bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Personal Learning Planning: Can Tutoring Improve Pupils’ Learning?
Authors: Bullock Kate , Wikeley Felicity
Published: December 2004

This article explores the impact of a Personal Learning Planning (PLP) initiative on pupils’ understanding of, and confidence in, learning. The cornerstone of the initiative was a one–to–one, or small group, discussion between Year 9 students and their class tutor. This resulted in a written personal learning plan. The benefits and weaknesses of the initiative are discussed and the interrelationships between action planning, one–to–one tutoring and learning are explored.
Nationalism, liberalism and liberal nationalism in post‐war Croatia*
Authors: Massey Garth , Hodson Randy , Sekulić Duško
Published: December 2004

This article analyses ethnic nationalism and liberalism as expressed in the views of Croatians in the aftermath of the 1991–5 war – a war during which ethnic‐nationalist rhetoric played a large role. Because the war was part of systemic change in the nation, including the adoption of more democratic and capitalist social formation, we also anticipated economic and political liberalism to be present among a sizeable portion of the population. We provide an analysis of the structural conditions fostering these sentiments, an analysis potentially applicable to a range of societies presently in transition. Based on 1996 survey interviews (N=2,202) conducted throughout Croatia, we show that ethnic nationalism in the Croatian context is more widely shared than is liberalism. The effect of religious fundamentalism, educational attainment and media exposure are as predicted, based on theories of liberalism and nationalism. Wartime experiences and position in the occupational system have a weaker and more mixed influence than hypothesised. Perhaps most importantly, we find that three out of five Croatians embrace both ethnic‐national views and views that are distinctly liberal, suggesting that liberal nationalism is now dominant in Croatia. The characteristics of groups holding differing views suggest that recent events and current changes in Croatia bode positively for continued growth of liberal sentiments, but this will not necessarily be at the expense of ethnic nationalism.
Nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Estonian nationalism revisited
Authors: Raun Toivo U.
Published: December 2004

This article revisits the topic of Estonian nationalism during the second half of the nineteenth century and up to the eve of independence in the early twentieth century. It briefly surveys the treatment of the Estonian case in recent larger works on nationalism and then offers an assessment of various issues relating to Estonian nationalism in its early phase, including the suitability of a strictly modernist approach, nation formation and the question of the spread of national consciousness on a mass basis, and the role of cultural versus political aspects. The article also notes the deepening of research on nationalism in post‐communist Estonia, especially studies of social mobilisation, ties with neighbouring Finland and Latvia, and the role of Russification. It concludes with a reassessment of the salient elements of Estonian national identity in this period.
A national cautionary tale: Russian women newcomers to Israel portrayed*
Authors: Golden Deborah
Published: December 2004

This article focuses on portrayals of recent women migrants from the (former) Soviet Union in Israel, as these found expression in jokes and in articles in the press. Analysis of these portrayals suggests that the ubiquitous association of the newcomer women with prostitution served to construct them as morally and socially fragmented. Loosened from the moral bounds of familial and, by implication, national ties, the newcomer women were located beyond the boundary of the Israeli Jewish collective. As the mirror image of the ‘loose’ newcomer women, mother‐like, Israeli Jewish women were seen as eminently suited to the task of ‘domesticating’ the newcomers – bringing them in from the street into the familial, and national, home. The discussion suggests that the portrayals of the women as prostitutes served as ‘national cautionary tales’, which not only instructed their audience (newcomers and oldtimers alike) in fundamental tenets of Israeli Jewish national identity, but also warned those who might seek to undermine the ethno‐national attachments and loyalties that lie at the heart of the Israeli polity.
The poverty of anti‐nationalist modernism
Authors: Smith Anthony D.
Published: December 2004

Abstract.In this reply to Dr Özkirimli's article, after considering the relationship between modernist and ethnosymbolic approaches, I propose some arguments for, and explanations of ethnosymbolic accounts. I concentrate here on the four main points raised by Dr Özkirimli: (1) the restrictions on the role of elites, (2) the limitations of presentism, (3) the importance of collective passion and attachment and (4) the plurality of ethnic heritages. I conclude with an explanation of my normative stance in relation to the question of ‘romantic nationalism’.
Decision Making while Rating ESL/EFL Writing Tasks: A Descriptive Framework
Authors: Cumming Alister , Kantor Robert , Powers Donald E.
Published: December 2004

