bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Determinants of Labor Force Activity among Retired Men
Authors: Beck Scott H.
Published: March 2007

Sociological research on older workers has tended to focus on the timing of retirement. Relatively little attention has been directed to post-retirement labor force patterns. Using data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of older men, this article investigates the impact of social and demographic factors, mediating variables such as retirement benefits, preretirement attitudes toward work, and health on work activity during retirement. While job opportunities determined by preretirement occupation and industrial sector do exert some effect on postretirement work activity, the individual-level constraints of poor health and low retirement benefits appear to be of central importance in determining labor force activity of retired men.
Retirement and Residential Moves by Elderly Households
Authors: Henretta John C.
Published: March 2007

This article investigates the timing of residential moves in relation to retirement of the household head and spouse, using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. Among the unmarried, rates of mobility are higher in the year surrounding retirement than they are for either current workers or long-term retirees. Among married respondents, households in which the head is retired have higher rates of mobility compared to households with a working head, but the pattern of higher mobility at the time of retirement is muted. Head's health and wife's labor force status do not have an effect on residential mobility, but the lack of findings may result from the limited measures available.
Cost of Living Differentials and Elderly Interstate Migration
Authors: Serow William J. , Charity Douglas A. , Fournier Gary M. , Rasmussen David W.
Published: March 2007

This article replicates previous work by McLeod et al. (1984) on the determinants of state to state flows of elderly migrants in the United States. This article deals with the 1975-1980 period and finds broad similarity in the magnitude and direction of explanatory relationships. In addition, the article reports on the use of experimental state-level cost of living indicators as explanatory variables. These performed as expected with high cost of living at origin and low cost of living at destination both explaining the magnitude of state to state flows.
Unraveling the Effects of Multiple Life Changes
Authors: Hatch Laurie Russell , Stull Donald E.
Published: March 2007

A previous article demonstrated the importance of considering life changes that occur at or near the time of retirement when examining the effects of retirement. Specifically, it was shown that failing to take changes in marital status into account will confound interpretation of the effects of retirement. In the present article, an alternative method of analysis is used. The analysis reveals that social interaction may be differentially important in influencing the happiness of divorced versus widowed retirees.
The Elderly's Fear of Crime
Authors: Lagrange Randy L. , Ferraro Kenneth F.
Published: March 2007

Research on fear of crime reveals that the pervasiveness and intensity of fear in the United States is substantially higher among the elderly than younger persons. The relationship between age and fear of crime is seemingly paradoxical because the elderly tend to be least often victimized. This article critically assesses much of the research on fear of crime among the elderly. Our analysis shows that (1) several of the standard fear of crime measures are poorly operationalized and (2) estimates of the extent of fear of crime are highly dependent on the type and quality of operationalization. We conclude that the amount of fear experienced in the everyday lives of most older persons has been overstated. Implications for policy and suggestions for further research are offered.
Race/Sex Comparisons of Elderly Living Arrangements
Authors: Burr Jeffrey A.
Published: March 2007

This article describes recent trends in the total institutionalization rates among unmarried Black and White populations, by sex. In addition, an analysis is provided that evaluates the individual attributes associated with the probability of institutionalization for these same groups in 1980. To accomplish these goals, U.S. Census data from the 1960, 1970, and 1980 Public Use Samples are employed. The evidence suggests convergence over time in age-standardized rates across both race and sex groups. Also, there is considerable consistency among the groups in the factors that predict the likelihood of being in a formal long-term care situation. Although the Black population continues to access formal institutions less frequently than does the White population, the findings suggest that forecasters and planners need to take into account the increasing rate of elderly Black institutionalizaton along with the individual characteristics that influence these rates.
Parental Caregiving by Adult Women
Authors: Himes Christine L.
Published: March 2007

Daughters are a traditional source of assistance in the care of their elderly parents. Past studies of caregiving have failed to exploit the information available in cross-sectional surveys to examine changes in caregiving prevalence with age. In this research, the methodological techniques of demography are used to examine the risk and practice of parental care over the life of adult women. The analyses reveal that parental caregiving is relatively rare at any point in time; however, among older women with a surviving parent, parental caregiving is common. Over one half of adult women with a surviving parent can expect to provide care to that parent at some point in the future. Lengthening life expectancies are likely to increase both the prevalence of caregiving and the ages at which it occurs.
Clarifying the Functions of Social Support in Later Life
Authors: Krause Neal , Borawski-Clark Elaine
Published: March 2007

