bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Review of Athletic Energy Expenditure, Using Skiing as a Practical Example
Authors: Savolainen Sauli , Visuri Reijo
Published: August 2016

In this review we analyze competition sports, particularly downhill speed skiing and cross-country skiing, in terms of physical performance. The effects of various forces/parameters on athletic performance are summarized, and metabolic energy cost and mechanical power output are reviewed. The primary factors contributing to energy loss in the athlete are drag, friction between athlete and ground, and gravitational force (i.e., the movement of body segments in the gravitational field). According to previous reports the latter is the most significant factor. However, estimated levels of energy expenditure, occurring as a direct result of gravitational force, vary considerably depending on the method used in the analysis. We also demonstrate the importance of changes in friction and drag in athletic performance, using practical examples from skiing.
In-Shoe Pressure Distributions for Cycling with Two Types of Footwear at Different Mechanical Loads
Authors: Hennig Ewald M. , Sanderson David J.
Published: August 2016

Foot function and possible mechanisms for the etiology of frequently observed forefoot complaints in bicycling were studied. Pedal forces and in-shoe pressure distributions were measured with 29 subjects, who rode on a stationary bicycle with a cadence of 80 rpm at 100, 200, 300, and 400 W. The influence of footwear on foot loading was also investigated by comparing running and bicycling shoes at 400 W. The first metatarsal head and the hallux were identified as the major force-contributing structures of the foot. High pressures under the toes, midfoot, and under the heel showed that all foot areas contribute substantially to the generation of pedal forces. For increasing power outputs, higher peak pressures and relative loads under the medial forefoot were identified. These may cause pressure-related forefoot complaints and accompany increased foot pronation. As compared to the running shoe, the stiff bicycling shoe demonstrated a more evenly distributed load across the whole foot and showed a significantly increased index of effectiveness.
Isometric Assessment of Muscular Function: The Effect of Joint Angle
Authors: Murphy Aron J. , Wilson Greg J. , Pryor John F. , Newton Robert U.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the relationship between isometric measures of muscular function at two different joint angles and dynamic performance. Thirteen experienced weight trainers performed two isometric tests in a bench press position, at elbow angles of 90 and 120°. Performance was assessed by a one repetition maximum (1-RM) bench press and a series of upper body bench press throws at loads of 15, 30, and 60% of the 1-RM load. The results clearly show that changing the joint angle from 120 to 90° improved the relationship between most of the tests and performance by more than 100%, possibly due to differences in motor unit recruitment patterns and differing muscle mechanics (e.g., length-tension), at varying joint angles. It was suggested that the best angle at which to assess isometric function may be the joint angle at which peak force is developed in the performance of interest.
A Multiphase Calibration Procedure for the Direct Linear Transformation
Authors: Challis John H.
Published: August 2016

In three-dimensional image-based motion analysis, the direct linear transformation (DLT) is commonly used to measure locations of significant body landmarks. The major drawback of the DLT is that the control points used for calibration must encompass the volume in which the activity occurs. A new procedure is presented where the calibration frame is moved sequentially, permitting calibration of a volume much larger than that encompassed by the calibration frame. A calibration frame with a volume of 0.6 m3 was used to calibrate a volume six times greater, by placing the frame in eight different positions. Reconstruction accuracy was comparable with that for the original frame position. This new multiphase calibration procedure presents the opportunity for calibrating large volumes using a small calibration frame; this may be advantageous, for example, in sporting arenas, where the transportation or manufacture of a sufficiently large calibration frame may be problematic.
Contributions of Upper Limb Segment Rotations during the Power Serve in Tennis
Authors: Elliott Bruce C. , Marshall Robert N. , Noffal Guillermo J.
Published: August 2016

In the high-velocity tennis serve, the contributions that the upper limb segments' anatomical rotations make to racket head speed at impact depend on both their angular velocity and the instantaneous position of the racket with respect to the segments' axes of rotation. Eleven high-performance tennis players were filmed at a nominal rate of 200 Hz by three Photosonics cameras while hitting a high-velocity serve. The three-dimensional (3-D) displacement histories of 11 selected landmarks were then calculated using the direct linear transformation approach, and 3-D individual segment rotations for the upper limb were calculated using vector equations (Sprigings, Marshall, Elliott, & Jennings, 1994). The major contributors to the mean linear velocity of the center of the racket head of 31.0 m · s-1 at impact were internal rotation of the upper arm (54.2%), flexion of the hand (31.0%), horizontal flexion and abduction of the upper arm (12.9%), and racket shoulder linear velocity (9.7%). Forearm extension at the elbow joint played a negative role (-14.4%) and reduced the forward velocity of the center of the racket at impact.
A Three-Dimensional Dynamic Analysis of the Quarterback's Throwing Motion in American Football
Authors: Rash Gregory S. , Shapiro Robert
Published: August 2016

