bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Silence of Bishops in Ignatius
Authors: Chadwick Henry
Published: August 2011

Among the many remarkable features of Ignatius' letters there is perhaps nothing more curious than his peculiar ideas about the value attaching to silence. There is something almost comic in his insistence that when a bishop is saying nothing he is then to be regarded with special awe. It is apparently his firm conviction that the best thing a bishop can do is to refrain from speech altogether. The purpose of this brief note is to attempt an interpretation of the passages where he brings forward this notion, and to suggest that the explanation of them in the standard commentators upon Ignatius' epistles is not satisfactory.
Signa Imperii on an Amulet
Authors: Eitrem S.
Published: August 2011

A haematite amulet against colic, belonging to the National Museum at Copenhagen and published in Symb. Osl., XIX, 76 f. (Fig. 2), has increased in interest since Campbell Bonner studied the type closely and on important points corrected my own interpretation, Harvard Theological Review, XXXV, 87 ff., XXXVII, 333 f. The place of origin of these amulets is Syria; the Michigan specimen discussed by Bonner derives from Aleppo and has been republished by P. R. Mouterde (Mélanges de l'Université Saint Joseph, XXV (1942–43), 112, no. 20, see ib., pl. 7, no. 20): “Dieu imberbe, nu, à g., debout sur une base moulurée; il porte une besace sur l'épaule g. et dresse la droite. Au pied de la base, à g., aigle éployé tourné vers le dieu. Dans le champ, à g., signe indistinct, astérisque et une lettre ou deux lettres liées, Δ, ou | Δ, ou Δ |. Une palme, au sommet et à dr., encadre la scène.” This Michigan specimen reproduces only one half of the original figuration, as we conclude from the Copenhagen specimen. If we follow the suggestion of Campbell Bonner, p. 87, we may guess that the original colic-amulet has been bisected, in order to make two equally good amulets “against colic” — in fact the design divides itself into two independent parts. The right one represents the “Marsyas” of the Forum Romanum, as H. Seyrig saw, referring to Hill's publication of the Palestine coins in the Brit. Mus., Cat., Nos. 118–120 (see Campbell Bonner, l.c., p. 334.)
The “Reverent Agnosticism” of Karl Barth
Authors: Stewart H. L.
Published: August 2011

Denial of the competence of the human mind for exploration of the ultimate meaning of the Universe may be associated with a serene confidence that the secret is otherwise accessible. Athenians of the fifth century, B.C., had a mystical element of which Plato speaks at times with contempt but at other times with profound respect. Careless alike of the Protagorean skepticism and of its Socratic refutation, they would withdraw periodically to Eleusis for devotional rites, from which they came back radiant about the manner in which they had been “helped.” Plotinus and his Neo-Platonists found in distrust of reasoning the basis for a surer trust. St. Augustine's Neo-Platonist youth was, as he said, a fitting preliminary for the mood of his mature Christian assurance: Non in dialectica cotnplacuit Deo salvum facere populum suum. More than seven centuries later, St. Bernard was not only distressed but alarmed as he overheard discussions at a Paris street corner among students coming from Abelard's lecture-room, where they had been actually encouraged to subject the Faith to intellectual analysis. The fourteenth century mystics of the Rhineland showed reaction on a great scale from the cut-and-dried “Natural Theology” of Aquinas. It had been too much for even Bonaventura and Duns Scotus.
Notes on the Biography of St. Edmund of Abingdon
Authors: Russell J. C.
Published: August 2011

A recent book on St. Edmund makes remarkable advances in the knowledge of this outstanding saint and scholar. The author, C. H. Lawrence, has sifted the mass of evidence produced by Edmund's canonization and reduced it to an understandable corpus, identifying the authorship of some pieces and tracing their relationships. He has edited much of this evidence so that it is now accessible for use. Edmund's biography stands out somewhat clearer. It was known, of course, that Edmund came of a borough family, had a long period of study and teaching in arts and theology before he came into prominence as Treasurer of Salisbury and Archbishop of Canterbury. The author shows that Edmund's family was really rich in children and property, that Edmund deserves more credit for more effective political leadership than he has received and that, at the end of his life, he was merely making a routine trip to Rome rather than retiring into exile at Pontigny. Further clarification of Edmund's life is possible within the limits of the evidence without conjecturing unreasonably.
The Biblical View of Time
Authors: Muilenburg James
Published: August 2011

It is by no means fortuitous that our contemporary world is deeply occupied with the problem of time. The literature which has gathered about this problem is not only abundant but also notable for the ways in which various disciplines have sought to wrestle with it. The natural scientist, the philosopher, the theologian, the historian, the sociologist, the poet, and the writer of fiction and drama have all engaged in a common encounter with the mystery of this basic givenness of our human existence. Yet, while it is true that periods like our own incite reflection on time's meaning, the problem plays a role in the history of human thought quite beyond that of the pressures and hazards of eras of social crisis.
Theodore Parker: Apostasy Within Liberalism
Authors: Miller Perry
Published: August 2011

