bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
SALVORS AND THE INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM: WHERE DO THEY FIT IN?1
Authors: Deal Timothy Y. , Reiter Gary , Fairbanks Dick , Umbdenstock Bob
Published: January 2013

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) and implementing regulations are largely silent on the importance of salvage in protecting the marine environment during a spill or the substantial threat of a spill. Recent responses have clearly confirmed that salvage can be the primary form of marine pollution control and that it must become a conspicuous component of any Incident Command System (ICS) exercise, actual or training. ICS documentation and National Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (NPREP) exercises still do not give appropriate prominence to salvage operations. Important organizational and management issues must be addressed so that a Unified Command can integrate effective salvage response with its management of spill control and cleanup operations.

Important factors influence relationships between public representatives, the responsible party (RP), and the salvor. The Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) and State On-Scene Coordinator (SOSC) represent OPA 90's demand for public oversight of response operations. The RP is obligated to deliver competent salvage assistance immediately. Salvors respond to dynamic conditions and contract terms defining payment may influence their approach.

Public representatives generally are not experienced in the commercial, technical, and practical aspects of salvage. Salvors, who historically have had exclusive control over salvage operations, may be constrained by multi-jurisdictional organization that emphasizes consensus decision making.

For effective use of an ICS integrating salvage, all parties must appreciate the others' motivations. For the FOSC and SOSC, this entails an appreciation for the technical and contractual pressures on the commercial salvor. For the salvors, it is learning to work in a public environment. The challenge is to use ICS flexibility to its fullest advantage. Salvors' proper fit into the organization can maximize the response synergy the Unified Command can deploy.

This paper identifies obstacles to the integration of salvage into ICS and offers recommendations to improve ICS organizational relationships to maximize the benefits of professional salvage services.
ALASKA INCIDENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (AIMS) GUIDE FOR OIL AND HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE RESPONSE
Authors: Chelgren-Koterba Pamela , Iwamoto Larry , Hutton Charlene , Lautenberger Carl
Published: January 2013

In January 2000, the ad hoc Alaska Statewide Oil and Hazardous Substance Incident Management System workgroup submitted standardized spill response management guidelines (Alaska Incident Management System, AIMS #1) to the Alaska Regional Response Team (ARRT) for their review, use, and feedback. These guidelines are a landmark step in response management systems because they merge the concepts of the National Contingency Plan (NCP#2) with NIIMS #3, received acceptance by both government and industry users in Alaska, have been customized to meet Alaska's unique needs, are consistent with the latest update being prepared by the States/British Columbia Task Force FOG #4 update workgroup, and will yield substantial savings to all users by providing guidelines for adoption and maintenance of a single system for the Alaska spill response community.
USE OF THE INTERNET TO SUPPORT INCIDENT OPERATIONS
Authors: Pavia Robert
Published: January 2013

Spills seriously strain the normal abilities of organizations to gather, process, and distribute information. Added to the problems of supporting local multiagency decisions within the Unified Command (UC), there often are pressures from groups not directly involved in response operations and the public for rapid access to information about the spill.

A UC can provide Command Post staff, official personnel not on-scene, and the public with specifically tailored information by establishing Incident Internet Operations. Incident-specific Internet sites can disseminate information about the response rapidly to the general public and specify target audiences inside and outside the Command Post. The Hazardous Materials Response Division, Office of Response and Restoration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration worked with the U.S. Coast Guard to successfully deploy an Incident Internet Operations site during the M/V New Carissa incident. Examples of Incident Internet Operations from the New Carissa incident and other spills are available for viewing on-line at http://www.incidentnews.gov.
INTEGRATED PLANNING FROM THE MOUNTAINS TO THE SEA: ENVIRONMENTAL SENSITIVITY MAPPING IN THE CARIBBEAN
Authors: Zengel Scott , Hayes Miles O. , Michel Jacqueline , White Mark , Benggio Brad , Mosher Eric , Lopez Felix , Touw Steve
Published: January 2013

Sensitivity mapping recently completed for Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the British Virgin Islands combines information on natural resources for both coastal and inland areas, covering both U.S. Coast Guard and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency jurisdictions. This planning and response tool includes detailed Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps for the coastal zones of Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the British Virgin Islands. Reach Sensitivity Index (RSI) maps for small rivers and streams in Puerto Rico have been developed, and sensitive biological and human-use resources have been mapped throughout inland and upland habitats for the entire project area.
COMMUNICATION ACROSS THE BLACK SEA VIA INTERNET TECHNOLOGY
Authors: Thompson Kay , Lapsa Melissa
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) Office of International Affairs has been joined by an interagency task force to undertake a program in the Black Sea region called the “Black Sea Environmental Initiative.” The objectives of the task force are to support the countries of the region to address significant Black Sea environmental issues, including oil spill response and prevention.

