bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Preserving the Body and Mind
Authors: McAllister Lesley S.
Published: July 2020

Recreational Music Making classes are becoming a common option around the United States for seniors, offering music classes that are fun, social, and relaxing without specific performance expectations or requirements. The research that initiated the RMM movement showed that music lessons correlate with stress reduction, better physical health, and less cognitive decline for the aging population. The booming population of seniors currently seeking personal fulfillment through music study benefits when stretching is combined with music study, resulting in even greater stress reduction and physical well-being. Describing how to maintain a safe practice for students with osteoporosis and other physical ailments, this chapter includes poses that can be performed on a chair or bench. It concludes with a suggested eight-week curriculum for a group of retired adults using safe postures with appropriate modifications.
The Baroque Clarinet and Chalumeau
Authors: Rice Albert R.
Published: July 2020

The second edition of The Baroque Clarinet (1992) is a history of the clarinet and chalumeau from antiquity to 1760 in six chapters: “Origins of the Chalumeau,” “Music for the Chalumeau,” “The Earliest Clarinets,” “Playing Techniques for the Baroque Clarinet,” “Music for the Baroque Clarinet,” and “Baroque Clarinet in Society.” There are five appendices: four checklists of extant chalumeaux, extant clarinets, chalumeau music and sources from 1694 to 1780, clarinet music and sources from about 1715 to 1760; and a fifth of chalumeau and clarinet concerts, rehearsals, and clarinets for purchase in newspaper advertisements from 1718 to 1760. The second edition has significant additions of makers, players, music, and iconography, that last in a chapter called “The Baroque Clarinet in Society.” Topics discussed include single-reed instruments in Egyptian antiquity and from the 10th through the 17th centuries; the mock trumpet; chalumeaux during the 17th and 18th centuries; Jacob Denner’s chalumeaux and clarinets; an organ pipe that sounds like a chalumeau; chalumeau players; chalumeau descriptions from the mid-18th century; later documented chalumeau makers; chalumeau reproductions; how and why Johann Christoph Denner improved the chalumeau and invented the clarinet, based on previous studies of mechanical inventions; chalumeau and clarinet music and composers; and the Baroque clarinet’s use by traveling musicians, in court and aristocratic music, church and civic music, and military music.
Music for the Baroque Clarinet
Authors: Rice Albert R.
Published: July 2020

This chapter presents an overview of music written by 23 composers representative of a larger repertoire written about 1715 to 1760 for the Baroque clarinet. The works examined include opera, cantata, duos, concertos, wedding music, chamber music, military music, sacred arias, requiem, and motets by Dreux, Vivaldi, Caldara, Faber, Telemann, Handel, Chinzer, Rathgeber, Münster, Glaser, Kölbel, Molter, Sparry, Rameau, Zach, Stark, Johann Stamitz, Graupner, d’Herbain, Pasterwiz, La Borde, Ulbrecht, and Arne. The music is written in a trumpet style characterized by repeated notes, incomplete arpeggios, fanfare motives, limited range, and restricted use of the low register. In works composed after about 1730, a lyrical style of melodic writing takes on a greater importance with scale passages, leaps of an octave or more, and more frequent use of the low register.
Guilty Acts, Guilty Minds
Authors: Garvey Stephen P.
Published: July 2020

“You can’t be convicted of a crime without a guilty act and a guilty mind.” A lawyer might express the same idea using Latin: “You can’t be convicted of a crime without actus reus and mens rea.” Guilty Acts, Guilty Minds proposes an interpretation of mens rea and actus reus as limits on the authority of a democratic state to ascribe guilt through positive law to those accused of crime. Actus reus and mens rea are portrayed as necessary conditions for the legitimacy of state punishment. The actus reus requirement disables a democratic state from using its authority to ascribe guilt to those who didn’t realize they were committing a crime, provided they lacked the capacity to realize they were committing a crime, or to those who realized they were committing a crime, but who lacked the capacity to conform their conduct to the requirements of law. The mens rea requirement disables a democratic state from using its authority to ascribe guilt to those who didn’t realize they were committing a crime, provided their ignorance manifested no lack of law-abiding concern for the law, or to those who realized they were committing a crime, but whose failure to conform to the law nonetheless manifested no lack of law-abiding concern for the law. Ascriptions of guilt are illegitimate, and not merely unjust, when a defendant’s choice fails to satisfy the requirements of actus reus and mens rea.
Conclusion
Authors: Garvey Stephen P.
Published: July 2020