I am not the first to detect in recent scholarship dealing with the “Transcendental” period of New England a tendency toward vindicating, or at least toward putting in a good word for, the hitherto regularly berated opponents of Emerson and Theodore Parker. Because in the 1830's and 1840's and well into the 1850's the phalanx of those most outspoken in resistance were the Unitarian clergy, the custom has been for chroniclers of the literary and theological radicalism to heap derision upon the men who occupied established pulpits in the neighborhood of Boston and who spoke for the substantial portions of the community.
On the Origin of the Rotas-Sator Square
Authors: Fishwick Duncan
Published: August 2011

Since the discovery at Pompeii of specimens of the ROTAS-SATOR rebus scholarly investigation into the origin of the “magic square” has been bedevilled by a fundamental problem. Is it or is it not sheer chance that the letters of the square can be rearranged in two intersecting PATER NOSTER's with two A's and two O's remaining to be positioned at will?
Papyrus Bodmer II (P66) and John 8, 25
Authors: Funk R. W.
Published: August 2011

The importance of Papyrus Bodmer II, to be designated P66 for textual studies can scarcely be overlooked, even in an age accustomed to startling discoveries in the biblical field. The scholarly world is indebted to Professor Victor Martin for prompt publication, and it is to be hoped that a facsimile will follow.
The Bacchic Mysteries of the Roman Age
Authors: Nilsson Martin P.
Published: August 2011

Some years ago mysteries were a favorite subject of research in the religion of the Hellenistic and Roman age. Scholars were almost exclusively concerned with the mysteries originating in the Near East and Egypt and the mysteries of Dionysos were mentioned only in passing. This is understandable, for the literary sources are scarce and widely scattered, the monuments are, though numerous, dispersed and very often difficult to interpret. Father Festugière included in his paper on the Dionysiac mysteries a lengthy treatment of the later ones, especially their organization, and Cumont appended to the last edition of his book on the Oriental religions in Roman paganism a discussion of the Bacchic mysteries, in which his chief purpose was to show that they were influenced by the Orient.
Simon-Peter
Authors: Roth Cecil
Published: August 2011

The designation of one, and only one, of the Twelve Apostles is recorded to have been changed, with the result that he became known by a name different from (or else supplementary to) that which he bore originally: Simon (Simeon) bar Jonah, “called Peter,” the most prominent of the band. The circumstances of his renaming are recorded somewhat differently by the Evangelists. Mark (iii. 16) mentions the change summarily when he tells of the despatch of the Twelve on their mission; John (i. 42) associates it with Simon's original summons, near the scene of John's baptizing in the Jordan; Matthew (xvi. 18) describes the episode at greater length, bringing it into relation with Simon's recognition of Jesus as Messiah at Caesarea Philippi: while Luke overlooks the circumstances. Thus while there is no serious contradiction in the New Testament story about the details, there is on the other hand imperfect consistency, and it is legitimate to reconsider the matter ab initio. Attention will be directed here therefore to a neglected parallel, which may conceivably throw light on the problem.
Renaissance and Modern Thought on the Last Things: A Study in Changing Conceptions
Authors: Patrides C. A.
Published: August 2011

Of the changes that have taken place in theology since the Renaissance, none is more striking than the re-interpretation of the Mosaic account of the creation and fall of man, which has passed from the realm of history to that of ‘myth.’ Equally impressive, however, are the changes that have taken place in eschatology. This disagreement with our ancestors is not revolutionary on every point, since at least one fundamental idea, affirmed by George Hakewill in the earlier seventeenth century, still holds true. “That the world shall haue an end,” wrote Hakewill, “is as cleere toChristianity, as that there is a Sun in the firmament: And therefore, whereas there can hardly be named any other article of our faith, which someHeretiqueshaue not presumed to impugne or call into question; yet to my remembrance I never met with any who questioned this; & though at this day many & eager be the differences amongChristiansin other points of Religion, yet in this they all agree & ever did, that the world shall haue an end.” If on this, however, all Christians are agreed, the exact time of the Day of the Lord has been the subject of speculation ever since the advent of Christianity, not to mention Jewish apocalyptic thought.
Antiochene Exegesis in Western Europe During the Middle Ages
Authors: Laistner M. L. W.
Published: August 2011

The outstanding importance of allegorical interpretation to the medieval scholar engaged on interpreting the Scriptures is well known. The method, which had originated in the East and was older than Christianity, became well established in the West during the Patristic age; in its application there was a good deal of variety. Ambrosiaster in commenting on the Pauline epistles combined orthodoxy with an unswerving adherence to the historical sense. Tyconius, on the other hand, laid down no less than seven rules whereby to interpret the prophecies in the Old Testament. Augustine went further in finding allegorical meaning in passages of Holy Writ than Jerome, who always maintained a certain balance in expounding the literal and the spiritual sense. The latter is more pronounced in his earlier commentaries when he was still consciously under the influence of Origen. In his later works allegorical interpretation becomes noticeably less; but it is not wholly absent even from his unfinished commentary on Jeremiah. To Gregory the Great the sensus spiritalis and particularly the sensus moralis were of such paramount significance as almost to oust the literal meaning. His influence on Bede and through Bede, as well as directly, on later expounders of the Bible was enormous.
Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus
Authors: Grant Robert M.
Published: August 2011

