bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Secularization, Deviance and Delinquency among Israeli Arab Villagers
Authors: Shoham S. Giora , Segal Esther , Rahav Giora
Published: August 2005

Many Israeli Arabs are facing severe culture-conflicts as a consequence of two social processes. First, there is the increasing frequency of contact with Jews, and second, there is the process of rapid modernization which involves secularization, disorganization of traditional social structures and changing norms. In this study the criminality of rural Arabs in Israel is analyzed in terms of culture-conflict. Interviews with prisoners and non-prisoners supply the data and the statistical analyses confirm the main hypotheses.
Discussion-Induced Attitude Polarization
Authors: Myers David G.
Published: August 2005

Two experiments examined the group polarization hypothesis. In Experiment I group discussion polarized the evaluations of six hypothetical faculty members, three described positively and three negatively. 'Good' faculty were rated and paid even more favorably after group interaction and contrariwise for 'bad' faculty. Experiment II separated subjects into groups which were conservative or liberal in attitudes regarding women. Subsequent discussion of statements regarding the role of women yielded an increase in the attitude gap between the conservative and liberal communities.
Interpersonal Style and the Communication Dilemma: II. Utility of the Johari Awareness Model for Genotypic Diagnoses
Authors: Hall Jay
Published: August 2005

The Johari Awareness model of interpersonal processes was again employed as the theoretical framework for exploring the nature of communicative practices in human systems. From Hall's (1974) earlier series of studies of managerial use of the Exposure-Feedback processes in organizations and personalistic influences on communication effectiveness, the presence of several underlying sources of variance was suggested. The possible existence of genotypic factors - as opposed to the more commonly cited phenotypic effects which are manifested - was thought to have system-wide implications for communicative practices, particularly at the level of systems diagnosis. The present study was conducted to test for the presence of three underlying unmanifested genotypic influences on communication in organizations: (1) a security genotype, (2) a reciprocity genotype, and (3) a form-function genotype. Employing the Personnel Relations Survey and the Management Relations Survey as assessments of personal and collective use of the Johari processes of Exposure and Feedback, data were collected from 1,1 14 managers regarding the security genotype hypothesis, 200 subordinates of managers identified as relying on significantly different interpersonal styles as a test of the reciprocity genotype, and from 1,530 managers representing 13 different organizational types as an assessment of the formfunction genotype. Results from the several multivariate analyses conducted yielded strong support for both the existence and form of the genotypic forces hypothesized and confirmed the utility of the Johari Awareness model as a theoretical paradigm for genotypic diagnosis and research.
Power and Commitment: An Empirical Assessment
Authors: Franklin Jack L.
Published: August 2005

There is some question as to the usefulness of Etzioni's typological theory of compliance in organizational research. This study with a sample of 265 blueand white-collar workers in six organizations tests propositions from the theory concerning relationships between power used by organizations, commitment of workers to the organization and task performance. The results cast doubt on the usefulness of a classification scheme using concrete organizational types, but support the proposition that the more normative (less utilitarian) the power, the greater the commitment. Little or no relationship was found between power and task performance or commitment and task performance.
Levels of Analysis in Social Psychology and Related Social Sciences
Authors: Sarup Gian
Published: August 2005

This paper seeks to explicate the widely used but largely unworked concept of levels of analysis in social psychology by examining its origin, need, and place in the discipline. Following Schneirla's distinction between levels of organization and levels of analysis, it outlines the problem of varied relationships between the two kinds of levels and discovers among social psychologists distinctly reductive, anti-reductive, and interdisciplinary attitudes toward the idea of levels. The presentation culminates in a paradigm of levels which generates not only the ideal typical approaches, but also clarifies the actual patterns of interdisciplinary relations, in social sciences.
A Note on Attitudes to Jointness of the Conjugal Role Relationship and Family Size: A Study of Norms among Ghanaian Students
Authors: Oppong Christine
Published: August 2005

In this paper data from a sample of Ghanaian University students is used to test the cross-cultural validity of the hypothesis that jointness of the conjugal role relationship is associated with small family size norms and segregation with large family size norms (Hawthorn, 1971: 94). Approval of jointness and segregation is measured by means of an ordinal scale based upon responses to eight different statements about the division of labour, decision-making and finances. The data support the hypothesis as there is a significant correlation between attitudes to family size and jointness of the conjugal relationship.
Group Composition and Changes in Self-Actualization in T-Groups
Authors: Smith Peter B. , Linton Michael J.
Published: August 2005

