bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Differential changes in axonal conduction following CNS demyelination in two mouse models
Authors: Bando Yoshio , Takakusaki Kaoru , Ito Shinji , Terayama Ryuji , Kashiwayanagi Makoto , Yoshida Shigetaka
Published: November 2008

Transgenic and disease model mice have been used to investigate the molecular mechanisms of demyelinating diseases. However, less attention has been given to elucidating changes in nerve conduction in these mice. We established an experimental system to measure the response latency of cortical neurons and examined changes in nerve conduction in cuprizone‐induced demyelinating mice and in myelin basic protein‐deficient shiverer mice. Stimulating and recording electrodes were placed in the right and left sensori‐motor cortices, respectively. Electrical stimulation of the right cortex evoked antidromic responses in left cortical neurons with a latency of 9.38 ± 0.31 ms (n = 107; mean ± SEM). While response latency was longer in mice at 7 days and 4 weeks of cuprizone treatment (12.35 ± 0.35 ms, n = 102; 11.72 ± 0.29 ms, n = 103, respectively), response latency at 7 days and 4 weeks after removal of cuprizone was partially restored (10.72 ± 0.45 ms, n = 106; 10.27 ± 0.34 ms, n = 107, respectively). Likewise, electron microscopy showed cuprizone‐induced demyelination in the corpus callosum and nearly complete remyelination after cuprizone removal. We also examined whether the myelin abnormalities in shiverer mice affected their response latencies. But there were no significant differences in response latencies in shiverer (9.83 ± 0.24 ms, n = 103) and wild‐type (9.33 ± 0.22 ms, n = 112) mice. The results of these electrophysiological assessments imply that different demyelinating mechanisms, differentially affecting axon conduction, are present in the cuprizone‐treated and shiverer mice, and may provide new insights to understanding the pathophysiology of demyelination in animal models in the CNS.
Peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptorsγ (PPARγ) differently modulate the interleukin‐6 expression in the peri‐infarct cortical tissue in the acute and delayed phases of cerebral ischaemia
Authors: Patzer Andreas , Zhao Yi , Stöck Ivonne , Gohlke Peter , Herdegen Thomas , Culman Juraj
Published: November 2008

Interleukin‐6 (IL‐6) exerts neuroprotective effects after cerebral ischaemia but can also exacerbate inflammation and induce neuronal death. The current study investigates the role of cerebral peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor(s) γ (PPARγ) in the regulation of IL‐6 expression in the peri‐infarct cortical tissue in rats exposed to focal cerebral ischaemia. Pioglitazone, a high‐affinity PPARγ ligand, was infused intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) via osmotic minipumps over a 5‐day period before, during and 24 h or 48 h after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) for 90 min followed by reperfusion. The expression of PPARγ and IL‐6 in cortical tissue adjacent to the ischaemic core was studied 24 h and 48 h after MCAO. Pioglitazone augmented the ischaemia‐induced upregulation of PPARγ at both time points. Cerebral ischaemia substantially increased IL‐6 expression in the peri‐infarct cortical tissue. Twenty‐four hours after MCAO, the majority of microglial cells/macrophages showed an intense IL‐6 immunoreactivity. IL‐6 was also localized in neurons, but the distribution of neurons positively stained for IL‐6 at the border of the infarct was very heterogeneous. Pioglitazone effectively decreased the number of IL‐6‐immunoreactive cells and IL‐6 protein levels at 24 h but not at 48 h after MCAO. Pioglitazone treatment reduced the infarct size and improved neurological functions. The present study demonstrates that cerebral PPARγ suppresses the expression of IL‐6 in ischaemic brain tissue during the initial phase of ischaemic stroke, in which the overproduction of IL‐6 may aggravate neuronal damage, but not at later time points, when IL‐6 promotes neuroprotection and inhibits neuronal death.
Pre‐surgical targeted molecular therapy in renal cell carcinoma
Authors: Margulis Vitaly , Wood Christopher G.
Published: November 2008

Pre‐surgical systemic therapy with targeted molecular agents is an attractive option as an approach to the treatment of patients with renal cell carcinoma. This treatment strategy offers a rational approach for selecting patients with metastatic disease who are most likely to benefit from cytoreductive nephrectomy, but also allows access to treated tumour tissue to study the molecular mechanisms of response and resistance. In patients with locally advanced disease, this strategy offers the potential for improved resectability and timely delivery of systemic therapy to treat subclinical metastatic disease. Preliminary evidence indicates that the use of targeted therapies before nephrectomy is safe. Reliable therapy‐specific prognostic biomarkers are needed for the optimal integration of aggressive surgical intervention and systemic therapy to maximize the oncological benefits for the patient.
JUSTICE IS NOT EQUALITY
Authors: Arneson Richard J.
Published: November 2008