The three books to Autolycus of Theophilus of Antioch enjoyed a considerable measure of popularity among later Christian writers. His work was used not only by Greek but also by Latin writers. Eusebius found it in one of the libraries he used, probably at Caesarea; it was also employed by Methodius, Epiphanius, Procopius of Gaza, and John of Damascus. Novatian, Lactantius and Jerome certainly knew his writings; probably Minucius Felix should be added to the list. Three manuscripts of the Ad Autolycum survive; two are copies (one incomplete) of a third, an eleventh or twelfth-century manuscript now in Venice.
The Real Meaning of Sacral Manumission
Authors: Sokolowski F.
Published: August 2011

The problem of the manumission of slaves by sale to a divinity or by consecration has been studied by many scholars. Nevertheless the following questions still arise. What real sense had the sale? What characterizes the sale and the consecration respectively? How do they bring about one's liberty? What is a fictitious or trust sale? Do the several manumission procedures of Delphi, of central Greece, of Macedonia, of Asia Minor and of Syria reflect the same customs and traditions? Cameron, after discussing a number of inscriptions of Imperial times relating to sacral manumission, puts the following question: “It would be interesting to inquire whether this conception is to be regarded as having survived continuously with the institution from an early period in Greece, or as having been revived and strengthened by new social and religious influence after remaining dormant in a period in which sacral manumission was no more than a legal fiction.” I should like to try to answer this question.
The Roman Military Feriale
Authors: Gilliam J. F.
Published: August 2011

In a major study, “The Roman Army and the Roman Religious Year,” recently published in this journal (XLV [1952] 187–252), Professor Nock has presented a new interpretation of the character and purpose of the Feriale Duranum. It is hardly necessary at this short interval to repeat his conclusions, which seem to me quite convincing, but as a postscript to Nock's study, I should like to do three things. The first is to discuss the purpose of the military Feriale when it was established, as it probably was, by Augustus. The second is to consider the distribution of the occasions in the Feriale and hence to some extent their value as breaks in the soldier's routine. Finally, I shall examine three sections of the text which for one reason or another deserve close study.
Note on Letter and Spirit in the New Testament
Authors: Cohen Boaz
Published: August 2011

In a study entitled Letter and Spirit in Jewish and Roman Law I suggested that the antithesis γράμμα καὶ πνεῦμα (Letter and Spirit) coined by Paul was the equivalent to the Greek antithesis ῥητὸν καὶ διάνοια, which was a commonplace in ancient Greek rhetoric. After this article was printed, I discovered a passage in Origen which confirms beyond all doubt the correctness of my conjecture. This statement is found in his refutations of an argument advanced by Celsus. This pagan philosopher charged that there were many contradictions between the Law and the New Dispensation, which demanded an explanation. For instance, “Why did he give them laws by Moses that they were to become rich and powerful… Yet his son, the man of Nazareth, gives contradictory laws, saying that a man cannot come forward to the Father if he is rich or loves power.”
On the Rules Regulating the Celebration of the Eleusinian Mysteries
Authors: Sokolowski F.
Published: August 2011

The old and very illegible inscription from Athens containing the charter of the Eleusinian Mysteries was happily completed by a few small fragments discovered during the American excavations on the Agora. It was not an easy task for Professor B. D. Meritt to bring together the broken pieces and the stone bearing the inscription (now in the British Museum). He did it with his usual epigraphical expertness and contributed very much to the reading and to the restoration of a document which has been a real problem to many scholars for a long time. Of course, the inscription so old and so badly preserved will continue to be debated by specialists in different fields of Classical studies, but the part of Professor Meritt in elucidating this important testimony of the ancient Greek cult always will be gratefully appreciated. I should like to discuss some passages of the document in question in the hope that small changes in certain lines may perhaps make it more intelligible.
Dante's Firm Foot and the Journey Without a Guide
Authors: Freccero John
Published: August 2011

The Journey of the Divine Comedy begins with a conversion. The pilgrim “comes to” after somehow having lost his way in a dark wood. He looks up from that tangle and sees the rays of the sun striking upon a mountain-top, and knows that he must attain the summit. From that moment, the problem is no longer where to go, but rather how to get there, and the problem proves to be insoluble. Try as he may, he cannot achieve the goal which is the beginning and the cause of all joy, for three formidable beasts drive him back into the wood from which he has come, and he retreats, no longer able to help himself, exhausted, and very nearly defeated.
Intimations of Immortality in the Thought of Jesus: The Ingersoll Lecture for 1959
Authors: Cadbury Henry J.
Published: August 2011

