bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Optimizing Presentation of AdSense Ads within Blogs
Authors: Fox Doug , Smith Amanda , Chaparro Barbara S. , Shaikh A. Dawn
Published: January 2012

AdSense text ads have become a popular method of advertising on the web, specifically within blogs when using Blogger. With increasing popularity of blogs, AdSense ads are enticing to bloggers because they offer financial rewards with relatively little effort. The biggest challenge with AdSense is generating revenue through clicks or impressions. Google offers tips on optimal presentation for ads to generate higher revenue, but empirical evidence is lacking in this area. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine two important presentation elements of AdSense ads, location and color scheme. Results suggested more information is remembered about an AdSense ad when it has a high contrast color. Increased awareness can lead to higher recall of the ad, thereby, helping build the brand of advertiser which can increase clicks.
Cultural differences in Visual Attention: An eye-tracking comparison of US and Indian individuals
Authors: Mendel Jeremy , Jeykumar Denzil , Parthasarathy Sundararajan , Duchowski Andrew
Published: January 2012

Globalization of product design has become increasingly important as markets in Asia continue to grow. Past research in the variations in visual attention between individuals in Asia and the United States have primarily focused on East Asians, specifically, Japanese and Chinese participants. India, the second most populated country in the world, has been largely ignored in this literature. The current study examined the differences between US participants and South Asians, specifically Indian, participants in a visual scene exploration task. Results from the present study suggest that the current explanation from past research may not be the most parsimonious method for determining how groups will view images.
Visual Alerting in Complex Command and Control Environments
Authors: Crébolder Jacquelyn M. , Beardsall Jeffrey
Published: January 2012

A study was conducted to investigate automated visual alerting in complex environments where operators rely on multiple display workstations to perform high-intensity tasks. Two forms of alerts - a short red sidebar and a red border around the perimeter of the workstation display - were examined, as well as two forms of alert state - static and flashing. Results showed that the sidebar alert was detected faster than the border alert regardless of whether it was flashing or static, and in general, sidebar alerts were detected faster when they appeared on all three displays as compared to one display. Future work will focus on examining the association between the display an alert appears on and the spatial location of operator attention.
Effectiveness of a Multistage Driver Education Program for Novice Drivers
Authors: Stanley Laura , Mueller Jessica
Published: January 2012

This research evaluated the potential effectiveness of a multistage driver education program for novice drivers. This was done by comparing the safety experience of two groups of teenage drivers, one of which received additional instruction in a defensive driving workshop and another that did not. The statistical finding that the trained group recorded fewer citations does suggest some potential safety benefits for the supplemental driver-training course evaluated in this study. However, it remains unclear as to whether the training resulted in an immediate safety benefit.
Identifying the Best Practices for Critical Social Thinking and Metacognitive Thinking Training
Authors: Lazzara Elizabeth H. , Shuffler Marissa , Rosen Michael , Xavier Luiz , Wooten Samuel , Salas Eduardo , Zaccaro Steve , Hilton Rita
Published: January 2012

Critical thinking and social reasoning are fundamental skills in complex, social situations, and several domains (e.g., healthcare and military) have realized that personnel are lacking the cognitive skills necessary to optimally perform within their complicated, dynamic environment. Thus, there is a need to train critical social thinking skills in order to improve cognitive and social reasoning, enhance performance, and ultimately result in better outcomes. Therefore the purpose of this paper is to provide researchers and practitioners with a review of the literature pertinent to developing critical social thinking skills. This review is presented in the form of best practices for designing and implementing critical thinking training interventions.
Autonomy and Automation Reliability in Human-Robot Interaction: A Qualitative Review
Authors: Johnson Ryan C. , Saboe Kristin N. , Prewett Matthew S. , Coovert Michael D. , Elliott Linda R.
Published: January 2012

The effectiveness and reliability of automation aids are critical topics in the area of human-robot interaction (HRI). As more tasks are subsumed by robots and autonomous systems, it is important to examine the relationships between these entities and their human operators. Research to date has covered various manipulations of autonomy, but this broad body of research is in need of focus and consistency. The current study presents a qualitative overview of research regarding levels and reliability of autonomy/control and the effects they have on important HRI-relevant outcome variables. Results indicate that autonomy and automation aids operate uniquely for different tasks, and that there are many complex factors that can affect not only performance but also usability, confidence, and safety. Unresolved issues in the field and challenges and opportunities for future research are also presented.
A Comparison of the Unpressurized Rover and Small Pressurized Rover during a Desert Field Evaluation
Authors: Litaker Harry , Thompson Shelby , Howard Robert
Published: January 2012