This essay disputes G. A. Cohen's claim that John Rawls's argument for the difference principle involves an argument from moral arbitrariness to equality and then an illicit move away from equality. Moreover, the claim that an argument from moral arbitrariness establishes equality as the essential distributive justice ideal is found wanting.
FREEDOM OF OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE
Authors: Otsuka Michael
Published: November 2008

Cohen endorses the coercive taxation of the talented at a progressive rate for the sake of realizing equality. By contrast, he denies that it is legitimate for the state to engage in the ‘Stalinist forcing’ of people into one or another line of work in order to bring about a more egalitarian society. He rejects such occupational conscription on grounds of the invasiveness of the gathering and acting upon information regarding people's preferences for different types of work that would be required to implement such a policy. More precisely, Cohen maintains that the presence versus the absence of such intrusion explains why such Stalinist forcing of the talented is unacceptable whereas the progressive taxation of their income is legitimate. I argue that Cohen's appeal to invasiveness does not adequately capture the moral repugnance of the state's conscripting people into work at a given occupation. I propose that a right to self‐ownership, and that which explains such a right, provides a better explanation than Cohen's of why Stalinist forcing is objectionable, whereas progressive taxation is not.1
JUSTICE, INCENTIVES AND CONSTRUCTIVISM
Authors: Williams Andrew
Published: November 2008

In Rescuing Justice and Equality, G. A. Cohen reiterates his critique of John Rawls's difference principle as a justification for inequality‐generating incentives, and also argues that Rawls's ambition to provide a constructivist defence of the first principles of justice is doomed. Cohen's arguments also suggest a natural response to my earlier attempt to defend the basic structure objection to Cohen's critique, which I term the alien factors reply. This paper criticises the reply, and Cohen's more general argument against Rawls's constructivism.1
Development and evaluation of a category ratio scale with semantic descriptors: The Environmental Annoyance Scale
Authors: NORDIN STEVEN , LIDÉN EDVARD , GIDLÖF‐GUNNARSSON ANITA
Published: November 2008

The aim was to develop and evaluate a seven‐point category scale, called the Environmental Annoyance Scale (EAS), with semantic descriptors and ratio‐scale properties. Six studies were conducted that involved ratings of perceived magnitude of descriptors, selection of seven descriptors with semantic coherency, and ratings of various environmental issues. Seven semantically coherent descriptors with subjective equidistance and small interindividual variability were selected for the EAS. Environmental ratings on the EAS were linearly related to magnitude estimations, and the two rating procedures generated very similar exponents of the psychophysical power function. The used selection procedure was found to be reliable and not likely affected by the respondent's educational level, and the reliability of the EAS per se was found to be satisfying. The EAS appears to have properties that approach those of a ratio scale, and to be reliable and valid for assessment of environmental annoyance.
Sibling differentials in power and memory conformity
Authors: SKAGERBERG ELIN M. , WRIGHT DANIEL B.
Published: November 2008

How much a person conforms to another person's memory report can depend on the power and credibility of this person, even if these factors are manipulated by the experimenter. The aim of the current study was to establish whether memory conformity is also affected by power in pairs involving natural power differentials, in this case siblings. Pairs of adult siblings were shown 50 photographs of faces and then given a recognition test where one partner had to answer before the other. The findings showed that what one sibling reported affected what the other one reported. Contrary to our expectations, however, there was no significant difference in conformity between the younger and the older sibling. The implications of these findings are discussed.
Is the truth in the details? Extended narratives help distinguishing false “memories” from false “reports”
Authors: SJÖDÉN BJÖRN , GRANHAG PÄR ANDERS , OST JAMES , ROOS AF HJELMSÄTER EMMA
Published: November 2008

The present study examined the effects of fantasy proneness on false “reports” and false “memories”, of existent and non‐existent footage of a public event. We predicted that highly fantasy prone individuals would be more likely to stand by their initial claim of having seen a film of the event than low fantasy prone participants when prompted for more details about their experiences. Eighty creative arts students and 80 other students were asked whether they had seen CCTV footage preceding the attack on Swedish foreign minister Anna Lindh up to, and including, non‐existent footage of the actual moment of the attack. If affirmative, they were probed for extended narratives of what they claimed to have seen. Overall, 64% of participants provided a false “report” by answering yes to the initial question. Of these, 30% provided no explicit details of the attack, and a further 15% retracted their initial answer in their narratives. This left 19% of the sample who appeared to have false “memories” because they provided explicit details of the actual moment of the attack. Women scored higher than men and art students scored higher than other students on fantasy proneness, but there was no effect on levels of false reporting or false “memory”. Memories were rated more vivid and clear for existent compared to non‐existent aspects of the event. In sum, these data suggest a more complex relationship between memory distortions and fantasy proneness than previously observed.
Characterization of cosmetic cream with Mesembryanthemum crystallinum plant extract: influence of formulation composition on physical stability and anti‐oxidant activity
Authors: Bouftira I. , Abdelly C. , Sfar S.
Published: November 2008