This article documents 3 coordinated, exploratory studies that developed empirically a framework to describe the decisions that experienced writing assessors make when evaluating ESL/EFL written compositions. The studies are part of ongoing research to prepare a new scoring scheme and tasks for the writing component of the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). In Study 1 a research team of 10 experienced ESL/EFL raters developed a preliminary descriptive framework from their own think‐aloud protocols while each rating (without any predefined scoring criteria) 60 TOEFL essays at 6 different score points on 4 different essay topics. Study 2 applied the framework to verbal report data from 7 highly experienced English‐mother‐tongue (EMT) composition raters while each rated 40 TOEFL essays. In Study 3 we refined the framework by analyzing think‐aloud protocols from 7 of the same ESL/EFL raters who rated compositions from 6 ESL students on 5 different writing tasks involving writing in response to reading or listening material. In each study, participants completed a questionnaire to profile their individual characteristics and relevant background variables. In addition to documenting and analyzing in detail the thinking processes of these raters, we found that both groups of raters used similar decision‐making behaviors, in similar proportions of frequency, while assessing both the TOEFL essays and the new writing tasks, thus verifying the appropriateness of our descriptive framework. Raters attended more extensively to rhetoric and ideas (compared to language) in compositions they scored high than in compositions they scored low. The ESL/EFL raters attended more extensively, though, to language than to rhetoric and ideas overall, whereas the EMT raters balanced more evenly their attention to these main features of the written compositions. Most participants perceived that their previous experiences rating compositions and teaching English had influenced their criteria and their processes for rating the compositions.
The Patterns of Negotiation for Meaning in Child Interactions
Authors: Oliver Rhonda
Published: December 2004

This research examines conversational interactions between children aged 8 to 13 years. The 192 participants were paired to form 96 age‐ and gender‐matched dyads of native speakers (NS) and nonnative speakers (NNS): 32 NNS–NS; 48 NNS–NNS; and 16 NS–NS dyads. The pairs worked together on 2 communication tasks, a one‐way and a two‐way task. Transcriptions were made from recordings of these conversations and examined to determine the effects of native/nonnativeness, language proficiency, age, and gender on the negotiation for meaning strategies used by the children. The mean and standard deviations were calculated for each group and, because of the nature of the data, the results were compared using nonparametric statistical procedures.

These results suggest that in child‐child interactions the nativeness and proficiency of pairings influence the amount of negotiation for meaning that occurs. In terms of native/nonnativeness the results showed that in nearly all cases, NNS–NNS dyads used more negotiation for meaning strategies than did the NNS–NS dyads who, in turn, used more than did the NS–NS dyads. With respect to proficiency, age, and gender, the effect of these factors was slightly different than it was in adult‐adult dyads. The general trend with respect to language proficiency was that the least native‐like pairs (i.e., matched low proficiency nonnative dyads) produced the most amount of negotiation, with gradually decreasing amounts as the pairings became more native‐like in proficiency (i.e, L–L > H–L > H–H > L–NS > H–NS > NS–NS) and, unlike the results in adult studies, age and gender comparisons showed no significant differences.
Teaching Languages to Future Health Professionals: A Needs Assessment Study
Authors: Lepetit Daniel , Cichocki Wladyslaw
Published: December 2004

This article presents the results of a needs assessment study carried out with university students who were preparing to work as health professionals. Questionnaire data gauged the students’ expectations for language courses intended specifically for their areas of specialization. Analysis follows a multidimensional approach and examines profiles of the student body, student aspirations, and course contents. The results reveal a number of distinct patterns, which are discussed in comparison with current trends and practice in second language acquisition. They constitute a potential and valuable source of information for designing curricula for health professionals based on learners’ needs.
Frequency of Use, Perceived Usefulness, and Actual Usefulness of Second Language Vocabulary Strategies: A Study of Hong Kong Learners
Authors: Fan May Y.
Published: December 2004

This study is the largest scale project ever conducted in Hong Kong concerning the learning of English vocabulary by Cantonese speakers. The aims of the project were threefold: (a) to find out the vocabulary size of the tertiary students and whether they need help with academic vocabulary, (b) to identify the strategies that are conducive to learning vocabulary in general and the strategies that are especially useful for learning high– and low–frequency words in particular, and (c) to look at the discrepancies among the frequency of use, the perceived usefulness, and the actual usefulness of vocabulary strategies. The participants in the study included 1,067 students who had recently been offered places by the 7 local institutions of higher education. A vocabulary test and a vocabulary learning strategy questionnaire were used for data collection. Whereas in an earlier work (Fan, 2001) the author reported the findings in relation to the first aim, this article focuses on the findings for the second and third aims. ANOVA and Multiple Regression were employed for data analysis. The results of the study shed light not only on the strategy profile of the Hong Kong learners in general but also on the complexity involved in strategy use. Strategies relevant to the learning of L2 vocabulary as well as high– and low–frequency words are identified, and their implications are thoroughly discussed.
Redefining Learning Disabilities as Inadequate Response to Instruction: The Promise and Potential Problems
Authors: Vaughn Sharon , Fuchs Lynn S.
Published: December 2004

In this introduction to the special issue, a response‐to‐instruction approach to learning disabilities (LD) identification is discussed. Then, an overview of the promise and the potential pitfalls of such an approach is provided. The potential benefits include identification of students based on risk rather than deficit, early identification and instruction, reduction of identification bias, and linkage of identification assessment with instructional planning. Questions concern the integrity of the LD concept, the need for validated interventions and assessment methods, the adequacy of response to instruction as the endpoint in identification, the appropriate instruction intensity, the need for adequately trained personnel, and due process. Finally, an overview of the articles constituting the special issue is provided.
Responsiveness‐to‐Intervention: Definitions, Evidence, and Implications for the Learning Disabilities Construct
Authors: Fuchs Douglas , Mock Devery , Morgan Paul L. , Young Caresa L.
Published: December 2004

