bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Geography
Authors: Dueck Daniela
Published: June 2013

The study of geography in classical Antiquity can be undertaken in several directions: (1) the extent of actual exploration and knowledge of the world in various periods of time within Antiquity, (2) the means used to record this knowledge, whether in writing or graphically, (3) the conceptual image of the world as it emerges from ancient documents. A significant and fundamental starting point for any discussion is the classification of the primary sources (for cartography, see the Oxford Bibliographies in Classics article Maps). Greeks and Romans described the Earth, its continents and topographies, in a number of levels of written documentation. Through the scientific approach, they defined physical conditions, applying calculations and accuracies based on sensual observations and measurements. In this way, measurable and quantifiable features, such as distances, sizes, and heights, were conveyed to readers as accurately as possible. Through the verbal approach, they described with much detail and in many words, including numerous adjectives and metaphors, not only the same physical features treated in scientific geography, but also other kinds of data relevant to specific places, for instance flora and fauna, local myths and history, and ethnographic aspects. All these elements constituted a traditional part of geographical surveys, and they were based either on actual firsthand travels or on oral or written hearsay. Evidently, unlike scientific geography, which implied certain qualifications of its authors and a specific style of writing, descriptive geography is to be found in a large variety of literary genres—in poetry and in prose; in works of philosophy, oratory, historiography; or in novels and letters—representing the different intellectual portraits of their authors. This fact testifies to the lack of a clear discipline or genre of geography in classical Antiquity. Nevertheless, recent studies have attempted to assess the extent to which a specific style of verbal geography can be identified, in particular, with regard to the relationship between historiography and geography. A relatively new path of scholarship is the study of non-literate and commonsense geography as it is revealed in the available visual and textual sources we possess. The history of classical geography depends on texts, and, therefore, a significant part of this article is devoted to individual authors who contributed to the tradition of geographical knowledge.
Motivational Interviewing
Authors: Hohman Melinda
Published: June 2013

Motivational interviewing (MI) is a communication/counseling style that was developed initially as an alternative to the more traditional confrontational methods employed in substance use disorder treatment in the 1980s. It was based on psychologist Carl Roger’s client-centered model with the focus on demonstrating empathy to clients in an atmosphere of acceptance and collaboration and with an emphasis on client autonomy. These elements have been captured in what is called the “spirit” of MI. Other important aspects are the skills involved in creating this spirit, including the use of open-ended questions, affirmations, reflective listening statements, and summaries. In MI the practitioner listens for and highlights the client’s language of change, known as “change talk.” Listening skills are used to reflect and learn about the desires, abilities, reasons, and needs for change in clients. Emphasis is placed on evoking from the client their ideas about how change should occur, keeping the client as the expert in solving their problem. MI had been used as a stand-alone counseling method, a pretreatment method to engage clients, or in combination with other evidence-based practices. Initial publications regarding MI primarily explained the method, with early research demonstrating its efficacy in addressing substance use disorders. MI has been adopted and utilized by other fields of practice, especially health behavior change. Currently over 2,000 clinical trials of MI and over 200 meta-analyses/systematic reviews have been published, attesting to its broad reach and range. This annotated bibliography on MI provides resources for social workers, psychologists, counselors, and their educators. A review of the literature regarding elements of MI includes a section on its history, meta-analyses of research, training and implementation studies, and an overview of how MI works or its mechanisms of change and how to measure fidelity to MI skills. Other sections include Cultural Adaptations of MI, applications of MI in Screening and Brief Interventions, and MI with Adolescents, Older Adults, and in group settings. Also reviewed are areas of interest to social workers, including Social Work in general, alcohol and other drug misuse, Mental Health and Co-occurring Disorders, Criminal Justice, and Intimate Partner Violence. Included are randomized controlled trials, other study designs, qualitative designs, case studies, and conceptual articles. The research on MI has been so abundant that many meta-analyses have been conducted and most are included in this review, not only in the Meta-analyses and Systematic Reviews section but under other sections as well. Not only do they provide information from a wide swath of studies but they also point the reader to the various studies that were included in the analyses.
Worship in the New Testament and Earliest Christianity
Authors: Hurtado Larry
Published: June 2013

