bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Modelling of CO2 and Seawater Injection in Carbonate Reservoirs to Evaluate Inorganic Scaling Risk
Authors: de Souza Ana Paula , Mackay Eric
Published: June 2014

Evaluation of the scaling potential during field appraisal or initial development allows for a better estimation of project costs and reduces uncertainties (e.g. desulphation or scale inhibitor injection, frequency of well workover operations, etc.). When CO2-WAG is injected into a carbonate reservoir, several interactions between the injected fluid, the formation water and the carbonate rock may occur. These interactions may also modify the scaling potential of the produced water. Nevertheless, the prediction of these changes is challenging because it requires complex thermodynamic and kinetic modelling.

The present study outlines a methodology where the geochemical modelling of CO2-WAG injection is used in predicting the scaling potential in carbonate reservoirs. For this, a geochemical simulation was developed, and several cases with different injection strategies were applied to obtain the produced water compositions as a function of time, and to calculate the scaling potential. The recovery method which is least susceptible to inorganic scale deposition in the studied field can be identified. The methodology was applied to data from two Brazilian carbonate fields with different petrophysical and compositional characteristics.

When compared to the standard thermodynamic modelling used to calculate scaling risk, this approach takes account of the impact of the several chemical reactions that occur in situ in the reservoir, and addresses the tendency to overestimate scaling risk when reservoir reactions are not accounted for. A fully quantitative evaluation is not developed in this study since several simplifications were assumed, and many uncertainties exist in the geochemical modelling input parameters (e.g. constants related to reaction kinetics and equilibria). However, the proposed methodology provides a powerful tool for informing project decisions and field injection design. In this study, for example, CO2-WAG injection was found to reduce the risk of precipitation of various scales compared to seawater or Low Sulphate Water (LSW) injection.
Investigating the Effect of Improved Fracture Conductivity on Production Performance of Hydraulic Fractured Wells through Field Case Studies and Numerical Simulations
Authors: Sun Jianlei , Hu Kyle , Wong Joe , Hall Bobby , Schechter David
Published: June 2014

Various analytical and numerical models have been proposed to predict production performance of hydraulic fractured wells and to investigate the effect of fracture geometry and fracture conductivity on well performance. These completion design parameters greatly impact E&P operators' return on investment (ROI). In this study, we conducted numerous field case studies in the Bakken formation to compare production performance of hydraulic fractured wells with different completion designs. Since all wells are located in the same field, the geological difference was considerably minimized. The wells were grouped and analyzed by different completion and stimulation design parameters. Specific grouped categories included percentage of upgraded proppant in the total proppant amount, lateral length, number of stages, etc.

We then simulated post-fracturing production performance of these fractured wells. An advanced meshing technique was developed to honor complex fracture networks with unstructured Voronoi grids. We applied this technique to investigate the characteristics of hydraulic fractures such as fracture conductivity, aperture and permeability distribution on the long-term production of the wells. Core data and well logs were analyzed for reservoir characterization. Several assumptions were made to estimate pumped fracture width, stress-dependent fracture permeability and stimulated reservoir volume. Finally, sensitivity studies were performed to investigate the effect of fracture conductivity on production performance due to superior vs. low-quality proppants.

The objective of this study was to determine if upgrading completion designs to high quality proppant materials would achieve better fracture conductivities and long-term production performance. After all well data was analyzed and the production related parameters were summarized, it was determined that upgrading the completion designs with higher quality proppants provided dramatically improved production rates.

The following unstructured mesh generation algorithms successfully implemented the local grid refinement feature around fractures, which can handle non-orthogonal fractures and more complex fracture geometries. The final simulation runs and sensitivity studies further demonstrated the importance of both stimulated reservoir volume and fracture conductivities. The same long-term production performance was also predicted by using reduced amounts of upgraded proppant with improved fracture conductivities.
Utility of Hybrid Forecasting Models and Diagnostic Plots in Liquid Shales
Authors: Indras Purvi , Lee W. John
Published: June 2014

With the emergence of liquid rich shale (LRS) plays like Eagle Ford and Northern Barnett, the petroleum industry needs a simple, easily applied technique that provides reliable estimates of future production rates in this kind of reservoir. There is no guarantee that methodology that has proved to work in gas reservoirs will necessarily be appropriate in LRS reservoirs. In this work, we found that without corrections of early data, the Stretched Exponential Production Decline (SEPD) model, designed for transient flow, usually produces pessimistic forecasts of future production. The Duong method, another transient model, may be reasonable during long term transient linear flow, but notably optimistic after boundary-dominated flow (BDF) appears. For wells in BDF, the Arps model provides reasonable forecasts, but the Arps model may not be accurate when applied to transient data. A hybrid of early transient and later BDF models proves to be a reasonable solution to the forecasting problem in LRS.