Longstanding concern about how learning disabilities (LD) are defined and identified, coupled with recent efforts in Washington, DC to eliminate IQ‐achievement discrepancy as an LD marker, have led to serious public discussion about alternative identification methods. The most popular of the alternatives is responsiveness‐to‐intervention (RTI), of which there are two basic versions: the “problem‐solving” model and the “standard‐protocol” approach. The authors describe both types, review empirical evidence bearing on their effectiveness and feasibility, and conclude that more needs to be understood before RTI may be viewed as a valid means of identifying students with LD.
Implementing the Chief Financial Officers Act and the Government Performance and Results Act in the Federal Government
Authors: Jones L. R. , McCaffery Jerry L.
Published: December 2004

The Chief Financial Officers Act of 1990 and the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993, along with other legislation passed by Congress, are stimulating major financial management reform in the federal government. This article evaluates reform implementation against nine criteria developed in previous research on this topic. The criteria are accounting system adequacy, congressional intent, ability of Congress to use financial statement data, executive branch implementation incentives, capability of the Office of Management and Budget, utility of financial statements for decision making, use of performance measures in budgeting, coordination of federal organizations charged with implementation responsibility, and executive and congressional support for reform.
Budget Control in Virginia Public School Districts
Authors: Staples Catherine L. , Rubin Marc A.
Published: December 2004

This article examines the selection and use of a budget approval technique. Specifically, two research questions are addressed: (1) Does the use of a particular budget approval method by a governmental body impact the execution of the budget? (2) What characteristics of a local government are associated with its decision to use a particular budget approval method? Both research questions are addressed by analyzing data from public school systems in the Commonwealth of Virginia, specifically, whether using categorical budget approval differs in the accuracy of budgeting versus using a lump‐sum approval method. Characteristics of Virginia school districts are also analyzed according to whether any of them are likely to be associated with school districts using a particular approval method. The remainder of this article is organized as follows: the next section describes the role of budgeting control in schools; subsequent sections review Virginia school district budgeting practices, develop the empirical model used to test the hypotheses, describe the sample, analyze the results of empirical tests and discuss implications of the findings.
Toward a Regulatory Budget
Authors: Thompson Fred
Published: December 2004

A regulatory budget would require the federal government to treat compliance costs incurred by the private sector as if they were incurred by the government, without requiring the government to actually assume those costs. For example, EPA could be given a regulatory compliance budget of say $80 billion in FY98. A regulatory budget would provoke an annual debate in Congress on the size of EPA's or OSHA's budget. Such a debate would force the proponents to weigh the benefits and costs of various regulatory programs, something now lacking in the political process.

Interest in a regulatory budget reflects the slight gains in the quality of regulatory decision making resulting from mandatory regulatory review. It is now apparent that better information about the costs, benefits, and distributional consequences of regulation will not automatically improve regulatory decision making‐although it would not hurt.
The Contract as Social Artifact
Authors: Suchman Mark C.
Published: December 2004

This article outlines a distinctive, albeit not entirely unprecedented, research agenda for the sociolegal study of contracts. In the past, law and society scholars have tended to examine contracts either through the intellectual history of contract doctrine “on the books” or through the empirical study of how real-world exchange relations are governed “in action.” Although both of these traditions have contributed greatly to our understanding of contract law, neither has devoted much attention to the most distinctive concrete product of contractual transactions—contract documents themselves. Without denying the value of studying either contract doctrine or relational governance, this article argues that contract documents are independently interesting social artifacts and that they should be studied as such. As social artifacts, contracts possess both technical and symbolic properties, and the sociolegal study of contract-as-artifact can profitably apply prevailing social scientific theories of technology and symbolism to understand both: (1) the microdynamics of why and how transacting parties craft individual contract devices, and (2) the macrodynamics of why and how larger social systems generate and sustain distinctive contract regimes. Seen in this light, the microdynamics of contract implicate “technical” theories of transaction cost engineering and private lawmaking, and “symbolic” theories of ceremony and gesture. In a parallel fashion, the macrodynamics of contract implicate “technical” theories of innovation diffusion, path dependence, and technology cycles, and “symbolic” theories of ideology, legitimacy, and communication. Together, these micro and macro explorations suggest that contract artifacts may best be understood as scripts and signals—collections of symbols designed to yield technically efficacious practical action when interpreted by culture-bearing social actors within the context of preexisting vocabularies and conventions.
Partners No More: Relational Transformation and the Turn to Litigation in Two Conservationist Organizations
Authors: Morag-Levine Noga
Published: December 2004

