bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Why costing studies are needed
Authors: Levin Ann , Resch Stephen , Brenzel Logan
Published: April 2023

Information regarding the cost of immunization services can be useful for policymakers, program managers, and the global health community. Cost information can be incorporated into strategic planning and budgets, as well as utilized to improve performance and efficiency of the program. Advocacy and resource mobilization goals incorporate costs for achieving targets. Cost data are included in evaluations to set priorities within the health sector. This chapter reviews the uses of immunization cost information and provides resources for the reader on available methods, guidance, and tools related to costing methodologies and application to field-based studies.
Introduction to decision tree modeling
Authors: Padula William V.
Published: April 2023

This chapter consolidates the material on economic evaluation for vaccines throughout Section 3 with an applied case of hepatitis B vaccination. By following along with the construction of a simple decision tree and data parameter inputs, one should be able to accurately derive and interpret key resulting statistics of value for a common example in vaccine decision-making, including cost-effectiveness analysis, budget impact analysis, and return on investment calculations. By doing so, readers will have a working model that they can manipulate to explore their own version of value assessment, as well as be prepared to format economic statistics for decision makers preferences based on matters of efficiency, equity and affordability.
Donor architecture for immunization financing
Authors: Chee Grace , Pariyo George , Malaviya Shreena
Published: April 2023

Nearly one-third of immunization program spending is supported by development assistance for health. This chapter provides an overview of the major external donors to national immunization programs. The origins and objectives of Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance is presented, as well as the type of support Gavi provides to countries and how it is allocated. Other role of major immunization partners, such as the World Health Organization, UNICEF, the World Bank, and bilateral agencies are presented. The chapter describes Gavi co-financing and eligibility policies, as well as experiences and challenges of countries transitioning from Gavi support. Post-transition and middle-income country engagement is explored. Innovative financing mechanisms, such as the Advanced Market Commitment and the International Finance Facility for Immunization are discussed.
An Individualist Ethics
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: April 2023

This chapter analyzes the ethics of Lebensphilosophie. Ethics has a strong claim to be the central concern of this philosophy. Lebensphilosophie originally meant a philosophy oriented toward action, a guide to the good life or the highest good. The Lebensphilosophen developed their ethics in this original sense. They viewed the highest good as the development of individuality. They therefore reacted against any source of oppression and conformity, as this would thwart the development of individuality. In this respect the ethics of the Lebensphilosophen goes back to the Sturm und Drang movement of the 1760s, which strived to free the individual from all forms of conformity and social and political oppression. The Lebensphilosophen were the Sturmer und Dränger of the late nineteenth century. Having laid down the basis of the individualist ethics, I proceed to find its various versions and formulations in Nietzsche, Dilthey, and Simmel.
The Battle against Pessimism
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: April 2023

Schopenhauer’s central thesis is that life is not worth living, that it contains much more suffering than pleasure. This was a challenge for the Lebensphilosophen who taught that the meaning of life has to be sought from life itself and not from a transcendent realm beyond it. They shared Schopenhauer’s atheism; but they could not promise redemption beyond this life. To stave off complete nihilism, they had to question Schopenhauer’s pessimism. This chapter examines Nietzsche’s early and later responses to pessimism; his early response is in his account of the purpose of art in Die Geburt der Trägodie and his later very different response is in Menschliches, Allzumenschliches, questioning the whole metaphysics behind pessimism. The chapter then considers Dilthey’s reaction to pessimism, which first questions Schopenhauer’s theory of the will and then the assumptions behind his hedonistic calculus. The chapter concludes with an examination of Simmel’s many writings on pessimism.
Lebensphilosophie and Historicism
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: April 2023

This chapter treats the Lebensphilosophen contribution to historicism. Historicism is the thesis that everything in the human and natural world is the product of history, that nothing is eternal or static in these worlds. It is also the attempt to show that history can achieve the rank of a science. Nietzsche, Dilthey, and Simmel were major contributors to the development of the historicist tradition. They realized that human life is dominated and made by history, we cannot transcend history, and to understand life is to understand the history that made it. Dilthey was a major contributor to the development of hermeneutics, the science of interpretation. Nietzsche was a major proponent of historicism beginning with the program of “historical philosophy” in Menschliches, Allzumenschliches. Simmel too was an important historicist, which is plain from his early critique of historical realism in his Probleme der Geschichtsphilosophie.
Beijing's Global Media Offensive
Authors: Kurlantzick Joshua
Published: April 2023