A field experiment is reported concerning ten one-week sensitivity training groups. Groups were composed-according to their scores on Schutz's FIRO-B. It was predicted that the optimal conditions for change were provided by heterogeneous compositions. Three groups were composed to be heterogeneous for control behaviour but homogeneous for affection behaviour. Three further groups were homogeneous for affection but heterogeneous for control. The remaining four groups were heterogeneous for both need areas. Changes on Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inventory were found in all conditions. Control-heterogeneous groups increased on 'existentiality' and 'nature of man' subscales, while affection-heterogeneous groups increased on 'inner-directedness' and 'feeling reactivity'. Groups heterogeneous for both need areas showed change on all four of these POI scales. Most change thus resulted from the groups with the most heterogeneous compositions.
Sex-Integrated and Sex-Segregated University Dormitory Living
Authors: Lance Larry M.
Published: August 2005

This study compared the sexual permissiveness of sex-integrated dormitory living with sex-segregated dormitory living by collecting data, using a before-after design, from a probability sample of 245 students enrolled at a Southeastern state-supported university. The self-administered question naire, which included a Guttman-type scale on sexual permissiveness, was completed early in and again near theend of the 1972-1973 school year. While no significant differences were found in the sexual permissiveness of sex-in-tegrated and sex-segregated dormitory students early in the school year, sex-integrated dormitory students were characterized by greater sexual permissiveness at the end of the year.
Management Sanctions and Absence Control
Authors: Nicholson Nigel
Published: August 2005

The effect of deterrent measures on employee absence is a neglected topic and what little research there has been has not produced consistent findings. The present paper reports the effects of a sudden clamp-down of management sanctions on the absence behavior of a female workforce. The prediction that this action would not significantly alter the level of absence, but would affect the form absences took, was confirmed by the results, which showed a conversion of short to longer spells and uncertificated to certificated absence. The implications for control systems and their reliance on medical certification as a principal legitimizing criterion are discussed.
Changing Behavior in Task Groups Through Social Learning: Modeling Alternatives
Authors: Walter Gordon A.
Published: August 2005

This study explores the relative effects of "acted" and "natural" social models upon the behaviors of members of problem-solving groups. Major differences between model group behaviors were identified by 62 judges. A "pretest-posttest control group" experimental design was used to examine the behavioral effects of modeling for 72 subjects, which was measured using a behavioral coding technique developed by Hoffman and Maier. The central finding in this experimental effort was that "acted" models were more effective in promoting behavior change than were "natural" models. Theoretical implications and possible applications of the research findings are discussed.
Participative and Power-Equalized Organizational Systems
Authors: McMahon J. Timothy
Published: August 2005

The theories of participation and power equalization are discussed in terms of their philosophy, objectives, and techniques. A clarification of the differences between the theories is presented based upon the amount and distribution of influence within an organizational system. The participation and power-equalization hypotheses are tested using attitude data collected from three levels of management in 12 plants of a large manufacturing organization and a multivariate ANOVA design. The major finding is the identification of a consistent interaction pattern involving participation and power equalization which enhances prediction of satisfaction and effectiveness over that offered by the variables singularly. This finding suggests the integration of the theories of participation and power equalization.
Action Research
Authors: Cunningham Bart
Published: August 2005

Action Research seeks a more effective method of organizational decision-making involving the whole organization in identifying needs, solving problems, laying out plans, and implementing decisions. Its principal components are an Action Research Group, composed of organizational members, and an Action Researcher-an outside consultant skilled in directing group decision-making and coordinating responsive action. This paper defines the theoretical characteristics of Action Research and the underlying processes by which it is applied.
A Test of Alternative Models of Expectancy Theory
Authors: Reinharth Leon , Wahba Mahmoud A.
Published: August 2005

The inconsistent findings of prior studies in expectancy theory are examined with reference to various logical and methodological issues. A comprehensive test of the theory is proposed in broadening the base of the behavioral alternatives available to the individual in the work situation. A method is suggestedfor incorporating negative as well as positive instrumentalities and acts. Nine alternative models are tested, including the expectancy variables, additive, multiplicative, and combined versions. The findings of the study do not support the theory as a predictor of effort and performance, and provide moderate support to the theory as a predictor of total job satisfaction. None of the predictor models is found to be superior to any of the others. The findings confirm those of other recent studies, and suggest that the theory may explain only a limited portion of behavior on the job.
Do Authoritarians Hold Authoritarian Attitudes?
Authors: Ray J. J.
Published: August 2005

