bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Protestant Translation of Medieval and Renaissance Discourses on the Rights and Status of American Indians
Authors: Williams Robert A
Published: November 2023

The patents granted by the Tudor king Henry VII (r. 1485-1509) to the Cabots at the close of the fifteenth century inaugurated English interest in America as a possible colonial empire. Although several centuries separated the Tudor dynasty from the heraldic Crusading traditions established by Richard the Lionhearted,2 Henry’s initial 1497 charter of conquest to John Cabot indicates that the medieval discourses of the Catholic Church respecting infidel rights and status still dominated English legal thought and practice a short generation prior to the Reformation.
The English Conquest of Virginia
Authors: Williams Robert A
Published: November 2023

Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and the other Elizabethan conquistadores elaborated foundations of Discovery-era England’s colonizing discourse. Their primitive discourses of conquest sought to harmonize the medieval Church’s legal discursive legacy on infidel rights, the Reformation’s liberated pursuit of worldly wealth, and radical Protestantism’s vested interest in countering Spain’s New World papist empire. The Elizabethan advocates of colonization, however, were never able to perfect their colonizing discourses in the forests of the New World. Their narrow financial base was inadequate to the demands of carrying the Protestant crusade to the Indians of America.
Maternal-Fetal Conflict
Authors: Steinbock Bonnie
Published: November 2023

A newborn baby whose urine shows traces of an illegal drug is taken from the custody of its mother. A woman whose baby is born with severe brain damage is jailed for prenatal child abuse. A pregnant drug user who commits a minor crime is jailed in order to protect her fetus from addiction. A company that has potentially embryotoxic substances in the workplace refuses to hire fertile women under its “fetal protection policy.” A court order compels a pregnant Jehovah’s Witness to have a blood transfusion, contrary to the tenets of her religion, to protect the life of her fetus. Another woman is forced to undergo an emergency cesarean section. Each of these situations raises the question of the resolution of conflict between the interests of the expectant mother and those of her unborn child.
Fetal Research
Authors: Steinbock Bonnie
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapters, the discussion of the embryo and fetus has been primarily in the context of preg nancy, where the moral and legal situation is importantly affected by the pregnant woman’s interests in privacy, bodily self-determination, and autonomy. How should we think about embryos and fetuses when they are not inside anyone’s body? In particular, is it morally permissible to use extrauterine embryos and aborted fe tuses for scientific and medical purposes?
Growth Monitoring and Promotion in Young Children
Authors: Jelliffe Derrick B , Jelliffe E F Patrice
Published: November 2023

This new volume outlines methods of monitoring growth and weight gain, and essential clinical service. The alternative methods described here will be of particular use to workers in Third World countries where the cost of scales as well as illiteracy and cultural differences make weight-plotting especially difficult. Readers will find outlines of such innovative methods as the use of arm growth tape, simplified techniques of weight plotting, and helpful algorithms for decision-making. Among the book's appendices is a point system for comparative evaluation of weighing scales. Many illustrations help clarify the material presented in the text, making this book valuable in the classroom as well as in the field.
Managing a High-Reliability Organization: A Case for Interdependence
Authors: Roberts Karlene H , Gargano Gina
Published: November 2023

Among high technology organizations there is a set of organizations labeled “high risk” (Perrow, 1984). They are high risk in the sense that errors in them may lead not only to employee death or to the need to rebuild parts of the organization, but to catastrophic consequences of such magnitude that they are unacceptable to the organization or a larger public. For example, the result of the accident at Union Carbide’ s chemical plant at Bhopal in 1984 is unacceptable to the Indian government.
High Technology Performance Management
Authors: Mohrman Allan M , Mohrman Susan Albers , Worley Christopher G
Published: November 2023

Performance requirements in high technology firms have become increasingly stringent. A few of the factors that require high performance on the dimensions of quality, cost, schedule, and service are global competition, shorter new product development cycles, shorter product life cycles, and the high cost of, but unquestionable need for, the organization to keep up with the rapid development of product, process, and administrative technology. Organizations must innovate, adapt to change, be efficient, and be responsive. To fail in any of these dimensions results in vulnerability.
A Government Man
Authors: Skemp Sheila L
Published: November 2023

“You are a thorough government man, which I do not wonder at, nor do I aim at converting you. I only wish you to act uprightly and steadily, avoiding that duplicity, which in Hutchinson, adds contempt to indignation. If you can promote the prosperity of your people, and leave them happier than you found them, whatever your political principles are, your memory will be honored.”Benjamin Franklin to William Franklin,1773 “His Majesty may be assured that I shall omit nothing in my Power to keep this Province quiet, and that, let the Event be what it may, no Attachments or Connexions shall ever make me swerve from the Duty of my Station.”
“Like a Bear Through the Country”
Authors: Skemp Sheila L
Published: November 2023

