bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
How Understanding the Endocrine System Can Benefit Mental Health Clinicians
Authors: Marilyn Weaver Lewis , Liyun Wu , Zachary Allan Hagen
Published: January 2023

STEM-H for Mental Health Clinicians, Chapter 3, presents the endocrine system and its effect on behavior in regard to STEM-H (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics as applied to health). The structure and function of each endocrine gland is described in detail. Malfunction of the growth hormone that results in acromegaly, or giantism, is one of the signature illnesses discussed while the signature injury is blunt force trauma. The technology of apparatuses that treat diabetes is examined in depth, as well as biomedical engineering associated with insulin treatment. The incidence and prevalence of pancreatic cancer and its correlation with age and ethnicity are highlighted when focusing on mathematics associated with epidemiology. Finally, contingency management–prize reinforcement (CM-PR) therapy is introduced as a clinical intervention for children who are struggling with managing their diabetes.
How Understanding the Circulatory System Can Benefit Mental Health Clinicians
Authors: Marilyn Weaver Lewis , Liyun Wu , Zachary Allan Hagen
Published: January 2023

STEM-H for Mental Health Clinicians, Chapter 6, covers the circulatory system and focuses on its structure and function. Special attention is given to the contribution of smoking to heart disease and the technologies associated with surgical treatments for arrhythmias, a condition whereby the heartbeats become disorganized. Engineering is introduced by explaining medications that treat cardiac problems. A discussion of mathematics related to the field of epidemiology includes the incidence and prevalence of heart disease and the concept of social determinants of health. Finally, the section on clinical application to health covers smoking cessation using nicotine replacement therapies and nonmedical interventions, as well as motivation to change using the transtheoretical stages of change.
“Four More Years”
Authors: Eisenberg Carolyn Woods
Published: January 2023

This chapter tackles the return of Richard Nixon from his successful Moscow summit and the resulting boost to his reelection prospects. While enjoying an upsurge in public approval, the Watergate burglary occurs. Haldeman, John Ehrlichman, and others make it clear to Nixon that the arrests are a potential threat to his presidency. The Watergate burglars are a “plumbers” unit, which has conducted other illegal activities including a break-in of Daniel Ellsberg’s psychiatrist’s office. Former Attorney General John Mitchell and White House counsel John Dean advise the president to shut down the FBI investigation. The chapter discusses the ongoing fighting in South Vietnam and the historic photo of Kim Phuc, a 10-year-old who has been napalmed by a South Vietnamese plane. While the Linebacker Operation prevents a complete communist takeover of the South, the North Vietnamese make substantial territorial gains. Following the Moscow summit, Russian president Podgorny encourages Hanoi to make a compromise. Chinese officials also urge the North Vietnamese to temporarily accept President Thieu as Saigon’s leader pending new elections there. Riding a wave of public approval for his diplomacy, Nixon expects to defeat Democratic nominee George McGovern. This chapter describes the protest of Ron Kovic, Bobby Muller, and other Vietnam veterans at the Republican National Convention.
“You’re Three for Three, Mr. President!”
Authors: Eisenberg Carolyn Woods
Published: January 2023

This chapter focuses on the reelection of Richard Nixon and its impact on the war. Despite the president’s victory, more antiwar candidates win congressional elections, increasing the likelihood that congressional funding for the war will soon be cut off. Although McGovern’s candidacy had failed, his campaign had boosted the antiwar forces in Washington. In this chapter, Kissinger finally gets Hanoi to agree that General Thieu can remain in power, at least briefly. But the Saigon government finds the agreement inadequate, with the result that the deal he has negotiated begins to unravel. Kissinger and Haig try to get a more accommodating attitude in Saigon, which does not materialize. A crucial point for Saigon’s leader is the presence of thousands of North Vietnamese troops in the South. General Haig is sympathetic to President Thieu’s outlook and begins to quietly undermine Kissinger. While the State Department is kept in the dark about the negotiations, more complete information is given to the Russians, whose help is sought. Le Duc Tho continues negotiating with Kissinger but indicates that because of disagreements in the Politburo, he needs to return to Hanoi for consultation. Nixon and Kissinger inaccurately claim that Hanoi has broken off negotiations and make this a reason to initiate massive bombing in the North (Christmas bombings). In Laos and Cambodia, the military situation deteriorates.
Epilogue
Authors: Eisenberg Carolyn Woods
Published: January 2023

