bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Tests of Sequential Dependency Properties
Authors: Haccou Patsy , Meelis Evert
Published: November 2023

In a CTMC there is, at most, a first-order dependency in the sequence of states. Consequently, when it is applied to a behavioural record where states correspond to acts, it is assumed that is independent of the sequence of preceding acts (section 1.2). This implies that given the sequence of acts the about durations are mutually independent. In this chapter we discuss tests against possible additional dependencies that are relevant in ethological applications. In most of these tests it is not assumed that the bout length distributions are necessarily exponential.
Simultaneous Tests
Authors: Haccou Patsy , Meelis Evert
Published: November 2023

In analysing large data sets, for instance when testing for goodness of fit of a (semi-)Markov model, one can follow two different strategies. The first is to test every assumption or subhypothesis separately. Afterwards all results are combined by means of so-called omnibus or combination tests. This strategy can be considered as a ‘bottom-up’ approach. The second strategy is to apply an ‘overall test’ and to split up significant results, to find out which of the (sub)hypotheses have to be rejected, by means of so-called multiple comparison methods. This strategy is a ‘top-down’ approach. The two strategies are complementary to each other. Which one is to be preferred depends on the special characteristics of the problem under study. Combination tests and multiple comparison methods are called ‘simultaneous tests’ in the literature. We shall illustrate and discuss the procedures for the case of Markov modelling.
Examples of Analyses Based on Continuous Time Markov Chain Modelling
Authors: Haccou Patsy , Meelis Evert
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we give some examples of practical applications of analyses based on CTMCs and their generalizations. The examples are partially based on our collaborative projects with experimental research groups (i.e. the Ethopharmacology Group, Leiden University, and the Primate Research Centre, TNO, Rijswijk, The Netherlands), the rest are derived from the literature.
Breeding behaviour: preliminaries to nesting
Authors: Short Lester L , Horne Jennifer F M , Gilbert Albert Earl
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we highlight various behaviours that occur prior to egg-laying. Most barbets and toucans breed on territories, in some cases a small area around the actual nest, but usually a larger area in which the pair or group nest and forage. The large Whitethroated Toucan Ramphastos tucanus lives in social groups in a ‘home range’, within which the primary pair hold a territory during the breeding season. Territory in honeyguides is treated in Chapter 7.
Capitonidae — barbets, tinkerbirds
Authors: Short Lester L , Horne Jennifer F M , Gilbert Albert Earl
Published: November 2023

Description ADULT M: forehead to midcrown dull red on black, as is superciliary area; ear coverts with more red usually showing; lores with only sparse short, black feathers; hindcrown, nape and sides of neck glossy blue-black. Brown-black back, feathers when fresh tipped glossy blue-black; rump and uppertail coverts brown-black, sometimes with sparse yellow feather-tipping.
The group system
Authors: Matthews John D
Published: November 2023

The group system like the uniform system, produces crops that are of even-aged type by the time the pole stage is reached. During the thinning stages the treatment of crops under both systems is identical, and it is not until the regeneration stage is reached that they differ. Under the group system the first step is to go over the compartment and search for any promising groups of advance growth which may have appeared in gaps caused by wind, snow, or other agencies. If these groups of advance growth require freeing, the gaps are widened by felling trees around their edges (Ger. Umsaumungshieb) while at the same time, or as soon as a seed year occurs, a seeding felling is made in the form of a ring round each gap (Ger. Randelhieb). If there are not sufficient natural gaps over the compartment further gaps are created by felling trees in small groups. In this way numerous gaps are distributed over the regeneration area, which may be a whole compartment, or more commonly, only a portion of a compartment at a time.
Introduction
Authors: Hongfu Yin , Yuji, Liang , Guirong Xu
Published: November 2023

Palaeobiogeographical studies began late in China (Grabau 1932; Sun 1963). During the 1970s, after the acceptance of plate tectonics, research in this area acquired a great impetus. Among the pioneers were Lu (Lu et al. 1974) who, basing his conclusions on the Cambrian biota of China and the world, argued that palaeobiogeographical distribution and provincialization were controlled by biotic-environmental factors such as source regions, parallel evolution, and physical environments. Later Mu (1983) claimed that palaeobiogeographical provincialization resulted from ecological differentiation. He summarized and subdivided the Ordovician marine biotas of China into several modes of life adapted to different marine environments and occupying different tectonic units of China. Application of palaeobiogeographical results to the interpretation of plate tectonics resulted in a large number of publications during the past decade, including a symposium (Editorial Committee of Treatise on Basic
Sinian
Authors: Yiyuan Chen
Published: November 2023

Despite the complete sequence and widespread distribution of diversified Sinian sediments within China, the research on Sinian metazoan fossils in China has been a weak link all along, which partly hinders the study of the Sinian system. The finding of hyolithids in the Dengying Formation in Emei Mountain, Sichuan1 (Liao Shifan 1958) has drawn attention to the existence of Pre-Cambrian metazoans in China. However, if Anabarites, an important representative of the first assemblage of small-shelled fossils in China, is referred to the Sinian, the earliest report should date back to 1941
Silurian
Authors: Xinyi He
Published: November 2023