Synopsis

Cosmetic or pharmaceutical composition containing superoxide dismutase (SOD) was usually used in topical administration, particularly, in fighting against skin ageing and in the protection of the skin against radiation exposure. Mesembryanthemum crystallinum is a halophyte plant widely used in the traditional medicine, characterized by the presence of anti‐oxidants enzymes in responses to abiotic stresses. In the present study, we prepared a formulation with M. crystallinum extract characterized by naturally occurring SOD and catalase in association with other anti‐oxidants molecules. The SOD activity was measured by 3‐(4,5‐dimethyldiazol‐2‐yl)‐2,5‐diphenyl‐tetrazolium bromide/riboflavin method, catalase by colorimetric method and the total anti‐radical activity was measured by 1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) method. Formulations contain a significant SOD activity (8.33 U mg−1), a catalase activity (0.5 × 107 UC) and an anti‐radical activity (30% of DPPH inhibition). The formulation storage (15 days at 4°C) showed a marked loss of total anti‐oxidant capacity. The addition of the M. crystallinum extract induced also a reduction in formulation viscosity and pH.
Chitin–glucan, a natural cell scaffold for skin moisturization and rejuvenation
Authors: Gautier S. , Xhauflaire‐Uhoda E. , Gonry P. , Piérard G. E.
Published: November 2008

Synopsis

Two clinical studies were conducted to evaluate the tolerance and effects of a copolymer of chitin and beta‐glucan, forming the exoskeleton of fungal cell walls, now supplied for cosmetic applications. A 6‐week randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled study was conducted on 13 volunteers with sensitive skin to compare with 0.5–2% formulations chitin–glucan applied twice daily. Biometrological evaluations showed that erythema did not develop, the water retention capacity of the stratum corneum increased and the transepidermal water loss moderately decreased. Another 16‐week randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled study was conducted on 20 men showing signs of ageing skin. A 1.5% chitin–glucan formulation was applied twice daily. Objective biometrological assessments showed a progressive increase in skin firmness and stratum corneum hydration when desquamation and skin roughness decreased. In conclusion, the chitin–glucan formulations appear safe. They significantly mitigate some signs of skin ageing and improve both stratum corneum hydration and skin barrier function.
Stability of vitamin C derivatives in topical formulations containing lipoic acid, vitamins A and E
Authors: Segall A. I. , Moyano M. A.
Published: November 2008

Synopsis

The stability of ascorbyl palmitate, sodium ascorbyl phosphate and magnesium ascorbyl phosphate in topical formulations was investigated by direct reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography after sample dilution with a suitable buffer – organic solvent mixture. Ascorbyl palmitate, sodium ascorbyl phosphate and magnesium ascorbyl phosphate are derivatives of ascorbic acid which differ in hydrolipophilic properties. They are widely used in cosmetic and pharmaceutical preparations. According to the results, ascorbyl esters showed significant differences: sodium ascorbyl phosphate and magnesium ascorbyl phosphate are more stable derivatives of vitamin C than ascorbyl palmitate and may be easily used in cosmetic products.
Factors that influence vocabulary development in two‐year‐old children
Authors: Stokes Stephanie F. , Klee Thomas
Published: November 2008

Background: This research explored the relative impact of demographic, cognitive, behavioural, and psycholinguistic factors on vocabulary development in two‐year‐old children.

Methods: Two hundred and thirty‐two children (24–30 months) were tested on expressive and receptive vocabulary, cognitive development, word learning and working memory skills. Parents completed a British adaptation (Klee & Harrison, 2001) of the MacArthur–Bates Communicative Development Inventory (CDI;Fenson et al., 1993), a demographic questionnaire and a questionnaire regarding the child’s social‐emotional behaviour.

Results: Several demographic, child and processing variables were significantly correlated with CDI (vocabulary) scores, but the only significant unique predictors of CDI scores were nonword repetition (NWR;R2change = .36), sex (R2change = .05) and age (R2change = .04). Scores were only included when a child completed the entire NWR test (77% of toddlers).

Conclusions: The NWR task used in this experiment maximised participation in this group of toddlers, and was a strong predictor of vocabulary ability. Longitudinal research is warranted to explore the independent and reciprocal growth in working memory and language skills in children.
Tim‐2 is the receptor for H‐ferritin on oligodendrocytes
Authors: Todorich Bozho , Zhang Xuesheng , Slagle‐Webb Becky , Seaman William E. , Connor James R.
Published: November 2008