To effectively explore the lunar surface, astronauts will need a transportation vehicle which can traverse all types of terrain. Currently, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) is investigating two lunar rover configurations to meet such a requirement. Under the Lunar Electric Rover (LER) project, a comparison study between the unpressurized rover (UPR) and the small pressurized rover (SPR) was conducted at the Black Point Lava Flow in Arizona. The objective of the study was to obtain human-in-the-loop performance data on the vehicles with respect to human-machine interfaces, vehicle impacts on crew productivity, and scientific observations. Four male participants took part in four, one-day field tests using the exact same terrain and scientific sites for an accurate comparison between vehicle configurations. Subjective data was collected using several human factors performance measures. Results indicate either vehicle configuration was generally acceptable for a lunar mission; however, the SPR configuration was preferred over the UPR configuration priminarly for the SPR's ability to cause less fatigue and enabling greater crew productivity.
Using the Keyboard to Issue Commands: The Relation of Observing Others Using Efficient Techniques on the Weightings of Costs and Benefits
Authors: Powell Chris , Peres S. Camille , Nguyen Vickie , Bruton Kate E. , Muse Lindsey
Published: January 2012

Previous research by Peres et al. (2004) and Peres et al. (2005) have suggested people's analysis of the costs and benefits of using efficient techniques may influence whether or not they use those techniques. These studies also suggested that social factors (e.g., observing others) play an additional role in the usage of these techniques. The present study examined the impact of observing efficient techniques on users' weighing of the costs and benefits of using the Keyboard to Issue Commands (KIC) as an efficient technique. The results suggest that people more heavily weigh the benefits of using KIC than the costs, but that there appears to be no relation between people's weightings of the costs and benefits of using KIC and whether they had observed someone using KIC.
A Multi-Model Aid for Interface Design (MAID): Helping Designers Reason about Information Match
Authors: Miller Christopher A. , Wu Peggy , Engstrom Eric , Rye Jeff , Ferguson-Walter Kimberly , Schreckenghost Debra
Published: January 2012

We previously developed a core representation for describing the information a human needs to perform a task and the information provided by a user interface. This representation is highly abstract and is based on information theoretic properties, thus it can be applied to a wide variety of work domains and information and display types. Since information need and information conveyed are described in the same numerical scales, it is straightforward to compute a degree of match between them. In prior work, we used this capability to dynamically and automatically reconfigure cockpit displays for military cockpits. In recent work, however, we adapted this approach to the task of evaluating and critiquing display format designs to support procedure execution in the context of NASA's space operations. The representation and reasoning approach generalizes well to describing information types in procedural domains. The resulting tool can be used to (a) analyze a proposed display format for a given task, (b) propose a format for a given task, (c) project how changes to a procedure will affect the suitability of a previous format, and (d) project how changes to a format will improve or reduce its suitability for a given procedure.
Practical Tips for Designing a Usability Evaluation Environment: What Equipment and Software Do You Really Need?
Authors: Capra Miranda , Andre Terence , Collingwood Ian , Kempic Joy , Brandt Jeff
Published: January 2012

Usability evaluation environments are used for many purposes from testing products or software, to education and training sessions, to holding interviews or focus groups. “Labs” vary from sophisticated setups with ceiling-mounted cameras, one-way mirrors, and observation rooms, to lightweight cameras connected to a notebook computer. Our panelists come from many different backgrounds, both corporate and consulting. We will discuss hot topics in the creation of both standing labs (permanent installations) and portable setups, such as: what is the minimum needed to get started? Do you really need a standing lab? A one-way mirror? Is video necessary or is screen capture enough? Is audio enough? Do you need data logging software? Please join us if you are about to create your first usability setup, if you are considering building a standing lab, or if you have a usability setup and are choosing upgrades or renovations. Panelists will take 30 minutes to introduce themselves, and for the next 45 minutes we will take both questions and advice from the audience.
Moderate Intermittent Hypoxia: Effect on Two-Choice Reaction Time Followed by a Significant Delay in Recovery
Authors: Phillips Jeffrey B. , Simmons Rita G. , Florian John P. , Horning Dain S. , Lojewski Renee A. , Chandler Joseph F.
Published: January 2012

Hypoxia continues to be a significant source of peril in military aviation. Over three dozen hypoxia-related incidents were reported in the past decade with three resulting in fatalities (Clark & Megown, 2005; Ostrander, 2008). Previous work has addressed loss of consciousness resulting from extreme levels of hypoxia (Carlyle, 1963); however, most mishaps are related to moderate hypoxia exposure. More work is required to establish the cognitive effects of moderate hypoxia and the time required, post-exposure, to fully recover. The present study examined the effect of a ten minute exposure to an air mixture equivalent to 20,000 ft on two-choice reaction time. Carryover effects were assessed over a ten minute recovery period. Hypoxia exposure resulted in significant delays in two-choice reaction time. Significant carry-over effects continued to be detected throughout the recovery period. This information is essential to military aviation, where high levels of cognitive performance are required after moderate hypoxia exposure.
Comprehension of Warning Symbols by Younger and Older Adults: Effects of Visual Degradation
Authors: Shorr Daniel J. , Ezer Neta , Fisk Arthur D. , Rogers Wendy A.
Published: January 2012