Research on the stress-buffering properties of social support contains a number of contradictory findings. At least part of this problem may be attributed to the fact that researchers have not developed a well-articulated theory explaining how social support functions in later life. Based on recent developments in identity theory, evidence is presented which suggests that emotional support tends to reduce the deleterious effects of some types of stress (i.e., events arising in salient social roles) but not others (i.e., stressors that emerge in roles that are valued less highly). This theoretical framework is extended by showing that social support operates at least in part by bolstering feelings of control and self-worth that have been eroded by stressful experiences. However, the data indicate that these beneficial effects are restricted to feelings of control and self-esteem that are associated with the same roles in which the stressors emerged.
The Unbearable Lightness of Retirement
Authors: Savishinsky Joel
Published: March 2007

Participants in a longitudinal study of retirement experienced various forms of frustration and fulfillment in the rituals that were held to mark their transition from workers to retirees. Official workplace ceremonies were relatively ineffective as a formal support system, whereas informal rites created by intimates, and postretirement travel, were more helpful in negotiating this liminal period. The content of rhetoric, the way gifts and guest lists were chosen, and the role of fantasy and physical separation in the ritual process all proved to be key variables. The lightness with which retirement is culturally conceived and the uneven nature of its ritual celebration thus prove to be among its heaviest burdens.
Elderly Parents and the Geographic Availability of their Adult Children
Authors: Lin Ge , Rogerson Peter A.
Published: March 2007

Using data from the 1987 National Survey of Families and Households, this study examines the distribution and determinants of the geographic distance between elderly parents and their adult children. The majority of elderly Americans have at least one adult child living within 10 miles of their residence; for those with two or more adult children, the second-closest child is usually within 30 miles. Compared with the urban elderly, rural elders live farther from their second closest-children. Daughters live no closer than sons to their parents. The analysis shows that education and number of children are the most important factors in predicting parent-child proximity. Other factors, such as age, health, and the family size of the closest adult child, are also important.
Narrative Accrual and the Life Course
Authors: Nouri Marilyn , Helterline Marilyn
Published: March 2007

In this article, first the idea of seeing the life course as narratively constructed is developed, and then that approach is used to explore how elders construct meaning about the life course in their later years. One area of meaning that persons tell narratives about is the relationship between the cosmos and the will. The narrative self is a standpoint through which aging adults develop a story line. Narrative accrual of the events of life and the stories about them led to five types of life story lines about fate: the American dream of success, life as a struggle, the life as shared story line, God determines, and life is simple. Referentiality of the stories in narrative accrual was then considered. Beyond the "reporting of facts" as a basis for reference, gender and the characteristics of the oppositions of social life provided the authors with "reality." Clearly women and men authored the fate-problem in different ways. The oppositions of social life provided the "plights" of individual stories as well as enabled narrative accrual. There is a notion of "final interpretation" or "final comprehension" so that life's existence makes some kind of sense, at least for the time being.
A Qualitative Approach to Studying Health Optimism, Realism, and Pessimism
Authors: van Doorn Carol
Published: March 2007

To determine why older people are optimistic, realistic, or pessimistic on self-rated health relative to standard medical health measures, 48 persons older than age 65 were interviewed in an in-depth, semistructured format. Comparisons were made between optimists and poor-health realists, both of whom have serious health problems, to discover the ways in which these groups develop their disparate self-ratings of health. When asked about the meanings they attach to health, respondents variously referred to topics including family history, social comparisons, subjective age, and life expectancy to form their ratings. These results begin to clarify the ways in which different people view similar states of health, building on recent research showing that health pessimists are at an elevated risk of mortality, while health optimists reduce their mortality risk.
Self-Assessments of Health
Authors: Benyamini Yael , Leventhal Elaine A. , Leventhal Howard
Published: March 2007

Factors reflecting current experience—for example, number of medications used, poor function, negative affects, and positive affect—had stronger associations with self-assessments of health (SAH) than factors related to prior events (medical history, prior smoking) in baseline data from 830 elderly retirement-community residents (mean age = 73). Participants appear to have implicit knowledge of the factors affecting their SAH: The rank order of the beta weights relating factors to SAH was correlated with the rank order of participant ratings of the attention given to each factor when making SAH judgments. Relationships of SAH and each of the factors to five year mortality showed that subjectively salient factors such as function and lack of energy predicted five-year mortality, reduced the relationship of SAH to mortality, and accounted for most of the relationship of medical factors to mortality. Affective variables, however, had no relationship to mortality despite their impact on SAH.
Social Ties and Health among the Very Old in Sweden
Authors: Lennartsson Carin
Published: March 2007