Oligodendrocytes stain more strongly for iron than any other cell in the CNS, and they require iron for the production of myelin. For most cell types transferrin is the major iron delivery protein, yet neither transferrin receptor protein nor mRNA are detectable in mature oligodendrocytes. Thus an alternative iron delivery mechanism must exist. Given the significant long term consequences of developmental iron deficiency and the iron requirements for normal myelination, identification of the iron delivery mechanism for oligodendrocytes is important. Previously we have reported that oligodendrocytes bind H‐ferritin and that H‐ferritin binds to white matter tracts in vivo. Recently, T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain‐containing protein‐2 (Tim‐2) was shown to bind and internalize H‐ferritin. In the present study we show that Tim‐2 is expressed on oligodendrocytes both in vivo and in vitro. Further, the onset of saturable H‐ferritin binding in CG4 oligodendrocyte cell line is accompanied by Tim‐2 expression. Application of a blocking antibody to the extracellular domain of Tim‐2 significantly reduces H‐ferritin binding to the differentiated CG4 cells and primary oligodendrocytes. Tim‐2 expression on CG4 cells is responsive to iron; decreasing with iron loading and increasing with iron chelation. Taken together, these data provide compelling evidence that Tim‐2 is the H‐ferritin receptor on oligodendrocytes suggesting it is the primary mechanism for iron acquisition by these cells.
ASPECTS OF THE ECONOMICS OF LANDOWNERSHIP
Authors: THOMAS H. A.
Published: November 2008

There will be an increasing demand for additional capital as the pattern of landownership changes. In the past it was easier t o acquire on the death of a landowner a large block of land but as this land becomes broken up and becomes less homogeneous as far as landownership is concerned, this will give rise t o many social and economic problems.

Undoubtedly the dead hand of the past lies heavily on the present and future pattern of British agriculture. There is a need for a change in attitude towards the new class of landowners, and for research on the implication of continuing policies that were initiated in times when there was reaction against landownership held by a few privileged individuals. It is hkely that if attention is not paid to these aspects we are likely to see landownership being transferred to institutional bodies. The past system of landownership on a personal basis will be replaced by various institutional arrangements on a very impersonal basis.

Owner‐occupiers (particularly those above 600 S.M.D.) faced with increasing charges for purchasing and servicing of landlord responsibilities will be forced to intensify their production and may demand greater support from government sources. It is suggested that as an immediate measure in addition to collecting information on a net farm income basis, data should be collected on the networth of individual farm businesses as well as of the industry as a whole.

Non‐agriculutural presswes en on land values need tc be considered. In the marginal areas part‐time farming, together with tourism, or integration with other pursuits such as afforestation, appear to be sound enough proposals in general, but difficult to implement for the individual. More research work is required to assist us to deal with this problem of change of landownership and its interaction on the competing demands for capital.
AGRICULTURAL LABOUR IN AN EXPANDING ECONOMY
Authors: Black Michael
Published: November 2008

The low position of agricultural workers in the wages scale is examined in the context of National Plan objectives to increase opportunities for the labour force. The results of a survey of lubour use on 55 Yorkshire farms over the past five years are presented. The regular hired labour force on these farms has been cut by a quarter, and some farms still report surplus labour. Data on the farm workers employed and those which have left the farms is given. The characteristics of the ‘ideal farm worker’ as seen by the farmers are investigated and conclusions regarding the likely success of a wages structure in agriculture are drawn. The implications of a rise in the minimum agricultural wage to £14 a week are discussed in the light of the survey results.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY IN EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA
Authors: van den Noort P. C.
Published: November 2008

One of the problems of economic policy concerns the best use of the resources available to the nation, whether they are distributed in the best way between the sectors of production and whether they are used in an optimal way within each sector. Clearly this is a “productivity” problem. It is said that neither the distribution of resources between sectors, nor the use that is made of them within each sector is optimal either in Europe or North America. One of the most important examples is in agriculture, to which too much labour is allocated and sub‐optimal use is made of the resources available. Thus agricultural productivity is low, and there are regional and international differences. To answer questions about the level of agricultural productivity it is necessary to have a method of measurement and on this there has been a lot of discussion. The object of this note is to define the optimal yardstick and to use it to estimate the differences in agricultural productivity between the countries in Eastern and Western Europe and North America.
THE GEOGRAPHY OF AGRICULTURE
Authors: Coppock J. T.
Published: November 2008

This paper is a review of the work of agricultural geographers, with particular reference to Great Britain and to points of contact with agricultural economics. After a consideration of objectives and of the geographer's approach to the study of agriculture, contributions made by geographers to an understanding of regional differences in British agriculture are reviewed. Developments made possible by the advent of the electronic digital computer and automated cartography and by improvements in the statistical analysis of spatial data are then examined and topics where geographers and agricultural economists might co‐operate to their mutual benefit discussed.
THE ECONOMIC STUDY OF AFRICAN SMALL FARMS; SOME KENYA EXPERIENCES
Authors: MacArthur J. D.
Published: November 2008

As a basis for both planning and evaluation, improved statistical information is required on the peasant section of developing economies. Developments made in Kenya since 1960 are discussed, covering the trial of various methodological approaches to the economic study of small farms, and the evolution of satisfactory procedures which can be applied in a large government research organisation in which technical accuracy and efficiency must be combined with administrative simplicity and the quick production at reasonable cost of specific information that is required for economic planning. Consideration is given to full farm business studies, enterprise studies and the collection of agricultural statistics in conditions where the complexities of mixed farming systems create unusual problems.
LESSONS FROM SWEDISH FARM STRUCTURE POLICY*
Authors: Whitby M. c.
Published: November 2008

This article considers two basic questions:‐

How successful have Swedish structural policies been?

