bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Strategic Alliances
Authors: Inkpen Andrew C.
Published: October 2003

There has been an enormous increase in the formation of international strategic alliances and in the research efforts devoted to understanding alliances over the last few decades. The chapter begins with a brief overview of alliance forms and then moves on to consider alliance formation and governance structures, alliance performance, control issues, bargaining power, the role of trust, evolutionary processes, and alliance networks. Within each section, key research areas and questions are identified and the major supporting research and associated findings are discussed.
Innovation and Information Technology in MNE
Authors: Cantwell John
Published: October 2003

In recent years, there has been a steady expansion in the literature that relates the internationalization of production to the development and transfer of technology by multinational enterprises (MNEs). The first section of this chapter discusses this, and notes the current shift of attention away from technology transfer per se, and the parallel shift in the terms in which technology is now defined and conceptualized. The latter is further addressed in the second section, which considers technology in relation to MNEs in its broadest sense of international technology creation and innovation. The third section examines the relationship between foreign direct investment (FDI) and the construction of corporate technological capabilities in the MNE, and the fourth examines intra‐ and inter‐firm international networks for technological development. The fifth section extends the discussion to the role of information and communications technology (ICT) within such international MNE networks.
Contemporary Research Trends in International Marketing: The 1990s
Authors: Kotabe Masaaki
Published: October 2003

The state of the art in research in international marketing is examined for the 1990–9 period, with particular emphasis on the conceptual framework and theory development in the field. This decade was chosen deliberately as it provides a fairly broad time frame to probe any significant changes in the field, both in terms of (1) the substance of research and (2) the methodologies used, and to see to what extent these two fundamental concerns raised in the 1980s have been addressed. Thus, the study takes stock of research in international marketing to see if the discipline has overcome the deficiencies outlined in previous review articles. The earlier review articles classified the research streams fairly broadly, encompassing issues from the macro‐environment to marketing management to consumer behaviour. To make this review of the international marketing literature comparable to those of the 1980s, the literature classification employed by Douglas and Craig in 1992 (competitive strategy; strategic alliances; sourcing; multinational company performance) is also employed here.
Culture and Human Resources Management
Authors: Graham John L.
Published: October 2003

Culture has a pervasive impact on the management of human resources, especially in terms of the efficient transaction, organization, and strategic planning of international business. This chapter first defines the central notion of culture, including discussion of its dimensions and measurement. Next, the influences of culture on interpersonal behaviours and negotiation styles are discussed. Third, human resources policies are outlined that take into account cultural differences in employee groups. The final section focuses on the impact of culture on the strategic thinking of managers.
Environmental Policy and International Business
Authors: Rugman Alan M. , Verbeke Alain
Published: October 2003

An analysis is made of the interactions between environmental policy and international business. More specifically, a conceptual framework is developed that allows classification of the various types of environmental regulations facing firms engaged in international business. In addition, an analysis is performed of the different environmental strategies that can be pursued by multinational enterprises (MNEs). It is argued that the managerial choices made are strongly influenced by external elements such as compliance incentives provided by public agencies, divergence/consistency among national environmental policy regimes, regional integration trends, etc.
International Financial Management and Multinational Enterprises
Authors: Bowe Michael , Dean James W.
Published: October 2003

A selective, critical survey is provided of the academic literature on the financial management policy of multinational enterprises (MNEs). The focus of much of the current research is the two major themes of financial management policy in relation to the increasing volatility of real and financial asset prices in the international financial environment of MNEs; and international market segmentation. The main parts of the chapter discuss the enhanced importance of recent increases in asset price volatility, the classification and management of risk exposure, the management of financial risk by MNEs, and issues relating to the effective implementation of a risk management system within the governance structure of an MNE.
Japan
Authors: Westney D. Eleanor
Published: October 2003

The rapid expansion of Japanese multinational enterprises (MNEs) in the 1980s changed the nature of competition in several major industries and attracted wide popular and scholarly attention. Japanese MNEs are arguably the most studied population of MNEs next to those from the USA, and summarizing this extensive literature poses a challenge. This chapter tries to accomplish three things. First, it provides an overview of the scope, timing, and destination of Japanese foreign direct investment (FDI)—three of the fundamental topics of interest in international business—in order to supply a basic map of when and where Japanese companies extended their operations abroad. Second, it takes the research on Japanese MNEs conducted in the 1970s as a benchmark to examine their evolution over time. Finally, it looks at Japan as a host country for foreign multinationals.
Multinational Enterprises and Public Policy
Authors: Rugman Alan M. , Verbeke Alain
Published: October 2003