This concluding chapter reflects on the aftermath of the Vietnam War. When taking part in a panel at the Kennedy Library in 2006, Kissinger received some hostile questions from the audience. In response he claimed the Vietnam War had been needlessly lost because of domestic dissent and divisions in the United States. However, the author argues that while domestic dissent played a role, the war was lost because of other long-standing factors: the unpopularity and corruption of the Saigon government, the poor morale of the South Vietnamese military, and the greater dedication of the enemy. The chapter also recognizes the Paris Agreement as merely a cover-up for the United States to allow it to exit the conflict and safely bring its people home. While Kissinger maintains that morality should never have entered the debate, the author claims that the exclusion of moral concerns led the Nixon administration to make unwise choices. Unfortunately, the self-serving assumption that global freedom and security depends on US military supremacy has persisted in the decades since the Vietnam War.
Entering Dimensions in Testimony
Authors: Boswell Matthew , Rowland Antony
Published: January 2023

The Dimensions in Testimony project, led by the USC Shoah Foundation, involves 360-degree filming of Holocaust survivors in a light stage as they answer in the region of one thousand questions over the course of a week. The interviews create a database of answers that can be accessed through a “virtual conversation” in which a museum visitor interacts with a two- or three-dimensional display of the survivor interview. This chapter reflects on Dimensions in Testimony pilots held at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM) in Washington in 2016 and the Museum of Jewish Heritage in New York in 2018, then contextualizes the project by exploring how the public understanding of holographic technology has been culturally constructed through Hollywood films. We then explore how interactive testimony’s distinctive form of “truthfulness” is shaped through the active participation of museum visitors, arguing that performative encounters with the Holocaust have the potential to provide a charged, embodied experience of historical disappearance and loss.
Witness in the Light Stage
Authors: Boswell Matthew , Rowland Antony
Published: January 2023

This chapter centers on a Dimensions in Testimony interview with the Holocaust survivor Eva Schloss, the posthumous stepsister of Anne Frank. We begin by exploring the dynamics of the extended question-and-answer format, before discussing three different written accounts that Schloss gave of her Holocaust experiences at different times in her life. We discuss the influence of Schloss’s book for young adults, The Promise (2006), while noting that the project’s aim of making Holocaust testimony available to future generations of young people means that Schloss censors out some of the most disturbing, traumatic, and taboo aspects of her childhood Holocaust experiences, including incidents of sexual abuse. If certain aspects of the Dimensions in Testimony methodology tend to keep the interviews free from what Lawrence Langer terms “anguished memory,” we note that their extended duration equally means that the orderliness of what Charlotte Delbo calls “common memory” is often fractured by moments of raw emotion. Finally, this chapter argues that the USC Shoah Foundation’s institutional mission means that survivors such as Schloss are incited to extract uplifting messages from their life histories. In its humanism and optimism, Dimensions in Testimony reflects the ongoing legacy of a film such as Schindler’s List. Yet we close by asking whether the occlusion of some of the most traumatic physical and psychological experiences risks making the spaces of virtual Holocaust memory overly sanitized, arguing that future projects must creatively acknowledge the silent accounts of the victims whom Primo Levi termed “the drowned.”
Unintended Consequences or Desired Outcome?
Authors: Lee Sabine
Published: January 2023

While population concerns have played a significant role in political and military policymaking in several twentieth-century conflicts, this chapter examines the circumstances in which state and nonstate actors consider the inclusion of female civilians associated with the enemy as “bearers” of ethnic or national rebirth. Examining the Lebensborn e.V. during World War II, Serb forces during the Yugoslav Wars, and the Lord’s Resistance Army during the Ugandan Civil War, the author argues that the moral conditioning of the soldiers entailed the development of an ethnic conscience, a race-ethical morality that defined the elimination of external threats to the new order as morally unobjectionable, while at the same time creating a feeling of moral obligation to make their own behaviors (including that of procreation through rape) subject to the norms of ethnic or national rebirth—figuratively and literally. The author argues that the combination of absolute virtues demanding unconditional obedience on the one hand, and ideologically conditioned race-consciousness on the other hand, led to the creation of an eugenic ethics that demanded compliance from all soldiers/fighters and their willing or unwilling partners to take part in the creation of the greater, better, the true new order.
Kinship and Belonging Among Children Born of War in Northern Uganda
Authors: Atim Teddy , Ogwal Grace Achan , Bunting Anne
Published: January 2023

This chapter explores the experiences and expressions of individual identity and belonging of children born of war in the postconflict period in northern Uganda. Through in-depth interviews, the authors find that these children face social stigma and lack access to vital socioeconomic resources important for coping in the aftermath of war. They find that these children were often rejected by their families, had no land or stable residence, and struggled to meet their daily survival needs. These challenges heightened their vulnerability and compounded their feeling of lack of belonging and kinship in the postconflict period. Importantly, local customs and norms that regulate behaviors and legitimize kinship relationships reinforced the exclusion of children. However, some children were able to maintain a sense of purpose, balance, and belonging outside traditional cultural kin ties due to trusted and supportive relations, peer support, schooling, work, concealing and protecting their war identity, and their belief in the supernatural or God. The authors discuss how programs and policies should pay attention to the different ways that children and adolescents affected by war situate themselves and are situated in the postconflict period, which may often fall outside dominant social frameworks.
Missing Fathers
Authors: Denov Myriam , Van Vliet Anaïs Cadieux , Lakor Atim Angela
Published: January 2023