What light does this shed on the structural policies now The argument is developed in five stages. First the development of structural policies recently operating in Sweden is reviewed and those being introduced in this country are described.

Second, the extent to which structural change can be measured from aggregate data is discussed in general terms and the available data on structural trends in Sweden and the U.K. is reviewed.

Thirdly, other forces which affect structural development in Sweden are discussed.

Fourth, conclusions as to the past effect of policies on structural change in Sweden are summarised.

Finally, some possible results of U.K. structural policies are indicated.
TYPES OF FARMING IN NORTH WALES*
Authors: Adeemy Mahmoud S. El
Published: November 2008

This paper presents the results of a classification of farming undertaken for the four counties of North Wales.† Essentially a type‐of‐farming classification results in the subdivision of a large area into regions within which a relatively homogeneous association of factors influence the prevailing types of agriculture. Ideally, a type‐of‐farming area would consist of all that territory within which the choice of products and the possible combinations of factors tend to be similar. The nature of any classification will depend, however, on the main purpose for which it is made. In the present study this was to group parishes according to the type of agricultural activity occurring within them. A further objective was to map the location of the different farming types and thereby to define the predominant type‐of‐farming areas in North Wales. Among other uses of this classification is an attempt to calculate the contribution to production of each type of farming in the area.
TOWARDS A MORE DYNAMIC APPROACH TO FARM PLANNING*
Authors: Harle J. T.
Published: November 2008

The result of an attempt to reconcile practical experience with theoretical production economics, is the development of the view that a more dynamic approach to farm planning may better be achieved by a concentration on data production, rather than on data manipulation. This view is based on the belief that, in practice, the farmer finds himself involved with choice from a relatively narrow, and obvious, set of technically feasible, efficient farm plans. His main problem in the choice of a farm plan is seen as the estimation of the probability that the various possible financial outcomes will be achieved, since the possible effects of the latter on his future list of choices cannot be ignored. The type of data believed to be needed is described, and a line of theoretical analysis followed which is meant to underline the importance of this data, and to develop principles for use in its production.
REGIONAL CONSUMER EXPENDITURE STUDIES USING NATIONAL FOOD SURVEY DATA
Authors: Slater John M.
Published: November 2008

Attention has been drawn in N.F.S. reports to the considerable regional variation in the consumption of individual foods. In this paper, the relevant theory and methodology of food expenditure analysis is briefly surveyed and an attempt is made to point out some of the gaps in the currnt state of knowledge. Results of preliminary analysis of regional variations in expenditure on apples are reported and methodological and statistical problems discussed. Finally, suggestions are made as to how some of the problems may be over‐come and the lines along which future studies may proceed.
THE IMPACT OF TAXATION ON AGRICULTURE
Authors: Evans Ancrum F.
Published: November 2008

This paper considers the impact of taxation on British agriculture. Its purpose is to provoke thought into an important aspect of agricultural adjustment which has been largely overlooked, with consequential mis‐direction of thought and effort.

consideratio is restricted to the limited number of large farmers who are responsible for the major proportion of production.

It is shown that the tax structure inhibits the acquisition and maintenance of personal wealth at the ever‐increasing levels required by modern farming methods and conditions.

With the problem accentuated by inflation, there is no solution other than to accept the inevitability of corporation farming.
THE FINANCING AND INCORPORATION OF GROUPS AND SYNDICATES
Authors: Camamile G. H.
Published: November 2008

When farmers amalgamate their businesses and interests and carry on farming together, the constitutional form of their association is likely to be either partnership or a limited company, or a combination of both. The choice will depend on the circumstances of the participants, and will be influenced by certain taxation consderations, e.g. earned income relief, restrictions on directors' remuneration in close companies. Finacing is on the normal basis. When howerver a co‐operative association is formed to provide a service or undertake certain operations for independent farm business, the choice of constitution is likely to be eiter a limited company having a co‐operative constitution or an Industrial and Provident society. Again, tax considerations intruded, and the probable methods of financing are very different from those adopted for a trade carried on in common.
A MODEL OF PIG SUPPLY*, †
Authors: McClements L. D.
Published: November 2008

Considerable fluctuationd in size have characterised the pig industry in Northern Ireland during the past decade. What are the causes of these fluctuations? Can they be reduced? Or, can they be anticipated and planned for ? These questions form the point of departure for this analysis. The answers are sought by hypothesising and testing an econometric model of the supply side of the pig industry. The estimated model is then used in the analsis of some of the problems of the industry.
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF INVESTMENT CRITERIA*
Authors: Jensen R. C.
Published: November 2008

