bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Perceived Health Hazards of Low-Quality Irrigation Water in Vegetable Production in Morogoro, Tanzania
Authors: Mayilla Winfrida , Magayane Flavianus , Keraita Bernard , Ngowi Helena
Published: December 2015

This study assessed the perceptions of vegetable farmers, traders, consumers and key informants on the health hazards of using low-quality water in irrigation vegetable production in Morogoro, Tanzania. Methods used to collect data were a survey involving all farmers in Changarawe village and Fungafunga area using low-quality water for irrigation vegetable production (n=60), consumers of low-quality water irrigated vegetables (n=70) and vegetable traders selling low-quality water irrigated vegetables (n=60), focus group discussions (n=7) and key informant interviews (n=25). The study employed cross sectional research design. Descriptive statistics were used to calculate mean, frequencies and percentages while Mann-Whitney U-test and Kruskal-Wallis H-test assessed the association between social-demographic variables and respondents score on the health hazard perception scale of using low-quality water in vegetable production. Results showed skin itching, fungal diseases, bilharzias and worm infestation as among the perceived health hazards in using low-quality irrigation water. Health hazard perception differed among groups of farmers, consumers and vegetable traders (p<0.001). The mean ranks of the groups indicated that farmers perceive less health hazards in using low-quality water (mean rank = 147.98) compared to consumers (mean rank = 72.68) and vegetable traders (mean rank 69.64). More health hazards were perceived by Fungafunga farmers compared to farmers from the Changarawe village (p<0.001) while female farmers perceived less hazards in using low-quality water than male farmers (p < 0.05). Consumers with formal education perceived more health hazards than consumers with no formal education (p < 0.001) while vegetable traders from Fungafunga area perceived more health hazards in selling low-quality water irrigated vegetable than vegetable traders from the Changarawe village (p<0.001). These findings demonstrate the need to design health hazards minimization interventions for specific target group. 
Under Ground Treasure: A Preliminary Inquiry into the Ecology and Distribution of Zambian Truffles
Authors: M Siachoono Stanford , Shakachite Obote , M Muyenga Alexinah , Bwalya Justice
Published: December 2015

Zambian truffles, (believed to belong to the genus Terfezia because of its proximity to the Kalahari truffles), with a native Lozi name as Zoondwe (p) in Western province of Zambia, have been on the diet of many local inhabitants for many years. They are collected or hunted at the end of the rainy season between early April and early July each year. Very little is known of the Zambian truffles scientifically apart from the local ethno mycological knowledge. The present work is a preliminary study carried out to understand their ecology, plant interaction and distribution including the soil pH and the weather conditions.

The second revelation was the occurrence of a similar truffle species which the locals call simbulukutu. It is a bitter relative of the actual truffles that the locals eat. Despite the bitterness, the locals eat it, with special preparation, in hard times.
Child Rights As Perceived by the Community Members in India
Authors: Deb Sibnath , Sun Jiandong , Gireesan Anjali , Kumar Aneesh , Majumdar Anindita
Published: December 2015

Attitudes, knowledge, and perceptions of an individual influence their behavior as well as culture of a society. The objective of the study was to understand the attitudes and knowledge of 584 Indian community members regarding child rights and their perceptions about whether selected child rights were secured in reality. Overall attitudes of vast majority (96 – 98%) of the participants towards child rights were found to be positive i.e., children should have rights in various respects except issue like right to meet others (Article 15 of CRC). Knowledge of majority of the participants about child rights related legislations was moderate and varied across the cities while participants were unanimous about poor lived experiences of child rights in reality. So far as attitude and perception are concerned about child rights, there was a significant difference in the distribution between cities (p<0.01). Overall, the Rights of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 had the highest awareness (91.3%, n=533), followed by the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 (89.7%, n=523) and the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 (89.6%, n=523). Findings of the present study speak in favor of community awareness about child rights and penalties for violation of child rights.
Protestantismo liberal, ecumênico, revolucionário e pluralista no Brasil – um projeto que ainda não se extinguiu
Authors: Calvani Carlos Eduardo Brandão
Published: December 2015

As igrejas protestantes do Brasil, nos últimos anos, se tornaram mais intolerantes ao pluralismo, avessas ao ecumenismo e imunes à autocrítica teológica. O perfil da atual liderança das igrejas protestantes brasileiras em nada se assemelha à geração de intelectuais protestantes dos anos 30 a 50 e menos ainda à geração dos protestantes ecumênicos e revolucionários dos 60 e 70. Essas duas gerações, dentro de seus limites e possibilidades ajudaram a construir no Brasil um tipo de protestantismo que, embora minoritário, trouxe muitas contribuições, não somente às suas igrejas, mas à sociedade. Porém, esse tipo de protestantismo parece estar desaparecendo nas ondas de um modelo conservador, pouco afeito à reflexão teológica e desinteressado para com as novas demandas de inclusão social e para com os direitos das minorias. Aparentemente, vivemos o fim de um tipo de protestantismo no Brasil. Aquele protestantismo temperado pelos ideais da modernidade parece ter fracassado. O texto recupera um pouco da memória dessas duas gerações, valorizando sua oposição aos avanços fundamentalistas que encontraram solo fértil no Brasil e presta homenagem aos heróis da resistência, partilhando dos mesmos ideais e da mesma esperança: que o protestantismo brasileiro seja mais liberal, ecumênico, revolucionário e pluralista.
Tudo que é humano ressoa no coração da fé: discernir a missão universitária à luz dos sinais dos tempos
Authors: Rubens Pedro
Published: December 2015