Representative literature, since 1970, on the broad topic of multinational enterprises (MNEs) and public policy towards them, is reviewed. The efficiency aspects of MNEs and public policy are addressed first. Then, an original analytical framework is developed and used to synthesize some of the key references in the literature on MNEs and public policy.
The Netherlands: Ambitious on Goals—Ambivalent on Action
Authors: Van Muijen Marie‐Louise
Published: October 2003

Analyses efforts of the Dutch government to come to terms with sustainable development. It provides an analysis of the innovative features of Dutch environmental policy as they unfolded over the period 1987–2000. Particular emphasis is placed on the National Environmental Policy Plans (NEPPs), the target group approach, and the system of environmental covenants. The analysis suggests that while the Netherlands has been at the forefront of efforts to engage with sustainable development, it has had trouble ensuring that results live up to expectations.
Norway: Reluctantly Carrying the Torch
Authors: Langhelle Oluf
Published: October 2003

Analyses efforts of the Norwegian government to come to terms with sustainable development. It analyses the domestic reception of the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development after 1987. Attention is paid to the positive role that Norway has played internationally with respect to many areas of the sustainable development agenda (for example, in encouraging the debate about sustainable production and consumption). But contradictions and inconsistencies in the Norwegian implementation effort are also explored.
The United Kingdom: From Political Containment to Integrated Thinking?
Authors: Young Stephen C.
Published: October 2003

Analyses efforts of the British government to come to terms with sustainable development. It illustrates the manner in which sustainable development has been integrated into UK policy approaches and institutions as part of a general effort to modernize environmental governance. It also points to the rather different perspectives on sustainable development that have been elaborated under Conservative and Labour administrations.
The United States: ‘Sorry—Not Our Problem’
Authors: Bryner Gary C.
Published: October 2003

Analyses the reception given by the government of the US to the idea of sustainable development. It argues that the US has basically remained aloof from the sustainable development agenda. While there was some attempt to engage with sustainable development by the Clinton presidency, the concept has not been taken up actively by US political and administrative institutions at the federal level. In the main, sustainable development continues to be seen as a problem for developing countries.
Concluding Perspectives
Authors: Lafferty William M. , Meadowcroft James
Published: October 2003

Draws general conclusions from the study of the ten governmental reactions to sustainable development. It explores explanations for the different patterns of engagement displayed by the governments. Considering the governments as a group, it also provides a preliminary assessment of the quality of the implementation effort thus far. The chapter goes on to offer a more general interpretation of the overall evolution of environmental policy in the industrialized countries over the past three decades, and relates this to contemporary scholarly concern with the concept of ‘ecological modernization’. Finally, the discussion considers the potential ‘staying power’ of the idea of sustainable development, and reflects on the long‐term viability of the sustainable development agenda.
Immigrant Integration and Minority Nationalism
Authors: Kymlicka Will
Published: October 2003

The phenomenon of large‐scale immigration presents a challenge to traditional models of the nation‐state, creating minority nationalisms that are typically felt to be inherently antagonistic to immigrants and to the majority nationalism. Is it acceptable for a national minority to impose integration requirements on immigrants that are more stringent than those imposed by the majority culture? Offers a nuanced view of the relationship between immigration and minority nationalism, paying close attention to the normative issues raised by it. This involves examining not only how claims of immigrants and national minorities relate to each other but also how both relate to the underlying principles of liberal democracy, such as individual freedom and social equality. This is a matter of identifying which sorts of accommodations and settlements amongst immigrants and national minorities are most consistent with liberal––democratic norms of justice and freedom and which would be unjust and illiberal. The issue cannot be decided as a matter of principle––it is necessary to look at each case of minority nationalism on its own terms, and examine the nature of its self‐image and aspirations.
From a Theory of Relative Economic Deprivation Towards a Theory of Relative Political Deprivation
Authors: Connor Walker
Published: October 2003

Attempts to correct a common tendency to exaggerate the impact of economic factors upon ethno‐national conflict, which stems from a theory of ‘relative economic deprivation’ holding that ethno‐nationalism stems from essentially economic impulse. To be sure, relative economic deprivation exists wherever ethno‐nationalist conflict is found, but so does oxygen, and mere contiguity does not imply causation. The historical evidence suggests that while relative economic deprivation can be a powerful contributory factor, the sense of relative political deprivation offers a more satisfactory explanation.
Switzerland and the European Union: A Puzzle
Authors: Steiner Jürg
Published: October 2003