In distinction from magical rituals, which are typically intended to ward off malevolent beings or to coerce spirits to do the will of the person or persons performing the rituals, in worship devotees express a more positive stance of thanksgiving and adoration, subordination to, and dependence on the object of worship. Although worship can be offered by individuals privately, early Christian worship was more typically sited in the gathered ekklēsia (congregation/church). Historians of liturgy probe early Christian texts for origins of subsequent liturgical practices and forms but with limited results. The earliest Christian texts (e.g., the New Testament) presuppose early Christian worship, however, and do not reflect any common order of worship. The earliest examples of any set liturgical order come from the 3rd century ce and later. New Testament scholars have tended to focus on various matters other than worship (e.g., early Christian beliefs, social setting, and questions about specific texts), but in recent decades there has been a small renewal of interest in worship as an important topic. Some recent studies explore the relationship of early Christian worship practices to the Roman-era context and especially the Jewish religious matrix in which Christian faith emerged. However, similarities granted, several features distinguish early Christian worship. Along with ancient Judaism, early Christians also were to worship solely the one God of biblical tradition and to refuse to worship the various other deities of the Roman world. At an astonishingly early point, however, believers also treated the risen/ascended Jesus as rightful recipient of corporate and private devotion with God, thereby also distinguishing themselves from the Jewish tradition. In addition, Sunday (the first day of the week) became the particular and distinguishing day for corporate worship. Moreover, whereas animal sacrifice was a typical component of worship in pagan circles and also in Jewish religion (prior to the destruction of the Jerusalem temple), it was not a feature of early Christian worship. The specific phenomena of early Christian worship also form a scholarly focus. Practices likely varied among churches of the time, but verbal expressions of praise, thanksgiving, and adoration including hymnic ones were apparently common. Spiritual gifts (e.g., prophecy, tongues speaking), phenomena ascribed to the Holy Spirit, are also featured. Corporate worship was to be regarded as an occasion of transcendent significance and character; angels were thought to be present as the earthly worship joined with that of heaven.
Gospels
Authors: Gregory Andrew
Published: June 2013

In Christian usage, the word “gospel” first referred to the proclamation of good news about Jesus. By sometime in the 2nd century ce it had come to be used also of books that claimed to present the teaching and/or deeds of Jesus. Questions about the audience for whom the gospels were written have often been linked to questions about what type of books they are. Most scholars continue to think that the gospel writers drew on traditions that had circulated orally before they were included in written gospels. But there is great debate about the extent to which the written gospels reflect the later concerns of those who handed down these traditions rather than the testimony of eyewitnesses to Jesus. Many scholars now think that the canonical gospels are best understood as form of ancient biography, but many noncanonical texts that were also known as gospels do not fit easily in a biographical genre, and they have been marginalized in much recent discussion of the genre of the gospels. One way of addressing this issue is to acknowledge that the canonical gospels are one form of gospel but to recognize that other texts may be read as gospels of other kinds. Another is to maintain a clear distinction between “gospel” as part of the title of a book that claims to present at least some of the teaching or life of Jesus and “gospel” as a clearly delineated genre. Questions about the relative dating of different gospels and the literary relationships (or otherwise) between them continue to be debated. The very particular question of the nature of the relationship between Matthew, Mark, and Luke is known as the synoptic problem. The way in which this issue is resolved has an important bearing on how we use these texts as sources for the study of the historical Jesus, for they differ at significant points. The same issue arises when the synoptic gospels are compared with John and when canonical and noncanonical gospels are considered together as potential historical witnesses to Jesus. Readers who approach the canonical gospels primarily as Christian Scripture will address theological questions to these texts that they may not wish to address to noncanonical gospels. Readers whose interests are primarily historical or literary may wish to ask similar questions of all these texts. If so, the fact that early Christians gave a privileged position to four gospels (as have most Christians ever since) will not in itself be determinative in the way that they approach these texts. Thus, at the end of this article, entries on individual gospels are listed in alphabetical order, not according to their canonical status.
Samaria/Samaritans
Authors: Pummer Reinhard
Published: June 2013

