bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
East Asia and Central Eurasia
Authors: Perdue Peter C.
Published: February 2013

Since ancient times, East Asia and Central Eurasia have been connected to the world. Nationalist histories, however, have focused on the internal ‘unity’ of each of the nation-states of East Asia — China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam — while Central Eurasia has been fragmented into ‘Inner Asia’ (Mongolia, Tibet, Xinjiang, and Manchuria) and ‘Central Asia’ (former soviet Central Asia). These arbitrary divisions ignore similarities and interactions within Asia, and they no longer fit the post-1989 world. Globalization and nationalism have now developed together. Nevertheless, East Asia and Central Eurasia have a much longer history of cultural and economic interaction than of nationalist isolation. This article suggests way to study the global connections of East Asia and Central Eurasia. It considers state contacts, stat formation and expansion, and great divergences between nations.
Africa in World History: The Long, Long View
Authors: Ehret Christopher
Published: February 2013

This article describes the origins of Africa; the ‘First Great Transition’ of human history from foraging to food production; the era of agricultural elaboration; the ‘Second Great Transition’, from villages and tiny local political units to towns and states; early towns and states in West Africa and the Horn of Africa; the era of empires, and Africa in the Atlantic Age. To view Africa over the very long term is to discover that the notable developments of Africa's past followed similar pathways and proceeded at similar paces as comparable changes elsewhere in the world. Two great transitions of human history in the Holocene — from foraging to farming and, several thousand years later, from villages and informal governance to towns and states — shows that Africa was a continent of primary invention in those times.
The Atlantic Ocean Basin
Authors: Karras Alan L.
Published: February 2013

This article argues that historians ought to have two main goals: reconstructing the past in a way that demonstrates how those who lived life in times before our own understood and interacted with the world that they inhabited and ascribing meaning to these past experiences so that they are relevant to those in the present. Atlantic history, at least for the last few decades, has held out tremendous potential for modern world historians. This article describes expanding time and integrating space by considering the Atlantic world as a single entity from the time that the four continents bordering the Atlantic Ocean became linked though exploration. It also discusses community, migration, and the need for political economy; and globalizing Atlantic history.
Oceania and Australasia
Authors: d'Arcy paul
Published: February 2013

Oceania and Australasia are relatively recent and externally imposed terms. The term Australasia refers collectively to the lands south of Asia, or present-day Australia and New Zealand. Oceania refers to the Pacific Islands east of present-day Indonesia and the Philippines across to Pitcairn Island in the southeast Pacific and also includes the western half of the island of New Guinea, which is now part of Indonesia. These islands are generally divided into three geographical areas: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Present-day national borders cut across previous indigenous exchange areas or unite peoples with little previous sense of collective identity, especially in the larger Pacific Island nations of southwest Oceania. The region's value and prime relevance to world history lies in its comparative value in terms of European explorers and traders, and subsequent settler societies and their relations with, and impact upon, indigenous peoples.
The Atlantic Revolutions in the German Lands, 1776–1849
Authors: Sperber Jonathan
Published: February 2013

The Atlantic Revolutions in the German lands is the essence of this article. A discussion of the Atlantic revolutions in the German lands begins here with a consideration of the connections between those lands and the Atlantic world. On the eve of the age of revolution, these connections were modest, at best. The German lands had few direct ties to the Atlantic economy; social and cultural connections were sparse as well. New forms of political organization and action, as well as new ideas about the nature of politics were developing in some of the Atlantic countries during the third quarter of the eighteenth century, all of which would resulted in the revolutions of 1776 and 1789. What this discussion suggests is that the external political and intellectual impulses of the American Revolution were, at best, supplemental to trends generated within the German lands themselves. An observation of the political upheavals during the nineteenth century winds up this article.
Protestants, Catholics, and Jews, 1760–1871: Enlightenment, Emancipation, New Forms of Piety
Authors: Williamson George S.
Published: February 2013

The major focus of this article is the study of the amalgamation of various religions that were practiced in German society. Friedrich Karl von Moser's lament in On the German National Spirit (1765) is vivid testimony to the fact that, from the beginning, the German question was a question of religion. According to Moser, the notion of a ‘Catholic’ Germany opposing a ‘Protestant’ Germany was so deeply embedded that even two quite open-minded individuals, if they were of differing confessions, had to overcome a ‘strongly rooted revulsion’ in order to associate with each other. This article examines some of the major shifts in German religious life in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Until quite recently, scholarship tended to present religion in this era as first accommodating, then resisting, and ultimately succumbing to the forces of modernity. A detailed analysis of confessional conflicts, theological conflicts between Christians and Jews concludes this article.
Germany 1914–1918. Total War as a Catalyst of Change
Authors: Ziemann Benjamin
Published: February 2013