It is pointed out that there is little evidence that authoritarian attitudes and authoritarian behavior are associated. An attempt is made to construct a new scale which will predict authoritarian behavior. Against a peer-rating validity criterion, the new scale (in behavior inventory format) correlated .54, compared to a correlation with the same criterion by an attitude scale of .19.
Organizational Strategies and Interorganizational Networks
Authors: Metcalfe J. L.
Published: August 2005

The organization set is a basic concept for analyzing the relations between an organization and its environment. This article pro vides a theoretical basis for using it to study the way that organizations adapt their environments to their own needs, rather than responding to situational demands. First, the network of interorganizational relations is conceptualized in terms of dimensions of social integration. Subsequently, organizational strategies appropriate for dealing with problematical aspects of organization set integration are identified. The character-defining consequences of the combination of strategies an organization uses are illustrated from an empirical study of the National Economic Development Office.
Obedience under Conditions Demanding Self-Immolation
Authors: Martin J. , Lobb B. , Chapman G. C. , Spillane R.
Published: August 2005

Subjects in a boys' secondary school were asked to participate in an experiment which exposed them to the risk of up to 50% hearing loss. Of 42 Ss, 39 participated voluntarily. Each operated a fake "sound generator" similar to Milgram's "shock generator" and administered to himself a supposed stimulus whose "danger level" was prominently displayed before him. The highest level of stimulus to which each was prepared to go was recorded. Results showed a close similarity with those obtained by Milgram when his Ss were instructed to administer dangerous shocks to others. The correspondence between the results in obedience experiments and Allport's J-curve of institutional conformity is discussed. It is contended that interpretations of experimental obedience as deriving from release of aggression or from the acceptance of malevolent intent as compatible with legitimate authority are inadequate. It is argued that both inside and outside the laboratory authority commonly functions to direct behavior in cases where the immediate and necessary steps to a worthwhile goal are nongratifying, and that experimental Ss concede authority to the E on this basis.
On the Metaphysics of Social Psychology: A Critical View
Authors: Levine Ned
Published: August 2005

Two contrasting social metaphysics are discussed: the naturalistic and the historical. The naturalistic metaphysics emphasizes general conditions, transhistorical explanations, laws in nature, reductive explanations, positivism, cumulative, and value-free knowledge, whereas the historical emphasizes specificity, historical conditions, man-made laws, descriptive explanation, inference, holism, and value-affected knowledge. An analysis of social psychology and sociology journals suggests that social psychology as a discipline is more naturalistic than historical in its orientation. Social psychology studies tend to be experimental, using students as subjects, small samples, and inferential statistics, and are more discipline-bound in referencing, whereas sociology studies are more descriptive, using structural categories of population as subjects, larger samples, and descriptive statistics, and are more related to other social sciences in terms of referencing. Implications of these results for social psychology are discussed.
Further Thoughts on Experiments in Industrial Democracy and Self-Management
Authors: Warner Malcolm
Published: August 2005

Participation is developing its own mythology, with Germany, or Yugoslavia, becoming the Mecca, depending on the model of industrial democracy chosen. Britain, some observers claim, has de facto workers' control via shop-steward power. Can empirical research produce hard evidence, and sift realitiesfrom myths? The paper argues that we need a contingency theory of industrial democracy with appropriate organizational designs for each national setting; and that design and policy formulation should be more closely related. Participation, too, should take place in the designing process of systems.
A Norwegian Strategy for Democratization of Industry
Authors: Qvale Thoralf Ulrik
Published: August 2005

The paper describes certain parts of "The Industrial Democracy Program, " (IDP), an action research project which was started in Norwegian industry in 1962 with the joint sponsorship of the Norwegian Trade Union Confederation and the Confederation of Employers. Although the emphasis is on the practical application of a strategy for social change, some background information and description of the content of this program is also given. Under the assumption that changes in the concrete work situation might be the key to a process whereby employees could improve their conditions for taking part in decisions, a series of experiments have been staged in companies representing different technologies. Some results from the program are discussed. One conclusion is that it is possible within existing companies and under the existing economic system to make changes in work organization, job design, etc., so that workers experience a more meaningful and rewarding situation, become more committed to their work, and take a more extensive part in decision-making. Under certain conditions, as demonstrated in a number of cases, this leads to developments through which employees' influence in the organization increases considerably beyond the immediate daily shop-floor matters. Some of the conditions for such development are discussed. As a central conclusion stands the assumption that lack of a general breakthrough for IDP ideas in Norway is due to the combined effect of company and trade union bureaucracy. The social-science-based program which aimed at conveying a strategy for direct participation and the debureaucratization of organizations thus has contributed to strengthening the bureaucracies that have been under attack. This is because some of the central ideas which have been strongly promoted through the project have been picked up by the establishment and made the subject for legislation and bureaucratic control.
Workers Experience of Participation: The Case of British Rail
Authors: Hilgendorf E. Linden , Irving Barrie L.
Published: August 2005