Despite growing research and interest in children born of war, their complex realities, and the experiences of their mothers, few studies have examined conceptions of fatherhood—particularly children’s perspectives of their biological fathers. This chapter breaks new ground by drawing upon research of children born in LRA captivity to explore their perspectives of their fathers and being fathered by members of the LRA. The authors’ research analyzes why these youths see their fathers as loving, nurturing, and powerful. They explain that fathers had reportedly provided their children with basic necessities, while protecting them from a variety of harms. The children’s portrayals of their fathers as loving and nurturing is in stark contrast the common depictions of LRA commanders in existing literature and scholarship where they are depicted as ruthless and violent perpetrators. Consequently, there is a need to challenge and transcend the single story of men in the LRA. The authors reveal a more nuanced, complex story of men who were simultaneously perpetrators, victims, fathers, caregivers, and commanders. The challenges that children and youth reported in relation to their origins and identity points toward a pressing need to consider their realities postconflict as separate from the plight of their mothers, whose views on their husbands will invariably differ from their children’s perspectives.
Triptych
Authors: Conley Bridget
Published: January 2023

This chapter examines photographs of children born of wartime rape from World War II, the 1994 Rwandan genocide, and war in Bosnia-Herzegovina (1992–1995) to explore what can be seen, as well as for whom and to whom the photographs speak. The author distinguishes how the photographs ask the public to define themselves: with a humanitarian gaze, a laudatory embrace of a state’s priority over birthing policies, or as a challenge to join a conversation led by communities directly impacted by violence. All three sets of photographs contain ambiguous glimpses of people outside this single frame of children born of rape. The children become adults, dreaming of their own open futures. The author argues that embedded within the photographs is the unstated desire that the reason for the photography itself could fade from view. The frame is meaningful only if it eventually loses its capacity to define the lives presented.
Contested Identities
Authors: Parra Tatiana Sanchez
Published: January 2023

This chapter analyzes how, in San Miguel, Colombia, narratives about people born as a result of paramilitary sexual violence have emerged in the tensions between local frameworks for understanding gender and reproduction, and frameworks for understanding violence against women. Within the system of local biologies that grants social meaning to the bodies of people born of paramilitary sexual violence in San Miguel, the indication that their identity was defined by the historic, political, and cultural presence of their fathers in the community—represented in the label of paraquitos—has shifted to reveal that meaning, in this case, is transmitted by both mother and father. In this system of meaning, what has been transmitted from fathers—paramilitaries from other parts of the country—and mothers—local women—to shape these people’s identity unveils gendered politics of reproduction that seek to exert control over women’s identities and bodies through the use of weapons and fear. The symbolic weight of the absence of the father converges with the positionality of the mother within the patriarchal social order of the political community to produce—through sexual reproduction—a marginal and ahistorical subject. The author illustrates how that these children and young women and men in San Miguel may be born of war, yet it is the combination of that violence with the violence of patriarchy and capital in their concrete rural and ethnic context that has shaped their identity, positionality, and possibilities.
The Complexity of Sexual Violence, Birthing, and Status After the Fall of the Caliphate
Authors: Ní Aoláin Fionnuala D.
Published: January 2023

This chapter addresses the complexity of sexual violence and coercion, rape, pregnancy, and birth in the territories formerly held (and some still coercively controlled) by Islamic State. The monolithic realities of stigma and long-term rights denial are particularly acute for children born through forced pregnancies in territories captured by the Islamic State. These children are outcast, ostracized, and unwanted by their countries of nationality, and defined almost exclusively by the parentage of their absent or dead fathers. As global regulatory mechanisms, Security Council Resolutions, and state approbation for fighters and their associated families have universally shown, there is adverse judgment in abundance and little willingness by many states, particularly Western states, to disaggregate the experience of women, girls and their children and to recognize the complexity of birthing, violence, and gendered realities under the Caliphate. There is little indication that mothers and their children will be treated as victims and there is a dearth of compassion for both.
“Where Do You Send the Pain?”
Authors: Takševa Tatjana
Published: January 2023