O Concílio Vaticano II evidenciou a importância de discernir os “sinais dos tempos” para definir a missão cristã no seio do mundo e para exercer o próprio labor teológico. Ao celebrarmos, em 2015, o cinquentenário do concílio Vaticano II e da declaração Gravissimum educationis, bem como o vigésimo quinto aniversário da Constituição Apostólica Ex corde Ecclesiae, uma tarefa importante recai sobre a teologia fundamental, a saber: como discernir e redefinir a missão das universidades católicas no seio das novas situações humanas? Na presente reflexão, a título de exercício, proponho três passos para um discernimento teológico, que só pode ser feito por cada comunidade acadêmica: primeiro, identificar alguns grandes apelos na realidade paradoxal que caracteriza o tempo atual; segundo, redefinir a missão própria de uma universidade católica à luz de uma releitura da constituição apostólica Ex corde Ecclesiae; terceiro, a partir da perspectiva lançada pelo concílio, reafirmar a centralidade do Evangelho, fonte da fé e da teologia, como critério último de todo discernimento. E, à guisa de conclusão aberta, destacaremos alguns pontos fundamentais para a missão de uma universidade católica na contemporaneidade.
Reading Nostra Aetate in reverse: a different way of looking at the relationships among religions
Authors: Phan Peter C.
Published: December 2015

Nostra Aetate indiscutivelmente representou, quando de sua promulgação em 1965, um avanço importante na teologia católica das religiões. Mas a sua perspectiva sobre outras religiões ainda permanece profundamente "cristocêntrica", uma vez que vê as outras religiões a partir do ponto de vista cristão e usa o cristianismo como o critério para avaliá-las. Graficamente, a sua teologia da religião pode ser representada por uma série de círculos concêntricos, com o cristianismo ocupando, por um lado, o centro do círculo, e as outras religiões ocupando círculos sucessivos, com o aumento da distância a partir do centro, em função do número dos elementos da religião considerada verdadeira, isto é, o cristianismo. Como seria a "a relação da Igreja com as religiões não cristãs" (título completo da Declaração Nostra Aetate) se nosso ponto de partida fosse as outras religiões e as víssemos a partir de seus próprios termos, como elas vêem a si mesmas, isto é, não como "não-cristãs",  investigando assim suas relações mútuas? O presente ensaio começa com um exame da teologia das religiões implícita no uso da expressão "não cristãs" quando isso se refere  às religiões diferentes do cristianismo. Argumenta-se que o "não" da referida expressão não é um termo descritivo neutro, pois ele representa a "teologia da substituição", próprio daquelas religiões predominantes antes e durante o Concílio Vaticano II. Em seguida apresenta-se uma crítica à referida teologia da substituição, demostrando que ela é insuficiente para o diálogo inter-religioso. Finalmente, o texto propõe uma maneira diferente de conceber a relação entre o cristianismo e outras religiões (como "outras" e não como "não cristãs"), aplicando os conhecimentos a respeito do diálogo judaico-cristão, especialmente a sua rejeição do supersessionismo, a sua condenação do "ensino de desprezo" e sua teologia trinitária da religião.Em síntese, o ensaio tenta formular uma “teologia quenótica da religião" em que o cristianismo e a Igreja deixam de estar no centro normativo, de modo que as religiões não cristãs emerjam como seu "cumprimento" e perfeição. Ao invés disso, todas as religiões, incluindo o cristianismo, devem esvaziar a si mesmas, de modo a serem preenchidas pelo “outro” através da  correção mútua, da aprendizagem e enriquecimento recíprocos.
Pluralismo religioso e transformação social-eclesial
Authors: Neves Rui Manuel Grácio das
Published: December 2015

Parte-se neste artigo de um questionamento histórico do fenómeno religioso pós-modernidade, revisitando os “Mestres da Suspeita” (os três clássicos citado por Paul Ricoeur, mais Feuerbach), procurando detetar as “perversões” da Religião. Apresenta-se a Espiritualidade como algo diferente da Religião (podem reforçar-se ou não). A Espiritualidade como sendo mais a expressão das antigas tradições espirituais e a Religião como sendo a suas formulações históricas. Defende-se uma Espiritualidade Holística que procuraria as convergências entre todas as tradições espirituais. A partir daqui examinam-se alguns dos principais desafios contemporâneos, nomeadamente o neoliberalismo, a posmodernidade, assim como as questões relativas à Justiça, Paz e Ecologia. Aponta-se como saída para um novo paradigma: o Holismo. Finalmente, pretende-se conjugar o paradigma holístico com o paradigma da Teologia da Libertação. Neste sentido, conclui-se o artigo com questões práticas: o problema das mediações do Reino de Deus (são as Igrejas cristãs, hoje, mediadoras do Reino? E a Vida Religiosa?), os temas inadiáveis da justiça, paz, respeito ecológico, opção pelos mais pobres e oprimidos, procura de um modelo económico não-capitalista e de democracia mais direta, a necessidade da não-violência ativa, a presença da Graça no meio das mediações estratégicas-táticas e a Espiritualidade prática (“Caminho do Silêncio”) no seguimento do Mestre da Galileia.