Twelve collegiate football quarterbacks were videotaped while performing drop back passes. The video images were digitized using a Peak Performance system, and three-dimensional (3-D) kinematic and kinetic data were calculated from the 3-D coordinate data using standard analytical procedures. The sequential timing of peak shoulder torques in the delivery for the football throw was peak abduction torque prior to the point of maximum shoulder external rotation (MER), peak internal rotation torque just after MER, and peak horizontal adduction torque just prior to release. As anticipated, large medial deviation torques at the elbow were found in the acceleration phase. However, in many cases the quarterbacks demonstrated larger elbow lateral deviation torques during the follow-through than found in the acceleration phase. This paper will describe these and other kinetic results and the kinematic findings observed during the football pass.
Biomechanical Variables and the Perception of Cushioning for Running in Various Types of Footwear
Authors: Hennig Ewald M. , Valiant Gordon A. , Liu Qi
Published: August 2016

Using a 15-point rating scale, subjects rated perception of cushioning during running on a treadmill with three different footwear constructions of varying midsole hardness. During overground running, various biomechanical ground reaction force and pressure variables were collected and compared to the perception of cushioning scores. The perception scores identified the three shoes as very hard, medium soft, and soft. Peak pressures in the heel, the force rate, and the median power frequency of the impact force signal demonstrated increases in values with the perception of less cushioning. In the harder shoes, the subjects altered the loading patterns under their feet, resulting in lower impact forces and increased weight bearing of the forefoot structures.
Effects of Fatigue on Stride Characteristics during a Short-Term Maximal Run
Authors: Nummela Ari , Stray-Gundersen James , Rusko Heikki
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the influence of running velocity, stride characteristics, training background, gender, and caliber of a runner on the changes in ground contact time during a 400-m run. Thirteen male and 4 female sprinters ran a 400-m time trial on the track, and 8 male sprinters and 6 male endurance athletes ran a simulated 400-m trial at constant velocity on the treadmill. A special shoe insert was placed in the track spike to determine contact time, and a video camera was used to determine split times for each 40 m. Two threshold points were identified during the 400-m run, with the first occurring when the running velocity began to decrease. The threshold points were affected by the individual running strategy and reflected fatigue-induced changes in the running velocity; they also were independent of gender, training background, and caliber of an athlete.
Biomechanical Analysis of an Exercise Program for Forces and Stresses in the Hip Joint and Femoral Neck
Authors: Anderson David D. , Hillberry Ben M. , Teegarden Dorothy , Proulx William R. , Weaver Connie M. , Yoshikawa Tomoaki
Published: August 2016

Bone remodeling as a response to exercise in human subjects is described in the literature, although most studies treat exercise as a qualitative factor contributing to bone remodeling. Quantitative description requires assessment of the mechanical loads on the bones. This work describes a generalized lower extremity model that uses existing musculoskeletal modeling techniques to quantify mechanical variables in the femoral neck during exercise. An endurance exercise program consisting of walking, jogging jumping rope, and weight-training was analyzed. Peak femoral neck cortex stresses and strains were high during jogging and squatting, compared to walking, whereas jumping rope and other weight-training exercises produced peak stresses comparable to or lower than walking. Peak stress and strain rates were significantly higher for walking, jumping rope, and jogging than for weight-training. The model should prove useful for any study investigating a quantitative relationship between exercise and bone remodeling.
Differences between One-Foot and Two-Foot Vertical Jump Performances
Authors: Vint Peter F. , Hinrichs Richard N.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to quantify the differences between one- and two-foot vertical jumping performances. Fourteen subjects performed both jump styles with a four-step, self-paced approach. While overall jump and reach heights were similar between one-foot and two-foot jumps, the strategies employed to achieve these results were notably different. One-foot jumps benefited from an increased takeoff height that was largely attributable to the elevation of the free swinging leg. Further, it was suggested that the actions of this limb may have helped slow the rate of extension of the support leg during the propulsion phase. Greater flight heights were achieved during two-foot jumps, as expected, but the magnitude of this difference was only about 9 cm. It was suggested that factors associated with the development of muscular tension, vertical velocity at touchdown, and horizontal approach speed may have all contributed to the unexpectedly small differences in flight height between one-foot and two-foot jumping performances.
Kinematic and Kinetic Analysis of the Overgrip Giant Swing on the Uneven Parallel Bars
Authors: Witten Winifred A. , Brown Eugene W. , Witten Charles X. , Wells Robert
Published: August 2016

Fifteen upper level USGF female gymnasts were filmed performing an overgrip giant swing on the uneven parallel bars. Based on judges' evaluations, the top 5 gymnasts were placed into a high-skill group and the bottom 5 gymnasts in a less skilled group. The groups were compared on selected kinematic and kinetic variables in the four quadrants of this skill. There were significant differences (p < .05) between the groups for the peak resultant linear velocity of the ankle and hip. There were also significant differences for several segmental velocities and accelerations (foot, shank, and arm). These differences indicate that the more highly skilled gymnasts were better able to produce faster moving body segments to perform the giant swing with less deviations in form. The faster moving segments were a result of successfully performing a “tap” during Quadrant 2. Gymnasts who were able to extend their hips quickly after clearing the low bar were in a position to accelerate their lower segments during Quadrant 3 by slightly piking at the hips.
Coupling Parameters in Runners with Normal and Excessive Pronation
Authors: McClay Irene , Manal Kurt
Published: August 2016