The Early-Middle Llandoverian was similar to the end of the Late Ordovician in the general features of palaeogeography and biotas. In the southern hemisphere, Gondwana was still integral, except for a number of small separate plates along its margins, and it was situated mostly in the middle and high latitudes south to 30°S. Present-day northern Africa and southern South America were situated in the polar circle. The late Late Ordovician is noted for widespread glaciation, especially in Gondwana. Under the influence of the immense glaciation, global sea-level underwent a sharp drop of up to more than 100 m during the late Ashgill of Late Ordovician (Rong Jiayu et al. 1984). The environmental changes were so dramatic as to cause the decline or extinction of many marine groups. The most obvious example by which to illustrate this phenomenon is the almost complete extinction of the widespread Dalmanitina-Hirnantia fauna during the late Ashgill. Furthermore, up to the 90 per cent of the Late Ordovician trilobite genera disappeared during late Ashgillian. Nautiloids also showed a sharp decline.
Quaternary
Authors: Bexun Cao
Published: November 2023

In the Cenozoic, the continents of the northern hemisphere shifted towards the North Pole, and Antarctica occupied the south polar section. This situation, plus climatic changes, were favourable for the formation of the permanent polar ice sheets of Arctica and Antarctica in the Pliocene and Miocene, respectively. World temperature further declined after the Pliocene and the Earth has been experienced the late Cenozoic ice age. Quaternary biogeographical distributions were controlled by the above-mentioned plate-tectonic and palaeoclimatic changes. Thermophilous faunas migrated to low latitudes, temperate floras shifted southward and psychrophilous herbs and coniferous trees significantly increased in numbers. The modem provincialization therefore formed through addition of these alterations to the Tertiary biogeographical provincialization.
Implications Of Palaeobiogeo Graphical Provincialization For The Mesozoic And Cenozoic Palaeoclimate And Palaeodrainage Of China
Authors: Hongfu Yin
Published: November 2023

Figure 15.1 demonstrates an important phenomenon of palaeoclimate distribution in the geological history of China. There are two distribution patterns of tropical, arid tropical, humid subtropical, and humid temperate zones in the northern hemisphere. In the central and western portions of the Afro-Eurasian supercontinent and western North America, where the humid NE trade winds from the ocean cannot reach, the four belts are arranged in a regular south north order (A, B, C of Fig. 15.1). In eastern Asia and eastern North America, however, the wet trade winds from the Pacific and Atlantic oceans have pushed the arid belt further westward, so that here, from south to north, are arranged wet tropical, humid subtropical, and humid temperate zones.
Growth and energetics of brown trout
Authors: Elliott J M
Published: November 2023

The literature on fish energetics and growth has increased markedly during the last 20 years and has been summarized in several excellent reviews, mostly as chapters in larger, multiauthored books (Webb 1978; Brett and Groves 1979; Braaten 1979; Elliott 1979, 1981, 1982; Fischer 1979; Ricker 1979;Ursin 1979; Cho et  al. 1982; Pitcher and Hart 1982; Brafield 1985; Jobling 1985; Soofiani and Hawkins 1985; Weatherley and Gill 1987; From and Rasmussen 1989; Wootton 1990). As these reviews include a large amount of work on salmonids in both their natural environment and in captivity, this chapter does not attempt to survey all the literature on brown trout. Instead, emphasis is placed on the basic principles of energetics and growth, and the complex interrelationships that must be a part of any growth model. Although many factors can influence the growth of brown trout, it is generally agreed that water temperature, fish size and the level of energy intake (ration size) are the three most important variables.
Case-study: growth and production of migratory brown trout in Black Brows Beck, 1966-90
Authors: Elliott J M
Published: November 2023

The long-term study of brown trout in Black Brows Beck was introduced in Chapter 3. Emphasis was placed on the chief factors affecting population density and survival for different life stages and year-classes. A similar approach is now applied to the growth, size and production of the trout. This chapter begins by considering the length-weight relationships for different life stages of trout. Growth is then examined in relation to population density, water temperature, fish size, and level of energy intake. It has already been shown in Chapter 4 that the three latter factors are the most important variables affecting the growth and energetics of brown trout. One of the growth models [eqn (4.4)] described in Chapter 4 is shown to be an effective model for the trout population in Black Brows Beck. Without such a model, interpretation of the changes in growth would have been impossible.
Mechanisms responsible for population regulation in young brown trout
Authors: Elliott J M
Published: November 2023

The concept of population stability is central to most theories of population dynamics. It is usually accepted that an ecologically stable population is one that persists for many generations (e.g. May 1973; Nisbet and Gurney 1982). Stability does not mean constant and unchanging but, as stated in Chapter 3, it is the ability of a population to return to an equilibrium density following a transient perturbation. Highly stable populations return rapidly to pre-impact densities, but there may be also stable cycles of different periods (even chaotic fluctuations are theoretically possible but once zero occurs, the population is extinct; see Section 3.6.4). Such stability implies that the population is regulated in some way. Density-dependent processes are usually suggested as the chief mechanism for such regulation. Several excellent reviews of the fish literature, chiefly for marine species, have shown that populations are rarely regulated by density-dependent variations in female size or fecundity,
Ground beetles and the soil: their adaptations and environmental effects
Authors: Evans M E G
Published: November 2023