 
Expediente - v. 13, n. 40, out./dez. 2015
Authors: Baptista Paulo Agostinho Nogueira
Published: December 2015

Expediente - v. 13, n. 40, out./dez. 2015
Pluralismo religioso e transformação social-eclesial
Authors: Neves Rui Manuel Grácio das
Published: December 2015

Parte-se neste artigo de um questionamento histórico do fenómeno religioso pós-modernidade, revisitando os “Mestres da Suspeita” (os três clássicos citado por Paul Ricoeur, mais Feuerbach), procurando detetar as “perversões” da Religião. Apresenta-se a Espiritualidade como algo diferente da Religião (podem reforçar-se ou não). A Espiritualidade como sendo mais a expressão das antigas tradições espirituais e a Religião como sendo a suas formulações históricas. Defende-se uma Espiritualidade Holística que procuraria as convergências entre todas as tradições espirituais. A partir daqui examinam-se alguns dos principais desafios contemporâneos, nomeadamente o neoliberalismo, a posmodernidade, assim como as questões relativas à Justiça, Paz e Ecologia. Aponta-se como saída para um novo paradigma: o Holismo. Finalmente, pretende-se conjugar o paradigma holístico com o paradigma da Teologia da Libertação. Neste sentido, conclui-se o artigo com questões práticas: o problema das mediações do Reino de Deus (são as Igrejas cristãs, hoje, mediadoras do Reino? E a Vida Religiosa?), os temas inadiáveis da justiça, paz, respeito ecológico, opção pelos mais pobres e oprimidos, procura de um modelo económico não-capitalista e de democracia mais direta, a necessidade da não-violência ativa, a presença da Graça no meio das mediações estratégicas-táticas e a Espiritualidade prática (“Caminho do Silêncio”) no seguimento do Mestre da Galileia.

 
A cholinergic feedback circuit to regulate striatal population uncertainty and optimize reinforcement learning
Authors: Franklin Nicholas T , Frank Michael J
Published: December 2015

Convergent evidence suggests that the basal ganglia support reinforcement learning by adjusting action values according to reward prediction errors. However, adaptive behavior in stochastic environments requires the consideration of uncertainty to dynamically adjust the learning rate. We consider how cholinergic tonically active interneurons (TANs) may endow the striatum with such a mechanism in computational models spanning three Marr's levels of analysis. In the neural model, TANs modulate the excitability of spiny neurons, their population response to reinforcement, and hence the effective learning rate. Long TAN pauses facilitated robustness to spurious outcomes by increasing divergence in synaptic weights between neurons coding for alternative action values, whereas short TAN pauses facilitated stochastic behavior but increased responsiveness to change-points in outcome contingencies. A feedback control system allowed TAN pauses to be dynamically modulated by uncertainty across the spiny neuron population, allowing the system to self-tune and optimize performance across stochastic environments.
A cellular and regulatory map of the cholinergic nervous system of C. elegans
Authors: Pereira Laura , Kratsios Paschalis , Serrano-Saiz Esther , Sheftel Hila , Mayo Avi E , Hall David H , White John G , LeBoeuf Brigitte , Garcia L Rene , Alon Uri , Hobert Oliver
Published: December 2015

Nervous system maps are of critical importance for understanding how nervous systems develop and function. We systematically map here all cholinergic neuron types in the male and hermaphrodite C. elegans nervous system. We find that acetylcholine (ACh) is the most broadly used neurotransmitter and we analyze its usage relative to other neurotransmitters within the context of the entire connectome and within specific network motifs embedded in the connectome. We reveal several dynamic aspects of cholinergic neurotransmitter identity, including a sexually dimorphic glutamatergic to cholinergic neurotransmitter switch in a sex-shared interneuron. An expression pattern analysis of ACh-gated anion channels furthermore suggests that ACh may also operate very broadly as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. As a first application of this comprehensive neurotransmitter map, we identify transcriptional regulatory mechanisms that control cholinergic neurotransmitter identity and cholinergic circuit assembly.
Biosorción de zinc, cadmio y plomo con cápsulas de Jatropha curcas
Authors: Rogelio Carrillo-González , Carmen A. González-Chávez Ma. del
Published: December 2015

