bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Causal Inference in Cancer Epidemiology
Authors: Goodman Steven N. , Samet Jonathan M.
Published: December 2017

Judgments about causality are central to the development of interventions intended to reduce exposure to risk factors that cause cancer. Because causation is not directly observable in medicine, scientists and philosophers have had to develop sets of constructs and heuristics that define “cause” operationally. The criteria in this framework, often attributed to the British medical statistician Sir Austin Bradford Hill or to the 1964 Report of the US Surgeon General on tobacco, include consistency, strength of association, specificity, temporality, coherence/plausibility/analogy, biological gradient, and experiment. This chapter reviews these criteria in depth and considers the challenges of applying them to population research on cancer. It discusses the concepts of causation in the context of the multistage nature of cancer, the “counterfactual” notion of causation, the component cause model for understanding diseases with multiple causes, and the “weight of the evidence” approach for integrating information from multiple lines of research.
Socioeconomic Disparities in Cancer Incidence and Mortality
Authors: Kroenke Candyce , Kawachi Ichiro
Published: December 2017

The relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and cancer is complex, dynamic, and evolving. Associations depend on SES measures, cancer type, sociodemographic factors including race/ethnicity, and historical trends. However, socioeconomic disadvantage is often associated with a higher risk of cancer, particularly cancers diagnosed at a late stage, as well as worse prognosis once diagnosed. Research on secular trends over the past 70 years has shown reversals of the socioeconomic gradient for lung and colorectal cancer consistent with differential trends by SES in patterns of smoking, diet, and obesity. Rates of these cancers are now currently higher in socioeconomically disadvantaged groups. SES is considered to be a “fundamental” determinant of health outcomes, and this appears true throughout the cancer spectrum—from cancer incidence to detection, treatment, and survival. Investigations over the past decade have increasingly considered the simultaneous impact of individual SES and area-level SES (as a contextual influence) on health outcomes.
Tobacco
Authors: Thun Michael J. , Freedman Neal D.
Published: December 2017

Tobacco is the leading preventable cause of cancer and other non-communicable diseases worldwide. IARC and the U.S. Surgeon General designate over twenty cancer sites or subsites as causally related to active cigarette smoking, including lung, oral cavity, nasal cavity and accessory sinuses, naso- oro- and hypopharynx, larynx, esophagus (squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma), stomach, pancreas, colorectum, liver, kidney (adeno- and transitional cell carcinoma), ureter, urinary bladder, uterine cervix, ovary (mucinous), and acute myeloid leukemia. Even this list may be incomplete, as it does not include sites for which the evidence is still considered limited, such as advanced prostate cancer and breast cancer. In addition to cigarettes, all other forms of smoked and conventional smokeless tobacco products, as well as involuntary exposure to tobacco smoke, cause cancer. The use of multiple tobacco products continues to complicate tobacco control, as does the recent introduction of novel products such as e-cigarettes.
Oral Cavity, Oropharynx, Lip, and Salivary Glands
Authors: Hashibe Mia , Sturgis Erich M. , Ferlay Jacques , Winn Deborah M.
Published: December 2017

Cancers of the oral cavity, oropharynx, lip, and salivary glands are malignancies of the head and neck. Some of these cancer sites share risk factors, although each has distinctive anatomic, epidemiologic, and clinical features. Oral cavity cancers arise on the inner lip and buccal mucosa, anterior two-thirds of the tongue, gum, hard palate, and floor of mouth. These cancers are strongly associated with the use of smoked and smokeless tobacco products, heavy alcohol consumption, and chewing of betel quid or pan, but only minimally associated with prior infection with human papillomavirus (HPV). In contrast, oropharyngeal cancers affect the posterior one-third (base) of the tongue, tonsils, soft palate, and other oropharyngeal tissues and are strongly associated with HPV-16 infection as well as with the use of tobacco, alcohol, and betel quid. In principle, tumors of the oral cavity, oropharynx, and lip are among the most preventable forms of cancer.
Stomach Cancer
Authors: Martel Catherine de , Parsonnet Julie
Published: December 2017

Stomach cancer is the fifth most common incident cancer worldwide and the third leading cause of cancer death. Almost half of the world’s cases occur in Asia, with 42% in China alone. Although the incidence and mortality rates from stomach cancer are decreasing, the global disease burden remains high. Moreover, the absolute number of cases continues to rise because of population aging. Adenocarcinomas comprise over 90% of gastric malignancies. The adenocarcinomas are further classified according to anatomic location (cardia vs. non-cardia), histology (e.g., intestinal or diffuse, signet ring or non-signet ring) and most recently by molecular classification. Adenocarcinomas in the body and antrum of the stomach are usually caused by chronic infection with Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori); the incidence of these tumors is decreasing worldwide. Cardia tumors have epidemiological characteristics more similar to those of esophageal adenocarcinoma; the incidence of these tumors is increasing, particularly in high-income Western countries.
Cancer of the Pancreas
Authors: Antwi Samuel O. , Jansen Rick J. , Petersen Gloria M.
Published: December 2017

