bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Tulsa Will! Tulsa Will? Tulsa Will Dodge: The Failure of Reconstruction
Authors: Brophy Alfred L
Published: November 2023

For those Greenwood residents left homeless by the riot, which had destroyed thirty-five blocks of their community and more than a thousand homes, there were immediate concerns for shelter and long range concerns for rebuilding. The city had to re-establish order, clean up the damage, reunite families, and provide food, clothing, and shelter to those who had lost their homes, as well as plan for the future. The initial horror led to promises to help rebuild, but those promises were quickly forgotten. Discussion about Tulsa’s duty to rebuild Greenwood changed into discussion about relocating Greenwood farther away from white Tulsa-a plan that might have succeed had not Greenwood property owners won a court battle. At the same time, reparations talk turned from the city’s moral duty to assist in rebuilding Greenwood to its lack of legal culpability.
Conclusions
Authors: Doeringer Peter B , Evans-Klock Christine , Terkla David G
Published: November 2023

Previous chapters have examined the workplace practices, location decisions, and growth experiences of new manufacturing plants in the United States. Manufacturing start-ups were chosen for study because they should provide a leading indicator of what will constitute “best” manufacturing practices in the future. The results of this study show that this assumption is largely correct. Many of these new manufacturing plants embody leading-edge technologies, they adopt innovative, high performance management practices to operate this technology efficiently, and they select locations based upon both standard cost considerations and workforce qualities that complement their choices of technology and management practices.
Genetically Determined Immunodeficiency Diseases: A Perspective
Authors: Smith C I Edvard , Ochs, Hans D , Puck Jennifer M
Published: November 2023

We are in an era of explosive growth in our understanding of the molecular and genetic basis of immune defects. In the early 1990s, only a handful of genes were known to be associated with these diseases, but now many are recognized and the process of discovering additional immunodeficiency genes is proceeding rapidly. Advances in basic research in immunology, combined with the availability of the DNA sequence of nearly the entire human and mouse genomes plus refined technologies for localizing disease traits, have led to the discovery of the precise molecular basis for 140 or more disorders of human host defenses. A recent example of novel approaches is the discovery of CD3δ deficiency through use of microarray technology (Dadi et al., 2003; Chapter 16). The ability to redefine genetic diseases of the immune system in molecular terms has made possible improved diagnosis, appreciation of the spectrum of clinical presentations that can be traced to a given disease gene, genetic counseling and testing, and, most exciting, new therapeutic strategies including gene therapy. Moreover, the discovery of each previously unknown disease gene feeds back into the pool of scientific knowledge of immunology, illuminating and strengthening our evolving models of immune pathways.
Genetic Principles and Technologies in the Study of Immune Disorders
Authors: Puck Jennifer M , Nussbaum Robert L
Published: November 2023

Medical genetics is the subspecialty of medicine concerned with the investigation, diagnosis, treatment, counseling, and management of patients and families with inherited disease. Research in medical genetics focuses on identifying the genes involved in human hereditary diseases and the changes in DNA sequence that cause or predispose to these diseases; elucidating disease pathogenesis, including both genetic and environmental factors; understanding the inheritance patterns of diseases in families; developing new treatments or cures for hereditary disorders; and helping patients and families make reproductive decisions and cope with the impact of genetic disorders on the health of family members. Although a complete discussion of medical genetics is beyond the scope of this book and can be reviewed in several texts (Vogel and Motulsky, 1996; Scriver et al., 2001; Nussbaum et al., 2006), it is essential to present here an overview of the terminology, concepts, and methods of modern molecular genetics. This introduction will outline the approaches that have led to the identification of the genes involved in over 140 specific disorders of the immune system. These findings should make possible further revolutionary changes, not only in the discovery of additional disease genes, but also in understanding the pathogenesis of defects in host defenses. Using this understanding, we may create effective new therapies.
X-Linked Severe Combined Immunodeficiency
Authors: Puck Jennifer M
Published: November 2023

Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) comprises a collection of genetic defects that involve both humoral and cellular immunity. A profound lack of immune function leads to infections that are generally fatal in infancy unless the immune system can be reconstituted. X-linked SCID (XSCID, SCIDX1, MIM #300400) is caused by defects in IL2RG (MIM *308380), the gene encoding the interleukin-2 (IL-2) receptor γ chain (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man [OMIM], 2000), also known as the common γ chain. XSCID is the most frequent genetic form of SCID. Its incidence is unknown, although it has been estimated to occur in at least 1 per 100,000 births. Males, who have a single X chromosome, are affected with XSCID. Female carriers, who have a mutated copy of the gene on one of their two X chromosomes and a normal copy on the other, remain healthy. However, carrier females can pass on the disease to their male offspring and the carrier state to their female offspring. XSCID appears to occur equally in all ethnic groups.
V(D)J Recombination Defects
Authors: Villartay Jean-Pierre De , Schwarz Klaus , Villa Anna
Published: November 2023