In addition, use of diagnostic plots (like log-log rate-time and log-log rate-material balance time plots) improves confidence in flow regime identification and production forecasting. In some LRS's, BDF is observed within 12 months. In any case, it is essential to identify or to estimate the time to reach BDF and to discontinue use of transient flow models after BDF appears or is expected.

We validated our methodology using "hindcast analysis"; that is, matching the first half of production history to determine model parameters, then forecasting the second half of history and comparing to observed production data.

We also found that application of pressure-corrected rates in decline curve analysis (DCA) may substantially improve the interpretation of data from unconventional oil wells flowing under unstable operating conditions. Fetkovich (hydraulically fractured well) type curve analysis can be added to improve confidence in flow regime identification from diagnostic plots and to estimate the Arps hyperbolic exponent b from the matching b stem on the type curve, which can then be extrapolated to determine estimated ultimate recovery.
Calibrating an Economic Limit Test to Maximize Net Present Value
Authors: Kasriel Ken , Wood David
Published: June 2014

This paper offers a critique of, and suggests an alternative to, commonly used methods – including the method stipulated in the 2011 Guidelines for Application of the Petroleum Resources Management System (hereafter, "PRMS Guidelines"), promulgated by the SPE and others – for calculating the economic limit test ("ELT") for upstream petroleum projects. The ELT determines the assumed project abandonment date.

In particular, the authors fault the PRMS Guidelines-prescribed ELT method because it a) uses a measure of revenue which is often much higher than what Investors actually receive in projects governed by fiscal arrangements such as Production Sharing Contracts ("PSCs"); b) ignores abandonment costs and income tax liabilities, even though these are real and often material cash outflows; and c) appears to ignore the time value of money. These shortcomings can cause the PRMS ELT to assume abandonment dates which result in Net Present Values ("NPVs") of discounted future cash flows which are lower than an Investor could achieve by using a different abandonment date. In such cases, the PRMS approach is tantamount to Investor value destruction.

This paper presents a simple, transparent and mathematically sound alternative ELT calculation method, which considers all Investor NPV-relevant items, including abandonment costs, income taxes, the time value of money, and, in the case of PSCs, actual Contractor cash revenue, to determine which abandonment date maximizes Investor NPV. The method avoids the circularity which can arise when attempting to consider abandonment costs while calculating a future uncertain abandonment date.

The paper compares the results of using the authors' method and the PRMS method in example valuations. These examples show that the authors' method can result in different economic limits/abandonment dates – and thus higher NPVs – than the PRMS method. The authors' underlying Microsoft Excel model accompanies this paper.

The findings are relevant to value-focused investors -- especially those in projects which are governed by PSCs, and/or involve large abandonment liabilities pending in the short-term or long-term -- and to parties who issue or otherwise use PRMS standard valuations.
Impact of Geological and Facility Uncertainties on Strategic Drilling and Facility Decisions
Authors: Erber Alexej , Erber Daniela , Meulengracht Chresten
Published: June 2014

The Chinarevskoye field in Kazakhstan consists of a significant number of producing gas and oil reservoirs from several stratigraphic zones, with additional discoveries being appraised for commercialty and undiscovered resources being matured for exploration drilling. Process facilities including oil treatment, gas handling, and compression and export facilities were commissioned at the start of commercial production and then more capacity was added recently.

Detailed sub-surface models with risk modeling and uncertainties on and dependencies between geological parameters have been prepared to reflect the geological interpretations. The stochastic results based on Monte Carlo calculations provide distributions of in-place and recoverable resources. Similarly, detailed above-surface activity models with uncertainties on wells and facilities based on the sub-surface models have been prepared to model realistic development scenarios, including both existing and future production given capacity constraints. The stochastic results based on Monte Carlo calculations provide distributions of production profiles, cash flows, and net present values.

Based on these results, the alternative scenarios with exploration, appraisal, development, and production activities have been ranked. The main conclusion is that investments in additional exploration activities and production facilities can be expected to increase the profitability of the Chinarevskoye field, even under the latest Kazakhstan fiscal terms. In addition the optimum exploration well-drilling sequence has been identified.