Working with delegates from Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine, DOE and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) coordinated a workshop on a regional oil spill emergency response system for the Black Sea on September 14–17, 1999 in Odessa, Ukraine; DOE and the National Academy of Science, Ukraine cosponsored the workshop.

The “Black Sea Environmental Information Center” Web site was unveiled at the Odessa workshop. Created by ORNL, the Web site ( http://pims.ed.ornl.gov/blacksea) facilitates information flow and dialog between the countries of the region. The Web site is intended to provide a comprehensive source for information on: Oil spill cleanup, monitoring, and related commercial technologies Scientists' requests for research partner Various countries' laws, regulations, and standards relating to the environmental condition of the Black Sea Publication of scientific papers and on-line discussions of these issue Individuals and companies working on Black Sea environmental issues

The Web site also provides a real time chat capability where meetings are organized. Several meetings among regional officials have been conducted and planning is underway for the first real-time training session, which will be held in the next few months. The Web site also is host to a growing database of historical pollution testing data from research institutes around the Black Sea.
BENEFITS AND USE OF AN OIL SPILL RESPONSE WEB SITE
Authors: Coakley Louis , Jones Mark A. , Scott Kathy
Published: January 2013

Providing accurate and timely information to the public following an oil spill event can be a challenging exercise for oil spill responders. In an event that generates a great deal of media and public interest, it is important to use a variety of communications tools to ensure the best and most credible response is given to interested parties including the general public, regulators, politicians, news media, local officials, and company shareholders and employees. In addition to timely and accurate company news releases, one of the most effective new tools that can be used to facilitate effective and efficient communication in any emergency including an oil spill event is the use of an event-specific Web site.

Florida Power & Light Company (FPL) has demonstrated the use of an oil spill Web site as part of its annual corporate oil spill drills and has received positive feedback from response partners at the state and federal level. In its demonstrations, FPL has been able to post near real-time communications that would contribute to the public's understanding of a spill event and response.

The way that FPL uses its Web site is as part of a joint news center, operated in support of FPL's Incident Command System (ICS). The news center develops and disseminates oil spill response and recovery information using a variety of tools, of which the Web-based news center is the most recent addition. Using a joint news center—including an event-specific Web site—also minimizes the likelihood of potentially conflicting information by providing a common location for all the parties to prepare, review, and issue news related to an event. This paper identifies what the authors believe are the key elements necessary to set up and maintain an oil spill response Web site, including a description of ICS benefits, content, and design requirements and resources. Specific Web site ingredients also are noted including the posting of news releases, maps, photos, media advisories and fact sheets, environmental reports, and links to other relevant Web sites.
IMO-INDUSTRY GLOBAL INITIATIVE: AN UPDATE
Authors: Taylor Peter Mark , Seddon-Brown Stephanie , Thiam Malamine
Published: January 2013

The Global Initiative (GI) is a joint program between the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the oil industry, represented by the International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA). The program's primary purpose is to initiate and catalyze national governments to ratify the relevant international Conventions relating to oil pollution and work together with local oil industry in their oil spill contingency planning efforts.

The GI has been formally running since 1996. So far, the achievements are encouraging; countries that had not conceived national plans or developed a national response system and strategy have made significant progress. GI also assists the efficient targeting of donor agency funds and can help leverage such funds. The experience gained and results attained are good examples that can be replicated elsewhere at both the national and regional levels. However, it is important to recognize that the GI is a long-term process and that one should not concentrate on its short-term achievements.
THE INTRUSION OF CRIMINAL LAW ON THE NRDA PROCESS
Authors: Kane Don A. , Gonynor Francis J.
Published: January 2013

A primary goal of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) is to make the environment and public whole for injuries to natural resources that result from the discharge of oil. OPA 90 authorizes state and federal natural resource agencies to serve as trustees for natural resources and provides them with the responsibility, through a natural resource damage assessment (NRDA) process, to ensure that injured natural resources are restored.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) promulgated damage assessment regulations, and in an attempt to correct deficiencies and meet OPA 90 mandates, developed a framework intended to promote expeditious restoration. To lessen the common litigious nature of the NRDA process, the regulations encourage active participation by a responsible party in a cooperative assessment of damages. Natural resource trustee agencies also have authority to enforce criminal aspects of other statutes for impacts resulting from an oil spill. However, when agencies initiate a criminal investigation under these statutes for an oil spill, the goals mandated in OPA 90 and set forth in the NOAA regulations can be substantially undermined.

There are potential solutions that could, at least partially, resolve this dilemma for the responsible party to a point where participation in the NRDA process would not unduly prejudice its position in a criminal investigation. Such solutions might include written agreements as to communications and transactional use of immunity agreements, stay of proceedings, and protective orders, which singly, or in combination, could prove invaluable in preserving a progressive NRDA process, fully inclusive of the responsible party.
EFFECTS OF OIL AND CHEMICALLY DISPERSED OIL IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Authors: Boyd John N. , Scholz Debra , Walker Ann Hayward
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the last phase of a project sponsored by the American Petroleum Institute (API). Using risk communication methodologies, this project was designed to produce three dispersant issue papers as unbiased reference sources that present technical information and study results in non-scientific language for the layman. The third issue paper, currently in press, was designed to provide the decision maker and layman with an understanding of how spilled oil and chemically dispersed oil affect resources in the environment. Synopses of key sections of this paper are presented here.