It is a commonplace to see the First World War as a major caesura in German and European history. This article records the war years from 1914–1918 in Germany. Not least, such an interpretation can rely on the perceptions of influential contemporary observers. In Germany, as in other belligerent countries, many artists, intellectuals, and academics experienced the outbreak of the war as a cathartic moment. While it is straightforward to see the mobilization for war and violence as a major caesura for any of the belligerent countries, it is much more complicated to account for causalities and for German peculiarities. Difficult methodological questions arise, which have not always been properly addressed. While Germany was facing a ‘world of enemies’, as a popular slogan suggested, the semantics of the political shifted to an articulation of emotions, excitements, and promises, contributing to a dramatized narrative centered around the notions of sacrifice and fate. The effect of World War I concludes the article.
Dictatorship and Democracy, 1918–1939
Authors: Mergel Thomas
Published: February 2013

Both dictatorship and democracy were essentially new concepts of political rule in Germany after World War I. It was true that suffrage had been increasingly extended after the revolution of 1848–1849, and more citizens (male citizens, that is) were entitled to vote in Imperial Germany than, for instance, in Great Britain. Dictatorship, too, was a new form of political control, at least in Germany. The term ‘people’ was to become a standard formula for the self-understanding of German politics after 1918. In its shades of meaning, it saw the people as a social organism, rather than as an ethnic community. ‘People’ referred to the many. It described the social commitment with which a good community was supposed to be built. An inquiry into Reichstag, and the German parliament and incidents and rebellions surrounding it concludes this article.
Culture in the Shadow of Trauma?
Authors: Koepnick Lutz
Published: February 2013

In the ruins of World War II, culture was meant to mend the spiritual wounds and traumatic losses of everyday life by providing meanings and orientations unscathed by the functionalization of aesthetic culture during the Nazi era. This article focuses on the culture ballgame cast under the shadow of trauma raged by the war and its aftermath. Art, literature, theater, film, and music, in both emerging Germanys, were no doubt embraced as conduits for a resurrection of the spirit. However, the traumas left by the immediate past led artistic practitioners and their recipients alike to believe that such a resurrection could only succeed if aesthetic experience was allowed to unfold in relative distance to postwar politics. Postwar German culture, in each of its initial four occupational zones and later in both of its Cold War incarnations, cannot be subsumed under one rubric, let alone be retold with the help of one master narrative.
Preachers and Medieval and Renaissance Commentary
Authors: Trueman Carl R.
Published: February 2013

This article explains how the polemical context of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries shaped theological attitudes towards the resources of the Christian and Jewish traditions. It first considers the impact of early Lutheranism on the English church, and then shows how Protestantism was established within the universities. It moves on to a section on the polemical context and the rise of linguistics during the period. It also introduces ecclesiology, the role of ceremonies, the fragmentation of continental Protestantism, and the debate that impacted British theologians.
Preaching in the Parishes
Authors: Green Ian
Published: February 2013

This article studies what was preached in English parish churches from the 1560s to the 1630s. It identifies the sermon topics, which can either be in a sequence of sermons or a series of sermons on a selection of texts chosen to explain a particular theme. It studies prayer book-appointed texts and services and then presents a case study of Thomas Jackson, a preacher in east Kent during the early seventeenth century. His career demonstrates the different trends described in this article. Finally, the article discusses parochial preaching from 1640 to 1650.
Sermon Reception
Authors: Craig John
Published: February 2013

This article shows how sermons were received. It first looks at the preachers' views on sermon hearing and then considers the popularity of sermon attendance. It reviews the popular responses to preaching, tries to understand the setting where sermons were delivered, and lists three important developments that helped determine how sermons were heard and received. The next section demonstrates what happens after the sermon was preached and introduces the concept of sermon notes. The article ends with a discussion of the way parish communities were expected to record and certify the names of visiting preachers.
From Tudor Humanism to Reformation Preaching
Authors: Wooding Lucy
Published: February 2013

This article studies Tudor humanism and Reformation preaching, and it introduces John Colet's Convocation sermon. This sermon summarises the problem of interpreting English sermons from the early eighteenth century. The discussion considers the late medieval sermons and the impact of humanism. The article also examines the invention and implementation of Henry VIII's Supremacy over the English church.
Sermons in Print, 1660–1700
Authors: Dixon Rosemary
Published: February 2013