The vertebrate cognate immune system recognizes and responds to a virtually infinite number of foreign antigens via antigen specific immunoglobulin (Ig) or T cell receptor (TCR) molecules expressed on the cell surface of B and T lymphocytes, respectively. While the Ig receptor of B cells binds to soluble antigens, the TCR receptor recognizes peptide antigens presented by human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules. In general, allelic exclusion prevents expression by a single lymphocyte of two different receptors encoded by homologous alleles. The expression of each distinct receptor is maintained in the clonal progeny of a lymphocyte. Immunoglobulin and TCR chains consist of two structural domains: the constant regions mediate effector functions, while the variable part of the receptor chains forms the antigen-binding pocket. A site-specific recombination event (VDJ recombination) leads to generation of the variable domains of mature antigen receptor genes from a set of subgenic segments classified as variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) elements (for review see Schlissel and Stanhope-Baker, 1997; Nemazee 2000). In principle, each of the V elements can join to any of the D and J modules, thus a finite number of subgenes can establish the enormous antigen receptor diversity.
Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Due to Defects in T Cell Receptor–Associated Protein Tyrosine Kinases
Authors: Elder Melissa E
Published: November 2023

The processes involved in CD4 vs. CD8 selection during T cell ontogeny are not fully understood, but are known to require intact signal transduction through the TCR of the differentiating thymocyte (Pfeffer and Mak, 1994; Robey and Fowlkes, 1994). The signal transduction events mediated by the TCR on thymocytes are thought to be similar to those responsible for the activation of mature T cells. Propagation of antigen-binding signals from the TCR to the nucleus is dependent on the activation of the PTKs Lck and ZAP-70 (reviewed in Chan et al., 1994a; Weiss and Littman, 1994; Cantrell, 1996; Wange and Samelson, 1996; Kane et al., 2000). PTK activation is a rapid and critical event that results in phosphorylation of numerous downstream molecules, including phospholipase Cδ1 (PLCδ1), linker for activation of T cells (LAT), Src homology 2 (SH2) domain–containing 76 kDa leukocyte protein (SLP-76), and the Vav guanine nucleotide exchange factor (reviewed in Wange and Samelson, 1996; Qian and Weiss, 1997; Rudd, 1999; van Leeuwen and Samelson, 1999; van Oers, 1999; Kane et al., 2000). These tyrosine phosphorylation events are required for mobilization of intracellular free calcium ([Ca2+]i) and activation of the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol-3 (PI3) kinase pathways. These downstream reactions culminate in activation of T cells and initiation of T cell–specific responses, described in more detail in Chapter 6.
Human Interleukin-2 Receptor α Deficiency
Authors: Roifman Chaim M
Published: November 2023

Regulation of the immune system requires communication among its cellular components. Such cell-to-cell interplay occurs in microenvironments in the lymphoid organs and sites of in?ammation. A major mechanism of communication includes the secretion of a vast number of soluble mediators, of which the most extensively studied is interleukin-2 (IL-2). Originally identified as a T cell growth factor (Gillis and Smith, 1977a, 1977b) IL-2 was also later implicated in promoting growth of natural killer (NK) cells and B cells.
Autosomal Recessive Agammaglobulinemia
Authors: Conley Mary Ellen
Published: November 2023

Normal development of the B cell lineage is dependent on appropriate expression and extinction of a panoply of genes, some of which are B cell–specific and some of which are more broadly expressed (Billips et al., 1995; Rajewsky, 1996; Yankee and Clark, 2000; Rolink et al., 2001). These genes encode B cell–specific transcription factors, proteins required for the rearrangement of the immunoglobulin gene segments, signal transduction molecules, receptors for growth factors and adhesion molecules, and many others. The immunoglobulin genes and proteins encoded by these genes obviously play a central role. The classic disorder of B cell development, X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA), was first described in the 1950s (Bruton, 1952; Janeway et al., 1953; Good, 1954a, 1954b). It is characterized by the early onset of bacterial infections, profound hypogammaglobulinemia, and markedly reduced numbers of B cells (Ochs and Winkelstein, 1996; Conley et al., 2000a). The defective gene in this disorder encodes a cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase, Btk, that is involved in signal transduction (Tsukada et al., 1993; Vetrie et al., 1993). It is not yet clear, however, how defects in this protein result in impaired B cell proliferation, differentiation, or survival.
Autoimmune Polyendocrinopathy, Candidiasis, Ectodermal Dystrophy
Authors: Peltonen-Palotie Leena , Halonen Maria , Perheentupa Jaakko
Published: November 2023

Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy–candidiasis–ectodermal dystrophy (APECED; OMIM 240300), an autosomal recessive disease, provides a unique model for molecular studies of auto-immunity because of the monogenic inheritance of this disorder, characterized by multiple features of abnormal immunological tolerance. APECED was first mentioned in the literature by Thorpe and Handley in 1929, and since then it has been given several names, such as APS1 or Whitaker’s syndrome (Leonard, 1946; Whitaker et al., 1956; Neufeld et al., 1981; Ahonen, 1985). Patients with APECED have been identified in numerous populations and among multiple ethnicities. The disease occurs more frequently in isolated populations, the lifetime prevalence being rather high among the Finns, Iranian Jews, and Sardinians (1/25,000, 1/9000, and 1/14,500, respectively) (Zlotogora and Shapiro, 1992; Rosatelli et al., 1998).
Inherited Disorders of the Interleukin-12/23–Interferon Gamma Axis
Authors: Newport Melanie J , Holland Steven M , Levin Michael , Casanova Jean-Laurent
Published: November 2023