By focusing on recently collected narratives of three children born of war, this chapter explores the ways in which these young adults challenge conceptions of themselves as victims and as children of the enemy. The author highlights how their narratives and perspectives challenge monolithic and homogenous conceptualizations of children of war as victims in three important ways. First, their narratives demonstrate the crucial importance of disclosure regarding their origins. This disclosure has been instrumental in providing them with the needed knowledge-base for their subsequent healthy and positive psychosocial development. Second, the three young people have shown extraordinary levels of resilience, agency, and positive determination in dealing with their origins. A crucial factor contributing to this outlook is the consistent presence of close familial or professional support networks. Third, through these young adults’ accurate and expansive understanding of the nature of their own identity within the context of contemporary Bosnian society and transhistorical examples, they actively critique and deconstruct the prevalent ethno-nationalist political discourses in present-day Bosnia. Their own ethnically hybrid identities and their astute, civically minded critique of ethno-nationalism reveal their potential to contribute meaningfully to emerging peacebuilding initiatives across Bosnia, and beyond its borders.
The Role of Spirituality in the Acceptance of Children Born of Conflict-Related Sexual Violence
Authors: Mazurana Dyan
Published: January 2023

This chapter draws upon fieldwork with young women after the civil war in Mozambique and research with the Yazidi women and girls returning from Islamic State captivity and enslavement to explore how spirituality can positively or negatively affect the acceptance by the larger community of children born of war related sexual violence. In the case of the Tsonga people in Mozambique, achieving harmony after the armed conflict meant that all the young people who had suffered, including children born of sexual violence during the war, had to be brought back into the fold of the community through naming and rituals. Alternatively, Yazidi religious leaders modified birth rituals. They used these modified rituals to try and reweave the fabric of people’s lives and the wider Yazidi community itself in the face of the damage done by the Islamic State’s horrific practices. The rebaptizing ceremonies allow the Yazidi women and girls to return to their original faith and again become a Yazidi. However, the children born from the rape by the Islamic State are not allowed to rebaptize, which has led to their abandonment. The author highlights the need to give due consideration to the role of spirituality and local rituals in protecting children, building resilience, and laying the groundwork for reconciliation.
Moving Beyond Rwanda’s “Children of Bad Memory”
Authors: Anumol Dipali , Munderere Samuel
Published: January 2023

The work of Survivor’s Fund (SURF) and Foundation Rwanda adds an essential layer to the literature on conflict-related sexual violence by exploring the role of support groups for mothers and children. While both organizations initially focused on access to resources and services, the addition of psychological support to mothers and their children born of rape is perhaps their most significant contribution to postconflict Rwanda. The provision of safe spaces and counseling for mothers allows them to come to terms with the impact of their trauma—not only on themselves but on their relationships with their children. This chapter highlights that support groups for mothers gave them a safe space to talk about their experiences. Being able to do so with others who had similar experiences gave them courage to disclose the circumstances of their pregnancies to their children. Additionally, the support groups for children provide them the opportunity to discuss family, identity, and coping strategies. Disclosure can create disruption, and support groups seem to be a meaningful avenue to address the related emotions and reduce intergenerational trauma.
Local Inspiration, Global Implementation
Authors: Ladisch Virginie , Mutere Jaqueline
Published: January 2023

This chapter argues that children born of conflict-related sexual violence deserve and need specific attention. While their fate is inextricably linked to that of their mother, they also face their own distinct challenges that require a targeted response. The temporal dimension of the harms they suffer is unique both in terms of their experience and the response required. To be effective, international advocacy efforts must take a long-term view, consider local realities, and open spaces for genuine consultations with victims and survivors. This chapter explores the local level in Kenya, and the national and international levels. The authors argue that children born of conflict-related sexual violence are likely to continue facing rights violations, without recognition, targeted intervention, and support. It is paramount that these survivors are recognized as victims in ways that do not trap them in that identity. The authors argue that the circumstances of their birth do not and should not define them or who they will be in the future. At the local, national, and international level, there is a need to affirm the rights of these survivors and allow them to take their place as local, national, and international citizens.
Technologies of Control
Authors: Ford Matthew , Hoskins Andrew
Published: January 2023

Chapter 6 shows how control and influence work in the new war ecology. We consider the intersection of information infrastructures and the changing utility of military power. These infrastructures shape the capacity to influence decision-making both for the armed forces and for those individuals having to decide what networks to connect to even as they try to shape online narratives. This chapter draws together how civilian information infrastructures and social media platforms challenge existing state power and undermine the role of the expert in contemporary social discourse. This reinforces distrust in those professional classes that up until the twenty-first century were considered essential for running the modern state. This produces a new epistemological framework in which Silicon Valley technologists have the power to set all against all.
Conclusion
Authors: Ford Matthew , Hoskins Andrew
Published: January 2023