This article provides a more complete account of the sermon in print by combining the study of sermons with the history of the book. The discussion uses several of Edmund Hickeringill's categories to study the publishing and reception of printed sermons during the late seventeenth century. It looks at some of the most prominent sermon-writers and texts, as well as some of the publishers' commercial concerns and their use by various reader groups. The article also turns to material forms and publishing histories of sermon texts.
Towards An International Comparative History Of Archaeological Heritage Management
Authors: Carman John
Published: February 2013

This article presents an outline of the global comparative history of archaeological heritage management (AHM), and provides a narrative of the notions that have come together to create the global system of AHM as it is seen today. It also explores the diverse origins of what is now AHM in different countries, under different regimes, and at different times. Although organized roughly chronologically – with the earliest instances of AHM-like practices first – it is more importantly organized thematically to show the different ideologies and contexts within which the idea grew, and some of the historical processes that have contributed to its rise. The inherent ‘nationalism’ of the field is an important element in AHM as it has developed, and derives directly from its diverse historical origins; but it is still a potent force in the way AHM is practised, despite the global acceptance of common practices and principles.
America's Cherished Reserves
Authors: Soderland Hilary Allester
Published: February 2013

This article examines the importance of the first consolidating legislation on National Parks in the development of America's national heritage. It considers the ‘public’ in its focus on the legal regulation of United States archaeology and asserts the enduring significance of the 1916 legislation that created the National Park Service. Utilizing a legal-historical approach, the article explores the societal ideals, values, and sentiments critical in the law-making process of the 1916 National Park Organic Act, and subsequently situates these mores within the legal historiography of American archaeology. In so doing, it addresses the importance of the 1916 Act in expanding the legal regulation inaugurated by the 1906 Antiquities Act, thus providing a foundation from which subsequent regulatory measures were to be constructed, and in safeguarding an untold number of archaeological sites through the extraction of vast areas from the public domain.
Making Sense of the History of Archaeological Representation
Authors: Skeates Robin
Published: February 2013

‘Representation’ is one of the key cultural practices through which meanings are produced and exchanged. This article undertakes a literary and art criticism of historic and contemporary representations of prehistoric Malta, with particular reference to the senses, in order to chart, historicize, and contextualize the sensory experiences and perceptions that have surrounded the development of archaeology in Malta over the last four centuries. It considers how different generations of antiquarians and archaeologists have represented or denied the senses in the texts and images that describe their experiences and understandings of the landscape, inhabitants, and prehistoric antiquities of the Maltese Islands. Based on these criticisms, the article offers the potential for such studies to be re-evaluated as culturally determined forms of representation that provide a wealth of information about the changing representational conventions, politics, and sensory perceptions of their creators.
Archaeology and Politics in the Third World, with Special Reference to India
Authors: Chakrabarti Dilip K.
Published: February 2013

This article identifies the role of colonial and postcolonial influences on Indian archaeology and the problems for Indian archaeology thereby engendered. It addresses key issues in the history of archaeological heritage management. There is a major gap between the accepted norms of archaeological research and heritage management, and the ground-reality. One of the reasons why such a gap has come up is the indifference of the Indian educated class to archaeology. A good liberal education based on a respect for the country's past need not necessarily avert the tensions based on ethnicity and religion, which affect monuments. In countries where an overwhelming number of people live below the poverty line, such tensions are only likely to increase in future. Non-partisan voices of sanity are needed, and there is a better chance for such voices to emerge if there is a broad-based liberal system of historical education in the country.
Uncovering the Antiquities Market
Authors: Brodie Neil
Published: February 2013

This article provides an overview of the growing body of published research into the antiquities market undertaken over the last twenty-five years. Particular attention is paid to the research methods used to uncover the market. The antiquities market has existed since the sixteenth century to facilitate the transformation of archaeological, ethnographic, and other cultural artefacts into art, and in so doing has helped fashion the ontological terrain of European modernity. Quantitative methods, such as remote sensing and market research, provide data regarding the size and shape of the market and the nature and scale of the damage it causes, while qualitative ethnographic methods shed light on the broader socio-economic and cultural contexts of the antiquities market and of archaeological practice. The greatest challenge for future research is to investigate the cultural force of the antiquities market.
TeachingthroughRather thanabout
Authors: Bartoy Kevin M.
Published: February 2013