Understanding exposure and effects is a complex task. Exposure to oil alone can cause a variety of adverse effects, including slowed growth, reduced reproduction, and death. Adding dispersants to spilled oil will change the way resources are affected. Today's dispersants are mixtures of solvents and surfactants and, although they can be toxic, are less dangerous than the dispersant products used in the 1960s and 1970s. How the addition of chemical dispersants to spilled oil will change the way resources are impacted has been a difficult question to answer.

Decision makers need to understand several concepts to evaluate how different resources will be affected by oil and chemically dispersed oil during a spill. These include understanding toxicity, what the different routes of exposure are for an organism, how resources from different areas (e.g., water column, water surface, bottom dwelling, or intertidal areas) typically are affected by oil exposure, and how the addition of dispersants changes their exposure to oil. These topics are addressed in this paper.
AERIAL DISPERSANT SPRAYING: A DAYLIGHT-ONLY TOOL1
Authors: Salt David
Published: January 2013

Aerial dispersant is a major response tool that is used throughout the world and continues to gain acceptance even in those countries that previously were completely opposed to it. Pressure is mounting in certain areas of the world to extend the window of opportunity of dispersant use to 24-hour operations.

The paper reviews the practical problems of night use of aerial dispersant delivery systems, and identifies systems and assesses potential performance. It addresses the issues of the safety of low-level operation of spray aircraft at night, the reduction of efficiency of night spraying, and how to overcome some of the problems. It examines the protocols and procedures that must be developed as a safety check on any such operations to reduce the risks. Considering the overall risks and rewards, the final question is posed: Is the nighttime use of aerial spraying aircraft a realistic, safe, and effective response to an oil spill, or should the aerial application of dispersants be considered a daytime-only activity?
ELIMINATING THE PROBLEM IN PROBLEM OIL PITS1
Authors: Nakad Jane
Published: January 2013

The Problem Oil Pit (POP) multiagency effort in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region VIII and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Region VI has resulted in success at remediating and cleaning up hundreds of oil covered pits in oil production fields in six western states. The installation of exclusionary devises at many of these pits will ensure the safety of birds and wildlife for years to come. A heightened awareness of environmental protection standards and regulations by the oil and gas exploration and production industry will increase compliance and enhance management of facilities in an environmentally protective manner toward public health and resources for future generations. In this effort, the federal, state, and tribal partners used their own regulatory tools on the problems and compliance issues encountered. This poster presentation will highlight the achievements of the POP effort by showing photographically and statistically the results of the POP effort: sites cleaned up, abatement of threats to birds and wildlife by exclusionary devices installed, and achievement of compliance with federal, state, and tribal environmental regulations.
SALVAGING OIL IN THE SOUTH ATLANTIC1
Authors: Tatner Richard
Published: January 2013

Oil Spill Response Limited (OSRL) was contracted by the South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands (SGSSI) government to conduct an investigation into the stability and potential oil pollution problem of three ex-whale/seal catcher vessels. The three vessels sunken/semisubmerged at their moorings are located in Grytviken Harbour on the Island of South Georgia located over 900 miles south east of the Falkland Islands.

The purpose of the survey was threefold: (1) to corroborate previous surveys and quantify the amount of oil remaining in the three vessels; (2) to recommend a remedial solution whilst simultaneously looking into putting together the logistic to tangibly rectify the problem long term; and (3) finally and most importantly, to complete all of this without upsetting this fragile environment and ecology of the harbor and more over the Island of South Georgia.

The ex-whale catch Petrel was the primary interest. A report was required on the vessels structural condition and content of her fuel oil tanks in respect to there being an imminent risk of more oil escaping from a damaged fuel oil tank into the marine environment and having an environmental impact. Recommendations were required on the feasibility of removing the oil and stabilizing the vessel. This brief applied equally to the ex-whale/seal catchers Albatross and Dias.

The investigation revealed the quantity of fuel oil contained within the Petrel to be less than expected. In addition, the oil had not deteriorated as might have been expected considering the number of years in the tanks. A sample of fuel oil was taken and sent for analysis on return. The potential risk of a large spill from the damaged tank and the threat to the local environment were found to be negligible. Removal of the fuel oil from the tanks is considered to be fairly straightforward given the correct equipment and weather conditions.