The technical and economic assessments based on uncertainties and risks that have been ongoing over recent years have resulted in profitable strategic decisions for investments in additional exploration drilling, appraisal programs, and development of facilities for the Chinarevskoye field.
History Matching of Channelized Reservoirs With Vector-Based Level-Set Parameterization
Authors: Ping Jing , Zhang Dongxiao
Published: June 2014

For channelized reservoirs with unknown channel distributions, identifying the continuous and sinuous features of channel distributions is crucial for determining their production behaviors. However, traditional history-matching methods are not appropriate because the pixel-based rock-property fields are usually highly non-Gaussian. In this work, a vector-based level-set parameterization technique for channelized reservoirs is presented. We also propose a combination of this parameterization method and a frequently used history-matching approach, the ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF). To properly represent the continuity and sinuosity of its embedded features, the channelized reservoir is parameterized with a vector that consists of level-set function, real radius, and virtual radius on a representing node system. The level-function value indicates the existence of the particular facies; the real radius of a circle in two dimensions or a sphere in three dimensions signifies the size of the facies; and the virtual radius is used to ensure the continuity of the channelized facies. The 2D and 3D examples of channelized reservoirs are set up to demonstrate the capability of the proposed method. It is found that this method is effective to deal with the history-matching problem of channelized reservoirs.
New Analytical Model for Predicting the Unstable Zone Around the Borehole
Authors: Heidarian Mohamad , Jalalifar Hossein , Schaffie Mahin , Jafari Saeed
Published: June 2014

In this study, a new analytical model, which is computationally lower in cost than current numerical methods, is presented to calculate the radius of the plastic zone around the borehole in underbalanced drilling (UBD) to prevent borehole instability. With this model, it is also possible to analytically calculate the optimal drilling-mud weight, which is the amount of mud weight with no plastic zone. The presented model is based on the Mouhr-Coulomb failure criterion. The model can be used in both vertical and inclined wells and in poroelastic formations with anisotropic horizontal stresses. Predictions from the model provide a reasonable match to the field data and numerical solution results.
The Evolution of Managed Health Care for the Local Employees of an Oilfield Services Company in Nigeria
Authors: Okorocha Uche , Chukueke Okezie
Published: June 2014

In Nigeria and other Sub-Saharan African countries, public health services are often unavailable or limited. Therefore, access to health care programs for employees and their dependent relatives is an important benefit for employees, especially in the organized private sector. From the employer side, it involves a large amount of administration that must be managed efficiently.

Various approaches have been implemented by an oilfield services company in Nigeria in providing access to health care for its employees and dependents. The health care management of the local employees has evolved through various models to the present model of a fully insured plan managed by four health maintenance organizations. This managed plan has proved very effective in terms of delivery efficiency, administration, and cost optimization.
Practical Implications of Human Rights Due Diligence: Challenges in Demonstrating ‘Respect’ and What it Means for the Assessment and Management of Social and Health Impacts
Authors: Perumalpillai Shahila , Cummins Claire , Phillips Callie
Published: June 2014

Description of the material

Multi-national corporations have endorsed the three pillars of the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: the ‘Protect, Respect, Remedy’ framework. The question is what does this mean in practice and how should human rights due diligence be undertaken as described in the Guiding Principles?

Application/Development

This paper will describe practical examples of how extractive companies are approaching human rights due diligence and explore challenges to ‘know’ and ‘show’ ‘Respect’ for Human Rights. The paper will also consider the extent to which human rights due diligence makes a difference to international approaches to social and health impact assessment through a worked example for the oil and gas industry in Africa.

Results, Observations, and Conclusions

There is a high degree of overlap between the issues addressed through impact assessment done to international best practice standards and those that need to be managed to respect Human Rights. The vulnerability analysis necessary to address international requirements provides an external frame of reference that means issues associated with human rights are taken into account in the assessment of social and health impacts. Nevertheless undertaking ongoing Human Rights due diligence can make a difference: i) a human rights lens on some of these issues reveals different perspectives which mean data collection, mitigation measures and monitoring for the impact assessment process may need to be adapted; ii) impact assessment needs to be a starting point to establishing a dynamic due diligence process – a concept that cannot be fulfilled in a single step. Not only can project or company activity change, but the operating context and stakeholder concerns change; due diligence of human rights requires on-going monitoring of issues through a Human Rights lens. Where an operating context is highly sensitive, specific studies, additional to an impact assessment may be necessary to understand local complexity.

Significance of Subject Matter (Relevance and why it is worth publishing)

Companies increasingly perceive that Human Rights are a risk to business, not only because of links to social licence to operate but also with regard to meeting legal obligations and the expectations of civil society set by the framework of the guiding principles. But given the shifting rights landscape what does demonstrating ‘Respect’ for Human Rights look like? This paper will point to directions for future practical implementation of Human Rights due diligence.
Approaches for Permit Management for Offshore Oil and Gas Development in Frontier Geographies
Authors: Young H.. , van der Westhuizen J..
Published: June 2014

This paper describes and addresses the most prevalent of the regulatory pitfalls facing new entrants in African countries with emerging offshore exploration industries. These potential pitfalls include issues such as: Lack of defined timeframes and processes;No integrated permitting systems;Numerous regulatory requirements not associated with permits;Difficulties in identifying regulatory requirements; andLack of resources at regulator level.