The practice of archaeology has always had an educational component. This article attempts to draw from the rich literature in education and museum studies to situate the practice of public archaeology as a sub-discipline, which will allow practitioners to not only achieve a set of goals but also evaluate that achievement. Public archaeology is becoming more professionalized, but, at the same time, the field is suffering from the difficulties of forging a new identity. Within the archaeological community, practitioners of sub-disciplines, such as historical archaeology, have successfully drawn upon a diversity of perspectives both within and outside of archaeology to achieve maturity. While remaining grounded in anthropological tradition, public archaeologists must become conversant in several other fields to reach a true professionalization of this emerging sub-discipline. Public archaeology would become synonymous with archaeology education and stand distinct from the related endeavours of archaeology outreach and teaching archaeology.
Descendant Community Partnering, the Politics of time, and the Logistics of Reality
Authors: Davidson James M. , Brandon Jamie C.
Published: February 2013

This article explores some diverse examples as a way of furthering the understanding of the complexities of descendant community engagement and offering some suggestions as to methodology. Several sites are investigated with a variety of levels of community engagement and all have particular historical trajectories that have often helped determine the timbre and extent of this interaction. The example sites that this article draws on include the Freedman's Cemetery and Juliette Street Projects in Dallas, Texas, the Van Winkle's Mill project in the rural Arkansas Ozark Mountains, and the site of the Rosewood Massacre in northern Florida. Each of these sites has very different community dynamics. The article demonstrates how complicated, contradictory, multifaceted, and polyvocal these things called descendant communities can be.
Health Systems in Industrialized Countries
Authors: Frogner Bianca K. , Hussey Peter S. , Anderson Gerard F.
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the health systems of industrialized countries which are members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). It begins with an overview of the various ways to finance health systems in industrialized countries. It discusses the factors generally considered to be the major factors contributing to rising health care spending and the variation in the levels of health care spending across the OECD countries. However, many of the fundamental drivers of health spending growth are shared across countries: most notably, technological diffusion and the shift of the disease burden toward chronic diseases. This article determines successful approaches to manage these drivers of spending while improving the quality and outcomes achieved should be a priority for OECD countries.
Health Production
Authors: Bolin Kristian
Published: February 2013

This article presents the economic theory of health production, which envisions health as a capital stock to education or human capital. It provides a comprehensive account of the dominating theoretical model of individual health-related behavior: the demand-for-health model. It briefly discusses some of the theoretical extensions of the model. This article provides empirical evidence with regard to the demand-for-health model, and identifies relevant areas for the success of public policy efforts in the area of health. It emphasizes the similarities between health capital and human capital and the policy implications of this relationship. This article is devoted to policy issues and begins with a theoretical discussion, which seeks to identify potential policy target-variables and the effect of those variables on individual health and health-related behavior. It ends with a discussion of future developments required.
Economics of Infectious Diseases
Authors: Laxminarayan Ramanan , Malani Anup
Published: February 2013

Infectious diseases remain a central preoccupation in many countries. This article sets out the economic issues that arise in this highly complex domain. It reviews four main strands of literature on the economics of infectious diseases. It discusses the economic impact of infectious diseases on labor productivity and investment decisions. It focuses on the interplay between disease prevention and treatment and individual risk-taking behavior. It discusses vaccination as an important tool in the prevention of infectious diseases and presents a classic public goods problem. Disease reporting and eradication efforts are also global public goods. A fourth strand of literature is on the optimal design and allocation of resources for prevention and treatment programs. These programs are based on epidemiological models of disease spread that present significant mathematical challenges.
Economics of Health Behaviors and Addictions: Contemporary Issues and Policy Implications
Authors: Kenkel Donald S. , Sindelar Jody
Published: February 2013

This article attempts to provide an overview of the response of economic research on unhealthy substances to these challenges and opportunities. It devotes considerable attention to new econometric methodologies that have been used to assess the causal determinants of dangerous behavior. It introduces models, which economists use to understand consumers' use of unhealthy substances, and discusses the economic approach to substance use policy. It provides an overview of some of the interesting questions being asked in modern empirical research. Numerous reviews for policy relevant findings such as the price-elasticity of the demand for cigarettes and alcohol are discussed. This article complements such reviews and offers a critical perspective on the research challenges behind empirical estimates of even apparently simple economic concepts.
Disease Prevention, Health Care, and Economics
Authors: Hall Jane
Published: February 2013