Ground beetles form a reservoir of predators in the upper soil levels of most terrestrial habitats. Although best known as surface runners, ground beetles may burrow into the soil to find prey, to store food such as seeds, for concealment (from predators or prey), or to reach deep hibernation sites. The most specialized burrowers are the Scaritini, which have elongate, pedunculate bodies and a range of digging adaptations. Their tunnels may reach over 70 cm, but most carabids penetrate only the more superficial layers of the soil, especially the litter and humus layers. This intrusion is facilitated by a horizontal pushing ability which differs widely between species. All carabid locomotor capabilities are compromises at various levels between the reciprocal abilities of running and pushing. Scaritines have emphasized the force component and tiger beetles the speed component, but most carabids exhibit a medium-speed/medium-force compromise. In all ground beetles the horizontal pushing ability is enhanced by a strong or weak wedge pushing ability. The ground beetle technique of wedge-pushing has been compared to the more sophisticated methods shown by two distinct groups of millipedes. The effect of all these wedge-pushers is to split up matted leaves and slow down the annual compaction of the litter layer. As with deep burrowers, their activities aid soil drainage, aeration and the movement of nutrients.
The banana cyst nematode, Heterodera oryzicola (Rao & Jayaprakash, 1978)
Authors: venkitesan J S K charles,T S
Published: November 2023

Musa spp. or cultivars are hosts of two species of Heterodera, namely H. oryzae (Luc & Brizuela 1961), reported by Taylor (1978) in Senegal, and H. oryzicola (Rao & Jayaprakash 1978), reported by Charles & Venkitesan (1984) from India. Before these pests were isolated from bananas, they were considered to be important pests only of rice. Species of Heterodera are to date the most destructive pests among the plant parasitic nematodes. Infestation with H. oryzicola is more serious when paddy-banana and nee crops are rotated and grown in traditional wetlands. The nematode infects only the secondary and tertiary feeder roots and not the primary fleshy lateral roots of banana. Morphological characters and measurements of males, juveniles and cysts are presented in Table 1.
Mode of action of the wing apparatus
Authors: Brodsky Andrei K
Published: November 2023

When the insect is flying forward, without accelerating, a balance of forces is observed, such that lift counterbalances body weight and thrust compensates total drag (Fig. 2.1). The long axis of the body is at an angle to the direction of flight, and the body drag experienced by the flying insect is a function of both body shape and conditions of airflow. A study of airflow around different insects by Brodsky and Ivanov (1974) showed that vortices are formed behind any body shape.
The origins of flight and wings in insects
Authors: Brodsky Andrei K
Published: November 2023

No structure in the Arthropoda, an extensive group of animals, has given rise to such a variety of hypotheses about their origin as have insect wings. Interest in the more than 150-year-old theories of insect flight has not faded, and is impelled by the importance of the colonization of the air for the evolution of insects. Without understanding the origin of flight we cannot establish the relationships between insects and other groups of Arthropoda nor follow the path of evolution which insects have followed since they acquired wings.
Arrival Of The British
Authors: Desmond Ray
Published: November 2023

In October 1579, Father Thomas Stevens (1549-1619), a Jesuit priest, stepped ashore at Goa from a Portuguese ship, the first Englishman to sail the sea route to India around the Cape of Good Hope. In a letter written in October 1583 to his brother Robert in Paris he praises the ubiquitous coconut palm and its refreshing milk: ‘this is so abundant that after drinking the contents of one nut, you scarcely feel the need of another’. His intervention helped to obtain the release of four of his countrymen from a Portuguese prison. John Newbery, Ralph Fitch, William Leedes, and James Storey, financed by the Levant and Muscovy Companies, had left London in February 1583 as the first English trade mission to India and the East, furnished with letters of introduction from Queen Elizabeth to Akbar and the Emperor of China. Suspected of spying, they were arrested on the island of Ormus in the Persian Gulf-a strategic Portuguese entrepot for goods from the East-and sent to Goa where they were imprisoned. Through the intercession of Father Stevens and Linschoten they were released on parole after having assured the authorities that they were good Catholics. Fearful that their liberty would be short-lived, three of them fled to the safety of neighbouring Bijapur.
Botanical Research Begins
Authors: Desmond Ray
Published: November 2023

In December 1771 Linnaeus was pleased to inform his friend, John Ellis, a London merchant, that his former pupil, Johann Koenig, had ‘found a lot of new things in Tranquebar’ in India. Tranquebar, a coastal town some 150 miles south of Madras, had been leased by the Danish East India Company from the Raja of Tanjore in 1620. Prosperity always eluded it and eventually in 1845 the Danes sold it without regret to the British. The natural history interests of some of the missionaries stationed there provided a focus for botanical activity among Europeans in the south. A Protestant Moravian mission, directed from Halle University in Saxony with the co-operation of the Danes, had been operating in Tranquebar since 1702. It would be reasonable to suppose that botanizing was only taken up seriously by some of the missionaries or ‘United Brethren’ as they called themselves, after Koenig’s arrival there in 1768 as surgeon. He initiated them in Linnaean methodology; they exchanged specimens, formed a herbarium, named plants which until experience gave them confidence they did collectively, applying the word ‘nobis’ (named by all of us) to their plant labels. They sent plants to their European correspondents including Joseph Banks in London. In 1788 the Tranquebar Society, a learned society modelled on the recently formed Asiatic Society in Calcutta, attracted naturalists as well as orientalists, linguists, and historians. The m1Ss10naries were some of its most active members; one of their number, Christoph Samuel John, contributed several papers on the local flora.
Francis Buchanan
Authors: Desmond Ray
Published: November 2023