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is an uncommon but often rapidly lethal malignancy. Worldwide, PC is the twelfth most commonly diagnosed cancer and the seventh most common for cancer deaths. Globally, the estimated number of incident cases (338,000) and deaths from PC (330,400) were almost identical in 2012 Etiologic research on PC is complicated by the relatively inaccessible location of the pancreas, obstacles to early diagnosis, aggressiveness and resistance to therapy of these malignancies, and the tendency of PC to progress rapidly. Until recently, the only etiologic factors considered to be definite causes of PC were tobacco use, chronic pancreatitis, and several rare high-penetrance genetic disorders. In the past decade, the evidence for other causal relationships has strengthened, especially for metabolic risk factors (obesity, type II diabetes mellitus, insulin and insulin-like growth factor), chronic local inflammation, heavy alcohol consumption, dietary consumption of grilled meat, and non-O ABO blood type.
Multiple Myeloma
Authors: Purdue Mark P. , Hofmann Jonathan N. , Brown Elizabeth E. , Vachon Celine M.
Published: December 2017

Multiple myeloma (MM) is the most common malignancy arising from plasma cells, fully differentiated B lymphocytes that produce the immunoglobulin (Ig) heavy- and light-chain molecules comprising antibodies. MM is characterized by an overproduction of clonal plasma cells in the bone marrow and, in most cases, monoclonal secretion of IgG, IgA, or light-chain Ig. Symptoms of end organ damage (hypercalcemia [C], renal failure [R], anemia [A], or bone lesions [B]), herein referred to as CRAB features, were traditionally a necessary criterion for diagnosing MM; however, improvements in treatment and diagnostic techniques have led to updated diagnostic criteria, enabling intervention among patients before the onset of organ damage. Multiple myeloma is an important cause of lymphoid malignancy (LM) mortality in Western populations. In the United States in 2015, MM was estimated to account for approximately one in every five newly diagnosed LMs, and one in every three LM-related deaths.
Bone Cancers
Authors: Mirabello Lisa , Curtis Rochelle E. , Savage Sharon A.
Published: December 2017

Cancers arising from bone or cartilage account for about 0.2% of malignant neoplasms. They are histologically heterogeneous with multiple rare subtypes. Osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma occur primarily in children and young adults, whereas other bone cancers occur in older individuals. As a group, bone cancers have few known environmental risk factors, the exception being a strong association between therapeutic radiation and increased risk of osteosarcoma. The genetic etiology is also better understood in osteosarcoma, although there have been limited studies in other types of bone cancers. This chapter reviews the worldwide incidence of more common types of primary bone cancers, patterns in survival over time, and the associated environmental and genetic risk factors.
Melanoma
Authors: Armstrong Bruce K. , Vajdic Claire M. , Cust Anne E.
Published: December 2017

Melanoma is a cancer of melanocytes, cells that produce the brown-black skin pigment melanin. Melanocytes originate in cells of the neural crest and migrate during embryogenesis, principally to the epidermis, eyes, and some mucous membranes (mouth, nose, esophagus, anus, genitourinary organs, and conjunctiva). Cutaneous melanoma afflicts mainly fair-skinned people of European origin, among whom sun exposure is the major cause. Five-year relative survival can exceed 90%. Invasive cutaneous melanoma in US whites occurs mostly on the trunk (34%), and upper limbs and shoulders (26%). Melanoma incidence rates have been increasing predominantly in European-origin populations. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, from the sun or artificial tanning devices, probably both initiates and promotes melanoma. Nevi are markers of increased melanoma risk and direct precursors in some cases; nevus-prone people may require only modest sun exposure to initiate melanoma. Other risk factors include family history and sun sensitivity.
Prevention of Obesity and Physical Inactivity
Authors: Satija Ambika , Hu Frank B.
Published: December 2017

Energy imbalance, obesity, and physical inactivity are key risk factors for at least eight types of cancer as well as other life-threatening conditions. Obesity results from an excess of energy intake relative to energy expenditure over time. Until recently, the onus for maintaining a healthy body weight was placed predominantly on the individual. The traditional concept of individual autonomy cannot explain the rapid worldwide increase in obesity and physical inactivity over the last 40 years. A new paradigm has emerged, in which individual choices are important, but these choices are made within a social, economic, and physical context that profoundly influences the options. Food choices are affected by the availability and pricing of different products and by social norms about eating patterns body weight. Urbanization and a more rapid pace of life reduce access to homegrown and home-cooked foods, and mechanization replaces the need for walking and manual labor.
Ozuesque as a Sensibility
Authors: Choi Jinhee
Published: December 2017