Los desechos y esquilmos agrícolas pueden ser usarse como biosorbentes de elementos potencialmente tóxicos (EPT), sin embargo, es necesario evaluar la eficiencia y estabilidad de la sorción. En este estudio se evaluó la adsorción y desorción de Zn, Cd y Pb en mesocarpio seco de semillas (cápsulas) de Jatropha curcas L. También se estudió la cinética de desorción de los elementos, para lo cual se hicieron experimentos de equilibrio y se comparó el ajuste a las isotermas de adsorción de Langmuir, Freunlich, Temkin y Toth. La sorción de Zn, Cd y Pb se ajustó al modelo de Freundlich. Se observó histéresis durante la desorción, pues se desorbió menos de 3% de los elementos adsorbidos al usar CaCl2 0.01 M como solución electrolítica. Se desorbió hasta 8% de Zn y Pb; y más de 15% de cadmio adsorbido usando solución de HCl. El modelo de pseudo-segundo orden describe apropiadamente la cinética de desorción de los elementos. De esto se concluye que la regeneración del bioadsorbente sería costosa, debido a que la desorción de Zn y Pb fue baja; en contraste con lo observado con Cd; no obstante, su uso para adsorber EPT de agua contaminada resultaría factible y de bajo costo, además se usarían las cápsulas de J. curcas. Su aplicación para adsorber PTE de suelos y residuos contaminados debería también investigarse.
Depressurization of a hydrothermal system following the August and November 2012 Te Maari eruptions of Tongariro, New Zealand
Authors: Hamling I. J. , Williams C. A. , Hreinsdóttir S.
Published: December 2015

In 2012, two phreatic eruptions occurred at New Zealand's Tongariro volcano for the first time in over a century. Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar data collected by the Italian Space Agency's COSMO‐SkyMed satellite constellation, indicates up to 20 mm/yr of post eruptive subsidence focused across a 4 km2 region in the vicinity of the eruption site. Modeling of the deformation data indicates a shallow source at ∼500 m depth (1100 m asl) consistent with the depth of the hydrothermal system. We estimate an annual volume loss of 35,000 m3, leading to a pressure loss of ∼0.09 MPa/yr. We suggest that fracturing associated with the eruptions has enabled the continued depressurization of the shallow hydrothermal system and that subsidence will continue until the fractures become resealed.
Contribution of ion reflection to the energy budgets of dipolarization fronts
Authors: Li Jia‐Zheng , Zhou Xu‐Zhi , Angelopoulos Vassilis , Liu Jiang , Runov Andrei , Pan Dong‐Xiao , Zong Qiu‐Gang
Published: December 2015

Dipolarization fronts, earthward propagating structures in the Earth's magnetotail characterized by sharp enhancements of the northward magnetic field, are important sites of energy conversion from electromagnetic to particle energy. The large energy conversion rate observed at these fronts suggests significant particle acceleration and heating, which powers the ambient current sheet to generate plasma flows in the magnetotail plasma sheet and its boundary layer. Using a simple model of ion reflection at the dipolarization front, we estimate ion energy enhancement in the ambient plasma sheet and find it to be comparable with typical electromagnetic energy converted at the front. Validated by dipolarization front statistics from THEMIS (Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms) observations, this result suggests the important contribution of ion reflection to the energy budgets of dipolarization fronts during their earthward propagation.
Application of Drag Reduction Techniques to Transport Aircraft
Authors: Malik Mujeeb R. , Crouch Jeffrey D. , Saric William S. , Lin John C. , Whalen Edward A.
Published: December 2015

Two approaches for aircraft drag reduction are reviewed. Laminar flow control has long been studied as a potential drag reduction approach with a promise to reduce fuel burn by over 10%, but it is beginning to appear in a small way on modern commercial transports only recently because of the associated technical challenges. In this chapter, strategies for achieving laminarization for transonic transports are discussed. Wall suction is still the most effective technique for controlling any of the laminar–turbulent transition mechanisms, but natural laminar flow has been used for engine nacelle laminarization on Boeing 787‐8 and will be used on the advanced technology winglets of 737Max. For swept wings, a polished leading edge can create large regions of laminar flow because the flight environment is relatively turbulence free and the surface finish reduces the initial amplitude of stationary cross‐flow vortices. Issues such as insect contamination remain a challenge, but research continues to overcome the challenges to make laminar flow an effective technique for drag reduction. Active flow control can also potentially be used as a drag reduction technology. One specific example is considered where it is used to increase rudder side force by delaying airflow separation over the deflected control surface. The increased rudder effectiveness could lead to smaller, lower drag vertical tails with a potential to reduce fuel burn by about 0.5%. This is of significant value to aircraft industry and has resulted in recent wind tunnel and planned flight tests to further investigate the technology.
Biofuels for Green Aviation
Authors: Bomani Bilal M.M. , Hendricks Robert C.
Published: December 2015