When William Roxburgh left Calcutta to regain his health early in 1813, very few of his friends expected him to return. It was generally known that Francis Buchanan was the Company’s next nominee for the post and if he refused there would be no shortage of contenders. Among them was Thomas Hardwicke (1755-1835), an all-round amateur naturalist with a predilection for zoology. Early in his military career he had botanized on a tour to Srinagar in Kashmir and described his gatherings in Asiatick Researches. He discovered Rhododendron arboreum in the Siwalik Hills and sent seeds of it to England, the first Indian rhododendron to be introduced to European gardens. Sir James Edward Smith was pleased to copy Hardwicke’s drawing of this rhododendron in his Exotic botany (1804). The opportunity, however, for Hardwicke to change career never arose and he eventually retired from the Bengal Artillery in 1823 with the rank of Major-General.
Green Medicine
Authors: Desmond Ray
Published: November 2023

Both the Dutch and British East India Companies endeavoured to make their overseas settlements less dependent on supplies of drugs from Europe by substituting cheaper and fresher local products. Royle, asked by the Medical Board of Bengal to report on native medicines, purchased a representative selection in the bazaars, and listed them in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, giving vernacular and botanical names and indicating those parts of plants used as drugs. The first use of the phrase, ‘bazaar medicines’, has been attributed to Royle who had a great respect for Indian works on materia medica ‘which were far advanced and embraced an extensive range of subjects before any progress had been made in Europe’. While Superintendent at Saharanpur Botanic Garden he established a garden at Mussoorie for medicinal plants including indigenous species used by native doctors. As Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics at King’s College London, he paid tribute to the efficacy of traditional Hindu medicine in his introductory lecture to students.
Rubber, Coffee, And Forestry
Authors: Desmond Ray
Published: November 2023

No one today would dispute the immorality of Britain’s defiant continuance of the opium trade in the face of official Chinese opposition. It was a sordid episode in British imperialism, yet it had its supporters apart from the principal beneficiaries, the Government of India and British and Chinese merchants. They even included some deluded Christians. The German missionary, Karl Gutzlaff, convinced himself that the ‘traffic would tend ultimately to the introduction of the Gospel’. Religious tracts often accompanied each case of opium. An American missionary compared the British expeditionary force in 1839 to ‘God’s Axe’ and hailed this intervention as ‘The Divine will’. The Government of India casually refuted all charges of unethical behaviour. It argued that Chinese officials were more concerned about the drain on their bullion than about the drug’s pernicious effects. The Bengal Finance Minister in 1862, defending the export of Indian opium, reassured his audience that ‘as the Englishman is a drinker of beer, so is the Chinaman a smoker of opium’. Some advocates of opium went so far as to claim positive benefits. G. H. M. Batten of the Bengal Civil Service saw it as a means ‘to resist fatigue, to sustain privation, and to save life’.
Palatal expression of TGF-β isoforms in normal and retinoic acid-treated mouse embryos
Authors: FitzPatrick David R , Abbott Barbara D , Akhurst Rosemary J
Published: November 2023

The transforming growth factors type beta (TGF-β.is) are a fascinating family of closely related dimeric proteins that have tissue-specific effects on the growth, differentiation, and extracellular matrix deposition of cells in culture (for review see Massague 1990; Roberts and Sporn 1990). Although there are at least eight isoforms of TGF-β1 in vertebrates (Thomsen and Melton 1990), only three have been characterized in mammalian species, TGF-β1 (Moses et al. 1981; Roberts et al. 1981; Derynck et al. 1985), TGF-β2 (Cheifetz et al. 1987; Seyedin et al. 1987; Wrann et al. 1987; Hanks et al. 1988), and TGF-β3 (ten Dijke et al. 1988; Miller et al. 1989; Denhez et al. 1990).
Expression of retinoic acid receptors and dermal-epidermal interactions during mouse skin morphogenesis
Authors: Viallet Jean P , Ruberte Esther , Krust Andrée , Zelent Arthur , Dhouailly Danielle
Published: November 2023