“If we Survive the present Storm, we may all meet and enjoy the Sweets of Peace with greater Relish.’’William Franklin to William Temple Franklin, 1776.”Pro Rege 6 Patria was the Motto I assumed when I first commenced my Political Life, and I am resolved to retain it till Death shall put an end to my mortal Existence.”-William Franklin to New Jersey Assembly, 1776.2 The journey to Burlington was not pleasant.
On-the-Job Search and Matching
Authors: Devine Theresa J , Kiefer Nicholas M
Published: November 2023

Studies reviewed in previous chapters do not distinguish job-to-job transitions when measuring employment spells. Yet, as Tobin observed, a significant share of job changing involves no intervening spell of nonemployment-estimatcs vary across demographic groups and with economic conditions, but they indicate that roughly half or more of all job changes are direct in the United States and elsewhere. In this chapter, we shift our attention to employed worker behavior in the search framework. Most of the studies we review are based on simple on-the-job search and matching models of labor market mobility, so we will start with a sketch of their basic structures and empirical implications, and then compare these to the implications of on-the-joh training models. As in Chapter 2, we consider the case of a risk-neutral worker who discounts future earnings at a positive rate rover an infinite horizon and, for the moment, we also ignore any out-of-pocket costs that might be associated with on-the-job search and job changing.
Experimental Studies
Authors: Devine Theresa J , Kiefer Nicholas M
Published: November 2023

To many economists, “empirical research” means the application of econometric techniques to data that are generated passively and typically collected in surveys or compiled by government agencies. In some rare cases, the data are generated by a social experiment, where subjects participate in a special program (e.g., negative income tax, job training, or search assistance). This description of empirical research applies to the studies discussed in previous chapters-but not to the research reviewed here. The data analyzed here are generated by controlled laboratory experiments-a relatively new endeavor in economic research.
Prologue: The Beginnings of a Plantation Community
Authors: Durrill Wayne K
Published: November 2023

In 1851, ten years before secession, Samuel Newberry, a yeoman farmer and resident of Washington County, North Carolina, stood before a crowd of his neighbors and spoke of the grim future he foresaw: “Let this monstrous doctrine [secession] never come to maturity. This ill-timed step once taken can never be retraced, and you will bring upon the country all the horrors of civil war.” “[Y]ou will see your country overrun by a ravaging soldiery . . . your now flourishing land will be desolated . . . your slaves will be wrenched from you by military force, and made your equals.”
Secession
Authors: Durrill Wayne K
Published: November 2023

On Tuesday evening, October 16, 1860, about twenty Washington County slaves assembled at a shingle-maker’s camp in McRae’s swamp. The slaves proposed among themselves to “collect together about 300” who would join them, “march towards Plymouth at about 11 o’clock on some night,” “murder & destroy all they might encounter on the road, set fire to the town, kill all of the inhabitants that might oppose them, [and] seize what money there might be, also what ammunition & weapons” they might require. They then hoped to “take possession of vessels” which would take them to an unspecified destination where, presumably, they would find freedom.
The Yeoman Challenge
Authors: Durrill Wayne K
Published: November 2023

On Sunday, June 23, 1861, Ellsberry Ambrose attended services at Concord Church in the Newland neighborhood in south­ eastern Washington County. Afterwards, Ambrose stood in a crowd of his friends and relatives and neighbors chatting about crops, weather, livestock, and all manner of country concerns. Then, the talk turned to politics. A farmer named Durham Oliver told Ambrose that he would go with him and “carry the pole” if Ambrose would “bring it.” Andrew Bateman, standing nearby, inferred from the drift of the conversation that Oliver meant to dis­ play the “Old Union Flag.” Ambrose concurred in Oliver’s plan. Moreover, the two unionists declared that they would raise the federal flag on Bateman’s farm on July 4.
A Question of Sovereignty
Authors: Durrill Wayne K
Published: November 2023

By late February 1862, Charles Pettigrew stalked about his plantation “fully armed.” “The low whites are not to be trusted at all,” he believed. “They would betray or murder any gentleman.” The planter probably exaggerated only slightly. Many poor persons from Washington County had fled to Roanoke Island, seeking protection after the battle at Hatteras. In February, they returned to their homes feeling confident that Union troops would intervene if planters did unionists any harm. After all, federal gunboats controlled the entire Sound, and the federal commander for the Albemarle region had resolved “to arm these people and organize them as North Carolina’s reserve.”
High Yield Companies in Focus
Authors: Yago Glenn
Published: November 2023