The rise in litigation against administrative bodies by environmental and other political interest groups worldwide has been explained predominantly through the liberalization of standing doctrines. Under this explanation, termed here “the floodgate model,” restrictive standing rules have dammed the flow of suits that groups were otherwise ready and eager to pursue. I examine this hypothesis by analyzing processes of institutional transformation in two conservationist organizations: the Sierra Club in the United States and the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel (SPNI). Rather than an eagerness to embrace newly available litigation opportunities, as the “floodgate” model would predict, the groups' history reveals a gradual process of transformation marked by internal, largely intergenerational divisions between those who abhorred conflict with state institutions and those who saw such conflict as not only appropriate but necessary to the mission of the group. Furthermore, in contrast to the pluralist interactions that the “floodgate model” imagines, both groups' relations with pertinent agencies in earlier eras better accorded with the partnership-based corporatist paradigm. Sociolegal research has long indicated the importance of relational distance to the transformation of interpersonal disputes. I argue that, at the group level as well, the presence or absence of a (national) partnership-centered relationship determines propensities to bring political issues to court. As such, well beyond change in groups' legal capacity and resources, current increases in levels of political litigation suggest more fundamental transformations in the structure and meaning of relations between citizen groups and the state.
Positive selection and lineage commitment during peripheral B‐lymphocyte development
Authors: Pillai Shiv , Cariappa Annaiah , Moran Stewart T.
Published: December 2004

Summary:  Although it is appreciated that the antigen receptor on B cells is required for peripheral B‐lymphocyte development and survival, it has been unclear whether this receptor interacts with self‐antigens during development or if it signals constitutively in an antigen‐independent fashion. The analysis of mutant mice in which antigen receptor signaling in B cells is either attenuated or enhanced has revealed the existence of a follicular versus marginal zone B‐lymphocyte cell‐fate decision. These analyses indicate that weak antigen receptor‐derived signals favor marginal zone B‐cell generation, and relatively strong signals favor the development of mature follicular B cells. Even stronger signals derived from the antigen receptor favor the generation of B1 B cells. This signal strength model for B‐cell development supports the notion that self‐antigens of varying affinity may mediate positive selection and lineage commitment. Direct evidence supporting such a view has been obtained from the analysis of antigen receptor knockin mice. Specific antigen receptors guide B cells to develop into specific lineages. Although Notch‐2, nuclear factor‐κBp50, and other genes are essential for marginal zone B‐cell development, instructive signals delivered by the antigen receptor represent the primary force driving positive selection and lineage commitment in B lymphocytes.
Peripheral B‐cell maturation: the intersection of selection and homeostasis
Authors: Cancro Michael P.
Published: December 2004

Summary:  B cells complete maturation after migrating to the periphery, where they transit several intermediate developmental stages prior to recruitment into the long‐lived primary pool. Because B‐lineage commitment is not regulated by peripheral pool size and most peripheral B cells are quiescent, the primary factors governing steady‐state numbers are the proportion of immature B cells surviving transit through later developmental stages and the longevity of mature B cells themselves. Substantial evidence indicates that the B‐cell receptor (BCR) plays an essential role in all these processes, but recent findings suggest a central role for the recently described tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family member, B‐lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS). Signaling through one of the BLyS receptors, BLyS receptor 3 (BR3), controls B‐cell numbers in two ways: by varying the proportion of cells that complete transitional B‐cell development and by serving as the primary determinant of mature B‐cell longevity. The recent discovery that BCR signaling is selectively coupled to BR3 expression in a developmentally regulated fashion links BCR‐ and BLyS‐mediated events, suggesting that specificity‐based selection and survival may be mechanistically similar processes.
Selection during development of VH11+ B cells: a model for natural autoantibody‐producing CD5+ B cells
Authors: Hardy Richard R. , Wei Chi‐Ju , Hayakawa Kyoko
Published: December 2004

Summary:  Natural autoantibodies constitute a large portion of serum immunoglobulin M (IgM) and bridge the adaptive and innate immune systems, serving as a rapid response to common pathogens. Many arise from a distinctive subset of B cells, termed B‐1, that express CD5. Here, we describe our studies with a representative CD5+ B‐cell‐derived natural autoantibody, the VH11Vκ9 B‐cell receptor (BCR) that binds a determinant on senescent erythrocytes. This specificity represents 5–10% of the CD5+ B‐cell subset, with a large portion accounted for by two novel BCRs, VH11Vκ9 and VH12Vκ4. We have found that the development of B‐lineage cells with a VH11 rearrangement is surprisingly restricted at several crucial bottlenecks: (i) one of the most common VH11 rearrangements generates a heavy‐chain protein that only inefficiently assembles a pre‐BCR, key for recombinase‐activating gene downregulation/allelic exclusion and pre‐B‐clonal expansion; (ii) cells containing VH11‐µ chains lacking N‐addition are favored for progression to the B‐cell stage, eliminating most bone marrow VH11 rearrangements; and (iii) only a subset of Vκ‐light chains combine with VH11 heavy chain to foster progression to the mature B‐cell stage. Together, these constrain VH11 generation to fetal development and may favor production of B cells with the prototype VH11Vκ9 BCR.
Molecular mechanisms guiding late stages of B‐cell development
Authors: Rolink Antonius G. , Andersson Jan , Melchers Fritz
Published: December 2004