Both in the Bible and in nonbiblical sources, the name “Samaria” occurs numerous times, either as the appellation of a city or as the designation of the region of which the city was the capital. Already at the end of the 19th century, the site of the city was associated with that of the Arab village of Sebastiya, located six miles northwest of Nablus and thirty-five miles north of Jerusalem. The city was built on a hill that rises 1,410 feet above sea level and was ideally situated to control the north–south and east–west routes, although it had no well of its own (only the Romans built an aqueduct to bring water from a source southeast of Samaria). The first excavations of the city were undertaken by Harvard University in 1908 and 1910; the latest were carried out from 1965 to 1967 and again in 1968. In the course of its history, the city was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Bible the district of Samaria is called Mount Ephraim. Geographically, it consists of the central region of the mountains of western Palestine, bordered in the east by the River Jordan, in the west by the Plain of Sharon, in the north by the Plain of Jezreel (Esdraelon), and in the south by the valley of Ayalon. Politically, the boundaries, particularly in the north and the south, varied at different times. The name “Samaria” was applied to the region when the city of Samaria became the capital of the northern Israelite kingdom under King Omri in the 9th century bce. In the biblical period, the majority of the population in the region were Yahweh worshipers (even after the Assyrian conquest in the late 8th century bce), just as the Judeans to the south of them. Those Yahweh worshipers of the region of Samaria who eventually rejected Jerusalem and its temple as sacred centers are the Samaritans. For them, Mount Gerizim in the vicinity of ancient Shechem (modern Tell Balatah, near Nablus) and the temple on it became the focus of religious life. They do not, however, consider their identity to be tied to that of the city or province of Samaria but see it based on the concept of guardians (Hebrew: shomrim); that is, they think of themselves as the guardians of the Torah.
Image Consecrations
Authors: Warner Cameron
Published: June 2013

Buddhists erect shrines within monasteries and temples, at home, or even in the workplace in order to have a proper context for performing rituals. Representations of the body (images), speech (texts), and mind (stūpas) of the Buddha serve as the focal point of a shrine. Images might be a two-dimensional painting or a three-dimensional statue. Often, before a new image is installed in a shrine, a ritual specialist has consecrated (pratiṣṭhā/buddhâbhiṣeka) it. When consecrating an image, the ritual specialist, usually a Buddhist monk or priest, brings it to life for the patron, a local devotee or resident clergy, who sponsored the ritual. In the Tibetan tradition, in the case of a two-dimensional image, a mantra or dhāraṇī might be inscribed on the back at points that correspond to the head, throat, and chest region, symbolizing respectively the body, speech, and mind. Three-dimensional, hollow images are filled with other representations of the body, speech, and mind of the Buddha. In the East and Southeast Asian traditions, faux organs might be inserted. However, many consecration rituals contain within their liturgy an understanding that, ontologically speaking, the presence of the Buddha already pervades all space. Ultimately, there is no need to perform a consecration ritual. The intention is to entice the presence of the Buddhist deity in question to dwell in the image, therefore making it possible for the community to interact with the presence of the Buddha (or a related deity). However, the rituals are performed with an understanding that they facilitate a person’s relationship to the Buddha’s presence. All evidence indicates that Buddhists have been performing image consecration rituals since the beginning of the Buddhist cult of images over 1,500 years ago. It is still a popular practice for contemporary Buddhists worldwide. Though the ritual has evolved over time in local contexts, the main features of image consecration are still very similar across Buddhist Asia and the West, and they share some features with Jain and Hindu image consecration. As a research topic, image consecration is connected to other subfields of Buddhist studies, especially art history, ontology (multiple bodies of the Buddha), and literature on the life of the Buddha.
Social Aspects of Scientific Knowledge
Authors: Longino Helen E.
Published: June 2013

Attention to the social dimensions of scientific knowledge is a relatively recent focus of philosophers of science. While some earlier philosophers made contributions to the topic that are still of relevance today, modern interest was stimulated by historians and sociologists of science such as Thomas Kuhn and the growing role played by the sciences in society and, by extension, in the lives of its citizens. There are two main vectors of interest: internal relations within scientific communities, and relations between science and society. This article covers literature in both categories. It starts with work that functions as historical backdrop to current work. As a subfield within philosophy of science, this area is too recent to have dedicated journals and has only a few anthologies. Nevertheless, there are resources in both categories. The remainder of the article lists work in specific subareas.
Thomas S. Kuhn
Authors: Wray K. Brad
Published: June 2013

Thomas Kuhn (b. 1922–d. 1996) was an American historian and philosopher of science. He completed a Ph.D. in physics at Harvard University. While a student at Harvard, Kuhn worked as a teaching assistant for James B. Conant, who was the president of Harvard University from 1933 to 1953 and who designed and taught the general education history of science courses at Harvard. This experience led Kuhn to become a historian of science. After Kuhn completed his Ph.D., he taught the history of science for a brief period at Harvard. Subsequently, he taught at the University of California, Berkeley, then at Princeton University, ending his teaching career at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (cited under Kuhn’s Work), was a very influential and widely read book, selling more than a million copies. It had a profound impact on philosophy of science. It was part of the new historical turn in philosophy of science that looked to the history of science to better understand how science works. The book took on a life of its own, which, at times, caused Kuhn much dismay. Much of Kuhn’s career was spent refining and clarifying the position he initially developed in Structure. He especially sought to defend his account of science from the charge of relativism and to distinguish his view from the view of the Strong Programme in the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge (SSK). Until the end of his life he was working on a book that would clarify his view, tentatively titled The Plurality of Worlds. Four years after his death, James Conant and John Haugeland edited a collection of papers by Kuhn that represent the direction his view was developing at the end of his life (see Kuhn 2000, cited under Kuhn’s Work). James Conant is the grandson of James B. Conant. Kuhn’s influence extended far beyond the philosophy of science, into the history of science, the sociology of science, and the broader culture. “Paradigm” and “paradigm shift,” two key concepts he popularized in Structure, are now used by the educated public and scientists as well.
Decision Theory
Authors: Weirich Paul
Published: June 2013