Why is it that Switzerland, a country that combines a high level of cultural and linguistic diversity with a high level of political stability, is so reluctant to join the EU? This chapter briefly reviews the historical background to Swiss federalism, in order then to discuss cultural and economic perceptions, which have created a durable public perception of the virtues of neutrality and independence from European entanglements. It then discusses what the growing integration and politico‐economic harmonization of Europe implies for the future of Swiss nationalism, and discerns a generational shift of opinion, whereby younger Swiss will increasingly come to recognize a parallel European identity above that of the Swiss nation‐state.
Globalization in a Very Small Place: From Ethnic to Civic Nationalism in Quebec
Authors: Latouche Daniel
Published: October 2003

The recurrence of periods of Quebec nationalism is a phenomenon that is hard to evaluate against the concurrent backgrounds of globalization and Canada's own nationalist response to globalization. This chapter examines the different strands of Quebec nationalism and their uneasy relationship with a changing Canadian nationalism. It expresses scepticism about the idea that globalization and regional economic integration provide a painless middle way between provincial autonomy and national independence, and argues that the construction of a civic community in Quebec may indeed require the establishment of a separate state of Quebec.
Projecting Sovereignty in Post‐Soviet Russia: Tatarstan in the International Arena
Authors: Graney Katherine E.
Published: October 2003

Uses Tatarstan's relations with Russia as a case study of the new opportunities for the nationalist exercise of state sovereignty, which the post‐Cold War international system affords to actors that are nominally sub‐state members of another state. Explores how Tatarstan has attempted to construct a sovereign presence in the international arena in the post‐Soviet period: first, by establishing bilateral relations with other states, and by increased participation in international politico‐economic organizations and networks; second, by pursuing a type of ‘anticipatory adaptation’, wherein Tatarstani elites have attempted to raise the country's profile in the international community.
Globalization, European Integration, and the Northern Ireland Conflict
Authors: McGarry John
Published: October 2003

Examines the impact of globalization and EU integration on the Northern Ireland conflict and its resolution. While they have not diluted the identities of opposing factions, or the intensity of their political agendas, they have greatly increased the opportunities for effective diplomacy on the part of national government. The Anglo‐Irish cooperation that ultimately produced the Good Friday Agreement may have been made easier as a result of sovereignty‐pooling and intergovernmental cooperation within the EU, but it was also due to a slow recognition by the UK government that the conflict could not be managed within the traditional state system. Globalization complemented these factors.
General Characteristics of the Tax System
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Provides an overview of Japan's tax development, dating back to the pre‐war period with a brief explanation of general characteristics that are thought to be of basic importance to understand the Japanese tax system.
Background of the Japanese Tax System
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Investigates the historical background in relation to an empirical analysis of tax structure development and the impact of the Shoup tax proposals.
Tax Administration and Tax Equity
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Attempts an in‐depth analysis on major issues of tax administration and practices in view of tax equity. Stress is made to the importance of using the withholding collection.
The Traditional Framework of Indirect Taxes
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Examines indirect tax reform movements in the late 1980s before the introduction of a broad‐based consumption tax: VAT. Needless to say, the adoption of VAT had a close bearing upon the changes in existing excise taxes, such as alcoholic beverages, tabacco, petrol, and commodity taxes.
Appraisal and Further Reform
Authors: Ishi Hiromitsu
Published: October 2003

Assesses the overall performance of past tax reforms thathas developed in three stages; the Nakasone and Takeshita reform packages from the mid‐1980s, and recent tax reform in the 1990s. From an academic point of view, as the final conclusion, Japan's tax reforms have been far from satisfactory, and further steps are required to improve with regard to equity, neutrality, and simplicity.
Constructing Policy Theory: Ideas, Language, and Discourse
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the renewed interest in the role of ideas, language and discourse in policy studies. Distinguishing postempiricist from mainstream perspectives, the discussion sets the stage for a more detailed presentation of the discourse–analytic approach and the deliberative practices to which it gives rise. There are seven main sections: Reconsidering Ideas; Beyond Self-Interest: Ideas Matter; Neo-Institutionalism and Policy Ideas (neo-institutionalism is defined as a theoretical orientation that has focused on the evolutionary relationship of ideas and norms to institutional practices); Policy Communities, Issue Networks, and Learning –– the studies discussed include Heclo’s (1978) seminal conceptualization of issue networks, and the work of Haas (1992) on policy communities and networks; Critical Theory: Distorted Communication and Discursive Ideals –– this looks at the critical theory of Habermas, which supplies a normative ideal for communication and argumentation; Discourse of Power V this looks at Foucault’s focus on the role of discourses as they have functioned in specific historical contexts; and Postempiricism as Discursive Policy Inquiry.
Discourse Versus Advocacy Coalitions: Interpreting Policy Change and Learning
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: October 2003