The investigation of the Albatross and Dias found these two vessels to be in worse structural condition by comparison with the Petrel. The two vessels were found to be more difficult to examine due to the greater percentage of their structure being below water. Examination of their fuel tanks to determine contents was not possible because of the fuel tank hatches being permanently submerged. Investigation and removal of any oil found within the tanks of the two vessels is possible, but, unlike the Petrel, specialized equipment would be required (Figure I).
RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES' VISCOUS OIL-PUMPING AND LIGHTERING CAPABILITY
Authors: Loesch Robert M. , Drieu Michael D. , Moffatt Craig , Rich Leonard
Published: January 2013

From 1994 to present, the U.S. Coast Guard National Strike Force (NSF) responded to three major oil spills involving foreign freight vessels grounding that required the removal of highly viscous oil using various lightering equipment and systems. In the fall of 1999, an informal workgroup sponsored by Commandant (G-SEC-2C) and consisting of U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Navy Supervisor of Salvage (NAVSUPSALV), and industry oil spill response and salvage representatives from around the world was formed. This group came together to resolve viscous oil-pumping problems that occurred during the tank barge Morris J. Berman (1994), freight vessel Kuroshima (1998), and freight vessel New Carissa (1998) groundings. This paper documents the workgroups results from September 1999 to June 2000 and provides an actual response case study where recent response improvements resulting from this effort were applied successfully to a train derailment in Shawmut, Maine.
THE SUCCESSFUL OIL REMOVAL OPERATION FROM THE SUNKEN VESSEL JUPITER IN GREECE
Authors: Mamaloukas-Frangoulis Vassilios , Helen Polychronopoulos , Kostas Ploumitsakos , Stelios Volakis
Published: January 2013

A significant oil leakage from the wreck of the passenger vessel Jupiter occurred in the proximity of Piraeus Port Entrance in Greece on September 9, 1999, caused probably by a major earthquake. Eleven years earlier, the vessel had sunk after a severe collision, with a considerable quantity of fuels and lubricants onboard. Underwater research revealed that the wreck was lying on the seabed at a depth of 75 meters and a distance of 1.2 nautical miles from the port entrance, within the traffic lines of ships while the oil was found to leak from several portholes and a watertight cargo door. After the responsible state authorities decided to remove oil from the wreck, preparatory work was initiated including the detection and marking of the exact position of fuel tanks and all leaking points, while a series of precautionary measures were implemented to ensure safety of navigation and the recovery of any accidental oil escape from the wreck. Using hot tapping technique, the oil remaining in fuel tanks was pumped out. Furthermore, oil entrapped in accommodations and other spaces was pumped out and released with use of compressed air. The whole operation lasted 43 days and resulted in the pumping out of approximately 1,225 barrels of oil and oily residues, and the subsequent effective protection of the wider marine area.
SPILL RESPONSE CAPABILITIES IN REMOTE WESTERN ALASKA
Authors: Taylor Elliott , Egland Lee , Wilson Stephen
Published: January 2013

The Alaska Petroleum Distributors and Transporters (APD&T) group formulated a proposal to the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) and the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC) for a realistic and reasonable marine response capability throughout Alaska's waters. USCG requested the proposal in an effort to reach a mutually satisfactory alternate compliance solution to the planning standards enacted as part of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90). A final agreement for oil spill prevention and discharge planning compliance was reached in June 1999, initiating a 5-year preparedness development implementation program.

Economically and operationally realistic planning standards are at issue in coastal Alaska, where more than 30,000 miles of coastline have practically no road access. The APD&T proposal first assessed the exposure or perceived risk of oil transport operations in each of the nine coastal ADEC planning regions (subareas) in Alaska by studying the oil volumes transported along specific routes, frequency and locations of oil transfers, and environmental conditions. The assessed risk and level of response capability were then used as a basis by oversight agencies to identify the areas in which additional resources and logistical infrastructure were required. The key components of the Agreement for Final Compliance in Alaska, are as follows: oil barge operators will maintain a strict tow-wire maintenance program and utilize only twin-screw tugs; spill response equipment for response to average and maximum most probable discharges will be maintained onboard each barge; emergency lightering pumps, independent of oil offloading pumps, will pre-located to ensure their availability within 24 hours; a minimum shoreside response capacity, including boom, sweeps, vessels, personnel, and wildlife and beach kits, will be emplaced in each subarea to supplement the onboard equipment; a logistical infrastructure will be developed at a hub within each of seven subareas to support the planned response capabilities; and a training and exercise program, following National Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (NPREP guidelines, will be conducted in each subarea to ensure in-region readiness by personnel and equipment.