Techniques of investment evaluatio and caost‐benefit analysis have occupied and increasingly important role in the armoury of the economist. Certain critetria have become established as traditional measures of “profitability” or desirability of investment opportunities. These criteria, however, exhibit some characteristics which are apparently not recognised by a number of analysis, but which are fundamental to proficient investment evaluation. This paper explains some of these characteristics under assumptions of varying scale, timing and rate of investmetn, and various financing conditions.
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS AND LIVESTOCK FEEDING
Authors: BARNARD C. S.
Published: November 2008

Much has been written about feeding eficiency as a major influence on projits in livestock production. Feed costs are shown to be the largest single item of cost and feeding eficiency to hinge on the twin problems of ascertaining the best level of yield for which to feed and of selecting those, feedstufs that produce the yield at least cost. Having demonstrated the incontrovertible logic of marginal analysis in the solution of these problems, agricultural economists tend to abandon the farmer to the task of putting theory into practice. While it is not disputed that a knowledge of principles may assist producers by delineating the information that is ideally required, the gul/ that exists betmeen theoretical principles and their practical application is a very real one, and is the concern of this paper in respect of the determination of optimal levels of output. After reviewing the manner in which the relevant theory applies to diferent types of livestock production practical problems are considered and possible solutions discussed.
SUGAR BEET OR SUGAR CANE
Authors: Sturrock Ford
Published: November 2008

This article attempts to compare the costs of producing sugar from beet and cane and concludes that sugar beet grown in England has probably now become competitive with Jamaican sugar cane.
SOME ASPECTS OF FOOD CONSUMPTION AND ITS LONG‐TERM PERSPECTIVE IN PAKISTAN, 1961‐86
Authors: Khan Mahmood Hasan
Published: November 2008

This paper attempts to answer three important questions regarding the consumption of food in Pakistan: (2) What are the recent trends of consumption in the rural and urban areas? (2) What is the likely direction and magnitude of food demand during the period 1961‐86? (3) Is the growth of production of food commodities going to be sufficient to meet the requirements by 1970 and thereafter?
MARKETING AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Authors: Simpson Morag C.
Published: November 2008

Marketing has a vital role in the drive to increase agricultural productivity; one of the keystones in the economic development of Africa. J. C. Abbott(1)* has demonstrated the importance of an efective marketing system while T. W. Schultz(2) has pointed out that effective marketing is secured by allowing the price mechanism full play. Of peak relevance is his concept of efficiency prices; prices which reflect the real demand/supply relationships and so stop distortion in resource allocation.
THE ANALYSIS OF NET FARM INCOME: AN EXAMINATION OF FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY DATA
Authors: Britton D. K.
Published: November 2008

The practical significance of the conventional “net farm income” is elusive. It would be useful to have an accepted method of dividing “management and investment income” into its recognised Components—managerial salary and return on tenant's capital. One is a residual if the other can be calculated, and both alternatives are considered. An empirical formula is suggested for estimating the managerial salary which may be imputed to the farmer, taking account of his total turnover, his labour bill and his net farm income. This formula is then applied to Farm Management Survey data, for individual farms and for groups of average, high and low performance (output per £ input). The method may permit closer analysis of relative profitability.
DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOOD MANUFACTURING AND DISTRIBUTIVE INDUSTRIES
Authors: van Musschenbroek Kelsey
Published: November 2008

This paper, in reviewing developments in food manufacturing and distribution, discusses trends in the overall demand for food, particularly the increase in demand for convenience foods. Along with this has gone an increased concentration of power in both the food manufacturing and distributive industries. The economic performance of these industries and the role of price competition is considered together with the possible consequences of polarisation of power between food manufacturers and distributors.
LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY AND CONCENTRATION IN THE FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES
Authors: Bateman D. I.
Published: November 2008

The most obvious reason for studying labour productivity is that it can reasonably be regarded as one of the dimensions of market performance: firms which exhibit a high rate of increase of labour productivity are, other things being equal, “better” than firms with a low rate of increase. Similarly, concentration, a dimension of market structure, can be regarded as having normative implications. Although the selection of these variables as being worthwhile ones for study clearly rests on their value as normative indicators, the scope of this paper is essentially positive in content. Its purposes are: first, to provide estimates of changes in labour productivity and of changes in concentration in the food processing industries in the decade 1954‐63; second, to attempt to test various hypotheses concerning the causes of different rates of change of productivity (including the hypothesis that increasing concentration has helped to raise productivity); and in conclusion to consider some of the possible effects of productivity changes.
THE UNITED KINGDOM FOOD PROCESSING AND DISTRIBUTIVE TRADES: AN APPRAISAL OF PUBLIC POLICIES
Authors: Maunder W. P. J.
Published: November 2008