There is a global interest in biofuels utilizing reliable alternative, renewable, and sustainable resources for a long‐term solution to the use of fossil fuels. The world's future sources of readily available fuels and energy are being depleted and cannot be renewed. Biomass is a fully renewable resource that can be used for biofuels, food and feed, power, chemicals, materials, and other green applications that can mitigate greenhouse gas emissions through conservation and recovery while introducing new methods to provide food, clean water, and sustainable use of semi‐arid lands. While food and feed are also major issues in our biomass objective, the goal of this chapter is to introduce and develop reliable and efficient methods of generating biofuels that can supplement fossil fuel dependence while increasing our conservation of the world's natural resources. Biofuels can potentially be a viable option for sustaining long‐term energy needs if they are managed effectively and realistic life cycle costs are factored into the process. We provide an introduction, a background on the various types of biofuels, how biomass is processed, potential applications for biofuels in the green aviation industry, and introduce a fairly new concept called eXtreme Green and how this concept can be applied to the green aviation industry in the future.
Onboard Energy Management
Authors: Mavris Dimitri N. , Chakraborty Imon , Garcia Elena , Perullo Christopher A. , Trawick David R.
Published: December 2015

The increasingly aggressive performance targets for new aircraft designs that drive fuel efficiency, emissions, noise, cost, and operability requirements necessitate a renewed focus on optimal onboard energy management for the aircraft systems and subsystems. Optimal energy management, which has traditionally been considered local to each aircraft subsystem, is now being expanded to include interactions among multiple subsystems to better optimize overall aircraft performance. The progressive trend toward the use of novel electric subsystems both opens up attractive opportunities for such a synergistic consideration of vehicle‐level energy optimality, and at the same time poses significant challenges of a technical and organizational nature. This chapter provides a broad overview of energy sources, types, and consumers for both conventional and novel subsystem architectures, identifying existing suboptimalities in energy utilization as well as opportunities and considerations for more effective total energy management. The technical and organizational challenges related to vehicle‐level treatment of energy optimality and management that modern aircraft designers face are presented and discussed. Several energy management strategies for thermal and electric systems are described and evaluated.
Networked MultipleUAS
Authors: Charlesworth Philip ‘B.’
Published: December 2015

There is a growing interest in the use of multiple UAS for missions that cannot be fulfilled by a single UAS. The effective coordination of multiple UAS requires the creation of a communications links between aircraft, satellites, and ground stations to exchange data and planning information.

Realistic designs must consider communications link quality, capacity, and obstruction. Link quality and capacity can be addressed using simple link budgeting methods, treating each aircraft as a point object with some antenna gain. In reality, the signal can be obstructed by aircraft body parts, effectively preventing the establishment of a communications path. The location of communications antennae on the airframe is thus an important design consideration. Such antennae must have a clear line of sight to other aircraft during manoeuvres, and should not conflict with other mission antennae.

This chapter describes the basic principles for designing communications links, including factors that affect choice of antenna location. It concludes but describing the state of the art in multi UAS networks.
Epidemiological Criminology
Authors: Reingle Gonzalez Jennifer M.
Published: December 2015

Convergence in the social and behavioral science of crime has led to the creation of an interdisciplinary field commonly referred to as epidemiological criminology. This emerging line of research examines the etiology of criminal behavior using methodological techniques that have been used for centuries in public health. The primary focus of this research is not to explain crime; rather, epidemiological criminologists seek to prevent criminal behavior at the population level. This entry discusses the perspective of epidemiological criminology, as well as the methods that are commonly used to investigate crime at the population level.
Statistics and Crime
Authors: Reingle Gonzalez Jennifer M.
Published: December 2015

Analysis of data in criminal justice may be simple or complex, depending on the research question and the data available. This entry begins with a brief introduction to sampling and probability theory, and extends this knowledge to statistical analysis. Bivariate methods, regression, group‐based trajectory modeling, mixed models, structural equation modeling, time‐series analyses, and propensity scores are discussed. Power and sample size determinations are also introduced as a necessary component for data collection. Overall, this entry focuses on selecting the proper analytical method to answer a particular research question.
Intelligence (IQ) and Crime
Authors: Fegadel Averi , Jennings Wesley G.
Published: December 2015

Previous examinations of the relationship between IQ and psychopathy as it relates to violence have revealed mixed results. Using data from the Longitudinal Study of Violent Criminal Behavior in the United States, 1970–1984, this entry uses a series of multinomial regression models to determine the ability to predict an individual's violent offending type, or subgroup (i.e., potentially violent, instrumentally violent, or angry violent) based on the individual's psychopathy and IQ levels (i.e., low IQ/low psychopathy, high IQ/low psychopathy, low IQ/high psychopathy, high IQ/high psychopathy) among an incarcerated sample of young adult males. Results indicate that high IQ/high psychopathy individuals are more likely to be instrumentally violent (for blacks) or angry violent (for whites). Results also indicate that individuals with problems in interpersonal relationships are not classified as one specific type of violent offender and can be involved in an array of violent offenses (e.g., potentially violent, instrumentally violent, or angry violent).
Geography and Crime
Authors: Wyant Brian R.
Published: December 2015