Summary:  In mice, large numbers of immature B cells are continuously produced in the bone marrow. To enter the pools of mature B cells, these immature B cells have to pass two checkpoints. First, B cells have to migrate from the bone marrow to the spleen. The second checkpoint involves the immature B cells differentiating to mature B cells within the spleen. As the net result of this selection and maturation, only a fraction of the newly produced B cells enters the mature B‐cell pool. Recent advances in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms that operate at these two checkpoints are described and discussed.
Alternative routes to maturity: branch points and pathways for generating follicular and marginal zone B cells
Authors: Allman David , Srivastava Bhaskar , Lindsley R. Coleman
Published: December 2004

Summary:  Positive and negative selection of developing B cells is critical for generating a functional non‐pathogenic B‐cell repertoire. Newly formed B cells in the bone marrow or peripheral lymphoid system can be eliminated by one of several negative selection mechanisms or recruited through a poorly understood positive selection mechanism. In this review, we focus on the growing literature on the relevance of immature (transitional) peripheral B cells to the area of B‐cell positive selection, with an emphasis on the notion that transitional B cells can be subdivided into several functionally distinct subpopulations. In this discussion, we consider the nature of these transitional B‐cell subsets and their relevance to selection events that influence whether developing B cells eventually give rise to follicular versus marginal zone B cells. In addition, we attempt to initiate a resolution of current controversies surrounding transitional B‐cell subsets and offer an alternative model of peripheral B‐cell maturation and the follicular versus marginal zone decision.
Peripheral development of B cells in mouse and man
Authors: Carsetti Rita , Rosado M. Manuela , Wardmann Hedda
Published: December 2004

Summary:  In man and in mouse, B‐cell maturation occurs in steps, first in the bone marrow from hematopoietic precursors to immature/transitional B cells, then in the periphery from transitional to fully mature B cells. Each developmental step is tightly controlled by the expression and function of the B‐cell receptor (BCR) and by the ability to interact with the microenvironment. Mature B cells collaborate with T cells in the adaptive immune response, leading to the production of high‐affinity antibodies. This response is very accurate, but slow. Immediately after pathogen entry, however, antibodies already present in the serum reinforce the innate immune response and contribute to the first‐line defense against infection. Low‐affinity natural antibodies are produced by B‐1a B cells in the mouse and immunoglobulin M (IgM) memory cells in man. These antibodies represent an immediate protection against all microorganisms and the only one against encapsulated bacteria. B‐1a and IgM memory B cells may function as a link between the innate and adaptive immune response and thus perform a primordial B‐cell function.
Development and selection of marginal zone B cells
Authors: Lopes‐Carvalho Thiago , Kearney John F.
Published: December 2004

Summary:  It is now clear that functionally distinct subsets of mature peripheral B cells exist. Of these subsets, marginal zone (MZ) B cells in the spleen are strategically positioned at the blood–lymphoid interface and are programmed to initiate a fast and intense antibody response to blood‐borne viral and bacterial agents. Their ability to respond vigorously to antigen and polyclonal activators make MZ B cells key players in the early response to pathogens in the bloodstream. The specialized functions of these innate‐like lymphocytes bridge the gap between the early innate immune response and the slower adaptive antibody response, affected mainly by the more prolific follicular B cells. MZ B cells, like B1 cells, are important not only to combat infections but also in the maintenance of host homeostasis. Here we discuss some aspects of MZ B‐cell selection and function in health and disease.
The US gasoline situation and crude oil prices
Authors:   OPEC Secretariat
Published: December 2004

Before and during the United States' summer driving season, concern over the country's gasoline supply can potentially influence the direction of the petroleum market. There are three causes of concern: a persistent lack of gasoline‐producing capacity; a patchwork of as many as 18 different kinds of gasoline specifications; and the introduction of stringent new specifications for reformulated gasoline. However, gasoline stocks should be able to meet the needs of this year's driving season, at a time of ample crude oil availability, with strong imports. But, unplanned outages in the US logistics system and refining centres, or major disruptions in external gasoline supplies, could trigger price spikes that would, in turn, lead to frequently stronger crude oil prices, especially with the observed robust oil demand growth in China.
Coping with unexpected oil demand movements
Authors:   OPEC Secretariat
Published: December 2004

Continuous upward revisions to world oil demand projections for 2003 and 2004 are compared with the downward revisions that took place in 1998 and 1999, following the 1997 Asian economic crisis. Demand leads supply, in the current case, resulting in a time‐lag in the whole supply chain, while supply led demand half a decade ago, with the OECD's commercial stocks reaching record highs.