The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of visual degradation on warning symbol comprehension across warning symbol types and age groups. Twenty-seven black and white ANSI symbols of four different types (prohibition, course of action, information, and hazard symbols) were presented to older ( N = 21, M = 73.1) and younger adults ( N = 20, M = 21.4) via computer at three degradation levels (0%, 30%, 40% of pixels inverted); accuracy and response time in answering yes-no questions about the symbols were recorded. Younger adults were more accurate and faster overall than older adults ( p < .01). Regarding degradation, 0% and 30% inverted symbols did not significantly differ in comprehension ( p ≥ .25), but both were comprehended better than 40% inverted symbols ( p < .01); no interactions were observed. For degraded warning symbols, results suggest symbols must be substantially degraded to affect base comprehensibility, and age differences exist. These data have practical implications for warnings in environments susceptible to degradation.
Bi-modal Aircraft Cockpit User Interface of the TABI/A
Authors: Pinder Shane D. , Davies T. Claire
Published: January 2012

Transport regulators are examining the feasibility of requiring the adoption of takeoff performance monitoring systems in certain circumstances. Recent advances in the development of aircraft landing and takeoff performance monitoring systems have shown the feasibility of a cockpit instrument that could aid significantly in the decision making process during the most critical phases of flight, provided that the information can be effectively visualized. The design and construction of a cockpit interface to communicate the information in a timely and efficient manner has now been completed. The resulting Thrust and Braking Indicator/Advisor (TABI/A) integrates a visual display with audible advice.
Effects of Physical and Mental Demands on Muscle Activity of the Upper Extremity
Authors: Mehta Ranjana , Harrop Sarrah , Agnew Michael J.
Published: January 2012

Workplace tasks that involve multidimensional demands, such as physical and cognitive workloads, may increase the injury risks posed on workers. To aid in designing ergonomic guidelines for workplace safety, it is thus important to understand the interactive nature of these combined demands. The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of said multidimensional demands on the muscles of the upper extremity. Seventeen healthy participants performed isometric upper extremity exertions at five levels of physical intensities (5%, 25%, 45%, 65%, and 75% maximum voluntary contraction (MVC)) in the presence and absence of a mental task. Mean shoulder muscle activity and co-contraction indices (CCI) of the upper extremity were measured using electromyographic signals. Force fluctuations were measured using a force transducer to evaluate joint steadiness. In general, shoulder muscle activity (mean activity and CCIs) increased with increasing levels of physical exertions. A decrease in mean anterior and posterior deltoid muscle activity and CCI of the shoulder was observed in the presence of the mental task. However, these changes were more prominent at higher levels of physical workload compared to the lower levels. Force fluctuations were lowest at 25% MVC, and highest at 85% MVC. Mental workload significantly increased force fluctuations at 85% MVC, which may have been a result of decreased muscle output to maintain the loads in a steady posture. Overall, results from this study suggest that certain task demands are more susceptible to interference by mental workload than others. It will provide a better understanding of combined exposure levels in occupational settings and serve as a guideline to determine task demands for different occupational settings.
Using Eye Movements to Uncover Conflict Detection Strategies
Authors: Hunter Aren C. , Parush Avi
Published: January 2012

The aim of the current study was to uncover conflict detection strategies in a simplified air traffic control simulation. The primary task in this study was to predict if two aircraft at the same altitude but different speeds on a converging trajectory would collide in the future. While participants made this judgment their eye-movements were recorded. Dwell time indicated that participants fixated longer on the aircraft than they did on the projected collision site. The results of the scanpath analysis indicated that participants were more likely to scan between the two aircraft than any other two interest areas. Results also indicated that the second most prevalent scanpath was between the collision site and the faster aircraft (SWA23). The least likely scanpath was between the collision site and the slower (and closer) aircraft (UAL74). The results suggest that the assimilation of speed and distance information demand more attention than is required for the projection of the collision site.
Shifting Eyes and Thinking Hard Keep Us in Our Lanes
Authors: Cooper Joel M. , Medeiros-Ward Nate , Seegmiller Janelle , Strayer David L.
Published: January 2012