Research since the 1970s has documented a positive relationship between social ties (despite large variations in measures) and health. Studies of the elderly have also indicated that the effect may vary according to source of contact. Using nationally representative Swedish data for the age group 77 to 98 ( N = 537), this study examines differences in the effect of social contact on health outcomes, controlling for source of social contact. It also addresses the issue that causality may possibly be reversed. The results indicate that social contacts with friends are related to well-being and that consequently fewer contacts lead to less well-being. This relationship is valid, independent of earlier health status. The results indicate that it is essential that studies of the relationship between social contact and health not only distinguish between different sources of social contact but also address a range of health problems.
Environmental Security: Concept and Implementation
Authors: Allenby Braden R.
Published: March 2007

Environmental security, a relatively new and still somewhat contentious concept, may be defined as the intersection of environmental and national security considerations at a national policy level. It may be understood as a result of several important trends. One, of course, is the breakdown of the bipolar geopolitical structure that characterized the cold war. A second, less visible to many in the policy community, is the shift of environment from compliance and remediation to strategic for society. This process is occurring at many different scales, from implementation of Design for Environment methodologies within firms, to integration of environmental and trade considerations in the World Trade Organization (WTO). Taken together, these trends suggest that environmental security may be an important evolution of national state and international policy systems. If this is to occur, however, the concept must be defined with sufficient rigor to support an operational program.
Forms of States, Governance, and Regimes: Reconceptualizing the Prospects for Democratic Consolidation in Africa
Authors: Lindberg Staffan I.
Published: March 2007

Building on the growing body of literature bridging international relations and historical sociology, this article argues that “consolidologists” have something to learn from this field. The discussion’s point of departure is contemporary writings on sovereignty, security, and state formation in the African context. In an effort to synthesize insights from international relations and historical sociology with neo-institutional theory, a heuristic mode that suggests an alternative conceptualization of different forms of states, governance, and regimes is developed. The author argues that this model can be used to better understand the relationship between forms of states, variations in the institutions of governance, and transitions between regimes. Taking the model to be fruitful, the article finally suggests some hypotheses regarding the prospects for consolidation of democracy that can be tested in future empirical research.
Choosing Electoral Systems: Proportional, Majoritarian and Mixed Systems
Authors: Norris Pippa
Published: March 2007

Until recently electoral systems have usually proved remarkably resilient to radical reform. Yet in the last decade this pattern has been broken in a number of established democracies. The emergence of newer democracies has also generated a resurgence of interest in what criteria should be used in the choice of an electoral system. Given these developments, the aim of this article is to outline the main variants in different types of electoral system; to consider the normative criteria underpinning debates about reform; and to evaluate the relevant standards for choosing an electoral system. The article compares legislative elections in 53 democracies, including countries at different level of economic and political development, in order to examine the effects of electoral systems under a wide variety of conditions.
Aging and Eldercare in More Developed Countries
Authors: JOHNSON NAN E. , CLIMO JACOB J.
Published: March 2007

Successful aging can be enabled through a knowledge of what elders need to remain interdependent with their families, communities, and societies. But the rapid growth of the elderly populations in both the more and lesser developed countries is raising demands for eldercare and requiring brand new ways of assuring its success at these multiple levels of social organization. Two unifying themes in this special issue are (a) the relationships of health, illness, functionality, and disability to eldercare in old age; and (b) the evolving roles of family, community, and nation state in eldercare. All the articles in this special issue seek to foster new theory and new practice in eldercare. The authors believe that locally successful answers will promote global solutions when culturally appropriate adaptations are made. All cultures have much to teach.
Adult Grandchildren's Perceptions of Emotional Closeness and Consensus With Their Maternal and Paternal Grandparents
Authors: MILLS TERRY L. , WAKEMAN MELANIE A. , FEA CHRISTOPHER B.
Published: March 2007

Increasingly, grandchildren and grandparents have opportunities to share family experiences as life expectancy of older adults increases. Along with this extension of life expectancy is the increased chance of grandparents' seeing their grandchildren grow into adulthood. The aim of this study was to examine young adult grandchildren's perceptions of affectual and consensual solidarity with their grandparents. In a convenience sample of 300 college-aged grandchildren, the results of ordinary least squares (OLS) multiple regression analyses show that a grandparent's kin position relative to the grandchild is an important factor in grandchildren's perceptions of solidarity with their grandparents. Results also show that personal factors (demographics) alone were weak predictors. However, structural characteristics were more strongly associated with grandchildren's higher levels of emotional closeness and perceived intergenerational consensus. Future research should examine the association between intergenerational solidarity and family size, parental divorce, and the differences between adult grandchildren acquiring stepgrandparents through parental divorce or grandparent remarriage.
Alternative Lifestyles Revisited, or Whatever Happened to Swingers, Group Marriages, and Communes?
Authors: RUBIN ROGER H.
Published: March 2007