In assessing the impact of high yield financing on corporate performance, aggregate industry and economic data can help us identify general trends. But to learn how particular companies have benefited from the use of high yield financing, we need to look at the companies individually. In this chapter, we describe actual cases of high yield companies and the strategies they have pursued to maximize the value of their assets, labor force, products, and markets. Our examples show how businesses have responded to the pressures of economic change by modifying their strategies, adopting new technologies, and changing their supply and distribution channels. The companies studied also show how high yield issuers have responded to increasing competition in both domestic and international markets.
Toward a New Economy
Authors: Yago Glenn
Published: November 2023

In the 1980s, high yield securities played a constructive role in enabling the restructuring of companies in mature industries and the explosion of companies in new, innovative industries. As the 1990s begin, the future of high yield financing is uncertain. One thing is clear, however: Any actions that make it more difficult for small and midsized companies to obtain affordable capital also make it more difficult for the country’s economy to grow and compete. If the political forces that shape regulations do so from a narrow economic perspective, their actions could have a devastating effect on the viability of U.S. firms in highly competitive global markets.
Fujitsu: Process Control To Automated Customization
Authors: Cusumano Michael A
Published: November 2023

The products Fujitsu made, as well as the concepts, tools, techniques, and organizations it used for software development, closely paralleled those at its Japanese competitors, but with somewhat different timing and emphases. Like Hitachi, NEC, and Toshiba, Fujitsu built on its knowledge of telephone-switching and electromechanical equipment to enter the computer industry in the mid-1950s. It adopted transistors and introduced commercial models a few years later than its leading Japanese competitors. Yet Fujitsu also proceeded without foreign assistance, at least until investing in Amdahl in the early 1970s, and instead relied heavily on its own talented designers as well as careful studies of U.S. technology.
Software Development: From Craft To Factory Practice
Authors: Cusumano Michael A
Published: November 2023

The quest for an absolute answer to whether software development is or should be managed more like an art or craft rather than like science, engineering, or manufacturing is probably moot. This is because the nature of software development, and the optimal process or organization, seem to depend on the specific tasks at hand. To the extent these tasks differ with product types, market segments, and competitive positioning, the appropriateness of managing software through a factory process or not becomes a strategic choice subject to management discretion.
Education and Technology Transfer: Recipient Point of View
Authors: Aharoni Yair
Published: November 2023

Technology can be defined as knowledge about products, processes, or managerial actions that have applications in a business setting. Therefore, technology is knowledge related to the techniques and methods of the production of goods and services. To some, technology has a second meaning, namely, the goods themselves as well as the tools of production or the production systems that are the embodiment of technological knowledge.
Considerations on Revising Input-Output Concepts in the System of National Accounts and the European System of Integrated Economic Accounts
Authors: Stahmer Carsten
Published: November 2023

This chapter is restricted to the revision of input-output concepts in the framework of the System of National Accounts (SNA) of the United Nations and the European System of Integrated Economic Accounts (ESA) (see United Nations, 1968, 1973; EUROSTAT, 1979). ft does not cover the revision of 1-0 in the Material Product System (MPS) (sec United Nations, 1971).The first part of the chapter focuses on the requirements for future input-output concepts. This is followed by a comparison of these requirements with the existing concepts. Finally, the chapter outlines proposals for future input-output concepts that meet the requirements as far as possible.
Some Macroeconomic Features of the Hungarian Economy Since 1970
Authors: Halpern L , Molnar G
Published: November 2023

In introducing the “New Economic Mechanism” in 1968, the reformers of the Hungarian economy hoped to solve the problem of efficiency in a socialist economy. We show that the survival of the structure of prices and accumulation that had existed before the reform, and the interrelationship between them --among other factor shindered the necessary transformation in the economic structure. In addition, slow adjustment, or in practice the refusal to adjust, to the explosion in world prices in the mid 1970s has led to a critical level of foreign indebtedness for the Hungarian economy. Cheap foreign loans financed investment projects of very low efficiency, while export capacity remained far below the level necessary for debt servicing. A critical point was reached in 1978, when economic policymakers decided to restrict imports, consumption, and investment to be able to service foreign debts. In 1980, simulation of world market prices was introduced to stimulate adjustment. Since then economic activity has been almost stagnant.
A Long-Term Projection of the Industrial and Environmental Aspects of the Hokkaido Economy: 1985-2005
Authors: Hamada Fumimasa
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes a study that attempts to predict industrial activity and its environmental effects in the central area of Hokkaido for the period 1985 through 2005. An input-output model linked with a small-scale macro econometric model of Hokkaido was constructed and environmental changes in terms of biological oxygen demand (BOD), nitrogen oxides (NOX), sulfur oxides (SOX), and carbon dioxide (COD) to be emitted by the industrial activities and also by the residents were estimated, to predict the degree of resulting environmental pollution. The study also estimated industrial demands for space, water, fuels, electric power, and workers by individual industries, and the demand of residents in this area for various public utilities.
The Death of the Irreparable Injury Rule
Authors: Laycock Douglas
Published: November 2023