This study was undertaken to investigate whether differences exist in the coupling of foot and knee motions during the support phase of running in subjects with normal rearfoot motion and those who pronate. Excursion ratios between rearfoot eversion and tibial internal rotation were compared between the two groups. Timing between peak eversion, knee flexion, and knee internal rotation was also examined, and correlations between various foot and knee angles were assessed. Timings between peak knee and rearfoot angles were not significantly different between groups, although times were more closely matched in the normal subjects. The eversion to tibial internal rotation excursion ratio was significantly lower in the pronator subjects. Correlation analyses revealed significant relationships between a number of rearfoot and knee parameters. Results suggest that increased motion of the rearfoot can lead to excessive movement at the knee. In addition, excessive pronation may disrupt the normal kinematic interaction between the rearfoot and knee.
Prediction of Infant Segment Inertias
Authors: Jensen Robert K. , Treitz Tina , Sun Han
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the study was to use the elliptical cylinder model adapted for infants (Sun & Jensen, 1994) with a cross-sectional sample to select appropriate multiple linear regression equations for predicting masses and nonlinear regression equations for predicting principal moments of inertia (Yeadon & Morlock, 1989). The linear and nonlinear predictions were evaluated with an independent cross-validation sample of infants and a sample where inertias ranged below and above the cross-sectional sample. The cross-validation for masses was compared to a cross-validation of four linear regressions for masses developed by Schneider and Zernicke (1992). It is recommended that the linear regression equations developed in this study be used to predict infant segment masses. It is also recommended that the nonlinear regression equations developed in this study be used to predict the principal moments of inertia of all infant segments, other than head Ix and lower trunk Ix and Iy.
Kinematic Comparisons of Throwing Different Types of Baseball Pitches
Authors: Escamilla Rafael F. , Fleisig Glenn S. , Barrentine Steven W. , Zheng Naiquan , Andrews James R.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to establish and compare kinematic data among four groups of collegiate pitchers who threw the fastball (FA), change-up (CH), curveball (CU), and slider (SL). Twenty-six kinematic parameters at lead foot contact, during the arm-cocking and arm acceleration phases, and at ball release were measured for 16 collegiate baseball pitchers. Approximately 60% of these parameters showed significant differences among the four pitch variations. The greatest number of differences (14 of 26) occurred between the FA and CH groups, while the fewest differences (2 of 26) occurred between the FA and SL groups. The CH group had the smallest knee and elbow flexion at lead foot contact and the greatest knee and elbow flexion at ball release. During the arm-cocking and arm acceleration phases, peak shoulder, elbow, and trunk angular velocities were generally greatest in the FA and SL groups and smallest in the CH group. At ball release the CH group had the most upright trunk and the greatest horizontal shoulder adduction, while the CU group had the most lateral trunk tilt. Understanding kinematic differences can help a pitcher select and learn different pitches and can help a batter learn how to identify different pitches.
Kinematic Analysis of the Wrist and Forearm during Baseball Pitching
Authors: Barrentine Steven W. , Matsuo Tomoyuki , Escamilla Rafael F. , Fleisig Glenn S. , Andrews James R.
Published: August 2016

Previous researchers studying baseball pitching have compared kinematic and kinetic parameters among different types of pitches, focusing on the trunk, shoulder, and elbow. The lack of data on the wrist and forearm limits the understanding of clinicians, coaches, and researchers regarding the mechanics of baseball pitching and the differences among types of pitches. The purpose of this study was to expand existing knowledge of baseball pitching by quantifying and comparing kinematic data of the wrist and forearm for the fastball (FA), curveball (CU) and change-up (CH) pitches. Kinematic and temporal parameters were determined from 8 collegiate pitchers recorded with a four-camera system (200 Hz). Although significant differences were observed for all pitch comparisons, the least number of differences occurred between the FA and CH. During arm cocking, peak wrist extension for the FA and CH pitches was greater than for the CU, while forearm supination was greater for the CU. In contrast to the current study, previous comparisons of kinematic data for trunk, shoulder, and elbow revealed similarities between the FA and CU pitches and differences between the FA and CH pitches. Kinematic differences among pitches depend on the segment of the body studied.
A Device for Simultaneous Measurement of Pressure and Shear Force Distribution on the Plantar Surface of the Foot
Authors: Davis Brian L. , Perry Julie E. , Neth Donald C. , Waters Kevin C.
Published: August 2016