This is the second of two chapters that present a more detailed examination of the ways in which social constructions are produced and negotiated in public politics through the medium of discourse. It looks at discourse versus advocacy coalitions. The first section of the chapter introduces the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) that was developed by Sabatier and his associates, and is perhaps the most widely discussed contribution to the field of policy studies in the past decade. Its aim is to explain policy change empirically through the interaction of competing advocacy coalitions. The next section of the chapter presents Hajer’s critique of the ACF, focusing on his model of discourse coalitions, which, like advocacy coalitions, are designed to explain policy changes generally. The last section looks at the concept of policy learning.
Postempiricist Foundations: Social Constructionism and Practical Discourse
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: October 2003

This is the first of four chapters offering a postempiricist methodology for policy inquiry based on the logic of practical discourse, and examines the problems of policy research from an epistemological perspective. Focusing on the empiricist and technocratic aspects of policy analysis, the discussion first offers a critique of the neopositivist premises that have shaped and guided the enterprise; then, drawing on the theories of social constructivism and practical discourse, it sets out the foundations of a value-critical postempiricist framework for policy inquiry, emphasizing the need to integrate empirical and normative inquiry. The analysis shows the way in which what is understood as ‘science’ is influenced by the socio-historical context in which in emerges, and that social meanings and value judgements are built into scientific practices otherwise described as ‘value neutral’. In particular, it shows that in a world of multiple realities there is no ‘objective’ reality in which a scientific social science can anchor itself, rather, social science –– like science generally Vis a social activity and its products are based more on consensus than proof in the traditional understanding of the term. Towards this end, postempiricism offers a craft-oriented discursive or deliberative approach to policy science, one that better explains what social scientists are already doing; in this view, the analyst functions as an interpretive mediator between the available analytical frameworks of social science and the competing local perspectives. The chapter closes with a discussion of the problem of relativism traditionally associated with intepretivist approaches.
Interpreting Public Policy: Normative Frames and Methodological Issues
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: October 2003

This is the second of four chapters offering a postempiricist methodology for policy inquiry based on the logic of practical discourse, and explores the role of interpretation in policy analysis. While empiricists have sought to restrict the focus on meaning to the observable dimensions of social reality, the interpretive orientation requires the social scientist also to pursue the unobservable. Because language is able to carry and transmit meanings among people, access to the realm of meaning often can be gained through the study of communication (both spoken and written), but such meanings are generally only indirectly made available through such communications, so it is necessary for the analyst to move beyond empirical methods (such as content analysis) to an interpretive reconstruction of the situational logic of social action. This involves inferring other people’s meanings by identifying patterns that emerge through an examination of the verbal and non-verbal messages they give about their beliefs and experiences. Narratives, for example, are a way of making the subjective dimensions of verbal actions more accessible, and the social world is in significant part organized and interpreted through narrative exchanges in their various forms. The different sections of this chapter look at interpretative policy analysis, interpretative frames, methodological strategies, policy analysis as ‘thick description’ (an approach for exploring and discovering the meanings embedded in the language and actions of policy actors), the objectivity of interpretation, validity as credibility, and social meaning and the question of causality.
Public Policy as Narrative: Stories, Frames, and Metanarratives
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: October 2003

This is the third of four chapters offering a postempiricist methodology for policy inquiry based on the logic of practical discourse, and explores the narrative form of discourse and narrative analysis, an emerging and promising orientation in policy analysis. The social meanings uncovered by the interpretive analysis described in Chapter 7 are typically embedded in a policy narrative, designed to portray the fuller picture of a policy problem and the potential solutions. Built around interpretations, the narrative represents the policy situation, and offers a view of what has to be done and what the expected consequences will be. While there is a fair amount of conceptual overlap between the concepts of discourse and narration, narrative analysis is used in this discussion to refer to the analysis of stories. The first two sections of the chapter examines the general features of a narrative story, emphasizing its uses in both the social sciences and everyday social contexts, and discusses the basic epistemological issues involved in the production of a narrative text. The second three sections survey two prominent approaches to narrative discourse analyses that have emerged in the field of policy analysis per se: those of Stone and Roe. The last section examines how the logic of good reasons underlies the rationality of the narrative.
Policy Analysis as Discursive Practice: The Argumentative Turn
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: October 2003