The paper reports the results of secondary analysis of data from a random sample survey of the attitudes of British Rail employees to worker participation in management decision-making. The aim of the secondary analysis was to determine empirically which elements of the concept of participation formed a coherent interconnected set. The analysis shows that the job experience and the opportunity to be involved in various kinds of decision making affect attitudes to participation. These environmental prerequisites are matched by person-centered characteristics such as the internalization of the concept of responsibility and a positive orientation toward the task of processing information. Paradoxically, it is established that management's critics come mostly from those who are positively disposed to participation and already have a limited experience of it. It is argued that job design and organizational structure have educational potential with respect to increased worker participation.
Social Perception of the Victim's Causal Role in Rape: An Exploratory Examination of Four Factors
Authors: Calhoun Lawrence G. , Selby James W. , Warring Louise J.
Published: August 2005

An exploratory examination of the social perception of a rape victim was conducted. Sex of respondent, victim's history of rape, number of rapes in the area, and victim acquaintance with the rapist were investigated by having subjects respond to a standardized videotape of an interview with a presumed victim. Results revealed two consistent findings: Males viewed the victim as contributing to the rape to a greater degree than females. The victim was seen as provoking the episode to a greater degree when she had been raped before than when she had not been raped before. Several interactions were also obtained.
Discontinuity in the Delivery of Public Service: Analyzing the Police Strike
Authors: Meyer John C.
Published: August 2005

Police strikes are studied as social events, albeit stressful, having "natural histories. " Using this perspective, four stages of the strike are identified: the decision to strike, the breakdown offormal and informal social control, the replacement of the striking police, and the resolution of the strike. A model of the police strike is developed that temporally orders the variables that may be operative during the various stages.
Job Characteristics and Internal Motivation: The Moderating Effect of Interpersonal and Individual Variables
Authors: Oldham Greg R.
Published: August 2005

This research examined: (a) the relationship between the internal work motivation of employees and their job performance; and (b) the moderating effect of individual growth need strength, co-worker satisfaction, and supervisory satisfaction on the relationships between several job characteristics and internal motivation. Results showed positive, significant relationships between the measure of internal motivation and employees' rated work quality, quantity, and effort. In addition, significant relationships between the job characteristics and internal motivation were obtained for employees who were desirous of growth satisfactions and who experienced high satisfaction with their supervisors and co-workers. Implications of the results for future research on job design were discussed.
Commensurate Characterization of Persons, Groups, and Organizations: Development of the Trait Ascription Questionnaire (TAQ)
Authors: Graham William K.
Published: August 2005

This report summarizes a series of studies pertaining to the description of individuals, groups, organizations, and larger social entities in common, mutually relevant, commensurate terms. Exploration of the ascriptive uses of over 20,000 trait-descriptive terms in contemporary American English led to the construction of a 120-item instrument suitable for investigations of individual-environment 'fit," studies of attribution processes, or for the measurement of self, group, organizational, or national images.
Relative Deprivation and Power: A Switched Replication Design Using Time Series Data of Strike Rates in American and British Coal Mining
Authors: Butler R. J.
Published: August 2005

Relative deprivation and power theories are investigated as competing explanations of industrial strike activity. Data for 26 years from the coal-mining industries of Great Britain and the United States are used in a modified quasiexperimental design using switched replications. The power hypothesis was supported and limitations of the study are discussed.
Limitations and Prospects of Planned Change in Multinational Corporations
Authors: Harari Ehud , Zeira Yoram
Published: August 2005