This article attempts to take on the policy issues and explores the economic analysis of prevention that can add to policy development. It discusses prevention and draws on the economic concepts of human capital and utility maximization. It provides a framework for investigating the reasons for people making the decisions and their response if their incentives or constraints alter. This approach can yield useful insights into behavior and answer various questions such as the reasons for smoking and the rise in the obesity level. Thus economic analysis can provide a basis for designing prevention strategies. This article addresses the issue of whether there is a current under-investment in prevention. For many policymakers and public health advocates, this question is about whether more prevention will save on care expenditure. Furthermore, the article turns to the special challenges in building an evidence base for prevention policy.
Long-Term Care
Authors: Fernandez Jose-Luis , Forder Julien , Knapp Martin
Published: February 2013

This article considers the very different context of long-term care (LTC), where the care team often combines formal and informal workers. It focuses on the economics of LTC and in particular on issues such as the organizing and delivery of care and support to meet the significant future growth in demand for LTC. It discusses rapidly growing demand for LTC and resulting pressures on public finances. It means that governments across the globe are increasingly recognizing the need to get a better understanding of financing and allocating LTC resources, achieving individual and societal outcomes cost-effectively, and pursuing equity in the distribution of benefits and burdens. This article discusses provision, financing and governance, respectively and also mentions the consequences of aging populations on the need for and cost of LTC.
Provider Payment and Incentives
Authors: Christianson Jon B. , Conrad Douglas
Published: February 2013

The design of incentives and the evaluation of their impact are examined in the research literature at many different levels. This article provides a background and a conceptual framework relating to the effects of payment incentives on the behavior of health care providers. It then summarizes the empirical literature on the effect of financial incentives in health care. The article offers a conceptual model of the provider's choice of the quantity and quality of output as a means of organizing our thinking about the effects of specific provider payment incentives. This article addresses the effect of general provider payment incentives on the amount and type of care provided; the evidence that general payment incentives have indirectly affected quality of care; and the impact of payment incentive programs that attempt specifically to reward providers for improving quality of care, or for achieving specific benchmark levels of quality.
Contract
Authors: Gordley James
Published: February 2013

‘Classical’ contract law was built on a substantive premise about contract law and two premises about legal method. The substantive premise was voluntaristic: the business of contract law is to enforce the will or choice of the parties. The first methodological premise was positivistic: the law is found, implicitly or explicitly, in the decisions of common law judges. The second methodological premise was conceptualistic: the law should be stated in general formulas which can be tested by their coherence. Finally, ‘classical’ contract law reflected an attitude about how best to steer a course — as every legal system must — between strict rules and equitable considerations. Since the early twentieth century, classical contract law has been breaking down. Allegiance to its premises has weakened as has the preference for rigor. At the same time, scholars have found classical law to be inconsistent even in its own terms. Nevertheless, much of it has remained in place faute de mieux while contemporary jurists have tried to see what is really at stake in particular legal problems. This article describes their work.
Judicial Review of Legislation
Authors: Tushnet Mark
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the judicial review of legislation. Judicial review of legislation is now a well-established practice in most constitutional democracies. Many of the theoretical issues have been fully explored, primarily in the literature emerging from the United States, where the practice has been in place the longest. New forms of judicial review, and new constitutional commitments to social welfare rights, raise important empirical questions about the performance of courts and legislatures. The largest gains in scholarly understanding to be made in the next decade are likely to come not from further theoretical explorations but from empirical inquiries into the actual operation of various systems of judicial review, with respect to a range of constitutional issues.
The International Legal Order
Authors: Kingsbury Benedict
Published: February 2013

This article assesses major themes and approaches in the recent scholarship of international law, and to identify likely future directions and problems. It proceeds from the starting-point that the Anglo-French focus on dispute settlement and litigation, and the US focus on managerial problem-solving, are manifestations of a recurrent feature of international law writing since two of its founding scholar-practitioners, Alberico Gentili (1552–1608) and Grotius (1583–1645). It is argued that the specific focus on disputes and on third-party settlement, with its associated positivist theory, has dovetailed with broader problem-solving approaches in encouraging the development of several useful legal concepts, but that the dominant positivist theoretical structure that has held international legal practice together now encounters so many internal critiques and external challenges that its viability is seriously in question, unless it can be deepened and renovated. A proposal for rethinking the concept of international law is outlined in summary fashion. It is argued that the Grotian integration of theory and practice is a valuable and distinctive feature of international law; that there are ethical arguments for the predominant positivist positions which this problem-solving engagement with practice has fostered; that problems such as moral injustice and lack of legitimacy now require a richer approach to international law rules and process in an era of deepening international governance; and that a Grotian conception of international law which integrates sources-based and content-based criteria provides a promising way forward.
Lawyers and Legal Services
Authors: Abel Richard L.
Published: February 2013