This is the last of four chapters offering a postempiricist methodology for policy inquiry based on the logic of practical discourse, and explores the dialectics (logical structure) of policy argumentation. Approaches are examined to discursive policy analysis and policy argumentation with an emphasis on the integration of empirical and normative inquiry. The discussion is oriented around a particular line of development in the argumentative turn, namely, a dialectical communications approach based on the informal or good-reasons logic of argumentation. In particular, the productive capacities of the communications model are emphasized, namely, its ability to generate ways of thinking and seeing that open new possibilities for problem-solving and action, or, in the language of Habermas’s critical theory, its ‘communicative power’. The different sections of the chapter look at argumentative discursive policy practices, the communications model of argumentative policy analysis, the search for rational procedures in argumentation, the logic of policy arguments (practical discourse), policy argumentation as practical reason, policy argumentation as communicative interaction (the role of analytical discourses), and critical rationality as undistorted communication.
The Deliberative Policy Analyst: Theoretical Issues and Practical Challenges
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: October 2003

The preceding chapters have covered the theoretical and epistemological support for citizen participation in policy-making. In this final chapter, the implications of this for the conduct of policy analysis are addressed, in particular the role of policy analysts as facilitators of deliberative practices. The different sections of the chapter are: Communicative Policy Analysis in Critical Planning Theory – the conduct of policy analysis, in particular the role of the policy analyst as facilitator of deliberative practices; Communicative Theory: Replying to the Critics – of the communications model; Policy Epistemics – for discursive policy analysis; and The Curriculum: Participatory Training and Qualitative Inquiry – the implications of a discursive, participatory approach for the policy analysis curriculum.
The Foundations of Ecocentrism
Authors: Humphrey Mathew
Published: October 2003

This chapter explores the philosophical foundations of ecocentrism, in particular its ontology. It explores the idea of a unity of humanity and nature and the proposition that ecological ‘laws’ should inform human morality. Does the quality of autopoiesis endow that natural world with intrinsic value? Can ecocentric principles offer guidance for human behaviour?
Dichotomy and Distortion: The Mutual Misunderstandings of Social Ecology and Ecocentrism
Authors: Humphrey Mathew
Published: October 2003

The ecocentric‐anthropocentric dichotomy is explored through the debate between social ecologists and ecocentrists. The critique of ecocentrism that comes from social ecology––that it is a thinly disguised form of misanthropy––is found to be based on a number of misrepresentations and misunderstandings of the ecocentric argument. Similarly, the counter‐critique––which argues that social ecology implies conscious control of the evolutionary process––is found to be similarly misguided. There are multiple ways of being humanist, in the sense in which ecologists use the term, and one can construct humanist arguments from either an ecocentric or anthropocentric starting point.
The Government of Risk
Authors: Hood Christopher , Rothstein Henry , Baldwin Robert
Published: October 2003

Why does the regulation of risks to human health and safety vary so dramatically from one policy domain to another? Why are some risks regulated aggressively and others responded to only modestly? Is there any logic to the techniques we use in risk regulation? This book addresses these important questions by systematically examining variety amongst risk regulation regimes across policy domains, analysing the significant driving forces shaping those regimes, and identifying the causes of regulatory failure and success. In order to do so, the book develops a systems‐based concept of a ‘risk regulation regime’, which enables comparative description and analysis of the rules, institutional arrangements, and cultures that are bound up with the handling of risk within and between regimes. Using that framework, the book analyses how regimes and their constituent components are differentially shaped by three major driving forces—namely, the pressures exerted by market failure, by public opinion, and by organized interests inside and outside the state apparatus—and blame‐avoidance responses of regimes in the face of pressures for greater openness. The book applies the method to analyse a range of risk regulation regimes that cross the divide between ‘natural’ and ‘socially created’, state‐created and market‐created, ‘voluntary’ and ‘involuntary’, high‐tech and low‐tech, individually, and corporately produced risks. Those regimes include the release of paedophiles into the community, air pollution, local road safety, radon, pesticides, and dangerous dogs. The analysis reveals both variations and paradoxes that can neither be identified by single case studies, nor be easily explained by macro‐oriented approaches to understanding risk regulation. The Government of Risk shows how such an approach is of high policy relevance as well as of considerable theoretical importance.
How Far Does Context Shape Content in Risk Regulation Regimes?
Authors: Hood Christopher , Rothstein Henry , Baldwin Robert
Published: October 2003