This poster presentation discusses the risk study, strategies, and committed approach to implement a response capability throughout Western Alaska.
EAST RIVER BATTLE FOR SHEEN: SKIMMING AN OIL SHEEN IN A 3- TO 5-KNOT CURRENT
Authors: Connelly Dennis E. , McCarthy Dennis J. , Westerlind John E.
Published: January 2013

This paper explores the challenges involved with the recovery of oil from a discharge canal with limited access and high relative currents. In March 1999, a sheen was observed in the cooling water discharge canal of Consolidated Edison's 2.5-million kilowatt generating station in Queens (New York City), New York At the time the sheen was discovered, the entire station had been shut down for several months for a maintenance outage. As the tide rose and fell in the East River, into which the discharge canal emptied, the oil sheen moved in and out of a 1,000-foot long tunnel connecting the generating station to the canal. The major challenges to the recovery and removal of the oil sheen were: (1) the low over head of the discharge tunnel and canal support girders, which prevented getting a skimmer into the tunnel and canal; (2) the high discharge rate of the station's cooling water pump; and (3) skimming the sheen in a 3-to 5-knot current. Consolidated Edison is a member of Clean Harbors Cooperative, L.L.C, which was brought in to remove the sheen. This was accomplished utilizing two JBF Scientific DIP Belt Skimmers, which were set up parallel to the current flow, and deflection booming.
WHEN LOW TECHNOLOGY IS THE ANSWER: RESPONSE TO A REMOTE OIL SEEP
Authors: Mandel Robert M.
Published: January 2013

Emergency responders must resist the temptation to overbuild response facilities. They need to balance the inherent conflicts of safety and effectiveness versus costs and benefits. They should always try to apply the simplest, most appropriate technology to the site and its problems. This should result in the most cost-effective and least disruptive response while ensuring responders keep their commitment to protecting health and the environment.

Oil seeps are common in central California. One seep discharged up to 15 bbl/week into Toro Creek. Because of the site's remote location, lack of electricity, and steep terrain, an innovative oil-water separator system was installed linking the separator by gravity to an underground storage tank (UST). These features were employed: There are no moving parts. All separation and collection is by gravity. Solar power runs a monitoring system and modem, which monitors system performance and phones emergency responders if there is a problem. All oil is collected, conveyed, and stored within secondary containment. Because of past acts of vandalism, key elements of the system are buried for greater security. Only 4 hours/month is required for routine operations and maintenance activities.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) worked with the terrain and setting in the design and construction of this effective recovery and containment system. As a result of the application of “appropriate technology” at this oil spill, there is no longer oil in Toro Creek. This presentation will highlight the use of conventional construction methods and readily available off-the-shelf supplies and equipment to build the treatment system.
PREVENTION AND ABATEMENT OF MARINE POLLUTION IN TUNISIAN COMMERCIAL PORTS
Authors: Hazelton Robert H. , Sargent Robert M. , Gundlach Erich R. , Boussetta Mohamed Anis , Djebara Ahmed Ben , Fadhel Sahbene Ben
Published: January 2013

In addition to having ports that ship and receive oil and other commercial products by sea, the Republic of Tunisia is exposed to potential spills from vessels that are routed close to shore as they transit the Mediterranean. This paper summarizes a study that was conducted to evaluate Tunisia's commercial ports' oil spill contingency plans, response equipment, and response management systems, for the purposes of increasing the spill response capability of the Tunisian Office of the Merchant Marine and Ports (OMMP) and bringing each plan up to criteria established by Tunisia's 1996 oil spill legislation and international standards. The four ports evaluated were Bizerte, Tunis-Goulette-Radès (TGR), Sfax, and Zarzis.

Interviews and discussions were conducted with representatives of the OMMP, the Agency for Environmental Protection (ANPE), the Tunisian Petroleum Activities Enterprise (ETAP), the Tunisian Navy and Merchant Marine, the Directorate General of Energy, the state-owned oil transportation company (TRAPSA), and selected private sector oil companies. The equipment review entailed analysis of existing equipment in each port, potential spill size and location, time to respond, and environmentally sensitive areas needing protection.

Specific recommendations were made for improving the readiness posture of Tunisia's commercial ports and for the purchase of additional spill-response equipment and services. Implementation of these recommendations will result in a significantly improved capability on the part of the private and public sector users of Tunisia's commercial ports to respond effectively to marine oil spills, should one occur.

This paper highlights the readiness capability of each port and the extent of oil transportation activities, and provides recommendations to improve response via equipment purchases, improvement of the existing response management system, implementation of a training and exercise program, and changes to the port contingency plans.
LOGISTICS FOR THE CONDUCT OF CONTROLLED OIL SPILL EXPERIMENTON BIORESTORATION OF FRESHWATER WETLANDS
Authors: Grenon Stéphane , Jarry Vincent , Longpré Darcy , Lee Kenneth , Venosa Albert D.
Published: January 2013

The St. Lawrence River, situated between Canada and the United States, provides a major transport route in North America for the transport of millions of tons of crude oil, condensates, and refined products each year. In addition, as one of the largest rivers in the world, it is of major ecological significance. For example, over 55,000 hectares of wetlands are found along the St. Lawrence alone. These areas provide habitat for wildlife, the nurseries for fisheries, and control coastal erosion are highly vulnerable to oil spills. Furthermore, as traditional oil spill cleanup methods may be ineffective or cause more damage, emergency responders are considering less intrusive methods such as biorestoration as operational countermeasures. A biorestoration experiment was designed to measure the effectiveness of this method in the St. Lawrence River. To conduct this experiment, 1,200 liters of crude oil were to be spilled in a controlled manner over an experimental zone of 750 m2 in a marsh area.