This article contends that all legal professions must answer the following questions: What barriers must entrants overcome, who sets them, and how does and should this affect the number of lawyers? What is the appropriate relationship between the ascribed characteristics of lawyers and the larger society, and how should this be pursued? How does and should the profession limit competition, both among lawyers and by outsiders? What does and should the profession, government, and philanthropy do to stimulate demand for legal services and deliver services to those unable or unwilling to buy them? How does and should the profession, government, and others regulate lawyer behaviour? How does and should the profession govern itself in order to perform these tasks?
Semantics
Authors: Lappin Shalom
Published: February 2013

This article introduces some of the basic concepts and issues of computational semantics and briefly compares two models of semantic representation, which have been proposed in the literature, and considers the ways in which each of them deals with the syntax-semantics interface. It then shows the contrast between the general approach to the syntax-semantics interface, which is common to most systems of computational semantics, and an alternative view that characterizes Chomsky's derivational view of syntax on the other. Furthermore, it focuses on the possibility of using underspecified representations of meaning while still sustaining a systematic relation between the meaning of an expression and the meanings of its constituents. It briefly looks at the move from static to dynamic theories of meaning in an attempt to model the interpretation of utterances in discourse and dialogue.
Text Segmentation
Authors: Mikheev Andrei
Published: February 2013

This article discusses electronic text as essentially just a sequence of characters. Text needs to be segmented at least into linguistic units such as words, punctuation, numbers, alphanumerics, etc. This process is called tokenization. The article mentions that most natural language processing techniques require text to be segmented into sentences as well. It briefly reviews some evaluation metrics and standard resources commonly used for text segmentation tasks. This article presents substantial challenges for computational analysis since tokens are directly attached to each other using pictogram characters or other native writing systems and outlines various computational approaches to tackle them in different languages. It focuses on the low-level tasks such as tokenization and sentence segmentation.
Anaphora Resolution
Authors: Mitkov Ruslan
Published: February 2013

The article provides a theoretical background of anaphora and introduces the task of anaphora resolution. The importance of anaphora resolution in natural language parsing (NLP) is distinct, and early work and recent developments are outlined in this article. Finally, issues that need further attention are discussed. Anaphora is the linguistic phenomenon of pointing back to a previously mentioned item in the text. Varieties of anaphora include pronominal anaphora, lexical noun phrase anaphora, and nominal anaphora. The interpretation of anaphora is crucial for the successful operation of a machine translation system. It is essential to resolve the anaphoric relation when translating into languages that mark the gender of pronouns. Finally, the article suggests that the last years have seen considerable advances in the field of anaphora resolution, but there are still a number of outstanding issues that either remain unsolved or need further attention.
Statistical Methods
Authors: Samuelsson Christer
Published: February 2013

Statistical methods now belong to mainstream natural language processing. They have been successfully applied to virtually all tasks within language processing and neighbouring fields, including part-of-speech tagging, syntactic parsing, semantic interpretation, lexical acquisition, machine translation, information retrieval, and information extraction and language learning. This article reviews mathematical statistics and applies it to language modelling problems, leading up to the hidden Markov model and maximum entropy model. The real strength of maximum-entropy modelling lies in combining evidence from several rules, each one of which alone might not be conclusive, but which taken together dramatically affect the probability. Maximum-entropy modelling allows combining heterogeneous information sources to produce a uniform probabilistic model where each piece of information is formulated as a feature. The key ideas of mathematical statistics are simple and intuitive, but tend to be buried in a sea of mathematical technicalities. Finally, the article provides mathematical detail related to the topic of discussion.
Ontologies
Authors: Vossen Piek
Published: February 2013

Ontology refers to the storage of information within a domain, to draw common sense inferences. The expressly linguistic nature of this sort of information would translate it into a lexicon. Traditions dealing with knowledge structuring within ontologies, can be positioned depending on their focus on words/concepts, for different purposes. These are, philosophical tradition, cognitive tradition, artificial intelligence tradition, lexical semantics, lexicography, and information science. Ontologically accumulated knowledge bases can be used to inform structural linguistic analysis, as well as partial understanding. However, most current NLP techniques hardly ever perform full language understanding. While NLP generally seems to be shifting towards inferencing systems that exploit common sense knowledge, small-scale information systems can be enhanced by (re)using more general strands of information. Prospects of convergence of different paradigms have also triggered of efforts to standardize ontological contents.
Term Extraction and Automatic Indexing
Authors: Jacquemin Christian , Bourigault Didier
Published: February 2013