Decision theory is multidisciplinary and treats all aspects of choice. It is the foundation of the behavioral and social sciences. Philosophical decision theory examines and refines decision theory’s philosophical claims. Its primary subject is rational choice. Thus, it treats normative matters and is allied with branches of philosophy such as epistemology and ethics. Decision theory assists epistemology in its study of rational belief and assists ethics in its study of good acts, goals, and character traits. The behavioral and social sciences use decision theory to construct models of human behavior. Often a theory of rationality yields a good first approximation of human behavior. A general theory of rationality covers individuals and groups of people and shows how the rationality of individuals leads to the collective rationality of groups. It offers a fruitful foundation for the behavioral and social sciences. Decision theory’s main normative question concerns the nature of rationality. What principles of rationality govern choice? Principles of instrumental rationality counsel adoption of means appropriate to one’s ends. A large body of literature explicates this advice. It elaborates the view that instrumental rationality requires maximization of subjective utility: that is, acting to maximize achievement of one’s goals. An instrumentally rational act is rational conditional on the rationality of the ends the act serves and the agent’s processing of evidence about appropriate means. Other principles of rationality govern adoption of ends. Philosophical decision theory has its roots in studies of practical reasoning going back to Aristotle. It blossomed in the twentieth century because of the work of Frank Ramsey, Bruno de Finetti, Leonard Savage, Richard Jeffrey, and many others. It thrives because of its intrinsic intellectual interest and because it supports traditional areas of philosophy such as epistemology and ethics. Philosophical decision theory unifies normative studies of belief, desire, and action. Its method distinguishes it from other investigations of choice. Although it draws on the behavioral and social sciences, its task is to advance foundational studies of choice rather than empirical investigations of it. Philosophy has the freedom to adopt perspectives on choice that experiments and surveys do not attempt. The normative assessment of choice is its principal exercise of this liberty. It also investigates the introspective side of choice and interpersonal comparisons of mental states, which experimentalists find insufficiently accessible to serve as the basis of public science.
G. E. Moore
Authors: Hutchinson Brian
Published: June 2013

G. E. Moore (b. 1873–d. 1958) is credited, along with Bertrand Russell, for doing the most in the early 20th century to weaken the hold of idealism on English language philosophy and for advancing the method of analysis, which through its many permutations can be considered still to be the prevailing way of doing philosophy in English. He was also known for his tireless defense of “common sense” as a source of knowledge about the world against many different kinds of philosophical attacks against it. His making much of the fact that philosophers often make a point of criticizing our common understanding of the world without any good reason to do so makes him, along with Ludwig Wittgenstein (b. 1889–d. 1951), with whom he was in close personal and philosophical contact, a searching critic of philosophy. He did not, however, follow Wittgenstein in advocating a therapeutic philosophical approach, as he found that, despite their confusions, philosophers did raise genuine questions. Philosophers such as A. J. Ayer (b. 1919–d. 1989) found that the analytic method Moore did so much to foster revealed the genuine philosophical core of questions while eliminating their “metaphysical” dross. A much-discussed question of Moore scholarship concerns his strategy of pointing philosophers to, or even of “proving” to them, various things that, in his opinion, they know, and their denial of which he considers to send their philosophy off track. How is he proposing to proceed, given that the most salient feature of their theorizing is their resistance to the very things he would point out or prove to them? This question arises in one or another form in all the areas of his greatest contributions: ethics, where, except for a momentary wobble, he defended a robust objectivism; epistemology, where his defense of a sense data theory of perception sits uneasily with his view that we have certain knowledge of the existence of mind-independent material objects; metaphysics, where his defense of universals bolsters the act-object theory of consciousness he advocated against idealist theories; and metaphilosophy, whose issues he usually broached in discussions of more specific topics. His disarming philosophical approach to issues appears to have stemmed from his unassuming, even innocent, character, for which he was much admired. Despite being shocked by the peculiar things many philosophers said, he trusted that they would accept the truth about an issue if only it were sufficiently clarified. At times he risks tedium in the pursuit of clarity, but at other times, the clarity he achieves gives his writing an austere beauty.
Jan van Eyck
Authors: Acres Alfred
Published: June 2013