A device has been designed to simultaneously measure the vertical pressure and the anterior-posterior and medial-lateral distributed shearing forces under the plantar surface of the foot. The device uses strain gauge technology and consists of 16 individual transducers (each with a surface area measuring 2.5 × 2.5 cm) arranged in a 4 × 4 array. The sampling frequency is 37 Hz and data may be collected for 2 s. The device was calibrated under both static and dynamic conditions and revealed excellent linearity (±5%), minimal hysteresis (±7.5%), and very good agreement between applied and measured loads (±5%). Vector addition of the distributed loads gave resultant forces that were qualitatively very similar to those obtained from a standard force plate. Data are presented for measurements from the forefoot of 4 diabetic subjects during the initiation of gait, demonstrating that distributed shear and pressure on the sole of the foot can be measured simultaneously.
Validity and Reliability of Methods for Testing Vertical Jumping Performance
Authors: Hatze Herbert
Published: August 2016

The validity and reliability of the jumping ergometer method for evaluating performance in two-legged vertical countermovement and serial rebound jumps were investigated. The internal segmental and nonvertical energy flow components for drop jumps were also studied. The exact dynamic equations governing the jumping motion in three dimensions were derived and used together with the approximate relations of the jumping ergometer method to evaluate a total of 72 vertical jumps of different types executed by 22 subjects (15 males, 7 females), average age 24.59 years. The force-plate method was selected as a reference procedure, to which the jumping ergometer results were related. For countermovement jumps, the relative error for jumping height was 3.55% (±2.92%), and for average power per kilogram body mass during the propulsion phase it was 23.79% (±4.85%). For serial rebound jumps, the respective errors were 7.40% (±4.58%) and 5.09% (±4.48%). Internal and nonvertical energy flow components amounted to about 3% of the total. It was concluded that, because of a number of invalid assumptions, unpredictable errors, and contradictory performance requirements, the validity and reliability of the jumping ergometer method for evaluating certain aspects of athletic performance are highly questionable.
Biomechanical Factors Influencing Breaststroke Turns by Age-Group Swimmers
Authors: Blanksby Brian A. , Simpson Jennifer R. , Elliott Bruce C. , McElroy Keith
Published: August 2016

Because turning can account for one-third of breaststroke race time in 25 m pools, it is possible that enhancing turning techniques can improve performance significantly. Underwater video cameras and a force platform were used to analyze turning techniques of 23 age-group breaststrokers during three 50 m push-start, maximum-effort swims. The criterion measure was the time elapsed between passing the 5 m mark on the approach and departure from the wall (5 m round-trip time [RTT]). Correlations revealed significant commonality of variance (p < .01) between the 5 m RTT and the 2.5 m RTT, 50 m time, average single-stroke velocity, peak reaction force, pivot time, impulse, peak horizontal velocity off the wall, arm and leg split-stroke resumption distances, surfacing distance, surfacing time, and horizontal velocity, height, and mass of the subjects. All swimmers achieved a net gain at the turn in that the mean 5 m RTT (20% of the distance) represented 18.26% of the total swimming time. Following stepwise regression, a successful turn was predicted by the equation 17.113 - 0.322 surfacing distance - 0.036 height - 0.723 surfacing horizontal velocity + 0.723 pivot time - 0.65 peak horizontal velocity.
Validation of a Mathematical Model for Road Cycling Power
Authors: Martin James C. , Milliken Douglas L. , Cobb John E. , McFadden Kevin L. , Coggan Andrew R.
Published: August 2016

This investigation sought to determine if cycling power could be accurately modeled. A mathematical model of cycling power was derived, and values for each model parameter were determined. A bicycle-mounted power measurement system was validated by comparison with a laboratory ergometer. Power was measured during road cycling, and the measured values were compared with the values predicted by the model. The measured values for power were highly correlated (R2 = .97) with, and were not different than, the modeled values. The standard error between the modeled and measured power (2.7 W) was very small. The model was also used to estimate the effects of changes in several model parameters on cycling velocity. Over the range of parameter values evaluated, velocity varied linearly (R2 > .99). The results demonstrated that cycling power can be accurately predicted by a mathematical model.
A Model of Kinematic Variables Determining Height Achieved in Water Polo Boosts
Authors: Sanders Ross H.
Published: August 2016

A boost is a skill used in water polo to raise the body for the purpose of shooting for goal or passing, or defending against these. The purpose of this study was to investigate kinematic variables contributing to height achieved in a boost. The kinematics of the vertex, shoulders, and lower limbs of 16 players ranging in ability from novice to elite were quantified using three-dimensional videographic techniques. Maximum height of the vertex with respect to water level ranged from 0.50 m to 0.90 m. A multiple regression model comprising the squared maximum resultant foot speed, range of knee joint extension, and initial trunk angle with respect to the horizontal accounted for 74% of the variance in height achieved. Anteroposterior and medio-lateral motions assisted in maintaining foot speed throughout the period of knee extension. The foot orientations and direction of foot motion of the elite players suggested that effective technique involves the use of both drag and lift forces.
Analysis of the Eggbeater Kick Used to Maintain Height in Water Polo
Authors: Sanders Ross H.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate technique in the eggbeater kick and to identity factors contributing to height that can be maintained. The kinematics of the lower limbs of 12 players ranging in ability from novice to elite were quantified using three-dimensional videographic techniques. Mean height of the vertex of the head with respect to water level was used as the measure of performance. These heights ranged from 0.22 m to 0.42 m. The mean of the squared fool velocity (r = .85, p < .01), the percent contribution of the vertical and anteroposterior components of foot velocity (r = −.72 and r = .72, respectively, p < .05) were strongly related to height. There were also substantial contributions due to mediolateral motion by all players, but this was not statistically related to height. Pitch angles were generally small throughout the kick cycle. Elite players maximized me period of positive pitch by appropriate use of ankle dorsi-flexion and plantar-flexion and eversion and inversion. The foot orientadons and flow directions of the elite players suggested that effective technique involved sculling actions to utilize lift forces.
Estimate of the Optimum Cutoff Frequency for the Butterworth Low-Pass Digital Filter
Authors: Yu Bing , Gabriel David , Noble Larry , An Kai-Nan
Published: August 2016