Vertebrate skin comprises two tissues—the epidermis and the underlying dermis. Much data is available relating to the respective roles of these two skin components for each step of scale, feather, and hair morphogenesis (see Sengel 1976; Dhouailly 1977h, 1984; Sawyer 1983 for reviews) but little is known about the language of communication used by the tissues. In particular, two different and successive waves of dermal information are required for the initiation and achievement of morphogenesis of the cutaneous appendages (Dhouailly 1973). The early wave, which can be understood and interpreted by an epidermis from another vertebrate class, is responsible for the formation of epidermal placodes; the later wave, which contains indispensable information for regional structural organization of cutaneous appendages, is responsible for the development of a specific programme of differentiation of the placodes, i.e. the choice between scale and feather in birds, and hair and gland formation in mammals. Exogenous retinoic acid (RA) has marked effects on embryonic skin morphogenesis, leading to the exchange of one developmental pathway for another, e.g. abnormal location of feather is obtained on the normally scaled feet of chick embryos (Dhouailly et al. 1980), while glomerular-type glands develop in mouse upper-lip skin (Hardy 1968, 1983, Chapter 14). Furthermore, the fact that these homeotic-type effects are observed only when RA is added at the placodal stage of cutaneous appendage morphogenesis, led to the hypothesis that RA treatment might alter the dermis in such a way that the developing placodes can be diverted to a different programme of morphogenesis (Hardy 1983).
Lateral mobility of membrane proteins—a journey from heterokaryons to laser tweezers
Authors: Edidin Michael
Published: November 2023

Soon after virus-induced heterokaryons were described (Harris and Watkins 1965) it was observed by several laboratories that species-specific surface markers of the parent cells were randomly distributed over the heterokaryon surface (Watkins and Grace 1967; Harris et al. 1969; Gordon and Cohn 1970). All of these observations were made hours after the fusion of the parent cells, and were made with fairly low spatial resolution. Larry Frye, then a graduate student in my laboratory, decided to refine the experiments by resolving the time required for randomization of surface markers from parent cells.
Radiation hybrid mapping: an idea whose time has finally arrived
Authors: Cox David R
Published: November 2023

In 1975, Stephen Goss and Henry Harris published a short paper in the journal Nature that promised to revolutionize the field of human gene mapping. Entitled ‘New method for mapping genes in human chromosomes’, this paper described a systematic approach for determining the linear order of human genes and estimating the distances between them. Previous workers had used rodent-human somatic cell hybrids to map genes to specific human chromosomes or to specific chromosomal segments in those regions of the genome where human translocation chromosomes were available. However, such maps were very crude in comparison with the genetic maps available for many other organisms.
Davidsoniaceae
Authors: Wilkinson By Hazel P
Published: November 2023

Davidsonia F. Muell. is a monotypic genus of one species and two varieties endemic to NE Australia. The trees reach to c.10 m in height. DaFidsonia was formerly included in the Cunoniaceae but has been excluded by Bange (1952; see Taxonomic Notes).

Account for leaf and young stem based mainly on original observations at Kew on D. pruriens F. Muell.
Pittosporaceae
Authors: Wilkinson By Hazel P
Published: November 2023

This family comprises some 240 species (Carlquist 1981b) and nine genera. The largest genus, Pittosporum Banks ex Soland. (150-160 spp.), grows in tropical and subtropical parts of Africa, Asia, Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. Bentleya E.M. Bennett (2 spp.), Billardiera J.E. Smith (c.25 spp. including 16 spp. formerly in Marianthus Huegel and 3 spp. in Rhytidosporum F. Muell. ex Hook. f.), Bursaria Cav. (c.5 spp.), Cheiranthera A. Cunn. ex Brongn. (c.4 spp.), Citriobatus A. Cunn. (c.5 spp.), Pronaya Huegel (1 sp.) and Sollya Lindi. (2 spp.) are all confined to Australia and Tasmania, except one species of Citriobatus which is Malaysian. Hymenosporum R.Br. ex F. Muell. (l sp.) grows in Australia and New Guinea. The family includes trees, shrubs, climbers and twiners with flexuose or decumbent branches; the plants are frequently evergreen, occasionally spinescent and five species of Pittosporum arc sometimes epiphytic (Schodde 1972).
Byblidaceae
Authors: Wilkinson By Hazel P
Published: November 2023

The Byblidaceae consist of five species of carnivorous plants belonging to the genus Byblis Salisb., mostly endemic to Australia. In northern Australia there are four herbaceous, annual species (Lowrie and Conran 1998), of which only B. liniflora Salish. has been examined for this work. In SW Australia and New Guinea is a short-lived perennial, moderately woody plant, B. gigantea Lindl., up to 0.5 m in height, also examined for this work. Both live in white sandy areas that are swampy in winter but dry in summer, where each year a proportion of plants succumbs to drought. B. gigantea is found growing on burnt areas, where it may occur in abundance. Both species have rhizomes from which the aerial parts arise.
Eremosynaceae
Authors: Gornall By R J , Al-Shammary K I A
Published: November 2023

The family consists solely of the monotypic Eremosyne Endl. The species, E. pectinata Endl., is an ephemeral herb endemic to SW Australia.
MHC expression in the natural history of cervical cancer
Authors: Stern Peter L , Duggan-Keen Margaret
Published: November 2023