Jan van Eyck (b. c. 1390–d. 1441), whose fame was international during his own lifetime and has never faded in the centuries since, was one of the most inventive and influential painters of all time. Born probably in the 1390s in or near Maaseik, his early years and training remain obscure. His career first comes into partial focus in the early 1420s, when he is recorded working in The Hague for John of Bavaria, Count of Holland. In 1425 he was employed by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy (r. 1419–1467), one of the most powerful princes in Europe. Based mainly in Bruges, he served Philip and other prestigious patrons for rest of his life. The great esteem in which he was held by the duke and others, along with Jan’s unprecedented assertion of himself among inscriptions and images, made him an early model of the prized court artist, a role that would soon become more familiar in the Renaissance and after. Of the approximately two dozen paintings most confidently attributed to him, the earliest dated work is also the largest and most complex: the Ghent Altarpiece, completed 1432. Its inscription indicates that the project was begun by his brother Hubert (d. 1426), from whom no other surviving works have been confidently identified. The remaining paintings attributed to Jan van Eyck are altarpieces, smaller devotional pieces, and portraits. Lost works mentioned in early sources or echoed in variant paintings and drawings included more of the same, along with at least one genre-like image, of a woman at her bath. It has long been speculated that Jan’s early work may have included manuscript illumination, with the paintings of the Turin-Milan Hours at the center of this scholarship. In his 1550 Lives of the Artists, Vasari credited Jan van Eyck with the invention of oil painting, a claim widely repeated until it was disproven in the late 18th century. But fascination with the brilliant effects of van Eyck’s technique—and especially the novel depths of his realism—has never waned. Much of the 20th-century literature has probed symbolic and related dimensions of meaning in his realism. This interpretive scholarship on van Eyck and his Flemish contemporaries (chiefly Robert Campin and Rogier van der Weyden), associated especially with Panofsky’s conceptions of iconography, iconology, and “disguised symbolism,” became widely influential in 20th-century art history.
Portraiture
Authors: Campbell C. Jean
Published: June 2013

In many ways the topic of portraiture seems natural to the Renaissance and Reformation, especially when the Renaissance is defined, in the tradition of Jacob Burckhardt, as the “rebirth of the individual.” Historically, discussions of portraiture intersect thematically not only with discussions of individuality, subjectivity, and self-consciousness but also with discussions of realism/naturalism and idealism, authorship and authority, and eventually selfhood, cultural poetics, and the (political) construction and presentation of “identity.” Yet, for all the ways portraiture has served as a testing ground for various expectations concerning the intellectual, cultural, and social history of the period, the question of what constitutes a portrait remains open. The expectation that a portrait is a picture that represents a specific and historically locatable individual is challenged in various ways. That definition is necessarily complicated by studies that focus on the functions of portraiture: aesthetic, rhetorical-poetic, commemorative, religious, mythic, and otherwise anthropological. With the turn to relational models, the idea of the “autonomous portrait” as a marker of the Renaissance has given way to considerations of the beholder’s share. Even the anthropocentric definition of portraiture and the insistence on the face as the locus of humanity have been called into question. The works collected in this bibliography are organized with two goals in mind. The first is to portray the shape of the field of study by laying out its familiar themes, including the theorization of portraiture and painting, and recognizable types and/or areas of concentration, including lovers’ portraits, court portraiture, humanist portraits, and portraits that imitate Antique types. The second goal is to indicate where the shape of the field has been or is being challenged, for example, by gender studies; stretched to focus on questions of material, medium, and making; and broken down to blur such old categorical distinctions as that between sacred image and portrait.
Law
Authors: Kuehn Thomas
Published: June 2013