The irreparable injury rule, a fixture of Anglo-American law, has been the subject of much recent scholarly debate. The rule asserts that courts should not prevent a potential wrongdoer from causing harm unless the resulting damage would be ‘irreparable’ because the victim could not be compensated monetarily for it. Drawing on an analysis of hundreds of randomly selected cases, Douglas Laycock argues that the rule is defunct since it no longer constrains courts’ choice of remedy. Focusing on what courts do rather than what they say, Laycock proposes new injury rules based on actual practice and reconceives the law of remedies and the relationship between law and equity, two of the great divisions of Anglo-American civil law.
IT-Induced Business Reconfiguration
Authors: Venkatraman N
Published: November 2023

This chapter explores the structural and process changes required of a firm given the competitive threats and opportunities discussed in Chapter4 (see Figure 5-1). In terms of the 1990s model, this chapter focuses more on the internal “forces,” as shown below. Chapter4 developed a framework that allows any given business to understand the new competitive threats and opportunities presented by the new information technology.
Business Strategy Development, Alignment, and Redesign
Authors: macdonald K Hugh
Published: November 2023

Part II of this book arguably contains the core of the results from the Management in the 1990s Research Program. The availability of new, powerful information technology is expanding the strategic options open to organizations. The nature of these new options has been discovered and reported upon by Rotemberg and Saloner in Chapter 4 and by Venkatraman in Chapter 5.
Introduction
Authors: Marcus Maeva
Published: November 2023

Upon undertaking his duties, John Jay, the first chief justice of the United States, noted that the Formation of the judicial Department. We had become a Nation,observed.

[A]s such we were responsible to others for the observance of the I.Aws of Nations; and as our national Concerns were to be regulated by national I.Aws national Tribunals became necessary for the Interpreta tion & Execution of them both. no Tribunals of the like kind and Extent had heretofore existed in this Country-from such therefore no Light of Experience, nor Facilities of usage and Habit were to be derived. our Jurisprudence varied in almost every State, and was accommodated to local not general Convenience; to partial not national Policy.
United States v. Joseph Ravara:“Presumptuous Evidence”,“To Many Lawyers,”and Federal Common Law Crime
Authors: Gordan III John D
Published: November 2023

United States v. Joseph Ravara1 is the first reported federal criminal case. It is also the last reported judicial proceeding at which John Jay presided as chief justice of the United States.

Ravara, who for two years had been consul general of the Republic of Genoa in the United States, was for a misdemeanor, in sending anonymous and threatening letters to Mr. Hammond, the British Minister, Mr. Holland, a citizen of Philadelphia, and several other persons, with a view to extort money.Although statutory jurisdiction under the Judiciary Act of 1789 was not controverted, whether the Circuit Court of the United States for the District of Pennsylvania could constitutionally exercise that juris diction to entertain a prosecution of Ravara, given his consular status, was an issue that the prosecution and the defense disputed at
Electronic Integration and Strategic Advantage: A Quasi-Experimental Study in the Insurance Industry
Authors: Venkatraman N , Zaheer Akbar
Published: November 2023

The subject of information technology (IT) and its potential for strategic advantage has gained currency in recent years. The evolving literature is largely dominated by conceptual frameworks (e.g., McFarlan, 1984; Porter & Millar, 1985; Wiseman; 1985) and detailed case studies of popular examples and applications such as McKesson’s Economost system (Clemons & Row, 1988), American Airlines’ SABRE reservation system (Copeland & McKenney, 1988), and American Hospital Supply’s ASAP system (Harvard Business School, 1985, 1988; Venkatraman & Short, 1990). It can be reasonably argued that a major reason for considering ITbased applications as potential sources of strategic advantage lies in the capability for electronic integration among firms that can change the basis of competition in a marketplace (Barrett & Konsynski, 1982; Cash & Konsynski, 1985; Johnston & Vitale, 1988). Electronic integration is defined as the integration of two or more independent organizations’ business processes by exploiting the capabilities of computers and communication technologies.1 We shall elaborate on this issue later.
Information Technology and Work Organization
Authors: crowston Kevin , Malone thomas w.
Published: November 2023

