on Europeanization. The following (main) section discusses how new rules of the game have evolved on how to cooperate in Europe on defence equipment, and then studies in what ways these rules have been edited to fit into the domestic contexts of Sweden, France and the United Kingdom.
The Impact of the European Union on Environmental Policies
Authors: Haverland Markus
Published: October 2003

Focusing on environmental policies, this chapter aims to contribute to the debate on the politics of Europeanization by presenting the conceptual and theoretical state of the art of research into this specific sector of potential European Union (EU) impact on domestic political systems. The chapter first provides some background information on the essential properties of environmental policy and on the development of EU environmental policy; this is done to explicate the defining characteristics of this sector vis-é-vis other sectors. Next, three recent comparative case studies on the determinants of national adaptation to EU environmental policy requirements are reviewed; these are theoretically informed by either sociological institutionalism or rational choice institutionalism, and arrive at different and partially competing explanations for the variation in national adaptation to European environmental policies. Despite disagreement about the relative importance of the factors and mechanisms of Europeanization, the results of the comparative case studies offer elements for a theory about the conditions of policy adaptation and, by implication, about convergence. Building upon these findings, elements are suggested for a future research agenda based on theoretically informed comparative case studies that gradually include new policy sectors and countries; in addition, the use of counterfactual arguments is proposed to isolate the causal impact of the European Union.
Europeanization and Organizational Change in National Trade Associations: An Organizational Ecology Perspective
Authors: Grote Jürgen R. , Lang Achim
Published: October 2003

The first section of this chapter on Europeanization in relation to organizational change in national trade associations addresses the paradigm of Europeanization and business interest associations. The second section discusses change in sectoral business associations from an ecological perspective, looking at the different strategies that organizations can use to confront external challenges. Absorption and compensation, integration, cooperation and intervention. The third and final sections of the chapter are written with particular reference to the Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) Sector and the Chemicals Sector in Germany. The third section, on change-inducing environmental factors, distinguishes between the political, economic, technological and social environments that influence the individual groups and group populations in different ways according to sector via national, European or international channels. The final section looks at change in an intra- and inter-organizational perspective, and describes the interest group populations and focal organizations dominating both sectors before looking at selected results that shed some light on the ways that leading representatives of trade associations perceive external challenges and related modifications in the application of resources.
Differentiated Europeanization: Large and Small Firms in the EU Policy Process
Authors: Coen David , Dannreuther Charles
Published: October 2003

This chapter explores the issue of Europeanization primarily at the horizontal level of European Union (EU) policy formulation and the adaptation and Europeanization of large and small business interests in the new opportunity structures of Brussels. The movement of business and other societal interests towards the European level has long been associated with a neofunctional perspective on European integration and societal change. Business interests have always been associated with the changes in policy and polity described by the term Europeanization, begging the question of how does the study of ‘Europeanization’ add to the understanding of European business lobbying. To answer this, the first section of the chapter, ‘Europeanization and the Application to EU Public Policy’ defines what Europeanization is understand to be, and set outs a number of European policy-making process propositions to be explored empirically in the next section ‘The Europeanization of Business Interests in a Differentiated Policy Process’. This section looks at how institutional and organizational capabilities have affected representative ability over time, how firms of all sizes have developed ‘venue shopping’ strategies in a multilevel governance structure, and, finally (in resource dependency terms), how firm size affects the distinct rules and norms of interest representation with the European Commission.
The Idea of the European Social Model: Limits and Paradoxes of Europeanization
Authors: Wincott Daniel
Published: October 2003