The period between the mid-14th and the mid-17th centuries saw the consolidation of both major European legal traditions. One was based on Roman and canon law and held sway as a common law (ius commune) on much of the European Continent. The other was rooted in royal writs and judgments that constituted the “common law” of England. The Romano-canonical law was based on venerable texts, chiefly those of the Corpus iuris civilis, compiled at the behest of the Emperor Justinian in the early 6th century, and the Corpus iuris canonici, assembled in the course of the Middle Ages by legal teachers and popes, with the process of assembly ending in the early 14th century. These texts served as the basis for a highly sophisticated and technical education in law in the medieval universities of Italy and southern France, whose graduates spread throughout Europe. The establishment of new universities from the 14th century—in Italy but also spreading to Germany, Spain, and elsewhere—only served to foster the geographical reach of the Romano-canonical law. This was also the point at which the teaching methods in the universities changed from the logical elaboration of authoritative texts (the so-called school of the glossators) in the direction of contemporary issues and practices (the era of the post-glossators and commentators). The greatest exponent of this trend was Bartolus of Sassoferrato (b. 1313–d. 1357), whose influence was such that it was said that to be a jurist was to be a “bartolist” (nemo iurista nisi bartolista) (see Jurisprudence and Legal Methodologies). The English law consisted of royal writs, Parliamentary statutes, customs, and precedents set in courts. These became in some regards increasingly rigid by the 14th and 15th centuries, but flexibility was introduced by means of the Royal Court of Chancery, which drew to some degree on Roman law notions. This was the so-called law of equity. The influence of royal courts and their remedies led to the waning of manorial and other local courts. The trend toward legal centralization in England was further fueled by the Crown’s break with Catholicism. By the 17th century the common law tradition, including much of the intervening developments in equity, served as the bastion of those who would resist the pretensions of the Stuart monarchs, especially Charles I (b. 1600–d. 1649). Developments in the commercial economy of Europe, intellectual and cultural trends, and religious turmoil would all pose problems in areas such as property law, contracts, marital relations and family prerogatives, and judicial procedures, and would call forth adjustments to resolve them.
The Medici Family
Authors: Fletcher Stella
Published: June 2013

Members of the Medici family were arguably the most-conspicuous social climbers of the Renaissance period. In the fifteenth century the principal branch of the family acquired great wealth from banking and commerce and used it to exercise political influence in the Florentine republic, but in the sixteenth century the republic gave way to a principate, with the Medici as dukes of Florence and grand dukes of Tuscany, a transformation made possible by the election of Medici popes. Whether as citizens or as princes, posterity has placed so much emphasis on their cultural patronage that they have often been cast as central figures of the Renaissance as a cultural phenomenon. This article opens with General Overviews, Reference Works, Collections of Papers, and Digital Resources, all of which span various generations of the family’s history, but then follows the example of so many works in those opening sections by taking a chronological approach to the subject. The section on the Earlier Medici takes the story up to the death of Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici in 1429. Thereafter, the article traces the family’s rising economic and political fortunes in the Generation of Cosimo il Vecchio, the initial reaction against their anti-republican instincts in the Generation of Piero il Gottoso, and the more determined but ultimately futile opposition in the Generation of Lorenzo il Magnifico. From that point the story is much more complicated, in part because there was a genuine difference of opinion about whether republican Florence was better off with or without the Medici, and in part because that portion of the dynasty known as the line of Cafaggiolo dwindled to a clerically-led rump. Those clerics were nevertheless the key to what happened next. The first Medici pope, Leo X, obtained titles of nobility for his kinsmen, and the second, Clement VII, ensured that his niece Caterina married into the ruling French house of Valois and that Alessandro de’ Medici, regardless of his illegitimate birth, became the first duke of Florence. Leo is featured among the Children of Lorenzo il Magnifico; Caterina/Catherine and Alessandro, among the Other Descendants of Lorenzo il Magnifico to 1537, the year that began with Alessandro’s assassination by his kinsman Lorenzino de’ Medici. If anything, when Florence rejected its republican past and embraced a dynastic present and future, it created a model that other states followed: many a feature of what came to be regarded as the ancien régime could be seen first in the Tuscany of Cosimo I, Francesco I, and Ferdinando I. Their title may have been inflated from duke of Florence to grand duke of Tuscany, but by the Generations of Cosimo II and Ferdinando II, their realm was becoming a somewhat Ruritanian shadow of its former self, while the economic and political initiative was assumed by the Atlantic powers.
France and Empire
Authors: Hodson Christopher
Published: June 2013