Drawing on our experience with selected African countries, we then describe and provide practical examples illustrating how these problematic aspects can be addressed and alleviated through the early identification and operationalization of requirements, to create an effective permit management system. Solutions we explore will include the following: Formal aspects such as development of dual systems for permit management and other regulatory requirements; and creating proactive permitting plans and strategizing how to provide integration where none exists (e.g. through alignment with operational timelines to ensure that permitting requirements are fulfilled in time to meet required operational start dates); informal aspects such as establishment of effective relationships with regulators; and utilization of local consultants for the ‘unwritten knowledge’ perspective.
Operating in Ancient Landscapes: Oil Exploration and Archaeology in Arid Environments
Authors: Le Quesne Charles , Peach Mark
Published: June 2014

Recent years have seen an increasing recognition in the oil and gas industry of the need to incorporate cultural heritage as a consideration when assessing the likely impact of operations and production on the environment. This paper presents a recent case study relating to Shell's exploration of the Sirte Basin in central northern Libya during 2007-2009. The approaches taken to establishing the archaeological baseline over such a large and remote area, and the measures used to protect archaeologically significant sites during subsequent seismic surveys provide an example of cultural heritage can be accommodated in oil and gas operations successfully. Key steps in the process were: the collection of desk-based information, the application of remote sensing, selective and targeted ground truthing and the creation of sensitivity mapping which formed the basis for the implementation of a mitigation strategy. It is acknowledged that the techniques used were appropriate to an arid environment and need to be adjusted depending on variations in landscape and culture. However, they do indicate that a systematic and proportionate approach to cultural heritage issues can efficiently be incorporated into oil and gas operations without causing delays. In doing so the IOC adds significant value to their operations within host countries in an area that is often of high public concern.
Response to a major oil spill from a blow-out incident: the Very Full Scale Exercise “LULA”
Authors: Eygun C.. , Cazes L.. , Michel C.. , Huet J Y. , Page-Jones L..
Published: June 2014

In the wake of the Macondo oil spill which affected the Oil and Gas upstream industry, TOTAL, the Company, participated in a worldwide Oil & Gas Industry effort to improve its response capability to a blow-out situation. Three Task forces were created in the Company, one of them dedicated to the improvement of oil spill preparedness.

In the framework of the action plan developed by this Task Force, TOTAL Group chose its Angolan affiliate TOTAL E&P ANGOLA, referred to as the Affiliate in this article, to organize and run a full scale exercise, code-named “LULA”, with the objective of testing the ability to respond to a major oil spill resulting from a deep sea blow-out. It included the actual mobilization of a newly developed Subsea Dispersant Injection (SSDI) system from Norway and its deployment in the Angolan deep offshore.

Following a year and a half of preparation, liaising with the Angolan National authorities and oil industry partners, the LULA exercise took place from November 13th to 15th, 2013, putting the affiliate oil spill response strategy to test against a 50 000 bopd blow-out scenario in the Angolan deep offshore (water depth 1000m). The exercise was performed on the Block 17 operated by the Affiliate, on an abandoned well ACACIA 4.

LULA was the opportunity to try and check various aspects of a major oil spill response, including: The management of a major emergency, through the mobilization of the entire Emergency Response Organization of TOTAL, in liaison with the Angolan National Incident Command Center;Subsea response involving a Subsea Dispersant Injection kit, SSDI, (developed under a joint industry project SWRP, and managed by Oil Spill Response Limited (OSRL)), deployed using a a newly-designed and built Light Well Intervention Vessel;The monitoring and modeling of an oil slick after the authorized release of 5 m3 of crude oil, using a combination of technologies (aerial surveillance, air quality monitoring, drifting buoys, oil spill fate and behavior modeling, satellite imagery, balloon equipped with IR & visible camera, etc.);Surface response offshore with dispersant spraying operations, containment, recovery and storage of the recovered oil;The onshore response, through the simulated implementation of an onshore response plan, encompassing shoreline protection and clean-up, waste management and oiled wildlife response.
Application and use of the Site Specific Assessment Tool
Authors: Mutiso Alex Mwenesi
Published: June 2014

The Environmental and social impact assessment (ESIA) process in Kenya is a legal requirement dictated by the requirements of the Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act (EMCA), 1999. To this end most projects are required to undertake an ESIA Study that is reviewed by the National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) and once approved an EIA licence is issued.

Tullow recognises that both the ESIA and the Site-Specific assessment (SSA) process are key planning tools for environmental and social management for Tullow Kenya operations. But due to the lack of project specific data for a licensed Block it is practically impossible for Tullow Kenya to carry out a detailed/comprehensive ESIA within the stipulated time.