The purposes of this study were (a) to develop a procedure for objectively determining the optimum cutoff frequency for the Butterworth low-pass digital filler, and (b) to evaluate the cutoff frequencies derived from the residual analysis. A set of knee flexion-extension angle data in normal gait was used as the standard data set. The standard data were sampled at different sampling frequencies. Random errors with different magnitudes were added to the standard data to create different sets of raw data with a given sampling frequency. Each raw data set was filtered through a Butterworth low-pass digital filter at different cutoff frequencies. The cutoff frequency corresponding to the minimum error in the second time derivatives for a given set of raw data was considered as the optimum for that set of raw data. A procedure for estimating the optimum cutoff frequency from the sampling frequency and estimated relative mean error in the raw data set was developed. The estimated optimum cutoff frequency significantly correlated to the true optimum cutoff frequency with a correlation determinant value of 0.96. This procedure was applied to estimate the optimum cutoff frequency for another set of kinematic data. The calculated accelerations of the filtered data essentially matched the measured acceleration curve. There is no correlation between the cutoff frequency derived from the residual analysis and the true optimum cutoff frequency. The cutoff frequencies derived from the residual analysis were significantly lower than the optimum, especially when the sampling frequency is high.
Test-Retest Reliability of Selected Ground Reaction Force Parameters and Their Symmetry during Running
Authors: Bennell Kim , Crossley Kay , Wrigley Tim , Nitschke Julie
Published: August 2016

The aim of our study was to assess the interday test-retest reliability (focussing on the separate contribution of systematic and random error) of selected 10-trial mean ground reaction force (GRF) parameters and GRF symmetry indices measured during running. Ten competitive male heel-strike runners (aged, 26.2 ± 5.7 years) performed 10 successful running trials across the force platform at a constant velocity of 4.0 m · s-1 ±10% wearing their customary running footwear. The testing procedure was repeated under similar conditions 1 week later. The results showed no statistically significant differences between the means of Test 1 and Test 2 for most GRF parameters and symmetry indices, indicating non-significant systematic error. Correlation coefficients ranged from 0.73 to 0.99 for GRF parameters. Random error was small with SEmeas less than 10% of the Test 1 mean value for almost all GRF parameters. Symmetry indices displayed correlation coefficients ranging from −0.44 to 0.91. Based on these and the size of the SEmeas, the symmetry indices displayed variable reliability, with the most reliable being those associated with peak vertical active force and peak horizontal propulsive force.
Object Plane Deformation Due to Refraction in Two-Dimensional Underwater Motion Analysis
Authors: Kwon Young-Hoo
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to investigate the effects of selected experimental factors on the magnitude of the object plane deformation due to refraction, and (b) to discuss their practical implications in an effort to improve the applicability of the 2-D DLT method in the underwater motion analysis. The RMS and maximum object plane reconstruction errors of various experimental conditions were computed systematically. To isolate the error due to refraction from the experimental errors, the comparator coordinates (image plane coordinates) of the control points were computed based on a theoretical refraction model rather than actual digitizing. It was concluded from a series of object plane reconstruction that among the distance and angle factors of the experimental setting in the 2-D underwater motion analysis, the camera-to-interface distance and the interface-to-control-object distance are the two major factors affecting the magnitude of the object plane deformation. The other factors revealed only minor effects. The advantages of the 2-D DLT method over the traditional multiplier method in underwater motion analysis. such as oblique projection and multiple camera setup. were further discussed. Possible ways to reduce the maximum reconstruction error were also explored.
Validation of a Three-Dimensional Baseball Pitching Model
Authors: Fujii Norihisa , Hubbard Mont
Published: August 2016