At its apex, the early modern French Empire laid claim to nearly a third of North America, ruled over the Caribbean’s most profitable plantations, and controlled a substantial proportion of the transatlantic slave trade. Several hundred thousand French-speaking settlers lived permanently in the colonies, and many more were tied to overseas interests through trade, investment, or family relationships. In the late 18th century, Saint-Domingue produced more wealth than any place on earth, becoming, like Potosí in the 16th and 17th centuries, a symbol of the grand possibilities of colonialism. Until recently, however, scholarship on France’s first empire has been characterized by neglect and fragmentation. In the United States, many historians of colonial North America viewed the French presence as a mere sideshow; French historians paid relatively little attention to an empire that did not endure; and in Canada, French West Africa, and the French Caribbean, scholars tended to focus on proto-national or regional studies. With the rise of Atlantic history, however, new scholarship has begun to conceive of an integrated sphere of French influence encompassing several distant colonial regions as well as the metropolis. Tension persists, however, between those who envision the French Atlantic as a loose grouping of colonial and indigenous societies and those who see the structures of empire as useful tools for gauging the interplay of French designs and native agency.
Civil-Military Relations in Latin America
Authors: Loveman Brian E.
Published: June 2013

Before the wave of military coups and military governments from the early 1960s until 1990, the social science and history literature on civil-military relations in Latin America was virtually devoid of serious empirical research. In response to the surge in military governments in the region, this literature burgeoned. This article gives priority to landmark theoretical treatments, comparative research, and selected country studies with extensive bibliographical materials. While this article may have inevitably omitted the favorite books and articles of some researchers, it includes work illustrating diverse theoretical, empirical, and normative approaches to civil-military relations in Latin America. It does not include the much more extensive literature on comparative civil-military relations. In a broad sense, “civil-military relations” refers to the contact points, formal and informal, of the armed forces with civilians and civilian policymakers as well as civilian perceptions of military institutions and military perceptions of civilian and government institutions. Such contact points may include, among many others, military participation in various government agencies and policymaking councils, legislative oversight of military budgets, approval of promotions of high-ranking officers, appointments to military academies, definition of the curriculum in military schools and academies, collaboration on formation of defense and national security policy, and connections of military officers to political parties, voluntary associations, religious institutions, and other arenas in which civilian and military contacts occur. Media access to, and coverage of, the armed forces may also be an important aspect of civil-military relations. After first identifying the “pioneers” in the study of civil-military relations in Latin America, the sections of this article then focus on studies of the constitutional missions of the Latin American armed forces and their statutory authority, from internal policing to developing numerous economic enterprises, public works, and providing disaster relief. A subsequent section considers the jurisdiction of military courts over civilians both in normal times and under regimes of exception and emergency authority (state of siege, state of assembly, state of internal commotion, and other temporary suspension of constitutional rights and liberties included in almost all Latin American constitutions). Following the sections on formal and institutional treatments of civil-military relations, the article turns to the vast literature on the causes of military coups in Latin America, comparative and case studies of civil-military relations from 1959 to 1990, the transitions back to civilian government (1978–early 1990s), discussions of “civilian control” or “civilian supremacy” over military institutions, the literature on post–1990 civil-military relations in the region, and, finally, a section on the most recent research (2009–2020) on Latin American civil-military relations.
Congressional Reassertion of Authority
Authors: Peck Justin
Published: June 2013

By overseeing the creation of a large administrative apparatus and professional civil service, legislators provided themselves with new strategies for both policymaking and policy implementation. Most notably, members of Congress could now delegate—or transfer—decision-making authority from the legislature itself to policy experts working within administrative agencies that are generally lodged within the executive branch. In recent years, political scientists have identified the conditions that lead members to delegate, they have identified those policy areas where delegation is most attractive, and they have illustrated the policy consequences of delegation. Yet, delegation of policymaking authority is never permanent. And while we know a great deal about how, when, and why members opt to empower agencies, we know comparatively little about the conditions that generate reassertion, or formal attempts by Congress to capture, or recapture, powers exercised by the executive or to reform itself internally in order to better rival executive branch authority. The focus throughout this article will, therefore, be on reassertion. Works by those who approach reassertion from formal, rational choice are identified as well as sources that provide historical perspectives. Also, because political scientists have neglected this form of interbranch contestation, it will make clear how the work of those writing on delegation, lawmaking, separation of powers, and the presidency help to inform a full understanding of congressional reassertion.
Ethnic Studies in the United States
Authors: Sleeter Christine , Acosta Curtis
Published: June 2013

Established in the late 1960s in the United States, ethnic studies has served as a foundation for efforts to transform curriculum and pedagogy for an increasingly diverse student population. While several countries have comparable histories of work by subordinated ethnic groups (such as Maori in New Zealand), because the nature of such work is specific to the country in which it originated, this article focuses on ethnic studies in the United States. Ethnic studies was perhaps most noticed during its development in the 1970s and 1980s, when it was new. But it continues to serve as an umbrella under which diverse racial and ethnic groups develop transformations of education, strengthened by a growing body of research that documents the benefits of ethnic studies to students.
Televised Debates
Authors: Benoit William L.
Published: June 2013