In Beijing’s Global Media Offensive, the author provides one of the first analyses of how China is attempting to build a media, information, and influence superpower around the world, and how this media and political influence power integrates with other forms of Chinese influence in other countries’ politics. The book covers China’s influence and media power both in China’s immediate neighborhood in Asia and in Latin America, Europe, the United States, and many other parts of the world. It traces the ways in which China is trying to build an information and influence superpower but also critically examines the new conventional wisdom that Beijing has enjoyed great success with these efforts. While China has worked hard to build a global media and information superpower, it often has failed to reap gains from its efforts and has undermined itself with overly assertive, alienating diplomacy. Still, the book contends that China’s expanded media, information, and political influence campaigns will continue to expand and adapt, potentially helping Beijing export its political model and protect the ruling party, and potentially damaging press freedoms, human rights, and democracy abroad.
Introduction
Authors: Ortegren Jennifer D.
Published: April 2023

The introduction discusses the key concepts of the book—class, aspiration, and dharma—and how they operate in the rapidly shifting landscapes of Udaipur. It begins by introducing the space and place of the neighborhood of Pulan, which is the focus of the book, and articulations of class within the neighborhood, including the central role of caregiving to mark class as a moral identity and women’s critical roles in defining neighborhood norms. The chapter also addresses definitions of dharma as outlined in classical Sanskrit texts and how the historical development of dharma generates a framework to understand contemporary aspiration as a process in which women bring emerging class desires to overlap with more traditional obligations. It then lays out the main argument of the book, namely how dharma, defined as “that which holds the world together,” offers an analytical lens in which to recognize class as a religious identity.
Ganesha Chaturthi and the Boundaries of Dharma
Authors: Ortegren Jennifer D.
Published: April 2023

This chapter emphasizes the broader spatial and community boundaries within which middle-class dharma is constructed and authorized. It focuses on Ganesha Chaturthi, a 10-day festival honoring the elephant-headed god Ganesha, which offers emerging opportunities—and expectations—for upwardly mobile women to expand their ritual repertoires. This chapter traces the path of one ritual community as they travel outside of the neighborhood for the concluding festival practices and analyzes contrasting narratives about ritual practices from both women in Pulan and more elite women outside of Pulan. In doing so, it highlights how the urban neighborhood emerges as a religious space within which localized definitions of middle-class identity and propriety are constructed and corresponding dharmic expectations are validated and made meaningful.
Dharma and Discomfort During Navaratri
Authors: Ortegren Jennifer D.
Published: April 2023

This chapter examines practices during Navaratri, a nine-day festival honoring the goddess, for which many families return to rural homes to worship localized forms of the goddess within caste-homogenous communities. It analyzes the ways in which middle-class and religious identities are mutually constructed in relationship to local communities but focuses on distinctions both within Pulan itself and between the urban neighborhood and a rural village. This chapter also investigates competing claims about the existence of two ritual sites and communities within Pulan as well as claims to feeling more “comfortable” in the village due to the caste homogeny there. These claims reveal implicit tensions and discomfort in urban areas related to the ambiguity of a shifting middle-class dharmic world and highlight a more general sense of dharmic instability within the emerging middle classes that affects their ability to comfortably and fully inhabit middle-class dharmic selfhoods.
From Politics to Philosophy
Authors: Waterfield Robin
Published: April 2023

Plato had decided to become a politician in Athens, but two events put him off. The first was the brief regime of the Thirty Tyrants, imposed on Athens by Sparta at the end of the Peloponnesian War. Plato was initially attracted to the aims of this oligarchy, and two of its prominent members were members of his family, but he became disgusted by their savagery. Second, after democracy had been restored in Athens, his beloved teacher Socrates was put on trial and condemned to death for impiety and corrupting the city’s youth. Plato gave up on the idea of becoming a politician in the real world and, now in his twenties, retired into theory and teaching. This chapter rejects the idea that he traveled extensively around the Mediterranean after Socrates’s death. The last sections of the chapter discuss the nature of Plato’s dialogues and come up with a way of ordering them chronologically.
The Middle Dialogues
Authors: Waterfield Robin
Published: April 2023

This chapter is less biographical and more philosophical. The middle dialogues are probably the most famous sequence of philosophical writings that the Western world has ever produced. The chapter lingers over what Plato says about love in Symposium and Phaedrus: passion can, under the right circumstances, remind us of the existence of Forms and turn us into philosophers, in the sense that we become motivated to recover knowledge of Forms. The chapter summarizes the theory of Forms (as in Phaedo and Republic) and discusses how Plato’s visit to the Pythagoreans (described in chapter 4) influenced this work of his middle period. It then returns to the distinction between knowledge and belief (chapter 4), but now on the basis of his middle-period metaphysics. Finally, the chapter shows that it is not just metaphysics and epistemology (the theory of knowledge) that are essentially intertwined, as Plato saw it, but also ethics.
North to Boston
Authors: Gumprecht Blake
Published: April 2023