Traditional theories of crime causation attempt to answer the question of why individuals commit crime; however, researchers and practitioners have more recently shifted attention to studying the role of geography and crime and using a place‐based analysis of crime. The study of the geography of crime emphasizes the role of neighborhoods and the built environment in influencing human behavior and, subsequently, where crime happens. This place‐based analysis of crime has led to a number of insights regarding how neighborhoods can reduce crime, the geographic behavior of offenders and victims, and emerging techniques to analyze crime and develop concrete crime prevention strategies.
Differential Association Theory
Authors: Dobrow Jason A.
Published: December 2015

Originally hypothesized by Edwin Sutherland in 1940, differential association theory refers to the manner in which individuals learn the values, motivations, techniques, and attitudes necessary for committing criminal acts, and/or behaviors. This encyclopedia entry focuses on the historical development of Differential Association Theory from its creation in 1940, through its absorption into social learning theory in 1966 by Burgess and Akers through its present use in the field of criminology.
Self‐Report Research
Authors: Menard Scott , Bowman‐Bowen Lisa C.
Published: December 2015

Self‐report survey data on illegal behavior were first developed in the 1940s, a decade after the FBI Uniform Crime Reporting program and two decades before the first national victimization surveys in the United States. Although the validity of self‐report data was questioned, research on its reliability and validity indicated acceptable levels of accuracy for the self‐report method. Self‐report data suggested that much crime went undetected in official police data, and in the 1970s, several nationally representative longitudinal self‐report surveys were begun, using school and household samples. More recently, self‐report data have been compared with biological assay methods for substance use testing, and self‐report data have been combined with the collection of molecular genetic data to better investigate genetic influences on illegal behavior.
Larceny‐Theft
Authors: Hemmens Craig , Walker Andrea
Published: December 2015

Larceny involves the theft of property. Over time, the law of larceny has changed as the forms of property and methods of obtaining property have changed. This essay provides an overview of the historical development of larceny and a discussion of the elements of the crime.
Race and Crime
Authors: Leiber Michael J. , Peck Jennifer H.
Published: December 2015

Research surrounding the relationship between race and crime has found that, in general, minorities compared with whites are overrepresented as offenders compared with their representation in the general US population. Two potential reasons for this racial disparity are the differential offending and selection bias explanations. The current entry provides an overview of the empirical and theoretical relationship between race and crime, with a focus on the overrepresentation of minorities throughout both the adult and juvenile justice systems.
Crime and Punishment in
B
angladesh
Authors: Khondaker Mahfuzul I. , Lambert Eric G.
Published: December 2015

The People's Republic of Bangladesh is the world's eighth most populated nation. As a former colony, its criminal justice system has been significantly influenced by Britain. There is a national police force with about 125,000 officers. The police are seen by many as brutal and corrupt. There is a national criminal court system, and there is a significant backlog of cases. Judges decide issues of guilt. The national correctional system holds approximately 80,000 inmates and overcrowding is a problem, as well as outdated correctional facilities. In the past two decades, there has been a rise in the official crime rate, as well as an increase in terrorist activities. One of the guiding principles of punishment in Bangladesh is deterrence. Capital punishment by hanging is still used for criminal offenses. In addition to the formal criminal justice system, informal social control is used particularly in rural areas, and Islamic religious courts can handle minor offenses and family issues.
Crime and Punishment in Puerto Rico
Authors: Maldonado‐Molina Mildred , Kim Hyesu G. , Delcher Chris
Published: December 2015

The status of Puerto Rico as a commonwealth of the United States provides a unique legal context for alcohol‐related policy and law. While part of the United States, Puerto Rico is not one of its states, which is evident in its divergent legislation. In particular, the commonwealth's alcohol policies have led to negative health outcomes, but its ambiguous legal status – in addition to cultural and linguistic barriers – has impaired research in this area. Interventions have resulted in legislative changes as well as in increased public awareness of the dangers of underage drinking. Although these efforts have made promising reductions of crime and underage drinking, there are still health disparities between the island and the mainland. Understanding trends of alcohol‐related outcomes among Puerto Ricans living in Puerto Rico by comparison to Puerto Ricans living in the mainland United States can provide informative data and can show how cultural, legal, and political environments create a framework for studying health outcomes.
Forgery
Authors: Ghazi‐Tehrani Adam , Burton Bryan , Pontell Henry N.
Published: December 2015

Forgery is the altering, copying, or imitating of something, without authority or right, with the intent to deceive or defraud. The intent to deceive or defraud is a necessary component of forgery, as there remain legitimate uses for copying, such as proof of a birth certificate. Forgery and fraud, an intentional misrepresentation of the truth that may lead to some unwarranted gain, are closely related crimes and most statutes group them at the federal and local level. While tracking the history of forgery is difficult, evidence suggests that artistic forgery began during the age of the Roman Empire and has continued through to the present. The Piltdown Man, a faking of a pre‐
Homo sapiens
skull, and the Hitler diaries, forged journals of Adolf Hitler, are two of the most prominent cases in the twentieth century. Common punishments for forgery are fines and moderate prison sentences.
Shoplifting
Authors: Lasky Nicole V. , Fisher Bonnie S.
Published: December 2015