To obtain regulatory approvals from governmental agencies, environmental groups and, more importantly, to avoid the “not in my backyard” protests from the local communities, site selection, emergency planning, contingency measures, and especially community meetings, were all necessary steps towards the acceptance of the project. This controlled spill was done in June 1998 without any incident. Sampling of the experimental site will be completed in the fall of 2000.

This paper aims to provide insights on the steps needed to gain acceptance from concerned citizens for the conduct of a controlled oil spill experiment.
SENSITIVE AREAS PLANNING FOR INLAND SOUTH FLORIDA: WEB AND GIS TOOLS
Authors: Zengel Scott , Hayes Miles O. , Michel Jacqueline , Robertson Anna , Francendese Leo , Benggio Brad
Published: January 2013

A sensitive areas plan has been developed for inland South Florida, a region with considerable natural resources at risk and significant oil production, storage, and transport. The plan consists of several Web-based tools and a sensitive-areas geographic information system (GIS). Each component of the plan is briefly described below, and several examples are provided. The Web and GIS tools currently are under review by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Region IV and other project participants. Future plans include distributing the plan on compact disk (CD) and over the Internet. The digital format of the sensitive areas plan, and its future availability on CD and the Internet, should enhance the distribution and use of the information by spill planners and responders, making it easier to transport, access, and update. The sensitive areas plan for inland South Florida should serve as a useful model for developing inland plans in EPA Region IV and elsewhere, and should assist spill planning and response efforts in sensitive inland environments in South Florida and elsewhere.
BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICALLY DISPERSED OIL IN A WETLAND ENVIRONMENT
Authors: Page Cheryl A. , Autenrieth Robin L. , Bonner James S. , McDonald Thomas
Published: January 2013

An experiment was conducted at a wetland research facility, investigating the behavior of chemically dispersed oil (CDO) using an oil spill dispersant. The research site is located on the San Jacinto River near Houston, Texas. The experimental treatments included oiled control, “high-dose” CDO (1:10 dispersant-to-oil ratio, DOR), “low-dose” CDO (1:20 DOR), as well as an unoiled control. Fourteen 5 m x 5 m plots were used for the experiment, four plots for each oiled treatment and two plots for the unoiled control. The treatments were assigned to plots using a randomized complete-block design. Twenty-one liters of Arabian medium crude oil was applied systematically to each plot. For the CDO treatments, the premixed dispersant-plus-oil solution was first added to containers of river water (either 1:10:200 or 0.5:10:200 dispersant-oil-water ratios), and the resulting solution was applied systematically to the respective plots. This method of CDO application was designed to simulate the movement of a dispersed-oil plume into a wetland environment. Sediment samples were taken over a 99-day period, using a 5-cm diameter-coring device. The GC-MS results for both target saturate and target aromatic hydrocarbons were normalized to 17?, 21?-(H)hopane to separate biotic and abiotic removal mechanisms and to minimize spatial heterogeneity. Target compound analyses indicated no significant differences in the biodegradation rates for the three oil treatments. There were, however, significant differences in the amount of oil initially flushed (physical removal) from the plots of both CDO treatments as compared to the oiled-control treatment.
OIL SPILLS AND CRIMINAL SANCTIONS: AN INSURER'S PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Hobbie Richard , Garger Andrew J.
Published: January 2013

Criminal sanctions are an acceptable deterrent used to combat deliberate dumping of oil and other intentional environmental misconduct. Since insuring against intentional criminal acts is against public policy, pollution insurers have not provided coverage. The growing use of strict liability and negligence statutes by the Department of Justice (DOJ) and other law enforcement agencies, and the corresponding lower culpability level necessary for criminal liability, however, have resulted in insurance coverage being developed for certain criminal liabilities.

New issues are now facing the responsible party (RP) and its insurer as a result of this increased use of criminal sanctions. When a spill occurs, the vessel operator, management, and crew need to be aware that they may be a target of a criminal investigation. They may need to assert their Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination. Assertion of Fifth Amendment rights, however, could hinder a cleanup response and also could be considered “lack of cooperation with responsible officials,” which could result in a breach of a vessel's liability limits under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90). The cost of providing a defense also may become an issue. It may be necessary to appoint several attorneys to represent divergent vessel and crew interests.

The Certificate of Financial Responsibility system under OPA 90 also may be jeopardized by the prosecution of criminal liabilities for environmental crimes by the DOJ. Under OPA 90, a guarantor/insurer has certain defenses to claims arising from a spill, including the willful misconduct of the insured. Willful misconduct established by a criminal prosecution may allow an insurer to recover from the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF).