Previous research suggests that performing a secondary, non-visual task while driving (such as conversing on a hands-free cell phone) may lead to a reduction in lateral vehicle movement. A plausible explanation for this counterintuitive finding involves scanning differences under differing cognitive load. The goal of this study was to dissociate the effects of visual scanning and workload on lateral vehicle control. Eighteen participants drove nine, five minute scenarios in a fixed based driving simulator under varying workload and guided fixation conditions. Consistent with previous finding, increased secondary task load decreased lateral vehicle movement. The active movement of eyes also led to reductions in lateral vehicle movement but only when drivers were concurrently performing one of the secondary tasks. These results suggest that scanning differences under cognitive load cannot fully account for observed reductions in lateral vehicle movement and that multiple interrelated factors likely contribute to lateral vehicle movement.
A Comparison of Three Manual Destination Entry Methods on their Impact on Visual Attention and Driving Performance: An On-Road Evaluation
Authors: Reimer Bryan , Mehler Bruce , Lammers Vincent , Wang Ying , Coughlin Joseph F.
Published: January 2012

A comparison under actual driving conditions of 3 manual destination entry techniques (keypad, touch screen, and rotational controller) indicates that visual behavior measures are sensitive for detecting differences that are not apparent in standard driving performance measures when drivers are under low to moderate levels of load.
Determining Window Placement and Configuration for the Small Pressurized Rover (SPR)
Authors: Thompson Shelby , Litaker Harry , Howard Robert
Published: January 2012

A natural component to driving any type of vehicle, whether Earth-based or space-based, is visibility. In its simplest form, visibility is a measure of the distance at which an object can be seen. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) have human factors guidelines for the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station (ISS) windows, in terms of ergonomics and safety. However, there is little research with respect to lunar vehicles. The goal of the current study was to obtain preliminary human-in-the-loop data on window placement and configuration for the small pressurized rover (SPR). Nine participants evaluated multiple areas along the vehicle's front “nose”, while actively maneuvering through several lunar driving simulations. Subjective data was collected on areas of necessity, frequency of views, and placement/configuration of windows. Results indicated a desire for large field-of-view windows spanning the front of the vehicle with slightly reduced window areas for the lower front, lower corners, and side views.
Human Systems Integration Modeling Using Systems Modeling Language
Authors: Ahram Tareq , Karwowski Waldemar
Published: January 2012

The total systems approach focuses on human performance and ensures capabilities, limitations and risks are identified and managed throughout the system development lifecycle. HSI is the process to ensure that systems are designed and maintained such that they enhance human performance and capabilities while considering humans limitations to avoid high risk designs. The HSI process utilizes and integrates the interdependent multi-disciplinary aspects of various domains together within the systems engineering perspective. Since HSI processes have a top priority in systems design; this paper will introduce a new approach for modeling human capabilities and limitations in systems design. Human considerations in systems development will be modeled using Systems Modeling Language (SysML), a general-purpose visual modeling language for designing, specifying, analyzing, and verifying complex systems (Friedenthal et al., 2008).
An Evolution of Tutoring and Training from Humans to Intelligent Systems: Human Factors Considerations
Authors: Ray Jessica M. , Barnett John S.
Published: January 2012

As training researchers and developers, we strive to understand and produce effective and efficient training. Research suggests the most effective form of instruction is individualized human tutoring. Yet this is rarely the most efficient form of instruction monetarily or in instructor time. Technological advances and a vision of effective, yet more efficient, computer based tutors has led to the development of sophisticated new training technologies such as Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs). These systems have yet to reach their full forecast potential. In this paper we theorize that issues key to successful advancement of ITSs are human factors issues. Primary of these issues is determining how technology mediation impacts not only cognition, but also other key learning issues such as affect, emotions, motivation, and trust.
The Relationship between Conceptual Understanding and Performance
Authors: Schuster David
Published: January 2012

An operator's understanding of a threatening event within a system was investigated to determine if understanding was predictive of successful operation. Using the domain of driving, we hypothesized that participants who performed higher on a written measure of situational judgment would also attend to and categorize threats better in a card-sort activity. Results indicated that participants who were able to classify threats in a guided card sort performed better on the situational judgment test than those who classified threats poorly. The results suggest that a relationship exists between conceptual understanding of threats in a system and safer operation.
Managing Trust in Swiftly Starting Action Teams
Authors: Lazzara Elizabeth Hunter , Fiore Stephen , Wildman Jessica , Shuffler Marissa , Salas Eduardo
Published: January 2012