North to Boston examines the history of Black migration to the city from the South as part of the Great Migration and explores that subject in greater depth through the life histories of ten individuals who moved to the city from 1943 to 1969. Each is the focus of one chapter. Tens of thousands of Black southerners moved to Boston during the twentieth century, transforming the city. North to Boston is the first book, or serious research of any kind, devoted to that subject. The stories of the individuals featured bring to life the history of the Great Migration. They reveal a hidden aspect of Boston’s history and shine a spotlight on a singularly important event in the making of Black Boston. They also provide a rare glimpse into the lives of ordinary people living in one city’s Black community.
The Great Migration in New England
Authors: Gumprecht Blake
Published: April 2023

Between World War II and 1980, tens of thousands of Black people moved to Boston from the South, part of the Great Migration, transforming the city. But almost nothing has been written about the Great Migration’s impacts on Boston, and the city is rarely mentioned in histories of the subject. This chapter introduces a book that explores Black migration to the city through the life histories of ten individuals who moved to Boston between 1943 and 1969. It discusses the impacts of the Great Migration on New England and provides a short history of Black migration to Boston.
Geraldine Walker
Authors: Gumprecht Blake
Published: April 2023

Tells the life history of Geraldine Walker, one of tens of thousands of Black people who moved to Boston from the South during the Great Migration, transforming the city. Walker moved to Boston from rural Clay County, Alabama, in 1963. She is one of ten people featured in a book that explores the Great Migration by examining the lives of individual migrants. Each is the focus of one chapter. Their stories bring to life the history of the Great Migration. They reveal a hidden aspect of Boston’s history and shine a spotlight on a singularly important event in the making of Black Boston. They also provide a rare glimpse into the lives of ordinary people living in one city’s Black community.
Is Cardiovascular Disease a Part of the Black Experience?
Authors: Ray Keisha
Published: April 2023

Although the number of deaths from cardiovascular disease, such as hypertension and strokes, are generally on the decline for most racial groups, cardiovascular disease continues to be a more deadly disease for Black people. There are known clinical factors that contribute to cardiovascular disease like diabetes and obesity. But this chapter explores the social and economic determinants of health that lead to Black people’s disproportionate experiences of these clinical risks like poverty, stress from racial discrimination, and unsafe and resource-deprived neighborhoods. This chapter also explores lifestyle factors (and whether they can be considered choices) that contribute to cardiovascular disease like access to healthy foods, diet of “soul food,” and access to proper employment. Therefore, in this chapter, using Black people’s experiences with cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular health care, Black people’s poorer cardiovascular health is examined within the context of their inequitable access to social determinants of health.
Hegel, Cinema, and the Other Arts
Authors: Badiou Alain
Published: April 2023

Cinema, the seventh art, emerges sixty years after Hegel’s death. In his magnum opus on aesthetics, Hegel states that theatre, more precisely modern comedy, was the last of the arts, in the following formula: “[Modern] comedy ultimately leads to the dissolution of art.” It would seem senseless to infer, from within the Hegelian system, the emergence of a new, previously unknown art form, after modern comedy. The question is why Hegel excludes a subsequent dialectical turn, that is to say, the dissolution of this dissolution. We would then have a new figure in which art would be the total deployment of its already existing resources. There would be a figure of representation whose content would progressively accumulate the destiny of an art henceforth atemporal and in a way absolute. This art would then be the last, not because the absolute manifests itself only negatively, but, on the contrary, because the absolute would manifest itself in it as the total mobilisation of the registers of representation. This art would simultaneously be architecture, sculpture, painting, and dramatic poetry, and it would bring history of art to a halt not through the negative pirouettes of comedy but by the seriousness and anxiety combined in its redemptive totalisation. Could this total art be cinema?
Up the Junction, Intermediality, and Social Change
Authors: Street Sarah
Published: April 2023

This chapter examines intermedial connections between two visual iterations of Nell Dunn’s Up the Junction, a collection of observational stories published in 1963: Wednesday Play, a TV series directed by Ken Loach in 1965, and a feature film directed by Peter Collinson in 1968. These were based on the author’s cross-class experiences of living and working in Battersea in the late 1950s, taking the form of reported conversations and descriptive prose. Most critical commentary relates to Loach’s adaptation of Dunn’s stories. The privileging of the televisual expression of Dunn’s work, however, tends to obscure the extensive intermedial network of relations surrounding Up the Junction as a multifaceted critical experiment. The chapter demonstrates how the texts engage with complex fields, intersecting themes, and “traces” that illustrate how a basic idea is circulated within different media forms and styles. The analytical foci include Susan Benson’s line drawings in Dunn’s book and their “figural” relationship with her prose, the visualisation of sociological discourses through documentary techniques, the use of popular music, and the impact of monochrome and colour aesthetics. An incident (“The Gold Blouse”) that features in the stories and two visual texts are compared to map the effects of different emphases within intermedial exchange.
Cinema from the Perspective of the Stage
Authors: de Araújo Luciana Corrêa
Published: April 2023