Reviews received explanations of why governments regulate risk in the way they do and identifies a triangle of contextual forces that may sometimes pull together in shaping risk regulation regimes and sometimes pull in opposite directions. Those forces relate to market failure, mass public opinion, and organized interests. The chapter argues that analysis of these contextual factors can help explain variety amongst risk regulation regimes but identifies some of the methodological problems involved in such an analysis. Detailed analysis of how far such contextual factors shape the content of risk regulation regimes is presented in Chs.5, 6, and 7.
Opinion‐Responsive Government and Risk Regulation
Authors: Hood Christopher , Rothstein Henry , Baldwin Robert
Published: October 2003

Explores the logic of basing risk regulation on mass popular opinion and explores the extent and conditions in which state regulation of risk reflects general public opinion. The chapter draws together existing empirical evidence about public attitudes towards the nine case‐study risks and presents a substantial and original analysis of the salience of those risks in UK newspapers over 12 years to 1998. Analysis suggests that public opinion is certainly a shaper of risk regulation regimes, most obviously in relation to some standard‐setting activities, but it appears to be a constraint or support rather than the key driver. Regulatory activity appears to be better explained by the contingent alignment and relative strengths of other forces shaping regimes. Moreover, the chapter also identifies four important strategies employed by regulators for managing misalignments between public preferences and the preferences of policy experts or other organized interests.
Interests, Lobbies, and Experts
Authors: Hood Christopher , Rothstein Henry , Baldwin Robert
Published: October 2003

Explores the logic of basing risk regulation on the interests of cohesive organized groups inside or outside the bureaucracy, including patterns of capture by professions as well as by orthodox producer capture. The chapter explores the extent and conditions in which state regulation of the nine case‐study risks is driven by such forces. Analysis suggests that activity by organized interests has powerful explanatory force and can help explain a number of regime features that are anomolous from market‐failure and opinion‐responsive perspectives, especially when the interests of regulatory professionals are taken into account. Moreover, careful analysis reveals that different regulatory components of the same regime, such as standard‐setting and enforcement, may be shaped by different sets of organized interests.
The Effectiveness of US Human Rights Policy, 1973–1980
Authors: Sikkink Kathryn
Published: October 2003

The history of US human rights policy in Latin America provides useful case studies of the interplay between ‘control’ and ‘consent’ aspects of democratization. It presents a preliminary analysis of the influence of US human rights policy on human rights practices and democratization in Argentina, Guatemala, and Uruguay in the 1970s and early 1980s, focusing primarily on the Carter period. In each of these cases, the US policy attempted to influence the domestic human rights situation by linking the improvement of human rights practices to the provision of military or economic aid. But, the nature of the pressures applied and the responses thereto were quite different in the three countries, reflecting the importance of ‘consent’ issues, determined by the state of democratic transition achieved within the country concerned, in modifying the effects of ‘control’ pressures.
The Resurgence of United States Political Development Assistance to Latin America in the 1980s
Authors: Carothers Thomas
Published: October 2003

The surprisingly wide variety of US political development assistance programmes in Latin America prompts a number of questions, which are addressed in this chapter. First, what did the many different programmes actually consist of? Second, what methods did the programmes employ? Third, what was the relationship between the democracy assistance programmes of the 1980s and the general characteristics of the Reagan administration's policies towards Latin America? Fourth, what were the objective results of these policies in terms of contribution to the democratization trend in Latin America?
The International Dimensions of Democratization in Latin America: The Case of Brazil
Authors: Hurrell Andrew
Published: October 2003

Develops a series of broad perspectives on the variety of international factors that have impinged domestic political developments, specifically on democratization, in Brazil. It suggests that much of the existing literature, which asserts the primacy of domestic political dynamics and accord only secondary importance to external factors, stands in need of some revision.
International Political Finance: The Konrad Adenauer Foundation and Latin America
Authors: Pinto‐Duschinsky Michael
Published: October 2003

Initiates the process of mapping foreign sources of political funding in Latin America, focusing on the activities of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation, located in Germany. Although the foundation is only one of a number of international bodies with a strong interest in Latin American politics, it provides a case study of the way such foundations operate. After a preliminary survey of other main sources of external political funding (the superpowers during the Cold War, other Latin American countries, church organizations, European countries), the chapter reviews the outreach activities of the main German political foundations or Stiftungen, of which the Adenauer Foundation, supporting the Christian Democrat agenda, is among the most influential. It ends with a survey of the extent and effectiveness of the Adenauer Foundation's activities in the various individual countries of the region.
Underwriting Democracy: The European Community and Greece
Authors: Tsingos Basilios
Published: October 2003