Our final chapter summarizes and draws together our findings to encourage further engagement with the approach we set out in Radical War. In particular, our goal is to advance current understandings of war beyond narrow concerns with AI, machine learning, and cyber-attacks. We do this by stimulating greater interdisciplinary engagement between those working in the fields of War Studies and those thinking about Media Studies. We hope all of this will help us to understand how we can come to know war under contemporary conditions.
Introduction
Authors: Kozhanov Nikolay
Published: January 2023

This volume offers a comprehensive view of the drivers of Russian diplomacy and how their interplay shapes Russia's approaches to the Middle East. These studies demonstrate that, while it plays an important role in shaping Moscow's approaches to the region, Russia's confrontation with the West should not be considered the only factor determining the Kremlin's policy in the Gulf. This volume demonstrates that Russia's domestic situation and the heritage of past experiences dealing with the region are no less important. Many underestimate the influence of the struggle for political power within Russia, and ignore the role of the Cold War experience, in determining Moscow's behavior in the Middle East. Many also simplify the role of Russian energy corporations as creating sources for conflict and cooperation between Moscow and Middle Eastern powers. While some authors present Russian oil and gas resources as just another lever through which Moscow exercises its influence in the region, this volume demonstrates that the Russian economy's heavy dependence on the export of hydrocarbons also shapes its policy.
Russia and Iran
Authors: Tazmini Ghoncheh
Published: January 2023

This study argues for the need to consider the interplay of cultural-ideational dynamics and strategic preferences in post-Soviet Russia and post-1979 Iran. It has shifted attention to the role of ideas, perceptions, culture, and identity in defining the parameters of Russian–Iranian relations. While these two states may clash on issues relating to national interest, both countries share a similar worldview, which is defined by some lasting features, including geographic realities, civilizational peculiarities, historical experiences, normative values, and cultural orientations. As noted in this study, the theoretical inclination of most research is grounded in realism and realpolitik, with its emphasis on national interest and great-power politics, with- out factoring in the role of ideas and identities, and how they manifest in foreign policy choices. A deeper analysis of the aforementioned "foundational level" explains why, despite colliding geostrategic and realpolitik interests, Russian and Iranian relations are enduring.
The Drivers of Russia-GCC Relations
Authors: Kozhanov Nikolay
Published: January 2023

Since 2015, Russian relations with the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) have demonstrated a strong tendency for positive development. After the serious cooling down of GCC relations with Moscow in 2012-14--caused by the Gulf monarchies' negative reaction to Russia's support of the Assad regime--this rapprochement was determined by a complex mixture of factors, including the growing intensity of Moscow's presence in the region; changing dynamics of US relations with Russia, the GCC, and the Middle Eastern powers; evolution of energy markets; existing tensions between Middle Eastern countries; and the transformation of GCC foreign policy visions. This chapter examines the influence these factors have on the current development of Russia's relations with the GCC, and assesses the prospects for dialogue between the GCC states and Moscow, including the ability of each side to bring relations to a new qualitative level.
Russia and the Yemeni Civil War
Authors: Ramani Samuel
Published: January 2023

This chapter examines the motivations for and manifestations of Russia's strategic nonalignment policy in Yemen. As Russia possesses few material interests in Yemen and is not compelled to support any particular faction, Moscow has used its distinct approach to the Yemeni civil war as a lever to strengthen its regional influence. The inextricable links between Russia's Yemen policy and its broader geopolitical aspirations undergird this study, as these connections have received comparatively little attention in extant literature on Russian policy towards the Middle East. Subsequently, this chapter assesses the implications of Russia's approach to Yemen and its relationships with Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). After laying out the regional-level impact of Russia's strategic nonalignment policy in Yemen, the chapter examines Russia's vision for an inclusive peace settlement in Yemen, which includes a policy of constructive engagement with the Houthis. The study concludes with an overall evaluation of Russia's policy of strategic nonalignment in Yemen and its effectiveness in advancing Moscow's geopolitical interests.
Measuring Health and the “Effectiveness” of Health Care
Authors: Hausman Daniel M.
Published: January 2023

This chapter lays the groundwork for the discussion later in the book regarding how cost-effectiveness information can be used to guide the allocation of health resources. It aims to (1) provide a rationale for health care policy that focuses mainly on improving health, (2) explain what a health improvement is and how health improvements can be measured, and (3) raise questions about the accuracy and precision of measurements of health improvements. Quantifying the cost-effectiveness of health care policies demands that the health improvements resulting from those policies be measured. It is consequently critical to comprehending and appraising allocation by cost-effectiveness that one grasp how health improvements are conceptualized and measured. This chapter is devoted to explaining how health improvements are conceptualized and measured.
Cost-Effectiveness, Well-Being, and Freedom
Authors: Hausman Daniel M.
Published: January 2023