The historic Ingersoll lectureship on the Immortality of Man requires of the lecturer both some legitimate extension of its terms and some necessary limitation of his field. One is justified in supposing that the pious layman who planned the foundation was not thinking in highly technical terms, but like laymen of our day was thinking of a widely shared belief in the post mortem survival or revival of those who die. If he had wished to specify the indiscriminate persistence of the individual as a philosophical tenet of the nature of man, he could well have used the more familiar term — the immortality of the soul. On the other hand, if he had wished to be faithful to the wording of much of the Bible and to the Church's creeds, he would have spoken of the Resurrection of the Dead.
Paganism to Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England
Authors: Chaney William A.
Published: August 2011

In Anglo-Saxon as in Christian history, many roads lead to Rome. This has been correctly and at times overemphasized in matters ranging from Augustine to Whitby, from numismatics to law, from banners to Bede. Indeed the Roman road has been so broad and so well marked with recorded miliaria that we may have missed the growth-ridden Germanic by-paths which were actually trod by the tribes in England. But surely the impact of culture on cult is as important in history as the reverse, and the terms in which the newly converted Anglo-Saxons interpreted the Christian religion were shaped by the tribal culture, impregnated, as it was, by the heathenism of the old religion. Gregory the Great's famous letter to the Abbot Mellitus, advising that pagan temples in England be used for the worship of the Christian God that the people “ad loca quae consuevit, familiarius concurrat,” and that the sacrificial animals of heathenism be now devoted to Christian festivals, agrees with the responsa of the same pope to Augustine concerning the choosing of local customs best suited to the conditions of the converted. In a way, this study is a scandalous footnote to that wise anthropological advice, with the intention of setting forth some of the similarities of the old and new religion which allowed a syncretic merging. Thus many features of the Conversion period which have been interpreted post eventum as Christian were undoubtedly seen with other—and familiar—overtones by the Woden-sprung rulers and their people.
Wisdom About Tomorrow
Authors: Griffiths J. Gwyn
Published: August 2011

That a new richesse of comparative material is offered by Walter Bauer's fifth edition of his celebrated Wörterbuch (Berlin, 1958) is exemplified by his article on αὔριον. He notes that Epictetus too rejects care περὶ τῆς αὔριον. Indeed a sentence in Epictetus I.9.8 (καὶ πόθεν ϕάγω, ϕησίν, μηδὲν ἔχων) is in one respect an obvious parallel to Matthew vi.25 (μὴ μεριμνᾶτε τῇ ψυχῇ ὑμῶν, τί ϕάγητε ἢ τί πίητε.). Bauer cites an interesting instance of a Pythagorean exhortation which, in a manner exactly opposite to the injunction of Matthew vi.34, advises one to be constantly thinking of the morrow: διδάσκει ἀεί τι τοῦ παρόντος εἰς τὸ μέλλον καταλιπεῖν, καὶ τῆς αὔριον ἐν τῇ σήμερον μνημονεύειν.
The Trinitarian Theology of Augustine and His Debt to Plotinus
Authors: Wassmer Thomas A.
Published: August 2011

A very powerful case has been made out for the influence of the Platonism of Plotinus upon Saint Augustine. From the Manichaean simple solution of the problem of evil Augustine was delivered by reading the Neo-Platonists and especially Plotinus. It was Plotinus who convinced him that God was a spirit, not a luminous body, and he always remained grateful for this deliverance from the crude fantasies of the Manichaeans. In the two years before his conversion when he was receiving a deeper penetration into Christianity through the sermons of St. Ambrose, he came to know of Plotinus in a very few treatises of the Enneads (certainly 1/6 “On the Beautiful” and quite probably V/1 “On the Three Chief Hypostases”) in the Latin translation of Marius Victorinus. St. Ambrose made a determined effort to apply the principles of Plotinus’ philosophy to the clarification of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity as against the Arians. The results of such an attempt might not be theologically satisfying but they are interesting. This impact of the mind of Plotinus upon the mind of Augustine was a decisive one because Augustine found a very great area of agreement between the teaching of Plotinus and that of the Scriptures as expounded by St. Ambrose, above all the Gospel of St. John.
Milton's Arianism
Authors: Adamson J. H.
Published: August 2011

Since Maurice Kelley's unequivocal statement in This Great Argument that “Paradise Lost is an Arian document,” scholars have generally consented to call Milton an Arian. Professor William B. Hunter's recent article has effectively shifted the burden of proof. I should like to provide some supporting evidence for Mr. Hunter's thesis, and one qualification.
Mark II, 10a and the Interpretation of the Healing of the Paralytic
Authors: Boobyer G. H.
Published: August 2011

The main exegetical difficulties of Mk. II, 1–12 are considered to be: (a) the awkwardness of the wording of 10b and 11a. With the statement “But that ye may know that the Son of man hath power on earth to forgive sins” Jesus is held to be addressing the scribes, but the text proceeds with an abrupt transition to “he saith to the sick of the palsy, I say unto thee….” (b) The public use of the title “Son of man” so early in the Lord's ministry, (c) The open avowal to the scribes of the Son of man's power on earth to forgive sins, (d) The observation in verse 12 that “they were all amazed and glorified God,” as though even the critical scribes joined with the crowd in the approving acclamation.
Sumerian Theology and Ethics
Authors: Kramer Samuel Noah
Published: August 2011