This entry provides an overview of the empirical research to date on shoplifting. It focuses on the shifting trends over time, especially the gradual theoretical and measurement developments over the past few decades. It concludes by considering contemporary studies on shoplifters' decision‐making processes and by discussing the direction of continued research.
Crime and Punishment in
V
ietnam
Authors: Bui Hoan N.
Published: December 2015

Crime and punishment in Vietnam is influenced by the country's one‐party political system, its Western inquisitorial and socialist traditions, and its Confucianism. Crimes are classified into nine categories: crimes against national security, persons, property, marriage and family institutions; and drug, public order, environment, and war crimes. Until recently Vietnam had low crime rates by comparison to industrialized countries, but crime rates have increased since the country moved toward the market system in the late 1980s. Vietnamese laws provide legal safeguards for those who are in the system; such safeguards include the presumption of innocence, protections from illegal arrest and from search and seizure, and rights to legal counsel, impartial criminal proceedings, and appeal. However, the control exercised by the party over the state – together with the lack of separation of powers and the absence of an independent judicial system – serves as a barrier to the implementation of legal protections.
Crime and Punishment in
P
oland
Authors: Pływaczewski Emil W. , Zatyka Elżbieta
Published: December 2015

In 1989, Poland was the first country to start a process of political and economic transformation. The ensuing democratization and processes of supranational integration also had their negative aspects, which include high crime rates. Poland's current crime level, by comparison to the crime level of other European countries, should be considered as average. In the last decade the number of offenses committed each year in the different categories was subject to small fluctuations. The average level of threat associated with crime is confirmed by the results of public opinion studies, which indicate a high sense of security in the society.
INTERPOL
Authors: Deflem Mathieu
Published: December 2015

The international police organization Interpol brings together police from 190 nations in a joint network for cooperation in matters of international crime. Dating back to 1923, Interpol has steadily expanded its membership and extended its mandate in the area of international police objectives. The events of September 11 and the resulting increased awareness of the problem of international crime and the urgency of its response brought about substantial changes in Interpol's structure and activities and expanded its field of operation.
Homicide of Police
Authors: Covington Michele W.
Published: December 2015

Violence against police officers occurs on a regular basis in the United States, but the frequency of incidents has decreased in recent years. There are several common characteristics of police homicides: incidents often involve officer victims who were alone at the time of the murder, were responding to disturbance calls, and were killed with guns. Police agencies have taken great pains to increase officer safety and many policies are used to this end, including the use of body armor (such as bulletproof vests) and training in defensive tactics and weapons use.
Reentry
Authors: Smith Sarah M.
Published: December 2015

Prisoner reentry, often referred to simply as reentry, is the process of ex‐offenders reintegrating into to society after a period of incarceration. Successful reentry is challenging and typically involves ex‐offenders finding stable employment and housing, aftercare services such as substance abuse or mental health treatment, and avoiding antisocial peers. Exacerbating reentry difficulties are policy changes that have lengthened prison sentences, reduced access to subsidized housing and welfare, and imposed civil disabilities on ex‐offenders, as well as the poor economic climate to which ex‐offenders are returning. Some states have begun to rely on community corrections rather than prison, as these programs are cheaper, at least as effective as prison at reducing re‐offense rates, and enable offenders to maintain prosocial contacts with employers and friends and family. Reentry scholars recommend removing barriers to reintegration such as felon disenfranchisement laws and improving parole services offered to ex‐offenders to aid in successful reentry.
Religion and Crime
Authors: Hoffmann John P.
Published: December 2015

The number of studies on religion and crime has been increasing over the past 20 years. Religion either currently plays a role or has a potential role in several criminological theories, including social bond, self‐control, social learning, strain, and symbolic interaction. Moreover, research suggests that it has effects at the macro level. This entry provides an overview of these links between religion and crime and points to future areas of research.
General Strain Theory
Authors: Peck Jennifer H.
Published: December 2015

General strain theory (GST) is one of the more recent theoretical perspectives to emerge from classic strain theories. GST posits that certain individuals who experience strain and stressful events will engage in criminal and delinquent behavior to cope with their adverse situation(s). While the theory has primarily attempted to explain individual offending behavior, more recent research has applied GST to group differences in crime across gender, age, race, and communities. Policy implications have also been suggested in an attempt to reduce strain and subsequent criminal behavior, and well as provide prosocial coping mechanisms to reduce strain.
UnitedStatesSupremeCourt
Authors: Donner Christopher M.
Published: December 2015

This entry provides an overview of the United States Supreme Court. Specifically, it discusses the creation and jurisdiction of the Court, the composition and procedures of the Court, and a history of case law that the Court has established.
Philosophy and Crime
Authors: Polizzi David , Schaefer Roger
Published: December 2015