This concluding chapter reflects on what has gone before. The idea that a democratic state’s reason for being is to authoritatively resolve disagreements among free and equal citizens over the demands of justice suggests that peace, not justice, is the first virtue of social institutions, including the institutions through which the state imposes punishment. It then ponders, in light of the actus reus and mens rea requirements, the legitimacy of state punishment as currently administered in the various jurisdictions of the United States. Judged only in terms of the actus reus and mens rea requirements, it seems those jurisdictions earn passing grades. Existing rules and doctrines, enacted in the exercise of democratic authority, appear to keep the state’s power to ascribe guilt largely within the bounds of legitimacy. One might nonetheless think those jurisdictions illegitimately criminalize forms of conduct they have no authority to criminalize, or that they illegitimately impose punishments so severe as to exceed their authority. These questions are left for others to address.
Introduction
Authors: Dwinal Catherine
Published: July 2020

The importance of having a projection system in a music classroom is that it can not only benefit students but also benefit the teacher. Systems like these have helped to bring more engaging, interactive and educational visuals into the music room. They can become integrated as the heart of the music room to improve students’ learning success and create memorable experiences that they will take with them for a long time after class is over. Projection systems, whether interactive or not, have become so crucially important for instruction to meet the needs of today’s digital generation.
I-Can-Do-This-Tomorrows
Authors: Dwinal Catherine
Published: July 2020

This chapter contains five suggestions for beginners to use right away in their classrooms. It describes how the teacher can project music for students to play. It also mentions how to show video clips that drive a point home for concepts you are teaching. It also explains how the teacher can encourage a class to research questions together as a group.
Projectors
Authors: Dwinal Catherine
Published: July 2020

This chapter includes activities using the projector, a standard tool found in most classrooms that has more possibilities beyond first glance. The projector can bring students together to sing holiday classics, to connect with users from across the globe to share music and cultures, or even to create unique backgrounds for performances. Each activity has objectives and assessments, and takes the reader step-by-step through experience so he or she can discover ways to turn a classic tool into a new digital resource.
The Many Questions Raised by the Dual Concept of “Element”
Authors: Scerri Eric R.
Published: July 2020

The article begins by asking whether contemporary chemists accept the dual meaning of the term “element” that has been discussed at various stages in the development of chemistry. It proceeds to review the key ideas in the contemporary philosophical debate, including the views of Mendeleev and Paneth and whether a microscopic interpretation of the distinction can be upheld. Regardless of any interpretation, the abstract sense of “element” is then used to resolve the specific question of what elements belong to group 3 of the periodic table. The article concludes with a brief examination of several remaining open questions that need further clarification.
The Existence of Elements, and the Elements of Existence
Authors: Hendry Robin Findlay
Published: July 2020

Philosophers sometimes discuss the “ontological status” of this or that kind of entity. They should be addressing one of the following questions, or the word ontological is being misused: 1. Does X exist? 2. Under what conditions can X exist? 3. Do we have good reasons to think that X exists? All three questions can be asked about elements, and have been asked. Aristotle criticized the atomist account of chemical combination, according to which elements survive in their compounds. Eighteenth-century chemists rejected the Aristotelian view, although tacitly; they simply assumed that an element lives on in its compounds. Nineteenth-century chemists gradually adopted (an adapted form of) atomism, according to which an element can exist wherever its characteristic atoms do. The periodic table also allowed them to ask, of its empty spaces, whether they correspond to real but unknown elements. Priority disputes forced them to consider when there is sufficient evidence for the discovery of new elements. In the 1920s, IUPAC proposed a very thin definition of an element, according to which an element exists wherever its characteristic nuclear charge does. But according to some scientists, it is now challenged by the fleeting existence of some superheavy elements; if a nucleus cannot survive long enough to acquire a stable electronic structure, then it cannot be said to have any chemical properties. How then can it be called a chemical element? In this paper I explore this latest ontological question, in the light of a sufficiently nuanced understanding of earlier ones. I then relate this discussion to a more general question about existence: the Special Composition Question.
Locke’s Property Problem
Authors: Layman Daniel
Published: July 2020

According to Locke, all people are free and equal. Consequently, the natural world belongs to all people in common. But each person, along with his labor, belongs only to himself. Thus, although all people share a common right to use the world, each person acquires a private right to resources he “mixes” with his labor. Before large-scale economic development, there was no problem with each person appropriating as much as he could use, because this left “enough, and as good” for others. But once money spurred development, people could efficiently use far more. Under these new conditions, there was no longer enough and as good lying in common. Consequently, although everyone got richer through economic development, the world divided into resource owners and employees working on others’ resources. All of this posed a dilemma for Locke. On the one hand, people could be required to leave the world lying in common, preserving equal standing but sacrificing well-being for all. On the other, people could be permitted to develop the world into a network of private plots, greatly increasing well-being for all but sacrificing equal standing. Locke notices the tension, but he lacks an adequate solution. He implausibly appeals to our purported consent to money and its consequences before ending the chapter, thus leaving his property problem for others to solve.
Bray’s Lockean Socialism
Authors: Layman Daniel
Published: July 2020