The study of alternative lifestyles received serious social science attention during the social turmoil of the 1960s and 1970s, peaking by the mid-1970s and declining thereafter. Pioneering meetings such as those held by the Groves Conference on Marriage and the Family examined these nontraditional family forms and personal living arrangements. Many of these lifestyles, such as cohabitation and stepfamilies, eventually became mainstream topics of scholarly research. However, those on the fringes, specifically, swinging, group marriages, and communes, have been largely ignored over the past two decades. Explanations ranged from a lack of research funding and academic reward to the assumption that fear of AIDS curtailed these behaviors. This neglect presently continues in spite of the evidence that swinging and communal life may be as prominent, and even more so, than in the past four decades. Attempts are made to explain this inconsistency.
Impact of Wife's Employment upon Husband's Housework
Authors: NICKOLS SHARON Y. , METZEN EDWARD J.
Published: March 2007

The allocation of time is recognized as a major economic consideration for families. Analysis of longitudinal data on time use offers a fruitful method for examining change and/or stability in roles of husbands and wives. In this panel study of 1156 intact families, time allocation to housework and employment by husbands and wives follows a traditional pattern, with wives spending most time in housework and husbands spending most time in employment. Cross-lag analysis is used to examine the relationship between wife's labor force time allocation and husband's housework time. Basic patterns of time allocation predominate over the 6 years, with wife's employment time having very little impact on husband's housework time. Implications for families and for social policy are discussed.
The Symbolic Meaning of Childbearing
Authors: NOCK STEVEN L.
Published: March 2007

Women born during the baby boom are predicted to have historically high rates of childlessness and low fertility. Many popular explanations for such predictions point to the costs involved in having and rearing children—both direct and opportunity costs. The evidence for such costs, however, is quite weak. In this article, the costs in earnings, labor-force time, and time with one's spouse are considered and argued to be inadequate to explain contemporary women's low fertility. Instead, it is argued that fundamental values held by women about male-female relationships and the role of women in society are quite important in affecting women's fertility. Limited empirical tests of this argument provide consistent support. This article concludes by noting how, for growing numbers of women, the role of mother is being redefined in ways quite similar to the traditional role of father—financial support of children.
Parenthood and Psychological Well-Being Among the Formerly Married
Authors: HUGHES MICHAEL
Published: March 2007

Previous studies have found that children have a negative, albeit fairly weak, impact on the psychological well-being of parents. These studies have generally focused on married respondents and, to a somewhat lesser extent, unmarried women, but have generally ignored unmarried men. For the most part, studies of parenthood and well-being have not considered the issue of adult and/or absent children. Defining parenthood so it includes relations with adult children, absent children, and dependent children in the home, the present study compares the impact of parenthood on the well-being of formerly married men and women to that of married men and women. The findings confirm that nonparents experience better mental health than parents and further indicate that (1) variation in the parental role is more strongly associated with psychological well-being for men than for women, (2) parenthood is most strongly related to well-being among formerly married men, for whom the greatest problems occur with the presence of young children, (3) the negative effect of the absence of children on parents is greater than the effect of the presence of children for married men and formerly married women, and (4) much of the negative effect of being divorced or being widowed has to do with the impact of children on psychological well-being, particularly for men. Theoretical implications are discussed.
Employer-Supported Child Care as a Women-Responsive Policy
Authors: AUERBACH JUDITH D.
Published: March 2007

The recent “mommy track” debate raises questions about how employers ought best to accommodate women's (and men's) dual commitments to work and family. The “mommy track” approach suggests instituting different career paths for women who expect to have children and those who do not. A less discriminatory approach is to implement family-supportive policies applicable to both women and men. This article examines one such policy — employer-supported child care—and discusses its nature and its implications for improving labor force opportunities for women. Primary data come from two sources: a survey of 99 randomly selected employers in three Eastern states and in-depth interviews with 25 employers across the country, 20 that already support a child-care benefit and five that considered it but decided not to. The article concludes that although employers support child care out of their own organizational self-interest, the implication of their support for women's occupational advancement is not insignificant.
Social Differentiation, Contemporary Marriage, and Human Development
Authors: VANNOY DANA
Published: March 2007