Ever since at least 1958, when Leavitt and Whisler (1958) predicted that the use of information technology (IT) would lead to the demise of middle management, researchers have speculated about the effects of IT on organizations. Even though many of the early predictions have not come true, new kinds of information technology are now increasingly affecting how people work, often in ways that we are just beginning to understand. As the cost of the underlying technology continues to drop, IT is almost certain to become more and more pervasive and may even make possible new kinds of work organization that we can as yet only barely imagine. In this chapter, we discuss the relationship between the use of IT and work organizations. We first review theories that can help analyze organizations, technology, and the link between the two. We suggest four perspectives on organizationrationalist, information processing, motivational, and political-that can be used to interpret organizational structure.
The Role of the CEO in the Management of Change: The Case of Information Technology
Authors: Schein Edgar H
Published: November 2023

Few people would question the assumption that CEOs have a major impact on changes in their organizations. Yet there is surprisingly little analysis of just what this impact is likely to be; whether it will vary by industry, company, or the CEOs’ attitude and style; and what empirical data can be gathered to begin to shed some light on these issues. We decided in 1987 to interview CEOs in a variety of companies and, with the assistance of a number of our Sloan Fellows and other graduate students, were able to interview 94 executives, all of whom were current or past CEOs, and, in a few cases, COOs or presidents of divisions in conglomerates or multidivisional companies. What is distinctive about this research is that it draws exclusively on the responses of the chief executives, a point of some importance inasmuch as most of them felt that becoming a CEO changed their role and attitudes.
Information Technology in Marketing
Authors: Little John D C
Published: November 2023

Information Technology Is Everywhere Information technology pervades marketing When you answer the telephone, a computer may be calling with a sales message. If you buy shares of Intel, Microsoft, or another company listed with NASDAQ, you trade on an electronic market. NASDAQ has no physical location where traders meet. Instead, a network of securities dealers set bid and ask prices through connections to a common computer (see Figure 20.1). When I call Sears, Roebuck to place a catalog order, the Sears operator asks me my phone number. Then she tells me my name and address. Obviously she is sitting in front of a video terminal. Later, when I go to the store to pick up my order, I find another terminal. It too wants my phone number and tells me my name.
Religion and Morality
Authors: Perry Michael J
Published: November 2023

My general concern in this book is the proper relation of morality to politics, in particular, the proper role of beliefs about human good in political deliberation and justification. My specific concern, however, is the role of religious beliefs: In elaborating and defending the ideal of ecumenical politics, I focus principally on religious beliefs about human good. (As I said in Chapter 3, ecumenical politics institutionalizes a particular conception of “the place of religion in American life” and of “how we should contend with each other’s deepest differences in the public sphere.”) I do so mainly because in American society the question of the proper relation of religion to politics poses the issues I want to address, about morality and politics, in their most controversial, difficult, and indeed urgent form. But because my focus on religion may be misleading, I want to emphasize here, as I did in the introduction to this book, that much of what I have to say is meant to respond to the general question of morality and politics as well as to the specific question of religion-religious morality-and politics.
Ecumenical Political Dialogue
Authors: Perry Michael J
Published: November 2023

The principal constituents of ecumenical politics are two practices: a certain kind of dialogue and a certain kind of tolerance. In chapter 3, in which I introduced the idea of ecumenical politics, I began to elaborate and defend ecumenical political dialogue; I gave several reasons for taking such dialogue seriously. In this chapter I am principally concerned with two types of prerequisites to ecumenical political dialogue: situational or contextual prerequisites and existential prerequisites. Mindful, however, that ecumenical political dialogue is not always productive or even possible, that it does not always or even often lead to agreement-indeed, that it should not always lead to agreement, that agreement is not the true test or measure of the success of such dialogue (a point I develop later in this chapter)-! turn, in chapter 7, to the matter of tolerance (of positions and choices with which one disagrees). I elaborate and defend there the kind of tolerance constitutive of ecumenical politics.
Stochastic Specifications
Authors: Pollak Robert A , Wales Terence J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we outline several stochastic specifications that are important in empirical demand analysis and that form the basis of our empirical results in Chapters 6 and 7. In Section 1 we develop what we refer to as our standard stochastic specification for demand systems written in share form: additive, independent (across observations but not goods), normal errors with O mean and a constant nondiagonal contemporaneous covariance matrix. In Section 2 we extend this standard model to allow for first order vector autoregressive systems. We pay particular attention to the effects of including the initial observation in the estimation procedure. We consider two procedures that differ in their treatment of the initial observation: the generalized first difference method in which the initial observation is used only in differencing, and an alternative method in which full use is made of the initial observation. Almost all consumer demand studies in the literature that incorporate serial correlation do so using the generalized first difference method. In Section 3 we develop an error components model in the context of a time series of cross sections.
Germany
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Considering Germany’s legacy of an apolitical and PTT-dominated broadcasting system during the Weimar years and a totalitarian system during the Hitler period, the modem German public broadcast system has evolved well in many respects. The public broadcasting system is structurally superior to those of most European countries, because its decentralization provides a greater diversity of approaches to broadcasting and a certain rivalry in performance and quality. The legal status of German broadcasting is more independent than that of the BBC, over which the British government has retained a variety of important residual powers. In practice, however, the German institutions are heavily politicized along party lines. This problem is the cancer that has weakened the system’s independence and legitimacy. The absence of institutional self-reform, together with the ascendancy of the highly concentrated publishing industry and the cable construction strategy of the telephone monopoly, led to a limited opening of broadcasting to private interests.
France
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Early French broadcasting was a mixed public and private system. After Liberation, it became solidly centralized by the government and a tool for its political control, especially under Presidents Charles de Gaulle and Georges Pompidou. Only after 1974, under the more centrist Valery Giscard d’Estaing, was the state’s grip somewhat loosened. But it took a government of the left to create diversity, openness, and greater independence. When Fran<;ois Mitterrand became president in 1981, French broadcasting consisted of three solidly government-dominated television networks and similarly centralized radio stations. In the next few years three television channels were added, one semipublic (Canal Plus) and two commercial (La Cinq and TV-6). In addition, hundreds of independent radio stations, many of them legalized pirates, were licensed, and a semi-independent regulatory agency was established. When the right returned to power in 1986, it went a step further and privatized the major public channel, TFl, and the media firm, Havas, which controlled both Canal Plus and influenced Luxembourg’s popular RTL station. After 1988, the Socialists continued the trend and strengthened the independence of regulatory supervision.
Switzerland
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