This chapter considers “Ozuesque” as an individual sensibility that could be rooted in and extrapolated from the thematic and stylistic traditions of both Japan and Hollywood. Ozu’s austere yet ludic constitution comprises his distinctive sensibility that is rarely emulated by any other director. In order to delineate Ozu’s aesthetic sensibility, the chapter turns to the conception of sensibility advanced by art historian Roger Fry, who argues for a need to distinguish between sensibility in design and the sensibility in texture, the latter of which he calls “surface sensibility.” Such a distinction not only helps identify Ozu’s sensibility, but further explains the uneasiness in loosely employing the term “Ozuesque” in the discussion of directors who are influenced by, or pay homage to, Ozu. The latter half of the chapter examines Kore-eda Hirokazu, who is often compared to Ozu, not through formal terms, but instead via their shared, muted sensibility.
Modernity, Shoshimin Films, and the Proletarian-Film Movement
Authors: Takinami Yuki
Published: December 2017

This chapter resituates the question of modernity in Ozu’s shoshimin eiga within the cultural and political context of proletarian-film movement in the 1930s. This chapter first focuses on the writings by leftist film critics. While, as is today, the term “shoshimin” designated the subject depicted in films, the same term was further used to underline the political attitude of the director. Consequently, “shoshimin eiga” acquired an implication quite opposite to that of today: the politically weak films taken from the shoshimin standpoint. The chapter further develops this other implication of shoshimin eiga, analyzing the film-within-film scene of I Was Born, But . . . with reference to Dziga Vertov’s Man with a Movie Camera. By foregrounding the fact that Man with a Movie Camera was released in Japan in March 1932 when Ozu took I Was Born, But . . . , this chapter makes explicit the lack of the cinema politics of revolutionary awaking in Ozu’s films.
Wenders Travels with Ozu
Authors: Betz Mark
Published: December 2017

The positioning of Wim Wenders as a filmmaker indebted to Ozu Yasujiro is not a new one. He has expressed his admiration for Ozu’s work on several occasions, in both his own critical writings and on film. But just what Wenders has taken from Ozu, and what that might mean for an understanding of a “traveling” film practice like that of Wenders, has yet to be explored in any real depth. This chapter pays close attention to four feature films, two for each director. The formal correspondences manifest themselves not in terms of style but at structural and dramaturgical levels, in a shared strategy of repeating, doubling, or twinning, and especially so for what the chapter calls the double climactic monologue. Examining Wenders’s borrowings and conversions from Ozu illuminates otherwise hidden corners for both artists and shows the benefits of a reflective form of intercultural analysis.
Sparse or Slow
Authors: Brown William
Published: December 2017

This chapter looks at the influence of Yasujiro Ozu on the contemporary British filmmaker Joanna Hogg. Providing close readings of Hogg’s first three films, Unrelated (2007), Archipelago (2010), and Exhibition (2013), the chapter investigates the way in which traces of Ozu’s work can be found in Hogg’s slow cutting rate, her static camera, and her spare stories of middle-class family life. In particular, the chapter looks at how Hogg’s work ties in with the contemporary “slow cinema” movement, suggesting that while influenced by Ozu, Hogg’s slow cinema also marks a break from the Japanese master’s work, which can be characterized less as slow and more accurately as “sparse.” The distinction between Hogg and Ozu is also made clear by the way in which the latter’s “humanism” has been adapted toward the former’s more “posthumanist” project.
Ground Bass Techniques
Authors: Harris Ellen T.
Published: December 2017

The movements in Dido and Aeneas built over a ground (repeating) bass illustrate Purcell’s achievement in balancing repetitive patterning with asymmetrical phrase structure, thus transforming a common compositional artifice into artistic expression. In “Ah, Belinda,” he writes a declamation and an air over the same repeating bass pattern. In “Oft she visits,” the collapse of normalcy into destructive chaos depicted in the text is illustrated by the alteration he makes to the relationship between the repeating bass and the vocal line. Dido’s Lament is the most extensively constructed of these airs, the links to the preceding and following movements creating an extended scene depicting Dido’s dying moments.
The Late Eighteenth Century
Authors: Harris Ellen T.
Published: December 2017

In the late eighteenth century, The Academy of Ancient Music prepared a modern adaptation of Dido and Aeneas that was performed into the nineteenth century. The score was brought “up-to-date” by means of alterations to rhythmic flow and cadential patterns, and the temporal separation of individual movements from one another. Scenic demarcations were revised to indicate entrances and exits rather than stage set, and cuts were taken throughout the score. The vocal ranges of the soloists were altered to cover the standard vocal range: soprano (Dido), alto (Belinda), tenor (Aeneas), bass (Sorceress). Some of the surviving sources for these performances offer the names of specific singers who played the major roles.
Bribing Foreign Officials
Authors: Pieth Mark
Published: December 2017

This chapter discusses the application of OECD anticorruption instruments in stopping the bribing of foreign officials. It begins with a discussion of whether bribery is a necessary evil, describes the US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, and details the initiative and first steps in the OECD. The chapter then turns to the 1994 Recommendation and its follow-up, including implementation of the Anti-Bribery Convention. Finally it describes the 2005 crisis involving an investigation of a large arms deal between British Aerospace (BAE) and Saudi Arabia. The crisis was ultimately overcome by Britain enacting the UK Bribery Act in 2010 indeed, the toughest law on foreign bribery worldwide.
The UN Convention Against Corruption
Authors: Heimann Fritz
Published: December 2017