This article makes the functionalist claim that to be fully achieved, the change toward sex equality must occur in social, cultural, and personality systems and be apparent not only in the economy but in marriage and individual identity as well. The discussion suggests that the high rate of marital disruption, particularly in dual-earner marriages in which partners approach economic and occupational equality, represents a lag or strain between macro changes in society and related changes in marriage roles and gender role identity in personality. Traditional gender role identities, including subordinate and superordinate statuses for women and men respectively, are seen as congruent with earlier societal forms and less congruent with the demands of postindustrial society. In light of social differentiation, the changing status of women, and the loss of family functions, stable marriages are more likely to be achieved only by those individuals who develop strong capacities for autonomy and intimacy in their marital relationships. To achieve this is also to achieve less sex-typed gender role identities.
Taking Credit
Authors: DEUTSCH FRANCINE M. , LOZY JENNIFER L. , SAXON SUSAN
Published: March 2007

Biases in husbands' and wives' reports of the relative distribution of child-care responsibility, and the effect of those biases on marital adjustment, were examined in this study. Two hundred and sixty-eight married couples estimated each spouse's percentage contribution to 32 specific child-care tasks and to five global aspects of child-care responsibilities, and completed the Spanier dyadic adjustment scale. The t tests comparing husbands' and wives' estimates on the child care measures showed a consistent credit-taking bias. Spouses gave themselves more credit for participation on a given task than they were given by their partners. Pearson correlations between the degree of credit-taking and marital satisfaction were not significant. The inconsistency between credit-taking for child care and other evidence suggesting an idealization bias between spouses is discussed.
A Comparison of Marriages and Cohabiting Relationships
Authors: NOCK STEVEN L.
Published: March 2007

This research analyzes data from the National Survey of Families and Households to compare marriages and cohabiting relationships. It reveals several broad differences in the nature of the two types of relationships. Specifically, cohabitors were found to express lower levels of commitment to their relationships, to report lower levels of happiness with their relationships, and to have poorer relationships with parents than comparable married individuals. The poorer quality of cohabiting relationships is argued to stem largely from the lack of institutionalization of the practice.
Attitudes on Interfaith Dating Among Jewish Adolescents
Authors: MARSHALL SHEILA K. , MARKSTROM-ADAMS CAROL
Published: March 2007

Attitudes toward interfaith dating are a pertinent topic to investigate among groups characterized by endogamous marital patterns. In the present investigation, this topic is examined among Jewish adolescents living in minority and majority community contexts. This study offers an extension of previous research by drawing on theory from the social psychology of attitudes to explore the roles of various contextual and developmental variables in attitudes toward interfaith dating. Qualitative analysis was employed to identify attitudes and issues indicative of varying degrees of willingness to interfaith date. Quantitative analysis (using discriminant function analysis) was employed to explore the roles of various contextual and developmental variables in the attitudes and issues expressed. More restrictive attitudes toward interfaith dating were associated with majority adolescents, greater Orthodoxy, and more frequent religious participation.
Mate Availability, Women's Marriage Prevalence, and Husbands' Education
Authors: ALBRECHT CAROL MULFORD , FOSSETT MARK A. , CREADY CYNTHIA M. , KIECOLT K. JILL
Published: March 2007

We predict that marriage prevalence and husbands' education for Black women vary directly with mate availability. We also predict that marriage prevalence and husbands' education will be lower for Black women with less than a high school education than for other Black women. We test these predictions using data on marriage and husbands' education for a national sample of individuals and data on aggregate-level marriage prevalence and husbands' education for a sample of large metropolitan areas. The results support our predictions, and they help to explain how low mate availability for Black women helps to create and maintain an underclass that is disproportionately composed of less-educated Black women and their children.
Parents' Marital Violence
Authors: McNEAL COSANDRA , AMATO PAUL R.
Published: March 2007

This study uses longitudinal data from two sources (parents and their adult offspring) to determine the long-term consequences of marital violence for children. The authors find that parents' reports of marital violence between 1980 and 1988 (when children were between the ages of 11 and 19, on average) predict offspring's reports of negative outcomes in early adulthood, including poorer parent-child relationships, lower psychological well-being, and more violence within their own relationships. Most of these associations are independent of parents' nonviolent conflict, divorce, self-reported abusive behavior toward children, and alcohol/drug use.
Child Support Obligations
Authors: COLEMAN MARILYN , GANONG LAWRENCE H. , KILLIAN TIM , McDANIEL ANNETTE KUSGEN
Published: March 2007

The attitudes of 160 men and 264 women randomly selected from five nonurban midwestern communities were examined to (a) determine how much child support a nonresidential father is perceived to be obligated to pay; (b) assess how perceived obligations vary by gender of participant, legal custody arrangement, changes in parents' marital status, and father's financial status; and (c) explore the rationale used in making judgments about child support obligations. A vignette technique was used. Most participants (78%) indicated a child support amount that was less than state guidelines. Participants thought child support amounts should be reduced when mothers remarried and when fathers' financial status changed. Perceptions of child support obligations held by men and women did not differ, and custody arrangements were not related to attitudes about child support. Qualitative analyses of rationale underlying attitudes suggested that notions of fairness guided respondents' reasoning.
The Principal as Chief Learning Officer: Developing Teacher Leaders
Authors: Ash Ruth C. , Persall J. Maurice
Published: March 2007