Both positive and negative integration can produce Europeanization, but while the former, which generally implies the specification of a European model, is more likely to be politically loaded with explicit normative content, the latter relies upon social and economic agents taking advantage of the opportunities provided by the removal of barriers to generate Europeanization from below. The European Social Model (ESM) is arguably the clearest example of a normatively loaded (putative) European model. Partly as a result, the lessons that the history of the ESM can teach are not those of Europeanization producing a gradual and steady convergence of national practices and policies based on a positive model; instead, it suggests that the processes of European integration and of Europeanization are not wholly distinct and neatly separated stages or phases, nor is Europeanization itself necessarily clear and coherent. The author, however, suggests that there is considerable analytical value in distinguishing between European integration and Europeanization. The chapter is developed in five main sections: the first considers the concept of Europeanization, emphasizing both its analytical value and the difficulty of applying it to the European Union (EU); the second section, ‘Is There a Common Social Model in Europe’, analyses whether a common ESM can be identified across the states of the EU; the third section, ‘Is the European Social Model a Product of Europeanization?’, turns to the question of whether the ESM was a product of Europeanization; the fourth section, ‘The European Social Model II: A ‘Triumphant Return’ or ‘Second Time as Farce’, analyses the reappearance of the ESM on the European Union policy agenda as a part of the legitimizing discourse surrounding the ‘Open Method of Co-ordination’ (OMe), introduced at the Lisbon meeting of the European Council in 2000; a brief conclusion returns to issues of and debates about Europeanization.
Doubts About the Legacy of Scepticism
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

A reply to a paper by Thompson Clarke, in which he argues that the reason it is so difficult to identify uniquely the philosophical question of knowledge is that complexes of words, even with apparently the same meanings, can be seen to have different connotations in ordinary natural language from what they have in the philosophical pursuit into knowledge. Stroud doubts that Clarke's argument can be used to explain, or even resolve, the challenge of scepticism, and argues that even if we accept the difference in point or implication Clarke appeals to, the theoretical challenge is as real as ever.
Taking Scepticism Seriously
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

Stroud reviews Peter Unger's Ignorance: A Case for Scepticism in detail. Stroud describes Unger as attempting to demonstrate the compatibility of de facto scepticism with human agency and thought and as arguing that not only are the meanings of epistemic words compatible with a sceptical epistemology that combines them, but that our understanding of these words actually commits us to such a theory. Stroud argues against Unger that such a semantic exercise is insufficient to establish the philosophically weighty conclusion of scepticism and offers suggestions as to how Unger's argument might be improved.
Reasonable Claims: Cavell and the Tradition
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

Discusses Stanley Cavell's imminent response to scepticism as it appears in his The Claim of Reason, and makes explicit the relation between Cavell's discussion of scepticism and a number of general themes he touches upon in his book. Stroud affirms Cavell's starting point, namely the Kantian insight that once the question about our knowledge is allowed to stand as legitimate and intelligible, we are easily but inevitably forced to a sceptical answer, but reveals a slight disappointment with Cavell's rather schematic conclusion. Stroud suggests improvements by exploring the conditions under which an answer to the question in the way in which Cavell sets it up would count as successful.
Scepticism, ‘Externalism’, and the Goal of Epistemology
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

Stresses again the unavoidability of scepticism in a pursuit to defend a philosophical theory of knowledge and casts doubt on attempts to find solutions to the epistemological question other than scepticism itself. Ernest Sosa has given an externalist response to this stance, which Stroud attempts to refute, arguing that epistemological externalism does not succeed in explaining why we have knowledge and hence does not address the epistemological challenge in the first place.
Kantian Argument, Conceptual Capacities, and Invulnerability
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

Stroud reviews the problem of transcendental arguments in general and develops Peter Strawson's account of such arguments. Stroud attempts to make a case for ‘invulnerability’, an epistemological status our beliefs might have, which on the one hand disarms scepticism and on the other does not go as far as pretending to lift our beliefs into the realm of knowledge of the external world. Strawson has previously doubted that even such a status can be given to our beliefs; in response Stroud, while maintaining a respectful sympathy with Strawson's stance, argues that this conclusion might have been arrived at too hastily and explores possibilities for which invulnerability can be ascribed to some of our beliefs.
The Goal of Transcendental Arguments
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