Often in both industry and government, collaborative efforts come together and disband quickly, or occur in response to a very short-term problem. Sometimes in these situations, the interacting parties have no prior history with each other or any knowledge of each other, and very little time for building trust before the task is concluded; however, trust usually plays a most critical role. Therefore, it is important to examine the development of trust in quickly formed collaborations. The proposed symposium will discuss the current state of the trust literature and propose a theoretical framework of trust in Swiftly sTarting Action Teams (STAT) to guide potential training manipulations implemented within a training cycle designed to improve team performance. In addition, the symposium will entail a first hand account of how trust applied in the field and describe some of the empirical evidence regarding the impact of trust on team performance in complex, high stake environments.
The Crew Resource Management Attitudes of U.S. Naval Aviators
Authors: O'Connor Paul , Jones Doug
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this paper is to describe the development of, and findings from, a survey designed to measure the Crew Resource Management (CRM) attitudes of U.S. Naval aviators. An attitude questionnaire based upon the Flight Management Attitude Questionnaire (FMAQ) was used. A total of 364 responses were received from U.S. Naval aviators. To obtain acceptable Cronbach's Alpha levels it was necessary to drop nine items from the questionnaire. A comparison of the responses to the questionnaire suggested that tactical jet squadrons may benefit from training on recognizing, and addressing, the effects of stress in other aviators. A more important finding, and counter to expectations, was that senior aviators were significantly more supportive of an open cockpit climate than junior aviators.
Techniques for Supporting the Author of Outdoor Mobile Multimodal Augmented Reality
Authors: Chapman Roger J. , Riddle Dawn L. , Merlo James L.
Published: January 2012

In augmented reality (AR) environments our senses with which we interact with the real world are selectively supplemented by graphics, sounds, haptics, and/or smell. Outdoor AR is a relatively new topic for research, but it is emerging quickly as technological obstacles are overcome and the utility of such systems is demonstrated in a wide range of contexts. The audiences for outdoor AR systems are those who can benefit from information and experiences presented relative to the surrounding outdoor real-world context, e.g., tourists, historians, accident investigators, builders, industrial processing plant operators, and military troops. In this paper, we describe the design of Geo-Docent, a multimodal AR system that augments a user's real world experience by presenting visual, auditory, and tactile information, relative to the user's geographical position, through an ultramobile computer paired with a Bluetooth headset and a tactile display. Geo-Docent supports content authoring, in a map-based GUI rather than a programmer's environment, in which the AR author geographically tags multimodal content. From designing, developing, and preliminary testing of this system we have learned there is utility in providing the AR author with: (1) a simple, but flexible, interface for defining geographical trigger points and regions, and for linking those triggers with a variety of interface actions; (2) an interface that optionally allows the author to utilize the author's current location and view of the natural world when creating AR content; and (3) support for authoring content in a variety of modalities.
A Portfolio of Human Factors Guidance for NextGen
Authors: Dursoq Francis T. , Gawron Valerie J. , Krois Paul , Sarter Nadine , Smith Philip J. , Wickens Chris , Yuditsky Tanya
Published: January 2012

This discussion panel will focus on guidance that the field of human factors can provide in the development of the Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) in the United States, ranging from input regarding the overall operational concept for NextGen to approaches for crafting the details of specific designs. The discussion will include consideration of how the feasibility of alternative implementations should inform the operational concept.

To provide the necessary perspectives, the expertise represented on this panel provides both breadth and depth regarding the contributions that the field of human factors needs to provide to the development of NextGen in the United States. This expertise extends across a number of functional roles in the aviation system (piloting, air traffic control, air traffic flow management, airport surface management and flight dispatching). It also spans a wide range of human factors issues including considerations of trust, cognitive complexity, information overload, interruption management, human reliability, automation reliability, timesharing, mental workload, shared situation awareness and the design of distributed work systems. Finally, this expertise encompasses experience with human factors program management, system design and evaluation (including both empirical testing and the use of computational models). Panelists will be posed with variations on the question of “what are concrete ways in which the field of human factors can guide the development of an effective Next Generation Air Transportation System?” based on the system perspectives that they represent.
Comparison of Deconfliction Responsibility Procedures for Adjacent En-Route Sectors in NextGen Separation Assurance
Authors: Cabrall Christopher D. , Prevot Thomas , Homola Jeffrey R. , Mercer Joey
Published: January 2012

The subject of the current research is a Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) concept that involves automation-assisted separation assurance within the high altitude (at or above 29,000 feet) en route environment. The concept is designed to enable controllers to provide both safe and efficient air traffic services at much higher traffic densities than today. The presented research addressed the question of how responsibility should be handled for the resolution of a conflict that is predicted to occur in a sector other than where it was detected. Two possibilities, namely a De-Conflicting AirPlanes procedure (DCAP) versus a De-Conflicting AirSpace procedure (DCAS) were examined with recently retired controllers under human-in-the-loop simulations with scripted aircraft conflicts. Results showed that controllers preferred DCAS, in which they took less time to resolve conflicts and experienced less coordination with one another. However, the results did not yield significant differences among other plane performance metrics between DCAP and DCAS. The present analyses indicated that controllers are capable of meeting demands of NextGen with ownership/coordination procedures (e.g. DCAP.) similar to today. However, allowing separation assurance responsibilities to extend more seamlessly across sector boundaries (e.g. DCAS) could evidently be more agreeable for them.
Pilot Performance Based Selection of Engine Display Features
Authors: Armentrout Jeffrey , Hansen David , Hall Terri
Published: January 2012