Tullow Kenya uses the SSA in all Exploration and Appraisal activities including 2D seismic, 3D seismic, drilling and associated infrastructure, camps, roads, water boreholes and infrastructure upgrades. In carrying out the SSA the Tullow appointed environmental consultant completes a project affected persons (PAP) inventory; a compensation forecast; identifies appropriate types of compensation; identifies the type of biodiversity and the significance of that biodiversity; known archaeology and cultural property; areas and features of elevated risk (spatial and temporal); and prepares GIS maps identifying the significant baseline findings.

The results from the SSA study are a baseline report that includes a fit-for-purpose Environmental and Social Management and Monitoring Plan (ESMMP) to compliment the block-wide ESIA ESMMP. A GIS database is also created that includes all features such as the built environment, assets, crops, land-user and land-owner details, bird breeding locations, designated sites, known archaeology and cultural property, to name a few.

The SSA, though not a legal requirement, is an internal Tullow risk management and assessment process designed to support project planning and supplement the statutory ESIA process garnering important data that was invariably missed in the block-wide ESIA.
Water injection the FLEX Filtration Solution
Authors: Pedenaud Pierre
Published: June 2014

Large quantities of produced water are generated in oil and gas fields all over the world. Produced water increases during the life of the field. In the world, the production of one barrel of crude oil generates three barrel of produced water but the ratio barrel of water/barrel of crude oil increases drastically. Produced Water Re-Injection (PWRI) can be used for injection purposes. However due to the combined presence of suspended solids and oil in water emulsion, the well injectivity and the possibility of topside filtration is often problematic. Membrane filtration is considered as a very attractive treatment process that may allow produced water re-injection even in difficult reservoir without loss of injectivity.

Large quantities of sea water are also injected in oil and gas fields all over the world for pressure maintenance support and sweeping efficiency of the reservoir in order to maximize the hydrocarbon production. This is particularly right at the beginning of the field life when the produced water production is low. Membrane treatment is used worldwide in oil and gas to filter sea water for injection.

However today the two process of filtration are different, organic micro or ultrafiltration membranes are used for sea water and ceramic membranes are used for produced water.

TOTAL proposes to use only one process of membrane filtration for both sea and produced water alternatively or in comingle; it has been called the FLEX membrane process. After looking at the different processes, this paper will present the advantages of the FLEX design, such as the gain in space, weight and cost.

The paper invites operators to envisage alternative strategies for water injection when developing fields and to consider the FLEX membrane solution.
Fluidic Diode Autonomous ICD Range 2A Single-Phase Testing
Authors: Zhao Liang , Least Brandon , Greci Stephen , Wileman Angel
Published: June 2014

Evenly distributed production along the length of the wellbore is important for maximizing the oil recoverables over the life of the well. Traditional, passive in-flow control devices (ICDs) perform well at balancing the completion pressure differential with the reservoir pressure differential so that an even influx across production zones is maintained. This helps to delay unwanted fluid break through. When unwanted fluids, typically of lower viscosity, do finally break through, they can take over the well, significantly reducing the production of oil. Autonomous Inflow Control Devices (AICDs) are a new generation of ICDs. When oil is producing from all zones, the AICD will behave as a passive ICD, balancing flow. However, when lower viscosity (undesired) fluids break through, the AICD chokes them, significantly reducing flow from the zone producing these fluids. This autonomous function enables the well to drain the oil producing zones faster than the undesirable fluid zones, thereby maximizing total oil production. The AICD creates this change in behavior without control lines, moving parts, or electronics.

The paper describes the laboratory testing performed to evaluate the performance of the fluidic diode type AICD Range 2A in field-like conditions and compares flow performance curves to a traditional nozzle type ICD. The AICD Range 2A utilizes similar fluid vectoring as the Range 3B (Least et al, 2013), but includes more of an autonomous on/off type switching function instead of a gradual change in performance. The range 2A is currently best suited for oil viscosities of 1.5-10 cP. Results from single-phase experimental flow testing with model oil, water, and nitrogen are presented and discussed.

The test results demonstrated that the AICD could restrict flow rates of undesirable fluids. The discussion further shows that if technology such as the new AICD is applied to new well completion designs, total oil recovery can be enhanced, by increasing the life of the well and reducing production of undesirable fluids.
Natural Gas Explorations in the Eastern Ontario Peninsula
Authors: Ashburner Charles Albert
Published: June 2014

Gas in the St. Lawrence Valley

Natural gas has been known to exist for many years in the St. Lawrence Valley, between Quebec and Montreal, and more particularly in the vicinity of Louisville and Three Rivers, 74 and 94 miles respectively northeast ofMontreal, and 98 and 78 miles respectively southwest of Quebec; the distancefrom Montreal to Quebec along the St. Lawrence River being about 175 miles.