A simulation and optimization procedure was constructed to investigate the relationships between optimal movement and muscular strength for baseball pitching. Four segments (torso, upper arms, lower arms, hands) and six torque generators (shoulders, elbows, wrists) are modeled. The torque generators have torque-angle and torque-angular velocity characteristics of Hill-type muscle function. The optimization objective function includes release velocity and negative terms penalizing joint loading and inaccuracy. The weighting coefficient for joint loads has a strong influence on the results. As this coefficient increases, the motion becomes more similar to actual measured pitches. Combining active state patterns optimized for different weighting coefficients gives larger joint loads in the simulated motion. This supports the hypothesis that well-coordinated active states are important for controlling the relationships of the different torque generators in order to create a reasonable and effective pitching motion. The model proposed here is superior to previous simulations for throwing, from the viewpoint of modeling with characteristics of Hill-type muscle function, and can be used to explore realistic baseball pitching.
The Quick Step: A New Test for Measuring Reaction Time and Lateral Stepping Velocity
Authors: White Karen N. , Gunter Katherine B. , Snow Christine M. , Hayes Wilson C.
Published: August 2016

The Quick Step measures reaction time and lateral stepping velocity. Upon a visual cue, participants step to the side as quickly as possible. Instrumentation includes floor pads with pressure-sensitive switches and two timers. In all, 109 older adults who had experienced a recent fall, 46 older adult nonfallers, and 24 young adults volunteered for testing. Reliability for reaction time and stepping velocity was good to excellent (intraclass correlation = 0.69–0.85). Multivariate analysis of variance revealed a significant difference between groups, p < 0.01, but not between stepping directions, p = 0.62–0.72, for both reaction time and stepping velocity. Reaction times were different among the three groups, p < 0.01, with the young adults having the fastest times and the older adult fallers having the slowest times. Lateral stepping velocity was faster among the young adults than for the two older groups, p < 0.01, but did not differ between the older adults, p = 0.29. It is concluded that the Quick Step is a simple and reliable tool for determining reaction time and lateral stepping velocity, and that this test can be used to detect a significant difference in reaction time between older adult fallers and nonfallers.
Transverse Strain of Aponeurosis in Human Tibialis Anterior Muscle at Rest and during Contraction at Different Joint Angles
Authors: Muraoka Tetsuro , Muramatsu Tadashi , Kanehisa Hiroaki , Fukunaga Tetsuo
Published: August 2016

The aim of the present study was to determine the transverse strain of aponeuroses in human tibialis anterior muscle (TA) in vivo and to clarify the influence of muscle fiber length and state of contraction on the transverse strain. Sagittal and horizontal images of TA were taken in seven men and one woman at ankle angles of –20° (dorsiflexed direction), 0° (neutral anatomic position), and 45° (plantar-flexed direction) both at rest and during submaximal dorsiflexion contraction (20 Nm: 0° and 45°; 10 Nm: –20°) using B-mode ultrasonography. The width of the TA central aponeurosis changed from 21.7 ± 1.0 (mean ± SE) to 25.5 ± 1.1 mm when muscle fiber length changed from 91.0 ± 3.5 (45° in the resting state) to 55.1 ± 3.2 mm (–20° in the active state). The transverse strain of the TA central aponeurosis, which was change in relative width compared with the width at 45° in the resting state, increased when the muscle fiber length decreased. The transverse strain of the TA central aponeurosis was directly proportional to the muscle fiber length to the –1/2 power in both resting and active states (R = 0.81 and 0.74, p < 0.05 for both), and there was no significant difference (p < 0.05) between correlation coefficients and regression slopes for resting and active states. The findings suggest that the transverse strain of the TA central aponeurosis was closely related to muscle fiber length and that the transverse strain of the aponeurosis should be considered for accurate 3-D muscle modeling.
Accuracy of Scaling and DLT Reconstruction Techniques for Planar Motion Analyses
Authors: Brewin Mark A. , Kerwin David G.
Published: August 2016

Numerous planar analyses of sports activities have utilized scaling techniques to convert image coordinates into real-space locations. While in certain circumstances, such as competition, the camera must be elevated above the activity and its tilt accounted for, the influence of tilt on reconstruction accuracy using scaling is currently unreported. A modification of the direct linear transformation (2D-DLT) which considers only the vertical plane provides an alternative approach for planar reconstruction. This study compared the reconstruction accuracy between scaling and 2D-DLT over a range of tilt angles throughout a 6-m horizontal field of view. Four calibration and 30 reconstruction markers of known locations in a vertical plane were videotaped from nine positions to provide tilt angles varying between –2° and +6°. Both techniques were used to estimate real-space locations for the reconstruction markers, and accuracy was calculated by comparing known and reconstructed locations. The smallest reconstruction errors were obtained using 2D-DLT and were unaffected by camera tilt. The scaling technique produced significantly larger (p < 0.01) errors than 2D-DLT, with the exception of 0° and +1° of tilt, and there was a detrimental effect on accuracy as the magnitude of tilt increased. The largest variations in reconstruction errors were associated with scaling, with markers at the extremes of the image showing the largest errors. The 2D-DLT approach provided accurate reconstruction data for planar analyses across the field of view and throughout the range of tilt angles, and should be preferred over scaling techniques.
Bat Kinematics in Baseball: Implications for Ball Exit Velocity and Player Safety
Authors: Nicholls Rochelle L. , Elliott Bruce C. , Miller Karol , Koh Michael
Published: August 2016