Two tests were conducted to evaluate enhancements to the operator interface of the C-5 AMP engine display format. Proposed enhancements of interest were the addition of a grey filled arc within the engine gauges to reflect current state, the addition of a red box to indicate a shutdown engine, and the addition of scale markings to N1 and fuel flow gauges. The objective of the tests were to 1) evaluate the addition of the grey arc to aid in N1 determination and engine-out recognition 2) evaluate the addition of the “red box” graphic to aid in engine-out recognition and 3) evaluate scale markings as an aid for setting target N1 and fuel flow values. The first test involved presentation of one of four engine format variants to the subjects for 75 to 360 milliseconds. Subjects reported N1 and any engine that might be shutdown. The addition of the grey filled arc and red box had a significant effect on N1 determination. The grey filled arc did not improve engine out recognition but the red box did. Addition of grey arcs to all gauges showed no significant improvement over having that feature on N1 alone. In the second test subjects set a target fuel flow or N1 value for 4 engines in the shortest time possible with and without scale markings. The addition of scale markings significantly improved time to set target N1.
Effect of Communications Headset, Hearing Ability, Flight Workload, and Communications Signal Quality on Pilot Performance in an Army Black Hawk Helicopter Simulator
Authors: Casto LTC Kristen L. , Casali John G.
Published: January 2012

Cockpit noise, flight workload, and hearing loss all likely influence U.S. Army pilot performance; however, hearing loss flight waiver decisions are largely based on audiometric evaluation results. Twenty Army helicopter pilots (two hearing level groups) participated in this study. The pilots flew three flights in a full motion-base Black Hawk helicopter simulator, each involving a different headset configuration as well as varying flight workload levels and varying communication signal quality in a counterbalanced ordering. Objective flight performance parameters of heading, altitude, and airspeed deviation and air traffic control (ATC) command readbacks and subjective measures of workload and situation awareness were measured. Results support a conclusion that factors other than hearing thresholds and speech intelligibility in a quiet environment should be considered when evaluating Army helicopter pilots' flight safety with regard to hearing sensitivity. Results also support a recommendation that hearing-impaired pilots use assistive communication technology and not rely on passive-attenuation headsets worn over foam earplugs.
Field & (Data) Stream: A Method for Functional Evolution of the Air Traffic Management Route Availability Planning Tool (RAPT)
Authors: Reynolds Hayley J. Davison , DeLaura Richard A. , Robinson Michael
Published: January 2012

A method coupling field evaluation with operations data analysis is presented as an effective means to functionally evolve a decision support system. The case study used to illustrate this method is the evaluation of the Route Availability Planning Tool (RAPT), a decision support tool to improve departure efficiency in convective weather in New York air traffic facilities. It was only through a combination of quantitative performance data analysis and field observation to identify key elements of the decision making process that the designers were able to determine the most critical departure management decision requiring support, leading to significant improvements in departure efficiency.
Effect of Party Line Loss and Delivery Format on Crew Performance and Workload
Authors: Boehm-Davis Deborah A. , Gee Sara K. , Baker Kelley , Medina-Mora Maricel
Published: January 2012

This experiment sought to gain insight into the potential loss of situational awareness that could arise from the switch from radio-based verbal communications between pilots and controllers to the delivery of non-time-critical information through data communications (Data Comm). Specifically, this study examined the effect that loss of the party line and changes to the delivery format for clearances and other flight-relevant information had on pilot situational awareness and workload. Data suggest that both the loss of the party line and the use of Data Comm as a delivery mechanism for clearances affected performance and workload.
Developing a New Driving Simulator Task to Assess Drivers' Functional Object Detection
Authors: Goodenough Richard R. , Brooks Johnell O. , Crisler Matthew C. , Logan William L.
Published: January 2012

A new driving simulator task was developed with the long-term goal of aiding rehabilitation specialists who work with drivers who may have functional impairments. This simulated driving task was designed to measure a driver's ability to respond to two types of visual stimuli - brake lights of a lead vehicle and targets presented at different eccentricities along the horizon. Three driving scenarios were developed for the study. The first two were used to examine the effect of A-pillar occlusion on the target detection task. The target locations used in the third scenario were chosen to examine the effect of eccentricity on target reaction time when the participant was required to make head movements to locate and respond to targets. This third scenario revealed age-related differences in the capability to locate and respond to visual stimuli in the periphery of the driving environment. This may be due to the decrements in psychomotor ability observed in older adults. This scenario is expected to have utility in clinical settings.
Older and Younger Drivers' Beliefs about Motor Vehicle Features to Benefit Their Safe Driving
Authors: Kim Soyun , Wogalter Michael S. , Mayhorn Christopher B.
Published: January 2012