It was not until 1880 that any practical explorations were begun with the hopeof finding gas in sufficient quantities for commercial uses. In this yearMessrs. Piret and Genest, of Three Rivers, sank a well near St. Maurice to adepth of 50 feet, where solid rock was encountered. A similar well was drilledthrough the glacial and alluvial drift, in the same district, in 1883, by theMessrs. Renaud Freres and Dubois, to a depth of 70 feet before solid rock wasencountered. In this latter well a strong flow of gas was obtained. The gas wasan outflow from a very limited reservoir in the porous glacial gravel, whichhad been filled from the gas resulting from the decomposition of vegetableremains, which had been buried in the gravel at the time of its deposition.Subsequently, other wells were sunk in the same way, with the hope of gettinggas in commercial quantities from similar reservoirs.

Commercial Gas- By gas in commercial quantities I mean gas in such quantitythat, if utilized with proper care and economy, it would generate steam at acost below the cost at which the same duty could be obtained from the use ofcoal or wood at current prices, and that the net revenue from the use of thegas would be such as to give a reasonable profit on the capital invested in thedrilling of the well and the piping of the gas to the consumer, and at the sametime provide for a sinking fund to replace this invested capital within thetime when it might be considered that the gas-producing rock would becomeabsolutely exhausted. It is important in this connection to bear in mind thatnatural gas, like all other mineral deposits, can be exhausted. In a commercialsense a gas-reservoir is not unlike a coal-bed. For every cubic foot of gastaken out of a gas-reservoir there is just one cubic foot less remaining.

A popular impression exists that the gas is being continually produced, butthis is not a fact in a commercial sense, as far as the natural gas-deposits ofthe Appalachian region are concerned. Natural gas and petroleum are intimatelyassociated with one another. In all gas-reservoirs it is possible to findpetroleum, sometimes, however, in such infinitesimal quantities that it is ofno commercial value, and can only be found by a very careful examination of thegas-producing rock. Natural gas is also always to be found in the rocks whichproduce petroleum, although in the latter case the amount is so small as not tobe practically valuable.

AIME 018–35
Advances in NMR Logging
Authors: Freedman Robert
Published: June 2014

Distinguished Author Series articles are general, descriptive representations that summarize the state of the art in an area of technology by describing recent developments for readers who are not specialists in the topics discussed. Written by individuals recognized to be experts in the area, these articles provide key references to more definitive work and present specific details only to illustrate the technology. Purpose: to inform the general readership of recent advances in various areas of petroleum engineering.

Introduction

This summary of the state of the art in nuclear-magnetic-resonance (NMR) well-logging technology is aimed at nonspecialists who would like to gain some knowledge of the formation-evaluation capabilities of NMR logging tools. The objective is to explain the basic measurement principles and interpretations needed to understand NMR formation-evaluation techniques and to discuss a few examples of these methods.

Introduction of pulsed-NMR logging tools in the 1990s provided the industry with unique, even revolutionary, new methods for analyzing reservoir fluids, rocks, and fluid/rock interactions. The introduction of this technology came at an opportune time. It coincided with rapidly declining production after the 1970s drilling boom and the need for new tools to evaluate the more complex reservoirs being explored and developed. Pulsed-NMR logging tools brought a wealth of new and unique formation-evaluation applications, and this technology has grown rapidly since its inception. Today, major service companies (e.g., Baker Hughes, Halliburton, and Schlumberger) offer NMR logging services.

Historical Perspective

The potential value of NMR logging was first recognized in the 1950s, leading to development of nuclear-magnetic-logging (NML) tools in the early 1960s. NML tools had many limitations and eventually were retired from service in the late 1980s. In spite of these limitations, laboratory research conducted to support NML logging anticipated many formation-evaluation applications in use today. These applications include estimation of permeability, pore-size distribution, free-fluid volume, oil viscosity, and wettability.

The modern phase of NMR logging can be traced to the initiation of an NMR borehole-logging research project at Los Alamos Natl. Laboratory in 1978. The goal of this project was, in part, to build and test a borehole NMR logging tool that would overcome the limitations of the NML tools. The Los Alamos experimental tool used strong permanent magnets and performed pulsed-NMR spin-echo measurements like those used in modern laboratory-NMR instruments. The value of these measurements is that they are extremely flexible and can be tailored to fit many different formation-evaluation applications.
Petroleum in California
Authors: Watts W.L.
Published: June 2014

The existence of petroleum in California has been known for many years. Fromtime immemorial the California Indians used this mineral, in the form ofasphaltum, for various purposes. In the early history of the State the Catholicfathers utilized it for the roofing their missions and other buildings.