Ball exit velocity (BEV) was measured from 17 experienced baseball hitters using wood and metal bats of similar length and mass but different moments of inertia. This research was conducted in response to safety issues for defensive players related to high BEV from metal baseball bats reported in the literature. Our purpose was to determine whether metal bats, with their lower swing moment of inertia, produce a higher linear bat tip velocity than wooden bats swung by the same players. Analysis using high-speed videography indicated significant differences in the x-component of velocity for both the proximal (metal = 5.4 m s−1; wood = 3.9 m s−1) and distal ends of the bats (metal = 37.2 m s−1; wood = 35.2 m s−1), p < 0.01. The orientation of the bats with respect to the horizontal plane was also significantly more “square” 0.005 s prior to impact (270°) for the metal (264.3°) compared with the wood bat (251.5°), p < 0.01. Mean BEV from metal bats (44.3 m s−1) was higher than the 41 m s−1 velocity which corresponds to the minimum movement time for a pitcher to avoid a ball hit in his direction (Cassidy & Burton, 1989).
Experimental Model of the Aerodynamic Drag Coefficient in Alpine Skiing
Authors: Barelle Caroline , Ruby Anne , Tavernier Michel
Published: August 2016

Aerodynamic properties are one of the factors that determine speed performance in Alpine skiing. Many studies have examined the consequences of this factor in downhill skiing, and the impact of postural modifications on speed is now well established. To date, only wind tunnel tests have enabled one to measure aerodynamic drag values (a major component of the aerodynamic force in Alpine skiing). Yet such tests are incompatible with the constraints of a regular and accurate follow-up of training programs. The present study proposes an experimental model that permits one to determine a skier's aerodynamic drag coefficient (SCx) based on posture. Experimental SCx measurements made in a wind tunnel are matched with the skier's postural parameters. The accuracy of the model was determined by comparing calculated drag values with measurements observed in a wind tunnel for different postures. For postures corresponding to an optimal aerodynamic penetration (speed position), the uncertainty was 13%. Although this model does not permit an accurate comparison between two skiers, it does satisfactorily account for variations observed in the aerodynamic drag of the same skier in different postures. During Alpine ski training sessions and races, this model may help coaches assess the gain or loss in time induced by modifications in aerodynamic drag corresponding to different postures. It may also be used in other sports to help determine whether the aerodynamic force has a significant impact on performance.
Relationships between Ground Reaction Force Impulse and Kinematics of Sprint-Running Acceleration
Authors: Hunter Joseph P. , Marshall Robert N. , McNair Peter J.
Published: August 2016

The literature contains some hypotheses regarding the most favorable ground reaction force (GRF) for sprint running and how it might be achieved. This study tested the relevance of these hypotheses to the acceleration phase of a sprint, using GRF impulse as the GRF variable of interest. Thirty-six athletes performed maximal-effort sprints from which video and GRF data were collected at the 16-m mark. Associations between GRF impulse (expressed relative to body mass) and various kinematic measures were explored with simple and multiple linear regressions and paired t-tests. The regression results showed that relative propulsive impulse accounted for 57% of variance in sprint velocity. Relative braking impulse accounted for only 7% of variance in sprint velocity. In addition, the faster athletes tended to produce only moderate magnitudes of relative vertical impulse. Paired t-tests revealed that lower magnitudes of relative braking impulse were associated with a smaller touchdown distance (p < 0.01) and a more active touchdown (p < 0.001). Also, greater magnitudes of relative propulsive impulse were associated with a high mean hip extension velocity of the stance limb (p < 0.05). In conclusion, it is likely that high magnitudes of propulsion are required to achieve high acceleration. Although there was a weak trend for faster athletes to produce lower magnitudes of braking, the possibility of braking having some advantages could not be ruled out. Further research is required to see if braking, propulsive, and vertical impulses can be modified with specific training. This will also provide insight into how a change in one GRF component might affect the others.
The Effect of a Repetitive, Fatiguing Lifting Task on Horizontal Ground Reaction Forces
Authors: Shu Yu , Drum Jonathan , Southard Stephanie , Shin Gwanseob , Mirka Gary A.
Published: August 2016

There are many outdoor work environments that involve the combination of repetitive, fatiguing lifting tasks and less-than-optimal footing (muddy/slippery ground surfaces). The focus of the current research was to evaluate the effects of lifting-induced fatigue of the low back extensors on lifting kinematics and ground reaction forces. Ten participants performed a repetitive lifting task over a period of 8 minutes. As they performed this task, the ground reaction forces and whole body kinematics were captured using a force platform and magnetic motion tracking system, respectively. Fatigue was verified in this experiment by documenting a decrease in the median frequency of the bilateral erector spinae muscles (pretest-posttest). Results indicate significant (p < 0.05) increases in the magnitude of the peak anterior/posterior (increased by an average of 18.3%) and peak lateral shear forces (increased by an average of 24.3%) with increasing time into the lifting bout. These results have implications for work environments such as agriculture and construction, where poor footing conditions and requirements for considerable manual materials handling may interact to create an occupational scenario with an exceptionally high risk of a slip and fall.
The Influence of Stretcher Height on the Mechanical Effectiveness of Rowing
Authors: Caplan Nicholas , Gardner Trevor N.
Published: August 2016