The sumerians failed to develop a systematic philosophy in the accepted sense of the word. In particular it never occurred to them to raise any questions concerning the fundamental nature of reality and knowledge, and therefore they evolved practically nothing corresponding to the philosophical subdivisions commonly known as metaphysics and epistemology. They did, however, speculate on the nature and, more particularly, the origin of the universe, as well as on its method of operation. And there is good reason to infer that in the course of the third millennium B.C. there emerged a group of Sumerian thinkers and teachers who, in the course of their quest for satisfactory answers to some of the problems raised by their cosmic speculations, evolved a systematic cosmology and theology carrying such high intellectual conviction that they became the basic creed and dogma of much of the ancient Near East.
Divine Disguisings
Authors: Rose H. J.
Published: August 2011

When recently going through the second edition of Nilsson's Geschichte der griechischen Religion, Volume I, I came across a passing remark which seems to me to raise an interesting question not merely of Homeric criticism but concerning the attitude of the Greeks, at the time when their classical tradition regarding the gods was in process of formation, towards the question of the shapes assumed by those gods when they partly reveal themselves to mankind. Nilsson is speaking of Odysseus when disguised as a beggar, and says (ed. 2, p. 370, taken over unaltered from ed. 1, P. 346),

Kirke verwandelt Menschen in Bestien, und Athena den Odysseus in einen alten, armen Mann. Jenes ist echte Volkssage, dieses in Anlehnung daran geschaffen; denn in der älteren Form des Gedichts war Odysseus nicht verwandelt, nur verkleidet. So ist er noch bei der Fusswaschung, und der Freiermord und der Kampf mit Iros (σ 67 ff.) fordern dasselbe.
Proclus and Pseudo-Nilus
Authors: Davies J. G.
Published: August 2011

Amongst the homilies ascribed to Proclus, one-time bishop designate of Cyzicus and later bishop of Constantinople (434–46), there is included one of which the subject is the Ascension of Christ. The first section of this sermon was transcribed, with the omission of a few sentences, by Photius in his Bibliotheca; he assigned it, however, not to Proclus but to Nilus, an ex-Prefect of Constantinople who had embraced the monastic life and retired to the deserts of Sinai in the first decade of the fourth century. The problem of authorship thus presented can only be determined upon internal evidence, since no other references to this sermon have been preserved.
The Christian Concept of Kingship as Manifested in the Liturgy of the Western Church. A Fragment in Suggestion
Authors: Guinan Alastair
Published: August 2011

The basis of the notion of kingship which underlies the Coronation Liturgies of the West. The nature of this liturgical expression: its universality; its varied and even pre-Christian flowerings.
The Sale of Monk Certificates during the Sung Dynasty. A Factor in the Decline of Buddhism in China
Authors: Ch'en Kenneth
Published: August 2011

Historians of Buddhism in China have long ago noted the fact that after the T'ang dynasty Buddhism no longer played a creative rôle in the literature and arts of China, and that the Buddhist church ceased to make any significant contributions toward the religious and social life of the nation. Some people are inclined to attribute this decline of Buddhism to the suppression of 845, when 260,000 monks and nuns were ordered defrocked, and over 40,000 temples and shrines ordered destroyed. It was held that the religion never recovered from this blow. However, this view does not take into account the fact that during certain periods of the Sung dynasty, the number of monks and nuns actually exceeded that under the T'ang; in 1021, monks 397,615, nuns 61,239; in 1034, monks 385,220, nuns 48,742. It would be necessary therefore to look for some other factors to account for the decline in the influence of the sangha, especially during and after the Sung dynasty.
The Cinderella of Theology: The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit
Authors: Sirks G. J.
Published: August 2011

More than once the doctrine of the Spirit (Pneumatology) has been called the Cinderella of Theology. If this was so in the past, and is perhaps still, it now requires our full attention. At the risk of viewing the situation through ‘continental’ eyes, but hoping you will recognize this, I would say that the nineteenth century, impressed by the advance of science, confronted theology in the first place with problems raised by natural science. Its first question concerned the nature of God, especially in connection with creation. Scientific historical inquiry paid attention to the Bible, and in the New Testament focussed its interest upon the question of the historical Jesus. This work culminated and came to a temporary halt in Albert Schweitzer's, The Quest of the Historical Jesus. A revival of Systematic Theology and Dogmatics followed, and in the opinion of the dogmatists the connecting lines between theology viewed from a cosmic standpoint and the Gospel were too long. The same thing was seen happening in the historical study of religions which came to cover an ever-widening field. On flle other hand, however, they could not be satisfied with a ‘life of Jesus,’ so that Christology began to occupy a central place which it has held during the last few decades. And, if Pneumatology received any attention at all, its allotted place was small.
The Old Testament of the Early Church (A Study in Canon)
Authors: Sundberg Albert C.
Published: August 2011