John Bray, whose transatlantic career reached its height around 1840, follows Locke in arguing that all people have a natural common right to the world and a natural private right to the fruits of their labor. But unlike the libertarian radicals, Hodgskin and Spooner, Bray interprets our common right to the world in strongly positive terms. According to him, the world is common in much the way that a public library is common: We all have an equal right to use it for our own purposes so long as everyone else is equally able to use it for their own. In practice, this requires people to form political communities wherein the means of production are public, but in which people maintain private ownership in their share of what the community produces. Thus, Bray attempts to solves Locke’s property problem through socialist political economy, which provides an avenue to reconstitute common ownership under advanced economic conditions. Although Bray’s left-Lockean picture has several attractive features, it stumbles on Bray’s implausible conception of economic value, on which he relies in his argument against incorporating market competition into his left-Lockean picture. According to Bray, all economic value is accumulated labor, which in turn means that economic transactions are zero-sum and that someone (usually workers) must leave market exchanges worse off. Thus, Bray’s Lockean socialism raises, but does not answer, an important question: Is there room for an egalitarian resolution of Locke’s property problem that does not rely on a mistake about economic value?
To the Cool Grove
Authors: Tarrant Richard
Published: July 2020

This chapter differentiates modern connotations of the term “ode” (which now overwhelmingly refers to a praise poem) from its sense in antiquity as a musical composition. A discussion of Odes 1.1 shows how Horace situates himself as the Roman counterpart to the canonical Greek lyric poets such as Sappho, Alcaeus, and Pindar. Several other aspects of “lyric” as defined by Horace are identified, such as verbal decorum, a flexibility of subject matter, and an absence of polemic. Horace’s references to the Muses are interpreted in this chapter as a means of conferring authority on his personal lyric voice.
Odes 1–3
Authors: Tarrant Richard
Published: July 2020

This chapter focuses on Horace’s first published collection of lyric poetry, a corpus of eighty-eight poems divided into three books, which appeared in 23 BCE or shortly thereafter. An argument is made for treating Odes 1–3 as a single unified collection rather than as a series of separately published books, and various forms of arrangement and patterning are discussed that support this argument. It is suggested that a development over the course of Odes 1–3 can be seen in several areas: Horace’s poetic ambitions, the treatment of Rome’s recent civil wars, and the poet’s relationship with Maecenas.
After the Odes 1
Authors: Tarrant Richard
Published: July 2020

This chapter focuses on the collection of twenty verse letters that Horace published roughly three years after the appearance of Odes 1–3. Because they profess to be exercises in moral philosophy, the letters can be seen as a kind of generic ascent following the lyrics of the Odes. Differences between the Epistles and Odes 1–3 are highlighted, including the persons addressed and the range of themes treated. Particular attention is devoted to the penultimate letter (19), in which Horace boasts of his transferral of Greek iambic and lyric poetry into Latin, and the final letter (20), addressed to the book itself, which dramatizes the tension between a desire to be read and a suspicion of popular approval.
Reception of the Odes
Authors: Tarrant Richard
Published: July 2020

This chapter offers a brief survey of the reception of the Odes from Horace’s own time to the present, with a focus on literary reception and, for the period since the Renaissance, on material in English. Topics discussed include translations and adaptations of the Odes, expurgated editions, and the status of Horace as a moral guide in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Britain. Poems treated include Ben Jonson’s “Ode to Himself,” Andrew Marvell’s “Horatian Ode upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland,” A. E. Housman’s “On Wenlock Edge,” W. H. Auden’s “The Horatians,” and Seamus Heaney’s reworking of Odes 1.34, “Anything Can Happen,” with its reference to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.
Puberty
Authors: Sisk Cheryl L. , Romeo Russell D.
Published: July 2020

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the neural and endocrine mechanisms that govern the timing and onset of puberty (reproductive maturation). The cells and hormones that comprise the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis are introduced, followed by an explanation of how both negative and positive neuroendocrine feedback loops regulate circulating levels of gonadal steroid hormones in males and females. The rest of the chapter is devoted to mechanisms that govern the timing of puberty and activation of the HPG axis at the onset of puberty. The role of the metabolic hormone leptin as a permissive signal for the timing of puberty, the role of neural excitation and disinhibition in the awakening of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons at the onset of puberty, and the role of the neuropeptide kisspeptin as a proximal driver of HPG axis activation are highlighted. Finally, recent research on hierarchical gene networks that are ultimately responsible for the developmental unfolding of activation of GnRH neurons at puberty onset is reviewed.
Stress and the Adolescent Brain
Authors: Sisk Cheryl L. , Romeo Russell D.
Published: July 2020