An active role of the immune system in preventing the development of HPV-associated malignancies is supported by evidence that immuno compromised individuals such as allograft recipients, cancer and AIDS patients exhibit an increased incidence of HPV-associated lesions (Schneider and Koutsky 1992). Immunological intervention might therefore be a use ful approach to the control and prevention of cervical neoplasia. It is likely that the T cell mediated arm of the immune response would be of primary importance in any surveillance of tumour cells. The most likely viral target antigens would be derived from the HPV16/ 18 E6 and E7 transforming genes which are frequently retained and expressed in cervical carcinomas (see Chapter 5).
Concluding remarks
Authors: Stern Peter L , Stanley Margaret
Published: November 2023

Much effort is being devoted to understanding the immunobiology of human papillomaviruses. Owing to the overwhelming experimental and epidemiological evidence to implicate the ‘high risk’ HPV types (notably, HPV 16 and 18) in the development of cancer of the cervix, much of this research effort is focused on the high-risk group. The rationale is two-fold. Firstly, the identification of naturally occurring immune responses will have implications in the design of vaccination strategies. Thus, the kinds of responses and the target viral antigens associated with natural immunity may allow us to elicit particular kinds of responses known to have protective value.It is clear that HPV infection is a necessary but not sufficient factor in the development of cervical malignancy. The natural history of genital infection with HPV is largely unknown but recent epidemiological studies indicate that infection with HPV is common in adolescents and young adults and is acquired at the onset of sexual activity.
Drugs, their behaviour and their effects on the body
Authors: Ferner R E , Norman Elizabeth , Rawlins M D
Published: November 2023

A drug is a single chemical substance or natural product that can be used to prevent or treat disease or to alter the physiological state of the body. This definition of a drug therefore includes those products such as attenuated measles virus which are given to healthy people in the hope of preventing disease. It also includes those substances which alter the physiological functions of the body, examples of which would be contraceptive substances, such as the spermicidal compound nonoxynol-9, and the progestagen used as an oral contraceptive.
Insulin
Authors: Ferner R E , Norman Elizabeth , Rawlins M D
Published: November 2023

Insulin is a hormone, that is, a ‘chemical messenger’, secreted by specialized cells called the B cells (formerly the β cells) in the pancreas of vertebrate animals. The pancreas synthesizes a large molecule called preproinsulin, which is broken down to proinsulin and then to insulin and C-peptide. When a molecule of insulin is released from the pancreas, a molecule of C-peptide is released with it. The rate at which the normal pancreas secretes insulin (with C-peptide) varies, and is mainly determined by the concentration of glucose in the bloodstream. The insulin secretion rate is high when the blood glucose concentration is raised above nor mal, and falls to zero when the blood glucose concentration is below normal. Insulin itself affects cells in the liver, the muscles, and the fatty tissue, and increases the rate at which these cells take up glucose. It also prevents glucose being formed from the storage compound glyco gen. These two effects combine to reduce the blood glucose concentration.
The bowerbirds—an introduction
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Frith Dawn W
Published: November 2023

Many ornithologists would agree with the late Professor A.J. Marshall in nominating bowerbirds as the most interesting of all of the 144 bird families presently acknowledged with respect to the complexity of their behaviour and associated phenomena (Marshall 1951c; Sibley and Ahlquist 1990). The twenty species of passerine (or perching) birds that constitute the bowerbird family Ptilonorhynchidae are confined to the great island of New Guinea and the island continent of Australia, and their immediately adjacent islands, of the region known as Australasia (Fig. 1.1). Uniquely within the avian world, male bowerbirds skilfully build structures of sticks, grasses or other plant stems on or close to the ground and artistically decorate these ‘bowers’ with colourful fruits, flowers, feathers, bones, stones, shells, insect skeletons, and numerous other natural (and human-made) objects. Such decorations may exceed several thousand on a single bower, and males constantly steal them from one another. Where possible, males also attempt to destroy or damage the bower structures of their rivals. Males of some species manufacture and apply paint to their bowers, even holding a wad of vegetable matter in the bill tip to use as a tool to assist in applying their paint. The highly sophisticated building, decorating, collecting, arranging, thieving, singing, and courtship posturing and dancing by males is primarily to attract and impress females to the point of stimulating them to solicit and permit mating.
Ecological cycles, foraging, and other behaviour
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Frith Dawn W
Published: November 2023

The seasonality of bowerbird court establishment, attendance, courtship, mating, nesting, and moult are in large part governed by climate as reflected in the relative availability of food resources critical to sustaining birds through these energetically demanding activities. Foods typically peak in abundance towards the end of the dry/early wet seasons, with display and breeding, followed by moult, occurring during maximum fruit abundance of favoured food plant groups, which is largely synchronous with annual peak abundance of arthropods (FF 2001d and references therein).Avian frugivores fall into two groups: one of opportunists or generalists, that supplement their diet with fruit, and the other of specialists that feed pre-dominantly to exclusively upon fruit (McKey 1975; Snow 1981). Bowerbirds are specialist frugivores, with arthropods (mostly insects) comprising a smaller but significant part of their diets, especially important to nestlings (see Nestling diet, Chapter 6). Most plant food consists of fruits, but flower buds, flowers, new-growth stems, leaves, nectar, and sap are also occasionally taken.
Morphology, demography, bower sites, structures, and their significance
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Frith Dawn W
Published: November 2023