Stroud distinguishes between two different sources of ‘invulnerability’, which correspond to two different ways of demonstrating that at least some of our beliefs are invulnerable. Stroud argues that even if the natural source, the indispensability of a belief to any conception of an independent world, does not contribute to answering the sceptic, there might be a second source, the kind and degree of resistance to scepticism, which Stroud explores in his essay.
Wittgenstein's ‘Treatment’ Of the Quest for ‘A Language Which Describes My Inner Experiences and Which Only I Myself Can Understand’
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

Attempts to look without preconception at the part of the text usually thought to contain Wittgenstein's main argument against the existence of a private language.
Wittgenstein on Meaning, Understanding, and Community
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

Tries to ravel out Wittgenstein's dictum that meaning is used in an attempt to forestall Kripke's ‘sceptic’, who draws the conclusion that there is no such thing as meaning on the grounds that mental objects cannot be brought to bear on the question of what a person means, and that mere conformity to linguistic practice is not sufficient for the determination of meaning. It is argued that the indeterminacy or problematic nature of meaning with respect to a certain class of facts does not entail that meaning is indeterminate or problematic.
The Background of Thought
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

Examines Searle's theory of intentionality. The author argues that the three reasons given by Searle in support of his hypothesis of a background, which underlies our intentional states, are inconclusive at best.
Mind, Meaning, and Practice
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

The first half of the essay contains a discussion of Wittgenstein's views on how we misconstrue the mind. It looks to the conception of meaning as use for resistance to the distorted picture of the mind we get by thinking that something must accompany the sounds or marks we make, or the actions we perform in order to make them appropriately meaningful. The second half addresses Kripke's sceptic, who is someone who claims that there is no such thing as a speaker's meaning, or understanding something by a particular expression.
St John Damascene
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: October 2003

A study of the theological achievement of St John Damascene, set in its historical context. John Damascene was born between 650–75 in Damascus and died in or near Jerusalem about 750. His early life was spent as civil servant under the Umayyad caliphate, the rest as a monk in one of the monasteries of the Palestinian Desert. Palestinian monasticism had acquired a reputation of support for the Christian orthodoxy defined by the church councils of the Byzantine Empire, a reputation that it retained after the Middle East passed from the Byzantines to the Arabs. John Damascene is the most notable representative of this tradition. The bulk of the book explores in detail John's understanding of Christian Orthodoxy, as set out principally in his three‐part Fountain Head of Knowledge. This includes the logical tools needed to argue theologically, set out in the first part, the Dialectica, an understanding of the nature and variety of heresy, in the second part, On Heresies, which includes the first Christian reflection on the new religion of Islam, and an exposition of Christian doctrine, in the third part, On the Orthodox Faith, which was to become immensely influential for all later Christianity, both East and West. Three final chapters discuss John's understanding of Christian art (icons), developed in opposition to Byzantine iconoclasm, his preaching, for which he was famous in his lifetime, and his enormous contribution to Byzantine liturgical poetry, especially the canon. A final chapter draws the threads together by means of a comparison between John Damascene and his nearly exact contemporary in the West, the Venerable Bede.
The Fountain Head of Knowledge: Nature and Development
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: October 2003

Discussion of the complex manuscript tradition of the three‐part Fountain Head of Knowledge, and it tells us about the circumstances of John's composition of the work and his changing intentions.
Settling the Terms
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: October 2003

Discussion of the development of the Dialectica, its place as the most developed of the short‐lived tradition of Christian textbooks of logic, and, in particular, the way the terminology introduced comes to focus on the terms used in Trinitarian and Christological doctrine, especially the term hypostasis.
Against the Iconoclasts
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: October 2003

Brief account of the beginnings of Byzantine iconoclasm, and John's place in defending the veneration of icons against iconoclasm. The nature and importance of florilegia in his defence. An exposition of John's theology of the icon or image.