This paper gives a critical assessment of government policies relating to this sector of the economy in the postwar period. Particular analysis is made of policies affecting the nature of the business environment in more recent years. An underlying theme is the relative lack of academic study of this sector as a basis by which to evaluate whether its constituent industries function effectively even when allowance is made for inherent normative problems in their appraisal. Areas deserving of particular research are suggested.
AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
Authors: Robson S. A.
Published: November 2008

In recent years much has been written about agricultural structure and the size of agricultural holdings. This article attempts to set the current debate in perspective and relate it to economic growth. Startirig with a largely riiral economy, it describes agriculture's contribirtion to econontic growth and the repercussions of this growth on the agricultural sector. The particular problems of agriculture in an industrial economy like the U.K. are then considered in relation to its agricultural structure.
THE LOCATION OF MAINCROP POTATO PRODUCTION IN BRITATN‐AN APPLICATION OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Authors: Shaw J. R.
Published: November 2008

In any dynamic economy the allocation of resources, particularly land, is in need of continual reappraisal in order to reduce their misallocation. For some years now linear programming and similar operational research techniques have been applied to solving problems of this nature within the agricultural economy. In this paper interregional competition within the potato industry is analysed using the framework of the transportation algorithm. Problems of specification and data compilation are discussed. Three models are then formulated, their solutions illustrated, and comparisons made with the present distribution of production in order to arrive at conclusions as to possible areas of adjustment. Finally, some of the strengths and weaknesses of the methodology used are outlitled.
USE OF SOCIOLOGY IN AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Authors: Gasson Ruth
Published: November 2008

Agricultural economists have been slow to approach other behavioural sciences. Nevertheless, sociology, concerned with social interaction among persons, social psychology focusing on behaviour as determined by personality and economics, dealing with the allocation of scarce resources to maximise welfare, offer complementary explanations of human behaviour. Sociology can provide a more informed basis for the simplifying assumptions the economist makes about social structure and human motivation and help to account for noneconomic variations in phenomena of common interest. The economist may benefit from the approach, concepts and empirical generalisations of sociology and may borrow variables, survey techniques and methods of analysis. Examples of studies in agricultural economics where sociology might contribute include problem farming areas, occupational mobility, regional or rural community development, agricultural extension and adoption of innovations, consumer behaviour and co‐operation.
RISK EVALUATION IN FARM PLANNING* A STATISTICAL APPROACH
Authors: Murphy M. C.
Published: November 2008

Economic planning implies decision‐making based on the comparison of alternative courses of action, viewed against a background (in the real world at any rate) of uncertainty and imperfect knowledge. Successful planning is thus heavily dependent on the reliability of prediction which lea & inevitably to the domain of probability theory and its application to planning models. In spite of the considerable attention given to the application of mathematical models in farm management research work in recent times(1) to(9) and (15) there is stilla paucity of applied work with respect to evaluating the nature of risk associated with planning projects at the individual farm level. In addition, very little published data is available on either a regional or production‐type basis that gives a clear understanding of the nature of probability distributions for planning variables. This paper formulates a simple model which can be used in practical planning exercises and also demonstrates that with a new generation of statistically‐processed planning data the application of the classical concepts of probability to routine economic planning is both practicable and worthwhile.
AN APPROACH TO UNIVERSITY TEACHING IN AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Authors: Williams Professor H. T.
Published: November 2008

In our complex industrialised society there can no longer be a clear cut distinction between education and the training for a profession. Pressure from society for highly specialised knowledge and from students for satisfaction of vocational needs has resulted in the greater development of applied subjects. The aim of teaching in Agricultural Economics is to present a variety of subject matter within the framework of cohesive degree structures consistent with an academic discipline, while as far as possible fitting a student for a professional career in the field of Agricultural Economics. In the ever widening range of professional activity a distinction which has relevance to teaching can be made between the practising agricultural economist and the academic agricultural economist. For the former some professional training has to be incorporated in the first degree scheme. The need in industry and government is for economists who are prepared to make direct economic appraisals and the practising economist will therefore be involved in problem solving in a sphere where non‐economic consideration have also to be weighed. He can best be fitted for his environment if he is aware of the interaction between economics and other relevant disciplines.
THE BRITISH EGG MARKETING BOARD 1957‐71‐A REASSESSMENT
Authors: Guter M. M. , Low E. M.
Published: November 2008

The Report of the Reorganisation Commission for Eggs, published in June 1968, was a condemnation of the British Egg Marketing Scheme which had at that time operated for ten years. The Commission criticised not only the detailed operations of the Board but also questioned the validity of the Board's major activities. Its condemnation contained the charges: firstly, that those who set up and operated the Scheme had been misguided and had worked in a way that was contrary to the well‐being of the egg industry and, secondly, that there is little value in the producer marketing board type of organisation. Both of these charges are serious and neither of them has been substantiated. This paper is devoted to showing that the major charges of the Commission were not supported by fact: the market support operations of the Board did not cause over‐production: market support operations improved price stability: the Board's marketing costs were not excessive; seen in the correct historical perspective, the Board from 1957 made a positive and helpful contribution to the development of egg marketing.
SUPPLY RESPONSES IN CROP AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
Authors: Hill Brian E.
Published: November 2008