Some of the inequities in the use of criminal sanctions against RPs eventually may be addressed by legislation. Unless there is legislation that results in major changes, however, the use of criminal sanctions must be considered by a RP and its insurer when planning oil spill response strategies and responding to a spill. This paper will examine the issues involved.
STRATEGY TO COOPERATE AND MINIMIZE FINANCIAL LIABILITY
Authors: Waldron Jonathan K.
Published: January 2013

This paper analyzes the various factors that an owner or operator must consider in responding to a pollution incident to ensure that the limits of liability are maintained and to minimize response costs. Recent court cases on monitoring costs are analyzed and Unified Command strategies are discussed to minimize such costs. The importance of response cooperation is discussed with a focus on maintaining limits of liability. Strategies are analyzed and related to response activities to facilitate the cost recovery of removal costs in excess of liability limits from the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF) after the response is completed. Other cost control matters are analyzed such as response contracts, actions related to response contractor management, and demobilization costs. In summary, the paper outlines a pre-spill strategy that can quickly be implemented during a pollution incident to maximize response effectiveness while to the greatest extent possible minimizing the significant financial risks associated with a fast-paced pollution incident.
SUSTAINABLE SHIPPING: THE BENEFITS OF THE “SAFETY CULTURE” FAR OUTWEIGH THE COSTS
Authors: Ornitz Barbara E.
Published: January 2013

An important challenge for the maritime industry is whether those involved in the transport of oil will embrace the concept that the “safety culture,” which includes protection of the environment, is “good business.” Ship owners/operators and others in the maritime business will adopt the safety culture when they believe in a “continuous and never-ending improvement process as a means to promote productivity and profitability.” Sustainable shipping requires the prevention of costly accidents and activation of “best response,” thus reducing environmental impacts if oil spills happen.

Proactive safety management, creation of a quality system with accountability in each link, training of qualified mariners, and using the appropriate response technologies are examples of policy considerations needed to implement this culture. These policy goals should replace short-term thinking of profit maximization and crisis reaction. Safety saves dollars.

Oil spills result in tangible, direct losses of life; injuries; and damage to the environment, cargo, and vessel. Direct costs measure only part of the total. Indirect and hidden costs are harder to quantify. They include, for example, reduced worker morale and productivity, eroding customer base, and in this litigious age, Natural Resource Damage Assessments (NRDAs), economic loss claims, increased insurance costs, fines, imprisonment of Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) and loss to the corporation for their services, public notoriety, lost opportunity, and many other similar losses. The indirect and hidden costs equate to an increase in direct costs, using a conservative multiplier of 2.7 to 1. Estimates of the total cost of all categories for all vessels involved in marine incidents annually are between $581 million to $1 billion. (Conversely, high quality safety management yields cost savings annually for industry of between $500 million and $1 billion, or an average for individual companies of $200,000). True cost accounting (measuring all costs—external, internal, hidden) translates to a better bottom line.
GENERAL NOAA OIL MODELING ENVIRONMENT (GNOME): A NEW SPILL TRAJECTORY MODEL
Authors: Beegle-Krause J.
Published: January 2013

The General NOAA Oil Modeling Environment (GNOME) is a standard Eulerian/Lagrangian spill-trajectory model designed to meet the needs of planners and expert responders through three different user modes: Standard, GIS Output, and Diagnostic. Spills are modeled by Lagrangian Elements (LEs or splots) within continuous flow fields. GNOME supports the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)/Hazardous Materials Response Division (HAZMAT) standard for Best Guess and Minimum Regret trajectories by providing information about where the spill is most likely to go (Best Guess solution) and the uncertainty bound (Minimum Regret solution).

The public, including spill responders, industry, and students, can use GNOME in Standard or GIS Output mode to prepare spill scenario-related products and for intuition building. These GNOME modes require a Location File that contains a regional trajectory model with a Mini-Expert System to aid in setting up the model. The Mini-Expert System sets up the trajectory model based on user input via dialog boxes. Information sources also are provided to help users answer the dialog questions.

Responders can use GNOME's Diagnostic mode to quickly set up custom trajectory models for any area, as HAZMAT does during spill response. GNOME's Diagnostic model can accept circulation patterns from any hydrodynamic model (from two-dimensional steady-state to three-dimensional time-dependent models) with proper formatting.

GNOME allows all users to save their work in files and create QuickTime movies. In GIS Output and Diagnostic modes, users can export the model results to GNOME Analyst to convert the data from LEs or splots to oil-concentration contours. Both the splots and contours can be exported to a GIS system (HAZMAT provides an ArcView extension). HAZMAT presently is creating Location Files for U.S. Coast Guard and NOAA priority locations with a design philosophy to allow users significant control over the model setup without requiring extensive spill modeling experience. GNOME, all Location Files, and documentation are available for download from NOAA's Office of Response and Restoration Web site1 under Aids for Oil Spill Responders.
EPA REGION IX'S FUELS MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
Authors: Calanog Steve , Zuroski Donn
Published: January 2013

The Fuels Management Approach “raises the bar” for regulators and the oil industry. It is a concept that includes all aspects of the “life cycle of oil,” from E&P through consumption. Oil spill prevention, preparedness, and response issues are addressed within this concept.