This chapter investigates intermedial encounters between silent cinema and theatre in Brazil, focusing on plays staged in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo from the late 1910s to the 1920s. Often considered a “threat” to theatre, foreign films and film culture also provided a variety of themes and strategies that were incorporated on stage. Theatre would thus take advantage of cinema’s growing popularity, establishing creative exchanges while also promoting attractions that would appeal to the general theatrical audience. Drawing on Charles Musser’s proposal for an integrated history of theatrical entertainment, which embraces both live stage performance and the cinema, this study of film references in stage plays brings to the fore the influence of cinema on theatrical themes, characters, and plots and also points to early and innovative contributions of foreign films, especially Hollywood productions, to staging and performance styles.
Stephen Dwoskin, an Intermedial Artist
Authors: Garfield Rachel , Chamarette Jenny , O’Donoghue Darragh
Published: April 2023

The work of Stephen Dwoskin (born 1939 in Brooklyn, died 2012 in London) is varied in form, subject matter, and genre. He is best known for his early underground films, his seminal book Film Is . . ., and his role in setting up the London Film-Makers’ Co-op. Dwoskin was a working-class man, part of the Eastern European Jewish diaspora, and a survivor of childhood polio who used calipers, crutches and a wheelchair to support his mobility. He navigated experiences of multiple exclusion across his lifetime, and nevertheless had a prolific output of films, graphic design, painting and writing. This chapter explores his artwork through the films Chinese Checkers (1965), Trixi (1969), Dyn Amo (1972), Central Bazaar (1976), Trying to Kiss the Moon (1994), and Grandpère’s Pear (2003), which span his life and demonstrate the breadth of his oeuvre. These provide an examination of Dwoskin as an intermedial artist who came to artistic maturity in the multimedia New York Underground of the early 1960s, and whose practice was informed by, and often incorporated, other art forms, such as dance, painting, performance, avant-garde theatre, literature, and music. Through close readings of film works as well as historical contextual analysis, this medial multiplicity will be shown to be an artistic embodiment of the layered complexities of any person’s life: the relationship between the individual, the family, and ethnic and national tradition; the interplay between the artist and histories of art; the conflation of varied temporal, spatial, and even metaphysical coordinates; and the paradox of the organic individual using impersonal reproductive technology to record and provide access to a life.
The Intermedial Reworking of History in Peter Greenaway’s The Tulse Luper Suitcases Trilogy
Authors: Chinita Fátima
Published: April 2023

This chapter focuses on Peter Greenaway’s The Tulse Luper Suitcases trilogy as a Historical saga encompassing the years of World War II, but recounted in the highly abstract and formally postcinematic aesthetic advocated by the director. In this work, Greenaway establishes a correlation between cinema and other art forms, as if he were a metaphorical media archaeologist retracing the recurrence of technical, artistic, and narrative properties of media. Thus, old media are represented and refashioned in a way that addresses three of Francesco Casetti’s contentions in his book The Lumière Galaxy. The first film of the trilogy highlights the technical properties of old media; the second concentrates on art forms perceived as certain types of sensory configurations; the third relies more heavily on digital technology and the flux of multiple narratives in an audiovisually performative way. Greenaway’s observation that “Every medium needs to constantly re-invent itself” resonates with the fallacy of History, which is never stable, never objective, never ending. If “there is no history, only historians,” and “all historians are liars,” as Greenaway contends, then perhaps from a media archaeologic perspective, Marshall McLuhan’s dictum that “the medium is the message” is still true today, highlighting the trilogy’s metamediality.
Elimination Reactions. II. Conformation and Stereochemistry
Authors: Bachrach Steven M.
Published: April 2023

Conformational analysis, a powerful tool for understanding chemical behavior, is used to explain the chair structure of cyclohexane, which is confirmed using x-ray crystal structures. Through a clever experiment design of a substituted cyclohexane, the anti-periplanar pathway of the E2 reaction is confirmed.
Lessons Learned
Authors: Bachrach Steven M.
Published: April 2023

This chapter describes ways that physical organic chemists approach scientific problems that may translate to other areas. Specific lessons include acknowledging the primacy of facts, producing careful experimental design, drawing from beauty and symmetry, questioning underlying assumptions, and embracing change.
Introduction
Authors: Mitchell Scott A.
Published: April 2023