Over the past 50 years there have been a number of reported cases of severe disseminated infection with weakly virulent mycobacteria in individuals without recognized predisposing immunodeficiency. Mycobacterial species included various environmental mycobacteria (EM) and several Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine substrains. High rates of affected siblings and parental consanguinity suggested the existence of a novel primary immunodeficiency syndrome, subsequently named Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial disease (MSMD, MIM 209950). Molecular investigation of these families has identified mutations in five genes in the interleukin (IL)-12/23–dependent interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) axis, highlighting the importance of this pathway in human immunity to mycobacteria. There remain a number of patients for whom a genetic etiology has yet to be identified; mutations in other genes await discovery.
Chromosomal Instability Syndromes Other Than Ataxia-Telangiectasia
Authors: Wegner Rolf-Dieter , German James J , Chrzanowska Krystyna H , Digweed Martin , Stumm Markus
Published: November 2023

A number of syndromes exist in which an increased incidence of spontaneous and/or induced chromosomal aberrations is the unifying diagnostic criterion. These disorders, called chromosomal instability syndromes, include the classical chromosomal instability syndromes—namely, ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T), Fanconi anemia (FA), and Bloom syndrome (BS). On the basis of this definition, Nijmegen breakage syndrome (NBS) and A-T-like disorder (A-TLD) must also be added to this group. More recently, case reports of patients with ligase I (LIG1) deficiency, ligase IV (LIG4) deficiency, NHEJ1, and RAD50 deficiency have provided evidence for the existence of a long list of diseases belonging to this group.
X-Linked Lymphoproliferative Disease Due to Defects of SH2D1A
Authors: Schuster Volker , Terhorst Cox
Published: November 2023

X-linked lymphoproliferative disease (XLP; MIM 308240) is an inherited immunodeficiency involving primarily T, natural killer (NK) and natural killer T (NKT) cells that in most cases is exacerbated following exposure to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). In older children and adults, EBV, one of the eight known human herpesviruses, is the causative agent of infectious mononucleosis (Henle and Henle, 1979). This is usually a self-limiting polyclonal lymphoproliferative disease with an excellent prognosis. In immunosuppressed individuals, EBV infection may lead to life-threatening lymphoproliferative disorders and lymphoma (Hanto et al., 1985). Moreover, EBV has been associated with certain malignancies, such as endemic Burkitt lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, certain B and T cell lymphomas, and approximately 50% of Hodgkin disease (Zur Hausen et al., 1970; Ott et al., 1992; Weiss et al., 1989). In 1969 a family was described with two brothers suffering from hypogammaglobulinemia and malignant lymphoma following infectious mononucleosis (Hambleton and Cottom, 1969). This was the first report of XLP in the medical literature. In 1975, Purtilo et al. reported a large family, the Duncan kindred, in which multiple male members had died from fulminant infectious mononucleosis in early life, whereas others developed hypogammaglobulinemia after infectious mononucleosis or ex tranodal ileocecal malignant lymphoma during the next years of life. This apparently X-chromosomally inherited syndrome with a high vulnerability to EBV infection was classified as Duncan disease (in reference to the first described XLP family).
Genetically Determined Deficiencies of the Complement System
Authors: Sullivan Kathleen E , Winkelstein Jerry A
Published: November 2023

The complement system is composed of a series of plasma proteins that play a critical role in host defense and in?ammation. The first patient with a genetically determined deficiency of an individual component of the complement system was described in 1960 (Silverstein, 1960). Since then, inherited deficiencies of nearly all of the individual components of complement have been identified (Ross and Densen, 1984; Figueroa and Densen, 1991). In this chapter, we review the biochemistry and biology of the normal complement system and relate them to the clinical presentation of complement deficiency diseases and their molecular genetic basis.
Conventional Therapy of Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases
Authors: Stiehm E Richard , Chapel Helen M
Published: November 2023

Long-term care of patients with primary immunodeficiencies is aimed at prevention of infections and their long-term sequelae as well as treatment of breakthrough infections. The extent of both the protection required and the appropriate prophylaxis depends on the nature of the immune deficiency. For this reason, this chapter is divided into two sections: the first describes general measures applicable to all forms of immune deficiency, and the second details specific measures for patients with individual diseases. The management of all forms of immunodeficiency disease requires interaction between generalists and specialists with experience and expertise in primary immune deficiencies. This usually requires a team of a primary care pediatrician or internist and an immunologist with assistance and advice from other specialists (e.g., dermatologists, pulmonologists, gastroenterologists, and radiologists) as necessary, since it is important that patients continue to have the benefit of optimal diagnostic procedures and new drugs for all organ-based complications they may develop.
Gene Therapy
Authors: Candotti Fabio , Fischer Alain
Published: November 2023