Today's teachers live in a society and work in a profession where demands are continually changing and expanding. To prepare their stu dents to be successful in this society, teachers must be willing to learn continuously, expand their own abilities, and assume ever-greater lead ership roles. Principals must create an environment that supports col laboration among teachers; provides time for teachers' professional development; and recognizes, rewards, and celebrates the concept of the teacher as leader.
Standards Make a Difference: The Influence of Standards on Classroom Assessment
Authors: Reeves Douglas B.
Published: March 2007

The focus of academic standards should be on rigorous classroom assessment, and the influence of that assessment process is overwhelmingly positive for the thinking, reasoning, and communications skills of students and their performance on high-stakes tests. School leaders are encouraged to promote the effectiveness and fairness of standards-based assessments in their schools.
The Principal's Role in Report Card Grading
Authors: O’Connor Ken
Published: March 2007

The use of grades and the practices that accompany them is a complex, confusing, and difficult issue in schools. This article sets forth in what the author believes are the right ways to determine report card grades and for principals to support their faculty in this endeavor.
The Legal Implications of School Resource Officers in Public Schools
Authors: Maranzano Chuck
Published: March 2007

The movement to include police officers in education settings may be complicated by unresolved legal principles. Describes issues regarding student rights and urges action to effect positive change in school settings.
Young Women’s Progress in Science and Technology Studies: Overcoming Remaining Barriers
Authors: Thom Mary
Published: March 2007

Girls and young women have made great progress in increasing their performance and participation in science and technology studies in recent years. This article discusses that progress and remaining roadblocks. It describes strategies to continue promoting science and technology studies among female students to ensure a technologically prepared workforce. Also, it summarizes the secondary school section of a national report, Balancing the Equation: Where Are Women and Girls in Science, Engineering and Technology? (2001), and provides recommendations and resources.
D. Occurrences of Science Courses in American High Schools
Authors: Johnson Philip G.
Published: March 2007

In this article, Dr. Johnson draws upon three recent nation-wide statistical studies to summarize the status quo of today's high-school science education. The first part of the analysis includes (a) occurrence of science courses expressed in enrollments, (b) occurrence of science courses expressed in number of courses offered, and (c) science requirements for graduation. The latter portion concerns the occurrence of science courses as enrollments in them have varied throughout the recent half- century. An excellent summary appears at the end of the article.
F. Science Education in Small High Schools
Authors: Schulz Richard W.
Published: March 2007

In this article, Mr. Schulz discusses some of the problems of administering and teaching a program of science in a typical smaller high school, and he suggests some specific solutions to these problems. He also describes some of the positive poten tialities inherent in the small school science program as well as the blessings which befall the science teacher in such a system.
D. Materials for Laboratory and Demonstrations
Authors: Brown Hugh E.
Published: March 2007

In this article, Mr. Brown surveys recommended equipment and materials needs for teaching general science, biology, chemistry, and physics, as recommended by several state and national groups. He analyzes the costs of these recommendations and tries to establish a conclusion about the typical cost of "average" instruction in high-school science in so far as equipment and materials for laboratory work and class room demonstrations are concerned. Because of the diversity of needs throughout the nation, the writer declines to make specific suggestions as to what materials should be acquired, but he refers the reader to several such recommendations. In concluding the article, Mr. Brown also discusses the cost of equipment and materials for teaching a course in integrated physical science and for conducting a program of elementary-school science.
A. Textbooks, Workbooks, and Laboratory Manuals in Science
Authors: Neal Nathan A.
Published: March 2007

In this article, Dr. Neal summarizes several modern views on the purpose of general education in American high schools. He follows this with a strong statement on the influence that textbooks can and do have on the nature of secondary-school in struction. Building upon this foundation, he discusses the ways in which high-school science textbooks do contribute toward the aims of general education, and how their contribution might be improved. In this manner, he treats attitudes about conserva tion, development of consumer competence, and education in health and safety. The article is concluded with a discussion of some of the strengths of workbooks and laboratory manuals as used in our high schools.
F. Opportunities for Pupils with Unusual Science Talent
Authors: Zim Herbert S.
Published: March 2007