Recent months have seen a reversal of the longstanding inverse relationship between the United States of America's commercial crude oil stock levels and crude prices, and they are now moving in parallel. The fact that the US market is now adequately or even well supplied means that factors other than inventory levels are causing the present high prices. These factors are briefly outlined.

OPEC is doing everything it can to maintain market stability, with prices at levels acceptable to producers and consumers. The agreement reached in Beirut on 3 June is the latest example of this.
Inference of Seasonal Cointegration: Gaussian Reduced Rank Estimation and Tests for Various Types of Cointegration*
Authors: Ahn Sung K. , Cho Sinsup , Chan Seong B.
Published: December 2004

An extension of Gaussian reduced rank estimation of Ahn and Reinsel (Journal of Econometrics, Vol. 62, pp. 317–350, 1994) to seasonal periods other than four is presented. Simple adjustments for estimation that are necessary because of complex‐valued seasonal unit roots are presented in detail and the asymptotic distribution of the estimators that takes the same form as that in Ahn and Reinsel (1994) is derived. Tests for contemporaneous cointegration and common polynomial cointegrating vectors (PCIVs) for different seasonal unit roots are presented. Finite sample properties are briefly examined through a small Monte Carlo simulation study and a numerical example is presented to illustrate the methods.
Distribution and characterization of hemolytic activity by an oral anaerobe from the Streptococcus milleri group
Authors: Yamaguchi T. , Koreeda H.
Published: December 2004

Some oral anaerobes from the Streptococcus milleri strain group were found to secrete human specific hemolytic toxin, which was detected when bacteria were cultured in Todd‐Hewitt broth and Brain Heart Infusion broth. The toxin elicited by the Streptococcus intermedius strain was partially fractionated by ammonium sulfate precipitation. Preincubation with glutathione or cysteine showed significant inhibiting effects; however, no effects were seen with dithiothreitol or β‐mercaptoethanol, and cholesterol was a weak inhibitor. Five kinds of protease inhibitor had no effect on the hemolytic activity, and rabbit preimmune and immune sera against the bacterial cells showed weak inhibition at a similar level. Digestion with trypsin, chymotrypsin, proteinase‐K, subtilisin and pronase‐P brought about a rise in activity, followed by a decrease during long‐term incubation. Other enzymes tested showed no effects. Further, the presence of the intermedilysin gene in the portion with hemolytic activity was not identified by polymerase chain reaction.
Host‐dependent differences during synergistic infection by Potyviruses with potato virus X
Authors: González‐Jara P. , Tenllado F. , Martínez‐García B. , Atencio F. A. , Barajas D. , Vargas M. , DíAZ‐RUIZ J. , Díaz‐Ruíz J. R.
Published: December 2004

A comparative analysis of the synergistic interaction between PVX and either PVY or TEV potyviruses was performed in Nicotiana benthamiana and N. tabacum plants. In each PVX/potyvirus combination, doubly infected plants developed much more severe symptoms than singly infected ones. However, while PVX accumulation increased in doubly infected N. tabacum plants compared with singly infected plants, the accumulation of PVX did not vary drastically in doubly infected N. benthamiana plants with respect to single infected ones. These findings suggest that the relationship between viral titre enhancement and synergism in PVX/potyvirus infections is host dependent. Since PVX and potyviruses contain suppressors of a plant antiviral defence system mediated by gene silencing, differences observed in the response of these two related hosts to PVX/potyvirus interactions might reflect the effect of these viruses on host specific antiviral defences.
Sources of target specificity associated with the recovery against Pea seed‐borne mosaic virus infection mediated by RNA silencing in pea
Authors: Van Den Boogaart Tom , Maule Andrew J. , Davies Jeffrey W. , Lomonossoff George P.
Published: December 2004

Transgenic peas containing a copy of the Pea seed‐borne mosaic virus (PSbMV) isolate DPD1 NIb sequence develop a ‘recovery’ phenotype when challenged with either the homologous (DPD1) or a heterologous (NY) PSbMV isolate. However, the specificity of the subsequent resistance differs with respect to the initiation by and targeting of different virus isolates. Analysis of tissue in which recovery had been induced by either of the isolates, revealed the presence of low molecular RNA molecules (siRNA) derived from degradation of the NIb transgene mRNA. When non‐transgenic scions were grafted on to transgenic stocks in which recovery had been induced, all the scions became infected, indicating that the virus can be exported from recovered tissue. Experiments in which recovered scions were grafted on to non‐transgenic stocks revealed that the recovery phenotype could be maintained in the apparent absence of a source of virus. However in a number of cases, side‐shoots which developed on the non‐transgenic stock became infected. These results indicate that recovered tissue contains extremely low levels of infectious virus with the potential, directly or indirectly, to confer the observed resistance specificity. Indirectly, the viral genome could act as a source of specific siRNA molecules, which are present in infected tissues but are below the level of detection in recovered tissues. These could act in conjunction with siRNAs derived from the transgene mRNA to maintain a level of PTGS (post‐transcriptional gene silencing) activity which is effective in preventing further accumulation of homologous or related viruses. We suggest a model to explain the differential specificity.
Presentation of α‐galactosylceramide by murine CD1d to natural killer T cells is facilitated by plasma membrane glycolipid rafts
Authors: Lang Gillian A. , Maltsev Sergei D. , Besra Gurdyal S. , Lang Mark L.
Published: December 2004