Planned organizational change efforts have rarely been initiated in multi-national corporations (MNCs). A survey we conducted among top man-agers of MNCs in various countries revealed why: managers are unfamiliar with the intricacies of the process, skeptical of the prospects for its success, and apprehensive of possible damaging effects. A major factor considered problematical is that the cultural heterogeneity of MNCs' work force is bound to lead to different perceptions of existing policies and patterns of organizational behavior and incongruent perceptions of the desired ones. We hypothesize four types of relationships between the existence of such differences or similarities and the prospects for successful planned change in MNCs. Subsequently, the analysis of three stages of a planned change effort in one MNC-diagnosis, analysis, and introduction of changes-sug-gests that differences in the perceptions of the existing situation may not preclude successful planned change under the following conditions: there are no significant differences in the perceptions of the desired situation; the change agent is familiar with both learning theories and the problems of the specific organization; the loyalty of employees of the various nationalities is assured; and supervisors, especially parent country nationals in key man-agerial positions, are induced to bridge the gap between their perception of the desired situation and their actual behavior. The reasons for this gap and suggestions for minimizing their effect are presented.
Urban Field Education: An Opportunity Structure for Enhancing Students' Personal and Social Efficacy
Authors: Beinstein Judith
Published: August 2005

Undergraduates' transitions to adult working roles can befacilitated by off-campus field education programs. An evaluation study of one such program, a work internship program in Philadelphia, indicated that student participants had experienced significant positive changes in feelings of per-sonal and social efficacy. Participation in the program had apparently in-creased their self-confidence and willingness to enter novel social situations as well as decreased their tendencies to be self-abasing.
The Effects of Motivational Orientation on Deindividuation
Authors: Hamby Russell R.
Published: August 2005

Three motivational orientations (individualistic, competitive, and coopera-tive) were replicated from Deutsch (1960), and their effects on deindividua-tion in small groups were compared to a control condition. Indices were replicated from other studies of deindividuation, and behavior in the groups was coded in order to analyze the factors of deindividuation. Three factors were extracted, and they were disorganization, cohesion, and egocentrism. Composite indices were constructed, which revealed that deindividuation occurred in the individualistic condition more strongly than in any other condition. Also, while typically the three factors also occurred most strongly in the individualistic condition, cohesion was highest in the cooper-ative group, and egocentrism did not differ between individualistic and competitive conditions. It was noted that, while deindividuation has been conceptualized as the loss of inner restraints, the disorganization factor included indices of both individual and group restraints. It was suggested that research investigate the relationship between internal and external forms of social control.
Boundary-Spanning Activity and Employee Reactions: An Empirical Study
Authors: Keller Robert T. , Szilagyi Andrew D. , Holland Winford E.
Published: August 2005

Boundary-spanning activity was studied in a large manufacturing company through a sample of 192 managers, engineers, and supervisors. Contrary to prior theory and research, this study found boundary-spanning activity unrelated to role conflict or ambiguity and positively related to job satisfac-tion for the total sample. Boundary-spanning activity was also positively related to a number of job characteristics for the total sample. Marked dif-ferences in boundary-spanning activity and its relationships with other variables, however, were found across occupational levels. While managers and engineers generally had boundary-spanning activity related to high levels of job satisfaction and job characteristics, first-level supervisors had boundary-spanning activity related to higher role conflict and lower job satisfaction with opportunities for promotion.
Crowd Size and Competitive Aspects of Aggression in Ice Hockey: An Archival Study
Authors: Russell Gordon W. , Drewry Bruce R.
Published: August 2005

The season's records of a Canadian ice hockey league provided the data for an investigation of aggression in relation to crowd size and competition. Crowd size was positively related to aggression in one season but not in the preceding year. Aggression increased over the three periods of game play but not across the season. League standing and the score existing during play were both significantly related to aggression. However, the aggression displayed by a team in a match was unrelated to their league standing vis a vis that of their opponents. The results are generally discussed within a frustration-aggression framework.
Feedback Processes in Sensitivity Training Groups
Authors: Lundgren David C. , Schaeffer Catherine
Published: August 2005

Characteristics of interpersonal feedback and responses to feedback, as a function of time (early versus later sessions), sender (trainers, male members, female members), and individual group, were studied in four NTL Bethel Tgroups. Over time, member feedback became more expressive and less focused upon here-and-now events, while trainer feedback became more nondirective. During early sessions, trainer feedback was less expressive, less focused upon self-other relationships, less here-and-now, more negative and confronting, more abstract, and more interpretive than member feedback, although these differences diminished by later sessions. No significant differences were apparent between male and female senders. Group differences outweighed their similarities. Acceptance versus rejection of member feedback was related only to the extent to which feedback was positive and supportive.
The Passive Small Group: Working Concepts
Authors: Gustafson James P.
Published: August 2005

Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin Medical School A small group that shows little substance, involvement, or prospects for change poses a common practical problem for the group leader or consultant, who must identify the relevant issues that need to be spoken to or interpreted. This paper presents three perspectives that should be considered by the group leader or consultant in the diagnosis of these situations: (1) intergroup difficulties; (2) patterns of shared magical thinking; and (3) negative (ego) judgments about the safety of the situation for individual contributions. The literature which separately describes each of these perspectives is reviewed. A case study, of a Small Study Group, in which all three kinds of issues arose at different points in its history, demonstrates the practical application of this integrated theory of passivity in the small group. Although many situations of passive, apparently uninvolved small groups have behind this surface a complexity of intergroup tensions, magical thinking, and concerns for ego defense, one of these issues is apt to dominate the orientation of the group members for a given period of time, and thus be most available for inquiry and interpretation. The implications of each mode of orientation of the passive group for management and interpretation by the group leader or consultant are also separately considered.
An Approach to the Analysis of Faculty-Student Interactions in Small Groups
Authors: Hauser Stuart T. , Shapiro Roger L.
Published: August 2005

The adolescent's experience in groups and institutions is determined in important ways by the nature of the authority in these settings. To study adolescent relationships with those in authority positions we have used methods of participant observation in small groups. In two different settings we served as consultants for regularly meeting groups of adolescents and adults. On an adolescent psychiatric ward, these groups included patients, the ward administrator, and the head nurse. In a comparison setting from a private day school the groups comprised students, a school administrator, and a teacher. In this paper we report findings from the school study, where one of us (STH) met as a consultant with three groups over a total of 1/2 years. The observations we discuss primarily concern the various coping strategies used by the groups'faculty members. Attempts to abandon school role behaviors were common among the faculty members of the groups. Our observations suggest that these repeated efforts to either abandon or blur their roles represented modes of coping with a highly stressful situation. Examples of these stresses and the coping strategies are detailed within the paper, together with illustration of how the consultant unwittingly participated in such role shifts.
The Pseudomutual Small Group or Institution
Authors: Gustafson James P.
Published: August 2005

A mode for defense of the status quo in a small group or institution is described in this paper: namely, the blurring of the awareness of critical boundaries, including those boundaries of external relations with other groups, internal disagreement, language distinctions, the role of the leader, and the individuality of group members. The systematic use of these defenses, previously described by Wynne, Ryckoff, Day, and Hirsch (1958) in relation to family dynamics and summarized by the term "pseudomutuality, " is described here in relation to public small groups and institutions. The findings of Wynne, et al., Laing and Cooper (1964), Laing (1967), and Orwell (1946), concerning different aspects of pseudomutuality, are reviewed. A case study of systematic use of the entire mode of pseudomutuality from an Intergroup Exercise of a Group Relations Conference is presented. Effective consultation to small groups or institutions which utilize these defenses must proceed by clarifying the critical boundaries that are being actively obscured. This clarification is more likely to be sought by a consultant who is aware of the systematic possibilities of this mode of defense and thus knows what to look for. The difficulties of the group member and the consultant are similar in that each tends either to become lost and confused or to assert exaggerated individualistic behavior in order to experience the outlines of the self that are lost in the blur of pseudomutuality.
Compliance with Legal and Bureaucratic Rules: The Case of Self-Employed Taxpayers in Israel
Authors: Domstein Miriam
Published: August 2005

A random sample of about 2,500 self-employed taxpayers was chosen to investigate the conformity of taxpayers to income tax regulations. The indices of conformity are based on data derived from the taxpayers' files in the Income Tax Division. Two sets of hypotheses were formulated and tested, based on the proposition that a person's compliance with norms is a function of his basic orientations toward these norms on the one hand, and of the control system related to norm compliance on the other hand. In general, the findings support the basic proposition and the specific hypotheses derived from it. They also indicate that the basic orientation tends to be a major determinant of compliance in regard to the norms which determine the general terms of contact of the public with the organization, while the impact of the control structure is more complex and pervasive.
Social Organization and Spatial Organization
Authors: Lecuyer R.
Published: August 2005

In afirst experiment groups offivesubjects solved problems while seated at either a circular or a rectangular table. The leader's position at the end of the rectangular table enhanced his ability to direct the group. Leaders of the circular table did not benefit from a privileged position and were forced to ease group tension arising from competing solutions put forth by group members. In the second study, the experimenter either actively intervened in afour-member discussion or refrained. The groups all discussed at a circular table before moving to a rectangular table in a different room. Before-after comparisons of the seats chosen were made. Choice of seats at the rectangular table reflected the social relations that developed in the first part of the experiment.
Overtime, False Returns, and Restrictive Practices: The Perception of an Industrial Pay System
Authors: Sykes A. J. M.
Published: August 2005