Reviews the existing literature on the manner in which the Greek transition from authoritarian rule to democracy was effected, and evaluates the role that the European Community and its member states played both in the transition process and in the subsequent democratic consolidation. It argues that the channels of influence were supplementary, rather than central or decisive, and that the EC and its members cannot properly be labelled as ‘exporters’ of democracy within the transition process. The influence has rather been felt in the consolidation phase, with the EC acting as a ‘guarantor’ or an ‘underwriter’ of democracy.
Epistemic Justification
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

Modern disputes about what makes a belief epistemically justified or rational are flawed through failing to recognize that there are different kinds of justifications that are in different ways indicative that the belief is true. I distinguish synchronic justification (the belief being a justified response to the believer's situation at the time) from diachronic justification (the belief constituting a justified response to adequate investigation over time); and, for each of these kinds, internalist justification (justification by introspectible factors) from externalist justification (justification by factors not necessarily accessible to the believer). A belief is internally synchronically justified if it is rendered inductively probable by the believer's basic beliefs; but ‘inductively probable’ may mean probable by true a priori standards (logically probable), by true standards to the best of the believer's ability to discover this (epistemically probable), or simply by the believer's own standards (subjectively probable). External synchronic justification is normally a matter of being produced by a reliable process, and there are many different ways of spelling that out. A belief is diachronically justified to the extent to which it results from adequate investigation. This depends (positively) on how probable it was that investigation would lead to evidence that would make a difference to the original probability of the belief; how probable it was that the issue was important; and (negatively) on how probable it was that investigation would cost much time and money. But all these ‘probabilities’ can be spelled out in different internalist and externalist ways. Almost all these kinds of justification are worth having, because it is logically probable that a belief justified in almost all these ways will be true. This account of justification is extended to give an account of different kinds of knowledge, all of which are worth having.
Theories of Synchronic Justification
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

The synchronic epistemic justification of a belief lies in it being a justified response to the believer's situation at the time, and this consists in its being based on adequate grounds. For a pure externalist, being based is being caused, grounds are a state that causes the belief, and (normally) the grounds are adequate, if the process by which they cause the belief is a token of a reliable type. Different externalist theories result from picking out different kinds of cause and selecting different types to which the token belief belongs. Theories become more and more internalist as the different elements of justification are understood in terms of factors to which the believer has introspective access—being ‘based’ as being ‘believed to be caused’, grounds as apparently basic beliefs, and their adequacy as their rendering the belief probable by a priori criteria.
Probability
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

Physical probability is a measure of the extent to which an event is predetermined by its causes. Statistical probability is a measure of the proportion of events of some kind in a population; I distinguish the proportion in an actual population from the proportion in a hypothetical population (a population that would be generated by a certain process). Inductive probability is a measure of the extent to which one proposition makes another one likely to be true; I distinguish the true measure of this— logical probability, from the best judgement of this that could be produced by a person using correct criteria but with limited abilities —epistemic probability, and from the measure that uses a person's own criteria—subjective probability. Whether or not a belief is rendered probable by its grounds (and so has adequate grounds) varies with the kind of probability being used.
Knowledge
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

Knowledge is (strongly) warranted (strong) true belief. For the internalist, a belief being warranted is it being justified (in the sense of the belief being rendered inductively probable by other beliefs and ultimately by basic beliefs), where the justification does not proceed through or otherwise depend on a false belief. For the main kind of externalist, the reliabilist, a belief being warranted is it being produced by a type of process that normally produces true beliefs. For Plantinga, the central element in a belief being warranted is it being produced by a properly functioning cognitive process; but I argue that his account reduces to a reliabilist account. Knowledge is only more worth having than strong true belief if warrant is intrinsically valuable (i.e. valuable in itself, in addition to the fact that it has led to truth). Internalist warrant is intrinsically valuable, but externalist warrant is not. .
Experiential Highlighting
Authors: Campbell John
Published: October 2003

Conscious attention to an object can be what causes the selection of information relating to just that object, from various specialized processing streams, to control the subject's verbal reports about that object. Therefore, the content of conscious experience has to be capable of identifying information relating to just that object in various processing streams. The evidence suggests that experience of the location of the object will be critical to allowing selection of just the right information.
What Is Knowledge of Reference?
Authors: Campbell John
Published: October 2003

Knowledge of the reference of a demonstrative is provided by conscious attention to the object. This conscious attention causes and justifies your use of particular information‐processing procedures to verify and to find the implications of propositions involving the term. Feature‐integration theory provides a way of characterizing how conscious attention can recruit information in different processing streams to verify propositions about a single perceived object; we can give a parallel account of action on the object. This approach provides an explanation of the appeal of the idea that binding mechanisms are a neural correlate of consciousness.
Space and Action
Authors: Campbell John
Published: October 2003