Chapter 7 considers stress as a modulator of adolescent development. It starts with an overview of the key hormones in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and describes responses of the HPA axis and the sympathetic nervous system to stress. The HPA stress response is somewhat different in adolescents compared with adults; adolescents often show heightened stress reactivity and a protracted recovery period after psychological stressors compared to adults. The chapter then reviews research on chronic stress-induced anatomical and functional changes in the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala, three brain regions involved in regulation of the HPA axis and modulation of stress responses. Stress-induced changes in these brain regions include dendritic complexity of pyramidal cells, attenuated long-term potentiation, attention deficits, and changes in fear and depressive-like behaviors; these changes may be long-lasting. The perfect storm alludes to the alignment of three features of adolescence that together may render the adolescent brain especially vulnerable to effects of chronic stress: (a) The quality and quantity of stressors is different during adolescence than in adulthood; (b) stress reactivity is higher during adolescence; and (c) the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala are sensitive to stress hormones and are still developing during adolescence. However, the developing adolescent brain may be more resilient to insult, more responsive to interventions, and more buffered by social support systems.
Pro Cicerone: The Fourth Catilinarian
Authors: Berry D. H.
Published: July 2020

This chapter summarizes what is known about the debate in the senate on 5 December 63 BC on the fate of the arrested Catilinarian conspirators and attempts to identify which parts of the Fourth Catilinarian derive from the speeches made by Cicero on that occasion and which parts were added later by him in 60 BC. It argues that the speech in its current form could never have been delivered. The chapter concludes with a consideration of the purpose of the speech and of the success of all four of Cicero’s Catilinarians.
Catiline in the Underworld and Afterwards
Authors: Berry D. H.
Published: July 2020

This chapter reviews the reception of Cicero’s Catilinarians over the two millennia from Sallust’s Bellum Catilinae until the present day. Particular attention is paid to Virgil’s Aeneid, to Ben Jonson’s Catiline His Conspiracy (1611), and to Ibsen’s Catiline (1850). The chapter also surveys the influence of the Catilinarians on Roman poetry after Virgil, on Roman historiography after Sallust, and on Christian writers. The late antique, medieval, and renaissance declamations that draw on the Catilinarians (including two speeches each known as the Fifth Catilinarian) are discussed, as is the influence of Catiline on Florentine historiography. Plays and operas about Catiline by Voltaire, Salieri, Dumas, and others are included. Mention is made of the study of the Catilinarians undertaken by two American presidents, John Adams and John Quincy Adams. The chapter ends by showing how in the twentieth century these speeches first started the young Bill Clinton on his path toward the White House.
The Scourge of War
Authors: Holden Reid Brian
Published: July 2020

William Tecumseh Sherman, a West Point graduate and veteran of the Seminole War, became one of the best-known generals in the Civil War. His March to the Sea, which resulted in a devastated swath of the South from Atlanta to Savannah, cemented his place in history as the pioneer of total war. This book offers a life and times account of Sherman. By examining his childhood and education, his business ventures in California, his antebellum leadership of a military college in Louisiana, and numerous career false starts, the book shows how unlikely his exceptional Civil War career would seem. It also demonstrates how crucial his family was to his professional path, particularly his wife’s intervention during the war. It analyzes Sherman’s development as a battlefield commander and especially his crucial friendships with Henry W. Halleck and Ulysses S. Grant. In doing so, the text details how Sherman overcame both his weaknesses as a leader and severe depression to mature as a military strategist. Central chapters narrate closely Sherman’s battlefield career and the gradual lifting of his pessimism that the Union would be defeated. After the war, Sherman became a popular figure in the North and the founder of the school for officers at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, known as the “intellectual center of the army.” The book argues that Sherman was not hostile to the South throughout his life and only in later years gained a reputation as a villain who practiced barbaric destruction, particularly as the neo-Confederate Lost Cause grew and he published one of the first personal accounts of the war.
Brigade Commander, March‒August 1861
Authors: Holden Reid Brian
Published: July 2020

This chapter assesses William T. Sherman’s efforts to introduce himself to President Lincoln, as well as his presidency at the Fifth Street Railroad, a company specializing in street cars. Sherman was unimpressed with the president; Lincoln seemed to Sherman the partisan-in-chief. Sherman would write several weeks after his meeting with Lincoln that the president had intimated “that military men were not wanted”; this seems unlikely, unless it refers to regular officers rather than volunteers. On April 1, 1861, Sherman began his new job as president of the Fifth Street Railroad. Yet, though Sherman had chosen to concentrate on domestic prosperity, public affairs kept breaking in to disturb his tranquility. The extent to which he lurked in the background as a spectator is revealed in the final, dramatic conclusion to the struggle to bind Missouri to the Union. At the end of April, Sherman was offered by Frank Blair Jr. the rank of brigadier general of volunteers and command of the Department of Missouri. On June 30, he received notification that he would command a brigade in Brigadier General Irvin McDowell’s army, Third Brigade in First Division, commanded by Brigadier General Daniel Tyler. Sherman was praised by Tyler in his report and had also earned McDowell’s high opinion. He demonstrated resolve, organizational capacity, and ability to think and make decisions under pressure.
Commanding General of the Army, 1869–1884
Authors: Holden Reid Brian
Published: July 2020