One aim of health policy analysis is to identify the most “cost-effective” treatments—that is, the treatments with the smallest cost to effectiveness ratio. This chapter explains what allocation via cost-effectiveness involves in theory and, to some extent, in practice. It explains why something like cost-effectiveness is needed to allocate health care in a way that efficiently promotes health, and it also explains how comparing the incremental cost-effectiveness of a health care intervention to a threshold value implements allocation via cost-effectiveness. It offers a preliminary assessment of allocating health care by incremental cost-effectiveness by considering how successfully using this method to guide the allocation of health care resources promotes the fundamental values of making people better off and expanding their opportunities. Questions about the justice and fairness of c-e allocation will wait until Chapter 3.
Theories of Fair Distribution
Authors: Hausman Daniel M.
Published: January 2023

This chapter develops the main contemporary theories concerned with the fair distribution of both divisible and indivisible goods. It begins by discussing vague generalizations about fairness, which guide the formulation and assessment of more specific theories. Next, it characterizes problems of fair division, a simple example of which is presented. It also discusses how cooperative game theory bears on questions of fair distribution. It presents John Broome’s influential account of how to allocate divisible goods fairly among the claimants as well as Broome’s view of the fair distribution of indivisible goods. The chapter turns to problems for Broome’s theory, and it considers what fairness requires when claims to goods differ both quantitatively and in strength, and it defends a fragment of a theory of fairness. The chapter ends with a discussion of two other philosophical theories of fairness, which are due to Larry Temkin and Matthew Adler.
What Is a Fair Allocation of Health Care?
Authors: Hausman Daniel M.
Published: January 2023

This chapter considers how to apply accounts of fair distribution to the assessment of the distribution of health care. The objective is a theory of fair health care allocation that can be used to evaluate the criticisms of cost-effective allocation. This chapter first examines whether individuals have claims to health care and what determines their strength. It then develops criticisms of the view that the fair distribution of health care involves proportional satisfaction of claims to health care. It argues for a reinterpretation of the problem from which distributions of health care are fair to the conditions in which access to health care is fair and addresses the question of how the costs of treatments bear on the fairness of the combinations of health care to which individuals have access. Finally, the chapter returns to the question of how to specify a fair distribution of health care in the light of the heterogeneity of health problems and treatments.
Fair Chances
Authors: Hausman Daniel M.
Published: January 2023

This chapter examines the “fair chances” objection to cost-effective allocation—that it is unfair to allocate health care to those who can most benefit from health care before doing anything to treat those who would benefit substantially but not as much. The chapter first provides this criticism with a philosophical foundation in Broome’s theory of fairness, but it challenges Broome’s theory and it raises questions about whether the fair chances objection has much force. The chapter develops a hypothetical case that brings out implications of the fair chances objection, and suggests further qualms concerning Broome’s theory. The chapter concludes by considering how moral concerns that are separate from fairness and enhancing health bear on the assessment of cost-effectiveness.
Does Cost-Effectiveness Fail to Give Sufficient Priority to Severity?
Authors: Hausman Daniel M.
Published: January 2023

This chapter responds to the objection that allocation guided by cost-effectiveness fails to place sufficient weight on the severity of health problems. If treatments T and T′ cost the same and are equally effective, but the recipients of treatment T would be worse off if untreated, then many believe that T should be funded before T′. The chapter first distinguishes acute and chronic severity and presents data showing that survey respondents support the severity objection. But it points out ambiguities in prioritizing severity. After considering how to implement greater priority for severity, it lays out problems that undermine the intuitive appeal of prioritizing acute severity. It then criticizes the main arguments that are invoked to support the conclusion that fairness requires prioritizing chronic severity, and it argues that compassion and solidarity do not justify the severity objection. The chapter concludes with speculations concerning why so many people mistakenly endorse the severity objection.
To Aggregate or Not to Aggregate
Authors: Hausman Daniel M.
Published: January 2023

This chapter responds to the argument that health policy should not treat or prevent minor ailments when it might instead alleviate major illnesses, even if the treatment of minor ailments is more cost-effective. In addition to challenging the general view that small harms are not relevant to major harms, the chapter argues that minor health conditions, unlike small harms, pose risks of major harms, which makes ignoring them untenable. Discussion begins with a response to John Taurek’s argument against ever aggregating. That case faces serious objections, and it is not pertinent to questions concerning the allocation of health care. The chapter then presents the most plausible development of a partial aggregation view and discusses difficulties that require refinement of the partial aggregation view. It then offers three criticisms of the partial aggregation view. Finally, the chapter responds to the claim that despite its drawbacks, partial aggregation is superior to the aggregation implicit in cost-effective allocation.
Discrimination
Authors: Hausman Daniel M.
Published: January 2023