What exactly is the role of conscious attention to an object in making it possible for the subject to act on that object? In one view, the content of your conscious attention sets the parameters for your action on that object. But the visual pathways underlying conscious attention may be different from the visual pathways that set the parameters for action. So a different view seems preferable, in which the role of conscious attention is to identify the target of the action for the benefit of the underlying brain systems that have to swing into play so that the action can be implemented.
Sortals
Authors: Campbell John
Published: October 2003

Many philosophers have said that the reference to an object depends on knowing what sort of thing it is. But there seems to be many cases in which we refer to objects without knowing the sort; conscious attention to an object does not demand knowledge of its sort. There has to be an explanation of how it is that the subject is visually singling out one object rather than any other in the environment at any one time; but this is provided by the use of one rather than another mechanism for cross‐referencing processing streams. This use of various strategies for solving the binding problem is a more low‐level phenomenon than sortal classification.
Sense
Authors: Campbell John
Published: October 2003

We need the notion of sense to characterize which inferences involving demonstratives are valid; the account developed so far suggests that this will be when conscious attention uses the same locations in keeping track of the object. This does not mean we have here a descriptivist account of the sense of a demonstrative; rather, the role of the content of the conscious attention emerges in which propositions involving the demonstrative term are immune to error through misidentification. There is a detailed comparison between the present approach and the views of Kaplan and Evans.
The Relational View of Experience
Authors: Campbell John
Published: October 2003

In a relational view of experience of objects, the qualitative character of your experience is constituted by the qualitative character of the scene perceived. Alternatively, the qualitative character of experience might be held to be constituted by the occurrence of visual sensations or by representations of the surroundings. But the relational view seems best placed to acknowledge the role of experience in making it possible for us to think about the objects around us.
The Explanatory Role of Consciousness
Authors: Campbell John
Published: October 2003

Experience of the world explains how we can form the conception of properties and objects as categorical, rather than merely as complexes of dispositions. Sensational and representationalist views of the content of experience cannot explain how it is that experience can play this role. The relational view of experience accomplishes this. I look at the bearing of this view on traditional empiricism.
Joint Attention
Authors: Campbell John
Published: October 2003

Extends the approach to the case of joint attention and common knowledge. We need the notion of joint attention to explain the possibility of success in tasks such as coordinated attack. I discuss the role of consciousness in joint attention, arguing that we need a relational view of joint attention, and look at the relation of joint attention to knowledge of other minds.
The Anti‐Realist Alternative
Authors: Campbell John
Published: October 2003

Michael Dummett argued that rather than thinking in terms of a sign's having a reference with which the use of the sign must keep faith, the use of the sign is subject to a constraint of ‘harmony’: that the consequences of accepting statements involving the sign should be appropriate, given what is demanded for confirmation of a statement made using the sign. I argue that the account of demonstratives developed so far shows a way of resisting this idea, by providing an account of what knowledge of the reference of a sign could consist in, over and above a mere ability to use the sign. These issues over anti‐realism can be restated for spatial reasoning in terms of whether mental models should be analysed as of harmony.
Indeterminacy and Inscrutability
Authors: Campbell John
Published: October 2003

Quine's notion of stimulus meaning did not give due weight to the phenomenon of attention; but that means the notion of stimulus meaning is ill defined. When we take attention into account, however, we also have to acknowledge that attention is allocated to objects. It thus appears that there is no standpoint from which to state Quine's thesis that the data underdetermine the ascriptions of references to our terms. I also look at the implications of the present approach for the indeterminacy of translation.
Dispositional Vs. Categorical
Authors: Campbell John
Published: October 2003

I have emphasized that we need the relational view of experience to explain how it is that we have the conception of objects and properties as categorical. Some, though, have said that we have only the conception of objects and properties as complexes of dispositions. I use a puzzle of Shoemaker's to show that if we abandon the conception of the categorical, we lose our grip on the notion of the existence of individual objects altogether.
The Case for Materialism
Authors: Papineau David
Published: October 2003

The basic causal argument for materialism is that since physics is causally complete, conscious states must either be physical, or they must be epiphenomenal “danglers” with no causal influence on the physical world. Papineau explores this argument in detail, paying particular attention to the concept of causation, the meaning of “physical”, the relevance of functionalism and other versions of nonreductive physicalism, and the status of the claim that physics is causally closed.