Weirds are generally robust passerines with strong and relatively stout bills, typical of omnivores, they are capable of the most delicate and skilful manipulation of objects. This ability is reflected in both the birds’ skull and its musculature (Bock 1963), and the bower structures they build. While they form a morphologically more homogeneous group than many passerine families, in terms of general appearance, body proportions, and posture, they do include some strikingly diverse plumages. Both sexes of all catbird species are similarly green above and spotted or streaked green to buff below with sharply contrasting black and white facial markings. Both sexes of the Tooth-billed and Vogelkop Bowerbirds are generally brown, whereas adult males of the remaining three, and otherwise brown, gardeners and the all black Archbold’s wear elongate erectile crests of brilliant orange or yellow. In marked contrast to its preceding close relatives, adult male Goldens are largely brilliant canary yellow while females and immature males are greyish (see Plates 3–8
Breeding biology and parental care
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Frith Dawn W
Published: November 2023

Bowerbirds have long attracted attention because of the bower building and associated behaviour of males of the polygynous species, and their significance to sexual selection theory. On the other hand, studies of nesting biology are few compared with those of males at bowers but are critically important to an understanding of the ecology of reproduction, relationships between sexes, and possibly also of male dispersion. Nesting biology within the family is of particular interest because it involves both monogamous and polygynous breeding strategies. In this regard bowerbirds are similar to the birds of paradise, also confined to Australasia (CF and Beehler 1998). Bowerbirds for which nests are known are solitary nesting species and it appears unlikely that any species ever nests gregariously, colonially, or with the involvement of ‘helpers’ (cf. Skutch 1987). Nest parasitism has not been recorded in bowerbirds.
Family Ptilonorhynchidae: the bowerbirds
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Frith Dawn W
Published: November 2023

The family Ptilonorhynchidae comprises 20 spp of compact, robust, oscinine songbirds of Australia (6 genera, and 10 spp of which 8 are endemic) and New Guinea (5 genera, and 12 spp of which 10 are endemic): see Fig. 2.2 and Plates 3–8. Most inhabit humid, mostly tropical, forest and/or woodlands and savannas but 5 occur S into the Aust subtropics. Only Ptilonorhynchus ranges significantly into the temperate zone. New Guinea is traditionally considered the centre of generic diversity and spp richness and presumed to be where the group originated, but recent studies suggest the possibility of a Gondwanan-Australian origin. Molecular results support anatomical ones in indicating bowerbirds are among the root lineages of Aust song birds. The family exhibits the following characters: an enlarged lachrymal that is unique in songbirds and parallelled only by lyrebirds. The temporal fossae are large and well defined (Fig. 2.1), except in Ailuroedus in which the postorbital and zygomatic processes are reduced.
Principles of in situ hybridization
Authors: Hofler Heinz , Mueller James , Werner Martin
Published: November 2023

Over the past few years methods employing immunological and molecular biological techniques have had an increasingly important impact on pathology. The introduction of immunohistochemistry and Western blotting as research and diagnostic tools began a new era in pathology and led to a much clearer understanding of cell and tumour biology. Over the past decade the amount of information available through molecular biology has expanded dramatically with the development of recombinant DNA techniques, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sensitive methods for the detection of specific DNA and RNA sequences by molecular hybridization. Generally, hybridization can be performed on solid supports, in solution (in vitro) or on tissue sections or cell preparations (in situ). Traditional hybridization techniques for solid supports involve the transfer of extracted and electrophoretically separated DNA fragments on to a filter (nitrocellulose or nylon membranes) followed by hybridization with a specific DNA probe (Southern blotting).
The preparation of non radioisotopic hybridization probes
Authors: Bakkenist Christopher J , Mcgee James O’D
Published: November 2023

The detection of specific nucleic acid sequences in DNA or RNA, which have been biochemically purified and immobilized on a membrane, either directly, or by transfer following electrophoretic fractionation, is one of the most prevalent methodologies used in molecular biology. The sequences of interest are detected on the membrane by hybridization to a labelled nucleic acid probe. The molecules most commonly used to label probes are radionuclides, which may be detected indirectly using autoradiography, and radionuclides remain the most resilient labels available. The purpose of in situ hybridization is the detection of specific nucleic acid sequences in intact cells, such as Drosophila oocytes, or within tissue sections, such as human biopsies, and requires the presence of the DNA or RNA sequence of interest to be correlated with microscopic morphology. .
Quantification of in situ hybridization macro-autoradiograms
Authors: Davenport Anthony P
Published: November 2023

In situ hybridization uses single-stranded polynucleotide probes to detect endogenous nucleic acids in slide-mounted sections of tissue. Incorporation of a radioactive reporter molecule within these probes permits the precise anatomical localization and quantification of mRNA encoding a range of biologically active molecules, including transmitters, receptors, and enzymes, using autoradiography and image analysis.
Sibthorp: The Years Between
Authors: Walter Lack H , Mabberley David J
Published: November 2023

When Sibthorp returned to Oxford in December 178 7 he was 29 years old and in comfortable circumstances: the income from his estates was supplemented by his salary as Sherardian Professor of Botany and his stipend from the Radcliffe Fellowship, which was to come to an end only three years late1 His botanical collections from the journey (about which more will be said in Chapter 15) had arrived safe and sound,1 and during his absence from England no losses had occuned among his family.
Hawkins: The Second Journey
Authors: Walter Lack H , Mabberley David J
Published: November 2023