This chapter recounts that on November 7, 1868, Ulysses S. Grant gained election to the presidency, leading to William T. Sherman succeeding him as general-in-chief. Throughout, Sherman had abstained from political activities, but he did express enthusiasm for Grant’s win. He also made early preparations for the move to Washington. Before Grant and Sherman’s ascents to greater responsibility, they were able to enjoy one last wartime swansong with 2000 former comrades at a joint reunion of the societies of the Armies of the Cumberland, Georgia, the Ohio, and the Tennessee in Chicago on December 15–16, 1868. At the meeting, Grant and Sherman discussed the future structure of the army. Grant assured Sherman that he intended to make the arrangements that he had introduced as general-in-chief permanent. The long duel between the commanding general and secretary of war waged since 1836 over who should direct the army would be finally decided in favor of the general-in-chief. On the same day of Grant’s inauguration, he sent to the Senate his nomination of Sherman in the rank of General of the Army of the United States. The following day, John M. Schofield issued the executive order stipulating that Sherman would succeed as commanding general.
Anton Wilhelm Amo's Philosophical Dissertations on Mind and Body
Authors: Menn Stephen , Smith Justin E. H.
Published: July 2020

Anton Wilhelm Amo (c. 1703–after 1752) is the first modern African philosopher to study and teach in a European university and write in the European philosophical tradition. This book provides an extensive historical and philosophical introduction to Amo’s life and work, and provides Latin texts, with facing translations and explanatory notes, of Amo’s two philosophical dissertations, On the Impassivity of the Human Mind and the Philosophical Disputation containing a Distinct Idea of those Things that Pertain either to the Mind or to our Living and Organic Body, both published in 1734. The Impassivity is an extended argument that the mind cannot be acted on, that sensation is a being-acted-on by the sensed object, and therefore that sensation does not belong to the mind, and must belong instead to the body. The Distinct Idea works out the implications for the mind’s actions, and tries to show how the mind understands, wills, and effects things through the body by ‘intentions’ which direct motions in our body intentionally toward external things. Both dissertations try to show how far each type of human act belongs to the mind, how far to the body, and expose and resolve earlier philosophers’ self-contradictions on these questions.
The Art of the Bee
Authors: Page Robert E.
Published: July 2020

The impact of bees on the world is immeasurable. Bees are responsible for the evolution of the vast array of brightly colored flowers and for engineering the niches of multitudes of plants, animals, and microbes. They’ve painted landscapes with flowers through their pollination activities and have evolved the most complex societies to aid their exploitation of the environment. The biology of the honey bee is one that reflects their role in transforming environments with their anatomical adaptations and a complex language that together function to exploit floral resources. A complex social system that includes a division of labor builds, defends, and provisions nests containing tens of thousands of individuals, only one of whom reproduces. Traditional biology texts present stratified layers of knowledge where the reader excavates levels of biological organization, each building on the last. This book presents fundamental biology not in layers but wrapped around interesting themes and concepts and in ways designed to explore and understand each concept. It examines the coevolution of bees and flowering plants, bees as engineers of the environment, the evolution of sociality, the honey bee as a superorganism and how it evolves, and the mating behavior of the queen.
The Social Contract
Authors: Page Robert E.
Published: July 2020

Animals that live together in a society, like social insects, have a tacit agreement, a social contract of sorts, that guarantees that their reproductive interests are protected in exchange for their social cooperation. This contract isn’t written on paper, nor is it expressed in explicit laws or national constitutions; but instead it is written into the DNA of populations with the ink and quill of inclusive fitness and natural selection. All social groups share common features of providing for the defense of social members from external threats, internal policing of cheating by those who don’t cooperate, and some kind of protection of reproductive rights, either direct or indirect. Social benefits of insect societies include organizational structures similar to those of human societies such as public works, public health, police, and border patrol. Without these features, they would fail as societies.
Reproductive Competition
Authors: Page Robert E.
Published: July 2020

Academic requirements for an insect society to be considered a superorganism vary broadly with authors and among sociobiologists. The two conditions that emerge as the most important are the lack of reproductive competition among nestmates and the state of social evolution where workers within colonies are at or beyond the “point of no return”—workers have lost the ability to live and reproduce independently. The search for reproductive competition within highly social colonies of ants and bees is a large academic research enterprise filling the contents of countless journals and books. However, a look at honey bees shows that these special conditions not only aren’t met but obfuscate the wonderful array of social states in which colonies exist within one population.
How to Make a Superorganism
Authors: Page Robert E.
Published: July 2020