As currently practiced, gene therapy can be defined as the transfer of exogenous genes to somatic cells of a patient in order to correct an inherited or acquired gene defect, or to introduce a new function or trait. In the last 15 years, gene therapy has moved from the speculative stage to clinical applications as clinical gene transfer protocols have been applied to inherited genetic defects, malignancies, and infectious diseases. Primary immunodeficiciency diseases (PIDs), especially severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) disorders, have played a major role in this process as they have provided a proving ground for the first therapeutic applications (Blaese et al., 1995) as well as the first evidence that gene therapy can be curative (CavazzanaCalvo et al., 2000; Hacein-Bey-Abina et al., 2002). Several advantageous characteristics have made PIDs attractive candidate diseases for gene therapy. First, PIDs are often curable by allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), which translates into the possibility that they should also be treatable with procedures combining ex vivo manipulation and reinfusion of autologous, gene-corrected hematopoietic stem cells. Second, the target cells reside in the bone marrow, a readily accessible tissue, which makes them amenable to harvest for ex vivo gene transfer, the procedure that currently offers the best success. In addition, the regulation of genes responsible for many PIDs (i.e., adenosine deaminase deficiency, chronic granulomatous disease, X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency, leukocyte adhesion deficiency) appears relatively simple and, while currently available technology does not allow reproducing the physiological control mechanisms of gene expression, the available gene transfer vectors are more than adequate to provide expression of these genes at levels required for clinical benefit. Finally, for several PIDs, gene-corrected progenitors and mature cells have a survival advantage over the unmodified, affected cell populations. This selective survival translates into the very advantageous circumstance that even low gene transfer efficiency can have therapeutic effects.
Modernists vs. Traditionalists: Competition and Legitimacy within American Conservative Judaism
Authors: Silverstein Alan
Published: November 2023

Assessments of contemporary Conservative Judaism have been colored by memories of strife regarding women’s ritual participation within the movement during the 1970s and early 1980s. Rabbis and ritual committees, men and women, the Jewish Theological Seminary (JTS) and its alumni-all were often at odds. Describing that period of time, the provost of JTS, Jack Wertheimer, posited that, “far more than the other denominations, Conservative Judaism experienced severe turbulence and even demoralization.”1 Ought this assessment be extended as well to the final decades of the 20th century? During the 1980s and 1990s, virtually all denominations within America’s religious landscape experienced turmoil in which “modernists” and “traditionalists” were pitted against one another.2 The modernists claimed that religious belief and practice ought to change in accordance with evolving mores, whereas traditionalists asserted that religion offered timeless truths that were meant to withstand the ever-changing tide of moral relativism.
Uzi Meshulam’s “Mishkan Ohalim”: A Contemporary Apocalyptic Messianic Sect in Israel
Authors: Inbari Motti
Published: November 2023

The phenomenon of recurrent and active messianism has been part of Jewish history for 2,000 years. Appearing first among the Dead Sea sects before the destruction of the Second Temple, it continued through the Bar-Kokhba revolt, the Middle Ages, the aftermath of the expulsion from Spain, the Sabbetai Zevi episode, and up to the present day, with the emergence of a number of apocalyptic messianic cults in the modern state of Israel. Given the incessant failures, disappointments, and chagrin over erroneous calculations of the End, what accounts for the resilience of active messianism is the utopian vision it affords to its believers, most of whom have low material or spiritual status. The cycles of war, destruction, and persecution that were endured by the Jewish people resulted in yearning for the homeland and anticipation of a messiah who would redeem them from their travails.
Introduction: Opening Remarks and Motivation
Authors: Goetzmann William N , Ibbotson Roger G
Published: November 2023

The equity risk premium is commonly viewed as the extra return needed to induce investors to risk their money in the stock market, rather than opting for the safe haven of government bonds. It is simple theory based on common sense. Economic risk-taking must be rewarded, or else no rational person would prefer a gamble over a sure thing. Although reasonable people may disagree about whether equity investing is a gamble and whether government securities are a sure thing, the principle of the equity premium is the main reason to invest in the stock market.
Building the Future From the Past
Authors: Ibbotson Roger G
Published: November 2023

Until the last two years, investors had not seen consecutive negative annual stock market returns since the 1970s. In contrast, during the 1980s and 1990s the market produced its best 20-year performance ever. But neither the last two years nor the last two decades are good predictors of the long run.
Wealth: U.S. and Foreign Market Values and Returns
Authors: Ibbotson Roger G , Siegel Laurence B , Love Kathryn S
Published: November 2023

On two occasions in this journal,1 we have presented annual aggregate values and total returns for major asset classes in the U.S. and in foreign markets, and we have formed U.S., foreign, and world “market wealth portfolios.” The portfolios are composed of five major categories of assets: equities (stocks), bonds, cash equivalents, real estate, and monetary metals (gold and silver). With a quarter century now elapsed since the appearance of accurate foreign equity data, we are newly motivated to examine the aggregate values of and total returns on the components of world wealth
Predictions of the Past and Forecasts for the Future: 1976–2025
Authors: Ibbotson Roger G
Published: November 2023