This chapter addresses the objection that cost-effectiveness is discriminatory. It identifies three discrimination complaints and distinguishes these complaints from the fair chances and severity objections. It argues that the discrimination derives both from the way in which health measurement systems assign values to morbidity and mortality and from the way that cost-effective allocation makes use of those values. The chapter considers what makes some kinds of discrimination acceptable, even desirable, whereas other instances are intolerable. It scrutinizes an alternative way of valuing health improvements, healthy years in total, that assigns equal value to life-saving and thereby avoids the most egregious discrimination that is implicit in measures of the effectiveness of health care. However, the chapter also points to flaws in the alternative and argues that the discrimination criticism of cost-effectiveness cannot be resolved by changing the measure of effectiveness. The chapter concludes with a way to avoid the wrongful discrimination that c-e allocation may involve.
Politics in the New State
Authors: Willis Michael J.
Published: January 2023

The Algerian state was born directly out of the liberation struggle against French colonial rule by the nationalist FLN movement. The nature of the struggle and the FLN shaped politics in the newly independent state, notably through traditions of collective leadership, secrecy, factionalism, and the influence of the military. Independent Algeria's first president Ahmed Ben Bella came to power thanks to the support of the military and was removed by it in 1965. Head of the military, Houari Boumediene, consolidated state institutions and his own power as president in the 1960s and 1970s. President Chadli Benjedid struggled to assert himself over factionalized elites in the 1980s and faced challenges from Islamists, the Kabyle region, and economic crisis. Countrywide unrest in October 1988 led to an opening up of the political system and the holding of multiparty elections. Stunning victories by the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) party led to the abandonment of elections and the banning of the FIS in 1992. Chadli's successor, President Mohammed Boudiaf, was assassinated after five months, probably by elements within the regime. Algeria drifted into civil conflict as armed Islamist groups emerged to challenge the new military-dominated government.
Politics and Economics
Authors: Willis Michael J.
Published: January 2023

Algeria's economy is dominated by the country's substantial oil and, especially, its gas resources (hydrocarbons). Fluctuations in international energy prices consequently greatly affected politics through underwriting periods of stability during periods of high prices and provoking instability when prices fell as they did in the 1980s. The steady rise in international energy prices soon after Bouteflika became president in 1999 allowed him to rebuild the country's shattered infrastructure and recruit political allies among the country's new business elite who secured government contracts in return for political and financial support for the president. Living standards of ordinary Algerians improved, but clear weaknesses of sluggish growth, youth unemployment, and minimal foreign investment remained. Falling energy prices from 2014 threatened a return to economic crisis and renewed political instability as Algeria rapidly ate into its accumulated financial reserves. Crisis had not yet hit by the time of the mass demonstrations of 2019 which were more motivated by anger at the rise in rampant official corruption. The arrest and prosecution for corruption and embezzlement of many of Bouteflika's senior ministers and most of his prominent supporters in the business community followed Bouteflika's resignation. However no notable change occurred in economic policy.
The Fall and Rise of Political Opposition
Authors: Willis Michael J.
Published: January 2023

A notable feature of the Algerian politics from the 1990s up until 2019 was the absence of a strong, organized political opposition to the regime. Opposition political parties played a diminishing role as they failed to attract significant levels of public support and were marginalized by the regime through manipulated elections and promotion of clientelist parties allied to the regime in the shape of the RND and FLN. Civil society associations similarly failed to organize opposition as they became co-opted and manipulated by the regime. Widespread localised protests failed to unite as they became mechanisms for securing resources from the government rather than campaigns for broader political reform. This explains the failure of Algeria to develop a major protest movement during the "Arab Spring" of 2011. The emergence of the hirak mass protest movement in 2019 proved that the absence of an organized opposition was not evidence of Algerians' content with the way they were governed. The movement organized weekly mass protests eschewing the leadership of parties, associations or individuals, and uniting opposition across the political spectrum. It was characterized by its persistence and its steadfast commitment to non-violence, having learned the lessons of the upheavals of the 1990s.
Algeria and the Outside World
Authors: Willis Michael J.
Published: January 2023

Domestic politics in Algeria played out against a backdrop of significant changes in international politics. These were felt more directly than before because Algeria re-emerged onto the international stage following a decade that had seen it preoccupied and isolated by its own internal crises. Events and changes in Algeria's immediate regional environment exposed the country to new threats and challenges. The popular uprisings that shook the Arab world from 2011 led to the fall of established rulers in Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya and the consequent collapse of state structures in Libya and Mali, the two states with which Algeria shared its longest borders. Consequently, Algeria came to be confronted by international terrorism. These developments obliged Algeria to shift its existing foreign policy priorities away from relations with Europe and the United States to its immediate region. This led Algeria to adopt a more activist foreign policy, seeking to stabilize neighbouring states through providing mediation in their internal conflicts and participating in regional and international initiatives. In this way and helped by its relative domestic stability up until 2019, Algeria came to be regarded as a respected and newly influential regional power.
The Return of Sovereignty
Authors: Auer Stefan
Published: January 2023