Insect superorganisms are characterized by a reproductive division of labor (drones, queens, and workers) and a complex division of labor among the non-reproductive individuals, the workers. In the social bees that have attained the highest degrees of sociality, at or approaching superorganism status, males don’t survive mating and are only present as reproductive sperm sequestered in the queen. Queens and workers are anatomically differentiated but derived from the same genome. Differentiation is a consequence of differential feeding of developing larvae by the workers. In the honey bee, worker nurse bees manipulate the developing larvae, forcing them into their reproductive roles. The adult workers self-organize into an ordered society, performing all of the functions necessary for colony survival and reproduction. There are no task masters or forewomen directing the workforce. Instead, every individual makes local decisions about their behavior based on their response thresholds to stimuli in their environment.
Approaches to Wisdom
Authors: Kekes John
Published: July 2020

This chapter develops human wisdom by considering the reasons for and against four alternative approaches to wisdom: classical, epistemological, psychological, and moral. It discusses the strengths and weaknesses of these approaches and explains the reasons for and against incorporating their components in the gradually emerging conception of human wisdom. One main difference between the humanistic and these approaches is the central importance the former attributes and the latter moots of the personal attitude we all have to how we rightly or wrongly think we should live.
Wisdom
Authors: Kekes John
Published: July 2020

Human wisdom guides how we cope with perennial problems by relying on an unstable compound of often conflicting evaluations prompted by our personal history and the various social modes of evaluations prevalent in the context in which we live. For this we need to rely on considered judgments that weigh the relative importance of these conflicting evaluations. This is difficult because both personal and social evaluations change in response to changing conditions. And because making a considered judgment to override one of our own evaluations in favor of another requires violating one of our own s commitments. It makes matters even more difficult that no matter how well considered our judgments are, they may be mistaken and may themselves change in response to the changing internal and external conditions of our life. Human wisdom nevertheless enables us to make more reliable considered judgments by adhering to basic assumptions, cultivating reflective understanding, and growing in depth. These are the subjects of the following chapters.
Depth
Authors: Kekes John
Published: July 2020

Depth enables us to form a dispassionate view of ourselves, our context, and the ups and downs of our life in particular and of human lives in general. It provides a detached yet not indifferent point of view that restrains over-reactions to our faulty, ambivalent, and conflicted personal attitude and to the perennial problems that we have cope with throughout our life. It enables us to acknowledge the fallibility of our responses to the contingencies of life, to guard against losing heart and becoming disillusioned by the uncertainties of even our most reasonable efforts, and to understand that although we are at risk, we are not doomed. Depth enables us to view our situation from both a personal and impersonal point of view, to evaluate our personal attitude reasonably, and to avoid succumbing to comforting illusions and self-serving excuses.
Introduction
Authors: Domínguez-Redondo Elvira
Published: July 2020

The introduction sets up the scene for the analysis that follows explaining the main topics addressed in the book. It succinctly explains how it seeks to challenge the conventional wisdom underpinning the presumption that politicization is a weakness of the international human rights system, through the lenses of the Special Procedures. It also addresses recent criticisms aimed at the international human rights machinery. The introduction also provides the reader with a map of the overall structure of the book and the main topics addressed.
American Mistakes
Authors: Zhang Feng , Lebow Richard Ned
Published: July 2020

This chapter examines the policy mistakes that the Obama administration made in managing the Sino-American relationship. The Obama administration developed no distinct China strategy and was in fact averse to developing such a strategy. It chose to embed largely reactive China policies within a regional strategy of the so-called “pivot” or “rebalance” to the Asia-Pacific region. While China was relegated to a management issue, the rebalance strategy damaged the US-China relationship by deepening strategic mistrust between the two countries and agitating China to seek strategic adventures in Asia. The rebalance did not cause Chinese assertiveness by itself, but the geopolitical setting it created served to exacerbate China’s already fermenting assertive inclinations and prompted its strategic adventurism.
Deterrence
Authors: Zhang Feng , Lebow Richard Ned
Published: July 2020

Deterrence attempts to prevent an undesired behavior by convincing the party that may be contemplating it that the cost will exceed any possible gain. Deterrence thinking fails to grasp the causes of competition and conflict and consequently addresses only symptoms of strategic tensions. The American strategy of hegemonic deterrence and the Chinese strategy of active defense risk mutual escalation of suspicions, increase reliance on worse-case analysis, and intensify rather than ameliorate their competition. Deterrence has a role to play in security policy, but overdose is likely to be dangerous. This chapter proposes a strategy of minimal deterrence for both countries to reduce the harms of aggressive deterrence and to make room for the more productive strategies of reassurance and diplomacy.
Kinetic Theory of Value I
Authors: Nail Thomas
Published: July 2020