CD1 molecules are non‐polymorphic major histocompatibility complex class I‐related proteins that bind and present glycolipid antigens to T‐cell antigen receptors (TCR) expressed by αβ T cells or natural killer‐like T cells (NKT). Anti‐metastatic properties of NKT cells reactive to the CD1d‐binding antigen α‐galactosylceramide (α‐GalCer) are now being explored as a contributor to tumour cell killing. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that presentation of α‐GalCer by murine CD1d (mCD1d) to mCD1d‐restricted NKT cells was facilitated by plasma membrane glycolipid rafts. Confocal microscopy of mCD1d‐transfected A20 B cells (A20mCD1d) demonstrated that mCD1d was raft‐localized. This observation was confirmed by immunoblotting of raft fractions isolated on sucrose density gradients. Raft disruption by the cholesterol‐binding agent nystatin, or short‐chain ceramides, inhibited presentation of low concentrations of α‐GalCer to NKT cells. Inhibition of antigen presentation was reversed by treatment of A20mCD1d cells with higher α‐GalCer concentrations, or removal of raft‐disrupting agents. These data indicate that partitioning of mCD1d into membrane rafts increases the capacity of antigen‐presenting cells to present limiting quantities of glycolipid antigens, perhaps by stabilizing mCD1d/antigen structures on the plasma membrane and optimizing TCR engagement on NKT cells.
Toll‐like receptor (TLR) expression and TLR‐mediated cytokine/chemokine production by human uterine epithelial cells
Authors: Schaefer Todd M. , Desouza Kristin , Fahey John V. , Beagley Kenneth W. , Wira Charles R.
Published: December 2004

The objective of this study was to examine the expression of toll‐like receptors (TLRs) by the uterine epithelial cell line ECC‐1 and to determine if stimulation of the expressed TLRs induces changes in cytokine and/or chemokine secretion. The expression of TLR1 to TLR9 by ECC‐1 cells was demonstrated by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, with only TLR10 not being expressed. Stimulation of ECC‐1 cells using agonists to TLR2, TLR4 and TLR5 induced the expression of the chemokines interleukin‐8 (IL‐8) and monocyte chemotactic protein‐1 (MCP‐1), as well as the pro‐inflammatory cytokine IL‐6, and occurred in a dose‐dependent manner. In response to zymosan and flagellin, pathogen‐associated molecular patterns (PAMP) that are recognized by TLR2 and TLR5 respectively, ECC‐1 cells secreted significantly more IL‐8, MCP‐1 and IL‐6 than in response to other TLR agonists. In contrast, agonists to TLR3, TLR7, and TLR9 had no effect on the secretion of the 13 cytokines or chemokines analysed. These results indicate that uterine epithelial cells are important sentinels of the innate immune system. Further it indicates that all but one of the known TLRs are expressed by ECC‐1 cells and that stimulation through specific TLRs mediates changes in the expression of key chemokines and pro‐inflammatory cytokines that aid in the defence of the uterus against potential pathogens.
Cellular immune responses induced in cattle by heterologous prime–boost vaccination using recombinant viruses and bacille Calmette–Guérin
Authors: Vordermeier H. Martin , Rhodes Shelley G. , Dean Gillian , Goonetilleke Nilu , Huygen Kris , Hill Adrian V. S. , Hewinson R. Glyn , Gilbert Sarah C.
Published: December 2004

The development of novel vaccine strategies to replace or supplement bacille Calmette–Guérin (BCG) is urgently required. Here we study, in cattle, the use of heterologous prime–boost strategies based on vaccination with BCG and the mycobacterial mycolyl transferase Ag85A (Rv3804c) expressed either in recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA85A) or attenuated fowlpox strain FP9 (FP85A). Five different vaccination schedules were tested in the first experiment: MVA85A followed by BCG (group 1); BCG followed by MVA85A (group 2); BCG followed by FP85A and then MVA85A (group 3); MVA85A followed by MVA85A and then FP85A (group 4); and FP85A followed by FP85A and then MVA85A (group 5). Vaccine‐induced levels of cellular immunity were assessed by determining interferon‐γ (IFN‐γ) responses in vitro. Prime–boost protocols, using recombinant MVA and BCG in combination (groups 1–3), resulted in significantly higher frequencies of Ag85‐specific IFN‐γ‐secreting cells than the two viral vectors used in combination (P=0·0055), or BCG used alone (groups 2 and 3, P=0·04). The T‐cell repertoires of the calves in all five groups were significantly broader following heterologous booster immunizations than after the primary immunization. In a second experiment, the effects of BCG\MVA85A heterologous prime–boost vaccination were compared with BCG\BCG homologous revaccination. The results suggested a higher Ag85A‐specific response with a wider T‐cell repertoire in the MVA85A‐boosted calves than in the BCG\BCG‐vaccinated calves. In conclusion therefore, the present report demonstrates the effectiveness of heterologous prime–boost strategies based on recombinant MVA and BCG to induce strong cellular immune responses in cattle and prioritise such vaccination strategies for rapid assessment of protective efficacy in this natural target species of tuberculosis.
Increased expression of mRNA encoding interleukin (IL)‐4 and its splice variant IL‐4δ2 in cells from contacts of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, in the absence of in vitro stimulation
Authors: Fletcher Helen A. , Owiafe Patrick , Jeffries David , Hill Philip , Rook Graham A. W. , Zumla Alimuddin , Doherty T. Mark , Brookes Roger H. ,   the Vacsel Study Group
Published: December 2004