Because there are age-related perceptual, motor, and cognitive declines and because people are living longer, there has been increased concern about older drivers' ability to operate motor vehicles safely. This research examined older and younger adults' perceptions regarding a set of 28 motor vehicle features/aspects according to the extent to which they believed it may help their safe driving. Several features were judged as more important than others regarding safe driving. Although both age groups predominately gave similar evaluations, some features/aspects differed significantly between the two age groups. Older adults believed that vehicle door openings should be easier to get into and out of, preferred analog displays, and labels on the dashboard that were bigger and brighter, and held less strong beliefs that current vehicle controls and displays are easy to use than did younger adults. Implications and design recommendations are discussed. A list of vehicle features that are potentially beneficial to older drivers is presented.
Do Younger and Older Adults Differentially Depend on an Automated System?
Authors: McBride Sara E. , Rogers Wendy A. , Fisk Arthur D.
Published: January 2012

Various factors, including trust, system reliability, and error type have been found to affect how people interact with automated systems. Another variable that is becoming increasingly important is the role of age in human-automation interaction. As automation continues to emerge in numerous domains, including the home, older adults will likely interact with these types of systems to a greater extent than ever before. Therefore, understanding if age-related changes in cognition, such as diminished working memory capacity or processing speed, affect how older adults use automated systems is critical to ensure these systems are designed and implemented effectively. This study examined the role of age in a simulated dual task environment using an automated aid. Younger adults outperformed older adults in both tasks. When the automation was incorrect, younger adults exhibited less dependence than older adults. Further, when older adults verified the automation's suggestion, they took significantly more time to do so than younger adults. Additionally, older adults reported greater trust in the automation and higher workload compared to younger adults.
Comparison of Multiple Physiological Sensors to Classify Operator State in Adaptive Automation Systems
Authors: Taylor Grant , Reinerman-Jones Lauren , Cosenzo Keryl , Nicholson Denise
Published: January 2012

Automating tasks alleviates operator resources to be delegated to other demands, but the cost is often situation awareness. In contrast, complete manual control of a system opens the door for greater human error. Therefore, an ideal situation would require the development of an adaptive system in which automation can be triggered based on performance of a particular task, time spent on the task, or perhaps physiological response. The latter pertains to the goal for this particular study. Electroencephalogram (EEG), electrocardiogram (ECG), and eye tracking measures were recorded during six multi-tasking scenarios to assess if any one single measure is best suited for future implementation as an automation invocation. EEG showed the greatest potential for that purpose.
What Basic-Applied Issue is There?
Authors: Helton William S. , Kemp Simon
Published: January 2012

Human Factors (HF), or ergonomics, is the scientific discipline concerned with the interactions among humans and built systems. Because human factors research is transparently applied, HF researchers often find themselves in a supposed tug-of-war between the basic and applied scientific research communities. We provide an argument in this paper that there really is no meaningful distinction between basic and applied science. We provide two historical examples, one medieval and one modern, demonstrating that a fundamental impetus of all psychological research has always been application. Human Factors is not unique in this respect. We suspect the basic-applied distinction has been propagated to suppress scientists' wages and provide some parting advice to HF researchers in dealing with this issue.
The Effect of an Extrinsic Incentive on Psychophysiological Measures of Mental Effort and Motivational Disposition when Task Demand is Varied
Authors: Ewing Katie C , Fairclough Stephen H
Published: January 2012

The operationalisation of user psychological state is essential for physiological computing systems. The present study investigated the sensitivity of different psychophysiological measures to task engagement in a cognitive challenge scenario. A repeated measures design manipulated working memory demand and financial incentive. Low, high and impossible levels of cognitive challenge were created by combining memory demands with required standards of performance. 20 participants completed two blocks of the task, once with a financial incentive and once without. Performance, EEG, blood pressure, ECG, respiration and pupillometry were measured during task completion along with subjective reports of motivation and effort. Results showed sensitivity to demand for all EEG measures, blood pressure and heart rate variability (0.1Hz component). Sensitivity to incentive was found for EEG lower alpha suppression, heart rate and blood pressure. No effects were found on pupillometry and respiration data. Implications for the development of a real time cognitive monitor are discussed.
Human Control in Mineral Processing Plants: An Operator Centered Investigation
Authors: Li X. , Horberry T. , Powell M.
Published: January 2012