This chapter inverts the standard interpretation of “value in motion” so that value itself is woven from a continual pattern of action and is not some discrete thing that merely moves from point A to point B. Value needs to “stand with its feet on the ground” again by making movement genuinely primary to its being (C, 163). Marx’s theory of value is a fundamentally kinetic theory of value in which matter-in-motion forms the being of value. Value is not just a function of social, political, technical, and human relations. Matter-in-motion is primary to and constitutive of the being of value itself.
Sustaining Others
Authors: Brownlee Kimberley
Published: July 2020

Our need to belong gives us a need to sustain specific other people. This need is rooted in our narrow self-interest, our interests in the people we care about, and our interest in the group to which we belong. Not everyone who endures being not needed has a claim to be enabled to sustain others. Sometimes, it’s a matter of good fortune or tragedy if we get to be needed or not. Other times, however, we are victims of injustice if we are unable to sustain others. To secure our need to sustain others, we require the core social resources discussed in Chapter 1 (as well as material resources and temporal resources). If we are denied what we need to develop, maintain, and exercise our social resources, or are not taken seriously as social contributors, then we endure social contribution injustice.
Value and a Good Life
Authors: Robertson Simon
Published: July 2020

This chapter develops a Nietzschean picture of a good life. It distinguishes two organizing goods: flourishing and excellence. The first part focuses on flourishing. Flourishing is relationally and prudentially valuable: good for the person whose flourishing it is. The account emphasizes a range of psychological and activity-oriented conditions (self-understanding, self-mastery, autonomy, effective self-expressing agency) the meeting of which might be necessary and (subject to certain provisos) sufficient for flourishing to some degree, though how fully someone flourishes can also depend on the value (excellence) of the goals she realizes. This yields a ‘substantive good’ or ‘objective list’ model of a good or flourishing life. Nonetheless, the ingredients listed are multiply realizable, which allows for significant variation in how different people flourish; in particular, a person’s flourishing depends on a range of subjective conditions relating to (inter alia) her motives. The latter part of the chapter turns to excellence. Excellence is uncodifiable and impersonally valuable. Someone who excels typically thereby flourishes.
Conclusions
Authors: Robertson Simon
Published: July 2020

The concluding chapter does three main things. First it recapitulates the book’s main interpretive claims and the progress made on our interpretive puzzles, summarizing how this work adds something new to our understanding of Nietzsche. Next it outlines various ways Nietzsche has something important to contribute, both critically and positively, to ongoing issues and debates in contemporary philosophical ethics. Finally, it suggests that his significance may be wider: although there are certainly overlaps between his concerns and those of many contemporary philosophers, Nietzsche also challenges our usual views of what ethics itself is—and what it, and we, should be doing.
Nature and Culture in the Epicurean Theory of Language
Authors: Taylor Barnaby
Published: July 2020

This chapter provides an account of the Epicurean theory of language, focusing in particular on Epicurus’ account of the origins of language, as detailed at Ep. Hdt. 75–6. It identifies two forms of linguistic naturalism (‘functional’ and ‘referential’) in Epicurus’ account of the first stage of linguistic phylogeny. It goes on to describe the implications of the advent of the second, conventionalist stage for Epicurus’ linguistic naturalism. The chapter suggests that Lucretius (like Epicurus before him) may be considered a latter-day συνειδών‎, enlarging and improving the language via the introduction and development of new expressions for new philosophical concepts. Finally, it considers how, if at all, Epicurean linguistic norms may have been grounded in Epicurean linguistic naturalism.
The Uses of Greek
Authors: Taylor Barnaby
Published: July 2020

This chapter focuses on Lucretius’ use of Greek. It starts by discussing tmesis as a Lucretian figure in which the influence of Greek may be discerned. It then moves on to a series of syntactical constructions in DRN which can be said to reflect Greek influence. It demonstrates that such constructions are drawn on by Lucretius especially in argumentative contexts where Greek is particularly relevant. The discussion of Greek words in DRN distinguishes between Greek words with Greek terminations and Greek words with Latin terminations; it outlines some ways in which this distinction may be significant for Lucretius. The chapter ends with an analysis of DRN 4.1160–9, on Greek as a language of endearment and delusion.
Assyria in Early Modern Historiography
Authors: Sarha Jennifer
Published: July 2020

This chapter provides a starting point for the understudied pre-nineteenth-century reception of Assyria. In early modern Europe, knowledge about ancient Assyria was mainly derived from a small pool of classical authors: an entirely textual tradition, centred around the figures of Semiramis and Sardanapalus, which was transmitted through strict repetition in late medieval and early modern history writing. The narrow scope and repetitive nature of this tradition raise questions for historiography—what kind of historical knowledge can be produced from such limited sources? And, crucially, what notions about Assyria can emerge here? By examining the treatment of Semiramis and Sardanapalus in three geographically and chronologically diverse case studies (Giovanni Boccaccio, Johannes Carion and Philip Melanchthon, and Walter Ralegh), this article sheds light on the negotiations between received practices and historiographical trends, the influence of moral imperatives and gendered logic, and establishes the longevity and pan-European spread of the historiographical tradition on Assyria.
Capabilities and the Limits of Liberal Development
Authors: Harrison Graham
Published: July 2020