This chapter covers the UN Convention Against Corruption’s development, politics, disputes, and resolution concerning its monitoring. The UN Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) has worldwide membership and an extremely comprehensive scope, making it the pre-eminent instrument for combating global corruption. UNCAC covers a wide range of criminal offenses, domestic and foreign, public and private. It also provides extensive preventive measures, such as codes of conduct for public officials, rules on public procurement, management of public finances, independence of the judiciary, and prevention of money laundering. UNCAC also provides measures for international cooperation, including extradition, mutual legal assistance in investigations, prosecutions and judicial proceedings, asset recovery, and technical assistance.
Aeronautics and Defense
Authors: Pieth Mark
Published: December 2017

This chapter focuses on corruption in the aeronautics and defense industry. Obviously, defense and security are affected by many different forms of corruption, ranging from petty corruption to evade conscription to hefty bribes to high-ranking commanders in combat situations. Major challenges, however, arise from defense procurement. The high exposure has particular reasons: defense procurement is about huge sums of money. On both sides of the equation are highly concentrated actors: large multinational enterprises and governments. The technical details of the requirements are complex; the legal details of contracts are confusing. They usually have a long life span, typically longer than that of a government. Government officials and military officers dispose of a large leeway of discretion, and these contracts are frequently covered by a cloak of secrecy given national security considerations. Sometimes procurement rules are circumvented by government-to-government contracts. The already complex contracts are typically further confused through offset agreements.
Beyond Criminal Law
Authors: Pieth Mark
Published: December 2017

This chapter discusses administrative sanctions and preventive measures that go beyond criminal law to fight corruption such as states and Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs). They have developed a set of regulatory sanctions more directly aiming at the prevention of abuses by companies and individuals and protecting the interests of their respective institutions. Domestic procurement rules as well as the regulations developed by MDBs foresee cancellation of loans in the face of concrete misbehavior. Domestic agencies would also be able to stay subsidies or export insurance. Furthermore, domestic agencies and MDBs have introduced detailed sanctions procedures allowing debarment of corporations and individuals from future participation in procurement or from eligibility for export insurance. The debarment procedures established by MDBs may be regarded as a worldwide example of such administrative sanctioning, and one of the largest is the World Bank.
Introduction
Authors: Hitlin Steven , Harkness Sarah K.
Published: December 2017

The chapter begins discussing the importance of morality for understanding society, its historical centrality for the social sciences, and its growing importance in current psychological and sociological scholarship. It then moves to a discussion about inequality as a growing factor in popular and political discussions, and summarizes important aspects of the sociological state of knowledge about how inequalities operate in society. The chapter previews the structural underpinnings of morality and the book’s assertion that societal inequality drives different experiences of moral emotion. After presenting the plan for the book, it concludes with an overview of each subsequent chapter.
The Theory of Inequality and Moral Emotions
Authors: Hitlin Steven , Harkness Sarah K.
Published: December 2017

This chapter brings together the strands of theory and research discussed previously to introduce our theory on inequality and morality. The general argument is that in societies with greater economic inequality, the negative sanctioning-based moral emotions of anger, contempt, disgust, shame, and the like will be more frequent and severe. Societies with lower levels of inequality will conversely normalize and exhibit the more positive moral emotions of self-transcendence (compassion, praise, and empathy). Inequality thus begets negative moral emotions. These various emotional reactions to moral events not only affect everyday interaction, but also overlap with criminal justice systems’ reactions to those who offend societies’ moral codes. The more negative the moral reaction in a society, the more likely events are to prompt feelings associated with condemning others, the more the criminal justice system will be similarly focused on sanctioning as opposed to rehabilitation.
Introduction
Authors: Moralee Jason
Published: December 2017

The introduction establishes premodern ways of knowing the Capitoline Hill, from the poetry of Ennius and Vergil and the antiquarian writings of Varro, Servius, and Justus Rycquius to the historiography of Q. Fabius Pictor, Livy, and late antique chronicles. What made the mountain holy was its association with gold as a symbol of Roman military supremacy, a physical realization of Vergil’s iconic appellation of the hill as the Golden Capitol. The loss of the Capitol’s gold and its tropic quality of goldness led Bracciolini, Niebuhr, Lanciani, and Gatteschi either to opine the loss of Rome’s grandeur or to search for the hidden treasures of the hill or attempt to reconstruct its lost monumentality. This nostalgia set up a paradigm for the dismissal of the postclassical Capitoline Hill as a pile of insignificant ruins, thus obscuring the vitality of the hill for the social and intellectual life of the late empire.
Learning from the Capitol’s Deliverance
Authors: Moralee Jason
Published: December 2017