Mineral processing plants present a complex and dynamic process control environment where human operation is widely regarded as the bottleneck of overall plant performance. This paper presents an initial field study to investigate factors and issues that affect successful human performance in this domain from human factors perspective. The methods used were in-situ observation, interviews, survey and review of documentation. A total of 20 operators were studied at two different types of Australian mineral processing plants. The results indicate 1) current information in the control room was not effectively organized and presented in a way that supported human supervisory control activities, and 2) various organizational issues such as insufficient operator training and poor shift handover significantly impacted the quality of human control. As a result, human control inevitably fell into a typical passive mode. Even worse, controllers often distrusted or rejected the use of alarms and new technologies in their work place. This work demonstrates the successful case study of applying human factor research methods in a novel domain. The outcome of this field study has successfully stimulated new industry interest and support for further research aimed at improving human and system integration.
Person-in-the-Loop Testing of a Digital Power Plant Control Room
Authors: Roth Emilie M. , Easter James , Hall Robert E. , Kabana Leonard , Mashio Kenji , Hanada Satoshi , Clouser Timothy , Remley Gilbert W.
Published: January 2012

There is renewed interest in building new commercial nuclear power plants. Unlike existing plants that have traditional control rooms with large control boards, new plants will have compact digital control rooms. The transition to digital control rooms introduce opportunities for enhanced support (e.g., integrated displays; improved alarm systems; computerized procedures) as well as potential new challenges (e.g., shift from open to private workspaces; changes in workload distribution resulting from reduced control room crew size). This paper describes two simulator tests that were conducted as part of a person-in-the-loop test program to support development and validation of a control room for the US-APWR evolutionary pressurized water reactor plant. While the results are presented in the context of evaluation of a particular digital control room design, they have applicability to design of compact digital control rooms more generally, and point to areas where more research is needed.
Motivation-Expectation Space as a Representative Structure for Decision Strategies
Authors: Tan Angela Li Sin , Helander Martin G , Soh Boon Kee
Published: January 2012

Introduction: In a cognitive system, human operators work with automation to achieve their goal. However, there are times when the human operator cannot interpret what the automation is doing. This can create dangerous communication gap particularly if the automation provides the wrong advice. This paper proposes the Motivation-Expectation Space (MES) as a representative structure for bridging the gap. Review: The MES has its theoretical foundation from research in Cognitive System Engineering. It represents the goals, means, causes, and effects in an orthogonal structure. These four components were repeatedly observed in research related to decision strategies. The MES was assessed against the information requirements for improving automation trust and dependency and found to suffice in supporting most of the requirements. Contribution: The structured representation of these elements in the MES would likely facilitate the interpretation of the decision strategies, making it easier and faster for the human to understand what the automation is doing. Parallels were also drawn between MES and Situation Awareness to suggest the potential value MES can bring to research in Cognitive System Engineering.
Option Generation and Decision Making in Critical-Care Nursing
Authors: Ward Paul , Torof Jason , Whyte James , Eccles David W. , Harris Kevin R.
Published: January 2012

The recognition-primed decision (RPD) model and Take the First (TTF) heuristic assert that successful and experienced decision makers typically generate relatively few options, and generate a satisficing, or the best, option first. Moreover, the TTF heuristic suggests that as more options are generated the likelihood that the best option will be selected is reduced. An alternative proposal suggests that the ability to anticipate the outcome of a situation is actually positively related to the number of options generated. To test these opposing claims we compared high and low performing critical-care nurses on three simulated critical care scenarios and measured their option generation behaviors and the courses of action pursued. Consistent with RPD and TTF, the data suggest that high performers generate fewer options than low performers during situational assessment. However, counter to RPD and TTF, the current data suggest that the selection of options generated later in the process may actually facilitate better outcomes. Implications for the design of instruction and training materials are discussed.
Identification of Relationships between Work System Parameters and Fatigue in Registered Nurses: A Data Mining Approach
Authors: Barker Linsey M. , Pasupathy Kalyan S.
Published: January 2012

Fatigue is a factor that affects nurse performance in the workplace. Previous research has investigated the relationships between work system parameters and fatigue; however, no study has considered multiple work system parameters simultaneously, and how they affect multiple dimensions of fatigue. This study used Chi-Squared Automatic Interaction Detection (CHAID) to mine work system parameters and their multiple interactions on perceptions of mental, physical, and total fatigue dimensions in registered nurses. Results showed that multiple work system parameters were associated with changes in fatigue levels across mental, physical, and total fatigue dimensions. These findings expand our understanding of the relationships between work system parameters and fatigue and provide valuable information to improve the design of nursing work systems, in order to retain qualified nursing personnel and ultimately improve both patient- and provider safety.