In early 1973, Professor Roger Ibbotson and Rex Sinquefield partnered to research historical returns for common stocks, U.S. government and corporate bonds, U.S. Treasury bills, and inflation. At the time, Professor Ibbotson taught at the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business. Through their research, Ibbotson and Sinquefield hoped to provide an update to the historical performance study done years earlier by Lawrence Fisher and James Lorie,1 as well as present convincing evidence that common stocks were still appropriate for long-term investors. During the 21-month period between January 1973 and September 1974, investors suffered a 42% drop in the stock market. In order to win over skeptics, Professor Ibbotson believed there needed to be a forecast set in historical terms to convey his prediction that stocks would outperform bonds over long time periods.
Survival
Authors: Brown Stephen J , Goetzmann William N , Ross Stephen A
Published: November 2023

Much to our surprise, this article has caused a stir in academic and practitioner circles, almost certainly because of a section about the equity premium. The key contribution of the work (from the authors’ perspective, at least) is that it analyzes a few basic cases in which the survival of a market or a security might affect econometric analysis. In particular, we show how very simple rules can dramatically bias the measure of the equity risk premium, the measure of the autocorrelation of stock market returns, and the measurement of the significance of corporate events, such as earnings announcements and stock splits. Our analysis of the equity risk premium is the most controversial—we show that if the probability of a market failure is high enough, then a researcher measuring the equity premium ex post, using historical data from only a market that has survived, will overestimate the premium. Although we do not claim that this “solves” the equity premium puzzle, we believe it adds another dimension to consider.
The Dow Theory: William Peter Hamilton’s Track Record Reconsidered
Authors: Brown Stephen J , Goetzmann William N , Kumar Alok
Published: November 2023

Alfred Cowles’ test of the Dow Theory apparently provides strong evidence against the ability of Wall Street’s most famous chartist, William Peter Hamilton, to forecast the stock market. Cowles’ (1934) analysis is a landmark in the development of empirical evidence about the informational efficiency of the market. He claims that market timing based on the Dow Theory results in returns that lag the market. In this article, we review Cowles’ evidence and find that it supports the contrary conclusion—the Dow Theory, as applied by Hamilton over the period 1902 to 1929, yields positive risk-adjusted returns. The difference in the results is apparently due to the lack of adjustment for risk. Cowles compares the returns obtained from Hamilton’s market timing strategy to a benchmark of a fully invested stock portfolio. In fact, the Hamilton portfolio, as Cowles interprets it, is frequently out of the market. Adjustment for systematic risk appears to vindicate Hamilton as a market timer.
Testing the Predictive Power of Dividend Yields
Authors: Goetzmann William N , Jorion Philippe
Published: November 2023

Do low dividend yields forecast a stock market decline? Does this commonly used financial ratio indicate whether stocks are over- or undervalued? This apparently simple question has been widely debated for financial economists for more than 10 years, and subjected to a battery of tests. In particular, a number of top research teams have found evidence that yields do predict returns. These include Michael Rozeff (1984), Eugene Fama and Kenneth French (1988a,b), John Campbell and Robert Shiller (1988), and Robert Hodrick (1992) (all cited in full in “Suggested Reading”). On the other hand, we come to the opposite conclusion. What might explain the differences in research outcomes? A key issue in crafting an empirical test of the predictability of dividend yields is to recognize the fact that dividing a dividend by the stock price on one side of the regression and using a lagged value of that same stock price on the other side of the regression can cause test statistics to behave quite poorly—so poorly, in fact, that standard t-statistics are quite misleading. In this paper, Philippe Jorion and I develop a procedure that builds this dependent price structure into a simulation. Using U.S. data from 1926, we find the evidence on dividend yields as a predictor to be marginal, not quite strong enough to reject the null hypothesis at standard confidence levels.
Does Asset Allocation Policy Explain 40, 90, or 100 Percent of Performance?
Authors: Ibbotson Roger G , Kaplan Paul D
Published: November 2023

Does asset allocation policy explain 40 percent, 90 percent, or 100 percent of performance? The answer depends on how the question is asked and what an analyst is trying to explain. According to well-known studies by Brinson and colleagues, more than 90 percent of the variability in a typical plan sponsor’s performance over time is the result of asset allocation policy. So, if one is trying to explain the variability of returns over time, asset allocation is very important. Unfortunately, the Brinson et al. studies are often misinterpreted and the results applied to questions that the studies never intended to answer. For example, an analyst might want to know how important asset allocation is in explaining the variation in performance among funds. Because the Brinson studies did not address this question, the analyst can neither look to them to find the answer nor fault them for not answering it correctly. A different study is required.
The Distribution of Functional Projections in ASL: Evidence from Overt Expressions of Syntactic Features
Authors: Neidle Carol , Maclaughlin Dawn
Published: November 2023