After more than half a century of well-protected stability, Switzerland’s broadcast monopoly was cautiously opened in the 1980s, and it is likely to erode further. Radio goes back to 1922 and amateur radio clubs that evolved into cooperatives and eventually into companies such as the “Utilitas” organization. By 1926, every private station was operated in five major cities by associations (Saxer, 1986). Newspaper publishers, alarmed by the potential competition, succeeded in imposing restrictions on radio news. In 1931, after several years in which the Swiss confederate tradition contended with the need for centralized frequency regulation, the Swiss Broadcasting Company (SBC, in German, SRG, and in French, SSR), was created as an umbrella organization for the regional companies, whose number eventually grew to nine. It is subject to regulation by the Ministry of Transport and Energy.
Norway
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

In Norway, pluralism and localism combined to break up the state broadcast monopoly in radio and television. For a long time, this institution, Norsk Rikskringkasting (NRK), offered Norwegians high-quality but limited fare on one channel of each medium, both largely centralized in Oslo. Diversification began in 1981 with the licensing of noncommercial local broadcasting operations. At the same time, private cable operators started to carry more foreign satellite-delivered commercial channels. Challenged from two directions, broadcasting was opened. NRK remains by far the major broadcast institution, but without its past exclusivity.
Iceland
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Despite Iceland’s tiny population, which suggests a natural monopoly, Iceland’s broadcasting system was also opened in the 1980s. This occurred when a conservative coalition came to power and found it popular as well as politically useful to provide a private alternative to the traditional one-channel public system.
Assessing the Discomfort
Authors: Demb Ada , Neubauer F -Friedrich
Published: November 2023

Are boards failing? Are they incompetent? Can they be saved? Is improvement simply a matter of urging directors to do more, better? These are the questions we address in this book. In our experience, the majority of board members are intelligent people, sincerely attempting to carry an enormous responsibility-with varying degrees of success. The cause of the growing dissatisfaction is much more fundamental and far-reaching than the competence of individual board members: At this point in history, existing mechanisms for governing corporations are no longer adequate. The scale, complexity, importance, and risks of corporate activity have overrun our institutions.
Corporate Governance: Life space and Accountability
Authors: Demb Ada , Neubauer F -Friedrich
Published: November 2023

Corporate governance has always been a matter of enforcing “accountability.” Initially, it was accountability to the merchants who financed the trading ships to the New World. In those years, the relationship was very direct and easily measured. Some continue to argue that accountability should only be expected where there is a direct legal relationship: companies and boards are accountable to the stockholders, and corporate governance is the exclusive responsibility of boards.1 This legalistic perspective fails to cope with the realities of the late twentieth century. The sheer scale of resources controlled and influenced by individual corporations has brought them into an implicit contract that defines accountability much more broadly. Employees, communities, even whole nations invest in corporations-directly and indirectly. More importantly, because people believe that companies are accountable to them and behave as if they were, in fact, they are.
Whose Responsibility: The Board or Management?
Authors: Demb Ada , Neubauer F -Friedrich
Published: November 2023