Chapter 5 asks what Christians were supposed to learn from the stories about the Capitoline Hill’s special status in Roman memory as the inviolable citadel of Jupiter’s people. Christian intellectuals such as Tertullian, followed by Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius of Caesarea, Lactantius, and Arnobius, ridiculed Roman history and mythology. Jerome, Ambrose, Prudentius, Augustine, and others pursued the same agenda into the fourth and fifth centuries. For these apologists, the ways of knowing the Capitol could be flipped to suddenly make clear that the beloved traditions at the heart of the Capitol’s symbolic status could not stand up to scrutiny. Of particular importance to these men was the belief that Jupiter lived in his house on the Capitoline Hill and was especially interested in protecting the Roman people through the long history of their state, a series of arguments reanimated with significance in the years following the Gothic king Alaric’s occupation of Rome in 410.
The Capitol and the Legends of the Saints
Authors: Moralee Jason
Published: December 2017

Chapter 7 examines how dozens of martyr acts composed beginning in the fifth century turned the Capitol into a site of Christian resistance. In these pious fictions, rejection of a fantasy Capitol created a new heritage for the hill. The Capitol was reconstructed out of the “living textuality” of the hill, fragments of inscriptions, and the ubiquitous presence of ruins. Unmoored from the traditional ways of remembering the hill established in the late republic, the Capitol came to play a new role in a distinctly Christian history of a pagan Roman empire. These martyr acts elaborated new ways of knowing the hill and the city of Rome that had almost nothing to do with the classical past. Here, Roman traditions about Christian heroes made the Capitol emblematic of the Roman Empire itself, a symbol of awesome worldly power that could be dramatically neutralized by a battalion of Roman saints.
The Domestic Citizen and Female Education in the Postcolonial Era
Authors: Teoh Karen M.
Published: December 2017

The concluding chapter looks beyond the colonial era to the age of independent statehood in Malaysia and Singapore and to the continuing evolution of female education. Despite decolonization and accelerating globalization in the late twentieth century, overseas Chinese women faced a still-limited range of identity options as a result of Southeast Asian nationalism and China’s detachment from its diasporic community for some decades. Through state policies such as compulsory domestic science classes for girls and family planning incentives that encouraged women of specific ethnicities and socioeconomic classes to have more children, postcolonial governments continued to perpetuate patriarchal and race-based attitudes toward women, even as educated women advocated successfully for their own rights and freedoms.
Khanāṣira and Andarı̄n (Northern Syria) in the Umayyad Period and a New Arabic Tax Document
Authors: Hoyland Robert G.
Published: December 2017

This chapter provides the first edition and translation of an early eighth-century documentary text on marble found in the course of excavations at the Late Antique/early Islamic town of Andarīn in modern-day northern Syria. As well as presenting the text itself, which is of a fiscal nature, the author considers various related issues, such as the identity of the sender of the document, the archaeological context of its discovery, the practice of writing on marble, the history of Andarīn and its relationship to nearby settlements (especially Khanāṣir/Anasartha), early Islamic fiscal practice, and the activities of the Umayyad family in northern Syria.
Two Possible Caliphal Representations from Qaṣr al-Ḥayr al-Sharqı̄ and Their Implication for the History of the Site
Authors: Genequand Denis
Published: December 2017

Qaṣr al-Ḥayr al-Sharqī was founded as a madīna by caliph Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Malik. It is one of the largest Umayyad aristocratic settlements of the Syrian Steppe. Between 2002 and 2011, extensive fieldwork was conducted there by a Syrian-Swiss mission, with a strong focus on agricultural features and water systems, on structures with an economic role, and on vernacular architecture around the caliphal palace. Fieldwork also included the almost complete excavation of another aristocratic residence called Building E, which might have been a direct predecessor of the caliphal palace. This chapter aims at presenting up-to-date information about the plan of the latter structure, at discussing further some elements of its decoration, especially two carved stucco panels bearing caliphal representations, and at introducing new hypotheses for the history of the site in the early eighth century.
Conquered Bodies in the Roman Bedroom
Authors: Belser Julia Watts
Published: December 2017

This chapter examines tales of beautiful Jewish men and women taken captive by Rome. In these stories, beauty performs potent cultural work. Through sexualized narratives that portray the captive Jew as victim of Roman greed, Bavli Gittin makes use of a common Roman moral trope—concern for luxuria, an insatiable desire for luxury that is also expressed in lust and licentiousness—to critique elite Roman decadence and moral degradation. These stories also reveal a striking departure from the conventional beauty politics of rabbinic culture. Elsewhere, the Babylonian Talmud frequently portrays women’s beauty as a source of spiritual danger to rabbinic men. By contrast, Bavli Gittin portrays the beautiful woman as a victim, not a threat. Amidst situations of overt Roman violence, Bavli Gittin affirms the moral innocence of violated men and women who are subjected to the conqueror’s lust.
Materiality and Memory
Authors: Belser Julia Watts
Published: December 2017