Betraying its core ideal, the European Union has unwittingly exacerbated the crisis of representative democracy. The chapter traces the twists and turns of post-Second World War European history against the background of the key ideas that have shaped the European project. The relationship between democracy and national sovereignty, for example, is discussed, drawing on thinkers as different as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, Carl Schmitt, Hans Kelsen, Alexandre Kojève, Jürgen Habermas, and Jan-Werner Müller. The push towards a more post-national Europe has backfired, making Europe more technocratic. The chapter concludes by arguing that the recent series of crises that Europe has experienced has exposed the limitations of the technocratic mode of governance, which has failed to deliver on the promise of freedom, security, and justice.
A Post-Sovereign Europe? Germany, Eurozone, Refugee Crisis
Authors: Auer Stefan
Published: January 2023

This chapter sketches Europe's transformation under Germany's reluctant leadership and points towards its limitations. Germany was a dominant player in the eurozone crisis, instrumental in shaping both the EU-Russia and EU-Ukraine relationship after the Euromaidan revolution in late 2013 and it was at the centre of the migration crisis in 2015. Germany's role is examined via conflicting understandings of sovereignty and democracy, and the way in which they were challenged by the politics of emergency. The chapter contrasts the vision of a post-sovereign Europe, advocated by the likes of Jürgen Habermas, with the views of the German Constitutional Court, which has constrained the process of EU constitutionalisation by arguing that democracy requires a demos. Finally, the chapter offers a critical analysis of the German Chancellor Angela Merkel, who like no other political leader in Europe came to embody two conflicting impulses that shaped European politics: the politics of emergency and the technocratic reliance on depoliticised rules. A post-sovereign Europe is becoming ever more post-democratic.
A Sovereign Europe?
Authors: Auer Stefan
Published: January 2023

This chapter interrogates the contradictory impulses that have shaped French conceptions of European unity, spanning Alexandre Kojève's proposal for a "Latin Empire", Charles de Gaulle's vision of a "Europe of nations" and Emmanuel Macron's conception for a "sovereign Europe". In their different ways, they all sought to enable France to play a prominent role in Europe. Conversely, the sovereign Europe that many people in France want was the one that voters in the United Kingdom rejected, leading to Brexit. Another focus of this chapter is the UK's ambiguous relationship with the European Union. To some extent, France and the UK can be seen as mirror images of each other. For both countries sovereignty remains important, but while France seeks to regain it through Europe, the UK seeks to reclaim it outside, or even against Europe. The chapter concludes by arguing that Brexit should be viewed as indicative of the growing disillusionment with a project that is perceived as removed from the very people it is meant to serve--EU citizens.
A Sovereignist Europe?
Authors: Auer Stefan
Published: January 2023

The focus of this chapter is on the countries of Central Europe, particularly the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia, whose historic legacies made them less receptive to the visions of Europe dominant in the West. If Europe as a political project is to resonate in this region, it needs to be conceptualised as one derived from--and being conducive to-- liberal nationalism. The chapter discusses the reasons for the erosion of the quality of democracy and the rule of law in these new member states. It concludes by arguing that democratic backsliding needs to be addressed primarily at the level of member states. Authoritarian liberalism at the EU level does not offer an adequate response to illiberal democracy.
Exhuming Bodies
Authors: Bank Leslie , Sharpley Nelly
Published: January 2023

The tightening of Covid restrictions in relation to the management of bodies and burial practices created great consternation in rural areas. Covid bodies were managed by mortuaries and funeral parlors which required that bodies be wrapped in multiple layers of plastic to avoid infection. Families of the deceased thus had very little access to the bodies of their loved ones prior to burial and could not wash them or communicate with them before they were buried in the ground. This challenged families whose belief system was based on direct communication with the dead to usher them safely into the afterlife and the cult of ancestors and spirits. Covid burials proved to be hopelessly inadequate vehicles for such rites of passage and social reproduction. As a result, many residents and returning migrants, tormented by dreams of their suffering deceased relatives sweating in plastic bags, exhumed dead bodies and instituted illegal reburials. Others reinitiated banned customary practices to begin to repair the spiritual wounds left by the pandemic. The chapter provides a detailed account of rural struggles to restore dignity and spiritual security in the time of Covid.