A famous papal decision from medieval times that fundamentally influenced the course of European politics can be used to introduce this paradox. As the Roman Empire disintegrated, Germanic tribes filled the vacuum by creating their own states. The kingdom of the Franconians, covering the territory of present-day France, was ruled by the Merovingian dynasty. The caliber of their kings deteriorated markedly during the seventh and eighth centuries and the real power came to be exercised by their “major domo,” or palace mayor, who ran the kingdom and defended it against aggressors.
Forces of Centrifugalism
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

These trends have a logical progression. At first the network expands because it makes economic and technical sense. Later it expands because it makes political sense. But as the network provider succeeds in providing full service to every household, it also undermines the foundation of its exclusivity. Most countries in the world are still in the phases of the cost-sharing or redistributory networks. In Europe, first stage countries are Portugal, Turkey, Greece, and the nations of Eastern Europe. All others have reached substantial universal penetration of telecommunications for a number of years, and it is here that the transformation of the network system has begun progressing toward its third stage, which the United States entered first, followed by Japan. Since there is a strong correlation of economic growth and telephone penetration (roughly an additional telephone per $50,000 GNP), countries with high economic growth are likely to progress rapidly through the first two stages. Eventually, through economic growth and the instabilities transmitted from the more advanced nations, many other countries will move into a pluralistic network environment and will be faced with the policy issues inherent in such a system.
The United Kingdom
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

In the years following nationalization, the telephone system developed only very slowly. In 1912, the first public automatic exchange was opened; in 1916 amplification for long distance service was introduced; the Strowger switching system was adopted in 1922 and remained the mainstay well into the 1980s (Foreman-Peck, 1985, pp. 215-28). Demands for network investment were made in 1920 by a Parliamentary Select Committee, the Telephone Development Association (formed in 1924), and the Liberal party. But the General Post Office, the Treasury, and the Union of Postal Workers (though not the technical unions) resisted change until a 1932 Act of Parliament demanded reorganization. An opposition group, the ‘‘Memorialists,’’ was formed to press for telecommunication reform. It had the support of 320 MPs. A commission was set up (the Bridgeman Inquiry) that recommended moderate change. But the Post Office maintained its inefficient structure; even in the face of a substandard system, the postmaster general declared that he could not see how additional capital could be more usefully spent.
France
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Throughout the 1980s, no West European government controlled telecommunications more comprehensively than France; French state organizations were the principal operators, developers, customers, export promoters, and, for a time, primary equipment producers. This statist role has a long history. Organized French communications date back to the thirteenth century, when the University of Paris operated a messenger service. In 1464, Louis XI established a government courier service system for official use, and by 1622, there were also regular postal routes for the public. In 1725, the government declared the entire transportation system, including postal service, to be the exclusive domain of the state. Since most private operators leased postal routes from the state, postal routes became a significant source of state revenues. In 1790, the transportation of persons and parcels, but not of letters, was partially liberalized. In 1794 (the third year of the Republic), interested parties were allowed to provide postal services, except for the delivery of letters and small packages.
Luxembourg
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Luxembourg’s tiny size and population seem to provide little incentive for new entrants. The country is active in international financial services, incorporations, television, satellites, and even shipping registration. Telecommunications is an important input for each of them. The PTT, under the supervision of the minister for transport, communications, and information, held the national service monopoly. It followed a policy of providing services compatible with those of neighboring countries. In contrast to Luxembourg’s minor role in telecommunications, its position in mass media transmission was far more significant. Here both the television company CLT and the broadcast satellite provider SES were at the forefront of Europe-wide change.
Austria
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Austria’s telecommunication system is a classic postal-industrial complex: a powerful PTT monopoly closely allied with labor unions and with a virtual cartel of private equipment firms known as the “Four Sisters.” Because large users are frequently state-owned firms or international organizations, little counterpressure exists. Telecommunications began in Austria in 1846, when a railroad company constructed a telegraph line from Vienna to a suburb and onward to the city of Briinn (Brno) for its evolving operational needs (Holcombe, 1911). Emperor Ferdinand quickly declared telegraphy a governmental monopoly, the Telegraphenregal, assigning the new technology solely for the service of the ratlroads and the state. His successor, Emperor Franz Joseph, cast the future of the telecommunications monopoly by his 1849 decree, which, among other things, permitted public access to the telegraph system.
Denmark
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Denmark’s telephone system is unusual in Europe insofar as it is a shared arrangement of several state-dominated organizations. An 1897 law established a government monopoly for Danish telephony, but concessions granted since then have transferred actual operations to several telephone companies. This structure was until 1990 remarkably similar to that of the United States after its AT&T divestiture: several regional companies offer local service, and a national carrier (the PTT, subsequently Telecom Denmark) provides national and international long-distance service. A separate body serves regulatory functions. This system contradicted traditional PTf tenets of unified structure, endto-end technical responsibility, and economies of scale.
Italy
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