This chapter reads Bavli Gittin’s destruction narratives through the lens of ecological materialist criticism, tracing the trail of blood and other fleshy residues of the body that run through the account of the devastation of Betar. These tales imagine the body dismembered, undone by the conqueror’s violence. Filled with transcorporeal images of blood and brain seeping into the land, they blur the boundaries between human bodies and the rest of the material world. While these tales memorialize the lingering presence of body and blood in the land, they also betray an anxious instability: the tangible remains of Jewish death are all too easily rendered ephemeral. This chapter traces tensions over materiality and memory, permanence and erasure, heroism and defeat in the tales of the boiling blood of the slain prophet Zechariah and the martyrdom of the mother of seven sons, parsing the Bavli’s complex discourse of ruin and redemption.
Two Worlds Colliding
Authors: Fiorino Daniel J.
Published: December 2017

In recent decades, ecological politics in the United States has been locked in a zero-sum conflict, with ecological goals pitted against economic ones. The result is that ecosystems and public health are increasingly at risk, needed transitions in energy and other systems are delayed, and opportunities for leveraging economic and ecological goals are unrealized. This matters, because economic growth is placing increasing pressures on local, regional, and global ecosystems and resources. Growing and compelling evidence of ecological limits raises not only critical threats to health and the natural environment but undermines the very basis for economic and social well-being. The alternative to an irresponsible strategy of unguided growth or a politically unrealistic and socially risky one of no growth or de-growth is that of green growth. Green growth defines a basis for both a politically realistic framing of ecology–economy issues and a workable policy agenda for change.
What Is Green Growth?
Authors: Fiorino Daniel J.
Published: December 2017

This chapter argues that the green economy concept may be influential both in policy framing and as a framework for guiding and carrying out economic and political change. The premise of green growth is that economic security and prosperity are possible within the limits of local, regional, and global ecosystems, but only if the composition of growth changes through new investments, policies, and technologies. Although its intellectual origins may be traced to the fields of ecological economics, business greening, and ecological modernization, the green growth concept gained visibility in the wake of the 2009 financial crisis. Three modifications in the concept would make it more acceptable and relevant for policy debates: rethinking the purpose of growth as well as how it is achieved; shedding more light on economic inequality and its ecological consequences; and emphasizing the intrinsic as well as the utilitarian value of ecological assets and services.
Introduction
Authors: Hindmarsh D. Bruce
Published: December 2017

Evangelicals reprised the biblical trope of the “one thing needful” (the unum necessarium) but emphasized singular devotion not in the context of cloister or vestry but in the wider world. This book gives an account of this dynamic spirituality in the new social space of a modernizing society where the traditional bonds of ancien régime society were weakening. It describes the emergence of evangelical spirituality but views devotion, culture, and ideas all together. Evangelical devotion appeared alongside the rise of Modernity, the Enlightenment, and the Scientific Revolution, and in the midst of a shift from the authority of the ancients to that of the moderns. Evangelical devotion is therefore examined in relation to the key cultural domains of science, law, and art, and the leading intellectual discourses of natural and moral philosophy. The leading subjects and sources for the book and the content of each chapter are also briefly introduced.
Evangelical Spirituality and the Natural World
Authors: Hindmarsh D. Bruce
Published: December 2017

The evangelical attitude toward Newtonian science and devotional response to the natural world can be seen in a variety of individuals, all of whom drew upon the tradition of physico-theology but turned this into something more like a physico-doxology. William Romaine largely rejected Newtonian science, preferring the alternative Hutchinsonian cosmology, but Augustus Toplady celebrated science and used mechanical philosophy to support his Calvinist belief in necessity. Evangelical belletristic writing showed a keen appreciation of contemporary science and an attitude of devotional wonder, something especially evident in James Hervey, Moses Browne, Anne Steele, and Phillis Wheatley. In the last half of the century, Isaac Milner was a thoroughgoing Newtonian at Cambridge who closely united his science and his evangelical faith, and John Russell was an accomplished evangelical artist and amateur astronomer who combined art, science, and devotion in his exquisite lunar drawings.
Education for Citizenship
Authors: Hart Daniel , Youniss James
Published: December 2017

Schools are historically viewed as the institution responsible for inculcating civic virtue. Surprisingly, there is little research to indicate that traditional civics education substantially increases civics knowledge, interest in politics, or later political participation. We explore reasons for the failure of traditional civics education to fulfill its aims, identify steps necessary to improve civics education in schools, and argue that effective civics education must be extended beyond the walls of school buildings to incorporate community institutions. We conclude with a consideration of how notions of citizenship have evolved historically, and consider the implications of these transformations for understanding young Americans.
Civic Development in the 21st Century
Authors: Hart Daniel , Youniss James
Published: December 2017

Communities and political governance can be improved by promoting civic development. Unfortunately, contemporary ideological, ethnic, and economic segregation are corrosive to civic development, and the decline of community institutions and civic engagement opportunities within them weaken the traditional structures of democratic socialization. The transformations in social life wrought by computer-mediated communication and social interaction have not as yet been found to be powerful factors for youth participation in their communities or in the political process. We ought not hope that the challenges to youth engagement we have described throughout the book will resolve as a result of the passage of time. Instead, by committing to providing youth with real community civic opportunities, we can create capable citizens who will invigorate American society.
Introduction
Authors: Gross Robert N.
Published: December 2017