For three-quarters of a century the hypothesis of an Alexandrian canon has been the commonly accepted solution to the problem of how the Jewish canon and the Old Testament of the early church came to differ. That hypothesis suggests that a larger canon of scriptures was initiated in Alexandria and circulated throughout Diaspora Judaism than what obtained in Palestine. The Christian church, becoming predominantly Gentile early in its history, adopted this enlarged canon, that included the books of the Apocrypha, from Diaspora Judaism. The hypothesis represents essentially a geographic distinction in canonical usage between Palestinian Judaism and Alexandrian and Dispersion Judaism. It is the opinion of the present writer that the Alexandrian canon hypothesis is not only unprovable, as Pfeiffer has recognized, but is erroneous. This opinion is based (1) on a study of the history of the Alexandrian canon hypothesis, (2) on an examination of the arguments favoring the hypothesis, and (3) on a re-evaluation of the status of canonical usage in Judaism at the time of the emergence of Christianity into the world.
Abraham De-Bēt Rabban and His Rôle in the Hermeneutic Traditions of the School of Nisibis
Authors: Vööbus Arthur
Published: August 2011

The work of the School of Edessa was put under strictures of ever increasing severity, and led finally to its liquidation under Zeno in 489. The torch of higher learning was then transplanted to Nisibis, a center that had been the pride of Byzantium before it was annexed by the Persians in 361. In Narsai's person and those of his co-workers, the tradition returned to Nisibis from which stimuli once had gone out giving birth to the School of Edessa. The question of time of the founding of the School of Nisibis which has been the subject of disagreement, can now due to an important document be dated with greater precision namely — soon after the year 471. Narsai became the first director. Soon after its appearance upon the scene, the school was accorded an extraordinary élan. It took over the leadership among other radii of intellectual and spiritual life, the best that Christianity under the Sassanides had produced. The life that emanated from it constitutes the most beautiful page in the history of Christianity in this part of the world. Its statutes also occupy a place of honor in the tradition regarding the legislative sources.
ʼAšrê in the Old Testament
Authors: Janzen Waldemar
Published: August 2011

Although ʼašrê occurs rather frequently in the Old Testament and shows a fairly consistent formal pattern, the literature on this subject is small and offers no comprehensive analysis. The pertinent statements — usually brief discussions within the context of a wider or different subject — hinge upon three basic insights: 1. that the ʼašrê-formula is a statement made to or about someone which somehow magnifies or extols that person's condition as a desirable one; 2. that ʼašrê is found in a fair number of passages that belong to the Wisdom movement; 3. that there exists some kind of relationship between ʼašrê and forms of blessing. To these undoubtedly correct though seldom precisely formulated observations is added a persistent conviction that ʼašrê stands in an antipodal relationship to hôi/ʼôi, analogous to that of blessing and curse. After a brief survey of lexicographical data and formal characteristics we shall examine the usage of ʼašrê with the aim of defining its relationship to hôi and to the brk-word-group and, finally, draw certain conclusions regarding its meaning.
ΓΝΩΜΑΙ ΔΙΑΦΟΡΟΙ.: The Origin and Nature of Diversification in the History of Early Christianity
Authors: Koester Helmut
Published: August 2011

I. The Crisis of the Historical and Theological Criteria.

Already Walter Bauer, well known as a lexicographer, but unfortunately little known as a historian of the Ancient Church, in his ingenious monograph Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum (1934), had demonstrated convincingly that such Christian groups which were later labelled “heretical,” actually dominated in the first two or three centuries, both geographically and theologically. Recent discoveries, especially those of Nag Hammadi in Upper Egypt, have made it definitely clear that Walter Bauer was essentially right and that a thorough and extensive re-evaluation of early Christian history is called for.
Some Vow and Oath Formulas in the New Testament
Authors: Buchanan George Wesley
Published: August 2011

The texts of Matthew 15:5 and Mark 8:12 have both been difficult passages to understand, translate, and interpret. Mt. 15:5 seems to be a minced oath or vow taken by the sacred object, קךבז; whereas Mk. 8:12 resembles an oath administered by another and accepted by the oath-taker. Mt. 15:5 is the more difficult of the two and will here be examined first in comparison with Rabbinic and Old Testament literary forms. The insights gained from this study will then be transferred to Mk. 8:12.
Evasion of the immune response: survival within low responder individuals of the host population
Authors: Wakelin D.
Published: August 2011