Terms are pervasive in scientific and technical documents and their identification is a crucial issue for any application dealing with the analysis, understanding, generation, or translation of such documents. In particular, the ever-growing mass of specialized documentation available on-line, in industrial and governmental archives or in digital libraries, calls for advances in terminology processing for tasks such as information retrieval, cross-language querying, indexing of multimedia documents, translation aids, document routing and summarization, etc. This article presents a new domain of research and development in natural language processing (NLP) that is concerned with the representation, acquisition, and recognition of terms. It begins with presenting the basic notions about the concept of ‘terms’, ranging from the classical view, to the recent concepts. There are two main areas of research involving terminology in NLP, which are, term acquisition and term recognition. Finally, this article presents the recent advances and prospects in term acquisition and automatic indexing.
Natural Language in Multimodal and Multimedia Systems
Authors: André Elisabeth
Published: February 2013

Recent years have witnessed a rapid growth in the development of multimedia applications. Improving technology and tools enable the creation of large multimedia archives and the development of completely new styles of interaction. This article provides a survey of multimedia applications in which natural language plays a significant role. Conventional multimodal systems usually do not maintain explicit representations of the user's input and handle mode integration only in elementary manner. This article shows how the generalization of techniques and representation formalisms developed for the analysis of natural language can help to overcome some of these problems. It surveys techniques for building automated multimedia presentation systems drawing upon lessons learned during the development of natural language generators. Finally, it argues that the integration of natural language technology can lead to a qualitative improvement of existing methods for document classification and analysis.
Hellenism and Modernity
Authors: Porter James I.
Published: February 2013

This article argues that Hellenism is a controversial concept with a lengthy history, and which ultimately defies all attempts to give it definition. In discussing Matthew Arnold, it suggests that people think of Hellenism as a relationship between a particular past and a perpetually changing present. The ancient Greek world is contested, fragile, and phantasmatic; it is constructed by a gaze that looks intensely back into the past. While the concept of Hellenism has been extraordinarily fertile, it is also restrictive, and its evasions and exclusions need to be acknowledged. A broader and more inclusive conception, as some have argued, would allow for a more critical and self-aware reception of the Greek past and would engage with the range of diverse traditions that have contributed to the formation of Hellenism since antiquity. The article focuses on German and British Hellenism, the two most formative traditions in modernity.
Indigenous Hellenisms/Indigenous Modernities: Classical Antiquity, Materiality, and Modern Greek Society
Authors: Hamilakis Yannis
Published: February 2013

This article attempts to briefly highlight an alternative Hellenism, indigenous Hellenism as performed by intellectuals and state bureaucrats, politicians and citizens, and poets and ordinary people, in Greece since the nineteenth century. Through a process of sacralization, classical antiquity was placed at the centre of the emerging modern state, and the material culture of the past (ruins, statues, inscriptions, etc.) gained in status and value. While the new nation of Greece saw itself as the resurrection of an ancient entity, the ideological basis for this national project was provided by a home-grown synthesis of ‘western’ and indigenous Hellenisms. The discussion also argues that it was the crucial work of Johann Gustav Droysen which facilitated this synthesis. It was his idea of a continuity between the ancient and modern worlds that gave Greek intellectuals the impetus to trace their own origins back to the classical past.
Hellenistic Culture
Authors: Stephens Susan
Published: February 2013

This article suggests an appeal to a broader cultural contextualization, calling on scholars to look at the interactions between Greek and non-Greek cultures in the Hellenistic period, which followed the reign of Alexander, and in which he continued to enjoy cult status. It emphasizes contrasting trends that emerge in relation to ethnic identity: non-Greeks learn Greek and adopt Greek customs; while Greeks often marry into local non-Greek populations, speak native languages, and practise native manners and rituals. In the West, however, the centre of power is Rome, and, as indicated by contemporary literature and art, both Greeks and non-Greeks find themselves responding and adapting to its growing cultural and political dominance.
Travel and Travel Writing
Authors: Pretzler Maria
Published: February 2013

Greek travellers tried to take their city with them: travel is typically conducted as a civic act, one justified and defined by one's tie to the city: trade, for example, or martial aggression, or colonization. This article discusses the range of travel experiences reflected in surviving literature. The study of ancient travel focuses on the process of travelling, on individual travellers' movements and their reactions to particular journeys and places. The evidence is therefore mainly literary, with valuable additions from epigraphic sources. The remains of sites that were particularly attractive to ancient travellers, depictions of their means of transport, shipwrecks, and traces of ancient roads can add further information. Greek travel literature had a strong influence on early modern geography and ethnography, and it still has an impact on how people understand the Greek world.
Lyric Poetry
Authors: Capra Andrea
Published: February 2013