The introduction sets up the problem public officials faced in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. How should they, and the public schools they administered, respond to rapidly increasing attendance in private, Catholic schools? How, in a nation seemingly committed to mass public education, did private, Catholic schooling expand? In the broader economic language popular both at the time and today, how did educational competition and markets emerge in the twentieth century given the strong support for a public school monopoly a century earlier? The book’s central argument is that the structures that enable school choice to flourish today owe their origins—over a century ago—as much to public policy as to private initiative.
Educational Regulation
Authors: Gross Robert N.
Published: December 2017

Chapter 3 traces the history of educational regulation in the nineteenth century. It argues that as Catholic school attendance grew in the late nineteenth century, Catholic school advocates, along with public officials, envisioned the many benefits of tethering private education to state goals. Together, Catholic and public school officials helped blur the sharp distinctions between public and private that had existed for much of the nineteenth century, as symbolized by the Dartmouth v. Woodward (1819) decision. First in Rhode Island and then in Ohio Catholics accepted, and indeed fought for, forms of public regulation in return for maintaining an important fiscal subsidy: the property tax exemption. Courts in these states, and elsewhere, generally obliged, and in doing so granted public bodies significantly greater authority to regulate private actors.
Public Policy and Private Schools
Authors: Gross Robert N.
Published: December 2017

Chapter 4 addresses the wave of compulsory attendance legislation, passed in the 1880s, that transformed the relationship between schools and the state. Laws requiring school attendance introduced new dilemmas for school administrators and parochial school authorities. If states required children to attend school, how would public officials define adequate schooling? Ultimately, public officials relied on private schools to achieve public ends, believing that their continued growth was key to limiting public expenditures and attracting Catholic votes. Local officials refused to enforce compulsory attendance laws that would close down Catholic schools and place undue burdens on already overcrowded public school classrooms. When politicians did venture to enact or enforce policies hostile to parochial schools, Catholics mobilized their political power against local and state incumbents, successfully defending private education. As a result of these close ties between public officials and Catholic schools, private schools continued to grow in the early twentieth century.
Introduction
Authors: Dudoignon Stéphane A.
Published: December 2017

Touching on the guerrilla activity of the 2000s and early 2010s on Iran’s eastern (Baluch) and western (Kurdish) borderlands, the introduction discusses early-twenty-first-century Western, (particularly U.S.) geopolitical views of the Sunni minority issue in the country, and of its possible political and military instrumentation against the Islamic Republic. The author skims through the gradual rediscoveries, by domestic and international research, of the transformation of tribes and tribal might as a political factor in Middle Eastern societies, and of the emergence and progressive politicisation of Sunni identity within a Shia-majority Islamic Republic. The author especially sheds light on the particular political pragmatism that was developed by Tehran and the Sarbazi ulama, since 1979, in their mutual relations.
Global Health and the Global Burden of Disease
Authors: Mukherjee Joia S.
Published: December 2017

This chapter defines terms used to describe the health of populations, such as incidence, prevalence, morbidity, and mortality. It introduces the concept of the burden of disease: that is, the quantity and impact of diseases and conditions that affect the health of populations. The Global Burden of Disease project, first launched in 1990 by the World Health Organization (WHO) seeks to measure disease burden on a regular basis. This chapter also examines the epidemiological transition, a concept that describes changes in causes of morbidity and mortality associated with economic development. The limitations of this concept and the need to address the entirety of the disease burden and achieve Universal Health Coverage are also discussed.
Social Forces and Their Impact on Health
Authors: Mukherjee Joia S.
Published: December 2017

This chapter focuses on the social determinants of health. The phrase—the social determinants of health—is used to describe the factors and forces in society that cause ill health and premature death. To achieve health equity, it is important to understand the impact of social determinants and work to mitigate their adverse health effects. The practice of social medicine uses a biosocial approach that merges biomedical science with social analysis to design programs that strive for health equity. Because of the historical and geopolitical forces that have shaped global inequities, social medicine and a biosocial approach are important in global health and health equity and are addressed in this chapter.
Monitoring, Evaluation, Disease Surveillance, and Quality Improvement
Authors: Mukherjee Joia S.
Published: December 2017

Quality data are necessary to make good decisions in health delivery for both individuals and populations. Data can be used to improve care and achieve equity. However, systems for health data management were historically weak in most impoverished countries. Health data are not uncommonly compiled in stacks of poorly organized paper records. Efforts to streamline and improve health information discussed in this chapter include patient-held booklets, demographic health surveys, and the use of common indicators. This chapter also focuses on the evolution of medical records, including electronic systems. The use of data for monitoring, evaluation, and quality improvement is explained. Finally, this chapter reviews the use of frameworks—such as logic models and log frames—for program planning, evaluation, and improvement.
An Islamic Revival
Authors: Wolf Anne
Published: December 2017