It is proposed that, for many species of parasites, evasion of the host immune response may be achieved passively through enhanced survival within host individuals that have a genetically determined low responsiveness to infection. Evasion by this means may contribute significantly to continued transmission of infection in man and domestic animals and influence the severity of pathology. Low responsiveness plays an important role in determining over-dispersion of parasites within host populations, and the common occurrence of this form of distribution is seen as supporting evidence for the proposition, although few of the examples available provide conclusive proof. The extensive individual and strain variation in response to parasitic infection in laboratory strains of mice is tak as a homologue of the natural situation and allows analysis of the mechanisms underlying low responsiveness. Two examples are considered in detail. InLeishmaniainfections both non-H-2 and H-2-linked genes influence resistance, but the primary expression of genetically determined low response is at the level of the macrophage. Genetic influences upon acquired immunity regulate macrophage–T-cell interactions. InTrichinella spiralisH-2-linked and non-H-2 genes influence development of the intestinal responses necessary for expulsion of the adult worm, the former through the response of helper T-cells to worm antigen and the amplification of this response through other T-cells, the latter through an effect upon the response of myeloid stem cells to T-cell signals. Modification of genetically determined low responsiveness is discussed in terms of (a) improving host responsiveness through vaccination or non-specific immunostimulation and (b) altering host genotype through selective breeding or the introduction of resistance alleles into a population.
Use of immunological manipulations in studying genetically controlled responses toLeishmania donovaniinfection in mice
Authors: Blackwell Jenefer M.
Published: August 2011

In the preceding paper Howard (p. 665) has given a very elegant presentation on ways in which the host immune system may be manipulated to provide valuable information about immunoregulation of parasitic infectionin vivo. In our laboratory we have used some of the same manoeuvres to study immunoregulation of genetically controlled responses toLeishmania donovaniinfection in inbred mouse strains (Ulczak & Blackwell, 1983; Crocker, Blackwell & Bradley, 1984). As has been Howard's experience, the results obtained have not always been as one might have predicted at the outset.
Pathophysiology of parasitic infections
Authors: Holmes P. H.
Published: August 2011

Parasites can have a wide range of pathophysiological effects on the host. This review describes those associated with some parasites of major importance in man and animals. Haemoprotozoan diseases such as trypanosomiasis and malaria are primarily associated with anaemia. Such anaemias have a complex aetiology involving various mechanisms responsible for red cell destruction as well as possible defects in red cell production. In addition to these haematological effects these diseases are associated with marked disturbances in heart function and the nervous, immune and urinary systems. The other major groups of parasitic diseases are those associated with the gastrointestinal tract. The most advanced studies have been conducted on the pathophysiology of gastrointestinal nematode parasites of sheep and have revealed significant effects on feed intake, gastrointestinal function, and protein and energy metabolism. Similar studies have yet to be conducted in other hosts and parasitic diseases. There is also a need to examine in greater detail the factors which can modulate pathophysiological responses by the host to parasitic infections.
Gastrointestinal mucus, a medium for survival and for elimination of parasitic nematodes and protozoa
Authors: Miller H. R. P.
Published: August 2011

Mucus is a sticky visco-elastic material which coats all mucosal surfaces. Florey, in 1955, noted the following three functions for gastrointestinal mucus: protection of the underlying mucosa from chemical and physical injury, lubrication of the mucosal surface to facilitate passage of luminal contents, and removal of parasites by binding and entrapment. In the 31 years since Florey's review, detailed analyses of the composition of mucus and of the biochemistry of mucin glycoproteins, as well as measurements of the physical properties of mucus from different organs and sites have yielded information at the molecular level which provide additional support for his views on its function (Allen, 1981; Forstner, Wesley & Forstner, 1982).
The significance of parasitic infections in terms of clinical disease: a personal view
Authors: McGregor I. A.
Published: August 2011

Throughout the world, infection with parasites is extremely common. Prevalence is highest in the warm countries of the tropics and subtropics, but infection occurs in all climatic zones. The figures usually quoted for the prevalence of specific parasites attain values akin to those used to describe astronomical distances. The World Health Organization (1985) estimated that some 2582 million of the earth's inhabitants live in areas where they risk contracting malaria and that many – in Africa south of the Sahara alone probably 200 million – remain chronically and persistently infected. Estimates for other parasites are similarly impressive; 600 million at risk of infection with schistosomiasis, with some 200 million actually infected; 900 million exposed to lymphatic filarial parasites, with some 90 million currently infected; for onchocerciasis, probably some 40 million cases spread throughout Africa, Central and South America and the Eastern mediterranean. Yet, impressive as these estimates may be, they are dwarfed by those for some intestinal helminths. Recent assessments suggest that 1 person in 4 of the world's population carriesAscaris lumbricoides(Schultz, 1982), while the same proportion is believed to be infected with one or other of the hookworms (Gilman, 1982).
Introductory remarks: Transport mechanisms across cell membranes
Authors: Ellory J. C. , Elford B. C. , Newbold C. I.
Published: August 2011