In contrast to Hawkins’s first journey, there is an account of his second. H was written by James Thoburn, who had earlier accompanied Sir Christopher Hawkins as servant on his Grand Tour to France and Italy and was now to join his younger brother John. It is clearly a fair copy summarizing scattered notes made earlier. Very dry and technical in approach, written in an often eccentric orthography with inconsistent spelling of place-names, Thoburn’s unpublished text offers insights into the world of a servant travelling abroad, a world entirely different from that of his master.
Sibthorp: The Final Months
Authors: Walter Lack H , Mabberley David J
Published: November 2023

Very little is known about the final months of Sibthorp’s life. The main sources are a few letters and Smith’s biography. Having returned to Oxford before 8 October 179 5, Sibthorp very likely lodged again at Cowley House, possibly with his half-sister Lady Sewell. He must have been to London and Brighton. where he ‘bathed only in the tepid Bath’, before writing to Smith, feeling, ‘since my Return ... very much indisposed and in a very infirm State of Health a nasty low Fever—with a Cough that alarms me from some Affection of the Lungs’. No appropriate medication being then available, Sibthorp relied on ‘gentle exercise on Horseback’ and, nursing himself at Oxford with ‘asses’ milk’, considered a cure at Bristol. Taking his poor health into account, it seems unlikely that Sibthorp was able to reassume his responsibilities as Sherardian Professor. as Keeper of the Physic Garden and as honorary physician; there is no evidence that he continued to work on his manuscript for the Proclromus or that he started the projected Flora Graeca. However, he was still interested in news from the botanical world, writing to Smith ‘in case You have an opportunity of sending down ye Icones pictae of Jacquin by any of your Friends that are coming thro’ Oxford I shall be obliged to You for the Conveyance if not send them by any of the Oxford Coaches.’
The Publication of the Results
Authors: Walter Lack H , Mabberley David J
Published: November 2023

The essence of science is publication; no research work is finished before the results are made known in print to the scientific community. This holds true for all fields, but it is particularly important in taxonomy. Unpublished names have no standing whatsoever; both the International Codes of botanical and zoological nomenclature agree on this point. There is a basic conformity between both Codes on the principle of priority, so that, within certain limitations, the oldest printed scientific name is the one which must be used.
The Eveolution, Classification and Identification of the Hymenoptera
Authors: Gauld Ian D , E.Hanson Paul
Published: November 2023

The Hymenoptera is a very distinctive group of holometabolous insects whose monophyly is attested by several synapomorphies including: the possession of two pairs of membranous wings, the smaller hind pair of which are coupled to the larger fore pair by one or more small hooks (the hamuli), and possession of a haplo-diploid sex determination mechanism whereby diploid fertilized eggs normally give rise to females and haploid unfertilized eggs normally give rise to males. Females primitively have a lepismatid form of ovipositor (Scudder, 1961), which may be a secondarily derived (apomorphic) feature, or may represent a retention of the ancestral condition for insects.
The evaniomorph parasitoid families
Authors: Gauld Ian D , Hanson Paul E
Published: November 2023

Evaniidae, Ceraphronidae and Megaspilidae. Although the features he used to characterize the group are prob ably symplesiomorphic (N.F. Johnson, 1988), evidence is mounting to support Rasnitsyn ‘s hypothesis. Johnson (op. cit.) found support for this group in the form of the mid coxal articulation. Gibson (1985) found evidence for the monophyly of Megaspilidae + Ceraphronidae in the form of the mesotrochanteral depressor muscle and the location of the occlusor muscle apodeme. He also found evidence for a sister group relationship between these families and the Megalyridae in the position of the mesothoracic spiracle and the form of the mesotergal trochanteral muscle. Whitfield et al. (1989) produced further evidence for the monophyly of Megaspilidae + Ceraphronidae in the form of the metapostnotal region, and found enlarged phragmal lobes in both the Aulacidae and Gasteruptiidae.
Sexual selection: theories of female mate choice
Authors: Ligon J David
Published: November 2023

Sexual selection is based on variation in mating success. This variation has two components: intrasexual competition, which often is openly agonistic in nature, and competition to attract members of the opposite sex. In this chapter, the most controversial and thus most interesting aspect of sexual selectionmate choice by females-is considered. The key question here is the one that attracted Darwin’s interest, namely, how and why are the amazingly extravagant ornaments exhibited by males of many avian species attractive to females? The major theories addressing this question are presented below. This is followed by a discussion of an issue critical to sexual selection theory, namely, variance in the reproductive success of males. This chapter is meant to provide the theoretical background for the issues addressed in Chapters 3-6, in particular.
Morphological ornaments and song
Authors: Ligon J David
Published: November 2023

Among vertebrates, birds are a comparatively homogeneous group in their basic morphology and reproductive biology. They exhibit, however, mindboggling diversity in those traits associated with courtship and mate choice. Apart from flight, the traits of birds that most excite the human imagination are those resulting from sexual selection.