The introduction lays out the central arguments, theory, and methods of The Making of American Buddhism. The book seeks to interrogate a series of binaries or false choices in the study of American Buddhism—such as traditional/modern, authentic/inauthentic, sectarian/universal—that impede a deeper understanding of the tradition’s history. Arguing against these frames, the book works toward a theory of messiness wherein historical subjects are allowed to occupy simultaneous and even conflicting identities and perspectives. This distinctive simultaneity is clearly evident in the subjects of this book, Nisei Buddhists who argued for their rightful place as American Buddhists and, in doing so, created religious infrastructure that made possible the later popularization of Buddhism in the United States.
All This and Discrimination
Authors: Mitchell Scott A.
Published: April 2023

Whereas the World War II incarceration of Japanese Americans looms large in the study of American Buddhism, this chapter discusses racial trauma both before and after the camp experience, what is referred to in the Berkeley Bussei as the “Nisei problem.” This “problem,” the chapter argues, is the effects of racial discrimination against Japanese Americans. Rather than arguing for assimilation via conversion to Christianity, however, the Nisei Buddhists under study argued vigorously for their right to be both American and Buddhist; moreover, they argued that Buddhism was what they had to contribute to American society, a cure for the failings of modernity. Finally, as more than merely a rhetorical argument, and anticipating the following chapter, this chapter ends with a discussion of religious labor. Specifically, it looks at the gender dynamics of running a Buddhist community and the work of Jane Imamura, Kimi Hisatsune, and others who made possible American Buddhism.
Problems within the Vory Criminal Organization
Authors: Mironova Vera
Published: April 2023

Though selfless and effective leadership of vory criminal organization was once the norm among the organization, that is not the reality of the organization today. Although the vory movement has been a strong force in the Soviet Union for nearly a century, it has been undergoing major changes since the Union’s fall in the 1990s. In particular, they lost their main enemy—the Soviet government—and have no one to fear anymore, which led to the group getting caught in internal problems. In particular, quality of leadership significantly decreased. These changes have made the organization much weaker. And some members of the criminal organization, even those who used to actively support the vory ideology, are disappointed in what it has become.
Albert Schweitzer (1875–1965)
Authors: Frayne Carl Tobias
Published: April 2023

Schweitzer was a visionary. In addition to his groundbreaking theological work and musical prowess, he pioneered the animal rights and modern environmental movements by developing a biocentric ethics. His philosophy of civilization is primarily concerned with the moral and spiritual betterment of the individual and of society. The notion of “reverence for life” (Ehrfurcht vor dem Leben), which he once described as “a necessary widening and refining of ordinary ethics,” is at the heart of this endeavor. This chapter argues that Schweitzer puts forth an ethics of excellence that anticipates the revival of what is now commonly known as virtue ethics. It also examines the concept of ethical mysticism, as well as the role of wonder, aesthetic contemplation, and the sublime in the moral life. It aims to show that reverence for life provides edifying insights on the genuine ethical life and our relationship to the more-than-human world.
Paul Tillich (1886–1965)
Authors: Smith Abbey
Published: April 2023

The majority of Tillich’s three volumes of his Systematic Theology are almost exclusively humanocentric and provide precious little with which to address the matter of how humans should treat the other animals with whom we share the planet. This chapter argues that by applying Tillich’s “method of correlation” as he intended, it is indeed possible to redress the humanocentric bias that colors his system. Further, it will conclude that taking adequate theological account of nonhuman animals, far from damaging his system, actually strengthens it, allowing it to illuminate a theology that is less inconsistent and more theocentric.
Exit as a Process
Authors: Pinfold Rob Geist
Published: April 2023

Chapter 2 analyses Israel’s withdrawal from Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula. Unlike other cases examined here, Israel did not leave the territory in one comprehensive exit. Instead, this chapter emphasizes three agreements that each caused Israel to leave the Sinai in an increasingly salient process of withdrawal: the 1974 Separation of Forces Agreement, the 1975 Sinai Interim Agreement, and the 1979 Camp David Accords. Existing literature frequently stresses the Camp David talks that produced the Israeli-Egyptian peace agreement and stresses the agency of leaders, such as Israel’s Menachem Begin. Breaking with this narrative, this chapter argues that Israel left the Sinai in spite of, not because of, Begin. It portrays the Israeli withdrawal from Sinai as the culmination of an incremental process that began in 1974, with the Separation of Forces Agreement. This agreement was the first time that Israel implemented territorial withdrawal, in exchange for non-belligerency concessions from a rival.
Leaving “Israel’s Vietnam”
Authors: Pinfold Rob Geist
Published: April 2023