This article emphasizes the importance of context, and of what is lost, when people approach the study of lyric poetry: even the one complete poem by Sappho turns out to be a fragment, because people can no longer hear the tune to which it was sung, because they do not know for whom she was singing. It suggests that people need to rethink quite radically ancient processes of identification between poets, performers, and audiences; while, at the same time, the identification with the Greeks can be harnessed to understand their literature, and ourselves. For example, the dominance of the lyric poet-scholars in nineteenth-century Italian culture explains, in part, the current flourishing of Italian scholarship on ancient Greek lyric.
High Philosophy
Authors: Baltzly Dirk
Published: February 2013

This article traces the sense of ‘higher’ – exclusivity of audience and assimilation to higher principles – along a spectrum. The lowest point on this spectrum is the Epicurean school. Among the philosophers considered, the Epicureans also addressed themselves to the widest audience. Yet their moral ideal involves at least a structural similarity to the Neoplatonists' goal of becoming like god. On such criteria, they count as proponents of ‘higher philosophy’. A high philosophy stresses reason, system, treatises, the rare intelligence of elites, and their organized work through schools, museums, and libraries.
Magic
Authors: Collins Derek
Published: February 2013

This article points out the problems of identifying ancient magic and outlines connections between medical, magical, and religious practices. The central problem for any student of Greek magic is that the term mageia, from which people ultimately derive ‘magic’, only emerges in the latter half of the fifth century BCE, whereas the evidence for practices and substances that were understood to be magical, as well as for individuals who were thought to be magicians, existed prior to the birth of the term. Mageia means on the one hand the ‘activity of a magos’ and, on the other, ‘magic’ in the looser sense defined by the Hippocratic author of On the Sacred Disease and Plato.
The Exact Sciences
Authors: Netz Reviel
Published: February 2013

Euclid reads like a modern mathematician, not just because he explores inevitable, mathematical truths, but because he expresses them in a style which resembles very closely that of modern mathematics. And yet, as this article points out, mathematical science is not at all inevitable: nobody forces a mathematician to study this rather than that, to express it this way, or to have that ultimate goal in mind. Mathematicians too are shaped by historical contingencies, and, in investigating the context of ancient mathematics, some unlikely connections emerge: the Hellenistic exact sciences, with their emphasis on surprising juxtapositions; the hybridization of genres; and exclusive readerships – closely resemble the aesthetics of Alexandrian poetry.
Demography and Sociology
Authors: Scheidel Walter
Published: February 2013

This article deals with the application of the Hellenic question of how membership of society is counted and structured. Demography and sociology share a focus on group behaviour. While demography is concerned with the structure and development of human populations that are governed by collective reproductive practices and environmental factors, sociology deals more generally with all forms of social behaviour, institutions, and organization. In principle, the value of systematic means of studying these issues can hardly be in doubt. Even so, the formal approaches and methods of current demography or sociology have only rarely been applied to any aspect of Hellenic studies. Conventional disciplinary boundaries and normative preferences for ‘humanistic’ perspectives are the most obvious culprits.
Comparative Philology and Linguistics
Authors: Probert Philomen
Published: February 2013

Questions about the ancient Greek language arise in many areas of Hellenic studies and might include, for example: Which linguistic characteristics of the Homeric poems as we have them are particularly ancient? Under what circumstances does Thucydides use an aorist participle in preference to a present participle? How did ancient Greeks address one another or make requests of one another? Comparison with related languages can provide insights into the prehistory of the language and contribute to such questions. This article attempts to highlight some recent developments in these three areas: comparative and historical grammar; synchronic grammar; and the social and stylistic diversity of Greek. Typological and theoretical linguistic work has been, and continues to be, a valuable source of inspiration and hypotheses for work on Greek. Also, work on Greek requires not only ideas and hypotheses but their systematic testing against well-defined corpora of texts.
Epigraphy
Authors: Rhodes P. J.
Published: February 2013

Many questions on classical antiquity turn on the approach to the primary evidence that, on the face it, provides the most direct contact with the ancients and grounds the claim to be able to answer them as questions about the Greeks. This article holds that among such evidence, epigraphy has a special place, since its material is often rooted in a particular geographical site, linked to a particular historical event, and self-consciously intended to record both for posterity. It examines inscription in antiquity, the modern study of inscriptions, and inscriptions as evidence.