The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of varying the height of the foot stretcher on the mechanical effectiveness of rowing. Ten male university level rowers rowed maximally for 3 minutes 30 seconds on a modified Concept 2 rowing ergometer. Each participant completed one trial at three foot stretcher heights. Position 1 was the original Concept 2 stretcher position, with Position 2 being located 5 cm and Position 3 being 10 cm above the original position and in the same orientation. Pull force and velocity were measured, and mean power generated by the rowers was calculated for each stroke. It was shown that in all three stretcher positions, mean power per stroke decreased as a function of time during the trial, confirming the fatiguing effects of the task. Although mean power per stroke did not differ significantly between stretcher positions at the start of the trial, p = 0.082, a significant difference was observed between the original stretcher position and Positions 2 and 3 at the end of the trial, p < 0.05. The lowest decline in mean power occurred in the highest stretcher position. It is suggested that this improvement in effectiveness is due to a reduction in the active downward vertical forces applied to the foot stretchers which does not contribute to forward propulsion, and thus a reduction in energy waste during each stroke. It was hypothesized that further raising the stretchers will continue to lead to an improvement in effectiveness until the optimum stretcher height is reached, above which effectiveness will be reduced.
Changes in Postural Sway and Its Fractions in Conditions of Postural Instability
Authors: Mochizuki Luis , Duarte Marcos , Amadio Alberto Carlos , Zatsiorsky Vladimir M. , Latash Mark L.
Published: August 2016

We investigated changes in postural sway and its fractions associated with manipulations of the dimensions of the support area. Nine healthy adults stood as quietly as possible, with their eyes open, on a force plate as well as on 5 boards with reduced support area. The center of pressure (COP) trajectory was computed and decomposed into rambling (Rm) and trembling (Tr) trajectories. Sway components were quantified using RMS (root mean square) value, average velocity, and sway area. During standing on the force plate, the RMS was larger for the anterior-posterior (AP) sway components than for the mediolateral (ML) components. During standing on boards with reduced support area, sway increased in both directions. The increase was more pronounced when standing on boards with a smaller support area. Changes in the larger dimension of the support area also affected sway, but not as much as changes in the smaller dimension. ML instability had larger effects on indices of sway compared to AP instability. The average velocity of Rm was larger while the average velocity of Tr was smaller in the AP direction vs. the ML direction. The findings can be interpreted within the hypothesis of an active search function of postural sway. During standing on boards with reduced support area, increased sway may by itself lead to loss of balance. The findings also corroborate the hypothesis of Duarte and Zatsiorsky that Rm and Tr reveal different postural control mechanisms.
Evaluation of Time-to-Contact Measures for Assessing Postural Stability
Authors: Haddad Jeffrey M. , Gagnon Jeff L. , Hasson Christopher J. , Van Emmerik Richard E.A. , Hamill Joseph
Published: August 2016

Postural stability has traditionally been examined through spatial measures of the center of mass (CoM) or center of pressure (CoP), where larger amounts of CoM or CoP movements are considered signs of postural instability. However, for stabilization, the postural control system may utilize additional information about the CoM or CoP such as velocity, acceleration, and the temporal margin to a stability boundary. Postural time-to-contact (TtC) is a variable that can take into account this additional information about the CoM or CoP. Postural TtC is the time it would take the CoM or CoP, given its instantaneous trajectory, to contact a stability boundary. This is essentially the time the system has to reverse any perturbation before stance is threatened. Although this measure shows promise in assessing postural stability, the TtC values derived between studies are highly ambiguous due to major differences in how they are calculated. In this study, various methodologies used to assess postural TtC were compared during quiet stance and induced-sway conditions. The effects of the different methodologies on TtC values will be assessed, and issues regarding the interpretation of TtC data will also be discussed.
Lateral Translation of the Lumbar Spine: In Vitro Biomechanical Study
Authors: Okushima Yuichiro , Yamazaki Nobutoshi , Matsumoto Morio , Chiba Kazuhiro , Nagura Takeo , Toyama Yoshiaki
Published: August 2016

A biomechanical study of lateral translation in lumbar spine with human cadavers was performed in order to explore the direction of the force increasing lateral translation and the contributions of discs and facet joints to lateral translation. Whole lumbar spines from 12 fresh cadavers were attached to a specially designed loading apparatus whose five cables simulated the muscles of the trunk without restricting natural movement. Three-dimensional positions of each vertebra were recorded with position-sensitive detectors. Force in the anterolateral direction increased the lateral translation more than force in the posterolateral direction. Lateral translation was increased to a significantly greater extent when the facet joints were removed than when the discs were removed at L4-5 at the levels of shear loading applied in this study.