Chapter 3 surveys Israel’s occupation and exit from southern Lebanon, between 1985 and 2000. The eventual Israeli withdrawal is generally perceived as “unilateral” and having been conducted without a negotiated agreement. Supporting this narrative, existing literature highlights the agency of internal domestic politics in precipitating Israel’s withdrawal. Thus, many studies frame Israel’s exit as either a triumph for civil society, or an irrational retreat engineered by casualty-averse domestic actors, depending on their ideological bias. Yet, this chapter illustrates that the withdrawal was not strictly “unilateral.” Secondly, the occupation of southern Lebanon was not a strategically effective policy, as many detractors of the withdrawal argue. Instead, the so-called security zone failed to either deter or constrain Israel’s adversaries. Though the domestic arena played an instrumental role, withdrawal was not an “irrational” retreat. Instead, Israel’s public refused to support an increasingly ineffective occupation.
Conclusions
Authors: Pinfold Rob Geist
Published: April 2023

This book ends by reiterating its key findings and unpacking the six points that were manifested in every exit but were absent in the cases where an occupation did not end. It further details the arenas of bargaining framework’s utility for understanding decision-making. It then illustrates the implications of this book’s generalizations and case-specific findings for the study of Israel, as well as occupation and exit as broad phenomena. For policymakers dealing with the twin problems of occupation and exit, the concluding chapter specifies lessons from Israel that can be applied elsewhere. It also delineates milieu-specific policy ramifications for Israel.
The Counterfactual Comparative Account
Authors: Feit Neil
Published: April 2023

This chapter contains a detailed discussion of the counterfactual comparative account of harm, according to which an event harms a person provided that she would have been better off, on balance, if it had not occurred. It provides a general version of the account for overall, all-things-considered, harm, and it provides a version that accounts for harm at a time. It discusses how advocates of the counterfactual comparative account should think about pro tanto harm. It then considers objections to the general account and offers responses to some of them. (Subsequent chapters in the book focus on the more serious objections and issues that relate to them.) Finally, it considers several accounts of harm that compete with the counterfactual comparative account and discusses the most substantial challenges for the competing views.
Harm and the Failure to Benefit
Authors: Feit Neil
Published: April 2023

This chapter discusses a challenge to the counterfactual comparative account of harm. The account allegedly overgenerates harms, since it counts as harmful certain events that intuitively are merely failures to benefit. For example, it seems to imply that when one person fails to benefit another, the first thereby harms the second, since the second would have been better off if the first had benefited her. The chapter discusses the challenge, surveys some solutions that are instructive but inadequate, and defends a solution. It argues that there are cases where one person harms another by failing to benefit her, and these are cases of preventive harm. It considers the impact of the solution on the widely held belief that harming is worse than failing to benefit, and defends a position on the strength of moral reasons against harming on which reasons against harming per se are weaker than is widely believed.
Introduction
Authors: Stein Nathanael
Published: April 2023

Despite all that has been written about Aristotelian causality, it is not clear (a) how he answers the main philosophical questions about causes to which he thinks his predecessors’ answers are flawed, and (b) how his answers bear on the main questions we confront in thinking about causality in general, such that they could be usefully critiqued, defended, developed, and compared with others. These include both first- and second-order questions about how to approach philosophical questions about causality. There are textual, philosophical, and historical reasons for this obscurity which must be confronted if we are to answer these basic questions. A chapter-by-chapter outline is presented, along with a preview of major themes and conclusions.
Background 2
Authors: Stein Nathanael
Published: April 2023

Aristotle is working within and reacting to a series of basic conceptual commitments regarding explanation and scientific understanding. He shares with Plato a basic distinction between what holds of something “in its own right” and what does not hold of it in this way. He thinks that mathematics is a paradigm of “science” (epistêmê, a body of knowledge organized under first principles), in a way that poses a challenge to the status and autonomy of natural science. The Posterior Analytics presents a slightly different four-causal schema which is logically and metaphysically simpler than the one in the Physics, in that it uses more basic conceptual resources and is uncommitted to hylomorphic analyses of change and substance.
Discreteness in Agent–Patient Relations
Authors: Stein Nathanael
Published: April 2023

Because of Aristotle’s metaphysical pluralism, the precise relationship between any type of cause and its effect will vary depending on the causal profile in question, as will the precise ways in which they can satisfy these properties of discreteness, non-accidentality, and contingency. Basic causal interactions represent an especially important challenge, since for them the issues that give rise to the realist challenge (and the Humean critique) are sharpest. The elements of basic interactions are analyzed in light of Physics II 3 and III 3. Several distinctions are drawn between ways in which two things may be or fail to be “discrete.” Aristotelian efficient causes are discrete from their effects in some of these senses but not in others. Potential efficient causes are also discrete from their effects in important respects in which actual efficient causes are not. The view is compared to modern “neo-mechanist” views in the philosophy of science.
Conclusion
Authors: Stein Nathanael
Published: April 2023