This paper is concerned with regression models of time series data, where the data relate to market level aggregates not to individual farms or groups of farms. It presents ideas and preliminary explorations rather than final results. Some aspects of Nerlove's agricultural supply response model are examined, and some conceptual and practical problems discussed. Two general models are then proposed, one for annual crops and one for livestock products. In the time available little empirical work could be undertaken, so that the usefulness, or otherwise, of the thoughts and models presented rests on rather little evidence.
A MICRO‐ECONOMIC APPROACH TO THE ANALYSIS OF SUPPLY RESPONSE IN BRITISH AGRICULTURE
Authors: Davey B. H. , Weightman P. W. H.
Published: November 2008

Most of the work undertaken on the estimation of supply response in U. K. agriculture has been based on the analysis of time‐series data. However, there are a number of problems associated with an analysis of aggregate supply response for British agriculture based on time‐series analysis alone. This paper reports on an alternative supply response model being developed at Newcastle in which estimates of aggregate supply levels are built up from optimal programmes for a set of representative farms.
PROJECTION MODELS FOR U.K. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE*
Authors: McFarquhar A. M. M. , Evans M. C.
Published: November 2008

Successful policy planning depends to a large extent on being able to predict the consequences of alternative measures. In the case of agriculture, it is important to know how the future pattern of supply and demand in this sector will be affected by government action on specific issues such as farm price support, and by expected trends in macro‐economic variables such as national incomes and population. This paper illustrates the application of a model of U.K. agriculture to the projection of changes in the production and consumption of food and agriculture products between now and 1975. The demand projections show the effect of important levies, and of joining the E.E.C, on future expenditure on food, while the supply projections show how the output of a number of agricultural commodities will be affected by adjusting farm prices towards E.E.C. levels.
AN APPLICATION OF MARKOV CHAINS TO FARM TYPE STRUCTURAL DATA IN ENGLAND AND WALES
Authors: Power A. P. , Harris S. A.
Published: November 2008

Markov Chain methods of projection are applied to farm type structural data derived from the returns in the Annual June Agricultural Census in England and Wales. Three sets of projections, using different assumptions, are made of the numbers of holdings by farm type in 1969 and of the movement of holdings between farm type during 1968/69. These are compared with the actual Census returns for 1969. Use of a four‐year average transition probability matrix gives the best overall results on the basis of that comparison and this matirx was then used to project farm type structure in England and Wales for 1971 and 1973. These projections indicate that between June 1969 and June 1973 the number of all holdings with 275 or more standard man days (SMD) will decline; those classified as Mixed, Livestock, and Pigs and Poultry are likely to show the largest proportional declines. Some 50 per cent of holdings are likely to be below the 275 SMD limit. Since the assumptions made may not be fulfilled in every respect, it is unlikely that the outcome in 1971 and 1973 will be precisely as predicted, but the pattern and direction of the projections are likely to hold.
INVESTMENT IN PRACTICE: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO GRANT‐AIDED PRODUCTION OF CROPS UNDER GLASS
Authors: Folley R. R. W.
Published: November 2008

A pilot study of investment was made on twenty glasshouse‐crop holdings in Kent on which action had been taken under the Horticulture Improvement Scheme. Attention was given to behavioural aspects as well as to financial results, in the expectation that large discrete investments would provide knowledge of investment practice.

Most growers in the sample were found not to make a prior evaluation of new investment or to be concerned with its economic efficiency. They paid more attention to technical matters and their own relative eficiency (their comparative standing within the industry).

All growers in a financial sub‐sample of nine increased their annual revenue by investment, but the proportionate aggregate increase was very little greater than that in the aggregate value of fixed assets created. In the latest year of the post‐investment period, the average return per invested‐half this investment being two to three years old‐was shown by accounts to be less than 10 per cent.

The economic test of rate of return on added capital is shown to be impracticable. It is postulated that major investments may not provide forecast cash flows as quickly or as fully as frequently anticipated. Past forecasts must often have been made without empirical knowledge of post‐investment situations.
POLICY DIRECTION AND ECONOMIC INTERPRETATIONS OF THE U.S. AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1970
Authors: Spitze R. G. F.
Published: November 2008

Review and change have recently characterised governmental price and income policy for agriculture in the U.K., E.E.C. and U.S. This study of the U.S. Agricultural Act of 1970, effective for the major crops for the next three years, is a follow‐up to an earlier article in this Journal on the policy of the 1960's. An analysis is made of the new Act's development, provisions, and probable consequences. Although voluntary land retirement, compensatory payment policy is continued, a ‘set‐aside’ modification is likely to have implications for either government costs or farmer incomes. The slightly lower supports and higher payments contrasts with the apparent current direction of European policy. Consideration is given to current negotiations and policy differences among these three trading groups.