It is said that in 1855 or 1856 Andreas Pico distilled petroleum on a smallscale for the San Fernando Mission. He obtained his crude oil from Pico canon, near Newhall, in Los Angeles county; and he was probably the first refiner of petroleum in this State. In 1856 a company commenced work at the La Brea ranch, in Los Angeles county, and tried to refine the crude oil. In 1857 an attemptwas made to produce illuminating-oil from crude petroleum at Carpentaria, inSanta Barbara county; and there are records of similar attempts in otherlocalities previous to 1860; but none of them were successful.

The first scientific report on petroleum in California was made by Prof. B.Silliman, who published his researches in 1865. He spoke favorably of thepossibility of obtaining petroleum in remunerative quantities in this State, and gave the results of his experiments in the Fractional distillation ofCalifornia petroleum.

The next decade was marked by a considerable oil-excitement in California; anda great many companies were formed for the purpose of petroleum-mining and fordistilling crude oil.

In most instances these companies did not meet with success; but it must beremembered that the pioneer oil-miners did not have the drilling-machinery ofthe present day, and that they possessed a very limited knowledge concerningthe geological conditions pertaining to the occurrence ofpetroleum-deposits.

The pioneer distillers appear to have expected that by the fractionaldistillation of California petroleum they would obtain similar products tothose resulting from the fractional distillation of the petroleum found in theEastern States; but they were disappointed. It is not surprising that, i11 the course of years, the smaller operators became merged in larger concerns. In1887, when the State Mining Bureau made a reconnaissance of thepetroleum-industry of California, the only companies actually engaged inpetroleum-mining were: The Pacific Coast Oil Co. in Pico canon and the PuenteOil Co. in the Puente hills, Los Angeles county; the Hardison and Stewart OilCo., subsequently incorporated as the Union Oil Co., of Ventura county; andMcPherson &Co., operating in Moody Gulch, in Santa Clara county.

AIME 029–53
The Placer Law as Applied to Petroleum
Authors: Ball Max W.
Published: June 2014

An intelligent discussion of the oil situation and its needs, whether from the standpoint of the prospector, the operator, the engineer, or the public administrative officer, must be founded upon a knowledge of the law under which oil lands are obtained. A consideration of new legislation must be prefaced by an understanding of the present law and its results. This paper undertakes to present no new remedy for the ills of the present situation, no new solution of the problems the oil business is facing. It attempts merely to summarize the present law, its provisions, its origin, its development, and its effects. The discussion does not pretend to be exhaustive from a legal standpoint. It aims to avoid legal intricacies which tend to confuse rather than clarify. It seeks but to present the essentials of the existing situation.

The title to government lands known to contain valuable deposits of petroleum may be acquired only under the terms of, the placer law as embodied in Section 2329 et seq. of the Revised Statutes. As a preliminary to considering the desirability of this situation it is profitable to examine into its origin.

Origin of the Law

Congress has left no room for doubt as to the legal applicability of the placer law to oil lands. The Act of Feb. 11,1897(29 Stat., 526), provides:

" that any person authorized to enter lands under the mining laws of the United States may enter and obtain patent to land containing petroleum or other mineral oils, and chiefly valuable therefore, under the provisions of the laws relating to placer mineral claims.?

The immediate cause for the passage of this Act was stated in a brief report in the House of Representatives (there was no debate in the Senate) to be a decision of the Department rendered Aug. 27, 1896 (Union Oil Co., 23 L. D.,223), directing the cancellation of an oil placer entry on the ground that land containing petroleum cannot be located and entered as a placer mine.

AIME 048–41
The Age and Manner of Formation of Petroleum Deposits
Authors: Dumble E.T.
Published: June 2014

Prof. Edward Orton, in his Report on the Occurrence of Petroleum, NaturalGas and Asphalt Rock in Western Kentucky, thus clearly states his ideas of theuniversal dissemination and rare accumulations of the bitumens:

"We need to bear in mind that the various members of the bituminousseries are abundantly and almost universally distributed among the unalteredsedimentary rocks of the earth's crust. The valuable accumulations of thesesubstances are rare, it is true, but one can scarcely go amiss of petroleum, asphalt or gas, at least in small quantities, among the stratified rocks that retain their original structure."

Speaking of the Ohio valley, he adds:

"A fifth of one per cent of petroleum, if distributed through a thousandfeet of rock, would make a total to the acre, or square mile far beyond anyproduction that has ever been realized from the richest oil field, and-percentages of this amount are not only not rare to find, but are even hard tomiss."

Dr. F. W Clarke in his Data of Geochemistry (Bulletin No. 491, U.S.Geological Survey, 1911), discussing these views of Orton with similar views ofT. Sterry Hunt and Szajnocha, says that they "lead to the conviction thatthe formation of bitumens is a general process and by no means exceptional.Wherever sediments are laid down, inclosing either animal or vegetable matter, there bitumens may be produced."