There are major gaps or overlaps in the regulatory framework, misunderstanding and confusion regarding regulators' duties, and significant inconsistencies in regulatory implementation. While regulators have similar concerns regarding fuels management, little has happened to resolve these issues.

Industry is evolving at an amazing pace through mergers, downsizing, and major oil companies selling assets to smaller operations. The result has been increased numbers of abandoned oil wells, facilities in disrepair, and problems associated with an aging infrastructure. This has impacted regulators' resources as well, and they have become increasingly ineffective because of their lack of coordination and understanding of the oil industry.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Fuels Management Program (FMP) is based on the philosophy that regulators must develop a new strategy to keep pace with industry changes. The FMP utilizes a holistic approach to the environmental problems related to the oil industry. The program goals are to (1) improve interagency coordination and communication, (2) identify agencies' key issues that could be resolved through partnerships, etc., and (3) identify the universe of problem petroleum sites in Region IX.

To accomplish these goals, however, the FMP must level the playing field by establishing (1) a baseline understanding of the oil industry by regulators, (2) a baseline understanding of the roles and responsibilities of these agencies by all stakeholders, and (3) a forum to discuss fuels management, resources, and technical issues.

The EPA FMP includes workshops and outreach activities for both regulators and industry. This paper discusses the development of the FMP, results of recent workshops, and future involvement of the oil industry.
PREDICTING THE AQUATIC TOXICITY OF CRUDE OILS
Authors: Gala William R. , Rausina Gary A. , Ammann Michael J. , Krause Paul
Published: January 2013

Aquatic toxicity information is critical to provide scientifically defensible estimates of ecological impact and natural resource injury to aquatic organisms resulting from a petroleum spill. For most crude oils, the availability of aquatic toxicity information is a significant data gap. As part of Chevron's oil-specific properties summary sheet project, a series of marine fish (silversides, top smelt) and invertebrate (mysid shrimp) acute toxicity tests on five crude oils with extensive chemical analysis (e.g., VPH C6–C9, CROSERF VOCs, EPH C10–C32, PAHs) of exposure concentrations have been performed. Acute toxicity studies were conducted under standard test guidelines. ASTM D 6081 procedures were used to prepare individual water extracts, also called water-accommodated fractions (WAFs), of each test concentration to which the test organisms were exposed. WAF preparation and testing was done in tightly closed containers with minimal headspace to reduce volatilization and maintain stable exposure levels of dissolved hydrocarbons as much as possible. Also, WAFs were replenished daily with fresh test solution. Since toxicity results are expressed as the mean exposure concentration of a particular subset of the petroleum compounds in the WAF that resulted in 50% lethality in the test species, the LC50 values in μg/L will vary depending on which subset is used to describe the effect of the oil on the aquatic organisms. Additionally, since the aquatic organisms are exposed to a mixture of hydrocarbons in the WAF, LC50 values expressed as one subset's concentration are not independent of the presence of other petroleum constituent types. The results indicate that generally invertebrates (i.e., mysid) are more sensitive than fish. LC50s expressed as total polycyclic hydrocarbons (PAHs) showed the least variability—96-hour LC50s for total PAHs ranged from 19–36 μg/L and 30–128 μg/L for mysid and fish, respectively.
THE OIL SPILL FIELD OPERATIONS GUIDE (FOG)-NEW AND IMPROVED1
Authors: Plourde Kristy , Cameron Jean R. , Huyck Vickie
Published: January 2013

The original oil spill Field Operations Guide (FOG) was a product of the Standard Oil Spill Response Management System (STORMS) Task Force comprised of representatives of the U. S. Coast Guard, California Department of Fish and Game Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR), other states, the petroleum industry, oil spill response organizations, and local government. The STORMS Task Force produced this first version of the “oilized” Incident Command System (ICS) FOG and Incident Action Plan (IAP) forms in 1994 and made subsequent revisions in 1995 and 1996. With 2 more years of ICS experience and facilitated by the States/British Columbia Oil Spill Task Force, a new group of representatives from federal and state governments, the petroleum industry, and oil spill response professionals met to review and update the 1996 FOG and IAP forms in October 1998. The overall goal was to remain consistent with the National Interagency Incident Management System (NIIMS) yet reflect the experience gained using ICS at actual oil spills and drills. The group met quarterly over an 18-month period, working collaboratively to reach a consensus on numerous changes. Some of the changes included adding an Environmental Unit to the Planning Section, revising the planning cycle diagram for the oil spill IAP process, and revising the IAP forms as appropriate to reflect the way oil spills are managed. All significant revisions/improvements will be highlighted in this paper and poster.