This chapter makes a critical assessment of the capabilities approach (CA). It sets out the core features of the CA and highlights its focus on local livelihoods and its development vision of incremental change. It notes the normative attractiveness of this position, and its focus on individual experiences. It then goes on to identify a series of limitations to this approach. It argues that the CA is excessively inclusive, using rights-speak to see all change as either good or bad. It also has a weak understanding of social relations because it focuses on individuals at the expense of structures. It argues that its liberal understanding of individual agency means that it fails to understand the social construction of agency. The chapter ends by sketching how the inability of capabilities to generate a theory of structural change leaves it limited in ambition and inattentive to history.
Realism, Values, and Development
Authors: Harrison Graham
Published: July 2020

The chapter identifies the core normative concern with transformative approaches to development: the coercion involved in generating capitalist development. It rejects a utilitarian solution to this problem and questions the idealism of mainstream normative political theory. It sets out a realist normative approach that accepts an antagonism in the values of development. It emphasizes how normativity is constructed not deduced and identifies the value-in-contention within development. It sets out a modified realist approach in which the basic legitimacy of developmentalism is based on both authoritative governance and the construction of a commonwealth. It finishes by making some illustrations of how norms can be understood in development contexts.
Liberals I
Authors: Pierson Christopher
Published: July 2020

This chapter begins with a brief discussion of what we mean by liberalism. It continues with an evaluation of the views that liberals have taken of the justification of property. I first consider the broadly utilitarian case developed by William Paley, James Mill, and Jeremy Bentham. I then assess the distinctive view taken (in France) by Benjamin Constant and (in the US) by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. I devote careful attention to the work of John Stuart Mill, who is a key source for a distinctively modern (or ‘new’) liberal view in which property is not so much a right of persons as a social institution, legitimately open to collective regulation. The chapter ends with an outline of the liberal case for communal ownership of the land made by the American journalist Henry George.
Liberals II
Authors: Pierson Christopher
Published: July 2020

This chapter continues the evaluation of ideas about property within the modern liberal tradition. Much of this thinking has its origins in the later work of John Stuart Mill. I begin with some key ‘new’ liberals: T. H. Green, J. T. Hobhouse, and J. A. Hobson. These thinkers take a varyingly radical view of the provisionality of individual claims to private property. Following a short interlude on interwar liberalism, I turn to the development of liberal ideas on property in the US. My two key thinkers here are John Dewey and John Rawls. Both of these iconic liberal thinkers take a view of property which emphasizes its function as a social institution, one which has to be justified by its societal outcomes rather than its private and personal origins.
Social Democrats II
Authors: Pierson Christopher
Published: July 2020

This chapter continues the evaluation of ideas about property amongst social democrats in the period after 1945. It explores how in the period between 1945 and 1975, social democrats came to de-emphasize the importance of ownership as a political force (my exemplar is Britain). In the second half of the chapter, I turn to social democratic responses when this orientation faltered (after 1975). Of particular interest here is the experience of Swedish social democrats and their initiative for Wage-Earners’ Funds. After a brief consideration of ideas surrounding a ‘Third Way’, I complete my survey with an assessment of a number of recent property alternatives generated by social democrats. These include asset-based egalitarianism, predistribution, basic capital and basic income, property-owning democracy, and market socialism. The most important thinkers discussed here are Durbin, Crosland, Marshall, Childs, Karelby, Adler-Karlsson, Meidner, White, Hacker, Van Parijs, Meade, and Nove.
Radical Conservatives I
Authors: Pierson Christopher
Published: July 2020

This chapter begins with a brief discussion of what we mean by conservatism (and reactionary). The focus here is upon those conservatives who can be considered ‘radical’: that is, those who want to resist change but who believe that this resistance means taking a radical stand against that which is becoming the new orthodoxy. In this chapter, I start out with a group of thinkers who are really ‘reactionary’: that is, they want to take us back to an order which has been replaced. These real reactionaries include Joseph de Maistre, Louis de Bonald, and Donoso Cortés. I also discuss at length the property-focused work of Alexis de Tocqueville. Although Tocqueville’s conservatism is qualified—and he might be as well be considered an unconventional liberal—he is clear in his hostility to many of the consequences of modernity, including the rise of commercial values and the emergence of socialism. He develops some characteristically conservative arguments about how property should look in the face of these challenges.