Signed languages provide a unique type of evidence of the architecture of functional projections. As in other signed languages, ASL, the focus of this article, has nonmanual expressions of many of the major syntactic features postulated to occur in functional heads. These expressions take the form of particular gestures on the head and upper body that occur potentially over phrasal domains, in parallel with manual signing. The distribution and intensity of these grammatical markings provide evi¬dence of hierarchical structure and phrasal boundaries. In this article, we summarize the major findings of our recent research on the syntax of ASL relevant to the issue of the mapping of functional projections. For further detail and discussion of the structure of the noun phrase and the clause in ASL, see especially Neidle, Kegl, MacLaughlin, Bahan, and Lee (2000),where we have argued for the hierarchical structures shown in figures 7-1 and 7-2. Here we focus, in particular, on the projec¬tions of tense, aspect, agreement, and negation.
The Marketing Power of Emotion
Authors: O’Shaughnessy John , O’Shaughnessy Nicholas Jackson
Published: November 2023

Emotion is one of the defining forces in our lives. It lies at the very heart of many of our most important experiences and memories. Not surprisingly, the worlds of business and marketing have long drawn on the power of emotion to influence consumer impulses and brand loyalty. Yet beyond the obvious emotions evoked by an inspirational Nike ad or an affecting Hallmark commercial lies an emotional universe that is less conspicuous, even transparent, yet no less influential. In this definitive work, two marketing experts provide a highly original, entertaining and anecdote-rich account of the marketing power of emotion. The primordial force behind motivation and persuasion, emotions enter into all decisions involving tradeoffs and are thus especially relevant to consumer decision-making. The Marketing Power of Emotion traces the manner in which companies rely on emotion to connect with consumers, develop new products, improve their strategic position, and increase brand recognition. Synthesizing key research in a variety of scientific fields, the authors cover the role of mood in persuasion; affect-driven consumer behavior; choice processes; associationism (how consumers develop positive and negative associations with a product); the importance of consistency; response prediction; and emotional response manipulation, among a host of other topics. Importantly, the centrality of emotion in developing brand loyalty is explored in depth. Essential reading for executives and middle management alike, as well as all students and scholars of consumer behavior, The Marketing Power of Emotion is the most authoritative statement yet on this critically important aspect of business strategy.
Pathology of Atherosclerosis in Youth and the Cardiovascular Risk Factors
Authors: McGill Henry C , McMahan C Alex
Published: November 2023

Atherosclerosis, the arterial lesion underlying most forms of adult cardiovascular disease, was formerly considered an inevitable consequence of aging. Studies of the past half-century dispelled the notion of inevitability and showed that atherosclerosis resulted from the interaction between a genetic substrate and a number of environmental agents, a model now applicable to many common chronic diseases. Application of this knowledge to control the epidemic of atherosclerotic disease that developed in the first half of the twentieth century, particularly coronary heart disease, became a major public health goal of the latter half of that century and remains so today. Most efforts are directed at middle aged and older adults, but there is now evidence that primary prevention should begin earlier in life. Atherosclerosis begins in childhood and progresses through adolescence and young adulthood to result in clinically manifest disease many years later. The rate of progression during those preclinical stages is affected by the same conditions, commonly known as risk factors, that predict the prob ability of adult clinical atherosclerotic disease. Long-range primary prevention will be most effective if control of these risk factors begins in youth.
Artery Calcification
Authors: Mahoney Larry T , Burns Trudy L , Bielak, Lawrence F , Peyser Patricia A
Published: November 2023

From examination of pathologic specimens, it is well known that calcium eventually becomes incorporated into the developing advanced atherosclerotic lesion. Early attempts to identify calcific lesions used the plain chest radiograph; how ever, the lesions had to be quite extensive to be seen as a radiopaque lesion using this technique. Advances in rapid acquisition computed tomography (CT) have led to a reliable, noninvasive technique for identifying, locating, and quantifying even small calcific lesions. This chapter provides background information on coronary artery calcification (CAC), a marker of subclinical atherosclerosis, and describes the results from investigations focused on validation of a non invasive method to detect and quantify CAC. The chapter summarizes the results from epidemiologic investigations of the association between CAC and current and previously measured coronary risk factor (CRF) levels, including childhood measures, genetic studies, and studies of the progression of CAC. In adolescents and young adults, assessment of CAC may provide a measure of the early atherosclerotic process before occlusive cardiovascular disease becomes evident. Very little is known about the detection of CAC during childhood. There is a need to study its utility in high-risk children, such as those with markedly elevated cholesterol levels. Clearly, from a clinical perspective, CT measurement of CAC should not be recommended for general pediatric practice.
Identification and Treatment of Children and Adolescents with High Cholesterol
Authors: Lauer Ronald M
Published: November 2023