The differential permeability of cell membranes to various electrolytes and non-electrolytes represents one of the most fundamental characteristics of life. In the context of parasitology, differences in transport properties when parasite and host cells are compared represent an important avenue for chemotherapy. For example, a recent success in this area exploits the difference in nucleoside transport systems between host and parasite to produce combination therapy of Schistosoma japonicum by tubercidin and nitrobenzylthioinosine-5′-monophosphate (Elkouni, Diop & Cha, 1983). The morning session of this symposium was devoted to various aspects of membrane structure and function, particularly in the context of characterizing parasite transport systems. It is therefore probably worth while to present a simple classification of membrane transport systems, based on their complexity, and energy requirements. Table 1 summarizes the principal types of transport to be considered, starting with simple (Stokesian) diffusion. This will depend on permeant size, charge and lipid solubility. Classically, transmembrane transport of such molecules as aliphatic alcohols, ureas and small sugars has been studied, in simple systems such as the red cell (see Stein (1986) for references). In fact this route is important for intracellular delivery of a variety of hydrophobic molecules, for example phenylalanine benzyl ester transport as an antisickling agent (Acquaye, Young, Ellory, Grecki & Wilchek, 1983), or quin-2 and fura-2 for intracellular calcium measurements (Tsien, 1981).
The Wellcome Trust Lecture: Mechanisms of molecular trafficking in malaria
Authors: Sherman I. W.
Published: August 2011

The asexual stages ofPlasmodiumliving within the erythrocyte result in growth-related changes in the permeability properties of the red cell for substances such as glucose, amino acids, purine nucleosides, sodium, potassium, calcium, zinc, iron and several antimalarial drugs such as chloroquine, amodiaquine and mefloquine. In most cases such changes do not appear to be due to a modification in the affinity or specificity of red cell transporters; indeed, for most substances the membrane-associated transporters are either unaffected or are partially inactivated. In malaria-infected erythrocytes, where a striking increase in influx has been observed, it has been attributed to the insertion of parasite-encoded transporters into the red cell membrane or the formation of aqueous leaks and/or pores. Leak formation, in the vast majority of cases, does not appear to be dependent on the insertion of plasmodial proteins into the red cell membrane. However, since the data presently available are less than satisfactory for discriminating amongst the various possible transport mechanisms future studies will require painstaking efforts and carefully controlled conditions to discriminate amongst the various transport systems which are operational in the malaria-infected red cell and the parasite.
The interactions between drugs and the parasite surface
Authors: Chappell L. H.
Published: August 2011

The interrelationships between drugs and parasite surfaces are considered under the headings of (a) effects on membrane transport, (b) drug uptake mechanisms and (c) effects on surface morphology and function: praziquantel is discussed under a separate heading. The range of chemotherapeutic compounds that cause permeability changes and concomitant morphological disruption is discussed in terms of mode of drug action. Interpretation of the available data renders it difficult to identify the primary mode of action in the drugs considered. Drug uptake mechanisms are known for relatively few compounds; drug resistance as a function of drug acquisition is discussed. The role of the parasite surface as a specific drug target is argued.
Monitoring trypanosomiasis in space and time
Authors: Rogers D. J. , Williams B. G.
Published: August 2011

The paper examines the possible contributions to be made by Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to studies on human and animal trypanosomiasis in Africa. The epidemiological characteristics of trypanosomiasis are reviewed in the light of the formula for the basic reproductive rate or number of vector-borne diseases. The paper then describes how important biological characteristics of the vectors of trypanosomiasis in West Africa may be monitored using data from the NOAA series of meteorological satellites. This will lead to an understanding of the spatial distribution of both vectors and disease. An alternative, statistical approach to understanding the spatial distribution of tsetse, based on linear discriminant analysis, is illustrated with the example ofGlossina morsitansin Zimbabwe, Kenya and Tanzania. In the case of Zimbabwe, a single climatic variable, the maximum of the mean monthly temperature, correctly predicts the pre-rinderpest distribution of tsetse over 82% of the country; additional climatic and vegetation variables do not improve considerably on this figure. In the cases of Kenya and Tanzania, however, another variable, the maximum of the mean monthly Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, is the single most important variable, giving correct predictions over 69 % of the area; the other climatic and vegetation variables improve this to 82 % overall. Such statistical analyses can guide field work towards the correct biological interpretation of the distributional limits of vectors and may also be used to make predictions about the impact of global change on vector ranges. Examples are given of the areas of Zimbabwe which would become climatically suitable for tsetse given mean temperature increases of 1, 2 and 3 °Centigrade. Five possible causes for sleeping sickness outbreaks are given, illustrated by the analysis of field data or from the output of mathematical models. One cause is abiotic (variation in rainfall), three are biotic (variation in vectorial potential, host immunity, or parasite virulence) and one is historical (the impact of explorers, colonizers and dictators). The implications for disease monitoring, in order to anticipate sleeping sickness outbreaks, are briefly discussed. It is concluded that present data are inadequate to distinguish between these hypotheses. The idea that sleeping sickness outbreaks are periodic (i.e. cyclical) is only barely supported by hard data. Hence it is even difficult to conclude whether the major cause of sleeping sickness outbreaks is biotic (which, in model situations, tends to produce cyclical epidemics) or abiotic. The conclusions emphasize that until we understand more about the variation in space and time of tsetse and trypanosomiasis distribution and abundance we shall not be in a position to benefit from the advances made by GIS. The potential is there, however, to re-introduce the spatial and temporal elements into epidemiological studies that are currently often neglected.