Aristotle’s pluralism about causality has been shown to have conceptual, metaphysical, and epistemological aspects. He nevertheless has a theory that plausibly satisfies the desiderata he applies in his critiques of his predecessors. It is distinctive both for what it says about causality and causal explanation as well as for what it says about how we should approach these topics. His view rejects two common modern assumptions, each of which has both metaphysical and epistemological importance: on his view, causality is not to be analyzed as supervenient upon a basic set of non-causal facts, and scientific progress is not to be characterized in terms of a shift in which an ordinary or “folk” ontology is replaced by a theoretical or scientific one.
Greek Awakenings
Authors: Miller Richard J.
Published: April 2023

Scientific research that used animals as models for humans began in ancient Greece. Aristotle was the first researcher to use animals systematically for research purposes. Aristotle attributed feelings to animals but not reason, placing them below humans in importance. Aristotle’s approach became the dominant way of thinking about the use of animals in research. In the third century CE, Galen extended Aristotle’s experimental approach, writing numerous books about his studies. Galen described his extensive research program that included performing studies on many kinds of live animals including primates. Many of Galen’s experiments were extremely cruel. Interestingly, Galen never conducted studies on humans either alive or dead as this was considered unethical for much of antiquity. Galen’s thinking influenced many types of medicine: he used animal experimentation to devise models of the human cardiovascular system and many other important physiological systems. Galen became the most important influence in research for the next 1,300 years.
The Modern Prometheus
Authors: Miller Richard J.
Published: April 2023

If it would be scientifically more appropriate to use humans to investigate human disease, is there any way this could be done in an ethical manner? In the nineteenth century Ernst Haeckel coined the term “stem cell” to describe a type of cell from which all others are derived during embryonic development. This chapter discusses the history of stem cells and how they can be used to clone animals and animal tissues, including human tissues. There has been exceptionally rapid progress in producing cloned versions of human tissues that do not require producing intact humans. These preparations are known as organoids. Organoids can be made that represent any human tissue, and can be used as experimental models, the results of which are human specific. Together with other current techniques, including sequencing, imaging, and artificial intelligence, biomedical research is now moving toward a completely human-based set of paradigms, making animal models obsolete.
The Entrepreneurial State
Authors: Gross Stephen G.
Published: April 2023

This chapter explains the Federal Republic’s second energy transition, to nuclear power, as a technocratic, state-orchestrated effort to create a new energy from scratch. It traces the rise of an “entrepreneurial state” in West Germany that created a new market for reactors where none had existed before, assuming much of the risk when the private sector feared to do so. State officials aligned with nuclear scientists to drive this transition. They did so less to supply the nation with energy than in the hopes that nuclear technology would help West German industry carve out a lead in a promising new sphere of high-tech exports. At the same time, the rush to nuclear power opened the door to potentially disastrous policies. It was based on energy-intensive growth that might not last forever. It concentrated decision-making power in a small clique of officials and corporate leaders. And it exposed citizens to unpredictable risks associated with atomic radiation.
Reinventing Energy Economics after the Oil Shock
Authors: Gross Stephen G.
Published: April 2023

This chapter traces the rise of a novel approach to market governance among West German economists during the 1970s and 1980s. While the groundwork for this was laid by American economists, West Germans were the ones who combined different schools of thought into a new paradigm that aimed to use the state to guide markets in an ecological direction. These economists defy easy categorization, and complicate the conventional distinctions between Keynesianism, neoliberalism, and Ordoliberalism. They were critical of markets, but they simultaneously condemned Keynesianism for exalting quantitative growth. As they worked to reinsert energy and nature into a profession that had focused almost exclusively on capital and labor, they carved out new policy arenas that fused the powers of the market with the strengths of the state. By trying to actively restructure the economy and reshape consumer behavior through pollution taxes and ecological investment programs, these experts crafted many of the policy instruments that West German politicians would embrace in the 1990s.
Energetic Hopes in the Face of Chernobyl and Climate Change
Authors: Gross Stephen G.
Published: April 2023

This chapter shows how new ideas about energy gained momentum during the 1980s and laid the groundwork for more lasting changes to come. With the entry of the Green Party into Parliament, the nuclear meltdown in Chernobyl, and the politicization of climate change, concern about energy reached a zenith during this decade. The Greens as well as the SPD put forth numerous legislative proposals to reform the nation’s electricity grid along ecological lines and reduce the nation’s energy use. Calls for a transition off fossil fuels and nuclear power failed because the Greens and the SPD were unable to form an alliance. Equally important, after 1989 the reunification of West and East Germany dominated politics, depriving energy policy of its urgency. Meanwhile, the rise of neoliberalism made it challenging for advocates of an energy transition to justify sweeping state interventions into infrastructure or technology. Nevertheless, the ideas of Ecological Modernization made great headway during this decade, entering major legislative proposals from all parties.
Introduction
Authors: Rabinowitz B. S.
Published: April 2023