In this article, Professor Zim briefly outlines the need for the encouragement of science-talented youngsters and discusses the kinds of behavior which help teachers identify such gifted individuals. Most of the article is devoted to descriptions of school activities which can help locate and encourage youngsters with unusual ability in science. These numerous suggestions are grouped as: enriched activities in the classroom, assistance in the school science program, school service, community service, club activities, summer activities, contact with professional work in science, individual money-earning projects, contests and scholarships, and guidance.
Sportscasting and Sports Reporting
Authors: Eastman Susan Tyler , Billings Andrew C.
Published: March 2007

Comparison of the sportscasting on ESPN and CNN and sports reporting in The New York Times and USA Today revealed the very high degree of embedded favoritism toward men’s sports and men athletes, even at times when major women’s sporting events were peaking in newsworthiness. The quantity of gender bias was significantly greater on ESPN’s SportsCenter than on CNN’s Sports Tonight, perhaps because of the somewhat different audiences they target. In addition, the amount of gender bias—measured three different ways—in the respected The New York Times also far exceeded that of USA Today, a disheartening finding about America’s so-called newspaper of record. Week-by-week crossmedia comparisons demonstrated the much greater marginalization of women’s sports in the electronic media, suggesting that newspapers provide a somewhat more positive model for sports journalism.
Tolerance Rules: Identity, Resistance, and Negotiation in an Inner City Recreation/Drop-In Center
Authors: Wilson Brian , White Philip
Published: March 2007

For many youth, the recreation/drop-in center is a nonthreatening, relatively unstructured place to play sports and hang out in an otherwise high-risk urban area. Although numerous studies have shown a positive relationship between these recreation programs and risk reduction for youth, little work has addressed the creative ways that youth negotiate these surroundings. Drawing on cultural studies and interactionist approaches to youth that focus on the many levels of everyday experience and relations, this article reports findings from an ethnographic study of a center in a low-income area in urban southern Ontario. The research shows how youth in this drop-in center context maintained an informal culture of nonviolence by creating a set of “tolerance” rules that allowed diverse groups to coexist in a limited social space. Issues surrounding resistance were also evident in this study. On one hand, youth living in a marginalized area were resistant to the dominant negative influences that exist outside the center. On the other hand, by creating their own informal culture within the center, the youth took power in an organization otherwise dominated (administratively) by adults. These findings inform theory surrounding the lived experiences of youth while addressing issues of resistance that are central to mainstream work on youth culture.
Long Distance Love
Authors: Farred Grant
Published: March 2007

This article explores the peculiar passions of football (soccer) fandom. Autobiographical in tone, it meditates at once on the personal dimension of fandom and larger theoretical concerns—the love for the Liverpool Football Club and postcolonialism belong to the same broad conversation. The article maps the process by which a fan in apartheid South Africa develops a deep and lasting relationship with an English football club; it demonstrates the arbitrariness of fandom and the importance of narrative (sports journalism) to long distance fandom; it explores how race and fandom complicate each other. It shows, most importantly, how fandom overcomes the debilitations of distance, the lack of technology, through a singular kind of imagination.
The Academic Preparation and Achievement of Black and White Collegiate Athletes
Authors: Eitzen D. Stanley , Purdy Dean A.
Published: March 2007

Data on all varsity athletes at a major university over a ten-year period were examined to assess the differences, if any, between whites and blacks in precollege academic preparation and college achievement. White athletes scored higher than their black peers on every measure of academic potential—ACT, SAT, high school rank, and high school grade point average. These differences in preparation translate into greater academic success in college for whites, both in better grades and a higher graduation rate. These findings confirm that schools with big-time sports programs tend to recruit black athletes who are academically marginal, thus a high rate of academic failure for them. The implications of this form of racial exploitation are elaborated.
A Community of Fate: The Political-Economics of Risk In College Athletic Air Travel
Authors: Marske Charles E.
Published: March 2007

By questioning conventional thinking, a sociological examination of air disasters directs attention to the broader, more fundamental political-economic context of these events. This research investigates the rates and patterns of air travel for a limited and defined population, National Collegiate Athletic Association teams for the period 1960-1984. The research findings indicate that the margin of safety among college athletic teams that fly is linked to both the social organization of aviation and the social struc ture of college athletics.
The Globe and Mail Coverage of the Winter Olympic Games
Authors: Urquhart Jim , Crossman Jane
Published: March 2007