Expression of interleukin (IL)‐4 is increased in tuberculosis and thought to be detrimental. We show here that in healthy contacts there is increased expression of its naturally occurring antagonist, IL‐4delta2 (IL‐4δ2). We identified contacts by showing that their peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) released interferon (IFN)‐γ in response to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis‐specific antigen 6 kDa early secretory antigenic target (ESAT‐6). Fresh unstimulated PBMC from these contacts contained higher levels of mRNA encoding IL‐4δ2 (P=0·002) than did cells from ESAT‐6 negative donors (noncontacts). These data indicate that contact with M. tuberculosis induces unusual, previously unrecognized, immunological events. We tentatively hypothesize that progression to active disease might depend upon the underlying ratio of IL‐4 to IL‐4δ2.
Host reproduction and a sexually transmitted disease: causes and consequences of Coccipolipus hippodamiae distribution on coccinellid beetles
Authors: Webberley K. Mary , Hurst Gregory D. D. , Husband Robert W. , Schulenburg J. Hinrich G. V. D. , Sloggett John J. , Isham Valerie , Buszko Jaraslow , Majerus Michael E. N.
Published: December 2004

We know that sexually transmitted parasites and pathogens have extremely deleterious effects in human and domesticated animal populations, but know little of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in natural populations.

One previously reported natural system is the sexually transmitted mite, Coccipolipus hippodamiae, on the eastern European coccinellid, Adalia bipunctata. Our aims were to determine how widespread this parasite is in terms of incidence and prevalence across host species, to identify the causes of the prevalence pattern and whether the parasite reduces fertility in all host species.

Coccipolipus hippodamiae was present on four of 19 European species examined. The wide distribution and high prevalence of C. hippodamiae on A. bipunctata indicates that this is the major host. The mite was also present at substantial prevalence on Adalia decempunctata and at lower prevalence on Synharmonia (=Oenopia) conglobata and Calvia quatuordecimguttata.

Laboratory studies on mite development time and transmission efficiency revealed that although physiological factors may affect incidence, they do not explain prevalence variation between hosts, but characteristics of host life history and reproductive behaviour are important in this context. Adalia bipunctata is more promiscuous than the less commonly infected A. decempunctata and S. conglobata. Diapause is needed before breeding will occur in C. quatuordecimguttata, leading to a lack of the consistent sexual activity between generations, which is needed for STD maintenance. Calvia quatuordecimguttata is probably periodically reinfected through hybrid matings with other host species.

Coccipolipus hippodamiae infection has similar strong deleterious effects on female reproduction in A. decempunctata and S. conglobata as have previously been demonstrated in A. bipunctata.

The results indicate that STDs may play a profound role in the ecology of promiscuous insect populations with overlapping generations. Here they may reach significant prevalence whilst exhibiting extreme virulence.
The dynamics of virus epidemics in Varroa‐infested honey bee colonies
Authors: Sumpter D. J. T. , Martin S. J.
Published: December 2004

When the parasitic mite Varroa jumped species from the eastern to the western honey bee, millions of infested bee colonies died. Recent work has revealed that the probable cause of this collapse is that mites provide a new route of transmission, by acting as a vector, for certain bee viruses.

Using a mathematical model parameterized by recently collected data on bee viruses, we investigate the relationship between the mite load in a colony and the possibility of a virus epidemic occurring within a bee colony.

The model suggests that the balance of coexistence between mite, virus and bee in the eastern honey bee, has been lost in the western bee host, not simply because of the new transmission route, but also because mite populations in western honey bee colonies has exceeded a critical epidemic threshold. We quantify the critical epidemic mite load for two well‐studied bee viruses, acute paralysis virus and deformed wing virus, through the colony's yearly life cycle.

As well as providing practical insights into mite control strategies, the model allows us to disentangle the relative importance of different bee and mite behaviours in virus spread. We consider the evolutionary aspects of the new route of virus transmission, looking in particular at how changes to social organization might bring about collective resistance.