The introduction presents the puzzle driving the book’s narrative: Why in the twenty-first century has the most technologically advanced society given rise to anti-science and fascism? History may have an answer. Ours is not the only era of contradictions. The fin de siècle was also a period that went from the heights of science and rationality to the depths of irrationalism and hatred. The hypothesis introduced is that explosive politics at the turn of both centuries is rooted in technological changes that brought humankind to its highest levels of sophistication. The project is to develop a theoretical model to explain this. Using the theories of Karl Polanyi’s theory of the “double movement” and Joseph Schumpeter’s of technological innovation, I argue that technological revolutions produced hyper-globalization, creating “eras” of defensive nationalism, a form of national populism that combines anti-liberalism and anti-globalization with economic nationalism, and which has both right- and left-wing expressions.
From Globalization to the Nation
Authors: Rabinowitz B. S.
Published: April 2023

This chapter looks at the political responses to economic and social dislocation in both centuries. It examines how right-wing and left-wing formulations of who “the people” and “the nation” were developed, how economic nationalism became dominant, and lastly how each side of the political spectrum defined the international forces that were threatening the nation. In the late nineteenth century, on the left, American populist parties and socialist parties arose. They defined “the people” as the farmers and working people who were oppressed by eastern bankers and industrialists. In Europe extreme, right-wing nationalist movements identified the nation with the “heartland” and put the blame of changing times on the Jews. In the twenty-first century, left-wing defensive nationalist movements used the same tropes as their earlier counterparts, blaming the problems of globalization on multinational corporations. Right-wing defensive nationalists ethnicized the enemy—the groups in finance, evil nations opposing them, or immigrant hordes.
Forced Settlement and Colonial Occupation under French Rule
Authors: Owolabi Olukunle P.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 7 examines the historical and factors that undermined Haiti’s long-term development relative to other forced settlement colonies in the Global South. Haiti’s persistent underdevelopment is contrasted with the French Antilles colonies (i.e., Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Réunion), which implemented significant liberal reforms following the establishment of republican government in France. Consequently, emancipated Afro-descendants in the Antilles colonies also benefited from the expansion of citizenship rights and parliamentary representation in the Third French Republic after 1870. The expansion of citizenship rights and parliamentary representation in the French Antilles is contrasted with the extractive and repressive legal-administrative institutions that controlled indigenous Arab Muslims in Algeria, and indigenous African ethnicities in Senegal, Gabon, Madagascar, and the Comoros Islands. These diverse examples of French colonial occupation highlight the negative developmental legacies of extractive legal-administrative institutions that undermined the legal rights and political agency of indigenous colonial subjects under French rule.
Transformative Animal Protection
Authors: Donaldson Sue , Kymlicka Will
Published: April 2023

Because institutional constraints often preclude animal protection organizations (APOs) from taking an uncompromising public stand on animal rights, they are assumed to play a primarily meliorative rather than transformative role in the animal advocacy movement. This chapter questions this assumption, arguing that APOs can indeed contribute to genuine transformation through their own internal practices and ethos and through grassroots partnerships. One way to promote transformative change is to engage in “prefigurative” practices. Even within the current circumstances of profound injustice, it is possible to carve out moments or spaces for treating animals the way they should be treated in a (more) just society and establish the kinds of relationships with animals that would characterize a (more) just society. The chapter explores the scope for such prefigurative change within APOs in two main areas: (1) the creation of interspecies community and (2) the facilitation of animal agency.
Standardization among the Like-Minded
Authors: Grübler Julia
Published: April 2023

The EU-Korea trade agreement, which has been applied since 2011, has ushered in a new era of deep trade integration. Eight years later, the EU-Japan agreement was declared the new “gold standard” of EU trade relations. Korea and Japan are important trading partners for the EU. However, their significance goes beyond the bilateral relationship. Over the past few years, they have been integrated into a network of cross-regional agreements that may facilitate the spread of their definitional and normative principles. These include ASEAN + 3 and the two remaining mega-regional agreements, CPTPP and RCEP. Simultaneously, they have become very active in plurilateral and multilateral negotiations in sparsely regulated economic sectors, such as the digital economy and advancing technologies. The EU free trade agreements with these “like-minded” partners in East Asia show how existing international norms, standards, and institutions are being strengthened and how they aim to collaboratively create future standards for international trade.