This study describes an industrial pay system established in the 1930s, which by 1956-the date of the study-had long been made obsolete by subsequent inflation and pay increases. It was, nevertheless, maintained in operation by the use of certain "patching" devices: unnecessary overtime, false returns, and restrictive practices. These were successful because, as analysis of the labor turnover showed, the men were interested only in the amount they earned, and not in their working conditions or in the time taken to earn it. The maintenance of the obsolete pay system by the use of such devices was not in the interests of either the management or the men but, for different reasons, they believed it to be. A common factor behind these beliefs was the failure of the management, the shop stewards, and the older men, at least, to perceive the extent and permanence of the changes which had taken place since the 1930s. This led to a common belief that the changes were merely temporary and that conditions would eventually revert to what they still considered as "normal. " The failure to perceive and accept the needfor change appeared to be related to the age and early experience of the management, the shop stewards, and many of the workers.
The Effects of Social Power and Preexisting Attitudes on Public and Private Responses to an Induced Attitude
Authors: Peay Marilyn Y.
Published: August 2005

A set ofpredictions was developed in which the occurrence of private acceptance, given that public compliance has been obtained, is viewed as a function of both the type of socialpower used by the influencing agent, and the magnitude of preexisting opposing attitudes within the individual being influenced. The attitude of 116 introductory psychology students toward the course requirement that they serve as subjects in psychology experiments was used to test the main predictions. Although these predictions were not supported by the data, further analysis uncovered the following results concerning the occurrence of private acceptance: (a) those subjects with a greater discrepancy between preexisting opposing attitude and induced attitude showed less private acceptance than those with less discrepancy, and (b) females showed more private acceptance when the influencing agent used reward power rather than referent power, while males showed more private acceptance when the agent used referent power rather than reward power.
Guidelines for Overcoming Empirically Identified Evaluation Problems of Organizational Development Change Agents
Authors: Armenakis Achilles A. , Feild Hubert S. , Holley William H.
Published: August 2005

Several authors have written about the problems of conducting organizational development (OD) evaluations, but two inadequacies still remain. First, many of these problems are quite likely indigenous to the situations experienced by the writer in his evaluations, and they may not be widely applicable or generalizable to a large number of practitioners. Thus, one may be concerned as to whether these are the problems that OD practitioners can expect to experience in their OD evaluations. The second inadequacy is that the problems reportedly experienced by OD practitioners are rarely found in the literature on OD evaluations. In fact, only one or two problems are generally discussed, and these problems have been experienced by the researcher in a specific evaluation. Due to these inadequacies, a survey questionnaire, the OD Survey Questionnaire, was developed to ascertain the evaluative problems of OD practitioners. With the members of the OD Network serving as the survey population, questionnaires were mailed to 269 members. We classified 101 of the returned questionnaires from change agents as usable responses because the respondents indicated that they had previously conducted OD efforts. A total of 107 evaluative problems were identified and subsequently clustered into three problem categories, i.e., methodological, administrative, and miscellaneous problems. Subproblems of each category are discussed and some guidance for dealing with each problem is offered for those practitioners concerned with OD evaluation.
Self-Esteem and Group Performance as Determinants of Egocentric Perceptions in Cooperative Groups
Authors: Schlenker Barry R. , Soraci Salvatore , McCarthy Bernard
Published: August 2005

Forty-eight male subjects who had previously completed Berger's selfacceptance (self-esteem) scale worked on problem-solving tasks in four person groups. After completion of the tasks, bogus feedback was provided which indicated that the group as a whole had done very well, very poorly, or average. No feedback was provided about the quality of individual performances. As predicted, perceptions of personal responsibility for the group's performance were found to be directly related to the quality of the bogus feedback; subjects in the success conditions felt more responsible than did subjects in the failure conditions, with the average feedback conditions falling intermediate. Contrary to predictions, self-esteem was not related to perceptions of personal or environmental responsibility for the group's performance. However, an interaction was obtained between selfesteem and group performance feedback on how much subjects felt that their prior behaviors were influenced by the other group members. High self-esteem subjects felt that their solutions to the problems were not influenced by the other group members under success conditions, but that their solutions were influenced by the other group members under failure conditions. Thus, high self-esteem subjects managed to shift relative credit for a group success to themselves and relative blame for failure away from themselves. Low self-esteem subjects felt equally influenced in all conditions. The results extend the phenomenon of egocentric perception to face-to-face group situations, and several differences between the present results and results obtained in noninteracting group situations were noted.
Distributive Justice: Typology and Propositions
Authors: Tornblom Kjell Y.
Published: August 2005