Although it is generally assumed that Ennahda did not have any structures in Tunisia in the years before the uprisings, this chapter uncovers how the movement tried to tentatively recreate itself, including at the universities, starting from the mid-2000s, when some of its prisoners were released. Yet persistent repression and the trauma of jail and torture strongly limited its membership base. In parallel, an increasing number of devout Tunisians became attracted by the Salafis (a dynamic reinforced by the spread of the internet and satellite TV), who sought to challenge Ennahda’s monopoly as a religious opposition force. This chapter shows that a more general growth in piety among large sectors of the population boosted the rise of both Salafism and Ennahda activities in the 2000s, a dynamic that Ben Ali sought to capitalise on by reinforcing religious policies of his own.
The Great Game in West Asia
Authors: Kamrava Mehran
Published: December 2017

This chapter examines the nature and consequences of the attention paid to the South Caucasus, or lack thereof as the case may be, by the United States, European Union and Russia. It then analyzes ongoing processes of state-building in each of the region’s three states and how the attendant domestic and international challenges of such processes have facilitated opportunities for Iran and Turkey to expand their commercial and strategic ties with each other. The chapter ends with an examination of relations between Turkey and Iran, uneasy neighbors that compete on several fronts but also cooperate out of necessity. It highlights the unfolding of a new game of geostrategic competition and rivalry by these two regional powers over the South Caucasus. Turkey’s favoured tools of competition and rivalry have been its soft power and pipeline politics, and Iran’s are commerce and natural resources.
Curtailing China’s Rise before the Real Takeoff?
Authors: Lagerkvist Johan
Published: December 2017

Could the trajectory of economic modernization that has expanded China’s global profile over the last three decades run off the rails due to internal conflict? This chapter analyzes an important link in the censorship chain: social media companies that must monitor citizens’ communication, thus assisting in keeping a lid on social activism, its organization, and mobilization. The chapter then analyzes the well-known 2011 social protest that occurred in the village of Wukan. The findings point to “thin” loyalty to government rules and institutions inside the system of censorship and at the lowest level of the polity. The chapter argues if a profound economic or political crisis in which “thin” loyalty and weak legitimacy at both the top of the censorship system and at the bottom of society would have serious implications, then China’s system of censorship could crumble. This scenario would destabilize domestic rule and China’s rise to global preeminence.
Despite the “New Assertiveness,” China Is Not Up for Challenging the Global Order
Authors: Ruizhuang Zhang
Published: December 2017

History shows that the rise and fall of great powers are conducive to conflict and war, while realist international theories try to prove there is an irresistible logic to this historical lesson. If China has indeed risen to a full-fledged great power, the rest of the world does have reason to worry about its intentions and strategy toward the current global order. But does that premise hold up? Despite China’s phenomenal economic growth and the widespread “second place” bubble, China’s economy is not as strong as it appears. The chapter argues that China still has a long way to go to catch up to the current superpower, the United States, but its growth is more unsustainable than analysts tend to assume. China has neither the capability nor the intention to destabilize the current world order, and this defines China as not a revisionist but rather as a status quo state.
Somewhere Between Green and Blue
Authors: Thurmann Laura
Published: December 2017

This chapter explores the ambivalent self-perception of the officers in a recently created special police unit in DR Congo. Even though the police reforms since 2009 have aimed at a demilitarized Congolese police, the organization and structure of this special unit, tasked with the fight against organizsed crime in Kinshasa, is remarkably similar to military forces. This chapter argues that these officers are ambivalent about whether they are soldiers or police personnel.
Soft Law Enforcement in the Nigerien Gendarmerie
Authors: Göpfert Mirco
Published: December 2017

This chapter explores how gendarmes in the Republic of Niger, notwithstanding their aspiration for popular legitimacy, try to justify their actions, not to others, but to themselves.
Civilians bring the stories of their problems to the gendarmes’ attention in the form of complaints. Whether a complaint turns into a case, and thus whether the gendarmes become active, depends on their appreciation of the complainant’s story and
whether their ‘vocational ear’ is attuned to this story; and their vocational ear functions much more in terms of the material and moral gravity of the alleged offence, not in terms of the law.
Engagement Through the Diaspora Channel
Authors: Danielson Michael S.
Published: December 2017

The first empirical task is to identify the characteristics of municipalities which US-based migrants have come together to support financially. Using a nationwide, municipal-level data set compiled by the author, the chapter estimates several multivariate statistical models to compare municipalities that did not benefit from the 3x1 Program for Migrants with those that did, and seeks to explain variation in the number and value of 3x1 projects. The analysis shows that migrants are more likely to contribute where migrant civil society has become more deeply institutionalized at the state level and in places with longer histories as migrant-sending places. Furthermore, the results suggest that political factors are at play, as projects have disproportionately benefited states and municipalities where the PAN had a stronger presence, with fewer occurring elsewhere.