There is convincing pathologic evidence (see Chapter 1) that the atherosclerotic process begins during childhood and adolescence (Newman et al., 1986; Davies, 1990; Haust, 1990; PDAY Research Group, 1990). The Bogalusa Heart Study has reported research relating cholesterol levels to the extent of early arterial lesions of atherosclerosis in children (Freedman et al., 1988; Berenson et al., 1998). In addition to cholesterol levels, other risk factors in children and adolescents require attention. Specifically, smoking should be discouraged, hypertension should be identified and treated, obesity should be avoided and reduced, exercise should be encouraged, and diabetes mellitus should be identified and treated (Kavey et al., 2003). This chapter discusses lipids and lipoproteins, their relationship to the atherosclerotic process, and their medical management in children and adolescents.
Dietary Management of Children and Adolescents with High Cholesterol
Authors: Snetselaar Linda , Lauer Ronald M
Published: November 2023

Dietary change for managing hyperlipidemia in children and adolescents is key to the treatment of a condition that tracks into adulthood with associated morbidity and mortality end points. Studies that have focused on eating habits and parental control (Birch and Fisher, 1998) and on dietary intervention, such as the Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC) (1995), have taught us a great deal about behavior change. This chapter reviews information from population oriented studies like DISC and discusses the individualized approach to changing eating habits of children. Parental control issues and strategies for altering eating behaviors in children and adolescents are also discussed.
Identification and Management of Children and Adolescents with High Blood Pressure
Authors: Daniels Stephen R
Published: November 2023

Research has clearly shown that blood pressure elevation is associated with in creased cardiovascular disease (CVD) morbidity and mortality in adults. This finding has led to a clinical mandate to identify adults with hypertension and treat them appropriately (Joint National Committee, 1997). More recently, it has become clear that the origins of acquired cardiovascular disease may occur in childhood and adolescence (see Chapter 1). As knowledge in this area has increased, an approach to identification and management of pediatric patients with high blood pressure has been developed.
The Epidemiology of Childhood Overweight and Obesity
Authors: Burns Trudy L , Peyser, Patricia A , Donohoue Patricia A
Published: November 2023

Overweight refers to an excess of body weight and obesity refers to an excess of body fat. Although not infectious diseases, these conditions have reached epi demic proportions in the United States. In 1999 to 2000 (Ogden et al., 2002) an estimated 10.4% of children ages 2 to 5, 15.3% of children ages 6 to 11, and 15.5% of adolescents ages 12 to 19 years were overweight (body mass index [BMI] being at or above the age- and sex-specific 95th percentile defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] on the basis of nationally representative data obtained between 1971 and 1994). There were more than twice as many overweight children and more than three times as many overweight adolescents as there were in 1976 to 1980 (Fig. 12.1). The National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) of the CDC has discouraged use of the term obesity when classifying children and adolescents; however, the two terms are used interchange ably in the chapters of this book.
The Need for Physical Activity among Children and Adolescents for Prevention and Treatment of Obesity
Authors: Saelens Brian E
Published: November 2023

Physical activity in childhood exerts both immediate and long-term effects on health, particularly for children already at risk for incurring negative weight related consequences. Numerous mechanisms exist by which physical activity likely benefits children and adults, including but not limited to better cardio vascular fitness, weight control, and insulin sensitivity. High levels of physical activity in childhood could convey long-term benefit into adulthood regardless of the level of physical activity retained into adulthood. Children’s physical activity can also have a more immediate benefit to health in childhood, with better tracking of positive health into adulthood and thus transmission of long-term benefits. In an attempt to convey to health practitioners information about the current status of knowledge about children’s physical activity, this chapter pro vides an overview of evidence regarding the impact of physical activity on children’s health. It also discusses the prevalence and correlates of physical activity among children, as well as interventions and recommendations for activity. Given the increasing prevalence of childhood obesity, physical activity benefits and interventions are considered with particular relevance for over weight children.
Electrophysiology of Seizures
Authors: Somjen George G
Published: November 2023

Ictal events appear on EEG traces as electrical storms. Microphysiological techniques reveal the ways in which the normal finely-tuned yet stable-patterned activity of healthy neurons can be perverted during seizures. Chapter 7 explores in detail the electrophysiology of epileptiform discharges and their relationship to the normal electrical function of brain cells.
Ions and Seizures
Authors: Somjen George G
Published: November 2023

During seizure discharges the concentration of potassium in cerebral ISF in creases, and the concentrations of calcium and sodium decrease (Figs. 8–2, 8–3, 8—4) (Heinemann et al., 1977; Hotson et al., 1973; Lothman et al., 1975; Lux and Heinemann, 1978; Somjen, 1980; Somjen and Giacchino, 1985; Somjen et al., 1986). These changes in extracellular concentration are due to the release of K+ from and the influx of Na+ and Ca2+ into excited neurons. On balance, more ions enter than leave cells, glia as well as neurons. Because of the net gain of osmotic equivalents, cells swell and the interstitial volume fraction ((ISVF) decreases (Lux et al., 1986).
Mechanisms of Action of Antiepileptic Drugs
Authors: Somjen George G
Published: November 2023