Previous formulations of injustice have left undiscovered the majority of the possible types of justice and injustice and have tended to conceal many of the structural features of the few types that have been recognized. It is here proposed that a specification of the structural properties of injustice types is crucial to making accurate predictions of people's reactions in such situations. By clearly specifying the various comparisons between two particular individuals, and between them and people associated with given reference positions, with respect to their inputs and outcomes, a typology of just and injust situations is constructed. A set of propositions is advanced with regard to the order of the various types of injustice in terms of the magnitudes ofjustice motivation that a person is likely to experience in such situations. These propositions prompt the questioning of two of J. S. Adams' conjectures with regard to magnitudes of injustice. They also lead to the conclusion that any "main type" or "subtype" of injustice may vary in its magnitude of injustice, as determined by the structure of the particular "minor types" involved. This may, in some instances necessitate modifications in the predicted order between the main types and subtypes of injustice. Some methodological refinements are finally proposed with respect to the design and interpretation of research on injustice.
Dissemination of Information from Centralized Bureaucracies to Local Schools: The Role of the Linking Agent
Authors: Louis Karen Seashore
Published: August 2005

This paper examines the role of the educational linking agent in facilitating the dissemination and use of research information at the local school level. Four critical variables are examined: the amount of initiative used to reach the target group, the intensity of the relationship between the field agent and the client, the degree of expertise exhibited by the agent in carrying out the linking role, and the scope of the agent's clientele. Each is found to have a significant impact on the effectiveness of the linkage. A model is developed which summarizes the relationship between the variables discussed in the data.
The Stratification of Work and Organizational Design
Authors: Rowbottom Ralph , Billis David
Published: August 2005

To try to deepen an understanding of what hierarchies of management levels are about, a descriptive theory is offered of the existence of a natural stratification of the work to be done in organizations. It is based on action-research over a number of years in Social Services Departments in England and Wales. It appears that the first five successive organizational levels are concerned with what may briefly be categorized as: prescribed output work, situational response work, systematic service provision work, comprehensive service provision work, and comprehensive field coverage work. Examples are quoted of how this conceptual framework has been used in practice (a) to clarify and simplify existing managerial structures, and (b) to help design total organization according to the quality of response to the environment which is required.
Personal and Situational Determinants of Attribution of Responsibility for an Accident
Authors: Shaw Jerry I. , McMartin James A.
Published: August 2005

An experiment was conducted to examine the hypothesis that self-protective attribution of responsibility for accidents is a function of personal relevance, situational relevance, and severity of the accident's consequences. As predicted, high personal and high situational relevance between the accident perpetrator and the subject-observers lessened their attributions of responsibility for a severe accident relative to a mild one, whereas low personal and high situational relevance increased their assignment of responsibility for a severe accident. Furthermore, the variability of subjects' responsibility attributions was significantly greater when both relevance cues were present than when they were absent. These findings were taken as evidence for two self-protective attribution tendencies: (1) "blame-avoid-ance," in which the observer is motivated to eschew blame should he become involved in a severe accident, and (2) "harm-avoidance, " in which the observer is motivated to preclude a severe accident from happening to himself. Situational relevance appeared to be a necessary condition for the arousal of self-protective attribution in that neither blame-nor harm-avoidance occurred under low situational relevance.
Individual Characteristics as Sources of Perceived Uncertainty Variability
Authors: Downey H. Kirk , Hellriegel Don , Slocum John W.
Published: August 2005

Most contingency theorists have focused on perceived environmental characteristics while ignoring the possible impact of individual differences among subjects. The view that an organization is for the most part what people perceive it to be suggests the need to identify the potential role of individual differences in the perceptions of organizational properties. Four sources of variability in the perception of uncertainty were suggested and measured with a sample of 5i corporate division managers. Cognitive process variables were more consistently related to a manager's perceived uncertainty than were perceived environmental variables.
The Internalization of the Female Stereotype by College Women
Authors: Athanassiades John C.
Published: August 2005

It has often been assumed that through the process of socialization sex stereotypes are internalized, becoming, so to speak, second nature. This investigation examines the self-concepts, public selves, and perceptions of the female stereotype of a sample of college women and finds significant differences between the self-concepts of individuals and their public selves and their perception of the female stereotype, which suggest that the female stereotype is not internalized but rather acts as an external constraint in the behavior of such females.