Televised debates are an extremely important election campaign medium for several reasons. Many voters watch debates; they also learn about debates from news and/or from discussions with other voters. Furthermore, televised campaign debates are becoming more common over time. Every American general election presidential campaign since 1976 has featured at least one debate (the first American general election debate occurred in 1960, when Nixon and Kennedy squared off). Recent years have seen dozens of US presidential primary debates (the first presidential primary debate was broadcast on radio in 1948). Debates for other elected offices—US senate or congress, governor, and mayor—are becoming more common. Other countries, including Australia, Britain, Canada, Germany, Iran, Italy, Poland, South Korea, Spain, Taiwan, and Ukraine, have also held debates among political leaders in recent years. Debates are important because they allow voters to directly compare leading candidates, and the face-to-face confrontation of debates can generate a direct clash of ideas, helping voters learn more. Although candidates prepare for debates, candidates usually are not allowed to bring prepared notes to the debate. This can mean that unexpected questions or comments from an opponent may provoke more candid answers than found in heavily scripted spots or speeches. Debates provide extended exposure to candidates. Debates are longer than most other campaign messages (usually one to two hours long), and some campaigns feature more than one debate. Finally, televised debates have substantial effects on viewers, as elaborated below. It should be noted that debates usually feature a question and answer format, with candidates alternating answers to each. Some debates permit candidates to make opening statements and/or closing remarks not prompted by questions. Without question, debates merit scholarly attention.
Resisting Persuasion
Authors: Fransen Marieke
Published: June 2013

The failure of realizing attitudinal or behavioral change by persuasive attempts is often attributed to bad message design, inappropriate use of communication strategies, or detrimental characteristics of the source. However, it has been acknowledged more and more that message receivers may also play an important role in accounting for the absence of attitudinal and behavioral change. Upon exposure to a persuasive message, people may experience psychological reactance because persuasive messages are perceived as a threat to freedom. This experience of psychological reactance often motivates people to adopt strategies that help them in resisting persuasion. Studying psychological reactance and strategies used to resist persuasive attempts is important in gaining a comprehensive understanding of persuasion processes. It may help explain, for example, why many health, marketing, and political campaigns fail to obtain the anticipated effects. This article provides an overview of theoretical and empirical literature regarding reactance and resistance toward persuasion. First, psychological reactance and resistance toward persuasion will be defined. Then, strategies that audiences adopt in resisting persuasion will be addressed, followed by techniques that may help audiences to resist persuasion. Moreover, related variables such as persuasion knowledge and skepticism will be discussed, and the article ends with a section on overcoming resistance by narrative persuasion.
Civic/Political Participation
Authors: Xenos Michael A.
Published: June 2013

Whether in its deliberative aspect or other variants, democracy is in many ways a form of government fundamentally based on processes of communication and persuasion. As such, it is only natural that communications scholars should be interested in studying relationships between communication processes and civic or political engagement. These studies have traditionally drawn on scholarship in political science, which has an even longer standing engagement with concepts of political and civic engagement. More recently, the increasing significance of interactive communication technologies in the realm of politics and broader forces of sociotechnical change have opened the door for communications scholars to join in fundamental conceptual discussions concerning these topics. More often, however, communication scholarship, particularly through the interdisciplinary field of political communication, has focused on civic and political engagement as a set of outcome variables that, given their central place in democratic governance, provide opportunities for scholarship with particular relevance and value to the broader society. Along these lines, political communication research has investigated the effects of various kinds of communication and media on civic or political engagement, including interpersonal interactions, newspapers and television, political advertising, talk radio, and political entertainment programming as well as many communication phenomena related to the Internet.
Comparative-Historical Linguistics
Authors: Salmons Joseph , Utz Emily
Published: June 2013

Historical linguistics is about how and why language changes over time. Comparative linguistics, in the relevant sense, is the study of linguistic relatedness, that is to say, of genetic or ancestral connections and related matters of subgrouping extending to the reconstruction of unattested ancestral languages or proto-languages. This area is often regarded as the oldest branch of modern scientific linguistics, and it is one of the most active areas today. The powerful case put forward by the neogrammarians for the regularity of sound change allowed comparison of linguistic phenomena to the laws of the natural sciences, providing a cornerstone to the scientific status of linguistics. Once focused on the comparison of distinct historical stages (like Latin versus French or Old English versus Modern English), the field now incorporates much research on language change qua process, including work on changes now underway. Since all aspects of language change, historical linguistics is directly connected to all subfields.