No European telecommunications system has been institutionally more complex than Italy’s. Through the 1980s, it was best described as a shared monopoly of five organizations. Two of these organizations are government administrations; the other three are nominally private groups. The state directly runs the State Agency for Telephone Services (ASST), which handles long-distance and European telephony, and the Post and Telecommunications Administration (PT), which handles telegraph and telex networks. The three other groups are Societa Italiana per l’Esercizio Telefonico (SIP), for local exchanges and some longdistance service; Italcable, for intercontinental service, and Telespazio, for satellite service, all of which are part of the state-dominated Societa Finanziaria Telefonica (STET) holding company. In theory, the system separates segments of network control as the AT&T divestiture did in the United States, and it reduces monopoly power. In practice, however, the system in its aggregate is an inflexible bureaucracy, with service problems for small and large users. There are few performance rivalries, but frequent jurisdictional and political disputes.
Greece
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

By European standards, Greek telephone service is backward. This situation.is partly due to the poverty of the country relative to Western Europe and the turmoil and polarization of its politics, including military dictatorships, foreign occupation, and divisive elections. It is also attributable to the problems of its telecommunications monopoly, the Hellenic Telecommunications Organization (OTE).
Brussels Takes On the Traditional System
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Until recently, telecommunications matters were outside the jurisdiction of the European Community and its commission. The Commission’s first attempt in the 1960s to play a role in the field was unsuccessful. In 1978, Commissioner Count Davignon introduced a telematics initiative at the EC summit meeting in Dublin. There was little activity on this issue until 1983, when the commission accepted recommendations that it play a major role in the high-technology and information industries. It concluded that the nationally protected environment that fragmented European telecommunications was an important factor in Europe’s weak competitive position relative to the United States and Japan. This led to decisions that initiated the ESPRIT high-tech technology development program. Although ESPRIT excluded hard-core telecommunications, it laid the foundations for the RACE program that the commission established in 1985 specifically for. telecommunications. The EUREKA program, another Europewide support program, also grew from these beginnings. Davignon wanted to go considerably further and advocated a European telecommunications agency to enhance equipment production and service supply.
The Political Economy of ISDN
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Debates over narrowband ISDN mirror the key conflicts in the information sector. In the 1960s and early 1970s, the PTTs had failed to appreciate the potential of data communications, and much of equipment, packet switching, and so on, was developed outside the telephone industry and its traditional suppliers. For the PTTs, the threat was that the computer industry would reach standards that would be incompatible with the existing public or specialized networks and would instead accelerate the creation of private networks. Computer standards were the purview of the International Standards Organization, ISO, whereas telecommunications standards were those of the ITU’s CCITT, the Consultative Committee on International Telephony and Telegraphy. Though significant coordination between ISO and CCITT exists through Joint Technical Committee l (JTCl), there is also a built-in rivalry between administrations and private network operators. This is partly due to “forum shopping” by interested parties, with the computer community preferring ISO. Joint development of standards was undertaken through the JTC1.
Transborder Data Flows
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Impediments to the free flow of information predate the advent of electronic communications by centuries. From the earliest years of book printing, some published materials were prohibited from importation to other countries or jurisdictions for reasons of politics, religion, or economics. Written correspondence was often censored, although this practice had some limits because of its expense. The advent of wire-line communications gave individuals new means to communicate across borders, but it also provided states with a smaller number of entry channels that needed to be controlled. In the case of the telegraph, state employees handled each word of the messages, and often kept copies. Broadcasting proved harder to contain, since over-the-air messages could cross political boundaries with impunity. Some states deterred individuals from listening to unwelcome news from outside sources by making the activity a crime and by interfering with foreign broadcasting frequencies through electronic jamming.
Pluralist Network
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Two basic forces shape change in today’s telecommunications networks in Europe and elsewhere: the integrative forces of technology that push towards ISDN and integrated broadband networks, raising barriers to entry; and the social and economic forces of pluralism, which move the network toward a decentralized and segmented federation of subnetworks. The tension between these forces is most pronounced on the front where they intersect: the rules of interconnection of the multiple hardware and software subnetworks and their access into the integrated whole. Such interconnection and access extend traditional common carrier principles from users to networks. In coming years, policymakers must structure ways in which network interconnection is granted, defined, policed, priced, and harmonized. Many questions must be resolved involving technical standards, national uniformity, and international collaboration.