To cure epilepsy, one should repair the defective channels. While no longer considered beyond the realm of the possible, attainment of this ideal goal is some time in the future. Meanwhile, clinicians do what they can to alleviate the suffering of patients with seizure disorders. To stress the obvious, seizures could, of course, be completely suppressed by blocking Na+ channels, but this is incompatible with survival. Nonetheless, most of the routinely used anticonvulsants are indeed channel or receptor antagonists or modulators. Such treatment amounts to balancing one malfunction by inducing another, opposing malfunction. For this reason, all of the therapeutic agents have side effects (Meldrum, 2002a). Schachter (2002) emphasized that currently available drugs are “anti-ictal, not anti-epileptic,” treating the symptom, not the disease. Yet Leite et al. (2002) are more optimistic and suggest that some drugs in fact rein in epileptogenesis. Accepting Gowers’ dictum that “seizures beget seizures” (see Chapter 6: “The mirror focus”), it may be hoped that suppressing fits at an early stage might at the least retard the progression of the disease. In any case, compared to the total helplessness of the physicians of old, today’s neurologists have an impressive array of tools, and many patients are well helped. The adoption of bromides was an advance from having nothing whatsoever, barbiturates were a great advance over bromides, and phenytoin marked a leap from barbiturates. Developments are accelerating. The report of a conference held in 2000 listed 10 antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) licensed recently and 11 others then undergoing various prelicense clinical trials (Bialer et al., 2001).
From Cripps’s Failure to the Failure of the Congress Party’s “Quit India” Movement, April–October 1942
Authors: Wolpert Stanley
Published: November 2023

Cripps mistakenly believed that his mission, “despite failure,” had definitely improved the attitude of India toward the war and made the National Congress Party more sympathetic toward the Raj’s struggles against the Japanese. On the eve of his departure, he wrote Churchill that he believed there was “a chance” the Congress Party might soon see the wisdom of their cabinet’s offer just as Jinnah’s Muslim League and most of the Sikhs did. Cripps felt “sad,” though “not depressed,” ending his message on a note that sounded more like one Churchill might have sent to him: “Now we must get on with the job of defending India.”
Financial Markets and Corporate Environmental Results
Authors: Dixon Frank
Published: November 2023

Environmental sustainability looms as one of the largest challenges ever faced by business. Financial impacts on companies are growing as customers, regulators, investors, and other stakeholders continue to press for improvements in corporate environmental performance and movement toward sustainability.2 This drives increasing demand from the financial community for high quality analysis of corporate environmental performance. The sophistication of analysis has increased greatly over the past five years. However, limited data availability poses ongoing challenges for the capital markets, business, and other interested parties, such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
Dynamic Asset Analysis
Authors: Raynes Sylvain , Rutledge Ann
Published: November 2023

The assertion that the risk profile of a structured security changes over time is not new. In fact, the key conclusion of Moody’s pioneering study of MBS rating upgrades and downgrades, known as rating transitions, is that “rating revisions are correlated with the aging of underlying asset pools. “ The study describes the changing credit contour of MBS based on performance data from 1987 to 1994 as follows: [V]ery few rating changes occur within two years of issuance. By the third year, the pace of rating changes increases, with downgrades exceeding upgrades by more than two to one when weighted by the distance of the rating movement. Interestingly, upgrades outnumber downgrades through the sixth year following issuance, but when weighted by the distance of the movement, average rating quality is still shifted downwards. Again, this is due in part to the initial ratings being predominantly in the highest rating categories, with only downward rating changes available to them.
The Average Life of Assets and Liabilities
Authors: Raynes Sylvain , Rutledge Ann
Published: November 2023

The average life of assets or liabilities is an essential concept of structured finance that addresses the fact that principal repayments on the underlying loans do not come all at once, as would those of bullet maturity bonds, but rather trickle in over time. The ideal analytical method would be to value each cash flow according to its exact maturity date, but this would be next to impossible given their essentially unpredictable repayment characteristics; the random nature of prepayments and defaults usually plays havoc with a theoretical forecast of principal repayments. Because liabilities can carry only a single rate of interest, investors must choose some measure of debt maturity that best captures the expected repayment process. This measure should replicate as closely as possible the desired bullet maturity concept on which the yield curve is built. To do this, an aggregate measure is used under which the series of individual periodic principal amortizations is transformed into an equivalent principal repayment of the entire pool balance at some unique, “average “ maturity, thereby synthetically simulating an obligation with the corresponding bullet maturity. The maturity thus obtained is defined as the average life of the pool.
PACs and TACs
Authors: Raynes Sylvain , Rutledge Ann
Published: November 2023

As we have alluded, while the purely pro rata or sequential allocation schemes may be said to form the two ends of the risk allocation spectrum, infinitely many intermediate structures can be devised through the introduction of the TAC and Planned Amortization Class (PAC) concepts. These operate on the basis of a pre established schedule of theoretical principal allocations in an attempt to accommodate the varieties of investor appetite for credit risk and prepayment speculation. Their popularity having increased significantly over the past twenty years, we feel a fuller treatment is warranted. This section is concerned exclusively with PACs while the next addresses TACs.