This research is a content analysis by gender of the Globe and Mail ’s coverage of the Winter Olympic Games from 1924 to 1992. Variables examined with respect to gender included: size and type of article/picture, sport, location, and source of article. One-way ANOVA and ANOVA with a Student-Newman-Keuls procedure were used to determine if significant differences existed between the above indices. The study found that female athletes were under-represented when compared to male athletes and women were frequently depicted in “sex appropriate” sports. Male athletes were written about four times (647 to 144) as much, and photographed three times (346 to 131) as much as females. The mean size of articles about female athletes was significantly larger than the articles about male athletes (F (1,6) = 5.41, p = .001). Women received less print space from 1924 to 1960 and more from 1964 to 1992. Articles were written by male reporters almost six times (431 to 75) more frequently than female reporters. Reasons for the findings are discussed.
Performance and Eligibility for Arbitration or Free Agency and Salaries of Professional Major League Baseball Players, the 1994-1995 Experience
Authors: Pikul Jason , Mayo Herbert
Published: March 2007

This study uses multiple regression to determine if performance and eligibility for salary arbitration or free agency led to higher salaries of major league baseball players during a period of extreme labor-management strife. The results for both nonpitchers and pitchers indicate that performance and eligibility for arbitration or free agency led to higher salaries even during 1994-1995, a period that ultimately experienced a players’ strike and the cancellation of the World Series.
STRATEGIES FOR RETAINING FEMALE HIGH SCHOOL HEAD COACHES: A SURVEY OF ADMINISTRATORS AND COACHES
Authors: Pastore Donna L.
Published: March 2007

This study was undertaken to understand the strategies used to retain female high school head coaches. A sample consisting of 354 interscholastic athletic administrators and coaches of women's teams responded to a questionnaire consisting of 37 retention strategies (under the categories of developmental opportunities, program support, financial incentives, job definition, and communication) which elicited the extent that each strategy was used. To verify the subscale structure of the questionnaire, item-to-total correlations and internal consistency estimates (Cronbach's alpha) were carried out. After four iterations, 20 items were retained to measure five dimensions of retention strategies: developmental opportunities, financial incentives, program support, job expectations, and communication. The results of the 2 (Gender) × 2 (Position) × 5 (Dimension) repeated measures ANOVA showed significant two-way interaction effects for both gender and position. Tukey's post hoc analyses indicated that all subgroups rated communication as the most used dimension for retaining female high school coaches and rated developmental opportunities as the least used.
Confidentiality-Preserving Modes of Access To Files and To Interfile Exchange for Useful Statistical Analysis
Authors: Campbell Donald T. , Boruch Robert F. , Schwartz Richard D. , Steinberg Joseph
Published: March 2007

In releasing individual data for statistical analysis by outsiders, deletion of direct personal identifiers is sometimes insufficient to preserve confidentiality. Restrictions on the release of data that is publicly listed elsewhere or error innoculation of these variables may be required. Microaggregated release is safe, but statistically costly. In-file capacity to run outsiders' analyses, with randomized rounding of frequency tallies, is best. Interfile linkage of confidential data in statistical analyses is of great potential value for program evaluation and can be achieved without the release of individually identified data from either file by the "mutually insulated file linkage"procedure described. Link file brokerage is unacceptable on confidentiality grounds, and microaggregation and synthetic linking by matching are unacceptable on statistical grounds. For both types of use, it would be beneficial for governmental program evaluation to fund internal statistical analysis capability in important administrative archives, including those in the private sector such as health and automobile insurance.
The Limits of Cost-Benefit Analysis as a Guide to Priority-Setting in Rehabilitation
Authors: Noble John H.
Published: March 2007

Policy makers and program managers concerned with targeting resources to meet the rehabilitation needs of the nation cannot rely on the backlog of 18 cost-benefit studies to decide among alternative kinds and amounts of investment. Overly simplistic forecasting of the future earnings of rehabilitants, the insufficiencies of data concerning the benefits and costs of rehabilitation, and the extreme sensitivity of the cost-benefit model's results to its untested underlying assumptions argue against priority-setting based on intuitively appealing class-specific calculations that appear to show greater rates of return for investments in some kinds of disabled persons over others. Until substantial upgrading of the state of the art along certain recommended lines takes place, the political process looks like the only sensible and fair way to approach choice and the assertion ofpriorities.
Evaluation of Experiments in Policing
Authors: Lewis Joseph H.
Published: March 2007

Since its inception in 1970, the Police Foundation has, in collaboration with a number of police agencies across the country, initiated 16 substantial pieces of evaluation research in the field of urban policing, of which, so far, eleven are finished. This paper summarizes what the Foundation is learning about evaluatzon of experiments in policing from these experiences. Stress is placed on the requirement for an explicit planningphase prior to and as a condition of support for an experiment, the need for flexibility in the use of additional resources during planning and implementation of an experiment under strong program monitoring, and the role of the police administrator in maintaining experimental condi tions. Costs and benefits to police administrators of adopting a testing philosophy are addressed.