Within the context of American jurisprudence, crime, or more precisely criminality, is assigned meaning based on philosophical understandings of human nature. These philosophical understandings of human nature are known as ontological assumptions. While ontological assumptions are inherently teleological, they are essential to the development and advancement of criminological theory. At the most basic level, criminological theory can be taken up as an articulation of a causal mechanism, which employs a set of testable premises. However, before a theory can attempt to explain the etiology of criminality, it must provide an assertion regarding the intrinsic behavioral expectation of human beings – is criminality an intrinsic behavior that must be controlled, or a learned phenomenon? While philosophy provides a medium for dialogue between these polarized assumptions, it fails to satisfy the scientific need for empirical confirmation. The notion of empirical confirmation refers to the second component of theory – testability. Testability evokes another important philosophical construct known as epistemology. In a general sense, epistemology is the philosophical foundation for scientific discourse – the epistemological orientation, which establishes criteria regarding what constitutes credible knowledge. In essence, criminology or the study of criminality is the welding of two philosophical constructs, ontology and epistemology.
Bail
Authors: Henderson Brandy B.
Published: December 2015

In the past few decades, more scholars have begun to pay attention to the processes of pretrial detention and release. This entry focuses on the definition, history, and various categories of bail, primarily in the United States. Trends in legal decisions on bail, its various effects on different individuals, and the possible alternatives available are also discussed.
Judges
Authors: Sanborn Joseph B.
Published: December 2015

Judges are important and powerful governmental figures. Their work, at both trial and during the appeal of a case, is critical in ensuring that defendants receive justice, and that the interests of society are represented and vindicated.
Juvenile Court
Authors: Garland Tammy S. , McGuffee Karen
Published: December 2015

The focus of this entry is the development of the juvenile court and its processes. As a result of the problems associated with past intervention efforts, the juvenile court developed as a means to ensure that the system acted in the best interests of the child. Over time, due process rights were granted to juveniles in the system, and as a result, the juvenile court system has shifted from an informal process to a more formalized system similar to the adult criminal court.
Inequality and Crime
Authors: Parker Karen F. , Mancik Ashley
Published: December 2015

In this entry we review how inequality can intersect with crime and justice to impact the lives of individuals who come into contact with the criminal justice system. The link between inequality and crime has commanded a great deal of attention and empirical support in the fields of criminology and criminal justice. We illustrate this link by reviewing evidence of race and gender disparities in crime and justice. We then examine one of the major developments in the study of inequality and crime – intersectionality. An intersectional framework proposes that the multiple social characteristics that define the individual, such as, race/ethnicity, class,andgender, are relevant beyond an examination of one's race/ethnicityorgender alone. Rather than examining raceorgender separately, intersectionality requires us to examine how race, gender,andsocial class (e.g., young Latino male) together influence our experience with crime and the justice system. We conclude this entry by showing how a better understanding of inequality is important to the study of crime and justice.
Plea Bargaining
Authors: Hayden Griffin, O.
Published: December 2015

Plea bargaining is the practice of a criminal defendant pleading guilty to criminal charge(s) in exchange for several potential forms of leniency. The frequency of plea bargaining has increased significantly and is now far more common than jury trials. Many different historical developments have led to this increase. The United States Supreme Court has repeatedly been asked to decide if the due process of defendants has been respected in the plea bargaining process.
Criminal Investigation
Authors: Capsambelis Christopher R.
Published: December 2015

Criminal investigations are designed to collect information and evidence for identifying, apprehending, and convicting criminal offenders. The two general types of investigation are reactive and proactive. Reactive investigations occur after a crime has been discovered; they involve conducting a preliminary investigation, in which physical evidence is collected at a crime scene, and a follow‐up investigation, in which interviews of victims and witnesses are conducted and interrogations of suspects may take place. Proactive investigations are conducted in anticipation of a crime being committed, in order to prevent it from occurring or in order to apprehend offenders involved in ongoing criminal activities. These investigations typically involve the use of covert or undercover activities. Advances in science and technology have enhanced the ability of police to conduct criminal investigations.
Genetics and Crime
Authors: Beaver Kevin M.
Published: December 2015

The field of criminology has historically focused on environmental causes of crime while ignoring the potential role of genetic influences. During the past decade or so, this trend has changed, with a rapidly growing body of research revealing genetic influences on measures of crime, delinquency, and other antisocial behaviors. The current entry provides an overview to the literature that has examined genetic influences on criminal involvement. Toward this end, a review of twin‐based studies will be presented, as well as a discussion of molecular genetic and gene–environment interaction research.
Integrated Theories of Crime
Authors: Jennings Wesley G.
Published: December 2015

Criminology, although relatively in its infancy as a discipline compared to other fields such as psychology, does have a core set of theories for explaining crime and deviance. Nevertheless, only somewhat more recently have criminologists begun to recognize and offer up integrated criminological theories. This entry focuses on several “classic” and contemporary integrated theories for explaining crime and deviance and concludes with a series of directions for future research in this genre to consider in order to move this literature and theoretical orientation forward.
Child Neglect
Authors: Brown Margaret Phipps
Published: December 2015

Child neglect is the most common form of child maltreatment. It has been studied in connection with child abuse, but there is only limited research specifically on child neglect. It is a major social problem associated with a multitude of negative outcomes for its victims. The definition, the various sub‐types of child neglect, characteristics of neglectful parents, and outcomes for victims of child neglect are discussed, followed by suggestions for future research.