The organic origin of the bitumens, including petroleum, has long been anaccepted fact with nearly all geologists, but the method, place, and time ofthe transformation into petroleum or other bitumen is still underdiscussion.

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The Illinois Oil Fields
Authors: Wheeler H.A.
Published: June 2014

History

Illinois has so recently attained the third place in the oil production of theUnited States that few realize its great importance, or are aware of its highlyprofitable character. Since 1907 Illinois has furnished about 15 per cent. ofthe United States output and about 10 per cent of the world's production. Thevalue of the output in 1913 is estimated at $30,000,000, of which about$20,000,000 is profit. The present prosperity dates from 1905, but efforts havebeen made since 1865 to develop production and geologists have been verysanguine as to its future for over 25 years. Had the oil operators been asconfident as the geologists, the field would have been opened at least 30 yearsearlier. For the rich Eastern Illinois oil field is located along the La Salleanticline, that was mapped 46 years ago by Professor Worthen in the firstgeological survey of the State. Prof. T. B. Comstock enthusiastically wrote in18872 about the highly promising character of this anticline, to which he againcalled attention in 1889.

The writer's studies in 1888 were convincing as to its oil future, yet to havethen advocated drilling would have earned the reputation of being a dreamer. Infact, as late as 1903 the writer's suggestion to a prominent Pittsburg oiloperator to prospect in Illinois met with contempt and derision, which wasrepresentative of the general feeling then held by the oil fraternity, yet thissame party made a large fortune four years later out of a block of Illinois oilleases.

The first commercial wells were brought in at Litchfield, 50 miles northeast ofSt. Louis, where in 1882, in drilling for coal, gas was discovered thatsupplied the town several years. Later, some oil wells were brought in thatuntil 1902 produced a lubricating oil that sold for $5 a barrel.

In 1887, at Sparta, 40 miles southeast of St. Louis, in drilling for water, gaswas discovered that supplied the town about 20 years, and in 1906 several oilwells were brought in half a mile northeast of the gas wells.

In 1890, in drilling for water, gas was discovered near Pittsfield, in Pikecounty, that later developed into a field over 10 miles long.

The present highly prosperous era dates from 1904, when a small gas well wasdrilled near Casey, in Clark county, by J. J. Hoblitzell, who was induced toprospect at Oilfield on the showing of oil and gas made by some old wells thathad been drilled in 1865 by Chicago parties. The latter drilled several wellson the evidence of oil and gas seepages, but, although a little was found, thewells were a failure from not casing off the water; i.e., they were drownedout. Several more small wells were brought in, but they were so discouragingthat they failed to interest the scouts that flocked in when leases were only$5 to $10 an acre. When a 40-barrel well was subsequently brought in, the"talent" promptly scurried after leases, which rapidly advanced to $100to $200 an acre, and since then the Eastern Illinois field has rapidlydeveloped along the La Salle anticline.

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The Maritime Features of the "Crude Petroleum" Problem
Authors: Edwards John R.
Published: June 2014

Introductory-There are many interesting and important events connected withthe petroleum problem. The remarkable men who conceived 'the thought oftransporting petroleum by pipe line, conserving the by- products of thecommodity, and conducting extended investigation and research whereby the flashpoint of the oil was raised, its cost reduced and its supply assured, aredeserving of the gratitude of this nation.

It was primarily the success attained by Captain Lucas, after his comprehensivesearch for oil in Texas and Louisiana, that was the impelling cause whichprompted the Navy Department to conduct the extensive series of liquid fuel-oiltests that were made from 1901 to 1903. The sensational discovery of oil atSpindle top made a deep impression upon Rear Admiral George W. Melville, thenEngineer-in-Chief of the Navy, and the discovery of the vast oil field in Texasconvinced him that, within a generation, if not within a decade, crudepetroleum was going to play a very important part in warfare, and that thecommodity might possibly develop into a necessary munition of war.

The United States' Commanding Position as a Petroleum Producer. In the study ofthe various problems relating to the world's production of crude petroleum, theposition of the United States is one of commanding importance, whether viewedfrom the industrial or the military aspect.

The present yield of this country is practically double that of the rest of theworld, and, in view of the productive and prospective fields possessed byvarious countries, together with the comprehensive and exhaustive search thathas been made throughout the world for petroleum, it is extremely probable thatthis lead will be maintained for the next decade.

& regards the character of the crude-oil yield of different countries, America possesses the greater part of the supply that contains a paraffinebase, and therefore a considerable portion at least of the American productproduces the best illuminant. Of all the crude-oil distillates, kerosene is inmany respects the most important, and the Appalachian product for this purposeis favored, particularly in the Far East, above that of any other petroleumyield of the world.

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